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Toronto,  Ontario. 


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THE  '^ 


EXCYCLOPiEDlA  BRITANNICA 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


Arts,  Sciences,  and  General  Literature 


THE  R.  8.  PEALE  REPRINT 

WITH   NEW   MAPS  AND  ORIGINAL  AMERICAN  ARTICLES  BY  EMINENT  WRITERS 


WITH   AMERICAN  REVISIONS  AND  ADDITIONS 

By   W.  H.  DkPUY,  D.D..  LL.D.,  .. 
Bringing  Each  Volume  Up  to  Date 


VOLUME  XXIU 


CHICAGO 
R.  S.  PEALE  COMPANY 


AE- 


708G86 


I 


Encyclopaedia    Britannica. 
Vol.  xxm. — (t-ups). 

TouJ  number  of  Articles,  625. 

PRINCIPAL    CONTENTa 


TABARI.     M.  J.  Di  OoEJZ,  Professor  of  Arabic,  Uni- 
versity of  Leydea. 
TABLES. 'mathematical      J    W.   L.  Glaishee, 

F.  R.  S. ,  President,  Royal  Astronomical  Society- 
TAHITI.     Baron  AnaTOLE  vos  Hucei. 
TALES      AUDEEW  Lang,  M.A. 
TALMUD.     S.  M.;ScHiLLEE.S2iNESST,  MA.,  Pb.D 
TAMILS.     Keinhold  Rost.  Ph.D.,  LLD.,  CLE. 
TAPE-WORMS.     W.  E.  Hovlk,  M.A. 
TASSO.     J.  A.  Stmonds,  M.A 
TASTE.     Prot  M'K.E>a)EicK,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S 
TAXATION.      J.   Shieu)    Nicholson,    M.A,    D.Sc 

Professor  of  Political  Ecoaomy.  UniTersity  of  Edin. 

burgh. 
TAXIDERMY.    MoKTAOtTE  Bsowjje,  Aathor  of  "Prac 

tical  Taxidenny." 
TEA.     James  Patok. 

TEAK.     Sir  Dietbich  Beandis,  K.CI.E.,Ph.D,  F  R.3. 
TECHKICAL  EDUCATION.     Sir  Philip  Macnits. 
TELEGRAPH.    Thomas  Gkat,  B.Sc,  F.E.S.E 
TELEMETER     Major  Aethcb  W.  White,  K.A 
TELEPHONE.     Thomas  Geay. 
TELESCOPE     David  GiLU  LL.D.,  Astronomer  Royal 

Cape  of  Good  Horn. 
TELL     Kev.  W.  A.  B.  Coolidge,  M.A. 
TEMPLARS      T   A.  AECB£.(. 
TEMPLE     W.  Ro»eeT8ok  Smith,  LLD. 
TEMEKS       H'NRi    Htmas%   0-.c5erTatenr.    Biblio 

th^oe  Boy'.ie,  B  ussels. 
TEliTtlS.     JcliaX  tiABSBAXL,  Aatbor  of  "Annals  of 

Tenni&  " 
TEXTILES.     J   R.  Middletos.  M  A.  Slade  Professor 

of  Fine  Alt,  Universitv  of  Cambridge. 
THACKERAY       WalterH    Pou<)ck 
THALES.     Pi-of.  G    J    Allmaw.  LLD..  FRS,  and 

Henet  Jacuon,  LittD. 
THEATRE.       Prof.    J     H.    Middleton    and    JaMES 

Williams.  B.C.L. 
THEBES.     A.  W.  Vereall,  M.A,  Lecturer  in  Clasaica, 

Trinity  CcUege,  Cambridge. 
THEISM.     Rev.  Roeebt  Flint,  D.D.,  LLD  ,  Profeasor 

of  Divinit".  University  of  Edinburgh. 
THEODORA.     James  Brvce,  D  C.L..  MP 
THEODORIC      Thomas  Hodgkin,  DC  L,  LLD 
THEOLOGY      Prof   R  Flint 
THEOSOPHY.      Andrew   Setb,    M.A,    Professor    of 

Logic  University  of  St  Andrews. 
THERSIODYNAMICS.      P    G    Tait,   M.A.,   Professor 

of  Natural  Philosophy    I'aiversity  of  Ediiiburgb 
THERMOMETER     H    EL  Mill.  D.Sc. 
THESSALONIANS,  EFIST.'.ESTOTHE    E  Scbueer. 

Professor  of  N*'w  Testaa..  .'.t  Theology,  Giessen. 
THIBAUT      JoBK  Macdonell.  M.A.,  Author  of  "Th« 

Land  Qaestion. " 
TH1EF.3.     Geoeoe  Saintsbcrt,  M  A 
THOF.EAU.      William   Sharp.   Author  of  "Life  ot 

Shelley. " 
THROAT  DISEASES.     .1   0  Affleck,  M.D. 
THUCYDIDE3.     Prof.  F-  C.  Jebb,  lLd. 
THUGS.    Reisbold  Rost,  LLD  .  CLE; 
THULE.     Sir  Edwaed  H.  BusBiRy,  Bart. 
TIBET.    General  J.  T.  Walker.  R  t.  C.B..   F  R  S  . 

and  Prof.  A.  TERaiEN  TE  Lacoitperie. 
TIDES.     G.  H.  Darwin,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Pluraian  rrr>. 

fes3or  of  Aitronomv  and  Esperiraental  Pliilosophy. 

University  of  Camtridge. 
TIME.     J.  L.  E.  Deetee.  Ph.D.,  Astronomer.  Armagh 

Obaemtoiy. 


TIMUR      Major. Gen     Sir   Fredeeick    J    Coiosuiu 

K.C.SI..C.B. 
TIN      Prof  W.  DiTTMAE- 
TITHES.     W.  Robertson  Smith.   LLD  .   and  Jamls 

Williams,  B.C.L. 
TITIAN.     W    M.  RossETTi. 
TITLES  OF  HONOUR     FuEDtfciCK  Dbpmmond 
TOBACCO      James  Patch  and  Prof  W.  DittmaR- 
TONNAGE.     W.   Moore,  Principal  Surveyor  of  Too. 

nage,  Board  of  Trade.  London. 
TORPEDO.       Commander    Eowi.y    J.    P.    Cu-Lwet. 

H.M.S.   "Polyphemus." 
TORT.     Feedebick  Polloci.  LLD.,  Corpus  Professor 

of  Jurisprudence,  University  of  Oiford. 
TORTOISE.     Albert  GOktheb,  M.D.,  Ph.D..  F.R.S 
TORTVRE     James  Williams. 
TOTEMISM.     J.  G.  Fkazee. 
TOUCH      Prof.  J.  G.  M'Kendbick. 
TOCRNEUB.     A.  C.  Swinbibne. 
TRACTION.     J.  A.  Ewing.  B.Sc.,  F  R.S.,  Profeeaor  of 

Engineering.  University  College,  Dundee, 
TRADE  UNIONS.     FreuDrummond. 
TRAMWAY.     Thomas  Courington,  C.E. 
TRANSIT  CIRCLE     J   L   E.  DaEniB,  Ph.D. 
TREASON.     James  Williams. 
TREATIES     Thomas  E   H.jlland.  D.C.L.,  CbichoU 

Professor  of  International  Law  and  Diplomacy.  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford. 
TREMATODA.     W.  E.  Hovle. 
TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF-     Rev.  Dr.  Uttledale- 
TRI  CYCLE.     C.  V.  BoTs. 
TRIGONOMETRY     E  W  Hobson,  M.A. ,  Lecturer  in 

Mathematics,  Christ's  College   Cambridge. 
TRIPOLI.     A.  M.  Bkoadley,  Author  of  "Tunis,  Past 

and  Present" 
TROAD.     Prof.  R  C.  Jebb. 
TRUMPET     VicTOB  Mauillok,  Conservatoire  Roytl 

de  Musique    Brussels. 
TRUST      James  Williams. 
TUNICATa       W    a    Herdmab,   D.Sc.,    Professor  of 

Natural  Histor}*,  Univt^rsity  College,  Liverpool 
TUNNELLING      Benjamin  Baker,  C.E. 
TURKEY- 

HisTORT  AND  LiTERATTRE.     E  J.  W.  GiBB,  Author 

of   ■Ottoman    Poems,'    and   C.   A.    FvEFE,    MA,, 

Author  of  "  History  of  Modem  Europe  ' 
Oeography  and  Statistics.     Prof.  A.  H.  Keane 
TURKS      Prof  M.  Tb  HuUTSMA,  University  of  Leyden 
TURNER.     George  Reid.  R  S.A. 
TYPHUS,  TYPHUID,  AND  RELAPSING  FEVERS 

J    0    A,PPLECK    M  D 

TYPOGRAPHY— History.     J.   H.   Hesseu,    M.A.- 

Practical     John  Southward. 
TYROL     A.  J    El-tlek.  M,A- 
I'LFILAS,     Rev,  C.  Anderson  ScoTT,  B,A, 
UMBRIA.     William  Ridcewat,   M.A.,   Professor  o* 

Greek.  Queeo's  College.  Cork. 
UNITARIANISM       Rev.  J.  F.  SMITH. 
UNITED  STATES- 

1.  History  asd  Colonization. 

11.  Physical  (iKOGRAPHY  and  Statistics. 

III.   I'll  .III'  .11.  liKOGRAPHY  AND  STATISTICS. 

I'.r.  Rbv.  Samuel  Fallows.  D.D.,  lata  Professor 
-'  Phv,=ic!:.  Lawrence  University. 

UNIVERSITIES.   J.  Bass  Mullinceb,  M.A.,  Libranaa. 
St  .lohn's  College,  Cambridge. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BKITANNICA. 


T 


Tig  the  t^rentieth  symbol  in  our  alphabet.  It  has  varied 
but  little  in  form  since  the  earliest  days  when  it  ap- 
peared in  Greece  and  Italy,  though  some  of  the  Italic 
alphabets  exhibit  variants :  e.g.,  in  Umbrian  and  Etruscan 
inscriptions  we  find  the  horizontal  stroke  sometimes  on  one 
side  only,  and  slanting ;  sometimes  the  form  is  nearly  that 
of  our  ordinary  small  t  without  the  ornamental  turn  at 
the  bottom.  In  value  it  has  been  in  all  lang;uages  a  surd 
or  voiceless  dental,  corresponding  to  d,  which  is  voiced. 
But  the  term  "  dental  "  includes  some  varieties  of  position, 
of  which  the  most  definite  are — (1)  where  the  point  of  the 
tongue  touches  the  teeth  (true  "dental  "),  as  in  French  ;  (2) 
where  the  tongue  touches  the  gum  behind  the  teeth,  and 
not  the  teeth  at  all,  as  in  English ;  (3)  where  the  point  of 
the  tongue  is  slightly  bent  back  against  the  palate,  prodHC- 
ing  the  sound  much  heard  in  south  India  (often  called 
"  cerebral ").  T  when  followed  by  t  or  y  is  liable  to  pass 
into  the  ssound ;  this  happened  in  the  local  dialects  of 
Italy  before  the  Christian  era ;  at  Rome  the  transition  was 
later.  This  changed  sound  passed  on  into  the  Romance  lan- 
guages, t.g.,  in  French  "  nation,"  pronounced  "  nasion," 
whence  in  England  it  was  sounded  first  as  "  nasiun  "  ^and 
now  as  ''nashun."  Similarly  in  English  t  followed  by  u 
undergoes  a  change  of  sound  ;  this  is  due,  however,  to  the 
old  sound  of  tZ,-  viz.,  long  French  u,  or  Old  English  y.  This 
long  yy  developed  into  the  iu  sound  heard  in  "use," 
"  cure,"  (fee. ;  then  the  new  i  affected  the  preceding  t,  and 
the  result  is  Uh,  as  in  "  nature  "  (natshure)  -,  similarly  d  in 
"  verdure  '"  is  sounded  as  dzh  (verdzhure). 

English  employs  the  digraph  th  to  denote  two  sounds, 
differing  as  voiceless  and  voiced  sounds — the  initial  sounds 
of  "  thin  "  and  "  then  "  respectively.  It  would  be  a  great 
convenience  it  dh  could  be  used  for  the  voiced  sound,  so 
that  "then  "  should  be  written  "dhen."  /"But  it  would  be 
oven  better  if  the  single  symbols  could  be  employed  to 
denote  these  single  sounds,  as  was  to  some  e.xtent  the  case 
Sn  the  earlier  days  of  our  language :  in  Anglo-Saxon  we  have 
the  twp  symbols  6  aud  (>.  The  first  is  only  a  d  crossed  ;  the 
second  was  a  rune  and  wascalled  "  thorn."  These,  however, 
were  not  consistently  employed  one  for  the  voiceless  and 
one  for  the  voiced  sound  ;  also  Oi,  is  actually  found  in  the 
oldest  texts,  and  later  on  it  occurs  together  with  8  and  j>. 
It  is  probable  that  the  voiceless  sound  was  origioally  the 


only  one  in  Teatonic.  It  was  eventually  differentiated  into 
two  sounds ;  but,  as  is  usually  the  case,  writing  remained 
more  archaic  than  speech.  In  modern  English  and  Ice- 
landic, and  probably  in  the  parent  Teutonic  also,  initial 
th  is  voiceless,  except  in  English  in  a  small  number  of 
pronouns  and  particles  in  common  use,  as  "  thou,"  "  this," 
"that,"  "then,"  "than,"  "though,"  "thus",  and  it  is  regu- 
larly voiceless  when  final  The  nature  of  the  two  sounds 
is  this  :  the  tongue  is  pressed  against  the  back  of  the  teeth 
(sometimes,  especially  when  used  by  foreigner?  against  the 
bottom  of  the  upper  teeth)  and  either  the  breath. for  th  or 
the  voice  lotdh  is  forced  through  the  interstices  of  the  teeth. 
This  pair  of  sounds  is  found  in  modern  Greek,  where  Map- 
pears  as  0  and  dh  as  £.  In  Spanish  and  in  Danish  under 
certain  circumstances  the  sound  denoted  by  d  is  dh, 

TAB.VRI  and  Eaely  Arab  Historians.  Arabian 
historians  differ  from  all  others  in  the  unique  form  of 
their  compositions.  Each  event  is  related  in  the  words  of 
eye-witnesses  or  contemporaries  transmitted  to  the  final 
narrator  through  a  chain  of  intermediate  reporters  (rdwls), 
each  of  whom  passed  on  the  original  report  to  his  successor. 
Often^  the  same  account  is  given  in  two  or  more  slightly 
divergent  forms,  which  have  come  down  through  different 
chains  of  reporters.  Often,  too,  one  event  or  one  important 
detail  is  told  in  several  ways  on  the  basis  of  several  con- 
temporary statements  transmitted  to  the  final  narrator 
through  distinct  lines  of  tradition.  ■  The  writer  therefore 
exercises  no  independent  criticism  except  as  regards  the 
choice  of  authorities  ;  for  he  rejects  accounts  of  which  the 
first  author  or  one  of  the  intermediate  links  seems  to  him 
unworthy  of  credit,  and  sometimes  he  states  which  of 
several  accounts  seems  to  him  the  best.  Modern  judgment 
does  not  always  confirm  this  choice  ;  some  authorities 
much  esteemed  by  Moslems  are  by  European  scholars 
deemed  untrustworthy,  and  vice  versa.  Fortunately  the 
various  historians  did  not  always  give  preference  to  the 
same  account  of  a  transaction,  and  so  one  supplies  what 
another  omits. 

A  second  type  of  Arabian  historiography  is  that  in  which 
an  author  combines  the  different  traditions  about  one 
occurrence  into  one  continuous  narrative,  but  prefixes  a 
statement  as  to  the  lines  of  authorities  used  and  states 
which  uf  them  he  mainly  follows.     In  this  case  the  writer 


T  A  B  A  R  I 


recurs  to  the  first  method,  already  described,  only  when 
the  different  traditions  are  greatly  at  variance  with  one 
another.  In  yet  a  third  type  of  history  the  old  method  is 
entirely  forsaken  and  we  have  a  continuous  narrative  only 
occasionally  interrupted  by  citation  of  the  authority  for 
some  particular  point.  But  the  principle  still  is  that  what 
has  been  well  said  once  need  not  be  told  again  in  other 
words.  The  writer  therefore  keeps  as  close  as  ho  can  to 
the  letter  of  his  sources,  so  that  quite  a  late  writer  often 
reproduces  the  very  words  of  the  first  narrator. 
■■  From  very  early  times  the  Arabs  had  great  delight  in 
'verses  and  tales,  and  the  development  of  their  language  was 
certainly  much  influenced  by  this  fact.  In  ancient  times 
storytellers  and  singers  found  their  subjects  in  the  doughty 
.ieeds  of  the  tribe  on  its  forays,  in  the  merits  of  horse  or 
camel,  in  hunting  adventures  and  love  complaints,  and  some- 
times in  contests  with  foreign  powers  and  in  the  impression 
produced  by  the  wealth  and  might  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Persia  and  Constantinople.  The  appearance  of  the  Prophet 
with  the  great  changes  that  ensued,  the  conquests  that 
.iiade  the  Arabs — till  then  a  despised  race — lords  of  half 
*.he  civilized  world,  supplied  a  vast  store  of  new  matter  for 
relations  which  men  were  never  weary  of  hearing  and 
cccouuting.  They  wished  to  know  everything  about  the 
a[)o:itlo  of  God,  whose  influence  on  his  own  time  was  so 
e'.iormoi'.o,  who  had  accomplished  all  that  seemed  impossible 
and  h?.d  inspired  tlie  Arabs  with  a  courage  and  confidence 
that  made  them  stronger  than  the  legions  of  Byzantium 
and  Ctesiphon.  Every  one  who  had  known  or  seen  him 
was  questioned  and  was  eager  to  answer.  Moreover, 
ihe  word  of  God  in  the  Koran  left  many  practical  points 
undecided,  and  therefore  it  was  of  the  highest  importance 
to  know  'jxactly  how  the  ProJ;het  had  spoken  and  acted 
in  various  circumstances.  Where  could  this  be  better 
•earntd  than  at  Medina,  v,'here  he  had  lived  so  long  and 
\vh'f e  the  majority  of  his  companions  continued  to  live  1 
So  f.t  Medina  a  school  was  gradually  formed,  where  the 
fjhief  pa-,  t  of  the  traditions  about  Mohammed  and  his  first 
succe3'jo:'s  took  a  form  more  or  less  fi.xed.  Soon  divers 
facu'jr'j  of  Islam  began  to  assist  memory  by  making  notes, 
and  Iheir  disciples  sought  to  take  written  jottings  of  what 
they  had  hsard  from  them,  which  they  could  carry  with 
tliem  when  they  returned  to  their  homes.  Thus  by  the 
close  of  the  1st  century  many  dictata  were  already  in  circu- 
lation. For  example,  Hasan  of  Basra  (d.  1 10  a.h.;  728  a.d.) 
had  a  great  mass  of  such  notes,  and  he  was  accused  of  some-' 
times  passing  off  as  oral  tradition  things  he  had  really  drawn 
f<om  books  ;  for  oral  tradition  was  still  the  one  recognized 
Authority,  and  it  is  related  of  more  than  one  old  scholar, 
and  even  of  Hasan  of  Basra  himself,  that  ho  directed  his 
books  to  be  burned  at  his  death.  The  books  were  mere 
heljjs,  and  what  they  knew  these  scholars  had  handed  on 
by  word  of  mouth.  Long  after  this  date,  when  all  scholars 
drew  mainly  from  books,  the  old  forms  were  still  kept  up. 
Tabari,  for  example,  when  he  cites  a  book  expresses  himself 
/,s  if  he  had  heard  what  bo  quotes  from  the  master  with 
■vhom  he  read  the  passage  or  from  whose  copy  he  tran- 
scribed it.  Ho  even  ox])ressos  himself  in  this  wise  :  "  "Omai 
b.  Shabba  has  related  to  mo  in  his  book  on  the  history  of 
3a.sra." 

Historians  before  Tabari.  J 

'.'  Naturally,  then,  no  independent  book  of  the  1st  century 
'rom  the  Flight  has  come  down  to  us.  But  in  the  2d  cen- 
'ury  real  books  began  to  be  composed.  The  materials 
were  supplied  in  the  first  place  by  oral  tradition,  in  the 
second  by  the  dktata  of  older  scholars,  and  finally  by 
various  kinds  of  documents,  such  as  treaties,  letters,  collec- 
tions of  poetry,  and  genealogical  li.sts.  Genealogical  studies 
had  become  necessary  through  'Omar's  system  of  assigning 
«tate  pensions  to  certain  classes  of  persons  according  to 


their  kinship  with  the  Prophet,  of  their  deserts  during  his' 
lifetime.  This  subject  received  much  attention  even  in 
the  1st  century,  but  books  about  it  were  first  written  in 
the  2d,  the  most  famous  being  those  of  Ibn  'al-Kalbl  (d. 
146  A.H.),  of  his  son  Hishim'  (d.204),  and  of  Al-SharkI  ibni 
al-Kotdml.  Genealogy,  which  often  called  for  elucidations,; 
led  on  to  history.  BelAdhorl's  excellent  Ansdb  al-Ashrdf^ 
(Genealogies  of  the  Nobles)  is  a  history  of  the  Arabs  on  a 
genealogical  plan.  -  '         .  < ' 

The  oldest  extant  history  is  the  biography  of  the  Prophet 
by  Ibn  Ish4k(d.  150).  This  work  is  generally  trustworthy. 
Mohammed's  life  before  he  appeared  as  a  prophet  and  the 
story  of  his  ancestors  are  indeed  mixed  with  many  fables 
illustrated  by  spurious  verses.  But  in  Ibn  IshAlf 's  day  these 
fables  were  generally  accepted  as  history — for  many  of  thbm 
had  been  first  related  by  contemporaries  of  Mohammed — 
and  no  one  certainly  thought  it  blameworthy  to  put  pious 
verses  in  the  month  of  the  Prophet's  forefathers,  though,; 
according  to  the  Fihrist  (p.  92),  Ibn  IshAlf  was  duped  by! 
others  with  regard  to  the  poems  he  quotes.  -    ( 

■  The  Life  of  the  Prophet  by  Ibn  'Okba  (d.  141),  based; 
on  the  statements  of  two  very  trustworthy  men,  "Orwa  ibn' 
az-Zobair  (d.  94)  and  Az-Zohrl  (d.l24),  seems  to  be  quite 
lost,  Sprenger  having  vainly  made  every  effort  to  find  a 
copy.  It  was  still  much  read  in  Syria  in  the  14th  century.j 
But  we  fortunately  possess  the  Book  jif  the  Campaigns 
of  the  Prophet  by  Al-W41>idl  (d.  207)  and  the  important 
Book  of  Classes  of  his  disciple  Ibn  Sa'd.^  Wilkidf  had  much 
more  copious  materials  than  Ibn  Ishdk,  but  gives  way 
much  more  to  a  popular  and  sometimes  romancing  style  of 
treatment.  Nevertheless  he  sometimes  helps  us  to  re- 
cognize in  Ibn  Ishdlj 's  narrative  modifications  of  the  genuine 
tradition  made  for  a  purpose,  and  the  additional  details  he 
supplies  set  various  events  before  us  in  a  clearer  light.| 
Apart  from  this  his  chief  merits  lie  in  his  studies  on  the 
subject  of  the  traditional  authorities,  the  results  of  which 
are  given  by  Ibn  Sa'd,  and  in  his  chronology,  which  is  often 
excellent.  A  special  study  of  the  traditions  about  the 
conquest  of  Syria  made  by  De  Goeje  in  1864  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  WAkidl's  chronology  is  sound  as  regards  the 
main  events,  and  that  later  historians  have  gono  astray  by 
forsaking  his  guidance.  This  result  has  been  confirmed 
by  certain  contemporary  notices  found  by  Nbldeke  in  1874 
in  a  Syriac  MS.  of  the  British  Museum.  And  that  Ibn 
IshAk  agrees  with  WAljidi  in  certain  main  dates  is  import- 
ant evidence  for  the  trustworthiness  of  the  former  also. 
For  the  chronology  before  the  year  10  of  the  Flight  Wdljidl 
did  his  best,  but  here,  the  material  being  defective,  many  of 
his  conclusions  are  precarious.  Yet,  though  we  have  good 
ground  for  doubts,  wo  are  seldom  able  to  construct  a  better 
chronology.  W4kidl  h.ad  already  a  great  library  at  his 
disposal.-  He  is  said  to  have  had  600  chests  of  books,' 
chiefly  dictata  written  by  or  for  himself,  but  in  part  real 
books  by  Abu  Miklinaf  (d.  130),  Ibn  IsliAk  (whom  he  uses 
but  docs  not  name),  'Aw.^na  (d.  147),  and  other  authors. 
Abu  Mikhnaf  left  a  great  number  of  monographs  on  the 
chief  events  from  the  death  of  the  Prophet  to  the  caliphate 
of  Walfd  II.  These  were  much  used  by  later  writers,  and 
we  have  many  extracts  from  them,  but  none  of  the  works 
themselves,  except  a  sort  of  romance  based  on  his  account 
of  the  death  of  Hosain,  of  which  Wiistenfeld  has  given  a 

'  Of  Hisham  b.  al-Kalbi'a  book  there  are  copies  in  the  British 
Museum  and  in  the  Escorial.  ' 

2  Ibn  Ishak's  original  work  seems  to  be  still  eitant  In  the  KoprOlH 
library  .it  Constantinople;  the  edition  of  it  by  Ibn  Hisham  has  been 
cditcil  by  Wustenfeld  (Gottingen,  1858-eO)  and  translated  into  Gennno 
by  WeiUStuttgart,  1864).  ] 

'  WAkiili  has  been  edited  from  an  imperfect  M3.  by  Kremer  (C«l-j 
entta,  1856).  A  condensed  translation  by  Wellhausen  appeared  in; 
1882.  The  great  book  of  Ibn  Sa'd  is  unpublished,  but  there  are  (oms^ 
useful  papers  on  it  by  Loth. 


T  A  B  A  R  I 


trmslatioft.  'Witli  regard  to  the  history  of  IrAlf  in  par- 
ticular be  was  deemed  to  have  the  best  lights,  and  for  this 
subject  Ji«  is  Tabari's  chief  source,  jiiat  as  Madiinl,  a 
jounger  contemporary  of  Wikidi,  is  followed  by  preference 
in  all  that  relates  to  Khor4san.  Madiini's  Uiitory  of  tM 
Calipht  is  the  best  if  not  the  oldest  published  before  Jabari ; 
but  this  book  has  quite  disappeared  and  is  known  only  by 
the  excerpts  given  by  later  writers,  particularly  BeUdhori 
and  TabarL  From  these  we  judge  that  he  had  great 
n.rrative  power  with  much  clear  and  exact  learning,  and 
must  be  placed  high  els  a  critical  historian.  His  plan  was 
to  record  the  various  traditions  about  an  event,  choosing 
them  with  critical  skill ;  sometimes,  however,  he  fused 
the  several  traditions  into  a  continuous  narrative.  A  just 
estimate  of  the  relative  value  of  the  historians  can  only 
be  reached  by  careful  comparison  in  detail.  This  has  been 
essayed  by  Brunnow  in  his  study  on  the  Khirijites  (Ley- 
den,  1884),  in  which  the  narrative  of  Mobarrad  in  the 
Kimil-  is  compared  with  the  excerpts  of  Madiinl  given  by 
Belidhorl  and  those  of  Abii  Mikhnaf  given  by  TabarL 
The  conclusion  reached  is  that  AbA  Mikhnaf  and  Madiinl 
are  both  well  informed  and  impartial 

Among  the  contemporaries  of  Wikidf  and  Madiinl  were 
Ibn  Khidish  (d.  223),  the  historian  of  the  family  Mohallab, 
whose  work  was  one  of  Mobarrad's  sources  for  the  History 
of  the  Khdrijita  ;  Haitham  ibn  'Adi  (d.  207),  whose  works, 
though  n9w  lost,  are  often  cited  ;  and  Saif  ibn  "Omar  at- 
Tamlml,  whose  book  on  the  revolt  of  the  tribes  under  Abii- 
bekr  and  on  4he  Mohammedan  conquests  was  much  used 
ly  Tabarl.  Saif,  however,  seems  to  have  been  little  es- 
teemed ;  Belidhorl  very  seldom  cites  him,  and  nothing  can 
be  found  in  Arabic  literature  about  his  life  and  those  of 
his  authorities.  He  is  barely  mentioned  in  the  FihrUt, 
the  writer  plainly  having  nothing  to  tell  of  him,  and 
blundering  in  the  one  thing  he  does  say  by  representing 
hi  disciple  Sfe'&ib  as  hi»  master.  HAjji  Khalifa  knows 
nothing  but  his  name.  Hia  narratives  are  detailed  and 
often  tinged  with  romance,  and  he  is  certainly  much  in- 
ferior to  Wilfidl  in'  accuracy.  Besides  these  are  to  be 
mentioned  Ab\i  "Obaida.  (d.  209),  who  was  celebrated  as  a 
philologist  and  wrote  several  historical  monographs  that 
are  often  cited,  and  Azraki,  whose  excellent  History  of 
Mecca  was  published  after  his  death  by  his  grandson 
(d  244).  With  these  writers  we  rass  into  the  3d  century 
of  Islam.  But  we  have  etill  an  important  point  to  notice 
in  the  2d  century ;  for  in  it  learned  Persians  began  to 
take  part  in  the  creation  of  Arabic  historical  literature. 
Ibn  Mokaffa'  translated  the  great  Book  of  Persian  Kings, 
and  others  followed  his  example.  Tabarl  and  his  contem- 
poraries, senior  and  junior,  such  as  Ibn  Kotaiba,  Ya'k'ibl, 
Dlnawari,  preserve  ^o  us  a  good  part  of  the  information 
about  Persian  history  made  known  through  such  transla- 
tions.' But  even  more  important  than  the  knowledge 
conveyed  by  these  works  was  their  influence  on  literary 
style  and  compodtiou.  Half  a  century  later  began  versions 
•from  the  Greek  either  direct  or  through  the  Syriac.  The 
pieces  translated  were  niostly  philosophical ;  but  the  Arabs 
also  learned  eomething,  however  superfidaliy,  of  ancient 
history. 

The  3d  century  was  far  more  productive  than  the  2d. 
Abii  'Obaida  was  presently  succeeded  by  Ibn  al-A'ribl 
(d.  231),  who  in  like  manner  was  chiefly  famous  as  a 
philologist,  and  who  wrote  about  ancient  poems  and  battles. 
Much  that  he  wrote  is  quoted  in  Tabrlzfs  commentary  on 
the  ffamdsa,  which  is  still  richer  in  extracts  from  the 
historical  elucidations  of  early  poems  given  by  Ar-Riy4«hl 
(d.  257).     Of  special  fame  as  a  genealogist  was  Ibn  Hablb 

''  For  detaila  Me  the  iDlrodaction  to  KCldeke's  excellent  trantlation 
of  TftbarTi  HisCary  qf  the  Persians  and  Arade  in  the  AJaeanian  Period, 
Lejdaa,  1S79. 


(d.  245),  of  whom  we  have  a  booklet  on  Arabian  trilfil 
names  published  by  Wiistenfeld  (1850).  Azraki  again  wM 
followed  by  Fikihl,  who  wrote  a  History  of  Mecca  in  272,' 
and  'Omar  b.  Shabba  (d.  262),  who  composed  <an  excellent 
history  of  Basra,  known  to  us  only  by  excerpts.  Of  the 
works  of  Zobair  b.  Bakkir  (d.  256),  one  of  Tabari's  teachers, 
a  learned  historian  and  genealogist  much  consulted  by  later 
writers,  there  is  a  fragment  in  the  Kopriilii  library  at  Con- 
staintinople,  and  another  in  Gottingen,  part  of  which  has 
been  maide  known  by  Wiistenfeld  (Die  Familie  AlZobair, 
Gottingen,  1878).  Ya'kiibl  or  Ibn  Widih  wrote  a  short 
general  history  of  much  value,  published  by  Houtsma  (Ley- 
den,  1853).  About  India  he  knows  more  than  his  prede- 
cessors and  more  than  his  successors  down  to  Bininl.  Ibn 
Khordidbeh's  historical  works  are  lost  Ibn  'Abdalhakam 
(d.  257)  WTotaof  the  conquest  of  Egypt  and  the  West. 
Extracts  from  this  book  are  given  by  De  Slane  in  h'uHistoire 
des  Berberes,  and  others  by  Karle  and  Jones,  from  which 
we  gather  that  it  was  a  medley  of  true  tradition  and  romance, 
and  must  be  reckoned,  with  the  book  of  his  slightly  senior 
contemporary,  the  Spaniard  Ibn  Hablb,  to  the  class  of 
historical  romances  (see  bdow,  p.  5).  A  high  place  must 
be  assigned  to  the  historian  Ibn  Kotaiba  (d.  276),  who, 
as  Eosen  has  well  shown,  wrote  a  series  of  books  with  a 
view  to  raising  the  scholarship  of  the  large  class  of  kdtib$ 
or  official  scribes.  To  this  series  belong  his  very  useful 
Handbook  of  History  (ed.  Wiistenfeld,  Gottingen,  1850) 
and  his  'Oyun  al-Akhbdr,  though  the  latter  book  according 
to  the  arrangement  falls  rather  under  the  class  of  litters 
humaniores.  Much  more  eminent  is  BeUdhori  (d.  279), 
whose  book  on  the  Arab  conquest  (ed.  De  Goeje,  Leyden, 
1865-66)  merits  the  special  praise  given  to  it  by  Mas'iidt 
Of  his  great  Ansib  al-Ashrdf  a.  large  part  exists  at  Paris 
in  the  valuable  collection  of  M.  Schefer  and  another  part 
was  published  by  Ahlwardt  in  1884.  A  con,temporary,  Ibn 
abl  Tihir  Taifilr  (d.  280),  wrote  on  the  "Abbisid  caliphs 
and  was  drawn  on  by  Tabart  The  sixth.part  of  his  work 
is  in  the  British  Museum.  Of  the  universal  history  of 
Dlnawari  (d.  282),  entitled  The  Long  Narratives,  en  edition 
by  Girgas  is  now  (1887)  in  the  press. 
Taiari. 
All  thesS  histqfies  are  more  or  less  thrown  into  the  shade 
by  the  great  work  of  Tabarl,  whose  fame  has  never  faded 
from  his  own  day  to  ours,  and  who  well  deserves  to  have 
this  article  on  early  Arabic  histories  placed  under  his  name. 
Abii  Ja'far  Mohammed  b  Jarlr  at-Tabari  (so  his  fuU  name 
runs)  is  described  as  a  tall  lean  figure,  with  large  eyea, 
brown  complexion,  and  hair  which  remained  black  till  hia 
death.  His  learning  was  astounding  and  few  could  speak  so 
well.  Bom  224  a.h.  (838-9  a.d.)  at  Amol  in  TabaristAn,  he 
came  to  Baghdad  as  a  young  man  and  heard  there  the  most, 
famous  teachers  of  the  age.  He  travelled  through  Syria 
and  Egypt  (where  he  was  ip  263),  and  finally  settled 
down  in  Baghdad,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in  310 
(922  A-D.),  always  active  and  surrounded  by  p^ipils.  Ha 
is  said  to  have  written  forty  pages  daily  for  forty  years. 
This  no  doubt  is  an  exaggeration,  but  certainly  he  must 
have  been  a  man  of  most  persistent  industry.  His  two 
chief  works  are  a  great  Commentary  on  the  Koran  and  his 
Annals.  There  is  an  anecdote  to  the  effect  that  each 
originally  filled  30,000  leaves,  but  that  his  pupils  found 
them  too  extensive  to  be  written  to  his  dictation,  and  that 
he  then  resolved  to  condense  them  to  a  tenth  of  their 
original  size,  exclaiming,  "  God  help  us !  Ambition  is 
extinct."  One  cannot  say  how  far  this  story  is  true,  but 
it  is  probable  enough  that  his  materials,  at  least  for  the 
Annals,  were  many  times  greater   than  the  book  itself. 

>-Pabli<taed  in  ezcerptb;  Wiutealeld  iiloiig  with  Azraki,  Leliele, 
1857-69. 


T  A   B  A  R  I 


WTiere  the  same  topic  comes  up  in  the  Annals  and  in  the 
Commeniary  we  often  find  different  traditions  quoted,  or 
tho  same  tradition  denved  through  different  channels,  and 
this  shows  the  copious  variety  of  his  sources.  Various 
parts  of  the  AnnaU  give  the  impression  of  being  condensed. 
The  C'lmmminry  was  published  before  the  Anruils,  and  is 
better  composed.  It  is  the  head  corner-stone  of  Koran 
exegesis,  as  the  Annuls  are  of  historiography  It  came  into 
general  use  mainly  through  the  abridgment  of  Baghawl  in 
the  beginuiug  of  the  tilh  century  of  the  Fhgbt,  being  itself 
too  large  to  be  much  read.  The  great  book  exists  complete 
in  the  viceregal  library  at  Cairo,  and  ought  to  be  pub- 
lished at  once  ' 

Ihi  A  nnals  are  a  general  history  from  the  creation  to  302 
A.H.,  and  are  in  the  course  of  publication  at  Leyden.  They 
will  fill  some  7000  to  "500  pages,  one  and  a  half  printed 
pages  corresponding  roughly  to  one  leaf  of  Tabarl's  original 
MS  Taoarl  added  a  supplement  about  his  authorities,  an 
abridgment  of  which  is  to  follow  the  Leyden  edition.  It 
contains  biographical  notices  of  traditionalists,  coutempo- 
raries  of  Mohammed,  and  their  successors  to  the  second  half 
of  the  '2d  century  ^  Other  works  by  Tabarl  will  bespoken 
of  in  detail  In  the  preface  to  the  Leyden  edition 

The  success  of  the  Annals  and  Commeniary  was  due 
above  all  to  the  author's  personality  The  respect  paid  to 
him  by  bis  contemporaries  appears  in  various  anecdotes 
preserved  in  his  biography  His  pupils  had  an  unbounded 
admiration  for  his  extraordinary  knowledge,  and  wh.it  ho 
said  seemed  to  them  the  best  that  could  be  said  In  tnitli, 
both  his  great  works  were  the  best  of  their  kind,  especially 
the  Commeniary,  which,  in  the  judgment  of  all  impartial 
critics,  has  not  been  equalled,  before  or  since,  io  complete- 
nes.1,  learning,  and  independent  judgment.  A  conterapiv 
rary  says  that  "  it  would  be  worth  a  journey  to  China  to 
procure  the  book  "  So  general  was  this  view  that  the 
opinion  of  Tabari  was  quoted  as  a  legal  authority 

The  inferiority  of  the  Annals  .as  a  literary  com|)Osition 
may  be  due  partly  to  the  author's  years,  partly  to  the  in- 
equality of  his  sources,  sonietim>iS  sujwrabiindant,  some- 
times defective,  partly  perhaps  to  the  somewhat  hasty 
condensation  of  his  original  draft.  Nevertheless  the  value 
of  the  book  is  very  great  the  author's  selection  of  tradi 
tions  IS  usually  happy,  and  the  episodes  of  most  import- 
ance are  treated  with  most  fulness  of  detail,  so  that  it 
deserves  the  high  reputation  it  has  enjoyed  from  the  first. 
This  reputation  rose  steadily  ;  there  were  twenty  copies 
(one  of  them  written  by  Tabarl's  own  hand)  in  the  library 
of  the  FAtimite  caliph  'Aziz  (latter  half  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury), whereas,  when  Saladin  became  lord  of  Egypt,  the 
princely  library  contained  r200  copies  (Makrlzl,  i.  408 
tq  ).  Only  princes  and  rich  men  could  own  a  booU 
which  in  the  time  of  'Aziz  cost  one  hundred  dinars.  We 
knsiw  that  it  had  a  place  in  most  great  libraries  in  other 
countries,  for  we  find  that  it  was  used  in  all  lands.  Thus 
the  fact  ^hat  no  complete  copy  can  now  be  found  any 
where,  and  that  the  Leyden  edition  rests  on  odd  volumes 
lying  in  various  places,  gives  a  striking  image  of  what  the 
East  has  suffered  from  barbarism 

The  Annals  soon  came  to  be  dealt  with  in  various  ways. 
They  were  published  in  shorter  form  with  the  omission  of 
the  names  of  authorities  and  of  most  of  the  poems  cited  , 
6ome  passages  quoted  by  later  writers  are  not  found  even 
in  the  Leyden  edition.  On  the  other  hand,  some  interpola- 
tions took  place,  one  in  the  author's  lifetime  and  perhaps 
by  his  own  hand  Then  many  supplements  were  written, 
e._(7.,  by  Fergh.'inl  (not  extant)  and  by  HamadhAnl  (|;artly 
preserved   in    I'aris)       'Arib  of   Cordova  made  an  abridg- 

'  Srif  Ihr  excclWnl  .irtule  by  l.olh  in  Z  MilU..  xxxv  588  si/ 
'  Tilt   Mb    riiuuiiiiiig  tlii.-i  obridgiiictit   ij.  tlescnheii   by   Lotb    in 
y..b.M.<J-,  Axxu.  081  itf.     11  13  LOW  lu  lilt:  Unlisli  Mustuui. 


ment,  adding  the  history  of  the  'West  and  continvjing  the 
story  to  about  365^  -Ibn  Mashkawaih  wrote  a  history 
from  the  creation  to  3fi9  a.h.,  with  the  purpose  of  draw- 
ing the  les.sons  of  the  story,  following  Tabari  closely,  as 
far  as  his  book  is  known,  and  seldom  recurring  to  other 
sources  belore  the  reign  of  Moktadir  ;  what  follows  is  his 
own  composition,  and  shows  him  to  be  a  writer  of  talent* 
In  3.52  an  abridgment  of  the  Annals  was  translated  into 
Persian  by  Bal'aml,  who,  however,  interwove  many  fables.'' 
Ibn  al-AthIr  (d  G30)  abridged  the  whole  work,  usually 
with  judgment,  but  sometimes  too  hastily  Though  be 
sometimes  glided  lightly  over  difficulties,  his  work  is  of 
service  in  fixing  the  text  of  Tabari.  He  also  furnished  a 
continuation  to  the  year  C20.  Later  writers  took  Tabari 
as  their  main  authority,  but  fortunately  sometimes  con- 
sulted other  sources,  and  so  add  to  otir  knowledge, — 
es|)eciaily  Ibn  al-Jauzl  (d.  597),  who  adds  many  important 
details.  These  later  historians  had  valuable  help  from 
the  biographies  of  famous  men  and  special  histories  of 
countries  and  cities,  dynasties  and  princes,  on  which  much 
labour  was  spent  from  the  4tb  century  onwards, 

EislOTvina  after  Tabari. 
Tho  chief  historians  after  Tabari  may  be  briefly  mentioned  In 
chronnldgical  order.  Kail  (d.  326)  wrote  a  Hwlory  of  Spam;  Euty- 
cluiis  (il  328)  wrote  Annals  (published  by  Pocock.  Oxford,  1656), 
which  are  very  important  because  he  giv&s  tho  Christian  tradition  \ 
Ibn  'AH  Rabbihi  (d.  328)  has  very  valuable  historical  passages  in 
bis  fam^-us  roiscellaj^  called  /tl-'Ikd  at-Fartd  (3  vols.,  Cairo,  1293 
AH);  bull  (d  335)  wrote  od  the  'Abb^sid  caliphs,  tboir  viziers  and 
court  |->ets.  Ma5'udi(see  MAs'tiov)  comiwsed  various  historical  and 
peograiihical  works  (d  345).  Of  Taljari  8  coDlemporary  Hamza  Ls- 
jxihani  uehave  the  .<4n7uiZ*  ( published  Ijy  Gottwaldt,  St.  Petersburg, 
1844),  Abu.l-Faraj  aJ  Isjialiini  (d.  356j  in  Ms  Booi  o/Sonjs  (fiWJ 
nlAg>i<tTii,  20  vols.,  Cairo,  1285)  gave  the  lives  of  poets  whose  songs 
Mere  >iing  ,  Ibu  al-Kutiya  (d  367)  wrote  a  History  of  Spain  ;  Ibn 
Zulak  (d  1)87)  a  JJislory  of  Egypt ,  'Oibi  wititiithe  History  of  Mah- 
mild  of  ifhazna  (»L  421),  ai  whose  court  he  lived  (printed  on  the 
margiu  of  the  Egy]'tian  editioo  of  Ibn  al-Athir).  "Thalabi  (d.  427) 
wroie  a  well  knonn  History  of  the  Old  Prophets  .  Ahu  No'aim  al- 
Isfiab^ni  (d.  430)  wrote  a  History  of  Ispahan.  chieHy  of  tho  scholars 
of  that  city;  Tha  alibi  (il  429  or  430)  wrote,  inter  alia,  a  well- 
koown  History  of  the  Poets  of  his  Time,  now  (1887)  iii  course  of 
publication  at  Oamascus.  Bernui  (d.  440)  takes  n  high  place 
among  historians  by  his  Chronology  of  Ayicifiit  Nations{eA  Sachau, 
Leipsic,  1878  ,  Eng  trans  ,  London,  18/9)  and  his  contributious  to 
the  history  of  India  anil  Khwanzm;  Koda'i  (d.  451)  uTote  a  Dc- 
st-ription  of  Egypt  and  also  vanous  historical  pieces,  of  winch  somo 
are  extant;  Ibn  Said  of  Cordova  (d.  462)  wrote  a  Vieio  of  the 
Htst&ry  of  the  l^arwus  Nalums  Baghdad  anil  its  learned  men 
found  an  excellent  lustonan  in  Al  Kliatib  al  Baghdad i  (cL  463), 
and  Spam  in  Ibn  Hayan  (d  469)  and  half  a  cenlury  later  in  Ibn 
Khakan  (d  529)  and  Ibn  Bassam  (d  542).  Samani  (d.  .562)  wToto 
an  excellent  iKwk  on  genealogies ,  IbnAsakir(d  n\)a  History  of 
Damascus  and  hrr  Scholars,  which  is  of  great  value,  and  exists  in 
whole  or  in  part  in  several  libraries.  The  Btoqraphicnl  Dictionary 
of  the  Sjianiard  Ihn  Piusrual  (d  578)  and  that  of  Dabbi,  a  some- 
what junior  conteTTiporary,  arc  edited  in  Coilcra  s  Btbliotheca  Arao. 
Ilisp.  (1883- 1SS5);  Saladin  found  his  historian  in  the  famous 
Iniad  addin  Id  597).  Ibn  al  J.iuzi.  who  died  in  the  same  year, 
has  been  already  mi-iitiohed.  Abdalwahiils  History  of  the  Almu- 
hades,  wTiIun  in  621.  was  publisheil  by  Do^y  I2d  ed  ,  1881),  The 
geographer  Vakiit  (d  626)  wrote  also  some  historical  works,  now 
In^t,  Atidallatif  (d  629)  i.i  kiiipwn  by  his  wniings  alwut  Egypt 
(trans.  L>e  S,ii  y,  1>'10);  Ibn  ahAthir  (d  630)  w-iute.  m  addition  tc 
the  Chronicle  already  mentioned  a  Bionmphenl  Dictionary  of  C'oi- 
lempnrnnei  uf  the  Prophet.  Kifti  (d  fJ-16)  is  es|«-cially  knowni  bl| 
his  History  of  Aiahie  Ph,lot«n,sls  Sil't  ibn  al-.lau2i  id  654),graiKr 
.son  of  the  lim  al-Jaun  already  nieniionod,  wrote  a  gieot  i^hrwncle, 
of  winch  niurli  the  larger  part  still  exists.  Coileia  has  edited 
iMa.lnd.  l>(.'-6)  Ibn  al  AbUirs  (d  658)  Unupaphu-at  Lexicon,  a]- 
leady  known  by  Dozys  exierpts  from  u.      Ibn  al-'Adiin  (d.  660)  is 

'  Of  this  work  the  Gotha  library  has  a  jioilion  containing  290-320 
AH  .of  which  the  |>art  about  Ihr  Wesi  li.is  b-wii  pnnied  by  Dozy  in  the 
Diiydn,  and  the  rest  is  to  be  pulilislied  al  Leyih-u 

■•  A  fragment  (198-251  a  B  )  is  i.nnted  in  De  Oocje,  Fraym.  Hist. 
Ac.,  vol  il..  Leyden,  1871.  Scht-ler  possesses  an  excellent  MS.  uf 
the  years  219-315  ;  Oxiord  has  another  fragment,  345-360  a. a.;  the 
second  part  is  in  the  Esconnl 

»  The  first  part  was  lendvred  into  French  by  Dnbeux  in  18S6.  W» 
have  now  an  i-xtelieut  Krencb  translation  by  Zotenberg,  1874. 


T  A  B— T  A  B 


fcmed  for  bis  Siatory  of  Aleppo,  and  Abii  Shims  (d.  6€5)  wrote  a 
^til-known  ffisCory  of  Saiadin  and  Xureddin,  taking  a  great  deal 
^m  Imad  addin.  A.  Muller  has. recently  published  (1S8£)  Ibn 
ybi  Osajbia's  (d.  663)  History  of  nysiciana.  The  Hiatory  of  Ibn 
lI-'Amid  (d.  675),  better  knovn  as  Elmaci.s  (q.v.),  was  printed  by 
Erpenius  in  1623.  Ibn  Sa'id  al-Ua^bribi  (d.  673  or  635)  is  famous 
fw  his  histories,  but  still  more  for  his  geographical  writings.  The 
loted  theologian  Nawawi  (;.r. ;  d.  €76)-  wrote  a  Biographical 
Dictionary  of  tht  Worthies  of  the  First  Ages  of  Islam.  Pre-emiuent 
t3  a  biographer  is  Ibn  Khallikan  (d.  631),  whose  much-used  work 
»»s  partly  edited  bv  D«  Slana  and  completely  by  Wustenfeld  {1 S35- 
iO\  and  tnnsliWftf  into  English  by  the  former  scholar  (1  vols., 
1843-71). 

Abu  '1-Faraj,  better  tnown  as  Bar-Hebneus  (d.  6S5),  wrote 
besides  his  Sj-riac  Chronicle  an  Arabic  History  of  Dynasties  (ed. 
Tocock,  Oxford,  1 663).  Ibn  "Adhari's  History  of  Africa  and  Spain  has 
keen  published  bv  Dozy  (2  vols.,  Leyden,  1848-51),  and  the.Arart.is 
«f  Ihn  abi  Zar'  \>y  Tomberg  (1843)-  One  of  the  best  known  of 
Arab  writers  is  Abulfeda  (d.  732),  whose  AnnaUs  Muslemics  wcro 

Tablished  with  a  Latin  version  by  Reiske  (Copenhagen,  5  vols.  4to, 
789-94).  The  History  of  the  Time  before  Mohammed  has  been 
Siblished  by  Fleischer  (1S31).  Not  less  famous  is  the  great 
nri/clopBdia  of  his  contemporary  Nowairi  (d.  732),  bat  only  some 
extracts  are  as  yet  in  TF^i-  Ibn  Sayyid  an-Nds  (d.  734)  wrote  a 
foil  biography  of  the  Prophet ;  Mizzi  (d.  742)  an  extensive  work 
on  the  men  from  whom  traditions  have  been  derived.  We  still 
pcasess,  nearly  complete,  the  great  Chronicle  of  Dhahabi  (d.  748), 
A  very  learned  biographer  and  historian.  A  complete  edition  of 
the  geographical  and  historical  J/oso/ut  al-Absdr  of  Ibn  Fadlalldh 
(d.  719)  is  much  to  be  desired.  It  i»  known  at  present  by  extracts 
itren  by  Qnatremere  and  AmarL-  Ibn  al-Wanli  (d.  719  or  750), 
best  known  by  bis  Cosmography,  wrote  a  ChronidcWVick  has  been 
printed  in  Egypt.  Safadt  (d.  764)  got  a  great  name  as  a  bio- 
grapher. YaFi  (d.  768)  wrote  a  Chronicle  of  Islam  and  Lives  of 
SmAts.  Sobki  (d.  771)  published  Lives  of  the  Theologians  of  Oie 
Shiifi'iie  School.  -Of  Ibn  Kathir's  Bislonj  the  greatest  part  is  ex- 
tant. For  the  history  of  Spain  and  the  Maghrib  the  writings  of 
Ihn  al-Khatib  (d.  776)  are  of  acknowledged  value.  Another  history, 
«f  which  we  possess  the  greater  part,  is  the  large  work  of  Ibn  al- 
Forat  (d.  807).  Far  superior  to  all  these,  however,  is  the  famous 
Ibn  Khaldiin  (d-  808),  who  proves  himself  a  great  thinker  in  the 
Prolegomena  to  his  Universal  History.  Of  the  Prolegomena  there 
•rarln  edition  by  QnatremJre  (1858)  and  a  French  version  by  De 
Slftne  (1863).  The  latter  scholar  also  published  text  and  version 
of  the  History  of  the  Berbers,  and  there  is  a  poor  Egyptian  edition 
•of  the  whole  work.  Of  the  historical  works  of  the  famous  lexico- 
erar.her  Finizabadi  (d.  817)  only  a  Life  of  the  Prophet  remains. 
MaiPEIZI  (d.  845)  is  spoken  of  in  a  separate  article ;  Ibn  Hnjar 
(d.  852)  is  best  known  by  his  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Conlcm- 
poniries  of  the  Prophet,  now  in  course  of  publication  in  the  Billio- 
theea  Indica.  Ibn  'Arabshdh  {i,  854)  is  known  by  his  History  of 
Timiir  (Leeuwarden,  1767).  "Ainf  (d.  855)  wrote  a  General  History, 
*till  exUnt.  Abu  '1-JIahasin  (d.  874)  wrote  at  length  on  the  history 
(«f  Egypt ;  the  first  two  parts  have  been  published  by  JnjnboU. 
rriiigel  nas  published  Ibn  Kotlobogha's  Biographies  of  the  HanafUe 
[Jurists.  Ibn  Shihna  (d-  890)  wrou  a  History  of  Aleppo.  '  Of  Sa- 
khawi  we  possess  a  bibliographical  work  on  the  historians.  The 
poU-math  Soyuti  (d.  911)  contributed  a  History  of  the  Caliphs  and 
many  biographical  pieces.  Samhudf  s  History  of  Medina  is  known 
through  the  excerpts  of  Wiistenfeld  (1861).  Ibn  lyas  (d.  930) 
wrote  a  History  of  Egypt,  and  Diyarbefcri  (d.  966)  a  Life  of  Mo- 
liammed.  To  these  names  must  be  added  Mafkaki  (q.v.)  and 
Hajji  Khalifa,  the  famous  Turkish  bibliographer  (d,  1068),  who, 
•besides  his  Bibliographical  Lexicon  and  his  well-known  geography, 
the  Jihdn-numa,  wrote  histories,  mostly  in  Turkish.  He  made 
tise  of  European  sources,  and  with  him  Arabic  historiography  may 
■be  said  to  cease,  though  he  had  some  unimportant  successors. 

A  word  must  be  said  of  the  historical  romances,  the  beginning 
of  which  go  back  to  the  first  centuries  of  Islam.  The  interest  in 
All  that  concerned  Mohammed  and  in  the  allusions  of  the  Koran 
■to  old  prophets  and  races  led  many  professional  narrators  to  choose 
these  subjects  in  place  of  the  doughty  deeds  of  the  Bedouins, 
The  increasing  veneration  pejd  to  the  Prophet  and  love  for  the 
marvellous  soon  rave  rise  to  feblea  abonf  his  childhood,  his  visit 
to  heaven,  it,  which  have  found  their  way  even  into  sober  his- 
tories, iust  as  many  Jewi'ih  legends  told  by  the  converted  Jew 
jKa'b  al-Ahbar  and  by  Wahb  ibn  Monabbih,.and  many  lables 
•bout  the  old  princes  of  Yemen  told  by  'Abid,  are  taken  as  genuine 
listory  (see,  however,  Mas'ddi,  iv.  88  sg.).  A  fresh  field  for 
jomantic  legend  ivas  found  in  the  history  of  the  victories  of  Islam, 
^e  exploits  of  the  first  heroes  of  the  faitli,  the  fortunes  of 'Ali  and 
iis  honse.  Even  under  the  first  Omavyads  there  were  ia  the 
aio«<)ue8  of  most  great  cities  preachers  who  edified  the  people  by 
Atones  about  Islam  and  its  victories,  and  there  is  ample  evidence 
Ihat  these  men  did  not  stick  to  actual  fact  ShoT^a  said  of  them 
*|^hey  get  from  us  a  handbreadth  of  tradition  and  make  it  an  ell." 
Jihen.  too,  history  was  often  expressly  forged  for  party  endk 


The  people  swallowed  all  this,  and  so  a  romantic  tradition  sprang 
up  side  by  sid»with  the  historical,  and  had  a  literature  of  its  own, 
the  beginnings  of  which  must  be  placed  as  early  as  the  second 
century  of  the  Flight  The  oUest  samples  still  extant  are'  tlio 
fables  about  the  conquest  of  Spain  ascribed  to  Ibn  Habib  (d.  238)^: 
and  those  about  the  conquest  of  Ecj-pt  and  tlie'  West  by  Ibn 
'Abdalhakam  (d.  257).  lu  these  trutn  and  falsehood  arc  mingled,' 
as  Dozy  has  shown  in  his  Recherchcs.'  But  most  of  the  extant 
literature  of  this  kirid  is,  in  its  present  form,  much  more  recent: 
e.g..  the  Story xf  the  Death  of  Hosain  by  the  Pseudo-Abu  Jlikhnar 
(translated  by  Wustenfeld) ;  the  Conquest  of  Syria  by  Abii  IsmA'i'. 
al-Bai;ri  (edited  by  Nassau  Lees,  CalcutU.  1854,  and  discussed  bv 
De  Coeje,  1864);  the  Pseildo-Wakidi  (sco  Hamaker,  De  Erpng- 
natione  Memphidi^  et  Alexandria,  Leyden,  1835)  ;  the  Pscudo-Ibii 
Kotaiba  (see  DczjiUieckerches) ;  the  book  a.scribed  to  A'^am  Kufi, 
tc  Further  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  these  works  is  called  for,  but 
some  of  them  were  plainly  directed  to  stir  up  fresh  zeal  against  the 
Christians.  In  the  6th  century  some  of  these  books  had  gained  sc 
much  authority  that  they  were  used  as  sources,  and  tlms  many  un- 
truths crept  into  accepted  history.  (M.  J.  DE  G.)   ; 

TABERNACLE,  the  portable 'sanctuary  of  Israel  in  the 
wilderness  wanderings.  Critical  analysis  of  the  Penta- 
teuch (g.v.)  teaches  U3  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  the 
old  notices  of  the  tabernacle  contained  in  the  pre-Deutero- 
nomic  history  book  (JE)  and  the  account  given  by  the 
post-esilic  priestly  narrator.  The  latter  throws  back  intc 
the  time  of  Moics  the  whole  scheme  of  worship  and  ritual 
of  which  the  second  temple  was  the  centre,  and,  as  this 
scheme  necessarily  implies  the  existencfe  of  an  elaborate 
sanctuary  on  the  pattern  of  the  temple,  he  describes  a 
tabernacle  of  extraordinary  splendour  pitched  in  the  middla 
of  the  camp,  with  an  outer  and  inner  cliarfiber  and  a  court- 
yard, and  all  the  apparatus  of  sacrificial  and  atoning  ritual, 
just  as  in  the  temple,  only  constructed '6.fnx)ards,  posts, 
and  curtains  so  that  it  could  be  taken  down  and  moved 
from  place  to  place.  The  whole  description  is  ideal,  as 
appears  not  only  from  the  details  but  from  the  fact  that 
the  old  history  knows  nothing  of  such  a  structure?  The 
Chronicler  indeed,  who  had  before  him  the  Pentateuch  ir. 
its  present  shape,  assumes  that  after  the  Israelites  entered 
Canaan  the  tabernacle  continued  to  be  the  one  legitimatt 
place  of  sacrifice  until  it  was  superseded  by  Solomon'i 
temple,  and  represents  it  as  standing  at  Gibeon  in  the 
days  of  David  and  his  son  (1  Chron.  xxi.  29  sq. ;  2  Chron. 
i.  3).  But  the  book  of  Kings  knows  Gibeon  "^nly  as  "th& 
greatest  high  place"  (1  Kings  iii.  4).* 

Again,  the  tabernacle  of  the  Priestly  Code  is  pre-emi- 
nently the  sanctuary  of  the  ark,  bearing  the  name  miMan 
haedatk,  "  the  tabernacle  of  the  testimony,"  i.e.,  the  habit-- 
ation  in  which  lay  "the  ark  of  the  testimony"  or  chest 
containing  the  stones  on  which  the  decalogue  was  inscribed. 
But  between  Joshua's  days  and  the  building  of  the  temple 
the  ark  migrated  from  one  tent  or  habitation  to  another 
(2  Sam.  vii.  6 ;  1  Chron.  xvii.  5),  and  at  Shiloh  it  was 
housed  not  in  a  tent  but  in  a  temple  (1  Sam.  iii.  3,  15). 
And,  while  in  the  Priestly  Code  the  tabernacle  is  the  only 
legitimate  sanctuary  and  its  priests  are  the  only  legitimate 
priests,  the  whole  history  shows  that  no  such  restriction 
was  even  thought  of  till  after  the  time  of  the  prophet 
Isaiah. 

With  all  this  it  agrees  that  the  oldest  parts  of  the  Penta? 
teuch  speak  indeed  of  a  tabernacle,  but  one  of  a  quito 
different  kind.  The  tabernacle  of  the  Elohist  (for  of  tho 
two  narratives — Elohistic  and  Jahvistic — which  are  com.: 
bined  in  the  so-called  Jehovistic  history  only  the  former 
seems  to  mention  it)  is  a  tent  which  Moses  pitched  outside 
the  camp  (Exod.  xxxiii.  7  sq.),  and  where  Jehovah  was 
wont  to  reveal  Himself  to  him  in  the  pillar  of  cloud,  which 
descended  for  the  purpose  and  stood  at  the  door  (Num.  xi. 
25;  rii.  5;  xiv.  10);  it  is  therefore  called  okel  moid,  "the 


'  Two  passages  in  the  old  history,  which  comprises  the  books  of 
Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  speak  of  the  tabernacle  {OhH  mO'id) ;  but 
external  and  internal  evidence  show  them  to  be  interpolated  (1  SaSk 
JL  22;  1  Kings  nil.  4).  -    "" 


6 


TAB 


TAB 


tent  o!  trj-st."  No  description  of  it  is  given,  nor  ia  its 
origin  spoken  of,  but  something  of  the  old  narrative  has 
obviously  been  lost  before  Exod.  xxxiii.  7,  and  here  what 
is  lacking  was  probably  explained.  It  appears,  however, 
that  it  was  very  different  from  the  tabernacle  described  by 
the  priestly  narrator.  It  was  not  in  the  centre  of  the 
camp  but  stood  some  distance  outside  it,'  and  it  was  not 
the  seat  of  an  elaborate  organization  of  priests  and  guarded 
by  a  host  of  Levites,  but  had  a  single  minister  and  custo- 
dian, viz.,  Joshua,  who  was  not  a  Levite  at  all  but  Mosea'  i 
attendant  (Exod.  xxxiii.  11). 

The  existence  of  such  a  simple  tent  sanctuary  presents 
none  of  the  difficulties  that  beset  the  priestly  narrative. 
Portable  shrines  were  familiar  to  Semitic  antiquity,  and 
tents  as  sanctuaries  were  known  to  the  Israelites  in  much 
later  times  at  the  high  places  and.  in  connexion  with  irre- 
gular worships  (Ezek.  xvL  16,  "thou  didst  take  of  thy 
garments  and  madest  for  thyself  sewn  high  places,"  i.e., 
shrines  of  curtains  sewn  together ;  2  Kings  xxiiL  7,  where 
for  "  hangings  for  the  grove"  read  "  tents  for  the  Ashera"; 
comp.  Ho3.  ix.  6  and  Syriac  prakk,  Assyrian  para/cku,  a 
small  chapel  or  shrine,  from  the  same  root  as  Hebrew 
pdi-oketh,  the  vail  of  the  Holy  of  Holies).  Such  idolatrous 
tabernacles  were  probably  relics  of  the  usages  of  the 
nomadic  Semites,  and  it  is  only  natural  that  Israel  in  its 
wanderings  should  have  had  the  like.  And  it  is  note- 
worthy that  the  portable  chapels  of  the  heathen  Semites 
were  mainly  used  for  divination  (comp.  Joum.  of  PhiloL, 
xiii.  283  57),  just  as  the  Mosaic  tabernacle  is  described  by 
the  Elolu-.t  not  a->  a  place  of  sacrifice  (such  as  the  tabernacle 
of  the  Priestly  Code  is)  but  as  a  place  of  oracle. 

The  heathen  shrines  of  this  sort  contained  portable  idols 
or  baetylia  (see  Selden,  De  Diis  Syriis,  i.  6);  but  what  the 
Jlosaic  tabernacle  contained  is  not  expressly  told.  The 
ordinary  and  seemingly  the  easiest  assumption  is  that  the 
ark  stood  in  it,  and  Deut.  x.  1  sq.,  which  must  be  drawn 
from  the  lost  part  of  the  older  narrative  already  alluded 
to,  certainly  places  the  construction  of  the  ark,  to  contain 
the  tables  of  stone,  just  before  the  time  when  the  taber- 
nacle is  first  mentioned  by  the  Elohist.  But  neither  in 
Deuteronomy  nor  before  it  are  the  ark  and  the  tabernacle 
ever  mentioned  together,  and  of  the  two  old  narrators  it 
is  not  clear  that  the  Jahvist  ever  mentions  the  tabernacle 
or  the  Eloliibt  the  ark.  The  relation  between  the  two 
calls  for  further  investigation,  especially  as  the  ark  retains 
its  importance  after  the  occupation  of  Canaan,  while  the 
"  tent  of  tryst "  is  not  mentioned  after  the  time  of  Moses, 
who,  according  to  the  Elohist  (Exod.  xii),  enjoyed  at  it 
a.  privilege  of  direct  access  to  the  Deity  not  accorded  to 
later  prophets. 

;  TABERNACLES,  Feast  of.  The  original  character 
of  this  Hebrew  feast,  celebrated  at  the  close  of  the  agri- 
cultural year  as  a  thSnksgiving  for  the  produce  of  the 
seasoiis,  but  especially  for  the  vintage  and  olive  harvest, 
has  been  exfilained  in  Pentatedch,  vol.  xviii.  p.  '511. 
As  such  it  is  described  in  the  old  law  of  Exod.  xxiii.  16, 
under  the  name  of  "  the  feast  of  ingathering,  at  the  end 
of  the  year  "  (which,  in  the  old  Hebrew  calendar,  ran  from 
autumn  to  autumn),  "  when  thou  hast  gathered  in  thy 
labours  out  of  the  field  "  (comp.  Exod.  xxxiv.  22).  The 
same  feast  is  spoken  of  in  Deut.  xvi.  13  as  "the  feast  of 
booths"  (E.V.  "tabernacles,"  whence  the  current  name 
of  the  feast),  when  "  thou  hast  gathered  in  thy  corn  and 
wine"  from  the  corn-floor  and  the  wine-press.  No  ex- 
planation is  here  given  of  the  name  "feast  of  booths"; 
but  after  the  exile  it  was  understood  that  during  this 
feast  the  people  assembled  at  Jerusalem  were  to  live  in 


*  In  old  Israel  the  sanctuary,  after  the  people  had  settled  flown 
In  cities,  usually  stood  outside  the  town,  and  this  was  the  case  even 
«rith  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  when  it  was  first  built,  ^ 


booths  constructed  of  branches  of  trees  (Lev.  xxiii.  39  sq.  \ 
Neh.  viii.  14  sq.).  The  passage  in  Nehemiah,  describing 
the  celebration  of  the  feast  in  444  B.C.,  serves  as  a  com- 
mentary on  the  post-exilic  law  in  Leviticus,  and  from  it 
we  learn  that  the  use  of  booths  on  that  occasion  had  no 
foundation  in  traditional  usage,  but  was  based  directly  on 
the  law,  which  then  for  the  first  time  became  generally 
known.*  According  to  the  law  in  question,  the  boothi 
were  to  be  a  memorial  of  the  wilderness  wandering  (Lev. 
xxiii.  43),  but  of  this  there  is  no  hint  in  Deuteronomy ; 
and,  while  it  is  quite  in  the  style  of  the  later  law  to  attach 
a  new  historical  reference  to  an  old  name  like  "  feast  of 
booths,"  it  is  certain  from  Exodus  that  the  feast  had 
originally  agricultural  and  not  historical  significance.  As 
such  it  is  exactly  parallel  to  the  vintage  feasts  of  other 
ancient  nations,  e.g.,  to  the  Athenian  Oschophoria^  And, 
in  particular,  it  is  noteworthy  that  in  Judges  ix.  27  we 
find  a  vintage  feast  at  Shechem  among  the  Canaanites, 
from  whom  the  Israelites  first  learned  the  ways  of  agri- 
cultural life,  and  from  whom  so  much  of  the  popular 
religion  was  copied.  To  acts  of  worship  nominally  ad- 
dressed to  Jehovah,  but  really  to  the  Canatanite  Baalim, 
Hosea  expressly  reckons  rites  celebrated  "on  all  corn- 
floors" (ix.  1),  expressing  thanks  for  divine  gifts  of  com, 
wine,  and  oil  (iL  8  sq),  and  in  their  context  theSe  allusiona 
leave  no  doubt  that  the  prophet  refers,  in  part  af  least, 
to  autumn  feasts,  in  which  Jehovah  worship  was  mingled 
with  Canaanite  elements  (comp.  Wellhausen,  Prol.  zur 
Gesch.  Jsr.,  cap.  3,  ii.;  Eng.  trans.,  p.  92  sq  ).  These  feasta 
were  local  in  character,  but  in  northern  Israel  there  was  4 
great  autumn  feast  at  the  royal  sanctuary  at  Bethel  (1 
Kings  xii.  33),  as  even  in  the  days  of  Solomon  there  was 
such  a  feast  at  Jerusalem  (1  Kings  viii.  2).  Li  the  nature 
of  things  the  local  feasts  were  the  older,  and  it  was  the 
fame  of  great  shrines  that  gradually  tended  to  dra'w 
worshippers  from  a  distance  to  temples  like  those  of 
Jerusalem  and  Bethel.  Finally,  the  Deuteronomic  law  of 
the  one  sanctuary  and  the  course  of  events  which  made 
that  law  the  practical  rule  of  the  remnant  of  Israel  put 
an  end  to  all  local  religious  feasts,  but  at  the  same  time 
obscured  the  old  significance  of  the  festal  cycle,  and  made 
room  for  the  historical  interpretation  of  the  celebrations, 
now  concentrated  at  the  temple,  which  prevailed  among 
the  later  Jews  (comp.  P.assover  and  Pentecost).  Ia 
their  later  form  all  the  yearly  feasts  have  exact  times  and 
rules.  In  Deuteronomy  the  autunin  feast  is  not  yet  tied 
to  a  day — it  could  hardly  be  so  while  it  was  still  essentially 
a  harvest  thanksgiving — but  in  the  priestly  legislation  it 
is  fixed  to  commence  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  seventh 
month  (Lev.  xxiii.  34).  In  Deuteronomy  the  feast  lasta 
seven  days ;  Lev.  x.\iii.  36  adds  an  eighth,  and  this  day 
ultimately  became  the  most  important  (John  vii.  37). 

If  we  accept  the  conclusion  th.at  the  autumn  festival  was  origin- 
ally a  vintage  feast  celobrated  in  local  sanctuaries,  tlie  name 
"feast  of  booths"  admits  of  a  natural  explanation  The  Canaan- 
ite feast  at  Shechem  and  the  Hebrew  feast  at  Shiloh  (Judges  \%\.' 
21)  were  partly  celebrated  abroad  in  the  vineyards,  and  Hosea  also 
knows  such  feasts  on  the  open  corn  floors.  That  it  was  usual  to 
go  forth  and  live  in  booths  dunng  the  vintage  may  be  concluded 
from  Isik  i.  8  ;  the  same  practice  still  prevails  at  Hebron  {Robinson, 
Bibl.  Res,  ii  81)  If  it  was  these  booths  erected  among  the  vine- 
yards that  originally  gave  their  name  to  the  feast,  we  can  under- 
stand how  the  bottk  of  Nehemiah  recognizes  the  erection  of  boolha 
within  the  city  of  Jerusalem  as  an  innovation.  No  doubt  at  all 
feasts  where  there 'was  a  great  concourse  of  visitors  many  would  bo 
compelled  to  live  in  tents  ,  this  seems  to  have  been  the  case  evea 
in  old  Israel  {Hos.  xii.  91  But  that  is  quite  a  different  thing 
from  the  later  observance,  in  which  booths  or  bowers  had  to  bo 
made  and  used  even  by  those  who  had  houses  of  their  own. 

^  The  expression  that  the  Israelites  had  not  done  so  since  the  dayi 
of  Joshua  means  that  there  was  no  recollection  oi  their  having  evef 
done  so  ;  for  of  coarse  it  is  assumed  that  Joshua  cArhed  out  evei^ 
direction  of  the  law. 


TABLES 


■? 


TABLES,  Mathehatical.  In  any  table  the  results 
tabulated  are  termed  the  "  tabular  results  "  or  "  respond- 
ents," and  the  corresponding  numbers  by  which  the  table  is 
entered  are  termed  the  "arguments."  A  table  is  said  to  be 
of  single  or  double  entry  according  as  thefe  are  one  or  two 
arguments.  For  exr  jple,  a  table  of  logarithms  is  a  table 
of  single  entry,  the  .umbers  being  the  arguments  and  the 
logariflims  the  tabular  results ;  an  ordinary  multiplication 
table  is  a  table  of  double  entry,  giving  xy  as  tabular  result 
for  X  and  y  as  arguments.  The  intrinsic  value  of  a  table 
v«]iM  of  may  be  estimated  by  the  actual  amount  of  time  saved  by 
toblM,^  consulting  it ;  for  example,  a  table  of  square  roots  to  ten 
decimals  is  more  valuable  than  a  table  of  squares,  as  the 
extraction  of  the  root  would  occupy  more  time  than  the 
multiplication  of  the  number  by  itself.  The  value  of  a 
(table  does  not  depend  upon  the  difficulty  of  calculating  it; 
for,  once  made,  it  is  made  for  ever,  and  as  far  as  the  user 
is  concerned  the  amount  of  labour  devoted  to  its  original 
construction  is  immaterial.  In  some  tables  the  labour  re- 
quired in  the  construction  is  the  same  as  if  all  the  tabular 
results  had  been  calculated  separately;  but  in  the  majority 
of  instances  a  table  can  be  formed  by  expeditious  methods 
which  are  inapplicable  to  the  calculation  of  an  individual 
result.  This  is  the  case  with  tables  of  a  coTitinuous  quan- 
tity, which  may  frequently  be  constructed  by  differences. 
The  most  striking  instance  perhaps  is  afforded  by  a  factor 
table  or  a  table  of  primes ;  for,  if  it  is  required  to  deter- 
mine whether  a  given  number  is  prime  or  not,  the  only 
available  method  (in  the  absence  of  tables)  is  to  divide  it 
by  every  prime  less  than  its  square  root  or  until  one  is 
found  that  divides  it  without  remainder.  But  to  form  a 
table  of  prime  numbers  the  process  is  theoretically  simple 
and  rapid,  for  we  have  only  to  range  all  tie  numbers  in  a 
line  and  strike  out  every  second  beginning  from  two,  ever)' 
third  beginning  from  three,  and  so  on,  those  that  remain 
being  primes.  Even  when  the  tabular  results  are  con- 
structed separately,  the  method  of  differences  or  other 
methods  connecting  together  different  tabular  results  may 
afford  valuable  verifications.  By  having  recourse  to  tables 
not  only  does  the  computer  save  time  and  labour,  but  he 
also  obtains  the  certainty  of  accuracy  ;  in  fact,  even  when 
the  tabular  results  are  so  easy  to  calculate  that  no  time  or 
mental  effort  would  be  saved  by  the  use  of  a  table,  the 
certainty  of  accuracy  might  make  it  advantageous  to 
employ  it. 

The  invention  of  logarithms  in  1614,  followed  immedi- 
ately by  the  calculation  of  logarithm!'  tables,  revolutionized 
all  the  methods  of  calculation  ;  and  the  original  work  per- 
formed by  Briggs  and  Vlacq  in  calculating  logarithms  260 
years  ago  has  in  effect  formed  a  portion  of  every  arith- 
metical operation  that  has  since  been  carried  out  by  means 
of  logarithms.  And  not  only  has  an  incredible  amount  of 
labour  been  saved '  but  a  vast  number  of  calculations  and 
researches  have  been  rendered  practicable  which  otherwise 
would  have  tieen  quite  beyond  human  reach.  The 
mathematical  process  that  undsrlies  the  tabular  method  of 
obtaining  a  result  may  be  indirect  and  complicated ;  for 
example,  the  logarithmic  method  would  be  quite  unsuitable 
for  the  multiplication  of  two  numbers  if  the  logarithms 
had  to  be  calculated  specially  for  the  purpose  and  were 
not  already  tabulated  for  use.  The  arrangement  of  a 
table  on  the  page  and  all  typographical  details — such  as 
the  shape  of  the  figures,  their  spacing,  the  thickness  and 
placing  of  the  ndes,  the  colour  and  quality  of  the  paper, 
<tc. — are  of  the  highest  importance,  as  the  computer  has 


'  R«ferrmg  to  factor  tables,  Lambert  wrote  {SuppUmenla  Tatmlarum, 
1798,  p.  xr.):  "Universalis  finis  talium  tabojarum  est  ut  semel  pro 
8emp«  compotetur  quod  saepius  de  novo  compnteodum  foret,  et  ut 
pro  Omni  caau  coraputetur  quod  in  futnrum  pro  quovis  caaa  compu- 
t&tum  desiderabitur."    This  applies  to  all  tables. 


to  spend  hours  with  his  eyes  fixed  upon  the  book ;  and 
the  efforts  of  eye  and  brain  required  in  finding  the  right 
numbers  amidst  a  mass  of  figures  on  a  page  and  in  taking 
them  out  accurately,  when  the  computer  is  tirecl  as  well  as 
when  he  is  fresh,  are  far  more  trying  than  the  mechanical 
action  of  simple  reading.  Moreover,  the  trouble  required 
by  the  computer  to  learn  the  use  of  a  table  need  scarcely 
be  considered ;  the  important  matter  is  the  time  and 
labour  saved  by  it  after  he  has  learned  its  use.  Tables 
are,  as  a  rule,  intended  for  professional  and  not  amateur 
use  ;  and  it  is  of  little  moment  whether  the  user  who  is 
unfamiliar  with  a  table  has  to  spend  ten  seconds  or  a 
minute  in  obtaining  an  isolated  result,  provided  it  can  be 
used  rapidly  and  without  risk  of  error  by  a  skilled  computer. 

In  the  following  descriptions  of  tables  an  attempt  is 
made  to  give  an  account  of  all  those  that  a  computer  of 
the  present  day  is  likely  to  use  in  carrying  out  arithmet- 
ical calculations.  Tables  of  merely  bibliographical  or 
historical  interest  are  not  regarded  as  coming  within  the 
scope  of  this  article,  although  for  special  reasons  such 
tables  are  briefly  noticed  in  some  cases.  Tables  relating 
to  ordinary  arithmetical  operations  are  first  described,  and 
afterwards  an  account  is  given  of  the  most  useful  and 
least  technical  of  the  more  strictly  mathematical  tables, 
such  as  factorials,  gamma  functions,  integrals,  Bessel's 
functions,  kc.  It  is  difficult  to  classify  the  tables  de- 
scribed in  a  perfectly  satisfactory  manner  without  prolixity, 
as  many  collections  contain  valuable  sets  belonging  to  a 
variety  of  classes.  Nearly  all  modern  tables  are  stereo- 
typed, and  in  giving  their  titles  the  accompanying  date  is 
either  that  of  the  original  stereotyping  or  of  the  tirage 
in  question.  In  tables  that  have  passed  through  many 
editions  the  date  given  is  that  of  the  edition  described.  A 
much  fuller  account  of  general  tables  published  previously 
to  1872,  by  the  present  writer,  is  contained  in  the  British 
Association  Report  for  1873,  pp.  1-175;  and  to  this  the 
reader  is  referred. 

Tables  of  Divisors  (Factor  Tables)  and  Tables  of  Primes. — Tlie  DivlBon 
existing  factor  tables  extend  to  9,000,000.  In  ISU  Chemac  rub-  and 
lished  at  Deventc-  his  Cribrujn  ArUhmctictivi,  which  gives  all  the  primes 
prime  divisors  of  every  rumber  not  divisible  by  2.  3,  or  5  up  to 
1,020,000.  In  1814-17  Burckhardt  published  at  Paris  his  Table) 
des  Vivisciirs,  giving  tne  least  divisor  of  every  number  nut  divisible 
by  2,  3,  or  5  up  to  ',036,000.  The  second  milhon  was  issued  in 
1814,  the  third  in  1816,  and  t'lc  first  in  1817.  The  corresponding 
tables  for  the  seventh  (in  1862),  ciL'hth  (1863),  and  ninth  (1365)  mil- 
lions were  calculated  by  Dase  and  issued  at  Hamburg.  Dase  «lied 
suddenly  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  and  it  was  completed  by 
Rbsenberg.  Case's  cnlculation  was  performed  at  the  instigation 
of  Gauss,  and  he  began  at  6,000,000  because  the  Berlin  Academy 
was  in  possession  of  a  manuscript  presented  by  Crelle  extending 
Burckhardt's  tables  from  3,000,000  to  6,000,000.  This  manuscript, 
not  having  been  published  by  1877,  was  found  on  examination 
to  be  so  inaccurate  that  the  publication  was  not  desirable,  and 
accordingly  the  three  intervening  millions  were  calculated  and 
published  by  James  Glaisher,  the  Factor  Table  for  the  Fourth 
Million  appearing  at  Loiidon  in  1879,  and  those  for  the  Bfth 
and  sixth  millions  in  1880  and  1883  respectively  (all  three  mil- 
lions stereotyped).  The  tenth  million,  though  calculated  by  Dase 
and  Rosenberg,  has  not  been  published.  It  is  in  the  possession  of 
the  Berlin  Academy,  having  been  presented  in  1878.  The  nine 
qmrto  vo]nmes  (Tables  des  Diviscurs,  Paris,  1814-17;  Factor  Tables, 
London,  1879-83;  Faetoren-Tafeln,  Hamburg,  1862-65)  thus  form 
one  uniform  table,  giving  the  least  divisor  of  every  number  not 
divisible  bv  2,  3,  or  5,  from  unity  to  nine  millions.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  results  on  the  page,  which  is  due  to  t^urckhanit, 
is  admirable  for  its  clearness  and  condensation,  the  least  factors 
for  9000  numbers  being  given  on  each  page.  The  tabular  portion 
of  each  million  occupies  112  pages.  The  tirst  three  millions  were 
issued  separately,  and  also  bound  in  one  volume,  but  the  other 
six  millions  are  all  separate.  Burckhardt  began  with  the  second 
million  instead  of  the  first,  as  Chernac's  factor  table  for  the  first 
million  was  already  in  existence.  Burckhardt's  first  million  does 
not  supersede  Chernac's,  as  the  latter  gives  all  the  prime  divisors 
of  numbers  not  divisible  by  2,  3,  or  5  up  to  1,020.000.  It  occupies 
1020  pages,  and  Burckhardt  found  It  very  accurate  ;  he  detected 
only  tnirty-eight  errors,  of  which  nine  were  due  to  the  author,  the 
remaining  twenty-nine  having  been  caused  by  the  slipping  of  type 


e 


TABLES 


[itATHSMATiaU^ 


e«^i  i„lo?h':xUnt  and  ace«5.cy  any  other.^the  ^me^md 
the  largest  of  which  only  reaches  408,000.     itus  is  lue  ' 

stroyed.    Vega (/o«"«.  \'^" S"  102,000,  foUowed  by  a 

!of  numbers  not  divisible  by  2.  f  >  ";»  "P  "  ihe  e^^  ier  editions  of 
list  of  primes  from  102,000  to  400  313     la  the  <^^^'=^;'"    j^^bt 

:?o='^%":wSo:Tmo^^ 

Ttbiifoi^^r&i^^^^^^ 

every  number  up  'o'l°>°°°.'"*°„r«  {07    'This  table  is  unique 
spo/ding  to  «32  .ve  liave  given  2  -^J^^  Jil^'^T primes  up' to 

of  1840.  •  In  Kecss  qvc';P^'«  (18  9).Jrti;'^i  Jn  decades.    The 

edition,  1864),  wnicn  P"'?  i"  ,,  ,  -jjtinles  of  any  one  number 
1000  X  1000,  so  arranged  *a*ai'*M™r'J'i^on  was  published  in 
appear  on  t^e  same  page     Th^ong^ledmoa^^^^    p^^  ^^^^^^ 

■1820  and  ^°"'f ,t^  °[  '"  "nvenient  foUo  volume  of  450  pages 

|.^^;mS^o?i:^^™4^g?£feKSS 
,f^:^S«^"|fe.  e^  th^  jrtruui  Ve-i^n 


/v.„„»»   isqs-i  wHch  extends  to  40,000.     In  Merpaut's  woA  th» 

'^  ?.?=;,  Voisin    Tabl^  del  hhdliplicalions,  ou  logantJma  de$ 


as  weU  as  the  most  extensive,  is  '^=■"°".^%'t"'~  VT",  Jt ;  ,     ■" 
Society.  I^ndon,  from  the  stereotyped, ^t^o^l8«)^  , 


-,i„  the  Di"ltipHca"d  being  five  insteadof  seven      W  1      ^^^^y^^^ 

Tot/,  "-/.^f '(f  li^^t  S'^v  n  ty  a7oubIe  arrange'ment  The 
number  by  a  single  Uigit  is  fe"'-"  7,  .  -  Rretschncider  s,  as  also 
Icxtcnt  of  .the  Ubie  .   he  --;„„=^„*,^„f  i^faiffcrenrLaund/^  table 

■^  '■^'  Jl^ont'lO  pages  anTCichneider's  99  pages.  Among 
.occupying  ""'y /"  r^^c  ;  a  ^^^^^  £i„ma;«-,«  to>i  Ew^ 

■earlier  works  may  bo  noticca  uru^o  ,  products  up  to 

Ms  Hunderuauscnd  Berlin,  l<99^-ataDie^oj  j„  ioo,000, 
!ex  10,000.  The  -thorVf  n  r-%t^^^^^^^  ,„  ^,^3 'book 
^b"L"L'."^c»dc"nLtlon'or  d^  ble  arnfngement,  the  pages  are 
/very  large,  each  <:°"'^'"J.fSoTmay  be  performed  by  means  of 
&T  .  S^gfeTntTyt'lkKprydi^f^  by  the  formula  ^ 

rThas..tKataWeofquarter.squaxeswe^^^^^^^^^ 

■two  numbers  by  ^"""i^^.?  ]  '3\'i;^''''TlXgest  table  of  quarter- 
Ifrom  tl'e  q-;arter.squa,e  of  thorsum.     1^       g  ^^^  ^^^^^^^^        ,^ 

iJoveSur'^ISVfl.  f"r  >  netiM  of  thia  book.  ^ 


Societv  London,  from  the  stereoryiHju  iiuic^  >..•-.-/.  ■■"—  °nn„ 
sqTarel^  cubes,  sauare  rooU,  cube  '?o^' ^J^  P'Z^' ^.Xr 
Tho  Urffest  table  of  squares  and    cub»s  is   K.UI1K,    .'«'«"  «fr 
Q^iaf^Li^ii*-^"''-  (Uipsie,.1848),  which  gives  bo'h  as  far 
^100  000      Two  early  tables  also  give  squares  as  far  as  100.000, 

numben     Barlow,  iMh^tical  Toilc.  (original  editmn.  I^nd°n. 
?s?l?  mVea  the  fii4t  ten  powei-s  of  the  first  hundred  nutnbeis.    The 

1869^andYmi  r^°«(.zl^  Logariamen  (I844),give  squares   of, 

^5i:^-i^9IS=pS^. 

5;^.^lt^l  A^M^srta^ni^^i^y^-  Of  ^  Cr., 
(1853),givespowereof2upto2    •  x>e  Natura  rf  PrscZaro  Tri- -_ 

^ir;5ns"^e^nKnrbe^U7=rtolo.OOO.Jhetable^ 
""Z^r4^%  r^'e.g™.cipro^^^^^^ 

(London,  1865).     -l"^  ^"M  ^;';°_g°        logarithms,  difference* 
is  arranged  like  a  .*fbl«  "^  '^^^°  "nStg  re?inrocal  of  a  number 

t\STulH°pl^'ofTJ;\^i^^^^^^^^^ 

are  not  common.  ,  jr  j„^,  rrirj-tirms as  Decimals.— TMea'^'oig'' 

TahWor  the  Exprcsstmof  Vulgar  FyMl-^a^JJCcx^  fractions 

nators.  The  most  extensive  an4  ^abo^j^^^°'^i,*rC«.^^7y  of 
published  are  contained  in  H?ni-y-^<^^^^  '  ^  Tabular  Scries  of 
\abUs  of  all  Decimal  QuotiefiT^^on^^l^^^^^ 

surpass  1000.    The  argurnents  are  not  amnged  atxorm^^ 
numerators  or  d«"<''";°=''°f^i\,.?^°\='3y  ^frSse  frTm  -001  (  =  r^| 
that  the  tabuUr  -^.^f  t^^J^'^'Jv^ ''Sded  the  table  to  include  all 
to  -09989909    =,Vt)-   The  ^"'■1'"  ""^ffiT^?.'  ,„      each  less  than 
fractions  whose  ""■°="'»'  ^"^jf^ri  T^^VaW^irci^  (1823) 

r.^^lfthe%STfK^?Sn^^^^^^^^^ 

,■„  .hich  the  fraction  f3  can  circulate.  :,  The  Uble  occupi.  ^ 
pages,  some  of  the  periods  being  of  cou^e  veryj^.n(,^^^^^^^^^ 

S  contains  1020  fibres  JJ^"^^^^^ 

complete  penods  of  the  r«<='P'°""?  "         tv„y  ^re  near W  unique  of 
Goodwin's  tables  are  very  scarce,  but  as  t^ey^are        ^      h^  ^^^     , 
their  kind  they  deserve  special  notice       A  ^cond^  ^^  ^^^.^  ^^ 

Pird  Centenary  w^as  issued  »"  l^, '."''I^Xk  60  and  the  denomk     ■" 
^Tabular  Scries,  the  numerator jiotexceeaing  ou  _ 


llATSntATICAL.] 


TABLES 


9 


-  Mtor  not  exceeding  100.     A  poathumoiu  t&blo  of  Otau'a,  entitled 
.•'Tafel  zur  Verwandlung  gtjmeiner  Bruche  mit  Nennern  aus  dem 
cnteD  Tauiend  in  Decinialoruche,"  occurs  in  voLiL  pp.  412-434  of 
hia  OttamwulU  iVerke  (Gottmeen,  1863),  and  reaemblea  Ooodwyn's 
'Table  of  Cirda.     Ou  this  subject  aee  a  paper  "On  Circulating 
Decimals,  with  special  reference   to  Heni^  Ooodwyn's   TabU   qf 
Circlet  and   Tatnttar  Scries  of  Decimal  Quotients,"  in  Camb.  Phil. 
Proc,  vol.  ill.  (1878),  pp.  185-206,  where  is  also  given  a  table  of  the 
periods  of  fractions  correspomling  to  denominators  prime  to  10 
from  1  to  1024  obtained  by  counting  from  Ooodwyn's  table.     See 
>  also  the  section  on  "CirvuLiting  Decimals,"  p.  13  below. 
Seiagesi-      Sexagesimal  ami  Sexcentenary  Tables. — Originolly  all  calculations 
mal  and   were  sexagesimal  ;  and  the  relics  of  the  system  still  exist  in  the 
Mxcen-     division  of  the  de^rree  into  60  minutes  and  the  minute  into  60 
tenary.     seconds.     To  facilitate  interpolation,  therefore,  in  trigonometrical 
^^        and  other  tables  the  following  large  sexagesimal  tables  were  con- 
structed.    John  Bernoulli,  A  SejxeTiUnary  TabU  (London,  1779), 
gives  at  once  the  fourth  term  of  any  proportion  of  which  the  first 
term  is  600*  and  each  of  the  other  two  is  less  than  600"  ;  the 
table  is  of  double  entry,  and  may  be  more  fully  described  as  giving 

the  value  of  „-^  correct  to  tenths  of  a  second,  x  and  y  each  con- 

taining  a  number  of  seconds  less  than  600.  Michael  Taylor,  A  Sexa- 
gesimal Table  (London,  1780),  exhibits  at  sight  the  fourth  term  of 
any  proportion  where  the  first  term  is  60  minutes,  the  second  any 
iiumoer  of  minutes  less  than  60,  and  the  third  any  number  of 
'minuted  and  seconds  under  60  minutes  ;  there  is  also  another  tablo 
in  which  the  third  term  is  any  absolute  number  under  1000.  Not 
much  use  seems  to  have  been  made  of  these  tables,  both  of  which 
were  published  by  the  Commissioners  of  Longitude.  Small  tables 
for  the  conversion  of  sexagesimals  into  centesimals  and  vice  versa 
.^are  given  in  a  few  collections,  such  as  Hiilase's  edition  of  Vega. 
Trlgono-'.  TrigonoTneirical  Tables  {Xaiural}. — Peter  Apian  published  inl533 
;aK°.r1cal.  a  table  of  sines  with  the  radius  divided  decimally.  The  first 
■^j  complete  canon  giving  all  the  six  ratios  of  the  sides  of  a  right-angled 
triangle  is  due  to  Rhetic^is  (1551),  who  also  introduced  the  semi- 
quadrantal  arrangement.  Kheticus's  canon  was  calculated  for 
every  ten  minutes  to  7  places,  and  Vieta  extended  it  to  every 
minute  (1579).  In  1554  Reinhold  published  a  table  of  tangents  to 
every  minute.  The  first  complete  canon  published  in  England  was 
by  Blunedvilc  (1594),  although  a  table  oi  sines  had  appeared  four 
years  earlier.  Regiomontanus  called  his  table  of  tangents  (or  rather 
coi&ngeQls)  tabula  /(Ecunda  on  account  of  its  great  use;  and  till 
(the  introduction  of  the  word  "tangent"  by  Finck  {GcumctritB 
Rotundi  Libri  XIV.,  Basel,  1583)  a  table  of  tangents  was  called  a 
,  tabula  facuiida  OT canon /(scundus.  Besides  "  tangent,"  Finck  also 
introduced  the  word  "secant,"  the  table  of  secants  having  pre- 
'  viously  been  called  tabula  bencjica  by  Maurolycus  (1558)  and  tabula 
fcBCundissiTna  by  Vieta. 

!  By  far  the  greatest  computer  of  pure  trigonometrical  tables  is 
George  Joachim  Rheticus,  whose  worK  Las  never  been  superseded. 
His  celebrated  ten-decimal  canon,  the  Opus  Palalinum,  was  pub- 
;lished  by  Valentine  Otho  at  Neustadt  in  1596,  and  in  1613  hia 
fifteen-decimal  table  of  sines  by  Pitiscus  »t  Frankfort  under  tho 
title  Thesaurus  Malhematicus.  The  Opus  Palalinum  contains  a 
complete  ten-decimal  trigonometrical  canon  for  every  ten  seconds 
'o(  the  quadrant,  semiuu  ad  ran  tally  arranged,  with  differences  for 
all  the  tabular  results  ttroughout.  Sines,  cosines,  and  secants  are 
^iven  on  the  left-hand  pages  in  columns  headed  respectively 
i.'.'PerpenJiculum,"  "Basis,"  "H)-potenusa,"  and  on  the  right-hand 
appear  tangents,  cosecants,  and  cotangents  in  columns  headed 
respectively  "  Perpendiculum,"  " Hypotenusa,"  "Basis."  At  his 
dea:h  Rheticus  left  the  canon  nearly  complete,  and  the  trigonometry 
(was  finished  and  the  whole  edited  by  Valentine  Otho ;  it  was  named 
jin  honour  of  the  electorpalatine  Frederick  IV.,  who  bore  the  ex- 

fase  of  publication.  The  Thesaurus  of  1613  gives  natural  sines 
•  every  ten  seconds  throughout  tho  quadrant,  to  15  places,  semi- 
adrantally  arranged,  with  first,  second,  and  third  differences, 
'natural  sines  are  also  given  for  every  second  from  0°to  l°and  from 
89°  to  90°,  to  15  places,  with  first  and  second  differences.  The 
rescue  of  the  manuscript  of  this  work  by  Pitiscus  forms  a  striking 
episode  in  the  history  of  mathematical  tables.  The  alterations  and " 
Wmtndations  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  corrected  edition  of  the  Opus 
Palalmum  were  made  by  Pitiscus,  who  had  his  suspicions  that 
Rheticus  had  himself  calculated  a  ten-second  table  of  sines  to  15 
decimal  places ;  but  it  could  not  be  found.  Eventually  the  lost 
canon  was  discovered  amongst  the  papers  of  Rheticus,  which  had 
twssed  Trom  Otho  to  James  Christmann  on  the  death  of  the  former. 
Aratongst  these  Pitiscus  found  (1)  the  ten-second  table  of  sines  to 
15  places,  with  first,  second,  and  third  differences  (printed  in  the 
ITtesaurus) ;  (2)  sines  for  every  second  of  the  first  and  last  degrees  of 
,the  quadrant,  also  to  15  places,  with  first  and  second  differences  ; 
(3)  the'comiaencement  of^  a  canon  of  tangents  and  seiants,  to  the 
same  numbei  of  decimal  places,  for  every  ten  seconds,  with  first  and 
second  diffcreoceg  ;  (4)  a  complete  minute  canon  of  sines,  tangents, 
and  secants,  also  to  16  decimal  places.  These  tables  taken  in 
connexion  with_the_OJ?i«  £aUuinum  give  on  idea  of  the  enonnona 


labours  undertaken  by  Rheticus  :  his  tables  not  only  remain  toi 
this  day  tbe  ultimate  authorities  but  formed  the  data  whereby  Vlacq' 
calculated  his  logarithmic  canon.  Pitiscus  says  that  for  twelvo' 
years  Rheticus  constantly  had  computers  at  work.  ^ 

A  history  of  trigonometrical  tables  by  lliitton  was  prefixed  to 
all  the  early  editions  of  his  Tables  of  Luganthins,  and  forms  Tract' 
xix.  of  his  MalAejimtual  Tracts,  vol.  i.  iip.  278-300,  1812.  A  good 
deal  of  bibliographical  information  abuut  tho  Opus  Palalinum 
and  earlier  tiigoiiouictrical  tables  is  given  in  Lie  Morgan's  articlo 
"Tables"  in  the  English  Vyclupxdta.  The  invention  of  lognruhmt 
the  year  after  the.  publication  of  Kheticus's  volume  l>y  Pitiscuy 
changed  all  the  methods  of  calculation  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  not^" 
that  Napier's  original  tablo  of  1614  was  a  logarilhmic  caiiun  of  sine* 
and  not  a  table  of  the  logantlims  of  numbers.  The  Iug.iritli';iic; 
canon  at  once  superseded  the  natural  canon;  and  sIiilc  I'ltis.-us's 
time  DO  really  extensive  table  of  pure  trigonometrical  fun^  tio'is  hai 
appeared.  In  recent  years  tho  employment  of  the  ariihrnometer 
of  Thomas  de  Colmar  has  revived  the  use  of  tables  of  natural 
trigonometrical  functions,  it  being  found  convenient  for  some 
purposes  to  employ  an  arithmometer  and  a  natural  canon  instead 
of  a  logarithmic  canon.  Junge's  Tiifcl  der  wirklichen  Lanye  der 
Sinus  und  Cosinns  (Leipsic,  1864)  was  published  with  tins  obioct,! 
It  gives  natural  sines  and  cosines  for  every  ten  seconds  of*^  the 
quadrant  to  6  places.  F.  M.  Clouth,  Tables  pour  le  Calcul  der 
Coordonnics  G(mioin4lriques  (Mainz,  n.d.),  gives  natural  sines  ano 
cosines  (to  6  places)  and  their  first  nine  multiples  (to  4  [ilaces)  for, 
every  centesimal  minute  of  tho  quadrant.  Talks  of  natural  func-' 
tions  occur  in  many  collections,  the  natural  and  logarithmic  value* 
being  sometimes  given  ou  opposite  pages,  sometimes  side  by  sido 
on  the  same  page. 

The  following  works  contain  tables  of  trigonometrical  functioni 
other  than  sines,  cosines,  and  tangents.     Pasquich,  Tahulte  Log-'. 
arithmico-Trig(/nometricselXe\'^s,\<:,  1817),  contains  a  table  of  sin'a:^i 
cos-x,  tan^s,  cot-i  from  x=  1    to  45°  at  intervals  of  1'  to  5  places.', 
Andrew,  Astronomical  and  Kautical  Tables  (London,   1S05),  con.' 
tains  a  table  of  "squares  of  natuial  semichords,"  i.e.,  of  sin' Jj^ 
from  1  =  0°  to  120°  at  intervals  of  10"  to  7  places.     This  table  has' 
recently  been  greatly  extended  by  Major-Gcneral  Hannyngton  if- 
his  Haversincs,  Natural  and  Logarithmic,  used  in  computing  Lunat 
Distances  for  the  Nautical  Almanac  (London,  1876).     The  nam," 
"haversine,"  now  frequently  used  in  works  upon  navigation,  is  a: 
abbreviation  of  "half  versed  sine";  viz.,  the  haversine  of  J  is  equ»    ' 
to  J(l-cosr),  that  is,  to  sin-Ja;.      The  table  gives  logaritlimi 
haversincs  lor  every  15"  from  0°  to  180°,  and  natural  haversincs  fu 
every  10"  from  0°  to  180°,  to  7  places,  except  near  the  beginnin/ 
where  tho  logarithms  arc  given  to  only  5  or  6  pl.ices.     The  wor 
itself  oecupies  327  folio  pages,  and  was  suggested  by  Andrew's.  ■ 
copy  of  which  by  chance  fell  into  Hannyngton's  hands.     Hali.    . 
nyngton  recomputed   the   whole  of  it   by   a  partly   mechanics' 
metncKl,  a  combination  of  two  arithmometere   being  emfiloycii 
A  table  of  haversincs  is  useful  for  the  solution  of  siiheiical  triangle 
when  two  sides  and  the  included  angle  ate  given,  and  in  manj 
other  problems   in   spherical    trigonometry.      Andrew's   origins'   ' 
tablo  seems  to  have  attracted  veiy  little  notice.     Hannyngton''  • 
was  printed,  on  the   recommendation   of  the   superintendent   o  - 
the  Nautical  Almanac  oflice,  at  the  public  cost.     Before  the  car  '  ' 
culation   of  Hannyngton's   table   Farley's  Natural   Versed  Sin* 
(London,  1856)  was  used  in  the  Nautical  Almanac  office  in  coi;. 
puting  lunar  distances.     This  fine  table  contains  natural  versir 
sines  from  0°  to  125°  at  intervals  of  10"  to  7  places,  with  proportione-' 
parts,  and -kg  versed  sines  from  0°  to  135   at  intervals  of  15"  to.-  ' 
places.     The  arguments  are  also  given  in  time.     The  manuscri:- 
was  used  in  the  office  for  twenty-five  years  before  it  was  printeo 
Traverse  tables,  which  occur  in   most  collectioui  of  navigativ  ■ 
tables,  contain  multiples  of  sines  and  cosines. 

Common  or  Briggian  Logarithms  of  Numbers   and    TngoriC'  Oomtnon 
metrical  Ratios.  — ?or  an  account  of  the  invention  and  history  of  or  Bng- 
logarithms,  see  Logarithms  (voL  xiv.  p.  773)  and  Napier.     The  gian  log- 
following  are  the  fundamental  works  which  contain  the  results  of  arithms, 
tho  original  calculations  of  logarithms  of  numbers  and  trigono- 
metrical ratios  :—Briggs,yin'(Am«(icn  Logarilhmica  (London,  1624), 
logarithms  of  numbers  from  1  to  20,000  and  from  90,000  to  100,000 
to  14  places,  with  interscript  differences  ;  Vlacq,  Anthmclica  Log- 
arithmica  (Gouda,  1628,  also  an  English  edition,  London.  1631. 
the  tables  being  the  same),  ten  figure  logarithms  of  nu.ubers  from 
1  to  100.000,  with  differences,  also  log  sines,  tangents,  and  secants 
(or  every  minute  of  the  quadrant  to  10  places,  with  interscript 
differences;  Vlacq,   Trigonometna  Artifcialis  (Gouda.  1633).  log 
sines  and  tangents  to  every  ten  seconds  of  the  qu.adront  to  10 
places,  with  differences,  and  ten-figure  logarithms  of  numbers  np 
to   20,000,  with   differences ;     Briggs,    Triqonometria  Britannica 
/London,  1633),  natural  sines  to  15  places,  tangents  and  secants 
to  10  places,  log  sines  to  14  places,  and  tangents  to  10  places,!    / 
at   intervals  of  a  hundredth  of  a  degree    from   0°  to    45°    with 
interscript  differences  for  all  the  functions.      In  1794  Ve'tra  re^i 
printed  at  Leipsic  Vlacq 's  two  works  in  a  single  folio  voliimej 
ThAsaurufLogariiiimorum  Computus.  ^  The  arrangcuient  of  thfr 

XXIII.  —  2  '         • 


10 


TABLES 


[  MATU  EMATIC  AL, 


tableof  loeanthmsof  numbers  is  more  rompendiou3  thau  in  Vlacq, 
being  Similar  lo  th.it  of  np  or-iinary  seven  figure  table,  but  it  is  not 
60  convenient,  as  mistakes  m  taking  out  the  diffprences  are  more 
liable  to  occur  The  tnt;onnmtitrical  un-ni  gives  log  sines,  cosines, 
tangents,  and  ootangfuts.  fiom  0"  to  2'  ai  init-rvals  of  one  second, 
to  10  places.  wTlhuut  ditfereuces.  and  for  the  rest  of  the  quadrant 
at  iuter\-als  of  u-ti  s.-conds  The  tngonmn.'tncal  canon  is  not 
wholly  rrprinted  from  rh..'  Tri,jnnonirJr,,x  ArttJ\r,ialis,  as  the  log- 
arithiiis  lor  cwry  scrood  of  the  first  tw4»  d.-gri-fs.  which  do  not  occur 
in  Vlacq.  wtre  calculated  for  the  work  by  Lieutenant  Dorfmond. 
Vega  df voted  great  attention  to  the  deti-rnon  of  errors  m  Vlacq's 
logarithms  of  numbers,  and  has  j^ven  sevt-ral  iniiwrlant  errata  h.sts. 
M  Lclort  (Amtoles  dc  i  Ohscrnnioirr  dc  /'■tris.  vol  iv  }  has  given  a 
full  errata  list  m  Vlac:q  s;iiid  Vegi*  s  lo;;;trilhmsofnumbeis,  obtained 
by  compiirison  wuh  the  gieat  Krenrli  manuscript  Tahles  da  Cad- 
astre (>f.v  LouARil  HMs,  p  776  ,  romp  ;ilso  Monthly  AWiWJ  of  Roy. 
Ast.  Soc  for  May  l'*7-2.  June  1S72.  Marrh  1873.  and  1874,  suppl. 
numberV  Vega  seems  not  to  have  bfst/>wed  on  the  trigonometrical 
canon  anything  like  the  i*.are  that  he  devoted  to  the  loganthms  of 
numbers,  as  O^iuss '  estimates  the  loul  of  laxt  figure  errors  at  from 
*31,983  to  47.746.  most  of  them  only  amounting  to  a  unit,  but 
some  to  as  much  as  3  or  4  As  these  errors  m  the  Triguruyinetna 
Artijlciaiis  still  n-main  uncorrected,  it  cannot  be  said  that  a 
reliable  ten  place  logarithmic  tngonometnral  canon  exista  The 
calculator  who  has  occasion  to  perform  work  requiring  ten-figure 
logarithms  of  numbers  should  use  Vlacj)  s  ArUhTrw.ficn  L'tgantUrn  tea 
of  1628,  after  r-arefully  correcting  the  errors  pointed  out  by  Vega 
and  Lefort.  After  Vlacq.  Vega  9  Thesaurus  is  the  next  b^st  table  . 
and  Pinetos  Tnbht  de  Lofiarilhmr.s  l^ufgairesd  l>ix  Df-cimaU^,  am- 
Struit^s  d'npris  iin  jioui'e/ju  modft  (St  Peter'^bur;'.  1871),  though  a 
tract  of  only  80  pages,  may  be  usefully  employed  when  V'lacq  and 
Vega  are  unproi  arable.  Pinelos  work  eousLsts  of  three  tables: 
the  fir!!t.  or  auxdiary  table,  rontauis  a  series  of  factors  by  which 
the  numbers  whose  logarithms  are  reiiuired  are  to  be  multiplied 
to  bring  them  within  the  range  of  t.tble  2  .  it  also  gives  the  loga 
nthmsof  the  reciprocals  of  these  factors  to  1"2  places  Table  1  merely 
gives  logarithms  to  1000  to  10  pl-v.  es.  Table  2  gives  logarithms 
from  l.OOO.OOO  to  1.01 1.000.  with  proporti">nal  parts  to  hundredths. 
The  mode  of  using  these  tables  is  as  follows.  If  the  logarilluu 
cannot  be  taken  out  directly  from  talile  2.  a  factor  M  i»  found  rn)m 
the  auxiliary  table  by  which  the  number  must  be  multiplied  to  bring 
it  WTthin  the  range  of  table  2,  Then  the  loganthtn  can  be  taken 
out.  and.  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  the  multiplication,  so  far  as  the 

result  is  concerned,  log  (  ^.\  roust  be  added  ,  this  quantity  is  there- 
fore given  in  an  adjoining  column  to  M  in  the  auxiliary  table.  A 
similar  procedure  gives  the  number  answering  to  any  logarithm, 
another  factor  (approximately  the  reciprocal  nf  J/)  being  given,  so 
that  in  both  cases  multiplication  is  used.  The  laborious  part  of 
the  work  is  the  multiplication  by  M  ,  but  this  is  somewhat  com- 
pensated for  by  the  ease  with  which,  by  means  of  the  proportional 
parts,  the  logarithm  is  taken  out.  The  factors  are  300  m  number, 
and  are  chosen  so  as  to  minimize  the  labour,  only  25  of  the  300 
consisting  of  three  figures  all  different  and  not  involving  0  or  1. 
The  principle  of  multiplying  by  a  factor  which  is  subsequently 
cancelled  by  subtracting  its  logarithm  is  used  also  in  a  tract,  con- 
taining only  ten  pages,  published  by  M.M  Naraur  and  Mansion  at 
Brussels  in  1877  under  the  title  Tables  dc  Logantkmcs  A  12  dtcimales 
jusqu'd.  4S4  milliards  Here  a  Uble  is  given  of  logarithms  of 
numbers  near  to  434,294,  and  other  numbers  are  brought  wnthiu 
the  range  of  the  table  by  multiplication  by  one  or  two  factors 
The  logarithms  of  the  numbers  near  to  434.294  are  selected  for 
tabulation  because  tlieir  ditferences  commence  with  the  figures  100 
. . .  and  the  presence  of  the  zeros  in  the  difference  renders  the  inter- 
polation  easy 

II  seven  figure  logarithms  do  not  give  sufTicientlv  accurate  results, 
it  is-  usual  to  havf  recourse  to  ten  figure  tables  ,  with  one  exception, 
there  exist  rio  tibles  giving  8  01  9  hjjures.  The  exception  is  John 
Newton's  Tri^jonontrfnu  BrUnmuva  (London.  1658),  which  gives 
logarithms  of  numliers  to  100,000  to  8  places,  and  fllso  log  sines 
and  tangents  toi  evi-ry  eentesiiiMl  luiiiuted  e..  the  nme-thousandth 
part  ol  a  nght  angle),  and  also  log  mnks.  and  tangents  for  the  first 
three  degrees  of  the  quadrant  to  5  places,  the  interval  being  the 
one-thousandth  [)ari  ot  a  ileL'ree.  This  table  is  also  unique  in 
that  It  gives  (111*  logaiiThfiis  o(  (he  <li[ferf nc-.'s  insteail  of  the  actual 
dilU-reii'-es  Tin-  ;uran;.'<'nipnl  of  the  pige  now  universal  in  seven- 
figure  tables— with  the  tilth  h;;ures  running  honzontally  along  the 
top  line  ol  the  pa^;!— is  iluf  to  John  Newton 

As  a  tub'  sevfti  tiu'ure  l(i;;ar  it  hiiis  of  nuntbers  are  nol  published 
scpaiatrlv,  most  tables  nl  to<:;ii  iihnis  con  lain  ing  both  the  logarithms 
of  uimiiIk-is  aihl  a  ti);!nriniiii>irie.il  eamui  Ijabbage  ^  and  Sang's 
logaiithins  are  exceptiiuial  and  give  logarithms  of  numbers  only. 
Balibu^'e.  Tiit'le  of  (In-  l.i"i'ir,ihms  0/  the  An/urn/  XninOrrs  from  1 
to  lOSjiOO  (l.nnilnn.  slt'in. typed  in  1«27  ;    there  are  several  tirages 

1  Si-f  his  ■■  Kiinjie  Di'Mii  rkuii)^eii  <ii  Vci-a  >  Ttir^iarns  Lof/oritfivtoryin,'  tu 
j{*trn>.nmi'<t>,  ^.nfirirhlrn  for  1b:>I  (repruilcil  in  Ins  Wcrhe,  vui  ui.  itp. 2.'t7-;j64j', 
ftlso  MoHlhly  A'uliccj  Hoy.  Aat  60c.  lor  May  lH7it 


of  later  dates),  is  the  best  for  ordinary  use  Oreat  pains  were  takeo 
to  get  the  maximum  of  clearness  The  change  of  tij^ure  in  the 
middle  of  the  block  of  numlwrs  is  marked  by  a  change  of  type  m^ 
the  fourth  figure,  which  {with  the  sole  exception  of  the  asterisk^- 
13  the  t»est  method  that  has  been  Uied  Copies  of  the  buok 
were  printed  on  paper  uf  different  eoloury  —  yelluw,  brown, 
green.  &.c  —as  it  was  consuler'-d  that  black  on  a  while  grounJ 
was  a  fatigumg  combinatioy  (or  the  eye  The  lalHci  were  also 
Lssued  unth  title-pages  and  inttoductiuus  in  4ti|i<-r  laiiiiuages.  Tho 
book  IS  not  very  e.a^y  to  procure  uuw  In  1^71  Mr  Sany  publtsheil', 
A  Aetv  Tablf  uf  S'Vn-placc  tw/ar-i/hmi.  u/  all  Aunilcrs  from 
20000  to  201(000  (L*)ndou).  In  au  or.imary  uble  extruding  from, 
10.000  to  100. OoO  the  differences  near  the  b»-ginniug  are  so  ounicrousi 
that  the  proportional  parts  are  either  veiy  crowded  or  sonic  of 
them  omitted  ;  by  making  the  table  extend  honi  2U.0UO  lo  200,000- 
instead  of  from  lO.O'iO  10  lUO  000  the  dilleren>es  are  halved  in 
niagtiirude,  while  there  are  only  one-fourth  as  many  in  a  [>age. 
There  is  also  greater  accuracy  A  further  peculiarity  of  this  lablo 
13  that  multiples  of  the  ddferences,  instead  of  jiroportional  parts, 
are  given  at  the  side  of  the  page  Typographically  the  table  is 
exceptiouaL,  as  there  are  no  rules,  the  numbers  being  separated 
from  the  loganthms  by  reversed  commas.  This  wurk  was  lo  a 
great  extent  the  result  of  an  original  calculation  ,  see  Edinburgh 
Traiisactunis,  vol  xxvl  {1871)  Mr  Sang  proposed  to  publish  a 
nine  figure  table  from  1  to  1,000,000,  bu.i  the  requisite  support 
was  not  obliiined.  Vanous  p.apers  of  Mr  Sang's  relating  to  his 
lifganthmic  t:al<ulatiou3  vnW  be  found  in  the  Edinburgh  Proceedings 
subsequfut  to  1S72.  In  this  ixmnexion  reference  should  be  made 
to  Abraham  Sharp's  tabic  of  logarithms  of  numbers  from  1  lo  lOO 
and  of  primes  from  100  to  1 100  to  61  places,  also  of  numbers  from 
999,990  to  1.000.010  to  63  places  These  first  appeared  in  Gcomctnf 
hnprov'd  by  A  S  Philimuith  (LoDdou,  17 17)-    They  have  been 

republished  id  Sherwin's,  Callet's,  and  the  earlier  editions  of 
Hultons  tables.  Paikhurst,  Jistronomical  Tables  (New  York, 
1871),  gives  loganthms  of  numbers  from  1  to  109  lo  102  places.' 

In  many  seven-tigure  tables  of  logarithms  of  numbers  tne  value* 
of  .Sand  fare  given  at  the  top  of  the  page,  with  K,  the  variation  of 
each,  for  the  purpose  of  deducing  log  sines  and  tangents.     S &nd  T 

denote  log  ' and  log  respectively,  the  arguments  belong 

the  number  of  seconds  denoted  by  certain  numbers  (sometimea 
only  the  first,  sometimes  every  tenth)  in  the  number  column  on 
each  page.     Thus,  in  Callet  s  tables,  on  the  page  on  which  the  first 

«,     «   «      .     sin  6720'       .  „      ,      tan  6720"     ,.,    ^, 
Dumber  is  67200,  S  =  log    ^^.^^     and  T  =  log     ^^.^^    .  whJe  th© 

V^s  are  the  variations  of  each  for  10"  To  find,  for  example,  log 
r^52'12"7,  or  log  sin  6732"7,  we  have  5=46854980  and  log 
6732-7-3  8281893,  whence,  by  addition,  we  obtain  8-5136873  j 
but  y  for  10"  is  -  229,  whence  the  variation  for  L2"7  is  -  3,  and 
the  log  sine  required  is  8-5136870.  Tables  of  S  and  T  are  fre- 
quently called,  after  their  Inventor,  "Delambres  tables."  Some 
seven  figure  tables  extend  to  100,000,  and  others  to  108,000,  the 
last  8000  logarithms,  to  8  places,  being  given  to  ensure  greater 
accuracy,  as  near  the  beginning  of  the  numbers  the  differences  are 
large  ana  the  interpolations  more  laborious  and  less  exact  than  in 
the  rest  of  the  table  The  eight-figure  logarithms,  however,  at  the 
end  of  a  seven-figure  table  are  liable  lo  occasion  errcFT  ;  for  the 
computer  who  is  accustomed  to  three  leading  figures,  common  to 
the  block  of  figures,  may  fail  to  notice  that  in  this  part  of  the 
table  there  are  four,  and  so  a  figure  (the  fourth)  is  sometimes 
omitted  in  taking  out  the  logarithm.  In  the  ordinary  method 
of  arranging  a  seven-figure  table  the  change  in  the  fourth  figure, 
when  It  occurs  in  the  course  of  the  line,  is  a  source  of  frequent 
error  unless  it  is  ven'  'it-arly  indicated  In  the  earlier  tables  the 
change  was  not  marked  at  all.  and  the  computer  had  to  decide 
for  himself,  each  time  he  took  out  a  logarithm,  whether  the  third 
figure  had  to  be  increased.  In  some  tables  the  line  is  brokea 
wliere  the  change  occurs  ,  but  the  dislocation  of  the  figures  and 
the  corresponding  irregularity  in  the  lines  are  very  awkward. 
Babbage  prinied  the  fourth  figure  in  small  type  after  a  change. 
The  best  method  seems  to  be  that  of  prefixing  an  asterisk  to  the 
fourth  figure  of  each  loganthm  after  the- change,  as  is  done  in 
Schron's  and  tnany  other  modern  tables  This  is  heautifully  clear 
and  the  asterisk  at  once  catches  the  eye.  Shortrede  and  Sang 
replace  0  after  a  change  by  a  jiokfa  (resembling  a  diamond  in  a 
pack  of  cards).  This  is  verv  clear  m  the  case  of  the  O's,  but  leaves 
unmarked  the  cases  in  whidi  the  fourth  figure  is  1  or  2.  Babbage 
printed  a  subscript  point  under  the  last  figure  of  each  logarithm 
that  had   been   increased.      Schron   used  a  bar  subscript,  which, 

2  Legendre  (Tmif/  de.*  FcTctwvi  ElhpUqv/s.  vol.  ii-,  ls2fi)  gives  a  table  of 
n.ilurai  sines  to  15  piares,  wml  <>f  In;;  smcS  to  H  places,  fur  evi-ry  15'  of  the 
quadrant,  iind  also  n  l-ible  ol  I'-cantlutis  nf  uneven  imnibers  frnm  1)03  to  1501, 
aiei  of  pntiifv  from  l.SQi  in  10,000  to  l.t  places  Thr  l.Tticr.  wt.icli  wabextraciei 
Iriim  hie  Tohlrs  tJu  I'tuiastTt.  is  ft  cnnrumatinn  of  a  Uil.le  111  Gar-liner'a 
Tiiblfi'  uf  Lofftr.lhms  (London.  lT-1'2  .  rHpnntod  at  Avignon,  f'O),  which  pivev 
l-'Rantliiiis  (if  all  numbers  lo  lOOO.  and  ol  uneven  rum  ben-  from  1000  to  1)43;. 
Le^cuUre  s  tables  also  appeared  In  his  Exercices  dt  Calcul  inugrol^  vol.  iU.  (l^l^X 


aUTHEMATICAl.] 


TABLES 


11 


bcin"  moro  obtrnsiTc,  is  not  so  satisfactory.  In  some  tables  tlie 
inci-rase  of  th»  last  BRwro  is  only  marked  when  the  fif^ure  is  iji- 
ereased  to  a  5,  anvl  then  a  Roman  five  (v)  is  used  in  place  of  the 
Arabic  Bgure.  Hereditary  errors  in  logarithmic  tables  are  con- 
sidered in  two  najiers  "  On  the  ProCTCss  to  Accuracy  of  Logarithmic 
TVibles"anJ  "On  Logarithmic  Tables"  in  Shnihly  ti'otices  of  Roy. 
AsL  Sx.  for  1873.  Sec  also  the  Monthly  Kotkcs  for  1874,  p.  248  ; 
tnd  a  paper  by  Cemcrth,  ZUch.  f.  d.  osferr.  Gymn.,  Heft  vi.  p.  407. 
■■  Passioc  now  to  the  logarithmic  trigonometrical  canon,  the  first 
great  advance  after  the  publication  of  tlie  Triganmnttria  Artificials 
in  1C33  was  made  by  Michael  Taylor,  Tables cf  Logarithms  (linden, 
1792),  which  gives  log  sines  and  tangents  to  every  second  of  the 
qoadrant  to  7  places.  This  table  contains  about  450  pages  with 
'an  average  uumbcr  of  7750  figxires  to  the  pa^.  so  that  ttiere  are 
:»ltogether  nearly  three  millions  and  a  half  of  hgures.  The  change 
iin  the  leading  figures,  when  it  occurs  ill  a  column,  is  not  marked  at 
.»U  ;  and  the  table  must  be  used  with  ver)'  great  caution.  In  fact  it 
'is  advisable  to  go  through  the  whole  of  it,  and  fill  in  with  ink  tho 
ifirst  0  after  the  change,  as  well  as  make  some  mark  that  will  catch 
jthc  eye  at  the  head  of  every  column  containing  a  change.  Tho  table 
".was  calrulatetl  by  interpolation  from  the  Trigano^rutria  Arlificialis 
;to  10  places  and  then  reduced  to  7,  so  that  tho  last  figure  should 
'nlways  be  correct.  Partly  on  account  of  the  absence' of  a  mark  to 
denote  the  change  of  figure  in  the  column  and  partly  on  account  of 
■the  size  of  the  table  and  a  somewhat  inconvenient  arrangement,  the 
;Tvork  seems  never  to  have  come  into  very  general  use.  Computers 
■have  always  preferred  Bagay's  Nouvtlles  Tables  Aslronomiqucs  cl 
■Hydrographiques  (Paris,  1829),  which  also  contains  a  complete 
■  logarithmic  canon  to  every  second.  The  change  in  tho  column  Ls 
'very. clearly  marked  by  a  large  black. nucleus,  surrounded  by  a 
:circle,  printed  instead  of  zero.  '  Bagay's  work  has  now  become 
>ery  rare.  The  only  othjr  canon  to  every  second  that  has  been 
'published  is  contained  in  Shortredc's  Logarithmic  Tables  (Edin. 
.Durgh).  This  work  was  oftonally  issued  in  1344  in  one  volume, 
but  being  dissatisfied  with  it  Shortredc  is.sued  a  new  edition  in 
:1849  in  two  volumes.  Tho  first  volume  contains  logarithms  of 
numbers,  antilogarithms,  &c.,  and  tho  second  the  trigonometrical 
canon  to  every  second.  The  volumes  are  sold  separately,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  independent  works ;  they  are  not  even  described  on 
their  title-TOges  as  voL  i.  and  vol.  ii.  The  trigonometrical  canon  is 
'very  oom[iicte  in  every  respect,  the  arguments  being  given  in  time 
as  well  as  in  arc,  full  proportional  parts  being  ailded,  &c  The 
'change  of  figure  in  the  column  is  denoted  by  a  nokta,  printed  instead 
of  0  where  the  change  occurs. 

i  Of  tables  in  which  the  miadrant  is  divided  centcsimally,  the 
principal  are  Hobert  and  Ideler,  Nofuvclles  Tables  Trigonomitriqucs 
,'< Berlin,  1799),  and  Borda  and  Dclambre,  Tables  Trigonometrigiccs 
'■Decimnlcs  (Paris,  1801).  The  former  give,  among  other  tables, 
'natural  and  log  sines,  cosines,  tangents,  and  cotangents,  to  7  places, 
the  arguments  proceeding  to  3°  at  intervals  of  10"  and  thence  to  60° 
at  intcrv.ils  of  1'  (centesimal),  and  also  natSral  Rines  and  tangents 
for  the  first  hundred  ten-thousandths  of  a  right  angle  to  10  places. 
The  latter  gives  log  sines,  cosines^  tingents,  cotangents,  secants, 
and  cosecants  from  0°  to  3°  at  intervals  of  10"  (with  full  proportional 
■parts  for  ever}'  secoml),  and  thence  to  50°  at  intervals  of  1  (ccntesi- 
'Dial)  to  7  places.  There  is  also  a  tabjfe  of  log  sines,  cosines,  tangents, 
and  cotangents  from  0*  to  10'  at  intervals  of  10"^nd  from  0°  to  50° 
at  intervals  of  IC  (centesimal)  to  11  places.     Hobert  and  Ideler 

S've  a  natural  as  well  as  a  logarithmic  canon  ;  but  Borda  and 
elambre  give  only  the  latter.  Borda  and  Dclambre  give  serert-- 
figure  logarithms  of  numbers  to  10,000,  the  line  being  broken  when 
'»  change  of  figure  takes  place  in  it 

)  In  Briggs's  Trigonomctria  Britannica  of  1633  the  degree  is 
divided  centesimally,  and  but  for  the  appearance  in  the  same  year 
of  Vlacq's  Trigmwmetria  Arlificialis,  in  which  the-deeree  is  divided 
aexagesimally,  this  reform  might  have  been  effected.  It  is  clear 
that  the  most  suitable  time  for  effecting  such  a  change  was  when 
the  natural  canon  was  replaced  b'y  the  logarithmic  canon,  and 
Briggs  took  advantage  of  this  opportunity.  He  left  the  degree 
unaltered,  bat  divided  it  centesimally  instead  of  sexagesimally, 
thus  ensuring  the  advantages  of  decimal  division  (a  saving  of 
work  in  interpolations,  multiplications,  &c  )  with  tho  minimum  of 
change.  The  French  mathematicians  at  the  end  of  the  18th  century 
divided  the  right  angle  centesimally,  completely  changing  the  whole 
system,  with  no  appreciable  advantages  over  Briggs's  ^stem.  In 
fact  the  Centesimal  degree  is  as  arbitrary  a  unit  as  tne  nonagesimal, 
and  it  is  only  the  non-centesimal  subdivisioii  of  the  degieo  that 
irh'es  rise  to  inconvenience.  Briggs's  example  was  followea  by  Roe, 
Onghtred,  and  other  17th-century  writers  ;  but  the  centesimal  divi- 
iion  of  the  degree  seems  to  have  entirely  passed  out  of  use,  till  it 
was  recently  revived  by  Bremiker  in  his  Logarithmisch-trigono- 
metrisehe  Tafeln  mil  fiinf-Dtdmahttllen  (Berlin.  1872).  This  little 
book  of  158  pages  givea-a  five-figure  canon  to  every  hundredth  of  a 
degree  with  proportional  parts,  besides  logaritbmC  of  numbers, 
addition- and  subtraction  logarithms,  &c. 

I  Colttetiona  of  Tables. — For  a  computer  who  reqnires  in  one 
^olmna  logarithms  of  numbers  and  a  ten-second  loganthmic  canon, 


perhaps  the  two  best  liooks  arc  Schron,  Snvn'Fig}tr(:  Logarithm f:  Co]\t$ 
(London,  1865,  stereotyped,  an  English  edition  of  the  German  work  lions, 
published  at  Bronswick),  and  Bruhn.s,  A  New  Man'iiai  of  Logarithms 
to  Seven  Places  of  Z)ccij?iais  (Leip^'*ie,  JS70).  Both  give  logarithms 
of  numbers  and  a  complete  ten-second  canon  to  7  places  ;  Bruhns 
also  gives  log  sines,  cosines,  tangents,  and  cotangents  to  every 
second  up  to  6°  with  proportional  parts.  Schron  contains  an  inter- 
polation table,  of  75  pages,  giving  the  first  100  multiples  of  all 
numbers  from  40  to  420.  The  logarithms  of  numbers  extend  to 
108,000  in  Schron  and  to  100,000  in  Bruhns.  Almost  «|ually; 
convenient  is  Brcmiker's  edition  of  Vega's  Logarithmic  Tables' 
(Berlin,  stereotyped  ;  the  English  edition  was  translated  from  tho 
fortieth  edition  of  Dr  Brcmiker's  by  W.  L.  F.  Fischer).  This  book 
gives  a  canon  to  every  ten  secoiuis,  and  for  the  fir-st  five  degree* 
to  every  second,  with  logarithms  of  numbers  to  100, 000^  All  these" 
works  give  the  proportional  parts  for  all  tho  diflurences  in  tho 
logaritluns  of  numbers.  In  Babbagc's,  Callct's,  and  many  other 
tables  only  every  othec^able  of  proiwrtional  p.irts  is  given  near  tho 
beginning  for  want  of  apace.  Schron,  Bruhus,  and  most  moderu 
tables  published  in  Germany  have  title-pages  and  introductions. 
in  different  languages.  Dunuis,  Tables  de  Logarithmoc  A  sept 
Decimates  (stereotyfied,  thiril  tirage,  1868,  Paris),  is  also  very: 
convenient,  containing  a  tcn-Rccond  canon,  besides  logarithms  of 
numbers  to  100,000,  hyperbolic  logarithms  of  numbers  to  1000,  to  7 
places,  kc.  In  this  work  negative  characteiislics  oro  printedj 
throughout  in  the  tiblcs  of  circiuar  functions,  the  minus  sign  beings 
placed  aliove  the  Cgunj ;  these  are  preferable  to  the  ordinary  char- 
acteristics that  are  incrca-sed  by  10.  This  is  the  only  work  we  know- 
in  which  negative  characteristics  are  used.  The  edges  of  the  pages 
containing  the  circular  functions  are  red,  the  rest  being  grey.  Dupuuj 
also  edited  Callet's  logarithms  in  1862,  with  which  tins  work  must 
not  be  confounded.  Salomon,  ioj^ari/AmwcAcrn/c/H  (Vienna,  1827), 
contains  a  ten-second  canon  (the  intervals  being  one  second  for  tho- 
first  two  degrees),  logarithms  of  numbers  to  108,000,  squares,  cubes, 
square  roots,  and  cul"*  roots  to  1000,  a  factor  table  to  102,011, 
ten-place  Briggian  and  hyperbolic  logarithms  of  numbers  to  1000- 
and  of  primes  to  10,333,  and  many  other  useful  tables.  The  work, 
which  is  scarce,  is  a  well-printed  small  quarto  volume. 

Of  collections  of  general  tables  tho  most  n.seful  and  accessible  ara 
Hutton,  Callet,  Vega,  and  Kohler.  Button's  well-known  Mathe- 
matical Tables  (London)  was  first  issued  in  1785,  but  considerablo 
additions  were  made  in  the  fifth  edition  (1811).  "The  tables  contain 
sevcn;figur6  logarithms  to  108,000,  and  to  1200  to  20  places,  some 
antilogarithms  to  20  places,  hyperbolic  logarithms  from  1  to  10  at 
intervals  of  "01  and  to  1200  at  intervals  of  unity  to  7  places,  logistic 
logarithms,  log  sines  and  tangents  to  every  second  of  the  first  two 
degrees,  and  natural  and  log  sines,  tangents,  secants,  and  versed' 
sines  for  every  minute  of  the  quadrant  to  7  places.  The  naturai. 
functions  occupy  the  left-hand  pages  and  the  logarithmic  the  right/ 
hand.  .The  finst  six  editions,  published  in  Button's  lifetime  (d,' 
1S23),  contain  Abraham  Sharp's  61-figure  logarithms  of  numbers.' 
Olinthus  Gregory,  who  brought  out  the  1830  and  succeeding' 
c<litions,  omitted  these  tables  and  Button's  introduction,  whicS- 
contains  a  history  of  logarithms,~\he  methods  of  constructing  them^- 
&c.  Callet's  Tables  Portatives  de  Logarithmes  (stereotyped,  Parisr 
seems  to  have  been  first  issued  in  1783,  and  has  since  passeti*. 
through  a  gr-eat  many  editions.  In  that  of  1853  the  contents  are- 
seven-figuro  logarithms  to  108,000.  Briggian  and  hyperbolic  loga-- 
rithms  to  48  places  of  numbers  to  100  and  of  primes  to  1097,  logs 
sines  and  tangents  Tor  minutes  (centesimal)  throughout  the  quad-^ 
rant  to  7  places,  natural  and  log  sines  to  15  places  for  every  ten' 
minutes  (centesimal)  of  the  quadrant,  log  sines  and  tangents  for 
every  second  of  the  first  five  degrees  (sexagesimal)  and  for  eviry  ten. 
seconds  of  the  quadrant  (sexage^simal)  to  7  places,  besides  logistic 
logarithms,  tho  first  hundred  multiples  of  the  moilulus  to  24  places 
and  the  first  ten  to  70  places,  and  other  tables.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  complete  and  practically  useful  collections  of  logarithnia  thaV 
have  been  published,  and  it  is  peculiar  in  giving  a  centesimally 
divided  canon.  The  size  of  the  page  in  the  editions  published  ir>- 
the  19th  century  is  larger  than  that  of  the  earlier  editions,  the  type 
having  been  reset  Vega's  Tainilte  Logariihmo-trigonoitutricfc  v&^ 
first  published  in  1797  in  two  volumes.  The  first  contains  seven-i 
figure  logarithms  to  101,000,  log  sines,  ic. .  for  every  tenth  of  a 
^econd  to  1',  for  every  second  to  V  30',  for  every  10"  to  6°  3',  and 
thence  at  intervals  of  a  minute,  also  natural  sines  and  tangents  to 
every  minute,  all  to  7  pla'/es.  The  second  volume  gives  simple 
divjsws  of  all  numbers  up  to  102,000,  a  li-sf  of  primes  from  102,000 
to  •400,313,  hyperbolic  logarithms  of  numbers  to  1000  and  of  primes 
to  10,000,  to  8  places,  c'  and  log|„C  to  ■!  =  10  at  intervals  of  01  toj 
7  figures  and  7  places  respectively,  the  first  nine  powers  of  the- 
numbers  from  1  to  100,  square*  and  cuWs  to  1000,  logistic  loga-' 
rithms,  binomial  theorem  coclficients,  ic.  Vega  also  published 
Manuale  LogarithTiLico-trigoitonietnaiin  (Leipsic,  1800),  tne  tables 
in  which  are  identical  with  a  portion  of  those  contained  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  Tabula:.  The  Tabula:  went  through  many  cditions.j 
a  stereotyped  issue  being  brought  out  by  }.  A.  Hulsse  (Sammlun^ 
mathematischer  Tafdn,   Leipsic)   in   one  volume  in    1840^^j^Tlifc 


12 

I  -        ^  . 

cositBts  &rc  sekrl;  the  same  aa  those  of  the  original  work,  the  chief 
dUfennce  being  that  a  large  table  of  Oaossian  logarithnis  is  added. 
Vega  differs  from  Hutton  and  Callet  in  giving  so  many  useful  non- 
lo^rithmic  tables,  and  his  collection  is  in  many  respects  comple- 
mentary to  theirs.  Schulze,  Neue  wid  erwcittrU  Sammlung  log- 
arithmischcry  IrigonomctTiacher,  urid  andercr  Tafeln  (Berlin,  1778, 
2  vols.),  is  a  valuable  collection,  and  contains  scven-fignre  loga- 
rithms to  101,000,  log  sines  and  tangents  to  2°  at  intervals  of  a 
second,  and  natural  sines,  tangents,  and  secants  to  7  places,  log 
sines  and  tangents  and  Napierian  log  sines  and  tangents  to  8 
plaoes,  all  for  every  ten  seconds  to  4*  and  thence  for  every  minute 
to  45°,  besides  squares,  cubes,  square  roots,  and  cube  roots  to  1000, 
■binomial  theorem  coeflBcients,  powers  of  e,  and  other  small  tables. 
Wolfram's  hyperbolic  logarithms  of  numbers  below  10,000  to  48 

Jilaces  first  appeared  in  this  work.  Lambert,  Supplcmenla  Tabu- 
arum  LoganthmicaTum  ct  Trigoiiometricarum  (Virion,  1798),  con- 
tains a  number  of  useful  and  furious  non -logarithmic  tables  ;  it 
bears  a  general  resemblanco  to  the  second  volume  of  Vega,  but 
contains  numerous  other  small  tables  of  a  more  strictly  mathe- 
matical character.  A  very  useful  collection  of  non-logarithmic 
tables  is  printed  in  Barlow's  New  MaViematical  Tables  (London, 
1814).  It  gives  squares,  cubes,  square  roots,  and  cube  roots  (to  7 
places),  reciprocals  to  9  or  10  places,  and  resolutions  into  their 
prime  factors  of  all  numbers  from  1  to  10,000,  the  first  ten  powers 
of  numbers  to  100,  fourth  and  fifth  powers  of  numbers  from  100 
to  1000,  prime  numbers  from  1  to  100,103,  eight-place  hynerbolio 
logarithms  to  10,000,  tables  for  the  solution  of  the  iiTetlucible  case 
tn  cubic  equations,  to;.  In  the  stereotyped  reprint  of  1840  only 
the  squares,  cubes,  square  roots,  cube  roots,  ^id  reciprocals  aro 
retained.  The  first  volume  of  Shortrede's  tables,  in  addition  to  the 
trigonometrical  canon  to  ev6ry  second,  contains  antilogarithms  and 
Gaussian  logarithms.  Hassler,  Tabula  Logariehmics  el  Trigono- 
metrical (New  York,  1830,  stereotyped),  gives  seven-figure  logarithms 
to  100,000,  log  sines  and  tangents  for  every  second  to  1°,  and  log 
sines,  cosines,  tangents,  and  cotangents  from  1°  to  3°  at  intervals  of 
10"  and  thence  to  45°  at  intervals  of  30".  Every  effort  has  beeu 
made  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  tables- without  loss  of  distinctness, 
the  page  being  only  about  3  by  5  inches.  Copies  of  the  work  were' 
published  with  the  introduction  and  title-page  in  different  lan-_ 
piages.  Stanley,  Tables  of  Logarithms  CSev/  Haven,  U.S.,  1860), 
gives  seven-figure  logarithms  to  100,000,  and  log  sines,  cosines, 
tangents,  cotangents,  secants,  and  cosecants  at  intervals  of  ten 
seconds  to  15°  and  thence  at  intervals  of  a  minute  to  45°  to  7  places, 
besides  natural  sines  and  cosines,  antilogarithms,  and  other  tables. 
This  collection  owed  its  origin  to  the  fact  that  Hassler's  tables  were 
found  to  be  inconvenient  owing  to  the  smallness  of  the  type.  Luvini, 
Tables  of  logarithms  (London,  1866,  stereotyped,  printed  at  Turin), 
gives  seven -figure  logarithms  to  20,040,  Bnggian  and  hyperbolic 
logarithms  of  primes  to  1200  to  20  places,  log  sines  and  tangents  for 
each  second  to  9',  at  intervals  of  10"  to  2°,  of  30"  to  9°,  of  1'  to  45° 
to  7  places,  besides  square  and  cube  roots  up  to  625.  The  book, 
which  is  intended  for  schools,  engineers,  &c,  has  a  peculiar  arrange- 
ment of  the  logarithms  and  proportional  parts  on  the  pages. 
Chambers's  Mathematical  Tables  (Edinburgh),  containing  loga- 
rithms of  numbers  to  100,000,  and  a  canon  to  every  minute  of  log 
sines,  tangents,  and  secants  and  of  natural  sines  to  7  places,  besides 
proportional  logarithms  and  other  small  tables,  is  cheap  and  suitable 
tor  schools,  though  not  to  be  compared  as  regards  matter  or  typo- 
graphy to  the  best  tables  described  above.  Of  six-figure  tables 
Bremiker's  LogaritAmorum  VI.  Dedmalium  Nova  Tabula  Bero- 
liiunsis  (Berlin,  1852)  is  probably  one  of  the  best.  It  gives 
logarithms  of  numbers  to  100,000,  with  proportional  parts,  and 
log  sines  and  tangents  for  every  second  to  5°,  and  beyond  this 
pomt  for  every  ten  seconds,  with  proportional  parts.  Hantschl, 
LogaTnthmisch-trigtmomctrischcs  Sandbuch  (Vienna,  1827),  gives 
five-figure  logarithms  to  10,000,  log  sines  and  tangents  for  every 
ten  seconds  to  6  places,  natural  sines,  tangents,  secants,  and 
versed  sines  for  every  minute  to  7  places,  logarithms  of  primes 
to  15,391,  hyperbolic  logarithms  of  numbers  to  11,273  to  8  places, 
least  divisors  of  numbers  to  18,277,  binomial  theorem  coefficients, 
&o.  Farley's  Six-Figure  Logarithms  (London,  stereotyped,  1840) 
gives  six-figure  logarithms  to  10,000  and  log  sines  and  tangents  for 
every  minute  to  6  places.  Of  five-figure  tables  the  most  convenient 
is  Tables  of  Logarithms  (Useful  Knowledge  Society,  London,  from 
the  stereotyped  plates  of  1839),  which  were  prepared  by  De  Morgan, 
though  they  have  no  name  on  the  title-page.  They  contain  five- 
figure  loganthms  to  10,000,  log  sines  and  tangents  to  every  minute 
to  5  places,  besides  a  few  smaller  tables.  Lalandc's  Tables  de 
Logarithmes  is  a  five-figure  table  with  nearly  the  same  contents  as 
De  Morgan's,  first  published  in  1805.  It  his  since  passed  through 
many  editions,  and,  after  being  extended  from  5  to  7  places,  passed 
through  several  more.  Galbraith  and  Haughton,  Manual  of  Mathe- 
mniical  Tables  (London,  1860),  give  five-figure  logarithms  to  10,000 
and  log  sines  and  tangents  for  every  minute,  also  a  small  table  of 
Gaussian  logarithms.  Houel,  Tablet  de  Logarithmes  d  Cinq  Deei- 
males  (Paris,  1871),  is  a  very  convenient  collection  of  five-figure 
tables  ;  besides  logarithms  of  numbers  and  circular  functions,  there 


TABLES 


[UATEUEMATICAi.' 


are  Gaussian  logarithms,  least  divisors  of  numbers  to  10,841,  anti- 
logarithms,  &c.  The  work  contains  118  pages  of  tables.  ITie  same 
author's  Recueil  de  Fonnules  et  de  Tables  Numeriques  (Paris,  1868) 
contains  19  tables,  occupying  62  pages,  most  of  them  giving  results 
to  4  pLices  i  they  relate  to  very  varied  subjects,— antilogarithms, 

Gaussian  logarithms,  logarithms  of  -^,  elliptic  intrcgals.  squares 

for  use  in  the  method  of  least  squares,  i'c.  Bremiker  Tafetvier- 
atelliger  Logarithmen  (Berlin,  1874).  gives  four-figure  logaritbmsot 
numbers  to  2(i(*9.  I'lg  sinef,  cosines,  tangents,  and  cotangents  to  8** 
fori'very  hundredth  of  a  degree,  and  thence  to  4.5°  for  every  tenth 
of  rt  degree,  to  4  places.  There  are  also  Gaussian  logari  thms.sqnares 
from  U'UOO  to  13..5IH).  antilogarithms,  &c.    The  book  contnins  60 

fiages.  Willi^h,  Popular  Tables  (London,  1853),  is  a  useful  hoolc, 
or  an  amateur ;  it  gives  Briggian  and  hyperbolic  logarithms  to 
l'.i00  to  7  places,  squares,  &c.,  to  343,  ic.  '  = 

Hi/pcrbolic  or  Napierian  Logarithms. — The  logarithms  invented' Napierian 
by  Napier  and  explained  by  him  in  the  Dcscriplio  (1614)  were  not'o^ 
tlie  same  as  those  now  called  natural  or  hyperbolic  (viz.,  to  base,""*™'- 
c),  and  very  frequently  also  Napierian,   logarithms.      Napierian 
logarithms,  strictly  so  called,  have  entirely  passed  out  of  use  and 
are  of  purely  hisKiric  interest ;  it  is  therefore  sufficient  to  refer  to 
Logarithms  and  Nam er,  where  a  full  account  is  given.     Apart 
from  the  inventor's  own  publications,  the  only  Najiierian  tables  o( 
importance  are  containeci  in   Ursinus's .  Trigonometria  (Cologne,' 
1624-25)  and  Schulze's  Sammlung  (Berlin,  1778),  the  former  being 
the  largest  that  has  been  constructed.     Logarithms  to  the  base  e^ 
where  e  denotes  2'71828,  were  first  published  by  Speidell,  A'n< 
Logarithyjies  {\&\^).  ..  -- 

The  most  copious  table  of  hyperbolic  logarithms  is  Dase,  Tafcl  Hype'? 
der  ■natiirlichcn  Logarithmen  (Vienna,  1850),  which  extends  from  1  bolic 
to  lOOttat  intervals  of  unity  and  from  1000  to  10,500  at  intervals  loga. 
of  "1  to  7  places,  with  differences  and  proixirtional  parts,  arranged  ritbiTij^ 
as  in  an  ordinary  seven-figure  table.  By  adding  log  10  to  the  results 
the  range  is  from  10,000  to  105,000  at  intervals  of  unity.  The 
table  formed  part  of  the  Annals  of  the  Vienna  Observatory  for 
1851,  but  separate  copies  were  printed.  The  most  elaborate  table 
of  hyperbolic  logarithms  is  due  to  "Wolfram,  who  calculated  to 
43  places  tho  logarithms  of  all  numbei-s  up  to  2200,  and  of  alli 
primes  (also  of  a  great  many  coniposite  numbers)  between  this  limit 
and  10,009.  Wolfram's  results  first  appeared  in  Schulze's  Samm-^ 
lung  (1778).  Six  logarithms  which  Wolfram  had  been  jjieveuted 
from  computing  by  a  serious  illness  were  supplied  in  the  Berliner 
Jnhr/iuch,  1783,  p.  191,  The  complete  table  was  reproduced  in 
Vega's  Thesaurus  (1794),  when  several  errors  were  corrected.! 
Tables  of  hyperbolic  logarithms  are  contained  in  the  following 
collections  :---Callet,  all  numbers  t»  100  and  primes  to  1097  to  48 
places  ;  Borda  and  Delambre  (1801),  all  numoers  up  to  1200  to  11 
places;  Salomon  (1827),  all  nunibei-s  to  1000  and  primes  to  10,333 
to  10  places  ;  Vega,  Tabulx  (including  Hulsse's  edition,  1840^  and 
Kohler  (1848),  all  numbers  to  1000  and  primes  to  10,000  to  8  places; 
Barlow  (1814),  all  numbers  to  10,000  ;  Hutton  and  Willich  (1853), 
all  numbers  to  1200  to  7  jilaces  ;  Dupuis  (1868),  all  numbers  to 
1000  to  7  places.  Hutton  also  gives  hyperbolic  logarithms  from  1 
to  10  at  intervals  of  '01  to  7  places.  Rees's  Cyclopmdia  (1819),  art, 
"Hyperbolic  Logarithms,"  contains  a  table  of  hyperbolic  loga-i 
rithms  of  all  numbers  up  to  10,000  to  8  places.  __ 

Tables  to  convert  Briggian  into  Hyperbolic  Logarithms^  and  vice  C6bver*> 
versa. — Such  tables  merely  consist  of  the  first  hundred  (sometimes  ^iion  of 
only  the  first  ten)  multiples  of  the  moduhis  '43429  44819...  and  Briggiau] 
its  reciprocal  230258  50929  ...  to  5,  6,  8, 10,  or  more  places.    They  and 
are  generally  to  be  found  in  collections  of  logarithmic  tables,  but  hyperr 
rarely  exceed  a  page  in  extent,  and  are  very  easy  to  construct,  bolic 
Schron  and  Bruhns  both  give  the  first  hundred  multiples  of  the  loga- 
modulus  and  its  reciprocal  to  10  places,  and  Bremiker  (in  liis  edition  rjthuift 
of  Vega  and  in   his  six. figure  tables)  and  Dupuis  to  7  places,  c 
Degen,    Tabitlarum  Enncas   (Copenhagen,   1824),  gives   the  first 
hundred  multiples  of  the  modulus  to  30  places.  .    -      '- 

Antilogarithms.  —  In  the  ordinary  tables  of  loganthms  the  AntP 
natural  numbers  are  integers,  while  the  logarithms  are  incommen-  loga" 
surable.  In  an  antilogarithmic  canon  the  logarithms  are  exact  ritbJl^ 
quantities,  such  as  '00001,  -00002,  &c.,  and  the  corresponding 
numbers  are  incommensurable.  The  largest  and  earliest  work  of 
this  kind  is  Dodson's  Antilogarithmic  Canon  (London,  1742),  which 
gives  numbers  to  11  places  corresponding  to  logarithnis  fiom  0  to 
1  at  intervals  of -00001,  arranged  like  a  seven-figure  logarithmic 
table,  with  interscript  differences  and  proportional  parts  at  th* 
bottom  of  the  page.  This  woi  k  was  the  only  antilogarithmic  canon 
for  more  than  a  century,  till  in  1844  Sliortrcde  published  the  '.irst 
edition  of  his  tables  ;  in  1849  he  published  tha  second  edition,  anj 
in  the  same  year  Filipowski's  tables  appoared.  Both  these,  work* 
cont.ain  seven-figure  antilogarithms:  Snortredo  gives  numbers  to 
logarithms  from  0  to  1  at  intervals  of  -00001,  will)  diffejcnces  and 
multiples  at  the  top  of  tho  page,  and  Filinowski,  A  Table  of  Anti- 
logarithms  (London,  1849),  contains  a  table  of  tho  same  extent,  tlw 
proportional  parts  being  given  to  hundredths.  ' 

__  Addition  and  Subtraction,  or  Oaussian,  Logarithmt,— The  ohiM 


TABLES 


13 


Cmssiu  of  snch  tables  b  to  gire  log  (a±S)  by  only  one  entry  when  log  a 
lop-      .  mJ  log  4  are  given  (see  Looabithmr,  vol.  iit.  p.  777X     Let 

"'*■*-.,,,-      A^Xogx,.        £=log(l+^),        C=log(l+i).  ■^•^T' 

letTuig  out  the  specimen  tsble  in  Leonclli's  ThiorU  da  LogarMvus 
AdditionntU  el  Diducti/a  (Bordeaux,  1303),  the  principal  tables  are 
the  following.  Gauss,  in  Zach's  MonatHehe  Corrcapondem  (181 2),' 
giving  B  ana  C  for  argument  A  from  0  to  2  at  intervals  of  001, 
thence  to  3  40  at  intervals  of  01,  aud  to  5  at  intervals  of  1,  all  to 
E  places.  This  table  is  reprinted  in  Gauss's  IVcrke,  vol.  iii.  p.  244. 
llattbiessen.  Ta/el  lur  bapiemem  Berechnung  (Altona,  1818),  giving 
'fsnd  C  to  7  places  for  argument  A  from  0  to  2  at  intervals  of 
•0001,  thence  to  3  at  intervals  of  001,  to  4  at  intervals  of  01,  and 
to  5  at  intervals  of  '1  ;  the  table  is  not  conveniently  arranged. 
Peter  Gray,  Tabid  and  ^ormu^  (London,  1849,  and  "Addendum," 
1870),  giving  C  for  argument  A  from  0  to  2  at  intervals  of  0001 
to  6  places,  with  proportional  parts  to  hondredtlis,  and  lo^(l  -i) 
for  argument  A  from  3  to  1  at  intervals  of  "001  and  from  1  to  1'9 
at  inlervals  of  ■flOOl,  to  6  places,  with  proportional  parta.  Zech, 
Tafeln  der  Additions,  und  Subtra/Uion^  ■  Lcgariihmen  (Leipsic, 
1849),  giving  B  for  argument  A  from  0  to  2  at  intervals  of  '0001, 
, thence  to  4  at  intervals  of  001  and  to  6  at  inlervals  of  01  ; 
«lso  C  iat  argument  A  from  0  to  0003  at  intervals  of- 0000001, 
thence  to  05  at  intervals  of  000001  and  to  303  at  intervals  of 
"00001,  all  to  7  places,  with  proportional  parts.  These  tables  are 
reprinted  from  Hulsse's  edition  of  Vega  (1849) ;  the  1840  edition 
of  Hulsse's  Vega  contained  a  reprint  of  Gauss's  original  table. 
Wittstein,  LogarUhma  de  Gauss  A  Sept  D/cimalcs  (Hanover,  1866), 
giving  B  for  argument  A  from  3  to  4  at  intervals  of  1,  from  4 
to  6  at  intervals  of  01,  from  6  to  8  at  intervals  of  •001,  from  8  to 
10  at  intervals  of  0001,  also  from  0  to  4  at  the  same  intervals. 
'In  this  handsome  work  the  arrangement  is  similar  to  that  in  a 
6even-6gure  logarithmic  table.  Gauss's  original  6ve. place  table 
was  repnnted  in  Pasquich,  Tabulm  (Leipsic,  1817);  Kohler,  ycrom« 
■de  la  irtJuiM To/efn  (Leipsic,  1832),  and  Havdbuch  (Leipsic,  1848) ; 
nnd  Galbraith  and  Haughlon,  Mantial  (London,  1860).  Houel, 
TabUs  de  iogari/AmM  (1871),  also  gives  a  small  five-place  tible 
of  Gaussian  logarithms,  the  addition  and  subtraction  logarithms 
being  separated  as  in  Zech.  Modified  Gaussian  logaritlims  are 
given  by  J.  H.  T.  JIuller,  Vierstelhgc  Loga-nthmen  (floiha^  1844), 

viz.,  a  four-place  table  of  B  and  -log  (l  -  -)  from  A  =  0  to  03 

'at  intervals  of  0001,  thence  to  -23  at  intervals  of  '001,  to  2  at 
'inten-als  of  '01,  and  to  4  at  inlervals  of  1  ;  and  by  Shortrcde, 
Logarxthmie  Tables  (vol.  L,  1849),  viz.,  a  five-pl.ice  table  of  B 
■  and  log  (1  +x)  from  y<  =  5  to  3  at  intervals  of  1,  from  A  =  3  to  27 
,»t  intervals  of  01,  to  13  at  intervals  of  ;O0I.  to  3  at  intervals 
'of  "01,  and  to  5  at  inlervals  of  "1.  Filipdwski's  AjUilogarUhms 
'■(1849)  contains  Gaussian  logarithms  arranged  in  a  new  way.  The 
principal  table  gives  log  (z+  1)  as  tabular  result  for  log  x  as 
argument  from  8  to  14  at  inler^'als  of  "001  to  5  places.  Weiden- 
bach,    Ta/cl    um    den    Logariihmen    (Copeuhagen,    1829),    gives 

log  — ;  for  argument  A  from  "382  to  2"002  at  intervals  of  -001,  to 
z- 1  ,  ' 

3"6  at  intervals  of  '01,  and  to  5'5  at  intervals  of  '1,  to  5  places. 
Logistic       Logistic  and  Proportional  Lcgarilkins.  —  In  most  collections  of 
-and  pro-  tables  of  logarithms  a  five-place  table  of  logistio  logarithms  for 
portion-   every  second  to  1"  is  given.     Logistic  tables  give  log  3600  -  log  x 
al  loga-    at  intervals  of  a  second,  x  being  expressed  in  degrees,  minutes, 
rithmsu     and  seconds,  Schulze(1778)and  Vcga{i797)  have  them  tox  =  3600" 
And  Collet  and  Hutton  toI  =  5280^     Proportional  logarithms  for 
every  second  to  3"  (i.e.,  log  10,800-Iogx)  form  part  of  nearly  all 
collections  of  tables  n-lating  to  navigation,  generally  to  4  places, 
Bometimcs  to  5.     Bagay,   Tables  (1829),  gives  a  live-place  table, 
but  such  are  not  often  to  be  found  in  collections  of  mathematical 
tables.     The  same  remark  applies  to  tables  of  proportional  loga- 
rithms for  every  minute  to  24",  which  give  to  4  or  5  places  the  values 
of  log  1440-logz..    The  object  of  a  proportional  or  logistic  table, 
or  a  table  of  log  a  -  log  a:,  is  to  facilitate  the  calculation  01  propor- 
tiuDs  in  which  the  third  teriQ  is  a. 
iBterpo-       JnUrpolalian  Tables — All  tabled  of  proportional  parts  may  "be 
lation       regarded  as  interpolation  tables.     Bremiker,  Tafel  der  Proportional- 
tables.^     ll^le  (Berlin,  1843),  gives  proportional  parts  to  hundredths  of  all 
Dcfmbera  from  70"to699.     Scnroo,  LogariUi-ms,  contains  an  inter- 
polation table  giving  the  first  hundred  multiples  of  all  numbers 
.from  40  to  '410.     Tables  of  the  values  of  binomial  theorem  coef- 
ficients, which  are  required  when  second  and  higher  orders  of  differ- 
ences are  used,  are  describerl  below.     Woolhouse,  OnJnterjtolaliont 
:SuinT7ialion^  and  the  AdjuStjnent  of  Nwmerical   Tables  (London, 
:  1865),  contains  nine  pages  of  interpolation  t-ibles.     The  book  con- 
sists of  papers  extracted  from  vols.  xi.  and  xii.  of  the  Assurance 
Magazine. 
Dual  Dual  Logarithms.— This  term  is  used  by  Mr  Oliver  Byrne  in  his 

logi-      -  Jhial  Arithmetic,    young  Lhial   Arithmetician,    Tables  of  Dual 
nthms.     ioyoriMmj,  &C.  (London,  1863-67).     A  dual  number  of  the  ascend- 
isj;  btaoch  is  a  continued  product  of  powers  of  11, 101,  1001,  ic. 


taken  in  order,  the  powers  onlv  being  expressed;  thus  a  6,9,7,8 
denotes  (1  1)«(1'01)9(1'001)'(1  oobl)',  the  numbers  following  tha 
■^  being  called  dual  digits,  A  dual  number  which  has  all  bilt  tha 
last  digit  zeros  is  called  a  dual  logarithm  ;  the  author  uses  dual 
logarithms  in  which  there  are  seven  ciphers  between  the  j,  aud  tha 
logarithms.  A  dual  number  of  the  descending  branch  is  a  con- 
tinued product  of  powers  of  '9,  '99,  &c. :  for  instance,  (  9)'(  99)"  is 
denoted  by  ■3'2T.  The  Tables,  which  occupy  112  pages,  giva 
dual  numbers  and  logarithms,  both  of  the  ascending  and  descends 
ing  branches,  and  the  corresponding  natural  numbers.  The  author 
claimed  that  his  tables  were  superior  to  those  of  common  logarithms. 

Constards. — In  nearly  all  tables  of  logarithms  there  is  a  page  de-  Cori- 
Toted  to  certain  frequently  used  coDsUnts  and  their  logarithms,  staattk 

such  OS  T,  -,  ifi,  sjv.    A  specially  good  collection  is  printed  in 

Templeton's  Millwright s  and  Engineer  s  Poel'ct  Companion  (cor« 
reeled  by  S.  Maynard,  London.  1871),  which  gives  58  constants 
involving  r  and  their  logarithms,  generally  to  30  places,  and  13 
others  that  may  h«  properly  called  mathematical.  A  good  list  of 
constants  involving  ir  is  given  in  Salomon  (1827).  A  paper  by 
Paucker  in  Grunert's  Archiv  (vol.  i.  p.  9)  has  a  number  of  con- 
stants involving  r  given  to  a  great  many  places,  and  Gauss's  memoil 

on  the  lemniscate  function  ( Iferke,  vol.  iii.)  has  e'"^,  e"  ,  e"'"^, 
&a,  calculated  to  about  50  places.  The  quantity  ir  has  been  worked 
out  to  707  places  (Shanks,  Proc  Hoy  Soc,  vol.  xxi.  p.  319)  and 
Euler's  constant  to  263  places  (Adams,  Proc.  Hoy.  Soc,  vol.  xxvii. 
p.  88),  The  value  of  the  modulus  ^f,  calculated  by  Prof  Adams, 
IS  given  in  Logabithms,  vol.  xiv  p  779.  This  value  is  correct' 
to  263  places  ;  but  the  calculation  nas  since  been  carried  to  272 
places  (see  Adams,  Proc  Hoy   Soc,  vol.  xliL  p.  22,  1887).  -'■ 

Tables  for  the  Solution  of  the  Irreducible  Case  in  Cubic  Eguations. —  IrrediicI* 
Lambert,  Supplementa  l\79S),  gives  ±(x-x')  from  a;  =001  to  1155  ble  cubic 
at  intervals  of  '001  to  7  places,  and  Bariow  (1814)  gives  x'-x  from  equation* 
x=l  to  11549  at  intervals  of  0001  to  8  places. 

Eimmial  Theorem  Coe£icuynts. — The  values  of  '  .  JBinoniiaf 

-,  ,       a(z-l)    x[x-  l)(j-2)        z(j-l).  ..  (x-5)  theorem', 

•  1.2     '         1.2.3       •  ■  ■  ■  1 . 2 ...  6         '  cp^ffi- 

from  x=  "Ol  to  x=  1  at  inlervals  of  '01  to  7  places,  are  serviceable  for  eieuts, 

use  in  interpolation  by  second  and  higher  orders-  of  differences. 

The  table  quoted  above  occurs  in  ScliiiUo  (1778),  Barlow  (1S14), 

Vega  (1797  and  succeeding  editions),  Hantschl  (1827),  and  Kohler 

(1848).     Rouse,  Doctrine  y/"  CAanccs  (London,  no  dale),  gives  on  a 

folding  sheet  (a  +  6)"  for  ii=l,  2, . . .  20.     Lambert,  Supplementa 

(179S),  has  the  coefficients  of  the   first  16  terms  in  (l-Hx)i  and 

(l-z)4,  their  accurate  values  being  given  as  decimals.     Vega  (1797) 

113  1 

has  a  page  of  tables  giving  5-—,      '        . . . ;— -5, . , .  and  similar 

quantities  to  10  places,  with  their  logarithms  to  7  places,  and  a 
page  of  this  kind  occurs  in  other  collections.  Kohler  (1848)  gives 
the  values  of  40  such  quantities.  x(x  +  1) 

FiguraU  Numbers. — Lambert,  Supplememta,  gives  X, —  .,  , . . .  Figuraia 
a:(i-Kl)...(x  +  ll) ,  ■,  »  „»  numbers 
1.2...]2      'fr°mx=lto30. 

Trigonometrical  Quadratic  Surds. — The  surd  values  of  the  sines  Trigona- 
of  every  third  degree  of  the  quadrant  are  given  in  some  tables  of  metrical" 
logarithms;    e.g.,   in    Hutlon's   (p.    xx.\i.\.,    ed.    1855),    we    find  quadiatio 
sin  3°=i{V(5  +  V5)■^  ^/V■"^V?-\/(15■^3^y5)-^/?-^/5^;  and  surds.   •  ' 
the  numerical  values  of  the  surds  \/{b  +  \/f>),  V(V).  ^'e.,  are  given 
to  10  places.     These  values  were  extended  to  20  places  by  Peter 
Gray,  Mcssengcro/Math.,  vol.  vL  (1877),  p.  105. 

.Circulating  Decimals.  —  Goodwyn's  tables  have  been  described  Circulat* 
above,  p.  8.     Several  otliers  have  been  published  giving  the  num-  ing  deci« 
bers  of  digits  in  the  periods  of  the  reciprocals  of  primes  :  Burck-  niols, 
hardt.  Tables  dcs  Diviseurs  du  Premier  Million  (Paris,  1814-17),  , 
gave  one  for  all  primes  up  to  2,543  and  for  22  primes  exceeding 
that  limit.     Desmarest,  Thiorie  dcs  Nombres {Paris,  1852),  included 
all  primes  up  to  10,000.     Reuschle,  Mathcmatische  Abhandlung, 
cnthaltend  neue  zahlcnlheorelische  Tabellen  (1856),  contains  a  siml* 
lar  table  to  15,000.     This  Shanks  extended  to  60,000  ;  the  portion 
from  1  to  30,000  is  printed  in  the  Proc  Pay.  Soc,  vol.  xxii.  p.  200, 
and  the  remainder  is  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  society  {Id., 
xxiii.  p.  260  and  xxiv.  p.  392).      The  number  of  digits  in  tha 

decimal  period  of  -  is  the  same  as  the  exponent  to  which  10  be* 

longs  for  modulus  p.  so  that,  whenever  the  period  has  p  -  1  digits, 
10  is  a  primitive  root  of  p.  Tables  of  primes  having  a  given  number, 
Ji,  of  digits  in  their  periods,  i.e.,  tables  of  the  resolutions  of  10"-  1 
into  factors  and,  as  far  as  known,  into  prime  factors,  have  been 
given  by  Loof  (in  Orunert's  Archiv,  vol.  xvi.  p.  54  ;  reprinted  in 
Nouo.  Annales,  vol.  xiv.  p.  115)  and  by  Shanks  {Proc.  Roy.  Soc, 
vol.  xxii.  p.  381).  The  former  extends  to  n  =  60  and  the  latter  to 
n  =  100,  but  there  are  gaps  in  both.  Reuschle's  tract  also  contains 
resolutions  of  10"-  1.  For  further  referencea  on  circulating  deci' 
mals,  see  Proc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc,  vol.  iii.  p.  185  (1878). 
Pythagorean  rriansfes.— Right-angled  triangles  ia  which  til* 


14 


TABLES 


Powers 
of  V. 


Series ' 


Pj-tha-  sides  and  hj-pothemise  are  all  rational  integers  are  frequently  termed 
.gorean  Pjtliagorean  triangles,  as,  for  example,  the  triangles  3,  i,  6  an4 
triangles.  5,  12,  13.  Sclmlze,  Sammlung  (1778),  contains  a  table  of  such 
triangles  subject  to  the  condition  tan'jaoijV  C"  being  one  of  the 
acute  angles).  About  100  triangles ,  are  given,  but  some  occur 
twice.  Largo  tables  of  right-angled  rational  triangles  were  given 
bv  Bretschneider,  in  GruiicH's  Archiv,  vol.  L  p.  96  (1841),  and  by 
Sang,  Edinburgh  Transadiotis,  vol.  xxiil  p.  727  (1864).  In  these 
the  triangles  are  arranged  according  to  hypothenusea  and  extend 
to  1201,  1200,  49,  and  1105,  1073,  264  respectively.  Whitworth, 
in  a  paper  read  before  the  Lit.  and  Phil.  Society  of  Liverpool  in 
1875,  carried  his  list  as  far  as  2465,  2337,  784.  See  also  Rath, 
"  Die  rationalen  Dreiecke,"  in  Gmnerl'a  Archiv,  voL  IvL  p.  188 
(1874).  Bang's  paper  also  contains  a  table  of  triangles  having  an 
angle  equal  to  120  and  their  sides  integers. 

Powers  of  TT. — Paucker,  in  Grunert's  Archiv,  voL  L  p.  10,  gives 
7r"*  and  wi  to  140  places,  andir"^,  r'i,  ir^,  "^  to  about  50  places ; 
and  in  Ma3maid'slistofconstants(see"Constants,"abovB).ir^  is  given 
to  31  places.  The  first  twelve  powers  of  ir  and  ir"'  to  22  or  more 
places  were  printed  by  Glaisher,  J'roc.  Land.  Math.  Soc.,  vol.  viii.  p. 
140,  and  the  first  hundred  multiples  of  ir  and  ir"*  *»  12  placps  by 
Kulik,  Tafel  dcr  Qtmdrat-und  Kubik-Zahlen  (Leipsic,  1848). 

2'/M&n«l-"  +  2-''  +  3-''+  i:c.^LetiS„,s„,<r„  denote  respectively 
the  sums  of  the  series  1""  +  2""  +  3""  +  &c.,  l-"-2-"+3-''-&c., 
1""  +  3"" ^ 5""  +  &c.  Legendre  {Traitd  dcs  Fondions  EUiptiqucs, 
vol.  ii.  p.  432)  has  computed  S„  to  16  places  from  »  =  1  to  35,  end 
Glaisher  {Proc.  Land.  Math.  Soc,  vol.  iv.  p.  48)  has  deduced s„  and 
ffn  for  the  same  arguments  and  to  the  same  number  of  places.  Tlio 
latter  has  also  given  S„,  s„,  <t„  for  n  —  2,  4,  6,  . . .  12  to  22  or  more 
places  {Prcc  Zand.  Math.  Soc,  vol.  viii.  p.  140),  and  the  values 
of  2,,  where  2o=2"''  +  3~"  +  5~"+ &c.  (prime  numbers  only  in- 
volved), for  Jt=2,  4,  6, ...  36  to  15  places  Ifiomptc  Rcndu.de  V Assoc. 
FrMnr,aisc  for  1878,  p.  172). 
Hyper-  Tables  of  e'  and  e~',  or  Hyperbolic  Aniilogarithms. — The  largest 
'bolic  tables  are  the  following.  Gudermann,  Thcori^  dcr  potcnzial- oder 
antilog-  cyklischrhypcrboliscJicn  Funciioiicn  (Berlin,  1833),  which  consists  of 
■  aritluns,  papers  reprinted  from  vols.  viii.  and  ix.  of  Crellc's  Journal,  and 
gives  log,,  sinh  x,  log,„  cosh  x,  and  logu  tanh  x  from  x  =  2  to  5  at 
intervals  of  '001  to  9  places  and  from  x  =  5  to  12  at  intervals  of  '01 
to  10  places.  Since  sinh  x=\{e'-e~')  and  cosh  r=4(c'  +  e-'),  the 
values  of  e»  and  e~'  are  deducible  at  once  by  addition  and  sub- 
traction. Newman,  in  Camb.  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  xiii.  pp.  145.241, 
gives  values  of  c~'  from  k  =  0  to  15'349  at  intervals  of  -001  to  12 
places,  from  k  =  15'350  to  17'298  at  intervals  of  '002,  and  from 
x=  17-300  to  27-635  at  intervals  of  -005,  to  14  places.  Glaisher, 
in  Camb.  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  .xiii.  pp.  243-272,  gives  four  tabWs  of  e', 
e~',  logio  C,  log,,,  C,  their  ranges  bcitig  from  x=-001  to  -1  at  in- 
terv.ils  of  001,  from  -01  to  2  at  intervals  of  -01,  from  "1  to  10  at 
intervals  of  -1,  from  1  to  500  at  intervals  of  unity.  Vega,  Tabules 
(1797  and  later  (^J.),  has  log^e*  to  7  places  and  e*  to  7  figures 
from  3-=  01  to  10  at  intervals  of  -01.  Kbhler's  Handbuch  contains 
a  small  table  of  c'.  In  Schulze's  Sammlung  (1778)  (^  is  given  for 
K  =  l,  2,  3,  ...2".  to  28  or  29  figjires  and  for  x  =  25,  30,  and  60  to 
32  or  33  figures  ;  this  table  is  printed  in  Glaisher's  paper  (Joe.  cil.). 
In  Salomon's  Tafcln  (1827)  the  values  of  e",  e-,  e«",  <^-»'», . . .  e-o»»»«»", 
where  n  has  the  values  1,  2,  ...9,  ere  given  to  12  places.  Bret- 
schneider, in  Grunert's  Archiv,  iii.  p.  33,  worked  out  C  and  e"*  and 
also  sin  x  and  cos  z  for  x= 1 ,  2, ...  10  to  20  places. 
Facto-  Factorials.— Thu  values  of  log,,  (nl),  where  n\  denotes  1.2.Z...n, 

rials.  from  n  =  l  to  1200  to  18  places,  are  given  by  Degen,  Tabulanim 
EnMos  (Copenhagen,  1824),  and.teprinted,  to  6  places,  at  the  end 
of  De  Morgan's  article  "Probabilities"  in  the  Encycl(g>xdia  Mefro- 
\!olita-na.  Shovtrede,  Tables  (1849,  vol.  i. ),  gives  log  (?i !)  to  »= 1000 
to  6  places,  and  for  the  arguments  ending  in  0  to  8  places.  Cegen 
rilso  gives  the  complements  of  the  logarithms.     The  first  20  figures 


of  the  valnea  of  .n  x  n!  and  the  values  of  log,( 


nxnl 


are  computed 


Bcrnoul- 
lian  num- 
bers. 


fables  of 
log  tan 
(iT  +  iW- 


by  Glaisher  as  far  as  n=71  in  the  Phil.  Trans,  for  1870  (p.  370), 
and  the  values  of  —r  to  28  significant  figures  as  far  as  n=50  in 

Camb.  Phil.  Trans.,  vol  xiii.  p.  246. 

Bcmoullian  Numbers. — The  first  fifteen  Bemoulliari  numbers 
were  given  by  Euler,  InsL  Cak.  Diff. ,  part  ii.  ch.  v.  Sixteen  more 
were  calculated  by  Rothe,  and  the  first  thirty-one  were  published 
by  Ohm  in  Crellc's  Journal,  vol.  xx.  p.  11.  Prof  J.  C.  Adams 
has  calculated  the  next  thirty-one,  and  a  table  of  the  first  sixty- 
two  was  published  by  him  in  the  Brit.  Assoc  Pcport  for  1877  and 
in  Crellc's  Journal,  vol.  Ixxxv.  p.  2G9.  The  first  nine  figures  of 
the  values  of  the  first  250  BernouUian  numbers,  and  their  Briggian 
logarithms  to  10  places,  have  been  printed  by  Glaisher,  Camb.  Phil. 
Trans.,  vol.  xii.  p.  384. 

Tables  of  foj  fcra  (Jir-f  J0). — Gudermann,  Theorie  dcr  potenyial- 
odcr  cyklisch'hypcrbolischen  Functitmcn  (Berlin,  1833),  gives  (in  100 
pages)  log  tan(ijr-f  ^^)  for  every  centesimal  minute  of  the  quadrant 
to  7  places.  Another  table  contains  the  values  of  this  function, 
also  at  intervals  of  a  minute,  from  88°  to  100°  (centesimal^  to  11 


places.  Legendre,  TraiU  dcs  Fondions  Ellijjliqucs  (vol.  n.  p.  256),' 
gives  the  same  function,  for  every  half  degree  (sexagesimal)  of  tha 
quadrant  to  12  places. 

The  GamvM  Function. — Legendre's  great  table  appeared  in  vol.  Gamm« 
ii.  of  his  Exerrciccs  de  Calcul  Integral  (1816),  p.  85,  and  in  vol.  ii.  fnnctioaj 
of  his  Traili  dcs  Fonctions  EUiptiqms  (1826),  p.  489.  Log,„  r(2) 
,  is  given  from  x=l  to  2  at  intervals  of  -001  to  12  places,  with  differ, 
ences  to  the  third  order.  This  table  is  reprinted  in  full  in  Schlii. 
milch,  Analytische  Sl-udien  (1848),  p.  183  ;  an  abridgment  in  which 
the  arguments  differ  by  '01  occurs  in  De  Morgan,  Diff,  and  Int.] 
Calc,  p.  587.  The  la.st  figures  of  the  vali.es  omitted  are  also  sup.' 
plied,  so  that  the  full  table  can  bo  rt/loduced.  A  seven-place 
abridgment  (withonl  differences)  is  published  in  Berti-and,  Calmi 
Integral  (1870),  p.  2;  5,  and  a  sLx-figure  abridgment  in  Williamson^ 
PUcgral  Calculus  (18,  4),  p.  169.  In  vol.  i.  of  bis  Eierciecs  (1311),', 
Legendre  had  previoiv  ly  published  a  seven-place  table  of  log,,  V{x), 
without  differences. 

Tables  conneded  w'th  Elliptie  Functions. — Legendre  calculated  Elliptic, 
elaborate  tables  of  the  elliptic  integrals  in  vol.  ii.  of  TraiU  (Zctfanction* 
Fondions  Ellip'.igucs  (1826).  Denoting  the  modular-angle  by  0, 
the  an  plitude  by  0,  and  the  incomplete  integral  of  the  second  kind 
by  £,  {<p)  the  t  ibles  are— (1 )  log,,  E  and  log,.  A'  from  fl  =  0°  to  90," 
at  intervals  of  0°-l  to  12  or  14  places,  with  differences  to  the  thitd 
order  ;  (2)  £■,(  .)  and  P  tp),  the  modular  angle  being  45°  from  ^=0* 
to  90°  at  intervals  of  0°-5  to  12  places,  with  differences  to  the  fifth 
order  ;  (3)  £',  (15°)  and  ^^"(45°)  from  0  =  0"  to  90°  at  intervals  of  1°, 
with  dififerences  to  the  sixth  order,  also  E  and  K  for  the  same  argu- 
ments, all  to  12  places  j  (4)  .£,(>?)  and  Fi<p)  for  every  degree  of 
both  the  amplitude  and  the  argument  to  9  or  10  places.  The  first 
three  tables  had  been  published  previously  in  vol  iii  of  the  Excr* 
decs  de  Calcul  InUgral:{l^\&). 

Tables  involving  j.^-Verhulst,  Trait4  dcs  Fonctions  ElliptiqtusTMea 

(Brussels,  1841),  contains  a  table  of  log„log„  (-\  for  argument  *|^„°„''' 

at  intervals  o!'  0°-l  to  12  or  14  places.  Jacobi,  in  Crclle's  Journal, 
voL  xxvi.  p.  93,  gives  log,,  q  from  ff  =  0°  to  90°  at  inter^-als  of  0°-Z 
to  5  places.  Meissel,  Sammlung  mathanatixher  Tafeln,  i.  (Iscr- 
lohn,  1860),  consistsof  a  table  of  log,,  y  at  intervals  of  1' from  8  =  0' 
to  90°  to  8  places.  Glaisher,^  in  Month.  Not.  Roy.  Ast.  Soc,  vol. 
xxxvii.  p.  372  (1877),  gives  log,,  g  to  10  places  and  j  to  9  places  for 
every  degree.  In  Bertrand,  Calcul  Ini^gral  (1870),  a  table  of  log,,  j 
from  0=0°  to  90°  at  intervals  of  6'  to  6  places  is  accompanied  by 

/2J?  1  ' 

tables 'of  log,,     / —  and  logi,log„  -  and  by  .abridgments  of 
fSJ    tr  ^  q 

Legendre's  tables  of  the  elliptic  integrals.  Schlomilch,  Vorlesungcn 
dcr  hihcren  Analysis  (Brunswick,  1879),  p.  448,  gives  a  small  table 
of  log,,  q  for  every  degree  to  5  places. 

Lcgendrian  Cocfficimis. — The  values  of  P'ix)  for  n  =  1,  2,  3, ...  7  Lt,,. 
from  a  =  0  to  1  at  intervals  of  -01  are  given  by  Glaisher,  in  Brit,  diian  c6^ 
Assoc.  Rep.  for  1879,  pp.  54-57.  The  functions  tabulated  are  P\x)=x,  efficients." 
P»(z)  =  JK3x=-l),    P-'{x)  =  i{53?-Sx),    P'{x)  =  H3&3e'-30x'  +  Z),' 
/«(a:)  =  J(63r»-70x'-Ho.--),    P«(a;)  =  ^(23l3;«- 315x« -1-1052--5), 
P'{x)  =  -,^(429x'- 693x5 -H?I5x'-35x).      fhe   functions   occur   in 
connexion  with  the   tVeo-y  of  interpolation,   the  attraction  of 
spheroids,  and  other  ply-sicil  theories. 

Ecsscl's  Fundions. — Bessel's  original  table  appeared  at  the  endBessel's 
of  his  memoir  "  Untcrsuchung  des  planetirischen  Tlieils  derfunc- 
Storungen,  welche  aus  der  Bewegung  der  Sonne  entstehen  "  (in  tions 
Abh.  d.'  Bc'^'u  Akad.,  1824;  reprinted  in  vol.  i.  of  his  Abhand- 
lungen,\'.  84).  It  gives  7,{x)  and  7i{x)fi-om'x=0  to  3-2  at  intervals 
of  -01.  More  extensive  tables  were  calculated  by  Hansen  in  "  Ermit- 
telung  der  absoluten  Stbrungen  in  EUipsen  von  beliebiger  Excen- 
tricitat  und  Neigung"  (in  Schri/tcn  der  Stcmwarte  Secbcrg,  part  i, 
Gotha,  1843).  'They  include  an  extension  of  Be.isel's  original  table 
to  x=20,  besides  smaller  tables  of  JJ.x)  for  certain  values  of  n  as 
far  asn=2S,  all  to  7  places..  Hansen's  table  was  reproduced  by 
Schlomilch,  in  Zeilschr,  fur  Math.,  vol  ii.  p.  158,  and  by  Lommel, 
Studicn  ilbcr  die  Bcsscl'schcn  Functioncn  (Leipsic,  1868),  p.  127. 
Hansen's  notation  is  slightly  different  from  Bessel's ;  the  change 
amounts  to  halving  each  argument.  Schlomilch  gives  the  table 
in  Hansen's  form  ;  Lommel  expresses  it  in  Bessel's 

Sine,  Cosine,  Exponential,  and  Logarithm  Integrals. — The  func- Sine,  itc, 


,    /"-'sinx  ,       /*cosx  .       /"'  e». 


tions  so  named  are  the  integrals 

, ,  which  are  denoted  by  the  functional  signs  Six,  Cix,  EizL 

0  logx 

Ii  X  respectively.    Soldner,  Thioric  ct  Tables  d'une  Nouvclle  Fonciim 

Transccjuiantc  (Mmiich,  1809),  gave  the  values  of  lix  from  x  =  0  to 

1  at  intervals  of  -1  to  7  places,  and  thence  at  various  intervals  to 

1220  to  5  or  more  places.     This  table  is  reprinted  in  De  Morgan's 

Diff.  and  Int.  Calc,  p.  662.     Bretschneidar,  in  Grunert's  Arcliiv, 

vol.  iii.  p.  33,  calculated  Ei  (±x).  Six,  Cix  forx=l,  2,  ...10  to  20 

places,  and  subsequently  (in  Schlbmilch's  ZeUschrift,  vol.  vi.)  worked 

out  the  values  of  the  same  functions  from  x  =  0  to  1  at  intervals  of 

•01  and  from  1  to  7 '5  at  intervals  of  '1  to  10  places.     Two  tracts 

by  L.  Stenberg,  Tahulm  Logarithmi  Integralis  (Malmo,  part  i.  J8Jl^ 


T  A  B  — T  A  B 


15 


and  part  ii.  1867),  giTe  the  values  of  li  10'  from  i=  -  15  to  35  at 
iutcivals  of  01  to  IS  places.  Glaislier,  in  FhU.  Trans.,  1S70,  p.  367, 
givis  Ei(±J-),  Sir,  Cxj  from  z  =  0  to  1  at  intervals  of  -01  to  18 
pUcca,  from  2=1  to  5  at  iiitorvals  of  *1  anil  tlieace  to  15  at  intervals 
of  unity,  and  for  r  =  20  to  11  places,  besides  seven-place  tables  of 
Six  and  Ctxaiid  tablets  of  ttieir  ntaxnnuin  and  minimum  values. 
See  also  B<:llavitis,  "Tavole  Nuinericlie  Lof^ritmo-Intcgralc"  (a 
pa|>cr  in  Mcmoirsofthe  Venetian  Ituitttutc,  1S74).  Uesscl  calculated 
the  v.ilues  of  li  1000,  li  10,000,  li  100,000,  li  200,000, . . .  li  600,000, 
and  li  l.OuO.OOO  (see  Abhaiidlmigen,  vol.  ii.  p.  339).  In  Glaislier, 
i'aclor  T^itle  for  the-  Sixth  Milltim  (18S3),  §  iii.,  tlio  valuc-s  of  li  x 
are  -ivon  from  x=0  Jo  9,000,000  at  intervals  of  60,000  to  the 
nearest  integer. 
Valuta  of  Values  of  C'c'^iU  and  c''/''e~''dx.—Thcso  functions  are  eni- 

fe-^dx       ployed  in  Toscaiches  connected  with  refraction'^,  theory  of  errore, 
,nj  conduction  of  heat,  ic     'LxxT'c'^'dx  aiiir   <!"'"(ic  bo  denoted 

t^f'e"'dx.  I'y  Erfx  and  Erfox  rcs|iectively,  standing  fur  "error  function"  and 
•'•  "error  function  com[>lement,"  so  that  Erfx+Eifu  x^^V""  {/*'**'. 

Jfag.,  Dec  lt71 ;  it  has  since  been  found  convenient  to  transpose 
as  above  the  delinitions  of  Erf  and  Erfc).  The  tables  of  the 
functions,  and  of  tlie  functions  multiplied  by  e'',  are  as  follows. 
Kianip,  Analyse  dcs  infractions  (Strasburg,  179S),  has  Erfcx  fiom 
x  =  0  to  3  at  intervals  of  "01  to  S  or  more  places,  also  logj^  (Erfcx) 
and  lo;;,,/<^'Erfc  x)  for  the  same  values  to  7  places.  Ecssel,  Funcla- 
vtenttt  Aslronomiae  (Konigsberg,  1818),  has  logi.Xc^'Erfc  x)  fiom  x  =  0 
to  1  at  intervals  of  "01  to  7  idaces,  likewise  for  argument  1%'ioX, 
the  arguments  increasing  from  0  to  1  at  intervals  of  01.  Legend  re, 
Truiu  da  functions  EUtpli<iucs  (1S26),  vol.  ii.  p.  520,  contains 
rii,«"'^),  that  is,  2  Erfcx  from  x=0  to  -5  at  intervals  of  01  to  10 

9 

places.     Eucke,  Berliner  Ast.  Jahrbueh  for  1834,  prints  — ^  Erf  x 

•  2  \/t 

from  x=0  to  2  at  intervals  of  01  to  7  places  and  — -  Erf  {pji)  from 

t  =  0  to  3  4  at  intervals  of  01  and  thence  to  5  at  intervals  of  -1  to 
5  places,  pbeing  -4769360.  Glaisher,  in  Phil.  Mag.,  December  1S7I, 
has  calculated  Eifc  x  from  .r  =  3  to  4'5  at  intervals  of  01  to  11,  13, 
or  H  places.  Encke's  tables  and  two  of  Kramp's  were  reprinted 
in  the  £ncyclopsdia  iiitropoUtnna,  art.  "  Probabilities." 

Tables  of  Intcgrah,  not  Numerical.  —  Meyer  Hirsch,  Integral' 
tcifeln(\i\0  .  Eog.  trans.,  1823),  and  Minding,  /ii^cjra/ta/dn  (Berlin, 
1849),  give  values  of  indefinite  integrals  and  formulae  of  reduction  ; 
both  are  useful  and  valuable  works.  De  Haan,  Nouvelles  Tables 
Slntegrnlcs  £it/!iii«(Leyden,  1867),  is  a  quarto  volume  of  727  pages 
containing  evaluations  of  definite  integrals,  arranged  in  485  tables. 
The  fir-st  edition  appeared  in  vol.  iv.  of  the  Transactions  of  the 
Amsterdam  Academy  of  Sciences.  This,  though  not  so  full  and 
accurate  as  the  second  edition,  gives  references  to  the  original 
memoirs  in  wliich  the  different  integrals  are  considered. 

Tables  relating  to  Iht  Theory  of  Numbers. — These  are  of  so  tech- 
nical a  character  and  so  numerous  that  a  fu]l  account  cannot  be 
attempted  here.  The  reader  is  referred  to  Cayley's  paper  in  the 
Brit.  Assoc.  Rep.  for  1875,  where  a  full  description  with  references 
is  given.  Three  tables  may,  however,  be  biiefiy  noticed  on  account 
of  their  importance  and  because  they  form  separate  volumes:  (1) 
Degcn,  Canon  Pcllianus  (Copenhagen,  1817),  relates  to  the  inde- 
terminate equation  y^-az^=l  for  values  of  a  from  1  to  1000.  It 
in  fact  gives  the  expression  for  \Ja  as  a  continued  fraction  ;  (2) 
Jacobi,  Canon  Arithmeticus  (Berlin,  1839),  is  a  quarto  work  contain- 
ing 240  pages  of  tables,  where  we  find  for  each  prime  up  to  1000 
the  numbers  corresponding  to  given  indices  and  the  indices  corre- 
sponding to  given  numbers,  a  certain  primitive  root  (10  is  taken 
whenever  it  is  a  primitive  root)  of  the  prune  being  selected  as  base  ; 
(3)  Reuschle,  TafUn  completer  Primzahlcn,  weleheaus  IVurzeln  der 
Einheil  gebildd  eind  (Berlin,  1875),  includes  an  enormous  mass  of 
results  relating  to  the  higher  complex  theories.  A  table  of  x(n), 
where  x.'^nf  denotes  the  sum  of  the  complex  numbers  which  have  n 
for  their  norm  for  primes  up  ton  =  13,000(cf  Quart.  Jounu,yo\.  xx. 
p.  152),  his  been  published  since  the  date  of  Cayley's  report.  Some 
tables  that  belong  to  the  theory  of  numbers  have  been  described 
above  under  "Factor  Tables"  (p.  7). 

^iWioffrapfty.— Full  biblingraphical  and  historical  information  relating  to 
lobfes  13  collected  in  Brxt.  Assoc  Hrp.  for  1873,  p.  6.  The  principal  work?  are  : 
—  tleilbromier.  Hintoria  JlfQ(A«s«>s(Lelpsic,  1742),  theanthnietical  portion  beujg 
at  the  end  ;  Schejbel,  Einle^lung  nr  TruithfmaiiRchen  Pueherke-nntniis  (Creslau, 
1771. 84);  Kastner,  Gueht/^hle  d^  Mattiematik  (Gnttingen,  179fi-lS00)  vol  iii  - 
Murhard,  Bibttolhaa  A/aI*«7nuti™(X<ipsic,  1797-18041.  vol.  ii.;  Rocp.  Bilihotheca 
.*f«t/*riiuiXK,f  (Tubingen.  1S.X>).  and  continuation  from  1830  to  18M  by  Sohnke 
(L<i|«jc  and  L>Jndon,  18.'.4) ;  Lalande.  BiblioQTxiphif  A^tronomifpu  (Pans.  160S). 
a  :>e|ianit«  index  on  p.  060.  A  peat  deal  of  accurate  information  upon  early 
tablea  18  given  t>y  Delambre.  HiMorrr  de  V Aiironamie  Modem*  (Pans,  16'Jl), 
vol.  I.  ;  and  No^.  xix.  and  xx.  of  Hutlon's  Math^maiviaL  Trocta  (1812).  For  a 
ciHiiplete  list  of  Ingarithmic  ubies  of  ail  kinds  frnni  I6I4  to  18C2.  see  De  Haan. 
"  letx  over  Ixgarjthmeiltafels,"  in  t'ersUigen  en  Medfdeeiingeti  drr  Koning.  Akadi 
rnn  U'ttrn^eJiajfjifn  (Amsterdam,  lsi52),  pt.  xtv,  De  Morgan's  article  "Tabies," 
wliieh  appearwl  linit  in  the  Penny  Cyct<rpsedi^.  and  afterwards  with  additions 
In  the  Kitgli^h  Cy>J^'«ed\j3.  gives  not  only  a  good  deal  of  bibliographical  informa. 
tion  biit  also  an  accoonl  of  tables  relating  to  hie  assurance  and  annuities 
wtroiKimieal  tables,  commercial  tables,  &c.  (J.  W  L.  G  )  * 


T.\BOO  (also  written  Tabit  and  Tapu)  is  tho  rnino 
given  to  a  system  of  religious  [irohibitioiis  wliidi  attaiiiutl 
its  fullest  development  in  Polynesia  (from  Hawaii  to  New 
Zealand  ;  see  vol.  xix.  [i.  420),  but  of  which  under  different 
names  traces  m.iy  be  discovered  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 

The  word  "taboo"  is  common  to  tho  different  dialects  Mwwihig. 
of  Polynesia,  and  is  perhaps  derived  from  la,  "to  mark," 
and  ;i«,  an  adverb  of  intensity.  The  compound  word 
"tabtro"  (tapu)  would  thus  originally  .mean  "marked 
tlioroughly."  Its  ordinary  sense  is  "sacred."  It  docs  not, 
however,  imply  any  moral  quality,  but  only  "a  connexion 
with  the  gods  or  a  separation  from  ordinary  purposes  and 
exclusive  appropriation  to  persons  or  things  considered 
sacred  ;  sometimes  it  means  devoted  as  by  a  vow."  Chiefs 
who  trace  their  lineage  to  the  gods  are  called  arii  luhu, 
"  chiefs  sacred,"  and  a  temple  is  called  a  luahi  tabu,  "  place 
sacred."  The  converse  of  taboo  is  naa  (in  Tonga  e/nifwa), 
wliich  means  "general"  or  "common.".  Thus  tho  rulo 
which  forbade  w-omen  to  eat  with  men,  as  well  as,  except 
on  special  occasions,  to  eat  any  fruits  or  animals  offered  in 
sacrifice  to  the  gods,  was  called  ui  tabu,  "eating  sacred"; 
while  the  present  relaxation  of  the  rule  is  called  ai  noa, 
eating  generally,  or  having  food  in  common.  Although  it 
was  employed  for  civil  as  well  as  religious  purposes,  the 
taboo  was  essentially  a  religious  observance.  In  Hawaii 
it  could  be  imposed  only  by  priests ;  but  elsewhere  in 
Polynesia  kings  and  chiefs,  and  even  to  a  certain  extent 
ordinary  individuals,  exercised  the  same  power.  The 
strictness  with  which  the  taboo  was  observed  depended 
largely  on  the  influence  of  the  person  who  imjio.^ed  it; 
if  he  was  a  great  chief  it  would  not  be  broken ;  but  a 
powerful  man  often  set  at  nought  the  taboo  of  an  inferior.  . 

A  taboo  might  be  general  or  particular,  permanent  ofGeneroi 
temporary.  A  general  taboo  aiiplied,  e.'j.,  to  a  whole  class  ond  pArf 
of  animals  ;  a  particular  taboo  was  confined  to  one  or  more''^"'" 
individuals  of  the  class.  Idols,  temiiles,  the  persons  and 
names  of  kings  and  of  members  of  the  royal  family,  the 
persons  of  chiefs  and  priests,  and  the  property  (canoes, 
houses,  clothes,  A-c.)  of  all  these  classes  of  persons  were 
always  taboo  or  sacred.  By  a  somewhat  arbitrary  exten- 
sion of  this  principle  a  chief  could  render  taboo  to  {i.e.,  in 
favour  of)  himself  anything  which  took  his  fancy  by  merely 
calling  it  by  the  name  of  a  part  of  his  person.  Thus,  if  he 
said  "Tliat  axe  is  my  backbone,"  or  "is  my  head,"  the 
axe  was  his ;  if  he  roared  out  "  That  canoe !  my  skull  shall 
be  the  baler  to  bale  it  out,"  thft, canoe  was  his  likewise. 
The  names  of  chiefs  and  still  jnoTe  of  kings  were  taboo, 
and  could  not  be  uttered.  If  the  name  of  a  king  of  Tahiti 
was  a  common  word  or  even  reseinbled.a  common  word, 
that  word  dropped  out  of  use  and  a  new  name  was  sub- 
stituted for  it.  Thus  in  course  of  tune  Most  of  the  common 
words  in  the  language  underwent  oonsiderablemodifications 
or  were  entirely  change(L 

Certain  foods  were  permanefiiJy  taboo  to  (t  «'.,  in  favour  Dura. 
of  or  for  the  use  of)  gods  and  inen,  but  were  foibiddea  fot'ou. 
women.  Thus  in  Hawaii  the  flesh  of  hog3,  fowls,  turtle,.' 
and  several  kinds  of  fish,  cocoa-nuts,  and  nearly  e,rerythiiig 
offered  in  sacrifice  were  reserved  for  gods  and  men,  and 
could  not,  except  in  special  casis,  be  consumed  by  women. 
In  the  Marquesas  Islands  human  .riesh  was  tabooed  from 
women.  Sometimes  certain  fruits  animals,  and  fish  we're 
taboo  for  montlis  together  from  botli  men  and  women.  In 
the  Marquesas  houses  were  tabooed  against  water  :  nothing 
was  waidied  in  them  ;  no  drop  of  water  might  be  spilled 
in  thfem.  If  an  island  or  a  district  was  tabooed,  no  canoe 
or  pcrson'might  approach  it  while  the  taboo  lasted ;  if  a 
path  was  tabooed,  no  one  might  walk  on  it.  Seasons 
generally  kept  taboo  were  the  approach  of  a  great  religious 
cereniony,  the  time  of  preparation  for  war,  and  the^ickness 
of  chiefs.  _  The  time  during  which  they  lasted  varied  from 


16 


TABOO 


years  to  .months  or  days.     In  Hawaii  there  was  a  tradition 
of  one  that  lasted  thirty  years,  during  which  men  might,  not 
trifti  their  beards,  &c.     A  common  period  was  forty  days. 
A  taboo  was  either  common  or  strict.     During  a  common 
taboo  the  men  were  only  required  to  abstain  from  their 
ordinary  occupations  and  to  attend  morning  and  evening 
prayers.     But  during  a  strict  taboo  every  fire  and  light  on 
the  island  or  in  the  district  was  extinguished ;  no  canoe 
was  launched;  no  person  bathed;  no  one,  except  those 
I  who  had  to  attend  at  the  temple,  was  allowed  to  be  seen 
out  of  doorsj  no  dog  might  bark,  no  pig  grunt,  do  cock 
crow.     Hence  at  these  seasons  they  tied  up  the  mouths  of 
dogs  and  pigs,  and  put  fowls  tnder  a  calabash  or  bandaged 
their  eyes.     The  taboo  was  imposed  either  by  proclamation 
or  by  fixing  certain  marks  (a  pole  with  a  bunch  of  bamboo 
leaves,  a  white  cloth,  <fcc.)'on  the  places  or  things  tabooed. 
Penalty       The  penalty  for  the  violation  of  a  taboo  was  either  religions  or 
for  Tio-    civil     The  religious  penalty  inflicted  by  the  offended  atuas  or 
Ution.      spirits  generally  took  tne  form  of  a  disease :  the_  offender  swelled 
'  np  and  died,  the  notion  being  that  the  atua  or  his  emissary  (often 
an  infant  spirit)  had  entered  into  him  and  devoured  his  vitals. 
,  Cases  are  on  record  in  which  persons  who  had  unwittingly  broken 
;  a  taboo  actually  died  of  terror  on  discovering  their  fatal  error. 
;  Chiefs  and  priests,  howfever,  could  in  the  case  of  involuntary  trans- 
gressions perform  certain  mystical  ceremonies  which  prevented  this 
penalty  from  taking  effect.     The  civil  penalty  for  breaking  a  taboo 
varied  in  severity.    In  Hawaii  there  were  police  officers  appointed  by 
'  the  king  to  see  that  the  taboo  was  observed,  and  every  breach  of  it 
1  was  punished  with  death,  unless  the  offender  had  powerful  friends  in 
the  persons  of  priests  or, chiefs.     Elsewhere  the  punishment  was 
milder;  in  Fiji  (which,  however,  is  Melanesian)  death  was  rarely 
inflicted,  but  the  delinquent  was  robbed  and  his  gardens  despoiled. 
In  New  Zealand  this  judicial  robbery  was  reduced  to  a  system.     No 
sooner  was  it  'known  that  a  man  had  broken  a  taboo  than  all  his 
friends  and  acquaintances  swarmed  down  on  him  and  carried  off 
whatever'they  could  lay  hands  on.     Under  this  system  (known  as 
mum.)  property  cu-culated  with  great  rapidity.     If,  e.g.,  a  child 
fell  into  the'fire.  the  latner  was  robbed  oi  nearly  all  he  possessed.' 
Things    -     IJesides  the  nermanent  and  the  artificially  created  taboos  there 
natural]^  were  others  whicn  arose  spontaneously  as  a  result  of  circumstances. 
taboo.       Thus  all  persons  dangerouslv  ill  were  taboo  and  were  removed  from 
their  houses  to  sheas  mthe  bush  ;  if  they  remained  in  the  house 
and  died  there  the  house  was  tabooed  and  deserted.     Jlothers  after 
childbirth  were  taboo,  and  so  were  their  new-born  children.    Women 
before  marriage' were  noa,  and  could  have  as  many  lovers  as  they 
chose ;  but  after  marriage  they  were  strictly  tabooed  to  their 
husbands  and  from  every  one  else.     One  of  the  strictest  taboos 
'was  incurred  by  all  persons  who  handled  the  body  or  bones  of  a 
dead  person  or  assisted  at  his  funeral.     In  Tonga  a  common  person 
Avho  touched  a  dead  chief  was  tabooed  for  ten  lunar  months  ;  a 
chief  who  touched  a  dead  chief  was  tabooed  for  from  three  to  five 
months  according  to  the  rank  of  the  deceased.     Burial  grounds 
were  taboo  ;  and  m  New  Zealand  a  canoe  which  had  carried  a  corpse 
was  never  afterwards  used,  but  was  drawn  on  shore  and  painted  red. 
'  Ked  was  the  taboo  colour  in  New  Zealand  ;  in  Hawaii,  Tahiti, 
Tonga,  and  Samoa  it  was  white.     In  the  Marquesas  a  man  who  had 
slain  an  enemy  was  taboo  for  ten  days :  he  might  havg  no  inter- 
course with  his  wife  and  might  not  meddle  with  fire  ;  he  had  to  get 
some  one  else  to  cook  for  him.     A  woman  engaged  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  cocoa-nut  oil  was  taboo  for  five  days  or  more,  during  which 
she  might  have  no  intercourse  mth  men.     A  tabooed  person  might 
not  eat  his  food  with  his  hands,  but  «as  fed  by  another  person  ;  if  he 
could  get  no  one  to  feed  him,  he  had  to  go  down  on  his  knees  and  pick 
up  his  food  with  his  mouth,  holding  his  hands  behind  him.     A  chief 
wno  was  permanently  taboo  never  ate  in  his  own  house  but  always 
in  the  open  air,  beiug  fed  by  one  of  his  wives,  or  taking  his  food 
with  the  help  of  a  fern  stalk  so  as  not  to  touch  his  head  with  his 
hands  ;  food  left  by  him  was  kept  for  him  in  a  sacred  place ;  any 
other  person  eating  of  it  was  supposed  to  die  immediately.     A  man 
of  any  standing  could  not  carry  provisions  on  his  back  ;  if  he  did 
80  they  became  taboo  and  were  useless  to  any  one  but  himself.     For 
the  taboo  was  communicated  as  it  were  by  infection  to  whatever  a 
taboojd  person  or  thing  touohed.   This  rule  applied  in  its  fullest  force 
to  the  king  and  queen  of  Tahiti.     The  ground  they  trod  on  became 
sacred  ;  if  they  entered  a  house,  it  became  taboo  to  them  and  had 
to  be  abandoned  to  them  by  its  owner.     Hence  special  houses  were 
)    '  The  origin  of  this  custom  may  perhaps  be  discerned  in  a  custom 
of  the  Dicri  tribe,  South  Australia.     Among  them,.  If  a  child  meets 
,with  an  accident,  all  its  relations  immediately  get  th^hf  heads  broken 
|with  sticks  or  boomerangs  till  the  blood  flows  dowft -their  fteea,' this 
irorgical  operation  being  .supposed  to  ease  the  chiU't  piip^JW*« 
yribae/S.  Av^Tolia.-^iW).  '  '  -',• 


set  apart  for  them  on  their  travels,  and,  except  in  their  hereditary 
districts,  they  were  always  carried  on  men's  shoulders  to  prevent 
them  touching  the  groUnd.  Elsewhere,  as  in  New  Zealand,  thia 
rule  was  not  carried  out  so  strictly.  But  even  in  New  Zealand  the 
spots  on  which  great  chiefs  rested  during  a  journey  became  taboo 
and  were  surrounded  with  a  fence  of  basket-work.  The  head  and 
hair,  especially  of  a  chief,  were  particularly  taboo  or  sacred ;  to 
touch  a  man's  head  was  a  gross  insult.  If  a  chief  touched  his  own 
head  with  his  fingers  he  had  immediately  to  apply  them  to  his  nose 
and  snuff  up  the  sanctity  which  they  had.  abstracted  from  his  head. 
The  cutting  of  a  chiefs  hair  was  a  solemn  ceremony ;  the  severed 
locks  were  collected  and  buried  in  a  sacred  place  or  hung  up  on  a 
tree.  If  a  drop  of  a  chiefs  blood  fell  upon  anything,  that  thing 
became  taboo  to  him,  i.e.,  was  his  property.  If  )ie  breathed  on  a 
fire,  it  became  sacred  and  could  not  be  used  for  cooking.  In  his 
house  no  fire  could  under  any  circumstances  be  used  for  cooking ; 
no  woman  could  enter  his  house  before  a  certain  service  had  been 
gone  through.  Whatever  a  new-born  child  touched  became  taboo  , 
to  {i.e.,  in  favour  of)  the  child.  The  law  which  separated  tabooed 
persons  and  things  from  contact  with  food  was  especially  strict. 
Hence  a  tabooed  or  sacred  person  ought  not  to  leave  his  comb  or 
blanket  or  anything  which  had  touched  his  head  or  back  (for  the 
back  was  also  particularly  taboo)  in  a  place  where  food  had  been 
cooked ;  and  in  drinking  he  was  careful  not  to  touch  the  vessel 
with  his  hands  or  lips  (oUierwise  the  vessel  became  taboo  and  could 
not  be  used  by  any  one  else),  but  to  have  the  liquid  shot  down  his 
throat  from  a  distance  by  a  second  person.  ^ 

There  were  various  ceremonies  by  which  a  taboo  could  be  removed.  Rrra'Wio 
In  Tonga  a  person  who  had  become  taboo  by  touching  a  chief  or  ot  [M^a. 
anything  belonging  to  him  could  not  feed  himself  till  he  had  got 
rid  of  the  taboo  by  touching  the  soles  of  a  superior  chiefs  feet  with 
his  hands  and  then  rinsing  his  hands  in  water,  or  (if  water  was 
scarce)  rubbing  them  with  the  juice  of  the  plantain  or  banana.  But, 
if  a  man  found  that  he  had  already  (unknowingly)  eaten  with 
tabooed  hands,  fie  sat  down  before  a  chief,  took  up  the  foot  of  the, 
latter,  and  pressed  it  against  his  stomach  to  counteract  the  effect' 
of  the  food  insida  In  New  Zealand  a  taboo  could  be  taken  off  by  1 
a  child  or  grandchild.  The  tabooed  person  touched  the  child  and' 
took  drink  or  food  from  its  hands  ;  the  man  was  then  free,  but  the; 
chUd  was  tabooed  for  the  rest  of  the  day.  .A  Maori  chief  who  be-! 
came  taboo  by  touching  the  sacred  head  of  his  child  was  disinfected,' 
so  to  speak,  as  follows.  On  the  following  day  (the  ceremony  could, 
not  be  performed  sooner)  he  rubbed  his  hands  over  with  potato  or 
fern  root  which  had  been  cooked  over  a  sacred  fire  ;  this  food  was 
then  carried  to  the  head  of  the  family  in  the  female  line,  who  ate 
it,  whereupon  the  hands  became  TUxi.  The  taboo  was  removed 
from  a  new-bom  child  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner.  The  father 
took  the  child  in  his  arms  and  touched  its  head,  back,  &c.,  with 
some  fern  root  which  had  been  roasted  over  a  sacred  fire ;  next 
morning  a  similar  ceremony  was  performed  on  the  child  by  its 
eldest  Felative  in  the  female  line ;  the  child  was  then  noa,  i.e.,  free 
from  taboo.  Another  mode  of  removing  the  taboo  was  to  pass  a  ^ 
consecrated  piece  of  wood  over  the  right  shoulder,  round  the  loins, 
and  back  again  over  the  left  shoulder,  after  which  the  stick  was 
broken  in  two  and  either  buried,  or  burned,  or  cast  into  the  sea,      ' 

Besides  the  taboos  already  described  there  were  others  which  PrivatST 
any  one  could  impose.  In  New  Zealand,  if  a  man  wished  to  pre- taboos^ 
serve  his  house,  crop,  garden,  or  anything  else,  he  made  it  taboo  ; 
similarly  he  could  appropriate  a  forest  tree  or  a  piece  of  drift  timber, 
&c.,  by  tying  a  mark  to  it  or  giving  it  a  chop  with  his  aie.  In 
Samoa  for  a  similar  purpose  a  man  would  set  up  a  representation 
of,  e.g.,  a  sea  pike  or  a  shark,  believing  that  any  one  who  meddled 
with  property  thus  protected  would  bejdlled  by  a  sea  pike  or  shark 
the  next  time  he  bathed.  Somewhat  similar  to  this  was  what  may  bo 
called  the  village  taboo.  In^the  autumn  the  k-U7nera  (sweet  potato) 
fields  belonging  to  the  village  were  taboo  till  the  crop  was  gathered, 
so  that  no  stranger  could  approach  them;  and  all  persons  engaged 
in  getting  in  the  crop  were  taboo,  and  could  therefore  for  the  time 
engage  in  no  other  occupation.  Similar  taboos  were  laid  on  woods 
during  the  hunting  season  and  on  rivers  during  the  fishing  season.  \ 

On  looking  over  the  various  taboos  mentioned  above  Classn 
we  are  tempted  to  divide  them  into  two  general  classes, —  flcation, 

'  taboos  of  privilege  and  taboos  of  disability.  Thus  the 
taboo  of  chiefs,  priests,  and  temples  might  be  described  as 
a  privilege,  while  the  taboo  imposed  on  tlie  sick  and  on 
persons  who  had  come  in  -cdntact  with  the  dead  might  be 
regarded  as  a  disability ;  and  we  might  say  acccordingly^ 
that  the  former  rendered  persons  and  things  sacred  or  holy,i 
while  the  latter  rendered  them  unclean  or  accursed.  But, 
■that  no  such  distinction  ought  to  be  drawn  is  clear  fromJ 
the  fact  that  the  rules  to  be  observed  in  the  pnd  case  ancl. 
in  the  other  were  identical.     On  the  other  hand,  it  is  troff 

.that  the  opposition  of  sacred  and  accur§e(J,  clean '^u?^ 


TABOO 


17 


UtirleAn,  which  plays  so  iiniioitant  a  part  in  the  later 
history  of  religion,  did  in  fact  arise  by  diirorentiation  from 
lhesiiii:lc  root  idea  of  taboo,  which  includes  and  reconciles 
them  both  and  by  rcTercncc  to  which  alone  their  hjstory 
»nd  mutual  relation  are  intelligible. 

The  original  character  of  the  taboo  must  be  looked  for 
•ot  in  its  civil  bill  III  Its  religious  element.  It  was  not  the 
Creation  of  a  legislator  but  the  gradual  outgrowth  of 
animistic  beliefs,  to  which  the  ambition  and  avarice  of 
chiefs  and  priests  afterwards  gave  an  artificial  extension. 
I  But  in  si-rving  lh>'<ause  of  avarice  and  ambition  it  subserved 
(ilie  pro^'ress  of  civMization,  by  fostering  conceptions  of  the 
|riglils  of  property  and  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage  tie, — 
toiiceptinns  which  in  time  grew  strong  enough  to  stand  by 
themselves  and  to  fiing  away  the  crutch  of  superstition 
which  in  e<irlicr  days  had  been  their  sole  support.  For  we 
shall  scarcely  err  in  believing  that  even  in  advanced  societies 
the  moral  sentiments,  in  so  f:ir  as  they  are  merely  sentiments 
•nd  are  not  based  on  an  indiiciion  from  e.vpcrience,  derive 
mu<h  of  their  force  from  an  original  system  of  taboo. 
Thus  on  the  talioo  were  grafted  the  golden  fruits  of  law 
and  moralitv,  while  the  parent  stem  dwindled  slowly  into 
the  sour  cnilis  and  empty  husks  of  pojmlar  superstition  on 
which  the  swine  of  modern  society  arc  still  content  to  feed. 

Ii  remains  to  iiulicate  briolly  some  facts  which  point  to  a 
wide  ditfusioii  under  various  names  of  customs  similar  to 
the  taboo  As  might  have  been  expected,  the  taboo  is 
found,  though  in  a  less  marked  form,  among  the  Micro- 
oesians,  Malays,  and  Dyaks,  all  of  whom  are  ethnologically 
connected  with  the  Polynesians.  In  Micronesia  both  the 
name  and  the  institution  occur  the  inhabitants  of  certain 
islands  are  forbidden  to  eat  certain  animals  and  the  fruits 
of  certain  trees,  temples  and  groat  chiefs  are  tabooed 
from  the  people  ;  any  one  who  fishes  must  previously  for 
twenty-four  hours  abstain  frona  women;'  in  conversing  with 
women  men  are  not  allowed  'to  use  certain  words,  <tc. 
Again,  the  Malays  have  tlie  custom,  though  apparently  not 
the  name.  In  Timor  and  the  neighbouring  islands  the 
word  for  taboo  is  pamali  (or  poma/i) ;  and  during  the 
long  festival  which  celebrates  a  successful  headhunt  the 
naan  who  has  secured  the  most  heads  is  pamali ;  he  must 
not  sleep  with  hjs  wife  nor  cat  from  his  own  hand,  but  is 
fed  by  women.  Pamali  is  a  Javanese  word,  and  had 
originally  in  Java  and  Sumatra  the  same  meaning  that  it 
now  bears  in  Timor.  In  Celebes  a  mother  after  child- 
birth was  pamnli  Amongst  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  the 
phmnli  (called  by  the  Land  Dyaks  ponkli)  is  regularly 
practi.sed  at  the  planting  of  nee,  harvest  home,  when  the 
cry  of  the  gazelle  is  heard  behind,  in  times  of  sickness, 
after  a  death.  Ac.  At  the  harvest  homo  it  is  observed  by 
the  whole  tribe,  no  one  lieing  allowed  to  enter  or  leave  the 
village.  The  house  where  a  death  has  taken  place  is 
pamali  for  twelve  days,  during  which  no  one  may  enter 
It  and  nothing  may  be  taken  out  of  it.  A  tabooed  Dyak 
may  not  bathe,  meddle  with  fire,  follow  his  ordinaxy  occu- 
pation, or  leave  his  house.  Certain  families  are  forbidden 
to  eat  the  flesh  of  particular  animals,  as  cattle,  goats,  and 
snakes.  The  taboo  is  often  indicated  by  a  bundle  of 
spears  or  a  rattan.  The  Motu  of  New  Guinea  also  have 
the  taboo  a  man  is  tabooed  after  handling  a  corpse.  He 
then  keeps  apart  from  his  wife  ,  his  food  is  cooked  for 
hiin  by  his  sister,  and  he  may  not  touch  it  with  his  hands. 
After  three  days  he  bathes  and  is  free.'  But  the  Motu 
appear  to  be  Malayo- Polynesians,  not  Melauesians  proper. 
However,  in  Melanesia  also  we  find  the  taboo.      It  tlour- 

'  For  other  cx^iinplus  of  tjboos  feepiicuilly  idjuiiciiod>  to  coutinence) 
Amon^  various  peoplas  m  rionocxioQ  with  fi.sliing,  buDiiDg,  au<l  trudiog, 
aee  Turner,  Sanwon,  p.  34.9  ;  Aymonier,  A'olcs  stir  Its  Laos,  pp.  21  sq., 
25,  26,  113,  HI,  W.  Powell,  Want/Brings  m  a  Wdd  QuurHry.  p. 
207  ,  /iepoi-t  nf  hUtrnaiiontil  Kx-paiiLuni,  to  I'mnii  Barrow,  Alaska,  p. 
39.  Wa»liiucloii.  laSS.  '  Joiirn.  4.iU/irop.  I'lisl.,  viii.  p.  37a 
S3— 2 


ished  111  Fiji,  It  is  observed  in  New  Caledonia  in  cases 
of  death,  to  preserve  a  crop,  etc.  According  to  the  Rev. 
R.  H.  Codnngton,  there  is  this  distinction  between  the  Mel- 
anesian  and  the  Polynesian  taboo,  that  for  the  former  there 
IS  no  supernatural  sanction  :  the  man  who  breaks  a  taboo 
simply  pays  compensation  to  the  person  on  whose  tabooed 
properly  he  has  transgressed.  But  Mr  R.  Parkinson  slates 
that  in  New  Britain  (now  New  Pomerania)  a  person  who 
violates  a  taboo-mark  set  on  a  plantation,  tree,  &c.,  is 
supposed  to  be  "  attacked  by  sickness  and  misfortune." 
To  go  through  the  similar  customs  observed  by  savages  all 
over  the  world  would  be  endless ;  we  may,  however,  note 
that  a  regular  system  of  taboo  is  said  to  exist  among  some 
of  the  wild  tribes  of  the  Naga  HiUs  in  India,^  and  that  the 
rules  not  to  touch  food  with  the  hands  or  the  head  with 
the  hands  are  observed  by  tabooed  women  among  one  of 
the  Fraser  Lake  tribes  in  North  America.'  In  fact  some 
of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  taboo — the  prohibi- 
tion to  eat  certain  foods  and  the  disabilities  entailed  by 
childbirth  and  by  contact  with  the  dead,  together  with  a 
variety  of  ceremonies  for  removing  these  disabilities — ■ 
have  been  found  more  or  less  amongst  all  primitive  races. 
It  is  more  interesting  to  mark  the  traces  of  Such  customs 
among  civilized  peoples,  e.g.,  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 

Amongst  the  Jews — (1)  the  vow  of  the  Nazarite  (Num.  Amongst 
VI.  1-21)  presents  the  closest  resemblance  to  the  Polynesian  tf^  Jews, 
taboo.  The  meaning  of  the  word  Nazarite  is  "one  separated 
or  consecrated,"  and  this,  as  we  saw  (p.  15),  is  precisely 
the  meaning  of  taboo.  It  is  the  head  of  the  Nazarite  that 
IS  especially  consecrated  (v.  7,  "  his  separation  unto  God  is 
upon  his  head  ",  v.  9,  "defile  the  head  of  liis  separation"  , 
v.  1 1,  "  shall  hallow  his  head  "),  and  so  it  was  in  the  taboo. 
Tho  Nazarite  might  not  partakeof  certain  meats  and  drinks, 
nor  shave  his  head,  nor  touch  a  dead  body, — all  rules  of 
taboo.  If  a  person  died  suddenly  beside  him,  this  was 
said  to  "defile  the  head  of  his  separation,"  and  the  same 
efl'ect,  expressed  in  the  same  language,  would  apply  to  a 
tabooed  Polynesian  in  similar  circumstances.  Again,  the 
mode  of  terminating  the  vow  of  the  Nazarite  corresponds 
with. the  mode  of  breaking  a  taboo.  He  shaved  his  head 
at  the^door  of  the  sanctuary  and  the  priest  placed  food  in 
his  hands,  either  of  which  acts  would  have  been  a  flagrant 
violation  of  a  Polynesian  taboo.  (2)  Some  of  the  rules  for 
the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  are  identical  with  rules  of 
strict  taboo ;  such  are  the  prohibitions  to  do  any  work,  to 
kindle  a  fire  in  the  house,  to  cook  food,  and  to  go  out  of 
doors  (Exod.  xxxv.  2,  3;  xvi.  23,  29).  The  Essenes  strictly 
observed  the  rules  to  cook  no  food  and  light  no  fire  on  the 
Sabbath  (Josephus,  Bell.  JuH.,  li.  8,  9).  (3)  Any  one  who 
touched  a  dead  body  was  "  unclean  "  for  seven  days  ,  what 
he  touched  became  ifnclean,  and  could  communicate  its 
uncleanness  to  any  other  person  who  touched  it.  A.  the 
end  of  seven  days  the  unclean  person  washed  his  clothes, 
bathed  himself,  and  was  clean  (Num.  xLx.  11,  14,  19,  22).. 
In  Polynesia,  as  we  have  seen,  any  one  who  touched  a 
dead  body  was  taboo  ,  what  he  touched  became  taboo,  and 
could  communicate  the  infection  to  any  one  who  touched 
it ;  and  one  of  the  ceremonies  for  getting  rid  of  tlie  taboo 
was  washing.  (4)  A  Jewish  mother  after  childbirth  was 
unclean  (Lev.  xii.)  ;  a  Polynesian  mother  was  taboo.  (5) 
A  great  many  animals  were  unclean,  and  could  infect  with 
their  uncleanness  whatever  they  touched,  earthen  vessels 
touched  by  certain  of  them  were  broken  Certain  animab 
were  taboo  in  Polynesia,  and  utensils  which  had  contracted 
a  taint  of  talKxi  were  in  some  cases  broken. 

Amongst  the  Greeks  a  survival,  or  at  least  a  reminiscence,  AmongBt 
of  a  system  of  taboo  is  perhaps  to  be  found  in  certain  tli* 
applications  of   the  epithets  "cacied"  and  "divine"  jn  "reek*.  . 

•*  Joum.  Anthrop.  Inst.,  xi.  p.  71  .  Daltnn,  Dcsaiptive  SthTwlogy 
-'  Jitigai,  p.  43.  *  Joiiru.  Anlhrop.  Irsl..  \\i.  p.  2W 

XXIII.  —   3 


18 


T  A  B  — T  A  :B 


Homer.  Thus  a  king  or  a  chief  is  sacred  (Upij  U  Ti)A& 
tuL)(oio,Od.,'u.  i09,  z\iiu  405,  &c  ,  U/jbv  fl.ivos'A.\K^v6ou>, 
Od.,  viL  167.  viii.  2,  &c.)  or  divine  (Sios  'OSxxrafv^,  &c.  , 
'O&vaxnjot  0  toio.  It.,  ii  335,  (fee  ,  Oiiuiv  /?a<r< \^u)i',  Od  ,  iv. 
■€91);  his  chariot  is  sacred  (It.,  xvii  464),  and  his  house  is 
divine  (Orf.,  iv  43).  An  army  is  sacred  (Od.,  xxiv.  81), 
.and  "lo  are  sentinels  on  duty  (//,  X  56,  xxiv  681).  This 
resembles  the  war.taboo  of  the  Polynesians  ;  on  a  warlike 
expedition  all  Maori  warriors  are  taboo,  and  tke  permanent 
persona!  taboo  of  the  chiefs  is  increased  twofold  •  they  are 
"tabooed  an  inch  thick  "  The  Jews  also  seem  to  have 
had  a  war-taboo,  for  when  out  on  the  warpath  they  ab- 
stained from  women  (1  Sam  xxi  4,  5),  —  a  rule  strictly 
observed  by  Maori  warriors  on  a  dangerous  expedition. 
The  Dards,  who  with  the  kindred  Siah  Posh  K&firs  on  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  Hindu  Kush^tribes  which  probably 
of  all  Aryan  peoples  retain  a  social  state  most  nearly  ap- 
proximating to  that  of  the  primitive  Aryans — abstain  from 
sexual  intercourse  during  the  whole  of  the  fighting  season, 
from  May  to  September,  and  "victory  to  the  chastest" 
is  said  to  be  a  maxim  of  all  the  fighting  tribes  from  the 
Hindu  Kush  to  Albania  '  The  same  rule  of  continence  in 
war  is  observed  by  some  Indian  tribes  of  North  America  '^ 
In  Homer  a  fish  is  sacred  (// ,  xvi  407),  and  Plato  points 
out  that  during  a  campaign  the  Homeric  warriors  never 
ate  fish  (/irp  ,  404  B)  Even  in  time  of  peace  the  men  of 
Homer's  day  only  ate  fish  when  reduced  to  the  verge  of 
starvation  (OJ ,  iv  363  «'/  ,  xii  309  sq  ).  The  Slab 
Posh  Kafirs  refuse  to  eat  fish,  although  their  rivers 
abound  in  it  ■*  The  Hindus  of  Vedic  times  appear  not 
to  have  eaten  fish  *  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that 
among  the  early  Aryans,  as  among  primitive  peoples  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  the  eating  of  fish  was  tubooe*!. 
Again,  the  threshing-Hoor,  the  winnowing  fan,  and  meal 
are  all  sacred  (// ,  v.  499  ,  H  Merc,  'Jl,  63,  //.,  xi.  631). 
Similarly  in  New  Zealand  a  taboo  was  commonly  laid  on 
places  where  farming  operations  were  going  on  ;  and  among 
the  Basutos,  before  the  corn  on  the  threshing-fioor  can  be 
touched,  a  religious  ceremony  has  to  be  performed,  and 
all  "defiled"  persons  are  carefully  kept  from  seeing  it.^ 
Although  the  Homeric  folk  ateswiiie,  the  epithet  "divine^' 
commonly  applied  to  a  swineherd  in  Homer  may  point  to 
a  time  when  pigs  were  sacred  or  tabooed  In  Crete  pigs 
were  certainly  sacred  and  not  eaten  (Athenaeus,  376a), 
and  apparently  at  Pessinus  also  (I'ausanias,  vu  17.  10). 
Amongst  the  Jews  and  Syrians,  of  course,  pigs  were  tabooed  ; 
and  it  was  a  moot  question  with  the  (Jreeks  whether  the 
Jews  abhorred  or  worship|)ed  pigs  (Plut.,  (Jiuxst.  Conv  ,  iv. 
6).  The  pigs  kept  in  the  great  temple  at  H lerapoUn^w^re 
neither  sacrificed  nor  eaten  ,  some  people  thought  that  they 
were  sacred,  others  that  they  were  unclean,  tVayeav  (Lucian, 
/)«  Dea  Syria,  54)  Here  we  have  an  exact  taboo,  the 
ideas  of  sacredness  and  unoleauness  being  indistinguish- 
able Similarly  by  the  Ojibways  the  dog  is  regarded  as 
"unclean  and  yet  as  in  some  respei'ts  holy  "'  The  diver; 
gence  of  the  two  conceptions  is  illustrated  by  the  history 
of  the  cow  among  ditTerent  branches  of  the  Aryan  race  . 
the  Hindus  regard  this  ammal  as  sacred  ;  the  Shin  caste 
among  the  Dards  hold  it  in  abhorrence'  The  general 
word  for  taboo  in  Greek  is  ayoi,  which  occurs  in  the  sense 
both  of  "sacredness  "  and  of  "pollution";  and  the  .same 
is  true  of  the  adjective  ayios  and  of  the  rare  adjective 


'  Reclus,  A^oK7»   iifog   Unw     vui    p    I-'t> 

'  Schoolcraft,  huiuin  TrtJjc3,  iv  p  6;j  .  A<jair,  Utst  of  American 
Indiana,  p  163.  Cp  Morse.  Report  mt-  Induin  Affairs,  p  \Z0  sq, 
and  Bancroft,  Native  Kacea  u/  On  Paci/U:  Stales,  i    p    I  89 

'  Elphinstone,  A'in^{/twn  tz/Cdu/Hi/,  ii  379,  eil  1  839  .  ^(ntm.  ^(Atu;/ 
Sue,  i    p    192  *  Zininicr,  AUinUmJies  Leben,  p.  271 

'  Ca.sali!*.  Tfu  B&mUoa,  p   '251  sq. 

•  Koti],  KUcfii-iJami,  p    38.  Eog.  trans, 

^  F  Drew.  Tfu  yuinmoo  and  /laskmir  Tcrrttvru:3.  p.  42S:  Biddulph, 
Trihf.s  of  the  HmdiKi  KooitK  p   51. 


oKayijs,  "tabooed"  (Bekker'a  AnecdoUt  Greua,  212,  32, 
Harpocration,  s.v  ai/ayfis)  Usually,  however,  the  Greeks 
discrimmated  the  two  senses,  dyvos  being  devoted  to  the 
sense  of  *' sacred  "  and  eVayijs  to  that  of  "  unclean  '  or 
"accursed"  "To  taboo"  is  a^i'feii' ,  "to  observe  a  taboo" 
is  o.yv(.\ni\/  ,  and  the  state  or  season  of  taboo  is  dyi'tia 
or  dyurrei'u  The  ndea  of  the  Greek  dyveia  correspond 
closely  to  thpse  of  the  Polynjsian  taboo,  consisting  in 
"  purificatiofls,  washings,  and  sprinklings,  and  in  abstain- 
ing from  moujining  for  the  dead,  child-bed,  and  all  pollu- 
tions, and  in  refraining  from  certain  foods,"  &c  ' 

Amongst  the  Romans,  who  preserved  more  traces  of  Amongsi 
primitive  barbarism  than  the  Greeks,  the  flamen  dialis '''» 
was  hedged  in  by  a  perfect  network  of  taboos  He  was  "^ 
not  allowed  to  tide  or  even  touch  a  horse,  nor  to  look  at 
an  army  under  arms,  nor  to  wear  a  ring  which  was  not 
broken,  nor  to  have  a  knot  on  any  part  of  his  garments  , 
no  fire,  except  a  sacred  fire,  could  be  taken  out  of  jis  house, 
ho  might  not  touch  or  even  name  a  goat,  a  dog,  raw  meat, 
beans,  and  ivy  ,  he  might  not  walk  under  a  vine  ,  the  feet 
of  his  bed  had  to  be  daubed  with  mud  his  hair  could  be 
cut  only  by  a  freeman,  and  his  hair  and  nails  when  cut 
had  to  be  buried  under  a  lucky  tree  ,  he  might  not  touch 
a  corpse,  <fec  His  wife,  the  flaminica,  was  also  subject 
to  taboos  :  at  certain  festivals  she  migu,.  not  comb  her  hair , 
if  she  heard  thunder,  she  was  taboo  (ferxata)  till  she  had 
offered  an  expiatory  sacrifice.  The  similarity  of  some  of 
these  rules  to  the  Polynesian  taboo  is  obvious  The  Roman 
fenae  were  periods  of  taboo  ,  no  work  might  be  done  during 
them  except  works  of  necessity  e  j,  an  ox  might  be  pulled 
out  of  a  pit  or  a  tottering  roof  supported  Any  person 
who  mentioned  Salus,  Semonia,  Seia,  Segetia,  or  Tutilina 
was  tabooed  {fenas  observabat) '^  The  Latin  smct  is  exactly 
"  taboo";  for  it  means  either  "sacred  '  or  "  accursed  " 

L(n.:ralwre  — On  the  Polynesian  taboo,  sefCook.  Vmages,  vol  t 
p.  427  .v^.,  vol  vii.  u.  146  sq  (eii  1809) ,  G  K  Angas,  Savaqe  Sana 
in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  passim  ,  W  ^'ale,  New  Zealand,  p 
84  sq.  ,  Kllis,  Folynesmn  ftesearches  2d  ed  vol  iv  p  385  sq  , 
Lan^dorlf,  lirise  um  die  Well,  i  p  \\\  sq  Mariner  Tonga 
Islands,  i  p  141  note,  ll  pp  82,  220  s?  .  Turner,  Nineteen  Years  in 
Polynesia,  p  294  sq  ,  lu  ,  Samoa,  p  185  sq  ,  Klernin,  Cullur- 
grxhichle,  IV  p  Z7'2  sq.  ,  Wailz-Gerland,  Anthropologit  der  Nalur. 
I'olkcr,  VI.  pp  343-363  ,  Shortland,  Traditions  and  Supirstttiont 
o/lJie  NewZmlitndfrs,p  101s?  .  \A  .  Moon  Keligwn  and  Mylhology 

V  25  sq  ;  Vld  New  Zealand,  by  a  t'akeha  Mauii,  cliapters  vii  -XM 
i'olark,  Ma.nnfrs  and  Customs  of  tkr  New  Zcalanders.  l    p   275  sq  , 
\}ii;\h\\ho.ch.  Travels  m  New  Zealantt,  n  y  100  s?  .  R  Taylor.  A'cu; 
Zealand,  p.  163  sq      On  the  uboo  in  Mii  ronesia,  see  Waitz  Gerland, 
op  cU.,  V    pt  ii    p  147  sq.  ,  among  the  Dyaks  and  Malavs,  see  Id  , 

VI  p  354  sq. ,  Low,  Sarawak,  pp  260  262  ,  Bock,  Hmd  Huntirs  of 
Borneo  pp  214-230  ,  Spencer  St  John,  Li/e  in  the  Fotests  of  tfU 
Far 'Bast,  i.  p.   184  sq. ,  A    R    Wallace,   TIte  Malay  Archipelago,  p 

-M^  ,  10  MeUlnesia,  \Villiams,  Fiji  and  tlu  Fijians,  I  p  234  sq 
(ed  I860);  J  K  ErskiDe,.7'Ac  H'esiem  Paalie.  \>  254,  Vim-endon- 
Oumoulin  and  De.sgraz,  fles  Marquises,  p  "259*?.  ;  Journ.  Anthrop 
Inst..  X  pp  279,  290.  Ch.  Leinire,  Nouvelle  CaUdi^nie,  Paris 
1884,  p.  117  ,  H  Paikiiison,  Im  Bismarck  Archipel,  Leipsic,  1887 
p.  144  (J  G   FE.) 

TABIvtZ,  Tavris,  or  Tavhiz,  a  town  of  Persia,  capital  of 
the  province  of  .Adarbaijin  (Azerbijan,  ancient  Alropatene), 
is  situated  in  38°  4'  N  lat.  and  46°  18'^  long  ,  more  than 
400o  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the  eastern  end  of  a  wido 
valley,  through  which  runs  a  river  whose  waters  irrig-.ite 
the  gardens  that  encircle  the  town  In  1812  the  walls 
had  a  circumference  of  3  j  miles  Overlooking  the  valley 
on  the  north-east  and  east  are  bold  bare  rocks,  while  to 
the  south  rises  the  more  regular  pe.ik  of  Sahand  The 
town  possesses  few  buildings  of  note,  and  of  the  extensive 
ruins  but  few  merit  attention  Moiinsey  in  1SG6  men- 
tioned the  blue  mosque  ,  the  ark  or  citadel,  containing  the 
palace  of  the  heir  apparent, — a  large  frowning  building  near 
the  centre  of  the  town;  the  Great  Maidan,  an  open  sijuare, 


"  Piogencs  Laerliua,  viii.  1,  33 
»   Macrobios,  Sat  ,  i    16.  8. 


cp   Plut,  QuKst   Conti.,  V.  10. 


T  A  C  — T  A  C 


19 


•»nd  the  bazaars  The  mosque,  which  he  ascribes  to  Sh4h 
Abbas,  13  that  of  the  Turcoman  Jahan  Sh4h  (1410-1468). 
Abbas  Mirza  converted  the  citadel  into  an  arsenal.  Among 
the  ruins  of  old  Tauris  the  sepulchre  of  the  Mogul  sultan, 
Ghazan  Khiin,  is  no  longer  to  be  distinguished,  except  as 
part  of  a  huge  tumulus.  It  is  situated  about  2  milee 
southwest  from  the  modern  town,  but  far  within  the 
original  boundaries.  .Xhe  "spacious  arches  of  stone  and 
other  vestiges  of  departed  majesty  "  with  which  Porter 
found  it  surrounded  in  1818  were  possibly  remains  of 
the  college  {madrasa)  and  monastery  (jrfwiya)  where  Ibn 
Batuta  found  shelter  duung  his  visit  to  the  locality  In 
spite  of  the  cholera  visitation  of  1822  and  other  occasional 
ravages  of  sickness,  and  the  severe  cold  of  winter,  the 
climate  of  Tabriz  is  proverbially  healthy.  Its  orchards 
and  fruit  gardens  have  a  high  reputation,  and  its  running 
streams  make  amends  for  ill-paved  and  narrow  streeta 
and  sorely  defective  municipal  arrangements  General 
Schindler  estimated  the  population  in  1886  at  about 
170,000. — a  number  agreeing  with  the  latest  local  census. 
The  same  authority  stales  th.it  the  city  conuiins  K  tombs 
of  imimzadehs,  318  mosques,  100  public  baths,  166  cara- 
vanserais, 3922  shops,  28  guard  houses,  and  5  Christian 
(Armenian)  churches  ,  but  this  account  must  comprise  in 
some  of  Its  items  more  buildings  than  are  actually  lu  use 
There  are  said  to  be  nearly  3000  Armenians  in  the  place 

Tdlirlz  Id  a  city  of  txt«n3ive  commcrco,  a  great  emporium  for  the 
trade  of  Persia  on  the  west,  and  tlie  sf>eci:il  mart  hetween  Turkey, 
Russia,  aod  Persia  ll  possesses  an  intemattunal  tele^::|>fi  .-station, 
and  the  line  passes  henre  to  TiHis  and  Europe  on  one  side  aii<i  to 
Teheran  on  the  other  Subsidiary  lines  have  been  construuted  to 
Dear  Astara  on  the  Caspian  (136  miles  lon^)  and  to  Saujhulak  on 
the  Kurdish  frontier  (125  miles  long)  East  wick  in  I860  estimated 
;the*value  of  the  exports  to  Turkey  at  about  i'60O,0fiO  and  to  Russia 
:at  about  £400.000.  exclusive  of  smuggling  The  chief  imports 
were  British,  and  some  Swiss — coloured  cotton  goods,  grev  calicoes, 
and  broadcloth, — with  miscellaneous  goods  fioin  Germany  In 
1881  there  was  a  marked  improvement  in  the  tiade  of  Tabriz, 
mainly  in  increased  imports  from  CoDsuntinople  In  1885  the 
imports  amounted  to  £721.730  and  the  exports  to  £306,ti87  The 
principal  items  of  the  former  were  cottons  {from  England),  woollen 
cloth  (from  Austria  and  Germany),  sugar  (from  France),  and  lea 
(from  HoIlaQd)i  of  the  latter  dried  fruits  (lo  Russia)  and  silk  (to 
France.  Austria,  and  Switzerland).  There  are  lea<i  mines  near 
Tabriz,  and  cobalt  and  copper  are  obtainable  from  the  Sahand 

There  is  perhaps  do  city  in  Persia  on  which  so  murli  has  f>een 
recorded  by  native  and  foreign  writers  as  Tabriz  Among  the 
former  Ibn  Batuta,  the  Arab,  and  Hamd  Ullah,  the  Fersian.  are 
nota)»le  Of  the  latter  may  be  mentioned  Chardin,  Porter.  Ouseiey, 
Tancoigne,  Moricr.  Du  Pre,  Malcolm,  Lady  Shell,  Eastwick.  Moun 
8*y,  Scdiindler.  and  Madame  Dieulafoy  (in  Tour  du  Monde,  1883) 
The  name  Tabru  has  been  a  subject  ol  mui:h  comment  and  con 
jecture,  but  tliere  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  taken  from  (lie  ancient 
name  of  Tauns  The  history  of  Tabnz  is  a  long  and  painful  record 
of  sieges  and  conflicts,  of  earthquakes  and  desirucliou  by  natural 
causes  Of  late  years  it  has  recovered  to  some  extent  its  former  high 
position,  and  is  lu  many  respects  a  worthy  rival  to  the  capital 

TACITUS  The  famous  Roman  hi.storian  Tacitus,  who 
ranks  beyond  dispute  in  the  highest  place  among  men  of 
letters  of  all  ages,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  first  and 
in  the  early  part  of  the  2d  century  of  our  era,  through 
the  reigns  of  the  emperors  Nero,  Oalba,  Otho,  Vitellius, 
Vespasian,  Titus,  Domitian,  Nerva,  Trajan  All  we  know 
of  his  personal  history  is  from  allusions  to  himself  in 
his  own  works,  and  from  eleven  letters  addressed  to  him 
by  his  very  intimate  friend  the  younger  Pliny  The  exact 
year  of  his  birth  is  a  matter  of  inference,  but  it  may 
be  approximately  fixed  near  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  from  52  to  54  a  D  Pliny  indeed  speaks  of 
Tacitus  and  himself  as  being  "  much  of  an  age  "  '  (jmipe 
modum  evjiuxles),  tW)ugb  himself  born  in  61  or  62,  but 
be  must  have  been  some  years  junior  to  his  friend,  who 
began,  he  tells  us,'''  bis  official  life  with  a  qusestorship 
under  Vespasian  in  78  or  79,  at  which  time  he  must  have 


'  PUny,  Epp.,  n.  'JO, 


Hiai  ,  I,  1. 


been  twenty-five  years  of  age  at  least.  Of  his  family  and 
birthplace  we  know  nothing  certain  ,  we  can  iufer  nothing 
from  his  name  Cornelius,  wl  ,  h  was  then  very  widely 
extended  ,  but  the  fact  of  bis  early  promotion  seems  to 
point  to  respectable  antecedents,  and  it  may  be  that  his 
father  was  one  Cornelius  Tacitus,  who  had  been  a  pro- 
curator in  one  of  the  divisions  of  Gaul,  to  whom  allusion 
is  made  by  the  elder  Pliny  in  his  Natural  History  (vii. 
76).  But  It  is  all  matter  of  pure  conjecture,  as  it  also  is 
whether  his  "  prsenomen  "  was  Publius  or  Cams.  He  bos 
come  down  to  us  simply  as  Cornelius  Tacitus.  The  most 
interesting  facts  about  him  lo  us  are  that  he  was  an 
eminent  pleader  at  the  Roman  bar,  that  he  was  an  eye- 
witness of  the  "reign  of  terror"  during  the  last  three 
years  of  Doniiiian,  and  that  he  was  the  sonin-law  of  the 
great  and  good  Julius  Agricola,  the  humane  and  enlightened 
governor  of  Britain  This  honourable  connexion,  which 
testifies  to  his  high  moral  character,  may  very  possibly 
have  accelerated  his  promotion,  which  he  says'  was  begun 
by  \'es(iasian,  augmented  by  Titus,  and  still  further  ad- 
vanced by  Domitian,  under  whom  we  find  him  presiding 
as  praetor  at  the  celebration  of  the  secular  games  in  88, 
and  a  member  of  one  of  the  old  priestly  colleges,  lo  which 
■good  family  was  an  almost  indisjiensable  passport.  Next 
year,  it  seems,  he  left  Rome,  and  was  absent  till  93  on 
some  provincial  business,  and  it  is  possible  that  in  these 
four  years  he  may  have  made  the  acquaintance  of  Germany 
and  its  peoples  His  fatherin  law  died  the  year  of  his 
return  to  Rome  In  the  concluding  passage  of  his  Life  of 
Aiinrola  he  tells  us  plainly  that  he  witnessed  ^he  judicial 
murders  of  many  of  Rome  s  bust  citizens  from  93  to  96, 
and  that  being  himself  a  senator  he  fell  almost  a  guilty 
complicTly  in  them  "Our  hands,"  he  says,  "dragged 
llelvidius  to  prison  ,  we  were  steeped  in  Senecio's  innocent 
blood  "*  With  the  emperor  Nerva's  acce.ssion  his  life  be- 
came bright  and  prosperous,  and  so  it  continued  through 
the  reign  of  Nerva's  successor,  Trajan,  he  himself,  in  the 
opening  passage  of  his  Agncola,  describing  this  as  a 
"  singularly  blessed  time  "  (bcatissimum  s'eculum) ;  but  the 
hideous  reign  of  terror  had  stamped  itself  ineffaceably 
on  his  soul,  and  when  he  sat  down  to  write  his  History 
he  could  see  little  but  the  darkest  side  of  imperialism  To 
his  friend  the  younger  Pliny  we  are  indebted  for  all  we 
know  (and  this  is  but  trifling)  about  his  later  lif<»  He 
was  advanced  to  the  consulship  in  97,  in  succession  to  a 
highly  distinguished  man,  'Virginius  Rufus,  on  whom  lie 
delivered  in  the  senate  a  funeral  eulogy  "The  good 
fortune  of  Virginius,  '  says  Pliny,'  "  was  crowned  by 
having  the  most  eloquent  of  panegyrists  "  In  99  he  was 
associpted  with  Pliny  in  the  prosecution  of  a  great  political 
offender,  Marius  Priscus,  under  whom  the  provincials  of 
Africa  had  suffered  grievous  wrongs  The  prosecution  was 
successful,  and  we  have  I 'liny's  testimony  "  that  Tacitus 
spoke  with  his  characteristic  dignity  Both  received  a 
special  vote  of  thanks  from  the  senate  for  their  conduct  of 
the  case.  Of  his  remaining  years  we  know  nothing,  and 
we  may  presume  that  he  devoted  thera  exclusively  to 
literary  work.  It  would  seem  that  he  lived  to  the  close  of 
Trajan's  reign,  as  he  seems'  to  hint  at  that  emperor's  ex- 
tension of  the  empire  by  his  successful  Eastern  campaigns 
from  115  to  117  Whether  he  outlived  Trajan  is  matter 
of  conjecture.  It  is  worth  noticing  that  the  emperor 
Tacitus  in  the  3d  century  claimed  descent  from  him,  and 
directed  that  ten  copies  of  his  works  should  be  made 
every  year  and  deposited  in  the  public  libraries  He  also 
had  a  tomb  built  to  his  memory,  which  was  destroyed  by 
order  of  Pope  Pius  V.  in  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  cen-, 
tury      Tacitus,  as  we  gather  from  one  of  Pliny's  letters,' 


'  Hist,.,  i  1 
«  Epp.,  li.  11 


Atj'ncola,  45 
.\  nn. ,  ii. 


eiiiv  « 


•  Epp.,  u.  1 
°  Spp.,  Iz.  23. 


20 


TACITUS 


had  a  great  reputation  during  bis  lifetime.  On  one 
occasion  a  Koinan  kniglit,  wlio  sat  by  his  side  in  the  circus 
at  the  celebration  of  some  games,  aslted  him,  "  Are  you 
from  Italy  or  from  the  provinces?"  His  answer  was, 
■"  You  know  mo  from  your  reading."  To  which  the  knight 
replied,  "  Are  you  then  Tacitus  or  Pliny  t " 

Pliny,  as  we  see  clearly  from  several  passages  in  his 
letters,  had  the  highest  opinion  of  his  friend's  ability  and 
worth  He  consults  him  about  a  school  which  he  thinks 
of  establishing  at  Comum  (Como),  his  birthplace,  and  asks 
biin  to  look  out  for  suitable  teachers  and  professors.  And 
he  pays  '  him  the  high  compliment,  "  I  know  that  your 
Hutnrtes  will  be  immortal,  and  this  makes  me  the  more 
anxious  that  my  name  should  appear  in  them." 

The  following  is  a  list  o(  Tacitus's  remaining  works, 
arranged  in  their  probable  chronological  order,  which  may 
be  approximateh  inlerred  from  internal  evidence— (1) 
the  Di'il'j'ji"  un  Omtnrs.  a.ho\i\  7G  or  77,  (2)  the  Life 
of  Anrirolo,  97  or  98.  (3l  the  Qermnny.  98.  published 
probably  in  99  ,  (4)  the  HrM'<r,es  {Ihstxrut).  completed 
probably  by  115  or  116,  the  last  years  of  Trajan  s  reigo 
(he  must  have  been  at  work  on  them  for  many  years) ; 
(5)  the  Annals,  his  latest  work  probably,  written  in  part 
perhaps  along  with  the  l/isi:n,s.  and  completed  subse- 
quently to  Trajan's  reign,  which  he  may  very  well  have 
outlived. 


The  Dialoniu  on  Orators  discusses,  in  Iho  form  of  a  conv<.r«tion 
which  Tantii3  professed  to  have  l,,-a„l  'a?  a  vo.mg  man.  .ptv>-..n 
some  eminent  men  at  the  Roman  ha-  thp  cauvrs  of  ihr  .l«ay  of 
eloquem-e  under  the  erapiK:  Tl.rre  are  some  lufresrinz  remarks 
in  it  on  the  change  for  the  worse  thai  had  taken  place  in  the 
education  of  Roman  lails. 

Tlic  Life  ofA<,r,cnla.  sh..rt  as  it  is.  has  always  been  consirtered 
an  admirable  specimen  of  hmg.arl.v  The  great  man  with  all  his 
grace  an.l  dignity  is  brought  v,v„l,v  before  us.  and  il.e  sketch  we 
haw  of  the  hi'.tiry  oi  our  island  uu.ler  the  Romans  gives  a  special 
interest  to  this  lutle  work  ,...,-  „„    ti  „ 

The  Germany,  the  full  title  of  which  is  Concerning  the 
geogranhv.  the  manners  and  customs,  and  the  tnhesof  f^'-nnany 
Sesaibes'wilh  many  suggestive  lunts  the  general  rhar.ac,er  of  the 
German  peoples,  and  dwells  parucularlv  on  thcr  fierce  and  lude^ 
pendent  spirit,  which  ibe  author  evidently  fell  o  be  a  siaml  .  g 
menace  to  the  empire  The  geography  is  its  weak  point ;  this  was 
no  doubt  gathered  from  vague  hearsay  ,       ,     ,      i„„„„i,, 

The  IlSlorus.  as  origmaUv  composed  in  twelve  books,  brought 
vlie  history  of  the  empire  from  Oalba  m  fi9  down  to  tie  close  of 
Domitinn-s  reign  in  97  The  first  four  books,  and  .a  small  fragment 
of  the  fifth,  giving  us  a  very  minute  account  of  the  even  ful  year 
of  revolutioiK  69.  and  the  brief  reigns  of  Calba.  Otho,  a,,.  V  iicllius  | 
are  all  that  remain  to  us.  In  the  fragment  of  tl«.  fif.li  h"ok  we 
have  a  curious  and  interesting  account  of  the  .lewish  nation,  of 
their  character,  customs,  and  religion,  from  a  cultivated  Romans 
point  of  view,  which  we  see  at  once  was  a  strongly  prejudic-.l  one 

The  Annals-^  title  for  which  there  is  no  ancient  authority,  and 

which  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing  Tacitus  g^^,  <i'^;'';:;''^,;  ^ 

to  the  work-record  tlie  history  of  the  emperors  of  the  J"l>a" J'f 

from  Tiberius  to  Nero,  comprising  thus  a  period  from  '^  « />  J" 

68      Of  these,  nine  books  have  come  dQwn  to  ns  entire  .  ol  books 

V     xi    and  xvi.  we  have  but  fragments,  and  the  whole  of   he  reign 

of'Caius  (Caligula),  the  first  six  years  of  Claudius,  and  the  last  three 

years  of  Nero  are  wanting.     Out  of  a  period  of  fifty-tour  years  we 

thus  have  the  history  of  forty  years.  ..    .  ,k      ^„„„;, 

An  attempt  has  been  made  recently  to  prove  Iha,  the  ^W, 

arc  a  forgery  by  Poggio  Bracciolini.  an  Italian  scholar  of  the  l.'i  h 

ccntu  y^u^t  their  6°""iueness  is  confirmed  by  their  agreement 

i,°  various  minute  details  with  coins  and  inscnptioDs  discovered 

since  that  period.     Another  important  fact  has  ^"" J'^?'"  1° 

light.     Ruodolphus,  a  monk  of  a  monastery  at  Fulda    m   Hesse 

cLel,  writing   in    the  9th  century,  says  that  C"^"^  '"Vyj''"/ 

speaks  of  the  river  known  to  moderns  as  the  Wcser  as  t he  \M  urg  s^ 

Id  the  An,mls  as  thev  have  come  down  to  us  wo  find  the  Visurgis 

mentioned  five  times  in  the  first  two  books,  whence  we  may  coiv 

elude   that  a   manuscript  of  them  was  in    existence    in  the  9th 

century.      Add  to  this  the  testimony  of  .leiome  that  Tacitus  wrote 

in  thirty  books  the  lives  of  the  Ciesars.  and  the  evidence  of  style. 

and  theie  cannot  be  much  doubt  thai  in  the  AnvnU  we  have  a 

genuine  work  of  Tacitus. ____^ 

Epi>..  vii.  33.  , 

»  See  Introduction  to  vol.  i.   of  Furneaux's  edition  of  the  A7fa/s 
OlTucitus.  Clarendou  Press  Series.  188t 


Much  of  the  history  of  the  period  described  by  hini.  especially 
of  the  earlier  Ca'sars.  must  have  been  obscure  and  locked  up  with 
the  emperor's  private  pap.rs  and  memoranda.     As  we  should  ex. 
pert    there  w.as  a  vast  amount  of  fioating  gossip,  which  an  historian 
would    have  to  sift  and  utilize  as  bust    he  might      Tacitus,  as  a 
man  of   "ood    social  position,   no  doubt    had    access   to   the    best 
informati°on.  and  must  have    talked    matters  over  >Mth  the  most 
eminent  men  of  the  day      There  were  several  writers  and  chron' 
icleis   whom  he  occasionally  cites  but  not  very  oficn     there  were 
memoirs   of   distinguished    persons. -those,    foi    example    of    the 
youiicer  A<»rippina.ofThiasca.  tnil  Hclvi.lius.     There  were  several 
colleL"llons°of  lell.-rs.  like  those  of  Ihe  younger   IMiny     a  number, 
too,  of  funeral  orations,  and  the  --acta  tcnatus"  and    the  "acl» 
populi  "  or  "  a.'ta  diurna."  the  first  a  record  oi  proceedings  in  the 
senate,  the  latter  a  kiud  of  gazelle  or  journal      Thus  there  were 
the  materials  lor  history  in  considerable  abundance,  and    lacilu» 
was  certainly  a  man  who  knew  how  to  turn  them  to  good  account 
Ik  has  given  us  a  striking,  and  on  Ihe  whole  doubtless  a  true, 
picture  of  the  eminrc  in  the  1st  century.     He  wrote,  it  may  be 
admitted,  with  a  political  bias  and  a  decided  turn  lor  satire,  but 
he  assuredly  wrote  with  a  high  aim.  and  we  may  accept  his  own 
account  of '  it       "I   regard  ^   it   as  history  s   highest    function    to 
rescue   merit    from  oblivion,  and  to    hold    up  as  a  lerroi   to  base 
words  and  actions  the  reprobation  of  posterity  "     Amid  great  evils 
he  recognized  the  existence  of  truly  noble  virtues  e\an  m  his  own 
degenerate  age      Still  for  the  most  part  he  writes  as  a  man  who 
felt  deeply  that    the    world  was   altogether  "out  of  joint",  the 
empire  was  in  itsdf  .n  his  view  a  hufe  blund-r.  and  answeratjlc 
more  or  less  diiectly  lor  all    the  diseases  ol   society,   for   all  tli« 
demoralization  and  .orruplitm  of  the  creal  world  ol  Rome,  though 
as  to  the  iirovinces  he  admits  that  they  were  t^Uer  olf  in  many 
ways  under  the  emperors  than  they  bad  b.-en  in  the  last  days  of 
the    republic       liul    Ins  political   svmpathu^s  were  certainly   with 
the  old  ari.stocratic  and  scnalonan   regime,  wilh   the  Rome  ol  the 
Scinios  and  the  Fabii  ;  lor  hini  the  greatness  of  his  country  lay  m 
the  past.  and.  though  he  fell  her  to  b.  still  great    her  glory  "as. 
he  thon-lit.  decidedly  on   the  wane       He  «as.  in  fact,  a  political 
idealist. "and  cnul.l  hardly  help  speaking  disparagingly  of  his  own 
day       In  his  Orrinnnn  he  dwells  on  the  routiasi  between  barbarian 
freedom  and   siinplicilv  on    the  one  hand  and    Ihe  servilitv  an.l 
degenei-acv  of  Roman  lite  on  the  other      Vet  he  had  a  strong  and 
siiiiere  paiuotism.  which  invariably  made  him  minimize  a  Koinan 
defeat  and  the  number  of  Roman  slain      There  seems  to  have  been 
a  strange  tinge,  loo.  of  supersution  about  liim.  and  he  could  not 
divesl  liimsell  of  some  belief  in  asiiolngy  and  revelations  of  the 
fulure    throu-h  omens  and  i.<.rienu.   thoiii;h  he    held  these  were 
often    misunderstood    niid    misinieipreied    by  eharl.itans  and  im- 
postors    -On  the  whole  he  appears  to  have  inclined  to  the  philo- 
sophical Iheoiyof  ■•iiecessitarnnism,"  that  every  man  »  fulure  is 
fixed  from  his  birth  .  but  we  must  not  fasten  on  him  any  particular 
theory  of  the  world  or  of  the  universe     Sometimes  he  speaks  as  a  be- 
liever'in  a  divine  nverruliii=  I'rovidence.  and  we  mav  say  confidently 
that  with  the  Epicurean  dorinne  he  had  no  sort  ol  sympathy 

His  btvle  whatever  judgment  mav  be  passed  on  it.  is  certainly 
that  of  aman  of  genius  and  cannot  l»il  to  make  a  deep  impression 
on  the  studious  reader  Tacitean  brevity  has  become  proverbial, 
and  with  this  are  closelv  allied  an  occasional  obscurity  and  a  rhetor- 
ical alTertatiop  which  his  warmest  admirers  must  admit  He  has 
been  compared  to  Carlyle  and  there  are  certainly  resemblances 
between  the  two  both  ID  stvle  and  tone  of  thought.  Both  affect 
sin'-ularilv  of  expression     both  incline  to  an  unhopeful  and  cynical 


view  ol  the  world  Tacitus  was  probably  ueve,  a  popular  author; 
to  be  understood  and  appreciated  he  must  be  read  again  and  again, 
or  the  point  of  some  ol  his  aeuiesl  remarks  wdl  be  quite  missed^ 
He  ha,s  been  several  time.s  translated,  but  it  has  always  been  felt 
that  he  presents  very  great,  if  not  insuperable,  difficulties  to  the 
translator  _  ,  .. 

Miirnhv  irnr..l.uen  la  puraptirwe  we  should  «11  II)  !•  I'^''".''' ""'."'  J^J 
he.  kS"w„  ,T  w..  p„bn.l.p.l  'a-1.  .n  .he  prewnl  century  "n  Ihls  wa.  b^ed 
the  ,e  called  0,..,rrt  lr.n.ln.>..n,  puMished  bv  B"l.n  in  .revised  cdumn  Th« 
Llern  .n.la.ine  1.  ..at  hv  M-^.r,  Chur,  I,  aed  Ki-edril.b  Theic  .«  en  the  whoU 
L°L"d  Vrrn  h  ..;n,la",ne  h,  Lmi.nd.-  The  e.llMoh,  ol  Tacl.u>  are  very  num 
Pto,,^  Amo.,11  moie  ipcenl  edluons.the  best  «nd  moM  iiselul  are  Orelh  « (18.W1. 
Rule,  s  *1SMK  Nlppe. de,  'S  (1879, .  Ku,-neaai>  s  Mnna/,.  1  -vl.^  vol  '  Claiende, 
Press.  18.S4  ^ 

TACITUS,  M  Claudius,  Roman  emperor  from  Sep 
lember  25.  -270,  to  April  276.  «'as  a  native  of  Interamna 
(Terni)  in  Unibria,  and  was  born  about  the  year  200.  In 
the  course  of  his  long  life  he  discharged  the  duties  of 
various  civil  offices,  including  that  of  consul  in  2/3,  with 
univer.sal  respect.  Six  months  after  the  assassination  of 
Aurelian  he  was  chosen  by  the  senate  to  succeed  him.  and 
the  choice  was  cordially  ratified  by  the  army.  During  his 
brief    reign   he  set  on   foot  some  domestic  .reforms,  and 


'  Avn  .  ill.  65. 


4nn.,  vi.  21,  22. 


T  A  C  -  T  A  G 


21" 


«onght  to  revive  the  authority  of  the  senate,  bat,  after 
a  victory  over  the  Alani  near  the  Palus  Ma;otis,  he 
succumbed  to  the  hardships  and  fatigues  of  his  new 
duties  at  Tj-ana  in  Cappadocia.  Tacitus,  besides  being 
a  man  of  immense  wealth  (which  he  bequeathed  to  the 
state),  had  considerable  literary  culture,  and  was  proud  to 
claim  descent  from  the  historian,  whose  works  he  caused 
to  be  transcribed  at  the  public  expense  and  placed  in  the 
public  libraries. 

TACTICS.     See  War. 
TADMOR.     See  PALimta. 

TAFILELT,  a  large  oasis  in  Morocco  (see  vol.  xvi.  p. 
632).     The  principal  place  is  Abuam. 

TAGANROG,  a  seaport  of  southern  Russia,  on  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Azotf,  in  the  government  of 
Ekaterinoslaff,  and  nearly  200  miles  south-east  of  its  chief 
town  It  is  built,  principally  of  wood,  on  a  low  cape,  and, 
with  its  extensive  store-houses,  exchange,  and  wholesale 
shops,  has  the  aspect  of  an  important  commercial  city._^  It 
is  well  provided  with  educational  Institutions  for  children, 
«na  uas  a  library  and  a  theatre.  The  imperial  palace,  where 
Alexander  I.  died  in  182-5,  and  jhe  Greek  monastery 
{under  the  patriarch  of  Jeru.salem)  are  worthy  of  notice. 
The  advantageous  situation  of  Taganrog  was  well  known  as 
•early  as  the  13th  century,  when  Pisan  merchants  founded 
there  a  colony,  Portus  Pisauus,  which,  however,  was  des- 
tined soon  to  disappear  during  the  great  migrations  of  the 
Mongols  and  Turks.  An  attempt  to  obtain  posses.sion  of 
the  promontory  was  made  by  Peter  I ,  but  it  was  not 
definitely  annexed  by  the  Russians  until  seventy  years 
afterwards  (1769).  Its  commercial  importance  dates  from 
the  .second  half  of  the  present  century  ,  in  1870  its  popu- 
lation had  risen  to  38,000,  and  after  it  had  been  brought 
into  railway  connexion  with  Kharkoff  and  Voronezh,  and 
thus  with  the  fertile  provinces  of  sorth  and  south-east 
liHssia,  the  increase  was  still  more  rapid,  the  number 
reaching  03,025  in  1882, —Greeks,  Jews,  Armenians,  and 
West- Europeans  being  important  elements.  Notwith- 
standing the  disadvantages  of  its  open  roadstead,  the 
foreign  trade  of  Taganrog  rapidly  expanded,  the  annual 
value  of  the  exports  having  recently  reached  £2,-500,000 
The  chief  article  of  export  being  com,  the  trade  of  the 
«ity,  depending  on  the  crops  in  south  Russia,  is  subject  to 
great  fluctuations.  Linseed  afid  other  oil  bearing  grains 
are  also  important  articles  of  commerce,  as  well  as  tallow 
•and  butter  The  imports,  which  consist  chiefly  of  fruits 
(dried  and  fresh),  wine,  oil,  and  coffee,  are  much  smaller 
than  the  exports,  and  of  the  989  ships  (499,500  tons) 
that  entered  the  port  in  1885  no  fewer  than  775  (446,500 
tons)  were  in  ballast.  The  coasting  trade,  chiefly  with 
Rostuff,  was  represented  in  the  same  year  by  1321  vessels 
{224,000  tons)  entering  and  1343  vessels  clearing 

The  roadstead  of  Taganrog  is  very  shallow,  and  exposed  to  winds 
•winch  cause  great  variations  in  the  height  of  the  water,  it  is.  more 
OVL-r.  ni|.i.lly  silting  up.  At  the  quay  the  depth  of  water  is  only  B 
to  9  li'Ct,  nnci  large  ships  have  to  lie  5  to  1.3  miles  from  the  town 

Taganrog,  with  the  surrounding  territory  of  137,000  acres,  having 
a  popiilitioii  of  nearly -30,000.  living  in  a  dozen  villages,  constitutes 
a  separate  township,  and,  though  reckoned  to  the  Rostotf  district 
of  Ekaterinoslatf.  lias  a  separate  governor  and  administration 

TAGLIACOZZI,  Gasparo  (1546-1599),  a  surgeon  of 
wide  repute,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1546,  and  studied  at 
that  university  under  Cardan,  taking  his  degree  in  philo 
Sophy  and  medicine  at  the  age  of  twenty-four  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  surgery  and  afterwards  of  anatomy, 
and  achieved  notoriety  at  least,  and  the  fame  of  a  wonder 
worker      He  died  at  Bologna  on  November  7,  1599. 

His  luincipal  -work  is  entitled  Dc  Curlonm  ChiruTgia  per 
IimilioncM  L^hri  Duo  (Vmice,  1597,  fol. );  it  was  reprinted  in  the 
following  year  under  the  title  of  Chirurgia  Nova  de  Narium, 
Aurium,  jMbiontmq^ie  Dcfcctu  per  Insitiuncm  Cutis  ex  Hmnero, 
arte  hactenm  omnibtts  ignota,  sarcicndo  (Frankfort,  1598,   8vo). 


The  latter  title  sufficiently  indicates  the  art  which  he  professed  o( 
repairing  nose,  eai's,  and  lips  by  a  species  of  ingrafting  of  skin  from 
the  arm,  that  member  being  kept  in  apposition  with  the  part  to  b« 
repaired  until  such  time  as  the  semi-detached  graft  had  formed  its 
new  vascular  conuexions.  His  Latinized  name  of  Tiiliacotius  13 
well  known  to  the  readers  of  Butler  (Budibras,  i.  1),  whose  hum- 
orous representation  of  the  nature  of  the  Taliacotian  art  is,  how. 
ever,  in  some  important  particulars  inaccurate. 

TAGLIONI,  Marie  (1809-1884),  a  ballet  dancer,  was 
the  daughter  of  Filippo  Taglioni,  an  Italian  master  of  the 
ballet,  and  was  born  at  Stockholm  23d  April  1809  She 
was  trained  by  her  father,  who  in  his  discipline  is  said  to 
have  been  pitilessly  severe.  It  was  to  his  care  and  her 
own  special  talent  for  dancing  that  she  owed  her  success, 
for  she  possessed  no  remarkable  personal  attractions  Her 
first  appearance  was  at  Vienna,  lOth  June  1822,  in  a 
ballet  of  which  her  father  was  the  author.  La  Reception 
d'une  jeune  nymphe  a  la  cour  de  Terpsichore  Her  success 
was  immediate,  and  was  repeated  in  the  chief  towns  of 
Germany.  On  23d  July  1827  she  made  her  debut  at  the 
Opera  House,  Paris,  in  the  Ballet  de  Sicihen,  and  aroused 
a  furore  of  enthusiasm.  Her  style  was  entirely  new,  and 
may  be  termed  ideal  as  opposed  to  the  realistic  and  vplup- 
tuous  ballet  previously  in  vogue.  Among  her  more  remark- 
able performances  were  the  dancing  of  the  Tyrolienne  in 
Guillaume  Tell  and  of  the  pas  de  fascination  \n  Meyerbeer's 
Robert  le  Diable.  At  this  period  the  ballet  was  a  much 
more  important  feature  in  opera  than  it  is  now,  and  in 
fact  -ivith  her  retirement  in  1845  the  era  of  grand  ballets 
may  be  said  to  have  closed.  In  1832  she  married  Comte 
Gilbert  de  Voisins,  by  whom  she  had  two  children  Losing 
her  savings  in  speculation,  she  afterwards  supported  her 
self  in  London  as  a  teacher  of  deportment,  especially  in 
connexion  with  the  ceremony  of  presentation  at  court 
During  the  last  two  years  of  her  life  she  stayed  wnth  her 
son  at  Marseilles,  where  she  died  la  April  1884  Taglioni 
IS  frequently  mentioned  in  the  novels  of  Balzac ,  and 
Thackeray,  in  The  Newcomes,  says  that  the  young  men  of 
that  epoch  "  will  never  see  anything  so  graceful  as  Taglioni 
in  La  Sylphide." 

TAGUS  (Spfwi.  Tojo,  Portug.  Tejo),  the  longest,  river  "of 
the  Iberian  Peninsula.  Its  length  is'566  miles,  of  which 
192  are  on  or  within  the  frontier  of  Portugal,  and  the  area 
of  its  basin,  according  to  Strelbitsky,  is  31,864  square 
miles.  The  basin  is  comparatively  narrow,  and  the  Tagu.s, 
like  the  other  rivers  of  the  fberian  tableland,  generally 
flows  in  a  rather  confined  valley,  often  at  the  bottc'in  of 
a  rocky  gorge  at  a  considerable  depth  below  the  general 
level  of  the  adjacent  country  The  source  of  the  river 
IS  at  the  height  of  5225  feet  above  sea-level,  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Muela  de  San  Juan,  in  the  south  west 
of  the  province  of  Teruel.  Thence  it  flows  at  first  north 
westwards,  but,  after  receiving  the  Rio  Gallo  on  the  right, 
It  Hows  west,  and  then  south  west  or  westr-south- west, 
which  18  its  general  direction  for  the  rest  of  its  course. 
The  rocky  gorges  which  occur  in  its  course  (the  principal 
being  where  the  river  is  overhung  on  the  right  bank  by 
the  ancient  city  of  Toledo,  and  again  at  the  Puente  del 
Arzobispo,  neai — the  frontier  of  Estremadura)  all  belong 
to  the  Spanish  section  of  the  river,  and  in  this  section 
tb«  stream  is  frequently  encumbered  by  sandy  shallows  or 
broken  by  rocky  rapids,  and  is  not  navigable  except  for 
short  distances.  The  Portuguese  section  has  a  quieter 
current,  amd  V^illavelha,  the  highest  point  to  which  boats 
can  ascend,  lies  within  the  Portuguese  frontier  Regular 
river  navigation  begins  only  at  Abrantes,  a  few  miles  below 
which  the  Tagus  is  greatly  widened  by  receiving  on  its  right 
bank  the  inrpetuous  Zezere  from  the  Serra  da  Estrelha, 
Passing  Santarem,  the  highest  point  to  which  the  tide 
ascends,  and  the  limit  of  navigation  for  large  sailing  vessels 
and  steamers,  the  river  divides  below  Salvaterrajnto  two 


22 


T  A  H  — T  A  H 


aVms,  called  the  Tejo  Novo  (the  only  one  practicable  for 
ships)  and  the  Mar  de  Pedro,  and  these  arms  enclose  a 
deltaic  formation,  a  low  tract  of  marshy  alluvium  known 
as  the  Lezirias,  traversed  by  several  natural  canals  or  minor 
branches  of  the  river.  Both  these  arms  enter  'the  upper 
end  of  the  fine  Bay  of  Lisbon  (11|  miles  long  by  about  7 
broad),  and  the  Tagus  leaves  this  bay  in  the  form  of  a 
channel  4J  miles  long  by  2  wide  (see  vol.  xiv.  p.  692), 
communicating  with  the  ocean,  but  having  unfortunately 
a  bar  at  its  mouth.  On  the  north  side  of  this  channel 
stands  the  city  of  Lisbon.  Only  slight  traces  are  still  to 
be  found  of  the  gold  for  which  the  sands  of  the  Tagus 
were  anciently  celebrated. 

The  narrower  part  of  the  Tagus  basin  lying  to  the 
south,  the  tributaries  on  the  left  bank  are  almost  all  mere 
brooks,  most  of  which  dry  up  in  summer.  The  principal 
exception  is  the  Rio  Zatas  or  Sorraya,  whicli,  rising  in 
the  Serra  d'Ossa,  flows  westwards  across  the  plateau  of 
Alemtejo,  and  joins  the  Mar  de  Pedro.  The  principal 
tributaries  on  the  right  bank,  besides  the  Zezere,  are  the 
Jarama,  descending  from  the  tableland  of  New  Castile  a 
little  below  Aranjuez,  the  Alberche  and  the  Tietar,  which 
collect  their  head  waters  from  opposite  sides  of  the  Sierra 
de  Gredos,  and  the  Alagon,  from  the  rough  and  broken 
country  between  the  Sierras  ds  Gredos  and  Gata. 
See  vol.  TAHITI  ARCHIPELAGO  The  eastern  Polynesian 
^^-  island-group  generally  known  as  the  Society  Islands  (Isles 
lit**  '^"  ''^  Societe,  or  Taili)  lies  between  16°  and  18°  S.  lat. 
and  148°  and  155°  W,  long.,  and  stretches  for  nearly  200 
miles  in  a  north-west  and  south-east  direction  ;  the  total 
area  does  not  e.xceed  650  square  mile.s,  of  which  600  fall  to 
Tahiti  alone.  To  the  east  and  north-east  a  channel  of  only 
140  miles  in  breadth,  but  over  2000  fathoms  in  depth, 
separates  this  group  from  the  great  chain  of  the  Low  Islands, 
beyond-which  the  ocean  extends  unbroken  to  America.  To 
the  west  as  far  as  Fiji — the  main  islands  of  which  group  lie 
between  the  same  degrees  of  latitude  as  those  of  Tahiti — 
there  are  1 500  miles  of  open  water.  About  300  miles  south- 
west lies  Cook's  Archipelago,  and  at  the  sscme  distance  south 
are  the  Austral  Islands.  To  the  north,  excepting  a  few 
coral  banks,  there  is  open  sea  to  Hawaii,  a  distance  of 
2600  miles. 

Tahiti  occupies  a  central  position  in  the  Pacific.  Sydney 
lies  about  3400  miles  to  the  west  and  San  Francisco  about 
as  far  to  the  northnorth-east.  Honolulu,  'Noumea;  and 
Auckland  are  each  somewhere  about  2400  miles  away  ; 
Panama  is  at  a  distance  of  4600  miles. 

The  archipelago  consists  of  eleven  islands,  which  are 
divided  into  two  clusters — the  Leeward  and  the  Wind- 
ward Islands — by  a  clear  channel  of  60  miles  in  breadth. 
The  Leeward  I.slands,  to  which  alone  the  name  of  Society 
Islands  was  given  by  Cook,  are  Tubal  or  Motu-iti,  a  small 
uninhabited  lagoon  island,  the  most  northern  of  the  whole 
archipelago  ,  Maupiti  or  Mau-rua — "  Double  Mountain," 
the  most  western  ;  Bora-bora  (Bola-Bola  of  the  older 
navigators),  or  Fdarui  ;  Tahaa  ;  Raiatea  or  Ulietea  (Boen- 
sliea's  Princessa),  the  largest  island  of  this  cluster,  and 
Huahine,  which  approach  each  other  very  closely,  and  are 
encircled  by  one  reef.  To  the  Windward  Island.s,  the 
Georgian  Islands  of  the  early  missionaries,  belong  Maiaiti 
or  Tapamanu  (Wallis's  Sir  Charles  Saunders  Island  and 
Coensiiea's  ''^lada) ;  Morea  or  Eimeo  (Wallis's  Duke  of 
York  Is)' I.  and  Bocnshea's  San  Domingo);  Taliiti — Cook's 
OtalieitI  v|)robably  Quiros's  Sagittaria ;  Wallis's  King 
George's  Island,  Bougainville's  Nouvelle  Cythere,  and 
Boenshea'a  Isla  d'Aniat),  the  most  southern  and  by  far 
the  largest  of  all  the  islands  ;  Tetuara  or  Tetiaroa— "  The 
Distant  Sea"  (? Quiros's  Fugitiva  ;  Bougainville's  Umaitia 
and  Bocnshea's  'Tres  Hernianos)  ;  and  Matia  or  Maitea 
(J  Quiros's  La  Dezana.  Wallia's  Osnaburg  Island,  Boug?"n- 


ville's  Boudoir- and  Pic  de  la  Boudeuse,  and  Boeushea's 

San  Cristoval),  which  is  by  a  degree  the  most  eastern  of  the 
archipelago.  Bellinghausen,  Scilly,  and  Lord  Howe  (Mopia) 
are  three  insignificant  clusters  of  coral  islets  to  the  north- 
west and  west,  and,  like  Tubal  and  Tetilara,  are  atolls. 
The  length  of  the  Tetuara  reef  ring  is  about  six  milfls ;  it 
bears  ten  palm-covered  islets,  of  which  several  are  in 
habited,  and  has  one  narrow  boat-passage  leading  into  the 
lagoon.  With  the  exception  just  named,  the  islands,  which 
agree  very  closely  in  geological  structure,  are  mountainous, 
•and  present  perhaps  the  most  wonderful  example  of 
volcanic  rocks-  to  be  found  on  the  globe.  They  are  formed 
of  trachyte,  dolerite,  and  basalt.  There  are  raised  cora' 
beds  high  up  the  mountains,  and  leva  occurs  in  a  variety 
of  forms,  even  in  solid  tiows ;  but  all  active  volcanic 
agency  has  so  long  ceased  that  the  craters  have  been 
almost  entirely  obliterated  by  denudation.  Hot  springs 
are  unknown,  and  earthquakes  are  slight  and  rare. 
Nevertheless,  under  some  of  these  flows  remains  of  plants 
and  insects  of  species  now  living  in  the  islands  have  been 
found, — a  proof  that  the  formation  as  well  as  the  denuda- 
tion of  the  country  is,  geologically  speaking,  recent.  la 
profile  the  islands  are  rugged.  A  high  mountain,  usually 
with  very  steep  peaks,  forms  the  centre,  if  not  the  whole 
island  ;  on  all  sides  steep  ridges  descend  to  the  sea,  or, 
as  is  oftener  the  case,  to  a  considerable  belt  of  flat  land. 
These  mountains,  excepting  some  stony  crags  and  cliflTs, 
are  clothed  with  dense  forest,  the  soil  being  exceptionally 
fertile.  All  voyagers  agree  that  for  varied  beauty  of  form 
and  colour  the  Society  Islands  are  unsurpassed  in  the 
Pacific  Innumerable  rills,  fed  by  the  fleeting  cloud* 
which  circle  round  the  high  lands,  gather  in-lovely  streams, 
and,  after  heavy  rains,  torrents  precipitate  themselves  in 
grand  cascades  from  the-  mountain  cliffs — a  feature  6» 
striking  as  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  all  voyagers, 
from  Wallis  downwards.  Round  most  of  the  islands  there 
is  a  luxuriant  coral  growth  ;  but,  as  the  reefs  lie  at  no 
great  distance,  and  follow  the  line  of  the  coast,  the  inter- 
island  channels  are  safer  than  those  of  the  neighbouring 
Tuamotus,  which  exhibit  the  atoll  formation  in  -perhaps 
its  fullest  development,  and  in  consequence  have  been 
jiistly  called  the  '  Low  "  or  "  Dangerous  Archipelago." 
Maitea,  which  rises  from  the  sea  as  an  exceedingly  abrupt 
cone,  and  Tapamanu  appear  to  be  the  only  islands  which 
have  not  their  fringing  and  more  or  less  completely 
encircl'mg  barrier-reefs.'*  The  coasts  are  fairly  indented, 
and,  protected  by  these  reefs,  which  often  support  a  chain 
of  green  islets,  afford  many  good  harbours  and  safe 
anchorages.  In  this  respect  the  Society  Islands  hava 
the  advantage  of  most  of  the  Polynesian  groups. 

The  island  of  Tahiti,  in  shape  not  unlike  the  figure  8,  has 
a  total  length  of  35  miles,  a  coast  line  of  120,  and  a  super- 
ficial area  of  600  square  miles.  It  is  divided  into  two 
distinct  portions  by  a  short  isthmus  (Isthmus  de  Taravao) 
less  than  a  mile  iq  width,  and  nowhere  more  than  50  feet- 
above  sea-level.  The  southern,  the  peninsula  of  Tairabu, 
or  Tahiti-iti  (Little  Tahiti),  alone  as  large  as  Raiatea 
(after  Tahiti  the  most  important  island  of  the  group), 
measures  12  miles  in  length  by  6  miles  in  breadth  ;  while 
the  northern,  the  circular  main  island  of  Porionuu,  or 
Tahiti-uni  (Great  Tahiti),  has  a  length  of  23  miles  and  a 
width  of  20.  The  whole  island  is  mountainous.  A  little 
to  the  north-west  of  the  centre  of  Great  Tahiti  the  Society 
Islands  attain  their  greatest  altitude.  There  the  double- 
peaked  Orohena  rises  to  7340  feet,  and  Aorai,  its  rival, 
is  only  a  few  hundred  feet  lower.  Little  Tahiti  cannot 
boast  of  such  mountains,  but  its  tower-like  peaks  are  very 
striking.  The  flat  land  of  the  Tahitian  coast,  extending 
to  a  width  of  several  miles — with  its  chain  of  villages,  it* 
'  DaiwiD,  SCniclure  o/Coral  Ree/a,  London,  1842. 


TAHITI 


23 


lertile  gardens,  and  its  belt  of  palms,  sometimes  intersected 
by  stream-fed  valleys  which  open  on  the  sea-shore  —  tonns 
a  most  pleasing  foreground  to  the  grand  amphitheatre-like 
mountain  ranges.  A  good  road  surrounds  the  entire 
island,  which  is  divided  into  eighteen  districts,  each  under 
a  chief  and  a  municipal  councii  of  which  he  is  president 
A  railroad  is  in  contemplation  By  the  last  census  the 
population  of  the  entire  island  was  9194,  one-eighth  being 
French  and  foreigners  The  majority  of  the  natives  pro 
fess  the  Protestant  religion  ' 

The  extreme  north  ot  the  island  is  formed  by  Point  Venus,  to 
the  east  of  which  lies  the  Bay  of  Matavai,  and  some  miles  still 
farther  east  Papeete,  the  European  town  and  the  scat  of  govern 
ment  The  beautiful  harbour,  of  fair  si/o  and  depth,  is  entered  by 
iwo  ^issages  in  the  reef,  Papeete  to  the  north,  7  fathoms  lu  depth, 
•  nd  Taunos  to  the  east,  the  wider  and  more  convenient,  though 
.Jiallower  The  town,  in  1881,  had  a  population  of  ,1224.  half  of 
whom  were  French  or  French  half-castes,  but  at  least  a  dozen 
different  nations  were  represented  by  the  800  whites.  The  little 
city  IS  decidedly  French  in  ohar-acter  "  Papeete  is  the  emporium 
of  trade  for  the  products  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  east  of  160°  F» 
long.     Small  schooners  of  from  20  to  50  tons  burden  bring  the 

Sroduc^  of  the  various  groups  to  Tahiti,  whence  they  are  shipped 
irect  for  Europe,  either  by  Cape  Horn  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
according  to  the  sea.son  of  the  yp.ar  These  schooners,  of  which 
ab«nt  twenty  fly  the  Tahitian  flag,  take  back  portions  of  the 
cargoes  of  vessels  arriving  from  Europe  for  sale  oi  barter  amongst 
the  islands.  The  chief  exports  are  cocoa-outs,  mother-of  pearl, 
cotton,  and  some  sugar  mainly  to  England  and  Germany,  very 
little  to  Fi-ance ,  and  oranges,  trepang  (for  China),  and  edihte 
fungus  to  California."'  Many  whalers  formerly  visited  Papeete 
harbour,  but  foi  some  years  there  has  been  a  steady  dimuiution 
in  their  number  In  184.')  forty  eight  called  there,  m  1860  five, 
and  none  in  1874.  Conmierce  has  also  in  olhei  respects  decreased 
Three  sugar-mills  with  distilleries  attaithed,  two  cotton  manu 
factories,  and  a  ■lanufactory  ol  cocoa-nut  fibie  were  at  »vork  in 
1886.  Oranges  and  vanilla  are  profit.ably  growiL  The  timber  of 
the  country  is  hardly  used,  great  quantities  of  Califoniian  pine 
being  imported.  Oxen  and  hogs  are  reared.  The  artifit'ial  cultuie 
of  the  pearl  oyster  is  beginning  to  be  discussed,  but  the  peails  of 
the  Society  Islands  are  not  to  be  compared  in  numberor  quality 
to  those  of  the  Tiiamotus.  A  good  deal  of  rr.ading  in  fruit,  fibre, 
shell,  ic. ,  is  carried  on  with  the  natives,  but  still  mainly  by  baitei 
The  competition  of  the  Chinese  immigi-ants,  of  whom  in  1866  tlieie 
were  already  400  on  Tahiti  and  Einieo,  is  beginning  to  he  keenly 
felt  The  importation  of  "  laboni."  chiefly  fru  the  pluriLar  ions,  from 
othei  Polynesian  islands  was  placed  under  Government  control  in 
1862.  The  Tahitians  themselves  prelei  handicrafts  to  agricultural 
work,  and  many  are  employed  as  arlisans  by  Euiopean  niastt-i-s 
who  find  them  as  handy  and  industrious  as  then  own  eouriirynicu, 
but  for  domestic  service  they  show  no  aptitude  Papeete  is  in 
direct  sailmg  communication  with  San  Francisco,  and  with  Syilnty 
by  a  Goverrunent  steamei  which  calls  every  five  months,  also  with 
France  by  Bordeaux  steamers  which  touch  on  their  way  ro 
Noumea. " 

ChmaJt  —The  seasons  are  not  well  defined.  Damp  is  exce.ssive 
there  is  little  variation  in  the  weather,  which,  though  hot,  is  never 
theless  not  depressing,  an'i  the  climate  foi  the  tropics  must  be 
considered  remarkably  healthy  The  rainfall  is  largest  between 
December  and  April,  but  there  is  su  niucb  at  othei  times  ol  the 
fwii  also  chat  these  moiiths  hardly  deserve  the  name  of  the  rainy 
•easori  During  this  period  north  west  winds  are  frequent,  con 
tiiitiing  at  limes  foi  weeks  and  there  are  thunderstorrus  am! 
hiir-ticanes.  though  they  are  not  nearly  .so  destructive  as  m  some 
of  the  neighbouring  islands  liuring  the  eight  driei  and  co<ilei 
ninnths  south-east  wiud^  (corresponding  with  the  trades)  prevail, 
hut  i.liert-  are  southerly  winds  which  bring  ram.  and  even  westerly 
'•■-•^/.es  are  not  iiufiequent  The  mean  temperature  foi  the  yeai 
1  /'■  F  .  maximum  84°  minimum  6a'  The  average  rainfall 
'■■.111  Dficembei  to  March  (4  months)  is  29  inches,  from  April  to 
Kov  .rubei  (8  months),  19  inches  The  abovn  observations  applv 
<o  the  coast  only 

Fauna  — Neithei  the  zoology  noi  the  bou-iny  of  the  archipelago 
bas  been  thoroughly  investigated  Mammalians,  as  in  othei  Poly 
oesian  islands,  are  restricted  to  a  few  species  of  bats  (mostly  of 
the  genus  Pteropus),  rats,  and-  mice,  none  of  them  peculiar  Of 
domestic  animals,  the  pig  and  the  dog— the  foimer  a  small  breeii 
which  quickly  disappeared  before  the  stronget  European  strains- 
were  plentiful  even  in  Wallis's  days.  The  ornithology  is  very 
pool  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Westeni  Pacific,  and,  in  marked 

'  The  best  chart  of  Tahiti  is  that  publiihed  by  the  French  Govenunpntln  1876 
aod  corrected  down  to  1881.    Morea  is  givca  on  the  eame  sbeei 
'  Wallace,  Auitralatia,  Londoo,  18S4..  * 

•  For  fuller  itatlstlca,  lee  Notices  Cotoniatta^  Pans,  1886,  vol  u 


contrast  to  the  Isolated  Hawaiian  archipelago,  the  Society  Islands 
possess  no  peculiar  genera  and  but  few  peculiar  species  Tlicy 
claim,  however,  a  thrush,  several  small  parrots  of  great  beauty, 
doves,  pigeons,  rails,  and  a  sandpiper  Of  this  sandpiiier,  Tringa 
Uucopfera.  w-hich,  with  many  of  the  birds  here  mentioned,  was  di.^ 
covered  as  far  back  as  Cook's  st.iy  in  the  islands,  only  one  specirocD 
(now  in  the  Lej'den  museum)  is  known  to  exist,  and  of  the  rest, 
their  range  being  often  limited  to  one  portion  of  a  small  island, 
several  species  are  (through  the  increase  in  the  number  of  cats, 
&c. )  threatened  with  extermination  A  jungle. fowl  (var  of  Galhit 
bnnktva)  is  found  in  the  mountains,  but  as  domesticated  fowls  weio 
abundant,  even  when  Tahiti  w-as  first  discovered  by  Europeans, 
these  wild  birds  are  doubtless  the  oflTspnng  of  tame  birds,  probab'y 
ini[iorted  with  the  pigs  and  dogs  by  Malay  vessels.  There  are 
no  peculiar  reptiles,  and  fiatrachians  are  entirely  wanting  The 
lagoons  swarm  with  fish  of  many  species.  Insects  are  poor  in 
species,  though  some  of  thein  are  indigenous.  Crustaceans  and 
nu)llusi;s,  on  the  other  hand,  are  well  represented  ,  worms,  echino- 
derms,  and  corals  comparatively  poorly  A  noteworthy  feature  of 
Tahitian  conchology  is  the  number  of  peculiar  sjjecies  belonging  to 
the  genus  Parlula,  almost  every  valley  being  the  habitat  of  a  dis- 
tinct forut 

f'/oAa.  — This,  though  luxunant,  is  not  very  rich.  Like  the /oology, 
It  IS  much  poorei  than  that  of  the  more  western  groups  of  the  Pacific 
MelroxaUros,  MelasUmm,  and  Acacia  arc  the  only  links  which  this 
typically  Polynesian  region  bas  retained  to  join  it  to  Australia 
Four  genera  are  peculiar,  of  which  three  are  cl.aimed  by  the  t'tmi- 
poHitiv.  and  Lobflwccx,  orders  characteristic  oi  Hawaii.  It  is  rich 
in  trees,  sliruhs,  and  hardwood  planls,  ]ioor  in  the  smaller  under- 
growth Orchids,  including  some  beautiful  species,  and  ferns  are 
abundant  ,  but,  here  as  in  Polynesia  generally,  Rttbiaceas  is  the 
order  best  represented  Remarkable  are  the  banana  thickets,  which, 
chiefly  on  Tahiti,  grow  at  an  altitude  of  from  3000  to  5000  feet. 
Ahing  the  shore — m  some  places  almost  to  the  extinction  of  all 
native  growth  — many  exotics  have  established  themselves  ,  iind  a 
great  variety  ol  fruit-bearing  and  other  useful  trees  have  been 
successfully  introduced  into  most  of  the  islands.' 

Inlwhilants.  —The  Tahitians  are  a  typical  Polynesian  race,  closely 
connected  physically  with  the  Marqucsans  and  Rarotongans,  but 
widely  divided  from  them  in  many  of  their  customs  The  dialects, 
also,  of  the  three  groups  are  difleient,  the  Tahitian  being  perhaps 
the  softest  in  all  Oceania.  The  women  rank  with  the  most  beauti 
fill  of  the  Pacific,  though  the  accounts  given  of  them  by  eai-ly 
voyagers  are  much  exaggerated  ,  and  for  general  symmetry  of  form 
the  people  are  unsurpassed  by  any  race  in  the  world.  Even  now 
in  Its  decadence,  after  generations  of  drunkenness  and  Eurojieau 
disease  and  vice,  grafted  on  inborn  indolence  and  licentiousness, 
many  tall  and  robust  people  (6  feet  and  even  upwards  in  height) 
are  to  be  found  The  women,  as  a  rule,  are  small  in  proportion  to 
the  men.  Men  and  women  of  good  birth  can  generally  be  dis- 
tinguished by  their  height  and  fairness,  and  often,  even  in  early 
age,  by  their  enormous  corpulence  The  skin  varies  from  a  very 
light  olive  to  a  full  dark  brown.  The  wavy  oi  curly  hair  and  the 
expressive  eyes  art  black,  or  nearly  so  ,  the  mouth  is  large,  but 
well-shaped  and  set  with  beautiful  teeth  ,  the  nosi;  broad  (formerly 
flattened  In  infancy  by  artificial  means) .  and  the  chin  well 
developed  So  long  as  the  native  costume  was  retained,  the  tiputa, 
an  oblong  piece  of  bark  cloth  with  a  hole  in  its  centre  for  the 
head,  and  the  pai-u,,  a  plain  piece  of  cloth  rourtd  the  loins,  weit 
worn  alike  by  men  and  women  of  the  highci  classes  Men  of  all 
ranl<s  wore,  with  oi  without  these,  the  man,  oi  T  bandage  The 
women  concealed  their  breasts  except  in  the  company  of  thei» 
.superiors,  when  etiquette  demanded  that  inferiors  of  both  sexes 
should  uncover  the  uppei  part  of  the  body  The  chiefs  wore  short 
fealhei  cloaks,  not  unlike  those  of  the  Hawaiians,  and  beautiful 
sennciiculai  breastplates,  dexterously  interwoven  with  the  hlacli 
plumage  of  the  frigate  bird,  with  crimson  feathers,  and  with  sharks 
teeth  .  also  most  elaborate  special  presses  as  a  sign  ot  niourning 
The  priests  had  strange  cylindrical  hats,  made  of  wicker  work  and 
ovei  a  yard  in  height  Circumcision,  and  in  both  sexes  tattooing, 
were  generally  practised,  and  much  significance  wasattached  to  some 
of  the  marks.  The  houses  (tiare)  were  long,  low,  and  open  at  ths 
sides.  Household  utensils  were  few — plain  round  wooden  dishes, 
sometimes  on  legs,  cocoa.nut  shells,  baskets,  &c  Low  stools  and 
bead -rests  were  used  Pottery  being  unknown,  all  food  was  baked 
in  the  "  n.ative  oven  "  or  roasted  ovei  the  fire  Theii  chief  musical 
instruments  were  the  nose-flute  {vivo) — often  used  as  the  accompani- 
merit  of  .song— and  the  drum  [jxihu)  Of  the  latter,  tho.se  kept  m 
the  ntnrai  were  huge  elaborately  carved  hollow  cylinders  of  wood, 
the  uppei  end  of  which  was  covered  with  sharks'  skin  Conch- 
.shells  (6«)  were  also  used  Tahitian  stone  adzes,  which  are  greatly 
inlerioi  in  finish  to  those  of  the  Hervey  Islands,  arf,  the  adzes 

of  eastern  Polynesia  m  general,  distinguished  from  tbos^of  western 
Polynesia  by  then  triangular  section  and  adaptation  to  a  socket 

•  FiDsch  and  HaiilBub.  Fauna  Centrat-Puiynetiem,  Hallt,  1867 

•  ll«  Castillo,  lUuitrattonu  Ftoroi  Jmtilarmm  Mant  I'acxfici,  Paris,  188ft 


24 


TAHITI 


Slings  were  perhaps  *e  favourite  -^^^^^^^  J^^j  *^I  1 

had  also  plam  spears  "X  .f SfJe  b^^n  " '-^d  i"  '="'^'°  «>-«™°"'^l 

may  possibly  be^^^'^^'^t^d  fmit   the  taro-rootf  the  yam,  the 

so  ford  as  to  s>icMe  "'oi    U  favourite  dish  made  of  bananas 

th.nr  O""  'l^f 'f^.a^S^vtich  was  prepared  in  the  usual  Poly 
resia'n^ranne'r.  ,^ardri"nk?but  in  mode?ateVant.ties  and  only  by 

which  included  only  the  -suzerain  [mirai),  who  bo  e  a  semi  sacrea 
I  weU  as  rpoUtical  character,  and  the  reigning  chiefs  of  districts 

?01  the  6«  'oatira,  proprietor  and  cultivators  of  inherited  land, 
land  and  with  it  certain  privileges.     Ilank  '^  h"ediU  y  auQ  oe 

powefof  to  v=isals,    the   district   chiefs  [raatirasl    -lio   ruled 

hit  was  alone  responsible  for  any  act.  The  bi-insular  lorm  o 
Tahit  pronioted  the  independence  of  tlie  chiefs,  and  war  was  rare.y 
declared  or  an  army  or  fleet  despatched  witnout  the  raaliras  being 
fi?^  summoned  to  council.  Without  their  favour  nothing  could  be 
nrsi  sumii  ojieu.  people  was  absolute. 

T^e^otofgovemm^nvartlm"  strictly  feudal  L  character,  but 
it  araduallY  fentralized  into  a  monarchy,  which   in  the  person  of 
Pon  are  1 1,  the  English  missionaries   greatly  helped  to  regula  e 
Ld  strengthen.     The  arirai  sent  his  commands  by  a  mes|^nge 
Za)  whose  credentials  were  a  tuft  of  cocoa-nut  film.     1''"'  ";  ' 
l^'returned  intact  as  a  sign  of  assent  or  torn  >».f  ^en  of  refus.a 
After  the  chief  the  wife  ranked  first,  and  then  his  biother.      1  he 
^fa  wa^  carried  on  the  shouldeis  of  his  subjects,  and  chiefs  we  e 
rTot  allowed  to  feed  themselves.     Women  always  ate  apart.     1  heir 
Xce    orworship  (™zr«)-national,  local,  or  private-were  square 
I  ce  su?  ounded^enclosuris.     They  each  had  a  single  entrance   and 
conUined  several  small  courts,  within  ^''.ch  were  houses  for  the 
images  and  attendant  priests.     A  pyramidal  stone  st'uct"/^'  "^ 
whifh  weie  the  actual  altars,  stood  at  the  further  end  of  the  squaje^ 
The  mr.a\s  were  also  used  as  places  of  sepulture  of  chiefs,  whose 
I^baTmed  bodies,  after  being  exposed  for  a  ^'nie.  were  buned  ,n  a 
crouchin"  position.     Their  .skulls,  however,  were  kept  m  tl  c  houses 
"fthir  nearest  relations.     In  the  great  mara,  ■'tAtahuratlie  stone 
structure  was  270  feet  long.  94  feet  wide,  and  50  feet  high,  ana  lU 

nini?  of  this  centurv.  Oro  was  the  most  venerated.  Xlie  images, 
Srhfch  are  less  remarkable  than  those  of  Hawaii,  were  rough  repre_ 
rnUtionsof  the  human  form  carved  in  wood.  Some  were  covered 
.rom  head  to  foot  with  small  human  figures  cut  in  "-"''f  ■  °'°"! 
were  mere  sticks  clothed  with  feathers  The  arcm  s.  >'^""'°"^ 
association  of  strolling  players  men  and  ^°'"^"'.^^J^J"^}'ZZ 
among  its  ranks  the  highest  chiefs,  and  practised  mfanticide.  was 

a  special  feature  of  Tahitian  society.  

£  Tahitians  are  Ught-hearted,  frivolous,  courteous,  and  genei 


.1  The  masenia  of  the  I«..aoa  Missionary  Sodel,  *""  "<»  Brlfl.h  Ma»um  con 
■la  tminrtaiit  coUectloM  nl  TnhlUan  lro»K6»,  dressM.  Wl^»l»n^  4c 


oas:  but  -with   these  traits  are  blended  deceit    irntabJity    and 
craelty;  which  formerly  reached  an  unexampled  degree  of  savage 
bVitS  y      Their  notions  of  morality  were  never,  according  to  our 
ideTv  Jn  precise ;  and  their  customs,  such  as  the  ta,jo,  or  exchange 
of  n^'me  wifh  the  rights  which  it  carried  over  the  wife  of  the  giver 
0    thTname  and  all  her  female    relations,  seemed  to  th^  eariier 
European  observer  strangely  revolting.     It  r»."'d  app^^/' b°;;^™;' 
that  with  the  introduction  of  the  vices  of  cmTization  such  limita- 
tions as  theb  primitive  morality  recognized  have  disappeared  and 
all  seK.respecl  has  been  lost     Especially  characteristic  were  the 
e  aborateTstume-dances  {hcims)  performed  by  women      Beside 
dancTn"  the  siiK'in-  of  £ongs  {pehe),  and  the  recitation  of  historical 
and  mfthkil  b^ lads  (ul.4  the  natives  had  also  a  variety  of  sports 
and  ^mes      During  the  periodica!  seasons  of  rejoicing  wTestling 
:l^rboxing(>i/.),  an'd  sp^ar-throwing  ivcro  |«^-)^-f^^b^  ; 
with  foot  and  Sanoe.races.  were  held;  also  sham  fights  and  naval 
reviews      Thev  had  several  games  in  which  a  ball  was  used,-one 
aZ    not  uBlikc  our  bandy,%hile  another,  ''/^^'^  (Pl^y-^*^  chieny 
by  women),  was  a  kind  of  football-,  but  smf-svammin|  (>c^) 
was  nerhaps  the  most  favourite  sport  with  both  sexes.     Kites  were 
kTown      Sick  fighting  ^/aatitoraamoa)  was  much  practised.        . 

Zcov^y^E^ploloiion.-TheTe  is  little  doubt  tha  the  mai. 
islfnTand^ome  other  members  of  t^e  group  were  visited  by  the 
S  ,amard  Pedro  Fernandez  de  Quiros  in  February  lb07.  They  were 
Spaniara  reaiu  '  '•'"  Wnllis  in  the  "  Dolphin,     who  took 

iliiiiSlii 

his  most  inaccurate  chart     Almost  all  we  know  of  *?«  ^ar.y  siaw 
o    the  islands  is.  however,  due  to  Captain  Cook  s  visits  in  1,69 
f77t  1   74  and  IVl.    The  name  of  Society  'slands  -as  given  to  the 
Leeward  group  on  his  first  voyage  in  honour  of  the  K°yal  Society 
In  1774  Tahiti  wis  also  visited  by  two  Spanish  vessels   wh  eh  left 

that  ship  after  the  famous  mutiny.     At  this  time  .™« Jf ^'^'°6^n>" 

:r^u\i::n^Wv:ly'-'Cati.^-!a^^ 

"'^^^S:: -^r^tempt  o.  the  Spamards  in  im  wa,  follow^ 
bythese,t,eme,,,on.entyfivepe™^^^^^^^^^^^ 

Iwertm'lSO  )  ti?ey  had  many  diificulties,  especially  from  the 
i':n\Vnl\rs  'and  /r  '^l^b  'he^  fled  with  PomareU   to  E.^^^^ 

Cri^^S^^hSe^r  S.l^^LdMsp.wer.n 
Tahiti  For  a  time  the  missionaries  made  good  progress,  a  pnni 
lahiii.     'O"^*  ,,:,„,  ,18,71   and  cofl'ee  cotton,  and  sugar  were 


T  A  I  — T  A  L 


25 


Tahiti,  indudiug  Eimeo,  was  proc1ai::.c(?  a  French  colony.  It  is 
the  residence  of  the  ^overnoB-general'  of  the  French  dependencies 
in  the  Pacific. 

Itierai are,— The  following  list  Includes  thd  books  which  aeem  moat  to  de- 
»ci^e  mention:  Hftwkesworth  s  Voi/agei.  especially  Wallis's  Voyage,  H.M.S. 
"Dolphm."  in  vol.  t,.  London,  1773;  Cock's  Three  Voyages,  wlih  Forster's  account 
Cf  ihe  second  *ovage  ;  Freycinet,  V'o'joge  de  la  Coquille.  and  L«&son"8  account 
of  the  5.>me  vova'ge,  Paris.  IS39  ;  Bennett,  ^fialtng  Voyage,  LondoD.  1840.  For 
inanners  and  customs  of  t(ie  natives,  see  Cook.  Duff.  Ellis.  For  modern  statistics, 
•ee  De>graz,  La  Tahiti.  Pails.  1^6;  AViicw  Colontates.  Paris  18S6,  vol.  11.  For 
the  early  hislor>-  of  the  islands,  see  Ellis,  Polyriesian  Researthex,  London.  1829  ; 
Vincendon  Dumoulm  and  Dtrs^rat,  lies  Taut.  Psiit,  IS44.  For  mission  history, 
see  Voyage  of  the  Duff.  London.  1799,.  Ellis  ;  Williams,  Musionary  Enterprise  in 
the  South  Sea  Islands,  London.  1S39.  For  the  French  occupation,  see  Moerenhout, 
Voyage  aux  /lesdu  Grand  Oceari,  Paris.  1837  ;  Vincendon- Dumouliu  and  Desgrat; 
Pritchard,  Polynesian  Reminisctncfs,  London,  1866.  (A.  v.  H.) 

TAIWAN.     See  Formosa. 

TAJAK,  Tajik,  or  Tausik,  a  term  originally  occurring  in 
the  Pahlavi  writings,  and  explained  to  mean,  first,  the  Arabs 
in  general,  then  their  descendants  born  in  Persia  and  else- 
where out  of  Arabia,  and,  lastly,  the  Persians  in  general  and 
their  descendants  born  in  Turkestdn  and  elsewhere  out  of 
Persia.  Tajak  has  thus  come  to  be  the  collective  name 
of  all  communities  of  Iranian  stock  and  Persian  speech, 
wherever  found  in  Central  Asia.  These  are  co-extensive 
with  the  former  eastward  and  northward  limits  of  the 
Persian  empire ;  but,  since  the  ascendency  of  the  Tflrki 
races,  they  have  become  the  subject  element  in  Turkest4n, 
AfghdnistAn,  Bokhara,  Khiva,  Kashgaria,  while  still  politi- 
cally dominant  in  Badakhshin,  Wakhin,  Darwiz,  Kost, 
and  Karat^ghin.  In  most  of  these  places  the  Tajaks,  with 
the  kindred  Galchas,  seem  to  form  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion, the  distinction  being  that  Tajak  is  applied  rather  to 
the  settled  and  more  civilized  lowlanders  of  modern  Persian 
speech,  Galcha  to  the  ruder  highlanders  of  FerghAna, 
KohistAD,  WakhAn,  itc,  who  speak  either  archaic  forms  of 
Persian  or  dialects  intermediate  between  the  Iranian  and 
Sanskritic  (Indian)  branches  of  the  Aryan  linguistic  family. 
The  Tajaks  are  thus  a  settled  Iranian  people,'  agriculturists 
in  the  country,  traders  and  artisans  in  the  towns,  and  are 
essentially  "ParsivAn,"  that  is,  men  of  Persian  speech,  —  this 
term,  however,  being  more  specially  applied  to  those  of 
AfghAnistAn.  But,  although  mainly  of  Iranian  stock,  with 
light  complexion  and  regular  features,  the  Tajaks  claim 
Arab  descent,  regarding  the  district  about  BaghdAd  as  their 
primeval  home,  and  considering  themselves  the  descendants 
of  the  Arabs  who  overran  Central  Asia  in  the  first  century 
of  the  Flight.  At  the  same  time,  "  it  is  evident  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  greater  part  of  this  region  (Central  Asia) 
must  from  an  early  period  have  come  in  contact  with  the 
successive  waves  of  Turkish  (TOrki)  and  even  Mongol 
population  which  broke  over  them  ;  accordingly  we  find 
that,  although  the  tj'pe  is  essentially  Iranian,  it  has  under- 
gone a  certain  modification,  .  .  .  face,  though  obviously 
Persian,  is  more  oblong  than  that  of  the  Turk,  more  or  less 
heavy  cheeks,  thick  nose,  large  mouth,  wide  forehead,  .  .  . 
middle  height,  powerful  frame,  and  broad  shoulders,  .  .*. 
dark  hair,  but  among  the  Galchas  a  few  fair  people  are 
found  "  (Capt.  J.  M.  Trotter,  Bokhara,  p.  1 69).  The  term 
Tajak  must  also  be  distinguished  from  Sarte,  the  latter 
simply  meaning  "trader"  or  "shopkeeper,"  and  being 
applied  indiscriminately  to  the  settled  as  opposed  to  the 
nomad  element,  and  especially  to  the  urban  populations,  of 
whatever  race,  in  Central  Asia.'  The  Tajaks  are  knowti  as 
Tats  on  the  west  side  of  the  Caspian  (Baku,  Lenkoran,  &c.). 
TAKA.  See  Nubia. 
TALAVERA  de  ia  Reina,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the 

*  "Quand  un  Usbeg  est  devenu  completement  s^entairc  ,  .  .  il 
devient  SarU  ;  le  mot  Sarte  n'est  done  pas  nne  appellation  ethnique" 
(Charles  de  Ujfalvy  in  Bui.  Soc.  Ofogr.,  June  1878).  But  the  Tajaks, 
biiing  always  settled,  were  the  fiist  to  be  known  as  Sartes ;  whence  the 
still  preTalent  erroneous  impression  that  the  word  had  a  racial  meaQ' 
ing,  implying  an  Iranian  as  opposed  to  a  Tilrki  element.  Neverthe- 
less there  is  a  certain  local  etiquette  observed  in  the  use  of  the  two 
words  Tajak  and  SarU^  embodied  in  the  popular  saying;  "When  a 
stranger  presents  himself  and  eats  your  bread,  call  him  a  Tajak ;  when 
he  ia  gone  you  may  call  him  a  Sarle. " 


I  province  of  Toledo,  is  situated  on  the  riglit  bank  of  the 
Tagvs,  and  on  the  railway  from  Madrid  to  Caceres,  some 
40  miles  below  Toledo  and  64  miles  south-east  from  Madrid. 
It  was  formerly  surrounded  by  a  triple  circumvallation, 
portions  of  which  still  remain.  It  has  no  buildings  of 
special  interest,  and  its  commerce  and  manufactures  are 
inconsiderable.  The  population  within  the  municipal 
limits  in  1877  was  10,029. 

Talaverais  the  birthplace  (1536)  of  Mariana  the  historian.  Well- 
ington overcame  a  superior  French  force  here  on  July  27-28,  1809. 

TALBOT,  Family  of.  Apart  from  its  achievements, 
this  is  one  of  the  few  families  in  the  English  aristocracy 
which  traces  alike  its  descent  and  its  surname  from  the 
Norman  conquerors  of  England  ;  and  it  may  really  be  said 
that  there  has  hardly  been  a  time  during  the  last  eight 
hundred  years  in  which  the  Talbots  have  not  been  of  con- 
siderable account  in  public  life.  Yet  in  some  periods  they 
appear  rather  as  a  potential  influence,  while  at  certain 
marked  epochs  they  stand  out  among  the  most  prominent 
actors  in  English  history.  The  name  of  Richard  Talbot 
occurs  in  Domesday  Book  as  the  bolder  of  nine  hides  of 
land  in  Bedfordshire  under  Walter  Giffard,  earl  of  Buck- 
ingham. There  is  no  evidence  that  he  came  over  to  Eng- 
land with  the  Conqueror  himself ;  and,  as  he  did  not  hold 
of  the  king  in  capile,  it  is  clear  that  he  was  not  a  leader. 
His  son  Geoffrey  Talbot  took  part  with  the  empress  Maud 
against  King  Stephen.  But  apparently  it  was  another  son 
Hugh  who  continued  the  line  ;  of  whom  it  is  recorded  that 
he  held  the  castle  of  Plessi  against  Henry  I.  for  Hugh  de 
Gournay,  and  afterwards  became  a  monk  at  Beaubec  in 
Normandy.  His  son  Richard  obtained  from  Henry  II.  the 
lordship  of  Linton  in  Herefordshire,  and  from  Richard  I. 
the  custody  of  Ludlow  castle ;  and  his  descendants  for 
some  generations  appear  to  have  been  wardens  of  various 
castles  on  the  borders  of  Wales.  L'nder  Edward  II.  a 
Gilbert  Talbot  was  head  of  the  house,  and  invaded  Scot- 
land in  the  king's  company,  but  afterwards  took  part  with 
Thomas  of  Lancaster  against  the  king.  He,  however,  was 
pardoned,  and  obtained  from  Edward  III.  a  confirmation 
of  tEe  grant  of  the  manor  of  Linton  and  other  lands  to 
himself  and  his.  heirs. 

His  son  Richard,  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  John 
Comyn  of  Badenoch,  laid  claim  to  certain  lands  in  Scot- 
land in  her  right,  and,  when  restrained  from  entering  that 
country  by  land  (Edward  II L  having  then  made  an  alliance 
with  King  David),  he  joined  in  a  successful  expedition 
which  invaded  it  by  sea  in  the  interests  of  Edward  Baliol. 
Three  years  later  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  Scotland,  and 
redeemed  for  2000  marks,  after  which  the  king  made  him 
governor  of  Berwick.  He  took  part  also  in  Edward's 
wars  against  France,  as  did  likewise  his  son  Gilbert,  who 
succeeded  him.  At  this  time  the  family  possessed  lands 
in  the  counties  of  Oxford,  Gloucester,  Hereford,  and  Kent, 
and  a  little  later  in  Berkshire,  Wilts,  Salop,  and  Essex. 
Another  Gilbert  Talbot,  grandson  of  the  last,  claimed  to 
carry  the  great  spurs  at  the  coronation  of  Henry  V.,  and 
had  a  commission  to  receive  the  submission  of  Owen 
Glendower  and  his  adherents.  He  also  distinguished 
himself  in  the  invasion  of  Normandy.  He  was  twice 
married,  his  second  wife  being  a  Portuguese  lady,  but  he 
left  no  male  issue,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John, 
the  special  hero  of  the  family 

Hitherto  the  head  of  the  house  had  borne  the  name  of 
Lord  Talbot ;  but  this  John,  after  obtaining  by  marriage 
the  title  of  Lord  Furnivall,  was  for  his  distinguished 
actions  created  earl  of  Shrewsbury.. '  He  made  his  name  so 
terrible  in  France  that  for  several  generations  afterwards 
French  mothers  used  to  threaten  refractory  children  that 
the  Talbots  would  come  if  they  were  not  quiet  (Brown's 
.i  Venetian  Calendar,  ii.  75).     He  rescued  Maine  from  the 

XXIIl.   —  4 


26 


TALBOT 


French  and  took  Pontoiso ;  but  his  own  capture  by 
the  Maid  of  Orleans  was  what  probably  discouraged  the 
English  most  of  all  in  their  disasters  beyond  sea.  He  was 
exchanged  for  an  eminent  French  prisoner  and  a  heavy 
ransom  besides.  He  served  also  several  times  as  lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  and  in  144'>  was  created  earl  of  VVe.xford  and 
of  Waterford,  in  addition  to  the  title  of  Shrewsbury,  which 
had  been  conferred  upon  him  in  1442  He  died  in  1453, 
in  an  unsuccessful  expedition  for  the  recovery  of  Guienne, 
which  had  lately  submitted  to  the  French  His  son  John, 
Viscount  Lisle,  was  slain  along  with  him  in  the  same  fatal 
battle. 

But,  besides  Ins  uiartial  exploits  which  live  in  history, 
this  John  claims  some  attention  for  his  family  alliances. 
His  first  wife  Maud,  a  granddaughter  of  Thomas,  Lord 
Furnivall,  brought  him  the  castle  'of  Sheffield  as  part  of 
her  inheritance,  and  he  was  accordingly  summoned  to 
parliament  in  the  days  of  Henry  IV  as  John  Talbot  of 
Hallamshire,  otherwise  Lord  Furnivall,  more  than  thirty 
years  before  he  was  made  earl  of  Shrewsbury-  The 
property  remained  in  the  hands  of  his  descendants,  and 
became  a  favourite  residence  of  the  family  during  the 
whole  of  the  Tudor  era  ,  and,  but  for  the  death  in  1616  of 
Gilbert,  seventh  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  without  male  issue,  it 
has  been  remarked  by  Hunter  that  Sheffield  migh";  have 
remained  much  longer  a  centre  of  feudal  magnificence 
rather  than  of  commerce  and  manufactures  The  second 
wife  of  John,  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  was  Margaret,  the  eldest 
of  three  daughters  of  Richard  Beauchamp,  earl  of  War- 
wick, by  his  second  wife,  a  daughter  of  Thomas,  Lord 
Berkeley.  By  her  he  obtained  a  third  part  of  the  Berkeley 
property  ;  and,  though  she  did  not  become  the  mother  of 
a  hue  of  earls,  her  elilest  son,  John  Talbot,  was  created 
Viscount  Lisle,  and  it  was  he  who  fell  along  with  his 
father  at  the  disastrous  battle  of  Chatillon  in  Gascony. 
His  son  Thomas,  who  inherited  the  title  of  Viscount  Lisle, 
WHS  also  slain  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-two  in  a  feudal 
contest  with  Lord  Berkeley,  arising  out  of  a  dispute  as  to 
the  possession  of  Berkeley  castle,  at  Nibley  Green,  near 
Wotlun  under-Edge,  March  20,  1470,  and  the  title  was 
allerwards  conferred  on  Edward  Grey,  the  husband  ol  one 
ol  his  two  sisters. 

John,  the  second  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  was  the  first  earl's 
son  by  his  first  wife  He  had  been  knighted  at  Leicester 
in  I  I'jb  along  with  the  infant  king  Henry  VI,  had  served 
in  the  wars  of  France,  and  been  made  chancellor  of  Ireland 
dunijg  his  father  s  lifetime,  when  he  was  only  Lord  Talbot 
Allerwards  he  was  made  lord  high  treasurer  of  England, 
and  III  1409  was  rewarded  for  his  services  to  the  house  of 
Lancaster  v\'ith  a  grant  of  100  marks  a  year  out  of  the 
hnilsliip  of  Wakefield,  forfeited  by  Richard,  duke  of  York 
But  ne\t  year  he  and  his  brother  Christopher  were  slain 
at  the  battle  of  Northampton,  fighting  in  the  cause  of 
Henry  VI.  His  son  John  succeeded  him,  and  then  his 
griind-wn  George,  who  fought  for  Henry  VII  at  Stoke, 
and  whom  King  Henry  VIIL  sent  as  his  lieutenant 
against  the  rebels  in  that  most  formidable  insurrection, 
the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace.  But  perhaps  the  thing  which 
most  redounds  to  his  credit  is  the  humanity  with  which 
(as  related  by  Cavendish)  he  received  the  fallen  Cardinal 
Wolsiy  into  his  house  at  Sheffield  when  he  was  on  his  way 
up  ti'  London  as  a  state  prisonei.  and  endeavoured  to 
remove  those  gloomy  anticipations  of  his  fate  which  in 
fact  lirought  on  his  Last  illness. 

Francis,  the  fifth  carl,  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
inv.asions  of  Scotland  under  Henry  VIII  and  Edward 
VI.,  and  w.as  one  of  the  two  peers  who  alone  opposed  the 
bill  for  abolishing  the  pope's  jurisdiction  under  Elizabeth 
His  son  George,  who  succeeded,  was  the  earl  to  whom  the 
custo^'  of  ^'arv  Stuart  was  committed,  his  delicate  and 


onerous  task  being  rendered  all  the  more  difficult  for  him 
by  the  intrigues  of  his  bold,  ambitious  second  wife,  Bess  of 
Hardwick,  the  builder  of  Chatsworth,  who  had  married 
three  husbands  before  her  union  with  him.  Two  sons  of 
this  last  rarl  succeedeil  one  another,  and  the  title  then 
devolved,  for  want  of  male  issue,  on  the  lineal  descendants 
of  Sir  Gilbert  Talbot  of  Grafton  in  Worcestershire,  third 
son  of  .lohn,  the  second  earl  This  Sir  Gilbert  had  fought 
for  Henry  VII.  at  Bosworth,  where  he  was  severely 
wounded,  was  knighted  on  the  field,  and  was  throughout 
one  of  the  first  Tudor's  most  trusted  councillors.  He 
fought  also  at  Stoke  against  the  insurgents  with  Lambert 
Sininel.  w.is  made  a  knight  banneret,  governor  of  Calais, 
and  lord  chamberlain. 

The  ninth  earl,  George,  descended  from  this  Gilbert,  is 
not  distinguished  by  any  prominent  actions.  He  died 
unmarried,  and  his  brother,  who  followed  next,  was 
succeeded  by  bis  grandson  Francis,  chiefly  memorable  for 
his  unhappy  fate.  His  second' wife,  a  daughtel'  of  the 
earl  of  Cardigan,  was  seduced  by  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
whom  the  outraged  husband  challenged  to  a  duel  The 
countess,  it  is  said,  was  present  at  the  scene,  and  held 
Buckingham's  horse  in  the  disguise  of  a  page,  saw  her 
husband  killed,  and  then,  clasped  her  lover  in  her  arms, 
receiving  blood-stains  upon  her  dress  from  the  embrace. 
Charles,  the  twelfth  earl,  son  of  this  unfortunate  nobleman, 
was  raised  by  William  III,  to  the  dignity  of  a  duke  for 
his  important  diplomatic  services.  His  "position  in  those 
slippery  times  was  altogether  exceptional  Abandoning 
the  religion  of  his  ancestors  he  became  a  Protestant,  was 
one  of  the  seven  who  signed  the  invitation  to  William  of 
Orange  to  come  over,  and  was  continually  consulted  by 
him  on  state  affairs  after  he  became  king.  Vet,  being 
apparently  of  a  very  sensitive  disposition,  he  seems  to  have 
at  times  repented  what  he  bad  done,  and  even  corresponded 
with  James  at  St  Germain  .  yet  again,  in  times  of  danger, 
he  was  as  ready  as  ever  to  stake  his  life  and  fortunes  in 
the  service  of  his  country  to  preserve  the  new  .settlement. 
It  was  apparently  his  extreme  sensitiveness  that  caused 
him  to  be  spoknn  of  as  "the  king  of  hearts."  In  1694 
he  was  created  marquis  of  Alton  and  duke  of' Shrewsbury, 
but  as  he  left  no  son  these  titles  died  along  with  him,  and 
the  earldom  of  Shrewsbury  devolved  on  his  cousin  Gilbert, 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 

From  this  time  the  direct  line  of  Sir  Gilbert  Talbot  of 
Grafton  began  to  fail  A  nephew  three  times  succeeded 
to  an  uncle,  and  then  the  title  devolved  upon  a  cousin, 
who  died  uumarried  in  1856  On  the  death  of  this  cousin 
the  descent  of  the- title  was  for  a  short  time  in  dispute,  and 
the  lauds  were  claimed  for  the  infant  son  of  the  duke  of 
Norfolk  under  the  will  of  the  last  earl  ,  but  the  courts 
decided  that,  under  a  private  Act  obtained  by  the  duke  of 
Shrewsbury  in  the  sixth  year  of  George  I„  the  title  and 
estates  must  go  together,  and  the  true  successor  to  the 
earldom  was  found  in  Earl  Talbot,  the  bead  ol  another 
line  of  the  descendants  of  Sir  Gilbert  Talbot  of  Grafton, 
sprung  from  a  second  marriage  of  Sir  Gilbert's  son,  Sir 
John  Talbot  of  AlbrightOD  The  head  of  this  family  in 
the  beginning  of  the  last  century  was  a  divine  of  some 
mark,  who  died  bishop  of  Durham  in  1730  His  son 
Charles,  who  filled  the  office  of  lord  chancellor,  was 
created  Baron  Talbot  of  Hensol  in  Glamorganshire  in 
1733  ,  and  his  son  again  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of 
Earl  Talbot  in  17C1,  to  which  was  added  that  of  Baron 
Dynevor  in  1 780  Then  succeeded  a  nephew,  who  was 
also  created  Vj.scount  Ingestre,  and  assumed  by  royal 
licence  the  surname  of  Chetwynd  before  Talbot,  from  his 
mother 

The  Earl  Talbot  who  successfully  claimed  the  Shrews- 
bury title  fas  the  eighteenth  earl)  was  the  present  earl's 


T  A  L  — T  A  L 


27 


grandfather,  and  all  the  titles  just  mentioned  have  been 
ooited  in  his  line  ever  since.  (j  ga.) 

TALBOT,  William  Henry  Fox  (1800-1877),  a  dis- 
coverer in  photography,  was  the  only  child  of  William 
Davenport  Talbot^  of  Laycock  Abbey,  Wilts,  and  of  Lady 
Elizabeth  Fox  Strangways,  daughter  of  the  second  earl  of 
Lchester  He  was  born  in  February  1800,  and  educated 
at  Harrow  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
gained  the  Porson  prize  in  1820,  and  graduated  as  twelfth 
wrangler  in  1821  From  1822  to  1S72  he  frequently 
communicated  papers  to  the  Eoyal  Society,  many  of  them 
on  Tiathematical  subjects.  At  an  early  period  he  had 
begun  his  optical  researches,  which  were  to  have  such 
important  results  in  connexion  with  photography  To 
the  Edinburgh  Journal  of  Science  in  1826  he  contributed 
a  paper  on  "Some  Experiments  on  OoJoured  Flame", 
to  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science  in  1S27  a  paper  on 
"Monochromatic  Light",  and  to  the  Philosophical  Maga- 
zine, a  number  of  papers  on  chemical  subjects,  including 
one  on  "  Chemical  Changes  of  Colour  '  Before  Daguerre 
exhibited  in  1839  pictures  taken  by  the  sun,  Talbot  bad 
obtained  similar  success,  and  as  soon  as  Daguerre's  dis- 
coveries were  whispered  communicated  the  results  of  his 
experiments  to  the  Royal  Society  (see  Photography,  vol 
xviii.  p  824).  In  1841  he  made  known  his  discovery 
of  the  calotype  process,  but  after  the  discovery  of  the 
collodion  process  by  Scott  Archer,  with  whom  he  had  a 
lawsuit  in  reference  to  his  patent  rights,  he  relinquished 
this  field  of  inquiry.  For  his  discoveries,  the  narrative 
of  which  is  detailed  in  his  Pencil  of  Nature  (1844),  he 
received  in  1S42  the  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  While 
engaged  in  his  scientific  researches  he  devoted  a  consider 
able  portion  of  his  time  to  archaeology,  and  this  field  of 
inquiry  latterly  occupied  'his  chief  attention.  Besides 
reading  papers  on  these  subjects  before  the  Royal  Society 
of  Literature  and  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,  he 
published  Hermes,  or  Classical  and  A  ntu^vartan  Researches 
(1838-39),  and  Illustrations  of  the  Antiquity  of  the  Book 
of  Genesis  (1839).  With  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  and  Dr 
Hincks  he  shares  the  honour  of  having  been  one  of  the 
first  decipherers  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Nineveh 
He  was  al.so  the  author  of  English  Etymologies  (1846) 
He  died  at  Laycock  Abbey,  17th  September  1S77 

TALC  See  Geology,  vol  x.  p.  228.  and  Mixeralogy, 
voL  xvL  p   414. 

TALCA,  a  town  of  Chili,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Talca,  is  situated  on  the  Claro,  a  tributary  of  the  Maule, 
nearly  due  south  of  Santiago,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  rail  The  town  has  a  lyceum  and  some  woollen  manu- 
factures (especially  of  "  ponchos'').  In  1875  the  population 
numbered  17.496,  and  in  1885  about  19.000 

TALENT     See  Numismatics,  vol.  xvii.  p.  631 

TALES  are,  in  the  usual  acceptance  of  the  word,  ficti- 
tious narratives,  long  or  short,  ancient  or  modern  In  this 
article  "tale"  is  used  in  a  stricter  sense,  as  equivalent  to  the 
Geiman  "Volks-marchen"  or  the  French  "conte  populaire." 
Tims  understood;  popular  tales  mean  the  stories  handed 
d'lrtn  by  oral  tradition  from  an  unknown  antiquity, 
among  savage  and  civilized  peoples  So  understood, 
popular  tales  are  a  subject  in  mythology,  and  indeed  in 
the  general  study  of  the  development  of  man,  of  which  the 
full  interest  and  importance  is  scarcely  yet  recognized 
Popular  talcs  won  their  way  into  literature,  it  is  true,  at  a 
very  distant  period.  The  Homeric  epics,  especially  the 
Odysxry,  contain  adventures  which  are  manifestly  parts 
of  the  general  human  stock  of  popular  narrative  Other 
examples  are  found  in  the  Rigveda,  and  in  the  myths  which 
were  handled  by  the  Greek  dramatists.  Collections  of 
popular  tales,  more  or  less  subjected  to  conscious  literary 
tr^tment,   are   found    in   Sanskrit,   as   in    the   work   of 


Somadeva,  whose  Kathd  Sartt  Sdgara,  or  "  Ocean  of  the 
Streams  of  Story,"  has  been  translated  by  Mr  Tawney 
(Calcutta,  1880).  The  Thodsand  and  One  Nights  (q.v.) 
are  full  of  popular  tales,  and  popular  tales  are  the  staple 
of  the  mediaeval  Gesta  Romanorum,  and  of  the  collections 
of  Straparola  and  other  Italian  conteurs.  In  all  tliese  and 
similar  gatherings  the  story,  long  circulated  from  mouth 
to  mouth  among  the  people,  is  bandied  with  conscious  art, 
and  little  but  the  general  outline  of  plot  and  character  of 
incident  can  be  regarded  as  original.  In  the  Histoires  ou 
C antes  du  Temps  Passe  of  Perrault  (Elzevir,  Amsterdam, 
1697,  the  Parisian  edition  is 'of  the  same  date)  we  have 
one  of  the  earliest  gatherings  of  tales  which  were  taken 
down  in  their  nursery  shape  as  they  were  told  by  nurses 
to  children  This  at  least  seems  probable,  though  M. 
Alfred  Maury  thinks  Perrault  drew  from  literary  sources. 
Perrault  attributed  the  composition  to  his  son,  P.  Darmau- 
cour,  at  that  time  a  child,  and  this  pretest  enabled  him  to 
give  his  stories  in  a  simple  and  almost  popular  guise.  In 
the  dedication  signed  by  the  boy,  Perrault  offers  remarks 
which  really  do  throw  a  certain  light  on  the  origin  and 
characteristics  of  "  inarchen  '  He  says,  "lis  renferment 
tons  une  morale  trte  sens6o  et  donnent  une  image 

de  ce  qui  se  passe  dans  les  moindres  families,  oil  la  louable 
impatience  d'instruire  les  enfans  fait  imaginer  des  histoires 
d^pourvdes  de  raison  pour  s'accomoder  k  ces  memes  enfants, 
qui  n'en  ont  pas  encore."  It  seems  that  popular  tales  in 
many  cases  probably  owe  their  origin  to  the  desire  of 
enfo,-cing  a  moral  or  practical  lesson.  It  appears  that 
their  irrational  and  "infantile"  character — "d^pourvfteu 
de  raison  " — is  derived  from  their  origin,  if  not  actually 
among  children,  at  least  among  childlike  peoples,  who  have 
not  arrived  at  "raison,"  that  is,  at  the  scientific  and  modern 
conception  of  the  world  and  of  the  nature  of  mart 

The  success  of  Perrault's  popular  tales  brought  the 
genre  into  literary  fashion,  and  the  Comtesse  d'Aulnoy  in- 
vented, or  in  some  cases  adapted,  "contes,"  which  still  retain 
a  great  popularity  But  the  precise  and  scieirtific  collec- 
tion of  tales  from  the  lips  of  the  people  is  not  much  earlier 
than  our  century.  The  chief  impulse  to  the  study  was 
given  by  the  brothers  Grimm.  The  first  edition  of  their 
Kinder-  und  Haus-Marchen  was  published  in  1S12.  The 
English  reader  will  find  a  very  considerable  bibliography 
of  popular  tales,  as  known  to  the  Grimms,  in  Mrs  Alfred 
Hunt's  translation,  Grimm's  Household  Tales,  with  Notes 
(London,  1884).  "  How  unique  was  our  collection  when  it 
first  appeared,"  they  exclaim,  and  now  merely  to  enumerate 
the  books  of  such  traditions  would  occupy  much  space. 
In  addition  to  the  miirchen  of  IndoEuropean  peoples,  the 
Grimms  became  acquainted  with  some  Malay  stories, 
some  narratives  of  Bechuanas,  Negroes,  American  Indians, 
and  Finnish,  Esthonian,  and  Magyar  stories.  Thus  tho 
Grimins'knowledge  of  non-European  marchen  was  extremely 
slight.  It  enabled  them,  however,  to  observe  the  increase 
of  refinement  "in  proportion  as  gentler  and  more  humane 
manners  develop  themselves,"  the  monstrosities  of  Finnish 
and  Red-Indian  fancy  gradually  fading  in  the,  narratives 
of  Germans  and  Italians  The  Grimms  notice  that  the 
evolution  of  popular  narrative  resembles  the  evolution  of 
the  art  of  sculpture,  from  the  South-Sea  idol  to  the  frieze 
of  the  Parthenon,  "from  the  strongly  marked,  thin,  even 
ugly,  but  highly  expressive  forms  of  its  earliest  stages  to 
those  which  possess  external  beauty  of  mould."  Since  tho 
Grimms'  time  our  knowledge  of  the  popular  tales  of  non- 
European  races  has  been  greatly  enriched.  We  possess 
numbers  of  North-American.  Brazilian,  Zulu,  Swahili, 
Eskimo,  Samoan,  Maori,  Kaffir,  Malagasy,  Bushman,  and 
even  Australian  marchen,  and  can  study  them  in  comps-r 
ison  with  the  stories  of  Hesse,  of  the  Weet  Highlands  ot 
Scotland,  of  Scandinavia 


iJ3 


TALES 


While  the  popular  romances  of  races  of  all  colours  must 
be  examined  toizellier,  anothur  clfmcnt  in  this  subject  is 
not  less  important.  It  had  pruOably  been  often  observed 
before,  but  the  fact  was  brought  out  most  vividly  by 
Von  Ilahn  (Gnrc/tische  uml  alljanesrsche  Mdn/nn,  Lei[>sic, 
1864),  that  the  popular  tales  of  European  races  turn 
on  the  same  incidents,  and  display  the  same  succession 
of  situations,  the  same  characters,  and  the  same  plots, 
as  are  familiar  in  the  ancient  epic  literature  of  Greece, 
India,  Germany,  and  Scandinavm  The  epics  are  either 
fully-developed  marchen  evolved  by  the  literary  genius  of 
poets  and  saga-men,  or  the  marchen  are  degenerate  and 
broken-down  memories  of  the  epics  and  sagas,  or  perhaps 
there  may  be  examples  of  both  processes  The  second 
view, — namely,  that  the  popular  tales  are,  so  to  speak,  the 
scattered  grains  of  gold  of  which  the  epic  is  the  original 
"pocket"  or  "placer," — the  belief  that  the  marchen  are 
the  detritus  of  the  saga, — was  for  a  long  time  prevalent. 
But  a  variety  of  arguments  enforce  the  opposite  conclusion, 
namely,  that  the  marchen  are  essentially  earlier  in  char- 
acter than  the  epic,  which  is  the  final  form  to  which  they 
have  been  wrought  by  the  genius  of  Homer  or  of  some  other 
remote  yet  cultivated  poet.  If  this  view  be  accepted,  the 
evolution  of  marchen  and  of  certain  myths  has  passed 
through  the  following  stages  — 

(1)  The  popular  tale,  as  current  among  the  unculti- 
vated peoples,  such  as  Iroquois,  Zulus,  Bushmen,  Samoans, 
Eskimo,  and  Samoyedes.  This  tale  will  rcllect  the  mental 
condition  of  rude  peoples,  and  will  be  full  of  monstrous 
and  miraculous  events,  with  an  absence  of  reason  proper, 
as  Perrault  says,  "a  ceux  qui  n'cn  ont  pas  encore  "  At  the 
same  time  the  tale  will  very  probably  enforce  some  moral 
or  practical  lesson,  and  may  even  appear  to  have  been 
invented  with  this  very  purpose,  for  man  is  everywhere 
impre.ssed  with  the  importance  of  conduct. 

(2)  The  same  tale — or  rather  a  series  of  incidents  and 
a  plot  essentially  the  same — as  it  is  discovered  surviving 
in  the  oral  traditions  of  the  illiterate  peasantry  of  European 
races.  Among  them  the  monstrous  element,  the  ferocity 
of  manners  observed  in  the  first  stage,  will  be  somewhat 
modified,  but  will  be  found  most  notable  among  the 
Slavonic  tribes.  Nowhere,  even  in  German  and  Scottish 
marchen,  is  it  extinct,  cannibalism  and  cruel  torture  being 
favourite  incidents. 

(3)  The  same  plot  and  incidents  as  they  exist  in  the 
heroic  epics  and  poetry  of  the  cultivated  races,  such  as 
the  Homeric  books,  the  Greek  tragedies,  the  Cyclic  poets, 
the  ICalewata  of  the  Finn.s,  certain  hymns  of  the  litr/feda, 
certain  legends  of  the  Crahmanas,  the  story  of  the 
Volsungs,— in  these  a  local  and  almost  historical  character 
is  given  by  the  introduction  of  names  of  known  places,  and 
the  adventures  are  attributed  to  national  heroes, — Odys- 
seus, CEdipus,  Sigurd,  Wainamoinen,  Jason,  Pururavas,  and 
others.  The  whole  tone  and  manners  are  nobler  and  more 
refined  in  proportion  as  the  literary  workmanship  is  more 
elaborate. 

This  theory  of  the  origin  of  popular  tales  in  the  fancy 
of  peoples  in  the  savage  condition  (see  Mythology),  of 
their  survival  as  marchen  among  the  peasantry  of  Indo- 
European  and  other  civilized  races,  and  of  their  transfigu- 
ration into  epics,  could  only  be  worked  out  after  the 
diijcovery  that  savage  and  civilized  popular  tales  are  full  of 
close  resemblances.  These  resemblances,  when  only  known 
to  exist  among  Indo-European  peoples,  were  explained  as 
part  of  a  common  Aryan  inheritance,  and  as  the  result  of 
a  malady  of  language.  This  system,  when  apjilied  to 
myths  in  general,  has  already  been  examined  (see  Mytho- 
logy). According  to  another  view,  miirchen  everywheri 
resemble  each  other  because  they  all  arose  in  India,  and 
have   thence   been   borrowed  and  transmitted.      For  t'lis 


theory  consult  Benfey's  Panrhntnmrfi  and  M.  Cosqiun's 
Contea  de  [.oruimc  (Pans,  18SG).  In  opposition  to  tho 
Aryan  theory,  and  the  theory  of  borrowing  from  India, 
the  system  which  is  here  advocated  regards  popular  talcs 
as  kaleidoscopic  arrangements  of  com[)aratively  few  situa- 
tions and  incidents,  which  again  are  naturally  devued  by 
the  early  fancy.  Among  these  incidents  may  be  men- 
tioned, first,  kinship  and  intermarriage  between  man  and 
the  lower  animals  and  even  inorganic  phenomena.  Thus 
a  girl  IS  wooed  by  a  frog,  pumpkin,  goat,  or  bear,  or 
elephant,  m  Zulu,  Scotch,  Waiachian,  Eskimo,  Ojibway, 
and  German  marchen.  This  incident  is  based  on  the  lack 
of  a  sense  of  difference  between  man  and  the  things  in  the 
world  which  is  prevalent  among  savages  (see  Mytholoi;y) 
Other  incidents  familiar  in  our  nursery  tales  (such  as 
"Cinderella"  and  "Puss  in  Boots")  turn  on  the  early 
belief  in  metamorphosis,  in  magic,  in  Iriendly  or  protecting 
animals  (totems  or  beast  manitous).  Others  deiienJ  on 
the  early  prevalence  of  cannibalism  (compare  Crimm,  47, 
"The  Juniper  Tree").  This  recurs  in  the  mad  song  of 
Gretchen  in  Faust,  concerning  which  a  distinguished 
student  writes,  "This  ghost  of  a  ballad  or  rhyme  is  my 
earliest  remembrance,  as  crooned  by  an  old  East-Lothian 
nurse  "  (Compare  Chambers's  Pojudur  RIojntes  of  Sot- 
land,  1870,  p.  49  )  The  same  legend  occurs  among  the 
Bechuanas,  and  is  published  by  Casalis.  Yet  another 
incident  springs  from  the  taboo  on  certain  actions  between 
husband  and  wifg,  producing  the  story  of  Cupid  and  Psycho 
(see  Lang's  Custom  and  Myt/i,  1SS4,  p.  G4).  Once  more, 
the  custom  which  makes  the  youngest  child  the  heir  is  illus- 
trated in  the  marchen  of  the  success,  despite  the  jealousy 
of  the  elders,  of  Cinderella,  of  the  Zulu  prince  (Callaway's 
Tales  from  the  Anut:uhi,  pp  Gl,  G5),  and  in  countless 
other  marchen.  In  other  cases,  as  id  the  world-wide 
marchen  corresponding  to  the  Jason  epic,  we  seem  in 
presence  of  an  early  romantic  invention, — how  difTused  it 
is  ditRcult  to  imagine.  Moral  les-sons,  again,  are  inculcated 
by  the  numerous  tales  which  turn  on  the  duty  of  kind- 
ness, or  on  the  impossibility  of  evading  fate  as  announced 
in  prophecy.  In  opposition  to  the  philological  explanation 
of  the  story  of  CEdipus  as  a  naturemyth,  this  theory  of 
a  collection  of  incidents  illustrative  of  nioral  lessons  i.s 
admirably  set  forth  in  Prof.  Cauparetti's  Edipo  e  la 
Milolor/ia  Coniparata  (Pisa,  1S67). 

On  a  general  view,  then,  the  stuff  of  popular  tales  is  a 
certain  nmnber  of  incidents  and  a  certain  set  of  combina- 
tions of  these  incidents.  Their  strange  and  irrational 
character  is  due  to  their  remote  origin  in  the  fancy  of  men 
in  the  savage  condition  ,  and  their  wide  distribution  is 
caused,  partly  perhaps  by  oral  transmission  from  people  te 
people,  but  more  by  the  tendency  of  the  early  imagination 
to  run  everywhere  in  the  same  grooves.  The  narratives, 
in  the  ages  of  heroic  poetry,  are  elevated  into  epic  song, 
and  in  the  Middle  Ages  they  wric  even  embodied  in 
legends  of  the  saints.  This  view  is  iiiaiiUuincd  at  greater 
length,  and  with  numerous  illustrations,  m  the  introduclio-- 
to  Mrs  Hunt's  translation  of  Grimm  s  Kindfv-  und  Unit)- 
Marchen,  and  in  Custom  and  Myth,  already  referred  to. 

A  complete  bibliography  of  the  literature  of  popular  tales  uQuTd 
fill  many  pa^^es  The  reader  who  is  curious  about  savage  popiilar 
talos  may  turn  to  Theal's  Kaffir  Folk  Lore  (2cl  cl.,  fxui'lnii, 
18S6);  Callaway's  Nursery  Talcs  of  the  A mazulu  {XMw\on,  ISiJsi 
Sclioolcraft'3  Alpc  Hcsearchcs ;  Gill's  MtjUis  ami  Tnlc^  uf  the  S'uth 
Pacific:  Pctitot's  Traditions  hdicnncs  (1886)!  SliorllanJ's  d/.....-. 
Religion  and  Mythologtj  (London,  1882) ;  Tlie  South  Afnr-iO  l';lk 
Lore  Record;  the  Folk  Lore  Record  (London.  1879-85,  Mal.a-.isy 
stories) ;  Rink's  Talcs  and  Traditions  of  the  Eskimo ,  iJletk's 
Hottentot  Talcs  and  Fables  (London,  1864);  Castrcn'a  Samui/uliiehe 
Marchen  ,  and  Leiand's  yl/!70ii7i(iii  Lcjcnds  (London,  1884).  For 
European  talcs,  the  bibliography  in  tlie  iranslaliiui  of  Gnnitit 
ahcady  refciied  to  may  be  used,  and  the  Maisonncuve  colleclion 
Les  Littei atiaes- poj/ulaircs  may  be  recoyimciidcd.     The  names 


T  A  L  — T  A  L 


29 


Liebrfcht,  Kohler,  Dasent.  Ralston,  Nigra,  Pitre.Cosquin,  Afanasier, 
Gaidoz,  Sihillot.  may  serve  as  clues  through  the  enchanted  forest  of 
the  nursfry  tales  of  Europe.  {A.  L. ) 

TALFOURD,  Sir  Thomas  Noon  (1795-1854),  was  at 
once  eminent  as  a  la(rj'er,  as  a  writer,  and  as  a  member  of 
a  brilliant  and  polished  society.  He  had  the  faculty  of 
winning  friendships  ;  so  sympathetic  indeed  was  bis  nature 
that  he  unconsciously  biassed  many  of  the  most  acute 
among  his  acquaintances  towards  an  estimate  of  his  genius 
as  an  author — more  especially  as  a  dramatist — hardly 
commensurate  with  what  more  impartial  criticism  has 
decided  to  be  his  just  meed  of  praise.  But,  though  even 
his  most  excellent  work  in  literature  has  now  ceased  to 
be  generally  cared  for,  his  poetry  must  always  be  inter- 
esting to  the  literary  student. 

The  son  of  a  brewer  in  good  circumstances,  Talfourd 
was  born  on  January  26,  1795,  at  Doxey,  near  Stafford 
(some  accounts  mention  Reading).  He  received  his  early 
education,  first  at  an  institution  near  Hendon,  and  later 
at  the  Reading  grammar-school  under  Dr  Valpy.  Here, 
it  is  said,  he  acquired  his  taste  for  dramatic  poetry,  pre- 
sumably under  the  guidance  of  Dr  Vaipy.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  the  lad  was  sent  to  London  to  study  law  under  Mr 
Chitty,  the  special  pleader.  Early  in  1821  he  joined  the 
Oxford  circuit,  having  been  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle 
Temple  in  February  of  that  year.  When,  fourteen  years 
later,  he  was  created  a  serjeant-at-law,  and  when  again  he 
in  1849  succeeded  Mr  Justice  Coltman  as  judge  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Fleas,  he  attained  these  distinctions 
more  perhaps  for  the  zeal  and  laborious  care  which  he 
invariably  displayed  in  his  conduct  of  the  cases  confided  to 
Dim  than  on  account  of  any  brilliance  of  forensic  talent  or 
of  any  marked  intellectual  subtlety.  A  parliamentary  life 
had  always  had  an  attraction  for  him,  and  at  the  general 
election  in  1835  he  was  returned  for  Reading.  This  seat 
he  retained  for  close  upon  six  years,  and  he  was  again 
returned  in  1847.  In  the  House  of  Commons  he  was  no 
mere  ornamental  member.  Those  efforts  of  his  which  have 
most  interest  for  us  of  later  date  were  made  on  behalf  of 
the  rights  of  authors,  for  whose  benefit  he  introduced  the 
International  Copyright  Bill ;  his  speech  on  this  subject 
was  considered  the  most  telling  made  in  the  House  during 
that  session.  The  bill  met  with  strong  opposition,  but 
Talfourd  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  it  ultimately  pass 
into  law  in  1842,  albeit  in  a  greatly  modified  form. 

At  the  period  of  his  elevation  to  the  bench  he  was 
created  a  knight,  and  thenceforward  his  life  was,  in  the 
intervals  of  his  professional  labours,  devoted  to  scholarly 
and  literary  pursuits.  From  his  school  days  he  had  enter- 
tained dreams  of  attaining  eminence  as  a  writer  ;  and  to  the 
last  he  remained  a  diligent  student  of  literature,  ancient 
and  modern.  During  his  early  years  in  London  Talfourd 
found  himself  forced  to  depend — in  great  measure,  at  least 
— upon  his  literary  exertions.  He  was  at  this  period  on 
the  stafi  of  the  London  Magazine,  and  was  an  occasional 
contributor  to  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly  reviews,  the 
New  Monthly  Magazine,  and  other  periodicals ;  while,  on 
joining  the  western  circuit,  he  acted  as  law  reporter  to 
The  Times.  His  legal  writings  on  matters  germane  to  lit- 
erature are  excellent  expositions,  animated  by  a  lucid  and 
sufficiently  telling,  if  not  highly  polished,  style.  Among 
the  best  of  these  are  his  article  "On  the  Principle  of 
Advocacy  in  the  Practice  of  the  Bar"  (in  the  Law  Magazine, 
January  1846)  ;  his  Proposed  New  Law  of  Copyright  of  the 
Highest  Importance  to  Authors  (1838)  ;  Three  Speeches  de- 
livered in  the  House  of  Commons  in  Favour  of  an  Extension 
of  Copyright  (1840);  and  his  famous  Speech  for  the  De- 
fendant in  the  Prosecution,  the  Queen  v.  Moxon,  for  the 
PuJblicatvm  of  Shelley's  Poetical  Works  (1841). 

But  Talfourd  cannot  be  said  to  have  gained  any  position 


among  men  of  letters  until  the  production  of  bis  tragedy 
Ion,  which  was  privately  printed  in  1835,  and  produced 
in  the  following  year  at  Covent  Garden  theatre.  The 
tragedy  was  also  well  received  in  America,  and  it  met  with 
the  honour  of  reproduction  at  Sadler's  Wells  in  December 
1861.  This  dramatic  poem,  its  author's  masterpiece,  turns 
upon  the  voluntary  sacrifice  of  Ion,  king  of  Argos,  in  re- 
sponse to  the  Delphic  oracle,  which  had  declared  that  only 
with  the  extinction  of  the  reigning  family  could  the  pre- 
vailing pestilence  incurred  by  the  deeds  of  that  family  be 
removed.  As  a  poem  Ion  has  many  high  qualities.  The 
blank  verse,  if  lacking  the  highest  excellence,  is  smooth 
and  musical,  and  the  lines  are  frequently  informed  with  the 
spirit  of  genuine  poetry  ;  the  character  of  the  bigh-souled 
son  of  the  Argive  king  is  finely  developed,  and  the  reader 
is  affected  throughout  by  that  same  sense  of  the  relentless 
working  and  potency  of  destiny  which  so  markedly  distin- 
guishes the  writings  of  the  Greek  dramatists. 

Two  years  later,  at  the  Haymarket  theatre,  The  Athenian 
Captive  was  acted  with  moderate  success.  In  1839  Glen- 
coe,  or  the  Fate  of  the  Macdonald^,  was  privately  printed, 
and  in  1840  it  was  produced  at  the  Haymarket;  but  this 
home  drama  is  indubitably  much  inferior  to  his  two  classic 
plays.  The  Castilian  (1853)  did  not  excite  a  tenth  part  of 
the  interest  called  forth  by  Ion.  Before  this  he  had  pro- 
duced various  prose  writings  other  than  those  already  re- 
ferred to, — among  them  his  "  History  of  Greek  Litera- 
ture,"  in  the  Encyclopsedia  Metropolitana. 

Besides  the  honour  of  knighthood  and  his  various  legal 
distinctions,  Talfourd  held  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L. 
from  the  university  of  Oxford.  He  died  in  court  during 
the  performance  of  his  judicial  duties,  at  Stafford,  on 
March  13,  1854. 

In  addition  to  the  writings  above-mentioned,  Talfourd  was  the 
author  of  The  Letters  of  Charles  Lamd,  with  a  Sketch  of  his  Life 
(1837);  RemlUctians  of  a  First  Visit  Id  the  Alps  (1841);  Vacation 
Rambles  artA  ThaughJs,  comprising  recollections  of  three  Conti- 
neotal  tours  in  the  vacations  of  1841,  1842,  and  1843  (2  vols.,  1844); 
and  Final  Memorials  of  Charlej  Lamb  (1849-50). 

TALISMAN.     See  Amulet. 

TALLAGE,  or  Talliage  (from  the  French  tailler,  i.e., 
a  part  cut  out  of  the  whole),  appears  to  have  signified  at 
first  a  tax  in  general,  but  became  afterwards  confined  in 
England  to  a  special  form  of  tax,  the  assessment  upon  cities, 
boroughs,  and  royal  demesnes — in  effect,  a  land  tax.  Like 
Scot  AGE  (q.v.),  tallage  was  superseded  by  the  subsidy  sys- 
tem in  the  1 4th  century.  The  last  occasion  on  which  it  was 
levied  appears  to  be  the  year  1332.  The  famous  statute 
of  25  Edw.  I.  (in  some  editions  of  the  statutes  34  Edw.  I.) 
De  Tallagio  non  Concedendo,  though  it  is  printed  among 
the  statute^  of  the  realm,  and  was  cited  as  a  statute  in 
the  preamble  to  the  Petition  of  Right  in  1627,  and  by  the 
judges  in  John  Hampden's  case  in  1637,  is  probably  an 
imperfect  and  unauthoritative  abstract  of  the  Confirmatio 
Cartarum.  The  first  section  enacts  that  no  tallage  or  aid 
shall  be  imposed  or  levied  by  the  king  and  his  heir."  with- 
out the  will  and  assent  of  the  archbishops,  bishops,  and 
other  prelates,  the  earls,  barons,  knights,  burgesses,  and 
other  freemen  in  the  kingdom.  Tallagium  facere  was  the 
technical  term  for  rendering  accounts  in  the  exchequer,  the 
accounts  being  originally  kept  by  means  of  tallies  or 
notched  sticks.  The  tellers  (a  corruption  of  talliers)  of  the 
exchequer  were  at  one  time  important  financial  officers. 
The  system  of  keeping  the  national  accounts  by  tallies  was 
abolished  by  23  Ger  IIL  c.  82,  the  .office  of  teller  by  57 
Geo.  III.  c.  84. 

TALLEYRAND  DE  PfiRIGORD,  Charles  Mauricb 
(1754-1838),  created  by  Napoleon  a  prince  of  the  empira 
under  the  title  of  the  Prince  de  B^n^vent,  was  born  at 
Pans  on  2d  February  1754.  His  father,  who  was  of  s 
younger  branch  of  the  princely  family  of  Chalais,  was  as 


30 


TALLEYRAND 


officer  in  the  army  of  Louis  XV.,  and  his  mother,  also  of 
Dohle  family,  was  a  member  of  the  royal  household  at  Ver- 
sailles. An  accident  in  infancy  rendered  Talleyrand  lame 
for  life,  and  changed  his  whole  career  His  upbringing  was, 
in  accordance  with  the  fashionable  heartlessness  of  the  day, 
entirely  left  to  strangers ;  and  while  a  boy  he  was,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  lameness,  formally  deprived  by  a  conseil  de 
familU  of  his  rights  of  primogeuiture, — his  younger  brother, 
,the  Comte  d'Archambaud,  taking  his  place,  and  he  was 
destined  for  the  church.  He  keenly  felt  the  blow,  but  was 
powerl°.ss  to  avert  it;  and  he  used  his  enforced  profession 
only  as  a  stepping-stone  to  his  ambition,  always  despising 
it,  and  coolly  and  defiantly  forsaking  it  when  he  found  it 
an  embarrassment. 

When  he  was  removed  from  the  country  he  was  sent  to 
the  College  d'Harcourt,  where  he  speedily  distinguished 
himself;  and  in  1770,  when  sixteen  years  of  age,  he 
became  an  inmate  of  the  S^minaire  de  St  Sulpice,  his 
education  being  completed  by  a  course  in  the  Sorbonne. 
Much  as  Talleyrand  despised  the  church  as  a  career,  he 
never  ceased  highly  to  appreciate  theology  as  a  training, 
and  he  publicly  testified  to  its  value  to  the  statesman  and 
specially  to  the  diplomatist.  While  achieving  distinction 
as  a  student,  he  carefully  cultivated  such  society  as  might 
promote  his  advancement ;  and  it  was  in  the  circle  of 
Madame  du  Barry  that  his  cynicism  and  wit,  reported  by 
her  to  the  king,  gained  him  the  position  of  abb6.  To  his 
arts  of  manner  were  added,  net  only  his  advantages  of 
birth  and  scholarship,  but  a  penetrating  judgment  of  men 
and  affairs,  a  subtle  audacity,  and  a  boundlessly  selfish 
ambition.  As  early  as  1780  we  find  this  ahhe  malgre  lui 
to  have  reached  the  important  position  of  "  agent-general  " 
of  the  French  clergy.  His  ability  and  his  flagrant 
immorality  alike  rendered  him  a  marked  man,  and  the 
latter  did  not  prevent  his  appointment,  in  accordance 
with  his  father's  dying  request  to  the  king,  as  bishop  of 
Autun  in  January  1789.  The  clergy  of  his  own  diocese 
immediately  elected  -him  a  member  of  the  states-general ; 
and  he  delivered  before  his  constituents  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  speeches  which  the  crisis  produced,  containing 
a  sagacious  and  statesmanlike  programme  of  the  reforms 
which  the  condition  of  France  demanded.  He  thus  entered 
the  assembly  as  one  of  its  leaders. 

The  states-general  had  hardly  met  ere  Talleyrand's  influ- 
ence was  called  into  play.  He  successfully  urged  the 
clergy  to  yield  to  the  demand  of  the  commons  that  the 
three  estates  should  meet  together;  and  the  nobles  could 
thereafter  only  follow  the  example  thus  set.  On  the 
question  of  the  extent  of  the  assembly's  authority  be  again 
sided  with  the  popular  leaders.  As  a  financier  of  great 
foresight  and  power  he  soon  became  justly  celebrated; 
and  his  position  in  the  assecably  may  be  estimated  by  his 
appointment  as  one  of  a  committee  of  eight  to  frame  the 
project  of  a  constitution.  All  his  previous  successes  were, 
however,  eclipsed  by  the  daring  with  which  he  attacked 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  his  own  order.  He  had 
seconded  the  proposals  that  the  clergy  should  give  up  their 
tithes  and  plate  for  the  benefit  of  the  nation,  and  on  10th 
October  1789  he  himself  proposed  a  scheme  whereby  the 
landed  property  of  the  church  should  be  confiscated  by  the 
state.  On  2d  November,  after  violent  debates,  his  project 
was  cirried,  and  the  old  clergy  thereafter  ranked  him  as 
an  enemy.  But  his  general  popularity  so  much  increased 
that  he  was  charged  by  the  national  assembly  to  prepare  a 
written  memoir  in  defence  of  its  labours ;  and  the  mani- 
festo, read  on  February  10,  1790,  was  received  "ith  great 
approval  througho jt  the  country.  On  the  1 6th  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  as.-^.^nibly  for  tiie  usual  brief  term. 
On  various  subjects  he  was  now  looked  up  to  as  an 
aothoTity,-*on   education,  on  electoral  and  ecclesiastical 


reform,  on  banking,  and  on  general  finance.     His  career  as 
a  diplomatist  had  not  yet  begun. 

On  July  14,  1790,  fallcyiand,  at  the  head  of  300  clergy, 
assisted  at  the  fete  in  the  Champ  de  Mars  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  and  pubhcly  blessed  the 
great  standard  of  France.  By  this  time,  however,  the 
dispute  as  to  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  had  broken 
out,  the  decision  cf  the  assembly  being  resisted  by  the 
king,  backed  by  the  pppe.  Whan  in  November  the  king 
yielded,  Talleyrand  boldly  took  the  required  oath,  only  two 
bishops  following  his  example.  New  bishops  were  elected 
by  the  assembly,  and  these  he,  in  open  defiance  of  the 
church,  consecrated.  In  the  end  of  April  1791  he  wa^ 
suspended  from  his  functions  and  excommunicated  by  tl.. 
pope.  Without  a  moment's  hesitation  Talleyrand  aband 
oned  his  profession,  which  he  never  afterwards  resumed. 
He  had  been  false  to  its  vows,  and  had  scandalized  it  by 
his  shameless  life.  It  was  only  in  the  preceding  February 
that  he  had,  in  declining  nomination  for  the  archbishopric 
of  Pans,  felt,  indiscreetly  enough  and  contrary  to  his  usual 
practice,  the  necessity  of  writing  to  the  MonUeur  a  hypo- 
critical confession  of  his  gambling  propensities,  stating 
his  gains  at  .30,000  francs.  Although  in  1801  the  excom- 
munication was  recalled,  it  was  nearly  half  a  century  after 
his  first  act  of  defiance  ere  he  became  personally  reconciled 
to  the  church,  and  then  only  when  he  was  at  the  point  of 
death. 

On  purely  political  lines,  however,  Talleyrand's  career 
became  more  and  more  celebrated.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  same  month  of  April  1791,  his  friend  Mirabeau  having 
just  died,  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  as  a  director 
of  the  department  of  Paris,  a  position  which  still  further 
increased  his  influence  in  the  circles  of  the  metropolis. 
On  the  flight  of  the  king  in  June,  Talleyrand  leaned  at 
first  and  cautiously  towards  the  duke  of  Orleans,  but  finally 
declared  for  a  constitutional  monarchy  with  Louis  XVI. 
still  on  the  throne.  Ere  the  constitutional  assembly 
brought  its  existence  to  a  close  on  1 4th  September,  he 
unfolded  before  it  his  magnificent  scheme  of  national 
education,  which,  in  the  wirds  of  Sir  Henry  Bulwer, 
"  having  at  one  extremity  the  communal  school  and  at 
the  other  the  Institute,  exists  with  but  slight  alterations  at 
this  very  day."  The  assembly  had  voted  that  none  of -its 
members  should  be  members  of  the  new  legislative  body, 
so  that  Talleyrand  was  free  ;  besides,  events  were  hurrying 
on  with  strange  and  critical  rapidity  ;  and  Talleyrand  left 
France  for  England,  reaching  London  in  the  end  of 
January  1792.  With  this  visit  his  diplomatic  career  may 
be  said  to  have  begun. 

He  was  not  formally  accredited,  but  had  in  his  pocket 
an  introduction  to  Lord  Grenville  by  Delessart  the  foreign 
minister ;  the  king  himself  was  aware  of  his  mission,  the 
ostensible  object  of  which  was  to  conciliate  England. 
Talleyrand  for  his  part  shared  the  ulterior  views  of 
Narbonne,  the  minister  of  war,  that  it  would  be  for  the 
advantage  of  his  country  to  divert  its  energies,  which  were 
morbidly  directed  to  its  internal  troubles,  into  another 
channel,  and  to  precipitate  an  Austj-ian  war.  Although 
received  well  in  London  society,  he  found  the  want  of 
oflicial  credentials  a  fatal  obstacle  to  his  diplomatic  nego- 
tiations, and  he  returned  to  Pans,  whence  he  was  almost 
immediately  again  despatched  to  the  English  court  under 
much  more  favourable  conditions.  He  was  nominally  only 
attendant  with  De  Chauvelin,  the  minister  plenipotentiary, 
but  he  was  really  the  head  of  the  embassy,  and  he  carried 
with  him  a  letter  of  Louis  XVI.  to  George  III.  At  this 
time,  indeed.  Talleyrand's  relations  with  Louis  were  very 
close, — far  closer  than  he  afterwards  cared  or  dared  to 
avow.  All,  however,  was  of  no  avail.  The  startling 
course  of  the  Eevolution  made  the  English  look  askance 


TALLEYRAND 


31 


upon  his  mission,  and  he  returned  baffled  to  Paris,  where 
tie  arrived  shortly  before  the  coup  dtitai  of  the  10th  of 
August.  But  this  place,  where  his  wariest  manoeuvres 
were  outdone  by  the  rapidity  of  the  popular  movements, 
and  where  at  any  turn  of  affairs  he  might  lose  his  head, 
was  not  to  his  liking ,  and  by  the  middle  of  September 
he  IS  for  the  third  time  in  London.  It  is  characteristic 
of  the  man — of  the  dexterity  as  well  as  audacity  of  his 
intrigue — that  he  who  had  but  shortly  before  carried  with 
him  a  letter  of  favour  from  Louis  XVL  was,  now  that 
royalty  was  abolished,  the  bearer  of  a  speciSc  passport — 
"'  going  to  London  by  our  orders  " — under  the  hand  of 
Oanton.  Equally  characteristic  is  the  express  falsehood 
with  which  he  opens  his  negotiations:  he  writes  at  once 
to  Lord  Grenville,  "  I  have  at  this  time  absolutely  no  kind 
of  mission  in  England  " — he  was  selling  his  library  and 
seeking  repose.  His  courtesies  were  not  returned  ;  and, 
although  he  succeeded  in  making  friends  in  certain  high 
quarters,  he  was,  in  the  end  of  January  1794,  under  the 
provisions  of  the  Alien  Act,  ordered  to  leave  England. 
Forti6cd  with  an  introduction  by  Lord  Lansdowne  to 
Washington,  he  sailed  for  the  United  States. 

A  decree  of  the  convention  had  issued  against  Talley- 
rand during  his  stay  in  England.  He  was  an  emigre. 
But  as  the  excesses  of  the  period  drew  to  a  close  the 
proscription  was  recalled  on  the  appeal  of  Ch^nier,  who 
founded  on  Talleyrand's  relations  with  Danton  and  his 
mission  to  England  in  the  service  of  the  Revolution  !  On 
July  25,  1795,  he  arrived  at  Hamburg,  whence  he  passed 
to  Berlin,  and,  after  a  short  stay  there,  to  Paris.  He  was 
received  with  enthusiasm  in  the  circles  of  fashion  and 
intrigue.  He  would  have  been  eagerly  welcomed  by  any 
of  the  political  parlies  as  a  strength  ;  but  the  Directory 
was  in  power,  and  he  Supported  it.  Within  the  Directory 
he  supported  Barras,  as  against  his  compeers.  He  was 
thus  a  moderate  constitutionalist  and  in  the  way  of 
advancement. 

During  his  absence  from  France  he  had  been  elected  a 
member  of  the  Institute.  He  was  now  elected  its  secre- 
tary. In  this  capacity  he  read  before  it  two  memoirs — one 
on  the  "commercial  relations  of  the  United  States  with 
England,"  and  the  other  "on  the  ad^-antages  of  withdraw- 
ing from  new  colonies  in  present  circumstances."  These 
memoirs  exhibit  Talleyrand  at  the  very  maturity  of  his 
powers,  and  are  sufficient  to  establish  his  position  as 
one  of  the  most  far-seeing  and  thoughtful  statesmen  that 
France  ever  possessed.  The  first  paper  shows  how,  in 
spite  of  the  War  of  Independence,  the  force  of  language, 
race,  and  interest  must  in  his  view  bind  England  and  the 
States  together  as  natural  allies ,  and  it  contains  that 
remarkable  passage  (which  once  read  is  never  forgotten)  in 
which  the  civilization  of  America  is  described  as  exhibited 
in  space  as  well  as  in  time, — as  the  traveller  moves  west- 
ward from  State  to  State  he  appears  to  go  backward  from 
age  to  age.  The  papers,  which  were  read  in  April  and 
July  of  1797,  made  his  claim  to  state  recognition  irre- 
sistible, and  towards  the  end  of  the  latter  month  he  was 
appointed  to  the  post-of  foreign  minister. 

He  had  been  carefully  scanning  the  political  situation, 
and  be  accurately  foresaw  that  the  Directory,  which 
represented  no  one  set  of  opinions,  but  only  a  vain  com- 
fiound  of  all,  could  not  stand  against  unity  of  policy 
backed  by  force,  and  in  the  meantime  coulu  be  manipu- 
lated. Thus  with  a  brutal  swiftness  its  personnel  becomes 
changed.  Barras  with  his  sluggish  moderation  remains ; 
but,  behind  and  through  him,  it  is  the  dexterous  purpose 
of  Talleyrand  that  is  at  work.  This  is  the  first  character- 
istic of  his  administration.  Its  second  is  the  ability  which 
he  displays  in  his  communications  with  the  diplomatic 
service,  in  view  of  the  rupture  with  England.     Its  third  is 


the  shamelessly  corrupt  manner  in  which  he  approaches 
the  American  ambassadors  on  the  subject  of  the  seizure  of 
certain  ships,  on  the  conclusion  of  a  commercial  treaty 
between  England  and  the  Slate.s,  putting  himself  in  hib 
public  and  powerful  position  at  their  service^ — if  the  bribe 
were  suitably  large.  And  its  fourth  is  that  he  is  hardly  in 
the  chair  of  office  until  he  has  shrewdly  selected  Bonaparte 
as  the  object  of  his  assiduous  flatteries,  writing  to  him  in 
semi-confidence,  and  laying  the  basis  of  their  future 
intimacy.  But  his  first  terra  of  office  was  short :  the 
American  ambassadors  spurned  his  olTer  and  let  h>» 
conduct  be  publicly  known,  with  the  result  that  for  this 
and  other  reasons  he  resigned  his  post.  Public  opinion 
was  outraged.  His  official  corruption,  however,  was  not 
ended,  for  Talleyrand  turned' everything  into  gold  ;  in  his 
later  diplomacy  also  he  could  always  be  bought ;  and  this 
public  immorality  was  but  too  faithfully  reflected  in  hia 
pnvate  life,  in  which  gambling  was  his  passion  and  a 
source  of  his  vast  wealth. 

Out  of  office,  but  still  pulling  the  strings  of  the  Directory, 
he  awaited  the  arrival  of  Napoleon  in  Paris,  and  it  was 
his  hand  which  was  most  powerful  in  shaping  tLe  events 
of  the  18th  and  19th  Brumaire — 9th  and  10th  November 
1799.  He  reconciled  Sieyte  to  Bonaparte  ;  a  majority  of 
the  Directory — Siey^s,  Ducos,  and  at  last  at  his  persuasion 
even  Barras — resigned  ;  the  Directory  collapsed,  and  the 
consulate  was  established  (see  Napoleon  and  Siivis). 
Napoleon  was  the  first  and  Talleyrand  the  secpnd  man  in 
France. 

He  was  now  an  absolutist,  the  whole  drift  of  his 
influence  being  in  the  direction  of  consolidating,  under 
whatever  title,  the  power  of  Bonaparte.  For  many  years 
henceforward  Talleyrand's  career  is  part  of  the  general 
history  of  France.  He  is  soon  again  foreign  minister  ;  and 
he  is  acknowledged  to  have  been  the  ablest  diplomatist  of 
an  age  when  diplomacy  was  a  greater,  power  than  it  has 
ever  been  before  or  since.  To  him  falls  a  full  share  of 
responsibility  for  the  kidnapping  and  murder  of  the  Duo 
d'Enghien  in  March  1804  (see  Savary).  He  had  assisted 
at  the  councils  when  the  atrocity  was  planned,  and  he 
wrote  to  the  grand-duke  justifying  the  seizure  of  the 
prince  while  on  Baden  territory.  His  hand  in  the  matter 
was  of  course  concealed.  Cut,  when  one  advised  him  to 
tender  his  resignation,  he  demurely  remarked,  "  If,  as  you 
sa}',  Bonaparte  has  been  guilty  of  a  crime,  that  is  no  reason 
why  I  should  be  guilty  of  a  folly."  In  other  and  more 
agreeable  directions  he  had  prostrated  himself  before 
Napoleon's  purposes,  approving  among  other  things  of  the 
policy  of  the  Concordat  (15th  July  1801),  and  securing 
thereby  the  recall  of  his  excommunication.  To  the  pope's 
grateful  brief,  which  gave  him  liberty  "  to  administer  all 
civil  affairs,"  he  coolly  gave  a  wide  interpretation,  and  he 
shortly  thereafter  married.  He  of  course  supported  and 
defended  first  the  consulship  for  life  and  then  the  crown- 
ing of  the  emperor. 

By  and  by,  however,  a  change  comes  over  his  political 
attitude,  and  it  is  not  long  ere  Napoleon  detects  it.  This 
change  we  date,  with  Sainte-Beuve,  from  the  end  of 
January  1809.  Before  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  July  S,  1807, 
from  Jena  onwards,  he  had  personally  accompanied  the 
great  conqueror  ;  after  it  they  stood  apart,  for  the  states- 
man saw  in  those  brilliant  but  ceaseless  conquests  the 
prelude  to  the  ruin  of  his  master  and  his  country.  He 
was  now  prince  of  Beneven'o.  and  he  withdrew  from  the 
ministry,  recei'  ng  at  his  own  sire  the  title  of  vicegrand- 
elector  of  the  empire.  Yet  he  had  not  disapproved  of  the 
Spanish  war ;  Lhe  young  princes  had  even  been  entrusted 
to  his  surveillance  at  his  country  house  at  Valen(;ay.  But 
anything  might  have  happened  to  the  emperor  in  Spain, 
and  Talleyrand  had  evidently  been  calculating  the  chances 


32 


T  A  L  — T  A  L 


of  the  future.  So  at  the  date  stated  the  explosion  occurs, 
NapoleoD  pouring  upon  Talleyrand  all  the  fury  of  his 
iQvective,  reproaching  him  with  the  affair  of  the  Due 
d'Enghien,  and  clamouring  to  know  vhcre  his  enormous 
wealth  had  come  from, — how  much  he  had  gained  at 
play  or  on  the  stock  exchange,  and  what  was  the  sum  of 
his  bribes  by  foruign  i^owers.  Over  and  over  again  such 
scenes  are  repeated,  the  burden  of  the  fierce  reproaches 
being  always  the  same ;  .ut  Talleyrand  stands  impassive 
as  a  statue,  remarking  ont  >,  but  not  till  he  is  out  of  the 
room,  and  is  limping  awaj  "  What  a  pity  that  such  a 
great  man  has  been  so  badly  brought  up  !"  or  sending  in, 
at  another  time,  a  resignation,  which  of  course  is  not  ac- 
cepted. The  reproaches  of  the  emperor  were  only  too  well 
founded,  his  minister  having  reaped  a  vast  harvest  from 
the  smaller  powers  at  the  formation  of  the  Rhenish  Con- 
federation; it  is  indeed  recorded  that  Talleyrand  once  put 
a  figure  upon  his  gains  m  this  department  of  corruption — 
the  figure  be  ag  no  less  than  sixty  million  francs. 

It  is  undoubtedly  to  his  credit,  however,  that  he  steadily 
resisted  a  warlike  policy,  and  that  he  was  particularly 
opposed  to  the  Russian  invasion.  He  was  occasionally 
employed  in  diplomatic  negotiations,  and  was  even  again 
offered  the  post  of  foreign  minister  if  he  would  give  up 
that  of  vice-grand -elector.  This  offer,  which  would  have 
placed  him  at  the  mercy  of  Napoleon,  he  declined,  and 
the  breach  between  the  two  widened.  Before  the  events 
of  1814;  his  hotel  had  become  the  centre  of  anti  Napoleonic 
intrigue ;  as  the  crisis  approached  he  communicated  with 
the  allies ;  when  it  was  at  hand  he  favoured  a  regency, 
and  appeared  anxious  that  Marie  Louise  should  remain  in 
Paris ;  and  when  this  was  abandoned  he  carefully  arranged 
a  feigned  departure  himself,  but  that  his  carriage  should 
be  turned  back  at  the  city  gates  ,  he  did  return  ;  and  the 
emperor  Alexander  was  his  guest  at  the  Hotel  Talleyrand  ! 
The  revolution  was  his  work ;  and  his  nominee  Louis 
XVIII.  ascended  the  throne.  For  a  third  time,  and  again 
under  a  new  master,  he  was  appointed  foreign  minister. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  overestimate  the  splendid  services 
which  he  now  rendered  to  France.  In  Paris,  on  23d  April, 
the  treaty  was  concluded  under  which  the  soldiers  of  the 
allies  were  to  leave  French  soil ,  and  Talleyrand  success- 
fully urged  that  the  territory  of  France  should  be  the 
enlarged  territory  of  1792,  and  also  that  the  great  art 
treasures  of  which  so  many  European  cities  had  been 
despoiled  should  remain  in  Pans.  A  final  treaty  ot  peace 
between  Europe  and  France  was  concluded  on  30th  May, 
and  in  September  the  congress  of  Vienna  assembled.  It 
was  the  scene  of  Talleyrand's  greatest  triumphs.  He 
succeeded  single-handed  in  breaking  up  the  confederation 
of  the  allies,  and  in  reintroducing  the  voice  of  France  into 
the  deliberations  of  the  European  powers.  Further,  on 
January  3,  1815,  a  secret  treaty  was  concluded  between 
Austria,  France,  and  England. 

When  Napoleon  escaped  from  Elba  and  advanced 
towards  Paris,  Louis  XVIII.  retired  to  Ghent.  Although 
the  congress  of  Vienna  was  thus  broken  up,  Talleyrand 
made  no  haste  to  follow  him  thither.  He  was  puzzled, 
and  remained  so  during  the  Hundred  Days.  He  despised 
Louis,  and  an  early  approach  to  Bonaparte  was  out  of  the 
question.  He  therefore  coolly  betook  himself  to  Carlsbad, 
remarking,  when  an  explanation  was  asked  for,  that  the 
first  duty  of  a  diplomatist  after  a  congress  was  to  attend 
to  his  liver  I  Waterloo  of  course  decided  him.  He  ap- 
peared at  Ghent,  and  was  but  coldly  received.  The  foreign 
powers,  however,  intervened,  conscious  after  Vienna  of 
Talleyrand's  value ;  and,  among  others,  Wellington  insisted 
that  the  great  diplomatist  must  be  taken  into  the  councils 
of  Louis, — with  the  result  that  he  became  pnme  minister 
at  the  second  restoration.     But  bis  position  was  one  of 


extreme  difficulty.  The  king  di.sliked  him  ;  there  were 
scenes  bordering  on  violence  in  the  royal  presence  ;  the 
Russian  emperor  intimated  his  hostility  to  him  ;  he  shared 
the  odium  of  having  a  man  like  Fouch^  for  a  colleague  ; 
Chateaubriand  and  his  parly  hated  and  beset  him.  For- 
tunately £.n  excuse  of  a  broad  and  national  kind  soon  pre- 
sented itself.  He  objected  to  the  conditions  which  the 
allies  were  imposing  upon  France,  refused  to  sign  tha 
treaty,  and  on  24th  September  resigned  office. 

He  retired  into  private  life,  in  which  he  remained  for 
fifteen  years.  He  only  spoke  in  the  House  of  Peers 
three  times  during  this  period, — twice  (1821  and  1822) 
in  favour  of  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  once  (1823) 
to  protest  against  the  Spanish  war.  But  in  1830,  when 
Charles  X.'s  reign  was  evidently  imperilled,  he  again  is  at 
the  centre  of  intrigue  ;  and  it  is  actually  at  bis  private  but 
urgent  suggestion  that  Louis  Philippe  heads  the  revolution, 
taking,  to  begin  with,  the  title  of  lieutenant-general  of  tha 
kingdom.  Declining  the  post  of  foreign  minister,  he 
proceeded  to  London  as  ambassador,  conducting  himself 
and  serving  his  country  with  his  usual  consummate  skill. 
He  returned  crowned  with  success  after  the  formation  of 
the  Quadruple  Alliance.  In  November  1834  he  resigned,, 
and  quitted  public  life  for  ever. 

He  emerged  from  his  retirement  ob  March  3,  1838,  to 
pronounce  before  the  Institute  the  tloge  of  Reinhard,  and 
in  so  doing  to  treat  of  diplomacy  in  general,  and  to. 
suggest  an  indirect  but  adroit  apology  for  his  owu  career. 
He  was  received  with  unbounded  enthusiasm  by  thfe  6lite 
of  French  literature  and  society — Cousin  even  exclaiming 
that  the  6loge  was  worthy  of  Voltaire.  His  last  illness, 
which  had  by  this  time  shown  itself,  soon  prostrated  him. 
He  was  visited  on  his  death-bed  by  crowds  of  celebrities, 
including  the  king.  He  died  on  May  17,  1838,  at  tha 
great  age  of  eighty-four.     He  is  buried  at  Valencjay. 

According  to  his  desire,  his  memoirs  under  his  own  hand 
will  not  appear  till  1890. 

There  is  a  considerable  body  of  anonymous  and  untrustworthy 
literature  both  in  Flench  and  English  on  the  subject  of  this  sketch. 
For  the  earlier  pari  of  Talleyrand's  career,  see  the  general  literature 
of  the  Revolution;  Ibrlhe  Napoleonic,  the  general  histories,  includ- 
iug  especially  the  Meviotrs  of  the  Due  de  Rovigo  ;  for  the  third  and 
last,  also  the  general  histories,  and  especially  the  CorTp^ondtnca 
bflween  Talleyrand  and  Louis  XVIII ,  edited  by  Pullain  (18&0-, 
transl.  into  English.  1881).  and  the  Mtmoira  of  Guizot.  Refer- 
ences abound  to  the  private  lile  of  Talleyrand,  and  on  it  see  also 
the  Hisloire  Politiqiu:  el  U'ie  Intime,  by  0.  Touchard-Lafosse  (1848), 
and  the  Souvenira  hdtvies  sur  M.  de  T(tlleyran4,  by  Amedee 
Pichot  (1870).  The  student  roust  be  on  his  guard  iu  perusing 
most  of  this  last-mentioned  literature.  For  many  years  the  His 
toire  Polilique  ct  Privie,  by  0  Michaud  (1863),  stood  practically 
uncorrected,  although  evidently  a  studied  and  bitter  attack.  The 
view  taken  hy  I.ouis  Blanc  in  his  Dir  /t'w  (translated  into  English 
in  1846)  is  also  quite  distorted,  and  if  one  wishes  to  see  a  complete 
misreading  of  Talleyrand's  career  it  can  bt  rr)und  in  f^laiic's  ti^nth 
chapter  of  his  fifth  book.  Sir  Henry  Lylioii  Bulwer  rendered  great 
service  by  his  life  of  Talleyrand,  publislied  in  liis  Historical  Cfuir- 
aeters;  and  the  worth  and  accuracy  of  Rulwcr's  biography,  which 
was  speedily  translated  into  French,  lias  been  amply  acknowledged 
by  Sainte.Beuve  in  his  valuable  treatise  (lectures)  on  Talleyrand, 
published  in  1870.  Reference  should  also  be  mad«  to  Mignet, 
Bastide,  and  the  Mejnoires  Politujues  of  Lamartine. 

Caution  will  have  to  be  exercised  in  reading  Talleyrand's  auto- 
biography, which  will  not  appear  till  1890,  The  testimony  of  con- 
temporaries will  not  be  available  to  check  it,  and  Talleyrand  i.<i 
proved  to  have  presided  at  the  destruction  of  much  documentary 
evidence  implicating  himself,  eg,  at  the  moment  when  the 
Russian  emperor  was  living  at  his  house.  (T.  S. ) 

TALLIEN,  Jean  Lambekt  (17C9-1820),  the  chief 
leader  of  the  party  that  overthrew  Robespierre,  was  the 
son  of  the  viaitre  d'/i6tel  of  the  Marquis  de  Bercy,  and 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1769.  The  marquis,  perceiving  the 
boy's  ability,  bad  him  well  educated,  and  got  him  a 
place  as  a  lawyer's  clerk.  Being  much  excited  by  the  first 
events  of  the  Revolution,  he  gave  up  his  desk  to  enter  i 
printer's  office,  and  by  1791  he  was  overseer  of  the  printiDK 


T  A  X-T  A  L 


33 


(iepartmer.t  of  the  MonUeur.  While  thus  employed  ha 
conceived  the  idea  of  the  joumataJichf,'eiTid  from  January 
to  May  1791  he  placarded  a  large  prioted  sheet  on  all 
the  walls  of  Paris  twice  a  week  under  the  title  of  the  Ami 
dts  Citoyms.  This  enterprise  of  his,  of  which  the  expenses 
were  defrayed  by  the  Jacobin  C\\i\\  made  him  well  known 
to  the  revolutionary  leaders ;  and  he  made  himself  still 
more-  conspicuous  in  organizing  the  great  "  Fete  de  la 
Libert^"  on  April  15,  1792,  in  honour  of  the  released 
soldiers  of  Chdteau-Vieux,  with  -Collot  d'Herbois.  On 
July  8,  1 792,  he  was  the  spokesman  of  a  deputation  of 
the  section  of  the  Place  Royale  which  demanded  from 
the  legislative  assembly  the  reinstatement  of  Potion  and 
Manuel,  and  he  was  one  of  the  most  active  popular  leaders 
in  the  attack  upon  the  Tuileries  on  10th  August,  on  which 
day  he  was  appointed  secretary  or  clerk  to  the  revolution- 
ary commune  of  Paris.  In  this  capacity  he  exhibited  an 
almost  feverish  activity ;  he  perpetually  appeared  at  the 
bar  of  the  assembly  on  behalf  of  the  commune ;  he 
announced  the  massacres  of  September  in  the  prisons  in 
terms  of  praise  and  apology ;  and  he  sent  off  the  famous 
circular  of  3d  September  to  the  provinces,  recommending 
them  to  do  likewise.  At  the  close  of  the  month  he 
resigned  his  post  on  being  elected,  in  spite  of  his  youth, 
a  deputy  to  tbe  Convention  by  the  department  of  Seine- 
et-Oiae,  and  he  commenced  his  legislative  career  by  defend- 
ing the  conduct  of  the  communo  during  the  massacres.  He 
took  his  seat  upon  the  Mountain,  and  showed  himself  one 
of  the  most  vigorous  Jacobins,  particularly  in  his  defence 
of  Marat ;  he  voted  for  the  execution  of  the  king,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  General  Security  on 
January  21,  1793.  After  a  short  mission  in  the  western 
provinces  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  took  ai^  active  part  in 
the  coup3 'cTelat  of  31st  May  and  2d  June,  which  resulted 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  Girondins.  For  the  next  few 
months  he  remained  comparatively  quiet,  but  on  Septem- 
ber 23,  1793,  he  was  sent  with  Ysabeau  on  his  famous 
mission  to  Bordeaux.  This  was  the  very  month  in  which 
the  Terror,  was  organized  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Committees  of  Public  Safety  and  General  Security,  and 
Bordeatiz  was  one  of  the  cities  selected  to  feel  its  full 
weight,  Tallien  showed  himself  one  of  the  most  vigorous 
of  the  proconsuls  sent  over  France  to  establish  the  Terror 
in  the  provinces ;  though  with  but  few  adherents,  he  soon 
awed  the  great  city  into  quiet,  and  kept  the  guillotine 
constantly  employed.  It  was  at  this  moment  that  the 
romance  of  Tallien's  life  commenced.  Among  his  prisoners 
was  Theresa,  Comtesse  de  Fontenay,  the  daughter  of  the 
great  Spanish  banker  Cabarms,  the  most  beautiful  and 
fascinating  wonran  of  her  time,  and  Tallien  not  only  spared 
her  life  but  fell  deeply  in  love  with  her.  She  quickly 
abated  the  fierceness  of-  his  revolutionary  ardour,  and 
from  the  lives  she  saved  by  her  entreaties  she  received  the 
name  of  "  Our  Lady  of  Pity."  This  mildness,  however, 
displeased  the  members  of  .the  committees;  Tallien  was 
Te<»iled  to  Paris ;  and  Madame  de  Fontenay  was  imprisoned 
ther^.  Danton  and  his  friends  had  but  just  fallen,  and 
the  members  of  the  committees  were  .half  afraid  to  strike 
again  at  the  moderates,  so  Tallien  was  spared  for  the  time, 
and  was  even  elected  president  of  the  Convention  on  March 
24,  1794.  '  But  the  Terror  could  not  be  maintained  at  the 
same  pitch  :  Robespierre  began  to  see  that  he  must  strike 
6t  many  of  his  own  colleagues  in  the  committees  if  he  was 
to  cony  out  his  theories,  and  Tallien  was  one  of  the  men 
condemned  with  them.  -They  determined  to  strike  first, 
and  on  the  great  day  of  Thermidor  it  was  Tallien  who, 
Qrged  on  by  the  danger  in  which  his  beloved  lay,  opened 
the  attack  upon  Robespierre.  The  movement  was  suc- 
cessful ;  Robespierre  and  his  friends  were  guillotined ; 
bnd  ths  young  Tallien,  oa  the  leading  Thermidorian,  was 
2:j— 3 


elected  to  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  Now  came 
tho  great  months  of  his  career :  he  showed  himselt  a 
vigorous  Thermidorian ;  he  was  instrumental  in  suppress- 
ing the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  and  the  Jacobin  Club  ;  he 
attacked  Carrier  and  Lebon,  the  proconsuls  of  Nantes  and 
Arras ;  and  he  fought  bravely  against  the  insurgents  of 
Pi-airial.  In  all  these  months  he  was  supported  by  his 
Theresa,  whom  he  married  on  December  26,  1794,  and 
who  became  the  leader  of  tho  social  life  of  Paris.  His  last 
political  achievement  was  in  July  1795,  when  he  was  present 
,'with  Hocho  at  the  destruction  of  the  army  of  the  6migr6a 
at  Quiberon,  and  ordered  the  executions  which  followed. 
After  the  close  of  the  Convention  Tallien's  political  import- 
ance came  to  an  end,  fof,  though  he  sat  in  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred,  the  moderates  attacked  him  as  terrorist, 
and  the  extreme  party  as  a  renegade.  Madame  Tallien 
also  got  tired  of  him,  and  became  the  mistress  of  the  rich 
banker  Ouvrard.  Bonaparte,  however,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  introduced  by  him  to  Barras,  took  him  to  Egypt  in 
his  great  expedition  of  June  1798,  and  after  the  capture 
of  Cairo  he  edited  the  official  journal  there,  tho  Decadt 
igyptimne.  But  Menou  sent  him  away  from  Egypt,  and 
on"  his  passage  he  was  captured  by  an  English  cruiser  and 
taken  to  London,  where  he  had  a  good  reception  among 
the  Whigs  and  was  well  received  by  Fox.  On  returning 
to  France  in  1802  he  got  a  divorce  from  his  unfaithful 
spouse  (who  eventually  married  the  Prince  de  Chimay),  and 
was  left  for  some  time  without  employment.  At  last, 
through  Fouch^  and  Talleyrand,  he  got  the  appointment 
of  consul  at  Alicante,  and  remained  there  until  he  lost  the 
sight  of  oni  eye  from  yellow  fever;  On  returning  to  Paris 
he  lived  on  his  half-pay  until  1815,  when  he  received  the 
especial  favour  of  not  being  exiled  like  the  other  regicides. 
His  latter  days  were  spent  in  the  direst  poverty ;  he  had 
to  sell  his  books  to  get  bread.  He  died  at  Paris  on  Nov- 
ember 16,  1820. 

TALLIS  (TAii-ys,  Talys,  or  TALLisros),  Thomas 
(c.  1515-1585),  justly  styled  "the  father  of  English  cathe- 
dral music,"  was  born,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained, 
about  the  year  1515.  The  history  of  his  youth  is  involved 
in  some  obscurity ;  there  seems,  however,  but  little  doubt 
that,  after  singing  as  a  chorister  at  old  Saint  Paul's  under 
Thomas  Mulliner,  he  obtained  a  place  among  the  children 
of  the  chapel  royal.  His  next  appointment  was  that  of 
organist  at  Waltham  abbey,  where,  on  the  dissolution  of 
the  monastery  in  1540,  he  received,  in  compensation  for 
the  loss  of  his  preferment,  20s.  for  wages  and  20s.  for 
reward.  An  interesting  relic  of  this  period  of  his  career 
is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  British  Museum,  in  the 
form  of  a  volume  of  MS.  treatises  on  music,  once  belong- 
ing to-  the  abbey,  on  the  last  page  of  which  appears  his 
autograph,  "  Thomas  Tallys,"  with  the  final  letter  pro- 
longed into  an  elaborate  flourish — the  only  specimen  of 
his  handwriting  now  known  to  exist. 

Not  long  after  his  dismissal  from  Waltham,  Tallis  was 
appointed  a  gentleman  of  the  chapel  royal ;  and  thence- 
forward he  laboured  so  zealously  for  the  advancemefit  of 
his  art  that  his  genius  has  left  an  indeUble  impression  upon 
the  Englfsl^  'school,  which  owes  more  to  him  than  to  any 
other  composer  of  tho  16th  century,  and  in  the  history  of 
which  Kia  name  plays  a  very  important  part  indeed. 

One  of  the  earliest  compositions  by  Tallis  to  which  an 
approximate  date  can  be  assigned  is  the  well-known  Service 
in  the  Dorian  Mode,  consisting  of  the  Venite,  Te  Deum, 
Benedictiu,  Kyrie,  Nicene  Creed,  Sancttia,  Gloria  in 
Excelsis,  Magnificat,  and  Nunc  Dimittis,  for  four  voices, 
together  with  the  Preces,  Hesponses,  Paternoster,  axtA  Litany, 
for  five,  all  published  for  the  first  time,  in  .the  Rev.: 
John  Barnard's  .First  Book  of  Selected  Church  Munc,  in 
1.641,  and  reprinted,  vrith  the   exception  of   the  Venita 

XXIII.  —  5 


34 


T  A  L— T  A  L 


ttud  Patemof'-r,  in  Boyce's  Cathedral  Music  in  1760.^ 
That  ihia  wotlc  «as  composed  for  the  purpose  of  supply- 
ing a  pressing  need,  after  the  publication  of  the  second 
prayer-book  of  King  Edward  VI.  in  1552  there  can  be 
no  reasonable  doubt ;  and  its  perfect  adaptation  to  its 
intended  purpose  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact  that, 
for  more  than  three  hundred  years,  its  claim  to  occupy  the 
first  and  highest  place  among  compositions  of  its  class  has 
been  undisputed.  Written  in  the  style  known  among 
ftaliaa  composers  as  lo  stile  famigliare,  i.e.,  in  simple 
counterpoint  of  the  first  species,  nota  contra  notam,  with 
no  attempt  at  ingenious  points  of  imitation,  or  learned 
complications  of  any  kind — it  adapts  itself  with  equal 
dignity  and  clearness  to  the  expression  of  the  verbal  text 
it  is  intended  to  illustrate,  bringing  out  the  sense  of  the 
words  so  plainly  that  the  listener  cannot  fail  to  interpret 
them  aright,  while  its  pure  rich  harmonies  tend  far  more 
surely  to  the  excitement  of  devotional  feeling  than  the 
marvellous  combinations  by  means  of  which  too  many  of 
Tallis's  contemporaries  sought  to  astonish  their  hearers, 
while  forgetting  all  the  loftier  attributes  of  their  art.  In 
this  noble  quality  of  self-restraint  the  Litany  and  Responses 
bear  a  close  analogy  to  the  Improperia  and  other  similar 
works  of  Palestrina,  wherein,  addressing  himself  to  the 
heart  rather  than  to  the  ear,  the  princeps  musical  produces 
the  most  thrilling  effects  by  means  which,  to  the  super- 
•icial  critic,  appear  almost  puerile  in  their  simplicity,  while 
*.hose  v.ho  are  able  to  look  beneath  the  surface  discern  in 
them  depths  of  learning  such  as  none  but  a  very  highly 
cultivated  musician  can  appreciate.  Of  this  profound 
learning  Tallis  possessed  an  inexhaustible  store ;  and  the 
rich  resources  it  opened  to  his  genius  not  only  placed  his 
compositions  on  a  level  with  those  produced  by  the  best 
of  hi?  Italian  and  Flemish  contemporaries,  but  enabled 
him  to  raise  the  English  school  itself  to  a  height  which  it 
had  never  previously  attained,  and  which,  nevertheless,  it 
continued  to  maintain  undiminished  until  the  death  of 
Its  last  representative,  Orlando  Gibbons,  in  1625.  Though 
this  school  is  generally  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Dr 
Tye,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Tallis  was  it«  greatest 
master,  and  that  it  was  indebted  to  him  alone  for  the 
infusion  of  new  life  and  vigour  which  prevented  it  from 
degenerating,  as  some  of  the  earlier  Flemish  schools  had 
done,  into  a  mere  vehicle  for  the  display  of  fruitless 
erudition.  Tallis's  ingenuity  far  surpassed  that  of  his 
most  erudite  contemporaries  ;  but  he  never  paraded  it  at 
the  ex'iense  either  of  intrinsic  beauty  or  truthfulness  of 
exp.'-ess'.on.  Like  every  other  great  musician  of  the  period, 
he  produced  occasionally  works  confessedly  intended  for 
no  more  exalted  purpose  than  the  exhibition  of  his 
stupendous  skill,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  character- 
istics of  which  was  the  apparnnt  ease  with  which  it 
disposed  of  diflBculties  that,  to  composers  of  ordinary 
ability,  would  have  proved  insurmountable.  In  his  canon. 
Miserere  nostri,  the  intricacy  of  the  contrapuntal  devices 
seems  little  short  of  miraculous ;  yet,  so  smooth  and 
flowing  is  the  effect  produced  by  their  dizzy  involutions, 
that  no  one  unacquainted  with  the  secret  of  their  con- 
struction would  suspect'  the  presence  of  any  unusual 
element  in  the  composition.  In  his  motet.  Spent  m 
ahum  non  habtii,  written  for  forty  voices  disposed  in  eight 
five-part  choirs,  each  singer  is  intrusted  with  a  part, 
agreeable  and  interesting  in  itself,  yet  never  for  a  moment 
interfering  with  any  one  of  the  thirty-nine  equally  interest- 
ing parta  with  which  it  is  associated.  These  tours  de 
force,  however,  though  approachable  only  by  the  greatest 
contrapuntists    living   in  an  age   in   which    counterpoint 

*  Boyc€'«  an»ccountabIe  omissioo  of  the  very  beautiful  VeniU  is  a 
mUfortune  which  canoot  be  too  deeply  deplored,  ctiice  it  has  led  to 
i^  onoaignnMnt  to  aimofft  bapelfu  obLinon. 


was  cultivated  with  a  success  that  has  never  since  been 
equalled,  serve  to  illustrate,  one  phase  only  of  Tallis's 
many-sided  genius,  which  shines  with  equal  brightness  in 
the  eight  psalm-tunes  (one  in  each  of  the  first  eight 
modes)  and  unpretending  little  Veni  Creator,  printed  in 
1567  at  the  end  of  Archbishop  Parker's  First  Quirujuagent 
of  Metrical  Psalms,  and  many  other  compositions  of  like 
simpUcity. 

In  1575  Tallis  and  his  pupil  William  Byrd — as  great  a 
contrapuntist  as  himself,  though  by  no  means  his  equal 
in  depth  of  expression — obtained  from  Queen  Elizabeth 
royal  letters  patent  granting  them  the  exclusive  right  ot 
printing  music  and  ruling  music-paper  for  twenty-one 
years ;  and,  in  virtue  of  this  privilege,  they  issued,  in  the 
same  year,  a  joint  work,  entitled  Cantiorus  quse  ab  argu- 
menio  Sacrse  vocarUur,  quinque  et  sex  partium,  containing 
sixteen  motets  by  Tallis  and  eighteen  by  Byrd,  all  of  thft 
highest  degree  of  excellenca  Some  of  these  motets,, 
adapted  to  English  words,  are  now  sung  as  anthems  in 
the  Anglican  cathedral  service.  But  no  such  translations 
appear  to  have  been  made  during  Tallis's  lifetime ;  and 
there  is  strong  reason  for  believing  that,  though  both  he 
and  Byrd  outwardly  conformed  to  the  new  religion,  and 
composed  music  expressly  for  its  ■  use,  they  remained 
Catholics  at  heart  to  the  end  of  their  days. 

Tallis's  contributions  to  the  CarUiones  Sacra  were  the 
last  of  his  compositions  published  dnring  his  lifetime.  He 
did  not,  indeed,  live  to  witness  the  expiration  of  the 
patent,  though  Byrd  survived  it  and  published  two  more 
books  of  Cantianes  on  his  own  account  in  1589  and  1591, 
besides  numerous  other  works.  Tallis  died  November  23, 
1685,  and  was  buried  in  the  parish  church  at  Greenwich, 
whet's,  a  quaint  rhymed  epitaph,  preserved  by  Strype,  and 
reprinted  by  Burney  and  Hawkins,  recorded  the  fact  that 
he  served  in  the  chapel  royal  during  the  reigns  of  Henry 
\^II.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  This  was  de- 
stroyed with  the  old  church  about  1710;  and  it  was  not 
untU  about  twenty  years  ago  that  a  copy  was  plaied  in 
the  present  building.  Portraits,  professedly  authentic,  of 
Tallis  and  Byrd  were  engraved  by  Vandergucht  in  1730, 
for  Nicolas  Haym's  projected  History  of  Music,  but  never 
published.     One  copy  only  is  known  to  exist 

Not  very  many  works  besides  those  already  mentioned  wert 
printed  during  Talhs's  lifetime ;  but  a  great  number  are  still  pre- 
served in  MS.  Unhappily,  it  is  to  be  (eared  that  many  more  were 
destroyed,  in  the  17tn  century,  during  the  spoliation  of  the 
cathedral  libraries  by  the  Puritans.  (W   S.  R. ) 

TALLOW  is  the  solid  oil  or  tat  of  ruminant  animais, 
but  commercially  it  is  almost  exclusively  obtained  from 
oxen  and  sheep.  The  fat  is  distributed  throughout  the 
entire  animal  structure ;  but  it  accumulates  in  large 
quantities  as  "  suet "  in  the  body  cavity,  and  it  is  from 
such  suet  that  tallow  is  principally  melted  or  rendered. 
The  various  methods  by  which  tallow  and  other  animal 
fats  are  separated  and  purified  have  been  dealt  with  under 
Oils  (see  vol.  xvii.  p.  743).  In  commerce  ox  tallow  and 
sheep  tallow  are  generally  distinguished  from  each  other, 
although  much  nondescript  animal  fat  is  also  found  in  the 
market.  Ox  tallow  occurs  at  ordinary  temperatures  as  a 
solid  hard  fat  having  a  yellowish  white  colour ;  when  fresh 
and  lew  it  has  scarcely  any  taste  or  smell;  but  it  soon 
acquires  a  distinct  odour  and  readily  becomes  rancid  The 
fat  IS  insoluble  lo  cold  alcohol,  but  it  dissolves  in  boiling 
spirit  of  0822  sp.  gr  in  chloroform,  ether,  and  the 
essemial  oils.  The  hardness  of  tallow  and  its  melting 
point  are  to  some  extent  affected  by  the  food,  age,  state 
of  health,  <fec.,  of  the  animal  yielding  It,  the  firmest  or 
tallo«  being  obtained  in  certain  provinces  of  Russia,  whe-e 
for  a  great  part  of  the  year  the  oxen  are  fed  on  hay  Ne  * 
talow  melts  at  from  42°-5  to  43°  C.  old  tallow  at  43'  5, 


T  A  L  — T  A  L 


.35 


and  tbe  melted  fat  remains  liquid  till  its  temperature  falls 
to  33°  or  34°  C  Tallow  coosists  of  a  mixture  of  two- 
thirds  of  tbe  solid  fats  palmitiii  and  stearin,  with  one-third 
of  the  Ikiuid  fat  olein  A  fluid  oil  known  as  tallow  oil  is 
obtained  from  solid  tallow  .by  the  separation  by  pressure  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  olein  To  facilitate  the  separation 
of  the  olein,  tallow  is  first  melted  and  just  before  resolidi- 
fying It  is  mixed  with  about  10  per  cent,  of  benzene  or 
petroleum  spirit.  The  mixture  is  then  allowed  to  solidify 
in  flat  cakes  or  slabs,  which  are  placed  in  press  bags  and 
piled  between  iron  plates  m  a  hydraulic  press.  On  the 
application  of  pressure  the  olein  mixed  with  the  solvent 
hydrocarbon  flows  freely  oat,  leaving  a  hard  dense  cake  of 
stea.-iii  and  palmitin  in  the  bags  The  volatile  solvents 
are  subsequently  driven  off  by  blowing  steam  through  the 
oil,  which  remains  a  turbid  fatty  fluid  from  the  proportion 
of  solid  fata  it  carries  over  with  it  from  the  hydraulic 
press.  Tallow  oil  is  a  useful  lubricant  and  a  valuable 
material  for  fine  soap  making,  but  it  is  not  now  abundantly 
prepared.  Mutton  tallow  differs  in  several  respects  from 
that  obtained  from  oxen.  It  is  whiter  in  colour  and 
harder,  and  contains  only  about  30  per  cent,  of  olein. 
Newly  rendered  it  has  little  taste  or  smell,  but  on  exposure 
it  quickly  acquires  characteristic  qualities  and  becomes 
rancid.  Sweet  mutton  tallow  melts  at  46°  and  solidifies 
at  36°  C. ;  when  old  it  does  not  melt  under  49°,  and  be- 
comes solid  on  reaching  44'  or  45°  C.  It  is  sparingly 
soluble  in  cold  ether  and  in  boiling  spirit  of  0822  sp.  gr. 

Id  early  times  tallow  was  a  most  important  candle-makiDg 
substance,  and  candles  made  from  this  material  are  still  consumed 
in  no  inconsiderable  quantity,  but  the  greater  proportion  of  the 
•npply  is  now  absorbed  by  the  soap  trade ,  the  artificial  butter 
trade  which  has  sprung  up  since  1872  also  takes  up  large  quantities 
of  sweet  tallow.  Tallow  is  further  used  extensively  as  a  lubricant 
and  in  leather  dressing,  &c.  It  is  of  course  a  product  of  all  cattle 
and  sheep. rearing  countries,  and  it  forms  an  important  article  of 
export  from  the  United  States,  the  Argentme  Kepublic,  and  the 
Australian  colonies.  Till  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  centnrv 
Russia  supplied  nearly  all  the  tallow  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom ;  but  now  the  imports  from  that  source  are  on  the  most 
meagre  scale,  although  Russian  P.  Y.  C.  (pale  yellow  candle)  con- 
tinues to  represent  the  finest  commercial  brand 

TAXLOWS,  Vegetable.     See  Oils,  vol.  xvii.  p.  746. 

TALILV,  Joseph  Fbas^ois  (1763-1826),  French 
tragedian,  was  born  at  Paris  15th  January  1763.  After 
attending  the  Mazarin  college,  he  accompanied  his  father, 
who  was  a  dentist,  to  London,  where  he  studied  in  the 
hospitals.  While  in  London  he  took  part  in  some  amateur 
theatricals,  and,  his  talents  at  once  attracting  notice,  a  pro- 
fessional engagement  was  offered  him.  To  this,  however, 
his  father  would  not  consent,  and  shortly  afterwards  he 
was  sent  to  Paris,  where  for  some  years  he  was  assistant  to 
a  dentist.  His  predilection  for  the  drama  could  not  be 
restrained,  and  on  21st  November  1787  he  made  his  d6bnt 
at  the  Comedie  Franijaise  in  Mahomet.  His  efforts  from 
the  first  won  appreciation,  but  for  a  considerable  time  he 
was  restricted  to  secondary  parts.  It  was  in  jeuTie  premier 
parts  that  he  first  came  prominently  into  notice,  and  he 
attained  only  gradtially  to  his  unrivalled  position  as  tbe 
exponent  of  strong  and  concentrated  passion.  In  1791  he 
and  other  dissentients  founded  the  Theatre  Francis  de  la 
rue  de  Richelieu,— a  name  changed  in  1 792  to  Th^tre  de  la 
lUpublique,  where  he  won  his  most  striking  successes. 
Talma  was  among  the  earliest  advocates  of  realism  in 
3cenery  and  costume,  being  greatly  aided  in  his  reforms  by 
his  friend  the  painter  David.  He  possessed  in  perfection 
the  physical  gifts  fitting  him  to  excel  in  the  highest  tragie 
parts,  an  admirably  proportioned  figure,  a  striking  counten- 
ance, and  a  voice  of  great  beauty  and  power,  which,  after 
he  had  conquered  a  certain  thickness  of  utterance,  enabled 
him  to  acquire  a  matchless  elocution.  At  first  somewhat 
ttilted  and  monotonoos    in  his  manner,  he    gradoallj 


emancipated  himself  from  all  ^artificial "  trammels,  and 
became  by  perfection  of  art  a  model  of  simplicity.  Talma 
enjoyed  the  intimacy  of  Napoleon,  with  whom  he  had 
an  acquaintance  before  Napoleon  attained  greatness  ;  and 
ha  was  a  friend  of  Chfinier,  Danton,  Camille  Desmoulins, 
and  other  revolutionists.  He  made  his  last  appearance 
Uth  June  1826.  and  died  at  Paris  19tb  October  of  that 
year 

Talina  was  the  author  of  ifemmra  dt  Le  Kam,  prMtUs  de 
K^/texums  mr  cet  Aclcur  a  surCArl  Thiitral,  contributed  to  the 
Colkctiwi  lUs  Memoircs  sitr  I' Art  Liranuutque.  It  was  published 
separately  at  Pans  in  1866,  under  the  title  Ktflcxions  dc  Talina.  sur 
Lc  Kaifi  a  I  Art  TlUiUral.  .See  il&moircs  de  J  F  Talma,  ecriti  par 
luiitUmi,  H  Tcccuillis  ct  mis  en  ordrf  <tur  tes  papurs  de  safamilU 
by  Alei    Dumas  (1856).     _ 

TALMUD  signifies — (1)  "study  of  and  instruction  in 
anything  (whether  by  any  one  else  or  by  oneself)" ,'  (2) 
"learning  acquired",-  (3)  "style,  system"^  as  such  it  is 
synonymous  with  Mi^hnah  in  its  fifth  signification,  vol. 
xvi.  p.  503,  (4)  "theory,"  in  contradistinction  to  "prac 
tice,"* — synonymous  with  Midrask  in  its  fourth  significa- 
tion, vol.  xvi.  p.  285  ,  (5)  such  interpretation  of  the  .Mosaic 
law  as  is  apparent  on  the  surface  thereof  and  does  not 
necessitate  any  further  disquisition;'  (6)  Buruitko,  or  tho 
non-canonical  Mishnak  ;*  (7)  Gemara,  tVe.,  the  oldest  com- 
mentary on  the  canonical  Atithnak  ;'  (8)  the  texts  of  Misk- 
nah  and  Gemara  combined, — the  meaning  which  is  the  one 
most  commonly  attached  to  the  term  Talmud.  Although 
the  word  Talmud  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  Bible,  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  it  is  a  classical  Hebrew  terra,  as  may 
be  seen  by  the  analogy  of  Tahdnun,  "supplication,"  Tan- 
hum,  "  consolation,"  ic. 

Recensions  of  the  Talmud. — The  Talmud  exists  in  two 
recensions, — the  Palestinian,  commonly,  but  by  mistake, 
called  Talmud  Terushalmi  (see  below),  and  the  Babylonian, 
correctly  called  Talmud  Bahli.  The  Talmud  Yerushalmi 
embocLes  the  discussions  on  the  Mishnah  (q.v.)  oi 
hundreds  of  doctors,  living  in  Palestine,  chitfly  in  Galilee 
from  the  end  of  the  2d  till  about  the  middle  of  the  5th 
century,  whilst  the  Babylonian  Talmud  embodies  chiefly  the 
discussions  on  the  same  Mishnah  of  hundreds  of  doctors 
living  in  various  places  in  Babylonia,  such  as  Nebarde'a,' 


'  Compare  Mishnah,  Peak,  i  1,  0^3  13^3  min  IID^HI  ("and 
the  studying  of  the  Law  balances  them  all")  ,  Abolh,  iv.  13,  THt  'IH 

11D?n3  ("  be  circumspect  as  regards  in.'itruction"). 

'  See  Perek  Rabbi  ileir,  6,  nioVna  u"?  D'30  kSi("  whose  heart  is 
not  arrogant  on  account  of  hn  learning") ,  c/.  T.  B  ,  Pisahtm,  leaf  49o  ; 
lODD  nonCD  nioSni  O' his  learning  becomes  forgotten  by  him"). 

»  See  T.  B.,  Syrihednn,  leaf  24a,  ^33  Ss?  mio'jn  ("the  modeof 
study  prevalent  in  Babylonia"),  comp.  T    B-,  Pescthim.  346.  '!<^33 

i3t'noT  KnnyDt:'  pn'ioN  K3it;'m  NyiN3  '3n"i  om-o  "nk'SO 

("  foolish  Babylonians,  who,  because  ye  d^vell  in  a  land  of  darkness, 
say  sayings  that  are  obscure  "),  and  T.  B.,  Data  Mcsi'a,  leaf  85o; 
Ftabbi  Zera  fasted  a  hundred  fasts  on  going  up  to  Palestine,  so  that  he 
might  forget  the  style  of  Babylonico-Talmudic  study  (nK733  K1D3  or 
nK733  KIIDPri),  that  it  should  not  trouble  him  any  further.  Rashl 
takes  the  quotation  from  5(2^a  Mesi'a  to  signify  the  concrete  Babylonian 
Talmud,  which,  however,  is  impossible. 

•  See  T.  B.,  KidduAin,  leaf  406:  "Is  theory  (llO^n)  greater  or 

practice  {HtTVO)  greater!  .  .  .  They  all  an.swered.  Theory  (IID^) 
is  greater  because  it  leads  to  practice."  Talmud,  as  will  have  been' 
seen,  is  here  given  as  synonymous  with  Limmud. 

»  See  T.  B.,  Baba  Kamma,  leaf  1046,  K^'OSp  "Wthn  V  ("  I  say 
this  is  a  plain  [Mosaic]  teaching").  . 

•  See  T.  B.,  Baba  Bathra,  leaf  1306,  catchword  I'lOh  I'K.  and 
Variw  Lectiones  in  loco. 

'  See  T.  B.,  Baba  MesCa,  leaf  33J,  and  compare  Rashi  in  loeo. 

'The  rector  of  this  academy  was  Sbemuel,  court  physician  of  Shapnr 
I.,  and  astronomer.  Whilst  his  friend  and  fellow-pupil  R»B  (q.v.; 
they  both  attended  the  lectures  of  the  principal  editor  of  the  Mii^ 
nah)  excelled  in  the  other  parts  of  the  Jewish  law,  Shemnel  was  pre- 
eminent  in  the  civil  law.  On  account  of  this  be  is  repeatedly  called 
in  the  Talmud  both  "Shapnr"  (like  his  master)  and  "  Aryokh"  (Uan, 
king,  teacher).  _  To  him  ii  due  the  legal  principle  that  "  tbo  law  of 


TALMUD 


Kaphri,'  MahiKa,^  Shelchanslb.s  but  notably  at  the  two 
great  aciidemies'of  ^ara  anid  Pumbaditha,  from  about  190 
to  nearly  the  end  of  tke  6th  bentury.  The  doctors  of  both 
recensions,  although  they'  primarily  discuss  the  cotrectness 
of  the  text  and  meaning  of  the  Mishnah,  and  what  should. 
be  the  right  legal  decision  according  to  it,  do  not  confine 
themselves  to  this.  They  introduce,  as  occasion  serves, 
not  merely  the  whole  of  the  oral  traditioa-handed  down  to 
their  time,  and  the  necessary  references  to,  and  interpreta- 
tions of,  the  various  laws  to  be  found  in  the  Pentateuch 
and  the  other  sacred  writings,  but  exhibit  also,  though  only 
in  a  fragmentary  manner,  an  almost  complete  cycle  of  the 
profane  sciences  as  current  orally  and  known  to  them 
by  books  composed  by  Jews  and  Gentiles.  The  doctors 
of  both  these  recensions  were  and  are  called  Amoraim 
(Q'N";iOS)_  j.f,,  mere  "discussers,  speakers,"''  because,  unlike 
the  Mishnic  doctors,  who  were  and  are  called  Tannaim 
(Q*S|n),  i.e.,  "  learners,  teachers,"  they  abstained  from  raak 
ing  new  laws  unless  absolutely  compelled  by  circumstances 
to  do  so.*  These  Amoraim  stand,  on  the  whole,  in  the 
same  relation  to  their  Mishnic  predecessors  as  counsel 
giving  a  legal  opinion,  or  judges  deciding  legal  cases,  stand 
to  the  legislature  which  frames  the  laws.  In  these  points 
the  doctors  of  both  recensions  agree.  There  are,  however, 
also  points  of  considerable  difference  between  the  two  Tal- 
muds.  These  are  not  merely  geographical,  and  so  neces- 
sarily linguistic,^  but  also  material.  Whilst  the  discussions 
in  the  Palestinian  Talmud  are  simple,  brief,  and  to  the 
point,  those  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  are  subtle,  long- 
winded,  and,  although  always  logical,  sometimes  even  far- 
fetched.^ But  there  is  another  difference  The  Palestinian 
Talmud,  besides  containing  legal  and  religious  discussions, 
is  a  storehouse  of   history,  geography,  and    archaeology. 


the  civil  government  Is  the  law,"  i.e.,  that  except  id  religious  matters 
the  Jew  must  submit  to  the  laws  of  his  country  (T  B  .  Saba  Sfithm. 
546).  Shemuel  and  Rab  (like  Rabbi  Yohanan  and  Resh  Lakish, 
Abayye  and  Elaba,  and  others),  though  intimate  friends,  nevertbelesa 
differ  on  nearly  all  i.Tiaginable  points,  so  that  when  the  Talmud  wishes 
to  give  firmness  to  a  rerlain  decision  or  opuiioo.  it  uses  the  phrase 
"  Rab  and  Shemuel,  kc,  both  agree  " 

'  The  rector  of  this  school  was  Rab  Hlsda,  the  father-in-law  of 
Kaba  {ij.v). 

•  The  rector  of  this  school  was  RaBa  (<;  v  ) 

'  The  rector  of  this  school  was  Tab  Mahman  b  Yishak  (T  B  ,  OMm, 
316,  Rashi,  catchword  K3N),  husband  of  the  learned  and  accomplished 
■yaltha,  the  daughter  of  the  resh  galutha  (T  B  .  Hulhn.  leaf  10961.  kc 

•  Aiwra  may  also  mean  an  interpreter  The  great  teachers  of  the 
first  five  centuries  had  generally  a  man  (or  sevcnil  men)  at  their  side, 
who  to  the  learning  requisite  to  translate  the  master's  teaching  given 
in  Hebrew,  and  dilate  on  it  in  Aramaic,  added  a  Stentor's  voice,  and 
could  by  f.TScinating  speech  command  the  attention  of  the  audience 
The  first  Babylonian  Amora,  i  e.,  explainer  of  the  itishnah,  who  had 
an  Atru/ra,  i  e  ,  a  popular  teacher,  was  Rabbi  Shila.  The  first  who  is 
known  to  have  acted  as  Airwra,  \  e  ,  popular  teacher,  to  an  Amora, 
i,c..  nn  explainer  of  the  Mishnah,  wa»  the  famous  RaB  {q  u. )  See 
T.  \  .  BtTukholh  IV  1,  2,  4c. .  T  B.,  Berukhoth.  leaf  27*  .  and  T  B., 
Koiii.c,  le.if  2(J')  (against  Ripoport,  'Lrekh  Miihn,  s  v   "  Amora") 

'  Thi«  ceruiiily  was  not  uofrequently  the  case,  but  even  then  they 
did  so  "fily  in  the  spinl  of  the  Tannann. 

•  The  Palestinian  A^noraim,  leaching  people  who  understood  Creek, 
had  not  to  explain  ilie  Greek  terms  which  frequently  occur  id  the  Sfish 
nnli  and  oihei  works  kindred  to  it  The  Babylonian  Amoraivi,  how. 
ever,  who  il  common  with  their  hearers  weie  ignorant  of  Greek,  had  a 
somewhat  irregular  though  certainly  effective  way  (received  by  them 
traditionally)  of  explaining  the  Greek  terms  in  the  Mishnah,  &c  ,  hy 
Aramaic  etymology  We  will  give  two  instances  only  of  this  practice 
— (1)  'P'niBS,  which  13  evidently  the  Greek  uToflij/tii,  is  explained 
T  B  .  Baba  itesi'a,  leaf  666,  nO  «'?«  pVlQ  iS  KH"  kS.  "thou  shalt 
get  no  payment  excepl  from  this, "—evidently  -  *KP  NHH  nsS*  — 
"  mxiii  this  thou  bhalt  stand,'  t.e  ,  *'  if  1  do  not  pay,  this  shall  serve 
a.s  my  security",  compare  Rashi  on  Baba  Kamma,  116,  catchword 
'P'maK  .  (2)  "p'n't  is  evidently  the  Greek  5ia»jj«Ti,  and  Is  ex- 
pl.iiiied  as  being  a  compound  of  (O'p)  Dp'O?  Nnn  NT,  "  this  shall 
stiiid  when  I  am  no  more,"  i.e.,  "this  is  my  last  will  and  testa 
iiicnt  "  From  T  B.,  Baba  Dalhra,  leaf  1356  (evidently  a  B.ibyloiiian 
flnroitho),  we  see  that  in  T  B  .  Baba  MfSi  a.  leaf  19a,  three  words 
'ri3  3irCE^73)  have  falleu  out.  '  Compoio  p.  35,  footnote  3 


whilst  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  taking  into  consideration 
that  it  is  treble*  the  size  of  its  fellow  Talmud,  contains  less 
of  these.  On  the  other  hand,  it  bestows  more  care  upon 
the  legal  and  religious  points,  and,  being  the  later  and  the 
more  studied  of  the  two,  it  is  also  the  more  trustworthy. 

System  of  the  Talmud. — Most  people  imagine  not  only 
that  the  Talmuds  are  a  pathless  wilderness,  without  so  much 
as  grammatical  rules  in  their  respective  languages,  but  that 
the  laws  laid  down  in  them  rest  on  mere  tradition.  In 
reality  their  languages  have  strictly  grammatical  rules  (see 
below  under  Aids,  ic),  and  their  laws  rest  en  a  strictly 
logical  system.  The  laws  in  both  Talmuds  are  discussed  and 
argued  on  philosophical  rules,  for  which  it  is  claimed  that 
they  have  existed  from  time  immemorial,  and  can  be  traced 
to  the  Pentateuch  itself  These  are — (1)  the  Seven  Rules 
(nno  y2tr),  put  forth  by  Hillel  (Tosephto  Synhedrin,  vii,, 
last  §  ,  Siphro,  towards  the  end  of  the  Introduction  ;  Aboth, 
de-Rabbi  Nathan,  xxxvii.)  but  a  great  deal  older  than  his 
time  ,  (2)  the  Thirteen  Rules  (nno  mt^'V  zhu),  put  forth 
by  R  Yishma'el  (Introduction  to  Sxphro),  which  can,  how- 
ever, be  traced  in  nitce  to  the  foregoing  "Seven  Rules": 
both  these  are  for  the  Halakliah  ;  and  (3)  there  are  also 
the  Thirty-two  Rules  (nna  D'HK'l  WU^'C),  put  forth  by  R. 
Eli'ezer  b  R  Yose  Haggalili  (vol  i.  of  most  editions  of 
the  Babylonian  Talmud),  which  are  for  the  Agadah.  In 
addition,  most  of  the  pointb  to  which  these  rules  apply  are 
secured  by  early  tradition.  It  is  quite  true  that  by  idiosyn- 
crasy digressions  are  very  frequent  both  in  Talmud  and 
Midrash  ,  but  in  the  HaUthhah  the  digression,  however 
long,  invariably  ends  m  coming  back  to  the  original  cause 
of  the  logical  combination,  whilst  in  the  Agadah  the 
digression  either  conies  back  to  the  place  from  which  it 
started,  or  else  will  be  found,  on  examination,  to  have  been 
introduced  for  its  own  sake,  and  have  served  its  own  pur- 
pose Ao  the  doctors  of  Talmud  and  .^ftdrash  are  mostly 
introduced  in  dialogues,  this  is  the  only  practical,  if  some- 
wbal  uncommon,  method 

Dimstun  of  ihr  Talmud  —The  external  division  of  both 
Talmuds  is  identical  with  the  division,  subdivision,  and 
sub-subdivision  of  the  Mishnah,  although  there  is  not 
always  Gnnarn  in  the  one  when  there  is  Gemara  in  the 
other  ^  This,  however,  need  not  be  further  discussed  herej 
as  all  on  this  bead  is  minutely  specified  in  MishnaH; 
(7  V  )  Concerning  the  internal  division  into  Halakhah 
and  Agadah.  it  ought  to  be  said  that  the  former  is  more 
largely  represented  m  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  whilst  the 
latter  is  more  largely  and  more  interestingly  given  in  the 
Palestinian  Talmud  Whole  collections  of  Mvirashimnovi 
in  our  hands  have  constituted  (if  we  may  judge  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown)  part  of  the  Palestinian  Talmud,'* 
and  seem  to  have  chiefly  belonged  to  those  portions  of  it 
which  have  been  gradually  lost. 

Purpose  —The  Talmud,  unlike  the  Mishnah,  contains  not 
only  individual  decisions,  but  everything  that  is  necessary 
for  arriving  at  legal  and  religious  decisions  of  whatever 
description  these  may  be,  whilst,  like  the  Mishnah,  it  is  not 
Itself  a  handbook  of  decisions  Tbia  is  only  in  accordance 
with  the  nature  and  spirit  of  an  oral  law  which  delegates 
the  decisions  to  theTalmudico-speculative  cajiacities of  the 
teachers  of  every  age  Even  several  of  the  comparatively 
few  instances  in  which  the  words  '3  Nns^ni  ("and  the 

'  Bibliographers  generally  fall  into  a  mistake  in  describing  the  st28 
o(  the  Babylonian  as  twelve  tunes  that  ol  the  Palesliman  Talmud. 
They  forget  that  two-thirds  ol  the  nic  ol  the  former  is  simply  owing 
to  the  commentaries  bj  which  it  is  luvanably  accompanied. 

'  The  only  thing  that  ought  to  be  mentioned  here  is,  that  to  the 
Palestinian  Talniud  the  SA€6o^nwWi/u(6  Kelunnoth  Yenishalmiyyolh 
(Frankfort,  1851,  Svo)  must  be  added,  whdst  O'emura  Shrf:alim  and 
the  Massekhlnth  Kttannvth,  which  now  form  an  integral  part  of  the 
Babylonian  Talmud,  are  l^6o(A  de-Rabbi  HaUian  excepted)  uiijusti-_ 
tiably  attached  to  lU  '"  See  Rashi  on  Gen.  xlvii.  2. 


TALMUD 


37 


decision  is  according  to  so  and  so  ")  occur  in  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  are  alater  addition.  They  belong  to  the  Hatakhoth 
Gedoloth,^  acd  are  consequently,  at  the  earliest,  of  the  8th 
century,  bat  are  probably  of  even  much  later  dat«. 
^  Editors.— 1\\&  editorship  of  the  Palestinian  Talmud  is 
generally,  after  Maimonides,'  ascribed  to  Eabbi  Yohanan 
(b.  Napha).  But  this,  if  literally  taken,  is  a  gross  mistake, 
as  that  teacher  (ob.  279)  died  more  than  a  hundred  years 
before  the  latest  ^1  mora  (c.  450)  mentioned  in  that  Talmud 
A  similar  error  is  made  with  respect  to  the  editor  or 
editors  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  whose  names  are  given 
as  Rab  Asshi  (see  Rab)  {ob.  427)  and  Rabina  {ob.  550), 
and  who  lived  still  much  earlier  than  the^  last  teachers 
mentioned  in  that  Talmud  (8th  century).  '  But  it  ought 
to  be  remembered  that  when  the  ancients  speak  of 
editors  of  books  of  such  a  mixed  character  as  the  Mish- 
nak,  the  Zohar,  both  Talmuds,  &c.,  they  mean  the  person 
or  persons  who  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  collection  or 
redaction  oi  such  books.  In  this  sense,  certainly,  Rabbi 
Yohanan  waa  the  editor  of  the  Palestinian  and  Rab  Asshi 
and  Rabina  were  the  editors  of  the  Babylonian  Talmuds. 
For,  whilst  the  first  of  the  latter  pair  went  more  than 
once  through  the  discussion  of  the  whole  Mishnah  by  the 
Amoraim  from  190  to  his  time  (a.  427),  the  latter  supple- 
mented the  collection  down  to  his  own  time  (550).  As 
regards  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  the  Amoraim  were 
succeeded  by  a  new  order  of  men  called  Saboraim  (j33l 
»K1UD),  i.e.,  "  opiners,"  who  ventured  only  occasionally  to 
revise  and  authenticate  the  sayings  of  their  predecessors. 
The  last  of  these  Saboraim  were  Rab  'Ina  (or  Giza.)  and 
Rab  Siraona  (c.  550-590).  In  any  case  neither  the  one 
Talmud  nor  the  other  was  written  down,  slight  private 
notes  excepted  (onnD  ni^JO),  before  the  close  of  the  6th 
century,  if  then.  The  apparently  insurmountable  diffi- 
culty of  keeping  such  vast  masses  of  literature  in  the  head 
is  removed  when  one  takes  into  consideration  that  both 
teacher  and  student  had  means  of  help  to  their  memory 
fully  corresponding  to  the  vastness  of  the  literature.  In 
the  first  place,  they  had  the  numbers  already  occurring  in 
the  Mishnah  {e.g.,  five  must  not  separate  the  heave-offering 
on  account  of  the  benediction  to  be  recited  in  connexion 
with  the  act;  Tervmoth  L  1),  <fea  Secondly,  they  had 
names.  Since  to  thejsayings  of  the  Talmud  were  generally 
attached  the  names  of  those  who  uttered  them,  saying  and' 
name  became  in  the  memory  of  the  student  identical  If 
somebody  who  had  heard  a  certain  saying  from  somebody, 
who  in  his  turn  had  heard  it  from  somebody  else,  was 
mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  all  other  sayings,  however 
unlike  these  in  nature,  if  they  had  only  the  same  link  of 
tradition,  were  recited  on  the  same  occasion :  e.g.,  in  the 
Palestinian  Talmud,  Megillah  iv.  1,  "says  Rabbi  Haggai, 
says  Rabbi  Shemuel  b.  Rab  Yishak,"  kc. ;  T.  B.,  Berakhoth, 
leaf  36,  <tc.,  "  says  Rabbi  Zerika,  says  Rabbi  Ammi,  says 
Rabbi  Yehoshua'  b.  Levi,"  d-c.  Thirdly,  other  oral  tradi- 
tions, which  went  by  the  order  of  the  Pentateuch,  received 
in  the  written  Pentateuch  vast  aids  to  memory.  Fourthly, 
the  MishTiah  (although  itself  not  written  down),  by  its 
divisions,  subdivisions,  and  sub-subdivisions,  became,  in  its 
turn,  a  mighty  aid  to  memory.  Fifthly,  as  regards  the 
Babylonian  Talmud,  there  are  additional  means  of  aiding 
memory  in  existence,  for  every  now  and  then  one  meets- 
with  a  Mnemosynon  (Siman),  which  strings  together  the 
order  of  subjects  {e.g.,  T.  B.,  BerakhoiA,  32a,  last  line). 
Both  in  MSS.  and  printed  editions  these  $imanim  are 
given  in  brackets.    Rapoport  and  his  followers  would  have 

•  E.g.,  T.  B.,  Berakficlh,  leaf  36a.  See  Eaahi  and  To$apholh, 
catchword  Nn27ni ;  Bid.,  366,  and  in  other  places. 

'  In  his  Introduction  to  the  commentary  on  the  Mitknah  (commonly, 
bat  by  mistake,  called  Introduction  to  the  Seder  Zeram)  and  in  bis 
Intro<luction  to  the  Miahnch  feroA. 


US  believe  that  th&Be  mnemonic  phrases  are  late  inventions, 
but  they  have  aa  yet  failed  to  make  good  their  assertions. 
See  T.  B.,  Shabbalh  104a,  and  T.  B.,  'Erubin,  546,  where 
these  S'.manim  are  positively  mentioned  early  in  the  4th 
century ;  cf.  Rashi  in  loco. 

Value. — The  value  of  the  Talmuds  may  be  estimated  by 
the  fact  that  they  contain  the  Mishnah  in  various  recen- 
sions and  a  large  portion  of  the  contents  of  Midrashic  col- 
lections, and  in  addition  comprise  a  vast  amount  of  Sopheric 
literature  not  to  be  found  in  the  canonical  Mishnah  and 
Agadic  matter  not  to  be  found  in  the  known  Midrashim, 
and  have  thousands  of  notices  on  secular  knowledge  of  all 
kinds.  Here,  however,  the  reader  ought  to  be  again  re- 
minded that,  whilst  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  the  one  of 
much  larger  extent,  contains  a  great  deal  more  Judaeo- 
religious  matter,  the  Palestinian  Talmud — of  much  smaller 
extent — is  of  much  greater  value  for  the  historian,  the 
geographer,  the  numismatist,  and  other  students. 

Vicissitudes  of  the  Talmud. — Whilst  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  commanded  the  attention  of  a  hostile  world,  and 
was  proscribed,  mutilated,*  and  condemned,  and  finally 
delivered  over  to  the  flames*  by  popes  and  kings,  the 
Palestinian  Talmud  suffered  still  more  from  one  single 
enemy — neglect.^  Thousands  of  copies  nf  the  former 
recension  were  destroyed  in  the  course  of  time,  but,  this 
Talmud  being  studied  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  the  few 
copies  surviving  became  the  means  of  an  endless  supply. 
Not  so  as  regards  the  Palestinian  Talmud,  which  found 
no  students,  or  but  few,  after  the  closing  (c.  450)  of  the 
Jewish  academies  in  Palestine  ;  and  we  have  even  to  thank 
the  enemies  of  traditional  Judaism,  the  Karaites,  who  used 
it  in  controversy  with  their'  Rabbanite  opponents,  for  the 
preservation  of  some  copies  of  it.  By  degrees  th o  neglect  of 
the  book  became  so  great  that  whole  chapters  of  treatises, 
whole  treatises  of  orders,  and  almost  two  whole  orders 
themselves,  disappeared,  and  are  lost  to  this  day.' 

Aids  to  the  Study  of  the  Ttlmuds. — (o)  Lexicons. — The  6rst  rank 
is  occupied  by  lexicons  for  both  Talmuds  and  Midrashim,  and  of 
these  tnat  by  E.  Nathan  b.  Yehiel  of  Rome,  compiled  in  the  llth 
and  12th  centuries,  claims  the  first  place.  All  other  lexicons,  from  " 
Ellas  Levita,  Philip  Aquinas,  Johannes  Buxtorf,  &c. ,  down  to 
LeTy  and  Jastrow,  are  more  or  less  based  upon  this  grand  work 
called  'Arukh.''     (b)  Grammars. — A  slight  attempt  at  compiling  a 

*  Raymundus  Martin  (Ramon  Martinez),  backed  up  by  his  teacher 
Pablo  Cristiani  (see  Ramban),  was  one  of  the  first  five  (or  rather  six) 
mutilators  (called  censors)  of  the  Talmud  and  kindred  books.  Sea 
Touroo,  Histoire  des  H&mmes  lilustres  de  VOrdre  de  Saint  Dominiqite, 
L  (Paris,  1743,  4to)  p.  492  ;  Jour.  Phi'.oL,  xvi.  134. 

*  In  the  midsummer  of  1244  twenty-four  waggons  full  of  Talmud 
copies  were  burned  in  France  (see  Journal  of  Philology,  xvi.  133). 
A  certain  Donin  (afterwards  called  Nicolaus),  a  converted  Jew,  by  his 
accusations  against  the  Talmud,  managed  that  Rabbi  Yehiel  of  Paris 
had  to  dispute  with  him  publicly  about  its  contents.  The  disputation 
took  place  in  the  midsummer  of  1240;  and  R.  Yehiel  came  out  of  it 
60  victoriously  that  only  after  four  years*  further  machinations  the 
Talmud  was  actually  burned.  The  disputation  is  printed  under  the 
name  of  Disjruiatio  cum  Nicolao  A.  1252  {\)  habita  cum  Versions 
Latina  in  Wagenseil's  Tela  Ignea  Satanx  (Altdorf,  1681,  4to) ;  a  less 
incorrect  Hebrew  edition  came  out  in  1873,  Svo,  at  Thorn.  This 
event  of  burning  the  Talmud  called  forth  three,  elegies — (1)  by  R. 
Binyamin  b.  Abraham  De'  Mansi,  beginning  D7W  ri13t<,  and  the 
refrain  of  which  was  niKSD  nOSH  'K,  NIDJl  HJIVD  <N  (see  MS; 
Add.  374,  Camb.  Univ.  Lib.,  leaves  307a-308a);  (2)  by  R.  Meir  of 
Rothenburg  (sce.RosH),  the  beginning  of  which  is  !5'8<3  nCIIB'  '7XB' 
(in  the  Ashkeuaac  ritual  for  the  9th  of  Ab) ;  and  (3)  by  R.  Abraham 
b.  Yiahak  (see  Zunz,  Zur  Oesch.  u.  Lit,  pp.  463—4).  This  Abraham 
b.  Yishak  is  the  father  of  the  famous  En-bonet  Abram  Bederesi  (not 
Bedarshi';  see  Schiller.Szinessy,  Catal.,  L  correction  5),  the  author  of 
t]\6  Behinaih  'Olam. 

'  See  Schiller^Sanessy  in  the  Academy,  1878,  p.  171,  and  extract 
from  Excursus  iii.  (to  the  Catalogue)  on  the  Palestinian  Talmud  in 
Occasional  Notices,  kc,  i.,  Cambridge,  1S78,  8vo. 

*  See  the  before-mentioned  Occasional  JVotices. 

'  Rabbenu  Nathan  b.  Yehiel  b.  Abraham  was,  on  his  father's  sidq 
an  'Anav  (131)) — and  not  an  'Akko  (ISJT)  as  Rapoport,  no  doubt  alter 
Ibn  Yahya,  writea  it  in  BikJcure  Ba'ittim.  x.  7 — i.e.,  of  the  family 
'Anavim'  (Dei  Uanai,  Dei  Mansueti,  Dei  Fiatelli,  Dei  Pietosi,  Dei 


38 


TALMUD 


grammar,  and  this  only  for  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  was  made  by 
the  late  learned  S.  D.  Luzzatto.  It  exists  in  Italian  (Padua,  1865), 
German  by  Kniger  (Breslau,  1873),  English  by  Goldammer  (New 
York.  1876),  and  Hebrew  by  Lerner  (St  Petersburg,  1880).  Of 
more  value,  however,  is  Noldeke's  Mandaitic  Grammar,  although 
it  stands  in  connexion  with  the  Babylonian  Talmud  only  in  an 
indirect  way.  (c)  Cominintanes.  — Commentaries  on  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  are  extant,  by  the  famous  Rabbenu 
Hananeel  of  Kairwan,  the  teacher  of  RiPU  (q.v),  by  Rasbi  (q  v.), 
and  by  the  descendants  and  disciples  of  this  latter  commentator, 
who  composed  the  Tosapholh.  All  these  are  included  in  the  latest 
Talmud  edition  of  Vilna.  It  is  asserted  by  Rabad  II.  [q.v.)  that 
the  whole  (B. )  Talmud  had  been  commented  on  in  Arabic.  As 
regards  the  commentaries  on  the  Palestinian  Talmud,  it  ought  to 
be  said  that  the  Pcne  MosheK  &c. ,  by  R  Mosheh  Margaliyyoth, 
and  the  Korban  Hdedah,  &c.,  by  R.  David  Frankel  (the  teacher  of 
Mendelssohn),  make  more  than  one  commentary  on  the  whole,  and 
tliey  are  embodied  m  the  Zliitomir  edition  (1860-67).  (rf)  Method- 
ology.  —  Among  the  many  Introductione  to  the  Babylonian  Talmud 
that  of  R  Shcmuel  Hannagid  must  now  be  considered  the  first, 
not  only  in  time  but  also  in  value.  There  was  indeed  an  earlier, 
and  perhaps  a  still  more  valuable  one  in  existence  (see  Saadia), 
but  it  is  now  unfortunately  lost.  As  regards  the  Palestinian 
Talmud,  the  only  one  in  existence  is  that  by  the  late  Z.  Frankel 
(Breslau,  1870,  8vo).  The  author  was  a  most  learned  man,  but 
somewhat  confused  in  his  diction,  (e)  TranMalicma.  —  Renderings 
of  isolated  treatises  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  exist  in  Latin, 
Ugolim,  Thesaurus,  xix.,  Zebahivi  and  ^leiiahoth,  and  xxv., 
Synhedrfn;^  in  French,  e.g.,  Scrakhoth,  by  Chiarini  (Leipsic,  1831, 

Umani,  Dei  Umili).  and,  on  his  mother's  side,  of  the  Tappuhim,  i.e., 
De  Pomis,  to  which  the  celebrated  author  of  the  Lexicon  Semah  David 
belonged.  Rabbenu  Nathan's  father  and  grandfather,  lUie  Rabbenu 
Nathan  himself  .iml  his  brother's  descendants,  were,  no  doubt,  papal 
court  Jews  (and  not  hnendrapers,  as  the  latest  editor  of  the  'Arukh, 
by  misreading  and  misinterpreting  the  somewhat  hard  verses  of  his 
author,  contrives  to  show).  This  lucrative  position  furnished  them  with 
ample  means  not  oidy  for  their  noble  charities  to  congregational  insti- 
tutions (a  synagogue,  religious  bath,  &c.),  but  also  with  the  leisure 
necessary  for  the  pursuit  of  Talmudic  studies.  Rabbenu  Nathan  was 
Tcsh  kailah  (rector  of  the  Jewish  university),  and  unquestionably 
the  greatest  Talraudist,  even  as  he  was  the  poorest  Hebrew  poet,  in 
Italy  m  the  11th  and  12th  centuries.  As  regards  his  teachers  we 
know  four,  three  of  whom  he  attended,  whilst  he  studied  and  digested 
the  works  of  the  fourth  so  well  that,  though  personally  unknown  to 
one  another,  they  may  be  justly  called  master  and  disciple.  His  first 
teacher  was  his  own  father;  his  second  teacher,  from  whom  Rabbenu 
•  Nathan  no  doubt  obtained  his  thorough  knowledgo  of  Babylonian 
habits,  was  R.  Masliah  of  Sicily,  who  bad  been  a  hearer  of  the  greatest 
"  gaon  "  of  Pumhadilha ;  his  third  teacher  was  R.  Mosheh  b.  Ya'akob  b. 
Mosheh  b.  Abbun  of  Narborme  (or  Toulouse  ;  better  known  under  the 
name  of  R.  Mosheh  Haddarshan);  and  the  fourth  was  Rabbenu  Han- 
aneel of  Kairwan.  He  owed  so  much  to  this  teacher  that  as  soon  as 
tb'e  ' Arukh  had  appeared  most  people  took  it  for  granted  that  Rabbenu 
Hananeel  had  lived  at  Rome,  and  accordingly  called  him  *'a  man  of 
Rome— 'Ish  Romi",  see  MS.  Brit  Mus.  Add.  27,201,  leaf  73J,  and 
Tosapholh,  passim  (That  Rabbenu  Gershom,  Rabbenu  Mosheh  'D1D3, 
and  others  were  his  teachers,  as  Rapoport,  foe.  ci7.,. asserts,  is  a  5c- 
tion. )  Rabbenu  Nathan,  in  his  'Anikh,  does  not  merely  explain  the 
foreign  (i,«.,  Aramaic,  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Arabic)  words  occur- 
ring in  the  Targums,  Talmuds,  and  Midrashim,  but  the  subject-matter 
also,  and  thereby  proves  himself  a  doubly  useful  guide.  In  thus,  al- 
though he  had  been  preceded  by  no  less  a  personage  than  the  Oaim 
Semah  b-  Paitoi  (fl.  870),  who  also  composed  such  an  '/4njjM. Rabbenu 
Nathan  was  virtually  the  first,  as  the  Oaon's  work  had  been  early 
lost.  The  assertion  that  the  fourth  of  the  four  men  captured  by  the 
Spanish  admiral  (see  below,  p.  39)  was  R.  Nathan  Habbabli,  that  he 
lived  in  Narbonne,  and  that  he  also  composed  a  similar '^ruiA,  rests 
on  a  misunderstanding,  as  the  quotation  in  the  Yohusin  clearly  shows. 
The  passages  there  given  under  R.  Nathan  Habbabii  are  taken  verbatim 
from  the  'Arukh  of  our  author  (compare  the  article  CJE^,  &c.).  That 
Rome  has  been  at  times  called  in  Jewish  writings  "Babel,"  and  that 
consequently  Hahbahh  may  mean  "the  Roman,"  is  clear  from  the 
writings  of  the  New  Testament.  We  will  only  add  here  a  few  words 
conccrmng  the  bibliography  of  the  book.  Of  the  'Arukh  exist  so  far 
ten  editions,  the  first  of  which  came  out  undated,  but  before  or  about 
1480.  The  seventh  edition  was  enriched  by  the  physician  R.  Binyarain 
Musaphia's  Musaph,  i.e.,  Addilamenta  (Musaphia  was  a  Greek  and 
Latin  scholar),  and  the  latest  edition  by  Dr  Kohut  is  now  m  progress. 
As  regards  the  MSS.  of  this  remarkable  lexicon  the  best  copies  are  to 
be  found  partly  in  the  University  Library,  Cambridge  (Add.  376, 
wliioh  has  all  the  verses  of  the  author  and  addilamenta  by  R  Shemuel 
l"n  VOJ.  and  Add.  471-72),  and  partly  at  the  Court  Library,  Vienna 
(I'od  cvi.  1  and  2).  The  latter  were  earned  off  by  Napoleon  L  to 
P.iris  in  1309,  but  in  1815  were  returned  to  Vienna. 

'  Vanoas  writers  assert   that   there  exist  many  books  containing 
Latin   translations  of   various   treatises  of  the  Babyloman  Talmud. 


8vo);  and  in  German,  e.g.,  Berakluith,  by  Rabe  (HaUi'.  1777,  4to), 
regard  being  had  also  in  both  to  the  same  treatise  of  the  Palestiniao 
recension,  and  again  by  Pinner  (1842) .  Baija  Men  a,  by  .Sammter 
(1876),  both  at  Berlin  and  in  folio;  'Abodah  Zamh.'  k:y  EwalJ 
(Nuremberg.  1856,  8to)  ;  Ta'anith,  by  Straschun  (Hal.t,  1883); 
Mcgillah  and  Rosh  Hasshmnah,  by  Rawicz  (Frankfort-onthe-Main, 
1884  and  1886).  Tlie  assertion  that  the  whole  of  this  Talmud  has 
been  translated  into  Spanish  has  yet  to  be  proved.  As  regards  the 
Palestinian  Talmud,  Ugolini's  Thesaurus  contains  the  following 
treatises  in  Latin  ; — Pesahim(vo\.  xvii.);  Shekahm,  Yoma,  Sukkah, 
Rosh  Basshanah,  Ta'anUh.  Megillah,  Hagigah,  Be^h,  Mdcd  Kalan 
(vol.  xviii. ) ;  Ma'aseroth,  Mdaser  Sheni,  Hallah,  'Orlah,  Bikkurim 
(vol.  XX.);  Synhcdrin,  Makkoth  (vol.  xxv.);  Kiddushin,  Sotah, 
Kelhuboth  (vol.  xxx. ).  M.  Schwab  (of  the  Bibliothcque  Nationale, 
Paris)  has  undertaken  a  French  translation  of  the  entire  Palestiniao 
Talmud,  which  is  now  in  progress  .  from  this  Berakhoth  has  been 
translated  into  English  (London,  1886,  4to). 

Editions. — The  editions  of  the  Palestinian  Talmud,  in  what  was 
then  called  its  entirety,  are  only  four: — (a)  Venice,  1523,  without 
any  commentary,  (i)  Cracow,  1609,  with  a  short  commentary,  the 
text  apparently  from  a  diiferent  MS.  from  that  used  for  the  editio 
princcps,  (c)  Krotoschin,  1866,  with  a  short  commentary  differing 
from  that  of  Cracow:  these  three  editions  are  each  comprised  in 
one  volume,  {d)  the  fourth  edition  came  out  at  Zhitomir,  with 
commentaries  by  different  men  (see  Coinmeutancs  above).  All  these 
editions  are  in  folio.  Of  the  editions  of  isolated  treatises,  which  are 
not  a.  few,  we  will  only  mention  those  of  Berakhoth  (Vienna,  1874) 
and  Peah  and  Demai  (Breslau,  1875,  both  in  4to),  with  a  new  com- 
mentary by  Z.  Frankel.  The  editions  of  the  Babylonian  Talmad 
are  so  numerous  that  they  would  require  several  entire  sheets  for 
enumeration.  There  is  iii  existence  an  approximately  good  treatise 
on  them  (see  Varise.  Lecticnies,  vols.  L  and  viii.).  We  will  only 
name  three  of  the  entire  editions  : — (1)  the  editio  princeps,  Venice, 
1520-23,^ — which,  though  disfigurea  by  numerous  misprints,  waa 
not  mutilated  by  the  censor;  (2)  the  edition  of  Basel  (1678-81), 
which  omits  'Abodah  Zarah  altogether,  and  has  a  cheering  (?)  notice 
in  Latin;'  (3)  the  latest  edition,  now  printing  at  Vilna,  with  old 
commentaries  hitherto  unpublished-  Of  isolated  treatises,  which 
may  be  counted  by  more  than  hundreds,  we  will  only  mention  one 
(the  Portuguese  of  at  least  Berakhoth),  tho  existence  of  whieh  waa 
asserted  in  the  last  century  {Pahad  Yishak,  s.  v.  Nn"inn03  ^<3]}), 
then  again  called  in  question  in  our  own  times,  but  positively  proved 
by  the  present  writer  from  an  early  work  composed  at  the  time 
when  but  few  editions  of  the  Talmud  existed.  It  is  the  Zenf 
Abraham  (Camb.  MS.  Ti.  6,  60  leaf  59;/).  Materials  for  the  critical 
edition  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  from  an  ancient  MS.  formerly  in 
the  monastery  of  Pfersee,  but  now  in  the  Royal  Library  of  Munich, 
and  other  MSS.  and  early  prints  of  isolated  treatises  in  various 
public  and  private  libraries  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  have  been 
collected  and  are  being  published  by  Rabbiuovicz.  Of  this  import 
ant  work  fifteen  volumes,  containing  the  following  treatises,  nave 
already  come  out. — the  vj\io\Q  Seder  Zera'Tm  (1867),  Besah,  Bagigah^ 
Mdcd  Kalan  (1869);  Sukkah,  Tdamth  (1870);  Rosh  Hasshanah, 
yo;na'(1871);  ' Erubin  (1873);  P^aAim  (1874);  Shabbalh  (1875); 
Megillah,  Shekahm  (1877);  Syvhedrin  (1878);  Abodah  Zarah, 
Makkolh,  Shebiioth,  Borayoth,  ' Eduyyoth  (1879);  Baba  Bathra 
(1881) ,  Baba  Kamma  (1882);  Baba  Mesi'a  (1883);  Zebahim  (1884); 
Menjiholh  (1886).*  AU  these  were  printed  in  8vo  and  at  Munich, 
except  vol.  ix.,  which  came  out  at  Mainz. 

Influence  of  the  Talmud. — It  must  be  admitted  by  every 
critical  student  of  history  that  the  Talmud  has  not  merely 
been  the  means  of  keeping  alive  the  religious  idea  among 
the  Jews,  but  has  formed  their  strongest  bond  of  union. 
When,  after  the  fall  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem  and  it«  temple, 
and  the  expatriation  of  the  Jews  from  Palestiue,  a  goodly 
portion  of  the  Mosaic  law  lost  its  application,  the  Talmud 
became  the  spirit  which  put  fresh  life  into  the  letter  which 

Upon  examination  these  books  turn  out  to  contain  either  a  transla- 
tion ouly  of  Mislmic  treatises  with  oi  without  excerpta  from,  and 
with  or  without  schoba  on,  Oemara,  or  disputations  which  introduce 
small  pieces  of  Oemara.  "The  utmost  they  contain  is  a  chapter  or  two 
tran.slated  from  Oemara  itself  (as,  for  example,  "  Edzard,  AbodaSara,'* 
&c.,  Hamburg,  1705-10,  4to.  which  contains  Oemara  of  the  first  tw9 
Pera^:im). 

'  'The  paging  of  this  has  been  followed  in  all  subsequent  editions. 

'  Nunc  ab  omnibus 'iis  quae  contra  religionem  Christianara  facie* 
bant  recogoitum,  et  juxta  mentem  Sacri  concilii  Tridentini  expurga- 
turn  et  approbatum,  ut  non  modo  citra  impietatem  verum  etiam  cam 
fnictu  a  nostris  legi  possit. 

*  The  notes  in  the  first  fonrtecn  volumes  go  under  the  name  of 
.D'TDID '"I3T ,  whilst  those  of -the  fifteenth  volume  have  the  title  of 
DmDt<7  "113T,  in  memory  of  the  late  Abraham  Merzbacher,  who  not 
merely  proved  the  Maecenas  of  this  publication  during-  his  lifetime,, 
but  left  a  considerable  sum  for  its  continuation  and  completion. 


TAM-TAM 


SiJ 


hki  become  to  a  great  extent  dead.  Moreover,  by  the  Tal- 
mud, the  interpretation  of  which  was  chiefly  in  the  hands 
of  the  academies  of  Sura  and  Pumbaditha,  the  Jews  of  alJ 
the  world  found,  if  not  a  new  Jerusalem,  at  least  a  new 
Yabneh  (Jamnia),  i.e.,  a  place  where  the  old  learning  was 
not  merely  continued,  but  made  to  shine  with  a  yet  greater 
splendour.  This  fact  will  be  the  more  readily  acknow- 
ledged and  appreciated  when  one  casts  a  glance  at  the 
miserable  religious  condition  of  the  Karaites,  the  so-called 
Scriptural  Jews. 

Transference  of  Talmvdu  Leamtng  from  the  East  to  the 
West. — There  naturally  came  a  time  when  Talraudic  learn- 
ing, if  it  was  to  maintain  its  influence  upon  the  Jews, 
could  not  be  conflned  to  one  spot.  We  have  seen  under 
Rashi  (q.v.)  that  the  great  emperor  of  the  West  (Charle- 
magne) had  been  the  means,  towards  the  close  of  the  8th 
century,  of  bringing  learned  Talmudtsts  not  only  to  Pro- 
vence but  to  the  north  of  France  and  the  south  of  Ger- 
many.' But  when  nearly  two  hundred  years  later  the 
academies  of  Babylonia  were  threatened  with  extinction 
(because  of  their  lacking,  from  various  causes,  the  means 
of  subsistence),  so  that  they  had  to  send  out  members  of 
their  body  to  supplicate  the  support  oF  their  richer  brethren 
in  other  countries,  it  providentially  happened  that  the  four 
men  whom  they  sent  were  taken  by  a  Spanish  corsair 
admiral  and  sold  in  four  diS'erent  slave-markets.  Rabbi 
Shemaryah  was  sold  at  Alexandria,  and  was  redeemed  by 
the  Jews,  and  great  was  their  astonishment  when  they  recog- 
nized in  him  a  most  able  Talmudist.  He  became  the  head 
of  the  Cairo  community,  and  one  of  the  most  successful 
Jewish  Talmud  teachers  Egypt  ever  had.  Rabbi  Husshiel 
■was  taken  to  Kairwan,  in  Africa.  There  the  Jews  redeemed 
him  ;  and  when  his  great  learning  was  found  out  he  was 
named  the  spiritual  head  of  the  Jews  in  that  place.  From 
the  school  which  he  founded  sprang  not  merely  bis  own  son, 
the  famous  Rabbenu  Hananeel,  but  also  the  great  Rabbenu 
Nissim,  both  teachers  of  Rlph  [q-v.).  Another  learned  cap- 
tive, R.  Mosheh,  was  brought  to  the  slave-market  of  Cor- 
dova, the  rabbi  of  which  town,  a  noble  and  rare_  example 
of  unselfishness,  modesty,  and  love  of  truth,  placed  the 
ragged  stranger  who  had  only  been  ransomed  for  charity's 
sake  a  day  or  so  before  at  the  head  of  the  community 
instead  of  himself  The  name  of  the  fourth  is  unknown 
(see  Rabad  II.,  and  Yohasin,  ed.  Cracow,  leaf  1 256).  Some 
assert  that  he  Was  R.  Nathan  Habbabli,  and  that  he  became 
the  teacher  of  the  Jews  in  Narbonne^  but  this  is  a  mere 
conjecture,  the  truth  of  which  has  yet  to  be  proved  .(see 
page  37,  footnote').  Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  four 
great  Talmudists,  who  had  come  direct  from  the  Babylonian 
academies,  became  the  means  of  bringing  Babylonico-Tal- 
mudic  learning  to  places  the  Jews  of  which  had  been  de- 
pendent on  the  religious  and  literary  crumbs  that  fell  from 
the  richly  laden  tables  of  Sura  and  Pumbaditha.  Some 
years  afterwards  the  former  academy  was  closed,  and  a 
short  time  afterwards  the  same  fate  befell  that  of  Pumba- 
ditha, the  sunset  of  which,  if  not  the  noonlight,  in  the 
persons  of  Rab  Sherira  Gaon  and  his  son  Rab  Hal  Gaon 
was  even  more  glorious  than  that  of  the  sister  academy, 
the  last  "  gaon  "  of  which  was  Rab  Shemuel  b.  Hophni, 
father-in-law  of  Rabbenu  Hal.  Meanwhile,  however,  Tal- 
mndic  learning  had  not  merely  become  naturalized,  but 
eventually  indigenous  in  various  parts  of  Africa,  and  pari 
of  Europe  (Spain,  Italy,  Provence,  the  south  of  Germany, 
and  the  north  of  France).  Rabbenu  Gershom  b  Yehudah 
of  Metz  and  his  disciple  Rabbenu  Yishak  of  Troyes, 
Rabbenu  Ya'akob  b.  Yakar  of  Worms,  Rabbenu  Eli'ezer 
Eaggadol  and  his  disciple  and  successor  Rabbenu  Yishak 
Segan  Leviyyah,  Rabbenu  Yishak  b.  Yehudah  of  Mainz, 

'  Italy,  Dotably  Sicily,  was  apparently  the  country  wliich  obtained 
ber  teachers  direct  from  Irak. 


Rabbenu  Elyakim  of  Spires,  Rabbenu  Nathan  b.  Yehiel 
of  Rome,  and  last  but  not  least  Rashi  himself,  and  hi* 
sons-in-law  and  other  disciples,  represented  Talmudic  learn- 
ing  in  such  perfection  as  had  not  been  found  before  at 
regards  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  even  in  the  land  of  itt 
birth  and  growth.  It  was  the  disciples'  disciples  of  these 
men  who  studied  and  taught  in  various  towns  of  England 
within  a  hundred  years  (1150)  after  the  Conquest.  When, 
towards  the  end  of  the  13th  century  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  14th,  the  Jews  were  driven  out  of  England 
(1290)  and  France  (1306),  and  flocked  chiefly  to  Italy, 
Greece,  Germany,  and  Poland,  the  last-named  country 
appropriated  the  lion's  share  of  Talmudic  learning,  so 
that  till  within  our  own  century  the  rabbis  of  the  chief 
communities  in  Hungary,  Moravia,  Bohemia,  and  other 
Austrian  states,  and  in  Germany,  Holland,  England,  (tc, 
had  to  be  fetched  from  Poland.  Talmudic  learmng,'since 
Mendelssohn  and  his  school  arose,  threatened  to  die  out 
not  merely  among  the  Jews  in  Germany,  but  also  among 
those  of  the  other  countries  where  the  Jews  spoke  the 
German  tongue  in  some  form  or  other.  Within  the  last 
twenty-five  years,  however,  fresh  impulse  has  been  given 
to  these  studies,  not  merely  among  Jews  but  also  among 
Christians.  (s.  M.  s.-s.) 

TAM,  commonly  called  Rabbenu  Tam,  more  correctly 
Rabbenu  Tham  (n"n=Dn  »3i).  By  this  title  are 
known  two  eminent  Rabbinic  scholars,  both  named 
Ya'akob,  to  whom  this  epithet  was  given  in  allusion  to 
Genesis  xxv.  27:  "And  Jacob  was  a  peifect  man"  {Ish 
Tam,  Cn  Bi'K).  They  belonged  to  the  north  of  France, 
lived  in  the  12th  century,  and  .were  master  and  pupU. 

1.  Rabbe^ju  Ya'akob  b.  Meir  b.  Shemuel  was,  on  his 
mother's  side,  a  grandson  of  Rashi  (q.v.).  He  was  his 
parents'  third  son,  younger  brother  of  Ribam  and  Rashbam 
\q.v.\  older  brother  of  Rabbenu  Shelomoh  of  Rameru,^  and 
brother-in-law  of  Rabbenu  Shemuel  b.  Simhah  of  Vitry  the 
younger'  (the  reputed  author  of  the  Mahzor  Yitr^,*  now 
apparently  lost ').  Rabbenu  Tham  had,  like  his  grand- 
father Rashi,  six  teachers;— (1)  his  own  father,  (2)  his 
brother  Ribam,  (3)  his  brother  Rashbam,  (4)  Rabbenu 
Ya'akob  b.  Shimshon,*  (5)  his  grandfather  Rashi,'  and  (6) 
Rabbenu  Yoseph  Tob-  Elem  the  younger  ^  Rabbenu  Tham 
had  at  least  five  children.*  The  names  of  three  of  his  sons 
were  Yoseph,^"  Yishak,^'  and  Shelomoh.'^  Rabbenu  Tham 
was  unquestionably  among  Jews  the  foremost  man  of  his 
age.  For  not  only  was  he  the  greatest  Talmudist  after 
his  maternal  grandfather's  death,  but  he  also  added  reading 
vride  and  varied  to  a  stupendous  memory  and  a  marvellous 

'  See  MS.  Add.  27,200  in  the  Br.  Mua.,  leaf  168ft. 

*  See  Rashi's  Siddur,  L  leaf  lb. 

*  See  Schiller-Stineuy,  Catalogue,  ii.  p,  88. 
'  See  art.  RASm  (toL  zx  p.  284,  note  10). 

*  This  rabbi  was  a  diaciple  of  R.  Shemuel  Hallevl  (see  Schilitt* 
Szinessy,  Catal. ,  ii.  p.  65,  note  1 )  and  of  Rashi,  and  was  not  only  a 
great  Talmudist,  as  were  oil  the  disciples  of  the  last-named  eminent 
teacher,  but  also  a  great  mathematician  and  astronomer,  though  a 
terribly  bad  poet  Uis  commentary  on  Aboth  la  in  part  printed,  and 
is  to  be  found,  more  or  less  perfect,  in  vanous  libranes  in  Europe, 
although  not  recogni2ed  as  his.  It  is  ascnbed  variously  to  Rashi,  to 
Rashbam,  and  others.  There  are  copies  of  it  in  Cambridge  (Add. 
1213;  Add.  1623),  Oxford  (0pp.  317),  the  British  Museum  (Add. 
27201),  the  Beth  Hammidrash  of  the  Ashkenazim  In  London,  &c. 
(The  master  of  St  John's,  Cambridge,  is  preparing  an  edition  of  it.) 
A  work  on  intercalation  by  Rabbenu  Ya'akob  b.  Shimshon  exists  in 
MS.  at  the  Bodleian  (0pp.  317)  under  the  name  of  Sepher  Hadkoshi. 
From  him,  no  doubt,  Rabbenu  Tham  imbibed  his  love  for  science. 
On  the  fact  that  Rabbenu  Ya'akob  b.  Shimshon  was  Rabbenu  Tham'3 
teacher  (against  Zunz),  see  SchiJIer-Szinessy,  Catal.,  ii.  p.  66,  note, 

'  Rabbenu  Thara,  dying  an  old  man,  must  have  been  from  fourteeo 
to  sixteen  years  of  age  when  Raslii  died. 

*  See  Sepher  Ha'tyashar,  §  620  (leaf  74o,  col.  2). 
»  See  Camb.  MS.  Add.  667,  1,  leaf  646,  col.  1 

'»  See  Brit  Mus.  MS.  Add.  27200,  leaf  158i. 
"See  Sepher  Uayyashar,  §  604. 
.  "  See  Shibbole  UaUeket  (ed.  Buber),  p.  10. 


40 


T  A"  M  —  T  A  M 


power  of  combination,  such  as  appeared  only'agMn  in  the 
last  century  in  the  persons  of  R.  Yehonathan  Eybenschiitz 
{ob.  1764)  and  R.  Yehezkel  Landau  (ob.  1793).     Let  us 
add  that  he  was  a  lexicographer,  grammarian,  and  Biblical 
commentator  of  no  mean  order ;  that  he  was  a  poet  in 
Hebrew   and    Aramaic '    inferior    only   to   Ibn   Gebirol 
(AvicEBRON,  q.i\),  Mosheh  Ibn  "Ezra,  and  Yehndah  Hallevi 
(and   by  far  greater   in  this  art  than  the  commentator 
Abraham  Ibn  "Ezra);  that  he  was  held  in  high  esteem  hy 
prince  and  nobles  ;^  and  that  he  was  a  man  of  greai  wealth,  | 
with  which  he  generously  supported,  not  merely  his  own  I 
poorer  hearers,  but  other  itinerant  scholars  also.* 
His  works  are  the  following;— 

(1)  C6mnientary  on  Job,  and,  nodoobt,  on  other  parts  of  Iho 
Bible  Jsee  Camb.  Univ.  Lib.  MS.  i/i  8.  PS,  leaves  lb,  ia,  11a, 
126).  All  tliese  arc  apparently  no*  loa.t  (2)  Hakhrdoth,  i.e., 
lexical  and  grammatical  <Iecisiona  between  Menahem  Ibn  Seruk 
and  Dunash  b  Labrat  (see  Stphcr  Teshubolh  Dunash  b,  Labrat, 
Edinburgh,  18S5,  8vo).  That  these  "decisions"  are  really  by 
Rabbinu  Tham  13  proved  by  the  before-named  MS.,  leaves  10<i  and 
16a,  where  the  book  is  quoted  by  in  anthor  of  the  13th  century. 
3)  Sephcr  Btitiyitskar  (Vienna,  1810,  folio).  Although  this  work, 
n  its  pro?rnt  form,  is  the  compilation  of  one  of  Rabbenu  Tham's 
lisciples.  R.  Yislialc  b.  Durbal  by  name  (also  called  Isaac  of  Russia; 
-ee  Schilier-Szincssy,  Catalogue,  i.  p.  164,  and  ii.  p.  66),  not  only 
s  the  foundation  Sabbenn  Tham's  (see  Preface),  but  the  contents 
also  are  virtually  his.  Compare  the  Cambridge  MS.  Add.  667.  1, 
posrixi.  (4)  The  gr?ater  part  of  the  Tosaphoih  in  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  are  indirectly  also  by  Rabbenu  Tham  ;  and  he  is  Wrtu- 
■illy  the  first  Tosaphist  It  is  true  that  -his  father,  his  brother 
Sashi^am  {q.v.),  and  his  uncle  Rabbenu  Yehudah  b.  Nathan  had 
■vritten  Tosaphoih  before  him,  and  that  this  kind  of  literary  acti- 
vity lasted  to  within  the  first  quarter  of  the  14th  century.  Still, 
most  and  the  best  of  the  Tosaphoih  now  in  our  hands  rest  on 
ilibbenu  Tham  and  his  school.  (5)  ifahior,  i.e.,  a  prayer-book, 
Ac.  for  the  whole  year,  with  Rabbinic'  ordinances,  &c.  See 
Tc'Sinkolh  on  T.  B.,  Berakhclh,  leaf  Z'a,  catchword  DDIDH,  and 
BiTckhoth  Moharam  of  R.  Meir  b.  Barukh  of  Rothenburg  (Riva  di 
Trento,  1553.  8vo),  leaf  4a.  (6)  Poems  These  are  partly  didactic 
and  partly  liturgical.  Of  the  former  kind  a  specimen  will  be  found 
i"On  the  Accents,"  communicated  by  Halberstam)  in  Kobak's 
Y'-^hurun,  \.  p.  125  sq.  The  liturgical  poems,  again,  are  of  two 
kinds  :  (a)  such  as  have  no  metre  and  rhyme  only  by  means  of 
plurals,  possessive  pronouns,  and  such  like  (rhymed  prose),  and 
which  perfectly  resemble  most  of.^the  productions  of  the  Franco- 
Ashkenazic  school  (see,  for  exampla,  the  facsimile  in  Muller's  Cata- 
lyjut,  Amsterdam,  1S68,  8vo);  Q>\  such  as  have  metre  and  rhyme, 
and  resemble  the  productions  of  the  Sepharadic  school,  e.g.,  the 
one  beginning  'rPO  ^^  '"  (and  not  13  ;  see  MS.  Add.  667,  leaf 
(02a).  (7)  Various  ordinances,  kc,  are  to  be  found  in  later  writers 
I'-ee  MS  Add.  667,  in  Ombridge,  passim,  and  Teshubolh  Maharam, 
Prague.  1608,  fouo.  §  1023,  &c.).  Rabbenu  Tham  died  in  1171  ; 
see  Rashi's  SidduT,  il  (formerly  Luzzatto's,  then  Halberstam's,  and 
now  the  property  of  the  master  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge), 
leaf  43a. 

2.  Rabbenct  Ya'akob  of  Orleans,  rabbi  of  London  (J). 
He  is  often  quoted  in  the  Tosaphoih  (both  on  the  Penta- 
teuch and  on  -the  Babylonian  Talmud).  No  independent 
works  of  his,  however,  are  extant.  He  was  killed  at 
London  in  the  tumult  on  the  coronation  day  of  Richard 
Coeur-de-Lion  (September 3, 1 189 ;  Schiller-Szinessy, Calal., 
I  p.  117).  (s,  M.  s.-s.) 

TAMAQUA,  a  borough  of  Schuylkill  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, United  States,,  in  a  broken,  hilly  country,  upon  the 

'  See  hi3  Yesih  PUhgam  (in  the  Ashkenazic  ritual;  it  is  intro- 
ductory to  the  prophetic  lesson  for  the  second  day  of  Pentecost). 
If  we  have  the  correct  reading  of  that  poem  there,  flabbenu  Thara 
rouel  have  been  a  Levite ;  aud  if  so,  the  Shemuel  Halle\i  mentioned 
by  R  Yaakob  b  Shimshoa  as  his  teacher,  in  the  Cambridge  MS. 
Add.  1213,  leaf  276,  is  very  possibly  ^Rabbenu  Tbam's  paternal 
grandfather 

'  See  SijiheT  JTayyashar.  §  595  (leaf  6.7a,  col.  1),  and  §  6:0  (1st) 
in  jine.  To  this  high  ^wsition  it  is  no  doubt  to  be  ascribed  that  his 
life  waa  saved  by  a  knight  during  the  second  rrusiade,  ir.  which  the 
whole  cocp-egation  of  Rameru  was  reduced  to  beggary,  after  many  of 
fts  riembers  had  been  ruthlessly  slain. 

*  For  example,  the  poverty. stricken"  Abraham  Ibn  'Ezra,  to  whom 
he  not  only  gave  r.ioncy  but  kind  words  also,  in  good  verses  i,Kerem 
Be-  ^d,  vil.  p.  35) 

For  other  metrical  poems  by  Rabbenu  Tham.  see  Zunz,  Literature. 
AtS..-i.  f'ai::t  .Etriin.  1865.  8vo),  p.  266. 


Little'SchnylkillTiTer,' 9?  miles  Dearly  north  of 'Phil- 
adelphia. Jilt  is  in  the  midst  of  the  anthracite  coal  region, 
and  coal  mining  is  one  of  its  principal  interests.  It  is 
an  important  railroad  centre,  npon  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  system,  being  the  point  of  intersection  of  three 
main  lines  and  the  terminus  of  several  minor  branches- 
The  borough  had  a  pcpnlation  of  5960  in  1870  and  of  5730 
ia  18S0. 

TA3IARIWD.  This  name  U  popularly  applied  to  the 
pods  of  a  Leguminous  tree,  wh.oh  are  hard  externally,  but 
within  filled  with  an  acid  juicy  pulp  containing  sugar  and 
various  acids,  such  as  citric  and  tartaric,  in  combination 
with  potash.'  The  acid  pulp  is  uied  as  a  laxative  and  a 
refrigerant,  the  pods  being  largely  imported  both  from  the 
East  and  the  West  Indies.  The  tree  is  now  widely  distri-, 
buted  in  tropical  countries,  but  it  is  generally  considered 
that  its  native  country  is  in  eastern  tropical  Africa,  from| 
Abyssinia  southward  to  the  Zambesi,  ijir  Ferdinand  vori> 
Mueller  notes  that  it  is  truly  wild  in  tropical  Australia.; 
The  name  (meaning  in  Arabic  "Indian  date')  shows  that 
it  entered  mediseval  commerce  from  India,  where  it  is  used," 
not  only  for  its  pulp,  but  for  its  seeds,  which  arp  astringent,* 
its  leaves,  which  furnish  a  yellow  or  a  red  dye,  and  its 
timber.  The  tree  {Tamanndus  indica,  L.)  attains  a  height 
of  70  to  80  feet,  and  bears  elegant  pinnate  foliage  and 
purplish  or  orange  veined  flowers  arranged  in  lerrainal 
clusters.  The  flower-tube  bears  at  its  summit  four  Fepals,'i 
but  only  three  petals  and  three  perfect  stamen's,  with 
indications  of  six  others.  The  .stamens,  with  the  cialked 
ovary,  are  curved  away  from  the  petals  at  their  ba.e.  \ii;t 
are  directed  towards  them  at  their  apices.  The  &nlheri» 
and  the  .stigmas  are  thus  brought  into  such  a  position  as  to 
obstruct  the  passage  of  an  insect  attracted  by  the  brilliantly- 
coloured  petal,  the  inference  of  course  being  that  insects 
are  necessary  for  the  fertilization  of  the  flower. 

TAM.\RISK.  The  genus  Tamarur  gives  its  name  to 
a  small  group  of  shrubs  or  low  trees  constituting  the 
tamarisk  family.  The  species  of  tamarisk  and  of  the  very 
closely  allied  genus  Myrjcaria  grow  in  salt  deserts,  by  the 
sea-shore,  or  in  other  more  or  less  sterile  localities  in  south 
temperate,  subtropical,  and  tropical  regions  of  the  eastern 
hemisphere.  Their  long  slender  branches  bear  very  num- 
erous small  appressed  leaves,  m  which  the  evaporating 
surface  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  flowers  are  minute 
and  numerous,  in  long  clusters  at  the  ends  of  the  branches 
or  from  the  vi-unk.  f'ach  has  4-6  free  sepals,  and  as 
many  petals  springing  with  the  4-12  stamens  from  a  fleshy 
disk.  In  Tamanjc  the  stamens  are  free,  while  in  Myri.-ry'-ia 
they  are  united  into  one  parcel.  The  free  ovary  is  one-' 
celled,  with  basal  placfintas,  and  surmounted  by  3-5  styles. 
The  fruit  is  capsular,  and  contains  numerous  seeds,  each 
usually  with  a  long  tuft  of  hairs  at  one  end.  The  great 
value  of  these  shrubs  or  trees  lies  in  their  ability  to  with- 
stand the  effects  of  drought  and  a  salme  soil,  in  consequence 
of  which  they  grow  where  little  else  c<tn  flourish.  It  is 
on  this  account  that  the  common'  tamarisk,  T.  galHca,  is 
planted  on  our  sea-coasts,  and  affords  shelter  where  none 
other  could  be  provided.  The  light  feathery  appearance  of 
the  branches,  and  the  pretty  rose-.coloured  flowers,  render 
it  also  an  elegant  and  attractive  shrub,  very  different  in 
character  from  most  others. 

Some  species  produce  galls,  valued  for  their  tannin,  while 
the  astringent  bark  of  others  has  been  valued  for  medicinal 
purposes.  The  ashes  of  the  plant,  when  grown  near  the 
sea,  are  said  to  contain  soda ;  but,  when  cultivated  "nland 
or  on  sweet  soil,  they  are,  it  is  alleged,  free  from  soda. 

For  tamarisk  manna,  see  JIanna,  vol.  xv  p  493 

TAMBOFF,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  fertile  govern' 
ments  of  central  Russia,  extends  from  nortll  to  soufb 
^r--(^nn  thn  'u«,fiiQs  of  tb«  Oka  aiul  the  Don,  And  h&ei 


i 


T  A  M— T  A  M 


41. 


Vladimir  and  Nijni-Novgorod  on  the  N.,  Penza  and  Sara- 
toff  on  die  E.,  the  Don  Cossacks  and  Voronezh  on  the  S., 
Tula  and  Ryazan  on  the  W.  It  consists  of  aa  undulating 
plain  intersected  by  deep  ravines  and  broad  valleys,  rang- 
ing between  450  and  800  feet  above  sea-leveL  Chalk 
and  Jurassic  deposits,  thickly  covered  by  bonlder-clay  and 
loess,  are  widely  spread  over  its  surface,  concealing  the 
underlying  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  deposits.  These 
last  appear  only  in  the  deeper  ravines,  and  seaois  of  coal 
have  been  noticed  at  several  places.  Iron  ore  (in  the 
north-west),  limestone,  cl|iy,  and  gypsum  are  obtained  for 
building  and  manufacturing  purposes  ;  traces  of  naphtha 
h<>ve  been  discovered  at  Tamboff.  The  mineral  waters  of 
L:petok,  siaiiiar  to  those  of  FranzeLsbad  in  tL  r.r  alkaline 
elements,  aoi  chalybeate  like  those  of  PirD2ri.,i  and  Spa, 
sre  well  known  in  Russia.  Tamboff  is  watered  by  the 
tr.butaries  of  the  Oka  and  the  Don.  T'-e  Oki  itself  only 
touches  the  northwest  corner  of  the  govemm:nt,  but  its 
tributaries,  the  Moksha  and  the  Tsna,  ar?  important 
channels  of  tratSc.  The  Don  also  only  touch  j3  Tamboff, 
and  of  its  affluents  only  the  Voronezh  and  the  Khoper  and 
its  tributary  the  Vorona  are  at  all  navigable.  .-Vs  a  whole. 
It  is  only  in  the  north  that  Tanaboff  is  well  watered ;  in  its 
southern  part,  which  is  exposed  to  the  in8uenco  of  the  dry 
south  eastern  winds,  the  want  of  moisture  is  much  felt, 
especially  in  the  district  of  Borisoglyebsk,  which  belongs 
to  the  dry  steppes  of  the  lower  Volga. 

Tte  climate  U  contineDtal,  and,  aItbo.igh  the  avernge  tempera- 
tore  at  TacboffU  42'  F.,  the  winter  is  comparstivrly  cold  (Janu- 
ary, 13°;  July,  68°).  The  rivers  remain  frozen  for  four  months 
and  a  half.  Forests  occupy  less  than  one-sixth  of  rhs  total  area, 
and  occur  chiefly  in  the  west ;  in  the  sooth-east  wood  is  scarce, 
and  straw  is  resorted  to  for  fuel.  The  soil  is  fertile  throughout ;  in 
the  north,  indeed,  it  is  clayey  and  sometimes  Eaodv,  hut  the  rest 
of  the  government  is  covered  with  a  sheet,  2  to  3  fecr  in  thickness, 
of  the  most  fertile  UheTTioztm^  of  such  richness,  indeed,  that  in 
Borisoglyebsk  com-fields  which  have  not  been  ascuied  for  eighty 
years  still  yield  good  crops. 

Tamboff  is  one  of  the  densely  peopled  provinces  of  Russia.  Its 
population  in  18S3  reached  2,519,660,  and  in  se-fral  districts 
(Kozloff,  Lebedyajl,  Li^-etsk)  there  are  from  UO  to  1*0  inhabitants 
per  square  mile.  It  is  Great  Russian  in  the  centril  portion,  but 
has  a  notable  admixture  of  Mokdvi.sians  (j.c)  a::  I  Mescheriaks 
in  the  west  and  north-west,  as  also  of  Tartars;  the  Mordvinians 
(who  are  rapidly  becoming  Russified)  constitute  4  per  cent  of  the 
aggregate  population  of  Tamboff;  the  Tartars  number  about  20,000, 
and  the  Mescheriaks  about  4000.  Konconformity  is  widely  spread, 
although  the  official  fimres  disclose  only  14,300  Raskolniks.  Not- 
withstanding a  high  birth-rate  (45  in  the  thousand),  the  annual 
increase  of  population  is  but  slow  (0'5  per  cent,  annv.ally). 

The  prevailing  occupation  is  agriculture,  and  in  1883  only 
168,200  persons  bad  their  residence  in  towns,  which  are  mostly 
themselves  nothing  but  large  villagesof  agriculturists  living  together, 
with  a  few  merchants.  More  than  two-thirds  of  th;  area  is  arable, 
and  of  this  proportion  53  per  cent,  belongs  to  peasant  communities, 
36  per  cent,  to  private  individuals,  and  11  per  ceDt.  to  the  crown. 
The  crops  of  the  years  1883  to  1885  )-ielded  on  the  average  8,885,000 
quarters  of  grain  (half  being  rye,  and  one-third  cats).  Com  is 
exported  to  a  considerable  extent  from  the  sooth,  although  it  is 
<leficient  in  the  north.  Hemp  and  linseed  are  also  cultivated  for 
exportation.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  yearly  increasing: 
5220  acres  were  nnder  this  crop  in  1885,  and  yielded  nearly  50,000 
cwts.  la  the  same  year  15,950  acres  were  undt.:  beetroot,  and 
yielded  1,660,000  cwts.  CattlS-breeding,  though  less  extensively 
carried  on  than  formerly,  is  still  important  (656,300  horses,  399.600 
homed  cattle,  and  1,325,600  sheep  in  1883).  Excellent  breeds 
of  horses  are  met  with,  not  only  on  the  larger  estates,  but  also  in 
the  hands  of  the  wealthier  peasants,  those  of  tl.e  Bityug  river 
being  most  esteemed.  ^  Manufactures  are  repi-eset  ted  chiefly  by 
'il-tilieries,  tallow-melting  works,  sugar-vrorks,  s'd  a  few  woollen- 
t.lc>th  mills.  The  petty  trades  are  not  very  extensively  carried  on  in 
the  villages.  Commerce  is  very  brisk,  owin^  to  the  large  amounts 
of  core  exported, — Kozloff,  Morshansk.  Tamboff,  and  Borisoglyebsk 
^i^T  the  chief  centres  for  this  traffic,  and  LebedyaiS  for  the  trade 
m  hcrsea  and  cattle.  Tamboff  is  rather  backward  educationally ; 
in  1883  there  were  only  629  schools,  attended  by  34,739  boys  and 
6680  ^Irli  The  government  is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  the 
chief  tov-cs  of  which,  with  their  populations  in  1534,  are  Tamboff 
(34.000  inhabitants),  Borisoglyebsk  (13,C00),  Elatma  (7560),  Kii^ 
»anoff{7770),  Katlcff  i27,90O).  Lebe^iJi  (f^Jf),  Lipetsk  (15,860), 


Morshansk  (21,200),  Shatsk  (7280),.  Spa^  (5010\  Temnikofr 
(13,700),  and  Usnmfi(8110  in  185"',.  A  distinctive  feature  of  Tam- 
boff is  its  very  large  villages  of  crown-peasants,  a  dozen  of  vliirh 
have  from  5000  to  7000  inhabitants  each.  Several  of  them— like 
Raskazovo  (a  great  centre  of  NoL^unfoiuiity),  Atabukhi,  Saso»o,- 
Izberdei,  and  Arkhangelskoye — are  important  commercial  cenirea 

The  region  now  included  in  the  north  of  the  governmcit  va* 
settled  by  Russians  during  the  earliest  centuries  of  the  princip<i!:'y 
of  Moscow,  but  until  the  end  of  the  l?th  century  the  fertile  tracts 
to  the  south  remained  too  insecure  for  settlers.  In  the  followii;» 
century  a  few  immigrants  began  to  :ome  in  fron:  the  steppe,  aca 
landowners  who  had  received  large  gnnts  of  land  .is  giits  of  tho 
czars  began  to  bring  their  serfs  from  central  Russia.  The  ^puia- 
tion  has  very  rapidly  increased  within  the  present  century. 

TAMBOFF,  capital  of  the  a'-'-ve  goTernmeDt,  300  miles 
distant  from  Moscow,  is  situalc  1  on  the  Tsna  river,  an'i 
on  the  railway  from  Kozloff  to  Sara'cS.  It  is  almosi 
entirely  built  of  wood,  with  broad  unpavel  streets,  line  J 
with  low  hotises  surrounded  by  gardens.  It  has  a  sma! 
public  library,  a  theatre,  and  the  few  educational  institu- 
tions which  are  usual  in  the  chief  towns  of  Russian  pro- 
vinces. Its  manufactures  are  insignificant ;  and  its  trade, 
in  local  grain  and  in  cattle  purchased  in  the  south  and  sent 
to  Moscow,  is  far  less  important  than  that  of  Morshansk 
or  Kozloff.     The  population  in  1884  was  34,000. 

TAMERLANE.     See  Timur. 

TAMILS.  The  word  Tamil  (properly  Tamil)  has  been 
identified  with  Dravida,  the  Sanskrit  generic  appellatioQ 
for  the  South  Indian  peoples  and  their  languages ;  and 
the  various  stages  through  which  the  word  has  passed — 
Dramida,  Dramila,  Damila — have  been  finally  discussed 
by  Bishop  Caldwell  in  his  Comp/i rative  Grammar  of  Oie 
Dravidian  Languages  {2d  ed.,  1875,  p.  10  sq.),  end  tia 
derivation  has  recently  been  endorsed  by  Col.  Yule  and  Dj 
Burnell  in  their  Gtossari/  (p.  2516).  The  identificatita 
was  first  suggested  by  Dr  Graul  {Reiie  nock  Osiindien, 
voL  iii.,  1854,  p.  349),  and  then  adverted  to  by  Dr  G. 
U.  Pope  {Tamil  Handbook,  1859,  Introduction)  and  Dr 
Gundert  {Malaydlma  Dictionary,  1872,  t.v.).  It  should, 
however,  be  mentioned  that  the  former  prefers  now  to  take 
the  word  Tamil  to  be  a  corruption  of  tenmoli,  southern 
speech,  in  contradistinction  to  mdugu,  the  northern,  \.t., 
Telugu  language.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Kafir,  Turkish, 
Tagala,  and  other  typical  languages,  the  term  Tamulic  or 
Tamnlian  has  occasionally  been  employed  as  the  designation 
of  the  whole  class  of  Dravidian  peoples  and  languages,  of 
which  it  is  only  the  most  prominent  member.  The  present 
article  deals  with  Tamil  in  its  restricted  sense  only. 

The  Tamils,  taken  as  the  type  and  representatives  of  th-j 
Dravidian  race,  do  not  now,  owing  to  early  intermixture 
with  the  Aryan  immigrants,  materially  differ  in  physical 
character  from  the  other  curly-haired  indigenous  popula- 
tion of  India.  They  were  at  one  time,  on  the  ground  of 
the  general  structure  of  their  language,  classed  with  the 
Mongoloid  (Turanian,  Scythian)  and  even  the  Australian 
races,  but  that  classification  b  rejected  by  all  the  leading 
ethnologists.  They  form,  in  fact,  with  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  group,  a  separate  and  distinct  family,  which 
is  of  the  dolichocephalic  class,  and  comes  near  the  Indo- 
European  or  Aryan  type ,  while  there  are  scattered 
remnants  of  a  still  earlier  population  ofe  India  (Mundaa, 
Kolarians),  whose  race  characteristics,  however,  do  not  so 
essentially  differ  from  those  of  the  Dravidians  as  to  con 
stitute  them  a  class  by  themselves.  The  Tamib  proper 
are  smaller  and  weaker-built  than  the  Europeans,  thoUfih 
more  graceful  in  shape.  Their  physical  appearance  \s 
described  as  follows: — a  pointed  and  frequently  hooked 
pyramidal  nose,  with  conspicuous  nares,  niore  long  than 
round ;  a  marked  sinking  in  of  the  orbital  line,  produci:ig 
a  strongly  defined  orbital  ridge  ;  hair  and  eyes  black  ,  the 
latter,  varying  from  small  to  middle-sized,  have  a  peculixn 
sparkle  and  a  look  of  calculation  ,  moufh  large,  lips  thick 

XXII  I.  —  6 


.42 


TAMILS 


and  frequently  turgid;  lower  jaw  not  heavy,  its  lateral 
expansion  greater  than  in  the  Aryan  and  less  than  in  the 
Turanian  type,  giving  to  the  middle  part  of  the  face  a 
marked  development  and  breadth,  and  to  the  general 
contour  an  obtuse  oval  shape,  somewhat  bulging  at  the 
sides ;  forehead  well-formed,  but  receding,  inclining  to 
flattish,  and  seldom  high  ;  occiput  somewhat  projecting ; 
beard  considerable,  and  often  strong ;  colour  of  skin  very 
dark,  frequently  approaching  to  black  (Manual  of  the 
Administration  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  Madras,  1885, 
voL  i.,  Introd.,  p.  36 ;  see  also  Caldwell,  Comparative 
Grammar  of  the  Dravidian  Languages,  1875,  pp.  558-79). 
The  Tamils  have  many  estimable  qualities, — frugality, 
patience,  endurance,  politeness, — and  they  are  credited 
with  astounding  memories ;  their  worst  vices  are  said  to  be 
lying  and  lasciviousness.  Of  all  the  South-Indian  tribes 
they  are  the  least  sedentary  and  the  most  enterprising. 
Wherever  money  is  to  be  earned,  there  will  Tamils  be 
found,  either  as  merchants  or  in  the  lower  capacity  of 
domestic  servants  and  labourers.  The  tea  and  coffee 
districts  of  Ceylon  are  peopled  by  about  800,000  ;  Tamils 
aerve  as  coolies  in  the  Slauritius  and  the  West  Indies.  In 
Burmah,  the  Straits,  and  Siam  the  so-called  Klings  are  all 
Tamils  (Graul,  Rcise.  nach  Oslindien,  Leipsic,  1855,  vol. 
iv.  pp.  113-212). 

Language. — The  area  oic?  which  Tamil  is  spoken 
extends  from  a  few  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Madras  to 
the  extreme  south  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula, 
throughout  the  country  below  the  Ghits,  from  Pulicat  to 
Cape  Comorin,  and  from  the  Gh,lts  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
including  also  the  southern  portion  of  Travancore  on  the 
western  side  of  the  GhAts  and  the  northern  part  of 
Ceylon.  According  to  the  census  of  1881,  the  number 
of  Tamil-speaking  people  throughout  the  province  was 
12,413,517,  inclusive  of  21,992  Yerkalas,  3843  Kurumbas, 
and  287  Irulas,  three  tribes  speaking  rude  dialects  of  the 
language.  To  these  should  be  added  about  160,000  in 
the  French  'possessions.  But,  as  of  all  the  Dravidian 
languages  the  Tamil  shows  the  greatest  tendency  to 
spread,  its  area  becomes  ever  larger,  encroaching  on  that 
of  the  contiguous  languages.  Tamil  is  a  sister  of  Malay- 
alma,  Telugu,  Canarese,  Tulu,  Kudagu,  Toda,  Kota,  Gond, 
khond  (Ku),  Uraon,  Rajmahal,  Keikadi,  and  Brahui,  the 
nine  last-named  being  uncultivated  tongues ;  and,  as  it 
is  the  oldest,  richest,  and  most  highly  organized  of  the 
Dravidian  languages,-it  may  be  looked  upon  as  typical  of 
the  family  to  which  it  belongs.  The  one  nearest  akin  to 
it  is  Malayalma,  which  originally  appears  to  have  been 
simply  a  dialect  of  Tamil,  but  differs  from  it  now  both  in 
pronunciation  and  in  idiom,  in  the  retention  of  Old-Tamil 
forms  obsolete  in  the  modern  language,  and  in  having 
discarded  all  personal  terminations  in  the  verb,  the  person 
being  always  indicated  by  the  pronoun  (F.  W.  Ellis, 
Dissertation  on  the  Malaydlma  Language,  p.  2  ;  Gundert, 
MaltyAlma  Dictionary,  Introd. ;  Caldwell,  Comparative 
Gr.,  Introd.,  p.  23  ;  Burnell,  Specimens  of  South  Indian 
Dialects,  No.  2,  p.  13).  Also,  the  proportion  of  Sanskrit 
words  in  Malayalma  is  greater,  while  in  Tamil  it  is  less, 
than  in  any  other  Dravidian  tongue.  This  divergence 
between  the  two  languages  cannot  be  traced  farther  back 
than  about  the  10th  century ;  for,  as  it  appears  from  the 
Cochin  and  Travancore  inscriptions,  previous  to  that  period 
both  languages  were  still  substantially  identical ;  whereas 
in  the  Rdmacharitam,  the  oldest  poem  in  Malayajraa, 
composed  probably  in  tho  13th  century,  at  any  rate  long 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Portuguese  send  the  introduction 
of  the  modern  character,  we  see  that  language  already 
formed.  The  modern  Tamil  characttrt  originated  "  in  a 
Brahraanical  adaptation  of  the  old  Grantha  letters  corre- 
sponding to  the  so-called  Vatteluttu."  or  round-hand,  an 


alphabet  once  in  vogue  throughout  the  whole  of  the' 
Pandyan  kingdom,  as  well  as  in  the  South  Malabar  and 
Coimbatore  districts,  and  still  sparsely  used  for  drawing 
up  conveyances  and  other  legal  instruments  (F.  W.  Ellis, 
Dissertation,  p.  3).  It  is  also  used  by  the  Mappilas  in 
Tellicherry.  The  origin  of  the  Vatteluttu  itself  is  still  a 
controverted  question.  The  late  Dr  Burnell,  the  greatest 
authority  on  the  subject,  has  stated  his  reasons  for  tracing 
that  character  through  the  Pehlevi  to  a  Semitic  source 
{Elements  of  South  Indian  Paleography,  2d  ed.,  1878, 
pp.  47-52,  and  plates  xvii.  and  xxxii.).  In  the  8th 
century  the  Vatteluttu  existed  side  by  side  and  together 
with  the  Grantha,  an  ancient  alphabet  still  used  through- 
out the  Tamil  country  in  writing  Sanskrit.  During  the 
four  or  five  centuries  after  the  conquest  of  Madura  by  the 
Cholas  in  the  11th  it  was  gradually  superseded  in  the 
Tamil  country  by  the  modern  Tamil,  while  in  Malabar  it 
continued  in  general  use  down  to  the  end  of  the  17tb 
century.  But  the  earliest  works  of  Tamil  literature,  such 
as  the  Tolkdppiyam  and  the  Rural,  were  still  written  in 
it.  The  modern  Tamil  characters,  which  have  but  little 
changed  for  the  last  500  years,  differ  from  all  the  other 
modern  Dravidian  alphabets  both  in  shape  and  in  their 
phonetic  value.  Their  angular  form  is  said  to  be  due  to 
the  widespread  practice  of  writing  with  the  style  resting 
on  the  end  of  the  left  thumb-nail,  while  the  other  alpha- 
bets are  written  with  the  style  resting  on  the  left  side  of 
the  thumb. 

The  Tamil  alphabet  is  sntBciently  well  adapted  for  the  expression 
of  the  twelve  vowels  of  the  language  (a,  d,  t,  f,  u,  <2,  e,  (,  o,  6,  ei,  au), 
— the  occasional  sounds  of  o  and  ii,  both  short  and  long,  being 
covered  by  the  signs  for  c,  i,  i,  t;  but  It  is  utterly  inadequate 
for  the  propeh  expression  of  the  consonants,  inasmuch  as  the  one 
character  k  has  to  do  duty  also  for  kh,  g,  gh,  and  similarly  each 
of  the  other  surd  consonants  ch,  (,  t,  p  represents  also  the  .re- 
maining three  letters  of  its  respective  class.  The  letter  k  has, 
besides,  occasionally  the  sound  of  h,  and  ch,  that  of  s.  Each  o( 
the  five  consonants  k,  ch,  t,  t,  p  has  its  own  nasal.  In  addition 
to  the  four  semivowels,  the  Tamil  possesses  a  cerebral  r  and  1, 
and  has,  iu  common  with  the  Malayalma,  retained  a  liquid  t, 
once  peculiar  to  all  the  Dravidian  languages,  tho  sound  of  which 
is  so  difficult  to  fix  graphically,  and  varies  so  much  in  different 
districts,  that  it  has  been  rendered  in  a  dozen  difTercnl  ways 
[Manual  of  the  Administration  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  vol.  ii. 
p.  20  sq.).  Fr.  JIuller  is  probably  correct  in  approxim.iting  it  to 
that  of  tlie  Bohemian  r.  There  is,  lastly,  a  peculiar  n,  dilfering  in 
function  but  not  in  pronunciation  from  tho  dent.al  n.  The  three 
sibilants  and  h  of  Sanskrit  have  no  place  in  the  Tamil  aljihahet , 
but  ch  often  does  duty  as  a  sibilant  in  writing  foreign  words,  and 
the  four  corresponding  letters  as  well  as^'  and  ksh  of  the  Grantha 
alphabet  are  now  frequently  called  to  aid.  It  is  obvious  thai 
many  of  tho  Sanskrit  words  imported  into  Tamil  at  various  periods 
{Caldwell,  foe.  dt.,  Introd.,  pp.  86  sq.)  have,  iu  consequence  of  the 
incongruity  of  the  Sanskrit  and  Tamil  notation  of  their  respective 
phonetic  systems,  assumed  disguises  under  which  the  original  is 
scarcely  recognizable  :  examples  are  ulagu  (lolia),  uruvam  (riipa), 
arukken  (arka),  arputam  (adbhutam).  natcktUtiram  (nakshatrara), 
irudi  (rishi),  lirkiim  (dirgha),  arasni  (rajan).  Uesides  the  Sanskrit 
ingredients,  which  appear  but  sparsely  in  tlie  old  poetry,  Tamil 
has  borrowed  from  Hindustani,  Arabic,  and  Persian  a  largo  number 
of  revenue,  political,  and  judicial  terms,  and  more  recently  a  good 
many  English  words  have  crept  in,  such  as  tiratti,  treaty,  potior, 
butler.  Mi,  act,  kuUb,  club,  kavarjiar,  governor,  pinnolkdJu.  penal 
code,  stkku,  sick,  mejastirattu,  magistrate.  But,  as  compared  with 
its  literary  sister  languages,  it  has  preserved  its  Dravidian  character 
singularly  free  from  foreign  influence.  Of  Tamil  words  which  have 
found  a  permanent  home  in  English  may  be  .mentioned  curry 
(kari),  mulligatawny  {mitagu,  pepper,  and  tanntr.  cool  water), 
cheroot  (suruUa),  pariah  (pareiyan).  .... 

The  laws  of  euphony  (avoiding  of  hiatus,  softening  of  initial 
consonants,  contact  of  final  with  initial  consonants)  are  far  more 
complicated  in  Tamil  than  in  Sanskrit.  But,  while  they  were 
rigidly  adhered  to  iu  the  old  poetical  language  (Sen-Tamil),  there 
is  a  growing  tendency  to  neglect  them  in  the  language  of  the 
present  day  (Kodun-Tamil)  It  is  trne  the  Tamil  rules  totally 
Siller  from  tho  prevailing  Sanskrit ;  still  the  probability 'is  in  favour 
of  a  Sanskrit  influence,  inasmuch  as  they  appear  to  follow  Sansknt 
models.  Thus,  iru(  nikkiJidn.  becomes  iruntkkindn ;  pon  piUiram, 
porpdUiram;  vtl((il  karuUn,  viiffiT  kandin;  vdlsininm,  vdMrumn; 
palan  tanddn,  palanranddn.     Noun*  wo  divided  into  high-c»8te 


TAMILS 


45 


or  personal  an  J  lovv.»;astc  or  iin|'ci>-«t>ril. --tlio  lornicr  comprising 
wor4s  for  rational  b.'iii'^,  the  lattir  alt  the  rest  Only  id  high- 
caste  DOitns  a  distinction  between  in;uiciiliiie  and  feDiinine  is 
observed  in  the  singular,  both  have  a  common  plural,  which  is 
indicated  by  change  of  a  final  n  (feminine  /)  into  r  ,  but  the  neuter 
plural  termioatioti  hil  (gat)  may  be  sujHTadded  in  every  case 
Certain  nouns  change  their  b;\se  termination  before  receiving  the 
case  affixes,  the  latter  being  the  same  both  for  singular  and  plural 
They  are  for  the  ace.  ci.  ioilr  dl,  social  6du  (orfu,  udan),  dat.  k'u, 
loc  U  {idatiit,  in),  abl,  t/iru?u^j{  [ininru),  gen  udeiya  (adn). 
There  is,  besides,  a  general  oblique  affix  in,  wnich  is  not  only  fre- 
quently used  for  the  genitive,  but  may  be  inserted  before  any  of 
the  above  affixe-'i,  to  some  of  which  the  emphatic  particle  i  may 
also  be  su|ieraddeu  In  the  old  poetry  there  is  a  still  greater 
variety  of  affixes,  while  there  is  an  option  of  disj.cnsing  wiih  all 
Adjectives,  when  attributive,  precede  the  uoun  and  ure  unchange- 
able, when  predicative  they  follow  it  and  receive  verbal  affixes. 
The  pronouns  of  the  Isl  pcrstAi  are  sing  ndn  {y&n).  inffcxiooal 
base  en,  plural  ndm  {ydm).  infl  nam,  including,  ndngfil ,'\n\\  oignl, 
excluding  the  person  addressed,  of  the  2d  person  nf.  infl  un 
(m'n.  ninO,  pliiial  nir  {niyir,  ntvtr),  ningal,  infl  urn,  ungal  {num) 
To  each  of  those  forms,  inclusive  also  of  the  reflexive  pronouns 
tAn,  tdnt,  td'igat.  a  place  is  a.*5signed  in  the  scale  of  houoiihc  pro- 
nouns- As  in  the  demonstrative  pronouns  the  forms  beginning 
with  1  indicate  nearness,  those  with  a  distance,  and  (in  the  old 
poetry)  those  with  u  what  is  between  the  two,  so  the  same  forms 
oegiiining  with  e  (or  yd,  as  in  ydr,  dr,  who?)  expiess  the  interro- 
gative The  verb  consists  of  three  elements — the  root  (gener.illy 
rclucible  to  one  syllable),  the  tense  characteristic,  and  the  personal 
alhx  There  are  three  original  moods,  the  indicative,  imperative, 
and  infinitive  (the  2d  singular  imperative  is  generally  identicnl  with 
tlio  root),  as  well  as  three  original  tenses,  the  present,  past,  and 
future.  The  personal  affi.xes  are — sing  (1)  -fn,  (2)  dy,  honorific 
•  ir  ,  (3)  masc.  -dn,  feni  -dl,  honor  dr,  neuter  -adit,  plural  {\) 
-Old  (.dm. -^m).  (2) -Ir^-a/ ,  (3)masc.  fem  'ar/ra/,  iieut  -nna.  These 
affixes  serve  for  all  verbs  and  for  each  of  the  three  tenses.  exceT>t 
that,  in  the  future,  -adii  and  aun  are  replaced  by  iirn.  [kkum)  It 
;5  only  in  the  formation  of  the  tenses  that  verbs  differ,  intransitive 
verbs  generally  indicating  the  present  by  -kir-  {-kmr-),  the  past  by 
-d-,  -Tui-.  or  in-,  and  the  future  by  -v-  (-6-).  and  transitive  verbs. 
by  the  corresponding  infixes.  -kkiT  [-kkinT-},  -U  {rul-),  and  ■]yp-  ; 
but  there  are  numerous  exceptions  and  seemingly  anomalous  forma- 
tions Other  tenses  and  moods  are  expressed  with  the  aid  of  special 
affixes  or  auxiliar)^  verbs  Causal  verbs  are  formed  by  various 
infixes  {-ppi-,  -vi  ,  -ttu-).  and  the  passive  by  the  auxiliary  paitu, 
to  fall,  or  by  uri.  to  eat,  with  a  noun.  The  following  four  pecul- 
iarities are  characteristic  of  Taniil  : — first,  the  tenselcss  negative 
form  of  the  verb,  expressed  by  the  infix  a,  which  is  elided  befot©- 
dissimilar  vowels,  second,  the  predicative  employment  of  two 
negative  particles  ittei  and  atla,  the  one  denying  the  existence  or 
presence,  the  other  denying  the  quality  or  essence;  third,  the 
use  of  two  sets  of  particjfjes,— one.  called  adjective  or  relative 
participle,  which  supplies  the  place  of  a  relative  clause,  the  language 
possessing  no  relative  pronouns,  and  an  ordinary  adveroial  particirde 
or  geruuii  ,  and.  fourth,  the  practif^e  of  giving  adjectives  a  vernal 
form  by  means  of  personal  affixes,  which  form  may  again  be  treated 
as  a  DOUD  by  attacning  to  it  the  declensional  terminations,  thus  . 
periya,  great  ,  periyO>»,  we  are  great ;  periydmukku,  to  us  who  are 
great  The  old  poetry  abounds  in  verbal  forms  now  obsolete. 
Adjectives,  adverbs,  and  abstract  nouns  are  derived  from  verbs  by 
certain  affixes  All  post-positions  were  originally  either  nouns  or 
verbal  forms  Oralio  indirecta  is  unknown  in  Tamil,  as  it  is  in  all 
the  other  Indian  languages,  the  gerund  enru  being  used,  like  M 
in  Sanskrit,  to  indicate  quotation  The  structure  of  sentences  is 
an  exact  counterpart  of  tne  structure  of  words,  inasmuch  as  that 
which  qualifies  always  precedes  that  which  is  qualified  Thus  the 
attributive  precedes  the  substantive,  the  substantive  precedes  the 
preposition,  the  adverb  precedes  the  verb,  thfi  secondary  clause  the 
rrimary  one,  and  the  verb  closes  the  sentence.  The  sentence. 
,  Having  called  the  woman  who  had  killed  the  child,  he  asked  why 
•he  had  committed  such  infauticide,"  runs  in  Tamil  as  follows  : — 
Kulandclyel    kkonrnpottavalel  Rlrlppltta 

r    TSe  clillj     her  who  had  killed    having  caused  >o  be  called. 
ppat(a        slBU.T-«tlt        Bey^l&y        gnru  kSttan 

^D*de     cbUd. murder     didst?"  having  said  he  asl<ed 

Much  as  the  similarity  of  the  structure  of  the  Tamil  and  its 
•later  languages  to  that  of  the  Ugro  Tartar  class  may  have  proved 
suggestive  of  the  assumption  of  a  family  affinity  between  the  two 
classes,  such  an  affinity,  if  it  exist,  roust  be  held  to  be  at  least 
very  distant,  inasniDch  as  the  assumption  receives  but  the  faintest 
•hade  of  support  from  an  intercomparison  of  the  radical  and  least 
variable  portion  of  the  respective  languages. 

Literature. — The  early  existence,  in  southern  India,  of 
peoples,  localities,  aoimals,  and  products  the  names  of 
which,  as  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  Greek 
and  Uoioan  vriters.  have  been  identified  with  correspond- 


nl      (n   IppadI 
"Hiou  why  thua 


ing  Dravidian  terms  goes  far  to  [irove  the  high  aiitiijuity, 
if  not  of  the  Tamil  language,  at  least  of  some  form  of 
Dravidian  speech  (Caldwell,  loc.  cit.,  Introd,,  pp.  81- 
106,  Madras  District  Manual,  1.,  Introd.,  p.  134  s^/.). 
But  practically  the  earliest  extant  records  of  the  Tamil 
language  do  not  ascend  higher  than  the  middle  of  the  8th 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  grant  in  possession  of  the 
Israelites  at  Cochin  being  assigned  by  the  late  Dr  Burnell 
to  about  T.'iO  a  D ,  a  period  when  Malaydlma  did  not  exist 
yet  as  a  separate  language.  There  is  every  probability 
that  about  the  same  time  a  number  of  Tamil  works  sprung 
up,  which  are  mentioned  by  a  writer  in  the  1 1th  century 
as  representing  the  old  literature  (Burnell,  l<jc.  at.,  p.  127, 
note).  The  earlier  of  these  may  have  been  Saiva  books; 
the  more  prominent  of  the  others  were  decidedly  Jaina. 
Though  traces  of  a  north  Indian  influence  are  palpable  in  all 
of  them  that  have  come  down  to  us  (see,  e.r/.,  F  \V.  Ellis's 
notes  to  the  Kural),  we  can  at  the  same  time  perceive,  as 
we  must  certainly  appreciate,  the  desire  of  the  authors  to 
oppose  the  influence  of  lirahmanical  writings,  and  create  a 
literature  that  should  rival  Sanskrit  books  and  appeal  to 
the  sentiments  of  the  people  at  large.  But  the  refinement 
of  the  poetical  languau'C,  as  adapted  to  the  genius  of 
Tamil,  has  been  carried  to  greater  excess  than  in  Sanskrit; 
and  this  artificial  character  of  llie  so-called  High-Tamil  is 
evident  from  a  compari.son  with  the  old  inscriptions,  which 
are  a  reflex  of  the  language  of  the  people,  and  clearly  show 
that  Tamil  has  not  undergone  any  essential  change -these 
800  years  (Burnell, /oc.  dl.,  p  142)  The  rules  of  High- 
Tamil  appear  to  have  been  fixed  at  a  very  early  date.  The 
ToU(lj>jiii/am.  the  oldest  extant  Tamil  grammar,  is  assigned 
by  Dr  Burnell  (On  Ihe  Amelia  School  of  Sansl.rtt  Gram- 
marians, pp.  8,  55)  to  the  8th  century  (best  edition  by  C. 
Y.  Timodaram  Pillei,  Madras,  18S5)  The  Vh-asul lyam , 
another  grammar,  is  of  the  1 1th  century.  Both  have  been 
superseded  by  the  Nannul,  of  the  15th  century,  which  has 
exfitcised  the  skill  of  numerous  commentators,  and  con- 
tinues to  be  the  leading  native  authority  (English  editions 
in  Pope's  Third  Tamil  Giammar,  and  an  abridgment  by 
Lazarus,  1884).  The  period  of  the  prevalence  of  the 
Jainas  in  the  Pandya  kingdom,  from  the  9th  or  lOtb  to 
the  13th  century,  is  justly  termed  the  Augustan  age  of 
Tamil  literature.  To  its  earlier  days  is  assigned  the 
Ndladtyar,  an  ethical  poem  on  the  three  objects  of  exist- 
ence, which  is  supposed  to  have  preceded  the  A'uml  of 
Tiruvaljuvan,  the  finest  poetical  production  in  the  whole 
range  of  Tamil  composition  Tradition,  in  keeping  with 
the  spirit  of  antagonism  to  Brahmanical  influence,  says 
that  its  author  was  a  pariah  priest  It  consists  of  1330 
stanzas  on  virtue,  wealth,  and  pleasure.  It  has  often  been 
edited,  translated,  and  commented  upon  ,  see  the  introduc 
tion  to  the  excellent  edition,  just  published,  by  the  Rev.  Dr 
Pope,  in  which  also  a  comprehensive  account  of  the  pecul 
iarities  of  High-Tamil  will  be  found  To  the  Av\ei,  oi 
Matron,  a  reputed  sister  of  Tiruvaljuvan,  but  probably  of 
a  later  date,  two  shorter  moral  jinems,  called  Attisurh  and 
Konreiveyndan,  are  ascribed,  which  are  still  read  in  all 
Tamil  schools.  Chinldmam,  an  epic  of  upwards  ot  3000 
stanzas,  which  celebrates  the  exploits  of  a  King  Jivakan, 
also  belongs  to  that  early  Jain  period,  and  so  does  the 
Divdkaram,  the  oldest  dictionary  of  classical  Tamil  The 
former  is  one  of  the  finest  poems  in  the  language  ;  but  no 
more  than  the  firstand  part  of  the  third  of  its  thirteen  books 
liave  teen  edited  and  translated.  Kamban's  Rdmdyanam 
(about  1100  A.D.)  is  the  only  other  Tamil  epic  which  comes 
up  to  the  Chintdmani  in  poetical  beauty.  The  most  bril- 
liant of  the  poetical  productions  which  appeared  in  tlie 
period  of  the  Saiva  revival  (13th  and  14th  centuries)  arc 
two  collections  of  hymns  addressed  to  Siva,  the  one  called 
I'iruviUakam,  by  M&nikka-VSsakan,  and  a  later  and  larger 


44 


TAM-TAM 


one  called  Tivdram,  by  Sambandhon  and  two  other 
d'vot«e8,  SuadaraD  and  &ppaQ.  Both  these  oollectioDg 
ha-i  been  pnDted.  the  former  m  one,  the  latter  in  five 
vnlijoiea  They  ar«  nvalled  both  in  religious  fervour  and 
lu  poetical  merit  by  u  cuotempotaneous  collection  of 
^  roshjjava  hTmna,  the  NiUdyira-prabandham  (also  printed 
at  Madras)  The  third  sectioD  of  it,  called  Ttruvdymoli,  or 
"  Words  of  the8a<red  Mooth,"  has  lately  been  published  in 
Telugunharacters,  ontb  ample  commeutanea,  m  ten  quartos 
(Madras,  l$75-76)  After  a  period  of  literary  torpor, 
which  lasted  oearly  two  centories,  King  Vallabha  Deva, 
better  Icnown  by  his  assomed  name  Ativirarima  Paijdiyan 
(second  half  ■><  the  16th  c«ntnry),  endeavoured  to  renve 
the  love  of  poetry  by  compositions  of  hie  own,  the  most 
celebrated  of  which  are  the  Nndadam,  a  somewhat  extrar 
vogant  imitation  ut  Sri  Barsha's  Sanskrit  Naithadham, 
and  Iba  Fernverkei.  a  collection  of  sententioaB  mtirimB 
Though  he  had  oumeroufl  followers,  who  made  this  revival 
the  most  prolific  in  the  whole  history  of  Tamil  literature, 
Qooe  of  the  compostttons  of  every  kind,  mainly  translations 
and  bombastic  tmitationa  of  Sanskrit  models,  have  attained 
to  any  fame  An  exceptional  place,  however,  is  occupied 
by  certain  Tamil  sectanans  called  Mtar  (t.e..  nddkaa  or 
sages),  whose  mystical  poeois,  especially  those  contained  m 
the  Sixavdkyam,  are  said  to  be  of  singular  beauty  Two 
poems  of  high  merit,  composed  at  the  end  of  the  1 7th 
century,  also  deserve  favourable  notice — the  Ifttxntn- 
vUakkam.  an  ethical  treatise  by  KomAragtinipara  Desikan, 
and  the  PrabhidtTigatUet,  a  Cranalation  from  the  CJanarese 
ot  a  famous  text  book  of  the  Vtra-Saiva  sect.  See  the 
analysis  in  W   Taylor's  Catalogue,  vol  ii  p.  837  -47 

The  modam  penod,  which  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  be^^Inniug 
of  the  last  ceLtary.  is  oahered  m  by  two  great  poets,  one  native  and 
the  other  foreign.  TSynmanavan.  a  pbuoaopber  of  the  pantbeutic 
tebool.  compoeed  1453  stanzas  Ijsddal)  which  have  a  high  reputa 
tion  for  guDlimity  both  of  sentiment^ and  style,  and  the  Italian 
Jesuit  J<»epb  Boscbi  (d.  1742),  tuider  the  name  Vtnm&mani, 
elaborated,  on  the  model  of  the  Chiiudmani.  a  religioos  epic 
Timbdvani,  which,  though  marred  by  blemUbes  of  taste,  ia  classed 
by  native  critics  among  the  best  productions  of  their  litermtnre. 
Irtrete  of  the  hiatorv  of  Si  loseph.  and  has  been  pnnted  at 
Pondicherry  in  three  volumes,  witu  a  ftill  analyaia.  English 
inflnence  has  bene, .as  m  Bengal  and  elsewhere  iii  India,  greatly 
tended  to  create  a  healthier  tone  m  literature  both  as  to  style  and 
■entiment.  ks  one  of  the  best  Tamil  translations  of  English  books 
in  respect  of  diction  and  idiom  may  be  mentioned  the  BilavyipA- 
riial,  or  "Little  Merchants,'  published  by  the  Vernacular  Text 
Society,  Madras,  P  Percival  s  collection  of  Tamil  Proverks  fSd  ed  . 
1876)  should  also  be  mentioned  The  copper-plate  grants,  commmily 
called  idsanains,  and  stone  mscnptions  in  Tamil,  many  of  which 
have  been  copied  and  translated  {ArchsecUygioal  Survey  of  Smitlifm 
India,,  vol.  iv  ,  R.  Sewell,  Lists  of  tht  Antiquarian  Remains  in  the 
Presidency  of  ifadrat,  vols.  i,.  ii  ),  are  the  only  authentic  historical 
records.  (See  also  Sir  Walter  Elliot's  contnbution  to  the  fntcr 
national  Numismata  Onentalia,  vol  lit  pt  2.)  As  early  as  the 
time  of  the  Chinese  traveller  Hwen  Tsang,  books  were  ^vntten 
in  southern  India  on  talipot  leaves,  and  Albiruni  mentions  this 
custom  as  quite  prevalent  in  his  time  (1031).  It  has  not  died  oat 
even  at  the  present  day,  though  paper  imported  from  Portugal  has, 
dunng  the  last  three  centuries,  occasionally  been  used.  Madras 
is  now  the  largest  depository  of  Tamil  palm-leaf  MSS. ,  which  ha»e 
been  descnbed  in  Wilson's  Catalogue  of  the  Mackenzie  ColUclwn 
(Calcatta,  1828.  2  vols.),  W  Taylor's  Catalogue  (Madras,  1857,  3 
vols  1.  aod  Condaswamy  Iyer  9  Catalogue  (vol.  i. .  Madras,  1861). 
The  an  of  printing,  however.  *vhich  was  introduced  in  southern 
India  at  an  early  date,  while  it  has  tended  to  the  preservation  of 
tnany  valuable  productions  ol  the  ancient  literatnre,  has  also  been 
the  mrans  of  perpetuating  and  circulating  a  deal  of  Uterary  rubbish 
and  lasci^otiPDess  which  »vould  much  oetter  have  remained  in 
the  oomparatT'ely  safe  obscurity  of  mannschpt  Dr  Burnell  has 
a  note  in  his  Elfmerus  of  South  Indian  Paleography  (2d  ed.  p 
44),  from  which  it  appears  that  in  1578  Tamil  types  were  cut 
by  Father  Joao  de  Fana.  aod  that  a  hundred  years  later  a  Tamil 
and  r'ortus^ese  dictionary  wap  ptibiished  at  Ambalakkadu.  At 
presenr  th-^-  noinber  of  Tamil  nooks  (inclu..*ive  of  oewspafKTS) 
print^'d  dUDuallv  far  exceeds  that  of  the  other  Dravidiau  PeraaciUars 
put  tccether  The  carlipst  Tamil  version  of  the  New  Tesraninnt 
was  commenced  by  tlio  Datch  m  Ceylon  in  1688;  Fabncius'e  cmns- 
tatioa  agpearodj  at  Traiit^m^bar  In    1716      Since   then   auui.v  Qt^w 


translations  of  the  whole  Bible  have  been  pnntea,  and  some  ol 
them  have  pasaed  through  several  editions.  The  Gerumo  nu^^sionary 
B.  Ziegenbalg  w«a  the  first  to  make  the  study  of  Tamil  possible  in 
Europe  by  the  publication  of  his  Orammatua  Damulica,  which 
appeared  at  Halle  in  1716  Some  time  later  the  Jesuit  father 
Besctu  devoted  much  time  and  labour  to  the  composition  of 
gmmmara  both  of  the  vulgar  and  the  poetical  dialect.  The  former 
ts'tre&ted  m  his  OraTnTnaiica  Latino-Tofnuliia,  which  was  written 
10  1728,  but  was  not  pnnted  till  eleven  years  later  (Tranquebar, 
1739)  It  was  twice  reprinted,  and  two  English  tnnslatious  have 
been  published  ( .831,  1848).  Hta Sen-Tamil  Orammar,  accessible 
ainoe  1822  in  an  English  translation  by  Dr  Babicgton,  was  pnnted 
from  bia  own  MS.  (CUima  humanioruTn  lUterarum  ^ublimioria 
Tamulici  tdumuHw)  at  Tranquebar  in  1878.  This  work  is  espe- 
cially valuable,  as  the  greater  portion  of  it  consists  of  &  learned  and 
exhaustive  treatise  on  Tamil  prosody  and  rhetoric.  (See,  on  hi* 
other  works,  Graol's  Reise,  vol  iv  p.  327.)  There  are  also  gram- 
mars by  Anderson,  Rhenins,  Graul  (in  vol  it  of  his  Bibliolhsca 
Tamulica,  Leipaic,  1856),  Lazarus  (Madras,  1878),  Pope  (4th 
edition  in  three  parts,  London,  1883-5),  and  Orammaire  Pranipiae- 
Tamoule,  by  the  Abb4  Dapuis,  Pondichem,  1863  The  last  two 
ar«  by  far  the  tiost.  The  India  Office  library  possesses  a  MS. 
dictionary  and  grunmar  "par  le  R4v  Pere  Dominii^ue"  ^Pondi- 
chem,  1843),  and  a  copy  of  a  MS.  TamJ-Latin  dictionary  by  the 
celebrated  missionary  Sdiwarz,  in  which  9000  words  are  explained 
About  the  like  number  of  words  are  given  m  the  dictionary  of 
Fabncius  and  Breithaapt  (Madras,  1779  and  1809).  ,  Rottler'e 
dictionary,  the  publication  of  which  was  commenced  in  1834,  is  a 
far  more  ambitious  work.  But  neither  it  nor  Wiaslow'e  (1862) 
come  up  to  the  standard  of  Tamil  scholarship,  the  DiaiomiaiTe 
Xamoui- Franfau,  which  appeared  at  Pondicherri  in  2  vola.  (1865- 
62),  IS  enpenor  to  both,  ]ust  as  the  Dictionanum  Latino ■Qallico- 
Tamulicum  iUnd. ,  1846)  eicels  the  various  Bnglish-Tamil  diction- 
anes  which  have  been  published  at  Madras. 

Compart  (be  foUowind  work*  of  relereoec  —A  T  Mondl^re  and  J  Vinson 
m  Dtctionnam  fU*  Sntneex  anlhnpoioffufvet.  i  o  '  DrsrldlenB";  S.  C  Chltcy. 
7^  Tamit  PlutarcA.  JafFDa.  I8fl9  .  J  MurdociL  C'iOMVUd  Cataloffn*  of  Tamil 
Fnnttti  Babti^  Madras.  1866  C  £  Govei.  t'olk-Sofifft  V  Soulhem  /ndia, 
Madraa.  1871  .'  Bishop  CaJdw,fll «  Comparanpc  Orammaf  o/  l/tt  Dravuiuin 
Langttafft*.  2d  ed..  Looaoa,  isld  ,  liraul  s  Hetit  .uj^/i  Ontnatei^  vola  It  aad  v  . 
the  qaanerly  JAtti  oj  Boots  regut«red  id  iDe  Madrua  (irealOeDCy  (Dr  Macleao  a] 
Afanual  of  M«  Admtnutraiton  ofUu  Ha<J''a*  Pr^uUncy  vola  I  and  11  Madras 
1886.  foUo  and  P  UUUar  Oruutrl$$  <ier  SpracAauieiuCmft  Vieuu^  1804.  ill  I 
162-}4e  (R    H.) 

TaMWORTH,  a  municipal  borough  and  market-iowo 
ot  England,  on  the  borders  of  Staffordshire  and  Warwick 
shire,  chiefly  in  the  former  la  situated  at  the  juoctiuu  ut 
the  Tame  with  the  Ank«r,  and  on  brajuchea  ot  the  LunduD 
and  North  Western  and  Midland  Railway  lines,  7  aiilee 
soQth-eastof  Lichtield.  20  oorlh-west  of  Coventry,  and  1 10 
nCtrih-wbst  of  Loi^don  The  castle,  situated  on  a  boigbi 
nbove  the  Anker  near  its  junction  with  the  Tame,  la  no« 
chiefly  of  the  Jacobean  penod,  but  is  enclosed  by  uiaasive 
ancient  walla  It  was  long  the  residence  ot  the  SaxoL 
kinga,  and,  after  being  bestowed  on  the  Marmiuuij  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  remained  tor  many  years  an  im 
portant  fortress  Through  the  female  lino  of  the  Mar 
mionf  It  has  descended  to  the  Marquis  Townsbena 
Formerly  the  town  was  surrounded  by  a  ditch  called  the 
King's  Dyke,  of  which  some  trace  still  remains  Tht 
church  of  St  Editha,  originally  louuded  in  the  8th  century, 
was  rebuilt,  after  being  burned  by  the  Danes,  by  Edgar, 
wbo  made  it  collegiate,  but  the  present  building  in  the 
Decorated  style  was  erected  utter  a  fire  m  the  14tb  century 
Since  1  870  it  has  been  undergoing  restoration  at  a  cost  of 
£10.000  'fbe  free  grammar  school,  retounded  by  Edward 
VL,  waa  rebuilt  in  1677.  and  again  lo  l867-t)8  at  a  cost 
of  £3000  The  other  public  buildiiigs  are  the  swimming 
batb  and  boys  lostituie  (1886)  the  town  hall  (1701), 
and  the  arcade,  forrnerly  used  as  a  covered  market,  bu» 
recently  obtained  by  the  Salvation  Army  "The  chi-.nties 
mclude  Quy's  almshouses,  endowed  lu  1678  by  Thomas 
Ooy.  founder  of  Gay's  Hospital,  Loudon,  and  the  cottage 
hospital  with  twenty-one  beds  W  aterworks  have  recently 
been  erected  at  a  cost  of  ovei  £'^5.000  On  the  "  moors 
burgesses  have  ngbta  for  cattle  Coal,  titeclay,  and  blue 
and  red  brick  clay  are  dug  in  the  nBighbour!,uod  ,  and 
there  are  also  market  gurdena  The  town  ^lossnst'e?  a 
clothiuu  factory,  paper  mills,  and  manufavt.orios  Ot  »  11 
~%r«a.      rfcu  population    of  the  uiuntuiiu'   Ovjiou^'h  (cioa 


T  A  N— T  A  N 


45 


200  acres)  in  18"i  was  4589,  and  in  1881  it  was  4891, — 
that  of  the  parliamentary  borough  (area  11,602  acres)  in 
the  same  years  being  11,493  and  14,101.  Tamworth 
ceased  to  be  a  parliamentary  borough  in  1885. 

Tamworth  iesitaated  near  the  old  Roman  Watling  Street,  and 
occupies  the  site  of  a  fort  which,  from  the  beginning  of  the  8th 
century,  waj  the  chief  royal  residence  in  Mcrcia.  The  town,  after 
being  burnt  by  the  Danes*  was  rebuilt  and  fortified  by  Ethelfleda, 
dangbter  of  Alfred  the  Great.  From  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
Mirtyr  to  that  of  'WilUani  Rufus  it  was  a  royal  mint,  and  some  of 
the  coins  struck  at  Tamworth  are  still  in  esistence.  The  town  was 
incorporated  in  the  3d  year  of  Elizabeth,  from  whom  it  obtained 
the  grant  of  a  fair  and  the  confirmation  of  various  privileges 
bestowed  bv  Edward  III.  The  Elizabethan  charter  was  superseded 
by  one  conferred  by  Charles  11.,  which  continued  to  be  the  govem- 
.og  charter  of  the  town  till  the  passing  of  the  Municipal  Act.  The 
lown,  with  occasional  intermissions,  returned  members  to  parlia- 
ment from  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  till  1885.  Among  its  more  dis- 
tingnished  representativee  have  been  Thomas  Guy  and  Sir  Robert 
Fed. 

TANAGER,  a  word  adapted  from  the  quasi-Latin  Tan- 
igra  of  Linnaeus,  which  again  is  an  adaptation,  perhaps 
with  a  classical  allusion,  of  Tan^ara,  used  by  Brisson  and 
Buffon,  and  said  by  Marcgrave  (Hist.  Her.  Nat.  JBrasilise, 
p.  214)  to  be  the  Brazilian  name  of  certain  birds  found  in 
ihftt  country.  From  them  it  has  since  been  extended  to 
a  great  many^  others  mostly  belonging  to  the  southern 
portion  of  the  New  World,  now  recognized  by  ornitholo- 
gists as  forming  a  distinct  Family  of  Oecines,  and  usually 
considered  to  be  allied  to  the  Frinffillidae  (cf.  FiNcn, 
voL  ix.  p.  191);  but,  as  may  be  inferred  from  Prof. 
Parker's  remarks  in  the  Zoological  Transactions  (x.  pp. 
252,  253,  and  267),  the  Tanagndx  are  a  "  feebler  "  form, 
and  thereby  bear  out  the  opinion  based  on  the  examination 
of  many  types  both  of  Birds  and  Mammals  as  to  the  lower 
morphological  rank  of  the  Neotropical  Fauna  as  a  whole 
{cf.  BmDs,  vol  iii.  p.  t43)- 

The  Tanagera  are  a  group  in  which  Mr  Sclater  has  for  many  years 
interested  himself,  and  his  latest  treatment  of  them  is  contained 
in  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  {xi.  pp.  49-307).  Therein  he 
admits  the  existence  of  375  species,  which  ne  arranges  in  59  genera, 
forming  six  Subfamilies,  ProcnuUirue,  Euphcmiinse,  Tanagrime, 
Lamvroiinm,  P)umicophiliiue,  and  Pitylinte.  These  are  of  very 
une<jual  extent,  for,  while  the  first  of  them  consists  of  but  a  single 
species,  Proenias  Ursa, — the  position  of  which  may  be  for  several 
reasons  still  open  to  doubt, — the  third  includes  more  than  200. 
Kearly  all  are  birds  of  small  size,  ti\S  largest  barely  exceeding  a 
Song-Thrush.  Most  of  them  are  remarkable  for  their  gaudy 
colouring,  and  this  is  especially  the  case  in  those  forming  tho 
genus  called  by  Mr  Sclater,  as  by  most  other  iuthors,  Callislc,  a 
term  inadmissible  through  preoccupation,  to  which  the  name  of 
Tanagra  of  right  seems  to  belong,  while  that  which  he  names 
Tanagra  should  probably  be  known  as  Thraupis.  The  whole 
Family  is  almost  confined  to  the  Neotropical  Eeg-on,  and  there 
are  several  forms  peculiar  to  the  Antilles ;  but  not  a  tenth  of  the 
species  reach  even  southern  Mexico,  and  not  a  dozen  appear  in  the 
northern  part  of  that  country.  Of  the  genus  Pyrariga,  which  h.is 
the  most  northern  range  of  all,  three  if  not  four  species  are  common 
Bummer  immigrants  to  some  part  or  other  of  the  United  States, 
and  two  of  them,  P.  rubra  and  P.  astira, — there  known  respectively 
as  toe  Scarlet  Tanager  and  the  Summer  Redbird,— reach  even  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  visiting  as  well,  though  accidentally, 
Bermuda.  P.  ssstiva  has  a  western  representative,  P.  cooperi,  which 
by  some  authors  is  not  recognized  as  a  distinct  species.  The  males 
of  all  these  are  clad  in  glowing  red,  P.  rubra  having,  however,  the 
wings  and  tail  black.  The  remaining  species,  P.  liuioviciana,  the 
males  of  which  are  mostly  yellow  and  black,  with  tho  head  only 
red,  does  not  appear  eastward  of  tho  Missouri  plains,  and  has  not 
80  northerly  a  range.  .Another  species,  P.  Jiepalica,  has'  just  shewu 
itself  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States.  In  all  these  the 
females  are  plainly  attired;  but  generally  among  the  Tanagers, 
however  bright  rosy  be  their  coloration,  both  sexes  are  nearly  alike 
in  plumage.  Little  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of  the  species 
of  Central  or  South  America,  but  those  of  the  north  have  been  as 
closely  observed  as  the  rather  retiring  nature  of  the  birds  renders 
possible,  and  it  is  known  that  insects,  espeeiaily  in  the  larval 
condition,  and  berries  afford  the  greater  part  of  their  food.  They 
liave  a  pleasing  song,  iind  build  a  shallow  nest,  in  which  the  eggs, 
generally  3  in  number  and  of  a  greenish-hloe  marked  with  brown 
and  purple,  are  laid. 

On  a  whole  the  Tana^ridse  may  perhaps  be  considerfid 


to  hold  the  same  relation  to  the  FrinffUlida  as  thc  Icteridat 
do  to  the  Slumidx  and  the  Mniotiltvdx  to  the  Sylviidet  or 
Turdidst,  in  each  case  the  purely  New- World  Family  being 
the  "  feebler  "  type.  (a.  N.)- 

TANCRED  (d.  1112),  son  of  the  marquis  Odo  the  Good 
and  Emma  the  sister  of  Robert  Gaiscard,  one  of  the  most 
famous  heroes  of  the  £rst  crusade.  See  Crusades,  vol' 
vi.  p.  624  sq. 

TANCRED,  the  last  Norman  king  of  "Sicily,  reigned 
1189-1194.     See  Sicilt,  vol.  xxii.  p.  26. 

TANGANYIKA,  a  lake  in  East  Central  Africa,  called 
Maaga  ("  tempestuous  ")  by  the  Wakawendi  and  Kimana 
by  the  Warungu.  The  meaning  of  the  name  Tanganyika 
is,,  according  to  Cameron,  nothing  more  than  "the  miring 
place."  It  is  the  longest  freshwater  lake  in  the  world, 
being  about  75  miles  longer  than  Lake  Michigan. 
Although  the  Arabs  had  long  known  of  the  existence  of 
the  lake,  the  first  Europeans  who  discovered  it  were  Speke 
and  Burton  in  1858.  It  has  since  been  visited  by  Living- 
stone, Cameron,  Stanley,  Thomson,  and  Hore,  who  have 
all  added  to  our  knowledge  of  it.  Tanganyika,  which  is 
situated  some  600  miles  as  the  crow  flies  from  the  east 
coast  of  Africa,  extends  from  3°  16'  S.  lat.  to  8°  48'  S.  lat., 
and  lies  between  29°  10'  E.  long,  and  32°  30',  E.  long.  Its 
length  is  420  mUes,  and  its  breadth  varies  from  10  to  50 
miles.  Its  area  is  12,650  "square  miles,  and  its  altitude 
may  be  taken  as  2700  feet  above  sea-level  (Cameron,  2710; 
Stanley,  2770;  Hore,  2750;  Popelin,  2665).  It  has  a 
coast-line  of  900  miles  in  extent.  Its  greatest  depth  has 
not  yet  been  determined,  but  Hore  states  that  a  168-fathom 
rope  often  failed  to  reach  the  bottom.  Tanganyika  may 
be  described  as  an  enormous  crevasse.  It  is  bordered  on 
all  sides  by  hills  and  mountains,  some  of  which  rise  to 
from  5000  to  10,000  feet  above  its  waters.  The  scenery 
is  marked  by  exceptional  grandeur,  and  is  'well  calculated 
to  impress  the  traveller.     Burton  says: — 

"It  filled  us  with  admiration,  with  wonder,  and  delight.  Beyond 
the  short  foreground  of  rugged  and  precipitous  hSl-fold,  down 
which  tho  footpath  painfully  zigzags,  a  narrow  plot  of  emerald 
green  shelves  gently  towards  a  ribbon  of  glistening  yellow  sand, 
here  bordered  by  sedgy  rushes,  there  clear  and  cleanly  cut  by  the 
breaking  wavelets.  Farther  in  front  stretches  an-  expanse  of  the 
lightest,  softest  blue,  from  30  to  35  miles  in  breadth,  and  sprinkled 
by  the  cast  wind  with  crescents  of  snowy  foam.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  other  side  by  tall  and  broken  Walls  of  purple  hill,  flecked  and 
capped  with  pearly  mist,  or  standing  sharply  pencilled  against  the 
azure  sky.  To  the  south  lie  high  bluff  headlands  and  capes;  and 
as  the  eye  dilates  it  falls  on  little  outlying  islets,  speckling  a  sea 
horizon.  'Villages,  cultivated  lands,  the  frequent  canoes  of  the 
fishermen,  give  a  something  of  life,  of  variety,  of  movement  to  the 
scenery." 

Tanganyika  is  fed  by  numerous  rivers  and  streamlets 
which  flow  from  the  surrounding  hills,  the  yearly  rainfall 
being  about  27  inches,  but  the  rainy  seasons  vary  extremely 
in  different  years,  altering  the  surface  area  of  the  lake 
accordingly.  Hore  found  that  between  March  1879  and 
August  1880  the  waters  had  fallap  10  feet  4J  inches, 
as  marked  by  a  water-gauge  he  had  erected  at  Ujiji,  and 
he  also  saw  evident  signs  of  the  receding  of  the  waters  all 
round  the  shores  of  the  lake — belts  of  dead  timber  and 
bleached  rock.  Some  120  rivers  knd  streams  flow  into  the 
lake  ;  the  most  important  river  is  the  Malagatasi,  near 
Ujiji.  Just  below;  the  rapids  its  width  is  500  feet,  and 
the  average  depth  5  feet  For  many  years  Tanganyika 
was  a  riddle  to  African  explorers, — Livingstone,  Baker,  and 
others  believing  that  it  belonged  to  the  Nile  system,  and 
that  it  was  connected  with  the  Albert  Nyanza.  That  this 
theory  is  incorrect  was  proved  when  Livingstone  and 
Stanley  explored.the  north  end  of  the  lake  in  November 
1871,  finding  no  outlet.  It  was  Cameron,  in  March  1874, 
■who  first  solved  the  riddle,  and  found  that  the  outlet  of 
Tanganyika  was  the  river  Lukuga,  at  about  the  centre  of 
the  western  shore  of  the  lakp,  5°  52'  45"  S.  laL     In  1876 


46 


T  A  N  — T  A  N 


this  outlet,  was  visited  by  Stanley,  wbo  found  that  ttiere 
was  no  apparent  outflow,  and  doubt  was  thrown  upon 
Cameron's  obsorvatmn^,  which,  however,  have  been  proved 
to  be  correct  by  Hoie,  who  in  ISSO  found  a  strong  current 
setting  uneiiuuocally  out  of  the  lalte  Not  only  so,  but  he 
obtained  good  views  of  the  rivt-r,  which  gradually  widens 
soon  aftcr'the  rapids  near  the  lake  are  passed  He  followed 
the  river  to  5'  50'  S.  lat.,  and.  from  an  altitude  of  1100 
feet  above  the  river,  he  saw  it  flowing  far  away  to  the 
westward.  The  question  is  therefore  settled  that  Lake 
Tanganyika  belongs  to  the  Congo  -system,  but  it  is  only  an 
occasional  tributary  to  that  nngliiy  rivt-r,  its  contribution 
depending  upon  the  rainfall  The  lake  is  subject  to  fre- 
quent storms,  especially  fruru  the  S  .S  E  and  S  W  ,  lasting 
Eomelimes  for  two  or  three  days,  and  leaving  a  heavy  swell, 
which  proves  a  great  hindrance  to  navigation.  Hore  says 
— "  I  have  never  witnessed  such  wondrous  cloud--sceiiery 
and  majestic  effects  of  thuudtir  and  lightning  as  on  Tau 
ganyika." 

Theshoresanawatn- of  the  lake  abound  m  auimal  lilo.— crocodiles, 
the  hippo[iotamus..otUT*,  anJ  many  kinds  of  fi!.li  Uiiij;  fuund  lu  Us 
■waters.  Flocks  of  w.itcrfowl  il."Ui]J  in  tlit-  tiv-r  inuuili-  gulls, 
diteis,  herons.  kinf-'fi-,liers.  i.nf;l>-s.  hsli  h.iwks,  und  bla.  k  ibis  an- 
very  numerous.  Thr  shore.,  .ire  V'.r\  f.riilv.  — n.,..  manior.  kdlfn- 
corn,  two  kinds  of  giound  nuts,  ujaii'r.  u1.-)m,  punipkins,  sweet 
potatoes,  sugar-cane,  ca~tui  <iil  tri-o.  laiuann'l.  euiton.  tomato, 
Find  cucumber  growing  lu\unaiill>  Tlie  I'll  |p,ilm  grows  at  l'|iii 
Uiuudi.  and  at  the  south  i  nd  ■•>  the  laki .  th.-  bun^»us  neat  the 
Mal.agauii  river,  the  suew  pilni  in  I'guba,  ml  th.  raphia  in 
several  localities  Thi  i/<\^  fl)  i-  f'>und\.n  th.  ..li'.nsol  thr  lake 
from  Ujiji  round  the  southern  eml  is  fat  a»  I'b.vdri  on  the  n.st 
coast.  Amongst  the  useful  tiinb.:i  ti.es  may  b.  iiotned  the  gigantic 
mbule,  the  mininga,  lignum  vite,  untl  .  bony  Thi  |jen|,l,.  mh.ihit 
ing  the  countiies  on  the  b..rdir»  of  the  lak.-  t..rm  t.  ti  di-.lin.  t  tiib.s, 
with  sepaiate  national  peculiariiies  ind  customs  Th.-y  live  in 
wcll-organizeil  villages,  in  whnli  cun^ideralil.-  »oeul  oid'r  is  main 
tained.  They  have  also  learnt,  to  som.  exlnii  at  any  rate,  to 
utilize  the  products  ol  then  eounrry  th.  y  w.irk  then  own  irou 
and  copper  ,  salt  is  prepared  foi  hart,  i  palm  oil  is  voile,  te'l  .  ami 
in  some  places  there  are  huge  [.ott-ry  works  Th.  ii  tishing  industry 
is  t-ttcnsive,  and  dried  fish  i»txporie.l  boatbuilding  is  •■arried  .in 
to  a  small  cictent ,  cotton  i  loth  is  manuU  tunJ  at  vvrral  places, 
ind  at  others  the  famous  grass  oi  palm  libn  ih.th  .  whilst  the 
dairy  farms  of  L'hha  export  pa.  kag..s  ol  butt.  I  Th..r>-  are  sev. 
eral  London  Missionary  Soeiety  stations  on  Laki  Tinganyika.  also 
one  belonging  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  a  stati.m  ..f  the  African 
International  Association  is  situated  at  Karenia.  L'jiji,  an  Arab 
town  of  some  importance,  stands  on  the  easteru  slion  of  the  lake. 

T.\NOIERS,  or  Ta.nciek  (Tmij.<),  a  seaport  of  Morocco 
and  capital  of  a  pashalik,  on  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar, 
about  14  miles  to  the  east  of  Cape  iSpartel,  .stands  on  two 
eminences  at  the  north  west  extremity  of  a  spacious  bay. 
The  town  has  a  tine  appiearance  from  the  .sea,  rising 
gradually  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  defended 
by  walls  and  a  castle.  The  streets,  which  are  unpaved, 
are  very  narrow  and  croo'ked,  and  the  houses,  except  those 
occupied  by  foreign  ambiussadors  or  consuls  and  a  few 
others,  are  mean.  The  main  thoroughfare  is  that  which 
leads  from  the  Bab-alMarsa  (Gate  ol  the  Port)  to  the 
Bab-al-Sok  (Gate  of  the  .Market  Tlace)  ,  the  sok  presents 
a  lively  spectacle,  esiiecially  on  Sundays  and  Thursdays. 
The  manufactures  of  Tangiers  are  of  little  importance, 
consisting  chiefly  of  coarse  woollen  cloth,  mats,  and 
pottery;  tanning  is  also  carried  on,  but  the  leather, 
though  much  esteemed  in  Europe,  is  inferior  to  that  made 
in  other  parts  of  Morocco.  The  harbour  is  a  mere  road- 
stead, but  It  is  the  best  Morocco  possesses,  and  affords 
good  anchorage  and  bheller  to  the  largest  vessels,  except 
during  the  prevalence  of  strong  winds  from  the  north-west 
or  east.  Tangiers  has  a  large  trade  with  Gibraltar.  The 
climate  is  teiirperate  and  healthy,  but  the  inhabitants  often 
suffer  much  in  summer  [rom  deliciency  of  water-supply. 
Tangiers,  which  is  the  residence  of  all  the  foreign  ministers 
ftiid  consuls  to  the  court  of  Morocco,  has  a  population  esti- 
mated at  about  20.000  of  whom  some  400  are_ Europeans^ 


The  Koman  Tingis,  which  stood  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  site  of  Tangiers,  boasted  of  great  antiquity;  under  Augustui 
It  became  a  free  city,  and  Claudius  made  it  a  Roman  colony  and 
capital  of  Tiugitaiia  It  was  held  successively  by  Vandals,  Byzan-' 
tines,  and  Arabs,  and  fell  luto  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese  towards 
tho  end  ol  the  16th  century  In  1&62  it  was  made  part  of  the. 
dowry  ol  Catherine  of  Biagauza  on  -her  marriage  with  Charles  II. 
oi  Eiigland  .  the  English  defended  It  in  16S0,  but,  on  account  of  it* 
expenso,  dismantled  it  in  lt)84  and  abandoned  it  to  the  Moors,  who 
fortided  It  anew  It  was  bombarded  by  a  Spanish  fleet  in  1790 
and  by  the  French  lu  1844 

T.^NU.\USER,  or  Tannhauser,  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  most  famous  of  old  German  legends,  is  represented 
as  a  knight  who  alter  many  wanderings  comes  to  the 
Venusberg  He  enters  the  cave  where  the  Lady  Venus 
holds  her  court,  and  abandons  himself  to  a  life  of  sensual 
pleasure  By  and  by  he  is  overcome  by  remorse,  and, 
invoking  the  aid  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  he  obtains  per- 
mission to  return  for  a  while  to  the  outer  world.  He 
then  goes  aa  a  pilgrim  to  Rome,  and  entreats  Pope  Urban 
to  secure  for  him  the  forgiveness  of  his  sins.  The  pope, 
who  happens  to  have  a  rod  in  his  hand,  says  it  is  as  im-^ 
possible  for  him  to  be  pardoned  as  for  the  rod  to  blossom.; 
Tanhauser  therefore  departs  in  despair,  and  returns  to  the' 
Lady  Venus.  In  three  days  the  rod  begins  to  put  forth 
green  leave.s,  and  the  pope  ^nds  messengers  in  all  direc- 
tions in  search  of  the  penitent,  but  he  is  never  seen  again. 
Thi.s  legend  was  at  one  time  known  in  every  part  of 
Germany,  and  as  late  as  1830  it  survived  in  a  popular, 
song  at  Entlibuch,  a  version  of  which  was  given  by' 
L'hland  in  his  A/te  hock-  und  nuderdtutsche  Volksheder. 
It  can  be  traced  back  to  the  1 4th  •century,  but  in  its 
original  form  seems  to  have  belonged  to  the  period  of 
Teutonic  paganism  According  to  some  legends,  the  Venus-' 
berg  IS  the  Hoselberg  or  Hurselberg,  a  hill  near  Eisenach 
associated  with  the  Teutonic  goddess  of  the  nether  world, 
who  was  known  by  various  names,  such  as  Hulda,  Hilda, 
and  Hel  To  this  goddess  the  name  of  Venus  appears  to 
have  been  transferred  Among  the  attendants  of  Hulda 
was  the  faithful  Eckhart,  and  in  the  preface  to  the 
Uddi-idruch  he  is  said  to  sit  before  the  Venusberg,  and 
to  warn  passers-by  «f  the  dangers  to  which  they  may  be 
exposed  if  they  linger  in  the  neighbourhood  The  legend 
has  been  reproduced  by  several  modern  German  poets, 
and  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  'Wagner's  operas. 

In  the  13th  century,  contemporary  with  Pope  Urban 
IV  ,  there  was  a  German  knight  called  Tanhauser,  who  was 
well  known  as'  a  minnesinger  at  the  court  of  Frederick 
U.,  duke  of  Austria  After  Duke  Frederick's  death 
Tanhauser  was  received  at  the  court  of  Otlio  II ,  duke  of 
liavaria  ,  but,  being  of  a  restless  disposition,  and  having 
wasted  his  fortune,  he  spent  much  time  in  wandering 
about  Germany.  He  also  went  as  a  crusader  to  the  Holy 
Land.  His  poems  (printed  in  the  second  part  of  the 
Miniirxin'/rr,  edited  b^  Von  der  Hagen)  are  fresh,  lively, 
and  graceful,  but  lack  the  ideal  tone  which  marks  the 
writings  ol  the  earlier  minnesinger  He  was  much 
esteemed  by  the  incistersinger,  and  it  is  po.ssible  that  the' 
story  of  his  adventurous  lile  may  have  been  connected 
with  the  old  legend  about  the  Venusberg. 

See  K.irnui.uni,  .U./iu-  yencm  (lfil4).  and  Grasse,  Die  Sage  vom 
RiWr  T'tnluiustT,  and  Der  Tiifihau^cruiid  h'uiyc  Jutit,  aiaoZaaia, 
DiC  Tilnhiiiiser  Sayc  uiiUJ<r  M ailusailijcr  TanhauscK 

TANJORE,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Madras 
presidency,  lying  between  y'  60'  and  11°  25'  N.  lat.  and 
between  78°  55'  and  79°  56'  E.  long ,  with  an  area  of 
3G54  square  miles.  It  forms  a  portion  of  the  Southern 
Carnatic,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N  by  the  river  Coleroon, 
which  separates  it  from  'lYichinopoly  and  South  Arcot 
districts,  on  the  E.  and  S.E  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  on 
the  S.W.  by  Madura  district,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Madura  and  Trichinopoly  and  Pudukotta  state.     Tanjore 


T  A  N  — T  A  N 


47 


ia  known  as  the  g&rdan  of  Sontberu  India.  It  is  well 
watered  by  an  elaborate  system  of  d&ms,  cuts,  and  canals 
in  connexion  with  the  rivers  Cauvery  and  Coleroon,  and  the 
soil  is  exceedingly  productive.  The  delta  of  the  Cauvery 
occupies  the  flat  northern  part,  which  is  iigUy  cultirated 
with  rice,  dotted  over  with  groves  of  cocoa-nat  trees,  and 
densely  populated.  Tanjore  is  a  land  of  temples,  many 
of  them  being  of  very  early  date.  The  great  temple  of 
Tai^ore  city  is  said  to  be  the  finest  in  India  ;  it  is  of  the 
11th  century,  and  remains  in  excellent  preservation  to  the 
present  day.  The  district  has  a  coast-line  of  140  miles, 
but  communication  with  shipping  is  unsafe,  owing  to  a 
heavy  surf  which  breaks  incessantly  on  the  shore.  The 
ninfalT,'  as  elsewhere  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  varies 
considerably  from  year  to  year ;  the  mean  annual  fall,  as 
observed  at  ten  stations  for  four  years,  was  4714  inches. 
Tanjore  is  amply  provided  with  means  of  communication. 
It  is  traversed  by  two  branches  of  the  South  Indian  Railway. 

The  census  of  1881  retamed  the  population  of  the  district  at 
■2,130,333  (males  1.026,528,  females  1,103,855),  of  whom  1,939,421 
were  Hindus,  112,058  Mohammedans,  and  78,258  Christians. 
Taiyore  is  the  first  district  in  which  Protestant  missions  began, 
and  now  it  is  second  only  to  Tinnevelly  in  the  number  of  fts 
Christian  mission^.  These  establishments  were  taken  over  in  1826 
by  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  ql  the  Gospel,  which  subse- 
quently founded  missions  in  several  parts  of  the  district  The, 
total  number  of  native  Protestants  belonging  to  the  various  societies 
in  1881  was  8255.  Romau  Catholic  missions  in  Tanjore  date  from 
the  first  half  of  the  17th  century,  and  the  number  of  native  Roman 
Catholics  in  1881  was  67,745.  Five  towns  have  populations  ex- 
ceeding 10,000,  viz.,  Tanjore  (see  below),  Negapatam  53,855,  Com- 
baconnm  50,098,  Mayavaram  23,044,  and  Munnargudi  19,409. 

Of  th»  total  area  of  the  district,  reckoned  at  2,392,117  acres, 
1,468,500  were  returned  in  1884-85  as  cultivated,  and  149,228  as 
available  for  cultivation,  while  forests  covered  21,422  acres.  Rice 
is  the  staple  crop,  and  is  raised  almost  entirely  by  artificial  irriga- 
tion :  green  crops  are  common ;  plantain  and  betel-vine  gardens 
abound  in  the  delta,  where  sugar-cane  and  tobacco  are  also  cQlti- 
vated.  The  chief  manuf.ictures  are  metal  wares,  sUk  cloths,  carpets, 
and  pith-work.  Imports  consist  chiefly  of  cotton  piece  goods, 
twist  and  yarn,  metals,  timber,  and  betel  nuts.  Rice  is  by  far  the 
most  important  article  of  export  alike  by  sea  and  land.  The  gross 
revenue  in  1884-85  was  £549,982,  the  land  yielding  £389,755. 

The  modern  history  of  Tanjore  commences  with  its  occupation 
by  the  Mahrattas  in  1678  under  Venkaji,  the  brother  of  Sivaji  the 
Great.  The  British  first  came  into  contact  with  Tanjore  by  their 
expedition  in  1749  with  a  view  to  the  restoration  of  a  deposed  rdja. 
In  this  they  failed,  and  a  subsequent  expedition  was  bought  off. 
The  Mahrattas  practically  heli  Tanjore  until  1799.  In  October  of 
that  year  it  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  in  absolute 
sovereignty  by  Raja  Sharabhoji,  pupil  of  the  missionary  Schwartz, 
the  company  engaging  to  pay  the  raja  of  Tanjore  one-fifth  of  the 
net  revenue  of  the  territory  which  was  transferred  to  them,  with  a 
further  sum  o(  £35,000.  Raja  Sharabhoji  retained  only  the  capital 
and  a  small  tract  of  country  around.  He  died  in  1833,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Sivaji,  on  whose  death' in  1855  without  an 
heir  the  house  became  extinct,  the  rights  and  privileges  appertain- 
^ing  to  it  ceased,  and  Tanjore  became  British  territory. 
;  TAXJORE,  capital  and  administrative  headquarters  of 
.the  above  district,  is  situated  in  10'  47'  N.  lat.  and  79° 
■10'  24"  E.  long.  As  the  last  capital  of  the  ancient  Hindu 
dynasty  of  the  Cholas,  and  in  all  ages  one  of  the  chief 
political,  literary,  and  retigioua  centres  of  the  south,  the 
city  is  full  of  interesting  associations.  Its  monuments  of 
Indian  art  and  early  civilization  are  of  the  first  importance. 
■Besides  its  great  temple,  the  city  is  famed  for  its  ^rtistic 
manufactures,  including  silk  carpets,  jewellery,  repousse 
work,  copper  wares,  <tc.  It  contained  a  population  in 
1881  of  54,745  (26,272  males  and  28,473  females).  The 
South  Indian  Railway  connects  Tanjore  with  Negapatam, 
its.  seaport  on  the  east,  and  Trichinopoly  on  the  west. 

TAXNAHILL,  Robert  (1774-1810),  one  of  the  most 
popular  of  the  successors  of  Burns  in  song-writing,  was  a 
weaver  in  Paisley,  where  he  was  born  in  1774.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  his  father's  trade  at  the  age  of  twelve,  in 
the  year  of  the  first  publication  of  the  poems  of  Bums, 
which  quickened  the  poetic  ambition  of  so  many  Scottish 
yontha  in  humble  life.    The  yoting  apprentice  studied  and 


composed  poetry  as  he  drove  the  shuttle  to  and  fro,  with 
shelf  and  ink-bottle  rigged  iip  on  his  loom-post.  Apart 
from  his  poetry,  he  had  little  variety  in  his  life.  He  was 
shy  and  reserved,  of  small  and  delicate  physique,  and  took 
little  part  in  the  \'igorous  social  life  of  the  town,  beyond 
sitting  and  smoking  at  a  club  of  local  worthies,  and  occa- 
sionally writing  humorous  verses  for  their  amusement. 
He  haid  apparently  bat  one  love  affair,  the  heroine  of 
which  was  the  original  of  "  Jessie,  the  Flower  of  Dunblane." 
He  bade  her  farewell  in  indignant  rhymes  after  three  years' 
courtship.  The  steady^  routine  of  his  trade  was  broken 
only  by  occasional  excursions  to  Glasgow  and  the  land  of 
Burns,  and  a  year's  trial  of  work  at  Bolton.  He  began  in 
1805  to  contribute  verses  to  Glasgow  and  Paisley  period- 
icals, and  published  an  edition  of  his  poems  by  subscription 
in  1807.  Three  years  later  the  life  of  the  quiet,  gentle, 
diffident,  and  despondent  poet  was  brought  by  his  own  act  to 
a  tragic  end.  Tannahill's  claims  to  remembrance.rest  upon 
half  a  dozen  songs,  full  of  an  exquisite  feeling  for  nature, 
and  so  happily  wedded  to  music  that  their  wide  popularity 
in  Scotland  is  likely  to  be  enduring.  "  Loudon's  Bonnie 
Woods  and  Braes,"  "  Jessie,  the  Flower  of  Dunblane,"  and 
"  Gloomy  Winter's  Noo  Awa  "  are  the  best  of  them. 

Tannahill's  centenary  was  celebrated  with  great  honour  at  Paisley 
in  1874  ;  and,  in  an  edition  by  Mr  David  Semple,  published  in  1876, 
there  is  an  exhaustive  and  minutely  learned  account  of  all  that  has 
been  preserved  concerning  the  poet,  his  ancestry,  and  the  occasions 
of  his  various  poems. 

TANNIN,  a  generic  name  for  a  class  of  vegetable 
substances  which,  as  the  name  indicates,  are  all  available 
for  tanning,  meaning  the  conversion  of  animal  hide  into 
leather.  'Tannin  is  widely  diffused  throughout  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  An  enumeration  of  the  principal  materials 
which  form  the  commercial  sources  of  the  substance  will 
be  found  under  Leatbee,  vol  xiv.  p.  381,  and  in  various 
special  articles  referred  to  from  that  heading. 

Our  chemical  knowledge  on  the  subject  is  very  limited ; 
and,  as  long  as  we  know  no  better,  each  of  the  various 
tanning  materials  must  he  viewed  as  containing  a  "tannin'' 
of  its  own  kind.'  Only  a  few  have  as  yet  been  obtained 
in  a  state  approximating  chemical  purity.  The  following 
characters  are  common  to  them  all : — 

(1)  All  are  colourless  or  little-coloured  non-volatile  solids,  sol- 
uble in  water  and  in  alcohol ;  the  solution  has  an  astringent  taste. 

(2)  They  colour  blue  litmus  paper  feebly  red,  yet  all  unite  with 
the  alkalies  into  soluble  salts  ;  the  solutions  of  these  eagerly  absorb 
oxygen  from  the  air,  with  formation  of  dark-coloured  products. 

(3)  They  form  insoluble  salts  with  the  oxides  of  lead,  zinc, 
copper,  producible  by  addition  of  solution  of  the  tannin  to  one  of 
the  respective  acetate. 

(4)  They  form  very  dark-coloured  (green  or  blue)  compounds 
with  ferric  oxide,  conveniently  producible  by  addition  of  the  tannin 
to  ferric  or  ferroso-ferric  acetate.  Ordinary  old. fashioned  black 
(gall-nut)  ink  may  be  quoted  as  an  illustration. 

(5)  Tannin  solutionsprecipitate  gelatine  as  an  insoluble  compound, 
generallyassumed  to  be  chemicallysimilartothe  substance  of  leather. 

(6)  If  a  piece  of  raw  hide  be  placed  in  a  solution  of  any  Unnin, 
it  imbibes  the  latter  with  formation  of  Leather  (q  v.). 

(7)  Aqueous  tannin-solutions,  if  mixed  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
are  readily  oxidized  by  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash,  which, 
being  reduced  to  manganous  salt,  loses  its  intense  violet  colour. 

Upon  the  last  two  propositions  Lowenthal  has  based  a  convenient 
method  for  the  assaying  of  tannin  materials.  A  known  weight  of 
the  substance  to  be  analysed  (say  sumach)  is  extracted  with  water, 
and  the  extract  diluted  to  a  known  volume.  An  aliquot  part  of 
the  extract  is  then  mixed  with  a  certain  proportion  of  a  standard 
solution  of  indigo-c'lrmin  and  of  sulphuric  acid,  and,  after  large 
dilution  with  water,  standard  permanganate  is  dropped  in  from  a 
burette  (graduated  glass  tube)  until  the  colour  of  the  indigo  is 
completely  discharged.  After  deducting  the  volume  of  reagent 
which  would  have  been  taken  up  by  the  indigo  alone,  the  rest  ia 
put  down  as  corresponding  to  the  "permanganate  reducers  gene- 
rally." Another  measured  volume  of  the  extract  is  then  poured 
over  a  sufficient  weight  of  dry  shavings  of  raw  hide,  after  naving 
been  suitably  diluted,  and  the  whole  is  allowed  to  stand  until  the 
tannin  has  idl  passed  into  the  hide.     The  liquid  is  then  filtered, 

^  Coffee  beans  and  t«a  leaves  contais  peculiar  taimlsf. 


48 


T  A  N  —  T  A  O 


and  ft  measured  volume,  corresponding  to  exactly  the  quantity  of 
extract  used  for  the  assay,  tested  ^vith  permanganate.  The  volume 
of  reagent  used  this  tinif  is  deducted  from  that  used  in  the  assay 
•3  a  correction-  From  the  net  permanganate  the  weight  of  pure 
gallotannic  acid  which  it  would  oxidiie  is  calculated  on  the  basis 
pf  standard  expenuients,  and  from  this  weight  the  '*  percentage  of 
tannin"  is  deduced.  The  method  is  purely  empirical,  and  the 
reeults  are  of  no  value  unless  obtained  according  to  a  rigorously 
prescribed  mode  of  procedure.  Of  individual  taunins  that  of  the 
gall-nuts,  known  aa  galloUinnu:  acid,  is  best  known.  For  its  pre- 
paration (according  to  P^louzp.)  powdered  gall-nuts  are  placed  in 
an  apparatus  for  extraction  "by  displacement,"  and  in  it  soaked 
in  a  mixture  of  9  parts  of  ether  and  1  part  of  water  for  twenty -four 
hours,  ^he  liquid  is  then  allowed  to  draiu  off,  and  the  residue 
washed  with  aqueous  ether.  The  liquid  on  standing  separates 
into  two  layers, — a  lower  heavy  layer,  which  contains  the  taonin, 
and  an  upper  more  purely  ethereal  layer,  which  contains  gallic  acid 
and  other  impurities.  The  lower  layer  is  drawn  off,  washed  once 
or  twice  with  ether,  and  then  evaporated  to  dryness  at  a  ^entlo 
heat  ;  the  tannin  remains  as  a  porous  friable  mass  of  a  slightly 
greyiah. yellow  colour      This  is  the  tanniu  of  the  pharmaceutist. 

Such  tannin  is  not  by  any  means  an  absolutely  unitary  substance. 
Its  solution,  if  allowed  to  stand  in  the  presence  of  a  ferment  which 
is  naturally  present  in  gall-nut  extract,  or  more  readily  if  boiled 
with  fiulphuric  acid,  yields  a  large  proportion  of  gallic  acid,  which 
is  easily  obtained  in  pure  crystals.  According  to  Strecker,  glucose 
is  formed  at  the  same  time,  whence  he  viewed  tannin  as  a  glucoaide 
(see  SOGAR).  But  this  is  now  recognized  as  a  mistake,  since  Hugo 
Schiff  showed  that  ^re  tannin  is  only  digallic  acid,  C,,H,(,0,— 
2C7HJO5  (gallic  acid)  minus  IH5O.  Pure  tannin,  according  to 
Schiff,  can  be  obtained  by  dehydrating  pure  gallic  acid  by  means 
of  chloride  of  acetyl.  The  tannin  of  the  Chinese  gall-nuts  seems 
to  be  identical  with  gallotannic  acid. 

Querettannic  Acid.  —The  tannin  of  oak  bark  is  certainly  different 
from  gallotannic  acid,  because  it  yields  no  gallic  acid  when  boiled 
with  dilute  vitriol.  Etti  {Jahresb.  iiber  die  forCschr.  der  Chcmie 
for  1880,  p.  898)  prepares  it  by  extracting  the  powdered  bark  with 
dilate  alcohol  at  a  gentle  heat,  adding  ordinary  ether  to  the  alcoholic 
extract,  and  shaking  out  the  tannin  with  acetic  ether.  The  acetic 
ether  extract  is  distilled  to  recover  the  solvent,  the  residue  filtered, 
and  the  filtrate  evaporated  to  dryness  to  obtain  the  pure  (?)  tannin 
as  a  reddish-white  powder  of  the  composition  CtyHijOg.  At  130- 
140'  C.  it  loses  water  and  forms  phhbaphen,  Cg^HjoOj,,  a  brown 
solid  insoluble  in  water  but  soluble  in  solution  of  the  tannin. 
Quercitannic  acid  forms  quite  a  series  of  such  anhydrides; 
C«H,„Oi, :  C„H„0„ ;  C„H„0„;  C5,H„0„.  Some,  if  not  all,  of 
these  are  contained  in  aqueous  oak-bark  extract,  and  they  play  an 
important  part  in  its  application  for  tanning.  According  to  Etti, 
quercitannic  acid  is  a  tri-methyl  substitution-product  oi  digallic 
ecid,  Ci,H,.Oj  minns  3H  plus  3CH3-C„H„0,. 

Besides  these  two  tannins,  those  of  coffee  and  cachou  are  the 
only  ones  which  have  been  obtained  in  a  relatively  definite  form. 

TANNING.     See  Leather. 

TANTALUM.  A  rare  element  closely  allied  to 
NiOBltrM.     See  vol.  xvii  p.  513. 

TANTALUS,  a  hero  of  ancient  Greek  myth  and 
legend.  He  wa8  a  son  of  Zeus  and  Pluto  ("Wealth"), 
and  became  the  father  of  Pelops,  Proteus,  and  Niobe.  He 
dwelt  in  splendour  on  Mount  Sipylus  near  Smyrna,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  table  of  the  gods  themselves.  But 
he  abased  the  divine  favour  by  revealing  to  mankind  the 
secrete  he  had  learned  in  heaven,  or  by  killing  his  son 
Pelops  and  serving  him  up  to  the  gods  at  table.  Another 
story  was  that  he  stole  nectar  and  ambrosia  from  heaven 
and  gave  them  to  men.  According  to  others,  Pandareus 
stole  a  golden  dog  which  guarded  the  temple  of  Zeus  in 
Crete,  and  gave  it  to  Tantalus  to  take  care  of.  But,  when 
Pandareus  demanded  the  dog  back,  Tantalus  denied  that 
he  had  received  it.  Therefore  Zeus  turned  Pandareus  into 
a  stone,  and  flung  down  Tantalus  with  Mount  Sipylus  on 
the  top  of  him.  The  punishment  of  Tantalus  in  the  lower 
world  was  famous.  He  stood  up  to  his  neck  in  water, 
which  fled  from  him  when  he  tried  to  drink  of  it ;  and 
over  his  head  hung  fruits  which  the  wind  wafted  away 
whenever  he  tried  to  grasp  them.  From  this  myth  is 
derived  the  English  word  "tantalize."  Another  story  is 
that  a  rock  bung  over  his  head  ready  to  fall  and  crush 
him.  The  tomb  of  Tantalus  on  Mount  Sipylus  was  pointed 
out  in  antiquity,  and  has  been  in  modem  times  identified 
by  Texier  with  the  great  cairn  beueath  Old  Magnesia; 


but  Prof.  W.  M.  Ramsay  inclines  to  identify  it  with  a 
remarkable  rock-cut  tomb  beside  Magnesia.  The  story  of 
Tantalus  contains  a  reminiscence  of  a  semi-Greek  kingdom 
which  had  its  seat  at  Sipylus,  the  oldest  and  holiest  city 
of  Lydia,  and  one  of  the  chief  birthplaces  of  early  Greek 
civilization.  Of  this  ancient  city  the  remains  are  still 
visible  on  the  northern  slope  of  Mount  Sipylus,  and  about 
4  miles  east  of  Magnesia.  They  consist  of  sepulchral 
mounds,  rock-cut  tombs,  and  a  small  acropolis  perched  on 
an  almost  inaccessible  crag  which  juts  out  from  the  nearly 
perpendicular  limestone  wall  of  Mount  Sipylus,  There 
was  a  tradition  in  antiquity  that  the  city  of  Tantalus  had 
been  swallowed  up  in  a  lake  on  the  mountain  ;  but  the 
legend  may,  as  Prof.  W.  M.  Ramsay  thinks,  have  been 
suggested  by  the  vast  ravine  which  yawns  beneath  the 
acropolis.'  This  acropolis  is  too  small  ever  to  have  been 
the  seat  of  a  great  empire ;  rather,  like  Pessinus  and  other 
great  religious  centres  of  Asia  Minor,  it  may  have  been 
"  the  seat  of  a  priestly  suzerainty  maintained  over  the 
hiero-douloi  [sacred  slaves]  of  the  surrounding  district." 
Connected  as  the  city  was  on  the  one  hand  with  the  sea, 
and  on  the  other  with  the  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Phrygia  by  means  of  the  "  royal  road,"  it  was  a  natural 
meeting-place  for  Greek  and  Oriental  culture.  A  com- 
parison of  the  art  of  Phrygia  with  the  early  art  of  Mycense 
and  Olympia  has  fully  confirmed  the  legend  which  con- 
nects the  family  of  Tantalus  with  the  Peloponnesus. 

See  Pelops,  Phryoia,  and  a  paper  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Ramwy  In 
Journal  of  Hdlenic  Studies,  iii.  p.  33  »J. 

TAOIS^L     See  Lao-tszb. 

TAORMENA  {Tauromenium),  now  an  unimportant  vil- 
lage of  about  3000  inhabitants,  is  magnificently  situated 
at  the  edge  of  a  precipitous  cliff  900  feet  high  on  the  east 
coast  of  Sicily,  about  32  miles  from  Messina  and  the  same 
from  Catania.  The  original  city  was  founded  by  a  tribe 
of  Siculi  after  the  destruction  of  the  neighbouring  city  of 
Naxos  in  403  B.C.  by  Dionysius  of  Syracuse.  It  was  built 
on  the  hill  of  Taurus,  whence  came  the  name  Tavpo/jo-ioi' 
(Diod.,  xiv.  58).  In  358  B.C.  the  city  was  increased  by 
the  settlement  of  the  exiled  survivors  from  Naxos,  which 
was  only  3  miles  distant ;  and  hence  Pliny  (H.  N.,  iii.  8) 
speaks  of  Naxos  as  having  been  the  original  name  of 
Tauromenium.  Owing  to  its  commanding  site,  the  city 
has  frequently  been  the  scene  of  important  struggles. 
When  with  the  rest  of  Sicily  it  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  Romans,  it  shared  with  two  other  Sicilian  cities  the 
privileges  of  a  "ci vitas  foederata."  During  the  Servile 
War  (134-132  B.c.)  Tauromenium  was  occupied  by  a 
body  of  rebel  slaves,  but  was  finally  taken  by  the  consul 
Rupilius,  and  the  whole  garrison  slaughtered.  In  36  B.C. 
it  was  one  of  Sextus  Pompey's  chief  strongholds  in  his  war 
with  Augustus,  who  after  his  victory  established  a  Roman 
colony  there.  Under  the  empire  it  was  a  flourishing  city, 
famed  for  iu  wine  (Pliny,  H.  Jf.,  xiv.  6)  and  red  mullets 
(Juv.,  v.  93).  In  902  a.d.  it  was  taken  from  the  Byzan- 
tine emperor  by  the  Saracens,  who  called  the  place  Moezzia. 
In  1078  it  was  captured  by  the  Normans.  A  large 
number  of  ancient  remains  bear  witness  to  its  former 
importance.  Fine  autonomous  silver  coins  of  c.  300  B.C. 
exist,  with  otm.  a  laureated  head  of  Apollo,  and  reti.  a 
tripod,  with  the  legend  TAYPOMENITAN,  and  a  magis- 
trate's initials  AI.  The  theatre  is,  next  to  that  it  Aspendus 
(Pamphylia),  the  best  preserved  in  existence.  It  is  Greek 
in  plan,  but  the  existing  structure  belongs  mostly  to  the 
Roman  period,  and  is  specially  remarkable  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  its  lofty  Bcena  wall,  and  two  large  chambers  which 
form  entranee-porchee  to  the  cavea.     It  is  excavated  in  an 

'  Ugends  of  aubmaiged  dUes  and  castles  are  common  In  different 
parte  of  Enropa.  It  hat  bean  anggssted  that  they  are  conftuad  recol- 
lections of  the  anoiant  TlUagat  bnUt  on  piles  in  lakea  (Wood-Martin, 
Laht  Dvtllingt  qf  IrtlOHd,  p.  88). 


I 


A 


T  A  P  —  T,  A  r 


49 


elevated  peak  of  rock,  aud  commands  one  of  tbe  oiost 
magnificent  views  io  the  "n-orld,  with  Mount  Etna  in  the 
distance.  Remains  of  five  piscinie  and  a  large  bath, 
popularly  called  a  uaumachia,  still  exist,  together  with 
remains  of  the  ancient  city  wall  and  that  of  the  arx. 

See  Serrtdifaloo,  AnluhM  di  Sicilia,  Palermo,  1834-42,  vol.  v.  ; 
Uittorff  uid  Zanth,  ArchiUclun  AtUiqiu  de  la  Sidle,  Paris.  1870. 

TAPACULO,  the  name*  given  in  Chili  to  a  bird  of 
singular  appearance, — the  Pteroptochtis albicollis  of  ornitho- 
logy,— and.  throughout  this  series  of  articles  (Birds, 
vol.  iii.  p.  743  ;  Ornithology,  vol.  xviii.  p.  40,  et  alM), 
apphed  in  an  extended  sense  to  its  allied  forms,  which  are 
now  found  to  constitute  a  small  Family,  PteroptocJiidx, 


Tapaculo. 
belonging  to  the  Tracheophonous  division  of  Passeres,  and 
therefore  peculiar  to  South  America.     About  20  species, 
which  are  disposed  by  Mr  Sclater  (Ihis,  1874,  pp.    189- 
206)  in  S  genera,  are  believed  to  belong  to  this  group. 

The  species  of  the  Family  first  made  known  is  Snjiatopns 
nwgellaiucus,  originally  descnbed  in  1783  by  Latham  (Si/uopsts. 
iv.  p  464)  as  a  Warbler.  Even  in  1836  Gould  not  unnaturally 
took  it  for  a  Wren,  when  establishing  the  genus  to  which  it  is 
now  referred  :  but  some  ten  years  after  Johannes  Mnller  found 
that  ScyUilopiis,  together  with  the  true  Tapaculo,  which  w.is  first 
described  by  Kittlitz  in  1830,  possessed  anatomical  characters  that 
removed  them  far  from  any  position  previously  assi^ed  to  them, 
and  determined  their  true  place  as  above  given.  In  the  meanwhile 
a  kindred  form,  Hylacles,  also  first  described  in  1830,  had  been 
shewn  by  Eyton  to  have  some  very  exceptional  osteologn-al  features. 
and  these  were  found  to  be  also  common  to  PlcTuptochus  and 
ScytaUmus.  In  1860  Prof  Cabanis  recognized  the  Pleroplochida: 
as  a  distinct  Family,  but  made  it  also  include  Menvra  [cf.  Lyre- 
bird, vol.  XV.  p  115),  and  in  1874  Mr  Sclater  («/  stipra)  thought 
that  AlTiehia  (cf.  ScRUBBiRD.  vol.  xxi.  p.  5f>i)  might  belong  here 
It  was  Garrod  in  1876  and  1877  who  finally  divested  the  Family  of 
these  aliens,  hut.  until  examples  of  some  of  the  other  genera  have 
been  anatomically  examined,  it  may  not  be  safe  to  say  that  they 
all  belong  to  the  PtcropUxhidte. 

The  true  Tapaculo  (P.  albicollis)  has  a  general  resem- 
blance in  plumage  to  the  females  of  some  of  the  smaller 
Shrikes  (Lanius),  and  to  a  cursory  observer  its  skin  might 

•  Of  Spanish  origin,  it  is  intendexl  as  a  reproof  to  the  bird  for  the 
•bameless  way  in  which,  by  erecting  its  tail,  it  exooses  its  hinder  parts. 
It  has  been  sometimes  misspelt  "Tapacolo."  as  by  Mr  Darwm.  who 
gave  (/ourruU  of  JieseaTCh^^,  chap.  xiL )  a  brief  but  entertaining  account 
of  the  habits  of  this  bird,  and  its  relative,  HylacUs  jTugapod^ut,  called 
by  tbe  Chilenos  "El  Turco." 

23—4 


pass  for  that  of  one ;  but  its  shortened  wings  and  powerfuJ 
feet  wculd  on  closer  inspection  at  once  reveal  the  differesce. 
In  life,  however,  its  appearance  must  be  wholly  unlike,  for 
it  rarely  flies,  hops  actively  on  the  ground  or  among 
bushes,  with  its  tail  erect  or  turned  towards  its  head,  and 
continually  -utters  various  and  strange  notes, — some,  says 
Mr  Darwin,  are  "  like  the  cooing  of  doves,  others  like  tbe 
bubbling  of  water,  and  many  defy  all  similes."  The  "Turco," 
Hylacles  megapodius,  is  larger,  with  greatly  developed  feet 
arjd  claws,  but  is  very  similar  in  colour  and  habits.  Two 
more  species  of  HylacUs  are  known,  and  one  other  of 
Pteroptochtis,  all  of  which  are  peculiar  to  Chili  or  Patagonia. ' 
The  species  of  Scytalopus  are  as  small  as  Wrens,  mostly  of 
a  dark  colour,  and  inhabit  parts  of  Brazil  and  Colombia,  one 
of  them  occurring  so  far  northward  as  Bogota.      (a.  n.) 

TAPESTRY.     See  Textiles. 

TAPE-WORMS,  or  Cestoda,  are  a  group  of  worms^ 
forming  one '  of  the  three  mam  divisions  of  the  Plnty- 
helminthes,  the  other  two  being  the  Twbellana  (sec 
Pla.n.\kians  and  Nemertines)  and  Trematoda  (.sec 
Trematoda).  They  have  been  defined  as  follows  : — "  Flat 
worms  without  mouth  or  alimentary  canal,  which  typically 
develop  by  alternation  of  generations,  by  budding  from  a 
generally  pear-shaped  nurse,  with  which  they  remain  united 
for  a  lengthened  period  as  a  ribbon-like  colony  or  '  strobila.' 
The  individual  joints  of  the  colony,  i.e.,  the  sexual  animals 
or  '  proglottides,'  increase  in  size  and  maturity  as  they  are 
removed  farther  from  their  origin  by  the  intercalation  of 
new  buds,  but  are  not  distinguished  in  any  special  way. 
The  nurse,  however,  known  by  the  name  of  the  '  head' 
(scolex)  IS  provided  with  four  or  two  suckers,  and  usually 
with  curved  claw-like  hooks.  The  dorsal  and  ventral 
surfaces. of  the  head  are  perfectly  identical,  so  that  the 
arrangement  of  the  hooks  presents  a  strikingly  radiate 
appearance.  By  means  of  this  apparatus  the  worms  fasten 
themselves  on  the  intestinal  membrane  of  their  hosts, 
which  (except  in.  the  case  of  the  otherwise  peculiar 
Archigetes)  all  belong  to  the  Vertelrata.  The  nurses 
develop  from  little  round  six-hooked  embryos  m  a  more 
or  less  complicated  fashion  as  so-called  '  bladder- worms.' 
The  latter  inhabit  very  diverse,  but  usually  parenchym- 
atous, organs  of  the  higher  and  lower  animals,  and  are 
thence  passively  transferred  to  the  intestine  of  their 
subsequent  host"  (Leuckart,  1,'  p.  270). 

Histonml  Sketch. — Certain  forms  of  Cestodes  have 
been  known  from  time  immemorial.  The  hydatid  cyst  is 
alluded  to  by  early  medical  writers,  and  Aristotle  speaks 
of  examining  the  tongue  of  pigs  to  ascertain  the  presence 
of  bladder-worms.  By  this  author  and  Hippocrates  tbe 
Cestodes  and  other  flat  worms  are  spoken  of  as  IKnivDc; 
irkaTiiai,  111  Opposition  to  the  o-rpoyyiJAQi  or  "round 
worms";  the  word  Tama  (Gr.  Taii-ia)  does  not  occur  m 
Greek  authors,  but  is  first  used  by  the  Romans  (Pliny, 
H.  N.,  XI.  33).  In  the  treatises  of  the  Middle  Ages  the 
tape-ivorm  figured  as  Lumlmcus  latus,  only  one  species 
being  recognized.  Felix  Plater  (23)  separated  Bothne- 
cephal-us  from  the  other  human  tape-worms,  and  Andry 
(24)  gave  it  the  name  Tmta  it  epme,  mistaking  tLe 
nodular  generative  organs  for  vertebrie.  The  apjiellation 
liothriocephatus  latus  dates  from  Breniser,  1819  (25).  Like 
other  Entozoa.  tbe  tapeworms  and  bladder-worms  were 
supposed  to  arise  by  spontaneous  generation  ;  it  was  found, 
however,  that  animal  forms  strikingly  like  the  £ni(,:oii 
sometimes  lived  freely.  Pallas  (19),  seeing  that  the  eggs  of 
intestinal  worms  are  expelled  from  the  animals  iii  whicL 
they  live,  and  may  remain  for  some  time  unaltered  in 
water,  suggested  the  hypothesis  that  the  Eutozoa  agree 
with  other  animals  in  originating  from  eggs  which  can  lie 


'  These  figures  refer  to  the  bibliographv.  pp.  55,  56 

XXIIL    —    7 


50 


TAP  E:vW  0  R  M  S 


carried  from  one  animal  to  another.  ^He  aLso  *  supposed 
that  they  reached  the  liver  and  other  internal  organs  by 
means  of  the  blood-streanx  Other  authorities  endeavoured 
to  explain  the  presence  of  Entozoa  by  supposing  that  they 
were  transmitted  from  parents  to  children.  Von  Siebold 
(26)  in  1S38  discovered  the  si.x-hooked  embryos  of  Taenia^ 
and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  could  only  pass  into 
the-  fuUy-formed  animal  by  a  kind  of  metamorphosis.  The 
subject  was  fully  discussed  by  Eschricht  (27),  who  endea- 
voured to  prove  that  this  phenomenon  was  of  common 
occurrence  among  the  Entozoa.  Shortly  afterwards  ap- 
peared Steenstrup's  famous  work  upon  the  alternatioD  of 
generations  (28),  which  furnished  a  ready  explanation  of 
the  isolated  facts  till  then  observed  regarding  the  Cestodea. 
The  most  important  advances  in  modern  times  have  been 
due  to  the- introduction  of  helmiothological  experiment  by 
Kiichfinmeister,  by  means  of  which  the  demonstration  has 
been  furnished  that  certain  bladder-worms  are  the  larval 
stages  of  particular  tape-worms.  The  first  of  these  ex- 
periments took  place  in  1851,  when  Kiichenmeister  fed  a 
dog  with  bladder-worms  from  the  rabbit,  and  a  cat  with 
■Specimens  from  the  mouse,  and  succeeded  in  rearing  tape- 
worms in  their  intestines  (29).  Similar  investigations  on 
'different  species  have  been  made  by  Van  Beneden,  Leuckart, 
and  others.  Of  systematic  treatises  the  most  important 
are  those  of  Rudolphi  (35).  Diesing  (20),  and  Van  Beneden 
(13),  while  Von  Linatow,  in  addition  to  numerous  scat- 
tered papers  (30.  36),  has  given  us  an  invaluable  list  of 
hosts  with  their  respective  para-sites  (21). 

Anatomy. 

Id  considering  the  anatomical  [leculi.irities  of  the  Cfstoda  it  will 
be  convenient  to  describe  one  jiarticuKir  specie?  and  afterwards  to 
iodicate  the  chief  differences  presented  by  other  members  of  the 
group.  For  this  purpose  Taenia  saghutta.  Goze(7'.  mcdiocandlata, 
'  Kuchenmeister),  may  be  seletud  as  a  tyj'e,  as  it  has  been  peiha|>s 
more  studied  than  any  other,  nnd  is  one  of  the  species  most 
■oommonly  found  in  man .  for  further  details,  see  Soninicr  (31) 
■  Dim'fTisions  — .^n  Tvi^rage  specimen  of  this  tape-worm  (fig.  1,  A) 
•will  measure  in  a  state  of  moderate  contraction  about  500  cm  ,  an<l 
'  consist  of  nearly  1  lOu  S'-gmcnts :  of  those  uhit.!i  immediately  follow 
"the  head  more  th.m  250  will  be  fonnd  within  a  length  of  5  cm.  ; 
they  gradually  wiJen  poslcrioily,  untd  the  widtst,  which  are 
situated  about  half  way  down  the  chain,  h^ve  a  brcadtli  of  \i  mm 
and  a  length  of  6  mm  .  whilst  the  terminal  segments  measuie  5 
mm    in  breadth  by  19  mm.  in  length 

,  The  head  (Hg  1.  R;  is  spheroidal.  1  5  mm  in  diameter,  and  bears 
on  Its  lateral  surface  four  equidistant  suckers,  which  serve  for  the 
attachment  of  the  whole  worm.  After  death  these  are  genei-ally 
retracted,  but  during  life  thfy  can  be  protruded  and  moved  in  all 
directions.  They  are  a  spefial  develo|ttnent  of  the  musculature  of 
the  body  wall,  the  radial  fibres  being  the  most  conspicuous.  The 
tapeworm  now  being  described  is  abnnimal.  inasmuch  as  the  front 
of  U3  head  is  not  provided  with  a  circlet  of  hooks;  these  are  well 
8ecn,  howuver,  in  the  other  common  human  tape-worm  {Txnia 
Solium),  which  bears  a  double  ring  of  them,  situated  around  a 
button  shaped  muscular  pad  {roslclliiui)  which  forms  the  apex  of 
the  head  (fig.  \,  C).  By  the  varying  contraction  of  the  sejiaratc 
parts  of  this  organ  the  hooks  may  be  moved  in  different  direc- 
tions, aftd  when  tlie  worm  is  attaching  itself  they  are  'first 
extended  directly  forwards,  and  then  brought  bark  so  as  to  force 
the  robtellum  into  the  tissues  of  the  host.  Each  hook  has  a  broad 
bifid  base,  to  which  tlie  muscles  are  attached,  supporting  a  long 
curved  point  In  Txnia  saguuita,  to  the  consideration  of  which 
we  no*  return,  the  rostellum  is  quite  rudimentary,  and  lias 
been  described  by^  earlier  authors  as  a  fifth  sucker  or  even  as  a 
mouth  ,  it  IS  interftting  to  note  that  during  its  incipient  stages  it 
bears  a  number  of  minute  spines  homologous  with  the  hooks  of 
othef  species.  The  head  contains  furthermore  the  anterior  portions 
ftf  the  nervous  and  excretory  systems.  The  latter  of  these  consists 
of  an  annular  vessel  fTlaccd  immediately  below  the  rostellum, 
froip  wliich  four  canals,  corresponding  to  the  four  suckers,  pass 
backwards:  tuo  of  th?se  gradually  disappear,  leaving  two  which 
pursue  their  course  down  the  proglottides,  in  connexion  with 
which  they  will  be  again  alluded  to,  and  open  at  the  hinder 
extrcmitv  of  the  worm  by  a  common  pore  The  nervous  system 
of  tlie  Cestodea  was  long,  sought  in  vain:  although  eome  early 
ihvestigaters  described  a  ganglion,  they  were  unable  to  give  any 
Ratikfactorx.  proof  of  its  existence,  this  having  been  first  furnished 
^  SchaeiJer.     It  •e«ina  generHlly  to  consist  of  &  ceatrai  ganglioD 


lying  within  the  head,  fnjffi  -ti'iiich  tw<j  cords  [rrocwd  backwards, 
these  were  regarded  by  Sommer  and  Landois  as  part  of  the  ali- 
mentary system.  Niemiec  (5)  has  recently  given  a  detailed  account 
of  its  structure  in  several  different  species,  and'its  relations  have 
been  discussed  by  Lang  (7). 

The  proglottides  arise  by  a  species  of  budding  in  the  narrow 
neck  which  immediately  succeeds  the  head;  they  are  separated 
from   each  other  by  groove^  which  are-  at  first  so  shallow  and 


Flc.  I.  — Anatomy  of  Txnia  (frnm  Leuckan).  A,  Portions  ol  Titnia  iaymnia' 
X  i.  B.  head  o(  the  sainu  .  x  8.  C.  lieaJ  of  T.  toliutn  showmt;  uie  ciown  ol 
hooks,  X  22.  D.  *  scRmint  of  T  fagniata.  showing  ti^c  gcntt.itivc  oipans 
n.,  nervous  syst'-ni ;  ei.,  IfingituJinai  excn-tury  tuliti  ;  tr  ,  ii.insvci''e  vessel 
g.p  .  ccniial  papilla;  cl  .cloaca:  t.p..  ^lrl^^I•ouch;  vd  .\as  dcfticns.  (  f..  lesica 
v..  vagina:  oo  or  .  ovuriis.  sh,g  .  5ln.ll  cluncj,  y  7,.  yolk  gland,  r  *  .rcccptaculum 
semiois.  «r.  uterus;  x  7  E.  liiccnnnejiionsof  IhegtntTativeoiKnns.leilctlng 
as  ^bove  o  t/..  0  d  .  ovirtucts  , /,  feitilizmi;  c.niil;  x  3i  K.  drrnclitd  scgmtnl 
ol  r.jJs^inflfo.  showing  rli'cuterua;  X  /  G.iix-hooktdembryu. highly  maginfled. 

indistinct  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  with  certamty  where  the 
segmentation  really  begins.  The  proglottides  whiLh  have  attained 
sexual  maturity  are  situated  some  30-40  cm.  from  the  head,  and 
measure  15  mm.  in  length  by  5  mm.  in  breadth.  Jhe  segments, 
like  the  head,  consist  of  a  solid  mass  of  tissue  in  which  the  varioui 
organs  are  inibedded.  Like  the  Trematodes,  the  Cestodes  were  lonj: 
thought  to  have  no  body-cavity  or  cctloni,  and  hence  were  called 
*' parenchymatous"  worms.  Recently,  however,  a  series  of  inter- 
cellular spaces  has  been  described  by  Fraipont  (8)  as  leading  into" 
the  terminal  excretory  organs,  and  these  sr>aces  have  been  inter- 
preted both  by  himself  and  others  as  the  nomologue  of  a  body* 
cavity,  although  this  ojHnion  has  not  been  allowtd  to"  pass 
unchallenged  {sec  Pintirer,  9).  The  surface  of  the  body  is  covered 
by  a  thin  clear  homogeneous  cuticle,  which,  according  to  some 
authoriiu-s,  is  perforated  by  fine  closely-set  pores.  The  hooks 
which  have  been  described  above,  as  well  as  the  small  spines  and 
bristlee  found  in  certain  species,  are  developments  of  this  cuticle.' 
This  external  covering  cannot,  according  to  Leuckart  (1,  p.  289),' 
be  regarded  as  homologous  with  the  cuticle  of  other  invertebrates, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  Jiot  a  secretion  from  a»special  layer  of  subjacent 
cells,  but  is  "the  structureless  limiting  membrane  of  the  connective 
tissue  substance,,  and  fa  comparable  with  the  so-called  basement- 
membrane  found  ifi  the  other  flat-wormB  .  .  .  between  the  muscular 
layer  and  the  dermal  epithelium.'*  It  la  to  b«  observed,  however; 
that  this  view  has  by  no  means  found  univerul  acceptance  (set 


TAP  E-W  O  R  M  S 


51 


Steadener.  10),  and  it  is  o  priori  improbable,  ^ince  the  Cestodes 
(and  Trematodcs)  would  tlna  form  an  cTctption  to  the  general  rule 
by  which  all  animals  arc  clad  with  an  epithelium  derived  fjom  the 
embryonic  ectoderm.  Tlie  subcuticular  layer  is  described  as  con- 
-sisving  of  long  fusiform  cells  (probably  modified  rcnnectivctis'sue 
tt!l5)  disjiosed  perpendicularly  to  the  cuticle.  It  seems  possible 
•tt«;  they  are  in  direct  connexion  with  the  transverse  muscles  of 
the  body.  The  matrix  of  the  Cestode  body  consists  of  connective 
tSffiue,  the  cells  composing  which  are  seldom  providcil  with  ,a  dis- 
tinct membrane,  and  sometimes  can  only  be  separately  distinguished 
by  their  nuclei.  The  layer  of  muscles  (see  lielow)  separates  this 
matnx  into  a  central  and  a  cortical  portion.  Distributed  in  it,  and 
«spe.-ially  in  its  cortical  portion.  areUnmerous  calcareous  corpuscles, 
which  are  generally  spheroidal  in  form,  varying  up  to  0019  mm. 
in  diameter  aitd  concentrically  laminated  ;  tirey  contain  a  large 
imount  (often  20  per  cent.)  of  lime  salts,  ditfuscd  through  an 
organic  basis,  from  which  the  salts  can  be  removed  with  effervescence 
by  the  action  of  acids.  These  corpuscles  have  been  variously  inter- 
preted by  the  older  authors  as  eggs,  or  as  lymph  or  blood  corpuscles, 
tut  the  only  thecnes  wliich  have  been  seriously  maintained  in 
modern  times  «re-(l)  that  they  are  skeletal  (Von  Siebold);  (2) 
that  they  are  excretory  (Claparede,  Grie.sbach);  or  (3)  that  they  form 
a  reserve  store  of  calcareous  material  to  be  used  either  in  counter- 
acting the  Odd  digestive  juices  of  the  host  or  for  the  production  of 
egg-shells  (l,enckart,  1,  p.  283). 

The  muscular  system  consists  of  three  sets  of  fibres— longitudinal 
transverse,  an.l  s.igittal.  The  first  are  the  best  developed,  and 
run  down  the  inner  part  of  the  cortical  layer  in  the  form  of  strong 
bands  :  the  second  set  lie  immediatefy  below  them  and  pass  across 
the  Ivxiy  m  the  form  of  two  flat  muscular  plates,  which  converge 
towards  each  other  as  they  approach  the  margins  of  the  proglottis: 
the  sagittal  muscles  run  nrimitively  straight  from  one  flat  surface 
of  the  Iwdv  to  the  other,  but  their  direction  is  much  modified  after 
the  growth  of  the  genital  oigans,  between  the  various  parts  of  which 
they  lie  as  isolated  bundles;  they  are  the  weakest  of  all  the  sets 
the  muscular  fibres  are  non-striated,  and  when  they  are  fully  de- 
veloped  no  nucleus  can  be  ilotected  in  them.  They  taper  towards 
the  extremities,  sometimes  branching  dichotomously,  and,  as  above 
mentioned,  a  connexion  has  been  asserted  to  be  visible  between 
them  and  the  subcuticular  cells. 

The  excretory  system  in  the  proglottides  consists  of  two  or  four 
rongitudinal  canals  which  lie  along  their  two  narrow  margins  (fig. 
1.  U.a:.).     The  ongin  of  these  in  the  head  has  been  already  noted. 
and  they  pass  continuously  down  the  whole  worm  until  they  open 
into  a  vesicle  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  terminal  segment. 
In  the  hinder  part  of  each  proglottis  they  are  connected  by  a  trans- 
verso  ves.'iel   (fig   1,  D,  ir.).   immediately  above  which  a  valve  is 
fcrnjed  by  a  duplicature  of  the  wall,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  inject 
the  excretory  system.from  behind  whilst  fluid  can  be  readily  forced 
alOMg  It  from  before  backwards.     Fraipont  has  drawn  a  distinction 
between  ascending  and  descendingcanals.    Excretory  openings  have 
been  described  by  various  observers  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
worm,  near  the  suckers  (Wagener,  11;  Fraipont,  8;  Riehm,  12) 
ani,  although  their  presence  is  denied  by  Pintncr  (9),  there  seems 
sufficient  evidence  to  show  that  they  are  more  generally  present  than 
was  formerly  supposed.     A  ramifying  network  of  smaller  vessels 
connected  with  the  main  trunks  just  described  is  found  in  the  more 
stiperficial  parenchyma,  and  this   in  its  turn  gives  off  still  finer 
rapiUanes   which   terminate   in   ciliated   funnels.      According   to 
fraipont  these  open  into  the  intercellular  lacuns  which  are  the 
representatives  of  the  calom  (sec  above),  whilst  Pintner  maintains 
that  the   terminal  funnels  are  completely-closed,  and   are  to  be 
regarded  as  unicellular  glands.     The  subject,  however,  is  one  of 
♦xtreme  difficulty  and  demands  further  investigation.     It  is  worthy 
of  notice  that  each  of  the  three  systems  of  canals  above  described 
mainuins  Its  proper  diameter  throughout,  and  that  ro  intermediate 
sizes  can  bo  found.     The  "plasmatic  vascular  avstem"  described 
by  bommer  and  Landois,  and  regarded  by  them'  as   part  of  the 
alimentary  .ystem,  consists  partly  of  some  of  theso  delicate  canals 
and  partly  of  the  two  cords  of  the  nervous  system.      The  main 
canals  open  posteriorly  into  a  pulsatile  vesicle,  at  the  end  of  the 
last  proglottis;  when,  however,  some  of  these  haro  been  cast  off 
the  opening  may  be  either  by  a  shortened  transverse  vesicle    as 
Unckart  (1)  maintains  to  be  the  case  in  the  present  species,  or  by 
separate  openings,  one  for  each  canal. 

The  reproductive  organs  are  serially  repeated  in  the  proglottides 
each  of  which  contains  a  complete  set  of  male  and  female  organs 
\ag.  1,  U).      Ihe  male  organs  may  be  discussed  first     The  testes 


uiem  inwnrus  trom  the  cloaca.    The  vagina  («  )  opens  imme.Iiat 
posterior  to  the  vas  deferens,  and  like  it  is  lined  by  a  continual 
ol  the  external  cuticle.     After  p.issing  about  half  way  across 
segment  it  bends  backwards  and  terminates  in  a  .•.mall  cvst    i 


tion  of  the  vas  has  a  thickened  muscular  wall,  and  this  part  of  it  i> 
capable  of  extrusion  and  retraction,  thus  lorming  the  male  intro 
mittent  organ  or  "cirrus  "  (c.;,. ),  The  cuticle  wliich  lines  alHlie 
distal  portion  of  the  vas  deferens  is  here  thin  and  delicate  and 
armed  with  a  series  of  minute  spines,  which  are  diiecte<l  backward' 
{Echennbollirnim).  The  cirrus  in  tlio  present  species  is  verv 
sliort.  but  in  other  forms  its  length  is  sometimes  considerable', 
ihe  protrusion  is  effected  by  circulaj-  muscles  placed  around  the  end 
of  the  vas  dofcicns,  while  the  retraction  is  brought  about  by  special 
lonptudina  fibres,  lying  along  the  walls  of  the  cvaginable  portion 
Ihe  female  organs  may  be  most  conveniently  studied  by  Iracino 
them  inwards  from  the  cloaca.    The  vagiii.aj«  )  opens  imi^ediatelj 

uatioi; 
the 

receptaculiim  scminis  (fig.  1,  E,  r.s.);thiV7ecelves"aiui'sYores'up 
the  male  fertilizing  elcmenU.  retaining  them  until  the  ova  are  ripe 
from  Its  posterior  extremity  there  passes  a  thin-walled  canal,  widct 
than  the  vagina  (/.),  which  serves  to  convey  the  spermatozoa  to 
the  ova  and  hence  is  termed  the  "  fertilizing  canal  "(Befiiiclitun<^. 
canal  of  German  authors).  It  unites  with  the  common  oviduct! a 
tube  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  oviducts  (o.rf.),  and  the  two 
together  nass  b.ickwards  into  a  spherical  glandular  structure  called 
from  Its  discoverer  "  Mehlis's  body"  or  the  shell  glan.l  (fi^  1  D 
and  E  shg.).  Within  this  apparatus  it  receives  the  diict^of  tli( 
yolkgland  (yg.),  and  then  passes  directly  forwards  to  open  int( 
the  uterus.  The  ovaries  (ou.)  are  two  in  number,  situated  one  on 
each  side  of  the  middle  line  of  the  body;  they  arc  fan-shaped 
and  consist  of  a  system  of  blind  tubules  situated  on  a  biancheii 
efferent  duct.  The  cells  of  the  ovary  (primitive  cg^s)  hive  a  shaif 
contour  and  a  large  nucleus;  the  yolk-gland  (j/.y  )  is  very  simila. 
to  the  ovaries,  behind  and  between  which   it  is  situated    but  i- 


(t.  O  are  very  numerous  and  scattered  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  the  proglottis;  they  are  round  vesicles  (0  15  mm.  in  diameter) 
containing  spermatozoa,  and  attached  like  berries  to  the  termina 
reniificatlon3oftlievasdeferens(v.rf.);  these  gradually  unite  form- 
ing larger  and  larger  branches  until  they  reach  the  main  canal 
which  runs  in  a  aeries  of  coils  transversely  half  way  across  the 
Joint  a  little  behind   its  middle,  and  ends  in  a  common  cloaca 

'   ;iJ'    -'i  T^'^'*  '*°"'  ""^  "»'■'  """1  f''"ial«  organs,  and  if  coc- 
atettH  mM\  the  nater  world  by  the  porus  genitciia.     The  ooter  por. 


distinguished  by  vorious  histological  details  (it  is  called  "ovary 

by  Moniez).      The  shellgland,    formerly    regarded  as  the  ovarv 

consists  of   closely  compressed    nucleated  cells,    and  is  provide.! 

with  small  thin  ducts  opening  into  the  narrow  internal  cavin 

of  the  organ.    The  uterus  («(.).  in  its  early  stage  of  development' 

is  a  long  straight  tube,   lying  almost  in    the   longitudin.al   axii 

01  the  proglottis,  and   receiving  posteriorly  the   oviduct   after  ii 

emerges  from  the  shell-gland  (fig.  1,  E,  ««.).     From  what  has  beer 

said  It  will^  appear  that  the  ova  on  their  way  down  the  comnioi 

ovidHct  are  impregnated  as  they  pass  the  end  of  the  fertilizin"  canal 

and  then  receive  in  succession,  first  their  supply  of  food-yolk  and 

their  shell,  during  their  sojourn  in  Jlehlis's  body,  after  which  the} 

go  forwards  into  the  uterus,  where  tliey  undergo  the  first  star-cs  ol 

their  development     The  uterus  assumes  a  very  different  sha°pe  a- 

It  becomes  distended  with  eggs,  which  are  far  too  numerous  to  bt 

contained  in  a  simple  straight  tube;  small  protuberances  arise  from 

its  walls,  growing  rapidly  and  bifurcating  here  and  there,  so  as 

to  produce  the  complicated  branched  appearance  seen  in  fi.^    1    F 

As  the  nterus  grows,   the  male,  and   later  the  female,  genitalia 

degenerate  and  disappear,  and  in  the  proglottides  which  are  icady 

to  be  liberated  the  only  organ  visible  is  the  distended  uterus.    One 

of  the  most  characteristic  peculiarities  in  the  sexual  system  just  de 

scribed  is  that  there  is  no  passage  by  which  the  ripe  eggs  can  make 

their  exit  from   the  proglottis;  the.se  are  theiefoie  extruded  only 

on  its  rupture  ;  a  very  different  state  of  things  obtains  in  the  geniis 

Bothriocephalus  (see  below).      Self  impregnation  certainly  occur- 

and  IS  probably  the  rule;  it  is  obvious  that  the  contrary  case  caii 

only  happen  where  two  individuals    lie   side  by  side  within  the 

same  host.     Furthermore,  the  cirrus  has  been  seen  protruded  into 

the  vagina  of  the  same  joint,  and  the  tmisMon  of  sperm  has  been 

witnessed  (Leuckart,  1;  Van  Pencdcn,  13,  p.  601). 

The  eggs  are  ovoid  or  spherical,  and  consist  of  the  germ  cell 
(nncleus  and  protoplasm)  with  an  albuminous  envelopingsnbstance 
which  IS  again  surrounded  by  a  thin  transparent  skin  The  shell 
frequently  presents  one  or  more  appendages,  probably  the  secretion 
ol  the  shell-gland  drawn  out  into  threads.  The  structure  of  the 
egg  has  been  best  studied  in  Titnia  serrata  (Van  Bencden  14) 
where  it  consists  of  a  delicate  shell  containing  a  gemi-cell  with  a 
quantity  of  secondary  yolk;  the  former  divides  into  *  "granular' 
cell,  which  segments  no  further,  and  an  "embryonic-  globe,  which 
again  divides  into  a  number  of  cells,  of  which  three  are  larger  and 
constitute  the  "albuminogenous  layer,"  whilst  the  remainder  are 
smaller  and  form  the  "embryonic  mass,"  and  .secrete  a  delicate 
superficial  cnticio,  the  cell-limits  being  indistinct  In  the  embry- 
onic mass  from  three  to  five  flattened  ceUs  form  a  chitinogenoiis 
layer  and  give  origin  tp  a  superficial  homogeneous  coat,  a  shell 
of  radially  disposed  chitinoid  cylinders,  and  an  internal  faintly 
striated  lining,  whilst  the  remaining  cells  become  the  six-hooked 
embryo  or  proscolgx,  a  superficial  layer  to  wliich  the  hooks  belong 
and  a  central  mass  of  clearer  cells.  When  the  proscolex  is  mature 
the  original  egg-shell  and  the  albuminogenous  layer  disappear,  and 
only  the  chitinoid  coats  remaii^ 

The  proglottides  are  cast  off  by  muscular  action  ;  the  Hbres  are  not 
continuous  between  the  successive  segments,  so  that  these  are  con 
nwted  mcrfljy  bysoft  eomuwUTe  tiaaoe,  which  readily  gives  way   the 


TAPE-WORMS 


T4.clewh,ch  forms  the  termmat.on  of  the  excretory  system. 
Life-History  and  Development. 
Tl,n  .nx  hooked  embryo  (fig.  1,  G)  may  be  conveyed  to  the  inter- 

mavtrk'e  place  either  by  n.eans  of  free  eggs  o.  by  whole  ,-  oglot^ 
may  take  place  eu        J     ,         f,  tissues  are  fi rat  digested  by  the 

shorSr  t  ra^free  .n  the  stoofach  or  intestine.  prooeJs  to  per  orate 
Jhewall  Tf  thS^e  or-ans  by  means  of  active  buirowing  motions. 
Although  th^ibTyo  of  a  r^HU.  has  only  once  been  captured  in 
annougu  lu  ^ /  alimentary  canal  (Raum.  10, 

which  It  has  been  found  by  more  than  one  observer  Ihis  xouui 
«i  ^a,n  the  frciueocy  with  which  the  next  sU"e  .a  found  in  the 
fil'll      ThereTeenis    however,  reason  to  believe  tTiat  many  embryos 

nect.ve  tissue,  with  a  cellular    ining,  and  ^"'""".^  ''^^^^,;,^'°,"e 
cavity   within,   this  --""?■  'r;;t;;, ''r°Vtemb'o  now 
C^oTs'tu'sizTTntr^ri/tco^'ig  somewhat  elongated,  ind  the 
irk:7roro^r^^rometn,.,they;.nhe^f 
X-'rd'ir^nTe^r:!  .'e;^P  ^ormingt  ^uan^^^ 

-IdTaVn'g  fn  length  fron.  .  .  8  -  ^^^^^^  ^llfeSe^r 
uture  ne*u  ,  rudimentary  head  thus  formed  is  about  0  i 

%r"^;eTo;mtr.r'X'"adrupe  worm  Ukes  place  only 

r.^r  e  neck  of  the  «>orn,  are  dissolved  by  the  gastric  ju.cc  The 
next  the  neck  oi  li  e  ,„,estine  its  snckei-» 

heajd  »•'y;-,,y'•^,'^„'':er  lively  motions,  which  serve  to  bniig 
:^ut  u^  a  1  1  n  0  thV  intestmal  wall.  It  .radnally  increases 
about  IS  B''»y  "  =  formation  of  segments  speedily  commences. 


under  favourable  circumstances  (that  I.,  within  'h°  >""»'-'''^'«^; 
tinue  to  CTow  after  being  detached  from  the  parent  chain;  it  c*nn« 
be  Lid!  Cever,  that  tlie  evidence  upon  which  this  resu  is  qintt 
fncfntrovertible.    Regarded  from  this  point  of  view  the  life-history 


no   ..-Deveu>p.ent  C -r^u (---  .^-l^'"^^  ^,,?rl-uT°:ZZl\'rf^ 
L-p^feflo'lSL;.  V'rl-e^C  .n«o.ll,ep^^c^^^^^ 

luhoulh  maintained  ^^ -^-rdir.:c"uo"rhas  iee"n 'd^-  ^' 
^rnTierrTi^iLp    t,:.   budding  seen  ^^^^^ 

-  ra''S^:;^"^A"  ~  C  new  ..nn.  to  the  .- 

— ::;t::.fo^^:^f3"E"=rn,'-^ 
=^'€;i;r^^otj^^en".^.- 

where  there  is  a  proliferation  <>' heads   "  '  ,   ^asjustbeeo 

The  Cestode  larva,  "rresponding  to  the  stage  wh  j^  ^^^^ 

described  present  '^»"V'^"»,^''L'^"'  'X  eronp  have  been  based. 

^-rTrc^^ritadVerarl'f^o^lheVoscolexhys.^^ 

„„!,  sTmctura.    -•'''■S-J;-  -ryU''Ld"s";Ll«orarso 
parts      A  larger  or  smaller  quantuy  oi  n  t  CyUuercy, 

surrounded,  not  only  bJ  '^e  body  o^   tn  „„„  jh, 

^b;ihrbXot^.rw\r:ndrtuy£fdd^  c.u..(.ror., 

'/.^6n.),  'Stapky^cyst..  f'"-"^''"' fjCCoup,  and  regarding 

Of  these  the  most  important  are  the  brst  g  o  p  =6 

some  of  them  a  few  words  must  be  ^dde^  J^J  aod  such  bladder- 
of  species  only  one  Upe-worm  ''^,^j';.P^''„",7he  older  hclmintho 
worms  constituted  the  genus  Cys'-;^""  »'  '^^  ^  „„,.„  „hvck 
logists      in    certain  ^^-i  ^^"w"",   noU>Wy  inj^  ^^^  ^^^^_^  _^ 

produces  the  staggers  of  ^"".f '  °"  ,„„„j  ,he  genus  Comurus, 
fhe  wall  of  each  bladder  ,  such  '''^^^ J°™Xre  are  nostructun.1 

»rtrs.t;ye^p5?i=j^^ 

develop  "ithoul  un  intetuiedlMe  host 


T  A  P   E  -  W  O  R  M  S 


53 


wcrm  (EchirXKoccus)  is  charattoriwtl  l>y  tlic  fact  tlwt  the  tai«:-woiiii 
kcads  irc  not  Oirectly  devcloncJ  in  the  wsll  of  the  blaihlcr  itself, 
but  from  "  brootl  capsules"  which  lie  in  iiunibei's  oo  the  inner  wall 
•f  the  bladder. 

Development  of  Oic  Echmoaxciis. — The  smallest  bladiler  jfc  seen 
was  reared  by  Lcuckart  in  the  pig,  and  consisted  of  a  minute  proto- 
plasmic mass  surrounded  by  a  structureless  cuticle.  This  cuticle 
thickens  by  <lenosition  of  new  layers  as  growth  proceeds,  and  the 
lamination  of  tne  cuticle  is  one  of  the  characteristic  peculiarities  of 
the  t'ckinococciis,  another  being  the  absenec  of  an  excretory  system. 
At  certain  points  in  the  parencltynia  lining  the  cyst  small  warts 
are  noticed  {fig.  2,  D,a),  wliich  enlarge  and  become  hollow  ;  tlien  the 
cavity  enlarges  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  point  of  origin,  mid  at 
the  extremity  of  this  hollow  suckers  and  hooks  are  formed  as  in  the 
ease  of  Cysticerats  described  above  {!/,  c).  No  sooner  has  the  devel- 
opment of  tlie  first  of  these  rcacheil  a  certain  degree  of  completencss- 
thaa  othei-s  arc  formed  in  simihir  fashion.  The  lirst  part  of  tlie 
invagination  takes  plaec,  by  which  the  future  head  comes  to  lie 
within  the  brood-capsule  and  the  pedicle  is  no  longer  hollow  but 
solid  le)  ;  the  suckers  and  books  are.  liowever,  still  invagiiiated, 
and  remain  .so  for  a  considerable  iwriod.  Seeing  that  the  interior 
of  the  brood-cai>snle  is  lined  with  cuticle,  it  corresponds  to  the 
outside  of  tlie  parent  cyst,  and  hence  is  probably  the  representative 
of  a  previous  invagin.ition.  If  this  be  so  tlien  the  develojmient  of 
£chiiiococciix  would  be  quite  comparable  with  that  of  Cysliccrais, 
the  only  difference  being  that,  instead  of  the  liead  being  an  inva- 
gination of  the  wall  of  the  tyst  itself,  it  is  S  secondary  invagina- 
tion, the  prini.iry  being  the  brooil-capsulc.  This  does  not,  however, 
exhaust  the  ivceuliarities  of  the  Echuiococcus ;  the  form  just  de- 
'icrtbed,  witii  a  simple  cyst  and  brood-capsules,  is  common  in 
cattle,  and  hence  goes  by  the  name  of  Eckuiococcii3  vcterinoi~tim ; 
but  cases  are  frequent,  i>nd  are  the  most  common  in  tlic  human 
'subject,  in  which  the  cyst  contains  daughter-vesicles,  difl'eriiig 
from  those  just  described  in  being  stcrile^giving  rise  to  no  heads. 
These  daughter-bladders  may  originate  in   three  different  w.-iys  : 

(1)  from  little  granular  heaps,  which  arc  seen  between  the  different 
layers  of  the  cuticle,  and  which  are  jn-obably  derived  primarily  from 
the  parenchymal  layer, — since  new  layers  of  cuticle  are  continually 
formed  internally,  these  bladders  gradu-iHyniake  their  way  out- 
wards, until  they  come  to  lie  externally  to  the  mother-vesicle 
{Echinococcits  exogena,  Kuhn  ;  K.  scoleciparie-i\s,  Kuchenmeister) ; 

(2)  from  brood-capsules  ;  (3)  from  EckiiwcocctLS-ht^&'Xs  ;  these  last 
two  modes  of  development  give  rise  to  vesicles,  which  are  within  the 
mother-vesicle,  and  produce  a  forni  which  has  been  variously  called 
EchinocoiCKts  ejidogejia,  Kuhn,  £.  altriciparicns,  Kuchenmeister, 
and  £.  hydatidosus,  A  very  remarkable  form  is  Echinococcus 
muUUocularis,  which  consists  of  a  number  of  very  small  "Vesicles 
embedded  in  a  common  soft  stroma;  it  is  found  exclusively  in 
man,  and  for  long  was  regarded  as  a  form  of  alveolar  cancer. 
The  mode  of  its  development  is  unknown  (for  further  iaformation, 
•ee  Virchow,  17J.  Compound  bladders  occur  in  man  anil  the  ox, 
V'hilst  other  ruminants,  swine,  and  monkeys  usually  harbour  the 
simple  or  exogenous  forms.  The  organs  most  often  affected  are 
liver  and  lungs.  The  adult  tape-worm  {T.  echinococcus)  is  found 
in  the  intestine  of  the  dog,  jackal,  and  wolf,  occurring  in  consider- 
able numbers  between  the  villi.  Its  length  (fig.  3,  A)  is  at  most 
6  mm.  and  it  consists  of  only  three  or  four  segments;  the  head  has 
6)ur  suckers  and  a  double  circlet  of  hooks. 

Pathological  Effects. 

The  pathological  effects  of  Cestodes  fall  naturally  into 
two  categories — (1)  those  due  to  the  adult  worm,  and 
(2)  those  due  to  the  larvae  or  bladder  worms. 

(1)  Those  «f  the  first  group  are  in  general  slight,  being 
confined  to  the  abstraction  of  a  certain  amount  of  nutri- 
ment, and  to  a  more  or  less  acute  feeling  of  irritation, 
sometimes  amounting  even  to  colic  like  pains,  in  the 
intestine.  There  have  indeed  been  many  authorities  who 
have  maintained  that  they  were  beneficial ;  Jordens  went 
80  far  as  to  describe  them  as  the  good  angels  and  unfailing 
helpers  of  children,  and  Schimper  records  that  the  Abys- 
sinians  consider  .that  they  prevent  constipation,  and  only 
regard  them  as  disadvantageous  when  they  grow  too  long. 
Notwithstanding  all  this,  however,  there  are  not  a  few 
cases  on  record  in  which  anajmia  and  neurotic,  or  even 
mental,  diseases  have  been  caused  by  the  malnutrition 
and  irritation  which  they  occasion.' 

^  Tlie  method  of  treatment  for  the  removal  of  these  tiiit'-wnniis 
froni  the  human  lio*ly  eoiiHi.sts  in  tlie  ailminiHtration,  first  of  pnr^pitivefl, 
*uii  thereafter  of  one  <>r  other  of  the  following  antbeliuintic«: — tur- 
{K&tiUf,  male  leni  iLit.^.trt-tt  Fitix-tntia^  |*(<iiiegrana(i^,  or  l;oiiiiau, — of 


(2)  The  effects  of  Cestode  larva;  may  again  be  divided 
into  two  subdivisions.  (a)  iThat  due  to  the  invasion 
and  wandering  of  a  large  brood  of  si.x-hooked .  embryos 
has  been  most  successfully- studied  in  cases  in  which 
animals  have  been  fed  for  experimental  purposes  with 
fragments  of  ripe  tape-worms ;  in  such  instaocift  a  train  of 
symptoms  has  been  observed  to  which  the  name  "acute 
cestodic  tuberculosis"  has  been  given.  It  is  characterized 
by  loss  of  appetite,  fatigue,  ruffling  of  the  hair,  and  fever  ; 
on  post-mortem  examination  it  has  been  found  that  the 
lymphatic  system  is  in  a  state  of  inflammation,  while  the 
muscles  present  the  appearance  which  has  already  been 
described.  (4)  The  effects  of  formed  bladder-worms  may 
be  summed  up  as  dependent  upon  the  pressure  of  the 
growing  cyst  and  the  consequent  absorption  of  the  sur- 
rounding tissues  of  the  host,  so  that  the  importance  of  the 
results  depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  organ  wliich  is 
affected-  Bladder-worms  in  the  brain  are,  of  course,  the 
most  frequently  fatal,  especially  when,  as  is  not  unfre- 
quently  the  case,  they  exert  pressure  upon  the  ganglia 
at  its  base.  Kiichenmeister  has  collected  a  considerable 
number  of  occurrences  of  cystic  worms  in  the  brain  ; 
among  these  sixteen  were  not  accompanted  by  pathological 
symptoms  during  life;  in  six  others  these  were  slight; 
twenty-four  were  cases  of  epilepsy,  six  of  cramp,  forty- 
two  of  paralysis,  and  twenty-three  of  mental  disturbances 
of  varying  intensity.  Ci/sticerci  in  the  brain  vary  greatly 
in  size  and  form  according  to  the  jirecise  situation  which 
they  occupy ;  in  its  ventricles  they  have  been  found  as 
large  as  a  pigeon's  egg.  In  the  meshes  of  the  arachuoid 
the  bladder  sometimes  grows  into  a  remarkably  branched 
structure,  which  has  been  called  C^sticercus  racemostis  by 
Zenker  (3).  Another  peculiar  form  from  tlie  same  organ 
ha;3-been  described  by  Koberlo  (4)  ;  it  is  characterized  by 
the  great  length  of  its  head-process  (2  cm  ),  which  is  coiled 
up  into  a  regular  spiral  of  sometimes  three  turns  ;  it  has 
received  the  name  Ci/sticerctis  tu>bi7MtuSj  though  its  specific 
distinctness  is  doubtful.  The  ocoui'rence  of  Cysticeni  in 
Jhe  eye  is  of  special  interest,  because  of  the  opportunity  it 
affords  of  observing,  by  means  of  the  ophthalnmscopc,  the 
development  of  the  worm  in  its  natural  environment.  It 
seems  generally  to  lie  at  first  below  the  retina,  and  is 
visible  as  a  bluish-white  sharply  defined  body;  subse- 
quently the  retina  is  destroyed  by  the  pressure,  and  the 
worm  falls  forward  into  the  vitreous  body;  sometimes  the 
head jnay_be_seen  protruding  first^Kmgh  the_ opening; 
in  the  chambers  of  the  eye  the  Cyslicercus  is  almost 
always  free,  that  is,  without  a  capsule,  and  swimming  in 
the  fluid,  so  that  its  form  and  motions  may  be  readily 
and  accurately  observed.  A  large  number  of  cases  of  litis 
affection  have  been  recorded,  jirincipally  by  Von  Graofo  in 
Berlin  (5),  and  in  some  the  bladder  has  been  successfully 
removed  by  operation. 

The  special  symjitoms  of  the  Echinococcus  Viiiy^likc 
those  of  other  bladder-worms,  with  its  situation  and  size  : 
when  it  grows  within  cavities  with  more  or  less  firm  limits 
compression  of  adjoining  vesseJs  and  glandular  passages 
often  results,  producing  cedema,  varicose  veins,  co^ngestion 
of  various  organs,  or  even  dyspna?a,  if  the  iiarasite  occur 
in  the  thorax.  The  IKer  is  its  most  fre(|uent  seat,  ami 
next  the  lung ,  but  there  is  scarcely  any  organ  of  tin. 
body  in  which  it  has  not  been  found,  even  the  bone;  being 
sometimes  affected.  Since  the  expanding  cyst  grjws  in 
the  direction  of  least  resistance,  it  has  a  tendency  to  pa!w 

whiLh  the  firs't  two  are  the  most  reliable.  Tuipeiitiiie  may  be  <:iveii 
ill  h.-ilf.oiince  doses  nloiig  with  castor  oil,  or  made  up  into  an  emulsion 
with  yolk  of  egg  ;  while  the  male  fern  is  usually  administered  iii  the 
form  of  li«|uid  extract  (h.iii  a  dMchiii  to  one  tlraehiii).  Careful  seiin  li 
bUuuUI  lie  made  in  the  evaeuations  for  the  head  or  scolex,  without  the 
uipuliiioii  nf  which  then-  ix  no  certaiu  evidence  that  the  itarasttejias 
betm  rvuiovtiil  (rum  lli«  boily. 


54 


TAPE-WORMS 


towards  the  surface  of  organs,  and  sometimes  a  cure  is 
affected  spontaneously  by  its  rupturing  into  the  alimentary 
canal  or  into  some  other  jwissage  leading  to  the  exterior. 
Ca^es  in  which  the  cyst  opens  into  the  blood-vessels  are 


Fig.  3.— Vdrious  Forms  0/  Tape-Worms  A,  Tfita  crhtnocorrus;  x  12  (from 
Leuckart).  R.  A'rhigeles  tiebotdt;  x  tiO(from  Lcuckait)-  C,Echinobolhrium 
tvput;  X  10  {from  Van  Beneden).  H,  Caryophyl/xus  mulabilis;  x  about  5 
(irom  Curua), 

almost  always  suddenly  fatal.  When  the  Echinococciis 
occurs  n^ar  the  surface  of  the  body,  it  may  be  evacuated 
by  puncture' and  a  cure  effected  with  but  little  risk. 

Systematic  Arrangement  of  the  Ccstoda. 
Tlie  following  classification  of  the  Cestodes.  based  mainly  Oil  tliat 
of  Van  Ueiieden,  exhibits  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of 
the  group  ; — 

Class  Ccstoda. 

Faitiily  I-  Amphilinid<B.  —  Body  oval,  flattened,  with  a  surker 
at  the  anterior  extremity ;  testes  vesieular,  vas  deferens 
opening  posteriorly;  ovary  (gerniarium)  single,  yolk  glands 
double,  vagina  opening  near  tJievas  deferens,  uterus  opening 
mitcriorly;  embryo  ciliated  in  front  and  with  ten  hooks. 
Examples;  .^ni/)Ai7i7ur,  Wageuer  (see  below),  Amphiptychcs, 
Wagener. 

F»inily  11.  CaryopkyUxidsE. — Rody  unsegmented,  flat,  extended  ; 
head  expanded,  bilobcd,  and  witliout  hooks  ;  a  single  set  of 
sexual  organs  in  the  liindcr  portion  ;  development  probably 
n  simplihed  motamorphoiis.  Example  :  Caryop/njU/rus 
tnutabilis,  from  the  intestine  of  Cyprinohl  fishes  {fig,  3,  D). 

Family  III.  Pscudophy^hd.T.—Wen.d  provided  with  two  sucking 
grooves;  proglottides  not  always  well  defined;  a  uterine 
ajM-rture  always  present  in  addition  to  the  openings  of  tlic 
vas  deferens  and  vagina;  embryo  always  (?)  with  a  ciliated 
coat,  and  egg-shell  with  an  operculum.  Examples  :  Bcthrio- 
tcphaUis  (see  below),  Tnwnophorus  {  =  Tricuspidarin),  i>o/cno- 
phorus,  Sckistocephalus,  Lujula,  Archigdcs,  and  perhaps 
Dufhicrsiu  (see  below). 

Faniily  IV.  DiphyHidfS. — Neck  and  two  suckers  armed  with 
liooks.  Example  :  Eehinnbotkrium,  two  species  known  from 
Sflachians,  ofic  inunature  from  a  mollusc  (fig.  3,  C). 

Vamily  V.  Tctrarhijnchidx.  —  Head  provided  with  four  suckers 
and  four  protractile  proboscidea  armed  with  hooks;  sexual 
openings  marginal.  Example  :  Tclrarhynckus  (see  below), 
about  forty  species  known,  many  only  described  from  im- 
mature forms. 

/arpily  VI.  Teirapkyllidm.—Uc^id  with  four  very  mobile  and 
distinct  suckers,  which  are  often  armed  with  hooks  or 
chitinoua  rods  ;  body  segmented,  proglottides  cast  otT  when 
mature;  sexual  openings  marginal. 
Subfamily  i.  Phyllobotkrinx.  — Suckers  withouthooks  or  spines. 
Examples :  EchencibotkTium^  rhyllobothTixim ,  AnUwboth- 
rium,  a  few  species  of  each,  all  from  Elasmobranch  fishes. 
Subfamily  ii.  PhyllacaTUhmte. — Suckers  each  with  two  to  fyur 
hooks.  Examples  :  Calhohdtkriwm,  OTichobothrium,  Acan- 
(hobotkriui^  two  or  Three  speciee  of  each  genua  known  from 
^eUchiaDS. 


Family  Vll.    Tsniadee. — Head  furnished  with  four  euck 

often  with  a  single  or  double  circlet  of  hooks  ;  proglotlidM- 
well-defined  and  cast  off  when  mature  ;  no  uterine  apmrture. 
Example  :   Ticnia  (see  below). 

It  seems  advisable  to  odd  a  few  details  regarding  some  of  thn 
lorms  alluded  to  in  the  above  synopsis. 

Ampkilina  foliacea,  described  as  a  TremAtodc  by  Rudolphi,  is 
found  in  the  body-cavity  of  the  sturgeon.  A  number  of  unicellular 
glands  open  into  tlie  sucker,  and  are  surrounded  by  the  muscles 
of  tliat  organ;  the  nervous  system  consists  of  two  ganglia,  with 
a  commissure,  and  two  lateral  nerves  ;  the  male  organs  resemble 
those  of  Boihrioccphalns,  the  female  those  of  the  Tiematodes  ;  the 
family  is  generally  regarded  as  furnishing  a  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  Ccstoda  and  Tranatoda  ;  see  Salensky  (18)  and  Lang  (7), 
er  v.e.  c  cp.  ex. 


jtAjf 


Flc.  4  — B'-t\noffphaJid.€.  A,  A  sccmcnt  of  Dothrweephafus  tattix,  sliowing  the 
gtncraiive  oicons  Iio.n  the  reniral  surface ;  fT..  excretory  vessels;  r,  cuius; 
f.p..  cirrus  pouch  ;  i-.i/ .  vus  defeiens  ;  r.o.,  vaclnal  openiftg  ;  v  ,  vaginu  ;  fh^., 
shell-gland  ;  01/  .  oviduct ;  oe..  ovary  ;  y,y  ,  yolkylaod  ,  ^<i  .  its  duct;  uf..  utci  us; 
U.O..  ulerlne  opening,  tlie  testes  are  not  vislhle  (10m  this  ..-idc ;  x  2J  (fiom 
Somnier  and  Lucdnl^l.  I(.  C.  niarciiial  and  lateral  views  of  the  anterior  pan  of 
B  tnrdalu*.  slinwinp  the  cephalic  grooves:  x  h  (from  Leuckan).  D,  Ciliated 
embryo  ol  tl-  lalui  ;  x  (Ju  (fiom  Leuckan) 

Bolhrioctihului  latus  (32)  is  tlio  most  conspicuous  c.vamiile  of  the 
family  Pscitydophylhdw,  and  is,  moreover,  notcwoithy  as  being  the 
largest  lQ|ie-\vorni  round  in  man  ;  its  length  often  teaches  8  to  9 
metres,  and  its  extreme  breadth  ]0  to  12  mm.  The  head  bears 
two  grooves,  whioh  correspond  in  position  with  the  Hat  sides  of 
the  body.  There  are  two  (mure  correctly  three)  genital  openings, 
which  arc-situated,  not  on  the  margin  but  on  the  flat  side  of  the 
body,  on  that  sniface  which  is  nsnaily  called  the  vcntial.  The 
most  anterior  of  these  is  the  male  apertuie  (fig.  4,  A,  c . ),  and  im- 
mediately behind  it  is  that  of  the  vagina  (f.o. ),  so  close  that  011 
superficial  examination  the  two  often  seem  to  coincide.  This  vaginal 
opening,  like  that  of  the  Tmniadn-,  serves  for  the  intromission  of 
the  penis  and  for  the  ferlliizatioii  of  the  ova.  but  not  for  the  exit 
of  the  ripe  eggs;  this  being  |.irnidcd  for  by  a  special  aperture  at 
the  other  entT  of  tTic  uterus  fiom  fh.it  at  wni*  h  the  eggs  enter  it. 
This  uterine  opening  (mo.)  is  situated  at  a  s'lort  distance  behind 
the  other  two.  The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the  eggs  con 
be  evacuated  without  any  injury  to  the  proglottis,  and  consequently 
their  discharge  commences  before  its  separation  from  the  jtarent 
worm  and  may  continue  for  a  long  period.  The  uterus  {ut.)  itself, 
owing  to  its  disposition  in  folded  coils,  when  full  of  eggs,  iMcsentS' 
an  irregular,  rouml,  lobular  apj-rarance,  which  has  been  compared 
to  a  flower  or  heraldic  lily.  The  yolk-gland  (i/.j.)  is  widely  dis- 
seminated in  the  lateral  areas  of  the  segments,  and  its  duct-s  (y.rf.)- 
form  a  series  of  branching  tubules,  first  described  by  Eschricht 
(27)  under  the  name  "yellow  ducts. "  The  excretory  organs  (cr.) 
differ  from  those  of  the  Tmniads!.  in  that  the  canals  exhibit  a  reticu- 
late arrangement.  The  embryo  (lig.  4,  D)  as  it  leaves  the  egg  \» 
covered  with  1  cili-ated  mantle,  whicli  corresponds  to  the  firm  egg- 
shell and  associated  membrane  of  the  cystic  tape-worms,  and  per- 
haps also  to  the  ciliated  cnvelo]io  of  certain  Trematode  larva.-  (see 
Tkematoda).  This  ciliated  organism  swims  fitely  about  in  the 
water,  but  after  a  time  the  six  hooked  pioscolex  escapes  from  it. 
The  next  stage  in  its  life-history  is  not  yet  known,  but  it  has  been 
recently  shown  by  [iraun  of  Dorpat  (33)  that  at  a  subsequent  stage 
it  iiJbabits  the  pike  and  burbot,  and  develops  into  the  sexual  adiilt 
when  transferred  to  the  intestine  of  the  human  subject.  The 
geographical  distribution  of  Bothrwccphalia  is  limited;  it  has  been 
recorded  with  certainty  in  but  few  places  outside  Europe;  wlifle 
within  that  continent  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  and  Switzerlend  m 


TAPE- WORMS 


oo 


the  principal  localities,  it  is  widely  distributed  in  Russia,  aniA  has 
been  recorded  from  Poland,  Denmark,  Germany,  as  well  as  from 
Frapce  and  Untain,  though  it  is  possible  that  the  ca^es  occurring 
in  these  latter  countries  Jiave  becrtdue  toAiportatiorf: 

Tlie  genus  Ligula  has  tlie  segmentation  obscure  orindistinguish- 
atie!"  About  six  species  are  known.  One  is  found  encapsuled  in  a 
monkey,  one  hr  the  common  seal,  others  in  reptiles  and  telcosteans. 
Arxhigctes  siiboldi  (fi%  3.  B)  occurs  in  the  body-cavity  of  an 
Oligochstous  worm  {tuhifcxyiv^lorum)\  it  is  about  3  mm.  long, 
and  consists  of  au  oval  body  (scoleX)-,  to  which  is  attached  a  cylin- 
drical tail  (proscolex),  bearing  at  the  posterior  extremity  three 
pairs  of  hooks;  both  these  parts  arc  capable  of  motion.  Thescolex 
has  eight  longitudinal  excretory  canals,  and  a  terminal  vesicle; 
the  ventrally  sitnated  genital  aperture  is  the  common  exit  of  the 
vas  deferens,  the  vagina,  and  a  uterus  separate  from  the  latter; 
the  development  is  direct,  and  it  attains  sexual  maturity  without 
a  change  of  host.  Duihiersia,  Perner  (34),  contains  two  species, 
both  from  the  intestines  of  varanian  lizards.  The  genus  is 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  two  large  compressed  frilled 
enckers,  separated  by  a  septum  and  perforated  at  their  bases. 
The  proglottides  have  three  genital  apertures  resembling  those  of 
Bothrioccphalus. 


Fig  b —Teirarhynehu$.  A,  GeneiMl  vie**"  of  the  worm ;  x  4.  B.  head  showing 
the  Suckers.  prubusciJes,  and  excretory  canals;  x  25.  C,  portion  of  a  pro- 
bu6Ci3  showing  the  tu'o  forma  of  hooks ;  higiily  magnified.    (Alt  frum  Pintner.) 

The  genus  Tctfrarhynehus  was,  a  few  years  ago,  made  the  subject 
of  an  elaborate  memoir  by  Pintuer  (9),  who  investigated  T.  longi- 
colli'i,  V.  Ben.  The  head,  in  whii;h  its  most  striking  anatomical 
peculiarities  are  situated,  really  includes  both  the  head  and  neck 
of  previous  authors  (fig-  5,  A);  it  is  some  9 "94  mm.  long,  but  only 
075  mm.  in  diameter,  and  bears  at  its  anterior  end  two  oblifinely 
placed  oval  di.'iks  (fig.  5,  B),  each  of  which  is  perforated  towftrds  the 
apex  by  two  round  holes  through  wldeh  the  four  proboscides  pro- 
trude. Each  of  these  disks,  moreover,  shows  traces  of  a  division 
into  two,  a  fact  which  indicates  that  it  is  formed 'by  the  fusion  of 
two  suckers  corresponding  to  those  commonly  found  in  tape-worms. 
The  Hatteiiing  in  this  genus  seems  to  be  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  that  in  which  it  usually  takes  place.  The  proboscides. 
winch  nre  the  most  characteristic  organs  of  the  genus,  are  four  in 
number,  and  protrude  from  or  can  be  retracted  into  the  anterior 
surfaceof  the  head.  Each  consists  of  three  parts: — (1)  the  tootlied 
portion  IS  the  most  anterior;  it  is  shaped  like  a  long  narrow  glove- 
ftng'ir,  liku  which  it  is  invaginable;  on  its  external  .surface  it 
bears  rows  of  hooks,  closely  set  in  diagonal  lines  (fig.  5.  C);  there 
art  two  forms  of  these:  those  which  are  directed  outwards  are 
large  triangular  hooks,  with  apices  pointing  backwards,  whilst 
those  situated  on  that  surface  "of  the  proboscis  which  is  turned 
towards  the  other  proboscides  are  fine,  delicate,  and  curved ; 
between  the  hooks  are  fine  uhitinous  hairs;  (2)  the  membranous 
sheath  is  firmly  attached  where  the  general  surface»of  the  body 
passes  over  into  the  toothed  portion  around  the  orifice  of  the 
invagination  ;  it  consists  of  a  thick  homogeneous  transparent 
skin,  apparently  an  excretion  of  cells  lining  the  cavity  of  the  pro- 
boscis ;  (3).the  muscular  portion  is  the  most  posterior  of  all,  and  is 
composed  of  srx  layers,  remarkable  as  Containing  striped  muscular 
fibres  .  throughout  all  these  three  portions'Qf  the  proboscis ^there 
eKtends  a  retractor  muscle.  Tire  action  of  these  various  structures 
is  not  thoroughly  understood,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  proboscis  is 
protruded  by  the  action  of  the  last-nampd  muscular  sheath,  whilst 
it  is  retracted,  after  the  relax.ation  of  this,  partly  by  the  retractor 
muscle  and  partly  by  the  pressure  of  the  surrounding  medium. 
The  family  T&'/iiadw  is  usually" described  as  containing  only  th<» 


onb  genus  Txnia,  but,  owiug  to  tha  number  and  variety  of  its 
species,  of  which  more  than  350  have  been  described,  it  has  been 
subdivided  ^tito  gi-_Qups,  regurJed  by  different  authors  as  geneia  or 
subgenera.  "The  subjoined  arrangenifntis  mainly  tliat  of  Leuckart 
It  labours  under  the  disadvantage  that  its  chief  divisions  are  based 
upon  the  bladder-worm  or  larval  stage,  which  is  only  known  iil 
the  case  of  comparatively  few  species. 

I.  Cystici  (cystic  tape-worms). — Head  rarely  unarmed;  usually 

{provided  with  a  rostelluin  and  with  one  or  more  rows  of 
looks;  proglottides  longish  oval  when  mature;  uteiug 
with  meaian  stem  and  lateral  branches ;  the  larva  has  a 
caudal  bladder  containing  fluid. 

1.  Cystotmiia,  Leuckait. — The  head  arises  in  the  wall  of  the 

embryonic  bladder. 
a.  Tasnia  sagiaata,  Gbze. — Without  hooks  (=  T.  wedw- 

eanellata^  Kivchenmeister,  =genus  Tseniarhynchiis^ 

AVeinland). 
h.    Txnia  solium,    Rudolphi.  — Head    with   a    double 

circlet  of  hooks. 
c.    Taenia  acantftotrias,  Weinland. — Head  with  a  triple 

circlet  of  Looks  (•=  genus  Acanthotrias,  Weinland). 

2.  Eckinococci/cr,  Weinland.— The   heads   arise  in   speciaf 

brood-capsules.     T&nia  echinococcii^,  V.  Siebold. 

II.  Cystoidci  (ordinary  tSpe-worms). — The  larva'has  no  distended 

caudal  bladder  containing  fluid, 

1.  /fi/)nc3io/c;jt6,  Weinland. — Proboscis  with  a  single  row  of 

small  hooks.  Tmnia  na-iia^  V.  Siebold,  T.  Jlavopunctala, 
Weinland. 

2.  Dipylidium^  Leuckart.  — HeaU  with  several  rows  of  hooks. 

vgach    with   a  discoidal    base ;  a   right  and  left  -set  of 

•genital  organs  in  each  joint,  the  uterus,  however,  being 

single  and  common  to  the  twa      Tsenia  citcumerina, 

Rudolphi  (=  T.  dUyiicx,  Batsch). 

Hamann    (2)  has  recently  proposed  a  new  genus,  Ptychopkysa, 

for    Txnid   liJieala,    Gbze,  -  which    is    defined    by   the    following 

characters: — (1)  the  porus genitalis  is  on  the  surface  and  not  on  tlie 

margin  of  the  joints  ;  (2)  the  vagir.al  opening  is  anterior  to  that  of 

the  cirrus;  (3)  at  a  certain  period  the  uterus  is  convoluted;  (4) 

there  is  a  peculiar  shell-gland.     la  many  of  these  characters  the 

species  shows  a  resemblance  to  i\\t^ Bothriocephalidm. 

Occurrence  in  Man. — The  Cestodes  whiLh  in  the  adnlt  state 
infest  man,  with  their  CQrresponding  larvae  and  temporary  hosts, 
are  as  follows  : — 

Teenia  saginata.  Cysticercus  bovis.       Ox. 

T.  solium.  C.  cellulosx.  Pig,  man. 

r.  naTia.  (?)  (?) 

T.fiatojninetata.  (?)  (?) 

T.  viadagascariensis.  (?)  (?) 

T.  cxuntmerina.  C.  T  cvcuvurinm.     Trichodectes  canis, 

Bothriocephahis  IcUus.  Pike,  burbot.i 

B.  cristatus,  (?) 

B.  c&rdalits.  Fish(?) 

Other  species,  however,  inhabit  the  human  body  in  their  laVvat 
condition  ;  a  list  of  them,  v/ith  the  corresponding  adult  forms.-Xnd 
permanent  hosts,  is  subjoined  : — 

Cysticercus  cellulose.  T^nia  solium.  Man. 

C  acanthotrias,  T.  acanthotrias  (incog.J       (?) 

C.  tenuicollis.  T.  marginata.  I^^g,  wolf. 
Echinococciis.                      T.  cchinococcus.  Deg. 

Phylogcny. — There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Cestodes  and  Tre- 
matodes  are  intimately  rt-lated  and  have  sprung  from  a  comn'ion 
ancestor  ;  there  are  so  many  structural  peculiarities  i:i  which  they 
agree  (compare  Trematodes),  and  they  are  connected  by  so  n:any 
intermediate  forms,  that  their  aflfinity  can  admit  of  no  doubt. 
According  to  Leuckart,  the  original  ancestor  of  both  was  probably 
allied  to  the  Planarians,  while  Huxley  (22,  pp.  213i  676)  points^ 
out  that  it  is  at  ail  events  possible  that  they  have  no^  conncxioii 
with  free  forms  but  have  always  been  anenterous,  land' in  fa^t  are 
nothing  but  "  giganti ;  morulie,  so  to  speak,  which  have  neyer  passed 
through  the  gastrula  stage." 

Bi'jliographi/  — (1)  Leuckart,  Die  Payasiten  des  Menicken.  Lcipsic,  lP63-7f: ;  2d 
cd..  1879-86;  Eng  transl,  T/ie /'araiiYe;  u/A'un.Svo.  Edinburgh.  IhSG,  (2)  HumiUin, 
ZfAlschr.f.  tciss.  Zoo/,,  jlii.,  1885.  (3)  Zvoker,  in  Ziemsttn's  Cyclop,  of  Pr-ac.  Med.\ 
lit  (4)  Kijberld.  Da  CyUicn-quei  ties  Timiai  dit  t/Ivmme.  Pans.  ISCl.  (5)  Grnefe, 
A'-chivf  O/'/U/ialmolome,  xU^  1S74.  (6)  Niemiec,  fire  2oo!.  Suiae,  it.,  It-SS.  (T/ 
Lang.  Millh.  Zoot.  Stat.  J^tapel.ii.,  1881.  (8)  Fraijiont.  Archives  de  Biol.,  I,.  JS80» 
li..lP31.  (9)  VSnincT,  Art.  Zool.  I7isi..\\\..  X'icnna,  18bl.  (10)  Steudener,  AbhandL 
nalurj.  Oe^ethch.,  xiii.,  Htlle,  1S77.  (11)  Wugener,  \ota  Acta  Cxi.  Lrop  Carol, 
Acad-,  xxiv.,  Suppl.,  18*4.  (12)  lUchjn,-C-rrej!f<bl.  d  ttaturw.  Vet-  f.  Sat/iten  u, 
Tfuiringen,  lti82.  {13)P.  J.  Van  bcr.edt.-n.  "  Vei8  CesfoUlos."  Me>n.  A>ad.B-.iitl!es. 
XXV,,  1851.  and  "  Verslntestlnaux,"  Coinpirs  Reiidus.  Paris.  Suppl..  ii..  lbi;i.  (H) 
E(i  Van  Heneden.  virfrtipe  dc-fifo/..  U,  ISM.  {\&)na\im,  Bttlr.  tw  Entmrielvn^y. 
ffesch.  der  C'/f-tieercen,  Doipul.  ltfS3  (16)  ViHol.  At.  Sci.  Nat.  Monipcl'te- .  Sept. 
1&S2.  I8S3,  (17)  Virchow,  Verh-tndl.  Wurzb.  phys-med  Gaelltch.,  vi.,  is.=.rt.  (18) 
Salcnsky,  Zeitschr.f.  iris:.  Zoot..  \\\v  ,  1X74.  (19)  Pullu^.  A'eufnni-rfisrV  fi'i.'rage, 
i.,  il.,  17S1.  (20)  Diesin^;  Sijstema  //p/mi/*(-'*u.H,  &vo.  Viennti.  1650.  (21)  l.iaatow, 
Comp,  drr  Jlelminthologie,  8vo,  Haiiuv.-i,  IS78.  (22)  Huxley.  AmU.  invvrtci/r. 
Anim.,  8vo.  London,  1877.  (23)  Pia^er.  Opui  Pt-axfos  Afedicx.  1601.  (24)  Andry. 
'Aa  Account  of  the  Breeding  of  "SVormt  in  Hvman  Bedics,  8vo,  Londu!!,  1701 
(tranBl.).       (25)   UremsT,    Utinr  Itbcnde   Wurmer   im   Itbenden   Mcnuhtn,   4to^ 


56 


T  A  P  —  T  A  P 


Vienna.  !B19  (26)  Burdacirs  rn^sMotjtt.  It.,  Leiptilc,  1838  (87)  EBCiirJcht,  tfova 
Attn  f*i  Leop  -Carot.  Acad.,  Ilx..  Suppl..  1841.  (SB)SteeDStrup.  On  the  Atttrna- 
Itun  of  Gmtratio'it,  Ray  Society.  8va  London.  1845.  (29)  KUchenmeister, 
Animal  Partimtt  Sydenham  Society,  Bro,  London.  1857;  newf  German  ed., 
I.elpslc.  1H80-SI-  (30)  Linylow,  Arehis  /.  jfafut gftffi ,  187i  tq.  (31)  Sommer, 
Ztiticht  /  i^tiJ  Zoot.,  ixtv  .  1874.  (32)  Sommei  and  Landols,  op.  CU-.  xxll., 
167J.  (831  Braun.  Zur  Entwicktlunt;iges<h.  del  bmtm  BandwurmfS.  Wiirz- 
burit.  1883  (84)  rcrnei.  Ar^h.  dl  Zoot  Eipe>- .  11..  I8i3  (351  Rudolphl. 
Enloioorum  Hut  Nat.  8vo,  Amsteidara,  1803.  (38)  Llnstow,  Areh. /.  A'atur- 
gtich.,  18B6.  p  113  For  a  concise  account  of  the  comparative  anatomy  and 
tftpiooa  bibliography,  sec  Jnckaoa.  in  Kolleston'a  Forrm  of  Ammat  L\!f.  2d  ed., 
Oxford.  1887  (W.  E.  HO.) 

TAPIOCA  is  a  farinaceous  food  substance  prepared 
■from  cassava  starch,  the  product  of  the  largo  tuberous 
r(X)t3  of  the  cassava  or  manioc  plant,  Manihot  vtilissima 
{Jatropha  manihot),  native  of  Brazil  (see  Cassava,  vol.  v. 
p-.  182,  and  comp.  Arrowroot,  vol.  ii.  p.  631,  fig.  6). 
Cassava  starch,  being  separated  from  the  fibrous  and  nitro- 
genous constituents  of  the  roots,  is  in  a  moist  condition 
spread  upon  jron  plates,  and  with  constant  stirring  exposed 
to  such  heab-  as  causes  a  partial  rupture  of  the  starch 
granules,  which  agglomerate  into  irregular  pellets,  becoming 
hard  and  translucent  when  cooled.  In  this  partly  torrefied 
condition  the  starch  forms  the  tapioca  of  commerce,  a 
light,  pleasant,  and  digestible  food,  much  used  in  puddings 
and  as  a  thickener  for  soups.  The  French  prepare  an 
artificial  tapioca  from  potato  starch,  mixed  with  various 
vegetable  substances,  for  use  in  soups,  &c.,  which  is 
found  in  the  market  under  such  names  as  tapioca  Crecy, 
tapioca  Julienne,  Ac,  according  to  the  dried  vegetables 
with  which  the  preparations  are  made. 

TAPIR.'  The  general  characters  of  the  aiiinjals  of  the 
perissodactyle  or  odd-toed  section  of  the  hoofed  mammals 
are  described  under  Mammalia,  vol.  xv.  p.  427.  This 
once  numerous  group  is  at  present  representeij  by  only 
three  rather  isolated  families,  the  Horses,  Rhinoceroses, 
and-Tapirss  The  last  of  these  have  retained  much  more 
of  the  original  characters  of  the  primitive  Ungulates  of  the 
Eocene  period  than  the  others,  and  have  indeed  remained 
practically  almost  unchanged  since  the  Miocene  period, 
while  almost  all  Other  mammalian  forms  which  existed 
then  have  either  become  extinct  or  undergone  extensive 
modification.  The  tapirs  constitute  the  single  genus, 
Tapirus,  of  the  family  Tapindce. 

The  dentition  is  i  5,  c  {,  p  J,  m  | ;  total  42.  Of  the  upper 
incisors,  the  first  and  second  are  nearly  equal,  with  slioit,  broad 
crowns,  the  third  is  large  and  conical,  considerably  larger  tlian 
the  true  canine,  which  is  separated  from  it  by  an  interval.  Lower 
incisors  diininishing  in  size  from  the  first  to  the  third;  the  canine, 
which  is  in  contact  with  the  third  incisor,  large  and  conical,  working 
against  (and  behind)  the  canine-like  third  upper  incisor.  In  both 
jaws  there  is  a  long  interspace  between  the  canines  and  the  coni- 
inencenientof  the  teeth  **f  the  molar  series,  which  are  all  in  contact. 
First  upper  premolar  with  a  triangular  crow^n,  narrow  in  front 
owing  to  tlie  absence  of  the  anterior  inner  cusp.-  The  other  upper 
premolars  and  molars  all  formed  on  the  same  jOan  and  of  nearly 
the  same  size,  with  four  roots  and  quadrate  crowns,  rather  wider 
transversely  thanfrom  before  backwards,  each  having  four  cusps, 
connected  by  a  pair  of  transverse  ridges,  anterior  and  posterior. 
TIi^  first  lower  premolar  compressed  in  front;  the  others  composed 
of  a  sim|Mo  pair  of  ti-ansverse  crests,  with  a  small  anterior  and 
posterior  cingiilar  ridge. 

Skull  elevated  and  compressed.  Orbit  ond  temporal  fossa  widely 
•continuous,  there  being  no  true  post-oibital  process  from  the  frontal 
boue.  Anterior  narial  apertures  very  large,  and  extending  high 
on  the  face  between  the  orbits;  nasal  bones  short,  elevateTl, 
triangular,  and  pointed  in  front-  Vertebra:  i^C  7,  D  18,  L  5,  S  6, 
C  abiJlit  12.  Liinbs  short  and  stout,  fpre  feet  with  four  toes, 
linving  diitiiict  hoofs:  the  first  is  absent,  the  third  the  longest,, 
the  secon.l  and  fourth  nearly  equal,  the  fifth  the  shortest  "and 
scarcely  reaching  tlie  ground  in  the  ordinary  standing  position. 
Hind  fei  t  With  the  typical  perissodactyle  arrangement  of  three 
toes,— the  middle  one  being  the  largest,  the  two  others  nearly  etiual. 
Nose  and  upiier  lip  elongated  into  a  flexible,  mobile  snout  or  short 
probo.sci9,  near  the  end  uf  which  tlie  nostrils  are  situated.  Eyes 
rather  small.  Ears  of  moderate  size,  ovate,  erfv't.  Tail  very  short. 
Skin  thick  ami  but  scantily  covered  with  hair. 

The  existing  apecies  of  tapir  may  be  grouped  into  two 
.sections,  the  distinctive  characters  of  which  are  only 
recognizable  in  the  skeleton.     (A)  With  a  great  anterior 


prolongation  of  the  ossification  t>f  the  nasat  Beptnm 
(mesethmoid),  extending  in  the  adillt  far  beyond  the  naeal 
bones,  and  supported  and  embraced  at  the  base  by  ascend- 
ing plates  from  the  maxilliE  (genua  Elasmognnthus,  Gill). 
Two  species,  both  from  Central  America,  Tapirus  bairdi 
and  T.  dowi.  The  former  is  ^ound  in  Mexico,  Honduras, 
Nicaragua,    Costa    Rica,   and    Panama ;    the    latter    in 


American  Tapir,  from  a  living  specimen  in  the  London  Zoological 
Gardens. 

Guatemala,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica.  (B)  With  ossificaJ, 
tion  of  the  septum  not  extending  farther  forward  than  the 
nasal  bones  {Tapirus  proper).  Three  species,  T.  indicun, 
the  largest  of  the  genus,  from  the  Malay  Peninsula  (as  far 
north  £is  Tavoy  and  Mergui),  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  dis- 
tinguished by  its  peculiar  coloration,  the  head,  neck,  fore 
and  hind  limbs  being  glossy  black,  and  the  intermediate 
part  of  the  body  white;  T.  americanus  {T.  terrestrie^ 
Linn.),  the  common  tapir  of  the  forests  and  lowlands  of 
Rrazil  and  Paraguay;  and  T.  roulini,  the  Pinchaque  tapir 
of  the  high  regions  of  the  Andes.  All  the  American 
species  are  of  a  nearly  uniform  dark  brown  or  blackish 
colour  when  adult ;  but  it  is  a  curious  circumstance  that 
when  young  (and  in  this  the  Malay  species  conforms  with 
the  others)  they  are  conspicuously  marked  with  spots  and 
longitudinal  stripes  of  white  or  fawn  colour  on  a  darker 
ground. 

The  habits  of  all  the  kinds  of  tapirs  appear  to  be  very 
similar.  They  are  solitary,  nocturnal,  shy,  and  inoffensive, 
chiefly  frequenting  the  depths  of  shady  forests  and  the 
peighbourhood  of  water,  to  which  they  frequently  resort 
for  the  purpose  of  bathing,  and  in  wliicli  they  often  take 
refuge  when  pursued.  They  feed  on  various  vegetable 
substances,  as  shoots  of  trees  and  bushes,  buds,  and  leaves. 
They  are  hunted  b"y  the  natives  of  the  lands  in  which  they 
live  for  the  sake  of  their  hides  and  flesh. 

The  singular  fact  of  the  existence  of  so  closely  allied 
animals  as  the  Malayan  and  the  American  tapirs  in  such 
distant  regions  of  the  earth  and  in  no  intervening  places 
is  accounted  for  by  wliat  is  known  of  the  geological  history 
of  the  race,  for,  if  we  may  judge  from  thesomewhat  scanty 
remains  which  have  been  preserved  to  our  times,  consisting 
chiefly  of  teeth,  the  tapirs  must  once  have  had  a  very  wide 
distribution.  There  is  no  p^roof  of  their  having  lived  in 
the  Eocene  epoch,  but  in  deposits  of  Miocene  and  Pliocene 
date  remains  undistinguishable  generically  and  perhaps 
specifically  from  the  modern  tapirs  (though  named  T. 
priscus,  T.  arvemensis,  kc.)  have  been  found  io  France, 
Germany,  and  in  the  red  crag  of  Suffolk.     Tapirs  appear, 


T  A  R  — T  A  R 


67 


however,  to  have  become  extinct  in  Europe  before  the 
Pleistocene  period,  as  none  of  their  bones  or  teeth  have 
been  found  in  any  of  the  caves  or  alluvial  dej^'Osits  in  which 
those  of  clt|ihants,  rhinoceroses,  and  hip|io>intaniUbes  occur 
in  abundance  ,  but  In  other  regions  thtir  distribution  at 
this  age  was  far  wider  than  at  pri  sent,  as  they  arc  kiiu«n 
to  have  evtendcd  eastward  to  China  (T  .«<«<#i.-i«.  Owm) 
ind  westwards  over  the  ■.'nater  part  o'  the  souilurn 
United  States  of  America,  from  South  C.iroliiia  to  Oili 
forma.  Lund  also  distinguished  two  species  or  varieties 
from  the  caves  of  Brazil.  Thus  we  have  no  dilliculty  in 
tracing  the  common  origin  ir  the  .Miocene  tapirs  of  Europe 
of  the  now  widely  .separated  American  and  Asiatic  species 
It  IS,  moreover,  interesting  to  observe  how  very  sliglil  an 
amount  of  variation  has  taken  place  in  forms  isolated 
during  such  an  enormous  periuc'  of  tunc  'w   h    f 

TAK  is  a  product  of  the  destructive  distillation  of 
organic  substances,  ft  is  a  highly  complex  material,  vary- 
ing in  its  composition  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
body  from  tvhich  it  is  distilled,— ditierent  jiuducts,  more- 
over, being  obtained  according  to  the  temperature  at  which 
the  process  of  distillation  is  carried  on.  As  commercial 
products  tlieie  are  two  principal  clas.se.s  of  tar  in  use— (1) 
wood  tar,  the  product  of  the  special  dislill.itiotr  ^f  several 
varieties  of  wood,  and  {.)  coal  tar,  which  is  primarily  a 
iiyc  product  of  the  distilLUKm  of  coal  for  tlie  manufacture 
of  illuminating  gas  Tliese  tars  are  intimately  related  to 
'the  bitumen,  asphalt,  mineral  pitch,  and  petroleum  ob- 
tained in  verv  many  localities  throughout  the  world. 

W','k(  Tor. — Wood  tar,  known  also  as  Stockholm  and 
Ss  Archangel  tar,  is  principally  prepared  in  the  great  [>ine 
forests  ol  central  and  northern  iiussia,  Finland,  and  Sweden. 
Tlie  material  rliiiHy  employed  is  the  resinous  stools  and 
roots  of  the  Scotch  fir  {J'iitns  si/hystn'x)  and  the  Siberian 
larcH  fLnnx  silin'ca),  with  other  less  common  fir  tree 
roots.  A  large  amount  ot  tar  is  also  prepared  frpm  the 
roots  of  the  sw-amp  pine  (P.  austmtis)  in  North  and 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Alabama,  in  ihe  United 
States.  In  the  distillation  of  wood  a  series  of  products, 
including  gas,  tar,  pyroligneous  acid  and  wood  spirit,  and 
charcoal  ni.iy  be  obtained,  and  any  of  these  may  be  the 
primary  object  of  the  operation.  When  tar  is  the  sub- 
stance sought,  tlie  ancient  and  crude  method  of  working  is 
yet  largely  adopteQ  in  ihe  north  of  Europe.  The  wood  to 
be  treated  is  closely  piled  up  into  a  huge  conical  stack  or 
pile  on  an  elevated  platform,  the  sole  of  which  is  covered 
with  clay  and  tiles.  The  sole  slopes  inwards  from  every 
side  to  the  centre,  where  an  opening  communicate?  with  a 
vaulted  cavity  under  the  elevated  platform.  The  pile  of 
wood  is  closely  covered  over  with  layers  of  turf  and  earth 
or  sand  to  a  depth  of  several  inches,  but  leaving  at  first 
near  the  bottom  numerous  apertures  for  the  admission  of 
air  to  promote  ignition.  The  pile  is  ignited  from  below, 
and  as  the  fire  spreads  through  the  heap  the  various 
apertures  are  closed  up  and  a  slow  smouldering  combus- 
tion goes  on  for  some  days  till,  by  the  sinking  of  the  pile, 
the  top  of  the  stack  falls  in,  and  a  bright  flame  springs 
up  at  that  point.  About  ten  days  after  ignition  tar  first 
begins  to  llow,  and  it  is  at  once  collected  into  barrels. 
According  to  the  size  of  the  pile,  the  distillation  may 
continue  several  weeks,  the  tar  secured  amounting  to 
about  17  5  per  cent,  of  the  wood  operated  on  In  this 
method  several  valuable  products — the  gas,  the  Ci..dc  j'yro- 
ligneous  acid,  and  much  charcoal— are  lost  or  wasted,  and 
a  more  economical  process  of  treating  the  wood  in  closed 
stills  or  retorts  is  now  largely  used  in  Russia,  the  gas  evolved 
serving  as  fuel  under  the  retorts  The  heavier  tar  prO' 
ducts  of  the  distillation  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the  retort, 
whence  they  are  carried  off  by  a  pipe  to  a  receiver  ,  the 
jolatUe  portion  passes  off  at  the  upper  part  of  the  retort, 


and  is  separately  condensed,  tbe  lightest  portion  passing 
through  a  worm  condenser.  From  treatment  in  close 
retorts  resinous  roots  yield  from  16  to  20  per  cent,  of  tar, 
with  some  oil  of  turpentine  and  pyroligneous  acid. 

Wood  tar  is  a  .semi-fluid  substance,  of  a  dark  brown  Ot 
bl.ick  coloui,  with  a  strong  pungent  odour  and  a  sbar[7 
taste  Owing  to  the  presence  of  acetic  (pyroligneous) 
aiid,  wliieli  is  a  coU.iteraJ  product,  it  has  an  acid  reaction j 
It  is  soluble  in  that  acid,  as  well  as  in  alcohol  and  the  fi.xeq 
and  es.stntiul  oil.s,  Ac  Tar  consists  essentially  of  a  mixtur^ 
of  homologous  hydrocarbons,  and  by  redistillation  it  can  be 
fractionated  into  a  series  of  bodies  having  fi.xed  boiling 
points  Some  varieties  of  tar  have  a  granular  appear) 
anec,  from  the  presence  of  mimitc  crystals  of  pyiocaiechinj 
which  dissolve  and  disappear  on  heating  the  substance! 
Fyrocatechin  dissolves  freely  in  water,  and  to  it  the  taV 
water  (lii/uor  /ncis)  of  phannary  probably  owes  its  value> 

Crude  tar  from  retorts,  when  submitted  to  redistillation^ 
gives  off  wood  spirit  (inetliyl-alcohol).  and  then  acetic 
(pyroligneous)  acid,  and  finally,  on  forcing  the  heat,  [litch 
oil  is  driven  off  The  lesidmnu  left  in  the  still  hardens 
into  a  solid  vitreous  mass,  which  forms  the  black  pitch  of 
commerce.  Tar  and  pitch  are  most  largely  used  as  pro-, 
tective  coatings  for  woodwork  and  other  materials  much 
exposed  to  water  and  the  weather.  Thus  tar  is  of  great 
value  in  connexion  with  shipbuilding  and  shipping  gencr 
rally  A  considerable  quantity  is  used  in  manufacturing 
tarred  ropes,  and  in  the  "smearing"  of  highland  sheep  to 
afford  a  protection  against  the  weathei  Pitch  also  is  the 
basis  of  the  Berlin  black  or  Brunswick  l^lack  Used  for  coat- 
ing cast-iron  goods  and  for  "japanning"  preparations 

Cu<d  Tar. — The  art  of  distilling  coal  for  the  production 
of  tar  was  discovered  and  patented  by  tbe  earl  of  I)un- 
donald  in  1787,  and  till  the  general  introduction  of  coal 
gas  some  amount  of  coal  was  yearly  distilled  in  Scotland 
for  the  production  of  coal  tar.  The  demand  for  the  sub 
stance  was  limited,  it  being  principally  used  for  coating 
iron  castings  and  smith  work,  for  making  an  inferioi 
lamp  black,  and  as  a«source  of  a  .solvent  oil.  With  the 
extensive  use  of  coal  gas  the  necessity  for  this  separate 
distillation  ceased,  and  soon  tar  was  produced  in  the  manu; 
facture  of  gas  in  quantities  that  couM  not  be  disposed  of. 
It  was  burned  up  for  heating  gas-retorts;  it  was  mi.xed 
with  coal  dust,  .sawdust.  Sec,  for  making  patent  fuel ! 
and  it  was  distilled  for  producing  a  series  of  hydrocarbon 
oils,  heavy  tar,  and  pitch  ;  but  it  was  only  aftet'the  dis- 
covery and  introduction  of  "tar-colours"  that  the  sub- 
stance came  for  some  time  to  be  really  valoable.  Since 
that  time  its  price  has  fluctuated  greatly ;  and  in  the 
United  Kingdom  alone  there  are  now  distilled  annually 
about  10,000,000  tons  of  coal  for  gas-making,  producing 
120,000,000  gallons  of  crude  tar  — a  quantity  greativ  in 
excess  of  the  ordinary  demand 

If  wood  btr  distilled  elowly  nt  low  temperatures,  the  gases  cwisist 
cliiefly  of  carbonic  oxidt-  and  carbonic  acid,  mixed  with  only  very 
little  of  carburettt'd  Iiydrogens,  and  consequently  little  luminous 
OD  combustioD  ,  the  watery  j-art  of  the  t;ir  includes  relatively  mucb 
of  methyl. alcohol,  acetone,  and  acetic  acid  ;  the  oily  part  of  the 
tar  (tar  proper)  has  a  Cfrtain  proximate  composition  chariicteristic 
of  this  mode  of  distillation.  Our  present  knowledge  in  regard  tc 
this  last-named  point  is  very  incomplLle  ,  of  definite  species  tho 
following  have  been  discovered  :  — 

il)  Phenol,  C^Hi  OH  (>>-nonvm  caibolic  acid). 
2)  Crcsol.  (CjH,  Cn.lOR 
S)  Phlorol.  (C^H,  OHlCjHj 

(4)  Pyrocntcchine,  (CaH,)(OH);.  ont-  ol  three  iaomeridea 

(5)  Ouaiacol.  C,;!!,  \  q''„  .  methyl-ester  of  No.'4. 
((!)  Homo-pyroeatcchlne,  {CsBjtCH,)}(On)j. 

(7)  Creosol.  I  CRjlCnjl  I  g^jj  ,  mclhylester  ot  No.  6?^ 

Genuine  creosote  consists  of  (1),  (2),  (5),  and  (7).     In  addition.. 

there  aro  numberless  bodies  which  still  await  scientihc  definition. , 

.     if  the  distillation  of  wood  is  carried  out  at  a  very  high  tempera 

ture, — if,  'or  instance,  the  wood  is  placed  in  a  relatively  large  r«tor^ 

~  XXIU.  —  8 


58 


TAR 


previously  brought  up  to  a  bright  red  heat  and  "kept  at  such 
temperature,  or  if  the  vapours  produced  at  a  relatively  low  tempera- 
ture are  passed  through  luteiiscly  heated  pipes  before  reachiug  tlie 
condenser  (Pettenkoter's  method  for  producing  illuminating  gas 
from  wood), — the  gas  produced  contains  a  considerable  admixture 
of  lurainiferous  hydrocarbons,  the  proportions  of  methyl-alcohol, 
acetone,  and  acetic  acid  gt-t  less,  and  the  tar  proper  assumes  more 
of  the  character  of  coal  gas  tar  (sec  below).  Similar  observations 
we  make  in  the  case  of  coiil.  About  1862  Wigan  cannel  coal  used 
to  be  distilled  iudustriolly  at  low  temperatures  to  produce  "light 
oils."  Schorlcmnier  examined  these  and  found  them  to  consist 
chiefly  of  "paralVms"  (see  Paraffin)  from  CjHia  upwards.  A. 
similar  result  is  obtained  with  ordinary  coal,  although  iu  its"  case 
the  "  benzols  "  are  more  largely  represented.  If  we  distil  any  kind 
of  coal  at  high  temperatures— ».?. ,  in  the  w;iy  customary  tor  illumin- 
ating-gas making— the  distilhble  part  of  the  tar  proper  consista 
chiefly  of  benzene,  C^Hfi,  and  benzene-derivatives,  i.e.,  benzols, 
CgHe  +  nCH^;  j)hcnols,  CJi,p.  and  homologues,  (CeH5.nCH2)OH ; 
amido-bodies,  CgH^NH..  (auiline),  and  homologues';  condensed 
benzols,  such  as  naphthalene,  CiyHg  =  2Ct;H^- CjH^;  anthracene, 
CuHio  =  SC.He  -  CjHg  ;  chryseno.  C,sH,;  =  4C6H8  -  C^H^^  &c.  The 
paraffins  then  beeonte  an  altogether  subordinate  feature. 
J  A  great  and  meritorious  research  of  Berthclot's  has  thrown  con- 
siderable light  on  the  chemical  mechanism  of  dry  distillation.  As 
found  by  him,  evou  the  most  complex  of  the  substances  named  are 
producible  by  the  interaction  upou  one  another  of  a  few  bodies  of 
very  simple  constitution,  or  even  one  or  other  of  these  by  the  mere 
action  of  a  high  temperature.  To  give  a  few  examples.  Marsh- 
gas,  CH^,  when  pa-ssed  through  red-hot  tubes,  yields  defines,  C,Hj, 
CgH^,  CjH^,  &c. ,  with  elimination  of  hydrogen,  H^.  The  same 
CHj,  if  subjected  to  a  spark-current  (i.«.,  local  application  of  intense 
heat),  yields  acetylene  and  hydrogen,  2CH4  =  CaH,-t-3Ha,  and  the 
acetylene  produced  passes  partly  into  benzene^  C6Hn  =  3C2H2. 
Ethylene,  CjH^,  when  passed  through  a  porcelain  tube  kept  at  a 
uioderato  red  heat,  yields  benzene,  C^.Hg,  etyrolene  =  phenyl- 
ethylene,  C2H3.C6H5,  naphthalene,  CjoHe,  and  perhaps  also  its 
hydride,  CioHjo.  Acetylene,  f/fwz  potential  benzene,  and  ethylene 
yield  st>Tolcne  and  hydro;^cn,  CeH^  +  Con^  =  Cf,H5.C2H3  4-H2;  and 
stjTolenc  plus  ethylene  yields  hydrogen  and  naphthalene,  CioHe- 

Benzol  at  a  high  temperature  loses  hydrogen,  and,  so  to  say, 
doubles  up  into  di-phenyl,  Cj^Hjo;  and  this  latter,  when  heated  with 
ethylene,  yields  anthracene,  CnHio,  and  hydrogen,  Cj^Hjo  +  C^Hj^ 
^14^10  + 2H3.  Conversely,  hydrogen  may,  so  to  say,  turn  out  its 
equivalent  of  a  hydrocarbon  ;  ^thus,  for  instance,  chrysene,  Ci^Hi-j  -t- 
2H2.  yields  di-phenyl,  CiM^q,  +  benzene,  CJl^. 

Pyrogenic  reaction.'*  generally  are  revtrsiblo;  thus,  any  of  the 
following  three  equations  is  correct,  whether  we  read  it  from  the 
left  to  the  right  or  from  the  right  to  the  left : —  ^ 

(1)  C,B,  (ethane),  at  a  red  heat  become*  CsH^-t-n,. 
-(S)  C„H,o-l-2Ho=2CaBe-|-C2H5. 

Hence  no  single  pyrogenic  re.'Ktion  goes  to  the  end  ;  if  it  doea  not, 
so  to  say,  check  its  ov^ii  progress,  other  secondary  reactions  set  in 
and  do  so,  the  general  result  being  that  ultimately,  but  in  general 
slowly,  a  state  of  dynamic  equilibrium  is  attained  in  which  a  set 
of  synthetic  leactions  on  the  one  hand  and  a  set  of  analytic 
Tdactions  on  the  other  compensate  ijtae  another. 

Industrial  Working  of  Coal  Tar.^ — Coal  tar,  as  it  comes  from 
the  gas-works,  is  used  for  a  varioty  of  purposes,  sx^ch  as— -(1)  for 
fuel,  the  tar  being  made  into  a  spray  by  means  of  a  steam -injector 
and  the  spray  kindled ;  (2)  for  the  preservation  of  building 
materials,  porous  stones,  and  bricts.  &c. ;  (3)  for  talking  roofing- 
felt  (iu  1S68,  five-sixths  of  the  9000  tons  of  tar  produced  at  the 
Berlin  gas-works  was  tlius  utilized  ;  the  case,  however,  is"  diflcrent 
now)  ;  (4)  for  making  a  low  quality  of  lampblack.  At  present, 
ho^vevcr,  raoat  of  the  tar  produced,  in  centres  of  industry  at  least, 
19  worked  up  h^  distillation.  The  tar  as  it  comes  from  the  gas- 
>vorks  is  allowed  to  rest  in  a  "pond"  until  the  tar-water  (solution 
chiefly  of  ammonia  and  certain  ammonia  salts)  has  gone  to  the  top. 
The  tar  proper  is  then  pumped  into  a  large  wrought-iron  still  (of 
upright-cylinder  form  preferably)  and  therein  subjected  to  distilla- 
tion over  a  naked  fire.  A  necessary  preliminary,  however,  is  the 
removal  of  the  unavoidable  remnant  of  water,  which  is  best  cfTccted 
by  cautiously  heating  the  tar  in  the  still  so  as  to  render  it  more 
lliid  and  enable  the  water  to  risa  to  the  top  and  then  letting  the 
upper  stratum  run  out  by  an  overflow  tap  at  the  side.  The  dis- 
tillation is  then  started.  It  involves  the  formation  of  two  setd  of 
vftlatde  products,  yaraely— (1 )  combustible  gases  (includitig  sulphur- 
«r,ted  hydrogen  and  bisulphide  of  carbon  vapour),  which  must  bo 
ltd  away  to  avoid  uuLsance  and  danger  of  fire,  and  (2)  a  very 
complex  liquid  or  semi-liquid  distillate.  This  latter  is  collected 
iti  successive  fractions,  generally  in  this  manner: — (I)  as  ** first 
runnings."  what  comes  over  at  temperatures  below  105*  to  110*  C. ; 
(2)  as  "  light  oils,"  at  temperatures  between  110'  and  210^  C;  (3) 
13  "^rbolic  oil,"  at  temperatures  between  210*  to  240*  C. ;  (4)  as 

'  For  wood  i«r,  Bce  Wood  8praiT  aod  VnrBOAR. 


"creosote"  oil,"  at  temperatures  between  240*  to  270*  C;  (5)  u 
anthracene  oil.  at  tempeniture.s  above  270°. 

in  the  earlier  part  of  the  "first  runnings"  and  light-oil  period 
the  condenser  r.uist  be  kept  cold  ;  towards  the  end  it  must  be  kept 
warm  to  prevent  choking  by  solidified  naphthalene.  In  practice, 
the  operator  does  not  go  entirely  by  the  boiling  point,  put  to  a 
great  extent  by  the  specific  gravity  of  the  distillate,  which,  in 
general,  increases  as  the  boiling  point  rises.  As  soon  as  a  drop  of 
the  last  runnings  floats  in  water  (exhibits  the  specific  gravity  1), 
the  "light  oil  "  is  supposed  to  be  over.  That  the  fractionation  ia 
not  always  and  everywhere  effected  in  the  same  way  needs  hardly 
be  said.  If  the  manufacture  of  carbolic  acid  is  aimed  at,  it  is  beet 
(according  to  Lunge)  to  select  the  fraction  170'  to  230'  C.  for  this 
purpose.  Naphthalene  boils  as  high  as  217°,  yet  a  deal  goes  into 
this  carbolic-acid  fraction.  As  soon  as  naphthalene  begins  to 
crystallize  out  largely  (on  cooling  down  a  sample  of  distillate),  the 
carbolic  acid  may  be  presumed  to  be  over.  What  follows  next  is 
put  aside  as  creosote  oil,  until,  after  the  disappearance  of  the 
naphthalene,  a  now  solid  product,  namely,  authracciie,  begins  to 
'show  itself.  With  any  tar  that  contains  a  remunerative  proportion 
of  anthracene,  the  anthracene  oil  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  pro- 
ducts, as  the  raw  material  for  the  making  of  artificial  alizarins. 

Supposing  the  anthracene  to  have  been  extracted  as  completely 
as  practicable,  the  residue  in  the  still  consists  of  "hard  pitch,  ' 
a  viscid  black  fluid  which  on  cooling  freezes  into  a  fragile  solid. 
In  former  times  more  commonly  than  now  "soft  pitch"  used  to 
be  produced  by  leaving  more  or  less  of  the  anthracene  oil  and  even 
creosote  oil  in  the  still.  At  the  end  of  the  anthracene  stage  of  the 
distillation  it  is  as  well,  if  not  necessary,  to  help  the  very  high 
boiling  vapour  out  of  the  still  by  means  of  superheated  steam,  and 
to  keep  the  worm  at  100*  C.  to  prevent  choking.  At  a  Germa.n 
establishment  a  vacuum  is  used  with  great  advantage. 

We  come  now  to  explain  briefly  how  the  several  fractions  are 
worked  up. 

The  pitch  (which  wo  assume  to  be  "  hard  pitch  ")  must  be  run 
otf  hot  through  a  tap  at  the  bottom  of  the  still  and  h-d  into  a  low- 
roofed  and  well  closed-in  "house,"  because  it  would  take  fire  in 
the  open  air.  After  it  has  cooled  down  sutficiently  in  the  '*  house," 
the  pitch  is  run  into  pitch-holos  in  front  of  the  house  and  allowed 
to  freeze  there.  The  depth  of  pitch  in  a  hole  is  about  12  inches. 
The  solid  pitch  is  hacked  out  with  pickaxes  and  sent  into  com- 
merce. A  superior  apparatus  for  the  recovery  of  the  pitch,  which 
precludes  all  uanger  of  conflagration  and  many  inconveniences  of 
the  ordinary  system,  has  been  devised  for  the  Paris  gas-works  by 
RegnauU.-  Lunge  found,  fiom-many  distillations,  that  tar  from 
the  midland  couutjes  yields  about  55  per  cent,  of  hard  pitch. 

Hard  pitch  is  used  chiefly  for  making  the  following.  (1) 
Asphalt. — The  pitch  is  fused  up — perhaps  in  the  still  whicn  pro- 
duced it — with  the  requisite  proportion  of  creosote  and  anthracene 
oil,  previously  freed  from  their  valuable  components.  Such  asphalt 
is  used  for  street-paving,  i.e.,  filling  up  tne  spaces  between  the 
paving-stones,  and,  in  admixture  with  sand  and  generally  more  or 
less  of  natural  asphaU;  for  the  making  of  footpaths  and  floorings 
generally.  In  Germany  it  serves  for  the  making  of  pipes  for  con-' 
veying  acid  liquids  in  works  and  chemical  liboratories,  kc.  End- 
less herap-paper  is  soaked  in  liquefied  asphalt  and  wound  spirally 
around  an  iron  core,  preWously  smeared  over  with  soft  soap,  in 
about  100  layers.  The  whole  ia  then  exposed  to  strong  pressure 
Vhile  still  hot,  and  is  separated  from  the  core  after  being  allowed 
to  cooL  Such  pipes  stand  almost  any  kind  of  acid,  but  they  must 
not  be -used  for  hot  liquids.  (2)  Varnishes. — The  pitch  is  dissolved 
in  suitable  tar  oils,— creosote  oil  for  a  lower  and  light  oil  for  a 
higher  quality.  (3)  Coke. — In  former  times  more  frequently  than 
now  pitch  was  made  into  coke  by  transferring  it  to  a  special  flat 
still  and  distilling  as  long  as  any  volatile  products  came  off. 
The  coke  which  remains  is  a  very  pure  and  consequently  valuable 
fuel.  (4)  Lamp  Slack  (as  a  last  resource,  if  no  other  mode  of 
utilization  is  practicable). — The  p-itch  is  subjected  to  partial  com- 
bustion on  hot  iron  plates  and  the  smoke  conveyed  into  chambers 
to  deposit  its  carbon.     The  yield  is  about  40  per  cent. 

Anthracene  Oil.  —The  oil  is  allowed  to  stand  cold  for  a  week 
or  so  until  the  anthracene  has  crystallized  out  as  completely  as 
possible.  The  mother-liquor  is  then  eliminated,  the  bulk  by 
means  of  a  filter-press,  the  rest,  at  a  higher  than  the  ordinary 
temperature,  by  hydraiilic  pres:sure.  The  crude  product  includes 
far  more  than  half  its  weight  of  impurities — phenanthrcne,  paraffin, 
naphthalene,  &c.  To  remove  these  as  far  as  possible,  the  crude 
anthracene  is  giOAind  up  and  treated  with  petroleum  spirit  (boiling 
at  70*  to  100'  C.)  or  coal  tar  naphtha  {120  to  190°),  in  which  real 
anthiacene  is  relatively  insoluble.  The  insoluble  part  is  separated 
by  filtering  arrangements  and  presses  {so  construded  as  to  avoid 
dange*-  of  Ore),  and  at  last  sublimed,  more  with  the  view  of  bring- 
ing il  into  a  customary  convenient  form  than  with  the  object  of 
effecting  further  purification.  Such  final  anthracene  may  contain 
50  to  65  per  cent,  of  pure  substance.     The  only  reliable  method  for 

2  It  ia  descrtbod  In  Liini^e's  Treatise  on  the  DutitlatioH  0/  Coal  Tar,  London, 
1883,  to  witicb  tbis  aixtcle  Ih  largely  indebrM 


qaS™r?f  H  0  hf  h  T '"  -J^T.*  *  '?°^?  ^''Sht  into  anthra- 
2f  rhm^.h' ■^"  "    -^  '""'"'«  '*.'"'''  *  ?'*='*'  a«ti(iMid  solution 

call«cung  «nd  «^i|hing  the  product  Qne  part  of  qumoue  corre 
sponds  to  0-8558  of  anthracene.  "i  4iuaoue  corre- 

Of  pitch.  &C.  or  else  redistilled  to  extract  from  it  what  there  is  of 
r^t^^J"'  "'  ^■"l,<^f''ohc  acid  oU.  which  are  worked  up  with  the 
respective  principal  quantities.  ^ 

CarMic  0,7  -Assuming  this  oil  to  have  been  collected  (as  it  should 
•^30=  Sifnti"'  f'  "''^'°S  "'  carbolic  acid)  between     70' Jnd 

^Li  .f"^'^  of  extraction  is.  briefly,  as  follows.  The  oiJ  is 
™..ed  with  a  suitable  proportion  of  caustic-soda  ley  (ascertained 

.  uS^Tv^irrL"^"  '"^'^  ^\  '''}'  '"y-  Charles^L^ve  r^com 
..'.  nds  ley  of  1  34  sp.  gr..  diluted  with  water  to  five  times  its 
l^d  hL.  Af^r  ^ttlin..  the  aqueous  layer  is  withTw Tto^ 
Cn^ri^n^Lr^'r"  "■'  '°'^^  supersaturated  by  sulphuric  ac°d 
Crude  carboUc  acid  nses  to  the  top  as  an  oil,  and  is  withdrawn  t^ 
bo  sold  as  such  or  purified.  See  Carbolic  Acid  '"''"''*^"  »" 
Aapkihakn,   abounds   in    the  oil    left  after  extraction  of  the 

S  c,^:«  „rFrrl'  "'  ■"  '"^""^  volatile  factions  of 
^J^  "i'"  "'^''  "  separates  out  (not   completely) 

on  standing,  in  crystals^  These  are  collected,  best  in  a  filter- preL 
lht^,l  '"^'"''^  to  hydraulic  pressure  to  force  out  the  rcsHl 
the  mother-liquor  The  cmde  naphthalene  thus  obtained  ontains 
an  impunty  which  causes  >t  to  become  red  on  standing  in 'the  a^r 
To  remove  it,  the  crude  product  ,s  mixed  with  5  to    oVcr  cent   of 

VuZJ  o,  Tn'  'ni^"  ^'-  "  '  ■"""^"'^  '^^"  (additVn  Z  1  tt  e 
^11  A  ^  "^nsanese  is  an  improvement,  LnngeJ-  it  is  then 
washed  first  w,th  water,  then  with  dUute  alkali,  and  lastly  a^an 
ri.r     -k'"  "^"."""^tely  distilled  or  sublimk     In  t!^  fct  " 

^u!^  •'  .ttres^'"s^''^.td  hif -t  ^?^r^^^^  ^ 

WthT-Serk'>  i*°'l„t.''?  "eautiful  scarlet*  and  crimsons  made 

c%%'unL"'d:"v'ed??om^trap^t^hT.^"^-fS\i^iif'^^o:r/-- 

or  more  nuxtureaof  "  benzols  "  are  obtained  '  "'"'  °°' 

^e  cann^ot  po^ibirconstert  T/ln  '°T""'-  ^"'  "•'=^« 
the  way  in  which  the  Mver.r\  "^%"""  rather  g,ve  an  idea  of 
40.)  are  heing  isolated  u>  a  t  .  "r"^'  '?'""'  (i"^'^zene,  toluene, 
the  demand^^oHhe  ter^oloor  L^°^'PP"'^■^""  P""«5'  '°  ""^<^t 
named  component  by  meals  of  ^7'^'     ^■n'*''  '"  "''"  '"^  °"« 

mediate  condenser  at  a  ,^if,M  .      "■"■  """^  ''^"P  "'"  '"t"- 

the  less  volatne  part  „f?v,'"'"^'"  temperature,  so  that  all 
to  thestill  An  exceirent  ,n?PT  '^'^1°.'"^^""^  ^"d  sent  back 
and  worked  successfullv  bvTr^"  "^  u"  ^'"'^  ^^  constructed 
three  parts    Z   J!\)Lhu%    TI\  "''  ''Pl'^ratus  consists  of 

=  ^'Sii'^i5^~r'^=ii;^i"i/'^: 
siiX^^^o^nrrHsEr^^^^— -^^^^^ 

xaponr  m  passing  from  a  compartment  to  the  next  higher 


T  A  R— T  A  B 


59 


^aporlan  ovl'rfl^""?''  "l'  "''"'j'  ""■''^"^=<J  ">"«  from  preceding 
ImSltlonTf  1h„  iP'^A'^PP'^'^  '"='''"'  ^V  coudensate,  Ldcrinf 
W      m  „  .        '"''"'*  '"  °"y  compartment  beyond  a  certaiS 

Sor  stp^e :?  a-uTr^'tnfwr  ;5;:^Toin'th^^  .^ru!r-5 
rap;rVert7tLTr,-, -d°'.srnird^£  -  "-™--^ 

1  o  prepare  benzene  the  still-head  is  kept  at  60°  to  70°  C  At  first 
1^0^71°  lowboiling  bodies  and  benzene  goes  over  whi^h  is 
reiected,  but  soon  pure  benzol  follows  and  continues  un'tnarnn!? 
hUtrG^-s'/c^  distiUedover.     The^benXb'i^L'ed  bo 

UO'  and  .n.m^thvl-b:iVenTc  fs  rioit^'  "o  nt^l?^'°"tV  1^0^ 
ZhllnZT.Z'Tr'' •  ""'  '''^ P—b-ome   trouble  om; 

c5^^C:?r^^-,-Str-t^L|ofi?; 

Pure  benzene,  toluene,  and  xylene  are  used  largely  for  the  mam. 

S  'iZZ%:\: ES '"'""' '""'""oiat  e|-c. 

(3)  -Toluol- ■  ■  ■•  83 

(4)  Cnibureuing  naphtlia      "  ■'  !?? 

(5)  Solvent  iiaphtlia    ...              "  "  !,X 

(6)  Burning  napJiiho [_    ""  '  "  {'^ 

powe°r  ^NoTr^/  '="''ch>ngcoal.gas  and  adding  to  its  lummiferoua 
fZ7,\  fh  varmshes,  ,^o.   6  for  feeding   primitive   laiuDS 

used  in  the  open  a,,-,  where  smoke  is  no  objection.  "^ 

,r„-k    /       ""^/."'"""^Sc  table  for  the  tar  from  the  Berlin  eas. 
works  (given  in  C7«,„»c/«,  /«rf„^/„«  for  1879)  gives  an  Sea  of  th. 
quantitative  composition  of  this  most  complex  material  - 
Benzol  (includinc  tolnol.  tcj  n  sfi 

Higher  benzols "  "" 

Crysuljized  carbolic  neld...     „.?„ 

Ciescfl  for  disinfecting  purposes:  ■  030 

—  C'60 
S400 
0-20 
U'OO 
15-20 

TARAI,  a  British  district  in  the  Kumdun  dfyrsron^of 
the  lieutenant-governorship  of  the  North-West  Provinces 
and  Oudh  India,  lying  between  28°  5r  and  29°  30' N 
lat.  and  78    46'  and  79°  47'  E.  long,     ft  contains  an  area 


Creosote  0(1 

Anthi-acene  (pure) 

Pitch 

Water  and  loss 


01  <i.J8  square  miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N    by  the 
Khumaun   Bhabar,  on  the  E   by  Nepil  and   Pilibhit  sub- 

rZ'h"       . \T'"^  t'''/"''  °°   '^'  S.  by  the  districts  of 

Bareiliy  and  MoradibAd  and  the  native  state  of  R.^mpur 

and  on  the  W^  by  Bijnaur.     The  headquarter,  of  the  dis! 

trict  are  at  Nam,  Tal.     Tarai  (■■  moist  land  ")  consists  of 

a  long  narrow  strip  of  country  running  for  about  90  miles 

east  and  west  along  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  with  an 

average  breadth  of  about  I  2  miles.     At  its  northern  edge. 

where    the  waterless  forest  tract  of   the  Bh4bar  ends    a 

series  of  springs  burst  from  the    surface,  and  these   'in- 

creas.ng  and  uniting  in  their  progress,  form  the  numerous 

streams  that  intersect  the  Taiai.      The  Deoha  is  the  great 

nver  of  the  Tarai   proper,  and  is   navigable  at  Pilibhit 

Elephants,  tigers   bears,  leopards,  hy.Bnas,  and  other  wild 

animals  are  found  ,n  the  district.     The  climate  is  normaUy 

bad  but  improvement  is  gradually  following  the  spread  of 

sanitary  measures.  ^ 

,,,^'"'*"S  tn  the  census  of  1881    the  ,>onulation    was  206  993 

iud''.'o,.rin:d^:;  ^'^ '-'t:'  ."r''^  "t*^""  '"'•«'' 

tendency  of  the  populatton  is  to  agricultural  and  not  to  urUn  lifi 


60 


T  A  B  — T  A  R 


rho  total  ai-oa  under  crop  in  1834-85  was  254,288  acres,  of  which 
rico  occupied  92.136  acres,  wheat  54,627,  and  other  food  grains 
80,304  acres.     There   are   no  maniffactures  worthy  of  note,  and 
tho  cliief  trade  is  the  export  of  grain.     The  gross  revenue  io 
1884-85  amounted  to  £42,048,  the  land  yielding  £35.507.     The 
Farai  came  umier  British  rule  at  the  time  (1802)  when  Rohilkhand 
ivas  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company.    The  Government  is  said  to 
bavo  looked  with  indilfercnce  on  this  uninviting  tract,  but  since 
1831,  when  the  revenue  settlements  were  revised,  this  reproach 
aa.*i  been  less  deserved.  ,,  With  an  improved  system  of  embankments 
uid  irrigation  in  1851,  the  formation  of  the  Tuiai  into  a  separate 
listrict  in  1801,  and  its  complete  Kubjection  to  Kumaun  in  1870, 
;he  moral  and  material  history  of  this  tract  lias  ;rcatlY  irauroved. 
^TARANTO.     See  Tarentdm.  \ 
iTAUANTULA.  „  The  taTa.nln\a.  {L^ua' tarantula)' he- 
longs  to   the  mining  section  of  the  faniily  Lt/cosidx  or 
Wolf  Spiders."  Its  cephalothorax  is  dorsally  of  a  brownish 
jrey  colour,  whilst  the  abdomen  is  more  distinctly  brown, 
ind  marked  with  either  two  or  three  pairs  of  triangular 
black  spots  above  the  apeif  of  the  triangles  pointing  back- 
tvards.    ,  One  of  the  most  striking  specific  characteristics  of 
this  spider  is  a  large  circular  black  spot  which  covers  the 
interior  ventral  half  of  the  abdomen,  the  remainder  of  this 
surface  presenting  an  ochreous  hue.'     The  largest  species 
does  not  exceed  -J  inch  in   length.   .  The  eight  eyes  are 
irranged  in  three  transverse  rows,  the  anterior  containing 
four  small  eyes,  while  behind  this  two  pairs  of  larger  eyes 
ire  arranged  in  two  rows,  the  eyes  of  the  hindermost  row 
having  between  them  a  wider  interval  than  the  .first  pair.  . 
^.The  tarantula  is  widely  distributed  in  southern  Europe, 
round  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. '  •  It  occurs  through- 
out Spain  and  is  found  in  southern  Franco,  and  extends 
into  Asia.  ~  In  Italy  it  is  said  to  be  especially  common  in 
/Apulia,  round  the  town  of  Ta  ran  to,  from  which  place  the 
aame  of  this  spider  is  usually  derived.     A  species  has  also 
been  described  from  northern  Africa.  .  It  is  usually  to  be 
found  in  dry  pieces  of  waste  land  exposed  to  the  sun.:    It 
lives  in  an  underground  passage,  which  it  digs  for  itself 
ind   lines   with   its   web.     These  passages  are'  round  in 
lection, .and  sometimes   an'  inch   in_  diameter,  and  may 
2xtend  to  a  depth  of  a  foot  or'more  below  the  surface. 
The^  tube_first .descends, vertically  foF'some  inches,  then 
benda  fttan  obtus^angle,  becoming__vertical  again  near  its 
j^osed"en3r^'yie_.tLViuititl£Takes_up  its  position -at  the_ 
ilrst  Eend,Avhore  it  can  c6mn^nd,thel;iitrance,'on_lhe''look- 
5ut  foFprey.^In  some  cases_tlie  tube  is  prolonged  fabove 
jhe  surface  of  the  earth  by  the  formation  of  a  small  funnel, 
built  up  of.  fragments'  of  wood  and  earth,  and  lined  like 
ihe  walls  of  the  tunnel  by  the  web.  -  The  females  show 
considerable  maternal  care  for  their  offspring,  and  some- 
times sit  upon  their  egg  sacs;' and  the  species', ' although 
jomewhat  fierce  and  combative '  amongst  themselves,  are 
capable  of  being  tamed.', 

Tahantis.m.  The  tarantula  has~givcn  its-name  to  one  of  those 
dancing  manias  which. ovcrspre.-id  Euro.pe  during  tho  Middle  Ages. 
The  bite  of  tlio  spider  tlirew  the  sulTerer  into  a  depressed  state  of 
melanclioly,  accompanied  by  various  nervous  disorders.  The  con- 
dition was  accompanied  by  an  increased  sensibility  to,  the  power 
?f  music.  The  excitement  of  tjie  nervous  system  amounted  in 
some  cjses  almost  to  insanity.  The  symptoms  of  the  patient  seem 
to  have  varied  a  good  deal  with  the  character  of  tlie  individual 
Jttaeked:  tlio  nio.st  common  were  a  lividity  of  tlio  body,  icy  cold- 
ocss,  great  depression,  n.-iusea,  sexual  excitement,  and  loss  of  sight 
ind  hearing.  The  only  me.ans  of  arousing  the  suHcrer  from  the 
letliargy  into  which  he  sank  was  music.  Under  the  influence  of 
this  he  awoke  as  it  were,  and  commenced  moving  ihythmic.ally, 
then  began  to  dance,  and  continued  increasing  the  r.ipidity  of  the 
motion  until  he  fell  exliausted  to  the  ground.  13y  this 'means  it 
ivas  considered  that  the  poison  of  the  tarantula  was  distributed 
through  the  system  .ind  worked  out  tl-.rougli  tlie  skin.  If  the 
music  ceased  whilst  the  patient  was  dancing,  he  at  once  sank  bacli 
into  the  state  of  lethargy  from  wliich  he  liad  been  aroused,  but 
when  tlioroughly  exhausted  he  generally  awoke  lelieved  and  cured 
at  least  for  a  time.  This  dancing  mania  became  contagious:  one 
person  cnuglit  it  from  another  qnite  independently  of  the  bite 
of  the  tarantula,  and  in  this  way  whole  districts  became  alTccted. 
One  of  the  most  Dtculiar  characteristics  was  the  attraction  that 


bright  pieces'  of  metal.^  or  brilliant  pieces  of  colour,  exercised 
J5ver  the  imagination  of  the  dancers.  This  was  particularly  marked 
in  the  later  history  of  the  disease.  Each  sufferer  apparently  admired 
one  p.irticular  hue,  the  -sight  of  which  seemed  to  cause  him  tie 
greatest  rapture.  Red  was  a  very  general  favourite,  though  this 
colour  threw  St  Vitus's  dancers  into  a  frenzy  of  rage;  green, 
yellow,  and  other  colours  also  had  numerous  admirers.  Other 
colours,  on -the  contrary,  they  detested,  and  attempted  to  destroy 
articles  of  the  obnoxious  shade. 

In   marked   contrast  to   the"  cfTect'produced  by  hydrophobia,' 

tarantism  appeared  to  cvoko  in  its  victims  an  intense  longing  for 

the  sea,  into  which  at  times  they  would  precipitate  themselves; 

at  all  times  they  seemed  to  prefer  the  vicinity  of  water,  sometimes 

'*  carrying  globes  of  this  fluid  whilst  dancing. 

In  its  origin  tarantism  ai>pears  to  have  bcen'contcmporaneous 
with  the  St  Vitus's  d.ince  of  Germany,  It  first  appeared  towards 
the  end  of  the  14th  ccntnry  in  Apulia  ;  thence  it  spread  gradually 
lliroughout  Italy,  and  reached  its  heiglit  during  the  17tli  century, 
by  which  time  the  dancing  manias  of  the  North  had  already  died 
out.  It  affected  not  only  inliabitunts  of  the  country  but  foicigir.i-s- 
visiting  it;  age  appears  to  have  had  no  saving  influence:  children 
and  old  people  alike  conmicnced  dancing  at  the  sound  of  the 
taiantulla,  but  as  a  rule  women  were  more  susceptible  than  menj 
From  tlic  17tli  century  onwards  it  has  gradually  declined,  and  is 
.now  practically  unknown,  tlie  only  relic  of  it  being  the  graceful 
dance  of  soutiiern  Italy  called  the  tarantella.  The  bite  of  tho 
taraiitula'is  painful  but  not  dangerous,  and  the  real  cause  of. th«' 
phenomena  described  above  niu.st  be  sought  in  the  temporary 
epidemic  prevalence  of  an  hysterical  condition. 
^Thc  Lucofa  tarantula  is  figured  in  Ann.  Sc.  Nat.,  2d  scr.,  ii[.  Zoologie,  1835. 

TAR  ARE,  on  tho  Turdine.^a  manufacturing  town  oi 
France,  and  the  second  most  populous  in  the  department 
of  Khunc,  is  2.5.  miles  north-west  of  Lyons.  Within  a 
circle  drawn. 25  or  30  miles  from  the  town  more  than 
C0,000  workmen  are  Employed,  and  the  value  of  the 
textile  fabrics  produced  exceeds  £G00,000  per  annum. 
Tarlatans  are  made  in  Tarare  on  more  than  3000  Jacqnard 
looms.  ■;  The  manufacture  of  Swiss  cotton  yarns  and  crochet 
embroideries  was  introduced  at  the  end  of  last  century  ; 
in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  figured  stuffs,  openworks, 
and  zephyrs  were  first  produced.  The  manufacture  ol 
silk  plush  for  hats  and  machine-made  velvets,  which  was 
set  up  a  few  years  ago,  now  employs  2900  workmen  and 
000  girls,  the  latter  being  engaged  in  silk  throwing  and 
winding.'^  There  are,  besides,  four  or  five  dyeing  and 
printing  establishments,  and  silk  .looms  working  for  the 
Lyons  trade!' 'An  ini[)Ortant' commerce  is  carried  on  io 
corn,  cattle,  linen,  hemp,  thread,  and  leather.  "^  In  .1686 
the  population  was  11,848  (commune  12,980). 

Till  1756,  when  Simonnct  introduced  the  manufacture  of  muslins 
from  S\\itl!eiland,  Tarare  lay  unknown  among  the  mountains.     Od' 
„the  old  c.istle  to  which  the  town  owes  its  grigin  may  be  seen  tht' 
arms  of  tlie  family  of  Albon.- 

'TAT{ASCON,irtown"of  France,  in.  tbe  department  ol 
Bouclies-du-Rhune,  is.  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  "li.e 
Rhone,  opposite  Beaucaire,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
a  suspension  and  a  railway  bridge.  It  is  on  the  Lyonf 
and  Marseilles  Railway,  156  miles  south  of  the  formei 
town.  The  church  of  St  Martha,  built  in  1187-97  on 
the  ruins  of  a  Roman  temple,  rebuilt  in  1379-1449,  ha^ 
a  Gothic  spire,  and  many  interesting  pictures  in  the 
interior,  which  is  of  fairly  pure  Pointed  architecture.  Of 
the  original  building  there  remain  a  porch,  and  a  sid{ 
portal  with  capitols  like  those  of  St  Trophimus  at  Aries? 
The  former  leads  to  the  crypt,  where  are  the  tombs  ol 
St'Maitha  and  Louis  IL;  king  of  Provence.  The  castle;' 
jiicturcsciucly  situated  on  a  rock,  was  begun  by  Count 
Louis  II.  in  the  14th  century  and  finished  by  King  Rent 
<4  Anjou  in  the  15th.  It  contains  a  turret  stair  and  a 
chapel  entrance,  which 'are  charming  examples  of  15th; 
century  architecture,  and  fine  wooden  ceilings.  It  is  iio\V 
used  as  a  pri.son.  The  civil  court  of. the  arrondissemeut  of 
Aries  is  situated  at  Tarascon,  which  also  possesses  a  com' 
mercial  court,  a  hotel  de  ville,  and  fine  cavalry  barracks, 
Hats,  and  the  so-called  Aries  sausages,  are  made  ler^ 
The  population  in  1886  was  6647  (commune  9314). ~ 


T  A  R  — T  A  R 


61 


The  town  wmk«  op  for  the  fair  of  B«ttDcaire  aoil  the  fSte  of  Ls 
iTsrajque,  the  latter  in  celebration  of  3t  Martha's  deUverance  of 
the  town  from  a  legendary  monster  of  that  name.  KjDg  Ren^ 
presided  in  1469,  and  grand  exhibitioas  of  costume  and  strange 
cei'aznoniea  take  pVue  during  the  two  daja  of  the  f estivaL  Tarascon 
V5:j  or:ginally  a  settlement  of  the  Uaasaljots,  built  on  an  island  of 
t^^  Rhone.  The  meJisv&l  castle,  where  Pope  Urban  II.  lived  in 
\\  7G,  was  built  on  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  castrum.  The  inhabitanta 
of  T:rucon  preserved  the  municipal  tnstitutiona  granted  them  by 
the  li^mans,  and  of  the  absolute  pow«r  claimed  by  the  counts  of 
Proisnce  they  only  recognized  the  nglitB  of  eovereignty  Tarascon 
played  a  bloody  part  in  the  White  Terror  of  1816 

TABAXACUM  is  the  name  usually  applied  in  medical 
practice  to  the  common  dandelion  ( Taraxacum  officinale, 
Wiggers).  The  Dajtdklion  (q.v.)  is  a  plant  of  the  northern 
bemisphere,  extending  to  the  Arctic  regions,  and  is  culti- 
vated in  India.  The  preparations  chiefly  employed  are  the 
fluid  extract,  the  preserved  juice  of  the  root,  or  succus,  and 
the  solid  extract  The  dried  and  roasted  root,  mixed  with 
ground  coffee,  is  often  sold  under  the  name  of  dandelion 
eo^ee  for  use  as  a  beverage.  The  root  is  most  bitter  from 
March  to  July,  but  the  milky  juice  it  contains  is  less 
abundant  ic  the  summer  thdli  in  the  autumn.  For  this 
reason,  the  extract  and  succus  are  usually  prepared  daring 
the  months  of  September  and  October.  After  a  frost  a 
change  takes  place  in  the  root,  which  loses  its  bitterness  to 
«  large  extent.  In  the  dried  state  the  root  will  not  keep 
%eU,  being  quickly  attacked  by  insects.  Externally  it  is 
brown  and  wrinkled,  internally  white,  with  a  yellow  centre 
and  concentric  paler  rings.  It  is  2  inches  to  a  foot  long, 
and  about  ^  to  ^  ioeh  in  diameter.  The  juice  when  first 
exuded  is  bitter  and  neatral,  but  on  exposure  to  the  air 
saon  acquires  an  acid  reaction  and  a  brown  tint,  coagulat- 
ing aud  depositing  a  complex  substance,  to  which  the 
oame  of  "  leontcdonium "  has  been  given.  From  this 
deposit  a  bitter  principle,  "taraxacin,"  and  an  acrid 
crjrstalline  substance,  "  taraxaceriu,"  soluble  in  alcobol, 
have  been  obtained,  but  to  which  of  these  the  medicinal 
properties  are  due  is  not  known.  In  autumn  the  root  con- 
tains about  24  per  cent,  of  inulin,  but  in  summer  barely 
2  per  cent.  When  the  juice  has  fermented,  mannite  is 
found  in  it  Taraxacum  is  chiefly  employed  as  a  stimulant 
tonic  in  hepatic  disorders.  In  some  cases  it  acts  as  a 
cholagogue  and  mild  aperient,  and  in  others  as  a  diuretic. 
,  The  roots  of  other  Composite  plants  are  sometimes  gathered 
ty  careless  collectors  for  dandelion,  especially  that  of  Leontodon 
jMpidus  (L).  The  root  of  this  plant  is  tough  when  fresh,  and 
rarely  exudes  any  milky  juice.  The  flowers,  moreover  havo 
feathery  pappus,  while  in  the  dandelion  it  is  simple. 

TARBES,  a  town  of  France,  chef  lieu  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Hautes-Pyrin^es,  is  situated  in  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  plains  of  France,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adour, 
streams  from  which  are  conducted  through  all  parts  of  the 
town.  The  lines  of  railway  from  Paris  to  Pierrefitte  and 
from  Toulouse  to  Bayonne  cross  here.  Among  the  many 
.gardens  and  open  spaces  for  which  Tarbes  is  distinguished 
is  the  Massey  garden  (35  acres),  given  to  his  native  town 
by  a  Versailles  official  of  that  name,  in  which  his  statue 
faces  the  town  museum,  founded  by  the  collector  Achille 
Jubinal.  The  varied  collections  iuclude  Roman  remains, 
and  specimens  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  Pyrenees. 
The  architecture  of  the  cathedral  is  heavy  and  unpleasing, 
but  the  cupola  of  the  transept  (14th  century),  the  modern 
glass  in  the  12th-century  apse,  and  a  rose  window  of  the 
13th' century,  in  the  north  transept,  are  worthy  of  notice. 
T^e'  Carmelite  church  has  an  interesting  steeple,  and  there 
arfe  the  ruins  of  a  chapel  and  cloister,  and  Roman  remains 
in  the  garden  of  the  former  episcopal  palace,  now  occupied 
by  the  prefecture.  The  municipal  buildings,  with  the 
pablic  library  (22,000  volumes),  the  lyceum,  the  court  of 
justice,  and  the  barracks  (which  are  large  and  fine)  may 
also  be  mentioned  among  the  public  buildings.  The 
jarrison  and  artillery  establishments,  the  latter  associated 


with  an  arsenal  and  large  workshops,  have  conaiderable  im- 
portance. Other  industrial  establishments  are  a  ftJundry 
machine  manufactory,  felt  and  woollen  factories,  and  wool 
and  flax  spinmng  mills.  Paper,  lace,  knitted  goods,  car- 
nages, and  leather  are  also  made  here,  and  marble  from 
the  Pyrenees  is  prepared  for  the  market.  There  are 
important  fairs  and  markets,  particularly  for  horses,  as 
Tarbes  is  a  well-known  centre  for  a  special  breed  of  light 
horses,  its  stud  being  the  most  important  in  the  south  of 
France.     The  population  of  the  town  was  24,882  in  1886. 

Tarbes,  a  mere  vicus  in  the  tune  of  Gregory  of  Tours,  rose  into 
importance  after  the  destruction  of  the  ancient  Aquitanian  town  ol 
Turba.  The  seat  of  the  bishopric  was  transferred  to  it  about  the 
9th  century,  when  a  castle  was  also  built.  Raymond  I.,  towards 
the  middle  of  the  10th  century,  rebuilt  the  town,  fortified  it,  and 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Bigorre.  The  English  held 
the  town  from  1360  to  1408.  In  1569  Tarbes  was  burpt  by  Mont- 
gomery, and  the  inhabitants  were  driven  out.  This  happened  a 
second  time,  bat  in  August  1570  the  peate  of  St  Germain  allowed 
the  inhabitants  to  return  to  the  grass-grown  streets.  Subsequently 
Tarbes  was  four  times  taken  and  r«-takcn,  and  a  number  of  Uio 
inhabitants  of  Bigorre  were  forced  to  take  refuge  in  Spain,  but  in 
1594  the  members  of  the  League  were  finally  expelled.  The  Eng 
lish,  under  Wellington,  rained  a  victory  over  the  French  near 
Tarbes  in  1814.     Thdophile  Gautier  was  bom  here  in  1811. 

TARENTUM,  or  Taea8,  now  Taranto,  a  famous  Greek 
city  of  southern  Italy,  situated  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
bay  of  the  same  name,  at  the  entrance  of  the  only  seeure 
port  on  the  gulf.  This  port,  cow  called  the  Mare  Piccolo, 
is  a  bay  16  miles  in  circuit,  landlocked  by  a  low  rooky 
peninsula.  The  entrance  is  so  narrow  that  it  is  crossed  by 
a  bridge  of  seven  arches ;  it  was  already  bridged  in  Strabo'e 
time.  The  modern  tovrn,  in  the  province  of  Lecee,  which 
is  the  see  of  an  archbishop  and  had  in  1881  a  population 
of  26,611,  stands  on  the  peninsula,  which  is  now  rather  an 
island,  the  isthmus  ooonecting  it  with  the  mainland  having 
been  cut  through  for  defence  by  Ferdinand  I.  The  ancient 
citadel  occupied  the  same  site,  but  the  city  in  its  beat  days 
was  much  larger,  traces  of  the  walls  being  visible  about  2 
miles  from  the  gates  of  the  modern  town.  The  remains 
of  antiquity  are  inconsiderable. 

Tarentum  was  a  Spartan  colony  founded  about  tlie  close  of  the 
8th  century  B.C.  (Jerome  gives  the  date  708)  to  relieve  the  parent 
state  of  a  part  of  its  population  which  did  not  possess,  but  ckimed 
to  enjoy,  full  civic  rights.  Legend  represents-thcse  Parthmim  (so 
they  are  called)  aa  Spartans  with  a  stain  on  their  birth,  but  the 
accounts  are  neither  clear  nor  consistent,  and  the.  facts  that  under- 
lie them  have  not  been  cleared  up.  The  Greeks  were  not  tlie  fii-st 
settlers  on  the  peninsula :  recent  excavations  have  brought  to  light 
signs  of  a  pre-Hellenic  trading-place,  and  the  name  of  Taras  may  bt 
older  than  the  colony.  To  the  Greeks  Taras  was  a  mythical  hero, 
eon  of  Neptune,  and  he  is  sometimes  confounded  with  the  oecist  of 
tlic  colony,  Phalanthus.  Situated  in  a  fertile  district,  especially 
famous  for  olives  and  sheep,  with  an  admirable  harbour,  great 
fisheries,  and  prosperous  manufactures  of  wool,  purple,  and  pottery, 
Tarentum  grew  in  power  and  wealth  and  extended  its  doniair. 
inland.  Even  a  great  defeat  by  the  natives  in  473  B.C.,  when  more 
Greeks  fell  than  in  any  battle  known  to  Herodotus,  did  not  break 
its  prosperity,  though  it  led  to  a  change  of  government  from  aris 
tucracy  to  democracy.  A  feud  with  the  Tburians  for  the  district 
of  the  Siris  was  s&ttted  in  432  by  the  joint  foun  Jation,of  Heraclea. 
which,  however,  was  regarded  as  a  Tarentine  colony.  In  the 
4th  century  Tarentum  was  the  first  city  of  Great  Greece,  and  it- 
wealth  and  artistic  culture  at  this  time  are  amply  attested  by  it 
rich  and  splendid  coins;  the  gold  pieces  in  particular  (mainly  late: 
than  360)  are  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  ever  struck  by  Greekc 
(see  NnMiSMATics,  vol.  xvii.  p.  637).  In  the  second  half  of  the 
century  Tarentum  was  in  constant  war  with  the  Lucanians,  and 
did  not  hold  its  ground  without  the  aid  of  Spartan  and  Epirote 
condottieri.  Then  followed  war  with  Rome  (281),  the  expeditiot 
of  Pyrrhus,  and  at  length,  in  272,  the  surrender  of  the  city  by  it 
Epirote  garrison  (see  the  details  in  vol.  xx.  p.  743  sq.).  Tarentnn 
retained  nominal  liberty  as  an  ally  of  Rome.  In  the  Second  Puni- 
War  it  suffered  severely,  when  it  was  taken  by  Hannibal  (212),  al 
but  the  citadel,  and  retaken  and  plundered  by  Fabius  (209).  After 
this  it  fell  into  great  decay,  but  revived  again  after  receiving  t 
colony  in  123  B.C.  It  remained  a  considerable  seaport,  and  it.- 
purple,  second  only  to  that  of  Tyre,  was  still  valued,  but  in  Strabo'E 
time  it  had  shrunk  nearly  to  the  limits  of  the  present  town.  After 
the  fall  of  the  Western  empire  it  was  held  from  time  to  time  by 


62 


T  A  R  — T  A  R 


Goths,  Lombards,  and  Saracens,  but  was  not  finally  wrested  from 
Byzantium  till  Robert  Guiscard  took  it  in  1063. 
For  speclil  literature  about  Tarenium,  see  Busolt^  QriecJi.  Oa(h.,\.  206  sq. 

TARES,  or  Vetches.     See  Agriculture,  vol.  i.  p.  376. 

TARGQM  (D'Sil?)  in  its  concrete  sense  signifies  the 
paraphrastic  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  or  parts 
thereof,  into  the  Aramaic  tongue.  It  has,  however,  three 
other  meanings: — (1)  a  translation  from  any  language  into 
another;'  (2)  an  interpretation  in  any  language;'  and  (3) 
the  /Vramaic  portions  of  certain  books  of  the  Bible  (notably 
Daniel  and  Ezra).' 

The  word  is  not  itself  found  in  the  Bible  ,  but  the 
participle  methurgam  (D^inP)  occurs  in  Ezr.  iv  7  The 
noun  Targum,  a  form  similar  to  Talmud  {q.v.),  occurs  tor 
the  first  time  in  the  Misknah,  both  canonical  ♦  and  non- 
canonical,^— the  latter  being  apparently  the  older  source. 

Origin. — Although  none  of  the  Targums  uow  in  our 
hands  are  as  old* as  the  Septuagint  (q.v.),  the  public  use 
of  Targums  on  Sabbaths,  festivals,  4:c.,  is  very  ancient, 
and  indeed  their  language  was  for  several  hundreds  of 
years  the  sole  one  understood  by  the  majority  of  the  Jews 
in  Palestine  and  Babylonia.  How  the  Hebrew  people  of 
Judaea  came  so  entirely  to  unlearn  their  own  Hebrew 
tongue  as  to  stand  in  need  of  an  Aramaic  translation  of 
their  Scriptures  need  not  be  dwelt  on  here  (see  vol.  si. 
p.  597  and  vol.  xxi.  p.  648).  But  an  important  contrast 
between  the  Aramaic  and  Greek  versions  deserves  particular 
notice.  The  use  of  the  Septuagint  by  the  Greek-speaking 
Jews  of  'Alexandria,  Asia  Minor,  and  elsewhere  caused 
those  who  adopted  it  to  forget  entirely  their  own  Hebrew 
tongue  The  Aramaic  version  (Targum),  however,  spring- 
ing from  a  religious  necessity,  was  the  cause  of  revival  of 
the  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  which  had  been  nigh  forgotten. 
It  is  tberefore  easy  tr,  understand  why  the  Jews  in  general 
have  shown  comparatively  little  attachment  to  the  Septua- 
gint, whilst  they  ever  ardently  revered  the  Aramaic  version, 
even  after  the  institution  of  publicly  reciting  it  had  ceased." 
To  this  day  pious  Jews  privately  prepare  themselves  every 
Friday  for  the  lessons  of  the  coming  Sabbath  by  reading 
the  weekly  portion  twice  in  the  sacred  tsst  and  once  in 
the  Targum  (DUin  inxi  XlpD  D'Jty). 

F(rrmer  Use  of  the  Targum  in  Public. — The  following 
rules  had  to  be  observed  in  the  reading  o£  the  Scriptures 
at  the  synagogal  service  : — 

!.  As  regards  the  Law  (Pentateuch).  (1)  The  private  person 
called  to  the  Law  (yhich  chiefly  contains  balakhic  '  matter)  read 
one  verse  of  it,  which  the  official  methurgeman  or  tnrgeman  (trans- 
lator) immediately  paraphrased  ;  (2)  whilst  the  reader  of  the  Law 
was  not  allowed  to  take  his  eye  off  the  written  scroll,  the  methurge- 
man  was  forbidden,  not  merely  to  read  out  of  a  written  Targum, 
but  even  to  look  into  the  sacred  text ;'  (3)  each  of  these  had  to 
wait  till  the  other  had  quite  finished  the  reading  and  translation 
respectively;  (4)  one  was  not  allowed  to  raise  his  voice  in  a  louder 
key  than  the  other;  (5)  a  certain  number  of  passages,  although 
allowed  to  be  read,  were  not  allowed  to  be  translated;  these  were — 

« ■       IU.-I 

>  Hence  'TIDE'S  DIJIH  (German  translation),  &c. 

'  When  the  vord  is  nsed  in  either  of  these  two  senses  the"  language 
Into  which  the  translation  is  made,  or  in  which  an  inteijirctation  is 
given,  must  be  speci6ed,  or  otherwise  indicated,,  f. p.,  OV  DUin 
(Greek  translation),  CrynCH  DlJ-in  (Septuegint),  D7'pj)  DJID  (Aquila 
translated),  except  when  it  is  Aramaic,  in  -which  case  the  language 
may  be  named  (as  in  Ezra  Iv.  7)  or  not  (Tosephto,  Shaihalh,  xiii. 
[ir'.]2). 

»  Compare  Mishnoh,  Vadayim,  iv.  5.  •  See  last  aote. 

•  Sipkere  (see  vol  ivi.  p.  507)  on  D'eutEiononiy  (Pericope 
BKophetim),  Pisko  161. 

«  "Let  not  the  Aramaic  be  lightly  esteeintd'by  thee,"  says- the 
Jerusalem  Talmud,  "  seeing  that  the  Holy  One  (blessed  be'-Jle  !)  has 
given  honour  to  it  in  the  Pentateuch  (Gen.  xxri,  il),  in  the  Prophets 
jJer.  ji.  11).  and  in  the  Hagiograph..  (Dan,  iL  4),"  (Sb<aA,,vii.  2)., 
Instead  of  "  Arimmi"  (Aramaic)  the  Miurash  Jtaibah  on  Gfiiusis 
teads  "  Parsi "  (Persian) ;  the  reading  here  is  "Sursi "  (SyriaiJ- 

'  See  MiSHKAH,  vol.  ivi.  p.  503. 

'  This  was  done  to  prevent  its  hcing  thougnt  that  fhff  T-iT.  uiTK 
(the  exponent  of  tho  oral  Law)  was  to  be  found  ia_i»J51iji6  la  Iho 
renlateuch  (the  exponeot  of  the  written  Law^ 


(a)  such  as  might  reflect  unfavourably  on  a  father  of  a  tribe,  or  oQ 
anaminent  tcacher(T.  B.,  MegilL,  ibb,  Tom/jA.,  catchword  nOTO)  ; 
(i)  such  as  might  encourage  the  ignorant  to  think  that  there  was 
sonie  truth  in  idolatry  ;  (c)  such  as  might  otfend  decency  ( J/'sAnaA, 
Megillah,  iv.  10;  Tosephto.  ibid,  35,  37,  T.  Yer,  ibid.,  iv. 
10;  and  T.  B. ,  ibid.,  leaf  256);  (,rf)  such  as  were  lised  by  the  Lord 
Himself  to  be  lead  in  Hebrew  only  (as  the  sacerdotal  benediction, 
Num.  vi. '24-26);®  (6)  the  translator  wa^  neither  allowed  to  give 
a  literal  translation  nor  to  add  anything  that  had  no  foundation 
in  the  Divine  word  ;  he  had  to  give  the  spirit  of  the  letter.'* 

II.  As  regards  the  Prophets.  (1)  The  person  called  to  read  the 
Prophets  (which  chiefly  contain  agadic  matter")  oiiglit  read  three 
verses,  of  which  the  translator,  wlio  might  be  the  reader  himself,'* 
sought  to  render  the  meaning  to  the  best  of  his  ability  ,  \2)  the 
translator  was  allowed  botti  to  read  out  of  a  Targum  volume  and 
to  look  also  into  the  book  containing  the  prophetic  text ,  ,3)  if 
reader  and  translator  were  two  different  persons  they  observed  the 
third  rule  giv^  above  tor  the  case  o^  reading  the  Law  ;  (4)  here 
also  certain  passages  wore  not  allowed  to  be  translatetl  : — (n)  such 
as  reflected  on  great  men  of  the  Israelite  nation;  (i)  such  as  offend 
decency  ,  (5)  any  one  sufficiently  intelligent  might  read,  and  of 
course  paraphrase,  the  portion  from  the  Prophets. 

in.  As  regards  the  Hagiographa.  The  widest  range  of  liberty 
must  have  been  granted  both  to  reciters  and  translators,  is  very 
scanty  mention  of  any  particular  provision  concerning  it  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Talmuds.  The  Psalms  and  the  book  of  Esther  are 
classed  together  in  so  far  as  they  may  be  read  and  paraphrased  even 
by  ten  persons  (T.  B. ,  ilcg.,  216).  For  Job  and  Lamentations, 
see  below. 

Duration  of  this  Practice. — The  practice  of  publicly 
reciting  the  Targum  continued  somewhat  later  than  the 
last  of  the  geonim.  Within  the  list  400  years  of  that 
period,  however,  the  power  of  this  ancient  institulun 
began  to  fluctuate,  gradually  declined,  and  finally  almost 
— but  not  entirely  '^ — died  out.  The  causes  of  this  were 
twofold.  One  was,  that  after  the  Mohammedan-conquests 
Arabic  supplanted  Aramaic  as  the  vernacular,  and  the 
Targums  thus  became  unintelligible  to  the  mass  (see 
Seder  Rab  'Amram,  i.,  Warsaw,  1863,  leaf  29a),  even  as 
was  already  the  case  in  the  Western  world.  A  second 
and  more  important  cause,  however,  was  the  .spread  of 
Karafsm,  whose  criticism  of  the  Rabbinic  contents  of  the 
targums  provoked  the  Rabbanites  to  pay  more  attention 
to  the  etymology  and  grammar  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
'  The  Baliylonian  TalDui.l  \.\Iigdlah,  256)  says  that  tho  pricslly 
benediction  was  not  to  be  rented  in  Aramaic  on  account  of  the  pLr.ise 
"the  Lord  shall  lift  up  llis  countenance  upon  thee,"  which  wouf.l 
appear  as  if  the  Lord  liad  been  a  respecter  of  persons,  'n  Talmudic 
times  they  bad  apparently,  in  Babylonia,  .ost  the  real  reason  of  the 
Mishnic  prohibition,  wlurli  's  that  this  bcneiUctiou  is  doubly,  yea, 
trebly  Dmue,  bemg  I'ramt.t  lu  its  every  word  by  God  Himself,  and 
can  thus  only  be  recited  in:  those  very  words  ^3,  thus ,  Num.  vi. 
23).  See  Mishnah.  Sniab.  vii  2  .  T  Verushalrai,  tbid.,  and  MeyilLih^ 
iv.  11,  and,  finally,  IScmrMnr  Habbah,  cap.  XL  m  medio.- 
">  See  Tosephto,  Mrrjitlah,  iv.  iii/w. 
^  See  MiDiiiSH,  vol.  xu.  \<.  2S5. 

"  Thus  Jesus  (Luke  iv.  Iti  27)  no  doubt  read  the  Uaphtarah  (pr*. 
phetic  portion)  himself,  and  jiaraphiased  it  himself  From  this  cnston» 
of  reading  and  paraphrasing  by  one  and  the  same  person  the  sermon 
(^B'^^)  sprang  The  p.a.'is.age  in  questiou  (Isa.  hi.  1,  ic.)  was  read 
on  the  Sabbath  before  the  New  Year  (day  of  memorial). 

''  Long  after  the  institution  of  publicly  reciting  the  Targum  ou  the 
Law  had  generally  declined,  it  was  yet  retained  in  Germany  and  Italy 
on  certain  days  of  the  three  high  festivals,  viz.,  (a)  the  seventh  .lay  of 
Passover,  (6)  the  fir.-t  day  of  Pentecost,  ami  (r)  tlie  last  J.iy  ati.iched 
to  the  festival  of  Tabernacles  (i.i!.,  mm  nUnV).  The  passages  so 
recited  were— (a)  parts  of  the  lesson  for  the  il.iy— the  song  of  Moses 
and  the  children,  of  Isr.-iel,  with  the  iiitvf.luction ;  \b)  the  Dec.ilogin 
irt  f"xodu5;  (c)  the  labt  portion  of  Deuteronomy.  In  the  hrslcase  tba 
-pn.aphiase  was  from  the  thiee  Targums  mixed,  m  the  second  from 
the  Taroum  Yonalhan,with  deviatious,  iii  the  last  from  the  Targum 
Oiikelos"  (Thesepieces-arc  inteisi.ei.M-il  «ith  siiMiUy  bits  of  poetiy. 
seeCamlr.  MS.  Add.  374,-  leaves  llifl.i-iri'..  10'Jii-203a,  4236-4276  ) 
Towards  the  end  of  the  1  4th  tcmmy ,  a<  ivc.n.l-  I'.i-sover  and  Pentecost, 
the  custom  fell  into  desiielude.  but  ilown  lo  oiii  o«ii  days  some  A 
the  congregations  of  Italy  cpiilmm'  Hie  us,ii:c  ol  icntiug  the  Targan. 
Onkelosiu  connexion  with  ihe  n.iir.iiioii  of  the  ileath  of  Moses.  Thi» 
custom,  hovrever,  is-now  rapidly  dym-  rait.  As  regards  the  recitatioo 
of  liie  Targum  ou  thej-roiihets.  a  <-mM  r.  iniiai.t  ol  the  cougiegatiora 
following  the  rilc  01  Rome  (i.e..  the  so.called  Jtnliam)  continue  il 
to  llrs  d;iv  on  the  fcstivil  of  Passover.  For  the  use  of  the  Taigui* 
su  Pelitecosi,  see /irs**"'*!.  by  Iv  Me.r  »(  Rothenburg  (Roaa,  y.« 
Cooioote  31.  No«  SSk.. 


T  A  R  G  U  M 


65 


Bible.  Thus  the  Targums,  both  in  their  periods  of  vigour 
and  decay,  exercised,  directly  and  indirectly,  a  salutary 
iofluence.  In  each  case  the  knowledge  of  Hebrew  was 
promoted  ;  and  it  advanced  so  much,  that  by  1000  a.d. 
the  Jews  of  Irak,. like  those  of  the  rest  of  the  world  then, 
and  as  in  our  own  days,  certainly  knew  the  pure  Hebrew 
better  than  the  Aramaic  idiom.  The  same  was  the  case  in 
other  Arabic-speaking  parts,  as  Spain,  Africa,  ic, — Yemen 
then  and  still  forming  a  solitary  exception.* 

Authorship  and  Age  of  the  Variotts  Targums. — The 
Targums  on  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  not  merely 
by  various  authors,  but  also  of  various  ages.  They  have 
only  one  thing  in  common, — all  of  them  rest  on  oral  tradi- 
tions, which  are  hundreds  of  years  older  than  the  earliest 
form  of  the  wTitten  Targums  now  ii,  our  hands.  We 
enumerate  them  according  to  Biblical  order,  although  that 
is  not  necessarily  the  chronological  order  in  which  they 
were  either  composed  or  committed  to  writing. 

I.  The  Pct!t'jUuc}i.—{a)  There  is  a  complete  Targum  known  as 
Onkelos  (DlSp:iX.  D^pjlX.  Dl^pJS,  DlS"P21N).  The  person  and 
even  the  name  of  Onkelos  have  been  for  the  last  three  hundred 
years  a  crux  criticorum. 

According  to  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  iiegil.,  Z<t,  "  Onkelos  (son 
of  Calonicus,  GitC,  564,  or  of  Calonymus,  'Ah.  Zor.,  lln),  the  pro- 
selyte, composed  the  Targum  on  the  Pentateuch  (ilDX)  out  of  the 
mouth  of  R.  Eli'ezer  and  K.  Yehoshua','  who  tauglit  in  the  1st  and 
2d  centuries.  Ic  the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Meg.,  i.9,  tlie  same  thing 
is  related  on  the  same  authorities,  and  almost  in  the  same  words, 
of  the  proseljte  Aquila  (Akylas)  of  Pontus,  whose  Creek  version 
of  the  Bible  was  much  used  by  Greek-speaking  Jews  down  to  tlie 
tilde  of  Justinian  [Xov.,  cxlvi.  cap.  1).'  There  are  other  jiarallcls 
between  what  Toscphlo  and  the  Babylonian  Talmud  tell  of  Onkelos 
and  what  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  aud  the  MiJiash  tell  of  Aquila. 
Both  throw  their  idolatrous  inheritance  into  the  Dead  Sea  (Tos., 
Demai,  vi.  12 ;  T.  Y.,Demai,  vi.  10).  and,both  have  connexions  with 
Roman  emperors,  Onkelos  being  sister's  son  of  Titus  {GiUin,  56b), 
and  Aquila  of  Hadrian  {Midr.  Tnuh.,  Mishpadm;  see,  also,  for 
Onkelos,  'Ab.  Z.,  11a,  and  for  Aquila's  connexion  with  Hadrian,  T. 
Y.,  n<i^.,\\.  1;  Shcm.  Rah  ,  xx\.;  V.-;<\x\\a.m.Ms,  Dc  Mens,  ci  Pond. , 
xiv.  sq.).  From  these  facts  some  (see  N.  Adlcr,  Xctlivmh  laggcr, 
in  the  VUnaPent.,  1874,  Introd.)  still  argue  that  Onkelos  is  but 
another  name  for  Aquila,  and  that  the  Greek  translator  also  wrote 
onr  Targum.  This  view  was  long  ago  refuted  by  R.  'Azaiyah  de' 
Rossi,'  and  is  quite  untenable.  It  is  incredible  that  Aquila  or  any 
other  Greek  could  have  had  the  mastery  of  Aramaic  and  of  tradi- 
tronal  lore  as  well  as  of  Hebrew  which  the  Targum  displays;  and 
the  phrase  of  T.Y.i'it/cyiX,  i.  9,  "an  untutored  jierson  picked  out  for 
them  Aramaic  from  the  Greek,"  is  quite  inapplicable  to  Onkelos, 
and  ought  to  be  taken  as  referring  to  the  Pcshito  Syriac,  which  is 
admittedly  dependent  on  the  L.\X.  In  a  Jewish  wTiting  "for 
them" — set  absolutely— means  "for  the  Christians."  The  view 
now  accepted  by  tnost  critics  is  that  the  word  Onkelos  is  a 
Babylonian  corruption  of  Akylas,  but  that  the  name' "Targum 
Onkelos  "  originally  meant  no  more  than  "  Targum  in  the  style  of 
Aquila,"  i.e.,  bearing  to  the  freer  Palestinian  Targums  a  similar 
relation  to  that  of  Aquila's  version  to  the  Septuagint.''  On  this 
view  there  never  was  a  real  person  called  Onkelos.  But  how  Akylas 
(D^'P?;  in  Ber.  Sah.,i.  middle,  DlS'**  or  I'VpX,  i.e.,  )'!?'pX) 
eonld  be  corrupted  into  Onkelos  has  not  been  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained  ;  and,  besides  the  traditions  about  Onkelos  which  resemble 
what  is  kuown  about  Aquila,  there  are  others,  and  these  older  than 


•  In  Yemen  the  Targum  is  publicly  recited  to  this  day,  and,  strange 
to  say,  by  boys  of  nine  years  of  age  or  so  in  turn.  See  .1.  S.iphir, 
Ebm  Sappir,  i.  (Lyck,  1866,  Svo)  leaves  536,  61o.  Saphir  once  told 
the  present  writer  that  a  youth,  eighteen  years  of  age  {lU  supra,  616), 
who- carried  his  travelling-bag  and  served  as  bis  guide  over  the 
moontaios.  Said,  >'.«., 'Se'adyah,  by  name  and  a  shoemaker  by  trade, 
could  tranaUte  to  him  in  Aramaic  from  memory  any  passage  Saphir 
recited  in  Hebrew. 

'  For  the  connexion  of  Aquila  with  R.  Eli'ezer  and  R.  Yehoshua',  sea 
also  Bcresk.  Rat.,  lii. ;  Bemidb.  Rob.,  viii.  end ;  Kohel  Rah.,  vii.  8. 

'  I.e.,  "min  Haadummim."  The  AUunimim  are  supposed  to  b« 
one  of  the  four  noble  families  carried  to  Rome  by  Titus. 

♦  The  Jerusalem  Talmud  repeatedly  cites  Aquila's  renderings  and 
never  names  Onkelos.  But  it  does  show  acqimintance  with  renderings 
found  in  Onkelos  (e.g.',  Megil.,  iv.  11 ;  cf.  Onk.  on  Exod.  xiiiL  35) 
In  the  Midrash  Rabbah,  besides  many  citations  from  Aquila,  we  find 
one  of  Onkelos  by  name  (in  Bern.  R„  ir.  -in  fine  ;  Onk.  on  Deut.  xxxii. 
24)_aiid  various  allusions  (without  name)  to  renderings  found  in  him. 
He'ia  alao  cit«d  byname  in  the  Palestinian  Piiekede-R  Eli'ezer,  ixxviii. 


either  Gcmara,  which  have  no  such  resemblance,  and  assign  to  him' 
an  earlier  date,  associating  him  with  R.  Ganiliel  the  elder,  tlie 
teacher  of  St  Paul  (Toscphlo,  Shab.,  vii,  [viii.]  18;  Hnij.,  iii.  2,  3; 
Ktl.  Bab.  Balh.,  ii.  4;  Mhv.,  vi.  3;  Talmud  h.,'Ab.  Zar.,  11a; 
Mas.  Semah.,  viii.  init.).  The  Zohnr  (iii.  leaf  73a  of  the  small  ed.) 
ascrilies  his  being  ciicunicised  to  HiUel  (R.Camliel's  grandfather) 
and  Shanimai.  These  notices,  it  is  true,  do  not  speak  of  Onkelos  as' 
a  targumist;  and,  indeed,  the  Targum  being  a  representative  picc«' 
of  the  oral  law  was  certiinly  not  written  down,  private  notes  {i)iegil-\ 
lolk  sdharim)  excepted,  belore  the  Mishnah,  Toscphlo,  kt:.,  i.e.,  till 
about  the  end  of  the  6th  or  the  beginning  of  the  7th  ceuluiy.  But 
in  the  opinion  of  the  present  writer  this  need  not  prevent  us  from 
recognizing  Onkelos  as  a  corrector  and  compiler  of  oral  'I'argiun  in 
the  1st  century!  As  regards  the  name,  it  may  be"suggciitt.d  that 
Onkelos -is  a  deliberate  perversion  of  Evangehis,  a  Gruck*  proper 
name  which  exactly  translates  the  Jewish  (aud  especially  Uabylou- 
ian-Jewish)  name  Mcbasser.  As  the  Christian  wiitings  arc  called 
Aval  (iniquity,  idolatry),  and  as  the  pre-Mishuic  tcaclier  R.  Meir 
calls  the  gospel  {cvangelion)  ongillayon  (iniquity  of  the  roll ;  T.  13., 
Shab.,  leaf  116,  Amst.  ed.  of  1645),  or,  by  inveision,  gibjon-avcn 
(roll  of  iniquity),  the  name  Evangclus,  which  suggested  associations 
with  the  gospel,  might  be  perverted  into  Onkelos  quasi  Ou-keles 
(iniquity  of  disgrace/.-  And,  w-hile  a  Babylonian  Jew  comi,iig  to, 
Palestine  might  lind  it  convenient  to  translate  his  Hebrew  name  into 
Evangelus,  this  good  Greek  name  was  enough  to  suggest  in  after 
times  that  he  was  of  heathen  origin  and  so  to  facilitate  the  con- 
fusion with  Aquila.  The  idioni  of  the  Targum  Onkelos,  whii  h  is 
held  to  bo  Palestinian  with  some  Babylonian  features,  points  to- 
Babylonia  as  the  country  of  its  final  redactor,  if  to  Palestine  as 
its  source.  It  must  bo  remembered  that  Hillel  and  other  great 
fountains  of  Palestinian  learning  were  of  Babylonian  origin.*  .  -*i,.'1 
(3)  Certain  Targumic  fragments  on  the  Pentateuch  go  under  the 
name  of  Targum  Yerushalmi,  or,  rather,  Palestinian  Targum. 
These  are  the  remains  of  a  much  larger  Jcrusalan,  Targum,  once 
current  in'  P^alcstine.  But,  the  Palestinian  rabbis  not  having 
ajiproved  of  It,  perhaps  because  it  accorded  in  various  of  its 
interpretations  and  phrases  with  interpretations  and  phrases  to 
-  1 

'  BiUiographtj  of  the  Targum  D17PJ1X.— (A)  There  are  very  fine: 
MSS.  of  this  Targum  at   Parma,  Oxford,  Cambridge  (Dd.   11,  26, 
Add.  446,  1053),  the  British  Museum,  Kissingen  (Rabbin  Bamberger), 
ic.      (B)  .\  Massoreth  on   our  Targum    by  an   anonymous  author, 
who  must  have  lived  in  or  before  the  12th  century,  has  been  pub-, 
lished— (1)   by  Luzzatto  (Osar  Xchmad,  iv.);   (2)  by  Adler  (Vdua- 
edition   of  the   PenUteuch  of  1874) ;   and  (3)  by  Berliner  (with   a 
German  translation,  &c.,  Leipsic,  1877,  Svo).     (C)  Leading  editions: 
— (1)  Bologna,  \i&'i,editio  princeps,  without  vowel-points;  (2)  the 
Complutensian  polyglott ;  (3)  the  Bomberg  Rabbinic  Bible  of  1517; 
(4)   Sabbioneta,    1557,  16mo   (reprinted,    not  without   mistakes,  at 
Berlin,  18S4,  imp.  Svo)  ;  and  (5)  Vilna  edition  of  the  Pent,ateuch  of 
1S74,  the  Targum  being  pointed  according  to  a  Bodleian  MS.  (Canon.' 
Orient,  91).      (D)  Translations  :—((i)  into  Latin  — (1)  by  Alphonsus 
Zamorensis  (Polygl.,  1517,  ic);  (2)  by  P.  Fagius  (Strasburg,  1546,' 
folio);  (6)  into  English  by  Etheridge  (Targums,   London,   1S62-65'' 
Svo).      (E)   Commentaries,  all  in  Hebrew:— (1)  Pathshegen,  by  an' 
anonymous  Proven9al  rabbi  of  the    12th  century  (see  MiHzoBi,  in 
the  V'ilna  Pentateuch  of  1874;   (2)  by  R.    Mordekhai  b.  Jv'aphtali 
(Amsterdam,  1671-77,  fob) ;  (3)  Lchem  Vesimlah  (double  con)mentai-)') 
by  R.  Bensiyyon   Berkowitz  (Vilna,  1846-66);   (4)  by  Dr  Nathan 
M.  Adler  (Vilna  Pentateuch  of  1874,  ut  supra).     (F)  Other  litera- 
ture (also  for  the  other  Targums): — (a)  in  Hebrew — Meor  'Enayim, 
by  R.  'Azaryah  m.  Haadummim  (cheapest  and  best  edition,  Vilna, 
1863;  Mine  Targuiw,  by  R.  Y.  Berlin  or  Pick  (Breslau,  1851,  4to); 
Oheb  Oer,  by  S.  D.  Luzzatto  (Vienna,  1830) ;  'Oteh  Or,  by  the  before- 
named  B.  Berkowitz  ('V'ilna,  1843) ;  Iggereth  Biihoreth,  by  R  Z.  H. 
Hayyuth  (Chajes),  ed.  Briill,  Pi-esburg  (1S53,  Svo);  Rapoport,  '£rekh 
Millin,  (Prague,  1852,  4to) ;  Lijwy,  Bikkoreth  JIaltalviud,  i.  (Vienna,' 
1863,  8vo);  (6)  in  L,itin — Morinus,  Sxerdtatioiies,  ii.  viii.  6  (Paris  ' 
1650) ;  Winer,  De  Onkeloso  (Leipsic,  1820,  4to) ;  R.  Anger,  De  Oithelo 
(Leipsic,  1845-46)  ;  (c)  iu  German— Zunz,  Gollesd.   Vorlrage  (Berlin, 
1832) ;  Geiger,  Vrschri'l  (Breslau,   1857) ;  Hamburger,  Real-Ency- 
kloptidie;  Targum  Onkelos,  by  Dr  A.  Berliner  (Berlin,  1S84,  imp.' 
Svo).    -On  this  work,  see  Nbldeke,  in  Zarncke's  Centralbl.,   IS&t, 
No.  39,  and  Lagarde  in  Gbtt.  Gel.  An:dg.,  November  1886  (No.  22); 
(d)  in  English  :   E.  Deutsch,  in  his  Literary  Remai-ns—io  be  used' 
with  caution.     (G)  Lexicons  to  this  and  other  Targums  :— -(I)  as  for 
the  Talmuds  and   Midrashim,  so  also  for  the  Targum,  R,   Nathan 
b.  Yehiel's  'Arukh  (see  Talmud,  p,  37,  note  7)  stands  fii-st ;  (8)  nex^ 
to  it  is  Elias  Lcvita's  Methurgcman  (Uay,  1541,  fob);  (3)  Buxtorf'a 
Lexicon  Chaldaicttm,  Tabmulicum,  el  Rabbinicum  (cheap  and  new^ 
though  by  no  means  best,  edition,  Leipsic,   1869-75);    (4)  J^vy's 
Chald.  WorUrb.  (1S66-68)  ;  (5)  Jastrow's  Dictionary,  i.  (New  York, 
1886),    (H)Grammars:—{l)JndaJeitteles's.V«Jo,ffa«ojfto«  (Prague,' 
1813,  4to);  (2)  Blucher's  ilarpe  Lcshon  Aramvii  (Vieimai   1838); 
(3)  Ftirst's  Lehrgeb.  d.  Aram.  Idiome  (Leipsic,  1865);  (4)  Lemer'e. 
Dii-'dvk  Lashon  Arammith  CWarsaw,  1876)  ;  all  in  8vo. 


64 


T  A  R  G  U  ^I 


be  lodnd  in  tlie  Gospels, *..it  graduully  lost  its  outhority  ^md  the 
greater  portion  of  its  origiual  matter,  and  is  now  in  our  hands 
what  It  is.  It  certainly  never  was  part  of  the  T.  Onkclos,  nor  was 
the  T.  Onkelos^nri  of  it,  though  the  two  are  closely  related.  As 
regards  its  age,  several  of  the  pieces  formerly  found  in  it  (now  in 
T.  YoTiathan)  were  in  the  2d  and  3d  centuries  distinctly  quoted  ^ 
with  disapprobation.  But  like  Onkdos  it  cannot  have  been  written 
down  before  the  Mishttak  and  other  parts  of  the  oral  Law. 

(7)  The  Tarijum  Yoixalhan,  or  T.  of  Jonathan,  on  the  PcntQ-lcuch 
is  also  Palestinian.  This  Targum  was  no  doubt  undertakeit,  as  Dr 
Bacher  has  shown  {_Z.D.M.  0.,  xxviii.  p.  69),  ta  combine  the  finest 
parts  of  what  early  T.  Onkdos  and  T.  Yc-rushalmi  contained.  This 
attempt  could  ^ot  have  been  made  without  both  these  Targums 
lying  in  writing  before  the  compiler  of  the  third  Targum.  The 
Targwn  Yonathan  on  the  Pentateuch  is  a  product,  at  the  earliest, 
of  the  7th  century,  to  which  conclusion  internal  evidence  also 
points.*  The  author  is,  of  course;  not  the  Yonathan  b.  'Uzzicl, 
principal  of  the  eighty  disciples  of  Hillel  {T.  B.,  Sukkah,  28a), 
whoj  according  to  T.  Bab.,  McgilL,  3a,  composed  a  Targum  on  the 
Prophets  from  the  traditions  of  Haggai,  Zechaiiah,  and  Malaclii.* 

II.  TarguiJi  Yonathan  0)1  the  Prophets. — It  has  been  known  from 
early  quotations,  as  from  Rashi  {q.v.)  and  others*,  but  notably  from 
KiMHi  ig.v.),  that,  in  addition  to  the  complete  extant  Targum  on 
tlie  Proplicts,  there  existed  other  Targums  or  fragments  of  them. 
These  are  now  known  from  the  marginal  additions  to  the  Reuch- 
linian  Codex  of  the  Targum  on  the  Pro};hets  published  by  Lagarde 
(Leipsic,  1872),  and  have  been  discussed  by  Baoher  (ut  sup.).  As 
regards  tlie  complete  Targum  on  the  Prophets,  no  mistake  can  be 
greater  than  to  believe  that  Rab  Yoscph,  a  teacher  of  the  3d 
and  4th  centuries,  and  head  of  the  academy  of  Pumbaditlia  (see 
Rabbah),  was  the  author  of  this  Targum  in  whole  or  in  part.  This 
mistake  has  its  origin  in  the  repeated  plirase  of  the  Babyloni  lu  Tal- 
mud, C^DV  31  DJ"in01D  ("as  Rab  Yoseph  targumizes") ;  butthena 
similar phraseexistswithregardtoRabShesheth,nt;*C'  31  DJ")nDlD 
("  a3  Rab  Shesheth  ^  targumizes  ").  And  in  like  manner  the  expres- 
sion p^OJinOID  ("aswetargumizo")  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  In 
this  last  instance  the  words  mean  "as  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
translating  certain  passages  in  Holy  Writ  according  to  a  Targum 
we  have  received,"  As  applied  to  Rab  Yoseph  and  Rab  Shesheth 
the  phrase  may  certainly  mean  more  aud  yet  not  imply  that  these 
teacners  were  in  any  way  authors  of  the  Targum  on  the  Law,  the 
Prophets,  or  Hagiographa.  Pjib  Yoseph  and  Rab  Shesheth  were 
both  blind,  and  as  such  were  not  allowed  to  quote  in  exienso  the 
written  word  of  the  Law,  which  it  was  forbidden  to  recite  orally. 
They  therefore  committed  to  memory  the  oral  Targum,  and  so  were, 
of  courbc,  appealed  to  as  Targumic  authorities,  &c.'  That  Rab 
Yoseph  was  not  the  author  of  tlie  Targum  on  the  Prophets  will  be 
clearly  seen  from  the  following  Talnmdic  passage  {B.,  Mcgillah,  3a; 
Mded  Katan,  286) : — "Were  it  not  for  the  Targum  of  that  verse 
(Zpchar.  iii.  11]  I  should  not  know  the  meaning  of  the  prophet." 
This  verse  is  from  the  last  but  one  of  all  the  Prophets  i^  and  we 
see  that  R^b  Yoseph  must  have  had  the  Targum  on  the  Prophets 
before  him.  In  the  ojiinion  of  the  present  writer  this  Targum  was 
composed  by  Yonathan  ;  and,  not  being  ou  books  of  the  Law,  ther^ 
xvas  no  reason  why  it  should  not  have  been  there  and  then  written 
t_ __ . 

'  See  T.  Yer. ,  Berakhoth,  v.  3,  and  compare  with  it  Luke  vi.  36. 
Compare  Berliner,  ut  supra,  pp.  85,  86. 

*  Compare  last  note. 

'  Bibliography  of  the  Targum,  Yerushatmi  <m  the  Pentateutk. — (A) 
There  is  a  MS.  of  this  Targum  preserved  in  the  Vatican  library  (ccccxl.). 
(B)  The  first  eOilioo  of  thisTargura  is  in  the  so-called  Christian  Rabbinic 
Bible  of  1517.  It  is  to  be  found  also  in  most  poly^lott  and  Rabbinic 
Bibles,  iDcludtngthe  Polish  editions  (Warsaw,  ic. ).  (CjTraaslations  ; 
—(a)  Latin— (1)  by  Taylerus  {London,  ]fi49,  4to);  (2)  by  Chevalier 
{ia  the  Pol i/glott,  London,  1653-57).  (b)  in  English  by  Ethcridge(  Tar- 
guTtis,  Loniion,  1862-65,  8vo).  (D)  There  are  two  commentaries  on 
this  Targum  in  Hebrew  !—(!)' by  R.  David  b.  Ya'akob  (Prague,  1609, 
4to);  (2)  by  R.  Mordekbai  b.  Naphtali  (Amsterdam,  1G71-77,  fol  ^. 

*  See  our  Targum  on  Gen.  xxi.  21,  where  Mohammed's  first  Wife 
(Kbadi'lja)  and  their  youngest  daughter  (Fatima)  are  mentioned  by 
uamo. 

*  Bibliography. — (A)  There  certainly  exists," somewhere  in  Italy,  a 
MS  of  this  Targum,  although  tho  o\viier  is  at  present  luikuowc.  (B) 
This  Targum  ippoared  for  the  first  time  in  the  Pentateuch  edition  of 
Venice  (1590-91,  8vo).  (C)  Translations  ;— (a)  Latin  by  Chevalu-i 
(London.  1653-57);  (i)  in  English  by  Etheridge  [op.  cxt.).  \  (D)  Com- 
menUriea:— (1)  by  R.  David  h.  Ya'akob  (Prague,  1609,  4to).  (2)  by 
R  Mordekbai  b.  NaphtaU  (Amst.,  1671-77,  fol.);  (3)  by  an  nnouy- 
mous  B'jthor  in  the  Warsaw  edition. 

*  Id  the  editiooa  before  us  (T.  B.,  Sotak,  4d&)  Yoseph  stands  on  the 
margin  instead  of  Shesheth  ;  hut  iu  thtf  edition  before  R  'Azaryab  ni. 
Haadummim  the  reading  was  absolutely  Shesheth  ;  see  Meor  " Enaytm^ 
cap.  xlv, 

'  6ee  Tosaphoih  on  B.  Kam.,  leaf  3a,  catchword  D3"lnD^D. 
'  'llii^  13  by  no  moans  an  isolated  phrase  ;  m  T.  B.,  Synhednn,  9ib, 
ft  similar  one*  ncci^rs.  referri.ig  t')  Isa.  viii.  6. 


dowii.^  Although  tho  traditions  itemhodies  came  originally  from 
Babylonia  and  returned  to  Babylonia,  its  language  has  yet  u  more 
marked  colouring  of.  the  Palestinian  idiom  than  that  of  Onkclos, 
because  it  was  not  studied  so  much  and  therefore  not  so  much 
modified  and  interpolated.  Some  of  the  Agadoth  occurring  in 
this  Targum  are  ascribed  in  the  Talmud  and  filidrash  to^  later 
men,  but  this  is  no  conclusive  argument  against  an  early  date.  It 
can  be  shown  that  many  laws  and  sayings  supposed  to  he  of  the 
2d,  Sd.'and  4th  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  are  actually  of  pre- 
Christiaii  times,  and,  indeed,  certain  explanations,  figures  of 
speech,  &c.,  had  been,  so  to  say,  floating  in  tlie  air  for  centuries. 
Certain  passages  in  the  Septuagint  contain  Agadoth  which  le- 
appear,  seemingly  for  the  first  time,  in  the  Talinudic  literature. 
The  Prophets  themselves  kn^w  Agadoth  which  only  reappear  in 
what  are  believed  to  be  late  Midiashim  (comp.,  c.g.j  Isaiah  xxi.x. 
22  with  T.  B.,  SijiCk.,  196;  Isa.  xxx.,  26  with  Targum  on  Judges 
V.  31,  Per.  Rab.t  xii.;  Ezek.  xxii.  24,  &c.,  with  Per.  Pah,,  xxxiii.).'« 
III.  Targumon  the  Hagiographa. — Noauthor's  name  isattached 
to  this  Targum  in  whole  or  in  part.  The  Psalms  must  have  had 
one'^  or  two^-  Targums  ;  the  book  of  Proverbs  at  least  two  ;  '^  the 
book  of  Job  at  least  three.'*  Tiiere  must  have  been  two  Targums  on 
Canticles,'^  Ruth,*''  Ecclesiastes,"  and  Estiier,'^and  probably  thecc 
on  Lamentations,'^  the  earliest  of  which  was,"  no  doubt,  simultane- 
ously coming  into  existence  with  the 'Earliest  on  the  book  of  Job. 
For  'Ezra-Nehemiah  no  Targum  exists.  Daniel  only  in  part  wanted 
a  Targum,  and  it  is  supposed  to  have  had  one  ;-"  and  The  books 
(or  rather  the  book)  of  Chronicles  have  a  by  no  means  late  one.-' 
although  it  is  not  by  Rab  Yoseph,  of  the  4th  century.-^ 

*  See,  however,  vol.  xxi.  p.  648. 

^^  Bibliography. — (A)  There  are  MSS.  of  the  Targum  on  the  Propheu 
in  the  Bodleian  (0pp.  Add.,  4to,  75  and  76,  Uii  4  and  Keuuicott 
5),  (B)  The  earliest  edition  is  in  the  Rabbinic  Bible  of  1517.  (C) 
Translations : — {a)  m  Latin — (1)  by  Alphousus  Zaniorensis  (revised  by 
Arias  Moutauus  and  afterwards  by  Cloricus) ;  (2)  Jeremiah,  by 
Ghislerus,  1623;  (3)  Minor  Prophets,  by  Mercenis,  1559,  Tremelhus, 
1567,  aud  Figueiro,  1615;  (4)  Hosea,  Joel,  and  Amos,  by  Quinquar- 
boreu.s,  1556;  (5)  Obadiah,  by  Bedwell,  1601,  and  Leusden,  1656; 
(6)  in  English— Isaiah,  by  PauU  (London.  1871.  Svo).  (D)  Besidei 
the  general  literature  mentioned  uuder  "  Onkelos"  (nifne),  we  must 
mention  Frankel,  Zum  Targum  der  Propheten  (Breslau,  1872,  4to), 
which  must  be  used  with  caution. 

"  See  T.  B.,  Megillah,  21a,  and  also  Rashi  on  T.  B.,  Ta'amlh,  leal 
18a.  2unz  is  greatly  mistaken  when  he  says  {Gott.  Vorlr.,  p.  64)  that 
the  Targums  on  Psalms,  Job,  and  Proverbs  have  one  aud  the  eAXne 
linguistic  character.     The  Tai-guni  on  Proverbs  is  almost  pure  S>Tiac. 

'■-  See  the  Targum  itself  on  Psalm  Ixxvt  11.  ^ 

'^  There,  no  doubt,  existed  another  Targum  ou  this  book,  older  than 
that  now  in  our  hands;  see  Ber.  Pab.,  xciii. 

'*  See  the  extant  Targum  on  Job  xxiv.  19,  and.comp.  note  19  in/nu 

"  SeeR.  Nathan  b.  Yehicl's '^ruW,  s.v.  NWD.  _  A  J^Yerushalml 
Targum  "  presupposes  at  least  one  other. 

J8  'fhe  Targum  on  the  Five  MegiUotb  has  all  one  character,  and  is 
therefore  wholly  YerushalmL 

^'  The  Targum  itself  repeatedly  quotes  another  Targura. 

"  See  Rashi  on  T.  B.,  Megillah,  leaf  136,  catchword  HO?:  We 
have  still  two  Targums  on  Esther.  It  ought  to  be  mentioned  hera 
that  in  the  post-Talmudic  Maasfkheth  Sop/ierxm,  xiiL  6,  an  ArauSaic 
translation  of  Esther  iii.  I  is  given  wth  the  introductory  words : 
D3"U1  c^Dl*  3">  (**Rab  Yoseph  targumized  ").  This  somewhat  lengthy 
translation  is  found  (the  quotation  from  the  Targum  on  Proverbs 
excepted)  almost  verbatim  in  the  Targum.  Sheni  in  he  ' 

^^  The  book  of  Liimentations,  and  consequently  a  Targum  thereon,' 
was  no  doubt  used  along  with  the  book  of  Job  and  the  Targum 
thereon,  by  mournere.     See  Scbiller-Szinessy,  Catalogue,  i.  p.  27. 

-"  See  Munk,  "  Notice  sur  Saadia "  (Cahen,  La  Bible:  'Isaic,  Paris, 
1S38),  p.  159.     His  ingenious  remarks  are  scarcely  home  out  by  fact. 

2'  From  a  late  name  occun'ing  in  a  book  no  conclusions  must  b« 
drawn,  as  isolated  words  may  be  a  mere  interpolation.  The  internal 
character  of  a  work  must  decide  the  age  in  which  it  was  composed. 

^  Biblwqraphy.—  {A)  There  are  MSS.  of  the  Tarium— (l)on  the 
Psalms,  in  Parma  (De-Rossi,  31.  32,  732)  and  Pans  (110);  (2)  on 
Proverb.-!,  in  Parma  (31,  32)  and  Paris  (as  before);  (3)  on  Job,  in 
Parma  (31,  32)  and  Paris  {as  before);  (4)  on  the  Five  Megilloth. 
ID  the  Coujt  Library  of  Vienna  (xxix.),  Parma  {31,  32),  the  Bod- 
leian (Un  1,  44),  Cambridge  (Add.,  436);  and  (5)  on  Chronicles  in 
the  Vatic^a  (Urb.  1.),  the  Erfurt  ministerial  library,  Cwnhridge  (E 
5.  9),  ond  the  Bodleian  (Uri  35,  30).  (B)  The  carhest  editions  of  the 
Targum  on  the  Hagiographa  (exci^jjt  on  Daniel,  Ezra-Nehemiab,  and 
Chronicles)  are  the  Rabbinic  Sible^  luid  on  Chronicles  those  of  1680-83 
by  Beck  and  1714  by  Wjlkins.  (C)  Translations: — (a)  in  Hebrew — 
the  Targum  Sheni—(l)  leshon  Zahab  (Const.,  1732X  and  (2)  Path 
shegen  hakkethab  (Amst.,  1770,  ropr.  at  Czemowitz,  1888).— all  Svo, 
(ft)  iu  Latin— (1)  on  the  Psalms,  by  Aug.  Justinianua,  and  again  bj 
Anas  Moutanus  ;  (2)  on  Proverbs,  by  AJpbomjus  Zamorenflis;  (3)  on 
Job,  by  the  same;  (4)  on  Canticles,  by  the  aame, /and  tigain^  by 
Schreckeiitucbs  (Bxsel.  1553.  Svo);  (5)  on  Ruth,  by  Arias  Montanos. 


T  A  R— T  A  R 


65 


Sale  of  Text. — The  Targum  text  is,  taken  as  a  whole,  in  a  very 
corn  ijt  state.  The  cansos  of  this  corniption  are  many,  but  chiefly 
the  following : — (1)  mistakes  ordinarily  made  by  scribes  through 
carelessness,  or  ignorance,  or  both  ;  (2)  the  Targunis  had  passed 
from  century  to  century  and  from  country  to  country  without 
having  been  written  down  ;  (3)  when  written  down  they  were  prob- 
ably not  provided  with  vowel  points  at  once  ;  (4)  when  provided 
with  vowel-points  most  of  them  were  first  provided  with  Babylonian 
(or  Assyrian),  which  afterwards  were  changed  into  Palestinian  ones  ; 
this  change  was  a  fertile  source  of  fresh  mistakes  ;  (5)  the  loss  of 
the  general  knowledge  of  the  Targumic  idiom  contingent  on  the 
decline  and  final  fall  of  the  institution  of  publicly  reciting  the 
Targum  was  an  additional  source  from  which  mistakes  arose  ;  (6) 
conjectural  emendations  contributed  their  quota  to  the  corruption 
of  the  text ;  (7)  Buxtorfs  emeudatioos  founded  on  the  diction  of 
the  Biblical  Targum  (as  suggested  in  the  ^fcthtn■galtan)  are  a  gross 
mistake,  inasmuch  as  they  lack  the  criticism  of  history ;  (8) 
printers*  mistakes,  increasing  in  every  nevv  edition,  have  all  but 
ruined  the  text.  The  remedies  for  this  corruption  are  : — (1)  good 
Targum  MSS.  in  private  hands  and  public  libraries,  notably  in 
Italy,  Germany,  and  England  ;  (2)  Targum  MSS  ,  according  to  the 
Babylouieo  Assyrian  system  of  punctuation,  chiefly  preserved  in 
South  Arabia,  Russia,  and  England  ;  (3)  some  early  and  com- 
paratively gooil  printed  editions  ;  (4)  the  Mtissorclh.  of  the  Targum. 

Value  of  the  Tarjims. — The  idea  so  long  entertained,  even  by 
the  learned,  that  these  old  versions  were  valuable  chiefly  as  guides 
to  the  original  readings  of  the  sacred  text  must  be  given  up.  All 
of  them  contain  more  or  less,  whether  visible  at  first  sight  or  not, 
certain  paraphrastic  elements,  which  give  no  absolute  security  for 
the  exact  reading  of  the  pristine  Hebrew  text  But  besides  tlieir 
imporUince  as  linguistic  monuments  they  have  the  highest  value 
as  historical  records — (1)  of  the  exegesis  which  obtained  at  the 
time  of  their  composition,  and  (2)  of  the  then  current  manners, 
thoughts,  and  aspirations  both  of  the  Jews  and  of  the  surrounding 
nations.'  .  _^  (S.  M.  S.-S.)     ' 

i.  TARIFfA,  a  seaport  of  Spain,'  in'the  provicce  of  Cadiz, 
at  the  extreme  south  point  of  the  Peninsula,  59  miles  south- 
east from  Cadiz  and  (by  land)  21  miles  west-south- west 
from  Gibraltar.  The  town  is  nearly  quadrangular,  with 
narrow  crooked  streets,  and  is  still  surrounded  by  its  old 
Moorish  walls.  On  its  east  side,  just  within  these,  stands 
the  alcazar.  The  rocky  island  in  front  of  the  town,  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  a  causeway,  is  strongly  forti- 
fied, and  in  some  sense  commands  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
It  has  a  lighthouse,  135  feet  high,  which  has  a  range  of 
30  miles.'v  The  population  within  the  municipal  limits  was 
12,234  in  l§77.s  Anchovy  and  tunny  fishing  is  carried 
on,  and  there  is  some  coasting  trade.  The  manufactures 
{leather  and  earthenware)  are  unimportant.^  ^Tbe  oranges 
of  Tarifa  are  famed  for  their  sweetness. 

Tarifa  is  the  Julia  Joza  of  Strabo,  between'  Gades  and  Belong 
which,  according  to  that  ^vrite^,  was  colonized  by  Romans  and  the 
removed  inhabitants  of  Zelis  in  Mauretania  Tingitana,  The 
Jiclii  Transduda  or  Traducta  of  coins  and  of  Ptolemy  appears  to 
be  the  s.ime  place.  Its  present  name  (Arabic  Jaziral  Tarlf)  is 
derived  froin  Tarif,  the  forerunner  of  Tarik'(seo  vol.  xvi.'p.  573). 
After  a  long  siege  it  was  taken  from  the  Jloors  in  1292  by  Sancho 
IV.  of  Castile,  who  entrusted  it  to  the  keeping  of  Alonzo  Perez 
Quiiiquarhoreus  (Paris,  1556,  4to),  Mercerus  (Paris,  1564-65;  revised 
1657);  (6)  on  Lamentations,  by  Alph.  Z.ini.,  by  Quinquarboreus 
(Pans,  1549,  4to),  by  Ghislerus  (Leyd.,  1623,  fol.),  and  again  by 
Taylerus  (Lond.  1651,  4to) ;  on  Ecclesiastes,  by  Ar.  Mont.,  by 
Schrecketifuchs  (Basel,  1555,  8vo),  and  ag.iin  by  Costus  (Leyden, 
1554,  4to);  (7)  on  Esther,  by  Ar.  Mont.  (1572,  folio);  (8)  Chronicles 
by  Beck  from' the  Erfurt  MS.  (imperfect,  Augsb.,  1680-83),  and  by 
Wilkins  from  the  Cambridge  MS.   (Amst.    1715);  (c)  in  German — 

(1)  on  the  Five  Megilloth,  by  R.  Ya'akob  b.  Shemuel  (Breisgau,  1584,. 
4to);  (2)  on' the  Targum  Sheni,  by  David  Ottensosser  (Sulzb.ach," 
1820,  8vo).'  (D)  Commentaries: — (a)  in  Hebrew— (1)  on  the  Targum 
of  the  Five. Megilloth,  by  R  Elyakim  Rothenburg  (Prague,   1618); 

(2)  on  Esther  alone,  by  R.  Shemuel  Makshan  (Prague,  .1601,  4to); 

(3)  on  the  same  Targun;,'  by  R.  David  b.  Yehudah  Melammed  (Cracow, 
1644,  4to) ;  or.  t:i6  Targun  Sheni,  by  R.  David  b.  Ya'akob  (Prague, 
1609,  4to) ;  (6)  in  Spanish— on  Canticles.by  R.  Mosheh  Laniado 
(Venice,  1619.  4to). 

'  R. .  YehuJah  Ibn  Koreish  fully  understood  the  v.alue  of  the 
Targuras.  See  his  interesting  epistle,  addressed  to  the  Jewish  com- 
munity of  Fez,  published  at  Paris  (1857,  8vo),  under  the  name  of 
Epislota  de  Htudii  Targum  Vtiltlate.  :  A  translation  of  the  intro- 
ductory part  (by  Wetzstein)  is  given  ia  the  Z-  B.  0.,  iii.  col.  22 
(reprinted  by  Dr  Berliner,  T.  0.,  p.  168  sj).  !  Ibn  Koreish  belonged 
to  the  9th  century,  and  not,  as  Berliner  says,  to  the  10th  or  11th; 
nor  was  he  a  Karaite  as  Graetz  (v.  p   293)  half  believes  ' 

23—5 


de  Guzman  ;  the  heroic  defence  by  the  latter,"  commemorated  iii 
the  Romancero,  earned  for  him  the  name  gf  Guzman  "cl  Bueno.'* 
It  was  in  the  defence  of  Tarifa  tjiat  Alfonso  XI.  gained  the  battle 
of  Sal.ado,  a  short  distance  to  the  westward,  in  1340.  'The  placs 
was  successfully,  defended  ag.ainst  the  French  by  Cough  in  1812. 

TARN,  a  dfipartment  of  southern  France,  formed  in" 
1790  of  the  three  dioceses  of  Albi,  Casties,  and  Lav.'iur,' 
all  belonging  to  tho  province  of  Languedoc,  lies  between 
42°  .23'  and  4-t°  12'  N.  lat.  and  1°  32'  and  2°  50'  E- 
long.'  It  is  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Aveyron,  S.E.  by 
Herault,  S.  by  Aude,  S.W.  and  "W.  by  Haute-Garonne, 
N.W.  by  Tarn-et-Garonne/  The  slope  of  the  department 
is  from  east  to  west,  and  its  general  character  is  moun- 
tainous or  hilly;  its  three  principal  ranges,'the  Mountains 
of  Lacaune  (peak  of  Moirtalet,  4154  feet),  the  Sidqbre,  aud 
the  Montague  Noire,  belonging  to  the  Cevennes,  lie  on  the 
south-east.  ^  The  stony  and  wind-blown  slopes  of  the  first- 
named  are  used  for  pasturage.  The  highest  point  of  the 
range  and  of  the  department  is  the  Pic  de  Montalet  (4154 
feet)  I  several  other  summits  are  not  much  short  of  this.' 
The  granite-strewn  plateaus  of  the  Sidobre,  from  1600  to 
2000  feet  high,  separate  the  valley  of  the  AgoiJt  from 
that  of  the  Thor6.  ^  The  Montague  Noire  derives  its  nama 
from  the  forests  on  its  northern  slope,  and  some  of  its 
peaks  are  from  3000  to  3500  feet  high.  The  limestone 
and  sandstone  foot-hills  are  clothed  with  vines  and  fruit 
trees,  and  are  broken  by  deep  alluvial  valleys  of  extra-- 
ordinary  fertility.'  'With  the  exception  of  a  small  portion 
of  the  Montague  Noire,  which  drains  into  the  Aude,  the 
whole  department  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Garonne,' 
— indeed,  if  the  rivulet  Giron  be  excepted,  to  that  of  the 
Tarn,  which  flow's  in  a  westerly  direction  past  Albi,  Gaillac,' 
Lisle,  and  Eabastens,  receiving  on  the  left  the  Agoflt  at 
St  Sulpice.  Northern  Tarn  is  drained  by  the  Aveyron 
and  its  tributary  the  Viaur.',  The  eastern  portion  of  the 
department  has  the  climate  of  Auvergne,  the  severest  in 
France,  but  that  of  the  plain  is  Girondin.  At  Albi  the 
mean  temperature  -is  55°,  and  the  rainfall  29'5  inches.' 
The  population  of  the  department  in  1886  was  358,757. 

.Of  the  total  area  of  2217  square  miles,  or  1,418,969  acres,  there 
are  887,709  acres  of  arable  land,  118,071  of  meadows,  118,934  of 
vineyards,  186,594  under  wood,  and  52,408  of  moorland.  By  last 
returns  there  were  11,360  horses,  3280  Timles,  5430  asses,  20,550 
bulls  and  oxen,  53,900  cows  and  heifers,  13,240  calves,  455,500 
sheep  (wool-clip  iu  1878  1209  tons),  87,700  pigs,  5350  goats,  and 
17,190  bee-hives.  In  1878  37  tons  14  cwt.  of  silk  cocoons  were  pro- 
duced. Oxen  and  sheep  are  fattened;  ewes'  milk  cheese  like  that 
of  Roquefort  is  made  ;  and  geese  and  turkeys  are  reared.  Tho 
crops  in  1881  were- wheat,.3,429,112  bushels;  meslin,  53,113; 
rye,  1,371,040;  barley,  37,730;  buckwheat,  8448;  maizeand  millet, 
1,566,873;  oats,  538,422;  potatoes,  2,554,860;  dry  vegetables, 
374,715;  chestnuts,  268,125;  beetroot,  196,625;  782  tons  of  hemp; 
476  of  flax;  9,676,476  gallons  of  wine  (only  half  the  quantity  ol 
the  previous  year,  owing  to  the  phylloxera)^  Koth  common  and 
good  table  wines  are  produced. 

The  mineral  products  include  marble,  porphyry,  granite,  lime, 
manganese,  sulphate  of  baryta,  alum,  iion,  lignite,  and  tourmaline. 
In  1881  335,430  tons  of  coal  were  taken  from  seven  pits,  and  other 
mines  are  about  to  be  opened.  ,  There  arc  iron,  alkaline,  thermal, 
and  carbonate  of  lime  springs.  The  chief  centre  for  the  mann- 
facture  of  woollen  stufl"3  (in  1875  287  mills,  6457  workmen,  and 
98,615  spindles)  and  for  wool-spinning  and  weaving  (4893  machine 
and  hand  looms)  is  at  Maza.met  (j.r.),  but  all  sorts  of  woollen  and 
cotton  stuffs  are  produced  in  other  localities.  Other  industrial 
products  are  woollen  hosiery,  cotton,  silk,  and  linen  thread, 
morocco,  hats,  earthenware,  glass,  soap  ;  and  there  are  tanneries, 
distilleries,  flour-mills,  breweries,  dye-works,  sawmills,  printing- 
works,  and  numerous  limekilns.  In  1881  929  tons  of  steel  and 
1947  tons  of  iron  of  various  kinds  were  produced.  The  Tarn  is 
'navigable  for  43  miles;  there  are  208  miles  of  national  roads,  4274 
of  other  roads,  and  120  of  railway.  The  department  forms  the 
diocese  of  Albi,  and  belongs  to  the  16th  corps  d'armee  (Montnellier),' 
and  the  court  of  appeal  is  at  Toulouse.  The  chef-lieu  is  Albi. 
There  are  4  arrondissements  (Albi,  J^astres,  Gaillac,  Lavanr),  SS 
cantons,  and  318  communes.  ^ 

TARN-ET-GARONNE,  a  department  of  south-western 
France,  was  formed  in  1808  of  districts  formerly  belonging 
to  Guienne  and  Gascony  (Ouercy,  Lomagne,  Armagnac 

•XXIII.  —9 


66 


T  A  R  —  T  A  R 


Bouergue,  Agenais),  with  the  addition  of  a  small  piece  of 
i,anguedoc.  From  1790  to  1808  it  was  divided  between 
Ui8  departments  of  Lot,  Haute-Garonne,  Tarn,  Aveyron, 
Gers,  and  Lot-et-Garonne.  Lying  between  43°  47'  and 
44' 25  N.  lat.  andO°  55'  and  1°  58' E.  long.,  it  is  bounded 
on  ttl6  N.  by  Lot,  on  the  E.  by  Aveyron,  on  the  S.  by 
I'asa  .and  Haute-Garonne,  and  on  the  W.  by  Ger&  and 
JLOt-et>Garonne.  The  Garonne  and  its  tributary  the  Tarn 
Uli'tea  few  miles  below  Moissac,  and  separate  the  ele^'ated 
lanas  to  the  north,  which  belong  to  the  CevenneS  and 
the  central  plateau,  from  those  to  the  south,  which  are  a 
continuation  of  the  plateau  of  Lannemezan.  The  principal 
tributary  of  the  Tarn  on  the  right  is  the  Aveyron,  the 
affluents  of  which  run  through  remarkably  parallel  valleys 
from  "Borth-east  to  south-west.  The  general  slope  of  the 
department  is  from  east  to  west;  the  highest  point  (1634 
faet)  is  oa  the  border  of  Aveyron,  the  lowest  (164  feet) 
w^cra  the  Garonne  leaves  it.  The  winter  temperature 
is  8T*  F.,  that  of  spring  and  autumn  54°  F., .and  that 
of  summer  72°  F.  Kain  falls  seldom,  but  heavily,  espe- 
cially in  spring,  the  annual  rainfall  being  28'9  inches. 

Of  i  total  area  of  about  1436  square  miles,  or  919,265  acres, 
arable  land  occupies  552,708  acres,  meadows  and  grass  45,073, 
vineyards  102,849,  woods  115,429,  moorland  and  pasturage  41,S19. 
The  returns  in  1883  showed  2,167,000  bushels  of  wheat,  35,062  of 
maslin,  62,975  of  rye,  77,000  of  barley,  2,722,500  of  oats,  759,000 
ofraaize,  1,867,250  of  potatoes,  35,468  tons  of  beetroot,  172  tons 
8  o^tt.  of  colza  seed,  399  tons  of  hemp,  394  tons  of  flax,  250,788 
to.18  of  foddor,  12  tons  15  cwt.  of  silk  cocoons,  20,048,380  gallons 
of  wine.  The  live  stock  ic  1881  included  14,336  horses,  1680 
mules,  2120  asses,  89,295  cattle  of  various  descriptions,  116,349 
sheep,  1353  goats,  32,375  pigs  ;  6347  beehives  gave  25  tons  13  cwt. 
of  honey  and  8  tons  2  cwt.  ot  wax.  There  are  57  quarries,  employ- 
in.T  426  workmen,  where  phosphates  of  lime,  lithographic  stone, 
freestone,  potters*  clay,  gy^isura,  and  schist  for  slating  are  worked, 
as  are  also  iron  and  copper.  The  manufacturing  industry  is  repre- 
sented by  flour-mills,  various  kinds  of  silk-mills  (1317  workmen), 
acd  inanuf.tctories  of  linen,  wool,  and  paper.  Much  fruit  is  grown, 
and  the  principal  exports  are  fresh  fruit,  wine,  flour,  phosphates, 
lithographic  stone.  There  are  S3  miles  of  waterway,  including  48  of 
canal,  156  miles  of  national  roads,  3515  of  other  roads,  127  of  rail- 
way lines,  the  centre  of  which  is  Montauban.  Tarn-et-Garonne  is  one 
of  the  least  densely  peopled  departments  of  France:  in  1886  there 
were  214,046  inhabitants,  aird  their  number  is  decreasing.  Except 
some  10,000  Calvinists,  all  are  Roman  Catholics.  The  department 
forms  the  diocese  of  Montauban,  and  belongs  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Toulouse  court  of  appeal  and  to  the  district  of  the  17th  corps 
d'armec  (Toulouse).  It  has  3  arrondisscments  (Montauban,  Moissac, 
and  Castel-Sarrasin),  24  cantons,  and  194  communes. 

TARNOPOL,  a  market- town  in  Galicia,  Austria,  on  the 
Sereth.  It  was  formerly  a  fortress,  and  rendered  valuable 
services  to  Polish  king's,  who,  in  their  turn,  conferred  upon 
it  important  (iriviloges.  The  town  enjoys  a  brisk  trade  in 
grain  and  Avine,  and  has  some  sugar  factories.  Its  yearly 
horse  fairs  are  famous  throughout  the  country.  ■  Thepopu- 
lation  in  1885  was  27,000,  about  half  of  them  Jews. 

TARPAULIN  is  a  waterproof  sheeting  consisting  of  a 
Btout  canvas  cloth  impregnated  and  coated  with  tar.  It  is 
employed  for  covering  hatchways  and  other  openings  into 
the  holds  of  vessels,  for  making  covers  for  railway  and 
other  waggons  and  farm  ricks,  and  generally  for  protecting 
bulky  goods  and  structures  from  weather  and  damp. 
Many  waterproof  compositions  other  than  tar  are  used  for 
similar  purposes,  the  princii  al  ingredients  being  solutions 
of  india-rubber,  gutta-perclia,  and  various  resinous  bodies 
combined  with  pigments.     See  Waterproofing. 

TARQUINIL     See  Etruria,  vol.  viii.  p.  634. 

TARQUINIUS  PRISCUS,  Lucius,  fifth,  legendary 
king  of  Rome,  is  represented  as  the  son  of  a  Greek  refugee 
who  removed  from  Tarquinii  in  Etruria  to  Rome,  by  the 
advice  of  his  wife,  the  prophetess  Tanaquil.  Appointed 
guardian  to  the  sons  of  Ancus  Marcius,  ho  succeeded  in 
supplanting  them  on  the  throne  on  their  father's  death. 
It  was  he  who  first  established  the  Circus  Maximus,  built 
the  great  cloacae,  and  founded  the  triple  temple  on  the 


Capitol, — the  expense  of  these  vast  works  being  defrayed 
by  plunder  seized'  from  the  Latins  and  Sabijjes.  Many 
of  the  ensigns  both  of  war  and  of  civil  office  are  assigned 
to  his  reign,  and  he  was  the  first  to  celebrate  a  Roman 
triumph,  after  the  Etruscan  fashion,  in  a  robe  of  purple 
and.  gold,  and  borne  on  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses. 
After  a  reign  of  thirty-eight  years  he  was  assassinated 
by  the  contrivance  of  the  sons  of  Ancus  Marcius,  but 
Tanaquil  had  influence  enough  to  «ecure  the  succession 
to  Servius  TuUius,  his  son-in-law.     See  vol.  xx.  p.  733. 

TARQUINIUS  SUPERBUS,  Lucius,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  son-in-law  of  Servius  Tullius,  immediately 
succeeded  the  latter  without  any  of  the  forms  of  election, 
and  proceeded  at  once  to  repeal  the  recent  reforms  in  the 
constitution,  seeking  to  establish  a  pure  despotism  in  their 
place.  Wars  were  waged  with  the  Latins  and  Etruscans, 
but  the  lower  classes  were  deprived  of  their  arms,  and 
employed  in  erecting  monuments  of  regal  magnificence, 
while  the  sovereign  recruited  his  armies  from  his  own 
retainers  and  from  the  forces  of  foreign  allies.  The  com- 
pletion of  the  fortress  temple  on  the  Capitoline  confirmed 
his  authority  over  the  city,  and  a  fortunate  marriage  of 
his  son  to  the  daughter  of  Octavius  Manilius  of  Tusculum 
secured  him  powerful  assistance  in  the  field.  His  reign 
was  characterized  by  bloodshed  and  violence  ;  the  outrage 
of  his  son  Sextus  upon  Lucretia  precipitated  a  revolt,  which 
led  to  the  expulsion  of  the  entire  family,  after  Tarquin  had 
reigned  twenty-five  years.  All  efforts  to  force  his  way 
back  to  the  throne  were  vain,  and  he  died  a  lonely  and 
childless  old  man  at  Cumaa.     See  vol.  xx.  p.  73'< 

TARRAGONA,  a  maritime  province  in  the  north-east 
of  Spain,  with  an  area  of  2451  square  miles  and  a  popu- 
lation in  1877  of  330,105,  'was  formerly  part  of  the 
province  of  Catalonia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  S.E.  by  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  N.E.  by  Barcelona,  on  the  N.  by 
Lerida  (the  Sierra  de  Almcnar),  on  the  W.  by  Saragossa 
and  Teruel,  and  on  the  S.W.  by  Castellon-de-la-Plana. 
The  Ebro  flows  through  the  southern  portion  of  the  pro- 
vince, and  the  other  chief  streams  are  the  Gaya  and  the 
Francoli.  The  district,  although  mountainous,  is  the  rich- 
est in  Catalonia.  The  hills  are  clothed  with  vineyards, 
which  produce  excellent  wines,  and  in  the  valleys  are 
cultivated  all  kinds  of  grain,  vegetables,  rice,  hemp,  flax, 
and  silk.  Olive,  orange,  filbert,  and  almond  trees  reach 
great  perfection,  and  the  mountains  yield  rich  pastures  and 
timber  trees  of  various  kinds.  Manufactures  are  well 
advanced,  and  comprise  all  textile  fabrics,  soap,  leather, 
and  spirits.  There  are  also  several  potteries  and  cooj)- 
erages,  and  flour,  paper,  and  oil  mills.  Silver,  copper, 
lead,  and  barytes  are  plentiful,  and  quarries  of  marble  and 
jasper  are  worked  in  the  hills.'  The  military  government 
of  the  province  is  dependent  on  the  captaincy-general  of 
Catalonia.  For  administrative  purposes  the  district  is 
divided  into  eight  parlidos  judiciales,  containing  1S6 
ayuntamientos,  and  returns  three  senators  and  eight 
deputies  to  tie  cortes.  Besides  the  capital,  the  towns 
in  the  province  with  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  are 
Reus  (27,691),  Tortosa  (23,808),  and  Valls  (13,256). 

TARRAGONA,  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  is 
a  flourishing  scjiport,  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Francoli,  63  miles  by  rail  west-south- 
west of  Barcelona,  in  41°  10'  N.  lat.  and  0°  20'  R  long., 
with  a  population  of  23,046  in  1877.  The  picturesque 
but  badly  built  older  portion  of  the  town  stands  on  the 
steep  slope  of  a  hill  760  feet  high,  and  is  still  surrounded 
by  walls  of  Roman  (in  parts  Cyclopean)  origin.  Below  the 
walls  a  broad  .street,  the  Rambla,  divides  the  upper  from  'he 
lower  town,  which  has  been  more  regularly  built  in  modern 
times  along  the  low  promontory  which  stretches  out  into  the 
Mediterranean.    The  city  is  most  beautifully  situated,  and 


T  A  R  — T  A  R 


G' 


gains  consideraLily  in  etfect  from  its  magnificent  cathedral, 
one  of  tlie  noblest  examples  of  early  Spanish  art.  It  is 
300  feet  in  length  and  100  feet  in  breadth,  and  consisted 
originally  of  a  nave,  aisles,  transepts  with  an  octagonal 
lantern  at  the  crossing,  and  an  apsidal  chancel.  Several 
exterior  chape's  have  been  added  in  later  times,  and  on 
the  south-east  stands  a  1-tth-century  steeple  raised  on  a 
Iloraanesque  tower.  The  east  end  was  probably  begun  in 
1 131  on'the  ruins  of  an  earlier  church,  but  the  main  body 
^f  the  building  dates  from  the  end  of  the  r2th  century 
\nd  the  first  half  of  the  13th,  and  is  of  transitional  ch.ar- 
icter, — the  exuberant  richness  of  the  sculptured  capitals 
being  admirably  kept  in  subordination  by  the  Romanesque 
^mplicity  of  the  masses.  Considerable  changes  were  in- 
'roductjd  at  a  later  date ;  and  the  present  west  end  of  the 
.ave  cannot  have  been  completed  till  late  in  the  14th 
century.  On  the  north-east  side  is  a  cloister  contemporary 
with  the  church,  with  which  it  communicates  by  a  very  line 
doorway.  The  cloister  contains  much  remarkable  work, 
and  the  tracery  of  the  windows  bears  interesting  marks  of 
Moorish  influence.  Two  other  noteworthy  churches  in  the 
city  are  San  Pablo  and  Santa  Tecla  la  Vieja,  both,  of  the 
12th  century.  The  mole,  begun  in  U91,  was  cliiefl.y  con- 
structed out  of  the  Roman  amphitheatre,  of  which  a  few 
rows  of  seats  can  still  be  s;;en  on  the  seashore.  The 
remains  of  a  Roman  aqueduct  form  a  picturesque  feature 
in  the  landscape.  The  Carcel  do  Tilatos  is  said  to  have 
been  the  palace  of  Augustus  Ca;sar;  it  was  partly  destroyed 
by  SuChet,  and  now  serves  as  a  prison.  The  museum  con- 
tains a  collection  of  the  Loman  antiquities  which  are  con- 
tinually being  discovered  during  excavations. 

The  trade  is  steaciiiy  iucreasing.  During  ISSfi  tlic  vessels  cleared 
amounted  to  377, 'JoO  tons  (45,795  tons  Biitii.li,  47,1S1  French, 
and  42,017  Swedish  and  N'oru-e^iaii).  Tlic  evjioits  were  valued 
at  £1.289,533  (wine  £1.023,847),'' and  the  impoits  at  £1.237,012. 
The  expwts  were  mostly  to  France.  Great  Hritaiii,  and  the  Itiver 
Flate;  the  imports  were  chiefly  fioin  Ocrniaiiy.  Russia,  France, 
and  Swe^ien".  There  is  communication  ly  rail  with  Barcelona, 
Valencia,  and  Lerida,  and  by  steamer  with  otliir  ports  of  Spain. 

Tarraco  was  one  of  the  earliest  strongholds  of  the  Romans  in 
Spain,  and  became  a  colony  (of  Julius  Caesar),  tlie  capital  b(  His- 
pania  Citerior,  and  the  richest  town  on  the  coa:>t.  To  the  Romans 
the  Visigoths  under  Euric  succeeded  in  467,  but  on  their  expulsion 
by  the  Jloors  in  710  the  city  was  razed  to  the  ground.  It  w.is  long 
before  the  ruins  were  again  inhabited,  but  by  10S9,  when  the  .Moors 
\rere  driven  out  by  Raymond  IV.  of  Barcelona,  tiarc  must  have 
been  a  certain  revival  of  prosperity,  for  the  primacy,  wliirh  had 
been  removed  to  Vich,  was  iu  tbat  year  re.e^tored  to  Tarragona.  In 
1118  a  grant  of  the  fief  was  made  to  the  Norniaii  Robert  Burdct, 
who  converted  the  town  into  a  frontier  fortress  .against  tlie  Moors. 
In  1705  the  city  was  taken  and  burned  by  the  English,  and  a  cen- 
tury K'iter,  after  being  partly  fortified  by  them,  it  was  captured  an<l 
sacked  by  the  French  in  ISIl  under  Suchet. 

T.AJJSHISH.     See  Ph(enicia,  vol.  xviii.  p.  S06. 

TARSUS,  now  Taesls,  an  ancient  city  in  the  fertile 
plain  of  Cilicia,  la}'  on  both  sides  cf  the  Cydnus,  whose 
cool  and  swift  waters  were  the  pride  of  the  city  (Dio 
Chrys.,  vol.  ii.  p.  2,  Reiske's  ed. ;  Vila  Apollon.,  i.  7),  and 
bore  traffic  t&and  from  the  port  of  Khegma.  In  the  time 
of  Xenophon  (Anab.,  i.  2.  23)  Tarsus  w.is  already  great 
and  flourishing,  and  was  the  residence- of  the  vassal  king 
of  Cilicia.  Its  civilization  at  this  time  seems  to  have  been 
mainly  Semitic,  as  was  to  be  expected  from  the  geograph- 
ical relations  of  Cilicia,  which  have  generally  associated 
its  history  with  that  of  SyTia.  We  have  coins  of  Tarsus 
(nr>)  of  the  Persian  period,  bearing  Arainaio  inscriptions; 
and  the  deities  of  the  town,  knov.-n  lii  later  times  as 
Heracles,  Perseus,  Apollo,  Athena  (Dio  Chr.,  iL  22),  seem 
to  have  been  akin  to  those  of  the  PhcenicianS- and  Syrians 
(see  below).  The  Semitic  influence  wds  doubtless  very 
ancient ;  indeed,  the  Assyrians  invaded  Cilicia  iaihe  9th 
CBDtury  B.C.,  at  which  date  Tarsus  is  perlia])«  mentioned 
on  the  monuments  under  the  name  of  'J'uisi  (Schrader, 
Keilttuthr.  -jAd  Gfseh.,  1878,  p.  240 ;  the  reading  is  not 


certain).  After  Tarsus  was  Hellenized  the  citizens  learned 
to  boast  that  they  were  Argives  sprung  from  the  com- 
panions of  Triptolemus  (Strabo,  siv.  5.  12;  Dio  Chr., 
ii.  20),  and  the  town  became  the  seat  of  a  famous  school 
of  philosophy  which  was  frequented  almost  exclusively 
by  natives,  but  sent  forth  teachers  as  far  as  Rome 
itself.'  More  than  one  of  these  philosophers,  notably 
Athenodorus  the  teacher  of  Augustus,  and  Nestor  the 
teacher  of  JIarcellus,  held  the  chief  magistracy  of  the  city. 
Athenodorus  and  his'  predecessors  were  Stoics,  but  Nestor 
was  an  Academic  (Strabo,  xiv.  5.  14),- so  that  the  Platonic 
pihilosopliy  is  that  with  which  Paul  would  probably  have 
come  in  contact  ■  if  he  gave  hec^  to  the  Greek  wisdom  of 
his  native  city.  Presumably,  however,  he  formed  no 
higher  opinion  of  the  culture  of  Tarsus  than  did  his  con- 
temporary Apollonius  of  Tyana,  whose  testimony  as  to  the 
character  of  the  citizens  {Vil.  Ap.,  i.  7)  is  confirmed  by- 
Dio  Chrysostom.  .  Tarsus  had  made  rapid  material,  pro- 
gress since  Cilicia'  became  Roman  (66  B.C.).  It  w.is  the 
ca[)ital  of  a  rich  province,  and  had  recei\cd  freedom  from 
Antony,  and  from  Augustus  the  dignity  of  a  metropolis  and 
important  immunities  for  its  commerce  (Dio  Chr.,  ii.  30). 
The  inhabitants  were  vain,  effeminate,  and  luxurious,  more 
like  Phoenicians  than  Greeks.  Theif  sensuous  Eastern 
religion  in  these  golden  days  of  affluence  had  more  attrac- 
tion for  them  than  the  grave  philosophy  of  the  Porch  ;  and 
the  legend  supposed  to  be  graven  on  the  statue  of  Sardana- 
pal.us,  at  the  neighbour  city  of  Anchiale,  "  let  us  eat  and 
drink,  for  to  morrow  we  die,"  which  Paul  quotes  in  1  Cor. 
XV.  32,  might  have  been  the  motto  of  the  mass  of  the 
townsmen.-^  At  Tarsus  the  emperor  Tacitus  died,  and 
Julian  was  buried.  The  city  was  deserted  and  lay  waste 
during  the  frontier  war's  of  Greeks  and  Arabs  in  the  first 
century  of  Islam';  a. Moslem  general,  who  saw  the  ruins, 
estimated  its  former  population  at  100,000  (Beladhori,  p. 
169).  It  was  rebuilt  and  settled  as  a  military  colony  and 
frontier  post  by  H.iriin  al-RashiJ  in  787  a.m.,  and  became 
a  starting  point  of  forays  against  the  Christians.  On  such 
a  campaign  the  caliph  Jla'mun  died,  and  was  buried  at 
Tarsus  (833),  having  caught  a  fever,  like  Alexander  the 
Great,  by  bathing  in  the  cold  Cilician  waters.  Tarsus 
W.1S  temporarily  recovered  to  Christendom  by  Nicephorus 
Pliocas,  and  again  by  the  crusaders  under  Baldwin. 
Finally  it  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 

The  Heracles  of  Tarsus  was  the  Cilician  god  Sandan.  Dio 
Chrysostom  calls  him  the  ap-jcnyis  of  the  Tarsians  (ii.  23),  and 
he  may  be  identified  wlili  the  B.ial  of  Tarsus  named  on  the  coins 
already  spoken  of.  He  was  woii>hi]'ped  by  the  periodical  erection 
of  "a  very  fair  p\rc"  {tOi'i.),  a  rite  presumably  analogous  to  that 
described  in  the  Dc  Den  Sijria,  eh.  49  ;  and  the  remarkable  ruin  of 
Dbniik-tasli,  a  vast  court  with  massive  walls  enclosing  two  lofty 
platforms  .of  concrete,  probably  marks  the  site  of  his  sanctuary 
(SCO  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Hist,  de  I'Arl,  iv.  536  .s^. ,  and  Langlois, 
VoTiage  dans  la  Ctticic,  p.  2G5  sq.).  A  tradition  making  Sandan 
the  founder  of  Tai-sus  is  given  by  Ammianus  (xiv,  8.  3);  and,  as 
the  Greeks  appear  to  have  taken  elements  of  the  myth  of  Sandan 
(iHclading  tlie  pyiv)  into  tiieir  legend  of  Sardanapalus,  this 
explains  the  current  story  that  Sardanapalus  founded  Anchiale 
and  Tarsus  iu  one  day  (Ariian,  ii.  5,  2  ;  Athen.,  xii.  p.  529  sq). 
On  Sandan,  sec  K.  O.  Midler,  in  PJieiH.  Mus.,  1829,  and  E.  Meyer, 
in  2.  D.  M.  G.,  1877,  p.  736  sq.  Another  account  in  Ammianus 
makes  Perseus  the  founder  of  Tarsus,  and  it  appears  from  Dio  Chr. 
that  he  was  almost  or  quite  as  much*  honoured.  The  footprint  of 
Pegasus  was  shown  at  Tarsus  (Avienus,  1031  sq. ;  comp.  Dio,  U.  24), 
and  his  rapc-ifs  (wing?)  was  said  to  have  fallen  there  (AJex.  Polyh." 
ill  Steph.  Byz.,  s.v.).  This  worship  reappears  at  Joppa.  .  Apollo 
'*  with  the  trident"  had  a  sacred  sword  at  Tai3Q9,  which  could  be 
cleansed  only  by  the  water  of  the  Cydnus  (Plut,Z'i!/'-  Orac.,  41),  and 
is  probably  ths  Kume  as  inc  harpt  shown  on-'coins  of  Hadrian's 
time;  if  so,  he  is-; presumably  a  dilfcrentiated  form  of  PerseuS; 
.^  To  Strabo's  U.-it  rtust  be  added  Zeno,  the  successor  of  Cbrysippus. 

'  Luciari,  Jt/a<;ro!i.,'21,  makes  him  a  Stoic,  and  teacher  of  Tib«rius. 

^  Atheniens,  V.  p.  215^  tells  of  an  Epicurean  phdbsopher,  Lysia^, 
wh.i,  liecoming,pnest;of  Heracles,  became  tyrant  oi,  the  city,  taxing 
the  rich  to  provide  largesses  for  the  poor.  The  fact  is  probable,  th* 
date  quite  uoosrtain. 


68 


T  A  R  -T  A  R 


Tbe  worship  of  Athena  may  be  coimected  with  the  statement  of 
Athenodonis  (the  famous  pmlosopher  of  Tarsus)  that  the  ancient 
name  of  the  city  was  Parthenia  (J^.  Hist.  Gt  ,  iii.  437);  Abydenus 
.in  Ensb.,  Chrcnu,  p.  36,  ed.  Schbne)  ascribes  the  foundation  of  her 
temple  with  its  brazen  columns  and  of  the  city  itself  to  Sennacherib. 
Thus  with  the  Baal  of  Tyre  there  was  worshipped  an  unmarried 
goddess,  as  In  so  many  shrines  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  Dio  Chr., 
ii.  -2,  speaks  also  of  Titans  as  lords  of  the  city.  The  reference  is  to 
Japetus  (Japheti),  grandfather  of  Cydnus  (Athenodorus,  ul  svp.). 

TARTAGLIA,  NiccolO  (c  15Q0-1557),  a  self-taught 
mathematician,  was  born  at  Brescia  about  1500  His 
father,  Michele  Fontana,  was  a  postal  messenger  between 
Brescia  and  the  neighbouring  towns,  who,  dying  m  1506, 
left  two  sons  and  a  daughter  to  the  care  of  their  penniless 
mother  Niccol6's  childhood  was  accordingly  passed  under 
the  stress  of  dire  poverty,  and  was  marked  by  a  cruel 
misfortune.  Dunng  the  sack  of  Brescia  in  1512  he  was, 
•m  the  cathedral  where  he  had  vainly  sought  a  refuge, 
horribly  mutilated  ty  some  infuriated  French  soldiers. 
His  skull  was  laid  open  in  three  places,  his  palate  cloven, 
both  jawbones  fractured.  Yet  he  recovered  vnth  no 
further  assistance  than  his  mother's  patient  care  He, 
however,  long  continued  to  stammer  in  his  speech,  whence 
the  nickname,  adopted  by  himself,  of  "Tartagha.  His 
education  remains  a  mystery  Save  lor  the  barest  rudi- 
ments of  reading  and  writing,  he  tells  ub  that  he  had  no 
master,  yet  we  find  him  at  Verona  in  1521  an  esteemed 
teacher  of  mathematics.  In  1534  he  transferred  his 
residence  to  Venice,  and  was  there  met  by  A.ntonio  del 
Fiore  with  a  challenge  to  one  of  the  intellectual  dnels 
then  customary  Del  Fiore  relied  on  his  possession  of  an 
undivulgsd  formula  by  Scipione  del  Ferro  for  the  solution 
of  a  particular  case  of  cubic  equations.  But  Tartaglia  had 
attained  in  1530  a  similar  result,  which  he  now,  in  Feb 
■  ruary  1535,  greatly  extended.  His  consequent  triumph 
over  his  adversary  gave  him  a  high  reputation,  and  bis 
house  became  the  resort  of  the  learned  of  all  grades  and 
nations.  The  mystery  in  which  he  chose  to  shroud  his 
method  of  dealing  with  cubic  equations  promised  him  a 
highly  effective  weapon  in  future  contests,  as  well  as 
leisure  to  perfect,  before  publishing,  the  coveted  rules. 
But  in  1539  Cardan  enticed  him  to  Milan,  and  there,  by 
unremitting  solicitations,  procured  from  hiiu  the  rude 
verses  in  which  be  had  enshrined  his  discovery  (see 
Algebra,  vol.  i  p  513).  The  Milanese  physician's  breach 
of  his  oath  of  secrecy  gave  rise  to  a  bitter  and  lifelong 
quarrel,  the  most  conspicuous  incident  in  which  was  a 
public  disputation  at  Milan,  August  10,  1548,  at  which 
Cardan  shrank  from  appearing  In  1548  Tartaglia  ac- 
cepted a  situation  as  professor  of  Euclid  at  Brescia,  but 
returned  to  Venice  at  the  end  of  eighteen  months.  -He 
died  at  Venice  December  13,  1557  Acrid  and  emulous 
in  disposition,  he  incurred  abundant  enmities  ,  yet  his 
honesty,  uprightness,  and  the  morality  of  his  life  remain 
unimpeached.  He  was  keen-witted,  diligent,  and  ingenious, 
and  by  his  discoveries  in  the  solution  of  equations  helped 
to  initiate  the  rapid  progress  of  modern  mathematics 

Tartaj^lia's  first  printed  work,  entitled  Nova  Saciuia  (Venice, 
1537),  dealt  witii  the  theory  and  practice  of  gunnery,  to  which  his 
attention  had  been  drawn  in  1531  by  the  question  of  a  boral)ardier 
at  Verpiia  as  to  the  elevation  giving  the  greatest  range  He  easily 
found  it  to  be  45*  {true  only  in  vacuo),  but  failed  to  demonstrate 
the  correctness  of  his  intuition  ludeed,  he  oevei  shook  off  the 
erroneous  ideas  of  his  time  regaidiiig  the  patiis  ol  projectiles, 
further  than  to  see  that  no  |iart  of  them  could  he  n  straiglit  line 
He  nevertheless  inaugurated  the  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject, 
and  his  propositions  reappeared  in  most  ballistical  treiitises  down 
to  Blondel's  in  1683  The  publication  of  the  Nova  Scwuliu  was 
determined  by  the  menacing  attitude  of  Soliman  II  Unless  lu 
the  interests  of  Chnstendoin.  Tartaglia  regarded  it  as  «  crime  to 
promote  aiLs  of  destruction  Inquiries  rendered  lawful  by  necessity 
were,  however,  resumed  in  his  Qnrsil.i  f,t  Invrnzionl  Diverse,  n  rol- 
h'Ctloii  of  the  author's  replies  to  questions  addressed  to  him  hy 
persons  of  the  most  varied  conditions,  published  in  l.^clO,  with  a 
iledication    to    Henry    V||I    nf   England      Hroblems  in   nrtillery 


occnpy  two  ont  of  nine  books ;  the  sixth  treats  of  fortification ,  tha 
ninth  gives  several  examples  of  the  solution  of  equations  of  tha 
third  degree.  His  last  years  were  full  of  activity.  He  published 
in  1551  Regola  OentraU  per  sollevare  ogni  affondata  Nave,  inlilolata 
la  Travagliata  Inverimone  (an  allusion  to  his  personal  troubles  at 
Brescia),  setting  forth  a  method  for  raising  sunken  ships,  and 
describing  the  diving-bell,  then  little  known  m  western  Europo. 
He  pursued  the  subject  m  Ragioiiammti  sopra  la  Travagliata 
Invenzione  (May  1551),  adding  a  table  of  specific  gravities.  Of 
his  largest  work,  entitled  Gsneral  TraJialo  di  Numeri  «  Miswre, 
Two  parts  appeared  at  Venice  in  1556,  the  remainmg  four  post- 
humously in  1560.  This  is  a  comprehensive  mathematical  treatise, 
including  arithmetic,  geometry,  mensuration,  and  algebra  as  far  as 
quadratic  equations.  He  designed  to  embody  the  results  of  his 
original  investigations  in  a  separate  form ;  but  his  Algebra  Nova 
remained  unwritten.  He  published  the  first  Italian  translation  of 
Euclid  (1543)  and  the  earliest  version  from  the  Greek  of  some  of 
the  principal  works  of  Archimedes  ( 1 543).  These  included  the  tract 
De  Insidentibus  Aqux,  of  which  his  Latin  now  holds  the  place 
of  the  lost  Greek  text.  An  Italian  version  of  it  la  appended  to 
his  liagionaimnti.  Tartaglia  was  the  first  Italian  writer  on  forti 
fication,  and  claimed  the  invention  of  the  gunner's  quadrant. 

TartAglla's  own  accouat  of  Ms  early  life  Ift  contained  in  his  Quaici,  lib.  r1.  p 
74  See  also  Blttanti's  DUcorto  di  Niccold  Tartaolii,  BrescU,  1871;  Baoncom- 
pagnl,  Iniorno  ad  un  Tfitamenlo  tnedito  di  /f  Tartaglia,  MUac,  16SI ;  Ubrl, 
Hist,  dts  Sfiencfi  Siatttematitjuti,  t.  III.  p.  149;  Montucla,  Bill,  de*  Uath.,  voL  I 
p  667  ;  Marie,  Htst.  dci  Scimcai,  t,  11.  p.  242 ;  Hankel,  Zur  QeKh.  d.  Math. .  1874, 
p.  3fiO.-  Rossi.  £/0(7idi  Brfsctani ///uKri,  p.  386.  Tartajflla'a  wrlUncsongaunery 
wei-e  translated  Into  Enelish  by  Lacar  In  1588.  and  into  Fiencb  by  Rleftcl  In  I84& 
Tbo.t.  .Salnsbury  published  (Londnn;  I5ti4)  an  English  version  of  hJs  Travagliata 
/ncetuwiie,  and  a  selection  fioin  Ms  wrttlnfrs  appeared  at  Venice  In  1603  with  tiit 
title  Opere  del  Pamosisiimo  Niccolit  Tartaglia,  1  voL  8vo. 

Tartan  is  a  worsted  cloth  woven  with  alternate 
stripes  or  bands  of  coloured  warp  and  weft,  so  as  to  form 
a  chequered  pattern  in  which  the  colours  alternate  in 
•'sets  "of  definite  width  and  sequence.  The  weaving  of 
particoloured  and  striped  cloth  cannot  be  claimed  as 
peculiar  to  any  special  race  or  country,  for  indeed  such 
checks  are  the  simplest  ornamental  form  into  which  dyed 
yarns  can  be  combined  in  the  loom  But  the  term  tartan 
is  specially  applied  to  the  variegated  cloth  used  for  the 
principal  portions  of  the  distinctive  costume  of  the  High- 
landers of  Scotland.  For  this  costume,  and  the  tartan  of 
which  It  IS  composed,  great  antiquity  is  claimed,  and  it  i& 
asserted  that  the  numerous  clans  into  which  the  Highland 
population  were  divided  had  each  from  time  to  time  a 
speoial  tartan  by  which  it  was  distinguished.  After  the 
rebellion  of  1 745  various  Acts  of  Parliament  were  passed 
for  disarming  the  Scottish  Highlanders  and  for  prohibiting 
the  use  of  the  Highland  dress  in  Scotland,  under  severe 
penalties  These  Acts  remained  nominally  in  force  tiU 
1782,  when  they  were  formally  repealed,  and  since  that 
time  clan  tartan  has,  with  varying  fluctuations  of  fashion, 
been  a  highly  popular  article  of  dress,  by  no  means  con- 
fined in  Its  use  to  Scotland  alone  ,  and  many  new  and 
imaginary  "  sets  "  have  been  invented  by  manufacturers, 
with  the  result  of  introducing  confusion  in  the  heraldry 
of  tartans,  and  of  throwing  doubt  on  the  reality  of  the 
distinctive  "sets"  which  at  one  time  undoubtedly  were 
more  or  less  recognized  as  the  badge  of  various  clans. 
The  manutacture  has  long  been  earned  on  at  Banaockburn, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stirling,  and  it  still  continues  to 
he  a  feature  ot  the  local  industries  there 

Undoubtedly  the  term  tartan  was  known,  and  the  matenal  was 
woven,  'of  one  or  two  colours  tor  the  poor  and  more  varied  for 
the  rich.'  as  early  as  the  middle  ot  the  15th  century.  In  the 
accounts  of  John,  bishop  ot  Glasgow,  treasurer  to  King  James  III 
in  1471,  there  occurs,  with  other  mention  ot  the  matenal,  the 
following  —  "  Ane  eine  aud  ane  halve  of  blue  Tartane  to  lyne  his 
gowne  of  cloth  of  Gold  "  It  is  here  obvious  that  the  term  is  not 
restricted  to  particoloured  chequered  textnrcs. '  lu  1638  accounts 
were  incurred  for  a  Highland  dress  for  King  James  V  on  the 
occasion  of  a  hunting  excui"sion  in  the  Highlands,  in  which  therv 
are  charges  for  "variant  cullont  velvet,"  tor  "ane  schort  Helaud 
coit,"  and  for  '  Helaud  tartane  to  be  hose  to  the  kinge's  graca" 
Bishop  Lesley,  in  his  De  Ongim:,  Moribus,  et  Rebus  Gestis  Scotorum. 
nnblished  in  1578,  says  of  the  ancieut  and  still-used  dress  of  the 
Highlanders  and  islanders,  "all,  both  noble  and  common  Mople, 
wore  mantles  of  one  sort  (except  that  the  nobles  preferred  those  of 
several  colours)."     George    Buchanan,  in  his   Rennn.  ScoUcarum 

'  Neither  so  is  it  m  tbe  French  ttreUtine  or  In  tbe  Spaiusl*  txrilafUu 


T  A  R  — T  A  R 


69 


ffi^oria  (15S2),  as  trarslftted  by  Slonypenny  (1612),  says  of  the 
IlighUiulers,  "they  Jelight  in  inarlod  clothes,  specially  that  have 
«ny  ons  stripes  of  sundry  colours ;  they  love  cniclly  purple  and 
bino;  Their  prcdecessore  uwd  short  mantles  or  plaids  of  divers 
colours  sundry  ways  divided ;  and  amongst  sonio  the  same  custom 
19  observed  to  this  day."  A  hint  of  clan  tartan  di^tinctions  is 
given  by  Martin  in  his  H^cslcrn  Jiks  of  Scotlnyiii  (1703),  which 
work  also  contains  a  niinnto  description  of  the  dress  of  the  High- 
landei-^i  and  the  manufacture  of  tartan.  "  Every  isle,"  lie  observes, 
"dilTci-s  from  each  other  in  their  fancy  of  making  plaids,  as  to  the 
stripes  in  hi-esdlh  and  coloui-s.  This  humour  is  as  different  throu,i;h 
the  mainlaml  of  tho  Highlands,  in  so  far  that  they  who  have  seen 
tiiosc  places  is  able  at  the  lirst  view  of  a,  man's  plaid  to  guess  tho 
place  of  his  resilience." 

S\C  \V.  anil  A.  Snurh,  T'li-lnrt*  cf  Ihe  Clans  of  SfOtrnnif,  1S.'.0;  J.  Sohicskl 
Stuart.  Vfttij'-iuin  SfotirHin,  iM2  :  R.  It.  M'liin,  C^ith*  e/  the  Si-ottish  Wylitiimh. 
l$4o-|i: :  J.  Onint.  Taitam  oflhf  Ctnits  o/Su'ltnml,  Lilinburcli,  1S85. 

TARTARIC  ACID,  in  its  ordinary  acceptation,  refers 
to  one  acid,  (CjH,0^)H;,  which  occurs  in  most  acid  fruit 
juices,  in  association  generally  with  malic  or  citric,  or  both. 
Grape-juice  owes  its  sourness  almost  entirely  to  acid  tartrate 
of  potash.  Wliile  the  juice  ferments  into  wine,  the  greater 
part  of  the  acid  tartrate  separates  out,  along  with  tartrate 
of  lime,  colouring  matter,  and  other  impurities,  as  a  hard 
crust  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  cask.  Such  impure  acid 
tartrate  of  potash  is  known  commercially  as  "argol."  It 
was  known  to  the  Greeks  as  rpii,  to  the  Romans  as  fxx 
vini:  The  alchemists  from  the  11th  century  called  it 
tnrtanis,  which  name  has  survived  in  familiar  chemical 
parlance  to  this  day.  The  true  constitution  of  larlarus 
villi  was  discovered  by  Scheele  in  1769.  He  was  the  first 
to  isolate  the  acid  from  its  acid  potash  s.alt  by  a  method 
which  is  still  used  for  its  industrial  extraction. 

Manxifacture. — Crude  tartar  (10  to  14  cwts.)  is  placed 
in  a  tank,  and  dissolved  in  sufficient  water  with  the  help 
of  steam.  The  surplus  acid  is  then  neutralized  by  addi- 
tion of  powdered  chalk,  and  precipitated  as  lime  salt: — 

2(C.H  A)KH  =  (C,H  A)Ks  +  (C,H  A)H» ; 
nornml  shU.  acid 

(C,H,0J"i  +  CaC03-(CjHj0^j)Ca+H~0  +  C0, 

The  other  half  of  the  tartaric  acid  which  remains  dissolved 
as  normal  potash  salt  is  then  precipitated  in  the  same 
form  by  addition  of  chloride  of  calcium : — 

(C.HjO,)K.,  +  CaCU=2KCI  +  (C,H,06)Ca. 
The. tartrate  of  lime  precipitate  is  collected,  washed,  and 
decomposed  by  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  at  75*  C. : — , 
:  (CjHjOs)Ca  +  Hj.S04=CaSOj  +  (C4H,Oe)H2. 

The  sulphate  of  lime  is  removed  by  decanting  and  filter- 
ing, and  the  acid  solution  evaporated  in  leaden  pans  to  a 
sufficient  degree  to  deposit  crystals  on  standing  in  the 
cold.  The  crystals  are  purified  by  redissolving  them  in 
hot  water,  decolorizing  the  solution  with  animal  charcoal, 
and  causing  the  acid  to  crystallize  a'  second  time  after 
addition  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  promotes  the  formation 
of  large  crystals.  The  crystals  contain  a  little  sulphuric 
acid  and  a  trace  of  lead  ;  if  intended  for  internal  use,  they 
must  be  recrystallized  from  pure  water. 

Tartaric  acid  forms  hard  colourless  transparent  mono- 
clinic  prisms  of  l'76-l  spec,  grav.,  easily  soluble  in  cold 
and  abundantly  in  hot  water.  It  has  a  strong  but  agree- 
able sour  taste.  At  15°  C.  100  parts  of  water  dissolve 
138  parts  of  the  acid,  100  of  alcohol  (absolute)  20  4,  and 
100  of  ether  0'39.  It  fuses  at  135°  C.  and  passes  into 
an  amorphous  modification  known  as  meta-tartaric  acid ; 
when  heated  more  strongly  it  loses  water,  and  passes  into 
the  forms  of  anhydrides.  At  high  temperatures  it  is 
decomposed  with  formation  of  charcoal  and  volatile  pro- 
ducts, which  smell  pretty  much  like  those  formed  from 
sugar  in  the  same  circumstances.  Mo.^t  oxidizing  agents 
produce  formic  from  the  aqueous  acid.  Boiling  with  oxide 
of  silver  and  excess  of  caustic  alkali  produces  oxalate. 

Tartaric  acid  is  used  largely  in  calico  printing  as  a 
discharge.  In  pharmacy  and  households  it  serves,  con- 
jointly with  bicarbonate  of  soda  or  potash,  for  the  extem- 


poraneous-preparation of  efltervescing  drinks.  The  so- 
called  German  effervescing  powders  are  a  combination  of 
vveighed-out  doses  of  tartaric  acid  and  of  bicarbonato  of 
soda.  In  the  so-called  " scltzogenes "  (glass  apparatus  in 
which  carbonic  acid  is  produced  in  one  compartment,  to  be 
forced  by  its  own  pressure  into  a  mass  of  water,  vino.  ,^-c.,' 
in  the  other)  the  gas  is  similarly  produced. 

Tnr(ra(c-s.— Tlionf«;io/n.rfiOT«,  (CjHjOJHK,  "cream  of  tartar, "_ 
is  prcp.Trcd  from  crtidc  tartar  (argol)  hy  dissolving  it  in  lint  water,'' 
filtering  olf  \\'liat  remains  of  tartrate  of  lime  and  other  impurities,' 
and  allowing  the  filtrate  to  crystallize.  Tlic  crystals  arc  generally' 
contaminated  with  a  little  of  the  lime-salt,  lor  the  removal  of 
which  the  best  melhoil  is  to  treat  the  powdered  crystals  with 
cold  dilute  liydrocliloiic  aci'l  and  then  wash  them  with  coM  water 
by  displ.acement.  Tho  lime  passes  into  the  filtrate.  Cream  of 
tartar  iorms  small  colourless  hard  crystals  which  dissolve  in  al>out 
200  parts  of  cold  and  in  15  parts  of  boiling  water.  In  alcohol  the 
salt  is  even  Ic^s  soluble  than  in  water.' 

The  iiormnl  (neutral)  potash  sail,  (CjIIjO^iK,  -^  JHoO,  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  powdered  creatn  of  tai  t.ar  in  hot  solution  of  cnibonntc 
of  potash  until  a  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  solution  is  produced. 
Tho  salt,  being  extremely  solulilc  in  water,  does  not  crystallize 
very  readily.  In  former  times  the  carbonate  of  potash  required 
used  to  be  made  by  igniting  one  half  of  the  cream  of  tartar  to  be 
0]>cratcd  upon  in  a  crucible.  Hence  the  name  of  Utrtarus  totaris- 
aliis,  whicli  is  still  familiar  in  pharm.acy.  The  salt  is  used  medi-' 
cinally,  and  also  for  removing  free  acid  from  excessively  sour  wine 
by  formation  of  relatively  insoluble  bitartrate  (Liebig's  method). 

Itochclk  sntl,  (C^H40|;)KNa-(- 4H;0,  is  prepared  by  not  ([uite 
neutralizing  hot  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  with  powdered 
cream  of  tartar.  The  (filtered)  hot  solution  deposits  on  cooling 
magnificent  crystals,  readily  soluble  in  water,  though  less  so  than 
the  iiumixcd  potash  salt.  Roehelle  salt  is  used  as  a  mild  purgative. 
The  so-called  Seidlitz  powders  arc  clfervescing  powders  with  a  con- 
siderable addition  of  Roehelle  salt  to  the  bicarbonate. 

The  normal  tartrates  of  lime,  baryta,  &c.,  arc  insoluble  precipi- 
tates producible  by  double  dei:oinpositions. 

Tartar  emetic,  (C,l-l,0,.)K(SbO) -fiHaO,  is  produced  by  boiling 
4  parts  of  o.\ide  of  antimony,  Sb.^Og,  and  5  of  jtowdered  cream  of 
tartar  with  50  of  water  for  about  an  hour.  The  filtered  solution,! 
on  cooling,  deposits  crystals  of  the  above  comjrosition  soluble  in 
15  parts  of  cold  and  2'8  of  boiling  hot  water.  The  crystals  gene- 
rally exhibit  the  appearance  of  tctrahedra;  yet  they  are  rhombic 
pri'iiiis  combined  with  pyramids.  The  process  going  on  in  the 
formation  of  the  salt  is  easily  understood  if  we  remember  that 
SbjOs  often  acts  on  aqueous  acids  as  if  it  were  tho  monoxide, 
(SbO).O,  of  a  radical  (SbO)  antimony!.  (SbO),0 -t- H,0  is  eqni- 
valent  to  2(SbO)OH,  and 

(CjH,Os)KH-HOH(SbO)  =  H20-H(CjH40j)K(SbO). 

Tartar  emetic  has  long  had  a  standing  in  medicine.  In  doses  of 
1-3  grains  it  acts  as  a  powerful  emetic  ;  very  small  doses  (,',  to  -j^ 
grain)  induce  perspiration.     Large  doses  produce  poisonous  effects. 

Analysis. — Tartaric  acid  is  characterized  chiefly  by  the  relative 
insolubility  of  its  acid  potash  salt.  To  produce  it  from  a  solution 
of  a  neutral  tartrate,  add  acetic  acid  and  acetate  of  potash,  and 
stir  vigorously;  the  salt  gradually  separates  out  as  a  crystalline 
precipitate.  Neutral  tartrate  solutions,  with  chloride  of  calcium, 
give  a  precipitate  of  tartrate  of  lime,  which  is  at  first  amorphous, 
and  in  this  condition  dissolves  pretty  readily  in  excess  of  reagent  - 
or  tartrate,  but  in  general  re-separates  in  the  crystalline  form  (the  ■ 
undissolved  tartrate  likewise  becomes  crystalline)  on  standing. 

Anhtjrlrides.~-TaTts.uc  acid,  when  kept  at  135°,  fuses  and  becomes 
meta-tartaric  acid  without  change  of  weight,  and  on  continued  appli- 
cation of  140-150°  C,  ditartrylic  acid,  CgH,jO„-2CjHj05  -  H,0; 
and  at  180°  tartrelic  acid,  C8HeOi|,  =  2C4HsOj- iH^O,  is  pioduccd. 
All  these  three  acids  form  salts  of^  their  own,  which,  however,  tend 
to  become  tartrates  in  the  presence  of  water.  At  ISO°  real  tartaric 
anhydride  (like  tartrelic,  CjHjOk,  — 2CjHj05)  is  produced,  in  addi- 
tion to  tartrelic  acid,  as  an  infusible  yellowish  mass,  insoluble  in 
water  and  in  ether.  By  continued  contact  with  water  it  is  con-^ 
verted  finally  into  tartaric  acid  solution. 

Isomeric  Modijicalioiis. — Among  these  raccmic  acid  has  long  been., 
known  as  an  occasional  bye-product  in  the  manufacture  of  tartaric- 
acid.  It  used  to  be  believed  that  lacemic  acid  is  present  ready- 
formed  in  certain  grape-jnices,  and  thus  comes  to  make  it.s  appear-; 
ance  occasionallytbut  it  is  well  known  now  that  the  bulk  of  it  at", 
any  rate  is  protluced  from  what  was  originally  tartaric  acid,  by  thfcs 
continued  action  of  high  temperatures  and  water.  Raccmic  acid  is 
almost  identical  with  tartaric  acid ;  the  only  purely  chemical  point 
of  difference  is  that  corresponding  salts  of  tho  two  acids  often 
crystallize  witTi  different  proportions  of  water.  The  two  acids, 
however,  are  easily  distinguislicd  by  their  action  on  polarized  light 
(see  PoLAKixy,  vol.  xix.  p.  314).  A  solution  of  tartaric  acid  turns 
the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  right ;  racemic  acid  is,  in  this  sense. 


70 

^,^n,.a1W  inactive  These  long  known  facts  led  Pasteur  to  the 
d^»'"rVrtrt.ue  Stions^f  the  t.'O  acids  If  the  double 
uisco\cry  oi  i  -vtjNH  1  is  allowed  to  crystallize  slowly,  two 
S  ■ir^s"a\?ire  rro'd'uced.  both  bearing Vemiedric  faces,  but 
J  fferingfrom  each  other  in  the  situation  of  these,  exactly  as  tie 
ri"ht  hand  d.R-ers  from  the  left.  Pasteur  separated  the  two  kinds 
of  crystal,  and  found  that  one  kind  is  identical  with  the  ordinary 
"dextro)  tar-rate  of  soda  and  ammonia,  while  the  other  contains  a 
,new  kind  of  taruric  acid,  which  he  called  Uevo-tartano  acid  because 
"uurus  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  left.  Equ.al  weights  ol  he 
l^-o  acids  when  dissolved  separately  in  water  and  mixed,  unite. 
!rith  percept  ble  evolution  of  heat,  into  optically  neutral  racem.c 
""*  "^^c'emic  .cid.  then,  is  tevo-   ^nll   dext^-UrUric  um.cd 


T  A  R  — T  A  R 


acid       Kaceraic  acui,  men,  13  ife.u-   ....v.   -^ ■ .     ,, 

nooselv)  into  one  molecule.  There  are  a  number  ot  optically 
Kve  tartaric  acids,  not  susceptible  of  decomposition  in  he 
sense  in  winch  racemic  acid  IS.  ■       1 

TART'VIvS  (more  correctly  Tatars,  but  Tartars  is  the 
form   generally  current),  a  name  given  to  nearly  tlirce 
million  inhabitants  ot  the  Russian  empire,  chiefly  Moslem 
and   of    Turkish    origin.      Tlie   majority-in    European 
Russia— are  remnants  of  the  Mongol  invasion  of  the  Uth 
century  (see  Mongols),  ^vhile  those  «-ho  inhabit  Siberia 
are  survivals  of  the  once  much  more  numerous  Turki^U 
iiopulation   of    the   Ural-Altaic   region,    mi-xed   to   some 
■extent  uith  Finnish  and  Samoyedic  stems,  as  also  ^vlth 
Moncols.     The  name  is  derived  from  that  of  the   ia-ta 
Mongols,  who  in  the  5lh  century  inhabited   the  north- 
easteni  Gobi,  and,  after  subjugation  in  the  9th  century  by 
the  Tungus  Kidaiis,  migrated  southward,  there  foimding 
the  Mongolian  empire  under  Jexghiz  Khan  (y.f.).    Under 
the  leadership  of  his  grandson  (Batu)  they  moved  west- 
wards, driving  with  them  many  stems  of  the  Turkish  Ural- 
Altaians  towards  the  plains  of  Russia.     The  ethnographical 
features  of  the  present  Tartar  inhabitants  of  European 
Russia,  as  well  as  their  language,  show  that  they  contain 
no  admixture  (or  very  little)  of   Jlongolian  blood,   but 
belon.'  to  the  Turkish  branch  ot  the  Ural-Altaic  stock, 
neces.°itatinc  the  conclusion  that  only  Batu,  his  warriors, 
and  a  limited  number  of  his  followers  were  Mongolians, 
while  the  great  bulk  of  the  13th-century  invaders  were 
Turks      On  the  Volga  they  mingled  with  remnants  of  the 
old  Bulo-arian  Turkish  empire,  and  elsewhere  with  Finnish 
stems  as  well  as  with  remnants  of  the  ancient  Italian  and 
'Greek    colonies  in  Crimea  and  Caucasians  in  Caucasus. 
The  name  ot  Tatars,  or  Tartars,  given  to  the  invaders  was 
afterwards  extended  so  as  to  include  diflcrent  stems  of  the 
same  Turkish  branth  in  Siberia,  and  even  the  bulk  of  the 
then  little  known  inhabitants  of  the  high  plateau  of  Asia 
and  its  north-western  slopes,  which  was  described  under 
the  general  name  of  Tartary.     This  last  name  has  almost 
disappeared  from  geographical  literature,  but  the  name 
Tartars,  in  the  above  limited  sense,  remains  in  full  use. 
'    The  present  Tartar  inhabitants  of  the  Kussian  empire  form  three 
lai-f-e   "roups, -those  of   Enropean  Russia   and   Polan.l    those   ol 
•CaScasus,  and  those  of  Siberia.     The  discrimination  ol  the  separate 
stems  included  under  the  name  is  still  far  lioni  completion.     The 
following  subdivisions,  however,  may  be  regarded  as  established. 
(1)  The  Kazan  Tartars,  descendants  of  the  Ki).tchaks  settled  on  the 
Volca  in  the  13th  century,  where  they  mingled  with  survivors  of 
the  Bulgar  Turks  and  partly  with  Fnn.ish  stems.     They  number 
about  half  a  millionju  the  government  ol  Kazan,  .about  lUO  000  in 
each  of  the  gnvernments  of  Ufa,  Samara,  aud  Simbii>k,  Mi.d  about 
300  000  in    Vvatka,    Saratoll',   Taml.olV,   Penza,   Nl,pll•^ovgoro(l, 
Perm  and  Orciibuig;  some  15,000  belonging  to  the  same  stem  have 
.miTa'tCil  tc  KVazafi,  01  have  been  settled  as  prisoners  in  the  loth 
*  and  17th  centuries  in  Lithuania  (Vilna,  Groduo   and  1  odolia)-,  and 
there  are  some  200(1  j„  St  IVl.  isbn,g.       n  IVlnml  ihey  eonslUnte 
I  per  rent,  ot  the  population  of  ll.c  district  of  Pt.H-k.     1  be  Ka/aiS 
Tartars  spe.ak  a  pure  Turkish  dialect ;  they  arc  ,nid>Vesi/.e.l   broad- 
shouldered,  and  itrong,  and  n.ostly  have  black  eyes,  a  str.iight  nose, 
and  salient  cheek  bones.     They  arc  Mohammedans;  poly,L,;ani.Y  is 
practised  only  by  the  wealthier  classes  and  is  a  w;aning  institution, 
kscellent  agriculturists  and  g.ardeners,  very  laborious,  and  hav'nt'.a 
Rood  repntatiou  for  honesty,  they  live  011  the  best  terms  with  their 
Ku.«ian  peasant  neighbours.     It  may  be  added  that,  according  to 
M   YuferolV  i£t,idc  iilm.  sitr  Ics  DaMirs,  1S81),  those  Bashkirs  who 
live  between  the  Kama,  Ur.al,  and  Volga  are  not  of  Pinnish  origin, 
but  in  virtue  of  their  history.' language,  anthropological  features. 


and  customs  rtust  be  regardea  as  Tartars.  (2)  The  Astrakhan  M  anan 
(about  10  000)  are,  with  the  Mongol  Kalmucks,  all  that  now  re- 
mains  of  the  once  so  powerful  AstrakhaJi  empire,  They  ah.o  are 
"r-r"  ulturistsand  gardeners;  while  some  12,000  Kundrovsk  Tartar, 
sun  continue  the  nomadic  life  of  their  ancestors.  (S)  The  Crimean 
Tartars,  who  occupied  the  Crimea  In  the  13th  century  have  pre- 
served the  name  of  their  leader,  Nogai.  During  the  15th,  16th, 
and  17th  centuries  they  constituted  a  rich  empire,  which  prospered 
until  It  fell  under  Turkish  rule,  when  it  had  to  suffer  much  from 
the  wars  fought  between  Turkey  and  Russia  f°/ ''jf  P°f;f;°'if'' 
the  peninsula  The  war  of  1853  and  the  laws  of  1860-63  and  1S74 
causk  an  exodus  of  the  Crimean  Tartars;  they  abandoned  their 
admirably  irrigated  fields  and  gardens  ^nd  moved  to  l>jrkey,  so 
?lat  i,ow^heir°  number  falls  below  100,000.  Th<)se  of  the  souUi 
coast  mixed  with  Greeks  and  Italians,  are  well  known  for  thei 
skill  n  gardening,  their  honesty,  and  their  laborious  habits  as  well 
as  for  their  fine  features,  presenting  the  Tartar  type  at  its  best 
The  mountain  Tartars  closely  resemble  those  of  Caucasus,  while 
those  of  the  steppes-thc  Nogais-are  decidedly  of  a  mixed  origin 
from  Turks  and  Mongolians.  ,.,...      .  .,    . 

Tlie  Tartars  ol  Caucasus,  who  inhabit  the  upjier  Kuban,  the  steppes 
of  the  lower  Kuma  and  the  Kur,i,  and  the  Araxes,  number  about 
1  350  000  Of  these  (4)  the  Nogais  on  the  Kuma  show  traces  ol 
ail  intimatfe  mixture  with  Kalmucks.  They  are  nomads,  supporting 
themselves  by  cattle-breeding  and  fishing;  ew  are  ap-jcul  "rists^ 
(5)  The  Karatchais  (18,500)  in  the  upper  valleys  about  Ebuiz  live 
by  agriculture.    (6)  Th^  mountain  Tartars  (about  850,000),  divided 

i.fto  many  tribes  and  of  an  origin  ^f"  ""''^■''•™""^''i."»k 'na'h 
throu'-hoiit  the  provinces  of  H.aku,  Envan,  Tiflis,  Kutais,  Dagh- 
an,°and  partly  also  of  Balum,  They  are  certainly  of  a  mixed 
origin,  and  present  a  variety  of  ethnological  types,  a  1  he  mce  0 
as  all  who  are  neither  Armenians  nor  Russians,  "0^ ''«'°'lg/°  ?,"y 
d  stinct  Caucasian  tribe,  are  often  ea  led  Tartars.  As  a  rule  th  y 
are  well  built  and  little  behind  their  Caucasian  brethien.  They 
are  celebrated  for  their  excellence  as  gardeners,  agriculturists  cattle- 
tenders  and  artisans.  Although  most  fervent  Shiites  they  areon 
le  ygo'od  terms  both  with  th?ir  Smmite  and  with  their  Russian 
Iieigirbours.     Polygamy  is  rare  with  them,  and  their  womeu^go  to 

"  The  P^bei'iau  Tartars,  mostly  mixed  with  Fiimish  sterns  are  the' 
most  difficult  to  classify.  They  occupy  three  d'^t"";'  "S^^f '"^ 
strip  running  west  to  east  fioni  Tobolsk  to  Tomsk  the  Altai  and 
ft  'spirs.  ami  South  Yeniseisk.  They  originated  m  he  »gSlo- 
me.'tions  of  Turkish  stems  which  in  the  region  north  of  the 
Alt  i  succeeded  the  Ugro-Samoyedic  civilization  (see  Siberia)  and 
fea::^ed  a  rehUively  h,|h  degic^of  culture  between  the  4t,,  ami    he^ 

8th  centuries,  but  were  subdued  and  .^"^''■'yf,  ^^  '^  "™»°5 
In  the  meantime  thejolhjwuijgsubdiv,^^^^^^^^ 

?i",';t:'o7''th  ir  ti^slB",^number  about  50,000  iu  the', 
grmTeia  of  Tobolsk  aiu/about  5000  in  Tomsk  After  asti.nuous 
Resistance  to  Russiim  conquest,  and  much  suffeiing  at  a  later 
pe,  od  fion,  IU  ghiz  and  Kalmuck  .-aids  they  now  live  by  agn.] 
c,i  ure  e  ther  i°i  seirarate  villages  or  along  with  Russians  (8^ 
TrTJhoynojTchilyni  Tartars  on  the  Tcholyin  and  both  the 
iV  rsyus's^eak  a  Tuiiish  language  with  --y  "°|!f  "-^  t' 
Yakut  words  and  are  more  like  Mongols  than  lurUs.  In  lasij 
mit  y  they  l.aid  a  tribute  for  2550  arbaletes,  but  they  now  are, 
raiX  becoming  fused  with  Russians.  (9)  Tlie  Abakan  or  Mi  lU- 
si  sk  Ctars  oca  1  ied  the  steppes  oil  the  Abakan  and  \  us  in  the, 
1  ttcin  my  X\he  withdr,'ial  of  the  Kirghizes,  and  r^^^^^^^^ 
mixture  with  Koibals  (whom  Castieu  cousidei-s  as  partly  o    Ostiak 

/^r,,,arT,  .11  d /,^'//^'0"  ""«  So,,,  of  the  Sayan  Mountains. 

{Mu^socwM.     T'eSo  "fY  ,^°^  „(  north-west 

aiel  reduced  now  to  a  li  w  nuiuii^u  f„carlv  20,000  in 

-rf'K5l5«f=r?sssiSi 


T  A  R  — t  A  S 


71 


k««  deengtrcu  ty  mistake,  and  who  havo  nothing  in  common  with 
tha  Kalmucks  escept  their  dress  and  mode  of  life,  while  they 
•peak  a  Turkish  dialect,  and  {b)  the  Teleutes,  or  I'elenghites  (5S00), 
a  remainder  of  a  formerly  numerous  and  warlike  nation  who  hove 
migrated  from  the  mountains  to  the  lowlands,  where  they  now 
live  along  with  RussL-m  peasants. 

Finally,  there  are  a  number  of  Tartars  in  Turkestau  and  Central 
Agifi  Without  including  under  this  name  the  Sarts  and  the 
Knramintses  of  Turkestan,  still  less  the  Kirghiz-Kazaks,  it  may 
be  reckoned  that  there  are  still  nearly  30,000  survivors  of  the 
Uigurs  in  the  valley  of  the  Ili,  about  Kuldja,  and  in  the  Khami  oasis. 
is  is  evident  from  the  above,  altUough  the  name  Tartare 
originated  in  an  indiscriminate  application  of  the  word  to  the 
Turkish  and  Mongolian  stems  which  invaded  Europe  six  centuries 
ago,  and  its  gradual  extensioo  to  the  Turkish  stems  mixed  with 
Mongolian  or  Finnish  blood  in  Siberia,  it  still  represents  an  aggre- 
gate of  characters  which  warrant  at  least  a  provisional  use  of  this 
fenetic  name,  if  those  to  whom  it  is  given  are  properly  subdivided, 
t  embodies  stems  which,  although  widely  distinct,  stiU  have  some 
common  ethnoOTaphical  and  philological  features,  besides  being  to 
some  crtent  of  like  ongin  and  history 

Tbe  uterature  of  tlie  stibjeci  Is  Tery  extensive,  aad  blbliojfraphlcal  Indexes 
mftj  be  found  In  the  Gfo-p-apfttcat  £Hctt^rtary  of  P  Semenofi.  appended  to  the 
ankles  devoted  respectively  lo  tlie  names  given  above,  as  also  in  tlie  yearly 
Indcxci  by  M.  Uezltoff-  Besides  the  well-known  works  of  Castren,  which  are 
a  very  rich  source  of  tnlomiation  on  the  subject,  Schiefner  (St  Petersburg 
academy  of  science),  Donner.  Ahlq\isl,  and  other  explorers  of  the  Ural-Allalans. 
as  also  those  of  the  Russian  historians  Solo*ieff,  Koslomaroff.  BestuzhcfT-Riumin, 
SchapofT,  and  Iloraisbiy,  the  following  containing  valuable  information  may  be 
mentioned ;— the  pubhcationsof  the  Russian  Geogratihical  Society  and  ita  brarcties : 
the  Russian  Etnographicf^ikiy  Si^mik:  the  hrfitui  of  the  Moscow  society  of 
the  amateurs  of  natural  science:  the  works  of  the  Rossian  ethnographical  con- 
gresses .  KostrofTs  researches  on  the  Sibenaii  Tartars  in  the  memoirs  of  the 
Siberian  branch  of  the  peogr.  soc.,  RadlotTs  Hetsf  durcft  iten  Altai,  Aus  Sittrien\ 
**  Picturesque  Russia  '  (Jitfpisniiya  Rotfipa) ;  Semenoff's  and  Potanin's  "Supple- 
ments" to  Ritter's  Asi^n  ,  Ha;  Ravi's  report  10  the  congressat  Kazan  ;  Hartakhai's 
'*Hist  of  Crimean  Tatars,"  in  VyeUnit  Evropy,  1866  and  1867  ■.  "Katchinsk 
Tartars."  in  JiraHa  Russ.  Otogr  Soc.,  ix.,  ISM  (P  A.  K.) 

TARTARUS,  in  the  lltad  (viii.  13  sq.,  481),  is  a  dark 
ondergTound  prison  with  iron  gates,  as  far  below  Hades  as 
earth  is  below  heaven,  whither  Cronus  and  the  Titans  were 
thrust  down  by  Zeus  (vol.  xxi.  p.  321),  and  to  which  the 
sovereign  of  Olympus  threatens  to  consign  other  gods  who 
may  disobey  his  behests.  Later  writers  make  Tartarus 
the  place  of  punishment  of  the  wicked  after  death  .(Eneas, 
in  his  visit  to  the  abode  of  the  shades,  comes  to  a  point 
where  the  road  divides,  the  branch  to  the  right  leading  to 
Elysium  and  that  on  the  left  to  the  prison-house  of 
Tartarus,  girt  about  by  a  triple  wall,  with  the  fiery  Phlege- 
thon  as  a  moat,  and  guarded  by  the  fury  Tisiphone  (^n., 
vi.  540  iq.).  Tartarus  is  personified  as  the  son  of  iEther 
and  Ge,  and  father  of  the  giants  Typhoeus  and  Echidna. 

TARTINI,  Giuseppe  (1692-1770),  violinist,  composer, 
and  musical  theorist,  was  born  at  Pirano,  April  12,  1692, 
and  in  early  life  studied,  with  equal  want  of  success,  for 
the  church,  the  law  courts,  and  the  profession  of  arms. 
His  life  as  a  young  man  was  wild  and  irregular,  and  his 
temper  extremely  violent  and  impulsive.  His  unfitness 
for  an  ecclesiastical  career  was  manifest ,  and,  after  failing 
in  jurisprudence,  he  crowned  his  improprieties  by  clan- 
destinely marrying  the  niece  of  Cardinal  Cornaro,  arch- 
bishop of  Padua.  Though  the  family  of  Tartini  had  been 
legally  ennobled,  the  cardinal  resented  the  marriage  as 
a  disgraceful  mesalliance,  and  denounced  it  so  violently 
that  the  unhappy  bridegroom,  thinking  his  life  m  danger, 
fled  for  safety  to  a  monastery  at  Assisi,  where,  calmed  by 
the  soothing  infiuence  of  the  religious  life,  his  character 
underwent  a  complete  change.  Docile  and  obedient,  as 
he  had  before  been  passionate  and  headstrong,  he  studied 
"the  theory  of  music  under  Padre  Boemo,  the  organist  of 
the  monastery,  and,  without  any  assistance  whatever, 
taught  himself  to  play  the  violin  in  so  masterly  a  style 
that  his  performances  in  the  church  became  the  wonder  of 
the  neighbourhood.  For  more  than  two  years  his  identity 
remained  undiscovered,  6ut  one  day  the  wind  blew  aside 
a  curtain  behind  which  he  was  playing,  and  one  of  his 
hearers  recognized  him  and  betrayed  his  retreat  to  the 
cardinal,  who,  hearing  of  his  changed  character,  re- 
admitted him  to  favour  and  restored  him  to  his  wife. 

Tartini  next  removed  to  Venice,  where  the  fine  vitilin- 


playing  of  Veracini  excited  his  admiration  and  prompted 
him  to  repair,  by  the  aid  of  good  instruction,  the  short- 
comings of  his  own  self-taught  method.  After  this  he 
studied  for  some  time  at  Ancoua  ,  and  here,  about  1714,  . 
he  made  the  curious  acoustical  discovery  on  which  his  fame 
as  a  theorist  chiefly  rests.  He  observed  that,  when  two 
notes  are  sounded  together  on  the  violin  with  sufficient  in- 
tensity, a  third  sound,  distinct  from  both,  is  simultaneously 
produced.  For  the  production  of  this  '  third  sound,"  as  he 
called  it,  Tartini  failed  to  account  on  strict  mathematical 
principles.  "WTien  the  two  primary  notes  form  an  im- 
pure consonance,  the  "  third  sound  "  of  Tartini  (now  known 
as  a  difference  tone  of  the  first  order)  is  accompanied  by 
beats  due  to  the  presence  of  different  tones  of  higher 
orders,  the  existence  of  which,  unknown  of  course  to 
Tartini,  has  been  established  by  Helmholtz.  Tartini  made" 
his  observations  the  basis  of  a  theoretical  system  which 
he  set  forth  in  his  Trattato  di  itusica,  secondo  la  vera 
scifTma  dtlV  Armoma  (Padua,  1754)  and  Dei  Pmiapy 
dell'  Ai^bnia  Musicale  (Padua,  1767).  In  1721  he  re- 
turned to  Padua,  where  he  was  appointed  solo  violinist  at 
the  chufch  of  San  Antonio  From  1723  to  1726  he  acted 
as  conductor  of  Count  Kinsky's  private  band,  but  after- 
wards returned  to  his  old  post  at  Padua,  where  he  died 
on  February  16,  1770 

Tartini's  compositions  are  very  numerous,  and  faithfully  illustrate 
his  passionate  and  masterly  style  of  execution,  which  surpassed 
in  brilliancy  and  refined  taste  that  of  all  his  contemporaries.  He 
frequently  headed  his  pieces  with  an  explanatory  poetical  motto, 
such  as  "  Orabra  cara,"  or  "'  Volgete  il  riso  in  pianto  o  mie  pupille." 
Concerning  that  known  as  It  TrUlo  del  Diavolo,  or  The  DeviTi 
Sonata,  he  told  a  curious  story  to  Lalande,  in  1766.  He  dreamed 
that  the  devil  had  become  his  slave,  and  that  he  one  day  asked 
him  if  he  could  play  the  viohn.  The  devil  replied  that  he  believed 
he  could  pick  out  a  tune,  and  thereupon  he  played  a  sonata  bo 
exquisite  that  Tartini  thought  he  had  never  heard  any  music  to 
equal  it.  On  awaking,  he  tried  to  note  down  the  composition, 
but  succeeded  very  imperfectly,  though  the  resulting  Devil  s  Sonala 
is  one  of  his  best  and  most  celebrated  productions. 

Besides  the  theoretical  works  we  have  mentioned,  Tartini  wrote 
a  Trattato  delle  AppogicUure,  postnumously  printed,  in  French, 
and  an  unpublished  work,  Delk  Ragioni  e  delle  Praporziatii,  the 
MS.  of  which  has  been  lost. 

TARUDANT.     See  Morocco,  vol.  xvi.  p.  834. 

TASHKEND,  or  Tashkent,  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  important  cities  of  Central  Asia,  now  the  capital  of 
Russian  Turkestan,  is  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Tchir 
tchik,  some  50  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Syr-Dana, 
in  41*  20'  N.  lat.  and  69°  18'  E.  long.  The  city,  formerly 
enclosed  by  walls  which  are  now  ruinous,  is  surrounded 
by  rich  gardens,  and  its  houses  are  buned  among  the 
fruit  and  other  trees  which  grow  all  along  the  number- 
less ramifications  of  the  irrigation  canais.  The  buildings, 
which  are  of  stone  and  sun-dried  bricks,  are  mostly  low, 
on  account  of  the  earthquakes  which  frequently  disturb 
the  region.  Like  all  old  cities  of  Asia,  Tashkend  is  sub- 
divided into  sections  [yurts),  which  are  characterized  by 
the  special  trades  carried  on  m  each  Asiatic  Tashkend 
in  1871  had  78,130  inhabitants,  mostly  Sarts  (75,176), 
with  a  few  Uzbegs,  Kirghizes,  Jews,  Russians,  and  Ger- 
mans. A  depression  in  the  south-east  is  occupied  by  Rus- 
sian Tashkend,  dating  from  1865,  which  has  clean,  broad 
streets  lined  with  poplars,  the  low  nice-looking  houses 
being  surrounded  by  gardens.  In  1875  its  population, 
exclusive  of  the  military,  was  4860,  mostly  Russians.  It 
has  a  public  library  containing  a  rich  collection  ot  works 
on  Central  Asia,  an  observatory,  a  museum,  two  gymnasia, 
a  seminary,  and  the  buildings  occupied  by  the  administra- 
tion. A  branch  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society  has 
been  opened  at  Tashkend,  and  its  publications,  as  also  those 
of  the  statistical  committee  and  the  Turkestan  Gazette, 
contain  most  valuable  information  about  Turkestan.  Ac- 
cording to  the  most  receut  estimates,  the  population  of 


72 


T  A  S  — T  A  S 


Tashkend,  with  its  suburbs,  is  reckoned  at  100,000.  lu 
consequence  of  the  chequered  history  of  the  town  (see 
PoRKESTAu),  few  old  buildings  have  been  preserved,  and 
only  the  madrasah  Ijeklar  Bek,  with  its  fifty  students,  and 
the  graves  of  Sheikh  Zenedjin-baba  and  Zenghi-ata  are 
worthy  of  mention.  The  former  is  four  centuries  old,  and 
that  of  Zenghi-ata,  a  saint  held  in  high  veneration  through- 
out Central  Asia,  yearly  attracts  thousands  of  jjilgrims. 

A  variety  of  petty  trades  are  carried  on  in  numerous  uniall  work- 
shops,— weaving  and  dyeing  of  cottons  and  the  manufacture  of  small 
brass  and  iron  wares,  of  harness,  and  especially  of  boots,  being  the 
chief.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  also  engaged  in  raising  corn, 
rice,  oij-plants,  cotton,  wine,  and  lucerne,  and  in  gardening.  The 
trade  of  Tashkend  has  lost  its  former  importance,  but  corn,  cattle, 
silk,  cotton,  and  fruits  are  still  exported,  and  all  kinds  of  inanu- 
factured  wares  arc  iniiiorted  from  the  countries  to  the  .south. 

TASMAN,  Abel  Janszen  {c.  1G02-1659),  a  dis- 
tinguished Dutch  navigator,  born  at  Hoorn,  North  Hol- 
land, probably  in  IG02  or  1G03.  He  is  known  to  have 
made  two  important  voyages  of  discovery  in  the  Pacific 
and  Southern  Oceans ,  only  of  the  second  of  them  have 
we  a  full  account.  In  June  1G39  Tasman,  along  with 
Matthew  Quast,  was  despatched  by  Van  Diemen,  governor- 
general  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  on  a  voyage  to  the 
Western  Pacific,  which  was  first  directed  to  the  Philippine 
Islands;  part  of  the  coast  of  Luzon  was  explored.  Sailing 
east  and  north  Tasman  and  Quast  touched  at  several  of 
Ihe  Bonin  Islands,  which  they  were  probably  the  first  to 
discover  Sailing  still  farther  north,  in  quest  of  what 
were  then  known  as  the  "  islands  of  gold  and  silver,"  they 
reached  the  latitude  of  38°  40'  N.,  about  600  miles  east 
of  Japan,  and  continued  cast  for  other  300  miles  on  the 
parallel  without  discovjring  anything  On  October  15 
the  navigators  decided  to  return,  and,  after  toiuliiiig  at 
Japan,  anchored  at  Taiwan-fu,  Formosa,  No\cnibur  21. 
After  this,  Tasman  was  engaged  in  operations  in  the 
Indian  seas  until  1G42,  when  he  set  cut  on  his  first  great 
ex[>edition.'  Several  Dutch  navigators  had  already  dis- 
covered various  portions  of  the  west  coast  of  Ai^stralia, 
and  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  wore  anxious  to 
obtain  a  more  accurate  and  extended  survey  of  that  land. 
Sailing  from  Batavia  on  August  14,  1642,  with  two 
vessels,  the  "Hcrmskirk"  and  "Zeehaan,"  Tasman  on 
November  24  sighted  the  land  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Van  Diemen,  in  honour  of  the  governor-general,  but 
which  is  now  named  Tasmania.  He  doubled  the  land, 
which  he  evidently  did  not  know  was  an  island,  and,  run- 
ning up  Storm  Bay,  anchored  on  December  I  iu  the  bay  to 
which  lie  gave  the  name  of  Frederick  Henry.  There  he 
set  up  a  post  on  which  he  hoisted  the  Dutch  flag.  Quit- 
ting Van  Diemen's  Land  on  December  5,  Tasman  steered 
eastwards  with  a  vague  idea  of  reaching  the  Solomon 
Islands,  and  on  December  13  he  discovered  a  "high 
mountainous  country,"  which  he  called  "  Staaterdand " 
(New  Zealand).  Cruising  along  the  west  coast  of  the 
South  Island,  he  anchored  on  the  18th  in  40°  50'  S.  lat., 
at  the  entrance  of  a  "  wide  opening,"  which  he  took  to  be 
a  "  fine  bay,"  but  which  was  no  doubt"  Cook's  Strait.  He 
gave  the  name  of  Mcordenaars  (Mas.^cre)  Bay  to  the 
bay,  at  which  he  attempted  to  land,  and  where  several 
of  his  men  were  killed  by  the  natives.  Leaving  New 
Zealand,  and  pursuing  an  irregularly  north  direction,  but 
never  coining  in  sight  of  Australia,  he  discovered,  on 
January  21,  1643,  two  islands  belonging  to  the  Friendly 
group,  to  which  he  gave  the  names  of  Middelburg  (Eova) 
and  Amsterdam  (Tongatabu).  After  discovering  several 
Other  islands  in  the  Friendly  group  and  their  neighbour- 
hood, Tasman  steered  north  and  west,  reaching  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  New  Britain  on  March  22.     On  the  24th  he 

'  See  Siebold's  paper  in  Le  MoniUur  da  Jiidti-Orientala  ct 
OcctdtnlaUi,  1848-i8.  i>t  i.  p.  390 


passed  Morghen  Islands,  and,  sailing  roui... 
and  along  the  north  coast  of  New  Guinea,  ^e  clea 
the  straits  between  New  Guinea  and  Jilolo,  arriving  at 
Batavia  on  June  15,  after  a  ten  months'  voyige.^  The 
materials  for  an  account  of  Tasman's  important  second 
voyage  in  1644  are  extremely  scanty;  they  consist  of 
Tasman's  own  chart  and  some  fragmentary  notes  by 
Burgomaster  VVitscn  in  his  work  (1705)  on  the  migrations 
of  the  human  race  (translated  in  Dalrymple's  collection). 
Further  information  as  to  authorities'  will  be  found  in  Mr 
R.  H.  Major's  Hakluyt  Society  volume  on  Early  Voyages 
to  Australia,  where  also  will  be  found  the  "Instructions  " 
given  to  Tasman  for  his  voyage  to  New  Guinea.  He  is 
instructed  to  obtain  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Staten 
and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  '•  whether  New  Guinea  ia 
a  continent  with  the  great  Zuidland,  or  separated  by 
channels  and  islands,"  and  also  "whether  the  new  Van 
Diemen's  Land  is  the  same  continent  with  these  two  great 
countries  or  with  one  of  them."  In  this  voyage  Tasman 
had  three  vessels  under  his  command.  His  discoveries  were 
confined  to  the  north  and  north-west  coasts  of  Australia, 
and  his  chart  gives  the  soundings  for  the  whole  of  this 
line  of  coast.  He  discovered  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  and 
established  the  continuity  of  the  north-west  coast  of  the 
land  designated  generally  "  the  great  known  south  con- 
tinent," as  far  south  as  about  the  22d  degree.  The 
fullest  details  as  to  maps  of  the  voyage  and  other 
authorities  will  be  found  in  Mr  Major's  Hakluyt  Society 
volume  referred  to  above.  Tasman  rightly  ranks  as  one 
of  the  greatest  navigators  of  the  17th  century.  He  died 
at  Batavia  in  October  1659. 

For  personal  details,  see  paper  on  Tasman  by  Ch.  M.  Dozy  in 
Utjdragcn  tot  dc  Taat-,  Land-,  en  Volkenkunde  van  ^ederlandsch- 
Indie,  5th  series,  vol.  ii.  p.  308. 

TASMANIA,  formerly  Van  Diemen's  Land,  is  a  com-  Pl»w  t 
pact  island,  forming  a  British  colony,  wdiich  lies  to  the 
south  of  Australia,  in  the  Southern  Ocean.  It  has  an  area 
of  24,600  square  miles  (about  three-fourths  of  the  size 
of  Ireland),  and  some  fifty  islets  belong  to  it.  Most  of 
these  lie  between  it  ai>d  the'  southern  shore  of  Victoria, 
in  Bass's  Strait.  It  is  a  land  of  mountain  and  flood,  with 
picturesque  scenery.  The  centre  is  a  mass  of  hills,  gene- 
rally covered  with  forest,  with  large  lakes  nearly  4000  feet 
above  the  sea ;  and  this  high  land  is  continued  to  the  west 
and  north-west,  while  southward  are  other  elevations.  Ben 
Lomond  in  the  east  rises  to  a  height  of  5020  feet ;  in  the 
north-west  are  Dry's  BluflF  (4257  feet)  and  Quamby  (4000) ; 
while  westward  are  Cradle  (5069),  Hugel  (4700),  French- 
man's Cap  (4760),  and  Bischoff  (2500).  Wellington,  near 
Hobart,  is  4170  feet.  Among  the  rivers  flowing  northward 
to  Bass's  Strait  are  the  Tamar,  Inglis,  Cam,  Emu,  Blyth, 
Forth,  Don,  Mersey,  Piper,  and  Ringarooraa.  The  Mac- 
qnarie,  receiving  the  Elizabeth  and  Lake,  falls  into  the 
South  Esk,  which  unites  with  the  North  Esk  to  form  the 
Tamar  at  Launceston.  Westward,  falling  into  the  .ocean, 
are  the  Hellyer,  Artljur,  and  Pieman.  .The  King  and 
Gordon  gain  Macquarfc  Harbour ;  the  Davey  and  Spring, 
Port  Davey.  The  central  and  southern  districts  are  drained 
by  the  Derwent  from  Lake  St  Clair^ — its  tributaries  being 
the  Nive,  Dee,  Clyde,  Ouse,  and  Jordan.  The  Huon  falls 
into  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel.     The  chief  mountain  lakes. 

-  The  best  English  translation  of  Tasman's  Journal  is  in  Buiney'l 
Collection,  vol.  iii.  The  Dutch  original  was  published  at  AmsterdaW 
in  1860,  edited  by  Jacob  Sw^rt,  and  contains  the  chart  of  the  second 
voyage. 

•  The  subject  19  thoroughly  discussed  by  P  H.  L«ape  in  th» 
Bijdragen  van  ket  kon.  Inst,  vovr  Taat-,  Land;  en  Volkenkunde  v, 
d.  Ind.  Archipcl,  ser.  i.  pt.  iv.  up.  123-140  ,  in  JSijd.  mor  Voder- 
Inndsche  Geschiedenis  en  Oudhtid  Kunde,  'by  H.  Fruin,  new  series, 
pt.  vii.  ]•  254  ;  and  in  the  same  writer's  work  De  Rctzen  dcr  yedfr* 
landers  naar  A'lcuw  Ouihm  (The  Hague,  1S75) ;  also  Col.  A.  Higa^ 
^Hederlaiidsch  i\'ievvi  Ouintn  (The  Hague,  18S4). 


hub 
the  ~ 


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TASMANIA 


73 


arc  the  Great  Lake  (50  miles  in  circuit),  Sorell,  St  Clair, 
Ciescent,  and  Echo.  The  colony  is  divided  into  eighteen 
counties.  The  princi^ial  towns  are  llobart,  the  capital,  on 
the  Derwent,  with  a  population  of  21,118  in  ISSl  (25,041 
in  18S6),  ai\d  Launceston  (12,752  in  ISSl  ;  19,379  in 
1886),  at  the  head  of  the  Tamar.  The  rugged  western 
half  of  the  island  has  only  a  few  small  settlements,  while 
the  eastern  country  is  increasing  in  population  on  account 
of  the  mines. 

Climate. — This  small  colony  has  a  far  greater  range  of 
climate  than  can  be  experienced  throughout  the  Australian 
continent.  The  eastern  side  is  dry  ;  the  western  is  very 
wet.  Tin  and  gold  minors  are  partially  arrested  in  their 
work  during  summer  from  want  of  water  in  the  northeast. 
Dense  forests  and  impracticable  scrubs  result  in  the  west 
from  deposition  of  a  hundred  or  more  inches  of  rain  in  the 
year,  while  other -parts  to  the  cast  occasionally  suffer  from 
drought.  Tasmania  docs  not  escape  the  summer  visit  of  an 
Australian  hot  wind.  Hobart  and  Launceston,  being  near 
the  sea,  have  greater  equability  of  temperature,  with  rare 
frosts.  The  mean  temperature  of  Hobart  is  5-1°,  of  Waratah 
in  the  north-west  44°.  Hobart  averages  22  inches  of  rain, 
less  than  Jfelbourne,  Sydney,  and  Brisbane.  Inland,  in 
the  settled  part.*,  cold  is  severe  in  winter,  but  only  for  a 
sbort  period.  The  wooded  north-west  shore  has  no  cold 
and  no  excessive  heat,  but  plenty  of  showers.  Up  in  the 
lake  country  tlio  climate  rather  resembles  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland.  On  the  west  and  southern  coasts  the  winds 
are  usually  strong,  and  often  tempestuous. 
t  Like  New  Zealand,Tasmania  is  very  healtliy.  No  miasma 
is  retained  in  its  forests.  Rheumatism  and  colds  may  pre- 
vail, but  little  fever  or  dysentery  occurs.  Perhaps  no  part 
of  the  world  can  show  relatively  so  many  aged  people. 
Children  generally  display  the  robustness  of  English  village 
life.  As  a  retreat  for  Australians,  Tasmania  in  the  summer 
has  strong  claims.  Cool  and  strengthening  airs,  magnifi- 
cent forest  solitudes,  and  secluded  fern-tree  vales  may  be 
enjoyed  along  with  all  the  comforts  of  modern  civilization. 
^  Geolo'jy. — The  comparatively  recent  conne.xion  of  Tas- 
mania with  Victoria  is  evidenced  not  less  by  rocks  than  by 
flora  and  fauna.  The  granitic  islands  of  Bass's  Strait  are 
as  so  many  stepping-stones  across,  a  depression  having  con- 
verted the  loftier  districts  into  islands.  The  want  of  simi- 
larity, however,  between  the  tufted-haired  Tasmanians  and 
their  Australian  neighbours  would  indicate  that  the  dis- 
ruption took  place  before  the  advent  of  the  younger  race 
on  the  northern  side.  While  doubts  e.\ist  as  to  the  pres- 
ence of  rocks  older  than  the  Silurian,  a  Palaeozoic  floor 
exists  north,  east,  south,  and  west,  though  often  thrown  up 
into  irregular  ranges,  sometimes  over  5000  feet,  by  igneous 
irruptions.  Convulsions  have  distinguished  the  history  of 
the  little  island  from  one  end  to  the  other.  Not  only  is 
granite  in  all  its  varieties  very  prevalent,  but'  there  is  an 
immense  amount  of  mctamorphism  in  different  directions. 
Then,  at  another  period,  not  merely  porphyries,  but  basalts 
and  greenstones,  were  widespread  in  their  ravages.  They 
consumed  or  deranged  beds  of  coal,  and  overflowed  enor- 
mous tracts.  Earthquakes  were  busy,  and  tremendous 
deluges  denuded  great  areas  to  depths  of  thousands  of  feet, 
leaving  mountains  of  Primary  rock,  with  peaked  or  plateau 
summits  of  basalt  or  greenstone.  There  are  prismatic 
walls  several  hundreds  of  feet  in  height,  and  4000  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  as  at  Mount  Wellington,  looking  down 
upon  "  ploughed -fields  "of  greenstone  blocks.  Still,  unlike 
Victoria,  there  are  not  the  extinct  craters  to  tell  the  tale 
of  more  modern  lava  flows.  The  lake  district,  up  to  over 
4000  feet,  is  a  tangled  mass  of  granitic  and  metamorphic 
rocks.  Quartz  is  so  common  a  feature  that  the  western 
stormbound  cliffs  reflect  a  white  light  to  passing  ships; 
while    luica,    taicose,    dolerite,  and   siliceous   schists   are 


common  over  the  island.  Contorted  slate  and  the  tessel- 
ated  pavement  of  Tasman's  Penin.sula  are  effects  of  that 
transmuting  period.  Granite  is  strong  at  eastern  and 
northern  points,  at  western  localities,  in  the  interior,  and 
in  the  straits.  Greenstone  is  exhibited  southward  in  enor- 
mous field.*,  as  well  as  in  the  western  and  lake  districts, 
and  alternates  often  with  basalt.  Silicified  trees  are  seen 
standing  upright  in  the  floor  of  igneous  rock.  The  Prim- 
ary rocks  have  more  casts  of  former  life  than  fossils  in 
ordinary  condition.  The  Hobart  clay-slate  abounds  in 
Fciiesltl/ii  or  lace  coral,  and  trilobites  occur  in  limestone. 
Slate  is  abundant  on  the  north-we.st  coast,  tlie  South  Esk, 
and  westward.  New  Red  Sandstone  near  llobart  is  marked 
by  the  presence  of  salt-beds.  The  Carboniferous  forma- 
tions are  not  much  exhibited  on  the  western  half  of  the 
iiland,  but  are  prominent  along  the  Mersey  and  other 
northern  rivers.  The  southern  fields  are  torn  by  igneous 
invaders.  Anthracitic  forms  are  conspicuous  on  Tasman's 
Peninsula.  Inland,  on  the  eastern  side,  the  formations 
spread  from  near  Hobart  northward  for  scores  of  miles, 
and  even  to  a  thousand  feet  in  thickness.  The  Fingal 
and'  Ben  Lomond  north-eastern  districts  are  remarkably 
favoured  with  Carboniferous  sandstones  and  crinoidal 
limestones,  bearing  excellent  scams,  and  like  strata  are 
noticed  in  islands  off  the  cast  coast.  Carbonaceous  non- 
coal-bearing  beds  by  the  Mersey  are  500  feet  thick. 
Tertiary  rocks  are  not  extensive,  save  in  the  breccia  and 
coarse  sandstone  south  of  Launceston,  over  Norfolk  plains, 
and  along  some  river  valleys.  Alluvial  gold  deposits  belong 
mainly  to  the  Pliocene  formations, — the  ancient  Primaries 
containing  the  auriferous  quartz  veins.  Greenstone  and 
basalt  belong  to  various^periods,  the  latter  being  specially 
apparent  in  the  Tertiary  epoch.  Travertine,  near  IJobart 
and  Richmond,  is  from  freshwater  action.  The  Pleistocene 
development  was  characterized  by  overwhelming  denuding 
forces.  Raised  beaches  are  noticed  along  .some  of  the 
larger  rivers,  and  westerly  moraines  would  imply  a  greater 
elevation  of  the  country  formerly.  Caves  and  recent  beds 
exhibit  marsupial  forms  analogous  to  existing  ones.  Not 
far  from  Deloraine  are  limestone  caves,  with  passages  two 
miles  in  extent.  The  density  and  intricacy  of  the  island 
scrubs  have  interfered  with  the  investigation  of  its  geology. 

jl/iiicra/s.— Tasmania  has  failed  to  take  a  very  important  position 
as  a  gold  producer.  Still,  when  tie  crushing  of  1300  tons  in  one 
mine  produced  £11,523,  adventurers  may  well  be  hopeful.  From 
Benconsfield  mine,  west  of  the  Tamar,  gold  was  obtained  to  the 
value  01"  £615,330  from  July  1878  to  January  1,  1887.  In  1886 
there  were  fire  districts  under  commissioners  of  mines.  Westward, 
Kold  is  found  from  Arthur  river  to  Point  Hibbs ;  north-westward, 
from  Blyth  river  to  Cape  Grim.  In  the  north-east  are  Scottsdale, 
Ringar.joma,  Mount  Victoria,  and  Waterhousc  fields;  east,  Fingal 
and  St  George  river.  Arsenic  and  silver  are  found  with  gold  in  the 
north-cast;  and  iron,  arsenic,  copper,  and  lead  with  it  at  Beacons- 
field.  ForlSSS  the  gold  export  was  37,498  oz.,  worth  £1-11,319. 
Silver  occurs  at  Penguin,  Jlount  Ramsey,  and  TrVaratah  (Jlount 
Bischoff),  combined  with  lead.  Coppei-  is  met  with  at  Mount 
Maurice,  kc,  but  not  in  paying  rjuantities.  Bismuth  at  Mount 
liamsey  is  ricb,  but  the  country  is  difficult  to  reach.  Antimony, 
zinc,  manganese,  copper,  plumbago,  and  galena  arc  known  west  of 
the  Tamar,  where  also  asbestos  iu  SL-rpeutine  hills  is  plentiful  Tin 
is  well  distriliuled  in  Tasmanian  granite.  Mount  Bischoff,  in  the 
scrubby,  rorky,  damp  west,  lias  tnc  richest  lodes;  other  mines  aro 
in  the  north-east  and  west.  In  ten  years  the  product  came  to  two 
and  a  half  million  pounds  sterling.  Bischoff  district  in  1885  gave 
2871  tons  of  ore,  much  being  found  in  huge  blocks.  Want  of 
water  in  the  northeast  prevents  much  hydraulic  working.  An- 
thracite coal  is  pretty  abundant  at  I'orl  Artluir.  Near  Hobait  are 
workings  of  poor  quality.  Around  Ben  Lomond  are  bituminous 
seams,  but  difficult  of  access.  Fingal  district  hxs  coal  e(pial  to 
that  of  Newcastle,  with  a  seam  of  14  feet,  but  carriage  is  difficult. 
Mersey  river  coal  mines  yielded  60,000  tons  in  the  course  of  over  a 
duzeu  years.  Iron  was  worked  near  the  Tamar,  but  did  nut  pay, 
excess  of  chromium  making  it  brittle;  its  steel  was  very  malleable. 
All  varieties  of  irou  ores  are  known.  Hobart  freestone  is  larg.ly 
exported  to  other  colonies.  Tasmanite  or  dysodile  in  the  Mersity 
district  is  an  inflammable  resinous  substance.      During  18S4  there 

xxin.  —  10 


74 


TASMANIA 


•were  raised  41,240  02.  of  gold,  5461  tons  of  tin,  and  5u34  tons  of 
coal  The  total  export  of  gold  and  tin  during  tlie  live  years  1S50 
to  1S85  was  of  the  value  of  £2,591,320,— being  £642,230  more  thai. 
for  the  ten  years. preceding.     The  export  of  tin  averaged  79,CS2  cwt. 

Agriculture.— The  island  has  not  a  large  area  fit  lor  cultivation. 
A  great  part  is  very  mountainous ;  and  dense  scrubs,  with  ^cavy 
forests,  are  impediments  to  the  farmer.  The  west  siJo  is  too  wet, 
stormy,  and  sterile  for  settlement.  Almost  all  the  farms  lie  in  the 
line  between  Hobart  and  Launceston  and  between  Laimccston  and 
Circular  Head.  ThS  climate  being  cooler  and  nioistcr  than  in  most 
parts  of  Australia,  the  productions  are  of  an  English  character, 
hops,  barley,  and  oats  being  freely  raised.  Cropping  land  for  many 
successive  years  «ith  wheat  has  lessened  the  produce  of  what  was 
fertile  country,  as  little  manure  had  been  used.  In  later  times 
there  has  been  a  great  improvement  in  agriculture.  .For  some  time 
Tasmanian  growers  did  well,  supplying  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
with  flour,  potatoes,  and  fruit ;  but,  as  their  customers  became  in 
their  turn  producers,  the  old  markets  failed  in  all  but  apples  and 
stone  fruit.  Fresh  and  preserved  fruit,  with  jams,  together  with 
excellent  hops,  continue  to  afford  the  islanders  a  good  trade.  In 
1885-86  there  were  417,777  acres  in  cultivation  ;  in  crop,  144,761 ; 
in  grasses,  181,203.  AVheat  occupied  30,266  acres,  barley  6S33, 
oats  29,247,  pease  7147,  potatoes  11,073,  hay  41,693,  turnips  36S0, 
and  gardens  and  orchards  81 98.' 

So  large  a  part  of  the  island  is  covered  mth  thicket,  rock,  and 
marsh  that  it  appears  le.ss  pastoral  than  eastern  Australia.  The 
total  number  of  sheep  in  1SS6  amounted  to  1,648,627,  the  horses 
to  28,610,  and  the  cattle  to  138,642.  Of  16,778,000  acres  only 
4,403,888  have  been  sold  or  granted. 

Flora.— This  differs  but  little  from  that  of  south-eastern 
Australia,  with  which  it  was  formerly  connected;  •  Over  a  thousand 
species  are  represented.  The  eucalypts  are  gums,  stringy  bark, 
box,  peppermint,  ironwood,  &c.  The  celebrated  blue  gum  {Euca- 
lyptus Globulus),  so  eagerly  sought  for  pestilential  places  in  southern 
Europe,  Africa,  and  America,  flourishes  best  in  the  southern  dis- 
tricts of  the  island.  For  shipbuilding  purposes  the  timber,  which 
grows  to  a  large  size,  is  much  prized.  Acacias  are  abundant,  and 
manna  trees  are  very  productive.  Sassafras  (Ath£rosj)cnna  t/jos- 
chata)  is  a  tall  and  handsome  tree.  .  Pines  are  numerous.  Tho 
Huon  pine  {Dacrydiu.n  atprcssinum),  whose  satin-like  wood  is  so 
sought  after,  flourishes  in  Huon  and  Gordon  liver  districts.  The 
celery  pine  is  a  Fhyllocladus,  and  the  pencil  cedar  an  Athrotaxis. 
The  pepper  tree  is  TasTnania  frmjrans.  The  Myrlaccse  are  noble 
trees.  The  lakes  cider  tree  is  Eucalyptus  rcsini/cra,  whose_ treacle- 
like sap  was  formerly  made  into  a  drink  by  bushmen.  Xanthor- 
roeas  or  grass  trees  throw  up  a  flowering  spike.  The  charming  red 
flowers  of  the  Tasmanian  tulip  tree  {Tclopca)  arc  seen  from  a  great 
distance  on  the  sides  of  mountains.  Tlie  so-called  rice  plant,  with 
rice-like' grains  on  a  stalk,  is  the  grass  IUcJica.  Of  Boronia,  Epac- 
ris,  and  Orchis  there  are  numerous  species.  Tlie  Bland/ordia,  a 
Liliaceous  plant,  has  a  head  of  brilliant  crimson  flowers.  Tho 
Casuarina,  Eiocarpus,  £anksia,  and  tree  fern  resemble  those  of 
Australia.  Tasmanian  evergreen  forests  are  very  aromatic.  At 
one  time  the  island  had  an  extensive  timber  trade  with  Sydney, 
Melbourne,  and  Adelaide,  and  it  still  exports  £50,000  to  £80,000 
worth  annually  of  planks,  shingles,  paling.  Sic 

Fauna. — Animal  life  in  Tasmania  is  similar  to  that  in  Australia. 
The  dingo  or  dog  of  the  latter  is  wanting  ;  and  the  Tasmanian  devil 
snd  tiger,or  wolf,  are  peculiar  to  the  island.  The  Marsupials  include 
the  Macropus  or  kangaroo,  Didclphys  or  opossum,  Petaurus  or  flying 
phalanger,  Perameles  or  bandicoot,  Hyp^iprymnus  or  kangaroo  rat, 
Phascolomys  or  wombat ;  w  hile  of  MonotrcJimla  there  are  the  Echidna 
or  porcupine  anteater  and  the  duct-billed  platypus.  The  marsupial 
tiger  or  Tasmanian  vioU  (Thylacimis  cyiiQccphalus),  5  feet  long,  is 
yellowish  brown,  with  several  stripes  across  the  back,  having  short 
stirt'  hair  and  very  short  legs  (see  vol.  .xv.  p.  380).  Very  few  of 
these  nocturnal  carnivores  are  now  alive  to  trouble  flocks.  The 
tiger  cat  of  the  colonists,  with  weasel  legs,  white  spots,  and  uocttirnal 
habits,  is  a  large  species  of  the  untameable  native  cats.  The  devil 
{Dasyurus  or  Sarcophilus  ursinus)  is  black,  with  white  bands  on 
neck  and  haunches.  The  covering  of  this  savage  but  cowardly  little 
night-prowler  is  a  sort  of  short  hair,  not  fur.  The  tail  is  thick,  and 
the  bulldog  mouth  is  formidable.  Among  the  birds  of  the  island 
are  the  eagle,  hawk,  petrel,  owl,  finch,  peewit,  diamond  bird,  fire- 
tail,  robin,  emu-wren,  crow,  swallow,  magpie,  blackcap,  goatsucker, 
quail,  ground  dove,  jay,  parrot,  lark,  mountain  thrush,  cuckoo, 
wottlebird,  whistling  duck,  honeybird,  Cape  Barren  goose,  penguin 
duck,  waterhen,  snipe,  albatross,  and  laughing  jackass.^  Snakes 
are  pretty  plentiful  m  scrubs  j  the  lizards  are  hannless.  Insects, 
though  similar  to  Australian  ones,  are  far  less  troublesome  ;  many 
are  to  be  admired  for  their  great  beauty. 

Pishcries..^}a  the  early  years  of  occupation  the  island  was  tlie 
resort  of  whalers  from  the  United  Kingdom,  the  United  States,  and 
France.  Both  sperntaud  black  oil,  with  whalebone,  were  important 
articles  of  export  till  the  retreat  of  tho  whales  to  other  seas.  Seal- 
ing was  carried  on  successfully  for  many  years  in  Bass's  Strait, 
Oiltil  the  seals  were  utterly  destroyed.     There  has  recently  been  a 


revivalof  whaling,  the  product  of  the  island  fishery  for  1885  being: 
£12,6C9).  The  bays  contain  some  excellent  fish,  much  esteemed  in 
the  neighbouring  colonies,  particularly' the  trumpeter,  found  on 
the  soutlici  n  side  of  the  island.  Of  nearly  200  sorts  of  fishes  a  third 
can  be  considered  good  for  food.  The  outer  fisheries  extend  to  16 
miles  from  shoic,  being  from  20  to  80  fathoms  deep.  The  species 
include  the  trumpeter  (Latris,  found  up  to  60  lb  weight),  the 
"salmon  "  of  the  old  settlers  [Arripi£),  the  flathead  {Plcdyccphalus\ 
ti evilly  {Xcptonci)ius),  garfish  (Ncvdrhamphus),  barracouta  and 
kin^lish  (both  Tliynitcs).  There  are  thirteen  sorts  of  perch,  and 
live  ol,  jieani.  The  anchovy  is  migratory.  Eng  ish  macKcrel  have 
been  sien  oil  the  east  coast ;  and  some  of  the  her  ings  are  much  liko 
the  English.  Rock  cod  and  bull-kelp  cod  are  favourites.  Jlud 
oysters  arc  nearly  worked  out;  artificial  oys.er-beds  are  being 
forme.l.  English  trout  {Salmofario)  are  more  Cirtainly  found  than 
the  true  salmon  {Salmo salar)  \  the  last  are  douDtful,  though  num- 
bers have  been  raised  in  hatcheries  on  the  Derwmt  Among  fresh- 
water fish  are  a  so-called  freshwater  herring  (.Frototroctcs),  various 
kinds  of  what  the  old  settlers  called  trout  [Galaxias),  blackfish 
XOadopsis),  and  fine  perch. 

Commerce. — Soon  after  the  colony  was  foiinded  there  was  a  great 
trade  ir  whale  oil,  as  well  as  in  the  oil  and  siiAs  of  seals.  When 
this  declined,  merchants  d.d  well  in  the  expo-tation  of  breadstuffs, 
fruits,  and  vegetables  to  the  neighbouring  and  more  recently  estab- 
lished colonies,  not  less  than  to  New  South  Wales.  Timber  was 
also  freely  sent  to  places  less  favoured  with  forests  or  too  busy 
with  other  employments.  When  the  trade  with  England  in  oil 
fell  off,  the  export  in  wool  and  then  of  metals  succeededl  Tasmania- 
has  now  an  active  commerce  with  Victoria,  tut  has  a  competitor 
rather  than  a  customer  in  New  Zealand.  The  shipping  during 
1885  was  342,745  tons  inward,  335,061  outward.  The  imports 
for  that  year  came  to  £1,757,486;  the  exports  to  £1,313,693.  Of 
the  exports,  £1,299,011  were  of  Tasmanian  products  and  manu- 
factures,—including  wool,  £260,480;  tin,  £357,687;  gold,  £141,319; 
fruit,  £105,363.  The  banks  of  the  colony  at  the  end  of  1885 
showed  assets  £3,754,226  and  liabilities  £3,814,631.  The  savings 
banks  early  in  1886  declared  £455,774  to  the  credit  of  depositors. 
Attempts  have  been  recently  made  to  draw  Tasmania  into  closer 
commercial  and  fiscal  relations  with  Victoria, 

Manufactures. — Numerous  industries  are  practised,  though  not 
to  the  extent  of  exportation,  excepting  from  the  working  of  28 
tanneries,  62  sawmills,  13  breweries,  7  manufactories  of  jam,  and 
a  rising  wool  factory. 

Hoods  and  Jiiilways: — No  colony,  for  its  area,  was  ever  so 
favourjd  with  excellent  roads  as  Tasmania  has  been.  There, are 
now  about  5000  miles  of  good  roads.  The  principal  line  of  railway 
is  that  from  Hobart  to  LauncestoiL  ^Altogether,  260  miles  of  rail- 
way were  open  in  1887. 

Post-Office.  —In  early  years  letters  wefc  carried  by  runners  on  foot 
across  the  island.  In  1SS5  there  were  243  post  offices,  and  the 
telegraph  had  1579  miles  of  wire.  A  submarine  line  connects 
Tasm.inia  with  Victoria. 

Ad.ninistration. — The  governor  is  appointed  by  the  British 
crown.  The  legislative  council  has  eighteen  members,  and  the 
asseo  bly  thirty-si.x.  The  revenue  for  1885-86  was  £571,396,  the 
expeiditure  £585,766.  The  public  debt,  contracted  for  public 
works,  amounts  to  three  and  a  third  millijns.  The  customs  pro- 
vided £276,100.  The  oSicial  machinery  s  as  extensive  as  for  a 
colony  with  seven  or  eight  times  the  population. 

Education. — At  first  the  state  made  grants  in  aid  to  schools 
establishdfl  by  private  persons  and  religuus  denominations,  but 
ultimoteh,  as  in  Victoria  and  New  Zealand,  education  was  made 
secular  ai  d  compulsory,  religions  teaching  being  out  of  school 
hours,  or  dependent  on  Sunday  schools,  which  are  to  be  found  all 
over  the-jsland.  There  are  204  public  schools  maintained  out  of 
a  fund  0  £32,793.  In  eight  grammar  and  collegiate  schools  a 
higher  standard  of  instruction  is  reached.  Thi  degree  of  Associate 
of  Arts  is  conferred  on  deserving  scholars  in  the  state  schools  ;  and 
exhibitions  (up  to  £200  a  year  for  four  years)  enable  pupils  to 
study  at  the  higher  schools  qr  colonial  or  European  universities. 
No  state  grant  is  now  made  for  the  support  of  any  religious  deno- 
mination. 

Population. — The  whites  have  entirely  displaced  the  blacks." 
Outrages  and  cruelties  led  to  conflicts;  and  now  the  last  individual 
of  the  tribes  has  passed  away.  There  are,  however,  some  half- 
castes  on  islands  in  the  Straits.  The  coloaists  in  Tasmania  are 
more  concentrated  than  in  other  settlement:.  In  1818  there  were 
2320  men,  432  women,  and  only  4S9  chililLen.  At  the  census  of 
1881  the  population  numbered  115,705  61,162  males,  54,543 
females);  in  1886  it  was  estimated  at  133,7.91.  The  births  in  1886 
averaged  34  6  per  thousand,  the -deaths  15'2. 

ffw/ory,— Tho  Dutch  navigator  Tasman  (7.  i'.)  sighted  the  island 
November  24,  1642,  and  named  it  Van  Diepcn's  Land,  after  the 
Dutch  governor  of  Java.  He  took  possession  at  Frederick  Henry 
Bay  in  the  naie  of  the  stadtholdcr  of  Holland,  and  then  passed 
on  to  '.ho  discovery  of  New  Zealand.  The  French  Captain  Marion 
in  17:2  came  to  Mows  with  the  natives.     Cajitaj'n  Cook  was  at. 


T  A  S  —  T  A  S 


ys 


Adrenmre  Bay,  to  Uit  Math,  in  1777.  His  companion,  CapUin  ' 
ruroeini.  hij  entO-CTl  the  b»y  four  years  previously,  assuring  t 
Cook  thit  Van  Ditmen's  Land  »-as  joineil  to  New  Holland. 
Admiral  Bruni  d'Entrecasteaux,  with  the  naturalist  La  Billardiire, 
entered  the  Derwtnt,  calling  it  North  River,  in  1792.  Two  years 
after.  Captain  Hayes  named  it  Derwent.  Mr  Bass  and  Lieutenant 
Finders  pased  through  Bass's  Strait,  and  6rst  sailed  round  the 
island,  in  179S.  The  high  terms  in  which  they  spoke  of  Sullivan's 
cove,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Derwent,  afterwards  led  to  the  settle- 
ment of  Hobart  there.  The  French  discovery  ships,  "Geographe" 
and  "  Natnraliste,"  under  Commodore  Baudin,  were  off  the  coast  in 
1801-2.  The  island  was  settled  from  Sydney.  A  small  party  was 
sent  to  the  Derwent,  under  Lieutenant  Bowen,  in  1803,  and  another 
to  Port  Dalryniple  next  year  under  Colonel  Paterson,  who  was 
removed  to  tauncestou  in  1S06.  Captain  Collins,  who  had  been 
tent  with  a  large  number  of  convicts  from  England  to  form  a  penal 
colony  in  Port  Phillip,  thought  proper  to  remove  thence  after  three 
months,  and  establish  himself  at  Hobart  Town,  February  1S04. 
The  early  days  were  trying,  from  want  of  supplies  and  of  good 
government ;  and  conflicts  arose  with  the  natives,  which  led  to  the 
celebrated  Black  War.  In  1S30  nearly  all  the  settlers,  with  4000 
soldiers  and  armed  constables,  attempted  to  drive  the  aborigines 
into  a  peninsula,  but  caught  only  one  lad.  Mr  George  Robinson 
afterwards  succeeded  in  inducing  the  few  hunted  ones  to  surrender 
and  be  taken  to  Flinders  Islaai  Beatbs  rapidly  followed.  The 
last  man  died  in  1S62,  the  last  female  in  1872.  Bushranging  was 
common  for  years  in  this  scrubby  land.  The  colony  was  subject 
to  New  Sonth  WaleS  til]  1 S25,  w  heu  independence  was  declared. 
On  free  settlers  being  permitted  to  go  to  Van  Diemen's  Land,  they 
endeavoured  to  get  freedom  of  the  press,  trial  by  jury,  and  a  popular 
form  of  role.  After  long  struggles,  the  liberties  they  sought  for 
were  gradually  granted.  A  responsible  government  was  the  last 
boon  received.  Oppressed  by  the  number  of  convicts  thrown  into 
the  countr}-,  the  free  iuhabitints  petitioned  again  and  again  for  the 
cessation  of  ti^ansportation,  which  was  eventually  allowed.  Among 
the  governors  was  Sir  John  Franklin^  of  polar  celebrity.  The  first 
newspajior,  7'hi  Dcnc€iU  Siar^  came  out  in  ISIO.  Literature  ad. 
vanccd  from  that  humble  beginning.  At  tirit  the  Government 
entirely  supported  schools  and  churches,  .iml  for  many  years  state 
aid  was  rttforiled  to  the  Church  of  England,  Presbyterian,  Wesleyan, 
»nd  Roman  Catholic  churches,  but  this  aid  is  now  withdrawn.  The 
isl.ind  proving  too  small  for  a  large  population,  numbers  swarmed 
off  to  the  neighbouring  settlements,  and  Fort  Phillip,  now  Victoria, 
receiveii  its  first  inhabitants  from  Tasmania.  Though  not  so 
prosperous  Ad  Victoria,  the  little  island  enjoys  an  amount  of  ease 
and  comfort  which  few,  if  any,  settlements  elsewhere  have  been 
known  to  experience,  (J.  BO.) 

TASSIE,  James  (1735-1799),  gem-engraver  and  mod- 
eller, was  born  of  humble  parentage  at  PoUokshaws,  near 
Glasgow,  in  1735.  During  his  earlier  years  he  worked 
as  a  stone-mason,  but,  having  visited  Glasgow  on  a  fair- 
holiday,  and  seen  the  collection  of  paintings  brought 
together  in  that  city  by  Robert  and  Andrew  Foulis,  the 
celebrated  printers,  he  was  seized  with  an  irresistible 
desire  to  become  an  artist  He,  removed  to  Glasgow, 
attended  the  academy  which  had  been  established  there 
by  \he  brothers  Foulis,  and,  applying  himself  to  drawing 
with  indomitable  perseverance,  seconded  by  great  natural 
aptitude,  he  eventually  became  one  of  the  most  distin- 
gui.shed  pupils  of  the  school.  When  his  training  was 
completed  he  visited  Dublin  in  search  of  commissions, 
and  there  became. .acquainted  with  Dr  Qnin,  who  had 
been  experimentiiig,  as  an  amateur,  in  imitating  antique 
engraved  gems  in  coioared  pastes.  He  engaged  Tassie  as 
an  a<«istant,  and  together  they  perfected  the  discovery  of 
a  vitreous  paste  composition,  styled  "enamel,"  a  substance 
admirably  adapted,  by  its  hardness  and  beauty  of  te.xture, 
for  the  formation  of  gems  and  m.cda.l!:ons.  Dr  Quin 
encouraged  his  assistant  to  try  his  fortune  in  London, 
and  thither  lie  repaired  in  17G6.  At  fii-st  he  had  a  hard 
struggle  to  make  his  way,  for  he  was  modest  and  diffident 
in  the  extreme,  and  without  influential  introductions  to 
amateurs  and  collectors.  But  he  worked  on  steadily  with 
the  greatest  care  and  accuracy,  scrupulously  destroying 
all  impressions  of  his  gems  which  were  in  the  slightest 
degree  inferior  or"  defective.  Gradually  the  beauty  and 
artljtic  character  of  his  productions  came  to  be  known, 
lie  received  a  commission  from  the  empress  of  Russia 
for  a  collection  of  alx>nt  15,000  examples;  .ill  the  richest 


Cabinets  in  Europe  were  thrown  open  to  him  for  purposes 
of  study  and  reproduction;  and  his  copies  were  freq^uently 
sold  by  "fraudulent  dealers  as  the  original  gems.  He 
exhibited  in",  the  Royal  Academy  from  1769  to  1791. 
In  1775  he  published  the  first  catalogue  of  his  works,  a 
thin  pamphlet  detailing  2S56  items.  This  was  followed 
in  1791  by  a  large  catalogue,  in  two  volumes  quarto,  with 
illustrations  etched  by  David  Allan,  and  descripti-ve  text 
in  English  and  French  by  Rudolph  Eric  Raspe,  F.S.A., 
enumerating  nearly  16,000  pieces.  Materials  exist  in 
MS.,  in  the  possession  of  a  descendant  of  Tassie'a,  for  a- 
list  of  more  than  3000  further  items. 

In  addition  to  his  impressions  from  antique  gems, 
Tassie  executed  many  large  profile  medillion  portraits  of 
his  contemporaries,  and  these  form  the  most  original  and 
definitely  artistic  class  of  his  works.  They  were  modelled 
in  wax  from  the  life  or  from  drawings  done  from  the  life, 
and — when  this  was  impossible — from  other  authentio 
sources.  T'liey  were  then  cast  in  white  enamel  paste,  the 
whole  medallion  being  sometimes  executed  in  this  material ; 
while  in  other  cases  the  head  only  appears  in  enamel, 
relieved  against  a  background  of  ground-glass  tinted  of  a' 
subdued  colour  by  paper  placed  behind.  His  first  large 
enamel  portrait  was  that  of  John  Dolbon,  son  of  Sir 
William  Dolbon,  Bart.,  modelled  in  1793  or  1794;  and 
the  series  possesses  great  historic  interest,  as  well  as 
artistic  value,  including  as  it  does  portraits  of  Adam 
Smith,  Sir  Henry  Raeburn,  Drs  James  Eeattie,  Blair, 
Black,  and  Cullcn,  and  many  other  celebrated  men  of  the 
latter  half  of  the  18th  century. 

At  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1799,  th?  collectiotf-of 
Tassie's  works  numbered  about  20,000  pieces,  i   (j.  m.  g.) 

TASSIE,  "VViLLi.tM  (1777-1860),  gem-engraver  and 
modeller,  nephew  of  the  above,  was  born  in  London  on 
the  4th  of  December  1777.  He  succeeded  to  the  business 
of  his  uncle,  to  whose  collection  of  casts  and  medalliotis 
he  added  largely.  His  portrait  of  Pitt,  in  particular,- 
was  very  popular,  and  circulated  widely.  When  the 
Shakespeare  Gallery,  formed  by  Alderman  Boydell,  was 
disposed  of  by  lottery  in  1805,  William  Tassie  was  the 
winner  of  the  prize,  and  in  the  same  year  he  sold  the 
pictures  by  auction  for  a  sum  of  over  ,£6000.  He  died  at 
Kensington  on  the  26th  of  October  1860,  and  bequeathed 
to  the  Board  of  Manufactures,  Edinburgh,  an  extensive 
and  valuable  collection  of  casts  and  medallions  by  his 
uncle  and  himself,  along  with  portraits  of  James  Tassie 
and  his  wife  by  David  Allan,  and  a  series  of  wate^-colo^^ 
studies  by  George  Sanders  from  pictures  of  the  Dutch  arii 
Flemish  schools.  (J.  m.  g.) 

TASSO,  ToEQUATO"  (1544-1595),  who  ranks  witi 
Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Ariosto  «mong  the  first  four  poets 
of  Italy,  was  the  son  ol  Bernardo  Tasso,  a  nobleman  of 
Bergamo,  and  his  wife  PorXia  de'  Rossi.  He  was  born  at 
Sorrento  in  1544.'  His  father  had  for  many  years  been 
secretary  in  the-service  of  the  prince  of  Salerno,  and  his 
mother  was  closely  connected  -with  the  most  illustrious 
Neapolitan  families.  The  prince  of  Salerno  came  into 
collision  with  the  Spanish  Government  of  Kaples,  was 
outlawed,  and  was  deprived  of  his  hereditary  fiefs.  Li 
this  disaster  of  his  patron  Tasso's  father  shared.  He  was 
proclaimed  a  rebel  to  the  state,  together  with  his  son 
Torqnato,  and  his  patrimony  was  sequestered.  These 
things  happened  during  the  boy's  childhood.  In  1552  he 
was  living  with  his  mother  and  his  only  sister  Cornelia  at 
Naples,  pursuing  his  education  under  the  Jesuits,  who  had 
recently  opened  a  school  there.  The  precocity  of  intellect 
and  the  religious  fervour  of  the  boy  attracted  general 
admiration.  At  the  age  of  eight  he  was  already  famous. 
Soon  after  this  date  he  joined  his  father,  who  then  resided 
in   great  indigence,  an  exile  and  without  occupation, ' in 


76 


T  A  S  S  O 


Borne.    News  reached  them  in  1556  that  Porzia  Tasso  had 
died  suddenly  and  mysteriously  at  Naples.     Her  husband 
was  firmly,  convinced  that  she  had  been  poisoned  by  her 
brother  with  the  object  of  getting  control  over  her  pro- 
perty.    As  it  subsequently  happened,  Porzia's  estate  never 
descended  to  her  son  ;  and  the  daughter  Cornelia  married 
below  her  birth,  at  the  instigation  of  her  maternal  relatives. 
Tasso's  father  was  a  poet  by  predilection  and  a  professional 
courtier  of  some  distinction.      In  those  days  an  Italian 
gentleman  of  modest  fortunes  had  no  congenial  sphere  of 
society  or  occupation  outside  the  courts  of  petty  ecclesi- 
astical and  secular  princes.     When,  therefore,  an  opening 
at  the  court  of  Urbino  offered  in  1557,  Bernardo  Tasso 
gladly  accepted  it.     The  young  Torquato,  a  handsome  and 
brilliant  lad,  became  the  companion  in  sports  and  studies 
•of  Francesco  Maria  della  Eovere,  heir  to  the  dukedom  of 
Urbino.     The  fate  which  condemned  him  for  life  to  be  a 
poet  and  a  courtier  like  his  father  was  sealed  by  this 
early  entrance  into  princely  palaces.  '  At  Urbino  a  society 
of   cultivated   men   pursued  the   cesthetical   and  literary 
studies  which  were  then  in  vogue.     Bernardo  Tasso  read 
cantos  of  his  Amadigi  to  the  duchess  and  her  ladies,  or 
discussed  the  merits  of  Homer  and  Virgil,  Trissino  and 
Ariosto,  with  the  duke's  librarians  and  secretaries.     Tor- 
quato grew  up  in , an  atmosphere  of  retined  luxury  and 
somewhat  pedantic  criticism,  both  of  which  gave  a  per- 
manent lone  to  his  character.     At  Venice,  whither  his 
father  went  to  superintend  the  printing  of  the  Amadiyi, 
these  influences  continued.     He  found  himself  the  pet  and 
prodigy  of  a  distinguished  literary  circle.     But  Bernardo 
had  suffered  in  his  own  career  so  seriously  from  addiction 
to  the  Muses  and  a  prince  that  he  now  deterpiined  on  a 
lucrative  "profession  for  his   son.     Torquato  w;,s  sent  to 
study  law  at  Padua.     Instead  of  applying  himself  to  law, 
the  young  man  bestowed  all  his  attention  upon  philosophy 
and  poetry.     Before  the  end  of  1562  he  had  produced  a 
narrative  poem  called  Einaldo,  which  was  meant  to  com- 
bine the  regularity  of  the  Virgilian  with  the  attractions 
of  the  romantic  epic.     In  the  attainment  of  this  object, 
and  in   all  the   minor   qualities  of  style  and  handling, 
Eincddo  showed  such  marked  originality  that  its  author 
was  proclaimed  the  most  promising  poet  of  his  time.     The 
flattered  father  allowed  it  to  be  printed ;  and,  after  a  short 
period   of  study  at   Bologna,  he   consented  to   his  son's 
entering  the  service  of  Cardinal  Luigi  d'Este.     In  1565, 
then,  Torquato  for  the  first  time  set  foot  in  that  castle  at 
Ferrara  which  was  destined  for  him  to  be  the  scene  of  so 
many. glories  and  such  cruel  sufferings.     After  the  publica- 
tion of  Rinaldo  he  had  expressed  his  views  upon  the  epic 
in  some  Discourses  on  the  Art  of  Poetry,  which  committed 
him  to  a  distinct  theory  and  gained  for  him  the  additional 
celebrity  of  a  philosophical  critic.     The  age  was  nothing  if 
not  critical;  but  it  may  be  esteemed  a  misfortune  for  the 
future  author  of  the  Gerusalemme  that  he  should  have 
started  with  pronounced  opinions  upon  art.     Essentially  a 
poet  of  impulse  and  instinct,  he  was  hampered  in  produc- 
tion by  his  own  rules. 

The  five  years  between  1565  and  1570  seem  to  have 
been  the  happiest  of  Tasso's  life,  although  his  father's 
death  in  1569  caused  his  affectionate  nature  profound  pain. 
Young,  handsome,  accomplished  in  all  the  exercises  of  a 
well-bred  gentleman,  accustomed  to  the  society  of  the 
great  and  learned,  illustrious  by  his  published  works  in 
verse  and  prose,  he  became  the  idol  of  the  most  brilliant 
court  in  Italy.  The  princesses  Lucrezia  and  Leonora 
d'Este,  both  unmarried,  both  his  seniors  by  about  ten 
years,  took  him  under  their  pro'  jction.  He  was  admitted 
to  their  familiarity,  and  there  is  some  reason  to  think  that 
neither  of  them  was  indifferent  to  hirapersonally.  Of  the 
celebrated  story  of  his  J"ve  for  Leonora  this  is  not  the 


place  to  speak.     It  ia  enongb  at  present  to  observe  that" 
he  owed  much  to  the  ton^ant  kindness  of  both  sisters. 
In  1570  he  travelled  to  Paris  with  the  cardinal.     Frank- 
ness of  speech  and  a  certain  habitual  want  of  tact  caused 
a  disagreement  wi^h  his  worldly  patron.     He  left  France 
next  year,  and  toot  service  under  Duke  Alfonso  II.  of 
Ferrara.     The  most  important  .events  in  Tasso's  biographyl 
during  the  following  four  years  are  the  publication  of  the' 
Aminta  in  1573  and  the  completion  of  the  Gerusalemme 
Liberata   in   1574.     The  Aminta  is  a  pastoral  drama  of 
very  simple  plot,  but  of  exquisite  lyrical  charm.     It  ap- 
peared at  the  critical  moment  when  modern  music,  under 
Falestrina's  impulse,  was  becoming  the  main  art  of  Italy. 
The  honeyed  melodies  and  sensuous  melancholy  of  Aminta 
exactly  suited  and  interpreted  the  spirit  of  its  age.     We' 
may  regard  it  as  the  most  decisively  important  of  Tasso's 
compositions,  for  its  influence,  in  opera  and  cantata,  was' 
felt  through  two  successive  centuries.     The  Gerusfilemme 
Liberata  occupies  a  larger  space  in  the  history  of  Euro- 
pean literature,  and  is  a  more  considerable  work.     Yet 
the  commanding  qualities  of  this  epic  poem,  those  which 
revealed  Tasso's  individuality,  and  which  made  it  imme- 
diately pass  into  the  rank  of  classics,  beloved  by  the  people 
no  less  than  by  persons  of  culture,  are  akin  to  the  lyrical 
graces  of  Aminta.     It  was  finished  in  Tasso's  thirty-first 
year ;  and  when  the  JfS.  lay  before  him  the  best  part  of 
his  life  was  over,  his  best  work  had  been  already  accom- 
plished.    Troubles  immediately   began   to  gather    round 
him.     Instead  of   having  the  courage  to  obey  his  own 
instinct,  and  to  publish  the  Gerusalemme  as  he  had  con- 
ceived  it,  he  yielded  to  the  critical  scrupulosity  which 
formed  a  secondary  feature  of  his  character.     The  poem 
was  sent  in  manuscript  to  several  literary  men  of  eminence, 
Tasso  expressing  his  willingness  to  hear  their  strictures 
and  to   adopt  their  suggestions  unless  he  could  convert 
them  to  his  own  views.     The  result  was  that  each  of  these 
candid  friends,  while  expressing  in  general  high  admiration 
for  the  epic,  took  some  exception  to  its  plot,  its  title,  its 
moral  tone,   its  episodes,   or  its  diction,  in  detail.     One 
wished  it  to  be  more  regularly  classical ;  another  wanted 
more  romance.     One  hinted   that  the  Inquisition  would 
not  tolerate  its  supernatural  machinery  ;  another  demanded 
the  excision  of  its  most  charming  passages — the  loves  of 
Armida,   Clorinda,   and  Erminia.     Tasso   had  to  defend 
himself  against  all  these  ineptitudes  and  pedantries,  and 
to  accommodate  his  practice  to  the  theories  he  had  rashly 
expressed.-     As   in   the   Rinaldo,    so   also   in    the   Jeru- 
salem Delivered,  -he  aimed  at  ennobling  the  Italian  epic 
style  by  preserving  strict  unity  of  plot  and  heightening 
poetio -diction.     He  chose  Virgil  for  his  model,  took  the 
first  crusade  for  subject,  infused  the  fervour  of  religion 
into  his  conception  of  the  hero  Godfrey.     But  his  own 
nafur;  1  bias  was  for  romance.     In  spite  of  the  poet's  in- 
genuit)\and  industry  the  stately  main  theme  evinced  less 
spontaneity  of  genius   than  the   romantic  episodes  with 
which,   as  also  in  Rinaldo,  he  adorned    it.     Godfrey,  a 
mixture  of  pious /Er.eas  and  Tridentine  Catholicism,  is  not 
the  real  hero  of  the  Gerusalemme.     Fiery  and  passionate 
Rinaldo,  Ruggiero,  'melancholy  impulsive  Tancredi,   and 
the  chivalrous  SaraoSns  with  whom  they  clash  in  love  and 
war,  divide  our  interest  and  divert  it  from  Goffredo.     On 
Armida,  beautiful  witch,  sent  forth  by  the  infernal  senate 
to  sow  discord  in  the  Christian  camp,  turns  the  action  of 
the  epic.     She  is  copverted  to  the  true  faith  by  her  adora- 
^tion  for  a  crusading  knight,  and  quits  the  ?cene  with  a 
phrase  of  the  Virgin  Mary  on  her  lips.     Brave  Clorinda, 
donning  armour  like  Marfisa,  fighting  in  duel  with  her 
devoted  lover,  and  receiving  baptism  from  bis  hands  in 
her  pathetic  death;  Erminia  seeking  refuge  in  the  shep- 
herd's hut,-^these  lovely  pagan  women,  so  touching  in 


T  A  S  S  0 


77 


their  sorrows,  so  romantic  in  their  adventures,  so  tender 
in  their  emotions,  rivet  out^ttention,  while  we  skip  the 
battles,  religious  ceremonies,  conclaves,  and  stratagems 
of  the  campaign.  The  truth  is  that  Tasso's  great  inven- 
tiin  as  an  artist  was  the  poetry  of  sentiment.  Sentiment, 
ni|t  sentimentality,  gives  value  to  what  is  immortal  in  the 
Gfrusalemme.  It  was  a  new  thing  in  the  16th  century, 
something  concordant  with  a  growing  feeling  for  woman 
acd  with  the  ascendant  art  of  music.  This  sentiment, 
rtfned,  noble,  natural,  steeped  in  melancholy,  exquisitely 
graceful,  pathetically  touching,  breathes  throughout  the 
episodes  of  the  Gerusalemme,  finds  metrical  expression 
in  the  languishing  cadence  of  its  mellifluous  verse,  and 
sustains  the  ideal  life  of  those  seductive  heroines  whose 
names  were  familiar  as  household  words  to  all  Europe  in 
.the  17th  and  18th  centuries. 

Tasso's  self-chosen  critics  were  not  men  to  admit  what 
the  public  has  since  accepted  as  incontrovertible.  They 
vaguely  felt  that  a  great  and  beautiful  romantic  poem  was 
embedded  in  a  dull  and  not  very  correct  epic.  In  their 
uneasiness  they  suggested  evety  course  but  the  right  one, 
which  was  to  publish  the  Gerusalemme  without  further 
dispute.  Tasso,  already  overworked  by  his  precocious 
studies,  '.by  exciting  court-life  and  exhausting  literary 
industry,  now  grew  almost  mad  with  worry.  His  health 
began  to  fail  him.  He  complained  of  headache,  suffered 
from  malarious  fevers,  and  wished  to  leave  Ferrara.  The 
Gtrusalemme  was  laid  in  manuscript  upon  a  shelf.  He 
opened  nsgotiations  with  the  court  of  Florence  for  an 
escharge  of  service.  This  irritated  the  duke  of  Ferrara. 
Alfonso  hated  nothing  more  than  his  courtiers  leaving  him 
for  a  rival  duchy.  He  thought,  moreover,  that,  if  Tasso 
were  aUi-wed  to  go,  the  Medici  would  get  the"  coveted 
dedication  of  that  already  famous  epic.  Therefore  he  bore 
with  the  poet's  humours,  and  so  contrived  that  the  latter, 
should  have  no  excuse  for  quitting  Ferrara.  Meanwhile, 
through  the  years  1575,  1576,  1577,  Tasso's  health  grew 
worse.  Jealousy  inspired  the  courtiers  to  calumniate  and 
insult  him.  His  irritable  and  suspicious  temper,  vain  and 
sensitive  to  slights,  rendered  him  only  too  easy  a  prey  to 
their  malevolence.  He  became  the  subject  of  delusions, — 
thought  that  his  servants  betrayed  his  confidence,  fancied 
he  had  been  denounced  to  the  Inquisition,  expected  daily 
to  Be  poisoned.  In  the  autumn  of  1576  he  quarrelled  with 
a  Ferrarese  gentleman,  Maddalo,  who  had  talked  too  freely 
about  some  love  affair;  in  the  summer  of  1577  he  drew 
his  knife  upon  a  servant  in  the  presence  of  Lucrezia  d'Este, 
duchess  of  Urbino.  For  this  excess  he  was  arrested ;  but 
the  duke  released  him,  and  took  him  for  change  of  air  to 
his  country  seat  of  Belriguardo.  What  happened  there  is 
not  known.  Some  biographers  have  surmised  that  a  com- 
promising liaison  with  Leonora  d'Este  came  to  light,  and' 
that  Tasso  agreed  to  feign  madness  in  order  to  cover  her 
honour.  But  of  this  there  is  no  proof.  It  is  only  certain 
that  from  Belriguardo  he  returned  to  a  Franciscan  convent 
at  Ferrara,  for  the  e.xpress  purpose  of  attending  to  his 
health.  There  the  dread  of  being  murdered  by  the  duke 
took  firm  hold  on  his  mind.  He  escaped  at  the  end  of 
July,  disguised  himself  as  a  peasant,  and  went  on  foot  to 
his  sister  at  Sorrento. 

The  truth  seems  to  be  that  Tasso,  after  the  beginning  of 
1575,  became  the  victim  of  a  mental  malady,  which,  with- 
out amounting  to  actual  insanity,  rendered  him  fantastical 
and  insupportable,  a  misery  to  himself  and  a  cause  of 
anxiety  to  his  patrons.  There  is  no  evidence  whatsoever 
that  this  state  of  things  was  due  to  an  overwhelming 
passion  for  Leonora.  The  duke,  instead  of  acting  like  a 
tyrant,  showed  considerable  forbearance.'  He  was  a  rigid 
and  not  sympathetic  man,  as  egotistical  as  a  princeling  of 
that  age  was  wont  to   be.     But  to  Tasso  he  was  never 


cruel, — hard  and  unintelligent  peraaps,  but  far  from  being 
that  monster  of  ferocity  which  his  been'  painted.  The 
subsequent  history  of  his  connexion  with  the  poet,  over 
which  we  may  pass  rapidly,  will  corroborate  this  view. 
While  at  Sorrento,  Tasso  hankered  after  Ferrara.  The 
court-made  man  could  not  breathe  freely  outside  its 
charmed  circle.  He  wrote  humbly  requesting  to  be  taken" 
back.  Alfonso  consented,  provided  Tasso  would  agree  to 
undergo  a  medical  course  of  treatment  for  his  melancholy. 
When  he  returned,  which  he  did-with  alacrity  under  those 
conditions,  he  was  well  received  by  the  ducal  family.  All 
might  have  gone  well  if  his  old  maladies  had  not  revived. 
Scene  followed  scene  of  irritability,  moodiness,  suspicion, 
wounded  vanity,  and  violent  outbursts.  In  the  summer 
of  157S  he  ran  away  again ;  travelled  through  Mantua, 
Padua,  Venice,  Urbino,  Lombardy.  In  September  he 
reached  the  gates  of  Turin  on  foot,  and  was  courteously 
entertained  by  the  duke  of  Savoy.  WTierever  he  went,' 
'•  wandering  like  the  world's  rejected  guest,"  he  met  with 
the  honour  due  to  his  illustrious  name.  Great  folk  opened 
their  houses  to  him  gladly,  partly  in  compassion,  partly  in 
admiration  of  his  genius.  But  he  soon  wearied  of  their 
society,  and  wore  their  kindness  out  by  his  querulous 
peevishness.  It  seemed,  moreover,  that  life  was  intoler- 
able to  him  outside  Ferrara.  Accordingly  he  once  more 
opened  negotiations  with  the  duke ;  and  in  February  1579 
he  again  set  foot  in  the  castle.  Alfonso  was  about  to 
contract  his  third  marriage,  this  time  with  a  princess  of 
the  house  of  Mantua.  He  had  no  children ;  and,  unless 
he  got  an  heir,  there  was  a  probability  that  his  state 
would  fall,  as  it  did  subsequently,  to  the  Holy  See.  The 
nuptial  festivals,  on  the  eve  of  which  Tasso  arrived,  were 
not  therefore  the  occasion  of  great  rejoicing  to  the  elderly 
bridegroom.  As  a  forlorn  hope  he  had  to  wed  a  third 
wife ;  but  his  heart  was  not  engaged  and  his  expectations 
were  far  from  sanguine.  Tasso,  preoccupied  as  always 
with  his  own  sorrows  and  his  own  sense  of  dignity,  made 
no  allowance  for  the  troubles  of  his  master.  Rooms 
below  his  rank,  he  thought,  had  been  assigned  him. 
The  princesses  did  not  want  to  see  him.  The  duke  was 
engaged.  Without  exercising  common  patience,  or  giving 
his  old  friends  the  benefit  of  a  doubt,  he  broke  into  terms 
of  open  abuse,  behaved  like  a  lunatic,  and  was  sent  off 
without  ceremony  to  the  madhouse  of  St  Anna.  This 
happened  in  March  1579;  and  there  he  remained  until 
July  15S6.  Duke  Alfonso's  long-sufi'erance  at  last  had 
given  way.  He  firmly  believed  that  Tasso  was  insane, 
and  he  felt  that  if  he  were  so  St  Anna  was  the  safest  place 
for  him.  -  Tasso  had  put  himself  in  the  wrong  by  his 
intemperate  conduct,  but  far  more  by  that  incomprehen- 
sible yearning  after  the  Ferrarese  court  which  made  him 
return  to  it  again  and  yet  again.  It  would  be  pleasant  to 
assume  that  an  unconquerable  love  for  Leonora  led  him 
back.  Unfortunately,  there  is  no  proof  of  this.  His 
relations  to  her  sister  Lucrezia  were  not  less  intimate  and 
affectionate  than  to  Leonora.  The  lyrics  he  addressed  to 
numerous  ladies  are  not  less  respectful  and  less  passionate 
than  those  which  bear  her  name.  Had  he  compromised 
her  honour,  the  duke  would  certainly  have  had  him 
murdered.  Custom  demanded  this  retaliation,  and  society 
approved  of  it.  If- therefore  Tasso  really  cherished  a 
secret  lifelong  devotion  to  Leonora,  it  remains  buried  in 
impenetrable  mystery.  He  did  certainly  not  behave  like 
a  loyal  lover,  for  both  when  he  returned  to  Ferrara  in 
157S  and  in  1579  he  showed  no  capacity  for  curbing  his 
peevish  humours  in  the  hoi)e  of  access  to  her  society. 

It  was  no  doubt  very  irksome  for  a  man  of  Tasso's 
pleasure-loving,  restless,  and  self-conscious  spirit  to  be  kept 
for  more  than  seven  years  in  confinement.  Yet  we  must 
weigh  the  facts  of  the  ca.=!C  rather  than  the  fancies  which 


J  8 


T  A  S  S  O 


have  been  indulged  regarding  them.  After  the  first  few 
mouths  of  liis  incarceration  he  obtained  spacious  apart- 
ments, received  the  visits  of  friends,  went  abroad  attended 
by  responsible  persons  of  his  acquaintance,  and  corre- 
sponded freely  with  whomsoever  he  chose  to  address. 
The  letters  written  from  St  Anna  to  the  princes  and  cities 
of-  Italy,  to  warm  well-wishers,  and  to  men  ofHhe  highest 
reputation  in  the  world  of  art  and  learning,  form  our 
most  valuable  source  of  information,  not  only  on  his  then 
condition,  but  also  on  his  temperament  at  large;  It  is 
singular  that  he  spoke  always  respectfully,  even  affection- 
ately, of  the  duke.  Some  critics  huve  attempted  to  make 
it  appear  that  he  was  hypocritically  kissing  the  hand  which 
had  chastised  him,  with  the  view  of  being  released  from 
prison.  But  no  one  who  has  impartially  considered  the 
whole  tone  and  tenor  of  his  epistles  will  adopt  this  opinion. 
What  emerges  clearly  from  them  is  that  he  laboutecJ  under 
a  serious  mental  disease,  and  that  he  was  conscious  of  it. 
He  complains  that  his  disorder  at  times  amounted  to 
frenzy,  after  which  his  memory  was  "weakened  and  his 
intellectual  faculties  enfeebled.  He  saw  visions  and  heard 
phantom  voices.  Puck-like  spirits  made  away  with  his 
books  and  papers.  The  old  dread  of  poison,  the  old  terror 
of  the  Inquisition,  returned  with  greater  violence.  His 
iiodily  condition  grew  gradually  worse ;  and,  though  he 
.does  not  seem  to  have  suffered  from  acute  attacks  of 
illness,  the  intellectual  and  physical  constitution  of  the 
man  was  out  of  gear.  Meanwhile  he  occupied  his  uneasy 
leisure  with  copious  compositions.  The  mass  of  his  prose 
.dialogues  on  philosophical  and  ethical  themes,  which  is 
very  considerable,  we  owe  to  the  years  of  imprisonment  in 
St  Anna..  Except  for  occasional  odes  or  sonnets — some 
written  at  request  and  only  rhetorically  interesting,  a  few 
inspired  by  his  keen  sense  of  suffering  and  therefore 
.poignant — he  neglected  poetry.  But  everything  which 
fell  from  his  pen  during  this  period  was  carefully  preserved 
by  the  Italians,  who,  while  they  regarded  him  as  a  lunatic, 
somewhat  illogically  scrambled  for  the  very  offscourings 
of  his  wit.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  society  was  wrong. 
Tasso  had  proved  himself  an  impracticable  human  being; 
but  he  remained  a  man  of  genius,  the  most  interesting 
personality  in  Italy.  Long  ago  his  papers  bad  been 
sequestered.  Now,  in  the  year  1580,  he  heard  that  part 
of  the  Gerusalemme  was  being  published  without  his  per- 
mission and  without  his  corrections.  Next  year  the  whole 
poem  was  given  to  the  world,  and  in  the  following  six 
months  seven  editions  issued  from  the  press.  The  prisoner 
.of  St  Anna  had  no  control  over  his  editors  ;  and  from  the 
masterpiece  which  placed  him  on  the  level  of  Petrarch  and 
Ariosto  he  never  derived  one  penny  of  pecuniary  profit. 
A  rival  poet  at  the  court  of  Ferrara  undertook  to  revise 
.-and  re-edit  his  lyrics  in  1582,  This  was  Battista  Guarini  ; 
.and  Tasso,  in  his  cell,  had  to  allow  odes  and  sonnets, 
poems  of  personal  feeling,  occasional  pieces  of  coinpliment, 
to  be  collected  and  emended,  without  lifting  a  voice  in 
the  matter  A  few  years  later,  in  1585,  two  Florentine 
pedants  of  the  Delia  Crusca  academy  declared  war  against 
the  Gerusalemme  They  loaded  it  with  insults,  which  seem 
to  those  who  read  their  pamphlets  now  mere  parodies  of 
criticism.  Yet  Tasso  fell  bound  to  reply  ,  and  he  did  so 
with  a  moderation  and  urbanity  which  prove  him  to  have 
.been  riot  only  in  full  possession  of  his  reasoning  faculties, 
but  a  gentleman  of  noble  manners  al.so.  Certainly  the 
history  of  Tasso's  incarceration  at  St  Anna  is  one  to 
make  us  pause  and  wonder.  The  man,  like  Hamlet,  was 
distraught  through  ill-accommodation  to  his  circum.stances 
and  his  age;  brainsick  he  was  undoubtedly,  and  this  is 
the  duke  of  Ferrara  s  justification  for  the  treatment  he' 
.enjincd.  In  the  pri.son  he  bore  himself  pathotically, 
peevi.slily,    but    never    ignobly.     IJe   showed    a    singular 


indifference  to  the  fate  of  his  great  poem,  a^rare  magna- 
nimity in  dealing  with  its  detractors.  His  own  personal 
distress,  that  terrible  malaise  of  imperfect  insanity, 
absorbed  him.  What  remained  over,  untouched  by  the 
malady,  unoppressed  by  his  consciousness  thereof,  dis- 
played a  sweet  and  gravely-toned  humanity.  The  oddest 
thing  about  his  life  in  prison  is  that  he  was  always  trying 
to  place  his  two  nephews,  the  sons  of  his  sister  Cornelia, 
in  court-service.  One  of  them  he  attached  to  the  duke 
of  Mantua,  the  other  to  the  duke  of  Parma.  After  all  his 
father's  and  his  own  lessons  of  life,  he  had  not  learned 
that  the  court  was  to  be  shunned  like  Cijrce  by  an  honest 
man.  In  estimating  Duke  Alfonso's  share  of  blame,  this 
wUf  ul  idealization  of  the  court  by  Tasso  must  be  taken 
into  account  That  man  is  not  a  tyrant's  victim  who 
tooves  heaven  and  earth  to  place  his  sister's  eons  with 
tyrants. 

In  1586  Tasso  left  St  Anna  at  the  solicitation '  of 
Vincen^o  Gonzaga,  prince  of  Mantua.  He  followed  his 
young  deliverer  to  the  city  by  the  Mincio,  basked  awhile 
in  liberty  and  courtly  pleosuies,  enjoyed  a  splendid  recep- 
tion from  his  paternal  town  of  Berganjo,  and  produced  a 
meritorious  tragedy  called  Torrismondo.  But  only  a  few 
months  had  passed  when  he  grew  discontented.  Vincenzo 
Gonzaga,  succeeding  to  his  father's  dukedom  of  Mantua, 
had  scanty  leisure  to  bestow  upon  the  poet.  Tasso  felt 
neglected.  In  the  autumn  of  1587  we  find  him  journeying 
through  Bologna  and  Loreto  to  Rome,  and  taking  up  his 
quarters  there  with  an  old  friend,  Scipione  Gonzaga,  now 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  Next  year  he  wandered  off  to 
Naples,  where  he  wrote  a  dull  poem  on  Mcmie  Oliveto.  In 
1589  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  took  up  his  quarters  again 
with  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  The  servants  found  him 
insufferable,  and  turned  him  out  of  doors.  He  fell  ill,  and 
went  to  a  hospital  The  patriarch  in  1590  again  received 
him.  But  "Tasso's  restless  spirit  drove  him  ■  forth  to 
Florence.  The  Florentines  said,  "Actum  est  de  eo." 
Rome  once  more,  then  Mantua,  then  Florence,  then  Rome, 
then  Naples,  then  Rome,  then  Naples — such  is  the  weary 
record  of  the  years  1590-94.  We  have  to  study  a  verit- 
able Odyssey  of  malady,  indigence,  and  misfortune.  To 
Tasso  everything  came  amiss.  He  had  the  palaces  of 
princes,  cardinals,  patriarchs,  nay  popes,  always  open  to 
him.  Yet  he  could  rest  in  none.  "To  rest  would  have 
been  so  easy,  had  he  possessed  the  temperament  of  Berni 
or  of  Horace.  But  he  was  out  of  joint  with  the  world. 
No  sensuous  comforts,  no  tranquillity  of  living,  soothed 
his  vexed  soul.  Gradually,  in  spite  of  all  veneration  for 
the  sacer  vales,  he  made  himself  the  laughingstock  and 
bore  of  Italy. 

His  health  grew  ever  feebler  and  his.  genius  dimmer. 
In  1592  he  gave  to  the  public  a  revised  version  of  the 
Gerusalemme.  It  was  called  the  Gervsalemme  Conqnistata. 
All  that  made  the  poem  of  his  early  manhood  charming 
he  rigidly  erased  The  versification  was  degraded  ,  the 
heavier  elements  of  the  plot  underwent  a  dull  rhetorical 
development.  During  the  same  year  a  prosaic  composition 
in  Italian  blank  verse,  called  Le  Selte  Gtornale,  saw  the 
light.  Nobody  reads  it  now  We  only  mention  it  as 
oiie  of  Tasso's  dotages — a  dreary  amplification  of  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis. 

It  is  singular  that  just  in  these  years,  when  mental 
disorder,  physical  weakness,  and  decay  of  inspiration 
seemed  dooming  Tnsso  to  oblivion,  his  old  age  was  cheered 
with  brighter  rays  of  hope.  Clement  VIII.  ascended 
'the  papal  chair  in  1592.  He  and  his  nephew.  Cardinal 
Aldo.brandini  of  St  Giorgio,  determined  to  befriend  our 
poet.  In  1594  they  invited  him  to  Rome.  There  he  was 
to  assume  the  crown  of  bays,  as  Petrarch  had  assumed  it, 
on  the  Capitol.     Lean  and  worn  out  with  sickness,  ready  to 


T  A  S  — T  A  S 


70 


totter  into  the  tomb,  where  rest  might  ;n>s.^ibly  be  found, 
Tasso  reached  Horuc  in  November  The  ceremony  of  his 
■coronation  was  deferred  because  Cardinal  Aldobrandini 
had  fallen  ill.  But  the  pope  assigned  him  a  pension  ;  and, 
under  the  pressure  of  pontifical  remonstrance,  Prince  Avel- 
lino,  who  held  Tasso's  maternal  estate,  agreed  to  discharge 
a  portion  of  his  claims  by  payment  of  a  yearly  rent-charge. 
.\t  no  time  since  Tasso  left  St  Anna  had  the  heavens 
apparently  so  smiled  upon  him.  Capitolian  honours  and 
money  were  now  at  his  disposal.  Yet  this  good  fortune 
came  too  late.  It  seemed  as  though  fate  had  decided 
that  this  man,  in  all  his  weakness  of  character  and 
pathetic  grace  of  genius,  should  win  the  stern  fame  of 
martyrdom.  Both  laurel  wreath  and  wealth  must  be 
withdrawn  from  him.  Before  the  crown  was  worn  or  the 
pensions  paid  he  ascended  to  the  convent  of  St  Onofrio, 
on  a  stormy  1st  day  of  April  in  159.^.  Seeing  a  cardinal's 
coach  toil  up  the  steep  Trasteverine  HiJI,  those  good  monks 
came  to  the  door  to  greet  it.  From  the  carriage  stepped 
Tasso,  the  Odysseus  of  many  wanderings  and  miseries,  the 
singer  of  sweetest  strains  still  vocal,  and  told  the  prior  he 
was  come  to  die  with  him. 

In  St  Onofrio  he  died,  on  the  25th  of  April  of  that  year 
1595.  He  was  just  past  fifty-one  ;  and  the  last  twenty 
years  of  his  existence  had  been  practically  and  artistically 
ineffectual.  At  the  age  of  thirty-one  the  Germnlemme,  as 
we  have  it,  was  8iccomplbhed.  The  world  too  was  already 
ringing  with  the  music  of  Aminta,  More  than  this  Tasso 
had  not  to  give  to  literature.  But  those  succeeding  years 
-of  derangement,  exile,  imprisonment,  poverty,  and  hope 
deferred  endear  the  man  to  us.  Elegiac  and  queridous  as 
be  must  always  appear,  we  yet  love  Tasso  better  because 
he  suffered  through  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  of  slow 
dechne  and  unexplained  misfortune. 

Taken  altogether,  the  best  complete  edition  of  Tasso's  writings 
is  that  of  Rosini  (Pisa),  in  33  vols.  The  prose  works  (in  2  vols., 
Florence,  Le  Mourner,  1875)  and  the  letters  (in  5  vols.,  same  pub- 
lishers, 1853)  have  been  admirably  edited  by  Cesarc  Guasti.  fhis 
edition  of  Tasso  s  Letters  forms  by  far  the  most  valuable  source  for 
his  biography.  No  student  can,  however,  orait  to  use  the  romantic 
memoir  attributed  to  Tasso's  friend  Marchese  Manso  (printed  in 
Rosini's  edition  of  Tasso's  works  above  riled),  and  the  important 
P'iUi  di  T(rrqu/it<i  Tasso  by  Serassi  (Bergamo,  1790).  To  give  any- 
thing like  a  complete  account  of  more  recent  critical  and  bio- 
graphical Tasso  Utcrat"'  ,•  is  impossible  within  the  limits  of  this 
srticle  (J    A.  S  ) 

TASSON'I,  AuESSANDRO,  Italian  poet,  was  a  native  of 
Modena,  where  he  was  bom  in  1565,  and  where  he  died 
in  1635  From  1.^99  till  1608  he  was  secretary  to 
Cardinal  Ascanio  Colonna,  and  in  this  capacity  saw  some 
diplomatic  service  ,  he  was  afterwards  employed  for  some 
time  in  similar  occupations  by  Charles  Emmanuel  duke  of 
Savoy  His  best-known  hterary  work  is  a  burle.«que  epic 
entitled  La  Searhia  RrijnUj,  or  "  The  Rape  of  the  Bucket  ' 
(1622),  the  reference  being  to  a  raid  of  the  Modenese  upon 
the  people  of  Bologn.^  in  1325,  when  a  bucket  was  carried 
off  as  a  trophy.  As  in  Butler's  ffudibras,  many  of  the 
personal  and  local  allusions  in  this  poem  are  now  very 
obscure,  and  are  apt  to  seem  somewhat  pointless  to  the 
general  reader,  but,  in  spite  of  Voltaire's  contempt,  it 
cannot  be  neglected  by  ai.y  systematic  student  of  Italian 
literatuij  (compare  vol.  xii.  p.  512).  Other  characteristic 
works  ol  Tassoni  are  nis  Peiisirri  Direrst  (1612),  in  which 
he  treats  philosophical,  literary  historical,  and  scientific 
question?  with  unusual  freedom,  and  hia  Cons<derazioni 
sopra  il  Petrarcha  (1609),  a  piece  of  criticism  showing 
great  independence  of  traditional  views. 

TASTE  is  the  sensation  referred  to  the  month  when 
certain  soluble  substances  are  brought  into  contact  with 
the  mucous  membrane  of  that  cavity.  The  sense  is  located 
almost  entirely  in  the  tongue.  Three  •distinct  sensations 
ore  referable  to  the  tongue— (1)  taste,  (2)  touch,  and  (3) 


temperature  The  posterior  part  of  its  surface,  where 
there  is  a  A-sh,\pcd  group  of  large  papilla;,  called  cirrum- 
vallate  papill.e,  supplied  by  the  glosso-pharyngeal  nerve, 
and  the  tip  and  margins  of  the  tongue,  covered  with 
filiform  (touch)  papilla;  and  fungiform  papilla;,  are  the 
chief  localities  where  taste  is  manifested,  but  it  also  exists 
in  the  glosso-palatine  arch  and  the  lateral  part  of  the  soft 
f)alate.  The  middle  of  the  tongue  and  the  surface  of  the 
hard  palate  are  devoid  of  taste.  The  terminal  organs  of 
taste  consist  of  peculiar  bodies  named  taste-bulbs  or  taste- 
goblets,  discovered  by  Schwalbe  and  Lovtnin  1867.  They 
can  be  most  easily  demonstrated  in  the  papilUe  foUalse, 
large  oval  prominences  found  on  each  side  near  the  base 
of  the  tongue  in  the  rabbit.  Each  papilla  consists  of  a 
series  of  lamina;  or  folds,  in  the  sides  of  which  the  taste- 
bodies  are  readily  displayed  in  a  transverse  section.  Taste- 
bodies  are  also  found  on  the  lateral  aspects  of  the  circum- 
vallate  papillae  (see  fig.  1),  in  the  fungiform  papilla;,  in  the 


Flo.  1.— Transveme  section  of  a  clrcniEvallato  paplUa :  W,  the  papilla.  9,  c,  the 
wall  In  section  ,  R,  R.  the  drcalar  sUt  or  fossa  ;  K,  K,  the  taste-bulbs  lo  posi- 
tion ,  N.  N,  the  nerves    The  figures  are  Irom  Landois  and  Stirling  s  PhyiwJogy. 

papilla?  of  the  soft  palate  and  uvula,  the  under  surface  oJ 
the  epiglottis,  the  upper  part  of  the  posterior  surface  of 
the  epiglottis,  the  inner 
sides  of  the  arytenoid  car- 
tilages, and  even  in  the 
vocal  cords 

The  taste-bulbs  are  min- 
ute oval  bodies,  somewhat 
like  an  old  fashioned  Flo- 


rence flask,  about 


inch 


in  length  by  ^-^  in  breadth. 
Elach  consists  of  two  sets  of 
cells, — an  outer  set,  nucle- 
ated, fusiform,  bent  like 
the  staves  of  a  barrel,   and 


arranged  side  by  side  so  as  "Urou^uT.S!'"^'^' 
to  leave  a  small  opening  at        " 


D,  sapponlng 
K   under  end     E  fre^ 
Dd.  open   with  the  vrr^iec'ini:  .ipices  of 
.1  ,.,  ^,        [  ^,  the  taste-cells 

the  apex  (tbe  mOUttl  ol   tbe  Fig  .3  -</.  isolated  protective  ten    «,  tajte- 

barrel),callcd  the  gustatory     "" 

pore  ;  and  an  mner  set,  five  to  ten  in  number,  lying  in 
the  centre,  pointed  at  the  end  next  the  gustatory  pore, 
and  branched  at  the  other  extremity  The  branched  ends 
are  continuous  with  non-medullated  nerve  fibres  from  the 
gustatory  nerve.  These  taste-bodies  are  found  in  immense 
numbers:  as  many  as  1760  have  been  counted  on  one 
circumvallale  papilla  in  the  ox.  They  are  ab.sent  in  rrp- 
tilea  and  birds  F.  E.  Schultze  slates  that  they  exi>t  in 
the  month  of  the  tadpole,  whilst  the  tongue  of  the  frog 
18  covered  with  epithelium  resembUng  that  of  tbe  gu-tatory 
bodies-  Leydig  has  described  organs  having  a  ,-imilar 
structure  in  tbe  skins  of  freshwater  fishes  and  the  tadpole 
these  may  possibly  be  widely  distributed  taste  organs  Tbe 
proofs  that  these  are  the  terminal  organs  of  taste  rest  on 
careful  observations  which  have  shown  (1)  that  taste  is 
only  experienced  when  the  sapid  substance  is  allowed  t-o 
come  into  contact  with  the  taste-body,  and  that  the  sensa 


80 


T  A  T  — T  A  T 


13  absent  or  much  weakened  in  those  areas  of  mucous 
membrane  where  these  are  deficient ;  (!')  that  they  are 
most  abundant  where  the  sense  is  most  acute ;  and  (3) 
that  section  of  the  glosso  phiryngeal  nerve  which  is  known 
to  be  distributed  to  the  areas  of  mucous  membrane  where 
taste  is  present  is  followed  by  degeneration  of  the  taste- 
bodies.  At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  asserted  that  they 
are  absolutely  essential  to  taste,  as  we  can  hardly  suppose 
that  those  animals  which  have  no  special  taste-bodies  are 
devoid  of  the  sense. 

Taste  is  no  doubt  closely  allied  to  smell ;  lience  in 
invertebrates  organs  are  found  that  may  be  referred  to 
either  of  the  senses  (see  Smell).  Tastes  have  been  vari- 
ously classified.  One  of  the  most  useful  classifications 
is  into  sweet,  bitter,  acid,  and  saline  tastes.  To  excite 
the  sensation,  substances  must  be  soluble  in  the,  fluid  of 
the  mouth.  Insoluble  substances,  when  brought  into 
contact  with  the  tongue,  give  rise  to  feelings  of.  touch 
or  of  temperature,  but  excite  no  taste.  The  specific  mode 
of  action  of  sapid  substances  is  quite  unknown.  The 
extent  of  surface  acted  on  increases  the  massiveness  of  ths 
sensation,  whilst  the  intensity  is  affected  by  the  degree  of 
concentration  of  the  solution  of  the  sapid  substance.  If 
solutions  of  various  substances  are  gradually  diluted  with 
water  until  no  taste  is  experienced,  Valentine  found  that 
the  sensations  of  taste  disappeared  in  the  following  order — 
syrup,  sugar,  common  salt,  aloes,  quinine,  sulphuric  acid; 
and  Camerer  found  that  the  taste  of  quinine  still  con- 
tinued although  diluted  with  twenty  times  more  water 
than  common  salt.  Von  Viiitschgau  found  that  the  time 
required  to  excite  taste  after  the  sapid  substance  was 
placed  on  the  tongue  varied.  Thus  .saline  matters  are 
tasted  most  rapidly  ('l"  second);  then  sweet,  acid,  and 
bitter  (-253  second).  This  is  probably  duo  to  the  activity 
of  diffusion  of  the  substance.  No  relation  between  the 
chemical  constitution  of  the  substance  and  the  nature  of 
the  taste  excited  by  it  has  yet  been  discovered,  and  there 
are  many  curious  examples  of  substances  of  very  different 
chemical  constitutions  having  similar  tastes.  For  example, 
sugar,  acetate  of  lead,  and  the  vapour  of  chloroform  have 
all  a  sweetish  taste.  A  temperature  of  ifrom  50°  to  90° 
F.  is  the  most  favourable  to  the  sense,  water  above  or 
below  this  temperature  either  masking  or  temporarily 
paralysing  it.  Taste  is  often  associated  with  smell,  giving 
rise  to  a  sensation  of  flavour,  and  we  are  frequently  in 
the  habit  of  confounding  the  one  sensation  with  the  other. 
Chloroform  excites  taste  alone,  whilst  garlic,  asafa'tida, 
and  vanilla  excite  only  smell.  This  is  illustrated  by  the 
familiar  experiment  of  blindfolding  a  person  and  touch- 
ing the  tongue  successively  with  slices  of  an  npple  and  of 
an  onion.  In  these  circumstances  the  one  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  when  the  no<^e,  is  firmly  closed. 
No  doubt  also  experience  aid.s  in  detfctin^  ^light  differ- 
ences of  taste  by  suggesting  to  the  mind/ what  may  be 
expected  ;  it  is  not  easy,  for  instance,  to  distinguish  the 
tastes  of  red  and  white  wine  when  the  eyes  are  Mind- 
folded.  Taste  may  be  educated  to  a  rcmarkablo  extent ; 
and  careful  observation — along  with  tlie  practice  of  avoid- 
ing all  substaiices  liaving  a  very  pronounced  l.iste.or 
liaving  an  irritating  effect  — enables  tea  tasters  and  wine- 
tasters  to  detect  slight  differences  of  taste,  more  especially 
when  combined  with  odour  so  as  to  produce  llnvonr.  which 
would  be  quite  inapjireciablc  to  .in  ordinary  palate.  As  to 
tlie  action  of  electrical  currents  on  taste,  observer.s  have 
arrived  at  uncertain  results.  So  long  ago  as  IT."!-  Sulzer 
stated  that  a  constant  current  caused,  more  especially  at 
the  moments  of  opening  and  of  closing  the  current,  a  ,sen- 
Bation  of  acidity  at  the  anode  (-t-  pole)  and  of  alkalinity 
at  the  katode  (-  pole).  This  is  in  all  probability  due  to 
electrolysis,  the  dL'comi>osition  products  exciting  tlic  taste- 


bodies.  Oriinhagen  found  that  tapidly  intatrhpted  cilrrents 
fail  to  excite  the  sense ;  Von  Vintschgau,  who  liaa  directed 
much  attention  to  the  sense  of  taste,  says  that  when  the 
tip  of  his  tongue  is  traversed  by  a  current  there  is  only  a 
tactile  sensation.  Again  Honigschmied,'  on  the  contrary,' 
found  that  a  current  excited  the  metallic  or  acid  taste  at 
the  anode  placed  on  the  tip  of  tlie  tongue,  whilst  the  alka- 
line taste  of  the  katode  was  absent.  The  writer  of  this 
article  has  found  that  this  is  the  experience  of  most  persons 
examined  by  him. 

Disease  of  the  tongue  causing  unnatural  dryness  may 
interfere  with  taste.  Substances  circulating  in  the  blood 
may  give  rise  to  subjective  sensations  of  taste.  Thus 
santonine,  morphia,  and  biliary  products  (as  in  jaundice) 
usually  cause  a  bitter  sensation,  whilst  the  sufferer  from 
diabetes  is  distressed  by  a  persistent  sweetish  taste.  The 
insane  frequently  have  subjective  tastes,  'which  are  real 
to  the  patient,  and  frequently  cause  njuch  distress.  In 
such  cases,  the  sensation  is  excited  by  changes  in  the 
taste-centres  of  the  brain.  Increase  in  the  sense  of  taste 
is  called  hypergeusia,  diminution  of  it  /ii/pogcusia,  and  its 
entire  loss  ageusia.  Rare  cases  occur  where  there  is  a 
subjective  taste  not  associated  with  insanity  nor  with  the 
circulation  of  any  known  sweetish  matters  in  the  blood, 
pos.sibly  caused  by  irritation  of  the  gustatory  nerves  or  by 
changes  in  the  nerve  centres. 

As  to  tlie  compnr.itive  anntoiny^of  the  tongue,  sec  Owen's  Com- 
pnnUivc  ylunt0}ntj  (ind  r/njsioforri/  of  I'crtcbratcs  (London,  18G8). 
Tor  i>  full  account  of  llic  pliy-iology  of  t.iste,  see  Von  Vintschgau'j 
nrticle  "Ccsehiuackssiiiii,"  in  J/a-maHii's  JIuiidbuch dcr  Physiologic, 
vol.  iii.  part  ii.  (J.  G.  M.) 

TATAKS.     See  Tartars. 

TATi;,  Nahum  (1C52-1715),  poet-laureate,  -was  born 
in  1C52  in  Dublin,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College 
there.  Ho  afterwards  removed  to  London,  and  adopted 
literature  a.s  a  profession,  succeeding  Sliadwe!'  as  poet- 
laurcate  in  1G02.  He  died  with.. i  the  precincts  of  the 
Mint,  Southwark  (whither  he  had  taken  refuge  from  his 
debtors),  August  12,  1715. 

His  name  is  still  roniembcred  in  iiunncsion  with  the  A'cw  Version 
of  Die  PMims  nf  Pm-id,  wliioli,  in  conjunction  with  Nicholas 
liuAiiv  (.;.!■.),  lij  jiubiish.'.!  in  1690  (si-e  HvM.vs,  vol.  xii.  p.  590). 
Tate  was  also  tlic  .author  of  some  tni  dramatic  jiieccs  (sec  Biogr.' 
])iamnlicn,  i.  703)  and  a  gre.it  nnuibir  of  poems,  including  ona 
entitled  The  liutoaid  Ejiiewe,  or  The  Arlof  Jnijling  (1697). 

TATIAN,  one  of  the  earliest  Christian  apologists,  whose 
personality  and  work  had  an  important  influence  on  the 
liistory  of  the  church  during  the  period  of  ihe  Antonires. 
He  w.as  by  birth  an  Assyrian  (according  to  Zahn  of  Sem- 
itic descent),  but  received  a  Greek  education,  and,  after 
acquiring  a  very  extensive  knowledge  of  Greek  literature, 
began  to  travel  about  the  Konian  empire  as  a  wandering 
teacher  or  "soptiist.",  But  his  inquiring  disposition  and 
his  earnest  spirit  remained  unsatisfied  alike  with  the 
religions  and  the  philosophies  he  encountered,  while  the 
doirigs  of  men,  their  greed  for  amusement  and  pleasure, 
their  vanity  .and  treachery,  disgusted  him.  In  this  tem- 
per, about  l.'iO  .\.n.,  he  readied  Rome,  where  the  Old  Testa- 
ment fell  into  his  hands;  aiid  at  the  same  time  he  came 
into  clo.ser  relations  with  the  Christians  ;  their  firm  faith, 
cha>te  morals,  fearless  courage,  and  close  fellowship  dee|ily 
impressed  him,  and  in  the  end  the  spectacle  of  their  life 
and  their  monotheistic  doctrine  founded  upon  proiihetic 
revelation  completely  conquered  him.  Henceforward  the 
whole  unchristian  world,  with  all  its  philosophy  and 
culture,  presented  itself  to  him  as  mere  darkness  and  the 
decci.ti.ui  of  demons,  but  the  "  barbarian  philosophy  "  (for 
so  he  called  Christianity)  as  the  wisdom  of  God.  He 
became  a  convert,  and  soon  afterwards  (l.'i2-l.')3)  w^rote 
(most  probably  in  Greece,  where  he  stayed  for  some  time) 
his  Oralio  ml   GrMos,  which   gained   liini  great   repute 


T  A  T  I  A  N 


81 


&moag  the  Christians,  and  is  still  extant.  This  discourse 
is  distinguished  from  the  other  apologies  oi  that  century 
by  the  brusqueness  with  which  its  author  repudiates  the 
culture  of  the  Greeks ;  his  scorn,  however,  does  not  forget 
to  avail  itself  of  the  resources  of  Greek  philosophy  and 
rhetoric.  His  polemic  often  reminds  the  reader  of  the 
Cynics  and  of  such  scoffers  as  Lucian  ;  his  view  of  things, 
however,  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  las^named 
writer,  for  with  Tatian  the  "  barbarian  philosophy,  "  on 
behalf  of  which  he  speaks,  which  teaches  a  monotheistic 
cosmology  and  inculcates  rigid  asceticism  and  renunciation 
of  the  world,  is  indisputably  cert;.'  In  many  details, 
and  even  in  the  general  outUne  of  his  philosophy,  Tatian 
the  Christian  continued  without  knowing  it  to  be  a  Plalon- 
izing  philosopher ;  but  that  he  had  undergone  a  radical 
change  is  shown  by  his  views  of  history  and  civilization, 
his  faith  in  one  living  God,  his  conviction  that  truth  is 
contained  nowhere  else  than  in  the  Christian  Scriptures, 
his  attitude  of  trust  towards  the  Logos,  made  man  in  Jesus 
Christ,  and  finally  by  his  earnest  and  world-forsaking 
expectation  of  judgment  to  come.  The  Oratw,  which  is 
polemical  rather  than  apologetic  in  its  character,  has  a 
special  importance  in  the  history  of  Christian  dogma,  inas- 
much as  it  gives  an  elaborated  exposition  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Logos ;  it  was  also  read  by  subsequent  writers,  as, 
for  example,  by  Julius  Afncanus,  for  its  chronological 
data.  Tatian  was  the  first  apologist  to  undertake,  on  be- 
half of  Christianity,  a  work  of  the  class  which  afterwards 
'developed  into  the  numerous  "world-histories"  written 
from  the  Christian  point  of  view.  Tatian's  diction  is 
often  rough,  harsh,  and  abrupt,  his  sentences  involved 
and  inelegant.  He  has  the  art,  indeed,  of  expressing  him- 
^If  with  uncommon  freedom  and  independence,  and  can 
put  things  also  in  a  very  graphic  way,  but  at  the  same 
time  he  is  a  careless  stylist,  or  rather,  as  an  apostate  from 
the  Greek  view  of  things,  he  has  tried  to  accentuate  his 
breach  with  classical  traditions  by  elaborate  carelessness 
and  deliberate  eccentricity. 

Tatian  soon  returned  from  Greece  to  Rome,  and  came 
into  close  relations  with  the  famous  apologist  Justin, 
whom  he  reverenced  greatly.  He  himself  established  a 
«chool,  to  which  the  afterwards  celebrated  ecclesiastical 
writer  Rhodon  belonged  for  a  time.  So  long  as  Justin 
lived  (i.f.,  till  166)  Tatian's  doctrines  excited  no  feelings 
of  offence  in  the  Christian  community,  although  even  in 
his  Oratio  there  are  germs  of  questionable  and  unorthodox 
views.  These  germs,  however,  he  continued  to  develop 
until  about  172  ,  and,  as  about  this  very  time  the  Roman 
church  became  severely  opposed  to  everything  Gnostic 
and  heretical,  a  rupture  was  inevitable  ,  the  date  of  the 
breach  is  given  by  Eusebius  (doubtless  following  Julius 
Afncanus)  as  having  been  172.  But  the  teaching  of 
Tatian  had  really  become  open  to  challenge.  He  drew  a 
distinction  between  the  supreme  God  and  the  demiurge, 
cooaidering  the  latter  to  be  good  in  his  natore  indeed, 
but  quite  a  subordmate  being  ;  he  accepted  the  doctrine 
of  a  variety  of  aeons  ;  he  utterly  rejected  marnage  and  the 
use  of  animal  food  ;  he  denied  the  blessedness  of  Adam  ; 
he  began  to  abandon  the  allegorical  interpretation  of  the 
Scriptures  and  to  see  genuins  difficulties  and  contradic 
tions  in  them ;  he  sought  to  demonstrate  from  the  epistles 
of  Paul  the  indispensableness  of  the  most  rigid  asceticism  ; 
but  indeed  all  his  "  heresies  "  (and  he  has  also  been  charged 
with  docetism)  have  their  explanation  in  this  desire  of  his 
to  establish  a  theoretical  basis  for  his  doctrine  of  the 
Christian  duty  of  complete  world-renunciation.  He  joined 
the  "  Encratites,"  a  sect  which  indeed  had  existed  before 
tilis  time,  but  which  received  new  life  from  his  presence. 
Of  his  numerous  writings  belonging  to  this  period  nothing 
ias  survived  the  hostility  which  sought  their  repression 
2.i— 6 


save  a  few  titles  {/Si^SA/oe  TrpopKrjfjidTuiv,  wtpl  toO  xara  tov 
o-tuT^pa  KarapTurfiov,  &c.)  and  one  or  two  very  interesting 
fragments  iu  the  works  of  Clemeut  of  Alexandria,  Origen, 
and  Jerome.  Clement  of  Alexandria  seems  personally  to 
have  known  Tatian,  and  even  to  have  been  his  pupil  for  a 
time.  Soon  Taiian  began  also  to  be  assailed  in  writing  by 
the  teachers  of  the  church,  and  to  be  set  aside  as  a  very 
prodigy  among  heretics,  and  as  a  man  who  united  the  errors 
of  Marcion  with  those  of  Valentine.  Musanus,  Rhodon, 
Irenseus,  the  author  of  the  Muratorian  fragment  (see 
below),  Tertullian,  Hippolytus.  Clemeut  of  Alexandria, 
and  Origen  all  took  part  in  refuting  him. 

Towards  the  end  of  his  'life,  or  perhaps  even  between 
152  and  172,  Tatian  went  from  Rome  to  Mesopotamia, 
and  there — probably  in  Edessa — wrought  a  great  deal. 
It  is  probable  that  he  was  in  Rome  about  the  year  172, 
but  whether  he  died  there  or  in  his  native  country  is  not 
ascertained.  It  is  very  possib.j  that  in  Syria,  where 
ecclesiastical  matters  had  not  been  developed  so  far  as  in 
the  West,  the  doctrines  of  Tatian  met  with  toleration 
within  the  Christian  communities,  but  neither  of  this 
can  we  be  certain.'  But  this  we  do  know,  that  a  work 
of  Tatian's  not  yet  mentioned,  the  DiaUssaron,  held  its 
ground  in  the  Syrian  churches  and  even  in  ecclesiastical 
use  for  two  whole  centuries. 

The  Ihatessaron  is  a  gospul  very  freely  and  boldly  constructed  by 
Tatian  out  of  the  four  Gospels  kno^vn  to  us.  It  cannot  have  been 
produced  during  bis  latter  years,  for  all  traces  of  dualism  ar© 
absent.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  exhibits  certain  peculiar- 
ities of  the  theology  of  iti  compiler.  Probably  one  would  not  be 
far  wrong  in  assigning  it  to  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aurelius.  It  was  written  by  Tatian  in  Greek,  not  in  Synac  as 
Zahn  has  tried  to  make  out.  this  is  shown — (1)  by  the  title,  it 
being  known  eveii  among  the  Syrians  as  Dialessaron  ,  (2)  by  a  few 
Greek  fragments  which  still  survive;  (3)  by  the  Latin  redaction 
which  it  received  in  the  6th  century;  (4)  by  its  rejection  in  the 
Muratorian  fragment— for  that  the  word  "  m-tia-i,"  carelessly  cor- 
rected by  the  transcriber,  stood  originally  "  tatiani "  may  be 
regarded  as  certain.  ^  In  estimating  the  work  scholars  were  formerly 
entirely  dependent  on  certain  meagre  notices  in  Eusebius,  Theodoret, 
Enhraem  Syrus,  Epiphanius,  and  the  later  Syrians,'  but  we  have 
recently  become  possessed  of  large  portions  of  it,  and  are  now  in 
a  position  to  form  for  ourselves  an  idea  of  its  character  and  plan. 
In  1877  there  was  published*  a  l,atin  translation,  by  Aucher  the 
Mechitarist,  of  Ephraem's  gospel  commentary,  which  had  been  pre- 
served in  Armenian,  and  it  then  became  apparent  that  Ephraem 
had  taken  the  Dialessaron  as  his  basis.  This  led  to  further  research.' 
Recognizing  with  other  scholars  that  other  Syrian  writers  also, 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  4th  century,  had  used  the  Diatessaron 
(Theodoret  tells  us  that  in  his  diocese  alone  he  caused  more  than 
300  copies  to  be  withdrawn  from  use),  Zahn  undertook  the  labo- 
rious task  of  restoring  the  work  with  the  help  of  Ephraem's  com- 
mentary and  other  sources.'  In  details  much  of  what  Zahn  has 
given  as  belonging  to  the  text  of  the  Diatessaron  remains  problem- 
atical,-—m  particular  he  has  not  been  sufficiently  careful  in  his 
examination  of  the  work  of  Aphraates,— but  in  all  the  main  points 
his  restoration  has  been  successful.  The  rediscovery  of  such  a 
work  is  in  a  vanety  of  ways  of  the  very  highest  importance  for 
the  early  history  of  Christianity.  (1)  It  is  of  interest  for  the  history 
of  the  canon.  It  shows  that  in 'Tatii.n's  time  there  was  still  no 
recognized  New  Testament  canon,  and  that  the  texts  of  the  Gospels 
were  not  regarded  as  inspired.  He  could  not  possibly  have  treated 
them  with  such  freedom  had  they  been  held  to  be  otherwise.  But 
the  ecclesiastical  use  made  of  his  work  in  Syria  shows  that  Tatian 
intended  it  fur  the  church,  and,  as  we  are  informed  further  by 
Eusebius  that  Tatian  also  edited  the  Pauline  epistles,  we  are  entitled 
to  conclude  that,  like  Marcion,  he  wished  to  frame  a  special  New 
Testament  canon.  (2)  It  is  of  importance  for  the  Gospels  as  we 
now  have  them.  We  learn  from  the  Ihatessaron  that  about  160 
A  D  our  four  Gospels  had  already  taken  a  place  of  prominence  in 
the  church  and  that  no  others  had  done  so;  that  in  particular  the 
Fourth    Gospel  haJ    taken  a  fixed    place   alongside  of  the  three 

'  The  author  of  the  Acta  Archtlai  treats  him  as  a  heretic. 

'  See  Zeilschr  /.  d.  luth.  Theol.,  1874  and  1875,  ZeiUchr./  wist. 
Theol.,  1877;  Zeilschr  /.  Rirchengtsch, ,  m.  p.  400. 

'  See  Credner,  KM.,  i.  437  sq.\  Semisch,  Taliani  Diatessaron, 
1856 

*  Evangdii  ConcordarUis  Exposiiio  facta  a  S.  Bphraemo,  Ventee. 

'  See  Harnaik,  ZUchr.  /.  Kirchengesch.,  iv.  p.  471  sq. 
*  Zahn,  Tatian's  DvUessoron,  1881. 

XXIIL  —  u 


82 


T  A  T  —  T  A  U 


synoptics.  (3)  As  regards  the  text  of  the  Gospels,  we  can  conclude 
from  the  Dkdcisami  that  the  texts  of  our  Gosiiels  about  the  year 
160  already  ran  essentially  as  we  now  read  tliem,  but  that  inten- 
tional ghaufcs  were  not  wanting  about  the  middle  of  the  2d  century. 
Thus,  for  example,  Tatian  in  his  Gospel  according  to  Matthew  found 
nothing  about  the  ' '  church  "  and  about  the  buildiKg  of  the  church 
upon  Peter  the  rock.  These  sentences  therefore  are  very  probably 
of  later  interpolation.  (4)  It  is  of  importance  for  tlio  light  it  throws 
on  Talian's  Christianity.  The  Syriac  translation  of  the  Diatessaron 
still  falls  within  the  2d  ce-ntury,  but  Zalin  was  mistaken  in  assum- 
ing it  to  presuppose  a  prior  Syriac  translation  of  the  separate 
Gospels  (the  so-called  Syrus  Cun-toiiianus) ;  Baetiigen  has  shown 
the  latter  to  be  the  later.  It  was  only  gradually  that  the 
"evangeliura  der  Getrennteu"  superseded  the  "  evangehum  Ocf 
Geniischten."' 

Tlie  best  editions  ot  tlie  Oralio  ad  Orxcos  are  ttiose  of  Worth  (Oitford,  1,00), 
Marinus  (Paris,  1742),  and  Otto  <Jena,  1851).  See  Daniel,  T.^''''l'J"wP'Z''- 
1837;  Zahn,  TaJian'.  ili<i(«s<.ron,  .ErlaiiRcn,  1S31  (compare  a^o  his  Eiang.- 
Cmm.  des    TMopMus.  Erlaneen,  1883,  p.  286  ,,,.);  Ha.nack,  Telle  u     Vnter- 

«nd  Tatians  Rede  an  die  Oruchen  UbersetU  u  e,«gele,el.  Giessen,  1884 ,  Hllgen- 
ield.  Kettergeseh.,  Leipsic^  1884;  Mijller, art.  -Tut.an  m  Herzog-PUtt  s  BnyU.. 
Tol   IV  -.  and  Donaldson.  Uiit.  oj  Christ.  Lit.,  lii.  p.  3-62.  (A.  HA.) 


TATIUS,  Achilles.     SeeRoMANi;E,  vol.  xk.  p-  635  sq. 
TAULER,  JbHANN  (c.  1300-1361),  was  born  about  the 
year  1300  in  Strasburg,  where  his  father  was  a  wealthy 
burgher.     It  is  probable  that  he  entered  the  Dominican 
convent  in   his  native  city  about   the  year    1313,  while 
Meister  Eckhan   was  still   professor   of  theology  (1312- 
1320)  in  the  monastery  school.     From  Strasburg  he  went 
to  the  Dominican  college  of  Cologne,  and  some  believe  that 
his  superiors  sent  him  a  few  years  later   to  St  James's 
College,     Paris.     After     his    theological    education    was 
finished   he   returned  to  Strasburg.      In    1324   the  pope 
placed  under  an  interdict  these  parts  of  Germany,  including 
Strasburg,  which  supported  the  excommunicated  emperor 
Louis  of  Bavaria.     It  was  one  of  the  privileges  of  the 
Dominican  and  Franciscan  orders  to  be  allowed  to  perform 
religious  services  when  the  secular  and  all  other  regular 
clergy  were  silenced  by  an  interdict.    The  Dominican  order, 
however,  had  taken  the  side  of    Frederick,  and  in  most 
places  refused  to  say  mass  ;  but  in  Strasburg  they  remained 
in  the  deserted  city,  kept  their  churches  open,  and  admin- 
istered to  the  citizens  the  consolations  of  religion.     It  is 
supposed  that  this  conduct  of  the  Strashurg  Dominicans 
was  due  to  the  influence  of  Tauler.     In  1339  the  heads  of 
the  order  interfered,  and  commanded  the  monks  to  close 
their  churches.     The  town  council  in  return  banished  the 
Dominicans   from  the  city.      Tauler,  with   some   of   his 
brethren,  found  refuge  in  Basel,  although  that  city,  like 
Strasburg,  sided  with  the  emperor.     During  theSe  years 
Basel  was  the   headquarters  of   the  "  Friends   of    God  " 
{Gottesfreunde,    see   Mysticism,  vol.   xvii.    p.    133),    and 
Tauler   was   brought   into    intimate    relations   with    the 
members  of  that  pious  mystical  fellowship.     He  returned 
to  Strasburg  probsibly  in  the  year  1346.     It  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  trace  his  later  life.     The  Black  Death  came  to 
Strasburg  in  1348,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that,  when 
the  city  was  deserted  by  all  who  could  leave  it,  Tauler 
remained  at  his  post,  encouraging  by  sermons  and  personal 
visitations  his  terror-stricken    fellow-citizens.     His   corre- 
spondence   with    distinguished    members   of   the   Gottes- 
freunde,  especially  with  Margaretha  Ebner,  and  the  fame 
of  his  preaching  and  other  work  in  Strasburg,  had  made. 
him  known  throughout  a  wide  circle  of  pious  people.     He 
seems  to  have  made  preaching  journeys,  in  the  later  years 
of  his  life,  to  Cologne  and  to  other  places  in  the  Rhine- 
land.     He  died  in  the  year.  1361. 

>  EvangdieiifragmmU::  Der  Oritchische  Text  des  Curetontchen 
Syrers,  Leipsic,  1865. 

«  On  the  Diatessaron,  ita  later  history  and  vanous  editions,  see 
(besides  Zahn,  as  cited  above)  the  Coilex  Fuklmsis,  ed.  Ranke,  186a  ; 
Schmeller,  Anvionii  Aim.  gti/e  ct  Tatiani  diritur  Hanrwma  hmng., 
18«!  ^w-^ett,  Tatian,  Lat.  andGer.,  Paderborn,  1872;  Martin,  Ue 
Tatiani  Diatessaron  Arabioa  Veraione,"  in  Viii^aAnalecta.  Sacra,  vol. 
iv.  (1883),  pp.  4G6,  487. 


It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  form  an  estimate  of  the-  religious  life 
and  opinions  of  Tauler.  For  many  years  the  chief  modern  authci  ily 
upon  the  subject  was  the  late  Prof.  C.  Schmidt  of  Strasburg,  ^^hose 
views  had  been  introduced  into  England  in  Miss  Winkv  ortli's 
book  upon  Tauler.  According  to  Schmidt,  Tauler's  religious  life 
divides  into  two  parts,  before  and  after  what  may  be  called  his 
second  conversion.  In  the  first  period  Eckliart  rules  his  religious 
life  ;  iu  the  second  he  is  under  the  inlluence  of  the  mysterious 
"Friend  of  God  in  the  Oberland,"  whom  Schmidt  asserts  to  be 
Nicholas  of  Basel.  Denifle  doubts  the  historical  character  of  lliis 
episode  and  the  genuineness  of  the  book,  ttliile  Preger  admits  Iho 
fact  of  the  fconverbion,  but  refuses  to  identify  tlie  mysterious  stranger 
with  Nicholas  of  Basel. 

It  is  still  fiiore  difficult  to  determine  the  precise  nature  of  the 
theological  opinions  of  Tauler.  Denifie  maintains  tliat  the  only 
genuine  remiiins  of  Tauler  are  the  eighty  well-knowu  Sermons  in- 
cluded in  the  earliest  edition  and  tour  others  in  two  manuscripts, 
all  of  which  bear  Tauler's  name;  Preger  seems  inclined  to  admit  ill 
addition  the  Sermons  in  the  account  of  Tauler's  conversion  ;  both 
critics  exclude  the  famous  Book  of  Spiritual  Poverty.  Schmidt, 
on  the  other  hand,  while  admitting  the  authenticity  of  all  thS 
above-named  sermons,  calls  the  Book  of  Spiritual  Poverty  Tauler's 
masterpiece.  ,    -     - 

If  we  take  the  Sermons  by  themselves,  then  Tauler  s  teachers  in 
theology  were  the  Pseudo-Dionysius,  Augustine,  Gregory,  Bernard, 
the   two  abbots  of  St  Victor,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and,  above  al  , 
Theodoric  of  Freiburg  and  Meister  Eckhjrt.     His   theology  will 
represent  the  purest  and  highest  type  of  German  mysticism  (see 
Mysticism),  and,  by  insisting  upon  personal  relationship  to  God, 
freedom  from  the  thraldom  of  authority,  and  the  worthlessncss  of 
mere  good  works  without  the  renewal  of  the  inward  life,  will  re- 
present a  tendency  in  theology  which  found  full  expression  in  the 
reformation  of  the  16tli  century.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Book 
of  Spiritual  Poverty  bo  included  among  the  genuine  wiitings  of 
Tauler,  then  undoubtedly  his  views  have  more  distinct  conufxion 
with,  that  doctrine  of  the  appropriation  of  tlio  benefits  of  Christ  s 
work  of  redemption  by  an  imitalio  Ohrislt  findiog  expression  in  a 
life  of  evangelical  poverty  which  is  such  a  characteristic  of  the 
religious  life  of  the  century  to  which  he  belonge-f      The  problem 
is  a  very  difficult  one,  and  it  may  be  questineu  whether  wc  are 
vet  in  a  position  to  solve  it.     Denifle  is  undoubtedly  correct  in 
his  statement  that  we  need  critical  texts  of  14th-century  mystical 
wiiters,  and  that  very  great  uncertainty  exists  with  reference  to 
the  authors  of  the  individual  mystical  writings  of  that  period.     It 
may  be  added  that  it  is  very  probable,  when  the  organization  and 
method  of  work  among  the  "Friends  of  God"  are  taken  into  con- 
sideration, that  majiy  mystical  books  of  devotion  were  the  work, 
not  of  one,  but  of  several  authors,  and  that  ;the  conditions  ot  the 
problem  concerning  the  authenticity  of  Tauler's  writings  are  not 
unlike  those  which  exist  among  the  books  and  tracts  asoribed  to 
Wickliffe.     This  at  all  events  may  be  safely  asserted,  that  Tauler  3 
sermons  are  among  the  noblest  in  the  German  language.     1  hey 
are  not  so  emotional  as  Suso's,  nor  so  speculative  as  tckharts,  but 
they  are  intensely  practical,  and  touch  on  all  sides  the  deeper  pro- 
blems of  the  moral  and  spiritual  life. 

Tauler's  Sermms  were  printed  first  at  Lcipsic  In  1498,  and  reprinted  wltb 
addSns'frorETkhart  an^d  o.here  at  Basel  (1621  1,.«)  and  at  Cologne  (1M3). 
Thprp  i,  a  recent  edition  by  Julius  Hambergcr,  Frankfort,  1864.  See  uenine, 
OafLrt  v™  s°.'»™  r^rm.-(A.I877;  Carl  &ci,n,mMannTaukT  vc„  ilras.- 
i/a5  ouc'i  t(»  yi  ■>  TCtnkworth     Tauler  s   Life  and  Sermons;   R.    A. 

Jl5HS2£S^/?^'-^s,=wh:sf  ^^^ 

Tauler,  is  In  the  press. 


TAUNTON,  a  municipal  borough  and  market-town  of 
Somerset,  England,  is  situated  in  the  beautiful  and  fertile 
vale  of  Taunton  Dene,  on  the  river  Tone,  on  the  Taunton 
and  Bridgwater  Canal,  and  on  several  branches  of  the 
Great  Western  Railway,  45  miles  south-south-west  of 
Bristol  31  north-east  of  Exeter,  and  163  west-south-west 
of  London.  The  river  is  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  of 
three  arches.  The  town  is  well  buUt,  the  three  mam 
streets  being  wide  and  regular,  and  meeting  in  a  triangular 
space  in  the  centre  called  the  Parade,  where  there  is  a 
market  cross.  The  castle,  .now  occupied  by  the  museum  of 
the  Somerset  Archaeological  and  Nu'.ural  History  Society, 
is  reputed  to  have  been  founded  by  Ine,  king  of  the  West- 
Saxons.  The  earliest  portion  of  the  present  building  was 
erected  by  Walter  Giflard,  bishop  of  Winchester,  ">  the  time 
of  Henry  I ,  but  the  whole  building  was  repaired  in  149ti, 
and  an  embattled  gateway  erected  by  Bishop  Langton. 
The  church  of  St  Mary  Magdalene,  a  spacious  building 
with  double  aisles  both  north  and  south  of  the  nave,  is 
chiefly  Perpendicular,  but  haa  remains  of  Norman  work  in. 


T  A  U  —  T  A  y 


83 


the  chancel  arch,  and  ot  Early  English-  in  the  north  aisles 
and  transepts.  It  possesses  one  of  the  finest  of  the 
chsuucteristic  towers  of  Somerset,  but  only  a  facsimile 
reproduction  (erected  1857-62)  of  the  old  one.  There 
are  still  some  remains  of  the  Augustinian  priory  founded 
by  Bishop  Oiffard,  and  there  are  also  two  modern  convents. 
Taunton  is  an  important  centre  of  education,  the  principal 
institutions  being  the  grammar  school  (founded  in  1522  by 
Richard  Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester),  Huish's  schools,  the 
Independent  college  (1841),  and  the  VVesleyan  collegiate 
institution  (1847).  The  other  principal  public  buildings 
are  the  old  market-house,  the  assembly  rooms,  the  new 
market  in  the  Ionic  style,  and  the  shire  hall  in  the  Eliza- 
bethan style,  opened  in  1858  at  a  cost  of  £28,000.  The 
charitable  institutions  include  the  Taunton  and  Somerset 
hospital  (opened  in  1809  and  extended  in  1870  and  1873), 
the  eye  infirmary  (1816),  Gray's  almshouses  and  chapel 
(1635),  St  Saviour's  home  for  boys  (1870),  and  theservants' 
training  home  (1882).  The  town  possesses  manufactories 
of  silk,  collars  and  cuffs,  and  gloves,  iron  and  brass  found- 
ries, coach-building  works,  and  breweries.  There  is  also 
ft  considerable  agricultural  trade.  The  population  of  the 
municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  (area  1249  acres) 
in  1881  was  16,614.  The  population  of  the  same  area  in 
1871  was  15,466. 

Taunton  has  played  a  prominent  part  during  tbe  troubled 
periods  of  English  history.  Various  Roman  remains  prove  it  to 
nave  been  occupied  by  the  Romans;  but  it  first  obtained  historical 
notice  when  Ine,  king  of  the  West-Saxons,  made  it  the  border 
fortress  of  his  kiugdom.  It  takes  the  name  'Taunton,  or  Thoneton, 
from  its  situation  on  the  Tone  or  Thone.  The  castle  was  razed 
by  Ethelburg  after  expelling  Edbricht,  king  of  the  South-Saxons. 
About  the  time  of  William  tlje  Conqueror  the  town  and  castle 
were  granted  to  the  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  for  many  years  the 
castle  was  the  bishop's  piincipal  residence.  In  the  reign  of  William 
it  possessed  a  mint.  In  1497  the  town  and  castle  were  seized  by 
the  impostor  Perkin  Warbeck.  Taunton  rfas  made  the  se.it  of  the 
suffragan  see  of  Taunton  and  Bridgwater  in  1538,  but,  on  the  death 
of  William  Finch,  the  first  bishop,  in  1559,  the  Act  had  no  further 
operation  in  reference  to  Taunton.  Like  tbe  other  towns  of  Somerset, 
Taunton  was  strongly  Puritan  in  its  sympathies.  Situated  at  a 
point  where  the  main  roads  of  the  county  met,  it  was  during  the 
Civil  War  almost  constantly  in  a  state  of  siege  by  one  or  other  of 
the  rival  parties.  Having  been  garrisoned  by  the  Parliamentary 
forces,  it  was  captured  by  the  Royalists  in  the  summer  of  1643,  but 
on  8th  July  1644  it  was,  after  a  long  siege,  taken  by  Blake,  who 
held  it  with  heroic  pertinacity  till  relieved  by  Fairfax  on  the  11th 
May  1645,  and  again  after  it  was  invested  by  10,000  troops  under 
Goring  till  the  siege  was  finally  raised  on  the  Sd  July.  Still  constant 
to  its  Puritan  traditions,  Taunton  welcomed  Monmouth  in  1685  with 
acclamation,  and  he  was  proclaimed  king  there  on  the  20th  June, 
f?Ie maidens  of  the  town  presenting  him  with  a  standard.  As  a 
consequence,  Taunton  was  made  the  chief  example  of  tlie  fearful 
verSgeanoe  of  Jeffreys,  who,  at  the  assizes  iield  in  the  castle,  con- 
demned no  fewer  than  134  inhabitants  of  the  town  and  neighbour- 
hood to  death,  and  a  much  larger  number  to  transportation.  Taunton 
obtained  a  municipal  charter  from  Charles  I.  in  1627,  which  was 
revoked  in  1660.  A  second  charter,  granted  by  Charles  II.  in  1677, 
was  permitted  to  lapse  in  1792  owing  to  the  corporation  allowing  a 
majority  of  their  number  to  die  without  filling  up  the  vacancies. 
From  this  time  until  it  again  reeeived  municipal  government,  17th 
April  1877,  it  was  under  the  care  of  two  bailiffs  appointed  at  the 
court  leet  of  the  lord  of  the  manor.  Formerly  the  town  returned 
two  members  to  parliament,  but  in  1885  the  number  was  reduced 
to  one. 

See  ToQlmln's  History  0/  Taunton,  edited  by  Savage,  1822;  and  several  papers 
In  tbe  Proceedings  of  the  Somerset  Archseologlcal  Society  for  1872. 

TAUNTON,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  county 
Beat  of  Bristol  county,  Massachusetts,  lies  some  31  miles 
nearly  south  from  Boston.  The  town  proper,  sometimes 
called  Taunton  Green,,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Taunton  river,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  about  17  miles 
above  its  mouth.  The  entire  area  enclosed  within  the  cor- 
porate limits  is  37  square  miles.  Taunton  is  traversed 
by  the  main  line  of  the  Old  Colony  Railway,  which  con- 
nects it  with  Boston  and  Fall  River,  Mass.,  and  Pro- 
vidence, R.I.  Owing  to  its  situation  and  its  connexions 
by  rail  and  sea,  Taunton  has  become  a  supply  point  for  the 


greater  part  01  south-eastern  Massachusetts.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  city  was  18,629  in  1870,  21,213  in  1880,  and 
23,674  in  1885,  showing  an  increase  somewhat  in  excess  of 
that  of  tbe  State  at  large.  Fully  one-fourth  of  the  popu- 
lation are  of  foreign  birth,  and  the  proportion  is  increasing. 
The  State  lunatic  asylum  is  in  Taunton.  The  leading 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  iron  and 
steel  products  (particularly  locomotives,  machinery,  nails 
and  spikes),  and  silver-plated  table  ware.  Taunton  waa 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1639,  and  received  a  city  charter 
in  1864. 

TAURIDA,  a  government  of  southern  Russia,  includes 
the  peninsula  of  Crimea  (q.v.)  and  a  tract  of  mainland 
situated  between  the  lower  Dnieper  and  the  coasts  of  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  AzofiE,  and  is'  bounded  by  these 
two  seas  on  the  S.,  while  it  has  on  the  N.  the  governmenta 
of  Kherson  and  Ekaterinoslaff.  The  area  is  24,540  square 
miles,  of  which  6990  square  miles  belong  to  the  Crimea; 
its  continental  part  consists  of  a  gently  undulating  steppe 
of  black  earth,  with  only  a  few  patches  of  salt  clay  on  the 
banks  of  the  Sivash  or  Putrid  Sea,  and  sands  in  the  lower 
course  of  the  Dnieper.  It  is  watered  by  the  Dnieper, 
which  flows  along  the  frontier  for  180  miles,  and  by  two 
small  rivers,  the  Molotchnaya  and  Berda.  Many  small 
lakes  and  ponds  occur  in  the  north,  especially  among  the 
Dnieper  sands,  as  well  as  on  the  Kinburn  peninsula,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  where  salt  is  made.  There  are  no 
forests  except  the  artificial  plantations  in  the  colonies  of 
the  Mennonites.  The  climate  is  continental,  and  resembles 
that  of  central  Crimea  and  Kherson.  The  population  in 
1883  was  940,530  (247,780  in  Crimea).  The  continental 
portion,  although  less  mixed  than  that  of  the  peninsula, 
consists  of  Russians  (Great,  Little,  and  White  Russians), 
who  constitute  83  per  cent,  of  the  population,  Germans  (11 
per  cent.),  Bulgarians  (5  per  cent.),  and  Jews  (1  per  cent.). 

Agriculture  and  cattle-breeding  are  the  leading  occupations, 
,  'Wheat  is  the  chief  product,  and  by  the  Germans  and  Russian  Non- 
conformists on  the  Molotchnaya  agriculture  is  carried  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection.  .  In  1882  there  were  within  the  government 
356,270  horses,  485,800  cattle,  and  3,985,300  sheep  (2,891,700 
merinos).  Salt  is  made  both  on  the  mainland  and  in  the  Crimea, 
and  the  fisheries  along  the  coast  supply  an  export  trade.  Manu- 
factures are  insignificant,  but  there  is  a  brisk  export  trade  in 
grain,  salt,  fish,  wool,  and  tallow.  The  main  centres  of  trade  are 
the  Kakhovka  port  on  the  Dnieper,  Berdyansk  00  the  Sea  of  AzofT, 
and  the  seaports  of  Eupatoria,  Sebastopol,  Sudac,  and  Theodosia. 
The  government  is  divided  into  eight  districts  the  chief  towns  of 
which  (with  populations  in  1881)  are  Simferopol  (29,030)',  capital 
of  the  government,  Eupatoria  (13,420),  and  Theodosia  (10,800)  in 
Crimea,  and  Aleshki  (8915),  Berdyansk(18,180),Melitopol  (13,310), 
Perekop  (4280),  and  Yalta  (3000)  on  th£  continent.  Several  villages, 
such  as  Bolshoy  Tokmak  (8000)  and  Andreevka  (7360),  have  each 
a  population  of  more  than  6000. 

TAUROMENIUM.     See  Taoemina. 

TAURUS.     See  Asia  Minor,  vol.  ii.  p.  704-5. 

TAVERNIER,  Jean  Baptiste  (1605-1689),  the  cele- 
brated traveller  and  pioneer  of'  French  trade  with  India, 
was  born  (1605)  at  Paris,  where  his  father  Gabriel  and 
uncle  Melchior,  Protestants  from  )intwerp,  pursued  with 
reputation  and  success  the  profession  of  geographers  and 
engravers.  The  conversations  he  heard  in  his  father's  house 
inspired  Jean  Baptiste  with  an  early  desire  to  travel,  an<J 
in  his  sixteenth  year  he  had  already  visited  England,  the 
Low  Countries,  and  Germany,  and  seen  something  of  war 
with  the  imperialist  Colonel  Hans  Brenner,  whom  he  met 
at  Nuremberg.  Four  and  a  half  years  in  the  household 
of  Brenner's  uncle,  the  viceroy  of  Hungary  (1.624-29),  and 
a  briefer  connexion  in  1629  with  the  dnke  of  Rethel  and 
liis  father  the  duke  of  Nevers,  prince  of  Mantua,  gave  hitn 
the  habit  of  courts,  which  was  invaluable  to  him  in  later 
years,  hnd  at  the  defence  of  Mantua,  in  1629;  and  in  Gei'- 
many  in  the  following  year  vrith  Colonel  Walter  Butler 
(afterwards  notorious  through  the  death  of  Wallenstein). 


84 


T  A  V  —  T  A  V 


he  gained  some  military  experience.  When  he  left  Butler 
to  view  the  diet  of  Ratisbon  m  1630,  he  had  seen  Italy, 
Switzerland.  Germaoy,  Poland,  and  Hungary,  as  well  as 
France,  England,  and  the  Low  Countries,  and  spoke  the 
principal  languages!  of  these  regions.  He  was  now  eager 
to  visit  the  East,  and  at-.Ratisbon  he  found  the  oppor- 
tunity to  join  two  French-fathers,  M.  de  Chapes  and  M.  de 
9t  Lieban,  who  bad  received  a  mission  to  the  Levant.  In 
their  company  he  reached  Constantinople  early  in  1631, 
and  here  he  spent  eleven  months,  and  then  proceeded  by 
Tokat,  Erzerum,  and  Envan  to  Persia.  His  farthest  point 
m  this  first  journey  was  Ispahan  ;  he  returned  by  Baghdad, 
Aleppo,  Alexandretta,  Malta,  and  Italy,  and  was  again  in 
Paris  in  1633.  Of  the  next  five  years  of  his  life  nothing 
la  known  with  cerfainty,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  was 
during  this  penod  tnat  he  became  controller  of  the  house- 
hold of  the  duke  of  Orleans.  In  September  1638  he 
began  a  second  journey  (1638-43)  by  Aleppo  to  Persia 
and  thence  to  India  as  far  as  Agra  and  Golconda.  His 
visit  to  the  court  of  the  Great  Mogul  and  to  the  famous 
diamond  mines  was,  of  course,  connected  with  the  plans 
realized  more  fully  in  his  later  voyages,  in  which  Tavernier 
travelled  as  a  merchant  of  the  highest  rank,  trading  in 
costly  jewels  and  other  precious  wares,  and  finding  his 
chief  customers  among  the  greatest  princes  of  the  East. 
The  second  journey  was  followed  up  by  four  others.  In 
his  third  journey  (1643-49)  he  went  as  far  as  Java  and 
returned  by  the  Cape  ;  but  his  relations  with  the  Dutch 
proved  not  wholly  satisfactory,  and  a  long  lawsuit  on  his 
return  yielded  but  imperfect  redress.  In  his  last  three 
Journeys  (1651-55,  1657-62,  1664-68)  he  did  not  proceed 
Oeyond  India.  The  details  of  these  voyages  need  not 
detain  us  here,  and  indeed  are  often  obscure  ;  but  they 
completed  an  extraordinary  knowledge  of  the  routes  of 
overland  Eastern  trace,  and  brought  the  now  famous 
merchant  into  close  and  friendljr  communication  with  the 
greatest  Oriental  potentates.  They  also  secured  for  him 
a  large  fortune  and  great  reputation  at  home.  He  was 
oresented  to  Louis  XFV.,  "  in  whose  service  he  had 
travelled  sixty  thousand  leagues  by  land,"  received  letters 
of  nobility  (16th  February  1669),  and  in  the  following 
■•ear  purchased  the  barony  of  Aubonne,  near  Geneva. 
In  1662  he  had  married  Madeleine  Goisse,  daughter  of  a 
Parisian  jeweller. 

Thus  settled  in  ease  and  affluence,  Tavernier  occupied 
himself,  as  it  would  seem  at  the  desire  of  the  king,  in 
publishing  the  account  of  his  journeys.  He  had  neither 
the  equipment  nor  the  tastes  of  a  scientific  traveller,  but 
in  all  that  referred  to  commerce  his  knowledge  was  vast 
and  could  not  fail  to  be  of  much  public  .service.  He  set 
to  work  therefore  with  the  aid  of  Samuel  Chappuzeau,  a 
French  Protestant  litterateur,  and  produced  a  Nouvelle 
Relation  de  VInteneur  du  Serail  du  Grand  Seigneur  (4to, 
Pans,  1675),  based  on  two  visits  to  Constantinople  in  his 
first  and  sixth  journeys.  This  was  followed  by  Le  .S?-r 
Voyages  de  J  B  Tavernier  (2  »ols.  4to,  Pans,  1676)  and 
by  a  supplementary  Recueil  de  Plwnenrs  Relations  (4to, 
Pans.  1679),  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  a  certain  La 
Chapelle.  This  last  contains  an  account  of  Japan,  gathered 
from  merchants  and  others,  and  one  of  Tong-king,  derived 
from  the  observations  of  his  brother  Daniel,  who  had 
shared  bis  second  vovage  and  settled  at  Batavia ;  it  con- 
tained also  a  violent  attack  on  the  agent.s  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  at  whose  hands  Tavernier  had  suffered 
more  than  one  wrong.  This  attack  was  elaborately  an- 
jwcred  in  r)utch  by  H.  van  Quellen  burgh  (  Vmdicise  Bala- 
»»e»,  Amst..  1C841,  but  made  more  noise  becan.se  Arnanld 
drew  from  it  tjOntt  material  unfavourable  to  Protestantism 
for  his  Apologu  p'lnr  lea  Caltiolvfuet  (1681 ),  and  so  brought 
..OD  the  troveUer  a  ferocious  onslaught  in  Jurieu's  Esprit  de 


M.  Arnanld  (1684).  Tavernier  made  no  reply  to  Jorien  ; 
he  was  in  fact  engaged  in  weightier  matters,  for  in  168* 
he  travelled  to  Berlin  at  the  invitation  of  the  Great  Elector, 
who  commissioned  him  to  organize  an  Eastern  trading  com- 
pany,— a  pro.ect  never  realized.  The  closing  years  of  Ta- 
vernier's  life  are  obscure  ,  the  time  was  not  favourable  for 
a  Protestant,  and  it^as  even  been  supposed  that  he  passed 
some  time  in  the  Bastille.  What  is  certain  is  that  he  left 
Pans  for  Switzerland  ^n  1687,  that  in  1689  he  f^sea 
through  Copenhagen  on  his  way  to  Persia  through  Mus- 
covy, and  that  in  the  same  year  he  died  at  Moscow.  It 
appears  that  he  had  still  business  relations  in  the  East,  and 
that  the  neglect  of  these  by  his  nephew,  to  whom  they  were 
intrusted,  had  determined  the  indefatigable  old  man  to  a 
fresh  journey. 

Tavemier's  travels,  though  often  repnnted  and  translated,  have 
two  defects  :  the  author  uses  other  men  s  material  without  dis- 
tin^ishmg  it  from  his  own  observations;  and  the  narrative  is  much 
confused  by  his  plan  of  often  deserting  the  chronological  order  and 
giving  instead  notes  from  various  joiimeys  about  certain  routes. 
The  latter  defect,  it  is  true,  while  it  embarrasses  the  biographer,  is. 
hardly  a  blemish  in  view  of  the  object  of  the  writer,  who  sought 
mainly  to  furnish  a  guide  to  other  merchants.  A  careful  attempt 
to  disentangle  the  thread  of  a  life  still  in  many  parts  obscure  has 
been  made  by  Charles  Joret,  Jean  Baptiste  Tavernier  d'apres  des 
Documents  Nouveanx^  6vo.  Pans,  1886,  where  the  literature  of  the 
subject  is  fully  given. 

TAVIRA,  a  seaport  of  Portugal,  in  the  province  of 
Algarves,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seca,  21  miles  east  north-east 
of  Faro.  It  is  regularly  built,  and  has  an  alcazar,  used  as 
an  ofEcial  residence,  besides  other  public  buildings.  It 
has  sardine  and  tunny  fisheries,  and  carries  on  a  consider- 
able coasting  trade.  Excellent  fruit  is  grown  in  the 
neighbourhood      The  population  in  1878  was  11,459. 

TAVISTOCK,  a  town  of  Devonshire,  England,  is  finely 
situated  m  the  valley  of  the  Tavy,  on  the  western  border 
of  Dartmoor,  and  on  the  South  Devon  Railway,  15  miles 
north  of  Plymouth,  14  south-east  of  Launceston,  and  213 
west-south-west  of  London.  The  town  has  been  greatly 
improved  since  1845,  chiefly  at  the  expense  of  the  duke 
of  Bedford,  by  the  construction  of  a  system  of  sewage  and 
the  erection  of  many  new  dwellings  suitable  for  the  work- 
ing classes.  There  are  some  remains  (including  a  portion 
in  the  square,  now  used  as  a  public  library  established  in 
1799)  of  the  magnificent  abbey  of  Sts  Mary  and  Rumon, 
first  founded  in  961  by  Orgar,  earl  of  Devon.  After  de- 
struction by  the  Danes  in  997  it  was  restored,  and  among  its 
famous  abbots  were  Lyfing,  friend  of  Canute,  and  Aldred. 
who  crowned  Harold  II.  and  William,  and  died  archbishop 
of  V'ork  The  abbey  church  was  rebuilt  in  1285,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  abbey  in  14.'i7-58  The  church  of  Si 
Eustachius  possesses  a  lofty  tower  supported  on  four  open 
arches  Among  the  principal  public  buildings  are  the  guild- 
hall (1848),  the  corn  market  (1838),  the  market  buddings 
(1858),  and  the  new  hall  for  concerts  and  public  entertain- 
ments. Near  the  town  is  Kelly  College,  opened  in  1877, 
founded  by  Admiral  Benedictus  Marwood  Kelly,  with  a 
preference  for  the  founder's  kin  Mines  of  copper,  man 
ganese,  lead,  silver,  and  tin  are  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
the  town  possesses  a  considerable  trade  in  cattle  and  corn, 
as  well  as  a  brewery.  The  population  of  the  township  in 
1881  was  6914.  The  parliamentary  borough  (area  11,450 
acres),  which  had  a  population  in  1871  of  7725  and  in 
1881  of  6879,  was  merged  in  the  county  m  lb85. 

The  town  owes  its  origin  to  the  foundation  of  the  abbey  in  9f.l 
From  Henry  I-  the  abbots  obtained  the  entire  jurisdiction  of  the 
hundred  of  Tavistock,  with  a  weekly  market.  A  school  f'>r  .Saxou 
literature  was  established  by  the  monks,  which  Hounshed  tiU  the 
Reformation  The  Koyalists  were  quartered  at  Tavistock  after 
the  defeat  of  the  Parliamentarians  on  hradock  Down  m  1643,  and 
Charles  I  visited  it  on  his  way  to  Cornwall  It  returned  members, 
to  parliament  from  the  time  of  Edward  I  till  1885,  among  its 
representatives  having  been  John  Pym,  thf  great  opiwiser  of  the 
policy  of  Charles  I.,  and  William,  Lord  Russell,  beheaded  ib  the 


T  A  V  —  T  A  X 


85 


jtlgn  of  Ch.irles  II.  Among  tlie-famous  natives  of  Tavistock  are 
Sir  Jo!in  GUnville,  judge  under  James  I.,  William  Brown,  the 
author  of  Brilatinia'i  Pastorals,  and  Sir  Francis  Drake,  of  whom  a 
<oIo5sa1  stntii£  by  Boehsi  was  prescutcd?Jo,_the_to»'nJ)y_the;duke 
of  Bedford  ill  18SJ. 

TAVOY,  a, British  distt-ict  in  the  Tenasserim  division 
of  Burmah,  lying  between  13°  15'  and  15°  11'  N.  lat.  and 
between  97'  48'  and  98°  4-t'  E.'  long.  It  has  an  area  of 
7"-0D  square'  miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the-  N.  by  Amherst 
idistrlct,  E.  by  the-Yoma  Jlountains, '  S.  by  Mergui 
'district,  and  W.  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  district  is 
enclosed  by  mountains  on  three  sides,  viz.',  the  main  chain 
of  the  Yomas  on  the  east,  rising  in  places  to  5000  feet, 
'which,  with  its  densely  wooded  spurs,  forms  an  almost 
impassable  barrier  between  British  and  Siamese  territory ; 
the  Xwahlabo  in  the  centre,  which  takes  ^ts  name  from  its 
loftiest  peak, (5000  feet) ;  and  a  third  range,  under  the 
Viame  of  Thinmaw,  between  the  Nwahtabo  aiid  the  sea- 
'coast.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Tenasserim  and  Tavoj',  the 
former  being  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  streams  which 
unite  near  Met-ta ;  for  the'  greater  part  of  its  course  it  is 
^dangerous  to  navigation.  The  Tavoy  is  navigable  for  vessels 
of  any  burden.  It  is  interspersed  wilh  many  islands,  and 
^"B'itli  it^  numerous  smaller  tributares  affords  easy  and  rapid 
communication  over  the  country.  .The  climate  is  on  the 
Jwhole  pleasant'x'fhe- rainfall  averages  about  190  inches 
a  year. 

,  The  census'of  ISSl  returned  the  population  of  Tavoy  .it  84,983 
<m:.lcs41,7S5,  females  43,203),  of  whom  82,187  were  nmldhists,  823 
were  Jloliammedans,  and  1368  were  Christians.  The  headquarters 
»n'l  capital  is  Tavoy  town,  which  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  of  the  same  name,  and  contained  a  population  of  13,372 
ill  ISSl.,  Of  the  total  area,  only  83.7^0  acres  are  (1885-86)  culti- 
vated. Rice  is  the  principal  product ;  the  betel-nut  is  extensively 
firown  for  homo  consumption  ;  and  tlie  district  is  pirlicularly  rich 
in  fruit  trees.  With  its  only  port  difficult  of  access,  and  with  no 
means  of  internal  communication,  the  trade  of  Tavoy  district  has 
always  been  small  and  almost  entirely  confined  to' .Siam' and  the 
Straits  Settlements.  The  principal  imports  arc  piece  goods  aijil 
other  cotton  manufactures,  raw  silk,  tea,  crockeiy,  \rincs  and 
spirits,  metals,  and  provisions.  The  chief  ■manufactures  are  salt 
and  earthen  pots.  The  gross  revenue  gf  the  district  in  1885-S6  was 
£20,235,  ofwhich  the  land  contributed  £12,663.  Tavoy  was  handed 
over  to  the  British  at  the  end  of  the  first  Burmese  war  in  1824. 
A  revolt  broke  out  in  1829,  headed  by  Moung  Da,  tha  former 
governor,  which  was  at  once  quelled,  and  since  then  the  district 
has  remained  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  British.-^ 

TAWING.     See  Leather. 

TAXATION.  With  regard  to  taxes  in  general  Adam 
Smith  lays  down  four  maxims  which  have  been  briefly 
described  as  the  maxims  of  equality,  certainty,  convenience, 
and  economy.  The  treatment  of  the  general  principles  of 
taxation  by  subsequent  writers  consists  in  the  main  of  the 
development  and  criticism  of  these  celebrated  canons. 
Equality.  Equality  of  Taxation. — The  subjoined  passa^ge  from 
Adam  Smith  contains  the  germs  of  several  distinct  theories 
of  ■what  constitutes  just  or  equal  taxation : — 

"The  subjects  of  every  state  ought  to  contribute  towards  the 
Support  of  its  government  as  nearly  as  possible  in  proportion  to 
their  respective  abilities,  that  is,  in  proportion  to  the  revenue  which 
they  respectively- enjoy  under  the  protoction  of  the  state.  The 
expense  of  government  to  the-individuals  of  a,  great  nation  is  like 
the  expense  of  management  to- the  joint  tenants  of  a  gieat-ekatc, 
who  are  all  obliged  to  contribute  in.  proportion  to  their  respective 
interests  in  the  estate.  -In  the  observation  or  neglect  of  this 
maxim  consists  what  is  called  the  equality  or  inequality  of  tixation.v 
Every  tax,  it  must  be  observed  once  for  all,  which  falls  linally 
ui>on  one  only  of  the  three  sorts  of  revenue  above-mentioned  (viz., 
Knt,  wages,  profits]  is  necessarily  unequal  in  so  far  as  it  ihies  not 
affect  the  other  two.  In  the  following  examination  of  different 
taxes  I  shall  seldom  take  much  further  notice  of  Ibis  sort  of- 
inequality,  but  shall  in  most  cases  confine  my  observations  to  that 
inequality  which  is  occasioned  by  a  particular  tax  fidlin;;  unequally 
npon  that  particular  sort  of  private  revenue  which  is  affected  by  it." 

The  first  sentence  implies  (a)  that  every  Government  has 
the  rijht  to  exact  contributions  for  its  support  from  all  its 
subjects. -_  According  to  this  view,  the  right  of  taxation  is 


aerived  directly  from  the  conception ' of  sovereignty,  'ji 
was  the  determination  to  insist  on  this  principle  which 
led  to  the  retention  of  the  3d.  per  fi>  duty  on  tea^  thai 
"  figment  of  a  tax,  that  peppercorn  rent,"  which  lost  'the 
British  their  American  colonies.  The  Americans  Qpfiosedto 
this  Absolute  doctrine  the  masim  that  taxation  oughitO'be 
coincident  with  representation, — that  only  those  who  shared 
in  the  powers  should  have  the  burdens  of  government.  -If 
the  latter  opinion  is'  strictly  construed  it  would  follow  that 
all  taxes  on  articles  of  universal  consumption  are  unjust 
except  in  a  country  where  all  who  have  the  natural  have 
also  the  legal  capacity  of  voting.  The  doct'rine  of  sove- 
reignty as  the  basis  of  taxation;  pushed  to  its  logical 
extreme,  results  in  -the  maxim  that  a  Government  should 
impose  such  taxes  as  are  "most  easily  assess'ed  and 
collected,  and  are  at  the  same  time  most  conducive  to 
the  public  interests"  (M'Culloch).  Just  as  a  general  looks 
to  the  eflicie'ncy  of  his  army  as  a  ■n'hole,  and  is  prepared 
to  sacrifice  any  po'tion  if  necessary,  so,  it  may  be  said, 
the  state  should  not  regard  the  particular  interests  of 
individuals,  but  should  rather  consider  the  nation  as  an 
organism,  or,  to  adopt  older  phraseology,  a  leviathan.  '  So 
far  as  the  political  existence  of  a  state  is  concerned,  this 
view  seems  to  meet  with  general  acquiescence  even,  in 
modern  times,  when  patriotism  is  often  classed  amongst 
the  doubtful  virtues,  but  no  ideal  of  a  perfect  state  has 
yet  met  with  such  acceptance  in  any  nation  as  to  render 
popular  a  complete  neglect  of  private  interests. 

Accordingly,  U  second  basis  of  taxation  (6)  is~  found  in 
the  expansion  of  the  term  "abilities"  used  by, Adam 
Smith  which  leads  to  the  position  that  taxes  ought  to  be 
Icvief  ."SO  as  to  involve  equality  of  sacrifice  on  the  part  of 
the  cbntributor.^.  This  is  the  ideal  of  taxation  which  was 
advocated  by  .Nfill  and  Fawcett.  -  "  Equality  of  taxation 
as  a  maxim  of  politics,"  says  the  former,  "  means  equality 
of  sacrifice.  It  means  the  apportioning  the  contribution 
of  each  person  towards  the  expenses  of  government,  so 
that  he  shall  feel  neither  more  cor  less  inconvenience  from 
his  share  of  the  payment  than  every  other  person  expcri 
e'nces  from  his."  It  is  admitted  that  this  standard  cannot 
be  completely  realized,  but  it  is  thought  to  furnish  a 
proper  foundation  of  remission  in  some  cases  and  of  pro- 
portional increase  of  taxation  in  others.  .  It  is  generally 
on'thi.s  ground  that  it  is  proposed  to  leave  incomes  belo« 
a  certain  amount  untaxed, — a  plan  which,  so  far  as  direct 
taxes  arc  concerned,  has  been  adopted'  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  any  taxes  on  com- 
modities in  general  use  must  infringe  this.-canon,  ■whilst 
the  distinction  between  "  necessaries  "  and  "lu.xurics,"  as 
Adam  .Smith  pointed  out,  is  difficult  to  draw  in  com- 
munities advancing  infcivilization ;  and  certainly  a  con- 
sideraWe  portion  of  the  taxes  on  stimulants  is,  as  t- 
matti'ir  of  fact,  derived  from  persons  whose  incomes  an 
below  what  is  generally  considered  a  reasonable  minimun 
for  the  standard  of  comfort,  and  such  persons  would  proh 
ably  consider  enforced  abstiaeuce  a  greater  ^sacrifice  than 
the  payment  of  a  direct  tax.  It  is  also  principally... en 
the  ground  of  equality  of  sacrifice  that  the  proposal  for 
graduated  or  progressive  taxation  rests.  -  It  is  argued  thai 
a  person  with  £10,000  a  year  can  pay  10  per  cent,  (foi 
example)  as  easily  as  a  person  with  XIOOO  can  pay  5  pet 
cent.  It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  principle  of  equality 
of  sacrifice  regards  the  payment  of  taxes  as  duty  imposed 
on  the  subjects  of  a  state  independently  of  the  advantages 
they  may  deri^ve  individually  from  the  expenditure  of  the 
amount  levied. 

A  third  basis  of  taxation7  however,' is  found   in   the 

principle  (c)  that  taxes  ought  to  be  considered  as  payment 

for  valuable  services  rendered  by  the  state  to  individuals, 

1  and  this  seems'to  be  the  position  Adam  Smith  had  in  view 


86 


T  A  X  A  T  ION. 


in  introduciiig  tlib  cliude  "ander  tfie'protecfion  of  the 
state,"  and  ia  comparing  the  individuals  of  a  great  nation 
to  the  joint  tenants  of  a  great  estate.  ,  It  is  easy  to  show, 
as  Mil]  does,  that,'if  protection  is  taken  in  its  narrowest 
signification,  as  -a  matter  of  fact  the  poor  need  piore, 
protection  than  the  rich,  but  the, argument  becomes  mora 
plausible,. and  mor?' consonant  with  the  general  teaching 
of  Mill,  if  stress  is' laid  on  the  protection  and  assistance 
afforded  by  the  state  in  thfe  process  of  acquisition  of  indi- 
vidual fortunes — a -view  of  taxation  sometimes  called  the 
sociul  dividend  iJieory  (cf.  Walker,  Helferich).  It  is  really 
on  this  ground  that  Mill  proposes  that  the  ■'unearned 
increment "  from  land  should  be  taken  by  the  s^ate,  and, 
as  has  often  been  pointed  out,  "unearned  increments" 
are  by  no  means  confined  to  land.  Without  much  exag- 
geration the  state  may  be  regarded  as. a  partner  in  all 
industrial  undertakings, "  and  is  therefore  entitled  to  a 
share  in  the  proceeds.  In  a  somewhat  similar  manner, 
poor  rates,  education  rates,  'ic,  have  been  regarded  as  of 
the  nature  of  insurance  paid  by  the  rich  against  the  care- 
lessness of  the  poor.  '.The  principle  under  consideration 
has  been  generally  applied  in  cases  in  which  the'  service 
rendered  by  the  state  and  the  benefit  accruing  to  indi- 
viduals are  easily  discovered  aud  estimated,  especially  in 
connexion  with  local  taxation. 

The  object  of  taxation  is  in  general  to  provide  the" stale 
Jvith  an  adequate  revenue,  but  in  all  cases  the  indirect 
effects  are  important,  and  son^etimes  ;jrovision  of  revenue 
is  considered  of  secondary  importance.  Accordingly  it  has 
been  maintained  (d)  that  the  state  ouglit  to  use  its  powers 
of  taxation  for  the  promotion  of  \a.nous  social  ends.~'  Adam 
Smith  remarks  that  "it  has  for  some  timo'jiist  been  the 
policy  of  Great  Britain  to  discourage  the  consumption  of 
spirituous  liquors,  on  account  of  their  supposed  tendency 
to  ruin  the  health  and  corrupt  the  morals  of  the'  conunon 
people,"  and  in  our  own  times  the  falling  off  in  the  revenue 
fron;i  alcoholic  drinks  often  furnishes  a  subject  for  apparent 
congratulation  in  "budget"  speeches.  German  writers  with 
socialistic  tendencies  (e.y.,  Wagner)  have  emphasized  this 
social  point  of  taxation  ;  and  Mill,  although  disapproving 
of  graduated  taxation  of  income,  advocated  the  imposition 
of  extremely  heavy  succession  duties,  with  the  object  of 
promoting  a  better' distribution  of  national  wealth  and 
compelling  individuals  to  rely  on  themselves.'  "Many 
nations  again  have  imposed  duties  on  imports  with  the 
view  of  protecting  and  encouraging  home  industries,  n'nd 
most  of  the  import  duties  levied  in  England  before  the 
great  reforms  of  Peel  were  of  this  nature.  Accordingly, 
both  theoretically  and  practically,  the  promotion  of  social 
or  moral  ends  may  be  considered  as  a  fourth  basis  of  ta.\a- 
tion.  It  is  worth,  noticing  that  in  early  times  the  fines 
received  in  the  courts  of  justice  were  an  important  source 
of  revenue. 

Vrhatever  basis  of  Vexation  be  adopted,  the  elementary 
principle  of  justice  noticed  in  the  conclusion  of  A.  Smith's 
first  canon  must  be  considered.  If  it  is  just  to  tax  A,  it 
is-.just  to  tax  B  under  precisely  similar  circumstances. 
TJius  .stated,  the  principle  seems  almost  formal,  but  /or 
piractical  purposes  small  differences  in  circumstances  niay 
bij  neglected,  and  it  is  clear  that  in  any  great  nation  the 
taxpa'yers  may  be  arranged  in  a  limited  number  of  groups, 
Within  each  of  which  the  constituent  individuals  niay  be 
regarded  as  similarly  situated.  ■  A  tax  on  rent,  or  wages, 
or  profits  would  be  obviously  unequal  if  those  in  one  place 
or  employment  were  taxed  while- those  in  another  were 
left  free.  The  practical  difficulty  is  to  discover  what  cases 
may  fairly  be  regarded  as  similar,  especially  if  equality  of 
sacrifice  be  taken  as  theadeal. 

As.a  matter  of  fact,  in  evetjr  civilized  community  a 
tcmpUx  Bjisi^nl'Of,  taxfitiflnas  adopted,  the  different  parts 


of  whicli  xest  in  diflereut;  degrees  tipun  the  various  (prin- 
ciples just  noticed.,'' Some'  taxes  are  justified  on  the 
grounds  of  their  convenience  to  the  sovereign  power,  and 
others  are 'increased-. or  diminished  in  certain  cases  in 
accordance  with  the' 'principle  of  equality  of  "sacrifice; 
some  are  regarded  as  payments  for,  services  rendered  by 
the  state,  others  partake  of  the  nature  of  sufliptuary' 
regulations  or  are  approved  on  various  social  or  moral 
grounds;  and  sometimes  the  imposition  of  one  productive 
tax  involves,  on  the  ground  of  simple  equality,  the  adop- 
tion of  similar  taxes  which  are  hardly  worth  collecting.  ■  ' 
,  The  remaining  canons  of  Adam  Smith  are  partly,  like  the 
first,  ethical  in  character  partly  purely  economic.  ■  Of'  the  *'^^*^" 
second — the  canon  of  certainty — Adam  Smith  remarks  : — -^ 
"The  time  of  payment,"the  manner*  of, "payment,;  '.he 
quantity  to  be  paid,  otight  all  to  be  clear  and  plain  to  the 
contributor  and  to  every  other  person  [on  the  ground  of 
the  otherwise  arbitrary  powers  which  are  given  to  the  tax- 
gatUerer]  ..,.., -The  certainty  of  what  each  individual 
ought-to  pay  is  in  taxation  a  matter  of  so  great  impoi-tanca 
that  a  very  considerable  degree  of  inequality,  it  appears,' 
I  believe,  from  the  experience  of  all  nations,  is  not  neai; 
so  great  an  evil  as  a  very  small  degree  of  uncertainty.'^ 
Perhaps  the  best  example  of  the  infringement  of  this  caOor 
is  furnished  by  the  taxes  levied  from  ..the  miserable  pro< 
vincials  by  their  Roman  governors.^ 

The  third  rujc — the  canon  of  cox'ii'nience^^wh'ich  enjoirrsXon..., 
that  "every  tax  ought  to  be  levied  at  the  time  or  in  the  vcniepce; 
manner  to  which  it  is  mo-st  likely  to  be' convenient  for 
the  contributor  to  pay  it,''.may  be  justified,  not  merely, 
on  general  grounds  of  good  government,  but^'also  on  thf 
special  •economic  ground  of  the  increase  in  the  jiroductlve- 
ness  of  taxes  ■which  satisfy  the  conditionJ^^lt-  has  been 
found  possible  to  rai.se  a  considerable  revenue  by  tax6s  oi 
commodities,  tlie, payments  of  which  by  the  oon.sumers  arc 
made  in  insensible  jjortions,'  when-  it  would  have  been  im- 
possible to  collect  the  same  amount  l>y  direct  taxation  ai 
comparatively  long  intervals..  Taxation  is  in  this  respect 
like  bleeding. 

The  fourth  rule^he'canoh  of^ecojiojiiy— states^as  its  EcoKortif;. 
general  principle  that  "every  tax  ought  to  be  so  contrived 
as  both  to  take  out  and  to  keep  out  of  the  pockets  of  the 
people  as  little  as  possible  over  and  above  what  it  brings 
into  the  public  treasury  of  the  state.'c,, Taxes  may,  accord- 
ing to  Adam  Smith,  break  this  rule  by  requiring  a  large 
number'  of  officials  for",  their  Collection,  by  restraint  of 
trade  and  production,  by  encouraging  smuggling,  and  by 
causing  unnecessary  vexation ;  .."and,  though  vexation  is 
not,  strictly  speaking,  expense,' it  is  certainly  equivalent 
to  the  expense  at  which  every  "man"  would  be  willing  tc 
redeem  himself  from  it."  On  smuggling  Adam, Smith 
elsewhere  remarks  that.!' to  pretend  to  ha've  any  scrupl? 
about  buying  smuggled  goods  would  in, most  countries  be 
regarded  as  one  of  those  pedantic  pieces  of  hypocrisy  which 
serve  only  to  expose  the  penson  Vho  alTects  to  practise 
them  to  the  suspicion  of  being  a'  greater  knave  than  his 
neighbours."  It  may  be  observed  that  in  practical  politici 
it  is  generally  taken  for  granted  that  a  tax  which  can  be 
evaded  will  be  evaded,  and  indirect  methods  of  taxation, 
are  to  a  great  cxtent_devicesjjy_which  possibilities,  of 
evasion  are  restricted. 

_  To  these  general  rules  of  tlTxation  explicitly  giveri'by  other 
Adam  Smith,  the  following  may  be  added,  most  of  which  ^,j.f|Jif*Jigj 
are  implied  in  different  passages'of  his  treatment  of  taxa- 
ti.on,  but  have  been  expounded  end  emphasized. by  subse- 
quent i^'riters.  A  convenient  siimmary  is  given  by  Hcl- 
fcrich  ill  Scliiinberg's  I/andbuch  der  Puliiisclicn  0(l:onoini( 
(vol!  ii.  p.  138).  '  (a)  A  given  amount  of  revenue  is,  as  t 
rule,  both  from  the  point  cf  view  of  the  Government  and 
its  bubietts.niOrecouvemently  raised  frOrn  a  small  numljeL 


TAXATION 


87 


3f  •very  proJuctivo  taxes  than  from  a  larger  nombsr  with 
iinaller  returns  per  unit.  This  was  one  of  toe  principal 
iuancial  reforms  advocated  by  Adam  Smith  with  reference 
;o  the  customs  duties,  and  has  been  carried  out  in  the 
United  Kingdom  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  and  his  successors. 
The  inextricable  confusion  of  the  customs  duties  levied 
before  these  reforms  were  effected  can  only  be  realized  by 
those  who  study  the  details  of  the  history  of  taxation.  A 
similar  process  of  simplification  has  been  partially  applied 
to  the  direct  taxes,  but  in  many  cases  (especially  in  local 
taxation)  the  rule  is  more  honoured  in  the  breach  than  in 
the  observance.  (6)  A  good  system  of  taxation  ought  to 
provide  for  a  self  acting  increase  iii  the  revenue  in  propor- 
tion as  the  population  and  the  consequent  demands  for 
governmental  expenditure  increase.  It  has  been  found  by 
experience  that  an. old  tax  causes  less  inconvenience  than 
i  new  tax  of  smaller  amount,  a  fact  which  is  so  striking  in 
some  cases  as^to  have  given  rise  to  the  saying  that  an  old 
tax  is  no  tax.  (c)  Those  taxes  are  best  which  yield  a. 
steady  and  calculabia  return,  instead  of  a  return  fluctuat- 
ing in'character  and  difficult  to  estimate,  (d)  Those  taxes 
are  best  which  in  case  of  need  can  be,  most  conveniently 
increased  in  amount.  -  It  is  this  characteristic  .of  the 
jncom*  tax  ■which  renders  it  so'  popular  ivith,  chancellors 
of  the  exchequer,  and,  it  waa  partly,  on  this  ground  that 
Mr  Gladstone  substituted  a  tax  on  beer  for  the  tax  on 
malt,  (e)  Regard  must  alwavs  be  paid  to  the  real  inci- 
dence of  taxation,  and  care  take^i  that  the  real  burden  of 
the  tax  falls  on  those  aimed  at  by  the  legislature.  ■  No 
part  of  the  theory  or  practice  of  taxation  has  given  rise  to 
80  much  controversy  as  the  incidence  of  particuiar  taxes,  a 
1  subject  indeed  of  so  much  difficulty  and  importance  as  to 

■  occupy  the  greater-  portion  of  the  treatment  by  systematic 

writers. 
Direct  Incibence  OF  TAXATION. — Taxes  are  generally  divided 
»!id  into  direct  and  indirect.  A  direct  tax  is  defined  by  Mill 
^~"'  as  one'  "demanded  from  the  very  persons  who  it  is  in- 
tended or  desired  should  pay  it."  Others(e.<7.,  M'Cnlloch) 
define  it  as  a  tax  taken  directly  from  income  or  capital 
In  the  former  definition  non-transferable  taxes  on  expendi- 
ture would  be  included  (e.ff.,  a  tax  on  livery  servants),  but 
not  in  the  latter.  Mill's  definition  has  been  generally 
adopted  (e.ff.,  by  Wagner,  in  the  German  Handbuck, 
voL  ii.  p.  152);  but  in  any  case  the  most  important  direct 
taxes  practically  are  those  levied  on  income  or  capital 
directly,  and  the  most  important  indirect  the  customs  and 
excise  duties.  In  examining  the  incidence  of  taxation  the 
order  of  arrangement  adopted  by  Adam  Smith  seems  best. 
He  discusses  separately  taxes  on  the  three  great 'species 
of  income, — rent,  profits,  and  wages  (appending  to  the 
articles  on  the  first  two  an  examination  of  taxes  upon  the 
capital  value  of  land,  houses,  and  stock),  and  taxes  intended 
to  fall  indifferently  upon  every  species  of  revenue,  viz., 
capitation  taxes  and  taxes  upon  consumable  commodities. 
Tueaon  Taxes  ore  Rent. — What  is  commonly  known  as  rent 
**""•  consists  in  general  of  two  parts,  which  may  be  termed 
economic  rent  and  profit  rent.  Economic  rent  arises  from 
the  superiority  of  advantage  of  any  source  in  the  produc- 
tion of  a  certain  amount  of  utility  over  the  least  productive 
source  which  the  conditions  of  demand  and  supply  (includ- 
ing transmission  to  market)  render  it  possible  to  employ. 
Thus,  in  the  production  of  food,  some  lands  have  an 
advantage  in  fertility  or  situation ;  again,  in  furnishing 
amenities  of  accommodation  or  facilities  for  business,  some 
houses  have  f.'om  their  situation  a  similar  advantage;  and 
again,  different  processes  in  the  arts  and  manufactures  are 
superior  to  others  (giving  rise  to  patents).  In  all  these 
aases  where  the  amount  of  the  superior  sources  is  limited 
(naturally  or  artificially )p  and  recourse  must  be  made  to 
inferior  sources  of  supply,  economic  rent  is  paid  for  the 


superior  advantage.  Any  tax  imposed  on  this  species  of 
revenue  falls  on  the  owner.  If  levied  in  the  first  instance 
from  the  lessee,  he  will  pay  so  much  less  rent,and  any  new 
taxes  imposed  during  the  currency  of  leases  ought,  if 
intended  to  fall  on  the  owner,  to  be  taken  directly  from 
him.  It  may  be  assumed  that  every  owner  of  a  superior 
source  has  exacted  the  highest  price  obtainable  for  its  use, 
so  that  he  cannot  transfer  the  tax  to  the  tenant,  nor 
through  the, tenant  to  the  consumer.  If,  for  example,  a 
tax  is  imposed  ou  the  economic  rent  of  agricultural  land, 
the  landlord  cannot  exact  it  from  the  tenant  (for  if  the 
tenant  could,  afford  more  rent,  why -under  competition  was 
he  not  forced  to  do  so  before?)  nor  from  the  consumer  of 
the  produce,  fur  the  price  is  obviously  determined  inde- 
pendently of  rent.  Similarly  a  tax  on  the  ground  rent  of 
houses,  if  it  be  assumed  that  the  land  is  useless  for  other 
purposes,  must  fall  on  the  owners ;  although  a  certain 
portion  will  be  transferred  to  the  occupier  if  the  landlord 
could  use  it  otherwise  and  escape  the  tax  (cf.  Mill,  bk.  v. 
ch.  iii.  §6).  Taxes  on  economic  rent  of  various  kinds,  stf, 
heavy  as  to  absorb  the  whole  amount,  have  been  advocated 
by  some  theorists  on  grounds  noticed  under  Adam  Smith's 
first  canon.  It  is  said  they  would  impose  no  burden  on 
the  state  as  a  whole,  that  they  would  not  affect  production 
or  accumulation,  and  even  that  the  substitution  of  the 
state  for  private  owners — who  are  simply  luiti  ccmsionen 
fruges — would  really  increase  the  wealth  and  power  of 
the  cation  by  compelling  these  unproductive  consumers 
to  work,  and  by  lightening  the  pressure  of  taxation  on 
industry.  -It  is,  however,  obvious  that  thac6nSscation  of 
rent  would,  seeing  that  land  has  for  generations  been  in 
the  circle  of  exchangeable  commodities,  strike  at  the  roots 
of  the  institution  of  private  property.  Apart  from  this 
general  objection,  there  would  in  the  case  of  agricultural 
land  be  great  difficulty  in  separating  economic  from  profit 
rent,  and  any  exceptional  tax  on  the  latter  would  obviously, 
teed  to  check  agricultural  improvements. 

Taxes  on  Profits.- — Profits,  as  commonly  used,  is  a  term  Taxes  on 
embracing  three  elements  which,  from  an  economic  and  V>^^^- 
financial  point  of  view,  are  quite  distinct  in  character,  viz., 
interest  (pure  and  simple),  insurance  against  risk,  and 
earnings  of  management.  The  interest  on  capital  in  any 
industrial  area,  lent  on  the  same  security,  tends  to  equality,' 
If,  then,  a  tax  is  imposed  on  interest  in  every  form,  the 
incidence'. in  the  first  place  will  be  on  the  owners  of  cap-^ 
ita!.  But  two  indirect  consequences  will  follow.  (1)  As 
Adam  Smith  remarks,  "  the  proprietor  of  stock  is  properly 
a  citizen  of  the  world,  and  is  not  necessarily  attached 
to  any  particular  country.  He  would  be  apt  to  abandon 
the  country  in  which  he  was  exposed  to  a  vexatious 
inquisition  in  order  to  be  assessed  to  a  burdensome  tax, 
and  would  remove  his  stock  to  some  other  country,  where 
he  could  either  carry  on  his  business  or  enjoy  his  fortune 
more  at  his  ease."  In  this  case  the  ultimate  result  would 
be  that  the  country  in  which  the  tax  was  imposed  would 
possess  less  capital,  and  thus  would  yield  ahigher  rale  of 
interest  sufficient  to  counterbalance  the  burden  of  the  tax. 
(2)  The  tax  would  tend  to  check  the  accumulation  of 
capital  within  the  country,  so  far  as  the  interest  received 
is  a  cause  of  -accumulation,  with  the  same  ultimate  result 
as  in  thQ  former  case.  It  must,  however,  be  observed 
that  the  rate  ot  interest  is  only  one  of  the  causes  affecting 
the  accumulation  of  capital. 

A  tax  on  some  particular  form  of  interest  (security  still 
being  supposed  perfect),  for  example  on  raoitgages  on  land, 
would  obviously  fall  on  the  borrowers.  In  the  same  way 
a  tax  on  that  part  of  the  profit  rent  of  houses  which  is 
interest  on  capital  tends  to  fall  on  the  occupier.  In  gene 
ral,  however,  the  security  is  more  or  less  imperfect,  and 
the  insurance  against  risk  is  allowed  for  in  the  rato  oi 


k 


88 


TAXATION 


interest  charged  00  borrowed  capital.  Thus  a  tax  which  I 
took  equal  percentages  .'rom  all  species  of  interest  would 
be  in  part  a  tax  oo  insurance  against  risk,  and  the 
teudeucy  must  be  for  such  a  tax  to  fall  on  the  borrowers 
of  capital.  Suppose  at  any  time  a  perfect  security  yields 
3  per  cent,  and  one  with  greater  risk  6  per  cent.,  then  3 
per  cent,  represents  the  estimated  value  of  the  insurance 
against  risk.  A  tax  which  reduces  the  net  yield  on  the 
first  to -2  per  cent,  would  reduce  the  net  yield  on  the 
latter  to  4  per  cent  In  order,  then,  for  the  insurance 
against  risk  to  remain  the  same,  the  rate  yielded  by  the 
latter  must  rise  from  6  to  7^  per  cent.  It  follows,  then, 
that  a  tax  levied  on  all  forms  of  inter^t  (no  allowance 
being  made  for  risk)  would  tend  to  check  investment  in 
proportion  as  risk  was  involved,  and  would  thus  check 
industrial  enterprise.  This  result  would  foJlpw  even 
although  the  rate  of  interest  on  perfect  security,  owing  to 
the  causes  mentioned  above,  were  raised  in  proportion  to 
the  tax 

A  tax  on  that  part  of  profits  known  as  earnings  of 
management  would,  if  imposed  generally,  fall  in  the  first 
instance  on  the  encepreneurs  or  employers  of  capital,  and 
with  similar  indirect  consequences  to  those  just  noticed 
in  regard  to  interest.  -Capital  would  tend  to  flow  abroad, 
and  accumulation  would  be  checked,  since  in  general  the 
employers  of  capital  are  also  to  a  large  extent  the  owners. 
So  far  as  profits,  in  this  sense,  are  of  the  nature  of  rent  (a 
view  recently  advocated  as  regards  all  profits  by  Prof. 
Walker),  a  tax  on  profits  would  be  analogous  to  a  tax  on 
rent.  If  the  differences  in  the  net  advantages  of  diflerent 
methods  of  employing  capital  are  supposed  to  remain 
i-onstant  (according  to  Prof.  Marshall's  view  of  earnings  of 
management),  a  proportional  tax  on  profits  must  be  in 
part  transferred  to  the  consumers  of  the  articles  produced, 
in  the  same  way  as  a  tax  on  interest  with  risk  was  shown 
K)  fall  on  the  borrower.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  general 
survey  that  the  incidence  and  efi'ects  of  a  tax  on  profits 
(taking  bhe  term  n  its  common  acceptation  without 
analysis)  are  extremely  difficult  to  determine,  and  the 
practical  difficulty  is  still  greater  than  the  theoretical. 
For,  as  M'Culloch  and  others  have  shown,  profits  are 
ulways  fluctuating  and  diSicult  to  estimate.  So  great, 
for  example,  is  this  difliculty  felt  to  be  as  regards  farmers' 
profits  that  m  the  income  tax  it  is  assumed  that  such 
profits  bear  a  certain  proportion  to  the  rent  paid  for  land 
on  a  purely  empirical  rule,  which  may  happen  to  hit  the 
mark  in  a  majority  of  cases,  but  is  much  more  Likely  to  be 
unequal  and  unjust  m  its  operation. 

A  tax  on  some  particular  form  of  profits  (a.s  distinct 
from  a  general  tax  on  profits)  will,  it  is  generally  said,  fall 
on  the  consumer  of  the  article  produced,  on  the  ground  of 
the  tendency  of  profits  to  equality.  This  view  will  be 
noticed  below  under  taxes  on  consumable  commodities, 
vw  iin'  Taxei  un  Capital. — In  early  English  history  taxes 
SBpitiii  upon  capital  of  a  very  simple  kind  played  an  important 
part.  A.  grant,  for  example,  of  certain  fractional  parts  of 
movables,  commencing  with  me  famous  Saladin  tithe  (on 
both  rent  and  movables)  in  IISS,  and  gradually  settling 
down  to  a  fifteenth  for  the  counties  and  a  tenth  for  the 
towns,  prevailed  for  more  than  three  centui.es.  In  1334 
a  fifteenth  and  tenth  was  fi.\ed  at  a  certain  sum  for  each 
township,  and  after  this  date  a  grant  of  one  or  more 
"fifteenths  and  tenths"  meant  simply  a  grant  according 
to  the  scale  thee  fixed  (Dowell,  vol.  iii-.  p.  75).  But  in 
our  own  times  taxes  on  capital  are  levied  principally  when 
property  changes  hands,  and  may  be  divided,  as  they  are 
b>  Adam  Smith,  according  as  they  are  levied  when  pro- 
perty passes  (a)  from  the  dead  to  the  living,  (6)  from  the 
living  to  the  living. 

It  IS  obvious,  as  regards  iucidenue,  that  taxes  of  the 


first  class  (a)  are  the  most  direct  of  all  taxes,  in  the  sense 
that  they  cannot  be  transferred  to  other  persons  by  the 
benericiarie.s  The  principal  difficulties  connected  with  the 
"  death  duties,"  as  they  are  often  called,  arise  in  connexion 
with  the  canon  of  equality  of  taxation.  Opinion  is  still 
divided  on  the  proportions  which  ought  to  be  paid  by 
personal  and  real  estate  respectively,  as  well  ai  on  the 
advisability  of  the  taxes  being  made  progressive  according 
to  the  value  of  the  property,  and  there  are  atiU  greater 
difficulties  in  connexion  with  life  interests  in  settl'.'d  pro 
perty.  Mill  was  strongly  in  favour  of  making  the  death 
duties  very  heavy  and  also  graduated.  "  I  conceive,"  he 
says  (Pol.  £c(m.,  bk.  v  ch,  11.  5  3),  "  that  inheritances  and 
legacies  exceeding  a  certain  amount  are  highly  proper 
subjects  for  taxation,  and  that  the  revenue  from  these 
should  be  made  as  great  as  it  can  be  made  without  giving 
rise  to  evasions  by  donation  during  life,  or  concealment 
of  property,  auch  as  it  would  he  impossible  adequately  to 
check.  The  principle  of  graduation,  that  is,  of  levying 
a  larger  percentage  on  a  largei  suni.  though  its  applica- 
tion to  general  taxation  would  be  111  my  opinion  objec- 
tionable, seems  to  me  both  just  and  'xpedient  as  applied 
to  legacy  and  inheritance  duties.  '  The  principal  objec- 
tions urged  against  such  taxation  are,  that  a  stimulus 
would  be  given  to  personal  extravagance  and  a  check 
placed  on  accumulation,  aud  that  in  consequence  indirect 
production  would  be  lessened,  partly  by  want  of  capital 
and  partly  by  the  check  placed  on  production  on  a 
large  scale.  As  regards  the  want  of  capital,  apart  from 
the  check  placed  on  saving,  there  would  be  a  tend- 
ency to  send  it  abroad  A  heavy  tax  on  large  capitals 
at  home  will  place  a  premium  on  investments  abroad, 
m  which  evasion  would  be  easy.  Perhaps,  with  the 
present  rate  of  accumulation,  the  objection  may  be 
made  light  of,  as  it  is  by  Mill  ,  but  the  second,  if 
less  obvious,  is  more  important.  All  our  great  staple 
manufactures  are  necessarily  conducted  on  a  large  scale, 
and  in  many  respects  also  large  agricultural  capitals  are 
most  productive  In  nanufactures,  as  a  rule,  the  larger 
the  scale  of  operations  the  more  extended  will  be  the 
division  of  labour  in  production,  and  the  greater  the 
facilities  for  ready  sale  in  foreign  markets.  Of  all  the 
causes  which  contribute  to  our  commercial  prosperity, 
perhaps  the  most  important  is  the  large  scale  on  which 
our  operations  are  cocducted.  We  are  able  to  employ 
machinery  where  the  foreigner,  working  on  a  smaller 
scale,  13  obliged  to  use  manual  labour.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  graduated  taxation,  even  on  the  modi- 
fied form  proposed  by  Mill,  would  tend  to  check  produc- 
tion on  a  large  scale.  Indirectly  it  might  aruficially  foster 
joint-stock  companies.  (A)  Taxes  on  the  transference  of 
property  from  the  living  to  the  living  cannot,  as  Adam 
Smith  points  out,  be  very  easily  taken  directly,  as  such 
transactions  for  the  most  part  actually  are  or  might  be 
secret.  This  has  led  to  the  invention  of  stamp  and  regis- 
tration duties.  The  penalty  of  invalidity  attaching  to 
unstamped  documents  of  various  kinds  has  proved  a  very 
effective  deterrent  to  eva-MOn.  A  tax  on  sales  will  vary 
in  its  incidence  according  to  the  nature  of  the  commodity 
and  the  degree  of  competition  or  monopoly  (c/.  H.  Sidg- 
wick  s  Pnjtci/ilea  u/  Pot  Ecun.,  bk  11.  ch.  x.).  •  The  most 
important  case  is  that  of  taxes  on  the  transfer  of  lai.d 
Tlieoieticrilly  it  seems  that,  just  as  the  fanner  who  takes 
laod  Oil  rent  offers  more  or  less  rent  according  to  the 
burdens  imposed  on  the  land  by  rates,  ic,  so  the 
ptirchuscr  of  land  will  consider  any  expenses  connected 
with  it.'i  acquisition  a.--  part  of  the  capital  value,  and  thue 
any  taxes  on  transfer  v\  ill  really  fall  on  the  sellers.  K, 
however,  the  taxes  are  imposed  in  such  a  way  as  to  fall 
less   heavily  ou  hiud  when  sold  in  larjjer  than  in  small 


T  A  X  — T  A  X 


89 


■quantities,  it  is  clear  that  the  tendency  will  be  for  the 
differential  portion  of  thb  tax  at  least  to  fall  on  the 
purchaser  of  a  small  amount ,  and  practically  at  present 
this  feature  is  characteristic  of  the  Eiigljsh  system!  A 
tax  en  the  transfer  of  stocks  and  shares  is  generally  held 
to  fall  on  the  seller,  as  in  case  of  repeal  he  would  obtain 
30  much  more ;  but  in  this  case  the  same  considerations 
npply  as  in  the  case  of  interest  noticed  above.  A  curious 
example  of  legal  evasion  is  furnished  by, time-bargains ;  and 
the  imposition  6f  the  tax  directly  on  the  contracts  of  sale, 
instead  of  as  at  present  on  the  actual  transfer,  has_been 
strongly  urged.'^ 
TaMs  on      Tajres   on   Wagesr^Xt   is  clear^fhat   the" treat ment'of 


wages.. 


Capita- 
tion 
taxes. 


Taxes 
oa  con-, 
nunaMf 

COIHTUO; 

Jities. 


taxes  on  wages  will  depend  on  tha  general  view  taken  of 
the  determination  of  the  rate  of  wages.  'Adam  Smith 
appears  to  lay  undue  stress  on  the  price  of  provisions,  and 
to  think  that  in  most  cases  taxes  on  wages  must  fall  on 
the  employer  of  labour  (bk.  v.  ch.  ii.  art.  iii.).  There  seems, 
however,  to  be  no  sufficient  reason  why  a  tax  on  labour 
should  be  transferred  to  the  employer,  except  in  the  case 
where  the  wages  are  really  at  a  minimum  below  which 
the  supply  of  efficient  labour  could  not  be  kept  up.  Even 
in  this  case,  as  Prof.  Walker  shows,  there  would  probably 
be  a  degradation  of  labour  before  the  rise  in  wages  was 
effected.  Certainly  no  practical  statesman  at  the  present 
time  would  venture  to  propose  a  direct  tax;  on  wages, 
under  the  idea  that  it  would  be  transferred  to  the  em- 
ployer. In  Germany  it  was  found  necessary  to  abandon 
the  system,  owing  to  the  hardship  inflicted  on  the  poor. 
At  any  rate,  in  all  cases  in  which  the  rate  of  wages  is 
above  the  "  necessary "  minimum,  a  tax  on  wages  must 
fall  on  the  labourer.  A  differential  tax  on  some  particular 
species  of  employment  would,  unless  it  partook  of  the 
'nature  of  a  monopoly,  tend  to  fall  on  the  consumer  of  the 
article  produced  or  the  person  who  enjoys  the  service 
rendered. ';  In  every  case,  speaking  generally,  the  incidence 
of  the  tax  will  depend  on  the  conditions  of  the  demand 
and  supply  of  the  labour  in  question,  and  no  further 
analysis  can  be  given  without  entering  intothe_  general 

principles  governing  wages.     See  Wages.  ., 

:  Capitation  faxes  are  chiefly  of  interest  historically,  as 
illustrated  in  England  by  the  poll-taxes  imposed  at  various 
times. p  The  income  tax  as  at  present  levied  is  in  reality 
not  a  single  uniform  tax,  as  might  at  first  sight  appear, 
but  a  tax  on  the  various  species  of  rent,  interest,  profits, 
and  wages. '  The  anomalies  which  arise  from  practically 
taking  income  as  uniform  have  often  been  pointed  out  and 
acknowledged,  but  the  authority  of  Mr  Gladstone  may  be 
quoted  in  support  of  the  view  that  the  practical  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  a  readjustment  more  in  accordance  with  theo- 
retical principles  are  insuperable.  The  objections  noted 
above  to  a  graduated  property  tax  apply,  mutatis  mvtandis, 
to  a  graduated  income  tax,  which  appears,  however,  to  find 
increasing  favour  on  the  Continent.  A  full  discussion  of 
the  anomalies  of  the  income  tax  would  involve  a  repetition 
of  the  analysis  of  the  taxes  on  the  various  species  of  income. 
^  Taxes  on  Commodities. — The  general  principles  appli- 
cable ir.  Ihis  case  are  that,  where  production  takes  place- 
under  free  competition,  the  tax  will,  owing  to  the  tendency 
of  profits  to  equality,  be  transferred  to  the  consumer,  bu.t 
that,  when  the  article  is  practically  monopolized,  a  tax  must 
fall  on  the  monopolist,  on  the  assumption  that  he  has 
already  fixed  such  a  price  for  the  article  as  will,  consider- 
ing the  law  of  demand  and  the  expenses  of  production, 
yield  him  a  maximum  revenue.  The  practical  difficulties 
connected  with  thft^ssumption  of  equality  of  profits  have 
been  well  exposed  by  Cliffe  Leslie  {Financial  Reform: 
Qobden  Club  Essays,  2d  series,  1871-72). 

Xhs  incidence  of  export  and  import  duties  is  peculiarly 
diffi^t^t  to  ascertaip   even  theoretically.     The  prevailing 
23—6* 


opinion  that  an 'import,  duty  necessarily^  falls  oii  the 
con.<umer  of  the  import  necessarily  involves  as  its  couiitcr- 
part  the  position  that  an  export  duty  must  fall  on  the 
consumer  of  the  export.  If  the  latter  view  is  upheld  it  is 
curious  that  export  duties  find  such  little  favour  witli 
practical  statesmen.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  real  inciA 
dence  of  export  anti  import  duties  will  depend  partly  on 
the  conditions  of  production  in  various  countries,  partly 
on  the  variations  in  demand  due  to  changes  in  price,  partly 
on  the  indirect 'influence  on  the  general  balance  of  trade,' 
and  partly  on  the  possibility  of  using  substitutes  for  the 
article  taxed  (<■/.  H.  Sidgwick's  Prmi-iples  of  Vol.  .ffiofi.,' 
bk.  iii.  ch.  v. ;  Cournot,  Revue  Sommaire  dfs  Doctrines 
£conomiques,  sects.  5  and  6).  A  fuller  examination  is 
not  possible  in  the  limits  assigned  to  this  article.  In  con- 
clusion, it  may  be  pointed  out  that  a  thorough  investigation 
of  the  general  principles  of  taxation  must  presuppose  tbe 
principles  of  political  philosophy,  whilst  a  full  inquiry  into 
the  incidence  of  particular  species  of  taxes  must  pre-i 
suppose  the  principles  of  politicabeconomy.       (J.  s.  Nf.) 

TAXIDERMY,  the  art  of  preserving  the  integumentj 
together  with  the  scales,  feathers,  or  fur,  of  animals.' 
Little  is  known  of  the  beginnings  of  the  practice  of  the 
"Stuffing"  or  "setting up"  of  animals  for  ornament  or  for, 
scientific  purposes  ;  and  it  is  highly  probable,  from  .what 
we  gather  from  old  works  of  travel  or  natural  history,  that 
the  art  is  not  more  than  some  three  hundred  years  old.  It 
was  practised  in  England  towards  the  end  of  the  17th 
century,  as  is  proved  by  the  Sloane  collection,  which  in 
1725  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  collection  of  natural  history 
now  lodged  in  the  galleries  at  South  Kensington.. 

It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  last  century  that  any 
treatise  devoted  to  the  principles  of  the  then  little  under- 
stood art  was  published  in  France,  Reaumur's  treatise^ 
(1749)  being  probably  the  first.  This  was  followed  at 
intervals  by  others  in  France  and  Germany,  until  the  be-j 
ginning  of  the  present  century,  when  the  English  began 
to  move  in  the  matter,  and  several  works  were  published,' 
notably  those  by  E.  Donovan,^  W.  Swainson,''  Capt.  Thomas 
Brown,^  and  others.  These  works,  however,  are  now  in-j 
adequate;  and  since  the  Great  E.xhibition  of  1851,  when 
the  Germans  and  French  taught  British  taxidermists  the 
rudiments  of  scientific  treatment  of  natural  objects,  several 
works  have  appeared  upon  the  subject  from  the  pens  of 
American  and  English  authors,  such  as_J._H.J3atty,^  R.^ 
Ward,^  and  Montagu  Browne.^  ._  

The  first  principle  governing  the'art  is  that,  after  the 
specimen  has  been  procured,  in  as  fresh  and  clean  a  state 
as  may  be,  it  should  have  the  skin  stripped  from  the  body 
in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  disturb  the  scales  if  a  fish  or 
a  reptile,  the  feathers  if  a  bird,  or  the  fur  or  hair  if  a 
mammal.  To  do  this  correctly  requires  a  small  stock  of 
tools,  as  well  as  a  great  amount  of  patience  and  perj 
severance.  The  appliances  comprise  several  sharp  knives 
(some  pointed  and  some  obtuse),  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  pair 
of  pliers,  a. pair  of  nippers  or  "cutting-pliers,"  some  tow,' 
wadding,  needles  and  thread,  also  a  "  stuffing-iron,"  some 
crooked  awls,  a  pair  of  fine  long  flat-nosed  pliers,  and  a 
camel-hair  brush.  The  preservative  compound  is  often  the 
original  (Becoeur's)  "arsenical  soap,"  made  by  cutting  up 
■  and  boiling  2  tt)  of  white  soap,  to  which  12  oz.  of  salt  of. 
tartar  and  4  oz.  of  powdered  lime  (or  whiting)  are  added 

^  Instruciions  for  Collecting  and  Preserving  Varimis  Subjects  ofj 
NatiLToX  History,  London,  1794. 

^  27i«  Naturalist's  Qui de  for  Collecctng  and  Preserving  Subjects  o/^ 
Natural  History  and  Botany,  London,  18?2. 

^   Taxidermist's  Manual,  Glasgow,  1833. 

*  Practical  Taxidermy  and  Home  Decoration',  .New  YorR,  1S8U. 

"  Spcrrlsmav.' s  Handbook  of  Practical  Collecting  and  Preservingi^ 
London,  18801 

•  Pi-aciical  Taxidermy,  London,  1879  ,  2d  edition,  1834. 

Otxm.  — ^la 


90 


TAXIDEEMY 


>Iieii  dissolved ;  to  this  mixture,  when  nearly  cold,  2  lb 
of  powdered  arsenic  and  5  oz.  of  camphor  (the  latter  pre- 
\'«ously  triturated  in  a  mortar  with  spirits  of  wine)  are 
added.  The  mixture  is  put  away  in  small  jars  or  pots  for 
Use.  Like  all  arsenical  preparations,  this  is  exceedingly 
(dangerous  in  the  hands  of  unskilled  persons,  often  causing 
jshortness  of  breath,  sores,  brittleness  of  the  nails,  and  other 
jsymptoms ;  and,  as  arsenic  is  really  no  protection  against 
the  attacks  of  insects,  an  efficient  substitute  has  been  in- 
Vented  by  Browne,  composed  of  1  lb  of  white  curd  soap  and 
3  tt>-of  whiting  boiled  together,  to  which  is  added,  whilst  hot, 
li  oz.  of  chloride  of  lime,  and,  when  cold,  1  oz.  of  tincture 
of  musk.  This  mixture  is  perfectly  safe  to  use  when  cold 
(although  when  hot  the  fumes  should  not  be  inhaled, 
pwing^to  the  chlorine  given  off),  and  is  spoken  of  as  doing 
$ia  work  efficiently.  Solatipna'.  of.  corrosive  sublimate, 
(bften  recommended,  are,'B.v6aif -efiScient,  dangerous  in  the 
(extreme.  Povrders  consisting  of  tannin,  pepper,  camphor, 
fend  burnt  alum  are  sometimes  used  for."  making  skins," 
lut  they  "dry  ■  them  too  rapidly  for  the  purposes  of 
"'  mounting."  Mammals  are  best  preserved  by  a  mixture 
■of  1  S)  of  burnt  alum  to -J  3b  of  saltpetre;  this,. when 
Jntimately  mi^ed,  should  be  well  rubbed  into  the  skin. 
IFishes  and  reptiles,  when  not  cast  and  modelled,  are  best 
preserved  in  rectified  spirits  of  vnne ;  but  this,  when  eco- 
nomy is  desired,  can  be  replaced  by  "  Moller's  solution  " 
^bichromate  of  potash  2  oz.,  sulphate  of  soda  1  oz.,  dis- 
tilled water  3  pints)  or  by  a  nearly  saturated  solution  of 
pblorider  of  zinc,^  The  "cleaning  of  feathers  and  furs  is 
perforri^d,  by  rubbing  them  lightly  with  wadding  soaked 
in  benzoljne,  afterwards  dusting  on  plaster  of  Paris,  which 
is  beaten;  out,  when  dry,  with  a  bunch  of  feathers. 

The  pi'eparation  and  mounting  of  bird  specimens,  tie  objects 
taost  usually  selected  by  the  amateur,  are  performed  in  the  follow- 
ing manner.  •  The  specimen  to  be  operated  npon  should  have  its 
'Xostrils  and  throat  closed  by  .plugs  of  cotton  wool  or  tow;  both 
Kv'ing-bones  should  be  broken  close  to  the  body,  and  the  bird  laid 
.upon  a  table  on  its  back ;  and,  as  birds — especially  white-breasted 
ones — should  seldom,  if  ever,  be  opened  on  the  breast^  an  incision 
should  be  raado  in  the  skin  under  the  wing  on  the  side  most 
damaged,  from  which  the  thigh  protrudes  when  pushed  up 
slightly  ;  this  is  cut  through  at  its  junction  with  the  body,  when 
the  knife  is  gently.used  to  separate  the  skin  from  this,  until  the- 
.wing-bone  is  seen  on  the  open  .side.  .This  is  then  cut  through  by 
scissors,  and  by  careful  manipulation  the  skin  is  further  freed  from 
'the  back  and  breast  until  the  neck  can  be  cut  off  The  other  side 
jiow  remains  to  be  dealt  wth  ;  from  this  the  wing  is  cut  by 
travelling  downwards,  the  remaining  leg  is  cut  away,  and  verv 
careful  skinning  over  the  stomach  and  upon  the  lower  back  brings 
the  operator  to  the  taU,  which  is  cnt  off,  leaving  a  small  portion 
of  the  bone  (the  coccyx)  in  the  skin.  The  body  now  falls  off,  and 
nothing  remains  in  the  skin  but  the  neck  and  head.  To  skin  these 
out  properly  witTiout  unduly  stretching  the  integument,  is  a  task 
trj'ing  to  the  patience,  but  it  can  bo  accomplished  by  gradually 
."working  the  skin  away  from  the  back  of  the  head  forward,  taking 
caro  to  avoid. tutting  the  eyes  or  the  eyelids,  but,  by  ca.utious 
management,  to  cut  the  membranous  skin  over  those  parts,  so  that 
the  eyes  are  casUy  extracted  from  the  orbits  without  bursting. 
The  skin  should  bo  freed  down  nearly  to  the  beak,  and  then  the 
back  of  the  he.-(d',  with  neck  attached,  should  be  cut  off,  the  brains 
extracted,  all  the  flesh  cleared  from  the  skull  and  from  the  bones  of 
jthe  wings,  legs,  and  tail,  the  skin  painted  with  the  preservative,  and 
Ultimately  turned  into  its  proper  position.  When  '.'skins"  only 
are  to  be  made  for  the  cabinet,  it  is  suflicientto  fill  the  head  and 
Jjeck  with  chopped  tow,  the  body  with  a  false  one  made  of  tow, 
lightly  packed  or  loose  according  to  the  genius  of  the  preparer,  to 
flew  up  the  skin  of  the  stomach,  and  to  place  a  band  of  paper 
lightly  pinned  around  the  body  over  the  breast  and  wings,  and. 
allow  it  to  remain  in  a  warm  position,  free  from  dust,  for  several 
days  or  weeks,  according  to  the  size ^of  the  specimen.  It  should 
Ithen  be  labelled  mth.  name,  sex,  locality,  and  date,  and  put  away 
^th  insect  powder  around  it. 

f  When,  however,  the  specimen  is  to  bo  "mounted,"  the  opera- 
lions  8ho(i)d  be  carried  up  to  the  pointof  returning  the  skin,  and 
l^ien.a  false  body  of  tightly  wrapped  tow  is  made  upon  a  wire 
jpointed  at  its  upper  end.  This  is  inserted  through  the  indsion. 
under  the  wing,  the  pointe'd  end  going  up  the  neck  and  thtough' 
t,he  skull  to  (hf!  outsidot  When"  the  imitation  body  rests  witliin 
llie-»kin,  pointed  wires  arejthrust  through  tha  soles  of  the  feet,  up 


the  skin  of  the  back  of  the  legs,  and  are  finally  clenclied  in  tka 
body.  Wires  are  also  thrust  into  the  butts  of  the  wings,  follow- 
ing.the  skiu  of  the  under  surface,  and  also  clenched  through  into 
the  body.  A  stand  or  perch  is  provided,  and  the  bird,  being 
fixed  upon  this,  is,  after  the  eyes  have  been  inserted,  arranged 
in  the- most  natural  attitude  which  the  skill  of  the  taxidermist  can 
give  it. 

Mammals  are  cut  along  the  stomach  from  nearly  the  middle  t^ 
tlie  brc.ist,  and  are  skinned  by  working  out  the  'hind  legs  first,' 
cutting  them  off  under  the  skin  at  the  junction  of  the  femur  with 
the  tibi.a,  and  carefully  stripping  the  skin  off  the  lower  back  and 
front  until  the  tail  is  reached,  the  flesh  and  bones  of  which  are 
pulled  out  of  the  skin,  leaving  the  operator  free  to  follow  on  up  the 
back  and  chest  until  the  fore  legs  are  reached,  which  are  cut  off 
iu  like  manner.  The  neck  and  head  are  skinned  out  do\vn  to  the 
inner  edges  of  the  lips  and  nose,  great  care  being  exercised  not  to 
cut  the  outer  portions  of  the  ears,  the  eyelids,  the  nose,  or  the  lips. 
The  flesh  being  cleared  off,  and  the  brain"  and  eyes  extracted,  the 
skull  should  adhere  to  the  skin  by  the  inner  edges  of  the  lips.  All 
the  flesh  should  be  trimmed  from  the  bones  of  the  legs.  The  head, 
being  shaped,  where  the  flesh  was. removed,  by  tow  and  clay,  is 
returned  into  the  skin.  A  long  wire  of  sutficient  strength  is 
tightly  bound  with  tow,  making  a  long,  narrow  body,  through 
which  wires  are  thrust  by  the  skin  of  the  soles  of  the  feet  The 
le.g  wires  and  bones  being  wrapped  with  tow  and  clay  into  shape, 
the  points  of  the  wires  are  pushed  through  the  tow  body  and 
clencned.  They  and  the  body  are  then  bent  into  the  desired  posi-. 
tion,  and  modelled  up  by  the  addition  of  more  tow  and  clay,  until 
the  contours  of  the  natural  body  are  imitated,  when  the  stomach 
is  sewn  up.  A  board  is  provided  upon  which  to  fix  the  specimen, 
artificial  eyes  are  inserted,  the  lips,  nose,  and  eyelids  fixed  by 
means  of  pins  or  "needle-points."  and  the. specimen^ is  then  placed 
in  a  warm  situation  to  dry. 

Reptiles,  when  small,  have  their  skin  removed  by  cutting  away 
the  attachment  of  the  skull  to  the  cervical  vertebrs,  and  by  tum- 
'  ing  the  decapitated  trunk  out  at  the  mouth  by  delicate  manipula- 
tion. "When  large,  they  are  cut  along  their  median  line,  and 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  mammals. 

Fishes,  after  being  covered  on  their  best  side  with  paper  oi 
muslin  to  protect  the  scales,  are  cut  along  the  other  side  from  the 
tail  to  the  gills,  and  are  skinned  out  by  removing  "cutlets,"  as 
large  as  is  possible  without  cracking  the  skin,  which,  indeed,i 
should  be  kept  damp  during  work.  After  being  cured  with  a  pre- 
servative, they  are  filled  with  sawdnst  or  dry  plaster  of  Paris,  sewn 
up,  turned  over  on  a  board,  the  fins  pinned  out,  and  the  mouth 
adjusted,  and,  when  perfectly  dry,  the  plaster  may  be  shaken  out. 

A  new  school  of  taxidermists,  with  new  methods,  whose 
aim  is  to  combine  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  modelling 
^^ith  taxidermic  technique,  are  now  coining  to  the  front, 
and  the  next  generation  will  discard  all  processes  of 
"  stuffing  "  in  favour  of  modelling.  Within  the  limits  of 
an  article  like  the  present  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than 
glance  at  the  intricate  processes  involved  in  this.  In  the 
case  of  mammals,  after  the  skin  has  been  completely 
removed,  even  to  the  toes,  a  copy  is  made  of  the  body, 
posed  as  in  life,  and  frcn  this"  an  accurate  representation 
of  form,  including  delineation  of  muscles,  &c.,  is  built  up 
in  light  materials;  the  m'odel  is  then  covered  with  the 
skin,  which  is  damped,  and  pinned  in  to  follow  every 
depression  and  prominence ;  the  study  is  then  suffered  to 
dry ;  and,  models  having  been  made,  in  the  case  of  large 
animals,  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  jaws,  palate, 
tongue,  and  lips,  these  are  truthfully  reproduced  in  a 
plastic  material.  The  ordinary  glass  eyes  are  discarded,' 
and  hoUow  globes,  specially  made,  are  hand-painted  from 
nature,  and  are  fixed  in  the  head  so  as  to  convey  the  exact' 
expression  which  the  pose  of  the  body  demands.  Birds, 
if  of  any  size,  can  be  modelled  in  like  manner,  and  fishes 
are  treated  by  a  nearly  identical  process,  being  finally 
coloured  as  in  a  "  still  life  "  painting. 

To  give  a  life-like  representation,  attention  is  also  paid 
to  artistic  "  mounting."  By  this  is  meant  the  surrounding 
of  specimens  with  appropriate  accessories,  and  it  is  well 
exemplified  by  the  new  work  shown  in  the  natural  history 
"museum  at  South  Kensington,  where,  for  example,  birds 
AreJirranged  as  in  a  state  of  nature,  feeding  or  fljnng  to 
their'  young,  sitting  on  their  eggs,  swimming  in  miniature 
pools,  or  preening  their  feathers  whilst  perched  lovingly 
side   by   side,  and  Kiirrounded   by  exquisitely  modelled 


T  A  X  —  T  A  Y 


91 


foliage  and  flowers.  This,  with  correct  modelling  of  the 
specimens,  which,  except  in  rare  instances,  is  not  quite  so 
striking  in  the  new  groups,  indicates  the  future  of  the  art, 
the  hope  of  which  lies  in  the  better  education  of  taxi- 
dermists as  designers,  artists,  and  modellers.         (m.  b.) 

T.A.XILA.     See  Rawal  Pi.ndi. 

TAY,  The,  the  longest  river  in  Scotland,  has  its  source 
on  the  northern  side  of  Ben  Lui,  on  the  borders  of  Argyll- 
shire and  Perthshire,  being  known  in  its  earlier  course  as 
the  Fillan,  and,  after  forming  Loch  Dochart,  as  the  Dochart, 
until  entering  Loch  Tay,  25  miles  from  its  source,  at  an 
•elevation  above  sea-level  of  553  feet.  Its  course  through 
Perthshire  is  described  in  the  article  on  that  county.  Its 
total  length  to  the  town  of  Perth  is  about  05  miles,  and 
it  drains  a  total  area  of  about  2400  square  miles,  while  its 
estuary  extends  for  about  other  25  miles.  The  navigation 
of  the  estuary  is  somewhat  impeded  by  sandbanks.  The 
only  important  port  is  Dundee,  but  vessels  of  100  tons 
can  pass  up  to  Perth,  the  river  being  tidal  to  2  miles  above 
it.  The  salmon  fisheries  on  the  river  and  its  estuary  are 
among  the  most  valuable  in  Scotland.  A  railway  bridge 
over  the  Tay  at  Dundee,  designed  by  Sir  Thomais  Bouch 
(see  Bridges,  vol.  iv.  p.  340),  was  opened  for  traffic  31st 
May  1878,  but  was  blown  down  during  the  crossing  of  a 
passenger  tram  2Sth  December  1879.  Some  distance  to 
the  west  a  new  bridge,  designed  by  W.  H.  Barlow,  was 
commenced  in  1882,  and  was  opened  for  general  traffic 
20th  June  1887. 

TAYLOR,  Bayakd  (1825-1878),  one  of  the  most  pro- 
lific among  American  authors,  was  born  at  Kennett  Square 
io  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  on  January  25,  1825. 
The  son  of  a  well-to-do  farmer,  he  received  bis  early  in- 
struction "i  an  academy  at  West  Chester,  and,  later,  at 
Unicnville.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  printer  in  West  Chester.  A  little  volume,  published 
in  1844  under  the  title  Ximena,  or  the  Battle  of  the  Sierra 
iforena,  and  other  Poems,  brought  its  author  a  little  cash ; 
and  indirectly  it  did  him  better  service  as  the  means  of 
his  introduction  to  The  New  York  Tribuw.  With  thiJ^ 
money  thus  obtained,  and  with  an  advance  made  to  him 
on  account  of  some  journalistic  work  to  be  done  in  Europe, 
"  J.  B.  Taylor  "  (as  he  had  up  to  this  time  signed  himself, 
though  he  bore  no  other  Christian  name  than  Bayard)  set 
sail  for  the  East.  The  young  poet  spent  a  happy  time 
in  roaming  through  certain  districts  of  England,  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy ;  that  he  was  a  born  traveller  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  this  pedestrian  tour  of  almost 
two  years  cost  him  only  £100.  The  graphic  accounts 
which  he  sent  from  Europe  to  The  New  York  Tribune, 
The  Saturday  Evening  Post,  and  The  United  States  Gazette 
were  so  highly  appreciated  that  on  Taylor's  return  to 
America  he  was  advised  to  throw  his  articles  into  book 
form.  In  1846,  accordingly,  appeared  his  Views  Afoot,  or 
Europe  seen  with  Knapsack  and  Staff.  This  pleasant  book 
had  considerable  popularity,  and  its  author  now  found 
himself  a  recognized  man  of  letters ;  moreover,  Horace 
Greeley,  then  editor  of  the  Tribune,  placed  Taylor  on 
the  staff  of  that  journal,  thus  securing  him  a  certaja  if  a 
moderate  income.  His  next  journey,  made  when  the  gold- 
fever  was  at  its  height,  was  to  California,  as  correspondent 
for  the  Tribune ;  from  this  expedition  he  returned  by  way 
of  Mexico,  and,  seeing  his  opportunity,  published  (1850) 
a  highly  successftil  book  of  travels,  entitled  Eldorado,  en- 
Adventures  in  the  Path  of  Empire.  Ten  thousand  copies 
were  said  to  have  been  sold  in  America,  and  thirty  thou- 
sand in  Great  Britain,  within  a  fortnight  from  the  date  of 
issue.  Bayard  Taylor  always  considered  himself  native  to 
the  East,  and  it  was  with  great  delight  that  in  1851  he 
found  himself  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  He  ascended  as 
far  as  12°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  stored  his  memory  with  count- 


less sights  and  delights,  to  many  of  which  he  afterwards 
gave  e.\'pression  in  metrical  form.  From  England,  towards 
the  end  of  1852,  he  sailed  for  Calcutta,  proceeding  thence 
to  China,  where  he  joined  the  expedition  of  Commodore 
Perry  to  Japan.  The  results  of  these  journeys  (besides 
his  poetical  memorials,  to  which  reference  will  be  after- 
wards made)  were  A  Journey  to  Central  Africa,  or  Life 
and  Landscapes  from  E'jypt  to  the  Negro  Kingdoms  of  the 
Nile.  (1854)  ;  The  Land  of  the  Saracens,  or  Pictures  of 
Palestine,  Afin  Mim/r,  Sicily,  and  Spam  (1854);  and  A 
Visit  to  India,  China,  and  Jopnn  tn  the  Year  1863  (1S55). 
On  his  return  (1854)  from  these  various  journeyings  he 
entered,  with  marked  success,  upon  the  career  of  a  public 
lecturer,  delivering  addresses  in  every  town  of  importance 
from  Maine  to  Wisconsin.  After  two  years'  experience  oi 
this  lucrative  profession,  he  again  started  on  his  travels,  on 
this  occasion  for  northern  Europe,  his  special  object  being 
the  study  of  Swedish  life,  language,  and  literature.  The 
most  noteworthy  result  was  the  long  narrative  poem  LarB, 
but  his  "  Swedish  Letters  "  to  the  Tnbune  were  also  re- 
published, under  the  title  Northern  Travel  (1857).  In 
October  1857  he  married  Maria  Hansen,  the  daughter  of 
the  well  kcown  German  astronomer.  The  ensuing  winter 
was  spent  in  Greece.  In  1859  Taylor  once  more  traversed 
the  whole  extent  of  the  western  American  gold  region,  the 
primary  cause  of  the  journey  lying  in  an  invitation  to 
lecture  at  San  Francisco.  About  three  years  later  he 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  as  secretary  of  legation  at  St 
Petersburg,  and  the  following  year  (1863)  became  charge 
d'affaires  at  the  Russian  capital.  In  1864  he  returned  to 
the  United  States  and  resumed  his  active  literary  labours, 
and  it  was  at  this  period  that  Hannah  Thurston,  the  IJrst  of 
his  four  novels,  was  published.  This  book  had  a  moderate 
success,  but  neither  in  it  nor  in  its  successors  did  Bayard 
Taylor  betray  any  special  talent  as  a  novelist :  some  of  his 
characters  are  faithful  studies  from  life,  and  he  could 
describe  well  the  aspects  of  nature, — but  a  good  deal  more 
than  this  is  necessary  for  the  creation  of  noteworthy 
romances.  In  1874  he  went  to  Iceland,  to  take  part  in  the 
ctintenntal  celebration  which  was  held  in  that  year.  In  June 
1878  he -was  accredited  United  States  minister  at  Berlin. 
Kotwithstanding  the  resistless  passion  for  travel  *-hich 
had  always  possessed  him.  Bayard  Taylor  was  (when  not 
actually  en  route)  sedentary  in  his  habits,  especially  in  the 
later  years  of  his  life  ,  and  at  Berlin  he  aggravated  a 
constitutional  liver  affection  by  too  sedulous  devotion  to 
literary  studies  and  pursuits,  m  the  intervals  of  leisure  from 
his  diplomatic  duties.  His  death  occurred  on  the  1 7th  of 
December,  only  a  few  months  after  his  arrival  in  Berlin. 

The  mam  drawback  to  the  widespread  acceptance  of  Bayard 
Taylor's  poetry  as  a  whole  is  its  perpetual  difTiiseness.  His  most 
ambitious  productions — his  Masque  of  the  Gods  (1872),  Prince 
Veukalwii  (1877),  The  Pkltm  of  St  John  (1865),  Lars  (1873),  and 
The  Prophet  (1874) — are  marred  by  a  ceaseless  elTort  to  overstrain 
his  power.  Lars  is  the  least  likely  of  his  longer  poems  to  survive 
any  length  of  time:  it  lacks  the  gi-andiose  eloquence  and  inipressiTB 
'*  adjuncts  "  of  the  Masque  or  Prince  Deukalwn,  vhile  in  theme  and 
treatment  it  is,  at  r^ost,  only  sedately  agreeable.  The  Poems  of 
the  Orient  contains  his  most  genuinely  satisfactoi^  poetic  m-itings. 
But  probably  long  after  even  the  most  faraihar  of  the  poems  just 
mentioned  have  ceased  to  be  popular,  when  even  the  Views  Afoot 
and  Eldorado  no  longer  hold  the  attention  of  the  numerous  public 
interested  in  vividly  narrated  experiences  of  travel.  Bayard  'Taylor 
will  b«  remembered  by  his  poetic  aud  e.tcellent  translation  oi 
Faust.  Taylor  felt,  in  all  trutli,  '*  the  torment  and  the  ecstasy  of 
verse";  but,  as  a  critical  friend  has  written  of  him,  "his  nature 
was  so  ardent,  so  full-blooded,  that  slight  and  common  sensations 
'ntoxicated  him,  and  he  estimated  their  eUect,  and  his  power  to 
transmit  it  to  others,  beyond  the  true  value."  He  felt  life  as 
perhaps  only  tho  poetic  temperament  can  expeiicncc  ihe  beauty  nf 
the  world;  single  wordii  thus  became  for  mm  so  charged  with 
poetry  that  he  overlooked  the  fact  that  to  most  people  these  were, 
simply  in  themselves,  mere  abstract  terms — sunshine,  se.i,  spring, 
morning,  night,  and  so  forth.  Thus  a  stanza  having  absolutely 
nothing  original  or  striking  or  even  poetic  in  it  nould,  because 


92 


TAYLOR 


born  of  him,  seem  to  be  poetry  unadultcrate  :  to  his  mind,  each 
line  each  word,  was  charged  with  deliglitful  si^ificance,  thcrefom 
—so  he  felt-would  be  so  also  to  the  sympathetic  reader.  He  had, 
from  the  earliest  period  at  which  he  began  to  compose,  a  distinct 
lyrical  faculty  :  so  keen  indeed  was  his  ear  that  he  became  too 
insistently  haunted  by  the  music  of  others,  pre-eminently  of 
Tennyson.  Rut  ho  had  often  a  truo  and  fine  note  of  his  own. 
His  best  short  pocins  are  "The  Metempsychosis  of  the  Pine"  and 
tlie  well  known  Ccdoum  love-sonp!,  tho  latter  a  stirring  lyric  that 
ought  assuredly  to  endure.  In  liis  critic.il  essays  Bayard  Taylor 
had  himself  in  no  inconsiderablu  decree  what  he  wrote  of  as  "that 
pure  imctin  insight  which  is  the  vital  spirit  of  criticism  "  The 
most  valuable  of  those  prose  dissertations  aic  the  Studies  m  German 
LitcralUTC. 

TAYLOR,  Brook  (1685- 1731),  a  distinguished  mathe 
matician  of  Newton's  school,  was  the  son  of  John  Taylor, 
of  Bifrons  House,  Kent,  by  Olivia,  daughter  of  Sir  Nicholas 
Tempest,  Bart.,  of  Durliara,  anj  was  born  at  Edmonton 
in  Middlese.x,  August  18,  168.')  He  entered  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  as  a  fellow-commoner  in  1701,  and 
took  degrees  of  LLB.  and  LL  D.  respectively  in  1709  and 
1714.  Having  studied  mathematics  with  apidause  under 
Machiu  and  Keill,  he  obtained  in  1708  a  remarkable 
solution  of  the  problem  of  the  "centre  of  oscillation," 
whiA,  however,  remaining  unpublished  until  May  1714 
{I'liil.  TraiiS;  vol.  xxviii.  p  11),  his  claim  to  priority  was 
unjustly  disputed  by  John  Bernoulli.  Taylor's  Methodus 
Incrementorum.  Directn  et  Inversa  (London,  1715)  added  a 
new  branch  to  the  higher  mathematics,  now  designated  the 
"calculus  of  finite  differences."  Among  other  ingenious 
applications,  he  used  it  to  determine  the  form  of  movement 
of  a  vibrating  string,  by  him  first  successfully  reduced  to 
mechanical  principles.  The  same  work  contained  (p.  23) 
the  celebrated  formula  known  as  "Taylor's  theorem."  It 
is  of  extensive  use  in  almost  every  analytical  inquiry  ;  but 
its  full  importance  remained  unrecognized  until  pointed 
out  in  1772  (Berlin  Memoirs)  by  Lagrange,  who  later 
termed  it  "  le  principal  frndement  du  calcul  diff^rentiel." 
In  his  essay  on  Linear  Perspective  (London,  1715) 
Taylor  set  forth  the  true  principles  of  the  art  v\ith  much 
originality,  and  in  a  more  general  form  than  any  of  his 
predecessors  The  little  work  suffered,  however,  from  the 
brevity  and  obscurity  which  affected  most  of  his  writings, 
and  needed  the  elucidation  bestowed  on  it  in  the  treatises 
of  Joshua  Kirby  (1754)  and  Daniel  Fournier  (1761). 

Taylor  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  early  in 
1712,  sat  in  the  same  year  on  the  committee  for  adjudi- 
cating the  claims  of  Newton  and  Leibnitz,  and  acted  as 
secretary  to  the  society  January  13,  1714,  to  October 
21,  1718  During  a  visit  to  Paris  in  1716  he  made 
acquaintance  with  Bossuet  and  the  Comte  de  Caylus,  and 
knit  a  warm  friendship  with  Bolingbroke,  whom  he  visited 
at  La  Source  in  1720.  From  1715  his  studies  took 
a  philosophical  and  religious  bent  He  corresponded,  in 
that  year,  with  the  Comte  de  Montmort  on  the  subject 
of  Malebranche's  tenets  ;  and  unfinished  treatises,  "On  the 
Jewish  Sacrifices "  and  "  On  the  Lawfulness  of  Eating 
Blood,"  written  on  his  return  from  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
1719,  were  afterwards  found  among  his  papers.  His 
marriage  in  1721  with  Miss  Brydges  of  Wallington, 
Surrey,  led  to  an  estrangement  from  his  father,  a  person 
of  somewhat  moro  temper,  which  terminated  in  1723 
after  the  death  of  the  lady  in  giving  birth  to  a  son  The 
enswing  two  years  were  spent  by  him  with  his  family  at 
Bifrons,  and  in  1725  he  married,  with  the  paternal  appro- 
bation, Sabetta,  daughter  of  Mr  Sawbridge  of  Olantigh, 
Kent,  who,  by  a  strange  fatality,  died  also  in  childbed  in 
1730;  in  this  case,  however,  the  infant,  a  daughter, 
survived.  Weighed  down  by  repeated  sorrows,  Taylor's 
fragile  health  gave  way  ,  he  fell  into  a  decline,  died 
December  29,  1731,  at  Somerset  House,  and  was  buried 
at  St  Ann's,  Soho      By  his  father's  death  in   1729  he 


had  inherited  the  Bifrons  estate.  Socially  as  well  as  fiT< 
tell&tually  gifted,  he  possessed  a  handsome  person  and 
engaging  manners,  and  was  accomplished  to  an  uncommon 
degree  in  music  and  painting.  As  a  mathematician,  he  was 
the  only  Englishman  after  Newton  and  Cotes  capable  of 
holding  his  own  with  the  Bernoullis ;  but  a  great  part  of 
the  effect  of  his  demonstrations  was  lost  through  bis  failure 
to  express  his  ideas  fully  and  clearly. 

A  posthumous  work  entitled  Contemptatio  Philosophica  was 
printed  for  private  circulation  in  1793  by  his  grandson.  Sir  William 
Young,  Bart,  prefaced  by  a  life  of  the  author,  and  with  an  appendix 
containing  letters  addressed  to  him  by  Boliogbioke,  Bossuet,  &c 
Several  short  papers  by  him  were  published  in  PhU.  Trans.,  vols, 
xxvii.  to  xxxii  ,  including  accounts  of  some  interesting  experiments 
lu  magnetism  and  capillary  attraction  He  issued  in  1719  an 
improved  version  of  his  work  on  perspective,  with  the  title  New 
ProicipUs  of  Linear  Perspective,  revised  by  Colsoii  in  1749,  and 
printed  again,  with  portrait  and  life  of  the  author,  in  1811  A 
French  translation  appeared  lu  1753  at  Lyons.  Taylor  gave  {Me- 
thodus Incrementorum,  f.  108)  the  first  satisfactory  investigation  of 
astronomical  refraction 

See  Watt,  Bibliolheta  Uruamiica  ;  Hutton,  P/itl  and  Math  Dtcltonanj  ,  F6ti&, 
Bto<j  des  Musician,  Tli  Tliomson,  Hist  of  the  R,  Societt/,  p  302,  Granc  Hist 
Phys    Astronomy,  p.  377;   Marie.  Hist,  da  Sciences,  vil    p  231 

TA'VLOR,  Sir  Henry  (1800-1886),  poet  and  colonial 
statesman,  was  born  October  18,  1800,  at  Bishop-Mid- 
dleham,  in  the  county  of  Durham  His  ancestors  had 
been  small  landowners  for  some  generations,  and  both  his 
studious  father,  who  late  in  life  emerged  for  a  time  from  a 
recluse  existence  to  make  an  efficient  secretary  to  the  Poor 
Law  Commission,  and  his  original  warm-hearted  mother 
were  interesting  persons.  His  mother  died  while  he  was- 
yet  an  infant,  and  he  was  chiefly  educated  by  his  father, 
who,  finding  him  less  quick  and  deeming  him  less  intel- 
ligent than  his  two  elder  brothers,  allowed  him  to  go  to 
sea  as  a  midshipmaa  Eight  months  summed  up  his 
naval  career ,  it  had  taken  much  less  to  disgust  him 
with  it  After  obtaining  his  discharge  he  was  appointed 
to  a  clerkship  in  the  storekeeper's  oflice,  and  had  scarcely 
entered  upon  his  duties  ere  he  was  attacked  by  typhus 
fever,  which  carried  off  both  his  brothers,  then  living  with 
him  in  London.  In  three  or  four  years  more  his  office  was 
aboli.shed  while  he  was  on  duty  in  the  West  Indies.  On 
his  return  he  found  his  father  happily  married  to  a  lady 
whose  interest  and  sympathy  proved  of  priceless  value  to 
him.  Through  her  he  became  acquainted  with  her  cousin 
Isabella  Fenwick,  the  neighbour  and  intimate  friend  of 
Wordsworth,  who  introduced  him  to  Wordsworth  and 
Southey  Under  these  influences  he  lost  his  early  admira- 
tion for  Byron,  whose  school,  whatever  its  merits,  he  at 
least  was  in  no  way  calculated  to  adorn,  and  his  intel- 
lectual powers  developed  rapidly.  In  October  1822  are 
article  from  his  pen  on  Moore's  Irish  Melodies  appeared 
in  the  Quarterly  Rem^w  A  year  later  he  departed  for 
London  to  seek  his  fortune  as  a  man  of  letters,  and  met 
with  such  rapid  success,  though  not  precisely  in  thia 
capacity,  as  has  but  rarely  attended  an  unknown  young 
man  He  became  editor  of  the  lyOndon  Magazine,  to 
which  he  had  already  contributed,  and  in  January  1824 
obtained,  through  the  influence  of  Sir  Henry  Holland,  an 
appointment  in  the  Colonial  Office,  insuring  him,  not  only 
an  ample  salary,  but  considerable  influence  in  this  depart 
ment  of  public  affairs  The  general  standard  of  the  offico 
was  probably  at  that  time  low  ;  at  all  events  Taylor  was 
immediately  entrusted  with  the  preparation  of  confidential 
state  papers,  and  his  opinion  soon  exercised  an  important 
influence  on  the  decisions  of  the  secretary  of  state.  He 
visited  Wordsworth  and  Southey,  travelled  on  the  Con- 
tinent with  the  latter,  and  at  the  same  time,  mainly 
through  his  friend  and  official  colleague,  the  Hon.  Hyde 
Villiers,  became  intimate  with  a  very  different  set,  the 
younger  followers  of  Bentham,  without,  however,  adopting 
their  opinions, — "  young  men,"  he  afterwards  renjinded 


{ 


TAYLOR 


93 


Stuart  Miil,  "who  every  one  said  would  be  ruined  by 
their  independence,  but  who  ended  by  obtaining  alJ  their 
hearts'  desires,  except  one  who  fell  by  the  way."  The 
reference  is  to  Hyde  Villiers,  who  died  prematurely,  and 
for  whose  sister,  afterwards  Lady  Theresa  Lewis,  Taylor 
was  an  unsuccessful  suitor.  He  actively  promoted  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  1833,  and  became  an  in- 
timate aUy  of  Sir  James  Stephen,  then  counsel  to  the 
Colonial  Office,  afterwards  uuder-secretary,  by  whom  the 
Act  of  Emancipation  was  principally  framed.  His  first 
drama,  haac  Comnenns,  was  published  anonymously  in 
1827.  Though  highly  praised  by  Southey,  it  made  little 
impression  on  the  public.  Philip  van  Arteveld^  lie  sub- 
ject of  which  had  been  recommended  to  him  by  Southey, 
was  begun  in  1828,  published  in  1834,  and,  aided  by  a 
laudatory  criticism  from  Lockhart's  pen,  achieved  extra- 
ordinary success.  Edwin  the  Fair  (1842)  was  less  warmly 
received.  In  the  interim  he  had  married  (1839)  the 
daughter  of  his  former  chief  Lord  Monteagle,  and,  ia  con- 
j'utnction  with  Stephen,  had  taken  a  leading  part  in  the 
tbolition  of  negro  apprenticeship  in  the  West  Indies.  The 
Statesman,  a  volume  of  essays  suggested  by  his  official 
position,  had  been  published  in  1836,  and  about  the  same 
time  he  had  Nvritten  in  the  Quarterly  the  friendly  adver- 
tisements of  Wordsworth  and  Southey,  subsequently  pub- 
lished under  the  somewhat  misleading  title  of  Noi&sfrom 
Pooh.  In  1847  he  was  otfered  the  under-secretaryship  of 
state,  which  he  declined.  Notes  from  Life  and  The  Eve  of 
the  Conquest  appeared  in  this  year,  and  Notes  from  Books 
in  1849.  An  experiment  in  romantic  comedy.  The  Virgin 
Widow,  afterwards  entitled  A  Sicilian  Summer,  was  pub- 
lished in  1850.  "The  pleasantest  play  I  had  WTitten," 
says  the  author ;  "  and  I  never  could  tell  why  people  would 
not  be  pleased  with  it."  His  last  dramatic  work  was  St 
Clenu/ifs  Eve,  published  in  1862.  In  1869  he  was  made 
K.C.M.G.  He  retired  from  the  Colonial  Office  in  1872, 
though  continuing  to  be  consulted  by  Government.  His 
last  days  were  spent  at  Bournemouth  in  the  enjoyment  of 
universal  respect ;  and  the  public,  to  whom  he  had  hitherto 
been  an  almost  impersonal  existence,  became  familiarized 
with  the  extreme  picturesqueness  of  his  appearance  in  old 
age,  as  represented  in  the  photographs  of  his  friend  Mrs 
Cameron.     He  died  on  March  27,  1886. 

Sir  Henry  Taylor  is  pre-eminently  the  statesman  among  English 
poets.  When  ho  can  speak  poetically  in  this  character  he  is 
impressive,  almost  great ;  when  he  deals  with  the  more  prosaic 
aspects  of  policy  he  is  dignified  and  weighty,  without  being  alto- 
gether a  poet ;  when  his  theme  is  entirely  unrelated  to  the  conduct 
of  public  affairs  or  private  life  he  is  usually  little  mora  than  an 
accomplished  man  of  letters.  An  exception  must  be  made  for  the 
interesting  character  of  Elena  in  Philip  van  Artevelde,  and  for 
Arteveldc  s  early  love  experience,  which  reproduces  and  transfigures 
the  writer's  own.  The  circumstance  of  Philip  van  Artevelde  being 
to  a  great  extent  the  vehicle  of  his  own  ideas  and  feelings  explains 
its  great  superiority  to  his  other  works.  It  is  subjective  as  well  as 
objective,  and  to  a  certain  extent  lyrical  in  feeling,  though  not  in 
form.  Though  more  elalwrate  than  any  of  his  other  dramas,  it 
seems  to  smell  less  of  the  lamp.  He  has  thoroughly  identified 
himself  with  his  hero,  and  the  only  fault  to  be  found  with  this 
noble  picture  of  a  consummate  leader  and  statesman  is  the  absence 
of  the  shadow  required  for  a  tragic  portrait.  The  blame  allotted 
to  Artevelde  is  felt  to  be  merely  conventional,  and  the  delineation 
of  uniform  excellence  becomes  monotonous.  The  hero  of  Edimn 
the  Fair,  Dunstan,  the  ecclesiastical  statesman,  the  man  of  two 
worlds,  is  less  sympathetic  to  the  author  and  less  attractive  to 
the  reader.  The  cnaracter  is  nevertheless  a  fine  psychological 
study,  and  the  play  is  full  of  historical  if  not  of  dramatic  interest, 
/sooc  Comnen-us  is  more  Elizabethan  in  tone  than  his  other  dramas. 
Coinuenus  is  like  a  preliminary  sketch  for  Van  Artevelde;  and  the 
picture  of  the  Byzantine  court  and  people  is  exceedingly  lively. 
The  idea  of  the  revival  of  romantic  comedy  in  The  Virgin  Widmo 
is  excellent,  but  the  play  lacks  the  humour  which  might  have 
made  it  a  success-  The  length  of  the  speeches,  even  when  not  set 
speeches,  is  a  drawback  to  all  these  dramas.  Taylor's  lyrical  work 
is  in  general  laboriously  artificial.  It  is  therefore  extraordinary 
that  he  should  have  produced  two  songs  ("Quoth  tongue  of  neither 


maid  nor  wife"  and  "If  I  had  the  wings  of  a  dove")  which  it 
would  hardly  bo  aa  exaggeration  to  call  worthy  of  Shakespeare. 
His  character  as  an  essayist  repeats  his  character  as  a  drainatisL 
The  essays  published  under  the  title  of  The  Statcsvian  occupy  a 
peculiar  place  in  literature.  They  have  serious  faults,  especially 
the  too  obvious  imitation  of  Bacon,  but  they  nevertheless  aro 
ori^nal  in  their  point  of  view,  and  their  wisdom  is  the  result  of  a 
dillerent  kind  of  observation  from  that  which  qualifies  tlie  bulk  of 
essayists  on  human  life.  When  writing  as  one  of  these  Taylor  is 
less  removed  from  the  commonplace,  though  many  of  his  remarks 
are  admirable.  As  a  literary  critic  he  seems  unable  to -get  beyond 
Wordsworth  and  the  select  circle  of  poets  admired  by  tlie  latter. 
His  essays  on  Wordsworth  did  much  to  dispel  the  conventional 
prejudices  of  the  day,  but  will  not  advance  the  study  of  the  poet 
where  his  greatness  is  already  recognized.  His  strictures  on  ByroD 
and  Shelley  are  narrow  and  not  a  little  presumptuous.  •  Presump- 
tion, indeed,  the  last  fault  to  have  been  expected  in  so  grave  and 
measured  a  writer,  is  one  of  those  of  which  he  most  freely  accuses 
himself  in  the  autobiography  published  a  year  before  his  death. 
It  is  not  otherwise  apparent  in  this  highly  interesting  book,  which, 
sinning  a  little  by  the  egotism  pardonable  in  a  poet  and  the 
garrulity  natural  to  a  veteran,  is  in  the  main  a  pleasing  and  faithful 
picture  of  an  aspiring  youth,  an  active  matuiity,  and  a  happy  and 
honoured  old  age.  (R.  G.) 

TAYLOR,  Isaac  (1787-1865),  a  voluminous  writer  on 
philosophical  and  theological  subjects,  was  born  at  Laven- 
ham,  Suffolk,  in  1787,  and  was  trained  by  his  father  to 
be  an  artist,  but  early  adopted  literature  as  a  professiotL 
From  1824,  the  year  of  his  marriage,  he  lived  a  busy  but 
uneventful  life  at  Ongar,  in  the  parish  of  Stanford  Rivers, 
Essex,  where  he  died  on  June  28,  1865. 

He  early  became  a  contributor  to  the  Ecleclio  Review,  when  it 
was  conducted  by  Robert  Hall  and  John  Foster,  and  in  1822  h« 
published  a  small  volume  entitled  EUin^nts  of  Thought,  This  wai 
ibllowed  by  a  translation  of  Theophrastus  with  original  etchings, 
a  History  of  the  Transmission  of  Ancient  Books  to  Modern  Titnes, 
Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Jane  Taylor  (his  sister,  who  died 
in  1824),  and  a  translation  of  Herodotus.  None  of  these  works 
attained  very  great  popularity ;  but  in  1829  he  published  anony. 
mously  a  work  bearing  upon  the  religious  and  political  problems 
of  the  day,  entitled  Th£  ^'atnral  History  of  Enthusiasm,  wnich  wa» 
eagerly  read  and  speedily  ran  through  eight  or  nine  editions.  The 
success  of  this  publication  encouraged  him  to  produce,  also  anony. 
mously.  The  Natural  History  of  Fanaticism,  Spiritual  Despotism. 
Saturday  Evening,  and  The  Physical  Theory  of  Another  Life,  all 
of  which  commanded  a  large  circulation.  Among  his  subsequent 
works  may  be  mentioned  Ancient  Christianity,  a  series  of  disserta- 
tions in  reply  to  the  "Tracts  for  tho  Times,"  a  volume  entitled 
The  Restoration  of  Belief,  and  a  course  of  lectures  on  The  Spirit  of 
Hebrew  Poetry. 

TAYLOR,  Jeremy  (1613-1667),  •was  a  Dative  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  baptized  on  the  15th  August  1613.  His 
father,  Nathaniel,  though  a  barber,  was  a  man  of  some 
education,  respected  by  his  townsmen,  and  lineally  de 
scended  from  Dr  Rowland  Taylor,  Craamer's  chaplain,  who 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Mary.  Jeremy,  after  passing 
through  the  grammar  school,  was  entered  at  Caius  College 
as  a  sizar  in  1626,  eighteen  months  after  Milton  had 
entered  Christ's,  and  while  George  Herbert  was  public 
orator  and  Edmund  Waller  and  Thomas  Fuller  were 
undergraduates  of  the  university.  He  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  his  college  in  1633,  but  the  best  evidence  of  his 
diligence  as  a  student  is  the  enormous  learning  of  which 
he  showed  so  easy  a  command  in  after  years.  Accepting 
the  invitation  of  Risden,  a  fellow-student,  to  supply  hia 
place  for  a  short  time  as  lecturer  in  St  Paul's,  he  at  once 
attracted  attention  by  his  remarkable  eloquence  as  well  as 
by  his  handsome  face  and  youthful  appearanca  Arch, 
bishop  Laud,  ever  on  the  outlook  for  men  of  capacity,  sent 
for  Taylor  to  preach  before  him  at  Lambeth,  and,  discern- 
ing that  his  genius  was  worth  fostering,  dismissed  him 
from  the  overpressure  of  the  metropolis  to  the  quiet  of  a 
fellowship  in  All  Souls,  Oxford,  and  at  the  same  time,  by 
making  him  one  of  his  own  chaplains,  showed  his  desire 
to  keep  him  in  permanent  conne.xion  with  himself  At 
Oxford  Chillingworth  was  then  busy  wth  his  great  work, 
the  Religion  of  Protestants,  and  it  is  possible  that  by 
intercourse  with  him  Taylor's  mind  may  have  bew  turned 


94 


TAYLOR 


towards  the  liberal  movement  of  his  age.  After  two  years 
in  Oxford,  in  March  1638  he  was  presented  by  Jtixon, 
bishop  of  London,  to  the  rectory  of  Uppingham,  in  Rut- 
landshire. In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  to  preach  in  St  Marys  on  the  anniversary  of 
the  Gunpowder  Plot,  and  apparently  used  the  occasion 
to  clear  himself  of  a  suspicion,  wliicb,  however,  haunted 
him  through  life,  of  a  secret  leaning  to  the  Romish  com- 
munion. This  suspicion  seems  to  have  arisen  chiefly  from 
his  intimacy  with  Christopher  Davenport,  better  known  as 
Francis  a  Sancta  Clara,  a  learned  Franciscan  friar  who 
became  chaplain  to  Queen  Henrietta ,  but  it  may  have 
been  strengthened  by  his  known  connexion  with  Laud,  as 
well  as  by  his  ascetic  habits  and  ritualistic  propensities. 
More  serious  consequences  followed  his  attachment  to  the 
Royalist  cause,  when  in  18<t2  the  livings  of  the  loyal  clergy 
were  sequestered  by  decree  of  parliament.  Tbe  author  of 
Episcopacy  Asserted  against  tlie  Aerians  and  Acephali  New 
and  Old,  ineffective  as  that  work  seems  in  the  light  of 
modern  research,  could  scarcely  hope  to  retain  his  parish. 
Along  with  Puller,  Chillingworth,  and  others,  he  found 
temporary  refuge  with  the  king  at  Oxford.  His  two  little 
boys  must  have  been  cared  for  by  friends,  for  his  wife, 
Phoebe  Langsdale,  whom  he  had  married  the  year  after 
his  settlement  at  Uppingham,  had  died  with  her  third 
child  in  that  disastrous  year  1642. 

During  the  next  fifteen  years  Taylor's  movements  are 
not  easily  traced.  Sometimes  he  appears  with  the  king, 
from  whom  at  his  last  interview  he  received,  in  token  of 
his  regard,  his  watch  and  some  jewels  which  had  orna- 
mented the  ebony  case  in  which  he  kept  his  Bible.  He 
is  supposed  to  bs  the  Dr  Taylor  who  was  taken  prisoner 
with  other  Royalists  while  besieging  Cardigan  castle.  In 
1646  he  is  found  in  partnership  with  two  other  deprived 
clergymen,  keeping  a  school  at  Newton  Hall,  in  the  parish 
of  Llanvihangel.  It  was  while  resident  hero  that  he 
attracted  the  friendship  of  one  of  his  kindest  patrons, 
Richard  Vaughan,  earl  of  Carbery,  whose  hospitable 
mansion.  Golden  Grove,  is  immortalized  in  the  title  of 
Taylor's  still  popular  manual  of  devotion,  and  whose 
countess  had  the  greater  distinction  of  being  the  original 
of  the  "  Lady "  in  Milton's  Comus.  It  was  also  while 
resident  in  Wales  that  Taylor  married  his  second  wife, 
Joanna  Bridges,  who  was  generally  understood  to  be  a 
natural  daughter  of  Charles  I.,  and  who  owned  a  good 
estate,  though  probably  impoverished  by  Parliamentarian 
exactions,,  at  Mandinam,  in  Carmarthenshire.  From  time 
to  time  he  appears  in  London  in  the  company  of  his 
friend  Evelyn,  at  whose  table  he  met  such  men  as  Boyle, 
Berkeley,  and  Wilkins.  Thrice  he  was  imprisoned :  in 
1653-4  for  a  well-intended  but  injudicious  preface  to  his 
Golden  Grove ;  again  in  Chepstow  castle,  from  May  to 
October  1655,  on  what  charge  does  not  appear,  and  a 
third  time  in  the  Tower  in  1657-8,  on  account  of  the 
indiscretion  of  his  publisher,  Royston,  who  had  adorned 
his  "  Collection  of  Offices "  with  a  print  representing 
Christ  in  the  attitude  of  prayer.  This  un.settled  life,  with 
its  interruptions,  harassraents,  and  privations,  would  seem 
rather  to  have  stimulated  than  to  have  stinted  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  his  genius.  In  1647  appeared  his  most 
important  work,  Tlie  Liberty  of  Prophesying,  and  in  the 
following  year  the  complete  edition  of  his  Apology  for 
Authorized  and  Set  Forms  of  Liturgy  against  the  Pretence 
of  the  Spirit,  as  well  as  his  Life  of  Christ,  or  the  Great 
Exemplar,  a  book  which  at  once  won  a  popularity  it  still 
in  large  measure  retains.  Then  followed  in  rapid  succes- 
,8ion  the  Twenty-seven  Sermons,  "for  the  summer  half-year," 
and  the  Tiventy-fivc  "  for  the  winter  half-year,"  Holy  Living, 
Holy  Dying,  a  controversial  treatise  on  the  Real  Presence, 
the  Golden  Grove,  and  the  Unum  N^ecessarivm,  which  by 


its  Pelagianism  gave  great  offence.  During  these  years  he 
was  also  busy  with  his  Ductor  Diibitantium  (published  in 
1660),  which  he  intended  to  be  the  standard  manual  of 
casuistry  and  ethics  for  the  Christian  people. 

In  1658  settlement  was  at  length  reached  through  the 
kind  offices  of  the  earl  of  Carbery,  who  obtained  for 
Taylor  a  lectureship  in  Lisburn.  At  first  he  declined  a 
post  in  which  the  duty  was  to  be  shared  with  a  Presby- 
terian, or,  as  he  expressed  it,  "  where  a  Presbyterian  and 
myself  shall  be  like  Castor  and  Pollux,  the  one  up  and 
the  other  down,"  and  to  which  also  a  very  meagre  salary 
was  attached  He  was,  however,  induced  to  take  it,  and 
found,  near  his  patron's  mansion  on  Lough  Neagh,  so 
congenial  a  retirement  that  even  after  he  was  raised  to 
a  bishopric  he  continued  to  make  it  his  home.  At  the 
Restoration,  instead  of  being  recalled  to  England,  as  he 
probably  expected  and  certainly  desired,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  see  of  Down  and  Connor,  to  which  was  shortly 
added  the  small  and  adjacent  diocese  of  Dromore.  He 
was  also  made  a  member  of  the  Irish  privy  council  and 
vice-chancellor  of  the  university  of  Dublin.  None  of 
these  honours  were  sinecures.  Of  the  university  he  writes, 
"I  found  all  things  in  a  perfect  disorder  .  a  heap 

of  men  and  boys,  but  no  body  of  a  college,  no  one  member, 
either  fellow  or  scholar,  having  any  legal  title  to  his  place, 
but  thrust  in  by  tyranny  or  chance."  Accordingly  lie  set 
himself  vigorously  to  the  task  of  framing  and  enforcing 
regulations  for  the  admission  and  conduct  of  members  of 
the  university,  and  also  of  establishing  lectureships.  His 
episcopal  labours  were  still  more  arduous.  There  were, 
at  the  date  of  the  Restoration,  about  seventy  Presbyterian 
ministers  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  most  of  these  were 
from  the  west  of  Scotland,  and  were  imbued  with  the  dis- 
like of  Episcopacy  which  distinguished  the  Covenanting 
party.  No  wonder  that  Taylor,  writing  to  the  duke  of 
Ormonde  shortly  after  his  consecration,  should  have  said, 
"  I  perceive  myself  thrown  into  a  place  of  torment."  His 
letters  perhaps  somewhat  exaggerate  the  danger  in  which 
he  lived,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  his  authority  was 
resisted  and  his  overtures  rejected.  His  writings  also 
were  ransacked  for  matter  of  accusation  against  him,  "a 
committee  of  Scotch  spiders  being  appointed  to  see  if  they 
can  gather  or  make  poison  out  of  them."  Here,  then,  was 
Taylor's  opportunity  for  exemplifying  the  wise  toleration 
he  had  in  other  days  inculcated.  These  Presbyterians  had, 
like  himself,  suffered  under  Cromwell  for  their  loyalty, 
and  might  have  been  expected  to  evoke  his  sympathy ; 
but  the  new  bishop  had  nothing  to  offer  them  but  the  bare 
alternative — submission  to  episcopal  ordination  and  juris- 
diction or  deprivation.  Consequently,  in  his  first  visita- 
tion, he  declared  thirty-six  churches  vacant ;  and  of  these 
forcible  possession  was  taken  by  his  orders.  At  the  same 
time  many  of  the  gentry  were  won  by  his  undoubted 
sincerity  and  devotedness  as  well  as  by  his  eloquence. 
With  the  Romanist  element  of  the  population  he  was  less 
successful.  Ignorant  of  the  English  language,  and  firmly 
attached  to  their  ancestral  forms  of  worship,  they  were  yet 
compelled  to  attend  a  service  they  considered  profane, 
conducted  in  a  language  they  could  not  understand.  As 
Heber  says,  "  No  part  of  the  administration  of  Ireland  by 
the  English  crown  has  been  more  extraordinary  and  more 
unfortunate  than  the  system  pursued  for  the  introduction 
of  the  Reformed  religion."  At  the  instance  of  the  Irish 
bishops  Taylor  undertook  his  last  great  work,  the  Dis- 
suasive from  Popery  (in  two  parts,  1664  and  1667),  but, 
as  he  himself  seemed  partly  conscious,  he  might  have  mora 
effectually  gamed  his  end  by  adopting  the  methods  of 
Ussher  and  Bedell,  and  inducing  his  clergy  to  acquire  the 
Irish  tongue. 

Nor  were  domestic  sorrows  awanting  in  these  later  years. 


TAYLOR 


95 


la  1661  he  buried,  nt.Lisbarn,  Edward,  the  only  surviv- 
ing son  of  bis  second  marriage.  His  oldest  son,  an  officer 
in  the'army,  was  killed  in  a  duel;  and  his  second  son, 
Charles,  intended  for  the  church,  left  Trinity  College  and 
became  companion  and  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, at  whose  house  he  died.  The  day  after  his  son's 
funeral  Taylor  sickened,  and,  after  a  ten  days'  illness,  he 
died  at  Lisburn  on  the  13th  August  1667,  in  the  fiftyjif^h 
year  of  his  life  and  the  seventh  of  his  episcopate. '.  ^ 

Taylor's  fame  has  been  maintained  by  the  popularity  of  his 
BermoDS  and  devotional  writings  rather  than  by  his  infliieiice  as  a 
theologian  or  his  importance  as  an  ecclesiastic. .  His  mind  was 
neither  icientific  nor  speculative,  and  he  was  attracted  rather  to 
questions  of  casuistry  th.m  to  the  deeper  problems  of  pure  theology. 
His  wide  reading  and  capacious  memory  enabled  hirt  to  carry  in 
his  mind  the  materials  ot"a  sound  historical  theology,  but  these 
materials  were  unsifted  by  criticism.  His  immense  learning  served 
him  rather  as  a  storehouse  of  illustrations,  or  as  an  armoury  out 
of  which  ha  could  choose  the  fittest  weapon  for  discomfiting  an 
opponent,  than  as  a  quarry  furnishing  him  with  material  for  build- 
ing up  a  completely  designed  and  enduring  edifice  of  systematized 
truth.  Indeed,  he  had  very  limited  faith  in  the  huni.iu  mind  as 
an  instrument  of  truth.  "  Theology,"  he  s.iys,  "  is  rather  a  divine 
life  than  a  divine  knowledge."  His  great  plea  for  toleration  is 
based  on  the  impossibility  of  erecting  theology  into  a  demonstrable 
science.  "  It  is  impossible  all  should  be  of  one  mind."-  And  what 
is  impossible' to  be  done  is  not  necessary  it  should  be  done." 
Differences  of  opinion  there  must  he ;  but  "  heresy  is  not  an  error 
of  the  understanding  but  an  cnor  of  the  mil.",  His  aim  in  life 
was  practical ;  his  interests  were  in  men  rather  than  in  ideas,  and 
his  sympathies  were  evoked  rather  by  the  experiences  of  individuals 
than  by  great  moveme«ts.  Of  a  decidedly  poetic  temperament, 
fervid  and  mobile  in  f*Ung,  ^nd  of  a  prolific  fancy,  he  had  also 
the  sense  and  wit  that  come  of  varied  contact  with  men.*  All  his 
gifte  were  made  available  for  influencing  other  men  by  liis  easy 
command  of  a  style  rarely  matched  in  dignity  and  colo)ir.  With 
oU  the  majesty  and  stately  elaboration  and  musical  'rhythm  of 
Milton's  finest  prose,  Taylor's  style  is  relieved  and,  brightened  by 
an  astonishing  variety  of  felicitous  illustrations,  ranging  from  the 
most  homely  and  terse  to  the  most  dignified  and  elaborate.  His 
sermons  especially  abound  in  quotations  and  allusions,  which  have 
the  air  of  spontaneously  suggesting  themselves,  but  which  must 
sometimes  have  b.iffled  his  bearers.  This  seeming  pedantry  is, 
however,  atoned  for  by  the  clear  practical  aim  of  his  sermons,  the 
noble  ideal  he  keeps  before  his  hearers,  and  the  sVill  with  which 
he  bandies  spiritual  experience  and  urges  incentives  to  virtue. 
But,  through  all  his  gorgeous  eloquence  and  genial  interest  in 
human  nature,  there  breaks  from  time  to  time  some  dead  and 
laboured  irrelevancy,  the  growth  of  his  training  in '  scholastic 
dialectics;  for. " like  some  other  writers  of  the  17th  century  he 
seems  almost  to  have  two  minds, — one  tender,  sweet,  luxuriant  to 
excess,  the  other,  hard,  subtle,^  formal,  prone  to  definitipn  and 
logomachy.'"  _  _  _ 

The  first  collected  edition  oT'his  works  was  published*by"Bishop 
Heber  (with  a  life)  in  1822  'reissued^after  careful_revision  by 
Charles  Page  Eden,  1852-61,     '  -^"  '    "-(M.  "D.)  "^ 

TAYLOR,  John  (1580-1654),  commonly  called  V  The' 
Water  Poet,"  was  born  al  Gloucester  in  August  1580.  Of 
his  parentage  and  early  boyhood  very  little  is  known^and 
that  little  is  mainly  to  be  gleaned  from  various  scattered 
personal  allusions  in  the  numerous  short  writings  of  this 
prolific  wit  and  rhymster.  After  fulfilling  his  apprentice- 
ship to  a  waterman,  he  seems  to  have  served  (1596)  in- the 
fleet  under  the  earl  of  Esses,'  and  to  have  been  -present  at 
the  naval  attack  upon  Cadiz.'  ■  On  his  return  to  England 
he  took  up  the  trade  of  Thames  waterman,  and  for  a  time 
at  any  rate  was  a  colle(;tor  of  the  dues  exacted  by  the 
lieutenant  of  the  Tower  on  all  wines  destined  for  London. 
The  title  of  "  'Water  Poet,"  which  he  owes  to  his  occupation 
on  the  river,  is  a  misnopier.  Taylor  vi^as  no  poet,  though 
he  could  string  rhymes  together  with'-facility ;  his  wit, 
which  was  vigorous  and  vulgar,  found  best  expression  in 
rollicking 'pro'se.  He  shows  a  broad  sense  of  rough  fun, 
occasionally  of  humour ;  but  for  the  most  part  his  comi- 
calities wovdd  now  meet  with  scanty  appreciation. ,  He 
had  a  very  good  opinion  of  himself,  his  writings,  and  his 
importance;  and  it  was  he  himself  who  set  forth  that  he 
was  the  "  king's  water  poet "  and  the  "  queen's  water- 
fiiatLll^  His  literary  performances  can  most  easily  and  most 


satisfactorily  be  studied  in  the  handsome  quarto,  contain- 
ing all  his  productions,  edited  by  Mr  C.  Hindley,  and  pub- 
lished in  1872.  His  "works,"  sixty-threajn  number,  first 
appeared  in  one  large'  volume — now  a  rarity  sought  after 
by  collectors — in  1630.  /  He  delighted  in  eccentric  freaks^ 
calculated  in  narration  to  astound  both  the  sober  country- 
folk and  the  somewhat  sceptical  Londoners.'^^^ThuS,  with 
a  companion  as  feather-brained  as  himself,  he  once  started 
on  a  voyage  from  London  to  Queensborough  in  a  paper 
boat,  with  two  stockfish  tied  to  two  canes  for  oars;  before 
the  journey's  end  was 'reached  the  frail  boat  collapsed, 
as  might  have  been  expected,  though  a  qualified  success 
finally  met  Taylor's'  efforts."  '  The  spirit  of  the  bargee- 
was,  in' him,'"  and  he  delighted  in  rough  give-and-take!;  d 
rude  lanipoon^was  one'of  his  favourite  verbal  weaponsj 
•Thus' Thomas' Coryat,  the  author  of  Cnidities,  having 
excited  the  literary  waterman's  ridicule,  was  rewarded 
with,  a-ludicrous  dedication  'in  the  production  entitled 
T.aylor's  Travels  in  Gerwian/e ;' again, ; the  "water  poet'i 
indulged  in  abusive' satire, to  his  heart's  content' in  ait 
"  effusion  "^  which  he  tailed  A  Kichey-WirKey,  or  a  Lerry, 
Come-Twang — a' literary ''castigationj;  which  he  inflicted 
upon  those  subscribers  to  a  certain  .'  -(y-ork  "  of  his  who> 
omitted  to' substantiate* theij  promises.'  This'productioif 
was  .entitled  The_  Penniless  Pilgrimage,''or'  the  Moaeylesi 
Pei-amliitlation'ufJolin  Taylor,&xi.6.  consisted  of  an  account 
of" its  author's  pedestrian  tour  from  London  to  Edinburgh; 
and  to' tIiis'w-crk._^sotne' sixteen  hundred  persons  are  said 
to' have 'promised^,  their' support."  'Another  wagering  ven- 
ture ;.was  a  journey  to  Prague,' where  he  is  said  to  have 
been  "received  and  entertained  by  the  queen  of  Bohemia  in 
1 620.  \1yio  years  later  Taylor  made  "a  very  merry,  Vvherry 
ferry  voyage,  or  Yorke  for^  my  money,"  and  in  the  ensu-j 
ing  year  another  \vater-journey,  which  he  subsequently 
described  in'  proje  and  verse  as  A  Neio^Discovery  by  Sea 
with  a  Whef-rij  from  London  to  Salisbury."':  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  'War  Taylor  forsook  the  river  and  retired 
to  Oxford,  where  he  tempted  fortune  by  keeping  a'public- 
house.  His." sympathies.were, wholly  with^the^Eoyalists^ 
— the  Roysterists,  as  he  called  them  once;  andj'-n-hen  the 
town  "surrendeired,  the  ^' water  poet "  returned  to  London 
and  kept  a  public-house  under  the  sign  of  The  Crown,  fn 
Phosnix  Alley,  Long  Acre.'., ,  He  incurred  some  odium  from 
his  loyal^observance  of  the  king's  death  in  the  placement 
above  his  door  of  the  sign  of  The  Mourning  Crown,  and 
he  was  forced  to  take  the  latter  down.  ^With  characteristic 
readiness  he  substituted  for  it  his' own  portrait,  with  some 
doggerel  lines  underneath.,,^  It  was  here  that  in  December 
1 654  he  died,  and  in  the  neighbouring  churchyard  of  St 
Martin's-in-the- Fields  his  remains  were  laid. '^_  J 

At  the.  most,  Taylor  can  only  be  called  an  amusing  and  vulgarly 
clever  pamphleteer;  he  wrote  nothing  worthy  of  remembrance  save 
by  the  historian  of  the  period  in  which  he  lived,  by  the  antiquarj', 
and  by  the  enthusiastic  student  of  the  many  straggling  little  by- 
ways of  literature.. 

.  TAYLOR,.  Tom  (1817-1880),'clramatist'and-art  critic,' 
was  born  at  Sunderland  in  1817."  After  attending  school 
there,  and  studying  for  two'sessions  at  Glasgow  university,^ 
he  in  1837  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  ■which 
he  became  a  fellow.'.  Subsequently  he  held  for  two  years 
the  professorship  of  English  literature  at  "University  CoU 
lege;  London.'  He  was  called  to  the  bar  (Middle  Temple)! 
in  November  1845,"and  W"ent  on  the  northern. circuit  until; 
in  1850,  he~ became,' assistant  secretary" of  the  Boardj6| 
Health.  On 'the  reconstruction  of  the  board  in  1854  Jbe 
was  made  secretary,  and  on  its  abolition  his  services  were 
transferred  to  the  Local  Government  Act  Office,  a  depart^ 
ment  of  the  Home  Office  created  by  the  Sanitary' Act Tbfi 
1866. ,  In  his  very  early  years  Tom  Taylor  showed  a  prM 
dUection  for  the  drama,  and  was  in  the  habit  of  performing 
dramatic  pieces  along  with  a  number  of  children  in  a  loft 


96 


T  A  T?  — T  C  H 


over  a  brewer's  stable.  His  first  dramatic  composition  was 
a  rhjTucd  fairy  tale  or  extravaganza,  written  in  conjunction 
with  Albert  Smith  and  Charles  Kenny,  and  performed  in 
1846.  From  this  time  he  wrote  for  the  stage  continuously 
till  the  close  of  his  life,  his  dramatic  compositions  or 
adaptations  numbering  in  all  over  100,  amongst  the  best 
known  of  which  are  Siill  Water  Buns  Deep,  Victims,  the 
Contested  Election,  the  Overland  Boute,  the  Ticket  of  Leave 
Man,  Anne  Boleyn,  and  Jioan  of  Arc.  He  may  perhaps  be 
regarded  as  the  first  dramatist  of  his  time,  so  far  as  general 
appreciation  goes;  and,  if  his  chief  concern  was  the  con- 
struction of  a  popular  acting  play,  his  dramas  possess  at 
the  same  time  considerable  literary  excellence,  while  the 
characters  are  clearly  and  consistently  drawn,  and  the 
dialogue  is  natural,  yet  nervous  and  pointed.  In  his  blank. 
verse  historical  dramas,  such  as  Ajine  Boleyn,  and  Joan  of 
Arc,  he  was  not  so  Successful.  Taylor  was  also  a  very 
frequent  contributor  to  the  light  magazine  literature  of 
the  day. '  In  1872  he  withdrew  from  public  life,  and,  on 
the  death  of.  Shirley  Brooks  in  1873,  he  became  editor  of 
Punch.  ■  He  occasionally  appeared  ■nith  success  in  amateur 
theatricals,  more  especially  in  the  character  of  Adam  in 
'As  Yoii  Like  It  and.  of  Jasper  in  A  S/teep  in,  Wolf's  Clot/i- 
ihg.  He  had  some  talent  for  painting,  and  for  many  years 
Was  art  critic  to  the  Times.  .  He  died  at  Lavender  Sweep, 
Wandsworth,  12th  July  18S0. 

Apart  from  the  drama,  his  chief  contributions  to  literatnre  are 
kis  biographies  of  painters,  v\z.,  Autobiography  of  B.  S.  Sa/ydon 
(1853);  Aulobiogrnphy  and  Correspondence  of  C.  R.  LcslUyR-A. 
(■1859);  ani  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Joshita  ii^/noMs  (1865)VVhich 
had  been  left  iu  a  very  incomplete  state  by  Mr  LesUe.  His  Historical 
J)ramas  appeared  in  one  volume  in  1877.  He  also  edited,  with  i/ 
tnera'orial  preface,  Fen  Sketches  froyn  a  Fanishcdff and,  selected  from 
J'qpcrs  of  the  late  Mortimer  Collins. 

"-XA.YLOR,  Zachaky  (1784-1850),  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Orange  county,  Virginia, 
November  24,  1784.  He  entered  the  army  as  lieutenant 
in  1808,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major  in  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  which  followed.  At  the  outbrealc>of  the 
Mexican  War  he  was  in  command  of  the  American  forces 
in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  and  was  directed  to  make  the 
advance  into  the  disputed  territory  which  brought  on  the 
war.  Beating  the  Mexicans  in  two  battles,  he  followed 
them  into  Mexico,  and  there  defeated  Santa  Anna  in  the 
crowning  battle  of  his  campaign,  Buena  Vista  (1847). 
Dissatisfied  with  his  treatment  by  the  administration,  he 
re.signed  and  returned  to  the  United  States,  where  the 
Whig  party  nominated  him  and  elected  him  president 
(1848).  The  struggle  over  the  question  of  the  admission 
of  slavery  to  the  territory  taken  from  Mexico  occupied  his 
terra  of  office,  and  he  died  at  Washington,  July  9,  1850. 

TCHAD,  TsAD,  or  Chad,  Lake.  See  Africa.  voL  L  p. 
255,  and  Soudan. 

TCHEREMISSES,  or  Cheremisses.^  See  FofLAlfD, 
vol.  ix.  p.  219,  and  Russia,  vol  x.xi.  pp.  79-80. 

TCHERKASY  (Polish  Czerkasy),  a  district  town  of 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kieft,  and  190  miles  by 
rail  to  the  south-east  of  Kieff,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Unieper.  ,  It  is  poorly  built,  mostly  of  wood ;  the  popula- 
tion has  rapidly  increased  lately,  and  has  doubled  since 
1846,  reaching  15,740  in  1883.  There  are  now  two 
gymnasiums  for  boys  and  girls,  and  several  lower  schools. 
The  inhabitants  (Little  Russian)  are  mostly  employed  in 
agriculture  and  gardening.  There  is  a  brisk  -export  trade 
in  corn,  refined  sugar,  tobacco,  salt,  and  timber  ;  raw  sugar 
ami  manufactured  goods  are  imported,  principaUy  by  Jewish 
merchants. 

Tcheikasy,  fonncrly  Tcberka.wk,  \v.as  an  important  town  of  the 
Uliraine  in  the  15tl»  century,  and  remained  so,  under  Polish  rule, 
uptil  the  revolt  of  Hmelnitiiki,  when  it  became  free.  AVlien  "West 
Ukraine  was  taken  again  by  Poland,  most  of  itsinliabit.ants  migrat.(d 
ici  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Dnieper.     1 1  was  annexed  by  Russia  iu  1/95. 


TCHERNIGOFF,  a  government  of  Little  Russia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  bounded  by  Moghilefi  and 
Smolensk  on  the  N.,  Orel  and  Kursk  on  the  E.,  Poltava 
on  the  S.,  and  KieS  and  Minsk  on  the  W.,  has  an  area  of 
20,233  square  miles.  Its  surface  is  an  undulating  plain, 
650  to  750  feet  high  in  the  north,  and  from  370  to  600 
feet  in  the  south,  deeply  grooved  by  ravines  and  the 
valleys  of  the  rivers.  In  the  north,  "  beyond  the  Desna," 
about  one-third  of  the  area  is  under  wood  (which  is  rapidly 
disappearing),  and  marshes  occur  along  the  courses  of  the 
rivers ;  while  to  the  south  of  the  Desna  tl>e  soil  is  dry, 
sometimes  sandy,  and  assumes  the  characters  of  a  steppe- 
land  as  one  proceeds  southward  Chalk  deposits  prevail 
in  the  north,  and  Eocene  in  the  south.  The  government  is 
watered  by  the  Dnieper  (which  forms  its  western  boundary 
for  178  miles)  and  its  tributaries  the  Soj  and  the  Desna. 
The  latter,  which  flows  through  Tchernigofi  for  nearly  350 
miles,  is  navigable,  and  timber  is  brought  down  its  tribu- 
taries. Corn,  linseed,  timber,  brandy,  hemp,  and  sugar 
are  shipped  on  the  Dnieper,  Soj,  and  Desna,  and  salt  im- 
ported. The  climate  is  much  colder  in  the  woody  tracts 
of  the  north  than  in  the  south  ;  the  average  yearly 
temperature  at  the  town  of  Tchernigofi  is  44°'4  (January, 
23°;  July,  "68°-5). 

The  population,  which  is  rapidly  increasmg,  reached  1,996,250  in 
1883.  Itischiefly  Little  Russian  (85-6  per  cent);  Great  Russians 
(6"1  pei-  cent),  mostly  Raskolniks,  and  White  Russians  (5'6  per 
cent)  inhabit  the  northerti  districts.  Jews  have  spread  rapi.ily 
since  last  century,  and  now  number  more  than  45,000.  There  are, 
besides,  some  20,000  Geftnans  as  wcU  as  Creeks  at  Nyczhin.  Agri. 
culture  is  the  principal  occupation;  in  tlie  north,  however,  many 
of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  timber  trade  and  virions 
domestic  industries.  Cattle-breeding  is  carried  on  in  the  central 
districts,  and  there  were  in  1883  572,200  horses,  515,300  cattle, 
and  9'!S,000  sheep.  Beet  is  extensively  cultivated,  and  in  1S84 
2  million  cwts.  of  beet-root  were  delivered  to  the  thirteen  sugar- 
works  within  the  government  Tlie  culture  of  tobacco  is  also  in- 
creasing, upwards  of  500,000  cwts.  being  produced  annually.  Hemp 
is  widely  cultivated  in  the  north,  and  the  milder  climate  of  the 
south  encourages  gardening.  Bee-keeping  is  extensively  carried 
on  by  the  KasKolniks.  Tar,  pitch,  and  a  large  variety  of  wooden 
manufactures  are  largely  produced  in  the  forest  districts,  as  also 
are  woven  fabrics,  felts,  and  leather  wares.  Limestone,  grind- 
stones, chiua-claj',  and  building  stone  are  quarried.  Jlanufactures 
have  begun  to  develop  rapidly  of  late;  by  ISSl  their  yearly  produc- 
tion reached  £1,340,000  (£860,000  from  sugar-works  and  distil- 
leries). Trade  is  active,  especially  since  the  opening  of  the  railway 
between  Kieff  and  Kursk,'which  runs,  through  Tchernigoff.  The 
government  is  divided  into  fifteen  districts,  the  chief  towns  (with 
populations  in  1885)  being  Tchernigoff  (19,000),  Borzna  (13,700), 
Glukhoff  (16,450),  Gorodnya  (3.550),  Konotop  (16,420),  Kozclets 
(4430),  Krolevets  (9190),  Jlglin  (10,880),  Novgorod-Syevcrsk  (8020), 
Novozybkoff  (11,920),  Nyezhin  (43,020),  Oster  (3550),  Sosnitsa 
(5650),  Starodub  (23,590  in  ISSO),  and  Surazh  (3770).  .  A  number 
of  unimportant  towns  (14  posads  and  49  myestccltJci')  possess  muni- 
cipal institutions. 

TCHERNIGOFF,  capital  of  the  abovQ '  government, 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Desna,  nearly  half  a  mile 
from  the  river,  476  miles  from  Moscow.  Far  removed 
from  the  great  channels  of  trade,  iU  sole  importance  is 
as  an  administrative  centre.  Its  houses  are  poorly  built, 
and  the  streets  are  unpaved.  The  population  (19,000  in 
1885,  one-third  being  Jews)  is  almost  stationary.  The 
ruins  of  its  fortress,  and  the  old  cathedrals  of  Preo- 
brazhenie  and  Borisoglebsk,  founded  in  the  11th  and  12th 
centuries,  bear  witness  to  the  former  importance  of  .the 
town.  Numerous  graves  scattered  about,  and  now  partly 
explored-;  speak  of  the  battles  which  caused  its. decay. 

Tchernigoff  is  known  to  have  e.tistcd  before  the  iMIoduction  of 
Cliristianity  info  Russia.  In  807  it  is  mentioned  ill  .V'le' treaty  °^ 
Oli'ff  as  nest  to  Kielf,  and  in  the  Ilth  century  it  b(tcanfe.  the  capital 
of  the  priniipality  of  Syevcrsk  aud  an  important  cbmntercial  city. 
The  Jlougolian  inv.ision  put  an  end  to  its  growth.  Lithuania 
annexed  it  in  the  1411i  century,  but  it  was  soon  seized  by  Poland, 
wliich  held  it  until  the  17lli  century.  The  great  rising  in  1048 
rendered  it  iiidei-tndent  until  1054,  whni  the  Cossacks  accepted 
Vhc  protcclor.ite  of  tho  czars  of  JlcSscow.  In  1CS6  it  was  definitely 
annexed  to  Kus>9ia. 


J 


T  C  H— T  E  A 


97 


I 


TCHERNOMORSK,  a  government  of  Caucasia,  Russia, 
consisting  of  a  narrow  strip  of  land  between  trie  main 
Caucasus  chain  and  the  Black  Sea,  formerly  inhabited  by 
the  Adyghe  mountaineers  of  Caucasus.  This  strfp,  pro- 
tected by  the  mountains  from  the  cold  winds  of  the  north, 
is  in  respect  of  climate  one  of  the  most  favoured  parts  of 
the  Black  Sea  littoral.  Owing  to  extensive  emigrations  of 
jtsinhabitants  to  Turkey  since  the  Russian  conquest  of 
1S64,  it  is  very  thinly  peopled,  the  population  numbering 
but  ':!5,9S0,  mostly  Russians,  on  an  area  of  2S24  square 
miles'.  The  steep  slopes  of  the  Caucasus,  whose  summits 
range  from  2000  to  10,000  feet,  are  furrowed  by  narrow 
gorges,  and  bear  a  lu.xuriant  vegetation.  The  wild  vine — 
a  reli:  of  former  gardens — grows  freely  in  the  forests,  which 
are  almost  impassable  on  account  of  the  underwood  and 
dec«j-ing  trees.  The  moistness  of  the  atmosphere  contri- 
butes to  the  spread  of  the  Caucasian  fever,  which  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  littoral.  Notwithstanding  the  pro.xiniity 
of  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  a  road  is  now  being  con- 
stTDCled  along  the  coast, — for  military  reasons. 

Agriculture  is  carried  on,  but  only  in  the  south, — gardening  and 
the  culture  of  the  vine  and  tobacco  beint;  the  chief  occupations 
besides  fishing  and  hunting.  Some  manufactures  are  rising  up  at 
Kovorossiysk  (3330  inhabitants)  and  Anapa  (53o0),  the  two  prinr 
cipal  towns,  which  alsc  have  some  foreign  trade.  The  region  is 
a -separate  province  under  a  military  governor  re.siding  at  Novo- 
lossiysk,  where  a  new  harbour  is  being  constructed. 

TCHISTOPOL,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Kazan,  90  miles  to  the  south-east  of  that  ton-n,  on 
the  left  bank -of  the  Kama.  Before  17S1  it  waj  a  mere 
village'.,(Tchistoye  Pole),  founded  by  runaway  serfs ;  at 
present  it  is  extending  rapidly  and  becoming  an  industrial 
town,  with  flour-mi!ls,  distilleries,  and  a  few  cotton-mills. 
The  merchants  cany  on  a  brisk  trade  in  corn  brought  in 
from  the  fertile  tracts  of-  Ufa,  and  shipped  down  the 
Kama ;  manufactuH;d  wares  are  imported.  The  popula- 
tion in  1S.83  was  18,200. 

f  TCHIT.\,  capital  of  Transbaikalia,  Eastern  Siberia, 
stands  5S5  miles  east  of  Irkutsk,  on  the  Tchita  river,  half 
a  mile  above  its  junction  with  the  Ingoda.  It  was  founded 
in  1851  ;  and  military  considerations  led  to  the  selection 
of  this  very  small  village  to  be  the  capital  of  Tran^^baikalia. 
Steamers  on  the  Amur  and  Shilka  do  not  penet-ate  so  far 
as  the  upper  Ingoda  ;  they  usually  stay  at  Sryetensk,  320 
miles  distant.  But  the  military  supplies  sent  every  year 
from  Transbaikalia  to  the  Amur  region  usually  start 
from  Tchita, — the  forest-covered  hills  on  the  b'.nks  of 
the  Ingoda  supplying  material  for  the  construction  of  the 
barges  (from  100  to  200  in  number)  on  which  these  sup- 
plies are  carried  as  soon  as  the  melting  of  the  snows  in  the 
mountains  temporarily  raises  the  water  in  the  river  to  a 
sotBcient  height.  Tchita  is  built  of  wood,  with  unpaved 
streets  and  wide  open  spaces.  The  dryness  of  the  Buriat 
steppe  close  by  prevents  snow  from  accumulating  to  any 
depth,  even  when  the  cold  is  extreme ;  the  merchandise 
accordingly  ■  which  "is  forwarded  from  ^  Irkutsk  to  the 
Nertchinsk  district  is  brought  to. Tchita  on  carts,  and  is 
there  loaded  on  sledges  for  the  continuation  of  the  journey 
down  the. frozen  rivers.  The  population  of  Tchita  in 
18S3  was  12,600.  The  inhabitants  support  themselves 
by  agriculture,  by  tradein  furs,  cattle,  hides,  and  tallow,. 
•which  are  bought  from'  the  Burials,  and  in  all  kind  of 
manufactured  wares  imported  fr'Jm  Russia  and  Western 
Siberia. 

TE.\.  This  important  food  auxiliary,  now  in  daily  use 
as  a  beverage  by  pro!febly  one-half  of  the  -population  of 
the  worfd,  is  prepared  from  the  leaves  of.  one  or  more 
plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  femstriimiacex. 
The  order  includes  the  well-known  ornamental  genus  of 
shrabs  Camellia,  to  which  indeed  the  tea-plants  are  so 
ctoaelv  allied  that  by  many  systematic  writers  they  are 


included  in  the  same  genus.     The  tea-plajats  have  been; 
cultivated  in  China  for  at  least  a  thousand  years. 

As  is  commonly  the  case  with  plants  which  have  been  JSotanjr 
long  under  cultivation,  there  is  much  doubt  as  to  specific"' 
distinctions  among  the  varieties  of  tea.  Under  the  namq 
of  Thea  sinensis,  Linnreus  originally,  described  tea  as  a 
single  species ;  but  with  fuller  knowledge  of-  the  Chines? 
plants  he  established  .two  species,  Thea  Bohea  and  Tlieci 
viridis,  and  it  was  assumed  that  the  former  was  the  sourc^ 
of  black  teas,  while  Thea  viridis  was  held  to  yield  thQ 
green  varieties.  In  1813,  however,  Mr  Robert  Fortunq 
found  that,  although  the  two  varieties  of  the  plant  e.xist 
in  different  parts  of  China,  black  and  green  tea  are  made 
indiffereutly  from  the  leaves  of.  the  same  plant.  The  tea; 
plant  is  cultivated  in  China  as  an  evergreen  shrub,  which 
grows  to  a  height  of  from  3  to  5  feet.  The  stem  is  bushy, 
with  numerous  and  very  leafy  branches ;  the  leaves  are 
alternate,  large  elliptical,  obtusely  serrated,  veined,  and 
placed  on  short  channelled  foot-stalks.  The  calyx  is 
small,  smooth,  and  divided  into  five  obtuse  sepals.  The 
flowers  are. white,  axillary,  and  slightly  fragrant, — Kjfteo 


Fio.  1. — TfA-VlaiA  {Thea  sinensis). 

two  cr;  three  together  on  separate  pedicels.  The  corolla 
has  from  five  to  nine  petals,  cohering  at  the  base.  The 
filaments  are  short,  numerous,  and  inserted  at  the  base  of 
the 'corolla ;  the  anthers  are  large  and  yellow,  the  style 
trifid,  and  the  capsules  three-celled  and  three-seeded. 

The  viridis  varieties  are  hardier,  and  possess  larger  and 
brighter  green  leaves,  than  belong  to  the  Bohea  variety. 
No  strictly  wild  tea-plants  have  been  discovered  in  China, 
but  an  indigenous  tea-tree  {Thea  assamica)  is  found  in 
Assam,  which  botanists  now  incline  to  regard  as  the 
parent  species  of  all  cultivated  varieties.  It  differs  in 
many  respects  from  the  Chinese  plants.  The  indigenous 
Assam  tea-plant  is  a  tree  attaining  a  height  of  from  15  to 
20  feet,  growing  in  the  midst  of  dcnse_  moist  jungle  and 
in  shady  sheltered  situations.  Its  leaves  vary  considerably 
in  size,  form,  and  venation,  being  usually  smooth,  thick, 
and  feathery,  lanceolate,  ovate  lanceolate,  or  oblong  lanceo- 
late. They  are  variously  dotted  with  pellucid  cells  con- 
taining essential  oil,  and  the  nuibber  of  such  cells  shown 
by  the  leaf  is  held  to  be  an  indication  of  the  quality  of  tea 
it  will  yield.  The  leaf  of  the  Chinese  plant  never  exceejla 
4  inches  in  length,  while  that  of  the  Assam  tree  reach^ 

XX  ITT.  —  13 


98 


TEA 


9  inches  and  upwards.     The  Chinese  plant  is  hardy,  and 
capable  of  thriving  under  many  difiFerent  conditions  of 
climate  and  situation;  while  the  indigenous  plant  is  tender 
and  difficult  of  cultivation,  requiring  for  its  success  a  close, 
hot,  moist,  and  equable  climate.     The  characteristic  vena- 
tion of  the  leaf  of  the  Chinese  tea-plant  is  delineated  in 
fig.   2.      In   minute   structure   the  leaf  presents  highly 
characteristic    appearances.      The 
under  side  of  the  young  leaf  is 
densely   covered   with    fine    one 
celled  thick-walled  hairs,  about  1 
mm.  in  length  and  -015,  mm.  iri 
thickness.      These  hairs   entirely 
!disappear    with    increasing    age. 
The  structure  of  the  epidefmis'  of 
!the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  with 
'its  contorted  cells,  is  represented 
(  X  160)  in  fig.  3.     A  further  char, 
acteristic  feature  of   the   cellular 
structure  of  the   teu-leaf  is   the 
abundance,   especially   in    grown 
leaves,  of  large,  branching,  thick-, 
walled,  smooth  cells   (idioblasts),, 
which,    although    they   occur    in' 
other  leaves,  are  not  found  in  such 
as  are   likely   to  be   confounded^. 
with  or  substituted  for  tea..    The, 
'minute   structure  of  the  leaf^.in 
■'  section  is  illustrated  in  fig.  4.-  v 
Ratige  of     The  cultivated  varieties  of  tea7 
growth,    being  comparatively  hardy,  possess  p^^  2.  — T«a-Leaf— full  size, 
an  adaptability  to  climate  excelled .    ^      _ 
among  food  plants  only  by  the  wheat.  .  The  limits  of  actual 
tea  cultivation  extend  from  39°  N.  lat.  in  Japan,  through 
the  tropics,  to  Java,  Australia,  Natal,  and  Brazil  in  the 
southern  hemisphere.     The  tea-plant  will  even  live  in  the 
open  air  in  the  sonth  of.England,  and  withstand. some 


Fio  3.— EpidermisTr  Tea-Lcaf  (uncler  side).. 


amount  of  frost,'' when  it  receives. sufficient, summei;  heat 
-.0  harden  its  wood.  But  comparatively^ few^regions  are 
suited  for  practical  tea-growing. 
CUmate  A  rich  and  exuberant  growth  •ofjhe  plantys  a  first 
and  loiU es.sential  of  successful  tea  cultivation.  This  iSytSnly  cbtain- 
^blei  in  warm,  moist,  and  comparatively  eqilable  climates, 
where  rains  are  frequent  and  copious.  ,>  The  climate  indeed 
which  favours  tropical  profusioii  of  jungle  growth— still 
steaming  heat— is  that  most  favourable  for  the  cultivation 
of  tea,  and  such  climate,  unfortunately,  is  most. prejudicial 
to  the  hcaltli  of  Europeans.  It  was  formerly  supposed 
that  comparatively  temperate  latitudes  and  steep  sloping 
ground  a9"rdcd  Uie  most  favourable  situations  for  iea- 
planting,  and  iiukIi  of  the  disaster  which  attended  ".the 
.early  stages  of  the  tea  enterprise  in  India  is  traceable  to 
[this  (jrroneou.s  conception.     Tea  thrives  best  in  light  friable 


soils  of  good  depth,  through  which  water  percolates  freelyr 

the  plant  being  specially  impatient  of  marshy  situations 

and  stagnant  water.    Undulating  well-watered  tracts,  where 

the     rain     escapes 

freely,  yet  without 

washing   away  the 

soil,  are  the   most 

valuable  for  tea  gar- 

dgDS.     As  a  matter 

of  fact,  many  of  the 

Indian   plantations 

sje  established   on 

Sill-sides,  after  the 

example  of  known   -——  „     -. — —     ,  _,^_  .  ..r 

,7,.'^,      .       r^\.■  Fio.  4.— Section  through  Tea-Leaf. 

districts  in   China, 

where  hiU  slopes  and  odd  corners  are  coMmonly  occupied, 
with  tea-planti  _ 

According  to  Chinese  .legend,  the  virtues  of  tea  {cfi^mstary. 
pronounced  In  the' Amoy  dialect  te,  whence  the  English, 
name)  were  discovered  by  Ihe   mythical  emperor   Chin- 
nung,  2737  B.C.,  to  whom  all  agricultural  and  medicinal, 
knowledge  is  traced.     It  is  doubtfully  referred  to  in  the 
book  of  ancient  poems  edited  by  Confucius,  all  of  which 
are  previous  in, date  to  550  B.C.      A  tradition  exists  in 
China  that  a-kndwtedge  of  tea  travelled  eastward  to  anci. 
in  China,  having  been  introduced  543  a.d.  by  Bodhidharma, 
an  ascetic  \tho  came  from  India  on  a  missionary  expedition,' 
but  that  legend  ■  is  als.o  mixed  with  mythical  and  super-; 
natural  details.     But  it  is  quite  certain,  from  the  historicalj 
narrative  of  Lo  Yu,  who  lived  in  the  Tang  dynasty  (618-1 
906  A.D.).  that  tea  was  already  used  as  a  beverage  in  the 
6th  century,  and  that  during  the  8th  century  its  use  had 
become  so  common  that  a  tax  was  levied  on  its  consump- 
tion in  the  14th  year  of  Tih  Tsung  (793).     The  use  of  teaj 
in  China  in  the  middle  of  the  9th  century  is  known  fromi 
Arab  sources  (Reinaud,  Rdation  des  Voyages,  1845,  p.  40). 
From  China  s,  knowledge  of  tea  was  carried  into  Japan,', 
and  there  the  cultivation  was  established  about  the  begin- 
ning  of  the  ISth  century.     Seed  was  brought  from  China 
by  the  priest  Miyoye,  and  planted  first  in  the  south  island,' 
Kiushiu  whence- the  cultivation  spread  northwards  till  it 
reached  the  high  limit  of  39°  K.    To  the  south  tea  cultiva- 
tion also  spread  into  Tong-king  and  Cochin  Chma,  but  the 
product  in  these  regions  is  of  inferior  quality.     Till  well 
into  the  19th  century  it  may  be  said  that  Chma  and  Japan 
were  the  only  two  tea-producing  countries,  and  that  the 
product  reached  the  Western  markets  only  through  the 
narrowest  channels  and  under  most  oppressive  restrictiona. 
In  .the  year  1S26  the  Dutch  succeeded  in  establishing 
tea  gardens  in  Java.     At  an  early  period  the  E^t  India 
Company  of  Great  Britain,  as  the  principal  trade  iiiterme-! 
diary  between  China  and  Europe,  became  deeply  interested^ 
in  the  question  of  tea  cultivation  in  their  Eastern  posses-, 
sions.     In  1788  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  at  the  request  of  the, 
directors,  drew  up  a  memoir  on  the  cultivation  of  economic, 
plants  in  Bengal,  in  which  he  gave  special  prominence  to^ 
tea,   pointing   out   the   regions  most   favourable   for   its, 
cultivation.     About  the  year  1820  Mr  David  Scott,  one, 
of   the  Company's   servants,  sent   to   Calcutta   from  thi, 
district  of   Kuch  Behar'and  Raugpui— the  very  district 
indicated  by   Sir  Joseph  Banks  as   favourable    for   tea-^ 
o-rowin"— certain  leaves,  with  a  statement  that  tliey  wero^ 
said  to°  belong  to  tlie  u-ild  lea-plant.     Tiic   loaves   were 
submitted  to  Dr  Wallich,  Govcromcnt  liotani.t  at  Calcutta 
wlio  pronounced  them  to  belong  to  a  speCKS  of  '.„„i,lh(. 
and   no   result    followed    on    .Mr   Scutfs   communirntion. 
These  very  leaves  ullimntcly  can-.e  into  the  licrbaiuuu  c 
ihc  Linnoau  Society  of  London,  and  have  authontatucly 
been  pronounced  to  belong  to  the  indigenous  Assam  tc» 
plant     Dr  Wnllich's  attribution  of  tliis  and  other  spccunom. 


TEA 


99 


subsequently  sent  in  to  the  genus  Camellia,  although 
sciontidcally  defensible,  unfortunately  diverted  attention 
from  the  significance  of  the  discovery  It  was  not  till 
1834  that,  overcome  by  the  insistence  of  Captain  Francis 
Jenkins,  who  maintained  and  proved  that,  called  by  the 
name  Camellia  or  not,  the  leaves  belonged  to  a  tea  plant, 
Dr  Wallich  admitted  "  the  fact  of  the  genuine  tea-plant 
being  a  native  of  our  territories  in  Upper  Assam  as 
incontrovertibly  proved""  In  the  meantime  a  committee 
had  been  formed  by  Lord  William  Bentinck,  the  governor 
general,  for  the  introduction  of  tea  culture  inlu  india, 
and  an  official  bad  already  been  sent  to  the  tea  districts 
of  Chiua  to  procure  seed  and  skilled  Chinese  workmen 
to  conduct  operations  in  the  Himalayan  regions  The 
discovery  and  reports  of  Captain  Jenkins  led  to  the 
investigation  of  the  capacities  of  Assam  as  a  tea  growing 
country  by  Lord  William  Bentinck's  committee  Evidence 
of  the  abundant  existence  of  the  indigenous  tea-tree  was 
obtained  ;  and  the  directors  of  the  East  India  Company 
resolved  to  institute  an  experimental  establishment  in 
Assam  for  cultivating  and  manufacturing  tea,  leaving  the 
industry  to  be  developed  by  private  enterprise  should  its 
(iracticability  be  demonstrated.  In  1 836  there  was  sent  to 
London  1  DE)  of  tea  made  from  indigenous  leaves ,  in  1837 
5  ft>  of  Assam  tea  was  sent ;  in  1838  the  quantity  sent  was 
twelve  small  boxes,  and  ninety-five  boxes  reached  London 
in  1839.  In  January  1840  the  Assam  Company  was 
formed,  and  thenceforward  the  cultivation  of  tea  in  India 
was  carried  on  as  a  private  commercial  undertaking.  The 
tea  districts  of  India  include,  in  the  order  of  their  priority, 
Assam,  Dehra  Dun,  Kumaun,  Darjiling,  Cachar,  Kangra, 
Hazaribagb,  Chittagong,  Tarai,  and  the  Nilgiris  (Madras). 
Attempts  were  repeatedly  made  to  introduce  tea  culture 
in  Ceylon,  under  both  Dutch  and  British  authority  No 
permanent  success  was  attained  till  about  1876,  when  the 
disastrous  effects  of  the  coffee-leaf  disease  induced  planters 
to  give  serious  attention  to  tea.  Since  that  period  the  tea 
industry  has  developed  in  Ceylon  with  marvellous  rapidity, 
and  it  has  every  prospect  of  taking  the  first  rank  among 
Singalese  productions.  Tea-planting  has  also  been  suc- 
cessfully established  in  NataL  But  beyond  the  regions 
above  enumerated  the  industry  has  never  taken  root.  It 
has  been  tried  in  the  West  Indies,  the  Southern  States  of 
America,  Brazil,  Australia,  and  the  south  of  Europe  ,  but 
cheap  labour  is  a  sine  qua  non  of  success.  Tea  can  be 
picked  in  China  and  the  British  East  Indies  for  two  or 
three  pence  a  day  of  wages,  and  it  is  on  such  exceedingly 
moderate  outlay  that  the  margin  of  profit  depends. 

Tea  Tea  is  more  or  less  cultivated  for  local  consumptioD  in  all  pro- 

industry  vinces  of  China  except  the  extreme  north,  but  the  regions  from 
in  China,  which  it  is  exported  are  embraced  within  the  provinces  in  the 
south-east — Kwangtung,  Fuh-keen,  Keang-se,  Che-keang,  Keang- 
6U,  aud  Gan-hwuy.  Black-tea  manufacture  belongs  to  the  more 
sontherly  portion  of  these  regions,  the  green  tea  country  lying  to 
the  north.  The  methods  employed  in  cultivating  the  plants  and 
in  making  tea  in  China  differ  widely  in  various  districts,  and  the 
teas  retained  for  native  use — especially  the  high-class  fancy  teas 
which  are  never  seen  abroad,  and  would  probably  not  bear  ex- 
portation— nndergo  special  manipidation.  The  teas  exported  are 
of  three  principal  classes— black  tea,  green  tea,  and  brick  tea. 
Cnltiva-  In  cultivation,  the  young  plants  are  not  ready  for  picking  till 
tioa.  they  are  three  years  old,  by  which  time  they  should  be  well 
established,  throwing  out  young  shoots  or  "  fiushes'"  with  vigour 
and  profusion.  It  is  these  tender  shoots,  with  leaf-buds  aud  exp.iud 
ing  leaves,  which  alone  are  gathered  for  tea  manufacture,  and  the 
younger  the  leaf-bud  the  better  is  the  quality  of  the  tea.  Accord 
ing  to  Chinese  statements  there  are  four  gatherings  of  leaves  in  the 
year.  The  first  is  made  early  in  April,  when  the  young  leaf-buds 
»rc  jnst  unfolding,  and  these,  covered  below  with  their  6ne  silky 
hairs,  are  taken  for  making  pekoe  or  young  hyson  The  second 
gathering  bikes  place  about  the  beginning  of  May,  another  in  Jnly, 
and  the  fourth  in  August  aud  September  On  each  succeeding 
occasion  the  in'ijduct  is  less  fragrant  and  valuable,  and  the  final 
gathering  is  said  to  consist  of  large  leaves  of  little  value.  These 
Vtateraeuts  do  not,  however,  accord  with  Indian  experienca 


The  following  brief  outline  of  the  Chinese  tea-niaking  processes 
is  given  by  Mr  Ball  (Cultivation  and  ilanufaclurc  of  Tea)  — 

"The  leaves  of  hiack  tea  are  exposed  to  llie  sun  nnd  aii  on  circular  trays  end  Black 
tr\;ated  as  hay,  duiing  which  an  incipient  saccharine  fermentation  is  supposed  to  [g^ 
take  place  in  conjiincnon  with  ft  volatile  oil  Various  modificaiions  of  flavour 
are  thus  produced  by  the  management  of  this  fernieniatioil ,  a  loss  of  tannin 
takes  place  hy  the  conveision  of  part  of  the  tannic  acid  Into  suj^r  Dui ing  this 
change  the  leaves  become  flaccid,  and  slightly  tinged  or  spotted  with  red  or  brown 
colouring  matter,  and  give  out  a  peculiar  (idour.  appioximating  to,  or  as  some 
think,  identical  with,  the  odour  of  ten  A  certain  cliangc  in  this  odour  is  carefully 
watched  by  the  workmen,  this  being  an  indication  that  the  loasting  must  not  be 
delayed.  It  is  not  necessary  ro  wait  till  the  leaves  are  spotted  with  red  '  They 
are  then  roa.sted  in  an  iron  vessel,  and  afterwards  rolled  with  the  hands,  to 
express  their  juices.  The  roasting  and  rolling  are  repeated  so  long  as  any  juices 
can  be  expressed  from  the  leaves  in  the  act  of  rolling.  Finally,  they  are  dried 
in  sieves  placed  over  a  charcoal  tire  in  drying  tubes,  during  which  the  leaves  aie 
occasionally  taken  fi'om  the  file,  and  turned  until  completely  dried,  it  is  in  this 
last  stage  of  the  prrrcess  that  the  leaves  tum  black,  though  this  change  of  colour 
Is  -mainly  due  to  the  process  of  manipulation  previously  to  roasting  and  not  to 
the  action  of  heat  ^ 

"The  leaves  of  green  tea  are  ro.-i.sted  also  m  an  iron  vessel,  but  as  soor.  as  GreaB 
gathered,  without  any  previous  manipulation,  all  heating  or  fermentation  of  the  tea 
leaves  being  studiously  avoided;  they  are  then  rolled  as  black  tea.  and  finally 
dried  in  the  same  vessel  in  which  they  have  been  roasted,  by  constantly  stirring 
and  moving  them  about  They  are  also  fanned  to  hasten  evaporation,  and  the 
drying  and  formation  of  the  peculiar  characteristic  colour  of  this  tea,  which  it 
gradually  acquii^s  id  this  process,  and  which  resemblea  the  bloom  qd  some 
fruits  " 

The  colour  of  genuine  green  tea  Is  entirely  due  to  the  rapid  drying 
of  the  fresh  leaves,  which  prevents  the  chlorophyll  from  under, 
going  any  alteration  The  green  tea  sent  out  of  Chiua  is  almost 
invariably  faced  or  glaied  with  artificial  colouring  matter,  princi- 
pally with  a  powdered  mixture  of  gypsum  and  Pnissian  blue 

The  names  distinguishing  commercial  qualities  of  tea  are  almost  Coin- 
entirely  of  Chinese  origin       In  general  they  indicate  a  gradation  mercial 
of  qualities  from  the  fine  and  delicate  product  of  the  young  leaf-  varieties 
bud  up  to  the  hard  and  woody  expanded  and  partly-grown  leaf.  ' 
The  following  list  represents  the  ordinary  series  of  qualities,  begin- 
ning with  the  finest: — 

Black  Tea.  —  Flowery  pekoe,  orange  pekoe,  pekoe,  pekoe  souchong, 
souchong,  congou,  bohea 

Green  7"ca. —Gunpowder,  iinperial.  hyson,  young  hyson,  hyson. 
skin,  caper 

Of  these  names,  pekoe  is  derived  from  pakho  (white  hairs),  tho 
pekoes  showing  the  fine  downy  tips  of  the  young  buds  ;  souchong 
is  from  siacm-chung,  little  plant  or  sort ,  congou  {kung-fu),  labour  , 
bohea  (MTu-i),  the  mountains  in  Fuh-keen,  the  centre  of  the  black- tea 
country  ,  auii  hyson  iyu  t^ien),  before  the  rains,  or  tn-chun,  flour- 
ishing spring.  Many  other  names  occur  in  the  trade  denoting  teas 
of  special  qualities  or  districts,  such  as  oolong  (black  dragon)  and 
twankay,-from  the  district  of  that  name  in  the  pro\'ince  of  Keang- 
siL  Scented  teas  also  form  a  special  class  of  Chinese  produce.  In 
scenting  the  finished  tea,  either  black  or  green  is  intimately  inter- 
mixed with  odoriferous  flowers  and  left  in  a  heap  till  the  tea  is  fully 
impregnated  with  the  odour,  when  the  two  substances  are  separated 
by  sifting,  and  the  tea  so  scented  is  immediately  packed  aud  ex- 
cluded from  the  air 

Brick  tea  is  the  special  form  in  which  tea  is  prepared  for  use  Bricfc 
throughout  the  vast  tracts  of  Central  Asia.  It  is  made  principally  tea. 
from  broken  leaves,  stalks,  and  fragments  of  large  leaves,  com- 
pressed into  blocks  of  various  sizes.  The  bricks  are  of  various 
degrees  of  compression,  some  being  lightly  squeezed  into  a  loose 
mass  and  sewed  up  in  cowhide  bags,  while  others  form  compact 
resonant  cakes,  in  which  all  trace  of  the  oiiginal  leaf  structure  is 
lost,  with  gdt  characters  impressed  in  their  surface  Brick  tea  is 
much  in  demand  over  an  area  greater  than  the  whole  of  Europe, 
and  by  many  tribes  it  is  stewed  with  milk,  salt,  and  butter  or  other 
fat  and  eaten  as  a  vegetable.  The  Russian  factors  established  in 
Hoo-pih  prepare  two  sizes  of  brick  tea,  which  they  send  off  in  great 
quantities  through  the  Kalgan  Gate  of  the  Great  Wall. 

Under  European  supervision  the  cultivation  and  especially  the  Tea  to- 
manufacture  of  tea  have  in  India  undergone  remarkable  improve-  dnstry 
ments     Indeed,  the  traditional  and  empirical  teachingand  processes  in  India, 
of  China  proved  a  most  serious  stumbiingblock  to  the  pro^:p-ess  of 
the  tea  industry   under  Western  auspices      The  tea-plants  now 
cultivated  in  India  are  of  three  principal  classes— the  indigenous 
Assam    the  Chinese,  and  a  hybrid  between   the  two      By  much 
crossing  and  intermixture  the  gradations  from  one  extreme  to  the 
other  are  almost  imperceptible      The  best  qualities  of  black  teas 
are  made  from  indigenous  and  high-class  hybrid  plants,  but  these 
are  compai-atively  tender  and  require  a  close  humid  climate      The 
hardiness  of  the  Chinese  plants  is  their  most  important  character, 
for,  favourably  situated,  the  Assam  plant  gives  a  larger  yield  of 
delicate  young  leaf  during  the  season  than  any  other 

In  favourable  circumstances  the  tea  plant  "flushes  or  sends  Picking 
forth  a  fresh  crop  of  tender  young  shoots  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  times  in  the  course  of  its  growing  and  picking  season  of  about 
nine  months  The  average  annual  yield  per  plant  is  very  variable, 
but  may  be  stated  at  about  one-fifth  of  a  lb  of  finished  tea;  and,  as 
each  acre  of  a  garden  holds  LIOO  to  1600  mature  plants,  the  yield 
per  acre  may  be  from  300  to  350  lb  per  annum.  The  diagram 
(fi^   5)  from  Col  Money's  valuable  practical  treatise  on  tho  CuUp- 


100 


TEA 


mtjm  und  Manufadurr.  of  Tm  illtistrates  the  method  in  which  a 
eush  or  aboot  us  pinked,  and  the  portions  winch  go  to  make  special 
classes  of  tea  The  lines  in  the  diagram  show  the  poinLi  at  which 
the  shoot  oia;  be  picked,  and  it  is  important  that  the  lowest  leaf 
taken  shoolJ  h«  no  nipped  off  »»  to  leave  the  bud  in  it£  ainl 
nninjnred  on  th«  branch  as  rrom  it  the  uejtt  flash  will  then  develop. 
The  thre.  leave,  at  the  growing  point  \n.  b.  c)  yield  pekoe  and 
th«  whole  shoot  down  to  »nd  including  /  gives  pekoe  sonchong. 
In  the  order  of  their  age.  the  individual  leaves  manufacttue  into 
a  flowery  pekoe  »  orange  pekoe,  c  pekoe,  d  pekoe  soachong,  « 
souchong,  and  /  aingou.      Were  the  flush  farther  developed  another 


Fio.  5  —Mode  of  Picking  Tea. 

uaf  might  be  Wkeu.  which  would  be  classed  as  hohca.  but  that  Is 

not  a  quality  recognized  by  Indmn  growers.     It  is  not,  however, 

the  practice  to  pick  or  treat  leaves  separately,  the  whole  flush  being 

manipulated  together,  and  the  tea  is  only  separated  into  qualities  by 

Biftino  after  the  uianofacturing  processes  have  been  completed 

Manu-  The  manufacture  of  black  tea  is  found  to  be  an  essentially  simple 

factore.     matter      Many  of  the  processes  employed  by  the  Chinese  are  quita 

Black       superfluous,    and   several  of  the    manual    operations  which    bnik 

tea  largely  in  the  Chinese  manufacture.  It  is  found,  can  with  advantage 

be   supplanted  by  mechanical  agency.     The  whole  object  of  the 

black-tea  manufacturer  is  to  ferment,  roll,  and  dry  the  leaf,  and 

for  that  purpose  the  leaves  undergo— (1)  withering,  (2)  rolling,  (3) 

fermenting,  and  (4)  finog  or  dholing.     Between   the   fermenting 

and  the  firing  operations  it  is  desirable  to  expose  the  leaves  to  the 

"     direct  sunlight  for  an  hour  or  thereby.      This  caiinot  always  be 

done,  as  it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  fermented  leaves  after  they 

have'  attained  their  proper  state  ,    nevertheless  the  best  result  is 

always  attained  m  bright  weather,  when  it  is  possible  to  expose 

the  fermented  leaves  to  the  sun. 

The  fresh  leaves  from  the  garden,  as  they  are  brought  in  to  the 
factory,  are  withered  by  being  spread  evenly  over  square  wi-cker- 
work  trays— leaf  challanies— thickly  or  thinly  as  the  weather  is 
bot  or  cool  Thus  they  are  left  exposed  to  the  air  till  they  become 
auite  soft  and  flaccid,  folding  together  when  pressed  in  the  hand 
into  a  clammy  mass  without  crackling  or  rebound.  In  cloudy  or 
rainy  weather  it  becomes  necessary  to  wither  by  machine,  acting 
on  the  leaves  with  artificially  dried  and  heated  air.  Withering  is 
a  preliminary  to  rolling,  in  which  the  flaccid  and  velvety  leaves  are 
kneaded,  twisted,  and  rolled  back  and  forward  over  a  table  till  the 
whole  comes  into  a  mashy  condition  by  the  exudation  of  juice. 
While  ID  Chinesetea-makingthat  juice  IS  squeezed  ont  of  the  leaves, 
in  India  it  is  most  carefully  lapp«i  up  and  absorbed  in  the  spongy 
mass  In  hand-rolling  as  much  as  can  be  worked  between  two 
hands  Is  operated  on,  and  passed  from  man  to  man  along  the  table 
till  fully  worked,  when  it  is  made  up  into  a  compressed  ball  and 
«o  put  aside  for  fermenting.  This  process  is  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  black-tea  making,  and  on  its  sufficient  accomplishment 
depends  much  of  the  character  and  quality  of  the  tea  made.  The 
progress  of  the  fennentation  must  be  carefully  w<itclied,  and  at  the 
point  when  by  the  colour  it  is  known  to  be  sufficiently  advanced 
the  tea  is  in  favourable  weather  sunned  by  exposure,  thinly  spread 
out  to  the  sunlight  for  about  an  hour  It  is  immediately  thero- 
efter  hred,  either  by  the  fumes  of  burning  charcoal  or  by  a  current 
of  dried  and  heated  air  from  one  of  the  numerous  machines  now 
kn  use  With  this  single  firing  the  process  is  completed,  and  the 
tea  su  finished  is  sifted  by  machinery  into  commercial  qualities 
iccoriiiiig  to  the  size  of  the  leaf 

I''or  the  "-utile  range  of  manuf.-M;tuiing  operations  numerous  foniis 
•f  machinery  and  mechanical  devices  have  been  ad.ipted  «nd  intro- 
duced in   Indian  gardens,  so  that,  apart  from  picking  the  leaves, 
ttj-making  hns  become  practically  a  factory  industry. 
Green  The  manufacture  of  green  t«a  is  cniiipaiatively  little  prosecuted 

tea.  in  lu^ia      In  Europe   the  demand  h.is  greatly  fallen  .aw.iy,  and, 

though  the  consumption  is  considerable  in  the  Uniteil  States,  the 
Mipply  is  principally  drawn  from  Jajnu,  where  its  preparation  is 


extensively  practised.  The  manufacture  as  carried  on  iii  the  North- 
western Provinces  resolves  itself  into  a  rapid  rolling  and  dryinpof 
the  leaf.  Without  permitting  the  leaves  to  wither  after  gatheniig, 
they  are,  if  free  from  moisture,  at  once  by  exposure  to  a  brislt"faeat 
sweated  and  softened  for  rolling.  They  are  tnen  without  delaj 
rolled  as  in  black-tea  tfiannfacture,  next  spread  out  m  the  sun  till 
they  take  a  blackish  tinge,  then  agam  rolled,  and  this  rolling  and 
exposure  may  be  repeated  yet  a  third  time-  When  the  rolling  is 
completed  the  tea  is  placed  in  a  highly  heated  pan,  in  which  it  Si 
stirred  about  briskly  till  the  whole  mass  hecomes  too  hot  to  be 
worked  by  hand.  Then  it  is  tightly  packed  in  a  strong  canvas 
bag,  in  which  it  is  beaten  by  a  heavy  Hat  stick  to  consolidate  it, 
and  in  this  condition  left  for  a  night  Next  day  it  is  fired  off  ia  » 
pan.  beginning  with  a  high  heat,  which  is  gradually  reduced  daring 
the  nine  hours  or  thereby  of  the  operation,  an  incessant  stirring 
and  tossing  being  kept  up  the  whole  time.  During  this  firing  off 
the  green  colour  of  the  tea  is  developed;  and  Indian  green  tea 
never  owes  any  of  its  colour  to  "  facing  "  with  foreign  substances. 

The  qualities  of  a  sample  of  tea  and  its  commercial  value  can  Qualities 
only  with  accuracy  be  determined  by  actual  infusion  and  trial  by  of  tea 
a  skilled  tea-taster-  Certain  general  and  external  appearances 
which  indicate  the  class  of  a  tea  are  obvious  enough  ;  but,  aUhough 
a  pekoe  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  a  souchong,  the 
souchong  of  certain  planters  or  districts  may  be  more  valuable  than 
other  pekoes.  While  it  is  impossible  to  define  the  conditions 
which  deterrnine  the  commercial  value  of  an  ordinary  black  tea. 
Col.  Money  lays  down  the  following  rules  the  darker  the  liquor 
the  stronger  the  tea,  and  the  nearer  the  approach  of  the  infused 
leaf  to  a  uniform  salmony  brown  the  purer  the  flavour.  Black  tea 
of  good  quality  should  in  infusion  yield  a  clear  bright  brown  liquor 
emitting  a  subdued  fragrance,  and  in  taste  it  should  be  nmd, 
bland,  and  sweetish,  with  an  agreeable  astnngency.  Green  tea 
yields  a  light^coloured  liquor  of  high  fragrance,  but  thin,  sharp, 
and  somewhat  rasping  in  taste  as  compared  with  black  tea. 

The  chemical  components  of  tea  leaves  are  essential  oil,  theine,  Chemls. 
tannin,  boheic  acid,  qnercetin,  quercitannic  acid,  gallic  acid,  oxalic  try. 
acid,  gum,  chlorophyll,  resin,  wax,  albuminoids,  colouring  matters, 
cellulose,  and  mineral  ash.  Of  these  the  first  three— essential  ofl, 
theme,  and  tannin — are  of  importance  in  the  infused  beverage. 
The  essential  oil.  on  which  the  flavour  of  tea  depends,  is  present  to 
the  extent  of  from  06  to  1  per  cent  Theiire  (CgHijN.Oj)  is  ail 
alkaloid  identical  with  the  caffeine  obtained  from  cofl'ee,  and  it,i8 
remarkable  that  the  same  substance  is  yielded  by  the  mat*  oi 
Paraguayan  tea  and  the  guarana  of  South  America,  and  by  the 
kola  nut  of  Central  Africa.  The  theobromine  of  cocoa  is  also 
closely  allied  to  theine,  and  the  characteristic  components  of  tliB 
extract  of  meat  similarly  show  certain  points  of  contact  with  these 
stimulant  bodies.  To  the  tannin  of  tea  infusions  is  due  what  is 
known  as  the  strength  of  the  tea.  Prof.  Dittmar  has  recently 
examined  a  number  of  China  and  Indian  teas  in  regard  to  the  pro- 
portions of  theine  and  tannin  in  their  infusions  and  to  the  depend- 
ence of  these  proportions  on  the  time  of  infusion.  The  general 
result  was  that  Chinese  tea  yields  more  theine  and  less  tannin  than 
Indian  tea,  and  that  ill  both  cases  10  minutss'  infusion,  extracts 
practically  all  the  theine.  Longer  infusion  adds  only  to  the  tannin 
that  passes  into  the  solutiou,  and,  as  excess  of  tannin  impede»4iges- 
tion,- prolonged  infusion  is  hurtful  and  ought  to  be  avpid^i. 

TUe  quantitative  composition  of  — 

tea  IS  of  course  subject  to  great 
variation.  The  analyses  by  Mul- 
der given  10  the  accompanying 
table  furnish  a  general  idea  of  the 
proportion  of  constituents. 

A  series  of  investigations  into 
a  large  number  of  teas  has  been 
earned  out  by  Mr  G.  W  Wigner 
(Pharm.  Jour..  3d  series,  vL  261, 
281,  402).  lu  tea  as  imported 
ho  found  large  proportions  of 
moisture  which  could  be  expelled 
on  exposure  to  a  temperature  of 

212°  F  In  a  range  of  thirty-five  samples  the  average  moisture  was 
equal  to  7  07  percent,  the  lowest— in  a  Chinese  young  hyson- 
being  4  84.  while  in  several  congous  it  exceeded  10  jper  cent  The 
ash  in  si.Mty-seveu  specimens  of  ordinary  and  special  (undried)  teas 
he  found  to  .average  578  per  cent,  the  maximum  being  7'02  and 
the  niininiuni  517  ;  and  of  that  ash  54  50  per  cent  was  soluble  in 
water  The  proportion  of  extractive  subsunces  in  twenty-four 
teas  varied  from  26  15  in  a  congou  to  44  85  in  Moyune  young 
hyson.  The  total  average  nitrogen  tioin  sixty  green  teas,  slightly 
faced,  was  376,  from  sixty  black  teas  326,  from  six  Assam  teas  .J 

3 -64,  and  from  exhausted  leaves  3  80  jier  cent 
So   long  ,as   the   Western    world    remained  almost  exclusively  Adulteni» 

•  Uoo. 

»  Tbc  theme  is  cci  tftinly  ondsrstaUid  ;  more  rectnt  obsci  veis  obtalD  flora  1  8  to 
3  per  rent.,  luij  occ.ismnally  more. 

2  The  niinei  nl  sulta  (ash)  partly  Included  In  Ihcse  uHula  oinoi-nltd  lo  6  M  liul 
5-2-1  icspt;ctivcjy- 


\ 


Hyson. 
Green. 

Congou- 
Black. 

VolatllooiU 

0-79 
2-22 
0-28 
2-22 
8M 

1780 
0-43 

22-80 

23-60 
3-00 

17-08 

0-60 
1-84 
O-OO 
8-64 
7-28 

12^ 
0-46 

21.36 

1912 
2-80 

28-32 

waiT.  .....:;::::."'. 

Gam. 

Theine' 

Extractive  maitci . 
Colouring  matter.  - 

Woody  fibre. 

98-78' 

98-30' 

TEA 


lOJLJ 


dcMndenf  on-  China  for  ic3  tea  supply,  adiJteration  was  rampant 
»7ii  multiform  in  the  trade.  Especially  among  green  and  fancy 
teas  there  was  scarcely  such  a  thing  as  an  unsophisticated  sample 
to  b«  obtained.  The  Chinese  were  also  expert  in  fabricating  an 
•rtificial  gunpowder — appropriately  kno\vn  as  "lie  tea," — which 
poDsisted  of  the  sweepings  of  tea  warehouses  artfully  made  up  with 
a  paste  of  rice  water.  Paddy  husks  and  many  kinds  of  leaves  faced 
with  China  clay,  soapstone,  catechu,  and  black  lead  also  found 
thcif  way  abundantly  iuto  tea.  On  the  European  side,  exliaustod 
loaves  were  again  dried,  impregnated  with  catcclui  and  gum,  and 
need  up  to  do  duty  as  fresh  tea,  and  the  leaves  of  numerousjilanta 
—sloe-thorn,  hawthorn,  willow,  beech,  plane,  Epilobium  aiujusti- 
folium,  ic. — were  freely  worked  up  as  tea.  Adulterated  tea  is  now, 
liowever,  comparatively  rare,  largely  owing  to  the  watchfulness  o£ 
the  customs  authorities,  lloreover,  as  it  is  nearly  as  cheap  to  make 
tea  from  the  leaves  of  the  tea-plant  as  from  those  of  any  other  herb, 
there  is  not  much  incentive  to  substitute  the  false  for  the  real. 

At  a  ver)'  early  period  in  the  European  history  of  tea  the  prob- 
iible  effects  of  its-nse  on  the  health  and  morals  of  the  population 
attracted  jealous  attention,  and  a  gi'cat  deal  was  written,  mostly 
in  a  hostile  sense,  on  the  subject  In  167S  we  find  Mr  Henry 
Savile  writing  to  his. uncle,  Mr  Secretary  Coventry,  in  sharp 
reproof  of  certain  friends  of  his  "who  call  for  tea,  instead  of  pipes 
and  bottles  after  dinner, — a  base  unworthy  Indian  practice,  which 
I  must  ever  admire  your  most  Christian  family  for  nof  admitting." 
And  he  adds,  with  an  audible  sigh,  "the  truth  is,  all  nation's  are 
growing  so  mcked  as  to  have  some  of  these  filthy  customs  I " 
Some  of  the  writers,  however,  although  i-esolute  for  its  banishment 
from  the  caddy,  \Y«r9' willing  to  give  it  a  place  in  the  medicine 
chest  "Among  many  other  novelties,"  says  a  medicaL  writer  in 
1 722,  "  there  is  one  which  seems  to  be  particularly,  the  cause  of  tlja 
hypochondriac  disorders,-  and  is  generally  known  by  the  name  of 
thca,  or  tea.  It  is  a  drug  which  of  late  years  has  very  much 
iBsinuated  itself,  as  well  into  our  diet  as  regales  and  entertain- 
ments, though  its  occupation  is  not  less  destructive  to  the  animal 
economy  than  opium,  or  some  other  drugs'which  we  have  at 
present  learned  to  avoid."'  Dr  Lettsom  was-  the  first  medical 
writer  who  gave  the  public'a  reasonable  and  scientific  account  of 
the  plant ;  but  even  he  let  the  fear  of  its  abuse  run  away  with^us 
judgment,  asserting  that  "the  first  rise  of  this  pernicious  custom 
[that  of  drinking  spirits  to  excess]  is  often  owin^  to  the  weakness 
I  and  debility  of  the  system  brought  on  by  the  dailyliabit  of  drinking 
'tea  ;  the  trembling  hand  seeks  a  temporary  relief  in  some  cordial, 
in  order  to  refresh  and  excite  again  the  enfeebled  system,  whereby 
such  persons  almost  necessarily  fall  into  a  habit  of  intemperance."  * 
Jonas  Hanway  {Essai;  cm  Tea,  1756)  was  among  its  most  vigorous 
assailants.     "Men,"  he  says,  "seem  to  have  lost  their  stature  and 

comeliness,   and  women  their  beauty What  Shakespeare 

ascribes  to  the  concealment  of  love  is  in  this  age  more  frequently 
occasioned  by  the  use  of  tea."  To  these  complaints  echoes  were 
not  wanting,  but  after  a  while  the  tea-drinkers  had  it  all  their 
own.  way.  In  the  meantime,  however,  tea  was  not  without  its 
apologists.'  To  say  nothing  of  our  own  familiar  poets  and  essay- 
ists, its  praises  have  been  sung  by  Herricheu  and  by  Francius  m 
Greek  verses,  by  Pechlin-in  Latin  epigrams,  by  Pierre  Petit  iq  a 
Latin  poem  of  five  hundred  lines,  and  by  a  German  versifier,  who 
celebrates;  in  a  ■fashion  of  his  own,  its  "  burial  and  happy  resurrec- 
tion. " '  Hnet,  bishop  of  Avranches,  has  also  paid  liis  graceful 
tribute"  to  a  stimulant  tp  which,  probably,  no  scholar  was  ever 
more  indebted,  and  which  he  continued  to  enjoy  at  the  ago  of 
ninety.  Dr  Johnson  draws  his  own  portrait  as  "  a  hardened  and 
blameless  tea-drinker,  who  for  twenty  years  diluted  his  meals 
with  only  the  infusion  of  this  fascinating  plant ;  whoso  kettlehad 
scarcely  time  to  cool ;  who  with  tea  amused  the  evening,  with  tea 
solaced  the  midnight,  and  with  tea  welcomefl  the  morning." '> 
•  Authorities  ara  not  yet  by  any  means  agreed  as  to  the  exact 
physiological  inBoence  and -value  of  tea.  The  very  striking  fact 
that  theme  is  precisely  the  characteristic  constituent  of  cofi'ee, 
mat^,  gnarana,  and  the  kola  nnt,  all  substances  eagerly  sought  after 
in  different  quarters  of  the  globe,  serves  to  show  that  tho  alkaloid 
satisfies  some  craving  of  "the  human  system,  although  what  its  effect 
is  has  not  yet  been  certainly  determined.  The  quantity  of  theine 
consumed  even  by  the  most  hardened  tea-driaker  is  oxcefedingly 
minute,  and  there  are  not  wanting  aUthdritieS  who  assert  that  it 
U  practically  inert,  an  assertion  surely- contradicted  by  thd  general 
instinct  of  the  race.  What  is  indisputable  about  tea  drinking  is 
that  it  forms  an  agreeable  means  of-. imbibing, the  proportion  of 
water  necessary,  in  human  nutrition,  which,  being  taken  hot,  com- 

^  An  Essay  on  tU  Nature,  Use,  and  Abiae  0/ Tea,  H,  15»- 

*  Lettaom,  Hataral  History  of  the  tea-Tree,  78. 

•  Der  Thee  'Bigratmiss  und gtucJtticfie  Wkderaii/erstehun^  [16^07}, 
4-10  the  verses  be^niog — 

*  I  paer,  I,  Tlieam  ccDrestini  In  pocnla  misce ; 
Urgct  non  aolitus  lumina  noati-a  Bopi,r;  ^ 

Mens  srupet ;  obtuse  lun^oicnt  in  corpore  vires ; 
LangUMrcm  aolvet  vivida  Tliea  novum." — 

Uiiettl  Commenlarius  de  rebus  ad  eum  pertinentibus,  304.  ■ 
Ulerarii  Uaaatine,  toL  IL  No.  13  (1767). 


municates  to  the  system  a  diffused  warm  glow!  Further,  as  used! 
by  Western  communities,  it  is  a  medium  of  taking,  iu  tho  form' 
of  sugar  and  cream,  no  inconsiderable. amount  of  real  niltrinunti 
The  other  effects  of  tea  are  more  a  matter  of  general  impression  than' 
of  ascertained  scientific  reality.'  Its  virtues  have  nowhere  beeu) 
better  summarized  than  by  tlio  earliest  Chinese  writer  on  the  sub- 
ject, tho  above-mentioned  Lo  Yu,  who  says,  "  It  tempers  the  spirits' 
and  harmonizes 'the  mind,  dispels  lassitude  and  relieves  fatigue,; 
awakens  thought  and  prevents  drowsiness,  lightens  or  refreshes  the 
body,  and  clears  the  perceptive  faculties."  The  gentle  exhilaration' 
■which  accompanies  the  moderate  use  of  tea  is  not  followed  by  the: 
depression  which  succeeds  tho  use  of  alcoholic  stimuli.  Experienca' 
has  proved  that  it  sustains  tho  frame  under  severe  muscular  or 
mental  exercise  without  causing  su  bsequent  exhausdon  and  collapse.^ 
Tea  is  frequently  found  to'  be  bereficial  to  sufferers  from  nervous 
headache,  -and  it  counteracts  to  some  extent  the  effects  of  alcohol 
and  of  opiates.  Taken  in  excess  it  produces  cerebral  excitement,' 
sleeplessness,  and  general  nervous  irritability.  'The  tannin  con», 
tained  in  its  infusions  also  interferes  with  the  flow  of  the  saliva,\ 
diminishes  the  digestive  activity  of  the  stomach,  and  impedes  tha 
action  of  the  bowels.  In  this  view  the  large  quantity  o£  strong 
tea  used  by  tho  poor—and  especially  by  the  sedentary  poor,— iwhlle 
serving  to  blunt  the  keen  tooth  of  hunger,  Jnust  work  incalculable 
havoc  With  the  digestive  and  nervous  systems  of  the  consumers. 

It  13  a  reinarkable  fact  that  no  mention  of  tea  is  made  by  Marco  Com- 
Polo,  and  that  no  knowledge  of  ithe  substance  appears- to  have  merco 
reached  Europe  till  after  the  establishment  of  intercourse  between  and  eta- 
Portuijal  and  China  in  1517.  ■  The  Portuguese,  hoy?ever,  did  little  tistics. 
towards  the  introduction  of  the  hert  into  Europe,  and  it  was  not 
till  the  Dutch  established  themselves  at  Bantam  early  in  the  17th 
century  that  these  adventurers  learned  from  the  Chinese  the  habit 
of  tea  drinking  and  brought  it  to  Europe. 

The  earliest  mention  of  tea  by  au  Englishman  is  probably  that" 
contained  in  a  letter  from  Mr  Wickham,  an  agent  of  the  East  India 
Company,  written  from  Firando  in  Japan,.on  the  27th  June  1615, 
to  Mr  Eaton,  another  officer  of  the  company,  resident  at  Macao,' 
and  asking  for  "a  pot  of  the  best  sort  of  chaw."  How  the  com- 
mission  was  executed  does  not  appear,  but  in  Mr  Eaton's  subse- 
quent accoullts  of  expenditure  occurs  this  item— ."three  silvei; 
porringers  to  drink  chaw  in.'' 

It  was  not  till  the  middle  of  the  century  that  the  English  began 
to  use  tea,  and  they  also  received  their  supplies  from  Java  till  .in 
1686  they  were  driven  out  of  the  island  by  the  DutcL—zAt  first 
the  price  of  tea  in  England  ranged  from  £6  to  £10  per  Ib.^^rn  the 
Mcrcuruts  Politicxts,  No.  435,  6f  September  1658,  the  following 
advertisement  occurs; — "That  excellent  and  by'all  Physitians 
approved  China  Drink  called  by  the  Chineans  Tcha,  by  otiier 
■  nations  Tay,  alias  Tee,  is  soldat  the  Sultaness  Head,  a cophee.liousel 
in  Sweetings  Rents,  by  the  iloyal  Exchange,  Loudon.  Thomas 
Garway,  tho  first  English  tea  dealer,  and  founder  of  the  well-known 
coffee-house,  "  Garra way's,"  in  a  curious  .broadsheet-  An  Exact  Be- 
seriptimi  o/the  Orowth,  Quality,  and  Virtues  of  the  Leaf  Tea,  issued 
iu  1659  or  1660,  writes,  "  in  respect  of  its  scarceness  and  deariiess, , 
it  hath  been  only  used  as  a  regalia  in  .high  treatments  and  enter- 
tainments-;'and  presents  made  thereof  to  princes  and  grandees."  In 
that  year  he  purchased  a  quantity  of  the  rare  and  mncli.prized  com- 
modity, and, offered  it  to  the  public,  in  the  leaf,  at  fixed  prices  vary- 
ihg  from  153.  to  6O3.  tbo  &,  according  to  quality,  ^nd  also  in  tho 
infusion,  "made  according'^to  the  directions  of  the  most  knowing- 
merchants  and  travellers  into  those  eastern  countries,"  In  1660' 
an  Act  of  the  first  parliament  of  the  Restoration  imposed  a  tax  on' 
"  every  gallon  of  chocolate,  sherbet^  and  tea,  made  and  sold,  to  b« 
paid  hy  the  maker  thereof,  eightpence"  (12  Car..  U.  c.  28).  . .; 

Popys's  often-quoted  mention  of  tho  fact  that  on  the  25th 
September  1660,  I  did  send  for  a  cup  of  tee,  a  China  drink,  of 
which. 1.  never  had  drunk  before,"  proves  the  novelty  of  tea  in 
England., at  that  date.  In  1664  we  find  that  the  East  India 
Company  presented  the  king  with  2  ft  and  2  02.  of  "thea,"  which 
cost  403.  per  lb,  and  two  years  afterwards  with  another  parcel  con- 
taining 223  tti,  for  which  the  directors  paid  6O3.  per  lb.  Both  parcels- 
appear  to  have  been  purchased  on  the  Continent.  Not  until  1677 
is  the  Company  recorded  toiave  taken  any  steps  for  the  importa- 
tion of  tea.  The  order  then  given  to  their  agents  was  for  "  teas  of 
the  best  kind  to  the  amount  of  100  dollars.  Bat  their  instruc- 
tions were  considerably  exceeded,  for  the  quantity  imported  ill 
1678  -was  4713  lb,  a  quantity -which  seems  to  have  glutted  the! 
market  for  several  years.  The  annals  of  tti'e  Company  record  that,' 
in  February  1684,  the  directors  wrote  thus  toMaaras: — "In  regard' 
thea  is  grown  to  be.  a  commodity-  here,  and  we  have  occasion  t6? 
make  presents  therein  to  our  grtat  friends  at  court,  we  would  have] 
yoa.to  send  us  yearly  five  or  six  canisters  of  the  very  best  and' 
freshest  thea."  Until  the 'Revolution  no  duty  was  laid  on  tea 
other  than  that  levied  on  the  infusion  as. sold  in  the  coffee-houses. 
By  1  William  and  Mary  c.  6,  a  duty  of  5s.  per  lb  and  5  per  cent 
on  the  value  was  imposed.  For  several  years  the  quantities  im- 
jiorted  were  very  small,  and  consisted  escluaively  of  tho  finer  sorts. 
The  first  direct  purchase  in  Chica  was  made  at  Amoy,  tiie  teas 


102 


TEA 


previonsly  obtained  by  tfee  Compauy's  factors  having  been  purchased 
in  Madras  and  Surat,  whither  it  was  brought  by  Chinese  junka 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  British  from  Java.  During  the  closiug 
years  of  the  century  the  amount  brought  over  seems  to  have  been, 
on  the  average,  about  20,000  ^  a  year.  The  instructions  of  1700 
directed  the  supercargoes  to  send  home  300  tubs  of  the  finer  green 
teas  and  80  tubs  Of  boheo.  In  1703  orders  were  given  for 
*'75,000  tb.  Single  (green),  10,000  tb  in^perial,'  and  20,000  lb 
bohea"    The  average  price  of  tea  at  this  penod  was  16s.  per  tb. 

During  the  100  years  from  1710  to  1810  the  aggregate' sale  of 
tea  by  the  East  India  Company  amounted  to  750,219,016  lb,  worth 
£129,804,595,  of  which  116,470,675  lb  wasre-exp6rted.  The  duties 
during  that  century  (excepting  a  period  of  eleven  years,  1784-^5, 
when  they  were  only  12^  per,  cent.)  were  excessive,  amounting  to 
about  200  per  cent,  pn  the  value  of  common  teas.  The  results  of  so 
enormous  a  tax  were  the  creation  of  a  gigantic  smuggling  ^trade, 
extensive  adultei-ation  of  imported  teas,  and  much  fabrication  of 
counterfeit  tea  within  the  country.  Rrobably  the  duty-'paid  tea 
did  not  represent  mote  than  half  what  was  consumed  under  thb 
name  of  tea.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  principal  facts  con- 
nected with  the  trade  daring  tlie  period  of  the  Company's  monopoly, 
which  terminated  on  the  22d  of  April  1834,  when  the  trade  was 
thrown  open  to  all,  the  prices  quoted  being  those  of  good  qualities 
in  the  Company's  wareliouse  or  in  bond  :■ — 


Average  Price  per  tb 

Rules  of  Dnty 

Home  Con 

sumprioii 

lb 

1728 
I7C0 
1782 
1783 
1784 
1786 
1786 
1795 
1801 
1821 
1833 

[32/6  (duty  Included)]. 

5/coniiOu:  9Ao(iy8bo 

4A0  congon :  8/3  hyson.  . 
4/3  congou;  6/9  byson.... 
4^6  congou :  7/1  by&on.... 
3/9  congou;  6/4  hyson.... 
3/5congou;  5/6  hyson.... 
3/  congou;  5/4  l^son..  .. 
2/6 J  congou;  4/2  hyson. 

4/ per  It),  and  £13.  18/7J  Z    ... 
1/  perm.  andi:;3.  18/74  %..  .. 
lyl  J  per  lb,  and  £56.  lS/10  X 

£12.  1(1/ per  cent.  

£20  per  cent 

£50  pel  cent.,  £20  under  2/6.. 
£100  and  £96  percent. 

l,493,(i26' 
3,860,976 
6.202,257 
4,741,622 
10.160,700 
14,800,982 
15,861,747 
21,342,846 
23,780,100 
26,754,637 
31,829,620 

The  progressive  increase  in  the  consumption  of  tea  in  tlie  United 
Kingdom  durlng,.50  yeirs  from  1836  till  1886  is  instructively  shown 
in  the  accompanying  diagram  constracted  by  Messrs  J  C.  Sillar  and 
Co.,  of  London.  The  dotted  iine  represents  the  average  monthly 
consumption  in  each  year ;  the  fluctuations  in  price  of  good  sound 
congou  are  traced  by  the  blacW  line;  and  the  years  in  which  reduced 
customs  duty  como  into  operation  are  indicated  along  the  base. 
From  1860  omvards  the  amount  of  Indian  tea  entered  for  home 
consumption  is  shown  in  monthly  average  by  a  black  column. 
This  column  "brings  out  the  remarkable  fact  that  the  Indian  teft 
consumed  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  a  year  now  exceeds  the  total 


N>o*»fl»t*ffl    a  o   -ftiO-j    >e>   tffffl'fto-    t*  k   t    mo    MILL 
S                                                     S                                     -ON    ' 



,T/-                           ,                                                                                                 ,             . 

u 

X 

-^      x               ■            ^ 

^                      —             15 

■^4 

^         -r                                                          ••■  '"                     1 4 

_                                   ™  -    ■•  ■■-  ""                              13 

-ZJ^              t      X 

,2 

-^      f  ^ 

fl 

r 

10 

'/s     \        \       ■ 

....  ^  -..                                                                                             9 

a           4                                                   4% 

■^•-                                                                                         ^8 

"^         ^          •               A         h    3j 

..--              _T         _                   ^                                                                      7 

,/-           ■          \                   /,        1         /l,.  '■■ vf^l  1  hi  /VM,I.  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  il  1  1  1  1  1  I.I    »l 

-^           ^-,        r^^i^--  i    i 

^gz^^     I'v     55r   _Tr       .jy^    5 

■    *          • .        ^-v-...i^fc\2       ^^ 

*=^     us  5:ja  + I.    4 

1^                            „-•--      ^-J              T 

^'Y'     ^                  T-       I 

■           ----J.J..    2 

_n_4.4-4  I +         ' 

i    ■  j^-   P  ±111111  II                    Tt          . 

p"r:B.  '/''-                   u  '/3     '/= 

•/-           6° 

consumption  of  all  kinds  in  1860,  and  is  more  than  double  the 
whole  quantity  used  fifty  years  ago. 

The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  the  British  tea  trade 
for  five  years  ending  1885  :— 


India. 

Ceylon. 

China. 

Hong 
Kong. 

Total 
Imports. 

Home  Con- 
sumption. 

1881 
1S.S2 
1 833 
1884 
1885 

45,434,130 
63,576,690 
69,252,435 
63,208,309 
63,794,025 

171,676 

607,081 

2,005,510 

2,210,983 

4,242,244 

151,749,592- 
142,706,457 
145.249,136 
134.297-.091 
131,234,354 

10,445,758 
10,820,916 
10,863,695 
9,411,477 
8,353,829 

209,801,622 
210,663,133 
222,262,431 
213,877,759 
212,143,820 

160,226,911 
106,069,339 
170,828,431 
175,090,875 
162,443,215 

The  consumption  of  tea  in  the  United  Kingdom  per  head  was  in 
1840  1-22  tb,  which  irlcreased  in  1850  to  1  86  tb ;  in  1860  it 
reached  2  67  lb,  in  1870  3  81  16,  in  1880  4  06  ft,  and  now  (1887)  it 
is  about  5  tb.' 

Next  to  the  United  Kingdom,  the  greatest  tea-importing  nation 
la  the  United  States.  Not- 
withstanding that  tea  has 
from  1873  been  duty  free 
(duty25centsper  lb  in  1870, 
17-72  in  1871,  and  15  in 
1872).  the  habit  of  tea 
drinking  does  not  grow  in 
America  as  it  is  found  to 
do  in  the  British  Isles,  as  is 
shown  by  the  accompanying 
table  Of  the  72,104,956  tb 
of  tea  imported  into  the 
United  States  in  the  year 
«nded  June  1885,35,895,836 
tb  was  Chinese,  32,156,032 
came  from .  Japan,  ami 
8,540,148  lb  came  from  England 
«xpo,rted,  principally  to  Canada. 


Year  ending 

tb  entered  for 

Per  Head 

30th  June. 

Consumption.  . 

1870 

40,812,189 

1  06 

1871 

46,972,788 

1  19 

1872 

84,224,494 

0  84 

1873 

106,423,570 

2  55 

1875 

64,708,079 

1  47 

1880 

7-^,  159,266 

1  44 

1881 

81,949,796 

159 

1882 

79,030,854 

1  50 

1883 

70,771,225 

1  31 

1884 

65,774,234 

1  18 

1686 

69,820,172 

1-22 

Nearly  6,0D0,1D00  lb  was  re- 


Next  to  the  English,  the  Dutch  are  the  greatest  consumers  of  tea 
outside  of  China  ;  and  the  only  other  considerable  tea-using  nation 
is  Russia.  The  following  table  gives  the  amount  of  tea  imported 
in  the  year  1884  by  the  principal  tea-drinking  countries:— 


Russia 

35,600,000  ft  =        iS  tb 

per  head 

Holland 

3,900,000  „  =       -91 

Denmark 

820,000  .,  =       -04 

New  South  ■Wales. 

8,437,981  ,,  =    9  15 

Victoria. 

11,524,205  „  =  11  99 

South  Australia 

2,229,993  ,,  -    7  00 

Queensland. 

2,757,277  ,,   =     8  75 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

1,295,042  ,.  =     5  00 

By  this  table  the  Australian  colonists  come  out  as  the  most 
inveterate  tea-drinkers  in  the  world  The  quantity  received  by 
Holland  in  1884  was  2,250,000  !b  less  than  the  imports  of  1883. 
but  the  average  of  recent  times  has  been  4  5UO.00O  tb 

The  quantity  consumed  in  China  has  been  fstitiinted  as  nigh  as 
2000  millions  of  pounds  annually,  being  at  the  late  of  a  little  more 
than  B  lb  per  head  of  tlie  population  ,  and.  (.onsideiing  the  tea- 
drinking  habits  of  the  people,  the  estimate  is  by  no  means  extruva 
gnnt.  In  this  light  it  may  be  safe  to  affiini  that  the  amount  of 
tea  used  yekrly  throughout  the  world  reaches  the  gigantic  tutil 
of  2500  millions  of  pounds. 

Bibtioffrapfiif.— The  litcrnture  of  tea  is  very  copious  but  maoh  scaiteicd  Tho 
following  works  may  be  named:  — Bontekoe.  Traetat  van  bet  exe^llenstf  Rruyd 
Thee,  Tlie  ll^guc,  1079  ;  Sylvestre  Du/uut ,  T^aiia  ti!ouvt:aux  et  Cut  itui  rfu  Caf^ 
du  The,  et  du  Chocofat,  2d  ed,.  Lyons.  \Ci>t>  (uoiislalion  of  Ist  cdi'lon  by  John 
Cham-beriayne,  London,  1085;  translations  nlso  In  Spunlsh  and  LiitinJ ;  J  O 
Houssaye,  MonoQraphie  du  The,  P«iis,  IM3.  Robert  Fortune.  Thtee  tcait 
if'andernufs  in  C/iiiia,  London,  1S17  ,  Id  .  i4  Journey  to  the  Tea  CoutUrtfs  oj 
China,  London.  '\'^W1 ;  S.  BhII.  Tea  Cullimtiomn  China,  London.  184»,-J  J.  L  I. 
JacobsoD,  Uandboek  voor  de  Kultuur  tn  Fabitkaite  vau  Ttu-t,  3  vols  ,  1843  ,  S  A 
Sch\varzkoj)f.  Die  narkotischen  Ge\ntss7ntltet—i.  Der  Thee.  Hallu.  1881.  Lleui  Col 
E.  Money.  Cullivadon  and  Alanu/aciure  o/ Tea,  3d  ed  ,  London,  1878.  F  T  It 
Deaa,  Youtig  Tea  Planter's  Companion,  Lonfloii,  188G  See  also  p8iliiinienldr> 
papers  and  ofRcial  publications  of  Indian  Oovernmen'  .  Jour  hoy  '  Aiiatic  Soc  _ 
Jour.  Agri.  and  Ilorti.  Soc,  qf  India,  Soc  oj  Arts  Jvum  .Ac  (J    PA  > 


TEAK 


103 


TEAK'  may  justly "je  called  the  most  valuable  of  all 
Known  timbers.  For  use  in  tropical  countries  it  has  no 
equal,  and  for  certain  purposes  it  is  preferable  to  other 
jvoods  intemperate  climates  also.  Its  price  is  higher  than 
that  of  any  other  timber,  except  mahogany.-  Great  efforts 
have  been  made  to  find  substitutes,  but  no  timber  has  been 
brought  to  market  in  sufficient  quantities  combining  the 
many  valusble  qualities  which  teak  possesses. 

The  first  good  figure  and  description  of  the  tree  w'as 
jliven  by  Rlicede.*  The  younger  Linna;us  called  it  Tedona 
yiaiulis.  It  is  a  large  deciduous  tree,  of  the  natural  order 
Wrbcitwex,  with  a  tall  straight  stem,  a  spreading  crown, 
the  branclilets  four-sided,  with  largo  quadrangular  pith. 
It  is  a  native  of. the  .t^'O  Indian  peninsulas,  and^is.also 


I 


'T«ak  {Tedona  grnndis). 
found  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  Java,  and  other  islands 
of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  In  India  proper  its  northern 
limit  is  24°  40' on  the  west  side  of  the  Aravalli  Hills,  and 
in  tlie  centre  near.Jhansi,  in  25°  30'  N.  lat.  In  liurmah 
it  extends  to  the  Mogoung  district,  in  lat.  2.5°  10'.  In 
Bengal  or  Assam  it  is  not  indigenous,  but  plantations  have 
been  formed  in  Assam  as  far  as  the  27th  parallel.  In  the 
Punjab  it  is  grown  in  gardens  to  the  32d. 
^^Teak  requires  a  tropical  climate,  and  the  most  important 
forests  are  found  in  the  moister  districts  of  India,  where 
during  the  summer  months  heavy  rains  are  brought -by 
the  south-west  monsoon,  the  winter  months  being  rainless. 
In  the  interior  of  the  Indian  peninsula,  where  the  mean 
iirtnual  rainfall  is  less  than  30  inches,  no  teak  is  found, 
And  'it  thrives  best  with  a  mean  annual  fall  of  more  than  50 
! • — :■ 

^  The  Sanskrit  name  of  teak  is  sahz,  aud  it  is  certain  that  in  India 
te.nk  li.is  been  known  and  used  largely  for  considerably  ninre  than  2000 
ye.irs.  In  Persia  teak  was  used  nearly  2000  years  ago,  and  the  tov/n 
ofSiraf  on  the  Persian  Gulf  was  entirely  built  of  it.  ■  Saj  is  the  name 
in  Arabic  and  Persian ;  and  in  Hindi,  Mahratti,  and  the  other  modern 
languages  derived  front  Sani^krit  the  tree  is  called  sat^,  sagican.  In  the 
Dravidia'n  languages  the  name  Hickay  and  the  Portuguese,  adopting 
this,  called  it  icke^  teca,  whence  the  English  name. 

*  The  rate  in  the  London  market  since  18G0  has  Huctuated  between 
iClO  and  £15  per  loail  of  50  cubic  feet. 
"^^t/wlits  MoIaharir.us,  vol.  iv.  tab.  27,  1683. 


inches.  The  mean  annual  temperature  which  suits  it  best 
lies  between  75°  and  81°  Fahr.  .  Near  the  coast  the  tree 
is  absent,  and  the  most  valuable  forests  are  on  low  hills 
up  to  3000  feet.  It  grows  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  but 
there  is  one  indispensable  condition — perfect  drainage  or 
a  dry  subsoil.  On  level  ground,  with  deep  alluvial  soil, 
teak  does  not  often  form  regularly  shaped  .stems,  probably 
because  the  subsoil  drainage  is  imperfect. 

During  the  dry  season  the  tree  is  Ieatie!?.3;'"in  "not 
localities  the  leaves  fall  in  January,  but  in  moist  places 
the  tree  remains  green  till  March.  ■  At' the  end  of  the  dry 
season,  when  the  first  monsoon  rains  fall,  the  fresh  foliage 
comes  out.'  The  leaves,  which  stand  opposite,  are  from  1 
to  2  feet  in  length  and  from  6  to  12  inches  in  breadth. 
On  coppice  shoots  the  leaves  are'  much  larger,  and  not 
rarely  from  2  to  3  feet  long.  In  shape  they  somewhat 
resemble  those  of  the  tobacco  plant,  but  their  substance  is 
hard  and  the  surface  rough. ^  ^The  small  white  flowers  are 
very  numerous,  on  large  erect  cross-branched  panicles, 
which  terminat"e  the  branches.'  They  appear  during  the 
rains,  generally  in  July  and  August,  and  the  seed  ripens  in 
January  and  February.'  On  the  east  side  of  the  Indian 
peninsula,'-the  teak  flowers  during  the  rains  in  October  and 
November.'  In  Java  the  forests  are  leafless  in  September,' 
while  during  March  and  April,  after  the  rains  have  com- 
menced, they  are  clothed  with  foliage  and  the  flowers  open. 
During  the  rainy  season  the  tree  is  readily  recognized  at. a 
considerable  distance  by  the  whitish  flower 'panicles,  which 
overtopthe  green  foliage,  and  during  the  dry  season  the 
feathery  seed-bearing  panicles  distinguish  it  from  all  other 
trees.  The  small  oily  seeds  are  enclosed  in  a  hard  bony 
1-4  celled  nut,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  thick  covering,' 
consisting  of  a  (ionse.felt  of  matted  hairs.  The  fruit. is 
enclosed  by  the  enlarged  membranous  calyx,  in  appearance 
like  an  irregularly  plaited  or  crumpled  bladder.  The  tree 
seeds  freely  every  year,  but  its  spread  by  means  of  selfJ 
sown  seed  is  impeded  by  the  forest  fires  of  the  dry  season', 
which  in  India  generally  occur  in  March  and  April,  after 
the  seeds  have  ripened  and  have  partly, fallen.  Of  the' 
seeds  which  escape,  numbers  are  washed^  down  the  hills 
by  the  first  heavy  rains  of,  the  monsoon.  These  collect 
in  .the  valleys,  and  it  is  here  that  groups  of  seedlings  and 
young  trees  are  frequently  found.  A  portion  of  the  seed 
remains  on  the  tree;  this  falls  gradually  after  the  rains 
have  commenced,  and  thus  escapes  the  fires  of  the  hot 
season.  The  germination  of  the  seed  is  slow  and  uncer- 
tain ;  a  large  amount  of  moisture  is  needed  to  saturate  the 
spongy  covering ;  many  seeds  do  not  germinate  until  the 
second  or  third  y^ar,  and  many  do  not  come  up  at  all. 

The  bark  of  the  stem  is  about  half  an  inch  thick,  grey  or 
brownish  grey,  the  sapwood  white;  the  heartwood  of  the 
green  tree  has  a  pleasant  and  strong  aromatic  fragrance  and 
a  beautiful  golden-yellow  colour,  which  on  seasoning  zoan 
darkens  into,  brown,  mottled  with  darker  streaks.  The 
timber  retains  its  aromatic  fragrance  to  a  great  age.  'On 
a  transverse  section  the  wood  is  marked  by  large  pores, 
which  are  more  numerous  and  larger  in  the  spring  wood,' 
or  the  inner  belt  of  each  annual  ring,  while  they  are  less 
numerous  and  smaller  in  the  autumn  wood  or  outer  belt. 
In  this  manner  the  growth  of  each  successive  year  is 
marked  in  the  wood,  and  the  age  of  a  tree  may  be_ 
determined  by  counting  the  annual  rings. 

The  principal  value  of  teak  timber  for  use  in\vavm  countries  is 
its  extraordinary  durability.  In  India  and  in  Burmah  beams  of 
the  wood  in  good  preservation  are  often  found  in  buildings  several 
centuries  old,  and  instances  are  known  of  teak  beams  having  lasted 
more  than  a  thousand  years.'    Being  one  of  the  few  Indian  timbers 

'  In  one  of  the  oldest  buildings  among  the  ruins  of  the  old  city  of 
Vijayanagar,  on  the  banks  of  the  Tungabhadra  iu  southern  Indi.i,  the 
superstructure  is  supported  by  jibinks  of  teakwood  1^  inches  thick. 
These  plauks  were  exajnined  in  1881 ;  they  were  in  a  good  state  of 


104 


TEAK 


which  ^ire  leally  dural.le,  teak  has  always  been  used  for  buildings 
particularly  for  temples,  and  in  India  it  has  been  the  chief  timber 
employed  for  shipbuilding.  When  iron  commenced  to  bo  exten- 
sively used  for  the  last-named  purpose,  it  was  supposed  that  the 
demand  foi  teak  would  decrease.  This,  however,  has  not  been  the 
case  for  the  »ood  is  still  very  largely  used  for  the  backing  of  iron- 
clad's  and  for  decks  oi  large  vessels.  It  is  also  used  for  furniture, 
for  door  and  window  frames,  for  the  construction  of  railway  car 
riag-3.  and  for  many  other  purposes  White  ants  eat  the  sapwood, 
but  rarely  attack  the  heaitwood  of  teak  It  is  not,  however,  proof 
against  the  borings  of  the  teiedo,  from  whose  attacks  the  teak  piles 
of  the  wharves  in  the  Rangoon  river  have  to  be  protected  by  a 
sheathing  ol  metal 

Once  seasoned,  teak  timlwr  does  not  split,  crack,  shrink,  or 
nlur  Its  shape  In  these  qualities  it  is  superior  to  most  timbers 
In  couUct  with  lion,  iieitlier  the  iron  nor  the  teak  sutfer.",  and 
in  this  respect  it  u  far  superior  to  oak.  It  is  not  very  hard, 
is  easily  worked,  and  takes  a  beautiful  polish  it  has  great  elas- 
ticity and  strength,  and  is  not  very  heavy.  The  average  weight 
of  perfectly  seasoned  *ood  fluctuates  between  38  and  46  tb  per 
cubic  foot.'  Its  weight,  therefore,  is  a  little  less  than  that  of 
English  oak  Green  teak  timber,  however,  is  heavier  than  water, 
and  unless  thoroughly  seasoned  it  cannot  be  floated  In  Burmah, 
therefore,  where  the  rivers  are  used  to  float  the  timber  to  the  sea 
purts.  a  peculiar,  mode  of  seasouing  teak  by  girdling  has  been 
practised  fioui  time  immemorial  Girdling  consists  in  making  a 
deep  circular  cut  through  bark  and  sap  into  the  heartwood,  so  as 
completely  to  sever  communication  between  bark  and  sapwood 
above  and  below  the  cut  In  teak,  as  in  oak  and  other  trees  with 
'well  marked  heartwood,  the  circulation  of  the  sap  only  takes  place 
in  the  sapwood,  and  the  girdled  tree  therefore  dies  after  a  few  days 
if  the  operation  has  been  efl'ectually  performed  But  if  even  the 
smallest  band  of  sapwood  is  left  connecting  the  outer  layers  of 
wood  above  and  below  the  girdle,  the  tree  is  not  killed,  and  often 
recovers  -completely  The  girdled  tree  is  allowed  to  stand  one  or 
two-  years,  and  longer  if  a  very  large-sized  tree.  Being  exposed  to 
the  wind  and  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  the  timber  of  a  girdled  tree 
seasons  more  rapidly  and. more  completely  than  that  of  a  tree 
felled  green  ,  The  teak  produced  in  the  presidencies  of  Madras 
and  Bombay  and  in  the  Central  Provinces  is  as  a  rule  felled  green, 
and  even  when  dry  it  generally  is  a  little  heavier  than  the  timber 
from  Buiniab.^  For  a  long  time  to  come,  the  rivers  of  Burmah 
and  Siam  will  continueto  alford  the  most  convenient  and  most 
«conomir..il  routes  for  the  transport  of  timber  Indeed  the  forests 
drained  by  the  Salwfn  and  its  feeders  are  not  likely  ever  to  be 
worked  otherwise  than  on  the  present  jilan,  under  which  the  logs 
are  floated  singly  over  the  rapids  and  are  caught  and  rafted  lower 
down,  at  the  kyodan  or  rope  station,  70  miles  above  Maulmain. 

As  already  mentioned,  teak  wood  contains  an  aromatic  oil,  winch 
(rives  it  a  peculiarly  pleasant  smell  and  an  oily  surface  when  fresh 
cut.  To  this  oil  may  probably  with  iusticc  be  ascribed  its  great 
durability  In  Burmah  oil  is  extracted  from  the  limber  on  a  small 
scale,  for"  medicinal  purposes,  by  filling  an  earthen  pot,  which  is 
placed  inverted  upon  another,  with  chips  of  wood,  and  putting  fire 
round  it.  upon  which  the  oil  runs  down  into  the  lower  vessel. 

Accordipg  to  the  colour  and  texture  of  the  wood, several  vanetics. 
of  teak  are  distinguished  in  India,  Burmah,  and  Java;  in  the 
timber  trade,  however,  these  distinctions  are  of  no  importance. 
Teak  as  well  as  other  trees,  when  standing  isolated,  forms  side 
branches  far  down  the  stem,  and  the  wood  of  such  trees  is  more 
knotty  and  wavy,  and  generally  heavier  and  darker-coloured  than 
the  timber  of  trees  which  have  grown  close  together  in  a  dense  forest 
Apart  from  the  manner  in  which  the  tree  had  grown  up  in  the 
forest,  soil,  elevation,  and  climate  have  a  great  influence  upon  the 
grain  and' the  mechanical  qualities  of  teak  as  of  other  timbers. 
Most  of  the  larger  logs  brought  to  market  have  an  irregular  crack 
or  hollow  in  the  centre,  which  commences  at  the  butt  and  often 
runs  up  a  long  way.  There  is  little  doubt  that  this  is  generally 
due  to  the  action  of  the  fires,  which  scorch  and  often  destroy  the 
bark  of  young  trees.  Such  external  injuries  are  apt  to  induce 
decay  in  the  wood  Moreover,  most  teak  seedlings  which  come  up 
naturally  are  cut  down  to  the  ground  by  the  fires  of  the  hot  season  ; 

preservat.on  and  showed  the  peculiar  structure  of  le.ak  timber  in  a 
very  niarked  manner  They  had  beeu  in  the  building  for  600  years 
{lr)dian  FoTtsier.  vol  vii  p  260).  In  the  wjll  of  a  palace  of  the 
Persian  kings  near  Baghdad,  which  was  pillaged  in  the  7th  century, 
two  Americans  found  in  1811  pieces  of  Indian  leak  which  were 
perfectly  sound  (Ouseley.  TravtU  in  Varioits  CouiUnes  of  the  East, 
vol  II  p  280,  note  67).  In  the  old  cave  temples  ol  Salsettc  and 
elsewhere  in  western  India  pieces  of  teak  have  been  found  in  good 
pres»rr»ti.jn  which  must  have  been  more  than  2000  years  old. 

'  Ai  14  8  lb  per  cubic  foot  a  load  of  50  cubic  feet  weighs  a  ton 
(2240  lb).  lieDce  in  the  Bunnali  ports  a  ton  of  teak  timber  is  taken  as 
equivalent  to  a  load  of  50  c-ibic  feet 

•  It  has  been  erroneously  5Ul'!<i  that  the  tree  In  Burmah  is  lapped 
for  lU  oil  before  felllug 


some  are  killed,  but  many  sprout  again  during  the  rains,  and  rtii» 
is  generally  repeated  ypar  after  year,  until  a  sapling  is  produced 
strong  enough  to  outlive  the  fire.  Such  saplings  have  a  very  larga 
pith, "which  dries  up,  causing  a  hollow  in  the  heart.  Or  a  piece  of 
the  old  shoot  killed  by  the  fire  is  enclosed  by  the  new  wood,  and 
this  also  is  apt  to  give  rise  to  a  hollow. 

The  leaves  of  the  teak  tree  contain  a  red  dye,  which  in  Malabar 
was  formerly  used  to  dye  silk  and  cotton.  Natives  of  Burmah  use 
the  leaves  as  plates,  to  wrap  up  parcels,  and  for  thatching. 

In  its  youth  tb^  tree  grows  with  extreme  rapidity.  Two. year- 
old  seedlings  on  good  soil  are  5  to  10  feet  high,  and  insUncts  of 
more  rapid  growth  are  not  uncommon.  In  the  plantations  which 
have  been  made  since  1856  in  Burmah,  the  Uak  has  on  good  soil 
attained  an  average  height  of  60  feet  in  15  years,  with  a  girth, 
breast  high,  of  19  inches.  This  is  between  16"  and  18°  N.  lat.,  with 
a  mean  annual  temperature  of  78°  F.  and  a  rainfall  of  100  inches. 
In  the  Burmah  plantations  it  is  estimated  that  the  tree  will, 
under  favourable  circumstances,  attain  a  diameter  of  24  inches 
(girth  72  inches)  at  the  age  of  80.  Timber  of  that  size  is  market- 
able, but  the  timber  of  the  natural  forests  which  is  at  present 
brought  to  market  in  Burmah  has  grown  much  more  slowly,  tho 
chief  reason  being  the  annual  forest  fires,  which  harden  and  im. 
poverish  the  soil.  lo  the  natural  forests  of  Burmah  and  India 
teak  timber  with  adiamcter  of  24  indies  is  never  less  than  100  anil 
often  more  than  200  years  old  In  future,  the  timber  grown  ia 
plantations  and  in  forests  under  regular  management  may  be  ex- 
pected to  grow  much  faster  ,  and  there  is  no  grouud  for  anticipating 
th.it  rapidly  grown  timber  will  be  less  valuable  than  that  of  slow 
growth,  which  is  at  present  brought  to  market. 

Like  the  other  trees  of  the  dry  deciduous  forest,  teak  does  not 
attain  any  extraordinary  size.  The  trees  are  not  generally  more 
than  100  to  150  feet  high,  even  under  the  most  favourablo 
circumstances,  and  stems  more  than  100  feet  to  the  first  branch 
are  not  often  found  Exceptionally  ull  trees  were  measured  in 
1861  in  the  Gwaythay  forest  in  Pegu,  east  of  the  Silang  river,  OD 
gneiss  The  stems  had  IflS  to  114  feet  to  the  first  branch,  with  a 
girth,  at  6  feel  off  the  ground,  from  7  to  16  feeU  Larger  girths, 
up  to  25  feet,  are  not  uncommon 

The  tcik  tree  does  not  usually  form  pure  forests.  It  is  asso- 
ciated with  bamboos  and  a  great  variety  of  other  trees,  which  have 
little  market  value,  and,  as  a  rule,  thrives  best  in  such  company. 
Hence  in  the  plantations  established  in  Burmah,  the  object  has 
been  to  raise  forests  of  teak  mixed  with  bamboos  and  other  trees. 

Most  of  the  teak  timber  produced  is  consumed  in  India. 
The  produce  of  the  magnificent  forests  of  Travancore,  Cochin, 
the  Madras  presidency,  Coorg,  Mysore,  Bombay,  Bcrar,  and  the 
Central  Provincas  is  all  so  cousiinied.  Formerly  there  was  a 
considerable  export  from  the  ports  of  the  western  coast,  — Malabar, 
Kanara,  Sural,  and  Broach,— but  the  countiy  at  present  requires 
all  the  teak  which  its  forests  can  produce  ;  indeed  tho  demand  is 
in  excess  of  the  supply,  and  large  quantities  are  imported  from. 
Burmah  to  Calcutta,  Madras,  "Bombay,  and  other  Indian  ports. 
Small  quantities  are  still  exported  from  the  ports  of  the  westcru 
coast  to  Aiabia  and  the  coast  of  Africa.  The  chief  exjiorl  is 
from  Burmah,  principally  from  Rangoon  aud  Maulmam.  Of  the 
other  teak  producing  countries,  Java  exports  a  little  ;  there  have 
also  been  exports  from  Saigou  ;  and  since  1S82  Bankok  has  sent 
considerable  quantities  to  Europe.  But  the  Burmah  coast  is  the 
chief  source  of  supply  at  present  Rangoon  has  for  a  very  long 
time  been  an  important  place  for  shipbuilding,  teak  being  the  chief 
timber  used:  between  1786  and  1825  111  European  vessels  were 
built  at  Rangoon,  aggregating  35,000  Ions  At  the  same  time 
timber  was  exported,  and,  when  the  place  was  taken  by  the  Bntish 
in  1852,  teak  was  the  chief  article  of  exfmi  t.  Maulmain  became 
British  territory  at  the  close  of  the  first  Burmese  war  m  1826.  At 
that  time  the  place  was  a  large  fishing  village,  and  it  was  mainly 
through  the  export  of  teak  timber  and  the  shipbuildmg  trade 
that  it  attained  its  present  importance.  From  1829  to  1841 
upwards  of  50,000  loads  of  teak  timber  were  exported,  and,  lo 
addition,  68  vessels  were  built  during  that  period,  aggregating 
15  680  tons,  and  estimated  to  have  lequned  for  their  construction 
24  000  loads  of  teak  timber.  The  forests  from  whic.i  Mauliuam 
first  derived  its  supplies  are  situaled  on  the  Altaian  river,  a  feeder 
of  the  Salwin.  In  1836,  however,  timber  began  to  come  dowa 
from  more  distant  forest',  and  in  1841  onefourth  only  of  the 
supply  was  brought  from  the  Altaraii  forests. 

The  increase  in  the  export  of  timber  from  the  Burmah  ports  was 
slow  at  first,  but  has  gone  on  rapidly  since  Rangoon  became  a. 
British  port  Since  that  time  the  timber  brought  to  the  Burmab 
ports  has  come  from  the  following  sources;-(l)  from  the  forests 
n  the  British  coast  provinces,  Pegu  and  Tenasserim  ;  (2)  frona  the 
forests  in  the  former  kingdom  of  Burmah,  floated  to  Rangoon  down 
the  SiWng  and  Irrawaddy  rivers  ;  (3)  from  the  foresU  in  the  Shan 
states  formerly  tributary  lo  Burmah,  from  the  harenn.  country, 
and  from  Siam,  which  is  all  floated  to  Maulmam  ly  the  Sa  win 
river.  Since  1356  the  increase  of  the  supply  denved  from  these 
three  sources  has  been  large,  as  will  be  apparent  from  the  following 


T  E  A  — T  E  G 


105 


«vcrag«s  for  tho  eight  years  1S56-57  to  1863-64  and  for  the  two 
vcars  1SS3-S1  and  1S84-85  :— 


FYom  rhe  British  coast  provinces,  Pegu  and  Tenftsseritn. 

From  Burmah  by  Stuini;  and  Irrawaddy  nvers 

From  Sban  states,  Karenni  and  SJam,  by  Satwin  liver... 


Total  supplies... 


Exports  by  sea 

Locai  consumption  in  Rangoon  and  Maulmain. 


1S56-7  to 
1863-4. 


Loads. 
22,675 
6,S90 
55,491 


85,056 


76,763 
8.233 


1SS3-4. 
18S4-5. 


Loads. 
44,228 
66,663 
163,751 


274,643 


153,192 
121,450 


Of  the  quantities  exported,  between  3S,000  and  65,000  loads  '  have 
gone  beyond  India  during  this  period,  the  balance  liaving  been 
sent  to  Calcutta,  Bombay,  and  other  Indian  ports.  The  qunntitiea 
here  stated  do  not  incliide  the  timber  consumed  in  Upper  Burmah, 
nor  that  brought  from  the  forests  drained  by  the  Menam  and 
Mekliong  rivers  on  the  cast  side  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula,  nor 
the  teak  produced  in  Java  and  the  other  islands  of  tho  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  in  the  extensive  forests  of  the  western  peninsula- 
of  India.  No  data  ace  yet  available  for  a  precise  estimate  ;  but 
the  total  amount  yielded  by.these  forest^  and  consumed  locally  or 
exported,  appears  to  be  not  less  than  500,000  loads  or  tous  a  year. 

iu  British  India  a  large  portion  of.  the  teak-producing  tracts 
have  since  >856  been  placed  under  conservancy  management,  and 
sfinilar  meastires  will  doubtless  be  extended  to .  tho  forests  in 
Upper  Burmah,  now  anrie.tcd  to  the  British  empire,  as  well  as  to 
the  forests  of  the  feudatory  native  states.  In  British  India,  the 
area  of  state  forests  demarcated  m  order, to  be  permanently  con- 
served' was  in  1885  (in  round  fibres)  33,000  square  miles,  and 
the  teak-producing  tracts  included  in  this  area  may  be  estimated^ 
to  cover  about  12,000  square'  miles,  or  7,680,000  acres.  Large 
additions  will  be  made  to  this  area,  especially  in  Upper  Burmah, 
Of  teak  plantations,  12,000  acres  have  been  formed  in  Burmah, 
563  acres  in  Coorg,  3436  at  Nilambui'  in  M.ilabar,  and  about  2000 
acres  in  other  districts.  There  are  good'grounds  for  estimating 
the  future  yield  of  plantations  at  the  rate  of  50  cubic  feet  (one 
ton)  per  acre  annually.  The  natural  forests  will,  in  their  present 
impoverished  condition,  not  furnish  more  than  one  cubic  foot  per 
acre  annually,  but,  as  protection  against  fire  is  gradually  extend- 
ing, the  proportion  of  teak  is  everywhere  being  increased  by  cultural 
operations  in  the  forests,  and  the  effect  of'  these  measures  will 
eventually  manifest  itself  by  a  considerable  increase  in  the  yield. 
In  their  present  condition,  the  natural  forests  demarcated  in  India 
up  to  1887  may  be  expected  to  yield  150,000  tons  a  year,  while 
the  produce  of  the  plantations  will  eventually  add  18.000  tons 
more.  The  teak  forests  in  J.ava  were  surveyed  in  1871,  and  their 
area  was  found  to  be  2280  square  miles,  while  the  plantations  in 
that  island  in  1880  amounted  to  24,710  acres.  These  figures  will 
serve  to  show  that,  if  the  system  commenced  in  India  aud  Java 
is  maintained,  there  is  no  reason  to  apprehend  a  diminution  of 
the  teak  supply.  (D.  BR.) 

TEAL  (Old  English  Tele),  a  word  of  uncertain  origin, 
but  doubtless  cognate  with  the  Dutch  Taling  (formerly 
Talingh  and  Telingh),  and  this  apparently  with  the  Scandi- 
Tiayiao-  AUeling-And  (Briinnich,  Omitkol.  Borealis,  p.  18) 
and  Atling,  which  it  seems  impossible  not  to  connect  with 
the  Scottish  Atteile  or  Atteal,  to  be  fdund  in  many  old 
records,  though  this  last  word  (however  it  be  spelt)  is 
generally  used  in  conjunction  with  Teal,  as  if  to  mean  a 
different  kind  of  bird ;  and  commentators  have  shewn  a 
marvellous  ineptitude  in  surmising  -what  that  bird  was. 

The  Teal  is  the  Aiias  erecca  of  Linnrens,  and  the  smallest  of  the 
European  Anatidm,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  abundant  and  highly 
•esteemed  for  the  table.  It  breeds  in  many  parts  of  the  British 
Islands,  making  its  nest  in  places^  very  like  those  chosen  by  the 
Wild  Duck,  A.  boscas ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  those  that  are  taken  in  decoys,  or  are  shot,  during  the 
autumn  and  winter  are  of  foreign  origin.  While  the  female  pre- 
nents  the  usual  incoaspicnous  mottled  plumage  of  the  same  sex  in 
most  species  of  Analirue,  the  male  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  hi^ 
kind.  Hia  deep  chestnut  head  and  throat  are  diversified  on  either 
aide  by  a  line  of  buff,  which,  springing  from  the  gape,  runs  upward 
to  the  eye,  in  front  of  which  it  forms  a  fork,  one  prong  passing 
l)ackward  above  and  the  other  below,  enclosing  a  dark  glossy. green 
patch,  and  both  losing  themselves  in  the  elongated  feathers  of  the 


*  Of  the  teak  exported  to  foreign  countriea  from  India  in  1883-84, 
■27,358  tons  went  to  Great,  Britain,  8594  tons  to  Egypt,  2066  tons  to 
Ceylen,  1984  tc«9  to  Japan,  and  1823  tons  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
The  total- quantity  exported  was  46,471  tons. 

*  Not  including  16,000  aqoare  miles  of  second  class  reserrea  in  the 
Central  ProvincSB 


I 


hind-head  and  nape.  The  back  and  sides  of  the  body  appear  to  b» 
grey,  an  effect  produced  by  delicate  transverse  pencillings  ol  black  on' 
a  diill  white  ground.  The  outer  lanceolate  scapulars  have  one-half 
of  their  webs  pure  white,  forming  a  conspicuous  stripe  along  the 
side  of  tho  back.  The  breast  is  of  a  pale  salmon  or  peach-blossom' 
colour,  each  feather  in  front  bearing  a  roundish  dark  spot,  but 
these  spots  lessen  in  number  and  size  lower  down,  and  the  warm 
tint  passes  into  white  on  the  belly.  The  tail-coverts  above  and 
below  are  velvety  black,  but  those  at  the  side  are  pale  oiange. 
,  The  Teal  inhabits  almost  the  whole  of  Europe  aud  Asia,— from 
Iceland  to  Japan,— in  winter  visiting  Northern  Africa  and  India. 
It  occasionally  occurs  on  the  western  shores  of  the  -Atlantic;  but 
its  place  in  North  Anieiica  is  taken  by  its  leprescntativc,  A. 
earolincnsis,  the  male  of  which  is  easily  to  be  recognized  by  the 
absence  of  the  upper  buff  line  on  the  side  of  the  head  and  of  the 
white  scapular- stripe,  while  ho  presents  a  whitish  crescentic  bar 
on  the  sides  of  the  lower  neck  just  in  front  of  the  wings. 

Species  more  or  less  allied  to  these  two  are  found  in 
most  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  among  such  species  are 
some  (for  instance,  the  A.  gihberifrons  of  the  Australian 
Region  and  the  A.  eatoni.ol  Kerguelen  Island)  in  which 
the  mule  wears  almost  the  same  inconspicuous  pluraag*  as 
•the  female.  But  the  determination  of  the  birds  which 
should  be  technically  considered  "  Teal.'i,  "  and  belong 
to  the  subgenus  jS\ltium  (generally  misspelt  Nettion),  as 
distinguished  from  other  groups  of  Anatina:,  is  a  task  not 
yet  successfully  attempted,  and  much  confusion  has  been 
caused  by  associating  with  them  such  species  as  the 
Gaeganey  (vol.  X  p.  80)  and  its  allies  of  the  group  Quer- 
quedula.  Others  again  have  not  yet  been  discriminated 
from  the.  Wigeons  (q.v.),  the  Pintail-Ducks,  Dafita,  or 
even  from  the  typical  form  of  Anas' {cf.  Duck,  vol.  vii.  p, 
505),  into  each  of,  which  subgenera  the  Teals,  Nettium,' 
seem  to  pass  without  any  great  break,  .  In  ordinary  talk 
"Teal "  seem's  to  stand  for  any  Duck-like  bird  of  small 
size,  and  in  that  sense  the  word  is  often  applied  to  the 
members  of  the  genus  Neilopns,  though  systematists  will 
have  it  that  they  are  properly  Geese.  In  the  same  loose 
sense  the  word  is  often  applied  to  the  two  most  beautiful 
of  the  Family  Anatidse,  belonging  to  the  genus  jEx 
(commonly  misspelt  Aix) — the  Carolina  Duck  of  North 
America,  ^.  sponsa  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  above- 
named  Anas  carolinensis  or  NeUium  carolinense),  and  the 
Mandarin-Duck  of  China,  jE.  galericulata.  Hardly  less 
showy  than  these  are  the  two  species  of  the  subgenus 
£unetta,—th^  Falcated  Duck,  £.  falcata,  and  the  Baikal 
Teal,  E./ormosa, — both  from  eastern  Asia,  but  occasionally 
appearing  in  Europe.  Some  British  authors  have  referred 
to  the  latter  of  these  well-marked  species  certain  Ducks  that 
from  time  to  time  occur,  but  they  are  doubtless  hybrids, 
though  the  secret  of  their  parentage  may  be  unknown  ;  and 
in  this  way  a  so-called  Bimaculated  Duck,  Anas  bimaculata, 
was  for  many  years  erroneously  admitted  as  a  good  species 
to  the  British  list,  but  of  late  this  has  been  properly 
discarded,  (a.  n.) 

TECHNICAL  EDUCATION.  The  special  education, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  train  persons  in  the  arts  and 
■sciences  that  underlie  the  practice  of  some  trade  or  pro- 
fession,- is  technical  education.  Schools  in  which  this 
training  is  provided  are  known  as  technical  schools.  In 
its  wiSest  sense,  technical  education  embraces  all  kinds  of 
instruction  that  have  direct  reference  to  the  career  a  person 
ia  following  or  preparing  to  follow;  but  it  is  usual  and 
convenient  to  restrict  the  term  to  the  special  training 
which  helps  to  qualify  a  person  to  engage  in  some  branch 
of  productive  industry.  This  education  may  consist  of 
the  explanation  of  the  processes  concerned  in  production, 
or  of  instruction  in  art  or  science  in  its  relation  to  in- 
dustry, but  it  may  also  include  the  acquisition  of  the 
manual  skill  which  production  necessitates.  The  term 
technical,  as  applied  to  education,  arose  from  the  neceasif.y 
of  finding  a  word  to  indicate  the  special  training  which 
was  needed  in  consequence   of  the  altered  conditions  of 

XXIII.  —   14 


106 


TECHNICAL      EDUCATION 


production  during  ths present  century.  Wtilst  the  changed 
conditions  of  production,  consequent  mainly  on  the  appli- 
cation, of  st.>am  power  to  machinery,  demanded  a  special 
trainfhg  for  those  who  were  to  be  engaged  in  produc- 
tive industry,  the-  prevalent  system  of  education  was  not 
adapted  to  the  requirements  of  these  persons,  and  schools 
were  wanted  in  which  the  necessary  instruction  could 
be  obtained.  Other  circumstances  resulting  mainly  from 
the  application  of  steam  power  to  machinery  have  rendered 
technical  education  necessary.  Production  on  a  large 
scale  led  to  a  great  extension  of  the  principle  of  the 
division  of  labour,  in  consequence  of  which  it  was  found 
economical  to  keep  a  man  constantly  engaged  at  the  same 
kind  of  work,  since  the  more  he  practised  it  the  quicker 
and  more  skilful  he  becarne.  Thus  employed,  the  workman 
learned  little  or  nothinjg  of  the  process  of  tire  manufacture 
at  which  he  assisted,  or  of  other  departments  of  the  work 
than  tlie  particular  one  in  which  he  was  engaged,  and  his 
only  opportunity  of  acquiring  such  knowledge  was  out- 
side the  workshop  or  factory  in  a  technical  school.  The 
economy  effected  by  the  division  of  labour  led  to  the 
extension  of  the  principle  to  other  industries  than  those  in 
which  machinery  is  largely  employed.  There  are  many 
trades  in  whjch  manual  skill  is  as  necessary  now  as  ever,  but 
even  in  these  the  methods  of  instruction  prevailing  under 
the  system  of  apprenticeship  are  now  almost  obsolete. 

In  many  industries,  including  trades  in  which  machinery 
is  not  as  yet  extensively  employed,  production  on  a  large 
scale  has  increased  the  demand  for  unskilled  labour, 
numbers  of  hands  being  required  to  prepare  the  work 
to  be  finished  by  a  few  artisans.  Rapidity  of  execution 
is  attained  by  keeping  a  workman  at  the  same  work, 
which  after  a  time  he  succeeds  in  mechanically  perform- 
ing, and  continues  to  do  until  some  machine  is  invented 
to  take  his  place.  In  most  trades,  as  formerly  practised, 
the  master  employed  a  few  apprentices  who  assisted  him 
in  his  work,  and  who  learnt  from  him  to  understand  the 
details  of  their  craft,  so  that,  when  the  term  of  their  appren- 
ticeship was  over,  they  were  competent  to  practise  as 
journeymen.  But  now  the  master  has  neither  time  nor 
opportunity  to  instruct  young  lads,  and  the  old  relation 
of  master  and  apprentice  is  changed  into  that  of  capitalist 
and  workman.  In  consequence  of  these  altered  relations 
between  employer  and  employed,  there  is  an  acknowledged 
tvant  of  properly  trained  workmen  in  a  number  of  trades 
in  which  skilful  hand  work  is  stiir  needed  ;  and  in  these 
trades  a  demand  has  arisen  for  technical  schools,  or  some 
other  substitute  for  apprenticeship,  as  a  means  of  suit- 
ably training  workmen  and  foremen.  The  ever-increas- 
ing competition  in  production  has  led  to  the  employment, 
in  many  trades,  of  children  to  do  work  of  a  mechanical 
kind  requiring  little  skill ;  but,  whilst  thus  employed, 
these  young  people  have  little  opportunity  of  learning  those 
parts  of  their  trade  in  which  .skill  and  special  knowledge 
are  needed  ;  and  when  they  are  grown  up,  and  seek  higher 
wages,  they  are  dismissed  to  make  room  for  other  children. 
Numbers  of  young  men  are  thus  thrown  upon  the  labour 
market,  competent  to  do  nothing  more  than  children's 
work,  and  to  earn  children's  wages;  and  knowing  no  trade 
to  which  they  can  apply  their  hands.  To  remedy  this, 
by  creating  some  substitute  for  the  old  apprenticeship,  is 
one  of  the  objects  of  a  system  of  |technical  education. 

A  complete  system  of  technical  education  should  provide 
necessary  instruction  for  the  different  classes  of  persons 
engaged  in  productive  industry.  It  is  usual  to  divide 
these  persons  into  three  classes  : — (1)  workmen  or  journey- 
men ;  (2)  foremen  or  overseers  ;  (3)  managers  or  masters. 

The  industries  in  which  they  are  employed  may  be 
grouped  under  four  beads  :— (1)  those  involving  the  use  of 
Bxl'jnsivo  machinery,  such  as  iron  and  steel  manufacture, 


machine  making,  the  textile  industries,  and  some  of  the 
chemical  trades  ;  (2)  those  which  mainly  require  the  use 
of  hand  tools,  as  cabinet-making,  brick-work,  plumbing, 
and  tailoring  ;  (3)  those  depending  on  artistic  skill,  as  wood 
and  stone  carving,  metal-chasing,  decorative  work,  and 
industrial  designing  generally  ;  (4)  agriculture  in  all  its 
branches.  These  industries  will  be  referred  to  as  manu- 
factures, handicrafts,  art  industries,  and. agriculture.  The 
foregoing  classification  comprises  groups  which  necessarily,' 
to  some  extent,  overlap  one  another.  Every  factory  con- 
tains a  carpenter's  and  smith's  shop,  and  handicraftsmen 
of  group  (2)  are  required  in  every  manufacturing  concern.' 
Whilst  the  industries  in  which  hand  labour  is  exclusively 
employed  are  becoming  fewer  aud  fewer,  there  are  many 
trades  which,  owing  to  the  frequent  invention  of  labour 
saving  appliances,  are  passing  gradually  from  the  class  oi 
handicrafts  to  that  of  manufactures.  In  these  trades,  of 
which  watch  and  clock  making  and  boot  and  shoe  making 
may  be  taken  as  examples,  there  is  still  a  demand  for  goods 
largely  if  not  entirely  produced  by  hand  work.  In  such 
trades,  owing  to  the  absence  of  facilities  for  instruction  in 
the  ordinary  shops,  there  is  a  want  of  skilled  hand  labour 
which  there  is  an  increasing  difficulty  in  satisfying,  and  to 
supply  this  want  technical  schools  of  different  kinds  have 
been  established.  Then,  again,  there  are  many  branches 
of  manufacturing  industry  which  greatly  depend  for  their 
success  upon  the  designer's  art,  and  it  is  necessary  that  the 
industrial  designer  should  possess  a  knowledge  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  the  manufacture  in  which  his  designs  will  be 
utilized,  as  well  as  of  the  properties  and  capabilities  of  the 
material  to  which  they  will  be  applied.  Indeed,  it  is  the 
possession  of  this  knowledge  which  mainly  distinguishes 
the  industrial  designer  from  the  ordinary  artist.  To 
determine  the  best  training  for  such  designers  is  one  of 
the  problems  of  technical  education.  There  are'  many 
trades,  too,  in  which  the  handicraftsman  and  the  designer 
should  be  united.  This  is  the  case  in  such  industries 
as  wood-engraving,  metal-chasing,  and  silversmith's  work. 
In  these  and  other  trades  the  true  artisan  is  the  artist 
and  handicraftsman  combined. 

-  In  order  to  reconcile  some  of,  the  different  views  which 
are  held  as  to  the  objects  of  technical  education,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  broad  distinction,  above 
referred  to,  between  the  conditions  of  production  on  a 
large  scale,  as  in  those  industries  in  which  goods  are  manu- 
factured by  the  use  of  extensive  labour-saving  machinery, 
and  in  those  trades  in  which  hand  "work  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed. Much  of  the  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  the 
objects  of  technical  education  is  due  to  the  difference 
of  standpoint  from  which  the  problem  is  regarded.  The 
volume  of  the  trade  and  commerce  of  Britain  "depends 
mainly  on  the  progress  of  its  manufacturing  industriesj 
It  is  these  which  chiefly  affect  the  exports  and  imports. 
The  aim  of  manufacturers  is  to  produce  cheaper  and  better 
goods  than  can  be  produced  by  other  manufacturers  at 
home  or  abroad  ;  and  technical  .education  is  valuably  to 
them,  in  so  far  as  it  enables  ,them"  to  do  so.  But  the 
artisan  engaged  in  hand  induaries  looks  to  technical 
education  for  the  means  by  which,  he  may  acquire  a  know- 
ledge of  the  principles  of  his  l'iifde»  which  the  absence  of 
the  systerii  6f  apprenticeship  prevents  bim  from  acquiring 
in  the  shop.  Hence  the  artisan  and,  the  manufactiirer 
approach  the  consideration  of  the  qnestion.  from  different 
sides.  To  the  spinner  or  weaver  who  almost  exclusively 
employs  women  to  tend  his  machinery,  or  to  the  manu- 
facturing chemist  •■vhose  workpeople  are  little  more  than 
labourers  employed  in  carrying  to  and  fro  materials, 
knowing  little  or  nothing  of  the  scientific  principles  under- 
lying the  complicated  processes  in  which  they  are  engaged, 
the  technical  education  of  the  workpeople  may  seem  to 


TECHNICAL      EDUCATION 


107 


be  a  matter  of  little  mooient  What  such  manufacturers 
require  are  the  services  of  a  few  skilled  engineers,  artistic 
designers,  or  scientitic  chemists  From  the  manufacturer's 
|)oint  of  view,  therefore,  technical  instruction  is  not  so 
much  needed  for  the  hands  he  employs  in  his  work  as  for 
the  heads  that  direct  it.  But  in  trades  in  which  machi- 
nery plays  a  subsidiary  part,  technical  teaching  supplies 
the  place  of  that  instruction  which,  in  former  times,  the 
master  gave  to  his  apprentice,  and  the  workman  looks 
to  it  to  supply  him  with  the  knowledge  of  the  principles 
and  practice  of  his  trade,  on  the  acquisition  of  which  his 
individual  success  greatly  depends  In  the  former  class 
of  industries,  technical  education  is  needed  mainly  for 
the  training  of  managers  ,  in  the  latter,  for  the  training 
of  workmen.  Hence  has  arisen  a  double  cry, — for  the 
teaching  of  art  and  of  the  higher  branches  of  science, 
with  a  view  to  their  application  to  manufacturing  industry, 
and  for  the  teaching  of  trades,  and  of  the  scientific  facts 
which  help  to  explain  the  processes  and  methods  con- 
nected with  the  practice  of  these  trades.  This  double  cry 
has  led  to  the  establishment  of  technical  universities  and 
of  trade  schools. 

Owing  to  the  conditions  under  which  manufacturing 
industry  is  now  carried  on,  it  is  difficult  to  select  com- 
petent foremen  from  the  rank  and  file  of  the  workmen. 
The  ordinary  hands  gain  a  very  limited  and  circumscribed 
acquaintance  with  the  details  of  the  manufacture  in  which 
they  are  engaged,' and  have  little  opportunity  of  acquiring 
that  general  knowledge  of  various  departments  of  work, 
and  of  the  structure  of  the  machinery  in  use,  which  is 
essential  to  the  foreman  or  overseer.  It  is  in  evening 
technical  classes  that  this  supplementary  instruction, 
which  it  is  the  workman's  interest  to  acquire  and  the 
master's  to  encourage,  can  be  obtained.  The  history  of 
invention  shows  how  frequently  important  improvements 
in  machinery  are  made  by  the  workman  or  minder  in 
charge  of  it,  and  adds  weight  to  the  arguments  already 
adduced  for  giving  technical  instruction  to  persons  of  all 
grades  employed  in  manufacturing  industry.  To  these 
advantages  of  technical  education,  as  affecting  the  work- 
men themselves  as  well  as  the  progress  of  the  industry  in 
■.vhich  they  are  engaged,  must  be  added  the  general  im- 
provement in  the  character  of  the  work  produced,  resulting 
from  the  superior  and  better-trained  intelligence  of  those 
who  have  had  the  benefit  of  such  instruction. 

In  order  that  the  different  classes  of  persons  who  are  to 
be  engaged  in  productive  industry  may  receive  a  fitting 
preparatory  training,  the  programme  of  elementary  and 
secondary  as  well  as  of  the  higher  education  must  be 
organized  with  reference  to  their  special  requirements.  If 
the  demand  for  technical  instruction  is  to  "be  fully  satisfied, 
a  great  part  of  our  existing  system  of  education  must  be 
reconstructed,  and  the  training  provided  in  our  several 
schools  must  be  made  a  more  fitting  preparation  for  indus- 
trial work  than  it  is  at  present. 

Schools  in  which  the  course  of  instruction  is  not  special- 
ized with  a  view  to  any  particular  indu:  -.ry,  but  is  so 
arranged  as  to  form  a  general  preparation  for  manufac- 
turing or  other  trade  pursuits,  are  often  spoken  of  as 
professional,  technical,  or  trade  schools  ;  but  such  schools 
must  be  distinguished  from  apprenticeship  schools,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  teach  trades.  Of  the  former  class 
of  schools  there  are  excellent  examples  in  the  different 
countries  of  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  United  States,  and 
some  few  have  recently  been  established  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  Of  the  latter  class  the  best  examples  are 
found  in  France  and  Austria.  The  study  of  these  schools, 
and  of  the  means  of  providing  fitting  education  for  the 
different  classes  of  producers,  may  be  simfrtified  by  a  state- 
ment of  the  following  propositions -■ — 


1.  The  ordinary  education  of  all  persons  who  are  likely 
to  be  engaged  in  productive  industry  should  be  determined 
by  the  general  requirements  of  their  future  work.  This 
proposition  affeetia  the  curriculum  of  all  schools^in  which 
different  classes  of  producers  are  to  be  trained,  i.e.,  of 
primary,  secondary,  and  higher  schools,  and  involves  the 
consideration  of  the  extent  to  which,  in  such  schools, 
modern  languages,  science,  drawing,  and  manual  instruc- 
tion should  take  the  place  of  literary  and  classical  studies. 

2.  Special  schools  or  classes  should  be  established  (a) 
for  instruction  in  art,  and  in  those  sciences  which  serve 
to  explain  the  processes  of  productive  industry,  including 
agriculture,  manufactures,  and  engineering,  as  well  as  in 
the  application  of  art  and  science  to  these  departments  of 
industry;  (6)  for  the  teaching  of,  and  in  certain  cases  for 
practice  in,  various  handicrafts  or  trades. 

3.  The  special  schools  should  be  adapted  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  different  grades  of  workers,  and  to  the 
different  kinds  of  work  in  which  they  are  or  are  likely  to 
be  engaged. 

A  survey  of  the  technical  schools  in  different  countries 
shows  how  these  different  requirements  are  met.  Owing 
to  th6  complexity  of  the  problem,  a  complete  or  an  ideal 
system  of  technical  education  is  nowhere  to  be  found. 
Schools  have  been  established  to  meet  local  and  present 
wants,  and  the  greatest  variety  exists  in  the  attempts  that 
have  been  made  to  establish  schools  in  accordance  with  the 
foregoing  propositions. 

1.  Worhmen. — Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  provide  a 
substitute  for  apprenticeship,  but  hitherto  with  do  great  'success. 
Two  classes  of  workpeople  have  to  be  considered — {])  those  engaged 
in  inauafacturijig  iodustriea,  and  (2)  those  engaged  in  handicraft 
industries.  The  education  of  all  classes  of  workpeople  begins  in 
the  public  elementary  schools  ;  and,  in  view  of  the  futiire  occupa- 
tion of  the  children,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  primary 
instruction  should  be  practical,  aud  should  include  drawijig  and 
elementary  .science,  with  some  amount  of  manual  training  for  boys, 
and  with  needlework,  cookery,  and  domestic  econoruy  for  girls. 
In  nearly  every  country  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States, 
primary  instruction  includes  drawing,  in  addition  to  reading, 
writing,  aud  reckoning.  In  England  this  is  not  yet  the  case, 
drawing  being  taught  in  very  few  schools  outside  of  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  London  school  board.  In  "France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and 
Sweden  handicraft  instruction  is  generally  included  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  elementary  schools.  Rudimentary  science  is  also  taught 
in  nearly  all  the  primary  schools  of  Europe.  Modelling  is  taught 
both  to  boys  and  girls  in  many  Continental  schools  ;  and  in 
Sweden  '*slojd,"  or  elementary  woodwork,  in  which  simple  and 
useful  articles  are  constructed  with  the  fewest  possible  tools,  is 
taught  with  considerable  success  to  chililren  of  both  sexes. 

In  Germany  and  Switzerland  there  exists  an  excellent  system 
of  evening  coutinuation  schools,  known  as  Foribildutigs-  or  Ergdnz*- 
UTigs-Schulen,  in  which  the  instruction  of  the  children  who  leave 
school  before  fourteen,  and  of  those  who  leave  at  that  age,  is  con"" 
tinned.  In  most  of  these  schools  drawing  is  taught  with  special 
reference  to  local  industries.  In  England  an  attempt  is  Iwing 
made  to  attract  children  to  evening  schools  by  means  of  recreative 
classes.  These  classes  are  intended  to  continue  the  child's  general 
education,  and  to  supplement  it  by  some  amount  of  practical 
teaching  between  the  time  that  he  leaves  the  elementary  school 
and  is  prepared  to  tike  advantage  of  evening  technical  instruction. 
The  training  of  most  workpeople,  and  of  nearly  all  those  who  ar& 
engaged  in  manufacturing  industry,  consists  of — (1)  primary  teach- 
ing in  elementary  schools  ;  (2)  practice  in  the  factory  or  shop  ;  (3) 
evenin"  technical  instruction. 

In  all  the  principal  towns  throughout  Europe  evening  classes 
have  been  established  for  teaching  drawing,  painting,  and  design- 
ing, and  the  elements  of  science  in  their  application  to  special 
industries.  On  the  Continent  these  classes  arc  mainly  supported 
by  the  municipalities,  by  tlie  chambers  of  commerce,  by  industiial 
or  trade  societies,  by  county  hoards,  and  in  some  cases  by  the  fees 
of  the  pupils.  They  receive  little  or  no  support  from  the  state. 
They  are  well  attended  by  workpeojilo  of  all  grades,  who  aie  en- 
couraged by  their  employers  to  profit  by  these  opportunities  of 
instruction.  In  Eugbud  evening  technical  instruction  is  more 
systematically  organized  than  in  any  other  country.  It  is  under 
the  direction  of  the  committee  of  the  council  of  education  known, 
as  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  and  of  the  City  and  Guilds  of 
London  Institute  for  the  advancement  of  technical  education,  an 
institute  founded  aud  supported  by  the  corpoiatiou  aud  by  a  large 


108 


TECHNICAL      EDUCATION 


oumber  of  the  livery  companies  of  London.  The  department 
fincourages  instruction  in  pure  science  and  in  art  ,  the  institute 
in  the  application  of  science,  and  to  some  extent  of  art  also,  to 
different  trades. 

Botli  the  department  and  the  institute  make  grants  on  behalf  of 
properly  registered  teachers  on  the  results  of  the  examination  of 
their  pupils.  The  directory  of  the  department  contains  a  detailed 
syllabus  of  the  twenty-five  different  subjects  on  the  teaching  of 
which  grants  are  paid,  and  in  the  programme  of  the  institute  are 
found  syllabuses  of  instruction  in  the  technology  of  fifty  different 
trade  subjects.  In  the  evening  classes  organi^^ed  by  the  depart- 
ment, as  well  as  in  those  in  connexion  with  the  institute,  the 
■workman  or  foreman  engaged  in  any  manufacturing  industry  has 
the  opportunity,  by  payment  of  a  very  small  fee,  of  studying 
art  in  all  its  branches,  science  theoretically  and  practically,  and 
the  technology  of  any  particular  industry.  Provided  his  early 
education  enables  him  to  take  advantage  of  this  instruction,  no 
better  system  has  been  suggested  of  enabling  workmen,  whilst 
earning  wages  at  an  early  age,  to  acquire  manual  skill  by  continuous 
practice,  and  at  the  same  time  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  science  connected  witTi  their  work  and  explanatory  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  the  manufacture  in  which  they  are  engaged. 

For  those  engaged  in  handicraft  trades  this  eveuing  Instruction 
is  equally  valuable,  and  in  many  parts  of  Europe  there  exist 
evening  tiude  schools  in  which  the  workman  is  able  to  supplement 
the  "  sectional"  practice  he  acquires  in  the  shop  by  more  general 
practice  in  other  branches  of  his  trade.  In  Vienna,  for  example, 
and  in  other  parts  of  Austria,  there  are  foUnd  practical  evening 
classes  for  carpenters,  turners,  joiners,  metal-workers,  and  others; 
and  similar  classes,  some  of  which  are  subsidized  by  the  City 
and  Guilds  Institute,  have  recently  been  established  in  England. 
Throughout  Europe  schools  for  weaving,  with  practical  work  at 
the  loom  and  pattern  designing,  have  existed  for  many  years. 

To  provide  a  training  more  like  the  old  system  of  apprenticeship, 
schools  have  been  established  xn  many  parts  of  Europe  which  are 
known  as  professional,  trade,  or  apprenticeship  schools  {ecoles  pro- 
/essionctlcs,  icoles  des  apprentis,  Fachschulen).  The  object  is  to 
train  workmen  ;  and  the  pupils,  after  completing  their  course  of 
instruction  in  such  a  school,  are  supposed  to  have  learnt  a  trade. 
The  school  is  the  substitute  for  the  shop.  In  such  a  school  the 
pupils  have  the  advantage  of  being  taught  their  trade  systemati- 
cally and  leisurely,  and  production  is  made  subsidiary  to  instruc 
tion.  Under  such  an  artificial  system  of  production,  the  pupil  is 
less  likely  to  acquire  excellence  of  workmanship  and  smartness  of 
habit  than  in  the  mercantile  shop,  under  the  strain  of  severe  com- 
petition. Moreover,  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  these  schools 
renders  it  impossible  to  look  to  them  as  a  general  substitute  for 
apprenticeship.  By  sending  into  the  labour  market,  however,  a 
few  highly -trained  workmen,  who  are  absorbed  in  various  works 
and  exert  a  beneficial  influence  on  other  workmen,  these  schools 
serve  a  useful  purpose.  Schools  of  this  kind  have  been  tried  with 
more  or  less  success  in  different  countries.  In  Paris  there  is  the 
well-known  ficole  Diderot  for  the  training  of  mechanics,  fitters, 
smiths,  &c.  ,  and  similar  schools  have  been  established  in  other 
parts  of  France.  A  furniture-trade  school  of  the  same  category 
has  recently  been  opened  in  Paris,  and  for  many  years  a  society  of 
Christian  Brethren  have  directed  a  large  school  in  which  several 
tlifferent  trades  have  been  taught.  In  this  establishment,  situated 
in  the  Rue  Vaugirard,  all  the  secular  and  general  instruction  is 
^ven  gratuitously  by  the  brothers,  and  in  the  several  shops 
attached  to  the  school  skilled  workmen  are  employed,  who  in 
«truct  the  pupil  apprentices,  and  utilize  their  labour  This 
system  combines  many  of  the  advantages  of  shop  work  and  school 
>T^ork,  but  it  dcpccds  financially  for  its  success  upon  the  religious 
spirit  which  actuates  its  promoters  and  supporters.  The  Artane 
school,  near  Dublin,  is  conducted  on  somewhat  similar  ^iriuciples, 
but  is  intended  for  a  lower  class  of  children  In  Aus*''»a,  particu- 
larly in  the  rural  districts,  there  are  numerous  schools  for  the 
training  of  carpenters,  joiners,  turners,  cabinetmakers,  workers  in 
stone  and  marble,  in  silver  and  other  metals,  &c.  Schools  of  the 
same  class  are  found  in  Germany,  Italy,  and  elsewhere.  It  is  oaly 
in  certain  cases,  however,  that  apprenticeship  schools  can  be  said 
to  satisfactorily  answer  the  purpose  for  which  they  have  been 
established.  "Where  a  new  industry,  especially  in  rural  districts, 
has  to  be  created  .  where  decaying  industries  need  to  be  revived  , 
Avhcre  machinery  is  superseding  hand  work,  and,  owing  to  the 
demands  for  ordinary  hands,  there  is  a  dearth  of  skilled  workmen  . 
•where  through  the  effects  of  competition  itnd  other  causes  the  trade 
is  carried  on  under  conditions  in  which  competent  workmen  cannot 
"be  properly  trained  in  the  ordinary  shop. — in  these  cases,  and  in 
■various  art  industries,  an  apppenticcship  school  may  prove  to  be 
the  best  means  of  training  workmen,  and  of  advancing  particular 
trades.  Generally,  an  apprenticeship  school  should  be  looked  upon 
as  a  temporary  expedient,  as  a  form  of  relief  applied  at  the  birth 
cr  during  any  temi>orary  depression  of  a  particular  industry  The 
|)ropcr  training  school  for  workmen  is  the  factory  or  shop. 

2.  Foremen.  — The  foreman  must  be  familiar  with  the  various 


branches  of  work  he  is  to  overlook,  and  the  training  which  th^ 
workman  receives  in  the  factory  or  shop  affords  him  but  scanty 
opportunities  of  obtaining  this  general  knowledge.  The  foreman 
needs  also  a  generally  superior  education.  How  then  are  foremen 
to  be  trained  '  The  problem  is  somewhat  easier  than  that  of  train- 
ing workmen,  because  the  number  required  is  fewer  The  variety 
of  schools  in  Europe  devoted  to  this  purpose  is  very  great  There 
are  three  distinct  ways  in  which  foremen  are  being  trained. 

(a)  The  evening  technical  classes  in  Britain  and  on  the  Contmenl 
offer  to  ambitious  workmen  an  opportunity  of  acquiring  a  know- 
ledge of  other  departments  of  the  trade  than  those  in  which  they 
are  engaged,  as  well  as  of  the  scientific  principles  underlying  their 
work.  These  classes  serve  the  double  purpose  of  improving  the 
workpeople  and  of  affording  a  means  of  discovermg  those  who  art 
best  fitted  to  occupy  higher  posts. 

(6)  Special  schools  have  been  established  for  the  training  of  fore- 
men There  are  many  trade  schools  of  this  kind  in  which  selected 
boys  are  received  after  leaving  the  elementary  scbool  The  best 
known  are  those  at  Chalons,  Aix,  Nevers,  Angers,  and  Lillo  in 
France.  These  schools  are  intended  for  the  training  of  fortmeji  in 
engineering  trades.  They  are  state  institutions,  in  which  practical 
mechanical  work  In  the  shops  is  supplemented  by  theoretical 
instruction  The  first  of  these  schools  was  founded  in  1803.  The 
course  lasts  three  years,  and  the  number  of  students  in  each  school 
must  not  exceed  three  hundred  The  students  spend  fiom  six  to 
seven  hours  a  day  in  the  workshop,  and  are  trained  as  fitters, 
founders,  smiths,  and  pattern-makers.  As  in  all  such  schools, 
saleable  goods  are  produced,  but,  as  production  is  subordinated  to 
instruction,  the  school  does  not  bind  itself  to  deliver  work  at  a 
given  date,  and  therefore  does  not  compete  with  any  manufacturing 
establishment.  The  students  on  leaving  these  schools  are  com* 
petent  at  once  to  undertake  the  duties  of  foremen,  managers,  or 
draughtsmen.  At  Komotau,  Steyr,  Klagenfurt,  Ferlach,  and  many 
other  places  schools  have  been  established  on  somewhat  similar 
principles.  In  Germany  there  are  special  schools  for  the  training 
of  foremen  in  the  building  trade,  which  are  chiefly  frequented  in 
the  winter,  and  numerous  schools  are  found  in  all  parts  of  th« 
Continent  for  the  training  of  weavers.  At  Winterthur  in  Switzer- 
land a  school  has  been  established  the  thain  purpose  of  which  is 
the  training  of  foremen.  In  Italy  there  are  numerous  technical 
institutes,  the  object  of  which  is  to  traiu  young  men  for  inter- 
mediate posts  in  industrial  works.  In  the  United  States  the 
manual  training  schools,  the  number  of  which  is  rapidly  increasing, 
have  somewhat  similar  objects.  In  London,  the  Finsbury  technical 
college  of  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute  has  a  day  de- 
partment, the  main  purpose  of  which  is  the  training  of  youths  as 
foremen,  works  managers,  &c. ,  but  in  this  school,  as  well  as  in 
those  last  mentioned,  the  character  of  the  instrucripn  deviates 
considerably  from  that  given  in  French  schools,  and  aims  rather  at 
preparing  youths  to  learn,  than  at  teaching  them,  their  trade. 

(c)  A  third  method  adopted  for  the  training  of  forenicn  is  by  en 
couraging  selected  childreu  of  the  ordinary  elementary  schools  to 
continue  their  education  in  schools  of  a  higher  grade  of  a  technical 
character.  It  is  thought  that,  by  developing  to  a  higher  degree 
the  intelligence  and  skill  of  those  children  who  show  aptitude  for 
scientific  and  practical  work,  they  will  be  able,  when  they  enter 
the  shop,  to  learn  their  trade  more  quickly  and  more  thoroughly, 
and  to  acquire  that  general  knowledge  of  their  work,  and  to  exnibit 
those  special  aptitudes,  which  may  qualify  them  for  the  position 
of  foreman  or  manager.  The  education  given  in  these  schools, 
although  having  direct  reference  to  the  future  career  of  the  pupil, 
is  disciplinary  in  character,  and  consists  of  the  subjects  of  primary 
instruction  further  pursued, — of  drawing,  modelling  science, 
mathematics,  and  manual  exercises  The  curriculum  is  varied  to 
some  extent  according  to  local  requirements,  the  technology  of  the 
staple  industries  forming  in  many  cases  part  cf  the  instruction 
Such  schools,  under  varied  forms,  have  been  established  in  most 
Continental  countrie.s,  some  of  the  best  examples  of  them  being 
found  in  Paris,  Lyous,  Kheims,  Rouen,  and  in  other  towns  of 
France.  The  want  of  similar  schools  in  Britain  has  been  frequently 
pointed  out.  One  of  the  oldest  of  these  schools  is  the  Ecole 
Martiniereat  Lyons.  The  school  was  founded  in  1820  b^  a  bequest 
from  Major-Gcneral  Martin,  who  had  fought  against  the  English 
under  Tippoo  Sahib.  In' this  school,  in  which  the  education  is 
gratuitous,  as  in  nearly  all  the  higher  elementary  schools  of  Fiance., 
instruction  is  given  in  drawing,  modelling,  chemistry,  mechanics, 
and  physics,  in  the  working  of  wood  and  iron,  and  in  Geiman"and 
English  in  aJdirion  to  the  subjects  of  an  ordinary  school  education. 
Surveying  is  also  taught  to  some  of  the  pupils,  and  the  instructioij 
generally  is  of  a  very  practical  character  The  students  visit  fac- 
tories under  the  guidance  of  the  masters,  and  on  their  return  they 
write  out  full  descriptions  of  their  visits  The  school  hours  are  from 
seven  till  eleven  in  the  morning  and  fi-om  one  till  seven  in  the 
aftcinoon.  The  boys  from  this  school  rapidly  obtain  places  in  the 
commercial  and  industrial  houses  of  Lyvms,  and  many  of  them, 
after  a  time,  succeed  in  obtaining  high  position.^.  A  very  similsi 
school,  OD  more  modern  lines,  has  been  established  at  KheimS|  and 


T  E  E  — T  E  G 


is  accommodated  in  a  bnilding  especially  adaptad..fo  the  purpose. 
la  this  school  instruction  is  directed  towards  the  staple  indnstries 
of  the  district,  naniply,  weaving,  dyeing,  and  engineering.  There 
are  many  other  similar  schools  in  France,  the  object  of  wbich  is  to 
give  the  children  of  artisans  and  small  shopkeepers  a  higher  practi- 
cal education  in  order  to  fit  them  to  occupy  the  posts  of  foremen, 
overseers,  and  superior  clerks  in  manufacturing  and  commercial 
firms.  A  largo  number  of  poor  children  sliowing  talent  are 
selected  from  the  primary  schools  and  receive  scholarships  ;  and 
the  objection  sometimes  urged  agninst  the  establishment  of  higher 
elementary  schools,— that  the  better  classes  only  are  able  to 
benefit  by  them— is  thus  obviated.  In  Germany  the  real-schools 
in  which  Latin  is  not  taught,  known  as  Ohndalein  KealschtUm, 
have  very  neariy  the  same  objects  ns  the  higher  elenjentarv  schools 
of  France.  The  instruction  in  these  German  schools  is  notr  yet  so 
practical  as  in  the  schools  of  France.  Drawing  is  always  well 
taught,  and  the  scbools  generallv  contain  good  chemical  labora- 
tones,  as  well  as  collections  of  physical  apparatus  and  mnseums. 
From  the  children  of  these  schools  the  ranks  of  foremen  are  largely 
recruited.  They  receive  no  special  trade  instruction,  but  the 
general  training  is  so  arranged  as  to  qualify  them  for  higher  posts 
m  industrial  works.  The  cost  of  this  higher  education  seldom 
exceeds  £3  per  annum.  In  Bavaria  it  is  two  shillings  a  month. 
In  most  of  these  schools,  as  well  as  in  the  chief  intermediate  com- 
mercial schools,  the  exit  certificate  exempts  a  lad  from  two  of  the 
three  years'  compulsory  military  service,  and  this  regulation,  to 
■which  nothing  corresponds  in  England,  is  an  incentive  to  parents 
to  allow  their  children  to  receive  higher  instruction,  which  operates 
very  forcibly  m  largely  increasing  the  njmber  of  well-educated 
youths  in  Germany.  In  these  opportunities  for  higher  cdncation 
Englaud  u  still  very  deficient,  and  the  complaint  is  generally  heard 
of  the  difficulties  of  obtaining  competeut  foremen. 

3.  ifaslcrs.—The  best  special  schools  fcr  the  tr.-iining  of  future 
masters,  managers,  engineers,  manufacturers,  and  industrial  chem- 
ists are  in  Germany,  and  are  known  as  technical  high  schools  or 
polytechnic  schools.  Schools  of  a  similar  character  are  found  in 
other  countries,  and  in  England  the  facilities  for  higher  technical 
education  have  within  the  last  few  years  greatly  improved. 
:_  In  Germany  the  polytechnic  or  iechnixhe  HixJischule  is  an 
institution  of  university  type  in  which  the  education  has  special 
reference  to  industrial  purposes.  In  many  respects  the  teaching 
coincides  with  that  given  in  the  universities.  The  chief  distinction 
consists  in  the  arrangement  of  courses  of  instruction  in  the  several 
departments,  in  the  admission  of  students  having  a  non-classical 
preliminary  training,  and  in  the  absence  of  certain  faculties  found 
m  the  university  and  the  addition  of  others.  It  is  not  correct 
to  say  that  the  polytechnic  is  a  professional  school  as  distin- 
guished from  the  university ;  for  the  faculties  of  law,  medicine 
and  theology  give  to  the  university  as  distinctly  a  profcssionai 
character  as  the  faculty  of  engineering  gives  to  the  polytechnic. 
^o^  can  it  be  said  that  the  scientific  studies  at  the  universities  are 
less  practical  than  at  the  polytechnic.  For,  whilst  workshopa  for 
instruction  m  the  nse  of  tools  aro  found  in  very  few  of  the 
polytechnic  schools,  the  laboratories,  for  the  practicar  study  of 
cnemistry  and  physics,  are  perhaps  better  fitted  and  under  more 
eminent  professoiB  at  some  of  the  Gern.an  universities  than  at  the 
polytechnic  schools.-.  At  the  same  time,  engineers  of  every  deicrip- 
tion,  arehitecfe,  and  bnilders,  besides  a  great  number  of  raanufac- 
turing  chemists,  find  in  the  polytechnic  the  scientific  and  technical 
framing  which  tha  lawjer  or  physician, . and  in  many  cases  the 
industnal  chetnist,  seeks  in  the  university. 

_  In  some  of  the  large  cities— in  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Munich  for 
insunce-the  university  and  polytechnic  coexist ;  and  in  certain 
cases,  in  which  a  very  special  training  is  required  to  fit  a  youth 
for  his  career  the  German  student,  after  spending  three  or  four 
years  at  a  Polytechnic  school,  passes  on  to  another  institution 
such  as  a  dy<:ing  school,  in  which  his  studies  are  further  special 
ized  with  a  view  to  his  future  work.  ' 

Taking  the  technical  high  school  of  Munich  as  a  type  of  other 
simaar  institutions,  we  find  the  cost  of  the  building  and  of  the 
TanouscoUeotions  it  contains  to  have  amounted  to  nearly  £200  000 
and  the  annual  cost  of  maintenance  to  be  about  £20  MO  'The 
institution  consists  of  six  schools :-(l)  the  general:  (2)  the  civil 
engineering;  (3)  the  building;  (4)  the  mechanical  engineering;  (5) 
the  industrial  chemical ;  and  (6)  the  agricultural.  A  departrnent 
for  electncal  technolo^  is  now  being  built.  In  other  institutions 
there  are  architectural,  pharmaceutical,  and  mining  schools  The 
programme  of  the  Munich  school  gives  a  list  of  about  180  different 
cOTrses  of  instruction  distributed  over  the  several  departments  .  A 
"^^  tK^^^°''  *'  engaged  to  lecture  on  that  particular  subject 
with  which  he  is  specially  conversant,  and  the  number  of  such  rio. 
lessors  attached  to  a  polytechnic  school  is  very  large.  In  the 
enguieenng  department  there  are  six  or  seven  distinct  courses  of 
iectnres  under  the  direction  of  thirteen  professors.  The  largest  and 
^K!i,rTB  ^v°°^'^'l^  °^  *•"  "'«"'  institutions  is  the  polytechnic 
S\^nr?n  r  ?■'  '''"^^'^  completed  in  1884  at  a  cost  of  about 
*4SQ.000.     In  Iranc*  tie  inafctutions  in  which  the  highest  teohtii. 


109 


cal  instruction  is  given  are  concentrated  in  the  capital.  There  artf 
a  large  number  of  provincial  colleges  where  the  education  is  some- 
wh.it  more  practical,  but  where  the  mathematical  and  scientific 
teaching  is  not  cirried  to  so  high  a  point  (the  icole  Centrale  at' 
Lyons,  the  Ecole  des  Mineurs  at  St  Etienne,  and  the  Institot  duj 
Nord  at  Lille,  &c.).  The  &ole  Centralo  of  Paris,'  in  whichthol 
n  ajority  of  French  engineers  who  are  not  employed  in  the  Govera-j 
rient  service  are  trained,  is  a  rare  instance  of  an  institution  for 
ligher  technical  instruction  which  is  selS-supporting  and  inde-J 
pendent  of  Government  aid. 

In  Switteriand  the  federal  polytechnic  of  Zurich  is  similar  tol 
the  polytechnic  schools  of  Germany  and  Austria.  Italy  has  three' 
superior  technical  institutes,— one  at  Milan,  one  at  Turin,  and  one 
at  ivaples,  in  which  technical  education  is  given  on  the  same  lines 
as  in  German  polytechnic  schools.  Holland  has  an  e.Nccllent 
institution  at  Delft,  which  was  opened  in  1864  ;  and  in  Russia  th& 
imperial  technical  school  at  Moscow  is  a  high-class  engineering 
school,  in  whi:h  the  theoietical  studies  are  supplemented,  to  a 
greater  ;xtent  than  in  the  German  s.  liools,  by  workshop  practice. 

In  some  of  the  German  schoois  the  fees  charged  vary  according 
to  the  number  of  lectures  and  to  the  number  of  hours  of  practical 
work  which  the  student  takes  per  week.  Thus  at  Jliini.h  the 
entrance  fee  for  each  student  is  10s.,  and  the  lecture  fee  is  2s.  Ud. 
for  each  hour's  lecture  per  week,  including  the  use  of  materials.  At 
Zurich  She  cost  of  a  student  in.  a  chemical  department,  including 
laboratorj'  practice,  does  not  exceed  £12  per  annum,  and  in  otlier 
departments  it  does  not  exceed  £4  per  annum.  At  Delft  the 
student  pays  about  £16  per  annum  for  a  complete  course. 

In  England  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  associate  technical 
With  university  education.  This  is  mainly  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  colleges  which  have  recently  been  csUblished  to  give  univer- 
sity eduation  are  poorly  endowed,  and  have  found  it  necessary  to 
attract  students  by  meeting  the  increasing  demand  for  technical 
instruction.  Mostof  the  provincial  colleges  may  indeed  be  regarded 
as  technical  schools  with  a  literary  side.  In  order  that  they  may 
provide  university  education  in  addition  to  sound  technical  in- 
stniction.  It  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  placed  on  a  sound 
and  satufactory  footing  by  means  of  state  endowment.  Of  tha 
more  recently  erected  English  colleges,  the  Owens  College  at  Man- 
chester 13  the  most  important,  combining  the  faculties  of  a  Germaii 
university  vnth  those  of  a  polytechnic  school '  The  Yorkshire 
College,  Leeds,  possesses  a  special  school  for  the-  teaching  of  weav- 
ing  and  dyeing.  Other  somewhat  similar  institutions  are  found 
in  Birmingham,  Newcastle,  Sheffield,  Nottingham,  Dundee,  Caidifff 
and  elsewhere.  The  university  of  Edinburgh  has  a  good  school  of 
chemistry,  physics,  and  engineering,  and  the  university  of  Glasgow 
has  been  long  distinguished  for  the  excellence  of  its  physical 
laboratories.  In  University  College  and  King's  College,  London 
tho  metropolis  possesses  two  institutions  each  of  which  may  be 
likened  to  a  university  and  a  polytechnic  combined.  In  the  uni- 
Tereity  of  Cambndge  there  are  mechanical  workshops  in  connexion 
Witt  the  chair  of  en^ncering.  The  Royal  School  of  Mines  and  the 
normal  schools  of  science  and  art  in  South  Kensington  aro  the  only 
technical  institutions  in  Eneland  supported  by  state  aid.  The 
central  institution  in  London  has  more  in  common  with  the  German 
pol/technic  school  than  any  other  institution  in  Britain.  This 
school  13  designed  for  the  technical  teaching  of  engineers,  architects, 
r,\n  n/S'  J  '  ^^^  industrial  chemists.  It  wa.^  built  at  a  cost  of 
£100/100,  and  is  matntamed  by  an  annual  grant  from  the  City 
and  Guilds  of  London  Institute  of '£10,000,  in  addition  to  the 
students  fees. 

Such  is  a  -brief  ovttline  of  the  means  provided  for  the  technical 
education  of  masters  in  different  parts  of^  Europe.  It  will  be  seen 
from  the_  foregoing  statement  that  efforts  are  now  being  made  to 
bring  Britain  more  nearly  on  a  level  with  other  countries  in  the 
proviswn  of  those  kinds  of  instruction  which  are  best  aci.-ii  ted  to 
the  diflerent  classes  of  producers.  But  as  yet  only  a  beginning  has 
been  made,  and  m  England  technical  students  can  be  counted  by 
hundreds,  whilst  those  of  Germany  are  numbered  by  thousands 

Eor  further  information  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  itcport  of 
the  royal  commissioners  on  tschnical  instruction,  published  in 
1884.  (p  jj,  J 

TEETH.  See  Mammalia,' vol."  xv.  p.  349;  Digestive 
Organs,  vol.  vii.  p.  232;  Ivory;  and  Dentistry. 

TEGEA,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Arcadia,-  of  which  its 
territory  occupied  the  sonth-eastem  corner,  being  bounded  ' 
on  the  S.  by  Laconia,  on  the  E.  by  Cynnria  and  Argolis, 
on  the  N.  by  the  territory  of  Mantinea,  and  on  the  VV.  by 
Msenalia  Its.  legendary  founder  wa3  Tegeates,  soir  of 
Lycaon.  Like  many  other  cities  of  ancient  Greece,  Teges 
■was'  formed  by  the  union  of  a  population  wbich  had 
previously  lived  ■  dispersed  in  villages.  The  people  wer« 
divided  into  four  tribes,— the  Clareotis,  Hippothceti-s' 
Apolloniatis,  wid  Athaneatis.     Tcea  offered  a  stubborn 


110 


T  E  G  — T  E  G 


resistance  to  the  encroachments  of  Lacedasmon,  and  on 
more  than  one  occasion  defeited  its  ambitious  neighbour. 
About  560  B.C.,  however,  the  Lacedfemonians  found  the 
bones  of  Orestes  in  Tegea  and  conveyed  them  to  Sparta  ; 
and  henceforward  Spartan  valour,  backed  by  this  powerful 
fetich,  proved  too  much  for  the  merely  carnal  weapons  of 
.Tegea.  At  Platsea  (479  b.c.)  3000  Tegeans  fought  the 
good  fight  of  freedom,  and  were  the  first  to  enter  the 
breach  which  the  Athenians  had  made  in  the  Persian 
redoubt  Between  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian  Wars 
hostilities  again  broke  out  between  Tegea  and  Sparta,  in 
the  course  of  which  Tegea  was  twice  defeated.  However, 
in  the  Peloponnesian  War  (431-404),  and  afterwards  in 
the  Corinthiaa  War  (395-387),  Tegea  sided  with  Sparta. 
But  after  the  battle  of  Leuctra  (371),  when  the  star  of 
Sparta  began  to  decline,  Tegea  concluded  an  alliance  with 
the  victorious  Thebans,  and  fought  on  their  side  against 
Sparta  at  the  great  battle  of  Afantinea  (362).  -  In  the 
■Macedonian  period  Tegea  joined  the  jEtolian  League,  but 
Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta,  having  won  it  over  to  his  side, 
the  city  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Antigonus  Doson,  king 
of  Macedonia,  the  ally  of  the  Achsan  League  (222).  In 
218  the  city  was  retaken,  except  the  acropolis,  by  the 
Lacedaemonians  under  Lycurgus.  After  the  defeat  of 
Machanidas,  tyrant  of  Sparta,  by  Philopoemen  in  207,  Tegea 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Achaean  League.  In  the  time 
of  Strabo  it  was  the  only  town  of  any  importance  in  Arcadia. 
In  the  2d  century  it  was  visited  by  Pausanias,  who  has  left 
a  fairly  full  description  of  it  (viii.  45-53). 

XDf  its  buildings  much  the  most  famous  was  the  great  temple  of 
Athene  Alea,  which  had  often  afforded  sanctuary  to  fugitives  from 
Sparta.  The  old  temple  was  burned  down  in  394  B.C.,  ond 
Pausanius  speaks  of  the  newer  temple  as  by  far  the  finest  and 
largest  in  tn6  Peloponnesus  {that  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  however, 
occupied  nearly  double  the  area).  Thq  architect  was  Scopas ;  and, 
as  the  recent  German-  excavations  have  proved,  the  temple  was  a 
Doric  peripteros,  with  six  columns  at  each  end  and  fourteen  at 
each  side.  Of  the  columns  which  Pausanias  mentions  in  addition 
to  the  Doric,  the  Corinthian  may  have  stood  in  the  pronaos  and 
posticum,  the  Ionic  in  "the  interior  of  the  temple"  (for  ^kt6^  we 
should  prob.%b]y  read  4vt6s  in  Pausanius,  viii.  45,  5).  The  ancient 
image  of  Athene  Alea  was  carried  off  by  Augustus,  and  placed  at 
the  entrance  to  his  new  forum  at  Rome.  The  statues  of  iEscu- 
lapius  and  Health,  which  in  Pausanias's  time  stood  on  the  two 
eidcs  of  the  image  of  the  goddess  at  Tegea,  were  by  Scopas.  On 
the  front  pediment  of  the  temple  was  sculptured  the  hunt  of  the 
Calydonian  boar,  on  the  back  pediment  the  combat  between 
Telephus  and  Achilles.  Some  fragments  of  these  pedimental 
sculptures  (comprising  the  head  of  the  boar  and  two  human  heads, 
onB  helmeted)  have  been  discovered  ;  and,  as  they  are  the  only 
ejdsting  sculptures  which  can  be  referred  with  some  certainty  to 
the  hand  of  Scopas  himself,  they  are  of  the  highest  importance  for 
the  history  of  art.  The  site  of  the  temple,  at  the  modern  village 
of  Piali,  was  partially  excavated  under  the  auspices  of  the  German 
archaeological  institute  in  1879  and  1882.  It  appears  that  the 
foundations  of  the  temple  measured  49-90  metres  (uearly  164  feet) 
by  21-30  (70  feet).  As  Tegea-stood  on  a  plain  surrounded  by 
mountains  and  liable  to  inundations,  its  site  has  been  covered  by 
an  alluvial  soil  which  has  been  favourable  to  the  preservation  of  the 
ruins,  and  a  thorough  excavation  might  yield  important  results. 

On  the  excavations,  see  Atittheilungm  des  dcittschen  archdolotfischen  Ifixtiltites 
in  Alhrn,  1879,  p.  131  jj.,  168  sj.:  ibid.,  1880.  p.  52  sf.;  ibid.,  1883,  p.  274  s?. 
On  tlie  artiBtic  value  of  the  sculptures,  see  t-6id.,1881,  p.  393  59.:  Jour  Nell.  Stud.. 
188C,  p.  110  sq. 

TEGNfiR,  ESAiAS  (1782-1846),  the  most  celebrated 
of  Swedish  writers,  was  born  November  13,  1782,  at 
Kyrkerud  in  Wermland.  His  father  was  a  pastor,  and  his 
grandparents  on  both  sides  were  peasants.  His  father, 
whose  name  had  been  Esaias  Luoasson,  took  the  surname 
of  Tegnerus — altered  by  his  fifth  son,  the  poet,  to  Tegn^r 
— from  the  hamlet  of  Tegnaby  in  Smilland,  where  he  was 
born.  In  1799  Tegnir,  hitherto  educated  in  the  country, 
entered  the  university  of  Lund,  where  he  graduated  in 
philosophy  in  1802,  and  continued  as  tutor  until  1810, 
when  he  was  elected  Greek  lecturer.  In  1812  he  was 
named  professor,  and  continued  to  work  as  a  lecturer  in 
liUod  until  1824,  when  he  was  made  bishop  of  Wexio.    At 


Weiio  he  remained  Until  his  defltb,  twenty-two  years  kter. " 
Tegn^r's  early  poems  have  little  merit.      He  was  com- 
paratively slow  in  development.     His  first  great  success 
was  a  dithyrambic  war-song  for  the  army  of  1B08,  which 
stirred  every  Swe.dish  heart.     In  1811  his  patriotic  poem 
Svea  won  the  great  prize  pf  the  Swedish  Academy,  and 
made  him  famous.     In  ,the  same  year  was  founded  in 
Stockholm  the  Gothic  League  (Gotiska  forbundet),  a  sort 
of  club  of  young  and  patriotic  men  of  letters,  of  whom 
Tegn^r  quickly  became  the  chief.     The  club  published  a 
magazine,  entitled  Iduna,  in  which  it  printed  a  great  deal 
of  excellent  poetry,  and  ventilated  its  views,  particularly 
as  regards  the  study  of  old  Icelandic  literature  and  history. 
Tegn^r,  Geijer,  AfzeliuS,  «nd .  Nicander  became  the  most 
famous  members    of  the   Gothic   League.     Of   the  very 
numerous  poems  written  by  Tegn^r  in  the  little  room  at 
Lund    which  is    now  shown    to  visitors    as  the  Tegn^r 
museum,  the  majority  are  short,  and  even  occasional  lyrics. 
His  celebrated   Song  to  the  Sun  dates  from  1817.     He 
completed  three  poems  of  a  more  ambitious  character,  on 
which  his  fame  chiefly  rests.     Of  these,  two,  the  romance 
of   Axel  and   the   delicately-chiselled   idyl  of  Nattvards- 
bamen   ("The   First  Communion,"  1820),  translated  by 
Longfellow,  take  a  secondary  place  in  -comparison  with 
Tegner's  masterpiece,  of  world-wide  fame.     In   1820  he 
published  in  Iduna  certain   fragments  of  an  epic  or  cycle 
of  epical  pieces,  on  which  he  was  then  working,  Frithiofs- 
saga  or  the  Story  of  Frithiof.     In  1822  he    published 
five  more  cantos,  and  in  1825   the  entire  poem.     Before 
it  was  completed  it  was  famous  throughout  Europe ;  the 
aged  Goethe  took  up  his  pen  to  commend  to  his  country- 
men this  "alte,  kraftige,  gigantisch-barbarische  DichtarV' 
and   desired    Amalie   von    Imhoft    to    translate   it   into 
German.     This  romantic  paraphrase  of  an  ancient  saga 
was  composed  in  twenty-four  cantos,  all  differing  in  verse 
form,  modelled  somewhat,  it  is  only  fair  to  say,  on  an 
earlier  Danish  masterpiece,  the   Helge   of  Oehlenschlager. 
Frilkiofssaga  is  the  best  known  of  all  Swedish  produc- 
tions ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  translated  nineteen  times 
into  English,  eighteen   times  into  German,  and  once  at 
least  into  every  European  language.     It  is  far  from  satisfy- 
ing the  demands  of  more  recent  antiquarian  researcl],  but 
it  still  is  allowed  to  give  the  freshest  existing,  impression, 
in  imaginative  form,  of  life  in  early  Scandinavia.     In  later 
years  TegnSr  began,  but  left  unfinished,  two  important 
epical  poems,  Gtrda  and  Kronhruden.     The  period  of  the 
publication  of  Frithiofssaga  (1825)  was  the  critical  epoch 
of  his  career.     It  made  him  one  of  the  most  famous  poets 
of  Europe ;  it  transferred  him  from  his  study  in  Lund  to 
the  bishop's  palace  in  Wexio ;  it  marked  the  first  break- 
down of  his  health,  which  had  hitherto  been  excellent ; 
and    it   witnessed  a  singular  moral  crisis    in  the    inner 
history  of  the  poet,  about  which  much  has  been  written, 
but  of  -which   little   is  known.     Tegn^r  was  at  this  time 
passionately  in  love  witli  a  certain  beautiful  Euphrosyne 
Palm,  the  wife  of  a  town  councillor  in  Lund,  and   this 
unfortunate  passion,  while  it  inspired  much  of  his  finest 
poetry,  turned  the  poet's  blood  to  gall.     From,,  this  time 
forward  the   heartlessness  of  woman  is  one  of  Tegm^r's 
principal  themes.     It  is  a  remarkable  sign  of  the  condi- 
tion of  Sweden  at  that  time  that  a  man  not  in  holy  orders, 
and  so  little  in  possession  of  the  religious  temperament  as 
Tegner,  should  be  offered  and  should  accept  a  bishop's 
crozier.     He  did  not  hesitate  in  accepting  it .  it  was  a  great 
honour ;  he  was  poor ;  and  ho  was  anxious  to  get  away 
from  Lund.     No  sooner,  however,  had  he  begun  to  study 
for  his  new  duties  than  he  began  to  regret  the  step  he 
had  taken     It  was-nevertheless  too  late  to  go  back,  and 
Tegner  made  a  respectable  bishop  as  long  as  his  health  i 
lasted.     But  he  became  moody  and  melancholy  ;  as  early'' 


T  E  H  — T  E  H 


lU 


6s  183o  lio  complained  of  fiery  heats  iri  his  brain,  dtid  in 
IStO,  d'uitig  a  visit  to  Stockholm;  he  suddenly  became 
in;  ano.  Hj  was  sent  to  an  asylum  in  Schleswig,  and  early 
,in  VAl  he  was  cured,  and  able  to  return  toAVexiij.  ^  It 
[was  during  his  convalescence  in  Schleswig  that  he  \vrote 
Kronbniden.'  He  wrote  no  more  of  importance;  in  1843 
•ie  had  a  stroke  of  apoplexy,  and  on  the  2d  di  November 
'1S46  he  died  in  Wexiii.  From  1819  he  had  been  a  mem- 
ber oi  the  Swedish  Acadeiny,  wliere  he  was  succeeded  by' 
hh  biographer  and  best  imitator  Bottiger.'  In  prose  Tegner 
ivrote  letters,  which  have  been  collected,  and  which  are 
considered  the  best  of  their  kind  in  the  Swedish  language.. 
As  a  poet  he  will  scarcely  be  preferred  to  Bellman  or  to 
Runeberg  by  Swedish  verse  amateurs,  but  he  still'..exceeds' 
these  and  all  other  writers  in  popularity.' 

See  Bottiger,    Teckning  af  TegrUrs  Lcfnadi  .Geofg'Brandes, 
Esaias  Te^rUr;  Thomander,  Tankar  oeh  Lojm.  (E.  'W.  G.)  ., 

_  TEHERAN,  or,  more  properly,  Tehkan  (lat.  35°  40'  N., 
long.  51°  25'  E.),  for  about  a  century  the  recognized 
'capital  of  Persia,  has  little  to  distinguish  it,  in  general  out- 
'ward  appearance,  from  other  large  cities  of  the  country, 
though  in  quite  recent  years  Parisian  streets  or  boulevards, 
and  even  "Western  architecture  for  single  houses,  in  the 
iridstof  mudbrick  palaces  or  plain  mud  hovels,  have  been 
in'-ongruously  introduced.  ■  Formerly  a  kind  of  'polygon 
Boce  4  miles  in  circumferehce^^with  its  mean  "shahr 
Wnah  "  or  wall,  its  clumsy  and  uneven  ditch,  and,  its  six 
gates,  two  facing  north,  two  south,  one  east,  and  one  west, 
— Teheran  has  now  been  extended  to  an  outer  ditch  and 
wall,  thrown  out  on  each  side  beyond  the  ancient  limit. 
The  bazaars  are  good,  though  hardly  of  th^  first  class ;  the 
euravanserais  deserve  honourable  mention ;  and  the  tele- 
graph and  arsenal  are  respectable'  institutions.  The  streets 
are  for  the  most  part  narrow  and  wretchedly  paved.  The 
"  Ark,"  or  citadel,  contains  the  royal  and  better  description 
of  public  buildings,  and  connecting  its  encircling  wall  with 
the  city  gates  are  four  principal  thoroughfares,  of  which.the 
parallel  avenues  from  the  NiSsiriya  and  Daulat' entrances 
are  the  more  notable.  Between/these  two  gates,  in  a 
parallelogram  extending  from  one  to  the  other  and  in- 
cluding both,  is  the  gas-lighted  Top  Maidan,  or  "Place 
des  Canons,"  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  large  reservoir. 
European  professors  are  to  be  found  in  the  king's  college, 
where  some  250  students,  more  or  less,' are  taught  mathe- 
matics, engineering,  military  tactics,"  music,  telegraphy, 
painting^  together  with  the  Arabic,  English,  French,  and 
Russian ,  languages,  --Among  the  not  very  remarkable 
mosques — to  some  of  v^VKh  madrasahs,  ox  colleges,  are 
attached — 'may  be  specially  mentioned  the  Masjid-i-Shah, 
or  king's  mosque,  with  its  handsome  enamelled  front,  and 
the  Masjid-i-ilidar-i-Shah,  or  mosque  of  the  king's  mother. 
■Water  is  freely  supplied  to  the  town  by  means  of  the 
nnderground  canals,  or  Aa«4<si  from  the  near  mountain 
ranges.  Public  baths  abound,  •  but  the'  Europeans  use 
those  of  the  Armenian  and  not  of  the  Mohammedan 
community.  The  British  legation  stands  in  a  handsome 
garden  of  great  size,  in  which  are  placed  the  houses  of  the 
secretaries,  which  resemble  English  villas.  ■  In  the  summer 
season  the  representatives  of  "Western  powerd  and  other 
Europeans  move  out  to  the  slope  of  the  mountain  range 
north  of  Teheran, — the  British  residents  to  Gulhab,  a 
village  about  7  miles  from  the  city.  A  prominent  feature 
in  the  landscape  at  Gulhak  and  the  nei^ghbouring  summer 
quarters,  as  at  Teheran  itself,  is  Demavend,  the  noblest 
and  most  graceful  of  Persian  mountains.', 
f-  The  present  population  of  Teheran  may  be  taken  at 
160,000  at  most.  According  to  a  late  authority  (Bassett, 
1887)  the  European  inhabitants  are  reckoned  at  about 
100  only ;  the  Jews  number  Bome  2500 ;  and  there  are 
150  Gabrs  or  Parsis,  a  sorry  remnant  of.  the   old  fire- 


worshippers,  Ih  1872  there  were""  said  to  be  1000  Arme- 
nians, mainly  traders  and  artisans.  In  1872  there  wers 
but  four,  legations  in  Teheran — those  of  England,  France,' 
Russia,  and  Turkey!-'  Since  that  year  representatives  have 
been  added  'from  Holland,  Austria,  ■  Germany;"  and  the 
United  States,  '  The' French  have  summer  quarters  at 
Tejrlsh  and  the  Russians  at  Zargandahj  at  no  great  dis; 
tance  from  the  English  Gulhak.-. 

'Jtorier  supposes  Teheran  to  be  tho  Tahors  of  the  Theodosian 
^-ables,  and  recognizes  it  also  in  the  account  of  the  journey. of  the 
Castiliau  ambassadors  to  Timur.  Porter,  too,  relates  that  in  1637 
the  secretary  of  the  Holstein  ambassadoi-s  mentions  Teheran  as 
"onf  of  the  towns  which  enjoy  the  privilege  of  maintaining  no 
soldiers."  Again,  in  the  17th  century,  it  was  visited  by  Pietro  della 
Vails  and  by  Sir 'Thomas  Herbert, — the  latter  spelling  it  "T3'ioan." 
Most  writers  aflirm  that  Teheran,  though  not  of  recent  origin,  can 
barely  be  lield  of  repute  till  Agha  Muhammad  made  it  his  residence 
in  about  1788,  taking  to  himself  the  title  of  shah,  as  first  of  the 
Kajar  kings,  in  1-796.  ■'Yet  there  is  evidence  that  in  the  previous 
century  it  was  a  royal  resort,  it  nothing  more,  in  Herbert  s  state- 
ment that  "  the  Touuo  is  most  beautified  by  a  vast  gaiden  of  tho 
kings,  succinct  with  a  great  towered  mud-wall  larger  than  the  circuit 
.of  the  city."  Du  Pre  (who  visited  it  in  1808)  states  that  it  had  been 
pillaged  and  nearly  destroyed  by  the  Afghans, — evidently  at  their 

.asion  of  Persia  in  1728.  Since  Agha  Muhammad's  time  Teheran 
has  been  the  usual  seat  of  the  Knjar  dynasty,  a  circumstance  to  be 
attributed  to  tli!>  political  advantages  of  its  geographical  position.-.J 

See,  besides 'the  authorities  cilcd,  Tekgvaphand  Tt-avel  (1S74) ;  Dr  Wills's  land 
o/the  lion  aud  Svrt  (I8S3) ;  nod  Mr  Bassctt's  Innd  0/ the  Imdmi  (1867). 

,  TEHUANTEPEC,  an  isthmus  in' Mexico,  comprising 
the  western  extremities  of  the  states  of  Vera  Cruz  and 
Oajaca,  and  limited  eastwards  by  the  states  of  Tabasco  and 
Chiapas,  thus  lying  between  16°  and  .18°  N;  lat.  and  94° 
and  95°  W.  long.  Betw'ceu  the  Bay  of  Campeche  on  the 
north  or  Atlantic  side  and  that  of  Tehuantepec  on  the 
south  or  Pacific  side  the  distance  in  a  bee  line  is  only  125i 
miles.  Here  also  tho  Sierra  Madre  falls  rapidly  from  over 
6000  feet  in  Chiapas  to  about  730  feet  in  the  ridge  skirting 
the  Pacific  coast;  and  leaving  the  rest  of  this  district  some- 
what level,  with  a  ris'e  from  the  Atlantic  of  not  more  than 
60  feet  in  the  mile  except  at  the  Chivela  Pass,  where  for 
8  miles  the  gradients  are  about  116  feet  per  mile^ 

-  This  favourable  condition  of  the  relief,  combined  with  a  relatively 
healthy  climate  subject  only  to  dangerous  insect  pests  in  summer, 
has. naturally  attracted  attention  to  the  Tehuantepec  isthmus,  as 
ofi'ering  peculiar  advantages  for  interoceanic  communication  either 
by  a  navigable  canal,  a  railway,  or  a  ship  railway.  A  first  conces- 
sion was  made  in  1841  by  tho  Mexican  Government  to  Don  Jos4 
d*  Garay,  who  had  the  land  surveyed  with  a  view  to  a  canal,  but 
who,  after  the  war  with  the  United  States,  surrendered  his  rights 
to  Mr  P.  A.  Harsous  of  New  'York. '  The  company  then  organized 
to  give  effect  to  the  Garay  grant  caused  a  fresh  survey  for  a  railway 
to  be  made  in  1851,  under  the  direction  of  the  late  General  J.  G. 
Barnard.  But  nothing  came  of  this  or  of  another  railway  jjroject 
in  1857,  when  a  third  survey  was  executed,  under  the  direction  of 
Col.  'W.  H.  Sidell.,  Then  the  "Tehuantepec  Railway  Company,", 
formed  in  1870  in  New  ITork,  and  reorganized  in  1879,  obtained 
a  concession  frorti  the  Mexic.in  Government  to  construct  the 
"Tehuantepec  Railway";  but,  after  ft  few  miles  were  made,  the 
work  was  suspended,  and  in  1882  the  Government  contracted  with 
private  individuals  for  the  completion  of  the  line,  which  was  to  be 
190  miles  long,  and  to  run  from  the  mouth  of  the  Goatzacoalcos 
(Coatzacoalcos)  river  on  llie  Atlantic  to  tho  port  of  Salina  Cruz  on 
the  Pacific.  'The  work,  was  carried  to'Minatitlan,  a  distance  of  25 
miles,  in  1884,  and  was  to  have  been  completed  in  1885;  but  sines 
then  operations  ai)pear  to  have  been  suspended  for  want  of  means. 
A  Tehuantepec  ship  railway  is  also  projected,  as  it  is  expected  that 
most  of  the  trade  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  the 
United  States  will  be  attracted  to  this  route,  which  shortens  the 
distance  between  New  York  and  Saa  Francisco  by  1477  miles,  and 
between  New  Orleans  and  the  same  place  by  2334  miles,  as  com- 
pared with  that  by  the  Panama  railway  and  future  canal. 

Tehuantepec,  the  town  which  gives  its  name  to  the  isthmus,  bay, 
and  neig"hbouring  lagoon,  stands  on  the  river  Tehuantepec,  15  miles 
above  its  mouth  on  the  Pacific;  where  it  develops  a  shallow  and 
somewhat  exposed  harbour.  Of  the  population,  estimated  at 
14,000,  a  large  number  are  civilized  and  industrious  Indians  en- 
gaged in  cotton-weaving  and  on  the  salt-works.  Indigo  is  grown 
m  the  district,  and  there  are  productive  pearl-fisheries  in  the  bay. 
Amongst  the  exports  are  cochineal  and  a  purple  dye  extracted  from 
a  ahelUsh  abounding  on  the  coast  ' 


112 


T  E  I  — T  E  L. 


TEIGNMOUTH,  a  seaport  and  market  town  of  Eng- 
land, in  Devonshire,  consisting  of  the  parishes  of  East  and 
West  Teignmouth,  and  situated  on  the  English  Channel, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Teign  and  on  the  Great  Western 
Railway,  14  miles  south  of  Exeter  and  209  west^south- 
west  of  London.  It  is  somewhat  irregularly  built,  partly 
on  a  projecting  peninsula  and  partly  on  the  acclivities 
rising  behind  the  river.  The  Teign  is  crossed  by  a  bridge 
1671  feet  in  length,  built  of  wood  and  iron  in  182-1.  St 
Michael's  church,  in  East  Teignmouth,  erected  in  1822-23 
in  the  E)ecnrated  style,  was  enlarged  in  1875.  The  other 
buildings  include  St  Scholastica's  abbey  (erected  for  Bene- 
dictine nuns  in  1862),  the  East  Devon  and  Teignmouth 
club-house,  the  mechanics' institute  (1840),  the  temperance 
hall  ( 1 879),  the  sailors'  home  (1881 ),  the  baths  (1883),  and 
the  pubUc  market  (1883).     There  are  two  commodious 


quays  and  a  pier  600  feet  in  length.  Fine  pipe  and  potters' 
clay  (from  Kingsteignton)  is  shipped  to  Staflordshire 
Coal  and  culm  are  imported,  and  there  is  also  a  trad 
with  Newfoundland  Fishing  is  extensively  carried  on. 
The  town,  which  is  not  incorporated,  was  formerly  governed 
by  portreeves.  It  now  forms  an  urban  sanitary  district 
which  was  extended  on  29th  September  1881.  The  popu 
lation  of  the  former^area'(L238  acres)  in  1871  was  6751, 
and  in  1881  it  was  7120  ;  that  of  the  extended  area  (234T 
acres)  in  1881  was  8496.  ' 

Tei"nraouth  is  of  very-  ancient  origin.  It  received  a  grant  of 
a  market  from  Henry  III  East  Teignmouth  was  forineily  cilkJ 
Teignmouth  Regis,  and. West  Teignmouth,  Teignmouth  Episcopi,— 
the  manor  having  belonged  to  the  see  of  Exeter  until  alienated  by 
Bishop  Vesey.  -fcignmoutli  was  burned  by  French  piiatcs  io  1340, 
and  was  again  devastated  by  the  Fieueh  OQ  26th  June  1690. 
TEINDS.     See  Tithes. 


T  E  L  E  0  R A  PH 


TELEGRAPH    (from    t'iKi   and    ypi4>w)   signifies   an 
instrument   to   wTile   at  a  disUnce.      The  term   is 
speciBcaJly  applied   to  apparatus   for  communicating   in- 
telligence to  a  distance  in  unwritten  signs  addressed  to 
the  eye  or  ear,  and  has  only  recently  had  application  to 
those  wonderful  coujbinations  of  inanimate  matter  which 
literally  write  at  a  distance  the  intelligence  coraipitted  to 
them      The  chief  object  of  the  present  article  is  to  ex 
plain  the  principles  and  practice  of  the  electric  telegraph, 
and  we  shall  allude  to  other  telegraphic  systems  only  to 
illustrate  the  general  principles  of  signalling. 
Signalling      a  word   expressing  an   idea  may,  according   to  a  pre- 
generaLy.  ^j^anged  plan  of  signalling,  be  communicated  by  voice,  by 
trumpet,  calls,  by  gun  6re,  by  gesture  or  dumb  signs,  by 
lamp  signals,  by  flags,  by  semaphore,  or  by  electric  tele- 
graph.    The  simplest  system  of  word -signalling  hitherto 
practised  is  that  of  the  nauticjal  flag  telegraph,  in  which 
each   hoist  represents  a  word  by  a  combination  of  four 
flags- in  four  distinct  positions  (see  Signals,  Naval).     If 
n  denote  the  number  of  flags,  supposed  all  diflerent,  out 
of  which  the  four  to  be  sent  up  may  be  selected,  the  num^ 
ber  of  difl'erent  ideas  which  can  be  expressed  by  a  single 
hoist  k'n(n-  !)(«-  2)(n  -  3),  since  there  are  n  varieties 
out  of  which,  the  flag  for  each  of  the  four  positions  may 
be  independently  chosen.     To  commit  to  memory  so  ^eat 
a  ilumber'of  combinations,  which  amount  to  358,800  if 
n  =  26,  would  be  a  vain  etfort  ,  the  operators  on  each  side 
must  therefore  havn  cou; tant  recourse  to  a  dictionary,  or 
code,  as  i'  i.'*  called.      For  the  sake  of  convenient  reference 
each  Hag  is  called  by  the  name  of  a  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
and  all  that  the  operato--  has  to  bear  in  mind  is  the  letter 
by  which,  each  Hag  is  designated.     Sometimes  the  words 
to  be  expressed  are  spelled  oni  by  means  of  the  flags  as 
in  ordinary  language;    but,  as  in  ruost  words  there  are 
more   than   four   letters,   as  scarcely  any  two  consecutive 
words  are  spelled  >vith  four  or  less  than  tour  letters,  and 
as  more  than  four  Hags  at  a  time  cannot  be  conveniortly 
used,  the  system  of  alphabetic   signalling  frequently  re- 
quires the  use  of  two  hoists  for  a  word,  and  scarcely  ever 
has  the  advantage  of  expressing  two  words  by  one  hoist. 
It  IS  therefore  much  more  tedious  than  code  signalling  in 
the  nautical  telegraph 

In  point  of  simplicity  spoken  words  may  be  considered 
as  almost  on  a  par  with  the  nautical  telegraph,  since  each 
word  is  in  reality  spoken  and  heard  almost  as  a  single 
utterance.  Next  in  order  comes  the  system  of  spelling 
onl  words  letter  by  letter,  in  which— instead  of,  as  in  the 
nautical  telegraph,  358,800  single  symbols  to  express  the 
same  number  of  ideas  — 26  distinct  symbols  are  n.sed  to 
express  by  their  combinations  any  nnnibej-  whatever  of 


distinct  ideas  Next  again  to  this  may  be  ranked  the- 
system  by  which  several  distinct  successive  signals  are- 
used  to  express  a  letter,  and  letters  thus  communicated 
by  compound  signals  are  combined  into  words  according 
to  the  ordinary  method  s>(  language  It  is  to  this  last 
class  that  nearly  all  practical  systems  of  electro-telegraphic 
signalling  belong  But  some  of  the  earliest  and  latest  pro- 
posals for  electric  telegraphs  are  founded  on  the  idea  of 
making  a  single  signal  represent  a  single  letter  of  the 
alphabet ,  as  insUnces  we  may  name  those  early  forms  in 
which  separate  conductors  were  used  for  the  different 
letters  ,  a  method  suggested  by  Professor  W.  Thomson ' 
in  1858  in  which  difl'erent  strengths  of  current  were  to  be 
employed  to  indicate  the  letters ;  and  the  various  forms 
of  printing  telegraph  now  in  use 

I    Historical  Sketch  of  Early  Telegraphs. 
Although   the   history  of   practical   electric   telegraphy  Early 
does  not  i'nclude  a  period  of  more  than  half  a  century,  the  forms- 
idea  of  using  electricity  for  telegraphic   purposes  is  much 
older      It  was  suggested  again  and  again  as  each  new  dis- 
aovery  in  electricity  and  magnetism  seemed  to  render  it 
more  feasible.     Thus  the  discovery  of  Stephen  Gray  apd 
of  Wheeler  that  the  electrical  influence  of  a  charged  Lcyden 
jar  may  be  conveyed  to  a  distance  by  means  of  an  insulated 
wire  gave  rise  to  various  proposals,  of  which  peihaps  the 
earliest  was  that  in  an   anonymous   letter  ^  to  the  ScoU 
MayaniK  (vol    XV.  p    73,   1753),  in   which  the  use  of  aa 
many  insulated  conducU.rsas  there  are  letters  in  the  alpha- 
bet was  suggested      Each  wire  was  to  be  used  for  the  trans- 
mission of  one  letter  only,  and  the  message  was  to  be  senii 
by  charging  the  proper  wires  in  succession  and  received  by 
observing  the  movements  of  small  pieces  of  paper  luarked 
with  the'^letters  of  the  alphabet  and  placed  under  the  ends 
of  the  wires      A  very  interesting   modification  was  also 
proposed  in  the  same  letter,  viz.,  to  attach  to  the  end  of 
each  wire  a  small  light  ball  which  when  charged  would  be 
attracted  U.wards  an  adjacent  bell  and  strike  it      Soma 
twf^nty  years  later  Le  Sage  proposed  a  similar  method    in 
which  each  conductor  was  to  be  attached  to  a  pith  ballj 
electroscone      An  important  advance  on  this  was  proposed 
in  1797  b'v  Lomond,^  who  used  only  one  line  of  wire  and 
an  alphabet  of  motions.    Besides  these  we  have  in  the  same 
period  the  spark  telegraph  of  Reiser,  of  Don  SiKa.  and  oF 
Cavallo    the  pith  bail  telegraph  of  Ronalds,  and_sevei;a> 


•  See  bis  i!jlhrmatu.<d  and  rhysuul  /'ape's,  vol    ii    p    105 
'  From  correspondence  found  among  Sir  David  Brewster-  papers 
after  his  deulh  it  s«,ns  highly  probable  that  the  wnter  of  this  lelUr,^ 

which  was  si;; 1  ''C    M.",  "as  Charle^  Morrison,  a  surgooD   and  k 

native  of  Uiero.nk.  but  at  that  lirne  re»ideut  in  Beljfrew 
'  See  Arlluir  Vooiig.  TravcU,  in  France,  p    3 


TELEGRAPH 


others.  Next  came  the  discovery  of  Galrani  and  of  Volta, 
and  as  a  consequence  a  fresh  set  of  proposals,  in  which 
voltaic  electricity  w-as  to  be  used.  The  discovery  by 
Nicholson  and  Carlisle  of  the  decomposition  of  water  and 
the  subsequent  researches  of  Davy  on  the  decomposition  of 
the  solutions  of  salts  by  the  voltaic  current  were  turned  to 
•tcount  in  the  water  voltameter  telegraph  of  Somciering 
and  the  modihcation  of  it  proposed  by  Schweigger,  and  in 
a  similar  method  proposed  by  Cose,  in  which  a  solution  of 
salts  was  substituted  for  water  Then  came  the  discovery 
by  Romagn^i  and  by  Oersted  of  the  action  of  the  galvanic 
current  on  a  magnet,  Th«  application  of  this  to  tele- 
graphic purposes  was  suggested  by  Laplace  and  taken  up 
by  Ampere,  and  afterwards  by  Triboaillet  and  by  Schilling, 
whose  work  forms  the  foundation  of  much  of  modern  tele- 
graphy. Faraday's  discovery  of  the  induced  current  pro- 
duced by  passing  a  magnet  through  a  helix  of  wire  forming 
part  of  a  closed  circuit  was  laid  hold  of  in  the  telegraph  of 
Gauss  aod  Weber,  and  this  application  was  at  the  request 
of  Gauss  taken  up  by  Steinheil,  who  brought  it  to  consider- 
able perfection.  Steinheil  communicated  to  the  Gbttingen 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  September  1833  an  account  of  his 
telegraph,  which  had  been  constructed  about  the  middle 
«f  the  preceding  year.  The  currents  were  produced  by  a 
magneto-electric  machine  resembling  that  of  Clarke.  The 
receiving  apparatus  consisted  of  a  multiplier,  in  the  centre 
of  which  were  pivoted  one  or  two  magnetic  needles,  which 
either  indicated  the  message  by  the  movement  of  an  index 
or  by  striking  two  bells  of  different  tone  or  (recorded  it  by 
making  ink  dots  on  a  ribbon  of  paper.  Among  other 
workers  about  this  time  we  may  mention  Masson,  BrSguet, 
Davy,  Deval,  Billon,  Soudalot,  and  Vorsselman  who  pro- 
posed to  use  the  physiological  effects  of  electricity  in  work- 
ing an  electric  telegraph.* 

Steinheil  appears  to  have  been  anticipated  in  the  matter 
of  a  recording  telegraph  by  Morse  of  America,  who  in  1835 
constructed  a  rude  working  model  of  an  instrument ;  this 
within  a  few  years  was  so  perfected  that  with  some  modi- 
fication in  detail  it  has  been  largely  used  ever  since  (see 
below).  In  1836  Cooke,  to  whom  the  idea  appears  to  have 
been  suggested  by  Schilling's  method,  invented  a  telegraph 
in  which  an  alphabet  was  worked  out  by  the  single  and 
combined  movement  of  three  needles.  Subsequently,  in 
conjunction  with  Wheatstone,  he  introduced  another  form, 
in  which  five  vertical  index  needles,  each  worked  by  a  separ- 
ate multiplier,  were  made  to  point  out  the  letters  on  a  dial. 
Two  needles  were  acted  upon  at  the  same  time,  and  the 
letter  at  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  direction  of  the 
indexes  was  read  This  telegraph  required  six  wires,  and 
was  shortly  afterwards  displaced  by  the  single-needle  system, 
•till  to  a  large  extent  used  on  railway  and  other  less  im- 
portant circuits.  The  single-needle  instrument  is  a  vertical 
needle  galvanostope  worked  by  a  battery  and  reversing  key, 
the  motions  to  right  and  left  of  one  end  of  the  index  corre- 
sponding to  the  dashes  and  dots  of  the  Morse  alphabet. 
To  increase  the  speed  of  wc.king,  two  single-neMle  instru- 
ments were  sometimes  used  (double-needle  telegraph).  This 
system  required  two  lines  of  wire,  and,  along  with  all 
multiple-wire  systems,  soon  passed  out  of  use.  Similar 
instruments  to  the  single  and  double  needle  ones  of  Cooke 
and  ^Vheatstone  were  about  the  same  time  invented  bv  the 
Rev.  H.  Ilighton  and  his  breather  Edward  Highton,"  and 
were  used  for  a  considerable  time  on  some  of  the  railway 
lines  in  England.  Another  series  of  instruments,  intro- 
duced by  Cooke  and  WheatstoAe  in  1840,  and  generally 
known  as  "  Wheatstone's  step-by-step  letter-showing  "  or 

*  Tbe  reader  interested  in  the  early  history  of  the  el^tric  telegraph 
may  consult  Edward  Highton,  Tht  Eltdric  Td^aph,  London,  1852; 
Moigno,  TraUi  de  TeUgraphxt  tUetrique,  Paris,  1849;  and  Sabine, 
Bittory  of  the  EUeLnc  Td^aph,  London,  1869." 

23—7 


113) 

"ABC  instruments,"  were  worked  out  with  great  Ingenuity 
of  detail  by  Wheatstone  in  Great  Britain  and  by  Br^guet 
and  others  in  France.  They  are  still  largely  used  for  pri- 
vate wires,  but  are  being  rapidly  displaced  by  the  telephone.' 
Wheatstone  also  described  and  to  some  extent  worked  out 
ap  interesting  modification  of  his  step-by-step  instrument, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  produce  a  letter-printing  tele- 
graph. But  it  never  came  into  use ;  some  years  later, 
however,  an  instrument  embodying  the  same  principle,' 
although  differing  greatly  in  mechanical  detail,  was  brought 
into  use  by  Royal  E.  House  of  Vermont,  U.S..  and  was 
very  successfully  worked  on  some  of  the  American  telegraph 
lines  till  1860,  after  which  it  was  gradually  displaced  by 
the  Phelps  combination  telegraph.  The  House  instrument 
is  not  now  in  use,  but  various  modifications  of  it  are  still 
employed  for  private  lines  and  for  stock  telegraph?,  such 
as  Calahan's  and  the  universal  stock  telegraphs,  Phelps'* 
stock  printer,  Gray's  automatic  printer  for  private  lints, 
Siemens's  and  Phelps's  automatic  type  printers,  ic.  (se« 
infra,  pp.  120-121) 

n.  General  Description  of  Electeic  Telegbaphs 
FOR  Lasd  and  Sea. 

The  first  requisite  for  electro-telegraphic  communica-  Essenijai 
tion  between  two  localities  is  an  insulated  conductor  ex-  appara 
tending  from  one  to  the  other.    This,  with  proper  apparatus  ""• 
for  originating  electric  currents  at  one  end  and  for  dis-; 
covering  the  effects  produced  by  them  at  the  other  end, ' 
constitutes  an  electric  telegraph.     Faraday's  term  "  elec- 
trode," bterally  a  way  for  electricity  to  travel  along,  might 
be  well  appUed  to  designate  the  insulated  conductor  along 
which  the  electric  messenger  is  despatched.     It  is,  how-; 
ever,  more  commonly  and  familiarly  called  "the  wire"  or 
"the  line."  J 

The  apparatus  for  generating  the  electric  action  at  one 
end  is  commonly  called  the  transmitting  apparatus  or  in- 
strumertt,  or  the  sending  apparatus  or  instrument,  or  some- 
times simply  the  transmitter  or  sender.  The  apparatus 
used  at  the  other  end  of  the  line  to  render  the  effects  of 
this  action  perceptible  to  any  of  the  senses — eye,  ear,  or 
taste,  aU  of  which  have  been  used  in  actual  telegraphic 
signalling — is  called  the  receiving  apparatus  or  instrument. 

In  the  aerial  or  overground  system  of  land  telegraphs  Over- 
the  main  line  consists  generaUy  of  a  "galvanized"  iron  g«»"iJ 
wire  from  one-sixth  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  ^^ 
stretched  through  the  air  from  pole  to  pole,  at  a  sufficient 
height  above  the  ground  for  security.  The  supports  or  in- 
sulators, as  they  are  called,  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the 
poles  are  of  very  different  form  and  arrangement  in  different 
telegraphs,  but  consist  essentially  of  a  stem  of  glass,  por- 
celain, coarse  earthenware,  or  other  non-conducting  sub 
stance,  protected  by  an  overhanging  screen  or  roof.  On« 
end  of  the  stem  is  firmly  attached  to  the  pole,  and  th» 
i0ther  bears  the  wire.  The  best  idea  of  a  single  telegraphi* 
insulator  may  be  got  from  a  common  umbrella,  with  it» 
stem  of  insulatmg  substance  attached  upright  to  the  top 
of  a  pole  and  bearing  the  wire  supported  in  a  notch  on  the 
top  outside.  The  umbrella  may  be  either  of  the  same 
substance  as  the  stem — all  glass  or  all  glazed  earthenware, 
for  instance — or  of  a  stronger  material,  such  as  iron,  with 
an  insulating  stem  fitted  to  it  to  support  it  below.  Very 
good  insulators  may  be  made  of  continuous  glass;  but 
well  glazed  porcelain  is  more  generally  used,"  or  rather 
earthenware,  which  is  cheaper,  less  brittle,  and  lees  hygro- 
scopic, and  insulates  weU  as  lopg  as  the  glazing  is  sufficient 
to  prevent  the  poroUs  substance  withm"  from  absorbing 
moisture.  ' 

One  of  tne.best  forms— Varley'a  double  cup  insulator 


I  For  the  different  forms,  see  Prescotfs  EkctTidCy  and  tht  Siectne 
Telegraph,  pp.  562-602. 

xxni  -  IS 


•114 


TELEGRAPH 


Uniler- 
ground 
lines 


Sut>» 

morhte 

csbW 


— is  showTi  in  fig.  1.  It  consists  ol  two  distinct  cups  (c, 
C),  which  are  moulded  and  fired  separately,  and  afterwards 
cemented  together.  The  double  cup  gives 
great  security  against  loss  of  insulation 
due  to  cracks  extending  through  the  in- 
sulator, and  also  gives  a  high  surface  in- 
sulation. An  iron  bolt  (4)  cemented  into 
the  centre  of  the  inner  cup  is  used  for 
fi.xing  the  insulator  to  the  polo  or  bracket. 

In  the  underground  systeiii  the  main 
line  generally  consists  of  a  copper  wiia, 
or  a  thin  strand  of  copper  wires,  covered 
with  a  continuous  coating  df  gutta  jjercha, 
india-rubber,  or  some  equivalent  insulat- 
ing substance,  served  with  tarred  tapo 
and  enclosed  in  earthenware,  iron,  or  lead 
pipes  laid  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
This  system  is  largely  used  for  street  and 
tunnel  work,  and  to  a  considerable  extent, 
especially  in  Germany,  for  ordinary  lines,  rio.  i.  —  variey'a 
Each  tube  generally  contains  a  number  of  t^^l  onc-fpuitS^fuii 
wires,  which  are  either  laid  up  into  a  cable  ^^■ 
and  covered  with  a  serving  of  tarred  tape  or  hemp  before 
J)eing  drawn  into  the  tube,  or — as  is  more  commonly  the 
case  in  the  United  Kingdom — simply  laid  together  in  a 
parallel  group  and  tied  at  intervals  with  binders,  which 
are  removed  as  the  vrijres  are  drawn  into  the  tube.  On 
some  long  underground  line's  in  Germany  the  insulated 
wires  are  laid  up  into  a  cable,  served  with  jute  or  hemp; 
and  sheathed  with  a  continuous  (Joveriug  of  iron  wires, 
precisely  similar  to  the,  stibmarin'e  cables  described  below. 
The  cable  is  laid  in  a  deep  trench  ahd  coated  with  bitumen. 
This  'form  of  cable  is  easily 'laid, land  if  properly  manu- 
factured is  likely  to  be  very  durable. 

Submwrine  Cables.'— A  submarine  cable  (figs.  2-4),  as 
usually  manu- 
factured at 
present,  con- 
sists of  a  core 
a  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  a 
strand  of  cop- 
per wires  vary- 
ing in  weight 
for  different 
cables  between 
70  and  400  lb 
to  the  mile. 
The  -stranded 
form  'was  sug- 
gested by  Prof. 
W.  Thomson 
at  a  meeting 
of  the  Philo- 
sophical So- 
ciety of  Glas- 
gow in  1854, 
because  ■  its 
greater  flexi- 
bility renders 
it  less  likely 
to  damage  the 
insulating   en-  .  .^  ,    ^  ,, 

1  J      ■       Fios.  2-4.— Sections  of  Ihrco  tyjios  of  subraanno  cables, 

vclope  durmg  f„n  size.-  I'lg.  2.— Type  or  sliore  end.  Kig.  3.— Inter- 
the    manipula-     medjat^pe.    Fig.  4.-Dccp  sea  type. 

tion  of  the  cable.  T*  central  conductor  is  covered  vrith 
several  continuous  coatings  of  gutta  percha,  the  total 
weight  of  which  also  varies  betwepn  70  and  400  ft)  to 
the  mile.  With  'a  light  core  the  weight  of  the  gutta 
i)crcha  generally  exceeds  that  of  the  copper,  while  in  some 


Fi^.  8. 


heavy  cores  the  copper  is  heavier.  The  different  coatmgs 
of  gutta  percha  and  of  the  conductor  are  usually  separated 
by  a  thin  coating  of  Chatterton's  compound  (a  mixture  of 
gutta  percha,  resin,  and  Stockholm  tar),  in  order  to  make 
them  adhere  firmly  together.  This  practice  has  recently 
been  departed  from  by  Messrs  Siemens'  Brothers,  who  have 
succeeded  by  an  improved  process  of  manufacture  in  getting 
perfect  adhesion  \rithout  the  use  of  the  compound.  The 
core  is  served  vs-ith  a  thick  coating  of  wet  jute,  yarn, -or 
hemp  (h),  forming  a  soft.bedjor  theisheath,  which  consists 
of  soft  iron,  or  of  homogeneous  iron,  \vire3  of  the  best 
quality.  The  sheathing  wires  are  usually  covered  with 
one  or  two  servings  of  tarred  canv^a  tape  lt),.or  of  tarred 
hemp,  laid  on  alternately  with  coatings  of  a  mixture  of 
asphaltum  and  tar.  The  wei^t  of  tie  irop  ^heath  varies 
greatly  according  to  the  depth  of  the  water,  the  nature  of 
the  sea  bottom,  the  prevalence  of  currents,  atid  so  pn. 
Fig.  2  shows!  the  intermediate  type  ^gain'  sheathed  With 
a  heavy  armour  to  resist, wear  in  the- shallow  water  near 
shore.  In  many  caseis  a  still  heavier  type  is  used  for  the 
first  mile  ortwo  from' shore,  and  several  intermediate  types 
are  often  introduced,  tapering  gradually  to  the  thin  deep- 
water  type.  Captain  S.  Trot  and  Mr  F.  A.  Hamilton  have 
proposed!  to  abandon  the  iron  sheath  and  substitute  a 
strong  double  serving  of  hefaip,  laid  on  in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  twisting  when  the  cable  is  under  "tension.  This 
suggestion,  which  is  a  reyival  with  some  modifications  of 
an  old  idea,  is,  however,  still  in  the  experimental  stage. 

We  will  now  describe  very  briefly  a  few  of  the  most 
important  processes  in  the  manufacture  and  submergence 
of  submarine  cables. 

In  manufacturing  a  cable  (fig.  5)  the  copper  strand  is  passed  Their 
through  a  vessel  A  containlug-melted  Chatterton's  compound,  then  manu- 
througli  the  cylinder  C,  in  which  a  quantity  of  gutta  percha,  pun-  factorti 
fied  by  repeated  wash-  l.         ing   in  hot  water,  by  mastica- 

tion, and  by  filtering  \]  through  wire-gauzo  filters,  is  kept 

1-    ^  k_ 


warm   by   a   steam- 
through,  a  coating  of 


jacket.      As  the  wire  is  pulled 
"^5  gutta  percha,   the  thickness  oi 


^^^^ii^:(,.,^tmmmi!!m^ 


Fij.S. 
which  is  regulated  by  thf  die  D,  is  pressed  out  of  the  cyliader  by 
appljang  the  requisite  pressure  to  the  piston  P.  The  newly  coated 
wire  is  passed  through  a  long  trough  T,  containing  cold  iwater, " 
until  it  i& sufficiently  cold  to  allow  it  to  be^ safely  wound  on  a  bob-' 
bin  B'.  This  operation  completed,  the  »ixe  is  wound  from  the 
bobbin  B'  on  to  another,  and  at  the  same  time  carefully  examined 
for  air-holes  or  other  flaws,  all  of  which  are  eliminated.  The 
coated  wire  ii  treated  in  the  same  way  as  tho  copper  strand, — 
the  die  D,  or  another  of  the  same  size,  being  placed  at  the  back 
of  the  cylinder  and  a  larger  one  substituted  at  the  front.  A  second 
costing  is  then  laid  on,  and  after  it  passes  through  a  similar  pro- 
cess of  examination  a  third  coating  is  applied,  and^so  on  until 
thel  requisite  number  is  completed.  The  finislicd  dore,  cliaiiges 
rapidly  in  its  electric  qualities  at  first,  and  is  generally  kept  for  a 
stated  inteiTal  of  time  before  being  subjected  to  the  specified  tests. 
It  is  then  placed  in  n  tank  of  water  and  kept  at  a  certain  fixed 
temperature,  usually  75°  Fahr.,  ivntil  it  assumes  approximately  a 
constant  electrical  state.  Its  conductor  and  dielectric  resistance 
and  its  electrostatic  capacity  are  then  measured.  These  tests  are 
generally  repeated  at  another  temperature,  say  50°  Fahr.>  for  tlw 
purpose  of  obtaining  at  the  same  time  greater  certainty  of  the 
soundness  of  the  coie  and  the  rate  of  variation  of  the  conductor 
and  dielectric  resistances  with  temperature.  Should  these  tests 
prove  satisfactory  tho  core  is  served  with  jute  y.irn,  coiled  in  uHter- 
tight  tanks,  and  surrounded  witli  salt  water.  The  insulation  is 
again  tested,  and  if  no  fault  is  discovered  the  served  core  is  passed 
through  the  sheathing  machine,  and  the  iron  sheath  and  the  outer 
covering  are  laid  on.  As  the  cable  is  sheathed  it  is  stored  in  large 
water-tigiit  tanks  and  kept  at  a  nearly  uniform  temperature  by  . 
means  of  water. 

Tho  cable  is  no*  transferred  to  a  cable  ship,  provided  with  w.itor-  Submcrt  | 
tight  tanks  similar  to  those  used  in  the  factoiy  for  storing  it.    The  niou. 
tanks  arc  nearly,  cyUndric.il  in  form  and  have  a  tnmcatcd  cone 

'Jourii.  Soc.  Tdtijr.  Eng.,  voL  xii.  p.  495. 


TELEGHAPH 


*JH,ouU.daoftl>.UnkandcoUedtowaniBthecentre.    The  Xont  [  CA'*^?"u  iTimpi'r^:!?  t^  o^iZT.TZl^lttZ:' 

obyiated  by  the  increasing  slai  k 

_  paid  out,  except  in  so  far  as  ths 

''  tui^putuy  amount    of   sliding    which    the- 

strength  of  the  cable  is  able  to 

^ . , \L/     \U     \.\J     \^   "-CT^  r^      U  produce  at  the  poinU  of  contact 

Fio.  e—Diagnun  of  cablo  tank  and  parinc  ont  aonaistn,  nr  .I-.1. — Z T"^ "^  ,  ground  may  be  therebj 

"'"P'^SoMapparatiia  or  sibmartne  cable.  increaaed.     The  speed  of  the  shit 

must  therefore  be  so  regulated 


coUs  are  prevented  from  adhering  by  a  coat- 
ing of  whitewash,  and  the  end  of  each 
nautical  mile  is  carefully  marked  for  future 
reference.  After  the  cable  has  been  again 
found  tn  K»  i„  „  f  ™t'Jef.'«a  to  the  proper  electrical  teats  and 
Zv  .V  V  ""  P"/"'  "°<iit«>n.  the  atip^^  taken  to  the  olaca 
where  the  shore  end  is  to  be  Unded.     A  sufficient  "ength  of  Sbll 

on  a  rait  or  lafts,  or  on  the  deck  of  a  steam-launch   in  orH^r  fn 

^^.  ^  the  cable- house  and  the  coudoctor  connected  with  thf 

S  "hSrnn?'"^,f  ""^^  '^^  ^^^'^^  '^^  continue  aatt 
li^Tonf  tti'^  .  f  °°  V''^  P^P^  "^""^  ^'i  ««^°>^  s'o'^'y  ahead, 
^ying  out  the  cable  oyer  her  stem.     The  cable  must  not  be  orer^ 

^r  ^"^  to^irr  °'  ^bmeraion.  and  must  be  paid  out  atX 
proper  rate  to  give  the  requisite  alack.  This  involves  the  intro- 
aactioo  of  machinery  for  measuring  and  contro^C  the  g~S  ^ 
vrhich  it  leaves  the  shin  and  for  measuring  the  p2  on  thlTblt 
m  essential  ^  of  tfis  anparalua  are  aho^  in  6^6  m  kwer 
end  J  of  the  cable  in  the  Uni  T  is  taken  to  the  tesUSg  room  so  that 
continuous  tests  for  electrical  condition  can  l«Wle.     'nle  upwr 

quad^iSSl'zT  '  ^"^f  '^-^-^^  to  »  set  of  wheeU  or  ffi 
quaurants  1,  2,  3,^.  then  to  the  paying,  out  drum  P   from  it  t^ 

'X^mr  r-L^-  the^i^feirFi  ¥  '^''-  -"  -H^ 

2.  4.  6  .  c^  be  „i3e4  or  7owetV»''af  •;;-^eTh:rbfeti''oJ 
with  bi^ket  "•^^.'"r^^"  *•"='"•  "'^o  '•  3^.  •     a^^fl^rh^l' 

vJn  the  same 


that  t>ifl  on«]a  «f  -  •       -     ™'^*^   therefore   be  so  regulated 

a^eUtrpf  ^aL^eH^r^Suderor^"'"  '''^  inclination  W. 
ofilmers^i^t^^Twee'i^^^^^^^^ 


,  .  --  —— -  1""  ~  ^"<=  uaoiB  lo  maKe  it  gnp  the 
,?,»  ■'  P^^^aevei^I  times  to  prevent  s^mg 
shaft  with  P  ,3  fixed  a  brafce-wLel  fumislied  ii.h  a  pow'erfol 


nHth  o  ««-.  -f  1  ,.  snait  01  V  can  be  readily  put  in  pear 

^^.^^ft^.-::.:^\^i7^^_  "Kn^^'^dttS 

h^?„         ^       t  C^^  engines;  it  is  more   accurately  obtained 

ofsla^    Theamol^.ffl     u  ""^  °^  ^t^^  °°*  K*'™  t''^  ^■"onnt 
anH  fJt;  ^      ^"oint  of  slack  vanes  in  different  cases  between  three 

cable  at  the  surlc'e'  rand^Al^Btn^V^";  t'uv^'^  ^"^  °"  *"« 

^=*{'"-s-iri/("-''«>so}  (aj 

and  w  cos  i=  B/(»  sin  i ) . 

};?u^T^-^"'>''  ?F^eVs"h:u"ldTe^^et?triow'^  "ThH'T- 
'ur"fS'^f^^e^^A^  tttTm^-T'^?.^^^^^^^^ 


of  electnc  potentials,"  is  maintained  between  ita  two  La  ^"^^^       ^°*^"'- 
^  most  naturally,  and  is  in  po.nt\f  frcTgetX  e—^J 

^T^^^:^il7l^T^t::-^^  -•  endstp-dU^ 
^o\o^:^lfSlX:^;:^''\^^-  ^y  is  the  resistance  Insula. 

oi  passing  through  the  line  and  producing  effect  at  the  other  enrt 
W?th^  ""^"^  ""  f""^  "  ""-l  '^forthe  Sode  of  wo  kfng  adoD^ 
™rt  of l^^'^K'^r"^""""  "'^""^  in  a  submarine  line,  rof  nd  ev^ 

mmsmm 

nail  of  It  13  found  to  havs  pqfnT^o/^      eC .u  ,.  mucn  a: 

familiar  "  cou^poLi  ^^LT''S^We^,Tt  at^^a^'ttm^ 

£ourhp^q^b^T,sCre;;£-t:T^^ 
rri^te;;^:::^^:^?^^^?^:^^^^^ 

to  light  many  remarkable  phenomena  and  pointing  out  thf 
•inductive"  embarrassment  to  be  ejected  in  .Jorking^long  sub- 
marine  telegraphs  In  letters »  to  Professor  Stokes  in  November 
and  December  of  the  same  year,  Prof.  W.  Thomson  gave  the  mSh" 
mabcal  theory  of  these  phenomena,  with  formula;  and  dis^ms  of 
Pv.T;  '^""^"■"'g  '>>«  '^'^■n^ts  of  synthetical  investiga^on  for 
every  nossible  case  of  practical  operations.  Some  of  the  re^uks  of 
this  theory  are  given  at  the  end  of  the  present  article.  The  con 
ductor  of  a  submanne  cable  has  a  very  largo  electrostatic  capac?^ 
he  inaC?o°n  TV^^r  °^/  land  telegrap^h  wire  in  conseque^nce  S 
the  mauctmn,  a.s  of  a  Leyden  phial,  which  takes  place  Across  ita 
gutta  percha  coat,  between  it  and  its  moist  outer  WfacT^Uch 
may  be  regarded  as  perfectly  connected  with  the  earth.-tharu  t„ 
say,  at  the  same  potential  as  the  earth.  The  mathemalicalerprei^ 
smns  for  the  absolute  electrostatic  capacity  C,  per  unit?/  !^^- 
in  the  two  cases  are  as  follows.  j     .  i^    >^    ui  lengio,. 

cir™L?c"roiTerHn„°^'^'f°°"T!''"='"'  "^IV"'^  ^  ''^that  of  a  gubm»>. 
cumscribed^boutr;,^  /  T^^  mappreciaWy  less  than  one  cir-  ine  li«. 
cumscribed  about  the  strand  which  constitutes  a  modem  submarine 

•  Pubhaljal  in  froc  Hay.  Soc.  lor  1355. 


TELEGRAPH 


116 

«ntoctor--D'= outer  diameter  of  the  insulating  c<at;  1=  specific 
nS^pacitT  of  tl»e  guttj  percha  or  other  substance  consU- 
tating  the  insulating  coat.    Then 

^=  2  log,  VjU 

its  capacity  sensibly—         _         1 

^-21og,4A/D'    , 
Example  1.     In  a  submarme  cable  in  which  D'=  1  centunrtre  ; 
D  =  0-4  centimeti-e  ;  and  1  =  3-2— 

I  3-2  X  -4343 

C  = 


^  =  175. 


21og.D7i3'"  2  X -3979 
Example  2.     In  a  land  line  in  which  D  =  0-6  centimetre  and 
A=600  centimHres—  i  -4343       1 

^  =  21og.4A/D~7-204"'l6-6' 
The  canacitv  therefore,  is  in  this  case  less  than  one-twenty-ninth  of 
SS  oTthelibmarine  iable  of  example  1  for  the  same  length 


Telegraph  Testing. 
6^„d-         ^to«A.r<f5o/J/««™««^^-AbriefconsiderationofthesU^^^^ 
^.'^fo,     acceding  to  which  the  electr.^lquaht,e^^^^^^^^  1-t 

'^-r-  sfctrn  Z  S!"  iutde?  rrtrnls'of  those  quaUti^  and 
"""*'  ouantities  more  definite.  A  complete  and  universally  coniparable 
?;sC  of  sundards  for  physical  f^rr^''^?  wth  mass  aa5 
adootine  arbitrarily  as  fundamental  units  those  of  length,  mass,  ana 
toe  and  Expressing  in  terms  of  these  in  a  properly  defined  manne 
thTunTtsoPall  the^ther  quantities.  The  units  now  adopted  a, 
over  the  world  for  electriqal  measurements  take  the  cent  m«re  as 
?he  un it  of  lenrth,  the  gramme  as  the  unit  of  mass,  and  the  mean 
Slar  slnd  as^he  uni\of  time^  There  are  two  Bystems  in  use 
the  electrostatic  and  the  electroruagnetic       In   the  f»rmer  the 

mutual  forces  exerted  by  two  bodi*,  .«\<=\ '^^f  [f  fv^  ^ttef  t^e 
«lectricitv  are  taken  as  the  starting-pomt,  and  in  the  'atier  ine 
mutu"  o;ces  exerted  between  a  current  of  ^l^.^tnci ty  and  a  mapet 
The  units  accordlnff  to  these  two  systems  are  definitely  related  ,  but 
S^weTaHntiie  present  article  Vith  the  electroma^etic  system 
we  eivo  the  following  brief  account  of  it  only.  ^„„_,„ 

'Kldyne  or  unit  force  is  that  force  wiich,  acting  on  a  CTamme 
„  .        .f  mattef  free  to  move,  imparts  to  it  a  velocity  of  1  centimetre  per 
"'"'"■    ZST   UnU  quaniity  of,>mgnetism  or  unit  magnetic poU^st^^t 
Quantity  of  ma^tism  which,  when  placed  at  a  distance  of  1  c^^t'^ 
K  from  a^  equal  and  similar  quantity  of  magnetism  or  a 
Sa^et  c  pole,  repels  it  with  unit  force.     UnU  nmgnau  field  x^j. 
fidfwT^icfi   wOien  a  unit  quantity  of  magnetism  or  a  unit  magnetic 
o^le  Ts  Saoed  in  it,  is  acted  on  by  unit  force.     UnU  carrentjs  a 
STent  which,  when  made  to  flow  round  a  circ  e  of  unit  radius 
STces  a  ma^etic  field  of  2»  units'  intensity  at  the  centre  of  the 
S  or  acts  on  a  unit  quantity  of  magnetism  placed  at  the  centre 
ofthe  circle  with  2.  units  of  force.     bnU  quantity  of  dccinatyjB 
tRfl  nuantitv  conveved  by  the  unit  current  m  one  second.     U'lU 
merZfZoZSliB  tl  diirerence  of  potential  between  the  ends 
ofa  conductor  of  unit  length  when  it  is  placed  with  its  length  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  of  force  in  a  unit  magnetic  field  and 
fcfpt  moving  with  a  velocity  of  1  centimetre  P"  b<=<:°"^  .f^f « 
direction  at  right  angles  to  its  own  length  and  *»  the  direction  of 
the  magnetic  force.    VnU  elcclronwtive  force  is  produced  in  a  closed 
fkcu^tlx  any  unit  of  its  length  is  held  in  the  man i^r  and  moved 
to  the  direction  and  with  the  velocity,  described  m   he  last  section 
Unit  resistanee  is  the  resistance  which,  when  acted  on  hy  unit 
electromotive  force,  transmits  unit  current     Uml  «'P«f;  f_  i,the 
capacity  of  a  body  which  requires  ">"t  quantity  of  electricity  to 
raise  its  potential  by  unity,    the  units  above  specified  are  f"^'^[\y 
referred  to  as  the  absolute  C.G.S.  electromagnetic  units  of  tTie  ditfer- 
ent  quantities.     In  practice  their  rnagnitudes  were  fo""'>  ">""• 
venient.  and  certain  multiples  and   submultiples  of  them  have 
been  adopted  as  the  practical  units  of  measurement :   thus  tho 
^,H  is  equal  to  10»  C.G.S,  units  of  resisunce ;  the  wit  is  enual 
.      to  10'  C  G.S.  units  of  electromotive  force  ;  the  ampere  is  equal  to 
10-'  C  G.S.  units  of  current ;  the  coulomb  is  equal  to  10"   O.O.s. 
units  of  quantity  ;  the  farad  is  the  capacity  which  is  charged  to  a 
volt  by  a  coulomb,  and  is  equal  to  lO"'  C.G.S.  muts  of  capacity  ; 
fte  microfarad  is  the  milUonth  part  of  the  farad,  and  is  equal  to 
10-"  C.G.S.  units  of  capacity.  ,    ,    ,         .•„„ 

■We  are  hero  chiefly  concerned  with  the  muts  of  electromotive 
Ibrco,  resistance,  wd  capacity.  No  universally  recognized  standard 
of  electromotive  force  lias  yet  been  estabhslicd,  but  the  want  has 
been  to  a  gi-eat  extent  supplied  by  the  potentia  galvanometers, 
S-cstatif  voltmeters,  standard  cells,  and  other  i^strumenU 
devised  by  Sir  W  Thomson  and  others.  The  work  of  Lord  R.ayle.gh, 
Dr.  Fleming,  and  other  experimenters  on  the  Clark  and  Darnell 
ttandard  ceUk  baa  shown  conclusively  that  an  elettromotive  force 


:^^;^t:^si^s:r^FtS>r-9^££ 
B^^^^^  (*i?-tv:^.^=^» 

canbereUed  on.^if  properly  taken  care  of,  to  "^^  ''^^J^^^y 
^^cnrate  from  vear  to  year.  Similar  specimens  of  the  standard  unit 
rf  capacityTr  mi  rofa^rad  which  remain  very  "early,  constant  hav« 
been  successfully  produced.  For  a  fuller  treatment  of  this  subject 
and  of  the  rnethoSs  of  determining  the  difi-erent  units,  see  Elec- 

'''S:v^  Ibe'te^stbglonsists  mostly  of  comparisons  of  the  re- 
sistancTof  the  conductor  and  the  insulator  with  sets  of  standard 
rSnces,  and  of  comparisons  of  the  inductive  capacity  rf  tho 
Unror  cab  e  with  standard  condensers  of  known  capacity.  When 
^  is  somettoes  the  case,  the  strength  of  the  cmrent  fiowing  through 
?^eUnror  through  a  particuUr  instrument  is  to  be  determmed  it 
is  measured  by  an  electrodynamometer,  or  by  a  current  gava. 
nometer  properly  constructed  for  indicating  currents  in  absolute 
me^ure  '^In  the  absence  of  such  an  instrument  it  may  be  obUmed 
^c^urate'lv  by  he  use  of  a  standard  galvanometer  in  a  known  or 
dSermined  magnetic  field,  or,  taking  advantage  of.  Faraday  s  d^- 
coveryof  theele^ro.chemikl  equivalents,  by  measurmg  the  amount 

S^k^gh-^et^rfin^n:^«^ 

to  do  more  than  simply  refer  to  these  ^^^ods  ^e  fi^?^^^^^^^ 

''';^i'^z':tT^T^^^'"f^f^^^^^^^^ 

Let  zTfig  1)  be  the  line  with  its  distant  end  connected  with  the  meot^.t 
earth,aand  6 known  resistances,  yr  I    gistan.  i 

X  a  resistance  which  can  be  varied,  VYO  r-Hbv 

GagaWanometenKasiuglekver^__K.^    S^^ [iJ  wheal 

stone's 
bridge 


key,  K,  a  reversing  key,  and  B  a 
battery.  Put  the  zinc  pole  of  the 
battery  to  the  line  and  adjust 
the  resistance  x  until  the  gal- 
vanometer G  shows  no  deflexion 
when  K,  is  depressed.  We  then 
have,  assuming  no  electroinotive 


■  Ffg.  8. 


foVceilTthl  linl  l=ax,jb.    Next  put  the  copper  pole  to  the  hne  and 
epi   theterindsupVseinthircaseZ=ax^i;  ifthese 
oU  nearlv  agree  the  true  value  may  be  taken  as  2ax,aWi(x,  +  3^).   1  he 
effectTf  anflectromotive  force  in'the  line  itaelf  is  nearly  elimmatcd 

^")Tefthettten'(fig.  9)  be  connected  through  the  keys  K,  By  dir... 
and  K^nd  the  iSmLf  cUh  the  Une  i,  whiehhas  its^^^^^^ 
end  to  the  earth  as  before;  shunt  the  galvanometer  by  a  shunt  » 
untU  a  convenient  deflexioi  is  obtained,  ind  then  take  as  qm^k  y 
as  possible  a  series  of  readings  with  zinc  and  copper  alternately  to 
the  line  Next  substitute  for  I  a  set  of  resistance  coils  and  vary 
the  resistance  untU  the  same  series  of  readings  is  obtamed.  Tho 
esistlncrhitroduced  for  the  reproduction  of  each  reading  indicate* 
the  appSent  resistance  of  the  ^Une  when  that  reading  was  taken. 
The  reldin-s  wiU  generally  difl-er  because  of  the  existence  of  a  yari- 

in  i'0!7?i^<^f^^»»<^f'  ^A'jJ'pl^'iBieofSaDlral  Effect  tothe 

m  art.  TELEOEArn  i"  »»  "'' 'j'.,.f' ''^f  Sofu^  „^^m"nt  lo  telegraph 

tion  of  tlie  whole  line  were  Krfe='>,"'°  f '"^°Sf"  "  r  and  amlranotnctor 
jero  ;.b..t,  »l,en  looked  for  ".th  a  battery  of  8ait«Wer«'"cra^^^  .^  .^  ^ 

ofsuit.ible  sensibility,  indications  of  a  cumnt  are  aljajs^oun  ■  j,    .^^ 

very  short  length  of  very  pcrteetly  ">'  '^^.'J^, '1°^ ''J?'  'g^blS  fte  measu.0  of  the 
measure  of  the  strength  of  this  cun;ent  divided  by  tl.eab^^^^^^^  i„sidatioD 

electromotive  force  of  the  battery  gives  ^'J, "°„^'J'"™  "Ini^^ccepted  in  any  de- 
of  the  cable.  No  telegraphic  testing  °"E" J" /"'"  i°  ^  dSer  altl,un..;b 
paitinent  of  telegraphic  l>"="/'^?,^„X„?<rnt  ins^meTit  °  or  worWog  li'i  absoUU« 

^.i^^^^lIrSKK^g^^fSsbyPro.'V..^ 
8  For  this  theory,  see  ^LicraiciTV,  vel.  vm.  j.  i-. 


i 


TELEGRAPH 


117 


craistances,  when  rinc  and  copper  wore  respectively  to  the  line,  will 
gire  nearly  the  true  resistance.  Since  the  deflexions  arc  reproduced 
by  substituting  resistances 
for  the  line,  the  gih-ano- 
metor  zero  may  be  cS  tho 
scale  to  one  side,  and 
hence  the  total  deflexion^ 
.and  therefore  the  sensi- 
bility, may  be  made  very 
considerable.  In  this  case 
the  reversing  key  K  is  re-  , 
ouired  for  keeping  the  de-  (~e|  ■  p^.  g 

flexion  in  the  same  direc- 1       I  *'  ' 

tion.    AVith  a  perfectly  insulated  battery  this  can  be  accomplished 
by  putting  the  galvanometer  between  the  battery  and  the  key  K ; 
but  the  arrangement  shown  is  safer.     The  most  suitable  galvano- 
meter for  these  tests  is  a  dead-beat  mirror  galvanometer  with  a  long 
enough  suspension  to  prevent  error  from  tie  viscosity  of  the  fibre. 
(Such  an  instrument  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  astatic  form, 
,  es;>ecialiy  when  vaiiable  earth-currents  are  present. 
By  differ-     (3}  A  highly  sensitive  modihcation  of  method  (2)  is  obtained  by 
eatial     ^  the  use  of  a  differential  galvanometer,  one  coil  of  which  is  joined  in 
^viDO-  circuit  *ith  the  standard  resistances  and  the  other  coQ  with  the 
B.cter.    ^line.     The  resistances  are  then  adjusted  to  balance,  or  to  give  no 
'ptrmanent  deflexion  when  the  battery  circuit  is  closed.     Several 
balances  with  positive  and  negative  currents  must  b©  taken  and 
.<  the  results  combined  as  indicated  above. 
B.v  eiec-'     (J)  When  an  electrometer  is  employed  for 'testing  insulation,  as 
trometer.  descrjbcd  below,  it  may  be  used  for  the  wire  resistance  also  either 
by  substituting  it  for  tUe  galvanometer  in  Wheatstone's  bridge 
method  (fig.  8,  G)  or  by  that  shown  in  fig.  10.     One  pole  of  the 
battery  B  is  joined  to  the 
line  through  the  reversing 
key  K  and  the  resistance  K, 
the  other  pole  being  to  the 
■eaith.    The  electrometer  £1 
is  then  applied  to  the  two 
•ends  of  R  and  to  the  end  of 


I  and  the  earth  alternately  [71 
and  the  relative  deflexion  ^~^ 


K, 

Fig.  10. 
noted.  The  deflexions  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  equal ;  that 
is,  R  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  equa'l  to  I.  The  form  of  re- 
versing key  shown  at  K,  is  convenient  for  this  test,  as  it  allows 
the  comparisons  to  be  made  quickly  ;  and,  as  the  readings  can  be 
always  taken  to  the  same  side  of  zero,  the  whole  length  of  the  scale 
is  available  for  each  deflexion.  The  key  consists  of  two  ordinary 
front  and  back  stop  single  lever  keys  fi.\cd  together  by  an  insulat- 
ing piece  i  at  such  a  di.'stanco  apart  that  the  contact  stops  a,  b  and 
c,  d  are  at  the  corners  of  a  square.  Suppose  one  pole  of  the  battery 
put  to  the  line  and  the  resistance  R  adjusted  until  no  change  of 
deflexion  is  obtained  by  depressing  K, ;  then  R  is  equal  to  I  if  there 
is  no  earth  disturbance.  Then  put  the  other  pole  of  the  battery 
to  the  line  ;  turn  the  levers  of  K  through  90°  round  the  pivot ;) ; 
and  repeat  the  adjiistraent  of  R  for  a  second  determination  of  t. 
Repeat  these  measurements  several  times  and  combine  the  results 
ill  the  manner  described  in  method  (2).  If  R  is  not  made  equal  to 
I,  the  resistances  are  in  the  i-atio  of  the  corresponding  deflexions. 
Measnre-'  MiMSuremcnl  of  Insitlaim  Mesistanoe. — (1)  In  the  direct  deflexion 
tiient  .  method  the  connexions  are  the  same  as  those  shown  in  fig.  9,  except 
vrinsola-  that  the,distant  end  of  the  line  is  insulated.  Very  great  care  must 
nr  re-  he  taken  that  the  galvanometer  and  all  the  connexions  between  it 
distance ;  and  the  end  of  the  line  are  so  well  insulated  that  no  sensible  part 
•Jirect  of  the  observed  deflexion  is  due  to  leakage  through  thcrn.  In 
deflexion  rnaking  the  test,  first  earth  the  line  for  five  minutes  ;  then,  with 
Biethod.  the  galvanometer  short-circuited,  apply  the  zinc  pole  of  the  battery 
to  the  line  ;  at  the  end  of  from  thirty  seconds  to  a  minute,  depend- 
ing on  the  length  and  capacity  of  the  line,  remove  the.  short-circuit 
plug ;  and  record  the  deflexion  at  the  end  of  every  ten  or  fifteen 
seconds  during  the  vihole  time  (usually  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes) 
the  test  is  continued.  Again  earth  the  line  for  an  interval  equal 
to  that  during  which  the-  battery  was  applied  ;  then  apply  the 
copper  pole  of  the  battery  and  repeat  the  readings  as  before.  U=ing 
the  deflexions  as  ordinates  and  the  corresponding  times  a.^  absciss.-B, 
construct  a  smooth  cur\-e  for  both  the  zinc  and  the  copper  test 
The  galvanometer  constant  divided  by  the  mean  ordinate  of  these 
curves  at  any  time  gives  the  insulatiou  at  that  time.  To  deter- 
mine the  galvanometer  constant,  substitute  a  high  resistance  R,  say 
<-  ne  megohm,  for  the  line,  and  shunt  the  galvanometer  with  a  shunt 
i.  If  the  deflexion  under  these  circumstances  is  d  and  G  is  the 
galvanometer  resistance,  the  constant  is 

C=Rrf2±i. 
s 

K1«:WS»-      (2)  The  electrometer  method  is  only  applicable  to  lines  of  con- 

'"*'*'■       siderable  inductive  capacity,   but  is  particularlv  well  suited  for 

method,    cable  testing     Tlie  battery  B  (fi?.  l\)  is  connected  through  a  re- 

Teraing  key  K,  to  the  cud»  of  tne  rciistauce  slide  a4,  one  end  of 


which  is  put  to  earth.  Tho  slide  generally  consists  eithef  of  10  or 
100  equal  resistances,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  from  10,000 
to  100,000  ohms.  The  cable 
can  be  connected  by  means 
of  the  reversing  key  K  to 
either  pair  of  quadrants  of 
the  electrometer  El,  the 
slider  s  being  at  the  same 
time  put  to  the  other  pair. 
To  determine  the  constant 
of  the  electrometer,  con- 
nect the  earth  wire  lo  with 
the  cable  terminal  and  the 
slider  mth  contact  1,  and 
observo  the  deflexion ;  this 
should  be  the  same  for  both 

directions   of    the    current  _ 

through  the  slide  ;  its  value  multiplied  by  10,  when  the  slide  i* 
made  up  of  ten  coils,  gives  tho  value  in  scale  divisions  of  the 
full  difference  of  potential  between  the  ends  of  the  slide.  This 
number  added  to  the  zero  reading  of  the  electrometer  is  called  tho 
inferred  zero.  To  find  the  insulation  of  the  cable,  remove  the  wira 
w,  put  in  the  short  circuit  plug/;,  move  the  slider  to  contact  10, 
and,  the  distant  end  of  the  cable  being  insulated,  apply  by  means 
of  K,  the  zinc  pole  of  the  battery  to  the  cable  and  tlie  copper  pole 
to  the  earth.  Allow  sufficient  time  for  the  cable  to  charge— say 
one  minute  for  a  cable  of  2000  knots— then  remove  the  short-cir- 
cuit  plug  and  take  readings  every  fifteen  or  thirty  seconds.  Tho 
difference  of  these  readings  from  zero  gives  the  fall  of  potential  of 
the  cable  duo  to  discharge  through  the  insulating  coat..  Next 
earth  the  cable  at  both  ends  for  a  time  equal  to  the  duration  of  tlia 
last  test,  and  after  reversing  K  put  the  copper  pole  of  the  battery 
to  the  cable  and  the  zinc  pole  to  the  earth  and  take  another  series 
of  readings.  Subtract  these  readings  from  the  inferred  zero,  and, 
using  the  differences  as  ordinates  and  the  corresponding  times  as 
abscissa?,  draw  two  curves.  To  find  the  insulation  of  the  cable  at 
any  interv.al  I  after  the  battery  was  applied,  draw  a  tangent  to  tho 
curve  at  the  point  corresponding  to  that  time  and  produce  it  to  cut 
tho  axis  of  the  ordinates.  Let  D,  be  the  ordinate  to  the  point  of 
intersection,  and  D  the  ordinate  at  tho  time  t ;  -then,  if  C  be  tha 
capacity  of  the  gable  in  microfarads  and  I  its  insulation  in  megohms^ 

1=       'D      . 
C(D,-D) 

If  the  difference  between  the  reading  and  the  inferred  zero  at  tW 
times  £  and  <,  be  D  and  D^,  the  insulation  is  given  by  the  equation 

._-4343(<i-0 

^-ClogD/Di' 
when  <!  -  <  is  reckoned  in  seconds.     This  latter  is  t^e  formula  coiji 
monly  used  ;  it  gives  the  insulation  at  some  time  in  tho  interval 
between  the  two  observations ;  the  exact  time  depends  on  the  rata 
of  "absorption  "  of  the  ca^le. 

The  advantages  of  th»-electromcter  method  of  testing  cables  are 
the  comparative  steadiness  of  the  needle  during  earth-current  dis- 
turbances, its  high  sensibility  for  the  detection  of  small  intermittent 
faults,  and  the  fact  that  simultaneous  tests  can  be  taken  from  both 
ends  of  the  cable.  Ia-<)rder  to  test  from  both  ends  simultaneously 
one  or  other  of  the  foHoiving  methods  inay  be  adopted.  Call  tha 
ends  of  the  cable  A  and  B,  and  suppose  the  operator  at  A  is  to  be- 
gin the  test.  The  operator  at  B  joins  the  copper  pole  to  the  earth 
and  the  zinc  pole  to  the  line,  and  leaves  the  slider  of  his  slide  re- 
sistance at  the  earth  end  of  the  slide.  Then,  at  a  time  previously 
arranged,  he  watches  until  he  sees  tho  electrometer  begin  to  indi- 
cate a  charge  in  the  cable,  ai^d  moves  the  slider  along  th.e  slide  so 
as  to  keep  tho  electrometer  near  zeia  As  soon  as  the  electrometer 
ceases  to  indicate  increase  of  charge  he  ceases  to  move  the  slider 
and  begins  to  record  the  deflexions  at  regular  inteiyals,  tho  first 
reading  being  taken  as  zero.  The  other  method  is  to  leave  tha 
slider  permanently  to  earth  and  keep  the  electrorfleter  so  insensitive 
that  the  deflexion  is  always  within  the  limits  of  the  scale.  Ob. 
serve  the  time  at  which  the  electrometer  begins  to^be  deflected,  and 
from  that  time  onward  take  readings  every  tliirty  seconds  during 
the  time  of  the  test.  The  mean  of  the  readings  taken  at  both  ends, 
reduced  to  the  same  sensibility,  should  be  used  for  calcul.%ting  tho 
insulation.  This  method  not  only  eliminates  the  effects  of  earth- 
current  disturbance  but  also  throws  light  on  the  natats  and  di*  ' 
tribution  of  such  disturbances. 

When  an  electrometer  is  not  available  and  tho  line  is  too  much  FaU  of 
disturbed  for  good  tests  to  be  obtained  by  the  galvanometer  method,  potential 
the  following  procedure  may  be  adopted.    Join  the  battery  and  the  method 
galvanometer  in  series  with  the  cable  as  for  tho  direct  deflexion  by  gal- 
test.    Short-circuit  the  galvanometer  and  charge  the  cable  for  one  vano- 
miuute.     Insulate  the  cable  for  fifteen  seconds  ;  then  break  the  cneun 
short  circuit  of  the  galvanometer;  again  apply  the  batter}',  and 
take  the  deflexion  produced  by  the  charge.     Keep  the  battery  on 
the  cable  for  fifteen  seconds,  and  during  that  time  take  if  possibla 
the  direct  di.Il<.;viou  reading  two  ur  three  times.     A^jaiu  insulate  JfoT 


118 


TELEGRAPH 


fifteen  seconds  and  repeat  the  above  readings  ;  and  continue  the 
earns  cycle  of  operations  for  the  whole  time  of  the  test.  After 
earthing  the  cable  for  the  proper  interval  repeat  the  above  test 
with  the  other  pole  of  the  battery  to  the  cable.  To  reduce  the 
charge  readings  to  absolute  measure,  find  the  deflexion  of  the  gal- 
vanometer needle  due  to  the  charge  of  a  condenser  of  n  microfarads 
capacity  by  the  testing  battery  ;  let  d  be  this  deflexion.  Then  the 
deflexion  that  would  be  obtained  by  charging  the  whole  cable  w^uld 
be  Cdfn,  and,  if  D  be  any  one  of  the  deflexions  dunng  the  test, 
VnfCd  is  the  fraction  of  the  whole  charge  which  has  been  lost  in 
the  fifteen  seconds  immediately  preceding  this  charge  ;  thus 
4343x15 

The  method  just  described  takes  advantages  in  a  somewhat  imper* 
feet  manner  of  both  the  direct  deflexion  and  the  electrometer 
t«at ;  but  the  galvanometer  shonid  have  such  a  long  period  that 
the  whole  of  the  charge  can  take  place  before  the  needle  is  sensibly 
moved  from  its  zero  position,  and  that  the  vibration  of  the  needle 
must  not  be  damped  to  any  great  extent, — a  condition  which  renders 
tbe  instrument  unsuitable  for  direct  deflexion  testine. 

The  pomta  with  regard  to  the  cable  which  should  be  particularly 
attended  to  when  testing  for  insulation  are — the  continuity  of  the 
insulation  all  through  the  test,  that  is,  there  should  be  no  sign  of 
a  breakdown  for  ever  so  short  a  time  ;  the  rate  of  polarization  with 
positive  and  negative  current  is  always  the  same  in  a  perfect  cable, 
t)ut  IB  seldom  so  when  a  fault  exists  ;  the  absolute  insulation  with 
both  currents  should  also  be  the  same  if  the  cable  is  perfect,  but  is 
never  so  for  any  length  of  time  when  a  fault  exists.  If  the  insula- 
tions show  any  sign  of  being  defective  great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  apply  a  powerful  battery  to  the  cable,  unless  the  objeot  is 
to  increase  or  "  break  down  "  the  fault.  The  resistance  of  a  fault 
IS  generally  diminished  by  applying  the  zinc  pole  of  the  battery  to 
the  cable  and  increased  by  applying  the  copper  pole  (  but  if  the 
fault  13  small  it  sometimes  happens  that  both  currents  increase 
the  resistance.  Even  a  very  powerful  battery  may  in  such  a  case 
fail  to  increase  the  fault. 
Tbom-  Capaaly  Tests.— The  arrangement  of  the  connexions  for  Thom- 

son s         son's  capacity  test  are  shown  in  fig.  12^    A  well-insulated  battery 


capacity   B  13  connected  through  a  reversing  key  K,  to  the  slide  resistance  ab. 


t<4t 


rOQ 


ant",  by  means  of  a  key 
K  a  can  be  put  to  a 
standard  condenser  C 
and  b  to  the  cable. 
or  the  condenser  and 
the  cable  can  be  con- 
nected together  and 
then  both  put  to 
earth  through  the 
galvanometer  G  by 
closing  the  key  K,. 
Any  point  m  the  re- 
sistance ab  can  be  put 
to  earth  by  means  of 
the  slider  s.  Suppose 
the  middle  point  put  to  the  earth,  then  C  and  L  will  be  charged  to 
equal  potentials  but  of  opposite  sign.  If  the  connexions  to  the 
slide  are  broken  and  C  is  joined  to  L,  the  resulting  charge  will  be 
zero  when  the  capacity  C  is  equal  to  the  capacity  L,  and  when  Rj 
IS  closed  no  current  will  flow  through  G.  SimiUrlv,  if  as  is  to  sb 
as  L  IS  to  C  the  resulting  charge  is  zero.  Hence  when,  after  join* 
■ing  C  to  L,  no  deflexion  is  shown  on  G  when  Kj  is  closed — 


L=C 


sb 


Gott  8     tA  roodificatioD  of  this  test  has  bten  suggested  by  Mr  7obn  Gott. 

lest.  The  condenser  C  is  joined  in  seiies  with  the  cable  and  one  end  of 

the  slide  is  put  to  earth.     The  galvanometer  G  is  joined  from 

■the  end  of  the  cable  to  the  slider  5  and  the  position  of  the  latter, 

'  which  gives  no  deflexion,  is  found  by  successive  trials,  the  cable 

being  discharged  and  recharged  between  the  trials.     A  small  con- 

ienser  in  the  galvanometer  circuit  is  an  advantage,  as  it  allows 

leveral  adjustments  to  be  made   without  discharging  the  cable. 

rhe  most  suitable  instrument,  however,  is  an  electrometer,  as  it 

allows  the  adjustment  to  be  made  at  once. 

Df-  The  capacities  of  condensers  may  be  compared  by  charging  or 

Snutyp     discharging  the.n    through   a   galvanometer   and   comparing  the 

lefexions,  or,  as  in  De  Sauty's  method,  by  substituting  them  for 

wo  sides  of  a  Wheatstone's  bridge  and  finding  the  ratio  of- the 

esistances  in  the  other  two  sides;  then,  with  the  galvanometer 

ircuit  closed,  the  battery  circuit  can  be  closed  without  producmg 

■■  ny  deflexion.     The  galvanometer  circuit  must  join  the  condensers 

1.  the  same  points  as  the  bridge  resistances.     These  methods  are 

^uite  unsuited  for  telegraph-line  testing  because  of  the  resistance 

and  the  inductive  retardation  of  the  line. 

Tests  of  a  SubTturged  Cable. — During  the  submergence  of  a  cable 
u  IS  necessary  to  1  rovide  the  ricans  of  knowing  at  every  instant 


whether  it  continues  in  perfect  electrical  condition,  so  that  should  Teste  aJ 
any  fault  develop  it  can  beat  once  detected  and  further  paying  out  sub- 
stopped  until  it  IS  removed.     It  is  also  of  great  importance  that  mergec3 
the  -ship  and  shore  should  be  in  telegraphic  communication  with  cable, 
each  other.     The  arrangements  made  for  tnese  purposes  by  diflferent 
electricians  vary  considerably  ;  but  the  general  principle  will  be 
gathered  from  fig.  13.  which  includes  all  that  is  absolutely  necessary, 
for  the  purpose.     The 
principal    testing    sta 
tion  IS  always  on  board 
the  ship,  and  from  it  all 
the   testing   operations 
both  on  board  and  on 
shore      are     regulated. 
Referring    first    to  the 
arrangements  on  board, 
B  13  the  testing  battery,  ; 
K  the  testing  key,  and  - 
G  the  testing  galvano  ^  r 
meter  ;    Bj   is   the  sig-  "^ 

nailing  or  '*  speaking "    »  ^        '^'S-  *^  * 

battery,  K,  the  key,  and  G,  the  galvanometer  ;  R  is  a  resistance  box 
and  E  the  earth  pb re — the  ships  side  in  this  case.  The  battery  B 
IS  connected  through  the  key  K,  the  resistance  R,  and  the  galvano- 
meter G  to  the  cable,  as  for  direct  deflexion  testing.  The  shore  end" 
of  the  cable  is  at  the  same  time  connected  to  one  set  of  plates  of  a. 
highly  insulated  condenser  Cj  and  {although  this  may  be  omitted) 
to  one  pair  of  quadrants  of  an  electrometer  El.  The  other  pair  of 
plates  uf  the  condenser  are  put  to  earth  through  the  signalling 
key  K,,  It  is  convenient  also  to  have  a  second  condenser  Q|  on 
shore,  the  capacity  of  which  can  be  readily  varied,  so  arranged  that 
Its  capacity  can  be  added  to  that  of  Cj  by  depressing  the  key  K,  and 
again  discharged  through  a  galvanometer  G  by  releasing  the  key. 
The  operations  are  then  conducted  as  follows.  The  insulation  is- 
measured  on  board  ship,  alternately  with  positive  and  negative 
currents  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  minute-'*'  duration,  by  observing  the 
deflexion  on  the  galvanometer  G  ;  and  the  reading  at  the  end  of 
each  minute,  or  oftener,  is  recorded  in  a  diary.  The  continuity  of 
the  conductor  is  tested  at  short  intervals — say  every  five  minutes — 
by  the  observer  on  shore  depressing  the  key  K  and  thus  adding  the- 
capacity  of  C  to  the  cable.  This  gives  a  sudden  deflexion  on  the 
galvanometer  G  on  board,  and  at  the  same  time  shows  that  the 
conductor  is  continuous  and  that  the  observer  on  shore  is  attending: 
to  his  duties.  When  the  shore  key  K  is  released,  the  discharge 
through  G  is  indicated  by  a  throw  deflexion,  the  amount  of  which 
is  recorded  in  the  diary  and  shows  the  potential  to  which  the  shore 
end  of  the  cable  is  kept  charged.  "V.'hen  the  electrometer  £1  is- 
used,  a  continuous  test  of  the  potential  at  the  shore  end  is  obtained,, 
and  the  development  of  a  fault  in  the  cable  is  at  once  indicated- 
It  is  convenient  for  this  purpose  to  dispense  with  the  charge  in  the- 
electrometer  jar  and  needle  and  connect  the  needle  to  the  pair  ol' 
quadrants  which  are  joined  to  the  cable.  The  deflexion  is  tht^n. 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  potential  and  is  always  to  one  sidf 
of  zero,  so  that  the  whole  range  of  the  scale  is  available  for  the  de- 
flexion. The  tests  for  wire- resistance  and  capacity  aie  practically- 
the  same  as  those  already  described.  They  are  in  ordinary  circum- 
stances of  much  less  importance  than  the  insulation  tests.  The 
wire-resistance  test  is  of  great  value,  however,  for  giving  a  close- 
estimate  of  the  temperature  of  the  submerged  cable,  and  hence  lor 
giving  the  means  of  comparing  the  tests  of  the  submerged  cable 
with  those  of  the  cable  previous  to  submersion.  In  laying  short 
lengths  of  cable  the  shore  station  may  be  dispensed  with  and  capacity 
tests  relied  on  for  continuity.  Communication  between  ship  ant^ 
shore  is  caiTied  on  by  means  of  the  keys  Kj,  Kj,  the  galvanometer 
Gj.  and  the  batteries  B„  B,.  The  signalling  key  on  board  the  slnp. 
adds  or  subtracts  the  electromotive  force  of  tbe  battery  Bj  from  the- 
testing  battery,  and  hence  varies  the  potential  of  the  cable.  This  is- 
shown  on  shore  by  the  partial  charge  or  discharge  of  C^  passing 
through  the  galvanometer  G,  and  is  interpreted  in  accordance  with 
the  single  needle  alphabet  in  the  ordinary  way.  In  a  simil'ii 
manner  the  signalling  key  on  shoie  varies  the  charge  of  Cj,  ar.d 
so  causes  slight  variations  of  the  testing-current  on  board  the  ahi\>, 
which  are  read  on  the  galvanometer  Gj  and  interpreted  in  the  eaiue 
way.  The  testing  is  usually  suspended  dunng  the  signalling ;  b  jv 
if  the  message  is  long  an  insulation  reading  is  taken  every  lew 
minutes  according  to  pre-arrangement 

The  galvanometers  used  at  sea  require  to  be  constructed  so  that  Manis.^ 
the  rolling  of  the  ship  does  not  deflect  the  needle,  either  on  account  galvac- 
of  its  inertia  and  the  action  of  gravity,  or  of  the  relative  changes  m  omcte? 
the  position  of  the  ship's  magnetism      The  best  form  of  marine 
galvanometer  consists  of  two  short  bobbms  of  fine  silk -covered  win- 
placed  end  to  end,  about  an  eighth  of  an  ujch  apart,  and  havin« 
their  axes  in  the  sime  line,  with  a  very  light  mirror,  carrying  ce 
mented  to  its  back  one  or  more  small  magnets  suspended  betwt-eu 
the  two  bobbins  in  such  a  way  that  the  centre  of  the  mirror  u  ic. 
their  common  axis.     The  mirror  and  magnet  system  weighs  t'rnfu 
one-half  to  one  grain      tt  is  suspended  as  shown  lu  tig   14  b\  "^ 


TELEGRAPH 


Com- 
plet« 
rupture 
with  con 
(1  actor 

ilL-iU- 

'ttcd 


p;et« 
fnctnre 
with  end 
pxrCially 
euthed. 


PirtLil 
Mrth 
irithout 
Picture. 


single  silk  fibre/,  which  passes  t^ro«gh  the  centre  of  iucrtij  of  tlie 

mirror  and  needle  system  m  and  is  Iked  at  one  end  directly  to  tlio 

frame  F  and  at  the  other  end  to  a  light 

•spring   5.      The    frame    F   is   made    thin 

enougli  to  slide  into  the  opening  between 

the  two  bobbins,  so  that  the  mirror  can 

be  easily  uken  out  for  adjustment  when 

necessary.    So  long  as  the  suspending  fibre 

passes  through  the  centre  of  inertia  of  vi 

it  is  clear  that  no  motion  of  translation 

of  F  can  produce  rotation  of  the  mirror. 

When  the  instrument  requires  to  be  highly 

sensitive,    as    for   testing    purposes,    it  is 

shielded  from  the  action  of  the  ship's  snd 

the  earth's  magnetism  by  enclosing  it  in 

a  massive  iron  case.     For  signalling  pur 

poses  the  controlling  magnet  is  arranged 

to  produce  at  the  needle  a  field  so  strong  Fio.  14.-Manneg.lT.no. 

that  the  effect  of  variations  of  external  mag-  meter. 

oetism  is  inappreciable. 

Tesliny  /or  f.iiiUs. — Numerous  methods  have  been  proposed  for 
the  localii-Ttion  ef  faults  in  telegraph  lines,  some  of  a  complex  char- 
acter and  adapted  to  the  cases  of  faults  of  a  kind  which  fortunately 
seldom,  if  ever,  occur.  We  give  here  a  brief  outline  of  tie  tests 
for  the  cases  of  most  common  occurrence. 

For  the  deteomnation  of  the  position  of  a  complete  rupture  with 
the  conductor  insulated  both  the  insulation  and  the  capacity  tests 
are  theoretically  applicable.  The  insulation  of  a  line  of  uniform 
•  t)-pe  and  material  is  inversely  as  its  Icag'h  ;  hence  if  a  piece  is 
broken  off  the  insulation  is  increased.  If  I  be  the  total  insulation 
before  rupture.  I,  the  insulation  of  one  section  after  rupture,  and  I 
the  total  length  of  the  bne,  the  length  of  the  section  b  I/'I,.  Un- 
fortunately it  is  dilficult  to  obtain  the  necessary  accuracy  in  insula- 
tion testing  on  account  of  the  great  influence  of  earth -currents 
on  the  result ;  but  apart  from  this  there  is  always  some  uncertainty, 
especially  in  cables,  as  to  the  insulation  at  the"  break.  For  cables 
a  fairly  reliable  test  can  be  obtained  from  the  capacity  even  when 
the  insulation  at  tlie  fault  is  somewhat  imperfect,  if  it  be  sufficient 
to  hold  the  greater  part  of  the  charge  for  a  few  seconds,  since  the 
amount  of  loss  in  any  shoi;t  interval  can  be  estimated  by  a  separate 
test.  The  capacity  of  a  uniform  cable  is  inversely  as  its  lencth  • 
hence,  if  C  be  the  total  capacity  of  the  perfect  cable  and  cfthe 
capacity  of  one  section,  the  length  of  that  section  is  /C,/C.  When— 
as  13  almost  always  the  case— the  cable  is  not  quite  uniform  in 
electrical  quality  and  iii  temperature,  a  table  or  a  curve  showing 
the  wire  resistance,  the  insulation,  and  the  capacity  up  to  any  point 
from  either  end  shoald  be  kept  for  reference. 

It  is  nit  at  all  uncommon  in  cables  for  one  side  of  a  fracture  to 
be  partially  insulated  through  the  conductor  not  breaking  exactly 
.nt  the  same  point  as  the  insulator.  In  this  case,  however,  the 
other  end  will  be  in  most  cases  almost  perfectly  earthed  and  the 
position  of  the  fault  can  be  very  nearly  determined  by  the  wire- 
resutance  test.  When  both  ends  are  partially  insulated  it  is  very 
difficult  to  obtain  a  near  approach  to  the  position  of  the  fault  because 
of  the  uncertainty  as  to  which  side  of  the  break  offers  the  greatest 
resistance.  A  first  approximation  is  obtained  by  Cudin"  the  wire 
rraistance  from  both  ends  and  subtracting  the  total  wire  resistance 
of  the  cable  from  the  sum  of  these.  This  gives  the  sum  of  the 
resistances  at  the  fracture,  and  half  of  this,  if  it  is  not  too  great, 
subtracted  from  the  resistance  of  either  section  gives  an  approxima- 
tion to  the  resistance  of  that  section  np  to  the  break.  If,  however, 
the  resistance  at  the  fracture  is  comparable  to  the  total  wire  re^ 
sistance  of  the  cable,  this  method  is  useless.  An  approach  to  the 
solution  of  the  difficulty  can  be  obtained  from  capacity  tests,  the 
cable  being  discharged  through  different  resistances  at  the  testin" 
end.  But  the  procedure  is  very  uncertain  and  difficult,  and  a  full 
discussion  of  it  would  take  more  space  th,in  can  be  afforded  here 
The  resistance  at  a  fault  can  sometimes  be  greatly  diminished  by 
repeated  application  alternately  of  the  positive  and  negative  poles 
of  a.  powerful  battery  to  the  cable,  but  this  should  never  be  resorted 
to  if  It  can  possibly  be  avoided.  The  direct  deflexion  method  of 
taking  wire  resistance  is  most'suitable  for  these  tests  The  resi^t- 
•aace  seems  to  diminish  gradually  after  the -battery  is  applied  until 
It  reaches  ;i  mmimum  value,  after  which  if  again  incrrases  This 
niaximum  .lede.xion  should  be  taken  as  indicating  most  nearly  the 
true  wire  resistance  up  to  the  fracture. 

.„]!''? /,"'^  ''m"  ■'  *  P*"^'^'  ^"'^  '^'"•°"t  fracture,  and  both 
l^^  f  u  '^"'i  "",  ^"i'^We-as  in  factory  testing?  or  whe^  a 
^?Si''";r',"'^**^  '"^'■'*'  ""  ^^  used-tL  most  satisfactory 
method  IS  the  Iood  test  In  this  the  two  sections  of  the  S 
f.«n  two  sides  of  tSe  Wheatstone's  bridge  ;  one  pole  of  the  baUery 
»  put  to. tho  junction  of  the  other  twoSides  S  the  other  ™>^e 
^.^^''i^^Y?'  PT'''^^''^  ">  '^'  f^""-  The  ratio  of  the  res^ 
ances  m  tie  bridge  when  balance  is  obtained  gives  the  ratio  o?  he 
res  stances  of  the  two  sections  of  the  cabks  or  the  ratio  of  the 
Si  ^Sn,"*^  oie^ection  to  the  resistance  of  the  other  section  p  us 
the  resisbince  of  the  secoad  cable.      The  tofl  resistance  nf  the 


11? 


c.iMe  be  ::ig  knowu,  it  is  easy  to  determine  the  position  of  the  fault 
'.Vhen  the  fault  has  a  high  resistance  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  cor. 
rection  for  the  went  of  Dcrfect  insulation  in  the  sound  part  of  the 
cable.  When  both  eii3s  of  the  cable  are  not  avai'-ible,  measure 
the  potential  at  the  testing  end  and  the  resistance  between  that  end 
and  the  earth,  and  simultaneously  measure,  by  means  of  a  slide  re- 
sisUnce  and  zero  galvanometer  or  by  means  of  a  quadrant  electro- 
meter, the  potential  at  the  distant  end.  Then,  if  V  be  the  potential 
at  the  testing  end,  v  the  potential  at  the  distant  cud,  and  K  the  re- 
sistance measured,  the  true  resistance  of  the  fault  is  R(l  -r/V) 
Another  simple,  although  less  perfect  method,  may  bo  mentioned. 
Measure  the  resistance  between  both  ends  and  the  e.-i'rth  and  subtract 
from  the  sum  the  true-ivire  resistance  of  the  cable  ;  the  different 
13  twice  the  resistance  of  the  fault.  The  imperfection  of  this  method, 
and  indeed  of  any  which  involves  two  observations  noi  made  simul- 
taneously, lies  in  the  variable  character  of  the  resistance  of  a  fault. 

m.  MoDER.v  Telegraphs. 

The  code  of  signals  introduced  by  Morse  is  still  employed  in  the  Morae 
nited  btates  and  Canada,  and  the  intematinml  end.,  in  vnm.o  ;,  .,...._ 


O'sreia 


TT   -i  J  £j ».f,"--o  iuL.,^utcu  uj,  ..luiso  i»  Mm  euipioyea  in  mc 

United  btates  and  Canada,  and  the  international  code  »  vogue  ir. 
Europe  differs  only  slightly  from  it  Currents  in  one  direction  on!  r 
are  used,  and  different  combinations  of  from  one  to  four  long  and 
short  contacts  form  the  letters,  while  the  numerals  are  represented 
by  groups  of  five  signals,  and  punctuation  and  other  special  signs 
by  groups  of  six  and  sometimes  more.  The  instrumen.ts  used  for 
land  telegraphs  on  this  system  are  of  two  types,-"  sounders,"  which 
indicate  by  sound,  and  "recorders,"  which  record  the  signals. 

(1)  Recorders  vary  in  details  of  construction,  but  alFhave  the  Mors., 
same  object,  namely,  to  record  the  intervals  during  which  the  curieii  t  recorders; 
IS  applied  to  the  line.  In  the  earlier  forms  of  instrument  the  record 
was  made  by  embossing  lines  on  a  ribbon  of  paper  by  means  of  a 
sharp  stile  fixed  to  one  end  of  a  lever,  which  canied  at  the  other 
end  the  armature  of  an  electromagnet  This  method  of  recording 
IS  still  largely  emjiloyed  in  America,  and  certainly  has  the  advan- 
tage of  simplicity.  The  form  of  instrument  almost  universally 
used  m  Europe  makes  the  record  in  ink,  and  hence  is  sometimes 
called  the  "ink-writer."  This  method  has  the  advanta-re  of  dis- 
tinctness, and  so  is  less  trying  to  the  eyes  of  the  operators.  The 
action  of  the  instrument  wUl  be  understood  from  the  annexed 
sketch  (fig. 
15).  Sup- 
pose s  to 
be  a  strip 
of  paper 
which  is 
being'pull. 
edtowapis 
the  left  by 

means  of  -two  rollers  r,  and  r; 
moved  by  a  train  of  mechanism. 
Underneath  the  roller  r,  a  small 
wheel  i  is  kept  turning  by  tlie 
same  mechanism,  and  has  its 
lower  edge  in  contact  with  the 
surface  of  ink  in  the  ink-welj  w. 

When  a  current  is  sent  through 

the  magnet  n,  the  armature  a  is  ^''o-  15 
attracted  and  the  lever  I  lifts  the 

ink-wheel  i  into  contact  with  the.  paper,  against  the  surface  of 
which  It  rolls  untU  the  current  is  broken,  thus  making  a  maik  tho 
length  of  which  depends  on  the  speed  of  the  mechanism  ar.d  the 
time  the  current  flows.  As  tho  speed  of  the  mechanism  is  nearly 
constant,  the  relative  lengths  of  the  marks  depend  only  on  the 
duration  of  the  current  In  this  way  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
or  any  other  understood  signs,  are  indicated  by  groups  of  Ion"  pnd 
short  marks,  commonly  called  "dashes"  and  "dots."  ° 

(2)  Ojwrators  who  use  the  record- 
learn  to  read  the  message  by  the  click 
against  its  stop,  and  as  this  is  a  less 
reading,  and  leaves  tho  hands  and 
eyes  free  to  write,  the  sound  is  usu- 
ally preferred.     Thus,  when  it  is  not 
necessary  to   keep  a  copy,  a  much 
simpler  instrument  may  be  employed 
and  the  message  read  by  sound.   Tlie 
earliesl^successful  form  was  Bright's 
bell  sounder,  which  consisted  of  two 
bells  of  distinct  tone  or  pitch, 
one  of  which  was  sounded  when 
the  current  was  sent  in  one 
direction  and  the  other  wheii 
it  was  revei-sed.     This  instri- 
ment  ^va3  capable   of  giviiit; 
very  considerable  speed,  but  it* 
was  more    complicated    than 
that  how  in  use,  which  consists 


3IorbC  tnl;  writer,  one-roerlh.' 
fu'l  size. 


Ing  instrument  soon  Jforse 
of     the     armature  sounder^ 
fatiguing  method  of 


.  16.— Morse  >. 

lull  .-..:<:. 


irth 


ouiy  of  au  cVcfroiiingnet,  with  its  armature  lever  ari-auged  to  stof 


TELEGRAPH 


Chemical 
tele- 
graphs. 


Auto- 
matic 
tde- 

graplis 


^Vheat• 

RUtO- 

rFatic. 


^^L^nnH  The  form  of  sounder  commonly  used  in  EDgland 
■""".'^"^rfi^lfi-  it  UOM  of  the  simplest  possible  instruments, 
S  t^   djuftil'to'the^c^i^nt  by  tig^teniTg  or  slackening  tie 

-iddifHo^r^^'ctslfS^ptr":^ 

t^s  urn  and  a  Ught  contact  spring  made  to  press  continu-  ^^ 

^de'^ed'ty  mea^ine^Xn  hJe^  been  introduced  by  S.cmens 
.^^Halske   Garnier   Humaston,  Siemens,  and  Little. 


rods  M  M„  the  one  as  much  in  front  of  the  other  as  there  is  smce 
Utlelk  WO  successive  holes  in  the  perforated  ribbon.  To  the  o  her 
e^drof  A,  B  rods  H,  H,  are  loosely  hinged,  their  ends  passing 
oosely  though  holes' in 'the  ends  of  the  bar  P,  f-h  'S  "i^^^" 
the  divided  disk  D.  By  meal's  of  two  collars  K,  h ,  anrt  the  w  iiwi 
W  thltek  D  is  made  to -oscillate  in  unison  v:.tl.  the  beam  R 
The  cranks  Cand  C,  are  connected  with  tbo  poles  of  the  seudms 


levers.  Tlie  punches  are  arran 
levers  are  adjusted^  so 
that  the  left-ha^d  one 
moves  a,  i,  c  and'^unches 
a  row  of  holes  across  the 
paper  (group  1  in  the 
figure),  the  middle  one 
inoves  6  only  and  punches 


Fig.  17 


™:n1rKr2?nr  ^gure,,  whiJe  the  right^^^^^^^^ 

Fi::r;erfoidfei°sJ^^'tnVSfrutW^^^ 
In  Th  I  wkv  several  thicknesses  of  paper  can  be  perforated  at  the 

F^^J   18      An  ebonite  beam  E  is  rocked  up  and  down  rapidly  by 
k^Sin^f  mX;\mand  movesJhecr^^Aand^B^^^^^^^ 

XrThrl^th^e  ?prinV  »%  -^  ?bey  carry  two  li«h.  vertical 


battery  B.  The  operation  is  as  follows.  The  paper  ribbon  R  is 
moved  forward  by  its  centre  row  of  holes  at  tbe  proper  speed  above 
The  upper  ends  of  the  rods  M,  M, ;  should  there  be  no  hole  m  the 
^b^STt  pushes  the  crank  A  or  B  °"  °f  »°^^' j;'* ''Kve^'  ^ 
and  prevents  a  current  passing  to  the  line  Sh"""'  ''"^l^,^"' » 
row  of  holes,  like  group  1  above,  be  perforated,  the  rod  M,  will  tirst 
be  allowed  to  pass°through  thf  paper  and  copper  will  be  put  to  tho 
Une  at  the  nSthalf  stroke  cf  the  beam.  M."'" /^ '«',?^,^ 
as  the  disk  D  reverses  the  battery  zinc  will  be  put  to  the  ime. 
Thus  for  a  dot  first  a  positive  and  then  a  negative  currem  are  sent 
to  the  line,  the  effect  oY  the  positive  current  Continuing  during  the 
me  requ?;;d  for  the  paper  U.  travel  the  space  YrLt"mrtt  'l 

^e^is°'irc;p^;r?:t\ri4\t'r^^^^^^^ 

m'^'u  noT'n^'^hrough,  as  there  is  "<>  l."]- i°.  ^"^  P^\P^\i„  ^^ 
at  the  third  half  stroke  it  passes  through  and  zinc    s  put  to  tiie 
Une     ThS  for  a  dash  the  interval  between  the  positive  and  U.a 
negative  current  is  equal  to  the  time,  the  paper  t-kes  to  trav     over 
twice  the  space  between  two  successive  holes.     Hence  lor  sei.aing 
^  h  a  doS  a  dash  reverse  currents  of  short  duration  are  sent 
through  uTline,  but  the  interval  between  the  reversal  is  three 
times  a^  great  for  the  dash  as  for  the  dot     I"  *e  receiving  instru- 
Tnl  Uif  electromagnet  is  so  constructed  that  the  armature    if 
nXd  into  any  position  by  either  current,  remains  in  that  position 
IS  her  the  c/rr^nt  contin'ues  to  flow  »;,''°t.  ""^j^/.^^XTs  d" 
;=  made  to  act  on  the  magnet.     For  the  dot  the  armature  is  ae 
flecTedbrthe  first  current^he  ink-wheel  being  b^uglit  into  con- 
tect  wit  1  the  paper  and  after  a  6hort  inter^-a    pulled  back  by  tho 
^verl^  current^  ^In  the  case  of  the  dash  the  ink-wheel  is  brought 
[^lo  contoct  with  the  paper  by  the  first  current  as  before  and  a 
nulled  b^kb7  the  reverse  current  after  three  limes  t'le  interval 

?h"  effect  of  eectrosutic  induction  is  reduced  to  lJ"""^^^r 
Through  the  instrumentality  of  this  ^f;"!  f  "^"^  ^,f  ^",i;°e1„' 
per  minute  have  lately  been  transmitted  by  Mr  Preece  between 

4rfi^fco^r^ISS^etm'prme"n?rnTi%^^^^ 

¥h\trnt^\^s::tt^htHfeLtbrl^^^^^^^^^ 

on  the  printing  instrument  or  to  close  a  loc.   circuit  bj  means  °'^ 
of  the  soft  iron  cor.^  and  is  pulled  by  a  strong  spring,  the  ten«»» 


i 


Hughes's 

tyiie- 
printing 
tele- 
graph 


L  E  G  R  A  P  H 


121 


of  which  u  ftdjQstt?a  ou  aa  to  b«:  litttrlv  t^ca]  to  the  XLfifTietic  attrac- 
tion. Tl'.e  current  is  seLt  ia  the  propor  directioii  lo  ainiinisli  the 
pow-er  of  the  magnet  and  allow  the  spring  to  prepomierat*.  A  very 
powerful  action  is  thus  obtained  by  means  of  a  very  small  current, 
the  actual  work  being  done  by  motive-power  in  the  instrument 
itself.  After  the  letter  is  printed  the  mechanism  short-circuits  the 
magnet  and  replaces  the  armatura  automatically.  The  printing 
action  is  as  follows.     The  type-wheel  W  is  carried  round  continu- 


"  American  combination  printing  talegntph,"  because  i 
part  of  Hughes's  and  part  of  House's  instruments. 


z'h  full  sire. 


—  HliL-Ues'styp*;:. ;-.:.:':. -.Pi- 
ously by  the  clockwork,  to  which  it  is  attached  through  a  friction 
sleeve  .which  allows  it  to  be  stopped,  and  pushed  backward  or  for- 
ward without  stopping  the  mecTianism.  Another  shaft  carrying 
three  pams  is  arranged  so  as  to  be  locked  into  gear  with  the  wheel- 
work  when  the  armature  leaves  the  poles  of  the  magnet.  The  cams 
then  come  into  action  in  rotation  ;  the  first  moves  the  adjustment 
lever,  shown  to  the  left  of  W  in  the  6gure,  which  pushes  a  wedge- 
shaped  piece  into  the  teeth  of  the  type-wheel  and  adjusts  it  exactly 
to  the  proper  position  for  printing ;  the  second  cam  presses  the  paper 
against  the  type  ;  the  third  moves  forward  the  paper  ;  a  fourth  cam 
replaces  the  armature  of  the  magnet  and  relieves  the  cam  shaft, 
leaving  the  instrument  ready  to  receive  another  letter.  The  whole 
of  this  operation  occupies  only  a  small  fraction  of  a  second.  By 
means  of  the  adjustmeiit  lever  or  "  corrector  "  I  every  error  in  syn- 
chronism decidedly  less  than  half  the  space  from  letter  to  letter  is 
perfectly  corrected  each  time  an  inipresiion  is  made.  Thus,  during 
the  time  the  receiving  instrument  at  one  station  is  in  use,  its  type- 
wheel  is  kept  in  perfect  agreement  with  the  sending  wheel  at  the 
other  station  ;  and,  if  the  electric  action  keeps  time,  a  wrong  letter 
cannot  be  printed  unless  the  rate  of  the  clockwork  is  at  fault  by 
some  such  amount  as  one  or  two  per  cent.  If  the  two  wheels  are 
allowed  to  nin  a  long  time  without  the  electric  m.iintenance  of 
agreement,  they  will  be  found  more  or  less  at  variance,  as  the 
pieces  of  clockwork,  however  good,  cannot  be  perfect.  All  that  is 
neoessaiy  to  bring  them  into  agreement  again  is  to  strike  several 
times  the  key  corresponding  to  a  prearranged  adjustment  signal — 
that  corresponding  to  the  dot  type,  for  instance.  The  receiver  knows 
(according  to  the  regulated  system  of  working)  that  it  is  adjustment, 
not  message,  that  is  being  sent ;  and  he  turns  his  type-wheel  by 
hand  till  it  prints  dots.  He  then  signals  back  "O.K."  ("All 
correct !  ")  and  is  ready  to  receive  the  message.  If  by  any  accident 
his  type-wheel  gets  on  a  wrong  letter  in  the  course  of  a  message, 
he  disturbs  the  sender  (who  all  the  time  sees  the  effect  of  his  sending 
printed  before  his  own  eyes)  by  sending  back  a  few  currents  on 
him  ;  he  receives  dots  by  way  of  acknowledgment,  and  resets  his 
type-wheel  to  print  correctly.  This  system  of  telegraphic  printing 
has  a  great  advantage  over  the  step-by-step  system  in  using  con- 
tinuous instead  of  intermittent  currents,  and  so  avoiding  the  neces- 
sity for  the  rapidly  acting  electric  escapement,  which,  however  skil- 
fully planned  and  executed,  is  always  liable  to  failure  when  worked 
too  rapidly.  In  Hughes's  instrument  almost  perfect  accuracy  and 
certainty  nave  been  attained  ;  and  in  actual  practice  it  has  proved 
to  be  decidedly  superior  to  all  previous  type-printing  telegraphs, 
'lot  only  in  speed  and  accuracy,  but  in  less  liability  to  mechanical 
derangement  from  wear  and  tear  and  from  accident  It  involves 
many  novel  features  :  the  receiving  electromagnet  is  of  peculiar 
construction  and  remarkable  elEciency  ;  the  transmitting  apparatus 
has  a  contrivance  to  prevent  unintentional  repetitions  of  a  letter 
through  the  operator  holdmg  his  finger  too  long  on  a  key  ;  the 
type-wheel  has  a  lock  for  each  station,  to  be  opened  by  its  own  key, 
one  of  the  letter  keys  of  any  of  the  instruments  in  the  circuit.    This 

instrument  was  for  ?ome  years  extensively  used  in  the  United  States,         i  For  these  and  other  type-prinUng  instruments,  see  Prescotf  s  Blectricu^ 
Bi-til  superseded  by  G.  M.  Pfcei|,s's  modification  of  it,  known  as  the  I  "'■'I  (*«  BUclric  TcUgrafh. 


it  eniTxjdied 
part  of  Hughes's  and  part  of  Hou3e~s  instruments.  With  this 
modified  form  somei*hat  greater  speed  was  obtained,  but  it  was 
found  difficult  to  drive,  requiring  the  use  of  steamer  some  such 
motive-power.  In  a  subsequent  modification  introduced  in  1875 
an  electromotor  is  applied  to  drive  the  printing  mechauism.  This 
allows  a  shorter  train  and  stronger  wheelwork  to  be  used,  secures 
more  certain  action,,  and  involves  less  risk  of  derangement. 
Hughes's  form  was  taken  up  by  the 
French  Government  in  1860,  and  is  still 
very  largely  in  use  in  France. 

Stock    and    private    line    telegraph^  Stoct 
constitute  an  important  class  of  iustiu   tele 
ments,   of   which    Laws's    "gold    indi   fraphs^ 
cator, "  introduced  in  1866,  maybe  taken 
as  the  forerunner.     A  brief  description 
of  Calahan's  stock  telegraph,  introduced 
in  1867,  will  give  a  geueral  idea  of  the 
action  of  this  class  of  instruments.     The 
printing  mechanism  consists  of  two  type- 
wheels,  on  the  edge  of  one  of  which  are 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  on  the 
edge  of  the  other  the  numerals  from  1 
to  9  and  fractions  by  eighths  up  to  unity- 
The  type-wheels  are  placed  side  by  side, 
but  can  be  turned  independently  of  each 
other.    Beneath  them  a  platen  is  carried 
on  one  end  of  a  lever,  whose  other  end 
13  attached  to  the  armature  of  an  electro- 
magnet.    Between  the  platen  and  the 
wheels  a  ribbon  of  paper  broad  enough 
to  cover  the  edges  of-  both  wheels  is 
passed.     The  instrument  is  worked  by 
three  lines  of  wire,  one  for  driving  eac« 
type-wheel  and  one  for  printing  and  feeding  the  paper  forward. 
The  movement  of  the  type-wheel  is  accomplished  by  an  escapement 
acted  on  by  closing  and  opening  the  circuit  of  an  electromagnet. 
For  the  convenience  of  the  sender  the  transmitting  instrument  is 
made  in  the  form  of  two  dials,  each  resembling  the  dial  of  an 
ABC  instrument,   round  the  edge  of  one  of  which  lettere  are 
printed,  and  round  the  other  the  numerals  and  fractions.    Mechanism 
is  provided  for  opening  and  closing  the  circuit,  so  that  by  tmninp 
a  handle  (fixed  to  an  axis  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  dial) 
until  an  index  attached  to  it  points  to  the  letter  which  is  to  \ii 
printed,  the  type-wheel  of  the  receiving  instrument  is  in  the  proper 
position  to  print  that  letter,  and  this  is  accomplished  by  depressing 
a  key  and  closing  the  third  circuit.     The  printing  magnet  then 
raises  the  platen  and  presses  the  paper  against  the  type.     Suppose 
direct  United  States  telegraph  stock  is  to  be  reported  and  the  price 
is  9|.     The  operator  turns  the  index  on  the  letter  dial  to  D  and 
presses  the  printing  key  ;  he  next  turr^s  the  index  to  period  and 
again  presses  the  printing  key  ;  he  then  turns  in  succession  to  U, 
to  period,  to  S.  lo  period,  and  prints  these  ;  then  he  turns  tht 
index  on  the  figure  dial  to  9  and  prints  it,  lastly  to  |  and  to  period, 
and  prints  them.    The  quotation  then  reads  on  the  naper  ribbou 
D.  U.  S.  9i. 

Various  modifications  of  this  instrument  have  since  been  intro- 
duced. In  one  form,  the  "universal  stock  printer."  two  lines  or 
wire  are  required,  and  both  type-wheels  are  driven  by  one  \nre, 
the  printing  magnet  being  made  to  change  the  action  from  on* 
wheel  to  the  otlier  when  th3  wheels  are' brought  into  a  particular 
position.  In  another,  "Phjlps's  stock  prmter,"  only  one  liue  of 
wire  is  required,  a  polarized  armature  being  used  for  moving  the 
type-wheels'  and  an  ordinary  neutral  armature  for  the  printing. 
'The  rapid  reversals  which  work  the  polarized  armature- do  not  last 
long  enough  to  move  the  printing  lever,  but  when  a  pause  is  madt 
the  printing  mechanism  is  relieved  and  a  letter  printed.  This 
instrument  is  similar  in  principle  to  the  House  apparatus  and  is 
capable  of  working  at  a  considerable  speed.* 

Co\vper's  writing  telegraph  is  designed  to  record  the  message  in  Cowptr'* 
written  characters  ;  its  ariangcment  is  as  follows  ; — Two  lines  of  writing 
wire  are  connected,  one  with  each  of  two  small  resistance  slides,  iele- 
which  are  placed  in  such  a  way  that  the  sliders  -move  in  the  sami  graph, 
plane  but  in  directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other.     A  pen  placec 
at  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  lines  of  motion  of  the  two  sliders 
is  connected  with  them  in  such  a  w-ay  that,  when  it  is  moved,  as  in 
the  act  of  writing,  each  slider  takes  up  that  component  of  the 
motion  which  is  in  the  direction  in  which  it  is  free  to  mo^e.     The 
sliders  thus  vary  the  resistance  in  the  line  circuits  by  an  amount 
proportional  to  the  motion  of  the  pen,  and  when  a  battery  is  kept 
joined  in  the  circuit  the  current  varies  in  the  same  way.     The 
current  is  passed  through  the  coils  of  two  electromagnets  at  the 
receiving  end,  each  capable  of  giving  motion  to  a  pencil  in  one  line, 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  motion  of  the  other.     When  the 
pen  at  the  sending  end  is  moved  as  in  the  act  of  writing  a  message 


26— %• 


xxm. 


i6 


122 


T  E  L  E  G  Tl  il  »P  H 


Open 

circuit, 
siagle- 
current 
system. 


Positive 
audnega 
tive 
eiirrent. 


'tho  pencil  at  the  receiving  end  moves  in  a  corresponding  manner 
on  account  of  the  variations  of  the  current,  and  in  this  way  it 
writes  the  message  on  a  slip  gf  paper  moving  beneath  its  point. 

McUiods  of  Working  Telegraph  Circuits. — (1)  The  arrangement 
on  the  open  circuit  system  for  single-current  working  is  shown  in  fig. 
20,  in  which  L,  represents  the  line,  G  a  simple  form  of  galvanoscope, 
used  simply  to  show 
that  the  currents  are 
going  to  line  when 
'he  message  is  being 
transmitted,  K  tho  „1 
transmitting  key,  B 
the  battery,  I  the  re- 
ceiving instrument, 
and  E  the  carth- 
jiiate.  The  complete 
circui'  is  from  the 
piate  £  througli  the  instrument  I,  the  key  K,  and  the  galvano- 
scope G  to  the  line  L,,  then  through  the  corresponding  instru- 
ments to  the  earth-plate  E  at  the  other  end,  and  back  through 
the  earth  to  the  plate  E.  The  earth  is  always,  except  for  some 
tpecial  reason,  used  as  a  return,  because  it  oiTers  little  resist- 
ance and  saves  the  expense  and  the  risk  of  failure  of  the  return 
wire.  The  eartli-jilate  E  ought  to-  be  buried  in  moist  earth  or  in 
water.  In  towns  the  water  and  gas  pipe  systems  form  excellent 
oarth-plates.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  circuit  is  not  in  this 
case' actually  open;  the  meaning  of  the  expression  "open  circuit" 
is  "no  battery  to  line."  Under  normal  circumstances  the  instru- 
ments at  both  ends  are  ready  to  receive,  both  ends  of  the  line  being 
to  earth  through  the  receiving  instruments.  A  signal  is  sent  by 
<lepressing  the  key  K,  and  so  changing  the  contact  from  a  to  b, 
and  thus  putting  the  battery  to  line.  On  circuits  where  the  traffic 
is  Small  it  is  usual  to  make  one  wire  serve  several  stations.  The 
connexions  at  an  intermediate  or'wayside  station  are  shown  at  W. 
S  is  a  switch,  consisting  of  three  blocks  of  brass  fixed  to  an  insulat- 
ing base.  W  may  be  made  the  terminal  station  of  L,  by  inserting 
plug  3,  and  of  L.,  by  inserting  plug  2,  or  the  instruments  may  be 
cut  out  of  circuit  by  inserting  plug  1.  In  ordinary  circumstances 
the  messages  from  all  stations  ard  sent  through  the  whole  line,  and 
thus  the  operator  at  any  station  may  transmit,  if  the  line  is  free, 
by  manipulating  his  key.  The  greatest  inconvenience  of  this  system 
arises  from  the  varying  strength  and  resistance  of  the  batteries 
used  at  the  different  stations.  As,  however,  delicate  recording 
instruments  are  seldom  required  on  such  circuits  little  difficulty  is 
experienced. 

(2)  The  connexions  for  positive  and  negative  current  or  single- 
-  needle  working  on  open  circuit  are  shown  in  fig.  21,  in  which  all  the 
letters 
the 


Double 
current. 


is  a  reversing 
key.  The 

levers  1  and  2  H^  '    '  "    '  rt")         *    '         rt-\ 

jiress  against  L— '  Fig-  21.    I — I  I      I 

the  stops  a  wlien  the  line  is  free  ;  hence  the  line  is  to  earth  at  both 
ends.  But,  if  lever  1  is  depressed,  one  pole  of  the  battery  is  put 
,0  line  ;  if  2  is  depressed,  the  other  pole  is  put  to  tho'Iine.  In 
this  way  the  needles  of  tlie  receiving  instrument  may  bo  made  to 
turn  to  either  left  or  riglit ;  and,  if  we  call  a  motion  to  the  left  a 
dot  and  a  motion  to  the  ri»ht  a  dash,  the  Morse  alphabet  may  be 
read  from  these  motions,  The  connexions  for  wayside  stations  are 
illustrated  at  W,  and  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  descrip- 
tion given  under  single-current  working  above. 

(3)  When  the  line  consists  in  whole  or  in  part  of  underground 
or  submarine  cable  tlie  capacity  causes  a  very  considerable  dlnunu- 
tion  in  tlie  speed  of  working.     This  is  to  some  extent  got  over  by 

putting  the    ^     L     <■      r\ 

earth     con-     |  ~l  rW  \^ 

nexion       in  ^"^ 

the  middle 
of  tile  bat- 
tery and  us- 
ing double 
the  number 
of  cells,  as 
shown  in 
fig.  22  The 
stop  a  of  the 
key  K  is 
connected 


Fig.  22. 


_T 


a 

through  »  switch  S  with  one  polo  of  the  battery  B,  and  the  stop  b 
ill  the  usual  way  with  the  other  pole.  Suppose  the  arm  c  of  the 
tiivitch  S  to  be  in  contact  with  2;  then  wnen  the  key  Ib  mani- 


pulated it  sends  alternately  positive  and  negative  currents  into  tho 
line.  If  the  positive  is  called  tho  signalling  current,  the  line  will 
be  charged  positively  each  time  a  signal  is  sent ;  but  as  soon  as  the 
signal  is  completed  a  negative  charge  is  communicated  to  the  line, 
thus  hastening  the  discharge  and  the  return  of  the  relay  lever  to  its 
insulated  stop.  This  method  of  working  has  been  already  referred 
to  in  connexion  with  Wheatstone's  automatic  system. 

The  connexions  for  single-current  working  on  this  system  are  Closed 
illustrated  in  fig.  23.    It  difl'ers  from  the  open  circuit  in  only  rcquir-  circuit 


system. 


H  Fig.  23.  H 


'^ 


r 

is:  b 

-n 


l_ 


ing  one  battery  (although,  as 
in  the  figure,  half  of  it  is  often 
placed  at  each  end),  in  having 
the  receivisg  instrument  be- 
tween the  line  and  tho  key, 
-and  in  having  the  battery  con- 
tinuously  to  the  line.  The 
battery  is  kept  to  the  line  by 
the  bar  c,  which  short-circuits 
the  keys.  When  signals  are  to 
be  sent  from  either  station  the 
operator  turns  the  bar  c  out  of 

contact  with  the  stop  b,  and  then  operates  precisely  as  in  open  cir- 
cuit sending.  This  system  is  more  expensive  than  the  open  circnit 
system,  as  the  battery  is  always  at  work ;  but  it  offers  some  ad- 
vantages on  circuits  where  there  are  a  number  of  intermediate 
stations,  as  the  circuit  is  under  a  constant  electromotive  force  and 
has  the  same  resistance  no  matter  which  station  is  sending  or 
receiving.  The  arrangement  at  a  wayside  station  is  shown  at  W. 
When  the  circuit  is  long  and  contains  a^arge  number  of  stations, 
the  sendiilg  battery  is  sometimes  divided  among  them  in  order  to 
give  greater  uniformity  of  current  along  the  line.  When  only  one 
battery  is  used  the  current  at  the  distant  end  may  be  considerably 
affected  by  the  leakage  to  earth  along  the  line. 

In  working  long  circuits  with  ordinary  instruments  inconven-  Relay 
iently  high  battery  power  is  required  in  order  to  send  sufficient  working. 
current  to  produce  the  signals.  In  such  cases  it  is  usual  to  employ 
a  local  battery  to  produce  the  signals  and  to  close  the  local  battery 
circuit  by  means  of  a  delicate  circuit-closing  apparatus  called  a 
relay,  which  is  a  very  delicate  electromagnetic  key  having  its  lever 
attached  to  the  armature  of  the  magnet.  The  arrangement  at  a 
station  worked  by  relay  is  shown  in  fig.  24,  where  L  is  the  line  of 
wire,    joined    throngh  ^i 

the  key  K  to  one  end 
of  the  coil  of  the  relay 
magnet  R,  the  other  end 
of  which  is  put  to  earfh. 
When  a  current  passes 
through  R  the  armature 
A  is  attracted  and  the 
local  circuit  is  closed 
through  the  armature 
at  b.  The  local  battery 
Bi  then  sends  a  current 

through  the  instrument  p-^ 

I  and  records  the  signal.  Fig.  24,   j  ^  | 

In  the  form  of  relay  indicated  in  the  figure  the  armature  is  held 
against  the  stop  a  by  a  spring  S.     In  some  cases — as,  for  example, 
in  Siemens's  polarized  relay,  shown  in  fig.  25 — the  armattire  a  is 
put  in  contact  through   the  pivot  h 
with  one  pole  N  of  a  permanent  magnet 
7n,  the  other  pole  5  of  which  is  fixed  to 
the  yolk  y  of  a  horse-shoe  electromag- 
net Si.   The  armature  is  placed  between 
the  poles  of  the  electromagnet,  a  little 
nearer  one  pole  than  tho  other,  so  that 
the  magnetic  attraction  holds  the  con-  / 
tact  lever  against  the  insulated  stop 
without  the  aid  of  a  spring.    This  form 
of  relay  only  answers  to  currents  in  one 
direction,  but  it  is  capable  of  giving 
great  sensibility,    and  for  some  pur- 
poses— for  instance,  in  some  methods 
of  quadruplex  working — its  directioniil 
character  is  an  advantage. 

?  Translation. — In  a  precisely  similar  manner  a  relay  may  be  made  IVansIi- 
to  re-transmit  automatically  the  message  over  another  line,  or,  what  tion. 
is  the  same  thing,  over  a  continuation  of  the  same  line  when  the 
whole  length  is  too  great  for  direct  working.  It  is  not  usual  in 
practice  to  employ  the  delicate  receiving  relay  for  re-transmitting 
the  message,  but  it  is  made  to  work  a  coarser  instrument,  which 
takes  tho  place  of  the  sounder,  or,  it  may  be,  the  sounder  itself, 
in  the  local  circuit.  It  is  clear  that  one  receiving  relay  may  bft 
used  to  work  a  number  of  re-transmitting  keys  in  the  same  local 
circuit,  and  hence  to  distribute  a  message  sinuiltaneously  over  a 
number  of  branch  lines  from  a  central  station. 

Duplex,   Quadruplex,  and  Multiple   TeUgrnphij  — Duplex  tele-  Duplex* 
graphy  consists  in  the  simultaneous  transmission  of  two  messages,  '* 


t 


Fio.  25.— Siemens's 
polarized  relay. 


TELEGRAPH 


hod 


oj)»  in  each  direction,  over  I  Be  sim,!  wuv  The  solution  of  this 
problem  was  attempted  by  Clntl  of  Vienna  in  1853  and  in  the 
foUowing  year  by  Fnscheu  and  by  Siemens  and  Halske.  WitEin  a 
fe*  years  several  methods  had  been  proposed  by  differant  inventors 
but  none  were  at  first  very  successful,  not  from  any  (aaJt  in  the 
pnnaple.  but  because  the  effect  of  electrostatic  capacity  of  the  line 
was  left  out  ol  account  in  the  early  arrangements.  The  first  to 
totroduoe  a  really  good  practical  system  of  duplex  telegraphy,  in 
which  ttusdiAculty  was  sufficiently  overcome  for  land  liD?purposes, 
was  J  B  btcams  of  Boston  (Mass.).  In  order  that  the  line  between 
two  stations  S,  and  S,  may  be  worked  on  the  duplex  system  it  is 
essential  that  the  receiving  instrument  at  S,  shall  not  be  acted  on 
6y  the  currents  sent  into  the  line  at  S,,  and  simiUrly  that  the 
currents  sent  into  the  hne  at  S,  shaU  not  act  on  the  receivimj 
Jistrament  at  S.^,  while  at  the  same  time  these  currents  most  act 
m  the  instruments  at  S,  and  8,  respectively  The  two  method* 
most  commonly  employed  are  the  foUowing. 

(I)  In  fig^2e  B  is  the  sending  battery  B,  a  resistance  equal  to 
that  of  the  battery,  B  a  set  of  resistance  coik,  and  C  a  condenser 
ouppose  the  key  at  /^=n  ^=~^ 

sUtion  S,  to  be  da-     {^jl^- ^(fo) 

pressed  .  then  a  cor-     ■ 
cent  Bows  mto  the 
line    through    cir- 
cuit I,  and  to  earth 
IhroQgli   circuit   2. 
Now   if  both  these 
currents  pass,  as  in 
lirated  in   the  fig 
are   round  the  elec 
irouiagnet    of    the 

receiving        instru  LLI  Pig  2o  . , 

nent,  but  in  opposite  directions,  and  if  theu  strengths  are  pro 
wrly  adjusted,  no  effect  wiU  be  produced  on  that  ins&umeut  At 
station  S.S  however,  the  current  flows  to  earth,  partly  through  cir 


123 


affectea  tj  the  mampulation  of  R  if  the  resistance  o  is  to  that  of  ft 
as^the  fesistMce  of  L  is  to  that  of  K ,  hence  that  is  the  afran»- 
•ment-ased     The  same  rcmaiks  with  regard  to  retardanon  ^ 


Pig  27-- 


.  1 — J   — 1      ■  >-"><="i  uu>v3  lu  eann,  partly  inrougn  cir 

luit  1  and  partly  through  circuit  2.  but  in  the  same  direction  round 
he  coils  of  the  receiving  mstrument     flence,  if  the  current  Is 
^troug  enough   the  receiving  instrument  at  8,  will  be  set  In  actioa 
similarly  the  depression  of  the  key  at  8,  can  be  made  to  produce  a 
iignal  at  fa,  and  yet  have  no  effec-t  on  the  instrument  at  S~     The 
accessary  and  sufficient  condition  is  that  the  currents  in  circuits 
a  and  2  at  the  sending  station  shaU  at  aU  times  bear  a  certam 
axed  ratio  to  each  other,  depending  on  the  coils  of  the  receivma 
nstrumenl  at  that  station.     If  fur  simplicity  we  suppose  the  resist 
iuce  of  the  Ime  to  be  constant  and  not  to  be  affected  by  the  trans- 
mtting  apparatus,  and  to    be   of  zero  electrostatic  capacity,  the 
ixed  ratio  may  be  obtained  by  adjusting  R  in  the  auxiliary  circuit 
2      In  actual   practice  the  line  has  capacity,  and  this  is  com- 
pensated for  by  supplying  to  R  from  tie  condenser  0  capacity 
rquivalent  to  that  of  the  line      0  should  be  of  such  a  form  that 
the  capacity  in  the  circuit  can  be  varied,  and  it  must  have  the 
lame  mdactive  retardation  as  the  line ;  that  is  to  say,  the  capa- 
:ity  must  be  distributed  along  the  resistance  E  in  a  manner  enui. 
talent  to  that  m  which  the  capacity  of  the  line  is  distnbuted 
ilong  Its  resistance      A  rough  approximation  to  this  adjustment 
wiu  answer  the  putiwse  for  ordinary  land  line  working,  but  for 
lubmanne  cable  work  a  very  accurate  adjustment  U  neceiary.     In 
jrder  that  the  manipulation  of  the  key  may  not  affect  the  resist- 
ance or  the  Ime,  the  resistance  between  the  point  D  and  E  should 
be  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  for  all  positions  of  the  key 
1  his  implies  that  the  keys  shaU  not  at  any  time  break  circuit,  nor 
make  contact  on  both  the  front  and  the  back  stops  for  more  than 
»n  msunt.  for  an  instantaneous  break  of  the  circuit  would  affect 
the  signals  bein§  received  from  the  other  station.     The  principle 
or  the     continuity  preserving  key,"  nsed  for  duplex  workLg,  will 
be  understood  from  the  fignra     So  long  as  the  key  Is  not  dep%ssed 
the  hue  IS  kept  to  earth  thiftngh  the  resistance  B,  ,  when  fiie  key 
15  pushed  down  it  suddenly  changes  to  the  battery  B.  being  at  the 
nins,  ,on  in  contact  with  boiTfe  and  B,      This  produces  very 
little  .iBturbaoce    because  the  key  is  moving  quickly  at  that  part 
:>f  >U  stroke,  and  the  resistance  of  the  Ime  and  reviving  instru- 
aient  ,,  generJJy  much   higher  than  that  of  B,      This  is  caUed 
ihe     differential  method."     The  principle  was  first  enimdated  by 
trucheo  ,  but  its  present  condition  is  the  result  of  the  labours  of 
a  large  nuniber  of  experimenters,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
|ien,...ns  and  Halske,  ^Urk,  E-Uund.  GintE  Nystrdm.  heece.JJeddei^ 
Fam,-i,  Maron,  Wmter,  Steams,  and  Muirhead 

.hi''  I H<  "'™°."1  "i"^^."^  '°  "'"''''  '™  °^y  '>'"■''  ■•«'''='  is  lai<"™  as 
f  „  .>7  '?  ?^  ""^  r"^  Jj?™  *•"*  similarity  of  the  arrangement  (see 
r„°™  '^\'  "^  '^^  Wheatstone  bnd™      Instead  of  Snding  tT^ 

currents  in  the  two  branches  of  the  cfivided  circuit  DP  an/  DO 
through  the  two  coils  of  a  differentially  wound  relay  or  receivine 
m^runjent  as  m  Fnscheu-,  method,  t^o  resistances  a  and  6  arf 
inwrted  and  the  instrument.s  are  joined  between  P  and  Q.  It  is 
Clear  that  if  the  difference  of  potential  between  P  and  Q  is  nnaffected 

J.  .1  r,'"!^  '*"'^°^  '"'y  "^  ""  •'^'"'^°  "f  ™^^'"  '"'■  t^ke  place 
«  the  mslniment  circo...     Th.  relative  uotenrul  ot  P  and  Q  is  not 


capacity  tnat  were  made  when  describing  ine  diHerenna]  meihovi 
apply  here  also.  One  very  great  advantage  in  this  method  is  that 
the  instrument  used  bet^veen  P  and  Q  may  be  of  any  ordinary  form 
Most  importajit  cables,  such  as  those  of  the  Eastern  Telegiaph 
Company  and  the  various  Atlantic  cables,  are  worked  duplix  on 
Muirhead'e  plan.  What  may  be  cailed  a  mechanical  method  o) 
duplexing  a  cable  was  described  by  Sir  W  Thomson  in  a  patent 
taken  out  by  him  in  1868.  In  this,  as  in  the  ordinarV  meth^  a 
dilferentiaUy  wound  receiving  instrument  was  used,  one  coU  beine 
connected  with  the  cable  and  the  other  with  the  earth  ;  but  it 
differed  from  other  methods  in  requiring  no  'artificial  ■  or  model 
cable.  1  he  compensation  was  to  be  obtained  by  working  the  sUdes 
of  a  resistajice  slide  included  in  tke  circuit  of  the  compensatine 
COU,  either  by  the  sending  key  ot  by  clockwork  relieved  by  the  key 
so  as  to  vary  the  resistance  in  that  circuit  according  to  any  law 
"i"fri^^  I™  "^"^"^  to  prevent  the  receiving  instrument  beine 
affected  by  the  outgoing  current  Four  years  later  Varley  patenteS 
his  model  cable,  which  vras  the  first  near  approach-  to  a  successful 
solution  of  the  duplex  problem  on  the  prmaple  now  adopted  It 
was  not,  however,  a  sufficiently  prfect  representation  of  a  laid 
cable  to  serve  for  duplexing  cables  of  more  than  a  few  hundred 
miles  in  length.  * 

By  an  interesting  modification  of  the  bridge  method,  which  has 
been  apphed  with  excellent  results  by  Dr  MuiAead  to  snbmanne 
work,  condensers  are  substituted  for  a  and  6,  one  being  also  placed 
In  the  circuit  between  P  and  Q.     In  this  case  no  current  flows  from 
the  battery  throogh  the  line  or  instruments,  the  whole  action  bema 
inductive.      As  we  have  already  stated,  the  distribution  of  the 
capacity  along  the  resistance  R  must  in  submarine  cable  work  be 
made  to  correspond  very  accurately  with  the  distribution  of  the 
capacity  along  the  resistance.of  the  cable     This  is  accomplished 
by  Dr  Muirhead  m  the  foUovring  manner     One  side  of  a  slieet  of 
paraffined  paper  is  covered  with  a  sheet  of  conducting  substance 
say  tinloil.  and  over  the  other  side  narrow  strips  of  the  same  sub- 
stance are  arranged  gridironwise  to  form  a  continuous  cirouit  alone 
the  strip      The  Tjreadth  and  thickness  of  the  strip  and  the  thick 
oess  ot  the  paraffined  paper  are  adjusted  so  that  the  relative  resist 
ance  and  capacity  of  this  arrangement  are  the  same  as  those  of  tha 
cable  with  which  it  is  intended  to  be  used     A  large  number  of 
such  sheets  are  prepared  and  placed  together,  one  over  the  other, 
the  end  of  the  strip  of  the  first  sheet  being  connected  with  the 
beginning  of  the  strip  of  the  second,  and  so  on  to  the  last  sheet, 
the  whole  representing  the  conductor  of  the  cable     In  the  same 
way  aU  the  conducting  sheets  oo  the  other  side  of  the  paper  anj 
connected  together  and  form  the  earth-plate  of  this  artificial  cable, 
thus  representing  the  sea.     The  leakage  through  the  insulator  oJ 
the  cable  is  compensated  for  by  connectmg  high  resistances  be- 
tween different  points  of  the  strip  conductor  and  the  earth  coating 
faults  or  any  other  irregularity  in  the  cable  may  be  reprosentod  bv 
putting  resistances  of  the  proper  kind  into  the  artificiaJ  bne     This 
system  of  duplexing  cables  has  proved  remarkably  successful 

Quadruplex  telegraphy  consists  in  the  simultaneous  transmission  Qoann) 
oftwo  messages  from  each  end  of  the  Una     The  only  new  problem  plat ' 
introduced  is  the  simultaneous  transmission  of  two  messages  in  the 
same  direction  i  this  is  sometimes  called  "diplex  transmission" 
The  solution  of  this  problem  was  attempted  by  Dr  J    B  Stark  of 
Vienna  in  1856,  and  during  the  next  ten  years  it  was  worked  at  by 
Bosscha,  Kramer.  Maron,  Schaak,  Schroder,  Wartmann,  and  otheri 
The  first  to  attain  success  was  Edison,  and  his  method  with  some 
modifications  is  still  nsed     One  of  the  latest  arrangements  is  shown 
Ui  fi^.  28,  a  bjief  description  of  which  will  indicate  the  general 
principle  involved      K,  and   Kj  are  two  transmitting  keys  the 
nature  of  which  wiU  be  understood  from  the  illnstration  ,  R,  and 
Rj  are  two  differentially  wound  polarized  relays,  both  of  which  are 
supposed  to  respond  to  positive  currents  and  to  be  held  against 
their  back-stops  by  ne^tive  currents.     When  neither  key  is  de- 
pressed a  current,  which  for  convenience  we  call  -  4.  flows  to  the 
line  i  this  is  sufficient  to  overoome  the  pvdl  of  the  sprmg  T  m  the 
relay  R.  (the  rooeiviug  instruments  are  supposed  to  be  at  the  other 
end  of  the  Ime),  and  hence  the  levers  of  both  relays  are  held  against 
their  back-stops.     When  K,  is  depressed  a  current  -  1  is  sent  fo  tb« 
line,  and,  this  being  too  weak  to  overcome  the  spring  T,  the  lever 
'  Sm  Ue  Sauty,  Jonn.  Soc.  TeL  Eng.,  voL  U..  1871  """" 


124 


TELEGRAPH 


of  R)  mov/?s  into  contact  with  tte  auxiliaiy  lever  I  and  closes  the 
cucuitof  the  sounder  Sj.  When  K„  only  is  depressed  a  curreDt  +  4 
is  sent  to  the  line.  This  acts  on  both  relays,  but  is  powerful  enough 
to  overcome  the  ^^^ 
pull  of  the 
spring  Ti,  and 
»  to  more  the 
lever  I  and 
break  the  cir- 
cuit of  the 
sounder  S,  be- 
fcre  it  has  time 
to  act.  Thus 
Xj  acts  on  the 

sonnderS,  but  ^  , 

not      on      the  ' — '        '^ 

soonder  Sj.     When  both  keys  are  dep.-^saed  a  current  -f  1  is  sent 
into  the  line.     This  is  sufficient  to  move  the  lever  of  R,  into  con- 
tact with  I  but  not  to  overcome  the  pull  of  Ti,  and  hence  the  circuit 
of  sonader  S,  is  closed  ;  it  is  also  sufficient  to  move  the  lever  of 
R,  and  close  the  circuit  of  Sj.    When  therefore  both  keys  are  down 
the  sounders  Sj  and  Sj  at  the  other  end  of  the  line  are  both  set  in 
action  ;  the  first  responds  to  K,  and  the  second  to  K,.    Thus  all 
the  conditions  for  the  simultaneous  transmission  of  two  messages 
are  provided  for.    It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  again  into  the  ques- 
tion of  continuity  at  the  differ«nt  positions  of  the  keys.    The  figure 
illustrates  how  this  diple.t  system  may  be  duplexed,  and  hence  how 
quadruplex  working  can  be  obtained.     It  is  only  necessary  to  wind 
3ie  coils  of  the  relay  magnets  differentially,  when,  by  means  of  a 
precisely  similar  arrangement  to  that  used  for  simple  duplex,  the 
instrnmenis  at  the  sending  station  are  left  unaffected  by  the  out- 
going currents,  biit  are  affected  by  the  incoming  currents.     The 
method,  here  indicated  is  on  the  differential  principle ;  but  it  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  bridge  method  is  eq^aally  appli- 
cable,    A  combination  of  the  bridge  and  the  differential  methods 
has  been  used  by  Prescott  and  Smith,  and  possesses  some  advan- 
tages in  certain  cases.     It  is  impossible  in  this  article  to  go  into 
the  great  variety  of  detail  in  arrangement  and  method  with  which 
it  is  possible  to  obtain  good  results. 
MUtiple.     The  several  methods  that  have  been  proposed  for.-lhe  transmission 
of  a  number  of  messages  in  one  direction  on  the  same  wire  are 
tedncrble  to  two  classes.     In  one  the  time  which  a  revolving  con- 
tact slider  takes  ^»  make  one  revolution  is  divided  into  as  many 
intervals  as  there  are  sets  of  sending  and  receiving  instruments  on 
the  line,  -and  by  means  of  it  the  current  is  closed  through  the 
different  sets  of  apparatus  in  succession.     This  implies  the  syn- 
chronous movement  of  the  revolving  slidei-s  at  the  two  ends  of  the 
line.    In  a  sense  this  may  be  said  to  be  simultaneous  transmission  : 
all  the  messages  are  being  sent  at  the  same  time,  but  the  progress 
of  any  one  message  is  slower  than  it  would  be  if  it  alone  was  occupy- 
ing the  whole  line  in  the  ordinary  way.    The  method  possesses  some 
advantages  when  the  line  is  capable  of  being  worked  at  a  higher 
speed  than  a  single  operator  can  attain,  or  when  one  of  the  stations 
can  advantageously  be  used  as  a  distributing  station,  for  in  that 
case  one  set  of  apparatus  may  be  used  as  an  automatic  distributor. 
Multiple  telegraphy  on  this  plan  was  proposed  by  Thomson  in 
1858.*     A  very  complete  set  of  apparatus  for  the  purpose  was 
shown  by  Meyer  at  the  Vienna  exhibition  of  1873."    Delaunay's 
multiple  telegraph  is  the  most  recent  development  of  the  system, 
and  has  been  lately  adopted  on  some  circuits  in  Great  Britain.* 

In  the  other  class  there  are  joined  to  the  two  ends  of  the  line  of 
^6  a  number  of  branch  circuits,  in  each  of  which  a  set  of  trans- 
mitting and  receiving  apparatus  is  included.  In  the  circuit,  between 
the  line  and  each  of  the  sending  keys,  an  electromagnetic  vibrator 
is  placed  so  as  to  open  and  close  the  circuit  a  great  number  of  times 
during  each  signal!  The  vibrators  in  the  key  circuits  at  one  end 
of  the  line  have  all  different  and,  if  possible,  relatively  inconimen- 
Burable  periods.  The  receivers  at  the  other  end  of  the  line  consist 
of  a  corresponding  set  of  electromagnetic  vibrators,,  mounted  on 
resonators  and  having  exactly  the  same  vibrational  periods  as  those 
in  the  key  circuits  at  the  sending  end.  When  any  one  of  the  keys 
is  manipulated  the  currents  sent  into  the  line  have  such  a  pulsatory 
character  that  they  only  affect  the  receiver,  which  is  capable  of 
vibrating  freely  in  unison  with  these  pulsatiotifl.  When  a  number 
©f  keys  are  manipulated  at  the  same  time  the  receivers  analyse  the 
resultant  wave,  each  picking  out  its  own  component,  thus  separ- 
ating the  different  messages.  The  "harmonic  telegraph"  of  Mr 
Elish.'i  Cray  of  Americans  a  good  example  of  this  class. 
Cor..  tVoTkin/j  of  Sui»nariiie  Cables. — The  arrangement  of  the  apparatus 

oexioDB.  for  workiog  some  of  the  mostrecent  cables  is  shown  in  fi^.  29.  The 
cable  is  supposed  to  be  worked  duplex  ;  but,  if  S,  Cj,  Cj,  and  AC 
are  removed  and  the  key  connected  directly  with  Cg,  the  arrange, 
ment  for  simplex  working  is  obtained.  The  apparatus  consists  of  a 
sending  battery  B,  a  reversing  transmitting  key  K,  a  slide  of  small 


CoUe  


resistance  y,  three  condensers  C,,  Cj,  C3,  an  artificial  cable  AC,  the 
receiving  instruments  I  and  G,  and  one  or  more  resistances  R  for 
adjusting-  the  leakage  current.  The  peculiar  construction  of  AC 
has  been  already  refen-ed  to.  The  conductor  of  the  cable  is  practi- 
cally insulated,  as  the  condensers  in  the  bridge  have  a  very  high 
resistance  ;  hence  no  appreciable  current  ever  flows  into  or  out  of. 
the  line.  Two 
receiving  in- 
struments, a 
siphon  re- 
corder and  a 
mirror  galva- 
nometer, are 
shown  ;  one 
only  is  abso-- 
lutely  neces-  -^ 
sary,  but  it  ~ 
is  convenient 
to   have    the 


I 


Fig.  29 


1  TA.  Joum.y  September  1686. 

a  For  a  description,  sec  Fre.scott'3  Electric  TeUgraph,  p.  flfiS. 

»  Preece,  Jmirn,  Soc.  Tel  En).,  vol  •-.  p.  Ml. 


galvanometer  ready,  so  that  in  case  of  accident  to  the  recorder  it 
may  be  at  once  switched  into  circuit  by  the  switch  s.  When  one 
of  the  levers  of  K  is  depressed,  the  condenser  C,  and  the  cable, 
and  the  condenser  Cn  and  the  artificial  cable,  are  simultaneously 
charged  in  series  ,  but,  if  the  capacity  of  C,  bears  the  same  pro- 
portion to  the  capacity  of  the  cable  as  the  capacity  of  Oj  hears  to- 
the  capacity  of  the  artificial  cable,  and  if  the  other  adjustments, 
are  properly  made,  no  charge  will  be  communicated  to  C3.-  After 
a  very  short  interval  of  time,  the  length  of  which  depends  on  the 
inductive  retardation  of  the  cable,  the  condensers  corresponding  to 
C,  and  C3  at  the  other  end  begin  to  be  charged  from  the  cable,  and 
since  the  charge  of  C3  passes  through  the  receiving  instrument  I  or 
G  the  signal  is  recorded.  The  charging  of  C,  at  the  receiving  end 
will  take  place,  no  matter  what  is  the  absolute  potential  of  the 
condensers,  consequently  the  incoming  signals  are  not  affected  by 
those  which  are  being  transmitted  from  that  end.  In  actual  prac- 
tice the  receiving  instrument  is  so  sensitive  that  the  difference  of 
potential  between  the  two  coatings  of  the  condenser  C,  produced 
by  the  incoming  signal  is  only  a  very  small  traction  of  the  potential 
of  the  battery  B.  When  the  key  is  relieved  the  condensers  ond 
cables  at  once  begin  to  return  to  zero  potential,  and  if  the  key  is. 
depressed  and  relieved  several  times  in  rapid  succession  the  cable 
is  divided  into  sections  of  varjdng  potential,  which  travel  rapidly 
towards  the  receiving  end,  and  indicate  their  arrival  there  by  pro- 
ducing corresponding  fluctuations  in  the  charge  of  the  condenser  C3. 
All  cables  of  any  great  length  are  worked  by  reverse  cm-rents,  the 
single  needle  alphabet  being  used  ;  that  is  to  say,  currents  in  one 
direction  indicate  dots  and  in  the  other  direction  dashes. 

The  following  descriptions  of  the  mirror  galvanometer  and  the 
siphon  recorder  are,  with  some  slight  alteration,  taken  from  a  k'S^urc 
delivered  by  Sir  W.  Thomson  before  the  Institution  of  Engineers 
and  Shipbuilders  in  Scotland.* 

(1)  The  instrument  first  used  for  receiving  signals  through  a  long  M..ror 
submarine  cable  (the  short-lived  1858  Atlantic  cable)  was  the  mirror  gah:-ro 
galvanometer,'  which  consisted  of  a  small  mirror  with  four  light  meter. 
magnets  attached  to  its  back  (weighing  in  all  less  than  half  a  grain), 
suspended  by  means  of  a  single  silk  fibre  within  the  hollow  of  a  in 
bobbin  of  fine  wire,  — a  suitable  controlling  magnet  being  placed                 T^l 
adjacent  to  the  apparatus.     The  action  of  the  instrument  is  as 

follows.  On  the  passage  of  a  current  of  electricity  through  the  fine 
wire  coil  the  suspended  magnets  with  the  mirror  attached  tend  to 
take  up  a  position  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  coil,  and  are 
deflected  to  one  side  or  the  other  according  as  the  current  is  in  one 
direction  or  the  other.  Deflexions  to  one  side  are  interpreted  as 
dots  and  to  the  other  side  as  dashes,  and  the  messages  are  trans- 
mitted in  accordance  with  the  international  Morse  code  of  signals. 

(2)  The  spark  recorder  in  some  respects  foreshadowed  the  mor*  Spark 
perfect  instrament— the  siphon  recorder— which  was  introduced  recorder 
some  years  later.     Its  action  was  as  follows.     To.  an  indicator, 
suitably  supported,  a  to-and-fro  motion  was  given  by  the  electro- 
magnetic actions  due  to  the  electric  currents  constituting  the 
signals.     The  indicator  was  connected  with  a  Ruhmkorff  coil  or 

oUier  equivalent  apparatus,  designed  to  cause  a  continual  succession 
of  sparks  to  pass  between  the  indicator  and  a  metal  plate  situated 
beneath  it  and  having  a  plane  surface  parallel  to  its  line  of  motion. 
Over  the  surface  of  the  plate  and  between  it  and  the  indicator 
there  was  passed,  at  a  regularly  uniform  speed,  in  a  direction  per- 
pendicular to  the  line  of  motion  of  the  ;ndicator,  a  material  capable 
of  being  acted  on  phj-sically  by  the  sparl  either  through  tlieir 
chemical  action,  their  heat,  or  their  perforai.og  forc«.  The  record 
of  the  signals  given  by  this  instrament  was  an  undulating  line  of 
fine  perforations  or  spots,  and  the  character  and  succession  of  tbi 
undulations  were  used  to  interpret  the  signahi  de.sired  to  be  sent. 

(3)  The  latest  form  of  receiving  instrument  for  long  submarine  Siphon 
cables  is  the  siphon  recorder,  for  which  Sir  W.  Thomson  obtained  recerdei. 

*  See  bi9  Mathematical  and  Physical  Pa]>e)-s,  voL  ii.  p.  168.  | 

1  For  a  description  of  tlic  mirrov  galraacmeler.  see  art  GiLViiiOMETEB,  voir 
X.  p.  SO  sq. 


TELEGRAPH 


125 


his  firyt"|v)init  iii  ISiJ?.     Vulnn  iho  three  succeeding  yeai-s  greal 

inipioveiiienU  were  clCticd  on  it,  nml  tlic  instmnieut  lias  since 

tlwt  'tato  been  exclusively  emitloyctl  lit  working  most  of  tlio  nioro 

important  siibiiiarnie  cables  of  the  world, — indeed  all  except  those 

on  which  the  mil  ror  galvanometer  iiiclhoj  is  in  use. '  In  the  siphon 

iKorder  (see  hg  30)  the  indicator  consists  of  a  light  rectangiUar 

signal   coil   of   fine' 

Hire,  suspended  be-' 

tween  the  |x>les  of 

two  powerful    elec-J 

tromagnets  M,  M  so 

-IS  to  be  free  to  move 

about    its  ■  longer 

axis,  which  is  verti- 
cal,  ami  so  joined 

that     the   Electric 

signal  tT*    currents 

through    the  cable 

pass     through     it. 

A  fine  glass  siphon 

tube    is    suspended 

with  ^  freedom   '  to 

move   in  only  one 

degree,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  sig-' 

tial-coil  and  moves 

with  it.    The  short 

leg   of   the  siphon 

tube  dips  into  an  in- 
sulated ink-bottle,' 
so  that  the  ink 
it  contains  becomes  _  _ 

electrified,  while  the  ■  /lo.  30.-Thomson3  siphon  recorder, 

long  le"  has  its  open"  end  at  a  very  small  distance  from  a  brass 
table,  placed'  with  its  surface  parallel  to  the  piane  in  which  the 
mouth  of  the  leg  moves,  and  over  which  a  sUp  of  paper  may  be 

passed  at  a  uniform  rate,  as  in  the  spark  recorder.  The  ink  is 
electrified  by  a  small  induction  electrical  machine  E  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  instrument ;  this  causes  it  to  fall  in  very  minute  drops 
from  the  open  end  of  the  siphon  tube  upon  the  brass  table  or  the 
paper  s^p  passing  over  it.  When  therefore  the  signal-coil  moves 
in  obedience  to  the  electric  signal  currents  passed  through  it,  the 
motion  communicated  to  the  siphon  is  recorded  on  the  moving  slip 
of  paper  by  a  wavy  line  of  ink-marks  very  close  ■together.  The 
interpretation  of  the  signals  is  according  to  the  Morse  code, — the 
dot  and  dash  being  represented  by  dene.xioiis  of  the  line  of  dots 
to  one  side  or  other  of  the  centre  line  of  the  paper.  A  very  much 
simpleT  form  of  siphon 
recorder  has  been  de- 
vised and  brought  into 
use  within  the  last  few 
yeara.  Instead  of  the 
electromagnets,  -^'-.two 
bundles  of  long  bar- 
magnets  of  square  sec- 
tion and  made  up  of 
square  bars  of  glass- 
hard  steel  are  used.' 
They  are  supported 
Tertically  on  a  cast-' 
iron  socket,  and  on  the 
upper  end  of  each  is 
fitted  a  soft  iron  shoe, 
1  shaped  to  concentrate 
the  lines  of  force  and 
thus  produce  a  strong 
magnetic  field  in  the 
spaoe  within  which  the 
sign»l-coi]  is  juspended 
Instruments  if 
kind  have  been 
made  to  work 
both  with  and 
without  electrifi- 
cation of  the  ink. 

iVithont  electrifi-  ^'<>-  81--8ipl'on  recorder., 

cation  the  instrument  (see  fig.  31)  is  very  simple  and  compact,  and 
capable  of  doing  good  work  on  cables  600  or  600  miles  long.  When 
constructed  for  electrification  of  the  ink  they  are  available  for  much 
greater  lengths,  but  for  cables  such  as  the  Atlantic  the  original  form 
IS  still  used.  The  strongest  magnetic  field  hitherto  obtained  by 
permanent  magnets  (of  glass-hard  steel)  is  about  3000  C.G.S.  Witn 
the  electromagnets  used  in  the  original  form  of  siphon  recorder  a 
magnetic  field  of  about  or  over  5000  C.G.S.  is  easily  obtained.  Fig. 
32  shows  a  facsimile  of  part  of'  a  message  received  and  recorded  by 
a  siphon  recorder,  such  as  that  of  fig.  30,  from  oneo^the  Eastern' 
Telegraph  Comnany's  cables  aboot  830  miles  long,' 


(4)  The  automatic  cnil*  .scndov  was  ilcsigncJ  by  Sji  \V.  Thomson  Anup 
for  the  purposo  of  iliinini.sliiiig  tlic  cMcct  of  iiidui;tivc  enibarrass-  maUe 
ment  ill  long  cables.*  ,In  ordin.iry  hanJsciuliiig  the  end  of  llie  curb 
cable  is  put  to  one  or  the  other  pole  of  the  battery  and  to  earth  sender, 
alternately,  tlio  relative  time  duj'iiig  which  it  is  to  b.ittcry  ajul  to 
earth  depending  to  a  great'extcnt  ontho  opci-atoi.^    IJy  tlio  auto^ 


«,  o  e         c       u       p       I      e     3         a 

ix      S     n    t    'f'\r    m    e    d      La      t    e       )p 
^  '       iFio.  32.— Facsimile  of  siphon  Tceordcr  message- 

matic  curb  sender  the  cable  is  put  to  one  or  the  other  pole  of  the 
battery  and  then  to  the  reverse  pole,  for  definite  proportionate 
times  during  each  signal.  The  cable  is  tluis  charged  first  positively 
and  then  negatively,  or  vice  versa,  for  each  signal.  This  method 
not  only  facilitates  the  discharge  of  the  cable,  and  so  accelerates 
the  return  of  the  index  of  the  receiving  instrument  to  zero,  but 
provides  the  means  of  sending  positive  and  negative  currents  into 
the  cable  at  the  proper  times  and  for  the  proper  intervals.  The 
action  of  the  instrument  is  regulated,  like  that  of  'Wheatstone's 
automatic  transmitter,  by  a  perforated  slip  of  paper.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  perforations  and  the  method  of  using  the  paper  slip 
are,  however,  quite  diflerent.  The  paper  is  fed  forward  by  a  centrw 
row  of  holes,  which  are  therefore  contmuous.  The  dots  and  dashes 
of  the  message  are  represented  by  the  side  rows  of  holes  ;  but  the 
two  currents  required  for  a  dot  are  produced  wholly  by  one  hole  on 
one  side  and  those  for  a  dash  by  one  hole  on  the  other  side.  The 
perforated  slip  is  exactly  similar  to  the  message  written  by  the  siphon 
recorder,  the  side  holes  occupj-ing  the  same  relative  positions  as  the 
loops  to  one  side  or  other  of  the  central  line  in  the  record.  As  the 
side  holes  reach  a  certain  point  in  their  passage  through  the  instru- 
ment they  allow  the  end  of  one  or  the  other  of  two  levers  to  fall ; 
the  other  end  of  the  lever  lifts  a  light  contact  spring,  forming  one 
lever  of  a  reversing  key,  and  makes  electrical  connexioir  between 
the  battery  and  another  set  of  springs,  which  also  form  the  levers 
of  a  reversing  key.  The  spring  is  held  up,  by  a  flange  on  the  edge 
of  a  revolving  wheel  passing  under  it,  during  the  time  required  bj 
the  paper  to  advance  through  the  distance  between  two  ceiftral 
holes.  During  this  interval  the  current  is  reversed  at  the  proper 
time  by  a  pair  of  adjustable  cams  fixed  to  the  same  spindle  as  thj 
flanged  wheeL  This  method  of  transmission  has  been  found  quite 
successful,  though  it  Ixas  not  been  brought  into  use,  as  hand-, 
sending  has  hitherto  proved  sufficient  for  the  work  required. 

Speed  of  SignaUing. — The  mathematical  theory  of  the  speed  of  Speed  ot 
telegraphic  sigualling  was  given  in  a  paper  on  "  The  Theory  of  the  signal 
Electric  Telegiaph"  communicated  by  Sir  W.  Thomson'  to  thelini?. 
Royal  Society  in  1855.     He  shows  that,  if  k  be  the  wire  resistance. 
e  tne  capacity  per  unit  length,  and  I  the  total  length  of  the  line, 
the  current  at  the  receiving  end  at  any  time  t  after  the  application 
of  the  battery  at  the  sending  end  is  given  by  the  equation 

"  _~  .C,  =  C|l-2(£-e»  +  €9-£'«-1-&c.)!, 

where  C  is  the  maximum  current  which  the  battery  Is  caoable  ol 

t 
maintaining  through  the  line,  and  e  is  equal  to  (J)a  when  a  is  equal 
to  kcp  loge  (J)/ir^     The  number  $  is  quite  arbitrary ;  it  is  chosen 
because  it  makeTa  nearly  equal  to  the  time  required  for  the  current 
to  become  sensible  at  one  end  of  the  line  after  the  battery  has  been 

applied  to  the  other  end.  The  number  10",  which  is  more  con- 
venient for  calculation  and  which  does  not  differ  greatly  from  3, 
was  subsequently  adopted  by  Sir  W.  Thomson,  and  also  bv  Professor 
Jenkin.'    The  equation  may  be  written 

-  .  C,  =  C(1  -2  (.-''"^■"'-«-'''"''^'  +  c--''"'^';&c.  )  \- 
which  shows  plainly  how  the  current  is  affected  by  thejength.the 
resistance,  and  the  capacity  of  the  line. 

It  is  evident  from  this  eauation  that  a  hnite  time  ia  repaired 
after  the  battery  has  been  ap^ied  at  the  sending  end  for  the  current 
to  become  sensible  at  tbe  receiving  end,  the  interval  being  practi* 
cally  equal  to  a,  and  also  that  for  similar  actions  the  intervals  be- 
tween operations  for  one  line  must  be  to  the  corresponding  intervals 
for  anotner  line  directly  as  the  values  of  a- or  ofkcP  for  the  two  lines. 
We  see,  therefore,  that  for  lines  of  the  same  type,  worked  in  tlio 
same  manner,  the  speed  of  working  will  be  inversely  as  the  square 
of  the  len^h  of  the  line,  or,  if  the  type  varies,  inversely  as  the 
product  KQ,  where  K  is  the  total  resistance  and  Q  the  total  capacity 


1  See  his  MatheTf&,tical  and  Physical  Papers,  vnl.  U.  p.  61. 
"  Bee  Jeakln,  Elictricity  and  Ma^nftism,  p.  831. 


I 


126 


T  E  L  — T  E  L 


of  the  line.  The  interval  a  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  time 
required  for  each  signal ;  it  is  a  measure  of  the  slowness  of  trans- 
mission ;  but  the  number  of  signals  which  can  be  received  in  a 
given  time,  on  any  one  line,  depends  on  the  mf'thod  of  working  and 
on  the  sensibility  of  the  instruments  employed.  The  ratios  of  the 
number  of  signals  which  can  be  sent  over  dilferent  lines  in  a  stated 
time  are  the  same  as  the  ratios  of  the  values  of  a  for  these  lines. 
The  value  of  a  for  the  different  Atlantic  cables  varies  betiveen  a 
fifth  and  a  quarter  of  a  second,  and,  as  the  time  required  for  the 
current  to  reach  90  per  cent,  of  its  maximum  value  is  ten  times  a, 
on  instrument  which  requires  as  much  as  90  per  cent,  of  the  fuU 
current  to  produce  a  signal  and  a  fall  to  50  per  cent,  between  the 
sipTials  could  only  receive  about  one  signal  every  two  seconds  or 
benveen  one  and  two  words  per  minute.  The  instruments  actually 
a^sed  attain  to  a  speed  of  about  twenty  times  this ;  but  they  are 
capable  of  showing  distinctly  a  current  of  a  ten-thousandth,  or 
even  less,  of  the  maximum  current.  The  value  of  a  for  ordinary 
land  lines  is  very  small,  probably  not  exceeding  the  five-thousandth 
part  of  a  second  for  a  circuit  500  miles  in  lengtli.     The  current, 


therefore,  rises  almost  to  its  full  value  for  each  signal  when  the 
time  of  contact  is  as  small  as  the  five-hundredth  part  of  a  second, 
or,  on  the  Wheatstoue  instrument,  when  the  speed  is  about  500 
words  per  minute.  There  is,  however,  a  very  sensible  increase  in 
the  efiective  resistance  of  the  oircuit,  especially  when  iron  wire  is 
used,  when  signals  are  sent  as  rapidly  as  100  per  second,  so  that 
higher  battery  power  is  required  for  fast  than  for  slow  rates  of 
speed.  The  difficulty  in  working  land  lines  at  rates  up  to  300,  or 
even  more,  words  per  minute  is  not  to  any  serious  extent  electrical, 
but  is  in  great  measure  due  to  material  and  magnetic  inertia  in  the 
receiving  instruments.  Although  land  lines  can  be  worked  at  a 
very  high  speed  when  the  whole  of  the  wire  is  insulated  on  poles, 
the  rate  is  greatly  diminished  if  a  length  of  underground  or  of  sub- 
marine cable  is  included  in  the  circuit  In  practice  also  the  speed 
depends  greatly  on  the  position  of  the  cable  in  the  circuit ;  for  ex- 
ample, the  actual  speed  from  Onblin  to  London,  according  to  Mr 
Preece,  is  about  twice  as  great  as  that  from  London  to  Dublin. 
Mr  Cuiley  states  that  the  greatest  effect  is  produced  when  the  cable 
is  in  the  middle  of  the  circuit.  (T.  GB. ) 


TELEMETER,  or  Rangefindee.  This  is  an  instru- 
ment used  in  modem  warfare  to  determine  the  distance 
or  range  to  an  enemy's  position,  in  order  that  correct 
elevations  may  be  given  to  guns  or  rifles  directed  against 
it.  Telemeters  have  been  made  on  three  distinct  princi- 
ples, and  classified  as  acoustic,  optical,  and  trigonometrical 
respectively. 

Acmisiic  telemeters  record  the  time  which  elapses  between 
seeing  the  flash  or  smoke  and  hearing  the  report  of  a  gun, 
rifle,  or  shell,  the  range  being  given  in  yards  as  "  the  time 
in  seconds  x  364'6."  The  Bouleng6  telemeter  is  the  best 
known  of  this  class.  It  consists  of  a  graduated  glass 
tube  filled  with  liquid  and  containing  a  small  metal  tra^ 
veller.  At  the  flash  the  instriunent  is  brought  to  a  vertical 
position,  and  the  traveller  starts  from  zero ;  at  the  detona- 
tion it  is  turned  to  a  horizontal  position  and  the  traveller 
stops.  The  objections  to  the  acoustic  telemeter  are  that 
the  rate  of  transmission  of  sound  in  air  is  affected  by  wind 
and  other  local  conditions  and  that  the  instrument  cannot 
be  used  until  firing  has  commenced. 

Optical  or  perspective  telemeters  determine  the  distance 
to  any  point  by  observing  the  siz6  of  some  object  of  known 
dimensions,  as  seen  in  a  graduated  telescope.  Porro's 
telemeter,  Elliott's  telescope,  and  Nordeufelt's  macro- 
meter  illustrate  the  principle.  The  chief  defect  of  the 
system  is  that  the  objects  most  conveniently  observed — 
men  and  horses — vary  considerably  in  size,  so  that  the 
assumption  of  a  constant  dimension  may  be  productive 
of  error. 

Trigonometrical  telemeters  shorten  the  ordinary  methods 
of  surveying  by  adapting  them  to  military  purposes.  They 
are  of  two  kinds, — field  rangefinders  and  rangefinders  for 
coast  batteries. 

(1)  Field  rangefinders  exist  in  great  variety,  and  differ 
from  one  another  both  in  the  trigonometricah  methods  pur- 
sued and  in  the  mechinical  peculiarities  exhibited.  The 
following  are  the  cotnmon  solutions  of  what  is  technically 
called  "the  range-finding  triangle,"^ — i.e.,  a  triangle  in 
which  O  (fig.  1)  is  the  object  th^  distance  to 
■which  is  reqtiir^,  AOB  an  acute  angle,  and  AB 
the  base, — O  being  visible  both  from  A  anil  B. 
(i.)  Where  the  base  is  a  fixed  length  and  the  • 
angles  are  variable. — A  fixed  base  is  rarely 
adopted  except  *hen  the  base  forms  part  of 
the  instrument,  the  angles  being  observed  by  a 
powerful  telescopes.  The  range  is  usually  read  Fig-  1- 
in  yards  by  the  assistance  of  verniers,  extreme  perfection 
of  mechanism  being  necessary.  Many  ingenious  instru- 
ments of  the  kind  have  been  devised,  but  none  have  as 
yet  proved  satisfactory.  With  a  fixed  base  the  accuracy 
diminishes  as  the  range  increases,  (ii.)  Where  the  base 
end  the  angles  are  variable. — The  base  angles  are  generally 
"!  "Served  by  instruments  of  the  theodolite  type,  and  the 


base  is  actually  measured  or  found  by  means  of  a  sub-base. 
The  range  is  obtained  by  table  or  calculating  scale.  The 
Nolan  rangefinder,  which  was  the  first  telemeter  used  by 
the  British  artillery,  w.as  of  this  kind,  (iii.)  .Where  one 
base  angle  is  a  right  angle,  the  other  angles  and  base  being 
variable." — The  instrument  used  is  generally  double-reflect- 
ing of  the  sextant  type, — the  base  being  found  as  in  j[ji.). 
The  most  perfect  example  is  the  Watkin  rangefinder,  used 


Flo.  2. — Watkin  field  rangefinder. 
by  the  British  horse  and  field  ar- 
tillery.    It  (fig.  2)  consists  of  an  ''^^^' 
horizon  glass  capable  of  assuming  ' 

two  positions,  and  an  index  glass 
set  in  a  steel  arm,  which  is  worked  by  a  movable  collar 
on  a  graduated  bar,  and  this  again  is  moved  by  the  turning^ 
of  a  graduated  cylinder.  O  (fig.  3)  being  the  o 
object,  the  observer  sets  up  a  picket  at  A,  and 
with  the  instrument  at  zero  (the  horizon  glass 
being  inclined  45'  to  the  index  glass)  finds  the 
right  angle  at  the  point  C.  A  sub-base  AB  of 
6  yards  is  then  set  ofi",  and  (with  glasses  set 
parallel  and  the  sliding  collar  at  6)  the  ob- 
server reflects  B  upon  A  by  turning  the  cy- 
linder, which  is  thus  made  to  record  the  base 
AC  in  yards.  This  reading  being  set  on  the 
graduated  bar  by  moving  the  sliding  collar, 
the  observer  proceeds  to  A,  and  from  there' 
reflects  C  upon  O,  which  causes  the  range  to 
be  given  in  yards  on  the  cylinder.  In  this, 
operation  the  position  ef  the  sliding  collar  regulates  th&- 
movement  of  the  steel  bar  so  that  the  number  of  turns  of 
the  cylinder  is  always  a  true  measure  of  the  range  OC, 
whatever  the  length  of  the  base  AC.  (iv.)  Where  the 
angles  are  fixed  and  the  base  is  a  measure  of  the  range. — 
The  base  points  are  determined  by  the  use  of  prisms  or  of 
mirrors  reflecting  the  particular  angles  adopted.  The  base 
is  measured  or  found  by  a  subsidiary  triangle,  and  multi- 
plied by  a  constant  to  giv<i  the  range.  The  Weldon  range- 
finder,  recently  issued  to  the  British  infantry,  is  on  this 
principle.  It  consists  of  three  prisms,  and  is  generally 
used  as  follows.  0  (fig.  4)  being  the  object  and  D  a  con- 
venient distant  point,  the  observer  makes  with  the  first 
prism  the  right  angle  OAD.  He  then  retires  in  the  direc- 
tion DA  till  the.  second  prism  records  the  angle  OBD  = 


Fig.  3. 


T  E  L  — T  E  L 


127 


88°  5  r  1 5",  when  the  range  =  60  x  AB.  If  it  is  inconvenient 
to  measure  AB,  the  observer  can  retire  from  B  in  the  line 
OB  until  the  third  prism  records  the 
angle  OCA  =  74°  53'  15",  when  the 
range  =  20O  x  BC.  The  prisms  must 
be  held  in  the  plane  of  the  objects 
and  looked  into  at  the  same  point. 
This  rangefinder  is  very  simple  and 
portable,  but  is  frequently  inappli- 
cable on  hilly  or  broken  ground,  and 
does  not  possess  great  accuracy 

The  merits  of  different  field  range- 
finders  depend  mainly  upon  the 
balance  of  advantages  they  offer 
with  respect  to  accuracy,  suitability  to  variety  of  ground, 
simplicity,  portability,  and  durability,  these  conditions 
being  of  a  more  or  less  conflicting  character.  The  fol- 
lowing are  recognized  principlea: — (1)  the  naked  eye 
cannot  with  certainty  appreciate  less  than  one  minute  dif- 
ference of  angle,  thefefore  telescopic  power  is  necessary 
in  proportion  as  the  base  is  short  compared  with  the 
range ;  (2)  telescopes  of  high  power  cannot  bo  steadied 
by  hand  alone ;  (3)  the  longer  the  base  the  more  incon- 
venient are  any  restrictions  as  to  its  length  or  direction ; 
(4)  it  is  a  disadvantage  to  be  compelled  to  traverse  the 
line  joining  base  points ;  (5)  the  longest  base  which 
it  is  convenient  to  measure  by  hand  is  that  length  of 


-Weldon  range- 
finder. 


measuring  line  which  can  be  stretched  tight  in  a  high 
wind. 

(3)  Rangefinders  for  Coast  Batteries. — Rangefinding  is ' 
less  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  coast  defence  than 
"  position  finding," — a  method  which  furnishes  every  gun 
with  its  proper  training  and  elevation  so  that  it  can  be 
fired  without  sighting  the  target.  Rangefinders  are,  how- 
ever, sometimes  employed.  The  most  worthy  of  notice  is 
the  W'atkin  depression  rangefinder  used  by  the  British 
artillery  in  coast  batteries.  The  instrument  resembles  in 
princii'le  the  Watkin  field  rangefinder,  the  height  above 
the  sea-level  being  a  vertical  base.  The  range  is  found  by 
observing  the  angle  of  depression  to  the  object.  This  is 
done  by  a  powerful  cross- wire  telescope,  which  forms  part  of 
the  instrument.  The  fastest  steamer  can  be  continuously 
followed,  and  even  the  successive  grazes  of  shot  and  shell 
can  be  observed.  The  instrument  is  levelled  upon  a  tripod 
stand.  When  necessary,  it  finds  its  exact  height  in  feet 
above  the  vfater-level  in  any  state  of  tide  by  reference  to 
a  datura  distance,  and  it  records  the  range  in  yards  auto- 
matically on  a  graduated  cylinder.  An  interesting  con- 
trivance combining  telemeter  and  gun-sight,  applicable  to 
guns  in  permanent  emplacements  over  non-tidal  waters, 
has  been  tried  in  Italy.  By  means  of  a  cam  the  hind-sight 
of  the  gun  is  always  maintained  in  the  position  necessary  to 
give  the  proper  elevation  in  firing,  so  that  it  only  remains 
to  make  the  sights  cover  the  target.  '  'a.  w.  w.*) 


TELEPHONE 


TELEPHONY  is  the  art  of  reproducing  sounds  at  a 
distance  from  their  source.  The  term  was  first  used 
by  Philip  Reis  of  Friedrichsdorf,  in  a  lecture  delivered 
before  the  Physical  Society  of  Frankfort  in  1861.'  But, 
although  this  lecture  and  Jleis's  subsequent  work  received 
considerable  notice,  little  progress  was  made  until  ^he  sub- 
ject was  taken  up  between  1874  and  1876  by  Alexander 
Graham  Bell,  a  native  of  Edinburgh,  then  resident  in 
Boston,  Mass.  Bell,  like  Reis,  employed  electricity  for  the 
reproduction  of  sounds ;  but  he  attacked  the  problem  in  a 
totally  different  manner.  This  will  be  better  understood 
if  we  consider  shortly  on  what  the  chief  characteristics  of 
sound  depend  (compare  Acoustics). 
Chat»c-  The  sensation  of  sound  is  produced  by  rapid  fluctuations 
t«ristua  in  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  tympanum  of  the 
of  sound,  g^^  ^  jj^g  fluctuations  are  irregular  and  non- periodic, 
the  sound  is  called  a  noise ;  if  they  are  cyclic  and  follow 
a  regular  and  sufficiently  rapid  periodic  law,  the  sound  is 
musical.  In  connexion  with  the  present  subject  it  is  im- 
portant to  notice  the  three  characteristics  of  a  musical 
sound,  namely,  pitch,  loudness,  and  qitalitr/.  The  pitch  of 
a  musical  sound  depends  on  the  number  of  cycles  passed 
through  by  the  fluctuations  of  the  pressure  per  unit  of 
time ;  the  loudness  depends  on  the  amount  or  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  fluctuation  in  each  cycle ;  the  quality  depends 
on  the  form  or  the  nature  of  the  fluctuation  in  each  cycle. 
The  necessary  condition  for  a  successful  system  of  tele- 
phony is  the  ability  to  reproduce  these  characteristics. 

I.  History. 

In  1831  Wheatstone  by  his  "magic  lyre "  experiment 
showed  2  that,  when  the  sounding-boards  of  two  musical 
instruments  are  connected  together  by  a  rod  of  pine  wood, 
a  tune  played  on  one  will  be  faithfully  reproduced  by  the 
other.  This  only  answers,  however,  for  telephoning  mu- 
sical sounds  to  short  distances.     Another  and  somewhat 

'  "  Ueber  Telephonie  durch  den  galvanisctier  oiT  nj,  "lii  ■jCn'itishrt 
i.  physikalischen  Vereins  zu  Frankjurt  am  itaii^  18C0-61,  p.  57 
'  See  his  ScinUific  Pageri,  p.  47.  I 


similar  example  is  furnished  by  what  has  been  variously  '^'■'i  >n 
designated  as  the  "string,"  "toy,"  "lov!rs,"and"mecham  ^od*.'' 
ical "  telephone.  Two  disks  of  thin  metal,  or  two  stretched 
membranes,  each  furnished  with  a  mouthpiece,  are  con- 
nected together  by  a  thin  string  or  wire  attached  at  each 
end  to  the  centres  of  the  membranes.  A  good  example 
may  be  made  with  two  cylindrical  tin  cups ;  the  bottoms 
form  the  membranes  and  the  cups  the  mouthpieces.  When 
the  connecting  string  is  held  taut  and  sounds,  such  aa 
those  of  ordinary  speech,  are  produced  in  front  of  one  of  the 
membranes,  pulses  corresponding  to  the  fluctuations  of  the 
atmospheric  pressure  are  transmitted  along  the  string  and 
communicated  to  the  other  membrane,  which  in  its  turn 
communicates  them  to  the  air,  thus  reproducing?  the  sound. 
In  both  these  examples  all  the  three  character!  itics — pitch, 
relative  intensity,  and  quality — of  sound  are  reproduced. 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  development  of  the  application  Page's 
of  electricity  to  telephony.     In  July  1837  Dr  C.  G.  Page  ^^- 
of  Salem,  Mass.,  drew  attention  to  the  sound  given  out  by  "''^^S- 
an  electromagnet  at  the  instant  when  the  electric  circuit  ia 
closed  or  broken,  and  in  October  of  the  same  year  he  dis- 
cussed, in  a  short  article ^  entitled  "Galvanic  Music,"  tha 
musical  note  produced  by  rapidly  revolving  the  armature  of 
an  elect. omagnat  in  front  of  the  poles.   Experiments  bearing 
on  this  subject  were  subsequently  made  by  a  great  number 
of  investigators.'     Page's  discovery  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  connexion  with  the  theory  of  action  of  various 
forms  of  telephone,  and  was  a  very  important  feature  in  the 
early  attempts  by  Reis  to  transmit  music  and  speech.    On 

'  See  Silliman's  Journ.,  xsxii.  p.  396  and  xxiiii.  p.  118. 

;  MaiTian,  Phil.  Mag.,  3d  ser.,  xrv.  p.  382;    Beatson,  i4rcA.  de 

i'Elccl.,  V.  p.  197  ;  De  la  Rive,  Treatise  on  Electricity,  vol.  i.  p.  306, 

also  Phil.  Mag.,  3d  ser.,  vol.  xxrv.  p.  422,  and  C<mp.  Raid.,  xi.  p. 

1287,  xxii.  p.  432  ;  Matteucci,  Arch,  de  VAleet.,  v.  389  ;   Guillemin, 

Comp.  Rend.,  xxii.  p.  264  ;  Wertheim,  Comp.  Raul.,  xxii.  pp.  336, 

544,  xxvi.  p.  505,  also  Ann.  de  Chim.  ei  de  Phys.,  xxiii.  p.  302,  and 

Phil.  Mag.,  3d  ser.,  xxviii,  p.  644  ;  Jannair,  Comp.  Rend.,  xxiii.  p. 

319  ;  Joule.  Phi!  Aiiag.,  3d  ser.,  xxv.  pp.  76,  225  ;  Labordc,  Comp. 

Rfiu^,  f.        •\Sy2;  Poggendorff,  Pogg.  Ann.,  Ixxxvii.  p.  139,  xcviii. 

p.  JPi7S;  Du  Moncel,  Exp.  de  I'Jtlect.,  vol.  ii.  p.  125,  iii.  p.  83;  and 

I  Delesenne,  Bibl.  Univ.,  1841,  xvl.  p.  406. 


128 


TELEPHONE 


Boot-  26th  August  1854  there  appeared  ia  V Illustration  (Pans) 
"■^ '  an  interestmg  article  by  Charles  Bourseul  on  the  electric 
^^^  transmission  of  speech.'  The  writer  recommended  the  use 
of  a  flexible  plate  at  the  source  of  sound,  which  would 
vibrate  in  response  to  the  varying  pressure  of  the  air,  and 
thu3  open  and  close  an  electric  circuit,  and  of  a  similar 
plate  at  the  receiving  station,  which  would  be  acted  on 
electromagnetically  and  thus  give  out  as  many  pulsations 
as  there  are  breaks  m  the  current.  These  suggestions 
were  to  some  extent  an  anticipation  of  the  work  of  Reis  ; 
lat  the  conditions  to  Be  fulfilled  before  the  sounds  given 
oit  at  the  receiving  station  dkn  be  similar  in  pitch, 
q:;ality,  and  relative  intensity  to  those  produced  at  the 
transmitting  station  are  not  stated,  and  do  not  seem  to 
have  been  appreciated. 
Keis's  lu  Reis's  lecture  an  apparatus  was  described  which  has 

4-lephone.given  rise  to  much  discussion  as  to  priority  in  the  invention 
of  the  telephone.  The  instrument  was  described  in  over 
fifty  publications  ^  in  various  countries,  and  was  well  known 
to  physicists  previous  to  Bell's  introduction  of  the  electric 
telephone  as  a  competitor  with  the  electric  telegraph. 
Reis  caused  a -membrane  to  open  and  close  an  electric 
circuit  at  'each  vibration,  thus  transmitting  as  many 
tlectric  pulses  through  the  circuit  as  there  were  vibrations 
in  the  sound.  These  electric  pulses  were  made  to  act  on 
an  electromagnet  at  the  receiving  station,  which,  in  accord- 
ance with  Page's  discovery,  gave  out  a  sound  of  a  pitch 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  times  it  was  magnetized 
or  demagnetized  per  ■'  second.  Reis's  object  was  to  re- 
produce at  a  distance  not  only  music  but  also  human 
speech ;  but  that  he  did  not  wholly  succeed  is  clear  from 
the  follo'wing  extract  from  his  lecture :  "  Hitherto  it  has 
not  been  possible  to  reproduce  human  speech  with  sufficient 
distinctness.  The  consonants  are  for  the  most  part  repro- 
^  duced  pretty  d^istinctly,  but  not  the  vowels  as  yet  in  an 

equal  degree."  Considering  the  time  at  which  he  wrote, 
Reis  seems  to  have  understood  very  well  the  nature  of  the 
vibrations  he  had  to  reproduce,  but  he  failed  to  compre- 
hend how  they  could  be  reproduced  by  electricity:  His 
fundamental  i4ea — the  interruption  of  the  curren't^was 
a  fatal  mistake,  which  was  not  at  the  time  properly  under- 
stood. The  suggestion  of  Bourseul  and  the  experiments 
of  Reis  are  founded  on  the  idea  that  a  succession  of  currents, 
corresponding  in  number  to  the  successive  undulations  of 
the  pressure  On  the  membrane  of  the  transmitting  in- 
strument, could  reproduce  at  the  receiving  station  sounds 
of  the  same  character  as ,  those  produced  at  the  sending 
station.  Neither  of  them  seemed  to  respgnize  anything 
as  important  except  pitch  and  amplitude,  and  Reis  thought 
the  amplitude  was  to  some  extent  obtained  by  the  varying 
length  of  contact  in  the  transmitting  instrument.  This 
might  possibly  be  to  a  small  extent  true ;  but,  considering 
the  small  capacity  of  the  circuits  He  used  and  the  nature 
of  bis  receiving  instrument,  it  is  hardly  probable  that  dura- 
tion of  contact,  sensibly  influenced  the  result.  ,  The  quality 
of  the  sounds  was  to  some  extent  also  reproduced ;  but, 
judging  from  the  results  of  recent  telephone  investigation, 
it  is  highly  probable  that  this  was  due,  not  to  the  varying 
duration,  but  to  the  varyingfirmness  of  the  contact.  Since 
the  effect  of  the  degree  of  contact  has,  through  the  re- 
searches of  Bell,, Berliner,  Edison,  Hughes,  Elisha  Gray, 
and  others,  become  generally  understood,  it  has  become 
easy  to  make  instruments  very  similar  to  those  of  Reis; 

'  See  also  iDii/ttsfaiiia.'  Blatter  f\irGfiot,Geniilh,u'Pubhcila.t,  Frank- 
fort, No.  232,  28th  September  18^4  ,  Du  Moncel,  Expose  dcs  Appli- 
caiions  de  I' £tcctncUe,  Paris,  vol.  ii.  p.  25,  ed.  1854,  vol.  iii^p.  110, 
cJ.  1856,  iind  Comp.  /lend.,  26th  November  1877.  _    ~ 

2  The  English  leader  may  consult — Jonrn.  Soc.  Tel.  £n/^7 March 
1883;  British^  Assoc  Jicp.,  1863  ;  Civ.  Eng.  and  Arch.  Joum.,  vol. 
axvi  p:  307  ;  R.  M.'Ferguson,  Electricity,  London,  1866,  p.  257  ;  S. 
F.  ThompiOOijyiilij)  Bets,  tht  Inventor  of  the  TeUptume,  London,  1883. 


and  even  his  instruments,  with  alight  modlficationj  caa  o« 
made  to  speak  fairly  well.  The  accidental  transmission 
of  words  by  Reis,  the  occasional  recoij^iiition  of  the  voice 
of  a  singer,  and  other  instances  of  the  transmission  of 
quality  were  no  doubt  due  to  this  clement,  the  e.'dstecce 
of  or  the  necessity  for  which  was  never,  so  far  as  the 
present  writer  knows,  hinted  at  by  Reis. 

The  next  worker  at  the  telephone,  and  the  one  to  whom  E^^ll'.  m 
the  present  great  commercial  importance  of  the  instrument  ae-^rche* 
is  due,  was  BelL  His  aim  was  the  production,  by  means 
of  the  undulations  of  pressure  on  a  membrane  caused  by 
sound,  of  an  electric  current  the  strength  of  which  should 
at  every  instant  vary  directly  as  the  pressure  varied.^  His 
first  idea  seems  to  have  been  to  employ  the  vibrations  of 
the  current  in  an  electric  circuit,  produced  by  moving  the 
armature  of  an  electromagnet  included  in  the  circuit  nearer 
to  or  farther  from  the  poles  of  the  magnet  He  proposed 
to  ma"ke  the  armature  partake  of  the  vibrations  of  the 
atmosphere  either  by  converting  it  into  a  suitable  vibrator 
or  by  controlling  its  vibrations  by  a  stretched  membrane 
of  parchment.  In  the.  early  trials  the  armature  had  the 
form  of  a  hinged  lever  of  iron  carrying  a  stud  at  one  end, 
which  pressed  against  the  centre  of  a  stretched  membrane. 
The  experiments  with  this  form  were  not  successful,  and, 
with  the  view  of  making  the  moving  parts  as  light  aa 
possible,  he  substituted  for  the  comparatively  heavy  lever 
armature  a  small  piece  of  clock  spring,  about  the  size  of 
a  sixpence,  glued  to  the  centre  of  the  diaphragm.  The 
magnet  was  mounted  with  its  epd  carrying  the  coil  op- 
posite, and  verj'  close  to,  the  centre  of  the  piece  of  clock 
spring.  ,  This  answered  stifficiently  well  to  prove  the 
feasibility  of  the  plan,  and  subsequent  experiments  were 
directed  to  the  discovery  of  the  best  form  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  parts.  An  increase  in  the  size  of  the  iron 
disk  attached  to  the  membrane  augmented  both  the  loud- 
ness and  the  distinctness  of  the  sounds,  and  this  finally 
led  to  the  adoption  of  the  thin  iron  disk  now  in  use,  which 
is  supported  round  its  edge,  and  acts  as  both  membrajie 
and  armature.  Again,  the  form  of  the  opening  or  mouth- 
piece in  front. of  the  membrane  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  the  efficiency  of  the  instrument,  and  it  was 
ultimately  ascertained  that  a-  small  central  opening,  with 
a  thin  air  space  extending  across  the  face  of  the  membrant, 
was  best.  It  was  also  found  that  comparatively  small 
magnets  were  sufficient,  and  that  there  was  no  particular 
virtue  in  the  closed  circuit  and  electromagnet,  but  that 
a  small  permanent  magnet  having  one  pole  in  contact  v?ith 
the  end  of  the  core  of  a  short  electromagnet,  the  coil  of 
which  was  in  circuit  with  the  line,  but  which  had  no  per- 
manent current  flowing  through  it,  answered  the  purpose 
quite  as  well.''  In  fact  the  effect  of  keeping  a  permanent 
current  flowing  through  thei  line  and  the  coils  of  the 
electrCmagnet  was  to  keep  tibe  core  of  the  electro-magnet 
magnetized.  This'  seems 'lo  have  been  almost  simul- 
taneously pointed  out  by  fiell  and  others  who  were  work- 
ing in  conjunction  with  "him  and  by  Professor  Dolbear. 
Many  experiments  wer^  ufade  for  ascertaining  the  best 
length  of  wire  to  use  in  the  coil  of  the  tratismitting  and 
the  receiving- instrument ;  but  this  is  clearly  a  question 
dependent  to  a  large  extent  on  the  nature  of  the  line  and 
the  system  of  working  adopted.  . 

After  Bell's  success  a  large  number  of  experimenten 
entered  the  field,  and  an  almost  endless  variety  of  modi- 
fications have  been  described.  But  few  possess  any  real 
merit,  and  almost  none  have  any  essentially  new  principle.' 


'  See  A.  G.  Bell,  "Telephone  Researches,"  iajoum.  Soc.  Tel.  £ng., 
31st  October  1877. 

-  *  The  extreme  smallness  of  the  magnets  which  might  be  successfullj 
employed  was  first  demonstrated  by  Professor  Peirce  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity, ProvidencQ,  R  I. 
-   *  For  a  detailed  description,  in  a  collected  form,  of  a  large  aumt>ei 


TELEPHONE 


129 


Dolbear' 

COQ- 

*!eiiser 
tele- 


A  telephone  txaDsmitter  and  a  receiver  on  a  novel  plan 
were  patented  in  July  1877  by  Eklison,  shortly  after  the 
introduction  of  Bell's  instruments.  The  receiver  was 
based  oil  the  change  of  friction  produced  by  the  passage  of 
an  electric  current  through  the  point  of  contact  of  certain 
substances  in  relative  motion.  In  ■  one  form  a  drum, 
mounted  on  an  axis  and  covered  by  a  band  of  paper 
soaked'  in  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  is  turned  under  a 
spring  the  end  of  which  is  in  contact  through  a  platinum 
point  with  the  paper.  The  spring  is  attached  to  the  centre 
of  a  diaphragm  in  such  a  way  that,  when  the  drum  is 
turned,  the  friction  between  the  point  of  the  spring  and 
the  paper  deflects  the  diaphragm.  The  current  from  the 
line  is  made  to  pass  through  the  spring  and  paper  to  the 
cylinder.  Now  it  had  been  previously  shown  by  Edison 
that,  when  a  current  is  made  to  pass  through  an  arrange- 
ment like  that  just  described,  the  friction  between  the 
paper  and  the  spring  is  greatly  diminished.  Hence,  when 
the  undulating  telephonic  currents  are  made  to  pass 
through  the  apparatus,  the  constant  variation  of  the  friction 
of  the  spring  causes  the  deflexions  of  the  diaphragm  to 
vary  in  unison  with  the  variation  of  the  electric  currents, 
and  sounds  are  given  out  coitesponding  in  pitch,  and  also 
to  some  extent  in  quality,  with  the  sounds  produced  at 
the  transmitting  station.  A  cylinder  of  chalk  was  used  in 
some  of  Edison's  later  experiments  with  this  receiver. 
The  transmitter  is  illustrated  (see  fig.  10)  and  described 
(p.  132)  below. 

Experiments  very  similar  to  these  of  Edison  were  made 
by  Elisha  Gray  of  Boston,  Mass.,  and  described  by  him  in 
papers  communicated  to  the  American  Electrical  Society 
in  1875  and  1S78.  In  these  experiments  the  electric 
current  passed  through  the  fingers  of  the  operator's  hand, 
which  thus  took  the  place  of  the  spring  in  Edison's  ap- 
paratus. The  diaphragm  was  itself  used  'as  the  rubbing 
surface,  and  it  was  either  mounted  and  rotated  or  the 
fingers  were  m  ived  over  it  When  the  current  passed, 
the  friction  was  felt  to  increase,  and  the  eflTect  of  sending 
a  rapidly  undulating  current  through  the  arrangement 
was  to  produce  a  sound.  The  application  of  this  apparatus 
to  the  transnoission  of  music  is  described  by  Gray.^ 
3  In  another  form  of  telephone,  brought  prominently 
forward  by  Professor  Dolbear,^  the  effects  are  produced  by 
electrostatic  instead  of  electromagnetic  forces,  as  in  the 
Bell  telephone.  Sir  W.  Thomson  observed  in  1863'  that 
when  a  condenser  is  charged  or  discharged  a  sharp  click 
is  heard,  and  a  similar  observation  was  made  by  Cromwell 
F.  Varley,  who  proposed  to  make  use  of  it  in  a  telegraphic 
receiving  instrument.*  In  Dolbear's  instrument  one  plate 
of  a  condenser  is  a  flexi'ole  diaphragm,  connected  with  the 
telephone  line  in  such  a  way  that  the  varying  electric 
potential  produced  by  the  action  of  the  transmitting  tele- 
phone causes  an  increased  or  diminished  charge  in  the 
condenser.  This  alteration  of  charge  causes  a  correspond- 
ing change  in  the  mutual  attraction  of  the  plates  of  the 
condenser ;  hence  the  flexible  plat«  is  made  to  copy  the 
vibrations  of  the  diaphragm  of  the  transmitter.  It  is 
obvioua  that  this  apparatus  may  be  used  either  as  a 
ri-ansmitter  or  as  a  receiver,  but  that  tiie  effects  must  under 
ordinary  circumstances  be  in  either  case  extremely  feeble. 
In  the  Reis  instniments  the  transmitter  and  receiver 
ITS  separate  parts,  which  are  not  interchangeable  The 
Bell  telephone  can  be  used  either  as  a  transmitter  or  as  a 

of  these  modifications,  see  Du  Moncel,  "  Le  Telephone,"  is  BMiothique 
da  MareOles,  Paris,  1882. 

'  See  George  B.  Preacott,  The  Speaking  Telephone,  London,  1879. 
pp.  151-205.  .f        •»         .f     -. 

'  ScieTttific  Amerivm,  ISth  June  1S81 
•  Electrostatics  and  Magnetism,  p.  236. 

«  See  Td.  Joum.,  1st  August  1S77,  p  178  ;  also  Adams,  Joum. 
-Soe.  Td.  Eng.,  1877,  p.  476. 


receiver.     The  Edison  receiver  and.  the  Dolbear  condenser 
were  only  intended  to  be  used  as  receiving  instruments. , 

It  was  very  early  recognized — and,  indeed,  is  mentioned  Liquid 
in  the  first  patents  of  Bell,  and  in  a  caveat  filed  by  Elisha  trans- 
Gray  in  the  United  States  patent  office  only  some  two  '^'^!Jf 
hours  after  Bell's  application  for  a  patent — that  sounds  and  E. 
and  spoken  words  might  be  transmitted  to  a  distance  by  Oray. 
causing  the  vibrations  of  a  diaphragm  to  vary  the  re- 
sistance in  the  circuit.      Both  Bell  and  Gray  proposed  to 
do  this  by  introducing  a  column  of  liquid  into  the  circuit, 
the  length  or  the  resistance  of  which  could  be  varied  by 
causing  the  vibrations  of  the  diaphragm  to  vary  the  depth 
of  immersion  of  a  light  rod  fixed  to  it  and  dipping  into 
the  liquid  (see  figs.  8,  9  below).     This  idea  has  been  per- 
haps the  most  fruitful  of  any  modification  of  telephonic 
apparatus  introduced. 

On  4th  April  1877  Mr  Emile  Berliner  filed  a  caveat  in  B«t- 
the  United  States  patent  office,  in  whi-h  he  stated  that,  ''"er's 
on  the  principle  of  the  variation  with  pressure  of  the  resist-  '".'"'^ 
ance  at  the  contact  of  two  conductors,  he  had  made  an  traas 
instrument  which  could  be  used  as  a  telephone  transmitter,  mitter 
and  that,  in  consequence  of  the  mutual  forces  between  the 
two  parts  of  the  current  on  the  two  sides  of  the  point  of 
contact,  the  instrument  was  capable  of  acting  as  a  receiver. 
The  caveat  was  illustrated  by  a  sketch  showing  a  diaphragm 
with  a  metal  patch  in  the  centre,  against  which  a  metal 
knob  was  lightly  pressed  by  an  adjusting  screw.    This  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  transmitter  in  which  it  was  proposed 
to  use  the  resistan<:e  at  the  contact  of  two  conductors. 

Almost  simultaneously  with  Berliner,  Edison  conceived  Edison't 
the  idea  of  using  a  variable  resistance  transmitter.*  He  micro- 
proposed  to  introduce  into  the  circuit  a  cell  containing  P_ 
carbon  powder,  the  pressure  on  which  could  be  varied  by  mitter. 
the  vibrations  of  a  diaphragm.  He  sometimes  held  the 
carbon  powder  agamst  the  diaphragm  in  a  small  shallow 
cell  (from  a  quarter  to  half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  about 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  deep),  and  sometimes  he  used  what 
he  describes  as  ^  fluff,  that  is,  a  little  brush  of-silk  fibre 
with  plumbago  rubbed  into  it.  In  another  form  the  plum- 
bago powder  was  worked  into  a  button  cemented  together 
with  syrup  and  other  substances.  In  the  specification  of 
the  patent  applied  for  on  2 1st  July  1877  he  showed  a 
sketch  of  an  instrument  which  consisted  of  a  diaphragm, 
with  a  small  platinum  patch  in  the  centre  for  an  electrode, 
against  which  a  hard  point,  made  of  plumbago  powder 
cemented  together  with  india-rubber  and  vulcanized,  was 
pressed  by  a  long  spring,  the  pressure  of  the  carbon  against 
the  platinum  disk  being  adjusted  by  a  straining  screw  near 
the  base  of  the  spring.  Subsequently  he  filed  an  application 
for  a  patent  in  which  various  forms  of  springs  and  weights 
assisted  in  maintaining  the  contacts  and  otherwise  improved 
the  iiutruinent. 

In  the  early  part  of  1878  Professor  Hughes,  while  en-  Hughes** 
gaged  in  experiments  upon  a  Bell  telephone  in  an  electric  micro- 
circuit,  discovered  that  a  peculiar  noise  was  produced  when-  P  '""^ 
ever  two  hard  electrodes,  such  as  two  wires,  were  drawn 
across  each  other,  or  were  made  to  touch  each  other  with 
a  variable  degree  of  .firmness.     Acting  upon  this  discovery, 
he  constructed  an  instrument  which  he  called  a  microphone,* 
and  which  consisted  essentially  (see  fig.  11)  of  two  hard 
carbon  electrodes  placed  in  contact,  with  a  current  passing* 
through  the  point  of  contact  and  a  telephone  included  in 
the  same  circuit.     One  of  the  electrodes  was  attached  to 
a  sotmding   board  capable  of  being  vibrated  by  sound- 
waves, and  the  other  was  held  either  by  springs  or  weights 

'  See  Jmimal  of  the  Telegraph,  New  York,  April  1877  ;  PhOaddphid 
Ti-mes,  9th  July  1877  ;  and  Scientijk  American,  August  1377. 

^  This  term  was  used  by  Wheatstone  ia  1827  for  an  acoustic  ap- 
paratus intended  to  convert  very  feeble  into  audible  sounds ;  see  hi* 
Scientific  Papers,  p.  32. 

XXIIL  —  17 


130 


TELEPHONE 


—C        (■£ 

Edi    1. 

traLS- 
mitter. 


R  .Jio- 
(ilione. 


in  delicate  contact  with  il  When  the  sounding  board  was 
spoken  to  or  subjected  to  souhd-waves,  the  mechanical  re- 
sistance of  the  loose  electi*ode,  duo  to  its  weight,  or  the 
spring,  or  both,  served  to  vary  the  pressure  at  the  contact, 
and  tiiis  gave  to  the  current  a  form  corresponding  to  the 
sound-waves,  ana  it  was  therefore  capable  of  being  used  as 
a  speaking-telephone  transmitter.^  The  best  transmitters 
now  in  use  are  modifications  of  Hughes's  apparatus.  A 
microphonic  apparatus  very  similar  to  it  is  described  in  the 
specification  of  a  German  patent  taken  out  by  Robert 
Lntdge  on  12th  January  1878.  In  this  patent  the  action 
of  the  microphone  is  also  described.^ 

,  The  next  transmitter  of  note,  introduced  by  Mr  Francis 
Blake,  U.S.  (see  fig.  13  below),  although  it  does  not,  like 
the  first  microphones,  embody  anything  intrinsically  new, 
is  one  of  the  most  perfect  and  convenient  forms  of  micro- 
phone.*' It  is  at  present  almost  universally  used  in  the 
United  States. 

It  appears  to  be  pretty  well  established  that  carbon  in 
one  form  or  another  is  the  best  material  for  one  or  both 
'of_,the  contacts  of  a  microphone  transmitter.  When  both 
the  contacts  are  of  carbon  and  the  surfaces  have  consider- 
able area,  say  from  a  quarter  to  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 
the  sounds  are  loud,  but  have  a  tendency  to  harshness. 
When,  as  in  the  Blake  transmitter,  one  of  the  contacts  is 
a  piece  of  polished  gas  carbon  and  the  other  a  small  sphere 
of  platinum  about  the  twentieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,- 
the  articulation  is  clear,  but  less  loud.  For  most  purposes, 
however,  the  increased  clearness  more  than  compensates 
for  the  diminished  loudness.  Many  transmitters  in  actual 
use — as,  for  instance,  the  "  Gower,"  largely  employed  in 
the  United  Kingdom — have  a  number  of  contacts.  Some 
of  these  when  properly  adjusted  are  both  loud  and  clear 
in  their  action.  Although  the  Blake  instrument  is  most 
in  vogue  in  America,  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  on  the 
Continent  multiple  contact  microphones  have  found  more 
favour.  Carbon  powder  instruments  have  been  to  some 
extent  used,  and  in  one  or  two  cases — as,  for  example,  the 
Runnings  transmitter — with  considerable  success.  The 
fault  in  most  of  them  is  thfi  tendency  of  the  powder  to 
"  pack,"  which  causes  the  instrument  to  rapidly  lose  sensi- 
bility. Tn  the  Hunnings  transmitter  this  difficulty  is  to  a 
large  extent  overcome  by  the  use  of  a  coarse  granular  powder 
in  a  somewhat  large  cell  (about  an  inch  in  diameter  and 
from  one-eighth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  deep).  '  The  front 
face  of  the  cell  is  a  piece  of  platinum  foil,  which  serves 
both  as  an  electrode  and  as  a  diaphragm.  The  cell  is  placed 
either  on  edge  or  in  an  inclined  position' when  in  use,  the 
action  being  precisely  similar  to  that  in  other  transmitters. 
In  addition  to  its  freedom  from  packing,  the  carbon,  in 
consequence  of  the  inclined  position  of  the  cell,  is  also  less 
liable  to  fall  away  from  the  electrode  and  break  the  circuit. 
Some  parking  of  the  powder,  however, '  does  occur,  and 
several  modifications  Have  been  proposed  by  Blake  and 
others  for  making  the  sound  vibrations  stir  the  powder  and 
keep  it  loose  G^od  results  appear  to  have  been  got  by 
placing  the  cell  mouth  down\firds,  the  carbon  powder  lying 
on  the  platinum  foil,  and  by  forming  the  upjier  electrode 
either  of  wire  gauze  or  o'  a  perforated  plate  completely 
immersed  in  the  powder  The  .sound  vibrations  are  con- 
veyed to  the  bottom  of  the  cell  by  a  bent  tube  communi- 
cating with  a  mouthpiece.  Instruments  of  this  class  are 
jery  loud-speaking,"and.therefore_vcry  serviceable Jor_ long 
or  disturbed  circuits. 
.    The  radiophone  is  an'instrument  pro^posed  by  A.  G.  Bell 


and  Sumner  Tainter  m  1880  for  utilizing  radiant  energy 
such  as  light  or  radiant  heat,  for  the  transmission  of  sound 
The  apparatus  forms  a  telephone  transmitter  of  a  particu. 
lariy  interesting  kind.     In  the  earlier  papers  describing     '' 
and  the  experiments  which  led  to  its  invention  it  is  caUeCi 
photophone,  because  at  that  time  the  effects  were  supposetr 
to  be  wholly  due  to  light.     Afterwards,  in  order  to  avoifc'' 
ambiguity,  Bell  changed  the  name  to  radiophone  and  su^' 
gested  that,  to  distinguish  between  instruments  depending; 
on  the  different  kinds  of  radiation,  the  names  photophone 
thermophone,  &c.,  should  be  employed.     He. also  proposed 
the  name  spectrophone  for  an  application  of  this  instrument' 
to  spectrum  investigation.'     The  apparatus  is  founded  opi 
the  discovery,  made  by  Mr  May  while  carrying  out  experi:- 
ments  on  selenium  for  Mr  Willoughby  Smith,  that  when'- 
selenium  is  exposed  to  light  its  electrical  resistance  is  very 
different  from  what  it  is  in  the  dark.     This  discovery  ledi) 
to  a  great  many  interesting  experiments  by  other  investi- 
gators.*    In  thinking  over  this  discoveryin  1878  Bell  con-^ 
ceived  the  idea  that,  if  a  beam  of  light  proceeding  from 
one  station  could  be  made  to  fall  on  a  selenium  plate  at 
another  station,  and  if  Its  intensity  could  be  varied  by  th& 
voice  of  a  speaker,  then  by  connecting  a  telephone  and  e. 
battery  in  circuit  -with  the  selenium  plate  the  wards  spoken. 
at  the  distant  station  would  be  heard  in  the  telephone.    This- 
was  found  to  be  the  case.     At  first,  to  vary  the  intensity  of 
the  beam,  it  was  passed  through  a  small  opening,  the  width, 
of  which  could  be  varied  by  the  vibrations  of  a  diaphragm 
against  which  the  speech  was  directed.     But  better  results 
were  afterwards  obtained  when  the  diaphragm  forjned  a. 
mirror  from  w-hich  the  beam  of  light  was  reflected     The 
spreading  of  the  beam,  duo  to  the  vibrations  of  the  mirror 
diaphragm,  served  to  vary  its  intensity  (see  fig.  18  below). 

Edison's  phonograph  (.see  fig.  19  below)  is  an  instrument  Eaison* 
whose  action  somewhat  resembles  that  of  a  telephone  trans-  p''0"<> 
mitter  and  which  has  been  much  talked  of  in  regard  to  it?  ^"^  ^ 
possible  applications  in  telephony.     It  was  invented  shortly 
after  the  introduction  of  the  telephone  for  the  purpose  of, 
recording  sounds,  and  was  included  in  some  of  Edison's 
telephone  patents  as  a  means  of  working  a  telephone  trans^ 
mitter,  and  thus  telephoning  sounds  which  had  been  pre? 
viously  recorded  on  the  phonograph  sheets.^ 

11.  Telephonic  Instruments, 
One  of  the  best-known  forms  of  the  Reis  telephone  is  shown  iifl    ■ 
fig.  1.    The  transmitter  consists  of  a  bos  A,  provided  with  a  mouthf 
piece   M.     In  the 
top  of  the  box  a 
round  hole  is  cut 
and    across    it    a 
membrane    S  .  of 
hog's    bladder    is 
stretched.    A  thin 
strip  of  platinum 
;y  fj.-icd  to  the  bo.\ 
at  one  side  of  the 
hole  and   Extend- 
ing to  the  centre 

of  the  meinbrane,  supports  at  that  point  one  foot  of  a  light  meta? 
tripod  cgf.'  One  of  the  feet,  c  or/,  rests  in  a  cup  containing, 
mercury,  which  is  in  metallic  connexion  with  the  terminal  b,  whili 


J^_Sec  rwr'.  Roy.  Sic,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  362  ;'  Ptoc.  I'liys.  Soc,  vol.  ii.  p, 
25D  ;  J'litl.  ./(/ny,  5th  ser.,  vol.  vi.  p._44  jPreece,  yuimi^oc^ri'/.  Eiij.] 
»ol.  vii.  p.  270.  _ 

■^.  Altliough  this  patent  is' d.iled  prior  to""niighesTpuhlicatious,  it 
.does'  notJoUow  that  the  ilt;st.TiiaionoveVe_IiIed_before,these.^ 


\ 


Fio.  1.— Rcis's  telephone. 


^  On  tills  subject  sec  A.  G.  Bell,  Pliil.  Mag.,  6th  ser.,  vol.  ji.  p. 
510,  and  Journ.  Soc.  Td.  K'ig.,  vol.  ix.  p.  401  ;  Mercadier,  Fhil.  Mag.^ 
5tli  ser.,  vol.  xi.  p.  78  ;  Tyudall,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  S07  ; 
Routgen,  Plul.  Mag.,  5tli  ser.,  vol.  xi.  p.  SOS  ;  Preece,  Ptoc.  Roy.  Soc.'^ 
vol.  xxxi.  p.  50G  ;  R.iyleigh;  Knttire,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  274,  and  Prae.  Ro^ 
Soi-.,  1877;  Riihicll./'/iiV.  jVny.,  5th  ser.,  vol.  xi.  p.  302;  S.  P.TUomp; 
son,  I'liil.  Mng.,  5lh  ser,  vol.  vi.  p.  276.,' 

*  See  W.  Si'iiilli,  Journ.  Soc.  Td.  Eng.,  vol,  v.  p.  183,  apd  vol.  vi.  p" 
423  ;  U.  L.  Sale.  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  vol.  xxi.  p.  283,  and  P/iil.  Mng.,  4tt 
xor.,  vol.  xlvii.  p.  216  ;  Draper  .ind  Moss,  Proc^  Roy.  Irish  Acad.,  vol. 
i.  p.  529 ;  Rcisse,  Phil.  Mng.,  4lii  ser,  vol.  xlvii.  p.  161 ;  W.  G,  Adams, 
Pruc.  Roy.  Soc,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  535  .and  vol.  xxiv.  p.  163  ;  W.  G.  Adarai- 
and  B.  E.  D.-iy,  i'6n/  ,  vol.  x^v.  p.  J13;  Werner  Siemens,  Mcmatsber.  kon. 
J'reiiss.  .\/.ail.  d,r  Wisscnsch.  :u  llirlin.  1875,  p.  280,  and  Phil.  Mag.\. 
J^th.  ser.*' vol.  i,  p._41G ;  Sabine.  J*/iil.  Mag.,  5tli  ser  ,vol.  v.  d._401.' 


TELEPHONE 


firs*  tele 
phone. 


nat  to  wtiicti  the  transmitter,  was  subjected. 

ig.  2  shows  the  first  tekphoae  made  b\  BeU  for  transmUtinff 

•oh.      It  consisted  of  a  wooden  frame  F,  to  one  side  of  which  a 


Bill's 

MCDad 

tele- 
phone. 


the  end  of  the  strips  is  similarly  in  eonnerion  with  the  terminal  a 
rhe  receiver  consisW  of  an  e!ectrom.->gaet  made  up  of  a  magnetiz- 
ing coiJ  H,  with  a  stout  knitting  needle  for  a  core.  WTien  in  use 
^eso  two  instruments  are  joined  in  circuit  with  a  battery  B  so 
that  under  onimary  circumstaoces  a  continuous  current  is  flowinj; 
tftrough  the  line  Suppose  a  sound  is  then  produced  in  front  of 
the  mouthpiece  M,  th.j  successive  variations  in  the  pressure  of  the 
air  are  communicated  to  the  inside  of  the  bos,  and  cause  the  mem- 
brano  to  vibrate  in  unison  with  the  sound.  Reis's  theory  of  the 
action  of  the  instrument  was  that  at  each  outR-ard  impulse  of  the 
membrane  the  point  g  would  be  thrown  out  of  contact  with  the  plate 
uaderneala  it  and  would  thus  break  the  circuit.  There  would  con- 
sequent!- result  as  many  breaks  in  the  circuit  as  there  were  vibra- 
tions in  the  sound,  and,  in  conformity  with  Page's  discovers-  the 
electrom  urnetic  receiver  would  give  out  a  rapid  succession  of  Wts 
which  would  together  form  a  continuous  sound  df  the  same  pitch 
as  that  to  which  the  transmitter,  was  subjected 

•  spee 

tube  T  was  fijed  ;  over  the  end 

of  the  ttibe  a  membrane  M  was 

stretched  taut  by  a  stretching  ing 

R.     To  the  opposite  side  of  the 

fmrae  end  with  its  axis  in  lino 

with  that  of  the  tube  T  -.vas  fixed 

an  electromagnet  H,  and  between 

the  membrane  M  and  the  end  of 

the  electromagnet  a  hinged  arma. 

turc  A  was  arranged  in  such  a  way 

that  its  motions  would  be  con- 
trolled by  the  membrane.  The 
iiutrument  was  joined  in  circuit 
with  a  battery  and  another  simi- 
tar instrument  placed  at  a  dis- 
tance. A  continuous  current  was 
made  to  flow  through  the  circuit, 
which  kept   the    electromagnet 

magnetized  Bell  reasoned  thus  :  when  words  are  spoken  in  front 
of  the  tube  T  the  membrane  will  be  set  in  vibration  and  with  it  tho 
armature  A  and  the  vibration  of  the  armature  in  front  of  the  electro- 
magnet will  induce  variations  in  the  line  current ;  their  maKnitudo 
wiU  be  proportional  to  the  amplitude,  and  their  frequency  to  the 
frequency,  of  tae  vmrations  of  the  armature  ;  in  fact,  the  difference 
betweea  the  actual  and  the  average  current  in  the  circuit  will  be 
at  each  instant  proportional  to  the  rate  of  motion  of  the  armature. 
It  foUows  .rom  this  that  the  armature  and  membrane-of  the  distant 
instrument  should  have  induced  in  them  a  motion  precisely  similar 
to  that  of  the  membrane  of  the  transmitter.  This  telephone  was 
made  m  June  1875  but  was  put  aside  after  trial  as  unsatisfactory 
on  account  of  the  feebleness  of  the  sounds  it  produced  :  since  then 
however,  a  successful  telephone  has  been  made  on  precisely  the 
came  plan  as  that  here  indicated.  ' 

_  The  next  fonn  tried  is  shown  in  fig.  3.  It  is  very  similar  except 
m  constructive  details  to  the  first ;  the  hinged  armature,  however, 
u  omitted,   its  place  being  "  '•  - 

taken  by  a  small  iron  disk  A  m 
fixed  to  the  centre  of  the  Sit 
Uaphragm  D.    The  electro-  '  '■  " 


131 


be^ 


J^-.T^.l^T'f'."*  mteresting,  not  only  bccansc  they  may 
considered  the  first  really  sucoe^ful  speaking  telcnhonel  but  bc 

STIrfbvsTw  Th  """'  '■^"H  ^  "''^^  ^^^^^'  'o  Grc?t  Brut 
S.Hnn  ,/r^  ■  ^.'^°r°°'  ■""*  «*tibited  before  the  British  Asso- 
ciation at  G-lasgow  m  that  year. 

Fig  6  shows  one  of  the  earUest  forms  brought  into  commercial 
"^^-   0°  ^«ch  pole  of  a  somewhat  large  horse-sh^  pe^anenTmXl 


Fio  2.. 


-Bell'a  first  telephone:  ono- 
Ofth  full  size. 


magnet  H  is,  as  before,  placed 

so  as  to  have  the  centre  of 

the  soft   iron  core 

C  opposite   to   the 

centre  of  the  disk,  y~~~~~i 

and  the  theory  ac-  mniirvi-i^ 

cording  to  which  it      Fio.  3  -Bells  second  telephone :  one-fifth  fuU  size 

was  expected  to  act  is  the  same.     The  results  obtained  with  this 

instrument  were  much  more  satisfactory;  indeed  it  was  with  one 

K^^^'l^^^  that  shown  in  the  figure  that  the  remarkable  results 

of  the  Philadelphia  exhibition  in  1876  were  obtained.    A  perspec- 

-.1*.?  .*v"''"°''^'  ^''^^  "f  '^^  receiving  instrument  us^-d  along 
with  that  shown  m  fig.  »■  ° 

3  are  illustrated  in  figs. 

4  and  6.  It  consisted 
of  an  iron  cylindrical 
box  B,  through  the  axis 
of  which  a  rod  of  soft 
iron  C  was  passed  to 
form  the  core  of  an 
electromagnet,  havin» 
tlie  magnetizing  helix 
H  woutid  on  tlie  upper 

half     <sf    its     length.-  Fig.  4.  Fig  6 

Across   the   top  of  the         Pios.  4,  S.-Bell's  iron  box  receiver  (1876) 
box  a  thin  disk    D   of     ''i-  *•  perspective  view  ;  fig.  5,  sectional  view. 
soft  iron  was  fi.N;ed,  the  core  C  being  just  clear  of  the  disk  when 
the  strongest  current  is  flowing  through  the  helix.     In  the  per- 
fective view  the  disk  is  removed,  showing  the  end  of  the  core 


Fio.  6.  -Bell  »  multiple  pole  telephone  (1877) ;  one-lifth  nul  size. 
ITa  short  coil  E  with  a  soft  iron  core  was  fixed.  This  is  one  of  th? 
early  forms  ot  permanent  magnet  telephones,  of  which  there  were 
tha  sh  ,«n  Inli"'  '"^^  .ncludiDg  a  hand  telephone  very  similar  to. 
that  sh^nn  m  fig  7.  In  another  form,  introduced  about  the  en* 
^,  .„  ■  A  r^  magpetizing  coils  and  soft  iron  cores  were  fixed" 
ontne  side  and  opposite  the  poles  of  th«  horse-shoe  magnet,  and 

Fh  ,/"''  diaphragm  in  these  telephones  was  of  thin  sheet  iron 
and  a  little  over  4  inches  in  diameter 

The  form  of  telephone  now  almost  universally  in  use  is  shown  in 
fig.  7.     It  was  introduced  in  December  1877  and  consists  of  a  com 


--•  •  iMj-j  •-uusi^Ls  ui  a  com- 

magnet  M,  fitted  into  ,^Jie  centre  of  a 


pound  permanent 
tiibe  of  vulcanite 
or  "  hard  rubber  " 
and  carrying  at  one 
end  a  short  electro- 
magnet, the  coil  of 
which  through  its 
terminals  t,  t  is  in-  ^j_ 
eluded  in  the  cir-     ^^     ^'°-  7.— Bell's  hand  telephone,  present  form. 

I'l-il'^^r^i"'"  instrument  is  in  use.  In  front  of  the  electromagnet, 
with  Its  plane  normal  to  the  axis  of  the  magnet,  is  fixed  a  thin  soft 
iron  disk  about  IJ  inches  in  diameter,  whic?^has  its  cover  cu?  to  a 
convenient  shape  to  form  a  mouthpiece.  This  telephone  acts  well 
k?,'Lw ""  f/^^'tter  or  as  a  recefver ;  but  for  the  former  „e 
tl  °  A^^T  V^''^  ?"  «'?,''""'  of  tl^^  gr<=at  advances  which  fiave 
been  made  in  microphone  "  transmitters. 
It  has  been  stated  that  BeU  and  Elisha  Gray  almost  simultane- 


Bell-.. 
hand 
tele- 
phone,. 


Bell's 
liquid 
trans- 
mitter. 


of  instrument  proposed  by 
the  former  and  said  to 
have  been  exhibited  at  the 
Philadelphia  exhibition  is 
shown  in  fig.  8.  It  con- 
sists of  a  speaking  tube 
or  mouthpiece  M,  across 
the  lower  end  of  which  a 
membrane  D  is  stretched. 
To  the  centre  of  the  mem- 
brane a  light  rod  R,  made 
of  metal  or  of  carbon,  is 
fixed  with  its  length  at 
right  angles  to  the  plane 
of  the  membrane.  Under 
the  lower  end  of  R  a  small 
metallic  vessel  C  is  sup- 
ported on  a  threaded  rod, 
working  in  a  nut  fixed  to 
the  sole  F,  so  that  its  heigh  t 

may  be  readily  adjusted.  F.g~8.  Fie  9 

Suppose  C  to  be  filled  with  F.o  8  -Bell  s  liquid  tnnsmitter  ' 
water  or  any  other  con-  Fio  9 -Ehsha  Gray  s  ...  nd  transmit  ter 
ducting  liquid,  and  the  rod  R  to  be  of  metal.  C  is  raised  until  tho 
liquid  just  touches  the  point  of  the  rod,  when  advantage  is  tnken 
ot  the  change  of  contact  resistance  with  the  greater  or  less  immer- 
sion of  R  during  the  vibration  of  D.  Good  results  were  obtaineJ 
with  mercury  as  the  liquid  and  with  a  rod  of  carbon 

The  an-angement  proposed  by  Elisha  Gray  is  almost  identical  in  E  G^l^■. 
fJ^.Tt  ^'^h  ,^^ir^^  ^'l"^'""'  ="™^  ">  be  that  Gray  1^  iTqu.d  ' 
R  „rf  t^'  f°'J  K  (''^-  V"  "'".'''  "'"  '°  "•=  b°"°'"  "f  the  vessel  trnns 
B  or  to  the  end  of  another  rod,  a  prolongation  of  b,  projecfuie  un  mitte- 
from  the  bottom.     The  variation  of  the  current  was^prSced  by 
the  van.^tion  of  the  distance  between  the  ends  of  the  rod  caused 
by  the  vibrations  of  the  diaphragm.     This  plan  was  not  tried  untQ 
after  the  success  of  Bell  s  exiieriments  was  known,  and  when  it  was 


132 


TELEPHONE 


Edison's 

fciicro- 
j)bone 
trans- 
-liuer. 


tried  the  resnlts  did  not  prove  enconraging  Indeed  the  vanauoDS 
of  the  resisUnce  which  can  be  produce,!  m  thi3  v,ay  must  boexcess- 
ively  small,  unless  the  liquid  has  a  very  high- specific  resistance 
the  distance  between  the\nds  is  very  small,  an5  the  sides  of  the 
rods  are  prevented  by  an  insulating  covenng  from  interfering  with 
the  results.  Neither  of  these  trausinitters  has  any  great  ment  as 
Bueh  but  they  show  that  both  Bell  and  Gray  clearly  >-ecogTiued 
the  principle  on  which  successful  transmission  of  the  differeut  forms 
of  sound,  including  speech,  could  be  accomplished. 
*  The  firat  successful  microphone  transmitter  w^  Edison  s.  An 
early  form  of  it  (fig.  10)  somewhat  resem^s  BeUs  hand  tele 


primary  circuit  of  the  induction  coil  I  to  the  battery  B,  and  thence 
to  S  again.  This  forms  a  local  circuit  at  the  transmitting  stationi 
The  line  of  circuit  passes  through  the  secondiry  of  the  mductioB 


ternal  form.  A 
•J  material  has  at 
headcdplatinura 
top  of  G  is  a 
powder  C,  on  the 
platinum      disk 

J  that,  forming  the 

a  disk  of  ivory  B,  held  in 
ring  E.     Resting  on  the 
disk  is  a  small  piece   of 
which  is  lightly  pressed  by 
A,    and    this,   as  in   the 
position  by  themonthpiece 
on  A,  when  a  sound  is  pro. 
spending  variations  in  the 
powder,  and  this  produces 
trioal    resistance.     Thus, 
\   eluded  in  an  electric  cir. 
[       ]   rent   is   flowing,  undula- 
-  J  diaphragm  produce  corre- 
'^  the  current 
.G    iu  -Eli  f'Jrms  of  the  microphone 
sons  ■  micro.  Prof.    Hughes.      One    of 
phone  trans,  in  fig.  11.     It  consists  of 
;;;  ;;rtrnguTar  pieces  of      ■^'"^-  wood,  B  and  D,  fixed  to. 

gethcr  with  their  planes  at  right  angles  to  each  other.     D  forrns 
tlie  base,  and  to  B  two  smaU  blocks  of  carbon  C,  C  are  attached. 


phone      in     ex 
cell  of  insulating 
its  bottom  a  flat- 
screw  G  ;  on  the 
layer  of  carbon 
top  of  that  a  thin 
D,     and     above 
cover  of  the  cell, 
position     by     a 
centre'  of    this 
rubber     tubing, 
the     diaphragm 
hand  telephone,  is  held  in 
M,     The  varying  pressure 
duced  near  it,  causes  corre- 
pressure    on    the    carboo 
Bimilar  variations  in  its  elcc- 
when  the  instrument  is  in- 
cuit  through  which  a  cur- 
tions  ill  the  pressure  on  the  &,. 
spending    undulations    in  (^ 
Hughes's      Perhaps  the  best  known  p.c 
aiicro-      are    those    introduced  by 
.^jhone.      the  commonest  is  showri 


A  of  the  Same 
small  cups  formed 
two  electrodes  e,  e 
poso  of  inserting 
circuit  The  ma. 
most  suitable  for 
was  wood-  charcoal 


Between  these  a  light  rod 

material    is    supported    on 

in  C,   C.      To   the   blocks 

are  connected  for  the  pur-  ^^r-, 

the  instrument  in  an  electric 't  " 

tnrial  which  Hughes  found    * 

the  carbon  blocks  and  rod 

metallized  by  heating  it  to 

redness    and    plunging    it 

while  hot  into  mercury.    If 

this  microphone  is  joined 

in  circuit  with  a  telephone 

and   a  small    battery,  say 

one  or  tw«  small    Daniel! 

cells,    the    vibration    pro-  _Hughcs's  nncrophone. 

duced  by  a  fly  walking  on  no.  ii  t  f 

the  ba.se  D  can  be  distinctly  heard  la  the  telephone.     The  saine 

apparatus  will  also  act  as  a  microphone  transmitter,  but  the  sonnds 

arc  apt  to  be  harsh.     A  better  form  for  this  purpose  is  shown  in 

fi./  12      In  this  a  light  pencil  of  carbon  M       A  's  pivoted  at  h  and 

his  one   end  resting    on    two  blocks   of  C?    carbon    c.    c.    the 

lower     one     being 

fi.ted  to  the   base.       jj_j        g#f -hliH:1J  !  *i' 

The  pressure  of  M       ^^  " 

on  the  carbon  block 
is  regulated    by  a  l_ 

springs.      This,_ar.  Fiq.  12.— Microphone  transmitter, 

raneenient    is    en-  ,  .  ,    ,,  3  ■    3-      *  j 

closed  in  a  box  oT  thin  wood,  against  which  the  sound  is  directed. 
It  is  capable  of  acting  well  as  a  transmitter,  and  especially  in  a 
modified  form  used  by  Hughes  as  a  microphone  receiver  The 
lower  block  c  is  then  attached  to  the  centre  of  a  vertical  diaphragm 
aud  against  it  the  sounds  are  directed. 
Olake  The  Blake  transmitter,  which  is  perhaps  most  widely  used  01 

trans-  sll,  isasimple  modification  of  the  Hughes  instrument  last  described. 
..Bitter  It  consists  (fig  IS)  of  a  frame  F,  to  which  is  attached  a  diaphragm 
D  of  thin  sheet  iron  ;  in  front  ot  this  is  a  cover  M,  M  provided  with 
a  suitable  cavity  for  directing  the  sound-waves  against  the  dia- 
phragm- The  microphonic  arrangement  consists  of  a  spnng  fa. 
about  the  hundredth  of  an  inch  thick  and  the  eighth  of  an  inch 
broad,  fixed  at  one  end  to  a  lever  L,  and  carrying  at  its.  free  ex- 
tremity a  brass  block  W.  In  one  side  of  W  a  small  disk  C  of  gas 
carbon  is  inserted,  resting  on  the  hemispherical  end  of  a  small 
platinum  pm  K,  ioout  the  twenrieth  of  an  inch  m  diameter,  held 
in  position  by  a  thin  spring  A.  The  pressure  of  the  carbon  on  the 
platinum  point  can  be  adjusted  by  the  screw  N,  which  turns  the 
lever  about  the  flexible  joint  G.  The  electrical  connexions  of  the 
instrument  as  arranged  "for  actual  use  are  also  illustrated  in  the 
fgure.    The  current  circuit  goes  through  S,  W,  C,  K.  A,  and  tho 


Fig-  13-— Blake's  transmitter. 


coil  I  to  the  lino,  from  that  to  the  telephone  T  at  the  receiving 
Station,  and  then  either  to  earth  or  back  to  the  induction  coil  by 
a  return  line  of  wire. 

Telephonic  Ciraiits. 
The  lines  used  for  telephone  purposes  are,  generally  speaking,  Tele- 
so  far  as  erection,  mode  of  insulation,  and  so  on  are  concerned,  much  phoa« 
the  same  as  those  used  for  ordinary  telegraphs.     In  towns  where  wires. 
a  very  large  number  of  wires  radiate  from  one  centre  or  exchange, 
as  it  is  called,  where  thick  wires  are  unsightly,  and  where  it  is 
often  necessary  to  provide  for  long  spans,  a  comparatively  thin  wire 
of  strong  material  is  employed.     Tor  this. reason  various  bronzes, 
such  as  silicon,  aluminium,  &c.,  have  come  to  be  extensively  usei' 
for  making  wires' for  telephone  Unes.     They  are  made  from  about 
the  twentieth  to  the  thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  are  found 
to  wear  well  in  the  somewhat  mixed  atmosphere  of  a  town  ;  and 
owing  to  their  lightness  and  considerable  tensile  strength  it  is  com- 
naratively  easy  to  erect  them  and  keep  them  in  order.     The  mam 
objection  to  them  is  the  high  electrical  resistance  they  oppose  to 
the  cnrrent     The  lines  on  a  town  exchange  system  are  not,  how- 
ever as  a  rule,  so  long  as  to  make  this  objection  of  great  import- 
ance'.    But  long  lines,  such  as  those  extending  between  towns  some 
miles  apart,  should  be  made  of  pure  copper  wire  hard  drawn.   It  hM 
lately  been  found  possible  to  draw  copper  so  hard  as  to  be  almost 
equal  to  bronze  in  strength,  aud  yet  to  retain  about  three  times  the 
electric  conductivity  of  that  substance.     Copper  and  bronze  wires 
possess  great  advantages  for  telephonic  purposes  over  the  iron  wires 
employed  in  telegraph  Unes,  in  that  they  oB'er  a  much  lower  efi^ective 
resistance  to  the  rapidly  undulating  and  intermittent  currents  pro- 
duced by  telephonic  transmitters.     The  electric  resistance  opposed 
by  a  wire  to  the  passage  of  such  3  current  is  always  greater  than 
that  opposed  to  a  steady  current,  and  this  diflferenceis  much  more 
marked  when  the  whe  is  of  magnetic  matenal  like  iron.     This  in- 
creased resistance  rises  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  the  undula- 
tions of  the  current ;  consequentlv  high  notes  are  more  resisted 
than  low  notes.     Besides  this  variable  resistance,  telephony  has  to 
contend  -R-ith  "  self.inducrion "  (see  Electkicitt,  vol  vm.  p.  76 
so.)  of  the  current  on  itself,  and  this  is  by  no  means  unimportant, 
especially  on  long  circuits.'    The  marked  difl'erenco  between  iron 
and  copper  for  long  circuits  is  plainly  shown  by  the  fact  that 
Rysselberg  and  others  have  spoken  cleariy  to  a  dist-inco  of  over 
1000  miles  through  a  copper  wire  insulated  on  poles,  whereas  Preece 
could  not  work  a  similar  line  of  iron  wire  between  London  and 
Manchester.  *,-«       ,. 

The  electrostatic  capacity  of  the"  line  (see  TeieoRAPH,  p.  115  Capacity, 
above)  is  also  diminished  by  the  use  of  thin  wires  of  highly  con- 
ducting materiaL  They  should  all  if  possible  be  erected  on  poles 
at  a  considerable  height  above  the  earth.  It  is  not  practicable  to 
work  an  ordinary  underground  line  through  more  than  20  miles, 
and  cable  teleiihony  through  distances  of  over  100  miles  may  in 
the  present  state  of  science  be  put  down  as  an  impossibility. 

Another  element  of  great  importance  in  connexion  with  telephone 
1  Sec  papers  by  Prof.  Hughes,  Proc  Soc  Ttl  F.nfi..  vol.  iv-  p.  6,  and  Proo. 
Jim  Soc,  vol,  xl.  p.  468.  with  remarks  on  them  by  Prof-  H.  F.  Weber,  Trf. 
Joum..  vol-  xviii-  p.  821  and  vol-  lir.  p.  80 ;  by  Oliver  Beavlside,  Phil.  Hog., 
vol  xxli  p.  113 ;  by  Rayleigh,  Phil.  Mag.,  vol.  irt-  p-  3S1  and  voL  xxiL  p-  409. 
See  also  Prof.  ChrjsUil  on  tho  "Differential  Telephone, '  In  Tronj.  Boy.  iM. 
Edln>.,  VOL  n»l,  pp.- 609-636. 


1 


TELEPHONE 


13? 


Xmlac-      linw,  which  ia  mo«t  cases  does  not  reqmre  to  be  attended  to  ic 
tioo.         ordinary  telegraph  circuits,  ia  the  indaction  from  one  line  to  an- 
other (see  Electkicitt,  voL  viii.  p,  76*7.).    Wlien  two  liiwe  baring, 
AS  in  ordinary  telegraphy,  an  eartti  connexion  at.  each -cad  run  for 
any  great  distance,  say  a  mile  or  more,  parallel  to  each  other  on 
the  same  supports,  a  conversation  which  is  being  carried  on  through 
one  of  them  can  be  overheard  by  means  of -the  telephones  on  tho 
other.     This  ia  dne  to  the  fact  that,  when  a  current  is  su^lderily 
set  OM  in  one  closed  circuit,  it  induces  an  instantaneous  current  in 
any  Q.ther  closed  circuit  which  is  near  \o  it.     Tliis  induced  current 
not  only  destroys  the  privacy  of  the  circuit  in  qnestion  but  also 
lowers  its  efficiency.     The  miscbief  is  even  greater  when  telegraph 
and  telephone  lines  run  along  the  same  route  supported  on  toe 
same  poles,  because  the  strong  intermittent  currents  sent  through 
telegraph  wires,  and  the  irregular  manner  ia  which  the  intermit- 
tences  follow  each  other,  induce  a  series  of  such  powerful  secondary 
currents  in,  the  telephone  lines  that  the  noise  heajni  in  the  tele- 
phone is  often  sufficient,  when  the  line  is  a  mile  or  two  long,  to 
Hetbods  drown  all  speech.     In  the  case  of  parallel  telephone  lines  the  best, 
tiT  orer-  if  not  the  only,  cure  is  to  use  return  wires,  and  arrange  them  so  that 
coming     the  currents  induced  in  the  outgoing  wire  shall  be  neutralized  by  the 
mdoc-     -corresponding  current  inducea  in  the  incoming  winS     For  mixed 
Hoa.         telegraph  and  telephone  circuits  Tarious  methods  have  been  pro- 
posal'.  but  the  most. generally  approved  plan  ia  to  have  return 
Tvires-  ■  Por  circuits  wTjrked  wholly  on  the  return  principle  the  main 
thing-to  be  attended  to  is  the  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  wires, 
so  that  the-ontgoing  and  incoming  wires  may  be  subjected  to  the 
samft.  influence.     This  is  nearly  provided  for  by  running  them  in 
such  a  way  that  they  may  be  all  supposed  to  lie  on  the  surface  of  a 
cylinder  in  lines  parallel  to  its  axis,  the  two  wires  at  the  opposite 
■  ends 'of  a  diameter  being  always  used  for  the  same  circuit.     When 
xaore  than  four  wires  form  the  group  complete  compensation  is  not 
obtained  in  this  way,  because  tbe  current  is  always  stronger  near 
the  transmitting  end  of  the  line  than  near  the  receiving  end,  on 
aceountof  the-very  sensible  effect  of  the  capacity  and  the  leakage  of 
tbe  line.     It  is  therefore  best  to  arrange  the  wires  in  groups  of  four 
f— that  is,  in 'pairs  of  circuits — and  run  them  so  as  to  form  spiral 
lines  round  an  o^ial  line  equidistant  from  each  of  tbe  four  wires. 
Anypair  of  wires  forming  a  circuit  wMch  runs  parallel  to  other 
wires- can  be  arranged  so  as  to  be  very  nearly  free  from  induction 
by-iipt€Tchanging  their  position  relatively  to  the  other  wires  at  &hort 
distainces  along  the  line.     Care  must,  however;  betaken,  when  more 
than  one  group  of  four  or  when  more  than  one  pair  are  run,  that 
the  compensation  produced  by  the  twisted  arrangement  of  one  set, 
or  of  the  interchanges  of  the  wires  in  the  different  pairs,  ia  not 
spoiled  by  the  twisting  or  interchanging  of  another  set  or  pair. 
Telephone  lines  running  parallel  to  telegraph  lines  should  be  formed 
into  one  or  more  gronps,  each  being  run  on  the  twist  plan  60  as  to 
eliminate  as  completely  as  possible  the  effect  of  the  telegraph  signals ; 
the  small  residual  effect  of  the  telephone  signals  is  of  comparatively 
little  importance  in  snch  a  case.     A  ti.viste<l  cable  of  telepnone  wire 
may,  when  each  circuit  is  formed  by  diametrically  opposite  wires,  be 
placed  in  tbe  same  tube  T\-ith  similar  cables  employed  for  telegraph 
purposes.     The  central  wire-of  the  cable  may  be  used  either  as  a 
telegraph  line  or  as  a  telephono  line  having  an  *arth  return.. 
Another' method  ia  to  use  powerful  telephone  traJismitters  and 
insensitive  receivers ;  that  is  to  say,  make  the  telephone  currents 
so  powerful  that  the  telegraphic  induced  currents  will  be  small  in. 
comparison,  and.nse  receivers  so  insensitive  as  to  suit  such  currents- 
One  of  the  main  obstacles  in  the'way  of  this  method.at7>rescnt  ia 
tbedifficulty  of  getting  strong  telephonic  currents,  for  even^hebest" 
tmtismitters  are  not  yet  sofficiently  powerful,  and  there  is,  besides, 
a  decided  tendency  towards  a  loss  of  qu.iUty  in  the  sound  when  the. 
tranamitter  ia  made  powerful     A  third  method  is  to  render  the 
tele«jraphic  current  comparatively  harmless  by  taking  away  the 
enddenncsa  of  the  intermittences.     Tliia  is  quite  possiole  because 
the  number  of.currents  sent  per  second,  even  on  fast  working  circuits, 
ian^tsuchastoprodncealjgh  musical  note.    If,  then,  the  currents 
be  made  in  some  way  to  rise  slowly  to  their  full  strength  and  fall 
again  slowly  to  zero  the  diaphragm  of  the  receiving  instrument,  • 
instead  of  showing  the  sudden  rise  and  sndden  fall  as  at  present, 
would  move  so  slowly  backwards  and  forwards  that  the  car  would 
not  be  disturbed  by  the  sound.    Perhaps  the  simplest  way  to  accom- 
plish this  is  to  place  an  electromagnet  in  the  cii-cuit  of  the  tele- 
graph line  at  tne  sending  station,  for  the  self-induction  of  the 
magnet  coil  prevents  tbe  current  assuming  its  strength  suddenly. 
But  on  telegmph  circuits  where  speed  is  of  great  importance  this 
method  cannot  be  followed  owing  to  the  retardation  of  the  telegraph 
■ignals  and  the  consequent  loss  of  speed  thereby  occasioned. 
Ryssei  An  ingenious  application  of  the  method  of  compensation  just 

berg's  indicated  has  been  made  by  Rysselherg,  who  has  used  not  only  ^vires 
•ystem.  carried  on  the  same  poles  as  the  telegraph  but  even  the  telegraph 
lines  themeelves  for  telephone  purposes.  The  arrangement  of  his 
system  is  shown  in  fig.  14,  where  L  and  L,  represent  two  telegraph 
lines.  Between  these,  at  each  end,  are  inserted  two  condensers. 
•),  C,  and  a  telephone  T,  together  with  transmitters,  &,c,  so  that,- 
fiOppoaing  the  tekgraph  instruments  rr-moved.  the  two  wires  would 


V^ 


pressed  tbe  current  ij 
magnet  E  and  tbe  ron- 
be  cbarged,  gi^ng  in 
_  static  capacity  at  the 
I  The  current  ia  still 
electromagnet         E'  ; 


ho  an  ordiiwxy  telephone  circoit  work*'d  through  condensers.     The 
telegraph  apparatus  consists  of  an  ordinary  receiver  R,  sending 
battery  B,  and  key  K, 
together   vrith    a    con- 
denser C,  inserted    be- 
tween tbe  earth  and  tbe 
lino  terminal  of  tbe  key, 
and     two     electromag- 
netic  indactors  E,   E'. 
When    tbe   key  is  de- 
retarded  by  tbe  electro- 
denser  C,  which  has  to 
fact  additional  electro-  ^^_^ 
sending  end  of  tbe  line.  [~^i«/o 

farther  retarded  bytbe  •  Fig.  14.  _   _ 

hence  tbe  condenser  C,  becomes  cbarged  eo  gradualTy  that  very 
little  disturbance  is  noticeable  in  the  telephone  T.  The  condensers 
C„  G,  prevent  leakage  from  one  line  to  tbe  other,  but  have  snffi- 
cient  capacity  to  allow  the  telephoneto^act^^as^Jf^it^were  in  a 
metallic  circtiit. 

The  Working  of  Telephone  Circuita\ 

Tbe  method  first  employed  fop  working  a  telephon9"lin6  was  Early 
extremely  simple.  A  single  line  oiwire,  like  an  ordinary  telegraph  methods., 
line,  liad  a  Bell  telephone  inciuuenin  it  at  each  end  and  tbe  ends 
were  put  to  earth.  Words  spoken  tS  tbe  telephone  at  one  end  could 
be  heard  by  holding  the  telephone  to  the  ear  at  tbe  other.  To 
obviate  tbe  inconvenience  of  placiyg  the  telephone  to  tbe  month 
and  tbe  ear  alternately,  two  telephones  were  commonly  used  at  each 
end,  joined  either  parallel  to  each  other  or  in  series.  The  con- 
trivance most  generally  adopted  for  calling  attention  is  the  call  bcU, 
rung  either  by  *  small  magneto-electric  machine  or  by  a  battery. 
The  telephone  w;as  switched  out  of  circuit  when  not  in  use  and  the 
bell'put  in  its  place,  an  ordinary  key  being  tisod  for  putting  the 
battery  in  circuit  to  make  the  signal  This  arrangement  is  stiU 
employed,  a  hook  being  attached  to  tbe  switch  lever  so  that  the 
mere  hanging  up  of  the  telephone  puts  tbe  beU  in  circuit  In  some 
cases,  when  the  bell  is  rung  by  i  magneto  machine^  the  coil  of  the 
machine  is  automatically  cut  out  of  circuit  when  it  is  not  in  action," 
but  tbe  turning  of  tbe  Landle  moves  a  centrifngal  arrangement  by' 
"which  it  isthrown  iiL- 

M  lirst  it  was  usual  to  employthe  same  instnmient  both  as  trans-  "WorkiBg: 
mitter  and  as  receiver,  and  to  join  it  in  the  direct  circuit.  But  it  with 
was  soon  found  that  the  microphone  transmitter  could  only  be  used  micro- 
to  advantage  in  this  way  when  the  total  resistance  of  the  circuit,  phone- 
exclusive  of  the  microphone,  was  small  compared  -ivith  the  resistance 
of  the  microphone, — tbaf  is,  on  very  short  lines  worked  with  low 
resistance  telephones.  The  transmitter  on  long  and  high  resistance^ 
lines  worked  better  by  joining  indirectly  in  a  local  circuit,- in  the- 
manner  shown  in  fig.  13,  the  microphone,  a  battery,  and  tbe  primary* 
of  an  induction  coil,  and  putting  the  line  in  circuit  with  the  second- 
ary of -the  induction.  <:oiJ,  which  acted  as  tbe  transmitter.  The 
.resistance  -of  "the  microphone  can. thus  be  made  a  large  fraction  of 
-  tbe-totalTe3istance--of  the-  circuit  in.  wbichit.is  placed ;  hence,  by 
nsing-considerable^currentSr  Small  variations,  in  its  resistance^  can 
be  made  to- induct  somewhat  powerful  currents,  in  the- line  wiie. 
The  requisite  energyisderived-from  the  battery^- 1£  there  are-other 
Tesistances  in  the  circuit  it  'is,.  In  some  cases,  betterio  join  it  as-a- 
"shtmt  ta  the-  primary -circuit  x>t  the  induction  coil.  It  may-even, 
prove-advantageous  "to  insert  resistances  in  the  circuit,  increase  the. 
battery  power,  and  join  the- microphone  as  here  indicated^  because- 
in  this  way  powerftU.  currents  can  be  obtained  in  tbe  line-without 
"the  harshness  "which  is  apt.lo^  be  produced  by  the- variations  of  a 
strong  cnrrentr^jassing  through  the  microphone, 

TranslatioH  Xrom^one  line,  to -another,,  or  from_one  section  to 
another  of  the  sam»liae^ia  effected  by  patting  the  primary  of  an 
induction  coil  in  the  place  of  the  receiving  telephone^  tbe  secondary 
being  in  circuit  "with  tbe  second  line  or  section.  This  plan, is  use- 
ful where  the  same  message  is  tothe  sent  to  diiferent  places  at  onre 
(distributed),  and  is  sometimes  used  for  translating:iroiir a- double, 
wire  to  a  single  wire  sj-stem.  Probably  a  better-  plan  is. "to  work  a 
microphone  by  the  membrane  of  the-receivingtelephoner  and  re. 
transmit  the  message,  taking  new  energy  from  a-  second  battery.^ 
When  tbe  induction  coil  arrangement  is  nscd  for  translating  Iron 
a  double  to  a  single  wire  circuit  or  rice  rersa,.it  is  neces.'viTy  to 
make  tbe  induction  coil  suitthO-circuits,  so  that  either  coil  may 
be  used  as  primary,  according  to  the-end  Xrpm  which  tbe  message  is 
sent  Everything  else-being  similar,  the  Abistanccs  -of  "the  coila 
should  be  in.  neatly  the  same  ratio  as  the"  resistances  of  tl)e  linea 
in  which  they  are  placed. 

'    In  a  large  town  it  is  neitherpracticahle  n6r. desirable  to  connect  E<- 
each  subscriber  directly  with- all  the  other  subscribers,  bcncc  a  change^,, 
.system  of  "  exchanges  "  h.as  been  adopted.    An  exchange  is  a  central 
station  to  which  wirfs  are  broapht  from  the  different  Subscribers, 
any  two  of  whom  can  be  put  in  telephonic  communication  with  eack 
wher  when  the  proper  pairs  of  wires  are  joined  together  in  the  cX' 


1  See  XbomsOQ  aod  Houston.  Tel 


.  iMh  AuKUit  lars. 


134 


TELEPHONE 


?6 

Fio.  15 —Telephone  e:icbSDge. 


:hange.  The  arrangement  is  illustrated  in  fig.  15,  where  C  represents 
a:i  exchange  from  vhich  wires  radiate  tu  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  .  .  . 
Suppose  a  wishes  to  speak  to  d  ;  he  communicates  hts  wish  to  an 
attendant  at  C,  who  first  ^  ^  ^  Q  fj^ 

calls  i,  and  theu  con- 
necU  6  to  1,  making 
the  circuit  continuous 
from  a  to  d.  The  ar- 
rangeoients  at  the  ex- *  ^ 
change  for  faciliutmg 
connexions  vary  con- 
'Siderably,  but  are  simi- 
lar in  principle  to  the 
switch  boards  used  in 
telegraphy.  Each  of  the 
wires  is  6rst  brought  to  an  indicator  and  then  to  a  set  of  terminals 
arranged  in  an  orderly  manner  on  a  board,  the  number  of  the 
termiual  for  any  one  wire  being  the  same  as  the  number  under  the 
shutter  of  the  indicator  in  that  wire  circuit  In  many  cases  the 
terminals  take  the  form  of  spring  clips,  which  connect  the  line  to 
earth,  and  under  which  a  thin  piece  of  metal,  covered  with  iusulal- 
ing  material  ou  one  side  and  called  a  "jack,"  can  be  read.ly  inserted 
for  connecting  that  circuit  with  any  other.  A  piece  of  flexible  wire 
cord,  carrying  a  jack  at  each  end,  forms  a  ready  ana  common  medium 
of  connexion  ;  but  in  many  cases  the  switch  board  is  arranged  with 
cross  strips  of  metal  jO  that  by  inserting  a  jaok  into  the  terminals 
of  the  two  wires  they  can  be  both  connected  to  the  same  strip  of 
metal  and  therefore  together.  In  large  exchanges  one  switch  board 
of  moderate  size  is  not  sufficient,  and  so  a  number  are  fitted,  being 
connected  together  by  several  conductors,  in  order  that  no  interrup- 
tion may  ensoe  in  consequence  of  these  being  all  occupied.  A  line 
on  one  boarci  is  connected  with  one  on  another  board  by  joining  the 
Terminal  of  the  first  to  one  of  the  conductors  connecting  the  two 
boards  by  a  jack-cord,  and  theu  by  another  jack-cord  connecting 
that  conductor  to  the  terminal  of  the  other  line.  Thus  different 
switch  boards  may  be  looked  upon  as  separate  exchanges,  connected 
together  by  a  number  of  trunk  wires  after  the  manner  described 
below. 

In  a  large  system  it  is  much  more  convenient  and  economical  to 
have  exchanges  in  the  various  districts,  and  connect  these  with  a 
central  exchange  by  a  sufficient  number  of  trunk  lines.  A  sub- 
scriber in  one  district  -mshing  to  speak  to  a  subscriber  in  another 
calls  the  exchange  in  his  own  district  and  is  put  in  communication 
by  the  attendant  stationed  there  with  the  central  exchange.  The 
attendant  at  the  central  exchange  puts  the  subscriber  in  communi- 
cation wTth  the  district  he  requires,  and  the  attendant  there  calls 
the  other  subscriber  and  joins  the  two  subscribers'  lines  together. 
In  some  cases  neighbouring  district  exchanges  have,  besides  a  com- 
mon means  of  cotnmuiucation  through  the  central  exchange,  an 
independent  coimeiion.    These  arrangements  are  diagram  ma  tically 


Fio.  17  —Indicator  or 
aoDunciator. 


Fig.  16.— Telephone  district  exchangea. 
Illustrated  in  fig.  16,  where  1,  2,  3.  4.  5,  6  represent  district  ex- 
changes and  C  the  central  exchange  ;  districts  3  and  4  and  4  and 
5  are  supposed  to  have  independent  connexions 

■^lucUir'B      An  arrangement  was  proposed  about  two  years  ago  oy  Mr  D. 
jutoniatic  Sinclair  of  the  Glasgow  telej)hone  exchange  for  allowing  small  dis- 

c^xciiantfe.  trict  exchanges  to  be  worked  by  the  attendants  at  the  central  ex- 
change.* The  two  exchanges  are  connected  by  a  trunk  line  and 
from  the  district  exchange  wires  are  led  to  the  difterent  subscribers. 
These  wires  are  in  the  normal  state  of  matters  connected  vnlh  con- 
tact plates,  over  which  an  arm  joined  to  the  trunk  «ire  can  be 
made  to  travel.  Suppose  the  central  exchange  wishes  to  speak  to 
any  one  of  the  sub-wribers,  the  arm  i»  made  to  travel  round,  by 
currents  sent  from  the  exchange  through  an  electromagnetic  step 
by  step  arrangement,  until  it  comes  in  contact  \rith  the  proper 
plate,  aft€r  which  the  subscriber  is  CAlled  in  the  ordinary  way. 
When  one  subscriber  belonging  to  the  district  exchange  wi«;hes  to 
speak  to  another  in  the  same  district,  he  rings  the  bell  in  the  ordi- 
oary  way,  and  this  operation  disconnects  all  other  subscribers  and 
puts  him  in  connexion  through  the  trunk  line  with  the  central  ex- 


*  See  Proc.  Phil.  Soc.  o/Glaigow,  voL  xvii.  p. ; 


change  The  attendant  there  ascertains  to  whom  it  is  that  be 
wishes  to  speak,  and  by  moving  round  the  contact  arm  puis  tho 
two  subscribers'  lines  in  contact 

The  indicator,  or  anuunciator  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  shown  Indicator 
in  fig  17.  It  consists  of  an  electromagnet  M,  which  on  a  current  orannuD 
being  sent  through  *it  pulls  down  the 
armature  a,  relieves  the  catch  c,  and 
allows  the  shutter  d  to  fall  down, 
exposing  a  plate  p.  on  the  front  of 
which  the  number  of  the  subscriber 
is  pnnted.  When  the  exchange  is 
called,  the  shutter  d  is  dropped,  the 
attendant  connects  the  line  leading 
to  the  exchange  table  with  the  ter- 
minal corresponding  to  the  indicator,  and  finds  who  is  wanted: 
then  he  calls  that  subscriber,  makes  the  through  connexion,  ana 
puts  up  the  shutter.  When  the  subscribers  have  finished,  both 
call  the  exchange  or,  as  it  is  commonly  put,  "ring  off",  this 
drops  both  shutters  and  serves  as  the  signal  that  they  have  finished 
speaking. 

The  principle  of  transmitting  sound  by  the  radiophone  will  be  fladio 
understood   from   fig.    IS.     M  represents  a  mirror,   from  which  a  phone, 
beam  of  light  is  reflected  through  the  lens  /  to  a  second  mirror  m, 
and   m   forms   a  diaphragm    against    the 
back  of  which  tho  sound  vibrations  sent 
through  the  tube  (  are  made  to  impinge. 
The   beam  of  light,  after  being  renecled 
from  "I,  passes  tnrough  the  lower  lens  I, 

and  thence  as  a  nearly  parallel  beam  to     -/^yC^'^^      r        ^i-* 
the  parabolic  reflector  R.     A 
photophonic  receiver  P,  sup- 
posed  m    this  case   to   '^e  a 

spiral  of  selenium  wire  wound  __ 

on  the  surface  of  a  cylinder,  ^'o-  18 —BeU'e  radiophooe. 

is  placed  at  the  focus  of  the  reflector  eo  that  the  beam  of  light  from 
•m  is  concentrated  on  it.  In  circuit  with  the  receiver  P  a  battery  B 
and  a  telephone  T  are  included  and  through  the  circuit  a  feeble 
electric  current  flows  continuously.  The  photophonic  receix-er  should 
be  placed  so  as  to  receive  aa  little  light  as  possible  from  any  other 
source  than  the  mirror  m.  Words  spoken  tnrough  the  tube'/ make 
the  mirror  m  vibrate,  so  that  the  beam  of  light  reflected  from  it 
becomes  more  or  less  spr^'ad.  The  lens  ?  is  then  unable  to  bnng 
the  beam  into  parallelism,  and  the  intensity  of  the  reflexions  from 
R  to  P  13  varied,  therefore  also  the  current*  through  the  coil  of  the 
telephone,  which  in  consequence  gives  out  a  sound.  The  amount 
of  spreading  of  the  beam  being  proportional  to  the  intensity  of  th* 
vibrations  of  m,  and  this  again  proportional  to  the  intensity  of  the 
sounds,  the  sounds  heard  in  the  telephone  are  similar  to  those  pro- 
duced at  the  end  of  (.  Theoretically  the  receiver  may  be  at  any 
distance  from  the  transmitter,  but  considerable  diflBcult)*  arises  if 
the  distance  is  great. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  the  phonograph  is  shown  m  fig.  19.  Phono- 
It  consists  of  a  rigid  spindle  S  screwed  for  about  one-third  of  its  graph, 
length,  and  fitted  to 
work  smoothly  but 
tightly  in  the  frame 
/, /,  which  is  se- 
curely attached  to  a 
sole  plate  P.  On  the 
spmdle  a  drum  D  is 
fixed,  the  axis  of 
uhich  coincides  ac- 
curately with  that 
of  the  spindle.  On 
the  surface  of  the 
drum    a    screw     isi 

cut  of  precisely  the  *"'<^-  li'-Ed'soD  s  phonograph, 

same  pitch  as  that  on  the  spindle.  A  fly-wheel  W  is  fijced  to 
one  end  of  the  spindle,  and  is  provided  with  a  handle  H,  by 
which  the  spindle  and  drum  can  be  conveniently  turned.  One 
of  the  bearings  has  either  a'screw  thread  cut  along  it,  or  is  fitted 
wilh  one  or  more  stnds  which  work  easily,  but  without  shake.  In 
the  screw  thread.  When  the  spindle  is  turned,  it  receives  a  trans- 
verse motion,  and  a  point  fixea  relatively  to  the  sole  plate  P  and 
touching  the  drum  traces  out  a  spiral  on  its  surface,  exactly  coin- 
ciding with  the  screw  thread  cut  on  iL  A  mouthpiece  M.  like  that 
of  a  telephone  transmitter,  provided  with  a  diaphragm  of  parch- 
ment or  similar  substance,  is  mounted  on  a  lever,  which  is  pivoted 
at  h.  and  provided  with  a  set  screw  h.  A  blunt  needle  point  i« 
iitber  fixed  to  the  centre  ol  the  diaphragm  or  carried  by  a  light 
spring  in  such  a  way  as  to  press  on  the  centre  of  the  diaphragm 
with  the  needle  point  projecting  outwards.  To  use  the  instrument, 
the  drum  D  is  covered  with  a  sheet  of  somewhat  stiff  tinioil,  and 
the  mouthpiece  is  adjusted  as  shown  in  the  fieure,  with  the  needle 
point  over  the  hollow  part  of  the  tinfoil,  and  fixed  by  the  set  screw 
to  make  a  slight  indentation  in  it  The  drum  is  then  turned  and 
worda  spoken  in  a  somewhat  loud  and  clear  tone  in  front  of  tb* 


' 


T  E  L  — T  E  L 


135 


lii«athpiec«.  The  ribrations  of  the  diaphra^  cause  the  needle 
point  to  make  indentations  more  or  less  deep,  according  to  the 
utensitj  of  the  sound,  in  the  snrface  of  the  tinfoiL  If  the  mouth- 
piece is  then  raised,  the  dram  turned  back  to  its  original  position,  the 


mouthpiece  lowered  so  that  the  point  resta  off  the  groore  which  it 
previously  roads,  aod  the  drum  again  tamed,  the  diaphragm,  acted 
on  by  the  needle  point  passing  over  the  indentation,  will  give  oat 
the  same  words  which  were  s^ken  to  it  (Ti  GB. ) 


TELESCOPE 


■Roger 

34COIL 


l>31i 
Pacta. 


THE  telescope  is  an  optical  instrument  employed  to 
view  or  discover  distant  objects.'  The  fundamental 
optical  principles  involved  in  its  construction  have  already 
been  dealt  with  in  the  articles  Light  and  Optics,  and 
these  should  be  first  perused  by  the  reader. 

HiSTOET. 

The  credit  of  the  discovery  of  the  telescope  has  been  a 
imitful  subject  of  discussion.  Thus,  because  Democritus 
announced  that  the  milky  way  is  composed  of  vast  mul- 
titudes of  stars,  it  has  been  maintained  that  he  could  only 
have  been  led  to  form  such  an  opinion  from  actual 
examination  of  the  heavens  with  a  telescope.  Other 
passages  from  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors  have  similarly 
been  cited  to  prove  that  the  telescope  was  known  to  the 
ancients.  But,  as  has  been  remarked  by  Dr  Robert  Grant 
{History  of  Physical  Astronomy,  p.  515),  we  are  no  more 
warranted  in  drawing  so  important  a  conclusion  from 
casual  remarks,  however  sagacious,  than  we  should  be 
justified  in  stating  that  Seneca  was  in  possession  of  the 
liiscoveries  of  Newton  because  he  predicted  that  comets 
would  one  day  be  found  to  revolve  in  periodic  orbits. 
Molynenx,  in  his  Dioptrica  Nova,  p.  256,  declares  his 
opinion  that  Koger  Bacon  (who  died  c.  1294)  "did  per- 
fectly well  understand  all  kinds  of  optic  glasses,  and  knew 
likewise  the  method  of  combining  them  so  as  to  compose 
some  such  instrument  as  our  telescope."  He  cites  a 
passage  from  Bacon's  Opue  Majus,  p.  377  of  Jebb's  edition, 
1733,  translated  as  follows  : — 

*'  Greater  things  than  these  may  be  performed  by  refracted  vision. 
For  it  is  easy  to  understand  by  the  canons  above  mentioned  that 
the  greatest  objects  may  appear  exceedingly  small,  and  the  contrary, 
also  that  the  most  remote  objects  may  appear  Jast  at  hand,  and  the 
converse  ;  for  we  can  give  such  figures  to  transparent  bodies,  and 
'dispose  them  in  such  order  with  respect  to  the  eye  and  the  objects, 
that  the  rays  shall  be  refracted  and  bent  towards  any  place  we 
please,  so  that  we  sh^U  see  the  object  near  at  hand  or  at  any  dis- 
tance tmder  any  angle  we  please.  And  thus  from  an  incredible 
■distance  we  may  read  the  smallest  letters,  and  may  number  the 
smallest  particles  of  dost  and  sand,  by  reason  of  the  greatness  of 
the  angle  nnder  which  we  see  them.  .  .  .  Thus  also  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars  may  be  made  to  descend  hither  in  appearance, 
and  to  be  visible  over  the  heads  of  our  enemies,  and  many  things 
•of  the  like  sort,  which  persons  onacqoainted  with  such  things 
would  refuse  to  believe." 

Molyneux  also  cites  from.  Bacon's  Epistda  ad  Parysiensem, 
"'  Of  the  Secrets  of  Art  and  Nature,"  chap.  5  : — 

*•  Glasses  or  diaphanous  bodies  may  be  so  formed  that  the  most 
remote  objects  may  appear  just  at  hand,  and  the  contrary,  so  that 
we  may  read  the  smallest  letters  at  an  incredible  distance,  and 
may  number  things,  tnough  never  so  small,  and  may  make  the 
stars  also  appear  as  near  as  we  please. " 

These  passages  certainly  prove  that  Bacon  had  very 
nearly,  if  not  perfectly,  arrived  at  theoretical  proof  of  the 
possibility  of  constructing  a  telescope  and  a  microscope ; 
but  his  writmgs  give  no  account  of  the  trial  of  an  actual 
"telescope,  nor  any  detailed  results  of  the  application  of  a 
telescope  to  an  examination  of  the  heavens.  It  has  been 
pointed  out  by  Dr  Smith,  in  bis  CompleU  System  of  Optics, 
that  Bacon  imagines  some  eflFects  of  telescopes  which 
•cannot  be  performed  by  them,  and  his  conclusion  is  that 
Bacon  never  actually  looked  through  a  telescope. 

Giambattista  della  Porta,  in  his  Magia  Naturalis,  printed 
in  1 558,  makes  the  following  remarkable  statement : — 


*  In  recent  years  the  term  "photographic  telescope"  has  been 
allied  to  instraments  employed  to  record  the  aj)pearance  of  celestial 
»Viecte  by  j)hotograpb>. 


**  If  you  do  but  know  how  to  join  the  two  (viz.,  the  concave  and 
the  convex  glasses)  rightly  together,  you  will  see  both  remote  and 
near  objects  larger  than  they  otherwise  appear,  and  withal  very 
distinct" 

Wolfius  infers  from  this  passage  that  its  author  was  the 
first  actual  constructor  of  a  telescope,  and  it  appears  not 
improbable  that  by  happy  accident  Porta  really  did  make 
some  primitive  form  of  telescope  which  excited  the  wonder 
of  his  friends.  Here,  however,  his  interest  in  the  matter 
appears  to  have  ceased,  and  he  was  unable  either  to  ap- 
preciate the  importance  of  his  discovery  or  to  describe  the 
means  by  which  the  object  was  attained.  Kepler,  who  exa- 
mined Porta's  account  of  his  concave  and  convex  lenses  by 
desire  of  his  patron  the  emperor  Eudolph,  declared  that 
it  was  perfectly  unintelligible.  Poggendorff  (Gesch.  der 
Physii,  p.  134)  throws  considerable  doubt  on  the  origin- 
ality of  Porta's  statement. 

Thomas  Digges,  in  his  Stratioticus,  p.  359,  published  in  Leonard. 
1579,  states  that  his  father,  Leonard  Digges,  Digges. 

"among  other  curious  practices  bad  a  method  of  discovering  by 
perspective  glasses  set  at  due  angles  all  objects  pretty  far  distant 
that  the  sun  shone  upon,  which  lay  in  the  Country  round  about," 
and  that  this  was  by  the  help  of  a  manuscript  book  of 
Roger  Bacon  of  Oxford,  who  he  conceived  was  the  on'y 
man  besides  his  father  who  knew  it.  There  is  also  the 
following  passage  in  the  Pantometna  (bk.  i.  chap.  21)  of 
Leonard  Digges  ^  (originally  published  by  his  son  Thomas 
in  1571,  and  again  in  1591): — 

"Marvellous  are  the  conclusions  that  may  be  performed  by 
glasses  concave  and  convex,  of  circular  and  parabolic  forms,  using 
for  multiplication  of  beams  sometime  the  aid  of  glasses  transparent, 
which,  by  fraction,  should  unite  or  dissipate  the  images^or  figures 
presented  by  the  reflection  of  other." 

He  then  describes  the  effects  of  magnification  from  a  com- 
bination of  lenses  or  mirrors,  adding  :— 

"  But  of  these  conclusions  I  minde  not  here  to  intreate,  having 
at  large  in  a  volume '  by  itselfe  opened  the  miraculous  effects  of 
perspective  glasses." 

It  is  impossible  to  discredit  the  significance  of  these 
quotations,  for  the  works  in  which  they  occtir  were  pub- 
lished more  than  twenty  years  before  the  original  date 
claimed  for  the  discovery  of  the  telescope  in  Holland. 

That  Roger  Bacon  had  tolerably  clear  ideas  as  to  the 
practical  possibility  of  constructing  telescopes,  and  that 
Leonard  Digges  had  access  to  some  unpublished  MSS. 
of  Bacon,  and  by  their  aid  constructed  some  form  of  tele- 
scope, seem  to  be  obvious  inferences  from  the  preceding 
evidence.     But  it  is  quite  certain  that  previous  to  1600 
the  telescope  was  unknown,  except  possibly  to  individuals 
who  failed  to  see  its  practical  importance,  and  who  confined 
its  use  to  "  curious  '  practices "  or  to  demonstrations   of 
"  natural  magic."     Tie  practical  discovery  of  the  instru-  The 
ment  was  certainly  made  in  Holland  about  1608,  but  the  Djtcb 
credit  of  the  original  invention  has  been  claimed  on  behalf  ^j  ^^g"' 
of   three    individuals,    Hans  -  Lippershey   and    Zachaijas 
Jansen,  spectacle-makers  in  Middelburg,  and  James  Metiiis 
of  Alkmaar  (brother  of  Adrian  Metius  the  mathematician). 

Descartes,  in  his  treatise  on  Dioptrics  (1637),  attributes  the  dis- 
covery to  Metius  "about  thirty  years  ago,"  whilst  Schyrselns  de 
Rheita,  a  Capuchin  friar,  in  his  Oculus  Enoch  et  Elite  (Antwerj>, 
1645),  gives  the  credit  to  Lippershey  about  1609.  Peter  Borel, 
physician  to  the  king  of  France,  published  at  The  HaOTe,  in  1655, 
a  work  De  Vero  TeUsaipii  JnTenlare.  He  was  assisted  in  its  pre- 
paration by  William  Borel.  Dutch  envoy  at  the  court  of  France, 
and  the  latter  declares,  as  the  result  of  patient  investigation,  that 

'  He  died  about  1570.  His  son  alludes  to  his  untimely  death  la 
the  preface  to  the  Paniometria. 

*  There  is  no  further  trace  of  this  volume. 


136 


TELESCOPE 


«n,  Jansen  and  his  father  were  the  rea!  inventors  of  the  telescope  ia 
I'JIO,  zni  that  Lipporshey  only  made  i  telescope  after  hints  acci- 
dentally communicated  to  him  of  the  details  of  Jansen 's  invention. 
But  the"  most  trustworthy  information  on  the  subject  is  to  be  got 
Vrom  the  researches  of  Van  Swinden.'  Briedy  summarized,  this 
evidence  is  as  follows.  In  the  library  of  the  university  of  Leyden, 
amongst  the  MSS.  of  Huygons  there  is  an  original  copy  of  a 
document  (dated  17th  October  1608)  addressed  to  the  states-general 
by  Jacob  Andrianzoon  (the  same  individual  who  is  called  James 

Mrfius  Melius  by  Descartes),  petitioning  for  the  exclusive  right  of  selling 
an  instrument  of  his  invention  by  which  distant  objects  appear 
larger  and  more  distinct.  He  states  that  he  had  discovered  the 
instrument  by  accident  when  engaged  in  making  experiments,  and 
had  so  far  perfected  it  that  distant  objects  were  made  as  visible 
and  distinct  by  his  instrument  as  could  be  done  with  the  one  which 
had  been  lately  ctfered  to  the  states  by  a  citizen  and  spectacle- 
maker  of  Middelburg.  Among  the  Acts  of  the  states-general  pre- 
served in  the  Government  archives  at  The  Hague,  Van  Swinden 
found  that  on  2d  October  1608  tho  asseinbiy  of  the  states  took  into 

l-M'-         consideration  the  petition  of  Han!>  Lippershey,  spectacle-maker,  a 

p.rshey.  native  of  Wesel  and  an  inhabitant  of  MidJelbu.'-g,  inventor  of  an 
instrument  for  seeing  at  a  distance.  On  4th  October  a  committee 
was  appointed  to  test  the  instruroent,  and  on  the  6th  of  the  same 
month  the  assembly  agreed  to  p^vti  Lippershey  900  florins  for  his 
instrument.  Further,  on  the  15  th  December  of  the  same  year  they 
examined  an  instrument  invented  by  Lippershey  at  their  request 
to  see  with  both  eyes,  and  gavi  him  orders  to  execute  two  similar 
instruments  at  900  florins  each  ;  bat,  as  many  other  persons  had 
knosvledge  of  this  new  inven'ion  to  see  at  a  distance,  they  did  not 
deem  it  expedient  to  grant  him  an  exclusive  privilege  to  sell  such 
instruments.  The  dates  of  these  documents  dispose  effectually  of 
Eorcl's  statement  that  Lippershey  borrowed  the  ideas  of  Jansen  in 
1610.  They  also  prove  tlvat,  whilst  Metius  was  in  possession  of  a 
telescope,  with  which  he  may  have  experimented,  aoout  the  time 
when  Lippershey  preseE*«d  his  application  for.  patent  rights,  yet 
he  makes  no  pretensio?.  that  Lippershey  borrowed  the  invention 
from  him.  The  conclusion  is  that  Lippershey  was  the  first  person 
who  independently  invented  the  telescope,  and  at  the  same  time 
made  the  instrument  known  to  the  world.  The  common  story  is 
that  Lippershey,  hap'^ning  one  day,  whilst  holding  a  spectacle-lens 
in  cither  hand,  to  di-ect  them  towards  the  steeple  of  a  neighbouring 
churcii,  was  astoiii?hed,  on  looking  through  the  nearer  lens,  to  tind 
that  the  wcather.'ock  appeared  nearer  and  more  distinct.  He 
fitted  the  lenses  in  a  tube,  in  order  to  adjust  and  preserve  their 
relative  distancoi,  and  thus  constructed  his  first  telescope.  But 
loiibt  may  be  thrown  on  this  traditional  account  owing  to  the 
further  statempnt  that  the  image  of  the  weathercock  so  viewed  was 
seen  turned  ijpside  down.  All  the  original  Dutch  telescopes  were 
composed  of  i  convex  and  a  concave  lens,  and  telescopes  so  con- 
itructed  do  r-ot  invert.  The  inverting  telescope,  composed  of  two 
onvex  lensrs,  was  a  later  invention  ;  stilJ  it  is  not  impossible  that 
ibe  original,  experiment  was  made  with  two  convex  lenses. 

Tele.scopes  seem  to  have  been  made  in  Holland  in  con- 
siderable numbers  soon  after  the  date  of  their  invention, 
and  raj'idly  found  their  way,  over  Europe.  Sirturus,  in 
kis  De  Telescopio  (1618),  states  that  "a  Frenchman  pro- 
ceede<)  to  Milan  in  the  month  of  May  1609  and  ofTered 
a  telescope  for  sale  to  Count  di  Fuentes";  and  Lorenzi 
Pigo'na  writes,"  under  date  31st  August  1609,  that  "Galileo 
\iad  been  appointed  lecturer  at  Padua  for  life  on  account 
of  a  perspective  like  the  one.  which  was  sent  from  Flan- 
ders to  Cardinal  Borghese."  Simon  Marius,  the  German 
asUonomer,  appears  to  have  made  astronomical,. observa^ 
tions  in  1609  with  a  telescope  which^  he  procured  from 
Holland,  and  Professor  Rigaud'of  0.\ford  found  from  the 
MSS.  of  Harriot,  the  mathematician,  that  ho  had  been 
making  astronomical  observations  with  a  Dutch  telescope 

Baliljo,  as  early  as  July  1609.  Galileo,  iu  'his  A'viiciiisYSidei-eus, 
states  that,  happening  to  be  in.  Venice  about  the  month  of 
May  1609,  he  heard- that  a  Belgian  lind  invented  a  per- 
spective instrument  by  means  of  M-liicli  distant  objects 
appeared  nearer  and  larger,  and  that  lie_discove!'ed  its 
construction  by  considering  the  effects  of  refraction,  in 
his  Sti'j'/i.-ttore  Galileo  states  that  he  .solved  the  jiroblem 
of  the  construction,  of  a  telescojie  the  fir.-it  niglit  after  his 
fcturn  to  Padua  from  Venice,  and  made  his  first  telescope 
ncvt  day  by  fitting  a  convex  lens  in'  one  e.xtreiiilty  oT  'a 
I'aden  tube  and  a  concavelens  in  the  other  one.     A  few 

'  S»r,  Dr  Moll  of  Utrecht,  in  Journ.  Ro'i.  Inst.,  Vol.  i.,  1831. 
'  Letlre  d' Uomini  llliistri,  \i,  112,  Venice.  1744. 


days  afterwards,  .having  succeeded  in  making  a  better 
telescope  than  the  first,  he  took  it  to  Venice,  where  h© 
communicated  the  details  of  his  invention  to  the  public, 
and  presented  the  instrument  itself  to  the  doge  Leonardo- 
Donate,  sitting  in  full  council.  The  senate,  in  return, 
settled  him  for  life  in  his  lectureship  at  Padua  and  doubleii 
his  salary,  which  was  previously  500  florins,  and  which 
then  became  treble  that  which  any  of  his  predecessors  had 
enjoyed.  Galileo  may  thus  claim  to  have  invented  the 
telescope  independently,  but  not  till  he  had  heard  that 
others  had  done  so.  In  fact  tue  time  was  rip% ;  and,  as 
often  happens  in  similar  circumstances,  only  a  hint  was 
necessary  to  complete  the  latent  chain  of  thought.  Galileo  ' 
devoted  all  his  time  to  improving  and  perfecting  the 
telescope.  Knowing  the  theory  of  his  mstrument,  and 
possessed  of  much  practical  skill,  coupled  with  unwearied 
patience,  he  conquered  the  ciificulties  of  grinding  and 
polishing  the  lenses,  and  soon  succeeded  in  producing 
telescopes  of  greatly  increased  power.  His  first  telescope 
magnified  three  diameters  ;  but  he  soon  made  instruments 
which  magnified  eight  diameters,  and  finally  one  that 
magnified  thirty-three  diameters.^  With  this  last  in- 
strument he  discovered  in  1610  the  satellites  of  Jupiter, 
and  soon  afterwards  the  spots  on  the  sun,  the  phases  of 
Venus,  and  the  hills  and  valleys  on  the  moon.  He  demon- 
strated the  rotation  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  round  the 
planet,  and  gave  rough  predictions  of  their  configurations, 
proved  the  rotation  of  the  sun  on  its  axis,  established  the 
general  truth  of  the  Copernican  system  as  compared  with 
that  of  Ptolemy,  and  fairly  routed  the  fanciful  dogmas  of 
the  philosophers.  These  brilhant  achievements,  together 
with  the  immense  improvement  of  the  instrument  under 
the  hands  of  Galileo,  overshadowed  in  a  great  degree  the 
credit  due  to  the  original  discoverer,  and  led  to  the  uni 
versal  adoption  of  the  name  of  the  Galilean  telescope  fo. 
the  form  of  tho  instrument  invented  by  Lippershey. 

Kepler  first  explained  the  theory  and  some  of  the  prac-Sii'.er. 
tical  advantages  of  a  telescope  constructed  of  two  convex 
lenses  in  his  Catoptrics  (1611).  The  first  person  who 
actually  constructed  a  telescope  of  this  form  was  Father 
Scheiner,  who  gives  a  description  of  it  in  his  Rosa  Urs-iiia 
(1630).  William  Gascoigne  was  the  first  who  practically  Gas. 
appreciated  the  chief  advantages  of  the  form  of  telescope  coigfoe 
suggested  by  KepJer,  viz.,  the  visibility  of  the  image  of  a 
distant  object  simultaneously  with  that  of  a  small  material 
object  placed  in  the  common  focus  of  the  two  lenses.  This 
led  to  his  invention  of  the  micrometer  and  his  application 
of  telescopic  sights  to  astronomical  instruments  of  pre- 
cision (sec^ Micrometer,  vol.  xvi.  p.  242).  But  it  was  not 
till  about  the  middle  oi'  the  17tb  century  that  Kepler's 
telescope  came  into  general  use,  and  then,  not  so  much 
because  of  the  advantages  pointed  out  by  Gascoigne,  but 
because  its  jield  of  view  was  much  larger  than  in  tho 
Galilean  telescope.  The  first  powerful  telescopes  of  this 
construction  w^re  made  by  Huygens,  after  much  labour,  p.iy 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  brother.  With  one  of  these,  ' 
of  1 2-feet  focal  length,  hediscovered  the  brightest  of  Saturn's 
satellites  (Titan)  in  1665,  and  in  1659  he  published  his 
Si/stevia  Satuniiiim,  in  which  was  given  for  the  first  time 
a  true  explanation  of  Saturn's  ring,  founded  on  observations 
made  with  the  same  instrument.  The  sharpness  of  ipiage  in 
Kepler's  telescope  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  the  Galilej^n  in- 
strument, so  that  when  a  high  magnifying  power  is  required 
it  becomes  essential  to  increase;  th'e  focal  length.  Cassini  Cassini. 
discovered  Saturn's  fifth  satellite  (Rhea)  in  167,2  with  a 
telescope  of  35.fect,  and.  the  third  and  fourth  satellites  in 
'16SI  With  telesfcopes 'made  by  Campani  of-.lOO  and  13G 
feet  focal  length.  ■  Huygens  states  that  hfe  and  his  brother 

^  Tliij:  U>t  jiowor  could  not  be  exceeded  u-ith  advantage  iu  this  fornt 
of  tcicscopc  till  aflvr  the  iuvcntiou  of  the  achromatic  object-glass. ' 


TELESCOPE 


137 


I 


made  object  glasses  of  170  and  210  feet  focal  length,  and 
he  presented  one  of  123  feet  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon 
don.  Auzout  and  others  are  said  to  have  made  telescopes 
of  from  300  to  600  feet  focus,  but  it  does  not  appear  that 
they  were  ever  able  to  use  them  in  practical  obsei  vations. 
Bradley,  on  27th  December  1722,  actually  measured  the 
diameter  of  Venus  with  a  telescope  whose  object-glass 
had  a  focal  length  of  212^  feet  In  these  very  long  tele- 
scopes no  tube  was  employed,  and  they  were  consequently 
Affiai  termed  aerial Cekscopfs.  Huygens  contrived  some  ingenious 
Ida-  arrangements  for  directing  such  telescopes  towards  any 
•™P**  object  visible  in  the  heavens, — the  focal  adjustment  and 
centring  of  the  eye-piece  being  preserved  by  a  braced  rod 
connecting  the  object-glass  and  eyepiece.  Other  con- 
trivances for  the  same  purpose  are  described  by  La  Hire 
(Mem  del'Acad ,  1715)  and  by  Hartsoeker  (Miscel  Berol , 
tol.  i  p.  261).  TeJescopes  of  such  great  length  were  natur- 
ally difficult  to  use,  and  must  have  taxed  to  the  utmost  the 
skill  and  patience  of  the  observers.  One  cannot  but  pay 
a  passing  tribute  of  admiration  to  the  mea  who,  with  such 
troublesome  tools,  achieved  such  results. 
Reflect-  Until  Newton's  discovery  of  the  different  refrangibi'.ity 
leg  tel*  of  light  of  different  colours,  it  was  generally  supposed  that 
scopes,  object-glasses  of  telescopes  were  subject  to  no  other  errors 
than  those  which  arose  from  the  spherical  figure  of  their 
surfaces, -and  the  efforts  of  opticians  were  chiefly  directed 
to  the  ponstructioQ  of  lenses  of  other  forms  of  curvature 
Gregory  James  Gregory,  in  his  Optica  Promota  (1663),  discusses 
the  forms  of  images  ot  objects  produced  by  lenses  and 
.mirrors,  and  shows  that  nhen  the  surfaces  of  the  lenses 
or  mirrors  are  portions  of  sj)heres  the  images  are  curves 
concave  towards  the  objective,  but  if  the  curves  of  the 
surfaces  are  conic  sections  the  spherical  aberration  is  cor- 
rected. He  was  well  aware  of  the  failures  of  all  attempts 
to  perfect  telescopes  by  employing  lenses  of  various  forms 
of  curvature,  and  accordingly  proposed  the  form  of  reflect 
iag  telescope  which  bears  his  name.  -  But  Gregory,  accord- 
ing tc  his  own  confession,  had  no  practical  skill ;  he  could 
find  no  optician  capable  of  realizing  his  ideas,  and  after 
some  fruitless  attempts  was  obliged  to  abandon  all  hope  of 
^'ewton.  bringing  his  telescope  into  practical  use.  Newton  was  the 
first  to  construct  a  reflecting  telescope.  When  in  1666  he 
made  his  discovery  of  the  different  refrangibility  of  light 
of  different  colours,  he  soon  perceived  that  the  faults  of 
the  refracting  telescope  were  duo  much  more  to  this  cause 
than  to  the  spherical  figure  of  the  lenses.  He  over  hastily 
concluded  from  some  rough  experiments  (Optics,  bk.  i  pt 
ii  prop  3)  "  that  all  refracting  substances  diverged  the  pris- 
matic colours  in  a  constant  proportion  to  their  mean  refrac- 
tion ";  and  he  drew  the  natural  conclusion  "  that  refraction 
could  not  be  produced  without  colour,"  and  therefore  "  that 
no  improvement  could  be  expected  from  the  refracting  tele- 
scope "  (Treatise  on  Optics,  p.  1 1 2).  But,  having  ascertained 
by  experiment  that  for  all  colours  of  light  the  angle  of 
incidence  is  equal  to  .the  angle  of  reflexion,  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  construction  of  reflecting  telescopes.  After 
much  experiment  he  selected  an  alloy  of  tin  and  copper  as 
the  inost  suitable  material  for  his  specula,  and  he  devised 
means  for  grinding  and  polishing  them  He  did  not 
attempt  the  formation  of  a  parabolic  figure  on  account  of 
the  probable  mechanical  difficulties,  and  he  had  besides 
satisfied  himself  that  the  chromatic  and  not  the  spherical 
aberration  formed  the  chief  faults  of  previous  telescopes. 
Newton's  first  telescope  so  far  realized  his  expectations 
that  be  could  see  with  its  aid  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  and 
the  horns  of  Venus  Encouraged  by  this  success,  he  made 
e  second  telescope  of  6J-inehes  focal  length,  with  a  magni- 
fying power  of  38  diameters,  which  he  presented  to  the 
Oa's^  I'oyal  Society  of  London  in  Decembei  1671  A  third  form 
..Tiin       of  refiectinK  telescope  was  devised  i  i  1672  by  Cassegrain 


(Journal  </«  S<;avan,<,  1672).  No  further  practical  advance 
appears  to  have  been  made  iti  the  design  or  construction  of 
the  instrument  till  the  year  1723,  when  John  Hadley  (best  htMtj. 
known  as  the  inventor  of  the  sextant)  presented  to  the 
Royal  Society  a  reflecting  telescope  of  the  Newtonian  con- 
struction, with  a  metallic  speculmn  of  6  inches  aperture 
and  62|  inches  focal  length,  having  eye  pieces  magnifying 
up  to  230  diameters.  The  instrument  was  examined  by 
Pound  and  Bradley,  the  former  of  whom  reported  upon  it 
in  Phi.  Trans  ,  1723,  No  378,  p  382.  After  remarking 
that  Newton's  telescope  "had  lain  neglected  these  fifty 
years,"  they  stated  that  Hadley  had  sufficiently  shown  "  that 
this  noble  invention  does  not  consist  in  bare  theory."  They 
compared  its  performance  with  that  of  the  object-glass  of 
123 -feet  focal  length  presented  to  the  Royal  Society  by 
Huygens,  and  found  that  Hadley 's  reflector 
"will  be»r  snch  a  charge  as  «o  make  it  in.ignify  the  object  as 
many  times  as  thelattfr  uilh  its  due  charge,  and  that  it  repiesctiis 
objects  as  distinct,  though  not  altogether  so  clear  and  bright.  .  . 
Nolttithstanding  this  difTerence  in  the  brightness  of  the  objects, 
ue  were  able  ftilli  this  reflecting  telescope  to  see  whatever  wo  have 
hitherto  discovered  with  the  Hugenian,  particularly  the  transits 
of  Jupitci's  satellites  and  their  shadows  over  his  disk,  the  black 
list  in  Saturn's  ring,  and  the  edge  of  his  shadow  cast  on  his  ring. 
\Vc  have  also  seen  «ilh  it  several  times  the  five  satellites  of  Saturn, 
in  viewing  of  nhich  thislelescopo  had  the  advantage  of  the  Hugenian 
at  the  time  when  we  compared  them  ,  ("or,  being  in  summer,  and  the 
Hugenian  telescope  being  managed  wiihout  a  tube,  the  Iwiligtit  pre- 
vented us  from  seeing  in  this  some  of  these  small  objects  vvhicn  at  the 
same  time  we  could  discern  witii  the  reflecting  telescope." 
Bradley  and  Molyneux,  having  been  instructed  by  Hadley 
in  his  methods  of  polishing  specula,  succeeded  in  producing 
some  telescopes  of  considerable  power,  one  of  which  had  a, 
focal  length  of  8  feet,  and,  Molyneux  having  communicated 
these  methods  to  Scarlet  and  Hearn,  two  London  opticians, 
the  manufacture  of  telescopes  as  a  matter  of  business  was 
commenced  by  them  (Smith's  Optics,  bk.  iii.  ch.  1).  But 
it  was  reserved  for  James  Short  of  Edinburgh  to  givejaraw 
practical  effect  to  Gregorys  original  idea.  Born  at  Edin-Shoit 
burgh  in  1710  and  originally  educated  for  the  church, 
Short  attracted  the  attention  of  Maclaurin,  professor  of 
mathematics  at  the  university,  who  permitted  him  about 
1732  to  make  use  Of  his  rooms  in  the  college  buildings  for 
experiments  in  the  construction  of  telescopes.  In  Short's 
first  telescopes  the  specula  were  of  glass,  as  suggested  by 
Gregory,  but  he  afterwards  used  metallic  specula  only, 
and  succeeded  in  giving  to  them  true  parabolic  and  elliptic 
figures  Short  then  adopted  telescope-making  as  his  pro- 
fession, which  he  practised  first  in  Edinburgh  and  after- 
wards in  LondoiL  All  Short's  telescopes  were  of  the 
Gregorian  form,  and  some  of  them  retain  even  to  the 
present  day  their  original  high  polish  and  sharp  definition 
Short  died  in  London  in  1768,  having  realized  a  consider- 
able fortune  by  the  exercise  of  Is  profession. 

The  historical  sequence  of  events  now  brings  us  to  the  Aehro 
discovery  of  the  achromatic  telescope      The  first  person  """'"^ 
who  succeeded  in  making  achromatic  refracting  telescopes  ''''^""' 
seems  to  have  been  Chester  Moor  Hall,  a.  gentleman  ofCh'-sier 
Essex       He  argued  that  the  different  humours  of    the*^  *^*" 
human  eye  so  refract  rays  of  light  as  to  produce  an  image 
on  the  retina  which  is  free  from  colour,  and  he   reason- 
ably argued  that  it  might  be  possible  to  produce  a  like 
result  by  combining  lenses  composed  of  different  refracting 
media '      After  devoting  some  time  to  the   inquiry  he 
found  that  by  combining  lenses  formed  of  different  kinds 
of  glass  the  effect  of  the  unequal  refrangibility  of  light 
was  corrected;  and  in  1733  he  succeeded  in  constructing 
telescopes  which  exhibited  objects  free  from  colour.     One 
of  these  instruments  of  only  20-inches  focal  length  had  an 
aperture  of  2|  inches.     Hall  was  a  man  of  independent 

*  The  same  arguraent  was  employed  by  Gregory  more  thao  fifty 
years  previously,  but  bad  been  followed  by  no  practical  res  ilt  Th* 
lens  of  the  human  eye  is  not  achromatic  (see  Light,  vol.  liv  p.  801). 

XXIII.  -  IS 


138 


TEl.  ESCOPE 


means,  and  seems  to  have  been  careless  of  fame  :  at  least  | 
tie  took  no  trouble  to  communicate  his  invention  to  the 
world  At  a  trial  in  Westminster  Hall  about  the  patent 
rights  granted  to  DoLlond  (Watkin  v-  DoUond),'  Hall  was 
admitteid-to  be  the  first  inventor  of  the  achromatic  tele- 
scope ,  but  it  was  ruled  by  Lord  Mansfield  that  "  it  was 
not  the  person  who  locked  his  invention  in  his  scrutoire 
that  ought  to  projt  for  such  invention,  but  he  who  brought 
Enter-  .t  forth  for  the  benefit  of  mankind."  '  In  1747  Euler  com- 
municated to  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences  a  memoir  in 
which  he  endeavoured  to  prove  the  possibility  of  correct 
ing  both  the  chromatic  and  the  spherical  aberration  of  'an  ' 
object-glass.  Like  Gregory  and  HaU,  he  argued  that,  since 
the  various  humours  of  the  human  eye  were  so  combined 
as  to  produce  a  perfect  image,  it  should  be  possible  by 
suitable  combinations  of  lenses  of  different  refracting  media 
to  construct  a  perfect  object-glass.  Adopting  a  hypo- 
thetical law  of  the  dispersion  of  differently  coloured  rays  of 
light,  he  proved  analytically  the  possibility  of  constructing 
3n  achromatic  object-glass  composed  of  lenses  of  gla^  and 
water.  But  all  his  efforts  to  produce  an  actual  object- 
glass  of  this  construction  were  fruitless, — a  failure  which 
he  attributed  solely  to  the  difficulty  of  procuring  lenses 
worked  precisely  to  the  requisite  curves  (Mem.  Acad.  Berlin, 
1753).  DoUond  admitted  the  accuracy  of  Euler's  analysis, 
but  disputed  his  hypothesis  on  the  grounds  that  it  was 
purely  a  theoretical  assumption,  that  the  theory  was 
opposed  to  the  results  of  Newton's  expenments  on  the 
refrangibility  of  light,  and  that  it  was  impossible  to  de- 
termine a  physical  law  from  analytical  reasoning  alone 
(Phil.  Trans.,  1753,  p.  289).  In  1754  Euler  communicated 
to  the  Berlin  Academy  a  further  memoir,  m  which,  starting 
from  the  hypothesis  that  light  consists  of  vibrations  excited 
in  an  elastic  fluid  by  luminous  bodies,  and  that  the  differ- 
ence of  colour  of  light  is  due  to  the  greater  or  less  fre- 
quency of  these  vibrations  in  a  given  time,  he  deduced  his 
previous  results.  He  did  not  doubt  the  accuracy  of  New- 
ton's experiments  quoted  by  Dollond,  because  he  asserted 
that  the  difference  between  the  law  deduced  by  Newton 
and  that  which  he  assumed  would  not  be  rendered  sensible 
by  such  an  experiment.''  Dollond  did  not  reply  to  this 
memoir,  but  soon  afterwards  he  received  an  abstract  of  a 
Eioseo-  memoir  by  Klingenstierna,  the  Swedish  mathematician  and 
itjerDa.  astronomer,  which  led  him  to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  the 
results  deduced  by  Newton  on  the  dispersion  of  refracted 
light.  Klingenstierna  showed  from  purely  geometrical 
considerations,  fully  appreciated  '"ly  Dollond,  that  the  re- 
sults of  Newton's  experiments  could  not  be  brought  into 
harmony  with  other  universally  accepted  facts  of  refraction. 

^  At  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  held  on  9th 
May  1886  a  legal  document,  signed  by  Chester  Moor  Hall,  was 
presented  by  Mr  R.  B.  Prosser  of  the  Patent  Office  to  the  society. 
On  the  same  occasiun  Mr  Ranyard  made  the  following  interesting 
statement  respecting  HaU  ■  — 

"Some  yeArsago  very  little  was  Ittinwn  about  Moor  Hall.  It  wa.s  known  that, 
about  seven  years  after  the  patent  for  making  achromatic  object-Klasses  was 
(^nt£d  to  DolUind,  his  claim  to  the  invention  was  disputed  by  other  nistru- 
<nent-makers,  amongst  them  by  a  Mr  Champness,  an  instrument-maker  of 
l^rnhill,  who  began  to  infrtn:;e  the  patent,  allegmR  that  John  Dollond  was 
cot  the  real  inventor,  and  that  such  telescopes  had  been  made  twenty-hve 
years  before  the  granting  of  hii. patent  by  Mr  Moor  Halt  John  Dollond.  to 
whom  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  had  been  given  for  his  inven. 
Iron,  was  then  <lead,  and  his  son  brousht  an  action  for  infringing  the  patent 
Bgaiuat  Champness.  There  is  no  report  of  the  case,  but  the  facts  are  referred 
tn  ID  the  reports  of  subsequent  cases.  It  appears  that  workmen  who  had  been 
employed  by  Mr  Moor  ITall  were  examined,  aiid  proved  that  they  had  rnade 
achromatic  obirct^glasses  as  early  as  17S3.  Dnllond's  patent  was  not  set  aside, 
though  the  evidence  with  regard  to  the  prior  manufacture  was  accepted  by 
(jOTd  Mansheld,  who  tried  the  case,  as  having  been  satisfactorily  proved. 
Mr  Hall  was  a  iiencher  of  tiie  Inner  Temple,  and  wns  alive  at  ihe  time  of  the 
■iCtion.  ne  was  a  man  of  snme  property,  and  is  spoken  of  on  his  tnnib^t.ine 
.•18  an  excellent  lawyer  and  matl  emattcian.  He  was  not  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  but  must  certainly  have  kno\vn  of  the  gtft  of  the  Cnpiey  medal  to 
JloUond.  '  It  IB  very  curious  the'conflicting  evidence  -i^e  have  to  reconcile,  but 
•I  think  the  balance  of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  there  having  oeen  a  prior  in- 
dention of  achromatic  obiect-glasses  before  th«  date  of  DoUond'a  patent" 
^ittron.  TicgUUr,  May  1886 ;  see  also  the  Obscrvat'^  for  same  date). 

"  OenUeman's  Maguzim,  1790,  part  ii.  p.  890. 

*  For  a  good  account  of  this  controversy,  see  Dr.  H.  Servua,  Q& 
r>      'e '•;  P  -^oh"  "  "7^.661110,1886. 


Like  a  practical  man,  Dollond  at  once  put  his  donbts  to  the  DcJJniMt. ' 
test  of  experiment,  confirmed  the  conclusions  of  Klingen- 
stierna, discovered  "a  difference  far  beyond  his  hopes  in  the 
refractive  qualities  of  different  kinds  of  glass  with  respeck 
to  their  divergency  of  colours,"  and  was  thus  rapidly  led 
to  the  construction  of  object-glasses  in  which  first  the 
chromatic  and  afterwards  the  spherical  aberration  were- 
corrected  (Phil.  Tram.,  1758,  p.  733). 

We  have  thus  followed  somewhat  minutely  the  history 
of  the  gradual  process  by  which  DoUond  arrived  indepen- 
dently at  his  invention  of  the  refracting  telescope,  becausf 
it  has  been  asserted  that  he  borrowed  the  idea  from  othera. 
Montucla,  in  his  Histoire  cUs  Matkematiques  (pp.  448-449),. 
gives  the  following  footnote,  communicated  to  him  by 
Lalande  : — 

"  Ce  fut  Chestermonhall "  (an  obvious  misprint  for  Chester  Mow 
Hall)  "qui,  vers  1750,  eut  I'idee  des  lunettes  achromatiques.     B 
s'adressoit  a  Ayscough,*  qui  faisoit  travaillir  Bass.     Dollond  ayanlJ 
eu  besoin  de  Bass  ponr  un  verre  que  demandoit  le  due  d'Yorck, 
Bass  lui  fit  voir  du  crown-glass  et  du  flint-glass.     HaU  donna  uni 
lunette  i  Ayscough,  qui  la  montra  i  plusieura  personnes ;  il  er 
doima  la  construction  \  Bird,  qui  n'en  tint  pas  compte.     Dollond 
en  profita.     Dans  le  procesqu'il  y  eut  entre  Dollond  et  Watkin,  ac 
banc  du  roi,  cela  fut  prouve  ;  mats  Dollond  gagna,  parce  qu'il  etoit 
le  premier  qui  eut  fait  connoitre  tes  lunettes  achromatiques. " 
It  is  clearly  established  that  Hall  was  the  first  inventor 
of  the  achromatic  telescope  ;  but  Dollond  did  ^ot  borrow 
the  invention  from  Hall  without  acknowledgment  in  the 
manner  suggested  by  Lalande.     His  discovery  was  beyond: 
question  an  independent  one.     The  whole  history  of  hi?' 
researches  proves  how  fully  he  was  aware  of  the  condition* 
necessary  for  the  attainment  of  achromatism  in  refracting; 
telescopes,  and  he  may  be  well  excused  if  be  so  long  placed^ 
implicit  reliance  on  the  accuracy  of  experiments  made  by- 
so  illustrious  a  philosopher  as  Newton.     His  WTitings  suffi- 
ciently show  that  but  for  this  confidence  he  would  have- 
arrived  sooner  at  a  discovery  for  which   his  mind  was' 
fully  prepared.    It  is,  besides,  impossible  to  read  Dollond'g< 
memoir  (PhU.    Trans.,   1758,  p.   733)  without  being  im- 
pressed with  the  fact  that  it  is  a  truthful  account,  not- 
only  of  the  successive  steps  by  which   he  independently 
arrived  at  his  discovery,  but  also  of  the  logical  processes- 
by  which  these  steps  were  successively  suggested  to  hi& 
mind. 

The  triple  object-glass,  consisting  of  a  combination  of 
two  convex  lenses  of  crown  glass  with  a  concave  flint  lens- 
between  them,  was  introduced  in  1765  by  Peter,  son  of 
John  Dollond,  and  many  excellent  telescopes  of  this  kind 
were  made  by  him. 

The  limits  of  this  article  do  not  permit  a  further  detailed 
historical  statement  of  the  various  steps  by  which  the- 
powers  of  the  telescope  were  developed.  Indeed,  in  its- 
practical  form  the  principle  of  the  instrument  has  re- 
mained unchanged  from  the  time  of  the  Dollonds  to  the 
present  day  ,  and  the  history  of  its  development  may  be 
summed  up  as  consisting  not  in  new  optical  discoveries  but 
in  utilizing  new  appliances  for  figuring  and  polishing,  im- 
proved material  for  specula  and  lenses,  more  refined  means 
of  testing,  and  more  perfect  and  convenient  methods  uf 
mounting.  About  the  year  1774  William  Herschel,  then  w  B)m-l 
a  teacher  of  music  in  Bath,  began  to  occupy  his  leisure  ""='>«'■ 
hours  with  the  construction  of  specula,  and  finally  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  their  construction  and  use.  In  1778 
he  bad  selected  the  chef  cTosuvre  of  some  400  specula  which 
he  made  for  the  celebrated  instrument  of  7 -feet  focal 
length  with  which  his  early  brilliant  astronomical  dis- 
coveries were  made.  In  1783  be  completed  his  reflector  of 
18-[%- inches  aperture  and  20 -feet  focus,  and  in  1788  his 
great  reflector  of  4-feet  aperture  and  40-feet  focal  length. 
The  fame  of  these  mstrumci.'s  .vaj  rapidly  spread' by  the. 
brilliant,  discoveries  which  their  maker's  genius  and  pers&- 
*  Ayacough  was  an  optician  in  Ludgate  Hill,  LondotL 


TELESCOPE 


i3jr 


Terance  accomplished  by  their  aid.-  The  reflecting  telescope 
lecame  the  only  available  tool  of.  the  astronomer  when 
'  great  light  grasp  was  requisite,  as  the  difficulty  of  procuring 
-iisks  of  glass  (especially  of  flint  glass)  of  suitable  purity 
and  homogeneity  limited  the  dimensions  of  the  achro- 
aaatic  telescope.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences  offered  prizes  for  perfect  disks  of  optical  flint 
glass.  Some  of  the  best  themists  and  most  enterprising 
glass-manufacturers  exerted  their  utmost  efforts  without 
succeeding  in  producing  perfect  disks  of  more  than  3J 
inches  in  diameter.  If  All  the  larger  disks  were  crossed  by 
striae,  or  were  otherwise  deficient  in  the  necessary  homo- 
geneity and  purity.' 
GcjnwKl.  Pierre  Louis  Guinand,^  a' humble  watchmaker*  living 
near  Chaux  de  Fond  in  Neuchatel,  Switzerland,  was  the 
first  who  succeeded  in  making  marked  progress  in  the 
manufacture  of  optical  flint  glass.  ■'After  making  pre- 
liminary experiments  extending  over  seven  years  (1784- 
90),  and  nothing  daunted  by  their  comparative  want  of 
succfess,  he  erected  a  furnace  near  Les  Brenets,  and  devoted 
most  of  his  slender  earnings  (then  derived  from  making 
the  bells,  or  rather  gongs,  of  repeating  watches)  to  the 
fulfilment  of  his  ambition.  His  persistency,  courage,  and 
self-denial  recall  forcibly  the  story  of  Palissy.'  In  1805  he 
joined  -the  optical  establishment  of  Fraunhofer  and  Utz- 
i!chneider  and  remained  with  them  about  nine  years. 
During  this  period  extensive  experiments  were  instituted 
•Tith  remarkable  success.  It  is  said  that  the  disks  for  the 
Dorpat  refractor  (9  6  inches  aperture,  with  which  the 
observations  of  Wilhelm  Struve  were  made)  were  manufac- 
tured during  this  period,  though  the  complete  instrument 
fn.. .-  was  not  delivered  till  1823.  Fraunhofer  had,  however, 
i>ohi  profited  so  fully  by  the  suggestions  of  Guinand,  and  had 
probably  also  so  far  improved  on  the  original  methods,  that 
ho  afterwards  succeeded  in  producing  still  larger  object- 
glasses.  After  Fraunhofer's  death  in  1826  his  successors 
Merz  and  Mahler  carried  out  successfully  the  methods 
handed  down  to  them  by  Guinand  and  Fraunhofer,  and 
produced  some  large  and  excellent  telescopes,  which  are 
hereafter  mentioned.  Meanwhile  Guinand,  haviBg  re- 
tul'ned  to  his  native  country  in  1814,  resumed  there  the 
manufacture  of  disks  of  optical  glass,  discovered  a  method 
of  removing  striae  by  breaking  and  reuniting, the  portions 
by  heat,  when  the  glass  was  in  a  plastic  slate,  and  event- 
ually produced  perfect  disks  up  to  18  inches  in  diameter. 
Most  of  these  he  disposed  of  to  Lerebours  and  Secretan, 
opticians  in  Paris,  by  both  of  whom  some  fine  object-glasses 
were  made.^  Guinand  communicated  his  secrets  to  his 
sons  before  his  death  in  1823.  About  1829  Bontemps 
entered  into  partnership  with  one  of  the  sons,  and  another 
son  carried  on  his  father's  manufacture  in  partnership  with 
his  mo'ther.  The  latter  firm  was  succeeded  by  Dauget 
of  Soleure,  whose  exhibits  of  optical  glass  excited  so  much 
attention  at  the  London  exhibition  of  1851.  About  1848 
\'>ontemp3  joined  the  firm  of  Chance  Brothers  of  Birming- 
Lam,  and  thus  carried  the  secret  of  Guinand's  methods  to' 
Kngland.  It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  the  only  firms 
in  the  world  by  whom  large  disks  of  optical  glass  have 
be^n  produced  trace  their  success  to  information  derived 
more  or  less  directly  from  Guinand.  MM.  Feil  of  Paris, 
who  are  direct  descendants  of  Guinand,  and  Messrs  Chance 
Brothers  of  Birmingham  are  at  the  present  time  the  only 
makers  of  'Optical  glass_  in  disks  of  larger  diameter  than 
20,  inches 

Instruments,  ic 

We  now  proceed  to  give  an  account  of  the  methods  and 
Twiiiciples  of  consitruction  of  the  various  kinds  of  telescopes, 


*  f-'ee  Wolf,  BwtTnpKien,  vol.  u.  p. 
li/rfi'-^my,  pp    14ti-7t7 


301,   anil  Clerke,  JJistory  cf 


and  to  describe  in  detail  special  typios;  instruments,  wnich, 
owing  to  the  work  accomplished  by  their  aid  or  the  ptacti- 
cal  advances  exemplified  in  their  construe' .oa,  appear  rx'iX. 
wotthy  of  record  or  study. 

Rcfracling  Tdescopt 

In  its  simplest  form  the  telescope  consiscs  oi  u  convex  objpct-  Earlv 
lens  capable  of  forming  an  image  of  a  distant  object  anj  of  an  eye.  iorms- 
lens,  concave  or  convex,  by 
vhich  the  image  so  form«<i 
is  magnified,  ■  \VTjen  the 
axis  of  Iho  eye-lens  coin 
cides  with  that  of  titc  ob- 
ject-glass," and    the    f-cal 

point  of  the  eje.lens  is  oo-  y     j  i 

incident  with  the  principal  'v       _ 

focus  of  the  object-lens,  parallel  rays  incident  upon  the  ohject-glass 
will  emerge  from  the  eye-piece  as  parallel  rays  These,  tailing  in 
turn  on  tlie  lens  of  the  human  '  A     1 

eye,  are  converged  by  it  and  foi  m 
an  image  on  the  retina.''  Fig.  1 
shows  the  course  of  the  rays  ^ 
when  the  eye-lens  is  convex  (or 
positive),  6g.  2  when  the  cye- 
Icns   is  concave    (or  negative)  ^ 

The  former  represents  Kepler's,  '^'  ~ 

the  latter  Lippcrshey's  or  the  Galilean  telescope.     The  magnifj-ing 
power  obviously  depends  on  the  proportion  of  the  focal  len^V*  of 
the  object-lens  to  that  of  the  eye-lens,  that  is, 
I       "        '  magnifying  power=F/f, 

where  I  13  tne  focal  length  of  the  object-lens  and  c  that  of  the 
eye-lens.>.!  Also  the  diameter  of  the  pencil  of  parallel  rays  emergiug  MagnUy>- 
from  the  eye-lens  is  to  the  diameter  of  the  object-lens  inversely  as  ing 
the  magnifying  power  of  the, telescope.*!  Hence  one  of  the  best  powetr. 
methods  of  determining  tho  magnifying  power  of  a  telescope  is  to 
measure  the  diameter  of  the  emergent  pencil  of  rays,  after  the  tele- 
scope has  been  adjusted  to  focus  upon  a  star,  and  to  divide  the 
diameter  of  the  object-glass  by  the  diameter  of  the  emergent  pencil. 
If  we  desire  to  utilize  all- the  parallel  rays  which  fall  upon  an  object- 
glass  it  is  necessary  that, the  full  pencil  of  emerginj^  rays  should 
enter  the  observer's  eye.  Assuming  with  Sir  William  Herschel 
that  the  normal  pupil  of  the  eye  distends  to  one-fifth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  when  viewing  faint  objects,  we  obtain  the  rule  that 
the  minimum  magnifying  power  which  can  be  efiBciently  employed 
is  five  times  the  diameter  of  the  object-glass  expressed  in  inches. 
The  defects  of  the  Galilean  and  Kepler  telescopies  are  due  to  the 
chromatic  and  spherical  aberration  of  the  simple  lenses  of  wliicb 
they  are  composed  (see  Optics,  vol.  xvii.  p.  802  sq  ).  The 
substitution  of  a  positive  or  negative  eye-piece  for  the  simple. convex 
or  concave  eye-lens,  and  of  an  achromatic  object-glas?  for  the  simple 
object-lens,  transforms  these  early  forms  into  the  modern  achro- 
matic telescope.  The^alilean  telescope  with  a  concave  eyc-].-U3 
instead  of  an  eye-piece  still  survives  as  the  modern  opera-glass,  on 
account  ofjts  shorter  length,  but  the  object-glass  and  eye-lers  ar"- 
achromatic  combinations. 

The  principles  of  an  achromatic  combination  of  prisms  or  lensca  Achro- 
have  been  explained  in  Light  (vol.  xiv.  pp.  592,  595)  and  further  matic 
developed  in  Optics  (vol.  xvii.  p.  804  sq.). ''  As  a  lens  may  be  re-  object- 
garded  as  built  up  of  a  series  of  thin  slices  of  pi-isms,  divided  from  glass.' 
each  other  by  planes  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  lens,  it  will  be  seen 
that,  if  a  prism  perfectly  achromatic  for  rays  of  two  definite  wave 
lengths,  and  approximately  achromatic  for  all  rays,  can  be  con 
structed  by  combining  two  prisms  of  different  kinds  of  glass,  ahf 
that  is  required   to   produce   an  object-glass  with  similar  small 
chromatic  errors  is  to  combine  a  convex  lens  of  crown  glass  and  a 
concave  one  of  flint  glass  as  in  fig.  3,  their  surfaces  being  of  such 
curvatures  as  to  form  a  series  of  imaginary  prisms  (such  as  we  havo 
supposed  an  object-glass  to  consist  of)  through  any  one  of  which  .all' 
kinds  of  light  falling  on  the  object-glass  parallel  to  its  axis  will  !« 
refracted  very  neaily  to  a  common  focus  F.'     Accordingly  any  pro-j 

2  lu  the  case  of  short-sighted  persons  the  image  for  very  distant  ob- 
jects (that  is,  for  parallel  rays)  is  fnrmed  in  front  of  the  retina  ;  thire- 
fore,  to  enable  such  persons  to  see  distiuctly,  the  rays  emerging  from 
the  eye-piece  mu?t  be  slightly  divergent  ;  lliat  is,  they  must  enter  the 
eye  as  if  they  proceeded  from  a  comp.-irativtly  near  object.  For  normal 
eyes  the  natural  a^lapt^tioD  is  not  to  focus  for  quite  parallel  rays,  but 
on  objects  at  a  niCMterate  distance,  and  practically,  thcrefare,  most 
persons  do  adjust  the  focus  of  a  -tetescoire,  for  most  distinct  and  easy 
vision,  so  that  the  rays  tnierge  from  the  eye-piece  very  sliglilly  diver- 
geot. ,  Abnormally  shofl-sighted  persons  require  to  push  in  thcfye-l-ns 
nearer  to  the  '^■bject-glass.  and  long-sighted  persons  to  withdraw  ii  fromt 
the  adjustment  emplfiyed  by  those  of  oomial  piglit.  It  is  usual.  liow-| 
ever,  in  compulatious  of  the  magnifying  pnwer  of  telescopes,  tor  th» 
rays  emerging  from  the  eye-piece  whe"  .I'luste  "  r^r  distinct  -  *'" — ■  '"^ 
be  parallel. 


140 


TELESCOPE 


posed  objecl-glasscan  bo  tested  as  regards  its  optical  conditions  by 
*'  tracing  a  ray,"  i.e.,  calculating  the  point  at  which,  after  refrac- 
tion through  the  two  lenses,  the  ray  so  traced  will  cut  their 
common  ajis. Forthe  analytical  eolutioo   of  this  problem   it 


ia   necessary  to   assunoe   that  tbe  adjacent   surfaces  of  the  sup- 
posed infinitely  numerous. prisms  form  together  some  continuous 


curved  surface,-  which  practically  is  nearly  spherical. "  But  the 
actual  differences  between  the  curves  which  may  be  required  in 
certain  conditions  for  producing  a  perfect  lens  differ  so  slightly 
from  true  spherical  surfaces  that  it  is  impossible  by  any  previously 
■designed  mechanical  process  to  predict  whether  the  resulting  figure 
will  b^'that  of  a  sphere  or  some  other  curve  very  nearly  that  of  a 
sphere.  The  mathematician,  therefore,  who  discusses  the  subject 
is  compelled  to  adopt  spherical  curves  as  the  basis  of  his  calcula- 
tion. On  this  assumption  we  may  then  trace  a  ray  rigidly  through 
any  supposed  object-glass  as  follows.  Let  A,  B,  A',  B'  be  respectively 
the  points  where  the  refracted  ray  produced  would  intersect  the 
optical  asis  after  rei'raction  at  the  fiist,  second,  third,  and  fourth 
refracting  surfaces  respectively  ;  also  let  a  be  the  first  angle  of  in- 
•cidence,  /i  and  m'  the  refractive  indexes  for  the  crown  and  6int  lens 
respectively  for  a  ray  of  the  wave-length  whose  course  is  to  be 
traced,  r  and  s  the  first  and  second  radii  for  the  crown  lens,  r* 
and  s'  the  first  and  second  radii  for  the  flint. lens,  a,  ^,  a',  ^,  a', 
and  b'  auxiliary  angles,  d  the  thickness  of  the  crown  lens,  of  the 
thickness  of  the  ftint  lens,  A  the  distance  between  the  Second  and 
third  surfaces.  Then  for  the  intersect  after  refraction  at  the  ticst 
tiurface  "^ 

T    . 

siu  a  =  -  sin  a : 
'M, 

(A)  =  a-a;  A='  """ 


"sin  (A)"'"'; 
Jor  the  intersect  after  refractioii  at  the  second  surfaca 


sin  b  = 


A  +  s-d 


sin  (AX; 


sin/)='/j.siDi ; 
(B)=(A)*fl-»;  B  = 


5  sin  /3 
siuCB)T 


'i 


for  the  intersect  aft^r  refraction  at  the  tMrdjnrf^' 

,n     J     «i8in  (B) 
8ina=  -(B  -  r-A)  — V—  ; 

.      ,     1    .      , 
suia'  =  -^  am  a  ; 

(A')  =  (B).fa'-a'rA'=!:r-r'.-^ 
sm  (A ) 

for  the  intersect  aft«T  refraction  at  the  fourth  surface 
sin  6'  =  -  (A'  •»-»■-  if)  sin'-^ ; 


8in^'  =  A'  einS'; 
(B')  =  (A')-f6'-^;  B'=f-»-t'. 


sinjy 
■Bin(B') 

'The  computation  is  very  much  simplified  when  we  consider  the 
angle  of  incidence  to  be  very  small — i.e,,  the  point  of  incidence 
Tery  neat  tho  optical  axis,  viz., 
r  _<i  -1  .   »  _    ^ 
A       M    '  B~A  -d 

y  _    r'      »•  -  1 

A'~;x'(B-A)'^    / 


B' 


7+M'-i:. 


A'-d' 

By  means  of  these  fonuulse  we  can  compute  B'  (the  point  where 
a  ray,  entering  the  first  surface  of  the  object-glass,  will  intersect 
the  optical  axis)  for  any  angle  of  incidence  =  a,  when  for  a  ray  of 
that  wave-length  the  indexes  of  refraction  are  known  for  tlie  glass' 
of  which  the  lenses  are  composed,  if  the  radii  of  curvature  of  tho 
lenses  are  also  known.  The  most  perfect  object-glass  would  be  one 
in  which  the  value  of  B'  is  the  same  for  two  rays  of  the  two 
selected  wave-length«,  through  whatever  portion  of  the  object-glass 
they  may  pa-ss.  This,  however,  is  a  condition  which  cannot  be- 
raathematically  satisfied  with  spherical  surfaces.  It  is  of  course 
possible  to  find  values  of  the  four  unknown  quantities  r,  s,  r',  and  s' 
such  that  four  conditions  shall  be  satisfied.  The  ordinary  approxi- 
mate method  is  to  find  such  values  of  the  radii  that  B'  is  the  same 
for  rays  of  two  different  wave-lengths  when  the  incident  rays  are 
near  the  axis,  and  for  mean  rays  which  enter  near  the  margin  of 
the  lens;  but  of  course  this  solution  is  indeterminate,  and  only 
becoraca  rigid  when  two  radii  are  assumed.  Thus,  for  any  crown 
lens  of  any  radii  of  curvature  it  is  possible  to^find  &  flint  lens  to 
aatiafy  these  conditions.  The  rigid  solution  becomes  one  of  suc- 
cessive approximation  to  such  four  conditions  as  the  computer  may 


consider  most  desirable.  •'  Herschel  advocates 
satisfying  the  terms  depending  on  the  second 
power  of  the  aberration,  Klugel  that  the  refrac- 
tions of  the  rays  should  be  as  Bmall  as  possible  ; 
or  we  may  make  it  a  condition  that  the  second  ' 
and  third  surfaces  shall  have  the  same  radius,  so  that  the'surfacea 
may  be  cemented  together.  The  fourth  condition  is  of  course  the 
desired  -  focal  length.  But  for  all  practical  purposes  it  is  sufficient 
to  have  placed  the  reader  in  a  positioi!  to  test  the  optical  condi- 
tions of  any  combinations  that  may  be  proposed,  and  to  refer 
him  to  the  works  mentioned  in  the  subjoined  note* ;  for,  in  fact  Practical" 
the  construction  of  object-glasses  on  paper  is  of  far  higher  interest  methods 
as  a  matliematicftl  exercise  than  as  a  practical  matter.  By  a  slight  of  corn- 
departure  from  the, spherical  figure  —  a  departure  so  minute  that  putation. 
there  are  no  mechanical  means  sufficiently  delicate  to  measure  it 
with  certainty  —  the  optician  may  fail  to  realize  true  spherical 
surfaces,  and  thus  on  the  one  baud  miss,  the  fine  definition  which 
his  calculation  led  him  to  expect,  or  on  the  other  hand  convert 
an  object-glass  which  with  spherical  curves  would  have  largo 
spherical  aberratioa!  into  one  perfectly  corrected  in  this  respect. 
Having,  therefore,  for  particular  kinds  of  glass  ascertained  a 
good  general  form  of  object-glass,  it  becomes  only  necessary  for 
the  optician  to  perform-an  approximate  calculation  of  the  curva-" 
litres  requisite  to  produce  correction  of  the  chromatic  aberration,' 
and  to  trust  to  the  process  of  final  figuring  for  correction  of  the 
final  spherical  and  chropatic  aberration.  It  fortunately  happens 
that  in  the  rigid  equations  the  terms  which  express  the  thick- 
ness and  distance  apart  of  the  lenses  involve  only  the  focal 
distances  of  central  rays,  and  have  but  a  small  influence  on  the 
ratios  of  the  aberrations  of  the  lenses  ;  and,  further,  they  aflTect 
chiefly  the  focal  length  of  the  lens,  and  have  a  very  small  influence 
on  the  chromatic  aoerration.  Thus  in  the  preliminary  computa- 
tion the  optician  may  neglect  the  thickness  of  the  lenses  and  employ 
the  simple  approximate  formulse  given  under  Optics,  vol.  xvii.' 
p.  804  — 

■  ■  ■•  1=.. 


llL 


V 


1       5/ 
/■"m'-I 

1 
F 

1     1 

=7V 

where  *~f"i  ^^^    ~Z  \  ^^^  ^^^  dispersive  powers  of  the  two  kinds  of 

glass  for  the  two  rays  which  he  desires  to  unite, /and/"  th#-edP 
responding  focal  lengths  of  the  two  lenses,  and  F  the  focal  length  ' 
of  the  combination.  The  focal  lengths  of  the  two  lenses  which 
secure  the  conditions  of  achromatism  having  been  thus  computed, 
the  radii  of  curvature  may  be  computed  for  either  lens  by  the 
usual  formula  (see  Light,  vol.  xiv.  p.  593) —  '  "" 

)=(..  1,(1-1).  - 

In- the  last  expression,  wtiere  r  and  s  correspond  to  the  ranii  of 
curvature,  the  optician  has  an  infinite  range  of  choice.  He  will  of 
course  select  such  a  proportion  of  r  to  5  as  experi-^nce  or  more 
elaborate  calculation  has  s.hown  to  be  favourable.  In  the  form  of 
object-glass  recommended  by  Sir  John  Hersthel,  as  fulfilling  the 
most  favourable  conditions  for  correction  of  a  spherical  abenntion 
for  parallel  as  well  as  nearly  parallel  rays,  the  required  cuivatuies 
for  the  exterior  surfaces  of  the  crown  and  the  flint  lens  were  foini'l 
to  vary  v^ry  slightly  for  a  considerable  range  of  the  ratio  of  the 
dispersive  powers  of  the  crown  and  the  flint  glass.  9;  Assuming 
fi  (the  mean  index  of  refraction)  to  be  I  542  foi  ciown  glass  and 
1  585  for  flint  glass,  Herschel  proved  that,  if  the  radii  in  que'%tioii 
are  taken  to  be .672  for  the  crown  lens  and  \i  20  for  the  flint  lens 
(supposing  tho  focal  length  of  tht  dtsired  combination  to  be  10), 
wc  have  only  to  compute  the  radii  of  the  secoiid  and  thiid  sutfaces 

'  Enlcr.  Dtoptrica.  St  Petcrst"irg.  I7«i7-71  .  Clanaul.  Hem-  de  I'A'Oit  Scttn., 
1707  ;  D'Atembert,  0pU5c..  vol.  iii.;  lApiange,  Jl/iw,c(.  7'rt«rin.,  in  2.  p  162,«n"l 
Mem.  yfaid.  Ikrl,  1778;  SchniKit.  Lehrbitch  der  onali/tiichen  Oj'tik;  Snntini, 
Trorifa  tlfoli  Strumenti  Oltici;  Kliigel,  fn  Gilbrrfs  Ann.  rf  PhyUk,  xxxii'., 
1810,  pp.  265  ?75  and  276  291  ;  Herschel.  PAi/.  Tra»s.  Itoy  ^nc.,  1S21,  i»p.  222  267: 
Llttrow.  Mem.  R.AS.  (London),  vol.  lii  pp  23.»  255 ;  Robinenn,  Mrchanical 
Philosophy,  art.  "Telescope."  vol,  hi.  pp.  403-514.  Gans»,  "  U^-ber  di*  ^cbtO- 
mntiHClien  Doppel  Objective." in  Lindcnau's  Zettsrhr  ,  (v.,  1817.  j-p.  345  351;  anil 
Gilbert's  Ann.  d.  Phystk.  lix.  pp  188  1^5  .  Gaiis.-i,  In  U-uviUes  Joumnt.  1850. 
i.  pp.  9  43;  Steml.eil  Aslron  tJach.,  xUiii.,  1851.  col.  225  228,  liii  .  I8G0.  C6l 
305  306,  and  1861,  oil.  269  270;  A.  SKinheil.  Utbtr  liertchnui!)  opfmhtr  Can- 
striLCtionen;  Carl  Steinlieil.  Reptrtorium,  in.,  1867,  pp.  430-4)0,  and  Munchen 
Akad.  Siti.,  1W)7,  ii.  pp.  284-297;  Steinheil  /Carl  A-  and  U.  A.),  GotUngKht 
NachrichUn.  I8fl5.  pp.  l3J-\4'i.  211-214. 


TELESCOPE 


141 


hy  means  of  the  above  simple  formulae  and  the  measured  dispersive 
and  refractive  power  of  tbo  glass  of  the  Icnsoa.  (The  inclhod-of 
determining  <«,  ic,  is  given  under  Optics,  voL  xriL  p.  800.)  The 
fbrin  generally  adopted  (see  6g.  4)  in  the 
best  modem  object-glasses  is  extremely 
simple,  viz.,  an  equi-coavex  crown  lens 
and  a  flint  lens  whose  first  surface  has  the 
same  radius  of,  curvature  as  the  surfaices  ^'^'  *" 

of  the  crown  lens — this  radius  depending  on  the  focal  length 
which  it  is  desired  to  give  to  the  object-glass.  Siuce  in  order 
to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  achromatism  the  focal  lengths  of  the 
two  len«es  have  to  be  proportional  to  their  dispersive  powers 
(for  the  rays  which  it-  is  desii-ed  to  unite),  and  as  in  the  two  de- 
I  scriptions  of  glass  in  question  the  dispersion  of  flint  glass  for  C 

*  to  rays  between  F  and  O  is  very  nearly  twice  that  of  crown  glass, 

the  posterior  surface  of  the  flint  lens  becomes  nearly  a  plane.  The 
final  correction  for  achromatism  is  made,  if  necessary,  by  departing 
slightly  from  a  plane  in  the  curvature  of  the  last"  surface  of  the 
flint  lens,  and  the  final  correction  for  spherical  aberration  in  the 
figuring  of  the  surfaces.  In  a  lecture  delivered  at  the  Koyal  In- 
stitution on  2d  April  18S6  Sir  Howard  Grubb,  optician,  of  Dublin, 
said: 

"A  truly  spherical-  curve  is  Oie  ciception,  not  the  rule.  When  I  tell  you 
that  a  sensible  ditference  in  correction  for  spherical  aberration  can  be  made  by 
half  an  hour's  polishing,  correspooding  probably  to  a  didereuce  in  the  tirst 
place  or  decimals  in  radii  of  the  curves,  you  will  se«  that  it  is  practically  not 
Becessary  to  enter  upon  any  calculation  for  spherical  aberration.  We  know 
about  what  form  gives  an  approximale  correction  ;  we  adhere  nearly  to  that, 
and  the  rest  is  done  by  figuring  of  ihe  surface.  To  illustrate  what  I  mean. 
I  would  be  quite  willing  to  undertake  to  alter  the  curves  of  the  crown  or  flint 
lens  of  any  of  my  objectives  by  a  very  large  quanlity,  increasing  one  and 
decreasing  the  other  so  as  to  still  satisfy  the  cooditions  of  achromatism,  but 
intrcluciog  theoretically  a  large  amount  of  positive  or  negative  spherical 
aberration,  and  yet  to  niake  out  of  the  altered  lens  an  object.glass  perfectly 
corrected  for  spherical  aberration.  ...  I  may  remark  that  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  make  a  tietter  objective  by  deviating  from  the  curves  which  give  a 
true  correction  for  sph.-rical  aberration,  and  correcting  that  aberration  by 
Dgunng,  rather  than  by  stnclly  adhering  to  the  theoretical  curves." 

Colour  yrhen  an  object-glass  is  designed  for  use  as  an  ordinary  telescope 
correci  it  is  usual  to  select  for  the  rays  of  different  colour  to  be  united 
tlon.  those  near  C  and  those  be- 
tween F  and  G,  since  rays 
of  lower  and  higher  re- 
frangibility  produce  a  com- '" 
paratively  faint  impression 
on  the  sense  of  sight.  In  ' 
such  a  telescope  of  any 
eon^derable  aperture  the 
Image  of  a  bright  star  at  „ 
focuj  is  surrounded  by  a 
halo  of  bluish  or  violet-  „, 
coloured  light, — a  defect 
which  is  nnavoidable  in  an  e,, 
object-glass  composed  of  a 
trown  and  flint  lens  on  ac-  ,„ 
connt  of  the  irrationality 
of theirspectra{LiGHT,voL  ,^ 
zif.  p.  592).  There  seems 
to  be  DO  doubt  that  difler-  .,, 
ent  eyes  are  differently  im- 
pressed by  ravs  of  different  ..„ 
wave-length.'  .  Thns  two 
observers  will  often  have  -i. 
different  opinions -as  to  the 
chromatic  corrections  of  ^, 
the  same  object-glass  :  the 
observer  whose  eye  is  ab-  •*> 
normally  sensitive  to  vio-, 
let  light  will  pronounce  the  »» 
chromatic  aberration  over- 
corrected  in  an  obiect-glasa  *" 
which  another  will  consider 
perfect  in  this  respect,  and  [ 
vice  versa.  Probably  it  is' 
partly  owing  to  this  cause  _ 

that  the  object-glasses  of  different  makers  show  systematic  differ- 
ences in  their  colour  correction.  An  exceedingly  sensitive  method 
of  testing  this  correction  devised  by  Professor  Stokes  is  given  under 
Optics,  vol.  ivii.  p.  804.  ■  Another  method,  due  to  Professor  Hark- 
lic  aber-  ness  and  -first  carried  out  by  Dr  Vogel,  is  tUo  following.  Place 
r»tion.  behind  the  eye-picce  a  direct  vision  prism  (c/ Optics,  p.  801).  The 
image  of  a  star  in  the  field  will  then  be  converted  into  a  narrow 
•pectrum,  which,  if  there  were  no  chromatic  aberration,  would  when 
focused  be  represented  by  a  famt  coloured  straight  line,  uniformly 
Jbarp  and  narrow.  But  in  an  ordinary  object-glass  only  two  points 
in  the  spectrnm  can  be  perfectly  focused  simultaneously  ;  therefore 
all  its  other  parts'are  spread  out,  forming  a  coloured  band  of  variable 
{jreadth.  -If  wefocus  on  the  brightest  part  of  the  spectrum,  both 

"See  Aboey  and  Fcstuii;.  Bakerian  Lecture,  PhU.  Travt.,  1E8B;  alsoPAolo- 
irapltlc  ^'c«,  M,-iy  ISje,  p.  332. 


its  extreme  ends  become  spread  out  into  a  more  or  less  trumpet- 
shaped  form,  enabling  the  observer  to  jiote  the  range  of  the  spec- 
trum over  which  precise  defiuitton  can  be  expected.  The  amount 
of  this  extension  will  depend  in  some  degree  on  the  lorm  of  tha 
object-glass,  but  mnch  moia  (if  the  achromatism  is  fairly  well 
corrected)  on  the  irrationality  of  the  spectra  of  the  glass  of  which 
the  lenses  are  composed.  If  we  then  focus,  for  example,  on  tha 
C  line,  we  shall  have  the  band  of  light  contracted  at  C  and  at 
auother  point  (probably  between  F  and  G),  widening  to  a  slightly 
trumpet-shaped  form  below  C,  and  markedly  so  above  G.  This 
second  point  of  greatest  contraction  gives  the  wavelength  of  the 
ray  which  has  the  same  focus  as  C.  If  the  telescope  has  a  focusing 
scale,  we  can  also  measure  directly  in  this  way  the  ch,inge  of  focua 
for  rays  of  different  colours.  The  chromatic  aberration  will  he 
best  corrected  for  the  rays  of  minimum  focus,  and  this  minimnm 
focus  should  for  an  ordinary  telescope  corres[iond  with  the  brightest 
part  of  the  spectrum,  viz.,  with  rays  between  D  and  E.  A  coni- 
jiarison  of  the  chromatic  correction  of  object-glasses  by  different 
makers  is  given  by  Dr  Vogel  (Monalsbctv.  dcr  Berliner  Akad., 
April  1880),  obtained  in  the  manner  just  described.  Thq  tele- 
scopes compared  are — 


Maker. 

Otwervatory  to 
which  liistru. 
raent  belongs. 

Aperture  of 
Object.Glass, 

Focal 
Leugth. 

No,  of  Aper- 
tures iu  Focal 
Length. 

Schroder   

Potsdam 
Berlin 

m, 
0-c<i3 
0-207 
0-243 

m, 
64 
Srs 
4  331 

13-1 
15-3 
17-3 

Fraunhofer    

.  Fig,  5,  taken  from  the  above-quoted  paper,  affords  most  interest- 
ing information  as  to  the  colour-correction  of  these  tliree  typical 
object-glasses.  The  curves  of  the  diagram  show  the  variation  cf 
the  focal  point  for  lay.s  of  different  wave-lengths  in  the  case  of  eacn 
object-glass.  It  will  be  seen  that  Fraunhofer  has  united  the  rays 
about  C  with  those  of  wave-length  525  miUionths  millimMres, 
Grubb  with  those  about  wave-length  494,  and  Schroder  about  wave- 
length 463.     The  object-glasses  of  Grubb  and  Schroder  ore  com- 


Correc- 
tioQ  for 
chroma- 


,  Fig-  5.  { 

posed  of  modem  glass,  -which  is  comparatively  Colourless,  whilst 
Fraunhofer's  glass  is  decidedly  green  in  colour.  The  minimum  focus 
in  Fraunhofer's  telescope  is  placed  near  D  (rather  at  wave-length 
585),  because  the  absorption  of  the  blue  and  violet  rays  of  the 
spectmjn  by  the  flint  lens  renders  the  brightest  part  of  the  spectrum 
less  bine  than  in  an  objective  composed  of  modern  glass  by  Ch.inco 
or  Fell,  which  is  nearly  colourless.  This  circumstance  enabled 
Fraunhofer  to  apply  a  very  largo  over-correction  for  ..colour, — that 
is,  to  unite  as  perfectly  as  possible  the  red  and  central  part  of  the 
spectrum,  and  to  leave  the  outstanding  vioiet  rays  to  be  in  gieat 
part  absorbed  by  the  colour  of  the  gla-ss.  The  colour-corrections 
in  the-  object-glasses  of  Grubb  and  Schroder  are  very  different  in 
chanctel--  In  Grnbb's  object-gl.-iss  the  minimum  focus  is  for  rays 
of  wave-length  about  545,  that  of  Schroder's  is  about  wave-length 
333,  which  appe&rs  to  prove  that  Grubb'a  eye  is  more  sensitive  to 


Photo- 
graphic 
■object- 
classes. 


142 

Ted  and  Schroder's  to  blue  light  Also  Grubb'3  "''rfrf^f^  ""^''■^ 
the  red  rays  very  closely  with  the  brightest  part  °f '^^^f  ^f^^; 
and  leaves  the  blue  aud  violet  rays  outstai.d.ug.  S  hroder  on  he 
other  hand,  leaves  the  red  rays  ouUtandmg  in  order  to  luiite  the 
"vs  between  D  and  F  more  closely.  The  conclusion  is  that  to 
Gmbb's  eve  the  red  rays  would  be  obtrusively  prommentm 
Schroder's  telescope,  and  that  he  would  pronounce  the  obje<:t-gl^^3 
under  corrected  ;  whilst  Schroder's  eye  would  find  the  outstanding 
«°ole  rays  too  pmminent  in  Grubb's  telescope,  and  pronounce  it 
Tver  corrected.  '^Tlie  absolute  amount  of  light  m  tfie  secondary 
s^ect  u.n  in  viewing  the  same  object  depends,  "^<'7f  »"/'«■  X° 
the  square  of  the  aperture;  therefore  te  escopes  "f '^'f  J"'"  ^ 
have  to  be  made  of  greater  proportional  focal  length  than  those 
of  small  apeTture,  in%rder  to  dim.As'a  the  secondary  spectrum 
Fi-^Ta,  ^.y.  S  in  the  diagram  give  the  form  of  the  spectrum  of  a 
sta"  in  Schroder's  telescope  for  various  adjustments  of  the  focus  , 
6^  a"  and  y  give  the  corresponding  forms  for  Fraunhofer  s  tele- 
Xe.  Fig.";,  ^presents  the  eyc-piece  foc.used  for  the  l"-;sh^st  P" 
of  the  speftrum  ;  fig.  ^  when  the  red  rays  and  those  "^J  H«/[^ 
simultaneously  fociSed ;  fig.  7  when  the  extreme  red  "ys  are  in 
focus,  the  corresponding  focus  being  a  little  below  Uy ;  fig.  «  when 

'"'Thinl  "iTscope  is  to  be  constructed  for  photographic  purposes 

the  aim  should  be  to  unite,  as  perfectly  £is  possible,  the  Tays  o^^ 

that  portion  of  the  spectrum  which  act  most  powerfully  on  the 

photographic  plate  to  V  employed.     This  Utter  point  has  been  de- 

terminedl-or  the  various  photographic  processes  by  Captain  Abney.' 

The  results  are  sho^-n  graphically  in  %  6  for  the  P™«f "  P^^^^: 
— ; 1  cally  employed  at  present 


TELESCOPE 


Triple 
object. 
glasses. 


in   astronomical    photo- 
graphy. 

Visual  spectrum. 

Agl,   acid   or   alkaline   de- 
veloper. 

Do.,  short  eippsure. 

AgPr,  acid  or  ferroua  citro-, 
oxalate  daveloper. 

Do.,  short  exposure 

Orange,  AgBr. 

Do-,  short  exposure. 

Green,  AgBr.- 

Do.,  short  exposurer 

Grey,  'AgCL 

Do.,  abort  exposure. 

Agl+'AgBr  +  AgNOt;"  -wet 

plate. 
^gl+AgBr,  ferrous  oxalate 

developer. 


To  unite  the  rays  near  G  or  H  the  angle  of  the  flint  pnsm  mnst 
ie  dTminished  ;  that  is,  the  focal  length  of  the  f'"    Uns  must  bo 
lengthened  as  compared  with  that  of  an  »''/.<;' •S^^^'°/i.''"ltJ 
co,rstruction  suited 'for  eye  observaHons;  ^f  ^.^^^  J^f  °I  f.t^^ 
photographic  action  can  be  united  more  petfectly  than  the  visible 

'■'^If  an  object-glass  is  composed  of  tliree  lenses,  of  different  Itinds 
of  glass  it  U  tLoretically  possible  to  unite  three  instead  of  t^^ 
points  of  the  spectrum,. bLiSes  improving  th^correction  for  s  pheri- 
?al  aberration."^  The  most  important  practical  ^PP  'f j  °°^„f,  ^"^'^ 
a  system  have  been-(l)  the  triple  °^Jf '"g'^^fj  °f/„f  °  °°iV™ ' 
(21" the  application  of  a  convex  crown  glass  in  front  of  an  Ofdinarj 
object.glaL  in  order  to  alter  its  chromatic  correction  from  that 
best  suited  for  eye  observations  to  that  best  suited  for  photograph  c 
observation.  John  Dollond's  object.glass  is  generally  described  as 
a  „e  flint  lens  between  two  crown  lenses  If  the  cro™  lenses 
are  of  similar  glass,  there  is  no  gain  as  to  the  correction  of  the 
6econdai7  spect?um  ;  it  becomes  on  y  possible  to  correct  the  spher^ 

cat  aberration  more  perfectly  y^^f"' •t^'^'^^Pf^rSollond 
object -glissos  bave  been  made  since  the  ^iays  of  John  Dollond^ 
But  the  great  and  detrimental  obtrusiveness  of  the  second.iry 
r^ctJSmTn  the.large  object-glasses  of  the  P^  it^^fhs  a^'e 
dmiinished  in  no'other  way.nnless  very  extreme  focal  l™?ths  are 
adopted,  or  some  new  kinds'of  elass  that  -^a"  ^e  produced  in  la^ge 
dis!^  ar«  discovered,  in  which  tlie  irrationality  of  their  spectra  is 
^^i  in  which  also  there  is  the  necessary  difference  m  the 

1  Proc  Jtoy.  Soc,  vol.  lEuii.  pp.  164-186. 


relation  between  refractive  index  and  disper^ve  power.     The  cost 
of  «  triple  object -gl^as  would  of  course  be  at  least  60  per  cent. ^ 
greater  than  that  of  a  double  object-glass  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  extreme  focal  length  necessary  for  Urge  object-glasses  might  be 
considerably  reduced.    Thus  the  cost  saved  by  a  less  heavy  mount-] 
ing  and  a  smaller  observatory  and  dome  might  counterbalance  te 
some  extent,  if  not  entirely,  the  additional  cost  of  .the  tnple  object, 
class       Dr  Schroder  has  constructed  for  the   present  writer  an 
ixquisite   triple   object.glass   (three   different  kinds   of  glass)   01^ 
3i-inches  aperture  and  only  18-inches  focal  length.     Its  perform- 
ance  with  its  highest  eye-piece  of  J-inch  focus  (power  ,2)  is  most 
admirable.     It  would  probably  be  impossible  to  constnict  larg» 
telescopes  approaching  such  short  focal  length,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  a  large  triple  object-glass  of  10  or  12  apertures  focus 
would  have  an  enormous  advantage  in  colour  correction,  and  prob- 
ably  in  spherical  aberration,  over  a  double  object-glass  of  the  same 
aperture  and  much  greater  focal  length.     One  peculiarity  of  such 
a  triple  ohiect-glass  is  that  three  points  in  the  spectrum  can  have 
tlTo  Lme  focus,  and  therefore  the  point  of^minimum  focus  may  lot 
the  be=t  chromatic  a'djustment  not  quite  correspond  with  the  focal 
point  for  the  brightest  part  of  the  spectrum  ;  but,  obviously,  the 
rays  of  the  whole  visible  spectrum  may  thus  be  brought  to  intersect 
the  axis  much  more  nearly  at  the  same  point.    There  will  probably 
be  a  far  wider  adoption  of  the  triple  object-glass  m  the  future, 
especially  as  the  greater  intrinsij  brilliancy  of  the  image  in  short- 
focus  telescopes  is  a  matter  of  higli  importance  in  the  spectroscopic 
awl  photographic  processes  of  modem  astronomy.     On  the  subject 
oFtnple  object.glasses  the  reader  U  referred  to  an  admirable  paper 
by  Professor  0.  S.  Hastings  (Ayncr.  Journal  ofScunce  and  ArU 
for  December  1879,  p.  429),  which  exhibits  the  results  to  be  got 
from  combinations  of  different  existing  kinds  of  glass. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  excess  of  the  focus  for  any  ray 
over  the  true  focus,  the  unit  being  r^nftmi  of  tbe  focal  length,  in 
—I  the  actual  results  of  Dr  Vogers  observations  on  three  existing 
object-glasses  already  quoted,  but  each  reduced  to  comparison  with 
its  true  or  minimum^  focus  ;.  lU- the  theoretically  best  possible 
results  from  a  double  object-glass  consisting  <>f ,f^ll,f'  "°^„"  ^.f!? 
and  Feil's  flint  1237,  as  computed  by  Hastings ;  III  the  theoretica 
results  of  four  different  triple  object-glasses,  capable  of  practical 
construction,  of  which  details  are  given  by  Hastings. 


Double  Ohject-Glasses. 


Fraun. 
hofer. 


+  47 
•t-  S6 
0 
-I-  V 
+  64 
-1-171 


Grubb. 


-t-    61 

■¥  41 
+  8 
-I-  20 
+  66 
-f  226 


Schro- 
der. 


-t-108 
-H  -3 
-h  23 
0 
+  S3 
+  243 


Hast- 
ings. 


-HS5 
-H  66 
-t-  41 
0 
+  13 
-1-  73 
-H2a7 


Triple  Object-Glasses. 


HI. 


Hastings 
1 


HastingSiHastings 
2  3 


■^  1 
0 
0 

+  25 
0 
0 


Hastings 


+    2 

-  53 
+  41 
+  2S 

-  10 

-  14 
+    2 


-  22 
+  91 
+  41 

-  67 
-60 
+  21 


-  3 

-  35 
+  S0 
+    2 

-  10 

-  4 

-  3 


Prof.  Hastings's  first  condition  in  these  computations  is  Ihat  the 
radius  of  curvature  of  none  of  the  surfaces  shall  exceed  one-fifteenth 
of  the  focal  length.  He  ^Iso  neglects  th.e  thickness  and  disUnce 
apart  of  the  lenles,  since  these  alTect  chiefly  the  focal  length,  but 
do  not -very  materially  affect  the  difference  of  the  foci  for  different 
rays.     The  expression  forthe  focal  length  F  is  then 

where  *=i  v',  h",  ^°'  ara  the  .indexes  of  refraction  for  the  three- 
kinds  of  glass,ana  r^, >,,-;:.-  n  the  radii  of  curvaturefor  the 
six  successive  surfaces. ".  Writing  this  in  the  form 

^={/i'-1)A+(m"-1)B  +  (;i"'-1)C,  _ 
we  may  call  A,  B,  and  C  the  curvature  sums  of  the  first,  second,  and 
bird  kntes  respectively.  The  problem  then  is  to  fi»d.  for  existing 
specimens  of  g  ass,  values  of  A,'  B,  and  C  no  one  of  winch  shall 
eW  30  when  ^=1,  and  which  shall  make  <S>  independent  of  the 
wave-length  of  tte  light  transmitted.  The  resutoig  values  of  A.; 
B.  and  C  for  the  first  combination  (marked  "Hastings  1^)  are/ 

S-47026        7-20827         -  8'35472iV  -„^-,, 

the  curvatures  are  therefore  very  moderate  and  perfectly  praM'cable., 
The  constants  for  the  glass  of  tie  first  and  secondlenses  have  been^ 
determined  by  the  author  with  great  accuracy  (s  ^  •^"■«^-  '^'''";-^<'''. 
XV.  p.  273).  The  third  glass  is  Fraunhofer  s  i^int  13  (Hastings  v 
inisnrinted  ►  in  his  table,  in  Amtr.  Jour.,  vol.  xtul  P-  131),  tor. 
wSJhe  constants  are  given  in  Schumacher's  Aslror.  ^J^.n^.™j 
filT  ms  If  this  glass  can  be  reproduced  in  large  disks,  as  no  1 
doubt  it  could  be,  we  have  the  means  of  making  an  object-glass 
ve^  superior  to  any  in  existence  and  equally  availabe  for  eye  and 
phTtogTphic  observation.  Such  an  object-glass  '^^"W  }.e  made  of 
much  shorter  proportional  focus  than  is  usual  or  poi=sible  in  double 
Ob  ect-glasses,  not  only  because  of  the  ibsence  of  secondary  spectrum 
Walsffmmtho  command  s&rded  over  the  spherical  aberration , 


TELESCOPE 


143 


trf  SIX  surfaces.     After  satisfying  the  conditions  of  focal  length, 
the  first  power  of  the  spherical  aberration,  and  two  conditions  of 
achromatism,  we  have  still  two  a^-ailable  arbitrary  conditions,  which 
may  be  that  rj=rj  and  '■«  =  »'5-     If  these  lead  to  convenient  forms, 
as  seems  likely  in  the  case  in  point,  the  whole  may  constitute  a 
cemented  lens  ;  thus  thu  loss  o."  light  at  tlie  interior  surfaces  may 
be  eliminated,  and  the  6nal  perfecting  of  the  spherical  aberration 
be  left  to  the  figuring  of  the  surfaces. 
Cliacge         In  some  recent  large  double  object-glasses,  especially  those  of 
of  chro-    Alvan  Clark,  it  has  been  usual  to  leave  a  space  between  the  crown 
aiatic       and  the  flint  lens  sufficient  to  atford  access,  through  apertures  in 
-■onrec-      the  cell,  for  cleaning  the  inner  crown  and  flint  surfaces,  without 
Tion  by     risk  of  disturbing  the  lens-s  and  their  centring.'     If  in  fig.  3  we 
•ieparat     imagine  the  lenses  to  be  considerably  separated  and  through  both 
tag  lenses  trace  a  ray  entering  the  crown  lens  parallel  to  and  at  some 

'ease«.      distance  from  the  axis,  we  shall  find  that  the  effect  of  the  separa- 
tion is  to  diminish  the  power  of  the  flint  lens,  and  therefore  to 
change  the  character  of  the  chromatic  aberration.     Thus  an  object- 
glass  over-corrected  for  colour  can  be  improved  in  this  respect  by 
increasing  the  distance  between  the  lenses.     It  has  been  suggested 
that  a  telescope  can  be  made  suitable  for  both  eye  observation  and 
photographic  purposes  if  means  are  provided  for  increasing  the 
distance  between  the  lenses  without  risk  of  derangin"  the  centring 
when  the  telescope  is  to  be  employed  for  photography.     But  the 
great  change  that  would  be  necessary  in  such  a  case  cannot  be 
brought  about  consistently  with  preservation  of  the  perfection  of 
the  corrections  for  spherical  aberration.' 
Vemjo        Any  ^bcount  of  the  achromatic  object-glass  would  be  incomplete 
Hat-         without  reference  to  the  labours  of  the  Kev,  W    Vernon  Harcourt 
c^ourt's      and  Prof  Stokes.     Experiments  in  the  production  of  optical  glass 
phos.        were  instituted  by  the  former  in  183*4  ;  and  specimens,  exhibited 
phatic      It  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Cambridge  in  1862, 
glaascs.     were  placed  in  the  bands  of  Prof.  Stokes,  who  determined  the  opti- 
cal constants  of  the  numerous  specimens  of  glass  which  Harcourt 
produced,  and  indicated  from  these  results  the  direction  in  wliich 
fresh  experiments  should  be  undertaken.     It  was  discovered  that 
titanic  acid  extends  the  blue  end  of  the  spectrum  more  than  corre- 
sponds to  the  dispersive  power  of  the  glass,  whilst  boracic  acid 
kas  the  opposite  effect  (Report  BriL   Assoc,  1871,  p.  38).     At  i 
dieetmg  of  the  British  Association  at  Belfast  in  1874  a  telescope 
was  exhibited  whose  object-glass  was  constructed  from  Harcourt's 

flass  by  Sir  Howard  Grubb  of  Dublin.     The  following  is  Prof, 
tokes's  complete  and  concise  account  of  it. 

"The  original  intention  was  to  construct  the  objective  of  a  phosphatic  glass 
containing  a  suitable  percenta^'e  of  titanic  acid,  achromatized  by  a  glass  of 
^rborate  of  lead.  <Tbe  percentage  of  titanic  acid  was  so  chosen  that  there 
chonld  be  no  irratioLality  of  dispersion  between  the  titanic  glass  and  the 
•erborate.)  As  the  curratore  of  the  convex  lens  woald  be  rather  severe  if  the 
whole  convex  power  were  thrown  into  a  single  lens,  it  was  intended  to  use 
*'wo  lenses  of  this  glass,  one  in  front  and  one  behind,  with  the  concave 
terborate  of  lead  plaMd  between  them.  It  was  found  that,  provided  net  more 
than  about  one-third  of  the  convex  power  were  thrown  behind,  the  adjacent 
turflces  might  be  made  to  fit,  consistently  with  the  condition  of  destroj-ing 
-Ihe  spherical  as  well  as  the  chromatic  aberration.  This  would  render  it 
possible  to  cement  the  glasses,  and  thereby  protect  the  terborate,  which  was 
rather  liable  to  tarnish.  At  the  time  of  Mr  Harcourt's  death  two  disks  of  the 
^tanic  glass  had  been  prepared  which  it  was  hoped  would  be  good  enough  for 
employment,  as  also  two  di^ks  of  terborate.  These  were  placed  in  Mr  Grabb'a 
-tiands.  On  polishing,  one  of  the  titanic  disks  was  found  to  be  too  badly 
-striated  to  be  employed ;  the  other  was  pretty  fair.  As  it  would  have  required 
^  lather  sevare  curvature  of  the  tirat  surface  and  an  unusual  convexity  of  the 
\aat  to  throw  the  whole  convex  power  into  the  first  lens,  using  a  mere  shell  of 
§lad3  to  protect  the  terborate.  Professor  Stokes  thought  it  more  prud*?nt  to 
throw  abont  one. sixth  of  the  whole  convex  power  into  the  third  or  crown 
^lass  lens,  though  at  the  sacriflca  of  an  aiisoluu  destruction  of  secondary  dis- 
^rsion,  which  by  this  change  from  the  original  design  rai^ht  be  expected  to  be 
just  barely  percep'.ible.  Of  the  terborate  disks,  the  less  striated  happened  to 
te  slightly  muddy,  from  some  accident  in  the  preparation  ;  bnt,  as  this  signified 
tess  than  the  strise,  Mr  Grubb  3eemed  it  better  to  employ  this  disk.  The  tele- 
«cope  exhibited  to  the  meeting  was  of  about  2J-inche3  aperture  and  23.inche3 
focal  length,  and  was  provided  with  an  object-glass  of  the  ordinary  kind,  by 
which  the  other  could  be  replaced,  for  contrasting  the  performance.  When  the 
telescope  was  turned  on  to  a  chimney  seen  against  the  sky  or  other  suitable 
object,  and  half  the  object-glass  covered  by  a  screen  with  its  edge  parallel  to 
the  edges  of  the  object,  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  objective  vivid  green  and 
parple  were  seen  about  the  two  edges,  whereas  with  the  Harcourt  objective 
there  was  barely  any  perceptible  colour.  It  was  not  of  course  to  be  expected 
that  the  performance  of  the  telescope  should  be  good,  on  account  of  the  diffi. 
culty  of  prep^n'ng  glass  free  from  strije,  hut  it  was  quite  sufficient  to  show  the 
possibility  of  destroying  the  secondary  colour." 

An  experiment  to  determine  whether  the  substitution  of  titanic 
acid  for  a  portion  of  the  silica  in  ordinary  crown  glass  would  have 
an  effect  similar  to  that  which  had  been  observed  in  the  phosphatic 
series  of  glasses  (viz.,  whilst  soraewh^traising  the  dispersive  power, 
to  produce  a  separation  of  the  coloors  at  the  blue  as  compared  with 
the  red  end  of  the  spectrum,  to  an  extent  ordinarily  belonging  only 
to  glass  of  much  higher  disprsive  power)  was  carried  out  by  Mr 
Hopkinson  at  the  glass  works  of  Messrs  Chance  of  Birmingham  ; 
but  it  proved  unfortunately  in  this  combination  that,  whUst  the 

t  This  arrangemerttalao  helps  to  equalize  the  temperatures  of  the  lenses  with 
each  other  and  with  'the  outer  air. 
.?  Qo'te  recently  Prot  Stokes  has  anggested  that  to  adapt  a  telescope  to 
other  piotographic  or  felescoi<ic  purposes  at  pleasure  the  crown  lens  should 
»e  reversible  u  well  as  cl;aiigeable  as  to  distance  with  respect  to  th"  "int. 
In  thu  way  doubtless  the  cbromji*^''  and  spherical  abeiw*^"  -0-*  " 

^•ervad  tat  the  two  kinds  of  work 


dispersive  power  was  increased,  as  in  the  phosphatic  glasses,  the 
blue  «nd  of  the  spectrum,  as  comp-red  with  the  red  end,  was  not 
spread  out  more  than  in  ordinary  glass  of  like  dispeisive  power 
{Meporl.  Brit.  Assoc,  1875,  p.  26).  'it  is  to  be  hoped,  however,  that 
makers  of  optical  glass  will  not  relax  theii-  efforts  till  astronomers 
shall  b«  able  to  obtain  refracting  telescope;,  in  which  the  secondary 
spectrum  is  nearly  if  not  quite  eliminated.  Abbe's  new  optical  ' 
glass ^  leads  one  to  believe  that  this  hope  will  soon  be  realized. 

The  addition  of  a  convex  crown  lens  in  frout  of  the  ordinary  A  third 
object-glass,   to  diminish  the  colour  -  correction  and  change  tlieorphoio> 
minimum  focus  from  that  lor  rays  between  D  and  E  to  that  forpaphic'" 
rays  near  G,  was  first  made  by  Rutherford  of  New  York.     In  this  lens, 
way  he  altered  his  telescope  from  one  suited  for  eye  observations 
to  one  in  the  best  chromatic  adjustment  for  photographic  work. 
The  chromatic  effect  is  the  same  as  increasing  the  convexity  ol 
the  crown  lens,  and  by  proper  proportioning  of  the  two  radii  ol 
curvature  it  becomes  possible  also  to  conserve,  and  even  to  furthet 
perfect,  the  destruction  of  spherical  aberration.     The  great  object 
glass  of  36-inches  aperture,  now  {1SS7)  under  construction  for  tho 
Lick  observatory  by  Messrs  Clarke  of  Boston  (Mass. ),  is  to  be  pro- 
vided with  an  additional  crown  lens  for  this  purpose.* 

The  problem  of  making  a  perfectly  achromatic  object-glass  has  Bisir's 
been  solved  by  Dr  Blair  (.EdtTi.  Trans.,  vol.  iiL  p.  53)  by  employ,  achro- 
ing  fluid  media,  and  he  actually  constructed  an  object-glass  con- matic 
sisting  of  a  plano-convex  lens  and  a  meniscus  lens,  both  of  crown  fluid  ob 
glass  with  their  convexities  turned  towards  each  other,  the  space  ject- 
between  the  lenses  being  filled  with  hydrochloric  acid.     L^nfortu- glasses 
nately  such  combinations  are  practically  useless,  not  only  on  account 
of  unavoidable  leakage,  but  also  because  currents  are  set  up  in  fluid 
lenses  by  changes  of  temperature,  which  correspond  in  eH'ect  with 
want  of  homogeneity  in  the  fiint  lens  in  an  ordinary  object-glass. 

Eye-Puces. 
The  first  substitute  for  the  single  lens  of  the  Galilean  and  Kepler  Eye- 
telescopes  was  the  compound  eye-piece  invented  by  Rheita.     Behind  pieces, 
the  convex  eye-lens  of  the  Kepler  telescope  he  applied  a  second 
short  telescope-,  consisting  of  two  convex  lenses,  their  distance  being 
the  sum  of  their  focal  lengths     The  principal  effect  was  to  erect 
the  mverted  image,  and  thus  to  constitute  the  simplest  form  of  ths 
day  eye-piece,  or  common  terrestrial  telescope.     The  next  improve- 
ment was  the  Huygenian  eye-piece,  which  consists  of  two  convex 
lenses  (see  fig.  7),— the  "  field ■  lens, ''  that  next  the  object-glass, 
having  its  focal  length  to  that  of  the  "  eye-lens  "  as  3  to  1  ,  the 
distance  between  them  is  twice  the  focal  length  of  the  latter,  the 
combination  being  so  placed  as  to  form  the  visible  unage  half-way 
between  the  two.     This  eye-piece  is  acliromatic  In  the  sense  in 
which  an  eye-piece  is  said  to  be  so    a  colourless  image  seen  through 
it  does  not  appear  bordered  with  coloured  fringes,  as  is  the  case  with 
a  single  lens  or  Rheita's  eye-piece.     This  is  not  because,  as  in  the 
achromatic  object-glass,  all  the  central  coloured  rays  are  collected 
in  one  focus,  which  in  the  case  of  an  eye-piece  is  a  matter  of  compara- 
tively small  consequence,  but  because  it  possesses  the  same  magnify- 
ing power  for  rays  of  all  colours  on  an  object  of  sensible  angular 
diameter,  so  as  not  to  form  overlapping  coloured  pictures  of  it  oc 
tho  retina.     Tliis  condition  it  is  which  furnishes  the  "  equation  a 
achromaticity  "  of  an  eye-piece.     An  expression  for  the  magnifyinj 
power  of  a  telescope  provided  with  a  certain  eye-piece  is  formed  ij 
general  terms  which  involve  the  focal  length  of  its  lenses,  their  dis 
tances  from  each  other,  and  their  refractive  indexes ;  and,  this  btin/ 
made  to  vary  by  the  variation  of  the  last-mentioned  elements  only 
the  variation  is  equated  to  zera     The  algebraic  working,  whicl 
even  fi  r  a  two-glass  eye-piece  is  a  little  complex,  is  given  in  H 
Lloyd's   Treatise  on  Light  and  Vision  (London,  1831),  and  in  ai 
elaborate  paper  by  Littrow  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Trans,  koy. 
Astron.  Soc.  (p.  599).     From  the  former  we  extract  the  following 
proposidon  :   An  eye-glass  of  two  lenses  of  the  same  medium  is 
achromatic  when  the  interval  between  the  lenses  is  an  arithmetical 
mean  between  their  focal  len^h, — a  condition  which  the  Huygenian  Huy- 
construction  evidently  satishes.     The  rationale  of  this  is  obvious,  genian 
independently  of  algebraic  analysis,  by  mspection  of  the  course  of  eye. 
the  rays  in  fig.  7,  where  AC,  BD  are  the  lenses,  PQ  the  image  pieca. 
which  would  be  formed  by  the  object-glass  alone,  pq  that  really 
formed  by  the  acrion  of  the  field-glass.     The  object-glass  being 
supposed  achromaric,  a  ray  of  white  light,  as  OC,  going  to  fo'n. 
the  image  of  a  point  Q,  mil  be  refracted  by  the  field-glass  at  0 
towards  the  corresponding  point  q  of  the  new  image,  but  not  as  o 


s  See  Naturi,  vol.  sxxiv.  p.  632,  26th  October  1SS6. 

•  For  recent  literature  on  the  secondary  spectrum  in  double  and  triple  object- 
glasses,  &c.,  see  W.  Schmidt,  Die  JrcOiung  dts  Lichta  in  Gtiixm,  itaitstiKltn 
d.  achrovuit.  vnd  aplanat.  Objedivlinse,  Leipsic,  1874  ;  W.  Harkness,  "  On  l^a 
Colour  Correction  of  Achromatic  Telescopes,"  in  Amer.  Jour,  o/  Scienu  twiZ 
Arts,  September  1679,  pp.  1S9-196 ;  C.  S.  Hastings,  "Triple  Objectives  with 
Complete  Colour  Correction,"  ib.,  December  1879,  pp.  425-135:  Perty,  Ctiter 
die  Greruxn  d£r  sichtbaren  Schop/ung  nach  den  jgtngen  Lfisiungen  der  AJiJcrosiop* 
vnd  Femrdlire,  Berlin,  1874 ;  H.  C.  Vogel,  Veber  tine  einjdc/ie  MeOwde  ntr  Bestin- 
mung  der  Brennpunkte  und  der  Abtceichungskrei^  eines  Fenrohr.OhJectiPS  fiir 
Strahlenvon  verschiedtTier  JSrerJibarkei: ;  C.  A.  Young,  "The  Colour.Correctioa 
of  Certain  Achromatic  Object.GIasses,*"  In  Amer.  Jour,  Sci.,  June  1880,  pp.  45*- 
456  ;  also  a  rei-iew  of  these  papers  by  A.  Salarik,  yitrte(jahrschrifl  der  ostrOMi 
1  Geselisri'-n.  1882,  pp.  13-39. 


144 


TELESCOPE 


sinplc  white  ray  ;' it  will  "bo  separated  into  coloored  rays,  following 
diMcrcnt  t-ouisc9»  i^  The  red  ray  Cr  being  less  refracted  will  fall  od 
a  pointy  ol  1)lu  eye-glass  njorc  reroolo  from  Us  centre  B  than 


FiQ.  7.— Haygeniaji  eye-piece.  ^ 

^5<Viol^t~ray"  Cv,^  and  (the  prismaticity  of  the  lens  increasiDg 
from  the  centre  outwards) *riU  in  proportion  by  the  second  trans-. 
mission  be  more  bent  aside  tlian  the  violet,  and  thns  a  compensa- 
tion is  etfccted,  and  the  two  rays  finally  emerge  parallel,  their 
exact  paralltrhsm  being  secuTed  by  the  pfoportion  of  their  focal 
lengths.  The  Hiiygenian  eye-piece  possesses  also  other  important 
advantages.  The  tota.1  deflexion  of  the  light,  to  produce  the  mag- 
nifying  power,  is  equally  divided  between  the  two  glasses,  —  the 
most  favourable  condition  for  diminishing  that  distortion  which  is 
alwzys  perceived  in  looking  obliquely  through  a  lens ;  and  the  field 
of  view  13  greatly  enlarged  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  eye-lens, 
being  such  as  would  require,  to  produce  the  same  magnifying  power, 
a  single  lens  of  the  much  greater  semi-diameter  bd,  found  by  draw- 
ing Qf>  parallel  to  gB  and  erecting  bd.  The  inconvenience  of  this 
eye-piece  {whence  it  is  improperly  termed  a  negative  eye-piece)  is 
that  the  image,  being  formed  between  its  lenses,  undergoes  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  distortion  by  the  field-glass,  owing  to  which  equal 
linear  portions  of  it  do  not  correspond  precisely  to  equal  angular 
mcasuresof  the  distant  object.  Equal  parts  of  a  micrometer  applied 
*t  the  place  of  the  image,  so  as  to  be  seen  at  the  same  time  through 
the  eye-lens,  will  not  correspond  to  precisely  equal  angular  inter- 
OnunOQ  Vuls.  The  common  astronomical  or  positive  eye -piece,  described 
or  po6i-  by  Ramsdcn  {Phil.  Trans.,  1783),  consists  of  two  plano-convex 
tive  eye-  lenses  of  equal  lengths,  having  their  convexities  turned  towards 
niece.       each  other  and  separated  by  two-thirds  of  the  focal  length  of  either, 


^y. 

q^ 

:::^ 

V-_/ 

IT 

p 

•- A 

/        \ 

6,^ 

Fio.  8.— Common  or  positive  eye-piece-'*^ 

formed  hy  the~object»glass,  at  a  distance  AP  equal  to  one-fourth 
of  the  focal  length  of  A.  The  first  or  field-glass,  therefore,  forms 
an  enlarged  imn ge pg,  at  a  distance  one-third  of  that  focal  length 
which  places  it  in -the  focus  of  the  eye-glass.  This  eye-piece  is 
not  properly  achromatic,  but  its  spherical  aberration  is  much  less 
than  in  any  of  the  other  constructions',  and  it  has  the  advantage  of 
ginng  a  flat  field  of  view,  requiring  no  change  of  focus  to  see  the 


turned  towards  each  other."  (3)  For  an  erecting  eye-niec^ of  four 
lenses  the  first  and  fourth  (reckoned  from  the  object-glass  towards 
the  eye)  should  be  crossed  lenses  of  focal  length  3,  the  radii  of  their 
surfaces  1  :  G,  with  their  convex  surfaces  towards  each  other.  The 
second  lens  should  be  a  meniscus  of  focal  length  4,  the  radii  of  its- 
surfaces  25:11,  and  its  convexity  towards  the  eye.  The  third  lens 
should  be  plano-convex,  of  focal  length  4,  its  plane  side  towards 
the  eye.  -  The  distance  of  the  centre  of  the  second  lens  from  that 
of  the  first  =  4  ;  that  of  the  third  from  tlie  second  =  6  ;  and  t^jat  of 
the  fourth  from  the  third  =  513.  If  a  bright  object  appears  yelloxv 
or  a  dai  k  one  blue  at  the  edge  farthest  from  the  centre  of  the  field, 
the  third  aud  fourth  lenses  must  be  together  pushed  inwards  towards 
the  second  lens. 

*  In  many  telescopes  constructed  specially  for  star  observation  only- 
the  object-glass  is  over-corrected  for  colour  and  under-corrected  for 
spherical  aberration  ;  both  these  errors  may  sometimes  be  nearly 
eliminated  by  a  properly  constructed  Huygenian  eye-piece  {sec 
filJCROSCOPE,  vol.  xvi.  pp.  266-267).  But,  when  a  telescope  is  to- 
be  used  over  a  considerable  range  of  field  for  micrometric  measure- 
ments, it  is  obvious  that  the  spherical  aberration  should  be  corrected 
by  the  object-gUss  alone.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  improve  the 
appearance  of  oojects  somewhat  in  a  telescope  in  which  the  chro- 
matic aberration  is  over -corrected  by  employing  an  eye -piece 
somewhat  under-corrected  for  colour,  and  vux  versa  ;  but  the  only 
satisfactory  plan  is  Jo  have  both  object-glass  and  eye-piece  as  freo 
as  possible  from  both  chromatic  and  spherical  aberration.  In  ordei.* 
to  secure  this,  or  a  very  large  field  of  view,  many  forms  of  eye- piece 
have  been  devised.  Achromatic  combLnarions  have  been  substi- 
tuted in  some  cases  for  the  field-lens,  in  others  for  the  eye-lens,  in 
others  for  both  simple  lenses  of  the  Ramsden  eye-piece.  The  best 
of  these  combinations  which  the  present  writer  has  tested  and 
which  practically  fulfil  all  requirements  of  the  astronomer  are  due 
to  Dt  Hugo  Schroder,  to  whom  he  is  indebted  for  information  ae 
to  their  construction,  ^i  Fig.  10  represents  Schroder's  high,  power 


H.Schrsj- 
der's 
high 
powef 
eye- 
piece^ 


Fio.  9.— Erecting  or  terrestrial  eye-picce.y  . 
Er«cting*^ccntre  and  borders  of  the  field  with  cqunl  distinctness.^  The  erect- 
or terT<?s-  ing  or  terrestrial  eye-piece  was  invented  by  Dollond.  Tlie  principle 
trial  eye-  of  its  construction  will  be  understood  from  fig.  9.'»  It  is  conveni- 
pieoe.  "  ent  for  telescopes  of  ordinary  use,  because  it  presents  a  non-in- 
verted image  to^the  eye,_allhough  at  some  sacrifice  of  light  and 
^definition.  *^  ^ -^  .  ^^ 
Airy  on  '^  For  nn  account^of  the  theory  of  the  cliromatic  and  spherical 
eye-  abrrration  of  eye-pieces  by  Sir  Gcoi^e  B,  Airy,  see  Traiis.  PhU. 

pieces.*  Soc.  Camb.,  vol.  ii.  p.  243  and  vol.  iit  p.  =51.  The  author's  con- 
clusions are  the  following.  (1)  To  securo'the  greatest  distinctness 
>fithian  eye-piece  of  the  Huygenian  typo,  the  field  lens  should  bo 
ri.  meniscus  of  focil  length  3.  the  radii  of  its  surfaces  11:4,  and 
ifs  convexity  towards  the  object-glass  ;  the  eye-lens  should  be  a 
double  convex  of  focal  length  1,  tho  radii  of  its  surfaces  1  ;  6,  and 
its  more  convex  eide  towards  the  field-lens.  Tho  distance  <^f  the 
lenses  should  be  2.  There  should  be  a  perforated  diaphragm  at 
disUnce  1  from  the  eye-lens.  If  a  bright  ohiect  apj^ars  yellow  or 
a  dark  one  blue  at  the  edge  farthest  from  the  centre  of  the  field, 
the  lenses  must  he  brought  a  little  nearer  together.  (2)  For  an  eye- 
piece of  Ramsden's  t\'pe  the  two  lenses  should  be  plano-convex,  of 
focsil  length  3,  placed  at  distance  2,   their  cOTivei  surfaces  being 


,'Fio.  10.— Schroder's  higb  power  eye-p»ec«,^ 
fye-piece,  which  is  admirably  suited  for  micrometer  worV,  not  only 
because  there  arc  only  two  reflecting  surfaces  in  the  triple  lens  of 
which  it  is  composed,  but  also  because  there  is  a  comparatively 
large  distance  between  the  lens  and  the  micrometer  web  when  the 
latter  is  in  focus.  This  condition  is  essential  when  it  is  desired  to 
pet  the  best  bright  illumination  of  the  wires  in  a  dark  field  (seo 
Micrometer,  vol.  xyL  p.  248).  The  triple  lens  is  composed  of  a 
dense  fluid  plano-convex  lens  between  two  lenses  of  soft  crown  glass.. 
The  radii  of  curvature  are —  '  ^  '^ 

n  =80026  convex   )    ^  j^ 

'surfaces    J  r.j  =  36-536  convex    j"  so«  "own  glass, 

ceraented  \  r3  =  3fi  .S36  coocave  1.  .         -    ,    j^  ' 

surfaces    ^T^^     «     plane      f  ^       ' 

cemented*}  r^=     «     plane  «•  i  ,„<■,  „„,™  „ub„ 

,  ,  _  t;=80-026  cod\-.I    \  ^""^^  "O'^  El^ 

The  corresponding  foci  for  zones  of  different  distance  from  the  axis" 
are— axis  =100-00  ;  zones  125  from  axis,  90-81  ; 
25  from  axis.  99  32 ;  40  from  axis.  93  "35  ;  45  from 
axis,   10015;  50  from  axis,  101-85.     Thus  tho 
aperture  of  the  lens  may  l>c  half  its  focal  length    ■ 
without  any  sensible  defect.     Fig.  11  represents  0.  ScKr^ 
Dr  0.   Schroder's   aplanntic   eye-piece.      The  glass  employed   Is  der's 
Dauget*s  cTCM*lC6i)and  flint(F6,).     The  "refractive  power  of  cro^^n  aplanatid 
is  15126  fo»0,  that  of  flint  V6-105  ;  the  dispersive  pow«r  of  botti  eye- 
kinds  of  glass  is  0'588.  "^     ^  '  piece. 


Fio.  11.— Schroder's  ftplan^tic  eye-piece.- 
The  radii  of  curvature  for  a  lens  of  1  inch  (27-07  mm. )  focal  len^^ 
re—  y^  •       f  ' 

mm. 
^  rs=I3-30 
rt^ry=  7-OOcemeDted 


i 


nun. » 

n=co-i2         -    - 

=73=10-34  cemeotcd 


F,-=  focal  point  of  combination  =  -905  mm.  from  venex  of^^;| 
F2  =  positi'^n  of  observer's  fye=  -  14  49  mm.  from  vertex  of  r^- 
The  thicknesses  and  distances  apart  of  the  surfaces  are—  "  ' 


TELESCOPE 


145 


Gre- 
klasccpe. 


I  l5t  T*rt<x  to  7d  =0  TO  mm.  SiDt  glass, 

I  Sd       .        ..  4lb=  3-60    ,,     crowQ  glass 

Uh      ..      „  5th  =  1:1  M     „     ur, 
5th     ..      „  6th=  0-61    „     ftintgUss, 
^tb  .,  8th=  t*i    „     cn>»nglu9 

The  distance  between  the  plane  surfaces  is  22-S7  mm  This  fono 
efeje-piece  has  been  employed  by  Scbocfeld  in  his  southern  "I^urch 
nustening,"  and  Dr  SchrcKler  has  madt  one  for  the  present  wnter 
which  gives  a  perfect  field  4i°  in  diameter  on  the  telescope  of  18 
inches  focal  length  and  3}  inches  aperture  already  referred  to 

ReJUettixg  TtUxopt 

The  folloning  are  the  various  forms  of  reflecting  telescopes      The 
Gregonao  t<-le9coj>e  is  represented   lo  fig    12       A-4   and    BB  are 


v 


T\Q  12  —Gregorian  telescow 
concave  mirrors  having  a  common  axis  and  their  concanties  facing 
w  each  other      The  fcKus  of  A  for  parallel  rays  is  at  F    that  of  B  for 

I  parallel  rays  at/— between  B  and  F      Parallel  ravp  falling  on  AA 

converge  at  F  where  an  image  is  formed  the  rays  are  then  re- 
flected from  B  and  conTergeal  P.  where  ase<'ond  and  more  enlarged 
image  w  f'*niied  Gregory  himself  showpd  that,  if  the  large  mirror 
were  a  segment  of  a  paraboloid  of  revolntioo  whose  fo*'us  i?  F  and 
the  small  mirror  an  ellipsoid  of  revolution  whose  f(vi  are  F  and  P 
respectively,  the  resulting  luia^e  will  I»e  plane  ana  undistorted 
The  image  formed  at  P  i?  viewed  through  the  eye-piece  at  E  which 
maybe  of  the  Huygenian  or  Ramsd^^n  typt  The  focal  adjustment 
13  accomplished  by  the  scrpw  S.  whirb  acti  on  a  slide  carrying  an 
arm  to  which  the  mirror  B  is  aturhed  The  practical  difBcuIty 
of  coostnicting  Gregorian  telescopes  ol  eood  nefining  quality  is 
very  considerable,  b^ase  ii  spherical  mirmrs  are  (employed  their 
aberrations  tend  to  increase  each  other,  and  u  is  extremely  difficult 
to  give  a  true  elliptic  6gure  to  the  necessarily  deep  concavity  of 
the  small  speculum  Short  appears  to  have  systematicaUy  con- 
quered this  difficulty,  and  his  Gregronan  telescopes  attained  great 
celebrity      The  use  of  the  Gregorian  form  is»  however,  practically 

abandoned  in  the  present  dav       The  magaifvins   power  of  the 

Y  ■  f  '  o       ■      c    r 

telescope  is  =  — ^,  where  F  and  /  are  respectively  the  local  lengths 

of  the  large  and  the  small  mirror,  e  the  focal  length  of  the  eyepiece, 
and  X  the  distance  between  the  principal  foci  of  the  two  mirrors 
{  —  Yf'ui  the  diagram,'  when  the  instrument  i?  in  adjustment  for 
riewing  distant  objects      The  im^es  are  erect 
Ckase  The  Cassegiuin  telescope  differs  from  the  Gregorian  only  in  the 

?T3.ia  substitution  of  a  convei  hyperbolic  mirror  for  a  concave  elliptical 
^seope.  mirror  as  the  small  speculum  This  form  has  two  distmct'ad van- 
tages: (1)  if  spherical  mirrors  are  employed  their  aberrations  have 
a  tendency  to  correct  each  other  ;  (2)  the  instrument  is  shorter  than 
the  Gregorian,  exUris  paribus^  by  twice  the  focal  length  of  the  small 
mirror  Fewer  telescopes  have  been  made  of  this  than  perhaps  of 
any  other  form  of  reflector  ;  but  in  comparatively  recent  years  the 
^assegrain  has  acquired  importance  from  the  fact  of  its  adoption 
for  the  great  Melbourne  telescope.  The  magnif3ring  power  is  com- 
puted by  the  same  formula  as  in  the  case  of  the  Gregorian  telescope 
Sew  The  ]S'e\vtonian  telescope  is  represented  in  fig  13      AA  is  a  con- 

tociau.       cave  mirror  whose  axis  is  aa.     Parallel  rays  falling  on  A_A  converge 
on  the  plane 
mirror    BB, 
and  are 

thence  re 
fleeted  at 
right  angles* 
to  the  axis. 
TormiDg  an 
image  in  the 
focus  of  the 
eye- piece  E 
The  Burface 

of  the  large  mirror  should  be  a  paraboloid  of  revolu-      ;  *' 
tion.  that  of  the  small  mirror  a  true  optical  plane 
The  magnifying  power  \s~Fle.    This  form  is  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  most  modem  reflectin^^  telescopes      A  glass  prism  of 
total  refieiion  is  sometimes  eubstitL  -d  for  the  plane  mirror 
Her-  The  Herschelian  or  front  view  reflector  is  represented  in  fig.  14. 

•chehaa    AA  is  a  concaTe  parabolic  mirror,  whose  axis  ac  is  inclined  to  the 
axis  of  the  tube  ab  so  that  the  image  of  an  object  in  the  focus  of 


the  mirror  may  be  viewed  by  an  eye-piece  at  E.  the  angle  ba^  bting 
equal   to  the  angle  ccE       Tlas  form    was  adopted  by  the  elder 


I*  — flprsrheliaii  n-rleciot 


Herschel  to  avoid  the  toss  oi  light  trom  reflexion  tn  ihe^mall  mirror 
ol  the  Newtonian  telescope  H  has  sevpral  disa*! vantages  1 '  The 
upper  part  of  the  observers  heao  mus!  oecessaniv  obstruct  *nme  of 
the  rays  which  would  otherwise  fall  on  the  large  mirror  out  when 
a  telescope  ol  verv  large  apertur**  is  "mploved  the  loss  of  light  thus 
occasioned  is  '"omparatively  insignificant  Moreovor.  lisrurhance 
of  the  air  in  front  ot  »he  '^'lescope  is  created  bv  heat  from  the 
observers  head  and  bodv  dnd  'his  is  fatal  to  tht  Oest  definition 
To  avoid  ihe  latter  Trawl>a<k  Sir  lohn  Herschel '£ncy  Bm  3th 
ed  art  'Telescope  voi  uti  p  l*28j  suggested  the  employment  of 
a  small  right-angled  pnsm  of  total  reflexion  placed  cIos«'  to  the  eye- 
lens  of  the  eye-piece  to  permit  the  observer  to  view  the  image  by 
looking  in  a  direction  at  nght  angles  to  the  eve  piece,  and  th**rf  fore 
at  right  angles  to  the  rube  2}  In  consequenre  of  the  tilting  o!  the 
mirror  aberration  is  created  and  this  increases  rapidly  with  increased 
tilting  The  construction  is  thus  limited  to  telescopes  in  which 
the  proportion  ol  apertur**  tc  focal  length  i.*-  not  tijt.  great  In 
HerscheVs  40-feet  telescope  the  proportion  was  I  to  10  and  the 
construction  would  hardlv  be  applicable*  to  modern  telescopes,  in 
which  the  proportion  often  rise.«  to  1  to  5  or  6  YeL  when  exceed 
ingly  faint  objects  have  to  be  ooserved.  this  Inrno  of  tjPiPscope  has 
great  advantages  Herschel  found  that  some  objects  which  he  dis- 
covered with  such  an  mstrument  could  not  oven  be  seen  when  the 
same  telescope  was  used  in  the  Newtonian  form  The  from  vipw 
telescope-  howpver  has  hardly  been  at  all  employed  except  bv  the 
Herschels  But  at  the  same  time  none  but  the  Herschels  have  swept 
the  whole  sky  for  the  discovery  of  famt  nebuia ,  and  probably  no 
other  astronomers  hav«>  worked  for  so  many  hours  on  end  foi  so 
many  nights  as  they  dia  and  they  emphasize  the  easy  position  of 
the  observer  in  using  this  lorm  of  instrument 

Constntct/nn  of  Object-Glassa 
The  first  point  is  the  selection  of  glass  disks  of  suitable  quality  Te^tng 
The  requisites  are  (1/  general  transparency  and  freedom  from  object 
mech&nical  defects,such  as  specks,  air- bubbles.  &c-;  {2ihom(^eneity,  glass** 
(3)  freedom  from  internal  strain  The  diik  being  roughly  polished 
on  the  sides,  faults  of  the  first  class  are  easily  detected  by  inspection 
In  order  to  secure  the  maximum  of  light  grasp  for  aperture  it  is 
desirable  that  the  glass  should  bt  zs  colourless  as  possible,  if  the 
roughly  polished  disk  is  laid  upon  white  paper  the  amount  of  dis- 
coloration can  be  readily  estimated  by  comparing  the  colom  of  the 
sheet  as  seen  directly  with  that  seen  through  the  glass  Fraan- 
hofer's  glass  was  far  from  colourless.  Dollond's  more  coloured  still ; 
and  we  have  shown  that,  for  purposes  when  extreme  light  grasp  is 
not  an  object,  the  less  transparency  of  such  glass  to  the  blue  rays 
of  the  spectrum  affords  advantages  for  a  better  correction  of  the 
chromatic  aberration  of  rays  in  tne  brighter  part  of  the  spectrum. 
The  amount  of  light  excluded  by  specks,  air- bubbles,  or  even 
scratches  is  quite  iusignificant ;  but  these  blemishes  create  diffrac- 
tion phenomena  and  scattered  light  m  the  field,  which  are  very 
injunous  to  the  performance  of  the  instrument,  especially  when 
faint  objects  are  searched  for  in  the  neighbourhood  of  brighter  ones. 
It  13  essential  for  a  telescope  lens  that  the  glass  should  be  perfectly 
homogeneous,  that  is.  the  refractive  index  must  be  identical  for 
every  part  of  the  disk  This  can  be  tested  with  extreme  delicacy 
by  grinding  the  disk  into  the  form  of  a  lens  and  testing  it  bv 
Toppler's  method,*  described  under  Optics  (vol  xva.  p.  805)  If 
the  disk  IS  mtended  for  a  concave  lens  and  is  already  so  thin  that 
it  becomes  undesirable  to  make  it  thinner  at  the  edges  by  convert- 
ing it,  m  the  first  place,  into  a  convex  lens,  it  may  be  tested  by 
placing  one  of  its  surfaces  in  contact  with  and  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis  of  a  crown  lens  of  known  perfection,  and  testing  the  com 
bination  by  Toppler's  method  If  a  glass  disk  is  not  properly  Acneal. 
annealed— thai  is.  if  it  has  been  too  quickly  cooled,  so  that  the  mg 
outer  sheU  has  hardened  before  the  inner  portion  —  the  finally 
solidified  mass  must  be  in  a  state  of  tension,  like  that  of  "Rupert's 
drops  '  Unless  cooled  very  gradually  an  optical  disk  would  fly  to 
pieces,  but  a  very  much  smaller  defect  in  the  annealing  process  would 
be  fatal  foi  refined  optical  purposes.  Changes  of  temperature  would 
produce  changes  of  curvature,  and  the  lens  would  also  change  its 
form  when  successive  portions  of  the  strained  outer  shell  were 
removed  in  the  process  of  grinding  and  polishing.     FortunateJy 


Pogff,  Anna!.,  cxxxj.,  1S6T. 

X5m.  — 


19 


146 


TELESCOPE 


defects  in  anncaliDg  are  very  easily  dettcted  by  meaus  of  the  polari- 
scope.  The  polished  disk  is  placed  in  light  reflected  from  a  polar- 
izing surface,  such  as  a  sheet  of  glass  blackened  at  the  back,  and 
examined  with  a  'Nicol's  prism  as  an  analyser."  If  the  bright  rings 
and  black  cross  (see  Light,  vol.  xiv.  p.  613)  are  viaiyble  the  disk  is 
unht  for  use  ;  but,  since  few  disks  are  so  perfectly  atiuealed  as  not 
to  show  a  trace  of  the  black  cross,  such  as  show  it  in  no  marked 
debtee  may  be  safely  em  ployed.  Perfect  annealing  has  now  become 
the  most  difficult  portion  of  the  art  of  making  optical  glass,  and 
large  disks  (more  particularly  of  crown  glass)  are  rejected  by  the 
optician  more  frequently  for  defects  in  annealing  than  for  any  other 
cause. 

The  disks  having  been  sel.-cted,  their  refractive  and  dispersive 
powers  determined,  and  the  radii  of  curvature  computed,  it  remains 
to  convtrt  the  disks  into  K-ii^cs  with  surfaces  of  the  required  curva- 
ture, and  to  complete  the  object-glass.  The  work  consists  of  five 
distinct  optTatioiis — (1)  rough  grinding  by  a  revolving  tool  supplied 
with  sand  and  water  ;  (2)  fine  grinding  with  emery  ;  (3)  polishing 
with  oxide  of  iron,  rouge,  or  putty  powder,  the  grinder  being  faced 
with  fine  cloth,  satin,  paper,  or — best  of  all — pitch  ;  (4)  centring  ; 
(5)  figuring  and  testing.  These  processes  are  essentially  of  a  tech- 
nical character,  and  can  only  be  familiar  to  those  who  practise  the 
art.  The  deUils  would  be  out  of  place  here,  but  are  well  described 
in  a  lecture  delivered  by  Sir  Howard  Grubb  at  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion, 6th  April  1886,  and  printed  in  Nature,  27th  May  1886. 

Construction  of  Specula. 
Con-  The  combosition  of  metallic,  specula  in  the  present  day  differs 

6'nffUon  very  little  from  that  used  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton.     Many  different 
o*  alloys  have  been  suggested,  some  including  silver,  nickel,  ziuc,  or 

specula,  arsenic  ;  but  that  which  has  practically  been  found  best  is  an  alloy 
of  four  equivalents  of  copper  to  one  of  tin,  or  the  following  pro- 
portions by  weight :— copper  252,  tin  117  8.  Such  speculum  metal 
is  exceedingly  lurd  and  brittle,  takes  a  fine  white  polish,  and 
wlien  protected  from  damp  has  little  liability  to  tarnish.  The 
process  of  casting  and  annealing,  In  the  case  of  the  specula  of  the 
great  ML-lbourne  telescope,  was  admirably  described  by  Dr  Robin- 
son in  Ffnl.  Trans.,  1869,  vol.  qVitl.  p.  135.  Shaping,  polishing, 
and  figuring  of  specula  are  accomplished  by  methods  and  tools  pre- 
cisely similar  to  those  employed  in  the  construction  of  lenses.  The 
reflecting  surface  is  first  ground  to  a  spherical  form,  the  parabolic 
figure  b'lir.g  giv*-n  in  the  final  process  by  regulating  thesize  of  the 
pitch  =iqu.ircs  and  the  stroke  of  the  polishing  macnine.  The  pro- 
cess of  ti'sting  is  identical  with  that  of  an  object-glass. 

Soon  after  Liebig's  discovery  of  a  process  for  depositing  a  film 
of  pure  metallic  silver  upon  glass  from  a  salt  of  silver  in  solution, 
Stoinheil  {Gaz.  Univ.  (VAngs'hurg^  24tli  March  IS56),  and  later,  in- 
dependently, ^"oucault  {Compics  Rcndus,  vol.  xliv.,  February  1857),  ■ 
proposed  to  employ  glass  for  the  specula  of  telescopes,  the"  reflect- 
ing surface  of  the  glass  speculum  to  be  covered  with  silver  by 
Liebig's  process.  These  silver-on-glass  specula  are  now  the  rivals 
of  the  achromatic  t<-lescopo,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  ihany  tele- 
scopes with  metal  specula  will  be  inaJe  in  the  future.  The  best 
speculum  metal  and  ihu  greatest  care  are  no  guarantee  of  freedom 
from  taniish.  and.  if  such  a  mirror  is  much  exposed,  as  it  must 
be  in  the  hands  of  an  active  observer,  frequent  repolishing  will  he 
necessary.  This  involves  refiguring,  which  is  the  most  delicate  and 
costly  process  of  all.  Every  time,  therefore,  that  a  speculum  is 
repolished,  the  futnre  quality  of  the  instrument  is  at  stake;  its 
focal  Icr.gth  wnll  probably  be  altered,  and  thus  the  value  of  the 
constants  of  the  micromcLur  also  have  to  be  redetermined.  Partly 
for  these  reasons  the  reflecting  telescope  with  metallic  mirror  has 
never  bten  a  favourite  with  the  professional  astronomer,  and  has 
found  little  employment  out  of  England.  In  England,  in  the 
hands  of  the  Hcrsrhds,  Rosse,  Lassell,  and  De  la  Rue  it  has  done 
splendid  service,  bui  in  all  these  cases  the  astronomer  and  the 
instrunicnt-makor  were  one.  The  silver-on-glass  mirror  has  the 
enormous  a(Ivanl;igc  that  it  can  be  resilvercd  with  little  trouble, 
at  small  expense,  aiid  without  danger  of  changing  the  figure.  Its 
chief  work  has  been  done  in  the  hands  of  Draper  and  Common, 
who  wore  the  engineers,  if  not  tlie  actual  constructors,  of  their  own 
instrumeiiLs.  Glass  is  lighter,  slifl'or,  less  costly,  and  easier  to  work 
than  specullim  metal.  The  silvered  mirrors  have  also  some  ad- 
vantage in  light  grasp  over  those  of  speculum  metal,  though,  a[>cr- 
ture  for  aperture,  the  former  arc  inferior  to  the  modem  object-glass. 
Comparisons  of  light  grasp  derived  from  small,  fresh,  carefully 
silvered  surfaces  are  somctin)e<i  given  which  lead  to  illusory  results, 
and  from  such  cxjKrmients  Foucault  claimed  superiority  for  tlie 
silvered  speculum  over  the  objecl-gbss.  Rut  the  present  writer 
hjs  found  from  experience  and  careful  comparison  that  a  silvered 
mirror  of  12-inches  aperture  mounted  as  a  Newtonian  telescope 
(with  a  silvered  plane  for  the  small  mirror),  when  the  surfaces 
(arc  in 'fair  average  condition,  is  equal  in  light  grasp  to  a  first-rate 
^refractor  of  10-inchcs  aperture,  or  area  for  area  as  2  :  3.  This  ratio 
\nU  become  more  equal  for  larger  sizes  on  account  of  the  additional 
thickness  of  larger  objectglx*:se9  and  the  consequent  additional  ab- 
vflorjitioD  of  light  in  transmission. 


'Mounting  of  Telescopes. 

The  proper  mounting  of  a  telescope  is  hardly  of  less  importance  Mouut- 
than  its  optical  perfection.     Freedom  from  tremor,  ease  and  deli-  iug  of 
cacy  of  movement,    facility  of  directing  the  instrument  to  any  tele- 
desired  point  in  the  heavens,  are  the  primary  qualifications.     Ourscojie*. 
limits  forbid  an  historical  account  of  the  earlier  endeavoors  to  fulfil 
these  ends  by  means  of  motions  in  altituJe  and  azimuth,  nor-caa 
we  do  more  than  refer  to  moimtings  such  as  those  employed  by  the 
Herschels,   or  those  designed  by  Lord  Rosse  to  overcome  the  en- 
gineering difloculties  of  mounting  his  huge  telescope  of  6  feet  aper- 
ture.    Both  are  abundantly  illustrated  in  most  popular  works  on 
'astronomy,  and  it  seems  sufficient  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  original 
descriptions.* 

We  pass,  therefore,  directly  to  the  equatorial  telescope,  the  instru-  Equa£ar-«-' 
ment />ar  cxcelUiux  of  the  modern  extra-meridian  astronomer,  atul  iaL 
relegate  to  the  article  Transit  Circle  {q.v.)  a  description  of  those 
mountings  in  which  the  telescope  is  simply  a  refined  substitute  for 
the  sights  or  pinnies  of  the  old  astronomers.     The  equatorial  in 
its  simplest  form  consists  of  an  a>Lis  parallel  to  the  earth's  axis,^ 
called  the  "polar  axis";  a  second  axis,  at  right  angles  to  this,, 
called  the  "declination  axis"  ;  and  a  telescope  fixed  at  right  angles 
to  the  latter.     In  fig.  15  AA  is  the  polar  axis ;  the  telescope  iaj 
attached  to  the  end  of  the 
declination  axis  ;  the  latter 
rotates  in  bearings  attached  *- 
to  the  polar  axis,  and  con- 
cealed by  the  telescope  itself. 
The   telescope    is    counter- 
poised by  a  weight 
attached  to  the  op- 
posite   end   of    the 
declination       axis. 
The  lower  pivot  of 
the  polar  axis  rests  f 

on  a  cup  bearing  at  p,^_  u. -Equatorial  telescope. 

C,  the  upper  pivot  •    ^  *^  . 

upon  a  strong  metal  casting  MM,  attached  to  a  stone  pierS.':  \ 
vertical  plane  passing  through  AA  is  therefore  in  the  meridian,  and  ■ 
when  the  decbnatioa  axis  is  horizontal,  the  telescope  moves  in  the 
plane  of  the  meridian  by  rotation  on  the  declination  axis  only. 
Thus,  if  a  graduated  circle  BB  is  attached  to  the  declination  axis, ' 
together -with  the  necessary  microscopes  or  verniers  V,V  for  reading, 
it  (see  Transit  CiRCLE),  so  arranged  that  when  the  telescope  is 
turned  on  the  declination  axis  till  it  is  parallel  to  AA  the  vernier 
reads  0°  or  90',  and  w  hen  at  right  angles  to  AA  90°  or  0*,  then  wo 
can  employ  the  readings  of  this  circle  to  measure  the  polar  distance 
or  declination  of  any  star  seen  in  the  telescope,  and  these  readings 
will  also  be  true  (apart  from  the  effects  of  atmospheric  refraction) 
if  we  rotate  the  instrument  through  any  angle  on  the  axis  AA. 
Thus  one  important  attribute  of  an  equatorially  mounted  telescope 
is  that,  if  it  is  directed  to  any  fixed  star,  it  will  follow  the  diurnal 
motion  of  that  star  from  rising  to  setting  by  rotation  of  the  polar 
axis  only.  If  we  further  attach  to  the  polar  axis  a  graduated 
circle  DD,  called  the  "hour  circle,"  of  which  the  microscope  or 
vernier  R  reads  0^  when'  the  declination  axis  is  horizontal,  we  can 
obviously  read  off  the  hour  angle  from  the  meridian  of  any  star  tc 
which  the  telescope  may  bo  directed  at  the  instant  of  observarion. 
If  the  local  sidereal  time  of  the  observation  is  known,  the  right 
ascension  of  the  star  becomes  known  by  adding  the  observed  hooi 
angle  to  the  sidereal  time  if  the  star  is  west  of  the  meridian,  oi 
subtracting  it  if  east  of  the  meridian.  Since  the  equatorial  is  un- 
suitable for  such  observations  wheii  great  accuracy  is  required  (see 
Transit  Circle),  the  declination  and  hour  circles  of  an 'equatorial 
are  employed  not  for  determination  of  the  right  ascensions  and 
declinations  of  celestial  objects,  but  for  directing  the  telescope 
with  ease  and  certainty  to  any  object  situated  in  a  known  position, 
and  w'hich  may  or  may  not  be  visible  to  the  unaided  eye,  or  to 
define  approximately  the  position  of  an  unknown  object.  Further, 
by  causing  the  hour  circle,  and  with  it  the  polar  axis,  to  rotate  by; 
clockwork  or  some  other  mechanical  contrivance  at  the  same  angu-i. 
lar  velocity  as  the  earth  on  its  axis,  but  in  the  opposite  directioi^, 
the  telescope  will  automatically  follow  a  star  from  rising  to  setting. 

Equatorial  mountings  may  be  divided  into  five  ty]x'S.     (A)  The  Types  4t 
pivots  or  bearings  of  the  polar  axis  are  placed  at  its  extremities,  equitw  ■ . 
The  declination  axis  rests  on  bearings  attached  to  opposite  sides  of  iak. 
the  polar  axis.    The  telescope  is  attached  to  one  end  of  the  declina- 
tioa  axis,  and  counterpoised  by  a  weight  at  the  other  end,  as  in  fig. 
15.    (B)  The  polar  axis  is  supported  as  in  type  A ;  the  telescope 
is  placed   between  the  Ijcarings  of    the   declination  axis  and  is 
mounted  symmetrically  with  respect  to  the  polar  axis  ;  no  counter- 
poise is  therefore  requisite.      (C)  The  declination  axis  is  mounted 
on  the  prolongation  of  the  upper  pivot  of  the  polar  axis  ;  the  tele- 
scope is  plated  at  one  end  of  the  (leclination  axis  and  counter- 
poised by  a  weight  at  the  other  end.     (D)  The  declination  axis 

1  Hersc'iel,  PkH.  Trans.,  1795,  vol.  Ixixv.  p.  317 ;  Rosse,  Phil.  Trans.,  ISW^ 
p.  503.  aad  1801,  p.  Cdl.  ^ 


TELESCOPE 


147 


\ 


is  mounted  on  a  forked  piece  or  other  similar  contrivanca  attached 
lo-a  [roloiigatioo  of  the  upper  pivot  of  the  polar  axis  ;  the  tele^ 
scflpc  is  mounted  between  Ihtf  pivots  of  the  declinacioD  aiis.     (E) 
The  eyopiece  of  the  telescope  is  pbced  in  the  upper  pivot  of  the 
polir  aiis  ;  a  portibn  "or  the  whole  of  the  axis  oftlie  telescope 
tube  coincides  »ith  tjie  poiar  axis.     Mountings  of  types  A  and  B 
» — that  is,  with  a  long  polar  axis  supported  at  both  enas— are  often 
called  the  "  English  mounting,"  ana  types  C  and  D,  in  which  the 
declisatioQ  axis  is  placed  on  the  extenaioQ  of  the  upper  pivot'of^ 
iBe  polar  axis,  are  called  the  "German  monntine,"  from  the  6rst 
employment  of  type  C  by  fraunhofer.     A  descnption  of  some  of 
the  best  examples  of  each  type  will  illustrate  their  relative' advan- 
tages or  peculiarities. 
T>pe  A        fig,  15  may  be  taken  as  a  prachcal  example  of  the  cirlicr  cqua- 
torials  as  made  by  Trough  ton  in  England  and  afterwards  by  Gambey 
for  various  Continental  obser\atories     In  the  Phit.  Trans,  for  1824 
(part  3,  pp.  1.412)  will  be  found  a  description  by  Sir  John  Her^hel 
and  Sir -James  South  of  the  equatorial  telescope  which  ihey  em- 
ployed in  their  measurements  of  double  stars.     The  polar  axis  was 
cimilar  in  sh^pe  to  that  of  6g.  15  and.was  composed  of  sheets  of 
tiiined  iron.     In  Smyth's  celebrated  Bedford  telescope  the  polar 
axis  was  of  mahogany,    probably  the  best  example  of  this  type  of 
mounting  applied  to  a  refractor  is  that  made  by  the  elder  Cooke  of 
■York  for.ilj  Fletcher  of  Tarnhantv;  the  polar  axis  is  of  cast  iron 
end  the  mounting  v^  satisfactory  and  convenient,  but 
unfortunately  no  detailed  descnption  has  been   pub- 
lished.   -In  recent  ytars  no'  noteworthy  retractors 
have  been  mounted  on  this  pbn  ;  *but  type  A 
Great        has  been  chosen  by  Grubb  (or  the  great  Mel- 
Mel-         bourne  reflector,  with' marked  ingeiiuity  of 
boanie      adaptation  to  the  peculiar  requirements 
telescope,  of  the  case.     Eig.  16  shows  the  whole 
'instnunent  on  a;imairscare,  and  fig.^ 
1 7  represents  part  of  it  on  a  larger 
scale,  the  upper  part  of  the  tub^, 
and  polar  axis  being  omitted.    The 
figures  show  the  telescope  directed 
to  the  pole,  the  hour  circle  being 

set  e""  from  the  meridian.  >  The -^ ^ 

polar  axis  consists  of  a  hollow       ,      , ,     . ,  .  _    . ,  "^ 

^       ,^  tm^        r  .     -  FtQ.  11-  —  -1-      .- ----Or. 

cone    C    (fig.    1  / )    of    cast ,  iron 

bolted  to  atollow  cast-iron  tube  H,  to  the  lower  side  of  which 
is  attached  a  short  steel  axis  carrying  the  driving  sector  EF  and 
the  hour  circle  R,  and  terminating  in  the  lower  pivot  of  the  polar 
'axis.  This  pivot  a  is  terminated  by  a  piece  of  chilled 
cast  iron  polished  flat  on  its  lower  face,  which  face  re- 
volves in  contact  with  a  piece  of  bell  metal,  Sat  on  its 
upper  and  partly  spherical  on  its  lower  side,  bearing  in 
a  corresijondingly  shaped  annulus,  formed  to  receive  i; 
in  the  cast-iron  block  which  is  attached  to  the 
pier.  This  arrangement  enables  the  bell -metal 
cushion  to  take  its  own  position  when  the  direc- 
tion of  the  polar  axis  is  slightly  changed  in  pro- 
cess of  adjustment.     The  ptessnie  of  the  pivot  on 


its  bearings,  in  the  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  polar  axis,  ii 


4V.S  v^w,i,^a,  lu  i,,^  uiic<.iiuu  A\.  ri^ut  angles  lo  me  polar 
relieved  by  the  sector  A,  which  is  forced  up  by  the  screw  d 
through  laininje  of  steel  springs..'  The  end  pressure  of  a  u 


icting 
i|niD  ir 


ES:.- 


flo.  17. 


beaitogs  is  relieved  by  a  wuigi.t.  T  r.f  inctior.  •■:  iuc-  up ;  er  pivot  ls  w. 
lieved  by  a  sector  pressed  op  against  it  by  the  action  of  two  weiglTB.; 
In  this  way,  although  the  moving  part  of  the  telescope  weighs  18, 1 70 
lb,  it  can  be  turned  with  a  pressure  of  1'2J  lb,  acting  at  a  radius  ol 
20  feet.  The  driving  sector  EF  is  5  feet  in  radius  ;  iu 
^  circular  rim  is  accurately  toothed  to  fit  a  square  threaded 
endless  screw  E,  which  is  turned  by  the  dri  ing  clock^ 
A  toothed  wheel  attached  to  H  and  acted  on  by  a  pinion 
connected  with  a  hand-wheel  affords  an  easy  means  oi 
setting  the  instrument  in  hour  angle,  or 
moving  the  telescope  quickly  in  right  asccn' 
eion.  The  telescope  is  clamped  by  iron  bandj 
to  the  strong  cast-iron  cradle,  which  is  cast 
iwith  and  forms,  ony  extremity  of  the  declihs; 


Type'B, 


Green- 
wicb 

teriaL 


■^^ 


C3iS> 


rion  axis.  The  connterpoise  IT  ia  attacht^d  lo 
the  other  extremity.  There  is  an  elegant  ar. 
rangenient  for  diminishing  the  friction  of  tho 
declination  axis,  which  our  limits  do  not  per- 
mit us  to  describe,  and  the  means  for  clamping 
and  giving  slow  motion  in  declination  do-  not 
require  special  notice.  The  reader  is  referred 
for  a  fuller  description  to  Fhil.  Trans.,  1869, 
pp.  127161.  The  telescope  is  of  the  Cassegrain 
form,  the  mirror  having  a  4-feet  aperture  antl 
30i-feet  focal  length. 

The  best  existing  examples  of  tj-pe  B  ara 
Aur'e  eqtiatorial  at  Greenwich,  the  equatorial 
at  Liverpool  (also  designed  by  Airy),  and  the 
photographic  eqnatorial  recently  erected  at  the  Paris  i.beurvatory. 
The  polar  axis  of  the  Greenwich  equatorial  consists  of  bix  iron  tubes 
arranged  so  as  to  form  two  triangular'braccd  beams  cminocted  by 
verv  strong  elliprical  wheels  of  cast  iron,  which  c.iiry  the  upper 
ana  lower  pi't^ts  cf  the  polar  axis.  These  tubes  aro  .-^Iiown  in  sec- 
tion  at  the  points  T,  fig.  13,  which  represents  a  sewtinn  through 
the  decUnation  axis  in  tba  plane  of-tne  equator  when  the  tele- 
scope ia  directed  to  a  star  at  the  equator  (for  the  general  errange 
inent  of  the  mounting,  see  Cg.  18).  The  driving  circle  is  6  feet  In 
diameter,  and  turns  freely  on  the  lower  pivot  of  the  polar  axis 
under  the  action  of  the  driving  clock.  The  hour  circle  is  gradtiatea 
on  the  driving  circle,  and  may  be  let  to  show  aidoreal  tim^  dnring 


18- — Gi<xu?iu^h  eqaatorla]. 


'the  whole  of  a  night's  work ;  thus  the  ob?t;r\T 
in  order  to  d:n-ct  tho  instrument  on  a  parti- 
cular object,  has  ouly  to  set  an  index  connecteii 
with  the  [»)lar  axis  lo  the  star's  right  ascension 
upon  the  ho>ir  •■in  le,  without  the'trouble  of  computing 
the  honr-angle  at  the  instant  of  observation.     This 
convenient  arrangt-ment  ^as  £r5t  introduced  by  .^Viry.* 
The  whole  it. 'Quitting  is  v-ry  massive,  but  very  inccn- 
veniKi.t  to  ii.-io'\vlien  n  Lrf''at  many  different  objects 
have  to  be  examined  on  ibe  same  night ;  but  on  ac- 
count of  its  freedom  from  tremor  and  the  excellenca 
of  its  driving  clock  it  should  bo  very  saitable  for  pro- 
longed study  of  a  sinjrle  object  or  for  long  photo- 
graphic exposures.'  Quite  recently  Sir  Howard  Grubb  New 
has.signed  a  contract  to  make  a  telescope  of  28-inchea  aperture  and  Greei- 
28-feel  focal  length,'  which  is  to  be  substituted  for  the  present  tele-  ■*'ich 
scope  by  M9r2  t  Son  of  IJJ  ioohes  aoerture  andlS-feet  foous.     Fig.  telescope 
19  IS  engraved  from  a  photograph  of^tha  model  of  the  original  polar 
axis.   The  tnbdel  was  pt«p&red  to  iHustTate  the  manner  in  which  the 
new  telescope  is  to  hemdanted,  and  we  are  indebted  for  the  picture 

1  See  the  dataHjd  aeoonnt  tn  (htenKv-K  Oburvaticns,  ises. 
3  Thi*  obJect.^lA*a  wfn  have  tha  »>ictrt£8t  proportional  focal  length  of  any  yet 
conetructed  of  aperture  exceeding  16  inches-    The  fcllow-;ng  table  givea  tiie 
focal  lenyth  tn  tMrtnres  of  the  Ulyut  exutiog  pefractora  :— 

Vler ,01      toi«»cop«  fGnibb)  ITlacbea  aMrture,  focal  length  15-6  apertures 
-  (OUrk)  M 


Wislilngton 
PuUgn 


(Clnkl  M 


>  16-9  5, ,. 


148 


TELESCOPE 


to  tlie  kindness  of  Mr  Christie,  astronomer  royal.  The  object-glass 
will  be  actually  outside  the  dome  when  the  telescope  is  pointed  near 
the  senith  or  near  the  horizon.  The  dew-cap,  not  shown  in  the 
model,  will  be  always  outside  the  dome,  and  it  is  not  impossible 


Pans 
photo- 
graphic 
tele- 
scope. 


tliat  this  arrangement  may  be  favourable  to  good  definition,  except 
in  case  of  high.  wind.  When  the  telescope  is  not  in  use  the  dew- 
cap  slides  backwards  on  four  rails  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  tele- 
scope, and  the  whole  is  housed  in  the  position  shown  in  fig.  19. 
The  spectroscope  is.  used  at  right  angles  to  the  telescope  tube,  a 
right-angled  prism  of  total  reflexion  being  interposed  in  the  con- 
verging cone  of  rays  near  the  focus.  This  prism  can  be  turned 
180°  and  an  eye-piece  inserted  on  the  opposite  side  from  the  spectro- 
scope for  observations  near  the  zenith  or  horizon,  otherwise  the  eye 
end  would  be  too  near  the  floor  or  northern  pier.' 

A  figure  of  the  new  photographic  telescope  erected  at  the  Paris 
obscrvatoiy  may  be  seen  in  Nature,  13th  May  1886.  The  object- 
glass  is  by  MM.  Paul  and  Prosper  Henry,  the  mounting  by  M. 
Gautier.  Here  Airy's  braced  tubes  are  replaced  by  hollow  metal 
beams  of  triangular  shape  (as  for  the  Liverpool  equatorial).  The 
hour  circle  has  two  toothed  circles  cut  upon  it,  one  acted  upon  by 
a  screw  attached  to  the  pier  and  driven  by  the  clock,  the  other  by 
a  second  screw  attached  to  the  polar  axis,  which  can  be  turned  very 
slowly  by  a  handle  in  th"-  •■bserver's  hand.  Thus  a  very  slow 
movement  can  be  aiven  t"  the  telescope  in  right  ascension,  inde- 
pendently of  the  clock.  Slow  motion  in  declination  can  be  com- 
municated hy  a  screw  acting  on  a  long  arm,  which  can  be  clamped 
at  pleasure  to  the  polar  ajis  by  a  convenient  handle.  An  oblong 
metallic  box.  fitted  with  pivots,  whose  bearings  are  attached  to  the 
triangular  beams,  forms  the  tube  for  two  parallel  telescopes;  these 
are  separated  throughout  their  length  by  a  metallic  diaphragm. 
The  chromatic  aberration  of  the  object-glass  of  one  of  these  tele- 
scopes is  corrected  for  photograpliic  rays,  and  the  image  formed 
by  it  is  received  on  a  highly  sensitive  photographic  plate.  The 
other  telescope  is  corrected  for  visual  rays  and  its  image  is  formed 
on  the  plane  of  the  spider  lines  of  a  filar  micrometer.  The  peculiar 
form  of  the  tube  is  eminently  suited  for  rigid  preservation  of  the 
relative  parallelism  of  the  axes  of  the  two  telescopes,  so  that,  if  a 
certain  selected  star  is  rel.iined  in  bisection  by  two  intersecting 
wires  in  the  micrometer,  by  means. of  the  driving  clock,  aided  by 
small  corrections  given  by  the  observer  in  right  ascension  and  de- 
clination (required  on  account  of  irregularity  in  the  clock  move- 
ment, error  in  astronomical  adjustment  of  the  polar  axis,  or  changes 
v.\  the  star's  apparent  place  produced  by  refraction),  the  image  of 
a  star  will  continue  on  the  same  spot  of  the  photographic  pl*to 
during  the  whole  time  of  exposure.  Exquisite  photographs  ol  star 
clusters,  doublo  stars,  the  moon,  and  planets  have  been  obtained 
by  MM.  Henry,  and  they  are  the  inost  eloquent  testimony  to  the 
optical  perfection  of  the  object-glass  and  the  efliciency  of  tho 
mounting.  They  show  also  that  we  aro  entering  upon'  a  new  era 
in  practical  a^^ronomy,  in  which  photography  is  destjned  to  pl.ay  a 
•.leading  part.  The  Henry  photographic  object-glass  is  of  13'4-inche3 
'aperture  and  only  10  apertures  in  focal  length.  The  "guitling 
tclescojie  "  is  of  9i-inches  aperture  and  nearly  12-fcet  focus.  The 
photographic  object-glass,  notwithstanding  its  small  proportional' 
focal  length,  covers  a  field  of  2i°  in  diameter  with  perfect  precision.. 
Type  C,       Many  more  telescopes  have  been  made  of  type  C  than  of  an^ 


other,  and  it  is  now  almost  exclusively  employed  for  the  mounting 
of  modem  refractors.  Its  essential  features  are  (1)  a  comparatively 
short  polar  axis  and  (2)  a  cross-head  attached  to  the  extension  of 
"">    upper  ^^  -(fivot  of  the  polar  axis,  to  carry  the  bearings 

clination  axis.     Fig.  20  shows  the  Dorpat  Dori>at 
the  chef  (Tauvre  of  Fraunhofer,  and  the  refractof 
torial  of  any  importance  that  was  pro- 
clockwork.    AA  is  the  polar  axis,  B  the 
graduated  on  the  face  and  read  by  iTio 
is  the  driving  clock,  which  turns  an 
that  gears  in  the  toothed  edge  of  the 
the  cross  head  supporting  at  its 
bearings  of  the  declination  axis. 
scope  tube   rests    in   a    strong 
brass,   which   is  screwed  to  a 
the  declination  axis  ;  the  de- 
■  which  is  attached  to  its  op- 
'    clamp  the  instrumeut  in 
H  is  a  weight  acting  on  a 
wheels  k  (one  -only  seen 
upper  pivot  of  the  polar 
friction  of  that  pivot 


the 

of  the  de 
refractor, 
first   equa- 
vided    with 
hour      circle 
vernier  V.   Xi' 
endless  screw  S, 
circle  B.     D   is 
extremities       the 
The   wooden    tele- 
cradle    FF    of   cast 
flange  on  one  end  of 
clination    circle    EE, 
posite    end,    serves     to 
declination  to  the  armG. 
lever  which    presses    tho 
in   tho  figure)   against  the 
axis  in  order  to  relieve  the 


1  Tliese  inconvenient  conditions  are  impoaed  by  the  dimeafiions  of  the  exist- 
IDS  dome  and  may  lead  to  accidents  In  piacticc. 


FiG-  20. —Dorpat  rerractor.  ■ 

on  its  bearing.  The  counterpoise  Vf  balances  the  tube  about  the 
polar  axis.  M,  M  are  counterpoise  weights  which  act  on  levers 
TO,m,  whose  fulcra  are  universal  joints  at  n  attached  to  the  cradle. 
These  weights  serve  to  counterpoise  the  longer  end  of  the  tube  and 
to  check  its  flexure.  QQ  is  the  finder,  a  small  telescope  whose 
axis  is  parallel  to  tho  great  telescope ;  having  a  low  magnifying 
power  and  a  largo  field  of  view,  it  serves  to  direct  the  largo 
telescope  to  any  object  seen  in  the  sky,  which  otherwise  would  bo 
difllcult  to  find  in  the  comparatively  limited  field  of  the  large  tele- 
scope. The  stand  TTT  is  of  oak.  The  instrument  is  described  in 
detail  by  Struve  (Beschrcihung  des  auf  dcr  Sternwarte  zu  Dorpat 
bcfiwdlichm  grossen  Refractors  con,  Fraunhofer,  Dorpat,  1325,  fol.). 
The  instrument  was  an  enormous  advance  upon  all  previous  tele, 
scopes  for  micrometric  research.  In  tho  hands  of  Struve  results 
were  obtained  by  it  which  in  combined  quality  and  quantity  had 
never  before  been  reached  in  micrometric  research.  Its  success  was 
such  that  the  type  of  Fraunhofer's  telescope  became  stereotyped  for 
many  years  not  only  by  his  successors  but  throughout  Germany. 
When  twelve  yearS  afterwards  Struve  ordered  the  ISiiich  refractor 
,for|the  new.  obsetvatpry  at  Pulkowa,  the  only  important  change 
made  by  Fraunhofer's  successors  was,  at  Stnive's  suggestion,  tho 
substitution  6f  a  'st'o^o  pier  for  the  wooden  stand  in  the  original 
instrument. 

Both  the  Dorfat  and  the  Pulkowa  refractor  are  defectivo  in 
rigidity,  especially  in  right  ascension,  fho  declination  circle  is 
most  inconvenient  pf  access,  and  slow  motion  in  declination  can 
Only  be  efl'ected  when  the  instrument  is  clamped  by  a  long  and 
inconvenient  handle,  so  that  practically  clamping  iu  declination 
was  not  employed.  The  slow  motion  in  right  ascension  is  defective, 
being  accoipplished  in  the  Dorpat  refractor  by  changing  the  wl« 


I 


TELESCOPE 


149^ 


Oxford 
nMter. 


lorial. 


of  the  clock,  and  in  the  Pulkowa  refractor  by  a  li.injlc  which  when 
useU  affects  very  injuriously  the  rate  of  tiie  clock  tor  tlie  time  being. 
Struve's  skill  as  an  observer  was  such  that  he  used  to  complete  the.' 
bisection  on  the  lixed  wire  of  the  microineter  hy  a  pressure  of  the, 
finger  on  the  side  of  the  tube, — a  method  of  proved  efficiency  in 
such  liands,  but  plainly  indicative  of  the  want  of  rigidity  in  the 
instrument  and  of  the  deficiency  of  the  slow  motions  (see  MiCBO- 
SETER,  vol.  xvi.  p.  245).  The  driving  circle  is  also  much  too 
small,  so  th.-it  a  very  slight  mechanical  Ireedom  of  the  screw  in  the.' 
teeth  involves  a  large  angular  freedom  of  the  telescope  in  right 
ascension,  whilst  its  position  at  the  lower  eud  of  a  too  weak  polar 
axis  tends  to  create  instability  in  right  ascension  from  tortion  of 
that  axis.  Strange  to  say,  the  wooden  tube  has  till  very  i-ecently 
retained  its  place  m  German  mountiugs. 

About  1840  a  great  advance  was  made  in  the  right  direc'.ion  by 
the  Repsolds  of  Hamburg  in  the  equatorial  mounting  of  the  Oxford 
heliometer.  The  driving  circle  was  greatly  increased  in  d;ameter, 
and  placed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  polar  a.\is,  and  both  the  polar 
».xis  and  the  declination  axis  were  mado  much  stronger  in  propor- 
tion to  the  mass  of  the  instrument  they  were  destined  to 
carry.  (A  6guro  of  this  instrument  is  given  in  tha 
Cooke'i  Oxford  Oksenalions  for  1850.)  About  1850  Thomas 
Cooke  of  York  began  his  career  as  a  maker  of  equa- 
torial telescopes,  and  gave  a  new  character  to  the 
German  mounting.  Fig.  21  represents  a  typical 
equatorial  of  his  design.  A  strong  cast-iron 
pillar  is  substituted  for  Fraunhofcr's  stand. 
On  the  semi-cylindrical  top  of  the  pillar 
rests  the  cast-iron  box  AA,  which  contains 
at  its  upper  and  lower  extremities  the 
bearings  of  the  polar  axis.  Its  mode 
of  connexion  with  the  pillar  permits 
the  inclination  of  the  bo.x  to  be 
changed  for  adjustment  of  the 
inclination  of  the  polar  axis. 
The  strong  cross-head  C,  sup- 
porting the  bearings  of  tho 
aecliuation  axis,  is  of  ca:^t 
iron,  bolted  to  a  flange  ou 
the  upper  pivot  of  the 
polar  axis.  Fraun 
oofer's  cradle  and 
wooden  tube  are 
abolished,  and  in 
their  place  is  a  e^ 
cast-iron  cylindri-  ■* 
cal  tube  D,  flanged 
at  both  ends  and  also  at  the  point  ' 
it  is  bolted  to  a  corresponding  flange  on 
the  end  of  the  declination  axis,  all  three 
flanges  being  cast  in  one  piece  with  the 
central  tube ;  the  rest  of  the  tube  consists 
of  two  slightly  tapered  brass  cylinders 
bolted  bf  strong  flanges  to  the  central  tube 
D.  The  handle  F  clamps  the  arm  H  to 
the  cross-head  C  at  _-^~^^  -=-; 
pleasure,  and  slow  mo-  jg=^ 
tion  in  declination  '  ~ 
communicated  by  the  -^^ 
handles  at  E  and  G. 
Two  circles  at   K  and 

M  are  attached  to  the  _      n,     „    ,  .  .    ■  , 

„  _+     f  *i,         1  FlO.  21.— Cookes  CQuatonal. 

upper  part  of  the  polar 

axis.  To  one  of  these  motion  is  communicated  by  the  tangent 
acrew  at  51  (turned  by  the  clock  N)  acting  on  teeth  cut  at  the 
edge  of  tho  circle.  The  other  is  a  graduated  hour  circle  read 
by  two  opposite  microscopes,  one  of  which  is  seen  at  P.  •  The 
endless  cord  hanging  down  and  holding  a  sliding  ring  at  Q  is  em- 
ployed to  give  slow  motion  in  right  ascension,  in  some  instrunients 
by  moving  the  frame  of  the  driving  screw  in  the  direction  of  the 
axis  of  the  screw,  in  others  by  moving  differential  wheels  which 
accelerate  or  retard  the  velocity  of  rotation  of  the  driving  screw 
without  affecting  the^  rate  of  the  clock.  The  declination  circle 
RR  is  attached  to  the  farther  end  of  the  declination  axis  and  is 
inconvenient  of  access.  Cooke's  stand  is  admirable  for  its  symmetry 
and  simplicity  of  design,  its  just  apportioning  of  strength,  and  a 
general  rigidity  with  suitability  of  means  to  ends. 

It  is  not  a  little  curious  that  the  obvious  improvement  of  trans- 
ferring the  declination  circle  as  well  as  the  declination  clamp  to  the 
telescope  end  of  the  declination  axis  was  so  long  delayed  ;  we  can 
ascribe  the  delay  only  to  a  desire  to  retain  the  declination  circle  as 
part  of  the  counterpoise.  We  believe  that  the  first  important 
equatorials  in  which  the  declination  axis  was  read  from  the  eye 
end  were  the  15-inch  by  Grubb  and  the  6-inch  by  Cooke,  made  for 
the  observatory  of  Lord  Crawford  (then  Lord  Lindsay)  at  Dun  Echt 
(Aberdeenshire)  about  1873.  The  plan  is  now  almost  nniversally 
adopted.      Telescopes  of  such  dimensions  can   be  conveniently 


directed  to  any  object  by  the  circles  without  the  observer  being 
uuder  the  necessity  to  climb  a  special  ladder.     But  when  much 
larger  instruments  are  required  tho  hour  circle  becomes  inaccessible 
from  the  floor,  afid  means  nave  to  be  devised  for  read- 
ing both  circles  ^from  the  eye  end.     This  was  first 
accomplished  by  Grubb  in  the  great  refractor 
of  27-inches  aperture  which  he  constructed 

for  the  Vienna  observatoiy,  represented  in       yd^y^y^  Great 

section  in  fig.  22.     The  observer's  eye  is      j^y&i/y  Vienna 

applied  to  the  small  telescopo  E,  which      jCf/^r^^  **'*- 

(by  means  of  prisms  numbered  1,  2,  ^•//^^C/Y  scope. 

3,  4)  views  the  vernier  attached  to 
the   cross-head    simultaneously 
with  tho  hour  circle  attached 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  polar 
axis.     Light  to  illuminato 
the  vernier  and  circle  is 
thrown  from  the  lamp 
L  upon  prism  4  by 
the  prisms  6  and 
5.    Prism  1  is  in 
the  axis  of  the 
declination 
circle  and 
always 


Fia.  2C.— Crubb's  27-inch  refractor  (Vienna). 

reflects  rays  along  that  axis,  whatever  the  position  of  the  telescope 
may  be,  whilst  the  prisms  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6  are  attached  to  the  cross- 
head  and  therefore  preserve  their  relative  positions  to  each  other. 
Through  the  eye-piece  of  the  bent '  telescope  E'  another  hour  circle 
attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  polar  axis  can  be  seen  ;  thus  an 
assistant  is  able  to  direct  the  telescope  by  a  handle  at  H  to  any 
desired  hour  angle.  A  slight  rotatory  motion  of  the  telescopo  E 
on  its  axis  enables  the  vernier  of  the  declination  circle  to  be  read 
through  prism  1.  The  leading  features  of  this  fine  instrument 
represent  those  of  all  Grubb's  large  telescopes.  The  mode  of  re- 
lieving the  friction  of  the  declina- 
tion axis  is  similar  to  that  em- 
ployed in  the  Jlelboume  teh- 
scope  and  in  the  account  of  the 
Vienna  telescopo  published 
by  Grubb.  The  end  fric- 
tion of  the  polar  axis 
is  relieved  by  a  ring 
of  conical  rollers  show  a 
in  section  beside  the 
principal  figure. 
From  this  point 


Fio.  23.— Dr  Engelmanij's  8  Inch  refractor. 

wo  must  condense  further  description  into  critical  remarks  on  a  few 
typical  modern  instruments. 

(1)  Telescopes  of  Moderate  Size  for  Mierometric  Research  only. — 


I  lo  the  bent  telescope  refracting  prisms  are  employed  at  the  comen  to 
cb&Dge  tbe  dtrectioQ  of  the  rays. 


150 


TELESCOPJ^ 


Fif^.  23  shows  the  mounting  of  the  8-inch  refractor,  of  9-feet  focal 
length,  at  the  private  observatory  of  Dr  Engclraami,  Leipsic.     Tlie 
object-glass  is  by  Messrs  Clark  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  the  mounticg 
Repsolds'  by  the  Repsolds  of  Hamburg.     The  declination  circle        " 
small         reads  from  the  eye  end,  and  four  handles  for  clamp- 
equa-        ing  and  slow  motion  in  right  ascension  and  declina- 
lorial      ]!tion  are  situated  near  the  observer's  hands.     The 
iitube  is  of  sheet  steel,  light,  stiff,  arid  free  from 
tremor.      The  eye  end  carries  the  micrometer 
ftnth  an  illuminating  apparatus  similar  to  that 
previously  described    under   Micrometer,  ■ 
.vol.  xvi.  p.  246  sq.,  figs.  16, 17,  20,  and  21. 
\The  larnp  near  the  eye  end  illuminates 
the  6eld  or  the  wires  at  pleasure,  as  well 
as  the  position  circle  of  the  micro- 
meter and   the   declination   circle ; 
1  separate  lamp  illuminates  the 
hour  circle.      An  excellent  fea«' 
ture  (see  fig.  24)  is  the  short 
'distance  between  the  eye-piece 
land  the  declination 
axis,    so    that    the 
'observer  has  to  fol- 
low   the  -eye    end 
in  a  comparatively 
small    circle ;     an- 
other good  point  is 
the  flattening  of  the  cast-iron 
centre-piece  of  the  tube  so  that 
'the  flange  of  the  declination  axis 
lis  attached  as  near  to  the  axis  of 
[the  telescope  tube  as  is  consistent 
with  free  passage  of  the  cone  of   ^ 
rays  from  the  object-glass.     For 
purposes  of  micrometiic  research 
with    the   ordinary   micrometer  -- 
Hiis  instrument  is  tlie  mostele-( 
gant,  satisfactory,  and  useful  tliat  ^-  --' 
we  know,  as  was  shown  by  the  ^  '_ 
exceedingly    accurate     obscrva-"~- 
tions  of  the  minor  planets  Vic 
toria  and  Sappho  for  solar  paral- 
lax,    by    Galle's     method     (see 
Parallax,   vol.  xviii.  p.  249), 
made  by  Dr  Engelmann  in  18S2.^ 
jThc  substitution  of  small  incan-\ 
ixlcscent   electric   lamps    for   the  .    l-io.  24. ■ 
joil  lamps  would  be  nn  improvement. 
GmbVs        (2)  Telescopes  of  Moderate  Size/or  General  Purposes.  —The  modern  - 
small  "*■.  equatorial  should  for  general  purposes  be  capable  of  carrying  spectro- 
equa-        scopes  of  considerable  weight,  so  that  the  strength  of  the  axis  and 
torial        itlie  rigidity  of  the  instrument  generally  have  to  be  considerably 
increased.     Grubb  has  realized  our  ideas  of  what  such  an  instru- 
[mcnt  should  be  in  an  equatorial  of  6-inehes  aperture  which  he  has 
[recently  made  for  the  royal  observatory  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
iThe  principal  features  are  its  great  strength  and  rigidity,  with 
special   precautions  to   ensure   preservation  of   the   instrumental 
'declination.      Tlie  observations  of  Victoria  and  Sappho  in  1882 
revealed  the  great-  deficiency  of  most  modern  equatorials  in  this 
respect.     That  is  to  say,  if  a  star  near  the  meridian  is  first  made 
to  run  along  the  measuring  web  of  the  micrometer,  the  clockwork 
then  set  in  action,  and  the  star  brought  back  to  the  centre  of  the 
field  by  the  slow-motion  handle  in  right  ascension,  it  -wilj  be  found 
that  the  perfection  of  the  bisection  is  no  longer  preserved.  ^   Thus 
at  most  observatories  the  measures   of  difi'erence  of  declination 
jwhen  the  clockwork  was  employed  were  far  inferior  to  those  made 
jwith  the  telescope  at  rest.     The  reason  seems  to  be  that  in  most 
equatorials  the  lower  pivot  is  -cylindrical,  and  enters  an  ordinary 
cylindrical  bearing  which  cannot  be  a  perfect  fit.     Also  the  cross- 
head,  telescope,  counterpoise,  &c.,  generally  together  overbalance 
the  polar  axis  about  the  upper  bearing,  so  that  the  lower  pivot 
presses  upwards  in  its  bearing,  and  its  rotation,  ujider  tlie  action 
of  the  clock  or  slow  motion  coupled  with  the  friction  of  the  sur- 
faces, gives  rise  to  a  small  rolling  freedom  which  creates  the  errors 
in  question.     In  this  telescope  the  lower  pivot  is  of  steel,  made 
slightly  conical,  and  carefully  ground  to  fit  a  long  conical  bearing, 
in  which  it  would  work  very  tightly,  or  even  jam,  but  for  spring 
ipressure  brought  to  bear  on   its  lower  hardened  flat  end,  which 
relieves  the  greater  part  of  the  thrust ;  and  the  polar  axis  is  accu- 
rately balanced  about  its  upper  bearing  by  a  weight  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  polar  axis,  so  that  the  thrust  is  exactly  in  the  axis  of 
the  cone.     Thu  upper  pivot  {4  inches  in  diameter)  is  also  of  steel, 
fini.shcd  with  the  same  caro-  as  that  of  a  transit  circle,  so  that  the 
,telescope  rotates  W'ith   the  precision  of  a  meridian    instrument,. 
Unusual  rigidity  has  also  been  given  to  the  declination  clamping 
arms,  and  tlie  new  slow  motion  in  dev-lination  is  by  fai-  the  best 
yet  contrived;   it  is^a  recent  invention  of  Grubb's,  and 'is  jie- 


-Dr  Engelmann's  8-inch 
refractor. 


scribed  below  in  his  own  words.  The  eye  end,  suitable  foe  heavy 
spectroscopes,  &c.,  is  fitted  to  the  butt  end  of  the  telescope  by 
bayonet  joints  and  tightening  screws,  so  that  it  can  be  exchanged 
for  a  micrometvic  eye  end  with  almost  as  little  trouble  as  the  cx-j 
changing  of  an  eye-piece.  The  illumination  of  the  circles  and  the 
micrometer  is  by  electric  incandescent  lamps.  The  instrument 
may  be  adjusted  to  any  latitude  and  is  probably  the  most  practical 
and  serviceable  equatorial  made.  The  subjoined  description  of  thei 
new  slow  motion  in  declination  is  taken  from  Free.  M.  Dubl.  Soc^S 
1886,  p.  107. 

■"The  slow  motion  arrangements  usually  used  in  equatorials  are  of  either  of 
two  forms,  viz.^  (a)  an  endless  screw  working  into  a  sector  or  portion  of  a 
toothed  circle  of  long  radius,  or  {b)  a  screw  applying  or  pushing  directly, 
against  an  arm,  that  arm  being  kept  in  contact  with  the  scjew  by  a  spiral  or 
some  other  form  of  spring  liaving  a  conBidenible  range  of  motion.  The  first  (a) 
possesses  the  disadvantage  that,  however  carefully  made,  it  is  impossible  it  is 
quite  free  from  '  loss '  or  '  back  lash ' ;.  and  consequently  the  position  of  the 
.telescope  is  not  perfectly  determinate  in  declinatfbn,  Which  fault  is  incon- 
venient ^^'hen  delicate  measures  are  required.  The  second  (Whas  practically 
no  'back  lash,'  as  spring 
keeps  the  arm  in-perfect  con- 
tact with  screw,  T)ut  it  has  ' 
the  disadvantage  that,  what- 
ever range  of  motion  is  re- 
quired, the  spring  must  be 
capable  of  working  through 
thesame  range;  consequently 
the  spring  will  be  much 
stronger  in  action  at  one  end 
of  the  range  than  the  other, 
unless  it  be  made  very  long 
indeed,  in  which  case  its  ac- 
tion is  uncertain  and  un- 
pleasant. To  remedy  these 
defects  the  author '[GrubbJ 
has  devised  the  following, 
which  possesses  the  advan- 
tages of  both  :— ABCD  (fig. 
25)  is  a  portion  of  the  arms 
attached  to  telescope,  or 
ciadle,  on  which  is  planted  the  block  (ft),  forming  the  bearing  cf"the  screw. 
The  nut  (n)  is  in  the  fonn  of  a  ball  working  in  a  socket  on  thq  extremity  of 
the  clamp-arm  EFG.  A  short  stilF  spring  (S)  is  attached  to  this  clamp-arm, 
bearing,  not  directly  against  any  part  of  ottier  arm^  but  against  end  of  a  second 
screw  of  same  pitch  as  the  main  screw,  the  nut  of  which  {oo)  is  toothed  on  edge, 
and  works  into  S'wheel  of  equal  size  (;ip)  on  main  screw.  The  point  of  tliis 
second  screw,  therefore,  advances  as  much  in  one  direction  as  the  frame  ABCD 
is  carried  in  other,  according  as  the  milled  head  is  turned ;  and  consequently 
the  point  of  the  screw  does  not  sensibly  vary  in  its  position  with  respect  to 
the  cl.imp-arm  EFG.  A  short  stiff  spring  can  therefore  be  used;  and  the  dis- 
advantage above  mentioned  disappears." 

This  form  of  slow  motion  could  be  applied  with  advantage  to  the 
right  ascension  also,  and  probably  to  tlie  separation  of  the  segments 
of  heliometers. 

(3)  Of  large  equatorials  wo  name  first  the  great  refractor  at  Large 
Washington  of  26-inche3  aperture  and  32J-feet  focal. length.^    The  cqi^a- 
mounting  appears  to  be  unworthy  of  the  well-known  excellence  of  toriais. 
the  object-glass.      To  illuminate  the  micrometer  an  assistant  is  Wash - 
required  to  hold  a  lamp  in  his  liand. '    No  convenient  means  are  inrton 
provided  for  illuminating  the  declination  axis;  and  in  order  to  telesc'i;ie. 
point  the  telescope  in  declination,  the  following  elaborate  process 
lias  to  be  performed  : —  * 

"The  instrumeht  is  brought  into  the  meridian  and  set  by  the  observer  within 
a  degree  by  means  of  coarse  divisions  painted  on  the  edge  of  the  declination 
circle.  These  divisions  are  rendered  visible  by  lighting  one  or  two  of  the  pas 
burners  of  tlie  dome,  and  viewed  by  the  astronomer  with  an  npera-glass.  Then 
on  assistant  mounts  by  a  ladder  to  a  high  platform  and  holds'a  gas  lamp  near 
the  vernier,  and  the  fine  setting  is  accomplished  by  the  observer  seated  in  tlie 
observing  chair,  the  declination  clamp  and  slow-motion  screw  being  convenient 
to  his  hand  "  l^Wa^hington  Observations,  1S74,  Appendix  I.,*p.  33). 

The  polar  and  declination  axes  are  of  steel,  only  7  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  thickest  point,  and  the  driving  arc,  which  is  far  toO  small, 
is  placed  at  the  lower  end  of  this  slender  axis.'  There  must  thus 
be  considerable  liability  to  tremor'  in  right  ascension.  However 
well  the  instrument  may  act  in  specially  practised' hands  with  an 
excellent  Clark's  micrometer  {art.  Micrometer,  vol.  xvi.  p.  245), 
the  instrument  must  be  considered  wanting  in  the  rigidity  and 
convenience  which  a  raodern  equatorial  should  possess.  In  his 
official  report  on  the  instruments  of  European  observatories  New- 
comb  defends  the  want  of  solidity  and  convenience  of  this  instru* 
ment  as  compared  with  the  Vienna  telescope,  because  its  smaller 
axes  (notwithstanding  Grubb's  anti-friction  arrangements)  permit 
it  to  turn  more  easily  and  the  mounting  to  be  of  far  simpler  design. 
But  at  the  time  of  Newcomb's  visit  the  Vienna  telescope  had. not 
been  brought  into  work,  and  canno^-ha^e  been  in  proper  working 
order  if  the  motion  in  declination  was  so  stiff  as  .he  describes  it,  at 
least  when  the  present  wTiter  tested  the  instrument  in  Dublin  that 
motion  was  sur]:irisingly  easy.  .  _ 

The  great  Pulkowa  refractor  (fig.  26)  erected  in"  1S85  is  of  30-  Pulkcwa 
inches  aperture  and  45-feet  focal  length.-  Tha  object-glass  is  by  refractor. 
Clark,  the  mounting  by  the  Repsolds.  ,  The  tube  is  cylindrical, 
of  riveted  steel  plate,  Graduated  in-  thickness  from  the  centre  to  its 
extremities,  and  bolted  by  very  powerful  flanges  to  a  strong  short 
cast-iron  central  tube,  in  which,  as  in  Dr  Engelmann's  telescope 
(fig.  23),  the  attachment  to  the  flange  of  the  declination  axis  i'" 
placed  as  close  as  it  can  be  to  the  axis  of  the  tube  Without  intei- 

I  Described  and  figured  in  the  Wa-KiH^^tcn  OlsinaUons.  1CT4.  App  I. 


i 


TELESCOPE 


151 


Orutiba 

for  36- 
Inch  re- 
6»etor. 


fisring  with  nys  couvc;i;: :;;  iijiu  the  objcotglnss  to  nny  I'oiut  in 
the  fielil  of  view.     A  new  lealiue  in  this  instiuincnl  is  tlic  i>l.tnV>rni 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  i>ol.ii  a\s,  wliere  an  a^islaut  am  vi,  w  il,.. 
.hour  cii\.!e  by  one  eye-pieee  aiij  tlie  tiecliuation  circle  by 
jSDOthcr   (looking   np    the   jicrforated  polar   a.\is),  and 
(where  he  can  also  set  the  telescope  to  any  hour  angl« 
Inf  one  wheel,  or  to  ;iny  dccliDatiou  by  a  second,  with 
toe  greatest  rise.      The  observer  at  the  e\e  end 
can  also  lead  otf  the  hour  and  ilccliuation  circles 
and  coniniunicate  qn;ck  or  slow  motions  to  the 
telescope  bot.h  in  right  ascension  and  dtclina- 
tion  by  conveniently  placed  handles.     The 
eye  end  presents  an  appearance  too  com- 
'(Hicated  to  be  figured  liere ;  it  has  a  mi- 
cronteter  and  its  illnininatiou  for  the 
position   circle,  a   micrometer    head, 
and  a  bright  or  dark  field,'  clamps 
in  right  ascension  and  declination 
and  quick  and  slow  motion  in 
the  s.in:e,  a  tinder,  ndcroscopes 
for  reading  the  hour  and  de-     ' 
clination  circles, an  illuniin- 
»ted  dial  showing  sidereal 


Hi 


^  .       .       .Iv. 
-Pnlkowa  refractoi?, 

pme  and  diiven  by  a  galvanic  current  from  the  sideTeaTclockTand 

toonter  weights  which  can  be  removed  when  a  spectroscope  or  other 

heavy  appliance  is  added.    All  these,  although  mating  up  an  ap- 

nuently  complicated  apparatus,  arc  conveniently  arranged,  and  are 

all  necessary  for  the  quick  and  easy  working  of  so  large  "  -v 

an  instniment.     We  have  the  authority  of  Otto  Strave 

for  stating  that  in  practice  they  are  ail  that  can  be, 

desired.   There  is  in  this  instrument  a  remarkably 

fel^ant  method  of  relieving  the  friction  of  the  -  ' 

polar  axis.     Let  AA  (fig.  27)  be  a  section  of 

the  polar  axis ;  it  is  then  easy  to  adjust  the 

weight  P  of  the  circles,  ic,  attached  to  its  ■' 

lower  end  so  that  the  centre  of  gravity  ' 

,X  of  the  whole  mo\-ing  parts  of  the 

Instrument  shall  be  in  the  vertical 

fVV)  of  a  line  passing  through  ^ 

.fee  apex  of  the  hollowed  fiange 

pj  at  q,  which  flange  forms 

part  of  the  polar  a.xi3.    If    ' 

now  a  wheel  W  is  forced 


'np 'against  q  \vith  a 
pressure  equal  to  ' 
the  weight  of  the 
moving  part  of 
the  instrument, 
the  whole  weight 
of  the  moving  ^.^  ^ 
Mrt  would  rest  upcn  W  in  unstable  eqnilibrium  ;  or  if  »  prMsure 
«,  less  than  W,  is  employed,  we  have  tne  end  friction  on  the  lower 
bearing  removed  tc  an  extent  =  R  sin  ^,  and  the  fricHon  on  the 
fteanngs  of  the  upper  pivot  removed  to  the  eirtent  of  F  cos  *  — 
where  .>  is  the  latitude  of  the  place."  The  wheel  W  is  therefore 
mounted  on -a  guided  rod,  which  U  forced  upwards  by  suitable 
Jlevers  and  weights,  and  this  relief  of  pressure  13  precisely  propor- 
jfaonal  to  the  pressure  on  the  respective  bearings.  The  Repsolda 
find  It  unnecessary  to  relieve  the  friction  of  the  decKnaHon  axis 

Fig.  28  shows  the  equatorial  mounting  which  Grabb  designed 
for  thj  great  object-glass  of  36-inche3  aperture  that  Messrs  Clark 
have  completed  for  the  Lick  trustees,  and  which  may  be  supposed 
o  express  Grubb's  latest  ideas  as  to  the  mounting  for  a  very  laree 
telescope  •  The  Repsolds  have  a  large  driving  circle  at  tho  upiSr 
end  of  the  polar  axis,  thus  avoiding  torsion  of  the  polar  axis  at 
the  expense  of  greatly  increased  length  of  the  cross-head.     Grubb 

lliLJ?r*/r  J'thl'Sn °  '''^"'  '7?''?i!"e">t  '<"■  printing  on  a  ribbon  of  paper,  bv 
TOsare  of  the  flnger,  the  readings  of  the  number  of  revolutions  and  fvlctions 
i^T^^Z  i  ""  ''.?'' "  "^^  ob«rvation,  the  ribbon  being  autcmaSy 
B«TM  fcrward  for  anotlier  record  cfttr  each  otservation.  ""t^uj' 


I  by  employing  a  driving  arc  gets  the  t-K\5fopc  mu..h  . :  im  r  to  1 
|iolar  .i\is  with  an  increased  radius  for  driving,  and  lie  makes  1 
|>vLiravisa  very  large  liullow  steel  or  cast-iron  cylimle 
loision   IS  insensible.    .  Both   Grubb  and  the 
Rejisolds  seem  to  think  that  for  the  tube  0 
the  telescope  all  necessary  rigidity  can  " 
be  attained  with  cylindrical  tubes  of  ■  .^' 
riveted  steel,  the  thickness  of  the      /%. 
successive  sheets  of  which  dimin- " 
ish  from  the  centre-piece  out- ' 
wards    without    making 

.the  extremities,  cone- 
shaped. 

¥*  In  these  very' 
large     tele- 
scopes 
the 


FlQ.  23.— Grubb'a  mountiig  for  the  Lick  olj  vt  ^jla^i 
arrangements  for  giving  access  to  the  eye  end  and  foi  followiiig~it3 
diurnal  motion  have  hitherto  proved  a  source  of  dilhculty.DTTho 
travelling  stages  of  the  new  Polkowa  telescope  are  tlio  most  man- 
ageable and  practical  that  have  yet  been  contrived,  but  even  tliey 
leave  much  to  be  desired.  For  energetic  work  the  standing  pos.-' 
tion  is  best,  provided  that  the  eye-piece  is  situated  at  the  precise' 
•height  above  the  stage  which  is  most  conv(?nient  for  the  observer," 
and  that  the  altitude  of  the  observed  object  is  not  greater  than 
60°.'  For"  altitudes  above  60°  a  small  chair  with  a  back,  the  top 
of  which  is  stuffed  for  the  head  to  rest  upon,  is  th»  best  seat, 
provided  that  the  observer's  e'ye  can  be  kept  at  the  height  ol 
the  eye-piece. '  Accordingly  Grubb  has  suggested  the  foUowina 
plan  for  the  observatory  at  Mount  Hamilton,  California,  which 
is  to  cover  the  Lick  telescope.  The  whole  floor,  70  feet  in  dia- 
meter, is  to  be  raised  or  lowered  by  water-power  under  control  ol 
the  observer  by  means  of  electric  keys,  which  act  on  a  secondary 
piece  of  mechanism,  that  in  turn  works  the  valves  and  reveraing 
gear  of  the  water-engines.  Other  water-engines,  similarly  con- 
nected with  keys  at  the  observer's  hands,  rotate  the  dome  and  per-' 
form  the  quick  motions  in  right  ascension  and  de<(ftnation.^  By 
this  arrangement  a  large  instrument  can  bo  worked  with  perfect 
facility  and  comfort.  There  is  only  one  other  plan,  that  of  suspend- 
ing the  observer's  chair  to  the  eye  end,  so  that  his  eye  is  near  tho 
centre  of  motion  of  the  chair.  This  is  quite  practicable  for  a  36- 
inch  telescope,  and  one  observer,  with  the  necessary  guiding  keys 
at- hand,  could  easily  work  a  telescope  and  dome  of  the  largest 
dimensions  as  quickly  and  with  more  ease  than  he  could  one  o.- 10 
or  12  inches  aperture.  Probabljf  a  nervous  astronomer  would  prefer 
a  solid  floor  to  work  npon,  as  in  Grubb's  proposal ;  in  the  latt=r 
case  the  quickest  working  can  only  be  accomplished  by  two  person;!, 
one  seated  on  the  platform  at  the  foot  of  the  polar  axis  and  doin^; 
the  rough  setting  in  right  ascension  and  declination,  the  other 
meanwhile  adjusting  the  height  of  the  floor  and  the  azimuth  of 
the  dome  opening.  .  — 

■j'°  T^"^  ^"^^  equatorials  there'must  be  in^ciistin'gniethods  con- 

siderable  inconvenience  from  the  extended  width  of  the  apparatu-  ici.'ii 
at  the  eye  end.  Were  we  called  upon  to  design  a  great  refractc-  .or  using 
we  should  abolish  all  such  apparatus  and  provide  the  observt  arge 
with  a  few  conveniently  placed  small  handles  or  keys  for  electrici"  -eie- 
connexions,  and  we  should  perform  all  motions  of  the  telescop  jcopeso 
whatsoever  by  electromotors.  Thero  is  no  form  of  energy  so  con- 
venient for  the  astronomer.  It  provides  by  incandescent  lamps' 
the  most  suitable  light  for  his  purpose,  perfectly  constant,  giving 
off  little  heat,  and  unaffected  by  wind  ;  and  such  a  lit>ht  can 
be  placed  where  required  without  the  aid  of  reflectors°or  any 
complicated  apparatus,  and  its  .intensity  can  be  regulated  with^ 
ease  and  precision  by  changing  the  resistance  of  the  condiictors.' 
Moreover  the  electromotors  can  be  as  powerful  or  as  delicate  as  we 
please,  and  can  be  placed  in  the  most  convenient  or  snitable  posi- 
tions. The  energy  of  a  5-horse-power  steam-engine  .working  foi 
ten  hours  can  be  stored  in  accumulators  of  no  inconvenient  dimen- 
sions ready  for  use  as  required  during  a  whole  week  or  even  1  month, 
and  can  be  brought  into  action  in  force  equivalent  to  several  horse- 
power to  raise  or  lower  the  floor  or  tu-.-n  the  dome,  or  to  perform 
slow  motions  requiring  no  greater  energy  than  that  exercised  by 
the  finger  and  thumb,  or  to  Uluminate  a  lamp  of  i  or  j  candle- 
po.wer.  There  would  be  no  limit  to  the  rigidity  which  could  be 
given  to  such  a  teiescope.'as  great  ease  of  motion  would  not  have 


Prv';io.«;e(l 

tif-3 


T  ^  Ajvoodcut  showing  these  arrangements  appeared  iu  the  EMiru^n.  »th 
July  1861).  - 


152 

to  be  considered,  and  we  should  abolish  ^".'^''■"Pli^'*|'='l„^°'\;f 'H™ 
apparatus  for  the  declination  axis  retaining  it  ""'y  f°  f «  H^J 
«i^  to  save  wear  in  the  teeth  of  the  dnnng  arc  FinaUy,  mstead 
of  making  the  finder  a  short  telescope  attached  to  the  eye  end  of 
the  instrument,  we  should  give  it  a  focal  length  equal  to  that  of 
the  great  object-glass,  attaching  the  cell  of  its  object-glass  ripdly 
fth^e  cell  of  the^large  object-gfaas  and  itl<=y»,^"i  '"1^?^,''""  ^"h^, 
of  the  main  telescope,  in  order  to  secure  the  utmost  ngidity  in  tne 
relations  of  the  axes  of  the  two  tele  * 

scopes.    Such  a  finder  would  corre- 
spond in  eCBciency  to  that  of  the 
Henry    photographic  .  telescope, 
and  would  be  available  as  a  guid- 
ing telescope  in  photographic 
work,  or  for  keeping  a  star 
exactly   on    the    slit    of   a 
spectroscope. 
Typo  D.      The  first  important  in 
struments    of    typo    D 
Lassell's  were   Mr   Lassell's   re- 
mount-   flectors,  the  largest  of 


TELESCOPE 


ing. 


which,  and  the  last 
is  represented  in  fig 
29.       The     polar 
axis    is    sum 
ently  rigid,  but 
the  long   and 
comparative- 
ly    slende 


Fio.  29.— LasscU's  rcllector 
forks  which  carry  the  pivots  of  the  central  cradle  are  elements  of 
instability,  especially  when  the  instrument  is  directed  to  an  object 
of  considerable  hour  angle.  There  is  practical  confession  of  this 
instability  in  the  cross-bracing  which  connects  the  two  forks,  and 
which  must  le  removed  if  the  telescope  is  pointed  to  an  object 
between  the  zenith  and  the  elevated  pole. 
Com-  The  best  example  of  tj-pe  D  is  the  reflecting  telescope  of  35-inches 

IZs       aperture  ,designe5  by  Mr.  A.  A.  Common,  with  which  his  exquisite 
mount,      photographs  of  nebulce,  &c.,  were  made.     The 
in?  principal  preliminary  conditions  winch  he  laid 

down  as  neceisary  were  the  followingi  t— 
(1)  no  tube  p-operly  so  called,  to  avoid 
air-currents  in  the  tube ;  (2)  no  mass  of 
metal  either  lelow  or  at  the  side  of 
the  line  joining  the  large  and  small 
mirrors,  to  avoid  currents  from 
'   ""   ~~~      possible  difference  of  tempera-  , 
turo    between   the    mass   of     ^ 

metal  and  the  surrounding 

air ;   (3)    an    equatorial 

mounting   capable  of 

direction  to  any  part 

of  the  visible  hea- 
vens and  of  con- 
tinued   observation 

past    the    meridian 

without      reversal  ; 

(4)      ar       efficient 

means  of  supporting 

the  mirror  without 

flexure;  (5)  driving 

clock;  circles  to  find 

oridcntifyan  object, 

and   motions  taken 

to  eye  end  ;    (6)  a  so.-Com.nnn-.,  r.necthVs  tcicscoro 

moiiuling        which  i  •«    «  ,      ,     ,      .  » 

will  give  Ibo  greatest  amount  of  steadiness  with  tho  least  amount 
ofjrictiou.  ,Fig.  30  is  a  section  of  the  instrument  m  the  piano 
pf  the  meridian.  DD,  is  a  cast. iron  hollow  cylinder,  accn- 
ralely  borrd  out,  attached  to  a  strong  losi>  block.  Dg  is  a  cover 
bolted  00  the  bottom  of  this  cylinder,  ill  the  centre  of  which  is  a 
lappniig  steel  pin  D^,  which  enters  a  corresponding  hole  in  tlio 
tottoiu  of  the  polar  axis  K.and  serves  .is  the  lower  pivot  ot 
TjIoiiIWk  Nolvft  K  >:>■.  V'pt  »«xix   p.  3S< 


the  polar  axis.  The  cyUndrical  pa.t  of  the  polar  axis  is  accu- 
rately turned  to  a  diameter  one-eighth  of  an  inch  less  than  the  outeri 
cvlinder,  and  the  otherwise  severe  friction  on  the  pin  Dj  is  reUeved 
bv  filling  in  the  space  between  D  and  E  with  mercury,  so  lar  as 
sufficient  nearly  to  float  the  whole  moving  part  of  the  telescope. 
The  upper  elbow-shaped  part  of  the  polar  axis  Ei  is  flanged  and 
bolted  to  the  lower  part.  In  the  section  at  right  angles  to  that 
exhibited  in  fig.  30  this  elbow-shaped  part  is  T-shaped,  and  the 
cross  of  tho  T  is  bored  to  receive  the  declination  axis  ;  and,  a3 
the  elbow  puts  the  polar  axis  considerably  out  of  balance,  the 
T-shaped  head  is  carried  forward  of  the  axial  line  about  U  inches, 
so  that  the  whole  weight  of  the  telescope  above  just  restores  the 
balance.  Two  heavy  weights  X,  X  counterpoise  the  eye  end  F 
with  the  four  braced  tubes  T,  T  which  support  it.  B  is  the 
declination  circle.  It  is  impossible  to  describe  this  fine  instrument 
adequately  within  our  Umits  ;  we  mention  as  specially  worthy  of 
study  the  method  of  supporting  the  mirror  and  the  eminently 
inEcnious  and  practical  ■  form  of  the  observatory,  and  refer  the 
reader  to  Common's  iUustrated  account  of  the  instrument  in  Hem. 

■'^'Thfre  is^also  an  almirable  Counting  of  type  D  designed  by  Lord  Ros..e-s 
Rosse  for  his  3-foot  reflector  at  Birr  Castle,  described  by  hun  m  3-fooi 
mi.  Trans.,  vol.  clxxi.  p.  153.     The  instrument  is  planned  on  nioent. 
fhe  broad  lines  of  Lassell's  telescope  (fig.  29),  but  the  badly  planned  ing. 
and  weak  fork  of  the  latter  is  replaced  by  »  thoroughly  "g-j  tent 
fork  made  of  boiler  plate  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  firmly  riveted 
to  angle  iron  of  2Jx2JxA  inch  scantling  alon.  each  angle,  the 
whole,  as  we  have  proved  by  trial    being  exceedingly  rigid      It 
would  be  an  improvement  to  adopt  Mr  Common  s  plan  of  putt  ng 
the  declination  axis  a  little  out  of  the  line  of  prolongation  of  the 
polar  axis,  and  thus  disiienso  with  tho  counter-weight  ;  and  we 
Should  prefer  hollow  steci  tubes  with  push  and  pull  bracing  lather 
than  the  angle  iron  rods  and  bracing  which  form  the  tube. 

In  the  rroacdiu^s  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  (vol.  ii.  p.  862)  Tjpe  E. 
Grubb  describes  a  "  siderostatio  telescope  ■•>vhich  forms  a  good 
elementury  example  of  type  E.     In  fig.  31  TT  is  the  tube  of  a  tele-  Grubb  s 
—     y  l^^  ^.1^^^^^  aperture,  which  is  mounted,to  rotate  s.dero- 

about  its  axis,  the  tatter  forming  the  polar  axis.     MM  slatio 
is  a  plane  mirror  reflecting  rays  from  a  star  S  to    he  tele.cop. 
,bject-glass,  so  that  its  image  can  be  viewed  from  the 
eye-piece  at  E.     The  star  is  retained  in  the  field  by 
the  clock  C.     Stars  of  difl-ereut  declination  can  bo 
viewed  by  rotating  the  mirror  on  its  axis  G,  and 
in  different  hour  angles  by  rotating  the  tube 
upon  its  axis.     The  instrument  m  European 
latitudes  cannot  command  a  view  ot   the 
■     heavens  between  the  elevated  pole  and  the 
■    zenith  unless  tho  distance  OG  is  made 
exceedingly  great ;  even  then  on  y  a 
'   limited  range  beyond  the  zenith  13 
'    possible.     The  instrument  is  pri- 
^  marily  intended  for  solar  spectro- 
'   scopy,  and   thus   these  draw- 
^   backs  do  not  apply.      The 
resulting    ad- 
,.  s  vantage         is 
•■  .•'   that    the   ob- 
..    ,'  server  may  bo 
.•'*    in      complete 
\f  daikuess    aud 
his      observa- 
tions are   not 
interrupted  by 
changeof  posi- 
tion. 

In    CovtfiCcs  l.ofwy's 

Jicutlvi  for  the  equator- 

year  1SS3,  vol  lulcoude 

pp.  735-741,  M.  Loewy  gives  an  account  of  an  iiistiument 


I 


Fio.  31  — Orulib's  siderosUitic  telescope. 


xcvi.  pp.  iJJUi,  1"-  uutnjf  (i.>io  .■■■  ■»'■ — ,■•;-■,  ■■"".;■.  , 

which  he  calls  an  "equatorial  coudc,"  designed  (1)  lo  attain  gieatcr 
stability  aud  so  to  measure  larger  angles  than  is  geDcr.illy  possible 
with  the  oidinary  equatorial  ;  (2)  to  enable  a  single  astronomer  to 
•point  tho  telescope  and  make  observations  in  any  part  of  the  sky 
vitho.it  changing  his  position  ;  (3)  to  abolish  the  usual  expensive 
dome  and  to  substitute  a  covered  shed  on  wheels  (which  can  be  lun 
back  at  pleasure),  leaving  the  telescope  in  the  open  air,  the  observei 
alone  being  sheltered.  These  conditions  are  fulfilled  in  the  m.nn. 
shown  in  fig.  32.  El>  is  the  polar  axis,  routing  on  bm.ngs  at  Lam 
P.  The  object-glass  is  at  O.  the  cye-p.ecc  at  E.  'Tbeie  ,s  a  plane 
mirror  at  M,  which  reflecU  rays  converging  from  ""=  object. eIa^ 
to  thecye-picco  at  E.  A  second  iniiror  N.  placed  at  45  to  the 
optical  axis  of  the  object-glass  nllects  rays  .  on,  a  sta.  »'  '"^  lo';! 
but  by  rotating  the  box  «h.ch  contains  this  m.iror  on  "' J  »  ^  of 
■its  supporting  tube  T  a  sUr  of  any  declination  ..->i.  ''>^  o>«-'\"- 
and  by  combiliin-  this  motion  with  rotation  of  ''^  Po'-  »^'^ 
astronomer  seated  at  E  is  ablo  to  view  any  object  win  tev  e  in  the 
visible  heavens,  except  those  situated  between  10"  and  1-"  hour 


TELESCOPE 


153 


ingle.  An  hour  circle  attached  to  EP  and  a  declination  circle 
atached  to  the  box  containing  the  mirror  N,  both  of  which  can  be 
read  or  set  from  E,  complete  the  essentials  of  the  instrument.  Its 
mechanical  details  present  no  creat  difficulty,  and 
are  most  conveniently  arranged.  But  we  entertain 
N_  grave  doubts  as  to  the  practical  value  cf  the 
"x^  instrument,  not  on  mechanical,  but  on  optical 
,  '\  grounds.  There  must  be  a  certain  loss  of 
\  ^.  I'S'it  from  two  additional  refleiions ;  but 
\  \  that  could  be  tolerated  for  the  sake  of 
\  \  other  advantages,  provided  that 
\  \  the  mirrors  could  be  made  soS- 
\  ciently  perfect  optical  planes, 
*\  A  few  years  ago  it  was  very 
diiScult  to  obtain  an  op 


torn] 


tically  perfect  plane 
6  inches  in  diameter, 
and  having  obtained 
it  thera  remained  the 
further  diiScuIty  of 
mounting  it  so  that 
in  all  positions  it 
should  be  free  from 

,    T    .        ,.        »    .  ,  flexure.    By  makinff 

i-I«^scoudeeqaator,aL  the  mirrors^f  sUveref 

glass,  one-fourth  of  their  diameter  in  thickness,  JUL  Henry  have 
not  only  succeeded  in  mounting  them  with  all  necessary  rigidity 
free  from  flexure  hut-  hr-^  given  them  optically  true  plane  sur- 
feces,  notwithstanding  their  large  diameters,  viz.,  11  and  157 
inchtrs.  The  present  writer  tested  the  equatorial  coude  on  double 
stars  at  the  Paris  observatory  in  1SS4,  and  his  last  doubts  as  to 
the  practical  value  of  the  instrument  were  dispelled.  He  has  never 
seen  more  perfect  opticsd  deSnition  in  any  of  the  many  telescopes 
he  has  employed,  and  certainly  never  measnr?d'a  celestial  object  in 
such  favourable  conditions  of  physical  comfort  The  easy  position 
of  the  observer,  the  convenient  position  of  the  handles  for  quick 
snd  slow  motion,  and  the  absolute  rigidity  of  the  mounting  leave 
little  to  be  desired.  In  futnre  instruments  the  ol^ect-glass  will  be 
placed  outside  the  mirror  N,  so  that  both  the  silvered  mirrors  will 
be  protected  from  exposure  to  the  outer  air,  aud  prolxibly.will 
retain  the  brilliancy  of  their  surfaces  for  a  long  perioi 

Adjushnnit  of  Oie  'EqvatoriaL 
Adjust-        Let  us  take  the  usual  case,  that  of  an  equatorial  of  type  U.     (1) 
raent  of    By  means  of  an  azimuth  compass,  or,  better,  by  the  shadow  of  a 
«iaa-        plumb  line  at  apparent  noon,  lay  down  a  meridian  line  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  stone  pier,  or  other  foundation,  previously  built  for  the 
instrument-  (2)  Employ  this  meridian  line  to  set  up  the  instrument 
and  with  it  the  polar  axis  approximately  in  the  azimuth  of  the 
meridian,  which  can  be  tested  by  stretching  a  wire  through  the 
Mntres  of  the  bearings  of  the  polar  axis,  aud  dropping  a  plumb 
line  frem  the  extremities  of  the"  wire  upon  the  meridian  line.     If 
this  is  carefully  done  when  the  azimuth  adjustment  is  near  the 
middle  of  its  range  all  desirable  accuracy  in  this  preliminary  de- 
sideratum will  be  secured.     (3)  Place  the'polar  axis  approximately 
at  the  altitude  of  the  pole.     This  is  very  easily  done  for  an  instru- 
ment in  which  the  polar  axis  is  cylindrical  or  is  encased  £n  a  box 
with  an  upper  side  parallel  to  that  axis  (as  in  Grubb's  or  Cooke's 
equatorials).      Prepare  a  right-angled  triangle  of  wood  of  which 
the  acute  angles  represent  the  latitude  and  co-latitude  of  the  place. 
Lay  the  hypothenuse  of  this  triangle  upon  the  line  of  the  instru- 
ment parallel  to  the  polar  axis  (or  the  wire  of  operation  2)  mth  the 
angle  equal  to  the  co-latitude  nest  to  the  elevated  pole,  and  change 
thfe  inclination  of  the  polar  axis  till  a  mason's  level  placed  on  the 
side  of  the  triangle  opposite  to  the  angle  of  the  latitude  shows  the 
side  m  question  to  be  horizontal.     (4)  Adjust  the  movable  micro- 
meter web  to  coincidence  with  the  axis  of  the  position  circle  by  bi- 
secting the  image  of  a  distant  object  and  reading  the  number  of 
revolutions  or  fractions  of  a  revolution  at  two  different  readings  of 
the  position  circle  lEO'  apart     The  mean  of  these  two  readings  is 
the  reading  for  coincidence  with  the  axis  of  the  position  circle. 
Set  the  micrometer  to  this  mean.     (5)  Adjust  the  polar  axis  more 
exactly  to  the  required  altitude  as  follows.     Point  the  telescope  to 
a  well-known  star  not  far  from  the  equator  and  near  the  meridian, 
and  turn  the  position  circle  so  that  the  imago  of  the  star  by  the 
diurnal  motion  runs  along  the  web.     Read  the  declination  circle 
Now  reverse  the  telescope  to  the  other  side  cf  the  polar  axis  and 
D^ct  the  same  star  again,  and  again  read  the  declination  circle. 
The  mean  of  the  two  readings  is  tue  star's  instrumental  apparent 
declination  ;  the  difference  of  the  two  readings  is  twice  the  index 
error.     To  eliminate  this  latter  it  is  only  necessary  to  shift  the 
vernier  of  the  declination  circle  by  the  screws  provided  for  the 
purpose,  without  unclamping  in  declination,  till  the  circle  reads 
the  star's  instrumental  apparent  declination       This  bein<»  done, 
select  another  star  near  the  meridian  and  compute  its  apparent 
Jechnatioi.  (allowing  for  re.'raction).     Set  tl:e  telescope  to  this  com- 
puted r.;adiliganJ'jlami>in  dsclination  ;  then  cause  an  assistant  to 


change  the  altitude  of  the  polar  axis  (by  tnc  screw  lor  tne  puipos^ 
till  the  star  is  bisected  by  the  micrometer  wire.  (6)  Select  any 
convenient  known  star  about  six  hours  from  the  meridian  ;  ccrnputo 
its  apparent  declination  (allowing  for  refraction) ;  and  set  the  tele-, 
scope  to  this  reading  in  declination.  Cause  the  assistant  to  turn  the 
slow  motion  in  azimuth  till  the  image  of  the  star  is  bisected  by  the 
micrometer  web.  (7)  Repeat  operation  5  and  make  final  corrections 
if  necessary.  (8)  Repeat  operation  6  with  sUrs  both  east  and  west 
of  the  meridian,  and  readjust  azimuth  if  necessary.  (9)  Turn  the 
position  circle  of  the  micrometer  90°;  place  the  declination  axis 
nearly  horizontal ;  clamp  the  telescope  in  right  ascensioa ;  and  ob- 
serve the  time  of  transit  of  a  known  star  across  the  web  of  tha 
micrometer.  Compute  the  true  hour  angle  of  the  star  from  tho 
known  error  of  the  micrometer  and  the  star's  right  ascension,  and 
scf  the  vernier  so  that  the  hour  circle  shall  read  the  computed 
hour  angle..  By  these  means,  with  a  previously  prepared  pro- 
gramme, tho  writer  has  frequently  completely  adjusted  an  equa- 
torial in  less  than  an  hour,  so  far  as  operations  4  to  9  were  concerned. 
There  still  remain  two  instrumental  errors  of  the  stand.  (Ij 
The  line  joining  the  optical  centre  of  the  lens  with  the  axis  of 
rotation  of  the  position  circle  may  net  bo  at  right  andcs  to  the 
declination  axis.  (2)  The  declination  axis  may  not  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  polar  axis.  la  modern  equatorials  it  is  usual  to 
leave  these  adjustments  to  the'  maker,  as  to  leave  them  to  ths 
astronomer  would  be  incompatible  with  the  greatest  stabilih-  of  the 
instrument  In  a  good  instrument  these  errors  will  certainly  be 
extremely  small  and  have  no  influence  on  its  efficiency  for  practical 
purposes.  The  methods  for  determining  their  amount  are  given  in 
most  works  on  practical  astronomy.' 

There  remain  txo  important  optical  adjustments  which  must  1m 
very  carefully  attended  to,  viz.,  tha  centring  of  the  lenses  of  tha 
object-glass  relative  to  each  other  and  the  centring  of  the  axis  of  tho 
object-glass  relative  to.  that  of  the  eye-piece.  The  former  consists 
in  placing  the  lenses  of  the  object-glass  so  that  the  centres  of  curva- 
ture  of  their  surfaces  shall  lie  in  one  straight  line,  which  line  is 
the  axis  of  the  object-glass.  This  operation  is  so  delicate  and 
requires  such  special  experience  and  skill  that  it  should  b«  left  to 
the  maker  of  the  object-glass.  An  elegant  method  of  testing  this 
adjustment  was  given  by  i 
Wollaston  in  Phil.  Trcns., 
1S22,  p.  32.  If  the  object- 
glass  itself  is  perfectly  I 
centred,  the  test  of  the  I 
centring  of  its  axis  with  [ 
that  of  the  eye-piece  is  very  I 
easy ;  are  the  diffraction  rincs 
which  siirronnd  the  image  of  F'S- 23  Fig.  34 

a  bright  star  shown  as  In  fie.  33,  or  is  there  flare,  that  is,  are  tiie 
rings  extended  on  one  side  as  in  fig.  34  ?  If  the  latter  is  the  cise, ' 
that  side  of  the  object-glass  towards  which  the  flare  is  direct  J  is 
too  far  from  the  eye-pieco,  and  should  be  brought 
towards  it  by  the  appropriate  screws  or  other 
means  provided  by  the  maker.  In  a  good  object- 
glass  perfectly  centred,  on  a  night  of  steadv  de. 
tinition,  a  bright  star  in  focus  should  appear  as 
in  fig.  33. 

A  useful  apparatus  lor  the  adjustment  of  cen-  , 
triug  is  a  small  telescope  (fig.  35)  whose  axis  is  in 
the  centre  of  and  at  right  angles  to  a  flat  piece  of 
brass  in  the  shape  of  an  equilateral  triangle  fitted 
with  screws  at  the  three  angles.     To  use  this  in- 
strument, place  the  points  of  tie  screws  on  the 
object-glass  as  in  fig.  36,  so  that  two  angles  of  the 
triangle  are  in  contact  with  the  inner  edge  of  the 
cell  of  the  object-glass,  and  adjust 
the  screw  a  so  that  the  cross-wires 
in  the  common  focus  of  the  object- 
glass  and  eye-piecfl  of  the  small 
telescope  coincide  with  the  image 
of  the  cross -wires  of  the  micro-  ; 
meter  of  the  ielescope  which  mark  I 
the  axis  of  rotation  of  the  position  I 
circle.     Now,    keeping  the  samel 
angles  of  the  brass  triangle  in  con- 
tact with  the  cell,  move  the  small 
centring  telescope  round  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  object  glass  and 
note  where  there  is  the  greatest  de- 
parture from  coincidence.     Correct  p...  „  ,,     .,„.^„^„  ,„  .„,  -, 
this  departure  half  by  the  screw  a  Tn'S  o?iift;7»gTa"Sl/°tja'S: 
of  the  small  centring  telescope  and 

half  by  the  centring  scrc>vs'  of  the  ebject-gl.iss.  The  adir.stment 
is  perfect  when  the  centring  telescope  can  he  moved  round  the 
whole  periphery  of  the  object-glass  in  the  above  manner  whilst  its 
cross-wires  continue  to  bisect  the  trosS-wires  of  the  micrometer  of 


^ 


Rg.  35. 


T 


\Ch^a\a:ct.}'ri:c:^^n!'>':dSp'ttricalAilrmOKil,\e).i..:ii,.-j7«-2-i'^.  D.-jucov. 
Sphencat  Aslramma,  p.  145  ;  anj  Loomis,  Prtclktil  A^nnoms,  pp.  SS-3i 

\XIII    —    20 


154 


T  E  L  — T  E  L 


the  relescope.  If  after  this  adjustment  has  been  perfected  the  dif- 
fraction rinffs  are  si  ill  not  circular  round  the  images  ol  stars,  the 
fault  is  in  the  cent  r.ng  of  the  l.-iises  of  the  object  glass  with  respect 
'to  each  othT.  and  the  obi-c<  glass  should  be  sent  to  the  maker  for 
'rectification. 

Unvm'        The  means  employed  to  .-.lust  an  equatorial  telesco™  ro  r''.o>v 
•lock."    the  diurnal  motion  of  a  star  ubv,ou»ly   must   not    reseraoio   the 

intermittent   motion   of   au   ordinary   clock.      Miunerous   H„vicea 
.ha\c  been  contiived  fo; 
fprod'icing  uniforin  rao- 

^tion.     But  the  limits  of 

this    artii-le   will    only 

illo»  us  to  refei  briefly 

te  a  fevi  of  those  most 

'comni"nly  iH  use     Fig 

"j;    r-pr.jsent3     Frauu 

hofei  s   governor       On 

its  a.tis  C  IS  a  pinion 

driven    by   a    train   of 

wheels.  The  axis  carries 

'an  aim  BB,  at  the  ex 

Itrcmities  of  winch,  at- 

'taclii'J  by  springs/ /'_, 

are  the  "eights  D,  D'. 

\\'\wn  these  weights  ac- 
quire n  certain  velocity 

of  rotation  the  centri-  .,     _       ^  , 

*:       ,    ..  ,«:...»  Ho  37 —Fraunhofcr  -  governor 

fugal  lorco  is  sulhcient  ""  "  "         . ,      -  .. 

lo  cau:,e  tha  weights  to  tly  out  and  rub  agains'  the  inside  ot  the 
r yliudcr  AA,  and  their  velocity  13  checked.  Ir  4ead  of  a  cyliiiJer, 
tiie  balls  may  rub  ag^iinat  the  inside  of  a  liollov  cone,  and  by  raising 
'orloweiiiig  the  aMs  C  the  contact  of  the  weights  si  ith  the  cone  may 
ile  made  to  take  i>la.-c  when  the  balls  have  slightly  greater  or  less 


.velocify  and  thus  the  rate  of  the  clock  is  regulated  A  nunh 
better  airangenient  is  a  modification  of  Watfs  gnveru.T,  cniployed 
by  GruhU  and  Cuke  The  governoi  ball.^  y.  ,j  (hg  3»)  r.pose  on 
the  points//  I,  of  thcrniKi;  till  they  re.ach  then  normal  velocity, 
when  they  llyouuvaldsaud  bring  the  po.nl  .'^  (tippe.i  vnth  leather) 
into  contact  with  the  friction  plate  p  Th.se  docks  are  simple 
in  construction  and  act  very  well  Ncwconib  in  the  Washington 
equatorial  has  rn.|doyed  a  long  suspen.led  conical  pendulum  ;  when 
tins  pendulum  m  the  least  exceeds  its  uutnul  velocity  (that  is,  its 


normal  departure  from  the  verticall  it  establishes  an  electrical  con= 
tact  which  brings  friction  to  bear,  and  thus  reduces  the  power 
applied  to  the  pendulum.  There  is  occasional  tendency  to  elliptical 
motion,  and  the  clock  is  otherwise  troublesome.  In  the  Repsolds 
driving  clock  of  the  30  inch  Pulkowa  refractor  the  conical  pendulum 
is  reversed,  being  a  heavy  weight  at  the  top  of  a  vertical  steel  rod, 
kept  in  conical  rotation  by  a  pin  at  its  upper  end,  which  enters  » 
slot  in  a  revolving  arm.  The  rod  is  in  fact  a  spring  of  such  a  form 
as  to  cause  the  revolutions  to  bo  nearly  or  perfectly  isochronoua 
whatever  the  angle  of  the  .one  of  motion  ,  the  clock  is  therefore, 
within  limits,  independent  of  the  power  anplied  to  it  ot  the  forca 
to  be  overcome 

Many  forms  ot  an  fans  nave  neen  suggested  ;  probably  the  best  u 
the  modihcation  ol  Foucaulfs  proposed  by  Hdger  fsee  IfontAJy, 
Nultccs  HAS.  vol  xlvi.  p.  155), 
wliich  IS  shown  in  fig  39  E  is 
the  axis  of  rotation  ,  C  and  D  ara 
fans  that  are  pulled  towards  the 
spindle  E  by  chronometer  springs 
in  the  boses  A  and  B.  The  fans 
fly  out  symmetrically  when  tha 
velocity  ejceeds  25  oi  30  revolu 
lions  per  second  ,  the  increased 
resistance  of  the  an  thus  pro- 
duced clie.  ks  the  velocity  of  ro- 
tation By  means  of  the  small 
wt:ights  W.  VV  attached  to  arms 
on  the  fans  Hilger  states  that  il 
IS  possible  to  adjust  this  governoi 
so  that  It  shall  even  lose  by  an 
increase  of  the  diiviiig  weight. 

For  the  most  refined  work  none 
of  these  governors  can  be  said  to 
bo  perfect ,  none  would  be  even 
tolerable  as  a  clock  for  astrono- 
mical time-keeping  purposes.  It 
is  possible  that  the  elaburato 
Cir.  iiuichdnving  clock  may  give 
hitler  ivMilts,  but  its  construc- 
tion IS  too  complicated  to  be  fre- 
quently repeated  (see,  for  a  de- 
scription of  it,  the  Greenwich 
Ohcnntwns  for  186S).  The  only 
way  in  which  nearly  perfect  uni- 
forni  motion  can  be  realized  is  to 
contnd  it  in  some  waj[  from  a 
swinging  pendulum.  This  is  done 
in  Bond's  spring  governor '  and  by  Grubb,  the  latter  employnng  tn« 
arm  of  a  remontoir  train  connected  with  a  dead-beat  escapement  ta 
brin"  friction  to  bear  on  a  revolving  plato  connected  with  the  axi^ 
of  his  governor  (sec  fig  33).  The  best  existing  driving  dock  is 
probably  that  at  Lord  Crawford's  observatory  at  Dun  Echt.j  An 
account  of  its  performance  is  given  by  Di  Copeland  in  VicrUl- 
jahrsschr  aslron  Ocsellsch..  16  Jahrg.,  p.  305  In  this  clock  gain 
of  a  hundredth  of  a  second,  or  even  less,  mtioduccs  increased  fric- 
tion on  ihe  revoUuig  disk  during  the  next  second,  or  until  tlio 
paiu  has  been  corrected  A  still  more  perfect  clock  could  probably 
be  made  on  a  snnilat  plan  by  abolishing  the  clock  weight  and 
making  the  origin  of  power  an  electromotoi,  the  curiont  being  cut 
oil  m  a  way  similar  to  that  in  the  Dun  Echt  clock  if  the  clock  ol 
continuous  motion  gets  in  advance  of  the  ordinal}  clock. 

For  information  on  clockwork  of  equaioiials  .and  telcscopo  mounts 
ings  generally,  >ee  KonkoU's  FractUchc  Anlciluwj  ziir  Jiifl'-Jhinii 
aslron.  r.'-"'iM'L-ujcu  *!•  ^^>l 


Fio  39.— Hilger  s  ir.oiiification  of. 
Foucaulfs  au'.fait. 


•TELESPUORUS,  bishop  of  Rome  from  about  128  till 
;-,bout  137,  succeeded  Sixtus  I  and  was  followed  by 
Iljginus.  Eu.sebitis  in  his  ILitori/  gives  the.  date  of  tlic 
martyrdom  of  TclesiiLorus  as  the  first  year  ol  Antoninus 
l'iiis'(13S)  and  in  hi.s  C>"oriul>-  o-i  the  eighteenth  year  of 
llailri.in  (13'i) 

TELFORD,  TiioMAS  (17,=>7  lf!3l),  tivil  engineer,  -ivas 
the  son  of  a  shcijherd  in  Eskdale.  Uunilricsshirc.  and  was 
boru  in  the  valU-y  ol  the  Me.yget,  9th  August  1707  Fmni 
early  childhood  he  was  employed  as  a  herd,  cccasioually 
alteudmg  tho  parish  -school  of  WeslerUirk,  where  his 
quickness  and  diligence  helped  to  make  up  tor  his  lack 
of  oi.nurtunity  On  being  apprenticed,  at  tho  age  of 
fifteen",  to  a  stone  mason  at  Langhohii,  ho  found  luistiro 
not  oii'y  to  gain  an  acquaintanco  with  Laliii,  Fr.'.nch,  and 
Cerm.ii.,  but  to  gratitj  IKu  lucrary  tastes  by  a  wide  variety 
of  rcadi'n".     Tn  his  cnfh  ni,nihi»d  ho  was  nunh  yiven  tn 


the  writing  of  verse,  a  poem  of  some  length  on  EskdaH 
appeared  in  17S-1  in  tho  Potlual  Miisntin.  published  at 
Hawick  ;  under  the  signature  of  "  Eskdalc  Tani"  he  cotM 
tnbutcd  verses  to  Ruddinian's  WnUt/  .V.iyct./Hc ,  and  h^ 
addressed  an  epistle  in  rhyme  to  F.urns,  Mhich  wAi 
published  in  Currie's  /.-/c  of  the  poet  liut.thesc'  .poetn.il 
effusions  were  of  comparatively  little  value.  In  1  ■  i?OI 
Tellord  ^ent  to  Edinburgli,  where  he  was  employed  iii 
the  erection  of  houses  in  the  "new"  town,  and  occtipieil 
nuieh  ot  his  spare  time  in  learning  architectural  drawing; 
Two  years  later  he  proceeded  to  Loudon,  finding  cmi'loy. 
inent  in  the  erection  of  Somerset  House.  1  lining  in  I7i?* 
superintended  the  erection  of  a  house  for  the  commissioner, 
at  Fortsinouth  dockyard,  he  ne.xt  repaired  the  castle  of 

'   Koiil.iily,  f'rard^ihc  AnUUtinj  zur  Anit.Uuiij  il:,lrjn.  i\iJil.*«t 
unijcti.  llriiiiswiek,  1SS3 

■  Miiilhlfi  Nfii:,'  It. A  .?;'Noveniler  1^1^ 


T  E  L  — T  E  L 


155 


Sir  W  Pulteney,  member  for  Shrewsbury,  who  conceived 
sucii  a  high  opinion  of  his  talents  that  he  got  him  made 
surveyor  of  public  works  for  the  county  of  Salop  His 
earliest  bridge  was  that  across  the  Severn  at  Montford, 
finished  in  I "92  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed 
engineer  of  the  Ellesmere  Canal,  which  led  to  his  being 
employed  for  the  chief  canals  subsequently  constructed  m 
Great  Britain,  including  the  Caledonian  (1804).  the  Glou- 
cester and  Berkeley  (1818),  the  Grand  Trunk  (1822),  the 
Macclesdeld  (1824),  and  the  Birmingham  and  Liverpool 
Junction  (1825).  He  was  consulted  in  1606  by  the  king 
of  Swedea  regarding  the  construction  of  the  Gotha  Canal 
between  Lake  Wener  and  the  Baltic,  and,  his  plans  having 
been  adopted,  he  nsited  the  country  in  1810  to  superintend 
some  of  the  more  important  excavations  In  1803  he 
had  been  appointed  engineer  for  the  construction  of  920 
miles  of  roads  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  a  great  part 
through  very  difficult  country  Of  the  numerous  bndges 
bmit  in  this  line  of  roads  mention  may  be  specially  made 
of  that  across  the  Tay  at  Dunkeld.  Subsequently  he 
perfected  the  road  communication  between  London  and 
Scotland  and  the  northern  towns  of  England.  An  under- 
taking of  equal  magnitude  and  importance  with  that  in 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland  was  a  system  of  roads  through 
the  more  inaccessible  parts  of  Wales,  which  involved  the 
erection  of  the  magnificent  suspension  bndge  across  the 
Menai  Str&its,  begun  in  1820,  and  the  Conway  bndge,  be- 
gun in  1822.  For  the  Austnan  Government  Telford  built 
the  Polish  road  from  Warsaw  to  Brest.  While  the  fame  of 
Telford  rests  chiefly  on  his  road  and  canal  engineering, 
and  the  erection  of  the  numerous  bridges  and  aqueducts 
which  this  involved,  he  also  did  good  work  in  harbour 
construction.  In  1790  he  was  employed  by  the  British 
Fishery  Society  to  inspect  the  harbours  on  the  north-east 
coast  of  Scotland  ,  and,  besides  constructmg  the  important 
fishing  harbour  at  Pulteneytowu,  Wick,  he  greatly  unproved 
those  at  the  other  pnncipal  fishing  stations.  Ilis  import- 
ant works  of  this  kind  were,  however,  his  improvement  of 
the  harbours  at  Aberdeen  and  Dundee,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  St  Katherine's  docks  at  London.  In  1828-30 
he  drained  the  north  level  of  the  eastern  Fen  district,  an 
area  of  48,000  acres.  The  erection  of  the  Dean  Bridge, 
Edinburgh,  and  of  the  Broomielaw  Bridge,  Glasgow,  and 
the  improvement  (1833-34)  of  Dover  harbour  were  the 
principal  achievements  of  his  later  years  He  died  on  2d 
September  1834.  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey 

Telford  was  never  marriwl  For  twenty-one  years  be  lived  at 
the  Salopian  coiTee  house,  afterwards  the  Ship  Hotel,  Channg 
Cross  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and  of 
Edinburgh,  and  was  aanaaliy  elected  president  of  the  Institi'tion 
of  Ci^  Eugineere  from  its  commencement.  He  received  the 
Swedish  order  of  knighthood  "  of  Gnstavus  Vasa. 

See  Telford'8  MemoiTs.  written  by  himBelT  and  edited  by  JollD  RickoaD 
ns3d) :  also  Smlles's  Livts  o/the  Enginan. 

TELL.  The  story  of  William  Tell's  skill  in  shooting 
i.%  and  striking  the  apple  which  had  been  placed  on  the 
head  of  his  little  son  by  order  of  GessJer,  the  tyrannical 
Austrian  bailiff  of  Uri,  is  so  closely  bound  up  with  the 
legendary  history  of  the  origin  of  the  Swiss  Confederation 
that  they  must  be  considered  together  Both  appear  first 
in  the  15th  century,  probably  as  results  of  the  war  for 
the  Tcggenburg  inheritance  (1436-50);  for  the  intense 
hatred  of  Austria,  greatly  increased  by  her  support  of  the 
claims  of  Zurich,  favoured  the  circulation  of  stories  which 
assumed  that  Swiss  freedom  was  of  immemonal  antiquity, 
while,  as  the  war  was  largely  a  struggle  between  the  civic 
and  rural  elements  in  the  Confederation,  the  notion  that 
the  (rural)  Schwyzers  were  of  Scandinavian  descent  at  once 
separated  them  from  and  raised  them  above  the  German 
inhabitants  of  the  towns. 

The  Tell  story  is  first  found  in  a  ballad  the  first  nine 
stanzas  of   which  (containing   the  story)  were  certainly 


written  before  1474.  There  is  no  mention  made  of  the 
names  of  the  bailiff  or  of  his  master,  or  of  the  hat  placed 
on  a  pole.  Tell  is  called  "the  first  Confederate,"  and  his 
feat  Ls  treated  as  the  real  and  only  reason  why  the  Con- 
federation was  formed  and  the  tyrants  driven  out  of  the 
land  It  IS  probably  to  this  ballad  that  Melchior  Russ  of 
Lucerne  (who  began  his  Chronicle  in  1482)  refers  when, 
in  his  account  (from  Justinger)  of  the  evil  dee<Js  of  the 
bailiffs  m  the  Forest  districts,  he  excuses  himself  from  giv- 
ing the  story.  He  goes  on  to  narrate  how  Tell,  irritated 
by  his  treatment,  stirred  up  his  fnends  against  the  governor, 
who  seized  and  bound  him  and  was  conveying  him  by  boat 
to  his  castle  on  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  when  a  storm  arose, 
and  Tell,  by  reason  of  his  great  bodily  strength,  was,  after 
being  unbound,  given  charge  of  the  rudder  on  his  promts* 
to  bring  the  boat  safely  to  land.  He  steers  it  towards  a 
shelf  of  rock,  called  m  Russ's  time  Tell's  Platte,  springs  on 
shore,  shoots  the  bailiff  dead  with  nis  crossbow,  and  goes 
back  to  Uri,  where  he  stirs  up  the.  great  strife  which 
ended  in  the  battle  of  Morgarten.  In  these  two  accounts, 
which  form  the  basis  of  the  Un  version  of  the  origin  of 
the  Confederation,  it  is  Tell  and  Tell  only  who  is  the  actor 
and  the  leader.  We  first  hear  of  the  cruelties  of  Austrian 
bailiffs  in  the  Forest  distncts  in  the  Bemete  Chronich  of 
Conrad  Justinger  (1420).  No  names  or  details  are  given, 
and  the  dates  are  different  m  the  two  recensions  of  the 
Chronicle  as  "  olden  days  before  Bern  was  founded  "  {i.e., 
before  1191)  and  1260.  Several  details,  but  only  one 
name,  are  added  in  the  De  Nobditate  et  Rusticitate  Dudogvi 
(cap.  33)  of  Felix  Hemmerlin,  a  canon  of  Zunc^  who 
wrote  it  after  1451  and  before  1454  ;  in  this  last  year  he 
was  imprisoned  by  the  Schwyzers,  whom  he  had  repeatedly 
insulted  and  attacked  m  his  books.  According  to  him, 
the  men  of  Schwyz  and  of  Dnterwalden  were  the  first  to 
rise,  those  of  Uri  following  suit  much  later.  But  neither 
Justmger  nor  Hemmerlin  makes  any  allusion  to  Tell  or  his 
feat. 

The  Tell  story  and  the  "  atrocities  "  story  are  first  found 
combined  in  a  MS.  known  as  the  While  Book  of  Samen. 
They  are  contained  in  a  short  chromcle  written  between 
1467  and  1476,  probably  about  1470,  and  based  on  oral 
tradition  Many  details  are  given  of  the  oppressions  of 
the  bailiffs  we  hear  of  (Jessler,  of  the  meeting  of  Stou- 
pacher  of  Schwyz,  Fiirst  of  Un,  and  a  man  of  Nidwald  at 
the  RiitU, — in  fact,  the  usual  version  of  the  legend.  To 
give  an  instance  of  tyranny  in  Uri,  the  author  tells  us  the 
story  of  the  refusal  of  "  der  ThaJl "  to  do  reverence  to  the 
hat  placed  on  a  pole,  of  his  feat  of  skill,  and  of  his  shoot- 
ing the  bailiff,  Gessler,  from  behind  a  bush  in  the  "hollow 
way  "  near  Kiissnacht.  Tell  is  represented  as  being  one  of 
those  who  swore  at  the  Riitli  to  drive  out  the  oppressors ; 
but  the  narrative  of  his  domgs  is  merely  one  incident  in 
the  general  movement  which  began  quite  independently 
of  him.  The  chronology  is  very  confused,  but  the  events 
are  placed  after  Rudolph's  election  to  the  empire  in  1273. 
This  is  the  only  account  in  which  Tell  is  called  "der 
Thall,"  which  name  he  himself  explains  by  sajing,  "If  I 
were  sharp  (ufttojr)  I  should  be  called  something  else  and 
not  der  Tall,"  t.e..  the  simpleton  or  slow-witted  man. 
The  only  other  known  instances  of  the  Uri  version  of 
the  legend  relating  to  the  origin  of  the  Confederation 
are  the  Latin  hexameters  of  Glareanus  (1515),  in  which 
Tell  is  compared  to  Brutus  as  "assertor  patriffi,  virdex 
tiltorque  tyrannum,"  and  the  Umerspiel  (composed  in 
1511-12),  a  play  acted  in  Uri,  in  which  Russ's  version  is 
followed,  though  the  bailiff,  who  is  unnamed,  but  announces 
that  he  has  been  sent  by  Albert  of  Austria,  is  slain  in  the 
"hollow  way."  Tell  is  the  chief  of  the  Riitli  leaguers,  and 
it  is  his  deed  which  is  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  rising 
against  the  oppressors,  which  is  dat«i  in   1 296.     Mutius 


156 


T  S  L  — T  E  L 


(1540)  is  the  latest  -writer  who,  in  his  description  of  the 
origin  of  the  Confederation,  does  not  mention  Tell  and  his 
act  The  two  stories  are  now  firmly  bound  together ;  the 
version  contained  in  the  White  Booh  is  the  accepted  one, 
though  small  additions  in  names  and  dates  are  often  made. 

The  task  of  filling  np  gaps,  smoothing  away  incon- 
dstencies,  rounding  off  the  tale,  was  accomplished  by  Giles 
Tbchttdi  (q.v.),  whose  recension  was  adopted,  with  a  few 
alterations,  by  Von  Miillsr  in  his  History  of  the  Confederor 
lion  (1780).  In  the  final  recension  of  Tschudi's  Chrbnicle 
(1734-36),  which,  however,  differs  in  many  particulars 
from  the  original  draft  still  preserved  at  Zurich,  we  are 
told  how  Albert  of  Austria,  with  the  view  of  depriving  the 
Forest  lands  of  their  ancient  freedom,  sent  bailiffs  (among 
them  Gessler)  to  Uri  and  Sohwyz,  who  committed  many 
tyrannical  acts,  so  that  finaOy  on  8th  November  1307,  at 
Oie  Rvitli,  Werner  von  Stauffacher  of  Schwyz,  Walter 
FuTst  of  Uri,  Arnold  von  Melchthal  in  Unterwalden,  each 
with  ten  companions,  among  whom  was  William  Tell,  re- 
solved on  a  rising  to  expel  the  oppressojs,  which  was  fixed 
for  New  Year's  day  1308.  A  few  days  later  (November 
18)  the  TeU  incident  takes  place  (described  according  to 
the  White  Book  version),  and  on  the  appointed  date  the 
general  rising.  Tschudi  thus  finally  settled  the  date, 
which  had  before  varied  from  1260  to  1334.  He  utterly 
distorts  the  real  historical  relations  of  the  Three  Lands, 
though  he  brings  in  many  real  historical  names,  their  owners 
being  made  to  perform  historically  impossible  acts,  and  in- 
troduces many  small  additions  and  corrections  into  the  story 
as  he  had  received  it  In  particular,  while  in  his  first  draft 
he  speaks  of  the  bailiff  as  Gryssler — the  usual  name  up 
to  his  time,  except  in  the  White  Book  and  in  Stumpffs 
Chronicle  of  1548 — in  his  final  r€cension  he  calls  him 
Gessler,  knowing  that  this  was  a  real  name.  Later  writers 
added  a  few  more  particulars, — that  Tell  lived  at  Burglen 
and  fought  at  Morgarten  (1598),  that  he  was  the  son-in- 
law  of  Fiirst  and  had  two  sons  (early  18th  century),  kc. 
Johannes  von  Miiller  gave  a  vivid  description  of  the  oath 
at  the  Riitli  by  the  three  (TeU  not  being  counted  in),  and 
threw  Tschudi's  version  into  a  literary  form,  adding  one 
or  two  names  and  adopting  that  of  Hermann  for  Gessler, 
calling  him  of  "Bruneck.''  Schiller's  play  gave  the  tale  a 
world-wide  renown. 

The  story  was,  on  the  ground  of  want  of  evidence, 
regarded  as  suspicious  by  GuiUiman  in  a  private  letter  of 
1607,  and  doubts  were  expressed  by  the  brothers  Iselin 
(1727  and  1754)  and  by  Voltaire  <1754) ;  but  it  was  not 
till  1760  that  the  legend  was  definitely  attacked,  on  the 
ground  of  its  similarity  to  the  stor-  of  To'iiko  (see  below), 
in  an  anonjrmous  pamphlet  by  Freudenberger,  a  Bernese 
pastor.  This  caused  great  stir ;  it  was  publicly  burnt  by 
order  of  the  Government  of  Uri,  and  many  more  or  less 
forged  proofs  and  "documents  were  produced  in  favoiir  of 
TfclL  The  researches  of  J.  E.  Kopp  i  first  cleared  up  the 
real  early  history  of  the  league,  and  overthrew  the  legends 
of  the  White  Book  and  Tschudi.  Since  then  many  writers 
have  worked  in  the  same  direction.  Vischer  (1867)  has 
carefully  traced  out  the  successive  steps  in  the  growth  of 
the  legend,  and  Eochhoh:  (1877)  has  worked  out  the  real 
history  of  Gessler  as  shown  in  authentic  documents.  The 
general  result  has  been  to  show  that  a  mythological  marks- 
man and  an  impossible  bailiff  bearing  the  name  of  a  real 
family  have  been  joined  with  confused  and  distorted  re- 
miniscences of  the  events  of  1245-47,  in  which  the  names 
of  many  real  persons  have  been  inserted  and  many  un- 
anlhenticatcd  acts  attributed  to  them. 

The  story  of  the  skilfnl  marksman  who  succeeds  in  striking  some 
email  object  placed  on  the  head  of  a  man  or  child  is  very  widely 

'  Dommmls  for  the  Bistory  of  IKt  federal  AUiamxs,  1835  and 
USl   and  his  History,  part  ii.,  1847. 


spread  :  we  find  it  in  Denmark  (Tokko),  Norway  (two  versions), 
Icelaod,  Holstein,  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  England  (William  of 
Cloudesley).  How  it  camo  to  be  localized  in  Uri  we  do  not  I<now  ; 
possibly,  tiirough  the  story  of  the  Scandinavian  colonization  of 
Schwyz,  the  tale  was  fitted  to  some  real  local  hero. 

The  alleged  proofe  of  the  existence  of  a  real  William  TeU  in  Uri 
in  the  14tn  centnry-fcreak  down  hopelessly.  (1)  The  entries  in 
the  parish  registers  are  forged.  (2)  As  to  the  TeU  chapels— (a) 
that  in  the  *'hoUow  way"  near  Kiissnacht  was  not  kiiown  to 
Melchior  Ross  and  is  first  mentioned  by  Tschndi  (1570).  (6)  That 
on  Tell's  Platte  is  also  first  mentioned  in  Tschudi.  The  document 
which  alleges  that  the  chapel  was  built  by  order  of  a -"lands* 
gemeinde"  held  in  1388,  at  which  114  men  were  present  who  had 
been  personaUy  acquainted  with  Tell,  was  never  heard  of  tUl  1759. 
The  procession  in  boats  to  the  place  where  the  chapel  stands  may 
be  very  old,  but  is  not  connected  with  TeU  tiU  about  1582.  (c) 
The  chapel  at  Biirglen  is  known  to  have  been  founded  in  1582. 
Other  documents  and  statements  in  support  of  the  TeU  story  hava 
even  less  claim  to  credit  It  has  been  pointed  out  above  that  with 
two  exceptions  the  baiUff  is  always  called  Gryssler  or  Grissler,  and 
it  was  Tschndi  who  popularized  the  name  of  Gessler,  though 
Grissler  occurs  as  late  at  1765.  Kow  Gessler  is  the  name  of  a  real 
famUy,  the  history  of  which  from  1250  to  1513  has  been  worked 
out  by  Rochholz,  who  shows  in  detaU  that  no  member  ever  played 
the  part  attributed  to  the  bailiff  in  the  legend,  or  could  have  done 
so,  and  that  the  Gesslers  could  not  have  owned  or  dwelt  at  the 
castle  of  Kiissnacht ;  nor  could  they  have  been  called  Von  Bruneck. 

In  the  Umerspiel  the  name  of  the  baUifTs  servant  who  guarded 
the  baton  the  pole  is  given  as  Heintz  Vbgely,  and  we  know  that 
Friedrich  VogeU  was  the  name  of  one  of  the  chief  military  otficcra 
of  Peter  von  Hagenbseh,  who  from  1469  to  1474  administered  for 
Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  the  lands  (Alsace,  4c.)  pledged 
to  him  by  Sigismund  of  Hapsburg.  Now  Hagenbach  is  known  to 
have  committed  many  cruelties  like  those  attributed  to  the  bailiSs 
in  the  legend,  and  it  has  been  plausibly  conjectured  that  his  case 
has  reaUy  given  rise  to  these  stories,  especially  when  we  find  that 
the  Confederates  had  a  hand  in  his  capture  and  execution,  that 
in  a  document  of  1358  Hagenbachs  and  Gesslers  appear  side  by 
side  83  witnesses,  and  that  the  Hagenbachs  had  frequent  trans- 
actions with  the  Hapsburgs  and  their  vassals. 

Ampn?  the  vast  niuiiber  of  books  and  pamphlets  on  the  Tell  story,  the  two 
most  to  De  recommended  are  W.  vischer,  DU  Sage  vtm  der  Bifrtiung  der  WaXd* 
statu,  Leipsic,  1S67,  and  E.  L.  RochhoU,  Tell  «nd  Gesatcr,  with  a  volojne  o( 
documents  1250-1513.  Heilbronn,  1877.  Convenient  summaries  ot  the  ocm. 
troversy  will  be  found  in  any  niodern  book  on  Swiss  history,  and  more  partlca. 
larly  in  Q.  von  Wvss.  Ueberd.  G«cA.  d.  drti  Lander~Uri,  SeJiVfyz,  u  Vnitrtcaiden 
—in  dtn  Jahren  ISIi  ISJS,  Zurich.  1868:  Alf  Hober.  IHe  WtilditdtU  bii  ruf 
festen  SfgHtndutui  ihrer  Bidoenosprnschafl.  mil  ein^Tn  Anhange  <itber  die  ge^hieht- 
liche  SttUwngd^s  fVilh.  re», "Innsbruck.  1861 ;  Albert  Rilliet,  Les  Originea  de  la 
•CtmfideTatvm  ^u^se^  Hwtmre  et  U^ende,  Geneva,  1869.  (W.  A-  B.  C.) 

TELLER,  WiLHELM  Abraham  (1734-1804),  was  the 
son  of  the  Leipsic  clergynrin,  Eomanus  Teller,  who  edited 
the  earUer  volumes  of  the  Englisches  Bibelwerk  (in  19  vols., 
1 749-70),  an  adaptation  for  German  readers  of  the  exe- 
getical  works  of  WUlet,  Ainsworth,  Patrick,  Poole,  Henry, 
and  others.  TeUer  was  bom  at  Leipsic  on  9th  January 
1734,  and  studied  philosophy  and  theology  in  the  uni- 
versity there.  Amongst  the  men  whose  influence  mainly 
determined  his  theological  position  and  line  of  work  was 
J.  A.  Emesti.  His  writings  present  rationalism  in  its 
course  of  development  from  Biblical  snpematuralism  to 
the  borders  of  deistical  naturalism.  His  first  learned  pro- 
duction was  a  Latin  translation  of  Kennicott's  Dissertation 
cm  the  State  of  the  Printed  Hehreu)  Text  of  the  Old  Testament 
(1756),  which  was  followed  fJie  next  year  by  an  essay 
in  which  he  expounded  his  •  own  critical  principles.  In 
1761  he  was  appointed  pastor  and  professor  of  theology 
in  the  university  of  Helmstadt.  Here  he  pursued  his  ex- 
egetical,  theological,  and  historical  researches,  the  results 
of  which  appeared  in  his  Lehrbuch  des  chnstlichen  Glavbens 
(1764).  This  work  threw  the  entire  theological  world 
into  comanotion,  as  much  by  the  novelty  of  its  method  as 
by  the  heterodoxy  of  its  matter,  and  more  by  its  omissions 
than  by  its  positive  teaching,  though  everywhere  the 
author  seeks  to  put  theolo^cal  doctrines  in  a  decidedly 
modern  form.  In  consequence  of  the  storm  of  indignation 
the  book  provoked,  Teller  eagerly  accepted  an  invitation 
from  the  Prussian  cultus  minister  to  the  post  of  prebendary 
of  Kiln  on  the  Spree,  witli  a  seat  in  the  Berlin  consistory 
(1767)  Here  he  found  himself  in  the  company  of  the 
rationatistic  theologians  of  Prussia — Sack,  Spalding,  and 


T  E  L  — T  E  M 


157 


others — and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  rationalistic;, 
partr,  and  one  of  the  chief  contributors  to  Kicolai's  AUge- 
meine  DeuUoke  Bihlioth(k.  Teller  vras  not  long  in' making 
use  of  bis  freer  position  in  Berlin  1111772  appeared  the 
most  popular  of  his  books,  Worterbuch  zum  Neum,  Testa- 
ment (Cth  ed.,  1S05).  The  object  of  this  work  is  to  recast 
the  language  and  ideas  of  the  New  Testament  and  give 
them  the  form  of  ISth-century  illuminism.  Thus  Heb. 
yiij  S  signifies  the  permanence  of  Christ's  teaching,  and,  as 
the  New  Testament  has  no  word  for  Christianity,  "Christ " 
may  mean  sometimes  His  person  and  at  others  His  doctrine 
or  the  Christian  religion  ;  Col.  i.  15  signifies  the  priori tj'  of 
Christ  to  ail  other  Christians.  By  this  lexicon  Teller  had 
put  himself  amongst  the  most  advanced  rationalists,  and 
his  opponents  charged  him  with  the  design  of  overthrowing 
positive  Christianity  altogether.  The  edict  of  Wollner 
(17S8),  and  Teller's  manly  action  as  consistorialrath  in  de- 
fiance of  it,  led  the  Prussian  Government  to  pass  upon  him 
the  sentence  of  suspension  for  three  months,  with  forfeiture 
of  his  stipend.  He  was  not,  however,  to  be  moved  by 
such  means,  and  (1792)  issued  his  work  Die  Rdigion  der 
\VoUi:r,m.meneren,  an  exposition  of  his  theological  position, 
in  which  no  advocated  at  length  the  idea,  subsequently 
often  urged,  of  "  the  perfectibility  of  Christianity," — that 
is,  of  the  ultimate  transformation  of  Christianity  into  a 
scheme  of  simple  morality,  with  a  complete  rejection  of 
all  specifically  Christian  ideas  and  methods.  "  This  book 
represents  the  culminating  point  of  German  illuminism, 
and  is  separated  by  a  long  process  of  development  from 
the  author's  Lehrhuck.  Teller  died  on  9th  December  1804. 
In  addition  to  the  above  works  he  wTote  Ankilung  zur 
Religion  iiberhaupt  und  mm  AUgemeinen  des  Chrisienthums 
insbesondere  (1792);  and,  besides  his  contributions  to  the 
Allgemeine  Deutsche  Bibliotliek,  he  edited  a  popular  and 
practically  useful  MagadnfUr  Prediger  (1792-1801). 

See  Gass,  Gcschichle  der  protfsf-antischen  Dogmatil\  W.  pp.  206- 
222  ;  Tholuck,  art  "Teller,"  in  Herzog-Plitfs kealeiicykl. ;  Dbring, 
Deutsche  Kanzclredner  des  IStcn  und  X9ten  JaJirh.,  p.  506  sq.  ; 
Pusey,  Causes  of  the  Late  Rationalistic  Character  of  German 
TJuology  (1S28),  p.  150. 

•  TELLEZ,  Gabriel  (c.  1570-1648),  Spanish 'dramatist, 
better  kno\vn  as  Tntso  de  Molina  (his  nom  deplun/),  was 
born  about  the  year  1570,  and  about  1613  entered  the 
order  of  the  Brothers  of  Charity  at  Toledo.  In  1645  he 
became  prior  of  the  monastery  of  the  order  at  Soria, 
•where  he  died  in  1648. 

His  dramatic  -works  are  said  to  have  ntimbered  nearly  300,  but  of 
these  only  a  small  proportion  are  now  extant.     A  selection  of  the 
best  of  them  was  edited  by  Hartzenbusch  in  1839-42  (Madrid,  12 
-vols,).     See  Drama.  toL  vii  p.  421,  and  Spanish  Literature,  ' 
-vol.  xxU.  p.  359.  . 

TELLICHERKl,  a  seaport  town  oi  India,  in  Malabar 
■district  of  Madras,  situated  in  11°  44'  53"  N.  lat.  and 
75°  31'  38"  E.  long.  It  is  a  healthy  and  picturesque 
town,  built  upon  a  group  of  wooded  hills  running  down 
to  the  sea,  and  is  protected  by  a  natural  breakwater  of 
rock.  The  to-wn  with  its  suburbs  occupies  about  5  square 
miles,  and  was  at  one  time  defended  by  a  strong  mud  wall. 
The  citadel  or  castle  still  siands  to  the  north  of  the  town. 
The  East  India  Company  established  a  factory  here  in  1 683 
lor  the  pepper  and  cardamom  trade.  For  two  years 
(1780-82)  the  to-wn  -withstood  a  siege  by  Hyder's  general 
SardSr  J^Ao,  and  in  the  subsequent  wars  with  Mysore 
Tellicherri  was  the  base  of  operations  for  the  ascent  of 
the  Ghits  from  the  west  coast.  In  1881  the  population 
-was  26,410. 

TELLURIUM.     See  Selenitjm  and  Tellubium.. 

TELPHERAGE.     See  Tkaction. 

TEMESVAR,  a  royal  fre )  city  and  capital  of  the  county 
«f  Temes,  is  the  chief  town  of  south-eastern  Hungary.  It 
lies  on  the  navigable  B^ga  Canal  and  the  river  B^ga,  in 
45°  47'  N-  lat  and  21°  14'. 2.  long.     The  inner  town  is 


fortified  and  separated  from  toe  suourbs  by  a  giacis,~now 
partly  converted  into  a  park.  ,  Temesvar  is  the  seat  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Csanid  and  of  a  Greek  bishop, 
as  also  of  several  Government  departments  of  great  im- 
portance,- and  of  one  of  the  fifteen  army  corps  of  the 
Austrian  Hungarian  army.  The  majority  of  the  inhabit- 
ants foUow  industrial  and  commercial  pursuits,  and  carry 
on  a  brisk  trade  in  grain,  flour,  spirits,  fruits,  flax,  and 
hemp  -with  the  neighbouring  districts  and  with  Roumania 
an|d  Servia,  by  means  of  the  Arad-TemesvAr  and  the 
Austrian-Hungarian  State  Railways,  as  well  as  by  the  B6ga 
Canal  and  by  road.  The  town  possesses  many  charitable 
and  educational  establishments,  and  is  a  favourite  place 
of  residence  on  account  of  its  neatness  and  cleanliness.  It 
has  been  lighted  by  electricity  since  1 883.  Among  the  build- 
ings specially  worthy  of  notice  are  some  fine  old  churches, 
a  new  theatre,  and  ii  synagogue  in  the  Byzantine  style. 
Temesvdr  played  an  important  part  in  the  Turkish  wars  and 
in  that  of  1848-49.     The  population  was  37,500  in  1S86. 

TEMMINCK,.Ko}fE AD  Jacob  (1778-1857),  keeper  of 
the  Leyden  museum  of  natural  history,  was  especially 
distinguished  as  an  ornithologist,  and  ivas  the  author  of 
many  magnificently  illustrated  systematic  works.-  See 
Oexithology,  vol.  xviii.  p.  11  sq.' 

TEMPE.    See  Thessaly.     " 

TEMPERA,  or  Distemper,'  is  a  method  of  "painting  in 
which  solid  pigments  are  employed,  mixed  with  a  water 
medium  2  in  which  some  kind  of  gum  or  gelatinous  sub- 
stance is  dissolved  to  prevent  the  colours  from  scaling  oft". 
Tempera  is  called  in  Italy  "  fresco  a  secco,"  as  distinguished 
from  "fresco  buono,"  or  true  fresco,  painted  on  freshly 
laid  patches  of  stucco.  The  peculiarities  of  true  fresco 
are  described  in  vol.  ix.  p.  769  sq.  The  disadvantages 
of  tempera  painting  are  that  it  will  not  bear  exposure  to 
the  weather ;  the  pigments  merely  lie  on  the  surface  and 
do  not  sink  into  the  stucco,  as  is  the  case  with  true  fresco 
pigments;  moreover,  the  medium  used,  being  soluble  in 
water,  -will  not  stand  the  rain.  Its  advantages  are  that 
the  painter  can  work  at  leisure,  and  can  also  transfer  or 
sketch  his  -whole  design  on  the  dry  finished  surface ;  while 
in  fresco  work  each  portion  of  the  design  is  hidden  piece- 
meal as  each  new  patch  of  stucco  is  applied  (see  Raphael,' 
vol.  XX.  p.  279).  Another  important  point  is  that  a  far 
greater  variety  of  pigments  can  be  used  in  tempera  paint- 
ing, as  they  are  not  subjected  to  the  caustic  action  of  wet 
lime.  Lastly,  tempera  painting  can  be  applied  to  any 
substance,  such  as  dry  plaster,  wood,  stone,  terracotta, 
vellum,  and  paper.^  Various  media  have  been  used  for 
tempera  work,  such  as  the  glutinous  sap  of  the  fig  and 
other  trees,  various  gums  which  are  soluble  in  water,  and 
size  made  by  boiling  down  fish-bones,  parchment,  and 
animals'  hoofs.  In  more  recent  times  a  mixture  of  egg 
and  -vinegar  has  been  found  to  make  a  good  medium, 
especially  when  it  is  desirable  to  apply  the  colours  in 
considerable  body  or  impasto.  Painting  in  tempera  is 
probably  the  oldest  method  of  all,  and  was  used  in  ancient 
Egyrpt  very  largely,  as  can  be  seen  by  an  examination  of 
the  many  existing  examples  on  papyrus  or  wood  and  stone 
thinly  coated  -ndth  a  skin  of  fine  plaster  (gesso).  Other 
ancient  examples  have  been  found  in  Babylon  and  Nineveh, 
and  for  internal  work  it  appears  to  have  been  much  em- 
ployed by  the  Greeks.  To  some  extent  tempera  was  used 
by  the  Romans,  though  in  most  cases  a  combination  of 
fresco  and  encaustic  (hot  wax)  -was  employed  for  thei' 
mural  decoration  '(see  vol.  xvii.  p.  42^ 


^  For  some  account  of  tempera  palotiug  in  classical  .lud  niedixval 
times,  sec  Mcral  Decoration,  vol.  xvii.  pp.  39-47. 

'  Hence  it  used  to  be  called  "  watcr-^ork  " ;  see  Shakespeare,  Hat. 
/v.,  part  ii.,  act  ii.  sr.  1. 

'  Miniatures  and  illuminated  letters  in  medieval  MSS.  were  pamtsrf 
with  very  finely  ground  colours  mixed  with  a  tempera  medium. 


158 


T  E  M  — T  E  M 


In  mediaeTal  times,  from  the  6th  century  in  the 
Byzantium  of  Justinian  down  to  the  14th  century,  most 
painting,  whether  on  walls  or  panels,  was  executed  in 
tempera,  though  in  many  cases  it  appears  to  have  been  the 
custom  to  put  in  the  coloured  ground  in  true  fresco,  and, 
when  that  was  dry,  paint  on  it  the  complete  picture  with  a 
tempera  medium.  This  was  the  method  used  in  the  Byzan- 
tine wall-paintings  in  the  churches  of  Thessalonica,  Mount 
Athos,  and  elsewhere.  A  similar  practice  existed  in  Eng- 
land and  other  northern  countries,'  as  in  the  very  complete 
series  of  paintings  on  the  walls  and  vault  of  the  chancel 
of  Kempley  church,  Gloucestershire,  dating  from  about 
1100.  Most  commonly,  however,  in  England  as  in  France 
and  Germany  the  whole  painting  was  done  in  tempera, 
the  finished  surface  of  the  plaster  being  first  covered  with 
a  wash  of  old  slaked  lime  or  whitening.  As  a  rule  every 
inch  of  stone,  whether  carved,  moulded,  or  plain,  in  the 
cathedrals  and  other  churches  of  mediaeval  France,  Eng- 
land, and  other  countries  was  covered  with  this  thin  coating 
of  white,  and  then  elaborately  decorated  with  tempera 
painting.  In  those  rare  cases  where  want  of  money  pre- 
vented the  application  of  colour  the  stone-work  of  the  in- 
terior received  the  coat  of  white,  so  that  at  any  future 
time  the  colouring  might  be  added,  and  also  because  the 
feeling  of  the  Middle  Ages  evidently  was  that  bare  stone 
inside  a  building  had  an  imfinished  and  uncomfortable 
look,^  and  was  quite  as  unsuitable  in  a  richly  decorated 
and  furnished  cathedral  as  it  would  now  be  considered  in 
'a  lady's  drawing-room.  The  additional  splendour  gained 
by  the  use  of  minute  patterns  stamped  in  gesso,  thinly 
laid  over  the  surface  of  the  stone,  is  described  in  Moral 
Decoration,  vol.  xvij.  p.  47  ;  see  also  fig.  1 7. 

Tempera  in  Italy. — For  panel  and  canvas  paintings 
tempera  continued  in  use  till  nearly  the  end  of  the  1 5th 
century,  when  the  Flemish  method  of  oil  painting  gradu- 
ally took  its  place.  In  many  cases  with  panel  pictures  of 
the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century  it  is  now  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  be  sure  whether  they  were  painted  in 
tempera  or  in  oil,  either  because  both  methods  were  com- 
bined— the  picture  being  begun  in  tempera  and  finished 
with  oil  glazings — or  because  an  oil  varnish  has  been  laid 
over  the  tempera  pictures,  and  so  the  pigments  have  ab- 
sorbed oil  out  of  the  varnish  and  have  thus  practically 
become  associated  with  an  oil  medium.  In  some  cases 
slight  peculiarities  of  brush-work  bear  witness  to  one 
medium  or  the  other  ;  but  these  appearances  are  often  de- 
ceptive, and  any  real  certainty  on  the  point  is  unattain- 
able. The  round  panel  of  the  Madonna  and  St  Joseph  by 
Michelangelo  may  be  mentioned  as  an  example  of  these 
doubtful  cases. 

In  the  main  the  earlier  tempera  easel  pictures  were 
painted  on  wood, — pear,  poplar,  or  walnut  being  commonly 
used  ;  but  a  few  painters  preferred  in  some  cases  to  use 
canvas.^  The  National  Gallery  of  London  possesses  a  very 
beautiful  example  of  this, — the  Entombment,  attributed 
to  Van  der  Weyden  (see  Schools  op  Painting,  vol.  xxi.  p. 
438,  fig.  29),  which  is  most  delicately  and  yef  powerfully 
painted  on  linen  without  any  priming.  Usually  both 
panels  and  canvas  were  prepared  for  tempera  by  being 
covered  with  a  fine  priming  or  coating  of  gesso  (plaster). 
Some  later  painters  used  marble  dust ;  others  unfortu- 
nately used  white  lead,  which  has  since  blackened  through 
the  absorption  of  gases  from  the  air. 

.  '  A  Gno  example  of  14th-century  tempera  patntmg  in  Sweden  is 
Ulustraud  m  voV.  xvii.  plaU  I. 

*  NothiBg  could  be  more  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages 
than  the  modem  rage  for  cutting  off  plaster  aod  scraping  old  atone- 
«'ork,  under  a  mistaken  notion  of  aesthetic  honesty. 

'  In  order  to  enfiure  an  even  surface  some  painters  prepared  their 
panela  by  covering  them  with  linen  or  veUum,  over  which  the  gesso 
(•riming  VQS  laid. 


In  the  case  of  wall  paintings,  both  tempera  and  fresco  * 
were  used  together, — the  proportion  of  fresco  work  being 
gradually  mcreased.  In  the  13th  and  most  of  the  14th 
century  little  more  than  the  groundwork  of  the  picture 
was  painted  in  fresco,  though  this  varied  according  to  the 
custom  of  each  painter.  In  the  15th  century  increased 
technical  skill  and  rapidity  of  execution  allowed  much  mor* 
complete  work  to  be  done  in  fresco,  till  at  last  nothmg 
but  a  few  fini-shing  touches  were  done  in  tempera.  For 
this,  exceptional  certainty  of  touch  and  speed  of  execution 
were  required,  and  some  weaker  painters  never  attained  to 
a  very  complete  mastery  over  the  fresco  process.  The 
brilliant  series  of  wall  paintings  by  Pinturicchio  in  the 
cathedral  library  at  Siena  contain  a  very  large  proportion 
of  tempera  work,  in  spite  of  which  they  are  still  in  a  wonder- 
ful state  of  preservation.  Raphael's  rapid  advance  in  the 
mastery  of  fresco-work  is  clearly  shown  in  his  paintings  in 
the  Vatican  stanze,  each  one  of  which  is  carried  to  a  further 
stage  in  true  fresco  than  the  preceding.  Thus  the  earli- 
est painting  of  the  series  (the  Disputa)  is  very  largely 
executed  in  tempera,  while  some  of  the  later  ones  are 
nearly  completed  m  fresco,  and  show  the  most  perfect  skill 
in  that  difficult  process.  Michelangelo  was  specially  re- 
markable for  his  great  power  in  fresco,  and  earned  his 
Si.stine  paintings  to  a  very  advanced  stage  before  touching 
them  with  tempera.  Sad  to  say,  what  tempera  finishing 
touches  ho  did  apply  Have  mostly  been  scraped  off  during 
the  many  cleanings  and  repairs  that  these  works  have 
undergone ;  and  the  same  misfdrtune  has  happened  to  a 
large  number  oi  other  impo-tant  pictures.  Tempera  was 
specially  used  for  paintings  on  canvas  which  were  m- 
tended  to  be  hung  like  tapestry,  as,  for  example,  the  fine 
15th-century  series  at  Rheims  and  Mantegna's  Triumph 
of  Julius  Caisar  at  Hampton  Court.'  It  was  also  much 
used  for  large  cartoons,  such  as  Raphael's  tapestry  designs, 
now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  After  the  first 
half  of  the  16th  century  the  increasmg  use  of  oil  painting, 
assisted  by  the  artistic  decadence  of  the  age,  caused  the 
gradual  disuse  of  both  fresco  artl  tempera. 

A  third  process,  often  used  during  the  earlier  Middle 
Ages,  was  a  sort  of  compromise  between  tempera  and 
fresco.  A  finished  stucco  surface  was  prepared  as  for 
ordinary  tempera,  but  before  each  day's  painting  the  plaster 
was  soaked  with  water,  so  that  the  pigments,  laid  on  to 
the  wet  plaster,  to  some  extent  sank  below  the  surface, 
though  without  penetrating  as  deeply  as  they  would  on 
newly  mixed  stucco.  (j.  H.  M.) 

TEMPER.\i\CE  SOCIETIES.^  The  modern  temper- 
ance movement  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  publication 
at  Philadelphia,  in  1785,  of  Dr  Benjamin  Rush's  essay  on 
"The  Effects  of  Ardent  Spirits  on  the  Human  Body  and 
Mind,"  which  was  republished  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine 
of  1786,  and  had  a  wide  circulation.  The  distinction  which 
he  draws  between  distilled  and  fermented  liquors  has, 
however,  no  foundation  in  fact,  the  difference  being  one 
of  degree  and  not  of  kind.  In  1S08  Dr  Lyman  Beecher 
and  Dr  B.  J.  Clark,  both  readers  of  Rush,  took  action,  and 
the  result  of  the  work  of  the  latter  was  the  formation  of 
what  is  believed  to  be  the  first  modern  temperance  society. 
It  was  formed  in  Greenfield,  Saratoga  county,  New  York, 
as  an  anti-spirit^  association,  and  snll  remains  a  teetotal 
society.  This  example  was  soon  followed  elsewhere,  the 
early  societies  all  restricting  their  scope  to  advocacy  of 
moderation  in  the  use  of  distilled  liquors,  and. placing 
no  inhibition  upon  fermented  drinks.     One  society  had  a 

•  "  Fresco  ■■  here  means  "  fresco  buono,"  or  true  fresco. 

*  See  vol.  ivii.  p.  88. 

'  The  manner  and  degree  in  vliicb  the  law  has  in  rec«Dt  years 
regulated  the  sale  of  intoxicants  is  described  under  LiQDOR  Laws  (vol 
xiv.  p.  688). 


TEMPERANCE      SOCIETIES 


159 


Cyelaw  nriiuiring  iny  member  who  became  intoxicated  to 
treat  all  tljf  oilier  membtrs.  The  work  made  further 
^rogrc.-s  rthcn  the  American  Temperance  Society  was 
■oundcJ  in  1S26.  Three  years  later  Prof.  John  Edgar  of 
Belfast  called  attention  to  the  need  for  similar  work  in 
Ireland ,  aud  John  Dunlop  nearly  at  the  same  time 
M-ganized  a  temperance  society  in  Glasgow.  In  1830 
she  first  English  temperance  society  was  founded  at  Brad- 
lord.  The  habitual  use  of  fermented  liquors  in  England 
was  a  prolific  source  of  drunkenness,  and  the  evil  was 
greatly  increased  by  the  passing  of  the  Beer  Act  in  October 
1830.  Hence  some  of  the  reformers  began  to  abstain  from 
all  forms  of  alcohoL  This  new  departure  found  its  leader 
in  Joseph  Livesey  of  Preston,  a  man  of  singular  zeal  and 
benevolence,  who  with  sLit  others  signed  a  pledge  of  total 
abstinence  on  Ist  September  1832.  The  reformers  were 
soon  divided  over  the  fitrce  "battle  of  the  pledges." 
Some  were  willing  to  pledge  themselves  to  abstain,  but 
not  to  refrain  from  providing  alcoholic  drink  for  their 
visitors.  After  the  formation  of  the  distinctive  total 
abstinence  organizations,  the  moderation  societies  died  of 
inanition.  It  should  be  mentioneii  here  that  the  Society 
of  Bible  Christians,  founded  at  Salford  in  1809,  adopted 
tlie  rule  of  abstinence  from  Besh  meat  and  intoxicants, 
and  that  a  number  of  the  "radical  reformers"  were  ab- 
stainers from  a  desire  to  diminish  the  public  revenue, 
which  they  regarded  as  devoted  to  wTong  purposes  by  the 
Government  of  the  day.  In  Ireland  Father  Theobald 
Mathew  became  president  of  the  Total  Abstinence  Society 
in  Cork  in  1833,  and  the  "pledge"  was  taken  from  his 
hands  by  crowds;  before  he  died  in  1856  between  three 
uid  four  million  persons  are  said  to  have  received  it  from 
him  in  the  course  of  his  journeys.  J.  S.  Buckingham 
secured  the  appointment  of  a  committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  which  sat  in  June  1834,  to  inquire  into  drunken- 
ness. The  adjective  "  teetotal "  was  first  used  in  Septem- 
ber 1833  by  Richard  T\imer,  a  reformed  drunkard,  to 
express  the  thoroughgoing  principle  of  total  abstinence, 
but  whether  he  coined  the  word,  or  whf-ther  it  was  merely 
a  stuttering  pronunciation  of  "total,"  or  an  old  dialect 
word  has  been  disputed ,  Prof.  Skeat  {Etym.  Did.,  t.v. 
"  Teetotal ")  believes  it  is  an  emphasized  form  of  "  total," 
formed  on  the  principle  of  reduplication.  The  early 
teetotallers  were  earnest  missionaries.  In  consequence  of 
their  efforts  societies  and  leagues  multiplied,  periodicals 
were  estalilished,  and,  notwithstanding  many  failures  and 
apparent  retrogressions,  the  temperance  movement  pro- 
gressed. One  of  the  chief  forms  gX  thrift  amongst  the 
artisan  class  was  that  of  the  friendly  society,  the  meetings 
of  which  were  usually  held  at  the  public-house,  large 
suras  being  spent  (sometimes  by  rule)  on  liquor.  In  1835 
the  Indefiendent  Order  of  Rechabites  was  formed  at  Sal- 
ford,  and  has  since  had  a  prosperous  career  as  a  working- 
class  insurance  company  on  temperance  principles.  The 
Sons  of  Temperance  and  the  Total  Abstinent  Sons  of  the 
Phoenix  are  similar  organizations.  The  sickness  and 
death-rate  among  members  of  these  bodies  is  much  below 
that  of  the  ordinary  friendly  societies.  The  beneficial 
effect  of  abstinence  upon  health  and  longevity  is  shown 
by  the  experience  of  the  United  Kingdom  Temperance 
Provid>:nt  Institution,  the  example  of  which  has  led 
several  large  insurarxe  companies  to  add  a  special  section 
for  teetotallers.  The  statistics  of  these  ofiices  show  that 
the  mortality  of  the  ordinary  insured  is  considerably 
heavier  than  that  of  the  abstainers.  A  vehement  con- 
troversy arose  at  an  early  period  as  to  the  use  of  sacra- 
mental wine,  and  the  nt'ure  of  the  wines  mentioned  in 
Scfjpture  was  discussed  in  innumerable  pam;ihleta  The 
jaiUlt  has  been  that  in  a  number  of  cases  the  wine  now 
S»«d  lilt  frwratnent^  purposes  is  understood  to  be  unfer- 


mented.  The  cosmopolitan  character  of  the  movement 
was  shown  by  the  meeting  of  the  World's  Temperance 
Convention  at  London  in  1846.  The  Scotch  United 
Presbyterian  Abstinence  Society,  originated  in  1845,  was 
one  of  the  first  of  the  church  societies ;  and  there  are  now 
few,  if  any,  religious  d'enominations  either  in  England  or 
America  in  which  such  organizations  are  wholly  wanting. 
The  Church  x>i  England  Temperance  Society  has  two 
sections,  one  pledged  to  the  temperate  use  of  intoxicants 
and  the  other  to  total  abstinence.  This  method  of  organ- 
izing has  found  imitators.  The  enactment  of  the  Maine 
Liquor  Law  in  America  in  1851  (see  vol.  xv.  p.  299)  led 
to  the  formation,  in  1853,  of  the  United  Kingdom  Alliance, 
which  has  for  its  object  the  suppression  of  the  liquor  traffic 
by  legislation,  and  with  a  view  to  this  suggests  that  a  power 
of  local  veto  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  rate- 
payers.  This  proposal  took  parliamentary  form  in  the 
Permissive  Bill  of  Sir  Wilfrid  Lawson,  which  was  ulti- 
mately withdrawn  and  replaced  by  a  '.'  local  option "  re- 
solution, which  has  been  thrice  affirmed  by  the  House  of 
Commons.  Temperance  hotels,  temperance  cafes,  British 
workmen  public-houses,  cocoa  house.'i  coffee  palaces,  tee- 
total clu^s,  have  arisen  in  many  places  as  social  aids  of 
the  temperance  movement. 

lu  1868  the  Good  Templar  order  was  introduced  into 
England  from  the  United  States,  where  it  had  come  into 
existence  several  years  earlier.  In  England  it  made  rapid 
progress,  until  it  was  seriously  checked  by  a  dispute  arising 
out  of  the  Negro  question ;  but  the  two  sections  have 
again  reunited  (1887).  Good  Templary  is  the  free- 
masonry of  temperance,  with  ritual,  passwords,  grips,  ic, 
closely  modelled  on  those  of  the  old  secret  societies.  It 
has  had  a  remarkable  extension  in  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States,  the  British  colonies,  and  in  Scandinavia,  its 
aggregate  membership  now  reaching  over  623,000.  One 
of  its  results  has  been  the  foundation  of  a  temperance 
orphanage  at  Sunbury-on-Thames.  Side  by  side  with  the 
general  movement  there  has  been  a  special  movement 
against  the  use  of  alcohol  as  medicine,  and  the  tendency 
of  medical  teaching  now  favours  at  least  restriction  of  its 
use  as  a  therapeutic  agent.  The  London  Temperance 
Hospital  for  the  non-alcoholic  treatment  of  disease  was 
opened  in  October  1873.  The  importance  of  training  the 
young  was  early  recognized  by  the  leaders  of  temperance 
reformation,  and  the  labours  of  Dr  R.  B.  Grindrod  o< 
Manchester  and  Mrs  Garble  of  Dublin  led  to -the  forma' 
tion  of  bands  of  hope,  which  are  now  found  in  connexion 
with  many  places  of  worship.  The  juvenile  temples  of 
the  Good  Templar  order  also  work  in  the  same  direction. 
The  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  founded  in  the 
United  States  in  1874,  is  one  of  the  latest  forms  of  tem- 
perance activity.  A  branch  was  organized  in  Great  Britain 
in  1876;  and  in  1883  the  World's  Women's  Temperance 
Union  came  into  existence. 

The  temperaDce  movement  has  now  branched  out  into  a  multi- 
tude of  organizations  in  the  United  Kingdom,  of  which  the  Rail-' 
way  Temperance  Union,  the  post-office  temperance  societies,  and 
associations  connected  with  the  army  and  navy  are  Xy\va.  The 
or^r-inizations  of  a  more  general  character  are  the  United  Kingdom 
Alliance,  which  is  very  active  in  the  disseinination  of  tiitotal 
doctrines  generally,  the  National  Tenipcrance  League,  the  Scottish 
Terof»erance  League,  the  British  Temperance  League,  thn  Scottish 
Permii^ive  Bill  Association,  the  Irish  Temperance  League,  and  the 
Irish  Association  for  t)ie  Prevent'ou  of  Inieinperaoce.  There  are 
also  large  district  and  county  societies.  Next  to  these  come  the 
secret  orders,  of  wriich  the  Rechabites,  Sons  of  Temperance,  Sons  of 
the  Phcenix  are  large  beneJjt  societies.  The  Independent  Order  of 
Good  I'emplars  is  non-beneficiary,  and  seeks  in  its  "  lodges  "  to 
provije  social  attractions,  and  at  the  sanie  time  to  train  the  mem- 
bers in  temperance  work  ;  it  is  probably  the  largest  voluntary 
association  in  the  world.  .There  are  societies  in  connexion  with 
the  various  religious  bodies,  of  which  the  Churdi  of  F.ngland 
Temperance  Society,  the  Catholic  League  of  the  Cross,  the  Baptist 
Total  A^tiuence  Society,  are  promincDt  instances. 


160 


T  E  M  — T  E  M 


(j-'i:iT. 


The  oldest  organization  in  America  is  the  Sons  of  Temperance 
(L842),~  now  numbering  aboat  80,000  members.  The  Independent 
Order  of  Good  Templars  (1851)  is  the  largest,  its  membership 
approaching  100,000. '  Both  these,  as  also  the  Koyal  Templars  of 
Temperance  (1877)  and  the  Templars  of  Honour  and  Temperance 
(JS45),  are  mutual  benefit  societies.  The  Woman's  Christian 
Temperance  Union,  the  National  Temperance  Society  and  Pub- 
lication House  (New  York),  and  the  National  Prohibition  Party 
are  active  ia  educational  work.  The  'Womaa's  Christian  Temper- 
ance Union  is  the  outgrowth  of  "the  Women's  Crusade"  (1872),  a 
remarkable  uprising  among  the  women  of  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania 
against  the  liquor  traffic.  The  organization  was  effiected  in  1874, 
and  has  since  spread  throughout  the  United  States,  its  member- 
ship no-.f  (1887)  numbering  207,000.  Its  influence  has  been 
mdely  felt  in  legislatures  and  in  elections  in  which  prohibitory 
laws  have  been  voted  upon.  With  the  exception  of  the  Chnrcn 
Temperance  Society  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  which 
has  the  "double  basis,"  all  the  temperance  societies  of  the  United 
States  are  based  on.  the.  doctrine  of  total  abstinence  ;  and,  with 
the  additional  exception  of  the  Father  Mathew  Total  Abstinence 
Societies  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  they  all  advocate  the 
principle  of  prohibition.  Amendments  embodj-ing  this  idea  have 
been  inserted  in  the  State  constitutions  (by  popular  vote)  of  Maine, 
Kansas,  and  Rhode  Island.  In  Vermont  and  Iowa  the  legislature 
haa  enacted  statutory  prohibition,  which  is  still  iniorce.  In  other 
States  local  prohibition  prevails  to  a  large  extent,  chiefly  in 
Oeorgia,  Mississippi,  Massachusetts,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  and 
Arkansas. 

,  BMuygraphy. — Tne  literature  of  the  subject  is  very  exteoaivs  and  may  most 
conveDiently  be  clas.ied  under  the  foUowJDg  heaiis.  (1)  Histobt  :  P.  T. 
Winakiil,  History  of  the  Temperance  Fe/ormatwn ;  One  JJuTtdred  Yeart  of  Tem- 
perance (New  York,  18^);  Dorchester,  Lujuor  Problem  in  all  Ages  (New 
York):  WiUard,  Woman  and  Temperance  (Hartford);  Shaw,  Oreat  Temperance 
Reforms  (ToTODtoX  (2)  TaEOlXKiv  :  Dawson  Burns  and  F.  R.  Lees,  Temperance 
Eibi^  Commentary;  J.  Smith,  The  Church  and  tM  Temperance  Ecjormation; 
Ssmabo,  Diiine  taw  as  to  (rin/s  (Philadelphia).  (3)  General:  A.  GustAfson, 
TlKe  Foundation  of  Death  ;  R.  B.  Grindrod,  Our  Nation's  rioc ;  D.  Bums,  Bases 
of  the  Temperance  Re/arnuUion  ;  Grindrod,  Sacchus;  B.  Parsons,  Anti-Bacchus; 
roweU,  Bacchus  Dethroned  ;  Baker,  The  Curse  of  Britain  ;  J.  Dunlop,  Philosophy 
of  Drinking  Usages  0S!9) ;  The  PotUical  ProhibUionist  (New  York,  1887);  Pit- 
man, Akoh^ol  and  the  Slate  (New  York).  (4)  Poutical  Economt;  F.  R.  Lees, 
Argument  for  the  Prohibition  of  th£  Liquor  Tragic;  W.  Hoyle,  Our  Natio^uil 
E^ources;  Hargreaves,  Our  Wasted  Resources  (New  York).  (5)  Science:  J. 
Livesey,  The  Malt  Liquor  Lecture;  P.  Bume,  Teetotaller's  Comp<inion;  W.  B. 
Carpenter,  Physiology  of  Temperance  and  Total  Abstinence  ;  A.  A.  Reade,  Study 
and  Stimulants;  HiUer,  Alcohol,  its  Place  and  Power;  Id.,  Nephalism;  B,  W. 
Richardson,  Caritor  Lectures  on  Alcohol ;  Hargreaves,  Alcc^hol  and  Science  (New 
Tork).  (6)  Fiction  :  novels  and  tales  embodying  teetotal  principles  have  been 
written  by  Mrs  Henry  Wood,  Mrs  H.  B.  Stowe,  Mrs,  C.  L.  Balfour,  Mr  John 
Eabberton,  Mr  lywMd  Jenkins,  Mrs  8.  O.  Hall,  Mrs  Ellis,  ond  many  others. 
(7)  PERIODICALS!  the  iEiT:i«;rance  periodicala  issued  iQ  Great  Britain  now 
number  about  fifty. 

TEMPLAHS,  Knights.  Pernaps  the  most  renowned  of 
the  three  great  military  orders  founded  in  the  12th  centvry 
for  the  defence  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  is  that 
of  the  Knights  Templars  {pauperes  commiliiones  ChrUtiUin- 
plique  Sahmomci),  though  abolished  long  before  its  rivals. 
It  differed  from  the  Hospitallers  and  the  Teutonic  Knights 
in  having  been  a  military  order  from  its  very  origin,  inas- 
much as  its  earliest  members  banded  themselves  together 
for  the  express  purpose  of  giving  armed  protection  to  the 
numerous  pilgrims  who,  after  the  first  crusade,  flocked  to 
Jerusalem  and  the  other  sacred  sites  in  the  Holy  Land. 
Walter  Map  has  preserved  the  legendary  story  of  their  first 
achievements,  from  which  it  would  appear  that  their  earliest 
efforts  were  confined  to  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
Jerusalem ;  and  the  memory  of  their  original  aim  may 
perhaps  be  traced  from  fiity  to  seventy  years  later,  when 
they  conducted  Henry  of  Saxony  from  their  own  quarters 
on  Mount  Moriah  to  the  banks  of  Jordan,  or  when  on  the 
tall  of  the  Holy  City  (1187)  they  protected  the  vanguard 
of  the  Christians  on  its  way  from  Jerus^em  to  Tripoli. 
The  three  orders  were  distinguished  from  each  other  by 
their  garb.  The  Hospitallers  wore  .black  mantl»3  with 
white  crosses,  the  Templars  white  mantles  with  a  red  cross, 
the  Teutonic  Knights  white  mantles  with  a  black  cross.' 

The  Templars  almost  from  their  foundation  had  their 
quarters  in  the  palace  of  the  Latin  kings,  which  had'  been 
the  mosque  of  Mount  Moriah.  This  palace  was  also  known 
as  Solomon's  temple,  and  it  was  from  this  templum  Solo- 
monis  that  the  Templars  took  their  name. 

About  the  year  1118  a  Burgundian  knight,  Hugh  de 
t 

'  WiUiMi  of  Tyre,  xii.  c.  7,  viiL  3,  rriiL  3-6  ;  James  de  Vitry, 
JluL   n,cros.,  60-67. 


Pag&nis,  bo«ni  himself  aad  eight  comrades  by  a  vow  to  the 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem  to  guard  the  public  roads,  to  live 
as  regular  canons,  and  to  fight  for  the  King  of  Heaven  in 
chastity,  obedience,  and  self-denial.  Baldwin  n.  granted 
them  quarters  on  Motitit  Moriah  and  recommended  theii 
cause  to  St  Bernard.  Under  his  patronage  the  papal  legate, 
Matthew,  bishop  of  St  Albano,  presided  at  the  council  of 
Troyes  in  January  1128  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  or 
confirming  the  statutes  of  the  new  order.  The  seventy-two 
statutes  then  drawn  up  me*  with  the  approval  of  Pope 
Honorius  PL  and  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  and  became 
the  groundwork  of  the  later  and  more  elaborate  "  Regie  Spread 
du  Temple."  Long  before  St  Bernard's  death  (1153)  the  of  the 
new  order  was  established  in  almost  every  kingdom  of  °^"^ 
Latin  Christendom..  Henry  I.  granted  them  lands  in 
Normandy.  They  seem  to  have  been  settled  m  Castile 
by  1129,  ia  RocheUe  by  1131,  in  Languedoc  by  1136,  at 
Rome  by  1138,  in  Brittany  by  1141,  and  in  Germany 
at  perhaps  a  still  earlier  date.  Alphonso  I.  of  Aragon 
and  Navarre,  if  we  may  trust  the  Spanish  historians,  be- 
queathed them  the  third  of  his  kingdom  (Mariana,  %.  c.  9). 
Raymond  Berengar,  cotmt  of  Barcelona,  and  Alphonso'a 
successor  in  Aragon,  whose  father  had  been  admitted  to  the 
order,  granted  them  the  strong  castle  of  Mongon  (1143), 
and  established  a  new  chivalry  in  imitation  of  theirs, 
Louis  VH.  in  the  latter  j'ears  of  his  reign  gave  them  a 
piece  of  marsh  land  outside  Paris,  which  in  later  times 
became  known  as  the  Temple,  and  was  the  headquarters  of 
the  order  in  Europe.  Stephen  of  England  grantied  them 
the  manors  of  Crossing  and  Witham  in  Essex,  and  his  wife 
Matilda  that  of  Cowjey,  near  Oxford.  Eugenius  III., 
Louis  VIL,  and  130  brethren  were  present  at  the  Paris 
chapter  (1147)  when  Bernard  de  Balliol  granted  the  order 
15  Lbrates  of  land  near  Hitchin ;  and  the  list  of  English 
benefactors  under  Stephen  and  Henry  IL  includes  the 
noble  names  of  Ferrers,  Harcourt,  Hastings,  Lacy,  Clare, 
Vere,  and  Mowbray. 

After  the  council  of  Troyes  Hugh  de  Paganis  came  to 
England  and  induced  a  number  of  English  knights  to  follow 
him  to  the  Holy  Land.  Amongst  these  was  Fulk,  count 
of  Anjou,  who  wotdd  thus  seem  to  have  been  a  Templar 
before  assuming  the  crown  of  Jerusalem  in  1131.  Hugh  Early 
de  Paganis  died  about  the  year  1136  and  was  succeeded  grand, 
by  Robert  de  Craon,  who  is  said  to  have  been  Anselm's  '"**'*"' 
nephew.  Everard  de  Barris,  the  third  master,  was  con- 
spicuous in  the  second  crusade.  In  the  disastrous  march 
from  Laodicea  to  Attalia  his  troops  alone  kept  up  even 
the  show  of  discipline ;  and  their  success  prompted  Louia 
Vn.  to  regulate  his  whole  army  after  the  model  of  the 
Templar  knights.  In  the  French  king's  distress  for  money 
the  "Templars  lent  him  large  sums,  ranging  from  2000  silver 
marks  to  30,000  solidL  ■\\'hen  Conrad  UI.  of  Germany 
reached  Jerusalem  he  was  entertained  at  their  palace  (Easter 
1148);  and  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year  they  took 
part  in  the  unsuccessful  siege  of  Damascus.  The  failure 
of  this  expedition  was  ascribed  by  a  contemporary  writer 
to  their  treachery, — a  charge  to  which  Conrad  would  not 
assent.  This  is  the  first  note  of  the  afcusationa  which 
from  this  time  were  of  constant  recurrence.- 

HencefoTNvard  for  140  years  the  history  of  the  Templars 
is  the  history  of  the  Crusades  {q.v.\  In  1149  the 
Templars  were  appointed  to  guard  the  fortress  of  Gaza, 
the  last  Christian  stronghold  on  the  way  towards  Egypt. 
Foiu:  years  later  the  new  master,  Bernard  de  Tremelai, 
and  forty  of  his  followers,  bursting  into  Ascalon,  wer« 
surrounded  by  the  Saracens  and  cut  off  to  a  singl,^  man.' 
William  of  Tyre  has  -preserved  the  scandal  of  the  day 
when  he  hints  that  they  met  a  DMrited  fate  in  tlieir  eager- 
ness to  possess  themselves  of  the  city  treasure.     Next  year 


>  BisL  Pontijtc,  ap.  Pertz,  xi.  536-53& 


TEMPLARS 


161 


ti'">n> 
Salad 


the  rumour  went  abroad  that  they  had  sold  a  noble  half- 
'"onverted  Egyptian  prime,  who  had  fallen  into  their  hands, 
to  chains  and  certain  death  for  60.000  aurei  In  1166 
Amalric.  the  Latin  king  of  Jerusalem,  hanged  twelve 
Templars  on  a  rharge  of  betraying  a  fortress  beyond  the 
Jordan  to  an  emir  of  Nur  alDin  of  Damascus  The 
military  power  ot  Nur  il-Din  ( 1 1451 173)  was  a  standing 
menace  to  the  Christian  settlements  in  the  East  Edessa 
^'"  had  fallen  to  the  pmwess  of  his  father  ( 1 144-45) ,  Damas- 
cus waii  conquered  by  the  son  (1153).  who  four  years 
earlier  had  "arried  his  depredations  almost  to  the  walls  of 
■\ntioch.  and  in  1157  laid  siege  to  the  Christian  town  of 
Taneas  near  rfae  sources  ot  the  Jordan  In  the  disastrous 
tight  that  followed  for  the  salety  of  the  fortress  of  the 
Hospitallers.  Bertrand  de  Blanquetori.  the  master  of  the 
Templars,  and  Odo  de  St  Amand.  one  of  his  successors, 
Were  taken  prisoners  Bertrand  was  released  later  when 
.Vlanuel  was  preparing  to  march  against  Nur  alDiu.  The 
Templars  do  not  seem  to  have  opposed  Araalric's  early 
expeditions  against  Egypt  It  was  Geoffrey  Fulcher,  the 
Templar  correspondent  of  Louis  V'lL,  who  brought  back 
!  II 67 )  to  Jerusalem  the  glowing  accounts  of  the  splendour 
5t  the  caliph's  court  at  Cairo  with  which  Gibbon  has  en- 
livened hib  great  work  Nor  was  the  order  less  active 
it  the  northern  limits  of  the  Latin  kingdom  Two  English 
Templars.  Gilberi  de  Lacy  and  Robert  Mansel,  "qoi  Galen- 
jibus  praeerat,'  starting  from  Anticch,  surprised  Nuf  al- 
Din in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tripoli  and  put  him  bare- 
looted  to  flight  But  jealousy  or  honour  led  the  Templars 
to  oppose  Amalric's  Egyptian  expedition  of  116S,  and  the 
wisdom  of  their  advice  became  apparent  when  the  renewed 
di.scord  on  the  Nile  led  to  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Asad 
al-Din  Shlrkiih,  and  thus  indirectly  to  the  accession  of 
Saladin.  m  1169  In  1170  they  beat  Saladin  back  from 
their  frontier  fortress  of  Gaza,  and  seven  years  later  they 
shared  in  Baldwin  IV  's  great  victory  at  Ascalon 

Meanwhile  Saladin  had  possessed  himself  of  Emesa  and 
Damascus  (1174-75),  and,  as  he  was  already  lord  of  Egypt, 
ais  power  hemmed  in  the  Latin  kingdom  on  every  side. 
In  July  1173  Amalric  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Baldwin 
IV  .  a  boy  of  twelve  Raj-mond  I-II ,  count  of  Tripoli,  a 
nan  suspected  of  being  in  league  with  the  Saracens,  was 
ippointed  regent,  although  in  1176  the  masters  of  the 
Templars  and  the  Hospitallers  united  in  offering  this  office 
to  the  newly  arrived  Philip  of  Flanders  The  construction 
of  the  Templar  fortress  at  Jacob's  ford  on  the  upper 
Jordan  led  to  a  tresh  Saracen  invasion  and  the  disastrous 
l)attlo  of  Paneas  (1  179),  from  which  the  young  king  and 
the  Holy  Cross  escaped  with  difficulty,  while  Odo  de  St 
Amand.  the  grandmaster,  was  carried  away  captive  and 
never  returned 

During  Odo's  mastership  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountains 
sent  to  .Amalric  offering  to  accept  the  Christian  faith  if 
released  from  the  tribute  he  had  paid  to  the  Templars 
since  (according  to  the  reckoning  of  M  Defr^mery)  some- 
where about  1149  The  Templars  murdered  the  envoys 
on  their  return  (c  1172)  Amalric  demanded  that  the 
offenders  should  be  given  up  for  justice  Odo  refused  to 
yield  the  chief  culprit,  though  he  was  well  known,  and  in- 
voked the  protection  of  the  pope.  Amalric  had  to  vindicate 
his  right  by  force  of  arms  at  Sidon,  and  died  while  prepar- 
ing to  take  stronger  measures.  The  connexion  between  the 
Templars  and  the  Old  Man  was  still  vital  eighty  years 
later  when  the  two  grand-masters  rebuked  the  insolence  of 
the  Assassin  envoys  in  the  presence  of.  Louis  I.X  Odode 
St  Amand  was  succeeded  by  Arnold  de  Torroge,  who  died 
at  Verona  on  his  way  to  implore  European  succour  for 
the  Holy  Land._  The  power  of  Saladin  was  now  (1184) 
increasing  daily ,  Baldwin  IV  was  a  leper,  and  his  realm 
was  a  prey  to  rival  factions.     There  were  two  claimants 


for  the  guardianship  of  the  state,— Raymond  III  of 
Tripoli  and  Guy  de  Lusignan,  who  in  1180  had  married 
Sibylla,  sister  of  the  young  king.  Baldwin  inclined  to 
the  former,  against  the  patriarch  and  Arnold  de  Torroge. 

There  is  something  Homeric  in  the  story  of  the  fall  of  Fall  or 
the  Latin  kingdom  as  related  by  the  historians  of  the  next  La''" 
century.     A  French  knight,  Gerard  de  Riderfort  or  Bide-  '•'"B''"" 
ford,  coming  to  the  East  in  quest  of  fortune,  attached 
himself  to  the  service  of  Raymond  of  Tripoli,  looking  for 
the  hand  of  some  wealthy  widow  in  reward.     But  on  his 
claiming  the  hand  of  tne  lady  of  Botron  he  was  met  with 
a  refusal      Angered  at  this,  Gerard  enrolled  himself  among 
the  Templars,  biding  his  time  for  revenge,  and  was  elected 
grand-master  on  the  death  of  Arnold.     Baldwin  R'.  died 
(1185),  leaving  the  throne  to  his  young  nephew  Baldwin 
v.,  the  son  of  Sibylla,  under  the  guardianship  of  Raymond, 
whose  office  was  not  of  long  duration,  as  the  Little  king 
died  in  September  1186.     This  was  Gerard  s  opportunity. 
The  Templars  carried  the  body  of  their  dead    overeign  to 
Jerusalem  for  burial  ,  and  then,  unknown  to  the  barons 
of  the  realm,  Gerard  and  the  patriarch  crowned  Sibylla 
and  her  husband  Guy.     The  coronation  of  Guy  was  the 
triumph  of  Reginald  of  Chatiilon,  once  prince  of  Antioch, 
and  Saladin's  deadliest  foe      It  was  at  the  same  time  the 
overthrow  of  Raymonds  ambition  ,  and  both  Latin  and 
Arabic  writers  are  agreed  that  the  Christian  count  and 
the   Mohammedan  sultan   now  entered  into  an  alliance 
To  break  this  friendship  and  so  save  the  kingdom,  the 
two  grand-masters  were  sent  north  to  make  terms  with 
Raymond.     But  the  rash  valour  of  the  Templars  provoked 
a  hopeless  contest  with  7000  Saracens.     The  grand-master 
of  the  Hospitallers  was  slam  ,  but  Gerard  made  his  escape 
wnth  three  knights  to  Nazareth  (1st  May  1187).     In  this 
emergency  Raymond  became  reconciled  with  Guy  ,   and 
Gerard  placed  the  temple  treasures  of  Henry  II    at  his 
king's  disposal.     Once  more  it  was  the  Templars'  rashness 
that  led    to  the  disastrous  battle  of   Eittin  (4th  July). 
Gerard  and  the  king  fell  into  the  hands  of  Saladin,  but 
were  released  about  a  year  later  ,    Raymond  of  Tripoli 
made  his  escape  through  treachery  or  fortune ,  and  230 
Templars  fell  in  or  after  the  battle,  for  the  fight  was 
scarcely  over  before  Saladin  ordered  all  the  Templars  and 
Hospitallers  to  be  murdered  in  cold  blood.      One  after 
another  the  Christian  fortresses  of  Palestine  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Saladin.     Jerusalem  surrendered  on  2d-3d  Octo-  Fall  of 
ber    1187,  and  the  treasures  of  the  temple  coffers  were''"" 
used  to  purchase  the  redemption  of  the  poorer  Christians,  **'""• 
part  of  whom  the  Templar  warriors  guarded  on  their  sad 
march   from   the   Holy  City  to  Tripoli.      Part  of   their 
wealth  was  expended   by  Conrad  of   Montferrat  in  the 
defence  of  Tyre ,  but,  when  this  prince  refused  to  admit 
Guy  to  his  city,  both  the  Templars  and  the  Hospitallers 
from  the  neighbouring  parts  flocked  to  the  banner  of  their 
released  king  and  accompanied  him  to  the  siege  of  Acre  Siege  of 
(22d  August  1189).    In  his  company  they  bore  their  part  in  *"*• 
the  two  years'  siege  and  the  terrible  famine  of  1 1 90-91 ,  and 
their  grand-master  died  in  the  great  battle  of  4th  October 
1189,  refusing  to  survive  the  slaughter  of  his  brethren 

On  the  fall  of  Acre  Philip  Augustus  established  himself 
in  the  palace  of  the  Templars,  who  are,  however,  stated 
to  have  sjTnpathized  with  Richard.  This  king  sold  them 
the  island  of  Cjprus  for  100,000  besants ;  but,  unable  to 
pay  the  purchase  money,  they  transferred  the  debt  and 
the  principality  to  Guy  of  Lusignan.  The  EngUsh  king 
consulted  them  before  deciding  on  any  great  military  move- 
ment;  and  in  June  1192  they  advocated  the  bold  plan  of 
an  advance  on  Egypt  rather  than  on  Jerusalem.  In  the 
disputes  for  the  Latin  kingdom  of  the  East  the  Templars 
seem  to  have  supported  Guy,  and,  like  Richard,  were 
credited  with  having  had  a  band  in  the  murder  of  Conrad 

xxm.  —  ai 


162 


TEMPLARS 


of  Montferrat  (April  1192).  It  was  in  the  disguise  of  a 
Templar  and  in  a  Templar  galley  that  "Richard  left  the 
Holy  Land.  •  'VMien  Acre  was  recovered, the  Templars,  like^ 
the  Hospitallers,  received  their  own -quarters  in  the  town,^ 
vrhich  from  this  time  became  the  centre  of  the  order. 
On  the  death  of  Henry  of  Champagne  (1197)  they  vetoed 
the  election  of  Eaoul  de  Tabarie;  after  the  death  of  his 
successor  Amalric  they  refused  to  renew  the  truce  with 
Saladin's  brother,  Saif  al-Din,  and  led  an  expedition  against 
John  de  the  Saracens  before  the  arrival  x>i  the  new  king,  John  de 
Brienoe,  Brienne,  at  whose  coronation  in  1210  William  de  Chartres, 
the  grand-master, -was  present.  Seven  years  later,  with 
the  aid  of  Walter  de  Avennis  and  of  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
they  commenced  the  building  of  their  fortress  ofC^tle 
■pilgrim,  near  Acre,  on  a  rocky  promontory  washed  by 
the  llediterranean  on  every  side  except  the  east,,  .This 
,  -onderf  ul  structure,  whose  ruins  are  still  to  be  Seen,  "was 
iortified  with  a  strong  wall,  founded  on  the  substructure  of 
a  yet  more  extensive  one  running  from  sea  to  sea,  and  was 
blanked  by  lofty  towers  of  huge  squared  stones.  Within 
■was  a  spring  of  pure  water,  besides,  fishponds,  salt-mines, 
t.Toods,  pastures,  orchards,  and  all  things  fitted  to  furnish 
an  abode  in  which  the  Templars  might  await  the  day  of 
their  restoration  to  .Jerusalem. 
Fifth  It  was  from  this  castle  that  in  May  1218  the  fifth  crusade 

crusade,  started  for  the  expedition  against  Egypt.  The  Templars 
were  the  heroes  of  the  siege  of  Damietta,  at  which  William 
de  Chartres  was  slain.  "First  to  attack  and  last  to 
retreat,"  they  saved  the  Christian  army  from  annihilation 
on  29th  August  1219;  and  when  the  city  surrendered 
(5th  November)  the  only  one  of  its  twenty-eight  towers 
that  had  begun  to  give  way  had  been  shaken  by  their 
Jjngines.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  largely  owing  to  their 
Objections  that  John  de  Brienne  refused  tie  sultan's  offer . 
jO  restore  Jerusalem  and  Palestine. 
'"  From  the  very  first  the  Templars  seem  to  have  been 
opposed  to  Frederick  IL,  and  when  he  landed  at  Acre 
(7th  September  1228)  they  refused  to  march  under  the 
banners  of  an  excommunicated  man,  and  would  only  ac- 
company his  host  from  Acre  to  Joppa  in  a  separate  body. 
They  were  accused  of  notifying  Frederick's  intended  pil- 
grimage to  the  Jordan  to  the  sultan,  and  they  were 
certainly  opposed  to  Frederick's  ten  years'  peace  with 
M-Kimil,  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  and  refused  to  be  present 
at  his  coronation  in  Jerusalem.  Frederick  was  not  slow 
♦o  avenge  himself :  he  left  Jerusalem  abruptly,  publicly 
insulted  .the  grand-master,  demanded  the  surrender  of 
their  fortresses,  and  even  laid  siege  to  Castle  Pilgrim.  He 
left  Acre  on  3d  May  1229,  and  on  landing  in  Apulia  gave 
orders  to  seize  the  estates  of  the  order  and  chase  aU  its 
members  from  the  land. 
Seventii  Long  before  the  expiration  of  Frederick's  peace  Europe 
'™'*'^  was  preparing  for  a  fresh  crusade  against  the  now  divided 
realm  of  the  Ayyubids,  Theobald  of  Navarre  and  his 
crusaders  reached  Palestine  about  August  1239.  The 
Templars  shared  in  the  great  defeat  near  Jaffa,  an  engage- 
ment which  their  temerity  had  done  much  to  provoke 
(13th  November  1239).  If  the  king  ever  accepted  the 
overtures  of  §4lili  of  Damascus,  he  was  supporting  the 
policy  of  Hermann  of  Perigord,  the  grand-master,  who 
towards  the  smnmer  of  1244  wrote  a  triumphant  letter 
to  England, 'teUing  how  he  had  engaged  this  stiltaiL  and 
Nisir  of  Kerak  to  make  an  alliance  against  the  sultan  of 
Egypt  and  restore  the  whole  of  Palestine  from  the  Jordan 
to  the  sea.  Theobald,  however,  before  leaving  the  Holy 
Land  (27th  September  1240),  sigped  a  ten  years'  truce 
with  Silih  of  Egypt  The  Hospitallers  seem  to  have  been 
won  over  to  his  view,  and.  when  Eichard  of  Cornwall 
arrived  (llth  October)  he  had  to  decide  between  the  two 
rival  orders  and  their  opposing  policies.    After  some  hesi- 


tation he  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  sultan  of  ■  Egypt, 
much  to  the  annoyance  of  the  Templars,  ^who  openly 
mocked  his  efforts.  On  his  departure  the  three  orders 
came  to  open  discord :  the  Templars  laid  siege  to  the 
Hospitallers  in  Acre  and  drove  out  the  Teutonic  Knights 
"  in  contumeliam  .imperatoris."  They  were  .successful  on 
all  sides.  .  The  negotiations  with  Damascus  and  Kerak 
were  reopened,- and  in  1244  Hermann  of  Perigord  wrote 
to  the  princes  of  Europe  that  after  a  "  silence  of  fifty-six 
years  the  divine  mysteries  would  once  more  be  celebrated 
in  the  Holy  City." 

It  was  in  this  moment  of  danger  that"  the  sultan  ofKti&risL 
Babylon  called  in  the  barbarous  KhArizmians,  whom  the  nria^  tr 
Mongol  invasions  had  driven  from  their  native  lands.  ^***^ 
.These  savages,  entering  from  the  north,  flowed  like  a  tide 
past  the  newly  built  and  impregnable  Templar  fortress  of 
Safed,  swept  down  on  Jerusalem,  and  annihilated  the 
Christian  army  near  Gaza  on  St  Luke's  day  (18th  October) 
1244.  From  this  blow  the  Latin  kingdom  of  the  East 
never  recovered  ;  600  knights  took  part  in  the  battle ;  the 
whole  army  of  the  Templars,  300  in  number,  was  present, 
but  only  18  survived,  and  of  200  Hospitallers  only  16. 
The  masters  of  both  orders  were  slaia  or  taken  prisoners. 
Despite  the  admirable  valour  of  the  Templars,  their  policy 
had  proved  the  rain  of  the  land.  Jerusalem  was  lost  to 
Christendom  for  ever;  and,  though  the  KhArizmians  melted 
away  in  the  course  of  the  next  three  years,  they  left  the 
country  so  weak  that  aU  thei  acquisitions  of  Theobald  and 
Eichard  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  sultan  of  Babylon. 

Eecognizing  the  fact  that  the  true  way  to  Jerusalem  Lotdis 
lay  through '  Egypt,  Loiiis  IX  led  his  host  to  the  banks  IX.'e^ 
of  the  Nile,  being  accompanied  by  the  Templars.     Their  ""'"*' 
master,  William  de  Sonnac,  attempted  in  vain  to  restrain 
the  rash  advance  of  the  count  of  Artois  at  the  battle  of 
Mansiira'  (8th  February  1250),  which  only  three  Ternplars 
survived.     St  Louis,  when  captured  a  few  weeks  later, 
owed  his  speedy  release  to  the  generosity  with  which  the 
order  advanced  his  ransom-money.     Shortly  after  his  de- 
parture from  Acre  (April  1254)  they  consented  to  an  elevea. 
years'  truce  with  the  sultans  of  Egypt  and  Damascus. 

A  new  enemy  was  now  threatening  Mohammedan  and 
Christian  ahke.  For  a  time  the  Mongol  advance  may 
have  been  welcomed  by  the  Christian  citifes,  as  one  after 
another  the*  Mohammedan  principalities  of  the  north  fell 
before  the  new  invaders.  But  tiis  new  danger  stimulated 
the  energies  of  Egypt,  which  under  the  Mameluke  Bey-  Stic- 
bars  (see  vol.  viL  p.  755)  encroached  year  after  year  on  the  «*«■  «r 
scanty  remains  of  the  Latin  kingdom.  The  great  Frankish  Bejnasa. 
lords,  fearing  that  all  was  lost,  made  haste  to  sell  their 
lands  to  the  Templars  and  Hospitallers  before  quitting 
Palestine  for  ever.  In  1260  the  former  purchased  Sidon 
and  Beaufort ;  next  year  the  Hospitallers  purchased  Arsuf ,' 
I.n  1267,  by  a  skilful  adaptation  of- the  banners  of  both, 
orders,  Beybars  nearly  surprised  Antioch.  The  Templar 
fortress  of  Safed  stirrendered  with  its  garrison  of  600 
knights,  all  of  whom  preferred  death  to  apostasy  (June 
1266).  Beaufort  fell  in  April  1268,- Antioch  six  weeks 
later;  and,  though  the  two  orders  still  made  occasional 
brilliant  dashes  from-  their  Acre  stronghold,"  such  as  that 
to  Ascalon  in  1264  and  that  with  Prince  Edward  of  Eng- 
land to  destroy  EJSJpin  in  1271,  they  became  so  enfeebled 
as  to  welcome  the  treaty  which  secured  them  the  plain  of 
Acre  and  a  free  road  to  Nazareth  as  the  result  of  the 
English  crusade  of  1272. 

But,  though  weak  against  external  foes,  the  Teii)|[l^tc 
were  strong  enough  for  internal  warfare.  In  1277iii6y 
espoused  the  quarrel  of  the  bishop  of  Tripoli,  formerly  a 
member  of  the  order,  against  his  nephew  Bohemond,  prince 
of  Antioch  and.  Tripoli,  and  commenced  a  war  which  lasted 
three  years.     In  1 276  their  conduct  drove  Hugh  in.,  king 


TEMPLARS 


163 


of  Cyprus  and  Jerusalem,  from  Acre  to  Tyre.      In  the 
ensuing  year,  when  Mary  of  Antioch  bad  sold  her  claim 
to  the  crown  to  Charles  of  Anjou,   they  welcomed   th:s 
prmce's  lieutenant  to  Acre  and  succeeded  for  the  moment 
in  forcing  the  knights  of  that  city  to  do  homage  to  the 
new  king.     Thirteen  years  later  (26th  April   l'J90)  Tri- 
poli fell,  and  nest  year  Acre,  after  a  siege  of  si\  weeka, 
at  the  close  of  which  (16th  May)  William  de  Beaujeu,  the 
.Anao       grand-master,  was  slam.      The   lew  sxirviving    Templars 
oooment  elected  a  new  master,  and,  forcing  their  way  to  iht  sea- 
'"*'"  shore,  sailed  for  Cyprus,  which   now   became   the   head- 
quarters of  the  order     A  f  uule  attempt  against  AJexandna 
in  1300  and  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  fdrm  a  new  settlement 
at  Tortosa  about  the  same  time  (1300-2)  are  the  closing 
acts  of  their  long  career  in  the  western  parts  of  Asia 
F->wer  For  more  than  a  hundred  years  the  Templars  had  been 

and  to-  one  of  the  wealthiest  and  most  influential  factors  in  Euro- 
ti'-ence  ^^^^  politics.  Lf  we  confine  our  attention  to  the  East,  we 
,.>rder.  realize  but  a  small  part  of  their  enormous  power  Two 
Templars  were  appointed  guardians  of  the  disputed  castles 
'on  the  betrothal  of  Prince  Henry  of  England  and  the 
French  princess  in  1161.  Other  Templars  were  almoners 
of  Henry  III.  of  England  and  of  Philip  IV  of  France. 
One  grand-master  was  godfather  to  a  daughter  of  Louis 
IX.  ,  another,  despite  the  prohibition  of  the  order,  is  said 
to  have  been  godfather  to  a  child  of  Philip  IV  They  are 
reported  to  have  reckoned  a  pope  (Innocent  III.)  among 
their  members  and  to  have  refused  admission  to  a  kjng 
and  his  nephew  (PhiUp  IV.).  They  were  summoned  to 
the  great  councils  of  the  church,  such  as  the  Lateran  of 
1215and  the  Lyons  council  of  1274.  Frederick  II. 's  per- 
secution of  their  order  was  one  of  the  mam  causes  of  his 
excommunication  in  1239  ;  and  his  last  will  enjoined  the 
restoration  of  their  estates.  Their  property  was  scattered 
over  every  country  of  Christendom,  from  Denmark  to 
Spain,  from  Ireland  to  Cyprus.  Before  the  middle  of  the 
13ih  century  Matthew  Pans  reckons  their  manors  at  9000, 
Alberic  of  Trois-Fontaines  at  7050,  whereas  the  rival  order 
of  St  John  had  barely  half  the  latter  number.  Some  fifty 
years  earlier  their  income  from  Armenia  alone  was  20,000 
besants.  Both  in  Paris  and  in  London  their  houses  were 
used  as  strongholds  for  the  royal  treasure.  In  the  London 
temple  Hubert  de  Burgh  and  the  Poitevin  favourites  of 
Henry  III.  stored  their  wealth  ;  and  the  same  building 
was  used  as  a  bank  into  which  the  debtors  of  the  foreign 
uEureas  paid  their  dues.  From  the  English  Templars  Henry 
III.  orrowed  the  purchase  money  of  Oleron  in  1235; 
from  the  French  Templars  Philip  FV.  exacted  the  dowry 
nf  hisrdaughter  Isabella  on  her  marriage  with  Edward  II. 
To  Ltuis  IX.  they  lent  a  great  part  of  his  ransom,  and 
to  Edward  I.  of  England  no  less  than  25,000  livres  Tour- 
not^,  of  which  they  remitted  four-fifths.  James  de  Molai, 
the  laic  grand-master,  came  to  France  in  1306  with  150,000 
gold  dorms  and  ten  horse-loads  of  silver.  In  the  Spanish 
penimula  they  occupied  a  peculiar  position,  and  more  than 
une  ning  of  Aragon  is  said  to  have  been  brought  up  under 
their  discipline. 

Such  were  the  power  and  wealth  of  the  Templars  at  the 
time  when  Philip  IV.  of  France  accused  them  of  heresy 
and  worsr  offences,  had  them  arrested  (13th  October  1307), 
and  forced  them  to  confess  by  tortures  of  the  most  ex- 
cruciating kinds.  Five  years  later  (26th  May  1312)  the 
order  was  suppressed  by  decree  of  the  council  of  Vienne 
and  its  goods  transferred  to  the  hospital  of  St  John. 

Consi.n:       The  order  consisted  of  (1)  knights,  (2)  chaplains,  and  (3)  men-ac- 
tiOD  arms  (armigeriy  ^ienUSt  and  servumUs).     The  knights  were  either 

bound  for  life  or  for  a  6xed  period,  and  were  the  only  members 
entitled  to  wear  the  white  mantle.  Married  brethren  were  ad- 
mitted ;  but  no  woman  might  enter  the  order.  Each  knight  might 
keep  thred^orses  and  one  man-at-arms,  who,  like  his  master,  might 
ba  boand  for  Ufa  or  only  for  a  time.     Like  Augustinian  canons. 


they  werf»  to  attend  daily  services  ;  but  the  soldier  outweancd  wah 
his  nightly  duti^'S  msght  on  oertam  conditions.at'sent  himself  fioro 
matins  with  the  masters  consent.  Two  regular-' mtaU  were  allowed 
for  each  day*,  but  to  these  might  be  added,  at  the  master's  discre- 
lioD,  a  light  collation  towards  sunset.  M^at  might  be  eaten  thrice 
a  week  ;  and  on  other  days  there  was  to  be  a  choice  of  vegetable 
fare  so  as  to  suit  the  tenderest  stomach.  Brethren  were  to  eat  by 
couples,  each  keeping  an  eye  on  his  feUow  to  t>ee  that  he  did  not 
practise  an  undue  austerity.  Wme  was  served  at  every  meal,  and 
at  those  times  silence  was  stnctty  enjoined  that  the  words  of  Uoly 
Writ  might  be  heard  with  the  closest  attention.  Special  care  was 
to  be  taken  of  aged  and  aiiiDg  members.  Every  brother  cwed  the 
most  absolute  obediente  to  the  master  of  the  order,  and  was  to  go 
wherever  his  :>upenor  bade  bim  withoL.t  delay,  "as  if  commanded 
by  GoU  All  undue  display  in  arms  ur  harness  was  forbidden. 
Parti -coloured  garments  wtre  forbidden,  blm  k  or  dusky-brown 
(bureilusi  was  to  be  worn  by  all  except  the  kuighus.  All  garments 
were  lo  be  made  of  n-ool  .  but  from  Easier  t'>  All  Sonls  a  liuen  shirt 
might  be  substituted  for  one  of  wool.  The  hair  was  to  be  worn 
ib'^n.  and  a  rouch  beard  becamt  out  of  the  disUD'^ishing  marks 
of  tbe  oMrr  Hiuitingand  ba\^king  wfr«r  onlawful  .  and  the  rcry 
allusion  to  the  folbes  ot  secular  .tcbi^vements  of  earlier  ins  "was 
forbidden  A  lion  however  being  the  type  of  tbt  fvU  one,  was 
legitimate  prey  Stntt  Wdith  was  kept  on  the  incomings  and  out- 
goings of  ever>'  brother,  except  whec  he  went  out  by  night  to  visit 
the  Sepujcbre  ul  our  Lord  No  letter,  even  troro  the  oeajfest  rela- 
tive, might  be  opened  except  in  the  master's  presence  nor  was  any 
member  to  feel  aunoyance  if  he  saw  his  relative  s  gift  transferred 
at  the  aiaster's  bidding  to  some  other  brother  The  brethren  were 
to  sleep  in  sejiaratc  beds  to  shirts  and  breeches,  with  a  Ught  always 
buming  in  the  dormitory  Those  who  lacked  a  mattress  might 
place  a  piece  of  carpet  on  the  Boor  ,  but  all  loxury  was  discouraged. 
The  order  recognized  two  governing  bodies,  —  the  first,  a  meeting  for 
ordinary  business,  to  whjcli  only  the  wiser  members  were  summoned  ; 
the  second,  one  for  extraordanary  affairs,  such  as  the  granting  of 
lands  or  the  reception  of  oew  members,  on  which  occasions  the 
master  might  snmmon  the  whole  lommunity  Even  at  these  last 
assemblies  the  master  seems  to  have  decided  on  the  hnal  action  (c 
59  J.  A  term  of  probation  was  assigned  to  each  candidate  before 
admission  ,  and  a  special  clause  discouraged  the  reception  of  boys 
before  they  were  of  an  age  to  bear  arms  Lastly,  the  brethren  of 
the  Temple  were  exborted  to  shun  the  kiss  of  e^ery  woman,  whether 
maid  or  vridow,  mother,  aunt,  or  sistei 

The  general  spirit  of  the  Templar  statutes  remamed  unaltered  Admints- 
to  the  end.  though  the  in-jreasino  wealth  of  the  order  gave  nse  to  tratioa. 
a  number  of  additional  rules  The  grand-master  was  always  head 
of  the  society  ,  his  instructions  were  binding  on  every  member,  and 
the  very  laws  were  at  his  discretion  But  he  could  not  declare 
war.  alienate  the  society  s  estates,  or  even  admit  a  member  withou; 
the  consent  of  his  chapter.  He  was  elected  by  thirteen  brothers, 
chosen  by  a  peculiar  method  of  to-opution,  and  all,  if  possible, 
belonging  to  different  nations.  Nezt  to  him  in  dignity  came  the 
seneschal,  on  whom  the  duties  of  the  absent  master  devolved.  The 
marshal  had  charge  of  the  steeds  and  accoutrements  ;  he  also  com- 
manded the  knights  and  men-at-arms,  the  latter  of  whom  seem  in 
time  of  war  to  have  been  at  the  disposal  of  the  turcopolier.  The 
commander  of  the  kingdom  guarded  the  treasure-house,  to  which 
even  the  grand-master  might  not  have  a  key  ;  the  commander  of 
the  city  of  Jerusalem  had  charge  of  the  True  Cross  in  time  of 
war.  There  were  twelve  or  perhaps  more  commanders  or  preceptors 
of  the  different  provinces  and  kingdoms  of  Europe  and  Asia, — 
Jerusalem  fkingaom  and  aty),  Acre,  Tripoli,  Antioch,  France. 
England,  Poitou,  Aragon,  Portugal,  Apulia,  and  Hungary.  No 
European  preceptor  could  cross  the  sea  without  the  grand-masters 
leave  ,  but  all  ought  to  be  present  at  the  election  to  this  office. 
The  privileges  and  duties  of  every  member  wtre  strictly  prescribed, 
from  the  number  of  horses  he  might  ride  and  the  amount  of  food 
be  might  eat  to  the  colour  of  his  clothes.  The  order  seems  to  have 
owned  a  0eet,  part  of  nluch,  if  not  all,  was  under  the  authority  of 
the  commander  of  the  kingdom  Besides  the  knights  aod  men-ai- 
arms,  the  society  reckoned  chaplains  in  its  rank^; ,  and  it  was  the 
habit  of  confession  to  these  priests  that  seems  to  have  stirred  the 
wrath  of  the  Dominicans  and  the  Franciscans,  who  played  £  very 
conspicuous  part  in  the  overthrow  of  the  ordfr,  especially  in  England 
For  gyievous  offences,  such  as  desertion  to  the  Saracens,  hereby,  or 
losing  the  gonfalon,  a  Templar  might  be  e.^  pel  led  :j>erdre  la  vunsLm}-. 
for  minor  offences,  such  as  disobedience  or  lowering  the  banner  id 
battle,  he  suffered  a  temporary  degradation  {jtcnirf.  son  ahiU  By 
a  mutual  agreement  the  Templars  and  Hospital  I  f^rs.  aespite  their 
long  aud  deadly  feud,  were  bound  not  to  receive  ejected  members 
of  the  rival  order  ,  and  the  Templar  cut  off  in  battle  and  defeat 
from  all  hope  of  rejoining  his  own  ranks  might  rally  to  the  cross 
of  St  John.  As  Acre  was  the  headqu.irters  of  the  order  in  the 
East,  so  Pans  was  its  centre  m  the  West  iMatt.  Pans,  v  4/8). 
Every  member  before  admission  must  decb"*  hiui.<y^If  free  of  debt, 
sound  of  body,  and  affiliated  to  no  other  religious  socictv  .  he  must 
also  »aJie  a  vow  of  obedience  and  chastity,  at  the  sanje  I. rue  rt- 


164  TEMPLARS 

n"  his  private  property  and  dedicating  his  future  life  to  the 
^■nJ.     The  order  prided  itself  specially  on  the  splendour  of 


nounci  ^        ,  .     .      - 

Holy  Und      The  order  prided . 

its  relirious  services,  the  abundance  of  its  alms,  and  its  reckless 
valour  for  the  Christian  faith.  At  the  time  of  Us  suppression  it 
iras  calculated  to  number  15,000  members.  Three  MSb.  of  its 
ancient  statutes,  written  in  Old  French,  are  still  eitant  at  Dijon, 
at  Paris,  and  at  Rome.  Of  these  the  first  was  transcnbed  about 
1-200  the  last  tvvo  from  1250  to  1300.  They  have  been  published 
by  M.  Maillard  de  Chambure  (Paris,  1840). 
oapp«9P  A  scheme  for  the  union  of  the  three  great  military  orders  into 
«ionof  one  had  received  the  sanction  of  Gregory  X.  and  Louis  l.V,  of 
tb.-  order  Nicholas  IV.  and  Boniface  VIII.  The  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land 
»-as  the  dream  of  the  last  pope's  highest  ambition  ;  and  when  he 
died  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  Philip  IV.  of  France  this  king  con- 
tinued U)  advocate  the  plan  for  his  own  purposes.  His  gold  or 
influence  secured  the  election  of  Clement  V.  as  pope  (5th  June  1305). 
According  to  a  slightly  later  tradition,  before  consenting  to  the 
new  pope's  appointment  he  exacted  from  him  an  oath  to  assist  in 
carrying  out  six  propositions,  one  of  which  he  would  not  disclose 
as  yet  This  sixth  condition,  if  it  ever  existed,  must  have  been 
the  suppression  'of  the  Templars  ;  and,  whether  false  or  true, 
Villanis  story  emphasizes  a  popular  and  almost  contfempcrary 
opinion.  It  is  known  that  Philip  was  urging  Clement  in  this 
direction  before  the  latter's' coronation  at  Lyons  on  14th  ^ovembe^ 

1305  and  all  through  the  two  succeeding  years.      On  6th  June 

1306  the  pope  summoned  the  grand-master  from  Cyprus  to  France. 
James  de  Molai  obeyed  the  caU,  and,  hearing  of  the  charges  against 
his  order,  demanded  a  prompt  investigation.  In  this  demand  he 
was  supported  by  the  leading  Templars  of  the  realm.  Clement, 
who  disbelieved  the  accusations,  fenced  with  the  question.  But, 
though  only.n  very  short  time  pre>-iously  Philip  had  spoken  of 
hU  special  love  for  the  order,  and  though  it  had  sheltered  him 
from  the  fury  of  the  Paris  mob  in  1306,  he  was  now  determined 
on  its  destruction.  Its  wealth  would  fill  the  royal  coffers,  and  the 
rumours  of  the  day  afforded  a  ready  engine  for  its  overthrow. 

For  perhaps  half  a  century  there  had  been  strange  stones  circulat- 
g  as  to  the  secret  ntes  practised  by  the  order  at  its  midnight 


Accusa- 

CIODS. 


meetings.     It  was  said  that  on  his  initiation  each  member  had  to 

disavow  his  behef  in  God  and  Christ,  to  spit  upon  the  crucifix,  to 

submit  to  indecent  ceremonies,  and  to  sa-ear  never  to  reveal  the 

secrets  of  the  society  or  disobey  the  mandates  of  a  grand-master. 

who  claimed  full  power  ofabsolution.    When  the  mass  was  celebrated 

the  consecrating  words  "  Hoc  est  corpus"  were  omitted  ;  on  Good 

Friday  the  holy  cross  was  trampled  under  foot ,  and  the  ChrisUan 

duty  of  almsgiving  had  ceased  to  be  observed.     Even  the  vaunted 

chastity  of  the  order  towards  women  had,  it  was  said,  been  turned 

into  a  sanction  for  more  horrible  offences.     These  evil  practices 

were  part  of  the  secret  statute  law  of  an  order  which  in  its  nightly 

assemblies  worshipped  hideous  four-footed  figures,— a  cat  or  a  calf 

In  England  the  very  children  at  their  play  bade  one  another  beware 

of  a. Templar's  kisses.    Stranger  stories  yet  were  rife  in  this  country 

ind  gravely  reported  before  bishops  and  priests,— of  children  slam 

by  their  fathers  because  they  chanced  to  witness  the  nightly  orgies 

f  the  society  ;  of  one  prior's  being  spirited  awaj'  at  every  meeting 

)f  the  general  chapter  ;  of  the  great  preceptor  a  declaring  that  a 

single  hair  of  a  Saracen's  beard  was  worth  more  than  the  whole 

body  of  a  Christian  man.    In  France  they  were  said  to  roast  ihcir 

illegitimate  children  and  smear  their  idols  with  the  burning  fat. 

Suppres.       For  nearly  two  years  Philip  waited  for  Clement  to  fulfil  his 

sion  of  '   bargain      A  certain  Templar  from  the  prisons  of.Toulouse  now 

order  in'    offered  to  put  the  king  in  possession  of  a  secret  that  would  be  worth 

France ,'    a  realm      Acting  on  the  evidence  of  this  informer,  Philip  issued 

orders  (Hth  September  1307)  for  the  arrest  of  all  the  Templars  m 

France  on  the  night  of  Frid.iy,  13th  October.     He  seems  to  have 

wiitten  to  the  neighbouring  princes  urfnng  them  to  act  in  the  same 

uay     James  de  .Molai  was  seized  with  sixty  of  his  brethren  in  Parii 

On  Saturday  they  were  brought  before  the  university  of  Pans  to 

hear  the  enumeration  of  their  crimes  ;  and  on  Sunday  the  Paris  mob 

was  fathered  in  the  royal  gardens,  where  preachers  were  inveighing 

against  the  iniquities  of  the  order.     The  inouisitors  began  their 

»"ork  at  once  ;  and  inhuman  tortures  forced  the   most  horrible 

avowals  from  the  lips  of  many.     In  Paris  alone  thirty-six  Templars 

died  under  torture  '     Of  140  Templars  examined  at  Paris  between 

I'jth  October  and  24th  November  1307,  the  experience  of  some  of 

whom  extended  over  nearly  half  a  century,  there  is  hardly  one  who 

4lid  not  admit  the  dishonouring  of  the  crucifix  at  his  reception. 

Very  many  confessed  to  other  charges,  even  of  the  worst  description. 

Clement  V.,  although  he  suspended  the  inquisitors'  powers  on  27th 

October  (Loiselenr,  159),  bef^ore  the  end  of  the  next  moBlh.  wrote 

to  Edward  II.  to  arrest  all  the  English  Templars,  who  were  accord- 

Ingljr  seized  on  lOlh  January  1308.     About  the  same  time  they 

■were  arrested  m  Sicily  (24.h  January)  and  in  Cyprus  (27th  May). 

is  Clement  did  not  move  fast  enough,  Philip  went  to  Poitiers 

with  700  armed  men,  and  the  pope  was  at  his  mercy      It  was  agreed 

■that  the  pnsoners,  their  lands,  and  their  money  should  1-.  nominally 

placed  In  the  hands  of  Clement's  commissioners.     Tne  power  of 

'  "l^Skbeltt,  JVoos,  L  39:  Qruelle,  S5.  ic 


the  inquisitors  was  restored  (5th  July) ;  and  the  property  forfeited 
was  to  be  devoted  to  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land  Clement 
now  gave  orders  for  fresh  diocesan  inquiries  into  the  guilt  ol  the 
Templars.  He  had  already  heard  the  confessions  of  seventy  two 
at  Poitiers  (29th  June  to  1st  July).  The  grand-niastec  and  the 
three  preceptors  were  re-examined  at  Chinon,  and  renewed  their  old 
confessio.is  (20th  August).  Lastly,  the  bull  Kcgnans  in  Culo  sum; 
moned  a  great  council  at  Vienne  for  1st  October  1310,  when  the 
question  of  the  guilt  of  the  order  might  be  considered  The' 
diocesan  councils  were  only  empowered  to  inquire  into  the  conduct' 
of  individuals. 

The  trial  began  on  llth  April  1310. '  On  23d  April  Reginald  Je  Tbe 
Pniino  protested  against  the  unfairness  of  the  proceedings  On  trial 
Tuesday,  12th  May,  fifty-four  Templars  were  burnt  by  order  of  the 
archbishop  of  Sens,  and  a  few  days  later  four  more  Next  day  the 
terror  spread  (19th  May).  Forty-six  Templars  withdrew  their  de 
fence  and  the  commissioners  decided  (30th  May)  to  adjourn  till 
November.  The  second  examination  lasted  from  18th  December 
1310  to  5th  June  1311  Meanwhile  (c  April  1311)  Clement  and 
Philip  had  come  to  terms  The  pope  condemned  the  Templars. 
The  council  of  Vienne  met  in  October  1311.  A  discussion  arose 
as  to  whether  the  TempLirs  should  be  heard  in  their  own  defence. 
Clement,  it  is  said,  broke  up  the  session  to  avoid  compliance  ;  and 
when  seven  Templars  offered  themselves  as  deputies  for  the  defence 
he  had  them  cast  into  prison.  Towards  the  beginmng  of  March 
Philip  came  to  Vienne,  and  he  was  seated  at  the  pope's  right  hand 
when  that  pontiff  delivered  his  sermon  a^inst  the  Templars  (3d 
AprU  1312),  whose  order  had  just  been  abolished,  not  at  the  general 
council,  but  in  private  consistory  (22d  March)  On  2d  May  1312 
he  published  the  bull  Ad  Providam,  transferring  the  goods  of  the 
society,  except  for  the  kingdoms  of  Castile,  Aragon.  Portugal,  and 
Majorca,  to  the  Knights  of  St  John.  The  order  was  never  formally 
pronounced  guilty  of  the  crimes  laid  to  its  charge  ;  its  abolition 
was  distinctly,  in  the  Urms  of  Clement's  bull  CoTisidcranUs  Dudum, 
"non  per  modum  definitive  sententise,  cum  earn  sujier  hoc  secun- 
dum inquisitiones  et  processus  super  his  habitns  Don  possemus 
ferre  de  jure  sed  per  viam  provisionis  et  ordinationis  apostohca^ 
(Cth  May  1312).  .         ,  , 

.  The  individual  members  of  the  order  seem  to  have  been  left  to 
the  judgment  of  provincial  councils.  They  were  divided  into  three 
classes,— (1)  those  who  confessed  at  once  ,  (2)  those  who  persisted 
in  denial  of  the  charges  ,  (3)  those  who.  havin"  confessed  at  first, 
withdrew  their  confessions  later  on  the  plea  that  they  had  been 
extracted  by  torture.  The  penalties  for  the  three  classes  were 
respectively  (1)  penitence,  (2)  perfetual  imprisonment,  (3)  death  by 
fire.  The  cases  of  the  grand-master,  the  visitor  of  France,  and  the 
masters  of  Aquiuino  and  Normandy  were  reserved  for  the  pope's 
decision.  Earlyjn  1314  they  were  (oR-ed  to  make  a  public  con 
fession  in  Notre  Dame,  and  had  already  been  condemned  to  per- 
petual imprisonment  when  the  grand-master  and  the  preceptor  of 
Normandy  publicly  proclaimed  their  entire  innocence.  The  king, 
without  consulting  the  church,  had  them  burnt  "  in  the  little  island  ' 
of  the  Seine  "between  the  Augnstinians  and  the  royal  garden 

The  opinion  that  the  monstrous  charges  brought  against  the  Quesiiou 
Templars  were  false  and  the  confessions  were  only  extracted  by  of  then 
torture  is  supported  by  the  general  results  of  the  investigation  (in  gu.li  oi 
almost  every  countrv  outside  France),  as  we  have  them  collected  in  muo- 
Raynouard,  Labbe,  and  Du  Piiy      In  Castile,  where  the  king  fiuDg  ceoc. 
them  into  prison,  they  were  acquitted  at  the  council  of  Salamanca 
In  Aragon,  where  they  held  out  for  a  time  in  their  fortresses  against 
the  royal  power,  the  council  of  Tarragona  proclaimed  in  their  favoui 
(4th  November  1312).      In  Portugal   the  commissioners  reported 
that  there  -were  no  grounds  for  accusation.     At  M.iinz  the  council 
monounced  the  order  blameless      At  Treves,  at  Messina,  and  at 
Bologna,  in  Romagna  and  in  Cyprus,  they  were  either  acquitted  or 
no  evidence  was  forthcoming  .igainst  them.      At  the.  council  ol 
Ravenna  the  question  as  to  whether  toituie  should  be  used  was 
answered    in    tlic   negative   except   by  t\to  Dominicans  .   all    the 
Templars  were  absolved,— even  those  who  had  confessed  through 
fear  of  torture  being  pronounced  innocent  (18th  June  1310)      Six 
Templars  were  examined  at  Florence,  and  their  evidence  is  tor  lU 
length  the  most  remarkatile  of  all  that  is  still  extant.     Roughly 
speaking,  they  confess  with    the  most  elaborate  detai    to  every 
charge,- even    the   most   lo.ithsome  ;   and   the   [Kiusal    of   then 
evidence  induces  a  constant  suspicion   that   their  answers  were 
practically  dictated  to  them  in  the  process  of  the  examinaUon  oi 
invented  by  the  witnesses  themselves^    In  England,  where  perhaps 
torture  was  not  used,  out  of  eighty  Tcniplai-s  examined  only  four 
confessed  to  the  charge  of  denying  Christ,  and  of  these  four  twe 
were  apostate  knights.     But  some  English  Templars  would  only 
arantee  the  purity  of  their  own  country.      That  in  England  as 


I 


elsewhere  the  charges  were  held  to  be  not  absolutely  proved  seems 
evident  from  the  form  of  confession  to  be  used  belore  absolution, 
in  which  the  Templars  acknowledge  themselves  to  be  defamed  lo 
the  matter  of  certain  articles  that  they  cannot  purge  themselrM 
In  England  nearly  all  the  worst  evidence  comes  at  second  or  third 
>  See  til e  evidcQM  m  full  »l'.  Loiieleuj.  ftp  172-212 


T  E  M  —  T  E  M 


165 


I 


htnd  or  through  the  depositions  of  FnnciscaDS  and  Dominicans. 
Vet  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  "spuitio  super  crucem  " 
did  form  <a  part  of  the  initiation  ceremony.  Even  the  English 
Templars  admitted  that  the  statutes  of  the  order  were  one  and  the 
tame  all  the  world  over  ;  and  there  is  no  setting  aside  the  consist- 
tnt  endenoe  of  almost  every  French  Templar  as  to  his  guilt  in  this 
matter.  Of  the  other  charges  the  most  revolting  may  have  origin- 
ited  in  the  abuse  and  misinterpretation  of  a  licence  primarily 
jitended  for  military  emergencies.  Such  at  least  is  the  form  it 
leems  to  take  in  the  evidence  of  John  Senand  (ap.  Mich.,  ii.  p.  137). 
k  debased  mind  might  misinterpret  this  concession  and  translate 
,t  mto  coarser  words,  till  (this  part  of  the  initiation  ceremony  being 
probably  conducted  in  private,  as,  most  certainly,  was  the  spitting 
>n  the  cross)  there  mi^t  be  two  formolAnes  current  in  the  order, 
>f  which  the  second  was  plainly  immoral,  whereas  the  first  was 
perfectly  harmless  unless  coupled  with  a  lous-auendre.  So  too 
ihth  r^ard  to  the  spuiiw.  One  Templar  says  plainly  that  he 
uwk  it  for  a  joke, — pro  tru/a ,  othere  regarded  it  as  an  Imitation 
}f  St  Peter's  denial ;  a  modem  writer  has  soggested  that  the  custom 
iras  mtecded  as  a  symbol  of  absolute  obedience  (ap.  Mich.,  ii  260). 
There  is  little  doubt  that  most  member?  looked  upon  the  ceremony 
■nth  disgust.  Some  salved  their  consciences  by  the  excuse  that 
they  were  denj'ing  Jesus  and  not  Christ ;  another  when  shown  the 
crucifix  denied  his  belief  in  the  painted  figure.  Nearly  all  declared 
that  they  had  spat  near  but  not  upon  the  cross,  and  denied  Christ 
"  non  corde  sed  ore."  Men  who  could  thus  play  with  their  own 
consciences  at  their  initiation  might  well,  when  their  lives  were  in 
peril,  dothe  a  falsehood  in  the  garb  of  truth  by  denying  "  spuitio 
Bupcr  crucem  "  instead  of  confessing  to  ' '  spuitio  jux^  crucem. " 

The  other  charges  stand  upon  a  somewhat  similar  footing.  The 
oower  of  lay  absolution  might  easily  be  developed  out  of  the  harm- 
less words  vith  which  the  master  or  preceptor  dismissed  his  chapter. 
The  cordnla  which  Templars  were  accused  of  wearing  in  honour 
of  theu  idol  take  a  very  different  appearance  as  the  "zones  of 
jhasnty  "  cr  "belt  of  Nazareth"  worn  in  accordance  with  St  Ber- 
narj's  pretept  With  regard  to  the  charge  of  idolatry  the  evidence 
is  very  cooBicting.  In  France  and  at  Florence  a  large  proportion 
of  the  members  confessed  to  indecent  kissing  (oscula  iiOujTt^sta)  at 
their  initiation  ;  but  hardly  a  single  English  Templar  admitted  the 
charge,  and  one  French  witness  suggested  an  almost  ludicrous  ex- 
planation of  the  rumour.  Here  also  a  simple  ceremony  of  respect 
or  humiliation  seems  to  have  been  expanded  into  one  of  shame- 
lessness  ;  but  the  evidence  is  too  strong  to  admit  of  its  being  ex- 
plained away,  at  least  in  France. 
Oo^lnn-  Not  a  few  witnesses  confessed  that  they  had  b^n  called  upon  to 
tl  srrors.  declare  Chnst  a  false  prophet,  who  suffered  for  His  own  sins  and  not 
for  the  race,  and  to  believe  only  in  a  superior  God  of  the  heavens 
{Veum  cali  sitperiorem).  One  Florence  witness  admits  that  the 
idol  was  worshipped  as  God  and  Savi.^ur.  It  was  this  bead,  ac- 
cording to  one  of  the  witnesses,  that  could  make  the  order  rich  and 
cause  the  earth  to  bud  and  the  trees  to  blossom.  A  Carcassonne 
Templar  spoke  of  the  idol  (Raynouard,  241)  as  a/rieiwf  of  God,  who 
converses  with  God  when  he  wishes.  On  such  evidence  M.  Loiseleur 
holds  that  the  Templars  were  members  of  a  secret  religion,  which 
combined  the  hereticsd  teachings  of  the  Bogomilians  and  the  Lnci- 
ferians.  The  former,  "the  friends  of  God,"  believed  in  a  Supreme 
Deity,  whose  eldest  son  Satanael  was  the  creator  of  oar  world  after 
his  revolt  against  his  father,  and  whose  younger  son  Jesus  was 
made  man  to  counteract  the  evil  deeds  of  nis  brother.  They  did 
not  venerate  the  cross,  regarding  it  as  the  instrument  of  Christ's 
passion.  The  Luciferians,  on  the  other  hand,  worshipped  the  eldest 
son.  who  had  power  over  all  the  riches  of  this  world.  M.  Loiseleur 
has  shown  some  remarkable  coincidences,  verbal  and  otherwise,  be- 
tween the  creed  of  these  two  sects  and  that  of  the  Templars,  who, 
according  to  him,  borrowed  from  the  former  their  belief  in  the 
Supreme  Deity  and  from  the  latter  their  devotion  to  the  God  of 
this  earth.  It  seems,  however,  doubtful  whether  he  is  justified  in 
combining  the  several  items  of  snch  scattered  evidence  into  a  com- 
plete doctrinal  system.  His  argument  might  be  turned  against 
himself ;  for,  if  these  heresies  were  so  widely  spread  in  medisval 
Europe,  are  they  not  for  that  reason  those  most  likely  to  be 
ascribed  to  an  unpopular  order  t 

On  the  whole  it  may  perhaps  be  admitted  that  the  charges  of 
' '  spuitio  "  and  ' '  osculatio  inhonesta  "  were  current,  at  least  sporadi- 
cally, for  fifty  years  before  the  suppression  of  the  order. '  They 
may  have  become  more  general  in  the  time  of  Thomas  Beraud«  the 
grand-master  (who  died  1273),  according  to  the  evidence  of  the  pre- 
ceptor of  Aqnitaine.  On  the  death  of  William  de  Beaujeu  (1291) 
there  were  two  rivals  for  the  office  of  grand-master, — Hugh  de 
Peraud,  the  visitor  of  France,  and  James  de  Molai.  The  latter  in 
1291,  at  a  general  chapter,  had  declared  his  intention  of  extirpating 
certain  practices  in  the  order  of  which  he  did  not  approve  '  ;  while, 
if  we  may  trust  the  French  witnesses,  the  most  vigorous  initiator 
according  to  the  new  method  was  Hugh  de  Peraud.  This  exactly 
fits  in  with  the  account'  that  the  errors  were  introduced  after 

'  See  Mich.,  il  6-11.       =  Mich.,  ii  139,  247.       =  Mich.,  ii.  132. 


William  de  Beanjen's  death.  In  other  words,  it  is  probable  that 
the  party  of  Hugh  de  Peraud  between  1290  and  1307  made  a 
desperate  effort  to  enforce  the  new  ceremonies  and  the  new  doc- 
trines throughout  France  and  England.  The  custom  of  "spuitio," 
at  all  events,  was  verj-  ancient,  and  Hugh  de  Peraud  devoted  his 
energies  to  the  propagation  of  the  "osculatio  inhonesta."  This 
would  explain  the  omission  of  all  allusion  to  the  latter  ceremony 
when  the  English  Templars  were  absolved  ;  for  they  wonld  not 
confess  to  a  practice  of  which  they  were  innocent.  This  theory 
likewise  goes  a  long  way  tow.irds  interpreting  both  the  confession 
and  the  denial  of  James  de  Molai  and  the  general  acquittal  of  the 
Templars  in  nearly  all  the  councils  outside  France.        (T.  A.  A.) 

TEMPLE.  The  temple  is  an  institution  common  to  Meaning. 
religions  of  natural  growth  which  have  reached  a  certain 
stage,  and  in  most  languages  bears  a  name  expressing  that 
it  is  the  house  or  palace  erected  by  men  as  a  habitation 
for  their  god*  (Greek,  laos;  Hebrew,  kekal,  "palace,"  or 
beth  elohim,  "  house  of  God  " ;  Latin,  ades  sacrs).  In 
this  connexion  the  term  "  house  of  God "  has  quite  a 
different  sense  from  that  which  we  connect  with  it  when 
we  apply  it  to  a  Christian  place  of  worship.  A  temple  is 
not  a  meeting-place  for  worshippers ;  for  many  ancient 
temples  were  open  only  to  priests,  and  as  a  general  rule 
the  altar,  which  was  the  true  place  of  worship,  stood  not 
within. the  house  but  before  the  door.  The  temple  is  the 
dwelling-house  of  the  deity  to  which  it  is  consecrated, 
whose  presence  is  marked  by  a  statue  or  other  sacred 
symbol;  and  in  it  his  sacred  treasures,  the  gifts  and  tribute 
of  his  worshippers,  are  kept,  under  the  charge  of  his 
attendants  or  priests.  Again,  a  temple  implies  a  sanctu- 
ary ;  but  a  sanctuary  or  holy  spot  does  not  necessarily 
contain  a  temple.  A  piece  of  land  may  be  reserved  for 
the  deity  without  a  dwelling-house  being  erected  to 
him  upon  it,  and  a  sacred  tree,  stone,  or  altar,  with 
the  holy  precinct  surrounding  it,  may  be  recognized  as  a 
place  where  the  worshipper  can  meet  his  god  and  present 
his  offerings,  although  no  temple  is  attached.  Indeed  the 
conception  of  a  holy  place,  separated  from  profane  use, 
is  older  than  the  beginnings  of  architecture ;  and  natural 
objects  of  worship,  such  as  trees  and  stones,  which  need 
no  artificial  protection  or  official  keeper,  are  older  than 
images  enshrmed  under  roofs  and  protected  by  walls  and 
doors.  All  antique  religion  is  essentially  altar- worship 
(see  Sacrifice),  and  for  ritual  purposes  the  altar 
always  continued  to  be  the  true  centre  of  the  sanctuary. 
But  the  altar  is  only  a  modification  of  the  sacred  stone 
(comp.  Priest,  voL  xix.  p.  726),  and  it  has  already 
been  observed  that,  even  in  later  times,  the  chief  altar  of 
a  sanctuary  stood  outside  the  temple.  In  the  oldest  and 
most  primitive  forms  of  religion  the  sacred  stone  is  at 
once  the  place  where  gifts  are  offered  and  the  material 
sign  of  the  presence  of  the  deity ;  thus  the  temple  with 
its  image  belongs  to  a  later  development,  in  which  the 
significance  of  the  sacred  stone  is  divided  between  tha 
altar  outside  the  door  and  the  idol,  or  its  equivalent, 
within.  But  in  many  very  ancient  sanctuaries  the  place 
of  a  temple  is  taken  by  a  natural  Or  artificial  grotto  (e.^, 
the  Phcenician  Astarte  grottoes,  the  grotto  of  Cynthus 
in  Delos),  or  else  the  temple  is  built  over  a  subterranean 
opening  (as  at  Delphi) ;  and,  while  this  may  be  in-  part 
explaineu  as  connected  with  the  cult  of  telluric  deities,  oi 
the  worship  of  the  dead,  it  seems  not  unreasonable  to 
think  that  in  their  origin  cave  temples  may  date  back  to 
the  time  when  caves  were  commonly  used  as  human  habit- 
ations, that  the  altar  in  frcat  of  the  temple  had  its  proto- 
type in  altars  at  the  mouths  of  sacred  caves,  which  were 
approached  with  holy  Tear  and  not  entered  by  ordinary 
worshippers,  and  that  thcs  some  of  the  main  features  of 
the  ancient  temple  were  fixed  from  the  first  by  theanalogy 


*  Tcmplum  properly  denotes  a  spot  inargurated  for  the  observation 
of  auspices  by  the  augurs.  But  at  Rome  most  mies  sacrs  ■were  aluo 
tcmplCt  and  so  the  terms  came  to  be  used  as  synonymous. 


166 


TEMPLE 


of  more  primitive  sauctuaries.  The  inJluence  of  the  cave 
lemple  seems  at  least  to  be  undeniable  in  that  widespread 
type  of  sanctuary  in  which,  besides  the  court  for  the 
worshippers  and  an  outer  chamber,  there  was  a  dark  and 
mysterious  inner  room,  an  adytum  or  Holy  of  Holies. 
This  type  is  found  m  Egypt  (see  Abchitectuee,  vol.  ii. 

V  388  and  plate  VII ),  among  the  Semites,  as  in  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  and  in  that  of  Hierapolis  {De  Dea 
Sy  1  §  31),  and  also  among  the  Greeks  and  Ropians. ._  In 
Greece  the  adytum  was  not  a  universal  feature,  though 
large  temples  usually  had  an  antechamber  as  well  as  the 
cella  or  proper  chamber  of  the  god.  But,  where  an  oracle 
was  given,  or  mysteries  were  celebrated,  an  adytum  was 
always  found,  and  one  of  its  names  was  /teyapoc,  which 
seems  to  be  a  transcription  of  a  Semitic  word  for  a  cave 
(meghara).  Certain  adyta  in  Greece  were  actually  sub- 
terranean ;  and  the  association  o£  oracles  with  caves  is 
well  known. 

The  architectural  features  and  plan  of  temples  in  various 
parts  of  the  world  have  been  illustrated  at  length  in  the 
article  AECHiTECTtTEE,  and  need  not  detain  us  here,  but 
some  further  notice  of  the  successive  temples  at  Jerusalem 
isj  called  for  by  the  unique  interest  of  the  subject,  while 
a  glance  at  the  topographical  problems  connected  with 
this  holy  site  is  necessary  to  supplement  the  article 
Jercsalem. 
Solo-  1 .  The  Temple  of  Solomon. — ^"lliere  were  temples  among 

mon  s  the  Hebrews  before  the  time  of  Solomon,  whether  private, 
'*""  '  like  that  of  Micah  (Judges  xvii.  5),  or  public,  like  that  of 
Sliiloh,  where  the  ark  was  housed  for  a  time  (see  Tabee- 
nacle).  In  this,  as  in  other  matters,  the  Israelites  must 
h.xve  learned  from  the  Canaanites,  who  had  large  temples 
in  the  time  of  the  Judges.  The  "hold"  (vault?)  of  the 
ti.'mple  of  El-Derith  at  Shechem  was  the  place  of  refuge 
for  a  thousand  men  (Judges  ix.  46  sq.),  and  at  Gaza  there 

V  as  a  vast  temple  with  a  roof  supported  on  two  middle 
uillars  (Judges  xvi.  29).  Solomon's  enterprise  was  not 
tUerefore  absolutely  novel,  and  in  point  of  size  his  temple 
can  hardly  have  surpassed  those  just  mentioned.  But  his 
subjects  were  much  behind  the  Canaanites  and  Philistines 
in  the  constructive  arts,  and  as  Solomon  had  to  call  in  tie 
aid  of  Tyrian  craftsmen  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  the 
rlcsign  was  derived  from  Tyrian  architecture.  The  general 
plan,  indeed,  of  the  house  or  "  palace  "  {kekaVj  of  Jehovah, 
wiih  an  adytum  (delAr,  E.V.  "oracle"),  an  outer  chamber, 
r.nd  an  altar  before  the  door,  is,  as  we  have  seen,  common 
to  many  countries,  especially  in  temples  which  had  an 
oracle,  as  was  the  case  with  Solomon's  temple,  built  to 
contain  the  ark.  But  all  the  distinctive  features  are 
riianiciaii,  or  at  least  characteristic  of  the  northern 
Ijcmitcs,  of  whose  art  the  Phoonicians  were  then  the  lead- 
ing exponents.  For  the  general  arrangements  the  temple 
r.f  Hicrajiolis  (Mabbog),  described  by  Lucian,  offers  a 
complete  parallel.  Like  that  of  Solomon,  it  faced  the 
oast,  and  had  two  cellce  and,a  pronaos.  The  interior  was 
enriched  with  gold  work.  Before  the  door  stood  a  brazen 
altar  within  a  walled  court.  The  walled  court  is  a  con- 
stant feature  in  the  Phoenician  and  Syrian  temples,  knomi 
to  us  from  their  remains  or  from  coins,'  and  the  golden 
decorations,  the  portico,  and  the  brazen  altar  appear  in  the 
ancient  temple  of  Byblus  and  in  other  Phoenician  shrines 
(C.I  S ,  Nos.  2,  143).  The  chief  motives  in  the  internal 
d'.coration  of  Solomon's  temple  were  the  palm  tree  and 
the  cliciub.  The  former  is  one  of  the  commonest 
Pluvnirian  synnbol.s,  and  the  Phirnician  associations  of  the 
latter  are  clear  fnmi  F./ck.  xxviii.  The  cherub,  in  fact,  is 
only  a  variety  of  the  sphinx,  ami  the  way  in  which  the 
palm     and   winged    animal    fignrcs    were    cniiibincd    in, 

Se€  T.  i.  I>on:iM>.on,  Arehttectura  JViimismatiLa  (Lnihloii,  l.'*59); 
lU-nao, aV'Asion  rf?  l*liln\jctc  ;  ri.rrot  atul  Cltii-iez,  Uist.  tfi:  l\li(,  vol.  iii.^ 


Phoenician  decoration  is  shown  in  a  fragment  of  alabaste? 
preserved  in  the  Louvre  and  here  figured  (fig.  1)  after 
Perrot  (op.  dt.,  iil.  131).  Two  cherubs  \vith  outstretched 
wings  stood  in  the  ^^'•^'iT— «<7X~-^1 

adytum  to  form  a  .^rty^^\^^^^^^^^it^^ 

baldachin  over  the  ^.^J^^X'^s^X^^JyH 

ark.       Baldachins  ^^^^£S£i^^ 

over  the  image  or  S^^jJjJjl^^^/^fiAfJijfjJ'J'A 
symbol  of  the  deity 
existed  in  other 
temples  of  the 
northern  Semites 
(Donaldson,  o^.ct*., 
pp.  73,  76  sq.,  99), 
and  in  many  Phoe- 
nician works  of  art 
(e.g.,  on  the  stele  of 
Byblus)  the  figure 
orsymbolof  adeity 
isovershadowed  by 
the  winged  disk 
(an  Assyrian  sym- 
bol of  godhead)  ar- 
ranged as  a  sort  of 
canopy  (M^nant,  Glypliqut  Oriental,  ii.  2S1,  238). 

The  adytum  of  the  temple  was  a  cube  of  20  cubits  eacS 
way;  the  outer  chamber  was  of  the  same  breadth,  but  40 
cubits  long  and  30  high.^  The  portico  was  of  the  breadth 
of  the  main  building  and  10  cubits  deep.  That  the  two 
chambers  were  separated  by  a  solid  wall  and  not  by  a  mere 
wooden  partition  may  be  taken  as  certain  if,  with  Stade, 
we  understand  1  Kings  vi.  31  to  say-that  the  doorway  of 
the  adytum  was  pentagonal,  i.e.,  that  instead  of  a  hori- 
zontal lintel  a  rude  arch  of  two  blocks  was  introduced  to 
distribute  the  pressure  of  the  superincumbent  wall.  In 
this  case  it  is  not  likely  that  the  exterior  w-alls  of  the 
adytum  were  carried  up  to  a  height  of  30  cubits., so  as  to 
allow  of  a  continuous  roof.  The  reduction  of  the  dimensions 
to  English  feet  is  approximately  determined  by  the  Siloam 
itEcription,  which  gives  a  round  number  of  1200  eubits 
for  a  measured  length  of  1760  feet.  The  Hebrew  cubit, 
therefore,  was  the  short  cubit  of  antiquity,  and  for  practi- 
cal purposes  may  be  taken  as  equal  to  the  Greek  cubit  ol 
18  inches,  tised  by  Josephus  for  the  measurements  ot 
Herod's  temple.  "Thus  the  roof-beams  of  the  temple  bad 
a  span  of  30  feet,  a  length  sufficient  to  make  it  probabde 
that  the  wooden  pillars  spoken  of  in  1  Kings  x.  1 2  (oomjj. 
2  Kings  xviii.  16)  were  employed  to  support  them.  The 
roof  of  the  temple  at  Gaza  rested  on  piljars,  as  we  have 
seen,  and  wooden  pillars  seem  to  have.-been  used  within 
the  temple  at  Golgus  (Cesnola,  Cyprvs,  p.  139),  which 
was  smaller  than  that  of  Jerusalem.  A  peculiar  feature 
in  Solomon's  temple  was  that  all  its  sides  e.\cept  the  front 
were  surrounded  by  three  stories  (each  5  cubits  high)  of 
small  chambers,  5  cubits  wide  on  the  ground  floor,  6  on 
the  first  floor,  and  7  on  the  second,  the  increasing  breadth 
being  evidently  got  by  reducing  the  thickness  of  the  walk 
by  1  cubit  at  each  floor.'  Thus,  allowing  for  the  walls, 
the  external  me.t.surements  of  the  house  cannot  have  been 
much  less  than  15  cubits  by  90.  The  aspect  of  the  facade 
can  only  bo  conjccturally  determined.  Several  Phcenician 
temijks,  known  from  coins,  show  on  their  fa(;ade  a  high- 
pitclicd  g.able  (P.yblus,  Tripolis),  and  tliat  of  Tripolis  ha* 
also  a  flat-i'oofcd  wing  on  each  side  of  the  g.ible  and  portico, 
which  would  answer  to  the  ends  of  the  side  chambers  in 


.,  -  Tlic  lies.  i'i]>tiou  of  llie  iciiii-l*^  ni  I  Knigs  is  otipu  ol'Scnre  .ni.l  tliv 
tuxl  is  itnt  nlwnys  sound.  Cp.  SuiiJc'.'s  css.tv  id  Z.  f.  ATtuIn:  Wiis., 
issrs.  p.  1-23  s.,- 

^  III  siuli  i^iiinll  clirtoihcpt  tie  wiuiltug  st.air  (1  Kings  v\.  %\  C3ii 
Ii.irilly  hnvc  liivii  more  lli^ni  .1  verltc.il  nost  TiCb  iTnntboldft  luO^  to 
it  (Prof.  J.  ll.._MiH.IWoii) 


TEMPLE 


167 


our   temple.      But    perhaps   the   closest   analogy  to  the 
frontispiece  of  Solomons  temple  is  the  often-cited  one  of 
the  temple  at  Paphos,  of  which  a 
representation  from  a  coin   is  an- 
nexed (fig.  2).     Here  the  portico  be- 
tween the  side  wings  is  flanked  by 
two  slender  towers,  and  in  the  end 
of  the  nave  above  the  door  there 
are  square-topped  windows.     Splo- 
(uon's    temple    had    "  windows    of 
beams "  (or  "  with   horizontal   hn- 
tels")  "framed  in,"  which,  as  Pro- 
fessor J.  H.  Middleton  observes,  is 
naturally  explained  on  the  analogy  of  the  windows  be- 
tween the  beams  in  the  wooden  gables  of  Coptic  churches. 
This   13    the   obvious    position  of   openings  for  light  m 
buildings  the  type  of    which  was  derived   from   wooden 
constructions,  and  we  know   that  the   oldest   Phoenician 
templea  were,  at  least  in  great  part,  of  wood  (Utica;  Pliny, 
H.N..  rvi.  79;  comp.  Jos.,  C   Ap.,  i.   17,  18,  and  Solo- 
mons house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon).     That  Solomon's 
temple  had  towers  cannot  be  proved,  for  the  height  of  the 
porch  is  cot  given  in  Kings,  and  the  120  cubits  of  2  Chiron. 
iiL  4  is  obviously  an  excessive  figure,  due  to  a  mistake  of 
the  wnter  or  of  a  copyist.  .  But  the  fact  that  in  fcekiel's 
ideal  temple  the  door-posts  of  the  porch  are  5  cubits  broad 
makes  the  existence  of  slender  turrets  like  those  of  Paphos 
on  each  side  of  the  portal  probable.     Another  feature  of 
Solomon's  temple  is  exactly  reproduced  at  Paphos.     On 
each  side  of  the  door  the  coin  shows  a  fantastic  pillar 
i*anding  free.    Solomon  erected  two  such  pillars  of  bronze, 
li  cubits  high  (1  Kings  vii.  15  sq.),  with  capitals  of  "  Lily 
■work,"  «.?.,  adorned  with  lotus  flowers,  like  the  Phoenician 
capital  from  Cjrprus  figured  by  Perrot  {op.  nt.,  p.  116). 
Such  twin  pillars  or  twin  stelae  in  stone  are  of  constant 
occurrence  m  Phn?nician  sacred  art,  and  are  still  familiar 
to  us  as  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.     In  Solomon's  temple 
both  the  oracle  and  the  outer  cella  had  folding  doors.     In 
the  second  and  third  temples  the  inuer  door  was  replaced 
by  a  vail  (pdrdkheih),  and  a  vail  also  hung  before  the  outer 
door  (Mai.  i.  10  ,  1  Mac.  i.  22,  iv.  51  ;  B.  J.,  v.  5,  §  4  sq.). 
The  Chronicler  (2  Chron.  iii.  14)  introduces  a  vail  in  the 
first  temple      This  feature  also  seems  to  be  common  to 
the  temple  with  other  Semitic  shrines  (comp.  C./.'S.,  No. 
86,  0310,  Assyr.  parakku,  Syriac  prakke,  "shnnes,"  and 
the  Kaaba  at  Mecca).' 

The  temple  had  an  ijjner  coun  of  its  omi  (1  Kings  n  36),  but 
the  outer  or  ^cat  court  (1  Kings  vii.  12)  was  the  court  of  the  p»alace 
A3  well  as  of  the  sauctuary.  Details  as  to  the  position  of  the  courts 
iDd  buildings  must  be  reserv-'d  till  we  speak  of  the  site,  but  it 
•nay  be  noticed  that  Jer.  xxxvi.  10  speaks  of  the  "higher  court," 
»o  which  the  "  new  gate  "  of  the  temple  belonged  This  new  gate 
<o  the  higher  court  can  hardly  be  different  from  the  "  higher  gale  " 
built  by  jotham  (2  Kings  xv.  35j,  or  from  the  "higher  gate'  of 
Beoiamin,  which,  in  Jer.  xi.  2,  is  not  the  city  gate  of  that  name. 
»ut  a  gate  "in"  (not  "by"  as  E.V.)  "the  house  of  the  Lord  " 
from  Its  name  this  gate  must  have  been  on  the  north  side  or  at  the 
■oorth-east  angle  of  the  temple  area,  so  that  the  ground  rose  to  the 
north  or  north-east.  The  upper  court  may  be  merely  the  upper 
part  of  the  great  court  near  the  "  higher  gate "  leading  to  the 
palace  ( 2  Chron.  xxiii.  20),  or  may  be  the  s-ime  as  the  '*  new  court  " 
if  2  Chron.  xx.  5.  But  one  cannot  be  sure  that  the  Chronicler  is 
QOt  transferring  to  Jehoshaphat's  time  a  new  court  of  the  second 
temple.  We  know,  however,  that  the  kings  of  Judah  made  from 
time  to  time  considerable  changes  m  and  about  the  tem.ple 

2.  The  Temple  of  Zeruhbabel. — After  the  captivity  an 
altar  of  stone  took  the  place  of  the  brazen  altar,  or  rather 
perhaps  of  the  altar  of  Ahaz  (2  Kings  xvi  10  nq.)  The 
altar  was  erected  immediately  after  the  return  (Ezra  iii. 

'  Op.  also  the  vail  of  Assyn.in  tissue  given  by  Antiochus  to  the 
temple  at  Olympia  (Pausan.,  v.  12,  §  4),  whidi  Gauneja  {'Quarterly 
StalfmenI,  April  1878)  boldly  ideutifies  with  the  v.iil  of  the  temple 
tlijt  Antiochus  Epipbanes  carried  off  from  Jerusalem  (1  Mac,  i.  22  ; 
Jo9  ,  Ant,.  \u.  5,  §  4). 


2);  but  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  was  long  delayed,  and 
the  work  was  not  completed  till  520  B.C.  (see  Haggai). 
It  was  much  inferior  to  the  first  temple  in  magnificence, 
though  not  perhaps  in  size  (Haggai  ii.  3).  The  proposed 
breadth  of  60  cubits  and  height  of  60  cubits  spoken  of  in 
Ezra  VI.  3  would  indeed  imply  that  it  was  larger  than  the 
first  temple,  but  in  view  of  the  testimony  of  Haggai  (loc. 
ext.)  It  seems  ualikely  that  these  dimensions  were  realized 
by  Zerubbabel. 

The  first  temple  resembled  other  temples  of  antiquity 
m  being  built  to  contain  a  visible  symbol  of  the  presence 
of  the  deity,  namely,  the  ark,  which  stood  in  the  inner 
chamber      In  the  second  temple  the  adytum  was  empty, 
but  the  idea  that  the  Godhead  was  locally  present  in  it 
still  found  expression  in  the  continuance  of  the  altar  service, 
in  the  table  of  showbread  (a  sort  of  contmual  leciisterjiium) 
that  stood  in  the  outer  chamber,  and   above  all  in  the 
annual   ritual  of   the  day  of   atonement,  when  the  high 
priest  entered  the  Holy  of  Holies  to  sprinkle  the  blood  of 
the  expiatory  sacrifice  on  behalf  of  the  people.     Not  only 
in  this  point  but  in  all  others  the  ritual  of  the  second 
temple  was  dominated  by  the  idea  of  pnestly  mediation, 
and  the  stated  sacntices  of  the. priests  on  behalf  of  the 
people,  which  replaced  the  old  stated  oblations  of  the 
kings,  became  the  main  feature  of  the  altar  service.     The 
first  temple  was  primarily  the  royal  chapel,  and  the  kings 
did  as  they  pleased  in  it  ;   the  second  temple  was  tho 
sanctuary  of  the  priests,   whose  chief    now   became  the 
temporal  as  well  as  the  spintual  head  of  the  people.     In 
the  time  of  Ezekiel  not  only  laymen  but  uncircumcised 
foreigners  entered  the  sanctuary  and  acted  as  servants  in 
the  sacred  offices  (Ezek.  xliv.  7) ;  m  the  second  temple 
the  laity  were  anxiously  kept  at  a  distance  from  the  holy 
thmgs,  and  even  part  of  the  court  around  the  altar  was 
fenced  off  by  a  barrier,  which  only  the  priests  were  allowed 
to  cross  (Joseph.,  Am.,  xiii.  13,  §  5).     Bemg  no  longer 
hemmed  in  by  the  royal  buildings,  as  the  first  temple  had 
been  (Ezek.  xlin.  8),  its  prccmcts  could  be  expanded  to 
suit  the  necessities  of  the  enormous  host  of  ministers  of 
various  ranks  demanded  by  the  growing  complexity  of 
the  ritual,  which,  in  matters  of  music  and  the  like,  was 
immensely  developed  as  time  went  on   (comp.  Psalms). 
Herod's  temple,  with  the  dependent  buildings,  was  a  little 
city  enclosed  in  its  own  fortifications.     But  long  before 
his  time  the  temple  was  a  sort  of  priestly  citadel,  the 
fortress  as  well  as  the  sanctuary  of  the  hierocracy  ;  and 
the  sacred  offenngs  which  flowed  to  Jerusalem  from  Jews 
in  all  parts  ot  the  world  were  lavishly  expended  on  enlarg- 
ing and  strengthening  it  (Jos.,  B.J.,  v.  5,  §  1 ).    The  name 
of  Simon  II.  (c.  200  B.C.)  is  associated  m  Ecclus.  L  1  sq. 
with  important  works  of  fortification  on  the  circuit  of  the 
temple.     Twice  ruined  in  the  wars  with   the  Seleucids, 
these  bulwarks  were  twice  rebuilt,  by  Judas  and  Jonathan 
Maccabaeus  (1  Mac.  vi   7  ,  Jos.,  Ant.,  xiii.  5,  §  11).      The 
works  were  further  strengthened  by  Simon  (1  Mac.  xiii. 
52),  and  at  the  time  of  Pompey's  siege  (63  B.C.)  constituted 
an  almost  impregnable  fastness,  strengthened  on  its  weakest 
or  northern  side  by  great  towers  and  a  deep  ditch  (Ant.,  xiv. 
4,  §  2).     Twenty-six  years  later  the  temple  was  again  be- 
sieged by  Herod,  who,  attacking,  like  Pompey,  from  the 
north,  had  to  force  three  lines  of  defence, — the  city  wall 
and  the  outer  and  inner  temple  (Ant.,  xiv.  16,  §  2). 

Of  the  temple  as  it  was  in  the  Greek  or  the  H.ismor.ean  period 
we  have  two  descriptions  by  Hellenistic  Jews,  Pscudo  -  .iristi^us 
(comp.  Septuaoint)  and  Pseudo-Hecat,-eus  (Jos.,  C.  Ap.,  i.  22).  In 
such  a  matter  we  may  suspect  even  notorious  literary  forgers  of  care- 
lessness and  exaggeration  rather  than  of  ahsohue  untruth.  Pseudo- 
Aristeus  describes  the  temple  as  surrounded  ty  a  triple  circuit  of 
walls  more  than  70  cubits  high,  and  as  further  protected  by  the 
adjoining  Acra,  which  overlooked  the  place  of  s.ncrilice.  Comparing 
the  account  of  Kerod's  siege,  wc  may  perhaps  take  the  third  circuit 
to  be  the  vr,ill  of  the  towu,  which  is  ropiescute.l  as  lying  below  ths 


168 


TEMPLE 


temple  on  the  same  hilL  The  upper  city  on  the  western  hill  is 
ignored,  which  seems  to  show  that  the  account  was  written  before 
the  Hasmonean  period  (comp.  Jfrcsalem,  vol.  liiL  p  641),  as  has 
been  argued  on  other  grounds  in  Septuagint.  The  Acra,  which  is 
often  mentioned  in  the  history  of  the  Maccabee  wars,  seems  to  have 
been  on  the  same  site  as  the  Baris  or  castle  of  the  Hasmonean 
priest-princes,  where  they  put  on  their  priestly  robes  before  doing 
sacrifice  {ArU.,iv.  11,  §  4).  That  the  Baria  was  close  to  the  temple 
appears  both  from  this  circumstance  and  from  the  fact  that  Anti- 
gonus  was  charged  vrith  setting  fire  to  the  porticoes  of  the  temple 
Suring  the  siege  by  Herod  {Anl.,  xiv.  16,  §  2), — an  ao-usation  which 
would  have  nad  no  plausibility  unless  the  destruction  of  the 
porticoes  had  been  useful  to  isolate  the  castle.  Pseudo-Hecataeus 
gives  the  temple  precincts  a  length  of  500  feet  and  a  breadth  of 
100  cubits.  The  explanatioD  of  these  numbers  will  appear  in  the 
sequel, 
fierod'a  3.  Tlu  Temple  of  Eerod. — In  the  eighteenth  year  of  his 
temple,  reign  (20-19  B.C.)  Herod  the  Great  began  to  rebuild  the 
temple  and  its  precincts  from  the  foundation,  doubling 
the  old  area  {Ant,  xv.  11  ,  Bell.  Jud.,  i  21).  The  works 
included  the  reconstruction,  on  the  old  site,  of  the  Baris, 
which  now  received  the  name  of  Antonia,  and  is  generally 
reckoned  by  Josephus  as  forming  part  of  the  temple 
precincts.  Apart  from  the  Antonia,  the  temple  area  formed 
a  quadrangular  plateau  supported  by  retaining  walls  of 
great  height  and  strength,  and  surrounded  by  porticoes. 
Three  of  the  porticoes  were  double  walks,  30  cubits  broad, 
with  monolith  pillars  25  cubits  high,  and  cedar  roofs; 
the  fourth  or  southern  portico  (the  Stoa  Basilica)  had  four 
rows  of  Corinthian  pillars  and  three  walks,  respectively 
30,  45,  and  30  cubits  in  breadth.  The  middle  walk  was 
twice  the  height  of  the  aisles,  and  the  latter  were  50 
feet  high.  As  regards  the  size  of  this  enclosure,  we  are 
told  by  Josephus  that  the  Stoa  Basilica  was  a  stadium  or 
600  feet  long  {Ant.,  xv.  11,  §  5);  and  in  AnX.,  xx.  9,  §  7, 
the  same  length  is  assigned  to  the  eastern  colonnade,  which 
was  known  as  Solomon's  Porch  (comp.  John  x.  23;  Acts  iiL 
1 1  and  V.  12),  because  it,  and  it  alone,  rested  on  an  ancient 
substructure  held  to  be  the  work  of  Solomon.  The  whole 
circuit  of  the  porticoes  was  therefore  4  stadia,'  or  with 
the  Antonia  6  stadia  {B  J.,  v.  5,  §  2).  The  Antonia  lay 
on  the  north  side  {Ant.,  xv.  11,  §  4)  and  communicated  by 
stairs  with  the  north  and  west  porticoes  at  the  north-west 
angle  of  the  enclosure.  Fergusson  and  others  suppose  that 
it  touched  the  temple  only  at  this  angle,  thence  stretching 
north  and  west.  But  in  this  case  the  Antonia,  which,  as 
we  shall  see  below,  lay  just  north  of  Wilson's  arch,  would 
have  been  built  over  the  hollow  of  the  Tyropoeon  vaUey,  a 
supposition  absurd  in  itself  and  inconsistent  with  B.J.,  v. 
5,  §  S,  which  says  that  it  stood  on  a  cliff.  Again,  the 
tower  70  cubits  high  that  stood  at  the  south-east  angle  of 
the  Antonia  overlooked  the  whole  temple,  just  as  we  know 
from  Pseudo-Aristasus  that  the  old  Acra  overlooked  the 
altar  But,  if  the  south-east  angle  of  the  Antonia  had 
been,  as  Fergusson  supposes,  at  the  north-west  angle  of 
the  temple  porticoes,  the  view  from  the  tower  would  have 
been  intercepted  by  the  lofty  porch  in  front  of  the  Holy 
Place.  The  Antonia,  therefore,  had  its  south  face  along 
part  of  the  north  face  of  the  temple  enclosure,  and  to  gain 
a  circuit  of  6  stadia  for  temple  and  Antonia  together  we 
must  assign  to  the  latter  the  length  of  a  stadium  from  north 
to  south.  This  is  not  too  much,  for  Josephus  describes  it 
as  a  little  town  in  itself  {B.J.,  v.  5,  §  8). 
.  The  Antonia,  the  porticoes,  and  the  space  immediately 
within  them  (the  outer  court,  or,  as  modern  writers  call  it, 
the  court  of  the  Gentiles)  were  not  holy  ground.     But  in 


'This  measurement  {Ant.,  zv.  \\,  %Z)  has  often  been  taken  to  refer 
to  Solomon's  temple.  But  this  view  is  not  demanded  by  the  words  of 
Josephus,  and  is  inconsistent  with  the  other  measurements  be  gives 
and  with  li.J.,  v,  6,  §  1,  which  states  that  the  plateau  was  levelled  up 
by  Solomon  only  on  the  east.  This  from  the  lie  of  the  contour  liuey 
makes  a  plateau  600  feet  square  impossible.  The  Mishnah  makes  the 
"mountain  of  the  bouse"  a  square  of  500  cubits,  apparently  borrowing 
from  Ezekiel. 


the  middle  of  the  enclosure  there  was  a  platform  raised 
15  cubits  above  the  court  cf  the  Gentiles  and  fenced  off 
by  a  barrier,  with  inscriptions,  one  of  which  still  exist* 
{Pakitine  E.  F.  Quarterly  Statement,  1871,  p.  132),  forbid- 
ding aliens  to  pass  on  pain  o£  death.  The  platform  was 
approached  by  steps  on  all  sides  but  the  west  {B.J.,  v. 
1,  §  5,  and  5,  §  2),  and  was  surrounded  by  a  wall,  rising  25 
cubits  above  the  inner  level,  and  pierced  by  four  gatesion 
the  north  side  and  as  many  on  the  south.  On  the  'jvest 
there  was  no  gate,  but  on  the  east — that  is,  in  front  of  the 
fane — there  were  two,  one  within  the  other;  for  the  eastern 
end  of  the  platform  was  walled  off  to  form  a  separate  court 
for  the  women,  at  a  somewhat  lower  level  One  of  the 
northern  and  one  of  the  southern  gates  belonged  to  the 
court  of  the  women,  but  it  was  also  entered  directly  from 
the  east  by  a  very  splendid  gate  of  Corinthian  brass,  much 
more  costly  than  the  others,  though  they  were  overlaid 
with  silver  and  gold.  An  enormous  gate,  40  cubits  wide 
and  50  high  (gate  Nicanor),  connected  the  women's  court 
with  the  higher  part  of  the  platform,  or  court  of  the  men 
of  Israel.  The  beautiful  gate  of  Acts  iii.  2  is  variously 
identified  with  the  first  or  second  of  these  eastern  portals. 
The  walls  of  the  platform  were  lined  within  with  chambers, 
in  front  of  which  ran  a  splendid  colonnade ;  and  the  gate- 
ways were  connected  with  the  colonnade  by  small  lofty 
halls  {ejcedrse),  which  from  without  had  a  tower-like  aspect. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  all  the  gates  had  exedrs ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  was  such  a  hall  also  at  the  west  end 
where  no  gate  opened.  In  the  court  of  the  men — i.e.,  in 
the  upper  and  western  part  of  the  platform  just  described — 
stood  the  fane  or  temple  proper  raised  twelve  steps  aUbve 
the  court.  For  the  ground  plan  of  the  Holy  Place  and 
the  Holy  of  Holies  the  ancient  dimensions  of  Solomon's 
temple  w-ere  preserved,  and  the  external  size  demanded  by 
the  scale  of  the  surroundings  was  gained  by  increasing 
their  height,  placing  a  lofty  second  story  above  them, 
making  their  walls  and  those  of  the  surrounding  chambers 
(corresponding  to  the  chambers  in  the  first  temple)  enor- 
mously thick,  and  placing  at  the  front  or  east  end  a  porch 
1 00  cubits  wide  and  1 00  cubits  high.  The  open  doorway 
of  this  porch  was  overlaid  with  gold,  as  was  sdso  the  door 
of  the  fane  and  the  wall  round  it.  To  the  ornament  of 
the  entrance  belonged  also  a  golden  vine  with  clusters  of 
grapes  as  big  as  a  man.  In  front  of  the  fane  beneath  the 
steps  was  the  great  altar  of  stone,  50  (or,  according  to 
the  Middoth,  32)  cubits  square  and  15  high;  it  was  as- 
cended by  a  flight  of  steps  from  the  south.  The  part  of 
the  court  round  the  fane  and  the  altar  was  fenced  off  for 
the  use  of  the  priests,  and  other  Israelites  were  admitted 
only  when  the  sacrificial  ritual  required  the  presence  of 
the  sacrificer. 

Besides  the  descriptions  in  Josephus,  we  have  for  Herod's  temple 
a  mass  of  details  and  measurements  in  the  Slishnic  treatise  Middoth. 
Josephus  was  himself  a  priest,  while  the  Mishnah  was  not  written 
till  a  century  after  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  though  it  uses 
traditions  that  go  back  to  Levites  who  had  served  in  the  temple. 
The  two  sources  differ  in  many  measurements,  and  the  Middoth 
appears  to  be  possessed  of  detailed  traditions  only  for  the  inner 
temple.  The  state  of  the  evidence  is  not  such  as  to  allow  a  plan 
of  the  temple  to  be  formed  with  architectural  precision.  The  abov,» 
account  rests  almost  entirely  on  Josephus,  who,  apart  from  certai;i 
exaggerations  in  detail,  gives  a  satisfactory  general  account,  such  as 
could  be  written  from  memory  without  notes  and  drawings. 

Herod's  gigantic  and  costly  structures  were  still  m 
building,  forty-six  years  after  their  commencement,  when 
our  Lord  began  His  ministry  (John  ii.  20),  and  the  works 
were  not  completed  tiU  the  procuratorship  of  Albinus  (62- 
64  A.D.).  In  66  the  great  revolt  against  Rome  broke 
out,  and  in  August  70  Jerusalem  was  taken  bj  Titus  and 
the  temple  perished  in  a  great  conflagration.^ 

'  On  10  Ab  ;  b;;t  Jewish  triditioD  ceiebraUs  9  Ab  as  the  day 
destruction  of  the  temple. 


TEMPLE 


169 


Topo-  4,   Topo^raytAy.   «li  is  not  disputed  that  the  site  of  the 

^"f''^  temple  lay  within  tSe  great  Hatam  platform  (see  Jeku- 
gALEM),  now  a  Moslem  Aoly  place,  and  it  is  generally  agreed 
also  that  the  south-west  corner  of  that  platform  is  the 
south-west  corner  of  Heiod  s  outer  plateau,  parts  of  the 
south'- rn  and  western  rttainmg  walls  being  confidently 
ascribed  by  experts  to  his  age.  But  if  Herodte  temple 
(eicluding  the  Antonia)  was  only  600  feet  square  it  can 
have  occupied  but  a  small  part  of  the  Haram  area,  which 
measures  about  1500  feet  from  north  to  south  and  922 
feet  along  the  south  wall.  Moreover,  the  highest  part  of 
the  hill,  where  the  Dome  of  tiie  Rock  now  sfends,  must  have 
been  oatsido  and  north  of  tha  temple  enclosure.  But  this 
affords  no  good  reason  to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  Josephus's 
measurements  in  a  matter  in  which  his  memory  could 
hardly  fail  him,  and  where  his  tendency  would  be  rather 
to  exsiggerate  than  to  dimini;h.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  the  eastern  wall  of  the  ^tfaram  is  as  old  as  Herod, 
much  less  as  old  as  Solomon  ,  for  the  supposed  Phcenician 
letters  found  on  stones  belonging  to  it  are  not  letters  at 
all,  and  may  be  of  any  date. '  M  oreover,  there  are  various 
evidences  of  later  building  about  the  east  wall  of  the 
Haram  ;  the  so-called  Golden  Gale  is  certainly  a  later  con- 
struction, and  Justinian's  church  rested  on  new  substruc- 
tures to  the  south  and  east  (Procopjus,  De  ^d.,  v.  6),  which 
implies  an  extension  eastward  of  the  old  platform.  And 
this  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  ia  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  south-east  angle  the  platform  does  not  rest  on  solid 
aubstmctures  such  as  Josephus  speiks  of,  but  on  the  vaults 
known  as  Solomon's  stables.  Again,  though  the  tempi©  of 
Solomon  lay  above  the  town,  there  is  no  evidence  that  it 
was  on  the  verytop  of  the  hill ;.  on  the  contrary,  buildings 
of  the  dimensions  given  in  1  Kings  might  have  been  placed 
on  the  hill-top  without  the  need  for  such  great  substructures 
as  are  spoken  of  in  1  Kings  vii.  10  ;  and  we  have  seen  in 
speaking  of  the  courts  of  the  first  temple  that  the  ground 
appears  to  have  risen  to  the  north,  the  upper  court  being 
on  that  side.* 

If  we  accept  the  measurements  of  Josephias  we  have  to  break  with 
medisevaJ  tradition,  both  Moslem  and  Christian,  wLich  associates 
tte  Saklira  or  rock  under  t"he  dome  on  the  top  of  the  hill  with  t^e 
sacred  site  of  the  Jews.  So  much  weight  has  been  laid  on  this, 
circamstance  by  writers  of  eminence  that  it  is  necessary  here  to  go 
into  some  particulars  and  show  that  earlier  tradition  goes  quite  the 
other  way.  It  is  a  Talmndic  legend  that  in  the  Holy  of  Holies 
the  place  of  the  lost  ark  was  taken  by  a  stone  called  the  "  founda- 
tion stone."  Further  this  stone  was  identified  with  Jacob's  stone  at 
Bethel  (comp.  Rashi  on  Gen.  xxviii.  and  Breithaupfs  notes).  Both 
Mohammedans  and  Christians  transferred  these  legends  to  the 
Sakhra,  which  the  former  accordingly  venerated  as  "a  gate  of 
heaven"  (Ibn  'Abd  Rabbih,  'Ikd,  iii  369).  Mohammedan  sources 
<nable  ns  to  trace  back  t'nis  identification  to  the  Moslem  Jew  Wahb 
ibn  Monabbih,  who  enriched  Islam  with  so  many  Jewish  fables  and 
died  a  century  after  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Arabs  (Tabari,  i. 
571  sg.  ;  Ibn  al-Fakih,  p.  97  sq.).  Eutychius,  on  the  other  hand, 
who  is  the  first  Christian  writer  to  apply  the  Jewish  legend  to  the 
Moslem  Sakhra,  avers  that  the  tradition  was  communicated  to  'Omar 
by  the  Christian  patriarch  Sophronius  on  the  taking  of  Jerusalem, 
And  guided  the  caliph  m  the  choice  of  a  site  for  his  mosque. 
Eutychius  wrote  nearly  three  hundred  years  after  this  event ;  and, 
though  it  is  known  from  earlier  authorities  ( Arculphus,  Theophanes) 
that  the  first  Moslem  mosque  was  built  on  what  was  pointed  out  as 
the  site  of  the  temple,  it  is  equally  certain,  and  was  known  to 
Eutychius  himself,  that  that  raosqce  lay  to  the  south  of  the  Sakhra 
(Eutychius,  ii.  289),  which  was  not  embraced  in  the  precincts  of  the 
Moslem  sanctuary  til!  the  reign  of  'Abd  al-Malik,  who  built  the  dome, 
as  an  inscription  with  the  date  691  stiU  testifies  {Ihid.,  p.  365). 
This  is  confirmed  by  the  excellent  Arabian  historian  Ibn  Wadib{iL 
311).  'Abd  al- Malik's  motive  was  political,  as  both  historians 
-attest ;  Mecca  being  in  the  hands  of  a  rival,  he  resolved  to  set  up 

^  They  are  represented  ia  the  Recovery  of  Jerusalem  (p.  143)  and 
in  the  Atlas  of  plates  of  Jerusalem  published  by  the  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund. 

'  That  the  temple  was  bnilt  on  the  threshing-floor  of  Oman  is 
natoiaUy  assumed  by  the  Chronicler,  who  likes  to  minimize  the  number 
-of  old  Hebrew  sanctuaries  ;  but  the  old  history  knows  nothing  of  a  con- 
secration of  tiie  site  before  the  ark  was  placed  there. 


another  place  of  pilgrimage  to  supplant  the  Kaab3,and  recommended 
it  to  the  faithful  as  the  point  Irom  which  the  Prophet  made  his 
miraculous  ascent  from  Jerusalem  to  heaven  (Ibn  Wadih.  ^u  supra). 
There  is  nothing  of  the  Jewish  legend  here  ;  that,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  supplied  by  Wahb  in  the  next  generation,  and  on  his  founda- 
tion there  grew  up  a  mass  of  other  fables  for  which  it  is  enough  to 
refer  to  Ibn  al-Fakih,  p.  93  sq.  From  all  this  it  may  be  taken  as 
certain  that  at  the  time  of  'Omar  it  was  towards  the  south-west 
angle  of  the  Haram,  on  the  site  of  the  origmal  mosque,  that  tradi- 
tion supposed  the  temple  to  have  stood  ,  indeed  Eutychius  is  guilty 
of  self-contradiction  when  he  first  says  that  Sophronius  indicated 
the  Sakhra  to  Omar  as  the  site  on  which  to  build  his  mosque,  and 
then  adds  that  it  was  not  part  of  the  Moslem  sanctuary  till  a 
generation  later.  Finally,  the  extension  of  the  Haram  to  the  north 
so  as  to  bring  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  into  the  centre  of  the  sacred 
area  was  the  work  of  'Abd  al-Malik's  son  Walid  (Eutychius,  ii.  373). 
Thus  fa?  w,e  have  met  with  nothing  but  confirmation 
of  Josephus's  measurements  and  the  site  they  imply;  Hut 
there  are  other  topographical  indications  which  supply 
confirmation  mpre  decisive.  And  first  let  us  compare 
what  is  related  of  the  outer  gates  of  Herod's  temple  with 
existing  remains.  On  the  north  was  the  gate  Tadi  of  the 
Mishnah,  which  Josephtts  mentions  only  incidentally.  This, 
like  the  gate  Shushan  on  the  east,  which  he  does  not 
mention  at  all,  must  have  been  of  minor  importance ,  the 
chief  accesses  were  necessarily  from  the  lower  city  to  the 
south  and  the  upper  city  to  the  west  beyond  the  Tyropoeon 
valley.  The  south  wall,  says  Josephus,  had  gates  m  the 
middle  (Ani.,  xv.  11,  5).  The  Mishnah  names  them  the 
two  gates  of  Huldah,  which  may  mean  "  tunnel  (weasel- 
hole)  gates."  There  is  a  double  gate  in  the  substructure 
of  the  south  wall,  350  feet  from  the  south-west  angle,  and 
from  it  a  double  tunnel  leads  up  to  the  platform.  This 
double  gate  exactly  fits  Josephus's  description.  There  is 
also  a  triple  gate,  600  feet  from  the  south-west  angle, 
which  those  who  suppose  the  wall  to  have  been  more  than 
600  feet  long  regard  as  the  second  Huldah  gate.  But 
this  view  does  not  give  ns  two  gates  in  the  middle  of  the 
wall,  especially  as  the  old  wall  cannot  have  enclosed 
Solomon's  stables.  In  the  west  side  the  Mishnah  places 
one  gate  (KiponuS),  while  Josephus  recognizes  four.  But 
these  accounts  are  at  once  reconciled -if  we  accept  Josephus's 
measurements.  For  of  his  foar'ga«,-s  the  most  southerly 
is  necessarily  the  one'-which  opened,  on  a  flight  of  steps 
descending  and  then  reascending  across  the  Tyropoeon  to 
the  upper  city  opposite.  Now  at  the  south-west  oornet 
ol  the  plaflorm  there  are  still  remains  of  a  great  arch 
(Robinson's  arch),  which  must  have  belonged  to  a  bridge 
connecting  the  upper  city  with  the  south  portico  of  the 
temple.  Thus  one  of  the  four  gates  is  fixed.  -  The  swond 
gate  led  to  Herod's  palace  (at  the  extreme  north  of  th'e 
upper  city)  by  means  of  an  embankment  crossing  the 
Tyropceon  (Ant.,  xv.  11,  §  5).  Comparmg  S.  J.,  iL  16,  §3, 
vi.  6,  §  2,  and  v  4,  §  2,  we  see  that  the -embankment  ^o 
carried  the  city  wall  (the  so-called  first  wall).  Of  this 
a"pproach  there  are  remains  at  Wilson's  arch,  600  feet 
north  of  Robinson's  arcb^,  thus,  if  Josephus's 'meastire- 
ments  are  correct,  the  two  western  "accesses  were  at  tho 
extreme  ends  of  the  western  portico.  Josephus's  other 
two  gates  led  to  the  suburbs  outside  the  first  wall,  and 
therefore  lay  north  of  Wilson's  arch,  and  were  not  gates 
of  the  temple  enclosure  proper  but  of  the  Antonia,  which 
Josephus-  habitually  reckons  as  part  of  the  outer  temple.* 
Of  them  the  Mishnah  would  naturally  take  no  accotmt, 
and  as  naturally  it  would  neglect  the  gate  that  led  to  the 
palace   as    being   not  a  public   entrance.      But   further. 


'  The  adjoining  remains  of  ancient  buildings  unquestionably  mark 
the  site  of  the  council  hall  where  the  SanhedriiftTnet,  and  which  was 
close  to  the  first  wall  and  the  temple  but  outside  the  latter  (3.  J., 
V-  4,  §  2  ;  VI.  6,  S  3). 

*  One  of  the  suburban  gates  may  be  Warren's  gat^,  in  the  sub- 
structures of  the  Antonia  wall,  about  170  feet  north  of  Wilson's  arch. 
The  other  is  sometimes  identified  with  Barclay's  gate  between  Wilson's 
arch  and  Robinson's  arch.     But  this  would  not  lead  into  the  subixrb^ 

xxm.  —  2= 


170 


TEMPLE 


according  to  Joseph  uss  account  of  the  whole  circumference 
of  the  temple  with  Antonia,  the  latter  extended  a  stadium 
north  of  the  north-west  angle  of  the  temple  portico,  i.e., 
600  feet  north  of  Wilson's  arch ;  and,  if  we  measure  off 
this  distance  on  plan  of  the  rock  contours  and  then  draw 
a  line  at  righv  angles  to  represent  the  north  face  of  the 
Antouia,  we  rird  that  this  line  runs  across  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  saddle  from  which  the  temple  hill  is  assailable. 
The  breadth  of  the  Antonia  from  east  to  west  cannot  have 
been  more  than  about  300  feet  if,  as  is  to  be  presumed, 
the  gate  Tadi  was  opposite  the  twin  gates  of  Huldah  ;  but 
with  this  breadth  it  would  entirely  cover  the  dangerous 
saddle. 

Every  attempt  to  reconstruct  the  area  and  situation  of 
the  temple  as  it  was  before  Herod  must  be  more  or  less 
conjectural,  and  an  analysis  of  the  possibilities  would  take 
np  so  much  space  that  it  seems  better  simply  to  offer  a 
plan  which  appears  to  satisfy  the  main  conditions  of  the 
problem. 


A.  Temple.  B,  B,  B.  Inner  court  C,  C,  C.  Great  court.  D,  E.  Porches 
of  the  king's  house.  F.  Palace  of  Solomon.  G.  Great  tower  of  prison 
court.  H.  House  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon.  J.  Water  gate.  K. 
North  court.  L,  L,  L.  New  space  taken  in  by  Herod.  MNPQ. 
Herod's  enclosure.  NP.  Solomon's  portico.  PQ.  Stoa  Basilica  or 
royal  portico.  P.  Triple  gate.  Q.  Robinson's  arch.  R.  Double 
gate  (Huldah  gates).      M.   Wilson's  arch. 

According  to  this  plan  the  area  of  the  temple  enclosure 
was  doubled  by  Herod,  his  additions  being  in  the  parts 
where  the  work  of  levelling  up  was  heaviest,  and  where 
neither  the  convenience  of  worshippers  nor  reasons  of 
defence  called  on  earlier  builders  to  extend  the  plateau. 
It  is  certain  that  the  substructures  of  the  south-west  angle, 
,  raised  to  a  dizzy  height  above  the  Tyropoeon,  are  Herod's 
'  (A  nt.,  XV.  1 1 ,  §  5),  and  Josephus  also  .speaks  of  an  extension 
to  the  north  (B.J.,  v.  5,  §  1).  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Baris  already  adjoined  the  temple,  a  condition  which  is 
satisfied  by  giving  the  older  north  court  K  (correspond- 
ing to  the  new  court  of  Chronicles,  and  perhaps  also  to  the 
upper  court  of  the  first  temple)  a  length  from  east  to  west 
of  300  feet  and  a  breadth  from  north  to  south  of  1 50. 
The  old  east  face  of  the  plateau  is,  as  Josephus  says,  600 
feet  long,  but  this  length  was  gained  after  the  time  of 
Nehemiah  by  taking  in  the  site  of  the  armoury  or  house 


of  the  forest' of  Lebanon  (H)  and  the  street  in  front  of  the 
water  gate  (J).  For  the  proof  that  the  water  pate  stood 
at  a  re-entrant  angle  between  the  retaining  walls  of  the 
armoury  and  the  palace  and  faced  east  as  shown  in  the 
plan  reference  must  be  made  to  an  article  in  the  Journal 
of  Philology  (vol.  xvi.).  The  rocky  boss  between  these 
two  T.'alls"  was  in  Nehemiah 's  time  surrounded  by  an  out- 
work, which  to  the  north  joined  the  wall  of  Ophel, — that 
is,  of  the  swelling  mass  of  hill  which  lies  out  to  the  north- 
east of  the  palace.  From  the  lower  city  (south  of  the 
Haram  area)  a  stair  near  the  vcall  led  up  to  the  plateau  H 
(Neh.  iii.  19;  xii.  37).  The  armoury  was  150  feet  long 
and  75  broad  ;  the  plan  allows  the  same  dimensions  for 
the  open  space  within  the  water  gate.  The  great  court 
C,  C,  C  is  arranged  in  accordance  with  1  Kings  vii.  12,  in 
such  a  way  that  it  is  at  once  the  court  of  the  palace  and 
that  of  the  temple,  enclosing  the  inner  court  B.  The 
dimensions  of  the  inner  court  are  not  given  in  1  Kings,  but 
as  the  temple  was  twice  the  size  of  the  tabernacle  the  court 
was  probably  also  double  the  court  of  the  tabernacle.  This 
gives  a  length  of  300  feet  and  a  breadth  of  150,  as  in  the 
plan.  The  part  of  the  court  in  front  of  the  temple  is  150 
feet  square,  which  agrees  with  the  dimensions  given  in 
Ezek.  xl.  23,  27.  The  great  court  is  a  square  of  300  feet. 
This  gives  room  en  the  east  face  for  two  porches  D  and  K 
leading  to  the  palace  and  each  75  feet  long.  Both  porches 
are  described  in  1  Kings  vii.  6,  8,  and  the  dimensions  of 
one  are  given.  It  is  also  expressly  stated  that  the  porch 
was  before  {i.e.,  on  the  east  side  of)  the  pillars  that  deco- 
rated its  front,  and  that  it  led  into  the  inner  court  of  the 
palace,  so  that  the  arrangement  in  the  plan  is  fully  justified. 
In  the  time  of  Jeremiah  (xxxviii.  14)  there  were  three 
entries  from  the  palace  to  the  temple ;  the  third  was  pro'o- 
ably  into  the  north  court,  the  palace  having  been  extended 
northwards.  It  is  evident  that  before  the  time  of  Herod 
the  palace  had  disappeared.  It  was  on  a  lower  level  than 
the  temple,  and  when  it  was  cleared  away  the  great  sub- 
structures on  the  line  PE  stood  out  as  the  boundary  of 
Solomon's  building.  North  of  E  the  substructures  were 
less  considerable,  the  rock  at  the  north  end  of  this  porch 
being  but  20  feet  under  the  present  level  of  the  plateau. 
In  Herod's  time,  as  can  be  seen  at  Robinson's  arch,  the 
level  of  the  plateau  was  the  .^ame  as  at  present  (2420  feet), 
but  in  older  times  there  was  a  fall  between  the  upper  and 
lower  court,  and  K  was  probably  10  feet  above  C,  C,  C. 
In  that  case  D  was  on  the  natural  level  of  the  ground, 
while  (unless  the  great  court  was  on  two  levels)  E  stood 
on  a  retaining  wall  10  feet  high  at  the  north  end  of  the 
porch  and  nearly  twice  as  lofty  at  the  south  end.  The 
plan  shows  the  temple  thrown  out  on  very  lofty  substruc- 
tures, so  as  to  be  practically  inaccessible  on  all  sides  and 
overhang  the  Tyropoeon  in  the  most  striking  way.'  The 
whole  group  of  buildings  formed  a  complete  defence  to  the 
city  of  David  on  its  noi-thern  or  vulnerable  side.  It  will 
be  observed  that  in  Herod's  temple  the  Huldah  gates  at 
R  led  directly  to  the  altar,  the  position  of  which  seems 
never  to  have  been  changed,  and  also  that  the  plan  explains 
the  statement  of  Hecataeus  that  the  temple  was  150  feet 
broad.  His  length  of  500  feet  from  east  to  west  is  50  feet 
too  much  unless  he  includes  some  remains  of  the  old  palace. 
The  Baris  is  shown  as  standing  on  the  south-west  corner 
of  the  existing  platform  of  the  Dome  of  the  Rock. 

A  word  may  be  said  in  conclusion  on  the  ancient  line  of 
wall  to  the  west  of  the  temple,  which,  as  has  been  shown 
from  Neh.  iii.  in  the  article  Jekcs.ilem  ran  along  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Tyropoeon.  A  bridge  connected  the 
temple  with  the  upper  city  in  the  time  of  the  later  Has- 
moneans,  and,  as  the  palace  (on  the  site  of  Herod's  palace) 

*  It  ought,  however,  to  be  observed  that  the  contour  lines  in  anil 
near  B,  B,  B  are  almost  purely  conjectural. 


TEMPLE 


171 


and  (he  Bans  vurt  the  poinu  which  it  w.is  most  iiii|iortant 
:o  cpiincct.  it  no  doiiLpt  currespomlcd  to  tlie  iioithci  ii  liridj;u 
ilrcady  spoken  of,  at  Wilson's  arch  M.  Cut  at  llial  date 
It  must  h;»vf  led,  not  directly  ty  the  temple,  but  to  a  lower 
point  111  I  he  slope  south  of  the  Baiis.  In  Nchcuiinh'-s  tune 
there  w~»s  no  bridge,  but  the  g^t\3  of  Epliraini  probably 
r^orresiiondcd  to  the  cast  end  of  the  bridge  nrar  the  south- 
«esl  angle  of  the  liiris.  in  that  case  the  wall,  as  is  natural, 
ran, close  under  the  western  substructures  of  the  temple 
and  probably  served  as  a  buttress  to  them  in  the  part  of 
its  coui'se  south  of  the  gate  of  Ephraim,  which  in  Neh. 
xii.  3S  is  called  "the  broad  wall."  The  throne  of  the 
Persian  governor,  beside  the  gate  of  Ephraim  (see  Jerusa- 
lem,'vol.  xiii.  p.  640),  stood  so  close  to  the  Baris  that  we 
may  conclude' that  there  was  already  a  castle  on  its  site, 
held,  for  the  great  king.  The  position  assigned  to  the 
gate  of  Ephraim,  which,  according  to  2  Kings  xiv.  13,  was 
600  feet  from  the  corner  gate,  where  the  north  wall  of  the 
city  joined  the  west  wall,  suits  the  fact  that  a  line  drawn 
east  and  west  600  feet  north  of  Wilson's  arch  coincides 
'with  the  line  of  scarped  rock  marked  on  the  plan.  Here, 
therefore,  the  old  north  wall  ran,  with  the  great  fosse 
filled  up  by  Pompey.  This  wall  figures  also  in  Herod's 
siege,  but  seems  to  have  been  destroyed  by  him. 

LiUtature. — The  literature  of  the  subject  is  immense.  There- 
suits  of  moiiern  surveys  and  diggings  are  given  in  tlie  Palestine 
Evplomuou  Fund  volume  on  Jerusalem  (London,  1884)  and  in  the 
accompanying  yillns.  .Of  other  books  it  may  suffice  to  name  De 
Vogue.  Lt  Temple  de  Jerusalem  (fol,  Paris,  1864);  Fergusson, 
Topography  of  Jertis^lem  {8vo,  London,  1847) ;  Id  ,  TJu  Temples 
of  thf  Jews  (4to.  London,  1878)  ;  Thnrpp,  Antient  Jerusalem  {^vo, 
C'^'^bojlgc,  1855),  Lewin,  Tlu  Siege  of  JcrwsaUm  by  Titus  {^vo, 
Lonnon,  IS63) ;  and  Perrot  and  Ciiipiez,  I/istoire  dc  I'Arl.  (Paris, 
1S87)  (W.  R.  S.)  .( 

TEMPLE.' Sir  William  (1628-1699),  English  states-' 
man,  diplomatist,  and  author,  was  born  in  London  in 
16"28.  He  came"  of  an  old  Englissh  family,'  but  of  the- 
youDger  branch  of  it,  which  had  for  some  time  been  settled 
in  Ireland.  -.He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  John  Temple, 
master  of  the  rolls  in  that  country.  ■  His  mother  was  Mary 
HammoncL  sister  of  a  well-known  Tory  divine.  Temple 
feceived  a  liberal  education,  calculated  to  produce  that 
moderation  of  judgment  for  which  he  was  afterwards  re- 
markable. ,'  He  w'as  first  a  pupil  of  his  uncle  Dr  Hammond, 
after  which  he  went  to  the  grammar-school  at  Bishop  Stort- 
ford.  and  then  to  the  Puritan  college  of  Emmanuel  at 
Cambridge,  wherp  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Cud- 
worth.  At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  troubles  his 
father  embraced  the  popular  cause'  and  was  deprived  of 
his  office.  Coming  to  England,  he  sat  in  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment as  member  for  Chichester,  and  was  one  of  the  recal- 
citrant members  turned  out  by  Colonel  Pride.  Before 
th-a  event  happened  his  son  had  left  Cambridge,  without 
taking  a  degree,  and  in  1647  started  to  travel  abroad.  .'  In 
tje  Isle  of  Wight,  while  on  his  way  to  France,  he  fell  in 
i*ith  Dorothy  Osborne,  and  won  her  affections.  Her 
^father.  Sir  Peter  Osborne,  was  governor  of  Guernsey  and 
a  Royalist.  Her  family  were  naturally  opposed  to  the 
rnatth,  and  threw  difficulties  in  the  way,  which  hindered 
Its  consummation  for  seven  years.  ,  During  this  period 
Temple  travelled  in  France,  Spain,  Holland,  and  other 
countries,  gaining  knowledge  of  the  world  and  keeping 
up  a  constant  correspondence  with  his  betrothed.  At 
length,  apparently  in  1654,  the  difficulties  were  surmounted 
Und  the  raarii.^ge  took  place.  In  16.t5  Temple  and  hi.s 
wife  went  to  Ireland.  'The  next  five  years  were  spent  in 
.the  hou'.e  of  Sir  John  Temple,  who  had  made  his  peace 
(with  Cromwell,  .-ind  had  resumed  his  official  position.'  His 
'son  took  no  part  iir  politics,  but  lived  the  life  of  a  student 
'and  a  country  gentleman. 

The  accession  of  Charles  II. rescued  Temple,  like  many 
t>iber=!,  from   obscurity     In  1660  he  sat  in  the  convention 


parliament  at  Dublin  as  member  for  Carlow,  and  he  rofire- 
sented  the  same  county  along  with  his  father  in  the 
ivgiilar  parliameut  that  followed.  After  a  short  visit  to 
England  in  16G I,  as  commissioner  from  the  Irish  parlia 
mciit,  he  finally  removed  thither  in  1GG3.  There  he 
attached  himself  to  Arlington,  secretary  of  state,  and  two 
years  later  received  his  first  enl[^loynlent  abroad.  It  was 
in  March  166o  that  the  disastrous  w'ar  with  the  United 
Netherlands  began.  Charles  II.  was  anxious  to  obtain 
allies,  especially  a.=i  Louis  XIV.  was  taking  up  a  hostile 
attitude.  At  this  juncture  the  bishop  of  Munster  sent 
an  envoy  to  England,  offering  to  attack  the  Dutch  if  the 
English  Government  would  supply  the  means.  Temple 
was  sent  over  to  negotiate  a  treaty,  and  in  this  business 
gave  evidence  not  only  of  the  diplomatic  skill  :butf  of  the 
peculiar  candour  and  frankness  for  which  he  was  after- 
wards so  distinguished.  He  was  successful  in  making  the 
treaty,  but  it  was  rendered  ineffectual  by  tae  declaration 
of  war  by  France,  the  threats  of  Louis,  and  the  double- 
dealing  of  the  prelate,  who,  after  receiving  a  great  part  of 
the  subsidy,  made  a  separate  peace  with  the  Netherlands. 
As  a  reward  for  his  services  Temple  was  created  a  baronet, 
and  in  October  1665  became  the  English  representative 
at  the  viceregal  court  at  Brussels.  While  the  war  con- 
tinued. Temple's  duties'  consisted  -chiefly  in  cultivating 
good  relations  witTi  Spain,  which  was  a  neutral  in  the 
quarrel  between  England  and  the  Dutch,  but  was  threat- 
ened by  the  claims- of  Louis  XIV.  on  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands. Louis's  designs  became  apparent  in  the  spring  ol 
1667,  when  be  marched  an  army  into  Flanders.  This 
event  was'otie  of  those  which  led  to  the  peace  of  Breda, 
and  to  the  subsequent  negotiations,  which  are  Temple's 
chief  title  to  fame.  ^,The  French  conquests  were  made  at 
the  expense  of  Spain,  but  were  almost  equally  dangerous  to 
the  United  Netherlands,  whose  independence  would'have 
been  forfeited  had  Louis  succeeded  in  annexing  Flanders. 
While  the  French  were  taking  town  after  town,  Temple 
made  a  journey  into  Holland  and  visited  De  Witt.  The 
friendship  established  and  the  community  of  views  dis- 
covered during  this  interview  facilitated  the  subsequent 
negotiations.  Temjile  had  for  some  time  pressed  on  his 
Government  the  necessity  of  stopping  the  French  advance, 
and  had  pointed  out  the  way  to  do  so,  but  it  was  not  till 
December  1667  th^t  he  received  instructions  to  act  ?-« 
he  had  suggested.  He  at  once  set  out  for  The  Hague, 
and  in  January,  1 668  a  treaty  w.as  made  between  England 
and  the  United  Netherlands,  which,  being  joined  shortly 
afterwards  by  Sweden,  became  known  as  the  Triple  Alli- 
ance. It  was  a  defensive  treaty,  made  against  the  en- 
croachments of  France.  Whether  we  regard  the  skill  and 
celerity  with  which  the  negotiations  were  conducted  or 
the  results  of  the  treaty,  the  transaction  reflects  great 
credit  on  Temple.  ■:  The  French  king  was  checked  in  mid- 
career,  and,  without  a  blow  being  struck,  was  obliged  to 
surrender  almost  all  his  conquests.^  Pcpys  records  public 
.opinion  on  the  treaty  by  saying  that  it  was  "the  only 
good  public  thing  that  hath  been_done_since_the  king 
came  into  England." 

Unfortunately  the  policy  thus  indicatcd'was  but  short- 
lived. In  taking  up  a  hostile  attitude  towards  France 
Charles's  object  had  apparently  been  only  to  raise  his  price. 
Louis  took  the  hint,  increased  his  offers,  and  two  years 
later  the  secret  treaty  of  Dover  reversed  the  policy  of  the 
Triple  Alliance.  Meanwhile  Temple  had  developed  the 
good  unders'aniling  with  the  Dutch^by  contracting  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  them  (February  IGG.-':),  and  had  acted 
as  English  plenipotentiary'at  Alx  la-Chap'-lle,  where  peaca 
between  France  and  Spain  was  made  in  May  1668.  Shortly 
afterwards  he  was  appointed  ambassador  at  The  Hague 
Here  he  lived  for  two  years  on  good   terms  both  with  D«. 


172 


T  E  N  —  T'  E  N 


Witt  and  with  the  young  prince  of  Orange,  afterwards 
William.  III.     The  treaty  of  Dover  led  to  Temple's  recall ; 
but  the  plot  was  not  yet  ripe,  and  Temple  nommally  held 
his  post  for  another  year.     He  perceived,  however,  that 
his  day  was  over  and  retired  to  his  house  a*  Sheen.     In 
June  167 1  he  received  his  formal  dismissal.     The  war  with 
the  Netherlands  broke  out  next  year,  and  was  almost  as 
discreditable  to  England  as  that  of  1665.    Want  of  success 
and  the  growing  strength  of  the  opposition  in  parliament 
forced  Charles  to  make  peace,  and  Temple  was  brought 
out  of  his  retirement  to  carry  through  the  change  of  front. 
After  a  negotiation  of  three  days,  carried  on  through  the 
medium  of  the  Spanish  ambassador,  the  treaty  of  West- 
minster was  made  (February  1674).     As  a  recognition  of 
his  services  Temple  was  now  offered  the  embassy  to  Spam. 
This  he  declined,  as  well  as  the  offer  of  a  far  more  import- 
ant post,  that  of  secretary  of  state,  but  accepted  instead 
a  renewal  of  his  embassy  to  The  Hague,  whither  he  went 
in  July  1674.     In  the  March  following  he  was  nominated 
ambassador  to  the  congress  at  Nimeguen  ;  but,  owmg  to 
the  tortuousness  of  Charles's  dealings,  it  was  not  till  July 
1676  that  he  entered  that  town.    The  negotiations  dragged 
on  for  two  years  longer,  for  Charles  was  still  receivmg 
money  from  France,  and  English  mediation  was  no  more 
than  a  ruse.     In  the  summer  of  1677  Temple  was  sum- 
moned  to  England  and   received  a  second  offer  of  the 
secretaryship  of  state,  which  he  again  declined.     In  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  re- 
moving the  last  difficulties  which  hindered  the  marriage 
of  William  and  Mary,  an  event  which  seemed  to  complete 
the  work  of  1668  and  1674.     Louis  still  remaining  obsti- 
nate in  his  demands.  Temple  was  commissioned  in  July 
1678  to  make  an  alliance  with  the  states,  with  the  object 
of  compelling  France  to  come  to  terms.     This  treaty  was 
instrumental   in   bringing  about   the  general   pacification 
which  was  concluded  in  January  1679. 

This   was   Temples    last   appearance   in    the   field   of 
diplomacy  ;  but  his  public  life  w.-'.s  not  yet  over.     A  third 
offer  of  the  secretaryship  was  made  to  him  ,  but,  unwilling 
as  ever  to  mix  himself  up  with  faction  and  intrigue,  he 
again  declined.      He  did   not,   however,  withdraw  from 
politics ;  on  the  contrary,  he  was  for  a  short  time  more 
prominent  than  ever.     The  state  was  passing  through  a 
grave  crisis.     Political  passion  was  embittered  by  religious 
fanaticism.     Parliament  was  agitated  by  the  popish  plot, 
and  was  pressing  on  the  Exclusion  Bill.     The  root  of  all 
the  mischief  lay  in  the  irresponsibi.'-ty  of  the  cabinet  to 
parliament  and   its  complete  subservience  to  the  crown. 
To  remedy  this.  Temple  brought  forward  his  plan  for  a 
reform  of  the  privy  council.     This  body  was  to  consist  of 
thirty  members,  half  of  whom  were  to  be  the  chief  officers 
of  the  crown,  the  other  half  being  persons  of  importance, 
lords  and  commoners,  chosen  without  reference  to  party. 
Special  care  was  taken  to  select  men  of  wealth,  which 
Temple  considered  as  the  chief  source  of  political  influence. 
By  the  advice  of  this  council  the  king  promised  to  act. 
The  parliament,  it  was  supposed,  would  trust  such  a  body, 
and  would  cease  to  dictate  to  the  crown.    The  scheme  was 
accepted  by  the  king,  but  was  a  failure  fr«m  the  outset 
Intended  to  combine  the  advantages  of  a  parliament  and 
a  council,  it  created  a  board  which  was  neither  the  one 
nor  the  other.     The  conduct  of  affairs  fell  at  once  into 
the  hands  of  a  junta  of  four,,  of  whom  Temple  was  at  first 
one,  and  the  king  violated  his  promise  by  dissolving  parlia- 
ment without  asking  the  advice  of  the  council.     Temple 
retired  in  disgust  to  his  villa  at  Sheen,  and  appeared  only 
.occasionally  at  the  council,  where  he  soon  ceased  to  exer- 
cise any  influence.    In  1680  he  was  nominated  ambassador 
'to  Spain,  but  stayed  in  England  in  order  to  take  his  seat 
in  parliament  as  member  for  the  university  of  Cambridge. 


He  took  no  part  in  the  debates  on  the  gren.t  question  of 
the  day,  and  acting  on  the  king's  advice  declined  to  sit  in 
the  parliament  of  1681.     Early  in  that  year  his  name  was 
struck  off  the  list  of  the  council,  and  henceforward  he  dis- 
appeared from  public  life.     He  continued  to  live  at  Sheen 
till  1 686,when  he  handed  over  his  estate  there  to  his  son,  the 
only  survivor  of  seven  children,  and  retired  to  Moor  Park     | 
in  Surrey.    When  William  III.  came  to  the  throne  Temple    ; 
was  pressed  to  take  office,  but  refused.     His  son  became    ■ 
secretary  at  war,  but  committed  suicide  immediately  after- 
wards.    Sir  Wilbam,  though  occasionally  consulted  by  the 
king,  took  no  further  part  in  public  affairs,  but  occupied 
hini.self  in  literature,  gardening,  and  other  pursuits.     It 
should  not  be  omitted  that  Switt  lived  with  him  as  secre- 
tary during  the  last  ten  years  (with  one  short  interval)  of 
his  life.    Temple  died  at  Moor  Park  on  27th  January  1699. 
Temple's  literary  works  are  mostly  political,  and  are  of  consider- 
able importance.     Among  tbem  may  'bo  mentioned  An  Essay  on 
the  Present  iiUite  and  Selllemmt  of  Ireland  (1668);    Tht  Empire, 
Sweden,  &c.,  a  survey  of  the  different  Governments  of  Europe  and 
their  relations  to  England  (1671),    Observations  upon  the   Umted 
Provinces  (1672!  ;  Essay  upon  Iht  Original  and  Nature  of  flovern- 
menl  (1672).  Essay  upon   the  Advancement  of  Trade   m   Ireland 
(1673).     Some  of  tlie.se  were  published  in  the  first  part  of  his  Miscel- 
lanea (1679).     In  the  same  year  apparently  his  PoemsveTe  privately 
printed.      In  1683  ho  began  to  write  his  Memoiis      The  hrst  part, 
extending  from    1665   to    1671,    he    destroyed  unpublished,    the 
second,  from  1672  to  1679.  was  published  without  his  authority  in 
1691  ,  the   third,  from   1679   to  1681,    was  published  by  Swift  in 
1709.      In  1692  he  published  the  second  part  cf  his  iliscellaiica, 
containing  among  other  subjects  the  essay  Upon  the  Ancient  and 
Modem  Learning,  which  is  remarkable  only  as  having  given  rise  to 
the  famous  controversy  on  the  "  Letters  ol  Phalans."      His  Intro- 
duction  to  the  History  of  England,  a  short  sketch  of  English  history 
to  1087,  was  published  in  1695.     Several  collections  ol  his  letters 
were  published  by  Swift  and  others  after  his  death 

His  fame  rests,  however,  far  more  on  his  diplomatic  triumphs 
than  on  his  literary  work.  His  connexion  wiih  domestic  atfaira 
was  slight  and  unsuccessful.  He  was  .lebaired  both  by  his  virtues 
and  his  defects,  — bv  his  impartiality,  his  honesty,  and  .us  want  ol 
ambition,— from  taking  an  active  part  in  the  disgracelul  po.itics  of 
his  time.  But  in  the  foreign  relations  of  his  countiy  he  was 
intimately  concerned  for  a  period  of  ,ourteen  years,  and  in  all  that 
IS  praiseworthy  in  them  he  had  a  pnncipal  hand.  He  cannot 
be  called  great,  hut  he  will  be  remembered  as  one  of  the  ablest 
ne>rotiators  that  England  has  produced,  and  as  a  pub  he  servant 
wh^o,  m  an  unprincipled  age  ani  in  circumsunces  peculiarly  opeu 
to  corruption,  preserved  a  blameless  record. 

See  J.i/e  -"rf  Ifor^  t/'S"'  "■•"i"™  '"""?''•  2  vol.-;.  fol,  1720 :  2d  eJ_,  "ith  Life 
bv  I^Jy  GilfarU,  1731  .  a  more  complete  editmn.  includinB  the  Lalers,  was 
pabh?he,i  ...  4  VOLS.  8vo,  1S14  .  Burnet,  History  o/  h..  o«™  T.m  ,  Courtenay, 
Kliirri/(".i..;?.  i-c,  ;/Sir  WMiam  TtmpU,  2  vols.,  1836;  Maeaalay,  to, 
on.  Sir  WMia-m.  TcmpU-  '"■  ' 

TENANT.     See  Landlord  and  Tenant. 

TENASSERIM,  a  division  of  the  province  of  British 
Burmah,  lying  between  9°  30'  and  19°  30'  N.  lat.  and 
95°  50'  and  99°  30'  E.  long.  It  has  an  area  of  46,730 
square  miles  and  comprises  the  seven  districts  of  Moulmein 
town,  Amherst,  Tavoy,  Mergui,  Shwagyin,  Toungoo,  and 
Salwin,  which  formed  the  tract  south  of  Pegu  conquered 
from  Burmah  in  1826,  and  were  for  many  years  generally 
known  as  the  Tenassenm  provinces.  The  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  division  approaches  the  insular  region  of 
Malaysia,  and  it  is  fringed  along  its  entire  western  coast 
by  a  number  of  islands,  forming  in  the  north  the  Moscos 
and  in  the  south  the  Mergui  Archipelago.  The  eastern 
frontier  is  formed  by  a  mountain  range  5000  feet  high, 
which  acts  as  a  water-parting  between  the  Tenassenm  and 


the  Siamese  river  systems. 

The  population  of  the  division  in  1881  was  825,741  (437,900 
males  and  387,841  females).  By  religion  Hindus  numbered  23,145, 
Mohammedans  24,786,  Christians  28,315,  Buddhists  698,304.  and 
Nat  worshippers  51,160.  The  cultived  area  in  1836-86  »a3  relurnea 
at  729,251  acres.  The  gross  revenue  in  the  same  year  was  £184,162, 
of  which  the  land-tax  yielded  £107,631.  -u        a 

TENBY  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  ana 
watering-piace  of  Pembrokeshire,  South  Wales,  is  finely 
situated  on  a  long  and  narrow  promontory  of  limestone 
rock,  washed  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  on  the  west  side  ot 


T  E  N  —  T  E  N 


173 


Carmarthen  Bay,  and  on  a  branch  of  the  South  Wales 
Railway,  10  miles  east  of  Pembroke  and  274  west  of 
London  (by  rail).  Its  chief  attractions  as  a  watering-place 
ire  Its  picturesque  appearance,  its  antiquarian  remains,  its 
equable  and  salubrious  climate,  and  its  wide  stretch  of  firm 
Ban'is.  There  are  considerable  remains  of  the  old  fortificar 
tions  of  the  town,  dating  originally  from  the  Norman  Con- 
quest, and  repaired  by  Elizabeth,  whose  initials  with  the 
date  15S8  are  inscribed  on  a  stone  near  the  fine  south-west 
gate,  which  with  the  south-west  and  north-west  walls  is  in 
very  good  preservation.  The  remains  of  the  castle  on  a 
lofty  rock  at  the  extremity  of  the  promontory  include  the 
Seep,  a  circular  bastion  overhanging  the  cliffs,  and  portions 
of  the  outer  wall.  Within  the  ounds,  which  are  laid  out 
m  Walks,  there  is  a  local  musaim  ;  and  on  thesumnait  of 
the  hili  ia  the  Welsh  memorial  to  the  Prince  Consort,  a 
statue  or  t^icilian  marJile  (1SC5).  Opposite  the  castle, 
about  100  yards  distant  and  accessible  on  foot  at  low 
water,  is  St  xT&therine's  Island,  on  which  is  a  strong  fort 
begun  in  186S,  forming  one  of  the  land  defences  of  Pem- 
broke d«ckyard.  The  parish  church  of  St  Mary  is  a  large 
and  beautiful  building,  showing  every  ariety  of  style  from 
the  Norman  of  the  12th  to  the  Tudor  of  the  late  16th 
century  ;  it  has  a  massive  tower  with  a  spire  rising'  to  a 
height  of  152  feet.  In  the  north  aisle  are  some  medisval 
altar  tombs  and  in  the  south  aisle  one  of  the  early  Tudor 
period.  The  fisheries  of  Tenby,  for  which  the  place  was 
noted  at  a  very  early  period,  are  still  6f  importance.  The 
trade  of  the  port  is  inconsiderable.  Steamers,  however, 
ply  to  Bristol,  Cardiff,  Ilfracombe,  and  Weston-super- 
Mare.  In  the  neighbourhood  there  are  extensive  limestone 
quarries.  The  population  of  the  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  (area  640  acres)  in  1871.  was  3810,  and 
in  1881  it  was  4750.  In  summer  it  is  augmented,  by 
more  than  a  half. 

Tenby  has  the  same  derivation  as  Denbigh  in  North  Wales. 
Anciently  it  was  called  Dynbych-y-Pyscod,  the  "precipice  of  fishes." 
The  importance  of  the  town  dates  from  the  settlement  of  the 
Flemings  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  In  1150  Cadell,  eldest  son  of 
Rhys  ab  Gryffith,  was  slain  by  the  people  of  Tenby,  in  revenge  for 
which  the  castle  was  taken  and  the  town  devastated  by  his*two 
brnthere  Meredith  and  Rhys.  Dunng  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  the 
fortifications  were  restored  and  strengthened  by  Jaspar,  earl  of 
Pembroke  They  were  again  greatly  strengthened  by  Elizabeth  in 
apprehension  of  the  landing  of  the  Spaniards.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War  the  town  and  castle  were  garrisoned  for  the  king, 
bn-t  in  1644  it  surrendered  to  the  Parliamentarians  after  a  siege  of 
three  days.  Its  privileges  were  extended  by  Humphrey,  duke  of 
Gloucester,  who  made  the  mayor  an  independent  justice,  and  by 
Henry  IV.,  Henry  VI.,  Elizabeth,  and  Charles  I.  It  is  now 
florerned  by  the  Municipal  Act,  and  the  corporation  are  the  sani- 
tary authority.  Since  the  27th  of  Henry  VIII.  it  has  formed 
part  of  the  Pembroke  district  of  boroughs  for  parliamentary  repre- 
sentation., 

TENCH,  the  Tinea  titica  of  naturalists,  is  one  of  the 
commonest  and  most  widely  spread  freshwater  fishes  of 
Europe.  It  is  generally  distributed  in  all  suitable  local- 
ities throughout  England,  but  is  limited  to  a  few  lakes 
and  ponds  in  the  south  of  Scotland  and  in  Ireland.  As  the 
tench  is  of  comparatively  uncommon  occurrence  in  unen- 
closed waters,  its  place  among  the  indigenous  fishes  of 
Great  Britain  has  been  denied,  and  it  has  been  supposed 
to  have  been  introduced  from  the  Continent.  In  central 
Europe,  however,  where  it  is  undoubtedly  indigenous,  it 
thrives  best  in  enclosed,  preserved  waters,  with  a  clayey 
or  muddy  bottom  and  with  an  abundant  vegetation  ;  it 
avoids  clear  waters  with  stony  ground,  and  is  altogether 
absent  from  rapid  streams.  The  tench  belongs  to  the 
family  of  carps  (Cyprinidx),  and  is  distinguished  from  the 
other  members  of  that  family  by  its  very  small  scales, 
which  are  deeply  embedded  in  a  thick  skin,  whose  surface 
is  as  clippery  as  that  of  an  eel.  All  the  fins  have  a  rounded 
outline;  the  short  dorsal  fin  is  without  a  spine,  but  the 


males  possess  a  very  thicic  and  flattened  outer  ray  in  the 
ventral  fins.  The  mouth  is  rather  narrow  and  provided 
at  each  corner  with  a  very  small  barbel.  Tench  if  kept 
in  suitable  waters  are  extremely  prolific,  and  as  thej 
grow  within  a  few  years  to  a  weight  of  3  or  4  &,  and  are 
then  fit  for  the  table,  they  may  be  profitably  introduced 


Tench  {Tinea  ^iTica). 

into  ponds  which  are  already  stocked  with  other  fishes, 
such  as  carp  and  pike.  They  live  on  small  animals  or  soft 
vegetable  substances,  which  they  root  up  from  the  ground. 
The  albino  variety  especially,  which  is  known  as  the  "golden 
tench,"  can  be  recommended  for  ornamental  waters,  as  its 
bright  orange  colours  render  it  visible  for  some  distance 
helow  the  surface  of  the  water.  This  variety,  which  seems 
to  have  been  originally  bred  in  Silesia,  is  not  less  well- 
flavoured  than  the  normally  coloured  tench,  "^nd  grows  to 
the  same  size,  viz.,  to  6  and  even  8  ft). 

TENDER.     See  Payment. 

TENERIFFE.     See  Canary  Islands,  vol.  iv.  p.  798. 

TENTERS,  David  (1610-1690),  the  younger,  a  Flemish 
painter,  almost  ranking  in  celebrity  with  Rubens  and 
Van  Dyck,  was  bojn  in  Antwerp  on  15th  December  1610. 
His  father,  David  Teniers  the  eld'-r  (1582-1649),  whose 
style  he  followed  with  a  vastly  superior  power  of  concep- 
tion, had  been  a  pupil  of  Elsheimer  in  Rome  and  of  Rubens 
in  Antwerp.  Besides  these  influences,  we  can  also  dis- 
tinctly trace  that  of  Adrian  Brouwer  at  the  outset  of  his 
career.  Although  the  young  painter's  general  system  pften 
reminds  us  of  Rubens,  several  of  his  works  also  betray  a 
vivid  recollection  of  Brouwer  in  type  as  well  as  general 
arrangement.  There  is  no  evidence,  however,  that  either 
Rubens  or  Brouwer  interfered  in  any  way  with  Teniers's 
education,  and  Smith  may  be  correct  in  supposing  that 
the  admiration  which  Brouwer's  pictures  at  one  time  ex- 
cited alone  tempted  the  younger  artist  to  imitate  them. 
The  only  trace  of  personal  relations  having  existed  between 
Teniers  and  Rubens  is  the  fact  that  the  ward  of  the  latter, 
Anne  Breughel,  the  daughter  of  John  (Velvet)  Breughel, 
married  Teniers  in  1637.  Admitted  as  a  "  master  "  in  the 
guild  of  St  Luke  in  1632,  Teniers  had  even  before  this 
made  the  public  acquainted  with  his  works.  The  Berlin 
museum  possesses  a  group  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  dated 
1630.  No  special  signature  positively  distinguishes  these 
first  productions  from  those  of  his  father,  and  we  do  not 
think  it  correct  to  admit  with  some  writers  that  he  first 
painted  religious  subjects.  Dr  Bode,  in  a  most  remarkable 
study  of  Brouwer  and  his  works,  expresses  the  opinion  that 
Teniers's  earliest  pictures  are  those  found  under  the  signa- 
ture "Tenier"  (with  the  omission  of  the  final  «).  Tenier 
is  in  reality  a  Flemish  version  of  a  thoroughly  Walloon 
name,  "Taisnier,"  which  the  painter's  grandfather,  a  mercer, 
brought  with  bim  when  he  came  from  Ath  in  1558,  and 
Bode's  supposition  is  greatly  strengthened  by  the  circum- 
stance that  not  only  David  the  elder  but  his  brother 
Abraham  and  his  four  sons  were  all  inscribed  as  "  Tenier  " 
in  the  ledgers  of  the  Antwerp  guild  of  St  Luke.  Some 
really  first-rate  works — the  Prodigal  Son  and  a  group  of 
Topers  in  the  Munich  gallery,  as  well  as  a  party  of  gentle- 
men and  ladies  at  dinner,  termed  the  Five  Senses,  in  tho 


174 


T  E  N  I  E  R  S 


Brussels  museum— with  the  above  signature  are  remark- 
able instances  of  the  perfection  attained  by  the  artist  when 
he  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  scarcely  twenty      Hia 
touch  is  of  the  rarest  delicacy,  his  colour  at  once  gay  and 
harmonious.      Both  Waagen  and  Smith  express  the  opinion 
that  the  works  painted  from   1645  to  1650  speak  most 
highly  of  the  master's  abilities.     We  may  venture  to  add 
that  a  considerable  number  of  earUer  productions  would 
have  been  sufficient  to  immortalize  his  name       He  was 
Uttle  over  thirty  when  the  Antwerp  guild  of  St  George 
enabled  him  to  paint  the  marvellous  p-cture  which  ulti 
mately  found  its  way  to  the  Hermitage  GaUery  in  St  Peters- 
burg —the  JubUee  Meeting  of  the  Civic  Guards,  in  honour 
of  their  old  commander,  Godfrey  Sneyders     Correct  to  the 
minutest  detail,  yet  striking  in  effect,  the  scene,  under  the 
rays  of  a  glorious  sunshine,  displays  an  astonisbng  amount 
of  acquired  knowledge  and  natural  good  taste     This  paint- 
ing one  of  forty  among  many  of  the  master's  ear  ler  and 
later  productions,'  leads  us  to  mention  another  work  of  the 
same  year  (1643),  now  m  the  National  Gallery,  London 
(No   952)  an  equally  beautiful  repetition  of  which,  dated 
1646  belongs  to  the  duke  of  Bedford.    A  hundred  and  bfty 
figures  are  resting  after  a  pilgrimage  to  some  holy  shrine  or 
some  miraculous  well      The  hungry  traveUers  are  waiting 
for  the  meal  which  is  being  prepared  for  them  in  several 
huge  caldrons       Truth   in   physiognomy,  distribution   of 
groups,  the  beautiful  effect  of  light  and  shade,  command 
our  warmest  admiration      A  work  like  this,  says  Waagen, 
stamps  its  author  as  the  greatest  among  painters  of  his 
class      That   however,  a  subject  of  the  kind  should  have 
been  accepted  as  a  "  feast "  (see   the    National    Gallery 
Catalogue)  may  tend  to  prove  how  little,  from  the  hrst, 
Teniers  thought  of  dramatizing.     Frankness  in  expression 
and  freedom  in  attitude  certainly  guided  his   preference 
in  the  choice  of  a  model,  and  we  may  even  suppose  him  to 
have  occasionally  exaggerated  both      He  seems  anxious  to 
have  it  known' that,   far   from   indulging   in   the  coarse 
amusements  of  the  boors  he  is  fond  of  painting,  he  himself 
lives  m  good  style,  looks  like  a  gentleman,  and  behaves  as 
such      He  never  seems  fred  of  showing  the  turrets  of  his 
chateau  of  Perck,  and  m  the  midst  ot  rustic  merrymakings 
we  often  see  his  family  and  himself  received  cap  in  band  by 
the  loyous  peasants      We  may  also  observe  that  he  has  a 
certain  number  of  favourite  models,  the  constant  recur- 
rence ol  which  IS  a  special  feature  of  his  works      V\  e  even 
meet  them  in  a  series  of  life-size  portrait  like  figures  in  the 
Dona  Pamphili  Gallery  in  Rome,'  as  well  as  in  a  picture 
belonging  to  Mr  H   R   Hughes,  and  the  man  here  repre- 
sented   as   a    fishmonger   is   unmistakably    fee    painters 
brother,    Abraham    Teniers,   judging    from    the    portrait 
Kdelinck  has  left  us  of  this  artist 

Teniers  was  chosen  bv  the  common  council  of  Antwerp 
to  preside  over  the  guild  of  pamters  in  1644  The  arch- 
duke Leopold  William,  who  had  assumed  the  government 
of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  being  a  great  lover  of  art 
employed  Teniers  not  only  as  a  painter  but  as  keep"  of 
the  collection  of  pictures  be  wa--  then  forming  W  ;th  the 
rank  and  title  of  "  ayuda  de  camara,"  Teniers  took  up  his 
abode  in  Brussels  shortly  after  1647  Immense  sums  were 
spent  in  the  acquisition  of  paintings  for  the  archduke  A 
number  of  valuable  works  of  the  Italian  masters,  now  m 
the  Belvedere  in  Vienna,  came  from  Leopold's  gallery  after 
having  belonged  to.Charles  L  and  the  duke  of  Buckingham. 
De  Bie  (1661 )  states  that  Teniers  was  some  time  in  London, 
collecting  pictures  for  the  duke  of  Fucnsaldana.  then  acting 
as  Leopold's  lieutenant  in  the  Netherlands      Paintings  in 

'  The  Hermitage  Catalogue  ascribes  to  Abraham  Teniers  the  portrait 
of  a  bishop.  This  painting  is,  however,  by  David,  and  represents  the 
telebrated  bishop  of  Ghent.  Anthony  Triist,  with  his  brother  Francis, 
t  Franciscan  monk  "  Uader  the  name  of  Weeninx. 


Madrid,   Munich,  Vienna,  and  Brussels  have  enabled  art 
critics  to  form  an  opinion  of  what  the  imperial   re.s;den.  e 
was  at   the  time  of  Leopold,  who  is  represented  as  con 
ducted  by  Teniers  and  admiring  some  recent  acquisition 
No  picture  in  the  gallery  is  omitted,  every  one  being  in 
scribed  with  a  number  and  the  name  of  its  author,  so  that 
the  eruembU  of  these   paintings  might  serve  as  an   illus- 
trated inventory  of  the  collection  '     Sull  more  interesting 
is  a  canvas,   now  io  the   Munich  gallery,   where  we  see 
Teniers  at  work   m  a  room  of   the  palace,   with  ao  old 
peasant  as  a   model  and  several   gentlemen   looking  on. 
When  Leopold  returned  to  Vienna,  Teniers's  Usk  ceased  , 
in  fact  the  pictures  also  travelled  to  Austria,  anc  a  Flemish 
priest   himself  a  first-rate  flower  painter,  Von  der  Baren, 
became  keeper  of  the  archducal  gallery      Teniers  never- 
thelcss  remained  io  high  favour  with  the  new  governor- 
general  Don  Juan,  a  natural  son  of  PhUip  IV      The  prince 
was  his  pupU,  and  De  Bie  teUs  us  he  took  the  Ukeness  of 
the  painter's  son      Honoured  as  one  of  the  greatest  painters 
in  Europe  Teniers  seems  to  have  made  bimseU  extremely 
miserable  through  his  aristocratic  leanings      Shortly  after 
the  death  of  his  wife  in  |i^^'6  he  married  Isabella  de  Fren^ 
daughter  of  the  secretary  •  f  the  council  of  Brabant,  and 
strove  his  utmost  to  prove  hn  right  to  armorial  bearings. 
In  a  petition  to  the  king  he  reminded  him  that  the  honour 
of  knighthood  had  been  bestowed  upon  Rubens  and  Van 
Dyck      The  king  at  last  declared  his  readiness  to  grant 
the  request,  but  on  the  express  condition  that  Teniers 
should  give  up  selling  his  pictures.     The  condition  was 
not  coTiplied  with;  but  it  may  perhaps  account  for  the 
master's  activity  in  favour  of  the  foundation  in  Antwerp 
of  an  academy  of  fine  arts  to  which  artists  alone  should 
be  admitted,  whereas  the  venerable  guild  of  St  LuJse  made 
no  difference  between  art  and  handicraft :  carvers,  gilders 
bookbinders,  stood  on  an  even  footing  with  painters  and 
sculptors,  however  great  their  talent."     There  were  great 
rejoicings  in  Antwerp  when,  on  26th  January  1663,  Teniers 
came  from  Brussels  with  the  royal  charter  of  the  acaoemy 
the  existence  of  which  was  due  entirely  to  his  personal 
initiative  .         ..  .       . 

Teniers  died  in  Brussels  on  25th  Apnl  1690*  A 
pictioie  in  the  Munich  gallery  (No.  906),  dated  1680, 
represents  him  as  an  alchemist,  oppressed  with  a  burden 
of  age  beyond  his  years  From  this  dat«  we  hear  inore 
of  his  doings  as  a  picture-dealer  than  as  a  painter,  wb-.cb 
most  probably  gave  birth  to  the  legend  of  his  having  given 
himself  out  as  deceased  in  order  to  get  higher  prices  for 
his  works  David,  his  elde,-^t  son.  a  painter  of  talent  and 
reputation,  died  in  1685  One  ol  this  third  Teniers  a 
pictures-St  Dominic  Kneeling  before  the  Blessed  \  irgin, 
dated  1666— IS  still  to  be  found  in  the  church  at  Perck. 
A<.  well  a-,  Ins  lather,  he  contributed  many  patterns  to  tho 
celebrated  Brussels  tapestry  looms  Cornelia,  the  painters 
daughter,  married  John  Erasmus  Quellin,  a  «ell  known 
artist  (1634-1715)  ,         ,„„      „, 

Smiths  Catalogue  Ra.smnt  gives  descnptions  of  over  700  Pamt 
ings  accepted  as  original  productions  of  Tenicrs  F^^/^f ',*"' 
worked  wuh  greater  ease,  and  some  of  l.is  s-naller  P» «."'"- ''"^ 
scapes  with  figures-have  been  termed  •■aflernoons  rot  from 
their  subjects.  \.ut  from  the  time  spent  in  r«"^ "5'"?  ''"■"'  ''!° 
museums  in  Madrid.  St  Petersburg,  Vienna  M"""^t>.  Rl^^'^;"' 
Pans.  London,  and  Brussels  have  more  than  200  pictures  by  Teniers 
In  the  United  Kingdom  150  may  be  found  in  private  >'^"d'.  ".d 
manv  other  e.anipres  are  to  be  met  with  .n  P""  «  .^"''"''"r' 
thro'ughoiit  Europe.     Although  Ih.  spirit  of  many  of  these  v.o.ks 


'  It  <vas  not  until  recently  that  the  MS.  inventory  of  this  "llection 
^as  discovered  among  the  papers  of  the  prince  ot  S^J""'^K'.ber8  ,n 
Vienna.  It  was  published  in  1883  by  Adolf  Berger.  In  1«\8.T"'!" 
published  243  etchings  after  the  best  lulian  works  of  LeoP^.'^J^^''^™  ' 
Collection,  which,  with  the  portraits  of  the  ajchduke  a«d  I,  "^^  "^ 
brought  together  a,  a  vol-ime  m  1C60,  under  the^tJe  £  r««r<.  at 
rirturat.  '  Tbe  separation  was  only  "^^"i^  «  "'*• 

i      >  The  daU  is  often  wrongly  given  as  1694  or  1696. 


TEN- 

is  as  a  whole  marvellotu,  their  coDScientiousness  must  be  le^rded 
as  qneetioiiabie.  Especially  in  the  later  productioE3  we  often 
detect  a  lack  of  eameitness  and  of  the  calm  and  concentrated  study 
of  nature  which  alone  prevent  expression  from  degenerating  into 
grimace  in  situations  like  those  generally  depicted  by  Teniers,  His 
education,  and  still  more  his  real  and  assumed  position  in  society, 
to  a  ereat  degree  account  for  this.  Brouwer  knew  more  of  taverns  ; 
Ostsae  was  more  thoroughly  at  home  in  cottages  and  humble  dwell- 
ings ;  Teniers  throughout  triumphs  in  broad  daylight,  and,  though 
many  of  his  interiors  may  be  justly  termed  masterpieces,  they  seldom 

Snai  his  open-air  scenes,  where  he  has,  without  constraint,  given 
U  play  to  the  bright  resources  of  his  luminous  palette.  In  this 
respect,  as  in  many  others,  he  almost  invariably  suggests  compari- 
sons with  Watteau.  Equally  sparkling  and  equally  joyous,  both 
seem  to  live  in  an  almost  ideal  world,  where  toil,  disease,  and 
poverty  may  exist,  but  to  be  ^oon  forgotten,  and  where  sunshine 
seems  everlasting.  But  his  subjects  taken  from  the  Gospels  or 
sacred  legend  are  absurd.  An  admirable  picture  in  the  Louvre 
shows  Peter  Denying  his  Master,  next  to  a  table  where  soldiers 
are  smoking  and  having  a  game  at  cards.  He  likes  going  back  to 
subjects  illustrated  two  centuries  before  by  Jerome  Bosch — the 
Temptation  of  St  Anthony,  the  Rich  Man  in  Hell,  incantations, 
and  witches — for  the  simple  purpose  of  assembling  the  most  comic 
apparitions.  His  viUa^ra  uriuK,  play  bowls,  dance,  and  sing ; 
they  seldom  quarrel  or  hght,  and,  if  they  do,  s.-em  to  be  shamming. 
His  powers  certainly  declined  with  advancing  age ;  the  works  of 
1654  Degin  to  look  hasty.  But  this  much  may  be  said  of  Teniers, 
that  no  other  painter  shows  a  more  enviable  ability  to  render  a 
conception  to  his  own  and  other  people's  satisfaction.  His  works 
have  a  technical-  freshness,  a  strai'htforwardness  in  means  and 
intent,  which  make  the  study  of  them  most  delightful ;  as  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  says,  they  are  worthv  of  the  closest  attention  of 
any  painter  who  desires  to  excel  in  tlie  mechanical  knowledge  of 
his  art. 

As  an  etcher  Teniers  compires  very  unfavourably  with  Ostade, 
Cornells,  Bega,  and  Dusart  More  than  500  plates  were  made  from 
his  pictures;  and,  if  it  be  true  that  Louis  XIV.  judged  his  "baboons" 
(iTiagots)  unworthy  of  a  place  in  the  royal  collections,  they  found 
admirable  engravers  in  France  —  Le  Has  and  his  scholars — and 
passionate  admirers.  The  duke  of  Bedford's  admirable  specimen 
was  sold  for  18,030  livres  (£1360)  in  1763.  The  Prodigal  Son,  now 
in  the  Louvre,  fetched  30,000  livres  (£3095)  in  1776.  Smith's 
highest  estimates  have  long  since  been  greatly  exceeded.  The 
Archers  in  St  Petersburg  he  gives  as  worth  <£2000.  The  Belgian 
Government  gave  £5000  in  1867  for  the  Tillage  Pastoral  of  1652, 
which  is  now  in  the  Brussels  museum  ;  and  a  picture  of  the  Prodigal 
Son,  scarcely  16  by  28  inches,  fetched  £5280  in  1876. 

Although  Van  Tilborgh,  who  was  a  scholar  of  Teniers  in  Brussels, 
followed  his  style  with  some  success,  and  later  painters  often  excelled 
in  figure-painting  on  a  small  scale,  Teniers  cannot  be  said  to  have 
formed  a  school  Properly  speaking,  he  is  the  last  representative 
of  the  great  Flemish  traditions  of  the  17th  century. 

See  T.  Smith,  A  Caialogue  RaisoniU  0/  the  Works  of  tht  most  E-ninrnt  Dutch, 
Fleaiuhy  and  FrmA  Painters;  John  Vermoeleo,  Notice  historvjue  sur  David 
Teniers  et  sa  fa-niUe ;  L.  Galesloot,  Qjuljuxs  rensei^iiements  sur  la  famiUc  de 
P.  P.  Rubeiu  et  le  deds  de  David  Teniers  and  Un  'proces  de  David  Teniers  ei 
la  oOTjnraiion  des  peintres  d  Br^LBelles :  Alph.  Waotera.  Bistoire  des  environs 
di  BnadUs  and  Les  tapisseries  bntxeiloises  ;  P.  T.  Van  der  BraDdeni,  Ge- 
tckiedenis  der  Antwerpsche  SchUderxhool ;  Max  Boos«3,  Geschidite  der  Maler- 
aAute  Antie^rpens ;  W.  Bode,  Adriaen  3rcmuwr,  etn  Biid  seir^  Lebens  und  seines 
Sdlaffens.  (H.  H  ) 

TENIMBER.    See  Timor  Lattt. 

TEXISON,  THOMiS  (1636-1715),  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  the  son  of  Rev.  John  Tenison,  rector  of 
Mtmdsley,  Norfolk,  by  Mary,  daughter  of  Thomas  Dowson 
of  Cottenham,  Cambridgeshire,  where  he  was  bom  on  29th 
September  1636.  He  was  educated  at  the  free  school, 
Norwich,  whence  he  entered  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cam- 
bridge, as  a  scholar  on  Archbishop  Parker's  foundation.  He 
graduated  B.A.  in  1657,  M.A.  in  1660,  was  chosen  fellow 
in  1662,  and  became  B.D.  in  1667.  For  a  short  time  he 
studied  medicine^  but  in  1659  was  privately  ordained.  In 
1667  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Holywell-cum- 
Needingworth,  Huntingdonshire,  by  the  earl  of  Manchester, 
to  whose  son  he  had  been  tutor,  and  in  1670  to  that  of  St 
Peter's  Manoroft,  Norwich.  In  1680  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.D.,  and  was  presented  by  Charles  IL  to  the 
important  cure  of  St  Martin's-in-the-Fields.  Tenison,  ac- 
cording to  B'-.-net,  "endowed  schools,  set  up  a  public 
library,  and  kept  many  curates  to  assist  him  in  his  inde- 
fatigable labours."  Being  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  "  Whitehall  lying  within  that  parish, 
ho  stood  as  in  the  front  of  the  battle  all  King  James's  reign," 


E  N 


175 


In  1678,  in  a  Discourse  of  Idolatry,  he  had  endeavoured 
to  fasten  the  practices  of  heathenish  idolatry  on  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  in  a  sermon  which  he  published  in  1681  on 
DUcrelion  in  Giving  Alms  was  attacked  by  Andrew  Pulton, 
head  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  Savoy.     Tenison's  reputation 
as  an  enemy  of  Catholicism  led  the  duke  of  Monmouth 
to  send  for  him  before  his  execution  in  1685,  when  Bishops 
Ken  and  Turner  refused  to  administer  the  Eucharist ;  but, 
although  Tenison  spoke  to  him  in  "a  softer  and  less  per- , 
emptory  manner  "  than  the  two  bishops,  he  was,  like  them, 
not  satisfied  with  the  sufficiency  of  Monmouth's  penitence. 
Under  William,  Tenison  was  in  1689  named  a  member  of 
the  ecclesiastical  commission  appointed  to.  prepare  matters 
towards  a  reconciliation  of  the  Dissenters,  the  revision  of 
the  liturgy  being  specially  entrusted  to  him.     A  sermon 
which  he  preached  on  the  commission  was  published  the 
same  year.     He  appears  to  have  been  better  satisfied  with 
the  religious  Sentiments  of  Nell  Gwjnn  on  the  approach 
of  death  than  with  those  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  for 
in  1691  he  preayhed  her  funeral  sermon,  in  which  he  re- 
presented her  as  truly  penitent,  —  a  charitable  judgment 
which  did  not  meet  with  universal  approval.     The  general 
liberality  of  Tenison's  religious  views  commended  him  to 
the  favour  of  William,  and,  after  being  made  bishop  of  ' 
Lincoln  in   1691,   he  was  promoted  to  the  primacy  in 
December  1694.     He  attended  Mary  during  her  last  iU- 
ness  and   preached  her  funeral  sermon   in   Westminster 
Abbey.     VNTien  William  in  1695  went  to  take  command 
of  the  army  in  the  Netherlands,  Tenison  was  appointed 
one  of  the  seven  lords  justices  to  whom  his  author  ty 
was  delegated.     Along  with  Burnet  he  attended  William 
on  his  deathbed,  and  it  was  from  their  hands  that  he 
received  the  Eucharist.     He  crowned  Queen  Anne,  but 
during  her  reign  was  not  in  much  favour  at  court.     He 
was  a  commissioner  for  the  Union  in   1706.     A  strong 
supporter  of  the  Hanoverian  succession,  he  was  one  of  the 
three  officers  of  state  to  whom  on  the  death  of  Anne  was 
entrusted  the  duty  of  appointing  a  regent  till  the  arrival 
of*  George  I.,  whom  he  crowned  on  31st  October  1714. 
Tenison  died  at  London  on  14th  December  of  the  following 
year.     Besides  the  sermons  and  tracts  above  mentioned, 
and  various  others  on  dilTerent  points  of  the  Popish  con- 
troversy, Tenlsou  was  the  author  of   The  Creed  of  Mr 
Hobbea  examined  (1670)  and  Baconia,  or  Certain  Gehuirie 
Remains  of  Lord  Bacon  (1679). 

The  Manoirs  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  the  Most  Rev.  Palker  in  Ood, 
Dt  Thomas  Tenison,  late  Ardibishop  of  Canterbury,  appeared  with- 
out date  not  long  after  his  death.  See  also  Burnet's  History  qf 
his  own  Time  and  Macaulay's  History  of  England. 

TENTfANT,  William  (1784-1848),  author  of  Anster 
Fair,  was  born  In  1784  at  Anstruthcr  in  Fifeshire,  the 
birthplsLce  of  two  other  contemporary  Scottish  worthies, 
Thomas  Chalmers  and  John  Goodsir.  He  was  lame  from 
childhood,  Hke  his  more  famous  contemporaries  Byron  and 
Scott,  and  this  probably  determined  his  father,  who  was  a 
small  merchant  and  fanner,  to  educate  him  for  a  scholarly 
career.  But  the  paternal  means  failed  before  he  had  com- 
pleted his  curriculum  at  St  Andrews,  and  he  was  obligee 
to  return  home  and  act  for  some  eight  years  of  his  early 
manhood  as  clerk  to  one  of  his  brothers,  a  corn-factor. 
The  corn-factor's  clerk,  however,  under  the  impulse  of  a 
genius  for  language  and  a  strong  delight  In  literature,  be- 
sides Greek  and  Latin  and  Hebrew,  mastered,  during  his 
leisure,  Italian  and  German,  and  not  only  read,  but  set 
himself  to  imitate,  Arlosto  and  Wleland.  And,  strange  to 
say,  this  poor  youth,  in  a  remote  country  town,  anticipated 
the  fashion  of  mock-heroic  verse,  which  was  set  for  England 
by  "  the  ingenious  brothers  Whistlecraft,"  and  which  gave 
Byron  the  hint  for  his  Don  Juan.  Ar.ster  Fair,  a  fantastic 
poem  in  ottava  rima,  amazingly  fluent,  brimming  over  with 


176 


T  E  N  —  T  E  N 


high  spirits,  figh  almost  to  excess  in  diction  and  fanciful 
imagery,  was  written  by  Tennant  in  I CJ 1 1 ,  when  his  brother's 
business  had  failed  and  he  did  not  know  where  to  look  for 
employnient.  It«  iiublication  m  1812  brought  the  poet 
into  notice,  nild  employment  was  found  (or  him  as  school- 
master of  the  parish  of  Dunino,  near  St  Andrews.  From 
this  be  was  promoted  (ISIG)  to  the  school  of  Lasswade, 
near  Edinburgh ;  from  that  (1.S19)  to  a  mastership  in 
.  Dollar  academy  ;  from  that  (1S31),  by  Ix)rd  JeflTrey,  who 
had  written  an  admiring  review  of  AnsUr  Fair,  to  the 
professorship  of  Oriental  languages  in  St  Andrews.  Ten- 
nant never  fulfilled  the  promise  of  his  first  poem,  which 
reads  as  if  it  liad  been  dashed  off  in  a  fit  of  careless  and 
happy  inspiration,  iiiid  never  flags  in  its  humorous  glee 
from  the  first  stanza  to'the  last  The  Thantof  Fife  (1822), 
in  which  he  essayed  the  same  vein,  evidently  cost  him 
more  pains,  shows  the'  same  high  reach  of  humorous 
imagination,  and  is  indeed,  as  he  claimed  for  it,  "bold  in 
its  style  and  rare,  fantastic,  and  sublime."  But  the  subject 
was  more  remote  from  general  interest;  the  mock- epic 
machinery,  with  all  his  wealth  of  grotesque  description, 
was  too  far-fetched  for  the  popular  taste;  andthe.poem 
fell  flat. ',  A  third  poem,  in  the  Scotch  dialect.  Papistry 
tStormed  (1827),  though  full  of  the  most  spirited  descrip- 
tion, was  also  in  a  vein  of  humour  that  found  few  sympa- 
thizers. '  He  wrote  also  two  historical  dramas.  Cardinal 
Beaton  (1823)  and  Jo/in  Baliol  (1825).  Hia  last  published 
ivork  was  a  series  of  Hebrew  Drama)  (1845),  fouHded  on 
incidents  in  Bible  history.  He  died  near  Dollar,  on  15th 
February  1848r 
A  Memoir  of  Tennant  by  M.  F.  Conolly  was' published  la  1861. 
TEXN^NT.SiR  James  Emerson  (1794-1869),  English 
politician  and  traveller,  the  thiid  son  of  William  Bnerson, 
a  merchant  of  Belfast,  was  born  there  on  7th  April  L794. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  qf  which  he' 
became  LL.D.  After  travelling  in  Greece,  -where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Lord  Byron,  whos'e  sentiments  in  re- 
gard to  the  Greek  cause  he  fuUy  shared,  he. studied  for 
the  bar  and  was  called  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1831.  *He 
pu1)lislied  a  Picture  of  Greece  (1S26),  Letttnfrom  the  ^gean 
(1829),  and  a  History  of  Modem  Greece  (1830),  On  his 
marriage  to  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  William  Tennent, 
a  wealthy  merchant  at  Belfast,  he  adopted  by  royal  licence 
the  name  of  his  wife  in  addition  to  his  own.  He  entered 
parliament  in  1832  as  member  for  Belfast.  In.  1841  he 
became  secretary  to  the  India  Board,  and  in  1845  he  wts 
knighted  and  appointed  colonial  secretary  of  Ceylon,  where 
he  remained  till  1 850.  The  result  of  his  residence  there 
appeared  in  Christianity  in  Ceylon  (1850)  and  Ceylon, 
Physical,  Historical,  and  Topographical'  (2  vols.,  1859). 
On  his  return  he  became  member  for  Lisburn,  and  under 
Lord  Derby  was  secretary  to  the  Poor  Law  Board  from 
February  to  November  1852.  From  then  till  1867  he 
was  permanent  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  on 
his  retirement  he  received  a  baronetcy  from  Lord  Palmer- 
Bton.  In  his  early  years  his  political  views  had  a  Radical 
tinge,  and,  although  he  subsequently  joined  the  Tories,  his 
Conservatism  was  of  a  mild  type.  He  withdrew  from  the 
Whigs  along  with  Lord  Stanley  and  Sir  James  Graham, 
and  afterwards  adhered  to  Peel.  .  He  died  in  London  on 
6th  August  1869' 

V  Besides  tlic  books  ftbove  mentioned,  he  wrote  Belgium  in  I84O 
(1841)  aud  limine.  Hi  Dtdits  and  Taxation.  (1855),  and  was  a  con- 
tributor to  mazaziues  and  a  frequent  correspondent  of  Notes  and 
Qiuries- 

Plate  n,      TENNESSEE,   one '  of  the   United   States   of   North 

America,   the  third  added   (June   1796)  to  the  original 

thirteen,  its  predecessors  having  been  Vermont  (1791)  and 

BorniiJ-    Kentucky  (1792).     Tennessee  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  the 

»ne3.       Unaka  Mountains,  which  divide  it  from  North  Carolina, 

on  the  S.  by  the  line  of  lat.  35°  N..  dividine  it  from  Georgia, 


Alabama,  and  Mississippi ;  on  the  W.  by  tht  MississipfS^ 
river,  dividing  it  from  Arkansas  and  Missouri ,  an  J  on  tho 
N.  by  a  line  which  erroneous  surveys  have  cau.ied  to  vary 
greatly  from  the  intended  boundary, — the  line  of  lat.  36*, 
30'  N. — the  Tariations  all  being  measured  to  the  njrth  of 
that  parallel,'  The  actual  boundary  commence.^  at  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  State  7  miles  north  of  33°  SO',  and 
continues  at  that  distance  as  far  as  the  frontier  of  Virginia 
and  Kentucky,  where  it  diminishes  to  5  miles ;  thence 
to  about  its  intersection  with  86°  30'  W.  it  increases  to' 
1 1  miles ;  thence  a  deflexibn  southwards  to  a  point  about 
2  miles  from  the  Cumberland  reduces  it  to  10  miles ;  there 
it  suddenly  shoots  north  again  to  12  miles,  which  distance 
is  increased  to  12  J  by  thy  time  it  strikes  the  Tenne."isoe; 
on  the  other  side  of  that  river  it  becomes  very  nearly 
coincident  with  the  normal  36°  30' ;  and  to  that  line  it 
adheres  with  very  sKgnt  aberrations  nntil  it -Btrikes  the 
Mississippi.  The  eastern  boundary  has  one  deviation  frcrt 
the  stipulated  line  :  it  runs  along  the  culminating  ridge  of 
the  Unakas  till  within  26  miles  of  the  Georgia  frontier; 
when  it  turns  due  south,  giving  to  Tennessee  a  triangular 
piece  of  territory  which  should  belong  to  North  Carolina 
The  area  of  the  State  was  41,750  square  miles  in  1680 
Its  extreme  length  is  432  miles  and  its  width  109. 

Confrgvration  and  Geology. — Commencing  at  the  eastern  iJfulogjr 
frontier,  the  State  of  Tennessee  is  divided  into  several 
distrirts,  having  distinct  characteristics  and  separated  by 
well-marked  natural  boundaries,  whose  general  direction 
from  north-east  to  south-west  corresponds  with  the  trend 
of  the  main  valleys  (see  the  geological  sketch  map  in- 
serted on  pi.  n.). 

1.  T^je  mountain  region  of  East  Tennessee  is  a  long^a? 
row  belt  of  very  irregular  surface,  comprised  between  the 
Unaka  Range  and  a  disjointed  chain  of  lower  mountains, 
the  principal  of  which  are  called  the  Chilhowee  Range, 
and  the  whole  of  which  may  be  considered  as  constituting 
the  secondary  mountain  system  of  the  State.  The  inter- 
vening ^pace  is  occupied  by  broken  masses  forming  hills, 
mounttins,  and  valleys,  some  parallel  to  the  principal 
rangesj  some  crossing  the  space  at  right  angles  to  them. 
This  region  varies  in  width  from  28  miles  to  about  7. 
All  the  rocks  Of  this  region  and  the  next  to  it  belong  to 
what  constitute  in  England  the  Silurian  and  Cambrian 
systecrjs,  the  former  being  found  in  the  western  and  tho 
latter  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  district.  It  has  been 
contended  that  some  metamorphic  rocks  near  the  crest  , 
of-  the  mountains  belong  to  the  Archaic  (Huronian  and 
Laurentian)  system  ;  but  the  preponderance  of  geological 
opinion  now  assigns  them  to  the  same  formations  as  tho 
neighbouring  rocks,  the  difference  in  structure  being  due 

to  metamorphic  action.' '  The  lowest  of  these,  called  in 
Tennessee  the  Ocoee  group,  is  believed  to  be  coeval  with 
the  Potsdam  group  of  the  American  system, — the  Lower 
Silurian  and  perhaps  the  Upper  Cambrian  of  the  British 
Isles.  It  consists  chiefly  of  slates  and  conglomerates,  with 
the  sandstones  of  the  Chilhowee  group  above.  ^bovc 
these  last  are  the  Knox  dolomite  group,  with  its  shalci 
and  limestone  more  separated  from  the  other  two  groups 
and  perhaps  not  exactly  corresponding  to  any  other  recog- 
nized formations.  The  crystalline  metamorphic  rocks  are 
mainly  syenitic  and  micaceous  gneiss,  with  micaceous,  horn? 
blendic,  and  talcose  schists.  Occasional  small  dykes  of 
diorite,  greenstone,  and  basalt  traverse  these  rocks,  some 
times  interstratified,  but  oftener  breaking  through  them 

2.  The  rocks  of  the  first  division  are  tilted  at  \ery  higl 
angles ;  those  of  the  second  division,  the  eastern  valley  ot 
the  Tennessee,  are  fractured  and  distorted  at  nearly  every 
conceivable  angle,  and,  in  consequence,  it  is  the  edges  ol 
the  liplifted  strata  which  here  form  the  surface.  The  strata 
havs  been  eaten  away  to  form  valleys,  or .  left  gtandinf;  ei 


TENNESSEE 


177 


"idgej,  givinji  lue  wnol''  ir.ici  a  deeply  cbannelkU  cliaracter, 
he  ridges  coiitistiiig  of  s-iiidstono  and  dolomite  and  tbe 
»Hll<.ys  ot  fiuiblc  scbists  These  all  trend  in  the  j-rtvaJcnl 
jiii»:tion  of  the  Api'nUchi^n  upheaT&l,  from  north-east  to 
»uih-west.  The  rivci^  take  the  same  directions,  except 
vheii  thoy  I'lCik  tlirongh  transvct;se  fissures  in  the  ridges, 
)r  work  round  llicu  tcfininations  where  tliey  give  way  to 
;ho  outcropping  of  other  rivks  ;  in  the^  cases  the  current 
runs  at  right  anuK-s  to  tbc;r  prevalent  direction.  AH  these 
formations  belong  to  llio  Silurian  period,  the  oldest  cmpping 
out  to  the  eastward,  the  Inter  members  apjiearing  to  the 
westward.  In. some  spots  the  Snbcarboniferous  rocks 
'.vliich  once  covered  the  entire  valley  have,  escaped  the 
erosive  action  which  swept  the  rest  away.  The  whole 
.iistricl  is  a  valley  of  denudation  which  has  been  e.xcavatcd 
by  the  Tciiiiesscc  and  its  tributaries, — some  breaking 
through  tlie-Unaka  barrier,, and  others  dcscendinj;  from- 
Virginia  along  the  longitudinal  valleys  above  desciiLed.     , 

3.  Rising  in  a  steep  elevation  at  from  SOO  to  1200  feet 
ibove  the  average  level  of  the  eastern  valley  of  the  Ten- 
nessee IS  the  plateau  popularly  called  the  .■  Cumberland 
Mountain.  This  mas.«,  sii|ieriiicumbciit  on  the  Silurian 
sy-teni,  consists  of  four  very  distinctly  marked  formations, 
— (i  )  the  Ucvoni.aii  black  shale,  (ii.)  the  Subcarboniferous 
ailicious  beds,  (m.)  the  Monnlaiii  Limestone,  (iv.)  the  Coal- 
measures.  These  can  easily  be  distinguished  one  above 
mother  on  the  face  of  the  eastern  escarpment ;  but  on  the 
western  side  the  first  two  extend  in  a  wide  plain  far  beyond 
the  base  of  the  plateau,  constituting  the  fourth  district. 
The  Mountain  Limestone  is  shaly  at  the  bottom,  and  more 
5olid  at  the  top,  where  it  abounds  in  silicious  concretions. 
The  Coal-measures  consist  of  thick  slabs  of  sandstone  and 
;onglomerate  with  the  seams  of  coal  inlerstratified  between 
them.  In  its  southern  portion  the  plateau  is  divided  longi- 
tudinally by  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Sequatchie  river, 
which  cuts  deep  into  the  subjacent  Silurian  beds.  The 
portion  east  of  this  valley,  known  as  Walden's  Ridge,  has 
its  strata  much  disturbed  and  tilted,  conformably  with 
che  Silurian  rocks  below ;  the  western  portion,  on  the  con- 
•rary,  has  all  its  strata  nearly  horizontal.  This  formation, 
iveraging  about  40  miles  in  width,  is  divided  by  a  stratum 
af  conglomerate  80  feet  thick  into  the  upper  and  lower 
Coal-measures,  the  former  of  which  are  much  the  more 
productive,  but  cover  a  less  area,  large  portions  of  it  hav- 
ing been  carried  away  by  denudation.  These  coal-seams 
ire  believed  to  average  an  aggregate  thickness  of  8  feet 
md  to  cover  an  area  of  5000  square  miles.  .  _  " 

4,  5,  6.  The  Subcarboniferous  area,  the  central  basin, 
and  the  western  valley  of  tho  Tennessee  can  best  be  con- 

S'dered' tcgether.  They  consist  of  the  Subcarboniferous 
licious  beds,  together  with  the  Ixisins  formed  by  their 
erosion,  i  Qn  the  western  face  of  the  Carboniferous  belt 
the  Mountain  Limestone  has  been  carried  away  with  the 
harder  rocks  of  tbe  Coal-measures  above  it,  but  the  under- 
lying silicious  beds  have  resisted  all  erosive  forces  and  are 
iprvud  out  over  an  extended  area  on  both  sides  of  the 
Mississippi.*  In  Tennessee  they  form  a  margin  round  the 
cenlril  basin  and  are  styled  by  local  geologists  the  "high- 
land rini'^.They  consist  of  two  strata,  a  lower  one  dis- 
tinguished by  the  absence  of  lime  and  iron,  and  an  upper 
one  v\hicli  contains  both  these  materials  in  abundance. 
Both  memhors  consist  mainly  of  a  peeuliar  gravel,  formed 
of  silicious  concietions  embiilded  in  a  stiff  retentive  clay. 
The  upper -stratum  has  in  addition  considerable  horizontal 
beds  of  limestone  ;'  it  contains  abundant  fossils  of  a  large 
coral,  Lu/iostroiion  canadeTise,  by  which  it  is  easily  recog- 
nized, is  very  fertile,  and  possessss  inexhaustible  beds  of 
liroonitc.  The  lower  stratum  is  destitute  of  both  fossils 
and  minerals  and  is  of  but  little  account  for  agriculture. 
L  Excavated   from  this  formation  is  the  central   valley  of 

33—9 


Tennessee  (No.  5),"'surrounded  on^airsidcs  t>y  an" escarp 
nient  of  about  200  feet  in  depth,  by  which  descent  is  made 
from  the  "  rim  "  into  the  valley.  All  the  members  of  the 
Silurian  pcrio<l,  except  the  three  lowest,  are  represented 
in  this  valley,  which  has  been  formed  by  the  erosive  action 
of  the  rircis  within  its  borders :  its  higher  strata  were 
.carried  off  northwards  by  the  Cumberland  and  its  tribu- 
taries, westward  by  the  Duck,  and  southward  by 'the  Elk, 
the  last  two  being  tributaries  of  the  Tennessee.'  ,  A  channel 
of  erosion  along  the  lower  jiortion  of  the  Duck  river  con- 
nects this  valley  with  another  (No.  C)  much  "narrower — the 
western  valley  of  the  Tennes.see — where  agiiii  the  Silurian 
beds  have  been  reached  by  the  removal  of  the  Subcarbon- 
iferous formations  above  them.  Again,  south  of  the  main 
basin,  the  portion  drained  by  the  Elk  is  nearly  separated 
from  the  rest  by  a  number  of  detached  hills  of  the  Subcar- 
boniferous formation,  marking  the  watershed  which  divide."! 
the  headwaters  of  the  Elk  from  tho.«e  of  the  Duf 

7,  8,  9,  10.  A  little  west  of  the  Tennessee  river'  the 
Palajozoic  rocks  disappear  under  the  Cretaceous  formations 
(No.  7),and  these  in  their  turn  are  covered  successively' 
by  the  Tertiary,  Quaternary,  and  recent  formations  (Nos.) 
8,  9,  and  10).  The  tract  of  ground  covered  by  these  four 
formations  constitutes  the  Mississippi  slope  of  western 
Tennessee,  all  of  whose  rivers  run  westward  and  discharge 
into  the  Mississippi.  The  dip  of  the  strata  is  very  slight; 
and  the  surface  inclines  with  a  very  gentle  slope. 

In  general  terms,  the  territory  embraced  in  Tennessee 
may  be  described  as  a  great  mountain  chain  on  the  east,' 
from  the  foot  of  which  extends  a  gently  inclined  plane,' 
interrupted  by  an  elevation,  the  Cumberland  or  Carboni- 
ferous plateau,  and  a  depression,  the  central  valley. 

HivtTs. — The  Cumberland  and  the  Teniics.si-i;  arc  the  prinnipai  r.irei% 
channels  of  iiilaml  navigation,  while  the  Hississipin,  washing  the 
whole  western  frontier  of  the  Statc.'is  its  outlet  to  the  Ciilf  o( 
Mexico.  The  headwaters  aiij  embouchure  of  the  Cumbcrlan.l  are 
in  Kentucky,  but  much  the  preater  part  of  its  iMvigahle  stic:im  is 
in  Tennessee.  Frum  its  coolliience  with  the  Olno,  at  Sinillilarnl, 
Kentucky,  to  Nashville,  a  distance  of  200  miles  it  is  gcncially 
Davigablc  for  eight  months  in  the  year,  and  during  high  water  it 
is  soniotimes  acccssiblo  to  light-draft  steamboats  more  than  30<t 
miles  furtiier'  The  Tennessee  rises  in  Virginia,  crosses  east  Tenii«s. 
see  in  a  south-western  direi  tion.  and  enters  Alabama  a  little  above 
Bridgeport ;  in  that  State  it  assumes  sncccssivcly  a  westerly  ami  a 
northerly  direction,  and  then  re  enters  Tennessee  and  ciobses  the 
State  northwards  to  iu  conHuence  with  the  Ohio  at  Padurah,  Ken- 
tucky. Its  navigablo  waters  are  divided  by  obstructions  into  llires 
fKjrtions,— (1)  from  the  mouth  to  Florence,  Alabama,  300  miles, 
where  navigation  is  arrested  by  the  Muscle  shoals;  (2)  tlicneo 
through  Alabama,  about  100  miles,  when  the  river  bre.nks  through 
the  Cumberland  Mountain  :  and  (31  from  ChatLanoogn  to  Kingston^ 
about  100  miles  further. - 

Agncidturc. — In  1880  tho  number  of  farms  was  16.i,650,"embrac-'Agrici|l 
ing  8,496,556  acres  of  improved  land,  valued  at  $206,749,837.     The  fure, 
principal  productions  are  Indian  com,  wheat,  oats,  cotton,  tobacco, 
potatoe.s^  pea-nuts,  and  hay,  particulars  of  which  for  dilTercut  years 
are  shoftD  in  the  foflowing  table : —  ^ 


rr'«Hict 


IInlli^nco^l 
Wh&it  . . . 
|Oats  .    .-. 
Cottfin  ..ri 
iTobacto 

Hay 


ISM. 


52,0Stl,9S6  bush. 
ft,4.'9,2r"8      .. 
2.207,814      .. 

•J36.4|>1  hairt 
43.44S.097  tl.. 
3.7Kr,  f.77  liusli 
I4J.409  tons. 


IS70. 


41,34.1.^4  bU^Ii. 
f..l8S.016  ..  • 
4.5n,:il5  , 
181.842  laies. 
21 ,480,452  Bi. 
2.3i0.020  Imsh. 
Il':.is2  toos- 


G2.7fi4.42abU3li- 
7.a31,3S3      „ 
4.722.190     „ 
330.621  bales. 
29.Sf.i.052  m. 
3.724,3S2  tush 
1&6,G0S  k)ll^ 


Issj. 


O.7-.S.0C0 
■.■.3-.0.000 
7,fil!U.00O 

31J,.S07 
31,3?J.OOO 
2.300.000 

217.31C 


1.U..1. 
Ions. 


i: 

In  188-1  1.0.''.O.O00  biislicla  of  pea-nuts  were  produced,  as  a;?iinst 
800,000  ill  ISR.":  Ill  recent  years  considerable  atteution  ETas  been 
^ven  to  the  ttillivatinn  of  fruit  and  vegetables.  *■ 

The  live  stork  blatiblics  in  different  years  arc  shown  in  the  labl(? 
wliich  follows  nc3(t : —  "^ 


fear 

I|..rv:» 

Callle 

Sb«ep. 

r.cs- 

IMliO 
1670 
l&«0 
ISSi 

200.882 
247.264 
2IV1,I19 
2S5.«M 

71^4.712 
WJ.i.M 

78.1  (.74 
801.K2J 

773.317 
826.783 

672.780 
r<k'..7?0 

:..-.i7.32i 

I.).iN...:« 
2.1'0.4''.'. 
2,12.\t.lO 

IJ'..14^ 

•lOi.isrf 

171  4'I3 
1S7..-05 


XXIII. 


178 


T  E  N  N  E  S  S  E_E 


ICnmls-  Min.erals.-Tbe-chiti  mtnfiiats  foand  in  the  State  are  coal,  iron 
^^^  M^r  zinc  iead.  and  manganese.  Of  coal  the  output  was  494,491 
3ta  fSo  ^1, lOO.OOO^onB  in  1SS5  ;  in  the  latter  y^  there 
Wre-also  268, 400  tons  of  coke.  In  1S80  there  were  produced  89,933 
^^^irou  ore  (326,040  tons  in  1885)  153,880  lb  of  copper  mgots 
and  r92  621  cubic  feet  of  marble  and  limestone.  Of  zinc  17,415 
t^^  we;^  produced  in  1884.  Besides  tl«  minerals  already  men- 
tioned,  Tennessee  yields  millstone  gnt,  hydiaolio  rock,  barytes, 

fire-clar,  gold,  and  petroleum.  .  '    .   j  _^       r  n, 

Macn.         Jl&ni/^rML -Since  1875  the  nmraiactnnng  industries  of  the 

S«.  State  hi^e  grown  immensely.  From  1880  to  1885  the  number  of 
^^  SliSmeS  increased  from  4326  to  4425,  the  capital  mv^ted 
lromS20  092,a45  to  840.763,650,  and  the  value  of  the  manufactured 
§^uct,  from  §37,074,886  to  ^5.216,211  ^^\^^\^ ,'>f^.^^ 
^uiactnred  iu  the  State  to  the  value  of  $934,014  (^  1885  to 
$2  719,768),  carriages  and  waggons  $1,253,721,  floor  'and  gnst- 
iiil  products  $101^84,804,  foundry  and  '?»clune- shop  products 
S119U531,  iron  and  steel  $2,274,203,  leather  S2,0pl,087  lumber 
$4^015,310,  and  cotton-seed  oil,  cotton  seed,  and  cake  to  the  value 

P,™i=  ^^%mMion.—'The  population  of  the  State,  which  in  1860  was 
IT^'  1  109  801  and  in  isfo  1,258,520,  was  in  1880  1,542,359  (males 
*^  769  -'77  females  773,082).  Of  this  Last  total  403.151  were  Negroes. 
In  Tssi  the  total  population  was  estimated  to  number  abont 
1  800  OOO,  giving  a  density  of  43  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile. 
^  against  86-9  in  1880.  The  growth  of  the  principal  cities  is 
shown  by  the  following  Uble  :— 


Memphis 
Nashville 
Chattanooga 


tO.226 
85,865 


33.592 
«3.350 
12.892 


Knoxvllle, 
Jackson 


8,632 
4,U9 





9.G93 
5,377 


Edaca 
ban. 


The  considerable  declme  in  the  population  of  Memphis^  ac- 
counted for  by  two  epidemics  of  yellow  fever  m  1878  and  1879  (see 
Memphis).  ChatUnooga  is  still  increasing  at  a  very  rapid  rate  in 
consequence  of  the  vast  development  of  the  mineral  resources  of 
east  Tennessee.  KnoxvUle  is  also  growing  from  the  same  cause, 
but  not  BO  rapidly  as  Chattanooga.  .     ,     ,        .  , 

rrf(,f«(i(W.-Provisiou  for  common  school  education  was  mde 
before  the  Civil  War,  but  was  Umited  to  white  children.  A  btate 
bank  was  established  for  the  purpose  of  regukting  the  currency, 
and  a  portion  of  its  capital  was  reserved  as  a  schoof  fund  .  its  pro- 
fits wel^  also  to  be  used  for  school  purposes.  Tlie  fund  on  which 
interest  .3  now  paid  is  8-2,512  500.  A  h^PJl<^.  ^^^VJ^^°^±' 
State  le^Tslature  to  increase  the  permanent  State  fund  to  $5^,000. 
Besides  "this,  the  proceeds  of  a  tax  of  15  per  cent-  on  property  and  a 
poll  taji  of  $1  per  annum  are  appUed  to  the  same  purpose.  Moreover 
kch  county  has  the  power  of  fmposingaschool  tait  on  its  people,  and 
many  incorporate  cities  and  towns  add  still  further  to  it  by  special 
taxes  within  their  limits.  All  ch£dren  between  sis  and  nventy- 
one  (eighteen  until  lSS5)are  entitled  to  free  education  m  the  pubUo 
school*  In  1 875  the  school  population  numbered  42t),61 2,  of  whom 
there  were  199,058  pupils  enrolled.  In  1886  the  corresponding 
fi^s  were  609,028  aU  373,877.  and  in  1887  623,450  and  383,537. 
Besides  the  common  schools  numerous  private  schools  exist. 
Higher  education  U  provided  for  m  several  institutions,  such  as 
yaiderbUt  university  (Methodist)  at  Nashville,  the  university  ot 
the  South  (Episcopalian)  at  Sewanee  or  Cumberland  Mountain, 
thesouth-westem  Presbyterian  university  at  Qarksville,  andothera; 
the  nniversitT  of  Tennessee  at  Knorville  is  supported  by  btate 
.rrants  and  is  not  under  the  direction  of  any  one  denomination. 
Hany  smaUer  esUblishments  entiUed  universities  exist  in  vanous 
parts  of  the  State.  ,  i.    *.  f 

Admhris-  Admmistratwii,  ^-c.-The  legisUt^ve  and  executive  functions  of 
mtion,  government  are  carried  on  by  a  governor,  a  State  senate,  and  a 
house  of  repretenutives,  whose  respective  duties  and  prerogatives 
correspond  abnost  exactly  to  those  of  the  president,  fenfte,  and 
representatives  of  the  United  States.  Both  the  senators  (33)  and  the 
representarivcs  (99)  are  elected  for  two  years.  The  president  of  the 
senate,  who  is  elected  by  the  senators,  succeeds  as  governor  in  c^ 
of  the  death  of  the  elected  governor  during  his  term  ot  ottice.  1  ne 
governor  has  the  power  of  veto  on  the  Acts  of  the  legislature.  In 
tase  of  its  exercise,  the  Act  is  returned  to  the  legislature,  when,  if 
it  passes  by  a  fonstitntional  majonty  in  both  houses,  it  becomes 
law  in  spite  of  the  veto.  ...      r  f„,„ 

The  judiciary  admniistration  is  earned  on  by  courts  of  four 
designations, -the  county  criminal  courts,  the  circuit  courts,  the 
chfincery  courts,  and  the  supreme  court  of  the  State.  The  county 
courts  consist  of  the  magistrates,  who  assemble  at  the  county  se^t 
four  times  a  year  to  trajisact  county  bnsuiess.  They  elect  a  chair- 
man out  of  their  own  body,  who  by  virt™  of  such  election  becomes 
the  financial  agent  of  the  county.  In  counties  large  enough  to 
iustify  it,  a  county  judge  is  elected,  who  exercises  cnminal  juns 
dicHdn.  Tuere  are  fourteen  circuit  courts,  each  having  jurisdiction 
in  several  coonties  ;  in  these  all  common-law  cases  are  adjudicated, 
«icept  in  those  counties  where  there  is  a  criminal  judge.     Lhere 


are  eleven  chancery  divisions,  for  each  of  which  a  chancellor  is 
elected,  who  tries  all  cases  in  equity  in  his  division.  All  these 
judges  are  elected  for  eight  years.  The-judges  of  the  supreme  court, 
five  in  number,  are  elected  by  the  people  at  large,  but  not  more 
than  two  can  be  taken  from  any  one  of  three  divisions  of  the  State, 
viz.,  the  eastern,  middle,  and  western.  Their  jurisdiction  is  purely 
appellate  :  they  revise  the  decisions  of  the  other  courts,  and  their 
decisions  are  final,  except  where  a  question  arises  as  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  United  States  constitution. 

ffistary.—At  the  time  of  its  first  settlement  and  occupation  by  Hiitory. 
Eui-opeans  Tennessee  was  part  of  the  territory  granted  to  the  colony 
of  North  Carolina  by  Charies  II.  It  was  then,  however,  a  hypo- 
thetical claim,  the  boundaries  of  which  were  chiefly  determined  by 
36°  30"  and  35*  N  lat.  The  eastern  boundary  of  North  Carolina 
was  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  on  the  other  side  the  western  territory 
extended  according  to  one  theory  to  the  Mississippi,  according  to 
another  theory  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  When  the  English  settlers 
began  to  cross  the  A-ppalachian  chain,  they  found  the  French  estab- 
liSed  on  th,e  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,—  the  Ohio,  the  Ten- 
nessee, and  the  Cumberland.  The  Spanish  claim  of  an  indefinite 
extension  of  their  possessions  in  Florida  was  also  a  constant  menace 
to  the  advances  of  the  earliest  English  colonists  in  the  direction  of 
South  CaroUna  and  Georgia.  The  most  important  effort  of  trans- 
montane  colonization  by  the  British  prior  to  1760  was  the  Estab- 
lishment of  Fort  Loudon  on  the  Little  Tennessee  river  in  1  ?56  or 
1757  Bnt  in  1760  this  post  was  captured  by  the  Cherokees  aflft 
its  garrison  massacred;  and  the  same  fate  befell  a  number  of 
colonists  who  had  settled  between  Fort  Chissel  (on  New  River, 
Virginia)  and  Fort  Loudon.  Eariy  in  1761  Colonel  Grant  ^com- 
pletely routed  the  Cherokees  and  compelled  their  French  and  Span- 
^  allies  to  withdraw  to  Louisiana  and  Georgia. 

Eight  years  later  the  stream  of  emigration  began  to  set  westwards, 
maiiJy  by  t«-o  routes,  of  which  one  led  through  Cumberland  Gap  ji 

to  the  valley  of  the  Cumberland  river,  whilst  the  other  followed  ^ 

the  course  of  tte  Tennessee  round  the  southern  border  of  the 
Cumberiand  plateau  into  the  western  Tennessee  valley.  A  body 
of  emigrants  from  Virginia  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Hol- 
ston,  in  what  is  now  Hawkins  county,  and  formed  the  nucleus  of 
a  rapidly  increasing  colony,  which  was  mainlv  recruited  from  Vir- 
ginia and  North  Carolina.  The  chief  settlement*  were  on  the 
Watauga  river,  extending  thence  to  the  Nolichucky,  both  tnbu- 
taries  of  the  Tennessee.  The  colonists  adopted  a  code  ot  laws  for 
themselves  based  upon  those  of  Virginia,  and  entrusted  their  execu. 
tion  to  a  bench  of  five  magistrates.     Their  first  trouble  related  to 

,,  ...1         .  .1      .._1 1_  ^Pl.^^    »..nn/...a.1      f I,aT¥,Co1.T0a     f fl    HP    SPtt.llIKf 


on    LO    a    UeUVJli    Ut      UVD     UiO^rotAC*^.-.^.  ^..w.. . 

le  title  to  their  lands.  They  supposed  themselves  to  be  settUng 
in  Virginia  ;  but  they  were  really  in  North  Carolina,  and  therefore 
outside  of  the  territory  which  had  been  ceded  to  the  British  crown 
by  the  six  nations  of  Indians.  A  further  obstacle  was  a  royal  pro- 
clamation dated  nine  years  before  forbidding  pnvate  persons  to 
purchase  titles  from  the  Indians.  Though  the  Cherokees  had  no 
longer  fixed  habitarion  in  the  country,  they  still  claimed  the  whole 
ralley  for  hunting  grounds.  The  dilemma  was  solved  by  a  lease 
negotiated  for  eight  years.  The  next  difficulty  arose  with  the  British 
GOTcmment  in  aUiance  with  the  hostUe  Indians.  But  out  of  these 
troubles  the  colonies  on  the  Watauga,  Holston,  and  NoUchucky 
emerged  as  a  populous  and  powerful  community  .,_.,, 

When  it  was  proposed  to  liquidate  the  debts  incurred  by  both  the 
States  and  the  Federal  Government  for  war  expenses  by  the  ^le  of 
pubUc  lands,  an  Act  of  Cession  was  passed  in  1784  by  the  North 
Carolina  legislature  ceding  their  lands  west  of  the  mountains,  includ- 
ing those  of  the  Watauga  settlers,  to  the  Federal  Government      But 
in  the  foUowing  year  the  North  Carolina  legislature  repealed  the 
Act  of  Cession,  and  the  whole  matter  was  thus  mdefinitely  Mst- 
Doned.     The  Wateuga  community  now  declared  rtself  independent 
of  North  Carolina  ;  that  State  had  relinquished  its  sovereignty  over 
them  and  the  Federal  Goveniment  had  not  accepted  it     At  this 
time  the  traosmoutane  territory  consisted  of  Washuigton,  SuUivan. 
and  Greene  counties.     It  also  embraced  aU  the  settlements  on  the 
Cumberland,  comprismg  the  existing  counties  of  Davidson,  isumner, 
Montgomery,  Robertson,  and  Williamson.    Davidson  county  had 
been  organLd  by  the  influence  of  James  Robertson  (one  of  the 
earUest  Arrivals  from  North  Carolina,  in  1769),  who  had  moved  to 
the  site  of  the  future  city  of  Nashville.     But  I^avidson  county  took 
no  part  in  these  proceedings.    The  State  organized  by  the  secedmg 
counties  in  August  1784  was  caUed  the  State  of  Fraxito  .  -to  con- 
stitirent  countils  returned  to  their  aUegiance  to  North  Carolina  on 
1st  March  1788.     A  second  Act  of  Cession  was  passed  m  "S^.  by 
which  the  defunct  State  of  Franklin  became  part  of  the  t«mt07 
of  the  United  SUtes  south  of  the  Ohio,  including  what  now  consti- 
tutes Kentucky  and  Tennessee.    The  northern  Port>on  became  a 
State,  under  the  name  of  Kentucky,  in  1792,  and  the  southern  pr- 
tion  ^ok  rank  as  the  State  of  Tennessee  i","96,  being  received 
into  the  Union  the  same  year.     The  settlement  of  middle  Tennessee 
was  much  retarded  so  long  as  the  path  of  access  to  it  f^om  «^t 
Tennessee  was  through  Cumberland  Gap  and  down  the  P'"»-      "» 
broader  route  round  the  south  of  the  bumberland  plateau  by  the 
Tennessee  river  was  too  unsafe  for  general  use  on  account  ol  the 


T  E  N  — T  E  N 


179 


powerfttl  Inilian  tribes— the  Creeks  ani.  the 
obstiole  was  fiailly  removed  b_v  General  Jacksc 


be   Cherokees.      This 
I  Jackson's  crushing  defeat 
of  the  Creeks  m  1S14,  and  a  large  cession  of  their  terntorr. 

The  position  of  Tennessee  during  the  Civil  War  was  the  same 
as  that  of  the  other  middle  and  southern  States.  .While  secession 
was  m  agitation,  it  refused  to  secede  ;  but  wlien  actual  hostilities 
commenced  it  joined  the  Southern  confederacy.  Even  then,  how- 
ever, "est  and  middle  Tennessee  sympathized  with  the  South, 
whilst  eastern  Tennessee  sided  with  the  North.  Each  division  sent 
very  large  contingents  to  the  army  which  it  favoured  A  large 
portion  of  the  State  was,  during  the  later  years  of  the  war,  lu  the 
occupation  of  the  Northern  array,  and  many  great  battles  were 
fouglit  on  its  soil,  notably  those  of  Fort  Lionelson,  Murfreesborough 
(Stone  River),  Franklin,  and  Nashville.  Tennessee  suffered  more 
from  the  exhaustion  attendant  on  the  close  of  the  war,  and  from 
the  rigorous  government  which  accompanied  the  period  of  recon- 
struction, than  any  other  State  except  Virginia. 

S«  Gtology  o/TtniuMa,  Nashville.  1SC9  ;  Elliott.  "Tbe  Age  o(  in,  S.'uUiem 
Apualachiana,"  in  Aner.  Jour  of  $c,  Apnl  1SS3.  Bradley,  '*0d  ttjc  8ilunan 
Age  of  the  Southern  Appalachiaos,"  ib.,  Apnl  1875  .  Haywood.  The  C\vtt  and 
PolUwal  History  of  t^-f  Statt  0/  Ttnnasu  from  tls  earluss  Settlemtnt  up  10  the  K«ar 
i796.  Kaoiville.  lS'i3  :  Ramsay.  Mnno/j  (/r<niwM«  to  yi<  £iui  c/ W<  ZijiuwirA 
Ctntury;  Parton.  L\Jt  of  Artdrt\c  Jackviri.  New  York,  1860;  Kirke,  T^t  Rear 
Gvard  of  Ou  Rnclu'  pn.  New  York,  I8S0  ;  Rtporta  ofTeODCsaee  H13L  Soc  and 
of  Bureaa  of  Agriculture.  Mines,  asd  ImmigratioD.  <D.  F   W.) 

TENNIS.  This,  the  oldest,  perhaps,  of  all  existing 
ball-games,  wat  once  the  most  difficult  to  learn,  on  account 
of  the  intricacy  of  its  laws,  and  the  most  interesting  when 
learnt,  because  of  the  great  variety  of  its  combinations 
and  the  difficulty  of  solving  rapidly  the  problems  which 
are  constantly  presented  to  the  player.  It  derives  an 
additional  claim  to  attention  from  numberless  historical 
associations.  Of  the  origin  of  tennis  it  is  not  possible  to 
speai:  with  certainty;  but  it  may  be  confidently  assumed 
that  It  sprang  from  some  very  simple  sport.  It  first 
appeared  in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  we  find 
It  pla.yed  in  open  courts,  in  the  parks  or  ditches  of  the 
feudal  castles  of  France  and  Italy.  It  was  at  first  the 
pastime  of  kings  and  nobles,  but  afterwards  became  po- 
pular wiSi  all  classes.  The  French  seem  to  have  borrowed 
It  from  the  Italians,  and  to  have  contributed  some  of  its 
refinements  ;  and  the  English  took 
it  from  the  French.  Though  men- 
tioned in  the  Arthurian  romances, 
the  game  was  certainly  not  known 
in  England  in  the  time  of  Arthur. 
The  name  tennis  is  supposed  to 
be  derived  from  the  exclamation 
"Tenez!"  employed  by  early  French 
players  in  serving  the  ball.  In  Italy  « 
the  game  is  called  "giuoco  della 
paila'';  in  France,  "jeu  de  paume," 
which  also  means  the  tennis  court ; 
in  Germany  it  is  called  by  the 
generic  title  of  "Ballspiel";  in 
Spain,  "juego  al  ble"  or  "jugar  al 
ble.'     It  is  clear  from  the  French 


which  a  sloping  roof,  called  the  penthouse,  reaches  to  the 
outer  wall.  The  surrounding  passage  thus  enclosed  (not 
shown  in  plan)  is  7  feet  wide.  Opposite  to  the  long 
penthouse  is  the  main  wall,  m  which  there  is  at  one  point 
a  projection  called  the  tambour,  E,  which  deflects  the  ball 
across  the  court.  In  the  inner  wall,  below  the  penthouse, 
there  are  several  openings,  the  one  at  the  end,  on  the 
service  side,  being  called  the  dedans,  D,  the  others  the 
galleries.  At  the  further  end  of  the  court  is  the  grille, 
a  square  opening  adjacent  to  the  main  wall.  Across  the 
court,  halfway  between  the  two  ends,  is  stretched  a  net  n, 
3  feet  high  in  the  middle  and  5  feet  at  the  sides.  The 
game  may  be  played  by  two,  or  by  three,  or  by  four 
players,  one  against  one,  one  against  two,  or  two  against 
two.  At  the  commencement  the  players  toss  or  "spin" 
a  racket,  to  decide  wbich  shall  serve  first,  calling  "  rough  " 
yior  the  knotted  side)  or  "smooth."  Tbe  party  which 
wins  the  "  spin  "  has  the  choice  of  the  service  or  the  "  first 
stroke,"  the  Ip'.ter  term  meaning  the  return  of  the  service. 
The  server  then  begins  at  the  "  dedans  "  end  of  the  court, 
technically  called  the  "service  side,"  pitches  the  ball  in 
the  air,  and  strikes  it  with  his  racket  so  that  it  shall  drop 
on  the  side  penthouse  or  on  the  wall  above  it,  and  then 
from  the  penthouse  upon  the  floor  on  the  other  side  of 
the  net  (called  the  "hazard  side"),  within  the  "service 
court"  bounded  by  the  "service  line"  x  and  the  "pass 
line  "  p.  U  he  fail  to  do  this,  a  "  fault "  is  called,  or  a 
"pass"  if  the  ball  has  gone  beyond  the  pass  line.  If  he 
serves  a  second  fault,  his  adversary  scores  a  point,  called 
a  "stroke."  A  pass  counts  for  nothing,  but  annuls  a  pre- 
vious fault.'  It  now  becomes  the  duty  of  the  adversary, 
called  the  "striker-out,"  to  -eturn  the  ball  by  striking  it 
with  his  racket  in  such  '.  manner  that  it  shall  pass  back 
over  the  net  to  the  service  side.  1  he  server  must  now  strike 
it  again  and  return  it  to  the  hazard  side ,  and  the  player 


w 


11 


J. 


S  £  K  y  /  C  £ 


SIDE  f 

scAii  or  F£er. 


^S 


H  A  2  A  f>  O       SIDE 


name  that  the  ball  was  originally  pian  of  tennis  coort.  a.  D,  walls  on  each  side  of  dedans  ;  d.  d,  gallery  walls  ;  A,  grille  wall ; 
Struck  with  the  palm  of  the  hand.  /,  net  post ;  g,  g,  gallery  post ;  v,  v,  first  galleries  ;  y,  y,  second  galleries  ,  i,  i,  la.st  galleries  ; 
This  was  afterwards  protected  by  a       ^'  ^'  doors  ;  o,  o,  half-court  hne ;  t,  r,  openings  under  net  for  ventilation  and  warming  ■  "    '    ~ 


z,  doors  ;  o,  o,  half-court  hne  ; 
4,  5,  6,  mark  chases. 


1,  2,  3, 


glove,  as  is  still  the  practice  in  the 
Basque  country.  Upon  the  glove  strings  and  cross-strings 
were  next  stretched,  to  give  a  faster  impulse ;  and  the 
addition  of  a  short  handle  made  an  easy  transition  to  the 
racket.  In  the  time  of  Henry  VII.  the  hand  still  some- 
times met  the  racket,  even  in  the  royal  court  at  Windsor. 

One  of  the  first  improvements  in  the  game  consisted  in 
the  building  of  closed  courts,  first  with  walls,  then  with 
walls  and  roof.  It  is  still  played  in  the  open  air  in  some 
places  in  France,  and  "  pallone."  a  rude  and  violent  variety 
of  the  game,  is  yet  seen  in  Italy.  There  are  twenty-seven 
courts  in  England  and  one  in  Dublin. 

As  now  played,  tennis  in  France  is  virtually  the  same 
as  in  England,  though  there  are  a  few  differences  of  detail. 
The  court  is  rectangular  (see  the  annexed  plan).  An  inner 
wall  runs  round  three  sides,  to  the  height  of  7  feet,  from 


who  first  returns  tbe  ball  into  the  net  or  "  out  of  court  " 
{i.e.,  to  the  roof,  or  above  the  play  line  on  the  walls)  loses 
the  stroke,  which  is  scored  to  his  antagonist.  But,  if  a 
player  fail  or  refuse  to  strike  the  ball  in  the  air  (a 
"  volley  ")  or  on  its  first  bound  and  before  it  touches  the 
floor  a  second  time,  then,  except  on  the  hazard  side  beyond 
the  service  line,  a  "chase"  is  made  or  reckoned  on  the 
floor,  according  to  the  lines  on  or  between  which  the  ball 
has  dropped  the  second  time.  This  chase  is  a  stroke  in 
'abeyance.  When  one  has  been  made  it  is  called  by  the 
marker,  but  does  not  affect  the  score  until  one  of  the 
players  has  scored  40,  when  they  change  sides,  and  the 
player  who  has  allowed  the  chase  to  be  made  must  then 
endeavour  to  win  it,  i.e.,  to  place  the  second  bound  of  the 
*  In  the  Manchester  Club  this  law  (8)  has  been  wisvly  .ibolisheiL 


180 


TENNIS 


baU  returned  by  him  better,  i.e.,  nearer  to  the  end  wall, 
than  the  point  at  which  the  chase  was  marked.  Aa  often 
as  his  adversary  returns  his  stroke,  he  must  again  endea- 
vour to  do  this,  until  he  succeeds  or  fails.  If  he  succeed, 
be  scores  the  stroke ;  if  not,  it  is  scored  to  his  adversary. 
If  two  chases  have  been  made  at  any  stage  of  the  score, 
even  at  the  beginning  of  a  game,  then  the  players  must 
change  sides  and  play  for  the  chases,  as  above  described. 
A.  player  who  succeeds  in  sending  the  baU  into  the  grille, 
the  dedans,  or  the  last  division  of  the  gallery — called  the 
"  winning  gallery  " — on  the  hazard-side,  scores  at  all  times 
\  stroke.  The  nunutiae  of  the  game  and  the  mode  of 
scoring  cannot  be  more  succinctly  described  than  in  the 
innexed  laws.* 

Laws. 
BingU- Handed  Oame. 
'I.  The  balls  shall  be  not  less  than  2 J  in.  &nd  not  more  than 
2}  io.  in  diameter,  and  shall  be  not  less  than  2i  oz.  and  not  more 
than  2]  oz.  in  weight. 

yote.—'niere  (3  do  restrictloo  aa  to  the  Ahape  or  size  of  ttie  ra^eU. 
|2.  (a)  The  choice  of  sides  at  the  begiAoingof  the  first  set  is 
determined  by  a  spin. 

(6)  In  subsequent  seta  of  a  series,  the  players  shall  begin 
each  set  on  the  side  oa  which  they  Snishea  the  set  before  it. 
,  8.  The  ball  served  must  be  struck  with  the  racket,  and  may 
it  delivered  from  any  part  of  the  service  aide. . 

4.  The'  b^l  served  must  touch  the  service  penthouse  before 
lonching  any  other  part  of  the  court,  except  the  rest  of  the  side 
penthouse  and  the  service  wall  ;  and  it  must  drop  in  the  service 
loart  or  on  one  of  the  lines  which  bound  it 
.  6.  The  service  is  good, 

(a)  if  the  ball  served  touch  in  its  descent  any  part  of  the 

service  penthouse  so  as  to  rise  again  from  it,  or 
(6)  if  the  ball  served  strike  the  service  wall  and  afterwards 
■  touch  in  its  descent  any  part  of  the  service  penthouse, 
even  though  it  do  not  rise  again  from  it,  or 
.  ^  (c)  if  the  ball  served  drop  in  the  winning  gallery. 
C'  A  fault  may  not  be  returned. 

7.  A  pass  may  not  bo  returned  ;  but  a  ball  served,  which  has 
not  gone  across  the  pass  line  on  the  penthouse,  may  be  volleyed, 
although  if  untouched  it  might  have  dropped  in  the  pass  court. 
If  a  pass  touch  the  striker-out,  or  if  a  service  before  it  has  dropped 
touch  him  when  standing  with  both  feet  in  the  pass  court,  and  not 
having  attempted  to  strike  the  ball,  it  is  still  counted  a  pass. 

8.  A  pass  annuls  a  previous  fault. 

8.  If  the  Btriker-out  declare  himself  not  ready  for  a  service,  and 
have  made  no  attempt  to  retom  it,  that  service  is  counted  for 
nothing,  though  it  be  a  fault  It  annuls  a  previous  fault.  The 
striker-out,  having  been  asked  if  he  is  ready,  and  having  declared 
himself  ready,  may  not  similarly  refuse  a  second  service. 

10.  The  server  continues  ^to  serve  until  two-chases  be  made,  or 
one  chase  when  the  score  of  either  player  is  at  forty  or  advantage 
(see  law  25).  The  players  then  chanjge  sides,  the  server  becoming 
striker -out  and  the  striker-out  becoming  server. 

11.  The  return  is  good  if  the  ball  in  play  be  stmck  with  the 
racket  so  that  it  pass  the  net  without  touching  a  gallery  post  or 
anything  fixed  or  lying  in  an  opening  on  the  side  from  which  it  is 
•truck,  and  without  going  out  of  court 

12.  The  return  is  not  good, 

(a)  if  not  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  law  11,  or 

(6)  If  the  ball  be  struck  more  than  once,  or  be  not  definitely 

struck,  or 
(c)  if  the  ball  in  play,  having  passed  the  net,  come  back  and 
"  "' drop  on  the  aide  from  which  it  was  struck,   unless  it 

should  have  touched  a  gallery  post  or  anything  fired 

or  lying  in  an  opening  on  that  side  of  the  court  which  is 

opposite  to  the  striker 
13."A  ball  which  is  no  longer  in  play  may  not  be  returned. 
l4.^Th6  server  wins  a  stroke  (except  as  provided  in  law  9), 

(o)  if  a  eood  service  enter  the  winning  gallery  or  the  grille,  or 
(6)  if  the  striker-out  fail  to  return  a  good  service  (except 

when  it  makes  a  chase  ;  see  laws  17-19],  or 
(c)  if  the  striker-out  fail  to  return  the  ball  in  play  (except 

when  it  makes  a  chase  ;  see  laws  17-19),  or 
(<i).if  he  himself  return  (he  ball  in  pUy  so  that  it  enter  the 

winning  gallery  or  grille,  or  fall  on  or  beyond,  the  service 

line,  or 
(t)  if  lie  serve  or  return  the  ball  in  play  so  that  it  drop  or 

fall  upon  a  ball  or  other  object  which  is  on  or  beyond 

the  service  line,  or 

'  IV[irhited  from  Ihp  present  writer"i>  Annals  n/  Tennis,  1878,  by 
•he  kinii  loo^cDl  of  tlip  publisher  Mr  IL  Cox. 


(/)  if  he  win  a  ,chase  (see  law  20),  or 
(g)  if  the  striker-out  lose  a  stroke  (see  law  16). 
15.  The  striker-out  wins  a  stroke  (except  as  provided  in  law  9), 
(o)  if  the   server  serve   two   connc^utive  faults  (exocDt  a 

provided  in  law  31  (i)),  or 
(J)  if  the  server  fail  to  return  the  ball  in  flay  (except  when 

it  makes  a  chase  ;  see  laws  lZ-19),  or 
(c)  if  he  himself  return  the  ball  in  plsv  so  that  it  enter  the 

dedans,  or 
(rf)  if  he  win  a  chase,  or 
(e)  if  the  server  lose  a  stroke  (see  law  181. 
18.'  Either  player  loses  a  stroke, 

(a)  if  he  lose  a  chase  (see  law  21), 

lb)  if  the  ball  in  play  (except  as  provided  in  law  7)  toncb 
him  or  anything  which  he  wears  or  carries,  except  his 
racket  in  the  act  of  returning  the  ball,  or 
(c)  if  he  touch  or  strike  the  ball  in  play  with  his  racket 
more  than  once,  or  do  not  definitely  strike  it 
.    17.  When  a  ball  in  play  on  either  side  of  the  net,  not  being 
that  on  which  the  striker  is  standing, 

(a)  falls  on  any  part  of  the  fioor,  except  on  or  beyond  iIk 

service  line,  or 
(6)  enters  any  gallery,  except  the  winning  gallery,  or 
(c)  touches  a  gallery  post, 
it  is  marked  a  chase 

(a)  at  that  line  on  the  Boor  on  which  it  fell,  or 

(fi)  better  or  worse  than  that  hue  on  the  fioor  winch  it 

nearest  to  the  point  at  which  it  fell,  or 
(v)  at  that  gallery  the  post  of  which  it  touched, 
except  as  provided  in  laws  18  and  19. 
KoU  (aX— A  ball  in  play  nbicb  touches  tbc  net  post  and  drops  oo  the  side 
opposite  to  the  striker  Is  marked  a  cbase  at  the  line  oq  the  side  on  which  it  drops. 
t^oU  (6). — A  ball  in  play  which  enters  a  gsUery  is  marked  a  cLise  at  that 
gallery  which  It  enters,  notwithstanding  that  it  may  have  touched  an  adjacent 
gallery  post  without  toachuig  the  floor  in  the  interim. 

Sou  (c).— The  gallery  Unes  on  the  Qoor  correspond  aod  are  eauivaleot  to 
the  galleries  of  which  they  bear  thA  names. 

18.  When  a  ball  in  play 

(a)  drops  or  falls  in  the  net,  on  the  aide  opposite  to  the 

striker,  or 
(4)  drops  on  the  floor,  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  striker, 

and,  bounding  over  the  net,  falls  on  that  side  of  it  from 

which  it  was  ."struck,  whether  it  touch  the  net  in  its 

bound  or  not, 
it  is  marked  a  chase  at  the  line  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  striker. 

19.  When  a  ball  in  "play  drops  or  falls  upon  a  ball  or  other 
object  which  is  on  the  floor  (except  when  it  is  on  or  beyond  the 
service  line  ;  see  law  14  (c)),  it  is  marked  a  chase  at  the  point  at 
which  that  ball  or  other  object  was  when  the  ball  in  play  dropped 
or  fell  upon  it 

20.  Either  player  wins  a  chase, 

(a)  if  he  serve  or  return  the  ball  so  that  it  enter  a  winning 
•opening,  or 

(fr)  if  he  serve  or  return  the  ball  so  that  it  fall  I  etter  than  the 
chase  for  which  he  played,  or  enter  a  gallery  or  touch 
a  gallery  post  better  than  the  gallery  or  the  gallery  line 
at  which  the  chase  was  for  which  he  played,  or 

(c)  if  he  serve  or  return  the  ball  so  that  it  drop  or  fall  upon 
a  ball  or  other  object  which  is  at  a  point  on  the  floor 
better  than  that  at  which,  or  at  the  gallery  corresponding 
to  which,  the  chase  was  for  which  he  played,  or 

(d)  if  his  antagonist  fail  to  return  the  ball  in  play,  except 
when  it  falls  worse  than  the  chase  in  qu^tion. 

2lT^  Either  player  loses  a  chase, 

(a)  if  he  fail  to  return  the  ball  in  play,  except  when  it  falls 
worse  than  the  chase  in  question,  or 

(i)  if  he  return  the  ball  in  play  so  that  it  fall  worse  than 

\the  chase,  or  enter  a  galleiy  or  tonch  a  gallery  post 

worse  than  the  gajlery  or  the  gallery  line  at  which  the 

--   chaso  was  for  which  he  played,  or 

(e)  if  he  return  the  ball  in  play  so  that  it  drop  or  fall  upon  a 
ball  or  other  object  which  is  at  a  point  on  the  floor  worse 
than  thafat  which  the  chase  was  for  which  he  played. 
22  J  When  a  ball  in  play 
""  (o)  falls  at  a  poipt  on  the  floor  neither  better  nor  worse 
than  that  at  which,  or  at  the  gallery  corresponding  to 
which,  the  chase  was  for  which  the  stiiker  played,  or 

(i)  enters  that  gallery  or  the  gallery  corresponding  to  that 
gallery  line,  or  touches  the  post  of  that  gallery,  or  falls 
on  the  gallery  line  corrfspon^ing  to  that  g^lflry,  at 
which  the  chase  was  for  which  the  strike  played,  or 

(c)  drops  or  falls  upon  a  ball  or  other  object  which  is  at  a 
point  on  the  floor  neither  belter  nor  worse  than  that  at 
which,  or  at  the  gallery  corresponding  to  which,  the 
chase  wns  for  which  the  sttikcr  played, 
it  is  tnarkcd  chase-olT :  it  i»  not  scored  as  a  stroke  won  by  either 
player  .  the  chase  is  annulled,  and  the  striker  has  not 
to  play  for  it  again 


TENNIS 


ISl 


.  a.  At  soon  as  two  chaaes  are  marked,  or  one  chase  when  the 
■cote  of  either  pUyer  is  at  forty  or  advantage  (see  law  25),  the 
plsTers  change  sides.  The  player  who  made  the  firet  chase  now 
aafeods  it,  while  the  other  plays  to  win  it ;  and  so  with  the  second 
chase,  except  when  only  one  has  been  marked. 

24.  If  by  an  error  three  chases  ha"e  been  marked,  or  two  chases 
when  the  score  of  either  player  is  at  forty  or  advantage  (see  law 
25),  the  last  chase  in  each  case  is  aunuUed. 
.  25.  On  either  player  winning  his  first  stroke,  the  score  is  called 
fifteen  for  that  player  ;  on  either  player  winning  his  second  stroke, 
the  score  is  called  thirty  for  that  player ;  on  either  player  winning 
his  third  stroke,  the  score  is  called  forty  for  tiiat  player ;  and  the 
fourth  stroke  won  bj  either  player  is  scored  game  for  that  player, 
except  as  below. 

If  both  players  have  won  three  strokes,  the  score  is  called  deuce, 
and  the  next  stroke  won  by  either  player  is  scored  advantage 
for  that  player.  If  the  same  player  win  the  following  stroke, 
he  wins  the  game  ;  if  he  lose  the  following  stroke,  the  scoro 
is  again  called  deuce  ;  and  so  on.  until  cither  player  win  the 
two  strokes  immediately  following  the  score  of  deuce,  when 
the  game  is  scored  for  that  player. 
^26.  The  player  who  first  wins  six  games  wins  a  set,  except  as 
below. 

^lE  both  players  win  five  games,  the  score  is  called  games  all,  and 

""  the  next  game  won  by  either  pl.iyer  is  scored  advantage  game 

for  that  player.     If  the  same  player  win  the  following  game, 

he  wins  the  set ;  if  he  lose  the  foilowing  game,  the  sc^ie  is 

again  called  games  all ;  and  so  on;  until  either  placer  win 

the  two  games  immediately  following  the  score  of  ^iiaes  all, 

when  he  wins  the  set. 

.   ^ou. — Players  often  agree  no*,  to  play  advantage  sets,  but  to  decide  tlie  Bet 

by  one  game  after  arriving  at  the  ?corc  of  games  all. 

27  Every  chase  is  marked,  and  every  stroke  scored,  by  the 
marker,  who  is  entitled  to  con'ult  the  dedans  when  he  is  in  doubt 
A  player  who  is  dissatisfied  with  the  marker's  decision  is  entitled 
to  appeal  to  the  dedans.  A  majority  of  tho  dedans  confirms  or 
rcvei^^es  the  marker's  decision.  An  appeal  must  be  made  bei^:>re  a 
recommencement  of  play. 

jVcijc— Tho  dedans  should  Dot  give  a  decision  miasked  on  a  question  of 
in-iriiing  a  cbx^e  or  stroke,  but  may,  and  should,  correct  Inaccurate  scoring 
of  chases,  strolsea,  games,  or  sets. 

•Thru-Harukd  and  Four -Hand -4  Games,  somc'.imcs  called  Doullc 

.    23.  The  partners  serve  and  strike-out  in  .altercate  games,  unless 
it  shall  have  been  previously  agreed  to  the  contrary. 
-•.VeJe. — It  is  usually,  .but  not  .ii*.vays,  agreed  thai  the  strik6r.out  may  leave 
to  his  partner  such  services  as  pass  him. 

The  former  laws  apply  to  these  as  well  as  to  single  games, 
the  advantages  and  disadvantiges  attaching  to  a  single  player 
under  the  former  laws  here  attaching  to  a  pair  of  players, 

Odda. 

29.  (a)  A  bisqce  or  a  half-bisque  m.iy  not  bo  taken  after  the 
service  has  been  delivered. 

(i)  The  server  may  not  take  a  bisque  after  a  fault ;  but  tho 
stnker-out  may  do  so. 
.  .Vc!tf.— A  bisque  is  e  stroke  which  may  be  claimed  by  the  recipient  of  odds 
at  any  time  during  a  set,  subject  to  the  provisions  o;  laws  28  and  30. 

30.  A  player  who  wishes  to  take  a  bisque  or  a  half- bisque, 
there  being  a  chaSe  or  two  chases  marked,  may  take  it  either 
before  or  after  changing  sides  ;  but  he  may  not,  after  changing 
sides,  go  back  to  take  it. 

^31.  (a)  When  the  odds  of  round  services  are' given,  the  ball 
served  by  tho  giver  of  the  odds  must  touch  the  grille  pent- 
house after  touching  the  service  penthouse  and  before  dropping 
in  the  service  court  or  on  one  of  tlie  lines  which  bound  it. 

(J)  Neither  faults  nor  failure  in  complying  with  the  above 
condition  are  .counted  against  the  giver  of  the  odds  ;  but  the 
re-cipicnt  of  the  odds  may  decline  to  return  such  ser\'ice3  as  do 
not  touch  both  t!ie  penthouses ;  if,  however,  he  attempt  and 
fail  to  return  any  such  service,  it  is  counted  against  him. 
33.  Half-court :  the  players  having  agreed  into  which  half-court 
■m  each  side  of  the  net  the  giver  of  the  odds  shall  play,  the  latter 
loses  a  stroke  if  the  ball  returned  by  him  drop  in  either  of  the  other 
half-courts.. 
But  a  ball  returned  by  the  giver  of  the  odda  which 
(a)  drops  on  the  h.alf-court  line,  or     ■'  i-r^    '  > 
(6)  drops  in  hij  half-court  and  touches  the  dedans'post 
'  before  falling,  or  ...  '  ^ 

(c)  drops  in  his  half-court  and  falls  in  the  dedan3,""eTcn 
though  on  the  other  side  of  the  dedans  post,  or/   ~ 

(d)  touches  the  dedans  post  before  dropping,  ' 
ia  counted  for  the  giver  .of  the  odds. 

..And  a  return  boasted  against  any  wall  by  the  giver  of  the  odds 
which  ' 

(<)  drops  in  his  half-coort,  or 


(/)  dii)ps  on  the  half-court  line,  or  ' 
i'j)  touches  the  dedans  post  before  dropping,  or 
(h)  touches  any  penthouse,  battery,  or  wall  belore  drop- 
ping in  bis  half-court,  dropping  on  the  half-court  line, 
or  touching  the  dedans  post, 
is  also  counted  for  the  giver  of  the  odds. 

A'orc— It  is,  of  course,  cvulcnti  tliat  th^  giver  of  these  odds  may  mako  a 
chase,  or  win  a  chase  or  a  stroke,  with  a  ball  which  drops  in  his  half-court, 
or  on  the  half-court  line,  but  falls  in  the  other  half-court. 

33.  WTien  the  odds  of  "  touch  no  walls"  or  "touch  no  side  walls" 
are  given,  a  ball  returned  by  the  giver  of  the  odds  which  on  fall- 
ing makes  a  nick  is  counted  for  the  striker. 

DiT€ctions  to  the  Marker. 
{It  is  the  duty  of  the  marker 

to  call  the  faults,  and  the  passes  ; 

to  call  thn  strokes,  when  won.  or  when  he  is  askod  to 

do  so ; 
to  call  the  games  and  sets  at  tne  ena  ol  cacn,  or  when 

asked  to  do  so ; 
to  mark  the  chases,  when  made  ; 
to  call  the  chases  when  there  are  two  in  tho  order  in 
which  they  were  made,  or  tl-.o  chase  when  there  is 
one  with  the  score  at  forty  or  advantage  ;  and  then 
to  direct  the  players  to  change  sides  ; 
to  call  tho  chase  or  chases  again,  in  order  as  above, 
when  the  players  have  changed  sides,  and  each  chase 
as  \  player  has  to  play  for  it ; 
not  to  call  ptay  or  not  play  in  doubtful  cases  before  the 

conclusion  of  the  rest,  unless  asked  to  do  so  ; 
to  decide  all  doubtful  and  disputed  strokes,  subject  to 

an  appeal  to  the  dedans ; 
to  warn  tho  players  of  any  baUs  lying  on  the  floor  in 
their  way,  or  to  their  danger  or  disadvantage,  and  to 
remove  all  such  balls  ; 
to  collect  the  balls  into  tho  ball-basket ;  and 
to  keep  the  ball-troughs  constantly  replenished  in  the 
dedans  and  last  gallery,  and  the  latter  especially  in 
three-handed  and  four-banded  games.        (J.  MA*.) 
TENNIS,  Lawn.     Laivn-tennis  is  a  modern  adaptation 
of  the  first  principle  of  tennis,  in  the  simplest  form,  to  a 
ball-game  played  on  grass  with  racltets.     The  balls  are  of 
india-rubber,  hollow,  and  covered  with  while  cloth.     The 
rackets  are  lighter  and  broader  than  those  used  at  tennis. 
The  court  for  the  single-handed  game,  one  player  against 
one,  is  shown  in  fig.  1,-  that  for  the  three  or  four-handed 
game  in  fig.  2.     Tho  Ciimensiona  of  the  comt.'s,  the  size 


1 


£  h\  f  £  M 

FiQ.  1.  Fio.  2. 

Lr.»-n-tenni3  courts.-  Ftp  1,  for  single  game;  fig.  2,  for  double  grmic. 
and  Weight  of  the  balls,  the  mode  of  scoring,  and  otliti 
details  are  given  in  the  Istwa  of  the  g:  me  (see  below).  '  Tin 
only  requisites  for  the  game  are  the  balls,  rackets,  net  apj 
posts,  and  a  hard  level  surface  of  grass.  -  It  may  be,  and 
often  is,  played  upon  surfaces  of  ^  wood,  asphalt,  cement, 
gravel,  or  other  substance.'  •.  The  grass  requires  constant 
mowing,  rolling,  and  in  dry  weather  watering,  to  keep  it 


182 


TENNIS 


in  order  In  the  winter  months  it  should  be  sedulously 
weeded,  sown  where  necessary,  and  swept  and  rolled  when- 
ever the  weather  permits. 

The  choice  of  sides  depends  upon  a  toss  or  spin  of  a 
racket,  as  in'  tennis.  The  winner  chooses  the  service  or 
the  preferable  side,  as  he  pleases.  The  server  begins 
the  game  by  striking  the  bail  with  his  racket  so  that  it 
passes  (without  touching)  over  the  net,  which  is  hung 
across  the  court  from  the  posts  A,  A  The  ball  served 
must  drop  m  the  space  which  is  diagonally  opposite  to 
him  on  the  other  side  of  the  net, — a  space  bounded  by 
the  net,  the  side  line,  the  half-court  line,  and  the  service 
line.  His  adversary,  called  the  "striker-out,"  most  return 
the  ball  before  it  touches  the  ground  a  second  time ;  and 
the  server  must  similarly  return  it  again  ,  and  so  on,  until 
one  or  other  player  fails  to  return  it  over  the  net  so  that 
it  shall  drop  on  the  ground  anywhere  on  the  side  of  the 
net  furthest  from  him,  and  within  or  upon  any  of  the  lines 
■which  bound  that  space,  technically  called  his  adversary's 
court.  When  one  player  thus  fails,  he  loses  a  stroke, 
which  the  other  is  deemed  to  win,  and  it  is  added  to  the 
score  of  the  latter.  The  score  is  kept  as  at  tennis,  but 
there  are  no  chases. 

Activity  and  condition  have  great  value  in  lawn-tennis, 
though  there  is  room  for  much  skill  m  placing  the  bail  in 
the  corners  with  hard,  low  strokes,  and  in  intercepting  and 
returning  the  ball  by  the  volley  while  m  the  air,  before 
it  reaches  the  ground  But  m  matches  temper,  endur- 
ance, and  quickness  of  movement  count  for  very  much. 

Lawn-tennis,  m  one  form  or  another,  has  been  played  for  many 
ceDturies  out-of-doors.  The  present  vanety  of  the  ^me  was  first 
introduced,  in  a  form  which  was  soon  shown  to  be  un practicable, 
about  the  year  1874  It  was  then  taken  up  by  the  All  England 
Club  at  "Wimbledon,  who  in  1S77  remodelled  the  sue  and  shape  of 
the  court,  and  the  laws,  and  altered  the  system  of  scoring  to  that 
which  obtains  m  the  parent  game.  Thereupon,  with  the  consent 
of  the  M.C.  C.  at  Lord's,  who  lent  the  authority  of  their  name  to 
the  movement,  the  code  of  laws  which  now  prevails,  and  has  been 
occasionally  amended  only  in  a  few  details,  was  promulgated  by 
the  All  England  Club  The  championship  of  the  game,  which  is 
open  to  gentlemen  amateurs  ocly,  was  instituted  at  Wimbledon  by 
the  A.EC.  in  1&77  A  lady's  championship  and  a  championship 
for  pairs  (gentlemen)  have  also  been  instituted,  and  are  annually 
competed  Tor  on  the  grounds  of  the  A.  EC.  at  Wimbledon.  Lawn* 
tenniB,  in  the  short  time  which  has  elapsed  since  its  introduction, 
has  achieved  immense  popularity  Prize-meetings  are  held  annu- 
ally at  Bath,  Cheltenham,  Dublin,  Edinburgh,  Manchester,  Liver- 
pool, and  many  other  places  in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  the  game  is 
alao  played  with  as  great  enthusiasm  in  the  United  States.  Canada, 
Australia^  and  India.  In  alt  those  countries  prize- meetings  are  held 
umI  championships  are  instituted. 

t^Awai 

SingU' Handed  G<ime. 

l.  For  the  8iDgle-haDde<l  game  the  court  is  27  feet  In  width  and  78  feet  in 
leoftb  It  is  divided  across  the  middle  by  a  net.  the  ends  of  which  are  attached 
to  the  tops  of  two  posts  A  and  A  (see  Sg.  I),  which  stand  3  feet  outside  the  court 
on  each  side  The  height  of  the  net  is  3  feet  6  inches  at  the  posts  and  3  feet 
at  the  centre  At  each  end  of  the  court,  parallel  to  the  net,  and  at  a  dis 
tance  of  39  feet  from  it.  are  dra«Ti  the  base  hues  CD  and  EP,  the  extremities  of 
which  are  connected  by  the  side  lines  CE  and  DF  Halfway  between  the  eide 
Udc3.  and  parallel  to  them,  la  drawn  the  half-court  line  OH,  dividing  the 
apace  on  each  side  of  the  net  into  two  equal  parta,  called  the  right  and  left 
courts.  On  each  side  of  the  net,  at  a  distance  of  21  feet  from  it,  and  parallel 
to  it,  in  drawn  the  service  lines  XX  and  TT 

2-  The  balls  shall  be  not  less  than  2J  inches  nor  more  than  2^  iDChe*  In 
diameter,  acd  not  leas  than  1|  oz-  nor  more  than  2'oz.  in  weight. 

8.  In  matches  where  umpires  are  appointed  their  decision  shall  be  final ; 
but  where  a  referee  is  appointed  an  appeal  shall  be  to  him  from  the  decision 
of  an  ninpire  on  a  question  of  law 

4.  The  choice  of  sides  and  the  nght  of  serving  during  the  first  game  shall  he 
decided  by  toss,  provided  that,  if  the  winner  of  the  toss  choose  the  nght  to 
•erve,  the  other  player  shall  have  the  choice  of  sides,  and  itw  verscL 

5  The  players  shall  stand  on  opposite  sides  of  the  net.  The  player  who  first 
ielivers  the  ball  shall  be  called  the  server,  the  other  the  atriker-out- 

6  At  The  end  of  the  first  game  the  striker-out  shall  become  server  and  the 
«rver  shall  become  striker-out  ;  and  so  on  alternately  in  the  suhaeqaent  games 
of  the  set 

7  The  server  shall  stand  with  one  foot  beyond  (i.e.,  further  bom  the  net 
than)  the  tiaae  hne*'&Dd  with  the  other  foot  upon  the  base  line,  and  shall  de- 
Bver  the  service  from  the  nght  and  left  courts  alternately,  l>eginniDg  from  the 
fight- 

8  The  ball  served  must  drop  within  the  service  line,  half-court  line,  and 
aide  line  of  the  court  which  u)  diagonally  opposite  to  that  from  which  it  waa 
•erred,  or  upon  any  such  line. 

>  Printed  by  permission  of  the  All  England  I^wn-TennJa  Clnb. 


9  It  IS  a  fault  if  the  service  be  delivered  from  the  wrong  court,  or  if  the  »  4-1 « 
do  not  stand  as  directed  in  law  7,  or  if  the  ball  served  drop  in  the  net  or  beyi-o, 
the  ser%'ice  line,  or  if  it  drop  cut  of  court  or  ic  the  wrong  court ;  it  is  not  » 
fault  if  the  ser\'er*s  foot  which  is  beyond  the  base  line  do  not  touch  th« 
ground  at  the  moment  at  which  the  seirvice  Is  delivered. 

10.  A  fault  may  not  be  taken. 

11.  After  a  fault,  the  server  shall  serve  again  from  the  same  conrt  from  which 
he  served  that  fault,  unless  it  was  a  fault  because  served  from  the  wrong  court- 

12.  A  fault  may  not  l>e  claimed  after  the  next  service  has  been  deiivered. 

13.  The  service  may  not  be  volleyed,  i.e.,  taken  before  it  touches  the  gronnd. 

14.  The  server  shall  not  ser^e  until  the  striker -out  is  ready.  If  the  latter 
attempt  to  return  the  service,  he  shall  be  deemed  to  be  ready. 

15.  A  ball  is  in  play  from  tlie  moment  at  which  it  is  delivered  in  servlceiOD- 
less  a  feult)  until  it  has  been  volleyed  by  the  striker-out  in  his  first  stroke,  or 
has  dropped  in  the  net  or  out  of  court,  or  has  touched  either  of  the  playera  or 
anything  that  he  wears  or  carries,  except  his  racket  in  tho  act  of  striking,  or 
has  been  struck  by  either  of  the  players  with  his  racket  more  than  once  con- 
secutively, or  has  been  volleyed  before  it  has  passed  over  the  net,  or  has  failed 
to  pass  over  the  net  before  its  first  bound  (except  as  provided  in  law  17),  or 
has  touched  the  ground  twice  consecjtively  on  either  side  of  the  net.  though 
the  second  time  may  have  been  out  of  court- 

16.  It  IS  a  let  if  the  ball  served  touch  the  net.  pro\'ided  the  service  be  other- 
wise good,  or  if  a  service  or  fault  be  delivered  when  the  striker-ont  is  not 
ready,  or  if  either  player  be  prevented  by  an  accident  beyond  his  control  from 
serving  or  returning  the  ball  m  play.  In  case  of  a  let,  the  service  or  stroke 
counts  for  nothing,  and  the  server  shall  serve  again- 

17  It  is  a  good  return  although  the  ball  touch  the  net,  or,  having  passed 
outside  either  post,  drop  on  or  within  any  of  the  lines  which  bound  Uie  court 
into  which  It  IS  returned. 

18  The  server  wins  a  stroke  if  the  stnkerout  volley  the  service,  or  fail  to 
return  the  service  or  the  ball  in  play  (eicept  m  the  case  of  a  let),  or  return  the 
service  or  ball  in  play  so  that  it  drop  outside  any  of  the  lines  which  bound  his 
opponent  s  court,  or  otherwise  lose  a  stroke,  as  provided  by  law  20 

19,  The  striker-out  wins  a  stroke  if  the  server  serve  two  consecutive  faults, 
or  fail  to  return  the  ball  in  play  (except  in  the  case  of  a  let),  or  return  the  hall 
in  play  so  that  it  drop  outside  any  ot  the  lines  which  bound  his  opponent  > 
court,  or  otherwise  lose  a  stroke,  as  provided  by  law  20. 

I'O,  Either  player  loses  a  stroke  if  the  ball  ki  play  touch  htm  or  anything 
that  he  wears  or  carries,  except  his  racliet  m  the  act  of  striking,  or  if  he  touch 
or  strike  the  ball  m  play  with  his  racket  more  than  once  consecutively,  or  if 
he  touch  the  net  or  any  of  its  supports  while  the  hall  is  in  play,  or  if  be  voUey 
the  ball  before  it  has  passed  the  net. 

21  On  either  player  winning  his  first  stroke,  the  score  is  called  IS  for  that 
player ,  on  either  player  winning  his  second  stroke,  the  score  is  called  30  for 
that  player;  on  either  player  winning  his  third  stroke,  the  score  ts  called  40 
for  that  player ;  and  the  fourth  stroke  woo  by  either  player  is  scored  game  for 
that  player,  except  as  below. 

If  both  players  have  won  three  strokes,  the  score  is  called  deuie  ;  and  the 
next  stroke  won  by  either  playe.-  is  scored  advantage  for  that  player 
If  the  same  player  win  the  next  stroke,  he  wins  the  game ;  if  he  lose  ihe 
next  stroke,  the  score  is  again  called  deuce  ;  and  so  on  until  either  player 
win  the  two  strokes  immediately  following  the  score  of  deuce,  when  tbe 
game  is  scored  for  that  player. 
22-  The  player  who  first  wins  six  games  wins  a  set,  except  as  below. 

If  both  players  win  hve  games,  the  score  is  called  games  all ;  and  the  next 
game  won  by  either  player  is  scored  advantage  game  for  that  player.  If 
the  same  player  win  the  next  game,  he  wins  the  set ;  if  he  lose  the  next 
game,  the  score  is  again  called  games  all ;  and  so  on  until  either  player 
Min  the  twogames  immediately  following  the  score  of  games  ail.  when  be 
wins  the  set. 
t^oU. — Players  may  agree  not  to  play  advantage  sets,  but  to  deci'le  the  set 
by  one  game  after  arrivirigat  the  score  of  games  all 

23.  The  plsyers  shall  change  sides  at  the  end  of  every  set:  but  the  umpire, 
on  appeal  from  either  party  before  the  toss  for  choice,  may  direct  the  players 
to  change  sides  at  the  end  of  every  game  if  in  his  opinion  either  side  have  a 
distinct  advantage,  owing  to  the  sun,  wind,  or  any  other  accidental  cause  .  but. 
if  the  appeal  he  made  aller  a  match  has  been  begun,  the  umpire  may  only 
direct  the  players  to  change  sides  at  the  end  of  every  game  of  the  odd  and 
concluding  set. 

24.  Wh<.n  a  series  of  sets  is  played,  the  player  who  was  server  in  the  last 
game  of  one  set  shall  t>e  striker-out  in  the  first  game  of  the  next. 

Odds. 

25.  A  bisque  is  one  stroke,  which  may  be  claimed  by  the  receiver  of  the  odds 
at  any  time  during  a  set,  except  as  below. 

A  bisque  may  not  be  taken  after  the  service  has  been  delivered. 
The  server  may  not  take  a  bisque  after  a  fault,  but  the  striker-out  may 
do  so. 

26.  One  or  more  bisques  may  be  given  m  augmeutatioo  or  dimiDU'uon  of 
other  odds. 

27.  Half-fifteen  is  one  stroke  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  and  every 
subsequent  alternate  game  of  a  set. 

28    Fifteen  is  one  stroke  given  at  the  beginning  of  every  game  ot  a  set 

29.  Half  thirty  is  one  stroke  given  at  tiie  beginning  of  the  flrst  game,  two 

strokes  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  game  ;  and  so  00.  alternately,  in  ail  the 

subsequent  games  of  a  set 

50.  Thirty  is  two  strokes  given  at  the  beginning  of  every  game  of  a  set 

51.  Half-forty  is  two  strokes  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  game.  thre« 
strokes  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  game  ;  and  so  00,  alternately,  in  all  tht 
subsequent  games  of  a  set 

52.  Forty  Is  three  strokes  given  at  the  be-ginning  of  every  game  of  a  set. 

33.  Half-court :  the  players  having  agreed  into  which  court  the  giver  of  th* 
odds  shall  play,  the  latter  loses  a  stroke  if  the  ball,  returned  by  hitn,  drop  cut- 
side  any  of  the  lines  which  bound  that  court 

Three- Banded  and  Four- Handed  Games. 

S4.  The  atwve  laws  shall  apply  to  the  three-handed  and  four-handed  games, 
except  a«  below 

35  For  the  three-handed  and  four-handed  games  the  court  Is  36  feet  in 
width.  Within  the  side  lines,  at  a  distance  of  4^  feet  from  them,  and  parallel 
to  them,  are  urawn  the  service  side  lines  IK  and  LM-  The  ser^ce  lines  are 
not  drawn  beyond  the  points  I.  L.  K,  and  M.  towards  the  side  lines  In  other 
respects,  the  court  is  similar  to  that  which  is  described  in  law  1. 

36.  In  the  three-handed  game  the  single  player  shall  serve  m  every  alternate 
game. 

37.  In  the  four-handed  game,  the  pair  who  have  the  right  to  serva  in  tha 
first  game  may  decide  which  partneT  shall  do  so,  and  the  oppoaiug  p*Jr  may 
decide  similarly  for  the  second  game.  The  partner  of  the  player  wjio  MrYea 
in  the  first  game  shall  serve  in  the  third  .  and  the  partner  of  the  player  irt.o 
jBerved  in  the  second  game  shall  .serve  in  the  fourth  ;  and  so  on  In  the  sam* 
order  in  all  the  eubseqaent  games  of  a  set. 


T  E  N  — T  E  P 


183 


SS.  The  pUvers  shall  take  the  service  alternately  throughout  each  paine.  N*o 
player  shall  receive  or  return  a  service  delivered  to  his  partner.  Tlie  onier 
of  service  and  of  striking^out  once  arranged  shall  not  be  altered,  nor  shall  the 
strikera-ont  change  courts  to  receive  the  service,  before  the  end  of  the  set. 

39.  The  lall  ser^-ed  must  drop  within  the  service  line,  half-court  line,  and 
service  side  line  of  the  court  which  is  diagonally  opposite  to  that  from  which 
it  WZ3  served,  or  upon  any  such  hue. 

40.  It  is  a  fault  if  the  ball  served  do  not  drop  as  provided  in  law  39,  or  if  it 
touch  the  server's  partner  or  anything  that  he  wears  or  carries. 

41.  If  a  player  serve  out  of  his  turn,  the  umpire,  as  soon  as  the  mistake  is 
discovered  by  himself  or  by  one  of  the  players,  shall  direct  the  player  to  serve 
who  ought  to  have  served :  but  all  strokes  scored  and  any  f.iult  served  before 
Ruch  discovery  shall  be  reckoned,  if  a  game  shall  have  been  completed  before 
Buch  discovery,  then  the  service  in  the  next  alternate  game  shall  be  delivered 
by  the  partner  of  the  player  who  served  out  of  his  turn  ;  and  so  on  in  regular 
rotation.  (J.  MA".) 

TENT.  A  tent  is  a  portable  habitation  or  place  of 
shelter  consisting  in  its  simplest  form  of  a  covering  of  some 
textile  substance  stretched  over  a  framework  of  cords  and 
poles,  or  of  wooden  rods,  and  fastened  tightly  to  the  ground 
by  pegs.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  interior  of 
Asia  the  pastoral  tribes  have  of.  necessity  ever  been  dwellers 
in  tents, — the  scantiness  of  water,  the  consequent  frequent 
failure  of  herbage,  and  the  violent  extremes  of  seasons 
compelling  a  wandering  life.  Tents  have  also  been  used 
in  all  ages  by  armies  in  campaign.  In  ancient  Assyrian 
sculptures  discovered  by  Layard  at  Nineveh  the  forms  of 
tent  and  tent-furnishings  are  similar  to  those  which  still 
prevail  in  the  East,  and  it  appears  that  then  as  now  it  was 
a  custom  to  pwtch  tents  within  the  walls  of  a  city.  The 
ordinary  family  tent  of  the  Arab  nomads  of  modern  times 
is  a  comparatively  spacious  ridged  structure,  averaging 
from  20  to  25  feet  in  length,  but  sometimes  reaching  as 
much  as  40  feet.  Its  covering  consists  of  a  thick  felt  of 
black  goat  hair  (cp.  Cant.  i.  5),  or  sometimes  of  alternate 
stripes  of  black  and  white  disposed  horizontally.  The  ridge 
or  roof  is  supported  by  nine  poles  (aicamid)  disposed  in 
sets  of  three,  the  central  set  being  loftier  than  those  at 
each  end,  whereby  a  slope  outward  is  formed  which  helps 
to  carry  oflF  rain.  The  average  height  inside  at  the  centre 
is  7  feet  and  at  the  sides  5  feet,  and  the  cloths  at  the  side 
are  so  attached  that  they  can  easily  be  removed,  the  shel- 
tered end  being  always  kept  open.  Internally  the  tent  is 
separated  by  a  partition  into  two  sections,  that  reserved 
for  the  women  containing  the  cooking  utensils  and  food. 
The  jourt  or  tent  of  the  Kirghiz  of  Central  Asia  is  a  very 
capacious  and  substantial  structure,  consisting  of  a  wooden 
frame  for  sides,  radiating  ribs  for  roof,  and  a  wooden  door. 
The  sides  are  made  up  of  sections  of  laths,  which  expand 
and  contract  in  lozenges,  on  the  principle  of  lazy  tongs, 
and  to  their  upper  extremities  ribs  are  lashed  at  regular 
intervals.  Over  this  framework  a  heavy  covering  of  felt 
is  thrown,  which  is  either  weighted  down  with  stones  or, 
when  necessary,  stitched  together. 

In  Western  countries  tents  are  used  chiefly  in  military 
encampments,  by  travellers  and  explorers,  and  for  tem- 
porary ceremonial  occasions  and  public  gatherings.  The 
material  of  which  they  are  composed  is  commorly  a  light 
linen  canvas  or  navy  duck ;  but  for  tents  of  small  size  stout 
cotton  canvas  is  employed,  being  light,  strong,  elastic,  and 
svifficiently  waterproof.  These  tents  vary  in  size  from  a 
low-pitched  covering,  under  which  a  couple  of  men  can 
with  difficulty  creep,  up  to  spacious  marquees,  in  which 
horticultural  and  agricultural  shows  are  held,  and  which 
can  accommodate  thousands  of  persons. 

The  mai-qnee  ia  distinguished  from  the  tent  by  being  a  ridged 
structure,  devoted  to  show  and  social  uses ;  but  the  humblest  tent 
made  —  the  CenU  d'ahri  or  shelter  tent  of  the  French  army — 
is  also  ridged  in  form.  The  tentt  d'abri  affords  sleeping  accom- 
modation for  six  men,  aiid  consists  of  a  rope  stretched  over  three 
low  poles  and  fixeJ  into  the  ground.  Four  separate  squares  of 
canvas  buttoned  togethep  are  thrown  over  the  rope  and  pegged  to 
the  ground  on  each  side  so  as  to  form  a  low  ridge.  Two  other 
squares  are  used  for  covering  the  ends,  being  thrown  over  the 
slanting  rope  ends  by  which  the  poles  are  pegged  to  the  ground. 
Each  of  the  six  men  using  the  tent  carries  one  of  the  squares 
of  canvas  besides  his  quota  of  the  poles,  rope,  and  pegs.  The 
Gipsies  and  travelling  tinkers  of  England  Kave  an  equally  unpre- 


tentious tent,  which  consists  of  a  framework  of  hazel  rods  bent  so 
as  to  form  a  series  of  low  ridges,  the  ends  being  stuck  into  tho 
ground,  and  over  this  frame  blankets  or  other  coverings  are  thrown 
and  pegged  down.  The  simple.";!,  but  at  tlie  same  time  the  least 
convenient,  of  ordinary  tents  is  the  conical,  consisting  of  a  central 
pole  with  ropes  and  canvas  radiating  from  it  in  an  unbroken  slope 
to  the  ground.  This  form,  however,  covers  much  ground  in  pro- 
portion to  the  accommodr.tion  it  afibrds,  as  the  space  round  the 
circumference  is  of  little  value.  A  tent,  therefore,  which  has  sides 
or  a  fall  is  a  much  more  convenient  structure.  The  counterpart 
of  the  conical  is  the  pyramidal  tent,  the  four  equal  sides  sloping 
to  the  ground  ;  and  this  form  with  a  fall  or  sides  makes  the  square 
tent,  which  is  both  convenient  in  shape  and  firm  in  structure. 
Small  tents  are  also  made,  modified  from  tlie  Arab  form,  with  a 
central  pole  and  two  lower  lateral  poles.  In  the  umbrella  tent 
the  roof  is  supported  by  a  set  of  ribs  which  radiate  from  the  pole, 
precisely  as  the  ribs  of  an  umbrella  spread  out  from  the  stick.  Iii 
the  balloon  expansion  tent,  invented  in  1S77  by  Captain  Newburgh 
Stewart,  R.N.,  the  use  of  tent  pole,  pegs,  and  ropes  is  entirely 
avoided,  the  canvas  being  supported  by  light  ribs  of  elastic  wocu 
resting  on  the  ground,  and  the  structure  is  kept  taut  by  hauling 
ropes  descending  from  the  apex  and  secured  by  a  holdfast  driven 
into  the  ground.  When  from  the  nature  of  the  surface  such  fasten- 
ing cannot  be  obtained,  a  lieaN-y  weight  of  any  kind  hung  to  the 
hauling  rope  is  sufficient  to  moor  the  tent,  and  except  in  stormy 
weather  the  weight  may  be  hung  high  up,  thus  leaving  the  whole 
interior  of  the  tent  clear.  As  further  provision  against  stress  of 
weather  there  are  four  iron  holdfasts  at  the  sides,  which  may  be 
skewered  into  the  ground  by  long  iron  pins.  Captain  Stewart 
claims  that  his  tent  possesses  much  greater  stability  and  capacity 
than  the  ordinary  army  tent,  that  it  is  much  more  easUy  and  ex- 
peditiously pitched  and  taken  down,  and  that  it  is  very  much 
lighter.  In  the  latter  important  respect  he  calculates  that  by  the 
adoption  of  his  pattern  a  regiment  at  present  carrying  eighty  tents 
of  the  Indian  service  pattern  would  save  no  less  than  twenty  tons 
of  transport. 

TEPLITZ,  or  Toplitz,  one  of  the  most  frequented 
watering-places  in  the  north  of  Bohemia,  is  picturesquely 
situated  about  30  miles  south  of  Dresden,  in  the  plain 
of  the  Biela,  which  separates  the  Erzgebirge  from  the 
Bohemian  Mittelgebirge.  The  main  interest  of  the  little 
town  centres  in  the  bathing  season,  which  reaches  its 
height  in  August ;  and  the  arrangements  for  the  con- 
venience and  amusement  of  visitors  are  very  complete. 
There  is  a  large  curhaus,  and  nunieious  handsome  bath- 
houses are  situated  both  in  Teplitz  and  in  the  immediately 
adjoining  village  of  Schbnau.  The  environs  are  laid  out 
in  pretty  and  shady  gardens  and  promenades,  the  finest 
being  in  the  park  which  surrounds  the  chateau  of  Prince 
Clary,  the  superior  of  the  town.  The  other  chief  build- 
ings are  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches,  the 
Jevrish  synagogue  with  a  conspicuous  dome,  and  the 
theatre.  The  saline-alkaline  springs  of  Teplitz,  ten  to 
twelve  in  number,  ranging  in  temperature  from  90°  to 
117°  Fahr.,  are  classed  among  what  are  called  "indiflferent" 
waters.  Used  until  lately  almost  exclusively  for  bathing, 
they  are  prescribed  for  gout,  rheumatism,  and  some  scro- 
fulous, affections,  and  their  reputed  efficacy  in  alleviating 
the  eflects  of  gun-shot  woimds  had  gained  for  Teplitz  the 
sobriquet  of  "the  warriors'  bath."  Military  baths  are 
maintained  in  the  town  by  the  Governments  of  Austria, 
Prussia,  and  Saxony,  and  there  are  also  bath-houses  for 
the  poor.  Teplitz  is  much  visited  for  the  after-cure,  after 
Carlsbad  and  similar  spas.  The  number  of  patients  in 
1883  was  6000  and  the  passing  visitors  were  almost  as 
numerous.  The  presence  of  a  bed  of  lignite  in  the 
neighbourhood  has  encouraged  the  industrial  development 
of  Tephtz,  which  carries  on  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  india-rubber,  chemicals,  hardware,  ic.  In 
1880  the  united  population  of  Teplitz  and  Schbnau  was 
16,750. 

The  thermal  springs  are  fabled  to  have  been  discovered  as  early 
as  762,  but  the  first  authentic  mention  of  the  baths  occurs  in  the 
16th  century.  The  town  is  mentioned  in  the  12th  century,  the 
name  being  derived  from  a  Slavonic  word  meaning  "warm  bath." 
Teplitz  figures  in  the  history  of  Wallenstein,  and  is  also  interest- 
ing as  the  spot  where  the  monarchs  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia 
first  signed  the  triple  alliance  against  Xapoleou  in  1S13.     It  i?  & 


184 


T  E  R  — T  E  R 


curious  fact  that  on  the  day  of  tho  earthquake  at  Lisbon  (Ist 
■November  1775)  the  main  spring  at  Teplitz  ceased  to  flow  for  some 
minutes. 

TEBAMO,  a  town  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Teramo  (formerly  Abruzzo  Ulteriore  I.)  and  an  episcopal 
see,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tordino  where  it  is  joined 
by  the  Vezzola,  12  miles  from  the  coast  and  876  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  is  connected  by  a  branch  line  with  Giulianova 
on  the  railway  from  Ancopa  to  Brindisi.  The  picturesque 
valley  of  the  Tordino  is  here  dominated  by  the  peaks  of 
the  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia  (9522  feet).  The  town  is  traversed 
by  one  straight  wide  street  with  large  hoases,  but  for  the 
most  part  it  consists  of  narrow  dirty  lanes ;  the  modern 
suburbs  are  good.  The  cathedral  (1317-55)  has  been 
greatly  modernized  j  the  church  of  San  Agostino  is  in  the 
later  Gothic  style.  The  antiquities  inclide  remains  of  a 
gateway,  a  theatre,  and  baths,  as  well  aa  numerous  in- 
scriptions. There  ai-e  manufactures  of  wool  and  silk,  and 
of  straw  hats  and  pottery.  The  population  of  the  town 
in  1881  was  8634,  with  its  suburbs  13,988  (commune, 
20,309)-.  ■' 

Terams  is  the  ancient  InUramna  Preetuiiana,  capital  of  the 
Prsetutii.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  known  as  Aprubum  (whence 
Abruzzo) :  the  intermediate  form  of  the  presen  t  name  was  Teramne. 

TERAPHIM  (D'ain),  a  Hebrew  word  found  only  in 
the  plural,  which  the  Authorized  Version  sometimes  simply 
transcribes  (Judges  xvii.  5,  xviiL  14  sq.;  Hosea  iii.  4),  but 
elsewhere  translates  by  "  images  "  (Gen.  xxxL  19  and  often 
elsewhere),  "image"  (1  Sam.  xix.  13),  "idols"  (Zech.  x. 
2),  "idolatry"  (1  Sam.  xv.  23).  The  etymology  of  the 
word  is  quite  obscure  (see  Gesenius,  Thesaurus,  p.  1519 
sq.),  but  it  appears  that  the  teraphim  were  a  kiud  of  idols 
(Gen.  xxxi.  30),  with  something  of  a  hvmian  figure  (1  Sam. 
lix.  13);  and,  though  their  use  was  condemned  by  the 
prophets  (1  Sam.  xv.  23;  cp.  2  Kings  xxiii.  24),  they  Were 
long  commonly  used  in  popular  worship,  both  domestic 
(1  Sam.  xlx.  13,  in  the  house  of  David  and  Michal)  and 
public  (Judges  xviii.).  They  are  associated  with  the  ephod, 
which  in  this  connexion  seems  to  mean  a  plated  image; 
and  Hosea  speaks  of  ephod  and  teraphim  as  essential 
elements  in  the  religious  usages  of  northern  Israel.  Like, 
the  ephod,  they  were  specially  associated  with  divinatiod, 
and  in  particular  with  the  sacred  lot  (Zech.  x.  2 ;  Ezek.  xii. 
21  [26]).  From  the  last  passage  it  appears  that  teraphim 
were  used  by  the  Babylonians  as  well  aa  by  the  Hebre'^sV 
|Thesei  statements  and  references  cover  all  that  is  knowa 
about  the  teraphim ;  the  fables  of  the  rabbins  are  collected 
in  Buxtorf,  Leii,  Talmud.,  2660  act. 

TEEBURG,  Oeeakd  (1608-1681),  subject  painter,  was 
born  in  1608,  at  Zwolle,  in  the  province  of  Overyssel, 
Holland.'':  His  father,  also  an  artiste,  sent  him  to  study  in 
Rome,  where  he  adopted  a  style  distinguished  by  great 
finish  and  accuracy.  He  practised  for  a  time  in  Paris 
with  much  success,  visited  England,  it  is  said,  and  tben 
returned  to  Hollands  In  1648  he  was  at  Miinster  during 
the  meeting  of  the  congress  which  ratified  the  treaty  of 
peace  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Dutch,  and  executed 
his  celebrated  little  picture,  painted  upon  copper,  of  the 
assembled  plenipotentiaries, — a  work  which,  along  with 
the  Guitar  Lesson,  now  represents  tho  master  in  the- 
national  collection  in  London.  ,  At  this  time  Terburg  was 
invited  to  visit  Madrid,  where  h©  received  employment 
and  the  honour  of  knighthood  from  Philip  IV  It  is  said 
that,  in  consequence  of  an  intrigue,  he  was  obliged  to 
return  to  Holland,  i,  He  seems  to  have  resided  for  a  time 
in  Haatlem ;  but  he  finally  settled  in  Deventer,  where  he 
became  a  member  of  the  town  council,  as  which  he 
appears  in  the  portrait  now  in  the  gallery  of  The  Hague. 
He  died  at  Deventer  in  1681.'     ~ 

Terburg  is  excellent  as  a  portrait  painter,  but  still  greater  as  a 
fainter  of  aenrs  subjec.s.     He  depicts  with  adaimbls  truth  the 


life  of  the  wealthy  and  cultured  classes  of  his  time,  and  his  work 
is  free  from  any  touch  of  the  grossness  which  finds  so  large  a 
place  in  Dutch  art.  His  figures  are  well  drawn  and  expressive  in 
attitude ;  his  colouring  is  clear  and  rich  ;  but  his  best  skill  lies  in 
his  unequalled  rendering  of  texture  in  draperies,  which  is  seen  to 
advantage  in  such  pictures  as  the  Letter  in  the  Dutch  royal  col- 
lection, and  in  the  Paternal  Advice  (known  as  the  Satin  Gown) — 
engraved  by  Wille— which  exists  in  various  repetitions  at  Berlin 
and  Amsterdam,  and  in  the  Bridgewater  Gallery.  Terburg's  work* 
are  rare  ;  only  about  eighty  have  been  catalogued. 

TERCEIRA.     See  AzoEES,  vol.  iii.  p.  171. 

TEREDO,  a  genus  of  LameUibranchiate  MoUttscaf  xl 
the  order  Isomya,  sub-order  Sinupallia,  family  PKbliidacea 
(see  MoLLUSCA,  vol  xvi.  p.  685).  The  animals  included 
in  this  genus  are  commonly  known  as  "  ship-worms," 
and  are  notorious  for  the  destruction  which  they  cause  in 
ships'  timbers',  the  woodwork  of  harbour?,  and  piles  oi 
other  wood  immersed  for  a  long  period  in  the  sea.  They 
inhabit  long  cylindric^il  holes,  which-  they  excavate  in 
the  wood,  and  usually  occur  in  great  numbers,  crowded 
together  so  that  often  only  a  very  thin  film  remains  between 
the  adjacent  burrows.  Each  burrow  is  lined  with  a  layer 
of  calcareous  substance  secreted  by  the  mollusc ;  this 
lining  is  not  usually  complete,  but  stops  short  a  little 
distance  from  the  inner  end  of  the  burrow,  where  the  boring 
process  continues  to  take  place.  In  some  burrows,  how- 
ever, the  lining  is  complete,  either  because  the  animal  has 
reached  its  fuU  size  or  because  some  cause  prevents  it 
continuing  its  tunnel ;  in  such  cases  the  calcareous  tube 
has  a  hemispherical  termination.  The  burrow^  are  usually 
driven  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  of  the  wood,  but  not 
invariably  so.  When  a  knot  or  nail  or  the  tube  of  a 
neighbour  is  reached,  the  course  of  the  burrow  is  altered 
so  as  to  bend  round  the  obstruction.  \  One  burrow  is  never 
found  to  break  into  another. 

The  adult  Teredo,  when  removed  from  its  burrow  and 
calcareous  tube,  is  from  a  few  inches  to  3  feet  in  length, 
according  to  the  species  to  -which  it  belongs,  and  is 
cylindrical  and  worm -like  in  appearance.  The  anterior 
<SJid,  which  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  burrow,  is  somewhat 
enlarged  and  bears  a  pair  of  shells  or  valves,  which  are 
not  connected  by  the  usual  ligament,  but  are  widely 
separated  dorsally.  -  The  valves  are  triangular  in  shape 
and  very  concave  on  'the  aide  which  is  in  contact  -with  the 
animal.  In  front  their  edges  are  widely  separated,  and 
the  mantle  tube,  which  is  elsewhere  closed,  has  here  a 
slight  median  aperture,  through  which  the  short  sucker-like 
foot  can  be  protruded.  The  next  portion  of  the  body 
behind  the  shell-bearing  part  is  naked,  except  for  the 
shelly  lining  of  the  burrow,  which  is  secreted  by  this 
part.  Anteriorly  this  portion  contains  part  of  the  body 
proper;  posteriorly  it  forms  a.  tube  divided  internally  by 
a  horizontal  partition  into  two  chambers.  In  the  lower 
chamber  are  the  elongated  gill  plates,  which  have  the 
typical  lamellibranchiate  structure.  In  the  upper  chamber 
anteriorly  is  the  rectum.  A  thick  muscular  ring  terminates 
this  region  of  the  body,  and  bears  two  calcareous  plates 
shaped  like  spades  or  battledores.  The  expanded  parts 
of  these  plates  are  free  and  project  backwards ;  the  handle 
is  fixed  in  a  deep  socket  or  pit  lined  by  epidermis,  t.  These 
calcareous  plates  are  called  pallets  (Fr.  pa/mules).  Behind 
the  pallets  the  tubular  body  bifurcates,  forming  two  siphons 
similar  to  those  of  other  Lamellibranchs  ;  the  siphons  can 
be  contracted  or  expanded  within  wide'  limits  of  length.' 
The  principal  organs  of  the  body — stomach,  heart,  genera- 
tive organs,  and  nephridia — are  situated  in  the  anterior  part 
of  the  body,  forming  a  visceral  mass,  which  extends  some 
distance  behind  the  valves.  The  heart  is  above  the  in- 
testine and  not  perforated  by  it.  The  two  valves  are 
connected  by  aal  anterior  adductor  muscle. 

From  its  resemblanoe  to  Phelas,  Teredo  is  placed  by  concbologisti 
in  tho  family  Pholadidm,  among  the  Isomya  ;  but  it  is  still  unde*' 


TEREDO 


aiei  wliich  part  of  the  body  corresponds  to  the  posterior  adductor. 
According  to  Quatrefagea,  it  is  a  muscnlar  band  passing  transversely 
between  tie  handles  or  the  pallets.  His  discussion  of  this  point  is 
connected  with  another,  namely,  the  natore  of  the  k>ag  rabolar 
portion  of  the  body  behind  the  vulvea,  Deshayes  limits  uie  extent 
of  the  mantle  to  the  part  covered  by  the  shell,  and  considers  all 
the  rest  of  the  animal  as  formed  by  the  siphons  ;  the  branchiae  and 
pert  of  the  other  viscera  in  this  view  are  contained  in  the  siphons, 
jjoatre&ges  argues  that  the  siphons  commence  at  the  point  where 
their  retractor  mosdes  are  inserted,  namely,  at  the  muscular  nng 
corresponding  to  the  pallets.  This  reasoning  is  plausible  ;  but  it 
IS  difficult  to  acoept  the  new  that  the  retractor  muscles  of  the 
siphons  and  the  posterior  adductot  muscle  are  90  closely  connected 
IS  Quatrefages  thinks ,  in  other  Isamya  the  retractors  of  the  siphons 
and  the  postenor  adductor  aro  distinct  and  separate.  Deshayes 
believes  that  the  single  adductor  between  the  valves  results  from 
rhe  fusion  of  the  two  muscles  usually  separate.  Jefeeys  believes 
that  the  posterior  adductor  is  really  present  between  the  posterior 
pans  of  the  valves ,  but  the  opimon  of  a  conchologist  on  a  qnestion 
of  morphology  is  not  of  very  great  weight.  In  other  Is<nnya  the 
visceral  (parieto-splanchnic)  ganglia  are  attached  to  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  posterior  adductor.  In  Teredo  theso  ganglia  are 
situated  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  proper,  some  distance 
behind  the  shells,  and  immediately  behind  the  generative  organ 
It  is  here  probably  that  the  rudiment  of  tho  posterior  adductor,  if 
It  exists,  IS  to  be  sought ;  or,  if  it  does  not  exist,  it  is  here  that  it 
onfiinaliy  was  placed. 

It  is  evident  that  the  anatomy  of  Teredo  has  not  yet  been  in- 
vestigated from  the  point  of  new  of  modem  morphology ;  but  as 
far  as  can  be  judged  at  present  the  body  proper  extends  liick  some 
distance  behind  the  shells,  to  the  posterior  Uuiit  of  the  visceral 
mass.  The  part  between  this  and  the  pallets  is  a  tubular  prolonga- 
tion of  the  mantle  chamber  containing  the  extended  giU  laminse, 
and  beyond  the  pallets  are  the  separate  siphons.  Besides  the 
visceral  ganglia  a  cerebral  and  a  pedal  pair  are  present  ,  The 
stomach  is  provided  with  a  large  crystalline  style.  The  function 
of  the  pallets  is  to  form  an  operculum  to  the  calcareous  tube  when 
the  siphons  are  withdrawn  into  it  In  some  species  the  external 
or  narrower  end  of  the  calcareous  tube  is  provided  with  transverse 
laminae  projecting  into  the  lumen  ;  and  in  some  the  external  aper- 
ture is  dirided  by  a  horizontal  partition  into  two,  one  for  each 
siphon. 

The  Teredo,  according  to  Quatrefages,  is  dioecious,  though  Gwyn 
Jeffreys  believes  it  to  be  hermaphrodite.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
oyster,  the  ova  are  retained  in  the  branchial  chamber  during  the 
early  stages  of  their  development  The  segmentation  of  the  ovum 
\s  unequal,  and  leads  to  the  formation  of  a  gastrula  by  epibole 
By  the  growth  of  a  preoral  lobe  provided  with  a  ring  of  cilia,  and 
by  the  formation  of  a  month  and  an  anus,  the  trochosphere  stage  is 
reached.  A  pair  of  thin  shells  then  appear  on  the  sides  of  the  larva 
connected  by  a  hinge  on  the  dorsal  median  line,  and  the  foot  grows 
out  between  mouth  and  anus.  By  the  time  the  larvse  "swarm," 
or  leave  the  branchial  cavity  of  the  parent  to  live  for  a  time  as  free- 
Bwimming  pelagic  larva,  the  valves  of  the  sheU  have  grown  so  large 
»3  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  body  when  the  velum  is  retracted  ■  the 
root  13  also  long,  cylindrical  and  flexible,  and  can  be  protruded  far 
beyond  the  shell  The  valves  of  the  sheU  at  this  stage  are  hemi- 
sphencal  m  shape,  so  that  the  whole  larva  when  its  organs  are 
retracted  13  contained  in  a  globular  case. 

Concerning  tho  later  changes  of  the  larva  and  tho  method  by 
which  It  bores  into  wood  nothing  or  Uttle  is  known  from  direct 
observation.  Much  has  been  written  about  the  boring  of  this  and 
other  marine  animals,  but  even  yet  the  matter  cannot  be  said  to  be 
satisfactorily  elucidated.  Osier,  in  a  paper  in  PhU.  Tram  ,  1826 
argued  that  the  Teredo  bores  by  means  of  its  shells,  fixing  itself  bv 
the  surface  of  the  foot,  which  it  uses  as  a  sucker,  and  thra  rasping 
the  wood  wub  the  rough  front  edges  of  the  shell-valves.  This  view 
was  founded  on  the  similarity  of  the  arrangement  of  the  shells  and 
muscles  la  Teredo  to  those  occurring  in  Pholas.  in  which  the  method 
nl,^,Ti^.K''%^'l  'S.f  ^'='"''"y  observed.  W  Thompson,  in  a 
fhfft^     ^^  £rfm6.  .V««,  PhU.  Jm^rr,..  1835,  snpporteTthe  view 

^aV^r.,  I  ''°  ?'^'' ,.  ^'^°y  ^^■^■^'^^.  again  Unn.  and  Maq 
/fat.  flw(.,  vol  XV  ),  thmks  that  the  excavating  power  of  Teredo 
13  doe  to  siUcioM  particles  embedded  m  the-antenor  portion  of  the 
aitegument,  in  front  of  the  valves.  But  the  actuare™stcnce  of 
jX.?  i!r"'  P^"-"*^'","  "<=*<!  secretion  has  been  denied  by  othe.^ 
buS^^  In'f.'''f  tl'^^oot  i3  the  organ  by  which  thj  animd 
d^Z.  .  K  *''*  '"<'"■  '"""^'  °f  Lamellibranchs  the  foot  is 
Hmi/T  n  ''°™""'g  »'-g»n.  and  H  is  difficult  to  see  low  the 
m^"^,  nf'','^'"  "r"'  ^\'-  "^^   '"  "^''^  ''  "  »'t^<=''ed  if  not  by 

explain  how  fJ?  f»  '"  ^'^^  c  ^'  "=^  ^""^  '*™«  "  ^^  "^iffi-^""  '» 
explain  how  the  soft  muscular  foot  can  penetrate  into  hard  wood 

tt^^J'^^,^  of  course  slow,  and  Jefl-reys  supposes  that  particles 
}Ztt^^vr'^^°'"  ^""^  '^'  moistened  sSrface  to  wSich  the 
tSich  .31  '1  ^5"  T^  ""^  "^''"^  "'^  '^o^fe'l  by  an  epidermis, 

Wuch  coold  scarcely  be  there  if  they  were  useH  in  burrowing. 


186 


t.T^  ^"^  ^^  burrows  at  an  extremely  rapid  rp'.e  -.  -pawnimi 

Ctakes  place  in  the  spring  and  summer,  and  before  tht  eud  of  Iht 
the  animak  are  adult  and  their  burrows  of  largf  size.     Quatre. 
»..H  '^^.V^.'K*  "  ^^P-^ooa  (N    Spain)  a  fen^-boat  was  sunk 
Wentally  in  the  spring,  and  was  raused  four  months  afterwaids. 

^«  IZL^^  f^l™^  ^\^  '"  °°'  accurately  known,  b\rt  Qnatn,- 
fages  found  that  they  nearly  all  perished  m  the  winter.     ThL  can- 

^  H.l^,!;?'?^  ^  ""  '^^  ^  ""^  ^^  »f  ""o  '"bes  v;iries  so  greatly. 
In  HoUand  their  greatest  ravages  are  made  iu  July  and  lugust 
Iron  ships  have  nolhing  to  fear  from  theu-  attacks,  and  the  co^r 
sheathmg  now  almost  miiversally  usc-d  protects  wooden  hulls.  A 
gT<»t  deal  01  loss  IS,  however,  caused  by  Teredo  in  harbour  works 
ajid  shipping  stages,  and  the  embankments  in  HoUand  aro  con- 
tinually mjured  by  It  The  most  efficient  protection  is  afforded  by 
large-headed  nails  driven  in  lu  close  proximity  Soakms  wood  in 
fn"t^^.If  ?"'/  certain  safeguard  ,  Jeffreys  found  at  Anstianm 
in  1863  that  a  large  number  of  harbour  pUes  previously  soaked^ 
creasote  had  been  completely  destroyed  by  2^  navalis.  Coal  tar 
and  the  silicate  of  lime,  used  for  coaring  stonework,  have  been  sue- 
gested  as  protective  coverings,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
adequately  tested. 

Species  of  Teredo  occur  in  all  seas.  The  animal  was  known  to 
the  ancients  and  13  mentioned  by  Theophrastus.  Pliny,  and  Ovid 
i?d  "  ^  mentioned  by  Valisnieri.  in  1720  by  Deslandea,  In 
1733  great  attention  was  drawn  to  it  on  account  of  the  discovery 
that  the  wooden  dykes  of  HoUand  were  being  rapidly  destroyed 
by  ship-worms,  and  that  the  country  was  in  danger  of  inundatioa. 
Three  treatises  were  published  concerning  th«  animal,  by  P.  Mas- 
suet,  J.  Rousset  and  Go<ifrey  Sellius.  The  work  of  the  last-named 
which  was  the  best,  described  the  anatomy  of  the  creature  and 
showed  that  its  affinities  were  with  bivalve  moUuscs.  Tho  truth 
of  Sellius's  view  was  not  grasped  by  Linmeus,  who  placed  Teredo 
together  with  Serpula  in  the  genus  Dentaiium ;  but  its  proper 
position  was  re-established  by  Cuvier  and  Lamarck.  Adanson 
unaware  of  the  work  of  Sellius,  iu  1767  beUeved  himself  to  b«  the 
hrst  to  discover  the  moUnscan  affinities  of  Teredo.  It  wUl  not  b« 
necessary  to  give  here  a  definition  of  the  genns  taken  from  Any 
systematist ;  it  will  bo  sufficient  to  point  ont  that  tho  long  cy- 
hjUdrical  body  with  its  two  small  anterior  polygonal  valves,  the 
absence  of  a  ligament  and  accessory  valves,  the  muscular  ring 
into  which  are  inserted  the  calcareous  pallets,  and  the  continuous 
calcareous  tube  lining'  the  hole  bored  by  the  animal  are  the 
diagnostic  features. 

Jeffreys,  in  his  British  Conchology,  gives  the  following  species  as 
British  -.—Teredo  norve^ica,  Spengler;  T.  navalis,  Linn.;  T.  pedi- 
eella^,  Quatrefeges;  T.  megotara,  Hanley.  T.  rurnxgica  occurs 
chiefly  on  the  west  coast  of  Great  Britain.  It  was  taken  by 
Thompson  at  Portpatrick  in  Wigtownshire,  and  occmied  iu  Jef- 
reys's  time  in  abundance  at  MUford  Haven.  This  species  has  been 
described  by  Gmelin  and  a  number  of  British  authors  as  T.  nivalis^ 
Linn.  It  is  distinguished  by  having  the  base  of  the  pallets  simple, 
not  forked,  and  the  tube  semi-concamerated  at  its  narrower  pos- 
terior end.  The  length  does  not  usually  exceed  a  foot  It  is  the 
T.  navium  of  Selhus  T.  imvalis  has  been  identified  from  the 
figures  of  Sellius,  to  which  Linnasus  referred  ;  Sellius  called  it  T. 
marina.  It  occurs  on  all  the  western  and  southern  coasts  of 
Europe,  from  Christiania  to  the  Black  Sea.  and  is  the  species  which 
causes  so  much  damage  to  the  Dutch  embankments.  The  pallets 
of  this  species  are  small  and  forked,  and  the  stalk  is  cylindrical. 
The  tube  is  simple  and  not  chambered  at  its  narrow  end.  T. 
pediceHeiia  was  originally  discovered  by  Quatrefages  in  the  Bay  rf 
Los  Pasages  on  the  north  coast  of  Spain  ;  it  has  also  been  found  in 
the  Channel  Islands,  at  Toulon,  in  Provence,  and  in  Algeria.  In 
T.  megotara  the  tube  is  simple  and  the  pallets  like  those  of  T. 
nonxgica;  it  occurs  at  Shetland  and  Wick,  and  also  on  the  westeni 
shore  of  the  Atlantic  where  its  range  extends  from  l^lassachnsetts 
to  South  Carolma.  T.  vialleolus.  Turton,  and  T  bipinnata.  Turton. 
belong  to  the  West  Indies,  but  are  often  drifted  in  floating  timber 
to  the  coasts  of  Europe.  Other  occasional  visitants  to  the  British 
shores  are  T.  excavata,  tnparlila,  spatha,  fustiailus,  mcutlata,  and 
fimirriata.  These  were  described  by  Gwyn  Jeffrey-s  in  Ann.  and 
Mag.  Nat  Bist.,  1860.  T  fimtmata  is  stated  to  be  a  hative  of 
Vancouver's  Island.  A  kind  of  ship-worm,  the  NausiUyra  dtinlopei 
of  Perceval  Wright,  has  been  discovered  in  India,  70  miles  from 
the  sea,  in  a  stream  of  perfectly  fresh  water,  namely,  the  river 
Kumar,  one  of  the  branches  of  tho  Ganges.      T.  camiformis.  Lam. 


Sheppey  and  Brabant  are  pierced  in  the  same  way. 

Twenty-four  fossil  species  have  been  recognized  in  the  Lias  and 
succeeding  beds  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  The  sub-genus 
Teredina,Lim. ,  is  a  fossil  of  the  Eocene  of  Great  Britain  and  France. 

tit*Ta(iire.  — See,  bcside.i  the  works  already  mentioned,  Godfrey  Sellins, 
Sf  ""f,  ''.•""r^"  Ttrrdinia  sru  XylopUgi  itarini,  17S3 ;  AdiDson.  Hislotre 
liatiirtUt  du  Stnigal.  Paris,  1757  ;  ^uatrttges,  Anmila  da  Hd    !>'ai..  184S-iO ; 


xxnL 


24 


186 


T  E  R  — T  E  R 


Forbes  and  Hanley,  /fn'.  Molluxa,  1853 ;  B.  Hatschek,  EitivHcklung  v.  Tertdo: 
ArbeiOm  oils  dem  Zool.  Itutt.  IVicn^  1880  ;  Dcshayea,  MoU-usques  iTAlgirU ;  Sir  E. 
Qome,  "  Aiiatomy  of  Terrdo"  in  Phil.  Tmrw.,  vol.  icvi.  ;  Frey  and  Leuckart, 
BeitTO^  ZV.T  Kenntniss  wirbelUtser  Thiers  1347  ;  Woodward,  Manual  of  MoUiisca^ 
[rondon.  1S5L  (J.  T.  C) 

TEREK  (Russ.  Terskaya  oblasl),  a  Russian  government 
of  Caucasia,  situated  to  the  north  of  the  main  Caucasus 
chain.  It  is  bounded  by  Stavropol  on  the  N.,  by  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  Daghestan  on  the  E.,  by  Tiilis  and  Kutais 
on  the  S.,  and  by  Tchernoniorsk  and  Kuban  on  the  W. 
It  has  an  area  of  23,548  square  miles.  From  Mt  Elburz 
to  Kazbek  the  southern  boundary  coincides  with  the  main 
enow -covered  range  of  the  Caucasus  and  thus  includes  its 
highest  peaks  ;  further  east  it  follows  a  sinuous  line  so  as 
to  embrace  the  secondary  chains  and  their  ramifications. 
Nearly  one-third  of  the  area  is  occupied  by  hilly  tracts, 
the  remainder  being  undulating  and  flat  land  belonging  to 
thfrdepression  of  the  Terek  ,  one-half  of  this  last,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  is  occupied  by  sandy  deserts,  salt 
clay  steppes,  and  arid  stretches  unsuiled  for  cultivation. 
Granites,  syenites,  diontes,  and  Palaeozoic  schists  consti- 
tute the  nucleus  of  the  Caucasus  mountains ;  Jurassic  and 
Cretaceous  formations  rise  to  great  heights  in  the  secondary 
chains ;  and  a  senes  of  Tertiary  formations,  covered  by 
Quaternary  deposits,  cover  a  wide  area  in  the  prauies  and 
eteppes.  A  group  pf  mineral  springs  occurs  about  Pyati- 
gorsk (q.v.). 

The  climate  is  continental.  The  mean  annual  temperatures  are 
49°-6  Fahx.  at  Pyatigorsk  (1850  feet  above  the  sea  ;  January  39°, 
July  70°)  and  47°7  at  Vladikavkaz  (2230  ft  ;  January  23°,  July 
69°),  but  tiosts  a  few  degrees  below  zero  are  not  tmcommon.  The 
mountain  slopes  receive  an  abundance  of  rain  (37  in.),  but  the 
steppes  suffer  much  from  drought  (rainfall  between  10  and  20  in. ), 
Nearly  the  whole  of  the  government  belongs  to  the  drainage  area 
of  the  Terek,  but  the  uorth-west  corner  is  watered  by  the  upper 
tributaries  of  the  Kuma.  The  Terek  rises  at  tlie  height  of  about 
8000  feet  in  tlie  glaciers  of  the  Kazbek  on  the  southern  slope  of  tlie 
main  chain  of  the  Caucasus,  which  it  pierces  by  the  Darial  gorge  to 
the  south  of  Vladikavkaz  after  having  received  several  do7i3  or 
streams  (Res,  Guzel,  Flag,  Ar).  In  53  miles  it  descends  nearly 
6000  feet.  A  few  mijes  above  Vladikavkaz  it  is  2068  feet  above 
sea-level,  at  Mozdok  441  feet,  and  it  is  29  feet  below  the  Black  Sea 
at  Kizlyar.  From  Vladikavkaz  it  pursues  a  north-easterly  direction 
before  taking  its  eastward  course  ;  it  seems  most  probable  that  at  a 
recent  epoch  (Post-Pliocene)  it  joined  the  Kuma  and  perhaps  the 
Manytch  instead  of  flowing  into  the  Caspian.  In  the  lower  part 
of  its  course  it  flows  at  a  higlier  level  than  that  of  the  neighbouiTng 
plains,  and  is  kept  in  its  bed  by  dams.  Inundations  are  frequent 
and  cause  gi-eat  destruction.  The  delta  begins  at  Dubovka  (50 
miles  from  the  Caspian),  and  at  this  part  the  river  frequently 
changes  its  bed.  The  Old  Terek  is  no  longer  navigable,  the  chief 
ctnrent  being  directed  northwards  into  tlie  New  Terek.  Several 
canals  made  by  the  Cossacks  supply  water  for  the  irrigation  of  the 
neighbouring  fields.  Us  chief  tributaries  are  the  Sunja  on  the 
right,  and  tlie  Tcherekii,  the  Baksan,  and  the  Malka,  in  its  upper 
course,  on  the  left.  The  population  of  the  government  in  1884 
was  614fip0;  of  606,500  inhabitants  returned  in  1883,  238,230 
were  Little  and  Great  Russians,  1230  Georgians,  18,500  Armenians, 
4300  Germans,  2570  Poles,  4780  Jews,  23,630  Ossets,  194,480 
Tchetchens  and  Ingushis.  72,160  Kabardians,  9130  mountaineers  of 
the  Avarian  stem,  25,360  Kumyks,  1770  Tatars,  6270  Nogais^  2470 
Kalmucks,  and  1620  Persians.  Out  of  these  239,500  were  reckoned 
as  belonging  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church,  336,460  were  Mussul- 
mans. 17,730  Gregorian  Aruieuians,  and  the  remainder  Protestants, 
Catholics,  and  Jews.  Owing  to  the  great  fertility  of  the  soil  in  the 
well-water^  districts,  agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation.  In  1882 
the  crops,  although  below  the  average,  yielded  967,000  quarters  of 
coru,  268,000  bushels  of  potatoes,  6,750,000  gallons  of  wine,  and 
tobacco  to  the  value  of  £18,000.  Cattle  breeding  is  extensively 
carried  on  in  the  steppes,  and  there  were  in  the  same  year  118,630 
horses,  582.800  cattle,  and  1,226,400  sheep  ,  murrains,  however,  are 
frequent,  and  cause  great  loss.  Manufactures  occupy  only  3371  per- 
fion.^,  .Tnd  their  yearly  production  )iardly  reaches £300,000  in  value. 
Pptty  trades  are  rapidly  spreading  in  the  villages.  Trade  suffers 
from  want  of  good  roads.  The  railway  from  Russia  to  the  Caucasus 
hasnot  yet  (1887)  got  beyond  Vtadikavk.az.  The  military  and  other 
rhiel  roads  have  an  .iggregate  of  only  1300  milet  The  exports  are 
limited  to  corn,  wine,  cattle,  and  some  raw  produce 

TTie  government  is  divided  into  six  districts,  the  chief  toivns  of 
wliirh.  with  their  populations  in  1883,  were  Vladikavkaz  (32,340), 
the  C3pit.il,  Georgievsk  (4250),  Groznyi  (6280),  Kizlyar  (8780).  Moz- 
Hok  (8380),  and  Pyaturorsk  (11.120). 


TERENCE.  P.  Terentius  Afer  (185?-150  B.C.)  holds  a 
unique  position  among  Roman  writers.  No  writer  in  any 
literature  has  gained  so  great  a  reputation  who  has  con- 
tented himself  with  SO  limited  a  function.  He  lays  no 
claim  to  the  position  of  an  original  artust  painting  from 
life  or  commenting  on  the  results  of  his  own  observation. 
His  art  has  no  relation  to  his  own  time  or  to  the  country 
in  which  he  lived.  The  chief  sotirce  of  mterest  in  the 
fragmentary  remains  of  Nsevius,  Ennius,  Pacuvius,  Accina, 
and  Lucilius  is  their  relation  to  the  national  and  moral 
spirit  of  the  age  in  which  they  were  written.  Plautua, 
though,  like  Terence,  hd  takes  the  first  sketch  of  his  plots, 
scenes,  and  characters  from  the  Attic  stage,  is  yet  a  true 
representative  of  his  time,  a  genuine  Italian,  writing  before 
the  genius  of  Italy  had  learned  the  restramts  of  Greek  art. 
The  whole  aim  of  Terence  was  to  present  a  faithful  copy 
of  the  life,  manners,  modes  of  thought  and  expression 
which  had  been  drawn  from  reality  a  century  before  his 
time  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Comedy  of  Athens.  The 
nearest  parallel  to  his  literary  position  may  be  found  ia 
the  aim  which  Virgil  puts  before  himself  in  his  Bucolics. 
He  does  not  seek  in  that  poem  to  draw  Italian  peasants 
from  the  life,  but  to  bring  back  the  shepherds  of  Theo- 
critus on  Italian  scenes.  Yet  the  result  obtained  by 
Virgil  is  different.  The  charm  of  his  pastorals  is  the 
Italian  sentiment  which  pervades  them.  His  shepherds 
are  not  the  shepherds  of  Theocritus,  nor  are  they  in  any 
sense  true  to  life.  The  extraordinary  result  obtained  by 
Terence  is  that,  while  he  has  left  no  trace  in  any  of  his 
comedies  of  one  sketching  from  the  life  by  which  he  was 
surrounded,  there  is  perhaps  no  more  truthful,  natural, 
and  delicate  delineator  of  human  nature,  in  its  ordinary 
and  more  level  moods,  within  the  whole  range  of  classical 
literature.  His  permanent  position  in  literature  is  due, 
no  doubt,  to  the  art  and  genius  of  Menander,  whose  crea- 
tions he  has  perpetuated,  as  a  fine  engraver  may  perpetuate 
the  spirit  of  a  great  painter  whose  works  have  perished. 
But  no  mere  copyist  or  verbal  translator  could  have 
attained  that  result.  Though  without  claims  to  creative 
originality,  Terence  must  have  had  not  only  critical  genius, 
to  enable  him  fully  to  appreciate  and  identify  himself 
with  his  originals,  but  artistic  genius  of  a  high  and  pure 
type.  The  importance  of  his  position  in  Roman  litera- 
ture consists  in  this,  that  he  was  the  first  writer  whcf  set 
before  himself  a  high  ideal  of  artistic  perfection,  find  was 
the  first  to  realize  that  perfection  in  style,  form,  and  con- 
sistency of  conception  and  execution.  Living  in  the  in- 
terval between  Ennius  and  Lucilius,  whose  original  force 
and  genius  survive  only  in  rude  and  inartistic  fragments, 
he  produced  six  plays,  which  have  not  only  reached  our 
time  in  the  form  in  which  they  were  given  to  the  world, 
but  have  been  read  in  the  most  critical  and  exacting 
literary  epochs,  and  still  may  be  read  without  any  feeling 
of  the  need  of  making  allowance  for  the  rudeness  of  f 
new  and  undeveloped  art. 

WhUe  his  great  gift  to  Roman  literature  is  that  he  firsi 
made  it  artistic,  that  be  imparted  to  "  rude  Latium  "  the 
sense  of  elegance,  consistency,  and  moderation,  his  gift  to 
the  world  is  that  through  him  it  possesses  a  living  image 
of  the  Greek  society  in  the  3d  century  B.C.,  presented  in 
the  purest  Latin  idiom.  Vet  Terence  had  no  afllimty  by 
birth  either  with  the  Greek  race  or  with  the  people  of 
Latium.  He  was  more  distinctly  a  foreigner  than  any  of 
the  great  classical  writers  of  Rome.  He  lived  at  the 
meeting-point  of  three  distinct  civilizations, — the  mature, 
or  rather  decaying,  civilization  of  Greece,  of  which  Athens 
was  still  the  centre ;  that  of  Carthage,  which  was  so  soon  tc 
pass  away  and  leave  scarcely  any  vestige  of  itself ;  and  the 
nascent  civilization  of  Italy,  in  which  all  other  modes  were 
soon  to  be  absorbed.     Terence  was  by  birth  a  Pboeniciaay 


TERENCE 


187 


and  was  tlius  perhaps  a  fitter  medium  of  connexion  between 
the  genius  of  Greece  and  that  of  Italy  than  if  he  had  been 
a  pure  Greek  or  a  pure  Italiaji  ,  just  as  in  modern  times 
the  Jewish  type  of  genius  is  sometimes  found  more  detached 
from  national  peculiarities,  and  thus  more  capable  of  repro- 
ducing a  cosmopolitan  type  of  character  than  the  genius  of 
men  belonging  to  the  other  races  of  Europe. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  life  of  Terence  is  derived  chiefly 
from  a  fragment  of  the  lost  work  of  Suetonius,  Df  Virvs 
lUxulnhus.  preserved  in  the  commentary  of  Donatus. 
Oontirmation  of  some  of  the  statements  contained  in  the 
Life  13  obtained  from  later  writers  and  speakers,  and  also 
from  the  prologues  to  the  different  plays,  which  at  the 
same  time  throw  light  on  the  literary  and  personal  rela- 
tions of  the  poet.  These  prologues  were  among  the 
original  sources  of  Suetonius  ;  but  he  quotes  or"  refers  to 
the  works  of  various  grammarians  and  antiquarians — 
Porcius  Licinus,  Volcatius  Sedigitus,  Santra,  Nepos,  Fene- 
Stella,  Q.  Cosconius — as  his  authorities.  The  first  two 
lived  within  a  generation  or  two  of  the  death  of  Terence, 
and  the  first  of  them  shows  a  distinct  animus  against  him 
and  his  patrons.  But,  notwithstanding  the  abundance  of 
authorities,  there  is  uncertainty  as  to  both  the  date  of  his 
birth  and  the  place  and  manner  of  his  death.  The  doubt 
as  to  the  former  arises  from  the  discrepancy  of  the  MSS. 
His  last  play,  the  Adtlpkt,  was  exhibited  in  160  B.C. 
Shortly  after  its  production  he  went  to  Greece,  bemg 
then,  according  to  the  best  MSS.,  m  his  twenty- fifth 
("nondum  quinlum  atque  vicesimuin  egressus  '  anuum  "), 
according  to  inferior  MSS.,  in  his  thirty-tifth  year.  This 
uncertainty  is  increased  by  a  discrepancy  between  the 
authorities  quoted  by  Suetonius.  Cornelius  Nepos  is 
quoted  for  the  statement  that  he  was  about  the  same 
age  as  Scipio  (born  185  B.C.)  and  Laslius,  while  Fenestella, 
an  antiquarian  of  the  later  Augustan  period,  represented 
him  as  older.  As  the  authority  of  the  MSS.  coincides 
with  that  of  the  older  record,  the  year  185  b.c.  may  be 
taken  as  the  most  probable  date  of  his  b:rth.  In  the 
case  of  an  author  drawing  originally  from  life,  it  might 
seem  improbable  that  he  should  have  written  six  comedies, 
so  true  in  their  apprehension  and  delineation  of  various 
phases  of  human  nature,  between  the  ages  of  nineteen  and 
twenty-five.  But  the  case  of  an  imitative  artist,  reproduc- 
ing impressions  derived  from  literature,  is  different ;  aAd 
the  circumstances  of  Terence's  origin  and  early  life  may 
well  have  developed  in  him  a  precocity  of  talent.  His 
acknowledged  intimacy  with  Scipio  and  Lslius  and  the 
general  belief  that  they  assisted  him  in  the  composition  of 
his  plays  are  more  in  accordance  with  the  statement  that 
he  was  about  their  own  age  than  that  he  was  ten  years 
older.  Terence,  accordingly,  more  even  than  Catullus, 
Tibullus,  or  Lucan,  is  to  be  ranked  among  those  poets 
who  are  the  "inheritors  of  unfulfilled  renown."  He  is 
said  to  have  been  born  at  Carthage,  brought  to  Rome  as 
a  slave,  and  carefully  educated  in  the  house  of  _M-  Teren- 
tius  Lucanus,  by  whom  he  was  soon  emancipated.  A 
difficulty  wa-s  felt  in  ancient  times  as  to  how  he  originally 
became  a  slave,  as  there  was  no  war  between  Rome  and 
Carthage  between  the  Second  and  Third  Punic  Wars,  and 
no  commercial  relations  between  Africa  and  Italy  till  after 
the  destruction  of  Carthage.  But  there  was  no  doubt  as 
to  his  Phoenician  origin.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
intimacy  of  young  men  of  the  best  families,  such  as  Scipio, 
Lselius,  and  Farms  Philus,  and  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of 
older  men  of  literary  distinction  and  otficial  position,  such 
as  C.  Sulpicius  Gallus,  Q.  Fabms  Labeo,  and  M.  Popillius. 
He  is  said  to  have  owed  the  favour  of  the  great  as  much  to 
his  personal  gift?  and  graces  as  to  his  literary  distinction ; 

Kitsehl  reads  ingressus,  which  would  makt  hioj  a  year  younger. 


■  and  in  one  of  his  prologues  he  declares  it  to  be  his  ambi> 
tion,  while  not  offending  the  many,  to  please  the  "  bom." 

Terence's  earliest  play  was  the  Andria,  exhibited  ia 
166  B.C.,  when  the  poet  could  have  been  only  about  the 
age  of  nineteen.  A  pretty,  but  probably  apocrj'phal,  story 
is  told  of  his  having  read  the  play,  before  its  exhibition, 
to  Caecilius  (who,  after  the  death  of  Plautus,  ranked  as 
the  foremost  comic  poet),  and  of  the  generous  admiration 
of  it  manifested  by  Cfecilius.  A  similar  instance  of  the 
recognition  of  rising  genius  by  -a  poet  whose  own  day  was 
past  13  found  in  the  account  given  of  the  visit  of  Accius, 
on  his  journey  to  Asia,  to  the  veteran  Pacuvius.  The 
next  play  exhibited  by  Terence  was  the  Hecyra,  first  pro- 
duced in  165,  but  withdrawn  in  consequence  of  the  bad 
reception  which  it  met  with,  and  afterwards  reproduced  in 
160.  The  Heauton-limoroumenos  appeared  in  163,  the 
Eunuekus  and  Phormrn  in  161,  and  the  Adelphi  m  160  at 
the  funeral  games  of  L.  .-Emilius  Pauius. 

After  bringing  out  these  plays  Terence  sailed  for  Greece, 
either  to  escape  from  the  suspicion  of  publishing  the  works 
of  others  as  his  own,  or  from  the  desire  to  obtain  a  more 
intimate  knowledge  of  that  Greek  life  which  had  hitherto 
been  known  to  him  only  in  literature,  and  which  it  was 
his  professed  aim  to  reproduce  in  his  comedies.  The 
latter  is  the  more  probable  motive,  and  we  recognize'in. 
this  the  first  instance  of  that  impulse  to  visit  the  scenes 
familiar  to  them  through  literature  which  afterwards  acted 
on  many  of  the  great  ^witers  of  Rome.  From  this  voyage 
to  Greece  Terence  never  returned.  According  to  one  account 
he  was  lost  at  sea,  according  to  another  he  died  at  Stym- 
phalus  in  Arcadia,  and  according  to  a  third  at  Leucadia, 
from  grief  at  the  loss  by  shipwreck  of  his  baggage,  con- 
taining a  number  of  new  plays  which  he  had  translated 
from  Menander.  The  old  grammarian  quoted  by  Suetonius 
states  that  he  was  ruined  in  fortune  through  his  intimacy 
with  his  noble  friends.  Another  account  speaks  of  him 
as  having  left  behind  him  property  consisting  of  gardens, 
to  the  extent  of  twenty  acres,  close  to  the  Appian  Way. 
It  is  further  stated  that  his  daughter  was  so  well  pro- 
vided for  that  she  married  a  Roman  knight. 

The  tone  of  the  prologues  to  Terence's  plays  is  for  the 
most  part  apologetic,  and  indicates  a  great  sensitiveness  to 
criticism.  He  constantly  speaks  of  the  malevolence  and  de- 
traction of  an  older  poet,  whose  name  is  said  to  have  been 
Luscius  Lavinius  or  Lanuvinus.  The  chief  charge  which 
his  detractor  brings  against  him  is  that  of  conlamvmtio, 
the  combining  in  one  play  of  scenes  out  of  different  Greek 
plays.  Terence  justifies  Lis  practice  by  that  of  the  older 
poets,  Naivius,  Plautus,  Ennius,  w-hose  careless  freedom 
he  follows  m  preference  to  the  "obscura  diligentH"  of  his 
detractor.  He  recriminates  upon  his  adversary  as  one 
who,  by  his  literal  adherence  to  his  original,  had  turned 
good  Greek  plays  into  bad  Latin  ones.  He  justifies  him- 
self from  the  charge  of  plagiarizing  from  Plautus  and 
Naevius.  In  another  prologue  he  contrasts  his  own  treat- 
ment of  his  subjects  with  the  sensational  extravagance  of 
others.  He  meets  the  charge  of  receiving  assistance  in 
the  composition  of  his  plays  by  claimmg,  as  a  great  honour, 
the  favour  which  he  enjoyed  with  those  who  were  th« 
favourites  of  the  Roman  people. 

We  learn  from  these  prologues  that  the  best  Roman 
literature  was  ceasing  to  be  popular,  and  had  come  to  rely 
on  the  patronage  of  the  great.  A  consequence  of  this 
change  of  circumstances  was  that  comedy  was  no  longer 
national  in  character  and  sentiment,  but  had  become  inu- 
tative  and  artistic.  The  life  which  Terence  represents  is 
that  of  a  well-to-do-citizen  class  whose  interests  are  com- 
monplace, but  whose  modes  of  thought  and  speech  are 
refined,  humane,  and  intelligent.  His  characters  are  finely 
delineated  and  disci-'iuiuated  rather  than  bo'dly  conceived. 


188 


T  E  R  — T  E  R 


(La  they  aie  in  I'lautus  Delicate  irony  and  pointed  epi-  I 
gram  take  the  place  of  broad  humoar.  Love,  in  the  form 
of  pathetic  seatiment  rather  than  of  irregular  passion,  is 
the  chief  motive  of  his  pieces.  His  great  characteristics 
ire  humanity  and  urbanity,  and  to  this  may  be  attributed 
the  attraction  which  he  had  for  the  two  chief  representa- 
tives of  these  qualities  in  Roman  literature, — Cicero  and 
Horace.  It  was  through  the  comedies  of  Terence  that  the 
finer  influences  of  the  Epicurean  philosophy— the  friendli- 
aess,  the  tolerance,  the  coDsideration  for  the  feelings  of 
Others,  inferiors  as  well  as  ei.iuals,  inculcated  by  that 
philosophy — entered  into  Roman  life  and  literature.  The 
iissolving  influence  of  that  school  on  the  severer  personal 
morality  of  the  older  Roman  republic  also  entered  into 
Joman  life  through  the  same,  medium.  But  it  was  a 
[real  gain  to  the  strong  but  rude  Roman  character  to 
earn,  as  it  could  from  every  line  of  Terence,  lessons  not 
inly  of  courtesy  and  social  amenity  but  of  genuine  Bym- 
jathy  and  consideration. 

^Terence's  pre-eaiiueoce  in  art  was  recognized  by  the  critics  of  the 
lugustan  a-^e : 

"  Vincero  Cfficilius  gravitate,  Tercntlus  arte. 
the  art  of  his  comedies  cousists  in  tbe  clearness  and  simplicity  with 
ffhich  tlie  situation  is  presented  and  developed,  and  in  the  consiat- 
incy  and  moderation  with  wiiich  his  various  characters  play  their 
part.  But  his  great  attraction  to  both  ancient  and  modern  writers 
aas  been  the  purity  and  charm  of  his  style,  whether  employed  in 
narrative  or  dialogue.  This  charm  he  derived  from  hifl  familiarity 
jvith  the  purest  Latin  idiom,  as  "it  was  habitually  used  in  the 
:otimate  intercourse  of  the  best  Roman  families,  and  also  with  the 
purest  Attic  idiom,  as  it  had  been  written  and  spoken  a  century 
before  his  own  time.  The  fine  Attic  flavour  is  more  perceptible  in 
his  Latin  than  iu  the  Greek  of  his  contemporaries.  He  makes  no 
claim  to  the  creative  exuberance  of  Plautus,  but  he  is  entirely  free 
from  his  extravagance  and  mannerisms.  The  superiority  of  his 
»tyle  over  that  of  Lucilius,  who  wrote  his  satires  a  generation  later, 
is  almost  immeasurable.  The  best  judges  aud  the  greatest  masters 
if  style  in  the  best  period  of  Komau  literature  were  bis  chief  admirers 
Id  ancient  times.  Cicero  frequently  reproduces  his  expressions, 
tpplies  passages  in  his  phys  to  his  own  circutustances,  and  refers 
to  uis  personages  as  typical  representations  of  character.^  Julius 
Cdesar  characterizes  him  as  "  puri  sermonis  amator."  Horace,  so 
depreciatory  iu  general  of  the  older  literature,  shows  his  apprecia- 
tion of  Terence  by  the  frequent  reproduction  in  his  Satires  aud  in 
his  Odes  of  liis  language  and  his  philosophy  of  life.  Quintiliau 
ipplies  t/i  his  writings  the  epithet  "elegantissima,"  and  in  that 
connexion  refers  to  the  belief  that  they  were  the  work  of  Scipio 
Africanus.  His  works  were  studied  and  learned  by  heart  by  the 
great  Latin  writers  of  the  Renaissance,  such  as  Erasmus  and  Me- 
lanchthon  ;  and  Casaubon,  in  his  anxiety  that  his  son  should  write 
I  pure  Latin  style,  inculcates  on  him  the  constant  study  of  Terence. 
Uoutaigue  applies  to  him  the  phrase  of  Horace  : 

"  Liquidus  puroque  similliraus  amni.* 
He  speaks  of  "his  fine  expression,  elegancy,  and  quaintness,"  and 
kdds,  "  he  does  so  possess  the  soul  with  his  graces  that  we  forget 
those  of  his  fable."'  It  is  among  the  French,  the  great  masters  of 
the  prose  of  refined  conversation,  that  his  merits  have  been  most 
Appreciated  in  modern  times.  Sainte-Beuve.in  his  Nomxay.x  Lundis, 
devotes  to  him  two  papei-s  of  delicato  and  admiring  criticism.  He 
quotes  Fenelon  and  Addison,  "deu\  esprits  polls  et  doux,  de  la 
meme  famille  litteraire,"  as  expressing  their  admiration  for  the 
inimitable  beauty  and  naturalness  of  one  of  his  scenes.  Fenelon  is 
said  to  have  preferred  him  even  to  Molifere.  S.iiiitc*Beuve  calls 
Terence  the  bond  of  union  between  Rojian  urbanity  au'l  the  Atticism 
of  the  Creeks,  and  adds  that  it  was  in  the  17tli  century,  when 
French  literature  was  most  t'uly  Attic,  that  he  was  most  apprcci- 
lited.  M.  Joubert  is  quoted'  as  appljing  tohim  the  words  "Le  miel 
'tttique  est  sur  ses  levres  ;  on  iroirait  aisemeut  qu'il  naquit  sur  Ic 
mont  Hymette. " 

The  most  famous  edition  of  Terence  Is  tJiat  of  Ucntley.  puMislied  in  1T2G, 
More  recent  editions  are  those  of  Parry,  lo  the  Bibhotheca  C'/nssioi,  and  of  \V 
JWaijner.    The  text  lias  heen  edited  by  A.  Fllclteisen  in  the  Teubner  Series  of 
tlnssics.     A  number  of  editions  of  the  separate  plays  have  l^en  published 
rcfflmtly  ttoth  in  Enylaitd  and  iu  Germany.  <W.  Y.  S.) 

TERESA,  St.    See  Theuesa,  St. 

TERLIZZI,  a  town  of  Italy,  iu  the  province  of  Bari, 
itid  20'taile3  west  from  that  town,  stands  in  the  midst  of 
•(.^fcrlile  plain.      It  has  a  castle  which  at  one  time  was 

Ir 1 ' 

•  See  £p.  ad  Fam.,  i.  9,  19,  and  Phil.,  ii.  15. 

',^asflyJ  of  MinUairf-ne  (trans,  by  Ch.  Cotton),  ehap.  livii, 

<  By  I'.  NftTtitp.  iu  Li's  Jlixlrrir^  de  la  LHiiralirre  lyiiinr 


very  fitrong  and  occasionally  resorted  to  by  the  einpp.ro- 
Frederick  II.  and  afterwards  by  the  Atagonese  sovereigns. 
The  wsills  and  towers  of  the  town  still  remain,  but  the 
fosse  has  been  turned  into  boulevards.  Terlizzi  has  a 
considerable  trade,  chiefly  in  the  wine  and  fruii;  of  the 
district.  The  population  of  the  town  in  iS81  wa.s  20,442 
(commune,  20,592). 

TERM  (from  the  Latin  tennin'us)  in  English  law  is  used 
iu  two  senses,  the  idea  common  to  both  being  that  of  n. 
limited  aud  certain  period  of  time.- 

(1)  It  denotes  (or  rather  did  denote)  a  fixed  time  during 
which  the  courts  are  open  for  legal  proceedings.  Terms 
in  this  sense  afTected  only  what  tised  to  be  called  the 
superior  courts, — that  is,  the  Queen's  Benth,  Common  Pleas, 
and  Exchequer.  They  were  originally  the  leisure  seasons 
of  the  year  which  were  not  occupied  by  great  feasts  or  fasts 
of  the  church  or  by  agriculture.  Their  origin  is  no  doubt 
to  be  traced  back  to  the  legislation  of  the  early  Christian 
emperors,  the  principle  being  adopted  in  England  through 
the  influence  of  ecclesiastical  judges,  and  still  surviving  in 
the  universities  and  Inns  of  Court.  Terms  were  regulated 
by  many  Acts  of  parliament,  tbe  effect  of  which  was  to 
confine  to  a  comparatively  short  period  the  time  dtu-ing 
which  the  courts  could  sit  in  banco, — that  is,  for  the  decision 
of  questions  of  law  as  distinguished  from  the  decision  of 
questions  of  fact.  There  were  four  terms,  Hilary,  liaSter, 
Trinity,  and  Michaelmas,  the  average  duration  of  each 
being  about  three  weeks.  All 'legislation  on  thu  subject 
previous  to  1873  is  now  merely  of  historical  interest,  for 
by  the  Judicature  Act  of  that  year  the  division  of  tlie  year 
into  terms  was  abolished  so  far  as  related  to  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice. 

(2)  It  denotes  the  time  during  which  an  interest  in  ac 
estate  for  life  or  for  years  is  enjoyed,  also  the  interest  it- 
self, because  such  an  interest  must  determine  at  a  definite 
time.  If  the  interest  be  for  life,  it  is  an  estate  of  freehold  ; 
if  for  years;  only  a  personal  interest  in  real  estate,  and  so 
personalty,  even  though  the  length  of  the  term — for  in- 
stance, 1000  years — may  far  exceed  in  duration  any  iiossible 
life  estate.  A  term  of.years  is  of  two  kinds, — the  first  that 
created  by  an  ordinary  lease  reservmg  a  rent,  as  of  a  house 
or  a  building  lease ;  the  second  that  created  by  a  settlement 
or  a  will,  mually  without  rent  reserved,  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  payiiient  of  money,  such  as  portions  to  younger 
children,  by  the  oivner  of  the  land.  Both  kinds  have  been 
considerably  affected  by  recent  legislation.  For  instance, 
the  Conveyancing  Act,  1881,  enables  a  mortgagor  or  mort- 
gagee in  possession  to  make  certain  leases.  Before  1845 
jjrovision  was  always  made  in  conveyances  for  keeping  on 
foot  a  term  to  attend  the  inheritance,  as  it  was  called, — that 
is,  for  assigning  the  remainder  of  a  term  Jo  trustees  for  the 
protection  of  the  owner  of  the  property  a^iinst  rent-charges 
or  other  incumbrances  created  subsequently  to  the  term; 
although  the  term  had  been  satisfied, — that  is,  the  purpose 
for  which  the  term  had  been  created  had  been  fuUilledl 
By  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  1 1  2  the  assignment  of  satisfied  terms 
was  rendered  unnecessary.  The  Convey.tncing  Acts,  18S1 
and  1882,  give  power  to  enlarge  the  unexpired  residue  of 
a  long  term  in  certain  cases  into  the  fee  simple. 

In  Scotland  terms  are  the  days  at  which  rent  or  interest  is  par 
able.  They  are  cither  legal  or  conventional  :  tlic  legal  are  Whit- 
Sunday  and  Martinmas  ;  the  conventional  are  fixed  by  agreement 
between  the  parties.  A  recent  Act  (-H  and  Ji  Viet.  c.  ZV)  makes 
uniforin  the  law  as  to  removal  terms  in  bnighs.  Terms  as  times  ol 
court  sittings  were  defined  by  6  Anne  c.  53,  n  Inch  fixed  four  terms — 
Martinmas,  Candlemas,  Whitsuntide,  and  Lammas — for  the  now 
obsolete  Couit  of  Eicliequer.  By  19  aud  20  Vict  c.  .Mi.  s.  2C.  the 
winter  and  summer  sittings  of  the  Court  of -Sessiou  are  lobe  held  to 
correspond  with  the  Exchequer  terms. 

TERMINI,  or  Termi.ni  I.merese  {Thermx  J/imereiises] 
a  town  on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  at  the  mouth  of  8 
river  of  th".  snmi<  "ome,  in  the  provini'e  of  Palermo,  and 


T  E  R  — T  E  R 


189 


23  miles  east-south-east  of  that  town.  None  of  its  modern 
buildings  are  of  any  special  interest ;  in  the  Piano  de  San 
Giovanni  above  the  town  the  substructure  of  a  Roman 
rtl'a  has  been  excavated,  and  there  are  also  traces  of  an 
amphitheatre.  Termini  is  one  of  the  busiest  provincial 
towns  of  Sicily  ,  the  surrounding  district  being  exceed- 
ingly fertile  and  the  harbour  good,  there  is  a  considerable 
export  trade  in  grain,  fruit,  tartar,  and  other  products. 
The  macaroni  of  Termini  is  in  high  repute.  The  tunny 
and  sariline  fisheries  are  extensive,  and  there  is  a  school 
of  navigation.  The  warm  saline  springs  (110*  Fahr.), 
sung  by  Pindar,  are  still  largely  resorted  to,  there  being 
a  well-appointed  bath  establishment,  founded  by  Ferdi- 
nand I.  The  population  of  the  town  in  1881  was  23,370, 
with  iu  suburbs  22,733  (commune,  23,148). 

For  the  ancieDt  hUtory  of  TcrmiDi  see  Himeba.  The  castle  of 
Tenumi,  which  Robert  of  Naples  -besieged  la  vam  in  1338,  was 
JestToved  in  1860. 

TERMITES.     See  Ant,  vol.  ii.  p.  99 

TERMONDE.     See  Dendebmo.vde. 

TERN  (Norsk  Ta:r7u,  Tmne,  or  Tende  ;  Swedish  T&ma; 
Dutch  Stem^).  the  name  now  applied  generally  to  a  group 
of  sea-birds,  the  SUminee  of  modern  ornithology,  but, 
according  to  Selby,  properly  belonging,  at  least  in  the  Fame 
Islands,  to  the  species  known  by  the  book-name  of  Sand- 
wich Tern,  all  the  others  being  those  called  Sea-Swallows 
— a 'name  still  most  commonly  given  to  the  whole  group 
throughout  Britain  from  their  long  wings,  forked  tail, 
ind  marine  habit  In  Willughby's  OmitAclogia  (1676), 
however,  the  word  Tern  is  used  for  more  than  one  species, 
ind,  though  it  does  not  appear  in  the  older  English  dic- 
donaries,  it  may  well  have  been  from  early  times  as  general 
1  name  as  it  is  now. 

Setting  a5ide  those  which  are  t>nt  occaaioDai  vie'itors  to  the  British 
IsUods,  six  species  of  Terns  may  be  regarded  as  indigeDous,  though 
>f  them  one  has  ceased  from  ordinarily  breeding  m  the  United 
Ungdom,  while  a  second  has  become  so  rare  and  regularly  appears 
J)  so  few  places  that  meotioo  of  them  must  for  prudence  sake  be 
iToided,  This  last  is  the  beautifuJ  Eoseato  Tern,  SUma  dougaili ; 
ihe  other  is  the  Black  Tern,  Bydrochciidon  ni^ra,  belonging  to  a 
renos  in  which  the  toes  are  only  half-webbed,  of  small  size  and 
aark  leaden-grey  plamage.  It  is  without  doubt  the  Sterna  of  Turner, 
ind  in  former  days  was  abundant  ii  many  parts  of  the  fen  country,* 
to  say  nothing  of  other  districts.  Though  nearly  all  :ts  ancient 
tbodes  have  been  drained,  and  for  its  purposes  sterilized  these  many 
^ears  past,  not  a  spring  comes  but  it  shows  itself  in  small  companies 
in  the  eastern  counties  of  England,  evidently  seeking  a  breeding- 
place.  All  around  the  coast  the  diininution  in  the  numbers  of  the 
■eraaining  species  of  Terns  within  the  last  50  years  is  no  less  de- 
plorable than  demonstrable. 

The  Sandwich  Tern,  S.  mndtncenais  or  8.  carUiaea — named  from 
the  place  of  its  discovery,  though  it  has  long  since  ceased  to  inhabit 
that  neighbourhood — is  the  largest  of  the  British  species,  eqtLalling 
in  size  the  smaller  Gulls  and  having  a  dark  .coloured  bill  tipped 
rith  yellow,  and  dark  legs.  Through  persecution  it  has  been  ex- 
terminated in  all  its  sonthero  hannts,  and  is  become  much  scarcer 
in  those  to  which  it  still  resorts.  It  was,  however,  never  bo  abundant 
ts  its  smaller  congeners,  the  so-called  Common  and  the  Arctic  Tern, 
—two  species  that  are  so  nearly  alike  as  to  be  beyond  discrimina- 
tion on  the  wing  by  an  ordinary  observer,  and  even  in  the  band 
require  a  somewhat  close  examination  '    The  former  of  these  has 

*  "Starn"  was  used  in  Norfolk  in  the  19th  century  as  a  name  far 
the  bird  commonly  known  as  the  Black  Tem,  thus  confirming  Turner, 
who,  in  1544,  describes  what  seems  to  have  been  the  same  species 
as  "nostrati  Imgua  sterna  appellate."  In  at  least  one  instance  the 
word  has  been  confounded  with  one  of  the  old  forms  of  the  modem 
fiTiLBLmo  (vol  xxii-  p.  457).  To  Turner's  name,  repeated  by  Oesner 
and  other  authors,  we  owe  the  introduction  by  Linnsus  of  Stenuz  into 
scientific  nomenclature.    '  *  Ekstem  "  is  another  Dutch  form  of  the  word. 

'  It  was  known  there  as  Carr-Swollow,  Carr-Crow  (ccnupted  into 
" Scarecrow "),  and  Blue  Dar  {ju.  =Daw ?). 

'  Linnsua's  diagnosis  of  his  SUma  hirundo  points  to  his  having  had 
w  ' '  Arctic  "  Tem  before  him  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  he  did  not  sus- 
pect that  specific  appellation  (already  used  by  other  writers  for  the 
"Common  "  Tem)  to  cover  a  second  species.  Some  modem  adlhoritiea 
disregard  his  name  as  being  insufficiently  defii^ite,  and  much  Is  to  be 
4aid  for  this  view  of  the  case.  Undoubtedly  * '  kirurtdo  "  has  now  been 
ased^  indiscriminately  for  one  species  or  the  other  as  to  cause  con- 
fusion, which  is  perhaps  best  avoided  by  adopting  the  epithets  of  Nau- 


the  more  southern  range,  and  oi^en  affects  inland  situations,  while 
the  latter,  though  by  no  means  limited  to  the  Arctic  circle,  is 
widely  distributed  over  the  north  and  mostly  resorts  to  the  sea- 
coast  Yet  there  are  localities  where,  as  on  the  Fame  Islands,  both 
meet  and  breed,  without  occupying  stations  apart  The  minute 
diagnosis  of  these  two  species  cannot  be  briefly  given.  It  must 
sufnce  here  to  state  that  the  most  certain  difference,  as  it  is  the 
most  easily  recognizable,  is  to  be  found  in  the  tarsus,  which  in  the 
Arctic  Tern  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  shorter  than  in  its  kmsman. 
The  remaining  native  species  is  the  Lesser  Tern,  5,  mmuUi,  one  of 
the  smallest  of  the  genus  and  readily  to  be  distinguished  by  its  per 
manently  white  forehead.  All  the  species  already  mentioned, 
except  tne  Black  Tem.  have  much  the  same  general  coloration  — 
the  adults  in  summer  plumage  wearing  a  black  cap  and  having 
the  upper  parts  of  the  body  and  wings  of  a  more  or  less  pale 
grey,  while  they  are  mostly  lighter  beneath.  They  generally  breed 
in  association,  often  in  the  closest  proximity — their  nests,  contain- 
ing 3  eggs  at  most,  being  made  on  the  shingle  or  among  herbage. 
The  young  are  hatched  clothed  in  variegated  down,  and  remain  in 
the  nest  for  some  time.  At  this  season  the  parents  are  almost 
regardless  of  human  presence  and  expose  themselves  freely. 

At  least  half-a-dozen  other' species  have  been  recorded  as  occurring 
m  British  waters,  and  among  them  the  Caspian  Tem,  S.  caspia, 
which  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  genus  and  of  wide  distribution, 
thoi^h  not  breeding  nearer  to  the  shores  of  England  than  on  Sylt 
and  its  neighbouring  islands,  which  still  afford  lodging  for  a  few 
pairs.  Another,  the  Gull-billed  Tem,  S.  anglita,  has  also  been 
not  unfrequently  shot  in  England.  All  these  species  are  now  re- 
cognized, though  the  contrary  was  once  maintained,  as  inhabitanti 
of  North  America,  and  many  go  much  further. 

An  excellent  synopsis  of  the  Sub-family  Slemina  hai 
been  given  by  Mr  Howard  Saunders  in  the  Zoological 
Proceedings  (1876,  pp.  638-672).  He  recpgnizes  5  genera, 
— Hydrochelidon  (with  3  species).  Sterna  (with  38),  Nsnia, 
a  very  aberrant  form  consisting  of  but  one  species,  the 
Inca  Tern,  peculiar  to  the  western  coast  of  South  America, 
and  Gygu,  composed  of  2  species  of  purely  white  birds  and 
restricted  to  the  southern  hemisphere ;  his  fifth  genus  is 
An<nu,  to  which  belong  the  various  species  of  Noddy  (vol. 
xvii  p.  531).  Often  confounded  with  these  last  are  the 
two  species  called  in  books  Sooty  Terns  (S.  /uliginosa 
and  S.  anjestheta),  but  by  sailors  "Egg-birds"  or  "Wide- 
awakes" from  their  cry  These  crowd  at  certain  seasons 
in  innumerable  multitude  to  certain  islands  witbin  the 
tropics,  where  they  breed,  and  the  wonderful  assemblage 
at  present  known  as  "  Wide-awake  fair  "  on  the  island  oi 
Ascension  has  been  more  or  less  fully  described  from  verj 
ancient  times.  Dampier  in  his  voyage  to  New  Holland 
in  1699  particularly  described  and  figured  the  Sooty  Ten 
(  Voyages,  iii  p.  142),  discriminating  it  from  the  Noddy,  froa 
which  it  had  not  before  be^  distinguished,  (a.  n.) 

TERNATE,  a  small  island  in  the  East  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, oflF  the  west  coast  of  Jilolo  (q.v.),  in  0°  48'  N 
lat.  and  127°  19'  E.  long.  It  is  nearly  circular  in  form, 
with  an  area  of  about  25  square  miles,  and  congisti 
almost  entirely  of  a  very  remarkable  volcano  (5600  feet) 
formed  of  three  superimposed  cones.  Frequent  and  de- 
structive eruptions  have  taken  place.  Cocoa-nuts,  sago, 
tobacco,  cotton,  sulphur,  and  saltpetre  axe  the  chief  pra 
dnctions  of  the  island.  The  clove,  which  had  been  ex- 
tirpated by  the  early  Dutch  rulers-  to  enhance  its  value 
by  restricting  its  cultivation  to  the  Banda  Islands,  Am- 
boyna,  &c.,  is  beginning  again  to  be  grown,  as  also  js  the 
nutmeg.  The  inhabitants  are  nearly  all  Mohammedan 
Malays.  The  town  of  Temate,  with  a  population  of  about 
9000,  is  the  seat  of  a  native  sultan  and  of  a  Dutch 
resident ;  the  harbour  is  commanded  by  a  fort.  The 
residency,  which  includes  a  part  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
Celebes  (see  Cei.£bes),  the  greater  part  of  Jiloli  and 
numerous  smaller  islands,  has  an  area  of  26,900  jquan: 
miles  and  a  population  estimated  at  about  290,000. 

maun  (/«u,  1819,  pp.  1847,  1848),  who,  acting  on  and  conflnmlng  the 
discovery  of  Nitzscb  (who  first  detected  the  speciflo  difference),  ealie^ 
the  southern  species  ,S.  fiuviatilis  and  the  northern  S.  wacntra, 
Temminck's  name  5L  arctica  appliea  to  the  latter  a  year  later  has  beea 
most  generally  used.for  it,  notwithstanding. 


190 


T  E  R  — T  E  R 


TERNI,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Perugia  is 
eituated  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Nera.  between  two 
branches  of  that  river,  about  5  miles  below  the  point 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Vehno  It  has  a  station,  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  ol.,  on  the  railway  line  between  Rome 
and  Ancona,  69  miles  to  the  north  of  the  former  city  and 
19  south  by  west  from  Spoleto  Term  is  an  episcopal 
see,  and  the  seat  of  a  sub-prefecture  and  a  chamber  of 
commerce  Its  public  buildings  include  the  cathedral 
(17th  century)  the  church  of  S  Francesco  (partly  dating 
from  the  13th  century),  a  gymnasium,  and  a  theatre. 
Temi  manufactures  leather  and  cloth,  and  has  some  trade 
ID  wine  and  silk  For  the  traveller  its  chief  interest  lies  in 
Its  antiquities  (remains  of  an  amphitheatre  of  the  time  of 
Tiberius,  a  teinple,  a  theatre,  baths,  and  numerous  inscrip- 
tions) and  in  the  proximity  of  the  falls  of  Vehno  (Cascatf 
delle  Marmore).  Alike  m  volume  and  in  beauty  these 
take  a  very  high  place  among  European  waterfalls  ;  the 
cataract  has  a  total  descent  of  about  650  feet,  in  three 
leaps  of  65,  330,  and  190  feet  respectively  They  owe  their 
origin  to  M'.  Curius  Dentatus,  who  in  272  B.C.  first  opened 
an  artificial  channel  by  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
Lacus  Velinus  in  the  valley  below  Reate  was  drained. 
The  population  of  the  town  in  1881  was  9415,  with  its 
suburbs  10,371  (commune,  15,853). 

TefDi  IS  the  ancient  Intcrainna  ("inter  amnes").  originally 
belonging  to  Umbna  and  founded,  according  to  a  loc*il  tradition,  in 
the  year  672  B.c  It  early  became  a  flourishing  municipium,  and 
It  did  not  permanently  suffer  through  being  portioned  out  among 
his  soldiers  by  Sulla.  Its  inhabitants  had  frequent  litigations  ana 
disputes  with  their  neighbours  at  Reate  in  connexion  with  the 
regulation  of  the  Velinus,  the  waters  of  which  are  so  strongly  im- 
pregnated with  carbonate  of  lirae  that  by  their  deposits  they  tend 
to  block  up  their  o\ra  channel.  The  first  interference  with  its 
natural  course  was  that  of  M'  Cunus  Dentatus  already  referred  to. 
In  54  B.c  the  people  of  Reate  appealed  to  Cicero  to  plead  their 
cause  in  an  arbitration  which  had  been  appointed  by  the  Roman 
senate  to  settle  disputes  about  the  river,  and  in  connexion  with 
this  he  made  a  personal  inspectior.  of  Lake  Velinus  and  its  outlets. 
In  the  time  of  Tiberius  there  was  a  project  for  regulating  the  river 
and  its  outlets  from  the  lake,  against  which  the  citizens  of  Inter- 
amna  and  Reate  energetically  and  successfully  protested  (Tac. , 
Ann..  1.  79)  Similar  questions  arose  as  the  nver  formed  fresh 
deposits  dunng  the  Middle  Ages  and  dunng  the  1.5th  and  16th  cen- 
turies A  branch  of  the  Via  Flaminia  passed  from  Narnia  to  Forum 
Flaminii,  and  is  given  instead  of  the  direct  line  in  the  Antonine 
and  Jerusalem  itineraries  The  emperor  Tacitus  and  his  brother 
Florianus  were  probably  natives  of  Interamna,  which  also  has  been 
claimed  as  the  birthplace  of  Tacitus  the  historian,  but  with  less 
reason  Term  was  the  scene  ol  the  defeat  of  the  Neapolitans  by 
the  French  on  27th  November  1798 

TERPANDER.  a  Lesbian  poet  and  musician,  settled 
m  Sparta  about  the  end  of  the  Second  Messenian  War 
(668  B.C.)  According  to  some  accounts,  he  was  invited 
thither  by  command  of  the  Delphian  oracle  to  compose  the 
differences  which  had  arisen  between  different  classes  m 
the  state  His  innovations  m  music  werB  considered  to 
have  inaugurated  a  new  era  of  musical  art  in  Greece  ;  but 
we  are  very  imperfectly  informed  as  to  their  nature  On 
the  strength  of  a  fragment  (No  5  in  Bergk),  which  may 
or  may  not  be  geniline, — "rejecting  the  four-toned  song,  we 
will  sing  to  thee  new  hymns  with  the  seven-voiced  lyre," — 
Strabo  says  that  he  increased  the  number  of  strings  in  the 
lyre  from  four  to  seven  ,  others  take  the  fragment  to  mean 
that  he  developed  the  citharoedic  nomos  (sung  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  the  cithara  or  lyre)  by  makmg  the  divisions  of 
the  ode  seven  instead  of  four  We  possess  six  short  frag- 
ments of  poetry  in  the  Dorian  dialect  bearing  the  name  of 
Terpander  They  are  from  hymns  to  the  gods  Zeus,  Apollo, 
Apollo  and  the  Muses,  the  Dioscuri,  Ac,  and  are  written 
in  a  slow  spondaic  movement  or  in  dactyls.  They  present 
no  remarkable  features  and  are  probably  spurious 

Bergk,  Pocta  Lyrm  Grmi.  lii.  (4th  ed.)pp   7-12.  Leipsic.  1882. 

TERRACINA   a  town  of  Italy,  in  tb«^rovince  of  Rome, 

mnd  about  60  miles  to  the  south-east  of  that  city,  at  the 


south-east  extremity  of  the  Pontine  marshes,  where  the 
Monti  Lepini  (see  Italy,  vol.  xiii.  p.  438,  and  Latiom) 
descend  into  the  sea.  The  ancient  town  (Volscian  Anj^ur, 
Roman  Tarracina) stood  on  the  white  hillside  ("imposituiii 
saxis  late  candentibus  Anxur  "),  along  the  foot  of  winch, 
by  the  seashore,  ran  the  Via  Appia.  The  modern  town 
stands  mainly  on  the  level  ground.  The  most  cons()icuou3 
building  IS  the  cathedral,  which  is  believed  to  occujiy  the 
site  of  a  temple  of  Jupiter  Anxurus  ;  it  is  enriched  both 
externally  and  internally  with  beautiful  old  columns  and 
Roman  mosaics.  Above  the  town,  on  the  summit  of  the 
cliff,  are  the  remains  of  a  palace  of  Theodonc  (c.  500), 
afterwards  a  mediseval  castle  The  ancient  harbour,  con- 
structed by  Antoninus  Pius  and  once  very  important,  is 
npw  silted  up  ,  a  new  mole  affords  shelter  to  coasting 
vessels  Fishing  is  carried  on,  and  there  is  some  trade 
in  the  produce  of  the  district.  The  population  of  the 
town  in  1881  was  6294  (commune,  8572). 

Anxur  finally  became  Roman  in  400  B.C.,  and  a  colony  wa.** 
established  there  in  329  Its  strategic  position  early  gave  it  mili- 
tary importance  .  and  its  niea.sant  situation  and  its  mineral  waters 
led  many  Romans  to  builu  villas  and  seek  seaside  quarters  there. 

TERRA-COTTA  '  Strictly  speaking  this  name  is  Meao 
applicable  to  all  objects  made  of  baked  clay,  from  the  '"t 
rudest  brick  to  the  finest  piece  of  pottery,  but  it  usually 
has  a  more  limited  meaning,  to  denote  fictile  objects 
which  do  not  come  under  the  head  of  pottery,  such  as 
statuettes  and  busts ,  and  ;n  its  architectural  use  it 
specially  implies  the  finer  sorts  of  decorative  clay-work,  to 
the  exclusion  of  common  building  bricks  In  ancient 
times,  especially  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  terra- 
cotta was  employed  for  an  immense  variety  of  purposes, 
from  the  commonest  objects  of  everyday  use  to  the  mo,«t 
elaborate  and  ambitious  works  of  art,  such  as  colossal 
statues  and  groups  Though  the  natural  colour  and  sur- 
face of  the  burnt  clay  are  generally  very  pleasing  m  tone 
and  texture,  it  seems  to  have  been  universally  the  custom 
in  classical  times  to  cover  the  terra-cotta  completely  with 
a  thin  white  coating,  which  formed  an  absorbent  ground 
for  the  further  application  of  colour  For  internal  work, 
except  in  rare  instances,  these  colours  were  mixed  with  a 
tempera  medium,  and  applied  after  the  clay  had  been 
fired  They  were  therefore  not  true  ceramic  colours  ,  and 
pigments  of  great  variety  and  brilliance  could  be  employed. 
as  they  had  not  to  undergo  the  severe  ordeal  of  the  kiln 
For  external  work,  such  as  that  shown  in  fig  5.  only 
earth  pigments  such  as  ochres  and  lime  were  used,  and 
the  colours  were  fired. 

No  branch  of  archaeology  has  during  the  last  dozen  Gren, 
years  or  so  developed  so  rapidly  as  that  of  Greek  terra 
cotta  figures  on  this  most  fascinating  subject  an  aston- 
ishingly large  mass  of  literature  has  been  published  in 
Germany  and  France  ^  The  discovery  of  this  new  world 
of  Greek  art  began  practically  in  1873.  with  the  first  ex- 
cavations m  the  tombs  of  Tanagra,  a  Bceotian  town  on  the 
high  road  from  Athens  to  the  north,  which  brought  to 
light  a  number  of  very  beautiful  terra-cotta  statuettes  ' 
.Subsequent  excavations  at  Corinth.  Smyrna,  Cyme,  Taren 
turn,  the  C!yrenaica.  and  many  other  places  also  yielded  a 
vast  number  of  terra-cotta  figures  of  various  dates  and 
styles  By  far  the  greater  number  belong  to  the  second 
half  of  the  4th  century  B.C.     but  examples  of.  an  earlier 


{ 


and  ' 
■  liefs 


■   Ad  Italian  word  meaning  literally  "baked  earth." 

'  See  li.st  al  the  end  of  the  present  article. 

>  See  B«U  Com.  Ivst  Arrh..  1874.  p  120  Many  thousand  tombs 
have  been  opened  al  Tanagra.  partly  cut  in  the  rock  and  partly  huiU 
of  masonry  The  statuette.^  were  either  arranged  round  the  body  or 
packed  ID  large  vases  The  Lostume  of  the  female  hgures  m  the  sa«e 
as  that  described  by  classical  writers  at  being  peculiar  to  the  neigb 
bnurmg  city  of  Thebes.  The  finest  of  the  Tanagra  figures  are  from 
8  to  9  inches  high. 


TERRA-COTTA 


191 


tcfn 


•Uta- 


daU)  art  not  wanting,  not  only  ol  figures  ui  the  round, 
but  also  of  K'liefs,  whicti  nppuar  to  have  bc«Q  largely  used 
for  the  tlocoralion  of  the  Uat  surfaces  of  walls  and  fi  lezes. 
The  ciiriiest  of  all  date  from  a  quite  prebistoric  poiiod, 
and  are  mostly  ^uiall  ulol-like  figures  of  the  rudest  possible 
form.  Laving  an  almost. shapeless  trunk  with  stick  like 
projections  for  thelimbs,  and  the  breasts  and  ejes  roughly 
indicated  by  rouud  dots.  They  ar«  usually  decorated  with 
coarse  stripes  or  cbcqucs  in  "ochre  colours  Examples 
of  these  have  been  found  at  Hissarlik  (Troad),  in  Cyprus 
and  other  islands,  and  in  the  citadel  of  Tiryns  in  1S84S5 
by  Dr  Scbliemana'and  Dr  Dorpfeld.  Later  but  still  very 
archaic  figures,  2  or  3  inches  high,  have  been  exhumed  in 
many  parts  of  the  jEgean  Islands  ;  some  of  these  are  stiff 
seated  figures  of  deities,  —  links  between  Oriental  and 
Hellenic  art,  like  the  statues  of  the  Sacred  Way  at  Bran- 
chidse  (south  of, Miletus).  Comparatively  few  specimens 
exist  of  the  best  period  of  Greek  art — the  5th  century  ' 
A  relief  in  the  Louvre  (about  18  by  12  inches)  with  a 
pierced  background,  dating  from  the  first  half  of  the  5th 
century,  tepresents  two  female  mourners  at  a  sepulchral 
stele, — one  standing  and  the  other  seated ,  under  the  foot 
of  the  latter  is  inscribed  AAEKTP.  On  the  other  side  of 
the  stele  are  two  youths  (the  Dioscuri)  standing  by  a  horse. 
The  whole  design  is  simple,  but  very  graceful,  and  the 
modelling  is  skilfully  treated  in  very  low  relief.  The 
colouring — blue,  red,  white,  and  dark  brown  —  is  well 
preserved.  This  relief  was  pressed  in  a  mould,  and  v^'as 
intended  to  be  attached  to  a  wall,  probably  that  of  a 
tomb,  as  a  votive  offering  to  the  dead.^ 

In  most  cases  the  terra-cotta  figures  and  reliefs  occur 
in  or  close  by  tombs,  but  it  is  only  in  comparatively  rare 
instances  that  the  subjects  cepresented  have  any  reference 
to  death.  Another  large  class  have  been  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  temples,  and  are  probably  votive  offerings,  such  as  the 
small  statuettes  of  horses  from  the  acropolis  of  Athens,  now 
in  the  Louvre.  In  other  cases,  as  at  Halicarnassus,  great 
quantities  of  small  figures  were  buried  under  a  temple, 
probably  to  purify  the  site,  as  was  done  in  Egypt  under 
the  later  dynasties,  when  many  hundred  figures  of  bronze 
were  sometimes  buried  under  one  building.  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  statuettes  found  scattered  in  and  round 
tombs  have  frequently  their  heads  broken  off,  Potticr  and 
Reinach  have  suggested  that  they  were  brought  as  offer- 
ings to  the  dead  and  their  heads  were  broken  off  by  the 
mourners  at  the  side  of  the  tomb.  Rayet  believes  that 
this  practice  was  a  sort  of  siu-vival  of  the  custom  of 
sacrificing  female  and  boy  slaves  at.  the  tombs  of  the 
dead.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  figures  are  intact, 
and  it  is  probable  that  many  of  the  tombs  were  broken 
open  and  rifled  long  ago,  which  would  explain  the  muti. 
lated  and  scattered  condition  of  the  figures.  The  tombs 
of  Tanagra  have  yielded  by  far  the  richest  finds  of  these 
figures,  the  specimens  being  very  remarkable  for  their 
beauty.  These  exquisite  statuettes  do  not  (in  most  cases) 
represent  deities  or  heroic  personages,  but  the  homely 
everycUy  life  of  the  Greeks,  treated  with  great  simplicity 
and  evident  realism  .  they  are  in  plastic  art  what  in 
painting  would  becalfed  genre,^  and  in  their  strong  human 

,  '  A  good  example  of  a  terracotta  relief  of  the  first  part  of  the  5th 
century  B  c.  is  figured  id  vol   ii.  p.  352. 

*  Some  very  Vicnutifiil  fragments  of  reliefs  in  terra  cotu  are  pre- 
served io  the  museums  of  the  Louvre,  of  Copenhagen,  and  the  Kir- 
chehano  in  Rome.  These  represent  on  a  small  scale  parts  of  Phidias's 
Panathenaic  frieze,  wiiich  have  all  the  appearance  of  being  works  of 
the  5th  century  B.C .  but  niay'possibly  be  forgeries  or  Roman  copies  ; 
•ee  Waldstein,  An  uj  Pheidias,  Cambridge,  1885. 

*  In  some  the  most  homely  sort  of  genre  is  represented, — a  girl 
lAilking  a  cow,  a  cook  or  a  barber  at  his  work,  &c  Even  i>ortrait 
figures  occur,  as,  for  example,  a  wonderfully  lifelike  group  of  a  man 
»nd  his  wife  in  the  collection  of  Mr  loniden,  recently  lent  to  the 
^  "'til  Kensington  Museum 


interest  and  naturalistic  pathos  bring  us  in  closer  contact 
with  the  life  and  personalities  of  the  past  than  any  more 
ambitious  style  of  art  could  possibly  do.  Moreover,  they 
prove  more  clearly  even  than  tbo  great  plastic  works  in 
bronze  and  marble  how  deeply  a  feeling  for  beauty  and 
a  knowledge  of  art  must  have  peaetratod  the  whole  mass 
of  the  people.  Their  immense  number  shows  that  they 
must  have  been  far  from  costly,  ■svithin  the  reach  of  every 
one,  and  certainly  not  the  production  of  any  famous 
sculptors.  Nevertheless,  sketchy  as  tbey  are  in  treatment 
and  often  faulty  in  detail,  they  are  in  pose,  in  motive,  and 
in  general  effect  works  of -the  highest-  beauty,  full  of  the 
most  inimitable  grace,  and  evidently  the  production  of 
men  in  whom  the  best  qualities  of  the  sciilDt6r  were  innate 
by  a  sort  of  natural 
birthright.  Several 
small  figures  from 
Myrina  (Mysia)  have 
the  artist's  name  in- 
scribed on  them  ;  but 
signatures  of  this  sort 
are  rare.* 

It  is  impossible  to 
describe  the  many 
subjectstreated  Only 
a  few  examples  can 
be  mentioned.  Among 
single  figures  the 
most  frequent  are 
those  of  girls  stand- 
ing or  seated  in  an 
immense  variety  of 
pose,  and  with  plenti- 
ful drapery  arranged 
in  countless  methods, 
showing  the  great 
taste  with  which  a 
Greek  lady  could  f'"-  ^ 
dispose  the  folds  of 
her  ample  pallium,  whether  it  hung  in  graceful  loops  or 
was  wound  closely  round  the  figure  or  formed  a  hood  like 
veil  over  the  head.     In  some  tLo  lady  holds  a  leaf-sbaped_ 


Subject 
and  de- 

sigM. 


Staiuct'.e  of  ,agu-l  and  infant  Ero5 
from  Tanagra.    /(.St  Petersburg  ) 


FlO.  2. — Aphrodite  and  cupids      The  pendant  hung  round  the  neck" 
of  Aphrodite  is  gilt      (South  Kcnsinglon  Museum  ) 

fan,  or  is  looking  in  a  circular  mirror,  or  holds  a  ball  ready) 
for  the  game.  Many  have  a  strange  broad  hat,  probablji 
o'f  straw,  which  does  not  fit  on  the  head,  but  must  haW 

. i 

•  See  Gaz.  des  D   Arts,  x\uii  .  ISSC,  p.  278 


192 


T  E  R  R  A  -  C  0  T 


1   i\. 


been  fastened  by  a  pin  to  the  hair  or  veil.  One  very 
beautiful  niolive  is  that  of  a  girl  playing  with  an  infant 
Erus,  who  Hies  to  her  for  shelter,  and  is  received  with 
wElcoDie  hall  tinged  with  dread.  Fig  1  shows  a  very 
lovely  ^laiiielte  ol  this  kind,  now  in  the  Hermitage  Palace. 
A  favourite  subject  is  taken  froffi  a  game  in  which  one 
girl  carries  her  playmate  op  her  back, — a  motive  which, 
though  dithcult  to  treat  in  sculpture,  la  managed  very 
gracefully  in  terracotta.  Other  very  lovely  groups  are 
Aphro<lito  suckling  the  baby  Eros,  or  with  more  than  one 
;upid  hovering  round  her.  A  very  beautiful  example  (see 
6g  2)  occurs  ui  the  South  Keosingtcn  Museum  (from  the 
Ca^lellani  sale)  It  represents  a  half-nude  figure  of  Aph- 
rodite reclining  on  a  couch,  with  two  cupids  behind  holding 
up  a  veil,  which  was  coloured  blue  to  form  a  background 
lo  the  creamy  white  of  Aphrodite's  body. 
Tech-  The  Tanagra  and  other  figures  are  all  formed  of  thin 

lii'"'  pieces  of  soft  clay  pressed  into  a  mould,  usually  formed 
o.eibodn.  ^j  j^Q  halves  and  then  stuck  together;  and  they  are 
made  hollow  so  as  not  to  warp  and  crack  in  the  firing, 
ind  have  a  hole  at  the  back  for  the  escape  of  moisture 
during  that  process.  The  head  is  solid  and  was  formed 
in  a  separate  mould,  as  were  also  any  accessories,  such  as 
fana  or  mirrors,  and  arms  if  they  extend  away  from  the 
body  Repbcas  of  the  same  figure  are  often  varied  by 
having  different  beads  or  accessories ;  three  or  four  ex- 
anSJiles  have  been  found  from  the  same  mould.  After 
the  whole  was  put  together  it  was  usually  touched  up  and 
finished  with  modelling  tools.  The  colour  was  applied 
after  baking  .  a  coating  of  creamy  white  lime  or  chalk  all 
over'  served  as  the  flesh  tint  and  also  as  a  good  ground 
for  the  other  colours.  The  hair  of  the  females  is  always 
of  a  rich  auburn  red,  such  as  the  Venetians  were  so  fond, 
of  pamting  in  the  16th  century,  blue  was  touched  on 
the  eyes  and  cnmson  on  the  lips.  Drapery,  if  not  white, 
was  usually  rose-colour  or  blue,  often  with  a  fringe  or 
bands  of  gold  on  the  border.  Necklaces,  earrmgs,  and 
other  ornaments  were  generally  gilt,  the  gold  leaf  bglig 
applied  over  a  shghtly  raised  surface  of  slip,  ae  on  £he 
Greek  vases.  Similar  examples  have  been  found  m  tombs 
at  Thebes,  at  Thespife,  and  round  Athens.  Some  of  the 
Attica  figures  are  covered,  not  with  the  usual  non-ceramic 
colours,  but  with  a  real  white  ena^ 
mel,  the  vitrified  surface  of  which 
IS  very  often  shghtly  decomposed  , 
further  coloured  decoration  was  in 
some  cases  added  over  this  enamel. 
A.sia  A  number  of  places  in  the  west 

Minnr      of  Asia  Minor  have  yielded  large 
oi'w$'        quantities   of    terracotta   figures, 

very  similar  in  size  and  technique 

to  those  of  Tanagra,  but  belong. 

ing  for  the  most  part  to  quite  a 

different  school  of  sculpture.    Un- 

Lke  the  Tanagra  figures,  which  are 

rather  pictorial   in  style  and  deal 

with    (jenre   subjects,    those    from 

Smyrna,  Cyme,  Myrina,  and  other 

^ilaces  in  Asia  Minor  are  thoroughly 

sculpturesque  in  design,  and  are  fre- 
quently miniature  reproductions  of 

large  statues  or  groups  (see  fig.  3). 

Many  of  them  stand  on  moulded 

iiedestals,  while  the  Tanagra  figures  ^  „  „  ,  .  ^  , 
!  V         Ai_-       1  v     f     1  -  Fio.  3. — Copy  of  a  statue  of 

have  only  a  thm  slab  of  clay  as  a     Aphrodite  from  Megam. 
base.      The  average  size  of    both     (Berlin  Mosenm.) 
classes    is   from   6   to    10    inches 

Wgh.  Very  elaborate  groups  with  three  or  four  figures 
often  occur.  Dionysiac  and  Bacchanal  subjects  are  fre- 
quently chosen,  or  scenes  from  sacred  mythology,  such  as 


the  labours  ol  Heracles.'  These  also  niostiy  date  from 
the  4th  century  B.C.,  and  the  statuettes  often  appeal 
to  be  copies  from  sculpture  of  the  school  of  Praxiteles  oi 
Soopas.  One  instance  is  the  fine  nude  figure  of  Eros  ai 
a  youth  leaning  agamst  a  cippus,  holding  a  bronze  arrow 
in  his  hand,  in  the  collection  of  M.  de  Branteghem,  now 
in  Rome.'^  The  whole  of  it  was  gilt,  which  was  frequently 
the  case  with  the  Asia  Mmor  statuettes,  but  rarely  so  id 
those  of  Tanagra.'  A  very  beautiful  figure  of  a  winged 
Victory  in  the  same  collection  (from  the  Castellaai  sale) 
presents  the  same  motive  as  the  colossal  Victory  ol 
Samothrace  (in  the  LouvTe) ,  it  supplies  the  missing  right 
hand,  which  in  the  terra-cotta  contains  a  bunch  of  roses. 
The  drapery  of  this  figure  ia  blue,  mottled,  or  shot  with 
gold.  Other  figures,  from  their  heights  being  arranged  in 
even  gradations,  seem  to  be  copies  from  some  large  pedi- 
mental  sculpture.  Unfortunately  little  is  yet  known  of 
the  various  fabriques  of  these  Asia  Minor  figures,  as  in 
most  cases  their  provenance  is  very  doubtful*  The 
Lecuyer  collection  possessed  some  groups  with  several 
figures  forming  important  compositions.  One  of  these 
shows  two  female  mourners  at  a  tomb,  and  a  warrior  clad 
in  full  armour  with  his  horse.  The  most  remarkable 
group  (see  fig.  4i  i^  that  of  a  soul  led  by  Hermea  Psycho- 


Pia.  4. — A  soul  about  to  enter  Charon's  bark.    (Pnnce  Liecbtenatam'i 
collection,  Vienna  ;  formerly  in  the  Lecuyer  collection. ) 

pompus  to  the  bark  of  Charon,  who  is  represented  as  a 
bent  aged  man.  Hermes,"  a  graceful  nude  figure,  gently 
urges  the  shrinking  soul — a  <iraped  female  figure — to  the 
boat,  at  the  brink  of  the  rush-^grown  Styx.  The  whole 
scene  is  imagined  with  much  tender  grace  and  real 
pathos,  though  not  highly  finistied  in  its  details.  One  of 
the  most  important  terra-cotta  figures  yet  discovered  has 
recently  been  brought  to  England  from  Smyrna.  It  is  a 
very  beautiful  copy  of  the  Diadumenos  of  Polycletus, 
which  in  the  details  of  its  modelling  reproduces  some 
characteristics  of  tjie  later  school  of  Praxiteles.  The  fore- 
arms and  the  legs  below  the  knete  are  lost ;  but  in  breadth 


'  Fine  eiamplea  of  all  these  existed  in  the  collection  of  M.  Lecuyer, 
which  is  now  dispersed  (see  Lsnormant,  CoU.  Lecuyer  dc  lerre-cuitts, 
Paris,  1884,  which  ia  well  illustrated  with  photographs). 

'  In  a  few  other  examples  objects  of  bronie  are  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  figures. 

•  The  lovely  series, of  little  figures  of  dancing  cnpids  from  Tanagra, 
some  of  which  are  in/the  Louvre  and  others  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  were  wlioUy  gilt,  but  the  larger  statuettes  of  Tanagra  appear 
lo  have  bad  gold  applied  only  for  special  ornaments. 

*  For  many  reasons  both  finders  and  dealers  usually  wish  to  keep 
secret  where  valuable  finds  are  made.  In  most  museums  the  label* 
simply  repeat  the  dealer's  account  (for  want  of  better  information), 
so  Ibat  the  statement  of  VtMpnmiumu  moat  usually  be  accepted  with 


TERR  A-C  O  T  T  A 


193 


CyT«Diic 

statu 

«ttc« 


Twco- 

UD4 


ootu 
jewel- 
lery 


Dm  Ul 
Greek 

•rehiUc 


of  moJcUiag  and  graodeor  of  style  this  littla  figvire, 
which  was  oaly  about  14  inches  high  when  perfect,  has 
ihe  effect  of  a  much  larger  statue,  and  it  is  a  real  master- 
piece of  Gre«k  plastic  art.'  In  the  neigjibourhood  of 
Smyrna  and  Bphesus  a  large  number  of  caricature  figures 
have  been  esLhumed,  some  of  which  are  modelled  with  a 
wonderful  feeling  for  humour.'  These  strange  figures 
have  atteuuated  Umbs,  large  heads,  flapping  ears,  and 
goggle  eyes-  Some  play  on  musical  instruments ;  others 
represent  actors ,  and  one  in  the  De  Branteghem  collec- 
tion is  a  caricature  of  a  discobolus  in  almost  the  attitude 
of  Myron's  celebrated  statue. 

A  very  different  class  of  statuettes  has  recently  come 
to  light  in  the  Cyrenajca,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa. 
Miny  of  these  are  nnde  female  dancers  wearing  an 
elaborate  stephanos-like  head-dress.  They  are  realistic  in 
modeUmg  and  very  ungraceful  in  pose, — a  striking  con- 
trast to  the  exquisite  taste  of  the  Tanagra  and  most  of 
the  Asia  iLuor  figures.  Recent  excavations  in  the  tombs 
of  Corinth  have  produced  a  large  number  of  fine  terra- 
cottas, ranging  in  date  over  a  very  long  period.  Another 
and  artistically  very  perfect  class  of  figures  is  being 
dug  up  from  among  tie  tombs  of  Tarentum.  Some  of 
th^  belong  to  the  finest  penod  of  Greek  art,  probably 
about  400  B.C.,  and  others  ore  even  earlier.  Many 
are  not  statuettes,  but  merely  small  busts  of  heroic 
style,  and  of  the  highest  sculpturesque  beauty.  They 
are  certainly  not  portraits,  and  do  not  appear  to  repre- 
sent deities.  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  are  ideal- 
ized representations  of  an(jestor8,  whose  commemoration, 
in  some  places,  formed  an  important  cult ;  but  their  real 
meaning  must  for  the  present  remain  uncertain.  Many 
thousand  votive  figures  and  reliefs  in  clay  have  been 
found  within  xhe  temeni  of  the  temples  of  the  Chthonian 
deities  at  Tarentum  and  elsewhere.  It  seems  to  have 
been  customary  for  the  priests  periodically  to  clear  out 
of  the  temples  the  broken  or  too  numerous  offerings 
which  were  then  buried  within  the  enclosure  ;  whole  series 
arranged  chronologically  in  groups  have  been  discovered 
buried  in  separate  holes. 

In  addition  to  statuettes  and  reliefs,  terra-cotta  was 
used  by  the  Greeks  for  various  minor  ornamental  pur- 
poses. Delicately  moulded  necklaces  and  pendants  for 
ears  were  stamped  out  in  clay  and  then  thickly  covered 
with  gold  leaf ;'  this  produced  a  very  nch  effect  at  a  small 
cost ;  many  fine  examples  are  preserved  m  the  Louvre. 
Children's  toys,  such  as  miniature  horses  and  chariots,  and 
dolls  with  movable  limbs  of  terra-cotta  fastened  with 
wooden  pegs,  occur  in  many  tombs. 

On  a  larger  scale  terra-cotta  was  adapted  by  the  Greeks 
to  important  architectural  ornamentation.  Many  fine 
examples  have  been  found  at  Olympia  and  among  the 
ruined  temples  of  Selinus.  In  some  cases  the  main 
cornices  of  the  building  were  simply  blocked  out  square 
in  stone,  and  then  covered  with  moulded  plaques  of  terra- 
cotta, carefully  fonned  to  fit  on  and  round  the  angles  of 
the  block.  The  large  cymatium  which  forms  the  upper 
member  of  the  cormce  is  curved  upwards,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  rain  water  from  drippmg  all  along  the  edge  ;  and  at 
intervals  it  is  pierced  by  ornamental  clay  pipes,  which 
project  like  a  medieval  gargoyle.  In  some  examples 
from  Sehnns  the  cymatium  is  pierced  with  a  beautiful 
open  pattern  of  lotus  leaf  (see  fig.  5).  The  greatest 
care  was  taken  in  fitting  these  applied  mouldings  where 
each  plaque  joined  the  next^  and  especially  in  making 
them  fit  closely  on  to  the  stone  blocks,  in  which  rebates 
were  cut  to  receive  each  plaque.     The  whole  surface  of 

'  See  Jcmm.  of  HeUenie  Studies,  vol.  vL,  18S6,  p.  243. 
'  The  British' Museum  possesses  some  fine  caricatures  of  actors 
from  Can'mo,  very  skQfuJly  modelled  and  of  a  peculiar  fabrique. 


the  terra-cotta  is  covered  with  elaborate  painted  orna- 
ments of  great  beauty,  in  ochre  colours  applied  on  a  white 
ground,  as  La  the  case  of  the  statuettes.  These  beautiful 
temple  decorations  are  well  illustrated  by  Dorpfeld  and 


Fia  6. — Cornice  ennchments  of  painted  terra-cotta  from  Selinus.  Tliia 
section  shows  the  careful  way  in  which  the  terra-cotta  is  fitted  on  to 
the  stone ;  the  colours  are  red  and  brown  ochre  and  cream,  white. 

others  in  DU  Veneendun^  van  Ten'o-coiten,  Berlin,  1881. 
Though  no  complete  examples  of  terra-cotta  stattiary  now 
exist,  it  is  certain  that  the  Greeks  produced  it  on  a  large 
scale  and  of  the  highest  class  of  workmanship.  Pliny 
{HJT.,  xxxv.  36)  mentions  that  certain  statuea  of  Hercujea 
Mtisagetes  and  the  Nine  Muses  were  "opera  figlina," 
executed  by  the  painter  Zeuxis.  These  were  brought 
from  Athens  by  M.  Fulvius  NobQior,  and  placed  in  the 
temple  of  Hercules  Mnst^tes,  which  adjoined  the  Porti- 
ctis  Octaviae  in  Ae  Campus  Martins  of  Rome,  Other 
and  earlier  examples  of  clay  stataesi  are  mentioned  by 
Pausanias. 

Among  the  Etruscans  the  use  of  clay  for  important  sculp-  Etruscan, 
ture  was  very  frequent, —  painted  terra-cotta  or  bronze 
almost  excluding  marble  and  stone.  An  important  ex- 
ample was  the  clay  quadriga  on  the  pediment  of  the  temple 
of  Capitoline  Jupiter,  which,  according  to  one  legend,  was 
brought  from  Veii  by  Tarquinius  Superbus.  This  existed 
till  the  destruction  of  the  temple  by  fire  in  83  B.C.,  and 
was  considered  one  of  the  seven  precious  relics  on  which 
the  safety  of  the  Roman  state  depended.  The  great 
statue  of  Jupiter  in  the  central  cella  of  this  triple  temple 
was  also  of  terra-cotta,  and  was  said  to  be  the  work  of  an 
Etruscan  sculptor  from  Fregense.  Vitruvins  mentions 
"signa  fictilia"  as  being  specially  Etruscan.  Many  other 
statues  in  the  early  temples  of  Rome  were  made  of  the 
same  material  Among  the  existing  specimens  of  Etruscan 
terra-cotta  the  chief  are  large  sarcophagi,  with  recumbent 
portrait  effigies  of  the  deceased  on  the  top,  the  whole  being 
of  clay,  decorated  with  painting.  Fine  examples  exist  in 
the  Louvre  and  the  British  Museum ;  a  good  specimen 
from  the  latter  collection  is  figured  in  vol  viii.,  plate  Vlli. 
The  Museo  Gregoriano  in  the  Vatican  possesses  some  very 
beautiful  friezes  of  a  later  date — about  the  4th  century 
RO, — when  native  Etruscan  art  had  been  replaced  by  that 
of  Greece.  These  friezes  are  very  rich  and  elaborate,  with 
heads  and  scroll  foliage  in  very  salient  relief.  Some  of 
them  have  at  intervals  cleverly  moulded  heads  of  satyrs, 
painted  a  brilliant  cnmson.' 

Another  very  elaborate  application  of  terra-cotta  is  shown  Magiw 
in  the  numerous  large  asci,  covered  with  statuettes,  which  Crwciao; 
are  found  in  the  tombs  of  Canosa  (Canusium),  Gales,  and 

'  The  use  of  this  strongly  glowing  red  is  almost  peculiar  to  Hellenic 
Italy ;  the  other  colours  used  there  were  much  the  same  as  those  of 
Greece  itself.  The  same  magnificent  crimson  often  occurs  on  ceriocbose, 
moulded  into  the  form  of  satyrs'  heads,  which  are  found  in  the  tomb» 
of  Magna  Grsecia. 


194 


TERRA-COTTA 


many  parts  of  Magna  Grsecia.  The  statuettes  are  some- 
what similar  in  style  and  colouring  to  the  Tanagra  figures, 
and  date  from  about  the  same  period  (4th  century  B.C.), 
but  are  not  equal  to  them  as  works  of  art ,  they  are  also 
usually  crowded  together  in  a  somewhat  awkward  manner.' 
The  British  Museum  is  specially  rich  in  these  elaborate 
terra-cottas  ;  few  of  the  colours  used  appear  to  be  true 
ceramic  pigments. 
Eoaia.i.  As  in  other  branches  of  art.  the  Romans  closely  copied 
the  Greeks  in  their  wide  application  of  terra-cotta  for 
statues,  reliefs,  and  architectural  ornaments.  A  large  num- 
ber of  beautiful  Graeco-Roman  reliefs  exist,  many  having 
designs  evidently  copied  from  earlier  Greek  sculpture. 
Berlin,  the  Louvre,  the  British  Museum,  and  many  places 
in  Italy  possess  fine  collections.  Friezes  with  beautiful 
reliefs  12  to  18  inches  deep  often  occur,  little  inferior  in 
execution  to  the  earlier  Greek  work.  Many  subjects  of 
great  interest  are  represented  ■  a  very  fine  plaque  in  the 
Louvre  has  the  scene  of  Orestes  taking  refuge  at  the  sacred 
omphalos  at  Delphi,  which  is  represented  as  a  conical  stone 
about  3  feet  high,  hung  round  with  ornamental  festoons 
made  of  gold.^  .  These  terra-cottas  belong  to  the  early 
period  of  the  empire;  in  the  2d  century  a.d.  they  became 
much  coarser  and  less  Greek  in  style,  like  all  the  sculpture 
of  that  time.  A  plaque  in  the  Louvre,  which  represents  a 
chanot-race  in  the  circus,  bears  its  maker's  stamp,  L.S.ER. 
At  the  end  of  the  first  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury A.D.  the  use  of  terra-cotta  for  arcliitectaral  adornment 
was  carried  to  a  high  point  of  perfection  in  Rome.  Many 
buildings  of  this  period  have 
the  most  elaborate  decora- 
tion moulded  in  clay  and 
fitted  together  with  wonder- 
ful neatness.  Not  only  en- 
riched cornices  and  friezes 
were  made  of  terra-cotta,  but 
even  Corinthian  columns  with 
their  elaborate  acanthus  capi- 
tals. In  all  cases  the  whole 
surface  appears  to  have  been 
covered  with  a  thiu  coating 
of  "  opus  albanum  "  and  then 
decorated  with  colours  and 
even  gold.  The  best  existing 
examples  in  Rome  are  the 
Aniphitheatrum  Castrense, 
many  tombs  on  the  Via  La- 
tina,  and  the  barracks  of  the 
Vllth  cohort  of  the  guards 
(myites)  in  the  Trastevere 
But  few  examples  exist  of 
the  large  Roman  terra-cotta 
sculpture  ,  the  best  are  some 
seated  female  figures  from 
tombs,  small  liie-size,  in  the 
Capitoline  museum, — works 
of  great  beauty  and  very  skil- 
fully fired  without  cracks  or 
warping.  The  British  Mu- 
seum alsocontains  fine  speci- F'o  b  —  IVn^i-cotui  suiue  of  the 

mens  of  terracotta  sculpture     ""^'^  .^""'^    '"  """"^  "-^ 

,  ,  ■   M        (Bntish  Mtisenm. I 

on  a  large  scale,   especially 

the  torso  of  a  nude  male  figure  (Hercules),  some  ter- 
minal figures  of  Bacchus,  and  a  beautiful  statue  of  Urania 
(see  fig.  6). 

'  A  very  large  a3cu8  from  Caunsa  id  the  British  Museum  la  deco- 
rated with  no  less  tlKin  five  statuettes  of  Homen  and  Victories,  two 
large  raaiks  of  Medusa,  and  six  projectiDg  fijp.iros  of  horses. 

^  Compare  a  simdar  repr,;sentotion  of  tlie  umpLalos  on  ft  Greek  »ast; 
Ulostrated  by  Jahn,  Vasciibiidcr,  Hamburg,  lsu9. 


In  the   14th  and  more  especially  in  the   15th  century  Medi- 
terra-cotta  was  adapted  in  various  parts  of  Europe  to  the  ^ifai- 
most  magnificent  and  elaborate  architectural  purposes.    In 
Germany  the  mark  of   Brandenburg  is  specially  rich  m 
terra-cotta  work  '    The  church  of  St  Catherine  in  the  town 
of  Brandenburg  is  decorated  m  the  most  lavish  way  with 
delicate  tracery  and  elaborate  strmg-eourses  and  cornices, 
enriched  with  tohage,  all  modelled  in  clay ;  the  town-hall 
IS  another  instance  of  the  same  use  of  terra-cotta.     At 
Tangermiinde,  the  church  of  St  Stephen  and  other  build- 
ings  of  the  beginning  of  the  1 5th  century  are  wonderful  ex- 
amples of  this  method  of  decoration  ;  the  north  door  of  St 
Stephen's  especially  is  a  masterpiece  of  rich  and  eflTective 
moulding.     In  northern  Italy  this  use  of  terra-cotta  was 
earned   to  an    equally   high   pomt  of   perfection.'      The  If»ly. 
western  fa<jade  of  the  cathedral  of  Monza  is  a  work  of  the 
most  wonderful  richness  and  nunute  elaboration,  wholly 
executed  in  clay,  m  the  latter  part  of  the  I4th  century. 
The   cathedral   of    Crema,    the  communal    buildings   of 
Piacenza,  and  S.  Mana  delle  Grazie  m  Milan  are  striking 
examples  of  the  extreme  splendour  of  effect  that  can  be 
obtamed  by  terra-cotta  work.      The  Certosa  near  Pavia 
has  a  most  gorgeous  specimen  of  the  early  part  of  the 
1 6th  century  ,  the  two  cloisters  are  especially  magnificent. 
Pa  via  itself  is  very  rich  in  terra-cotta  decoration,  especially 
the  ducal  palace  and  the  churches  of  S.  Francesco  and  S. 
Maria  del  Carmine.     Some  delicate  work  exists  among  the. 
mediaeval  buildings  of  Rome,  dating  from  the  14th  and 
16th  century,  as,  for  example,  the  rich  cornices  on  the 
south  aisle  of  S.  Maria  m  Ara  Cteli,  c.  1300  ;  the  front  of 
S.  Cosimato  m  Trastevere,  built  c  1490  ;  and  a  once  very 
magnificent  house,  near  the  Via  d;  Tordinone,  which  dates 
from  the  14th  century.    The  most  important  application  of 
terra-cotta  in  mediaeval  Italy  was  to  statuary — reliefs,  busts, 
and  even  groups  of  many  life-.sized  figures — during  the 
15th    and    I6tb 
centuries.   Much 
of  the  Florentine 
terra-cotta  sculp- 
ture of  the  15th 
century  is  among 
the  most  beauti- 
ful plastic  work 
the    world     has 
ever  seen,  espe- 
cially    that    by 
Jacopo        della 
Querela,     Dona- 
tello,     and     the 
sculptors  of  the 
nextgeneration  '• 
For    life,  spirit, 
and         realistic 
truth,  combined 
with     sculptur- 
esque    breadth, 
these  pieces  are 
masterpieces    of 

invention  and  manipulation  The  portrait  busts  are 
perfect  models  of  iconic  sculpture  (see  fig.  7).  In  some 
respects  the  use  of  burnt  clay  for  sculpture  has  great 
advantages  over  that  of  marble  kue  soft  clay  is  easily 
and  rapidly  moulded  into  form  while  the  sculptor  t 
thought  IS  fresh  in  his  mind,  and  thus  terra-cottas 
often  possess  a  spirit  and  vigour  which  can  hardly  be 
reproduced   in    the    laboriously  finished   marble.      These 

*  See  Adler,  MitielallerhcM  Backstnn-BamDtrlx,  Berlin,  1862. 

*  See  GruDor.  Terra-cotta  Ardaiecinrt  of  N.  Italy,  London,  1867. 

*  The  Soaih  Keusmgton  Museum  possesses  a  very  fine  collection  oC 
Florenttne  tcrra-cottaa  of  the  best  j>enod. 


Flo  7  — Portrait  bust  m  terra-cotta :  Floieetinf 
work  of  the  middle  of  the  15th  century.  (South 
Kensington  Museum. ) 


T  E  R  — T  E  R 


195 


qualities  are  specially  remarkable  in  the  best  works  of  the 
Delia  Kobbia  family  (see  Robbia).  In  the  16th  century  a 
more  realistic  style  was  introduced,  and  this  was  heightened 
by  the  custom  of  painting  the  figures  in  oil  colours.  Many 
very  clever  groups  of  this  class  were  produced  by  Ambrogio 
Foppa  (Caradosso)  for  S.  Satiro  at  Milan  and  by  Guido 
Mazzoni  and  Begarelli  (1479-1565)  for  churches  in  Modena. 
These  terracotta  sculptures  are  unpleasing  in  colour  and 
far  too  pictorLil  in  style ;  but  those  of  Begarelli  were 
enthusiastically  admiied  by  Michelangelo.'      Much   fine 

Fraaef.  terra-cotta  work  was  produced  in  Franco  during  the  16th 
century,  partly  under  Italian  influence, — many  sculptors 
(toia  northern  and  central  Italy  having  settled  in  France, 
especially  under  the  patronage  of  Francis  I.  In  the 
same  century  a  similar  Italian  influence  prevailed  largely 
throughout  Spain,  and  very  clever  works  were  produced 
there,  remarkable  for  their  vivid  realism  and  deceptive 

EnsUnd.  pictorial  style.  In  England  the  elaborate  use  of  terra-cotta 
did  not  come  into  vogue  till  the  early  part  of  the  16th 
century,  and  then  only  in  cercain  counties.  Essex  pos- 
sesses the  finest  examples,  such  a.s  those  of  the  manor  bouse 
of  Layer  Marney,  built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  The 
richly  moulded  windows  and  battlements  of  this  house 
are  very  un-English  in  style,  and  it  seems  probable  that 
all  the  terra-cotta  decorations  were  made  in  Holland  or 
Flanders.  A  richly  decorated  terra-cotta  tomb  with  re- 
cumbent effigy  exists  in  the  church  of  Layer  Marney  ;  and 
in  the  collegiate  church  of  Wymondham  in  Norfolk  there 
are  very  large  and  elaborate  sedilia  with  lofty  canopied 
niches,  all  of  clay,  which  appear  to  be  of  the  same  date 
and  fabrique  as  the  Esses  examples.  Most  of  the  terra- 
:otta  sculpture  in  England,  such  as  that  by  Torrigiano,  of 
whTch  fragments  exist  in  Westr....:ster  Abbey,  the  colossal 
'  heads  of  the  Cssars  at  Hampton  Court,  and  the  recumbent 
efiBgy  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Rolls,^  were  the  work  of  Italian 
sculptors,  mostly  from  Floience,  who  were  invited  to  Eng- 
land in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII.  and  Henry  VIII. 

Modern.'  Of  late  years  terra-cotta  for  architectural  purposes  has 
been  employed  for  some  very  important  buildings  in 
London,  such  as  the  natural  history  museum  at  South 
Kensington,  the  Albert  Hall,  and  the  front  of  the  other 
museum  in  the  Exhibition  Road.  The  durability  of  well- 
fired  clay,  its  dense  texture,  pleasant  colour,  and  smooth 
surface  make  it  specially  suitable  to  an  atmosphere  laden 
with  acids  and  soot  as  is  that  of  London.  The  surface 
resists  decomposition,  and  affords  little  hold  to  the  minute 
particles  of  carbon.  The  great  improvements  which  have 
been  made  in  the  manufacture  of  terra-cotta  will  probably 
lead  to  its  more  extensive  use.  The  great  difficulty  is  to 
retain  the  sharpness  of  impression  given  by  the  mould,  and 
above  all  to  avoid  the  uneven  shrinkage  and  warping  which 
is  so  liable  to  take  place  when  it  is  fired  in  large  pieces. 
Any  want  of  truth  in  the  lines  of  a  long  cornice  becomes 
painfully  apparent,  and  each  moulded  bh  ck  of  a  door  or 
window-jamb  must  fit  accurately  on  to  the  next  one,  or  else 
the  line  of  moulding  becomes  broken  and  irregular.  Terra- 
cotta is  now  made  of  many  different  colours,  a  rich  red 
and  a  warm  ochre  or  cream  colour  being  the  most  pleasant 
to  the  eye.  In  order  to  avoid  defects  it  is  necessary  that 
the  clay  should  contain  a  large  proportion  of  powdered 
silica,  and  that  the  whole  mass  should  be  thoroughly  homo- 
geneous. The  method  by  which  these  ends  are  secured  is 
much  the  same  as  that  employed  in  the  making  of  pottery 
(see  vol.  xix.  p.  642  sq.). 

Collec-         The  most  important  public  collections  are  in  the  Louvre,  the 

luMw.  British  Museum,  the  museums  of  Berlin  and  Athens,  and  a  few  fine 
itpecimens  exist  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  The  splendid 
Sabouroff  collection  is  now  in  the  Hermitage  Palace  at  St  Peters- 

'  See  Vasari,  ed.  Le  Monnier,  xii.  281. 

'  This  interesting  building  is  now  threatened  with  destructloa. 


burg.  Many  museums  in  Italy— such  as  those  at  Florence,  Perugia, 
Capua,  Rome,  and  other  places — contain  many  examples  from 
Etrnria  and  Magna  Grxcia.  A  large  number  of  tho  finest  of  iho 
Tanagra  figures  and  the  liko  arc  in  private  hands;  some  are  illus- 
trated in  the  works  mentioned  in  the  following  list ;  that  of  Prince 
Liechtenstein  at  Vienna  is  one  of  the  finest.' 

Literaturt.—L^on  Heuzcy,  "Rechcrches  sur  les  rlgurlncade  fcmmcs  voilftes, 
in  Mon.  assoc.  des  itudcs  grccijucs,  Paris,  1874 ;  Id.,  •■  Rech.  sur  un  groupe  d« 
Praxilele,  ...  en  terrc  cuite,"  io  Gas.  d«  B-Arts,  Sept«mbcr  1875  ;  Id  ,  "  Rech. 
sor  les  terres  cuitcs  grecqucs,"  in  Mon.  assoc.  tU3  ftuil.  grtc  ,  1376;  Id.,  Us 
origincs  des  Urns  cuttcs,  Pans.  1882;  Id.,  Catalogue  rfc5  figurints  antiqtits 
du  Louvre,  Paris,  1SS2-S3;  Id.,  "Papposil^ne  et  le  dieu  Bcs,"  in  Bull.  Cor. 
Hell.,  1SS4,  pp.  161-167;  Frohner.  Us  terres  cuitesdAsie-Mnieure,  Pans,  1879.81 
Id.,  Cat.  dela  Coll.  Ucuyer,  Paris,  1883,  and  Cat.  de  la  Colt.  Darre,  Paris,  1878 ; 
KclvUle,  Gnechu-ht  Thonfi(y.ren  aus  Tanagra,  Berlin,  lfc78;  Id,,  Griechiscke 
Terracotten  mm  Berliner  Musfum,  Berlin,  187S:  Id.,  Die  anliken  Terracolten  won 
Pompeii,  Stuttgart,  ISSO;  Rayet,  Monum.ents  de  I'art  antique,  Paris,  18S4,  vol. 
ii.  pp.  74.90;  Id.,  "Sur  une  plaque  estampie,"  in  Dull.  Cor.  Hell.,  1879  pp. 
329.333;  Id.,  Car  de  (a  Coll.  Rayet,  18S0;  Id,,  "Les  ngurines  de  Tanagra 
(Lou\Te),"  in  Gaz.  des  B.-Arts  1875;  Id.,  "  I.'art  grec  au  Trocad^ro,"  in  Gaz.  des 
B.-Arls,  1878  ;  Furtwaengler.  la  Coll.  SabouroJ.  Paris,  1882.85,  splendidly  illns. 
trat<?d  in  colours;  Martha,  Car.  des Jigurines  du  musee  d'Athines,  18S0;  Id., 
"Figurines  corinthlennes  en  terre  cuite."  in  Bull.  Cor.  Hell.,  1879,  pp  29-42; 
Id.,  "Figurines  de  Tanagra."  ibid.,  ISSO,  pp,  71.75;  Pettier,  "Terres  cuitea 
Chypriotes,"  ibid  ,  1879,  pp.  86.94  ;  Pettier  and  Reinach,  "  Fouilltsde  Mynna," 
itiid.,  various  articles  io  vols,  for  1SS2  S3,  Paul  Girard,  "  Nccrt  poles  de  laGrii;e 
du  ^ord."  ibid.,  1879,  pp.  211-221  ;  Max,  CoUignon.  "Plaque  estauipee  do 
Santorin,"  ibid.,  1881,  pp,  436  43S  ;  Ccsnola,  Cyprus,  London.  1877.  Sclilie. 
mann,  Troy,  Myccnie,  and  Tiryns ;  E,  Curtius.  Giebelgruppen  aus  Tanoffra, 
Berlin,  1878;  Delauney,  "Terres  cuites  de  Tanagra,"  in  Hevue  ae  France,  May 
and  June  1S7S.  An  account  of  the  first  discovery  of  the  Tanagra  figures  is 
given  by  Otto  Lilders  in  Bull  Inst.  Cor.  Arch.,  1874,  p.  120 .  see  also  various 
articles  in  Gaz.  Archeol  ,  Archdol  Zeilung,  and  A/on.  Inst.  Arch  Rom.  (especially 
vol,  %-!.).  For  the  earlier  knnwD  terra-cottas,  see  Panoflta,  Terracotten  des  k. 
Muscuriiszu  Berlin,  1842;  Combe,  Terra-cottar  in  the  BritiA  Museum,  London, 
1310 ;  and  Gerhard,  Monumenti  figulini  di  Siciha,  Berlin,  1835  Otber  works 
have  been  already  referred  to.  Clever  but  not  quite  satisfactory  copies  of 
the  finest  Tanagra  and  other  figures  are  now  made  in  Berlin  and  Vienna  ,  they 
cost  from  twenty  to  tlurtyshiUings  each.  (J  H  M) 

TERRANOVA,  or  Terrandova,  a  seaport  town  of 
Sicily,  on  a  hill  at  the  mouth  of  the  Terranova,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Caltanisetta,  and  41|  miles  east-south-east  from 
Girgcnti.  It  contains  a  castle  and  several  large  churches, 
but  has  little  to  interest  the  traveller.  Though  the  har- 
bour is  poor,  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  corn,  wine, 
fruit,  sulphur,  and  soda.  Cloth  is  manufactured  to  a 
small  extent.  The  population  of  the  town  in  1881  was 
16,440,  that  of  the  commune  17,173.  In  and  near  Ter- 
ranova arc  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Gela  (q.v.).  The 
modern  town  owes  its  origin  to  the  emperor  Frederick  II. 

TERRAPIN.     See  Tortoise. 

TERRE  HAUTE,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  m  Harri 
son  township,  Vigo  county  (of  wiich  it  is  the  county  seat), 
in  the  western  part  of  Indiana  It  is  situated  in  39°  27' 
N.  lat.  and  87°  54'  W,  long,,  at  a  height  of  492  feet  above 
the  sea,  upon  the  east  bank  of  the  Wabash  river,  186  miles 
nearly  south  of  Chicago  and  73  miles  west-south-west  of 
Indianapolis.  The  city  stands  upon  level  ground,  about 
60  feet  above  the  ordinary  stirface  of  the  river  It  is 
regularly  laid  out,  with  wide  streets,  lined  with  shade 
trees ;  its  principal  buildings  are  the  State  normal  school 
and  the  Polytechnic  Institute  Six  great  railroad  lines 
pass  through  Terre  Haute,  connecting  it  directly  with  the 
cities  of  the  Mississippi  valley.  This  fact,  together  with 
its  proximity  to  the  coal-mines  of  Clay  county,  has  greatly 
promoted  its  growth  as  a  manufacturing  centre.  It  had 
in  1880  a  population  of  26,042,  as  against  16,103  in  1870. 

TERSTEEGEN,  Gerhard  (16971769),  German  reli- 
gious writer,  was  born  at  Mors  in  Rhenish  Prussia  on 
25th  November  1697.  After  being  educated  at  the 
gymnasium  of  his  native  town,  he  pursued  for  some  years 
the  calling  of  a  ribbon-maker.  In  1728  he  withdrew 
from  all  secular  pursuits  and  gave  himself  entirely  to 
religious  work.  His  writings  include  a  collection  of  hymns 
(Blumengdrllein,  1729;  last  edition,  Stuttgart,  1868),  a 
volume  of  Gebete,  and  another  of  Brie/e.  He  died  at 
Miihlheim  in  Rhenish  Prussia  on  3d  April  1769.  See 
Hymns,  vol.  xii.  p.  588. 

TERTIARIES.     See  Franciscans,  vol.  ix.  p.  700. 


^  Very  clever  forgeries  of  terra-cotta  are  being  manufactured,  and 
in  many  cases  real  specimens  have  genuine  heads  which  do  not  belong 
to  them.  The  colouring  has  frequently  been  touched  up  and  falsified 
while  in  the  dealers'  bands.  Even  the  celebrated  Camp&ua  collection 
contained  many  clever  forgeries  of  terra-cotta  reliefs. 


196 


TERTULLIAN 


TERTULLLXN,  -nhose  full  name  was  Quintds  Septim- 
Jus  Florens  Tertulliands,  is  the  earliest  and  after 
Augustine  the  greatest  of  the  ancient  church  writers  of 
the  West.  Before  him  the  whole  Christian  literature  in 
the  Latin  language  consisted  of  a  translation  of  the  Bible, 
the  Oclofius  of  Minucius  Felix — an  apologetic  treatise 
written  in  the  Ciceronian  style  for  the  higlier  circles  of 
society,  and  with  no  evident  effect  for  the  church  as  a 
wiioie — and  a  list  of  the  books  recognized  as  canonical 
(the  so-called  Muratorian  fragment).  Whether  Victor  the 
Roman  bishop  and  Apollonius  the  Roman  senator  ever 
really  made  an  appearance  as  Latin  authors  is  quite  un- 
certain. Tertullian  in  fact  created  Christian  Latin  litera- 
ture ;  one  might  almost  say  that  that  literature  sprang 
from  him  full-grown,  alike  in  form  and  substance,  as 
Athene  from  the  head  of  Zeus..  Cyprian  polished  the 
language  that  Tertullian  had  made,  sifted  the  thoughts 
he  had  given  out,  rounded  them  off,  and  turned  them  into 
current  coin,  but  he  never  ceased  to  be  aware  of  his  depend- 
ence on  Tertullian,  whom  ho  designated  as  kut  tfo^'ji'  his 
master  (Jer.,  De  Vir.  III.,  53).  Augustine,  again,  stood  on 
the  shoulders  of  Tertullian  and  Cyprian ;  and  these  three 
North  AfricanB  are  the  fathers  of  the  Western  churches. 

Tertullian's  place  in  universal  history  is  determined  by 
(1)  his  intellectual  and  spiritual  endowments,  (2)  his  moral 
force  and  evangelicaj  fervour,  (3)  the  course  of  his  personal 
development,  (4)  the  circumstances  of  the  time  in  the  midst 
of  which  he  worked. 

(1)  Tertullian  was  a  man  of  great  originality  and  genius, 
characterized  by  the  deepest  pathos,  the  liveliest  fancy, 
aTid  the  most  penetrating  keenness,  and  w  .as  endowed  with 
ability  to  appropriate  and  make  use  of  all  the  methods  of 
observation  and  speculation,  and  with  the  readiest  wit^ 
His  writings  in  tone  and  character  are  always  alike  "  rich 
in  thought  and  destitute  of  form,  passionate  and  hair- 
sjilitting,  eloquent  and  pithy  in  expression,  energetic  and 
condensed  to  the  point  of  obscurity."  His  style  has  been 
characterized  with  justice  as  dark  and  resplendent  like 
ebony.  His  eloquence  was  of  the  vehement  order;  but  it 
wins  hearers  and  readers  by  the  strength  of  its  passion, 
the  energy  of  its  truth,  the  pregnancy  and  elegance  of  its 
ex^jression,  just  as  much  as  it  repels  them  by  its  heat  mth- 
out  light,Jts  sophistical  argumentations,  and  its  elaborate 
hair-splittings.  Though  he  is  wanting  in  moderation  and 
in  luminous  warmth,  his  tones  are  by  no  means  always 
harsh  ;  and  aa^n  author  he  ever  aspired  with  longing  after 
humility  and  love  and  patience,  though  his  whole  life  was 
lived  in  the  atmosphere  of  conflict.  Tertullian  both  as  a 
man  and  as  a  writer  had  much  in  common  with  the  apostle 
Paul. 

(2)  In  spite  of  all  the  contradictions  in  which  he  in- 
volved himself  as  a  thinker  and  as  a  teacher,  Tertullian 
was  a  compact  ethical  personality.  What  he  was  he  was 
with  his  whole  being.  Once  a  Christian,  he  was  deter- 
mined to  be  so  with  all  his  soul,  and  to  shake  himself 
free  of  all  half  measures  and  compromises  with  the  world. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  lay  one's  finger  upon  very  many 
obliquities,  self-deceptions,  and  sophisms  in  Tertullian  in 
matters  of  detail,  for  he  struggled  for  years  to  reconcile 
things  that  were  in  themselves  irrecohcilable;  yet  in  each 
case  the  perversities  and  sophisms  were  rather  the  outcome 
of  peculiarly  difficult  circumstances  in  which  he  stood.  It 
is  easy  to  convict  him  of  having  failed  to  control  the 
glowing  passion  that  w;as  in  him.  He  is  often  outrageously 
unjust  in  the  substance  of  what  he  says,  and  in  manner 
hansh  to  cynicism,  scornful  to  gruesomeness ;  biit  in  no 
battle  that  he  fought  was  he  ever  actuated  by  selfish 
interests.  What  he  did  was  really  done  for  the  Gospel, : 
OS  he  understood  it,  with  all  ^e  faculties  of  his  soul.  Biit 
he  understood  the  Gospel  as  being  primarily  an  asaur'ed 


hope  and  a  holy  law,  as  fear  of  the  Judge  who  can  cast 
into  hell  and  as  an  inflexible  rule  of  faith  and  of  discipline. 
Of  the  glorious  liberty  of  the  children  of  God  he  had 
nothing  but  a  mere  presentiment ;  he  looked  for  it  only  in 
the  world  beyond  the  grave,  and  under  the  powei-  of  the 
Gospel  he  counted  ae  loss  all  the  world  could  give.  He 
W'ell  understood  the  meaning  of  Christ's  saying  that  He 
came  not  into  the  world  to  bring  peace, 'but  a  sword :  in 
a  period  when  a  lax  spirit  of  conformity  to  the  world  had 
seized  the  churches  he  maintained  the  "vigor  evangelicus" 
not  merely  against  the  Gnostics  but  against  opportunists 
and  a'  worldly-wise  clergy.  Among  all  the  fathers  of  the 
first  three  centuries  Tertullian  has  given  the  most  powerful 
expression  to  the  terrible  earnestness  of  the  Gospel. 

(3)  The  course  of  Tertullian's  personal  development 
fitted  him  in  an  altogether  remarkable  degree  to  be  a 
teacher  of  the  church.  Bom  at  Carthage  of  good  family 
— his  father  was  a  "centurio  consularis" — he  received  a 
first-rate  education  both  in  Latin  and  in  Greek.  He  wa.s 
able  to  speak  and  write  Greek,  and  gives  evidence  of 
familiarity  alike  with  its  prose  and  with  its  poetry  ;  and 
his- excellent  memory— rthough  he  himself  complains  about 
it— ^-enabled  him  always  to  bring  in  at  the  right  place  aii 
appropriate,  often  brilliant,  quotation  or  some  historical 
allusion.  The  old  historians,  from  Herodotus  to  Tacitus, 
were  familiar  to  him,  and  the  accuracy  of  his  historiqal 
knowledge  is  astonishing.  He  studied  with  earnest  ze^ 
iter  Greek  philosophers ;  Plato  in  particular,  and  the 
writings  of  the  Stoics,  he  had  fully  at  command,  and  his 
treatise  Ve  Anima  shows  that  he  himself  was  able  to  in- 
vestigate and  discuss  philosophical  problems.  From  the 
philosophers  he  had  been  led  to  thejnedical  writers,  whose 
treatises  plainly  had  a  place  in  his  working  library.  But 
no  portion  of  this  rich  store  of  miscellaneous  knowledge 
has  left  its  characteristic  impress  pn  his  writings ;  this 
influence  was  reserved  for  his  legal  training.  His  father, 
whose  military  spirit  reveals  itself  in  the  whole  bearing 
of  Tertullian,  to  whom  Christianity  w^  above  everything 
a  "  militia,"  had  intended  him  for  the  law.  He  studied 
in  Carthage,  probably  also  in  Rome,  wheroj  according  to 
Eusebius,  he  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
most  eminent  jurists.  This  statement  derives  confirmation 
from  the  Digest,  where,  references  are  made  to  two  works, 
De  Castrensi  Peculio  and  Qiisestionum  Libri  VIII.,  of  a 
Roman  jurist  named  Tertullian,  who  must  have  flouriaicd 
about  180  A.D.  In  point  of  fact  the  quondam  advocate 
never  disappeared  in  the  Christian  presbyter.  This  was  at 
once  his  strength  and  his  weakness :  his  strength,  for  as  a 
professional  pleader  he  had  learned  how  to  deal  with  an  ad- 
versary according  to  the  rules  of  the  art — to  pull  to  pieces 
his  theses,  to  reduce  him  ad  absurdum,  and  to  show  the 
defects  and  contradictions  of  his  st'atements, — and  was 
specially  qualified  to  expose  the  irregularities  in  the  pro- 
ceedings taken  by  the  state  against  the  Christians ;  but 
it  was  also  his  weakness,  for  it  was  responsible  for  his 
litigiousness,  his  often  doubtful  shifts  and  artifices,  his 
sophisms  and  argumentationes  ad  hominem,  his  fallacies  and 
surprises.  At  Rome  in  mature  manhood  Tertullian  became 
a  Christian,  under  what  circumstances  we  do  not  know, 
and  forthwith  he  bent  himself  with  all  his  energy  to  the 
study  of  Scripture  and  of  Christian  literature.  Not  only 
was  he  master  of  the  contents  of  the  Bible:  he  also  read 
carefully  the  works  of  Hermas,  Justin,  Tatian,  Miltiades, 
Melito,  Irenaeus,  Proculus,  Clement,- as  well  as  .many 
Gnostic  treatises,  the  writings  of.  Martion  in  particular, 
In  apologetics  his  principal  master  was  Justin,'  and.^.iD 
theology  proper  and  in  the  controversy  with  the  Gnostics, 
Irena:us.  As  a  thinker  he  v.'as  not  original, -and  even  as 
a  theologian  he  has  produced  but  few  new  schemes  of 
doctrine,  except  his  doctrine  of  sin.  ..His  special  gift  lay 


T  E  R  T  U   L  L  I  A  N 


197 


m  the  po^er  to  make  what  had  been  traditionally  received 
iiiipressiv<%  to  give  to  it  its  proper  form,  and  to  gain  for  it 
new  currency.  From  Rome  Tertullian  visited  Greece  and 
lierhaps  also  Asia  Minor ;  at  any  rate  we  know  that  he 
bod  temporary  relations  with  the  churches  there.  He  xVas 
consequently  placed  in  a  position  in  which  he  could  check 
the  doctrine  and  practice  of  the  Roman  Church.  Thus 
equipped  with  knowledge  and  e.xperience,  he  returned  to 
Cartilage  and  there  laid  the  foundation  of  Latin  Christian 
literature.  At  first,  after  his  conversion,  he  wrote  Greek, 
but  by  and  by  Latin  almost  exclusively.  The  elements 
of  this  Christian  Latin  language  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows  : — (i.)  it  had  its  origin,  not  in  the  literary  language 
of  Rome  as  developed  by  Cicero,  but  in  the  language  of 
the  people  as  we  find  it  in  Plautus  and  Terence  ;  (ii.)  it 
has  an  African  complexion;  (di.)  it  is  strongly  influenced 
by  Greek,  particularly  through  the  Latin  translation  of 
the  Septuagint  and  of  the  New  Testament,  besides  being 
sprinkled  with  a  large  number  of  Greek  words  derived 
from  the  Scriptures  or  from  the  Greek  liturgies ;  (iv.)  it 
bears  the  stamp  of  the  Gnostic  style  and  contains  abo 
some  miUtary  expressions ;  (v.)  it  owes  something  to  the 
original  creative  power  of  Tertullian.  As  for  his  theology, 
its  leading  factors  were — (i.)  the  teachings  of  the  apolo- 
gists; (ii.)  the  philosophy  of  the  Stoics;  (iiL)  the  rule 
of  faith,  interpreted  in  an  anti-Gnostic  sense,  as  he  bad 
received  it  from  the  Church  of  Rome ;  (iv.)  the  Soterio- 
logical  theology  of  Melito  and  Irenaus;  (v.)  the  substance 
of  the  utterances  of  the  Montanist  prophets  (in  the  closing 
decades  of  his  life).  This  analysis  does  not  disclose,  nor 
indeed  is  it  possible  to  discover,  what  was  the  determining 
element  for  Tertullian;  in  fact  he  was  under  the  dominion 
of  more  than  one  ruling  principle,  and  he  felt  himself 
bound  by  several  mutually  opposing  authorities.  It  was 
his  desire  to  unite  the  enthusiasm  of  primitive  Christ- 
ianity with  intelligent  thought,  the  original  demands  of 
the  Gospel  with'  every  letter  of  the  Scriptures  and  with 
the  practice  of  the  Roman  Church,  the  sayings  of  the 
Paraclete  with  the  authority  of  the  bishops,  the  law  of  the 
churches  with  the  freedom  of  the  inspired,  the  rigid  dia- 
cipline  of  the  Montanist  with  all  the  utterances  of  the 
New  Testament  and  with  the  arrangements  of  a  church 
seeking  to  set  itself  up  within  the  world.  At  this  task 
he  toiled  for  years,  involved  in  contradictions  which  it 
took  all  the  finished  skill  of  the  jurist  to  conceal  from  him 
for  a  time.  At  last  he  felt  compelled  to  break  off  from 
the  church  for  which  he  had  lived  and  fought ;  but  the 
breach  could  not  clear  him  from  the  contradictions  in 
which  he  found  himself  entangled.  Not  only  did  the  great 
chasm  between  the  old  Christianity,  to  which  his  soul 
clung,  and  the  Christianity  of  the  Scriptures  aa  juristically 
and  philosophically  interpreted  remain  unbridged  ;  he  also 
dang  fast,  in  spite  of  his  separation  from  the  Catholic 
church,  to  his  position  that  the  church  possesses  the  true 
doctrine,  that  the  bishops  per  suaessionem  are  the  reposi- 
tories of  the  grace  of  the  teaching  office,  and  so  forth. 
The  growing  violence  of  his  latest  works  is  to  be  accounted 
for,  not  only  by  his  burning  indignation  against  the  ever- 
advancing  secularization  of  the  Catholic  church,  but  also 
by  the  incompatibility  between  the  authorities  which  he 
recognized  and  yet  was  not  able  to  reconcile.  After  having 
ione  battle  with  heathens,  Jews,  Marcionites,  Gnostics, 
Monarchians,  and  the  Catholics,  he  died  an  old  man, 
carrying  with  him  to  the  grave  the  last  remsuna  of  primi- 
tive Christianity  in  the  West,  but  at  the  same  time  in 
conflict  with  himself. 

(4)  What  has  just  been  said  brings  out  very  clearly  how 
important  in  their  bearing  on  Tertullian's  development 
were  tte  circnmstances  of  the  age  in  which  he  laboured. 
His  activity  as  a  Christian  falls  between  190  and  220, 


a  period  of  very  great  moment  in  the  history  of  the  CafhoJ 
lie  church  ;  for  within  it  the  struggle  with  Gnosticism  was 
brought  to  a,  victorious  close,  the  New  Testament  estab-! 
liahed  it.  firm  fooling  within  the  churches,  the  *' apostolic  "i 
rules  which  thenceforward  regulated  all  the  affairs  of  the 
church  were  called  into  existence,  and  the  ecclesiastical 
priesthood  came  to  be  developed.  Within  this  period  also 
falls  thai  evangelical  and  legal  reaction  against  the  political 
and  secular  tendencies  of  the  church  which  is  known  as 
Moutanisiu.  The  same  Tertullian  who  had  fortified  the 
Catholic  church  t^inst  Gnosticism  was  none  the  less 
anxious  to  protect  il  from  becoming  a  political  organiza- 
tion. Being  unable  lo  reconcile  incompatibles,  he  broke 
with  the  chiurch  and  became  the  most  powerful  representar 
live  of  Montanism  in  the  West. 

Although  TertuUiaii's  extant  works  ^ro  both  numerous  and 
copious,  our  kaowledgo  of  his  life  is  VC17  va^iie.  He  cannot  hive 
been  born  much  later  than  about  150.  His  activity  .la  a  jurist  is 
Rome  must  fall  within  the  iieriod  of  Coiumodus ;  for  there  is  iu> 
indication  in  his  writings  that  he  was  in  Rome  iu  the  time  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  and  many  passages  seem  to  preclude  the  s'jpposi- 
tion.  The  date  of  his  conversion  to  Christianity  is  quite  nncertain; 
there  is  much  in  favoui'  of  the  yeajs  between  190  and  19i.  How 
long  Jie  remained  in  Rome  after  bstoming  a  Christian,  whether  he 
had  attained  any  ofiBce  in  the  church  before  leaving  Rome,  what 
was  the  date  of  his  visit  to  Greece, — on  these  points  also  we  remain 
in  ignoranco.  It  ia  certain  that  he  was  settled  in  Carthage  in  the 
socoikI  half  of  197,  the  dat«  of  his  writing  his  Jpologeticus  and 
(shortly  afterwards)  his  two  books  Ad  Aatimics ;  we  also  know 
that  he  became  a  presbyter  in  Carthage  and  was  married.  His 
recognition  of  the  Montanistic  prophecy  in  Phrygia  as  a  w-ork  of 
God  took  place  in  202-203,  at  the  time  when  a  newipcrsecution 
broke  out  ■  For  the  next  five  years  it  was  his  constant  endeavour 
to  seaur&the  victory  for  Montanism  within  the  church  ;  but  in  this 
he  became  involved  more  and  more  deeply  in  controversy  with  the 
majority  of  the  church  in  Carthage  and  especially  with  its  clergy, 
which  had  the  support  of  the  clergy  of  Rome.  As  Jerome  writes 
(De  Vir.  HI.,  63):  "Usque  ad  mcdiam  statem  presbyter  fuit 
eccleaise  Africans,  invidia  postea  et  contumeliis  clericorum  Komiaja 
ecclesite  ad  Montani  dogma  delapsus."  On  his  breach  with  the 
Catholic  church,  probably  in  207-208,  he  became  the  head  of  a 
small  Montanist  community  in  Carthage.  In  this  position  he  con- 
tinued to  labour,  to  write,  and  to  assail  the  lax  Cathohes  and  their 
clergy  until  at  least  the  time  of  Bishop  Calixtus  in  the  reign  of 
Elagabalus.  The  year  of  his  death  is  uncertain.  Jerome  («(  sup. ) 
says:  " Fertur  vixisse  usque  au  decrepitara  tetatem."  That  he 
returned  at  last  to  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic  church  is  a  mere 
legend,  the  motive  of  which  is  obvicis ;  his  adherents  afier  his 
death  continued  to  maintain  themselves  as  a  small  community  in 
Carthage.  Although  he  had  left  the  church,  his  earlier  writings 
continued  to  be  extensively  read  ;  and  in  the  ^th  century  his 
works,  along  with  those  of  Cyprian,  were  the  principal  reading  of 
Western  Christians,  until  they  were  euperaeded  by  those  of  Jerome,' 
Ambraee,  Augustine,  and  Gregory.  Jerome  has  included  him  in  his 
catal4^e  of  Christian  "viri  iUustrea,"  but  only  as  a  Catholic  to 
whom  reference  should  be  made  with  caution.' 

The  works  of  Tertullian,  on  the  chronology  of  which  a  great  deal 
has  been  written,  and  which  for  the  most  part  do  not  admit  of 
being  dated  with  perfect  certainty,  fall  into  three  classes, — the 
apologetic,  the  polemical  theological,  and  the  ascetic.  And  iu  point 
of  time  also  three  periods  can  be  readily  distinguished,  the  years 
202-203  and  207-208  constituting  the  divisions.  Some  of  the  things 
he  wrote  have  unfortunately  disappeared, — in  particular  the  3e 
SpectaculiSj  De  Saptismo^  and  T^e  Virginibus  Velandis  in  Greek  ; 
his  works  in  Latin  on  the  same  Subjects  have  survived. 

I.  fVwka  dating  frrnn  bifmre  S02£0S.—To  this  class  belong 
the  Apologeticus  (197)  and  the  tv,'o  books  Ad  Xationcs,  De  Specia- 
culit,  De  Idololalria,  De  Cultu  Ftminarum  Libri  n.,  Dc  Tcsli- 
monio  AnimsB  (written  soon  after  the  Apologeticus\  Ad  Hat-iyrtA 
(perhaps  the  earliest  of  all),  De  Bap'lis^no  BttTtticorum  (now  lost), 
De  Baptismo,  Dt  PemiUrUia,  De  Oralione  (the  last  three  written  for 
catechumens),  De  PatitTiiia,  Ad  Clxorem  Libri  II. ,  De  Prs^criptitme 
Bserelieomm,  and  Ada.  Mardorum  (in  its  first  form).  The  Apolo- 
geticus,  which  in  the  3d  century  was  translated  into  Greek,  is  the 
weightiest  work  in  defence  of  Christianity  of  the  first  two  centuries. 
Respecting  its  relation  to  the  Oetavivj  of  Minucius  Felix  much  has 
been  written  ;  to  the  present  writer  it  seems  unquestionable  that 
Tertullian's  work  was  the  later.  Of  great  moment  also  is  the  De 
Praeseriplitync  Haereticorum,  in  which  the  jurist  is  more  clearly 
heard  thaa  ^s^hristian.  The  De  Spectaculis  and  De  Idololairia 
show  that  Tertullian  was  already  in  a  certain  sense  a  Montanist 


'  Compare  also  the  judgment  of  Hilary  and  of  Vincent  of  Lerins^ 
Comm^mit.,  Ii. 


198 


T  E  R  — T  E  S 


hefore  lie  formally  went  over  to  that  creed  .  on  the  '^tber  hand.  | 
bis  De  Pctn-itenlia  proves  that  his  earlier  views  on  chur^jh  discipline 
were  much  more  tolerant  than  his  later  To  learn  something  of 
his  Christian  temper  we  must  read  the  De  Oratwm  and  the  De 
Palientia  The  De  Baptxsmo  is  of  special  Interest  from  the  archaeo- 
logical pomt  of  view. 

U.  IVorks  wnlUfn  between  S02-20S  and  207-208. ~^De  Vxrgrmhus 
Velandis,  De  Corona  Militis,  De  Fuga  in  Per.teculioru,  De  ExkoTia- 
lione  Castitalis,  Sc&rptace^adv.  Qnoslicos  (?),  Jdversus  Hermogenem, 
Ik  Censu  Antmm  adv, BerTnog'mem  (lost).  Adx  Valentinianos,  Adv. 
A}i€lUiacos  (lost),  Ik  Paradiso  (lost).  De  FcUo  (lost),  De  Anima,  De 
Carne  Chnstx,  De  Resurrectione  Camis,  and  De  Spe  Fidehum  (lost), 
were  all  written  after  Tertullian  had  recognized  the  prophetic  claims 
of  the  Montanists,  but  before  be  had  left  the  church 

III  IVorks  laUr  than  201-208  —To  this  penod  belong  the  6ve 
*»ook8  Adv.  Afaraonem^  his  main  anti-Gnostic  work  (in  the  third 
form— the  first  of  the  6ve  was  written  in  207-208),  Ad  Scapulam  (a 
memorial  to  the  governor,  written  soon  after  211).  D^  Pallio 
(possibly  this  ought  to  be  classed  among  the  earliest  writings),  Adv. 
Praxean  (his  principal  work  against  the  Monarchians),  and  Adv. 
Judxos  The  latest  extant  works  of  Tertullian  (all  after  217)  are 
his  controversial  writings  against  the  laxity  of  the  Catholics,  full  of 
the  bitterest  attacks,  especially  upon  Cahxtus.  the  bishop  of  Rome  ; 
these  are  Dc  Monogaima.  De  Jejunio^  De  Pudtcitia,  and  De  Ecstasi 
Lzbn  VII  (lost).  The  arguments  agains*  the  genuineness  of  some 
of  the  above  vnitiugs  do  not  seem  to  the  present  writer  to  have 
weight  It  13  uncertain  whether  Tertullian  was  the  author  of  the 
Acta  Perpetuss  et  Felialalis. 

LMeraiurf,~&  thoroughly  adequate  *'dition  of  the  works  of  Tertullian  and  a 
full  account  of  his  fortunes  as  3  vn-it«r  ire  still  desiderata  ;  the  best  edition  at 
present  is  that  ot  Oehler  (3  vols.,  Leipsic.  1853).  The  fdilio  princes  is  by 
Beatus  Rhenauus  (Basel.  1521),  otb'^rs  have  appeared  bv  Gelenflis  (1550). 
r3mcljus(1579).  D*  ia  Barre(15S0).  Rigaltius  (1634).  SeniJer(1770-71).  Oberthur 
<I790).  Leopold  (I8:i9  sg.).  and  Mtgne  (1814).  The  VieDoa  Academy  is  about  to 
publish  an  edition  by  Reiflerscheid  There  are  German  translations  by  Besnard 
(1837)  and  Kellner  (1882).  and  an  EnG:li3h  translation  appears  in  Clark's  Ante- 
Nicene  Theological  Library  Sepanite  treatises  of  Tertullian  have  often  been 
edited.— the  Apologelicvs  by  Havercarap(1718),  Oehler  (1849).  and  Kayser(I865)  : 
ttie  Ad  Natwntsby  Godofredus  (16il,'0  ;  the  DeSpectacuiis  by  Klussmann  (1877); 
the  De  Tfsumnnio  Amms  by  Liodnf  r  (1862) ;  the  Df  Pallio  by  Salmasius  (1856); 
other  minor  wntings  by  Hurter.  Ac  The  testimonies  of  the  church  fathers 
(the  most  importa.nt  being  those  of  Cyprian,  Euaebiua,  Jerome,  and  Vincent  of 
L<?rins)are  fiartly  brought  together  in  the  editions. 

The  older  .studies  on  Tertullian  by  Le  Nourry,  Tillcmont,  Dupin,  Allix,  CJave, 
C<'illici,  Mosheim.  Centner,  Semler.  Noesselt,  are  to  some  extent  reproduced 
10  vol  III.  of  Oehler  s  edition  Among  the  more  modem  contributions  to  the 
subject  may  be  mentioned  th(  se  of  Neander  {Antignosticus  •  Gcisl  dcs  Tertvl- 
tiniis,  Berlin,  1825).  Bohnnger  (Dif  Kirche  Cknsti  in  Biograpkien,  vol.  in.,  2d 
€d..  1875).  Mobler  iPalTologie,  vol.  i.,  1840.  pp.  701-789),  Kaye  {EccUs.  Hist,  of  the 
td  and  9d  Cftiurus.  illusJrnted  from  tht  uyritings  of  lertullian,  3d  ed.,  1846), 
Cocoen  (Comment,  de  Tf'uU..  Utrecht,  1825),  Hesselberg  {Terfultian's  Lehre, 
pt  t,.  Dorpat,  1848).  Ebcrt  iOe&cfi  d.  Chnsti.  Lit.,  1874).  Freppel  (TerluUien, 
Pans.  1804).  Qaock  (Tmuilwns  Leben  u.  ScJirifien.  1877).  Alzog  (Patrologie.  3d 
■ed.,  1876).  See  also  the  manuals  of  church  history,  history  of  dogma  [e.g., 
Hamack  s  Lehrtj.  d  DogTmnncAch.:  also  Schwane's.  Domer's,  and  others),  of 
Roman  literature  (Teufftl),  of  Chnstian  philosophy  (Ritt«r,  Stock!,  Erdniann, 
l!eberweg)-     Compare  also  DeuUnger,  Geist  d.  CfiristL  IhheTlitferung,  vol    i. 

On  the  chronology  and  genuineness  of  the  works  attributed  to  Tertullian.  sec 
Mosheim,  Semler.  Noes5elt-(£»c  Vera  jEUiU  et  Doctrina  Scriptorvm  Tertulham. 
1768;  in  Oehler's  ed..  vorriii.),  Uhlhom  (Fundamenla  Chronologic  TcrtulL, 
Cottingen.  I8.'i2).  Bonwetscri  (/>i>  Schnfien  Terlulhan's  n  d.  Zeil  ihrer  Ahftisx.. 
Bonn.  1S7<)).  Ketlncr  C'Zur  Chron.  Tert-'s."  in  Theol.  QuartalschT.,  1870-71), 
Orot^meyer  {Vrhfr  Tertulhanf  Uben  ti,  Schriften,  Keinpen,  1863-65),  Harnack 
<"ZurChronol  d  Schr.  Tert."B."  in  Zlschr,  f  Kirchengesch  ,  IS7S).  Noldechen 
<"TerU'sGebiirtsj3hr,''  in  Ztschr.f.  u^iss-  Theol.,  1886).  On  Tertullian  as  a  man. 
a  citizen,  and  anauttior.  see  Et>ert  (as  above),  Eneelhardt  ("  T<-rt-'s  schnflstell 
C3iaracter,*"  in  ZUchr.  /.  d  higt.  Theol.,  1852).  Ritter  (in  Bravin  and  Achterfelds 
Bonner  Zeitsrhrifi,iifU  8)  iT-ildebrand  (in  Jahn's  Jakrb.  z.  Alterikumswissensch  , 
1*43),  Vienug^i  iDoctrinonurltilliant  df  Rep  etdeOffic-  eljtir.  Civium  Christtan- 
orum.  Bonn.  1850).  Noldecnen  ("Tcrt.  als  Meosch  u  als  Burger."  in  Htsl. 
Zlschr  ,  1885).  Schmidt  {IH  Latinitaie  Ten.,  Erlangen.  1870-72).  Klussmann 
iCtLrarum  TrrtvU.,  pts  i,,  ii  .  Dalle.  1881).  Hauschild  (Die  GrundsiUze  u  Mittel 
tier  R^ortbildung  be^  Tert  .  Leipsic,  18S1).  and  Langen  (De  Usv  Tert.  Prseposi- 
iwnum,  Muiiet^r.  1869)  On  Tt-rtullian  as  a  jurist,  see  Blumcnbach  {De  presb}/ 
Uroet  Icto  TerluUuirw.  Leipsic.  1735),  Wicsenhavem  (£)«  Icto  Teriullinrw.  Hildcs- 
heim.  1743).  Pagensipcher  (De  Jurispr.  Tert.,  Harderwjjk.  i't'S).  RudorfT  (ffom 
Bfchtsgesch  .  \.  p  196  s;  )  On  TertulLan  as  an  apologete.  see  Hefele  ("Ten 
als  Apologet."  in  Ifeitr  zur  Kirche  ngeschichu.  vol.  i.).  Jeep  ("Tert  als  Apolo- 
eel."  10  Jahrhb  f  deutiChf  Ttifol.,  1864).  Pelet  (Essai  rvr  iafolog  de  Ten., 
Slrasburg,  I868),.CondamiO  {De  TertuUiano  VejoUe  Beliguyriif  Patrono,  Bar-le- 
Due,  1877).  Werner  (CficA  d.apolog  u.  potemisch.  Lit.,  vols,  i-,  u..  1861-62)  On 
bis  relations  to  the  Greek  apologist*,  see  Bamack  (Tate  n.  Vnlers  r.  altchriu. 
Lii.-Cesch..  vol  1).  on  those  to  Mlnucius  Felix,  Ebert  (Tert  's  Verbaltmss  zu 
M  Felix,  Lcipsic-  1S68).  and  a  uuraberof  other  discussions  by  Hart«l.  Kuhn. 
&c  His  relations  t<>  Clement  of  AJexandna  have  been  investigated  by 
Munscher  (in  Henkes  Afo^/orin.  vol  vi.,  1796).  Noldechen  (Jahrbb  f  prol 
Theol-,  I88G.  Theol  Sttid  u  Krit..  1886),  on  bis  relations  t^  IrtoGfus.  Htppo- 
lytus,  Mehto.  and  the  Gnostics,  see  n.irnack  (Zvr  Qvelleiikriiik  der  Oesch.  d 
Gtostinsmui.  Leipsic.  1873),  Lipsius(/>i/  VucIUti  dcr  alte.'^Jfn  Keiiergesch  ,  1875). 
Harnack  (De  ApellitGnosi  Monarrhtca.  L^ipsic,  1S74.  and  Te.ife  u  Vnlerntch  . 
vol,  I  >.  Hilgenfeld  (Keliergesch.,  1S84).  and  Hagemann  (Die  rom  Kirche.  1864) 
Bis  ret-itions  to  the  Grc«k  element  in  general  are  treated  of  by  Caspan  in  vol 
111  of  his  Qu/Uen  zvr  Gesch  d  Taii/iijmbols  (1875).  and  thosp  to  the  New  Testa 
mentand  primitive  Christianity  by  Ronsch  (Das  N  T  Ten.'s.  1871),  Volkmar 
{mCredners  Gesch  d  STIichen  Kanon.  1860).  Westcott  (Hisi  of  thf  Canon  of 
the  ff.  T..  5th  ed.,  1881).  Char'fns  (Cnnomcuy,  1880).  Overbcck  (Du  Aiiffasisitnn 
rf.  Stretts  riTLSfft/n  Pelr^is  u  pauluf.  be\  den  Kxrckenvatrrn  Basel,  1877),  Barth 
<"Tcrfs  Au(Tas!.ung  des- Ap.  Paulus."  Ac  in  JaArbh  /  prof  7"A«a/..  vol  vni.). 
and  Noldechen  ("  EiDgefldgelles  Wort  bei  Tert.,'  in  Zudtr.f  wiss  Theol..  ISR.^) 
On  Tertullian  &s  a  MonUnisl.  see  Gottwald  (De  Monlam.tmo  Ten..  Breslau. 
1363)  and  the  accounts  of  Montanism  by  Schwegler.  Baur,  Ritschl.  Bonwetsch! 
De  Soyres.  Salmon.  Vamack.  and  others,  also  Noldechen  ("Die  Krisis  in 
iirtliag.    Schleierstreii."  in  Ziichr.  f.  kirchl.  WisstTisch.  n.  ktn-h  Lebcn,  188G)- 


Od  hia  rrlition  to  the  creed  and  mle  of  faith  consult  Harnack  (Patr.  App.  0pp., 
t  ,  :!ded  .  II  Appendix,  and /-e'irft  d  Dogmengesch..  vo\  i>  His  doctrine  of  the 
Eucharist  has  been  disciissei  by  Dieringar  (in  Der  Kaihohk  (■>r  186^).  Leim- 
bacli  (Beitr  z  Abtndiiiahlslehre  Tert  s.  Gotha,  1874).  and  in  the  standard  works 
on  the  history  of  the  doctrine  generally  For  his  doctriue  of  the  resurrection. 
sfe<>ehninger(7'crf  u  sfine  A  u/ersukungstehrt,  Augsburg,  1878);  for  his  psycho- 
logy, see  Der  Knlholik  for  May.  August,  and  September  1865.  Murion  (£ssni  sur 
lonaine  de  i<i-nu  dnpret  Tert  ,  Strasburg,  1866),  Burckhardt  (Du  Seelenlehrt 
des  Ten.,  Bautzen.  1S57),  Stockl  (De  Tert.  Doclnna  Psychol  ,  Munsier,  1863), 
and  Hauschild  (Ten  i  Psychologu,  Fran kfort-on- Main,  1880)  On  his  doc- 
trine of  the  ongmal  state  uf  man.  see  Wendt  (Dk  Lekre  von  d.  menschl  VolL 
komnenhcil.  1882)  and  Noldechen  (Ztsckr.  f.  wiss.  Theol.,  1883);  and  on  his 
doctnne  of  redemption,  see  Bordes(£iposecri(.  des  opni  (U  Ttrt.  snr  la  redemp- 
tion. Strasburg,  1860)  The  treatise  Adv.  Prajuan  and  his  anti-Monarchian 
polemic  are  discussed  by  L}pi,\us  (Jahrhb  f  deulsck.  Theol,  1868)  and  Hage- 
mann  {as  above),  and  in  the  church  liistones  .  his  conception  of  the  sacra- 
inenis  by  Lcimbach  (Theol  Slud.  u.  Krit.,  1871).  His  ethical  ideas  are  analysed 
by  Muuscber  (Henkes  Magfunn,  vol.  -n.,  1796)  and  Nielsen  (Ten-'s  F.ihtk. 
Coppnhagen,  1879).  the  De  Pallio  by  Kellner  (Theol.  QUi^rfa/sc/jr.,  1870),  the 
De  Patientta  by  Noldechen  (Ztschr.  /.  kircht.  H'issensch-  u.  kirch.  Lefceu,  1885), 
the  Adv-  Judneos  by  Semler.  Bonwetsch  (as  above),  and  Volkmar  (in  Credner  s 
Gesch.  d  NTlichen  Kqioh).  the  spurious  addition  to  the  De  Prssciiplwne  by 
the  autborittes  already  cited  for  his  relations  to  Gnosticism  and  by  Lipstus 
(Zur  Quellenkritik  df.s  Epiphaxios,  1865).  On  the  poem  AdiK  Marc,  falsely 
ascribed  to  Tertullian.  see  Hfickstadt's  monograph  (Leipaic.  1875).  also  the 
Ztschr  f  u'us.  Theol.,  18"fi ;  on  the  poem  De  Sodoma  et  df  Jona,  sec  Mailer 
(Rhein  Mus.,  ntii).  The  passatjes  of  archsological  importance  in  Tertullian 
are  discussed  by  Leimbach  in  Ztschr.  f.  die  hist.  Theol..  1871,  and  by  Noldechen 
in  Ztschr  f  kirchL  H'issensch  ii  kirchl  I^ben.  1886 ;  see  also  Morcellus  (Africa 
Christiann,  3  vols.,  Brescia,  1816),  Miinter(Primordui  Ecclesi/e  Africans.  Copen- 
hagen,  I829J,  and  Gorres  {"  Das  Chnstenthum  u.  der  Staat  z.  Zeit  des  Raiser 
Septinuus  Scverus."  in  Jahrbb  f  prol  Theol.,  16T8).  Some  editions  of  indi- 
vidual works  of  Tertullian,  as  well  as  philological  investigations  not  mentioned 
in  the  foregoing  l:st,  will  be  foiiod  particularized  in  Mayors  Bibliographical 
Clue  to  Latin  LiUraturt,  1875  {A.  HA.) 

TERUDANT,  or  Tarudant.  See  Morocco,  vol.  xvi. 
p.  834. 

TERUEL.  a  province  of  Spain,  formiDg  part  of  the 
ancient  kingdona  of  Aragon,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  b> 
Zaragoza,  on  the  E.  by  Tarragona,  on  the  S.  by  Castellon 
de  la  Plana  and  Valencia,  on  the  S.W.  by  Cuenca,  an  i 
on  the  W.  by  Guadalajara,  and  has  an  area  of  2363  square 
miles.  It  13  intersected  from  east  to  west  by  the  mountain 
chains  of  Albarracin  and  Gudar,  from  which  several  offsets 
diverge  on  either  side  The  loftiest  summit  is  the  Muela 
de  San  Juan  (5280  feet),  which  is  covered  with  snow  for  a 
great  part  of  the  year.  These  sierras  give  rise  to  several 
large  rivers,  the  principal  being  the  Tagns,  the  Guadalaviar» 
the  Jiloca,  and  the  Guadalope.  Notwithstanding  the  fertile 
character  of  the  plains  and  an  abundance  of  mineral  wealth, 
the  trade  of  the  province  is  unimportant,  and  civilization 
in  a  backward  state,  owing  to  the  lack  of  means  of  trans- 
port, the  want  of  enterprise,  and  imperfect  communication 
with  the  outer  world.  The  chief  products  are  corn,  wine, 
oil,  cheese,  fruits,  timber,  flax,  hemp,  silk,  wool,  and  saffron, 
together  with  cattle,  shee.p,  and  swine  ;  while  in  the  busier 
centres  some  slight  manufacture  of  coarse  cloth,  paper, 
leather,  soap,  pottery,  and  esparto  goods  is  carried  on.  The 
population  of  the  province  m  1877  was  249,000. 

TERUEL,  the  capital  and  most  important  town  of  the 
above  province,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Guada- 
laviar,  142  miles  east  of  Madrid,  and  ^  m  the  high  road 
from  Calatayud  to  Valencia.  It  is  an  a\/cient  walled  city, 
fast  failing  into  decay,  with  narrow  gloomy  streets  and 
crumbling  mediaeval  houses.  Some  of  the  numerous 
churches  are  worth  seeing,  with  their  paintings  by  the 
rarely  known  17th-century  artist  Antonio  V^squert,  as  ia 
also  the  great  aqueduct  of  140  arches,  raised  1555-60  by 
Pierre  Bedel,  a  French  architect.  In  the  cloisters  of  San 
Pedro  lie  the  remains  of  the  celebrated  "  lovers  of  Teruel." 
Juan  de  Marcilla  and  Isabella  de  Segura,  whose  pathetic 
story  has  formed  the  subject  of  numerous  dramas  and 
poems  by  Perez  de  Montalbai>,  Yaque  de  Salas,  Hartzen- 
busch,  and  others.  The  cathedral  is  Churngueresque 
Teruel  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  see  in  1577,  the 
bishop  being  suffragan  of  Zaragoza.  The  population  of 
the  city  in  1877  was  9482. 

TESCHEN  (Polish  Cjes:pi\  the  chief  town  of  a  duchy 
in  Austrian  Silesia,  is  situated  on  the  Olsa,  a  tributary  of 
the  Oder,  34  miles  south-east  of  Troppau.  It  combines 
both  Polish  and  German  peculiarities  in  the  style  of  its 
buildings,  and  contains  five  churches,  the  most  interestirg 
of  which  are  the  parish  church,  which  formerly  belonged 


T  E  S— T  E  T 


199 


to  a  Dominican  moriastery,  and  the  Gnadenkirche,  one  of 
the  Protestant  churches  built  in  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
AJtranstadt  in  1706.  The  only  relic  of  the  ancient  castle 
is  a  square  tower,  dating  from  the  12th  century. ',-  The 
manufacturing  industry  of  the  town  is  slight,  and,  since 
the  construction  of  the  railway  t-ia  Oderberg,  Teschen  has 
lost  much  of  the  trade  formerly  commanded  by  its  position 
near  the  borders  of  SUesia,  Hungary,  Moravia,  and  Galicia. 
A  dai  dressing  and  spinning  factory,  a  large  brewery,  and 
several  furniture  factories  are  the  chief  industrial  establish- 
ments in  the  town.  The  population  in  1880  was  13,004. 
It  wa3  at  Teschen  that  Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II.  signed  the 
peace  which  put  an  end  to-the  war  of  Bavarian  succession  in  1779. 
The  duchy  of  Teschen  was  formerly  a  more  or  less  direct  apanage 
of  the  Bohemian  crowa.  For  some  time  it  bore  the  name  of  Saie-. 
Teschen  (Sachsen-Teschen),  owing  to  the  fact  that  Prince  Albert  of 
Saxony,  who  married  an  arehduchess  of  Anstria,  received  it  as  part 
of  his  wife's  dowry.  Prince  Albert  bequeathed  it  in  1822  to  the 
amperor  of  Austria,  who  bestowed  it  on  the  archduke  Albert. 

TESSIN.     SeeTicEJo. 

TEST  ACTS,  ilie  principle  that  none  but  persons  pror 
f esaing  the  established  religion  were  eligible  for  public  em- 
ployment was  adopted  by  Uie  legislatures  of  both  England 
and  Scotland  soon  after  the  Beformation.  In  England 
the  Acts  of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity  and  the  severe 
penalties  denounced  against  recusants,  whether  Roman. 
Catholic  or  Nonconformist,  were  affirmations  of  this  prin- 
ciple. The  Act  of  7  Jac.  L  c;  2  provided  that  all  such  as 
were  naturalized  or  restored  in  blood  should  receive  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  reign  of  Charles  EL  that  actual  receiving  of  the 
communion  of  the  Church  of  England  was  made  a  cod- 
dition  precedent  to  the  holding  of  public  offices.  The 
earliest  imposition  of  this  test  was  by  the  Corporation 
Act  of  1661  (13  Car.  II.  st.  2,  c.  1),  enacting  that,  besides 
taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  and  supremacy  and  sub- 
scribing a  declaration  against  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  all  members  of  corporations  were  within  one 
year  after  election  to  receive  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Snpper  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church  of  England. 
This  Act  was  followed  by  the  Test  Act  of  1672  (25  Car. 
n.  c.  2).  The  immediate  cause  of  the  Test  Act  (the  fuU 
title  of  which  is  "An  Act  for  preventing  dangers  which  may 
happen  from  popish  recusants  ")  was  the  king's  declaration 
of  indulgence,  dispensing  with  laws  inflicting  disabilities 
on  Ndnconformiste.  Thos  Act  enforced  upon  all  persons 
filling  any  office,  civil  or  military,  the  obligation  of  taking 
the  oaths  of  supremacy  and  allegiance  and  subscribing  a 
declaration  against  transubstantiation,  and  also  of  receiving 
the  sacrament  within  three  months  after  admittance  to 
office.  The  Act  did  not  extend  to  peers;  but  in  1678 
30  CarT  n.  st.  2  enacted  that. all  peers  smd  members  of 
ithe  House  of  Commoiis  should  make  a  declaration  against 
transubstan^tion,  invocation  of  saints,  and  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass, — a  special  exception  being  made  in  favour  of 
the  dtike  of  York.  The  provisions  of  the  Test  Act  were 
rviqlated  by  both  Charles  II.  and  James  11.  on  the  ground 
of  the  dispensing  power  claimed  by  the  Stuart  kings.  In 
a  well-known  case  of  Godden  v.  Hales  (11  State  Trials,, 
|1166),  an  action  for  penalties  under  the  Test  Act  brought 
against  an  officer  in  the  army,  the  judges  decided  in  favour 
of  the  dispensing  power, — a  power  finally  abolished  by  the 
Bill  of  Rights.  ;  Aft€r  a  considerable  number  of  amend- 
ments and  partial  repeals  by  the  legislature  of  the  Acts  of 
1661,  1672,  and  1678,  and  of  Acts  of  indemnity  to  pro- 
tect_  persons  under  certain  circumstances  from,  penalties 
incurred  under  the  Test  Act,  the  necessity  of  receiving  the 
sacrament  as  a  qualification  for  office  was  abolished  by  9 
Geo.  IV.  c  17,  and  all  Acts  requiring  the  taking  of  oaths 
and  declarations  against  transubstantiation,  die.,  were  re- 
owlad  bv  the  Roraaa  Catholic  Relief  Act  of  1829  (10  Geo. 


rV.  c.  7)1  This  general  repeal  has  been  followed  by  the 
special  repeal  of  the  Corporation  Act  by' the  Promissory 
Oaths  Act,  1871  (34  and  35  Ylct.  c.  48),'of  the  Test  Act 
by  the  Statute  Law  Revision  Act,  1863,  and  of  the  Act 
of  1678  by  29  and  30  Vict.  c.  19.'  Religious jtests  re- 
mained in  the  English  universities  until  1871.  )To  be  a 
member  of  the  Church  of  England^  was  a  necessary  ^con- 
dition precedent  for  holding  most  university  or  collegb 
offices  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity  of  1662,  and  such  offices 
were  not  aflfected  by  the  Toleration  Act  of  1688  and  the 
Roman  CathoUc  Relief  Act  of  1829.  In  1871  the  Uni-' 
versity  Tests  Act  abolished  subscriptions  to  the  articles  of 
the  Church  of  England,  all  declarations  and  oaths  respect- 
ing religious  belief,  and  all  compulsory  attendance  at 
■public  worship  in  the  universities  of  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
and  Durham.  There  is  an  exception  confining  to  persons  in 
holy  orders  of-  the  Church  ofc  England  degrees  in  divinity 
and  positions  restricted  to  persons  in  holy  orders,>nch  as 
the  divinity  and  Hebrew  professorships. 

Scotland. — A  religious  teat  was  imposed  immediately  after^th* 
EeformatioD.  By  1M7,  c  9,  no  one  was  to  be  appointed  to  a  public 
office  or  to  be  a  notary  who  did  not  profess  the  Reformed  religion-i 
The  Scotch  Test  Act  was  1681,  c  6,  rescinded  by  1690,  c  7.  "Re-* 
nunciAtion  of  popery  was  to  be  made  by  persons  employed  in^edur 
cation  (1700,  c  3).  A  motion  to  add,  after  the  18th  article  of  union,' 
an  exemption  of  Scotsmen  from  the  sacramental  test  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was  negatived  by  the  Scottish  parliament.  ^^A  similar  fato 
awaited  a  projKfflal  that  while  a  sacramental  test  was  in  force  in 
England  aU  persons  in  public  otEce  in  Scotland  should  subscribe 
tbeiT  adhesion  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  government.  By  1707,' 
c  6,  all  professors,  principals,  regents,  masters,  or  others  bearing 
office  in  any  university,  collece,  or  school  in  Scotland  were  to  pro- 
fess and  subscribe  to  the  Confession  of  Faith.  ~  All  persons  were  to 
be  free  of  any  oath  or  test  contrary  to  or  _  inconsistent  with  the 
Protestant  religion  and  Presbyterian  Church  government  The 
reception  of  the  communion  was  never  a  part  of  the  test  in  Scotland 
as  in  England  and  Ireland.  The  necessity  for  subscription  to  the 
Confession  of  Faith  by  persons  holding  a  university  office  (other 
than  that  of  principal  or  professor  of  theology)  was  removed  by 
1 6  and  1 7  Vict.  c.  89.  The  Act  provides  that  in  place  of  subscription 
every  person  appointed  to  a  university  office  is  to  subscribe  a  declar- 
ation according  to  the  form  in  the  Act,  promising  not  to  teach  any 
opinions  opposed  to  the  divine  authority  of  Scripture  or  to  tha 
Confession  of  Faith,  and  to  do  nothing^to  the  prejudice  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland  or  its  doctrines  and  privileges. 

_  Ireland. — An  oath  of  allegiance  was  required  bythe  Irish  Act  of 
Supremacy  (2  Eliz.  c.  1).  The  English  Act  of  3  Will,  and  M.  c.  2 
snbstitnted  other  oaths  and  enforced  in  addition  from  peers,  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Commons,  bishops,  barristers,  attorneys,  and 
others  a  declaration  against  transubstantiation,  invocation  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  and  the  saiuts,  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass.  By  the 
Irish  Act  of  2  Anne  c.  6  every  person  admitted  to  any  office,  civil 
or  military,  was  to  take  and  subscribe  the  oaths  of  allegiance, 
supremacy,  and  abjuration,  to  subscribe  the  declaration  against 
transubstantiation,  ic,  and  to  receive  the  Lord's  Supper  according 
to  the  usage  of  the  Church  of  Ireland.  .  English  legislation  on  the 
subject  of  oaths  and  declarations  was  adopted  in  Ireland  bv  Yelver- 
ton's  Act,  21  and  22  Geo.  III.  c  48,  §  3  (Ir.).  These  pvovisionfi 
were  all  repealed  by  the  Promissory  Oaths  Act,  1871.^  The  Roman 
Catholic  Relief  Act  of  1793  (33  Geo.  III.  c.  21,  Jr.)  excented  Trinity 
College,  Dablin,  from  its  Drovisions,  and  tests  existed  In  Dublin 
university  until  1873.'  T'hey  were  abolished  as  far  as  regarded 
certain  scientific  professorships  in  1S67  by  30  Vict.  c.  9,  and  were 
finally  abolished  for  the  whole  university  by  the  University  of  Dublin 
Tests  Act,  1873,  except  as  to  professors  of  and  lecturers  in  divinity. 

United  States.— By  art.  6  of  the  constitution,  "  no  religious  test 
shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  truat 
under  the  United  States."  i  A  similar  pro\'ision  is  generally  included 
■  in  the  State  constitutions.^ 

TESTAMENT.     See  Will: 

TESTIMONY.'    See  Evidknce.\  ^ 

TETANUS  (from  Gr.'TtiVu,  I  stretch),  a  disorder  of 'the 
nervous  system,  consisting  in  an  increased  reflex  excita- 
bility of  the  spinal  cord  and  manifesting  itself  by  painful 
tonic  spasm  of  the  voluntary  muscles  throughout  the  body. 
The  disease  shows  itself  under  various  conditions.  It 
occasionally  occurs,  particularly  in  tropical  countries,  with- 
out apparent  cause,  and  has  thus  been  known  to  aflfect 
numbers  of  persons  simultaneously  (idiopaMc  ieianju)^ 


200 


T  E  T  — T  E  T 


It  is  sometimes  observed  in  new -bom  children  (trismus 
neonatorum)  and  in  parturient  women  (puerperal  tetanus). 
But  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases  occur  in  connexion 
with  a  wound  or  other  injury,  more  especially  in  the  ex- 
tremities, probably  implicating  some  of  the  peripheral 
nerves.  Certam  forms  of  injury,  as  punctured,  lacerated, 
and  gunshot  wounds,  are  more  liable  to  be  followed  by 
tetanus  than  others.  In  many  cases  the  liability  bears  no 
proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  wound.  Exposure  to  cold 
after  injury  is  an  important  exciting  cause.  The  symptoms 
of  tetanus  in  its  most  usual  forms  generally  appear  during 
the  healing  process  of  a  wound,  but  occasionally  they  arise 
after  cicatrization  is  completed.  Sometimes  they  are  pre- 
ceded by  appearances  of  irritation  in  the  wound  or  its 
neighbourhood,  but  this  is  exceptional.  The  earliest  indi- 
cations of  the  disease  usually  show  themselves,  no  matter 
where  the  wound  is  situated,  by  stiffness  about  the  muscles 
of  the  jaw,  causing  difficulty  in  opening  the  mouth,  which 
soon  increases  to  lockjaw  or  trismus.  This  is  accompanied 
by  spasm  in  neighbouring  muscles,  and  the  drawn  features 
and  exposed  teeth  give  to  the  countenance  the  peculiar 
expression  known  as  risus  sardonicus.  The  rigidity  ex- 
tends to  the  muscles  of  the  neck,  back,  chest,  abdomen, 
and  extremities,  and  the  body  frequently  assumes  a  bent 
attitude,  either  backward  (opisthotonos),  forward  (empros- 
tkotonos),  or  laterally  (pleurost/iotonos).  This  general 
muscular  rigidity,  which  at  iirst  is  not  constant  but  occa- 
sioually  undergoes  relaxation,  is  accompanied  by  frequently 
recurring  convulsive  seizures,  which  are  readily  excited  by 
the  slightest  irritation,  such  as  from  a  draught  of  cool  air, 
a  bright  light,  the  closing  of  a  door,  &c.  In  such  attacks 
there  is  great  suffering  and  the  expression  of  the  face  is 
indicative  of  agony  ;  and  the  function  of  respiration  may 
be  seriously  involved  and  asphyxia  threaten  or  actually 
take  place  The  temperature  of  the  body  sometimes  rises 
to  a  high  degree.  The  attack  is  usually  acute  and  after 
a  few  days  either  passes  oflf  or,  as  is  more  frequent,  ter- 
minates fatally,  either  by  asphyxia  from  tonic  spasm  of 
the  respiratory  muscles  or  from  exhaustion  consequent  on 
the  violence  of  the  symptoms  together  with  the  absence  of 
sleep.  Throughout,  the  whole  course  of  the  disease  the 
mind  is  clear.  In  idiopathic  tetanus  the  symptoms  are 
less  severe,  the  course  more  chronic,  and  recoveries  more 
common  than  in  those  which  <lepend  upon  a  wound  or 
injury  The  puerperal  form,  with  symptoms  which  differ 
in  no  way  from  those  described,  is  rare  and  occurs  either 
after  parturition  or  after  abortion.  Tetanus  in  new-bom 
children,  a'  o  a  rare  form,  usually  shows  itself  a  day  or  two 
after  birth  by  obvious  difficulty  in  the  acts  of  sucking  and 
swallowing  ,  by  the  supervention  of  trismus,  together  with 
tonic  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  and -body, 
sometimes  accompanied  by  convulsive  seizures;  and  by  a 
peculiar  low  whining  cry,  seldom  absent  and  very  charac- 
teristic. Various  opinions  have  been  held  as  to  the  cause 
of  this  form  of  tetanus,  some  referring  it  to  the  wound 
produced  by  severance  of  the  umbilical  cord,  others  to 
pressure  upon  the  bones  of  the  head  iii  parturition,  ifec. 
It  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  explained.  Although 
sometimes  recovered  from,  it  is  usually  fatal. 

The  symptoms  of  poisoning  by  strychnine  bear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  those  of  tetanus.  They  are,  however,  more 
acute  and  develop  in  connexion  with  something  which  has 
been  taken  ;  further,  the  absence  of  a  wound  and  the  fact 
that  the  spasm  affects  the  muscles  of  the  extremities  first, 
and  not  those  of  the  jaws,  as  in  tetanus,  serve  to  establish 
the  diagnosis.  In  Hydrophobia  (q.v.),  which  in  certain 
of  its  symptoms  resembles  tetanus,  the  absence  of  trismus, 
the  dread  of  water,  and  the  violent  spasms  on  attempting 
to  drink,  together  with  the  history  of  the  case,  readily 
enable  a  distinction  to  be  made.     Various  other  forms  of 


I  nervous  disease  accompanied  by  tetanic  symptoms,  such  as 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  hysteria  in  some  forms,  itc,  may 
be  still  more  clearly  distinguished  from  true  tetanus. 

The  pathology  of  tetanus  is  referred  to  in  the  article 
Pathology  (vol.  xviii.  p.  391).  No  constant  changes  are- 
observed  in  the  body  after  death  from  tetanus.  The  most 
common  are  great  dilatation  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
spinal  cord  and  sometimes  evidence  of  inflammatory  action, 
but  these  are  probably  the  effects  of  the  symptoms  rather 
than  their  cause. 

For  the  treatment  of  tetanus  many  remedies  have  been 
employed.  Where  a  source  of  irritation  in  or  about  a. 
wound  can  be  made  out,  it  ought  to  be  dealt  with  Ijy  the 
surgeon.  Of  medicinal  agents  those  which  diminish  the 
reflex  excitability  of  the  spinal  cord  and  relax  the  spasm 
are  to  be  recommended.  But  it  is  not  safe  to  employ  all 
substances  which  produce  these  effects.  Thus  tobacco  and 
its  active  principle  nicotine  act  powerfully  in  this  way,  but 
they  are  attended  with  danger  from  their  poisonous  proper- 
ties, and  the  same  may  be  said  of  curari,  conium,  calabar 
bean,  «fec.,  all  of  which  have  been  used  in  tetanus.  Opium 
carerully  administered  sometimes  produces  a  markedly 
beneficial  effect,  as  does  also  Indian  hemp.  Chloroform 
or  ether  inhalation  greatly  mitigates  the  severity  of  the 
spasm.  Chloral  hydrate  and  bromide  of  potassium  or 
ammonium  are  among  the  most  useful  agents  which  can 
be  employed,  and  they  may  be  givei^  separately  or,  stiU 
better,  in  combination.  As  adjuvants,  the  warm  bath,  the 
absence  of  all  noise  and  excitement,  and  the  maintenance 
of  the  strength  by  appropriate  nutriment  should  not  b© 
neglected. 

TETRARCH  (nrpdpxrii),  the  ruler  of  a  tetrarchy 
(T(Tpap\!.a.),  that  is,  in  the  original  sense  of  the  word,  of 
one  quarter  of  a  region.  The  title  of  tetrarch  is  familiar 
from  the  New  Testament  as  borne  by  certain  princes  of 
the  petty  dynasties  which  the  Romans  allowed  to  exercise 
a  dependent  sovereignty  within  the  province  of  Syria.  In 
this  application  it  has  lost  its  original  precise  sense,  and 
means  only  the  ruler  of  part  of  a  divided  kingdom,  or  of 
a  region  too  narrow  to  support  a  higher  title.  After  the 
death  of  Herod  the  Great  (4  B.C.)  his  realm  was  shared 
among  his  three  sons  :  the  chief  part,  including  Judaea, 
Samaria,  and  Idumea,  fell  to  Archelaus  (Matt.  ii.  22),  with 
the  title  of  ethnarch  ;  Philip  received  the  north-east  of  the 
realm,  and  was  called  tetrarch ;  and  Galilee  was  given  to 
Herod  Antipas,  who  bore  the  same  title  (Luke  iii.  1). 
These  three  sovereignties  were  reunited  uiider  Herod 
Agrippa  from  41  to  44  a.d.  Another  tetrarchy  is  men- 
tioned in  Luke  iii.  1,  viz.,  that  of  Lysanias  in  the  little 
district  of  Abilene,  near  Damascus,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Barada.  An  inscription  of  this  Lysanias  is  given  in  C. 
/.  Gr.,  4521. 

See  Renan,  M(m  de  VAcad.,  xxvi.  2  (1870),  p.  49  sq. 

TETUAN  (Tetldwin),  a  town  of  Morocco,  about  2S 
miles  south-south-west  from  Ceuta  and  44  south-east 
from  Tangiers,  is  picturesquely  situated  about  9  miJe» 
inland  on  the  steep  slope  of  a  hill,  behind  which  rise  the 
bold  Rif  Mountains.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls  flanked 
with  towers,  and  has  on  the  summit  of  the  hill  a  castle 
which  is  the  residence  of  the  governor.  ■  The  streets  are 
narrow,  unpaved,  and  dirty,  and  with  few  exceptions  the 
houses  are  poor.  Some  of  the  numerous  mosques,  however, 
are  handsome.  The  principal  manufactures  are  gun-barrels, 
coarse  woollen  cloths,  and  woollen  and  silk  sashes.  The 
harbour  of  Tetuan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Martil,  allows  only 
small  vessels  to  cross  the  bar,  and  the  roadstead  is  much 
exposed  to  the  east.  There  is  some  export  trade  in  cattle, 
grain,  fruit,  leather,  and  wool,  principally  to  Gibraltar. 
The  population  of  Tetuan  is  estimated  at  about  20,000 
(5000  Jews). 


T  E  U  — T  E  W 


201 


I 


Tctuao'is  sani  lo  liavVbfcn  TouDded 'ill  1492  by  refugees  from 
Crinida  H  «>s  tikcn  by  slotm  on  4th  February  1860  by  tin- 
Spaniartis  under  O'Donnell,  but  restored  to  Morocco  when  i>eace 
vas  concluded- 

TEUTONES.'oV  TEtrroNi,  a  powerful  German'tribe, 
irst  appearing  in  history  along  with  the  Cjmbri- (7.V ). 
They  are  again  mentioDed  at  a  later  period  by  Pliny  (HJV., 
txxvii  11)  and  others  as  inhabiting  a  district  in  the  north- 
vest  of  Germany  to  the  north  of  the  Elbe.  The  name  of 
feutones  was  never  employed  either  by  the  Germans  them- 
selves or  by  the  Romans  as  a  general  name  for  the  whole 
German  nation. 

rEUTOXIC  LANGUAGES.  See  GERiLi.w  (vol.  x.  p. 
314  sij.) ,  also  English  Lancoace,  Goths  (voL  x.  p.  852 

<y.),   ScaNDI.VaVIaN  LA.tGDAGES,  FRiSlAKS,  and  HOLLAND 

'vol.  xii.'p.  84  SI).). 

'  TEUTONIC  ORDER,  The,  or  Teutonic  Kmghts  of 
5t  Mary's  Hospital  at  Jerusale.m  (Deutsc/ier  Orden, 
Deutsche' Bitter,  Orden  der  Ritter  des  Hospilales  St  Marten 
at  Jerusalem),  is  one  of  the  three  great  military  and  re- 
ligious orders  to  which  the  crusades  gave  birth.  Its 
aame  is  derived  from  a  German  hospital  founded  at 
Jerusalem  in  1128,  ■n-hich  disappeared  on  the  capture  of 
she  Holy  City  by  the  Saracens  in  1187.  The  pity  excited 
,n  the  minds  of  some  German  merchants  by  the  sufferings 
jf  the  Christian  soldiers  at  the  sioge  of  Acre  in  1190 
jiduced  them  to  revive  the  work  of  this  Society  under  a 
lomewhat  different  form  ;  and  eight  or  nine  years  later  the 
society,  as  thus  resuscitated,  was  converted  into  a  military 
order.  Like  the  two  other  military  ordprs,  the  Teutonic 
3rder  adopted  the  Augustine  rule  of  life ;  and,  in  addition 
to  the  ordinary  monastic  vowa,  the  members  laid  upon 
themselves  the  special  obligations  of  tending  sick  and 
wounded  pilgrims  and  of  fighting  the  pagans.  Frederick, 
duke  of  Swabia,  took  the  young  order  under  his  protection, 
•ind  it  soon  received  charters  from  the  pope  and  emperor, 
sntitUng  it  to  the  same  privileges  as  the  Templars  and 
Knights  of  St  John.  Whatever  was  the  case  at  first,  the 
meoibers  of  the  order  were  ultimately  Tequired  to  be 
Germans  of  honourable  birth.  Priest  brothers  were  intro- 
du'  ed  about  li"20,  and  afterwards  half-brothers,  like  the 
frrres  servant  dames  of  the  othef  orders,  who  did  not 
reiuire  to  be  of  noble  birth,  and  might,  to  some  extent, 
continue  their  ordinary  secular  occupations.  The  distin- 
griishing  garb  of  the  order  consisted  of  a  white  mantle 
with  a  black  cross. 

,  Almost  at  once  a  rich  stream  of  benefactions  of  all  kinds 
began  to  flow  into  the  coffers  of  the  order,  which  gradu- 
ally acquired  extensive  territories  in  Palestine  and  also  in 
Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  Its  first  seat  was  at 
Acre,  and  the  first  grand -master  was  a  Rhenish  knight 
named  Herman  -Walpot  of  Bassenheim.  The  order  rose 
to  great  power  and  influence  under  Herman  von  Salza 
[q.v.),  who  held  the  oflice  of  grandmaster  from  about  1210 
to  1239,  and  enjoyed  the  fullest  confidence  of  both  em- 
peror and  pope.  He  was  also  keen  enough  to  see  the 
aopelsssness  of  the  attempt  to  expel  the  Mohammedans  from 
the  Holy  Land,  and  eagerly  hailed  the  opportunity  of  trans- 
ferring the  activity  of  the  order  to  another  sphere  which 
was  afforded  by  the  invitation  to  undertake  -a  crusade 
igainst  the  heathen  Prussians.  The  successful  progress  of 
this  crusade,  the-  aggrandizement  thereby  accruing  to  the 
order,  and  its  subsequent  decline  have  already  been  nar- 
.-ated  in  the  article  Prussia  (vol.  xx.  pp.  5-6).  Soon 
ift€r  the  beginning  of  the  struggle,  in  1237,  the  Teutonic 
order  absorbed  the  order  of  the  Brothers  of.  the  Sword,  a 
union  which  brought  Courland,  Seragallen,  and  Livonia  to 
swell  its  territories.  In  1291,  when  Acre,  the  last  strong- 
hold of  the  Franks  in  Palestine,  fell  the  order  removed  its 
hcadana^rters  to  Veuice ;  .but,  when  its  centre  of  gravity 


became  so  obviously  shifted  to  the  extensive  terriloriejj 
won  from  the  Prussians;  the  seat  of  government  was  irana. 
ferred  (1309)  to  Marlenbdro  (9.1'.)  on  ths  Vistula,  whore 
a  splendid  castle  was  erected  for  the  grand-masters.  Tha' 
grand -mastership  of  Weinrich  von  Kuiprode  (1351-82)  ia 
the  most  prosperous  period  in  the  history  of  the  order.' 
Its  territorial  possessions  far  exceeded  those  attained  by 
either  of  Uie  rival  orders,  stretching  from  the  Oder  on  the 
west  to  the  Gulf  ol  Finland  on  the  east,  and  containing  a 
population  of  two  to  three  million  souls.  Its  government 
at  first  was  excellent,  and  for  a  time  it  may  be  said  to 
have  played  the  leading  role  in  the  political  history  of 
northern  Europe.'-  Wherever  the  order  spread,  Christianity' 
and  German  national  life  were  introduced.  Its  revenue-s 
were  very  large,  and  its  ranks  were  kept  full  by  hosts  of 
aspirants  to  a  share  in  its  pious  and  lucrative  crusades. 

^  long  as  the  order  uiaiulained  its  own  high  standard 
all  went  well  with  it.  But  its  internal  decay  was  syn- 
chronous with  external  events  tliat  would  alone  have  been 
extremely  perilous.  The  union  of  Poland  and  Lithuania 
in  1 386  raised  up  a  jealous  neighbour,  whoso,  power  it  waa 
wellnigh  impossible  in  the  long  run  to  resist,  while  the 
nominal  conversion  of  the  latter  to  Christianity  struck  at 
the  root  of  the  order's  prosperity  by  depriving  it  of  its 
mission.  WTien  there  were  no  more  heathens  within  reach 
to  convert  and  despoil,  the  chief  attraction  to  outsiders  to 
join  its  ranks  disappeared.  After  the  conversion  of  Pru&sia 
into  a  secular  duchy  the  Teutonic  order  still  continued  fei 
exist  as  an  ecclesiastical  organization,  possessing  eleveD 
bailiwicks  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  ■with  a  total  area  of 
'850  square  miles  and  88,000  inhabitants.  The  head- 
quarters were  fixed  at  Mergentheiin  in  Swabia.  Its  poli- 
tical importance  was. of  course  now  a  thing  of  the  past, 
and  the  scattered  position  of  the  bailiwicks  only  emphasized 
its  ■v^eakness.  In  1801  the  bailiwicks  to  tho  west  of  the 
Bhine  wei'e  absorbed  by  France,  and  in  1809  the  ordei 
was  entirely  suppressed  by  Napoleon,  its  lands  going  to 
tflfi  secular  principahlies  witlin  which  they  lay.  In  1840 
the  order  was  resuscitated  in  Austria,  where- it  now  exists 
as  a  semi -religious  knighthood,  presided  over^by  a  royal 
archduke.  Of  late  it  has  beip  doin^  something  towards 
justifying  its  existence  and  connecting  itself  with  its  past 
history  by  engaging  in  the  an.bulance  service  in  time  of 
war.  The  bailiwick  of  Utrecht,  which  survived  the  decree 
of  Napoleon,  also  still  exists,  but  t^e  Dutch  rf  presentatives 
of  the  order  have  become  Protesta.'its.  The  jewel  of  the 
order  consists  of  a  black  and  ■white  cross,  sui  mounted  )>y 

a  helmet  with  three  feathers. 

H  ■  •   ^ 

The  complete  organization -of  the  Tcutcnic  -oruer  inclttiJe^  s 
grand-master  (kochmeistsr),  provincial  masters "(/anrfwMu'ffr)  for  the 
greater  provinces,  and  commanders  {komturcn)  for  the  siialler  dis- 
tricts .aod  castles.  The  power  of  these  ofEcers  .vas  not,  l^owever, 
absolute.  The  grand-master  co-operated  with  a  c>i»pter  cc-n^isting 
.of  the  provincial  masters  and  five  other  important  functi.'nariea. 
while  the  provincial  masters  in  turn  had  to  cons.'ilt  wiih.  the 
conncil  formed  by  the  kniglit  commanders.  The  privilt^en' «njoyed 
by  the  order  in  its  palmy  days  were  of  the  most  extensive  liatu'e, 
and  its  relations  to  boti  church  and  state  were  often  ot  s  mctS 
exceptional  nature. 

See  Volgt,  Ctsch.  d.  DtnUJun  Rilltronlcnt  (1857-59) ;  Lohmeyer,  CmK  v'.O.* 
V.  Vrst-Prnisen  (vol.-!.,  Gotlia,  16S1);  and  E.  Etrebllce,  TahuUs  OnKliil  3 V»- 
lonM  (Berlin.  I86S>. 

TEWKESBITIY,  an  ancient  borough  and  market-town 
of  Gloucestershire,  England,  is  situated  in  a  fine  pastoral 
valley  at  the  junction  of  the  Severn  and  the  Upper  Avon, 
and  on  the  Midland  and  Great  Western  Railways,  15 
miles  south  of  Worcester  and  126  north-west  of  London. 
It  has  three  principal  streets,  which  are  regularly  built  and 
well  paved.  The  Severn  is  crossed  by  an  iron  bridge  with 
a  flattened  arch  of  170  feet  span,  erected  by  Telford  in 
1824.  Of  the  great  Benedictine  abbey,  one  of  the  richest 
foundations  in  England,  refounded  and  enlarged  by  Sit 

X.XIIL  —  :6 


202 


T  E  X  — T  E  X 


Robert  I'ltz-Hamon  in  the  12tli  century  on  the  site  of  tbe 
ancient  hermitage  and  Saxon  monastery,  there  only  remain 
the  gate  and  part  of  the  cloisters.  The  abbey  church, 
consecrated  in  1125,  is  a  magnificent  specimen  of  Early 
Norman.  This  elaborate  cruciform  building  consists  of 
nave  and  side  aisles,  with  transepts  united  by  a  grand 
cehtral  tower  richly  arcaded.  The  choir  terminates  in  an 
apse  and  is  surrounded  by  an  ambulatory.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  features  of  the  building  is  the  unique 
western  front,  the  central  part  of  which  ia  occupied  by  one 
vast  arcb  extending  from  the  ground  to  the  roof.  Origin- 
ally it  was  filled  in  with  Norman  windows,  but  these  were 
removed  in  the  14th  century,  when  the  whole  building 
underwent  restoration  in  the  Middle  Decorated  style,  of 
which  it  is  one  of  the  finest  existing  examples.  The  nave 
was  refilled  by  tracery  windows,  and  stone  groining  was 
substituted  for  the  carved  wooden  ceiling,  a  like  transfor- 
mation taking  place  in  the  transepts.  The  old  Norman 
columns- in  the  choir  still  exist;  but  above  them  rises  a 
grand  superstructure  of  D.ecorated  work.  "^  The  elegant 
clerestory  windows  are  of  the  14th  century,  with  stained 
glass  of  the  same  date.  The  ambulatory  was  rebuilt  some 
distance  farther  out,  and  from  it  projected  a  beautiful  series 
of  chapels.  The  elaborate  tombs  include  those  of  Sir 
Robert  Fitz-Hamon,  the  De  Spensers,  Alan  prior  of 
Canterbury,  Sir  Guy  do  Brien,  and.  the  vault  of  George 
duke  of  Clarence  (murdered  in  the  Towe_r)  and  ilia  wife 
Isabella.  Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  slain  after  the  battle 
of  Tewkesbury  (1471)  by  the  Yorkists,  is  also  buried  in 
the  church,  which  has  undergone  an  extensive  process  of 
restoration  .luhder  the  direction  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott.  In 
the  High  Street  there  are  several  ancient  timbered  and 
gabled  . houses.  .Remains  of  an  ancient  wall  have  been 
discovered  adjoining  the  town.  The  principal  modem 
buildings  are  the  town-hall,  the  philharmonic  hall,  and  the 
corn  exchange.  -There  is  a  free  grammar-school  and  a 
number  of  charities,  including  the  dispensary,  the  rural 
Irospital,  aiid  Queen  Mary's,  Barnes's,  Richardson's,  and 
Russell's  almshouses.  Formerly  Tewkesbury  had  a,  woollen 
trade  and  an  importaBTraustard  manufacture,  but  it  is  now 
chiefly  dependent  on  its  agricultural  trade.  The  popula- 
tion of 'the  municipal  borough-  (area,  2619  acres)  in  1871 
yas  5409,  and  in  1881  5100. 
"  'The  town  is  supposed  to  derive  it3  name  from  Theoc,  a  Saxon 
monk,  who  founJcJ  a  licrmiUge  here  In  the  end  of  the  7th  century, 
[which  was  cliaiigcd  into  a  monastery  by  the  duke  of  Mercia  in  716, 
and  rebuilt  by  Sii  Robert  FitzHaraon  in  1102.  On  the  death  of 
FitE-Hamon  in  1 1 47  tlie  minor  passed  to  the  De  Clares,  who  became 
merped  in  the  De  Spenscre,  they  in  turn  in  the  Beauchamps,  and 
the  Bcaudianips  in  tlie  NeHlles.  At  Tewkesbury  took  place,  4th 
May  1471,  the  battle  between  (he  Yorkists  and  Lancastrians  which 
placed  the  crown  on  the  head  of'Edward  IV.  During  tho  Civil 
War  the  town  was  occnpied  by  the  Parliamentarians,  who  were 
driven  out  by  the  Royalists  ;  .but  it  was  surprised  and  captured  by 
the  former  in  1644,  after  which  it  remained  in  their  possession. 
Tewkesbury  was  first  incorporated  by  Elizabeth  in  1574,  and  when 
James  I.  sold  the  manor  to  tho  corporation  in  1609  he  granted  it 
a  new  charter  with  extended  privileges!  ■  This  being  lost  during 
the  Civil  War,  a  new  charter  was  granted  by  Cliarles  II.  _  Betwe'fen 
1692  and  1698  tho  town  was  without  a  corporation,  but  a  new. 
charter  was  granted  by  William  III.,  which  remained  the  govern- 
ing charter  until  the  passing  of  tho  Municipal  A'^U  *  Until  1867 
Tewkesbury  returned  two  members  to  the  House  of  Commons ; 
from  1867  to  1885  it  returned  one ;  and  in  1885  it  became  merged 
in  the  north  or  Tewkesbury  division  of  Gloucestershire. -'  •' 

*■   The  Annates  dc  Thfokesbena  (ipcit-1263)  are  publidhed  In  Anvales  Monastxci, 
.edited  by  U,  K.  Luanl,  1504.  .^  .        _  j 

Flatellt  TEXAS,  the  largest  in  area  and  the  eleventh"in  popula- 
Bound  tion  of  the  United  States  of  America,  is  bounded  by  the 
'"**  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  S.E.j  Tjy  Louisiana  and  Arkansas 
on  the  E.,  by  Arkansas  and  th^lndian  Territory  on  the 
N.;  the  latter  extending  north  pf  its  northern  prolonga- 
tion (the. Panhandle),  by  Ne*  Mexicp  on  the  W.  and  N.  of 
its  western  prolongation  (the  tran*?*enos  region),  and  by 
Me.xicooD  the  S.W,     Its  area  in  ISSO  wa,i  262,230  square 


tniles,  or  one-eleventh  (nearly  9  per  cent.)  of  the  entire 
area  of  the  United  States.  The  extreme '  length  is  740 
miles,  the  breadth  825,  and  the  coast  line  400  miles.  The 
boundaries,  as  recognized  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment,' are^the  Gulf  of  Mexico  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the 
Sabine  river,  the  Sabine  river  to  32°  N.  lat.,  thence  the 
meridian  of  94°  10'  to  the  Red  river  of  Louisiana,  thence 
following  that  river  west  to  its  intersection  with  the  100th 
meridian,  thence  north  to  lat.  36°  30',  thence  west  to  103^ 
W.  long.,  thence  south  to  lat.  32°,  thence  west  to  its  inter- 
section with  the  Rio  Grande,  which  river  constitutes  the 
south-western  border  of  the  State  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  ., 

The  surface  features  are  exceedingly  varied,  the  prevailing  ele-Ehysicat 
ments  being  steppes  or  treeless  plains  in  the  north-west,  mountains  features 
west  of  the  Fecos  river,  forests  m  the  east,  marshes  adjacent  to  the  and  divi 
coast,  low  prairies  in  the  south-east,  and  a  combination  of  prairies  siona  '' 
and  broken  hills,  interspersed  with  forest  growth  and  thickets  of 
tall  shrubs  (chaparral),  in  tho  centre.    These  regions  are  classified  as 
follows  (seo  map  below).     (1)  The  coast  plain  is  the  direct  geo- 
graphical and  geological  continuation  of  the  other  States  which' 
border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     It  includes  all  the  country  east  of| 
a  line  concentric  with  the  coast,  drawn  from  Texarkana  in  the 
north-east  corner  of  tho  State  to  near  Laredo  on  tho  Rio  Grande.! 
The  general  direction  of  its  slope,  in  common  with  that  of  the  rest 
of  the  State,  is  from  north-west  to  south-east.     Its  altitude  ranges 
up  to  500  feet.     The  immediate  coast  strip  is  newjy  made  marsh* 
land ;  west  of  this  and  north  of  the  Colorado  river  are  forests  ;  and 
to  the  south  of  it  the  country  ia  mostly  a  plain.     (21  1'lip  black 
prairie    region    suc- 
ceeds the  coast  plain 
on  the  west.  Its  west-  < 
em  border  is  sharply 
defined      from      the 
Red  river  to  the  Rio 
Grande,      beginning 
at  Denison,   passing 
through  or  near  tho 
eities    of    Sherman, 
Dallas,  Waco,  Austin, 
end  San  Antonio,  ami 
then  deflected  west- 
ward to  Eagle  pass.  -- 
It  is  a  gently  undu 
fating  prairie,covereo 
with  a  rich  black  soil, 
and  varies  in  altitude 
from  300  to  700  feet  - ' 
(3)  The  central  region 

extends  from  the  black  prairie  region  on  the  east  to  the  castenk 
escarpmentof  the  great  plains  on  tho  north-west  and  the  trans-Pecos 
mountains  on  the  south-west.  This  is  the  only  region  of  Tcias  which 
is  not  the  direct  continuation  of  the  physical  features  of  some  ad-^ 
joining  political  divisioiL  A  great  variety  of  conditions  is  embraced 
within  its  bounds.  In  its  north-eastern  part  are  two  long  belts  oC 
stunted  forest  (tho  Cross  Timbers),  extending  from  the  Red  river 
to  the  Brazos,  and  separated  by  a  prairie  50  miles  in  width.  This 
is  the  most  fertile  portion  of  the  entire  region.  West  of  this 
sub-region  and  north  of  the  Colorado  is  a  broken,  arid  country 
(the  Coal-measures),  having  a  sandy,  pebbly  soil,  covered  with  a 
scattered  growth  of  vegetation,"  West  of  this,  between  the  lOOthJ 
meridian  and  the  escarpment  of  tho  plains,  is  the  gypsum  coimtrj-.j 
consisting  of  the  so-called  "red  beds  "  of  the  westei-n  United  States,] 
accompanied  by  massive  deposits  of  gypsum  and  other  salts.  This- 
country  is  mucn  sculptured  by  erosion,  and  in  places  resembles  the 
"bad  lands  "  of  the  upper  Missouri  country.  There  are  also  exten.| 
sive  intervals  of  prairie  here.  Near  the  centre,  in  the  counties  of  San, 
Saba,  Mason,  and  Llano,  is  a  rough,  semi-mountainous  area  of  older; 
formations.  The  southern  half  of  the  central  region  is  a  broken^ 
country  of  white  limestone  formation,  semi-tropical  in  cliniate;, 
and  covered  with  scraggy  vegetation,  its  physical  features  gradual-, 
ing  into  those  of  northern  Mexico.  The  south-western  part  is  a 
tolling  plain,  entirely  destitute  of  streams.  Throughout '  the 
region,  at  intervals  of  many  miles,  low,  truncated  hills  {butUs) 
occur,  representing  the  remains  of  UinestJone  formations  now  being 
rapidly  eroded. .  The  region,  as  a  whole,  is  pooriy  watered. «  It  is 
best  adapted  for  cattle  and  sheep  raising,  and  is  the  chief  locality 
of  those  industries  in  Texas.  The  altitude  varies  from  700  to 
•2500  feet  (4)  The  plains  region  is  tho  portion  of  the  State  west 
of  the  101st  meridian  and  north  of  the  thirty -second  parallel,' 

'  The  Slate  does  not  recognize  the  South  Fori 
as  the  northern  boundary,  but  insists  upon  the  K 
claims  tho  lOOlh  meridian  as  laid  dcivn  upon  Melli 
e-is!  oflh;  true  meridian)  as  tha  eastern  border  ot 


&lap  showiDg  geographical  diviBioiu). 


'4 


of  tbe  Ued  rivzi 
}rth  Fork  ;  it  also 
>h'3ii]ap(lU0milQ4 
'  he  Panhandle. 


T  E  X   A 


Ri'ew. 


Jeology 


ommonlv  snowr  as  thr  Sukcd  Plair  (LUno  Estaoadot  It 
IS  the  dii«'i  southern  TOntmuatiou  and  termination  of  the  gr^at 
plains  of  the  North  Araencan  continent  which  oxtend  alon^'  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  British  America  1*0  the 
Rio  Pecos  The  eastern  ejgc  13  well  marked  liy  a  steep  escarpment, 
which,  in  consequence  of  destructive  erosion,  is  constantly  reccdin<' 
to  the  nestward  The  surface  is  smooth,  and  utterly  devoid  0I' 
forest  growth  or  streams  of  water  But  there  are  many  small 
pondj  or  lakes,  and  in  the  southern  part  these  are  saline  The 
toil  IS  light,  rich,  and  fKjrous,  and  is  covered  with  a  good  gr.rwth  of 
crass  Ijntil  a  few  years  a^o  this  region  was  totally  unpeopled 
but  many  portions  of  it  are  now  (1S8< )  used  for  grazing  purposes' 
Titer  lieing  secured  by  means  of  wells  or  ai.ificially  constructed 
"vservoirs  The  altitude  ranges  i"rom  2500  to  4000  feet  '5)  The 
;rans-r»cos  or  mounUinous  region  west  of  the  Pecos  nver  is  com- 
posed of  numerous  mountain  peaks  and  ranges  with  mtervenmc 
valleys  of  many  miles  m  width  It  is  poorly  watered,  and  the 
popiriatioii  outside  the  immediate  Rio  Grande  valley  is  very  sparse 
The  jteiicral  level  of  the  country  is  from  3000  to  5000  feet 

The    rivei^   are    separable    into   several    subsystems      TUe  Rio 
,    J"^*""''  ^^^  Arkansas,  constituting  the  noitli  and  south  limits 
of  the  Texas  drainage  system,  with  their  respective  tributaries,  the 
Pecos  and  the  Canadian,  originate  in  a  limited  district  of  northern 
New  Mexico  and  Colorado,  and  ultimately  reach  the  sea  at  points 
a  thousand  miles  apart     The  Canadian  and   'ho  Pecos  have  cut 
deep  caftons  through  the  Llano  Estacado      The  former  continues 
eastward  through  Indian  Territory,  and  the  latter  southward  join- 
ing the  Rio  Grande  between  101"  and  102°  W    long,  on  the  southern 
boi-der  of  -he  .State      The  Rio  Grande  and  the  Pecos  receive  no 
Wibntaries  of  importance  m  Te.xas.  but  are  constant  in  their  flow. 
The  next  and  most  important  group  comprises  the  Red,  the  Brazos! 
and  the  Colorado,  all  of   vhich  originate  along  the  eastern  border 
of  'he  Llano      They  traverse  similar  regions,  and  have  a  general 
resemblance  in  cliaracter  of  sediment,  irregularity  of  flow,  velocity 
ind  topogranhy  of  drainage  basins     Their  brackish  water  is  pnncV- 
pally  denved  from  the  sudden  precipitation  of  rainfall  alone  the 
gjpsiferous  escarpment  of  the   Llano       Its  volume  is  ordinarily 
small    >he  flow  often  ceasing  entirely  west  of  the  black   prairie 
fegior,       There  are    periodic    freshets,    however,    which  suddenly 
'well  tfte  volume  to  enormous  proportions      These  freshets,  ladeu 
''ith  the  nch  red  loam  of  the  plains,  usually  reach  the  lower  in- 
habited sections  of  the  State  in  periods  of  drought,  and  are  termed 
red  nses        Much  of  this  sediment  is  deposited  upon  the  flood 
plane  of  the  lower  valleys,  and  by  this  process  the  most  valuable 
sugar  and  cotton   lands  of  the  coast  plain   have  been   built  up 
Another  important  gronp  consists  of  the  Sabine,  the  Trinity   the 
^n  Marcos   the  Onadalupe,  and  the  Nueces,  most  of  which  have 
tlieir  ongin  near  the  western  border  of  the  black  prairie  region 
I  hese  streams  have  a  greater  volume  nnd  are  more  constant  in  flow 
that.   «nv   others    and  are  usually   without  deep  canons  or  wide 
bottom*      Many  of  them,  especially  those  south  of  Austin    have 
their  origin  from  large  springs  situated  along  the  foot  of  the  escarp. 
inent   line  extending  from  Austin  southwestward      Another  sub- 
sidiary  system   of  streams   originates  m   the    narrow  Quaternary 
region  along  the  coasl.mithin  the  district  of  the  greatest  rainfall. 
1  hese  streams  are  tidal,  and  sometimes  navigable  towards  their 
.mouths      Most  of  them  are  locally  known  as  bayou.H      In  general 

Ne,th.77  ",[  f  r  ""1  ^^P'-"^  f°''  "-"g^t'on  or  navigation: 
Neither  do  they  afford  much  available  water  power  north  of  Austin 
1  he  entire  geologic  senes.  with  a  few  exceptions,  is  represented  in 
lexas  The  eariier  Pateozoic  rocks,  including  the  pre-Cambnan 
d,r'!^*''''*?.t*c,"i  *«°'"Pa"y'ng  geological  map),  the  Pots- 
dam ,oc,.  and  the  Ordovician  (oc),  up  to  the  Trentonl  underiie  the 
>tate.  but  »-e  only  exposed  in  t«o  limited  districts.  The  first  of 
.he.se  u  in  the  .counties  of  Mason.  Llano,  Burnet,  and  San  Saba 
l^r!^'  "''?'.'?'  ''P°°'  '*"■  other  is  in  the  disturbed  mountainous 
portion  of  the  trans-Pecos  region  The  Cambrian  was  deposited 
horuontally  upon  the  upturned  Keweenawian.  and  the  Ordovician 
appear,  to  rest  conformably  upon  the  Cambrian  (PotsdSm)  -  but 
mere  -va..  a  .Mntinentjl  elevation  of  the  whole  region,  nrobablv 
^Zr.r^l^'  ""■  "^"^  °'  "■'  Trenton  epoch,  wSich  continued 
?H  r,  n^''"'"^  "^  "■*  Co>l-measure  epoch,  for  the  Upper 
iilunan.    Devonian    and  sub -Carboniferous   are  absent,   and    the 

^n/Zl''t  a^"'"'^'^  J^'^  ^'■'*"  P^I'^^O'c  sediments 
prraent  no  marked  stratigraphical   or  palsontological  differences 

Tow  ih  Tf  f?™*'"'"^  aroughont  the  continent,  and  thus 
«rj,  T.  !u^'  "^'^'"huted  uniformity  of  conditions  which  then 
!„      .K  .  commencement  of  the  Carboniferous  period,  how- 

n^'k  f  f'""''"'  difference  of  faunal,  lithological,  and  strati- 
Ci^lf^'",'?  ^/"'"  "^'"^  distinguishes  the  synchronous 
BfThi  It  .  1  ^'*'"  fo'-'n^'ion^  of  the  western  and  eastern  portions 
~  a^^h'^'^'^n  !>>»  Texas  region  has  been  the  transition 
SrClr  t""  ^"  "'^  geologic  deposits,  beginning  with  the 

^rboni/ero,,,,  have  two  faces,  dependent  upon  their  geographical 

S^ntleitr'  °/-"'"'  "'  '""^  ^^  '""K-  and^epresentinglhesedi. 
'tuZ!^}  ■"'  "]''"'"■  ''°"tine"<al  basins  or  of  the  waters  of  the 
-uaone  aunng  alternating  periods  of  submergence  and  emergence. 


•203 


The  Cirboniferous  rocks,  and  most  of  .!«.  succeeding  rormatmnv 
are  exposed  m  two  widely  separated  portions  of  .hi  Slate,  wuh 
e.itiiely  different  lithoIogical  and  faunal  aspects.  The  mutual  re 
itions  of  these  series  have  never  been  traced  The  hrst  n.rur,  n. 
the  central  region  between  97°  and  lOO"  W  ,0,10..  north  of  .he 
Colorado  nvei.  and  consists  of  clays,  sandstones  conglomerates, 
limestones,  and  coal  seams  of  workable  thickness  It  is  the  south! 
western  prolongation  and  termination  of  the  Coal-measures  of  the 
Tfl"! 1J; r — r-— •' g  .    ,- 


Geological  map  ol  Ttr\as 
eastern  United  States      Theserocks,  although  m  general  similar  ic 
thein,   differ  in  some  respects  from  those  of  the  same  formation 
lurther  east,  and  also  exhibit  a  few  resemblances  to  the  strictly 
marine  Carboniferous  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  (k")      To  the- 
other  series  belongs  the  traus-Pecos  Carboniferous  (k').     Although 
this  IS  of  the  same  geologic  age  as  the  eastern  Coal-measures    it  ,» 
a  purely  marine  deposit  of  limestones  and  sandstones,  and  is  barren 
ot  vegeuble  remains.     It  is  exposed  along  the  Ouadalupe  and  other 
mountains  of  the  trans-Pecos  region,   forming  the  most  eastern 
outcrops  of  the  non-coal-bearing  Carboniferous  of  the  west      The 
.study  of  the  areal  distribution  and  relation  of  the  strata  intervening 
between  the  Carboniferous  and  the  fully-identihed  Cretaceous  m 
iexas  has  not  been  begun      The  Permian.  Triassic,  and  Jurassic 
11    they  exist,    have  not  been    clearly  diagnosed.   althou»h   ihes^ 
names  have  been  applied  to  the  scnes  of  rocks  west  of  thi  central 
Carboniferous  region      The  thickness  of  the  sediments  belongiiic 
to  these  undcte.mined  strata  is  very  groat      They  arc  mostly  un 
lossiliferous,  and  the  presence  of  stratihed  gj'psum  and  other  salts 
indicates  that  they  were  laid  down  in  an  interior  basin  cut  off  from 
oceanic  waters  and  were  too  highly  concentrated  for  the  existence 
ot  molluscan  life.      Certain  of  these  deposits,  known  as  "  red  beds  ' 
or    'Jura-Trias-CJTI.  extend  beneath  the  Llano  Estacado.  across 
Mew  Mexico,  and  into  Anzona      The  Cretaceous  is  by  far  the  most 
conspicumis  and  extensive  ol  the  geologic  formations  of  the  Stale 
It  once  covered  the  entire  territory,  bnt  has  been  eroded  away  m 
many  places  west  of  the  black  prairie  region,  exposing  the  oWr 
formations,  and  is  covered  to  the  e^t  of  that  region  by  more  rft^,.,i 
deposits.     From  the  fact  thai  the  lowesi  member  of  the  sen™  i<. 
found  resting  directly  upon  the  ure-Camnnan  in  LJano  county,  the 
Carbonilerous  in  Lampasas  and  the  counties  northward,  the  Silurian 
in  the  trans-Pecoi  region    and  the  .lura  Trias  beds  in   lb«  plains- 
region    it  is  evident  that  its  beginning  marked  a  penod  nt  conti- 
nental  submergence    and    thai   this  submergence,   from   the  great 
thickness  of  pelagic  sediments  in  it,   was   long  continued       The 
lowest  member  of  the  series    the  oldest  known  of  the  American 
Cretaceous,   is  unfcnowr.   elsewhere  in  the  United  States    .nd  its 
peculiar  features  give   mdividiialiLv    10  the  central  rcioi.      Thi« 
member  ICN),  which  may  be  called  the  Texas  group,  is  The  equiva- 
lent of  the  Neocomian  of  hurope,  and  many  of  its  fossils  are  common 
to  fcurope  and  America      It  is  not  exposed  east  of  the  central  region 
except  (probably)  in  the  salines  of  Louisiana.     There  was  a  creai 
elevation  of  this  deep-sea  formation  at  ita  close,  as  is  attested  by  the 
shallow  water  sediments  of  later  groups  denosite.i  unconfom^abU 
upon    It     The  Middle  (cc.  cs')  and    the   Upper  Cretaceous  (cs> 
and  cs')  are  also  well  exposed      The  black  praine  region  is  under 
lain  by  the  middle  and  nppcr  groups  of  the  manna  CreUceooj 
charactenstic  of  the  other  Gulf  States  and  known  as  the  Rotter 
Litnestone  {cs')  and  Ripley  (cs')  groups.     The  Cretaceous  groups 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  extend  into  Texjs,  and  are  expos5 
in  the  jrans-Pecos  region  and  along  the  lower  Rio  Granda     Tht 


204 


TEXAS 


Moun- 
tains. 


Minerals 


Tertiary  tannatjona,  so  far  as  n^ugnizecl^\%re  pureiy  marine,  anci, 
TSjtt  the  marine  Upper  Cretaceous  of  the  black  prairie  repion,  arc 
the  direct  geographical  continuation  of  the  formations  of  0^  oJner 
Gulf  Stares.  They  occupy  the  coast  phic,  ir.  "banas  approximately 
«oncentrio  «ith  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  represent 
the  sediments  of  its  receding  waters.  The  alleged  occurrence  of 
the  fretJi-water  Miocene,  the  Loup  river  group  (m),  upon  the  Llano 
J-lstacado  Jlas  not  been  demonstrated.  Quaternary  (q)  and  otiicr 
recent  alluvial  deposits  occur  along  the  coast  and  the  upper  terraces 
of  the  three  older  river  systems  as  far  west  as  the  eastern  border 
of  the  central  region.  -.  This  is  attested  by  the  character  of  the  dc- 
|>asits,  accompanied  by  well-authenticated  remains  of  the  elephant 
and  mastodon.  These  Quaternary  soils  are  mostly  the  rtdcposited 
detritus  of  the  strata  of  the  eastern  escarpment  of  the  Llano 
IZstacado,  which  is  carriad  down  by  the  "red  rises."  Tlie  surface 
features  of  the  central  region  are  the  result  of  sub-aerial  denudation. 
The  black  prairie  is  protected  from  this  destructive  erosive  process 
by  the  tenacious  character  of  its  soil ;  and  the  coast  plain  is  cov  cred 
by  a  luxuriant  forest  growth,  and  is  constantly  extending  eastward 
by  the  recession  of  the  shore  line.  The  final  emergence  of  the  State 
began  in  Aliddle  Cretaceous  time,  and  was  connected  with  the  same 
movements  that  brought  up  the  Rocky  Mountain  system.  The 
strata  of  Texas,  except  the  Palaeozoic  groups,  are  soft,  and  yield 
readily  to  disintegration.  A  few  eruptive  sheets  are  found  in  the 
trans- Pecos  region  and  along  the  lower  Rio  Grande,  being  remnants 
of  the  eastern  edge  of  the  great  eruptive  area  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain region.  Granitic  ma.sses  occur,  as  extrusions  from  the  pre- 
Cambrian,  in  the  central  and  trans-Pecos  Palaeozoic  deposits. 

The  eastern  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  system  are  deflected 
towards  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  after  passing  south  of  33°  N.  lat.,  and 
lake  a  south-easterly  course  througli  Texas  into  Mexico,  the  trend 
of  their,  axes  being  generally  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  Rio 
r.r.inde  and  its  principal  tributaries.  The  only  true  mountains  iji 
Texas  are  situated  west  of  the  Pecos,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
foot-hills  (.lomitas)  which  re-enter  the  State  from  Mexico  near 
lOagle  Pass  and  follow  the  river  to  an  undetermined  point  below 
Laredo.  The  principal  ranges  are  the  Gu.ndalupe,  Linipia,  Chinali, 
Los  Chisos,  Organ,  and  Franklin  Mountains.  They  arc  composed  ■ 
■>{  older  rocks,  in  most  places  ;  the  later  formations  have  been 
washed  away,  except  where  protected  by  eruptive  flows.  The  most 
eastern  and  northern  of  these  mountains  are  usually  the  highest, 
iluadalupe  Peak  is  9000  feet;  Limpia  Peak  and 'the  crest  of  the 
Chinalis,  from  3500  to  8000  feet ;  Eagle  Mountains,  7000  ;  and 
the  interveifing  valleys  from  3.100  to  5000  feet:  ,  Tlie  low  buttes  of 
the  central  region  are  miscalled  mountains  upon -most  maps. 
There  are  several  well-defined  escarpments  extending  for  long 
distances,  approximately  north  and  south  The  step  of  the  first  of 
these,  fr«n.Austin  to  Eagle  Pass,  is  from  200  to  500  feet  high,  and 
is  the  result  of  an  elevation  at  the  close  of  the  early  Cretaceous 
period.  Near  the  100th  meridian  another  escarpment  occurs,  and 
along  the  eastern  and  southern  borders  of  the  Staked  Plain  still 
another  ^  The  western  part  of  the  coast  plain  has  a  few  low  hills. 
-The  rest  of  the  State  has  no  notable  prominences. 
■  The  mineral  resources  of  Texas  have  not  been  mapped  of  studied, 
and  hence  the  State  ranks  last  in  mineral  products.  The  trans- 
I'ecos  region  is  rich  m  silver  and  lead  ores  ;  but  the  State  owns  tlto 
miner.-'l  rights  of  nearly  all  the  land,  and  has  hitherto  declined  to 
open  them  to  development  Only  one  mine  is  worked  here.  Silver 
and  gold  have  also  been  discovered  and  mined  \h  Llano  and  Mason 
counties,  but  without  successful  results.  Gold  occurs  throughout 
the  marine  limestones  of  the  lowest  (Texas)  groufj  of  the  Cretaceous, 
but  not  in  sufficient  quanlily  for  profitable  extraction.  Rich  but 
not  abundant  copper  ores  occur  in  the  drift  of  the  gypsum  country'. 
Iron  ore  is  found  in  the  Tei  tiary  of  eastern  Texas,  and  is  profitably 
reduced  in  a  few  charcoal  furnaces  by  the  aid  of  convict  labour. 
At  present  these  are  remote  fioni  coal  and  suitable  means  of  trans- 
portation. Magnclic,irou  ore  ocruis^in  the  pic-Cambnan  rocks  of 
Mason  county,  and  recent  .-m.-ilysrs  show  it  to  be  equal  in  qualityto 
the  best  Swedish  ores.  _It  is  in  great  abumlaiice,  but  remote  from 
means  nf  transportation  and  fuel.  Ores  of^  iron  (spharo-siderite) 
occur  in  the  central  Caiboiiiferous  foruialioTC.  but  their  con-merrial 
value  is  unknown.  The  tion-mcthls  orcui  in  great  abundance  in 
different  portions  of  the  State,  including  salt,  gypsum,  magnesium 
Milphate,  natural  cements,  kaoUn,  aad  other  clays.  The  unutilized 
beds  of  maesive  gypsum  are,  willi  the  excei'ttpn  of  those  of  the 
Sahara  and  the  Amies,  tlia  purest  aiul  most  c\tf-iisive  in  the  Wj'Id. 
Salt  is  .gathered  from  l.icustral  deposits  or  iniued  at  El  Pftso,, 
OloraJo  City,  and  along  the  lower  Gulf  const  for-local  usee  ,  IThe 
coals' of  the  central  Carboniferous  area  have  been  worked  tosome 
extent,  but  are  generally  of  inferior  quality,  having  from  50  to  70 
per  cent,  of  ash.  Very  recent  discoveries  of  better  quality  have 
boon  reported.  TelTiAry  fibrous  lignite,  of  light  specific  gravity,  is 
found  in  great  abundahoiall  along  the  junction  of  the  coast  plain 
.iihI  black  prairie  regions.  ;  It  la  Horked  to  a  small  extent,  but 
li.is  no  commercial  value.  The  most  Traportant  coal  aiea  is  the 
toini- bituminous  lignite  belt  of  the  trans-Pecos  and  lower  Rio 
<ir«ido  regions,  which  is  the  direct  geographical  continiiaiioii  ol 


the    late  crctaceouj  coals  of  Kew  Mexico   and  Coioraoa      It  L 
worked  at  Eagle  Pass  and  Santa  Toma,  near  Laredo.     The  beauti- 
ful marbles  and  other  ornamental  stones  of  tlie  State  are  UDtouched,  ■ 
with  the  exception  of  the  Llano  county  granite  ' 

The  amount  and  regularity  of  the  rainfall  decreases  inland,  the'  :;iimat« 
mean  ann>:al  varying  from  62-3  inrljcs  at  Galveston  to  13  at  El' 
Paso  in  the  extreme  west  and  23  at  Mobeetie  in  the  extreme  north. 
The  subjoined  table  gives  the  mean  temperature  and  rainfall   if 
certain  representative  localities  : — 


Suiiou-' 

Mean  Preci 

litation  tii  Inchcg.  : 

3  ~ 

Is 

=5^ 

1 

a 

3 
< 

& 

1' 

Coast  Plain. 

,"! 

Gilmer  r.-.--.- . 

133i> 

8-03 

11 -17 

1003 

ti-<^ 

Galveston  ,. 

70  02 

i.'    0 

Indianola  « 

7001 

31  i 

rslesline  

tjj 

4  to 

Black  frairie  Jttffion. 

Denison    t-.-.-.- »\ 

600 

C4  03 

40  50 

Austin ..-.■■ ,, 

c:.o 

C7S4 

8f.l 

7  ■,14 

10-7) 

1.23 

■'.i-i1 

San  Antonio  ..  -...-.,.:  .j- 

000 

CJ  tfj 

577 

an 

9-30 

6  J2 

31-30 

Central  Reijion. 

Fort  Belknap      -..--., 

icoo 

C-41 

014 

8  34 

S-66 

!6-i0i 

,,    Chatlbume  .....    . 

■:o:o 

.'.77 

6-53 

7  06 

3 '52 

l!SS 

,,  -Griffin 

4  ;o 

6-2', 

6  14 

417 

11  51 

„    Clark  ....    .....    . 

1000 

4  11 

7-57 

6-55 

4 '35 

22  01 

,,     Duncan 

3  >0 

600 

6-54 

2-63 

21-33 

,,     In^e    

64 'j 

i-3S 

507 

6-88 

3-13 

25  46'. 

,,    Mason  

1200 

c:if. 

10  44 

6-22 

3!'0 

28 -OS' 

„    Mftkavet    . 

2060 

5  40 

6  71 

7-la 

4  22 

23  51, 

Plains  Pegion. 

Fort  Elliott  - 

MC 

23  M 

„    Concho     

63  6 

30  ;'0 

TroTis-Pecos  Region. 

1 

El  Paso    

3630 

632 

13-00 

Fort  Stockton  ^ 

4050 

62-8 

20  00 

..     Davis  , . 

4700 

59  8 

20  38 

The  const  plain  and  the  black  prairie  regiona  have  abundant  rain- 
fall for  agricultural  purposes.  It  decreaaea,  however,  to  the  west, 
and  varies  greatly  in  different  years,  sometimes  being  ample  j  but  in' 
18S5-86  it  did  not  average  10  inches.  The  precipitation  is  also 
very  sudden,  seldom  lasting  more  than  <i  few  minutes  at  a  time.' 
Only  52  pei  cent  of  the  20  inches  of  rainfall  in  the  central  region 
and  west  ol  it  falls  in  the  agricultural  season,  one-lialf  being  in 
sunimer  an4  the  remainder  in  autumn,  so  that  it  is  equivalent  to 
only  15  inc^ea  in  regions  where  the  rainfall  occurs  m'  more  pro- 
pitious seasons.  This  condition  is,  however,  especially  favourable 
for  grazing.  There  are  few  statistics  of  the  plains  region  ;  but  tlie 
rainfall  along  its  eastern  escarpment  is  sli^tly  greater  and  more 
regular  than  that  of  tlic  central  region.  The  temperature  vanes 
greatly  thronghout  the  State,  both  in  extremes  and  means.  Fort 
Ringgold  01!  the  lower  Rio  Grande  is  the  hottest  point  in  the  United 
States,  except  Key  West,  Fla.  Its  mean  temperature  is  73  ^^  Fahr. ; 
that  of  El  Paso  is  63°,  and  of  Mobeetie  54  S".  The  .prevalent  wihds 
are  southerly  and.  south-easterly,  and  blow  constantly  across  the 
State,  without  which  its  summers  would  be  unendurable.  The  Rio 
Grande  valley  is  not  subject  to  frosts.  Snow  seldom  falls  south  of 
GalvePton  and  Austin.     In  the  Panhandle  the  winters  are  severe.* 

The  arboreal  flora  of  Louisiana  and  Arkansas  extends  into  north'- 
eastern  Texas,  conformable  with  the  coast  plain,  where,  immediately 
south  of  the  Colorado  river  tho  great  pine  belt  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts  tenninates.  The  flora  of  the  great  plains  region, 
principally  consisting  of  nutritioos  grasses,  enters  the  north-westen; 
portion  of  the  State  and  extenils  south  to  the  32d  parallel  and  east 
to  the  lOlbt  meridian.  TheY^fuliiT  plants  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain plateaus  penetrate  into  tlie  tr.tns- Pecos  region,  while,  the 
north  Mexican  flora  is  found  along^jTi^c  "Rio  Grande.-  The  cenlial 
region  is  a  transition  ground  where  tiTcse  flora.i  find  rypiesentation 
generally  in  deteriorated  and  dwarfed  species  lu  the  co.ist  pbni 
occur  the  Tong  and  short  leaf  pine,  wftji  many  species  of  oak  and 
hickory.'  The  black  prairie  region  is  destitute  of  trees,  except 
scattered  individuals  of  live  oak  and  the  mesquite  bush  {Proscpis 
gl^^lduhs^).  The  broad  river  valleys  of  this  region,  however,  are 
well-timbered  with  pecan,  cypress,  cottonwood,  and  several  species 
of  oak,  ami  have  a  vigorous  giowth  of  smuller  shrubs.  West  "of  the 
black  prairie  region  the  dwarfed,  stunted  trees  are  of  little'vali^c 
except  fur  fuel.  The  river  valleys  have  the  saoje  cliar-Totvi  of  tr*cs 
as  fiiithVr  CHst,  but  the  rocky  liighlands  ate  i*Dvered  xvitli^sci.TcjrV 
bushes  (I'liipaiial)  of  oak,  juniper,  and  cedar  The  sunniiits^oj 
the  Ciiailalni'c  and  Limpra  ranges,  in  the  trans-Pecos  le^rion.^i^ 
clothed  with  forests  of  the  yeUow  [Pt^nts  jxnaUrosa),  f\e\\h\c:[P' 
fcxifls).  and  nut  pine  'P  cdulU),  all  of  uhlcli  attain  gicat^si/e 
Many  smaller  lircs  gro^t  oi;  these  niouiitains.^  The  vnlleyssatu- 
several  of  tlic  ranges  in  The  ia&t-naoicd  icj:i<'H.  lioupvci,  air  ilesti 
tnte  of  trees  The  ciitlU  Rio  Gifiiidc  \:\\\fy.  from  El  Pmso  tr 
llrowusviI!c,  grows  many  spencs  of  c.n  ttut  and  othei  pnckly.  eori 
aceoiis  .shinhs.  The  uri^ssesof  tlir  St.itr  .ire  especially  n.nnioi-ous  if 
species  and  .Tto  rouiiti  most  luMiiuutly  on  ihe  prairies  of  tho  lower 


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TEXAS 


205 


Vtuiu^ 


Popolft- 

liOD. 


ei»at,  t.i*r  iieniral,  ana  tne  (nains  ivpions.  '1  no  lumber  supply  of 
the  State  coraes  entirely  from  the  east  Texas  pine  forests.  The 
cedar,  juniper,  and  mc5»]uite  are  only  utilized  for  fuel  and  fencing. 

The  black  bear  {Ursiis  atnencatius),  panther  (Fetis  coucolor), 
and  lyni  (Felis  m/a)  are  conimoD  to  all  parts  of  the  State.  The 
bison,  wild  horse,  prongbuck  (Aniitocapra  atnfrtcana),  coyote 
(Canis  laimns),  grey  wolf  (C  htpiis),  eastern  prairie  dog  {Cynomys 
ludovicianus),  and  the  lesser  Mammalia  of  the  great  Rocky  Moun- 
tain plains  constitute  the  fauna  of  the  north-western  part  of  the 
State,  reaching  into  the  western  part  of  the  central  region.  Their 
southern  limit  is  approximately  the  31st  parallel.  The  highest 
ranges  of  the  trans- Pecos  region  possess  the  unique  avian  and 
mammalian  fauna  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  including  the  black- 
tailed  or  mule  deer  {Cariacus  macrotis)  and  Rocky  Mountain  sheep, 
with  ft  few  Mexican  species.  The  lower  valleys  have  a  mingling 
of  the  Mexican,  Rocky  Mountain,  and  great  plain  faunas.  Along 
the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  extending  northward  in  places, 
the  subtropical  fauna  is  Mexican,  including  the  peccary  {Dicoti/lcs 
lorquatus),  armadillo  (Daryjma  peba),  jaguar  {Felts  onca),  and 
ocelot  (Ftlis  pardalia).  Among  the  birds  are  the  «cis3or-tail 
(Uilvidtis  for/icattu),  Mexican  eagle  (Polybvnii  cheriway),'  cha- 
parral cock  lOaxxKcyx  vialiais),  and  numerous  other  unique  forms. 
The  fauna  of  the  humid  wooded  coast  plain  istho  southwestern 
continuation  and  termination  of  that  of  the  South  Atlantic  and 
Oulf  States,  with  slight  variations,  and  includes  the  Virginia  deer 
{Cariaeui  Uucuns),  raccoon  {Pioq/on  lotor),  opossum  (Didclphys 
virginiana),  alligator,  kc  The  black  prairie  region  limits  the  last 
named  fauna  on  the  west,  except  in  its  wooded  river  bottoms.  The 
central  region  possesses  representatives  of  the  great  plains.  Rocky 
Mountain,  Mexican,  and  Louisiana  faunas,  but  none  of  them  cross 
it  into  other  regions.  It  is  a  true  transitional  ground  of  most  of  the 
faunas  of  all  temperate  North  America,  east  of  the  Pacific  slope. 

The  tot.il  population  in  1880  was  1,591,749  (837,840  males  and 
753,909  females),  and  in  1887  it  was  estimated  to  have  risen  to 
2,415,000,  giving  9'2  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile.  Of  the 
population  in  1880  1,477,133  were  natives  of  the  United  States  and 
114,616  foreign  bom.  There  were  393,384  Negroes,  136  Chinese, 
992  Indians,  and  43,00.0  civilized  aborigines  (Mexicans).  Of  the 
entire  population  522,133  persons  were  engaged  in  occupations  as 
follows  : — in  agricultura  (including  stock-raising),  359,317  (6S"8  per 
cent) ;  in  law,  medicine,  and  other  professions,  97,651  (187  per 
cent);  in  trade  and  transportation,  34,909  (67  per  cent);  in 
manufacturing  and  mining,  30,346  (5'8  per  cent).  At  the  same 
date  there  were  3153  prisoners,  2276  idiots,  1564  insane,  633  paupers, 
1375  blind,  and  771  deaf.  13*9  per  cent,  of  the  native  whites,  247 
of  the  foreigners,  and  754  of  the  Negroes— or  29  7  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  population — were  unable  to  read  or  write.  The  population 
of  Texas  has  increased  more  rapidly  than  that  of  any  State  in  the 
Union  except  Kansas.  The  following  table  shows  the  increase  for 
the  past  few  decades  :  — 


Agricttl- 
tur.i. 


AhkIo- 

Ameri- 

can. 

Ncjro 
Desceot 

Mexican 

Ahorigal 
Descent. 

In- 
dians. 

Euro- 
peans. 

AEi- 
atic 

Total 

Fopula- 

tiOD. 

Per 

centiD- 
crease. 

1S.',0 
1.3iO 
1670 
1830 

Its? 

4M,891 

564.700 

1,197,237 

182,921 
253.475 
193,484 

4S.'p00 

403 

'    379 

992 

C2;4ii 

114.116 
200,000 

25 
130 
300 

212,592 

604.215 

818.579 

1.591,749 

2,415,000 

isV-s 

35-4 
94-4 
94  4 

The  pipulation  of  the  principal  cities,  according  to  the  U.S^enstis 
of  1S80  aad  trustworthy  estibiates  in  1886,  was  as  follows  : — 


1 

1 

ISSO. 

I8S6. 

Austin .-.,^.... 

Fort  Worth  ,^^  ,,,. . 

Waco 

Denison      .V.   ...s. 

ISSO. 

1SS6. 

jOalveat^n    

1  San  Ant'^njo  .^_„ 

iDallris ,av 

iBoubton .«. 

22,218 
20,550 
10.35S 
16,113 

30,000 
35,000 
32.000 
23.000 

11,013 
6,663 
7,295 
8,975 

23,000 
23,000 
20.000 
12.000 

94  per  cent,  of  tlie  tolal  ])opulation  of  the. State  is  found  east  of  the 
central  region — the  black  prairie  region  (northern  halO  being  the 
most  densely  populated,  and  the  coast  plain  next.-  Between  1880 
and  18&7  there  was  a  large  flow  of  population  into  the  trans-Pecos 
and  plains  regions,  and  during  the  last  two  years  mentioned  a 
dtcrcaae  in  the  central  legion.  The  population  consists  princi- 
ptlly  of  white  natives  of  the  southern  United  States,  except  in  the 
counties  of  Brazos,  Fort  Bend,  Harrison,  Marion,  Moore,  and 
Washington,  where  it  is  of  Negro  race  ;  in  the  counties  of  Fayette, 
Colorado,^ Guadalupe,  Comal,  and  Gillespie,  where  it  is  German; 
and  along  the  Rio  Grande,  where  it  is  Mexican. 

Of  the- United  States  Texas  now  ranks  first  in  the  production  of 
cotton  and  cattle,  second  in  sugar,  sheep,  mules,  and  horses,  eighth 
in  rice  and  pigs.  Tlio  eastern  third  of  the  Sut«,  containing  80 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  population,  is  agricultural ;  the  remainder 
IS  pastoral.  The  chief  crops  are  cotton  and  Indian  com  ;  wheat  is 
grown  in  the  northern  part  of  the  black  prairie  and  eastern  part 
of  the  central  regions,  sugar  in  the  lower  bottom  lands  of  the  Brazos 
and  the  Colorado,  rice  on  the  coast  The  chief  vegetable  products  for 
IRfiO  were— cotton.  805^34  ^al^a  ;  Indian  com.  29.065,172  bushels  : 


wheat,  2.567,7a/  ;  oaw,  •j,aii.j,.*Dy  .  »ivit.t  poiaiocs,  l,4tiO,O70  ;  Irifili 
potatoes,  228,832  ;  bariey,  72,786  ;  rye.  2&,399  ;  sugar,  49r.l  Iiogs- 
iieads;  molasses,  810,605  gallon*:;  bay,  69,699  tons;  tobacco,  221,233 
pounds;  rice,  62.152  pounds;  orchard  products,,  to  the  value  of 
SS76,8-H.  The  total  value  of  these  products  was  863.076,311.' 
Since  18S2  the  quantity  of  cotton  produced  annually  has  exceeded 
2,000.000  bales,  of  500  pounds  each.  In  1S80  there  were  17-1,184 
farms  in  the  State,  with  an  aggregate  of  12,GS0.3]4  acres  of  im- 
proved land.  The  faiTns  are  usually  of  large  size,  and  garden, 
orchard,  and" dairy  products  are  entireJy  secondary  to  plantation 
crops.  The  southern  i>art  of  the  coast  plain  and  the  rest  of  the 
State  west  of  the  blacK  prairie  region  are  peculiarly  adapted  tc 
pastoral  pursuits,  which  are  entirely  separated  from  agricultural, 
the  cattle  and  sheep  being  allowed  to  roam  at  large,  or  enclosed 
in  enormous  pastures,  whero  they  subsist  without  other  food  or 
shelter  than  nature  affords.  In  1860  there  were  in  the  State— 
4,084,605  cattle,  2,411,633  sheep,  1,950,371  pigs,  805,606  horses, 
and  132,447  mules  and  asses.  The  sheep  walks  are  more  particu- 
larly confined  to  the  southern  half  of  the  centra!  region,  includmg 
the  lower  Rio  Grande  valley. 

The  exports  are  cotton,  wool,  and  liulcs,  most  of  which  ore  Com 
shipped  from  Galveston  or  sent  overland  by  rail.  The  chief  iin-  mere* 
ports  are  manufactured  articles  used  in  the  State,  nlso  coal  and 
railway  material.  Apart  from  a  small  retail  trade  along  the  bonUr. 
there  are  no  exports  to  the  adjoining  States.  The  principal  seaport 
and  commercial  city  is  Galveston.  The  mileage  in  railways  has 
increased  from  1048  in  1872  to  5974  in  1882,  and  tD  7034  in  18S6. 

The  founders  of  the  State  made  liberal  provision,  by  grants  of  Educi 
land  and  revenue,  for  public  education,  but  their  Intentions  have  tioiw 
net  been  carried  out  by  subsequent  legislation.  Texas  occupies  the 
aroraalous  position  of  having  the  best  school  fund  r.nd  the  pooresi 
school  system  in  the  United  States.  The  public  free  school  system 
proper  consists  of  two  normal  schools  for  the  preparation  ol 
teachers  and  numerous  district  schools,  open  for  four  months  in 
the  year.  In  most  of  the  cities  the  State  iiind  is  supplemented  by 
local  taxation,  and  excellent  schools  are  maintained.  In  1886 
there  were  489,795  children  witliin  school  age.  and  the  cost  of  the 
maintenance  of  the  whole  system  was  $2,362,226.  There  are  no 
schools  for  secondary  education,  except  the  high  schools  of  a  few 
cities  The  State  university  is  at  Austin  ;  it  is  abundantly  endowed 
with  lands,  but  does  not  receive  the  full  benefit  of  its  revenues. 
There  is  also  a  State  ngricultural  and  mechanical  college,  but 
technical  training  is  made  secondary 

The  State  government  dilfers  somewhat  from  those  of  the  fest  of  Adminl 
the  Union,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  has  had  to  adapt  itself  to  the.trrtioo 
administration  of  the  great  pubKc  domain,  by  which  most  of  the 
public  institutions  are  supported  and  works  of  internal  improvement 
accomplished,  and  because  much  of  the  attention  of  the  Govern- 
ment lias  been  necessarily  diverted  to  the  protection  of  its  exten- 
sive frontier.  The  executive  government  consists  of  a  governor, 
comptroller,  treasurer,  commissioner  of  the  general  land  office,  and 
superintendent  of  education,  elected  biennially,  with  an  attorney- 
general  and  a  secretary  of  state,  appointed  by  the  governor.  The 
judiciary  consist?  of  two  courts  of  final  appeal,  one  for  criminal,' 
the  other  for  civil  business  ;  forty  itinerant  higher  courts  for  the 
trial  of  penal  offences  and  civil  suits;  courts  for  misdemeanour? 
and  minor  civil  cases  in  each  county;  and  innumerable  justices' 
courts  for  first  hearings.  The  legislature  consists  of  32  senators 
elected  for  four  years,  and  1 1 5  members  of  the  house  of  representa- 
tives elected  for  two  years.  It  is  restricted  by  the  constitution  to 
biennial  sessions  of  ninety  days  each.  The  Sta.te  is  divided  into 
thirteen  congressional  and  forty  judicial  election  districts.  It  is 
also  divided  into  232  counties,  75  of  which  have  no  population,  or 
insufficient  population  to  be  organized.  Each  county  is  divided 
into  four  commissioners'  precincts  and  a  varying  number  of  school, 
election,  and  justices'  precincts.  The  State  nas  always  maintained 
a  corps  of  troops,  formerly  for  protection  against  Indians,  but  now 
for  preserving  order  in  the  unorganized  counties.  It  has  institu- 
tions for  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  and  insane.  The  prison 
system  is  far  superior  to  that  of  the  other  southern  States,  but 
still  very  imperfect  The  bonded  debt  of  the  State  on  1st  Januarv" 
1887  was  $4,237,730,  and  its  Uxable  wealth  $600,000,000.  The 
aggregate  debt  of  all  the  counties  and  cities  was  $7,000,000.  The 
homestead  and  exemption  laws  are  unusually  liberal  to  the  debtor. 

The  upper  Rio  Grande  valley  was  visited  in  1580-83  by  the  Uistor^ 
Spaniards,  who  established  missions  among  the  settled  Indians 
near  EI  Paso  and  Santa  Fe.  The  first  white  settlement  was  made 
by  La  Salle  at  Lavaca,  on  the' coast,  in  16&5.  The  countr>'  was  in- 
habited by  Indians  of  various  tribes,  both  savage  and  agricultural, 
most  of  whom  are  now  extinct,  except  the  so-called  "  Mexican  " 
population  of  the  Rio  Grande.  From  1583  to  1794  n:any  missions 
were  established  by  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  among  the  Indians, 
whe  were  completely  alienated  from  their  original  language,  reli- 
gion, domeatio  babita,  and  tribal  relations.  After  thu  purchase  of 
Louisiana  from  the  French  in  1803  Anglo-American  adventuren 
began  to  cross  into  Texas  from  the  United  States.  In  1821,  vheo 
Mexior*  *>»rew  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  Texas  end  CoaKnifa  mnsdtnted 


206 


T  E  X  — T  E  X 


a  state  of  the  republic.  It  was  shortly  after  this  that  the  first 
American  colonists  were  permitted  to  enter  the  territory  ander 
Government  patronage.  Within  ten  years  over  20,000  had  settled 
between  the  Sabine  and  the  Colorado.  In  T830  the  Medcan 
Government  placed  them  under  military  rule,  from  which,  with 
accompanying  impositions,  originated  the  war  of  Texan  Independ* 
ence.  The  Anglo-Americans  were  assisted  by  volunteers  from  the 
Ur.ted  States,  and.  the  war  was  terminated  by  the  defeat  of  the 
tuexicans  under  General  Santa  Anna  at  San  Jacinto,  21st  April  1836. 
S'rcm  183/'  to  1845  Texas  was  an  independent  republic.  It  was 
admitted  to  the  United  States  on  29th  December  1845,  in  spite  of 
♦be  proix:sts  of  Mexico,  and  a  war  with  that  country  immediately 
jtsue:;.  The  new  .State  sold  to  the  United  States  Government  for 
iSlO, 000.000  all  the  territory  west  and  north  of  the  present  bound- 
aries between  the  headwaters  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Arkansas. 
But  it  reserved  the  control  and  disposal  of  the  public  lands  within 
its  borders,  which  have  proved  a  magnificent  source  of  revenue,  and 
also  the  right  to  divide  into  five  states,  should  future  growth  and 
■development  justify  it.  By  a  small  majority  the  State  seceded 
from  the  Union  in  1861.  In  1868  a  new  constitution  was  adopted, 
and  the  State  readmitted  into  the  Union.  In  1874  tho  Kiowa  and 
Comanche  Indians,  who  had  prevented  the  settlement  of  the  central 
and  plains  regions  from  the  earliest  times,  were  subjugated. 

See  HiII,  Geoloj.  Knowledge  of  Teiiis  (18S7)— Bull.  44,  V.  A'.  (Jeolog,  Survey; 
Geotogical  Map  oj  the  Uniifd  States,  by  C.  H.  Hitchcock  ;  Report  on  cottoo 
prtMluction,  Tenth  U.  3.  Census,  by  Dr.  E.  H.  Loughridge;  forestry  RcporU, 
Tenth  U.  S-  Census;  Meiican  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.;  Proceedings  of  Bmiiidary 
Commission,  Austin,  1886  ;  Trans,  of  Apa/Umy  of  Sciences,  St  Louis,  vols.  i.  and 
ii.  (Dr  Shtitnard) ;  Thrall,  History  of  Tejas ;  Kendall,  Santa  Fi  Expedition ; 
Spaight,  Resources,  &c.,  of  Teias,  Austin,  1882 ;  Roeraer,  Kreidebildungen  von 
Tex'iS,  1852;  Walcott,  Cambrian  Faunas  of  N.  Am^riCa—BviiV  30,  V.  5.  Geolog. 
Survey ;  Hill,  "  Topogr.  and  Geol.  of  Cross  Timbers  of  Texas,"  in  Amer.  Jtnim. 
Sci.,  April  1887;  Cahe,  Zoolog.  Position  of  Texas;  Marcy,  Exploraiion  qf  Red 
River;  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Mexican  Boundary  Sur^'ey;  Havard,  Report  on  the 
flora  of  west  and  south  Texas ;  and  U.  S.  explorations  for  a  route  for  a  Pacific 
Railway.  ,  (R.  T.  H.) 

TEXTILES.'  This  word  is  applied  to  all  fabrics  which 
are  woven  in  a  loom,  of  whatever  material  they  may  be 
made,  and  whether  tlie  woven  stuff  be  plain  or  figured. 
The  simplest  and  earliest  process  of  weaving  was  managed 
Method  thus.  The  ground  of  the  future  stuff  was  formed  by  a 
of  weav.  number  of  parallel  strings  called  the  warp,  having  their 
"°^'  -  -  upper  ends  attached  to  a  horizontal  beam  and  drawn  taut 
by  weights  hung  from  their  lower  ends.  In  -the  early 
Greek 'loom  each  warp  thread  had  a  separate  weight  (see 
fig.  1).  On  the  number  of  the  warp  strings  the  fineness 
and  width  of  the  stuff  depended.  The  strings  of  the  weft 
were  interlaced  at  right  angles  to  those  of  the  warp,  and 
the  combination  of  the  two  formed  the  woven  stuff  or  web. 
The  vx/t  was  so  called  from  its  being  "  wafted  "  in  and  out 
■of  the  warp ;  it  is  al.^o  often  called  the  woof,  though  more 
■correctly  the  woof  is  the  same  as  the  web  or  finished  stuff. 
The  threads  of  the  weft  were  wound  round  a  sort  of  bobbin 
on  a  pivot  which  was  made  to  revolve  inside  a  hollow 
boat-shaped  piece  of  wood  pointed  at  both  ends  so  as  to 
pass  easily  between  the  threads  of  the  warp.  This  is 
<»lled  the  shuttle.  The  thread  passed  out  through  a  hole 
in  the  side  of  the  shuttle,  the  inner  pivot  revolving  as  the 
thread  was  delivered  between  the  strings  of  the  warp.  In 
order  to  make  the  weft  interlace  in  the  warp  some  of  the 
npright  strings  were  pulled  forward  out  of  the  general 
plane  in  which  the  warp  hung ;  this  was  done  in  the 
simplest  way  by  a  reed,  which  divided  the  threads  into 
two  sets  called  leaves  and  thus  formed  an  opening  called 
the  shred,  through  which  the  shuttle  could  pass,  as  shown 
in  fig.  1.  Another  way,  applicable  to  more  complicated 
ornamental  weaving,  was  to  have  a  series  of  threads  attached 
to  the  warp  at  right  angles,  so  that  the  weaver  could  pull 
any  of  the  warp  threads  away  from  the  rest,  thus  allowing 
the  shuttle  to  pass  in  front  of  or  behind  any  special  warp 
?t"ings.  By  a  very  simple  mechanical  contrivance  these 
(tireads  were  worked  by  a  foot  treadle,  thus  leaving  the 
weaver's   hands   free   to   manage    the   shuttle. ^^     In   the 

'  This  article  deals  mainly  with  the  history  of  the  textile  art  j  for 
practical  information  as  to  modem  processes,  see  Weaving  ;  see  also 
Embroidert,  vol.  viii.  p.  160  sq. 

2  These  dividing  sticks  are  called  in  French  "batons  k  deux";  in 
the  simplest  kind  of  weaving  only  one  is  required.  The  use  of 
treadles  and  "spring  staves"  is  more  applicable  to  the  low  loom,  in 
which  the  warp  is  strained  la  a  horizon^l  nosition. 


simplest  sort  of  weaving  first  one  and  then  the  other  haJf 
of  the  warp  threads  were  pulled  forward,  and  so  a  plain 
regularly  interlaced  stuff  was  woven.  The  next  stage  was 
to  make  a  cloth  with  coloured  stripes,  by  using  success- 
ively two  shuttles  containing  different-coloured  threads. 
In  a  chequered  cloth  the  warp  was  made  of  two-coloured 
threads  stretched  in  successive  bands,  and  the  cross  stripes 
of  the  weft  were  woven  in  by  the  two  shuttles.  To  form 
a  more  complicated  pattern  the  weft  must  not  cross  the 
warp  alternately:  the  design  is  formed  by  either  the  warp 
or  the  weft  predominating  on  the  surface  in  certain  places. 
In  all  cases  each  thread  of  the  weft  must  ixi  driven  home 
to  its  place  after  each  stroke  of  the  shuttle.  In  the- 
earliest  times  this  was  done  by  beating  the  weft  with  a 
wooden  sword-shaped  implement'  introduced  between  the 
strings  of  the  warp ;  but  later  a  heavy  comVshaped  tool 
was  used,^  the  teeth  of  which  passed  between  the  warp 
and  drove  home  at  one  blow  a  longer  length  of  the  weft. 
An  upright  loom  such  aa  has  been  described  is  shown 
clearly  in  some  of  the  wall  paintings  from  Thebes,  dating 
about  1600  B.C.  and  in  other  earlier  ones  from'  Beni-Hasan. 
A  very  similar  loom  is  represented  on  a  Greek  va.se  of 
the  5th  century  B.C.,  with  a  picture  of  Penelope  and  tho 
never-fini.shed  piece  of  stuff  (see  fig.  1).    In  this  interesting 


Fio.  1. — Penelope's  loom,  from  a  Greek  vase  of  the  5th  century  B.C. 
The  standing  figure  is  that  of  Telemachus.' 

painting  the  upper  band  has  simple  geometrical  ornaments.  Looms, 
such  as  occur  on  archaic  Greek  vases;  the  neit  has  figures 
of  winged  men  and  gryphons.  This  sort  of  loom  is  still 
used  in  Scandinavian  countries  for  tapestry.*  Another 
form  has  the  warp  threads  stretched,  not  upright,  but 
horizontally, — an  arrangement  which  is  more  convenient 
for  working  treadles.  These  two  forms  are  called  in 
French  "la  haute  lisse"and  "la  basse  lisse," — the  high 
and  the  low  loom.  The  general  principle  is  the  same  in 
both.  Fig.  2  shows  a  simple  form  of  the  "basse  lisse," 
such  as  was  used  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  except  in 
Iceland  and  in  Scandinavia.'  The  clay  whorls,  or  pierced 
cones,  decorated  with  simple  painting,  which  have  been 
found  in  countless  numbers  on  the  sites  of  Troy,  Mycenae, 
and  other  prehistoric  cities,  were  probably  used  to  stain 
the  thread  as  it  was  being  spun  on  the  distaff.'     OtTier 

'  Lat.  spatha.  *  Lat.  pecten  ;  modem  English  baitm  or  lay. 

'  See  Mon.  Inst.  Arch.  Rom.,  vol.  ii.  pi.  42. 

'  See  the  modem  Faroese  loom  figured  by  Worsaae,  A/bildninger 
fra  det  k.  Museum  for  Nordiskt  Oldsager,  Copenhagen,  1854,  p.  123. 

'  A  fresco  by  Pinturiechio — 911  in  the  National  Gallery,  London — 
has  a  careful  representation  of  the  medixval  low  loom  ;  the  subjKt 
is  the  return  of  Ulysses  to  Penelope. 

'  Dt  Schliemann  found  22.000  in  the  plains  of  Troy  alon*. 


TEXTILES 


207 


♦leavier  ones  wire  <.ni|>lo)cd  to  stretch  the  sirinj^j  ot  the 
warj« ;   this  mcihtid   must   have  been   very  inconvenient, 

i$   the  wliole   warp  couM   suing   to  and    fro.      A  very 

obTJous    inii"rovcinent,   intro<Iuced   in  some  countries  at 

an 'early    date, 'was    to    have    a    second    beam,    round 

which    the    lowcr-en.ls  of    tli'?    wi-i.   r,v  ',!    !,     vn  id. 

In'  Scandinavian 

countries   the, Use 

of  i  weights  icon 

tinued  till  nio-lcrn 

times.   Ill  the  f.ite 

loom  of  the  sag.^s 

these  weights   are 

heroe6'3kulls,wlule 

the    shuttle   is^a 

sword. 
1'..-  Some        simple 

Jiistoria   form    of~«eaving 

seems  to  have  been 

practised    by   pre 

historic  man  at  a 

very  early  stage  of 

<<evelopment.  Fig 

3    shows    an    ex 

nnple    of     coarse 

flaxen    stuff  from 

the  lake-dwelliags 

jf         SwitEerland   Fio.  2  — Msd.sevai  low-warp  loom,  from  a  cut 

ialinc     from     the    •'>' •'"st  Ammao:  middle  of  tbe  16th  century 

Stone  Age.  Wool  appears  to  have  been  the  first  sub- 
stance used,  as  no  skill  is  required  to  prepare  it  for  spin- 
ning. Weaving  was  speci 
ally  the  duty  of  women, 
and  even  in  the  Middle 
.Ages  in  Europe  it  was,  in 
some  countries,  considered 
a  specially  feroioine  em 
ploytnenl  '  An  early  Chris- 
tian sarcophagus  in  the 
Lateran  has  a  symbolica 
relief  representing  God 
condemning  the  future 
world  to  labour, —  tillag-e 
for  the  man  and  weaving 
for  the  woman  — He  gives 
ears  of  corn  to  Adam  and 

a  sheep  to  Eve  ^'*^  ■*  — t'r=;l'ii*.o.'.v^5Loi.c  A.:v)riaxen 

The     Eg)T3tians     were     l'"1     ''"":   »    lake.d»«lling    in 
E?yi'""  famed    for   the  beauty  of     ^-i^"'^'' 

their  woven  stuffs,  and  almost  incredible  stories  are  related 
of  the  fineness  of  their  linen,  such  as  a  pallium  sent  by 
King  Amasis  to  the  Spartans,  w'hich,  Herodotus  (ui.  47) 
says,  was  mxde  of  yarn  containing  no  less  than  SCO  threads, 
the  figure"!  woven  on  this  were  partly  of  cotton  and  partly  of 
gold  thread  Herodotus  also  mentions  a  wonderful  pallium 
sent  by  the  same  king  to  the  shrine  of  Athene  at  Lindus 
Few  examples  of  the  fine  and  richly  ornamented  sorts  of 
Egyptian  stuffs  now  exist,  though  we  have  immense  quan- 
tities of  tbf  coarse  linen  in  which  mummies  were  w  rapped 
This,  though  coarse,  is  closely  woven,  and  usually  has  in 
every  inch  many  more  threads  to  the  warp  than  to  the 
«<-fl  '  A  few  fragments  of  Egyptian  cloth  of  the  XVHIth 
E'ynaNty  have  been  found  with  a  border  of  coloured  bands, 
the  blue  of  which  is  indigo  and  the  red  extract  of  Kermes 


Aacieot 


Im   the  Itme  of  St   Louis  (!3lh   century)  in    France  some  sorts  of 
■^'aving.  such  a.s  "tapissene  S^racennis.    were  done  only  by  men 

'  Some  existing  specicoena  have  in  ea<  h  incli  152  threads  in  the 
*irp  and  70  in  Ibe  weft  .  ui  modem  stuff-*  the  proportion  ls  the  other 
•»»/      A  coir-».|y  woven  piece  of  Egyptian  stuff  in  the  British  M..cA,|fti 


(•/  I! )  In  Egypt  linen  w.-^^.spccially  employed  lor  religious 
purposes,  such  as  priestly  ind  royal  vestments,  because  it 
harbours  dirt  le.ss  than  wool  or  cotton,  which  were  also 
worn  by  the  Egyptians,  and  it  was  used  to  bandage 
mummies,  because  it  w'as  thought  not  to  engender  worms. 
Though  priests  were  allowed  to  wear  outer  garments  of 
wool,  they  were  obliged  to  put  them  off  before  entering 
a  sacred  place. 

The  Phoenicians  werecelebratcd  for  their  weaving,  as  Phmny 
for  their  skill  in  otlier  arts.      Their  purple  linen,  dyed  >^'^''. 
with  the  mure.x,  was  specially  valued  ,   Tyre  and  Sidon 
were  the  chief  places  where   tliis  was   made       Babylon, 
Carthage,  Saidis,  Miletus,  and  Alexandria  were  all  famous 
s,eats  of  textile  manufacture  in  the  time  of  Herodotus 

Though  no  specimens  of  Assyrian  textiles  remain,  some  Assyrim 
notion  of  their  richness  of  ornament  and  the  styles  of 
their  patterns  may  be  gained  from  the  minute  rcpiescnla 
lions  of  rich  dresses  worn  by  kings  and  other  iniportan 
personages  in  the^sculplurcd  wall-reliefs  from  Nincvel 
which  are  now  in  the  Biitish  Museum  '  The  stuff's  .wor- 
by  Asur-banipal  are  most  elaborate  in  design,  being  covcrei 
with  delicate  geometrical  patterns  and  diapers,  with  hoi 
ders  of  lotus  and  other  flowers  treated  wTth  great  dico'e 
tive  skill.  A  large  marble  slab  from  the  same  palace  i 
covered  with  an  elaborate  textile  pattern  in  low  relii  f 
and  is  evidently  a  faithful  copy  of  an  Assyrian  carp-i 
Still  more  magnificent  stuffs  are  represented  as  be  n, 
worn  by  Assyrian  captives  on  the  enamelled  wall-tiles  f-on 
Rameses  II. 's  palace  (I4th  centiTry  d  c  )  at  Telal  V.aIiu  Jiyt  s 

(see  Pottery,  vol  xix  p  603),  the  woven  palternf.  an 
most  minutely  reproduced  in  their  different  coloin.-,,  anc 
the  design,  special  to  As'.yria,  of  the  sacred  tree  betweei 
two  jjuardian  beasts,  is  clearly  represented,  though  on  th',  ; 

most  minute  scale. 

Our  knowledge  of  Greek  textiles,  in  the  almost  com-'Creetu 
plete  absence  of  any  existing  specimens,'  is  chiefl*  de- 
rived from  the  descriptions  .of  various  classical  authors 
One  indication  of  the  patterns  commonly  used  at  an  eariy' 
period  is  given  by  the  designs  on  much  of  the  archaic 
Greek  pottery,  which  clearly  has  ornament  derived  fro'n 
textile  sources.  Vol  xix.  p.  607,  fig  16,  shows  examples 
of  these  ;  simple  bands,  chequers,  and  zigzags  would  natu- 
rally be  the  first  steps  towards  more  elaborate  patterns 
Again,  recent  excavations  at  Orchomenus  and  Tirjns  have 
brought  to  light  examples  of  ceiling  and  wall  decoration 
the  motives  of  which  are  obviously  derived  from  textile 
patterns."  A  stone  ceiling  at  Orchomenus  has  in  relief  o 
carpet-hke  paftern,  and  the  painted  wall-stucco  of  the 
Tirj-ns  palace  has  many  varieties  of  coarse  but  effective 
textile  ornament.  The  poems  of  Homer  are  full  of  descrip- 
tions of  woven  stuffs  of  the  most  magnificent  materials 
and  design,  used  both  for  dresses'  and  for  tapestry  hang, 
ings.^  In  later  times  the  most  important  examples  of 
rich  woven  work  of  which  we  have  any  record  were  certain 
peploi  made  to  cover  or  shade  the  statues  ol   the  deiiie? 

'  A  very  magtuGcent  royal  dress,  with  woven  pattenis  of  deities, 
kings,  animals,  and  the  sacred  tree,  much  resembling  those  on  the 
roetal  bowls  of  Ass>Tia,  is  hgnred  by  Layarti,  JJonum^nrs  o/  As^t/na, 

series  1. ,  pi    IX 

*  One  remarkable  erample  of  Upcstry  from  a  tonib  Id  the  Crutiea 
IS  iupiKxsed  by  Stephaoi  to  dale  fron  ■  the  4th  century  B  c  .  se* 
O""/.    /;.:».</   CV.ni    Artl,  ,  I.S70  (!>.  p    40.  il    »  ■     ' 

'  /?  .  iM  125.  VIII  288.  l»  200.  >  If.ti.  «iv  17S.  iiii  440.  Orf) 
II  9.T.  «  220.  xiv  61.  and  m^ny  pxssnges  to  books  xviii  to  xt\ 
Homer  describes  (Orf  .  xix  22.'j  23.'.)  a  rlortli  of  puq.l"  wool  with  t 
bunting  .scene  In  gold  thread,  wovvd  by  Penelope  for  l'I>s.ses 

«  //  ,  ivi  224.  xiiv  2.10.  645  .  0.1  .  le  124,  298.  m  33'.  Many 
Greek  vases,  especially  those  with  blatk  fig\)re>  ar.d  inri.sed  li.ie.«.  have 
rt;[.re.senlatinns  of  rich  woven  dre.'vses. — r  g  .  a,,  an)).hora  in  the  ValicoD 
with  Achilles  and  Aj.n  playing  at  a  gan.e  liLr  draughts,  c  4G0  RC 
A  rather  later  va.sp  in  the  Bnti-^h  ^1ll^4■tlm  ha.-i  n  rne  hgure  of  Dcmet«r 
'  l.od  in  a  palhuai  covered  Willi  hgurcj}  of  cha'i-.ils  and  x'loged  mtD 


208 


TEXTILES 


at  Athwis,  01yaip)%"  Ddphi,  and  other  famorisSsHriiies.i 
Euripides  (Ian,  Iiil-1162)  gives  a  glowing  description 
5f  a,  peplos  which ,  belonged  to  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  on  which  was  depicted  the.  firmament  of  heaven, 
with  Apollo  Helios  in  his  chariot,  surrounded  by  the  chief 
stars  and  constellations.  At  Athens  a  new  peploa,  orna- 
mented with  the  battle  of  the  gods  and  the  giants,  wais. 
woven  for  the  gold  and  ivory  statue  of  Athene  in  the 
Parthenon  every  fifth  year,  and  was  solemnly  carried  in 
procession  at  the  greater  Panathensea,  Similarly  at  Olym 
pia  a  new  peplos  was  woven  by  sizteen  women,  and  dis- 
played every  fifth  year  at  the  Olympian  games  in  honour 
of  Hera,  It  appears  probable  that  these  magnificent 
peploi  were  not  used  as  garments,  which  would  have  partly 
concealed  the  splendour  of  Phidias's  gold  and  ivory  statues, 
but  were  suspended  over  them  like  a  mediaeval  baldacahino. 
Very  possibly,  however,  most  of  the  elaborate  work  on  them 
was  embroidery  done  by  the  needle,  and  not  loom  or  tex- 
tile work. 
Ruarn  The  Komans  under  the  late  republic  and  the  empire 
possessed  immense  stores  of  the  most  magnificent  textiles 
of  every  descfiption,  such  as  the  splendid  collection  of 
tapestry  which  Rome  inherited  along  with  the  other  art 
treasures  of  Attalus  11.  of  Pergamum  (2d  cent.  B.C.).  A  very 
costly  cloth  of  gold  was  called  by  the  Romans  "attAlica," 
after  Attalus.  The  C.  Cestius  who  died  about  the  middle 
of  the  Ist  century  B.C.,  and  who  is  buried  in  the  existing 
pyramid  in  Rome^  left  orders  in  his  will  that  his  body 
was  to  be  wrapped  in  certain  attalica;  but,  as  this  was 
forbidden  by  a  sumptuary  law,  his  heirs  sold  the  gold  stuff 
ind  with  the  proceeds  had  two  colossal  bronze  statues 
made,  wWc^  were  set  outside  the  tomb  The  feet  of 
db&  of  these  have  been  found  with  an  inscribed  pedestal 
recording  the  above-mentionqd  facts.  The  size  of  the 
statue  shows  that  the  attalica  must  Jiave  been  worth  a 
very  great  sum.  Examples  of  large  prices  given  by  Romans 
for  woven  stufis  are  recorded  by  Pliny  {H.N^  viii.  48) : 
Metelltts  Scipio  bought' some  hangings  from  Babylon  for 
600,000  sesterces,  and  other  similar  stuffs  were  bought  by 
Nero  for  four  millions  of  sesterces -(about  £3360).  Costly 
tapestry  from  Babylon  is  mentioned  by  Plautus  (Stick.,  XL, 
ii.  54),  Silius  Italicus  (xiv.  658),  and  Martial  (xiv>  150). 
Virgil  (Gear.,  iii.  25)  mentions  woven  tapestries  with  figures 
of  Britons  being  used  at  theatrical  shows :  I  Purpurea 
'itexti  toUant  aulaea  Britanni."  Otter  tapeetries  with 
scenes  from  the  story  of  Theseus  and  Ariadne  are  mentioned 
by  Catullus  (Argon.,  xlvi.  267).^  On  a  very  remarkable 
'example  of  late  Roman  stuff  found  at  Sitten  (Sion)  .jn 
Swtzcrland  is  woven  a  gracfeful  figure  of  a  nymph  seated 
on  a  sea-monster,  among  scroll-work  of  foliated  ornament, 
purely  classical  in  design.'  A  large  quantity  of  very  remark- 
able woven  stuffs  has  recently  been  found  in  tombs  at 
Ekhmin  (Panopolis)  in  Middle  Egypt.  More  than  300  pieces 
have  been  bought  for  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  They 
are  of  various  dates,  apparently  ranging  from  the  4th  to 
the  (Hh  or  7th  century  a.d.  The  earliest  are  of  purely 
classical  style :  some  have  badly  designed  but  very  de- 
corative figures  of  pagan  deities,  with  their  names  in  Greek 
— e.g.  Hermes  and  Apollo ;  others  have  figures  driving 
chariots  drawn  by  two  centaurs,  or  marine  gods,  or  long 
bands  of  animals — bears,  lions,  stags,  ducks,  and  many 
others.  These  are  used  to  decorate  linen  tunics  or  pieces 
of  stuff  about  2  feet  square.  The  later  examples  appear 
to  be  Coptic  vestments  of  various  shapes,  and  are  decor- 

'  See  De  Ronchaud,  -U  Piplm  d'AthhU,  Paris,  1872,  and  La 
Tapisserie,  Paris,  1885.  The  treasuries  of  most  Qr«ek  temples  appear 
to  have  contained  laj*ge  stores  of  rich  woven  stuffs. , 

'  See  also  Hor.^&(.,  ii.  9i  102-6  ;  Ovid,  Mei<vn7,  vt;  and  l/ucr., 
V.  1026.. 
:' Thu'fragmenl'lB  illustrated  br  MUuO,  iM  TamsseTit,t,Pfiii, 
im,  p.  63. 


ated  with  rude  figures  of  St  George  »ud  other  Oriental 
saints,  each  with  a  nimbus.  These  ornaments  are  done  by 
tnje  itapestry  weaving,  the  weft  pattern  being  in  brilliantly 
coloured  wools  on  a  flaxen  warp.  In  eom^  cases  the 
colours,  especially  the  magnificent  reds  and  blues,  are  as 
bright  as  if  they  were  new.  Though  in  all  cases  the  figure 
drawing  is  rude,  the  decorative  value  is  very  great. 

From  the  6th  tij  the  13th  century  Byzantium  became  Byraiu 
the  capital  of  all  the  industrial  arts^and  in  none  is  its  ""*• 
Influence  more  obvious  than  in  thai  of  weaving.  "^  There 
the  a^ts  of  ancient  Oreece  and  of  old  Rome  met  and  were 
fused  with  the  artistic  notions  of  ancient  Egypt,  Assyria,' 
Persia,  and,  Asia  Minor,  and  tihis  combination  produced  a 
fresh  and  very  active  art  Bpirit,  which  for  many  centuries 
dominated  the  whole  civilised  world.  As  regards  weaving, 
this  new  development  was  strengthened  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  silk  int^  Europe  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  and 
many  specimens  flf  early  silk  fabrics  kava  lasted  down  to 
the  present  time,  partly,  through  their  beJflg  safe  against 
mothf.  The  silken  stuffs  found  in  the  tombs  of  Charle- 
magne and  other  kings,  though  perhaps  not  themselves  as 
early  as  the  6th  century,  show  one  class  of  design  used  in 
Byzantium  in  the  time  of  Justinian.  Some  of  these  com- 
bine the  igure-subjects  of  ancient  Rome  with  the  stronger 
decorative  beauty  of  the  East.  Chariot  races  in  the  circus, 
consuls  and  emperors  enthi'oned  in  state,  gladiatorial  fights 
with  lions,  and  other  classical  subjects  occur,  arranged  in 
medallions  or  wreaths,  set  in  close  rows,  so  as  to  fill  up 
'the  ground.  Again,  mixed  with  these  classical  scenes  ara 
designs  of  purely  Assyrian  origin,  such  as  the  sacred  tree, 
between  two  guardian  beasts,  closely  resembling  the  designs' 
of  2000  B.C.  The  manufacture  of  these  rich  fabrics  waa 
carried  on,  not  only  in  Byzantium,  but  also  in  many 
towns  of  Greece  proper,  such  as  Athens,  Thebes,  and 
Corinth,  all  of  j 
which  were  .<  spe-  r 
cially  famed  for ' 
their  silk  textiles. 

During  the  same  fJSBSf^iiF^ri^jW^SfiSBLS^lS^n'-iy^fjf^if^^  Peralam. 
time,  the  ^|h  to ' 
the  12th  century, 
Baghdad,  Damas- 1 
cus,  Ispahan,  and  ] 
many  other  towns  ( 
in  Persia  and  Syria  ] 
were  producing 
woven  stuffs  of  the  j 
,rioh6St  materials  < 
and  designs;  names : 
of  reigning  caliphs  ' 
arc  sometimes  ( 
mingled  with  Ar- 
abic sentences  from ' 
the  Koran  and ' 
other  sacred  books, 
which  are  intro- ' 
duced  freelyamong 
the  intricate  pat- 
terns with  the  most 
richly  decorative  effect.  By  this  means  some  existing  speci- 
mens of  the  8th  to  th6  10th  century  can  be  dated.;  Fig.  4 
shows  a  16th-century  example  of  the  finest  Persian  damask 
in  silk  and  gold, — a  masterpiece  of  textile  design 

According  to  the  usual  story,  Roger  of  Sicily,  who  in  Sicilian: 
1 1 47 'fijado  a  successful  raid  on  the  shores  of  Attica'ahd 
took  Athens,  Thebes,  and  Corinth,  carried  off  as  prisouers 
a  numl)er'  of  Greek  weavers,  whom  he  settled, at  Palermo 
and  made  the  founders  of  the  royal  factory  for  silk  weav-i 
ing.'  This  story  is  doubtful,  for  the  Saracenic  inhabitants 
of  Sicily  had  apparently  been  producing  fine  silken  stuffs 


Flo.  4. — Persi.in  damask  lu  silk  and  gold. 
(South  Kensington  Museum.) 


TEXTILES 


209 


long  before  tho  12tk  century.  In  part,  however,  the 
siorj-  rany  be  true ;  certaiiily  an  impetus  was  given  to  the 
weaving  industry  of  Palermo  in  tlie  I2tli  century,  and  for 
about  two  centuries  Sicily  became  the  chief  seat  in  Europe 
for  the  production  of  the  finest  woven  stuffy  A  largo 
number  of  examples  of  these  beautiful  fabric^  still  exist, 
showing  an  immense  variety  of  designs,  all  of  which  are 
imagined  with  the  highest  decorative  skill, — perfect  mateter- 
pieces  of  textile  art,  combining  freedom  of  in%'ention  and 
grace  of  drawing  with  that  slight  amount  of  mechanical 
stiffness  Wiich  is  specially  suited  to  the  retiuirements  of 
tho  loomij  One  of  the  earliest  existing  s|)ecimens,  which 
shows  the  existence  of  the  fabritiue  before  the  lime  of 
Koger  I.,  is  a  piece  of  silk  stuff  in  which  the  botly  of  St 
Culhbert^'ic  Purham  was  wrapped  when  his  relics  were 
translated  in  1104  ;  this  was  found  at  the  opening  of  his 
grave  in  1S27,  arid  is  now  preserved  in  Durham  cathedral 
library.  The  figures  woven  on  it  show  an  interesting  com- 
bination of  Western  and  Oriental  art.  '  Birds  and  conven- 
tional ornaments  of  purely  Eastern  style  are  mingled  with 
designs-  taken  from  late  Roman  mosaics, — the  whole 
being  blended  with  great  skill  into  a  highly  decorative 
pattern'  The  Sicilian  silks  of  tho  12th  to  the  Htli  ccn 
tury  were  aiostly  used  for  ecclesiastical  vestments,  altar 
f rentals,  and  the  like;  and  tlie  fact  th.-xt  examples  have 
survived  in  almost  all  countries  of  Europe  shows  how  im- 
|)ortant  and  far-reaching  a  trade  in  them  must  once  have 
been  carried  on.  The  favourite  designs  were  the  sun 
breaking  through  a  cloud  from  whence  rays  of  light  arc 
issuing,  or  conventionally  treated  ships,  fountains,  island.s, 
castles,  and  an  immense  variety  of  birds  and  beasts,  such 
as  swan?,  mallards,  eagles,  lions,  cheetahs,  hounds,  giraffes, 
sntelopesi  and  others.  Some  specimens  have  siren  like 
female  forms,  with  Uoaling  hair,  casting  nets,  leaning  down 
from  palm  trees,  or  issuing  from  shells.  Others,  rather 
bter  in  stjie,  have 
winged  angel  like 
figures.  In  many 
cases  the  Assyrian 
sacred  tree  and  its 
guardian  beasts  oc- 
cur, and  very  fre 
qaently  borders 
with  sham  Arabic 
letters  are  intro- 
duced,— a  survival 
of  the  time  when 
real  sentences  were 
woven  into  the  fab- 
rics of  Persia  and 
Egypt, probably  in 
tended  as  a  visible 
sign  that  the  stuff 
was  the  genuine 
product  of  Sara 
cenie  looms.  All 
these  are  perfect 
masterpiecesof  tex-  ^'*^-  ^- — ^'-i--^^  sil^  strLffjrfths  13tb  century, 
.■1       _r     '    J    ,  in  St  Mary  a.chuicti,  Dalilzic. 

tile  art,  and  have  ' 

never  since  been  rivalled  either  in'beantyof  design  or  in 
skilful  iLse  of  gold  and  colours.  ■  Fig.  5  shows  a  character- 
istic example ;  another  copied  from  a  painting  is  given 
under  Moral  Decoration^,  vol.  xviL  p.  46,  fig.  15. 

In  the  14th  century  the  chief  centre  of  fine  silk  weaving 
was  transferred  from  Palermo  to  Lucca,  Florence,  Milan, 
Venice,  and  other  towns  in  northern  Italy,  and  a  different 
class  of  design,  less  rich  in  fancy,  but  scarcely  less  beautiful 
in  effect,  oame  into  vogue.     The  designs  of  these  14th  and 

'  See  Rainc,  SaitU  Cuthifrt,  Durham,  1S28,  p!ate  i»  ;  in  his  tert 
Qie  ftnthor  ia  wholly  wrong  as  to  iht  prfroenanu  of  these  siufT^ 

23—10 


15th  cencury  textiles  were  chiefly,  conventional  adaptations 
of  natural  foJiage  and  flowers,  arranged  with  great  beauty  of 
line  and  wealth  of  de- ! 
corative  effect ,  among  ; 
the  most  beautiful  is '.. 
scroll  -  work  of  vines  ^ 
with  graceful  curving) 
lines  of  leaf  and  ten- 
dril. An  extremely 
rich  design,  largely ' 
employed  throughout  : 
the  loth  centurj',  was  \ 
made  from  the  arti- 
choke plant,^  and  wa^  1 
especially  used  for  the  \ 
rich  "  cut "  velvets  of  1  (^ 
Genoa,  Florence,  and  j.f_ 
Venice,  in  which  the  i 
|alti:rii  is  foiincd  in 't 
relief  by  pile  raised  ' 
above  pilc,niixcdwilh  ; 
Solil  '  (-■iCC  fig  G  and  ,l| 
vol  xvii  p  4G,  fig 
14).  At  this  time  i^ 
Venice  contained  a  js 
large  number  of  Ori 

ciital  !.raftsiiien  in  all     pm.  «  _  c.no, si-  or  hlnni.tniL-  vti^et  of 
the    indubtrial     arts,  silk  ami  col.l ,  l5Ui  cennry 

and  very  beautiful  stuffs  were  woven  there  with  designs 
of  mingled  Oriental  and  Italian  style, — probably  the  work 
of  Mohammedan  weavers  (see  fig.  7). 


&.€£L»    « 


Fic   7  — Silk  stuff  of  Oriental  design»  woven  at  Venice  in  the  lolb 
century.     (South  KensinglOD  Museum.) 

In  all  these  Oriental,  Sicilian,  and  early  Italian  stuffs  GoW   , 
gold  thread  is  used  in  a  very  lavish  and  effective  way.     It  tb»^'> 
was  made  very  skilfully,  the  richest  effect  being  produced 
with  little  metal  by  thickly  gilding  fine  vellum  skins  with 
gold  leaf ;  the  vellum  was  then  cut  into  very  thin  strips 

'  This  is  usually  called  tbe  pine-apple  pattern ;  but  it  was  invented 
long  before  the  discovery  of  America  had  introduced  the  piae-auple 
into  Europe. 

'  Italian  and  Flemish  pictures  of  the  Klh  to  the  16th  century  often 
give  most  valuable  representations  of  rich  textiles ;  see  Vacher, 
Fifteenth  CerUury  Halian  Ornament,  London,  1 SS6,  s  series  of  coloured 
I'lates  of  textiles  la^eu  from  Italian  pictures. 

xxm.  —  27 


210 


TEXTILES 


and  wound  round  a  thread  of  silk  or  hemp  so  closely  as  to 
look  like  a  solid  gold  wire.  In  and  since  the  loth  cen- 
tury gold  thread  has  been  made  by  twisting  a  thin  ribbon 
of  gilt  silver  round  a  silken  core.  In  this  way  much  less 
gold  is  required,  as  the  silver  ribbon  is  gilded  before  being 
drawn  out  to  its  final  thinness,  and  it  is  thus  liable  to 
t.trnish,  owing  to  the  iwrtial  exposure  of  the  silver  surface. 
In  classical  times  attalica  and  other  gold  stufTs  were  ratBde 
of  eolid  gold  wire  beaten  out  with  the  hammer.'  Masses  of 
this  fine  gi)ld  wire-  have  been  found  in  the  tombs  of  Egypt, 
(ireece,  aiid  Etruria,  the  metal  having  lasted  long  after 
all  the  rest  of  the  .ituff  had  crumbled  into  dust.  In  1544 
the  grave  of  the  wife  of  Honorius  was  opened  and  36  lb 
of  gold  thread  taken  out  of  it  and  melt«d. 
OcU  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  cloth  of  gold  was  largely 

doth.  employed  for  eccle.'iiastical  and  royal  pur|)0se8.  In  some 
cases  the  whole  of  the  visible  surface  was  formed  of 
gold  thread,  producing  the  utmost  splendour  of  effect. 
Westminster  Abbey  still  possesses  a  magnificent  gold 
cope  of  the  15th  century,  in  almost  perfect  brilliance  of 
preservation.  In  the  13tliand  Utii  centuries  Cyjirus  and 
Lucca  were  specially  famed  for  tlitir  gold  stuffs,  and  the 
royal  inventories  of  France  and  England  slio*  that  the 
kings  i>osse.sscd  stures  of  this  to  an  immense  value.~,The 
enormous  sum  of  £11  a  yard  ^  is  recorded  to  have  been 
given  for  a  "cloth  of  estate"  in  the  private  accounts  ot 
Henry  VII.  This  was  a  clotli  to  liang  over  the  royal 
throne,  and  must  have  been  unusually  wide,  as.otlier  cloth 
.if  gold  at  the  .s-inic  time  was  bouylit  for  3Ss.  the  yard. 
Various  names  were  at  different  times  given  to  textiles 
)A(hich  were  wholly  or  m  part  woven  in  gold,  such'  as 
cicliitoun  (a  word  of  obscure  origin),  liaujrkiii  (^loui  Ral- 
dak  or  J'aghdail),  vulr,  and  /ixfiir.*  .S>nniJr.OT  iri'luiile  (t^ 
(iiVoi)  was  so  calleil  because  the  weft  tlirciils  were  only 
caught  and  looped  at  every  sixth  thrcail  of  the  warp,  lytng 
loosely  over  the  intermediate  part.  Mediaeval  samite  wse 
sometimes  maile  of  gold;  if  of  silk  it  was  a  variety  of 
satin,  called  s^ilin  of  six.  Modci'n  satin  usually  has  its 
weft  looped  in  less  closely — s^iiin  ••/  rii/lu  or  tm. 
EBglL5h  Although  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the  finer  stuffs 
used  in  England  were  to  a  great  extent  the  product  of 
foreign  looms,  there  was  no  lack  of  native  textiles,  many 
of  which  were  of  great  beauty.  In  the  use  of  the  needle 
the  woinen'^of  Engl.and  were  especially  skilful,  ahd  rich 
English  embroideries  were  much  exported,  even  into  Italy, 
from  the  12th  to  the  14th  century,^  and  were  esteemed 
more  highly  than  the'  productions  of  any  other  country. 
Two  fine  examples  of  early  English  silk  and  gold  needle- 
work— a  stole  and  maniple  with  th«  inscription  Aetflxd 
fieri  pirrfjut  ■  p\o  rpu^o/X)  Frtihstnnn — are  prcserve<l  in 
the  Uinham  library  Kndcslan  liccame  bishop  of  Win- 
chester in  005.  Other  examples  of  native  textiles  have 
been  found  in  the  cofiins  of  many  ecclesiastics  in  England. 
Some  interesting  fragments  are  preserved  in  the  chapter- 
house of  Worcester  cathedral  ;  the  ground  is  of  silk,  and 
the  pattern,  of  conventional  scroll  foluige,  is  a  character- 
istic example  of  l3iliH.tnlury  ftcsign.  Pictures  in  English 
MSS.  sliow  that  the  low  loom  was  mainly  used. —  thi.t 
being  the  most  convenient  for  ordinary  weaving."    England 

*  Tlie  process  of  m.tking  wire  by  «]rnwiitg  it  through  conic.il  apcr* 
tnre.*!  in  .t  vteel  pbtc  i^  Nniil  to  hnve  tx»n  UrsX  invented  at  Nuremberg 
in  the  14th  century. 

*  The  Musco  Crvyori.ino(V.ilicnn)  imnL-tin^  exumple?*  from  Etniscan 
t/'Hibs.  '  K.|ir.il  to  riuilc  £.')0  of  nif-lcni  money. 

*  Hence  thin  paper  laiil  between  the  foM^  of  these  ncli  sliifTR  to 
pTOlect  Ihein  wan  ciTle*!  tt.tsn/f  paper. 

'  The  reh  bnnci  co|ie  in  Picnza  cathedral,  which  once  helongc<l  to 
Piu»  II-  (Piccoloniini),  is  a.m.ignificent  example  of  EnglisU  needle- 
work of  the  15th  century. 

*  Anions  ChiiiceV'!!  pil^rtms  are  included  *'  A  webbe,  a  dyer,  nnri  a 
tapiK^er."  the  liiTl  a  low. loom  weaver,  the  Ix'^l  a  weaver  of  tapesiry 
OD  the  high  loom. 


was  specially  celebrated'  for  its  wool  and  woollen  stuiTn 
and  even  at  the  present  day  English  wool  is  used  for  the 
Gobelin  tapestries  ;  in  the  15th  :'.nd  16th  centuries  it  waa 
largely  imported  into  Flanders.  In 'the  14th  centur}'  Bath 
produced  the  finest  woollen  cloth,  and  that  of  Worcester 
was  equally  celebrated ;  in  the  1 5th  century  the  produc- 
tion of  woollen  stuff  was  a  great  source  of  wealth  to 
Noiwich  and  other  towns  in  the  eastern  counties.  A 
special  sort  of  woohen  yarn  took  its  name  from  Worstead 
in  Norfolk,  where  it  -was  made  ;  it  had  a  closer  and  harder 
twist  than  most  woollen  thread,  and  thus  could  be  made 
up  into  cloth  of  special  fineness,  which  was  used  frtr 
chasubles  and  other  vestments,  as  is  recorded  in  the  in- 
ventories of  York,  Exeter,  and  other  cathedrals. 

Old  English  A'ameJi  for  Talilcs. — A  large  number  of  names'  for  01.1 
different  sorta  of  textiles  occur  in  old  English  writings,  many  of  Ei.^lial» 
th£ni  derived  from  the  name  of  the  place  where  the  etufl"  was  made  Ui'irtes. 
or  exported.  Buckram  was  a  woven  cloth  of  much  richness,  highly 
prized,  probably  quite  unlike  what  we  now  mean  by  the  woiJ. 
Damask  or  damas  got  its  name  from  Damascus.  Fustiaii,  from 
Fostat  (OldQairo),  waa  a  cheaper  stutf  made  of  linen  and  cotton 
mixed.  Muslin,  from  Mosul,  was  a  fine  cotton  stuff,  CloOi  of^ 
Tars  (Tarsus)  is  often  mentioned,  usually  meaning  a  purple  cloth. 
Camoca  or  camak  (Arab  katnkhn,  from  Chinese  kimkha,  '*  brocade  ") 
was  aiiolbcr  richly  decorated  Oriental  stuff.  Cnidal  or  sandal  and 
srrndotnis  were  line  silk  stuffs.  Tajfda  was  made  of  silk  or  linen 
of  very  thin  substance.  Satin  (from  Low  Lai.  seta)  was  a  glossy 
silk  stuff  nndc- like  samite.  Velr-cl  (from  IL  vclluto.  "sliai.'gy '') 
had  a  silk  weft  woven  so  as  to  form  a  raised  pile,  the  ends  of  \niich 
were  ciit  or  shaved  off  to  one  even  level  ;  hence  il-  is  also  called 
in  Italy  raso.  Diaper,  "jasper-like"  (Ital.*  rfia.7>ro),  was  not  only 
used  to  denote  a  regular  geometrical  p-^ttern;  but  in  some  cases 
means  also  a  special  sort  of  linen  or  sUk.  Phrases  such  as  ''silk 
ol*brydjies"  (Urujjfs),  "silk  dornex,"  from  Domeck  in  Flanders, 
and  **Nhccu>  of  ^tiyiics"  (Kheinis)  often  occur.  A  large  nninbci  of 
other  similar  nantca  arc  to  be  met  with  in  medireval  wniings.' 

Space  will  not  allow  a^lescription  of  the  textile  work  inOth^j 
eadi  separate- country-.      That  of  Italy  and  the  East  was"^?^''*' 
by  far  the  most  iinporuint  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  modem 
Even  Chiiie.se  textiles  of  gold  and  silk  were  imported  intob'P';^ 
the  west  of  Europe,  and  were  sometimes  used  for  ccch'sias- . 
tical  purposes.     Media;val  vestments  of  Chinese  stuff  still 
exist,  the  shape  and  added  borders  of  which  show  that 
they  date  from   as   early  as  the  14th   century.      These 
fabrics  exactly  resemble  in  design  and  workmanship  some 
which  are  woven  in  China  at  the  present  day.     A  very 
interesting  survival  of  flie  media.Taistyle  of  weaving  exists 
in  Sweden  and  other  Scandinavian  cotmtncs.     Articles  of 
dress,  counterpanes,  table-covers,  and  the  like  are  woven 
by  the  peasantry  in  a  simple,  highly  decorative  way,  witk 


Kio.  ^. — Indian  hill  loom,  as  still  used. 
patterns  which  have  altered  little  during  the  Jast  tlireo 
or  four  centuries.  •  Though  coarse  in  texture,  many  of  these 
are  of  great  artistic  beauty;  nothing  but  an  occisuni.tl  use 
'  The  most  extraordinary  sp-^lUng  often  oeniri.  in  lists  of  textile*  in 
niedia-v^l  docninents,  e»iieci.'\Ily  in  ihc  else  of  foreign  n.nnicjs.  Thin* 
"e  find  in  the  Bnry  Wills  (prinlcd  by  the  Cani.lcn  Society)  "  tuschan 
*i>  Appulei),"  meaning  Naples  fustLin,  ami  many  simitir  Itlunderv. 


TEXTIi^ES 


211 


of  barsh  colours  shows  any  sign  of  decadence  of  style. 
Strong  marks  of  Oriental  influence  are  visible  in  these 
fine  patterns,  but  the  method  of  weaving  is  purely  native, 
— probably  very  like  what  the  edicts  of  Louis  IX.  call 
"tapisserie  nostrcz."  Very  beautiful  fabrics  are  still  pro- 
duced in  India,  old  designs  being  followed,  and  woven  in 
the  simplest  form  of  loom.  Fig.  8  shows  an  example  of 
a  modern  Indian  loom  used  by  the  hill  weavers.  In  such 
looms  the  richest  materials,  such  as  gold  and  silk,  and 
the  most  elaborate  patterns  are  woven,  often  by  travelling 
weavers  who  can  set  up  their  whole  apparatus  in  a  very 
short  tmie. 

Caepets. 
Oirpeta-  Carpet  weaving  was  essentially  an  Oriental  art,  and 
was  the  natural  product  of  a  dry  mudless  country,  where 
little  furniture  was  used  and  the  shoes  were  removed  on 
entenng  a  building.  Till  the  16th  century  carpets  were 
almost  unknown  in  France  and  England,  except  for  royal 
personages  and  for  the  sanctuaries  of  cathedrals  and  im- 
portant churches.  In  the  latter  case  they  were  usiully 
laid  in  front  of  the  high  altar,  and  thus  carried  on  to  the 
floor  the  richness  of  colour  which  ornamented  the  walls 
and  vault.  Oriental  carpets  frequently  occur  in  cathedral 
inventories  among  the  other  rich  treasures  of  foreign  or 
native  make  which  adorned  the  building.  They  were  first 
employed  in  England  for  domestic  purposes  by  Queen 
Eleanor  of  Castile  and  her  suite,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
13th  century.  In  the  palaces  of  Spain  they  were  intro- 
duced much  earlier,  owing  to  the  preseuce  of  the  Moors  in 
southern  Spain.  In  many  cases  they  were  used  for  wall 
hangings,  and  the- smaller  ones  to  cover  tables  and  other 
furniture,  as  is  represented  in  many  15th-century  Italian 
pictures.  Though  few  examples  of  Oriental  carpets  exist 
earlier  in  date  than  the  1 5th  century,  yet  the  manufacture 
was  carried  on  in  the  highest  state  of  perfection  centuries 
before.  An  example  oi  the  l4th  century  is  preserved  in 
a  private  collection  at  Vitnna ;  it  was  originally  made  as 
a.  hanging  for  the  Kaaba  at  Meeca.^  These  beautiful 
Oriental  pile  carpets  are  among  the  most  perfect  produc- 
tions of  the  weaver's  art,  and  till  the  16th  century  were 
masterpieces  r.(  design  and  splendour  of  colour.  Usually 
they  were  woven  of  wool  or  of  camels'  or  goats'  hair,  with 
a  separate  wai  p  and  weft  of  flax  ;  but  many  magnificent 
carpets  were  also  made  of  silk  mixed  with  gold  thread. 
This  extravagance  of  luxury  produced  an  effect,  at  least 
as  regards  the  use  of  silk,  but  little  superior  to  that  of 
fine  wool  or  camel's  hair,  as  the  special  beauty  of  the 
silken  gloss  is  seen  on  the  sides,  not  on  the  ends  of  the 
silk  thread.  Pile  carpets  are  woven  in  a  very  different 
way  from  ordinary  textiles :  short  tufts  of  wool  or  silk 
are  knotted  on  the  warp  so  that  the  ends  of  the  threads 
which  form  the  pattern  project,  and  these  are  cut  down 
by  shears  to  a  uniform  surface,  thus  forming  a  sort  of 
textile  mosaic.  Each  row  is  firmly  fixed  by  a  shoot  of 
linen  weft-thread  thrown  across  the  web,  and  th'eS  carefully 
beaten  down  with  the  batten. 

Various  classes  of  ornament  occur  in  these  magnificent 
Oriental  carpets ;  one  variety  has  stiff  geometrical  patterns, 
the  motives  of  which  appear  to  be  taken  from  mosaics  or 
tiles.  Another  and  still  more  beautiful  sort,  manufactured 
especially  at  Ispahan  (See  fig.  9),  has  elaborate  flowing 
designs  of  flower  forms,  sometimes  mixed  with  figures  of 
cheetahs,  lions,  antelopes,  and  birds,  in  a  few  cases  com- 
bined with  human  figures.  Mr  W.  Morris,  in  his  valuable 
lecture  on  textile  fabrics  (London,  1884),  traces  three  stages 
of  design, — first,  a  pure  flowing  style,  closely  resembling  the 
early  stucco  mural  reliefs  of  Cairo ;  secondly,  a  similar- 
style  blended  with  animal  forms;  and  thirdly,  a  purely 

'  See  Karabacek,  Die  pirsische  Naddnuilerd  Susandschird  £:■! 
Ouir.  Monatsch.  f.  d.  Orkn!,  1881,  p.  49,  with  cut. 


floral   style,  flowing  in  its  lines  and   very  fantastic  and 
ingenious  in  its  patterns ;  this  last  he  thinks  belongs  to 


Fig.  9. — Persian  pile  carpet  of  the  15tb  century,  woven  of  goata' 
hair  and  silk.     (South  Kensington  Museum.) 

about  the  time  of  Shah  Abbas,  and  lasted  from  about  1550 
to  1650, — the  culminating  period  of  Oriental  art.^  Sinco 
then  there  has  been  a  distinct  degradation  of  style,  though 
in  many  cases  older  patterns  have  been  worked  from  and 
very  perfect  work  produced.  At  the  present  day  the  influ- 
ence of  European  ta?te  is  rapidly  destroying  this  survival 
of  the  best  class  of  design,  and  especially  is  introducing 
the  most  harsh  and  discordant  colouring  in  place  of  the 
glorious  rich  hues  of  the  earlier  Oriental  weavers. 

Though  no  existing  specimens  can  be  pointed  out,  it 
appears  probable  that  the  "  tapisserie  Saracenois  ''  of  Louis 
IX.'s  edicts  (1226-1270)  refers  to  pite  earpets  made  by 
French  weavers  after  the  Oiiental  fashion.^  The  same 
edicts  for  the  regulation  of  the  textile  industry  mention 
two  other  classes  of  manufacture,  "  tapisserie  <i  la  hauto 
lisse,"  I.e.,  what  we  call  tapestry,  and  "  tapisserie  nostrez," 
"  native  stuff,"  probably  resembling  the  coarse  but  effective 
patterned  fabrics  for  aprons  and  dresses  which  are  still 
woven  by  the  peasantry  near  Rome,  in  the  Abruza  moun- 
tains, and  elsewhere  in  Italy,  and  in  Scandinavia. 

Tapestry. 

The  making  of  tapestrj-  (Gk.  raTnj?),  like  the  weaving  Tapestr 
of  pile  carpets,  differs  froiv   ordinary  fabric  in  that  no 
visible  weft  is  thi  .wn  completely  acro-ss  the  loom,  but '  the 


^  A  valuable  help  tow.irds  est.iblishing  the  dates  of  carpet  patterns 
given  by  many  medieval  Italiau  pioture-s,  in  which  Oriental  carpets 
Pre  often  represented  with  wonderful  minuteness  an.l  appreciation, 
'  Tapisserie  in  French  means  ell  sorts  of  patt'^med  stuffs. 


212 


TEXTILES 


design  is  formed  by  short  stitches  knotted  acrosa  the  warp 
with  a  wooden  needle  called  a  broach.  It  is  a  sort  of  link 
between  textile  work  and  embroidery,  from  which  it  differs 
in  having  its  stitches  applied,  not  to  a  finished  web,  but 
to  tlie  stretched  strings  of  a  warp.'  It  is  made  on  a  high 
loom,  and  the  whole  process,  though  requiring  much  skill, 
is  meelianieally  of  the  simplest  kind.  It  is  very  probable 
that  many  of  the  woven  hangings  used  in  ancient  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  other  countries  were  true  tapestry  ;  but  little 
is  known  on  this  point.  Till  after  the  12th  century,  in 
northern  Europe,  embroidery  seems  to  Lave  served  the 
place  of  tapestry,  as,  for  example,  in  the  wrongly  named 
Bayeux  tapestry  (see  vol.  viii.  p.  162) ;  while  in  the  south 
of  Europe  and  in  Oriental  countries  its  place  was  supplied 
by  the  rich  silken  textiles  and  pile  carpets  mentioned  above. 
rJcmUh.  In  the  l4th  century  tapestry  began  to  be  largely  made, 
especially  in  Flanders,  where  the  craft  of  weaving  became 
very  important  at  an  early  time.  The  designs  on  the  very 
few  existing  samples  of  1 4th-century  tapestry  closely  resem- 
ble those  of  contemporary  wall  painting.  A  characteristic 
early  specimen  in  the  Louvre  has  rows  of  medallions,  each 
containing  a  scene  from  the  life  of  St  Martin,  with  two  or 
three  figures  treated  in  a  very  simply  decorative  way.  The 
spaces  between  the  circles  are  filled  up  with  a  stifif  geo- 
metrical ornament.  To  the  end  of  the  14th  century  be- 
Ipngs  the  magnificent  tapestry  in  Angers  cathedral,  on 
which  are  represented  scenes  from  the  Apocalypse  ;  these 
were  made  at  Arras,  the  chief  seat  of  the  tapestry  manu- 
facture, both  for  quantity  and  quality.  Hence  the  name 
arras  (Italian  arazzi)  came  to  mean  any  sort  of  tapestry, 
wherever  it  was  made.  Another  magnificent  scries  of 
arras  work  is  preserved  in  Rheims  cathedral,  with  designs 
from  the  history  of  Clovis ;  these  date  from  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century.  In  the  14  th  century  Flanders  produced 
enormous  quantities  of  woven  stuffs.  At  that  time  twenty- 
seven  streets  were  occupied  by  the  weavers  of  Ghent;  in 
1 382  there  were  50,000  weavers  in  Louvain  ;  and  at  Ypres 
there  is  said  to  have  been  a  still  larger  number.  From 
about  1450  to  1500  was  the  golden  age  for  tapestry, 
especially  in  Bruges  and  Arras,  where  large  quantities  of 
the  most  magnificent  historical  pieces  were  woven  from 
designs  supplied  by  painters  of  the  Van  Eyck  school.  The 
Flemish  tapestries  of  that  time  are  perfect  models  of  textile 
art,  rich  in  colour,  strong  in  decorative  effect,  graceful  in 
drawing  and  composition,  and  arranged  with  consummate 
skill  to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the  loom  and  the  aesthetic 
requirements  of  wall  decoration.  A  very  beautiful  example 
of  this  class  exists  at  Hampton  Court,  hung  in  the  dark 
under  the  gallery  in  the  great  hall, — a  striking  contrast  to 
the  clever  but  artistically  degraded  tapestries  of  half  a 
century  later,  which  hang  round  the  main  walls  of  the 
hall.  Other  fine  examples  exist  in  the  Cluny,  Bern,  and 
other  museums,  and  especially  in  Madrid^- — in  the  royal 
collection  and  in  that  of  the  duke  of  Alva — and  elsewhere 
in  Spain.  Though  very  rich  and  varied  in  effect,  the 
tapestry  of  the  best  period  usually  is  woven  with  not  more 
than  twenty  different  tints  of  wool, — half  tints  and  grada- 
tions being  got  by  hatching  one  colour  into  another.  In 
the  ICth  century  about  sixty  colours  were  principally  em- 
ployed in  the  still  fine  but  rapidly  deteriorating  tapestry 

•  In  tapestry  tho  weft  stitches  are  put  in  loosely  ami  carefully 
pressed  home,  so  that  the  warp  strings  are  completely  hidden. 

■  '  See  Riario,  Taiicstrij  of  the  Palace,  ill  Madrid,  London,  1S75  ;  of 
nll^countries  Spain  is  the  richest  in  tapestry  of  tho  IStli  and  IGth 
ccuturie.s.  Tim  royal  collection  contains  2000  largo  pieces.  Rich 
stores  also  belong  to  the  principal  cathedrals,  snch  as  Toledo,  which 
on  the  feast  of  Corpns  Christi  is  completely  Iiung  round  with  tapestry 
uutside  as  well  as  inside.  In  the  17th  century  tapestry  looms  were 
worked  in  Spain  under  royal  patronage.  One  of  Velazquez's  linest 
pictures  iu  llie  Madrid  Cailery  (Las  Hilanderas)  represents  tho  visit 
of  some  court  hulie:.  to  a  tapestry  f.tbi  ifjue,  iu  which  women  are  work- 
ing the  looms. 


of  that  period  ;  and  ia  the  laborious  but  artistically  worth- 
less productions  of  the  Gobelin  factory  more  than  14,000 
differently  tinted  wools  are  now  used. 

In  the  16th  century  the  art  began  to  decline ;  very  slight 
symptoms  of  decadence  are  visible  in  the  beautiful  tapestries 
with  Petrarch's  yj-iMm/j/is  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum, 
— most  gorgeous  pieces  of  textile  art,  of  the  richest  decora- 
tive effect.  .  These  were  worked  very  soon  after  1500  (see 
fig.  10).     The  influence  of  Piaphael  and  his  school  succeeded 


i  n^mujmwww 


Fio.  10. — Figure  of  Lucretia  from  the  Triumpli  of  Chastity,  woveu 
at  Brussels  about  1507.  Her  dress  is  an  Italian  velvet,  similar 
in  stylo  to  that  shown  in  fig.  6. 

that  of  the  15th-century  Flemish  painters,  and  was  utterly 
destructive  of  true  art  value  in  tapestry.  Raphael's  car- 
toons, fine  as  they  are  in  composition,  are  designed  without 
the  least  reference  to  textile  requirements,  and  are  merely 
large  pictures,  which  the  weavers  had  to  copy  as  best  they 
might.  This  new  style,  which  reduced  the  art  to  a  feeble 
copy  ism  of  painting,  gave  the  death-blow  to  the  produc- 
tion of  really  fine  tapestry.  Brussels  became  the  chief 
])lace  for  the  manufacture  after  the  taking  of  Arras  by 
Louis  XI.  in  1477,  and  its  weavers  with  wonderful  skill 
imitated  any  sort  of  painting  that  was  put  before  them. 
Cartoons  were  drawn  by  several  of  Raphael's  pupils,  such 
as  Giulio  Romano  and  Giovanni  da  Udine,  and  by  Mabuse, 
Michicl  Coxcie,  Bernard  van  Orley,  and  other  Italianized 
Flemish  ])ainters. 

In  1539  Francis  I.  founded  a  factory  for  tapestry  at  Frt:;cli. 
Fontainebleau,  and  soon  after  other  higTi  looms  were  set  up 
in  Paris,  examples  from  which  still  exist  and  show  a  rapid 
degradation  of  style.  In  1603  a  new  factory  was  started 
in  Paris  under  royal  patronage,  in  the  workshop  of  a  family 
of  dyers  named  Gobelin,  after  whom  the  new  factory  was 
named  (see  Gobelin).  The  Gobelin  looms  were  first 
worked  by  weavers  from  Flanders,  who  soon  taught  the 


T  E  Z  — T  E  Z 


213 


mysteries  of  the  craft  to  a  number  of  French  workmen. 
Cartoons  wers  supplied  by  Simon  Vouet  and  other  distin- 
guished French  painters.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  a 
Teat  impulse  was  given  to  the  factory,  and  from  1667  the 
whole  establishment  became  the  property  of  the  crown. 
IXHiis  XrV.'s  minister,  Colbert,  did  much  to  encourage 
this  and  other  industries.  Charles  Le  Briin  the  painter 
was  made  director  of  the  works,  and  a  number  of  artists 
prepared  the  cartoons  under  his  supervision.  In  the  18th 
century  Coypel,  Jouvenet,  Boucher,  Watteau,  and  many 
other  popular  painters  made  designs,  often  of  great  size 
and  elaboration,  for  the  Gobelin  looms,  but  all  in  the  very 
worst  possible  taste ;  these  include  large  series  of  sacred, 
mythological, -and  historical  subjects,  landscapes,  sea-pieces, 
and  even  portraits, — the  last  being  perhaps  the  most  rid'cu- 
lous  misuse  of  the  textile  art  that  could  possibly  be  in- 
vented. Other  tapestry  looms  were  worked  in  the  18th 
century  at  Aubusson,  Felletin,  and  other  places  in  France. 
Eaglisb.  High-warp  looms  appear  to  have  been  worked  in  England 
in  the  15th  century,  though  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
rich  stores  of  tapestry  in  this  country  came  from  Flanders. 
One  very  beautiful  example  of  English  work  of  this  time 
exists  in  St  Mary's  Hall  at  Coventry ;  it  represents  the 
marriage  of  Henry  VL  Part  of  another  series  with  the~ 
marriage  of  Henry  VII.  is  preserved  in  a  house  in  Cornwall. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  and  the  first  half  of  the  16th 
century  enormous  sums  were  spent  by  the  rich  in  England 
on  Flemish  tapestry.  Cardinal  Wolsey's  private  accounts 
and  inventories,  which  still  exist,'  give  an  astonishing 
picture  of  the  wealth  which  he  lavished  on  the  adornment 
of  his  palace  at  Hampton  Court.  In  1522  he  bought  132 
large  pieces  of  Brussels  tapestry,  woven  with  Scriptural 
subjects,  and  mostly  made  to  order,  so  as  to  fit  exactly  the  ^ 
various  wall  spaces.  He  also  bought  large  quantities  of 
costly  Oriental  carpets.  In  the  inventories  are  enumerated 
"foot  carpets,"  " table- carpets,"  and  "window  carpets," 
"hanging  peces,"  "borders  with  arms,"  and  "window 
peces,"  the  last  being  strips  of  tapestry  woven  in  narrow 
lengths  to  fit  the  sills  and  jambs  of  windows.  Among  the 
"wall  peces,"  in  addition  to  the  numerous  sacred  subjects, 
are  mentioned  mythological  scenes,  romances,  historical 
pieces,  and  "  hangings  of  verdures,"  the  last  being  decor- 
ative work  in  which  trees  and  foliage  formed  the  main 
design,  with  accessory  figures  of  hunting,  hawking,  and 
the  like.  The  catalogue  of  Wolsey's  linen  napery  is  no 
less  sumptuous  and  abundant ;  he  possessed  an  immense 
quantity  of  finest  linen  for  sheets  and  "b(!iard- cloths" 
(table-cloths),  mostly  patterned  with  "damaske  diaper"  or 
"paned  losinge-wise."  This  example  of  the  wealth  of 
textile  work  possessed  by  one  rich  prelate  will  give  some 
notion  of  what  England  and  other  countries  possessed  in 
the  16th  century. 

In  the  reign  of  James  I.  tapestry  looms  were  set  up' at 
Mortlake,  and  the  industry  was  carried  on  during  the  fol- 
lowing reign  under  the  direction  of  the  painter  Francis 
Crane.  Charles  L  introduced  skilled  weavers  from  Oudeu- 
arde  in  Belgium,  and  the  whole  existing  series  of  cartoons 
by  Raphael  were  copied  on  the  Mortlake  looms.'  Most 
of  the  Mortlake  tapestry  has  distinct  marks,  such  as  the 
shield  of  St  George  with  F.  C.  (F.  Crane).  Some  pieces 
are  inscribed  "  Car.  Re.  Reg.  Mortl."  (Carolus  rex  regnans). 
Though  closed  during  the  Commonwealth,  the  Mortlake 
fabrique  was  again  worked  after  the  Restoration  until  the 
death  of  Crane  in  1703.  In  the  18th  century  tapestry 
■was  woven  on  a  small  scale  in  Soho  ana  at  Fulham,  and 
w'thin  recent  years  a  new  royal  fabrique  has  been  estab- 
Tished  at  Windsor,  where  very  costly  and  skilful  weaving 
11  the  pictorial   Gobelin   style  is  carried   0£.     The  only 

'"      '  See  Law,  Hampton  Court  Palace,  London,  1885. 
'  See  R.^UAEL,  vol.  xx.  p.  280. 


modern  tapestry  which  has  any  of  the  merits  of  the  best 
old  productions  is  that  made  on  a  small  scale  by  Mr  William 
Morris  at  Merton  Abbey  (Surrey)-,  where  work  of  the  high- 
est beauty  hao  been  produced.  Unfortunately,  however, 
the  modern  taste  for  feeble  imitations  of  oil  paintings  has 
as  yet  shown  little  appreciation  of  this  revival  of  the  true 
textile  art. 

As  in  England,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  tapestry  ItahsiN 
used  in  Italy  was  a  Flemish  import.  But  in  the  16tU 
century,  under  the  patronage  of  the  dukes  of  Ferrara, 
tapestry  looms  were  set  up  in  Ferrara ;  these  were,  how- 
ever,  worked  by  Flemish  weavers,  and  closely  resemble 
contemporary  tapestry  woven  at  Brussels.  Other  fabriques 
were  established  in  Florence  by  the  Medici  princes,  and 
continued  to  be  worked  till  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 
Factories  for  tapestry  existed  also  at  Venice,  Turin,  and 
other  northern  cities,  but  the  industry  was  purely  an  exotic, 
and  never  attained  to  any  great  importance.  Since  the 
pontificate  of  Clement  XI.,  in  1702,'  a  papal  factory  for 
tapestry  has  existed  in  Rome,  and  is  still  carried  on  In  the 
Vatican.  The  papal  looms  have  produced  a  large  number 
of  most  costly  and  elaborate  copies  of  celebrated  paintings, 
executed  with  wonderful  skill,  but  utterly  worthless  as 
works  of  art. 

The  South  Kensington  Museum  possesses  the  best  and  most  Collet 
illustrative  collection  of  woven  fabrics  of  various  dates.  Tlic  church  tions. 
of  St  Mary  at  Dantzic  has  a  magnificent  collection  of  early  textiles, 
mostly  used  for  vestments  ;  these  are  well  illustrated  by  Hinz,  Die 
Schatzkammer  dcr  Mancn-Kirche  zu  Dantzifj,  1S70.  Fine  examples 
of  early  tapestry  exist  in  the  cathedrals  of  Rheims,  Bruges,  Tournay, 
Angers,  Bcauvais,  Aix,  Sens,  and  in  the  church  of  St  Heniy  at 
Rheiras.  Other  fine  collections  are  preserved  in  the  Louvre,  the 
Cluny  Museum,  at  Chartres,  Amiens,  Dijon,  Orleans,  AuxeiTC, 
Nancy,  Bern,  Brussels,  Munich,  Berlin,  Dresden,  Vienna,  and 
Nuremberg.*  In  Italy  the  richest  collections  (mostly  of  later 
""Cipestry)  are  those  of  the  Vatican,  the  Pitti,  the  Bargcllo,  Palazzo 
del  Te  at  Mantua,  Turin  (royal  palace),  Milun  (royal  palace),  Coiiio 
(cathedral),  and  the  museum  of  Na})los.  The  Spanish  collections 
have  been  already  mentioned.  In  England,  besides  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  fine  tapestries  exist  in  the  palaces  of  Windsor 
and  Hampton  Court-  Those  formerly  in  the  House  of  Lords  were 
destruved  in  the  fire  of  1834.  St  Mary's  Hall  at  Coventry  contains 
the  finest  examples  of  the  IStli  century. 

Li(*rnriirr.— By  far  the  best  work  for  its  well-chosen  c»>lour«d  illustrattona  w 
thatof  FischlQCh.  Textile  Fabrics,  Englished-.  1S83  ;  seealsoDupont-Auberville. 
Lorticvienl  dts  tissus,  Paris,  1875-77;  Michel.  Rechtrctus  sur  la  /abricatton  det 
etofes,  Pan^.  IS5'2(a  very  valuable  work);  Jiibinal.  Ancienncs  tapisserus.  Pans. 
1858-59  ;  Dc  Ronchaud,  Upeptos  d' Athene.  Pans.  1872  ;  Id.,  Let  tapissene.  Pans 
1885;  Munrz,  La  tapissene  driTis  I'unttrjuitr,  Pans,  lt)7S  ;  Lessing,  Modeler  lie 
tapis  Onentaus,  Pans,  1879;  Id..  Ancient  Oriental  Carpels,  Londnji.  1879.  Vin 
rent  Robinson.  OnenUit  Carpets.  London.  ISS'i  (tlie  illustrations  are  better  llian 
the  t«xt);  Lady  Alfonl,  Seedtework  as  Art,  Ijondon.  1886  (deals  p.nrtly  will, 
textiles).  Though  few  works  treat  of  the  genera!  history  of  textiles,  a  very 
large  number  exist  about  tapestry  weaving.  The  chief  are — Dcpping,  Re^te- 
nents  sur  tes  arts  .  .  .  au  XllI"*  Si'Cle,  Pans.  1837  ;  De  Montault.  Japissent 
dc  la  calfi.  cT Angers,  Pans.  IfUS  ;  De  Farcy  on  the  same  subject,  1875  ;  Darraud, 
Tap.  de  la  cath.  dc  Beauvais,  Beauvais,  1853:  nock.  Testde  Fabrics,  S.A'.A/., 
London,  1870;  Bock,  Cat.  des  ttssus,  &c..  an  ^Jt^see  German.,  Nuremberg,  1869; 
Kinkel,  Rof/ier  van  der  Wevden  .  et  tes  tnpissenes  de  Berne,  Zurich,  1867, 
Givelet,  Toiles  brodecs  de  Reims,  Rheiins,  1883  ;  Louis  Pans.  Tap.  de  la  nlle  de 
Reims,  Rheims,  1843;  Lonqiiet,  Tap.  de  Notre  Dame  de  Reims,  Rheims.  1876; 
Pinchart.  Tap.  dans  les  Fnu^-Das.  and  o'her  works.  Brussels.  1859-64  ;  Dehaisnes, 
Tap.  d' Arras  aixint  le  XV'^  sifcle,  Pnns,  1879 ;  Proyart,  Rertierches  snr  Us  tap, 
d' Arras,  Arras,  1863  ;  Voisin,  Tap.  dt  la  atlh.  de  Tournay,  Toumay,  1863  ;  Van 
Dnval.  Tap.  d' Arras,  Arras.  1864  ;  Corse.  Tap.  du  eh/Ueau  de  Pan,  Pans.  1881  : 
De  la  Fons-Melicoq,  Hanthssenrs  den  Xli'mt  an  XVI^n^  sieeles.PaTiH,  i^lO:  Sai*. 
terre.  Tap.  de  lieauvaU,  Clermont.  1842  ;  Deville,  Slatnts,  4c,  reUiti/s  a  la  Corp. 
des  tap.  de  1253  a  1-275.  Pans.  1875;  Darccl.  Cae.  rf.  i>.-<irfs.  riv.  pp.  185.  -273.  and 
414  ;  Van  de  Graft.  De  Tapijt- Fabrteken  de  Xl'l.  en  Xi'll.  Eeuic,  Middelburg, 
1869.  On  Italian  tapestry,  see  De  Montault.  Tap.  de  liaute  hsse  a  Rome,  Arras. 
1879  ;  Conti.  L'artc  dcgli  arazn  in  Firenze,  Florence.  1875  ;  Campori.  Larazzma 
Estcnse,  Modena.  1876  .  Braghirolli.  Arazzi  in  Mantovn,  Mantua.  1S79 ;  FaraUi- 
lini.  Vane  deijli  arnzzi,  Rome,  1884;  Gcntili,  /.'art  des  tapis,  Rome,  1378;  and 
Miintz.  Tap.  Italiennes.  Pans,  1880.  On  French  and  other  lft.e  tapestry,  see 
Darcel  and  Guichard.  Les  tap.  deeoratives.  Pans.  ISSl  :  Laroplaire.  /fi-«f  de  tap- 
i^vrie.  Pans.  1355;GuiIlaumot.L'Jri'7tne  .  .  .  desCohelm'.  Pans.  ISiiO;  Perathon. 
Tap.  d' Anhn.<:son.  dc  Felletin,  et  de  Bcllegarde,  Pans,  1857  :  Rnv.Pierrefitte,  Ic* 
tap.  de  Felletin,  Limoges.  1855 ;  Duneux,  7np.  de  Cambrai,  Caiiibrai,  1879 ;  About 
and  Bauer.  Tap.  apres  les  cartons  de  Raphael.  Pans.  1S75 ;  Hoiidoy.  Tap.  de  la 
/iiljrieation  l.iltoise,  Lille,  1871  ;  Vcrgnaud-Romagnesi.  Tap.  an  iMn.<re  d'Ortrans. 
Orleans.  1859 :  De  St  Genois,  Tap.  d'Oiidenarde.  Pans.  IS64 ;  Talcol.  Fabric- 
des  tisstis,  Paris.  1852;  Guiffrey,  Hist,  de  la  tapissene.  Tours,  1886;  Pine. 
Tapestry  of  the  House  of  Lords.  London,  1739 ;  and  De  Chainpcaux.  Tapestry, 
S.K.M.  handbook,  London,  iS^o;  Ashenhurst,  Treatise  on  t^'eavma,  London, 
1886.  (J.  H.  M.) 

TEZA,  or  TazA.     See  Morocco,  vol.  xvi.  p.  834. 

^ 

-*.  An  earlier  fabrique  was  started  in  1630  by  Urban  VHI.,  but  it 
soon  ceased  to  be  worked. 

*  The  largo  collectioa  in  the  Gobeliu  Museum  was  burnt  in  1871. 


214 


THACKERA   Y 


THACKERAY,  William  Makepeace  (1811-1863),  one 
of  the  greatest  of  English  authors  and  novelists,  son  of  Rioh- 
mon  J  Thackeray  (Mrs  Richmond  Thackeray  was  born  Miss 
Becher),  and  grandson  of  W.  R.  Thackeray  of  Hadley,  Mid- 
dlesex, was  born  at  Calcutta  on  July  18,  1811  Both  his 
lather  and  giandfather  had  been  Indian  civil  servants  His 
mother,  who  was  only  nineteen  at  the  date  of  his  birth,  was 
lefta  widow  in  1816,  and  afterwards  married  Major  Henry 
Carmichael  Smyth  Thackeray  himself  was  sent  home  to 
England  from  India  as  a  child,  and  went  to  Charterhouse, 
sinoe.  his  time  removed  to  Godalming  from  its  ancient 
site  near  Smithfield.  Anthony  TroUope,  in  his  book  on 
Thackeray  in  the  English  Men  of  Letters  series,  quotes  a 
letter  written  to  him  about  Thackeray's  school-days  by 
Mr  G.  S.  Venables.  "  He  came  to  school  young,"  Mr 
Venables  wrote,  "a  pretty,  gentle,  and  rather  timid  boy." 
This  accords  with  the  fact  that  all  through  Thackeray's 
writings  the  student  may  find  traces  of  the  sensitiveness 
which  often  belongs  to  the  creative  mind,  and  which,  in 
the  boy  who  does  not  understand  its  meaning  and  its 
possible  power  is  apt  to  assume  the  guise  of  a  shy  dispo- 
sition. To  this  very  matter  Mr  Venables  tersely  refers  in 
a  later  passage  of  the  letter  quoted  by  TroUope  :  "  When 
I  knew  him  better,  in  later  years,  I  thought  I  could 
recognize  the  sensitive  nature  which  he  had  as  a  boy." 
Another  iUustraticn  is  found  in  the  statement,  which  will 
be  recognized  as  exact  by  all  readers  of  Thackeray,  that 
"  his  change  of  retrospective  feeling  about  his  school-days 
was  very  characteristic.  In  his  earlier  books  he  always 
spoke  of  the  Charterhouse  as  Slaughter  House  and  Smith- 
field.  As  he  became  famous  and  prosperous  his  memory 
softened,  and  Slaughter  House  was  changed  into  Grey 
Friars,  where  Colonel  Newcome  ended- his  life."  Even  in 
the  earlier  references  the  bitterness  which  has  often  been 
so  falsely  read  into  Thackeray  is  not  to  be  found  In  "  Mr 
and  Mrs  Frank  Berry  "  (Men's  Wives)  there  is  a  description 
of  a  Slaughter-House  fight,  following  on  an  incident  almost 
identical  with  that  used  in  Vanity  Fair  for  the  fight  between 
Dobbin  and  Cuff  In  both  cases  the  brutality  of  school 
life,  as  it  then  was,  is  very  fully  recognized  and  described, 
but  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the  chivalry  which  goes  along- 
side with  it.  In  the  first  chapter  of  "  Mr  and  Mrs  Frank 
Berry,  "  Berry  himself  and  Old  Hawkins  both  have  a  touch 
of  the  heroic.  In  the  story  which  forms  part  of  Men's  Wives 
the  bully  whom  Berry  gallantly  challenges  is  beaten,  and  one 
hears  no  more  of  him.  In  Vanity  Fair  Cuff  the  swaggerer 
is  beaten  in  a  similar  way,  but  regains  his  popularity  by  one 
well-timed  stroke  c:  magnanimity,  and  afterwards  shows 
the  truest  kindness  to  his  conqueror. 

In  February  1829  Thackeray  went  to  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  in  that  year  contributed  some  engaging 
lines  on  Timbnctoo,  the  subject  for  the  prize  poem,  to  a 
little  university  paper  called  The  Snob,  the  title  of  which  he 
afterwards  utilized  in  the  famous  Snob  Papers  The  first 
stanza  has  become  tolerably  well  known,  but  is  worth  quot- 
ing as  an  early  instance  of  the  direct  comic  force  afterwards 
employed  by  the  author  in  verse  and  prose  burlesques  : — 

In  Africa — a  quarter  of  the  world — 
Men's  skins  are  black  ;  their  hair  is  crisp  and  curled ; 
And  somewhere  there,  unknown  to  public  view, 
A  mighty  city  lies;  called  Timbuctoo. 

One  other  passage  at  least  in  T/i€  S7iob,  in  the  form  of 
a  skit  on  a  paragraph  of  fashionable  intelligence,  seems  to 
bear  traces  of  Thackeray's  handiwork.  At  Cambridge 
James  Spedding,  Monckton  Milnes  (Lord  Houghton^, 
Edward  Fitzgerald,  W.  H.  Thompson  (afterwards  master 
of  Trinity),  and  other  distinguished  persons  were  among 
his  friends.  .  In  1830  he  left  Cambridge  without  taking 
a  degree,  and  went  to  Weimar  and  to  Paris.  His  visit 
to  Weimar  bore  fruit  in  the  sketches  of  life  at  a  small 


German  court  which  appear  in  Fiiz-Boodle'n  Confessions  ana 
in  Vanity  Fair.  In  1832  he  came  of  age.  and  inherited 
a  sum  which  TroUope's  book  describes  as  amounting  «o 
about  five  hundred  a  year.  The  money  was  soon  lost, — 
some  in  an  Indian  bank,  some  in  two  newspapers  which  in 
Lovel  the  Widower  are  referred  to  under  one  name  as  The 
Museum,  m  connexion  with  which  our  friends  Honeyman 
and  Sherrick  of  The  Newcomes  are  briefly  brought  m  His 
first  regular  literary  employment  after  the  loss  of  his 
patrimony  was  on  Frater's  Magazine,  in  which  in  1837-38 
appeared  The  History  of  Mr  Samuel  Titmarsh  and  the  Great 
Hoggarty  Diamond,  a  work  filled  with  instances  of  the 
wit,  humour,  satire,  pathos,  which  found  a  more  ordered 
if  not  a  fresher  expression  in  his  later  and  longer  works. 
For  freshness,  indeed,  and  for  a  fine  perception  which 
enables  the  author  to  perform  among  other  feats  that  of 
keeping  up  throughout  the  story  the  curious  simplicity 
of  its  supposed  narrator's  character,  the  Great  Hoggarty 
Diamond  can  scarce  be  surpassed.  The  characters,  from 
Lady  Drum,  Lady  Fanny,  Lady  Jane,  and  Edmund 
Preston  down  to  Biough,  his  daughter,  Mrs  Roundhand, 
Gus  Hoskins,  and,  by  no  means  least,  Samuel  Titmarsh's 
pious  aunt  with  her  store  of  "  Rosolio,  "  are  living  ;  the 
book  IS  crammed  with  honest  fun  ;  and,  for  pure  pathos, 
the  death  of  the  child,  and  the  meeting  of  the  husband 
and  wife  over  the  empty  cradle  (a  scene  illustrated  by  the 
author  himself  with  that  suggestion  of  truth  which  no 
-shortcoming  in  drawing  could  spoil),  stands,  if  not  alone 
in  its  own  line,  at  least  in  the  company  of  very  few  such 
scenes  in  English  fiction.  The  Great  Hoggarty  Diamond, 
oddly  enough,  met  with  the  fate  that  afterwards  befell 
one  of  Lever's  best  stories  which  appeared  in  a  periodical 
week  by  week, — it  had  to  be  cut  short  at  the  bidding 
of  the  editor  In  the  same  year  in  which  it  appear'''! 
Thackeray  married  Isabella,  daughter  of  Colonel  Matthew 
Shawe.  Of  the  daughters  born  of  the  marriage,  one,  Mrs 
Richmond  Ritchie,  has  earned  distinction  as  a  novelist. 
Mrs  Thackeray,  to  quote  TroUope,  "became  ill  and  her 
mind  failed  her,"  and  Thackeray  thereupon  "became  as  it 
were  a  widower  till  the  end  of  his  days."  In  1840  came 
out  The  Pans  Sketch  Book.  Much  of  it  had  been  written 
and  published  at  an  earlier  date,  and  in  the  earlier 
writings  there  are  some  very  curious  divagations  in 
criticism.  The  book  contains  also  a  striking  story  of 
card-sharping,  afterwards  worked  up  and  put  into  Alta- 
mout's  mouth  in  Pendennis,  and  a  very  powerful  sketch  of 
a  gambler's  death  and  obsequies  Three  years  before,  in 
1837,  Thackeray  had  begun,  in  Fraser,  the  Yettowpltish 
Papers,  with  their  strange  touches  of  humour,  satire, 
tragedy  (in  one  scene,  the  closing  one  of  the  history  of  Mr 
Deuceace),  and  their  sublimation  of  fantastic  had  spelling 
(M'Arony  for  macaroni  is  one  of  the  typical  touches  of 
Uiis)  ;  and  this  was  followed  by  Catherine,  a  strong  story, 
and  too  disagreeable  perhaps  for  its  -purpose,  founded 
closely  on  the  actua-l  career  of  a  criminal  named  Catherine 
Hayes,  and  intended  to  counteract  the  then  growing  prac- 
tice of  making  ruflaans  and  harlots  prominent  characters 
in  fiction.  There  soon  followed  Filz-Boodle's  CotifessiOTU 
and  Professions,  including  the  series  Men's  Wives,  already 
referred  to  ,  and,  slightly  before  these.  The  Shdbby  Genteel 
Story,  a  work  interrupted  by  Thackeray's  domestic  afiliction 
and  afterwards  republished  as  an  introduction  to  The  Ad- 
ventures of  Philip,  which  took  up  the  course  of  the  original 
story  many  years  after  the  supposed  date  of  its  catastrophe. 
In  1843,  and  for  some  ten  years  onwards  according  to 
Trollope,  Thackeray  was  writing  for  Punch,  and  the  list  of 
his  contributions  included  among  many  others  the  cele- 
brated Snob  Pxtpers  and  the  Ballads  of  Policeman  X.  In 
1843  also  came  out  the  Irish  Sketch  Book,  and  in  1844 
the  account  of  the  journey  From  Comhill  to  Grand  Cairo^ 


THACKERAY 


21; 


in  which  was  published  the  excellent  poem  of  The  White 
Squall.  In  IS44  there  began  in  Fraser  the  Memoirs  of 
Barry  Lyndon,  called  in  the  magazine  The  Liiek  of  Barry 
Lyndon,  a  Romance  of  the  Last  Century  Barry  Lyndon 
has,  with  a  »ery  great  difference  in  treatment,  some 
resemblance  to  Smollett's  Covnt  Fathom  , — the  hero,  that 
is  to  say,  is  or  becomes  a  most  intolerable  scoundrel,  who 
Li  magnificently  onconscious  of  his  own  iniquity.  The  age 
and  pressure  of  the  time  depicted  are  caught  with  amazing 
verisimilitude,  and  in  the  boyish  career  of  Barry  Lyndon 
•here  are  fine  touches  of  a  wild  chivalry,  simplicity,  and 
generosity,  which  mingle  naturally  with  the  worse  qualities 
that,  under  the  influence  of  abominable  training,  afterwards 
corrupt  his  whole  mind  and  career.  The  man  is  so  in- 
fatuated with  and  so  blind  to  his  own  roguery,  he  has  so 
mach  dash  and  daring,  and  is  on  occasions  so  infamously 
treated,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  look  upon  him  as  an  entirely 
detestable  villain  until,  towards  the  end  of  his  course,  he 
becomes  wholly  lost  in  brutish  debauchery  and  cruelty. 
His  latter  career  i.s  founded  on  that  of  Andrew  Robinson 
Stoney  Bowes,  who  married  the  widow  of  John,  ninth 
earl  of  Strathmore.  There  is  also  no  doubt  a  touch  of 
Casanova  in  Barry  Lyndon's  character  Besides  the  con- 
tributions to  Funeh  specially  referred  to,  there  should  be 
noticed  Punch's  Pri^e  Xovelists,  containing  some  brilliant 
parodies  of  Edward  Lytton  Bolwer,  Lever,  Mr  D'lsraeli 
(in  Codlingsby,  perhaps  the  most  perfect  of  the  series), 
and  others.  Among  minor  but  admirable  works  of  the 
same  period  are  found  A  Legend  of  the  Rhine  (a  burlesque 
of  the  great  Dumas's  Olhon  F Archer),  brought  out  in  a 
periodical  of  (Jcorge  Cruikshank's,  Cox's  Diary  (on  which 
has  been  founded  a  well-known  Dutch  comedy,  Janus 
Tulp),  and  the  Fatal  Boots  This  is  the  most  fitting  moment 
for  mentioning  also  Rebecca  awl  Rowena,  which  towers,  not 
only  over  Thackeray's  other  burlesques,  excellent  as  they 
are,  but  over  every  other  burlesque  of  the  kind  ever  written. 
Its  taste,  its  wit,  its  pathos,  its  humour,  are  unmatchable; 
and  it  contains  some  of  th«  best  songs  of  a  particular  kind 
ever  written — songs  worthy  indeed  to  rank  with  Peacock's 
best  In  1846  was  published,  by  Messrs  Bradbury  and 
Evans,  the  first  of  twenty-four  numbers  of  Vanity  Fair,  the 
work  which  first  placed  Thackeray  in  his  proper  position 
before  the  public  as  a  novelist  and  writer  of  the  first  rank. 
It  wascomplet?d  in  1848,  when  Thackeray  was  thirty-seven 
years  old  ;  and  in  the  same  year  Abraham  Hayward  paid 
a  tribute  to  the  author's  powers  in  the  Edinburgh  Review. 
It  is  probable  that  on  Vanity  Fair  has  been  largely  based 
the  foolish  cry,  now  heard  le^  and  less  frequently,  about 
Thackeray's  cynicism,  a  cry  which  he  himself,  with  his  keen 
knowledge  of  men,  foresaw  and  provided  against,  amply 
enough  as  one  might  have  thought,  at  the  end  of  the  eighth 
chapter,  in  a  passage  which  is  perhaps  the  best  commentary 
ever  written  on  the  author's  method.  He  has  explained 
bow  he  wishes  to  descri'oe  men  and  women  as  they  actually 
..re,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent,  and  to  claim  a  privilege — 

"Occasion^-.Uy  to  step  down  from  the  platfonn(  and  talk  about 
them  :  if  they  are  good  and  kindly,  to  lovo  ajid  shake  them  by  the 
haoJ;  if  they  are  silly,  to  laagh  at  then  oonfidentiairy  in  the 
reader's  sleeve ;  if  they  are  wicked  and  heartless,  to  abuse  them  in 
the  stron;^  terms  politeness  admits  of.  Otherwise  you  might 
fancy  it  was  1  who  was  sneering  at  the  practice  of  devoticn.  which 
■  Miss  Sharp  finds  so  ridiculous;  that  it  was  I  who  laughed  good- 
humouredly  at  the  railing  old  Silenos  of  a  baronet — whereas  the 
laoghter  comes  from  one  who  has  nopevcreDce  except  for  prosperity, 
and  no  eye  for  anything  bryond  sneoess.  Such  people  there  are 
living  and  flourishing  in  tlje  world — faithless.  Hopeless,  Charity- 
less;  let  us  have  at  them,  dear  friends,  with  might  and  main. 
Some  there  are,  and  very  'successful  too,  mere  quacks  and  fools : 
and  it  was  to  combat  and  expose  sn<-h  as  those,  no  doubt,  that 
laughter  was  made." 

As  to  another  accusation  which  was  brought  against  the 
book  when  it  first  came  out,  that  the  colours  were  laid  on 


too  thick,  in  the  sense  that  the  villains  were  too  villainous, 
the  good  people  too  goody-gooily,  the  best  and  completest 
answer  to  that  can  be  found  by  any  one  who  chooses  to 
read  the  work  with  care.  Osborne  is,  and  is  meant  to  be, 
a  poor  enough  creature,  but  he  is  an  eminently  human 
beins,  and  one  whose  poorness  of  character  is  develO()ed  as 
he  allows  bad  influences  to  tell  upon  his  vanity  and  folly. 
The  good  in  him  is  fully  recognized,  and  comes  out  in  thfe 
beautiful  passage  describing  his  farewell  to  .Amelia  on  the 
eve  of  Waterloo,  in  which  passage  may  be  also  found  a 
sufficient  enough  answer  to  the  statement  that  .\melia  is 
absolutely  insipid  and  uninteresting.  So  with  the  com- 
panion picture  of  Rawdon  Crawley's  farewell  to  Becky : 
who  that  reads  it  can  resist  sympathy,  in  spite  of  Rawdon's 
vices  and  shady  shifts  for  a  living,  with  his  simple  bra%'er}- 
and  devotion  to  his  wife  t  As  for  Becky,  a  character  that 
has  since  been  imitated  a  host  of  times,  there  is  certainly 
not  much  to  be  said  in  her  defence.  We  know  of  her,  to 
be  sure,  that  she  thought  she  would  have  found  it  easy  to 
be  good  if  she  had  been  rich,  and  we  know  also  what 
happened  when  Rawdon,  released  without  her  knowledge 
from  a  spunging-house,  surprised  her  alone  with  and 
singing  to  Lord  Steyne  in  the  house  in  May  Fair.  After 
a  gross  instilt  from  Steyne,  "  Rawdon  Crawley,  springing 
out,  seized  him  by  the  neckcloth,  until  Steyne,  almost 
strangled,  writhed  and  bent  under  his  arm.  'You  lie, 
you  dog,'  said  Rawdon  ;  '  you  lie,  you  coward  and  villain  ! ' 
And  he  struck  the  peer  twice  over  the  face  with  his  open 
hand,  and  flung  him  bleeding  to  the  ground.  It  was  all 
done  before  Rebecca  could  interpose.  She  stood  there 
trembling  before  him.  She  admired  her  husband,  strong, 
brave,  and  victorious."  This  admiration  is,  as  Thackeray 
himself  thought  it,  the  capital  touch  in  a  scene  which  is 
as  powerful  as  any  Thackeray,  ever  wrote — as  powerful, 
indeed,' as  any  in  English  fiction.  Its  full  merit,  it  may  be 
noted  in  passing,  has  been  curiously  accented  by  an  imita- 
tion of  it  in  M.  Daudet's  Fromont  Jenne  et  Risler  A  inc.  As 
to  the  extent  of  the  miserable  Becky's  guilt  in  the  Steyne 
matter,  on  that  Thackeray  leaves  it  practically  "open  to  the 
reader  to  form  what  conclusion  he  will.  There  is,  it  should 
be  added,  a  distinct  touch  of  good  in  Becky's  conduct  to 
Amelia  at  Osfend  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  book,  and 
those  who  think  that  too  little  punishment  is  meted  out  to 
the  brilliant  adventuress  in  the  end  may  remember  this  to 
her  credit.  It  is  supreme  art  in  the  treatment  of  her  char- 
acter that  makes  the  reader  understand  and  feel  her  attrac- 
tiveness, though  he  knows  her  extraordinarily  evil  qualities; 
and  in  this  no  writer  subsequent  to  Thackeray  who  has 
tried  to  depict  one  of  the  genus  Becky  Sharp  has  even 
faintly  succeeded.  Among  the  minor  characters  there  is  not 
one — and  this  is  not  always  the  case  even  with  Thackeray's 
chief  figures — who  is  incompletely  or  inconsistently  de- 
picted ;  and  no  one  who  wishes  to  fully  understand  and 
appreciate  the  book  ran  afford  to  miss  a  word  of  it. 

Vanity  Fair  was  followed  by  Pendennis,  Esmond,  and 
The  Neteiomies,  which  appeared  respectively  in  1850,  1852, 
and  1854.  It  might  be  more  easy  to  pick  holes  critically 
in  Pendennis  than  in  Vanity  Fair.  Pendennis  himself, 
after  his  boyish  passion  and  university  escapades,  has  dis- 
agreeable touches  of  flabbiness  and  worldliness;  and  the 
important  episode  of  his  relations  with  Fanny  Bolton, 
which  Thackeray  could  never  have  treated  otherwise  than 
delicately,  is  eo  lightly  and  tersely  handled  that  it  is-  A 
little  vague  even  to  those  who  read  between  the  lines ; 
the  final  announcement  that  those  relations  have  been 
innocent  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  led  up  to,  and  one  can 
hardly  see  why  it  should  have  been  so  long  delayed.  This 
does  not  of  coarse  affect  the  value  of  the  book  as  a  picture 
of  middle  and  upper  class  life  of  the  time,  the  time  when 
Vauxhall  stilt  existed,  and  the  haant  for  suppers  and  songs 


216 


THACKERAr 


Which  Thackeray  in  this  book  called  the  Back  Kitchsn, 
and  it  is  a  picture  filled  with,  sinking  figures.  In  some 
of  these,  notably  in  that  of  Foker,  Thackeray  went,  it  is 
supposed,  very  close  to  actual  life  for  his  material,  and  in 
that  particular  case  with  a  most  agreeable  result.  As  for 
the  two  umbrx  of  the  marquis  of  Steyne,  it  is  difficult  to 
believe  that  they  were  intended  as  caricatures  from^two 
well-known  persons.  If  they  were,  for  once  Thackeray's 
hand  forgot  its  cunning.  Here,  as  in  Vanity  Fair,  the 
heroism  has  been  found  a  little  insipid;  and  there  may 
be  good  ground  for  finding  Laura  Pendennis  dull,  though 
she  has  a  spirit  of  her  own.  In  later  books  she  becomes, 
what  Thackeray's  people  very  seldom  are,  a  tiresome  as 
well  as  an  uninviting  person.  Costigan  is  unique,  and  so 
is  Major  Pendennis,  a  type  which,  allowing  for  differences 
of  period  and  manners,  will  exist  as  long  as  society  does, 
and  which  has  been  seized  and  depicted  by  Thackeray  as  by 
no  other  novelist.  His  two  encounters,  from  both  of  which 
he  comes  out.  victorious,  one  with  Costigan  in  the  first, 
the  other  with  Morgan  in.  the  second  volume,  are  admirable 
touches  of  genius.  In  opposition  to, the  worldliness  of  the 
major,  with  which  Pendennis  does  not  escape  being  tainted, 
we  have  Warrington,  whose  nobility  of  nature  has  come 
unscathed  through  a  severe  trial,  and  ■who,  a  thorough 
gentleman  if  a  rough  one,  is  really  th3  guardian  of  Pen- 
donnis's  career.  There  is,  it  should  be  noted,  a  character- 
istic and  acknowledged  confusion  in  the  plot  of  Pendennis, 
which  will  not  spoil  any  intelligent  reader's  pleasure. 

Probably  most  readers  of  T/ie  Navcomes  (1854)  fo  whom 
the  book  is  mentioned  think  first  of  the  grand,  chivalrous, 
and  simple  figure  of  Colonel  Newcome,  who  stands  out  in 
the  relief  of  almost  ideal  beauty  of  character  against  the 
crowd  of  mors  or  less  imperfect  and  more  or  less  base 
personages  who  move  through  the  noveL  At  the  same 
time,  to  say,  as  has  been  said,  that  this  book  "  is  full  of 
satire  from  the  "first  to  the  last  page  "  is  to  convey  an 
impression  which  is  by  no  means  just.  There  is  plenty  of 
kindliness  in  the  treatment  of  the  young  men  who,  like 
Clive  Newcome  himself  and  Lord  Kew,  possess  no  very 
shining  virtue  beyond  that  of  being  honourable  gentlemen ; 
in  the  character  of  J.  J.  Ridley  there  is  much  tenderness, 
and  pathos ;  and  no  one  can  help  liking  the  Bohemian  F. 
B.,  and  looking  tolerantly  on  his  failings.  It  maybe  that 
both  the  fiendish  temper  of  Mrs  Mackenzie  and  the  suffer- 
ings she  inflicts  on  the  Colonel  are  too  closely  insisted  on  ; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  heightens  the  singular 
pathos  of  the  closing  scenes  of  the' Colonel's  life.  It  has 
Siemed  convenient  to  take  The  Newcomes  after  Pendennis, 
because  Pendennis  and  his  wife  reappear  in  this  book,  as 
in  the  Adventures  of  Philip;  but  Esmond  (1852)  was 
written  and  published  beforrf  The  Newcomes.  To  some 
students  Esmond  seems  and-AvHl  seem  Thackeray's  capital 
work.  It  has  not  been  rivalled,  and  only  a  fe\v-  times 
approached  by  Mr  Besant,  as  a  romance  reproducing 
with  unfailing  interest  and  accuracy  the  figures,  manners, 
md  phrases  of  a  past  'time,  and  it  js  full  of  beautiful 
touches  of  character.  But  Beatrix,  upon  whom  so  much 
hinges,  is  an  unpleasing  character,  although  one  understands 
fully  why  men  were  captivated  by  her  insolent  beauty  and 
brilliancy  ;  and  there  is  some  truth  in  Thackeray's  own 
saying,  that  "  Esmond  was  a  prig."  Apart  from  this,  the 
story  is,  like  the  illusion  of  a  past  time  in  the  narrative, 
80  complete  in  all  its  details,  so  harmoniously  worked  out, 
that  there  is  little  room  for  criticism.  As  to  Esmond's 
marriage  with  the  lady  whom  he  has  served  and  Joved  as 
a  boy,  that  is  a  matter  for  individual  judgment,  Beatri.x, 
it  has  been  indicated  above,  is  wonderfully  drawn;  and 
not  the  least  wonderful  thing  about  her  is  her  reappearance 
as  the  jaded,  battered,  worldly,  not  altogether  unkindly, 
Baroness  in  The   Virginians.     It  was  just  wtat  Beatrix 


must  have  come  to,  and  the  degradation  is  handled  with 

the  lightest  and  finest  touch. 

In  1851  Thackeray  had  written  The  English  Humouristt 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  delivered  as  a  series  of  lectures 
at  Willis's  Rooms  in  the  same  year,  and  re-delivered  in  the 
United  States  in  1852  and  1853,  as  was  afterwards  the 
series  called  The  Four  Georges.-  Both  sets  were  written  for 
the  purposes  of  lecturing.  In  1857  Thackeray  stood  unsuc- 
cessfully as  a  [larliameDtary  candidate  for  Oxford  against 
Mr  Cardwell,  and  in  the  same  year  appeared  the  first  num- 
ber of  The  Virginians,  a  sequel  to  Esmond.  This  is  a  most 
unequal  work, — inferior,  as  sequels  are  apt  to  be,  to  Esmond 
as  an  historical  romance,  .less  compact  and  coherent, 
prone  to  divagation  and  desultoriness,  yet  cliarming  enough 
in  its  lifelikeness,  in  the  wit  and  wisdom  of  its  reflesion.'s 
and,  as  has  been  said,  in  its  portrait  of  Beatrix  grown  olo". 
The  last  number  of  The  Virginians  came  out  in  1859,  and 
in  the  same  year  Thackeray  undertook  the  editorship  of  the 
Comhill  Magazine.  This  was  a  task  which,  as  readers  of 
his  Roundabout  paper  "  Thorns  in  the  Cushion  "  will  re 
member,  the  kindliness  and  sensitiveness  of  his  disposition 
made  irkiome  to.  him,  and  he  resigned  the  editorship  in 
April  18G2,  though  he  continued  to  write  for  the  magazine 
until  he  died.  In  the  Cwnhill  appeared  from  his  pen  Lovel 
the  Widoiver,  previously  written,  with  different  names  for 
some  of  the  personages,  in  dramatic  form;  The  Adventures 
of  Philip;  the  Roundabout  Papers;  and  the  story,  unhappily 
never  finished,  called  Denis  Duval.  Lovel  the  Widower', 
changed  from  the  dramatic  to  the  narrative  form,  remains 
a  piece  of  high  comedy  in  which  the  characters  are  in(Jicated 
rather  than  fully  worked  out,  with  a  bold  and  practised 
touch.  It  contains  some  references  to  Thackeray's  early 
and  unfortunate  newspaper  speculations,  and  it  was  pro- 
vided by  the  author  with  illu.strations  which  as  in  others 
of  his  books  have  a  value  which  is  entirely  their  own  in 
furnishing,  as  it  were,  a  far  completer  commentary  on  the 
letterpress  than  could  have  been  given  by  any  draughts- 
man, however  perspicacious  and  finished,  who  approached 
the  pictorial  representation  of  the  characters  from  the 
outside.  To  the  general  statement  thus  indicated  an 
e.xception  should  be  made  in  the  case  of  Doyle's  illustra- 
tions to  I'he  Neiveomes  and  to  Rebe'-ea  and  Roivena.  On 
the  other  hand,  not  even  Doyle  could  have  matched  the 
fun  and  spirit  of  Thackeray's  own  illustrations  to  another 
burlesque  story,  one  of  his  best.  The  Rose  and  the  Ring. 
The  Roundabout  Papers,  a  small  storehouse  of  some  of 
Thackeray's  best-qualities  as  an  essayist,  came  out  in  the 
Comhill  Magazine  simultaneously  with  Lovel  the  Widoiver 
and  with  The  Adventures  of  Philip.  Among  them  is  one 
differing  in  form  from  the  rest,  called  The  A'otch  on  the 
Axe — a  Story  d  la  Mode.  It  is  an  almost  perfect  specimen 
of  the  author's  genius  for  burlesque  story-telling ;  but  it 
contains  an  odd  instance,  which  a  careful  reader  will  not 
fail  to  discover,  of  the  odd  habit  of  inaccuracy  of  which 
Thackeray  himself  was  conscious.  The  Adventures  of 
Philip  is,  as  has  been  before  said,  in  the  nature  of  a 
se.quel  to  or  a  completion  of  A  Shabby  Genteel  Story.  As 
with  the  other  direct  oequel,  it  is,  a  work  of  great  in- 
equality It  contains  scenes  of  humour,  pathos,  satire, 
which  rank  with  Thackeray's  best  work  ;  some  old  friends 
from  others  of  the  novels  make  brief  but  pleasant  reappear- 
ances in  its  pages;  there  are  fine  sketches  of  journalistic, 
artistic,  and  diplomatic  life,  and  the  scene  from  the  last- 
named  in  Paris  is  inimitable.  The  Little  Sister  is  altogether 
delightful ;  the  Twysden  family  are  terribly  true  and 
.vastly  diverting ;  the  minor  characters,  among  whom  old 
Ridley,  J.  J,'s  father,  should  bo  mentioned,  are  wonder- 
fully hit  off  ;  nor  did  Thackeray  ever  write  a  better  scene 
than  that  of  the  quarrel  between  Bunch,  Baynes,  and 
M'Whirter  in  the  Paris  pension.     Philip  himself  is  impos- 


r  H  A  — T  H  A 


217 


Rible     one  cannot  say  tbat  thf  character  is  ill-<lrawn — it  is  ' 
not  drawn  at  all      It  is  no  entirelv  diSerent  personage  in  ■ 
diSerent  chapters     and   it  has  here  and  there  a  verv  un 
pleasant  touch  which   must  have  come  of  rapid  writing.  I 
Vet  90  admirable  are  many  parts  of  the  book  that  it  can-  I 
not  be  left  out  of  the  list  of  Thackeray  s  mosi  considerable  ' 
works      Dmis  Duval,  which  reached  only  'Dree  numbers, 
promised  t/i  be  a  tirst-rate  work,  more  or  less  in  the  Exmond 
manner      The  author  died  while  it  was  in  progress,  on  the 
day  before  Christmas  day  1^63      He  was  buried  in  Kcnsal 
Oreen,  and  a  bust  by  Marochetti  was  put  up  to  his  memory 
■0  Westminster  Abbev 

Little  has  yet  been  said  of  Thackeray's  pertormances  in 
L'oetry  They  formed  a  small  hut  not  the  least  significant 
,iart  of  his  life's  work  The  grace  and  the  apparent  spon- 
taneity of  hi?  versihcation  are  beyond  question  Some  of 
the  more  serious  efforts,  such  as  Thf  Chrnnurlf  of  Ju  Dmm 
M841).  are  lull  ot  power,  and  instinct  with  true  poetic 
feeling  Both  the  half-humorous  half  pathetic  ballads  and 
the  wholly  extravagant  ones  must  be  classed  with  the  best 
work  ir  that  kind  and  'he  translations  from  Beranger  are 
u;  good  it  verse  translations  can  be  Be  had  the  true 
poetic  instinct,  and  proved  it  by  writing  poetry  which 
equalled  his  prose  in  grace  and  feeling 

It  is  not  necessary  to  discuss  the  precise  place  which 
Thackeray  will  in  future  hold,  in  respect  to  his  immediate 
Tonteraporanes  Wliat  seems  absolutely  certain  is  that  the 
force  and  vanety  of  his  genius  and  art  will  always  hold  for 
him  a  place  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  novelists  and 
essayists,  and.  it  should  be  added,  as  by  no  means  the  least 
of  English  critic*  'w   h   p.  i 

THALBERG,  Sigismond  (1812-IR71).  a  celebrated 
pianist  and  composer  for  his  instrument,  was  born  at 
Geneva  in  1812  (May  .')  or  .lanuary  7)  In  1822  he  was 
taken  to  Vienna,  where,  under  the  watchful  care  of  Count 
Dietrichstem.  his  education  was  completed  There  is  some 
doubt  a?  to  the  masters  under  whom  he  studied  but  it 
IS  certain  that  he  received  instruction  from  Hummel,  and 
perhaps  also  from  Czemy,  and  that  he  took  lessons  in  com- 
position from  Sechter  He  made  hiS' first  appearance  as  a 
pianist  at  Pnnce  Metternichs  in  1826.  and  published  his 
first  composition — a.  JFantaifia  on  Airs  from  "  Euryantlif" 
—in  1828.  but  it  was  nof  until  1830  that  he  was  first  fairly 
introduced  to  the  public,  with  such  brilliant  success  that 
from  that  time  forward  hisonJy  rival  was  Liszt  In  1834  he 
was  appointed  "kammervirtuos"  t^  the  emperor  of  Austria. 
He  first  appeared  id  Pari.s  in  1837  and  in  1838  he  came 
to  England,  astonishing  his  hearers  with  the  novel  effects 
produced  in  his  Pnriatvms  on  God  Save  tJie  Qrieen.  while 
he  charmed  them  with  his  delicate  touch  and  the  punty  of 
his  expression  Thenceforward  his  career  was  a  succe.ssion 
of  triumphs  In  order  to  disprove  the  popular  idea  that 
he  could  execute  no  music  but  his  own.  he  played  Beet- 
hoven's Concerto  tn  C  rninor  (op  37'  at  the  London 
Wednesday  Concerts,  held  in  1846-4"  at  Exeter  Hall, 
with  a  keen  intelligence  which  proved  his  power  ol  inter- 
preting the  works  of  the  great  master?  to  be  at  least  oii  a 
level  with  his  wonderful  UchnvpLt  Besides  his  pianotorte 
compositions,  which  are  almost  lununierable.  Thalberg  pro- 
duced two  Qperas. — Cristina.  which  proved  a  complete 
failure  and  Flonnda  which  lared  but  littl"  better  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre  in  1851  He  played  in  London  lor  the 
last  time  in  1863.  and  afterwards  retired  to  his  estate  near 
Naples      He  died  at  Naples,  April  27    187 1 

THALES  ot  .\!iiETOs  (640-54b  b.l'.;.  sol  of 
Examyus  and  Cleobulme.  is  universally  recognizeo  as  the 
founder  of  Greek  geometry,  astronom)  and  philosophy 
He  It  said  by  Herodotus  and  others  to  have  been  of 
Phoenician  extraction,  but  the  more  common  account  (see 
Diogene.'  Laertius*  i?  that  he  was  a  native  Milesian  of 
23—10' 


noble  birth  Zeller  thinks  that  his  ancestors  belonged  to 
tht  (^admean  tribe  in  Boeotia.  who  were  intermingled  with 
the  ionians  ol  Asia  Minor,  and  thus  reconciles  the  con- 
Hicline  statements  The  nationality  of  Thales  is  certainly 
Greek  and  not  Phoenician  The  high  estimation  in  which 
he  was  held  by  hi?  contemporaries  is  shown  by  the  place 
he  occupied  as  chief  of  the  seven  "  wise  men  "  of  Greece  . 
and  in  later  times  amongst  the  ancients  his  fame  was  quite 
remarkable  It  is  well  known  that  this  name  (tjotbtK)  was 
given  on  account  ot  practical  ability  .  and  in  accordance 
with  this  wp  find  that  Thales  had  been  occupied  with  civil 
affairs,  and  indeed  several  instances  of  his  political  sagacity 
have  been  handed  down  Of  these  the  most  remarkabit 
is  the  advice,  prai.sed  by  Herodotus,  which  he  gave  ic 
his  fellow-countrymen  "before  Ionia  was  ruined," — "that 
the  lonians  should  constitute  one  general  council  m 
Teos  as  the  most  central  ol  the  twelve  cities,  and  that 
the  remaining  cities  should  nevertheless  be  governed  as 
independent  states"  'Herod.,  i.  170/  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  n  the  ca.se  of  Thales  the  appellation  '  wise 
man.'  which  was  given  to  him  and  to  the  other  six  id  the 
archonship  of  Damasius  (586  B.C.),'  was  conferred  on  him 
not  only  on  account  of  his  political  sagacity,  but  also  lor 
his  scientific  eminence  (Plui..  Sn/on,  c  3;  "  To  about  the 
same  time  must  be  referred  his  celebrate^  prediction  ot  the 
eclipse  of  the  .sun.  which  took  place  on  May  28,  ^Sfy  B.r. 
This  event,  which  was  of  the  highest  importance,  has  givet 
rise  to  much  discussion  The  account  of  it  as  given  by 
Herodotus  (I  "41  contains  two  statements; — (1)  the  faci 
that  the  eclipse  ilid  actually  take  place  during  a  battle 
between  the  Medes  and  the  Lydians,  that  it  was  a  iota) 
eclipse  (  Herodotus  calls  it  a  "  night  battle  "),  that  it  caused 
a  cessation  of  hostilities  and  led  to  a  lasting  peace  betwees 
the  contending  nations  (2)  that  Thales  had  foretold  the  . 
eclipse  to  the  lonians,  and  fixed  the  year  m  which  it 
actually  di  take  place  Various  dates — ranging  from  62S 
B.c  to  ^S3  B.C. — have  been  assigned  by  different  chrono- 
logists  to  this  eclipse  but.  since  the  investigations  ol 
Airy,'-'  Hind,^  and  Zech.'  the  date  determined  by  thea 
(Mav  28.  .'iS.'i  B.C.)  has  been  generally  accepted  This 
date  agrees  nearly  with  that  given  by  Pliny  {H  A'  .  ii 
12)  The  second  part  of  the  statement  of  Herodotus — the 
reality  of  the  prediction  by  Thales — has  been  frequently 
called  in  question,  chiefly  on  the  ground  that,  in  order  to 
predict  a  solar  eclipse  with  any  chance  ot  success,  one 
should  have  the  command  ol  certain  astronomical  facts 
which  were  not  known  until  the  3d  century  B.C.  and  then 
merely  approximately,  and  only  employed  with  that  object 
in  the  following  century  by  Hipparchus  The  question, 
however,  IS  not  whether  Thales  could  predict  the  eclipse  of 
the  sun  with  any  chance  ol  success — much  less  whether  he 
j  could  state  beforehand  at  what  places  the  eclipse  would 
I  be  visible,  as  some  have  erroneously  supposed,  and  which 
I  of  course  would  have  been  quite  impossible  for  him  to  do, 
I  but  simply  whether  he  foretold  that  there  would  be  a  solar 
I  eclipse  iL  that  year,  as  stated  by  Herodotus  Now  as  to 
I  this  there  is  quite  a  remarkable  unanimity  m  the  testi 
I  mony  of  the  ancients,  and  the  evidence  is  of  the  strongesl 
I  kind  ascending  to  Herodotus,  and,  according  to  the 
I  account  of  Diogenes  Laertius.  even  to  Xenophanes.  who 
was  an  Ionian,  and  not  much  later  than  Thales      Further. 

Bretscnneider  (Dtt  Oeom.    ror  Evklides,  p.    40),  witliout  stating 
I  his  authonty,  giv»  "  hetween  t^b  and  583  B  c     ai!  the  iiate  ol  the 
an-hnnsliip    jf    Dania.'dub       In   Ihis    lie    is    followed    hy  some    othei 
'  recent  writers,  who  iiiler  Ihence  that  the  name  '*  wise"  was  conterred 
I  CD  Thales  on  account  of  the  success  of  ht«  predictiOD.      The  ilate  686 
'  B. L. ,  given  atxivt    which   is  taken  from  Clmton,  is  aclopted  by  Zellei 
'   "  Un  the   Bclipse>  ol    Agathocles,   Thales.   and    Xerxes."    Phil 
Trana.    «oi.  cxiiii.  p.  I7li  sq..  1853  '  Alhenmivi.  p.  919,  1S5-' 

^stTonomische  L'ntersuchungen  der  imchiit/eren  Finstcmisse.  &c 
I  p.  57   135a 

XXIIL  —  28 


218 


T  H  A  L  E  S 


we  know  that  in  the  8th  century  B.C.  there  were  obser- 
vatories in  most  of  the  large  cities  in  the  valley  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  that  professional  astronomers  regularly 
took  observations  of  the  heavens,  copies  of  which  were 
sent  to  the  king  of  Assyria;  and  from  a  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tion found  in  the  palace  of  Sennacherib  at  Nineveh,  the 
text  of  which  is  given  by  George  Smith,'  we  learn  that  at 
that  time  the  epochs  of  eclipses  of  both  sun  and  moon  were 
predicted  as  possible — probably  by  means  of  the  cycle  of 
223  lunations  or  Chaldaean  Saros — and  that  observations 
were  made  accordingly. 

The  wonderful  fame  of  Thales  amongst  the  ancients 
must  have  been  ia  great  part  due  to  this  achievement, 
which  seems,  moreover,  to  have  been  one  of  the  chief 
causes  that  excited  amongst  the  Hellenes  the  love  of 
science  which  ever  afterwards  characterized  them.  Thales 
seems  not  to  have  left  any  writings  behind  him,  though 
as  to  this  there  appears  to  be  some  doubt  (see  Diog. 
Laer.,  i.  23).  Many  anecdotes,  amusing  rather  than 
instructive,  are  related  of  him,  which  have  been  handed 
down  by  Diogenes  Laertius  and  other  writers.  From  some 
of  them  it  would  appear  that  he  was  engaged  in  trade, 
which  is  indeed  expressly  stated  by  Plutarch  (Solon,  c.  2). 
It  is  probable  .that  in  the  pursuit  of  commerce  he  was  led 
to  visit  Egypt.  Of  the  fact  that  Thales  visited  Egypt, 
and  there  became  acquainted  with  geometry,  there  is  abun- 
dant evidence.  Hieronymus  of  Rhodes  (ap.  Diog.  Laer., 
i.  27)  says,  "  he  never  had  any  teacher  except  during  the 
time  when  he  went  to  Egypt  and  associated  with  the 
priests."  " 

But  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  work  of  Thales  was 
that  to  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  he  added  the  capital 
creation  .of  the  geomett-y  of  lines,  which  was  essentially 
abstract  in  its  character.  The  only  geometry  known  tc'the 
Egyptian  priests  was  that  of  surfaces,  together  with  a 
sketch  of  that  of  solids,  a  geometry  consisting  of  some 
simple  quadratures  and  elementary  cubatures,  which  they 
had  obtained  empirically.  Thales,  on  the  other  hand,  intro- 
duced abstract  geometry,  the  object  of  which  is  to  establish 
precise  relations  between  the  different  parts  of  a  figure,  so 
that  some  of  them  could  be  found  by  means  of  others  in 
a  manner  strictly  rigorous.  This  was  a  phenomenon  -quite 
new  in  the  world,  and  due,  in  fact,  to  the  abstract  snirit 
of  the  Greeks. 

The  foUowinf!  discoveries  in  geometry  are  attributed  to  Thalea : — 
(1)  the  circle  is  bisected  by  its  diameter  (Procl.,  op.  cit.,  p.  157) ;  (2) 
the  angles  at  the  base  of  an  isosceles  triangle  are  equal  (-Id. ,  p.  250) ; 
(3)  when  two  straight  lines  cut  each  other  tho  vertically  opposite 
angles  are  equal  (Id.,  p.  299);  (4)  the  angle  in  a  semicircle  is  a 
right  angle  ;*  (5)  the  theorem  Euclid  i.  26  is  referred  to  Thales 
by  Eudemus(ProcI.,  op..  ri(.,  p.  352).  Two  applications  of  geometry 
to  the  solution  of  practical  problems  are  also  attributed  to  him  :— 
(1)  the  determination  of  the  distance  of  a  ship  at  sea,  for  which  ho 
made  use  of  the  last  theorem  ;  (2)  the  determination  of  the  height 
of  a  pyramid  by  means  of  the  length  of  its  shadow  :  according  to 
Hieronymue  of  Rhodes  (Diog.  Laert.,  i.'  27)  and  Pliny  (JV.  S., 
xxxvi.  12),  the  shadow  was  measured  at  the  hour  of  the  day  whft 
a  man's  shadow  is  the  same  length  as  himself.  Plutarch,  however 
states  the  method  in  a  form  requiring  the  knowledge  of  Euclid 
vi.  4,  but  without  the  restriction  as  to  the  hour  of  the  day  {Sept, 
Sap.  Conviv.,  2).  Further,  we  learn  from  Diogenes  Laertius  (i.  25) 
that  he  perfected  the  things  relating  to  the  scalene  triangle  and 
the  theory  of  lines.  Proclus,  too,  in  his  summary  of  the  history  of 
geometry  before  Euclid,  which  he  probably  derived  from  Eudemus 
of  Rhodes,  says  that  Thales,  having  visited  Egypt,  first  brought 
tho  knowledge  of  geometry  into  Greece,  that  he  discovered  many 


'  Assyrian  Ditcoveries,  p.  409. 

^  Cf.  Pamphila  and  the  spurious  letter  from  Thales  to  Pherecydes, 
ap.  Diog.  Laer. ;  Proclus,  Inprimum  £uclidis  Elementomm  Libra-m. 
CommentaTii,  ed.  Friedlein,  p.  65  ;  Pliny,  //.  N.,  %%%-n.  12  ;  1am- 
blichus,  In  Vit.  Pijlhag.,  12;  Plutarch,  Sept.  Sap.  Conviv.,  2,  Se 
Jside,  10,  and  Plac.,  I  8,  1. 

'  This  is  unquestionably  tbff  meaning  of  the  statement  of  Pamphila 
(temp.  Nero),  ap.  Diog.  Laert. ,  i.  24,  that  be  was  the  first  person  to 
describe  a  right-angled  triangle  in  a  circle. 


things  himself,  and  communicated  the  beginnings  of  many  to  his 
successors,  some  of  which  he  attempted  in  a  more  abstract  manner 
{KadoAiKtirfpov)  and  some  in  a  more  intuitional  or  seu&ible  manner 
(alir$7irtKti>T(poi')  {op.  cit,  p.  65). 

From  these  indications  it  is  no  doubt  difficult  to  determine  what 
Thales  brought  from  Egypt  and  what  was  due  to  his  own  inven- 
tion. This  difficulty  has,  however,  been  lesseued'since  the  transla- 
tion and  publication  of  the  papyrus  Rhind  by  Eisenlohr  ;*  and  it  is 
now  generally  admitted  that,  in  the  distinction  made  in  the  last 
passage  quoted  above  from  Proclus,  reference  is  made  to  the  two 
forms  of  his  work, — alaeriTiKwrepoy  pointing  to  what  he  derived  from 
Egypt  or  arrived  at  in  an  Egyptian  manner,  while  KadoXiKtiiTfpov 
indicates  .the  discoveries  which  he  made  in  accordance  with  the 
Greek  spirit.  To  the  former  belong  the  theorems  (1),  (2),  and  (3), 
and  to  the  latter  especially  the  theorem  (4),  and  also,  probably,  his 
solution  of  the  two  practical  problems.  We  infer,  then,  [1]  that 
Thales  must  have  known  the  theorem  that  the  sum  of  the  three 
angles  of  a  triangle  are  equal  to  two  right  angles.  This  inference 
is  made  from  (4)  taken  along  with  (2).  No  doubt  we  are  informed 
by  Proclus,  on  the  authority  of  Eudemus,  that  the  theorem 
Euclid  i.    32  was  first  proved  in  a  general  way   by  the  Pytha- 

foreans  (see  Pythagoras,  vol.  xx.  p.  140) ;  but,  on  the  other 
and,  we  Icam  fiom  Geminus  that  the  ancient  geometers  observed 
the  equality  to  two  right  angles  in  each  kind  of  triangle — in  the 
eqiiilateral  first,  then  in  the  isosceles,  and  lastly  in  the  scalene 
(Apoll,  Conica.ed.  Halleius,  p.  9),  and  it  is  plaifa  that  the  geometers 
older  than  the  Pythagoreans  can  be  no  other  than  Thales  and  his 
school.  The  theorem,  then,  seems  to  have  been  arrived  at  by  induc- 
tion, and  may  have  been  suggested  by  the  contemplation  of  floors 
or  walls  covered  with  tiles  of  the  form  of  equilateral  triangles,  or 
squares,  or  hexagons.  [2]  We  see  also  in  tho  theorem  (4)  the  first 
trace  of  the  important  conception  of  geometrical  loci,  which  we, 
thereTore,  attribute  to  Thales.  It  is  worth  noticing  that  it  was  in 
tliis  manner  that  this  remarkable  property  of  the  circle,  with  which, 
in  fact,  abstract  geometry  was  inaugurated,  presented  itself  to  the 
im.-^ination  of  Dante  : — 

'  O  se  del  mezzo  cerchio  far  si  paote 
Triangol  si,  ch'uD  retto  non  avesse." — Par.,  c.  xlli.  101. 

[3]  Thales  discovered  the  theorem  that  the  sides  of  equiangular 
triangles  are  proportional.     The  knowledge  of  this  theorem  ia  dis- 
Lfactly  attributed  to  Thales  by  Plutarch,  and  it  was  probably  made 
use  of  also  in  his  determination  of  the  distance  of  a  ship  at  sea. 
Let  us   now  consider  the  .importance  of  the  work  of  Thales. 

I.  In  a  scientific  point  of  view  :  (a)  we  see,  in  the  first  place,  that 
by  his  two  theorems  ho  founded  the  geometry  of  lines,  which  has 
ever  since  remained  the  principal  part  of  geometry';  (6)  he  may, 
in  the  second  place,  be  fairly  considered  to  have  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  algebra,  for  his  first  theorem  establishes  an  equation  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word,  while  the  second  institutes  a  proportion.' 

II.  In  a  philosophic  point  of  view  :  we  see  that  in  these  two 
theorems  of  Thales  the  first  type  of  a  natural  law,  i.e.,  the  ex- 
pression of  a  fixed  dependence  between  different  quantities,  or,  in 
another  form,  the  disentanglement  of  constancy  in  the  midst  of 
variety — has  decisively  arisen.*  III.  Lastly,  in  a  practical  point 
of  view  :  Thales  furnished  the  first  example  of  an  application  of 
theoretical  geometry  to  pracrice,^  and  laid  tho  foundation  of  an 
importan.t  branch  of  the  same — the  measurement  of  heights  and 
distances.     For  the  farther  progress  of  geometry  see  Pythagoras. 

As  to  the  astronomical  knowledge  of  Thales  yfv  have  the  follow- 
ing notices  : — (1)  besides  the  prediction  of  the  solar  eclipse,  Eu- 
demus attributes  to  him  tho  discovery  that  the  circuit  of  the  sun 
between  the  solstices  is  not  always  uniform;^  (2)  he  called  the  last 
day  of  the  month  the  thirtieth  (Diog.  Laert,  i.  24);  (3)  he  divided 
the  year  into  365  days  (Id.,  i.  27);  (4)  he  determined  the  dia- 
meter of  the  sun  to  be  the  720th  part  of  the  zodiac  ;'  (5)  he  appears 
to  have  pointed  out  the  constellation  of  the  Lesser  Bear  to  his 
countrymen,  and  instructed  them  to  steer  by  it  [as  nearer  i  he  pole] 
instead  of  the  Great  Bear  (Callimacbus  ap.  Diog.  Laert,  i.  23 ;  cf. 
Aratus,  Phxmmima,  v.  36  sq. ).  Other  discoveries  in  astronomy 
are  attributed  to  Thales,  but  on  authorities  which  are  not  trust> 
worthy.  He  did  not  know,  for  example,  that  "  the  earth  is  spher- 
ical," as  is  erroneously  stated  by  Plutarch  (Placita,  iiL  10);  on  th» 
contrary,  he  conceived  it  to  be  a  flat  disk,  and  in  this  supposition 
he  was  -followed  by  most  of  his  successors  in  the  Ionian  schools^ 
including  'Anaxagoiss.    The  doctrine  of  the  sphericity  of  the  earth, 


*  Ein  maihematisch£s  Bandbuch  der  alten  .4fp3/??ter,  "Leipsic,  1877. 

^  Auguste  Comte,  Syst^me  de  Politique  Positive,  iii.  pp.  297,  300, 

«  P.  Laflitte,  Les  Grands  Types  de  I'llumanitS,  voh  ii.  p.  292. 

'  Ibid.,  p.  294. 

'  Theonis  Smymaei  Platonic!  Liber  de  Astrowmia,  ed.  Th.  H.  Mar- 
tin, p.  324,  Paris,  1849.     Cf.  Diog.  Laert,  i.  24.    ' 

'  This  is  the  received  interpretation  of  the  passage  in  Diogonea 
Laertius,  i.  24  (see  Wolf,  Oesch.  der  Astron.,  p.  1.69),  where  <r«\77rofou 
ia  probably  a  scribe's  error  for  ^tfySuutov.  Cf.  Apuleiua,  Florida,  iv.  18, 
who  attributes  to  Thales,  then  old,  the  discovery ;  "  qnotiens  sol  mag- 
nitudine  sua  circulum  quern  pernieat  metiatur." 


T  H  A  —  T  H  A 


219 


for  vrhich  the  researches  of  Anaiiniander  had  prepared  the  my,' 
was  ID  fact  one  of  the  great  discovenes  of  Pythagoras,  was  tauglit 
by  Parirenides,  who  was  eonnccted  with  the  Pythagoreans,  aud 
remaioed  for  a  long  time  the  exclusive  property  of  the  lulian 
schools.' 

Whilst  io  virtue  of  his  political  sagacity  and  intellectual  eminence 
Thales  held  a  place  in  the  traditional  list  of  the  wise  men,  on  the 
strength  of  the  disinterested  love  of  knowledge  which  appeared  in 
his  physical  sueculations  he  was  accounted  a  "  philosopher "  (if>i\6- 
ffo^oi).  His  "  philosophy  "  is  usually  summed  up  in  the  dogma 
"water  is  the  principle,  or  the  element,  of  things";  but,  as  the 
technical  terms  " principle  "  (apx'h)  and  "  element "  (o-todc'O'')  had 
not  yet  come  into  use,  it  may  be  conjectured  that  the  phrase  "  all 
things  are  water"  {■wdm-n  CJup  ^cttI)  more  exactly  represents  his 
teaching.  Writings  which  bore  his  name  were  extant  in  antiquity ; 
bat,  as  Aristotle,  when  he  speaks  of  Thales's  doctrine,  always  depends 
upon  tradition,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  were  forgeries. 

From  Aristotle  we  learn.  (1)  that  Thales  found  in  water  the 
origin  of  things  ;  (2)  that  he  conceived  the  earth  to  float  upon  a 
sea  of  the  elemental  fluid  ,  (3)  that  lie  supposed  all  things  to  be 
full  of  gods;  (4)  that  in  virtue  of  the  attraction  exercised  by  the 
magnet  he  attributed  to  it  a  souL  Here  our  information  ends. 
Aristotle's  suggestion  that  Thales  was  led  to  his  fundamental 
dogma  by  observation  of  the  part  which  moisture  plays  in  the  pro- 
ductiou  and  the  maintenance  of  life,  and  Simplicius's,  that  the 
impressibility  and  the  binding  power  of  water  were  perhaps  also  in 
his  thoughts,  are  by  admission  purely  conjectural.  Simplicius's 
further  suggestion  that  Thales  conceived  the  element  to  be  modi- 
fied by  thinning  and  thickening  is  plainly  inconsistent  with  the 
statement  of  Thcophrastus  that  the  hypothesis  in  question  was 
peculiar  to  Anaiimcnes.  The  assertion  preserved  by  Stobaeus  that 
Thales  recognized,  together  with  the  material  element  "  water," 
"  mind,"  which  penetrates  it  and  sets  it  in  motion,  is  refuted  by  the 
precise  testimony  of  Aristotle,  wj^o  declares  that  the  early  physicists 
did  not  distinguish  the  moving  cause  from  the  material  cause,  and 
that  before  Hermotimus  and  Anaxagoras  no  one  postulated  a 
creative  intelligence. 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  Thales  sought  amid  the  variety  of 
things  a  single  material  cause  ;  that  he  found  such  a  cause  in  one 
of  the  forms  of  matter  most  familiar  to  hiin,  namely,  water,  and 
accordingly  regarded  earth  and  all  that  it  contains  as  water  vari- 
ously meumorphosed  ;  and  that,  asking  himself  no  questions  about 
the  manner  of  its  transformatioii  he  was  content  to  see  in  the 
forces  of  nature  present  deities"  (Zeller). 

The  doctrine  of  Thales  was  interpreted  and  developed  in  the 
course  of  t'hree  succeeding  generations.  First,  Anaximander  chose 
for  what  he  called  his  "  principle  "  (ipx'i).  not^  water,  but  a  cor- 
poreal element  intermediate  between  6re  and  air  on  the  one  hand 
and  water  and  earth  on  the  other.  Next,  Anaximenes,  prefer- 
ring air,  resolved  its  transformations  into  processes  of  thinning 
and  thickening.  Lastlv,  Heraclitus  asserted  the  cliims  of  fire, 
which  he  conceived  to  modify  itself,  not  occasionally,  but  per- 
l>etually.  Thus  Thales  recognized  change,  bnt  was  not  careful  to 
explain  it ;  Anaximander  attributed  to  change  two  directions ; 
Anaximenes  conceived  the  two  sorts  of  change  as  rarefaction  and 
condensation  ;  Heraclitus,  perceiving  that,  if,  as  his  predecessors 
had  tacitly  assumed,  change  was  occasional,  the  interference  of  a 
moving  cause  was  necessary,  made  change  perpetual.  But  all  four 
agreed  in  tracing  the  variety  of  things  to  a  single  material  cause, 
corporeal,  endowed  with  qualities,  and  capable  of  self-transforma- 
tion. A  new  departure  was  taken  by  the  Eleatic  Parmenides  (see 
vol.  xviii.  p.  315),  who,  expressly  noting  that,  when  Thales  and 
his  successors  attributed  to  the  supposed  element  chauging 
qualities,  they  were  untrue  to  the  principle  of  monism,  required 
that  the  superficial  plurality  of  nature  should  be  strictly  distin- 
guished from  its  fundamental  unity.  Hence,  wherea^  Thales  and 
his  successors  had  confounded  the  One,  the  element,  and  the  Many, 
its  modifications,  the  One  and  tlie  Not-One  or  filany  became  with 
Parmenides  matters  for  separate  investigation.  In  this  way  two 
lines  of  inquiry  originated.  On  the  one  hand  Empedocles  and 
Anaxagoras,  abandoning  the  pursuit  of  the  One,  gave  themselves 
to  the  scientific  study  of  the  Many;  on  the  other  Zcno,  abandoning 
the  ]iursuit  of  the  Many,  gave  himself  to  the  dialectical  study  of 
the  One.  Both  successions  were  doomed  to  failure;  and  the  result 
.was  a  scepticism  from  which  the  thought  of  Greece  did  not  emerge 
until  Plato,  returning  to  Parmenides,  declared  the  study  of  the 
One  and  the  Many,  jointly  regarded,  to  be  the  true  office  of  philo- 
sophy. Thus,  meagre  and  futile  as  the  doctrine  of  Thales  was,  all 
the  Greek  schools,  with  the  solitary  exception  of  that  of  Pythagoras, 
took  their  origin  from  it.  Not  in  name  only,  but  also  in  fact, 
Thales,  the  first  of  the  Ionian  physicists,  was  the  founder  of  the 
philosophy  of  Greece. 

•-    '  In  likening  the  earth  to  a  cylinder  Anaximander  recognized  its 
circular  figure  iii  one  dire:tion. 

'  Se*^  G.  V.  Schiaparelli.  /  PrectiTson  di  Copemico  nelV  ArUichitd, 
p.  1,  MUan,  1873. 


5i6.'io?rapAy.— <A)  G^:OSIBTRICAL   AST)   AsTROSOMlCAl,.— C.  A.  Bretachnelder. 

Da  Ceoi'trtrtt  ti  ate  G^xjtnfUr  vor  Eukltdcs.  Lt^ipsic,  1870;  H.  Hankcl.  Zur 
Cuchtc/tle  der  Mathtmatik,  Lcipsic.  1S74  ;  G,  J.  Allnion,  "  Greek  G6onictry  from 
ThRles  to  Euclid."  Hermathena,  No.  v..  Dublin,  lb77  ;  M.  Cflnlor.  Vorrf^un^en 
ubfi-  Geschtcliie  der  M^uhftnalik,  Leipsic.  1880;  P.  Tflnneiy,  "Thal&9  de  Mitel  cc 
qu'll  a  emprunt^  i,  I'KHyple,"  Revue  Pfiitoiophique.  Murrh  1880  ;  -  La  Tiadltlon 
t..uchant-p>tliai:ore.  CEnopide.  ct  Thalfes,"'  Bull,  da  Sc.  Hath.,  May  1886 ;  R. 
Wnlf.  Geithicliie  der  Ailronomu,  .Munich.  1877  (B)  Philosophical.— E.  Zeller. 
Ihe  Phtlosoplite  d.  Griechtn.i.  lt>S-lS3.  Leipsic.  187(1  {Preiocralic  Philv^ophy,  I. 
211-227.  Loud..  1881);  F.  Ueberweg,  Grundrissd.Oesch.d.  Philosophit.  512.  Berlin, 
187U//ul.o//'/iiiosop/i!/.  Lond.,  1880);  T.  Decker.  De  TliaUle  Slilttio  Halle.  ISCS; 
A.  B.  Krische.  Forsc/itingen,  pp.  34-42,  Giittingcn.  1840.        (G.  J    A  — H.  JA.) 

THALLIUM,  one  of  the  rarer  elements  of  chemistry. 
Its  discovery  is  one  of  the  outcomes  of  Bunsen  and 
Kirchhof's  method  of  spectrum  analysis.  When  Crookes, 
in  1861,  applied  this  method  to  the  flue-dust  produced  in 
the  roasting  of  a  certain  kind  of  pyrites  he  observed  in  its 
spectrum  a  green  line  foreign  to  all  then  known  spectra, 
and  concluded  that  his  substance  must  contain  a  new 
element,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  thallium,  from 
6aAAd?,  a  green  twig.  Crookes  presumed  that  his  thal- 
lium was  something  of  the  order  of  sulphur,  selenium,  or 
tellurium  ;  but  Lamy,  who  anticipated  him  in  isolating 
the  new  elemeut,  found  it  to  be  a  metal.  Our  present 
knowledge  of  the  chemistry  of  thallium  is  based  chiefly 
upon  the  labours  of  Crookes. 

The  chemical  character  of  thallium  presents  striking 
pecaliaritie.s.  Dumas  once  called  it  the  "  ormihorhtpichus 
paradoxus  of  metals."  As  an  elementary  substance,  it  is 
very  similar  in  its  mechanical  and  phy.sical  properties  to 
lead ;  like  lead  it  forms  an  almost  insoluble  chloride  and 
an  insoluble  iodide.  But  the  hydroxide  of  thallium,  in 
most  of  its  properties,  comes  very  close  to  those  of  the 
alkali  metals  ;  it  is  strongly  basilous,  forms  an  insoluble 
chloroplatinate,  and  an  alum  strikiagly  similar  to  the 
corresponding  potassium  .compounds.  Yet,  unlike  potas- 
sium or  lead,  it  forms  a  feebly  basic  sesquioxidc  simila?  to 
manganic  oxide,  Mn203. 

Traces  of  thallium  exist  in  many  kinds  of  pyrites,  as 
used  for  vitriol-making.  The  only  known  mineral  of  "which 
it  forms  an  essential  component  is  the  "  crookesite  "  of 
Skrikerum,  SmSland,  Sweden,  which,  according  to  Norden- 
skibld,  contains  33'3  of  selenium,  45'8  of  copper,  3'7  of 
silver,  and  17  "2  of  thallium  in  100  parts.  Crookesite, 
however,  is  scarce.  The  best  raw  materials  for  the  pre- 
paration of  thallium  are  the  flue-dusts  produced  indus- 
trially in  the  roasting  of  thalliferous  pyrites  and  the 
"chamber  muds"  accumulating  in  vitriol-chambers  wrought 
■with  such  pyrites  ;  in  both  it  is  frequently  associated  with 
Selenium  (g.v.).  The  flue-dust  from  the  pyrites  of  Thetii, 
near  Spa  (Belgium),  according  to  Bottcher,  contains  0'5 
to  0'75  per  cent,  of  thallium ;  that  of  the  pyrites  of  Meggen, 
according  to  Carstanjen,  as  much  as  3o  per  cent.;  while 
that  of  the  pyrites  of  Ruhrort  yielded  1  per  cent,  of  the 
pure  chloride  to  Gunning. 

For  the  extraction  of  the  metal  from  chamber  mud.  the  latter  is 
boiled  with  water,  which  extracts  the  thallium  as  T1;S04.  From 
the  filtered  solution  the  thallium  is  precipitated  by  addition  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  as  TlCl,  along,  in  general,  with  more  or  less  of 
chloride  of  le.ad.  The  mixed  chlorides  are  boiled  down  to  dryness 
with  oil  of  vitriol  to  convert  thenv  into  sulphates,  wliich  are  then 
separated  bv  boiling  water,  which  dissolves  only  the  thallium  salt 
From  the  Hltered  solution  the  thallium  is  recovered,  as  such,  by 
means  of  pure  metallic  zinc,  or  by  electrolysis.  The  (approximately 
pure)  metallic  sp'onge  obtained  is  washed,  made  compact  by  com- 
pression, fused  in  a  ])orcelain  crucible  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydro- 
gen, and  cast  into  sticks.  Methods  for  the  final  purification  of  the 
metal  will  easily  be  deduced  from  what  follows. 

The  metal  is  bluish  white ;  it  is  extremely  soft  but  almost  devoid 
of  tenacity  and  t'.asticity.  Its  specific  gravity  is  11 'SB.  It  fuses 
at  290°  C. ;  at  a  white  heat  it  boils  and  can  be  (iistilled  in  hydrogen 
gas.  When  heated  in  air  it  is  readily  oxidized,  with  fonjiation  of 
a  reddish  or  violet  vapour.  When  exposed  to  the  air  it  readily 
draws  a  film  of  oxidS ;  the  tarnished  metal  when  plunged  into 
water  reassumes  its  metallic  lustre,  the  oxide  film  being  quickly 
dissolved.  When  kept  in  contact  with  water  Snd  air  it  is  gradually 
converted  into  hydroxide,  TkOH.O  or  TIOH. 

This  hydrate,  TTIOH.  most  conveniently  prepared  by  decomposing. 
I  the  solution  of  the  sulphate  iwth  baryta  water,  crvstaUizes  from  its 


220 


T  H   A  -  T  H  A 


solutioTi  in  long  yellow  needles,  TIOTT  or  TIOH  +  HjO,  wli  ich  dissol  vo 
readily  in  water,  forniuig  an  intenst-ly  alkaline  solution,  wliicli  acts 
isacaustic.  liko,  forinstance,  putasli-loy,  ami  likeitgrccdilyabsorbs 
carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere.  But,  uuliko  the  alkalies,  it 
readily  loses  its  water  at  100'  C  and  even  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture, to  |)iiss  into  the  state  of  anhydrous  TIjO,  which  is  blacK  or 
black-violet. 

The  ijiloride,  TICI,  is  readily  obtained  from  the  solution  of  any 
thallous  salt  (c  g.,  the  sulphate),  by  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
KB  a  white  precipitate  similar  in  appearance  to  chloride  of  silver, 
like  which  rt  turns  violet  in  the  light  and  fuses  below  redness  into 
a  (yellow)  liq\)id  which  freezes  into  a  horn-like  flexible  mass.  The 
specific  gravity  of  this  "horn"  thallium,  as  one  might  call  it,  is 
7-02  One  part  of  the  precipitated  chloride  dissolves  at  0°  C.  in 
500  parts  of  water,  and  in  70  paits  at  100°  C.  It  is  less  soluble 
in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  Carbonate  of  soda  solution  dissolves 
it  pretty  freely 

Xho  lodiiif.  Til,  is  a  yellow  precipitate,  which  requires  16,000 
parts  of  cold  water  and  still  more  of  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium 
fp-  its  solution. 

The  chloToplalinalc,  PtCljTIj,  readily  obtainable  from  thallous- 
s.ilt  solutions  by  addition  of  chloride  of  platinum  {PtClsH^),  is  a 
yellow  precipitate  soluble  in  no  lo^  than  1 5,600  parts  of  cold  water. 

ThecorJoniKf,  TI3CO3,  comes  closer  to  the  lithium  compound  than 
to  any  othe"-  ordinary  carbonate.  It  forms  resplendent  monoclinic 
prisms,  soluble  at  18' C  in  191  and  at  100°  in  4-46  parts  of  water. 
A  stable  bicarbonate,  TlHCOj,  does  exist. 

The  sulphate,  TljSO,,  forms  rhombic  prisms  isomorplioue  with 
KoSOj-  It  dissolves  at  18°  C.  in  208  and  at  101°  in  5-2  parts  of 
water.  It  unites  with  vitriol  into  on  acid  salt,  TlHSOj-fSH.O, 
and  with  sulphate  of  alumina  into  an  "alum,"  AMS0,)3TljS0,-l- 
24HjO. 

TfuiUie  satis  are  related  to  thallous  pretty  much  as  manganic 
are  to  i.,jnganous.  The  chloride,  TICI3,  is  obtained  as  a  solution 
by  passing -chlorine  into  a  suspension  of  thallous  chlorido  in  w-ater. 
The  solution,  when  evaporated  in  vacuo,  deposits  colourless  crystals, 
TICI34  H.O.  For  the  oxide,  if  chlorine  be  passed  iiito  a  solution 
of  thallous  chloride  in  carbonate  of  soda  a  brown  precipitate  is 
produced,  which,  after  drying,  has  the  composition  T1.J03-^HJ0- 
When  ieated  with  strong  hydrochloric  acid  it  evolves  chlorine  and 
yieMs  TICI ;  when  heated  with  oil  of  vitriol  it  yields  oxygen  gas 
and  thallous  sulphate.  Thallic. sulphate,  however,  does  exist, — in 
crystals,  TlstSOiJ^-fTHoO,  soluble  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  but 
decomposed  by  water,  with  precipitation  of  liydrated  TIjOj. 

Anahjns.-^A\l  thallium  compounds  volatile  or  liable  to  dissocia- 
tion at  the  temperatiu-e  of  tho  flame  of  a  Bunsen  lamp  impart  to 
such  flame  an  intense  green  colour.  The  spectrum  consists  of  only 
one  line,  which,  of  course,  has  a  definite  position  in  the  spectrum, 
and  consequently  is  easily  identified,— a  most  delicate  test 

From  solutions  containing  it  as  thallous  salt  tho  metal  is  easily 
precipitated  as  chloride,  iodide,  or  chloroplatinato  by  the  corre- 
sponding reagents  (see  supra).  Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  in  the 
presence  of  free  mineral  acid,  gives  no  precipitate;  sulphide  of 
ammonium,  from  neutral  solution!!,  precipitates  TIjS  as  a  dark 
brown  or  black  prcci-^itate,  insoluble  in  excess  of  reagent.  Thallic 
salts  are  easily  reduced  to  thallous  by  means  of  solution  of  sulphur- 
ous acid,  and  thus  rendered  amenable  to  the  above  reactions. 

The  atomic  weight  of  thallium  was  determined  very  carefully  by 
Crookes.     Ho  found  it  TU 204-2,-0  being  16.  (W.  D.) 

THAMES,  the  most  important  river  in  Great  Britain, 
has  its  source  in  several  streams  on  the  Gloucestershire 
border,  the  main  one  having  its  rise  in  the  parish  of  Coates, 
3  miles  south-west  of  Cirencester.  The  upper  part  of  the 
river,  until  the  junction  with  the  Thame  near  Dorchester, 
is  generally  called  the  Isia,  a  usage  to  which  Camden  per- 
haps gave  currency,  who  derives  the  word  Tamesis  or 
Thames  from  the  junction  of  the  names  of  the  two  rivers, 
the  Thame  and  Isis.  The  total  length  of  the  river  from 
Thames  Head  to  London  Bridge  is  170  miles,  and  ^o  Sheer- 
ness  228  miles.  It  drains  an  area  of  6100  miles.  It  be- 
comes navigable  24  miles  from  its  source,  near  Lechlade, 
its  waters  having  been  greatly  augmented  by  the  junction 
of  the  Colne,  Leach,  and  Churn  ;  here  also  ^s  the  junction 
with  the  Thames  and  Severn  Canal.  The  height  of  its 
source  above  sea-level  is  370  feet,  and  that  of  the  stream 
it  Lechlade  2.50  feet,  the  average  fall  between  Lechlade 
and  London  Bridge  (146  miles)  being  21  inches  per  mile. 
The  course  is  remarkably  equable  throughout.  Above 
Teddingtnn,  19  miles  from  London  Bridge,  the  tidal  wave 
may  \m  said  to  cease,  and  thence  uji  to  Lechlade  naviga- 
tion is  carried  on  by  the  aid  of  locks.     A  small  steamer 


plies  as  high  as  Oxford.  While  at  Lechlade  the  daily  flow 
of  the  ordinary  summer  level  is  about  100  million  gallons, 
the  How  at  Tcddington  is  about  380  million  gallons.  There 
are  seVen  hours  of  ebb  tide  and  five  hours  of  flow  tide. 
From  the  Nore  to  London  Bridge,  a  distance  of  40  milesj 
the  tidal  wave  travels  in  two  hours,  and  in  oll)er  two  hours 
it  reaches  Teddington.  Tlie  width  of  the  river  at  Ted- 
dington  is  2.')0  feet,  and  at  London  Bridge  the  width  at 
high  tide  is  800  feet,  the  depth  being  30  feet,  while  at  low 
tide  the  width  is  650  feet  and  the  depth  12  feet.  Large 
barges  can  ascend  the  river  1 50  miles  above  London  Bridge,' 
vessels  of  200  tons  as  high  as  the  bridge,  and  of  400  tons' 
to  the  Pool,  below  which,  at  Irongate  and  St  Katherine's 
wharf,  deep-sea  steamer  navigation  commences,  while  vessels 
of  any  tonnage  can  come  as  high  as  Deptford. 

The  Thames  leaves  the  Gloucestershire  and  Wiltshire  border  near 
Buscot,  after  which  it  separates  successively  Berks  and  Oxford, 
Berks  and  Bucks,  Middlesex  and  Surrey,  and,  finally,  at  its  estuary, 
Essex  and  Kent.  Below  Lechlade  it  has  a  winding  course,  passing 
near  Farringdon  and  Bampton      After  receiving  the  Windrush.  it 

f masses  near  the  grounds  of  Blenheim,  whence  it  receives  from  the 
eft  the  Evenlode,  and  at  Oxford  it  recci'Jea  from  the  left  the  Cher. 
well.  It  then  flows  inia  southerly  direction  to  Abingdon,  where  it 
receives  on  the  right  the  Ock  from  the  valley  of  the  white  Horse, 
and  has  a  junction  with  the  Wilts  and  Berks  Canal.  Turning  111 
an  easterly  direction  it  is  Joined,  about  a  mile  after  passing  Dor. 
Chester,  by  its  principal  affluent  tho  Thame.  Thence,  through  an 
opening  of  the  Chiltcrn  Hills,  it  passes  Bensington,  and  turns 
southwards  by  Wallingford  and  Reading,  where  it  receives  the 
Kennet  from  the  right  It  then  bends  northward  to  Henley,  east- 
ward to  Great  Marlow,  and  southward  to  Maidenhead,  where  it 
receives  from  the  .right  the  Loddon.  Winding  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  it  passes  Eton,  Windsor.  Datchet,  Staines,  and  Chertsey, 
receiving  at  Staines  the  Colne  from  the  left  Flowing  through  the 
grounds  of  Hampton  Court  it  reaches  Kingston  and  Teddington, 
where  its  bulk  is  increased  by  the  tidal  wave.  From  Richmond, 
where  it  receives  the  Mole,  it  begins  to  pass  tho  villas  and  .".uburbs 
of  Loudon.  At  Gravcsend,  27  miles  below  London,  it  has  a  wi.itl' 
of  half  a  mile,  and  at  the  Nore  lighthouse,  50  miles  below  London 
Bridge,  the  estuary  widens  to  nearly  10  miles.  In  tbc  tidal  ri-aclirs 
the  principal  affluents  of  the  Thames  are  the  Mole  at  Richmond, 
the  Brent  at  Brentford,  the  Wandle  at  Wandsworth,  the  Lea  01 
Blackwall,  the  lioding  at  Barking  Creek,  the  Ingrebouine  at  Ram- 
ham,  and  the  Medwayat  Sheemess.  The  land  adjoinin);  the  nvi-i 
is  greatly  subject  to  floods,  and  from  above  London  there  wi-rc  lu 
ancient  times  wide  stretches  of  marsh  land  covered  by  shalloXv 
lagoons.  The  embankments  below  London  Bridge  d.itc  possibly 
from  the  time  of  tho  Romans,  but  their  origin  is  the  subject  ol 
much  dispute  (see  London,  vol.  xiv.  p  840).  Between  London 
Bridge  and  Chelsea  the  bed  of  the  nver  has  been  altered  .artificially, 
and  flooding  is  pn?vented  by  a  marine  wall  (see  London,  vol  Kiv  ; 
p.  823).  The  Thames  occupies  tho  bed  of  a  much  larger  nrehis- 
toric  river,  the  gravels  of  which  adjoin  its  banks  at  a  consioerable 
distance. 

The  scenery,  though  scarcoly  to  bo  called  picturesque,  ^nd  in  n 
certain  sense  monotonous,  has  a  peculiar  chaim  (rom  the  richness 
of  Its  sylvan  beauty  and  its  )>leasaot  alternation  of  hill  and  dale. 
The  number  of  islands  'hat  occur  in  the  coiusc  of  the  nver  add  t» 
its  interest,  and  afl"ord  convenient  .seclusion  foi  the  erection  of  boat- 
houses  and  tents  The  Thames  vies  with  the  Tyne  as  the  principal 
river  for  boat-racing  in  England,  and  of  course  greatly  surpasses  llic 
latter  river  as  regards  ^niatcur  boat-raciii".  the  principal  fi^tuics 
in  which  arc  tho  Oxford  ami  Cambridge  bu.-it  race  and  the  Hcnlry 
regatta.  The  nver  alfords  about  one  hall  of  the  watei  fupplv  ^il 
London,  and  is  the  principal  outlet  for  its  sewage.  It  is  nii.lri  the 
government  of  conservatoi-s,  originally  constituted  in  1857.  but 
their  duties  have  been  extended  by  several  siiliscqiient  Acts 

Soo  TAP  fdvfr  Thames  from  Orfftrd  In  the  ,^(i,  Is.'.l,  Cusseirs  Rfynt  linct 
(richly  llluslr.iLi-d).  1885;  llu.\lcy'» /*Aj/jtrt5r(i;)Ay,  1877;  tiiij  Dickens's  Dtelwnati 
of  the  Thathfi 

THANA,  or  Taknaii,  a  di.'*rict  in  Bombay  presidency, 
India,  with  an  area  of  4243  square  miles,  lying  between 
18°  42'  and  20°  20'  N.  lat  and  72°  45' and  73'  48'  E  long. 
It  extends  along  the  coast  for  105  miles,  with  a  bre.iilih  of 
50  miles,  and  is  confined  between  the  Sahy.'idri  Oli.'ils  on 
the  E.  and  the  sea  on  the  'W.,  while  on  the  N.  it. is  bounded 
by  the  Portuguese  .territory  of  Daman  and  Hiy  .Si1r.1t 
district,  and  on  the  S.  by  Kol.''iba  and  Poona  districts. 
The  district  'is  well  watered  nnd  wooded,  and,  except  in 
the  north-east,  is  a  low-lying  rice  tract  brokcn''by'  hills. 
The  spurs  of  tho  GhAts  form  health  resorts ;  tho  two  most 


T  H  A-T  H  A 


221 


conspicuous  hills  are  MAlhordn  and  TungAr.  Most  of  the 
bills  were  ODce  fortitiod,  but  the  forts  built  on  them  are 
now  dilaiiidated  and  useless.  The  only  rivers  of  any 
importance  are  the  Vaitarna  and  the  Ulhds,  the  former 
being  navigable  to  a  distance  of  about  20  miles  from  its 
mouth  ,  the  latter  is  also  navigable  in  parts  for  small  craft. 
There  are  no  lakes  ,  but  the  VehAr  and  the  Tulsi,  formed 
artificially,  supply  Bombay  city  with  water.  The  forests, 
lying  chiefly  in  the  northern  half  of  the  district,  occupy 
1064  square  miles,  or  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  area. 
The  average  annual  rainfall  exceeds  90  inches. 

lu  1S81  the  population  of  Thana  was  returned  at  908.548  (males 
46.S,-23t>,  females  440,312),  Hindus  numbered  806,805.  Moham- 
med.in9  42, 391.  and  Christians  39,545  The  district  has  seven 
tonnrt  with  populations  exceeding;  10,000,  namely,  Bandra{14,987), 
Tbana  (see  below),  Bhiwandi  (13,837),  Kalvan  (12,910),  Basscin 
(10.357).  Panvel(l0.351),  Uran(10.l49).  Theareaundercultivaliou 
in  1 885-86  waa  1,002, 448  acres,  and  768,057  remained  uncultivated. 
The  total  area  of  crojis  was  522.810  acres,  including  5s35  tx-ice 
rroppe*l  Rice  is  by  far  the  most  im[)Ortant  product,  and  occupieil 
324.680  acre^.  it  isalso  tli«  chiel'  urticle  of  export.  Sugar  cane  and 
plantama  are  cultivated  largely,  as  well  as  mangoes  and  cocoa-nuts. 
In  1S.S5-86  the  grosa  revenue  of  the  district  was  £245.182,  the 
land  yielding  £130.409.  The  territory  comprised  in  the  district 
of  Tliana  formed  i«art  of  the  ilominions  of  the  pt:sbwa,  and  was 
aaoex-^  by  the  British  in  1818  on  the  overthrow  of  Baji  rao 
Since  ihen  the  0|K'rations  to  [ml  dowu  the  Koli  robbers,  w-hich 
extended  Over  several  years,  have  been  the  only  cause  of  serious 
trouble,  and  lately,  in  1874  and  l.'*77,  there  were  a  number  of  gang 
robberies  which  were  suppressed,  but  not  without  difficulty 

THANA,  chief  town  of  the  above  district  and  a  station 
on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  lies  "JO  miles  north 
east  of  Bombay  city,  in  19°  IT  30"  N  lat.  and  73°  I'  30' 
E.  long.,  and  in  1881  had  a  population  of  14,456  (males 
7S.i6,  females  6600).  It  is  a  municipal  town  and  a  port, 
and  contains  a  civil  hospital  and  postoflBce. 

THANE,  or  Thegw.  See  England,  vol.  viii.  p.  274  , 
and  NoBiLiTV,  vol   xvii.  p.  529 

THAPSACUS.     See  Mesopotamia,  vol.  xvi.  p.  49 

THAR  AND  PARKAK,  or  Tbor  and  Parker,  a  dis- 
trict in  the  east  of  Sind,  Bombay  presidency,  India,  with 
an  area  of  12,729  square  miles.  It  lies  between  24°  13' 
and  26°  15'  N  lat.  and  between  68"  51' and  71°  8  E.  long, 
and  IS  bounded  on  the  N  by  Khaipur  state,  on  the  E.  by 
the  states  of  Jaisalmir,  Malani,  and  Jodhpur,  on  the  W  by 
Hyderabad  district,  and  on  the  S  by  the  Runn  of  Cutch. 
The  district  is  divided  into  two  portions.  The  western 
part,  called  the  "  Pat,"  is  watered  by  the  Eastern  Naraaud 
the  Mithrau  canals,  which  constitute  the  sole  water-system 
of  the  district,  and  the  presence  of  water  has  created  a 
quantity  of  jungle  and  marsh  ,  the  other  part,  called  the 
"Thar,"  is  a  desert  tract  of  rolling  sandhills,  running 
northeast  and  south-west,  composed  of  a  fine  but  slightly 
coherent  sand.  To  the  southeast  of  Thar  is  Pdrkar,  where 
there  are  ranges  of  rocky  hills,  rising  to  'SriO  feet  above 
the  surrounding  levef,  and  open  plains  of  stifi  clay  The 
P.lrkar  portion  of  the  district  contains  the  ruins  of  several 
old  temples  ,  one  of  these  is  a  Jain  temple,  which  con 
tamed  an  idol  of  great  sanctity  and  repute,  known  under 
the  name  of  Gorcha  The  climate  is  subject  to  consider- 
able extremes  in  temperature,  being  excessively  hot  in  the 
summer  and  very  cold  in  winter,  the  cold  increasing  as 
the  sand  hills  are  approached 

The  census  of  1651  returned  the  population  at  203,344  (males 
112,400.  females  90,944).  Hindus  numbereil  43,755,  Moham- 
medans 1119,924.  and  Christians  only  14  Umarkot,  the  birth- 
place of  Akbar.  is  the  chief  town,  with  a  population  of  2828  The 
cllief  products  of  the  di.4lrict  are  rice,  joar,  bajri,  cotton,  and  oil 
seeds  It  IS  estimated  that  only  45  per  cent,  of  the  arable  area 
is  under  cultivation  The  exports  are  chiefly  rice,  wheat,  oilseeds, 
caiile.  goats,  and  sheep,  tlie  imports  consist  of  cotton,  metals, 
drir.l  fruits,  piece  goods,  sugar,  and  tobacco.  The  manufactures 
ore  1  liii-fly  blankets,  camel  saddles,  and  coarse  cotton  cloth.  The 
hufhtmI  revenue  in  1885-86  amounted  to  £44,313,  of  which  the 
land  supplied  £32,927. 

Very  little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  tho  district.     The 


Soda  Rajputs,  said  to  be  descendants  of  Parmar  Soda,  are  supposed 
to  have  come  into  this  part  of  Sind  about  1226,  when  they  quickly 
displaced  the  rulers  of  the  country,  though,  according  to  othei 
authorities,  they  did  not  conquer  the  country  from  the  Suiuras, 
the  dominant  race,  before  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  The 
local  dynasty  of  the  Sodas  su  -cumbed  to  the  Kalhoras  about  1750, 
since  which  period  the  district  haa  been  subject  more  or  less  to 
Sind.  The  Talpur  mirs  succeeded  the  Kalhoras,  and  built  a 
number  of  forts  to  overawe  the  people,  who  were  lawless  and 
addicted  to  robbery  On  the  British  conquest  of  Sind  in  1843  the 
greater  part  of  the  district  was  made  over  to  Cutch  ;  and  in  1856 
It  was  wholly  incorporated  in  the  province  of  Sind.  In  1859  a 
rebellion  broke  out,  which  \*'as  quickly  suppressed. 

THARRAWADDY.  a  district  in  the  Pegu  dmsion  of 
Burmah,  with  an  area  of  2014  square  miles.  It  lies 
between  17°  30  and  18°  40'  N  lat  and  between  95  JU' 
and  9S!  10  E  long  ,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N  by  Pronie, 
on  the  E.  by  the  Pegu  Yoma  range,  on  tbe  S  by  Hantlia- 
waddy,  and  on  the  W  by  tlenzada.  The  Pegu  Yoma 
range  separates  Tharrawaddy  from  Toungii  district,  und 
forms  the  water  parting  between  the  rivers  Irrawaddy  and 
Sittang  ,  there  are  also  many  small  elevations.  Tbe 
Irrawaddy,  which  traverses  the  district  for  40  miles,  is 
the  principal  navigable  river  Another  important  river  is 
the  Hlaing,  which  runs  through  the  district  from  north  to 
south,  receiving  from  the  east,  through  numerous  channels, 
the  drainage  of  the  Pegu  Yoma  Mountains,  which  fertilizes 
the  plain  on  its  eastern  bank  There  are  twenty-three 
teak  forests  and  four  fuel  reserves  in  the  district,  covering 
an  area  of  817  square  miles.  Among  the  wild  animals 
generally  found  in  the  mountains  are  the  elephant, 
rhinoceros,  bisim,  and  various  kinds  of  feathered  game. 

In  is.sl  lift  population  was  returned  at  278.155  (males  143.413, 
females  134.742),  of  whom  19.'<5  were  Hindus,  1110  were  Jluhani- 
medaiis,  270^552  were  liud«Ihi,«ts,  whilst  Christians  and  aborigines 
numbered  2363  and  2135  ropectively  The  area  under  cultivatioi 
in  1885-K6  cninprised  323.542  acres,  and  that  available  for  cultiva 
tion  186. U02  acres,  forests  occupied  364,524  acres.  The  chief  pro. 
ducts  of  (he  district  are  nee,  sesaiuuni,  tobacco,  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
and  fruius.  The  gross  revenue  of  Tharrawaddy  in  1885-86  was 
£85,254.  of  whi.h  the  land  yielded  £51.523.  The  history  o(  the 
district  is  identical  with  that  of  Hi-\zaua  iq  v.).  Tharrawaddy 
was  formed  in  1878  out  of  that  portion  of  HenZada  lying  east  of 
the  Irrawaddy  Its  headquarters  are  at  Thoon  tshay,  on  the 
stream  of  the  same  name 

THASOS,  an  island  in  the  north  of  the  yEgean  Sea,  off 
the  coast  of  Thrace,  3^  miles  distant  from  the  plain  of  the 
river  Nestus  (now  the  Kara-Su).  The  island  was  colonized 
at  an  early  date  by  Pha-nicians,  attracted  probably  by  its 
gold  mines  ,  they  founded  a  temple  of  Hercules,  which 
still  existed  in  the  time  of  Herodotus.  Thasus,  eon  of 
Phcenix,  is  said  to  have  been  the  leader  of  the  Pha'nicians, 
and  to  have  given  hi^  name  to  the  island.  In  720  or  708 
B.C.  Thasos  received  a  Greek  colony  from  Paros  In  a 
war  which  the  Parian  colonists  waged  with  the  Sai^ins,  a 
Thracian  tribe,  the  poet  Arcbilochus  threw  away  his  shield 
The  Greeks  extended  their  power  to  the  mainland,  where 
they  owned  gold  mines  which  were  even  more  valuable 
than  those  on  the  island  From  these  sources  the  Thasians 
drew  great  wealth,  their  annual  revenues  amounting  to 
200  or  even  300  talents.  Herodotus,  who  visited  Thasos,' 
says  that  the  best  mines  on  the  island  were  those  which 
had  been  opened  by  the  Phoenicians  on  the  east  side  of  the 
island,  facing  Samothracc.  After  the  capture  of  Miletus 
(494  B.C.)  HistiiEus  laid  siege  to  Thasos.  The  attack 
failed,  but,  W'arned  by  the  danger,  the  Thasians  employed 
their  revenues  to  build  war  ships  and  strengthen  theii 
fortifications.  This  excited  the  suspicions  of  the  Persians, 
and  Darius  compelled  them  to  surrender  their  ships  and 
pull  down  their  walls  After  the  defeat  of  Xerxes  the 
Thasians  joined  the  Greek  confederacy  ,  but  afterwards 
(in  467,  465,  or  464,  according  to  different  calculations), 
on  account  of  a  difference  about  the  minus  and  mart,-,  or 
the    mainland,   they    revolted      The   Athenians   defeated 


222 


T  H  A  — T  H  E 


tthem  by  sea,  and,  after  a  siege  that  ksted  more  than  two 
years,  took  the  capital,  Thasos,  and  compelled  the  Thasians 
to  destroy  their  .walls,  surrender  their  ships,  pay  an 
indemnity  and  an  annual  contribution,  and  resign  their 
possessions  on  the  mainland.  In  411  B.C.,  at  the  time  of 
the  oligarchical  revolution  at  Athens,  Thasos  again  revolted 
from  Athens  and  received  a  Lacedaemonian  governor  ;  but 
in  407  the  partisans  of  Lacedsemon  were  expelled,  and  the 
'Athenians  under  Thrasybulus  were  admitted.  After  the 
battle  of  iEgos'potami  (405  B.C.),  Thasos  again  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Lacedemonians';  but  the  Athenians  must 
have  recovered  it,  for  it  formed  one  of  the  -subjects  of 
dispute  between  them  and  Philip  of  Macedonia.  In  the 
embroilment  between  Philip  III.  of  Macedonia  and  the 
Romans,  _  Thasos  submitted  to  Philip,  but  received  its 
freedom  at  the  hands  of  the  Romans  after  the  battle  of  • 
Cynoscephate  (197  B.C.),  and  it  was  still  a  "  free  "  state  in 
the  time  of  Pliny.  Thasos,  the  capital,  stood  on  the  north 
side  of  the  island,  and  had  two  harbours,  one  of  -which 
was  closed.  Archilochus  described  Thasos  as  "an  ass's 
backbone  crowned  ^\-ith  wild  wood,"  and  the  description 
still  suits  the  mountainous  island  with  its  forests  of  fir. 
The  highest  mountain,  Ipsario,  is  3428  feet  high.  Besides 
its  gold  mines,  the  wine,  nuts.^and  marble  of  Thasos  were 
well  known  in  antiquity..  The  mines  and  marble  quarries 
are  do  longer  worke,<i  ;  and  the  chief  exports  are  now  fir 
timber  for  shipbuildingj/olive  gil,  houey,  and  wax.  The 
imports  consist  of  liianufactured  goods,  beasts  of  burden, 
and  corn,  for  the  \. island  is  too..moimtainous  to  grow 
enough  com  for  the  'inhabitants." 

In  1858  the  population,  distributed  in"  ten  villams,  was  estimated 
jt  10,000.  The  people  are  Greek  Christians,  and  do  not  differ  in 
ippearasce  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  Greek  islands.  The 
villages  are  mostly  situated  at  some  distance  from.the  sea ;  for  the 
island  suffered  from  pirates  up  to  a  time  within  living  memory. 
In  the  early  part  of  this  century  sentineb  stood  on  duty  night  and 
day,  and  at  a  signal  of  alarm  the  whole  population,  including  the 
llurkish  aga  himself,  used  to  hide  in  the  woods.  For  a  description 
of  the  island  and  its  remains  of  antiquity,  see  A.  Conzo,  Jieise  auf 
den  Insdn  tUs  Ihrakischen  Mares,  Hanover,  I860.' 

THAYETMYO,  a  district  in  the  Irrawaddy  divSion  of 
Burmah,  having  an  area  of  2397  square  miles,  and'  lying 
between  18°  50'and  19°  30'.  N.  lat.  and  between  9*5^  30' 
and  95°  50'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by' the 
newly  acquired  territory  of  Burmah,  on  the  E.  by  Toungii 
district,  on  the  S.  by  Prome,  and  on  the  W.  by  Sandoway. 
On  the  west  is  the  Arakan  Yoma  range,  and  on  the  east 
the  Pegu  Yoma ;  and  the  face  of  the  country,  where  it 
does  not  rise  into  mountains,  is  everywhere  broken  by  low 
ranges  of  hills,  many  of  which  are  barren  and  destitute  of 
all  vegetation.  '.  The  greater  part  of  the  district  is  wooded, 
and  th^  Yomas  east  and  west  are  covered  with  forests  now 
mostly  preserved.  -.  The  chief  river  is  the  Irrawaddy,  which 
traverses  Thayetmyo  from  north  to  south.  The  country 
is  well  drained ;  the  drainage  finds  its  way  to  the  Irra- 
waddy by  three  main  streams  (the  Pwon,  Ma-htiin,  and 
Ma-de)  on  the  west,  and  by  two  (the  Kye-nee  and  Bhwot- 
lay)  on  the  east.  .  Several  salt  and  hot  springs  occur  in 
many  localities  of  the  district ;  petroleum  is  also  found, 
and  extensive  lime  quarries  exist  a  few  miles  south  of 
Thayetmyo.  'The  principal  wild  animals  are  leopards, 
"frild  cats,  barking  deer,  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  tigers,  black 
bears,  and  wild  hogs.  Silver  pheasants  and  partridges  are 
found  in  large  numbers,  especially  in  the  mountains. 

fe>  1881  the.  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  district  was  169,560 
^males^ 87,308,  females  82,252);  Hindus  numbered  2620,  Moham- 
medans 1861,  Christians  2349,  and  Buddhists  148,629.  The 
chief  town  is  Thayetmyo,  with  a  population  (1881)  of  16,097 ;  it  is 
situated  in  19°  18'  43"  N.  lat.  and  95°  15'  40"  E.  long.,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Irrawaddy.  Of  the  total  area  of  1,534,080  acres,  only 
108,167  were  under -cultivation  ia  1885-86;  547,531  were- avail- 
able for  cultivation  ;  and  forests  occupied  256,256  acres.  The  chief 
products  are  rice,  cotton,  oil  seeds,  aod  tobacco  ;  catch  is  also  very 


abundant,  and  the  manufacture  of  the  dye-stuff  is  carried  on  exten 
sively.  Coal  has  recently  been  found  in  the  district,  and  earth  oil- 
wells  exist,  but  neither  coal  nor  oil  has  yet  been  extracted  in  any 
quantity.  The  revenue  of  the  district  in  1885-86  was  returned  at 
£36,702,  of  which  the  land  contributed  £10,482.  On  the  annexa- 
tion of  Pegu  by  the  British  in  1852-53,  Thayetmyo  was  formed  into 
a  subdivision  of  Prome  district;, and  in  1870  it  was  erected  into  a 
separate  jurisdiction  and  placed  under  a  depntj'-commissioner. 

'  THEATRE  {Oiarpoi;  "  a  place  for  seeing,"  from  6cao/xat). 
The  invention  of  a  building  specially  devised  for  dramatic 
representations  was  due  to  the  Athenians  (see  Drama). 
At  first  representations  at  the  Dionysiac  festivals  were  held 
on  temporary  wooden  platforms ;  an  accident,  however, 
which  occurred  in  500  B.C.  induced  the  Athenians  to  begin 
the  construction  of  a  permanent  buQding.  This  first  theatre 
was  not  completed  till  340  B.C.,  and  during  the  interval  a 
large  number  of  theatres,  designed  on  the  same  model,  had 
been  erected  in  many  towns  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
though  in' some  cases,  as  at  Sparta,  they  were  vised  for 
asfemblies  of  the  people  and  dances  rather  than,  for 
dramatic  performances.  :  The'great  Dionysiac  theatre  at 
Athens  was  placed  in  the  Lenaeum,  an  enclostire  sacred  to 
Dionysus,  and  its  auditorium  is  scooped  out  of  the  rock  at 
the  base  of  the  Acropolis  on  its  south-east  side.  A  similar 
position  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  was  always  chosen  by  the 
Greeks,  and  it -was  not  till  the  1st  century  B.C.  that 
theatres  were  built  by  the  Romans  on  a  level  site.' 


\»  ^ 


190 


Fio.  1.— Plan  of  the  Theatre  at  Myra. 

Fig.'  1  shows  the  plan  of  the  existing  theatre  at  Myra, 
in  the  south-east  of  Lyoia,  which,  though  late  in  date,  is 
built  after  the  old  Greek  model.^  The  seats  for  the 
audience  are  arranged  in  concentric  tiers,  rising  like  st  :p8 
one  above  the  other  (see  fig.  2) ;  these  mainly  rest  on  a 
cavity  excavated 
in  the  hillside, 
and  the  whole 
space  occupied  by 
the  spectators  was 
called'^"'the  koiXov 
(Latcafea).  About 
half-way  up  the 
slope  is  an  encirc- 
ling passage  (8ia- 
^ui/io,  prasdnclio). 


Fio.  2.— Section  BhowiDg  the  Seats  A^ — WitkB. 
place  for  spectators'  ^eet. 


Flights  of  steps'  divide  the  seata  .into 
wedge-shaped  blocks  (Kf/wi'SfS,  ««t«).  At  the  hig?j08t 
level  behind  the  top  row  of  seats  ran  a  colonnade,  form- 
ing a  covered  passage  with  a  gallery  at  the  top.  Rowg 
of  niches  were  formed,  in  the  back  wall  of  this,  and 
also  sometimes  in  the  low  wall  encircling  the  ZiiZ,i>yita ;  in 
these  niches  a  series  of  large  bronze  jars  (ijx"'')  "^"^  -®*  ' 
they  were  intended  to  catch  and  repeat  the  reverbaraUon 
of  the  voices  from  the  stage.  'Vitnivina  <iiL  5)  givg& 
•  See  Teller  and  Pullin.  Asia  Minor,  Ixindon,  1865. 


THEATRE 


22S 


elaborate  directions  for  the  eotistruction  of  these  vases, 

which  were  to  be  tuned  in  a  chromatic  scale  ;'  ho  niantions 

their  use  by  the  Greeks,  but  says  he  knows  of  no  Rouiau 

theatre  which   possessed   these  vases,  the   real  utility  ol 

wbii'h  IS  very  problematical.^     The  segtnental  floor  space 

la  a  Greek  theatre  was  called  the  6pxn<rTpa  {orchestra),  and 

was  occupied  by  the  chorus  ,  in  the  centre  of  this  was  the 

9vfi.e\i;,  a  platform  slightly  raised  on  steps,  in  the  middle 

of  which  was  an  altar  to  Dionysus     The  stage  (Trpoo-Kijuoi', 

proscenium)   was  a    narrow  platform,    raised  3  to  5  feei 

above  the  orchestra,  with  which  it  commumcated  by  stairs, 

so  that  the  chorus  could  move  from  one  place  to  the  other ; 

the  central  part  of  the  stage,  where  the  principal  actors 

tisually  stood,  was  the  \cyeiov  (pulpttum.)      The  stage  was 

tiso  connected  with  a  chamber  under  it  {vrouicrfvLov)  by  a 

flight  ol  stairs  called  \apwvi.oi  xAiMaxtt,   by  which  ghosts 

ascended.     At   the  back  of  the  stage  was  a   lofty  wall, 

which  usually  reached  to  the  level  of  the  colonnade  behind 

the  highest  row  of  seats  ,  this  was  the  o-ktjvt;  (scena),  in  | 

which  were  three  doors  leading  into  the  stage  from  the 

actors' dressing  rooms  behind  it'     This  wall  was  usually 

decorated  with  three  orders  of  columns  and  entablatures, 

forming  an  architectural  facade,  which  represented  a  palace 

or    temple,    before    which    the    action   of   the   play    was 

supposed  to  take  place.     Other  movable  wooden  scenery 

was  in  some  cases  added  in  front  of  the  permanent  scena  , 

«r  curtains  with  woven  or  embroidered  figures  were  hung 

against    It  to    form  a   background  to   the   actors  (irapa.- 

irrracr/ia  or  avAma^  atitsa  or  sipanttm).      More  elaborate 

painted  scenes  were  also  used,  but,  according  to  Aristotle 

{Poet.,  IV.  16),  not  before  the  time  of  Sophocles      Various 

kinds  of  machinery  were  used,  such  as  the  ix.rjxavri,  to  suspend 

in  the  air  an  actor  who  was  playing  the  part  of  a  god 

descending  from  heaven,*  and  the  fipovreiov.  an  apparatus 

to  imitate  thunder  by  stones  rolled  in  metal  jars,  probably 

in  the  ghoswhamber  under  the  stage      Women  were  not 

excluded  from  the  Greek  tragic  drama,  but  appear  to  have 

sat  by  themselves  in  the  upper  rows  of  seats  (Athenseus,  xii. 

534).*    At  least  in  late  times  the  chief  priestesses  of  Athens 

occupied  marble  thrones  in  the  irpoeSpia  or  front  row 

The  remains  of  the  Dionysiac  theatre  at  Athens,  the 
prototype  of  all  later  theatres,  were  excavated  in  1862, 
when  the  proscenium,  orchestra,  and  lower  rows  of  seats 
were  found  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation  It  must  have 
held  30.000  people ;  the  cavea  reaches  from  the  foot  of 
the  Acropolis  hill  to  close  under  the  upper  cirtniit  wall. 
The  rock-cut  cavern,  which  was  faced  with  the  choragic 
monument  to  Thrasyllus  (320  b.c  ),  seems  to  have  opened 
behind  the  highest  row  of  seats  ,  the  face  of  the  rock  is 
here  scarped  to  a  curve  concentric  with  the  lines  of  seats. 
The  most  interesting  discovery  was  that  of  a  row  of  67 
marble  thrones  in  the  front  row,  each  inscribed  with  the 
name  of  one  of  the  chief  Athenian  priests  or  with  that  of 
a  secular  official.^     The  cavea  was  divided  into  1 3  cunei ; 

'  The  well-preserved  theatre  at  Tauromemum,  m  Sicily,  siill  has 
these  niches,  which  are  contnved  in  the  dwarf  wall  on  which  the 
coIqiuds  of  the  upper  gallery  stood. 

^  Earthenware  vases,  which  are  sometimes  found  under  the  floors  of 
medieval  church  stalls,  were  probably  placed  there  through  a  mistaken 
notion  that  this  was  carrying  out  Vitruvius's  recommendation. 

•  The  central  door,  used  by  the  chief  actor,  was  **  the  royal  door  ** 

*  Hence  the  Roman  proverbial  phrase,  "  dens  ex  machina  " 

•  This  is  shown  by  Jacobs,  Verm.  Schnflen,  iv.  p.  -272.  dud 
Passow  in  Zimmermann's  Zeitschr.  /.  d.  AUerth.,  1837,  No.  29 

*  These  thrones  are  of  various  dates,  ranging  from  the  reign  of 
Augustus  or  even  earlier  to  that  of  Hadrian ,  see  Papers  of  the 
Avurican  School  of  Classical  Studies  at  Aihensy  vol.  L  p.  123. 
Similar  Greek  theatre  seats  of  earher  date  still  exist  in  the- choirs  of 
acme  churches  in  Rome,  where  they  were  once  used  for  the  episcopal 
or  celebrant's,  throne.  These  were  probably  brought  to  Rome  during 
tbo  imperial  period  for  use  in  the  Roman  theatres  or  amphitheatres. 
The  finest  example  of  pure  Hellenic  work  is  In  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli; 
it  is  decorated  with  delicate  honeysuckle  scroll-work  in  relief. 


a  low  wall  seiiarafed  the  auditorium  from  the  orchestra. 
The  front  or  •riser"  of  the  stage  is  decorated  with  fine  reliefs 
of  deities  on  large  marble  slabs  -These  existing  fsatures 
are  mostly  restorations  of  the  time  of  Hadrian,  but  the 
reliefs  themselves  are  of  much  earlier  date.  The  Boor  of 
the  orchestra  is'  very  late,  formed  of  roughly  kiid  slabs  of 
stone,  with  a  large  central  lozenge  in  marble,  which  may 
mark  the  limits  of  the  thymele,  and  is  apparently  part  of 
an  earlier  pavement. 

The  position  of  the  Dionysiac  theatre,  with  many  of 
the  chief  temples  of  Athens  in  sight,  and  with  its  glorious 
view  of  Mount  Hyraettus,  the  blue  waters  of  the  /Egeau 
Sea,  and  the  islands  of  Salamis  and  /Egina,  should  not  be 
forgotten  in  reading  the  dramas  of  the  great  tragedians, 
witi  their  impassioned  appeals  to  the  glories  of  nature  and 
their  allusions  to  the  protective  presence  of  the  divine 
patrons  of  Attica. 

Outside  Athens  the  largest  Greek  theatres  were  those  at 
Megalopolis  (Paus.,  viii.  32),  Cnidus,  Syracuse,  Argos,  and 
Epidaurus.  By  the  end  of  the  4th  century  B.C.  every 
important  Hellenic  city  possessed  its  theatre,  and  new 
ones  were  built  or  old  ones  restored  throughout  the  whole 
period  of  Roman  domination.  The  most  perfect  existing 
example  is  that  at  Aspendus  in  Pamphylia,'  a  building  of 
the  2d  century  of  our  era,  in  which  the  early  Greek  model 
has  been  closely  followed,  rtspeodus  is  the  only  place 
where  the  whole  scena  with  its  three  orders  of  columns  is 
still  standing,  and  every  row  of  seats  exists  in  almost  perfect 
condition.  In  this  theatre  the  whole  interior  appears  to 
have  been  covered  by  an  awmng,*  supported  along  the  top 
of  the  scena  by  wooden  poles  set  in  rows  of  perforated 
corbels  like  those  on  the  Colosseum  in  Rome.  The  earlier 
Greek  theatres  were  probably  unsheltered  from  the  sun. 
Next  to  Aspendus,  the  theatre  of  Tauromenium,  in  Sicily 
(see  Taormina),  is  the  best  preserved,  at  least  as  far  as 
regards  the  scena  and  the  upper  gallery  round  the  cavea. 
That  at  Myra,  in  Lycia  (fig.  1),  is  also  in  good  preservation. 
The  Roman  Theatre. — In  the  main  the  theatres  of  the 
Romans  were  copied  closely  from  those  of  the  Greeks,  but 
in  the  Greek  theatre 
the  orchestra  occu- 
pied more  than  a 
semicircle,  while  the 
Romans  made  it  ex- 
actly half  a  circle. 
The  accompanying 
diagrams  (see  fig.  3) 
show  the  principle 
on  which  the  plan 
of  each  was  set  out.' 
The  Romans  also 
introduced  another 
important  change,  in 
many  cases  con 
structing  theatres  on 
a  level  site,  not 
scooped  out  of  a  hiU 
side  as  in  the  case 
of  Hellenic  theatres. 
This  necessitated  an 
elaborate  arrange- 
ment of  substruc- 
tures, with  raking  vaults  to  carry  the  seats  of  the  cavea, 
and  also  an  additional  visible  facade  with  tiers  of  arcbe.=: 
foUovnng  the  semicircle  of  the  auditorium.  The  desisn 
universally  adopted  for  this  appears  to  have  been  tiers, 
usually  three  in  number,  of  open  arches,  with  intermediate 


z 

r  ^ 

\ 

X            ^. 

V  J 

7\.. 

^^  -   •v.X^^.-^— . 

/ 

A 

CHEEK 

N 

\ 

\. 

f          '\ 

^ 

V 

V     J 

k)     , 

I      I 

\ 

ys^ 

/' 

^ 

Fio.  0  —  DiagTam  to  show  ine  Principle  on  which* 
ihe  Plans  ufihe  Greek  and  Roman  Tbeatre  wwc 
set  out 


^  See  Texier  and  Pu]lan,  A'sia  Minor ^  London,  1865. 

®  There  was  also  a  wooden  pent-roof  corbelled  out  pver  the  ?;tage^ 

^  See  Vitruvius,  iii.  8  (Greek  theatre)  and  iii.  2  tO  7  (Roman). 


224 


T  H  E  A  T  E  E 


eosi^p'i  columas,  each  tier  being  of  a  differentr order,  as  is 
yiU  to  be  seen  in  tbe  remains  of  the  theatre  of  Marcellns 
in  Rome  '  The  developuient  of  the  use  of  the  stoae-ardi, 
and  still  more  the  use  of  concrete  for  forming  vatdts, 
enililed  ibc-  Romans  to  erect  their  theatres  on  any  site. 
Th')  e  in  Rome  virere  placed  in  the  level  plain  of  the 
pai  r^us  Martius. 

I'uring  the  Republican  period  the  erection  of  permanent 
theitr^s  «ath  seats  for  the  spectators  was  thought  to 
jsavou.-  of  Greek  liixury  and  to  be  unworthy  of  the  stern 
simplicity  of  the  Roman  citizens,  Thas  in  154  B.C.  Scipio 
Nasica  induced  the  senate  to  demolish  the  first  stone 
theatre  which  had  been  begun  by  C.  Cassius  Longinus 
"  tanquam  iiintile  et  nociturum  publicis  moribus,"  Liv., 
Sjcnt.,  48).  Even  in  55  B.C.,  when  Pompey  began  the 
theatre  of  which  remains  still  enst  in  Rome,  bethought  it 
wise  to  place  a  shrme  to  Venus  Victruc  at  the  top  of  the 
cavea,  as  a  sort  of  e.xcuse  for  having  stone  seats  below  it — 
the  seats  theoretically  serving  as  steps  to  reach  the  temple. 
This  theatre,  which  was  completed  in  52  B.C.,  is  spoken  of 
by  Vitruvius  as  "the  stone  theatre "^ar  excellence:  it  is 
said  in  the  Regionary  catalogues  to  have  held  40,000 
peopla  It  was  also  nsed  as  an  amphitheatre  for  the 
bloody  shows  in  whiclj  the  Romans  took  greater  pleasure 
than  in,  the  pnrer  intellectual  enjoyment  of  the  drama. 
At  its  inaaguration  500  lions  and  20  elephants  were  killed 
by  gladiators.  Near  it  two  other  theatres  wera  erected, 
one  begun  by  Julius  Caesar  and  finished^  by  Angnstns  in 
13  B.a,  under  the  name  of  his  nephew  Marceilos,^  and 
another  built  about  the  same  date  by  Cornelius  Balbus 
(SutiU, -Aug.,  29;  Pliny,  H.  N.,  xxxvL  16).  Scanty  re- 
mains exist  of  this  last  theatre,  but  the  ruins  of  the 
theatre  of  Marcellus  are  among  the  most  imposing  of  the 
buildings  of  ancient  Rome, 

A  long  account  is  given  by  Pliny  {H.  N.,  xxxvi  2  and 
24)  o,f  a  most  magnificent  temporary  theatre  built  by  the 
sedile  JL  .(Emilius  Scaurus  in  58  B.a  It  is  said  to  have 
held  the  incredible  number  of  80, 000" people,  and  was  a 
■work  of  the  most  costly  splendour.  Still  less  credible  is 
the  account  which  Pliny  gives  {H.  iV_,  xxxvL  24) of  two 
wooden  theatres  built  by  C.  Curio  in  50^  BX.,"Tvhich  were 
made  to  revolve  on  pivots,  so  that  the  two  together  could 
form  an  amphitheatre  in  the  afternoon,  after  having  been 
used  as  two  separate  theatres  in  the  morning. 

In  some  cases  the  Romans  buQt  two  theatres  close 
together,  one  for  the  Greek  and  the^  other  ~for  the  Latin 
drama,  as  is  the  case  at  Hadrian's  magnificent  "villa  near 
TivolL  The  two  theatres  at  Pompeii  are  still  well  pre 
served,  and  all  Roman  provincial  towns  of  any  importance 
seena  to  have  possessed  at  least  one  theatre,  designed  with 
the  semicircular  orchestra  after  the  Roman  fashion  (see 
fig.  3),  The  theatres  buUt  under  the  Roman  rule  in 
Hellenic  cities  seem,  on  the  other  hand,  to  have  been 
usually  constructed  on  the  old  Greek  model,  probably 
because  they  were  designed  by  Greek  architects^  This  is 
the  case  .it  Tauromenium,  Aspendus,  and  Myia  see  (fig 
1)^  An  important  exception  to  this  rule  is  the  still  well 
preserved  theatre  of  Herodes  Atticos,  at  the  south-west 
angle  of  the  Athenian  Acropolis,  which  has  a  semicircular 
9rchestra.  It  "was  built  in  the  reign  of  Hadnan  by 
Herodes  Atticns,*  a  very  wealthy  Greek,  who  spent 
eu0rm.)us  sums  in  beautifying  the  city  of  Athens ;  he 
called  it  the  Regillum,  after  his  wife  RegiUa.     Its  cavea. 


^  Thia  Uesign  was  also  adopted  lor  their  aiophitbeatres,  yuch.  aa  tli© 
colossea  of  Home  and  Capoa,  Uio  plan  of  wliicb  resembles  tb^  cavea 
of  two  IheatPea  stt  together  so  aa  to  enclose  an  oval  space. 

•  According  lo  Livy  (xl  51),  the -theatre  of  MaR'ellus  iraa  boirt  on 
the  site  of  an  earlier  one  erected  by  .^niilius  Lepidus. 

*  This  theatre  was  not  begun  when  Pausanias  wrote  his  book  Attica^ 
&nd  wa:i  complete  when  he  wrote  the  j4cA^uca.(se&Paii3.,  vii^^O).  It 
id  illustrated  in  Man.  Jnst.,  \L,  plate  16^ 


which  is  excavated  in  the  rock,  held  about  6000  people ; 
it  was  connected  with  the  great  Dionysiac  theatre  by  a. 
long  and  lofty  porticiis  or  stoa,  of  which  considerable 
remains  stiU  exist,  probably  a  late  restoration  of  the  stoa 
built  by  Eumenes  XL  of  Pergamum.  In  the  Roman  theatre 
the  "orchestra^"  was  occupied,  not  by  the  chorus,  but 
by  senators  and  other"  persons  c^  rank  (Vitr.,  iii  6).* 
The  Romans  used  scenery  and  stage  effects  of  more 
elaboration  than  was  the  custom  in  Greece.  Vitruvius 
(iii.  7)  mentions  three  sorts  of  movable  scenery: — (1) 
for  the  tragic  drama,  fa9ade3  with  columns  represent- 
ing public  buddings  ;  (2)  for  comic  plays,  private  houses 
with  practicable  windows  ajid  balconies;*  and  (3)  for  the 
satyric  drama,  rustic  scenes,  with  mountains,  caverns,  and 
trees. 

Tke  Modern  Theatre. — During  the  Middle  Ages  miracle 
plays  with  sacred  scenes  were  the  favourite  kind  of 
drama ;  no  special  buildings  were  erected  for  these,  as 
they  were  represented  either  in  churches  or  in  temporary 
booths.  In  the  16th  century  the  revival  of  the  sectdar 
drama,  which,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  formed  so  im- 
portant a  part  of  the  literature  of  Englapd,  was  carried  on 
in  tents,  wooden  sheds,  or  courtyards  of  inns,  mostly  by 
strolling  actors  of  a  very  low  class.  It  was  not  till  towards 
the  close  of  the  century  that  a  permanent  building  was 
constructed  and  licensed  for  dramatic  representations,, 
under  the  management  of  Shakespeare  and  Burbage.^    In 


*  The  pit  and  stalls  in  a  modem  theatre  occupy  an  analogoos- 
position. 

'  These  are  shown  on  OnEco-Roman  vases  of  the  latest  type,  "with, 
paintings  of  borlesqne  parodies  of  mythological  storle-s. 

*  The  first  bnilding  specially  ert:cted  in'  London  for  dramatia 
purposes  was  built  in  1576-77  by  the  actor  James  Eurbage,  who  was 
ohginaUy  a  carpenter  by  trade.  It  was  constructed  of  timber,  and 
stood  in  Holywell  Lane,  Shoreditch,  till  1598,  when  it  was  pulled 
dowTi ;  it  was  known  as  "Tbe  Theatre  "  par  excellences  Of  almost 
equally  early  date  was  the  "Curtam"  theatre,  also  in  Sboreditch. ; 
many  explanations  of  its  name  have  been  given,  but  the  real  one 
appears  to  be  that  it  was  so  called  from  tbe  plot  of  groond,  known  aa 
*'  The  Garten,"  on  which  it  stood-  It  prot>ably  contmued  in  use  till 
the  general  closing  of  theatres  by  order  of  tbe  parliament  in  1642. 

Tbe  "Globe"  theatre,  famous  for  its  association  with  Shakespeare, 
was  buUt  by  James  Buibage,  who  used  the  matenab  of  "The  Theatre,'* 
in  the  year  1598.  Its  site  was  in  Southwark,  in  a  district  called 
"  The  Bankside,"  near  the  old  "  Bear  Gardens. "  It  was  an  octagonal 
structure  of  wood,  with,  lath  and  plaster  between  the  main  framework. 
It  was  burnt  in  1613,  rebuilt,  and  finally  pulled  down  and  its  eilft 
ttiilt  over  in  1644.  Its  name  was  derived  from  its  sign  of  Atlas  sup- 
porting the  globe.  Near  tt  were  two  less  important  theatres,  "Th« 
Rose,"  opened  in  1592  by  Henslowc,  and  "The  Swan,"  opened  in 
1598  and  probably  owned  also  by  Henslowe  ;  like  the  Globe,  it  wa3 
an  octagonal  wood-and-plaster  buildicg. 

The  "  Blackfnais"  theatre,  another  of  the  Burbages'  ventures,  was 
built  in  1596  (not  1576,  as  stated  by  Collier,  Hist,  o/  Dramatu:  Poetry 
aiui  Annals  of  the  Stage,  new  ed.,  1879,  voL  L  p.  287),  near  the  oli 
Dominican  friary.  Tlie  "Fortune"  theatre  was  built  by  Edward 
AUeyn,  tbe  great  rtval  of  the  Burbages,  in  1599-1600,  at  a  total  cOft, 
including  the  site,  of  £1320  It  stood  between  Wbitecross  Street 
and  Golding  Lane.  It  ensted  aslata  as  1819,  when  a-diawing  ol  it 
was  given  by  Wnionson  (Londina  Ulustrata,  1819).  The  "Red 
Bull "  theatre  was  probably  originally  the  galleried  court  of  an  inn, 
which  was  adapted  for  dramatic  purposes  towards  the  close  of 
Elizabeths  reign.  Other  early  theatres  were  tbe  "  Hope  "  or  "  Pails 
Garden  "  theatre,  the  ' '  Whitefnars  "  and  "  Salisbury  Court  "  theatres, 
and  tbe  "  Newington  "  theatre.  A-Corious  panoramic  view  of  London, 
engraved  by  Visscher  in,  1616,  shows  the  Globe,  the  Hope,  and  Iha 
Swan  Iheatrea. 

The  plan  j>f-the"flrst  English  theatres  appears  to  have  had  no-  con- 
nexion with  those  of -classical  times,  as  was  the  case  m  Italy  it  was 
evidently  produced  in  an  almost  accidental  way  by  the  early  custom  of 
jrecuns  a  lemponny  platlonn  or  sUige  in  the  middle  of  the  open  court- 
yard of  an -inn,  in  which  tbe  galleries  all  round  the  court  formed  boxes 
for  the  chief  spectators,  while  tbe  poorer  part  of  tbe  audience  stood 
in  tbe  court  on  aU  Rides  of  the  central  stage.  Something  similar  to 
this  arrangement,  unsuitable  though  it  now  seems,  was  reproduced 
even  in  buildings,  such  as  tbe  Globe,  the  Fortune,  and  the  Swan, 
wbith  were  specially  designed  lor  the  drama  In  these  and  other 
early  theatres  there  was  a  central  platform  for  the  stage,  Siirrourded 
by  seats  except  on  tfoe  side,  where  there  was  a   "green-room"  or, 


THEATRE 


225 


the  ICtU  and  17th  centuries  a'favourite  kind  of  theatrical 
representation  was  in  tho  form  of  "  masques,"  with  pro- 
cessions of  grotesquely  attired  actors  and  temporary  scenic 
effects  of  great  splendour  and  mechanical  ingenuity.  In 
the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  Ben  Jonson  and  the 
architect  loigo  Jones  worked  together  in  the  production  of 
these  "  masques,"  Jonson  writing  the  words  and  Ijiigo 
Jones  devising  the  scenic  effects,  the  latter  being  very 
costly  and  complicated,  with  gorgeous  buildings,  land- 
scapes, and  clouds  or  mountains,  which  opened  to  display 
mimic  deities,  thrown  into  relief  by  coloured  lights.  These 
masques  were  a  form  of  opera,  in  which  Ben  Jonson's 
words  were  set  to  music.  Ben  Jonson  received  no  more 
for  his  libretto  than  Inigo  Jones  did  for  his  scenic  devices, 
and  was  not  unnaturally  annoyed  at  the  secondary  place 
which  he  was  made  to  occupy  :  he  therefore  revenged 
himself  by  writing  severe  satires  on  Inigo  Jones  and  the 
system  which  placed  the  literary  and  mechanical  parts  of 
the  opera  on  the  same  footing.  In  an  autograph  MS. 
which  still  eiists  tlte  satirical  line  occurs — "  Painting 
and  carpentry  are  the  soul  of  meisque"  (see  Cunningham, 
Lift  of  Inigo  Jones,  London,  1848). 

In  Italy,  during  the  16th  century,  the  drama  occupied 
a  more  important  position,  and  several  theatres  were 
erected,  professedly  on  the  model  of  the  classic  theatre  of 
Vitruvius.  One  of  these,  the  Teatro  Olimpico  at  Vicenza, 
still  exists ;  it  was  designed  by  Palladio,  but  was  not 
completed  till  I5S4,  four  years  after  his  death.  It  has  an 
architectural  scena,  with  various  orders  of  columns,  jows 
of  statues  in  niches,  aid  the  three  doors  of  the  classic 
theatre,  but  the  whole  is  painted  with  strong  perspective 
effects  which  are  very  unclassical  in  spirit  Scamozzi, 
Palladio's  pupil,  who  completed  the  Teatro  Olimpico,  built 
another  pseudo-classical  theatre  in  1088  at  Sabbionetta  for 
the  duke  Vespasiano  Gonzaga,  but  this  does  not  now  e.xist. 

In  France  the  miracle  play  developed  into  the  secular 
drama  rather  earlier  than  in  England.  In  the  reign  of 
Louis  XI.,  about  1467,  the  "Brothers  of  the  Passion" 
had  a  theatre  which  was  partly  religious  and  |>artly 
satiftcal.  In  the  16th  century  Catherine  do'  Medici  is 
said  to  have  spent  incredible  sums  on  the  dresses  and 
scenery  for  the  representation  of  the  Italian  ballet ;  and 
in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  the  regular  opera  was 
introduced  at  Paris. 

At  the  end  of  the  18th  century  the  theatres  of  Sau 
Carlo  at  Naples,  La  Scala  at  Milan,  and  La  Fenico  at 
Venice  were  the  finest  in  Europe ;  all  these  have  been 
rebuilt  in  the  present  century,  but  have  beea  eclipsed  by 
the  theatres  of  Paris,  St  Petersburg,  and  other  capitals, 
both  in  size  and  architectural  splendour. 

"tireynge-Iiowse."  Tlie  upper  galleiies  or  boxes  completely  sur- 
roixnjetl  the  st.ige,  even  the  space  over  the  green-room  being  occupied 
by  boxes.  This  being  the  .arrangement,  it  is  easy  to  see  why  the 
octagonal  plan  wa,<i  selecttd  in  most  cases,  though  not  in  all, — the 
Fortune  theatre,  for  example,  was  square.  An  intereating  speciGca- 
tion  and  contract  for  the  building  of  the  Fortune  theatre  is  printed  by 
Halliwell-Pliillip[is  {ojj.  cit.  mfra,  p.  164).  In  all  its  details  the 
Fortune  is  specified  to  be  like  the  CJlobe,  except  that  it  is  to  he  squanj 
in  plan,  and  with  timbers  of  heavier  scantling.  The  walls  are  to  be 
of  wood  and  pla.<;ter,  tho  roof  tiled,  with  leail  gutters,  the  stage  of 
oak,  with  a  "shadow "or  cover  over  it,  .iml  tho  " tireynge-howse "  to 
have  glazed  windows.  Two  sorts  of  boxes  are  mentioned,  viz., 
"gentlemen's  roomes"  and  "twoo-pennicroomes."  A  woodcut  show- 
ing this  arrangement  of  the  interior  is  given  in  a  collection  of  plays 
edited  by  Kirkraan  in  1672. 

Much  valuable  information  about  the  early  theatres  of  London  is 
given  by  Wilkinson,  Lmditia  JUustrata  (1819),  in  which  are  engrav- 
ings of  some  of  them.  See  also  Collier,  Ifisl.  of  Dramatic  Poetry, 
1879 ;  Halliwell-Phillipps,  Life  of  SItakcspearc,  1883  ;  Malone, 
Hutary  of  the  Stage,  1790,  republished  by  Boswell  in  1821  ;  the 
publications  of  the  New  Shakspere  Society  ;  the  Ninth  Report  of 
the  Historical  MSS.  Commission  ;  and  a  series  of  articles  on  early 
London  theatres,  by  T.  F.  Ordish,  in  The  Anliquary.  rola.  xL,  lii , 
>nd  xiv.,  186S-86. 


In  tlie  niojeni  tliestre  theanditorium  ha-s  changed  comparatively 
little,  except  that  the  stalls  have  gradually  encroached  upon  and 
almost  absorbed  the  pit,  Tho 'arrangement  of  the  boxes,  sUlls, 
balcony,  and  gallery  are  too  well  known  to  need  description.  Few 
people,  have,  however,  any  notion  of  tho  immens«  size  and  exti tnie 
complication  of  the  space  and  machinery  beiiiiid  the,  proscenium, 
of  which  the  visible  stage  occupies  but  a  very  small  pioportioii  Tho 
stage-floor  slopes  upwards  away  from  the  audience,  so  that  it  mjy 
appear  deeper  than  it  really  is  by  diminishing  the  foreshorten ing.* 
Its  extent  behind  the  most  distant  plane  of  scenery  is  usually 
quite  as  great  as  that  which  the  audience  sees.  In  addition  to  this 
extension  of  the  visible  stage  there  are  three  other  enormous  spaces 
filled  with  the  machinery  to  work  the  scenery. 

(1)  Of  these  the  first  consists  of  the  "winus"  {Fr.  coulisses),  a  scries 
of  chambere  or  platforms  on  each  side  of  the  stage,  arranged  many 
stories  high,  and  reaching  to  more  than  double  the  height  of  the 
proscenium. 

(2)  The  "dock  "or  underspace  (Fr.  rfcisoiis),  extending  under 
the  whole  area  of  the  stage  floor,  and  about  equal  in  height 
to  tho  proscenium,  is  divided  into  three  or  four  stories  by  suc- 
cessive lloors,  and  contains  long  rows  of  immense  windlasses 
(Fr.  (rril)  for  raising  and  lowering  scenery,  and  also  an  elaborate 
arrangement  of  hfts  by  which  actors  can  suddenly  appear  or  vanish 
through  the  stage  floor.  A  very  ingenious  device  called  the  "star 
trap,"  invented  by  an  English  mechanician  (Fr.  trapjn  Anglaise), 
allows  an  actor  to  vanish  through  tho  floor  vithout  any  opening 
in  it  being  visible.  This  is  done  by  making  the  trap  door  of  thin 
boards  (something  like  a  Venetian  blind)  fixed  on  to  flexible  bands 
of  steel  ;  the  weight  of  tho  actor  makes  these  optn  in  the  middle 
and  let  him  through,  while  the  steel  springs  close  the  opening  as 
soon  as  they  are  released.  The  whole  movement  is  so  rapid  that 
the  actor  seems  to  sink  through  the  solid  floor  '  In  all  mechanical 
appliances  for  theatrical  purposes  England  is  far  ahead  of  other 
countries,  many  of  which  nave  adopted  English  methods. 

(3)  Tlio  third  space,  and  the  largest  of  all,  is  that  above  ths 
proscenium — the  "  flies  "(Fr.  dessus  or  cintre).  extending  over  tho 
whole  of  tho  stage,  and  reaching  sometimes  to  nearly  double 
the  height  of  the  proscenium.  This  also  is  divided  into  many 
flours,-  and  contains  rows  of  great  windlasses,  by  which  scenery  can 
be  hoisted  up  out  of  sight,  without  folding  or  bending  it.  AU 
these  tlireo  parts  of  tho  building  arc  filled  with  a  complicated  but 
most  orderly  scries  of  ropes,  lifts,  and  machinery  of  every  sort,  of 
which  it  is  impossible  here  to  give  a  detailed  description. 

The  oh'  method  of  fi.\iiig  scenery  was  to  slide  it  in  two  halves 
from  the  wings  ing'ooves  formed  in  the  stage  floor  ;  these  are  no 
longer  used,  as  mnc^  more  realistic  effects  can  be  gained  by  sup- 
porting sccnciy  from  the  top,  or  by  building  it  up  with  supports  of 
Us  own,  so  that,  instead  of  a  series  of  painted  planes  set  parallel 
to  tho  stage  front,  castles,  cathedrals,  or  even  whole  streets  are 
actually  built  upon  the  stage, 
and  give  striking  effects  of 
real  perspective. 

A  rapidly  growing  tendency 
now  exists  to  increase  the 
mechanical  perfection  of  the 
theatre.  The  extended  use  of 
iron  instcail  of  wood  for  the 
ttago  floor  and  the  various 
nini  liincs  has  been  a  great  gain 
in  space  and  rapidity  of  work- 
ing. It  is  now  considered  a 
great  object  to  drop  the  curtain 
as  Seldom  as  possible,  and 
even  the  Grand  Opera  House 
of  Paris  is  now  left  far  behind 
in  the  modern  competition  for 
mechanical  perfection,' though 
from  an  architectural  point  of 
view  it  is  the  most  magnificent 
and  costly  of  all  existing  build- 
ings of  its  kind.     See  fig.  4. 

The  latest  improvement  to  ^^  ^ 

prevent    delay  ))etween    the  f,6.  4.-PIM1  ot  the  Gr^d  Oper.  Homo  ti 
scenes  has  been  introduced  in  Paris :  200  feet  to  the  inch, 

the   Madison   Square    theatre  A,  Auditory.   B, stage.   C, Grand  Stairciin. . 
in  New  York  city,  which  has     u.  Great  Salooa.   E,  Koyil  Entranct. 
two    stages,    one    above    the     Greea-room. 
other.     During  the  performance  of  a  scene  the  second  stage  floor  :'i 


f|F*-»-*-»-*-JF--<H 


*  This  device  Vas  practised  by  the  mediaeval  architects  in  most 
European  countri  ss,  who  .frequently  made  the  floor  of  cathedrals  and 
other  large  churches  to  slope  upwards  from  west  to  east,  sometimes 
as  much  as  from  two  to  three  feet. 

*  Other  varieties  of  this,  such  as  the  "vampire  trap,'*  allow  an 
actor  to  vanish  through  an  apparently  solid  wall. 

'  In  1883  M.  Reyer'a  Sigurd  was  refused  at  the  Paris  Opera  House 
mainly  on  account  of  the  absence  of  the  necessary  mechanical  appliancest 

xxin.  —  29 


226 


THEATRE 


beiD^  l^reparcJ  in  the  under-space,  with  all  its  scenery  nxed,  and 
when  the  curtain  falls  the  first  stage  rises  into  the  upper  regions 
and  the  second  floor  goes  up  to  take  its  plac6.  Thcsu  floors  are 
accurately  balanced  by  heavy  couuterpoi'*  weights,  so  that  tho 
.Whole  of  tliese  enormous  masses  are  moved  with  comparatively 
little  force. 

On  the  whole,  for  magnificence  of  effect  and  mechanical  ingenuity 
the  gicat  London  pantomimes  are  unrivalled.  Their  transforma- 
tion-scenes are  marvels  of  the  mechanist's,  skill,  and  are  often 
devised  with  very  high  artistic  talent.  Unhappily  much  danger 
and  sutTcring  have  often  to  be  undergone  by  tlie  women  who  act  the 
part  of  fairies  and  the  like,  susjwnded  high  in  the. air  by  almost 
invisible  supports,  and  by  the  young  children  who  have  to  squeeze 
themselves  into  pasteboard  shells  representing  insects  or  reptiles. 

.,  In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  parts  of  the  theatre,  which 
are  reserved  for  the  mechanical  working  of  the  performance, 
much,  space  is  occupied  by  the  "green-room"  for  the  actors, 
and  rows  of  dressing-rooms.  ,  An  immense  deal  of  storage  room 
is  also  required,  and  some  of  the  Parisian  tlieatres  have  large 
magazines  (or  this  purpose  in  tlie  suburbs.  In  many  cases  also  the 
btelier  for  the  scene  painters  is  far  removed  from  the  theatre,  and 
thus  far  better  space  id  lighting 
for  the  work  can  be  piovid'id.  Fig. 
5  sliows  the  plan  of  the  Drury  Lane 
theatre,  in  many  respects  the  best 
arranged  in  London. 
,  Tlie  painting  of  theatrical  scenery 
has  frequently  been  the  ivork  of 
artists  of  very  high  talent,  such  as 
IJaphael  in  Rome,  Wattean,  Boucher, 
and  Scrvandoui  in  Franco,  and  Stan- 
field  in  England.  Paintings  of  very  ^„ 
high  artistic  meut  and  wonderfully  n  [f 
decorative  elTecl  are  now  produced  ' 
for  theatrical  purposes,  especially  in 
France,  Ccrniany,  and  England.* 
In  England  especially  great  histor- 
ical and  autiquariau  knowledge  are 
brouglit  to  the  aid  of  tins  branch  of 
art.  The  landscapes  in  particular 
are  sometimes  woiks  of  great  heauty, 
find  very  beautiful  cfl'ects  of  lake 
scenery  wilh  trees  and  mountains  jj  ^j^^.j-Q' 
reflected  in  tlic  water  are  got  by  set-  '-^— "''^*-^^ 
ting  great  sheets  of  plate  glass  overp,fi.j;__p]-inof  Drury LaneThcatre: 
the  stage  floor,  slightly  Inclined,  so  luo  feet  to  the  inch, 

that  a  real  reflexion  is  thrown  bj'the  A.  Stase.  B.  Saloon  between  tho 
landscape  painted  on  the  scene  be-  Ch.cfStaircscs.  C.  Entrance  Halt, 
hind.  Another  ingenious  device,  useil  by  Wagner  at  Baircuth  and 
also  in  England  for  mapjical  scenes,  was  to  form  a  thin  and  semi- 
transparent  cur'tain-Of  vapour,  which  was  seut^up  by  a  perforated 
steam-pipe  conci-alcd  in  a  groove  in  the  stage. 

The  various  methods  of  lighting  used  are  an  important  item  in 
the  i>roduction  of  striking  cflccts.  Tho  old  system  of  a  row  of 
/'foot-ligliLs,"  witli  their  unpleasant  upward  shadow,  is  nowalmost 
obsolete.  Dip  candles  were  Uiied  till  1720,  when  moulded  caudles 
were  introduced  into  French  theatres.  The  next  improvement 
was  tlic  lamp  of  M.  Argand,  with  its  circular  wick. ""  In  1,822  gas 
was  first  um.<1  in  a  Parisian  tlieairo,  next  came  the  oxyhydrogen 
lime  li^ht,  uhcd  for  special  efl'ccts,  and  now  electric  lighting  is 
rajiidiy  superseding  all  other  kinds. 

/rhfold  way  of  producing  lightning  was  to  blow  lycopodium  or 
powdered  res.iii  wiih  bellows  tlirougli  a  flame,  and  this  is  still  used 
in  realistic  elleelb  of  conflagrations.  More  elfcctivo  lightning  is 
now  made  by  ll.ashing  the  electric  light  behind  a  scene  painted 
wilh  i-Iouds,  in  which  a  zigzag  aperture  has  been  cut  out  and  filled 
with  a  transpan-nt  substance.  Tjjunder  is  made  by  shaking  large 
sheets  of  iron,  by  rolling  cannon  balls  above  the  ceiling  of  the 
audiloriuni,  juid  by  clapping  together  a  series  of  planks  strung 
together  on  two  ropes.  Wind  is  imitated  by  a  machine  with  a 
eoggeit  cylinder,  which  revolves  against  coarse  cloth,  tightly 
strelehwl  Thu  sound  of^rainjs  produced  by  shaking^parched 
\}i:iis  in  y  mot.-il  cylinder. 

The  fii-eVjirstni  is  iiuw  usually~arrsnged  either  below  or  above  the 
prpsefiiHim.  •!/  that  the  musicians  aro  not  visible.  The  prompter 
i»  pl.ucd  at  ono  side,  in  the  wings,  so  as  to  avoid  the  disfigure- 
ment of  the  hood-like  box  which  formerly  nsed  to  cut  the  front 
lineul  the  sUigc  iuto^two  halves.  j(,.Thisis.  however,  le^  convenient 
for  the  actors,  i 

,  Till  the  niid<l)o  oPthe'  present  century  little  trouble  or  expense 
was  laid  out  on  dresses  and  accessories.  Certain  conventional 
costumes,  made  of  clieapstufl',  wero  used  for  each  part,  with  but 
little  regard  to  liiBtorical  eorrectnesa.     Armour  and  weapons  were 

»  .Secnc  pjiintmcs  iiic  usually  cxeciilcd  jn  distemper,  frcqucnllv  In  nn  at-.licr 
Jomied  In  the  loof  0(  the  theatre  ;  the  artist  partly  woika  wlih  hla  canvas 
laid  upon  the  lloor,  or.  where  epace  allows,  ihe  palnhtnc  h  IninR  aealnst  a  wnll 
and  tiieariist  works  from  a  scoOoM,  with  ticia  of  bOartlmi;  ariunRed  so  that 
Ne  con  r/y>ch  »oany  part  of  tho  QOnt  fnTifna. 


made  of  pasteboard  coverea  with  metal  toil,  "and  stage  jewellery 
was  made  of  small  cup-like  pieces  of  tin  formed  with  many  facets. 
Now,  however,  no  trouble  or  expense  is  spared  to  get  tho  costumes 
and  vai'ious  properties  archawlogically  Correct :  real  jewels  and  the 
richest  stuffs  are  often  used  for  tlie  dresses,  as  well  as  real  furni- 
ture of  the  most  costly  sort  for  the  furnishing  of  the  scenic  rooms. 
'As  much  as  £20,000  is  sometimes'  spent;  before  tho  play  can 
be  presented.  All  this  sj^lcndour  and  realism  is  vi^ry  hostile  tc 
the  true  interests  of  the  drama  ;  magnificent  scenery  and  costly 
accessories  are  exjiectcd  by  the  audience,  mther  than  good  acting. 
In  some  scenes,  such  as  the  ball  in  the  first  act  of  Romeo  and 
Juliet,  as  recently  represented  at  the  Lyceum,  the  words  and  actiiie 
of  the  chief  performci-s  were  .'almost  lost  in  the  general  bustle  and 
splendour  of  the  scene.  Frequently,  too,  the  noise  of  setting  up 
some  elaborate  scene  behind  almost  drowns  the^oices  of  the  actors 
in  front  of  the  drop  scene.  -      — 

Another  seiious  cause  of  tiie  present  low "state'of '"acting  in 
England  is  the  fact  that  a  ]>opiilar  play  sometimes  runs  for  several 
liundred  nights  without  a  lueak,  thus  reducing  the  perfor-mers  tc 
tlio  condition  of  machines.  Tlic  modern  system  pf  expending 
large  sums  on  dresses  and  decoration  naturally  prevents,  that 
frenuent  change  of  subject  which  is  so  desirable,  and  which  in 
France  is  jirovulcd  for  by  the  rules  of  the  Theatre  Fraiicais,  where 
acting  of  a  very  liigh  order  of  merit  still  survives.  ■ 

The  luesent  system,  aided  by  tho  enormous  size  to  which  London 
has  unhaiipily  grown,  has  completely  changed  the  character  of  the 
andience.  Instead  of  an  audience  largely  comi'Oscd  of  hahituis^ 
who  by  their  constant  attendance  at  the  theatre  had  gained  some 
knowledge  of  what  acting  ought  to  be,  and  were  jirepared  to 
show  their  disgust  at  clap-trap  or  ranting,  we  liavc  now  practically 
a  fresh  and  ignorant  audience  every  night,  who,  by  their  applause 
of  what  is  woi-st  and  their  coldness  to  real  refinerticnt  of  acting,  do 
much  to  lower  the  dramatic  standard  and  demoralize  the  actors. 

For  fuilher  informalion  the  reader  Ls  referred  to  l>Ci\\r\cX.,  Thf  at  res  de  Paris^ 
I8il  ;  Saloninnb.  Co7istruetion  des  Theatres^  Pari.s,  1S71  ;  Garnk-r,  Le  Nouvtl 
Opera  dc  Purts,  1870-81  ;  Coutant,  Pnnripaux  TheiUres  Modcmes,  Paris,  1870; 
Muynct,  L£T)>:e>sdu  Thedtre,  Paris.  1S7-1 ;  Pougin,  Dictionnaire  du  Th^&irt^ 
Paria,  1883.  '      '  -  -    (J.  H.  M.) 

Law  Relating  to  ^HEATRza 

-  '  The  regulation  of  the  theatrb  by  legislation  can  be  traced  back 
to  the  time  of  the  lower  empire,  in  which  it  depended  almost 
wholly  upon  constitutions  of  Theodosius  and  Valentinian,  incor- 

ftorated  in  the  Theodosian  Code  (tit.  xv.  5,  6,  7),  and  a  century 
ater  to  a  large  extent  ado|)ted  by  Justinian.  In  the  whole  of  this 
law  there  is  an  evident  attempt  at  a  compromise  l>etween  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  and  the  old  Roman  love  of  public  spectacles 
of  all  kind.s.  It  deals  less  with  theatrical  representations  propter 
tlian  with  gladiatorial  contests  and  chariot  races.-  The  Theodosian 
Code  provided  that  the  sacraments  were  not  to  be  administered  tc 
actoi^s  save  where  death  was  imminent,  and  only  on  condition  tLat 
the  calling  should  be  renounced  in  case  of  recovery.  Daughters  of 
actors  were  not  to  be  forced  to  go  on  the  stage,  provided.that  they 
lived  an  honest  life.  An  actress  was  to  bo  allowed  to  quit  *he 
stage  in  order  to  become  a  nun.  There  were,  also  numerc  is 
sumptuary  regulations  as  to  the  dress  of  actors.  None  of  the  law 
which  has  been  mentioned  so  far  was  adopted  by  Justinian,  but 
what  follows  was  incorporated  in  Cod.  xi.  40  ("  De  Spectaculis  et 
Scenicis"),  which  consists  entirely  of  extracts  from  the  Theodosian 
Code  of  a  very  miscellaneous  nature.  Provision  was  made  for  the 
exhibition  of  public  games  and  theatrical  spectacles  by  magis- 
trates, practically  confining  them  to  exhibiting  in  their  own  cities.' 
Statues  of  actors  were  not  to  be  placed  in  the  public  streets,  but 
only  in  the  proscenium  of  a  theatre.  A  governor  of  a  province 
was  entitled  to  take  the  money  raised  for  public  games  for  the 
purpose  of  repairing  the  city  walls,  provided  that  he  gave  security 
for  afterwards  celebrating  the  games  as  usual  In  Cod.  iii.  12,  11 
("  Dc  Feriis")  is  a  constitution  of  Leo  and  Anthemius  lorbidding 
dramatic  representations  on  Sunday.  The  Dincst  (iii.  2)  classed 
all  who  acted  for  hireC'omrtes  proj^ter  pecuniam  in  sccnam  pro- 
deiintes")  as  infamous  persons,  and  as  such  debarred  them  from 
filling  public  offices.  A  mere  contract  to  perform,  not  fulfilled,  did 
not,  however,  carry  infamy  with  it.  By  the  51st  of  the  NovcUx 
actresses  could  retire  from  the  stage  without  incurring  a  penalty, 
even  if  they  bad  given  sureties  or  taken  an  oath. 
■  In  England,  as  in  other  countries  of  western  Europe,  theatrical 
legislation  was  of  comparatively  recent  introduction.  Such  legisla- 
tion was  unnecessary  as  long  as  tho  theatre  was  under  the  control 
of  the  church  and  actors  under  its  protection  (see  Drama).  The 
earliest  regulations  were  therefore,  as  might  be  expected,  made  by 
the  church  rather  than  by  the  state.  The  ecclesiastical  ordinances 
wero  directed  chiefly  against  the  desecration  of  churches,  though 
they  sometimes  cxten'^'id  to  forbidding  attendance  of  the  faithful 
as  spectators  at  plays  of  a  harmless  kind. ^    Sacraments  and  Chri.stian 

'  The  word  ludi  aeema  Bometimea  to  Inctadi-.,  sometiracs  to  exclude,  dramatic 
performances.     Its  meaning  iu  a  partlcnlar  lu&tance  depends  on  tho  coulext. 

8  A  large  irambcr  of  eocb  ordinances  will  be  (onnd  cited  in  Prj'nne,  Uisti  ith 
matCix;  hosauet,  JUtLrimai  eC  Rejfcztoru  xur  la  Comedie\  Mariana,  De  SpectacytfUy 
Smitti.  Dirtiftnaf-y  of  Chritlian  Antiquities,  art%.  "  Arturs."  ar.d  "Theatre," 


T  H  E  A  T  K  E 


227 


banal  were  denied^by  the  canon  law  to  actors,  whose  gains,  said 
St  Thomas,  were  acquired  ex  turpi  causa.^  The  same  law  forbade 
plan's  to  be  acted  by  the  clergy,  even  under  the  plea  of  cnstom,  83 
in  Christmas  week,  and  followed  the  Code  of  Justinian  in  enjoin- 
ing the  clergy  not  to  consort  with  actors  or  be  present  at  plays 
(see  the  Dtcrctals  of  Gregory,  iii.  1,  12,  and  15,  "De  Vita  et 
Hooestate  Clericorum  ").  As  lately  as  1603  canon  l.txxviii.  of  the 
canons  Of  the  Church  of  England  enacted  that  churchwardens  were 
not  to  siSffer  plays  in  churches,  chapels,  or  clmrchyards. 

The  Reformation  marks  the  period  of  transition  from  the  ecclesi- . 
astical  to  the  non-ecclesiastical  authority  over  the  drama.  Precau- 
tions began  to  be  taken  by  the  crown  and  the  legislature  against 
.  the  acting  of  unauthorized  plays,  by  unauthorized  persons,  and  in 
1  unauthorized  places,  and  the  acting  of  plays  objectionable  to  the  ■ 
•  Government  gn  political  or  other  grounds.  The  protection  of  tho 
church  being  withdrawn,  persons  not  enrolled  in  a  fixed  company 
or  in  possession  of  a  licence  from  the  crown  or  justices  were  liable 
to  severe  penalties  as  vagrants.  The  history  of  the  legislation  on 
this  subject  is  very  curious.  An  Act  of  the  year  1572  (14  Eliz.  c 
5)  enacted  that  "all  fencers,  bearwards,  common  players  of  inter- 
lades,  and  minstrels  (not  belonging  to  any  baron  of  this  realm,  or 
to  any, other  honourable  person  of  greater  degree),"  wandering 
abroad  Tvithout  the  licence  of  two  justices  at  the  least,  were  subject 
"to  be  grievously  whipped  and  burned  through  the  gristle  ef  the 
right  ear  with  a  hot  iron  of  the  compass  of  an  inch  about "  This 
statute, was  superseded  by  39  Eliz.  c.  4,  under  which  the  punish- 
ment of  the  strolling  player  is  less  severe,  and  there  is  no  mention 
of  justices.  Tho  jurisdiction  of  justices  over  the  theatre  disappears 
from  legislation  from  that  time  until  17SS.  In  39  Eliz.  c  i  there 
is  a  remarkable  exception  in  favour  of  persons  licensed  by  Dutton 
of  Dutton  in  Cheshire,  in  accordance  with  his  claim  to  liberty  and 
jurisdiction  in  Cheshire  and.Chester,  established  in  favour  of  his 
ancestor  by  proceedings  in  qno  vxtrranlo  in  1499.  The  stricter 
worS(ng«f  this  Act  as  to  the  licence  seems  to  show  that  the  licence 
had  been  abused,  perhaps  that  in  some  cases  privileges  had  been 
assumed  without  authority.  In  14  Eliz.  c.  5  the  privileges  of  a 
playeuattached  by  service  of  a  noble  or  licence  from  justices,  in 
the  later  Act  only  by  service  oi  a  noble,  and  this  was  to  be  attested 
under  his  hand  and  arms.  The  spirit  of  the  Acts  of  Elizabeth 
frequently  appears  in  later  legislation,  and  the  unauthorized  player 
was  4  vagabond  as  lately  as  the  Vagrant  Act  of  1744,  which  was 
law  till  1S24.  He  is  not  named  in  the  Vagrant  Act  of  1824.  The 
Theatre  Act  of  1 73  7  narrowed  the  definition  of  a  player  of  interludes, 
for  the  purposes  of  punishment  as  a  vagabond,  to  mean  a  person  act- 
ing interludes,  tc,  in  a  place  where  he  had  no  legal  settlement. 

Before  the  Restoration  there  were  privileged  places  as  well  as 
privileged  persons,  e.g.,  the  court,  the  universities,  and  the  inns 
of  court  With  the  Restoration  privilege  became  practically  con- 
fined to  the  theatres  in  the  possession  of  those  companies  (or  their 
representatives)  established  by  the  letters  patent  of  Charles  II.  in 
1662  (see  Drama).  In  spite  of  the  patehts  other  and  unprivileged 
theatres  gradually  arose.  In  1735  Sir  John  Barnard  introduced  a 
bill  "  to  restrain  the  number  of  playhouses  for  playing  of  interludes, 
»nd  for  the  better  regulation  of  compion  players."  On  Walpoje's 
wishing  to  add  a  clause  giving  parliamentary  sanction  to  the  juris- 
diction of  the  lord  chamberlain,  the  mover  withdrew  the  bill.  In 
1737  Walpole  introduced  a  bill  of  his  own  for  the  same  purpose, 
there  being  then  six  theatres  in  London.  The  immediate  cause  of 
the  bill  is  said  to  have  been  the  production  of  a  political  extrava- 
ganza of  Fielding's,  The  Golden  Rump.  The  bill  passed,  and  the 
Act  of  10  Geo.  II.  c.  2S  regulated  the  theatre  for  more  than  a 
century.  Its  effect  was  to  make  it  impossible  to  establish  any 
theatre  except  in  the  city  of  Westminster,  and  in  places  where  the 
king  should  in  person  reside,  and  during  such  residence  only.  The 
Act  did  not  confine  the  prerogative  within  the  city  of  Westminster, 
but  an  a  matter  of  policy  it  was  not  exercised  in  favour  of  the  non- 
privileged  theatres,  except  those  where  the  "  legitimate  drama " 
was  not  performed.  The  legitimate  drama  was  thus  confined  to 
Covent  Garden,  Drury  Lane,  and  the  Haymarket  from  1737  to 
1843.  In  the  provinces  patent  theatres  were  established  at  Bath 
by  8  Geo.  III.  c.  10,  at  Liverpool  by  11  Ceo.  III.  c.  16,  and  at  Bristol 
by  18  (Seo.  III.  c.  8,  the  Act  of  1737  being  in  each  case  repealed 
pro  tanto.  The  acting  of  plays  at  the  universities  was  forbidden  by 
lOGeo.II.  c.  19.  It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  the  universities, 
once  possessing  unusual  dramatic  privileges,  should  not  only  have 
lost  those  privileges,  but  have  in  addition  become  subject  to  special 
disabilities.  The  restrictions  upon  the  drama  were  found  very 
inconvenient  in  the  large  towns,  especially  in  those  which  did  not 
possess:  patent  theatres.  In  one  direction  the  difficulty  was  met 
by  the  lord  chamberlain  granting  annual  licences  for  performances 
of  operas,  pantomimes,  and  other  spectacles  not  regarded  as  legiti- 
Jnale  drama.  In  another  direction  relief  was  given  by  the  Act  of 
1783  (28  Geo.  III.  c.  30),  under  which  licences  for  occasional  per- 

>  For  this  rcav)n  it  appears  to  have  been  tiie  custom  In  France  for  actors  to 
w  mat  lied  onder  ttie  Dame  of  musicians.  See  Ifi-'t  Parttmentaire  de  ta  Revolu- 
inn  frartfaise.  vol.  Ti.  p.  S'il .  Tlie  dlfflcDtties  attendine  tlie  funeral  of  Mouias 
^.v )  are  well  l(no«ni. 


formances  might  be  granted  in  general  or  quarter  sessions  for  s- 
period  of  not  more  than  sixty  days.  The  rigtits  of  patent  theatres 
were  preserved  by  the  prohibition  to  grant  such  a  licence  to  any 
theatre  within  8  miles  of  a  patent  theatre.  During  this  period 
(1737-1.843)  there  were  several  decisions  of  the  courts  which  con- 
firmed the  operation  of  the  Act  of  1737  as  creating  a  monopoly. 
The  exclusive  rights  of  tlie  p.-itjnt  theatres  were  also  recognized  in 
the  ilusic  Hall  Act  of  1752,  and  in  private  Acts  dealing  with 
Covent  Garden  and  Drury  Lane,  and  regulating  the  rights  of 
parties,  the  application  of  charitable  funds,  ic.  (see  16  Geo.  III. 
cc.  13,  31;  60  Geo.  III.  c  ccxiv;  52  Geo.  III.  c  xix;  1  Geo.  IV. 
c.  Ix.).  The  results  of  theatrical  monopoly  were  beneficial  neither 
to  the  public  nor  to  the  monopolists  themselves.  In  1S32  a  select 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  recommenced  the  legal 
recognition  of  "stage-right"  and  the  abolition  of  theatrical 
monopoly.  Ttie  recommendations  of  the  report  as  to  stage-right 
were  carried  out  immediately  by  Bulwer  Lytton's  Act,  3  and  4 
Will.  IV.c.  15  (see  Copyright).  But  it  was  not  till  1843  that 
the  present  Theatre  Act,  6  and  7  Vict  c.  68,  was  passed,  a  previous 
bill  on  the  same  lines  having  been  rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords. 
The  Act  of  1843  inaugurated  a  more  liberal  policy,  and  there,  is 
now  complete  "  free  trade  "  in  theatres,  subject  to  the  conditions 
imposed  by  the  Act.  The  growth  of  theatres  since  that  time  has 
been  enormous.  In  1885  there  were  forty-six  licensed  under  the 
Act  in  London,  Liverpool  coming  next  with  ten.  Nor  does  the 
extension  seem  to  have  been  attended  with  the  social  dangers  antici- 
pated by  some  of  the  witnesses  before  the  committee  of  1882. 

The  suppression  of  objectionable  plays  was  the  ground  of  many 
early  statutes  and  proclamations.  While  the  religious  drama  wai 
dying  out,  the  theatre  was  used  as  a  vehicle  for  enforcing  religious 
and  political  views  not  always  as  orthodox  as  those  of  a  miracle 
play.  Thus  the  Act  of  34  and  35  Hen-  VllL  c.  1  madeit  oritcinal 
to  play  in  an  interlude  contrary  to  the  orthodox  fiith  declared,  or 
to  be  declared,  by  that  monarch.  Profanity  in  theatres  seems. to 
have  been  a  crying  evil  of  the  time.  The  first  business  trf  thj 
Government  of  Edward  VI.  was  to  pass  an  Act  reciting  that  t^t 
most  holy  and  blessed  sacrament  was  named  in  plays  by  such  vilt 
and  unseemly  words  as  Christian  ears  did  abhor  to  hear  rehearsed, 
and  inflicting  fine  and  imprisonment  upon  any  person  advisedly 
contemning,  despising,  or  reviling  the  said  most  blessed  sacrament 
fl  Edw.  VI.  c.  1).  A  proclamation  of  the  same  king  in  1549  forb.ide 
the  acting  of  interludes  in  English  on  account  of  their  dealing  with 
sacred  subjects.  In  1556  the  council  called  attention  to  certain 
lewd  persons  in  the  livery  of  Sir  F.  ieke  representing  plays  and 
interludes  reflecting  upon  the  queen  and  her  consort  and  the 
formalities  of  the  mass.  The  same  queen  forbade  the  recurrence 
of  such  a  representation  as  the  mask  given  by  Sir  Thomas  Pope  in 
honour  of  the  princess  Elizabeth  at  Hatfield,  for  she  "misliked 
these  follies."  By  tho  Act  of  Uniformity,  1  Eliz.  c.  2,  it  was  made 
an  offence  punishable  by  a  fine  of  a  hundred  marks  to  speak  any- 
thing in  the  'Jorogation,  depraving,'or  despising  of  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  in  any  interludes  or  plays.  In  1605  "An  Act  to 
restrain  the  Abui.s  of  Players  ""  made  it  an  oflence  punishable  by 
a  fine  of  £10  to  jestinply  or  profanely  speak  or  use  certain  sacred 
names  in  any  stage  pLvy,  interlude,  show,  may-game,  or  pageant 
(3  Jac.  I.  c.  21).  In  consequence  of  the  appearance  of  players  in 
the  characters  of  the  king  of  Spain  and  Gondomar,  an  ordinance 
of  James  1.  forbade  the  representation  on  the  stage  of  any  living 
Christian  king.  The  star  chamber  in  1614  fined  Sir  John  Vorke 
for  representing  a  Catholic  drama  in  his  hoi/se.  The  first  Act  of 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.  forbade  acting  on  Sunday  (see  SuNDAV) 
Puritan  opposition  to  the  blieatre  culminated  in  the  ordinance  ot 
the  Long  Parliament  (sec  vol.  vii.  p.  434).  After  the  Restora- 
tion there  are  few  royal  proclamations  or  ordinances,  the  necessary 
jurisdicrion  being  exercised  almost  entirely  by  parliament  and  tire 
lord  chamberlain.  One  of  the.  few  post-Restoration  royal  procla- 
mations is  that  of  February  25,  1665,  restraining  any  but  the  com- 
pany of  the  Duke  of  York  8  theatre  from  entering  at  the  attiring 
nouso  of  the  theatre. 

Preventive  censorship  of  the  drama  by  an  officer  of  state  dates 
from  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  is  perhaps  the  only  example  ol 
censorship  of  the  press  still  existing  in  the  United  Kin^'dom 
(see  Press  Laws).  Such  a  censorship  is  not  unknovvn  in  other 
countries,  and  it  seems  to  have  existed  even  in  republican  Romc,^ 
if  one  may  judge  from  Horace's  line, — 

"Quae  neque  In  eede  sonent  cenantia  Jodlce  Tarpa." 
The  master  of  the  revels  appears  to  have  been  the  dramatic  censor 
from  1545  to  1624,  when  he  was  superseded  by  the  lord  chamber 
lain.  In  some  cases  the  supervision  was  put  into  commissioiu 
Thus  with  TUney,  the  master  of  the  revels  in  1581,  were  associated 
by  order  of  the  privy  council  a  divine  and  a  statesman.  In  other 
cases  it  was  delegated,  as  to  Daniel  the  poet  by  warrant  in  1603. 
The  proposal  to  give  statutory  authority  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
lord  chamberlain  led,  as  has  been  already  stated,  to  the  withdrawal 
of  Sir  John  Barnard's  bill  in  1735,  and  to  considerable  deb.ato  before 
tho  bill  of  1737  became  law  Lord  Chesterfield's  objection  to  th& 
bill  in  tho  House  of  Lords  was  not  unreasonable.     "If  the  players, "" 


228 


THEATRE 


said  he,  "are  to  be  punished,  let  it  be  by  the  laws  of  their  country, 
add  not  by  the  will  of  an  irresponsible  despot."  The  discretion 
reposed  by  the  Acts  of  1737  and  1843  in  the  lord  chamberlain  has 
been,  according  to  the  report  of  a  select  committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  m  1866,  on  the  whole  wisely  exercised.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  have  been  instances  whero  perhaps  both  he  and  his 
subordinate  officer,  the  examiner  of  stage  plays,  have  been  some- 
what nice  in  their  objections.  Thus,  during  the  illness  of  George 
III.,  King  Lear  was  inhibited.  George  Colman,  when  examiner, 
showed  an  extraordinary  antipathy  to  such  words  as  "  heaven  "  or 
"angel."  The  lord  chamberlain's  powers  are  still  occasionally  ex- 
erted in  the  interests  of  public  decency,  less  frequently  for  political 
reasons.  Before  1866  the  lord  chamberlain  appears  to  have  taken 
into  consideration  the  wants  of  the  neighbourhood  before  granting 
3  licence,  but  since  that  year  such  a  course  has  been  abandoned. 

The  existing  law  of  theatres  is  mainly  statutory.  It  will  be 
convenient  to  treat  it  as  it  regards  the  building,  the  performance, 
and  the  licensing  of  the  building  and  of  the  performance.  A 
theatre  may  be  defined  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  the  present 
purpose  as  a  building  in  which  a  stage  play  is  performed  for  hire. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  following  sketch  of  the  law  that  there  arc 
a  considerable  number  of  different  persons,  corporate  and  unincor- 
porate,  with  jurisdiction  over  theatres.  A  consolidation  of  the 
law  seems  urgently  required,  and  the  placing  of  jurisdiction  in 
the  hands  of  a  central  authority  for  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
committee  of  1866  recommended  the  transfer  to  the  lord  chamber 
lain  of  the  regulation  of  all  places  of  amusement,  and  an  appeal 
from  him  to  the  home  secretary  in  certain  cases,  as  also  the  exten- 
sion of  his  authority  to  preventive  censorship  in  all  public  enter- 
tainments; but  no  legislation  resulted.  Several  bills  for  the 
amendment  of  the  law  have  been  recently  introduced,  but  hitherto 
without  success  in  the  face  of  more  burning  political  quesfions- 

Building.  — A  theatre  (at  any  rate  to  make  it  such  a  building  as 
can  be  licensed)  must  be  a  permanent  building,  not  a  mere  tent  or 
booth,  unless  when  licensed  by  justices  at  a  lawful  fair  by  §  23  of 
the  Act  -^f  1843.  It  must,  if  in  the  metropolis,  conform  to  the 
regulations  as  to  stnicture  contained  in  the  Metropolitan  Building 
Acts  and  the  Metropolis  Management  Acts,  especially  the  Act  of 
1878  (41  and  42  Vict.  c.  32).  This  Act  makes  a  certificate  of 
structural  fitness  from  the  Board  of  Works  necessary  as  a  condition 
precedent  f  jr  licence  in  the  case  of  all  theatres  of  a  superficial  area 
of  not  less  than  500  square  feet  licensed  after  the  passing  of  the 
Act,  gives  power  to  the  board  in  certain  cases  to  call  upon  pro- 
prietors of  existing  theatres  to  remedy  structni-al  defects,  and 
enables  it  to  make  regulations  for  protection  from  fire  Such 
regulations  were  issued  by  the  board  on  May  2,  1879  As  to 
theatres  in  provincial  towns,  the  Towns  Improvement  Act,  1847, 
and  the  Public  Health  Act,  1875.  confer  certain  limited  powers 
over  the  building  on  raunicipal  corporations  and  urban  sanitary 
authorities-  In  many  towns,  Bowever,  the  structural  qualifications 
of  buildings  used  as  theatres  depend  upon  local  Acts  and  the  by- 
laws made  under  the  powers  of  such  Acts.  To  a  more  limited 
extent  the  rules  made  by  justices  may  en  brce  certain  structural 
requirements. 

Performarice. — To  constitute  a  building  where  a  performance 
takes  place  a  theatre,  the  performance  mu.<;t  be  (a)  of  a  stage  play, 
and  (M  for  hire,  (a)  By  §  23  of  the  Act  of  1843  the  word  "  stage- 
play"  includes  tragedy,  comedy,  farce,  opera,  burletta,  interlude, 
melodrama,  pantomigie,  or  other  entertainment  of  the  stage,  or 
any  part  thereof  The  two  tests  of  a  stage  play  appear  to  be  the 
excitement  of  emotion  and  the  representation  of  action  The  ques- 
tion whether  a  performance  is  a  stage  play  or  not  seems  to  be  one 
■of  degree,  and  one  rather  of  fact  than  of  law  A  hnlUt  d'actian 
would  usually  be  a  stage  play,  but  it  would  be  otherwise  with  a 
balUt  dixKrtissement.  §  14  empowers  the  lord  chamberlain  to  for- 
bid the  acting  of  any  stage  play  in  Great  Britain  whenever  he  may 
be  of  opinion  that  it  is  fitting  for  the  preservation  of  good  manners, 
decorum,  or  the  public  peace  to  do  so  §  15  imposes  a  penalty  of 
JE50  on  any  one  acting  or  presenting  a  play  or  part  of  a  play  after 
such  inhibition,  and  avoids  the  licence  of  the  theatre  where  it 
appears.  Regulations  of  police  respecting  the  performance  are 
contained  in  2  and  3  Vict  c.  47.  and  in  many  local  Acts  A  per- 
formance may  also  be  proceeded  against  as  a  nuisance  at  common 
law,  if,  for  instance,  it  be  contra  bonos  -mores  or  draw  together  a 
great  concourse  of  vehicles,  or  if  so  much  noise  be  heard  in  the 
neighbourhood  as  to  interfere  with  the  ordinary  occupations  of  life 
Very  curious  instances  of  proceedings  at  common  law  are  recorded 
In  1700  the  grand  jury  of  Middlesex  presented  the  two  playhouses 
and  also  the  bear-garden  on  Bankside  (the  "Pans  garden"  of 
Henry  VIII.,  act  v.  ec.  3)  as  riotous  and  disorderly  nuisances  In 
1819  certain  players  were  prosecuted  and  convicted  before  the  court 
of  great  sessions  of  Wales  for  acting  indecent  open-air  interludes 
at  Bemew  in  Montgomeryshire.  Performances  on  Sunday.  Good 
Friday,  and  Christmas  day  are  illegal  (see  Sunday)  Regulations 
as  to  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  dunng  the  performance  are 
made  by  the  Licensing  Acta  and  other  public  general  Acts,  as  well 
.as  by  local  Actt  and  rules  made  by  justices.     It  is  frequently  a  con- 


dition  of  the  licence  granted  to  provincial  theatres  that  no  excise- 
ablo  liquors  shall  be  sold  or  consumed  on  the  premises.  The 
Children's  Dangerous  Performances  Act,  1879  (42  and  43  Vict  c. 
34),  forbids  under  a  penalty  of  £10  any  public  exhibition  or  per- 
formance whereby  the  life  or  limbs  of  a  child  under  the  age  of 
fourteen  shall  be  endangered.  It  also  makes  the  employer  of  any 
such  child  indictable  for  assault  where  an  accident  causing  actual 
bodily  harm  has  happened  to  the  child,  and  enables  the  court  on 
conviction  of  the  employer  to  order  him  to  pay  the  child  coinpensa* 
tion  not  exceeding  £20  (6)  The  performance  must  be  for  hire. 
§  16  of  the  Act  of  1843  makes  a  building  one  in  which  acting  for 
hire  takes  place,  not  only  where  money  is  taken  directly  <>r  in- 
directly, but  also  where  the  purchase  of  any  article  is  a  condition 
of  admission,  and  where  a  play  is  performed  in  a  place  in  which 
exciseable  liquor  is  sold  In  a  recent  case  of  Shelley  v.  Beihcll 
{Law  Reports,  12  Queen's  Bench  Division.  11)  it  was  held  that  the 
propnetor  of  a  private  theatre  was  liable  to  penalties  under  the 
Act,  though  he  lent  the  theatre  gratuitously,  because  tickets  of 
admission  wore  sold  in  aid  of  a  charity. 

Licensing  of  Building. ~hy  §  2  of  the  Act  of  1843  nil  theatres 
(other  than  patent  theatres)-most  be  licensed.  By  §  7  no  licence 
is  to  be  granted  except  to  the  actual  and  responsible  manager,  who  is 
to  be  hound  by  himself  and  two  sureties  for  due  observance  of  rules- 
and  for  securing  payment  of  any  penalties  incurred  The  metro 
politan  theatres  other  than  the  patent  theatres  (as  far  at  least  as 
they  are  included  in  the  boroughs  named  in  the  Act  of  1843)  are 
licensed- by  the  lord  chamberlain.  By  §  4  his  fee  on  grant  of  a 
license  is  not  to  exceed  lOs.  for  each  month  for  which  the  theatre 
is  licensed.  The  lord  chamberlain  appears  to  have  no  power  to 
make  suitable  rules  for  enforcing  order  and  decency.  He  can, 
however,  by  §  3.  suspend  a  licence  or  close  a  patent  theatre  whete 
any  not  or  misbehaviour  has  taken  place 

Provincial  theatres  fall  under  three  ditferenl  licensing  authorities. 
The  lord  chamberlain  licenses  theatres  in  Windsor  and  Brighton, 
and  theatres  situated  tn  the  places  where  the  queen  oocasion-ill^ 
resides,  but  only  during  the  time  of  such  occasional  residence  (§  3). 
Theatres  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  or  within  M  miles  thereof,  are 
licensed  by  the  justices  having  jurisdiction  therein,  but  before  any 
such  licence  can  come  into  force  the  consent  of  the  chancellor  or 
vice-chancellor  must  be  given.  The  rules  made  by  the  justices  for 
the  management  of  the  theatre  are  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
chancellor  or  vice  chancellor,  who  may  also  impose  such  conditions 
upon  the  licence  as  he  thinks  tit,  In  case  of  any  breach  of  the 
rules  or  conditions,  he  may  annul  the  licence  (§  10)  All  other 
provincial  theatres  are  licensed  by  four  or  more  justices  at  a  special 
session  held  within  twenty-one  days  alter  application  for  a  licence 
shall  have  been  made  to  them  (§  5).  The  fee  is  not  to  exceed  5s. 
for  each  month  for  which  the  theatre  is  licensed  (§  6)  The  justices, 
like  the  lord  chamberlain,  appear  to  have  no  discretion  as  to  jjrant- 
ing  a  licence.  Their  act  is  purely  ministerial  and  confined  to 
ascertaining  that  the  applicant  is  the  actual  and  responsible 
manager,  and  that  he  and  his  sureties  are  of  sufficient  substance  to 
provide  the  requisite  Iioods.  §  9  gives  the  justices  authority  to 
make  at  the  special  session  suitable  rules  for  enforcing  order  and 
lecency  at  the  theatres  licensed  by  them,  and  of  rescinding  or 
altering  such  rules  at  a  subsequent  special  session.  It  also  gives  a 
secretary  of  state  power  to  rescind  or  alter  such  rules,  and  |o  make 
other  rules.  In  case  of  riot  or  breach  of  the  rules,  the  justices  may 
order  the  theatre  to  be  closed,  and  it  thereupon  becomes  an 
unlicensed  house  Penalties  are  imposed  by  the  Act  for  keeping 
or  acting  in  an  unlicensed  theatre,  and  for  producing  or  acting  in 
an  unlicensed  play. 

Licensing  Performance. — A  stage  play  must  be  duly  licensed 
before  performance.  §  12  of  the  Act  of  1843  prescribes  that  a  copy 
of  every  new  play  and  of  every  addition  to  an  old  play,  and  of  every 
new  prologue  or  epilogue  or  addition  thereto  (such  copy  to  be 
signed  by  the  master  or  manager),  shall  be  sent  to  the  lord  cham- 
berlain, a, id.  if  the  lord  chamberlain  does  not  forbid  it  within  seven 
days,  n  may  be  represented  §  13  empowers  the  lord  chamberlain 
to  fix  a  scale  of  fees  for  examination  .  the  fee  is  now  two  guineas 
for  a  play  of  three  or  more  acts,  one  guinea  for  a  play  of  less  than 
three  acts  AM  plays  represented  previously  to  the  Act  are  held 
to  be  licensed  A  plav  once  licensed  is  licensed  once  for  all.  unless 
the  licence  be  revoked  under  §  14  The  examination  is  the  duty 
of  a  special  officei  of  the  lord  chamberlain  8  department,  the 
examiner  of  stage  plays. 

Music  Halls  — Music  was  at  no  lime  the  object  of  restrictions  as 
severe  as  those  imposed  upon  the  drama.  The  present  Music  Hall 
Act  (25  Ceo  II.  c.  36)  was  passed  in  1752,  probably  in  consequence 
of  the  publication  in  1750  of  Fielding's  Inquiry  into  ike  Causes  of  (lie 
late  Increase  of  Robbers.  It  is  remarkable  that  two  works  of  the  same 
writer  should  from  opnoiite  causes  have  led  to  both  theatre  and 
music  hail  legislation  of  lasting  importance     The  Act  wasonginally 

fassed  for  a  terra  of  three  years,  but  was  made  perpetual  by  28  Geo 
I.  c.  19  It  applies  only  to  music  halls  withn  20  miles  of  London 
and  Westminster  Every  such  music  hall  mu?t  be  licen<ied  at  the 
Michaelmas  quarter  sessions,  the  licence  to  be  signified  under  the 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


229 


hands  »nd  seals  of  four  or  more  justices.  The  licence  may  be 
granted  for  music  or  dancing  or  both.  Public  notice  of  the  licence 
IS  to  be  given  by  affixing  over  the  door  the  inscription  "  Licensed 
pursuant  to  Act  of  Parliament  of  the  t«enty-6fth  of  King  George 
the  Second."  The  penalty  for  keeping  an  unlicensed  music  hall  is 
£100.  Music  halls  beyond  the  radius  of  20  miles  from  London  and 
We.stminster  arc  usually  governed  by  local  legislation,  which  in 
most  cases  follows,  inutalis  mutandis,  the  lines  of  the  Act  of  1752. 
The  music  hall,  like  the  theatre,  must  generally  fulfil  certain  struc- 
tural requirements.  In  one  important  respect  the  law  is  more 
lenient  to  the  music  hall  than  to  the  theatre.  A  licence  is  neces- 
sary for  a  single  performance  of  a  stage  piay,  but  it  is  only  habitual 
music  or  dancing  that  requires  a  music  hall  licence. 

Scotland.  —  In  Scotland  the  theatre  has  always  exercised  a  smaller 
amount  of  influence  than  in  England,  and  there  has  been  little 
exclusively  Scotch  legislation  on  the  subject.  An  Act  of  1555,  c. 
40,  discountenanced  certain  amusements  of  a  semi-theatrical  kind 
by  enacting  that  no  one  was  to  be  chosen  Robert  Hude  {sic).  Little 
John,  abbot  of  Unreason,  or  queen  of  May.  A  proclamation  of 
James  VI.  in  1574,  and  an  Act  of  1579,  c.  12,  followed  the  lines  of 
English  legislation  by  making  persons  using  unlawful  plays,  such 
aa  jugglery  or  fast  and  loose,  punishable  as  vagabonds.  In  1574 
the  General  Assembly  claimed  to  license  plays,  and  forbade  represen- 
tations on  Sunday.  As  in  England,  the  licensing  power  seems 
then  to  have  passed  from  the  church  to  the  crown,  for  in  1599 
James  VI.  licensed  a  theatre  at  Edinburgh.  The  Act  1672,  c.  21, 
exempted  comedians  while  upon  the  st.ige.from  the  sumptuary 
provisions  of  the  Act  respecting  apparel.  The  chamberlain  of 
Scotland,  while  such  an  office  existed,  appears  to  have  exercised  a 
certain  police  jurisdiction  over  theatres.  The  Theatre  Act  of  1843 
extends  to  Scotland,  as  did  also  the  previous  Act  of  1737. 

Ireland. — Theatrical  legislation,  as  far  as  it  went,  was  based 
npon  English  models.  Thus  ridicule  of  the  liturgy  was  forbidden 
by  2  liliz.  c.  2  (Ir.);  common  players  of  interludes  and  wandering 
minstrels  were  deemed  vagabonds,  10  and  11  Car.  I.  c.  4  (Ir.). 
In  1786  an  Act  was  passed  to  enable  the  crown  to  grant  letters 

ratent  for  one  or  more  theatres  in  Dublin  city  and  county,  2C  Geo. 
II.  c.  57  (Ir.).  The  preamble  alleges  that  the  establishing  of  a 
well-regulated  theatre  at  the  seat  of  government  will  be  productive 
of  public  advantage  and  tend  to  improve  the  morals  of  the  people. 
Exceptions  from  the  restrictions  of  the  Act  were  made  in  favour  of 
entertainments  for  the  benefit  of  the  Dublin  lying-in  hospiial  and 
exhibitions  of  horsemanship  or  puppet-shows. 

Unilcd  States. — Public  entertainments,  dramatic  or  otherwise, 
arc  usually  under  the  control  of  the  municipal  authoritie.1.  In 
some  States,  such  as  New  York  and  Massachusetts,  there  is  State 
legislation,  requiring  places  of  public  entertainment  to  be  licensed 
by  the  proper  authority.  In  many  States  it  is  a  condition  of  the 
licence  that  intoxicating  liquors  shall  not  be  sold  in  such  places. 
Other  conditions,  more  or  less  usual,  are  that  there  shall  be  no 
Sunday  or  dangerous  performances,  that  acrobats  shall  be  properly 
protected,  and  that  female  waiters  shall  not  be  employed.  Sinic- 
tural  qualifications  are  in  some  cases  made  necessary.  Thus  in 
1885  the  New  York  legislature  passed  an  Act  containing  many 
minute  provisions  for  ensuring  the  safety  of  theatres  against  fire. 
A  characteristic  piece  of  legislation  is  the  New  York  Act  of  1S73, 
c.  186,  enacting  that  no  citizen  is  to  be  excluded  from  a  theatre  by 
reason  of  race,  colour,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude.  This 
Act  of  course  merely  carries  out  the  important  principle  affirmed 
in  art.  xiv.  of  the  amendments  to  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States.     Seo  Privilege. 

The  mf^st  recent  if  not  the  only  work  on  the  law  relating  to  theatres  Is  Gearv'3 
Law  of  Theatres  and  Music  Halts,  18S3.  (J.  Wt.j 

THEBES.     See  Egypt,  vol.  vii.  p.  776  sq. 

THEBES  (anciently  0^/?ai,  Thehx,  or  in  poetry  some- 
tiines  0r;/3o.,  in  modern  Greek  Phiva,  or,  according  to  the 
corrected  pronunciation,  Thivx),  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing towns  in  Greece,  is  situated  on  low  hilly  ground  of 
gentle  slope  a  little  north  of  the  range  of  Citha^ron,  which 
divides  Boeotia  from  Attica,  and  on  the  edge  of  the 
Boeotian  plain,  about  44  miles  from  Athens,  whence  it  is 
now  reached  by  two  carriage-roads.  It  has  about  3500 
inhabitants,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  The  present  town 
occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  citadel,  the  Cadmea  ;  two 
ixagments  of  ancient  wall  are  visible  on  the  north,  and 
another,  belonging  either  to  the  citadel  or  the  outer  wall, 
on  the  south.  Two  streams,  rising  a  little  i^outh  of  the 
town,  and  separated  by  an  average  distance  of  about  half 
a  mile,  flow  on  the  two  sides,  and  are  lost  in  the  plain. 
These  are  the  ancient  Ismenus  on  the  east  and  Diice 
'Ai'pio/)  on  the  west,  which  gave  to  the  town  its  name 
'iToTa^?.      The    Dirce,    row    Platzi6tissa.    has    several 


springs.  Frotn  the  west  side  of  the  Cadmea  another 
copious  fountain  (Paraporti)  falls  to  the  Dirce.  In  a 
suburb  to  the  east  is  another  (Fountain  of  St  Theodore), 
and  north-west  are  two  more.  The  Cadmea  itself  is 
supplied  with  water  brought  from  an  unknown  source  to 
the  south  by  works  supposed  of  prehistoric  antiquity.  It 
now  enters  the  town  by  an  aqueduct  of  twenty  arches  of 
Prankish  construction.  The  "  waters  "  of  Thebes  are 
celebrated  both  by  Pindar  and  by  the  Athenian  poets,  and 
the  site  is  still,  as  described  by  Dicsarchus  (3d  century 
B.C.),  "all  springs,"  KdSvSpcit  jraira.  One,  from  which  a 
pasha  of  Negroponte  (Eubcea)  is  said  to  Lave  supplied  his 
table,  is  still  called  "the  spring  of  the  cadi."  Some  of 
the  marble  basins,  seats,  &c.,  remain,  and,  with  the  frag- 
ments of  wall  above  mentioned,  are  the  only  relics  of  the 
classic  time.  The  most  curious  of  later  buildings  is  the 
church  of  St  Luke,  south-east  of  th2  Cadmea,  believed  to 
contain  the  tomb  of  the  evangelist.  From  the  abundance 
of  water  the  place  is  favourable  to  gari^ens,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring plain  IS  extremely  fertile.  But  the  population  is 
scanty,  and  the  town  at  present  of  no  importance. 

In  prehistoric  times  the  Cadmea,  with  the  enlarged  city 
of  Thebes  into  which  it  developed,  was  a  power  of  the  first 
rank,  as  is  shown  by  its  unrivalled  legends.  More  parti- 
cularly the  mythical  wars  with  Argos  (see  below)  point  to 
a  time  when  the  "  Hellenes  "  of  North  Greene  were  still 
contending  unequally  against  the  "  Achseans "  of  the 
Peloponnesus.  In  the  legend  as  given  by  /E.schylus  these: 
names  are  accurately  preserved.  At  the  beginning  of 
continuous  history  (6th  century  B.C.)  Thebes  had  long 
been  possessed  by  immigrants  from  Thessaly.  who  knew 
the  previous  inhabitants  as  Cadmeans  (KaS/j-cioi). 

The  history  of  the  town  to  the  end  of  the  4th  century  is 
part  of  the  general  history  of  the  nation  (see  Greece).  It 
had  an  aristocratic  constitution,  and  claimed  a  contested 
sovereignty  over  the  other  towns  of  Boeotia.  Down  to  371 
B.C.  this  status  was  not  es.sentially  changed.  The  battle 
of  Coronea  (394)  showed  the  increasing  military  strength 
of  the  Thebans,  and  in  371  the  genius  of  Epaminondas 
raised  them  by  the  victory  of  Leuctra  for  a  brief  period  to 
the  leading  position  in  Hellas.  Philip  of  Macedon  spent 
part  of  his  youth  as  a  hostage  at  Thebes,  and  probably 
learnt  there  important  lessons  in  war.  By  him  and  his 
successor  the  state  was  destroyed.  In  338  the  Thebans 
shared  with  the  Athenians  the  defeat  of  Cha;ronea,  and 
received  a  Macedonian  garrison  ;  the  lion-monument 
erected  by  them  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  still  e.xistmg 
there,  though  in  fragments,  is  a  more  impressive  memorial 
of  their  greatness  than  anything  now  visible  at  the  town 
itself.  In  33.5,  after  the  death  of  Philip,  they  revolted, 
and  were  punished  by  Alexander  with  a  fearful  ven- 
geance. It  is  said  that  6000  Thebans  were  slain  at  the 
capture  and  30,000  taken  prisoners.  The  population  was 
dispersed,  and  the  town  entirely  razed  (except,  according 
to  tradition,  the  house  of  the  poet  Pindar) ,  and,  though  it 
was  soon  restored  by  the  Macedonian  Cassander  (315),  it 
never  again  played  a  leading  part  in  history.  In  o6  B.C., 
havir>g  sided  against  the  Romans  in  the  Mithradatic  war, 
it  was  plundered  by  Sulla,  and  fell  into  such  decay  that 
Strabo  describes  it  as  little  better  than  a  village.  In 
the  2d  century  the  traveller  Pausanias,  who  gives  a  full 
account  of  it  (ix.  5  sq.),  found  only  the  citadel  inhabited. 
In  395  A.D.,  however,  it  bad  some  strength,  for  Alaric,  on 
his  way  to  the  capture  of  Athens,  did  not  tliirk  fit  to 
attack  It.  In  the  later  times  of  the  Eastern  empire  (10th 
to  12th  century)  it  again  became  wealthy  and  important, 
being  specially  celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  silk  and 
cloth.  In  1143  it  w.as  plundered  by  the  Normans  of 
Sicily  (who  transferred  thither  the  chief  artisans  of  the 
silk  trade),  and.  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by 


230 


T  HE  B  E  S 


the  crusaders  (1204),  became  with  Athens  a  fief  of  the 
feudal  empire.  In  1311  it  was  again  plundered  by  the 
Catalan  Grand  Company,  a  body  of  Spanish  mercenaries, 
and  appears  to  have  had  no  return  of  prosperity. 

Of  more  lasting  effect  than  the  politics  of  Thebes  have  been  ;ts 
legends.  Bceotia,  or  rather  the  Cadnieis  (Thucyd.,  i.  12),  was  a 
laud  of  poetry  from  extremely  ancient  times,  and  the  stones  of 
'^hebes  are  in  Greek  literature  as  important  as  those  of  Troy.  The 
legends  of  the  five  chief  groups  will  be  found  under  the  names 
indicated  in  the  following  division  —(1)  the  foundation  of  the 
Cadmea  by  Cadmus;  (2)  the  foundation  by  Amphion.— to  this 
belong  originally  the  "seven-gated  "  wall,  the  name  of  i-rrrdirv\oi 
&h0V,  and  the  legends  of  Zethus,  Antiope,  and  Dirce ;  (3)  war  of 
the  "Seven"  (under  Adrastus  of  Argos)  ;  war  of  the  Epigoni.  or 
"  descendants"  of  the  Seven  ;  the  story  of  CEdipus  ;  (4)  legends  of 
Bacchus, — it  Thebes  as  elsewhere  this  religion  was  comparatively 
Ifif^,  but  became  characteristic  of  the  town  ;  (5)  legends  of  Heracles 
(oomraonly  found  with  those  of  Bacchus  ,  Thebes  was  reputed  the 
birthplace  of  both).  From  the  epic  poems,  of  which  little  but 
titles  remain,  these  tales  descended  to  the  Attic  tragedians  ;  upon 
them  are  founded  the  Seven  against  Thebes  of  ^schylus,  the  CEdipus 
Turannus,  (Edipus  ^oloneus,  and  Antigone  ol  Soj)hocles,  the 
Phcenissse,  Suppliccs,  and  Baeckse  of  Euripides,  &c.,  with  inuumer- 
ahle  plays  not  extant.  Apart  from  direct  imitation  of  these  works, 
the  stones  themselves,  through  Statins,  Boccaccio,  and  others, 
have  exercised  a  great  influence  on  modern  literature.  In  historical 
times  the  Thebans  were  not  conspicuous  for  intellectual  accom- 
plishments, but  their  reputation  is  sutBciently  sustained  by 
Pindar,  perhaps  the  most  distinctively  Hellenic  of  all  the  national 
poets. 

The  most  famous  moDument  of  ancient  Tliebes  was  the  outer 
wall  with  its  seven  gates,  which  even  as  late  as  the  6th  century 
B.C.  was  probably  the  largest  of  artihcial  Greek  fortresses.  The 
names  of  the  gates  vary,  but  four  are  constant, — th«  Prcetides, 
Eiectrff,  Neist-TC  or  Neitre,  and  Homoloides  ;  Pausanias  gives  the 
others  aa.Ogygis.  Hypsist.'e,  Crenaeae.  There  is  evidence  that  the 
g.ite  Electrse  wa?  on  the  south,  and  near  it  was  the  tomb  of  the 
Thebans  who  fell  at  the  capture  by  Alexander.  The  gatc^  shown 
to  I -usanias  as  Neistae  and  Prcetides  led  respectively  north-west 
and  north-east.  Two  of  the  spnnps  have  been  identified  with 
some  probability, — that  of  St  Theodore  with  the  (Edipndea,  in 
which  CEdipus  is  said  to  have  purged  him.sclf  from  the  pollution 
of  homicide,  and  the  Paraporti  with  the  dragon-guarded  fountain 
■of  Ares  (see  Cadmus).  Dicaarchus,  referring  to  the  town  of 
Cassander,  gives  two  measurements  for  the  circuit,  equal  to  about 
9  miles  and  5^  miles,  but  even  the  smaller  is  impossible  for  the 
v/;tll,  and  they  probably  refer  to  the  territory  proper  of  the  town, 
or  -/n  ©Tjflaf*.  Beyond  this  the  topography  is  wholly  uncertain. 
From  the  interest  of  the  site  in  history  and  sull  more  in  literature, 
as  the  scene  of  so  many  dramas,  the  temptation  to  fix  details  lias 
been  specially  strong.  Conjectural  plans  or  descriptions,  differing 
widely,  are  given  by  Leake,  Forchhaminer,  Ulrichs,  Bursian,  and 
others  (references  below).  All  are  based  on  the  assumption  that 
tlie  description  of  Pausanias  and  the  allusions  of  the  Attic  trage- 
dians may  be  read  together  and  combined,  and  that  the  result 
will  give  the  plan  as  it  existed  in  the  5th  and  4th  centuries  B.C. 
But  to  this  two  objections  must  be  taken.  (1)  The  account  of 
■Pausanias,  even  when  clear  in  itself,  is  very  uncertain  eviilence  for 
anything  earlier  than  the  destruction  by  Alexander.  It  is  said 
indeed  that  thf  lestored  town  occupied  the  same  area,  but  this  is 
-consistent  with  great  disturbance  of  tradition  .  and  we  havt  further 
to  allow  for  in^iccurate  tiansnnssion  through  450  years  of  decad- 
ence, and  finally  for  the  quality  of  Pausanias's  information,  given 
apparently  by  casual  guides  to  a  traveller  extremely  uncritical. 
(2)  It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  tragedians  had  accurate  know- 
ledge  of  Theban  topography,  and  they  had  certainlv  no  reason  for 
introducing  it  in  their  plays.  Their  plots  are  laid  m  a  remote  past  . 
and  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  them  on  the  one  hand  so  careful  as  to 
tit  their  scenes  to  the  actual  Theues,  and  on  the  other  hand  so 
careless  as  to  presume  that  it  had  suffered  no  great  change  between 
the  times  of  CadniLs  oi  of  CEdipus  and  their  own  days.  Indeed 
they  did  not  n*ike  this  mistake,  The  plays  which  contain  most 
references  to  topography  are  the  Scivu  aijaitist  Thei>es  and  the 
Phaimssee.  In  the  Seven  the  name  of  "  Thebes  "  docs  not  occur  at 
ill  (the  title  IS  a  misnonrer,  probably  not  given  by  the  author), 
the  town  is  called  by  its  ancient  njme  "The  Cadmea"  {Ka^nrla 
it6\isi,  and  the  whole  play  assumes  that  the  "city  of  Cadmus" 
was  much  smaller  than  'he  Thebes  contemporary  witli  vEschylus 
can  have  been  In  the  /'htrntssie  the  circuit  of  the  walls  is  said  to 
be  so  small  that  a  person  within  must  necessarily  know  all  that 
had  taken  place  in  a  general  attack  (v  1356)  None  of  the  con- 
je':lur;il  plans  would  appio.vLimately  satisfy  this,  nor  can  it  have 
tuen  tru"*  for  'ho  time  of  Eunjudcs.  After  this,  it  is  not  surpiisiiig 
to  find  thai  the  attempt  to  use  the  plays  as  evidence  is  involved  in 
unanswered  difficu'ties.  a  few  of  wluch  are  given  below 


In  itself,  however,  and  as  relati*^  to  the  ruins  of  the  restored 
town  merely,  the  description  of  Pausanias  is  curious  and  interesting. 
The  principal  buildings  were  at  that  timu  ^2d  century)  the  temple 
of  Apollo  Unienius,  which  must  have  stood  somewhere  about  the 
present  church  ot  St  Luke,  the  theatre,  near  the  gate  Pra-tides, 
the  Heracleum,  with  a  gymnasium  and  race-course,  and  the 
temples  of  Artemis  Euclt-ia,  of  Aminon,  and  of  Fortune  (Tvxv)- 
Besides  these  Pausanias  was  shown  all  tlie  g'atcs,  all  the  legendary 
situs,  tho  house  of  Pindar  (north-west  beyond  the  Dirce),  statuea, 
kc,  dedicated  by  lum,  several  statues  of  immense  antifjuity,  others 
attributed  to  the  greatest  artists,  and  in  fact  much  more  than  it  is 
easy  to  believe. 

1.  Apollo  Is?ncnius  and  Apollo  Spodius. — Sophocles  {(E.  T.,  21) 
mentions,  ^s  one  of  the  Theban  s.mctuanes,  "  the  oracular  ashes  of 
Ismenus,"  'latirjvoC  fiaurfia  air65oi.  Pausanias,  who  calls  the  river 
not  Ismenus  but  Ismenius.  descnbes  (1)  a  temple  of  Ismenius  ot 
Apollo  Ismenius  (ix.  It),  2),  and  ("2)  an  altar  of  Apollo  Spodius, 
made  of  ashes  and  used  in  a  peculiar  manner  as  an  oracle  (ix.  11,  7). 
We  should  suppose  from  Sophocles  that  both  observations  related 
to  the  same  sanctuary;  and  Sophocles  clearly  identified  the  two. 
But  in  Pausanias  they  are  in  dillerent  places  and  have  no  connexion 
at  all.  Either  therefore  the  topography  and  ritual  of  the  one  period 
differed  from  those  of  the  other,  or,  which  is  equally  probable,  the 
poet  used  Theban  names  without  regard  to  accuracy. 

*2.  The  FouiUain'of  Ares.  —  Euripides,  in  the  Supplices  (v.  650 
sq.},  describes  an  army  advancing  on  Thebes  from  tne  south  as 
having  its  right  at  the  Ismenian  hill,  its  left  at  the  fountain  of 
Ares,  and  "the  chariots  below  the  monument  of  Amphion." 
Pausanias  also  places  the  Ismenun  hill  on  the  right  of  the  southero 
gate.  But  the  fountain  of  Arej  he  places  on  the  same  side,  a  de- 
scription quite  inconsistent  with  this  aud  other  allusions.  Ulrichs, 
while  insisting  on  the  agieemcnt  about  the  hill,  merely  observes 
oa»tiiis  that  Pausanias  is  unintelli'^ible.  Of  a  still  greater  ditEculty 
be  says  nothing.  The  tomb  of  Amphion  is  placed  by  iEschylus 
north  of  the  town,  and  there  .■^'-  in  that  direcnon  was  shown 
to  Pausanias.  The  topographer^  accordingly  suppose  that  the 
"chariots  "  of  Euripides  uere  •■■  *he  plain  to  the  north.  But  there 
is  no  suggestion  in  the  passage  that  any  part  of  the  advancing  army 
was  separated  from  the  rest,  and  the  observer  expressly  says  that 
he  was  at  the  place  when',  tlie  chariot : /ouyht  and  had  a  particularly 
good  mew  of  this  part  of  the  battle  (v.  684).  Now  he  stood  on  the 
gate  Electr;e.  i.e.,  as  far  as  possible  from  the  tomb  of  Amphion,  aa 
placed  by  ^schylus  and  Pausanias.  It  ig  impo.ssihle  to  make  a 
consistent  aceount  of  this^  and  u  seems  jtlain  that  Euripides  took 
up  the  name  "  tomb  of  Amphion  "  at  D.:zard,  and  ignored  or  forgot 
that  the  real  tomb  could  not  be  brought  into  his  picture. 

3.  The  Altar  of  {Athena)  Onca. — Tins  was  sho^n  to  Pausaniaa 
{ix.  12,  1),  who  was  told  that  it  marked  the  place  where  the  lying 
down  of  a  cow  indicated  t.  Cadmus  the  site  destined  for  his  city 
(fSct  ivravda  oiKiiaat)-  "It  is  said."  he  continues, '' that  in  the 
acropolis  there  was  formerly  the  house  of  Cadmus  (KaS^ioo  otVi'a). " 
No  other  indication  is  given  as  to  the  place  of  the  altar,  and  the 
natural  inference  is  that  it  was  shown  in  the  Cadmea.  But 
/Eschylus  (5c/3/cm,  501)  places  it  outside  the  walls.  Accordingly 
It  IS  suggested  that  the  oracular  s.gn  only  indicated  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  destined  site.  {._y  that  the  altar  shown  to  Pausanns 
was  near  that  of  Apollo  Spodius.  which  is  mentioned  last  before  it, 
and  may  have  been  outside  Mie  wall.  But  thisjuxtaposilion  proves 
nothing  about  the  place  of  Onca,  for  Pausanias  himself  shows  that 
mention  of  Onca  here  is  suggested  by  a  reference  to  "oxen"  io 
connexion  with  the  altar  of  Spodius.  which  brought  to  his  mind 
the  "cow  "  *^f  the  other  legend. 

4-  The  Tomb  of  Amphion  and  Zethus. — Apart  fiom  the  con- 
fusion of  Euripides  already  noticed,  there  is  a  difficulty  about  the 
mentiouof  this  monument  in  P«iisaiiiasaiid  .^schylus  Pnusaniaa, 
after  describing  several  buildings  near  the  gate  Pra-tides,  conclud- 
ing with  some  in  the  market  place,  mentions  next  (without  further 
indication  of  place)  the  tonib  of  Amphion  and  Zethus,  aud  con' 
tinues  thus  —  "the  way  from  Thebes  to  Chalcis  (north-east)  is  by 
tins  gale  Prcetides,  Lc."  iEschylus  places  the  tomb  of  Amphion 
outside  the  wall  opposite  the  north  gale  (Septcm,  527),  and  the 
Prcetides  elsewhere.  UIn,hs  couciudes  that  Pausanias  "evi- 
dently" Weill  out  by  the  north  gate  to  view  the  monument  and 
then  returned  to  the  Prcetides.  Of  course  this  is  possible,  but  it  is 
useless  to  draw  e.\act  luferences  from  documents  which  require 
such  an  liypothesis.  It  is  equally  probable  that  Pausanias  identified 
the  tomb  with  a  monument  called  the  Ampheion,  which  seems 
{Ulnchs.  p.  17)  to  have  been  somewhere  near  the  market-place. 
Indeed,  there  is  no  proof  that  they  w<.rc  not  identical,  for  theonly 
evidence  that  the  tomb  was  outside  the  walUand  therefore  different 
from  the  Ampheion)  is  that  of  ^schylus  and  Euripides,  whose 
imaginary  cities  were  not  much  larger  than  the  Cadraean  hill,  and 
must  have  excluded  the  Ampheion  itscli 

On  ihe  liisioiy,  nee  rclerenrcs  iimlcr  Grkrcf;  on  the  lopography  and  legends, 
Uliichs,  lifturn  und  f'ortctnmijen  in  Gnechenland,  ii.  1  sfl..  Leake,  Traf€U  in 
t^oillifrn  Orrece.  II  xiv.;  [tuiainn.  Oeographif  von  Grifr/ien/and,  1.  226117.;  <"*'* 
the  •■.Sfi^fi  ugaintt  '^^ftw."  ed.  l)y  A    W.  Verrall,  "  Introfluctlon."        (A.  W.  V.) 


T  H  E  —  T  H  E 


231 


THECLA,  St.  virgin,  is  commemorated  by  the  Latin 
Church  on  September  23.  The  Bremary  relates  that 
she  was  boro  of  illustrious  parentage  at  [conium,  and 
came  under  the  personal  teaching  of  the  apostle  Paul. 
In  her  eighteenth  year,  having  broken  her  engagement 
with  Thamyris,  ta  whom  she  had  been  betroth&d,  she 
was  accused  by  her  relations  of  being  a  Christian,  and 
sentenced  to  be  bnrned.  Armed  with  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  she  threw  herself  upon  the  pyre,  but,  the  flames 
having  been  extinguished  by  a  sudden, rain,  she  came  to 
Antioch.  where  she  was  exposed  to  the  wild  beasts,  then 
fastened  to  bulls  that  she  might  be  torn  asunder,  then 
thrown  into  a  pit  full  of  serpents,  but  from  all  these  perils 
the  was  delivered  by  the  grace  of  Christ.  Her  ardent 
faith  and  her  holy  life  were  the  means  of  converting 
many  Returning  once  more  to  her  native  place,  she 
withdrew  into  a  mountain  solitude,  and  became  distin- 
guished by  many  virtues-  and  miracles,  dying  at  the  age 
of  ninety.     She  was  buried  at  Seleucia, 

The  substance  of  the  foregoing  narratire,  with  many  other 
curious  iDcideDts,  occurs  in  the  very  aucient  apocryphal  book 
entitled  the  wtfMoi  of  Paul  and  Thecia  (Acta  Pauli  a  Thedte). 
Tertullian  tells  as  that  this  work  was  written  by  a  presbyter  in 
Asia,  *'out  of  love  to  Paul,'*  but  that  his  conduct  was  not  ap- 
proved, and  led  to  his  deposition.  What  caused  special  offence 
was  its  recognition  of  the  right  of  women  to  preach  and  baptize. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  present  diifers  very  considerably  from 
the  original  form  of  the  AcUi^  but  even  now  its  Gnostic  origin  is 
betrayed  in  several  features  which  it  still  retains— for  example, 
the  rejection  of  marriage  For  the  text,  see  the  Ada  Apost.  Apocr. 
of  Tischendorf,  who  in  the  Prolegomena  gives  a  large  body  of 
evidence  for  its  great  antiquity  A  translation  is  given  in  the 
AnU-Xicene  Christian  Library. 

THEFT  is,  m  modern  legal  systems,  universally  treated 
as  a  crime,  but  the  conception  of  theft  as  a  crime  is  not 
one  belonging  to  the  earliest  stage  of  law  To  its  latest 
period  Roman  law  regarded  theft  (furtum)  as  a  delict 
prima  facie  pursued  by  a  civil  remedy, — the  actw  furti 
for  a  penalty,  the  mndicatio  or  condictio  for  the  stolen 
property  itself  or  its  value.  In  later  times,  no  doubt,  a 
criminal  remedy  to  meet  the  graver  crimes  gradually  grew 
up  by  the  side  of  the  civil,  and  in  the  time  of  Justinian  the 
criminal  remedy,  where  it  existed,  took  precedence  of  the 
civil  (Cod.,  iii.  8,  4).  But  to  the  last  criminal  proceedings 
could  only  be  taken  in  serious  cases,  e.g.,  against  stealers 
of  cattle  (afngei)  or  the  clothes  of  bathers  (balnearii).  The 
punishment  was  death,  banishment,  or  labour  in  the  mines 
or  on  public  works.  In  the  main  the  Roman  law  of  theft 
coincides  with  the  English  law.  The  definition  as  given 
in  the  Institutes  (iv.  1,  1)  is  "fnrtum  est  contrectatio  rei 
fraudulosa,  vel  ipsius  rei,  vel  etiam  ejusnsuspossessionisve," 
to  which  the  Digest  (ilvii  2,  I,  3)  adds  "  lucri  faciendi 
gratia."  The  earliest  English  definition,  that  of  Bracton 
(1506),  runs  thus'  "furtum  est  secundum  leges  contrec- 
tatio rei  alienae  fraudulenta  com  animo  fnrandi  invito  illo 
domino  cujus  res  ilia  fuerit."  Bracton  omits  the  "  lucri 
faciendi  gratia  "  of  the  Roman  definition,  because  in  English 
law  the  motive  is  immaterial,*  and  the  "usus  ejus  posses- 
sionisve,"  because  the  definition  includes  an  intent  to  de- 
prive the  owner  of  his  property  permanently.  The  "  ammo 
furandi "  and  "invito  domino"  of  Bracton's  definition 
are  expansions  for  the  sake  of  greater  clearness.  They 
seem  to  have  been  implied  in  Roman  law.  Furtum  is  on 
the  whole  a  more  comprehensive  tern  than  theft.-  This 
difference  no  doubt  arises  from  the  tendency  to  extend  the 
bounds  of  delict  and  to  limit  the  bounds  of  a  Crime. 
Thus  it  was  furtum  (but  it  would  not  be  theft  at  English 
common  law)  to  use  a  deposit  of  pledge  contrary  to  the 
■wishes  of  the  owner,  to  retain  goods  found,  or  to  steal  a 
human  being,  such  as  a  slave  or  filius  familias  (a  special 

'  Thus  destruction  of  a  letter  by  a  servant,  with  a  view  of  enppress- 
ing  inquiries  mio  her  character,  makes  the  servant  guilty  of  larceny  m 
Eogli^  law 


form  oi  furtum  called  plagium).  The  latter  would  be  in 
English  law  an  abduction  under  certain  circumstances,  but 
not  a  theft.  On  the  other  hand,  one  of  two  married 
persons  could  not  commit  furtum  as  against  the  other, 
but  theft  may  be  so  committed  in  England  since  recent 
legislation.  As  &  furtum  was  merely  a  delict,  the  obligatio 
ex  delicto  could  be  extinguished  by  agreement  between 
the  parties ;  i'  will  be  seen  that  this  cannot  be  done  in 
England.  In  another  direction  English  law  is  more  con- 
siderate of  the  rights  of  third  parties  than  was  Romaa 
As  will  appear  hereafter,  the  thief  can  give  a  good  title  to 
stolen  goods  ;  in  Roman  law  he  could  not  do  so,  except  in 
the  single  case  of  a  Aereditas  acquired  by  usucapio  The 
development  of  the  law  of  furtum  at  Rome  is  historically 
interesting,  for  even  in  its  latest  period  is  found  a  relic  of 
one  of  the  most  primitive  theories  of  law  adopted  by 
courts  of  justice  "  They  took  as  their  guide  the  measure 
of  vengeance  likely  to  be  exacted  by  an  aggrieved  person 
under  the  circumstances  of  the  case"  (Maine,  Arictenc 
Law,  ch.  X.).  This  explains  the  reason  of  the  division  of 
furtum  into  mamfestum  and  nee  mantfestum.  The  mani- 
fest thief  was  one  taken  red-handed, — "taken  with  the 
manner,"  in  the  language  of  old  English  law  The  Twelve 
Tables  denounced  the  punishment  of  death  against  the 
manifest  thief,  for  that  would  be  the  penalty  demanded 
by  the  indignant  owner  in  whose  place  the  judge  stood. 
The  severity  of  this  penalty  was  afterwards  mitigated  by 
the  prstor,  who  substituted  for  it  the  payment  of  quad- 
ruple the  value  of  the  thing  stolen.  The  same  penalty 
was  also  given  by  tb'e  praetor  in  case  of  theft  from  a  fire 
or  a  wreck,  or  of  prevention  of  search.  No  doubt  the 
object  of  this  large  penalty  was  to  induce  injured  persons 
to  refrain  from  taking  the  law  into  their  own  hands.  The 
Twelve  Tables  mulcted  the  non-manifest  thief  in  double 
the  value  of  the  thing  stolen.  The  actions  for  penalties 
were  in  addition  to  the  action  for  the  stolen  goods  them- 
selves or  their  value.  The  quadruple  and  double  penalties 
still  remain  in  the  legislation  of  Justinian.  The  search 
for  stolen  goods,  as  it  existed  in  the  time  of  Gaius,  was  a 
survival  of  a  period  when  the  injured  person  was,  as  in  the 
case  of  summons  (in  jus  vocatio),  his  own  executive  officer 
Such  a  search,  by  the  Twelve  Tables,  might  be  conducted 
in  the  house  of  the  supposed  thief  by  the  owner  in  person, 
naked  except  for  a  cincture,  and  carrying  a  platter  in  his 
hand,  safeguards  apparently  against  a  violation  of  decency 
and  against  any  possibility  of  his  making  a  false  charge  by 
depositing  some  of  his  own  property  on  his  neighbour's 
premises  This  mode  of  search  became  obsolete  before  the 
time  of  Justinian.  Robbery  (borta  m  rapta)  was  violence 
added  to  furtum  By  the  actio  tn  bonorum  raptorum 
quadruple  the  value  could  be  recovered  if  the  action  were 
brought  within  a  year,  only  the  value  if  brought  after 
the  expiration  of  a  year  The  quadruple  value,  it  is  to  b© 
noted,  included  the  stolen  thing  itself,  so  that  the  penalty 
was  in  effect  only  a  triple  one.  It  was  inclusive,  and  not 
cumulative,  as  in  furtum. 

In  England  theft  appears  to  have  been  very  early 
regarded  by  legislators  as  a  matter  calling  for  special 
attention.  Tht-  pre-Conquest  compilations  of  laws  are 
full  of  provisions  on  the  subject.  It  is  noticeable  that  the 
earlier  ones  appear  to  regard  theft  as  a  delict  which  may  be 
compounded  for  by  payment.  Considerable  distinctions 
of  person  are  made,  both  in  regard  to  the  owner  and  the 
thief.  Thus,  by  the  laws  of  Ethelbert,  if  a  freeman  stole 
from  the  king  he  was  to  restore  ninefold,  if  from  a  freeman 
or  from  a  dwelling  threefold.  If  a  theow  stole,  he  had 
only  to  make  a  twofold  reparation.  Irt  the  laws  of  Alfred 
ordinary  theft  was  still  only  civil,  but  he  who  stole  in  a 
church  was  punished  by  the  loss  of  h'<»  hand.  The  laws 
of  Ina  namod  as  'he  penalty  death  or  redemption  accord- 


2S2 


THEFT 


inc  to  the  wergild  of  the  thief.  By  the  same  laws  the 
thief  might  be  tlaia  if  he  fltd  or  resisted.  Gradually  the 
severity  of  the  punishment  increased.  By  the  laws  of 
Athelstan  death  in  a  verj'  cruel  form  was  inflicted.  At  a 
later'date  the  Leges  Henrici  Pnmi  placed  a  thief  in  the 
king's  mercy,  and  his  lands  were  forfeited.  Putting  out 
the  eyes  and  other  kinds  of  mutilation  were  sometimes  the 
punishment.  The  principle  of  severity  continued  dowTi  to 
the  present  century,  and  until  18L'7  theft  of  certain  kinds 
remained  capital.  Both  before  and  after  the  Conquest 
local  jurisdiction  over  thieves  was  a  common  franchise  of 
lords  of  manors,  attended  with  some  of  the  advantages 
of  modern  summary  jurisdiction.  It  might  be  e.xercised 
either  over  thieves  who  committed  a  theft  or  were  appre- 
hended within  the  lordship  (infanr/thef),  or  over  those 
inhabitants  of  the  lordship  who  were  apprehended  else- 
where {oulfanr/lhcf).  Either  or  both  franchises  might  be 
enjoyecl  by  grant  or  prescription.  As  lately  as  1  Pli. 
and  M.  c.  15  infangthef  and  outfangthef  were  confirmed 
to  the  lords  marchers  of  Wales.  An  analogous  franchise 
was  ikeam,  or  the  light  of  caUingupon  the  holder  of  stolen 
goods  to  vouch  to  warranty,  i.e.,  to  name  from  whom  he 
received  th;m.  In  the  old  law  of  theft  there  were  to  be 
found  two  interesting  survivals  of  the  primitive  legal 
notions  which  were  found  in  Roman  law.  Up  to  a  com- 
paratively recent  date  a  distinction  analogous  to  that 
between  furtuni  manifestum  and  7itc  manifeslum  was  of 
importance  in  English  criminal  practice.  The  thief 
"taken  with  the  manner"  was  by  the  Statute  of  West- 
minster the  First  not  to  be  admitted  to  bail  (see  Letters  of 
Junius,  Ixviii.).  In  modern  procedure  the  probable  guilt 
or  innocence  of  the  accused  is  not  so  much  to  be  considered 
in  a  question  of  bail  as  the  probability  of  his  appearance 
at  the  trial.  The  other  matter  worthy  of  notice  is  the 
old  pursuit  (^secta)  by  hue  and  cry.  In  the  pre-Conquest 
codes  the  owner  was  generally  allowed  to  take  the  law  into 
his  own  hand,  as  in  early  Roman  law,  and  get  back  his 
goods  by  force  if  he  could,  no  doubt  with  the  assistance 
of  his  neighbours  where  possible.  From  this  arose  the 
later  development  of  the  hue  and  cry,  as  the  recognized 
means  of  pursuing  a  thief.  The  Statutes  of  Westminster 
the  First  and  of  De  officio  coronaloris  enacted  that  all  men 
.should  be  ready  to  jiursue  and  arrest  felons,  and  ton  years 
later  the  Statute  of  Winchester  (128.5)  enforced  upon  all 
the  duty  of  keeping  arms  for  the  purpose  of  following  the 
hue  and  cry..  It  al=o  made  the  liundred  liable  for  thefts 
with  vinlcncfi  committed  in  it,  b.&  adoption  no  doubt  in 
feudal  law  of  the  old  pre-Conquest  liability  of  the  frith- 
liorg.  As  justice  became  more  settled,  the  hue  and  cry 
was  regulated  more  and  more  by  law,  and  lost  much  of  its 
old  natural  simplicity.  This  led  to  its  gradually  becom- 
ing obsolete,  though  the  Statutes  of  Westminster  the  First 
and  Dc  offici'i  toroniitoris  are  still  nominally  law  as  far  as 
they  relate  to  the  hue  and  cry.  The  Statute  of  Winchester 
as  to  the  liability  of  the  hundred  was  repealed  in  1827. 

The  term  theft  in  modern  English  law  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  synonym  of  larceny,  sometimes  in  a  more  com- 
prehensive sense.  In  the  Utter  sense  it  is  used  by  Mr 
Justice  Stephen,  who  defines  it  as  "  the  act  of  dealing  from 
any  motive  whatever,  unlawfully  and  without  claim  of 
right,  with  anything  capable  of  being  stolen,  in  any  of  the 
ways  in  which  theft  can  be  committed"  (for  which  see 
§  21)0-300),  "  with  the  intention  of  permanently  converting 
that  thing  to  the  use  of  any  person  other  than  the  general 
or  special  owner  thereof"  {Digest  of  the  Criminal  Law, 
§  290).  In  thi»  broader  sense  the  term  applies  to  all  cases 
of  depriving  another  of  his  property,  whether  by  removing 
or  withholdiug  it.  It  thus  includes  larceny,  robbery, 
cheating,  embezzlement,  and  breach  of  trust.  Embezzle- 
cneui  is  a  statutory  crime  created  as  a  separate  form  of 


offence  in  the  last  century  (see  vol.  viii.  p.  159).  The 
difference  between  larceny  and  embezzlement  turns  mainly 
on  the  fact  of  the  'naster's  being  in  actual  or  constructive 
possession  of  the  stolen  property  (see  Possession).  Fraud- 
ulent breach  of  trust  was  not  made  a  specific  offence  until 
1 85  7  (see  Trust). 

Larceny  (a  corniption  of  latracinium),  or  theft  proper,  was  felony 
at  commou  law.  Tlie  common  law  ol  larceny  has  Ijeen  affected  by 
numerous  statutes,  the  main  object  of  legislation  beiiig  to  bring 
wiiliin  tlic  law  of  larceny  offences  which  were  not  larcenies  at 
common  law,  either  because  they  were  thefts  of  things  of  which 
there  couM  be  no  larceny  at  commeo  law,  e.g..  beasts /era  naturd, 
title  UeeJs,  or  choses  in  action,  or  because  the  common  law  regarded 
ihem  merely  as  delicts  for  whith  the  remedy  was  by  civil  action, 
c  tj.,  fraudulent  breaches  of  trust.  The  caiiicst  Act  in  the  statutes 
of  the  re.nlm  dealing  with  larceny  appeals  to  be  the  Carta  Forests 
of  1225,  by  whieh  hnc  or  imprisonment  was  inflicted  for  stealing 
the  king's  deer.  The  next  Act  ap|ieare  to  Ijc  tlie  Statute  of  West- 
minster the  First  (1270),  dealing  again  with  stealing  deer.  Frorix 
this  It  seems  as  though  the  beginning  of  legislation  on  the  subject 
was  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  chases  and  i)arks  of  the  king 
and  the  nobility.  An  immense  mass  of  the  old  Acts  will  be  found 
nanieil  in  the  repealing  Act  of  1827,  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  27.  An 
Act  of  the  same  date,  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29,  removed  the  old  dis- 
tinction between  grand  and  petit  larceny.^  The  former  was  theft 
of  goods  above  the  value  of  twelve  pence,  in  the  house  of  the 
owner,  not  from  the  pereon,  or  by  night,  and  was  a  capital  crime. 
It  was  petit  larceny  where  the  value  was  twelve  pence  or  under, 
the  punishment  being  imprisonment  or  whipping.  The  gradual 
depreciation  in  the  value  of  money  afforded  good  ground  for 
Sir  Henry  Spelman's  sarcasm  that,  while  everything  else  became 
dearer,  the  life  of  man  became  continually  cheaper.  The  distinc- 
tion between  grand  and  petit  larceny  first  appears  in  statute  law  in 
the  Statute  of  Westminster  the  First,  c  15,  but  it  was  not  created 
for  the  first  time  by  that  statute.  It  is  found  in  some  of  the  pre- 
Conquest  codes,  as  that  of  Athelstan,  and  it  is  recogniied  in  the 
Leges  Henrici  Primi.  A  distinction  between  simple  and  compound 
larceny  is  still  found  in  the  books.  The  latter  is  larceny  accom- 
panied by  circumstances  of  aggravation,  as  that  it  is  in  a  dwelling- 
house  'or  from  the  person.  The  law  of  larceny  is  now  contained 
chiefly  in  the  Larceny  Act,  1861,  24  and  25  Vict.  c.  96  (which 
extends  to  England  and  Ireland),  a  comprehensive  enactment 
including  larceny,  embezzlement,  fraud  by  bailees,  agents,  bankers, 
factors,  and  trustees,  sacrilege,  burglary,  housebreaking,  robbery, 
obtaining  money  by  threats  or  by  false  pretences,  and  receiving 
stolen  goods,  and  prescribing  procedure,  both  civil  and  criminal. 
There  are  still,  however,  some  earlier  ^cts  in  force  dealing  with 
special  cases  of  larceny,  such  as  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12,  as  to  stealing 
the  goods  of  the  king,  and  the  Game,  Post-Office,  and  Merchant 
Shipping  Acts.  Later  Acts  provide  for  laiceily  by  a  psutntr  of 
partnership  property  (31  and  32  Vict  c,  116),  and  by  a'husbanJ 
or  wife  of  the  property  of  the  other  (45  and  46  Vict,  c  75).  Pro- 
ceedings against  persons  subject  to  naval  or  military  law  depend 
upon  3ie  Naval  Discipline  Act,  1866,  and  the  Arniy  Act,  1881. 
There  are  several  Acts,  both  before  and  after  1861,  directing 
how  the  property  is  to  be  laid  in  indictments  for  stealing  the  goods 
of  counties,  friendly  societies,  trades  unions,  ic  The  principal  con- 
ditions which  must  exist  in  order  to  constitute  larceny  are  these; — 
(1)  there  must  be  an  actu.ol  tiking  into  the  possession  of  the  thief, 
though  the  smallest  removed  is  sulhcient;  (2)  there  must  be  aii 
intent  to  deprive  the  owner  of  his  iirojierty  for  an  indefinite  period, 
and  to  assume  the  entire  dominion  over  it,  an  intent  often  descrfbed 
in  Bracton's  words  as  animus  fiirayidi ;  (3)  this  intent  must  exist 
at  the  time  of  tiking;  (4)  the  thing  taken  must  be  one  capable  of 
larceny  cither  at  commou  law  or  hy  statute.  One  f  r  two  cases 
falling  under  the  law  of  larceny  arc  of  special  interest  It  was 
iield  more  than  once  that  a  ser\ant  taking  com  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding  his  master's  horses,  but  without  any  iniention  of  applying 
it  for  his  own  iKinefit,  was  guilty  of  larceny.  To  remedy  this  hard- 
sliip,  26  and  27  Vict.  c.  103  was  passed  to  declare  such  an  act  aot 
to  be  felony.  The  case  of  ajipropriation  of  goods  which  have  been 
found  has  led  to  some  difficulty.  It  now  seems  to  be  the  law  that 
in  order  to  constitute  a  larceny  of  lost  goods  fliere  must  be  a 
felonious  intent  at  the  time  of  finding,Jhat  is,  an  fntent  to  deprive 
the  owner  of  them,  coupled  with  reasonable  means  at  tbs  same 
time  of  knowingthe  owner.  The  mere  retention  of  the  goods  when 
the  owner  lias  become  known  to  the  finder  does  not  make  the 
retention  criminal.  Larceny  of  money  may  be  committed  when 
the  money  is  paid  by  mistake,  rf  the  prisoner  took  it  animo/uratidi 
In  two  recent  cases  the  question  was  argued  before  a  very  full  Court 
for  Clown  Cases  Kescrved,  and  in  each  case  there  was  a  striking 
difference  of  opinion.     In  Reg.  v.  Middleton,  Lau-  Mcp.,  2  Crown 

'  This  provision  was  most  unnecessarily  repeated  in  the  Larc«i:> 
Act  of  1861 


THEFT 


l-ases  Reserrea  38  tho  pnsantr,  a  depositor  m  a  post-office  savings 
bank,  reoeiv-ej  by  tho  mistake  of  the  clerk  a  larger  sum  than  l?e 
«-a3  enmled  to.  The  jurj-  found  that  he  had  th«?a»im«/um,!rfi 
at  the  time  of  taking  the  money,  and  that  he-k-new  it  to  be  tho 
money  of  the  postmaster-general.  The  majority  of  the  court  held 
It  to  be  h'rceny  In  a  case  in  1885  (Reg.  v.  Ashwell,  Law  ncp.,  16 
Queen  s  Bench  Division,  190),  "here  the  prosecutor  gave  the  prisoner 

,1„'H»r?h?rh^  f  i"".  ''r '"  ''^*  ',*>*'"''-  ""^  t*"'  prisoner  look  it 
iinder  that  belief,  but  afterwards  discovered  its  value  an.l  retained 
It,  the  court  was  equally  divided  as  to  whether  the  prisoner  was 
guilty  of  larceny  at  common  law,  but  held  that  he  was  not  cuiltv 
j.f  larceny  as  a  bailee.  The  procedure  in  prosecutions  for  larceny 
has  been  considerably  affected  by  recent  legislation.  The  iucon- 
vMuences  of  the  common-law  rules  of  interpretation  of  indictments 
^d  to  certain  amendments  of  tho  law,  now  contained  in  the  Larceny- 
Act,  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  frecjnent  failures  of  justice 
owing  to  the  stnetncss  with  which  indictments  were  construed 
n,,vl„i;'"i^"'i°  '"'?P•"'y^"'P'^™°  person  within  six  months 
uZT,,  ''"""S^''  '"  ""<=  'ndictment  .On  an  indictment  for 
larceny  the  prisoner  may  be  found  guilty  of  embezzlement,  and 
ffJV, '  tl><!  prisoner  be  indicted  for  obtaining  goods  by 

false  pretences,  and  the  offence  turn  out  to  bo  larceny!  ho  is  not 
entitled  to  he  acmiitted  of  the  misdemeanour.  'A  count  for  reco^v. 
ing  may  be  joined  with  tho  count  for  stealing.  In  many  cases  it  i« 
unnecessar)-  to  allege  or  prove  ownership  of  thO  property  thCsub^ 
lect  of  the  md.ctinent  TheActalso  contains  numerous  provisions 
?fi  tft™'^  ^"'^  "'.'  apprehension  of  olTondcrs.  In  another  diiec 
>,^^  .  P^™5".0f  fOWl-'S  of  StJM.MART  JURISDICTIO.V  (7.,;.)  have 
teen  extended  m  tho  case  of  charges  of  larceny,  embezzlement, 
and  receiving  stolen  goods,  against  children  and  young  persons  and 
asjunst  adults  pleading  guilty  or  waiving  their%igirt  to  tii.al  bj 
jury  The  ma.x;imum  punishment  for  larceny  is  fourteen  years' 
jcnal  servitude,  but  this  can^nly  be  inflicted  in  certain  exceptional 
cafes,  such  as  horse  or  cattle  stealing  and  larceny  by  a  servant  or 
a  person  in  the  ser^•ice  of  the  crown  or  the  police.'  The  ex  ren" 
punishment  for  simple  larceny  after  a  previous  conviction  for  felony 

;p2?iT  ^"f  '""*"'*'  Whipping  may  be  part  of  the  sen- 
teace  on  boys  under  sixteen.  - 

H'h  "fw-'  JV"  ■™^'  ^"0"P3°i,ed  by  violence  or  threatened  yiolenccJ 
ttJiether  obtaining  money  by  threats  to  accuse  of  crime  was  robbery 
au common  law  was  open  to  some  doiibt.  It  is  now  a  specific 
oftnce  under  the  Larceny  Act.  punishable  'uy  penal  servitude  for 
by  26  and'2T  vl-rT  «  "'''''  ^^  '^"'  of_the  sentence  for  robber,' 

■ini^^^""?  f'  ^'1"'"  *  <:o"'"<""l'i"'  orTsicMitory'otfence.  An 
indictment  for  cheating  at  common  law  is  now  of  coint>arativclv 
rrLln'S?'-'".^ -V  Tl'fi.stahitorj-  crime  of  obtaining  mone'y  by  feb^ 
pretenets  IS  he  for™  in  wTiich  the  offence  generally  presents  itself 
Like  embezzlement,  this- offence  dates  as  a  statu?oy  crime  from 
the  last  century.  It  now  depends  upon  the  Larceny/  c"  1  false 
pretences  defined  by  Mr  Justice  Stephen  as  "a  falsereprfsenu? 
tionmade  either  by  words,  by  writing,  or  by  conduct  thit  some 
fact  or  acts  existed-  {Digest  of  0^  CrimiJl  La,T%33o]  'rZ 
principal  poinu  to  notice  are  that  the  false  pretence  must  be  of  an 
L"?nv°f  ^""  ''/•'  '' J^  ^'^'^  "»'  to  be  a  fafse  pretence  to  promise 
kctHv^lf,"-'''/','  ^lY^Vh  ^""^  "'^'  P'°P^«y  ■"""  have  "en 
actually  obtained  by  the  false  pretence.     The  broad  distincticn 

i-nuirto  narf:;|?h  h""^  larceny"^^,  that  in  the  fo^er  the  owne" 
22  a  d  23  vfnr  T  ,7  '  Property.  in  the  latter  he  does  not.  By 
22  and  23  Vict,  e.  17,  no  indictment  for  obtaining  money  by  false 

ZZf'r  W^'  r''"'"^  »■•  f"""''  by  the  grand  jury  unles 
the  defendant  has  been  committed  for  trial  or  the  indictment  i 
Jiuthorized  in  one  of  the  ways  mentioned  in  the  Act  The  maximum 
punishment  for  the  common-law  offence  is  fine  or  mprisonmen" 
at  distretion,  for  the  statutory  five  years"  penal  servitiuir 

Stolen  Goods —The  owner  of  the  goods  stolen  has  an  action 
a.>a.nst  the  thief  for  the  goods  or  their  value.  How  "ar  he°" 
n?Il  ,"'  S"'"'*  '"^  ""'  ""'"  to  'he  exclusion  of  crimen.  ] 
If.t^r,'".'^r.'  "°'  '"'?  very  clear  upon  the  authorities.  C 
•of  the  latest  statemejUs  of  the  law  wxs  that  of  Mr  Justice  "iVatk^n 

a\  isTharth  rern",r^'''  "'^'  "'^  true  principle  of  the  common 
»aw  is  that  there  is  neither  a  merger  of  the  civil  right,  nor  is  it  a 
strict  condition  precclenfcto^uch'right  that  there  sha  have  been 
a  prosecution  of  the  felon,  but  thatlhere  is  a  duty  m posed  uZ 
tho  injured  person  not  to  resort  to  the  prosecution  of  his  pr"vate 
suit  to  the  neglect  and-exclusion  of  the  vindication  of  the  ™bl  c 
law  .in  myapinion  this  view  is  tho  correct  one"  (Midland    nsur- 

DeaHnrrth-*^-  ?"""'•  '^T^'"'-  «  <^"^™'^  f''"*  Division  568  . 
»fWf  ,h  1  .  r  Spods  by  persons  other  than  the  thief  may 
affect  the  nghu  of  ^such  persons  either  criminally  or  civilly.  Tvvo 
Varieties  of  crime  irise  from  such  ilcalings.     (1)  Receiv  n"  stolln 

fa'l^ls  hnh"?! '''™  '"  \'7  ^r,  ''°'^"'  -^  •■■-le-oanouTat  c°ommo; 
tew   13  by  the  Larceny  Act  a  felony  punishable  by  penal  servitude 

niiXu  "  r^"  "'Y'"  "!'  '^'"  ="'™"'^  «"  felony:  a  misdem'anou 
punishable  by  ,,enal  servitude  for  seven  years  where  the  theft  is  a 
mBdemeauour.  as  in  obtaining  goods  by  false  pretences  Recent 
po^ession   of  stolen,  orooertv^ay,  according^o  circnmsfances! 


233 


a  rTcivor  PI-'^'="H"'^''."'at  the  prisoner  h  a  thief  or  that  he  id 
cinn'jrin  th?i  P''v"'"'r°  of.Crime  Act.  1871,  m.nde  important 
changes  in  the  law  of  evidence  in  charges  of  receiving      It  allows 

t^AXTLf'^^f^!!  "'^T"  '°  '^°  g'™»  i"  thf  course  of  h^ 
accused  Lnd  ff  f  n  ""''"  =*"''=".P'-o|"'>ty  in  the  possession  of  the 
accused,  and  of  a  previous  convictiou  for  any  offence  involvina 
rtakin^tkTof^-  '','  Compounding  theftf  or  tKeftbote  li.l 
^- . lot  nrlccntin  °  1^^°°'^1  "'■ ''""'"'°  ^°"'P<^ns"ion  on  condition 
01  not  prosecuting,  is  a  misdemeanour  at  common  law  It  need  not 
necessarily  be  committed  by  the  owner  of  the  goods.  Under  ?he 
Laceuy  Act  ,t  is  a  elony  punishable  by  seven^cars-penal  sen,i° 
tude  to  corruptly  take   money  or  reward  for  helpi"-  to  recover 

triaf°°BVthrs"am"/7/l'  "'^f  ''''""'''  '»  br^ng-the^oZd 
to  tnal.     By  the  same  Act,  to  advert  se  or  print  or  nublidi  inv 

advertisement  offering  a  reward  for  the  retuni'^f  stol  n^goods  I7d 
Z"rJ'irZ'^Trif""  "^^t  ""  'P'ostionswiU  bea^sked:ic 
bv^l  ^.d  i5^" ''."  ^'f}"^"  "  ^T  'y  "'  -^^O-  TMs  penalty  nus 
„7-.^;.  f  i  ,  "•  "■  ^^'  ^^  f".'='^  f"''  "i'l'i"  six  moiths.  and  the 
ttl]  y  «''.';.f.«°r"cy-gencral  is  necess,ary.  Various  Acts  provido 
for  the  liabilities  of  pawnbrokers,  publicans,  murine-storo  dealers 
and  others  into  whoso  possession  stolen  goods  come.  Search  fol 
stolen  goods  can  only  bo  undertaken  by  a  police  officer  under  the 
protection  of  a  search  warrant.  The  law  .^s  to  stolen  goods,  as  fat 
as  It  affects  the  civil  rights  and  liabilities  of  the  owner  and  th  rd 
parties,  is  shortly  as  lollows.  As  a  general  rule  a  purehaser  takes 
goods  subject  to  any  infirmities  of  title.  The  property  in  money 
b»"k-notes,  and  negotiable  instruments  passes  by  delivery,  and  a 
sou  taking  any  of  these  bona  Jiclc  and  for  value  is  entitled  to 
it;L^^  1"%^"'"  »  f"™^''  »»■""  from  whom  it  may  have  been 
stolen.  In  the  case  01  other  goods,  a  bo,ia  fide  purchaser  of  stolen 
goods  in  market  overt  (see  Sale)  obtains  a  good  title  (except  a" 
agunst  the  crown)  provided  that  the  thief  hal  not  been  conv    ted 

H,«  .T^Tr'""  °'^^"'f  ^\}'^  "^"  P™P"'y  ^^™^t»  in  the  owner,  and 
he  court  before  which  the  thief  was  convicted  may  order  restitu- 
tion except  m  the  cases  specially  mentioned  in  the  Larceny  Act 
I.e.,  the  to«rt/f?c  discharge  or  transfer  of  a  security  for  value  with, 
wi  <-"°ind  '"^"^°  f>audulent  dealing  by  a  trustee,  banker,  &c 
V    t"-  goods  .and  documents  of  title   to  goods  entrusted  to  him 
M  :r  conviction  of  the  thief  the  goods  mSst  be  recomed  f  om  the 
son  Ml  whoso  hands  they  are  at  the  time  of -the  conviction,  for 
any  sales  .and  resa  cs  if  the  first  sale  was  in  market  overt,  are  good 
until  conviction  of  the  thief.     If  the  goods  were  obtained  by  fal.e 
pretences  and  not  by    areeny,  the  qSestion  then  is  whether  tt- 
popertym  the  goods  has  passed  or  not,  and^he  answer  to  t 
question  depends  upon  tlie  nature  of  the  false  pretences  emp?ov  d 
•en  or  t!;\  ''  f«»'"fPOf session  of  goods  with  the  intentionVtl,; 
•e,,I  ;„  ,  °',''°"'  the  property  and  the  possession,  the  property 

^.1  ™    \     ,  '""'^?-  """'the  vendor  has  done  some  act  to'^tlis^ 
all  rm  the  transaction.     But  if  there  was  never  any  such  "nten- 
on,-  f,  for  instance,  the  vendor  delivers  tlie  goods  to  A   B  under 

transferee  tf,^'  ''  ^^  ^■'~'^''  P^P^'^  ^°'',  "»'  vest  in  th 
^0  purchase"  1         °™""  ™"^  '"'°^"  ^he  goods  even  from  a  bo,uz 
Scollcind.-Thera  is  a  vast  nuantity  of  Acts  of  the  Scottish  parlia- 

makl  ti;^f','^=  T'l''  ""^'-  ^\  S"""'  P°"^y  °f  the  Acts  was  to 
rnake, thefts  what  were  not  thefts  at  common  law,  c.ff.,  stealing 

riv  L  ,1=  •  ^r"'^-  "',''"-'■•  "?''  to  ^-^t^d  the  remedies,  e.g.,  bf 
gu  ing  the  justiciar  authority  throughout  the  kingdom,  by  maki„» 
he  master  m  the  case  of  theft  by  the  servant  liable  to  rive   h? 

\lL'vJ^rV"''''%°'  ^r  =';',°"''"S  the  nso  of  firearms^g.  ins? 
thieves.  The  general  result  of  legislation  in  England  and  Scotland 
n^.  wLi°  ^^^'.-J-'^te  the  law  of  theft  in  botlT  kingdoms.  As  a 
rule,  what  would  be  theft  in  one  would  be  theft  in  the  other" 
There  can  be  theft  of  children  in  Scots  as  in  Roman  law  under 
the  name olplagUM.  The  crime  of  stouthrief  is  robbery  accom' 
paniod  by  exceptionar violence.  The  English  leceivin"  stoW 
BTth?r.''  f'^'^'"  "S  .noney  under  false  pretences  are  rep'reind 
by  the  reset  and  fraud  of  Scou  law.  Theftbote  or  ndcmptiofuTti 
apivears  in  legislation  as  early  as  the  assizes  of  King  Willfam,  c   2' 

on  the  oa,b'  o?  h*"°'  '^^^'"''^  '"  '^'  "'^''^  «'  »»ter  if  convicted 
^.tw.l  '•'■"'  *""csses,-to  h->  immediately  hanged  if  the 

able  by  1436,  c.  1,  1515,  e.  2,  and  appears  still  to  be  a  crime 
B  ackmailing,  under   that  name,  was   forbidden    by  156?!  T^7 
There  is  no  consolidation  Act  for  Scotland  like  the  Larceny  Act 
for  England  and  Ireland,  but  various  Acts  are  in  force  dealing  with 
pec  he  offences  or  with  procedure.     Thus  7  Anne  c.  a!  §  7  Ss 
G  0  'iw  1'2'V"'    TSf  trea.son,  as  it  had  prel  misly  beer 
4  Ceo    II.  c   32  deals  with  theft  of  lead,  &c.,  fixed  to  houses:   2 
Geo   I  .  c  34  with  the  admissibility  of  k„  a«ompli  e  «  w  tnl 
n  a  charge  of  cattle  stealing,  51   Geo.   III.  C..4I  v^th  theftll 
nr32  Viet^c°95"'r,rr*l°\''^'  "'^''"S  «<>  ProTlre  is  3° 


x.xirr.  —  30 


234 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


[Tevious  conviction  for  robbery  rs  aj?gravation  of  theft.  Stolen 
poods  are  always  token  subject  to  tho  inherent  vitiwii  reale  of  their 
acquisition,  and  the  true  owner  may  recover  them  from  any  one  in 
whose  possession  they  are.  The  protection  given  by  market  overt 
is  unknoivn  in  Scotlnnd.  Sco  Macdonald,  Criminal  Law,  p.  18. 
Uniled  SUUes.-rT^^  law  defends  almost  entirely  upon  State 


legislation,  and  is  In  general  accordance  with  that. of  Ecgland, 
The  only  Acta  of  Congress  bearing  on  the  subject  deal  with  theft 
in  the  army  and  navy,  and  with  theft  and  receiving  on  the  high 
seas  or  in  any  place  under  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  tho  United 
States.  The  doctrine  of  market  overt  is  not  acknowledged  by  »ny 
State.  fl.  W+.) 


THEISM 


Meanings  rPHE   term'  theism    has    three    Bignifications. 


In  its 
of  the  J_  widest  acceptation  its  object  is  the  Divine,  whether 
"""^  regarded  as  personal  or  impersonal,  as  one  being  or  as 
(u  a  number  of.  beings.     In  this  sense  theism   is   coexten- 

geneiio  sive  with  religion  and  worship,  includes  all  forms  of 
•ense.  polytheism  and  of  pantheism,  as  well  as  all  varieties  of 
monotheism,  and  so  may  be  said  to  denote  the  genus  of 
which  polytheism,  pantheism,  and  monotheism  are  species. 
The  conception  of  the  Divine,  in  its-  utmost  abstractnesa 
and  gen3rality,  is,  however,  so  vague  that  it  may  reason- 
ably be  doubted  if  the  forms  of  theism,  thus  understood, 
:;aa  be  distributed  into  strictly  logical  and  natural  species, 
with  definitions  at  once  perfectly  distinct  in  themselves 
and  exactly  accordant  with  phenomena.  It  may  seem 
as  if  polytheism  and  monotheism  must,  by  arithmetical 
necessity,  be  exclusive  of  each  other  and  exhaustive  of 
theism ;  but  this  is  not  so.  ■  Pantheism  may  clearly 
partake  of  the  nature  of  both,  and  has  been  sometimes 
extravagantly  polytheistic,  sometimes  only  doubtfully  dis- 
tinguishable from  fully  developed  monotheism.  Probably 
few,  if  any,  polytheistic  religions  are  purely  polytheistic, 
or,  in  other  words,  do  not  imply  in  some  mode  and 
measure  the  unity  as  well  as  the  plurality  of  the  Divine. 
Christian  monotheism  -  answers  to  a  formal  definition  of 
monotheism  only  inasmuch  as  it  holds  to  the  unity  of  the 
Godhead,  but  contravenes  it  inasmuch  as  it  holds  that  in 
the  one  Godhead  there  are  three  Divine  persons,  each 
God. 
7'.,  The  complete  negation  of  theism  In  its  generie  sense  is 

iiee»  J  vea.^  atheism — the  denial  of  the  existence  or  of  the  knowability 
of  the  Divine.  It  is  only  in  modern  times  that  the  word 
atheism  has  acquired  this  meaning,  only  in  recent  times 
that  it  has  come  to  be  exclusively  employed  with  this 
meaning.  The  Greeks  meant  by  it  simply  disbelief  in 
the  Greek  gods.'  The  early  Christians  were  called  atheists 
because  they  refused  to  acknowledge  the  pagan  deities. 
Protestants  have  been  charged  by  Roman  Catholics  and 
Roman  Catholics  by  Protestants  with  atheism.  Through- 
out even  the  18th  century  the  word  was  used  in  an 
extremdy  loose  manner,  and  often  affixed  to  systems  by 
which  the  existence  and  agency  of  God  were  unequivocally 
recognized.  Atheism,  in  the  sense  now  generally  admitted 
to  be  alone  appropriate,  may  be  of  three  species, — namely, 
deni:il  of  the  existence  of  the  Divine,  denial  that  the 
Divine  has  been  shown  to  exist,  and  denial  that  it  can  be 
known  that  the  Divine  exists.  The  first  species  has  been 
called  dogmatic  atheism,  the  second  critical  atheism  ;  and 
the  third  has  been  designated,  and  may  conveniently  be  de- 
signated, religious  agnosticism.  Agnosticism  per  se  should 
not  be  identified  with  atheism  or  with  any  of  its  forms. 
The  term  antitheism  has  been  used  by  some  theologians, 
e.g.,  Chahners  and  Foster,  as  equivalent  to  dogmatic 
atheism  ;  but  it  may  with  much  more  practical  advantage 
be  employed  to  denote  all  systems  of  belief  opposed  to 
theism,  cither  in  the  generic  sense  already  indicated,  or 
in  the  specific  sense  of  monotheism.  Understood  in  this 
latter  mode,  it  is  much  ipore  comprehensive  than  the  term 
atheism.  Polytheism  and  paDthei^fiin  are  alike  antitheietic 
theories,  although  on  different  groonds  ;  while  only  those 
theories  which  deny  that  there  is  evidence  for  belief  even 
in  tho  existence  of  any  god,  any  divine  being,  are  atheistic 


It  ia  somewhat  remarkable  that  the  term  theism  hy  itself  Thete 
never  occurs  in  its  etymological  and  generic  sense,  never  °"^''""' 
means  as  a  separate  word  what  it  means  in  the  compounds  yjj'^j  ^ 
atheism,  polytheism,  pantheism,  and  monotheism,     Ordin-  mon„ 
arily  it  is  identified  with  monotheism,  and  consequently  thei«B»._ 
opposed   to  polytheism  and  to  pantheism,  as  well  as  to 
atheism.     Whereas  polytheism  acknowledges  a   plurality 
of  finite  gods,  theism  as  monotheism  acknowledges  only 
one  absolute   infinite  God.     Whereas   pantheism  regards 
all  finite  things  as  merely  aspects,  modifications,  or  parts 
of  one  eternal  self -existent  being — all  material  objects  and 
all  particular  minds  as  necessarily  derived'  from  a  single 
infinite  substance, — aad  thus  combines,  in  its  conception 
of  the  Divine,  monism  and  determinism,  theism  as  mono- 
theism, while  accepting  monism,  rejects  determinism,  and 
attributes  to  the  Divine  all  that  is  essentially  implied  in 
free  personal  existence  and  agency.     Pantheism  is,  how- 
ever, wonder/uUy   protean,  and   rarely   conforms   to   its 
ideal ;  hence  the  systems  called   pantheistic  are  seldom 
purely  pantheistic,  and  are  often  more  monotheistic  than 
pantheistic. 

Sometimes  the  term  theism  is  employed  in  a  still  mureThdMi 
special  sense,  namely,  to  denote  one  of  two  kinds  of -J"'' 
monotheism,  the  other  kind  being  deism.  Although  deus  ^"^ 
and  iheos  are  equivalent,  deism  has  come  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  theism.  The  former  word  first  appeared 
in  the  16th'  century,  when  it  was  used  to  designate 
antitrinitarian  opinions.  In  the  17th  century  it  came  to 
be  applied  to  tho  view  that  the  light  of  nature  is  the  only 
light  in  which  man  can  know  God,  ho  special  revelation 
having  been  given  to  the  liuman  race.  Dr  Samuel  Clarke, 
in  the  Eoylo  Lectures  preached  in  1705,  distributed 
deists  into  four  classes..  The  first  class  "  pretend  to  believc 
the  existence  of  an  eternal,  infinite,  independent,  intelli- 
gent being,  and,  to  avoid  the  name  of  Epicurean  atheists, 
teach  also  that  this  supremo  being  made  the  world  ;  though 
at  the  same  time  they  agree  with  the  Epicureans  in  this, 
that  they  fancy  God  does  not  at  all  concern  Himself  in 
the  government  of  tho  world,  nor  has  any  regard  to,  or 
care  of,  what  is  dono  therein."  Tho  second  class  acknow- 
ledge not  only  that  God  made  all  things,  but  that  He 
sustains  and  governs  them,  yet  deny  that  He  has  any 
regard  in  His  government  to  moral  distinctions,  these 
being  merely  tho  products  of  human  will  and  law.  The 
third  class  believe  in  the  being,  natural  attributes,  pro- 
vidence, and  to  some  extent  in  the  moral  attributes  and 
government  of  God,  but  deny  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  and  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments..  The 
fourth  class  acknowledge  the  being,  natural  and.  moral 
perfections,  and  providence  of  God,  as  also  the  immor- 
talit.)  of  the  soul  and  a  future  state  of  rewards  and 
punishments,  yet  profess  to  believe  only  what  is'  discov^- 
able  by  the  light  of  nature,  without  believing  any  divine 
revelation  (Clarke,  On  the  Attributes,  pp.  110-153,  ed.' 
1823).  This-  division  is  not  an  exact  classification,  nor 
does  it  rest  on  any  precise  definition  of  deism,  but  it,  with 
substantial  accuracy,  discriminates  and  grades  the  varieties 
of  English  deism.  Clarke  did  not  contrast  deism  with 
theism,  or  even  employ  the  latter  word.  His  contem 
porary,  Lord  Shaftesbury,  on  tho  other  hand,  generall) 
t;.3ed  tho  term  theism,  yet  only  as  synonymous  with  deism. 


THEISM 


235 


¥ 


ixnd  with  a  protest  against  either  being  opposed  to  rcrcla- 
tion  (CAaracteri'iks,  vol.  ii.  p.  209,  eO.  1727).  Kant,  in 
liis  Kritii  der  reinen  Vemun/l,  explicitly  dibtinguished 
and  opposed  deism  and  theism,  but  in  a  very  peculiar 
manner.  "The  person  who  believes  'h  a  transcendental 
theology  alone  is  termed  a  dtist;  ho  who  acknowledges 
the  possibility  of  a  natural  theology  aho,  a  Ckeisl.  The 
former  admits  tliat  wo  can  cognize  by  pure  reason  alone 
the  existence  of  a  supreme  being,  but  at  the  same  liino 
maintains  that  our  conception  of  this  being  is  purely 
transcendental,  and  that  all  that  we  can  say  of  it  is  that 
it  possesses  all  reality,  without  being  able  tode6ne  it  more 
closely.  The  second  asserts  that  reason  is  capable  of 
presenting  us,  from  the  analogy  of  nature,  with  a  more 
definite  conception  o'  this  being,  and  that  it«  operations, 
as  the  cause  of  all  things,  are  the  results  of  intelligence 
and  free  will  The  former  regards  the  supreme  being  as 
the  cause  of  the  world — whether  by  the  necessity  of  his 
nature,  or  as  a  free  agent,  is  left  undetermined  ,  the  latter 
considers  this  being  as  the  author  of  the  world"  ( JVerke, 
ii  491,  edited  by  Rosenkranz,  Meiklejohn's  tr.,  387-8). 
The  account  here  given  of  deism  seems  neither  self-con- 
sistent nor  intelligible,  and  applies,  equally  well  or  equally 
ill,  to  every  system — atheistic,  agnostic,  pantheistic,  ideal- 
istic, or  materialistic — which  admits  the  existence  but 
not  the  intelligence  or  personality  of  an  Urwesen,  eternal 
being,  or  first  cause  ,  and  the  account  of  theism  excludes 
all  reference  to  revelation,  and  applies  to  every  form  of 
what  has  been  regarded  as  deism.  In  recent  theology 
deism  has  generally  come  to  be  regarded  as,  in  common 
with  theism,  holding  m  opposition  to  atheism  that  there  is 
a  God,  and  in  opposition  to  pantheism  that  God  is  distinct 
from  the  world,  but  as  differing  from  theism  in  maintain- 
ing that  God  is  separate  from  the  world,  having  endowed 
it  with  self-sustaining  and  self-acting  powers,  and  then 
abandoned  it  to  itself.  This  distinction  is  real,  and 
perhaps  the  best  attainable.  At  the  same  time  many 
called  deists  must  be  admitted  not  to  have  taught  deism 
thus  understood  ,  for  example,  most  of  the  "  English 
deists  "  did  not  deny  that  God  was  present  and  active  i.i 
the  laws  of  nature,  but  merely  denied  that  He  worked 
otherwise  than  through  natural  laws.  If  by  deism  be 
aieant  belief  in  a  personal  God  who  acts  only  through 
natural  laws,  and  by  theism  belief  in  a  personal  God  who 
acts  both  through  natural  laws  and  by  special  interven- 
tions, this  junction  also  is  real,  and  may  be  useful.  The 
chief  objection  to  it  is  that  deism  when  so  contrasted  with 
theism  does  not  denote,  or  even  include,  what  theologians 
have  generally  agreed  to  call  by  the  namu. 

The  present  article  will  treat  specially  of  theism  in  the 
sense  of  monotheism,  but  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
relations  between  theism  thus  understood  and  theism  in 
other  acceptations. 
Nature  of  Monotheism  has  been  very  generally  assumed  to  have 
I'v""*'  been  the  primitive  religion.  Lord  Herbert,  Cudworth, 
'"""  and  others  have  elaborately  defended  this  opinion  in  the 
past,  and  it  still  finds  learned  advocates.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  vast  majority  of  recent  anthropologists  hold  that 
religion  originated  in  some  rude  phase  of  polytheism,  and 
that  monotheism  has  been  everywhere  preceded  by  poly- 
theism. Schelling,  Max  Miiller,  and  Hartmann  have  main- 
tained that  the  starting-point  of  religion  was  henotheism,  an 
imperfect  kind  of  monotheism,  in  which  God  was  thought 
of  as  one,  only  because  others  had  not  yet  presented  them- 
selves to  the  mind, — a  monotheism  of  which  polytheism 
was  not  the  contradiction,  but  the  natural  development. 
Pantheism  has  also  been  frequently  represented  to  bo  the 
earliest  phase  of  religion.  All  these  representations,  how- 
ever, will  be  found  on  examination  to  be  very  conjectural. 
The  present  state  of  our  knowledge  does  not  warrant  our 


raiiioD. 


holding  any  view  regarding  the  nature  of  primeval  religion 
as  established.  The  data  which  cany  us  farthest  in  our 
search  for  the  historical  origin  of  religion  are  undoubtedly 
the  names  expressive  of  the  Divine  which  hive  been  pro- 
served  in  the  most  ancient  languages.  They  show  us  how 
men  conceived  of  the  Divinity  long  before  the  erection  of 
the  oldest  monuments  or  the  inscription  of  the  oldest 
records.  Language  is  much  older  than  any  of  the  state- 
ments in  language.  But  language  by  no  means  carries  us  Evidence 
back  to  primitive  man,  or  even  to  the  historical  origin  of  °f  '^". 
the  idea  of  deity.  The  Egyptian  word  nutar  and  the  ^^^  "f" 
names  of  the  Egyptian  gods  found  in  the  oldest  Egyptian 
inscriptions  prove  that  at  a  date  long  before  the  Egjptiana 
wrote  history,  or  are  known  to  have  worshipped  animals 
or  ancestors,  they  conceived  of  Divinity  as  power,  and 
their  deities  as  great  cosmic  forces ;  but,  as  that  word  and 
these  names  cannot  be  shown  to  have  belonged  to  man's 
primitive  speech,  they  cannot  show  what  was  man's 
primitive  religious  belief,  and  do  not  disprove  that  the 
forel'alhers  of  the  people  who  first  used  them  may  have 
had  some  lower  and  ruder  conception  of  the  Divine  than 
that  which  they  convey.  There  are,  according  to  Dr 
Legge,  no  words  in  the  Chinese  language  known  to  be 
older  than  ti,  t'ien,  shang  It.  and  these  words  are  good 
historical  evidence  that  the  Chinese  conceived  of  the 
Divine,  thousands  of  years  before  the  Christian  era,  as  a 
universal  ruling  power,  comprehending  the  visible  heavens, 
and  an  invisible,  infinite,  omnipresent  force,  manifested  in 
the  azure  of  the  firmament,  possessed  so  far  of  intellectual 
and  moral  qualities,  and  working  towards  ethical  ends. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  when  the  Chinese  first  used 
these  words  they  worshipped  fetiches,  but  neither  is  there 
evidence  to  the  contrary,  and  even  if  there  were  it  would 
not  disprove  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Chinese  had  passed- 
through  an  era  of  feticbism.  All  members  of  the  Semitic 
family  of  languages  have  the  word  El,  or  some  modifica- 
tion of  it,  to  denote  deity,  and  hence  we  may  conclude 
that  the  Semites  had  the  word  in  this  sense  before  they 
separated  and  became  distinct  peoples,  but  not  that  the 
idea  of  God  originated  when  the  word  was  first  tkus- 
employed.  All  members  of  the  Teutonic  group  of 
languages  have  the  word  God,  or  some  slightly  modified 
form  thereof,  and  all  members  of  the  Slavic  group  of 
languages  have  the  word  Bo^,  or  some  modification 
thereof,  to  express  the  same  conception  :  it  does  not  follow 
that  either  Teutons  or  Slavs  had  no  idea  of  deity  until  the 
former  so  applied  the  word  God,  and  the  latter  so  applied 
the  word  Bog.  Both  Teutons  and  Slavs  are  Aryans,  and' 
there  is  an  older  Aryan  term  for  deity  than  either  God  or 
Bog.  The  Sanscrit  deva,  the  Latin  deiis,  and  the  northern 
Ii,  tivar,  are  forms  of  a  word  which  must  have  beon  used 
by  the  Aryans  to  express  their  idea  of  the  Divine  when, 
in  a  prehistoric  age,  they  lived  together  in  their  original 
home  ;  but  we  are  not  entitled  to  infer  that  even  that 
prehistoric  Aryan  term  is  the  oldest  word  for  deity.  It 
may  not  bo  older  than  the  primitive  Semitic  word  or  the 
primitive  Turanian  word,  or  the  nutar  of  the  Egyptians, 
or  the  t'ien  of  the  Chinese,  or  the  earliest  designations  for 
the  Divine  in  the  earliest  African  and  American  languages. 
And  there  may  have  been  Divine  names  older  than  any  of 
these.  The  science  of  language  has  been  able  to  recon- 
struct in  part  a  prehistoric  Aryan  language,  and  may 
similarly  be  able  to  reconstruct  a  prehistoric  Semitic 
language,  a  prehistoric  Turanian,  and  perhaps  a  prehistoric 
Hamitic  language.  Should  it  proceed  thus  far  it  will 
probably  perceive  that  all  these  prehistoric  languages  arose 
out  of  a  still  earlier  prehistoric  language  in  which  also 
were  words  expressing  ideas  of  the  Divine.  There  may 
be  many  strata  of  language  buried  too  deep  for  human 
excavation  in  the  abysi;es  of  unrscorded  time.     By  po  poa- 


-236 


THEISM 


Evidence 
of  book  of 
Genesis. 


'Evidence 
jf  his- 
tory. 

E:irly  reli- 
gions not 
niono- 
'hcistic. 


sibility,  therefore,  can  the  analysis  of  existing  languages 
disclose  to  us  the  oldest  name  for  deity  or  the  historical 
origin  of  the  idea  of  deity-.  -Geology  shows  the  vast 
antiquity  of  man,  and  notliing  proves  that  ho,  may  not 
have  been  awed  or  comforted  by  thoughts  of  the  Divine 
ages  before  the  invention  of  the  oldest  Aryan  or  Semitic 
words.  It  is  merest  conjecture  to  assign  the  formation  of 
the  conception  of  deity  to  the  dawn  of  historic  time. 
Between  primitive  speech,  primitive"  religion,  the  primitive 
condition  of  man,  and-  the  little  streak  of  light  called 
human  history  there  stretches  an  immeasurable  expanse  of 
darkness. 

The  belief  in  primitive  monotheism  is  generally  rested 
on  the  authority  of  the  opening  chapters  of  Genesis..  It 
is,  however,  doubtful  if  the  appeal  to  them  be  legitimate, 
because  doubtful  if  their  strict  historicity  can  be  proved 
to  those. who  insist  on  judging  them  merely  by  critical 
and  historical  criteria,  or  even  if  it  can  be  fairly  inferred 
from  the  viow  that  they  form  part  of  a  revelation.  Then, 
although  theje  chapters  plainly  teach  monotheism,  and 
represent  the  God  whose  words  and  acts  are  recorded  in 
the  Bible  as  no  i.nere  national  God  but  the  only  true  God, 
they  do  not  teach,  what  is  alone  in  question,  that  there 
was  a  primitive  monotheism, — a  monotheism  revealed  and 
known  from  the  beginning.  They  give  no  warrant  to  the 
common  assumptioa  that  God  revealed  monotheism  to 
Adam,  Noah,  and  others  before  the  flood,  and  tliat  the 
traces  of  monotheistic  beliefs  and  tendencies  in  heathen- 
dom are  derivable  from  the  tradition  of  this  primitive  and 
aniediluvian  monotheism.  Tlie  one  true  God  is  repre- 
sented in  Genesis  as  making  himself  known  by  particular 
words  and  in  particular  ways  to  Adam,  but  is  nowhere 
said  to  have  taught  him  that  He  only  was  God.  Adam 
kaew,  of  course,  only  one  God,  as  there  was  only  one  God 
to  know ;  but  that  he  knew  therfe  was  only  one  God  we 
are  not  told,  nor  are  any  grounds  given  us  even  for  con- 
jecturing that  he  knew  it.  We  are  told  that  God  created 
the  heavens  and  earth,  but  not  that  Adam  was  told  it, 
and  wejinow  too  little  about  Adam  to  be  able  to  conceive 
how  he  could  have  understood  the  statement.  We  are 
informed  th^t  he  knew  God — the  God  who  manifested 
himself  to  him  in  particular  acts,  but  not  what  general 
idea  he  formed  of  God — whether  henotheistic,  pantheistic, 
or  monotheistic,  whether  definitely  exclusive  of  poly- 
tKeism  or  not,  or  in  what  measure  anthropomorphic.  It 
is  »\ot  otherwise  as  regards  what  is  reported  of  Noah. 
In  fi'.ct,  primitive  monotheism  is  read  into  the  records  in 
Genesis  only  because  they  are  read  in  an  inaccurate  and 
nncpitical  manner.  If  read  aright,  it  would  be  seen  that, 
while  tliey  speak  much  of  how  God  acted  towards  man, 
they  speak  so  extremely  little  as' to- what  early  man  knew 
of  God  that  the  appeal  to  them  on  behalf  of  the  hypo- 
thesis of  primitive  monotheism  must  be  (utile,  even  on  the 
traditional  view  of  their  authorship  and  hi.storicity.' 

It  is  impossible  to  prove  historically  that  monotheism 
was  the  primitive  religion.  Were,  then,  the  oldest  known 
historical  forms  of  religion  monotheistic?  Many  maintain 
they  were,  but  adoqualo  evidence  has  never  been  adduced 
for  the  0[jinion.  The  oldest  known  religion  is  probably 
tho  Egyptian,  and  for  at  least  three  thousand  years  its 


I, 

>  *  Among  work.s  in  wliich  tlic  hypotlicsis  of  i>i  imitlvc  inonolliviMn  13 
«upporte4.  llio  foUowinK  ni.iy  Iic  mcntinnuft  : — Steuco,  He  Vcnnni 
I'lillosojjhia,  \M0;  Ikilirri,  /)c  Hiininmr.  finlilmm,  1045;  (!Me, 
C'MHof  the  OcntiJi-^.  lGlifl-7R;  Cu.lw..itli,  Tnu:  l,ddltxtunl  Si/xU-m, 
1678;  P,ry.-»iit,  Ancienl  Mylluilmjy,  1774-76,  Creireer,  SipnbUJi  jj. 
jl/i/Z/w^c/iV;,  1SI9-21  ;  Do  U'inal.l. /.iv/iiJndo). /Vmiiivc,  1819;  Lllkc-ir, 
Trailitimicti  df^  Mciischcvifescldechtf!^  130C;  Gl.-nlstonc,  Utmifr  and 
iliA  Uo^iurric  A'jc.  1800;  El)r..ril,  Apiloiicld:.  pt.  n.,  18J5;  Zucklcr, 
Ldmvom  IhstanU  dcs  Hm.-:chcn,  ISSO;  Cotili,  Ori.jtns  of  Itdiijioti 
and  J,an>iiui'jc,  1884  ;  Uawlinson,  Jiarltj  /'rcvutcncc  of  Monolhcistic 
Melius  (No.  11  pf  Prcsunt  D-iy  Tr--vcts). 


history  can  bo  traced  by  the  aid  of  authentic  records  con-  Egyptian 
temporary  with  tho  facts  te  which  they  relate.  Its  reH8»»- 
origin,  however,  is  not  disclosed  by  Egyptian  history,  and 
was  unknowif  to  the  Egyptians  themselves.  When  it  first 
appears  in  the  light  of  history  it  has  already  a  definite 
form,  a  character  not  rude  and  simple,  but  of  considerable 
elevation  and  subtility,  and  is  complex  in  contents,  having 
certain  great  gods,  but  not  so  many  as  in  later  times, 
ancestor-worship,  but  not  se^ developed  as  in  later  times, 
and  animal  worship,  but  very  little  of  it  as  compared  with 
later  times.  Foi  he  opinion  that  its  lower  elements  were 
older  than  the  higher  there  is  not  a  particle  of  properly 
historical  evidence, — not  a  trace  in  the  inscriptions  of  mere 
propitiation  oF  ancestors,  or-  of  belief  in  the  absolute 
divinity  of  kings  or  animals ;  on  the  contrary,  ancestors 
are  always  found  propitiated  through  prayer  to  some  of 
the  great  gods',  kings  worshipped  as  emanations  ?nd 
images  of  the  sun-god,  and  tho  divine  animals  adored 
as  divine  symbols  and  incarnations.  The  greater  gods 
mentioned  on  the  oldest  tombs  and  in  the  oldest  writings 
are  comparatively  few,  and  their  mere  names — Osiris^ 
Horus,  Thoth,  Seb,  Nut,  Anubis,  Apheru,  Ra,  Isis,  Neith, 
Apis — conclusively  prove  that  they  were  not  ancient  kings 
or  deceased  ancestors,  but  chiefly  powers  of  nature,  and 
especially,  although  not  exclusively,  of  the  heavens  ;  yet 
from  the  earliest  historical  time  they  were  regarded  as 
not  merely  elemental,  but  as  also  ethical  powers,  working 
indeed  visibly  and  physically  in  the  aspects  and  agents  of 
nature,  yet  in  conformity  to  law  and  with  intelligence  and 
moral  purpose.  Wherever  the  powers  of  nature  are  thus 
worshipped  as  gods,  the  feeling  that  the  separate  powers 
aVe  not  all  power,  that  the  particular  deities  are  not  the 
whole  of  divinity,  must  be  entertained  and  will  find 
expression.  The  Egyptians  had  undoubtedly,  such  a  sense 
of  the  unity  of  the  Divine  from  the  dawn  of  their  history, 
and  they  expressed  it  so  strongly  in  various  ways  from  a 
very  early  period  that  they  have  been  pronounced  mono- 
theists  not  merely  by  theologians  attached  to  a  traditional 
dogma  but  by  most  eminent  Egyptologists — Do  Rougi, 
Mariette,  Brugsch,  and  Renouf.  As  these  scholars,  how- 
ever, truthfully  present  the  facts,  they  satisfactorily  refute 
themselves.  A  religion  with  about  a  dozen  great  gods — 
distinct  as  regards  their  names,  characteristics,  histori,e3, 
relationships,' symbols,  and  worship — is  not  monotheism  in 
the  ordinary  or  proper  sense  of  the  term.'  A  religion  in 
which  the  Divine  is  viewed  as  merely  immanent  in  nature, 
and  the  deities  deemed  physical  as  well  as  nioi-al,  elemental 
as  well  as  ethical  powers,  is  rather  pantheistic  than  mono- 
theistic. Further,  all  assertions  to  the  effect  that  tho 
anity  of  the  Divine  is  most  emphatically  expressed  in  the 
earliest  historical  stages  of  the  religion  are  conti-ai-y  to 
tlio  evidence  adduced  even  by  those  w-|io  make  them. 
To  quote  Patali-Hotcp  as  a  proof  of  the  monotheism  of 
the  Egyptian  religion  in  its  oldest  historical  phase  is  as 
uncritical  as  it  would  be  to  draw  Homeric  thcologj  from 
the  dialogues  of  Plato.  The  Egyptian  religion  nas  a 
polytheism  which  implied  monism';  it  was  not  mono- 
theism., which  is  exclusive  of  polythci.sm;  ILencc,  not- 
wilh.stnnding  frequent  approximations  to  monotheism,  .the 
general  result  of  the  develoi)mcnt  of  its  monistic  principles 
'Was  pantheism,  not  monotheism.  As  to  the  anoiert  Chint-^e 
Cliincse  religion,  Dr  Leggc  easily  shows'  that  Prof.  Tfcle'.i '«l'o'<>a 
dusr-ription  of  it  as  "a  purified  and  organized  worship./)! 
.Npuits,  wiUi  a  pi-i-doininant  fclirlii^t  Iciidency,"  Iras  no 
historical  warrant,  but  he  fails  completely  to  substantiate 
his  own  view,  namely,  that  it  was  a  strict  and  proper 
monotheism.  Tho  names  T'ien  and  Ti  alTbrd  no  evidence 
that  tho  early  Chinese  fathers  regarded  deity  as  truly  and 
projierly  spiritual  and  fx-rsonal.  It  is  not  in  tho  most 
ancient  Cliinese  WTitincs  that  sDiritualit-y  and  personality 


II    L  ]   S  M 


237 


are  ascribed  to  Tieo,  and  such  aseriptioDS  are  exceptional 
in  CUinese  writings  of  any  date.  The  great  development 
of  ancestor  worship  in  China  has  been  largely  due  to  the 
imjjersonal  character  of  Tien.  The  "arguments  which 
have  been  adducetl  in  support  of  the  hj'pothesis  of  a 
primitive  Semitic  monotheism  are  also  insiitficicnt.  M. 
Renan's  belief  in  a  monotheistic  instinct  peculiar  to  the 
Semitic  race  has  been  so  often  and  so  convincingly  shown 
to, be  contradicted  both  by  history  and  psychology  that 
another  refutation  of  it  might  well  be  regarded  as  a  mere 
slaying  of  the  slain.  Divine  names  like  El,  Baal,  Adon, 
^nd  Mclech,  being  the  oldest  terms  in  the  Semitic  languages 
xnressive  of  the  Divinity,  and  having  been  retained 
iii-ough  all  the  changes  and  perversions  of  Semitic  reli- 
gion, have  often  been  maintained  to  imply  that  primitive 
Semitic  belief  was  monotheistic.  But  in  reahty  Baal, 
Melech,  and  Adon  were  not  names  originally,  or  indeed 
at  any  time,  given  to  the  one  Supreme  God,  or  exclusively 
to  any  particular  god  ;  on  tbe  contrary,  they  were  titles 
applicable  to  many  different  gods.  The  oldest  historical 
form  of  Aryan  religion — the  form  in  Which  the  Vcdas 
present  it — is  designated  by  Max  Miiller  henotheism,  in 
opposition  to  the  organized  anthropomorphic  polytheism 
to  which  he  restricts  the  term  polytheism,  but  henotheism 
tlios  understood  includes  polytheism  in  its  wider  and  more 
ordinary  acceptation,  while  it  excludes  monotheism  pro- 
perfy  so  called.  The  oldest  known  form  of  Aryan  religion 
Fas  indubitably  polytheistic  in  the  sense  of  being  the 
worship  of  various  nature-deities  ;  and  everything  approxi- 
mating to  monotheism  in  India,  Persia,  Greece,  and  other 
Aryan-peopled  lands  was  the  product  of  later  and  more 
advanced  thought.  The  assertion  that  history  everywhere 
or  ^en  anywhere  shows  religious  belief  to  have  com- 
menced with  monotheism  is  not  only  unsupported  by 
evidence,  but  contrary  to  evidence.^ 

^Vhile  the  oldest  known  religions  of  the  world  were  thus 
not  forms  of  monotheism,  neither  were  they  mere  poly- 
theisins,  wholly  devoid  of  monistic  and  monotheistic  germs 
and  tendencies.  .  The  Chinese  religion,  indeed,  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  bSen  at  any  period  a  polytheism,  the 
Chinese  people  no  more  regarding  spirits  and  deceased 
ancestors  as  gods  than  Roman  Catholics'  so  regard  angels 
and  saints.  They  have  throughout  their  whole  known 
histbry  explicitly" and  clearly  acknowledged  the  unity  of 
the  Divine — the  uniqueness  of  T'ien  (Ti,  Shang-Ti).  Had 
Ihey  in  like  manner  acknowledged  the  spirituality,  per- 
sonality, transcendence  of  the  Divine,  their  monotheism 
would  have  been  indubitable.  Then,  even  in  those  ancient 
religions,  where  a  plurality  of  deities  is  apparent,  a  sense 
of  the  unity  cf  the  Divine  is  notwithstanding  implied,  and 
a  the  course  of  their  development  comes  to  expression  in 
raiions  ways.  It  could  not  be  otherwise,  for  in  these 
religions  the  divine  powers,  (deities)  are  also  powers  of 
ttatnre,  and  hence  sprung  from  and  participant  in  a 
mysterious  common  nature,  an  ultimate  and  universal 
agency  which  is  at  once  the  source  of  physical  and  divine 
existences  and  forces.  NeithBr  nature-deities  nor  powers 
of  nature  are  ever  conceived  of,  or  iadsed  can  be  conceived 
of,  as  entirely  distinct  and  independent.  The  lowest  forms 
>f  polytheism,  such  as  fetichism  and  animism,  have  no 
more  marked  charactsristic  than  the  indeliniteness  of  their 

*  The  \new  'opposed  in  tbe  above  'paragraph  is  that  raaiDtained  in 
".he  following  v?orks  {as  well  as  those  meDtiODed  in  the  pTevious  note), 
-De  Rouge,  £ludes  sur  le  RUuel  Funirairc,  I860;  Renouf,  Hibbcrt 
Lectures,  1879  ;  Brugsch,  Jieliffion  «.  MyUwlogie  d.  alien  Aegypler, 
1884  ;  Legge,  Rdigim  ofUie  Chinese,  1880 ;  Kenan,  .ffis/.  dcs  Lamjucs 
S^mitiques,  also  CoTisideratums  sur  2e  Caraei^re  Gen.  des  Peuples 
Semitujues,  and  N(mveUesC(msideraticms  ;  Pescb,  Z)er  GoUesUgriff  in 
den  Keidnischai  Rdigianen  des  AUerihums,  1886.  Among  the  many 
replies  to  Renan,  Max  Miiller's  ("Semitic  Monotheism,"  in  Chips,  vol. 
i.)snd  Steinthal'a  (in  Z.  V.S.  ir.,  i.)  specially  merit  to  be  mentioned. 


idea  of  the  Divine  and  the  iniporfcct  individualization  of 
their  deities.  In  the  higliest  foi  ms  of  nature-worship,  cy., 
the  Vcdic,  Eg}'ptian,  and  Babylonian-Assyrian,  the  same 
trait  is  perceptible.  This  implicit  monism  of  nature- 
worship  may,  through  the  action  of  various  causes,  come 
to  explicit  utterance  in  diverse  modes,  and  has  in  fact  done 
so,  with  the  result  that  even  in  the  oldest  known  poly- 
theisms are  to  be  found  remarkable  approximations  to 
monotheism.  One  form  of  approximation  was  henotheism. 
When  worship  is  ardent  and  earnest  the  particular  god 
worshipped  is  apt  to  have  ascribed  to  hip  the  attributes, 
as  it  were,  of  all  the  gods— an  almost  absolute  and 
exclusive  godhead.  Max  Miiller  has  sbown  how  prominent 
a  phenomenon  henotheism  is  in  the  Vedas.*--  Page  Renoul 
has  shown  that  it  is  very  conspicuous  also  in  the  ancient 
inscriptions  and  hymns  of  Egypt.  Horns,  Ra,  Osiris,' 
Amun,  Knum,  were  severally  spoken  of  as  if  each  were 
absolute  God,  invested  not  only  with  distinctive  divine 
attributes  but  with  all  divine  attributes.'  In  the  religious 
records  of  Babylon  and  Assyria  monotheistic  approxima- 
tions of  the  same  kind  are  likewise  common.  Now,  in 
themselves  such  monotheistic  modes  of  expression  may 
truly  be  held  to  be  the  products,  of  passing  moods  of  mind, 
not  reflexions  of  permanent  conviction.  But  every  mood 
of  mind  tends  ,to  perpetuate  itself,  and  the  enthusiasm 
of  piety- ■which  utters  itself- in  henothei-stic  praises  and 
prayers  may  take  abiding  possession  of  the  soul  of  a 
powerful  ruler  or  even  of  the  hearts  of  a  whole  class  of 
society  or  of  a  whole  people,  and  may  seem  to  them  to 
find  the  strongest  possible  confirmation  in  experience. 
We  may  illustrate  from  Assyrian  religious  history. 
Tiglath-Pileser  showed  a  marked  preference  for  the 
worship  of  Asshur,  to  him  "king  of  all  the  gods,"  "he 
who  rules  supreme  over  the  gods."  Nebuchadnezzar, 
again,  showed  a  great  partiality  for  the  god  Jlerodach, 
and  applied  exclusively  to  him  such  magnificent  titles  as. 
"  the  lord  of  all  beings,"  "  the  lord  of  the  house  of  the 
gods,"  "  the  lord  of  lords,"  "  the  lord  of  the  gods,"  "  the 
king  of  heaven  and  earth."  Nabonidus,  on  the  other 
hand,  specially  revered  Sin,  the  moon-god,  and  represented 
him  as  "tl:e  great  divinity,"  "the  king  of  gods  upon 
gods,"  "the  cliief  and  king  of  the  gods  of  heaven  and 
earth."  A  preference  of  this  kind  might  arise  from  some 
merely  accidental  cr  jiersonal  cause,  and  be  confirmed  by 
exi>eriences  mainly_  individual,  and  yet  have  a  vast 
historical  influence."  The  devotional  choice  of  a  people 
must  tend,  however,  still  more  than  that  of  any  monarch 
to  the  elevation  of  one  god  towards  absolute  godhead..  It 
was  accordingly  what  raised  Asshur,  the  special  national 
god  of  the  Assyrians,  to  the  head  of  the  Babylonian- 
Assyrian  pantheon  during  the  Assyrian  period.  In  a 
struggle  of  deities  for  supremacy  the  national  god  has  an 
immense  advantage  in  that  he  has  both  the  [jiety  and  the 
patriotism  of  the  people  on  his  side.  His  rule  is'identified 
with  providence  ;  he  is  credited  with  all  tbe  victories  and 
successes  of  the  nation  ;  and  his  power  and  godhead  seem 
certified  by  fact  and  experience.  Tbe  logic  of  events  in 
every  advancing  nation  combines  with  the  essential  tend- 
encies of  piety  and  with  the  growth  of  conscience  and 
reason  to  promote  belief  in  the  unity  and  ]>erfection  of 
the  Divine.  The  general  course  of  providence  i.^  no  more 
polytheistic  than  it  is  atheistic.  The  best  exemplification 
of.the  operation  of  the  piety  of  an  influential  class  in  tran- 
scending polytheism  is  Brahmanism.  But  lor  the  impulse 
given  by  Brahmanical  piety  Brahnianical  speculation  would 
never  have  reduced  the  Vedic  gods  to"  n»nifestations  of 
Brahma.  Henotheistic  forms  of  approximation  to  mono- 
theism are  not,  however,  the  only  ones.  Particular  gods 
— all  of  them — may  be  dropped  out  of  view,  and  tho 
generic  thought  of  God  alone  retained.     The  mh'.d  and 


238 


THEISM 


heart  of  tbc  devout  may  be  directed  exclusively  ti>  the 
power  of  the  powers,  the  God  in  the  go<i.s,  (Jad  simply, 
.  the  Divinity.  The  formation  of  names  expresMug  Divinity 
10  the  abstract  is  au  evidence  of  the  existence  of  such  a 
ipr(M:e.ss.  and  names  of  the  kind  are  to  be  found  even  auinng 
very  rude  peoples.  But  there  are  more  obvious  and  con- 
clusive indications  In  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  books, 
loi  example,  and  probably  the  oldest  manu.scnpt  in  the 
world,  the  maxims  of  Patab-Hotep,  a  wise  Ei^yplian  prince 
ol  the  fifth  dynasty,  God  simply  («Wij/-).is  otlen  spoken 
of  without  a  name  or  any  mythological  characlerisUc.  and 
in  a  way  which  is  in  itself  quite  monotheistic  "  If  any 
one  bearetb  himself  proudly  he  will  fie  humbled  by  God, 
who  niakelh  his  strength.  '  If  thou  art  a  wise  man, 
bring  up  thy  .son  in  t.he  love  of  God  '  '  God  loveth  the 
obedient,  and  hateth  the  disobedient "  Sentences  like 
these  standing  alone  would  be  pronounced  by  every  one 
monotheistic  ,  and  even  wDen  standing  alongside  of  refer 
encea  to  "  gods  '  and  "  powers  '  they  show  that  said  gods 
and  powers  were  not  deemed  by  the  Egyptian  sage  incon- 
sistent with  oneness  of  power  and  godhead  or  exhaustive 
of  their  fulness  In  Babyloniao-Assyrian  religious  history 
there  are  also  distinct  traces  of  the  rise  of  the  spirits 
ol  worshippers  above  particular  deities,  simply  to  deity. 
Sometimes  they  apfiear  with  special  clearness  in  con- 
nexions which  tell  of  awakened  and  afflicted  conscience, 
of  the  pressure  of  a  sense  of  sin  and  guilt  forcing  on  the 
•heart,  as  it  were,  a  conviction  of  One  with  whom  it  has  to 
deal,  ol  Its  need  of  the  forgiveoe.ss  and  favour,  not  of  this 
god  or  of  that,  but  of  God.  The  following  passage  may 
be  cited  as  an  instance  'O  my  Lord,  my  sins  are  many, 
my  trespasses  are  great,  and  the  wrath  of  the  gods  has 
.plagued  me  with  disease,  and  with  sickness  and  sorrow. 
1  fainted,  but  no  one  stretched  forth  his  hand  !  I  groaned, 
but  no  one  heard  '  O  Lord,  do  not  abandon  Thy  servant  , 
in  the  waters  of  the  great  stream  do  Thou  take  his  hand  . 
the  sins  which  he  has  committed  do  Thou  turn  to  righteous- 
ne.ss  ■  Many  parallel  passages  might  bo  drawn  from 
Hindu.  Greek,  and  other  sources  Clearness  of  moral 
perception  is  decidedly  favourable  to  monotheistic  bebef. 
The  practical  reason  contributes  as  well  as  the  speculative 
reason,  and  preci.sely  in  the  measure  of  its  heaJthiness  and 
vigour,  to  the  formation  of  a  true  idea  o'  the  Divine.  It 
was  due  more  to  their  moral  earnestness  and  insight  than 
to  their  intellectual  superiority  that  the  Persians  came 
nearer  to  monotheism  than  any  other  people  of  heathen 
Antiquity.  Ahnman  w£is  entirely  evil,  and  therefore  only 
to  be  hated  and  combated  ;  while  Ahuramazd  was  abso- 
lutely divine,  perfectly  good,  and  therefore  to  be  supremely 
worshipped  and  obeyed.  This  moral  dualism  approached 
more  closely  to  true  monotheism  than  the  later  speculative 
monism,  which  placed  above  both  Ahuramazd  and  Ahnman 
Zervanakarene,  boundless  time,  indeterminate  being,  an 
ethically  ladiflerent  destiny.  Finally,  reason  in  striving  to 
understand  and  explain  the  world  tends  towards  mouo- 
theism  Th»  mind  cannot  be  expected  to  recognize  the 
unity  of  God  until  it  recognizes  the  unity  of  nature  .  when 
it  sees  nature  to  be  a  whole,  a  universe  or  cosmos,  it 
cannot  but  form  a  conception  of  it  which  will  be  panthe-. 
istic.  if  the  unity  of  substance,  law,  and  evolution  be  alone 
acknowledged,  and  monotheistic  if  a  unity  of  causabty, 
rational  plan,  and  ethical  purpose  be  also  apprehended. 
In  the  measure  in  which  reason  advan^-es  either  on  the 
path  of  scientific  investigation  or  of  philosophical  specu- 
lation, polytheism  must  retreat  and  disappear  ,  in  the 
measure  in  which  it  discerns  unity,  order,  sy.stem,  moral 
govemmeht,  indications  of  spiritual  character  and  design 
in  the  world,  monotheisqi_  must  rise  and  spread.  Now,  in 
the  ehief  progressive  heathen  nations  reason,  it  can  be 
iproved,  has  gradually  gamed  oo  imagination.     Hence  the 


polytheisms  which  they  built  up  in  their  youth  have  been 
undermined  and  broken  down  by  them  in  their  maturity.- 
A  monotheistic  movement  can  be  clearly  traced  in 
ancient  Greece.  The  popular  religion  of  Greece,  as  it 
appeared  in  the  Homeric  poems,  was  as  distinctly  poly- 
theistic and  as  little  monotheistic  af  any  known  religion. 
Its  gods  were  all  finite,  begotten,  and  thoroughly  indi- 
vidualized beings.  The  need  of  unity  was  responded  to 
only  by  the  supremacy  of  Zeus,  and  Zeus  was  subject  to 
destiny,  surrounded  by  an  aristocracy  far  from  orderly 
or  obedient,  and  participant  in  weakness,  foUy^  and  vice. 
To  Its  eternal  honour  the  Greek  spirit,  however,  was  not 
content  with  so  inadequate  a  conception  of  the  Divine,  but 
laboured  to  amend,  enlarge,  and  elevate  it.  The  poets 
and  dramatists  of  Greece  purified  and  ennobled  the  popular 
myths,  and,  in  particular,  so  idealized  the  character  and 
agency  of  Zeus  as  to  render  them  accordant  with  a  true 
conception  of  the  Godhead.  The  Zeus  of  vEschylus  and  of 
Sophocles  was  not  only  not  the  Zeus  of  Homer,  but  was  a 
god  belief  in  whom  was  inconsistent  with  belief  in  any 
of  the  Homeric  gods.  The  dramatists  of  Greece  did  not 
a^^ail  the  popular  conception  of  Divinity,  but  they  sub- 
stituted for  It  one  which  implied  that  it  was  without 
warrant  or  excuse.  They  developed  the  germs  of  mono- 
theism in  the  Greek  rebgion,  while  leaving  untouched  its 
polytheistic  assumptions  and  affirmations.  These,  how- 
ever, were  not  only  persistently  undermined,  but  often 
directly  attacked  by  the  philosophers,  some  of  whom 
eventually  reached  a  reasoned  knowledge  of  the  one 
absolute  Mind.  Xenophanes,  Empedocles,  and  Anaxagoraa 
were  among  the  pre-Socralic  philosophers  who,  on  grounds 
of  reason,  rejected  the  polytheism  and  anthropomorphism 
of  the  current  mythology,  and  advocated  belief  in  one  all- 
perfect  divine  nature.  Socrates,  although  avoiding  all 
attacks  on  the  popular  religion  calculated  to  weaken  the 
popular  reverence  for  divine  things,  had  real  faith  only  in 
the  one  supreme  Reason,  the  source  and  end  of  all  things , 
and  the  best  representatives  of  later  Greek  philosophy 
were  in  this  respect  hi.'!  followers.  Plato  attained  by  his 
dialectic  a  conception  of  God  which  will  always  deeply 
interest  thoughtful  men.  God  he  deemed  the  highest 
object  of  knowledge  and  love,  the  source  of  all  being, 
cognoscibility,  truth,  excellence,  and  beauty, — the  One,  the 
Good.  The  controversy  as  to  whether  his  conception  may 
be  more  correctly  designated  tbeistic  or  pantheistic  will, 
perhaps,  never  be  brought  to  a  decisive  conclusion,  but 
in  Its  general  truth  and  grandeur  it  must  be  admitted 
far  to  transcend  either  the  monotheism  of  the  vulgar 
or  any  popular  form  of  pantheism.  Aristotle's  character- 
istic cautiousness  of  judgment  showed  itself  m  the  very 
meagreness  of  his  theology.  The  representation  which  he 
gives  of  God  hardly  meets  at  all  the  demands  of  affection 
and  of  practical  life,  yet  so  far  as  it  goes  will  be  generally 
regarded  as  thoroughly  reasonable.  It  is  more  unequivo- 
cally theistic  than  that  of  Plato.  It  sets  forth  God  as 
without  plurality  and  without  parts  ,  free  from  matter, 
contingency,  change,  and  development  ,  the  eternal  un- 
moved   mover,    whose   essence    is   pure   energy  ,  absolute 

'  The  bMt  literature  relating  to  the  subject  of  the  preceding 
parap-aph  is  indlcaled  id  the  lists  of  books  given  m  conneiioD  with 
Iho  relovant  sections  m  Tiele's  OiUhnes  of  Ute  Bislory  of  Rf.l\.g\on, 
and  particularly  in  the  Fiench  traoslatioD  by  M.  Vemes.  Hegel's 
Pkiltisuphi,  of  /ie,ligion.  Biuisen's  Ood  m  History,  Prennian  Clarke's 
Teti  Orrat  keligums,  the  .Si  (iiles  LpctuTe3  im.  th^  Faiths  of  the  Worlds 
still  morn  ihft  series  of  Sacrai  BfHiks  of  iht  East,  and  of  ancient  texts 
publisled  undei  the  uUe  ol  Ra-jtrds  of  the  Past,  and  the  volumes  of 
Ibb  Rev  de  V ilist.  deji  Reitqums,  will  bo  found  useful  to  those  wish- 
ing lo  make  a  survey  nl  hcatliftn  thought  regarding  God  so  far  as  it 
approximated  lo  lliy  theislic  ide.x  For  the  rooceplions  of  the  Divine 
entertauied  by  uon-civihzed  peoples,  sec  especially  Waltz's  Anlhro' 
poltigie,  and  RSville'a  RdigwTia  des  Non-Civilisii,  who  both  give 
extensive  hsts  of  literature 


Mor.o- 
thMtia 
cicWju« 
in  G*6i!<) 


THEISM 


239 


spirit,  self-thinking  reason,  the  voijax?  vo>)<rc<i)s  ;  the  one 
perfect  being,  whose  life  is  completely  blessed,  and  whose 
likeness  is  the  goal  towards  which  the  whole  universe 
tends.  Stoicism  was  onginaUy  and  predominantly  a 
materialistic  or  hylozoic  form  of  pantheism  ,  but  some  of 
its  greatest  representatives  conceived  of  God  in  a  decid- 
edly theistic  manner  as  the  supreme  moral  reason.  The 
beautiful  hymn  of  Clean thes  to  Zeus  is  full  of  the  purest 
devotional  feeling,  springing  from  a  clear  sense  of  personal 
relationship  to  the  one  all  ruling  personal  Spirit.  Greek 
philosophy  proceeded  throughout  its  whole  course  in  entire 
independence  of  the  popular  polytheism,  and  was  a  con- 
tinuous demonstration  of  its  futility  ,  and  it  largely  con- 
tributed to  that  reasoned  natural  knowledge  of  God  wliich 
must  underlie  all  rational  belief  in  revelation.  It  discerned 
in  some  measure  all  the  chief  arguments  which  have  since 
been  employed  as  theistic  proofs.  It  failed,  however,  to 
conceive  of  God  as  truly  creative,  or  of  the  universe  as  in 
its  very  substance  the  result  of  divine  action  ,  it  failed  also 
to  make  evident,  even  to  cultured  minds,  the  superiority 
of  monotheism  to  pantheism  ard  scepticism  ;  and  it  failed 
especially  to  convert  the  common  people  to  faith  in  one 
sole  Deity.' 
Mm*.  Israel   presents  us  with  the  first  example  of  a   mono- 

'*«"»  in  theistic  nation.  The  controversies  as  to  how  Israel  ac- 
Iwtri.  quired  this  pre-eminence  can  only  be  decided  by  critical 
and  historical  investigations  into  which  we  cannot  here 
enter  (see  Iskael). 
OW  Testa-  The  science  of  Old  Testament  theology,  giving  due  heed 
■">«"'  to  the  results  of  critical,  historical,  and  exegetical  research 
thetlogy.  regarding  the  documents  with  which  it  deals,  has  to  trace 
by  what  means  and  through  what  stages  Hebrew  mono- 
theism was  developed  and  established  ;  and  to  the  treatises 
on  this  science  our  readers  must  be  referred.  The  mono- 
theistic movement  m  Israel  was  one  of  continuous  progress 
through  incessant  conflict  until  a  result  was  reached  of 
incalculable  value  to  humanity  That  result  was  a  faith 
in  God  singularly  comprehensive,  sublime,  and  practical, — 
a  faith  which  rested,  not  on  speculation  and  reasoning,  but 
on  a  conviction  of  God  having  directly  revealed  Himself 
to  the  spirits  .'f  men,  and  which,  while  ignoring  meta- 
physical theorizing,  ascribed  lO  God  all  metaphysical  as 
well  as  moral  perfections  ,  a  faitb  which,  in  spite  of  its 
simplicity,  so  apprehended  the  relationship  of  God  to  nature 
as  neither  to  confound  them  like  pantheism  nor  to  separate 
them  like  deism,  but  to  assert  both  the  immanence  and  the 
transcendence  of  the  divine  a  faith  in  a  living  and  per- 
sonal God,  the  almighty  and  sole  creator,  preserver,  and 
ruler  of  the  world  .  a  faith,  especially,  in  a  God  holy  in  all 
His  ways  and  righteous  in  all  His  works,  who  was  directing 
and  guiding  human  affairs  to  a  destination  worthy  of 
His  own  character  .  and.  therefore,  an  essentially  ethical, 
elevating,  and  hopeful  faith.  The  existence  of  utterances 
in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  which  show  that  Hebrew  faith 
was  not  always  thus  enlishteoed.  and  sometime-s  conceived 
of  God  as  partial  and  cruel  is  no  reason  tor  not  acknow- 
ledging the  general  lustice  and  grandeur  of  its  representa- 
tion of  the  Supreme  •' 
Ne«  The  God  of  the  Old  Testament  is  also  the  God  of  the 

Testi-       New      Christ  and  the  apostles  accepted  what  i'oses  and 
^■^       the  prophets  had  taught  concerning  God  ,  they  assigned  to 

'  See  Zeller,  Die  £?nivncfceluTi{j  (Uf  Monolheismu»  bet  den  Onechcn 
'{in  VoTtrdge,  vol  i. ) ;  and  Cocker,  Christianity  and  Oreek  Philosophy^ 
1875;  also,  Meiners,  BistoHa  Dof:lTj.nw  de  V'ero  Deo,  1780. 

•  See  the  0.  T.  Theotcgies  of  Oehler.  Schultz.  Kayser.  Piepenbrin^ 
&C.;  Ewald,  Lehre  der  Bibel  v(m  Oott  \  Baudissen,  Stud.  z.  Scmit. 
Rdigi&nsgeschichU  ;  Knenen,  Bibbert  Lecture  ;  Duhm,  Theoloifie  a. 
Brophiien  ;  W.  Robertson  Smith,  Prophtts  of  IsraeL,  &c.  As  to  the 
name  "  Jahveh,"  an  instructive  summary  and  examination  of  views  is 
given  by  Prof.  Driver  in  his  article  "  Recent  Theories  on  the  Origin 
and  Xatnreof  the  Tetragraramatoti."  In  Stvdia  Bibliea,  Oxford,  1885. 


Him  no  other  attributes  than  had  abeady  been  assigned  to 
Him.  Like  Moses  and  the  prophets-  also  they  made  no 
attempt  formally  to  prove  the  existence  or  logically  to 
define  the  nature  of  God,  but  spoke  of  Him  either  as  from 
vision  or  inspiration.  And  yet  their  doctrine  of  God  has 
original  and  peculiar  features.  Thus,  first,  the  fatherhood 
of  God  was  taught  with  incomparable  distinctness  and 
fulness  by  Jesus  Christ, — a  fatherhood  not  merely  of 
natural  creation  or  national  election,  but  of  spiritual 
relationship  of  love,  sympathy,  mercy,  and  grace  foi 
individual  souls.  Such  fatherhood,  if  acknowledge,  at 
all,  was  only  very  rarely  and  vaguely  acknowledged  ^n 
heathendom,  and,  although  not  wi.olly  absent  from  the 
Old  Testament,  is  far  from  clearly  and  prominently  there, 
and,  indeed,  is  present  chiefly  by  implication  in  pa.ssages 
which  refer  directly  only  to  God's  connexion  with  the 
people  of  Israel,  as  an  elect  and  covenant  people  it  is 
conspicuous  and  central,  however,  in  the  conception  of 
God  introduced  by  Christianity  Secondly,  Divine  tather 
hood  had  jts  correlate  in  Divine  sonship  God  is  repre- 
sented in  the  New  Testament  as  revealing  His  lathetljood 
through  His  Son,  Jesus  Christ.  In  Old  Testament  repre- 
sentations of  Israel,  the  Messiah,  and  Wisdom,  and  in  the 
Logos  doctrine  of  Judaeo-Alexandrian  philosophy,  some 
approximations  to  this  conception  of  the  Divine  may  be 
traced,  but  they  fell  far  short  of  it.  According  to  the 
New  Testament,  God  is  not  merely  infinitely  exalted 
above  the  world  and  definitely  distinguished  therelrom,  nor 
merely  immanent  and  everywhere  operative  in  nature,  but 
also  incarnate  in  Christ ;  and  Christ  is  not  merely  "  the 
Son  of  man,"  essentially  sharing  in  humanity  and  truly 
representing  it  before  God,  but  also  "  the  Son  ot  God," 
essentially  sharing  in  Divinity,  and  giving  the  fullest 
disclosure  of  it  to  man.  The  foundation  of  the  Christian 
faith  as  laid  down  in  the  New  Testament  is  that  Christ 
through  His  unique  relation  as  Son  to  the  Father  perfectly 
declared  and  expressed  the  nature  and  will  of  God  id 
relation  to  buman  salvation  Thirdly,  God  is  exhibited 
in  the  New  Testament  as  the  Spirit,  the  Holy  Ghost,  who 
dwells  10  the  spirits  of  men.  to  work  in  them  the  will  of 
the  Father,  and  to  conform  them  to  the  image  of  the  Son. 
Only  when  thus  exhibited  can  the  revelation  of  the  Divine 
name  be  regarded  from  the  New  Testament  point  of  view 
as  other  than  manifestly  incomplete  Even  the  manifestar 
tion  of  God  in  Christ,  being  obiective  and  single,  must  be 
supplemented  by  a  manifestation  which  is  subiective  and 
multiple,  before  the  one  God.  the  one  Christ,  can  find  a 
place  in  the  manifoldness  ot  souls,  the  multitude  of  sep- 
arate hearts  and  lives.  The  manifestation  of  the  Spirit 
IS  such  a  manifestation,  and  completes  in  principle  the 
revelation  of  the  Christian  idea  of  God.  the  revelation  of 
His  threefold  nature  and  name  This  revelation  completed 
God  can  be  thought  of  as  absolute  spirit,  absolute  love, 
absolute  good,  and  was,  to  some  extent  explicitly,  and 
throughout  implicitly,  so  represented  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. It  IS  precisely  in  virtue  ot  the  threefold  represen- 
tation of  God  characteristic  of  the  New  Testament  that 
Christianity  is  still  held  by  so  many  of  the  world's  pro- 
foundest  thmkers  as  the  absolute  and  perfect  religion,  the 
crown  and  consummation  ot  religion, — speculatively  con- 
sidered, an  absolute  revelation  of  God,  and  practically 
considered,  a  perfect  salvation, — within  which  there  may 
be  infinite  evolution  and  progress,  but  beyond  which  there 
can  be  no  true  light  or  real  growth.' 

The  threefold  representation  of  God  in  the  New  Testa-  Doctnte 
ment  was  an  entirely  religious  and  practical  representa- of "" 
tion,  inseparably  connected  with    the  historical    tacts   of    """'''■ 

"  The  New  Testament  representation  of  God  is  treated  of  in  the  Xev 
Testament  Theologies  of  Schniid,  Reusa,  Oosterzee,  and  Weiss  ;  also  in 
Wittichen,  Die  Idee  OoUee,  1865. 


240 


THEISM 


Christ's  life  and  the  spiritual  experiences  of  the  early 
Christians.  It  was  not  an  ontological  or  even  theological 
doctrine,  and  will  be  identified  by  no  competent  exegete 
with  the  dogma  of  the  Divine  Trinity  set  forth  in  the 
oecumenical  creeds.  The  propositions  constitutive  of  the 
dogma  of  the  Trinity — the  propositions  in  the  symbols  of 
Nice,  Constantinople,  and  Toledo  relative  to  the  immanent 
distinctions  and  relations  in  the  Godhead — were  not  drawn 
directly  from  the  New  Testament,  and  could  not  be  ex- 
pressed in  New  Testament-  terms.  They  were  the  pro- 
ducts of  reason  speculating  on  a  revelation  to  faith — the 
New  Testament  representation  of  God  as  a  father,  a 
redeemer,  and  a  sanctifier — with  a  view  to  conserve  and 
vindicate,  explain  and  comprehend  it.  They  were  only 
formed  through  centuries  of  effort,  only  elaborated  by  the 
lid  of  the  conceptions  and  formulated  in  the  terms  of 
Greek  and  Roman  metaphysics.  The  evolution  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  far  the  most  important  fact 
in  the  doctrinal  history  of  the  church  during  the  first  five 
;enturies  of  its  post-apostolic  existence.  To  trace  and 
lescribe  it  fully  would  be  almost  to  exhibit  the  history  of 
Christian  thought  during  these  centuries.  It  had  neces- 
larily  an  immense  influence  on  the  development  of  theism. 
The  acceptance  of  the  catholic  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
implied  the  rejection  of  pantheism,  of  abstract  monotheism, 
sf  all  forms  of  monarchianism  or  unitarianism.  It  decided 
that  theistic  development  was  not  to  be  on  these  lines  or 
in  these  directions.  At  the  same  time  the  dogma  itself 
was  a  seed  for  new  growths  of  theistic  thought,  and 
demanded  a  development  consistent  with  its  own  nature. 
It  is  a  doctrine,  not  as  to  the  manifestations  and  revela- 
tions of  Godhead,  but  as  to  their  ground  and  explanation, 
the  constitution  of  Godhead,  a  doctrine  as  to  a  trinity  of 
essence,  which  accounts  for  the  Trinity  of  the  gospel  dis- 
pensation. It  affirms  the  unity  of  God,  but  requires  us 
to  conceive  of  His  unity,  not  as  an  abstract  or  indeter- 
minate self-identity,  not  as  "  sterile,  monotonous  simpli- 
city," but  as  a  unity  rich  in  distinctions  and  perfections, — 
the  unity  of  an  infinite  fulness  of  life  and  love,  the  unity 
,  of  a  Godhead  in  which  there  are  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Spirit,  a  trinity  of  persons,  a  diversity  of  properties,  a 
variety  of  offices,  a  •multiplicity  of  operations,  yet  sameness 
of  nature,  equality  of  power  and  glory,  oneness  in  purpose 
and  affection,  harrpony  of  will  and  work.  It  finds  its 
dogmatic  expression  as  to  what  is  ultimate  in  it  in  the 
formula — One  substance  in  three  persons,  of  which  the  first 
eternally  generates  the  second,  and  the  third  eternally 
proceeds  from  the  first  and  second.  Now,  manifestly, 
however  much  such  a  doctrine  as  this  may  have  satisfied 
thought  on  a  revelation  as  to  the  Godhead,  it  cannot  have 
exhausted  or  completed  it.  If  it  answered  certain  ques- 
tions it  raised  others,  and  these  more  speculative  and  pro- 
found than  those  which  had  been  answered.  What  is 
meant  hy  affirming  God  to  be  "  substance  "  or  "  in  three 
persons  "  1  What  is  meant  by  divine  "  generation  "  or 
"procession"?  How  are  the  substance  and  persons 
related  1  How  are  the  persons  distinguished  and  inter- 
related 1  These  and  many  kindred  and  connected  ques- 
tions reason  became  bound  to  discuss  by  its  adoptipn  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  This  obligation  could  only  be 
temporarily  and  partially  evaded  or  concealed  by  represent- 
ing the  doctrine  as  "  a  mystery  "  to  be  accepted  simply  on 
authority  or  with  blind  faith.  Data  of  the  doctrine  may 
have  been  given  to  faith,  but  the  doctrine  itself  was  the 
work  of  reason,  and  on  no  ground  not  plainly  absurd  could 
that  work  bo  held  to  have  terminated  in  589  a.d.  As 
Boon  as  an  inspired  record  is  left  at  all,  as  soon  as  any 
Bpeculation  is  allowed  on  its  contents,  as  soon  as  the  pro- 
cess of  forming  doctrine  is  permitted  to  begin,  all  conceiv- 
able right  tor  stop  the  movement  anywhere  is  lost.     By  the 


blending,  however,  of  trinitarianism  with  theism  the  whole 
character  of  the  latter  was,  of  necessity,  profoundly 
changed.  A  trinitarian  theism  must  be  vastly  different 
from  a  unitarian  as  regards  practice.  It  must  be  equally 
so  as  regards  theory.  It  must  be  far  more  speculative. 
By  its  very  nature  it  is  bound  to  undertake  speculative 
labours  in  which  a  simply  unitarian  theism  will  feel  no 
call  to  engage.' 

It  was  the  general  conviction  of  the  early  Christian  Theism  in. 
writers  that  formal  proofs  of  the  Divine  existence  were  natristio 
neither  necessary  nor  useful.  In  their  view  the  idea  of  ""'■''"-• 
God  was  native  to  the  soul,  the  knowledge  of  God  intuitive, 
the  mind  of  man  a  mirror  in  which,  if  not  rusted  by  sin, 
God  could  not  fail  to  be  reflected.  The  design  argument, 
however,  came  early  into  use  and  was  frequently  employed. 
More  speculative  modes  of  reasoning  were  resorted  to  by 
Dionysius  of  Tarsus,  Augustine,  and  Boetius.  The  unity 
of  God  had  to  be  incessantly  affirmed  against  polytheists, 
Gnostics,  and  Manichaeans.  The  incomprehensibility  of 
God  and  His  cognoscibility  were  both  maintained,  although 
each  was  sometimes  so  emphasized  as  to  seem  to  obscure 
the  other.  That  the  knowledge  of  God  may  be  reached 
by  the  three  ways  of  causality,  negation,  and  emineiice  was 
implied  by  the  pseudo-Dionysius,  although  only  explicitly 
announced  by  Scotus.  Neither  any  systematic  treatment 
of  the  Divine  attributes  nor  any  elaborate  discussion  of 
single  attributes  was  attempted.  The  hypothesis  of 
eternal  creation  found  a  vigorous  defender  in  Origen,  bul 
met  with  the  same  fate  as  the  dualist  hypothesis  of  un- 
created matter  and  the  pantheistic  hypothesis  of  emana- 
tion. Of  all  the  patristic  theologians  Augustine  was 
undoubtedly  the  most  philosophical  apologist  and  ex- 
ponent of  theism.  He  alone  attempted  to  refute  agnos- 
ticism, and  to  find  a  basis  for  the  knowledge  of  God  in  a 
doctrine  of  cognition  in  general.  On  the  large,  difficult, 
and  as  yet  far  from  adequately  investigated  subject,  the 
influence  of  Platonic  and  Aristotelian,  Stoic  and  Academic, 
Neopythagorean  and  Neoplatonic  speculation  on  the  for- 
mation of  the  Christian  doctrina  de  Deo,  it  is,  pi  course, 
impossible  here  to  enter.^ 

Mohammed  (570-632)  founded  a  monotheistic  religion  Mohins- 
which  spread  with  amazing  rapidity  through  Arabia,  Syria,  '"*'*" 
Persia,  North  Africa,  and  Spain,  and  gave,  almost  wherever  *'"™'- 
it  spread,  a  mighty  impulse  to  the  minds  and  wills  of 
men,  It  was  received  as  the  gift  of  special  inspiration 
and  revelation,  although  its  creed  contained  little  of 
moment  on  which  reason  would  seem  to  be  incompetent 
to  decide.  It  had  obvious  merits,  and  must  be  adtnitted 
to-have  rendered  real  and  important  services  to  culture, 
religion,  and  humanity,  but  had  also  conspicuous,  faults, 
which  have  done  much  injury  to  individual,  domestic,  and 
national  life.  If  the  latest  were  always  the  best,  it  would 
be  the  most  perfect  of  the  three  great  theistic  religions  of 
the  world ;  but  it  is,  in  fact,  the  least  developed  and  most 
defective.  Instead  of  evolving  and  extending,  it  marred 
and  mutilated  the  theistic  idea  which  it  borrowed.  In- 
stead of  representing  God  as  possessed  of  all  spiritual 
fulness  and  perfections,  it  exhibited  Him  as  devoid  of 
the  divinest  spiritual  attributes.  It  recognized  His 
transcendent  exaltation  above  His  creatures,  but  not  His 
sympathetic  presence  with  His  creatures ;  apprehended 
vividly  His  almighty  power.  His  eternity.  His  omnipres- 
ence and  omniscience,  but  only  vaguely  and  dimly  His 
moral  glory.  His   \ov0   and  goodness.  His  righteousness 

'  Banr,  Ch.  Wire  v.  d.  Dreieinigkdt,  &c.,  1841-43;  Meier,  Lchrc 
V.  cT.  Triniltil  in  hist.  Entwickl.,  1844. 

»  Koesler,  Phitosophia  Vetms  Ecd.  de  Deo,  1782;  and  tho  historios 
of  Christian  doctrine  by  Hagenbach,  'Neaiider,  Shtdd,  Bonifa^,  Sheldon, 
Hamack,  &c. ;  Gangau.l',  Dea  h.  Avguslinua  speculative  Lehre  von 
Gott,  1884. 


THEISM 


241' 


and  holioess.  ■*■  Tho'Allah  of  Mohammed  was' essentially 
despotic  »vill,  and  so  fell  far  below  the  Jahveh  of  Moses, 
essentially  righteousness,  and  the  Heavenly  Father  of 
Christ,  essentially  holy  love  Mohammedanism  is  almost 
as  contrary  to  Christianity  as  one  form  of  theism  can  be 
to  another.  It  is  as  unitarian  as  Christianity  is  trini- 
tarian.  Its  cardinal  tenet  is  as  distinctly  anti  trinitarian 
'as  antipolyiheislic.  It  has  often  been  represented  as  hav- 
ing had  the  providential  task  assigned  it  of  preparing  the 
way  for  Christianity  by  destroying  polytheism  ;  in  reality, 
it  has  hitherto  offered  a  far  more  stubborn  resistance  to 
Christianity'  than  any  polytheistic  religion  has  done.' 
Medieval  The  ipecferal  world  was  so  complex,  so  full  of  contrasts 
ibaolog)-.  and  contradictions,  that  it  cannot  be  "summed  up  ia  a 
foimul.x."  Moat  general  statements  current  regarding  it 
will  be  found  on  examination  only  partially  true.  It 
is  often  described  as  the  age  in  which  external  religious 
authority  ruled,  and  all  religious  thought  ran  in  narrow, 
.Strictly  prescribed  paths,  whereas,  in  fact,  the  medieval 
theologians  were  far  freer  to  speculate  on  almost  all  points 
jof  religious  doctrine  than  Protestant  divines  have  been. 
Because  traditionalism  abounded,  it  is  forgotten  that  ration- 
sli.sni  also  abounded ;  because  scholasticism  flourished, 
that  mysticism  was  prevalent ;  because  theism  was  com- 
mon, that  pantheism,  speculative  and  practical,  was  not 
uncommon.  The  Middle  Age  was,  however,  par  ticdUnce, 
the  age  of  theology.  Theology  never  before  or  since  so 
interested  and  dominated  the  human  intellect.  Nearly 
every  eminent  mediaeval  thinker  was  a  theologian.  The 
chief  streams  of  theistic  belief  and  speculation  which  tra- 
versed the  Middle  Age  were  three, — the  Christian,  Jewish, 
■and  Mohammedan.  The  first  was  much  the  broadest  and 
dullest.  Few  points  of  theistic  doctrine  were  left  un- 
jliandled  by  the  Christian  d.  vines  of  the  Middle  Age.  The 
iconclusions  came  to  on  the  chief  points  were  various  and 
divergent.  As  to  the  manner  in  which  God  is  known,  for 
(instance,  some  laid  stress  en  faith  or  authoritative  revela- 
tion ;  others  on  immediate  consciousness,  the  direct  vision 
,of  the  pure  in  heart,  the  illumination  of  the  Spirit  of  God 
in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  true  children  of  God  ; 
others  on  reason  and  proof ;  and  some  attempted  media- 
[tion  and  synthesis.  Anselm  gave  logical  form  to  an  a 
'jiriori  argument  for  the  Divine  e.xistence  based  on  the  idea 
!of  God  as  a  being  than  whom  a  greater  cannot  be  con- 
ceived. His  most  ingenious  attempt  to  demonstrate  the 
.absurdity  of  supposing'  the  perfect,  the  infinite,  to  be  a 
.mere  subjective  fiction  prepared  the  way  for  the  multitude 
'of  attempts,  identical  or  similar  in  aim,  which  have  since 
'been  made.  Thomas  Aquinas  was  the  best  representative 
.of  those  who  held  that  the  invisible  God  was  only  to  be 
known  through  His  visible  works.  He  argued  from  motion 
'to  a  mover,  from  effect  to  cause,  from  the  contingent  to 
the'  necessa.ry,  from  lower  kinds  of  good  to  a  supreme 
good,  and  trom  order  and  purpose  in  the  world  to  a 
governing  intelligence.  Raymond  of  Sebonde  added  to  the 
'ontol.igical  and  physico-teleological  arguments  a  mo.'-al 
argument.  Willjam'  of  Occam  criticized  keenly  and  un- 
ifavourably  both  the  a  prion  and  a  postenori  proofs,  and 
held  that  the  existence  of  God  was  not  a  known  truth  but 
merely  an  article  of  faith.  There  was  not  less  diversity  of 
view  as  to  how  far  God  may  be  known.  Erigena  held 
that  even  God  Himself  could  not  comprehend  His  own 
nature,  and  EckLart  that  the  nature  of  God  is  neces- 
sarily unknowable,  as  being  a  nature  without  nature, 
without  predicates,  without  opposites,  pure  cneness.  That 
man  cannot  know  God's  real  nature,  cannot  know  Him  }jcr 
taentiam,  cannot  have  a  'juUlditimi  coyuitio  Dei,  and  that 

'  See  Moiiammed^^nism,  nnd  uulhontied  there  menlioiietl ;  also 
Kueoeu,  //iWxrri  Z,eciur«,  lecLil.^witti  autiiors  oaJ^works  there 
Indicated.  '  ^         '" 

23—11 


the  so-called "attribi2tes''of  Cod  arc  only  descriptive  of  the 
effects  of  His  operations  as  they  appear  to  the  human 
mind,  or  even  are  merely  symbols  or  metaphors,  was 
maintained  by  many  of  the  scholastic  doctors.  Aquinas, 
for  example,  with  all  his  cpnfidence  as  a  dogmatic  system-, 
builder,  so  denied  the  cognoscibility  of  Cod.  That  the 
human  mind  may  have  a  true,  although  it  cannot  have  a 
perfect  knowledge  of  God, — an  apprehensive  but  not  a 
comprehensive  knowledge  of  Him, — was,  however,  in  the 
Middle  Age,  as  it  has  been  ever  since,  the  position  most 
commonly  taken  up.  The  scholastic  divines  discussed  a 
multitude  of  foolish  questions  regarding  God,  but  that 
was  not  duo  to  extravagant  faith  in  the  power  of  tho 
human  niiad  to  know  or  comprehend  God.  Prof  Sheldon 
very  justly  says,  "on  the  whole,  the  scholastic  theology,' 
notwithstanding  some  strong  negative  statements,  assumes 
i..  reality  a  minimum  of  acquaintanceship  with  the  essen- 
tial nature  of  God."  The  negative  statements  are,  for 
the  most  part,  those  of  the  mystics  with  respect  to  the 
beatific  vision.  ~  Media;val  discussions  as  to  the  nature 
of  God  turned  chiefly  on  two  points, — the  relation  of 
the  Divine  essence  to  the  Divine  attributes  and  of  the 
one  Divine  substance  to  the  three  Divine  persons.  The 
conclusion  come  to  by  the  vast  majority  of  scholastic  theo- 
logians on  the  first  point  was  that  the  attributes  were  not 
really  or  objectively  in  God,  but  merely  human  repre-] 
sentations  reflected,  ad  it  were,  on  the  idea  of  God,  because 
the  mental  constitution  of  man  is  what  it  is,  and  because' 
God  wished  to  be  thought  of  in  certain  divers  manners.' 
To  hold  them  objectively  real  in  God,  and  therefore  intrin-] 
sically  distinct  either  from  the  essence  of  God  or  from  one, 
another,  was  considered  to  be  incompatible  both  with  the 
incomprehensibility  and  with  the  absolute  simplicity  of 
the  Divine  nature.  Duns  Scotus,  in  maintaining  that  the' 
attributes  were  formahtates  recUiter  disiinctse,  took  up  an 
exceptional  position.  On  the  other  point  the  conclusion 
as  generally  reached  was  one  seemingly  quite  inconsistent 
with  the  foregoing,  namely,  that  the  persons  were  objec- 
tively and  eternally  real  and  distinct.  The  discrepancy  ii 
especially  apparent  in  those  theologians  (<■.</.,  Anselm, 
Abelard,  Hugo  and  Richard  of  St  Victor,  Alexander  of 
Hales,  and  Aquinas)  who  represented  the  persons  of  the 
Trinity  as  corresponding  to  distinctions  among  the  very' 
attributes  which  they  in  another  reference  denied  to  be 
distinct.  The  mediseval  schoolmen,  with  very  few  and 
doubtful  exceptions,  conjoined  with  their  theism  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  defined  by  the  ancient  church.' 
Roscelin  of  Compiegne  and  Gilbert  de  la  Porrte  laid 
themselves  open  to  the  charge  of  tritheism  ;  and  obviously 
nominalism,  by  allowing  nothing  but  a  nominal  existence 
to  the  essence  or  general  nature  of  which  the  individual 
is  a  specimen,  tended  towards  tritheism, — towards  resolv- 
ing the  Trinity  into  a  triad  of  Divine  individuals  or  self- 
subsistent  beings,  connected  only  by  a  coniinon  specific 
character.  While  the  schoolmen  accepted  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  on  authority,  they  did  not  conceive  them- 
selves precluded  from  endeavouring  to  illustrate  it  and 
to  make  it  appear  as  consonant  to  reason  as  possible. 
They  sought  to  show  its  consistency  with  the  unity  of  God, 
and  its  general  reasonableness  by  various  speculative  con- 
siderations, but  especially  by  the  aid  of  analogies  drawn 
from  the  constitution  of  the  mind  and  even  from  particular 
physical  phenomena.  They  did  not  suppose  that  they  were 
thereby  demonstrating  the  iloctrine  of  the  Trinity  :  they 
fully  recognized  that  doctrine  to  be  the  indication  of  a 
mystery,  "  dark  with  excess  of  light,"  and  the  truth  of 
which  could  only  be  directly  aiipiehcnded  in  the  beatific 
vision  conferred  by  the  highest  and  most  special  grace ; 
but  they  proceeded  on  the  belief  that,  inasmuch  as  it  «aa 
a. central  truth  of  revelation,  the  whole  creation,  aud,. 
'    '  XXIIL  —  31 


242 


T  H  E  I  S  IM 


niedan 


above  all,  the  nature  and  essence  of  man's  spirit,  must 
bear  witness'  to  it.  At  least  one  good  result  followed. 
Those  who  exercised  their  minds  on  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  were  necessarily  led  in  some  measure  to  form 
another  idea  of  God  than  that  of  either  an  indeterminate 
unity  or  a  confused  synthesis  of  attributes, — to  think  of 
Kim,  with  some  clearness  and  steadiness,  in  an  organic 
and  harmonious  manner,  as  absolute  being,  absolute  life, 
absolute  spirit,  absolute  intelligence,  absolute  love.  Such 
thought  as  this  distinctly  appeared  in  Anselm,  the  St 
Victors,  Aquinas,  Bonaventura,  Dante,  &c.  The  omni- 
presence, omnipotence,  and  omniscience  of  God,  and, 
generally,  what  are  called  His  metaphysical  and  intellectual 
attributes,  were  discussed  with  exces.sive  elaborateness  and 
subtlety,  while  His  moral  attributes  were  left  in  the  back- 
ground, or  considered  without  sufficient  earnestness  or 
insight.  The  problems  regarding  the  relationship  of  the 
DIvme  attributes  to  human  agency,  and,  in  particular,  as 
to  the  compatibility  of  Divme  prescience  and  predestina- 
tion with  human  freedom  and  responsibility,  were  even  too 
laboriously  and  minutely  debated  between  the  medieval 
AugListinians  and  their  opponents.  What  the  disputants 
on  both  sides  lacked  M'as  intellectual  humility.  They 
strode  along  "  dim  and  perilous  ways  "  as  if  they  were  in 
plain  and  safe  patli-s  or  as  if  their  own  faculties  were 
superhuman.  As  to  the  general  relation  of  God  to  the 
;univcrse,  few,  if  any,  of  the  schoolmen  can  be  charged 
with  deism.  While  assigning  to  God  a  being  and  life 
>  transcending  the  universe,  they  also  allirmed  that  He  was 
everywhere  in  the  universe,  everywhere  wholly  present, 
everywhere  essentially  and  actively  present.  Pantheism 
was  prevalent  all  through  the  Middle  Ages,  but  only  two 
of  its  representatives,  perhaps — Erigena  and  Eckhart, — 
showed  much  speculative  capa'uty.' 

Mohammedan  theism  drew  chiefly  from  faith  and  fana- 
ticism the  force  which  earned  it  onwards  with  such  rapid- 
■  ity  in  its  early  caxeer  of  conquest.  At  the  same  time  it 
*  powerfully  stimulated  reason,  as  soon  appeared  in  remark- 
able intellectual  achievements.  Of  course,  reason  could 
not  fail  to  reflect  on  the  contents  of  the  faith  by  which 
it  had  been  awakened.  The  result  was  the  formation  of 
many  schools  of  religious  opinion.  So  far  as  our  subject 
is  concerned,  however,  all  mediieval  Mohammedan  thinkers 
may  be  ranked  as  philo-sophers,  theologians,  or  mystics. 
The  philosophers  derived  little  of  their  doctrine  from 
Mohammed.  Even  in  what  they  taught  regarding  God 
they  followed  mainly  Aristotle,  and  in  some  mea.sure  the 
Neoplatooists.  They  maintained  the  unity  of  God,  but 
conceived  of  it  in  a  way  unknown  to  Mohammed,  namely, 
as  a  unity  allowing  of  the  reality  of  no  distinctions,  quali- 
ties, or  attributes  in  God.  Then,  although  they  affirmed 
the  unity  of  God  in  the  strictest  abstract  manner,  they 
were  not  monists  but  dualists,  inasmuch  as  they  denied 
creation  ex  nikilo,  and  asserted  the  eternity  of  matter.  The 
mode   in  which  they  supposed  the  multiplicity  of    finite 

'  Pop  the  history  of  mediaeval  theism  may  he  consulted  the  histories 
of  philosujthy  by  Tenuemauii,  Uiltcr,  Erdniann,  kc. ;  the  special 
histories  of  niediaiv.il  philosophy  by  Slockl  and  Haureaii.  and  of  later 
schol.ijiticism  by  K.  Werner;  the  histories  of  the  Trinity  and  of 
Christian  doctrine  already  nieutioned  ,  and  a  multitude  of  monogr.iphs, 
i.fj.,  those  of  Chnstiicb,  Huber,  and  Stockl  on  Erigena;  of  Hasse, 
Reinusat,  Bouchitle  on  Anselm  or  his  ontolo^ical  argument ;  Dehtzsch's 
Kritische  DaTstellung  (lev  Gntteslehre  dfj  Thomas  Aquinas,  Ritschl's 
*'Gesch.  Sludien  z.  ch.  Lehre  von  Gott,"  in  Jahresb.  /.  deutschi 
Theul.,  X.,  referring  chiefly  to  Aquinas  and  Scotus,  &c.  Medijeval 
mysticism  ha.s  found  in  Schmidt,  Lasson,  Preger,  Jundt,  admirable 
historians.  On  Eckhart  there  are  good  works  by  Marteiisen,  Lasson, 
anil  othern ;  seo  also  a  paper  by  Prof.  Pearson  in  MtnU,  No.  xli. 
Ou  mediaeval  pi-edestuiariamsm  consult  chapter  Id  Mozley's  Treatiae 
on  the  Augushnxan  Itoctrtne  of  PTCdir.linai\on.  The  keenest  hostile 
criticism  of  mediaeval  theism  is  that  of  Past]ualo  D'Ercole,  11  Ttxsmo 
.  fiioaojico  ChruUano,  lSfk|. 


things  to  have  been  produced  from  God  was  by  a  series  of 
emanations  originating  in  Divine  intelligence,  not  in  Divin©. 
will.  Their  proofs  of  the  Divine  existence  were,  for  the 
most  part,  founded  on  the  principle  of  causality.  The 
philosophers  did  not  openly  oppose  the  theism  of  the 
Koran,  but  they  ignored  it  or  set  it  aside,  and  represented 
it  as  only  a  useful  popular  faith,  not  a  response  to  the 
demands  of  cultured  reason.  The  "  theologians,"  on  the 
other  hand,  took  their  stand  upon  the  Koran,  sought  to 
defend  and  develop  into  doctrine  its  representations  of 
God,,  and  to  show  the  inconclusiveness  and  inconsistencies 
of  the  teaching  of  the  philo.sophcrs  regarding  God.  Even 
those  of  them,  however,  who  exalted  faith  and  revelatioQ 
most — the  orthodo.x  Motakallemin  or  Asharites — by  no 
means  dispensed  with  philosophy  and  reason.  It  was 
chiefly  on  the  metaphysical  hypothesis  of  the  atomic  consti- 
tution of  matter  that  they  rested  their  proofs  of  the  Divine 
e.xistence.  It  was  by  subtle  reasonings  that  they  sought 
to  establish  the  non-eternity  of  matter  and  the  unity  and 
immatemality  of  God.  It  was  on  speculative  grounds  that 
they  contended  God  had  eternally  possessed  all  the  attri- 
butes ascribed  to  Him  in  the  Koran.  Their  predestina- 
tionism  was  as  logically  elaborated  as  that  of  the  Augus- 
tiiiian  scholastics.  There  flourished  for  a  short  period  a 
school  of  liberal  Mohammedan  theologians,  the  Motazil- 
itcs,  who,  while  accepting  the  two  fundamental  doctrines 
of  Islam — the  unity  of  God  and  the  divine  mission  of 
Mohammed, — refused  to  regard  tht  Koran  as  an  absolute 
religious  authority,  and  sought  to  transform  Mohammed' 
anisra  into  a  reasonable  and  ethical  monotheism.  They 
insisted  on  the  rightful  conformity  of  faith  to  reason,  on 
human  freedom,  and  on  the  righteousness  as  well  aa.  the 
unity  of  God.  They  endeavoured,  in  fact,  to  substitute 
for  a  God  whose  essence  was  absolute  or  arbitrary  will  a 
God  whose  essence  was  justice.  This  meant,  however,  not 
to  develop  or  even  reform,  but  to  subvert  and  displace  the 
Mohammedan  idea  of  God,  and  the  wonder  is,  not  that 
they  failed  in  so  arduous  a  task,  but  that  they  had  the 
courage  to  undertake  it.  Mohammedan  mysticism  (Sufism) 
was  a  reaction,  chiefly  of  the  Persian  mind,  against  the 
narrowness  and  harshnessof  the  monotheism  of  the  Arabian 
prophet.  Unlike  philosophy,  it  was  not  a  mere  exotic, 
but  an  indigenous  growth  within  the  Mohammedan  area,, 
and  hence  orthodoxy  has  never  been  able  to  eradicate  it. 
It  has  been  the  chief  support  of  spiritual  feeling  and  tha 
chief  source  of  poetry  in  Mohammedan  lands.  It  still 
flourishes,  has  branches  innumerable,  and  through  its  poets 
has  shed  seed  widely  even  over  Christendom.  The  mystics 
refuse  to  think  of  God  as  an  rj'bitrary  unlimited  Will, 
separate  and  apart  from  everything ;  as  one  who  reveals 
Himself  clearly  only  through  the  words  of  a  prophet ;  as 
a  being  before  whom  man  is  mere  dust  and  ashes,  and  who 
demands  no  higher  service  than  fear,  unquestioning  faith, 
and  outward  obedience.  In  their  view  God  is  immanent 
in  all  things,  expresses  Himself  through  all  things,  and  is 
the  essence  of  every  human  soul.  There  is  not  only  no 
God  but  God,  but  no  being,  life,  or  spirit  except  the  being, 
life,  and  spirit  of  God;  and  every  man  may  be  God's 
prophet,  and  more  even  than  His  prophet.  For  a  man  to 
know  God  is  to  .see  that  God  is  immanent  in  himself,  and 
that  he  is  one  with  God,  the  universal  life  which  breathes 
through  all  things.  Such  knowledge  or  vision  must  glorify 
all  nature,  and  must  dilate  and  rejoice  the  heart  of  him 
who  possesses  it.  Joy  and  ecstacy  must  characterize  the 
worship  of  the  Sufi.  A  religious  scepticism  based  on 
philosophical  scepticism — disbelief  in  the  existence  of  God 
grounded  on  disbelief  in  any  truth  not  guaranteed  by 
sense  or  mathematical  demonstration—  was  not  unknown 
among  the  Saracens,  although  no  work  in  defence  of  it  has 
come  down  to  us,  and  perhaps  none  may  have  been  written. 


THEISM 


•24? 


In  AlgMel^  philosophical  scepticism  was  '  combined  "with 
religious  dogmatism  and  mysticism.  He  subjected  the 
doctrines  of  the  philosophers  to  a  keen  and  hostile  criticism, 
;;nd  maintained  that  reason  was  incompetent  to  reach  the 
knowledge  of  God,  yet  cherished  an  ardent  and  exalted 
faith  in  God,  based  partly  on  the  Koran  and  partly  on 
•■Fiystic  contemplation  and  devout  experience.' 
■;  Jewish  and  Mohammedan  religious  thought  were  inti- 
mately connected  in  the  Middle  Age,  and  ran  a  nearly 
parallel  course.  The  Rabbanites  and  the  Karaites  of  Juda- 
ism corresponded  to  the  orthodox  and  the  Motazilites  of 
.Mohammedanism.  In  their  theism  there  was  no  new 
feature  or  peculiar  significance.  Jewish  theosophic  mysti- 
cism found  'expression  in  the  Kabbalah.  The  idea  of  God 
there  presented  was  at  once  excessively  abstract  and 
excessively  fanciful.  It  must  be  studied,  however,  in  the 
original  source  or  in  special  Vorks.  The  Jewish  philoso- 
phers differed  little  from  the  Arabian  philosophers  in  their 
teaching  regarding  the  evidences  of  the  Divine  existence, 
the  nature  and  consequences  of  the  Divine  unity,  and  the 
meaning  of  the  Divine  attributes.  At  the  same  time,  they, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  affirmed  the  non-eternity  of  matter, 
and  did  not,  like  the  Arabian  Aristotelians,  represent  pro- 
vidence as  merely  general.  They  maintained  strongly  the 
transcendence  of  God  and  the  impossibility  of  the  human 
mind  forming  any  positive  conception  of  His  essential  being. 
They  held  that  He  was  known  as  necessarily  existent,  but 
also  as  in  Himself  necessarily  unknowable.  Their  view  of 
the  unity  of  God  led  them  to  an  idea  of  God  which  may 
not  unjustly  be  designated  agnostic,  and  which  prevented 
their  regardmg  either  nature  or  Scripture  as  a  revelation 
of  what  God  really  is.  Almost  alone  among  eminent  Jew- 
ish writers  of  the  Middle  Age,  Jehuda  Halevi  contended 
that  the  representation  of  God  given  in, the  revelation  to 
Israel  was  self-evidencing,  independent  of  the  support  of 
philosophy,  and  unattainable  in  any  speculative  way.  The 
function  of  reason  was,  in  his  view,  not  to  sit  in  judgment 
on  what  had  been  delivered  regarding  God  to  the  Jews, 
:iut  to  repel  the  objections  which  philosophy  hadibrought 
igainst  it,  and  to  show  the  inadequacy  of  the^rcsults 
reached  by  unaided  human  intelligence.  Maimonidca 
undertook  to  establish  that  reason  and  faith,  science  and 
revelation,  were  at  one  in  what  they  affirmed  regarding 
God,  but  in  order  to  make  out  his  thesis  he  sacrificed  the 
literal  sense  of  Scripture  whenever  it  did  not  accord  with 
the"  tenets  of  his  philoaophy,  and  substituted  for  the 
representation  of  God  given  through  Moses  and  the 
prophets  one  very  different  in  character.  His  idea  of 
God  is  highly  abstract  and  metaphysical, — the  idea  of  a 
being  so  unlike  every  other  being  that  no  name  or  predicate 
whatever  when  applied  to  Him  can  bear  its  ordinary, 
or  indeed  any  intelligible  meaning.  Existence,  eternity, 
unity,  power,  wisdom,  justice,  and  other  attributes,  are 
not  in  Him  what  they  are  in  any  other  being  or  even 
analogous  in  Him  to  what  they  are  in  any  other  being.- 

'  Sch-lhra-stiiui's  GtschicJtU  da-  t*:! I'jiosen  w.  phihsophischcn  Sccten 
bei  den  Ara/jcin,  Genu.  Irani,  by  H.i:irhrucker,  IS^iO-'il  ;  WuAeufM, 
Lit  Aktidem'c  d<rr  Ariih.:r  u.  i/i/t  Lehrcr,  1837;  Schinoldcrs  Essai 
tiiT  Us  £ci>liS  Philnii:jili uiues  chez  Ics  Araljes,  18j2;  Miink,  Mvlangns 
<!■■  I'kilusophu:  Jititx  a  y\rabt,  lS5y;  Sterner,  V'c  MultizUiCai  wler 
FrCidfaker  in  islam,  18G5,  Kemitt,  Avcrrnes  et  L' A vcrrutsmi\  l&fi'J, 
5:c.  Oil  Eo-steni  luy.sticism,  see  Tholnrk,  Sii/siiius  s.  Thcosophuc 
f^ersaruni  Pit-jUhetsUcn,  1821,  :in«l  J)ful/tmsanim{iing  aiis  der  7norijcjj- 
'.andiscken  Miiilik,  1825.  Cowell.  "Persian  Literature,"  in  Ojc/nnl 
&*»i/s  lor  1855  ;  Palmer,  Oru-nOU  Mysltctsm,  1867;  Reilhoiiie,  The 
Mi!,furvi  uf  Jel'dti'd  Dm,  1881  57. ;  Vauglian,  in  Honrs  vAtk  the 
Mi/stii:s,  truati  ol  the  UrienUl  as  well  as  Christian  mystics.  For 
Persian  mysticism  in  its  latest  Ibrms,  sec  De  Culimeau,  Jiiiiffiffns  el 
I'litlosofjhie  dans  I'Asie  Cmtrttie,  1866.  On  Aljj.azel,  see  Gosche, 
"  I'ehei-  Ghazzalis  Li-hin  u.  Werke,"  in  Abhand.  (philul.  -u.  hist.)d.  k. 
Aht.'.  d    iV.s:,.  :.  /inhn,  1S5S 

'■*  Mtink,  Effpna-if  //tstonf/tfcde  la  Phdosopkic ckez  fes  Juifs,  1849; 
Eibler,  Voiiesujuj:!^  ub^r  dit  jutttschin  PhUosnp/ien  d'-^  Mittelaltfra^ 


Jiu  Christian  Europe  the  human  mind  tooK  a  fresh  start  n'cnats-" 
at  the  epoch  of  the  Renaissance.  It  revolted  against  the  '°"|^' 
authorities  to  which  it  had  long  been  submissive,  and  P^'^""' 
exercised  private  jtidgment  with  a  confidence  uncorrected 
and  unmoderated  by  experience.  It  turned  with  ardour 
to  the  free  discussion  of  the  greatest  theme  of  thought, 
and  probably  at  no  period  of  history  has  there  been  more 
individual  diversity  of  opinion  on  that  theme.  sGod  and 
His  relation  to  the  universe  were  treated  of  from  a  multi- 
tude of  points  of  view.  Scepticispi,  naturalism,  and  pan- 
theism appeared  in  various  forms  •  all  ancient  systems  of 
thought  as  to  the  Supreme  Being  found  advocates;  all 
modern  theories  as  to  the  nature  of  the  Divine  were  in 
some  measure  anticipated.  Did  our  limits  permit  it  ■ivould 
not  be  uninteresting  to  expound  the  speculations-  (ionfce'rn- 
ing  Deity  of  several  of  the  writers  of  the  Renaissance, — 
and  especially,  perhaiis,  of  these  three — Nicolaus  of  Casa,' 
Giordano  Bruno,  and  Thomas  Campanclla.  The  theo- 
sophic mysticism  of  tlie  period  was  a  preparation  for  the 
Reformation.-' ' 

The  fusion  of  theology  and  philosophy  was  the  distinc- 
tive feature  of  niedi.-cval  Cliristendom  ;  their  separation 
has  been  a  marked  characteristic  of  nioilern  Christendom. 
Even  when  both  have  been  occupied  with  religious 
inquiries  and  thoughts  of  God  tlioy  have  kept  apart ;  tliey 
have  often  co-operated,  but  seldom  cdinniinglod.  Theology 
has  been  on  the  whole  cleric,  and  comparatively  conserva- 
tive ;  philo.sophy  has  been  on  the  whole  laic,  and  compara- 
tively progressive.  But  for  theology  holding  fast  to  wlial 
liad  been  handed  down  as  truth  regarding  God  there  must 
have  been  littlccontinuity  or  consistency  in  the  development 
of  religious  convictions;  but  for  philosnpliy  rcUlcssly  seek- 
ing ever  more  light  there  would  have  been  little  growth  or 
increa.se  of  knowledge  of  the  Divine. 

The  Reformer-;  held  that  there  was  a  knowlcdgoof  God  The 
naturally  planted  in  the  human  mind,  and  also  derivable  Refoi.ji*. 
from  observation  of  the  constitution  and  government  of  i'""- 
the  world,  but  that 'this  knowledge  was  so  marred  and 
corrupted  by  ignorance  and  sin  as  to  require  to  be  con^ 
firmed  and  supplemented  by  the  far  clearer  and  fuller  light; 
of  the  special  revelation  in  the  Scriptures.  They  were' 
deeply  sensible  of  the  evils  which  had  arisen  from  the' 
over-speculation  of  the  schola.stic  divines  on  the  nature  ol, 
God,  and  were  under  the  impression  that  it  would  have, 
been  well  if  men  had  been  content  to  accejit  the  statements 
of  Scripture  on  the  subject  with  simple  and  unhesitating 
faith.  Luther  wished  theology  to  begin  at  once  with  Jesus' 
Christ.  Melanchthon  said,  "  There  is  no  reason  why  we 
should  devote  our.selves  much  to  these  most  lofty  subjects, 
the  doctrine  of  God,  of  the  unity  of  God,  of  the  Trinity  ol 
God";  and  in  the  early  editions  of  his  Lwi  Communis  he 
entered  into  no  discu.ssion  of  these  themes.  Xwingli  in  his^ 
De  Vera  ct  Falsa  Jxili^ione  and  even  Ciilvin  in  his  /iislitiilio 
Religionis  Chriitinmv  delineated  the  ihiitrutu  <./•:  DiV  onlyi 
in  outline  and  general  features.  In  the  coides.sions  of  the 
churches  of  the  Reformation  nothing  which  the  ancient 
church  had  oecumonically  deturiiiined  as  res,'ards  that, 
doctrine  was  rejected,  and  nothing  new  was  added  thereto. 
It  soon  became  apparent,  however,  that  the  mind  would 
by  no  means  confine  its  thoughts  of  Gud  \iiihin  the  limits 
which  the  Reformers  believed  to  be  alone  Icuitimate  and 
safe.  The  idea  of  God  is  so  central  in  religion  that  it 
must  affect  and  be  affected  by  every  change  ol  thought  on 

^ ^ ^^ 1 

1870,  1870;  Joel,  D^drnrje  :.  Csili.  d.  Plutosopbu,  1S7G.  On  the 
Kabbalah,  see  Fiaiick  ami  Giiislmr;;  Kautniaiiti,  iitsclncl'l>  da  Atlri^ 
biUmlchre  m  dcr  jtidischai  Jidigionsphiloso/'/iu'  der  MilUtidtCTS 
1S77;  FriccUaniler,  Omdc  of  the  Perplexed  of  Mtiimontdes,  3  vols.^ 

JSS5.  

^  M.  Carr\i.'re's,  P/nlosophiscfic  Weltunschuuuntj  dcr  Rcf(trmutiims2eit, 
1887  ;  Punjer'b  neligumsphilosophie,  i.  61-59,  C9-75  ,76-80:^Bobha'« 
Conoacenza  di  IJio,  iii.  1-90. 


244 


^T  H  E  I  S  M 


'any  religious  theme.  ,  Tlie~tnany  and  violent  controversies 
^within  Protestantisfa  all  reacted  on  the  doctrine  relative 
to  Deity,  causing  it  to  be  studied  with  intense  energy,  but 
in  a  manner  and  spirit  very  unfavourable,  on  the  whole,  to 
'truth  and  piety.  Every  new  dispute  elicited  more  abstruse 
'conclusions  and  more  subtle  definitions.  In  the  disputa- 
tions of  orthodox  divines  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  as 
to  the  nature,  the  attributes,  the  decrees,  and  the  operations 
of  God,  we  see  scholasticism  with  all  its  peculiarities  re- 
introduced and  often  exaggerated.  Yet  Protestant  theism 
was  in  various  respects  an  advance  on  that  of  the  doctors 
of  mediaeval  scholasticism.  The  protest  of  the  Reformers 
against  the  faults  of  the  scholastic  treatment  regarding 
God  did  not  lose  its  pertinency  or  value  because  their  own 
followers  fell  into  these  very  faults.  If  the  subsequent 
Kstory  plainly  showed  tliat  the  doctrine  could  not  have 
been  so  fixedly  and  exhaustively  determined  by  the  ancient 
church  as  the  Reformers  supposed,  it  also  showed  that 
the  scholastic  treatment  of  the  doctrine  had  been  justly 
condemned  by  them,  and  that  speculation  regarding  God 
when  not  rooted  in  spiritual  experience  must  necessarily 
be  unfruitful.  The  scholasticism  of  Protestantism  was  in 
esspntial  contradiction  to  the  genius  and  aim  of  Protestan- 
tism. Then,  in  the '  Protestant  doctrine  of  God  more 
prominence  was  given  than  had  previously  been  done  to 
iHis  manifestation  in  redemption,  to  the  relation  of  His 
'character  towards  sin,  and,  in  particular,  to  the  attribute 
(of  justice.     The  strong  emphasis  laid  on  the  rishteousncss 


jOf  God  marked  a  distinct  ethical  advance.  At  the  same 
.'time  the  idea  of  God  in  the  older' Protestant  theology  was 
far  from  ethically  complete.  His  fatherhood  was  strangely 
'ignored  or  most  defectively  apprehended.  Absolute  sove- 
reignty had  assigned  to  it  the  place  which-  should  have 
been' given  to  holy  love,  and  was  often  conceived  of  in  an 
unethical  manner.  Further,  whereas  among  mediaeval 
theologians  it  was  the  rule  and  not  the  exception,  among 
Protestant  divines  it  was  the  rare  exception  and  not  the 
rule,  to  alfirm  God  to  be  unknowable.  They  asserted 
merely  His  incomprehensibility  and  man's  limited  know- 
ledge of  His  perfections.  They  did  not  in  general,  how- 
evcB,  abandon,  at  least  explicitly,  the  premiss  from  which 
mediaival  theologians  inferredthe  Divine  incognoscibility, 
namely,  that  the  absolute  simplicity  of  the  Divine  essence 
;was  incompatiblewith  the  existence  of  distinctions  there- 
'in.i  _    ^  _  _  _ 

Aoti- .  Difference   of  opinion  as  to  the  relation  of  reason  to 

trmitari-^  .Scripture  was  in  the  Protestant  world  one  of  the  chief 
•mam,  causes  of  diffefence  of  belief  as  to  God.  Assaults  on 
trinitarianisra'  were  contemporary  with  the  Reformation, 
and  they  proceeded  more  on  the  conviction  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  unreasonable  thati  that  it  was 
junscriptural.  The  founder  of  Socinianism,  indeed,  not 
only  fully  accepted  the  authority  of  Scripture, 'but  went 
so  far  as  to  represent  it  as  the  source  -of  all  religious  truth, 
leven  of  the  primary  truths  of  natural  religion  ;  yet,  while 
(lie  thus  apparently  and  in  theory  attributed  the  knowledge 
f)f  God  more  to  Scripture  and  less  to  reason  than  did 
Luther  or  Calvin,  really  and  in  ]>ractice  he  did  just  the 
Ireverse,  because  he  conceived  quite  otherwise  of  the  con- 
'nexion  between  Scripture  and  reason.  'While  he  held 
[Scripture  to  be  the  source  of  religious  truth,  he  also  held 
rea.son  to  be  so  the  organ  of  religious  truth  that  nothing 
contrary  to  reason  could  be  accepted  on  the  authority  of 
Scripture,  and  that  only  those  declarations  of  .§cripture 
'could  be  deemed  to  be  interpreted  aright  which  were  inter- 
preted in  accordance  with  the  axioms  of  reason..  Luther, 
on  the  other  hand,  proclaimed 'aloud.  Strangle  reason  like 

'  Civ,  (iaclt  ft.  jfTot.  f)o^m.^\.\  Heppe,  Doym.  d.  deutich.  Protcs- 
tnnlismusim  WUnJnltrh.^  i. ;  Frank,  Cesch.^.  prot.  Tkeol.,  L  ;  Domer, 
llifl.nl  Vral    yA..  II.  ,  and  MuUer,  In  tfoisfeer  «in  CaiOT;n,1883. 


a  dangerous  beast  if  it  dare  to  question  Scripture;  jin'd. 
Calvin,  although  he  did  not  speak,  so  harshly,  demandet* 
the  unqualified  submission  of  reason  to  the  authority  cl 
Scripture.  Antitrinitarianism  has  maintained  its  ground 
throughout  the  Protestant  area,  has  assumed  a  variety  of 
forms,  and  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence.  It  has  been 
unable,  it  is  often  said,  to  do  more  than  .revive  the  % 
doctrines  which  distracted  the  ancient  church  and  were 
condemned  by  it  as  heresies.  And  this  must  be  so  far! 
admitted.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  comprehends  only, 
a  few  propositions,  and  every  departure  from  it  mustj 
involve  a  rejection  of  one  or  more  of  these,  and  must,] 
consequently,  belong  to  some  one  of  a  very  few  possible 
types  or  classes  of  belief.  But  essentially  the  statement  is 
superficial  and  unjust.  For  the  ways  in  which,  and  the 
grounds  on  which,  both  the  affirmations  of  which  the 
doctrine  consist-s  and  the  negaiionsof  these  have  been  main- 
tained have  not  been  the  same.  Alike  the  defences  and  the 
attacks  have  in  the  later  era  implied  a  deeper  consciousness 
of  the  nature  of  the  problems  in  dispute.thart  those  of  earlier 
times.  As'of  history  in  general,  so  of  the  history  of.  the 
doctrine  of  God,  it  holds  good  that  no  present  has  been  the 
mere  reproduction  of  any  past.  The  rationalistic  process  Dcifiri. 
was  carried  farther  in  English  deism  and  its  Continental 
developments.  Deism  sought  to  found  religion  on  reason 
alone.  It  represents  "nature"  as  the  sole  and  sufficient 
revelation  of  God.  There  is  no  warrant  for  the  view  that 
the  deists  held  nature  to  be  independent  of  God,  self- 
conservative  and  self-operative, — or,  in  other  words,  God 
to  be  withdrawn  from  nature,  merely  looking  on  and 
"seeing  it  go."  They  believed  that  God  acted  through 
natural  laws,  and  that  it  was  doubtful  if  H«  ever  acted 
otherwise  than  through  these.  '  Whatever  was  taught 
about.  God  in  Christianity  and  other'  positive  religion.s 
beyond' what  reason  could  infer  from 'nature  ought,  ir. 
their  opinion,  to  be  rejected  as  fiction  and  superstition.' 
All ;  their  zeal  was  negative, — against  "  superstition^' 
What  was  positive  in  their  own  doctrine  had  but  a  feeble 
hold  on  them.  God  was  little  more  to  them  than  a 
logical  inference  from  the  general  constitution  of  the 
world.  They  lacked  perception  of  tha  presence  of  God, 
not  only  in  the  Bible,  but  in  all  human  We  and  history.^ 

Modem  philosophy,  from  its  rise  to  the  close  of  the  18th  Modero 
century,  showed  a  double -development,  the  one  ideal  and  pl"'o-;' 
the  other  empirical,  the  Cartesian  and  the  Baconian.  The  ^°P  ?' 
former  was  the  more  essentially  religious.  Descartes  en- 
deavoured to  found  philosophy  en  an  indubitable  refuta- 
tion of  absolute  scepticism.  Such  a  refutation  he  believed 
himself  to  have  effected  when  he  had  argued  that  thought, 
even  in  the  form  of  doubt,  necessarily  implies  the  exist- 
ence of  him  who  thinks ;  that  the  implication  yields  a 
universal  criterion  of  certainty  ;  and  that  the  presence  of 
the  idea  of  God  in  a  man's  mind,  the  consciousness  of  the 
mind's  imperfection,  and  especially  the  character  of  the 
mind's  concept  of  God  as  that  of  the  most  real  being  con- 
taining every  perfection,  demonstratively  establish  that 
God  is  and  is  what  He  is  thought  to  be.  God  is  and  is 
true  ;  therefore  man  has  not  been  made  to  err,  and  what-, 
ever  he  clearly  and  distinctly  sees  as  true  must  be  true. 
In  the  opinion  of  Descartes,  the  idea  of  God  is  inherent 
in  reason,  ig  the  seal  of  all  certainty,  and  the  corner-stone 
of  all  true  philosophy.  To  the  whole  Cartesian  school 
theology  was  the  foundation  of  all  science.     To  Spiwoza, 


'  Besides  the  works  of  Gass,  Frank,  and  Donier  alrelidy  mentioned, 
see  the  histories  of  deism  by  Ltlaod,  Lechler,  and  S.iyo»s ;  of 
rfttionalism  by  Staudlin,  Tlioluck.  Hagenb,ich,  and  Hurst;  Noack'a 
Frnitriker^  3  vols.,  1868-65;  Farrar's  Cril.  Hist,  of  Free  Tlimghl, 
1S63;  Hunt's  Rel.  ThtnigU  m  Engtard,  3  vols.,  1870-73;  Leslie 
Stephen's  Engl.  Thought  tn  £A*  Ei'ihlfmth  Cent.,  2  vols.,  1883, 
Calniss  Unbdit/ in  the  r.'gUeenOi  Cent  .  1881;  Beard's  Hib.  Lect.- 
1883;  and  the  2d  vol,  of  Oilletl's  Oodtn  Human  Tlunight,  1874./ 


THEISM 


245 


who  most  fully  developed  some  of  the  distinctive  principles 
of  Descartes,  it  was  identical  with  all  science,  for  to  him 
God  was  the  only  substance,"  and  all  things  else  were 
only  His  attributes  or  modes.  Besides  the  pantheism  of 
Spinoza,  the  occasionalism  of  Guelinx,  Malebrancha's  vision 
of  things  in  God,  Leibnitz's  pre^tablished  harmony  and 
optimism,  and  Wolf's  rationalism  were  natural,  if  not 
necessarj',  outgrowths  from  the  same  root, — Cartesian 
theism.  Perhaps,  of  all  the  many  serWces  to  the  cause 
of  theism  with  which  Cartesianism  must  -be  credited  the 
greatest  was  that  it  constantly  gave  prominence  to  the 
absolute  perfection  of  God.'  Baconian  or  empirical  philo- 
sophy was  content  if,  by  the  ways  of  causality  and  design. 
It  could  rise  to  an  apprehension  of  a  First  Cause  and  Su- 
preme Intelligence.  It  tended  of  itself  to  a  phenomenal- 
ism, senaationism,  associationism,  unfavourable  to  theism. 
It  was,  however,  counteracted,  restrained,  and  modified  by 
Cartesianism  and  Platonism,  and  it  naturally  allied  itself 
with  positive  science.  The  massive  defence  of  theism 
erected  by  the  Cambridge  school  of  philosophy  against 
atheism,  fatalism,  and  the  denial  of  moral  distinctions  was 
avowedly  built  on  a  Platonic  foundation.  The  popularity 
during  the  18th  centiry  of  the  design  argument,  and  what 
was  called  physico-theology,  was  largely  due  to  the  impres- 
sion made  on  the  general  mind  by  the  brilliant  discoveries 
of  the  founders  of  modern  astronomy,  chemistry,  and  other 
physical  sciences.  Bishop  Berkeley  showed  how  an  em- 
pirical philosophy  might  be  logically  evolved  into  a  theistic 
immaterialism,  Hume  how  it  might  be  logically  dissolved 
into  an  agnostic  nihilism. 
Mpti-  In  the  16th,   17th,  and  1 8th  centuries  mystici:;m  had 

cisn.  many  representatives,  several  of  whom,  as,  e.g.,  .S'/eigel, 
Ottingen,  Swedenborg,  and  especially  Jacob  Boehcie,  are 
entitled  to  a  considerable  place  in  any  detailed  history  of 
theism.  To  the  eyes  of  Boehme  God  revealed  Himself 
from  without  and  within  in  theonost  real  and  intimate 
manner.  In  the  powers,  antagonisms,  and  conjunctions 
of  creation  he  saw  the  energies,  struggles,  and  victories  of 
the  creative  Spirit  itself ;  in  the  constitution  and  opera- 
tions of  physical  and  human  nature,  the  essential  constitu- 
tion and  necessary  processes  of  the  Divine  nature.  His 
thoughts  of  God  were  in  striking  contrast  to  those  of  the 
deists  and  natural  theologians  of  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies, and  strikingly  anticipated  those  of  ^  Schelling; 
Hegel,  and  Baader  in  the  1 9th  century.  Could  Sweden- 
berg's  doctrine  of  correspondences  be  verified,  our  means 
of  insight  into  the  character  of  God  would  be  largely 
extended. 
Nine.  The  19th  century  is  sufficiently  far  a'dvanced  to  allow 

teenth  ug  {g  ggg  that  a  new  epoch  even  in  the  history  of  theism 
teatary.  fjegan  near  its  commencement.  The  revolution  in  philo- 
sophy initiated  by  Kant  ha*  profoundly  affected  theistic 
thought.  It  has  introduced  that  tj^ie  of  agnosticism 
which  is  what  is  most  original  and  distinctive  in  the 
antitheism  of  the  present  age,  and  ait  the  same  time  stimu- 
lated reason  to  undertake  bolder  inquiries  as  to  the  Divine 
than  those  which  Kant  prohibited.  The  enlarged  and 
deepened  -views  of  the  universe  attained  through  the  dis- 
coveries of  recent  physical  science  have  rendered  incredible 
the  idea  Of  a  God  remote  from  the  world,  irresistible  the 

'  Siisset,  in  the  fiist  part  of  his  Modem  Pantheism  has  some- 
what elaborate  studies  on  (])  the  theism  of  Descartes,  (2)  God  in 
the  system  of  Malebraoche,  (3)  the  pantheism  of  Spinoz-i,  and  (4)  the 
theism  of  Liiibnitz.  Huber  (1854)  and  Elvenich  (1.865)  have  wriren 
special  treatises  on  the  Cartesian  proofs  of  the  Divine  existence. 
Among  the  most  tborongji  studies  of  Spinoza  are  those  of  Cametar, 
Pollock,  and  Martineau.  Herder,  Voigtlander,  and  others  have 
maintained  that  he  was  a  thcist,  not  a  pantlieist.  On  the  Thiod.cie 
of  Leibnitz  there  are  three  excellent  papers  by  Prof.  Torrey  in  ■  he 
Andmtr  Fn.  for  October,  November,  and  December  1885.  The  best 
general  history  of  philosophy  is  Kuno  Fischer's ;  the  best  histor}  of 
Cartesianism  F.  Bouillier's. 


conviction  that  the  eternal  source  of  things  must  be 
immanent  in  their  constitution,  changes,  and  laws.  Tlie 
rapid  growth  oi"  biology  and  the  spread  of  the  doctrine  of 
evolution  have  not'only  tended  in  the  same  direction,  but 
given  a  new  aid  nobler  concej  tion  of  the  teleology  of  the 
universe,  and,  consequently,  of  God  as  the  supreme  in- 
telligence. History — which  the  natural  theologians  of  the 
18th  century'  so  strangely  ignored,  which  the  solitary 
Italian  thinker  'Vico  alone  recognized  with  clearness  and 
comprehensiveness  of  vision  to  be  necessarily  the  chief 
scene  of  the  self-revelation  of  God — began  with  Lessing 
and  Herder  to  ^  generally  seen  in  its  true  religious  light. 
The  comparative  or  historical  method  of  study  has  created 
two  disciplines  ot  sciences,  comparative  theology  and 
Biblical  theology  fi-which  are  both  largely  occupied  with 
tracing  the  develojiment  of  the  idea  of  God.  \The  ethical 
spirit  of  the  age  has  so  told  on  its  religious  teaching  that  to 
no  generation  save  that  to  which  the  gospel  was  originally 
given  has  the  Divine  fatherhood  been  so  distinctly  set 
forth  as  to  the  present.  Dogmatic  theology,  especially  in 
Germany,  has  been  earnestly  active  ;  and  its  chief  rep  e- 
sentatives  have  laboured  so  to  amend  and  advance  tie 
doctrine  concerning  God  that  it  may  satisfy  the  new 
requirements  which  have  arisen. 

It  is  now  necessary  briefly  to  indicate  the  present  stAteof  thoaght  Present 
on  the  chief  points  and  problems  of  theism,  state  of 

As  to  the  origin,  then,  of  our  actual  idea  of  God,  that,  it  is  seen,  tliought. 
can  only  be  the  whole  religious  history  of  man  which  precedes  it,  Origin  c1 
and  the  whole  religious  nature  of  man  which  underlies  that  history,  idea  of 
It  is  absurd  to  refer  exclusively  to  any  faculty,  intuition, or  feeling,  God 
any  revelation  or  instruction,  any  person  or  event,  what  can  bo 
traced  in  growth  and  formation  through  thousands  of  years,  and 
can  be  shoft-n  by  facts  and  documents  to  have  been  influenced  by 
all  the  chief  causes  which  have  made  history  what  it  is.  The 
history  of  the  idea  of  God  is  the  centre  of  all  history,  both  explained 
by  and  explaining  it;  and  our  nineteenth-century  idea  of  God  is 
the  result  of  the  entire  ^historico-psychologicaj  process  which  has 
produced  the  culture  and  religion  of  the  19th  century.  The  idea 
of  God  is  what  it  now  is  because  God's  whole  guidance  of  man  and 
man's  whole  search  for  God,  the  whole  economy  and  evolution  of 
things  and  the  whole  constitution  and  development  of  thought  and 
feeling,  have  been  what  they  have  been  from  the  beginning  of 
history  to  the  present  time.  Anthropology,  comparative  psycho-^ 
logy,  the  science  of  language,  comparative  theology,  _Biblic.il  theo- 
logy, the  history  of  philosophy*,  and  the  history  of  Ciiris'tian' 
doctrine,  have  all  been  engaged  in  attempting  to  discover  the, 
fetors  and  stages  of  the  vast  iind  complex  process  which  haij 
resulted  in  the"  accepted  idea  of  God ;  and,  by  their  separate  and 
conjunct  endeavours,  they  have  siicceeded  in  casting  great  light  on 
all  parts  of  the  process. 

As  to  the  absolute  histoncal  oripn  of  theism — as  to  where,  when," 
and  how  the  theistic  conception  of  the  Divine  first  obtained  recog- 
nition among  men — a  definitive  answer  has  not  yet  been  reached.! 
Btrt  the  labour'expended  on  the  problem  has  not  been  wasted.  It 
has  made  clearer  the  nature  of  the  inquiry,  rendered  apparent  the, 
unsatisfactoriness  of  previous  solutions,  opened  up  glimpses  of  divers 
ways  by  which  men  have  been  led  to  belief  in  the  unity  of  God, 
and  accumulated  means  and  materials  for  future  and  probably  mora 
successful  work. 

The  question  as  to  the  psychological  oripn  of  theism  cannot  be 
'wholly  separated  from  that  as  to  its  1  Istorical  origin.  Unless 
theism  can  be  shown  to  be  the  prinitive  fjrm  of  rebgion,  it  cannot 
be  held  to  have  had  an  entirely  pe  uliar  and  distinct  psychological 
'  origin,  but  must  be  viewed  as  simply  a  phase  or  development  of 
religion.  It  cannot  be  said  that  hero  is  as  yet  agreement  as  to 
the  psychological  origin,  or  as  to  'the  psychological  constitution 
even,  of  religion.  The  hypothesis  of  a  simple  impartation  of  the 
knowledge  of  God  and  spiritual  tfiings  through  primitive  revelation, 
or  through  instruction  and  tradition  which  go  back  to  the  first 
appearance  of  man  on  earth,  still  retains  ahold  on  certain  conser| 
vative  minds,  but  has  received  no  confirmation  from  modern  science 
and  discovery,  and  is  plainly  of  its  very  nature  inadequate.  A 
revelation  relative  to  God  iri  words  or  signs  could  have  no  meaning 
to  a  mind  devoid  of  thoughts  of  God  ,  spiritual  instruction  is  only 
possible  where  there  are  spiritual  powers  to  understand  and  profit 
by  it ;  tradition  will  carry  nothing  far  to  which  intelligence  is  in- 
difl"erent.  There  have  been  many  attempts  made  during  the  present 
century  to  refer  the  origin  of  belief  in  God  to  some  emotional 
source,  some  element  or  state  of  sensitivity.  Thus  Strauss  has  re- 
affirmed the  hypothesis  of  Epicurus,  Lucretius,  and  Hume,  that 
fear  mads  the  godi;  Feuerbach  has  resolved  religioi  into  desire. 


24fi 


THEISM 


God  bcin(? "conceived  to  be  wliat'iiian  would  wish  himself  to  be; 
Sclilcicimnclicr  has  ai-f^ucd  that  a  fr .-ling  of  absolute  dependence, 
of  pure  uiiJ  coiiiplito  passiv»;iiess,  is  our  evidence  for  tlio  presence 
of  an  inrinite  euuipy,  aa  inGnite  being;  Mansel  has  represented 
the  fcoling  rf  dcpeudcjico  and  the  conviction  of  moral  obligation  as 
thosoiucesof  the  reli^jious consciousness;  Pfleiderer  represents  reli- 
gion a";  a  response  to  the  sense  of  conflict  and  contradiction  between 
man's  feelings  of  dependence  and  of  freedom ;  RauwenholT  traces 
its  origin  to  respect  {Achtung),  the  root  also  of  moral  conduct  and 
of  family  life;  others  have  referred  it  to  specific  ethical  feelings; 
and  many  have  represented  it  to  be  essentially  love.     The  nuinber 
of  tliesc  attempts  and  the  diversity  of  these  results  are  explained 
by  the  complexity  of  religious  feeling.     In  religion  all  the  feelings 
which  raise  man  above  the  merely  animal  condition  are  involved. 
,Man  is  not  religious  by  any  one  feeling  or  by  a  few  feelings,  but 
by  the  whole  constitution  of  his  emotional   nature.     His  heart, 
with  nil  its  wealth  of  feelings,  has  been  made  for  God..    Hence  all 
the  theories  referred  to  have  easily  been  shown  to  be  one-sided, 
nnd  to  have  exaggerated  the  significance  and  influence  in  religion 
of  particular  emotional  elements,  but  hence  also  they  all  contain 
ra.ove  or  less  important  portions  of  the  truth,  and  have  all  contri- 
buted towards  a  knowledge  of  the  full  truth.     Man  is  not  only, 
however,  disposed  by  all  his-ohief  sentiments  for  religion,  but  all 
these  sentiments,  when  normally  and  healthfully  developed,  tend 
towards  theism."    It  is  only  in  a  theistic  form  of  religion  that  they 
can    find  truo   rest  and  satisfaction.  "  One  God  can  alone  be  the 
object  of  the   highest  devotional  fear,  can  alone  be  regarded  as 
idcnlly  peifcct,  or  as  a  being  on  whom  the  worsliipper  is  absolutely 
dependent,  can  alone  be  loved  with  the  whole  heart  and  esteemed 
wiib  iindiviiled  reverence,  can  alone  he  recognized  as  the  sole  author 
of  the  moral  law,  the  alone  good.     The  theories  which  trace  the 
oii'^m  of   religion   to  feeling  bave  the  merit  of  recognizing  that 
religion  is  not  an  affair  of  mere  intellect;  that  the  Divine  could 
not  even  be  known  by  men  if  they  had  not  feeling<i  and  affections 
aa  well  as  intellectnal  powers;  that,  if  God  be  love,  for  example, 
He  caa  only  bo  knoivn  by  love  ;  that,  if  He  have  moral  attributes, 
we  must  have  moral  feelings  in  order  to  be  able  to  recognize  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  so  far  as  those  theories  represent  religion  as 
reducilile  to  mere  feeling  or  as  independent  of  intellect,  they  have 
tlic  fault  of  overlooking  that  all  the  feelings  included  in  religion 
presuppose  apprehensions  and  judgments,  nnd  are  valid  only  in  so 
iar  as  they  have  the  warrant  of  intelligence.     It  is  as  much  an 
ciror,  however,  to  account  for  religion    by   any   one   intellectual 
principle  as  by  any  one  emotional  element.     Religion  has  no  one 
s^KJci  il  beat,  such  as  "  tlie  central  point  of  unity  behind  conscious- 
ness," imagined  by  Scblciermacher;  no  ^'special  organ,'*  such  as 
/'conscirnco  ■'  was  supposed  to  be  by  Schenkel ;  and  no  one  special 
principle  of  cognition,  such  aa  the  law  of  causality  has  been  rcpre- 
scntetl   to   bo  by  several   philosophers  and   theologians.     All  the 
nUimate  principles  of  cognition  are  involved  in  religion,  and  all 
jead,  if  consistently  followed  far  enough,  to  theism.     The  whole 
head  as  well  as  the  w-holc  heart  has  been  made  for  religion,  and  for 
the  perfect  form  of  religion.     Max  MiiUer,  in  his  Hibbert  Lectures, 
traces  the  idea  of  God  to  a  special  faculty  of  religion — "a  subjective 
faculty  for  the  apprehension  of  the  infinite,"  ''a  mental  faculty, 
which,  independent  of,  nay,  in  spite  of,  sense  and  reason,  enables 
man  to  api>rchcnd   the  infinite  under  dilfcrcnt  nami^s  lod  under 
.varying  disguises."    This   view   will   not   hear,  perhaps,  a  close 
scrutiny.    Tlie  infinite,  as  an  implicit  condition  of  thought,  is  not 
Wore   involved  'in   religious  than  in  other  thought.     We  cannot 
,think   anything  as  finite  without  implying  the   infinite.     Space 
cannot  bo  thought  of  except  as  extensively,  nor  time  except  as  ji7ro- 
tcnsivchj,  infinite.^  As  a  condition  of  thought,  the  infinite  is  in- 
volved in  religious  knowledge  only  so  far  as  it  is  involved  in  all 
I  knowledge.     On  the  other  hand,  as  an  explicit  object  of  thought, 
•it  is  not  present  in  the  lower  forms  of  religion  at  all,  which  exist 
only  because  the  thought  of  infinity  is  not  associated  in  the  religious 
consciousness  with  that  of  Deity,  except  where  reflexion  is  some- 
what highly  developed;  and,  even  in  the  highest  stages  of  religion, 
it  is  only  apprehended  as  one  aspect  of  Deity.     Infinity  is  not  God, 
but  merely  an  attribute  of  the  attributes  of  God,  and  not  even  an 
exclusively  Divine  attiibute.  -  The  hypothesis  that  the  idea  of  God 
is  gained  by  intuition  or  vision  is  proved  to  he  erroneous  by  the 
f.ait  that  the  idea  of  God,  and  the  process  by  which  it  is  reached, 
are  capable  of  being  analysed,  and  therefore  not  simple,  and  like- 
wise by  the  variety  and  'lisrovdance  of  the  ideas  of  God  which  have 
hern  .actually  formed.     The  apjirehensibn  of  God  seems  to  bo  only 
pussihlu  through  a  process  which  involves  all  that  is  essential  in 
the  human  coMstitution— uill.  affection,  intelligence,  conscience, 
reason, — and  the  ideas  which  lhr>y  supply — cause,  design,  goodness, 
infinity,  i;a      These  are  so  conmcted  that  they  may  all  be  enibiaet-d 
in  a  single  .act  and  eonlcsee  in  one  grantl  issue.      During  the  last 
thirty  years  there  has  been  more  ))sychological  investigation  as  to 
the  origin  and  nature  of  religion  than  during  all  previous  history, 
and  tlie  wliole  tendency  of  it  has  been  to  .sot  aside  all  solutions 
which  represent  man  as  religious  only  in  virtuu  of  ^larticular  senti- 
ments or  principles,  and  to  ninke  manifest  tliRt'th«  psychology  of 


religion  is  that  of  the  entire  human  nature  in  a  special  relationship. 
The  best  of  the  later  investigations  are  much  more  thorough  and 
comprehensive  thau  any  of  earlier  date.' 

The  agnosticism  originated  by  Kant  has  been  one  of  the  distinc-  Kantiut 
tivc  and  prominent  phenomena  in  the  history  of  religion  and  theism  agnosti, 
during  the  L9th  century.  It  sprang  out  of  an  earlier  agnosticism,  cisro 
Hume  and  his  predecessors  admitted  that  the  conditions  of  thought 
— otherwise,  the  categories  of  experience  or  ideas  of  reason — were 
in  appearance  necessary  and  objectively  valid,  but  in  reality  only 
arbitrary  and  subjective,  their  seeming  necessity  and  objectivity 
being  illusory,  and  consequent  on  mere  repetitions  and  accidental 
associations  of  sensations  and  feelings.  Kant  showed  that  they 
were  not  only  seemingly  but  really  necessary  to  thought,  and 
irresolvable  into  the  particular  in  experience. .  He  denied,  liowever, 
that  we  are  entitled  to  consider  them  as  of  more  than  subjecti\'e 
appficability, — that  what  wo  necessarily  think  must  necessarily  be, 
or  be  as  we  think  it.  Ho  aflfirined  all  knowledge  to  be  conlincti  . 
to  experience,  the  phenomenal,  the  conditioned.  It  was  quite  in 
accordance  with  this  view  of  the  limits  of  knowledge  that  he  should 
have  denied  that  we  can  know  God,  even  while  he  affirmed  that 
we  cannot  but  think  of  God.  It  was  by  no  means  in  obvious 
harmony  with  it  that  he  should  ha^e  afBr-mcd  that  we  must,  on 
moral  grounds,  retain  a  certain  belief  in  God.  Sir  \V.  Hamilton 
and  Dean  Mansel  followed  Kant  in  holding  that  we  can  have  no 
knowledge  of  God  in  Himself,  as  knowledge  is  only  of  the  relative 
and  phcnomenaL  They  strove  to  show  that  the  notions  of  the 
unconditioned,  the  infinite,  the  absolute,  are  mere  negations  of 
thought,  which  destroy  themselves  by  their  mutual  contradictions 
and  by  the  absurdities  which  they  involve.  ^  Yet  both  of  these 
philosophers  held  that  there  is  a  revelation  of  God  in  Scri[)tQre 
and  conscience,  and  that  we  are  bound  to  believe  jt,  not  indeed  as 
teaching  us  what  God  really  is,  but  what  He  wishes  us  to  believe 
concerning  Him.  HerbSrt  Spencer,  adopting  Kant's  theory  of 
the  limits  of  knowledge,  and  regarding  as  decisive  Hamilton  and 
Mansel's  polemic  against  the  philosophies  of  the  Absolute,  has 
concluded  that  the  only  truth  underlying  professed  revcbtioTTS, 
positive  religions,  and  so-called  theological  sciences  is  the  existence 
of  an  unknowable  and  unthinkable  cause  of  all  things.  In  the 
view  of  the  Positivist  the  unknowable  itself  is  a  metaphysical 
fiction,  "^he  Kantian  doctrine  has  bad  a  still  more  extensive 
influence  in  Germany  than  in  Britain,  and  Germnn  philosophers 
and  theologians  have  displnyed  great  ingenuity  in  their  endeavours 
to  combine  with  it  some  sort  of  recognition  of  God  and  of  religion. 
Fries,  De  Welte,  and  others  have  relegated  religion  to  the  sphere 
of  faith,  Schleiermachcr  and  his  followers  to  that  of  feeling,  Ritschl 
and  his  school  to  that  of  ethical  wants,  F-  A.  Lange  to  that  of 
imagination,  &c.  Their  common  aim  lias  been  to  find  for  piety 
towards  God  a  special  place  which  they  can  fence  ofl"  from  the  rest 
of  human  nature,  so  as  to  be  able  to  claim  for  religion  independence 
of  reason,  speculation,  and  science,  a  right  to  existence  even 
although  necessarily  ignorant  of  the  object  of  its  faith,  feeliug, 
moral  sense,  or  phantasy.^ 

The  movement  indicated  has  led  to  no  direct  conclusion  which 
has  obtained,  or  is  likely  to  obtain,  general  assent.  ^  It  has  had. 
however,  a  very  important  indirect  result.  It  has  shown  how 
,  interested  in,  and  dependent  on,  a  true  criticism  or  science  of 
cognition  are  theism  and  theology.  It  has  made  increasingly 
manifest  the  immense  significance  to  religion  of  the  problem  as  to 
the  powers  and  limits  of  thought  which  Kant  stated  and  discussed 
with  so  much  vigour  and  originality.  Hence  research  into  what 
the  Germans  call  "die  erkenntnisstheoretischen  Gruudsati;e" — the 
philosophical  bases-=-uf  theism  has  been  greatly  stimulated  and 
advanced  by  the  movement.  This  is  an  enormous  gain,  which 
more  than  compensates  for  sundry  incidental  losses.  Kant's  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  which  he  placed  in  the  foreground  of  philosophy 
has  not  been  found  to  be  one  in  which  the  mind  con  rest.  Fiom' 
his  agnosticism  down  to  the  very  empiricism  tvhich  it  was  his  aim! 
to  refute  descent  is  logically  inevitable.  The  agnosticism  of  piety' 
has  in  no  form  been  able  to  discover  a  halting  idace,— a  spot  on 

1  Amonff  recent  disquisitions  u  to  the  psycholopicfll  oi1i;m  of  the  reliRious 
consciousness  and  the  conception  ol  God  may  bo  specified— I'flcidcn-r's  m  Inst 
ed.  o(  liis  lielt-jwttxpfnlosnphif,  Biodennann  »  In  lust  ed  of  his  Dnymarii;  W 
Herninnn"s  in  Ins  Dm  lifligion  im  VerhdUntsi  zum  Welterkni'mi  vndztir  Sittti-h' 
kHC,  1S79;  Kaflun's  in  his  Dni  Wrsm  der  chr.  Religion,  I^Sl  .  Ltpsius's  in  his 
Philosophic  vnJ  Religion,  18S5i  and  Kauwcnhoff's  in  his  "Ontstaun  van  den 
GodsUii-nst,"  Theoi.  Tijd^rhr.,  May  It-fiS. 

•  AmonR  wniks  in  \*liich  it  is  denied  that  the  rcnl  nature  of  God  c.in  be 
known  .ire— Kanis/iV  d.r.  K  :  Ficlitc's  A'r  aller  Of.nbmuno .  Schlclcfmacher'a 
Rcdf-n,  Dialekltk,  and  (7/rtM6f«.<'fArf ;  Trendolciiburfi's  Le"7  Vutcr^vrhungni.  Il 
§5  xx,-.^xiv.;  Hamilton's  f.ect.  on  Met.,  and  DtHUistom  ;  M.-insil's  DmufUii  Lixt.^ 
an\X  Philosophy  of  ihv  Coudilioned,  II  Spencer's /"I'S' ArHrj/./. ..  .md  iIr- wiiring^ 
of  Lance.  Itil^rh).  .nml  other  N\o-Ktmrist«.  Amonc  works  iii  "hlvli  T^c  real  cob- 
noscil'ihty  of  Oofl  jt  iiftirnicd  nr*-— C-ildfrwood's  I'h  of  the  /tifinttr:  C.  Hodpe't 
^^(/>.  Tl,.,i.:  MC(>xli>;/-f.  '-fthe  Mf"d,  J'hil  Scnr^.  Ac;  H  H-  Smitli's  /'Ur.  to 
r'l  Th  and  t'oilh  ,vt  /•hihso].i,u-  M. mi  ire's  M'l-it  is  Rfvclnlifi  t ;  Youuc's 
J'roviiirf  o/  RfiJson.  and  H.'\iTiy«  J'lul  Umrr.  of  r'»i,«w.  Scp  tiUo  L.  Robert, 
Dc  la  Cn-tnud^  .tp.lSSO;  011c-Lapruiie.Z/«/i  C(;(n(«.f.'.l/.<''nV,lSSO:  0  Drrcpns 
L/^s  T'uoru-n  <fc  VJnrowmiiinblc.  i^^3 ;  G  Matheson,  in  Cm  the  Old  I'auh  l.ict 
\nth  the  S'lr  t  15S5  ;  H.  T.  Stnllh,  AInn'i  huovl^dge  .-/  Mnn  and  of  Gvd.  163C  \ 
Schi-amm.  Dif  Ertennttarkeit  GoUet,  1676  ;  nnd  Bertling.  Di*  Frkfttnbarkeit  Qottff^i 
1»?V 


THEISM 


247 


-vhkb  t»raise  zheiim  or  any  solid  religious  oosstmction.  In  no 
form  hu  it  been  able  t^^profe  its  legitimacy,  to  maintain  its  eelf- 
cjnsistency,  or  to  defend  itself  successfully  against  the  agnosticism 
oftiabeUef.  It  is,  therefore,  not  surprising  that  it  should  have 
bean  very,  generally  regarded  as  .dangerous  to  theism  in  reality, 
even  whet  friendly  to  it  in  intention.  Yet  there  is  much  in  the 
theory  of  cognition  on  which  it  proceeds  which  the  th^st  can 
utilize.  Indeed,  no  theory  of  cognition  can  kiford  a  satisfactory 
basis  to  theism  which  does  not  largely  adopt  and  assimilate  that  of 
Kant.  He  has  conclusively  shown  that  all  our  knowledge  is  a 
synthesis  of  contingent  impressions  and  necessary  conditions ;  that 
without  the  latter  there  can  be  neither  sense,  understanding,  nor 
reason ;  that  they  constitute  intelligence,  and  arc  the  light  of 
mind ;.  that  they  also  pervade  the  whole  world  of  experience  and 
illuminate  it ;  that  there  is  neither  thing  nor  thought  in  the  nni- 
▼eree  which  does  nor-  exhibit  them  in  some  of  their  aspects ;  that 
■part  from  them  there  can  be  no  reality,  no  truth,  no  science. 
The  agnostic  corollaries  appended  to  this  theory  by  Kant  and 
others,  instead  of  being  necessary  consequences,  from  it,  are  incon- 
sistent with  it.  Kant  and  the  agnostics  say  that  we  know  only 
the  conditioned;  but  what  they  prove  is  that  we  know  also  the 
conditions  of  thought;  and  that  these  conditions'  are'  themselves 
onconditioned,  otherwise  they  would  not  be  necessary.  They  affirm 
that  we  can  know  only  the  phenome'nai  and  relative.,  but  wiiat  they 
establish  is  that  it  is  as  impossible  to  know  only  the  relative  and 
phenomenal  as  to  know  only  the  absolute  and  noumenal,  and  that 
in  so  far  as  we  know  at  all  we  know  through  ideas  which  are 
absolute  and  noumenal  in  the  only  intelligible,  and  in  a  very  real 
and  important,  sense.  They  maintain,  what  is  very  true,  if  not  a 
tmism,  that  the  categories  are  only  valid  for  experience,  and  they 
imply  that  this  is  because  experience  limits  and  defines  the  cate- 
gories, whereas,  according  to  their  own  theory,  it  is  the  categories 
which  condition  experience  and  enter  as  constituents  into  all 
experience,  so  that  to  say  that  the  categories  are  only  valid  for 
experience  means  very  little,  experience  merely  existing  so  far  as 
the  categories  enable  us  to  have  it,  and  hsing  valid  so  far  as  the 
categories  are  legitimately  applied,  althon^h  not  farther,  which 
leaves  no  more  presomftion  against  religious  eiperienj;e  than 
against  sensible  experience.  They  have  denied  the  objective'  validity 
of  the  categories  or  necessary  conditions  of  thought.  This  denial 
is  the  distinctive  feature  of  all  modem  agnosticism ;  and  the  theist 
who  would  vindicate  the  reality  of  his  knowledge  of  God,  the  legi- 
timacy of  his  belief  in  God.  the  worth  of  his  religious  experience, 
must  refiite  the  reasonings  by  which  it  hsa  been  supported;  show 
that  fionsciousness  testifies  against  it,  the  subjectivity  of  any  ti-ue 
category  being  unthinkable  and  inconceivable;  and  indicate  how 
its  adnussion  must  subvert  not  only  the  foundation  of  theolegy  but 
of  all  other  sciences,  and  resolve  them  all  into  castlcs  in  the  air, 
or  into  such  stuff  as  dreams  are  ^adeof  In  the  accomplishment 
of  this  task  as  much  guidance  and  aid  may  bo  found,  perhaps,  in 
the  theories  of  cognition  of  Ferrier  and  Rosmini  as  £rom  those  of 
»ny  of  the  Germans ;  but  Hegel  and  his  followers,  not  a  few  of  the 
Herbartists,  Ulrici,  Harms,  and  many  other  German  thinkers, 
have  contributed  to  show  the  falsity  of  the  critical  theory  at  this 
point.  Amended  here,  it  is  a  theory  admirably  fitted  to  be  the 
comer-stone  of  a  philosophical  theism. 
Philo-  Uore  may  be  attempted  to  be  done  in  the  re^on  of  the  necessary 

s  ?[iby  of  and  unconditioned.  The  conditions  of  thought,  the  categories  of 
th3  Ab-  experience,  the  ideas  of  reason  are  all  linked  together,  so  that  each 
colute.  tas  its'  own  place  and  is  part  of  a  whola  And  of  what  whole  f 
The  idea  of  God.  All  the  metaphysical  categories  are  included 
therein,  for  God  is  the  Absolute  Being ;  all  the  physical  categories, 
for  He  is  Absolute  Force  and  Life ;  all  the  mental  categories,  for 
Ha  is  Absolute  Spirit ;  all  the  moral  categories,  for  He  is  the 
Absolutely  Good.  The  idea  of  God  is  the  richest,  the  most 
inclusive,  the  most  comprehensive,  of  all  ideas.  It  is  the  idea  of 
ideas,  for  it  takes  up  all  other  ideas  into. itself  and  gives  them 
unity,  so  that  they  constitute  a  system.  The  whole  system  issues 
into,  and  is  rendered  organic  by,  the  idea  of  God,  which,  indeed, 
contains  within  itself  aU  the  ideas  which  are  the  conditions  of 
homan  reason  and  the  grounds  of  known  existence.  All  sciences, 
and  even  all  phases  and  varieties  of  human  experience,  are  only 
developments  of  some  of  the  ideas  included  in  this  supreme  and 
•Il-compreh*nsIve  idea,  and  the  developments  have  in  no  instance 
exhausted  the  ideas.  Hence  in  the  idea  of  God  must  be  the  whole 
truth  of  the  universe  as  well  as  of  the  mind.  These  sentences  are 
an  attempt  to  express  in  the  briefest  intelligible  form  what  it  was 
the  aim  of  the  so-called  philosophy  bf  the  Absolute  to  prove  to  be 
not  only  true,  bnt  tfu  trutK'^  He^el  ^nd  Schelling,  Krause  and 
Baader,  and  their  associates,  all  felt  themselves  to  have  the  one 
Iniasion  in  life  of  making  manifest  that  God  was  thus  the  truth, 
the  light  of  all  knowledge,  self-revealing  in  all  science,  the  sole 
object -of  all  philosophy.  The  Absolute  with  which  they  occupied 
themselves  so  earnestly  was  no  abstraction,  no  fiction,  such  as 
Hamilton  and  Mahsel  supposed  it  to  be, — not  the  wholly  indeter- 
minate; not  that  which  is  out  of  all  relation  to  everything  or  to 
•northing,  not  the  Vakaov^ble, — bat  the  ground  of  all  relationship. 


the  foundation  ali?"e  of  exijit^nce  and  of  thought,  that  which  it  ia 
not  only  not  impossible  to  k&ow;^  bnt  which  it  is  impossible  not  to 
know,  the  knowledge  of  it  being  implied  in  all  knowledge.  Hegel 
expressed  not  only  his  own  conviction,  but  the  central  and  vital 
thought  of  the  whole  anti-agnostic  movement  which  culminated  ia 
him  when  he  wrote,  "Th«  object  of  reUgir  i  is,  like  that  of  philo- 
sophy, the  etemal  truth  Itself.in  its  objective  existence  :  it  is  Go<?, 
and  nothing  but  God,  and  the  explanarion  o[  God.  Philosophy  U 
not  a  f  isdom  of  the  world,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  unworldly  ;  not 
a  knowledge  of  outward  matter,  of  empirical  being  and  life,  bus 
knowledge  of  that  which  is  eternal,  of  thai  which  is  God  and  which 
flows  from  His  nature,  as  that  must  manifest  and  develop  itself. 
Hence  philosophy  in  explaining  religion  explains  itself,  and  in 
explaining  itself -explains  religion.  Philosophy  and  religion  thuj 
coincide  in  that  they  have  one  and  the  same  object."  The 
adherents  of  the  philosophy  ci  the  Absolute  must  be  admitted  to 
have  fallen,  in  their  revulsion  from  sgnostici.*?m,  into  many  extra- 
vagances of  gnosticism  ;  but  a  theist  who  does  not  syropathiza 
with  their  main  aim,  and  even  accepts  most  of  the  results  as  to 
which  they  are  agreed,  cannot  be  credited  with  having  much 
philosophical  insight  into  what  a  thorough  and  consistent  theism 
implies.  A  God  who  is  not  the  Absolute  as  they  understood  the 
term,  not  the  Cnconditioned  revealed  in  all  that  is  conditioned, 
and  the  essential  content  of  all  knowledge  at  its  highest,  cannot 
be  the  God  either  of  a  profound  philosophy  or  a  fully-developed 
religion.  The  philosophy  of  the  Absolute  waa,  on  the  whole,  a 
great  advance  towards  a  philosophical  theism.' 

And  yet  it  was  largely  pantheistic,  and  tended  strongly  towsrda 
pantheism.  This  was  not  surprising.  Any  philosophy  which  is 
in  thorough  earnest  to  show  that  God  is  the  ground  of  all  eiistenca 
and  the  condition  of  all  knowledge  must  find  it  difficult  to  letaia 
a  firm  grasp  of  the  personali'ty  and  transcendence  of  the  Divine 
and  to  set  them  forth  with  due  prominence.  Certainly  some  of 
the  most  influential  representatives  of  the  philosophy  of  the 
Absolute  ignored  or  misrepresented  them.  The  consequence  was, 
however,  that  a  band  of  thinkers  soon  appeared  who  were  animated 
with  the  mo.st  zealous  desire  to  do  justice  to  these  aspects  of  the 
Absolute,  and  to  make  evident  the  one-sided^ss  and  inadequacy 
of  every  pantheistic  conception  of-the  Divine.  This  was  the 
common  aim  of  those  who  gathered  around  the  younger  Fichte, 
and  whose  literary  organ  was  the  Zeilschrift  fir  FhilosophU. 
Chalybaus,  K.  Ph.  Fischer,  Sengler,  Weisse,  Wirth,  and  Ulrici 
may  be  named  as  among  the  ablest  and  most  active.  The  Komaa 
Catholic  Gunther  and  his  followers  worked  in  much  the  sama 
spirit.  Lotze  has  effectively  co-operated  by  his  ingenious  defence 
of  the  thesis  that  "  perfect  personality  is  to  be  found  only  in  God, 
while  in  all  finite  spirits  there  exists  only  a  weak  imitation  of 
personality  ;  the  finiteness  of  the  finite  is  not  a  productive  condi- 
tion of  personality,  but  rather  a  limiting  barrier  to  its  perfect 
development."  This  movement  also,  then,  has  tended  to  develop 
and  contributed  to  enrich  the  theory  of  theism.  Its  special  mis- 
sion has  been  to  prove  that  theism  is  wider  than  pantheism,  and 
can  include  all  the  trath  in  pantheism,  while  pantheism  mUst 
necessarily  exclude  truth  in  theism  essential  to  the  vitality  end 
vigour  both  of  religion  and  of  morality.' 

The  philosophy  of  the  Absolute,  judged  of  from  a  distinctly 
theistic  point  of  view,  was  defective  on  another  side.  It  regarded 
too  exclusively  the  necessary  and  formal  in  thought,  trusted  almost 
entirely  to  its  insight  into  the  significance  of  the  categories  end  its 
powers  of  rational  deduction.  Hence  the  idea  of  the  Divine  which 
it  attained,  if  vast  and  comprehensive,  was  also  vagie  and  abstract, 
shadowy  and  unimpressive.  Correction  was  needed  on  this  side 
also,  and  it  came  through  Schleiermacher  and  that  large  comp-iay 
of  theologians,  among  whom  Lipeins  and  Ritschl  are  at  present 
the  most  prominent,  who  have  dwelt  on  the  importani^e  of  proceed- 
tng  from  immediate  personal  experience,  from  the  direct  testimony 
of  pious  feeling,  from  the  practical  needs  of  the  moral  life,  ke. 
From  these  theologians  may  be  learned  that  God  is  to  be  known, 
not  through  mere  intellectual  cognition,  but  through  spiritual 
experience,  and  that  no  dicta  as  to  the  Divine  not  verifiahl?  ia 
experience,  not  enicacious  to  sustain  piety  and  to  promote  virtue, 
to  elevate  and  purify  the  heart,  to  invigorate  the  will,  to  ennoble 

'  On  the  doctrine  of  Cod  propoanded  by  tbe  philosophers  of  the  Absolcta  raey 
be  consaited  tiie  histories  of  philoaophy  by  Chfli>t)a:ia,  Micfcelcf,  Erdniana, 
Debenreg,  K,  Fischer,  Harms.  ZcDer,  Ac.  felio  F-injer.  11.  bks  3  end  6  ;  t.-.9 
chapters  in  Pfieiderer  on  SchcULnp.  He^l,  Neo-Scheliingiantsm,  and  Keo- 
Begelianism ;  Dorr.et's  ai«.  o//'to(.  Vt..  ii-  2^37,39-5;  LicblemtxJgef  s  ^lU.  in 
tdees  Rtti^tusa  at  AUema^m,  iicpaisim;  Ehrenliaas's  Ee^»  Qtia'jiytgrijr* 
.tc  :  Franz  on  Schelhntr'a  foiuire  Philctophii ;  Opzoomer's  Leer  ran  Gixt,  bif 
Kranse-,  K.  Ph.  Fischer's  CJxaraaeTis:U:  dsr  Thnsophit  Saadfri ;  Ac 

*  See  art.  "Theisnms,"  by  L'lrlcl,  in  Heraog's  lUal-Encyklopadis,  XT.  At 
representlnz  this  phase  of  theism  the  following  works  may  l>e  named ;— C.  H. 
Weisses  like  ier  Gotthint,  1844,  and  PhUoiophiKhe  Dogmaiit,  1S55  ;  W!r;h'« 
Sf«Tj(<uir£  Ilia  Goaa,  184J  ;  Sengler's  Ida  OMits.  1*45-47  ;  J.  H.  Fld.te'« 
SpMulaiiee  TheologU,  1846-47  ;  Hnnne's  Idee  difr  aiw}lu:ai  Perioniu.\ifit,  IHT  J 
ruicis  &SI  «.  dU  Xatur.  1875 ;  and  Lotze's ificronimM,  U.  li.  4-5  (Engr.  Ii  ). 
The  school  la  trell  represented  in  America  by  Prof.  Bowne.  See  his  Sivd^^  -A 
Thiiijn,  especially  ch.  7-S.  See  also  alt.  of  Prof.  1.  S.  Candlish  on  "  .^ 
PeraiinalltT  cf  God,"  in  Prinictcr.  Rfr.,  Sept.  18&4,  and  of  Galdinel  oa  "Lous'! 
Theiatic  p'hUMC^hy,"  In  Pretlt.  Bet.,  Oct.  tSSS. 


'248 


T  B  E  I  S  M 


TheUtic 
"proofs.' 


the'cbaiacteirto  sanctify  both"indivi<luals"and  communities,  are 
likely  to  be  true.  Experience  of  the  Divine  can  be  the  richest  aiiU 
surest  expe.ii-nce  only  if  it  not  merely  implies  all  that  is  absolute 
and  necessary  iu  consciousness  aiui  existence,  but  is  also  conhnnea 
and  .'nar.mtcca  bv  all  that  is  relative  and  contingent  therein. 

What  are  known  as  "  tlie  pioo.'s"  for  the  Divine  existence  have 
fro.n  the  time  of  Kant  to  the  present  been  often  represented  as 
sophistical  or  useless.  This  view  is,  however,  loss  prevalent  th.iii 
it  was  Duuug  the  last  twenty  years  the  proofs  have  been  ni  mucli 
'creator  repute,  and  have  had  far  more  labour  expended  on  them, 
than  during  the  previous  pa.t  of  the  century.  They  h.avc,  of 
course,  been  considerably  modified,  in  conformity  with  the  general 
crowth  of  thought  and  knowledge.  For  instance,  they  arc  no  longer 
r.rcscutcd  elaborately  analysed  into  series  or  groups  of  syllogisms. 
it  is  recogni«d  that  the  fetters  which  would  assuredly  J""''  Iho 
pro-. OSS  of  physical  and  mental  science  cannot  be  favourable  to  that 
of  theology  it  is  iccognized  that  the  yalulity  of  the  proofs  must  bo 
entirely  .rependcnt  on  the  truthfulness  with  which  they  indicate  the 
modes  m  wluoh  God  reveals  Himself,  the  facts  through  which  man 
,ippiehends  the  presence  and  attributes  of  God  and  that,  thereloro, 
the  more  simply  they  are  stated  the  better.  Man  knows  God  some- 
what as  he  knows  the  minds  ol  his  fellow.nieu-namely,  inferen- 
tially  -yet  througli  an  experience  at  once  so  simple  and  so  maiiilold 
that  all  attempts  at  a  syllogistic  representation  ol  tlie  process  must 
necessarily  do  it  injustice.  The  closeness  and  character  of  the  con- 
nexion of  the  proofs  have  also  come  to  be  more  clearly  seen.  1  hey 
are  perceived  to  constitute  an  organic  whole  of  argument,  each  u( 
which  e^lnhliO.cs  Its  separate  element,  and  thus  contributes  to  the 
ceneial  .esult-conlirinatory  evidence  that  God  is,  and  complemcu- 
tarv  cvideuoe  as  to  uihat  God  is.  The  explanation  of  this  doubtless 
'  is  that  llio  ainireheusion  of  God  is  itself  an  organic  whole,  a  complex 

and  harmonious  proces.s,  involving  all  that  is  essential  lu  the  Imnian 
mind   yet  all  the  constituents  of  winch  are  so  connected  that  they 
may  be  embraced  in  a  single  act  and  coalesce  into  one  grand  issue. 
Ti,  ,„,„  The  cosmological  argument  concludes  from  the  existence  ol  the 

,1  o  lo '  cal  Wld  as  temporal  and  contingent,  conditioned  and  phenumeuo, 
argumcnt.10  the  existence  of  God  as  its  one  eternal,  unconditioned,  self- 
existent  cause.  It  is  an  argument  which  has  bceu  in  no  respect 
discredited  by  recent  research  and  discussion,  which  is  in  substance 
accepted  not  only  by  theists  but  by  panlhoists,  and  which  forms 
the  basis  even  of  the  philosophy  of  Herbert  Spencer.  1  he  principle 
on  which  It  proceeds-the  principle  of  causality-has  only  come  to 
be  more  clearly  seen  to  be  ultunalc,  universal,  nnd  necessary  Iho 
hypothesis  of  an  inhnite  series  of  causes  and  ellects  has  not  had  its_ 
burden  of  irrationality  in  the  lea.st  diminished.  The  progiess  of 
science  has  not  tended  to  show  that  the  world  itself  may  be  reason- 
ably  regarded  as  eternal  and  sillo.Msteiit  ;  in  the  view  of  theists  it 
has  only  tended  to  render  more  probable  the 
physical  things  must  have  their  origin  i 
cause.     The  necessity  of  dcterminiug  an;,  .,   -   ,. 

■     •  .'estcd    by  science  as   to   the  ultimate 


doctrine  that  all 
single   non-physical 
ght  the  bearings   of  the 
new   views   reached  or  suggested    by  sen 

constitution  of  matter,  the  conservation  of  energy,  cosmic  evolution, 
the  a<'e  and  duration  of  the  present  iihysical  system   &c..  has  been 
the  chief    factor   in   the   latest  developments  of  the  argument  a 
'emtingrntxa  nunult.     Tho  teleological  argument,  which  concludes 
from  the  regularities  and  adjustments,    preeonforinities  and  har. 
'monies,  in  nature  that  its  hist  cause  must  be  an  intelligence,  has 
been   both  corrected   and  extended  owing  to  recent  advances  of 
science  and  especially  of  biological  science.     The  theory  of  evolu- 
tion  has  not  shaken  the   principle  or  lessened  the  force  ol  the 
ergament,  while  it  has  widened  its  scope  and  opened  up  vistas  of 
Wander  design,  but  it  has  so  changed  Us  mode  of  presentation  that 
already  the  Bndgewatcr  Treatises  and  similar  works  are  to  some 
extent   antiquated.       Perhaps  tho   most   promising   of  the  later 
applications  of  the  argument  is  that  which   rests  on   the  results 
obtained  by  a  philosoiihieal  study  of  history,  and  which  seeks  to 
show  that  tho  goal  of  the  evolution  of  life,  so  far  as  it  has  yet  pro- 
ceeded   is  thc-perfectingof  human  nature,  and  the  eternal  source 
of  thin'-s  a  power  which  makes  fur  truth  and  righteousness.     The 
ethical  "argument— the  proof  from  conscience  and  the  moral  order— 
held  a  very  subordiu.ilc  place  in  the  estimation  ol  writers  on  natural 
theologyuutd  Kanl  rested  on  it  almost  the  whole  weight  of  theism. 
It  has  ever  sinco  been  pioinincnt,  nnd  has  been  the  argument  most 
relied  on  to  produce  practical  conviction.     Much  importance  is  now 
rarely  attached  to  those  forms  of  the  metaphysical  argunienl  which 
are  deductions  from  a  particular  conception,  as,  e.g.,  of  a  perfect 
being.     Ignoiauce  alone,  however,  can  account  for  the  assertion 
often  met  with  that  the  argument  is  generally  abandoned.      It  has 
only  been  tiansfoiincd.      It  has  passed  from  a  stage  in  which  it  was 
presented  in  i.articular  ontological  forms  into  one  in  which  it  is  set 
forth  in  a  general  epistemological  form.     As  at  jircscnt  maintained 
'\l  is  to  the  effect  that  God  is  tho  idaft  of  ideas,  the  ultimate  in 
human  thought,  without  whom  all  thought  is  confusion  and  self- 
contradiction.     In  this  form,  by  what  theologians  and  religions 
philosophers  possessed  of  much  specniativo  inyght  is  it  not  held? 
"TSTe  ii^n  creseut  vriur'a  JVwixn,  mi  the  Inaic.Uvni'df  tho  Uterom™  giVen 
inlbsaol>'E 


'  The  changes  adopted  in  the  methods  of  theistio  proof  have  all 
tended  in  one  direction,  namely,  to  remove  or  correct  extreme  and 
exaggerated  conceptions  of  the  Divine  transcendence  and  to  produce 
a  title  appreciation  of  the  Divine  immanence,— to  set  aside  deism 
and  to  enrich  theism  with  what  is  good  m  pantheism.  The  general 
movement  of  religious  speculation  within  the  theistic  area  has  been 
towards  mediation  between  the  extremes  of  pantheism  and  of  dcism,( 
towards  harmonious  combination  of  the  personal  self-equality  and 
the  universal  agency  of  the  Divine,  ■  Positive  science  has  power-' 
fully  co-operated  with  speculation  ■itt.iglving  support  and  impulse 
to  this  movement.  While  the  modern  scientific  view  of  the  world 
does  not  lesult  in  pantheism,  it  affords  it  a  partial  and  relative 
justification,  and  requires  a  theism  which,  while  maintaining  th« 
personality  of  God,  recognizes  God  to  bo  in  all  things  nnd  all 
thin-'S  to  be  of  Cod,  through  God,  and  to  God.  It  m.iy  be  said 
that^theism  li.as  always  thus  recognized  the  Divine  inimancnceJ 
Tho  vague  recognition  of  it.  however,  which  precedes  scientific, 
insight  and  the  conquest  and  absoriitiou  of  pantheism  is  not  to 
be  identified  with  the  realizing  comprehension  ot_it  which  is  tliciri 

As  to  the  further  treatment  of  the  idea  of  Cod  in'reccnt  or'con-  The  uie« 
temporary  theology,  the  following  may  bo  mentioned  as,  perhaps,  of  Gci 
the   chief  distinctive   features  :— first,   tho  general  endeavour  to  in  con. 
present  the  idea  as  a  harmonious  reflex  of  the  Divine  nature  and  tempo- 
life,  instead  of  as  a  mere  aggregate  of  attributes  ;  secondly,  am  rary 
consequently,   the   greater  care  shown   in  the  classihcation    and  theologj( 
correlation  of  tho  attributes,  so  .as  to  refer  them  to  their  appropriate 
places  in  tho  one  great  organic  thought;  and,  thirdly,  the  more 
truly   ethical   and   spiritual   representation   given   of  the   Divine 
chjracter.     To  realize  the  nature  and  import  ol  the  first  of  tliesa 
features  it  is  only  neccs.sary  to  compare  the  expositions  given  of  the 
idea  of  God  in  the  works  of  such  theologians  as  Nitzsch,  Thomasius, 
Doiner,  Plulippi.  Kahnis.  and  even  more  in  those  of  the  represenj 
tatives  of  German  spicuhitivc  theism,  with  such  as  are  to  be  found 
in  the  treati.scs  of   Hill,  Watson,  Wardlaw,   and  Hodge,  which, 
although  published  in  the  present  century,  express  only  the  views 
ol  au  e'arher  ago.     As  to  the  second  point,  there  has  of  late  been  a 
vast  amount  of  thought  expended  in  endeavouring  so  to  classify 
and  co-ordinate  the  iittrihutcs,  and  so  to  refer  them  to  the  various 
moments  of  the  Divine  exi.stence  and  life,  as  that  God  may  be  able 
to  be  apprehended  both  m  His  unity  and  c  wililelencss,  selflden 
lity  and  spiritual  richness,  as  ono  whole  harmonious  and  jwrfcct 
ii.i'^oii.ility      Of  the  woik  attempted  in  this  direction  our  limits 
will   not  allow  us  to  treat.     In  regard  to  the  third  feature,  an> 
one  who  will  peruse  an  essay  like  Weber's  Fom  Zornc  GMcs,  oi 
Kit.sehrs  De  Im  Da,  and  compares  tho  way  in  which  the  liiblieal 
conception  of  tho  wrath  of  God  is  there  presented  with  the  mode  ol 
exliibitiu.'  it  prevalent  for  so  many  ages,  is  likely  to  be  convmcei 
that  con^iderablo  progress  has  been  made  even  in  recent  times  in 
the  study  of  the  moral  .aspects  of  God's  character.     Tliat  the  Divino 
flory  must  centre  iu  moral  perfection,  in  holy  love,  is  a  thought 
which  is  undoubtedly  being  lealized  by  all  theists  with  evcr-incrtas 
ing  clearness  and  fulness.'  ,     ,       ,  -     -.. 

It  follows  from  tho  above  that  theistic  thought  has  been  moving  Adv«jic« 
in  a  direction  which  could  not  fail  to  suggest  to  those  influenced  by  of  trint.^ 
it  that  a  rigidly  nnitarian  conception  of  God  must  be  inadequate  tarian, 
and  that  the  trinitarian  concei.tion  might  be  the  only  one  in  which  theism, 
reason  can  rest  as  seif-consistent.      So  long  as  the  simplicity  o. 
the  Divine  nature  was  conceived  of  as  an  abstract  self.identity, 
intelligence  could  not  venture  to  attempt  to  pass  from  the  unity 
to  the  trinity  of  the  Godhead,  or  hope  for  any  glimpse  of  the  pos- 
sibility  of  harmoniously  combining  them.     But,  this  view  of  tho 
simplicity  of  tho  Divine  nature  having  been  abandoned,  and  au  idea 
of  God  ;.ttained  which  assigns  to  Him  .all  the  distinctions  corn- 


has  caused  It  to  strike  deeper  root  and  grow  with  fresh  vigour.'^ 
Never  since  the  Nicone  age  has  theological  speculation  been  so 
actively  occupied  with  the  con.stitution  of  the  Godhead,  and  with 
the  trinitarian  representation  thereof,  as  from  tho  commencement 
of  the  present  century.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  hero  to  describe 
any  of  the  attempts  which,  during  this  period,  have  been  made  to 
show  that  the  absolute  Divine  self-consciousness  implies  a  trinitarian 
fnini  of  existence,  and  that  intelligently  to  think  the  essential 
Tiinity  IS  to  think  those  moments  in  the  Divine  existence  without 
which  personality  and  sclf-consciousness  arc  unthinkable  ;  or  that 
a  worthy  conception  of  Divine  lovo  demands  a  liinitanan  niodo  of 
life  ■  or  that  a  world  distinct  from  God  presupposes  that  God  as, 
triune  is  in  and  for  Himself  a  perfect  and   infinite  world,  so  that 


1  .SCO  llie  e.lremcly  intcrcullni:  paper,  by  Peabody.  MontRomery.  Ilowison! 
.nd  11  aiT  in  ll,e  ./.»/»»/  .•/  *,..r./a»e.  /'/,.,o.,.;.'^  lor  Oct.  1S8S  oa  ll.e  que^ 
non  •■  Is  Pi.iulici.m  the  UpllmiUc  Oulcnmc  uf  Mi«lcrn  .Science  ?  Alsn  y  t. 
Au;,.f.  *i,  "»/.V  Tncum.  llMi  .  and  J.  Fl.ke's  Mm  »/  Ooi  a>  affccUd  (,y  J/o*,v, 

^'i'T/r'u'ch'  Sv  ron  dm  OMI.  i'li/oufHO/t™.  WU  UfU,  DeJuUa  AUrilnilmvn. 
Dei  DiKrimint,  IR-W.    Uoih  •re.  lio»iuvir.  oln;«d»  lu«<lcQU«lc 


THEISM 


24D 


"tiii  iftribntej  .inl  activities  already  fully  realized  in  the  trinitarian  ■ 
lif«  f«n  proceed  outwarJs,  not  of  uecesaity  but  of  absolnte  freedom ; 
or  that  the  whole  iinivertie  is  a  manifestation  of  His  triune  nature; 
and  all  finite  spirituil  life  a  reflexion  of  the  archetypal  life,  self- 
■nstaiued  nnd  self- fulfil  led  therein.-  All  the  more  thoughtful 
trinitarian  divines  of  tho  present  endeavour  to  make  it  apparent 
that  the  doctrine  of  tlie  Trinity  is  not  one  which  has  been  merely 
imposed  upon  faith  by  external  authority,  but  one  which  satisfies 
reason,  gives  expression  to  the  self-evidencing  substance  of  reve- 
lation, and  explains  and  supports  religious  experience.  If  it  be 
thought  that  their  success  has  not  been  great,  it  has  to  b©  remcm- 
berei  that  they  have  been  labouring  near  the  commencement  of  a 
mo>-ement,  and  so  at  a  stage  when  all  individual  efforts  can  have 
only  a  very  limited  worth.  To  one  general  conclusion  they  all  seem 
to  have  come,  namely,  that  the  idea  of  God  as  substanre  is  not  the 
only  idea  with  which  we  can  connect,  or  in  which  we  may  find 
implied,  tri-personality.  The  category  of  substance  is,  in  sonle 
respects,  one  very  inapplicable  to  God,  as  the  philosophy  of  Spinoza 
has  indirectly  shown.  If  the  theologians  referred  to  be  correct,  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  not  specially  dependent  upon  it.  In  their 
view  God  cannot  bo  thought  of  consistently  as,  e.g.,  Absolute  Life, 
Absolute  Intelligence,  or  Absolute  Love,  unless  He  be  thought  of 
in  a  trinitarian  manner. 
Poaitian  While  trinitarian  theism  has  thus  dnring  the  present  century 
of  uni-  shown  abundant  vitality  and  vigour,  it  cannot  be  .'=aid  to  have 
tariaa  .gained  auy  decided  victory  over  unitarian  theism.  Tho  latter  has 
theism,  also  within  the  same  period  spread  more  widely  and  shown  more 
practical  activity,  more  spiritual  life,  than  in  any  former  age.  Tho 
unitarianism  represented  by  a  Martineau  is  a  manifest  advance  on 
that  which  was  represented  by  a  Priestley.  Theism  in  its  unitarian 
form  is  the  creed  of  very  many  of  the  most  cultured  and  most 
religious  minds  of  our  time,  alike  in  Europe  and  America.  In 
this  form  it  has  also  signally  shown  its  power  in  contemporary 
India.  Brahmoism  is,  perhaps,  tho  most  remarkable  example  of  a 
unitarian  theism  which  exhibits  all  the  characteristics  of  a  positive 
faith  and  a  churchly  organization.  The  unitarian  theism  of  the 
present  age  is  distinguished  by  the  great  variety  of  its  kinds  or 
tvpea.  *  None  of  these,  it  must  be  added,  are  very  definite  or  stable, 
flence  unitarian  theism  is  often  seen  to  approximate  to,  or  become 
absorbed  into,  agnosticism  or  pantheism,  cosmism  or  hiimanitari- 
anism.  This  may  bo  due,  however,  less  to  its  own  character  than 
to  the  character  of  the  age.' 
.Mjn  s  The  mind  of  man  has  clearly  not  yet  ceased  to  ta  intensely 

interest    interested  in  thoughts  of  God.     There  are  ao  grounds  apparent  for 
ID  tite      supposing  that  it  will  ever  ceaso  to  seek  after  Him  or  to  strive  to 
idea  of     enlarge  its  knowledge  of  His  ways.     And,  if  the  idea  of  God  be 
God.         what  has  been  suggested  in  the  foregoing  pages,  the  search  for  God 
cannot  fail  to  meet  with  an  ever-growing  reaponpe.     If  the  idea  of 
God  be  the  most  comprehensive  of  ideas,  inclusive  of  all  tho  cate- 
gories of  thought  and  implicative  of  their  harmonious  synthesis 
and  perfect  realization,  all  thought  and  experience  must  of  its  very 
natci*  tend  to  lead  onwards  to  a  fuller  knowledge  of  God.     For 
the  knowledge  of  God,  on  this  Tifiw,  consists  in  no  mere  inference 
reached  through  a  process  of  theological  argumentation,  but  in  an 
evei  -growing  apprehension  of  an  ever-advancing  self -revelation  of 
God ;  and  all  pnilosophy,  science,  experience,  and  history  must 
necessarily  work  together  to  promote  it. 
Growth       All  speeulatiTe  thought,  whether  professedly  metaphysical  or 
of  the      professedly  theological,  is  conversant  with  ideas  included  in  the 
idea  in     idea  of  God.     It  deals  with  what  is  necessary  in  and  to  thought ; 
•pecola-  and  within  that  sphere,  notwithstanding  many  aberrations,  it  has 
tive         made  slow  bnt  sure  progress.     The  history  of  philosophical  specu- 
tbought  lation  is  not  only,  like  the  whole  history  of  man,  essentially  rational, 
but  it  is,  in  substance,  the  history  of  reason  itself  in  its  purest. 
form, — not  the  record  of  an  accidental  succession  of  opinions,  but 
of  the  progressive  apprehension  by  reason  of  God's  revelation  of 
Himself  in  its  own  constitntion.     "  There  is  much  in  the  history 
of  speculative  thought,  just  as  in  the  outward  life  of  man,  that 
belongs  to  the  accidental  and  irrational — errors,  vr^garies,  paradoxes, 
whimsicalities,  assuming  in  all  ages  the  name  and  th"  guise  of 
philosophy.     But,  just  as  the  student  of  the  constituticnal  history 
of  England  can  trace,  amidst  all  the  complexity  and  contingency 
of  outward  and   passing  events,    through    successive  times  and 
dynasties,  underneath  the  waywardness  of  individual  prission  and 
the  struggle  for  ascendency  of  classes  and  ordei-s,  the  silent,  steady 
development  of  that  system  of  ordered  freedom  which  we  namo 
th*  constitution  "of  England,  so,  looking  back  on  the  course  which 
haman  thought  has  travelled,  we  shall  be  at  no  loss  to  discern 
beneath  the  surface  change  of  opinions,  unalTected  by  the  abnormal 
displays  of  individual  folly  and  unreason,  the  traces  of  a  continuous 
onward  movement  of  mind."*    And  this  continuous  onward  move- 
ment is  towards  the  clearer  and  wider  apprehension  of  the  whole 
system  of  ultimate  truths  which  is  comprehended  in  the  idea  of 
the  Absolnte  Truth:     The  thoughts  of  men  as  to  God  are  necessarily 


1  Goblet  d'Alrlella,  Caniemporan/  Ecalulitm  of  Jieliyiovs  Thought  <n  England, 
America,  and  India,  JS85, 
*  rrmcipai  (Ulrd.  P'OffixsMsfstu  a/ ifia  Scimret,  pp.  Ti-UH,  Gta«gow.  1676, 


83—11* 


enlarged  by  increase  of  insight  into  the  .ocnditicns,  of  Iheir  own 
thinking.  The  disquisitions  of  merely  ordfessional  theologians 
on  thonature  and  attributes  of  God  have  done  far  less  to  elucid.ate 
the  idea  of  God  than  tho  philosophical  views  of  great'  speculativo 
thinkers,  and  would  have  done  less  than  they  have  .actually  accom- 
plished were  it  not  for  the  guidance  and  suggestion' found  in  thess 
views. 

The  sciences  co-Operate  with  speculative  philosophy  and  with  Co^:•J^01» 
one  another  in  aiding  thought  to. grow  in  tho  knowledge  of  God.  lious  of 
Tho  greatness,  the  power,  the  wisdom,  the  goodness,  of  the  God  of  scieOLf 
creation  and  providence 'must  be  increasingly  apprehended  in  the 
measure  that  nature  and  its  course,  humanity  and  its  hibtory,  are 
apprehended  ;  and  that  measure  is  given  us  in  the  sta^e  of  develop- 
ment attained  by  the  sciences.     '*  God's  glory  in  the  lieavens,"  for 
example,  is  in  some  degree  visible  to  the  naked  eye  and  uuinstructed 
intellect,  but  it  becomes  more   perceptible  and   more  impressive 
with  every  discovery  of  astronomy.     Not  otherwise  is  it  as  regards 
all  ths  sciences.     Each  of  them  has  its  distinctive  and  appropriata 
contribution  to  bring  towards  tho'completion  of  the  revelation  cf 
Qod,  and  cannot  withhold  it. 

But  the  idea  of  God  is  not  one  which  can  be  rightly  appreheudel  of  mora' 
merely  through  intellect  speculatively  exercisol  or  operating  on  expert-'' 
the  findings  of  science.  It  requires  to  be  also  apprehcnaed  through  ence  ; 
moral  experience  and  the  discipline  of  life.  Neither  individuals 
nor  communities  can  know  more  of  God  as  a  moral  being  than  their 
moral  condition  and  character  permit  them  to  know.  The  appre- 
hension of  God  and  the  sense  of  moral  distinctions  and  moral  obli- 
gations condition  each  other  and  correspond  to  each  other.  History 
shows  us  that  sincere  and  pious  men  may  receive  as  a  supernatural!  j 
revealed  truth  the  declaration  that  God  is  love,  and  yet  hold  that 
His  love  is  very  limited,  being  real  only  to  a  favoured  class,  and 
that  He  has  foreordained,  for  His  mere  good  pleastrS)  millions  of 
the  human  race  to  eternal  misery.  How  was  such  inconsistc-ocy 
possible)  Largely  because  these  men,  notwithstatlding  their 
sincerity  and  piety,  were  lacking  in  that  love  to  maii  through 
experience  of  which  alone  God's  love  can  be  truly  apprehended. 
In  like  manner,  it  is  not  only  the  science  of  law  which  cannot 
advance  more  rapidly  than  the  sense  of  jtistice,  but  also  theology 
so  far  as  it  treats  of  the  righteousness  of  God.  Thus  the  knowledge 
of  God  is  conditioned  and  infiuenced  by  the  ciuis^.of  man's  moral 
exporience. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  distinctively  religions  experience.    In  of  re- 
it  alsb  there  has  been  a  continuous  discovery  and  a  conticnoas  dis-  ligioue 
closure  of  God.     It  is  not  long  since  the  ethnic  religions  were  very  expert-' 
generally  regarded  as  merely  stages  of  hnman  foUv,  so  many  monu.  en^ 
ments  of  aversion  to  God  and  of  departure  from  the  truth  as  to 
God.     It  WIS  supposed  that  they  were  adequately  described  when 
they  were   called    "idolatries"   and  "superstitions."     This  view 
rested  on  a  strangely  unworthy  conception  both  of  human  nature 
and  of  Divire  providence,  and  is  fast  passing  away.     In  its  place 
has  come  the  conviction  that  the  history  of  religion  has  been  essen- 
tially a  process  of  search  for  God  on  the  part  of  man,  and  a  process 
of  Self-revelation  on  the  part  of  God  to  man,  resulting  in  a  continu- 
ous widening  and  deepening  of  human  apprehension  of  the  iJivine. 
All,  indeed,  has  not  been  progress  in  the  history  of  religion  either 
in  the  ethnic  or  Christian  period  ;  much  has  been  th&  reverse  ;  but 
all  stages  of  religion  testify  that  man  has  been  seeking  and  fi.uding 
God,  and  .God  making  Himself  known  unto  man. 

But,  while,  knowledge  of  God  may  reasonably  he  expected  un-  OomiT!? 
ceasingly  to  grow,  in  all  the  ways  which  have  been  indicated,  from  struggle* 
more  to  more,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  doubt  or  denial  of  GcJ's  with  nz- 
existence  must,  therefore,  speedily  disappear.  Religious  agnos-  nostidsir. 
ticism  cannot  fail  to  remain  long  prevalent.  The  very  we.ilth  of 
contents  in  the  idea  of  God  inevitably  exposes  the  idea  to  the 
B3saul(^>  of  agnosticism.  All  kinds  of  agnosticism  merge  into 
agnosticism  as  to  God,  from  the  ver}*  fact  that  all  knowledge 
implies  and  may  contribute  to  the  knowledge  of  God.  The  moro 
comprehensive  an  idea  is  from  the  more  points  can  it  bo  assailed, 
and  the  idea  of  God,  being  comprehensive  of  all' ultimate  ideas, 
may  be  assailed  through  them  all,  as,  for  example,  through  the 
idea  of  being,  or  of  infinity,  or  of  causality,  or  of  personality,  or  of 
rectitude.  'Then,  in  another  way,  the  unique  fulness  of  tho  idea 
of  God  explains  the  prevalence  of  agnosticism  in  regard  to  it.  The 
ideas  arc  not  precisely  in  God  what  they  arc  in  man  or  natiiiv. 
God  is  being  as  man  or  nature  is  not;  for  Ho  is  independent  and 
necessary  being,  and  in  that  sense  the  one  true  Being.  God  is  not 
limited  by  time  and  space  as  creatures  are;  for,  whereas  duration 
and  extension  merely  are  predicates  of  creatures,  the  corresponding 
attributes  of  God  are  eternity  and  immensity.  God  as  first  cause 
is  a  cause  in  a  higher  and  mofe  real  'sense  than  any  second  cause. 
So  as  to  personality,  intelligence,  holiness,  love.  Just  because  the 
idea  of  God  is  thus  elevated  in  all  respects,  there  are  many  minds 
which  fail  or  refuse  to  rise  up  to  it,  and  which  because  of  its  very 
truth  reject  it  as  not  true  at  all.  They  will  not  hear  of  th.it 
Absolute  Truth  which  is  simply  the  idea  of  God ;  but  that  they 
reject  it  is  their  misfortune,  not  any  argument  against  the  truth, 
itself.  (R.  F.) 

XXITI    —    t.'!  ' 


■250 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


TIIEMIS.  the  Greek  mythological  pcr^bnifiSfetlpri  .of 
custom.  In  Homer  the  word  occurs  both  ia  the^singular 
and  in  tlio  plural  (thcmistcs),  with  the  sensox)f  "  cus.tom," 
"unwritten  law."  But  even  in  Homer  Thcinis  is  also 
spoken  of  as  a  goddess  who,  at  the  command  of.2eus,  calls 
the  gods  to  an  assembly  and  summons. or  disperses  the 
assemblies  of  men.  But  after  all  she  is  a  thin  abstraction, 
a  faint  shadow,  by  the  side  of  the  full-blooded  gods 'of 
Olympus.  Hesiod  furnished  her  with  a  pedigree  (making 
her  the  daughter  of  Sky  and  Earth),  and  married  her  to 
Zeus,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  a  brood  of  well- 
bred  abstractions, — Legality,  Justice,  Peace,  the  Hours, 
and  the  Fates.  Pindar,  no  doubt  with  a  full  sense  of  her 
abstract  nature,  speaks  of  her  as  the  assessor  of  Zeus.  In 
one  passage  {Prom.,  209)  ^schylus  seems  to  regard  her  as 
identical  with  Earth,  and  "Earth-Themis"  had  a  worship 
and  priestess  at  Athens,  where.  Athene  also  appears  with 
the  surname  Themis.  There'  v-as  a  tradition  that  the 
oracle  at  Delphi  had  first  been'in  the  hands  of  Earth,  who 
transferred  it  afterwards  to  Themis,  who  in  turn  gave  it 
up  to  Apollo.  Themis  had  temples  at  Athens";,  Thebes, 
Tanagra,  and  Epidaurus.  At  Olympia  she  had  an  altar, 
and  at  Troezen  there  was  an  altar  of  the  Themides  (plural 
of  Themis).  In  modern  w-riters  Themis  sometimes  stands 
as  a  personification  of  law  and  justice, — an  idea  much  more 
abstract  and  advanced  than  the  original  sense  of  "tradi- 
tional custom." 

THEMISTIUS,  named  ri^aS^?,  or  " the Welllan- 
guaged,"  was  a  rhetorician  and  philosopher  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  4th  century.  Of  Paphlagonian  descent,  he 
settled  and  taught  at  Constantinople.  Thence  he  was 
called  to  Rome,  but,  after  a  short  stay  in  the  West,  returned 
to  the  Eastern  capital,  where  he  resided-during  the  rest  of 
his  life.  Though  a  pagan,  he  was  admitted  to  the  senate 
by  Constantius  in  355.  He  was  prefect  of  Constantinople 
in  38-1  on  the  nomination  of  Theodosius.  Themistius's 
paraphrases  of  Aristotle's  Posterior  Analytics,  Physics,  and 
De  Anima  are-  deservedly  esteemed ;  but  weariness  and 
disgust  are  the  sectimcnts  stirred  by  the  servile  orations 
in  whith  he  panegyrizes  successive  emperors,  comparing 
first  one  and  then  another  to  Plato's  "  true  philosopher," 
and,  when  all  other  compliments  have  been  exhausted,  to 
the  "  idea  "  itself.  (See  Reiske,  quoted  with  approval  by 
Dindorf  in  the  preface  to  his;,gdition  :  "  Fuit  aulicus  adu- 
lator et  versipellis,  vanUs  jactator-.philosophiK  suae,  specie 
magis  quam  re  cultae,  ineptus  et  ridiculus  vexator  et  appli- 
cator Homeri  et  veteVis  historia;,  tautologus  et  sophista ; 
in  omnibus  orationibus  pa:ne  eadem,  et  ubique  argutias 
longe  pctitoe.")  Themistius's  paraphrases  of  the  De  Ccelo 
and  of  book  A  of  the  A/eCaphysics  have,  reached  us  only 
through  Hebrew  versions. 

j  Tho  first  edition  of  Themistius's  works  (Venice,  1534)  included 
the  raraphrase.s  and  eight  of  the  orations.  Nineteen  orations  were 
known  to  Petavius.  wliosc  editions  appeared  in  1613  and  1618. 
Hardiiin  (Paris,  1C84)  gives  thirty-tlircc.  Another  oration  was 
iliscovcred  by  Angelo  Mai,  and  published  at  Milan  in  1816.  The 
most  recent  editions  arc  W.  Dindorfs  of  the  orations  (Leipsic, 
1832)and  L.  Spengel'sorthc  pan  pli  rases  (Leipsic,  1SC6).  Tho  Latin 
tr.inslations  of  tlie  Hebrew  versions  of  tlie  paraphrases  of  the  Dc 
Cotlo  and  book  A  of  tlie  Metaphysics  were  puiiiishcd  at  Venice 
in  1074  and  1058  respectively.  Sec  Fabrioius,  Bibliotheca  Ontca, 
vl  790  sq. 

THEMISTOCLES  was  borti  in  tho  latter  part'of  the  6th 
century  b.c,  .some  time  during  the  rule  of  the  Pisistratidae 
at  Athens,  the  son  of  an  Athenian  father,  Neocles,  by  a 
foreign  woman  from  Thrace  Or  Caria  A  wayward,  am- 
bitious, aspiring  boy,  out  of  sympathy  alike  with  ordinary 
boyish  amusements  and  with  the  learning  and  culture  of 
the  age,  he  was  told,  it  is  said,  by  his  schoolmaster  "  that 
he  would  certainly  be  something  great,  whether  good  or 
had."  'The  victory  of  Marathon  in  490  stirred  tho  young 
man's  eoul,  and  he  seeras  tu  have  forR.<:p.i>D  that  it  was  but 


the  "b^annihg  of  a  yet_^greater  conflict:  He  resolved  from 
that  fijiKi  to  make  his  country  great,  tliat  hfe  might  l.c  great 
ant^  famous  himself.  As  he  was  rising  to  political  distinc- 
tion; be  had  for  his  rival  the  Greek  "  Cato,"  the  incorrupt-' 
iblo  Aristides,  a  purer  patriot,  a  better  citizen,  "but  a  loss 
sagacious  and  far-seeing  statesman.  The  two  men  were  in 
sharp  antagonism  as  to  what  their  country's  policy  should 
be,  and  it;ended  in  a  vote  of  ostracism  which'-scnt  Ari.ttiiicg 
into  temporary  banishment  in  483.  The  main  qiie«ti^a 
between  them  probably  was  whether  Athens  should  seek 
greatness  by  sea  or  by  land  (see  vol.  xi.  p.  99),  and  the 
victory  of  the  policy  of  Themistocles  led  on  to  the  most 
brilliant  era  in  Greek  history,  the  maritime  supremacy  oi 
Athens.  Persia,  he  felt  sure,  was  meditating  a  great 
revenge,  and  Athens  must  make  herself  a  naval  power  to 
avert  the  blow.  Already  a  small  war  with  the  i^Cginctan 
islanders,  close  to  her  own  shores,  had  roused  her  energies, 
and  at  the  prompting  of  Themistocles  she  had  built  200 
ships  and  trained  a  number  of  seamen;  .In  480  the  storir 
which  Themistocles  had  clearly  foi-eseen  burst ;  the  greal 
king,  as  ho  was  called,  was  covering  the  land  with  his  troops 
and  the  sea  with  his  ships.  Greece  was  divided  and  panic- 
stricken  ;  Thessaly  and  all  to  the  north  of  Boeotia  had 
joined  the  enemy,  and  the  despair  of  the  remainder  of  the 
Greek  world  was  echoed  by  the  oracle  of  Delphi.  There 
was,  however,  a  word  of  hope  in  the  memorable  phrase  of 
the  "wooden  wall,"'  which,  it  was  generally  felt,  must  point 
to  the  fleet,  more,  however,  with  a  view  to  flight  than  to 
resistance.  Salamis,  too,  was  named  in  the  oracle,  coupled 
with  the  epithet  "divine,"  which  Themistocles  cleverly 
argued  portended  disaster  to  the  enemies  of  the  Greeks 
rather  than  to  the  Greeks  themselves.  It  was -a  great 
achievement  when  he  finally  prevailed  on  his  fellow- 
citizens  to  quit  their  city  and  their  homes — it  seemed  for 
ever — and  to  trust  themselves  to  their  ships.  There  had 
been  some  sea-fights  off  the  northern  shores  of  Euba-a ; 
the  Spartans  had  fallen  at  Thermopyla;,  and  Xerxes  and 
his  host  were  now  laying  waste  Attica,  not,  however,  before 
its  inhabitants  had  conveyed  their  families  to  the  adjacent 
island  of  Salamis,  where  also  the  Greek  fleet  had  taken  up 
its  station,  the  Persian  armada  of  1200  vessels  being  in 
harbour  at  Phalerum.  The  Athenians  from  their  ships 
saw  the  flames  in  which  their  city,  its  acropolis  and  its 
temples,  were  perishing,  but  their  spirits  rose  with 
calamity,  and  with  one  heart,  at  the  bidding  of  Themis- 
tocles, they  called  back  all  of  their  brethren  who  were  in 
temporary  banishment,  Aristides  among  them.  Nearly  two- 
thirds  of  the  entire  fleet  was  theirs,  but  for  the  sake  of 
unity  among  the  allies,  who  would  follow  only  the  lead  of 
Sparta,  they  acquiesced  in  its  being  under  the  command 
of  a  Spartan  admiral.  It  was  clear,  however,  that  the  fate 
of  Greece  now  depended  on  the  action  of  the  Athenians 
and  on  the  prudence  and  ability  of  Themistocles,  by  whom 
they  were  guided.  The  Greeks  of  the  I'cloponncse,  more 
particularly  the  Corinthians,  were  for  moving  the  fleet 
from  Salamis  to  the  isthmus,  as  the  enemy's  land  forces 
were  already  in  possession  of  the  neighbouring  shores  of 
Attica.  Seeing  the  danger  of  yet  further  disunion,  with 
the  probable  result  of  the  breaking  up  and  dispersion  of 
the  fleet,  and  having  in  vain  protested  against  quitting  their 
present  station,  Themistocles  went  straight  to  tho  Spartan 
admiral,  Eurybiades,  and  induced  him  to  call  ani>tlier 
council.  There  was  much  angry  debating,  till  at  last  the 
Spartan  felt  he  must  yield  to  the  threat  of  Themistocles 
that  the  Athenians  would  cither  fight  at  Salamis  or  sail 
away  as  they  were  to  Italy.  Cut  the  Peloponnesian 
Greeks  were  still  dissatisfied,  and  insisted  that  tl  cy  ought' 
to  be  at  the  isthmus  for  the  defence  of  what  yet  remau^ 

*  "  The  wooden  wall  shall  alone  remaiji  uuconquere*!  to  deknd  you 
and  your  children:'*' 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


251 


I 


of  Greece ;  a  third  co«ncU  was  held,  and  Themistocles  felt 
that  its  decision  would  be  against  him,  when,  by  a  sudden 
happy  thought,  he  contrived  to  have  a  secret  message 
conveyed  to  the  commanders  of  the-P8rsian  fleet  through 
bis  slave,  an  Ionian  Greek  from  Asia,  a  man  of  intelligence 
and  education,  and  well  acquainted  with  the  Persian 
language.  The  comraunicatiou  came  in  the  name  of 
Themistoiles,  who  professed  that  he  wished  well  to  the 
king,  and  that  now  was  a  good  opportunity  for  attacking 
and  crushing  the  Greeks,  as  they  were  divided  among 
themselves  and  were  bent  on  flight.  The  strjitagem  was 
successful,  and  the  enemy's  great  armada  advanced  along 
the  coast  of  Attica  that  same  night,  and  took  up  a  posi- 
tion which  effectually  confined  the  Greek  fleet  within  the 
narrow'  strait  between  Salamis  and  the  southern  shore  of 
Attica-  The  Greek  captains,  not  knowing  the  state  of  the 
case,  were  still  wrangling  through  the  night,  when  just 
before  daybreak  the  banished  Aristides  came  from  /Egina 
with  the  news  that  the  Persian  fleet  was  close  at  hand  and 
that  retreat  was  impossible  "Let  us  still  be  rivals,"  he 
said  to  Themistocles,  "  but  let  our  strife  bo  which  can  best 
save  our  country." 

The  great  victory  of  Salamis  (see  vol.  iL  p.  100)  left 
Greece  mistress  of  the  sea,  and  was  followed  by  the  retreat 
of  Xerxes.  Themistocles,  it  is  said,  frightened  the  king 
beck  to  Asia  by  another  secret  message,  to  the  effect  that 
the  victorious  Greeks  were  bent  on  following  him  up  to 
the  Hellespont  and  burning  his  bridge  of  boats,  but  that 
he  was  doing  his  best  to  check  their  ardour,  though  iir, 
reality  he  had  himself  advised  immediate  pursuit  of  the 
enemy  We  cannot  but  admire  the  man's  sagacity  and  far- 
sightedness in  thus  laying  the  king  under  an  obligation 
..hich  he  might  some  day  turn  to  his  own  profit,  though 
we  cannot  but  feel  that  he  had  some  of  the  worst  as  well 
as  some  of  the  most  splendid  characteristics  of  the  Greek 
After  the  victory  Themistocles  sailed  with  the  Athenian 
squadron  through  the^gean,  and  from  some  of  the  islanders 
who  had  sided  with  the  enemy  he  exacted  heavy  fines,  out 
of  which,  it  appears,  he  filled  his  own  purse.  When  the 
Greeks  met  at  the  isthmus  to  decide  according  to  custom 
the  prizes  of  merit  for  the  glorious  day  of  Salamis,  he  re- 
ceived only  the  second  prize,  the  first  being  awarded  to  the 
Spartan  admiral,  but  by  way  of  compensation  he  wa.^  soon 
afterwards  heartily  welcomed  at  Sparta,  and  loaded  with 
honours  so  extraordinary  as  to  imply  that  even  the  Spartans 
themselves  recognized  him  as  the  first  man  in  Greece.  It 
was  not  long,  however,  before  he  gave  them  deadly  offence. 
After  the  victories  of  Plataa  and  Mycale  in  479  the  Athen- 
ians went  back  to  their  desolate  city  and  began  to  rebuild 
and  fortify  it  Jealous  fears  of  the'growing  power  of  Athens 
were  awakened,  and  the  Spartans,  as  representatives  of  the 
Greeks  generally,  formally  protested  against  the  fortifica- 
tion of  a  Greek  city  outside  the  Peloponncse,  on  the  ground 
that  some  future  Persian  invader  might  make  it  a  base  of 
operations  Themistocles  saw  the  dangers  of  Spartan  oppo- 
sition, and  got  the  Athenians  to  commission  him  to  arrange 
matters  along  with  two  other  envoys,  who,  however,  were 
piuposely  not  allowed  to  arrive  at  Spart^  at  the  same  time 
as  himself  He  told  the  Spartan  magistrates  that  before 
he  could  transact  business  with  them  he  must  wait  for  his 
colleagues ;  meanwhile  Athens  was  being  fortified,  eveiy 
man,  woman,  and  child  putting  a  hand  to  the  work,  and  as 
soon  as  Themistocles  Understood  that  it  was  sufficiently  ad 
Tanced  he  declared  openly  that  Athens  would  biook  no  sort 
of  interference.  The  Spartans  felt  they  had  been  tricked, 
but  they  could  do  nothing.  And  now  Themistocles  pro- 
ceeded to  fortify  Pirseus,  and  to  enlarge  the  harbour,  tbos 
providing  Athens  with  an  excellent  naval  dockyard,  and 
holding  out  an  inducement  to  foreigners  to  settle  in  the 
^  Not  more  th&n  a  qoAi'tor  of  a  mile  wide  in  its  narrawesc  part. 


city  for  the  purposes  of  trade.  Twenty  war  ships,  too,  were 
at  his  suggestion  to  be  built  every  year,  and  nothing  left 
undone  to  make  Athens  prosperous  and  powerful 

A  few  years  afterwards  (in  471  probably)  we  find  his 
political  career  terminated  by  a  vote  of  ostracism,  due 
perhaps  in  part  to  Spartan  influence  at  Athens,  and  also 
to  an  offensive  boastfulness  and  ostentation  which  dis- 
gusted the  sensitive  Athenian  democracy.  He  was  even 
charged  with  corrupt  practices  and  with  receiving  bribes 
from  Persia.  From  Argos,  whither  he  had  retired  as  an 
exile,  he  was  forced  to  flee  by  a  threat  of  the  Spartans, 
who  alleged  that  they  had  proofs  of  his  treasonable  com- 
plicity in  the  schemes  of  their  countryman  Pausanias,  and 
to  take  refuge  in  the  island  of  Corcyra;  but  here  again 
he  was  pursued  by  Spartan  and  Athenian  commissioners, 
and  driven  to  seek  the  protection  of  Admetus,  king  of  the 
Molossians,  the  chief  people  of  Epirus.  In  the  court  of 
this  half-Gxeek  half -barbarian  prince  he  found  a  hospitable 
reception,  and  he  was  furnished  with  the  means  of  crossing 
the  .^gean  to  Ephesus.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Asia, 
the  SOD  of  Xerxes,  Artaxerxes,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Persia,  and  to  him  Themistocles  contrivad  to  make  himself 
known  as  a  fugitive  from  ungrateful  Greece,  which  he  had 
saved,  and  uow  ready  and  willing  to  advise  and  assist  the 
king  in  avenging  his  father's  defeat.  He  was  treated,  it 
is  said,  with  marked  respeat,  and  was  liberally  pensioned 
with  the  revenues  of  three  wealthy  towns — Magnesia, 
Myus,  and  Lampsacus.  It  was  at  the  first  of  these,  which 
was  near  the  coast,  and  whence  he  might  be  supposed  to 
ha\  o  opportunities  for  watching  the  affairs  of  Greece,  that 
he  passed  the  last  year  of  his  life,  dying  a  natural  death 
at  the  age  of  65.  The  year  of  his  death  is  not  accurately 
ascertainable  ;  opinions  vary  between  460  and  447. 

Heiodotus,  TUi*  dides,  and  Plutarch  are  our  chief  original 
sources  for  tlie  life  of  Themistocles.  The  subject  is  folly  treated  in 
the  histories  of  Grote  and  ThiilwaU.  (W.  J.  B.) 

THENARD,  Lotns  J.^cqces  (1777-1857),  was  born  on 
the  4th  of  May  1777,  at  Loupti'ire,  near  Nogent-sur-Seine, 
in  Champagne.  His  father,  though  a  poor  man,  sent  him 
to  the  academy  of  Sens,  where  he  received  a  liberal  edu- 
cation. At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
pharmacy  He  attended  the  lectures  of  Fonrcroy  and 
Vauquelin,  and  saw  that  the  only  way  to  learn  chemistry 
was  to  work  at  it.  Vauquelin,  himself  a  poor  man,  ad- 
mitted a  few  students  to  his  laboratory  on  payment  of  a 
fee  of  20  francs  a  month.  But  this  fee  was  prohibitory 
to  the  peasant's  son  ,  the  utmost  that  his  father  could  send 
him  just  kept  him  alive  in  Paris.  Thenard  went  to  Vau- 
quelin and  asked  to  be  allowed  to  do  any  menial  work  for 
him,  if  only  he  would  let  him  assist  in  his  laboratory.  One 
of  Vauquelin 's  sisters  bad  slipped  into  the  room  and  heard 
part  of  the  conversation  :  she  said  to  her  bVofher,  "He  is 
a  good  lad ;  you  should  keep  him  ;  he  will  help  you  in  the 
laboratory,  and  look  after  our  pc.  at  /ea ;  your  dandy 
assistants  always  let  it  boil  "  Thenard  was  engaged  on 
these  terms.  Long  afterwards  he  said  that  be  looked  upon 
the  chemistry  of  the  pot  au  feu  and  the  process  of  sim- 
mering as  of  very  great  importance :  they  had  been  the 
turning-point  of  his  life.  Thenard  assisted  Vauquelin  in 
the  laboratory  and  at  his  lectures,  and,  when  by  starving 
for  a  day  or  two  he  accufflulated  sous  enough  to  pay  for  a 
seat  in  the  gallery,  used  to  go  to  the  theatre  to  improve  his 
pronunciation  and  rub  off  his  rustic  accent. , 

By  and  by  Vauqodin  gave  him  an  opportunity  of 
testing  hk  powers  as  a  lecturer.  Having  to  go  for  some 
days  to  the  country,  he  asked  Thenard  to  take  his  placa 
For  the  first  t.wo  or  three  lectures  his  attention  was  fixed 
on  his  work,  and  his  eyes  did  not  wander  from  the  lecture 
table  On  the  fifth  day  he  ventured  to  look  round  the 
room,  when  to  his  consternation    be   san    Fourciojf  asd 


252 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


Vauquelm  among  tbe  audience.  They  were  so  satisfied 
with  what  they  had  heard  that  they  obtained  for  Thenard 
io  1797  an  appointment  as  teacljer  of  chemistry  in  a 
school,  and  in  1798  the  post  of  rep6titeur  at  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique. 

In  1804  Vauquelin  resigned  the  professorship  of 
chemistry  at  the  College  de  France,  and  successfully  used 
his  influence  to  have  Thenard  appointed.  In  1810  he 
succeeded  Fourcroy  both  as  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
ficole  Polytechnique  and  as  member  of  the  Academy.  He 
was  also  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  faculty 
of  the  sciences.  He  was  made  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour  in  1814,  commander  in  1837,  and  grand  officer  in 
1842  la  182.5  Charles  X.  gave  him  the  title  of  baron; 
from  1 827  to  18-30  he  represented  the  department  of  Yonne 
in  the  chamber  of  deputies.  In  1832  Louis  Philippe  made 
him  a  peer  of  France.  As  vice-president  of  the  conseil 
sup^rieure  de  I'instruction  publique,  he  exejcised  a  great 
influence  on  scientific  education  in  France.  He  died  21st 
June  1857,  and  was  buried  at  La  Ferte,  near  Chalon-sur- 
Saone.  In  1861  a  statue  was  erected  to  him  at  Sens,  and 
in  1865  the  name  of  his  native  village  was  changed  to  La 
Louptiire-Th^nard.  Thenard  was  tall  and  strongly  built, 
his  hair  was  thick  and  black,  his  eyes  bright,  and  his 
manner  active  and  prompt.  He  married,  in  1810,  Mile. 
Humblot,  granddaughter  of  ContS.  His  wife  and  several  of 
his  children  predeceased  him.  He  was  survived  by  his  son 
Paul,  who  had  assisted  bim  in  some  of  his  later  researches. 
I  Thenard  wa§  above  all  things  a  teacher  ;  as  he  himself 
said,  the  professor,  the  assistants,  the  laboratory,  every- 
thing, must  be  sacrificed  to  the  students.  The  history  of 
bis  discovery  of  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen  well  illustrates 
the  predominance  of  the  teacher  in  his  character.  He  was 
lecturing  on  the  formation  of  salts,  and  had  told  his 
students  that  a  metal  must  be  oxidized  to  a  certain  extent 
in  order  that  it  may  combine  with  an  acid  to  form  a  salt ; 
if  the  metal  be  -combined  with  more  than  the  proper 
quantity  of  oxygen,  the  excess  of  oxygen  will  be  given  off 
when  the  oxide  is  treated  with  an  acid,  and,  as  an  illus- 
tration, he  mentioned  the  action  of  acids  on  peroxide  of 
barium.  As  he  spoke  his  conscience  smote  him,  for  the 
experiment  had  not  been  made.  Immediately  after  lecture 
he  mixed  peroxide  of  barium  and  nitric  acid,  keeping  the 
temperature  low  by  means  of  ice.  He  was  surprised  to 
see  the  peroxide  dissolve  without  any  evolution  of  gas. 
Ho  left  the  mixture  standing,  and  next  day,  before 
lecture,  noticed  small  bubbles  of  gas  rising  from  it.  Pour- 
ing some  of  the  liquid  into  a  test-tube  and  warming  it,  he 
saw  a  large  amount  of  gas  escape,  whidh  he  easily  recog- 
nized as  pure  oxygen.  At  first  he  thought  the  acid  had 
been  oxidized,  but  he  soon  saw  the  true  explanation  of 
.ithe  phenomena,  and  discovered  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 
His  lecture  experiments  were  few,  woU-chosen,  and  accur- 
ately performed.  If  any  failure  occurred  he  would  roundly 
scold  his  assistant,  often  apologizing  for  his  vehemence 
when  the  short  fit  of  auger  was  over  His  lecture  room, 
seated  for  1000,  was  almost  always  crowded  by  eager  and 
.  attentive  students  and  visitors. 

Like  most  great  teachers,  Tlicnard  pubUshed  a  text-book,  and 
perhaps  we  may  say  that  bv  his  Train  dc  Chi-mie  J^Urmntairc, 
Thioriquc  cl  Praliqiic  (4  vol's  .  Paris,  1813-16;  6th  eA,  5  v«ls., 
1833-30)  he  did  even  more  to  further  the  progress  of  the  science 
than  by  his  numerous  and  important  original  discoveiies.  His 
first  original  paper  (1799)  was  on  the  compounds  of  arsenic  and 
antimony  with  o.xygcn  and  sulphur  Careful  analyses  led  hira  to 
cooflusiona  as  to  the  composition  of  the  metallic  oxides  contra, 
dictory  of  some  of  Bertbollcl's  theoretical  views;  he  also  showed 
(1802)  that  BerthoHet's  "zoonic  acid"  was  impure  acetic  acid. 
BerthoUet,  far  from  resenting  these  corrections  from  a  younger 
man,  took  this  opportunity  of  introducing  himself,  and  invited 
Thenard  to  become  a  member  of  tho  "Socicti  d'ArcueU,"  to  the 
proceedings  of  which  Thenard  contributed  important  papers.  Soon 
after  lufl  appointment  as  repetiteur  at  the   Ecole  Polytechniqtie 


Thenard  made  the  acquaintance  of  Gay-Luaaac,  and  formed  witl^ 
him  a  lifelong  friendship.  Their  joint  work,  and  its  relation  to 
the  discoveries  of  Davy,  have  been  fully  recorded  in  the  article  Cay- 
Lu.sSAC  Of  his  separate- investigations  perhaps  the  most  important 
IS  that  on  the  compound  ethers,  begun  in  1S07.  He  showed  that 
each  acid  gives  its  own  ether,  and  th^t  the  acid  and  alcohol  can  bo 
recovered  by  decomposiag  the  ether  by  means  of  caustic  alkali. 
His  discovery  of  pcro.xide  of  hydrogen  (181S)  has  already  been 
described.  His  researches  on  sebacic  acid  (1802)  and  on  bile  (1807) 
also  deserve  special  notice-  The  blue  substance  known  as  Thenard's- 
blue  (essentially  aluminate  of  cobalt)  was  prepared  by  bim  in 
response  to  a  demand  by  Chaptal  for  a  cheap  blue,  as  bright  as 
ultramarine,  and  capable  of  standing  the  temperature  of  the  porce- 
lain furnace 

Th(!nftrd'8  rc-iearcbes  were  chleHy  puoiisncd  IQ  the  Annalta  de  Chimie  ef  de 
Physitjue,  in  llie  Afemotrcs  dt  la  Soct^te  J'Jtcuex/.Rnd  iD  Uie  Comptu  Rendus  Hnd 
tbe  A/^mctres  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  (A,  C.  B  ) 

THEOBALD,  Lewis  (1688-1744),  will  suivive  as  the 
prime  butt  of  the  original  Dunciad  when  as  a  playwright, 
a  litterateur,  a  translator,  and  even  as  a  Shakespearean 
commentator,  he  will  be  entirely  forgotten.  The  son  of  an 
attorney,  Theobald  was  born  at  Sittingbourne,  in  Kent,  in 
1688,  and,  after  a  moderate  education  at  Isleworth,  studied 
for  the  profession  of  law, — a  profession,  however,  which  h& 
never  practised.  He  was  a  man  with  literary  impulses, 
but  without  genius,  even  of  a  superficial  kind ;  as  a, 
student,  as  a  commentator,  he  might  have  led  a  happy  and 
enviable  life,  had  not  the  vanity  of  the  literary  idea  led 
him  into  a  false  position.  His  Persian  Princess  (1711) 
and  his  Elcclra  (1714)  gained  no  distinction.  Li  1726' 
The  Double  Falsehood  had  a  certain  vogue,  partly  from 
Theobald's  pretence  that  the  greater  part  of  the  play  was 
by  Shakespeare.  In  1717  he  commenced  a  series  of  papers- 
(uot  to  "  The  Censor,"  as  has  sometimes  been  stated,  but 
under  that  title)  which  appeared  in  Mist's  Weekly  Jojirmxl  j 
these  do  not  seem  to  have  been  highly  thought  of  by  his- 
contemporaries,  but  they  were  successful  in  gaining  for 
Theobald  not  a  few  enemies,  among  whom  Dennis  may 
be  named.  Seven  or  eight  years  later  Theobald's  cen- 
sorious tendencies  had  intensified  rather  than  moderated,, 
and  in  1726  he  ventured  to  attack  the  most  eminent 
literary  man  of  the  day  in  his  Shakespear  Restored,  or  .i 
Specimen  of  ike  many  Errors  as  vjell  committed  as  unamended 
by  Mr  Pope  in  his  edition  of  this  Poet.  Two  years  later  tho 
censor  was  himself  castigated  severely,  and,  as  the  dedicatee 
of  The  Dunciad,  he  had  long  an  unenviable  notoriety  ;  as- 
readers  of  the  famous  satire  will  remember,  be  occupied- 
the  place  of  chief  victim  until  replaced  by  Colley  Cibber 
in  1743.  In  the  matter  of  Shakespeare  editing,  however, 
he  had  tho  advantage  of  his  powerful  rival.  When  in 
1733  Theobald  published  his  edition  of  Shakespeare  in 
seven  volumes,  that  of  Pope  had  to  go  to  the  wall.  Lewis 
Theobald  wrote  other  dramas  besides  those  already  men- 
tioned, and  translated  plays  from  Sophocles  and  Aristo- 
phanes, besides  a  rendering  of  Plato's  Ph-xdo  and  a  part 
translation  of  the  Odyssey ;  but  for  none  of  these  things- 
is  he  now  remembered.  The  student  of  English  history 
might  find  it  worth  while  to  glance  through  Theobald'a- 
Life  of  Raleigh  (1719).  He  died  in  1744. 
For  plays,  &c  ,  see  the  Biographia  Dramoika,  voL  L 
THEOCRITUS,  of  Syracuse,  the  foremost  Greek  pas- 
toral poet,  lived  a  life  of  which  nothing  is  known  except 
from  allusions  in  his  own  works.  Tho  epigram  appended 
to  his  poems  makes  him  say,  "  I  am  a  Syracusan,  a  man 
of  the  people^  a  son  of  Praxagoras  and  Philinna."  He 
must  have  been  born  early  in  the  3d  century,'  Smong  a 
Doriau  people,  whose  Dorian  speech  survives  in  his' 
rural  idyls.  These  "  little  pictures  "  chiefly  represent  the; 
life  of  shepherds,  neat-herds,  and  fishermen  in  the  woods- 
and  on  the  shores  of  Sicily.  They  are  doubtless  inspired  i 
by  the  popular  poetry  of  his  time,  and  have  much  in 
common  with  the  Romaic  chants  of  tho  modern  Greek 
shepherds.     The  first  idyl  Ls  a  song  on  Daphnis,  the  ideal 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


253 


tierdsin&n,  sung  by  the  shepherd  Thyrsis  to  a  goatherd. 
The  second  is  the  magical  chant  which  Simastha  pours 
forth  to  the  magic  moon,  in  the  hope  of  recovering  her 
lover.  In  ihe  third  a  goatherd  sings  to  his  love, 
Amaryllis.  The  fourth  is  an  interchange  of  rude  banter 
between  two  country  fellows ;  and  the  fifth  is  of  the  same 
kind.  The  scenes  are  in  southern  Italy.  The  sixth  is  a 
Sicilian  singing  match  between  two  ideal  herdsmen, — not 
contemporary  rustics,  but  poets  of  nobler  themes.  The 
scene  of  the  seventh  is  in  Cos,  where  the  poet  introduces 
himself  at  a  singing  match.  He  may  have  been  attached 
to  the  Asclepian  medical  school  in  Cos  ;  his  friend  Nicias 
was  a  physician.  Sicily  and  rival  minstrels  occupy  the 
ninth  idyl.  The  tenth  contains  probably  some  real 
popular  ditties,  chanted  by  the  reapers.  The  eleventh, 
addressed  to  Nicias,  is  a  piece  of  artificial  mythological 
genre,  "  The  Cyclops  in  Love."  The  twelfth  is  a  lyric, 
almost  of  passionate  affection.  The  thirteenth. is  another 
idyl  on  a  mythical  topic,  the  adventures  of  Hercules  and 
Hylas.  The  fouirteenth  and  fifteenth  are  sketches  of 
military  and  urban  life,  the  mercenary  soldier  in  love,  and 
the  gathering  at  the,  Adonis  feast  in  Alexandria.  Theo- 
critus had  wandered  to  the  court  of  Ptolemy,  and  joined 
the  literary  society  of  his  court.-  The  sixteenth  is  a 
patriotic  piece:  the  poet  urges  Hiero  to  assail  the 
Carthaginians  in  Sicily.  The  seventeenth  is  a  copven- 
tional  hymn  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  on  his  marriage 
with  his  sister.  The  eighteenth  is  an  epithalamium  ;  the 
nineteenth  a  tiny  picture  of  Eros  stung  by  a  bee  ;  the 
twentieth  is  the  complaint  of  a  herdsman  rejected  by  a 
girl  of  the  town ;  the  twenty-first  an  idyl  of  fisher  life : 
two  poor  old  fishermen  recount  their  dreams.  The 
twenty-second  idyl  is  a  piece  of  heroic  myth,  the  adven- 
tures of  Castor  and  Polydeuces  ;  and  the  twenty-fourth  is 
a  tiny  epic  on  the  infancy  of  Hercules.  The  twenty-third 
is  an  amorous  complaint.  The  twenty-fifth  describes  the 
slaughter  by  Hercules  of  the  Nemean  lion.  The  twenty- 
siith  justifies,  in  the  interests  of  the  ritual  of  Dionysus, 
the  murder  of  the  curious  Pentheus.  The  twenty-seventh 
is  the  "  Wooing  of  Daphnis,"  or  "Oaristys,"  an  amorous 
discourse  between  a  girl  and  a  swain.  The  twenty-eighth 
is  a  graceful  piece  of  vers  de  societe,  sent  to  a  lady  with  the 
gift  of  an  ivory  distaff.  The  twenty-ninth  is  amorous ; 
and  there  remain  an  imperfect  and  a  spurious  piece,  and 
a  set  of  twenty-three  epigrams.  * 

On  a  general  view,  Theocritus's  surviving  poems  turn  out 
to  be — (1)  rural  idyls,  the  patterns  of  Virgil's  eclogues, 
-and  of  all  later  pastoral  poetry  -,.(2)  minute  epics,  or  cabinet 
pictures  from  mythology ;  (3)  sketches  of  contemporary 
life  in  verse  ;  (4)  courtly  compositions ;  and  (5)  expressions 
of  personal  kindliness  and  attachment.  The  first  category 
and  the  third  are  those  on  which  the  fame  of  Theocritus 
depends.  His  verse  has  a  wonderful  Doric  melody ;  his 
-shepherds  are  natural  Southern  people :  it  is  not  his  fault 
that  what  he  wrote  truly  of  them  has  become  a  false 
commonplace  in  the  pastoral  poetry  of  the  North. 

Of  Theocritus's  own  life  we  only  know  what  has  been 
recorded,  that  he  lived  in  Syracuse,  Cos,  and  Alexandria, 
and  that  he  was  acquainted  with  Nicias,  with  Aratus,  the 
astronomical  writer,  and  with  Philinus,  head  of  a  school 
or  sect  of  physicians.  The  rest  is  silence  or  conjecture. 
Suidas  says  that,  in  addition  to  the  surviving  poems,  the 
Proettdse,  the  Hopes,  Hymns,  the  h'eroines,  Dirges,  Elegies, 
and  Iambics  were  attributed  to  him. 

The  charm  of  Theocritus  can  ooly  be  tasted  in  his  original 
Doric,  but  the  best  English  version  is  by  Mr  C.  S.  Calverley. 
M.  Count's  book  on  the  Alexandrine  school  of  poetry  may  be  re- 
commended. J.  Hauler,  De  Theoc.  Vita  el  Carmivibus  (Freiburg, 
1855),  HempeU  QuifsL  Theoc.  (Kiel,  1881),  and  Rannow,  Studia 
TAsocritea  ( Borlin,  1886),  may  also  be  found  useful.  The  best  Eng. 
lish  ei  ition  of  the  poems  is  that  of  Bishop  Wordsworth.      CA.  L.) 


THEODOLITE.    .See  Surveying.  _ 

THEODORA,  the  wife  of  the  emperor  JnsTiNijiN(7.v.); 
was  born  probably  in  Constantinople,  though  according  to 
some  in  Cyprus,  in  the  early  years  of  the  Cth  century,  and 
died  in  547.  We  shall  first  give  the  usually  received  ac- 
count of  her  life  and  character,  and  then  proceed  to  inquire 
how  far  this  account  deserves  to  bo  accepted.  According 
to  Procopius,  our  chief,  but  by  no  means  a  trustworthy 
authority  for  her  life,  she  was  the  daughter  of  Acacius,  a 
bear-feeder  of  the  amphitheatre  at  Constantinople  to  the 
Green  Faction,  and  while  still  a  child  was  sent  on  to  the 
stage  to  earn  her  living  in  the  performances  called  mimes. 
She  had  no  gift  for  either  music  or  dancing,  but  made  her- 
self notorious  by  the  spirit  and  impudence  of  her  acting  in 
the  rough  farces,  as  one  may  call  them,  which  delighted  the 
crowd  of  the  capital.  Becoming  a  noted  courtesan,  she 
accompanied  a  certain  Hecebolys  to  Pontapolis  (in  North 
Africa),  of  which  he  had  been  appointed  governor,  and, 
having  quarrelled  with  him,  betook  herself  first  to  Alex- 
andria, and  then  back  to  Constantinople  through  the  cities 
of  Asia  Minor.  In  Constantinople  (where,  according  to  a 
late  but  apparently  not  quite  groundless  story,  she  now 
endeavoured  to  support  herself  by  spinning,  and  may  there- 
fore have  been  trying  to  reform  her  life)  she  attracted  the 
notice  of  Justinian,  then  jiatrician,  and,  as  the  all-powerful 
nephew  of  the  emperor  Justin,  practically  ruler  of  the  em- 
pire. He  desired  to  marry  her,  but  could  not  overcome 
the  oppositior  of  his  aunt,  the  em[iress  Euphcmia.  After 
her  death  (usually  assigned  to  the  year  523)  the  emperor, 
yielded,  and,  as  a  law,  dating  from  the  time  of  Constantine,' 
forbade  the  marriage  of  women  who  had  followed  the  stage 
with  senators,  this  law  was  repealed.  Thereupon  Justinian 
married  Theodora,  whom  he  had  already  caused  to  be  raised 
to  the  patriciate.  They  were  some  time  after  (527)  admitted 
by  Justin  to  a  share  in  the  sovereignty;  and,  on  his  death 
four  months  later,  J  ustinian  and  Theodora  became  sole  rulers 
of  the  Roman  world.  He  was  then  about  forty-four  years  of 
age,  and  she  some  twenty  years  younger.  Procopius  relates 
in  his  unpublished  history  ('ArcKSora)  many  repulsive  tales 
regarding  Theodora's  earlier  life,  but  his  evident  hatred  of 
her,  though  she  had  been  more  than  ten  years  dead  when 
the  Aneedota  were  written,  and  llie  extravagances  which 
the  book  contains,  oblige  us  to  regard  him  as  a  very  doubt- 
ful witness.  Some  confirmation  of  the  reported  opposition 
of  the  imperial  family  to  the  marriage  has  been  found  in 
the  story  regarding  the  conduct  of  Justinian's  own  mother 
Vigilantia,  which  Nicholas  Alemanni,  the  first  editor  of 
the  Aneedota,  in  his  notes  to  that  book,  quotes  fiora  a 
certain  "  Life  of  Justinian  "  by  Theophilus,  to  which  he 
frequently  refers,  without  saying  where  lie  found  it. 
Since  the  article  Justinia.n  {q.v.)  was  published,  the  pre- 
sent writer  has  discovered  in  Rome  what  is  believed  to  be 
the  only  MS.  of  this  so-called  life  of  Justinian  ;  and  his 
examination  of  its  contents,  which  he  has  lately  published, 
makes  him  think  it  worthless  as  an  authority.  See  article 
Theophilos. 

Theodora  speedily  acquired  unbounded  influence  over 
her  husband.  He  consulted  her  in  everything,  and  allowed 
her  .to  interfere  directly,  as  and  when  she  pleased,  in  the 
government  of  the  empire.  She  had  a  right  to  interfere, 
for  she  was  not  merely  his  consort,  but  empress  regnant, 
and  as  such  entitled  equally  with  himself  to  the  exercise 
of  all  prerogatives.  In  the  most  terrible  crisis  of  Justin- 
ian's reign,  the  great  Nika  insurrection  of  532,  her  courage 
and  firmness  in  refusing  to  fly  when  the  rebels  were  attack- 
ing the  palace  saved  her  husband's  crown,  and  no  doubt 
strengthened  her  command  over  his  mind.  Officials  took 
an  oath  of  allegiance  to  her  as  well  as  to  the  emperor  {Nov., 
viii.).  She  even  corrc-^jonded  with  foreign  ambassadors, 
and  instructed  Belisarius  how  to  deal  with  the  popes.    PrcH 


254 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


copius  describes  her  as  acting  with  harshness,  seizing  on 
trivial  pretexts  persons  who  had  offended  her,  stripping 
some  of  their  property,  throwing  others  into  dungeons, 
where  they  were  cruelly  tortured  or  kept  for  years  without 
the  knowledge  of  their  friends.  The  city  was  full  of  her 
spies,  who  reported  to  her  everything  said  against  herself 
or  the  administration.  She  surrounded  herself  with  cere- 
monious pomp,  and  required  all  who  approached  to  abase 
themselves  in  a  manner  new  even  to  that  half-Orieatal 
court.  She  was  an  incessant  and  tyrannical  matchmaker, 
forcing  men  to  accept  wives  and  women  to  accept  husbands 
at  her  caprice.  She  constituted  herself  the  protectress  of 
jfaithless  wives  against,  outraged  husbands,  yet  professed 
great  zeal  for  the  moral  reformation  of  the  city,  enforcing 
severely  the  laws  against  vice,  and  immuring  in  a  "  house 
of  repentance "  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bosphoms  five 
hundred  courtesans  whom  she  had  swept  out  of  the  streets 
of  the  capital.  How  much  of  all  this,  is  true  we  have  no 
means  of  determining,  for  it  rests  on  the  sole  word  of 
Procopius.  But  there  are  slight  indications  in  other 
^writers  that  she  had  a  reputation  for  severity. 
/  In  the  religious  strife  which  distracted  the  empire 
iTheodora  took  'part  with  the  Monophysites,.  and.  her 
coterie  usually  contained  several  leading  prelates  and. 
monks  of  that  party.  As  Justinian  was  a  warm  upholder 
of  the  decrees  of  Chalcedon,  this  difference  of  the  royal 
pair  excited  much  remark  and  indeed  much  suspicion. 
Many  saw  in  it  a  design  to  penetrate  the  secrets  of  both 
ecclesiastical  factions,  and  so  to  rule  more  securely.  In 
other  matters  also  the  wife  spoke  and  acted  very  differently 
from  the  husband  ;  but  their  differences  do  not  seem  to 
have  disturbed  either  his  affection  or  his  confidence.  The 
maxim  in  Constantinople  was  that  the  empress  was  a 
stronger  and  a  safer  friend  than  the  emperor  ;  for,  while 
he  abandoned  his  favourites  to  her  wrath,  she  stood  by 
her  protcigis,  and  never  failed  to  punish  any  one  whose 
heedless  tongue  had  assailed  her  character. 
.1  Theodora  bore  to  Justinian  no  son,  but  one  daughter, — 
at  least  it  would  seem  that  her  grandson,  who  is  twice  men- 
tioned, was  the  offspring  of  a  legitimate  daughter,  whose 
name,  however,  is  not  given.  According  to  Procopius, 
she  had  before  her  marriage  become  the  mother  of  a  son, 
who  when  grown  up  returned  from  Arabia,  revealed  himself 
to  her,  and  forthwith  disappeared  for  ever ;  but  this  is  a 
story  to  be  received  with  distrust.  That  her  behaviour  as 
a  wife  was  irreproachable  may  be  gathered,  from  the  fact 
that  Prqcopius  mentions  only  one  scandal  affecting  it,  the 
case  of  Areobindus.  Even  he  does  not  seem  to  believe  this 
case,  for,  while  referring  to  it  as  a  mere  rumour,  the  only 
proof  he  gives  is  that,  suspecting  Areobindus  of  some  offence, 
she  had  torture  applied  to  this  supposed  paramour.  Her 
health  was  delicate,  and,  though  she  took  all  possible  care 
of  it,  frec)uently  quilting  the  capital  for  the  seclusion  of  her 
villas  on  the  Asiatic  shore,  she  died  comparatively  young. 
Theodora  was  small  in  stature  and  rather  pale,  but  with  a 
graceful  figure,  beautiful  features,  and  a  piercing  glance. 
There  remains  in  the  apse  of  the  famous  church  of  St 
iVitale  at  Puavcnna  a  contemporaneous  mosaic  portrait  of 
her,  to  which  the  artist,  notwithstanding  the  stiffness 
of  the  material,  has  succeeded  in  giving  some  character. 

r  The  above  account  is  in  substance  that  wliich  liistoriansof  the  last 
two  centuries  and  a  half  have  acct-plcJ  and  repealed  re^rdinft  this 
fart\i3us  cm  press.  IJulitmust  be  admitted  to  be  open  to  serious  doubts. 
Evcrylbuif:  relating  to  the  early  career  of  Theodora,  the  faults  of 
ber  girlhood,  the  charges  of  cruelty  and  insolence  in  her  government 
of  the  empire,  rest  on  the  sole  autlionty  of  the  Anccdota  of  Proco- 
pius,— a  book  whose  credit  is  shaken  by  its  bitterness  and  extra- 
vagaoco.  If  wo  reject  it,  little  is  left  against  her,  except  of  course 
that  action  in  ecclesiastical  aHairs  wliich  excited  tlic  wrath  of  Baro- 
nius,  who  had  denounced  her  before  the  Anecdola  were  published. 

Id  favour  of  the  picture  which  Procopitis  gives  of  the  empress  it 
may  be  argued  (1)  that  she  certainly  did  interfere  constantly  an4 


arbitrarily  in  the  administration  of  public  affairs,  and  showed  her- 
self therein  the  kind  of  person  who  would  be  cruel  and  unscrupul- 
ous in  her  choice  of  means,  and  (2)  that  we  gather  from  other 
writer^  an  impression  that  she  was  harsh  and  tyrannical,  as,  for 
instance,  from  the  references  to  her  in  the  lives  of  the  popes  in  the 
Liber  Ponlificalis  (which  used  to  pass  under  the  name  of^Anastasius, 
the  papal  hbtarian).  Her  threat  to  the  person  whom  she  com- 
manded to  bring' Vigilins  to  her  was  *'nisi  hoc  feceris,  per  Viventem 
in  saecula  excoriari  te  faciam.'*  Mnch  of  what  we  find  in  these 
lives  is  legendary,  but  they  are  some  evidence  of  Theodora's  reputa- 
tion.  Again  (3)  the  statute  [Cod.,  v.  4,  28)  which  repeals  the  older 
law  so  far  as  relates  to  scenicsB  mulUrea  is  now  generally  attributed 
to  Justin,  and  agrees  with  the  statement  of  Procopius  that  an 
alteration  of  the  law  was  made  to  legalize  her  marriage.  There  is 
therefore  reason  for  holding  that  she  was  an  actress,  and,  consider- 
ing what  the  Byzantine  sta^  was  (as  appears  even  by  the  statute 
in  question),  her  Ufe  cannot  have  been  irreproachable. 

Against  the  evidence  of  Procopius,  with  such  confjnnations  as 
have  been  indicated,  there  is  to  be  set  the  silence  of  other  writers, 
contemporaries  Uke  Agathias  and  Evagrius,  as  well  as  such  later 
historians  as  Theojihanes,  none  of  whom  repeat  the  charges  as  to 
Theodora's  life  before  her  marriage.  To  this  consideration  no 
great  weight  need  be  attached  It  is  difficult  to  establish  any 
view  of  the  controversy  without  a  long  and  minute  examination  of 
the  authoriries,  and  in  particular  of  the  ^lucdola.  But  the  most 
probable  conclusions  seem  to  be — (1)  that  the  odious  details  which 
JProcopius  gives,  and  which  Gibbon  did  not  blush  to  copy,  deserve 
no  more  weight  than  would  bo  given  nowadays  to  the  maUgnent 
scandal  of  dtSappointed  conrtiers  under  a  despotic  government, 
where  scatidal  is  all  the  blacker  because  it  is  propagated  in  secret 
(see  PKOCOPrcs);  (2)  that  apparently  she  was  an  actress  and  a. 
courtesan,  and  not  improbably  conspicuous  in  both  tbose-charac- 
ters ;  and  (3)  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  how  far  the  specific 
charges  of  cruelty  and  oppression  brought  against  her  by  Procopius 
deserve  credence.  We  are  not  bound  to  accept  them,  for  they  are 
nncoiToborated ;  yet  the  accounts  of  Justinian's  government  gireii 
Lq  the  Anadcta  agree  in  too  many  respects  with  what  we  know 
aliunde  to  enable  us  to  reject  them  altogether  ;  and  it  must  b« 
admitted  that  there  is  a  certain  internal  consistency  in  the  whole 
picture  which  the  AnecUcta  present  of  the  empres.s.  About  the 
beauty,  the  intellectual  gifts,  and  the  imperions  will  of  Theodora 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  for  as  to  these  all  our  anthorities  agree.  She 
was  evidently  an  extraordinary  person,  bora  to  shine  in  any  station 

oflifo- 

Her  fortunes  have  employed  many  pens—  Among  the  latest 
serious  works  dealing  with  them  may  be  menrioned  M.  Antonin 
Debidour's  L'lmy^ratricc  Thtodora;  £tude  Critique,  Paris,  1885, 
which  endeavours  to  vindicate  her  from  the  aspersions  of  Procopius ; 
and  among  more  imaginative  writings  are  Sir  Henry  Pottinger'B 
interesting  romance  illue  and  Gretii  (Ixindon,  Hmst  and  Blackett, 
1S79),  M.  Rhangabe's  tragedy  ©toSoipa  (Leipsic,  1884),  and  M. 
Sardou's  play  Theodora,  produced  in  Paris  in  1884.  See  also  Dr 
F.  Dahn's  Prokopios  von  Casarca,  1865.  CJ'  BE.) 

THEODORE  oj  Mopsotstia,  the  most  feminent  repre- 
sentative of  the  so-called  school  of  Antioch,  ffce  beginnings, 
of  which  date  from  about  the  middle  of  the  34  centuryl 
(see  LUCU.N  and  Paul  of  Samosata).  He  was  \>om  at 
Antioch  about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century,  and  'was  a 
friend  of  Chrysostcm  ;  in  rhetoric  the  celebrated  Libaniljsl 
was  -his  teacher.  Soon,  however,  he  attached  himself  to 
the  school  of  the  great  esegete  and  asce'  ■,  Diodorus,  a; 
presbyter  in  Antioch,  and,  w  ith  only  a  transitory  period  of  [ 
vacillation,  he  ever  afterwards  remained  faithful  to  the^ 
theology  and  ascetic  discipline  of  this  master.  Underj 
Diodorus  he  became  a  skilful  exegete,  and  ultimately  tha, 
pupil  outstripped  the  master  in  Biblical  learning.  About| 
383  Theodore  became  a  presbyter  in  Ajitioch,  and  begaa 
to  write  against  Eunomius  the  Arian.  and  against  the 
christology  of  ApolUnaris.  Soon  after  392  he  be<Same 
bishop  of  Mopsuestia  in  CUicia  (the  modem  Missis  neai; 
Adana).  *  As  such  he  was  held  in  great  respect,  and  took 
part  in  several  synods,  with  a  reputation  for  orthodoxy  that 
was  never  questioned.  It  was  greatly  to  his  advantage  that 
in  the  Eastern  Chiirch  the  period  between  the  years  390 
and  428  was  one  of  comparative  repose.  He  was  on  friendly 
terms  even  with  CyrU  of  Alexandria.  He  died  in  428  or  429; 
towards  the  beginning  of  the  Nestorian  controversy. 

Theodore  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  but,  before  all,  an  exegete. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  almost  every  book  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  of  which,  however,  only  a  small  proportion  is  now 


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265 


extant,  aa  at  a  later  period  he  lost  credit  in  the  church.  We  still 
possess  in  Greek  hi3  commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets,  and  in 
lAtiu  translations  commentaries  on  the  minor  Pauline  epistles, 
besides  very  many  fragments,  especially  of  that  on  the  epistle  to 
the  Romans.  Theodore's  importance  as  an  exegete  lies  in  two  char- 
acteristics:—<I)  in  opposition  to  the  allegorical-method  he  insists 
QD  getting  at  the  literal  meaning,  and  adheres  to  it  when  found; 
(2)  m  his  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  he  takes  into  account  the 
historical  circumstances  in  which  tney  were  produced,  and  substi- 
totes  the  historical- typological  for  the  pneumatico-chnstological 
interpretation  of  prophecy;  in  other  words,  he  interprets  all  Old 
Testament  pai*sages  historically  in  the  first  instance,  and  sees  the 
fulfilment  ot  Old  Testament  prophecy  in  the  history  of  Christ  and 
Hifl  church  only  m  so  far  as  tne  entire  Old  Testament  is  a  "  shadow 
of  thmgs  to  como. "  Following  his  master  Diodorus,  who  had 
already  written  a  treatise  Tip  5io0opd  $fopplas  Kcd  iiW-nyoptosx 
Theodore  also  was  the  author  of  a  special  dissertation  against  the 
ftUegonsts.  i.e.,  against  Ongen  and  his  followers,  which,  however, 
has  unfortunately  perished.  The  comparative  freedom  of  Theodore's 
view  of  inspiration  is  also  noteworthy.  He  discriminates  between 
historical,  prophetical,  and  didactic  writings,  and  in  accordance  with 
this  distinction  assumes  varying  degrees  of  inspiration.  Finally, 
he  entertained  very  bold  opinions  about  the  canon  and  several  of 
the  books  included  in  it.  He  esteemed  very  lightly  the  Solomonic 
writings  and  the  book  of  Job  ;  Canticles  he  explained  as  a  nuptial 
poem  of  Solomon's;  the  book  of  Job  appeared  to  him  in  many 
places  hardly  worthy  of  its  subject,  and  he  censu/es  the  wnter 
sharply;  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiahhe  entirely  rejected,  he 
denied  the  accuracy  of  the  titles  of  the  Psalms,  and  relerred  the 
so-called  Messianic  element  almost  invariably  to  the  kings  of  Israel ; 
he  even  criticized  the  catholic  epistles  and  rejected  the  .epistle  of 
James.  His  commentaries  contain  a  great  deal  of  learned  matter, 
and  ha  grammatico-histoncal  observations  are  still  to  some  extent 
Useful.  But,  on  the  other  hanrl,  his  learmng  must  not  be  over- 
estimated. It  falls  behind  that  of  Ongen.  Eusebius,  and  Jerome, 
notwithstanding  the  supenority  of  his  method.  It  is  specially 
noticeable  thai  Theodore  troubled  hunself  little  about  textual 
criticism.  He  simply  accepts  the  text  of  the  LXX.  as  that  of 
revelation,  and  never  manifest^  the  slightest  effort  to  control  it  by 
the  onginal  or  by  the  Synac. 

But  in  addition  to  his  commentanes  Theodore  also  wrote  extensive 
dogma tico- polemical  works,  which  wero  destined  to  operate  long 
after  his  death  disastrously  for  his  fame.  As  a  disciple  of  Diodorus, 
Theodore  accepted  the  hicene  teaching  on  ihe  doctnne  of  the 
Trinity,  but  at  the  same  time  in  chnstology  took  up  a  position 
very  closely  approaching  that  of  Paul  of  Sauiosata-  The  violence 
of  his  opposition  to  his  fellow  countryman,  ApoUinans  of  Laodjcea, 
perhaps  the  most  acute  and  far-seeing  theologian  of  the  century, 
made  it  necessary  for  Theodore  to  formulate  his  chnstology  with 
precision  (in  tifteen  books  on  the  Incarnation — all  lost  except  a  few 
fragments — and  in  special  treatises  against  Apollinans).  He  held 
the  Logos  to  have  assumed  a  complete  manhood,  which  had  to  pass 
through  the  stages  of  ethical  development  just  as  in  the  case  of  any 
Other  human  being,  (n  this  the  Logos  only  supported  the  man 
Chnst  Jesus,  but  was  not  essentially  connected  with  him;  the  Logos 
dwelt  in  him  (4}/otKctv).  but  any  such  thing  as  t i/wo-ii  0v(TiK-f)  did  not 
and  could  not  exist,  because  the  finite  is  not  "  capax  inhniti,"  and 
because  any  tvoxns  would  have  destroyed  the  reality  of  the  human 
nature.  The  same  sober  and  thoughtful  way  of  looking  at  things, 
and  the  same  tendency  to  give  prominence  to  the  moral  element, 
which  characterize  the  commentan^'s  oi  Theodore  appear  also  in  his 
dogmatic.  When,  accordingly,  wtie  Nestonan  controversy  broke 
out,  his  works  also  were  dragged  into  the  discussion  At  Ephe-sus, 
indeed,  the  memory  of  Theodore  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
attacked,^  but  soon  afterwards  the  assault  began.  Manus  Mercator, 
Rabnlas  of  Edessa,  Cyril,  and  other  monophysites  brought  the 
charge  of  heresy  against  his  writings,  and  sought  to  counteract 
their  influence.  But  it  was  not  until  more  than  a  century  after- 
wards that  his  fanatical  adversanes  succeeded — id  apite  of  the 
strong  opposition  of  the  best  theologians  of  the  West — in  obtaining 
from  Justinian  the  condemnation  of  his  works  m  the  controversy 
of  the  Tria  Capitula,  as  it  is  called  ;  this  act  of  the  emperor  was  con- 
firmed by  the  fifth  CEcnmenical  council,  and  Theodore's  name  was 
accordingly  deleted  from  the  list  of  orthodox  writers.  From  that 
day  Theodore's  works  ceased  to  be  read  within  the  Byzantine  Church, 
and  hence  have  been  lost.  The  Synans.  on  the  other  hand,  have 
always  held  in  high  esteem  the  memory  of  the  great  teacher,  and 
have  even  earned  back  their  liturgy  to  his  name.  The  Nestonans 
possess,  or  possessed,  a  very  large  number  of  writings  by  him  m 
Synac  translations.^ 

Theodore  took  part  also  in  the  Pelagian  controversy  at  the  time 
when  It  raged  in  Palestine.     In  the  treatise,  only  partially  pre- 

JSTved,'    llpbs    ToiPf    Af70*'Toi    <PviT(t    Kai    ov    yvai^i^    irraiftv    rov% 

<^  -• -       ■  ■  -  '    ■  ■-..■■  I 

I  A  confession,  however,  drawn  op  by  blm  was  spoken  of;  lee  Haho,  Biblioth. 

Itr  Sifmhole,  2d  ed..  p.  229  iq. 

■    *  Sec  the  camlotrae  In  Aesemanl,  Biht.  Or..  11*.  1,  p.  8  i?.  ^ 

i  •  See  Pbouiu,  Biblioth.,  c.  177 ;  Mr<-ator,  p.  3d0  19.,  ed.  Baloa:  , 


iLv9pwirovs,  1  e  sharply  controverts  the  doctrine  of  original  sin 
and  Jerome  it^  advocate.  In  his  view  the  theory  of  Augustine  is 
"  a  ne'w  "heresy, "  "  a  malady  " ;  he  regarded  it  as  a  doctrine  which 
necessarily  led  to  dualism  and  Manich;eism.  The  attitude  thus  taken 
by  Theodore  is  not  surprising;  be  more  nearly  takes  up  the  ground 
of  the  old  church  doctrine  aa  set  forth  in  the  apologists  and  in  the 
great  Greek  fathers  of  the  3d  and  4th  centuries.  The  Pelagiana 
driven  from  the  East  were  received  by  him  in  Cilina. 

A  brother  of  Theodore,  Polychronius  by  name,  bishop  of  Apazxiea, 
also  achieved  fame  as  an  exegete,  and  expounded  the  theology  of 
the  school  of-^Antioch.* 

lAterature.—iii^e..  FatroL.ser.  Gr..  Ixvl.  The  Greek  fraffmenta  of  Theodore's 
New  TestameoL  commeniariea  have  been  collected  by  Fritzsche  (Theod.  Mops,  in 
/f  T.  Comm,,  Tuno,  1847).  The  cotnnicntaries  on  the  I'aullny  epistles  (PltrSil 
Spte.  So/esm  ,  1.  49  sg.)  hfive  been  recoRnized  by  Jacob!  {Zticltr.  /.  ehrUtl. 
Wis»ensc/i  .  1H54)  and  Hurt  (Jout~n.  Gaa  and  Sacr.  Phtlul.,  iv.,  185:),  p.  3tJ2  J?.), 
and  edited  by  JacobI  (Halle  Univprsiiy  Proipamm,  1855-60).  They  liave  alM)  been 
edited  very  admirably  by  Swete  (Tfteod.  A/ops.  in  Epp.  B.  Fault  Comm.,  I.,  11., 
Cambrtdee,  l«t^0-«<2).  alone  with  the  GreeS  fragments  and  the  fragments  of  the 
dogmatical  writlnES  00  tiiis  edition,  eeo  Schiirer,  Theot.  Lit.  Ztg..  I8S0-62.  The 
comnieniary  00  the  Minor  Prophtta  will  be  found  In  Mal'BiV'oB.  Pntr,  Biblioth., 
rlL  lS54(WeCT)em,  Berlin. 18:14;  Mai,  Script.  Vet  Nor.  Coll.,  vl.,lH.t2).  See  aUo 
Sachau.  Theod.  Mops.  Fragm.  Syrtaea,  Letpalc.  lSti9.  and  Bathgen.  "  Der  Pealtnen- 
commentar  dea  Theod  v  Mopa  lo  Syr.  Bearbeltung,"  in  Zttchr.  f.  ATdche 
Wissenteh.,  v  53  tq.  Exiracis  from  the  writings  of  Theodoic  occur  tn  the  Calenx 
at  Maiiua  Mercator,  in  the  Acta  0/  the  third  and  flith  cecumenlcal  coancUs,  lo 
FacnnJus.  Liberatus.  and  Theodnre  «  chief  adversary,  Leonttua  Byzantinua 

The  principal  nionoffraph  on  Theodore,  ap»n  from  the  excellent  prolcgoroeoa 
of  Sweie.  Is  ihat  of  Kihn  (TA  v  Mops,  b  Junihua  A/ric.  ais  Exegeten,  Freiburg. 
1S80).  On  his  Imporiance  for  the  history  of  dogma,  see  the  great  worfaa  of  Baur 
and  Domer,  Upon  the  Antloch  schoni  in  eeneral,  compare  Miinscher,  Cornmera. 
de  Schola  Aniioch  .  Copennapen.  I^ih  Herpenrother,  IHe  antxoch.  Schule.  18G6; 
and  Kihn.  Zh*;  Bedeuiung  der  anltoeh  Schule,  Elchsiadt,  1866.  Literary  and 
biographlcfll  details  will  be  found  in  Dopm,  Tillemont,  Cave,  Fabriciaa,  N'orie, 
Gamier,  Schrijckh.  Alznu.  see  also  Fntzsche.  De  Theod.  Mops.  Vita  et  ScriptU, 
18;j»>;  Sleffen.  Tfteod.  Mov  V^i  Text  Sobrie  Interpr.  Vind,,  Ratlsbon,  1827; 
Klener,  Symbol,  lit  ad.  Theod  M  perlm.,  Gbttingen.  18.36;  Specht,  Theod.  o. 
Mop.i  u.  Tfieodoret,  Munich.  1871  ;  Kihn  in  the  Tub  Quartaltchr..  1879;  Nestle 
in  Theol.  Stud  am  Wurufr.b  .  Ii  210  >tq.  .  and  Batiffol,  "  Sur  one  Traduction  Latlne 
de  Th.  de  Mops.."  In  Ann.  de  Fhilos.  Chret.,  1885.  (A.  HA.) 

THEODORE,  the  name  of  two  popes.  Theodore  I., 
pope  from  November  642  till  May  649,  succeeded  Joha 
IV  He  was  the  son  of  a  bishop,  and  was  born  in  Jera- 
saiem.  A  zealous  opponent  of  monothelitism,  in  the  course 
of  the  protracted  controversy  he  m  a  Roman  synod  ex- 
communicated Pyrrhus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
signed  the  document  with  ink  mingled  with  consecrated 
wine.  Theodore  IE.  had  a  pontificate  of  only  twenty  days 
(Nov.-Dec.  897). 

THEODORET,  bishop  of  Cyrus,  and  an  important 
writer  in  the  domains  of  exegesis,  dogmatic  theology, 
church  history,  and  ascetic  theology,  was  bom  in  Antioch, 
Syria,  about  390.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  cloister  ; 
and  in  423  he  became  bishop  of  Cyrus,  or  Cyrrhus,  a  small 
city  between  Antioch  and  the  Euphrates,  where,  except  for 
a  short  period  of  exile,  he  spent  all  the  rest  of  his  life. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  uncertain,  but  it  must  have  been 
at  least  six  or  seven  years  later  than  the  council  of  Chal- 
cedon  (451).  Although  thoroughly  devoted  to  the  ideals 
of  monasticism,  he  discharged  his  episcopal  duties  vrith 
remarkable  zeal  and  fidelity.  He  was  diligent  in  the  cure 
of  souls,  labouring  bard  and  successfully  for  the  conversion 
of  the  numerous  Gnostic  communities  and  other  heretical 
sects  which  still  maintained  a  footing  within  the  diocese. 
He  himself  claims  to  have  brought  more  than  a  thousand 
Marcionites  within  the  pale  of  the  church,  and  to  have 
destroyed  many  copies  of  th^- Diatessaron  of  Tatian,  which 
were  still  in  ecclesiastical  use;  and  he  £^Iso  exerted  himself 
to  improve  the  diocese,  which  was  at  once  large  and  poor, 
by  building  bridges  and  aqueducts,  beautifying  the  town, 
and  similar  works. 

A3  an  exejTete  Theodoret  belongs  to  the  Antiochene  school,  of 
which  Diodorus  of  Tarsus  and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  were  the 
heads  He  was  not  actually  the  personal  disciple  of  either,  but 
he  adopted  their  methods,  though  without  the  consistency  and 
boldness  of  the  first-named.  His  extant  coramentaries  (those  on 
Canticles,  on  the  Prophets,  on  the  book  of  Psalms,  and  on  the 
Pauline  epistles — the  last  the  most  valuable)  are  among  the  best 
performances  of  tho  fathers  of  the  church.  They  are  brief,  yet  not 
wanting  in  that  element  of  practical  edification  on  which  Chrysostom 
lays  special  weight  as  characteristic  of  the  Antiochenes.  In  addition 
to  these  complete  commentaries,  we  have  fragments  of  some  others 
(of  that  on  Isaiah,  for  example),  principally  met  with  in  catenser 
There  are  also  special  elucidations  of  some  difficult  Scripture  text& 

4  See  BaitleDbeoer,  PoincJiromua,  Fielhnrg,  1879. 


256 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


Tlieodoret'8  chief  importance  ia  as  a  dogmatic  theologian,  it 
Jiaving  fallen  to  his  lot  to  take  part  in  the  grea»  monophysite: 
iiestorian  controversy  and  to  be  the  most  considerable  opponent 
-of  the  views  of  Cyril  and  Dioscurus  of  Alexandria.  For  more  than 
twenty  years  he  maintained  the  struggle  against  the  Alexandrian 
•dogmatic  and  its  formulae  {6for6Kos,  'ivtixns  Ka.6'  inroffraeiv,  jxia 
vv6ffraffis,  fvuats  (puffiK^,  and  the  like),  and  taught  that  in  the 
j>erson  of  Christ  we  must  strictly  distingui?ih  two  natures  {hypo- 
^tasc3)i  which  are  united  incited  in  one  person  [prosopon),  but  arc 
not  amalgamated  in  essence.  For  these  years  his  history  coincides 
with  that  of  the  Eastern  Church  from  430  to  451,  and  for  this  very 
reason  it  is  impossible  to  sketch  it  even  briefly  here  (see  Hefele,  Cotic.- 
^esch.^  Tol.  ii.).  The  issue  was  not  unfavourable  to  Theodoret's 
cause,  but  melancholy  enough  for  Thcodoret  himself:  the  council 
of  Chalcedon  condemned  nionophysitism  indeed,  but  he  unhappily 
yielded  to  pressure  so  far  as  also  to  take  part  in  pronouncing 
anathema  upon  Nestorius,  and  upon  all  who  call  not  the  Holy 
Virgin  Mother  of  God,  and  who  divide  the  one  Son  into  two."  As 
Theodoret  had  previously  been  a  constant  defender  of  Nestorius,  it 
was  impossible  for  him  to  concur  in  this  sentence  upon  his  unfortu- 
nate friend  with  a  clear  conscience,  and  in  point  of  fact  he  did  not 
change  his  own  dogmatic  position.  It  is  distressing,  therefore,  to 
find  him  in  his  subsequent  Epitome  classing  Nestorius  as  a  heretic, 
and  speaking  of  him  with  the  utmost  hostility.  Some  of  Theo- 
doret's dogmatic  works  are  no  longer  extant:  of  his  five  books 
Tlfpl  ivaifdpurriifffus,  lor  example,  directed  against  Cyril  after  the 
council  of  Ephesus,  we  now  possess  fragments  merely.  A  good  deal 
of  what  passes  under  his  name  has  been  wrongly  attributed  to  hira. 
Certainly  genuine  are  the  refutation  ('Ai-aTpoir^)  of  Cyril's  twelve 
iLvadf^aTiff/ioi  of  Nestorius,  and  the  'EpaviVTTjs,  or  Tlo\viJ.op<pos 
(written  about  446),  consisting  of  three  dialogues,  entitled  respect- 
iTCly 'ATpeiTTor,  'Acrvyx^jros,  and  'AvcOris,  in  which  the  monophys- 
itism  of  C}Til  is  opposed,  and  its  Apollinarian  character  insisted  on. 
Among  the  apologe tic o -dogmatic  works  of  Theodoret  must  be 
reckoned  his  ten  discourses  riepl  irpovotas. 

Theodoret  gives  a  valuable  exposition  of  his  own  dogmatic  in 
the  fifth  book  of  his  Alpeniajs  KaKOfivdlas  ^-jriTO/iTf,  already  referred 
to.^  This,  the  latest  of  his  works  in  the  domain  of  church  his- 
tor}'^  (it  was  written  after  451),  is  a  source  of  great  though  not  of 
primary  importance  for  the  history  of  the  old  heresies.  In  spite 
of  the  investigations  of  Volkmar  and  Hilgenfeld,  we  are  still  some- 
what in  the  dark  as  to  the  authorities  he  used.  The  chief  un- 
certainty is  as  to  whether  he  knew  Justin's  Syntagma,  and  also  as 
to  whether  he  had  access  to  the  PhilosophumcTia  of  Hippolytus  in 
their  complete  form.  Besides  this  work  Theodoret  has  also  left  us 
a  church  histcj-y  in  fivo  books,  from  324  to  429,  which  was  pub- 
lished shortly  before  the  council  of  Chalcedon.  The  style  is  better 
than  that  of  Socrates  and  Sozomen,  as  Photius  has  remarked,  but 
as  a  contribution  to  history  the  work  is  inferior  in  importance. 
It  is  probable  that  its  author  was  acquainted  with  the  labours  of 
Socrates;  he  appears  also  to  have  used  those  of  Philostorgius  the 
Arian,  but  not  those  of  Sozomen.  Something  indeed  still  remains 
to  bo  cleared  up  as  to  the  sources  he  employed;  apart,  however, 
from  some  documents  he  has  preserved,  relating  to  the  Arian  con- 
troversy, ho  does  not  contribute  much  that  is  not  to  bo  met  with  in 
Socrates.  He  made  a  thorough  study  of  the  writings  of  Athanasius 
for  the  work.  As  regards  chronology  he  is  not  very  trustworthy; 
on  the  other  hand,  his  moderation  towards  opponents,  not  ejjcept- 
ing  Cyril,  deserves  recognition.  The  'Z}\.\-nviKu:v  Gfpavevnirj 
■traOTjtidrcoy  (De  Curandis  Orfecorum  Affcdi&iiibiis)— written  before 
438 — is  of  an  historical  and  apologetic  character,  very  largely 
indebted  to  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Eusebius ;  it  aims  at  showing 
the  advantages  of  Christianity  as  compared  with  Hellenism,  and 
deals  with  the  assaults  of  pagan  adversaries.  The  superiority  of 
the  Christian  faith  both  philosophically  and  ethically  is  set  forth, 
the  chief  stress  being  laid  on  monachism,  with  which  heathen 
philosophy  has  nothing  to  compare.  Much  prominence  is  also 
given  to  tho  cult  of  saints  and  martyrs. 

On  this  side  of  his  character,  however,  Theodoret  can  best  bo 
studied  in  tho  thirty  ascetic  biographies  of  his  ^t\60fos  icropra. 
This  coUeotion,  which  has  been  widely  read,  is  a  pendant  to  the 
Uistoria  Latisiaca  of  PaJladius  and  the  monkish  talcs  of  Sozomen. 
For  tho  East  it  has  had  the  same  importance  as  the  similar  writings 
of  Jerome,  Sulpicius.ScvGros,  and  Cassiaaus  for  tho  West.  Itshojvs 
that  tho  "sobriety'"  of  the  Aotiochene  scholars  can  be  predicated 
only  of  their  exegesis ;  their  stylo  of  piety  was  as  exaggerated  in  its 
<levotion  to  the  ideals  of  monasticism  as  was  that  of  their  mono- 
physitc  opponents.  Indeed,  one  of  the  oldest  loaders  of  the  school, 
Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  was  himself  among  the  strictest  ascetics. 

Noariy  200  letters  of  Theodoret  hai'e  come  down  to  us,  partly  in 
A  separate  collection,  partly  in  tho  Acta  of  the  councils,  and  partly 
in  the  Latin  of-Marius  Mcrcator;  they  are  of  great  value  not  only 

*  Roman  Catholic  ■writers  vary  greatly  in  their  estimate  of  Theodoret's 
cliriEtology  aod  of  his  Reneral  orthodoxy.  On  the  latent  essay  on  this 
eubject,  by  Bertram  (Theodordi,  EpUcopi  Cyrensis,  Loclmia  Chnsto- 
K^ipca,  Hildejheim,  1883),  see  TheoL  lAt.-Ztung.,  1883,  563  52. 


for  the  biography  of  the  writer  but  also  for  the  history  of  his 
diocese  and  of  the  church  in  geueial. 

The  edition  of  SIrmond  (Paris,  ltJ42)  was  afterwards  completed  by  Gamier 
(16S-i),  who  has  also  wrltteD  dlwertations  on  tlie  nutlior'a  woiL^  Schulz^;  and 
*«"GsseU  publiahcd  a  new  edition  (0  vols.,  H:ine,  1769-74)  b&scd  on  t>iat  cf  their 
predecessors;  a  glossary  was  afterwards  cdded  I'v  Bauer.  TiiC  repnn'  v  111  be 
found  In  vols,  lixi.-lxxiiv.  of  Mipne.  and  cotisiJersbie  portions  o^cur  in  KjjisI 

Ecsides  the  earlier  labours  of  TiUcmoDt.  CeiHier.  Oudin.  Dn  Pin,  and  Fabncitis 
and  Harless,  see  SchrocKh,  Kircfungesch..  toU  xvUi.;  Hefele,  Conc.-yeseh..  vol.  il.; 
ICichter,  De  Theodoreto  Epp.  Paul.  Interpretc.  Leipsic,  1822;  Binder,  £tudcs  sur 
Theodoret,  Geneva,  1644;  Stiudlin,  Oesch.u.  Lit.der  A' iVfAenjcicA,,  Hanover.  1827; 
Kihn,  Die  Btdeutung  der  antioch.  SchuU,  1^66;  Dlestcl,  Das  A,  T.  in  dev  christt. 
Kircfie.  Jena,  1869;  Specht,  Theodor  v.  Alopsv^slia  u.  Theodcrei  v.  Cynu.  Municli, 
1871 ;  Ko09,  De  Thtodorelo  CiemenUs  et  Eusebii  Compilatore.  HuUe.  1883 ;  Jt-ep, 
Quellenuntersiich. 2.  d.  griech.  Ktrchenhistonkem,  Leipsic,  1884;  and  Mcillcr,  an. 
"Thcodoret,"  In  Herzog-PIitt's  RetUencykl.,  vol-  .xv.  (A.  HA.) 

THEODORIC,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths  (c.  454-526> 
Referring  to  the  article  Goxns  for  a  general  statement  of 
the  position  of  this,  the  greatest  ruler  that  the  Gothic 
nation  produced,  we  add  here  some  details  of  a  more 
pers  )nal  kind.  Theodoric  was  born  about  the  year  454, 
and  was  the  son  of  Theudemir,  one  of  three  brothers 
who  reigned  over  the  East  Goths,  at  that  time  settled 
in  Pannonia.  The  day  of  his  birth  coincided  with  the 
arrival  of  the  news  of  a  victory  of  his  uncle  Walamir  over 
the  sons  of  Attila.  The  name  of  Theodoric's  mother  was 
Erelieva,  and  she  is  called  the  concubine  of  Theudemir. 
Tho  Byzantine  historians  generally  call  him  son  of 
Walamir,  apparently  because  the  latter  was  the  best 
known  member  of  the  royal  fraternity.  At  the  age  of 
seven  he  was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  the  court  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  there  spent  ten  years  of  his  life,  which  doubt- 
less exercised  a  most  important  influence  on  his  after 
career.  Shortly  after  his  return  to  his  father  (about  471) 
he  secretly,  with  a  contitatus  of  10,000  men,  attacked  tbet 
king  of  the  Sarmatians,  and  wrested  from  him  the  import- 
ant city  of  Singidunum  (Belgrade).  In  473  Theudemir, 
now  chief  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  invaded  Mcesia  and 
Macedonia,  and  obtained  a  permanent  settlement  for  his 
people  near  Thessalonica.  Theodoric  took  the  chief  part 
in  this  expedition,  the  result  of  which  was  to  remove  the 
Ostrogoths  from  the  now  barbarous  Pannonia,  and*  to  settle 
them  as  "fcederati"  in  the  heart  of  the  emj)ire.  About 
474  Theudemir  died,  and  for  the  fourteen  following  years 
Theodoric  was  chiefly  engaged  in  a  series  of  profitless 
wars,  or  rather  plundtring  expeditions,  pattly  against  the 
emperor  Zeno,  but  partly  against  a  rival  Gothic  chieftain, 
another  Theodoric,  son  of  Triarius.-  In  488  he  set  out 
at  the  bead  of  his  people  to  win  Italy  from  Odoacer. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  he  had  for  this  enterprise  the 
sanction  of  the  emperor,  only  too  anxious  to  be  rid  cf  so 
troublesome  a  guest.  But  the  precise  nature  of  the  rela- 
tion which  was  to  unite  the  two  powers  in  the  event  of 
Theodoric's  success  was,  perhaps  purposely,  left  va^e. 
Theodoric's  complete  practical  independence,  combined 
with  a  great  show  of  deference  for  the  empire,  reminds  us 
somewhat  of  the  relation  of  the  old  East  India  Company 
to  the  Mogul  dynasty  at  Delhi,  but  the  Ostrogoth  was 
sometimes  actually  at  war  with  his  imperial  friend.  The 
invasion  and  conquest  of  Italy  occupied  more  than  four 
years  (488-493).  Theodoric,  who  marched  round  the 
head  of  the  Venetian  Gulf,  had  to  fight  a  fierce  battle  with 
the  Gepidffi,  probably  in  the  valley  of  the  Save.  At  the 
Sontius  (Isonzo)  he  found  his  passage  barred  by  Odoacer^ 
over  whom  he  gained  a  complete  victory  (28th  August 
489).  A  yet  more  decisive  victory  followed  on  the  30th 
September  at  Verona.  Odoacer  (led  to  Kavenna,  and  it 
seemed  as  if  the  conquest  of  Italy  was  complete.  It  was 
delayed,  however,  for  three  years  by  tho  treachery  of 
Tufa,  an  officer  who  had  deserted  from  the  service  of 
Odoacer,  and  of  Frederic  the  Rugian,  one  of  the  com- 
panions of  Theodoric,  as  well  as  by  the  intervention  of  the 
Burgundians  on   behalf  of  Odoacer.     A  sally  was  made 

^  In  one  of  the  intervals  of  friendship  with  tVie  eu:peror  in  483 
Theodoric  was  made  master  of  the  hou£chold  troops  and  in  484  coumiL  ^ 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


257 


from  Ravenna  by  tbe  besieged  king,  who  was  defeated 
in  a  bloody  battle  In  tho  Pine  Wood  At  length  (26tli 
February  493)  the  long  and  severe  blockade  of  Ravenna 
\sas  ended  by  a  cajjitulation,  the  terms  of  ubicli  Theodoric 
diicraccfully  violated  by  slaying  Odoacer  with  his  own 
hand  (I'xh  March  493).     See  Odoacer  . 

The  thirty  three  years'  reign  of  Theodoric  was  a  time  of 
unexampled  bap|iinoss  for  Italy  Unbroken  peace  reigned 
within  her  borders  (with  the  exception  of  a  trifling  raid 
made  by  Byzantine  corsairs  on  the  coast  of  Apulia  in 
508).  The  venality  of  the  Koman  officials  and  the  turbul 
ence  of  the  Gothic  nobles  were  sternly  repressed.  Marshes 
were  drained,  harbours  formed,  tho  burden  of  the  taves 
lightened,  and  the  slate  of  agriculture  so  much  improved 
that  Italy,  from  a  corn  imporling,  became  acorn  exporting 
country.  Moreover  Theodoric,  though  adhering  to  tho 
Arian  creed  of  liis  forefathers,  was  during  the  greater  part 
of  his  reign  so  conspicuously  impartial  in  religious  matters 
that  a  legend  which  aftcr«.-\rds  became  current  represented 
him  as  actually  putting  to  death  a  catholic  deacon  who 
had  turned  Arian  in  order  to  win  his  favour.  /\.t  the 
time  of  the  contested  papal  election  between  Symmacbus 
and  Laurentius  (496-502),  Theodoric's  mediation  was 
welcomed  by  both  contending  parties.  Unfortunately,  at 
the  very  close  of  his  reign  (524),  the  emperor  Justin's 
persecution  of  the  Arians  led  him  into  a  policy  of  repri- 
sals. He  forced  Pope  John  to  undertake  a  mission  to 
Constantinople  to  plead  for  toleration,  and  on  his  return 
threw  him  into  prison,  where  he  died.  Above  all,  he 
sullied  his  fame  by  the  execution  of  Boetius  and  Sym- 
machus  (see  Boetius).  It  should  be  observed,  however, 
that  the  motive  for  these  acts  of  violence  was  probably 
political  rather  than  religious, jealousy  of  intrigues  with 
the  imperial  court  rather  than  zeal  on  behalf  of  the  Arian 
confession  Theodoric's  death,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
hastened  by  remorse  for  the  execution  of  Symmacbus, 
occurred  on  30lh  August  526.  He  was  buried  in  the 
mausoleum  which  is  still  one  of  the  marvels  of  Kavenna 
(q  v),  and  his  grandson  Atbalaric,  a  boy  of  ten  years,  suc- 
ceeded him,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother  Amalasuntha. 

Genealogy  of  Thcofloric. 

Theddemir=  Erclieva. 
d  474       I 

A  flr^l  wife  =  TBSopnRic  =  Audoflean, 

or  a        I     4M-5.'fi  pister  of  Clovis, 

concubine  |  king  ol  ttic  Frnnki. 


I 
Ostrofrolho 
(or  Arev.igni), 
married 
Alarif  11  , 
klnl*  C'l  Ihe 
West  Cotba 

I 

Am«l.inc, 

hinc  of  the 

Wesr  Gothsi. 

d  £31 


I 

Thcuilcpotho. 
married 

kinp  of  ihe 
Bur^uuilians. 

I 

murdirrcd 

by  his 

lather's 

orders.  52? 


Amalasittpa  ^  Fuiharif. 

d   634  I     a  drscMidant 

of  the  Amuls. 


I 


I 


ATHAtAitic      Witigi3=MAT*aUEjiTKA=GrrmHnu8. 

d   W4  j   nf-iilic*  of 

Juglinmn 

Grnnanus  Po^tumiis. 

("tt.IudcfttU  l.y 

Amalafnda.  a  full  sister  of  Theodoric.  mnrfHed''Rlff-«iimui>^.  king  til  the 
Vandals,  and  was  tnothcr.  l>y  an  earlier  marriaee.  of  Tlifodal.ad  ..d.  &3e). 

AuihrriJics  —The  authorities  for  the  life  of  Th<nil(,ric  are  very 
lin[Krfctl  Jerilanes.  rrun.|iius.  and  llie  curious  frainiciit  knrmii 
as  Ali'inymin  Viili.»ii  (|irinli>.tat  theemiof  AinrTiianu?Marrilliniis) 
arc  Ihe  chief  ilirer  t  sourtcs  nf  narrative,  but  far  the  most  imjiort.int 
iudirect  .«nurcp  is  the  y^inx  (slate  (lapers)  of  Cassiojorus,  iliiel 
nitnibter  of  Tln-oilonc  Makhus  furnislies  some  iiitercitiup  [,;ir 
lirulir;  .-ui  to  his  >-arly  life,  and  it  is  |lo^5ll.lo  to  exlract  a  lilllu 
infoini.it ion  from  the  fur^id  I'.ineoyric  of  Enriodiiis.  Among 
German  sihnl.iis  P.-ihri  [Ktmnjr  iter  O-  r^'umm,  it,  ni  ,  and  iv  ). 
Mansn  {O'Mhnhu  fff^  (tsfqi-llnsrhrtt  Hfich$  in  IfJi/iru),  and  S.iiloriiiii 
(  yrniich  uli-r  iJu  Rripcrxi-ng  tl.r  (l~lti,,lhcn,  kc  )  have  done  most  to 
iUuntrate  TlieodnrKS  |iniKi|.h-sof  povernment  The  F.rioh>,h  readei 
mavoonsull  IJihlion's  Z)cr;i7if  aWKiW,  I  haf  xtxix  ..iiid  llod^^klli's 
Italyond  hfr  liiiwtrrs,yo\   in  ,inti  LftUr^"/  Cns^H/ihnni     (T  II  ) 

THEODOSIA,  or  Kaffa.  a  sc«|iorl  and  district  town 
r-f  K0H.SU1,  situated  on  the  east  coast  of  Crime^i,  C'J  miles 
ij    the    caal  northeast    of    Simplicrnpul.      Its     roadstead, 


which  has  a  width  of  18  mues  and  is  never  frozen,  is  well 
protected  from  east  and  west  winds,  and  partly  also  from 
the  south,  but  its  depth  is  small,  ranging  from  11  to  14 
feet  and  reaching  35  feet  only  in  the  middle.  The  want 
of  railway  communication  with  the  interior  prevents  it 
from  gaining  the  commercial  importance  it  might  otherwise 
have  possessed,  so  that  its  population  was  only  10,800  in 
ISt^l, — a  low  figure  when  compared  with  the  20,000  it 
bad  in  1672  and  still  more  with  tlie  figure  returned  in  last 
century.  Many  remains  of  its  former  importance  exist 
in  thQ  city  and  neighbourhood,  the  chief  being  a  beauti-' 
ful  mosque — formerly  a  Genoese  cathedral — synagogues 
several  centuries  old,  old  towers  with  injcri|ptions,  baths, 
and  a  palace  of  Shall  Uhirei  in  the  suburbs  Gardening  is 
one  of  the  leading  industries  ,  fishing,  a  few  manufactures, 
agriculture,  and  trade  are  also  carried  on  The  foreign 
trade,  which  in  1830-40  reached  an  average  of  X90,000 
for  exports  and  X6G,500  for  imports,  afterwards  fell  off, 
but  it  has  experienced  a  revival  in  the  course  of  the  last 
15  years,  the  exports  of  corn,  linseed,  and  wool  having 
reached  X167,853  in  1884.  The  imports  arc  insignificant 
Theodosia,  a  Milesian  colony,  was  in  Siuho's  djy  a  flourishing 
seat  of  trade  te-specially  in  grain)  wiih  a  haihour  c.t|uble  of  accooi 
modatiug  a  hundred  ships;  hut  before  Airi.in's  lime  (c  125  A  D  ) 
it  appears  to  have  been  destroyed.  More  lh,in  a  thousand  years 
later  (1263  to  12G7)  the  Genoese  cstnbli-hcd  heic  Ihi-ir  colony  Kafa 
or  Kefa,  which  grew  rapidly  up  iiotuitlistnn.Iiiip  iho  iivalry  of  the 
Venetians.  It  was  fortified,  anti  bec.-inie  the  see  of  a  bishop,  as 
Well  as  the  chief  centre  for  the  tieiioese  colonies  on  Ihe  Black  Sea 
coasts.  It  remained  nearly  iridi  pendent  until  1475.  when  it  v\-as 
taken  by  the  Turks,  but  it  coitliiiued" to  prosper  under  their  rule, 
under  the  name  of  Kutcliuk  Slainbiil,  or  Kiyon  Siambul  (Stanibui 
of  Crimea).  The  Russians  took  it  in  1771.  and  annexed  it  in 
1774.  From  that  date  it  began  to  decay,  and  had  only  3200 
inhabitants  in  1829,  the  emigration  of  the  Crimean  Tartars 
and  the  competition  of  Odessa  being  obstacles  to  its  further 
growth 

THEODO^IUS  I.,  emperor  of  Rome,  surnamed  the 
Great,  was  the  son  of  Theodosius,  Valcnlinian's  great 
general,  who  in  368-69  drove  back  the  Picts  and  Scots 
from  the  Roman  territories  in  Britain,  and,  after  olhei 
successes  on  the  Continent,  was  at  last  despatched  to  sup- 
press the  revolt  of  Firmus  in  Mauretania  (372)  Shortly 
after  (376),  the  elder  Theodosius,  despite  bis  great  services, 
was  put  to  deatti  by  order  .-■f  Valens,  probably  through 
fear  lest  he  should  be  the  Theodosius  or  Theodore  whom 
the  prophetic  tripod  indicated  as  the  future  em|peror 

The  younger  Theodosius  was  born  about  the  year  346 
He  was  a  native  of  Spain,  but  the  exact  place  of  his  birth 
is  uncertain  (Cauca  in  Oaliuia  according  to  Idatius  and 
Zosimus,  Italica  according  to  Marctllinus).  Pacatus  and 
Claudian  seein  to  claim  for  him  at  least  a  relationship 
to  Trajan,  of  which,  however,  there  is  no  satisfactory 
proof.  He  accompanied  his  father  into  Britain  (368), 
and  a  little  later  distinguished  himself  by  defeating  the 
Sarniatians  who  had  invaded  Ma-sia  (374)  On  his 
father's  death  he  retired  to  h's  native  place,  where  he 
lived  quietly  till  after  the  great  battle  of  Adriaiiople 
(August  9,  378),  when  Oratian  summoned  hini  to  share 
the  empire.  Theodosius  was  made  Augu.--tus  at  Sirniiuni, 
January  1 9,  379,  and  was  assigned  all  the  Eastern  proviucis, 
including  lllyiKiim  It  «as  a  lirie  of  great  [leril  for  itie 
Roman  stale  The  Huns  had  just  made  their  appearamo 
on  the  wastern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and,  alter  over- 
throwing the  great  nation  of  the  Ostrogoths,  bad  driven  the 
more  southern  Visigoths  to  take  shelter  within  the  einpiie. 
Valens  had  consented  to  receive  them  (i<76)  on  condition 
that  they  should  deliver  uji  their  arms  and  surrender  their 
children  as  hostages  to  lie  distributed  throughout'  the 
cities  of  the  East.  The  latter  half  of  the  compact  was 
enforced,  but  not  the  former  ;  and  the  barbarians,  left  with 
out  any  sustenance,  began  to  plunder  the  open  country. 
After  thjir  great  victory  at  Adrianople  they  reached  the  wall* 

XXIII.  -  33 


258 


THEODOSIUS 


of  Coastantinople,  whence  they  were  driven  back  by  the 
valour  of  a  band  of  Saracens.  Meanwhile  the  Ostrogoths, 
the  Taifali,  the  Huns,  and  the  Alans  had  all  crossed  the 
JJanube  to  share  the  spoils  of  the  empire  ,  and  it  was 
against  this  motley  host  that  Theodosius  had  to  contend. 
He  appears  to  have  gained  some  successes  even  before  his 
elevation  to  the  empire  (Theodoret,  v  5,  6),  and  shortly 
after  this  retired  to  Thessalonica  to  organise  his  forces. 
He  breathed  courage  into  what  remained  of  the  Roman 
army,  and  summoned  the  very  miners  to  his  standard. 
But  his  chief  reliance  was  placed  in  certain  bodies  of  the 
Ooths  whom  he  had  enrolled  in  his  service.  These,  under 
their  royal  leader  Modares,  gained  at  least  one  decisive 
victory,  probably  in  the  course  of  379.  From  the  unchron- 
©logical  account  of  a  later  writer,  Zosiuius,  to  whom  we 
owe  almost  all  the  details  of  'I'beodosius's  early  campaigns, 
we  may  infer  that  in  the  course  of  this  year  or  the  next 
Kritigern  and  his  Visigoths  were  gradually  driven  across 
the  Danube,  where  they  seem  to  hav&njet  with  the  Ostro 
goths  who  had  shared  their  fate.  For  a  time  tbe  united 
nations  turned  their  energy  against  the  Western  empire,  till 
they  forced  Ciratian  to  grant  them  leave  to  settle  in  Pan 
noma  and  Moesia.  Before  setting  out  on  their  new  journey 
they  perhaps  combined  their  forces  to  attack  Alhanaric, 
who  had  retreated  with  his  section  of  the  Visigoths  into 
the  wilds  beyond  the  Danube  at  the  time  of  the  Uunnish 
invasion.  Unable  to  withstand  their  onset,  Athaoaric 
ofiered  his  services  to  Theodosius,  and  was  received  into 
Constantinople  with  every  mark  of  favour,  11th  January 
381  Fifteen  days  later  he  died,  and  was  honoured  by 
the  emperor  vilh  a  splendid  funeral,  while  his  followers 
faithfully  discharged  the  duty  of  guarding  the  Danube. 

In  the  two  preceding  years  Thessaly  and  Macedonia 
had  been  swept  by  the  barbarians.  On  one  occasion  the 
emperor  himself  barely  escaped  from  their  hands  in  a 
midnight  attack  which  they  had  been  induced  to  make  by 
the  sight  of  his  blazing  watchfires  ,  on  another  the  united 
forces  of  the  Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths  crossed  the  Danube 
with  the  design  of  pillaging  Greece.  In  his  efforts  against 
the  invaders  Theodosius  was  ably  seconded  by  his  colleague 
Oratian,  who  despatched  his  Frankish  officers  Baudo  and 
Arbogastes  to  drive  the  enemy  out  of  Macedonia  and 
Thessaly  (380),  and,  while  Theodosius  lay  sick  at  Thes 
salonica,  made  such  terms  with  them  as  the  latter  emperor 
was  glad  to  accept  on  his  recovery.  A  little  later,  presum- 
ably towards  the  middle  of  381,  Proniotus,  Theodosius's 
lieutenant,  inflicted  a  terrible  defeat  on  a  niotley  host  that 
was  attemptiug  to  cross  the  Danube.  This  was  perhaps 
the  decisive  battle  in  the  war  ;  and  we  read  that  on  October 
3,  382,  all  the  remaining  Goths  in  the  empire  submitted 
to  Theodosius.  Many  of  them  appear  to  have  entered  the 
Roman  army  as  "  fuederati  ";  and  indeed,  from  the  very 
commencement  of  his  reign,  Theodosius  seems  to  have  pur 
sued  a  consistent  policy  of  enrolling  the  Gothic  warriors. 
At  times  they  accepted  bis  gifts  while  meditating  treachery 
in  their  hearts ,  and  Eunapius  has  preserved  tbe  story  of 
bow  Fravitta,  the  leader  of  the  faithful  party,  slew  with 
his  own  hands  his  dishonest  colleague  Eriulf  at  a  banquet 
in  the  emperor's  own  tent.  Zosimus  has  charged  Theo- 
dosius with  burdening  the  provinces  with  excessive  duties 
for  tbe  purpose  of  maintaining  a  host  of  useless  barbarian 
officers,  while  the  comiuon  soldiere  were  left  unpaid.  These 
barbarian  troops,  according  to  the  same  writer,  often 
treated  the  Roman  citizens  with  the  utmost  indignity,  and 
on  more  than  one  occasion  provoked  a  retaliation  for  which 
the  emperor  refused  to  see  any  excuse.  They  were  not, 
however,  all  quartered  in  one  place,  but  received  into  the 
legions  ,  while  others  were  sent  to  Egypt.  On  the  whole, 
it  may  be  said  that  his  policy  of  attaching  the  invaders 
to  hiaiself  was  tbe  salvation  of  tne  empire ;  it  was  they 


who  bore  the  brunt  of  the  battle  of  the  Frigidus ;  and 
the  knowledge  of  tbe  emperor's  good  faith  towards  the 
Teutonic  au.^iliaries  in  his  service  must  have  contributed 
largely  to  the  defection  of  Eugenius'i  army  on  the  same 
occasion. 

In  383  Theodosius  created  his  eldest  sou  Arcadiua 
Augustus.-  The  same  year  saw  the'  revolt  of  Maximus 
in  Britain  and  the  murder  of  Gratian  (August  25,  383). 
For  five  years  Theodosius  consented  to  accept  the  usur- 
per as  his  colleague ,  but,  when  Maximas,  flushed  with 
success,  atlempt'=d  a  few  years  later  to  make  himself 
master  of  Italy,  which,  since  the  sudden  death  of  Valen- 
tinian  I  (17th  November  375),  had  been  governed  ander 
the  name  of  his  young  sou  Valentiuiun  II.,  Theodosius 
advanced  against  ti,e  invader  and  overthrew  him  near 
Aquileia  ("JSth  July  388)  T'.is  victory  was  followed  by 
the  murder  of  Maximus  and  his  sou  Victor,  after  whoso 
death  Theodosius  conferred  upon  Valentiniau  II.  all  that 
part  of  the  empire  which  hu  father  had  held.  Theodosius 
is  .said  to  have  been  induced  to  take  this  campaign  by  his 
love  for  Valentioian's  sister  Galla,  whom  be  now  married. 
Meaowhile  there  had  been  fresh  dangers  from  the  Goths. 
In  3s0  another  band  of  the  Grotthingi  or  Ostrogoths, 
attempting  to  cr^ss  the  Danube,  was  cut  off  by  Promotus. 
The  .same  general,  in  the  course  of  the  next  two  years, 
punished  the  barbarians  who  had  desarted  Theodosius  at 
the  beginning  of  the  campaign  against  Maximus.  Such 
signal  services  as  these,  though  coupled  with  the  fact  that 
he  had  saved  the  emperor's  life,  did  not  prevent  Promotus 
from  falling  a  victim  fo  the  intrigues  of  the  favourite 
Rufinus,  who  is  charged  by  Zosimus  with  compassing  the 
death  of  other  noble  men.  If  we  may  trust  the  evidence 
of  the  last  mentioned  historian,  from  the  end  of  the  year 
388  Theodosius  resigned  himself  to  gluttony  and  volup- 
tuous living,  from  which  he  was  only  roused  by  the  news 
that,  in  the  Western  einpiie,  Aibogastes  the  Frank  had 
slain  the  young  emperor  Valentinian  and  set  up  the 
grammarian  Kugenlus  in  his  stead  (15th  May  392) 

Into  the  curious  history  of  the  short  lived  pagan  revival 
in  the  Western  empire  there  is  no  need  to  enter  here. 
Zosimus  assures  us  that  the  tears  of  Galla  threw  the 
whole  court  into  confusion  ,  but  tbere  can  be  little  doubt 
that  to  a  religious,  if  not  superstitious,  mind  like  that  of 
Theodosius  it  might  well  have  seamed  that  be  was  fighting 
the  battles  of  Cod,  as  he  led  his  army  of  the  cross  against 
an  enemy  on  whose  standard  shone  the  image  of  Heicules 
(Theodoret,  v  24).  His  host  consisted  partly  of  Romans 
and  partly  of  barbarians.  Timasius  was  leader  of  the 
former,  but  under  him  was  ranged  the  more  renowned 
Stilicho  ,  the  latter  were  led  by  Gainas  the  Coth  and  Saul 
the  Alan.  The  engagement  uas  fought  near  the  rivet 
Frigidus,  some  thiity  six  miles  distant  from  Aquileia  On 
the  first  day  Theodosius's  baibarians,  ei  'aging  with  those 
of  the  hostile  army,  were  almost  destroyeO,  and  the  victory 
seemed  to  be  with  Eugenius.  Aftei  a  night  of  prayer, 
towards  cock-crow  the  emperor  was  cheered  by  a  vision  of 
St  Philip  and  St  John,  who,  mounted  oo  white  steeds, 
promised  him  success.  With  the  morning  he  received 
and  accepted  the  offer  of  service  on  behalf  of  the  enemy's 
ambush,  and  once  more  advanced  to  the  conflict.  But 
even  so,  the  issue  of  the  day  was  doubtful  till,  if  we  may 
trust  the  concurrent  testimouy  of  all  the  great  contem 
porary  church  historians,  a  sudden  gust  of  v-ind  blew  back 
the  enemy's  arrows  on  tLemselves.  This  was  the  turning- 
point  of  the  battle  .  Eugenius  was  slain  by  the  soldiers , 
and  two  days  late:  Arbogastes  committed  suicide  (Sep- 
tember 5-9,  394).  From  the  novth-eastern  parts  of  Italy 
Theodosius  passed  to  Rome,  where  he  had  his  son  Honorius 
proclaimed  emperor  under  the  guardianship  of  Stilicho. 
Thence  he  retired  to  Milan,  where  he  died  of  dropsy  (17tb 


THEODOSIUS 


259 


January  395),  leaving  the  empire'to  be  divided  between 
his  two  sons  Honorius  and  Arcadius, — Honorius  becoming 
emperor  of  Rome  and  the  West,  Arcadius  of  Constan- 
tinople and  the  East. 

Important,  howerer,  ^  the  reign  of  Theodosius  was  from  the 
)x>litical  point  of  view,  it  is  perhaps  still  more  important  from 
the  theological  According  to  Sozoraen,  his  parents  were  both 
orthodox  Christians,  accoraing  to  the  creed  sanctioned  by  the 
coancil  of  Nicxea.  It  was  not,  however,  till  his  illness  at  Thes- 
salonica  that  the  emperor  received  baptism  at  the  hands  of 
BishoD  Ascholius,  whcn*uiion,  says  the  same  historian,  he  issued* a 
decree" (February  SSO)  in  favour  of  the  faith  of  St  Peter  and  Pope 
I^unasos  of  Rome.  This  was  to  be  the  t!  ue  catholic  faith ;  the 
tdherents  of  other  creeds  were  to  be  reckoned  as  heretics  and 
punished.  The  great  council  of  Constantinople,  consisting  of  150 
orthodox  and  36  Macedonian  bishops,  met  in  the  following  year, 
confirmed  the  Nicene  faith,  ordered  the  affairs  of  the  various  sees, 
and  declared  the  bishop  of  Constantinople  to  rank  next  to  the 
bishop  of  Rome.  The  emperor  cannot  be  acquitted  of  the  intoler- 
ance which  marks  edicts  such  as  that  depriving  apostatizing 
Christians  of  the  right  of  bequest  It  was  not  till  3S9  or  390  that 
he  issued  orders  for  the  destruction  of  the  great  idol  of  Serapis  at 
Alexandria.  Other  edicts  of  an  earlier  or  later  date  forbaae  the 
onorthodox  to  hold  assemblies  in  the  towus,  enjoined  the  surrender 
of  all  churches  to  the  catholic  bishops,  and  overthrew  the  heathen 
temples  "  throughout  the  whole  world. "  During  the  reign  of  Theo- 
dosios  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  was  made  bishop  of  Constantinople — 
an  appointment  which  be  did  not  long  retain.  In  3S3  Theodosius 
called  a  new  council  for  the  discossion  of  the  true  faith.  The 
orthodox,  the  Arians,  the  Etmomians,  and  the  Macedonians  all  sent 
champions  to  maintain  their  special  tenets  before  the  emperor,  who 
finally  decided  in  favour  of  the  orthodox  party.  He  seems  to  have 
rafiei^d  the  Novatians  to  hold  assemblies  in  the  city.  Perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  incident  Ia  the  life  of  Theodosius  from  a 
personal  point  of  view  is  the  incident  of  his  submission  to  the 
reprimands  of  Ambrose,  who  dared  to  rebnke  him  and  refuse  to 
admit  him  to  the  Lord's  Supper  till  he  had  done  public  penance  for 
suffering  his  Gothic  auxiliaries  to  murder  the  townsmen  of  Thessa- 
looica  (390).  Equally  praiseworthy  is  the  generous  pardon  that  the 
emperor,  after  much  intercession,  granted  to  the  seditious  people  of 
Antioch,  who,  out  of  anger  at  the  growing  imposts,  had  beaten  down 
the  imperial  statues  of  their  city  (3S7).  When  the  Christians  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  empire  destroyed  a  Jewish  synagogue  and  a 
church  belonging  to  the  Valentinians,  Theodosius  gave  orders  for 
the  offenders  to  make  reparation.  Such  impartial  conduct  drewforth 
&  remonstrance  from  Ambrose,  who,  where^e  interests  of  his  creed 
Kas  concerned,  could  forget  the  common  principles  of  justice.  In 
a  sermon  preached  before  Theodosius  he  introduced  the  Deity  Him- 
self holding  an  argument  against  Theodosius  on  the  subject  of 
bis  remissness,  and  the  imperial  penitent  yielded  to  the  eloquent 
bishop.  So  pliant  a  disposition  rendered  him  very  dear  to  the 
saint,  who  availed  himself  of  his  in&uence  to  counteract  the  efforts 
of  Symmachns  and  the  Roman  senate  for  the  restoration  of  tho 
pagan  rites  at  the  altar  of  victory.  "I  loved  the  man,"  savs  St 
Ambrose,  "  who,  putting  off  his  kingly  robes,  mourned  publitiy  in 
the  church  a  sin  to  which  the  gnile  of  others  had  exposed  him, — an 
emperor  who  thought  it  no  shame  to  dc  an  act  of  public  penance 
tl.at  even  private  people  would  have  blushed  to  perform."  The 
inspired  ^-ision  of  the  saint  saw  the  deceased  emperor  received  into 
heaven  by  his  old  colleague  Gratian;  while  Maiimus  and  Eugenius 
down  ia  hell  were  already  experiencing  how  grievous  a  sin  it  is  to 
take  up  arms  against  lawful  princes  (Ambrose,  De  Obitu,  ThcocL). 

Theodosius  was  tviice  married — (1)  to  .Clia  Flacilla,  the  mother 
of  Arcadius  (377-408)  and  Honorius  (3S4-J23);  (2)  to  GaUa  (d. 
394).  the  daughter  of  Vaientinian  I.  _  ~ 

I  .  The  chi^  aothorltjes  for  t^e  age  of  Theod^«ias  are  Ammianns  Marcelllnos, 
Zo9lnias.  Eanapius.  and  Ihe  ecelesjastiral  hb^-^rians  (S'^rrates.  Soz'^rnen.  Theo. 
doret)  Much  inforraation  may  also  b,;  eleaoe-I  from  tlie  wiitinj^a  o(  Si  Ambrose, 
Sc  Creeory  of  Nazianiuj,  Istdore  of  SevtUe.  and  the  oratora  lacAtu^  Llbaniu^^ 
ThcnjisMQs.  Of  modern  aatbonUea  'nilemont  supplies  an  anrivaUed  collectioa 
of  facta  dniy  rollect^  from  all  coDtempofar>-  or  nearly  contemporary  ^arce^; 
he  ta  tpecaJiy  osefuJ  for  his  synopses  of  the  Th^^Moaian  taws.  Clinton's  Paili 
are  the  best  fmtde  for  the  cnronoloicy  of  tiie  p^rlud  It  Is  hardly  nece?sary  to 
mention  the  briliiant  account  given  by  Gibbon,  or.  In  later  years,  fiom  the  stand- 
potot  of  Italian  history  by  Mr  Uodgkln.  (T.  A.  A.) 

THEODOSIUS  II.  (401-450)  succeeded  his  father  Ar- 
Eadius  as  emperor  of  the  East  in  40S.  During  his  minority 
the  empire  was  ruled  by  the  prtetorian  prefect  Anthemius 
and  Pulcheria,  who  became  her  brother's  guardian  in 
414.  Under  his  sister's  caro  the  young  emperor  was 
brought  up  rather  as  a  virtuoso  than  a  prince.  Tho  chief 
events  of  Theodosius's  reign  are  the  wars  with  Persia  in 
421  and  441,  the  council  of  Ephesus  (134),  and  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Huns  under  Attila  (441-44S).  In  450  Theo- 
dosioe  wsa^thrown  frqmjiis^horse^while  hunting,  and je^ 


ceived  injuries  from  which  he  died.  "He  married  Alhenais, 
who  on  ^Ing  baptized  took  the  name  of  Eudocia.  It 
was  ;during  his  reign  that  the  Codex  Theodasianus,  or 
collection  of  the  constitutions  of  the  Roman  emperors,' 
was  formed.  ,The  idea  took  birth  as  early  as  425,  but 
was  only  put  into  execution  between  435  and^3S  ,"^ii^ 
the  latter  year  the  Code  was  published. 

THEODOSIUS  III.  was  tho  last  of  three-emperors 
whose  short  reigns  filled  the  interval  between  the  death  of 
Justinian  II.  and  the  accession  of  Leo  the  Isaurian.  The 
emperor  Anastasius-  had  sent  a  fleet  to  frustrate  the  in- 
tended expedition  of  the  Saracens  from  Alexandria  against 
Constantinople.  On  reaching  Rhodes  the  troops  rose 
against  their  leader,  John  the  Deacon,  slew  him,  and,  start- 
ing for  Constantinople,  landed  at  Adramyttium,  where 
they  made  a  collector  of  the  taxes  emperor  by  the  title 
o!  "Theodosius  III.  The  new  emperor  besieged  Constan-' 
tinople  for  six  months  before  he  took  it ;  Anastasius 
resigned,  and  retired  to  a  monastery,  leaving  his  place  to 
be  filled  by  Theodosius  UL,  who  likewise  resigned  next 
year  (717)  in  favour  of  Leo  EH.  The  closing  year8_of 
Theodosius's  life  were  spent  in  a  monastery. 

THEODOSIUS,  of  Tripolis,  a  Greek  geometer'^and 
astronomer,  three  of  whose  works  were  contained  in  the 
collection  of  lesser  writings  named  'O  fiucpos  dorpovo- 
liov/uvK  (sc.  tovck),  or  "O  /uxpo^  dcrrpovo/ios. '  Pappus  of 
Alexandria,  at  tbe  commencement  of  the  sixth  book  of  his 
Suvoytiryi},  speaks  of  this  collection,  the  study  of  which  is 
indispensable  to  any  one  who  would  master  the  science  of 
astronomy  (rov  turrpovoftoi.'^evoi'  toitov).  These  writings, 
which  were  highly  esteemed  in  the  school  of  Alexandria, 
were  intermediate  between  the  Elements  of  Euclid  and 
the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy,  for  the  understanding  of  which, 
indeed,  they  formed  an  indispensable  introduction.  Of 
the  life  of  Theodosius  nothing  is  known.  As  to  the 
time  when  he  lived  different  opinions  have  been  held,  he 
being  placed  by  some  in  the  first  centurj'  before  and  by 
others  in  the  second  century  after  the  Christian  era.  The 
latter  opinion  is  founded  on  an  error  of  Suidas  (s.w.),  who 
on  the  one  hand  identifies  the  author  of  the  three  works 
referred  to  above  with  a  sceptical  philosopher  of  the  same 
name  who  lived  at  the  time  of  Trajan  or  later,  and  on  the 
other  hand  distinguishes  him  from  a  native  of  Tripolis 
who  wrote  a  poem  on  spring.  It  is  now  generally 
admitted  that  the  subject  of  this  article  is  the  same  as 
Theodosius  the  mathematician,  who  is  mentioned  by 
Strabo  amongst  the  natives  of  Bithj-nia  distinguished  foi 
their  learning,  and  whose  sons  were  also  mathematicians,' 
the  same,  too,  as  the  inventor  of  a  universal  sunJial 
{horologium  irpo^  jrav  nkifio)  of  that  name  who  is 
praised  by  Vitruvius  (De  Architectura,  ix.  9).  His  date, 
therefore,  could  not  have  been  later  than  the  1st  century 
B.C.;  he  may,  however,  have  lived  in  the  preceding  cen- 
tury, inasmuch  as  the  names  mentioned  by  Strabo  in  the 
passage  referred  to  above  are,  as  far  as  we  know,  arranged 
chronologically,  and  Theodosius  immediately  follows  Hip-; 
parchus,  who  made  astronomical  observations  between  161: 
and  12G  B.C.,  and  precedes  Asclepiades  the  physician,  whQ 
lived  at  Rome  at  the  beginning  of  the  1st  centurj-  b.c.'^ 

The  statement  that  he  was  "of  Tripolis"  is  made,  nol 
on  the  authority  of  Suidas,  as  has  been  erroneously  said,' 
but  because  he  is  so  described  in  the  title  of  his  principal 
work.     It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  he  was  a  native  of 


*  This  collection  contained  the  following  books  : — ''  Theodosii  Tri- 
politae  SpkimKirum  libn  iii. ;  Endidis  Data,  Optica,  Catoptrica,  ac 
Pijenorr^ena  ;  Theodosii  Tripolitc  Dt  UabUationiims  et  ^octiinu  ac 
Didnta  libri  iL ;  Aatolyci  Pitanaii  De  Sphara  Mola,  et  Ubri  ii.  De 
Ortu  aitfue  Occaau  StiUarum  Inerranlium ;  Aristarchi  Samii  De 
Ma^iiudinibus  ac  Distantiis  Solii  ac  Lunm  ;  Hypeiclij  Alexandrinl 
'Aya^opiichs  rive  De  Ascensumibus  ;  Menelai  *SpA«ricoruffi„libri_Jii."4 
;^Fabrtcias..£v4to)tA<co  fjrsca.  ed.  Harles,  l»._p._10.j 


mo 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


r>ithynia,  and  resided  at  Tn'polis,  where  he  wrote  his  work 
Tnpolis  is  generally  taken  to  be  the  city  of  that  name  on 
the  I^lianiician  coast,  but  it  may  have  been  a  town  of  the 
same  name  in  Lydia,  on  the  Meander. 

Histhief  work— S^aipiKo,  in  three  books — treats  of  tlie  properties 
of  the  sphere  and  its  sections,  with  tlie  object  of  cstablishuig  the 
geoin'tiical  principles  of  spliencal  astionuiiiy.  Tliis  work,  which 
is  cl^iiical,  13  distinguishuJ  for  the  onltT  and  tlcarness  of  tlic 
exposition  as  well  as  tur  the  rigour  of  its  prpofs,  and  has  ever  since 
formed  tho  basis  on  which  the  subject  of  spherical  geometry  lias 
been  treated.  It  does  not  contain  any  trace  of  spherical  trigono- 
metry,"which,  on  iho  other  hand,  was  the  special  subject  of  tho 
work  having  the  same  title,  and  included  in  the  .same  cuilection,  of 
Mcnelausoi"  Alexandria,  wiio  lived  at  the  end  of  the  1st  century 

MoDtucla  suspected  that  a  great  part  of  the  three  buuks  of 
Theodosius  must  have  been  known  before  liis  time,  and  that  he 
merely  did  witli  icsiwct  to  this  branch  of  geometry  what  Euclid 
had  done  with  the  elements,  namely,  he  collected  and  incorporated 
in  his  work  tho  ditfercnt  propositions  found  before  his  time  by 
asS-onomcrs  and  geometers.  This  conjecture  of  Moutucla  has  been 
confirmed  by  A.  Nokk  (L/ebcr  die  Sphank  dcs  Theodosius,  Karls- 
ruhe, 1S47),  by  Heiberg  {LiUcrargeschiciitlichc Sivdicn  uher  Euklxd, 
pp.  43  5<7. ,  Leipsic,  1882),  and  by  Hultsch,  from  whose  researches,  and 
especially  owing  to  the  publication  by  tho  last  of  the  cdilio  pnnceps 
of  Antolycus,  it  is  n«w  quite  certain  that  as  early  as  tlie  middle  of 
tho  4th  century  d.c.  thero  existed  a  Greek  text-book  on  Spherics 
wliich,  in  its  essential  contents,  scarcely  deviated  from  the  three 
books  of  Theodosius.  Ho  must  therefore  be  regarded  as  merely 
tho  editor,  or  at  most  the  olaborator  and  expounder,  of  a  doctrine 
which  existed  some  centuries  before  him. 

The  Spherics  of  Tlieodoslus  wns  tronslatcd  Into  Arabic  ftt  the  bcglnnlnR  of  tho 
lOtii  century,  and  fiom  thu  Aiatiic  into  LhIIii  in  rhe  12th  century  by  IMato  of 
VivoU  (Tiburlinus),  This  tiflnslalion  was  published  In  1518  at  Venice,  but  wua 
fnund  81)  faulty  by  J  Vocgi-llnus  thai  be  published  a  new  Latin  version,  together 
with  addlttuns  frum  the  Aiabian  coranjfniaEora,  Vienna.  1529,  4to;  other  Lntln 
translations  wcic  published  by  K  Mauiolycus,  Mossiiin,  1.^58,fol.;  by  C.  Clavlus, 
Itoine.  1580,410.  and  by  Hnrro*/  under  thu  title.  ihtfOdoBil  Spftivrica,  S/e(hodo 
A'oi'O  I'lusrrata  et  Succtnelf  DemonHrala,  Ix-ndon,  167:..  4to  1  he  Greek  text  was 
firat  published,  and  utili  It  n  Lutin  iianslailon,  by  J.  I'c'in,  Puns.  155S.  4to ;  ii 
lias  Jjcen  edited  since  by  Joseph  Hunt.  Oxford.  U07,  and  by  E  Ni7,eq.  rieilin, 
iS55,  but  Iheie  t»o  edilloni  me  founiled  un  that  of  Prno.  There  Is  also  a  Gonnnti 
IransUlion  by  NiZ7-e,  Stnilsund.  182G  Ills  two  editions  are  aeroinpanled  with 
vbIduIiIc  notes  and  an  appendix  conialning  additions  (lom  Voeijellnus  and  otheis, 

The  two  oihci  uuiks  u(  Thcoilo^ius  which  hnve  come  do>vn  to  ua  liave  not  aa 
yet  been  published  in  ihe  oHcnal  The  piopo>*Uioni>.  wUhuul  demonstrations,  in 
the  work  Tr«p.  i\ti^t(nuv  •tat  ci/wrwv  {On  Onyi  and  yights).  In  two  books,  were  Riven 
iiy  DasypOfliiis,  in  Gici'k  and  Lulin,  in  his  Sji/ia:iifx  Docfiuia  f'ropottlxonet, 
Stiasburi:,  1^72,  Rvo  A  Ltilin  vt-rsion  of  the  cotnpleto  work,  with  ancient  trfiolta 
uiid  tlt;uieH.  was  plvt-n  by  Joseph  Auna.  Homo.  1591.  4to  I'appus  has  Riven 
ft  pietiy  full  commentary  on  tho  first  book  of  this  woih  of  Theodosius.  His  work 
Rtpc  o'iAritr*tuv  {Un  //nhitottims^  also  was  published  by  Aona,  Kome.  1588.  U 
^:ivl3  An  account  o(  how,  fm  every  inhabUunt  of  the  enrih  from  Iho  cquatoi  to  the 
pole,  the  siaify  Himumciil  presenis  iisi  If  In  the  course  of  a  year.  The  propoal- 
cions  In  it  wen-  also  ijivcn  by  D.'S)  podtus  in  Ins  work  monUoned  above. 

THEOGNIS  OF  Megara  was  one  of  the  early  Greek 
elegiac  poets  ,  he  probalily  flourished  about  the  middle  of 
the  Cih  century  B  c.  We  derive  our  knowledge  of  his  life 
from  the  poems  that  bear  his  name.  After  the  fall  of 
riieagencs,  who  bad  madu  hinust^lf  tjTant  of  Megara  about 
020.  the  usual  struggles  betwt;v.'n  oligarchy  and  democracy 
ensued  Theognis  was  a  vjolt;nt  partisan  of  the  oligarch- 
loa!  faction,  in  his  native  town,  and  wrote  elegies  in 
which  he  gave  ex[iression  to  the  emotions  roused  in  hiin 
by  the  varying  phases  (d  tho  struggle.  He  appears  on  one 
occasion  to  have  lost  hi>.  properly  (verse  345)  and  been 
vlriven   into   exile     ptrhaps  it  was  then  that  be  visited 


Sicily,  Eubcca,  and  Sparta  (733  57)  In  the  end  — if  we 
may  trust  1 123  57  — he  returned  to  Megara,  and  lived,  at 
least  for  a  time,  in  .something  like  pro&pcrity  The  dtite 
of  his  death  ia  unkaowo.  The  vers*:^  handed  down  to  us 
under  the  name  of  Theognis  amount  in  all  to  13^0  Not 
a  few  of  them  arc  ascribed  on  the  evidence  of  the  ancients 
to  Tyrtxus,  Mimnernua,  and  Solon  ,  modern  ciiticism  haa 
made  it  probable  that  two  of  the  longei  eli;gie:)  are  from 
the  hand  of  Evenus  (4G7-49G  and  OG7-GtiO),  other 
fragments  are  demonstrably  later  tban  Theognis  It  is 
now  generally  admitted  that  the  TkfO'jnidva  were  put 
together  long  after  Theognis— possibly  even  as  late  as  the 
4th  century  b  C  — by  some  comjuler  who  wished  to  provide 
a  good  collection  of  moral  maxims  for  educational  pur- 
poses. To  separate  the  genuine  fragments  of  Theognis 
from  those  which  were  ascribed  to  him  by  the  reverence  of 
a  later  age  is  a  hopeless  task 

The  collection  is  divided  into  two  books.  The  first,  which  is 
addressed  to  a  youth  called  Cyrnus,  or  Polypa;dcs,  opuns  with  ft 
spirited  invocation  of  Apollo  and  Artemis,  along  with  the  Muses 
and  the  Graces  (vv.  1-1«),  then  fuUuws  a  passage  which  has  been 
much  discussed  in  conuexion  with  the  early  history  ol  willing, 
recommending  Cyrnus  to  set  a  se.nl  upon  the  .luthyia  Vi.ibes,  to 
prevent  forgers  from  passing  oil  si>Ufious  lines  under  liis  iianic  (see 
jcvous,  IJist.  of  Greek  Lit.,  p.  46).  \Viih  verse  27  begins  a  sciics 
of  counsels  to  Cyrnus.  On  the  whole  they  are  lumarkable  neither 
for  loftiness  of  lone  nor  for  poetic  elevation  Cyrnus  is  couuM'llcd 
to  avoid  "  tho  bad  "  and  fre-iuent  the  society  of  "  tlie  good  "  nien  — 
the  terms  "good"  and  "bad"  being  used  to  dcnolo  aristocrats 
and  democrats,  just  as  koa6i  Kaya86i  meant  an  oli-^arch  lu  the  later 
days  of  the  Pelopounesian  Wqt  8">nietinies  the  viukiice  of  party 
feeling  leads  Theognis  beyond  all  bounds,  as  when  he  prays  that 
he  may  "drink  the  black  blood  *' of  his  op|>onenis  (3-iy ,  */.  3;37- 
339  and  361).  One  striking  feature  tn  these  elegies  is  the  continual 
refrain  about  the  evils  of  povirty.  "To  avoid  puverty  one  should 
even  throw  oneself  into  tho  vasty  deep,  01  froni  the  beciliiig  rocks  " 
(175-176,  cf.  266  5?.,  351  $q  ,  and  649  $q  )  hisewlure  the  poet 
reproaches  Zeus  with  allowing  evil  men  to  prosper,  and  alllicting 
tlie  good  (373  sq.)\  he  also  complains  that  the  puinshnicnt  duo 
to  wicked  men  often  falls  upon  their  sous  (731  5-/.).  A  pleasing 
feature  is  the  high  value  which  is  placed  upon  friendship,  one  is 
not  to  part  with  a  friend  lightly,  or  upon  dome  slight  oicasiun  of 
displeasure  (323  sq.).  At  the  same  time  no  one  knows  better  than 
Theognis  how  quickly  friends  fail  one  in  adversity  (299-300).  Life 
has  on  the  wholo  few  charms  lor  our  poet  "the  best  thing  for 
man  is  not  to  be  born  or  look  U|)on  the  rays  of  the  suift  sun  ,  once 
born  it  is  best  for  him  to  pass  aa  soon  as|>ossiblf  the  gates  oi  death, 
and  lie  with  a  great  barrow  of  earth  above  hiiu"  (425-429).  The 
prevailingly  sad  tone  of  the  elegies  is  occasionally  broken  by  a 
convivial  note.  "It  is  shameful,"  says  the  poet,  "to  be  drunk 
when  others  are  sober,  or  sober  when  othord  are  drunk"  {626- 
627);  "among  the  uproarious  I  am  very  uproarious,  but  among 
the  proper  1  nni  the  piopcrest  of  men  "  (313-314).  Tho  only  elegy 
which  possesses  any  considcnible  poetic  merit  in  the  tirst  book  is 
that  in  which  Theognis  [iredicts  immortality  for  his  young  friend 
through  llic  fame  aw.iiung  his  own  poema  The  second  book 
(1231-1389)  consists  of  a  number  of  amatory  elegies  addressed  to 
some  young  friend  of  the  author's.  In  vigour  and  harmony  of 
versification  they  are  on  the  whole  superior  to  the  first  twuk  ;  but 
most  if  not  all  of  thvni  are  probably  spurious. 

Ucrgk.  Poelj;  Lyrtei  Orart.  ii  IU-23C.  Ltjpslc.  1SS2  , 


THEOLOGY 


fhf  wnvri 
iheology 
.'n  Ihe 


rPHb;  wora  theology  comes  from  u  heatben  source — 
i  from  tlie  Oruek  classics.  In  the  Republic  of  Plato 
;irnl  ibe  Meid/i/it/nrg  of  Aristotle  it  occurs,  and  in  its 
etymological  me,ining  of  "discourse  or  doctrine  con- 
cerning Deity  and  Divine  things" — Xoyo?  TrtfA  tou  6<oZ 
Koi  jrcpi  Tiiv  Otiuiv  Men  who  wrote  about  the  gods  and 
their  doings,  or  who  speculated  about  the  Divine  in  tlie 
origination  and  operations  of  nature — men  like  Ilortier, 
llesiod,  I'huiecydes,  and  Thales, — were  called  OfuKoym 
Hut  there  could,  of  course,  be  no  theological  science  based 
(in  the  popular  religion  of  Greece.  Theology  was  only  to 
be  found  among  the  Greeks  in  the  form  of  philosophical 
.speculation      Through  St  Augustine  we  know  that  Varro, 


"  the  most  learned  of  the  Romans,"  distinguished  tbret 
kinds  of  theology, — the  first  mythical  or  fabulous,  the 
second  physical  or  natural,  and  the  third  tivil  or  popular 
The  inylbical  theology  he  censured  as  containing  many 
tilings  contrary  to  the  dignity  and  nature  of  immnrtal 
beings,  the  natural  theology  bo  described  as  that  which  is 
true  but  beyond  tho  capacity  of  the  vulgar  ,  the  civil 
theology  ho  considered  to  be  that  which  it  was  good  for 
the  citizens  to  believe — the  received  religion  of  Rome. 
The  general  attitude  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mind  to 
religion  was  unfavourable  to  the  cultivation  of  theology. 
lieligioQ  being  dissociated  id  thought  from  truth  could 
not  give  rise  to  w><enc«. 


THEOLOGY 


261 


in  tbo 
r«then  ; 


1-  '.ho 
Middle 


1  ':cr  t!-  ■) 
I-  iioi- 


Natural 
theo- 


Tto  words  theology  and  theologian  do  not  occur  in 
Scripture,  but  it  was  inevitable  that  they  should  be  trans- 
planted into  Christian  soil.  0«o'Xoyo!  is  found,  as" a  V.R 
in  the  inscription  of  the  Apocalypse — the  Revelation  of 
John  "the  Divine,"  "the  theologian," — and  almost  certainly 
refers  to  his  maintaining  the  Divinity  of  the  Logos — r^v 
ToO  Adyou  OfoTTfTo, — that  the  Aoyo?  is  6(6^.  In  the  3d  and 
4th  centuries  a  theologian  usually  meant  one  who  distin- 
guished himself  in  defending  the  personality  and  Divinity 
of  the  Logos.  It  was  on  this  ground  that  Athanasius  and 
Gregory  Nazianzen  were  honoured  with  the  distinctive 
appellation  of  "  theologians."  The  term  theology  has  not 
yet  lost  its  early  signification  uf  "doctrine  concerning 
God,"  although  a  much  wider  meaning  is  more  common. 
Theology  in  its  ordinary  general  acceptation  includes,  as 
one  of  its  divisions,  theology  understood  as  the  treatment 
of  the  problems  which  directly  refer  to  the  being,  attributes, 
and  works  of  God.  The  Inirodtictio  ad  Theologiam,  and  a 
later  form  of  it,  the  Theologia  Christiana,  composed  by 
Abelard  in  the  12th  century,  first  gave  currency  to  an 
sicceptation  of  the  word  inclusive  of  all  religious  truth  or 
belief.  Among  later  scholastics  the  common  designation 
for  .a  general  compendium  of  religious  doctrine  was  Summa 
Theologis.  Of  such  Summse  among  the  most  celebrated 
and  characteristic  are  those  of  Alexander  Hales,  Albertus 
Magnus,  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  The  mediaeval  mystics 
deemed  the  essence  of  theology  to  be  the  immediate 
intuition  of  God,  who,  being  once  in  contact  with  the  soul, 
reveals  to  it  the  truth  of  all  the  principles  of  faith,  and 
gives  it  at  the  same  time  spiritual  peace  and  happiness. 
This  view  led  to  a  use  of  the  word  which  was  prevalent 
among  the  Reformers  and  their  immediate  successors, — a 
subjective  application  which  identified  it  with  what  was 
characteristic  of  the  mind  of  a  true  cheologian,  an  enlight- 
ened and  experienced  homo  rencUus.  In  this  sense  it  was 
a  living  practical  acquaintance  with  the  revelation  of  grace 
and  truth  made  by  God  to  man,  a  "  habitus  practicus,"  a 
"  sapientia  eminens  practice,"  as  it  was  called.  With  it, 
however,  these  earlier  Protestant  divines  generally  con- 
joined that  objective  application  of  the  term  which  was 
current  in  later  scholasticism,  and  this  at  length  wholly 
displaced  the  subjective  acceptation  ;  in  other  words, 
theology  came  to  signify,  not  knowledge  of  a  certain  kind 
as  inherent  in  the  mind  and  operative  in  the  life  of  the 
individual,  but  knowledge  in  itself,  a  body  of  systematized 
•truth,  a  science.  Theology,  thus  understood,  may  be 
viewed,  discussed,  and  applied  in  a  variety  of  ways,  so  as 
to  give  rise  to  certain  kinds  or  species  of  theology.  In 
the  17th  century  the  neceasfty  for  specialization  of  this 
sort  began,  from  the  operation  of  several  causes,  to  be 
widely  and  strongly  felt,  and  it  became  usual  for  divines 
to  indicate  by  the  titles  -of  their  theological  systems  the 
point  of  view  and  mode  of  treatment  adopted.  An  adjec- 
tive added  to  the  term  "  theologia  "  served  their  purpose. 
Of  adjectives  thus  employed  in  the  1 7th  and  early  part  of 
the  18th  century,.the  foUosving  may  be  mentioned  as  either 
frequently  used  or  of  some  intrinsic  interest: — theoretica, 
practica,  didactica,  elenctica,  polemica,  irenica,  pacifica, 
positiva,  comparativa,  dogmatica,  theoretico-practica,  didac- 
tico-elenctica,  <fcc. 

The  extension  given  to  the  signification  of  the  term 
theology  was  for  a  very  lengthened  period  almost  univer- 
sally restricted  to  the  knowledge  derivable  from  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  systematic  exhibition  of  revealed  truth,  the" 
science  of  Christian  faith  and  life.  It  is  still  thus,  per- 
haps, that  the  word  is  most  commonly  understood.  Two 
things,  howevjer,  have  naturally  suggested  the  employment 
of  it  in  a  wider  manner.  First,  there  was  the  rise  and 
development  of  a  theology  not  based  on  revelarion, — the 
rise^  and  development  of  what  is  called  natural  theology. 


The  Greeks  and  Romans  could  not  distinguish  between 
nature  and  revelation,  reason  and  faith,  because  ignorant 
of  revelation  and  faith  in  their  distinctive  Christian  sense. 
In  the  patristic  and  scholastic  ages  of  the  church,  and  for 
some  time  after  the  Reformation,  men  were  not  in  general 
prepared  to  admit  that  there  was  a  knowledge  of  God  and 
of  His  attributes  and  of  His  relations  to  the  world  which 
might  bo  the  object  of  a  science  distinct  from  and  inde- 
pendent of  revelation.  Yet  the  most  learned  and  thought- 
ful even  of  the  scholastic  divines  recognized  in  some 
measure  that  such  was  the  case,  and  could  hardly,  indeed,  < 
do  otherwise  after  they  had  become  acquainted  with  the 
contributions  which  Greek,  Jewish,  and  Arabian  philo- 
sophers had  made  to  the  defence  and  elaboration  of  the 
doctrine  concerning  God.  The  separation  of  natural  and 
revealed  theology  was  virtually  the  work  of  the  scholastics. 
The  Theologia  A'aturalis  sive  Liber  Creaiuramni  of  the 
Spanish  physician,  Raymond  de  Sebonde,  .who  taught 
theology  in  the  university  of  Toulouse  during  the  earlier 
part  of  the  15th  century,  was,  perhaps,  the  first  work 
which,  proceeding  on  the  principle  that  God  has  given  us 
two  books,  the  book  of  nature  and  the  book  of  Scripture, 
confined  itself  to  the  interpretation  of  the  former,  merely 
indicating  the  mutual  relations  of  natural  and  revealed 
religion.  A  conviction  of  the  truth  of  the  distinction 
which  he  so  clearly  apprehended  gradually  spread ;  more 
and  more  importance  came  to  be  attached  to  it.  The 
deists  proceeded  on  it,  and  tried  to  exalt  natural  theology 
at  the  expense  of  all  theology  professedly  based  on  revela- 
tion, by  representing  the  former  as  the  truth  of  which  the 
latter  was  the  perversion.  The  wisest  of  their  opponents, 
and  thoughtful  Christian  writers  in  general — the  adhe- 
rents of  the  moderate  and  rational  theology  of  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries — strove,  on  the  other  hand,  to  show 
that  natural  theology  was  presupposed  by  revelation  and 
should  carry  the  mind  onwards  to  the  acceptance  of  reve- 
lation. Thus  natural  theology  came  into  reputation,  not- 
withstanding the  opposition  of  those  who  have  denied  its 
existence  and  contended  that  the  reason  of  itself  can  teaeb 
us  absolutely  nothing  about  God  or  our  duties  towards 
Him.  The  recognition  of  natural  theology  contributed  to  Compa- 
awaken  an  interest  in  the  various  religions  of  the  world,  rativo 
and  thus  led  to  the  second  circumstance  referred  to,  '''^°"'°8J 
nara'ely,  the  rise  of  what  may  be  called  comparative  theo- 
logy, although  it  has  hitherto  been  more  generally 
designated  the  science  of  religions.  It  can  be  shown  to 
have  originated  in  the  attempts  made  to  prove  that  the 
principles  of  natural  theology  were  to  te  found  in  all 
religions.  In  Bishop  Steuco  of  Kisami's  De  Perenni 
Philosophio,  published  in  1540,  and  in  Lord  Herbert  of 
Cherbury's  De  Religione  Gentilium,  published  in  1663,  we 
have  two  of  the  earliest  and  most  characteristic  attempts 
of  the  kind.  From  that  time  to  the  present  the  study  of 
religions  has  proceeded  at  varying  rates  of  progress,  but 
without  interruption.  Important  results  have  been  ob- 
tained, and  especially  this  result,  the  ascertainment,  to  the 
satisfaction  of  all  competent  judges,  of  a  right  method  of 
investigation, — the  establishment,  as  the  true  mode  of 
study,  of  the  oomparative  method.  As  we  have  a  right  to 
speak  of  comparative  anatomy  and  comparative  philology, 
so  have  we  a  right  to  speak  of  comparative  theology. 
The  inference  from  the  preceding  remarks  is  obvious.  If 
there  be  a  natural  theology  and  a  comparative  theology, 
it  is  a  mistake  to  identify  theology  per  se  with  Christian 
theolog)'.  The  word  Christian  is,  in  this  case,  a  real  and 
great  restriction  of  the  signification  of  the  word  theology, 
and  Christian  theology  is  not  the  only  kind  of  theology. 
The  proper  procedure  is  to  give  to  theology  a  general  and 
comprehensive  meaning,  which  can  be  limited  and  specialized, 
when  requisite,  by  adjectives  like  "natural"  or  "Christian." 


262 


THEOLOGY 


Is  thco- 
his^j  the 
science 
■of  reli- 
gion or 
the  doc- 
trine of 
■God? 


Objec- 
tions to 
the  for- 
mer deti 
citiin 
met. 


What,  then,  is  the  general  signification  which  we  should 
give  to  the  term  1  There  is  room  for  difference  of  opinion, 
and  especially  as  to"  whether  God  or  religion  should  be 
regarded  as  the  object  of  the  science.  Is  theology  the 
science  which  treats  of  God?  or  is  it  the  science  which 
treats  of  religion  1  The  latter  view  is  now,  perhaps,  the 
more  current.  In  addition  to  intrinsic  reasons,  the  critical 
and  sceptical  spirit  of  the  time  is  in  its  favour.  Many 
speak  of  theology  as  a  science  of  religion  because  they 
disbelieve  that  there  is  any  knowledge  of  God  to  be  at- 
tained. Dr  Martineau,  in  his  lecture  on  Ideal  Substitutes 
for  God,  protests  against  this  tendency,  and  contends  that 
the  older  view  of  theology,  as  the  doctrine  or  rational 
apprehension  of  God,  ought  not  to  be  abandoned,  seeing 
that  the  new  "  science  of.  religions,"  i.e.,  "  the  systematic 
knowledge  of  what  me/i  have  believed  and  felt  on  things 
sacred  to  them,"  can  be  no  proper  substitute  for  the  old 
"  theology."  We  may  admit,  however,  that  the  protest 
is  essentially  true, — that  a  knowledge  of  man's  religious 
opinions,  emotions,  and  actions  can  never  supply  the  place 
of  a  knowledge  of  God,  that,  when  from  religion  its  objec- 
tive basis,  the  reality  and  apprehensibility  of  God,  is  taken 
away,  the  study  of  it  can  have  merely  the  psychological 
interest  which  belongs  to  mental  disease  and  illusions, — 
and  yet  prefer  the  definition  of  theology  as  "  the  science  of 
religion  "  to  its  definition  as  "  the  doctrine  of  God."  The 
latter  seems  much  too  narrow.  Even  Christian  dogmatics 
is  about  as  much  occupied  with  man  as  with  God.  The 
doctrines  of  sin  and  of  the  church,  for  example,  are 
not  doctrines  regarding  God.  Then,  although  the  new 
"  science  of  religions "  is  not  a  substitute  for  the  old 
"  theology,"  it  is  still  a  science,  or  at  least  a  very  interest- 
itig  and  important  branch  of  knowledge,  which  yet  cannot 
be  brought  under  the  definition  of  theology  approved  by 
Dr  Martineau, — the  definition  immediately  yielded  by  the 
etymology  of  the  term.  The  science  of  religion  is  a  very 
different  thing  from  the  "science  of  religions."  It  is  far 
mora  comprehensive.  Thi  "  science  of  religions  "  is  but 
one  of  the  latest  offshoots  of  the  science  of  religion  ;  the 
old  theology  is  its  main  trunk  or  stem.  Theology,  when 
viewed  as  the  science  of  religion,  has  not  to  do  merely 
with  the  religious  consciousness  ^nd  its  states.  It  must 
aim  at  the  complete  comprehension  of  religion,  and,  unless 
religion  ,be  a  deliision  and  disease,  this  can  never  be 
attained  by  treating  religion  merely  as  a  subjective  or 
psychological  process  to  •Khich  there  are  no  corresponding 
objective  realities  manifested  either  through  nature  or 
revelation.  We  have  no  right  to  assume  that  it  is  thus 
without  a  real  and  rational  foundation  in  fact ;  on  the 
contrary,  we  are  bound  to  inquire  whether  it  has  external 
grounds  and  real  objects  or  not,  and,  if  it  have  them,  what 
they  are.  We  must  endeavour  to  ascertain  and  expound 
its  objective  grounds  as  well  as  its  subjective  contents. 
Thus  the  definition  of  theology  as  the  science  of  religion 
in  no  way  excludes  what  is  implied  in  the  definition  of  it 
as  the  science  conversant  about  God  and  Divine  things. 
It  includes  more  than  the  latter  definition,  but  does  not 
exclude  anything  contained  therein. 

The  definition  of  theology  as  the  science  of  religion  has 
been  objected  to  by  Dr  Charles  Hodge  on  two  grounds  :' — 
first,  that  the  word  religion  is  ambiguous,  having  both  an 
objective  sense  and  a  subjective  sense,  and  that  its  ety- 
mology is  doubtfij ;  and,  second,  that  to  define  theology 
as  the  science  of  religion  "  makes  theology  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  Bible.  For,  as  moral  philosophy  is  the 
analysis  of  our  moral  nature  and  the  conclusions  to  which 
that  analysis  leads,  so  theology  becomes  the  analysis  of 
our  religious  consciousness  together  with  the  truths  which 
that  analysis  evolves."  As  to  the  first  objection,  the  word 
Systematic  Theology,  vol.  L  pp.  20-21, 


religion  has,  it  is  true,  more  significations  than  one,  and 
consequently  may  be  ambiguously  used,  but  in  point  of 
fact  it  is  not  so  used  in  the  definition  in  question,  in  which 
religion  is  understood  in  its  generic  meaning,  and  as 
inclusive  both  of  /subjective  and  of  objective  religion. 
Theology  has  to  treat  of  both,  and  if  it  treat  of  them 
aright  it  will  not  confound  them.  "  The  etymology  of 
the  word  religion  is  doubtful."  Very  true.  But  is  no 
word  to  be  employed  in  a  definition  if  its  etymology  be 
doubtful  ?  That  would  be  an  extremely  hard  law.  In 
definition  we  have  only  to  do  with  the  actual  meaning  of 
terms;  we  have  nothing  to  do  with  their  origin  or  history. 
As  to  the  second  objection,  it  has  to  be  remarked  that  the 
definition  does  not  make  theology  entirely  independent  of 
the  Bible.  It  does  not  make  Biblical  theology  in  any 
degree  independent  of  the  Bible.  It  does  not  imply  that 
the  Bible  is  not  the  sole  perfect  standard  by  which  truth 
and  error,  health  and  disease,  are  to  be  separated  in  the 
religious  consciousness  of  individuals  and  the  religious 
history  of  the  race.  It  only  implies  that  all  religious 
phenomena  whatever  are  to  be  studied  by  the  theologian, 
just  as  moral  philosophy  cannot  leave  any  moral  pheno- 
mena unstudied.  Moral  philosophy,  in  treating  of  vice 
as  well  as  of  virtue,  does  not  thereby  equalize  vice  and 
virtue  ;  and  no  more  does  comparative  theology,  when  it 
treats  both  of  Christianity  and  heathendom,  assume  that 
the  former  has  no  superiority  over  the  latter.  It  is  merely 
a  part  of  the  task  of  moral  philosophy  to  analyse  the  moral 
consciousness ;  it  is  an  equally  essential  part  thereof  to 
inquire  into  the  foundation  of  rectitude,  and  to  determine 
objective  moral  distinctions  and  relations.  In  like  manner 
theology  has  much  more  to  do  than  merely  to  analyse  the 
religious  consciousness ;  it  has  also  to  treat  of  the  grounds 
and  obj'Xts  of  religion.  If  some  reduce  it  to  a  mere 
analysis  of  the  religious  consciousness,  and  overlook  or 
deny  that  there  is  an  objective  religious  revelation  in 
nature  and  Scripture  as  well  as  a  religious  susceptibility 
in  the  mind  of  man,  this  is  no  logical  consequence  of  the 
statement  that  theology  is  the  science  of  religion.  There 
needs,  perhaps,  no  other  proof  that  the  definition  to  which 
Dr  Hodge  objects  is  of  some  use  than  to  consider  for  a 
moment  his  own  definition.  "  Theology  is  the  science 
concerned  with  the  facts  and  the  principles  of  the  Bible." 
Is  theology,  then,  not  concerned  with  the  facts  and  prin- 
ciples of  the  physical  world,  the  human  mind,  and  history, 
so  far  as  these  are  disclosures  of  God's  nature  and  wayst 
How  can  theology  start  from  the  Bible  when  it  needs  to  be 
proved  that  there  is  a  revelation  from  God  in  the  Bible  1 
And  how  can  this  be  proved  unless  it  is  known  from  other 
sources  than  the  Bible  that  there  is  a  God  1  If  there  be 
such  sources,  theology  must  have  to  do  with  them  ;  it  can 
have  no  right  to  neglect  anything  by  which  God  may  be 
known  or  by  which  light  may  be  thrown  on  the  relations 
between  God  and  man.  It  is  a  service  to  theology  so  to 
define  it  as  to  leave  no  room  for  asserting  that  it  is  only 
conversant  with  the  Bible. 

Theology,  then,  is  the  science  of  religion.     What  does  Kelatioi, 
this   definition   imply  as   to  the  relation  of  theology  to  of  theo- 
religion  9     It  implies,  first,  that  the'ology  presupposes  and  J,^^ 
is  preceded  by  religion.     This  is  but  an  instance  of  the 
general  truth  that  experience  must  precede  science,  and 
that  science  must  be  founded  on  experience.     The  im. 
plicit  use   of  principles  is  always  prior  to  their  explicit 
development.     Speech   is  a  great  deal  older  than  gram- 
mar ;  men  reasoned  long  before  Aristotle  taught  them  how 
they  reasoned  ;  and  just  as  there  must  be  speech  before 
grammar,  and  reasoning  before   logic,  so  must  there  be 
religion  before  theology.     Secondly,  that  theology  is  the 
science  of  religion  implies  that  theology  must  not   only 
succeed  religion,  but  must  evolve  out  of  it  a  system  of 


THEOLOGY 


263 


truths  entitled  to  bo  called  a  science.  Science  is  know- 
ledge in  it3  cunipletest,  higlicst,  and  purest  form.  Theo- 
logy, therefore,  by  claiming  to  be  the  science  of  religion, 
professes  to  be  the  exhibition  of  religious  facts  and  prin- 
ciples in  their  most  general  and  precise  shape,  in  their 
internal  relationship  to  one  another,  in  their  organic  unity 
and  systematic  independence.  The  principles  of  causality 
and  of  unity  in  the  human  mind  impel  it  to  seek  law  and 
order,  e.\planation  and  conne.\ion,  as  regards  the  phen^>- 
mcna  of  religion  no  less  than  any  other  species  of  pheno- 
mena ;  they  impel  it,  in  other  words,  to  perfect  its  know- 
ledge of  tlic.sc  phenomena,  and  can  allow  it  no  rest  until  it 
h.as  attained  to  the  system  and  science  of  them.  Theology 
'is  the  scientific  system  of  them,  and  as  such  is  a  necessity 
'to  the  thoughtful  religious  mind.  It  is  no  accident  that 
in  every  ago  and  nation  thoughtful  men  have  reflected  on 
jtlicir  religious  convictions,  and  souglit  to  trace  them  to 
their  grounds,  and  to  harmonize  and  systematize  them, 
or  that  the  Christian  church  has  anxiously  studied  and 
debated  for  centuries  problems  concerning  God,  Christ, 
sin,  salvation,  »tc., — no  accident,  but  the  necessary  conse- 
quence of  those  fixed  laws  of  humail  nature  by  which  man 
ever  seeks,  once  that  his  intellect  has  been  truly  awakfened, 
to  define  and  complete  his  knowledge.  Conscious  that  his 
religious  experience,  however  vivid,  involves  much  which 
Iroipiircs  to  be  cleared  up  ;  perceiving  that  the  religious 
.history  of  his  race  presents  many  apparently  contradictory 
facts,  many  perplexing  problems  ;  aware  that  the  Bible  is 
no  more  a  system  of  theology  than  nature  is  a  system  of 
mechanics  or  chemistry, — man  cannot,  as  a  rational  being, 
do  otherwise  than  endeavour  by  the  investigation  of  the 
.whole  phenomena  of  the  case  to  verify,  analyse,  combine, 
and  co-ordinate  his  notions  as  to  spiritual  things,  so  as  to 
work  them  up  into  a  comprehensive,  consistent,  firmly 
established,  adequately  certified,  naturally  organized  whole, 
a  scientific  system. 

But  how  may  man  hope  to  succeed  in  his  efforts  to 
arrive  at  a  scientific  understanding  of  his  religious  beliefs, 
feelings,  and  practices  1  How  may  he  educe  and  elaborate 
from  the  phenomena  of  religion  a  system  of  theology 
entitled  to  be  called  science  ?  Only,  it  is  obvious,  by 
following  a  truly  scientific  method.  What  then  is  a  truly 
scientific  method  in  theology  t  And  what  is  implied  in 
following  it?  To  these  questions  a  comprehensive,  al- 
though necessarily  brief,  answer  must  now  be  given. 
Scientific  A  right  method  in  theology,  as  in  all  other  sciences,  is 
method  ■  g^dj  ^  use  of  reason  on  appropriate  facts  as  will  best  attain 
truth.  It  implies,  therefore,  as  an  essential  condition,  a 
right  relation  of  reason  to  religious  truth  or  fact,  and  to 
the  evidence  for  it.  What  the  right  relation  is  may, 
perhaps,  be  defined  with  substantial  accuracy  in  the 
Religious  following  propositions.  (I)  Religious  truth,  like  all  other 
truth  truth,  is  "  above  reason  "  in  the  sense  of  being  not  created 
abova  ^7  ^^^  manifested  to  reason,  but  is  not  "  above  reason  " 
reason,  in  any  special  sense  which  withdraws  it  from  the  cogniz- 
ance of  reason.  The  truths  of  all  science  are  the  dis- 
coveries but  not  the  creations  of  science,  and  they  have 
been  discovered  because  they  existed,  because  they  are  the 
equivalents  of  a  reality  which  is  independent  of  science. 
In  regard  alike  to  mathematical,  physical,  mental,  and 
religious  truth,  reason  has  only  power  to  seek  it,  and  to 
find  or  to  miss  it ;  it  has  no  power  to  make  it  or  rig'it 
over  it,  but  must  accept  it  as  something  presented  orgivi,n 
to  it,  and  to  which  it  is  bound  to  do  homage  and  yield 
submission.  In  this  sense  all  truth  is  above  reason  and 
revealed  to  reason  In  this  sense  reason  stands  to  re- 
ligious truth  in  the  same  relation  as  to  physical  truth,  and 
to  Christian  truth  in  the  same  relation  as  to  the  truth 
in  natural  religion.  Reason  ig  simply  the  Instrument  or 
faculty  of  apprehending  the  truth  manifested  or  revealed 


in  theo 
logy 


to  it,  and  it  can  in  tt6  case  apprehend  truth  without  the 
aid  of  the  appropriate  manifestation  or  revelation.  Unless 
Christ  had  lived  and  taught,  reason  could  never  have 
known  His  character  and  doctrine  ;  hut  no  more  could  it 
have  known  Dante  and  his  Divina  Commcdia,  Shakespeare 
and  his  creations,  "Napoleon  and  his  achievements,  unless 
these  men  had  appeared  in  the  world  and  accomplished  in 
it  their  work.  Without  Christ  the  truth  in  Christ  could 
not  be  known,  but,  Christ  being  given,  that  truth  comes 
under  the  cognizance  of  reason,  ceases  to  be  in  any  special 
sense  above  reason,  and  affords  to  reason  material  for 
science.  By  truths  above  reason  are  sometimes  meant 
truths  which  cannot  be  fully  apprehended  by  reason. 
Such  truths  are,  however,  in  no  way  peculiar  to  religion.' 
In  all  regions  and  directions  reason  finds  that  its  range  of 
visiou  :3  limited,  and  that  its  knowledge  and  science  are 
bounded  by  nescience  and  mystery.  Truths  of  special 
revelation  are  sometimes  represented  as  above  reason  in 
the  sense  that  reason  can  have  no  other  evidence  for  them 
than  that  of  testimony  and  external  authority.  But  what 
truths  of  Scripture  have  thus  been  revealed  to  reveal  no- 
thing, and  are  thus  devoid  of  intrinsic  light,  of  natural 
affinity  to  reason,  of  self-evidencing  power  1  If  there  be 
any  such,  it  must  be  admitted  that  they  cannot  in  them- 
selves fall  within  the  province  of  science,  although  the 
testimony  and  assent  to  them  may.  ■  Where  reason  stops 
science  must  end.  (2)  Reason  in  its  investigation  of  Iteiton 
religion  must  be  completely  free,  i.e.,  subject  to  no  other  mus;.t» 
laws  than  those  which  are  inherent  in  its  own  constitution.  '^ 
In  regard  to  most  sciences  there  is  no  need  to  insist  that 
the  method  of  science  is  one  in  which  reason  is  free, 
because  all  who  occupy  themselves  with  these  sciences 
acknowledge  it.  But  in  regard  to  theology  it  is  other- 
wise. All  who  call  themselves  theologians  are  by  no 
means  disposed  to  admit  that  reason,  in  its  search  for 
religious  truth  and  in  its  efforts  to  construct  theological 
science,  must  be  absolutely  free  ;  on  the  contrary,  many  of 
them  hold  that  the  church  or  the  Bible,  tradition  or  the 
.  common  sense  of  humanity,  must  be  allowed  to  have  a 
co-ordinate  or  even  superior  jurisdiction.  The  proposition 
laid  down  implies  that,  if  any  view  of  this  kind  be  true, 
theology  is  essentially  different  from  science,  and  it  is  vain 
to  speak  of  scientific  method  in  theology.  It  implies  tl.at 
all  claims  to  religious  authority  must  be  based  on  and  con- 
formed to  reason,  and  that  all  the  deliverances  of  every 
professedly  religious  authority  must  be  submitted  without 
reserve  or  restriction  to  the  reason  of  the  theologian  beforel 
he  can  make  a  scientific  use  of  them.  This  leads  us  to 
another  proposition.  (3)  The  only  ascertainable  limils  of  R«»»on' 
reason  in  the  investigation  of  religious  truth,  as  of  other  ''">''<". 
truth,  are  those  which  are  inherent  in  its  own  constitution ;  ^^ 
and  in  the  search  of  religious  truth,  as  of  all  other  truth,  uws 
reason  ought  to  go  as  far  as  it  can  go  without  violation  of 
the  laws  of  its  own  constitution.  Reason  has  its  limits  in 
its  own  laws.  It  is  the  business  of  psychology  and  logic 
to  discover  what  these  laws  are.  When  they  are  known 
the  powers  of  reason  are  known,  because  reason  can  never 
claim  to  be  irrational  It  is  useless,  however,  to  attempt 
to  mark  off  the  external  or  objective  boundaries  of  rational 
research.  Human  inquiry  has,  no  doubt,  external  bound- 
aries beyond  which  it  will  never  pass,  but  all  apparent 
boundaries  of  this  kind  recede  as  they  are  approached. 
There  is  even  absurdity,  self-contradiction,  in  the  very 
attempt  to  draw  any  line  separating  the  knowable  from 
the  unknowable.  To  know  it  one  must  have  already 
done  what  we  affirm  to  be  impossible, — known  the  un- 
knowable. We  cannot  draw  a  boundary  unless  we  see 
over  it.  Reason  cannot  investigate  too  deeply  any  matter 
whatever,  cannot  possibly  go  too  far,  so  long  as  it 
remains ,  reason     .  Its  ^ownvJaws, ,  the, laws _^of_  evidence 


264 


THEOLOGY 


lieala 
•■ith 


So'ircc* 
of  reli 
giooa 
truth. 


aod  of  inference,  are  the  only  discoverable  expression  of 
its  lawgiver's  "  thus  far."  When  it  violates  any  of  these 
laws  it  has  gone  too  farj  but  only  then,  and  then  simply 
because  it  has  ceased  to  be  rational.  As  long  as  it  con- 
forms to  them  the  farther  it  goes  the  better.  All  this 
holds  good  not  less  in  regard  to  religion  than  to  any  other 
object  of  investigation,  and  is  an  essential  condition  of 
the  possibility  of  religious  science.  (4)  In  the  study  of 
religion,  as  in  every  other  department  of  study,  reason 
should  admit  nothing  as  true  without  sufficient  evidence, 
while  rejecting  nothing  sufficiently  proved  by  evidence  of 
any  kind  although  it  cannot  be  proved  by  evidence  of 
another  kind,  or  although  it  may  be  imperfectly  under- 
stood or  have  unsolved  difficulties  connected  with  it. 
Theology  is  sometimes  said  to  be  a  doctrine  or  science  of 
belief  or  faith  (a  "  Glaubenslehre  ").  Not  a  few,  however, 
of  those  who  say  so  regard  belief  or  faith  as  essentially 
inclusive  of  reason,  in  the  form  of  an  immediate  apprehen- 
eion  of  primary  truth  or  self-evident  fact ;  in  which  case 
theology  is  only  a  Glaubenslehre  in  common  with  other 
sciences,  and  belief  or  faith  is  in  no  special  mode  or 
measure  its  foundation.  But,  whenever  by  belief  or  faith 
is  meant  mere  belief  or  faith,  a  belief  or  faith  independ- 
ent of  and  unconformed  to  reason,  the  apprehension  and 
appreciation  of  truth, — to  affirm  that  theology  is  based 
on  such  belief  or  faith  is  to  represent  it  as  so  unhke  every 
other  science  that  it  clearly  cannot  be  a  science  at  alL 
For  all  belief  or  faith  we  are  bound  to  have  real  evidence, 
and  enough  of  it.  But  we  have  no  right  to  reject  any  real 
evidence  because  there  is  not  more  or  because  there  is  not 
evidence  of  some  other  kind, — no  right  to  neglect  to  follow 
any  Jight  there  is  because  it  may  be  dim,  and  much  around 
it  may  be  dark, — no  more  right  to  refuse  to  accept  any 
well-established  conclusion  as  to  God  and  religion  because 
there  is  great  uncertainty  as  to  the  essence  of  religion,  and 
because  God  in  His  absoluteness  and  infinity  immeasurably 
transcends  our  highest  thoughts,  than  we  have  to  ignore  or 
contest  the  conclusions  of  physical  science  because  we 
cannot  tell  what  matter  is,  and  because  we  find  that  every 
hypothesis  as  to  its  nature  brings  with  it  many  doubts  and 
difficulties. 

The  foregoing  conditions  are  perhaps  the  most  general 
and  fundamental  of  those  to  which  reason  must  conform 
if  it  would  originate  and  follow  a  scientific  method  in 
theology.  The  next  question  which  demands  an  answer 
is,  Whence  are  the  data  to  be  derived  on  which  reason 
must  operate  in  religious  apprehension  and  theological 
investigation  1  What  are  the  sources  of  religious  truth  1 
Reason  has  not  the  truth  in  itself,  but  in  order  to  possess 
it  must  find  it.  As  the  eye  has  not  physical  light  within 
itself,  but  merely  so  corresponds  to  it  as  to  apprehend  it, 
not  otherwise  is  it  with  reason  and  intellectual  light.-  By 
sources  of  religious  truth  can  only  be  meant  the  media 
through  which  God  manifests  Himself, — the  ways  by  which 
He  makes  himself  known  ;  and  the  physical  world,  ■finite 
minds,  human  history,  Scripture,  and  the  testimonium 
Spiritus  Sancii  may  all  be  maintained  to  be  such  sources. 
The  atheist  and  the  agnostic  will  not  allow  that  there  are 
any  sources  of  religious  truth  ;  the  deist  and  the  ration- 
alist will  only  admit  the  claims  of  general  revelation,  the 
exclusive  Biblicist  only  of  Scripture  ;  and  the  mystic  will 
trust  chiefly  to  special  spiritual  illumination ;  while  the 
theologian  of  broader  view  will  hold  that  all  the  ways 
•ndicated  are  sources,  seeing  that  in  and  through  them  all 
knowledge  and  ex[ierience  as  to  God  and  religion  may  be 
acquired,  and  must  contend  that  in  the  study  of  theology 
none  of  them  is  to  be  ignored  or  excluded,  underestimated 
or  overestimated,  but  all  are  to  be  duly  considered,  and 
the  information  supplied  by  each  to  be  taken  in  connexion 
wilb  that  supplied  by  the  rest.     The  sources  are  distinct. 


but  not  isolated.  The  light  from  each  combines  and 
harmonizes  with  the  light  from  all  the.others.  The  revela- 
tion of  God  in  nature  is  presupposed  by  that  in  Scripture, 
and  Scripture  contributes  to  unveil  the  spiritual  signifi- 
cance of  nature.  Without  the  light  which  the  human 
mind  supplies  there  can  be  no  illumination  from  any 
other  source,  and  yet  all  the  light  of  the  human  mind  is 
gained  in  connexion  with  the  light  from  external  sources. 
History  gradually  evolves  the  significance  of  nature,  mind, 
and  Scripture,  yet  cannot  be  uuderstood  if  dissevered  from 
the  creation  in  which  it  is  placed,  from  the  mind  of  man' 
in  the  principles  and  faculties  of  which  it  is  rooted,  or 
from  Scripture  as  the  record  of  the  development  of  a  plan 
of  redemption  which  gives  unity  and  meaning  to  the  whole 
historical  movement.  However  deep  and  full  a  source  of 
religious  truth  the  Bible  may  be,  it  is  neither  independent 
of  other  sources  nor  a  substitute  for  them ;  on  the  con-] 
trary,  while  castiug  light  on  them  all  it  likewise  receives 
light  from  them  all.  The  living  apprehension  of  spiritual 
realities  presupposes  a  discernment  which  the  Divine  Spirit 
alone  can  give ;  yet  that  Spirit,  according,  to  the  testimony 
of  Scripture,  speaks  not  of  Himself,  but  only  in  conformity 
with  what  has  already  been  uttered  by  the  Father  and 
the  Son.  It  would  obviously  neither  be  consistent  with, 
the  scope  nor  possible  within  the  limits  of  an  article  like 
the  present  to  determine  the  distinctive  features,  natural 
spheres,  and  various  relationships  of  the  media  of  revela- 
tion or  sources  of  religious  truth,  but  a  sufficiently  thorough 
investigation  having  this  aim  may  safely  be  pronounced  to 
be  one  of  the  chief  desiderata  of  theological  science. 

The  process  of  theological  method  itself  has  next  to  be 
considered.  Its  first  step  is  the  ascertainment  of  the 
relevant  facts.  But  these  are  all  the  facts  of  nature  and 
history,  all  the  truths  of  Scripture,  and  all  the  phases  of 
religion.  The  various  departments  of  theology  are  based 
on  and  inclusive  of  various  orders  of  these  facts,  and 
each  order  of  facts  must  be  ascertained  and  dealt  with 
in  appropriate  special  ways.  Thus  the  relevant  data  of 
catural  theology  are  all  the  works  of  God  in  nature  and 
providence,  all  the  phenomena  and  laws  of  matter,  mind, 
and  history, — and  these  can  only  be  thoroughly  ascertained 
by  the  special  sciences.  The  surest  and  most  adequate 
knowledge  of  them  is  knowledge  in  the  form  called  scien- 
tific, and  therefore  in  this  form  the  theologian  must  seek  to 
know  them.  The  sciences  which  deal  with  nature,  mind, 
and  history  hold  the  same  position  towards  natural  theo- 
logy which  the  disciplines  that  treat  of  the  composition, 
genuineness,  authenticity,  text,  development,  ic,  of  the 
Scriptures  do  towards  Biblical  theology.  They  inform  us, 
as  it  were,  what  is  the  true  text  and  literal  interpretation 
of  the  book  of  creation.  Their  conclusions  are  the  pre- 
misses, or  at  least  the  data,  of  the  scientific  natural  theo- 
logian. All  reasonings  of  his  which  disregard  these  data 
are  ipso  facto  condemned.  A  conflict  between  the  results 
of  these  sciences  and  the  findings  of  natural  theology  is 
inconceivable.  It  would  be  a  conflict  between  the  data 
and  conclusions  of  natural  theology,  and  eo  equivalent  for 
natural  theology  to  self-contradiction.  Then,  the  data  of 
Biblical  theology  are  all  the  words  contained  in  the  Bible, 
viewed  in  their  appropriate  positions  and  historical  con- 
nexions, and  what  these  are  and  signify  can  only  be 
ascertainsd  by  the  processes  of  historical  criticism  and  of 
hermeneutics.  Biblical  theology  is  the  delineation  of  a 
section  of  the  history  of  religious  ideas, — that  section  of 
which  the  traces  and  records  remain  in  the  Bible.  But 
the  Bible  comprehends  many  strata  of  writing,  deposited 
at  difierent  times,  and  collocated  and  connectedjn  various 
ways,  and  the  history  of  its  composition,  the  age  and  sue 
cession  of  its  parts,  must  be  ascertained  before  wo  can 
exhibit  th.^  history  of  its  contents,  the  course  of  the  evolu- 


Process 
of  theo- 
logical 
method 


The  facta 
of  notu. 
nd  theo-. 
logy: 


of  BibU 
ral  thc^ 
\ogy:f' 


THEOLOGY 


265 


of  com- 
parative 
tbeelogy. 


Appro- 
phatd 
methods 
of  deal- 
ing with 
tlfese 
dau. 


tioQ  of  its  ideas.  If  the  theories  of  recent  critics  as  to  the 
formation  and  relationship  of  the  component  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament  be  true,  the  view  taken  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Old  Testament  theology  must  be  very  different 
from  that  formed  on  the  supposition  that  the  traditional 
theory  is  correct.  And  which  theory  is  correct  is  a  ques- 
tion of  fact  which  can  only  be  decided  hy  dispassionate 
and  thorough  critico-histoncal  investigation.  So  false 
readings  must  be  distinguished  from  true,  erroneous  trans- 
lations from  correct,  and  appropriate  from  inappropriate 
interpretations,  which  presupposes  an  adequate  measure 
of  linguistic,  grammatical,  and  exegetical  knowledge  and 
skill.  The  religion  of  th6  Bible,  however,  is  but  one  of  a 
multitude  of  religions  which  have  left  traces  of  them- 
selves in  documents,  monuments,  rites,  creeds,  custom.s, 
institutions,  individual  lives,  social  changes,  <tc.,  and  there 
is  a  theological  discipline — comparative  theology — which 
undertakes  to  disclose  the  spirit,  delineate  the  character, 
trace  the  development,  and  exhibit  the  relations  of  all  re- 
ligions with  the  utmost  attainable  exactitude.  Obviously 
the  mass  of  data  which  this  science  has  to  collect,  sift,  and 
interpret  is  enormous.  They  can  only  be  brought  to  light 
and  set  in  their  natural  relationships  by  the  labours  of  hosts 
of  specialists  of  all  kinds.  That  hypotheses  in  this  domain 
will  for  long  arise  and  vanish  with  disappointing  rapidity 
is  only  what  is  to  be  expected  from  its  vast  extent,  the 
amount  of  its  buried  wealth,  the  gradual  and  fragmentary 
way  in  which  its  contents  must  be  disinterred,  the  losses 
and  changes  which  have  occurred  in  the  course  of  time, 
and  the  constant  suggestion  of  fresh  interpretations  of 
ancient  texts  and  new  solutions  of  old  problems  which 
must  come  from  unceasing  discovery.  Some  theological 
disciplines,  it  must  also  be  observed,  presuppose  others, 
and  have  consequently  among  their  data  the  conclusions 
of  those  other  disciplines.  All  doctrine,  for  example, 
founded  on  special  revelation  presupposes  doctrine  founded 
on  general  revelation  ;  all  Christian  theology  must  imply 
and  incorporate  natural  theology.  Christian  dogmatics 
has  to  make  use  of  the  results  of  natural  theology.  Biblical 
theology,  and  comparative  theology,  and  to  raise  them  to 
a  higher  stage  by  a  comprehensive  synthesis  which  con- 
nects them  with  the  person  and  work  of  Christ,  as  of  Him  in 
whom  all  spiritual  truth  is  comprehended  and  al.  spiritual 
wants-supplied.  The  conception  of  it  prevalent  until  lately, 
as  a  system  formed  of  generalizations  and  inferences  from 
texts  of  Scripture,  answers  properly  to  no  theological  science, 
but  much  more  nearly  to  Biblical  theology  than  to  Christian 
dogmatics. 

When  religious  data  have  been  ascertained,  the  materials 
of  theological  science  have  been  obtained,  but  the  scientific 
edifice  itself  has  still  to  be  constructed.  The  general 
truths  involved  in  particular  disclosures  have  to  be  evolved  ; 
the  laws  of  the  development  of  phenomena  have  to  be 
discovered  ;  elements  have  to  be  reached  by  analysis  and 
comprehensive  views  by  synthesis  ;  laws  and  facts,  funda- 
mental and  derivative  principles,  have  to  be  exhibited  in 
'their  natural  organic  connexion.  This  can  only  be  done 
aright  by  right  methods,  and  only  by  a  variety,  of  methods. 
No  one-sided  process  can  be  appropriate  or  sufficient. 
The  method  must  conform  to  the  nature  of  the  matter 
dealt  with  and  to  the  end  that  has  to  be  attained.  Theo- 
logy includes  a  variety  of  sciences  or  disciplines,  and  these 
differ  so  greatly  in  character  that  they  plainly  cannot  be 
sti  iied  aright  if  studied  precisely  in  the  same  way.  Some 
of  i;hem  are  more  allied  to  criticism,  others  to  history,  and 
others  again  to  philosophy.  In  some  deduction  can  mani- 
festly have  little  place,  while  in  others  there  is  no  obvious 
reason  why  it  should  not  be  largely  used.  There  is  no 
kind  of  science  which,  with  its  special  processes,  n  -y  not 
be  called  on  to  contribute  to  some  department  of  theology. 


There  must  be,  therefore,  in  theology  need  and  scope  for  a 
great  variety  of  applications  of  method. 

It  IS  easy,  however,  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of 
acquaintance  with  the  formal  rules  of  method  laid  down 
by  logicians.  The  theory  of  method  must  be  preceded  by 
practice — true  theory  by  successful  practice,  and  the  ablest 
practitioners  Ste  always  only  to  a  small  extent  guided  in 
their  practice  by  conscious  reference  to  the  rules  of  method 
prescribed  by  logicians.  In  theology,  as  in  all  other  depart- 
ments of  science,  a  man  can  only  become  an  investigator 
by  investigating.  And  whether  he  will  become,  through 
the  practice  of  iLvestigation,  a  successful  investigator  oi 
not  will  depend  far  more  on  his  general  intellectual  char- 
acter, his  ingenuity,  originality,  tact,  and  sensibility,  his 
familiarity  with  the  relevant  facts  and  with  the  researches 
which  are  really  bringing  new  truths  in  his  department 
to  light,  his  perseverance  and  diligence,  than  on  his  know- 
ledge of  what  the  theorists  on  method  have  taught  as  to 
its  nature  and  requirements.  Yet,  of  course,  such  instruc- 
tion as  logical  theory  can  give  is  not  to  be  despised,  but 
to  be  received  and  acted  on  with  all  due  appreciation. 

^^^len  the  data  of  the  theologian  are  before  him  as 
particular  facts,  it  is  obvious  that  he  must  so  enumerate 
and  classify,  so  analyse  and  generalize,  so  correlate  and 
combine  them,  as  to  elicit  from  them  the  principles  which 
they  imply,  before  either  his  procedure  or  results  can  be 
properly  characterized  as  scientific.  In  other  words,  a 
method  which  starts  from  particulars  must,  in  order  lo 
be  scientific,  be  largely  inductive.  But  m  theology,  as  in 
all  other  departments  of  knowledge,  the  only  induction 
which  IS  of  any  value  is  more  than  any  mere  summation 
or  combination  of  facts.  This  is  not  the  place  for  a 
discussion  of  the  nature  of  a  true  induction  ;  but  on  any 
view  it  must  hold  good  that  to  understand  aright  what 
induction  in  theology  is  we  must  know  what  is  implied  in 
all  that  is  comprehended  in  it, — the  ascertainment  and 
collocation  of  facts,  the  discrimination  of  their  charac- 
teristics, the  classification  of  them,  the  analysis  of  what 
is  complex,  the  synthesis  of  what  is  partial,  the  tracing  of 
uniform  relations,  the  inferential  act,  ic.  Much  which 
would  not  be  without  interest  or  use,  or  even  some  degree 
of  novelty,  might  be  said  on  all  these  points.  Numerous 
as  have  been  treatises  on  theology,  there  has  not  as  yet 
appeared  a  single  earnest  attempt  to  expound  the  nature 
of  method  in  theology  ;  even  the  many  works,  professedly 
dealing  not  only  with  the  encyclopaedia  but  with  the 
methodology  have,  in  reality,  quite  ignored  theological 
method  proper.  The  present  writer  can  only  here  note 
the  desideratum ;  to  supply  it  would  require  a  special  and 
lengthened  discussion.  The  so-called  methods  of  induction — 
the  methods  of  agreement,  of  difference,  and  of  concomitant 
variations — are  as  applicable  in  theology  as  in  physical  or 
mental  science.  They  are  not,  properly  speaking,  processes 
of  induction  ;  they  are  merely  rules  for  testing  inductions. 
Their  value,  of  course,  is  not  thereby  lessened. 

The  theologian,  not  less  than  the  physicist,  must  be  on 
his  guard  against  fancying  that  the  validity  or  certainty  of 
his  inductions  is  to  be  estimated  by  the  number  of  his 
instances.  Many  who  have  undertaken  to  prove  the  Divine 
existence  by  the  cosmological  and  teleological  arguments 
have  made  the  fatal  pistake  of  supposing  that  all  that  was 
needed  was  an  accumulation  of  what  they  deemed  ex- 
amples or  illustrations  of  Divine  wisdom.  They  have 
overlooked  that  what  is,  above  all,  necessary  is  to  show 
the  truth  of  the  principles  of  causality  and  finality,  and 
the  legitimacy  of  those  applications  of  them,  which  are 
involved  in  the  cosmological  and  teleological  arguments. 
They  have  spent  their  strength  on  what  is  easy,  superficial 
and  indecisive,  and  had  none  left  to  deal  with  what  is 
difficult,  deep,  and  of  vital  moment.     They  have  failed  to 

XXIIL      •  u 


Practical 

mvesU- 
gritiqu 
esscLtiiUf 


Method 
must  be 
largely 
iiidae- 
tivQ. 


Number 

of  data 

requireiJ 

vanea 

with 

nature 

of  the 

question* 

consid- 

erul. 


266 


THEOLOGY 


apprehend  that  the  essential  question  at  issue  is  not.  What 
or  how  many  appearances  of  order  and  of  adaptation  may 
be  traced  in  the  various  provinces  of  nature ''  but.  Do  such 
appearances  «n  any  case  warrant  an  inference  to  a  super- 
natural intelligence  and  purpose ''  In  like  manner  many 
dogmatic  theologians  have  seemed  to  think  that  in  order 
to  establish  a  doctrine  it  was  enough  to  cite  a  number  of 
texts  in  Its  favour  Often  their  doctrines  would  be  more 
easily  believed  if  their  texts  were  fewer  Often  in  the 
Westminster  Confession,  for  example,  where  the  doctrine 
causes  no  difEcnlty.  the  texts  cited  in  connexion  therewith 
are  quite  inadmissible  as  proofs  Induction  requires  the 
strictest  regard  to  relevancy  Whether  the  data  for  the 
proof  of  general  truths  m  theology  must  be  many  or  may 
be  few  will  largely  depend,  as  in  physical  and  mental 
science,  on  the  nature  of  the  truths  When  Newton  had 
made  out  that  the  law  of  gravitation  explained  a  single 
fact,  applied  to  the  mopn,  no  pereon  who  fully  compre- 
hended his  demonstration  could  seriously  doubt  either  of 
the  certainty  or  of  the  universality  of  the  law  It  was 
a  case  of  a  vast  intellectual  conquest  achieved  by  one 
decisive  victory.  What  remained  was  merely  to  take 
possession  of  what  had  been  won,  and  to  explain  certain 
apparent  anomalies  On  the  other  hand,  when  Mr  Darwin 
published  his  Ongm  of  Speaes.  he  had  already  accumu- 
lated, with  amazing  industry  and  ingenuity,  and  through 
the  uninterrupted  investigations  of  many  years,  a  multi- 
tude of  observations  and  considerations  in  support  of  the 
general  propositions  therein  enunciated  as  laws  of  bio- 
logical evolution  Of  similar  observations  and  considera- 
tions there  has  since  been  an -enormous  increase  Yet  the 
so-called  Darwinian  laws  are  still  under  discussion  Why 
has  their  proof  or  disproof  been  so  different  a  process 
from  that  of  the  establishment  of  the  law  of  gravitation  1 
Largely  because  they  are  in  themselves  so  different  in 
nature.  Laws  of  evolution  can  only  be  reached  through 
the  minute  investigation  of  a  far  greater  number  of  changes 
and  appearances  than  laws  of  persistence  The  discovery 
of  truths  of  becoming  may  not  be  a  more  difficult  but  it 
is  certainly  a  more  delicate  and  complex  process  than  the 
discovery  of  truths  of  being.  Now  this  distinction  not 
only  emerges  m  theology  but  pervades  it  In  some  de- 
partments of  theology  the  laws  to  be  discovered  are  laws 
of  evolution,  while  in  others  they  are  laws  of  existence. 
Hence  the  method  to  be  followed  m  the  former  must  be 
predominantly  chronological  and  genetic,  in  the  latter 
predominantly  analytic  and  synthetic  For  example,  m 
Biblical  theolo^  and  comparative  theology  the  inductiv.->. 
process  must  be  of  the  kind  appropriate  in  historical  inves- 
tigation, whereas  in  natural  theology  and  Christian  dog- 
matics it  must  b(  of  the  kind  appropriate  in  systematic 
investigations  into  which  considerations  of  time,  place,  and 
circumstance  do  tot  enter  The  faculties  of  mind  and 
processes  of  m.'.tbod  imphed  in  the  complete  comprehension 
of  religion  as  fi  concrete  manifestation  of  spirit  are  those 
which  are  of  primi  moment  in  the  historical  disciplines  of 
theology  ,  the  faculties  of  mind  and  processes  of  method 
involved  in  the  clear  apprehension  of  the  truths  and  laws 
of  religion  in  Its  abstract  or  essential  nature  are  those 
chiefly  requisite  in  the  theoretical  disciplines  of  theology  ; 
and,  speaking  generally,  complete  comprehension  of  the 
concrete  pr  suppose?  a  more  minute  and  exhaustive  ac- 
quaintance Mfith  particulars  than  does  a'xlear  apprehension 
'  of  the  abstract  To  determine  with  scientific  precision 
and  thoroughness,  for  example,  what  were  the  stages  of 
the  development  of  doctrine  in  the  Bible,  or  even  to  trace 
with  such  accuracy  and  completeness  as  the  data  supplied 
by  the  Bible  and  auxiliary  sources  permit  the  growth  of 
single  important  ideas,  as,  e.g..  election,  holiness,  atone- 
ment, and   kingdom  of   God,  demands   laborious  critical 


I  investigation  and  comprenensive  and  minuie  historical 
knowledge  Given,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Chrisuan  ideas 
of  God  and  ot  man,  and  the  lundamental  relation  between 
God  and  man  cannot  be  otherwise  conceived  by  enlightened 
leason  and  conscience  than  as  one  of  salvation  through 
filth  and  not  by  works  True,  as  all  physical  natun 
obeys  the  law  of  gravitation,  so  all  Scripture  and  spirituc.' 
experience  testify  to  the  power  of  '.he  principle  of  faith  , 
but  then,  also,  as  the  decisive  proot  of  the  former  lies  ic 
the  thorough  elucidation  of  any  phenomenon  which  ex 
emplifies  it,  not  in  the  collection  of  numerous  illustrativ,- 
phenomena,  so  the  decisive  proot  of  the  latter  lies  in  at 
adequate  analysis  of  any  portion  or  form  of  the  life  of 
genuine  faith,  not  in  the  accumulation  of  examples  of  faith 
drawn  from  the  Scriptures  or  other  records. 

The  two  methods  ol  induction  to  which  reference  has  Histo- 
just  been  made— the  historical  and  the  thetical — are  to  '■"^*'  '""^ 
be  carefully  distinguished  but  not  absolutely  separated,  ">""=*' 
and  stdl  less  exhibited  as  antagonistic.  Both  have  specific  t,uos 
and  appropriate  functions  ,  neither  is  exclusively  legiti- 
mate or  can  alone  accomplish  the  work  of  science  The 
historical  method  by  itself  can  only  yield  history  It  haa 
done  all  that  can  m  any  circumstances  be  reasonably 
expected  from  it,  when  it  has  enabled  us  accurately  to 
realize  the  course  of  the  history  studied,  or,  in  other  words, 
when  It  has  given  us  a  correct  reflexion  of  the  history. 
If,  not  content  therewith,  we  would  further  ascertain  the 
nature  and  laws  of  the  factors  which  formed  the  history 
we  must  supplement  the  historical  with  the  thetical 
method  The  historical  method  leads  only  to  history,  and 
in  no  form  or  province  is  history  science.  Science  even 
of  history,  or  of  any  department  of  history,  cannot  be 
reached  simply  by  the  historical  method,  but  further 
requires  recourse  to  the  processes  ot  positive  science. 
Comparative  theology.  Biblical  theology,  and  the  history 
of  Christiaj  doctrines  are  most  valuable  theological  dio- 
ciplmes.  but,  inasmuch  as  their  methods  are  purely  histor- 
ical, their  results  are  also  purely  historical,  and  they  are 
not,  rigidly  speaking,  sciences,  but  only  sections  of  the 
history  of  religion  The  tendency  to  substitute  history 
for  science,  and  the  historical  method  for  the  scientific 
method,  is  prevalent  in  the  present  day  in  theology,  as 
well  as  in  ethics  and  jurisprudence,  social  philosophy  and 
political  economy  Obviously,  however,  it  rests  on  ex- 
aggeration and  illusion,  and  confounds  things  which  ought 
to  be  distinguished  Neither  history  of  the  objects  of  a 
science,  nor  history  of  the  ideas  or  doctrines  ot  a  science, 
is  science,  and  the  historical  method  of  itself  car  only 
give  us  in  connexion  with  science  either  or  both  ot  these- 
torms  of  history  It  is.  theretore.  inherently  absurd  to 
suppose  that  the  historical  method  can  be  sufficient  in  such 
theological  disciplines  as  natural  theology  and  Christian 
dogmatics  In  reality,  it  is  not  directly  or  immediateiv 
available  in  the  study  of  these  disciplines  at  all.  and  that 
just  because  it  does  not  directly  or  immediately  yield  theory, 
doctrine,  science.  Only  he  who  knows  both  the  history  of 
the  objects  and  the  history  ol  the  ideas  ot  a  science,  and 
especially  of  a  psychological,  social,  or  religious  science, 
can  be  expected  to  advance  the  science.  In  the  sphere  ot 
religion,  as  in  every  other  sphere,  to  confound  history  with 
science  is  to  eliminate  and  destroy  science  .  but  in  no 
sphere  is  knowledge  of  history  more  a  condition  ot  the 
attainment  of  science,  and  historical  research,  properly 
conducted,  more  serviceable  to  scientific  investigation,  than 
in  that  of  religion.  To  the  historical  method  we  owe 
not  only  the  historical  disciplines  of  theology,  but  also  in  f 
considerable  measure  the  recent  progress  of  its  positive  oi 
theoretical  disciplines  It  can  never,  however,  be,  as  soibi 
fanatical  disciples  of  the  historical  School  would  have  us  to 
suppose,  the  method  of  these  last 


THEOLOGY 


267 


Complex 

problems 

demand 

compre- 

h^-DSive 

UODS. 


Thede- 

dnctive 

elemeot 

indis- 

peosable. 


The  inductionB  of  theology,  even  in  its  systematic  or 
non-historical  departments,  often  require  to  be  very  careful 
and  comprehensive  in  order  to  be  conclusive.  Theories  or 
doctrines  like  the  Christian  dogmas  of  the  T.inity,  incar- 
nation, and  atonement  were  only  arrived  at  through  the 
labours  and  controversies  of  many  generations  of  theolo- 
gians, [t  could  not  be  otherwise.  These  dogmas,  simple 
as  they  may  seem  to  a  superficial  glance  and  untrained  eye, 
are  in  reality  very  complex  organisms  of  thoughf>  only 
capable  of  being  formed  by  a  long  process  of  evolution. 
They  are  theories  inclusive  of  many  theorems.  They  com- 
prehend a  number  of  directly  constitutive  propositions  and 
a  still  greater  number  of  propositions  subordinate  and 
subsidiary  to  these.  Every  proposition  which  they  involve 
should  be  the  expression  of  real  and  relevant  facts  As 
wholes  they  ought  to  combine  a  multitude  of  particulars 
of  different  kinds,  and  even  of  kinds  the  harmony  ol  which 
IS  far  from  obvious  and  needs  confirmation.  Whoever 
intelligently  accepts  any  one  of  these  dogmas  must,  by 
necessary  implication,  reject  a  host  of  hypotheses  regarding 
its  subject,  as  either  inadequate  or  positively  erroneous. 
Inasmuch  as  they  are  not  consistent  with  or  are  contrary. 
to  the  dogma,  he  is  logically  bound  to  repudiate  them,  and 
yet  he  is  only  logically  entitled  to  do  so  if  his  proof  of  the 
dogma  have  been  so  comprehensive  and  complete  as  to 
include  their  separate  and  collective  refutation.  The 
establishment  of  the  whole  truth  is  only  possible  through 
the  disproof  of  all  the  opposing  errors  How  the  inductive 
method  is  ajiplied  m  theology,  however,  will  be  better 
understood  by  the  examination  of  a  particular  exemplifica- 
tion of  It  than  by  a  general  description  ,  and,  perhaps,  as 
regards  at  least  form,  a  more  careful  or  elaborate  exempli- 
fication could  hardly  be  pointed  out  than  that  exhibited  in 
Dr  Crawford's  treatise  on  the  atonement.  An  examination 
of  it  will  show  how  very  complex  in  reality  may  be  a 
doctrine  which  is  very  simple  in  appearance,  and  how  com- 
prehensive, therefore,  must  be  the  inductive  procedure 
necessary  to  establish  it  and  to  warrant  the  rejection  of  the 
hypotheses  which  must  seem  to  one  who  accepts  it  to  err 
by  excess  or  defect  or  to  be  absolutely  false. 

The  inductions  of  theology,  like  those  of  other  sciences, 
are  seldom  or  never  mere  or  pure  inductions.  They  would 
be  useless  if  they  were.  The  examples  of  pure  induction 
given  in  treatises  on  logic  may  serve  their  purpose,  the 
illustration  of  the  nature  of  ratiocination,  but  they  are  not 
reasonings  of  a  kind  which  can  increase  positive  know- 
ledge. The  abstraction  of  induction  from  deduction  may 
be  needed  to  exhibit  its  distinctive  formal  character,  but  it 
is  fatal  to  its  practical  efficiency.  In  all  reasoning  meant 
to  increase  our  knowledge  of  objects,  induction  must 
receive  from  deduction  some  measure  of  assistance  and 
guidanca  This  certainly  holds  true  in  -theology.  In 
regard  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  for  example,  the 
most  difficult  questions  mvolved  turn  largely  on  the  signi- 
fication and  application  of  the  terms  employed  in  its  ex- 
pression. These  terms  must  be  somehow  defined,  and 
definitions  once  introduced  cannot  fail  to  be  used  to  some 
extent  as  principles  of  deduction.  They  are  often  largely 
80  used  by  those  who  are  quite  unconscious  of  making  any 
use  of  them,  and  who  have  no  suspicion  that  the  cour.se 
and  character  of  their  reasonings  are  modified  by  them. 
Definitions  often  secretly  introduce  a  great  amount  of 
hypothesis  and  deduction  into  reasonings  imagined  to  be 
exclusively  inductive.  Further,  principles  of  deduction 
are  directly  a,nd  explicitly  introduced.  The  truth  of  the 
catholic  doctrine,  or  indeed  of  any  doctrine,  of  the  atone- 
ment, for  example,  cannot  be  proved  purely  by  induction. 
It  is  neeessary  to  start  with  some  assumption  as  to  the 
authority  of  the  Scriptures,  or  at  least  as  to  the  authority 
ol   those  whose  teaching  is  contained  in  the   Scriptures. 


That  assumption  itself  should,  it  is  true,  be  proved  by  a 
process  of  apologetisal  and  critical  reasoning  which  is  in 
the  main  inductive.  It  cannot,  however,  any  raore  than 
the  doctrine  of  atonement,  be  proved  by  a  purely  or  ex- 
clusively inductive  process,  i.e.,  without  some  co-operation 
or  participation  of  deduction ;  and,  once  proved,  it  becomes 
a  principle  of  which  a  deductive  use  is  made.  Every  parii- 
cular  statement  of  Scripture  is  read  and  interpreted  in  the 
light  of  it.  So  far  as  this  is  the  case,  deduction  underlies 
all  the  inductions  of  doctrine  based  on  the  statements  of 
Scripture.  Of  course,  the  dogmatic  theologian,  in  so  far 
as  he  founds  on  Scripture,  is  bound  not  to  presuppose 
more  than  he  is  prepared  to  prove  as  a  Christian  apologist 
or  Biblical  critic  and  interpreter.  The  assumptions  made 
in  systematic  theology  ought  to  be  the  firmly  ascertained 
results  of  its  subsidiary  sciences.  And  the  less  assumed 
the  better,  as  the  relevancy  of  the  reasoning  employed  will 
be  so  much  the  more  widely  acknowledged.  Every  addi- 
tional assumption  diminishes  the  number  of  persons  who 
will  grant  the  principles  on  which  the  argumentation  pro- 
ceeds. When,  for  instance,  a  doctrine  like  plenary  inspira- 
tion is  assumed  as  the  basis  of  an  argument  for  the  atone- 
ment, the  number  of  persons  who  can  be  benefited  by  the 
argument  must  be  few.  Those  who  will  grant  plenary 
inspiration  are  not  likely  to  require  to  bfe  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  the  ordinary  doctrine  of  the  atonement  ;  they  are 
almost  certain  to  be  already  convinced.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  man  may  have  loose  or  vague  views  of  inspiration, 
and  yet  it  may  be  possible  to  satisfy  him  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  atonement  is  well  founded.  The  proof  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  atonement  may  receive  support  and  con- 
firmation from  the  proof  of  the  doctrine  of  plenary  inspira- 
tion, but  ought  not  to  be  made  dependent  on  it. 

Scientific  method  has  not  only  to  ascertain  the  facts  and  Sys'.em4» 
data  of  science,  and  to  discover  its  laws,  but  also  to  dis-  t^^tioD. 
tribute  and  co-ordinate  its  contents.  And  this  last  is  like- 
wise an  important  function.  Science  is  system.  To 
exclude  system  from  science  is  to  suppress  and  destroy 
science.  The  spirit  of  system  is  in  itself  nothing  ni(ire 
than  the  spirit  of  order  and  unity.  Without  unity  and 
order — that  is,  without  system — there  is  no  science  ;  instead 
of  it  there  can  be  only  confused  ideas,  isolated  opinions. 
It  is  absurd  to  condemn  either  system  or  the  spirit  of 
system  in  theology  or  any  other  science.  To  systematize 
is  an  intellectual  necessity ;  to  systematize  aright  is  a 
happy  achievement  and  an  immense  boon  ;  it  is  merely 
systematizing  erroneously  which  is  evil.  Theology,  by 
professing  to  be  a  science,  pledges  itself  to  systematize  in 
a  scientific  manner.  By  claiming  to  be  the  science  of 
religion  it  undertakes  to  exhibit  the  truths  of  religion  in 
their  proper  relationship  to  one  another,  in  their  organic 
unity  and  essential  interdependence.  Thus  to  proceed  is 
necessary  to  it,  not  only  as  a  conseo-ence,  but  also  as  a 
means  of  the  development  of  its  constituent  dogmas,  for 
no  doctrine  can  be  truly  and  fully  evolved  in  isolation,  but 
only  in  connexion  with  kindred  doctrines  and  through  the 
general  growth  of  the  science  or  system  to  which  it  belongs. 
Increase  of  insight  into  any  one  truth  brings  with  it  clearer 
-views  of  all  contiguous  and  related  truths,  and  the  collec- 
tive light  thus  gained  illumines  each'  particular  to  which 
it  extends.  To  apprehend  more  distinctly  the  relations 
between  either  facts  or  theories  is  to  understand  better  the 
facts  or  theories  themselves.  To  comprehend  any  single 
doctrine  aright  we  must  study,  not  merely  its  special  data, 
but  those  of  allied  doctrines,  trace  its  connexions  with 
those  doctrines,  and  view  both  it  and  them  as  parts  of  an 
organic  and  harmonious  whole.  Hence  the  endeavour  to 
systematize  the  contents  of  science  should  not  merely 
follow  the  formation  of  its  separate  doctrines,  but  likewise 
accompany  and  participate  in  the  process  of  their  formar 


268 


THEOLOGY 


*:ttuS  of 
A  tntc 
thco- 

system 


tion  Wisely  conducted  systematization  is  entitled  to  be 
deemed  an  aid  to  discovery  It  rot'^aU  where  exploration 
IS  needed,  and  indicates  the  ■irections  in  which  research 
will  be  successful  It  is  the  hlyLlc^t  form  and  effort  of 
*5'ntlietic  thought,  and  synthesis  is  a  not  less  necessary  and 
fruitful  operatiou  in  scientific  method  than  analysis 
iVbiiSe  trf  Unfortunately  it  cannot  be  denied  that  there  has  been 
system  a  vast  amount  ol  erroneous  systematizing  in  theology,  and 
that  It  has  done  a  vast  amount  of  harm  Doubtless  much 
of  the  aversion  felt  and  expressed  to  system  in  tLeology  is 
to  b".  traced  to  the  imperfect,  artificial,  false  character  ot 
many  theological  systems.  Instead  of  exhibiting  religious 
truths  in  their  real  significance  and  interdependence,  theo- 
logical systems  have  often  disguised  and  disfigured,  cramped 
and  contorted  these  truths,  or  even  ignored  and  rejected 
them  How,  then,  is  a  true  and  appropriate  system  to  be 
distinguished  from  one  which  is  false  and  imperfect!  In 
various  respects,  which  can  here  be  merely  mentioned 

Thus,  first,  a  true  system  is  natural  and  not  artificial.  In 
e(pii\alent  terms,  it  is  directly  derived  from  the  character 
of  the  matter  of  which  it  treats,  and  not  arbitrarily  im- 
posed on  that  matter  from  without  Etery  system  of 
thought,  wiiether  true  or  false,  must,  of  course,  be  the 
product  of  intellect,  but  no  true  system  is  a  mere  inven- 
tion of  intellect,  a  mere  subjective  creation  interposed 
between  the  mind  and  things  ,  it  us,  on  the  contrary,  a 
representation  of  the  real  nati^-e-s  and  relations  of  things 
The  human  intellect  can  only  construct  a  true  sy.stem  by 
finding  in  and  among  facts  the  conne.xions  and  harmonies 
which  are  actually  there  But  to  do  this  may  require  more 
labour  than  is  agreeable,  or  may  contravene  some  cherished 
prejudice,  or  may  not  be  recognized  to  be  the  sole  legiti- 
mate procedure,  and.  so  it  may  devise,  instead,  a  formula 
or  scheme  of  thought  suggested  by  some  idea  drawn  from 
an  extraneous  source,  force  that  scheme  or  formula  upon 
things  to  which  it  is  inappropriate,  and  so  construct  a  sys- 
tem which  is  artificial  and  erroneous.  Most  sciences  have 
suffered  frota  artificial  systematization  of  this  kind,  but 
prubablv«none  nearlj'  so  much  as  theology  Jletaphysical 
[ihilosophy  has  always  sought  to  shape  and  modify  religious 
and  even  distinctively  Scriptural  truths  according  to  its 
own  ideas,  methods,  and  dogmas.  Paul  and  John  have 
oftrn  been  merely  the  masks  through  which  Plato  and 
Alistotle  have  taught.  Hegelian  divines  have  passed  ail 
religious  beliefs,  all  Scriptural  doctrines,  through  the  dia- 
lectic devised  by  their  master,  and,  whatever  those  beliefs 
and  doctrines  may  have  been  before  subjection  to  the 
operation  of  that  wonder-working  machine,  they  have 
always  come  out  ground  into  Hegelian  notions.  Juris- 
prudence exerted  a  similar  infiuence,  owing  to  its  having 
been  the  only  science  which  was  studied  with  zeal  and 
success  in  the  Latin  world  when  theology  began  to  be 
independently  cultivated  by  the  Latin  Church.  The  Latin 
mind  was  so  possessed  by  juristic  or  foren.sic  ideas  that  the 
Latin  fathers  could  not  avoid  looking  at  the  gospel  through 
them  This  way  of  viewing  it  is  still  familiar.  The  so- 
called  federal  school  of  theology,  long  and  widely  influen- 
tial, exhibited  the  whole  system  of  religious  truth  accord- 
ing to  the  analogy  of  a  covenant, — a  succession  of  cove- 
nants between  God  and  man, — in  other  words,  according 
to  a  conception  which  is  essentially  juristic  and  political, 
not  intrinsically  and  properly  religious  The  making  of  a 
metaphor  in  this  manner  the  basis  of  an  entire  system  of 
theology  is  far  from  uncommon.  Thus,  because  sin  may 
bo  likened  to  disease  or  to  darkness  or  to  death,  and  holi- 
ness to  health  or  light  or  life,  not  a  few  would  conceive  of 
all  religious  truth  according  to  these  similitudes,  and  do 
violence  to  the  reality  when  it  does  not  easily  adapt 
itself  toihe  moulds  which  they  have  chosen  for  it.  Dr 
Chalmers,  for  instance,  distributed  all  systematic  theology 


into  a  study  of  the  disease  and  a  study  of  the  remedy,  and 
treated  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  merely  as  an  appendix. 
At  present,  owi.ig  to  the  dominancy  ol  physical  science, 
there  is  a  strong  temptation  to  work  upon  spiritual  facts 
with  physical  categories,  and  even  to  identify,  i.e.,  to  con- 
found, the  spiritual  with  the  physical.  Hence  we  hear  of 
natural  law,  m  the  sense  of  mechanical  or  biologic:-;  law, 
in  the  spiritual  world 

Secondly,  in  a  true  system  of  theology  the  material  and 
formal  constituents  of  knowledge  will  he  duly  combined, 
)ut  not  in  a  false  system  No  true  system  of  theology  can 
oe  constructed  simply  by  logical  deduction  from  abstract 
conceptions,  from  a  prion  assumptions,  from  self  evident 
axioms  Mere  reasoning  from  data  so  insullicient  as  these 
•nay  be  made  plausible  and  imposing  by  being  thrown 
into  syllogistic,  dialectic,  or  mathematical  shapes,  but  it 
cannot  be  made  truly  profitable  and  productive.  When 
the  Wolfians  had  presented  theology  in  the  semblance  of 
geometry,  they  had  merely  succeeded  in  dressing  it  in 
ma.-iquerade  and  binding  it  vvith  fetters.  Reason  can  only 
work  effectively  in  theology  when  it  is  in  possession  of  a 
large  and  close  acquaintance  with  Divine  things  and  acts 
harmoniously  with  the  whole  spiritual  nature.  On  the 
other  hand,  without  the  application  of  logical  refle.t'.on  to 
the  truth  implicitly  contained  in  the  sources  of  religious 
knowledge,  without  the  help  of  definition,  induction, 
deduction,  and  all  the  processes  involved  in  analysis, 
generalization,  judgment,  and  reasoning,  we  never  could 
reach  a  scientific  .system  at  all  Such  a  system  is  not 
simply  an  aggregation  or  accumulation  of  the  data  and  con- 
stituents of  religion,  but  the  product  of  all  the  activities 
and  forms  of  thought  which  give  to  the  contents  of  re- 
ligious experience  the  order  and  organization  which  theo, 
logy,  as  science,  demands. 

Thirdly,  a  true  system  is  one  in  which  unity  is  the 
result  of  the  conciliation  of  all  relevant  principles,  even 
although  they  may  be  apparently  antagonistic,  while  a 
false  system  is  one  which  bases  itself  on  some  particular 
principle  or  idea  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  also  legitimata 
In  a  true  system  unity  is  produced  by  harmonizing  differ- 
ences ,  in  a  false  system  it  is  produced  by  ignoring  diff'er- 
ences.  A  true  system  of  theology  is  one  which  grows  out 
of  the  struggle  of  opposing  elements  and  recognizes  the 
validity  and  significance  of  all  religious  truth.  It  is  not, 
for  example,  so  based  on  Divine  sovereignty  that  injustice 
is  done  to  human  liberty,  or  so  based  on  free  will  that 
God's  agency  is  largely  ignored,  but  it  assigns  to  both 
Divine  efficiency  and  human  action  their  proper  place,  and 
does  so,  not  merely  by  maintaining  the  truth  of  both,  but 
also  by  exhibiting  their  relationship  anii  harmony. 

Fourthly,  in  a  true  system  all  the  members  are  not 
merely  included,  connected,  and  classified, — they  are  also 
unified  through  reference  to  a  centre.  A  true  system 
must  be  a  unity  of  members  pervaded  by  a  common  life. 
In  Its  remotest  members  must  be  traceable  the  pulsations 
of  its  heart.  Only  of  late  have  theologians  begun  clearly 
to  recognize  that  this  characteristic  of  a  true  organic 
system  must  be  taken  into  account  in  the  formation  of 
their  science.  Long  after  they  were  fully  alive  to  the 
importance  of  treating  of  each  head  of  doctrine  or  irticle 
of  faith,  each  separate  theological  locus,  they  felt  hardly 
any  interest  as  to  how  the  various  doctrines,  articles,  or 
loci  were  to  be  connected.  They  were  often  coutent  to 
take  the  order  of  arrangement  from  some  external  source, 
some  creed,  confession,  or  catechism.  It  was  a  step  iu 
advance  when,  although  still  arranging  the  dogmas  merely 
in  a  series,  they  endeavoured  to  give  each  dogma  its  place, 
on  the  ground  of  its  natural  and  intrinsic  relationship-tO 
other  dogmas.  Theologians  have,  indeed,  differed  much 
as  to  what  is  the  proper  sei-iatim  order.     One,  for  e:;a[nplei 


THEOLOGY 


269 


•has  "begun  with  the  nature  and  state'of  man,  a  second  with 
the  being  and  character  of  God,  a  third  with  the  Divine 
authority  of  the  Scriptures,  and  a  fourth  has  followed  the 
order  of  the  Divine  dispensations.  Yet  there  need  be  no 
doubt  that  there  is  such  an  order,  one  in  which  every 
dogma  is  exactly  where  it  ought  to  be.  This  order,  it 
may  also  be  safely  affirmed,  can  only  be  one  of  advance 
from  the  simpler  to  the  more  complex.  An  order  in  which 
each  dogma  has  before  it  only  its  natural  antecedents,  and 
after  it  only  its  natural  consequents,  must  be  one  of  con- 
tinuously increasing  complexity.  The  spirit  of  order  and 
of  system  cannot  rest,  however,  in  the  series.  It  must 
classify  as  well  as  connect  the  doctrines.  This  also  may 
be  accomplished  in  various  waj-s,  and  even  when  there  is 
general  agreement  as  to  what  are  the  natural  groups,  there 
may  be  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  their  delim- 
itation. But  the  most  perfect  distribution  by  classifica- 
tion, if  unsupplemented,  must  be  unsatisfactory.  A  still 
higher  kind  of  unity  bos  to  be  attained.  It  is  that  of  the 
only  unity  which  is  truly  organic  It  is  that  of  co-ordina- 
tion and  correlation  through  a  single  central  principle.  An 
intellectual  system,  a  system  of  science  or  doctrine,  can 
only  have  this  unity,  and  be  in  consequence  a  true  system, 
when  all  its  particular  truths  and  various  departments  or 
divisions  of  truth  are  connected  with  one  another  and 
combined  into  a  whole  by  reference  to  a  common  and 
central  truth.  The  necessity  of  conforming  to  this  condi- 
tion of  systematizing  has  now  begun  to  be  felt  among 
theologians,  and  hence  in  several  modem  systems  of 
Christian  dogmatics  the  doctrines  are  not  merely  distri- 
buted into  groups,  but  an  attempt  is  also  made  to  find  a 
centre  for  the  whole  system  in  a  single  pervasive  idea. 
Such  a  centre  Kothe,  for  e.xaraple,  finds  in  the  religious 
consciousness,  a  consciousness  of  sin  and  of  grace  ;  Kahnis 
imhe  doctrine  of  the  Trinity;  and  Thomasius  and  H.  B. 
Smith  in  Christ  Himself,  His  person  and  work.  So  far  as- 
Ghristian -theology  is  concerned,  tTie  last  of  these  views 
IS  doubtless  correct.  Christian  thcolog)',  like  Christianity 
itself,  must  be  Christoccntric  All  its  doctrines  either 
directly  and  immediately  relate  to  Christ's  manifestation 
of  God  and  redemption  of  man,  or  are  the  antecedents 
and  consequents  of  those  which  do.  To  Christ  the  entire 
system  owes  its  distinctive  character.  For  general  theo- 
logy, on  the  other  hand,  the  central  and  vital  idea  can  be 
no  other  than  that  of  religion  itself.  It  must  obviously 
be  one  derived  from  the  domain  of  the  science  itself,  and 
indeed  from  the  essential  nature  of  the  object  of  the 
science.  As  it  would  be  an  error  to  seek  the  principles 
of  biology  elsewhere  than  in  "  life,"  or  of  psychology  else- 
where than  in  "  mind,"  so  must  it  be  to  seek  the  principles 
of  theology  elsewhere  than  in  "  religion."  Theology  is  the 
science  of  religion,  and  in  the  true  idea  of  religion  should 
be  found  the  central  and  constitutive  principle  of  the 
general  system  of  theology.  That  it  can  be  found  therein 
will  appear  as  we  proceed. 

Must  the  work  of  method   in  theology  end,  however, 

even  with  the  formation  of  a  system  which  answers  to  the 

requirements  just    indicated?     Is   there  no   still    higher 

procedure  or  application  of  theological  method  legitimate  1 

This   is   to   ask  if   there  be  any  place  for  a  speculative 

method  in  theology,  and  if  speculative  th«)logy  rest  on 

any  solid  basis. 

Spccc-         The  history  of  theology  might,  perhaps,  suffice  of  itself 

i6-»e      to  show,  on  the  one  hand,  that  speculation  has  a  large  and 

to  U  eo-   '^g'ti'Ti'its  place  in  the  sphere  of   theology,  and,  on  the 

jo^j-.        other  hand,  that  its  place  is  one  the  limits  of  which  are 

diffii  ult  to  fix   or  keep  within.     Christian  theology  was 

initinted   by  Gnostic   speculation,  grandly  reasonable   in 

aiming  at  the  exhibition  of  Christianity  as  the  absolute 

truth  and  absolute   religion,  but  otherwise  wildly  extra- 


vagant. An  Origen  and  an  Augustine  owed  largely  to 
speculativeness  both  their  successes  and  their  failures.  The 
defects  of  scholasticism  were  due  more  to  misdirection  of 
the  reflective  understanding  than  of  the  speculative  reason, 
and  it  was  especially  the  speculative  and  the  mystic 
divines  of  the  Middle  Age  who  opened  up  the  way  to 
modern  thought  and  modern  theology.  Men  like  Nicholas 
of  Cusa,  Bruno,  Telesio,  and  Camianella,  looking  from  the 
heights  of  speculation,  saw  some  aspects  of  religious  truth 
winch  the  Reformers,  standing  on  lower  if  safer  and  less 
cloudy  ground,  overlooked.  A  Descartes  and  a  S|iinoza, 
into  whatever  errors  they  may  have  fallen,  certainly  did 
much,  and  in  a  directly  speculative  manner,  to  enlarge  and 
advance  the  philosophy  of  religion.  Kant  supposed  that, 
by  his  critical  researches  into  the  nature  and  limits  of 
knowledge,  he  had  made  an  end  of  speculative  theology 
and  done  what  would  effectually  deter  reason  from  specu- 
lative adventures.  It  soon  became  apparent  that  his 
expectations  had  been  doomed  to  disappointment,  that  in 
reality  he  had  excited  speculative  reason  to  extraordinary 
activity  and  even  audacity,  and  inaugurated  an  era  of 
theology  far  more  speculative  than  any  which  had  preceded 
it  The  great  speculative  movement  in  philosophy  headed 
by  Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel,  Baader,  Krause,  and  others 
passed  on  immediately  into  the  sphere  of  theology,  its 
leaders  themselves  proceeding  to  apply  their  principles  and 
methods  to  the  explanation  of  the  doctrines  and  phases  of 
religion.  Theologians  by  profession  soon  followed  in  their 
footsteps.  Daub  and  Marheinocke  constructed  systems 
of  Protestant  dogmatics  by  means  of  Hegel's  dialectic. 
Strauss,  Baur,  and  their  followers  reached  by  the  same 
method  negative  and  antichristian  results,  bringing  out 
the  contradictions  between  the  doctrines  of  the  church  and 
the  speculative  troths  to  which  it  was  held  that  they 
should  give  place.  Many  theological  systems  of  an  almost 
exclusively  .speculative  character  have  since  appeared  in 
Germany.  Weisse's  Philosophische  Dogmatik  and  Rothe's 
TheologUche  Ethik  are  good  typical  instances.  And,  while 
not  so  predominant,  the  speculative  use  of  reason  is 
yet  conspicuous  in  the  treatises  on  Christian  dogmatics 
of  Dorner,  Martensen,  Schoberlein,  Hofmann,  Liebner, 
Biedermann,  and  others.  In  the  department  of  philo- 
sophy of  religion  a  speculative  procedure  is  not  le.ss  fre- 
quently followed,  eitner  as  alone  appropriate  or  as  a 
necessary  supplement  to  the  genetic  and  historic  method. 
Rosmini,  Gioberti,  and  Mamiani  inaugurated  in  Italy  a 
speculative  theology  second  only  to  that  of  Germany. 
Contemporary  French  theological  literature  can  boast  of 
at  least  one  work  displajdng  real  speculative  power, — the 
Phihsophie  de  la  Liberie  of  M.  Secretan.  In  America 
Hickok,  Bushnell,  and  Mulford  may  be  named  as  having 
shown  confidence  in  the  competency  of  speculative  reason 
in  the  spiritual  sphere.  In  Britain  Principal  Caird  has 
argued  in  favour  of  a  speculative  procedure  in  theology 
with  rare  skill  in  his  Introduction  to  the  Philosophy  of 
Religion.  On  the  whole,  however,  both  in  America  and 
Britain,  the  speculative  method  has  received  little  recogni- 
tion from  theologians.  But  this,  of  course,  may  be  held 
to  be  partly  cau.=;e  and  partly  effect  of  the  want  of  life  and 
originality,  of  thoroughness  and  truthfulness,  of  ordinary 
American  and  British  systematic  theology. 

Is  there,  then,  room  and  need  in  theology  for  the 
speculative  method?  The  answer  .^lust  depend  on  what 
is  meant  by  speculative  method.  There  are  kinds  of  so- 
called  speculation  which  are  plainly  illegitimate  and  in- 
applicable. Thus,  some  have  represented  speculative  theo- 
logy as  part  of  a  philosophy  of  which  the  whole  system  is 
deduced  in  a  purely  and  strictly  logical  manner  from  an  a 
priori  principle,  idea,  or  datum.  On  this  view  the  specu- 
lative thinker  somehow  apprehends  an   absolute  first  of 


270 


THEOLOGY 


Tlie 

Thecf 

lovxal 

Eihicsoi 

Kothe. 


thoiigbt  or  being,  or  both,  and  theu  from  this  primary  and 
necessary  datum  evolves  syUogistically  or  dialectically  a 
whole' philosophy,  which  includes  a  whole  theology.  'Such 
speculation  may  be  safely  pronounced  futile  and  delusive. 
It  c.'ifi  never  reasonably  vindicate  its  choice  of  a  starting- 
point,  for  the  absolute  first  of  _e.vistence  and  thought  can 
only  be  that  to  which  the  worlds  of  fact  and  experience, 
of  matter  and  of  mind,  refer  us  as  their  ultimate  explana- 
tion. It  asxribes  an  extravagant  power  to  mere  formal 
ttinking.  It  is  only  consistent  with  exclu-sive  idealism 
and  exclusive  rationalism,  both  justly  discredited  species 
of  philosophy.  It  makes  theology  wholly  dependent  on  a 
philosophy  which  must  be  false,  since  pure  reason  cannot, 
as  it  assumes,  spin  out  of  its  own  essence  or  out  of  any 
single  datum  the  whole  system  of  truth. 

There  is,  however,  a  theology  which  claims  to  be  at  once 
speculative  and  independent  of  philosophy.  Such  was  the 
theology  which  Rothe  sought  to  elaborate  in  his  Theolor/ical 
Elides.  In  the  "  Introduction  "  to  that  work  he  has  fully 
explained  his  method.  It  is,  as  there  represented,  the  very 
same  method  with  that  of  speculative  philosophy,  but  ij. 
starts  from  adifTerent  point, — not  from  pure  self-conscious- 
cess,  but  from  the  religious  self-consciousness  or  God-con- 
sciousness. Its  primary  datum  is,  according  to  Rothe,  as 
immediately  certain  as  that  of  speculative  philosophy,  the 
|.iou3  man  being  just  as  directly  sure  of  God  as  the  natural 
man  is  of  his  own  self.  Out  of  this  datum  it  must  evolve 
all  its  conclusion^  by  an  inward  logical  necessity,  and 
construct  an  entire  theological  system  of  such  a  nature 
that  every  single  thought  implicitly  supposes  the  whole. 
Speculative  theology  thus  conceived  of  needs  but  a  single 
fact,  the  datum  from  which  it  starts,  and  that  fact  must 
be  a  self-evident  one,  given  immediately  in  and  by  con- 
sciousness ;  all  the  rest  is  a  succession  of  inferences  de- 
ductively obtained.  The  facts  of  religion  presented  in 
nature,  history,  and  Scripture  not  only  need  not  but 
ought  not  to  be  taken  into  account  by  it,  although  at  the 
close  of  its  labours,  its  success  must  be  tested  by  the  con- 
formity or  nonconformity  of  its  results  with  those  facts. 

"This  system  of  n  priori  thought,"  says  Rothe,  "to  be  success- 
ful as  a  speculation,  must  be  an  absolutely  correspondiug  and 
:onstant  imaf;e  of  the  reality  ;  but  the  speculative  process  itself 
takes  no  thought  whether  there  be  such  a  reality  existing,  or  how 
the  ideas  which  it  construes  are  related  to  it ;  but,  without  looldng 
either  to  the  right  hand  or  to  the  left,  it  follows  only  the  course  of 
logical  necessity,  UDtil  it  has  accomplished  the  whole  circle  of  its 
ideas,  and  constructs  a  complete  system.  Then  hrst  the  specu- 
lative thinker  looks  out  of  himself,  in  order  to  compare  the  system 
of  thought  which  he  has  independently  constructed  with  the 
objective  reality,  and  to  assure  himself  of  his  correctness  by  such  a 
comparison;  but  in  so  doing  he  is  slipping  out  of  the  region  of 
speculative  into  that  of  reflective  thinking.  The  necessity  of-such 
a  veri.lcation,  indeed,  he  acknowledges  unconditionally,  but  he  di* 
t:''2'iishcs  clearly  between  the  speculation  itself  and  that  reflective 
Ci'tical  process  by  which  alone  such  a  verification  can  be  realized. 
V,Mh  reference  to  theempiiical  reality  around  him,  he  acknowledges 
that  his  speculation  is  incorrect  if  his  system  of  thought  is  not 
if-re  reproduced,  but  he  still  persists  that  he  has  to  complete  his 
•;".:cii!ative  labour  without  any  direct  reference  to  it.  He  concludes 
ri.-'-er,  from  a  clear  want  of  correspondency,  that  he  has  speculated 
liiforrectly,  and  can  look  for  his  error  in  nothing  else  than  in  his 
departure  from  a  strict  adherence  to  the  laws  of  logic.  Forthwith, 
tl/en,  he  destroys  his  laboriously  constructed  system;  but  if  he 
a^iin  proceed  to  construct  anotlier,  he  must  proceed  in  the  very 
iaiue  manner  as  before,  i.e.,  by'-iking  solely  into  his  own  thoughts, 
as  iliough  there  were  no  world  ^rpund  him." 

Rothe,  it  will  be  observed,  cannot  be  charged  with  hav- 
ii:g  made  theology  dependent  on  philosophy.  He  repre- 
sented theoloL'ii;al  .speculation  and  philosophical  speculation 
as  starting  from  different  data,  as  running  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  so  as  throughout  distinct.  But  this  was  to 
avoid  one  extreme  by  falling  into  another.  It  was  virtu- 
ally to  deny  the  unity  of  thought,  and  to  assume  an  in- 
credible dualism  in  the  universe  of  speculation.  A  theo- 
logy absalutely  separated  from  philosophy  must  be  even 


more  unsatisfactory  than  one  wholly  dependent  on  it 
Then,  the  method  itself' proceeds  on  assumptions  unsup- 
ported by  evidence,  yet  far  from  self-evident.  Jtassumes, 
for  instance,  that  a  system  of  ideas  generated  a  priori  will 
be  a  counterpart  of  reality,  although  it  is  neither  incon^ 
ceivable  lior  improbable  that  the  characteristics  of  real 
existence  may  be  incapable  of  being  determined  by  the 
mere  logic  of  necessary  thought.  Reason  should  not  thus 
be  credited  with  the  extraordinary  power  of  compreheud- 
ing  reality  without  requiring  to  apprehend  and  study  it. 
Another  assumption  is,  that  a  complete  and  self-consistent 
system  can  only  be  reached  by  an  exclusively  a  prim-i 
procedure,  whereas  it  is  far  more  likely  that  such  a  system 
will  only  be  attained  by.  a  combination  of  different  pro- 
cesses. Again,  the  primary  datum  of  theological  specula- 
tion as  understood  by  Rothe^the  idea  of.  God — is  assumed 
to  be  immediately  given  and  immediately  certain.  But 
the  idea  of  God  is  not  immediately  given  or  immediately 
certain.  The  piety  which  chooses  to  affirm  so  is  a  piety 
capricious  in  its  affirmations  ;  the  speculation^which  starts 
from  such  a  foundation  starts  from  an  assumption  ea,s:Iy 
shown  by  psychology  and  history  to  be  erroneous.  Rothe 
went  even  farther  astray.  He  represented  not  only  the 
bare  consciousness  of  God  but  the  Christian,  yea,  the 
evangelical  God-consciousness,  as  a  simple  and  primary 
datum  of  consciousness.  This  was  utterly  arbitrary.  It 
was  to  treat  as  an  original  apprehension  what  is  indubit- 
ably an  acquired  experience.  No  a  priori  system — no 
properly  deductive  system — can  be  reasonably  imagined  to 
have  such  a  starting-point.  For  these  and  other  reasons, 
theological  speculation  of  the  kind  advocated  by  Rothe 
may  be  rejected. 

Still  another  species  of  theological  speculation,  however,  The_ 
has  been  attempted  and  commended, — one  which  seems ScKrifi- 
more  modest,  and  claims  to  be  more  distinctively  Christian.  *"'*'■  "" 
It  is  the  method  advocated  and  exemplified  in  the  Schrift- 
beweis  of  Von  Hofmann.  He,  instead  of  starting  like 
Rothe  with  the  religious  consciousne.ss,  chose  to  start  from 
a  real  concrete  fact,  what  he  caHs  the  Christianity  of  the 
Christian, — a  Christianity  which  he  supposes  to  have 
acquired  in  the  Christian  a  separate  standing  of  its  own, 
in  virtue  of  which,  and  independently  even  of  Scripture,  it 
is  self-evident  certain  truth  sustained  and  authenticated  by 
the  Spirit  of  God.  From  this  fact  or  experience,  e.xpressed 
in  its  simplest  and  most  general  form,  as  a  personal  re- 
lationship or  fellowship  between  God  and  man  through 
Jesus  Christ,  Hofmann  would  deduce  the  whole  theological 
system  by  a  process  of  "  thinking  within  "  the  central  fact, 
so  as  logically  to  evolve  from  it  its  manifold  wealth  of 
contents,  and  woidd  refrain  on  principle  from  looking  out- 
wards, and  taking  into  account  the  religious  facts  presented 
by  history,  experience,  or  Scripture.  Now,  in  this  system 
also,  speculation  is  in  excess.  Such  a  speculative  deduc- 
tion of  facts  from  facts  as  is  contended  for  is  impossible. 
Facts  are  not  so  involved  in  one  another  that  they  can  be 
evolved  from  one  another  by  mere  thinking,  and  still  less 
so  that  from  one  fact  a  whole  system  of  facts  can  be  thus 
evolved.  ■  From  a  single. bopo,  indeed,  of  an  animal  which 
he  has  never  seen  or  heard  of  a  naturalist  may  in  thought 
correctly,  construct  the  whole  skeleton,  but  not  by  think- 
ing within  oi»  from  the  one  fact  before  him,  but  by 
making  use  of  all  the  knowledge  he  has  acquired  of  the 
structure  of  animals,  of  the  relations  of  bones  to  bones. 
Dr  Hofmann  himself  was  quite  unable  to  carry  out  the 
method  he  contended  for.  His  so-called  speculative  argu- 
ments are  mere  semblances  of  what  they  profess  to  be. 
Instead  of  the  contents  of  his  system  being  really  "  de- 
rived "  from  the  simplest  expression  of  the  fact  of  Chris- 
tianity, new  propositions  are  constantly  borrowed  from  the 
known  contents  of  Christianity,  acd  sdded  from  without 


UO&D.. 


THEOLOG   Y, 


27i: 


Spec  a  . 

l-.tiOR 

•*Arv  tc. 
irue  ■'ys 

atioa  ; 


to  the  simplest  expression,  in  ordcFto  belp  out  tlic  unfold- 
ing of  tbe  system.  Fuitlier,  in  Hofmann's  system  of 
speculation,  as  in  that  of  Rolhc,  we  arc  asked  to  start 
from  an  assuiniJtion  which  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  justi- 
fied— the  assumption  that  Christianity  in  the  Christian  is' 
indcpcmlent  of  its  objective  grounds.     Surely  every  es- 

"pericncc  may  reasonably  be  called  upon  to  produce  evi- 
dence of  its  legitimacy  and  validity,  and,  if  so  called  upon, 
Low  can  it  avoid  referring  to  its  grounds  1  It  is  only  by 
an  examination  of  the  grounds  of  an  experience  that  we 
can  know  whether  it  is  an  experience  of  reality  or  a  form 
or  etfcct  of  illusion:  The  fact  from  which  we  are  told  by 
Hofmann  that  we  must  deduce  all  other  facts  is  only  itself 
intelligible  in  tbe  light  of  many  of  these  facts,  and  even 
of  the  Christian  system  as  a  wholo ;  it  is  a  fact  which  has 
many  conditions,  and  the  right  understanding  of  it  rctiuiros 
Us  bciug  viewed  under  its  various  conditions,  not  as  ab- 

^stracied  from  and  independent  of  them. 

In  the  forms  indicated,  then,  speculation  has  failed  to 
make  good  its  claim  to  participate  in  the  formation  and 
development  of  theology.     Docs  it  follow  that  its  claim  is 

.wholly  unfiiunded?  By  no  means.  Speculation  in  the 
forms  described  pretends  to  an  independence  of  reality  and 

^a  creative  power  for  which  there  is  no  warrant  in  reason  or 
confirmation  in  fact.  Hence  the  futility  of  such  specula- 
tion is  no  disproof  of  the  utility  of  a  siieculation  which 
will  fully  recognize  reality  and  directly  endeavour  to 
elucidate  it.  Speculation  of  this  latter  kind  seems  to  be  a 
necessary  condition  of  true  systematization  and  a  neces- 
-sary  >iip[ilcinent  to  induction  and  to  all  the  special  methods 
«>r  particular  sciences.  In  a  true  philosophy,  for  instance, 
science  and  speculation  must  necessarily  be  combiucd.  So 
far  from  claiming  independence  of  the  sciences,  a  true 
philosophy  will  base  itself  upon  them,  and  seek  to  rise 
above  tlicm  by  means  of  thi^m.     It  is  only  thus  that  it  can 

-hnpe  to  reach  the  ultimate  universal  and  real  principle  of 
knowledge  and  being,  without  which  there  can  be  no  rest 
for  reason  or  unity  in  the  universe.  But,  having  ascended 
by  an  analytic  and  inductive  course  to  the  unity  of  an 
allcoinpichensive  ultimate  principle,  philosophy  niust  en- 
deavour to  descend  from  it  in  a  synthetic  and  deductive 
mann'-r,  ao  as  to  exhibit  the  whole  org.mism  of  existence, 
or  to  determine  how  the  many  laws  of  science  and  the 
iinany  facts  of  experience  are  connected  with  the  absolute 
■in  being  and' causation,  and  through  it  with  one  another. 
[It  is  conceivable  that  the  descent  should  be  accomplished 
in  various  ways,  and  Plato  and  Plotinus,  Du.scaitcs  and 
Spinoza,  Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel,  Krause,  Gioberti,  and 
others  have  attempted  it  each  in  a  way  of  his  own;  but 
two  things  are  obvious,  namely,  that  philosophy  cannot 
conoistently  decline  the  task,  and  that  any  method  it  may 
adopt  in  trying  to  iicrforin  it  must  be  one  essentially 
speculative.  An  inductive  and  analytic  method  is  clearly 
inapplicable,  for  the  highest  and  last  results  of  induction 
and  analysis  are  just  what  are  to  be  elucidated  through 
being  viewed  in  relation  to  the  one  supreme  truth  or  fact. 
And  among  the  data  with  which  philosophy  must  thus 
synthetically  or  speculatively  deal  are  those  of  religion. 
It  icfiuires  to  show  how  what  theology  teaches  as  to  God's 
nature  and  operations  comports  with  what  itself  affirms  as 
to  the  ab.-iolnte  source  and  ground  of  existence,  and  this 
necessarily  •commits  it  to  have  recourse  to  a  theologico- 
spcculative  u.sc  of  reason.  And  to  a  very  large  use  of  it 
if,  for  example,  theism  be  true;  since,  in  this  case,  the 
."ili^nlute  principle  of  philo.inphy  can  be  no  other  than  God 
Himself,  aud  its  highest  task  no  other  than  to  show  Him  to 
be  the  essence  of  all  existence,  the  light  of  all  knowledge. 
In  this  case  philosophy  must  inevitably  become  in  the 
highest  stage  of  its  dcvclopmrnl  a  s]icculative  theology. 
Nor  can  positive  ihi'ology  disi.n-.ise  with  .specnUiion.      It 


cannot,  indeed,  begin  with  it  or  confine  itself  to  il<^ — cannot '»nd  ana 
start  with  some  single  immediately  certain  xeligious  fact,  ^""'j^ 
and  then  by  mere  force  of  logic  evolve  ihtit'elfora  a  whole  indue 
theological  system.  _It8  data  arc  all  real  facts  of  religion,  'ion- 
and  these  it  must  deal  with,  m  the  first  place,  mainly  by 
observation  and  induction.  But  observation  and  induction 
will  not  always  alone  lead  to  a  satisfactory  result.  Obser- 
vation is  confined  to  experience,  which  gives  only  the  par- 
ticular. Induction,  in  so  far  as  it  effects  a  transition  from 
the  particular  to  the  general,  already  involves  the  activity 
of  speculative  reason  ;  it  makes  discoveries  only  when 
guided  by  theory ;  it  can  never  of  itself  reach  ultimate 
truth  ;  and  it  is  manifestly  not  its  function  to  raise 
coherent  comprehensive  systems  on  their  proper  construc- 
tive principles.  Thcni  the  theologian  who  renounces 
speculation  must  deal  most  inefficiently  with  the  chief 
ideas  and  doctrines  of  his  science.  Consider  the  greatest 
idea  of  all — the  idea  of  God.  Mere  observation  and  in- 
duction do  not  yield  the  idea.  Exclusively  a[4jlicd,  they 
cannot  take  us  beyond  the  contingent  and  conditioned, 
cannot  take  us  beyond  atheism  and  secularism.  Waive, 
however,  this  objection,  and  grant  that  the  idea  of  God 
may  be  given,  say,  through  revelation.  What  sort  of  idea 
must  it  be  in  the  mind  of  the  theologian  who  refuses  to 
speculate'!  Merely  that  of  a  complex  of  the  attributes 
predicated  of  God  in  the  Bible.  Surely  that  is  unworthy 
to  be  accounted  an  idea  of  God  at  all.  The  theologian 
who  is  in  earnest  with  the  idea  of  Cod,  who  would  find 
order  and  light  in  the  idea,  who  would  think  of  Him  as  He 
is.  Absolute  Being,  Harmonious  Life,  Infinite  Personality, 
Perfect  Spirit,  Ultimate  and  only  Complete  Explanation  of 
the  Universe,  must  assuredly  speculate,  and  speculate  freely 
and  largely,  although  he  ought  also  to  do  so  humbly  and 
reverently.  Even  if  he  would  maintain  that  we  cannot 
have  a  knowledge  of  God  as  He  is — that  we  must  renounce 
the  hope  of  a  speculative  knowledge  of  Him,  and  be  con- 
tent with  a  merely  regulative  knowledge, — he  will  find 
that  he  needs,  as  Kant,  Hamilton,  Mansel,  and  Spencer 
have  practically  so  fully  acknowledged,  speculation,  and 
n»uch  speculation,  to  support  his  thesis.  The  mind  is  not 
necessarily  relieved  from  the  duty  of  exercising  specula- 
tive thought  on  the  nature  of  God  by  receiving  a  special 
revelation  regarding  God.  Christianity  is  a  proof  that 
such  revelation  maj;-bnly  increase  obligation  in  this  re- 
spect. It  brought  with  it  a  wondrous  idea  of  God,  one 
of  marvellous  practical  efficacy,  but  one  also  which  forced 
Christian  reason  into  paths  of  speculation,  which  could 
only  be  formulated  after  lengthened  and  severe  speculative 
labour,  and  which  no  intellectually  or  si)iritually  quickened 
soul  can  accept  otherwise  than  with  speculative  exertion. 
And  this  may  show  that  speculation  is  as  legitimate  and 
applicable  within  the  sphere  of  Christianity  as  within  that 
of  general  theology.  The  comprehension  of  Christianity 
requires  that  we  penetrate  to  its  di.stinctive  and  central 
principle,  and  view  all  its  contents  in  the  light  of  that 
principle.  It  is  only  so  that  we  can  hope  to  accomplish 
either  a  true  systematization  or  a  true  elucidation  of  its 
contents.  The  procedure  by  which  this  is  effected  cannot 
be  one  of  mere  formal  logic,  of  pure  deduction,  or  strict 
demonstration  ;  it  must  be  one  which  implies  a  constant 
reference  to  facts  and  inductive  results  ;  but  still  it  must 
be  one  which  is  essentially  synthetic  and  speculative. 

Theology  is  a  unity,  a  whole,  but  n  very  complcs  unity,  a  whole  Reliiinn 
of  many  dissimilar  pitrts      It  may  bo  spoken  of  in  a  broad  aud  of  ili« 
general  way  as  a  science,  but  not  less  correctly  as  a  department  of  tliw.- 
sciences.     It  includes  many  studies  or  disciplines  which  may  be  logic  il 
cultivated  in  a  scientific  spirit  and  according;  to  scientific  inethods,  8cnir.i.i» 
aud  llieso  studies  or  disciplines,  while  closely  connected,  are  a>so 
clearly  distinct.     They  are  by  no  menus  mere  divisions  of  a  epcci;-! 
science.     Natural  theology  and  Christian  dogmatics  arc  as  distiui't 
from  Aach  other  a*  pViy.virs   is  from  chemistry  or   a:;-.lcny  fiom 
physiology.     ComparLitivo  theolu^Ty  and   biblical  tJ. '■'.'*■';/  arc  an 


272 


THEOLOGY 


distinct  from  each  oLher  as  tho  stufly  of  the  general  history  of 
mankind  is  from  the  study  cf  the  history  of  England. 

Hence  arise  a  number  of  problems.     How  are  the  theological 

scieocfs  related  to  the  non-theological  sciences  and  to  one  another? 

ilow  are  they  located  in  the  vast  organism  of  science  as  a  whole? 

and  how  are  they  connected  with  one   anotlior  so  as   to  form  a 

smaller  organic  whole  in  themselves'     What  principles  have  they 

in  common,  and  what  taski  are  proper  to  each'     Wherein  do  they 

a^ee  and  wherein   do  they  dttfc."  in  their  methods  of  research? 

These  are  very  important  questions.     There  cannot  be  an  earnest 

and  scientific  study  of  theology  where  they  are  overlooked.      It  is 

Encycio-   the  special  task  of  the  theological  discipline  called  "encyclopedia 

pxdia  of  of  theology"  to  discuss  and  answer  them, — or,  in  other  words,  to 

theology,  determine  the  boundaries  of  theology,  to  exhibit  and  explain  its 

i.iner  organization,  to  indicate  its  nomponent  parts,  and  to  trace 

their  relations  both  to  one  another  and  to  the  theological  system 

'   as  a  whole      This  discipline  is,  therefore,  the  appropriate  scientific 

approach  and  introduction  to  theology  and  to  the  various  theological 

sciences. 

It  is  of  comparatively  little  importance  whether  or  not  it  be 
itself  called  a  theological  scienre.  Strictly  spe.  hing,  perhaps,  it 
is  rather  a  section  or  prolongation  of  that  division  of  general 
philosophy  which  treats  of  the  relations  of  the  sciences  One  of 
the  tasks  of  philosophy  is  to  define  and  distribute,  classify  and 
co-ordinate,  the  sciences,  so  as  to  exhibit  them  as  parts  of  an  har 
monious  cosmos  oi  members  of  a  well-propurtioncd  corpus  But 
philosophy,  when  in  the  pursuit  of  its  merely  general  ends,  cannot 
be  expected  to  gn  in^o  details  and  to  concern  itself  with  all  the 
aubdivisioiis  and  ramifications  of  science.  It  will  be  content  to 
trace  main  lines,  to  appreciate  leading  principles,  processes,  and 
results,  and,  in  a  word,  to  exhibit  the  organic  unity  and  variety  of 
science  as  a  whole.  It  will  leave  the  exact  and  exhaustive  dis- 
tribution and  survey  of  any  particular  kind  or  group  of  sciences  to 
those  who  are  extensively  and  minutely  acquainted  with  that  kind 
or  group  of  sciences.  The  comprehensive  philosophic  survey  of 
any  order  or  department  of  studies  is  the  en1:yclop?edia  thereof. 
Hence  there  is  encyclopaedia  of  mathematics,  of  physics,  of  philo- 
logy,' and  of  jurisprudence,  as  well  as  of  theology  EncyclopLcdia 
of  philosophy,  however,  comprehends  all  the  departmental  encycio- 
piedias  of  science  And  this  for  the  simple  reason  that  philosophy 
is  inclusive  and  unitivp  of  all  science  As  scientia  scicntiarnm 
philosophy  18,  as  Hegel  has  aptly  said,  "  wesentlich  Encyclopadie." 
Hence  theological  encyclopaedia — the  encyclopaedia  of  the  sciences 
conversant  with  religion — may  reasonably  be  held  to  be  essentially 
a  prolongation,  a  direct  continuation,  of  philosophy 

Theological  encyclopcedia  has  had  its  course  determined  by  the 
general  movement  of  theology  The  various  theological  disciplines 
required  to  be  evolved  before  they  could  be  co-ordinated  The 
designation  "theological  encyclopa;dia"  first  occurs  in  its  curr^t 
teclmical  sense  \n'^\nx%\nxiSL^Vriv\xLinem  Encyclopxdiw.  Theologicm 
(1764)  It  was  only  with  the  publication  of  Schleiermaclier's 
Kurzt  Darstcllung  des  thcologischni  .Studiians  in  18U  that  the  full 
scientific  importance  of  the  discipline  w;is  made  evident  It  has 
since  been  dihgently  cultivated  in  Germany,  and  is  at  length  find- 
ing recognition  in  other  countries 

There  are,  however,  serious  defects  even  in  the  latest  and  best 
expositions  of  it  Two  of  these  may  be  noted  as  being  jpo  serious 
that,  owing  to  their  jirevalence,  theological  encyclopredia  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  even  yet  entered  a  truly  scientific  stage  One  is  the 
virtual  or  express  identification  of  theology  with  Christian  theology. 
All  the  chief  theological  encyclopredists  of  Germany— Hagenbach. 
Lange,  Rabiger,  Rothe,  Von  Hofmann  — follow  Sclileiermacher 
in  this  amazingly  absurd  procedure.  Logically  the  Brahmanist, 
Buddhist,  and  Mohammedan  might  with  equal  justice  identify  all 
theology  with  their  own.  The  superiority  of  Christianity  to  other 
religious,  the  uniqueness  of  Christianity  among  religions,  does  not 
altor  the  nature  or  lessen  the  magnitude  of  the  error  Every  ency 
clopsedia  of  theology  which  confounds  the  general  with  the  special 
so  completely  as  to  identify  theology  with  Christian  tlieology  for- 
feits its  title  to  recognition  as  scieniihc ;  and  almost  all,  even  of  the 
latest  end  best  theological  encycloiircdias,  do  ao  The  other  fault 
rt-ferred  to  is  that,  even  in  the  latest  and  best  of  theological  ency- 
clupaidias.  the  constitueut  sciences  of  theology  are  not  so  co- 
ordinated with  reference  to  a  centre  as  to  render  apparent  their 
crganiJ  connexions  The  German  encyclopaedists  since  Schleier 
machcr  claim,  indeed,  that  they  so  distribute  the  various  discijilines 
of  theology  as  to  exhibit  its  natural  organization  But  the  claim  is 
not  well  founded  In  reality,  their  schemes  of  distribution  have 
no  rcl  unity  They  are  simply  arrangements  of  the  various  theo 
logical  disciplines  in  a  fourfold,  threefold,  or  twofold  mafiDcr.  i.e.. 
for  example,  as  excgetical,  historical,  systematic,  and  practical, 
Ds  hiilorical,  systematic,  and  practical,  or  as  didactic  and  practical. 
But  this  13  merely  cxlCTnal  classification.  It  may  be  faultless  of 
its  kind,  but  it  cannot  of  itself  yield  more  than  a  superficial  and 
mechanical  arrangement  of  the  theological  sciences.  Theology,  to 
be  scientifically  surveyed  and  distributed,  must  be  viewed  as  a 
unity,  aad  all  its  parts  must  be  shown  to  bo  included  in  it,  and 


to  have  a  definite  place  in  it  from  its  very  nature  and  definition, 
as  the  science  or  philosophy  of  religion.  Their  relationship  to  one 
another  must  be  determined  by  their  relationship  to  the  whole  of 
which  they  are  parts,  to  that  science  or  rather  philosophy  which 
treats  of  religion  as  a  whole.  They  can  only  be  unified  and  co- 
ordinated in  a  truly  organic  manner  by  their  due  reference  to 
religion,  and  consequently  proper  inclusion  and  location  iu  tha 
]ihilosoj)hy  of  religion.  This  necessity  has  as  yet  been  only  verbally 
acknowledgcil  by  theological  encyclopaedists.  * 

There  is  an  all-comprehensive  science  of  religion, — one  which  Philo- 
treats  of  religion  id  its  unity  and  entirety  It  alone  completely  sophy  o 
answers  to  thu  idea  and  defimtiun  of  theology  It  is  the  one  religion- 
general  theological  science,  comprehends  and  dominates  the  special 
theological  sciences,  so  as  to  be  the  science  of  these  sciences,  and 
hence,  in  accordance  with  the  true  distinction  between  philosophy 
and  science,  is  properly  called  philosophy  rather  than  science— the 
philosophy  of  religion  All  philosophy  is  science,  but  all  scienca 
is  not  philosophy  Philosophy,  as  distinguished  from  science,  is 
general  or  universal  as  distinguished  from  particular  or  special 
science  This  distinction  is,  of  course,  not  an  absolute  one,  but  of 
degree — of  more  or  less  every  other  distinction  between  them, 
however,  is  positively  erroneous  The  one  general  theological 
science  is  appropriately,  therefore,  termed  philosophy  It  is  the 
philosophy  of  religion  as  there  is  a  philosophy  of  nature  and  a 
pliilosophy  of  mind,  each  inclusive  of  various  sciences  It  is  of  the 
very  nature  of  philosophy  to  be  buth  before  and  after  the  sciences 
to  which  it  relates. —to  be  at  once  their  root  und  result,  and  at  the 
same  time  their  bond  of  union  and  source  of  lif**  And  the  general 
theology  which  may  justly  be  identified  with  philosophy  of  reli 
gion  has  undoubtedly  held  this  relation  t-  the  special  theological 
sciences  It  preceded  them,  being  the  germ  from  which  they 
evolved,  the  root  from  which  they  have  sprung  .  it,  has  grown  up 
along  with  them,  permeating  them  as  their  common  life  and  it 
also  succeeds  and  transcends  them,  basing  itself  on  them  and  per 
fecting  itself  by  means  of  them  It  is  the  one  generic  science  of 
the  object  with  ^vhieh  it  deals,  and  vast  enough  to  comprehend  a 
whole  group  of  sciences,  because  its  obiect — religion — is  so  rich, 
complex,  and  varied 

The  primary  task  of  a  philosophy  of  religion  is  to  ascertain  and 
exhibit  the  nature  of  religion  Now,  a  general  theory  of  religion 
is  the  natural  introduction  to  alt  special  religious  studies  and  ti.eo 
logical  sciences,  and  yet  can  itself  only  be  brought  to  peilcction 
through  the  advancement  of  these  studies  and  sciences  For 
example,  we  can  only  adequately  understand  the  nature  o(  religion 
through  study  of  the  history  of  religion,  and  yet  we  cannot  trace 
the  history  of  religion  at  all  unless  we  know  generally  what  religion 
is  Again,  in  such  works  on  Christian  dogmatics  as  those  of 
Schenkel.  Kahnis,  Biedermann  and  Lipsius  we  find  a  consider- 
able place  assigned  to  an  investigation  into  the  general  nature  of 
religion  The  investigation  is  manifestly  not  the'-o  strictly  appro- 
priate ,  its  true  position  can  only  be  in  another  and  wider  science. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  undoubtedly  a  necessary  antecedent  to  the 
investigations  of  Christian  dogmatics,  from  the  very  fact  that 
Christianity  is  a  religion  On  the  other  hand.  Christianity  is  not 
only  a  religion,  but  a  religion  which  claims  to  be  the  perfect  or 
absolute  religion  .  and.  clearly,  if  the  elfiim  be  well  founded,  the 
complete  nature  of  religion  can  only  be  understood  through  that 
full  knowledge  of  Christiacity  which  Christian  science  may  be 
expected  to  give 

From  the  very  nature  of  religion  the  science  or  pliilosophy.  which 
treats  of  it  as  a  whole  must  obviously  be  most  comi)rehensive. 
Religion  is  a  relation  between  a  worshipping  subject  and  a  wor- 
shipped object  It  implies  both  distinction  and  unity  Were 
there  no  distinction  between  tlie  subject  and  the  object  there  would 
be  no  religion  whether  the  sell-identical  unity  were  named  God  or 
man  Were  there  only  di^Unclion  between  them — were  God  and 
man  absolutely  separate  from  and  indillerent  to  each  other,— 
religion  must  b*"  lo  this  cas«  also  impossible  Religion  thus 
supposes  two  factors  which  are  ditft-reat  yet  related,  so  far  distinct 
and  so  far  akin  .  and  our  views  of  religion  must  depend  on  our 
views  of  these  two  factors       It  involves  still  more      God  does  not 


•  The  bcti  aocnuni  of  the  hl^lory  ol  thenlomc-il  cncyrloprpdio  Is  il.flt  Riven  by 
ItiiblyL-i  in  his  Theo/x^ik  win  fiiuy.lofiflte  xier  ThruimVtc  ( IWtiUj,  ol  wl.icli  thcrc 
iH  Jin  l.n^lish  iijutslaiion  wuh  iioleB  "Inch  cotisiderubly  Increase  llic  vjiluc  of 
the  work  by  thv  Kv  J  ftUc^jlicrson  {'i  vi.N  lsH4)  The  accijunl  In  Zocklet's 
Hamttufh  'Itr  thfol  IVuicnsiAa/Mi.  i  67-111  (IB95).  is  abo  fr'no-l  The  fullest 
accouiil  III  ihc  history  n(  nlipmpts  lo  clnsstf  y  ihe  sciTicei.  Is  that  ol  ihu  pitseut 
writer  In  H>-€tbif  Hev  l.ir  July  IHK.'i  aii<1  July  1S.SG  The  IoUowihk  nuiy  be 
iIieL-ifii--laMinoi.i?ihk-ino5t  U!.ef>il«(llit"l<»,'miU-Mcyclni.a;illns  — Schlen-nimclicr'a 
hu'ic  Ifir^telhtui;  t/r»  thfol  Stadiums,  I-.t  e»l  IBIO.2.1  ed  ,  IH^IO.  Sttnnleim.aier's 
t:nryclnpu<lie  iter  thtol  Wxi^ietnchnfleii .  .tc  .  IH,l4.  Hdiifubueli'tt  t'ncvclopdUie  u^ 
Mctttodnluote  dT  thfid  Witieuschaftm.  lUlh  cil  ,  l«au.  Crnoks  ami  Hurst'* 
EncycU'ptedia  and  AtrOi'tdnlotfy,  an  thr  Ituut  of  llaqv»bueh^  New  ^ork,  18»4; 
Doitk-  i  tncurlvpedtc  der  CVntsMylv  TAco/wyir  2d  cd  ,  IHHJ.  Unuc's  O'utidii'i 
dt-r  ihrol  t'lctfclo/iadtr,  W7  ,  Von  nofmanns  /■:i,cs/fl0l'adtf  der  Tfifoto^n',  l>^19; 
Itotlies  r/iiv/cviscAc  ICttcj/ctvpadte.  1880;  Dr.inimoild'a  /ntrodncttun  to  t/ie  Studlf 
of  Thfvltxjy.  and  Cave's  hunnjuction  to  Ttuohgy.  1886  See  also  ihe  article  t4 
WilUbald  Orimm.  •'  Zur  thcol  Encycloijadie."  In  Ztichr  f  vi\%taisch  T/ieot.,  1882^ 
t  ;  aud  GreUllat**  Ezpote  de  Theologie  SytUmattgue,  voL  i-,  "  I'repfiJeuIiquo, 
1886. 


THEOLOGY 


273 


act  en  man  by  the  direct  manifestation  of  His  absolute  essence,  nor 
does  man  know  God  by  immediate  vision.  Take  away  the  physical 
and  moral  worlds  and  the  written  word  and  the  Incarnate  Word  of 
God — suppose,  that  is  to  say,  both  general  and  special  revelation 
removed — and  an  impassable  chasm  will  separate  man  from  God  and 
«ii  religion  be  destroyed.  The  revelation  in  nature  and  the  reve- 
lation through  particular  inspiration  and  intervention,  however, 
bridge  over  "this  chasm,  and  consequently  religion  is  everywhere 
fonnd  existing  in  some  form.  But  even  revelation  would  be 
nseless  if  man  had  not  faculties  to  apprehend  it  and  to  avail  him- 
self of  it  The  coramun'on  of  man  vriih  God  supposes  powers  of 
communion  in  man  as  well  as  in  God.  It  can  only  be  realized 
through  religious  faculties  and  processes  which  can  be  analysed  and 
which  have  laws  of  exercise  and  •  volution  that  can  be  traced. 
F  .rther,  religion  has  a  history  which  shows  how  man  has  interpreted 
or  misinterpreted  the  revelations  made  to  him,  what  forms  religion 
h*  assumed  in  various  lands  and  ages,  and  how  these  forms— the 
religions  of  the  world— have  arisen  and  spread,  developed  and 
d  xayed,  influenced  <7ne  another  and  aSected  morality,  civilization, 
aad  general  history  Thus  religion,  from  its  very  nature  or  idea, 
rsQoires  us  to  treat — (1)  of  the  object  of  religion  (God).  (2)  of  the 
uabject  in  religion  (man),  and  (3)  of  the  media  and  process  of  religion, 
— or.  in  other  words,  (a)  of  the  modes  of  Divine  manifestation,  (6)  of 
Jje  powers  of  human  apprehension  of  the  Divine,  and  (c)  of  religion 
'tself  asa  kind  of  psychical  life.  All  the  special  theological  sciences 
deal  with  some  of  these  themes,  or  some  portion  or  portions  of  some 
of  these  themes,  m  certain  aspects,  but  the  philosophy  or  general 
science  of  religion  deals  with  them  all  in  their  entirety  and  organic 
connectedness,  the  form  appropriate  to  philosophy— to  science 
which  comprehends  and  thereby  transcends  special  sciences. 

For  the  philosophy  of  religion,  as  the  highest  discipline  of  theo* 
togy,  the  most  natural  order  to  be  followed  in  the  treatment  of  its 
themes  is  probably  that  which  has  been  indicated.  It  is  the  order 
which  has  been  most  commonly  adoptctl in  treatises  thai  aimed  at  sys- 
tematic completeness.  God,  man.  God's  manifestation  of  Himself 
to  man.  man  s  experience  of  God,  and  the  development  of  religions, 
— these  are  the  topics,  and  such  is,  in  the  main,  the  order  of  their 
discussion,  usually  found  in  philosophies  of  religion  properly  so 
called.  This  is,  however,  because  the  philosophy  of  religion  as  a 
distinct  discipline  presupposes  the  results  of  the  several  special 
theological  sciences.  Theology  ends  as  it  begins,  in  unity  ;  but 
the  unity  in  which  it  ends  is  very  different  from  that  in  which  it 
begins.  It  begins  with  the  confused  unity  of  common  knowledge, 
the  complex  and  undifferentiated  germ  of  the  theological  sciences  ; 
it  ends  with  the  unity  of  the  clearest  and  deepest  insight,  in  which 
ftll  distinctions  are  at  once  recognized  and  reconciled.  This  last  is 
the  unity  of  that  ultimate  stage  of  theological  knowledge  which  can 
ftlone  claim  to  be  philosophical  as  distinguished  rroin  scientific  ;  and 
it  can  only  be  reached  by  those  who  have  attained  to  an  adequate 
mastery  of  all  the  sciences  conversant  with  religion.  The  philo- 
sophical student  of  the  whole  must  have  studied  scientifically^  its 
rirts,  know  what  is  to  be  known  about  them,  and  make  use  of  his 
nowledge  in  his  own  proper  labours.  The  student  of  the  parts 
needs  to  know  only  in  a  general  way  what  religion  is,  and  must 
follow  in  his  studies  an  order  of  procedure  determined  by  his  lack 
or  limitation  of  knowledge.  The  course  by  which  the  mind  traverses 
the  partial  and  special  sciences  of  religion  and  rises  to  a  philosophy 
of  religion  cannot  be  the  same  as  that  through  which  it  unfolds  a 
philosophy  of  religion  itself,  exhibits  and  confirms  a  religious  theory 
of  the  universe,  and  harmonizes  and  elucidates  all  results  of  theo- 
logical researeh  and  all  varieties  of  religious  phenomena. 

Tlie  philosophy  of  religion  is  itself,  of  course,  special  in  relation 
to  philosophy,  of  which  it  is  only  a  department  And  there  may 
even  be  a  special  kind  or  form  of  the  philosophy  of  religion,  if  that 
kind  or  form  be  general  enough  to  inclnde  a  natural  group  of  theo- 
logical sciences  and  to  have  regard  to  their  collective  effects.  ,A 
special  religion  may  be  so  significant,  so  important,  and  the  subject 
or  so  many  theological  disciplines  as  to  render  indispensable  the 
division  alike  of  the  philosophy  and  of  the  sciences  of  religion  into 
general  and  special  Christianity,'  as  the  most  perfect  form  of 
religion,  the  fullest  revelation  of  spiritual  truth,  the  source  and 
theme  of  a  large  group  of  sciences,  is  such  a  religion.  Hence  there 
may  be,  and  should  be,  not  only  a  philosophy  of  religion  bat  a 
philosophy  of  Christianity, — not  only  a  generically  religious  but  a 
specifically  Christian  theory  of  the  universe.  If  the  claims  of 
Christianity  be  warranted,  if  in  it  religion  and  revelation  were 
consommated,  the  philosophy  of  religion  can  only  reach  a  satis- 
factory conclusion  when  it  has  passed  into  a  philosophy  of  Christi- 
anity, or,  in  other  words,  attained  such  a  comprehension  of  existence 
and  life  in  relation  to  the  person  and  work  of  Christ  as  is  possible 
to  the  human  spirit  The  jthilosophy  of  Christianity  must  obviously 
be  connected  with  all  Christian  disciplines  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  philosophy  of  religion  is  with  all  other  theological  disciplines. 
History  The  history  of  the  philosophy  of  religion -has,  of  course,  oeen 
•f  philo-  closely  conjoined  with  the  histories  both  of  theology  and  of 
topby  of  philosophy,  uid  influenced  by  all  the  causes  which  have  affected 
.  ligioiL   them.     In  the  wide  sense  of  religious  reflexion  it  is  as  old  as 

23—12 


either  philosophy  or  theology.      As  a   distinct  department   of 

philosophy,  and  the  highest  and  most  comprehensive  theolugieal 
science,  it  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  and,  indeed,  youugei 
than  many  a  living  individual  ;  but  even  in  this  latter  sense  tha 
whole  histories  both  of  philosophy  and  of  theology  Imve  been 
needed  as  the  preparation  and  foundation  for  it  It  could  only 
appear  in  its  alone  adequate  form  when  both  philosophy  and 
theology  were  highly  developed,  when  both  had  freed  themselves 
from  the  yoke  of  all  authority  save  that  of  truth  and  reason,  when 
both  had  discovered  their  appropriate  methods,  when  they  could  so 
combine  as  to  do  no  violence  to  the  proper  nature  of  either — a  kind 
of  combination  most  difficuU  to  accomplish.  But  this,  as  might 
easily  be  shown,  was  not  bef_re  philosophy  and  theology  became  at 
once  critical  and  speculative,  or,  in  other  words,  before  that  great 
revolution  of  thought  with  which  the  names  of  Kant,  Hegel,  and 
Schleiemiachcr  are  so  gloriously  associated.  Only  in  the  present 
century  have  philosophy  and  theology  reached  the  stage  in  which 
they  can  unite  and  produce  a  philosophy  of  religion.  And  within 
the  century  many  philosophies  of  religion  have  made  their  appear- 
ance, especially  in  Germany.  Indeed,  all  the  more  eminent  philo- 
sophers of  Germany  have  fully  recognized  that  a  philosophy  of 
religion  is  a  most  essential  department  of  philosophy.  That  not 
a  few  of  the  so-called  philosophies  of  religion  produced  have  beeu 
Very  defective  and  erroneous  is  only  what  was  to  be  expected.  The 
worth  of  a  man's  philosophy  of  religion  cannot  be  greater  than  the 
worth  of  his  philosophy  and  theology  in  geuenil  It  is  impossible 
that  the  philosophy  of  religion  of  an  Hegelian  and  a  Neokautist  can 
accord,  very  possible  that  both  may  be  far  remote  from  the  truth. 
If  empiricism,  positivism,  or  materialism  be  true  philosophy,  or  if 
authority  be  the  foundation  of  religion  and  the  standard  ot  theo- 
logy, a  philosophy  of  religion  must  be  illegitimate  and  superfluous. 
When  religion  is  assumed  to  consist  merely  of  beliefs,  emotions, 
and  actions  which  have  no  objective  grounds,  no  real  and  rational 
basis,  its  development  can  only  be  an  object  of  history  and  of 
psychological  analysis,  and  there  can  be  no  philosophy  of  religion, 
but  simply  a  science  of  religions,  which,  seeing  that  it  deals, 
entirely  with  certain  forms  of  mental  disease  and  delusion,  must 
be  deemed  merely  a  department  of  mental  pathology.  A  philo- 
sophy essentially  religious  must  combme  with  a  theology  essentially 
rational  in  order  to  yield  what  deserves  to  be  called  a  philosophy 
of  religion.  If  religion  be  the  living  apprehension  and  enjoyment 
of  the  truth  which  philosophy  has  for  its  mission  to  seek  to  com- 
prehend, then,  but  only  then,  must  a  philosophy  of  religion  bo 
necessary  alike  to  philosophy  and  religion  * 

We  now  pass  to  special  theological  disciplines  which  can  at  the  Special 
utmast  merely  become  sciences  as  distinguished  from  philosophy,  theo- 
They  all  deal  with  religion,  each  of  them  treating  of  some  particular  logical- 
portion  or  a<»peLt  of  it ;  and  the  order  and  mode  in  which  they  do  sciences:  — 
so  determines  their  relations  to  one  another  and  the  order  of  their 
succession  If  we  would  rise,  for  example,  through  study  of  the 
parts  or  phases  of  religion  in  a  sure  and  natural  manner  to  a 
knowledge  of  it  as  a  whole,  we  must  necessarily  begin  with  what 
of  it  is  nearest  and  most  accessible  to  us.  But  what  is  so  is  its 
history  In  its  historical  manifestation  it  is  a  phenomenon  which  Historical; 
no  one  can  refuse  to  acknowledge.  The  history  itself,  however,  is 
nut  only  a  most  extensive  but  a  very  complex  phenomenon  It  is 
external  and  internal,  corporeal  and  spiritual,  a  histor}'  of  outward 
events  and  actions,  institutions  and  rites,  and  aho  of  ideas,  con- 
victions, and  atTections-  \Vhat  is  external  is  nearer  and  more 
accessible  to  us  than  what  is  internal,  and  it  is  through  the  former 
that  we  must  penetrate  into  the  latter.  They  cannot  be  quite 
separated,  for  the  external  is  only  intelligible  through  the  inter- 
nal, and  the  internal  only  attainable  and  vi  ifiable  tiirough  the 
external  ;  but  they  can  be  so  far  differentiated,  and  there  is  a 
history  mainly  of  what  is  external  in  religion  and  another  mainly 
of  what  is  internal  The  ordinary  history  of  religion  is  mainly 
concerned  with  tracing  the  growth  of  religion  in  its  most  apparent 
form  and  institutioual  character  It  may  be  divided  into  three 
great  sections — the  ethnic.  Biblical,  and  ecclesiastical, — the  history 
of  the  heathen  religions,  the  historj*  of  the  Jewish  religion  and  ol 
the  rise  of  Christianity,  and  the  history  of  the  Christian  church 


>  There  is  a  laborious  and  Impartial  history  of  the  philosophy  of  religion  by 
Bemhartl  Piinjer.  Ceschichte  der  chr%sllicfi£n  ReligionsphUoiophU,  2  \ol'».,  ISSO- 
83  Of  this  valuable  work  an  Enjtllsh  traaslation  is  soon  lo  appear  Som« 
chapters  of  the  history  have  been  ably  written  by  O.  Pfleidei-er  ia  his  Religions- 
p/iilosophie  auf  geschichUicher  Grundlage,  18S4.  a  first  volnme  of  a  tranalatjon  of 
which  has  been  published  For  a  list  of  worliS  on  the  philosophy  of  religion  the 
last  edition  of  Hagenbach  may  be  consulted  Here  the  following  only  can  tw 
mentioned  : — Heg€l,  Philoiophie  dtr  Religion,  'i  vols. ,  lJ=32  ;  Krause,  Die  absolute 
ReligicTLSphi/osopfiie,11\o\$^  1S35;  Oh\en.  Religionspftilosophie  itt  ihrer  Cebcrein- 
stimmtuig  mii  Vernunft,  Geschichte,  u«d  O/nifca'i'n;?.  1S35;  Billroth,  Vorltsungai 
iitrer  Reltgiomphilosophie,  1S3":  Steffens,  Chnstiiche  ReligiOTUphilosophie,2voU,. 
1839 ;  Taute,  RAxgionsphilosophie,  vom  Sinndpwikie  der  PhUoiophie  f/etbarls, 
2  parts,  1840-52  ;  Rothe.  T^eologtsche  ii'fAii-.  3  vols..  1845  ;  Weisse.  Philosophisrht 
DogmtUit  oder  PhVoiophie  des  Cfiristeiithumy  3  vols.,  l&55-6"2;  Apelt,  Religious- 
pAt7owpAt€,  i860;  Sttickl  Z^ArftwcA  dfr  Rehgionsphilosophie^2&ei.,  1878;  Lotze 
OrMndtvge  der  Religicnspfiitotop/tie,  l^Si ;  Von  Hartmann,  Religion  des  Geist-i 
J883  ;  TeichmliUer.  Religionsphiiosophie,  1886;  Morell.  Fhilotophy  of  Reltgwi. 
1849;  Caii-d.  Jniroduciion  to  H**  FkHMophy  0/  ReligioJt.  I8'6;  Morris,  PhUosopk- 
and  au-ittianily,  U&a 

XXm.  —  35 


274 


THEOLOGY 


Whether  history  in  this  form,  eveo  when  studied  io  the  most 
accnrate  and  thorough  mauDer,  should  be  called  science  may  be 
doubted,  as  it  is  simply  occupied  with  the  discovery  and  description 
of  the  [mrlicular  and  concrete.  It  is  not  usual  so  to  deaignate  it 
in  any  of  ita  sections.  The  history  of  religious  beliefs  and  ideas 
may  be  as  purely  and  properly  history  as  that  of  external  inititu- 
tions.  aud  transaction*  It  deals,  however,  not  only  with  what 
ia  internal  aod  spiritual  but  also  with  what  ia  abstract  and  generaj, 
and  henc*i  it  is  at  least  more  akin  to  science  than  is  common 
history,  and  its  sections  are  often  called  sciencea.  These  sections 
are  three  in  number,  and  rorrespond  to  the  sections  of  the  ordi- 
nary history  They  are  known  as  comparative  theology.  Biblical 
theology,  and  the  "history  of  Christian  doctrine.  To  the  last  of 
these,  symbolics  may  fairly  claim  to  be  a  necessary  supplement. 
They  are  quite  distinct  from  a  conceivably  attainable  knowledge  of 
the  laws  of  religious  history,  such  as  might  be  with  strict  propriety 
deatgaat«d  science  of  religiou.^  history,  a  department  of  science  of 
history  Of  historical  science  iu  this  last  sense  there  is  as  yet 
«xtremely  little. 
Psyciio-  Reh^on  is  a  spirrtual  process,  and  its  history  continuously 
logical ;  implies  the  affections  «nd  uperations  of  mind  The  historical 
treatraeot  of  religion,  therefore,  necessarily  Leads  to  its  psycholog 
ical  treatment  The  history  alike  of  reli^ous  events  and  actions 
and  of  religious  ideas  and  beiiefs  can  only  be  explained  through 
a  knowledge  of  the  religious  powers  and  processes,  i.?..  of  the 
psychological  fa^'tors  and  states  which  condition  and  determine 
Its  development  The  psychological  study  of  religion,  although  it 
has  been  greatly  neglect*;d.  should  reach  over  a  very  large  dej-arl- 
ment  of  theology  The  department  ruay  be  distributed  into  tbiee 
disciplines —the  general,  comj^rative,  and  special  psychology  of 
religion  The  6r3t  should  treat  of  the  general  religioud  nature  of 
man  ,  the  second  should  discover  and  compare  the  psychical  peculi 
•rities  to  be  found  in  the  various'  religions,  and  the  third  should 
•xhibit  elaborately  the  psychology  of  a  particular  religion.  &s,  e  g  , 
Biblical  and  Christian  psychology 
Apolo  The  historical  and  psychological  sciences  of  religion  deal  with 

geUc;  religion  merely  as  an  historical  and  psychological  phenomenon 
They  do  not  imply  its  truth,  and  can  be  cultivated  by  those  who 
regard  it  as  a  delusion  equally  with  those  who  ai;knowIedge  it  to 
l>e  a  certainty  It  is  the  office  of  apologetics  to  determine  whether 
or  not  it  IS  true  and  how  far  it  is  true.  If  it  end  not  in  a  negative 
Jesuit,  in  agnosticism  or  atheist,  it  must  prove  that  God  reveals 
fcimself  to  man,  and  that  man  apprehends  God  In  other  words, 
apologetics  treaty  of  the  media  of  revelation  — alik«  the  objective 
and  so^ijective.  Divine  and  human  media —and  so  is  the  science, 
on  the  cue  hand,  of  revelation,  and,  on  the  other  baud,  of  rt^ligious 
certitude  It  is  divisible  into  general  and  special,  or,  in  equivalent 
terms,  into  theological  and  Christian  apologetics,  -the  former  being 
the  scientific  exhibition  of  the  grounds  of  natural  religion,  and  the 
latter  of  the  grounds  of  the  Christian  religion  They  are  aome 
times  combined,  inasmuch  as  both  are  needed  m  order  to  establish 
the  truth  9f  Christianity  In  Germany  it  has  W-'ome  not  uncom 
mon  to  fuse  them  into  one  under  the  name  of  fundamental  theology, 
described  as  the  scien'*e  which  treats  of  thy  foundation  of  Chris- 
tianity And,  undoubtedly,  it  is  not  only  expedient  but  even 
necessary  to  treat  of  both  as  introductory  and  nr**parHtory  to  the 
construction  of  Christian  science  But  the  JistiD'^tion  between 
them  must  not,  therefore,  be  forgotten  or  ignoied  Theological 
apologetics  minht  be  irresustihle  although  Christian  apologetics 
were  futile  Theological  apologetics  derives  its  validity  from  its 
relation  to  natural  theology,  which  has  an  absolute  value  of  its 
own,  wholly  independent  of  any  other  science,  of  Christianity,  or 
of  anything  else  The  alliance  of  theolotjicai  and  of  Christian 
apologetics  'x»  perfectly  legitimate,  the  attempt  to  combine  theiu 
into  a  single  science,  into  a  single  horoogeoeous  discipline,  is 
decidedly  the  reverse. 
Syatera*  The  highest  stage  of  theological  science  is  the  methodical  educa 
atic-  lion  and  exhibition  of  the  truth  involved  in  reliyiou,  either  as  con 

tent?  of  faith  or  elements  of  life  When  conversant  with  the  faith 
It  is  dogmatics,  when  with  the  life  ethics;  but,  of  course,  here 
again  distinction  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  separation  True 
faith  IS  living  faith,  and  true  life  is  the  life  of  faith.  Dogmatics 
•  and  ethics  are  so  intimately  related  that  it  is  not  surprising  that 

they  should  have  been  long  left  undilTerentiated,  or  that  a  few 
eminent  theologians  should  still  deny  that  they  can  be  properly 
treated  ajtari.  Theology  at  thb  stage  is  commonly  designated 
systematic,  although  the  term  is  not  a  good  one.  and  others,  little 
if  any  better  perhaps,  as  didactic,  theoretical,  positive,  thetic,  &c  , 
have  been  suggtsted  as  substitutes.  Systamatic  theology,  like 
histonccl,  mychologi':al,  and  apologetic  theology,  is  dirisiole  tnto 
general  and  special,  the  former  including  nntural  theology  aud 
theological  ethics,  and  the  latter  Christian  dogmatics  and  Christian 
ethics-  The  identification,  so  common  in  Britain,  of  systematic 
tbeologv  with  Christian  dogmatics  is,  of  coarse,  solely  due  to  the 
survival  among  Uiof  prescientific  thought  and  language  in  theology. 
The  historical  and  psychological  sciences  of  religion  may  be  con 
joined  under  the  desi^oatioa  of  empirical,  or  phenomenoloihcal.  or 


historical  (in  the  widest  aense),  the  apologetic  and  systematic 
sciences  under  that  of  didactic,  thetic,  speculative,  or  systematic 
(in  a  loose  sense).  This  twofold  division  of  them  is  the  one  gene 
rally  adopted  And  as  it  rests  on  an  obvious  and  important  dia 
tinctiun  it  ia  fully  etititled  to  acceptance,  provided  it  be  so  received 
as  not  to  hide  or  extrude  the  fourfold  division  lounded  on  the  real 
moments  or  stages  of  the  process  of  theological  Investigation 

There  are  a  considerable  uumber  of  disciplines  not  included  in 
the  divisions  indicated,  yet  for  which  the  theological  encyclopaedist 
is  bound  to  find  appropriate  pieces      The  best  classificatioQ  of  these  Rxegeti 
is   into  exegetical  and    practical.     So  railed    exegetical    theology,  cal  »nd 
however,  is  in  all  its  departments  simply  instrumental  and  intro-  practical 
ductory  to  historical  theology  ;  and  practical  theology  is  in  all  its  theology 
departments  concerned  with  the  use  and  application  of  reUgiouj 
knowledge,  not  with  its  acquisition  and  advancem*>nt.     The  former 
13  not  directly  occupied  with   religion  but  with  the    records  and 
documents  from  which  its  history  must  be  ascertained  ,  the  latter 
is  art  and  not  science 

Consii^nng  theology,  then,  only  as  science  directly  engaged  oo 
religion,  the  following  are  the  sciences  which  belong  to  generaJ 
theology  — ( I )  the  history  of  r>:ligions,  I'J)  comparative  theology, 
(3)  psychology  of  religion.  (4)  theological  apologetics,  (5)  naturaj 
theology  ,  aud  (6)  theological  ethics.  Those  of  Christiaa  theology 
are  (1)  Biblical  history,  (2)  ecclesiastical  history.  (3;  Biblical 
theology,  (4)  history  of  Christian  doctrine,  (5)  symbolics.  t6) 
Biblical  and  Chnstiau  psychology.  (7)  CBristian  •p<ilwgetic8  .  (8) 
Christian  dogmatics;  and  (9)  Christian  ethics  The  remainder  of 
this  article  will  be  devoted  to  a  brief  indication  of  the  nature  of 
such  of  the  above  studies  as  have  not  already  been  treated  of  id 
separate  articles. 

The  history  of  religions  and  comparative  theology  differ  from  Hislory  o* 
each  other  as  saovd  history  and  Biblical  theokigy  Or  ecclesiaitical  religions 
history  and  the  history  of  Chribtian  doctrines  differ      That  they  and  com 
should  rarely  be  distinguished  proves  only  that  the  ethnic  sa-red  paraMve 
books  have  not  yet  been  so  closely  studied  as  the  Bib'e.  and  that  ibefjlogy 
the  histories  of  the  great  ethnic  religious  are  not  yet  so  well  known 
as  the   history  of   Christianity       As   rfjiards  both  the   history  of 
religions  and  comparative  theology,  see  Kp.liuioNs. 

The  general  psychology  of  religion  should  analyse  the  religious  Psycho 
nature  of  man  and  trace  the  laws  of  its  development  It  has  to  log?  o' 
ascertain  the  prijiciples  which  guide  reason  in  the  sear'-h  after  God  ,  religio* 
to  determine  what  subjective  religion  is.  what  elements  it  involves, 
and  through  what  stages  it  may  pass,  and  to  show  how  the  under- 
standing  aud  imagination,  the  emotions  and  atl»>ctions.  the  qualities 
and  energies  <)f  will,  operate  in  religion  and  influence  iti  rhara''ter. 
While  general  psychology  of  religion  thus  treats  man  as  fmmed 
and  6lted  for  religion,  the  compnralive  psychology  ol  religion 
treats  of  the  psychological  coiuposiliou  and  peculiarities  of  the 
various  concrete  and  collective  manifestations  of  religion  It  is 
related  to  the  general  psychology  of  religion  as  coniparative 
psychology  to  general  psychology  It  must  concern  itself  with  ths 
religions  of  the  rudest  peoples  It  has  to  explain  what  b  (isycDO- 
logically  distinctive  of  fetich  ism.  animal  worshi[t,  nfftui-alistic 
religions  like  the  Vcdic,  anthro[>omorphic  polythcisnia  like  those 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  and  pantheisms  like  Brahmauism  and  Bud- 
dhism For  example,  in  each  of  these  fonm*  of  religion  imagination 
works  differently,  and  the  comparative  psychology  of  religion 
should  give  ft  complete  view  of  the  operations  of  imagination  in  the 
formation  of  the  religions  of  humanity  So  as  regards  all  the  chief 
intellectual  pnnciples  and  all  the  chief  sentiments 

The  psychological  study  of  religion  was  not,  as  is  often  said,  be 
gun  by  Kant.  Hume  -in  virtue  of  his  Natural  Hisivry  nf  H^hgion, 
with  its  clear  recognition  of  the  dislinctron  between  the  '■uiists  and 
the  reasons  of  religion — is  much  more  entitled  to  be  considered 
Initiator  in  this  department,  but  even  his  claim  may  be  rontested 
The  department  is  one  of  which  there  is  as  yet  no  general  furvey. 
and  of  which  many  j^-ort'ons  have  been  entirely  oveilouked  What 
the  ordinary  psychologists  e  g  .  Bain.  Sully,  Thompson.  Kabier, 
Fortlage,  Strumpell.  Volkmaon.  Wundt  say  regarding  it  i»  very 
vague  and  meagre.  The  oiily  two  points  which  nave  been  closely 
investigated  are  those  as  to  the  nature  of  religious  cognition  and 
the  essence  of  religion,  and  as  to  both  sj»eculation  hn.n  been  fre- 
quently allowed  to  disturb  and  pervert  psychological  an&l>8ia 
For  some  of  the  later  literature  on  these  pviDts,  see  notes  on  -iiticle 
Tbeism  Ntither  the  general  nor  the  comparative  psychol'i^-y  of 
religion  as  yet  exists  in  a  pppsrate  and  appropriate  form  What 
religious  psychology  there  is  will  t»e  found  chiefly  in  tlie  aTitings 
of  anthropologists  HVe  Bastian  and  Tylor,  of  comparative  philo- 
logists like  Max  MuUer  and  Steinthal,  of  philosophers  like  Spencei 
and-Eenouvier.  of  theologians  of  the  school  of  ScLleiermacLer.  awi. 
above  all,  in  the  histories  of  religioos  and  the  pLUosophieti  oi 
religioh.' 

Theological  apologetics   is  not  to    be  confounded  with  natural 

I  AUtott'i  Piychclo^  and  Th^>lo^.  Ke-rman  Smyth't  RtligiovM  FetltnQ, 
BriDton'l  fi«lif;tcvi  Sentiment.  Hsppel  a  Anlaffe  da  Mtfuchan  no-  RetiffUm. 
Ulricli  Oou  and  Mensch.  and  Leibaiellle*  -  Baaen  PsycholoirlQurt  de  1«  Rait 
giOD"  (iwo  anldes  tn  R€*.  FhU..  vol   lal,  1806)  utijr  be  tiwcisUy  metaiiuo«4. 


THEOLOGY 


275 


ThMofl:!-  theoloc)'.  from  wliit^  it  is  as  distinct  as  Christian  apologetics  is 
cai  apoU^  from  CnrUtian  dogmatics.  Jt  lays  a  foundation  for  natural  tneology, 
?tfacsL  inasmuch  as  it  vindica.tes  religion  by  shomng  that  it  rests  on 

objecrire  spiritual  truth.  It  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  religion 
aa  an  historical  and  psychological  phenomenon,  but  none  of  natural 
theology,  which  it,  of  course,  leaves  as  a  science  to  establish  ils  owti 
doctrines.  It  has  the  following  tasks  to  perform.  (1)  To  show 
that  man  is  capable  of  apprehending  the  divine.  This  requires  the 
refutation  of  agnosticism  and  the  vindication  of  the  principles 
implied  in  religious  knowledge  and  certitude  *  (2)  To  prove  the 
reality  of  a  revelation  of  the  Divine  in  physical  nature,  mind,  and 
history  The  results  of, the  vanous  sciences  will  thereby  be  shown 
to  be  data  of  theology.  It  requires  the  refutation  of  atheism,  mate- 
rialism, positivism,  and  secularism,  and  of  all  principles  which 
logically  involve  these  systems.  (3)  To  exhibit  the  reasons  for  the 
true  conception  of  the  Divine,  and  to  expose  the  arguments  em- 
ployed in  favour  of  false  conceptions.  The  defence  of  theism,  fnr 
exansple,  must  be  accompanied  by  proof  of  the  erroneousness  and 
insumciency  of  the  polytheistic,  dualistic,  deistic.  and  pantheistic 
hypotheses.  (4)  To  adduce  whatever  evidence  may  be  contained 
in  general  revelation  for  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  a  future 
state  of  rewards  and  punishments. 
N&toral  Natural  theology  is  the  systematic  exposition  of  the  truths  in 
theology  natural  or  general  revelation.  Its  data  are  the  farts  and  laws  of 
nature,  as  ascertained  by  physical,  mental,  and  historical  science. 
Its  inductions  and  inferences  relate  to  God,  men.  and  their  rela- 
tionship.  Its  appearance  as  a  distinct  science  niay  be  dated  from 
the  publication  of  Raymond  de  Sebonde  .<?  Theolo^m  Naiuralis  in 
1436,  although  portions  of  it  had  been  admirably  presented  by 
ancient  philosophers,  e.g.,  Socrates.  Plato.  Ansioiie.  and  Cicero. 
It  flourished  with  extraordinary  vigour  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
17th  and  throughout  the  18th  century.  It  should  endeavour 
to  perform  the  following  tasks  (I)  To  descnbe  the  nature, 
character,  and  attributes  of  VtcA.  so  far  as  they  are  disclosed 
by  the  material  world,  mmd.  and  history.  f2»  To  treat  of  God 
in  relation  to  the  world  and  man.  and  of  the  world  and  man  m 
relation  to  God.  under  which  head  ail  questions  as  to  creation,  pro- 
vidence, theodic^e,  optimism  and  pessimism,  education  nf  the 
human  race,  &c.,  \~ill  fall  to  be  d'scuss^d  from  the  standpoint  of 
general  revelation.  ^3)  To  determine,  so  far  as  can  be  done  from 
general  revelation,  what  man  may  reasonably  hoiM*  for  as  to  deliver* 
ance  from  am  and  its  consequences,  and  what  he  mav  reasonably 
bplieve  as  to  the  conditions  of  existen.'e  in  a  future  "^orld  As  to 
this  third  jKiint  the  view  is  prevalent  that  the  light  of  nature  dis- 
closes nothing  regarding  man's  salvation  nr  future  destiny.  But 
does  this  View  not  ansa  from  overlooking  that  the  kingdom  of  God 
IS  within,  and  from  falsely  supposinf;  that  salvation  is  entrance  into 
an  external,  non-sfuritual  heat'en  on  contlitions  which,  being  in 
themselves  non-natural  cannot  he  naturallv  kn(^>wn  '  The  ht'aihen 
■ations  have  certninly  not  supposed  nature  to  be  wholly  silent  and 
dark  on  the  subject  In  evt*ry  develoj»ed  eihnir  religion  there  is 
«  sotenolof;v  and  e.ichatolot;v  a.**  well  as  a  theology  .^Ian  is  no- 
where necessarily  without  hope  any  more  than  without  God  in  the 
world.' 
Theo  Theological  ethics  differs  from  natural  theology  in  that  it  seeks 

ogical  in  nature,  viewed  as  a  Divine  revelation,  laws  ot  spinrual  life,  not 
«thica.  merelv  religious  doctrines,  lis  place  is  between  moral  philosophy 
and  Chnstmn  ethics.  It  is  unmistakably  distinct  from  both,  and 
may  be  more  plausibly  included  in  natural  theology  than  in  either 
It  should  endeavour  f  1  >  to  determine  how  relipon  and  morality  are 
distinct  and  how  connected  ;  (2l  to  ascertain  how  moralitv  has  been 
affected  and  modified  by  the  various  positive  ethnic  religions  and 
the  various  religious  but  non-Chnstian  philiwophiea  .  (Z)  toexhibit 
how  the  character  of  God.  as  delineated  by  natural  theology,  stands 
related  to  the  moral  law,  the  moral  life,  and  the  chief  ethical  end 
or  supreme  good  of  man  .  (4)  to  de.scnbe  the  duties  which  the  light 
of  nature  shows  that  man  owes  directly  to  God  .  and  fSj  to  ti^re  how 
piety  to  God  must  inflnence  f>ersonal  and  social  virtue  Unlike 
moral  philosophy  and  Christian  ethics,  it  can  hardly  be  satd  to 
have  been  yel  treated  as  a  separaip  discipline  and  presented  as 
t  whole  Daub  and  Marhemeke  have  indeed,  written  works 
nominally  on  Thfxtlo^vuil  MiyraJs  and  Hothe  and  V'on  Hofmann  on 
TheoloTif'al  Uthics.  but  in  ail  these  works  it  is  really  Christian 
ethics  which  is  exhibited  to  us  under  certain  speculative  lights. 
There  is.  however,  a  verj-  extensive  literature  relating  to  particular 

1  For  the  hteraiore  on  airno.«ici!iTn.  »ec  flh^**.  p  24G  note  2. 

*  For  thtf  llieraiurp  o(  apalol:etIl-^  (iheolo,..caJ  and  Chnnttan).  »ee  Redford'a 
Chrtstum  Pieaagaxnu  Moderrt  CnUixTf,  pp  497-S.13  For  m  lisi  of  the  b^sx  works 
on  theolo,jicala,<olog'euciian'l  oaturnl  theoiocy  Bee  Cave  s  Introduaumto  Th&nloqy. 
pp.  l4ft  161  lodicauoos  a.«  to  ttip  history  anil  literature  ii(  manv  panuular 
questj'.n*  an'*  portions  of  both  di^iplmt-fi  ar*"  given  m  the  n('te>  to  Mini's  l^mm 
Asd  Antiiii^xsiu  Thfor^n  One  of  the  N-st  sketches  o(  the  history  of  natural 
th'4>l&jr»  t«  Ihat  ID  Zockler'i  Theciogta  Aaiuro'tt  Here  'i  may  be  ourfloen:  lo 
n.cnti.-r  the  followini:  wo'ks  — bu  er  s  Ataio^ir  Paiey  »  ,Vatwai  ThevU-ci/ . 
Chm\tncrt^  Natural  Thtolo^i/-.  iht  Bful^eitatf  T^'o/ts^i  Thompson  c  Theum  , 
Tnlloch't  T'trum  .  M'Cosh  #  MetfiO-i  n'  tfte  /itnnf  Cotrr^mrrU  L'IriCi's  OoU  urid 
^h4 yatur  ,  Jales  Simon's  Aa/ura.  ftrlipionitue  tr  i  Jutiet  s  Final  Cautet  (Eng, 
IT.);  C*ro'9 //U' tu  Dtm  6ib  ed  .  Grairrs  ConnoiMOTK*  d«  Dieu.  1th  ed  .  and 
.MArg&n«  t,  ThtQiluie.  Id  ed 


problems  and  portions  of  theological  ethics.  ThuB  what  has  been 
just  indicated  as  problem  first — that  as  to  the  relation  of  religion 
and  morality — has  been  long  much  discussed.'  The  second  problem 
demands  wide  and  close  historical  research  ;  it  has  been  touched  at 
a  multitude  of  points,  -but  only  touched.  -  With  the  third  problem, 
or  rather  group  of  problems,  almost  all  systems  of  Christian  ethica 
have  to  some  extent  dealt ;  and  with  the  fourth  and  fifth  problems 
&lm6st  all  systems  of  muraJ  philosophy. 

We  now  pass  to  Christian  theology.     Its  historical  section  in-  Biblical 
eludes,  besides  the  histories  of  Israel  and  the  church  (as  to  which  and 
-see  IsBAFX  and  CnuRCH  History),  Biblical  theology,  the  history  church 
of  Christian  doctrine,  and  Christian  symbolics.  hlstory. 

All  hermeneutical  studu-s  are  auxiliary  to  exegesis,  and  all  Biblical 
Biblical  exegesis  leads  up  to  that  comprehensive  and  connected  theology. 
View  of  the  development  of  LMblical  ideas  which  it  is  the  aim  of 
Biblical  theology  to  set  forth.  Biblical  theology  is  not  to  be  under* 
stood  as  meaning  a  theology  lounded  on  the  Bible — Christian 
dogmatics  under  another  name.  It  does  not  assume  that  th« 
Bible  13  either  a  source  or  standard  ,'»f  truth.  It  does  nor  set  forth 
the  ideas  which  it  exhibits  as  true  in  themselves,  but  onJv  as  truly 
in  the  Bible.  It  seeks  no  other  truth  than  truth  of  exposition.  It 
aims  at  doing  no  more  than  giviug  u  trv»e  account  of  what  are  the 
religimis  ideas  in  the  Bible,  of  how  they  are  related  as  8Pt  forth 
in  tlte  Bible,  and  of  what  their  history  hi:s  been  throughout  the 
Biblical  penod.  Its  sole  busines.s  is  criiicaUy  to  ascerTain  and 
truthfully  to  exhibit  what  Scripture  teachets  what  each  writer, 
even,  of  Scripture  teaches,  m  a  purely  objective,  organic,  histonral 
manner.  It  cannot  possibly  be  confounded  wii:h  Christian  -lo^- 
matics  by  any  one  who  has  the  slightest  notiot*  of  what  it  la. 
although  the  latter  must  m  great  part  rest  on  it  and  deriv*;  most  of 
its  materials  from  it  It  is  the  ultimate  direct  result  .-^nd  the  most 
comprehensive  and  perfect  product  of  Biblical  exegesis,  ind  related 
to  the  history  of  religious  ideas  as  a  part  to  the  whole  m  whieh 
it  IS  included,  comparative  theology  preceding  and  the  L..-torv  of 
Christian  doctrine  following  iL  It  divides  into  theology  O  the 
Old  Testament  and  theoloj^  of  the  New  Testament,  huo  lU 
method  is  one  appropriate  to  an  historical  discipline,  ^nd.  there- 
fore, chronological,  genetic,  analytic,  and  synthpiic  It  is  a  rom- 
panilively  recently  constituted  departntent  of  theoloptal  s*  leo.-e, 
both  Catholic  ami  Protestant  divioes  having  made  for  af:e^  the 
enormous  mistake  of  studying  Scnpture — so  far  as  th-^ir  iuieret«t 
therein  was  theoretical  and  not  practical — pnmanly  id  order  to  h«d 
proof  of  the  doctrines  contained  m  their  creeds  >iiid  oonfesai.iue 
They  failed  to  apprehend  and  appr*^ciate  the  sPemmiriy  vf>rv  simple 
thought  that  Scripture  should  be  studied  in  the  hrsi  insuince  with 
a  sini.de  eye  to  find  out  what  was  really  in  it,  and  that  to  this  end 
the  study  of  it  should  be  stnctly  and  purely  exepericai  and  his- 
torical J  Ph  Gabler.  in  his  thesis  De  Justo  [hsmnnne  Thtolo^im 
BibliOE  et  Dogmat2c^,  published  in  1787.  was  the  hrsf  cJearly  to 
show  the  true  character  of  Biblical  theology  as  sn  es-st-ntially 
historical  study  Since  then  it  has  been  cultivated  with  great  zeal 
by  a  host  of  able  labourers  * 

The  history  of  Chnst^an  doctrine  only  began  to  be  treated  as  History  of 
a  separate  theoloojcal  discipline  m  the  latter  part  of  the  I8th  ChriMttar 
century  P.eviously  it  was  dealt  with  as  an  appendix  to  dog-  doctnne 
niatics  or  as  a  part  of  church  hi.story  it  is  not  an  appendix  to 
dogmatics,  but  it  includes  its  hi.^tory  and  contributes  to  lay  & 
foundation  for  it  No  doornne  cm  be  either  correctly  undemtood 
or  riffhtlv  developed  where  there  is  isnorance  of  it5>  history  The 
history  of  Chn.stian  doctrine  is  a  pan  of  the  history  of  Chnstianity, 
namely,  the  history  of  Christian  beliefs,  as  disiintruished,  on  the 
one  hand,  from  ih**  history  of  Chnstian  life  and  prarnce.  and,  on 
the  other  hard,  from  the  outward  history  of  the  church  It  is  t 
part  also  of  the  history  of  religious  thought,  and  of  the  historv  of 
thought  m  general.  an<l  therefore  closely  connected  with  ihp  history 
of  philosophy  \t?  development  must  be  admitted  to  be  ruied  by 
the  general  laws  of  the  intellectual  history  of  man  It  may  bi 
taken,  hc^'evcr,  *::  *  *rid'=^''  or  narrover  s.';::s«. — in  tlie  forme? 
being  the  history  of  Chnsrian  thought  ami  helipf  »s  such,  and 
in  the  latter  the  history  only  of  dogmas  stm-tlv  si-  -aMed.  i. ^. .  of 
doctrines  formulated  and  promulgated  by  e'cl«^->iastical  authority, 
and  accepted  either  by  the  whole  church  or  by  large  divisiuns  ol 
the  church.  TTiere  ought  perhaps  to  be  a  history  of  doctrines  in 
both  senses.  One  m  the  former  sense  has  only  been  undertaken 
recently  by  Harnack.  The.  method  of  the  history  of  Christian 
doctr.ne  must  be  strictly  historical,  and  at  the  same  time  both 
analytic  and  synthetic,  seeing  that  both  the  history  of  the  separate 
doctrines  and  the  general  and  connected  evolution  of  the  doctrines 
require  to  be  traced.  Its  periods  will  coincide  witii  those  of  church 
history,  but  they  ought  to  be  determined  from  direct  examination 

*  The  followm?  references  may  be  pi  pen  — the  last  chapter  of  Jan-'i  *  L<i 
Morale;  the  first  three  chapters  m  Cam  »  Uoralo  &>f  lo/e .  tT.uny  artici^^-.  and 
revit^ws  in  Renouvier  s  Cridgve  Phitoncy/ttqua  .  Martt-nsen'*  ('Ai-iuiai  £(Aia. 
55  5-14.  Pfleirterer's  Moral  vn4  Reti^tm  .  bi-ad)ey  •  £ifiirat  Sttdut.  pp.  ^^19- 
30S;   and  Coird  s  Jnirod    m  Phil   of  Ret-,  ch    Lx 

•  For  the  history  ol  Biblical  thet>>oB)  see  Bncgs^  Bf^Hal  S'vdw  ,  for  th« 
lltertture  Cave,  Rafrenbach,  liabicer.  or  Zttckler:  iot  %  reltre&ce  lo  aoma  o(  U4 
best  works,  tee  Tbubm.  ««^a,  p  V39  Dotf4  9  ud  I. 


276 


T  H  E-T  H  E 


of  the  development  of  the  doctrines.     It  is  incorrect,  therefore,  to 
represent  the  discipline  as  having   its  general  distribution    into 
periods  given  it  by  church  history.' 
Bym-  Symbolics   is  the   historico -com  para  live  study  of  the  dogmatic 

b«Uc|L  systems  of  the  various  Christian  communions,  as  expressed  and 
involved  in  their  symbolical  document*.  It  treats  of  the  origin, 
history,  and  contents,  and  relations  of  ditVereuce  and  agreement, 
of  the  various  creeds  and  confessions  of  Christendom.  It  was  pre 
ceded  by  "polemics"  and  "controversial  tlieology"  — pre  scientiHc 
and  anti-scientific  kinds  of  theology.  The  older  so-called  system- 
atic theologies  and  systems  of  divinity  consisted  largrly  of  sym 
botical  matter  treated  in  an  unscientific  and  ungenerous  spirit 
Christian  dogmatics  will  never  be  properly  purified  until  Christian 
symbolics  receives  intelligent  and  due  recognition,  and  has  relegated 
to  it  the  subjects  which  properly  belong  to  it  Christian  symbolics 
may  be  said  to  have  made  its  appearance  as  a  separate  scienti6c 
discipline  with  Marheineke's  Symbolik,  published  in  1810  Ttie 
chief  reason  why  it  appeared  thus  late  was  the  difficulty  of  exercis- 
ing in  this  sphere  the  impartiality  of  the  true  historical  spirit 
The  arrangement  of  its  material  is  determined  partly  by  the  order 
of  succession  in  which  the  churches  appeared  in  history  and  partly 
by  the  historical  importance  of  the  dilTerent  churches.  "  In  some 
treatises  on  symbolics  the  symbolical  system  of  doctrine  of  each 
chnrch  is  treated  separately,  while  in  others  the  several  doctrines 
of  the  various  churches  are  compared  together.  Earh  of  these 
mefhods  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  Their  combina- 
tion is  requisite.  "2 
BfhUeal  The  psychology  of  Christianity  may  he  held  to  include  Biblical 
psycho*,  psychology  and  the  psychology  of  the  Christian  life  It  must  be 
log;'.  admitted,  however,  that  the  right  of  the  former  to  a  place  among 
■•  psychological  sciences  is  doubtTul.  It  is  universally  gdmitted  that 
It  ought  to  present  what  is  taught  in  the  Bible  as  to  the  origin, 
nature,  faculties,  states,  processes,  and  future  devplopnient  of  the 
human  spirit,  and  also  elicit  the  conceptions  implied  and  pre- 
supposed in  the  Biblical  statements  on  these  points.  But  if  it  do 
this  in  a  merely  historical  manner,  and  do  nothing  beyond  this,  it 
must  manifestly  be  regarded  as  simply  a  section  of  Biblical  theology. 
To  be  entitled  to  be  considered  a  separate  psychologiLO-theological 
discipline  it  must  at  least  also  discuss  the  fjuestions  as  to  the  truth 
of  the  ideas  relative  to  the  human  spirit  expressed  and  implied  in 
Scripture,  as  to  their  accordance  with  the  facts  of  mind,  and  their 
relationship  to  the  conclusions  of  ordinary  scientific  psychology  ; 
and  even  then  it  may  be  held  to  be  rather  the  result  of  a  peculiar 
combination  of  history,  apologetics,  and  psychology  than  a  pro- 
perly psychological  discipline.  However  this  may  be,  the  study  is 
an  exceedingly  intercstirg  one.  It  has  h:id  a. lengthened  history, 
for  in  almost  every  generation  since  the  2d  century  treatises  on 
some  of  its  subjects  hav©  appeared.  It  was  inaugurated  by  Melito 
and  Tertullian,  obtained  in  the  17th  and  18ih  centuries  distinct  re- 
cognition under  the  designation  of  "  p^iyohologia  sacra"  or  "  psycho- 
logia  e  sacris  Uteris  coUecta,"  and  acquired  Iresh  life  and  scientific 
form  from  the  pablicatioj  of  Beck's  Umriss  der  biblischen  SeelenUkre 
in  1843.3 

The  psychology  of  the  Christian  life  is  a  much  more  comprehensive 
discipline  than  Biblical  psychology,  and  cne  as  to  the  precise  place 


and  scope  of  which  no  dubiety  need  be  felt     Its  work  is  to  elocidat^  nmsct** 
all  the  distinctively  Christian  phenumtna  both  of  tne  individual  psycb<» 
and  of  the  collective  life      As  to  the  former  it  should  evolve  a  logy 
theory  of  personal  Christian  experience,  normal  and  abiiorinal,  in 
its  purity  and  in  its  perver:>ions      As  to  the  latter,  it  should  explain 
the  spiritual  experience  of  Christian  soi:iety— the  developmenl  of 
Christian  piety— in  ditferent  ages,  coiintrie"*,   and  chun  he?       For 
the  accomplishment  of  the  (ormt-r  task  it  will  finW  lit-lp  and  'hHtern4| 
in  religious  poetry,  religious  bi-tgruphy  mui  :iutobiooia|.Iiy,  and  all 
other  expressions  and  records  ol  persimal  Christian  e?i[»eriepce  ,  and 
for  the  accomplishment  of  the  lati»-r  in  ull  the  sources  and  t'ontfiiis 
of  church  history,  although  these  luusl  be  used  in  acconUi.ce  «ilh 
the    psycliologiea!    p<jr(n)5e    in  view      Christ iflO    [wyrhttlouy    thus 
understood  i?  a  departrn*-iii   ©f   theulosy  still   to  lorni       Anii  the 
<iifficulties  10  the  "ay  of  Us  foimaliun   tiiust  be  «IIu«»ed  .o  b«  v^ry 
great.     They   "ill   only   bt:  overeouie   by   men    in  whom   piunmnd 
psychological  science  ami  i»>i^ht  arocouibined  with  a  rare  suscepli 
bility  and  richri>*ss  of  spmlual  lif« 

For  Cliiistiyu  iifKtlugeties.  set  Apoiooetic^      For  Christian  dog- 
matics, see  D'MiMAiic 

ClirisliHn  dognialK-s-  and  Christian  ethics  are  the  two  disciplines  Chrtstiao 
included  in  Christian  systematic  theology  They  ought  to  he  ethic? 
separated  and  cnUivated  apart,  and  yet  must  be  recogui?''d  to  be 
closely  connected,  and  t-acb  the  necessary  comptcnient  ol  ihe  other 
The  former  sees  in  Christ  the  truth  and  the  way  thereto  .  the 
latter  sees  in  Him  the  lile  and  the  way  thereto  Cbri>ti(*n  ethics 
is  much  the  more  recent  di^ipline  of  the  two,  and  it  hus  not  yet 
attained  the  same  detJnitene->s  and  bomogeneousnesa  A'lke  as  to 
method  and  distribution  there  is  greater  indecision  and  confusion 
Among  its  eailier  (ultivHtors  were  Danaeus.  Calixtus.  Perkins. 
Ames,  Cuhille.  Mn>heini,  CiHsiiis.  Slaudlin,  and  ^  on  An.nion 
Schleierniat.hor  may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modt-in 
Christian  ethics.  His  Mij-criority  to  his  predecessors  was  due  chielly 
to  his  profounder  App^ehe^^lon  of  the  nature  of  the  pioMems  of 
philosophical  ethics,  and  to  his  comprehensive  and  (ipintual  concep- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Cvd  as  the  highest  good,  peivasive  and 
regulative  of  every  sphere  of  humao  life,  industry  and  art,  science 
and  philosophy,  family,  '-hurch  and  state  The  following  may  be 
givL-n  as  a  scheme  of  Chrifitian  etlncs  1  Determination  of  the 
nature,  limits,  and  nietliod  of  the  science,  »nd  of  it*  relations  to 
oth^ir  disciplines;  and  e.'ipecially  "to  those  which  are  ethical  and 
theological  II  Presuppositions  of  the  scifuce  these  are— iD  the 
ethical  idea  of  God  as  revealed  in  nature  and  in  Christ  .  (21  man  as 
a  moral  being  and  in  his  relation  to  the  law  and  revelation  of  (Jod  , 
(3)  creation  and  providence  as  ethical  systems,  and  (4)  the  king- 
dom of  God  in  itself,  in  relation  to  creation  and  pr..vidence.  and 
as  the  goal  of  moral  life  III.  The  fundHinenial  concptions  of 
the  science  these  are — (1)  the  Chris^tian  ethical  law  ;  (2)  the 
Christian  conscience,  (3)  the  Christian  ethical  ideal,  anil  (4) 
Christian  virtue.  IV  The  reign  of  sin  in  the  individual  and 
society  viewed  i.»  the  light  of  Christi.inity  V  The  oiigin  and 
progress  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in  the  iiidividual  soul,  and  it« 
manifestation  iu  the  viitues  and  graces  of  the  Christian  character. 
VI  The  reali7ation  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in  the  vaiious  spheres  of 
society— the  family,  the  church,  the  nation  •  (R.  F.) 


THEOPHTLXJS.  Nicholas  Alemanni,  in  his  notes  lo 
the  first  edition  of  the  Anecdota  of  Procopius  (see  Pro 
COPios),  published  in  1623,  repeatedly  quotes  a  Life  of 
Juslioian,  which  he  attributes  to  "Tbeophilus  Abbas, 
praeceptor  Justiniani,"  but  without  telling  us  where  he 
found  this  Life  or  who  Theopbilus  was.  Subsequent 
writers  have  continued  to  quote  Theopbilus  from  Ale- 
manni's  notes  for  the  facts  ascribed  to  him  in  those  notes, 
and,  among  others,  for  the  name  Upravda,  said  to  have 
been  the  original  name  of  Justinian,  and  other  proper  names 
of  members  of  the  family  of  that  emperor.  Mr  Bryce  has, 
eince  the  article  Justinian  was  published,  discovered  in 
the  Barberini  library  at  Rome  what  appears  to  be  the  MS 
of  the  so-called  Life  of  Justinian  used  by  Alemanni,  It 
is  in  Latin,  and  purports  to  be  an  extract  made  by  Ivan 

*  Among  the  l)eit  general  btstorlca  of  Wirlstlan  doctrine  are  ihnaeof  Meander. 
Gi«5el*!r,  Mai;rnbftcli,  Baur,  Ntizscli,  Thomasius,  namack,  Htuic,  Shwid.  Bnd 
SkeldoiL  Tlierc  is  a  rmiltitudlnoua  literature  relating  to  doctrine  in  particular 
periods  and  to  psnlculiir  tJoctiinci. 

»  See  Lumby'*  lOitory  of  (he  Creeds,  1873  ;  Schaff's  Creeds  o/  Christendom, 
3  ▼ot»..4lh  ed.,  \^4  ;  Winer's  ConffUions  o/  Chrislc*tdom  ;  and  the  SvmboUcs  ol 
Mohlpr,  Kiilloer.  Gucrickc.  Ochlcr.  Hofmann.  Ac. 

'■*  The  foUowiriE  are  among  the  most  useful  books  for  ttie  student  of  Biblical 
paycboIofTT : — Hfck'a  Oullintt  of  Bibticil  P»ythology  (Kng  Ir.) ;  Detitzsch's 
.>*fem  of  Biblical  Pt^fChoiogy;  Heard's  Tripartite  Nature  c/  Man;  Laidlaw'a 
*.«*  Boctrint  ^  Mtn;  and  Dickson'a  Baird  Lecture  for  18S3. 


Tomco  Marnavich,  a  Croatian  ecclesiastic  (1573-1639), 
from  a  Life  of  Justinian  by  a  certain  Bogor^nl  (Oraece 
Thenphihis)^  who  is  alleged  to  have  been  the  instructor  of 
Justinian,  and  abbot  of  St  Alexander  at  Prisrend  (in 
Macedonia),  and  afterwards  bishop  of  Sardica  (now  Sofia, 
in  Bulgaria),  the  original  of  which  Lii'e,  in  Slavonic,  is 
stated  in  the  Barberini  MS  to  exist  in  the  Slavonic 
monastery  of  Basilian  monks  on  Mount  Athos  No  such 
Slavonic  MS.  (so  far  as  is  known)  has  ever  been  discovered 
in  Athos  or  elsewhere  ;  no  Slavonic  MS.  of  tlie  age  of 
Justinian  could  possibly  exist ,  and  the  contents  of  the 
Latin  extract  preserved  at  Borne  are  of  so  legendary  a 
character  as  to  throw  the  greatest  doubt  on  the  facts  cited 
from  Tbeophilus  by  Alemanni,  inrluding  the  nanie  Upravda 
above  referred  to,  and  the  Slavonic  origin  of  Justinian 
It  seems  doubtful  whether  this  Tbeophilus  Abbas,  whom 


'  The  history  n(  Chnslhin  ethic*  has  been  written  jj-  Wuttkc,  Christian  Ethiri. 
vol  t.,  but  much  bHier  by  Cass,  Oe$e/i  dfrehristl.  Etht*.  2  vols  .  and  by  Zleglef. 
Oesefi.'d.  cftrist.  Eth..  2  \ols.  Bestmann  has  written  two  volumes  of  a  Gesfh  d 
chriiiK  Sit'e  Among  wi-ll  known  treatises  on  Clniatlan  ethics  are  llmsc  *■!  I>e 
Wctle,  Scliteiermarlui.  Hlrscher.  Harless.  Uothe.  Wattke.  Saitoi  luy  MartenseD, 
Oottintren.  Lange.  Rofmnnn.  Frank,  and  Doiner  Those  of  Wiuikc.  Surtorlua 
{Doctrine  of  Holy  Love).  Mailcsa.  and  Maitcnscn  have  been  Irnn^lated  inio 
English.  German'literaturc  l9c^'rcmcl>  nch.wliile  FYench  and  English  Ilieraturet 
are  miserably  poor.  In  this  department.  Wardiaw'a  Christian  Ethifi  may  Im 
neotioned,  but  merely  because  ii  Is  EngUah. 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


277 


the  Roman  MS.  identifiM  with  a  certain  Domnio,  bishop 
of  Sardica  in  517  (see  Marcellinus  Comes,  Chronicon,  ad 
ann.  517),  ever  existed  at  all.  Mr  Brjce  has  printed  this 
Roman  MS.,  with  his  observations  thereon,  in  the  Archivio 
Storico  of  the  R  Societi  Romana  di  Storia  Patria,  1887. 

THEOPHRASTUS,  the  successor  of  Aristotle  in  the 
Peripatetic  school,  was  a  native  of  Eresus,  in  Lesbos. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is  a  matter  of  inference,  and  has 
been  fixed  between  373  and  3G8  B.C.  It  is  said  that  his 
original  name  was  Tyrtamus,  and  that  the  name  Theo- 
phrastus  was  given  him  by  Aristotle  on  account  of  his 
eloquence,  but  this  story  is  quite  as  likely  to  be  an  after- 
thought suggested  by  the  name  at  a  later  date.  After 
receiving  his  first  introduction  to  philosophy  in  Lesbos 
from  one  Leucippus  or  Alcippus,  he  proceeded  to  Athens, 
&nd  became  a  member  of  the  Platonic  circle.  After 
Plato's  deatfa  he  attached  himself  to  Aristotle,  and  in  all 
probability  accomjianied  him  to  Stagira.  The  intimate 
friendship  ef  Theophrastus  with  Callisthenes,  the  fellow 
pupil  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  l  ;nticn  made  in  his 
will  of  an  estate  belonging  to  him  iX  Stagira,  and  the 
repeated  notices  of  the  town  and  its  museum  in  the 
ffistory  of  Plants  are  facts  which  point  to  this  conclusion. 
Aristotle's  affectionate  confidence  in  his  pupil  and  friend 
is  proved  by  his  making  Theophrastus  guardian  of  his 
children  in  his  will,  and  designating  him  as  his  philosophic 
successor  at  the  Lyceum  on  his  own  removal  to  Chalcis. 
Endemus  of  Rhodes  was  not  without  claims  to  this  posi- 
tion, but  the  master,  according  to  the  well-known  story, 
delicately  indicated  his  preferetce  by  the  remark  that  the 
wines  of  Lesbos  and  Rjodes  were  both  excellent,  but  the 
Lesbian  was  the  sweeter  Aristotle  also  bequeathed  to 
Theophrastus  his  library  and  the  originals  of  his  own 
works.  Theophrastus  presided  over  the  Peripatetic  school 
for  thirty-five  years,  and  died  in  288  B.C.  Under  his 
guidance  the  school  flourished  greatly  in  point  of  numbers, 
and  at  his  death  he  bequeathed  to  it  his  garden  with  house 
and  colonnades  as  a  permanent  seat  of  instruction.  His 
popularity  was  also  shown  in  the  regard  paid  to  him  by 
Cassander  and  Ptolemy  and  by  the  complete  failure  of  a 
charge  of  impiety  brought  against  him  He  was  honoured 
with  a  public  funeral  in  which  the  whole  people  took  part 

Theophrastus'a  philosophical  relation  to  Aristotle  and  his  place 
ID  the  developmeot  of  Peripatetic  doctrine  have  been  sketched 
■under  the  head  Peripatetics  It  remains  to  say  a  few  words 
.About  hi*  works  From  the  lists  of  the  ancients  it  appears  that 
the  activity  of  Theophrastus  extended  over  the  whole  lield  of  con- 
temporary knowledge  Logical,  physical,  biological,  psychological, 
ethical,  political,  rhetorical,  and  metaphysical  treatises  are  men- 
tioned, most  of  which  probably  differed  little  from  the  Aristotelian 
treatment  of  the  same  themes,  thoagh  supplementary  in  details. 
On  the  whole,  Theophrastus  seems  to  have  developed  by  preference 
the  observational  and  scientific  side  of  liis  master,  and  of  this 
character  are  the  books  and  fragments  that  have  come  down  to  us. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  two  large  botanical  treatises.  On 
the  History  of  Plants  ixtpi  0utuv  itrroptas),  in  nine  books  (originally 
ten),  and  On  the  Causes  of  Plants  (vcpl  0trr«K  alnuy)^  in  six  books 
{originally  eight)  These  constitute  the  most  important  contribn- 
tion  to  botanical  science  till  we  come  to  modem  times,  and  furnish 
proof  of  the  author's  extensive  and  careful  observation  combined 
with  a  considerable  critical  sagacity.  We  also  possess  fragments 
of  a  History  0/  Physics,  a  fragmentary  treatise  On  Stones',  a  work 
On  Sensation  (»«pl  cuV^trevs)  in  the  same  condition,  certain  meta- 
physical dTopfoj.  which  probably  once  formed  part  of  a  systematic 
treatise,  and  the  well-known  Ethical  Characters  (^eiitol  xo^xwriifxi). 
containing  a  delineation  of  moral  types,  probably  an  extract  or 
compilation  by  a  later  hand  from  a  larger  ethical  work  of  Theo- 
phrastus. Various  smaller  scientific  fragments  have  been  collected 
in  the  editions  of  J.  G  Schneider  (181S-21)and  F.  'Wimmer  (1886) 
and  in  Csener's  Analeeta  Theophrastea- 

THEOPffi'LACT,  a  well-known  Biblical  commentator, 
was  born  most  probably  at  Euripns,  in  EubtEa,  about  the 
middle  of  the  11th  century.  He  became  a  deacon  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  scholar, 
■as  is  shown   by  the   fact  that   he  became   the  tutor  of 


Constantino  Porphyrogenitns,  son  of  Michael  'VTL,  for 
whom  he  wrote  his  ncuSci'a  fiatriXucrj.  About  1078  he 
went  into  Bulgaria  as  archbishop  of  Achris.  In  his  letter 
he  complains  much  of  the  rude  manners  of  the  Bulgarians, 
and  he  sought  to  be  relieved  of  his  oSice,  but  apparently 
without  success.     His  death  took  place  after  1107 

His  commentaries  on  the  Gospels,  Acts,  the  Pauline  epistles, 
and  the  Minor  Prophets  are  founded  on  those  of  Chrysostom,  but 
deserve  the  considerable  place  they  hold  in  exegerical  literature 
for  their  appositeaess,  sobriety,  accuracy,  and  judiciousness.  His 
other  extant  works  iiiclude  sevent}*-five  letters  and  various  homilies 
and  orations  and  other  minor  pieces.  A  splendid  edition  of  the 
whole  in  Greek  and  Latin,  with  a  preliminary  dissertarion,  waa 
published  in  1754-63  by  J    F    B    M.  de  Rossi  (4  vols.  foL,  Venice). 

THEOPH'i'LACT  of  Simocatta.     See  vol  iv.  p  613. 

THEOPOMPUS  of  Chios,  a  celebrated  historian  and 
rhetorician,  was  born  about  378  B  c.  In  early  youth  be 
seems  to  have  spent  some  time  at  Athens,  along  with  his 
father,  who  had  been  exiled  on  account  of  his  Laconian 
sympathies.  Here  he  became  a  pupil  of  Isocrates,  and 
rapidly  made  great  progress  in  rhetoric  :  we  are  told  that 
Isocrat«s  used  to  say  that  Ephorus  required  the  spur  but 
Theopompus  the  bit  (Cic,  Brutus,  §  204).  At  first  he 
appears  to  have  composed  epideictic  speeches,  in  which  he 
attained  to  such  proficiency  that  in  352-351  he  gained 
the  prize  of  oratory  given  by  Artemisia  in  honour  of  her 
husband,  although  Isocrates  was  himself  among  the  com- 
petitors. It  is  said  to  have  been  the  advice  of  his  teacher 
that  finally  determined  his  career  as  an  historian, — a  career 
for  which  his  abundant  patrimony  and  wide  knowledge  of 
men  and  places  (Fr.  26)  had  singularly  fitted  him.  Through 
the  influence  of  Alexander,  he  was  restored  to  Chios  about 
333,  and  figured  for  some  time  as  one  of  the  boldest  and 
most  uncompromising  leaders  of  the  aristocratical  party 
in  his  native  town.  After  Alexander's  death  he  was  again 
expelled,  and  took  refuge  with  Ptolemy  in  Egypt,  where 
he  appears  to  have  met  with  a  somewhat  cold  reception. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

The  works  of  Theopompus  were  chiefly  historical,-  and  later 
writers  frequently  cite  them  as  authorities.  They  included  an 
Epitome  of  Herodotus  s  History,  the  Hellenics  fEAATiniccf,  'ZXXnrucai 
laropiai),  the  History  of  Philip  (*iA»xxi«(i),  and  several  panegyrics 
and  hortatory  addresses,  the  chief  of  which  was  the  Letter  to 
Alexander.  The  genuineness  of  the  epitome  of  Herodotus  has 
been  called  in  qneiition ;  we  possess  only  five  quotations  from  it, 
preserved  by  grammarians  or  lexicographers,  afid  consisting  only 
of  single  words.  The  Hellenics  was  a  somewhat  ..ambitious  work  in 
12  books,  extending  from  411  (where  Thucydides  breaks  off)  to  394 
— the  date  of  the  l»ttle  of  Cnidus.  A  few  insignificant  fragments 
remain,  but  do  not  snffice  to  give  us  any  idea  of  the  general 
character  of  the  work.  By  far  the  most  ambitious  history  written 
by  Theopompus  was  the  ^i\i-mK6~  In  this  he  narrated  the  history 
of  Philip's  reign  (360-336)  in  53  books,  with  frequent  digressions 
on  the  names  and  customs  of  the  various  races  and  countries  of 
which  he  had  occasion  to  speak.  So  numerous  were  these  digrea- 
sions  that  Philip  III.  of  Macedon  reduced  the  bnlk  of  the  history 
from  53  to  16  books  by  cutting  out  those  parts  which  had  no 
connexion  with  the  achievements  of  the  king.  It  was  from  this 
history  that  Diodorus  and  Trogns  Pompeius  derived  much  of  their 
materials.  Several  fragments,  chiefly  anecdotes  and  strictures  of 
various  kinds  upon  the  character  of  nations  and  individuals,  ars 
preserved  by  Athenans.  Plutarch,  and  others.  Of  the  Letter  t» 
Alexander  we  possess  one  or  two  fragments  cited  by  Athensus, 
auiraadvertiDg  severely  upon  the  immorality  and  dissipations  of 
Harpalus  The  Attack  upon  Plato,  and  the  treatise  On  Piety, 
which  are  sometimes  referred  to  as  separate  works,  were  perhaps 
only  two  of  the  many  digressions  in  the  histoi^y  of  Philip;  some 
writers  have  doubted  their  authenticity. 

The  nature  of  the  extant  fragments  fuUy  bears  out  the  criticisms 
of  antiquity  upon  Theopompus.  Their  style  is  clear  and  pure,  full 
of  choice  and  pointed  expressions,  but  lacking  in  the  weight  and 
dignity  which  only  profound  thought  can  supply.  As  we  might 
expect  in  a  pupil  of  Isocrates,  he  is  especially  careful  to  avoid 
hiatus.  The  artistic  onity  of  his  work  suffered  severely  from  the 
frequent  episodes  with  which  it  was  interspersed ;  his  account  of 
Sicily,  for  example,  extended  over  several  books.  Another  fault 
was  his  excessive  fondjiess  for  romantic  and  incredible  Storie*. 
(Fr.  33,  66,  76,  &c);  a  collection  of  some  of  these  was  after^arif 
made  and  published  tinder  bis  name,  with  the  title  of  eavyt'ta 


278 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


(Dio!*.  Lacrt..  i.  115).  Ho  was  also  severely  blamed  in  antiquity 
lor  his  ccnsoriousness,  and  throughout  his  fragments  no  feature  is 
more  strikm;;  than  this  (Fr.  54,  65,  ic).  On  the  whole,  however, 
he  appears  to  have  been  fairly  impartial.  Philip  himself  he  censures 
severely  lor  drunkenness  ami  immorality  (Fr.  136,  178,  262,  208), 
wliile  Demosthenes  receives  his  warm  praise  (Fr.  239,  263).  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  Phihjypica  the  world  has  lost  a  great 
variety  of  pleasant  talcs  and  historians  much  valuable  information 
U}ton  niany  dilhcult  points  of  Greek  history  and  life. 

Sro  Mutliir.  Fr<i<m>mta  IhntO'-Korum  G'xcarum,  i.  278-333,  Paris.  ISS-V 

THEORBO.     See  Lcte,  vol.  xv.  p.  71. 

THIiOSOPHY,  as  its  derivation  implies,  is  a  term  used 
to  denote  those  forms  of  philosojihic  and  religious  lliought 
whicb  claim  a  special  insigbl  into  the  Divine  nature  and 
its  constitutive  moments  or  processes.  Sometimes  this 
insiglit  is  claimed  as  the  result  of  the  operation  of  some 
higher  faculty  or  some  supernatural  revelation  to  the  indi- 
vidual ,  in  other  instances  the  theosophical  theory  is  not 
based  u|>on  any  special  illumination,  but  is  simply  put 
forward  as  the  deepest  speculative  wisdom  of  its  author. 
But  in  any  case  it  is  characteristic  of  thcosopliy  that  it 
starts  with  an  explication  of  the  Divine  essence,  and 
endeavours  to  deduce  the  phenomenal  universe  from  the 
play  of  forces  within  the  Divine  nature  itself.  It  is  thus 
differentiated  at  once  from  all  philosophic  systems  which 
attempt  to  rise  from  an  analysis  of  phenomena  to  a  know- 
ledge, more  or  less  adequate,  of  the  existence  and  nature 
of  God.  In  all  such  systems,  God  is  the  terminus  ad 
quern,  a  direct  knowledge  of  whom  is  not  claimed,  but  who 
is,  as  it  were,  the  hypotliesis  adopted,  with  varying  degrees 
of  certainty  in  different  thinkers,  for  the  explanation  of 
the  facts  before  them.  The  tbeosopliist,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  most  at  his  ease  when  moving  within  the  circle  of 
the  Divine  essence,  into  which  he  seems  to  claim  ahsolute 
insight.  This,  however,  would  be  insufficient  to  distin- 
guish theosophy  from  those  systems  of  philosophy  which 
are  sometimes  called  "  speculative  "  and  "  absolute,"  and 
which  also  in  many  cases  proceed  deductively  from  the 
idea  of  God.  In  a  wide  sense,  the  system  of  Hegel  or  the 
system  of  Spinoza  may  be  cited  as  examples  of  what  is 
meant.  Both  thinkers  claim  to  exhibit  the  universe  as  the 
evolution  of  the  Divine  nature.  They  must  believe,  there- 
fore, that  they  have  grasped  the  inmost  principles  of  that 
nature  :  so  much  is  involved,  indeed,  in  the  construction 
of  an  absolute  system.  But  it  is  to  be  noted  that,  though 
there  is  much  talk  of  God  in  such  systems,  the  known 
universe — the  world  that  now  is — is  nowhere  transcended  ; 
God  is  really  no  more  than  the  principle  of  unity  immanent 
in  the  whole.  Hence,  while  the  accusation  of  pantheism 
is  (reiiuently  brought  against  these  thinkers,  the  term 
Iheo.sopliical  is  never  used  in  their  regard.  A  theosoph- 
ical .system  may  also  be  pantheistic,  in  tendency  if  not  in 
intention;  but  the  transcendent  character  of  its  Godhead 
definitely  distinguishes  it  from  the  speculative  pliilo.sophies 
which  might  otherwise  seem  to  fall  under  the  same  defini- 
tion. An  historical  survey  shows,  indeed,  that  theosophy 
generally  arises  in  connexion  with  religious  needs,  and  is 
the  expression  of  religious  convictions  or  aspirations. 
Now  the  specifically  religious  consciousness  is^not  panthe- 
istic in  any  naturalistic  sense  ;  God  is  rather  regarded  as 
the  transcendent  source  of  being  and  purity,  from  which 
the  individual  in  his  natural  state  is  alienated  and  afar  off. 
Theosophy  accepts  the  testimony  of  religion  that  the 
present  world  lies  in  wickedness  and  imperfection,  and 
faces  the  problem  of  speculatively  accounting  for  this  state 
of  things  from  ibe  nature  of  the  Godhead  itself.  Theo- 
sophy IS  thus  in  some  sort  a.  mystical  philosophy  of  the 
existence  of  evil  ;  or  at  least  it  assumes  this  form  in  some 
of  its  most  typical  representatives. 

The  name  with  which  it  is  oftcncst  coupled  is  mysticism 
(see  Mysticis.m).  The  latter  term  has  properly  a  practical 
rather  than   a  speculative  reference ;  but  it  is  currently 


applied  so  as  to  include  the  systems  of  thoiight  on  which 
practical  mysticism  was  based.  Thus,  to  take  only  one 
prominent  example,  the  profound  speculations  of  Meister 
EcKHART  (7.!;.)  are  always  treated  under  the  head  of 
Mysticism,  but  they  might  with  equal  right  appear  under 
the  rubric  Theosophy.  In  other  words,  while  an  emotional 
and  practical  mysticism  may  exist  without  attempting 
philosophically  to  explain  itself,  speculative  mysticism  is 
almost  another  name  for  theosophy.  There  is  still  a 
certain  ditTercnce  observable,  however,  in  so  far  as  the 
speculative  mystic  remains  primarily  concerned  with  the 
theory  of  the  soul's  relation  to  God,  while  the  theosopbist 
gives  bis  thoughts  a  wider  scope,  and  frequently  devotes 
himself  to  the  elaboratio.i  of  a  fantastic  philosophy  ol 
nature. 

In  the  above  acceptation  of  the  term,  the  Neoplatonic 
doctrine  of  emanations  from  the  supra-essential  One,  the 
fanciful  emanation-doctrine  of  some  of  the  Gnostics  (the 
ajons  of  the  Valentinian  system  might  be  mentioned),  and 
the  elaborate  esoteric  system  of  the  Kabbalah,  to  whicb 
the  two  former  in  all  probability  largely  contributed,  are 
generally  included  under  the  head  of  theosophy.  In  th» 
two  latter  instances  there  may  be  noted  the  allegorical 
interpretation  of  traditional  doctrines  and  s.acrcd  writings 
which  is  a  common  characteristic  of  theosophical  writers 
Still  more  typical. examples  of  theo.sophy  are  furnished  bj 
the  mystical  system  of  Meister  Eckliart  and  the  doctrine 
of  Jacob  BoEHME  ('/.«.),  who  is  known  as  "the  theo- 
sopbist "par  excellence.  Eckhart's  doctrine  asserts  behind 
God  a  prcdicatelcss  Godhead,  which,  though  unknowable 
not  only  to  man  but  also  to  itself,  is,  as  it  were,  the 
essence  or  potentiality  of  all  thing.s.  From  it  pro.^eed, 
and  in  it,  as  their  nature,  exist,  the  three  persons  of  the 
Trinit)',  conceived  as  stadia  of  an  eternal  self-revealing 
process.  The  eternal  generation  of  the  Son  is  equivalent 
to  the  eternal  creation  of  the  world.  But  the  sensuous 
and  phenomenal,  as  such,  so  far  as  they  seem  to  imply 
independence  of  God,  are  mere  privation  and  nothingness , 
things  exist  only  through  the  presence  of  God  in  them, 
and  the  goal  of  creation,  like  its  outset,  is  the  repose  of 
the  Godhead.  The  soul  of  man,  which  as  a  microcosmos 
resumes  the  nature  of  things,  strives  by  self-abnegation  or 
self-annihilation  to  attain  this  unspeakable  reunion  (what 
Eckhart  calls  being  buried  in  God).  Regarding  evil 
simply  as  privation,  Eckhart  does  not  make  it  the  pivot 
of  his  thought,  as  was  afterwards  done  by  Boehme,  but 
his  notion  of  the  Godhead  as  a  dark  and  formless  essencft 
is  a  favourite  thesis  of  theosophy.  The  followers  ol 
Eckhart  are  either  practical  mystics,  or  reproduce  at  most 
what  may  be  called  their  master's  speculative  theology,  till 
we  come  to  Boehme. 

Besides  mystical  theology,  Boehme  was  indebted  to  thf 
writings  of  Paracelsus.  This  circumstance  is  not  acci- 
dental, but  points  to  an  affinity  in  thought.  The  nature- 
philosophers  of  the  Renaissance,  such  as  Nicholas  of  Cusa, 
Paracelsus,  Cardan,  and  others,  curiously  blend  scientific 
ideas  with  speculative  notions  derived  from  scholastic 
theology,  from  Neoplatonism,  and  even  from  the  Kab- 
balah. Hence  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  their  theorie* 
as  a  mixture  of  theosophy  and  physics,  or  theosophy  and 
chemistry,  as  the  case  may  be.  Boehme  ofl'crs  us  a 
natural  philosophy  of  the  same  sort  As  Boehme  is  th* 
typical  theosopbist,  and  as  modern  theosophy  has  nourished 
itself  almost  in  every  case  upon  the  study  of  his  works, 
his  dominating  conceptions  supply  us  with  the  best  illus- 
tration of  the  general  trend  of  this  mode  of  thought.  His 
speculation  turns,  as  has  been  said,  upon  the  necessity  oj 
reconciling  the  existence  and  the  might  of  evil  with  the 
existence  of  an  all  embracing  and  all-powerful  God,  with- 
out falling  into  Manicha;anism  on  the  one  hand,  or,  on  the 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


•:79 


other,  into  a  naturalistic  pantheism  that  denies  the  reality 
»f  the  distinction  between  good  and  evil.  He  faces  the 
difficulty  boldly,  and  the  eternal  conflict  between  the  two 
may  be  said  to  furnish  him  with  the  principle  of  his 
philosophy.  It  is  in  this  connexion  that  he  insists  on 
the  necessity  of  the  Nay  to  the  Yea,  of  the  negative  to  the 
positive.  Eckhart's  Godhead  appears  in  Boehme  as  the 
abyss,  the  eternal  nothing,  the  essenceless  quiet  ("  Un- 
grund  "  and  "  Stille  ohne  Wescn  "  are  two  of  Boehme's 
phrases).  But,  if  this  were  all,  the  Divine  Being  would 
remain  an  abyss  dark  even  to  itself.  lu  God,  however, 
as  the  condition  of  His  manifestation,  lies,  according  to 
Boehme,  the  "  eternal  nature  "  or  the  myslerium  magnum, 
which  is  as  anger  to  love,  as  darkness  to  light,  and,  in 
general,  as  the  negative  to  the  positive.  This  principle 
(which  Boehme  often  calls  the  evil  in  God)  illuminates 
both  sides  of  the  antithesis,  and  thus  contains  the  possi- 
bility of  their  real  existence.  By  the  "  Qual  "  or  torture, 
as  it  were,  of  this  diremption,  the  universe  has  qualitative 
existence,  and  is  knowable  Even  the  three  persons  of 
the  Trinity,  though  existing  idealiter  beforehand,  attain 
reality  otdy  through  this  principle  of  nature  in  God, 
which  is  hence  spoken  of  as  their  mnlric.  It  forms  also 
the  matter,"  as  it  were,  out  of  which  the  world  is  created ; 
without  the  dark  and  fiery  principle,  we  are  told,  there 
would  be  no  creature.  Hence  God  is  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  the  father,  and  the  eternal  nature  as  the  mother,  of 
things.  Creation  (which  is  conceived  as  au  eternal  pro- 
cess) begins  with  the  creation  of  the  angels.  The  subse- 
quent fall  of  Lucifer  is  e.xplained  as  his  surrender  of 
himself  to  the  principle  of  nature,  instead  of  dwelling  in 
tha  heart  of  God.  He  sought  to  make  anger  predominate 
over  love  ;  and  he  had  his  >vil],  becoming  prince  of  hell, 
the  kingdom  of  God's  anger,  which  still  remains,  however, 
an  integral  part  of  the  Divine  universe.  It  is  useless  to 
follow  Boehme  further,  for  his  cosmogony  is  disfigured  by 
a  wild  Paracelsian  symbolism,  and  his  constructive  efforts 
in  general  are  full  of  tlie  uncouth  straining  of  an  untrained 
writer.  In  spite  of  these  defects,  his  speculations  have 
exercised  a  remarkable  influence  within  the  present 
century,  notably  upon  the  later  phases  of  Schelling's 
philosophy,  upon  Fran^z  von  Baader,  Molitor,  and  others. 

Schelling's  Philosophical  Inquiries  into  the  Nature  of 
Human  Freedom  (1S09)  is  almost  entirely  a  reproduction 
of  Boehitie's  ideas,  and  forms,  along  with  Baader's  writ- 
ings, the  best  modern  example  of  thcosophical  speculation. 
In  his  philosophy  of  identity  Sciielling  {q.v.)  had  already 
defined  the  Absolute  as  pure  indifference,  or  the  identity 
of  subject  and  object  (of  the  ideal  and  the  real),  but 
without  advancing  further  into  theogony.  He  now  pro- 
ceeded fo  distinguish  three  moments  in  God,  the  first  of 
whii.h  is  the  pure  indifference  which,  in  a  sense,  precedes 
all.  existence — the  primal  basis  or  abyss,  as  he  calls  it,  in 
agreement  with  Boehme.  But,  as  there  is  nothing  before 
or  besides  God,  God  niu>t  have  the  ground  or  cause  of  His 
existence  in  Himself  This  is  the  second  moment,  called 
nature  in  God,  distinguishable  from  God,  but  inseparable 
from  Him.  It  is  that  in  God  which  is  not  God  Himself  ; 
it  is  the  yearning  of  the  eternal  One  to  give  birth  to 
itaelf.  This  yearning  is  a  dumb  unintelligent  longing, 
which  moves  like  a  heaving  sea  in  obedience  to  some  dark 
and  indefinite  law,  and  is  powerless  to  fashion  anything  in 
permanence.  But  in  correspondence  to  the  first  stirring 
of  the  Divine  existence  there  awakes  in  God  Himself  an 
inner  reflexive  perception,  by  means  of  which — since  no 
object  is  possible  for  it  but  God — God  beholds  Himself  in 
His  own  image.  In  this,  God  is  for  tha  first  time  as  it 
were  realized,  although  as  yet  only  within  Himself  This 
petceptioQ  combines  as  understanding  vrfth  the  primal 
varDing,  which  becomes  thereby  free  creative  will,  and 


works  formatively  in  the  originally  lawless  nature  or  ground) 
In  this  wise  is  created  the  world  as  wo  know  it  In  every 
natural  existence  there  arc,  therefore,  two  princii'les  to  b«( 
distinguished — first,  the  dark  principle,  through  which  this 
is  separated  from  God,  and  exists,  as  it  were,  in  the  mere 
ground  ;  and,  secondly,  the  Divine  principle  of  understand- 
ing. The  first  is  the  particular  Avill  of  the  creature,  the 
second  is  the  universal  will.  In  irrational  creatures  tha 
particular  will  or  greed  of  the  individual  is  controlled  by 
external  forces,  and  thus  used  as  an  instrument  of- the 
universal.  But  in  man  the  two  principles  are  consciously 
present  together,  not,  however,  in  inseparable  union,  as 
they  are  in  God,  but  with  the  possibility  of  separation. 
This  possibility  of  separation  is  the  possibility  of  good  and 
evil.  In  Boehme's  spirit,  Schelling  defended  his  idea  of 
God  as  the  only  way  of  vindicating  for  God  the  conscious, 
ness  which  naturalism  denies,  and  which  ordinary  theism 
emptily  asserts.  This  thcosophical  transformatu  n  of 
Schelling's  doctrine  was  largely  due  to  tbo  intluence  of  his 
contemporary  Baadke  (y.t'.).  Baader  distinguishes,  in  a 
manner  which  may  be  paralleled  from  Boehme,  between 
an  immanent  or  esoteric  process  of  .self-production  in  God, 
through  which  He  issues  from  His  unrovcaled  state,  and  the 
cmanent,  exoteric,  or  real  process,  in  which  God  overcomes 
and  takes  up  into  Himself  the  eternal  "nature"  or  the 
principle  of  selfhood,  and  appears  as  a  Trinity  of  persons. 
The  creation  of  the  world  is  still  further  to  be  distinguished 
from  these  two  processes  as  an  act  of  freedom  or  will  ;  it 
cannot,  therefore,  be  speculatively  constructed,  but  must 
be  historically  accepted.  Baader,  who  combined  his  theo- 
sophy  with  the  doctrines  of  Roman  Catholicism,  has  bad 
many  followers.  Among  thinkers  on  the  same  lines,  but 
more  or  less  independent,  Molitor  is  perhaps  the  most 
important.  Swedeneorg  {q.v.)  is  usually  reckoned  among 
the  theosophists,  and  some  paija  of  his  theory  justify  this 
inclusion  ;  but  his  syafem  as  a  whole  has  little  in  common 
with  those  speculative  constructions  of  the  Divine  nature 
which  form  the  essence  of.  iheosophy,  as  strictly  under- 
stood, (a.  se.) 

TIIERA,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  Santorin.  is  a  volcanic 
island  in  the  /Egean  Sea,  the  southernmost  of  the  group 
of  islands,  called  Sporadee,  which  intervene  between  the 
Cyclades  and  Crete.  From  the  last-named  island  it  is 
separated  by  a  space  of  60  miles  of  sea,  but  the  lofty 
Cretan  ranges 
of  Dicte  and 
Ida  are  clearly 
visible  from  it 
in  fine  weather. 
In  shape  San- 
torin  forms  a 
crescent,  and 
encloses  a  bay 
on  the  north, 
east,  and  south, 
while  on  the 
western  side 
lies  the  smaller 
island  of  Ther- 
asia.  The  en- 
circling wall 
thus  formed, 
which  is  ellip- 
tical in  shape 
and  18  miles 
round  in  its 
inner  rim,  is 
broken  in  two  places. 


Thcra  and  neighbouring  Islands. 

-towards  the  north-west  by  a  strait 
a  mile  in  breadth,  where  the  water  is  not  less  than  1100 
feet  deep,  and  towards  the  south-west  by  an  aperture  about 


280 


T  H  E  — T  H  £ 


3  miles  wiifc,  wbenj  the  vrater  is  shallow,  and  an  island 
called  AsproijjM  or  \Miite  tland.  lying  lu  tUe  middle,  serves 
IS  u  stepping-stone  between  the  iw^'  promoijtories.  Tbe 
clids  "-isi:  perpendicularly  from  the  waters  of  the  bay.  in 
soiuf  |.laces  to  the  height  of  10^0  feet  ,  but  towards  the 
oiieii  Eca,  both  in  Santorin  a^d  Therasia,  the  ground  slopes 
pra-JuaJly  away,  and  ha-i  been  conrerteH  into  broad  level 
terraces,  everywhere  covered  with  tufaceous  agglomerate, 
which,  though  ertraordinanly  bare  and  ashen  to  the  eye, 
is  tbe  soil  which  produces  the  famous  Santorii:  wine. 
TVjwards  the  soiUh  east  rises  the  limestone  peak  of  Mount 
Elias,  the  highest  point  of  the  island  (1587  feet),  and  the 
unly  part  that  ••<isted  before  the  volcano  was  formed  In 
the  middle  of  tUi.  basin  lie  three  sniaii  islands,  winch  are  the 
centre  of  volcanic  aLlHity,  and  are  called  Pakca.  Mikra, 
and  ^"i".  Kaun.eno  or  the  Old,  tbt-  Little,  aiid  the  New 
Burnt  Lsi.nd  ,  the  highest  of  these.  Nea  Kan-jitne.  is  351 
feet  above  the  .•■en  level  Owing  to  the  d»j'th  of  the  water 
there  is  no  i  ichcrage,  amd  vessels  have  to  be  moored  to 
the  shi/re,  except  at  one  point  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  modern  town,  where  there  i£  a  slight  rim  of  shallow 
bottom.  The  cliffs  both  of  Sautonn  and  Therasia  present 
an  extraordinary  appearance,  being  marked  ir".  horizontal 
bands  by  black  lava,  white  porous  tufa,  and  other  volcanic 
strata,  some  parts  of  which  are  coloured  dark  red  The 
modern  town  of  Thera  (or  Fhera,  as  it  is  more  commonly 
pronounced)  is  built  at  the  edge  of  these,  overlooking  the 
middle  of  the  bay  at  a  height  of  900  feet  above  the  water, 
and  the  houses  of  which  it  is  composed  are  themselves 
peculiar,  for  their  foundations,  and  in  some  cases  their 
sides  also,  are  excavated  in  the  tufa,  so  that  occasionally 
they  are  hardly  traceable  except  by  their  chimneys  ,  -and, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  timber.— for.  with  the  exception 
of  the  fig,  the  cactus,  and  the  palm,  there  are  hardly  any 
trees  in  the  istaod,^ — they  are  roofed  with  barrel  vaults  of 
stone  and  cement  Both  wood  and  water  have  occasion- 
ally to  be  imported  from  the  neighbouring  islands,  for 
there  are  no  wells,  and  the  raiu  water,  which  is  coUeeted 
in  numerous  cisterns,  does  not  always  suffice  The  largest 
of  the  other  towns  or  villages  i3  that  of  Apanomeria,  near 
the  northern  entrance,  which  is  crowded  together  in  a 
white  mass,  while  the  rocks  below  it  are  the  reddest  that 
are  seen  in  the  island. 

SantoriD  has  from  the  earliest  times  been  a  centre  of  volcanic 
agency,  and  is  closely  connected  with  the  earthquake  movements 
to  u-hicb  the  countries  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Mgeao  are 
eubjcct,  and  which  have  been  the  chief  cause  of  the  deslruction  of 
tbe  pubMc  buildings  of  ancient  Greece  It  is  bardiy  accurate  to 
speak  of  the  basin  which  forms  the  harbour  as  a  crater,  for  most 
geologists,  including  Lyell.  supjiort  tbe  view-  that  the  whole  of  tbia 
space  was  once  covered  by  a  single  volcanic  coue  the  incline  of 
which  IS  repre-oenled  by  the  outward  plnj^e  of  Saptx)nri  and  Therasia, 
whiie  the  position  of  tbe  enter  was  that  now  occupied  by  the 
Kanmene  Islands  ,  and  that,  at  some  remote  period,  o«nng  tr  the 
•inking  of  the  strata  beneath,  the  central  portion  of  this  extend- 
ing over  an  area  which  a  Kren'-h  writer  compares  with  that  included 
within  the  fortifications  of  Pans  at  the  time  of  the  siege,  fell  in, 
by  \rhicb  convulsion  the  basin  was  formed  The  principal  erup- 
tions that  have  taken  place  within  historic  limes  are  that  of  196 
B  c  when,  as  we  learn  from  Sli-abo  (i.  3.  §  16,  p  5"),  flames  rose 
froni  the  water  halfway  beiweeu  Thera  ?nd  Therasia  fo:  four  days, 
tnd  the  island  of  Paiiea  Kaumcne  was  ejected,  that  of  726  A. p., 
during  the  reign  of  the  cniperor  Leo  the  Isaurian,  when  an  addition 
was  made  to  that  island,  and  tbe  puroice-stone  that  was  cast  forth 
was  carried  by  the  waves  to  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor  and  Macedonia  , 
that  of  157-3.  when  Mikra  Kaumi-'ne  appeared;  that  of  16.S0.  a 
fearful  eruption,  which  destroyed  many  lives  by  its  noxious  exhala- 
tions, and  ended  in  the  upheaval  of  an  island  in  the  sea  to  the 
north-east  of  Santorin,  which  afterwards  subsided  and  became  a 
permanent  rcf  below  the  sea-level,  that  of  170",  when  Nea 
Kaumcne  arose;  tn-J,  within  the  recollection  of  tbe  present  genera- 
tion, that  of  1866 

Santorin  and  Therasia  have  been  recently  the  scene  of  a  remajk- 
able  archajological  discover)  In  the  southern  parts  of  both  those 
islands  prehistoric  dwellings  bnvp  been  found  at  some  height  above 
tbe  sea.  and  there  is  uu  reasouabW  cause  to  doubt  that  these  f*ate 


from  a  period  antecedent  to  tbe  falling  in  of  the  crater  and  the 
formation  of  the  bay  This  is  proved  by  their  positioD  undemcatii 
the  layer  of  tufa  which  covers  the  inlands,  and,  moreover,  by  these 
layers  of  tula  Iwing  brckco  off  piocipitously,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
lava-rocks,  a  fact  which  can  only  be  explained  by  the  eunposition 
that  they  all  fell  in  together.  The  foundations  of  the  dwellings 
rested,  not  on  the  tufa,  but  on  the  lava  below  it ,  and  here  and 
there  between  (he  atones  branches  of  wild  olive  were  found,  accorxl 
ing  to  a  mode  of  building  that  still  prevails  in  the  island,  in  ordci 
to  resist  the  shocks  of  earthquakes.  Part  of  tbe  skeleton  of  a  man 
was  discovered,  ij-t  Urj^e  vases,  soiue  containing  gram,  others 
stone  instruments  very  carefully  worked  Some  of  these  vases 
were  of  6ne  yellowish  earth,  ornamented  witli  brown  bands,  some, 
of  smaller  size,  were  more  elaborately  decorated,  sometimes  wiih 
lines  representing  foliage,  and  in  a  few  instances  with  figures  of 
animals;  some  were  of  red  earth,  without  ornament,  while  others, 
of  pale  red  earth,  were  of  very  large  dimensions  No  inipteRicots 
of  metal  were  found  Naturally  it  baa  been  the  suhjt-ci  uf  much 
discu.-^sion  what  was  the  origin  of  this  very  pnmrtive  art  The  lato 
M  Dumont,  who  was  the  leading  authority  on  the  subject  (Let 
Ceram ujites  dr  la  Grice  Pra^rt,  pp  74,  7.1.  2iiy).  though  speaking 
w-iih  great  caution  on  account  of  the  iDsuthciency  of  the  evidence, 
iii'-lined  to  the  belief  that  it  was  partly  denvcd  from  Pli*£nit-iaD 
influence,  but  at  ilie  same  time  that  there  were  evidciii  traces  o( 
native  originality  Comparing  it  in  respect  6f  date  with  the  other 
prehistoric  developments  of  ait  m  ibe  neighbourhood  of  ihe  ^gcan, 
be  would  place  it  later  than  that  of  HissarTik,  but  earlier  than 
those  of  laly:>us  in  Rhodes,  and  of  Mycec* 

In  Greek  legend  the  island  of  There  was  connected  with  the 
story  of  the  Argonauts,  for  itnvas  represented  as  spuing  from  0 
clod  of  earth  which  was  presented  to  those  heroes  by  Triton 
(Apollon.,  Arganaiil  ,  iv  lf.il  sj  ,  1731  .«)  )  According  le 
Herotlotus  (iv  147),  a  Phrpiiiciau  colony  was  established  thcie  '■) 
Oadmus— a  story  which  pioves  nt  least  the  belief  that  there  was 
an  early  settlement  of  thai  race  in  the  island  It  has  even  been 
conjectured  (see  vol  xvii  p  8i/6)  that  the  alphabet  wa."  introduced 
into  Greece,  not,  as  w.-'s  cuiiinionly  believed,  through  Thebes,  but 
by  w-^y  of  fhera  Siil'*''q.iei:t  y.  ve  are  told,  a  colony  fiom  Sparta, 
including  some  of  tli''  .MiifjT,  was  led  thither  by  Tbeias,  who  gave 
the  island  his  own  name,  in  phice  of  that  of  Calliste  which  it  had 
borne  before  But  the  one  e'eut  which  gave  impottance  to  Thera 
in  ancient  history  xvas  the  pl,-uling  of  its  famous  colony  of  Cyrene 
on  the  north  coast  of  Alrica  by  Baltus  in  631  BC,  in  accordance 
with  a  command  of  the  Delphic  oi-arle  The  au(ienl  capital,  which 
bore  the  same  name  as  the  isl.-.nd.  has  been  identified  by  an  inscrip- 
tion as  occupying  a  site  on  the  eastern  coast  called  Mesa.Voono, 
between  Mount  Elias  and  the  sea  The  other  remains  of  the 
classical  period  consist  of  walls  and  toinb.^,  together  v-'th  several 
keroo  or  small  shrines,  one  of  which,  now  dedicated  to  St  Nicholas 
Marmorites.  who  is  so  called  in  honour  of  his  marble  structure,  is 
an  almost  unii)ue  specimen  of  a  perject  Greek  temple,  for  even  the 
roof  remains  int.-icL  After  the  fourth  crusade,  when  tha-Byzantine 
empu'e  was  partitioned  among  the  Latins,  this  island  formed  a 
portion  of  the  duchy  of  the  Archipelago ,  and  it  was  at  this  period 
that  it  received  the  name  of  Santorin,  i«,  St  Irene,  after  the 
patron  saint  of  the  place,  to  whom  Touiiiefort  mentions  that  in 
his  time  nine  or  ten  chapels  were  dedicated  At  the  present  day 
Santorin  is  in  a  prosperous  condition,  for.  in  addition  to  the  wine 
trade,  which  is  highly  remunerative,  there  is  a  largo  export  of 
poiM/ana,  which  has  been  much  used  for  the  works  at  Fort  Said  io 
connexion  with  the  Suez  Canal,  since,  when  mixed  with  lime,  it 
forms  a  very  hard  cement  which  resists  the  action  of  the  sea. 

General  (nformation  with  regard  uj  the  Tliera  grroup  wi::  be  fo-jnd  Io  Rosi't 
Imelrmm.  and  In  Lieut.  Le.vcester"s  paper  In  vol  nx  of  the  Journal  of  thf  R. 
OioOT  Sof  ;  A  very  complele  account  ol  the  sclrntiflc  phenomena  le  given  is 
Fouqu^s  Sanlcrtn  el  tes  £>upttont  On  the  prehistoric  enllqullica.  LoDOrmant, 
Revui  Archeifioijtifvf.  new  sei  .  vol.  xlv  ,  and  Fouqn^,  Arcfiivc*  des  J/ufiont,  3d 
set  ,  vol  IV  .  and  -  Une  Pomp**!  Anl^hisUjrique."  in  Ihe  /inu^  da  Dnts  i/ondei^ 
vol  'ux.Tiii  .'should  be  cons-ilieo  Of  the  lite  of  tlie  modern  lohabitajits a  graphic 
account  i."  piven  in  Mr  llenfa  Qjcladei  (H.  F  T) 

THER.'^MENES,  an  Athenian  who  played  a  prominent 
part  in  the  history  of  Athens  towards  the  close  ol  tbe 
Peloponnesian  War  and  in  the  revolution  whioh  followed  it 
He  was  one  of  tbe  conspirators  who,  in  411  B.C.,  abolished 
the  democracy  at  Athens,  and  substituted  the  oligarchy  of 
the  Four  Hundred  Tbe  adhesion  of  the  army  in  Samos 
to  the  democracy,  however,  created  dissensions  among  the 
oligarchs  at  Athens  Theramenes  supported  the  more 
moderate  section,  and  was  the  chief  means  of  destroying 
a  fortress  which  the  extreme  .section  had  been  building 
at  the  mouth  of  the  harbour,  ostensibly  as  a  protection 
against  any  violent  movement  on  the  part  of  the  democrats 
at  Samos,  but  really,  according  to  Theramenes,  to  admit 
the  enemy  He  further  accused  Antiphon  and  Archeptole 
mus.   members  -if   the   pxtreniB    oliL'archical    part),   who 


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281 


according  to  Lysias,  hpd-besn  his  own  intimate  friends, 
end  secured  their  capital  "unislimftnt.  In  410  Theramenes 
commanded  one  of  the  three  squadrons  of  the  Athenian 
fleet  in  the  victory  over  the  Spartanfrat  Cyzicus.  In  409 
he  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Cbalcedon  and  the  capture  of 
Byzantium.  At  the  battle  of  Arginuss  in  406  he  was 
one  of  the  officers  deputed  by  the  generals  in  command  to 
pick  up  the  crews  of  the  disabled  ships  ,  but  the  re,-cue 
was  not  effected,  on  account,  it  seems,  of  the  storm 
Nevertheless,  on  his  return  to  Athens,  Theramenes  took 
a  leading  part  in  accusingand  procuring  the  condemnation 
to  death  of  the  gec'^rals  for  neglecting  to  rescue  the  men. 
When  Athens  was  besieged  by  the  Peloponnesians,  Thera- 
menes conducted  the  negotiations  for  surrendering  the  city, 
traitorously  prolonging  them  till  starvation  compelled  the 
Athenians  to  accept  the  rigorous  terms  imposed  by  Sparta. 
After  the  sur-ender  he  formed  one  of  the  notorious  Thirty 
who,  backed  by  a  Spartan  garrison,  misgoverned  Athens. 
But  by  opposing  their  excesses  he  incurred  their  suspicions, 
ajid,  beiog  denounced  by  Critias,  the  most  violent  of  the 
Thirty,  he  was,  in  defiance  of  the  forms  of  law,  put  to 
death  (404).  He  submitted  to  his  fate  with  a  fortitude 
which  won  the  admiration  of  his  contemporaries  and  of 
posterity,  and  which  might  well  have  graced  the  close  of  a 
better  life.  His  ability  and  eloquence  are  recognized  by 
Thucydides,  and  Aristotle  is  said  by  Plutarch  (A'u.,  2)  to 
have  reckoned  him  one  of  the  three  best  patriots  of  Athens. 
This  latter  judgment  is  not  borne  out  by  the  facts  as  wt 
know  them.  Rather  Theramenes  appears  as  a  selfish  and 
faithless  trimmer,  who  deserved  his  nickname  Cothurnus 
(a  boot  which  fitted  either  foot). 

The  chief  aathorities  for  his  life  are  Thucydides,  Tiii. ;  Xenopbon, 
ffelUnica,  i.  .iL;  Lysias,  Contra  Erai.\  Diodorus,  liii.,  xiv 

THERAPEUT^.     See  Monachism,  vol.  svi.  p  69S. 

THERESA,  St  (1515-1582).  Teresa  de  Cepeda, 
perhaps  the  favourite  saint  of  modern  Spain,  was  born  at 
Avila,  in  Old  Castile,  on  the  2Sth  of  March  1515,— at  the 
very  time, adds  her  biographer,  "  when  Luther  was  secret- 
ing the  poison  which  he  vomited  out  two  years  later." 
She  was  one  of  a  large  family — eight  sons  and  three 
daughters  Her  father  was  a  Spanish  gentleman  of  good 
family,  whose  time  was  chiefly  occupied  with  devotional 
reading  and  works  of  charity.  Teresa's  mother,  his  second 
wife,  was  a  beautiful  woman,  confined  generally  to  a  sofa 
by  delicate  health.  From  her  her  daughter  appears  to 
have  inherited  both  delicacy  of  health  and  a  remarkably 
susceptible  imagination  She  delighted  in  the  books  of 
knight-errantry  which  abounded  in  the  library,  and  her 
children  sat  up  at  night  in  their  nursery  over  the  same 
romances  But  Teresa's  imagination  was  judiciously 
diverted  by  her  father  to  another  form  of  heroism.  She 
was  soon  as  deep  in  the  histories  of  the  martyrs  as  she 
had  been  in  the  tales  of  chivalry.  She  learned  from  these 
histories  that  martyrs  passed  straight  to  heaven  without 
any  detention  in  purgatory  ;  and,  being  eminently  practical 
as  well  as  imaginative,  she  resolved  to  secure  that  blessing 
for  herself  \V'Tien  she  was  seven  years  old,  she  started 
off  with  her  little  brother  to  go  and  seek  martyrdom  in  the 
country  of  the  Moors.  They  had  reached  the  bridge  on 
the  stream  which  runs  through  the  town,  when  an  uncle 
met  them  and  brought  them  back.  Balked  thus  of  their 
desire,  they  played  at  hermits,  making  themselves  cells 
in  the  garden,  and  giving  away  their  pocket-money  to 
beggars.  Teresa  lost  her  mother  early,  and  as  she  grew 
up  the  vanities  and  flirtations  of  a  pretty  girl  took  the 
place  of  these  pious  imaginations  Her  father  deemed  it 
best  to  send  her  to  be  educated  in  an  Augustinian  convent 
in  the  town,  but  without  any  thoughts  of  her  adopting  a 
religious  life.  She  would  probably  have  married  like  her 
sisters,  bad  it  Dot  been  for  an  attack  of  illness.     She  was 

a:5— ia» 


sent  away  for  changa  of  air  on  a  visit  to  one  of  her  sisters, 
and  on  her  way  home  s|ient  some  days  with  a  saintly 
uncle,  who  was  on  the  eve  of  entering  a  monastery,  and 
who  strongly  urged  her  to  withdraw  from  the  world.  Her 
father  was  greatly  opposed  to  the  step,  out  Teresa  was 
not  to  be  turned  from  what  she  conceived  to  be  her  duty. 
She  was  only  eighteen  when  she  left  home  one  morning, 
and  applied  for  admission  at  the  Carmelite  convent  of  the 
Incarnation.  She  was  disappointed  at  first  at  the  slack- 
ness of  discipline  The  sisters  mixed  freely  in  the  society 
of  Avila,  receiving  visits  and  returning  them,  and  often 
absenting  themselves  from  the  cloister  for  months  at  a 
time.  For  the  first  three  years  she  was  constantly  subject 
to  attacks  of  sickness,  fainting  fits,  and  paroxysms  of  pain, 
but  she  prayed  to  St  Joseiih,  after  which  she  became 
comparatively  better,  though  her  nervous  system  was 
completely  shaken  But  she  appears  afterwards  to  have 
accommodated  herself  with  tolerable  success  to  the  world- 
liness  of  her  environment,  though  not  without  intervals  of 
religious  misgiving.  "  For  twenty  years,"  she  says,  "  I 
was  tossed  about  on  a  stormy  sea  in  a  wretched  condition, 
for,  if  I  had  small  content  in  thi  world,  in  God  I  had  no 
pleasure  At  prayer  time  1  watched  for  the  clock  to  strike 
the  end  of  the  hour.  To  go  to  the  oratory  was  a  vexation 
to  me,  and  prayer  itself  a  constant  effort  "  At  one  time 
she  abandoned  prayer  altogether,  as  she  found  it  impos- 
sible to  fix  her  thoughts,  and  she  abbo.'red  the  hypocrisy 
of  mechanically  repeating  a  form  of  words.  It  was  in  the 
year  1554  (her  noviciate  dated  from  1534),  when  she  was 
thus  nearly  forty,  that  the  event  known  as  her  conversion 
took  place,  and  the  second  part  of  her  life  began  The 
death  of  her  father  roused  her  to  serious  reflexion,  and 
one  day,  as  she  entered  the  oratory,  she  was  struck  by 
the  image  of  the  wounded  Christ,  placed  there  for  an 
approaching  festival.  The  blood  was  depicted  as  stream- 
ing over  the  face  from  the  thorns  and  running  from  the 
side  and  the  hands  and  feet  The  spectacle  of  suti'ering 
pierced  Teresa's  breast ;  she  fell  in  tears  at  the  feet  of 
the  figure,  and  felt  every  worldly  emotion  die  within  her 
The  shock  threw  her  into  a  trance,  and  these  trances, 
accompanied  by  visions,  recurred  frequently  in  the  subse 
quent  part  of  her  life.  They  have  since  been  adduced  as 
Divine  attestations  of  her  saintship,  but  the  sisterhood  in 
the  convent  set  them  down  to  possession  by  a  devil  ,  her 
new  departure  was  due  in  their  eyes  to  no  worthier  motive 
than  the  desire  to  be  peculiar  and  to  be  reputed  better 
than  other  people.  Teresa  herself  was  very  humble,  and 
thought  their  explanation  might  be  tiue  ;  she  took  her 
fcase  to  her  confessor  and  to  the  provincial  general  of  the 
Jesuits.  The  latter  put  her  under  a  course  of  discipline  ; 
she  was  to  flog  herself  with  a  whip  of  notlcs,  to  wear  a 
haircloth  plaited  with  broken  wires  that  would  tear  the 
skin,  and  to  meditate  daily  on  the  details  of  Christ's 
passion  One  day,  while  thus  occupied,  her  trance  cama 
upon  her,  and  she  heard  a  voice  say,  "Thou  shalt  have  no 
more  converse  with  men,  but  with  angels  "  After  this 
the  trance  or  fit  always  rt turned  when  she  was  at  prayers, 
and  she  felt  that  Christ  was  close  to  her.  Presently  she 
was  able  to  see  him,  "  exactly  as  he  was  painted  rising  from 
the  sepulchre  "  Her  confessor  directed  her  to  exorcise  the 
figure,  and  she  obeyed  with  pain,  but,  it  is  needle.-'S  to  say, 
in  vain  The  visions  grew  more  and  more  vivid  The 
cross  of  her  rosary  was  snatched  from  her  hand  one  d.iy, 
and  when  returned  it  was  made  of  jewels  more  biilliant 
than  diamonds,  visible,  however,  to  her  alone.  Sli.  had 
often  an  acute  pain  in  her  side,  and  fancied  tlint  an  angel 
came  to  her  with  a  lance  tipped  with  fire,  which  he  struck 
into  her  heart  The  27th  of  August  is  kept  sacred  in 
Spain  to  this  mystery,  which  has  also  formed  a  f;  >ourite 
subject  of  Spanish  painters .  it  forms  the  frontispiece  of 

XXIIL  -   30 


282 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


the  biography  which  is  put  into  the  hands  of  Catholics. 
She  bad  also  visions  of  another  description  ■  she  was 
shovTO  hell  with  its  horrors,  and  the  devil  would  sit  upon 
her  breviary,  belabour  her  with  blows,  and  fill  her  cell 
with  imps.  For  several  years  these  ezperieoces  continued, 
and  the  verdict  as  to  their  source  still  remained  far  from 
unanimous.  Meanwhile,  on  the  broad  stage  of  the  world, 
the  Reformation  continued  to  spread  and  establish  itself  ; 
and  this  great  falling  away  became  the  subject  oi  much 
searching  of  hearts  to  pious  Catholics.  Teresa  reflected 
like  the  rest,  and  her  experience  led  her  to  find  the  real 
cause  of  the  catastrophe  id  the  relaxation  of  discipline 
within  the  religious  orders  If  the  ancient  rules  could 
be  restored,  it  appeared  td  her  that  the  evil  might  be 
stemmed  ;  and  she  formed  the  project  of  founding  a  house 
in  which  all  the  original  rules  of  the  Carmelite  order 
before  its  rela^tion  would  be  observed.  She  met,  not 
unnaturally,  with  great  opposition  from  the  authorities  of 
the  order,  and  in  particular  from  the  prioress  and  sisters  of 
the  Incarnation,  who  looked  upon  the  step  as  a  reflexion 
upon  themselves.  Nevertheless,  she  persevered  with  her 
scheme,  being  encouraged  to  appeal  to  the  pope  by  cer- 
tain priests  who  saw  .the  benefit  which  would  accrue  to 
the  church  from  her  zeal  A  private  house  in  Avila  was 
secretly  got  ready  to  serve  as  a  small  convent,  and,  when 
the  bull  arrived  from  Rome,  Teresa  went  out  on  leave  from 
the  IncarL..tion  and  installed  four  poor  women  in  the  new 
house  dedicated  to  her  patron  St  Joseph.  It  was  on  the 
24th  of  August  1562  that  mass  was  said  in  the  little 
chapel  and  the  new  order  constituted.  It  was  to  be  an 
order  of  Descalzos  or  Barefoots,  in  opposition  to  the 
relaxed  parent  body,  the  Calzados.  The  sisters  were  not 
to  be  literally  shoeleiss,  but  to  wear  sandals  of  rope  ,  they 
were  to  sleep  on  ."itraw,  to  eat  no  meat,  to  be  strictly  con- 
fined to  the  cloister,  and  to  live  on  alms  without  regular 
endowment  After  lodging  her  four  sisters,  Teresa  re- 
turned to  the  Incarnation,  as  in  duty  bound  ,  but,  when 
the  secret  was  discovered,  Carmelites  and  townspeople 
were  alike  furious.  Violence,  however,  was  prevented, 
and  the  matter  was  referred  to  the  council  of  state  at 
Madrid  PbiUp  II  referred  it  again  to  the  pope,  and 
after  six  months  a  fresh  bull  arrived  from  Pius  V  The 
provincial  of  her  order  now  gave  her  leave  to  remove  and 
take  charge  ot  her  sisterhood  The  number  of  thirteen,  to 
which  on  grounds  of  discipline  she  had  limited  the  founda. 
tion,  wa.s  soon  filled  up,  and  Teresa  spent  here  the  five 
happiest  years  of  her  life  Hec  visions  continued,  and.  by 
command  of  her  ecclesiastical  su()eriors.  she  wrote  her 
autobiography  containing  a  full  account  of  these  experi 
ences  She  herself,  however,  profoundly  as  sbe  believed 
m  their  reality,  saw  the  danger  which  attaches  to  such 
expenences.  and  was  far  from  basing  any  claim  to  holiness 
upon  them  One  of  her  visions  about  this  time  is 
interesting  as  illustrating  what  is  called  her  mysticism 
She  fancied  tbat  sbe  was  a  mirror  without  frame  and 
without  dimensions,  with  Christ  shining  in  the  centre  of 
it,  and  the  mirror  itself,  she  knew  not  how,  was  in  Christ 
Teresa  was  now  encouraged  to  carry  her  work  still  further, 
for  the  church  was  girding  itself  to  the  work  of  the 
Counter-Reformation.  The  general  of  the  oMer  visited 
her  at  Avila,  and  gave  her  powers  to  found  other  hou.ses 
of  Descalzos,  for  men  as  well  as  women  The  last  fifteen 
years  of  her  life  were  spent  mainly  in  journeys  with  this 
end  and  in  the  continually  growing  labour  of  organization 
She  travelled  in  a  rude  cart  in  all  weathers,  and  the  story 
of  her  hardships  and  misadventures  impresses  us  with  the 
nrength  of  will  that  animated  her  old  and  shaken  frc^me. 
Convents  were  founded  at  Medina,  Mnlaga.  Valladolid, 
Toledo,  Segovia,  and  Salamanca,  and  tvo  at  Alva  under 
Uie  patronage  of  the  famous  duke      Then  she  bad  three 


years  of  rest,  as  prioress  of  her  old  convent  of  the  Incar- 
nation She  next  went  to  Seville  to  found  a  bouse,  thus 
overstepping  for  the  first  lime  the  boundaries  of  '.he 
Castiles.  to  which  her  authorization  limited  her  The 
latent  hostility  of  the  old  order  was  aroused  the  general 
ordered  the  immediate  suppression  of  the  house  at  Seville, 
and  procured  a  bull  from  Gregory  XIII.  prohibiting  the 
further  extension  of  the  reformed  houses  (1675)  But  the 
movement  against  her  came  from  ItAly,  and  was  resented 
by  Philip  and  the  Spanish  authorities  as  undue  interfer- 
ence .  and,  after  a  fierce  struggle,  during  which  Teresa  waa 
two  years  under  arrest  at  Toledo,  the  Carmelites  were 
divided  into  two  bodies  in  1580,  and  the  Descalzos 
obtained  the  right  to  elect  their  own  provinciaT-generala 
(see  Carmelites)  The  few  remaining  years  of  Teresa's 
life  were  spent  in  the  old  way,  organizing  the  order  she 
had  founded,  and  travelling  about  to  open  new  convents 
Sixteen  convents  and  fourteen  monasteries  were  founded 
by  her  efforts  ,  she  wrote  a  history  of  her  foundations, 
which  forms  a  supplement  to  her  autobiography  At 
Burgos,  during  the  whole  of  a  wet  autumn  and  winter, 
she  endured  terrible  privations.  Her  own  nuns,  loo,  were 
not  always  as  single-minded  and  obedient  as  the  ideal 
sisterhood  of  her  hopes  had  been  Those  at  St  Joseph  id 
Avila  mutinied  for  a  meat  diet ,  the  prioress  at  Medina 
answered  her  impertinently  Her  last  journey  of  inspec 
tion  was  cut  short  at  Alva,  where  she  died  on  the  29lh  of 
September  1582,  and  was  laid  in  her  first,  but  not  her 
last,  resting  place,  A  violet  odour  and  a  fragrant  oil  were 
said  to  distil  from  her  tomb  ,  and  when  it  was  opeotd 
nine  months  afterwards  the  flesh  was  founti  uncorrupted. 
A  hand  cut  off  by  a  fervent  brother  was  tuund  to  work 
miracles,  and  the  order  became  convinced  that  their 
founder  had  been  a  saint.  It  was  resolved  in  15S;>  to 
remove  her  remains  to  Avila,  where  she  was  tx>rn.  the 
sisters  at  Alva  being  consoled  by  permission  to  retain  the 
mutilated  arm  But  the  family  of  the  duke  of  Alva  pro- 
cured an  order  from  the  pope  enpining  that  the  boi-^ 
should  be  restored  to  Alva,  and  she  was  accordingly  la  d 
there  once  more  m  a  splendid  tomb.  But  even  then  she 
was  not  allowed  to  rest  she  was  again  disentombed,  to  be 
laid  m  a  more  magnificent  coffin,  and  the  greed  of  reveren- 
tial relic-seekers  made  unseemly  havoc  of  her  bones 

Teresa  waa  canonized  by  Gregory  XV.  id  1622.  The  bonoDr 
was  doubtless  largely  due  to  her  ascetic.sm  and  mystic  visions 
She  called  herself  Teresa  "le  Jesus,  to  si^ify  the  closeness  of  her 
relation  tn  the  hearenly  Bridegroom,  who  directed  all  her  actions 
Though  she  deprecated  excess  of  ascetic  seventy  m  others,  sh« 
scourged  herself  habitually,  and  wore  a  peculiarly  paiiilul  haircloth 
But  her  life  shows  her  to  have  been,  besides,  a  woman  of  strong 
practicality  and  good  sense,  full  of  satnial  ehresdcess.  and  with 
unusual  powers  of  organization  "You  deceived  rae  in  saying  sb6 
was  a  woman,"  wnles  one  of  her  confeseors,  "she  la  a  bearded 
man  "  She  was  brave  in  the  face  of  difficulties  an'l  d;ingcrs,  oura 
in  her  motives,  and  her  utterances,  some  of  which  liavo  ueeD 
quoted,  have  the  triir  eihtcal  ring  about  them.  Her  MSS  war* 
collected  by  Philip  11  and  placed  in  a  rich  case  in  the  Esconal, 
the  key  of  which  the  king  carried  about  with  liim  Besides  her 
autobiography  and  the  history  of  her  foundations,  her  works  (al! 
written  m  Spanisbi  contain  a  great  number  of  leltei-s  arid  vanout 
trsjrtrsP"  of  inystical  religion,  the  chief  of  whicli  are  Tlif  Way  of 
Perfectim  and  T>it  CosUe  of  Ihe  Sovl  Both  describe  the  progresa 
of  the  soul  towiinis  perfect  snion  with  God 

Her  wnrks,  cult*u  ()y  two  Dominicans,  were  firsl  piiMishril  In  I5R7.  nnd  hat* 
fllnre  appeared  in  vailmis  etllhona  They  were  8uon  Rtierwaitls  trunslnteO  Into 
Italian,  French,  nnil  Laiin  .  an  EncH^li  translation  of  Uin7,r/e  nn.l  works  (ciccpt 
llie  leltcrit  by  A  WoodhcaO  appearcfl  In  ICfiU  More  ityently  various  tniiisl*. 
tlons  of  trie  /.ifit  rin»u  apiieured, — by  John  Ualtnn  (IS.M),  who  nlNO  imiislntcil  th* 
Wityt}f  Perftrttnn.  nn-l  ov  Daviil  Lewis  (1870).  (oUowctl  In  IflTl  hy  the  Foumlm- 
lion*  frriin  tho  «;imo  ll.inil  lll.tirrtipniet  sppenreil  aoon  lifter  her  llcatli  by  th« 
Jesuit  ltilH;ri,.  win.  iiuil  been  (ler  tonlessoi  (IC02),  iinil  by  Dieco  ilo  Vepcz,  ciin. 
fe.s.s.,r  t*.  riiilip  II  (l.'.'j'Ji  I  Iff  ml.  are  nl.oclvon  tn  nil>n<tciicyi^'"  Flo*  Ravftin-ttm 
anil  In  Ali.j,n  Knllur's  Liertnf  {*r  Snirui  A  si-panifc  btoffraphy,  wllti  prvlan 
by  AreObshnp  Manninit,  ap|iear,.,l  in  ISSr.,  and  an  iiilen-stinR  and  syiPiMitlictk 
aceuiint  ot  licr  lllu  i.s  mvcn  id  the  Quarlerlir  fUotew  toi  October  1S33,     (A.  Sft.) 

THERESIOPEL,  or  Tiikresienstadt.     Sec  Szabadra. 
THERMAL  SI'RINOS,     See  Gbolooy,  vol  x.  pp.  223„ 
370.  and  Mwixal  Watkrs. 


THERMODYNAMICS 


283 


THERMODYNAMICS.  In  a  strict  interpretation,  this 
tranch  of  science,  sometimes  called  the  Dynamical  Theory 
of  Heat,  deals  with  tb«  relations  between  heat  and  work, 
though  it  is  often  extended  so  as  to  include  all  trans- 
formations of  energy.  Either  term  is  an  infelicitous  one, 
for  there  is  no  direct  reference  to  force  in  the  majority  of 
qu^tions  dealt  with  in  the  subject.  Even  the  title  of 
Carijot'*  work,  presently  to  be  described,  is  much  better 
ohosen  than  is  the  more  modern  designation.  On  the 
other  hand,  such  .a  Oerman  phrase  as  die  beicegtnde  Kraft 
■ler  Wdrme  is  in  all  respects  intolerable. 

It  has  been  shown  in  a  previous  article  (Enkbgy)  ,that 
Newton's  enunciation  of  the  conservation  of  energy  as  a 
general  principle  of  nature  was  defective  in  respect  of  the 
connexion  between  work  and  heat,  and  that,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  this  lacuna  was  com- 
ple'ely  filled  up  by.  the  researches  of  Rumford  and  Davy 
(see  also  Heat).  In  the  same  article  Joule's  experimental 
demonstration  of  the  principle,  and  his  determinatioa  of 
the  work-equivalent  of  heat  by  various  totally  independent 
procssses,  have  been  discussed. 

But  the  conservation  of  energy,  alone,  gives  ns  an 
altogether  inadequate  basis  for  reasoning  on  the  work  of 
a  heat-engine.  It  enables  us  to  calculate  how  much  work 
is  equivalent  to  an  assigned  amount  of  heat,'  and  vice  versa, 
provided  the  transformation  can  be  effected ;  but  it  tells 
us  nothing  with  respect  to  the  percentage  of  either  which 
can,  under  given  circumstances,  be  converted  into  the 
other.  For  this  purpose  we  require  a  special  case  of  the 
law  of  transformation  of  energy.  This  was  first  given  in 
Garnet's  extraordinary  work  entitled  Refiexions  svr  la 
Puiisani-e  Motrice  du  Fen,  Paris,  1824.^ 

'  The  author,  N-L-SaJi  Carnot  (1796-1832),  was  Iho  second  sou 
of  Napoleon's  celebraleJ  minister  of  war,  himself  a  mathematician  of 
real  note  even  among  the  wonderful  galaxy  of  which  France  could  then 
boast.  The  delicate  constitution  of  Sadi  was  attributed  to  the  agitated 
circumstances  of  the  time  of  his  birth,  which  led  to  the  prosciiption 
and  tempoi^ry  eiile  of  his  parents.  Ue  was  admitted  in  1812  to  the 
ficole  PoI}t''chnique,  where  be  was  a  fellow-student  of  the  famous 
Chasles.  Late  in  1814  be  left  the  school  with  a  commission  in  the 
Engineers,  and  with  prospects  of  rapid  advancement  in  his  profession. 
But  Waterloo  and  the  Restoration  led  to  a  second  and  final  proscrip- 
tion of  his  father  ;  and,  though  Sadi  was  not  himself  cashiered,  he  w.is 
purposely  told  off  for  the  mere-^t  drudgeries  of  bis  service;  il  fut 
"envoye  successivement  dans  plusieurs  places  fortes  pour  y  faire  son 
rattier  d'ingeiiicur,  compter  des  briques,  reparer  des  pans  de  murailles, 
«t  lever  des  plans  destines  a  s'eufouir  dans  les  cartons,"  as  vve  learn 
from  a  biograpliical  notice  written  by  his  younger  brother.  Disgusted 
with  au  employment  which  afforded  him  neither  leisure  for  original 
work  nor  opportunities  for  acquiring  scientific  instruction,  he  presented 
himself  in  1819  at  the  examination  for  admission  to  the  staff-corps 
(6tat-m.ajor),  and  obtained  a  lieutenancy.  He  now  devoted  himself 
with  astonishing  ardour  to  mathematics,  chemistry,  natural  history, 
technology,  and  even  political  economy.  He  was  an  enthusiast  in 
music  and  other  fine  arts ;  and  he  habitually  practised  as  an  annise- 
ment,  while  deeply  studying  ia  theory,  all  sorts  of  athletic  sports, 
including  swimming  and  fencing.  He  became  captain  in  the  engineers 
in  1827,  but  left  the  service  altogether  in  the  following  year.  His 
naturally  feeble  constitution,  farther  weakened  by  excessive  devotion 
to  study,  broke  down  finally  in  1832.  A  relapse  of  scarlatina  led  to 
brain  fever,  from  which  he  had  but  partially  recovered  when  lie  fell  a 
victim  to  cholera.  Thus  dieil,  at  the  early  ,ige  of  thirty-six,  one  of 
the  most  prolound  and  original  thinkers  who  have  ever  devoted  them- 
selves to  science.  The  work  named  above  was  the  only  one  he 
publislii-d.  Though  of  itself  sufficient  to  put  him  in  the  very  fore- 
most rank,  it  contains  only  a  fragment  of  Sadi  Carnot's  discoveries, 
fortunately  his  manuscripts  have  been  preserved,  and  extracts  from 
them  h.ive  liceu  appended  by  bis  brother  to  a  i-c)uint  (1878)  of  the 
Puissance  Motrice  These  show  th'.t  lic  had  not  only  realized  for 
bim^c-tl  till-  true  nature  of  heat,  but  had  noted  down  lor  trial  many 
if  the  beat  itio'lerri  niethodb  of  finding  its  mechanical  equivalent,  such 
is  th-jse  ol  Joule  with  the  perforated  piston  and  with  the  internal 
.'riction  of  water  and  nierciiry.  W.  Thomson's  experiment  with  a 
curr'Tiit  of  gas  forced  through  a  porous  plug  is  also  given.  One  sentence 
of  extract,  however,  must  mlhce.  and  it  is  astonishing  to  think  th.at 
it  was  written  over  sixty  years  ago.  "  On  pent  ilonc  poser  er.  these 
gener.ale  que  la  puissance  niotiice  est  en  quantite  invariable  ilans  la 
nalutc,  qu'elle  n'cst  jain.iis,  a  iiroprenient  parler.  ni  produite,  ni 
d^truitc.     A     la   vcrite.   eile   change   de    forme,    C'est-a-dire   qu'elle 


The  chief  novelties  of  Carnot's  work  are  the  introduction 
of  the  idea  of  a  cycle  of  operations,  and  the  invaluable 
discovery  of  the  special  property  of  a  reversible  cycle. 
It  is' not  too  much  to  say  that,  without  these  wonderful 
novelties,  thermodynamics  as  a  theoretical  science  could 
not  have  been  developed. 

Carnot's  work  seems  to  have  excited  no  attention  at 
the  tfme  of  its  publication.  Ten  years  later  (1834) 
Clapeyron  gave  some  of  its  main  features  in  an  ana- 
lytical form,  and  he  also  employed  Watt's  diagram  for  the 
exhibition  of  others.  Even  this,  however,  failed  to  call 
attention  properly  to  the  extremely  novel  processes  of 
Carnot,  and  it  was  reserved  for  Sir  W.  Thomson  (in  1848, 
and  more  at  length  in  1849)  to  point  ou^  to  scientific  men 
their  full  value.  His  papers  on  Carnot's  treatise,  follow- 
ing closely  after  the  splendid  experimental  researches  of 
Colding  and  Joule,  secured  for  the  dynamical  theory  of 
heat  its  position  as  a  recognized'branch  of  science.  Jamea 
Thomson,  by  Carnot's  methods,  predicted  in  1849  the  low- 
ering of  th^  freezing  point  of  water  by  pressure,  which  was 
verified  experimentally  in  the  same  year  by  his  brother. 
Von  Helmholtz  had  published,  two  years  before,  a  strikingly 
original  and  comprehensive  pamphlet  on  the  conservation 
of  energy.  The  start  once  given,  Rankine,'  Clausius,  and 
W.  Thomson  rapidly  developed,  though  from  very  different 
standpoints,  the  theory  of  thermodynamics.  The  methods 
adopted  by  Thomson  differed  in  one  special  characteristic 
■from  those  of  his  concurrents, — they  were  based  entirely 
on  the  experimental  facts  and  on  necessary  principles; 
and,  when  hypothesis  waa  absolutely  required,  attention 
was  carefully  directed  to  its  nature  and  to  the  reaaona 
which  appeared  to  justify  it. 

Three  specially  important  additions  to  pure  science 
followed  almost  directly  from' Carnot's  methods  : — (1)  the 
absolute  definition  of  temperature ;  (2)  the  thermodynamic 
function  or  entropy ;  (3)  the  dissipation  of  energy.  The 
first  (in  1848)  and  the  third  (in  1852)  were  given  b^ 
W.  Thomson.  The  second,  though  introduced  by  Kankine, 
was  also  specially  treated  by  Clausiuf 

In  giving  a  brief  sketch  of  the  science,  we  will  not 
adhere  strictly  to  any  of  the  separate  paths  pursued  by 
its  founders,  but  will  employ  for  each  step  what  appears 
to  be  most  easily  intelligible  to  the  general  reader.  And 
we  will  arrange  the  steps  in  such  an  order  that  the  neces- 
sity for  each  may  be  distinctly  visible  before  we  take  it. 

1.  General  Notions. — The  conversion  of  mechanical 
work  into  heat  can  always  be  effected  completely.  In 
fact,  friction,  without  which  even  statical  results  would 
be  all  but  unrealizable  in  practical  life,  interferes  to  a 
marked  extent  in  almost  every  problem  of  kinetics, — and 
work  done  against  friction  is  (as  a  rule)  converted  into 
heat.  But  the  conversion  of  heat  into  work  can  be  effected 
only  in  part,  usually  in  very  small  part.  Thus  heat  is 
regarded  as  the  lower  or  less  useful  of  these  forms  of 
energy,  and  when  part  of  it  is  elevated  in  rank  by  con- 
version into  work  the  remainder  sinks  still  lower  iu  the 
scale  of  usefulness  than  .before. 

There  are  but  two  processes  fcnown  to  us  lor  the  con- 
version of  heat  into  work,  viz.,  that  ado|)tc(l  in  heat- 
engines,  where  the  changes  of  volume  of  the  "working 
substance "  are  employed,  and  that  of  clectroningnetic 
engines  driven  by  tliernioelcctric  currents  (.scu  Elkcthicity, 
vol.  viii.  p..  9G).  To  the  latter  we  will  not  uguin  ri:fer. 
And  for  simplicity  we  will  suppose  the  working  .suljslanco 
to  bo  fluid,  so  as  to  have  the  same  pressure  tlirougliout, 
or,  if  it  be  solid,  to  be  isotropic,  and  to  be  subject  only  to 
hydrostatic  pressure,  or  to  tension  uniform  in  all  direction* 
and  the  same  from  point  to  point. 

produit  tantot  uii  [;enro  do  mouvement,  tantot  liu  autr« ;  piais  ell* 
n'est  jamais  aneantic". 


284 


THERMODYNAMICS 


Fig.  1. 


The  state  of  unit  mass  of  such  a  substance  is  known  by 
experiment  to  be  fully  determined  when  its  volume  and 
pressure  are  given,  even  if  (as  in  the  case  of  ice  in  preseuce 
of  water,  or  of  water  in  presence  of  steam)  part  of  it  is  in 
one  molecular  state  and  part  in  another.  But,  the  state 
being  determinate,  so  must  bo  the  temperature,  and  also 
the  amount  of  energy  which  the  substance  contains.  This 
consideration  is  insisted  on  by  Carnot  as  the  foundation  of 
his  investigations.  In  other  words,  before  we  are  entitled 
to  reason  upon  the  relation  between  the  heat  supplied  to 
and  the  work  done  by  the  worTcing  substance,  Carnot 
eaya  we  must  bring  tliat  substance,  by  means  of  a  cyck 
of  operations,  back  to  precisely  its  primitive  state  as 
regards  volume,  temperature,  and  molecular  condition. 

2.  Wall's  Diagram. — Watt's  indicator-diagram  (see 
feiEAM-ENGiNE)  enables  us  to  represent  our  operations 
graphically.  For  if  OM  (fig.  1) 
represent  the  volume,  at  any  ^ 
instant,  of  the  unit  mass  of 
working  substance,  MP  its  pres- 
sure, the  point  P  is  determinate 
»nd  corresponds  to  a  definite 
temperature,  definite  energy, 
&c.  If  the  points  of  any  curve, 
08  PP',  in  the  diagram  repre- 
sent the  successive  states  through  which  the  working  sub- 
Btance  is  made  to  pass,  the  work  done  is  (/oc.  di..)  repre- 
sented by  the  area  MPP'M'.  Hence,  a  cycle  of  operations, 
whose  essential  nature  is  to  bring  the  working  substance 
back  to  its  primitive  state,  is  necessarily  represented  by  a 
dosed  boundary,  such  as  PP'Q'Q,  in  the  diagram.  The 
area  enclosed  is  the  excess  of  the  work  done  by  the  work- 
ing sn'bstance  over  that  spent  on  it  during  the  cycle. 
[This  is  positive  if  the  closed  path  be  described  clockwise, 
is  indicated  by  the  arrow-heads.] 

3.  Camo(s  Cycle. — For  a  reason  which  will  immediately 
appear,  Carnot  limited  the  operations  in  his  cycle  to  two 
kind.'),  employed  alternately  during  the  expansion  and 
d'jring  the  compression  of  the  working  substance.  The 
6rst  of  these  involves  change  of  volume  at  constant 
temperature ;  the  second,  change  of  volume  without  direct 
loss  or  gain  of  heat.  [In  his  hypothetical  engine  the 
substance  was  supposed  to  be  in  contact  with  a  body  kept 
at  constant  temperature,  or  to  be  entirely  surrounded  by 
non-conducting  materials.]  The  corresponding  curves  in 
the  diagram  are  called  isothermals,  or  lines  of  equal 
temperature,  and  adiabatic  lines  respectively.  We  may 
consider  these  as  having  been  found,  for  any  particular 
working  substance,  by  the  direct  use  of  Watt's  indicator. 
rt  is  easy  to  see  that  one,  and  only  one,  of  each  of  these 
kinds  of  lines  can  be  found  for  an  assigned  initial  state  of 
the  working  substance ;  also  that,  because  in  expansion  at 
constant  temperature  heat  must  be  constantly' supplied, 
the  pressure  will  fall  off  less  rapidly  than  it  does  in 
adiabatic  expansion.  Thus  in  the  diagram  the  adiabatic 
lines  PQ,  P'Q'  cut  the  lines  of  equal  temperature  PP', 
QQ'  downwards  and  to  the  right.  Thus  the  boundary  of 
the  area  PFQ'Q  does  not  cross  itself.  To  determine  the 
behaviour  of  the  engine  we  have  therefore  only  to  find 
liow  much  heat  is  taken  in  along  PP'  and  how  much  is 
(^ven  out  in  Q'Q.  Their  difference  is.  e(j[uivalefU.  to  the 
\ioxk.  expressed  by  the  area  PP'Q'Q. 

4.  Camot's  Principle  of  Reversibility. — It  will  be 
ubserved  that  each  operation  of  this  cycle  is  strictly 
i-eversible ;  for  instance,  to  take  the  working  substance 
rtlong  the  path  P'P  we  should  have  to  spend  on  it  step  by 
litep  as  much  work  as  it  gave  out  in  passing  along  PP', 
and  we  should  thus  restore  to  the  source  of  heat  exactly 
the  amount  of  heat  which  the  working,  substaiice  took 
ifom  it  during  the'  expansion.    Jn  the  case  of  the  hdlabatics 


the  work  spent  during  compression' is  the  same  as  that 
done  during  the  corresponding  expansion,  and  tb°'B  is  no 
question  of  loss  or  gain  of  heat  directly. 

If,  however,  a  transfer  of  heat  between  tlie  working 
substance  and  its  surroundings  have  taken  place  on  account 
of  a  finite  difference  of  temperature,  it  is  clear  that' such 
an  operation  is  not  reversible.  Strictly  speaking,  isother- 
mal expansion  or  contraction  is  unattainable  in  practice,' 
but  it  is  (without  limit)  more  flosely  approximated  to  a» 
the  operation  is  more  slowly  performed.  The  adiabatic 
condition,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  closely  approximated 
to  in  praictice  the  more  swiftly  the  oi)eration  is  performed. 
We  have  an  excellent  instance  of  this  in  the  compression 
and  dilatation  of  air  caused  by  the  propagation  of  a  sound- 
wave. 

And  now  we  have  Carnot's  invaluable  proposition,  a 
reversible  heat-engine  is  a  perfect  engine, — perfect,  that  is, 
in  the  sense  thit  no  other  heat-engine  can  be  superior  to 
it.  Before  giving  the  proof,  let  us  see  the  immense  con- 
sequences of  this  proposition.  Reversibility  is  the  sole 
test  of  perfection ;  so  that  all  heat-engines,  whatever  be 
the  working  mbstance,  provided  only  they  be  reversible, 
convert  into  work  (under  given  circumstances)  the  same 
fraction  of  the  heat  supplied  to  them.  cTheonly  circum- 
stances involved  are  the  temperatures  of  the  source  and 
condenser.  Thus  we  are  furnished  with  a  general  principle 
on  which  to  reason  about  transformation  of  heat,  altogether 
independently  of  the  properties  of  any  particular  substance.' 

The  proof,  as  Carnot  gave  it  on  the  hypothesis  of  the 
materiaiity  of  heat,  is  ex  absurdo.  It  is  as  follows. 
Suppose  a  heat-engine  A  to  be  capable  of  giving  more 
work  from  a  giveii  amount  of  heat  than  is  a  reversible 
engine  B,  the  temperatures  of  source  and  condenser  being 
the  same  for  each.  Use  the  two  as  a  compound  engine, 
A  working  direct  and  B  reversed.  By  hypothesis  B 
requires  to  be  furnished  vrith  part  only  of  the  work  given 
by  A  to  be  able  to  restore  to  the  source  the  heat  abstracted 
by  A,  and  thus  at  every  complete  stroke  of  the  compound 
engine  the  source  has  its  heat  restored  to  it,  while  a 
certain  amount  of  external  work  has  been  done.  Thia 
would  be  the  Perpetual  Motion  (?.».). 

5.  ■  The  Basis  of  the  Second  Law  of  Thermodynami;s.^^ 
Camot's  reasoning,  just  given,  is  based  on  the  hypothesis 
that  heat  (or  caloric)  is  indestructible,  and  that  (under 
certain  conditions)  it  does  work  in  being  let  down  from  a 
higher  to  a  lower  temperature,  just  as  does  water  when 
falling  to  a  lower  level.  It  is  clear  from  several  expressions 
in  his  work  that  Carnot  was  not  at  all  satisfieid  with  this 
view,  even  in  1824,  and  we  have  seen  that  he  soon  after- 
wards reached  the  true  theory.  But  it  is  also  clear  that 
such  an  assumption  somewhat  simplifies  the  reasoning,  for 
in  his  hypothetical  heat-engine  all  the  heat  which  leaves 
the  boiler  goes  to  the  condensei,  and  itice  versa  in  the 
reversed  working.  The  precise  po.nt  of  Camot's  investiga- 
tion where  the  supposed  indestructibility  of  heat  introduces 
error  is  when,  after  virtually  saying  compress  from  Q'  to 
a  state  Q  determined  by  the  condition  that  the  heat  given 
out  shall  bo  exactly  equal  to  that  taken  in  during  the 
expansion  from  P  to  P',  he  assumes  that,  on  farther  com, 
pressing  adiabatically  to  the  original  volume,  the  point  R 
will  be  reached  and  the  cycle  completed.  J.  Thomson; 
in  1849,' rectified  this  by  putting  it  in  the  true  form  :— 
6om  press  from  Q'  to  a  state  Q,  such  that  subsequent 
adiabatic  compression  will  ultimately  lead  to  the  state  P.  -, 

We  have  now  to  consider  that,  if  an  engine  (whether 
simple  or  compound)  does  work  at  all  b;^  means  of  heat, 
less  heat  necessarily  reaches  the  condenser  than  left  the 
boiler.  Hence,  if  there  be  two  engines  A  and  6  as  before, 
and  the  ji>iat  ejrr^em  be  worked  in  such  a  way  that  B 
oonstacllj  teataraB  to  thti  s:>urce  the  beat  taken  from  it  bj. 


THERMODYNAMICS 


285 


A,  we  can  account  for  the  excess  of  work  done  by  A  over 
that  spent  on  B  solely  by  supposing  that  B  takes  more 
heat  from  the  condenser  than  A  gives  to  U.  Such  a  com- 
pound engine  would  transform  into  work  heat  taken  solely 
from  the  condenser.  And  the  work  so  obtained  might  be 
employed  on  B,  so  as  to  make  it  convey  heat  to  the  source 
while  farther  cooling  the  condenser. 

Clausius,  in  1850,  sought  to  complete  the  proof  by  the 
simple  statement  that  "  this  contradicts  the  usual  behaviour 
of  heat,  which  always  tends  to  pass  from  wanner  bodies 
to  colder."  Some  years  later  he  employed  the  axiogi,  "it 
is  impossible  for  a  self-acting  machine,  unaided  by.  any 
external  agency,  to  convey  heat  from  one  body  to  another 
at  a  higher  temperature."  W.  Thomson,  in  1851,  employed 
the  axiom,  "it  is  impossible,  by  means  of  inanimate 
material  agency,  to  derive  mechanical  effect  fjom  any 
portion  of  matter  by  cooling  it  below  the  temperature 
of  the  coldest  of  the  surrounding  objects."  But  he  was 
careful  to  supplement  this  by  further  statements  of  an 
extremely  guarded  character.  And  rightly  so,  for  Clerk- 
Maxwell  has  pointed  out  that  such  axioms  are,  as  it  were, 
only  accidentally  correct,  and  that  the  true  ba<»  of  the 
second  law  of  thermodynamics  lies  in  the  extreme  small- 
ness  and  enormous  number  of  the  particles  of  matter,  and 
in  consequence  the  steadiness  of  their  average  behaviour. 
Had  we  the  means  of  dealing  with  the  particles  individu- 
*lly,  we  could  develop  on  the  large  scale  what  taljes  place 
wotinually  on  a  very  minute  scale  in  every  mass  of  gas, 
— the  occasional,  but  ephemeral,  aggregation  of  warmer 
particles  in  one  small  region  and  of  colder  in  another. 

6.  TTte  Laws  of  T/imnm/ynamus.  —  I  When  equal  quan- 
tities of  mechanical  eOect  are  produced  by  any  means 
whatever  from  purely  thermal  sources,  or  lost  in  purely 
thermal  effects,  equal  quantities  of  heat  are  put  out  of 
existence,  or  are  generated  (To  this  we  may  add,  after 
Joule,  that  in  the  latitude  of  Manchester  772  foot-pounds 
of  work  are  capable  of  raising  the  temperature  of  a  pound 
of  water  from  50°  F  to  51°  K  This  corres(ionds  to  1390 
foot-pounds  per  centigrade  degree,  and  in  metrical  units 
to  425  kilogramme-metres  [ler  calone  (see  Heat)  ] 

II.  If  an  engine  be  such  that,  when  it  is  worked  back- 
wards, the  physical  and  mechanical  agencies  in  every  part 
of  its  motions  are  all  reversed,  it  produces  as  much 
mechanical  effect  as  can  be  produced  by  any  thermo- 
dynamic engine,  with  the  same  temperatures  of  sourc^  and 
refrigerator,  from  a  given  quantity  of  heat. 

7.  Al.mlute  Temperature. — We  have  seen  that  the  frac- 
tion of  the  heat  supplied  to  it  which  a  reversible  engine 
can  convert  into  work  depends  on/i/  on  the  temperatures 
of  the  boiler  and  of  the  condenser  On  this  result  of 
Carnofs  Sir  W.  Thomson  based  his  absolute  definition  of 
temperature.  It  is  clear  that  a  certain  freedom  of  choice 
is  left,  and  Thomson  endeavoured  to  preserve  as  close  an 
agreement  as  possible  between  the  new  scale  and  that  of  the 
air  thermometer.  Thus  the  definition  ultimately  fixed  on, 
after  exhaustive  experiments,  runs- — "The  temperatures 
of  two  bodies' are  proportional  to  the  quantities  of  heat 
respectively  taken  in  and  given  out  lu  localities  at  one 
temperature  and  st  the  other  respectively,  by  a  material 
system  subjected  to  a  complete  cycle  of  perfectly  reversible 
thermodynamic  operations,  and  not  allowed  to  part  with 
or  take  in  heat  at  any  other  temperature  ;  or.  the  absolute 
values  of  two  temperatures  are  to  one  another  in  the  pro- 
portion of  the  heat  taken  in  to  the  heat  rejected  in  a  per- 
fect thermodynamic  engine,  working  with  a  source  and 
refrigerator  at  the  higher  and  lower  of  the  temperatures 
respectively."'  If  we  now  refer  again  to  fig.  1,  we  see 
that,  (  and  f  being  the  absolute  temperatures  correspond- 
ing  to  PP  and  QQ',  and  H,  H'  the  amonnte  of  beat  taken 

'   Trant.  Ji.S.£.,  May  1864. 


Also,  if  heat  be 


in  during  the  operation  PP'  and  given  out  during  the 
operation  Q  Q  respectively,  we  have 

H/(-H7<'. 
whatever   be    the  values   of    '.   and    I 
measured  in  terms  of  work,  we  have 

H-H'-areaPP'Q'Q 
Thus  with  a  reversible  engine  working  between  tempera- 
tures t  and  t'  the  fraction  of  the  heat  supplied  which  is 
converted  into  work  is  (t  -  t')/t. 

It  13  now  evident  that  we  can  construct  Watt's  diagram 
in  such  a  way  that  the  lines  of  equal  temperature  and 
the  adiabatics  may  together  intercept  a  series  of  equal 
areas.  Thus  let  PP' 
(fig.  2)  be  the  iso- 
thermal t,  and  on  it 
so  take  points  P', 
F',  P",  (tc,  that, 
as  the  working  sub- 
stance   passes   from 

P  to   P.  p-  to  P",  \  ^r--;.^-A«- 

4c.,  t  units  of  heat 
(the  unit  being  of 
any  assigned  value) 
shall  in  each  case  be 
taken  in.     Let  QQ',  Fi«-  3- 

KK',  (tc,  be  other  isothermals,  so  drawn  that  the  suc- 
cessive areas  PQ',  QR',  (tc.,  between  any  two  selected 
adiabatics,  may  be  equal.  Then,  as  it  is  clear  that  all 
the  successive  areas  between  each  one  pair  of  isothermals 
are  equal  (each  representing  tlie  area  t-t),  it  follows  that 
all  the  quadrilateral  areas  in  the  figure  are  e(iual. 

It  13  now  clear  that  the  area  included  between  PF  and 
the  two  adiabatics  PQR,  FQR'  is  essentially  /i«i(f,  being 
numerically  equal  to  t.  Thus  the  temperature  for  each 
isothermal  is  represented  by  the  corresponding  area.  This 
18  indicated  in  the  cut  by  the  introduction  of  an  arbitrary 
line  SS',  supposed  to  he  the  isothermal  of  absolute  zero. 
The  lower  parts  of  the  adiabatics  also  are  unknown,  so 
that  we  may  draw  them  as  we  please,  subject  to  the  con- 
dition that  the  entire  areas  PS',  FS",  P"S"',  (tc,  shall  all  be 
equal.  To  find,  on  the  absolute  scale,  the  numerical  valus 
of  two  definite  temperatures,  such  as  the  usually  employed 
freezing  and  boiling  points  of  water,  we  must  therefore 
find  their  ratio  (that  of  the  heat  taken  and  the  heat  rejected 
by  a  reversible  engine  working  between  these  temperatures), 
and  assign  the  number  of  degrees  in  the  interval. 

Thomson  and  Joule  experimentally  showed  that  this 
ratio  is  about  1  3(35.  Hence,  if  we  assume  (as  in  the 
centigrade  scale)  100  degrees  as  the  range,  the  tcm|iera- 
tures  in  question  are  274  and  374  nearly.  A  full  discus- 
sion of  this  most  important  matter  will  be  found  under 
Heat. 

8  Entropy. — Just  as  the  lines  PF.  QQ',  (tc,  are 
characterized  by  constant  temperature  along  each,  so  we 
figure  to  ourselves  a  quantity  which  is  characteristic  of 
each  adiabatic  line, — being  constant  along  it.  The  equation 
of  last  section  at  once  points  out  such  a  quantity.  If  we 
write  ti,  for  its  value  along  PQ,  0'  for  PQ',  we  may  define 
'bus 

0    -0-H/(. 

From  the  statements  as  to  the  equality  of  the  areas  in 
fig.  2  the  reader  will  see  at  once  that  the  area  bounded  by 
t,  (',  <t>,  *'  IS  (t  -  t'}{<j}'  -  tt>).  We  are  concerned  only  with 
thecAa/i<7fsof  (^,  not  with  its  actual  magnitude,  so  that  any 
one  adiabatic  may  be  chosen  as  that  for  which  (^  =  0. 

9.  The  DiJisipation  of  Energy. — In  the  before-cited  article 
Energy  (vol  viii.  p.  210)  this  part  of  the  subject  has 
already  been  treated.  Since  that  article  was  written  bir 
William  Thumson  Las  introduced  the  term  themodyiiamtc 
motivUy  to  signify  "  the  possession  the  waste  of  which  is 


286 


THERMODYNAMICS 


called  dissipation  "  We  speak  of  a  distribution  of  heat  in 
a  body  or  system  of  bodies  as  having  motivity,  and  we 
may  regard  it  from  without  or  from  within  the  system 

In  the  Hrsrcase  it  expresses  the  amount  of  work  which 
can  be  obtained  by  means  of  perfect  engines  employed  to 
reduce  the  whole  system  to  some  definite  temperature, 
that,  say,  ot  th».  surrounding  medium  In  the  second 
case  the  system  is  regarded  as  self-contained,  its  hotter 
parts  acting  as  sources,  and  its  colder  parts  as  condensers 
for  the  perfect  engine 

\s  an  instance  of  internal  motivity  we  may  take  the 
case  of  a  system  consisting  of  two  equal  portions  of  the 
same  substance  at  different  temperatures,  say  a  pound  of 
boiling  water  and  a  pound  of  ice-cold  water  [f  we 
neglect  the  (small)  change  of  specific  beat  with  tempera- 
ture. It  IS  found  that,  when  the  internal  motivity  of  the 
system  is  exhausted,  the  temperature  is  about  46'  C , 
being  the  centigrade  temperature  corresponding  to  the  geo- 
metrical mean  of  the  original  absolute  temperatures  of  the 
[•arts  Hao  the  parts  been  simply  mixed  so  as  to  dissipate 
the  internal  motivity,  the  resulting  temperature  would  have 
been  50°  C  Thus  the  work  gained  (it ,  the  original  inter- 
nal motivity)  19  the  equivalent  of  the  beat  which  would 
raise  two  pounds  of  water  from  46°  C.  to  50'  C 

As  an  instance  of  motivity  regarded  from  without  we 
may  lake  the  simple  case  of  the  working  substance  in  §  2, 
on  the  hypothesis  that  there  is  an  assigaed  lower  tempera- 
ture limit  As  there  is  no  supply  of  heat,  it  is  clear  that 
the  maximum  of  work  will  be  obtained  by  allowing  the 
substance  to  expand  adiabatically  till  its  temperature  sinks 
to  Ihe  assigned  limit 

Thus  if  P  (fig  3)  be  its  given  position  on  Watt's  diagram, 
PQ  the  adiabatic  through  P.  and  PQ  the  isothermal  of 
the  lower  temperature  limit,  Q  p 
IS  determinate,  and  the  motivity 
is  the  area  PQNM  If,  again, 
We  wish  to  find  the  motivity 
wheu  the  initial  and  final  stales 
P  and  P  are  given,  with  the 
Cimdiliuo  that  the  temperature 
is  nut  to  fall  belnw  that  of  the 
state  P',  the  problem  is  reduced 
to  finding  the  course  PP  for  which  the  area  PPM'M  is 
greatest  As  no  heat  is  su[iplied,  the  course  cannot  rise 
above  the  adiabalic  PQ,  and  by  hy|iothesis  it  cannot  fall 
below  tlie  isotheriiial  PQ, — hence  it  must  be  the  broken 
line  PQP  TLua.  under  the  circumstances  stated,  the 
nioliviiy  IS  represented  by  the  are,.  MPQPM  II  any 
other  lawful  course,  such  as  PP  be  taken,  there  is  an  un 
oecessary  waste  of  motivity  ripresented  by  the  area  PQP 

ly  EUmeruary  Th^rrruxiyruiniti  fUtiilinnA  —  Front  whal  prerfiles 
It  Ifl  clear  Ihnt  wlieu  tlir  slate  ul  uitil  rnii^s  of  the  ^lur  klli^  sult^taliie 
ia  (^veo  by  a  poinl  in  tlir  >iid^iiiiii  «ti  istftlierii,al  aitd  an  aJlal>utl< 
can  Ih*  'Ira^n  througl'  thai  point  aoit  tlms  9  aud  '  are  delti  niitiatr 
foi  <;acli  iiarii'-ular  sobauin  a  wlieii  p  aitj  ,,  are  f^iveu  Tbu>  any 
two  ol  llir  iuiir  •)uaalilie>  ;«.  v  t.  <t>  may  ■>«  te^atded  as  luoilioub 
of  the  otiiei  two,  '"liustn  as  ludeficrideul  vauable*  Tbe  cbaoge  of 
enrr^y  from  one  alato  to  aiiolliel  can.  o(  ''ouiat).  be  uxpres.sed  Vi  ID 
I  9.  abovo  I'hua,  puitiii^  £  for  ilio  euci^y  tva  have  al  once 
■lk.-td<p  ■  futr  III 

if  0  and  i>  br>  choseb  «>  iinlependent  variables,  and  if  heat  be 
oieasured.  as  atmve  Hi  oniis  of  work  This  equation  enpresses.  iu 
aynilnjU.  Iho  two  laws  of  IhernjoJyuaiTiicsi  For  it  statca  that  the 
gam  of  energy  la  the  exresa  of  llie  heat  supplied  over  the  work 
done,  kkhkh  if*  an  ex|ires»iori  of  tlie  first  taw  And  il  expresses 
the  heal  snppln-d  as  the  produci  of  Ihe  aLisolute  leoiperature  by 
the  gain  of  etiiropy.  whicb  is  a  slalcnieut  of  Ihe  second  law  to 
terms  of  Tbuuifton  a  ujoite  of  nieasuring  abaolule  teOii>erutur& 

lltii    wo    uow    bave   iwo  ei(uations    lu    partuU   aitferential   co- 

•  ftlcleuU  ■—  , 

Frooi  tbiiw  wo  bave  iwu  eiprsaaiaoa  fur  lbs  value  ol  {  .—r^  ). 


E<iuatiDg  them,  we  are  led  to  the  tbenno<lyoamic  reliUai 

\Tv)~  '[d^J 
the  difTerenttal  coefficients  being  again  nartiaL 

This  expresses  a  property  of  all  "  working  sabstances, *  defined  aa 
in  §  1  To  state  it  in  words,  let  us  multiply  end  divide  the  right 
hand  side  by  I.  and  it  then  reads  — 

Thi  rale  at  which  Uu  temperature  falU  of  per  unit  increase  cf 
volume  tn  adiahatic  expaiisixni  is  equal  to  the  rate  at  which  thi  pres- 
sure increases  per  dt/iiamieal  unit  of  heat  supplied  at  etmstant  volume, 
muUiplied  by  the  absolute  temperature 

Toobuin  a  similar  result  with  vend  fas  lodepeudent  variables,  we 
have  only  to  subtract  from  both  sides  of  1 1)  tbe  complete  ilifferential 
d{t<fi),  80  that 

d{S.-l4>i-  -  0dt-fKiii 
ProoeediDg  exactly  as  before   we  Gnd 

[o  ivords  thu  resolt  roos  (wheD  both  eides  are  multiplied  by  0  :~ 
7^    rau  of  increase  of  pressure   unlh  Uinperature   at  canstaiU 

ootume,  muUiplud  by  ihe  aMolule  UmpcroXurt,  is  equal  to  the  raU 

at  which  heat  must  be  supplied  per  unit  increoM  of  vulume  to  keep 

the  Uinperature  constant 

Very  slight  variatioDs  of  the  processjust  giveo  obuiA  ch«  follow- 

iDg  varietiea  of  expressioD  — 

(S)-(|)-(l)--(g) 

which  are  to  be  interpreted  aa  above 

11.  Increase  of  Total  Energy  under  variou*  Condiiiont. — The 
expressioD  (1)  of  §  10  may  be  put  in  various  forma,  each  cooveoieDi 
for  aome  special  purpose  We  give  one  example,  aa  sufficiently 
showing  the  processes  employed  Thus,  suppose  we  wish  to  hod 
how  the  energy  of  the  workiog  substance  varies  with  its  volume 
when  the  temperatore  is  kept  constant,  we  must  express  dlL  t& 
terms  of  do  ana  dt     Thus 

But  we  have,  by  g  10,  usder  preaent  cooditioo* 

a  result  assumed  in  a  pravious  article  (Radiation,  vol  xx  |r.  217). 
If  the  working  substance  huve  the  property  (that  of  the  so-^'ailod 
"  ideal  "  perfect  gas) 

pi-— hi 

we  see  that,  for  it. 

ThB  energy  of  funlt  mass  oO  such  a  substance  thus  depends  upon 
Its  temperature  ulooe 

12  SpenJU  Heat  of  a  Fluid  —Specific  heat  in  its  most  general 
acceptutioD  IS  the  heat  required,  under  some  given  condition,  to 
raise  the  tempecature  uf  uuit  mass  by  one  degree.  Thus  it  is  tbo 
heat  lakeD  in  while  the  working  suUsiaoce  passes,  by  some  assigned 
patli,  froni  one  isothermal  t  to  aootlier  f-t-I,  aud  this  may,  of 
course,  have  aa  many  values  as  there  are  possible  paths  Usually, 
hunever,  but  two  of  these  paths  are  spoken  of,  au>l  these  are  taken 
[tarallel  respectively  to  the  coordinate  axes  lu  Watt's  diagram, 
&u  thai  we  speak  of  the  specific  heat  at  constant  volume  or  at  con- 
stant pressure  In  what  follows  these  will  be  denoted  by  c  and  k 
resiHictively 

Take  v  aud  p  for  the  independent  variables,  as  in  tbe  diagram, 
and  let  k  t>e  the  specific  heat  corrt:S|>ondiug  to  the  coAdiUob 
/("»  P)~  const 

Then 


while 


and 


,dt~td^-t{^^dvJ^^dp)^ 

di>  dp  '^ 

di^  -T  dv^  -rdp 

dv         dp  '^ 


Thus 


d<p  dj     dtp  df 
dv  dp     dp  dv 

dv  dp  dp  dv 
This  expression  vanishes  if/  and  <p  vary  together,  i.e.,  in  adiabatic 
expansion,  and  becomes  infinite  if/  and  (  vary  together,  i.e.,  in 
isothermal  expansion  ,  as  mi<;ht  easily  have  been  foreseen  Other 
wise  it  has  a  finite  value.  It  is  usual,  however,  to  choose  v  and  I 
as  indtpendent  variables,  while  we  deal  analytically  (a^  distin- 
guisnad  from  Jiagrammaticallyi  with  the  subject  From  this  poiiil 
of  view  we  Lavv 


T  H  E  R  M  O  D  Y  N  A  M  I  C  S' 


287 


tent  »1ic  !ist  tiTiiroii  tbc  right  is,  by  definition/oft ;  so  that. 


with  «l'a  condition 


thi 


cU 
dt         do 


"  dv  dtldv 


•Tficn  is  «  porloctly  general  expression.     As  tho'most  important 
case,  let/ represent  the  i)rcsiurc,  thcv  wn  sec,  by  §  10,  that 
d(p     lip 
.da'"M  ■ 
tod  the  formala  becomes^ 

13.'  Ihnperttes  0/  an  Ideal  Substana  tokich  JolUnri  thi  Lava  of 
Boyle  and  Charles. — Closely  approximate  ideas  of  the  thermal 
behaviour  of  a  j^s  such  as  air,  at  ordinary  temperatuies  and  prea- 
nues,  may  be  obtained  .by  assuming  the  rclatioa 

pvVJ. 
which  expresses  the  laws  of  Boyle  and  Charlcsi    Thus,  by  tho 
formnla  of  last  section,  we  havo  at  onoe 


*-c  =  < 


V  \   V 


•  relation  given  originally  by  Carnot 
Hence,  in  such  a  substance. 

.^      dl     „      .dv 
d<p=e-  +{k-cy—, 

t  V 

or  ^-#i,  =  i:log«  +  (i-<r)log» 

In  terms  of  volume  and  pressure,  this  is 

.^-^o-clogp/R  +  Hogti; 
jr.  pv»''  =  R('*-*«l"- 

the  equation  of  the  adiabatics  on  W.itt's  diagram. 
This  is  (for  ^  constant)  the  relation  between  p  and  V  in'the  pro- 

fiSgation  of  sound..  It  follows  from  the  theory  of  wavo-motion 
,Utdeomecha>'iC3)  that  the  speed  of  sound  is 


■J-. 


where  I  is  the  temperature  of  the  undistorbed  air.  This  expres- 
sion gives,-  by  comparison  witli  the  observed  spccil  of  sound,  a 
very  accurate  determination  of  the  ratio  i/c  in  terms  of  R.  Tho 
value  of  R  is  easily  obtained  by  experiment,  and  we  have  just  seen 
that  it  is  equal  to  k-'e ,  so  that  k  and  c  can  be  found  for  air  with 
great  accuracy  by  this  process, — a  most  remarkal^'-  iostance  of  tbo 
indirect  measurement  of  a  quantity  (c)  whose  direct  determination 
presents  very  formidable  difficulties. 

14.  Effat  of  Pressure  on  tht  Mdliiuj  or  Boiling  Point  of  a  Sub- 
ttanee. — 3y  tho  second  of  the  thermodynamic  relations  in  §  10, 
above,  we  have 


sothat' 


I 


Bnt,  irthe  fraction  «  of  the  wording  substance  be  in  one  molecular 
state  (say  liquid)  in  which  V^  is  the  volume  of  unit  mass,  while 
the  remainder  1  -e  is  in  a  state  (solid)  whero_Vi  is  the  volumo  of 
anit  mass,  we  have  obviously 

i  =  cV„  +  (l-<.)V,. 
Let  L  be  the  latent  heat  of  the  liquid,  then 

('>±\^ tl<'_  ^__X 

yu- j    t[\\-\\),iA    ((V,-V,)  _    _ 

^ .  Also,  as  in  a  mixture  of  the  same  suhst^incc  in  two  diflerent  states, 
4he  pressure  remains  tho  same  while  the  volume  changes  at  con* 
jitant  temperature,  we  have  ilp/ih-O,  so  that  hnally 

Vhich  show3  how  tho  tomporaturc  is  altered  by  ft  small  chanj^c'cf 
pressure. 

In  the  case  of  ice  and  water.  V,  i-»  greater  than  V^,  bo  iho 
temperature  of  the  trvtMu^poinl  iy  lowered  by  increase  of  pressure. 
Whrn  tho  proper  numcrinal  values  of  V^,  V(,  and  L  are  introduced. 
It  is  fo'ind  that  tho  freezing;  point  ia  lowered  by  about  0°  0074  C. 
for  t-ach  Additional  atmosphrrc. 

Whun  water  and  stram  ure  in  pquilibrium,"  we  have  V^  murh 
preater  tlirin  V,,  ^o  thrxt  t>:o  >)OiIin;;-iKiiiit  (as  is  wtM  known)  is 
raisr^  by  procure.     The  sai.ic  hap[*n3.  and  for  the  .same  reason. 


with  tho  molting  point,  in  tbo  case  of  bo<lies  which  expotid  in  the 
act  of  nicltiu<j,  such  as  beeswax,  pamffm,  cast-iron,  and  lava. 
Such  bodies  may  therefore  bo  kept  solid  by  sufficient  pressure, 
even  at  temperatures  far  nbc   i  their  ordinary  melting  points. 

This  is,  in  a  slightly  altered  form,  the  leasoniug  of  Jamc* 
Thomson,  alluded  to  above  as  one  of  the  first  striking  applications 
of  Carnot's  methods  made  after  his  work  was  recalled  to  notice. 

15.  EjT^'ct  of  Pressure  <»i  Maximum  Dcnsittj  Point  of  IViUer. — _ 
One  of  the  moat  sin^lar  properties  of  water  at  atmospheric  pres- 
sure is  that  it  has  its  maximum  density  at  4**  C.  Another,  first 
pointed  out  by  Canton  in  1764,  is  that  its  compressibility  {per 
atmosphere)  is  greater  at  low  than  atonlinary  temperatui-es,  —  oeing. 
according  to  his  measurements,  0'000,049  at  34*  F.,  and  only 
0  000,044  at  64°  F.  It  is  ea:«y  to  sec  (though  it  appears  to  have 
been  first  pointed  out  by  Puschl  in  1875)  that  the  second  of  these 
properties  involves  the  Imoering  of  tlio  maximum  density  point  by 
increase  of  pressure.  To  calculate  the  numerical  amount  of  this 
ofifcct,  note  that  tho  expansibility,  like  all  other  thermal  properties, 
may  be  exprease4as  a  function  of  any  two  of  the  quantities /'t  V|  ^ 
0 ;  say  in  the  piTsont  case  p  and  t  Then  we  have  for  the  expan^ 
ability 

Also  tho  compressibility  may  be  expressed  as  '^ 

The  relation  between  small  simultaneous  increments  of  pressnr* 
and  temperature,  which  are  such  as  to  leave  the  expansibility 
unchanged,  is  thus 


(l)'-(|>-° 


Now  the  expansibility  is  zero  at  the  maximum  deilsity  point,  for 
which  Uierefore  this  equation  holds.'  ,  But  the  equauona  above 
give 

so  that 


(S)-(^)'-o. 


The  volume  of  water  at  low  temperatures  under  atmospheric  J)re«; 
eure  varies  approximately  as 

144. con* 

Thus  we  have  (  -r;  j—.n  nftn  °'*'''y  i  *"'J  f"'"  Canton's  exoeri- 
mental  result  above  stated  we  gather  that  (roughly  at  least) 


m- 


0-000,005^-  -0  000.000,3  ; 


from  which  the  formnla  gives  -0°'0'2  C.  nearly  for  the  change  of 
the  maximum  density  point  due  to  one  .idditional  atmosphere: 

Recent  investigations,  carried  out  by  direct  as  well  as  by  indirect 
methods,  seem  to  agi"ee  in  showing  that  the  true  value  is  somewhat 
less  than  this,  viz.,  about  -0°018  C. ;  so  that  water  has  its 
maiimnm  density  at  0°  C.  when  subjected  to  about  223  atmo. 
spheres.  Thus,  taking  account  of  the  result  of  §  14  above,  we  find 
that  the  maximum  density  point  coincides  with  the  freezing  point 
at  -  2'  8  C.  under  an  additional  pressure  of  about  377  atmospheres, 
or  (say)  2  5  tons  weight  per  square  inch. 

16.  Motivity  and  Entropy,  IHssipalion  of  Energy. — The  motivity 
of  the  quantity  H  of  heat,  in  a  body  at  temperature  t,  is  ; 

.Hi.t-Q/t, 
whero  tt,  is  tho  lowest  available  temperature. 

The  entropy  is  expressed  simply  as 
HA, 
b<ing  independent  of  any  limit  of  temjieraturo  ■-, 

If  the  heut  pass,  by  coiidiirtion,  to  :i  body  of  temperature  f  (leis 
than  (,  but  greater  than  tj,  the  change  of  motivity  (i.f.,  the  dis- 
sipation of  energy)  is 

H'.(44). 

which  is,  of  course  /osszwhilo  the  corresponding  change  of  ontropy 

is  the  fjain  "     ~ 


"(r-r) 


The  numerical  valne«rof  these  quantities  dilfcr  by  tho  factor  t^, 
so  that,  if  wo  could  hive  a  condcM'^ir  :it  absolulo  zero,  there  could 
be  nn  4lis^ip:ili»;n  nf  rntr^y.  Hut  w:  <ce  that  Clau.'sius's  statement 
thit  the  emropy  of  tin:  niiivet>c  tcnd-i  to  a  maximum  is  practicully 
nitrdy  .in<nh*T  w.iy  os'  rxi-re-isui;;  Thomson's  earlier  thcorv  '^f  the 
disMp:iti(iii  ')f  ciitii^y 

Wlur    tical  is  ex(  h:iii;^>  d  aTnu'iga  number  of  hadics,  part  of.i^ 


'^6Q 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


being  transformed  by  hcntengines  into  work,  thB  work  oitainable 
(i  t  ■  til'  Biotivity)  is 

S(H)-<„S(H/0 
Tlie  work  obtained,  however,  is  simply 

S(H) 
Thua  the  waste,  or  amount  needles^sly  dissipated,  is' 

This  muiit  bed£sentia)lya  positive  quantity  except  in  the  case  when 
perfect  engines  have  been  employed  in  all  the  operations.  In  that 
caso  (unless  indeed  the  unatuinabl<'  condition  ^j— 0  were  folliilcd) 

SiH/O-O. 
which  is  the  general  expression  of  reversibility 

17  Works  on  the  Subject. — Carnot's  work  has,  as  we  have  seen, 
been  reprinted.  The  scattered  papers  of  Rankiiie,  Thomson,  and 
Clauaius  have  also  been  iasned  in  collected  forms.  So  havo  the 
experimental  papers  of  Joule.  ■iThe  special  treatises  on  Thcntio- 
dynamiM are  Tery  namerouSi  but  that  of  Clerk-Maxwell  {Theory  of 
Heat),  though  in,  some  respects  rather  formidable  to  a  beginner, 
ia  as  yet  far  superior  to  any  of  its  rivals.  (P.  G.  T.) 

THERMOELECTRICITV.  See  Electeioitv,  vol.  viii; 
pp.  9i>g. 

THERMOMETER,  w  instrument  for  detecting  and 
measuring  differences  in  temperature.  The  name  is  usu- 
ally restricted. to  instruments  adapted  for  use  at  moderate 
temperatures;  those  for  measuring  high  temperatures 
are  termed  pyrometers  (see  I^ykometkr).  Thermometry 
has  been  treated  theoretically  under  Heat  (see  voL  xi. 
p.  558  sq,).  It  here  remains  to  trace  the  history  of  ther- 
mometers, and  to  describe  the  principal  forms  in  use. 

IIi3tory.~^T\K  honour  of  inventing  the  thermometer 
has  been  given  to  several  natural  philosophers-of  the  16th 
oenjflrjj  the  clarms  of  Robert  Fludd  are  more, 
tangible  fban  those  of  Drebbel  and  Santorio, 
but  the  instrument  invented  by  Galileo  before 
1597  seems  best  entitled  to  bo  considered  the 
precursor  of  accurate  thermometers.  All  the 
early  instruments  were  air  thermoscopes,  and, 
until  the  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure 
were  discovered,  their  use  was  only  deceptive. 
Galileo's  thermometer  (fig.  1)  consisted  of  a 
glass  bulb  containing  air,  terminating  below  in 
a  long  glass  tube  which  dipped  into  a  vessel 
containing  a  coloured  fluid.  The  variations  of 
volume  of  the  enclosed  air  caused  th  j  fluid  to 
fall  or  rise  in  the  tube,  to  which  an  arbitrary 
scale  »U8  attached.  The  great  step  in  advance 
of  inventing   the  alcohol  thermometer  is  also 


^ 


due  to  Galileo,  but  the  date  (probably  1011  (^^ 
or  1612)  is  not  precisely  known.  Rinieri  "•  fig  i 
pertainly  had  alcohol  thermometers  made  before  1647, 
and  they  are  referred  to  as  familiarly  known  in  the 
oldest  memoirs  of  the  Accademia  del  Cimento 
(1667).  Ip  form  they  resembled  those  now  in 
uee  ;  they  had  large  spherical  (or,  occasionally, 
cylindrical  or  helical)  bulbs,  and  the  degrees  in- 
tended to  represent  thousandths  of  the  volume 
of  the  reservoir  were  marked  with  beads  of  enamel 
fused  on  to  the  stem  (fig  2)  All  the  Florentine' 
instruments  were  graduated  in  the  same  way,  but 
the  scale  was  arbitrary,  aiid  the  recorded  readings 
were  accordingly  supposed  fft  a  long  time  to  be 
useless  In  1829  tliB  fortunate  discovery  by 
Aiitinori  of  a  number  at  those  early  FlorenttBe 
th'^rmofnetcrs  enabled  tlioir  scale  to  be  a.scer- 
tained  and  tran.'<lnted  into  known  degrees  The 
tempeiaiure  of  melting  ire  wa.i  marked  by  them 
as  13  5,  while  50  corresponded  with  65°  C.  No 
means  of  comparing  ob.spivalions made  by  ther 
nnometers  o(  different  manufacturo  existed  until 
certain  fixed  pointa  of  universal  accessibility  were 
discovered  The  thermal  conditions  of  freezing 
water  were  studied  with  great  care,  but  natural  congelation 
rao  generally  supposed  to  take  placo  at  variable  tompera- 


tiires,  until  Fahrenheit  proved  tirat,  however  much  water 
could  be  cooled  down  without  freezing,  the-  temperature 
when  ice  began  to  form  was  always  the  same.  Hooke,  it> 
1G65  (Mtcroyrap/ua,  p.  38),  describes  the  manufacture  and 
graduation  of  comparable  spirit  thermometers  with  th6 
freezing  \io\nt  of  water  as  the  zero  of  their  scales,  and  h« 
evidently  recognized  it  as  fixed.  Halley  in  J693  stated 
that  the  temperature  ot  boiling  water  is  constant,  and 
this -was  again  jiroved  by  Anioiitons  in  1702.  In  1694 
Renaldcui  of  Padua  proposed  to  graduate  thermometer.^ 
by  taking  as  standards  of  temperature  mi.\tures  cf  definite 
volumes  of  ice-cold  and  boiling  water.  This  method, 
although  theoretically  admirable  (see  Heat,  vol.  xi.  p. 
559),  13  defective  in  practice.  Seven  years  later  Newton 
proposed  anonymously  {P/iil.  Trans:,  1701,  vol.  .xxii.  p. 
824)  a  thermometer  scale  on  which  the  temperature  of 
freezing  water  was  0",  and  that  of  the  blood  of  a  healthy ' 
man  \2°.  Continuing  the  graduation  of  a  linseed-oil 
thermometer  above  this  point,  be  found  that  water  boiled 
at  3-4°  Fahrenheit  in-  1714  took  as  fixed  points  the 
temperature  of  the  human  body  and  that  of  a  mixture  ot 
ice  and  sal  ammoniac  gr  common  salt.  In  1721  he  made 
a  mercury  thermometer  according  to  Halley  s  sugf^estion 
of  1693,  and  by  <ncan3  of  it  he  proved  the  dependence  of 
the  boiling  point  on  pressure.  It  was  not  until  after 
Fahrenheit's  death  that  the  freezing  and  boiling  points  of 
water  we.re  universally  accepted  as  fijced  points  on  the 
thermometric  scale.  The  thermometer  has  remained  un- 
changed in  its  main  features  since  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century.  Mercury  has  been  found  the  most  convenient 
fluid  for  ordinary  use,  in  spite  of  the  advantages  (Heat, 
vol  xi.  p.  561  sq  )  presented  by  lighter  and  more  volatile 
liquids.  Graduation  of  .thermometers;  by  marking  oS 
volumes  of  the  stem  equal  to.^  jrivea  fractiort'-cf  the 
capacity  of  the  bulb,  although  reintroduced  by  Reaumui 
in  1730,  has  now'  been  entirely  discontinued. 

Tbe  idea  of  a  self-registering  thermometer  ■  early  pre 
sented  itself.  Many  forms  were  dcvi^jd  by  natural  philo- 
sophers and  instrument-makers.  That  of  Sixe,  in  1782, 
a  precursor  of  which,  dating  from  the  17th  century,  is 
preserved  amongst  the  instruments  of  the  Florentine 
Academy,  was  the  mo.st  successful. 

Scales. — The  absolute  zero  of  temperature  is  the  logical 
beginning  of  a  thermometric  scale,  but  some  point  easy  of 
reference  is  desirable,  and  this  is  found  in  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  ice  melts  and  water  freezes.  The  second 
accepted  fixed  point  is  that  at  which  distilled  water  boils 
under  the  pressure  of  760  millimetres  (2992  in  )  of  mer» 
cury.  For  the  division  of  the  spade  between  the  two 
fixed  points  into  degrees  of  convmuent  length  oitJy  three 
of  th«  innumerable  methods  proposed  have  survived,  and 
one  of  these,  the  centigrade,  is  rapidly  becoming  universal. 
The  oldest  system,  that  of  Fahrenheit,  dates  from  1724. 
It  is  used  for  meteorological  purposes,  and  popuKiily,  in 
Great  Britain,  the  British  colonies,  and  the  I'nitt^d  States. 
The  freezing  point  is  marked  ^y  and  tiie  Ixiilmg  point  of 
water  212°.  At  first  Fahrenheit  employed  a  scale  of  180 
degrees  ,  the  zero  was  placed  at  "  lenipeiatu  '  (9"  (^  ),  90' 
at  "  blood  heat."  the  point  to  which  the  alcohol  rose  when 
the  thcrmonieter  was  placed  under  the  arm  of  a  healthy 
man  ,  and  -  90°  at  the  tmiperature  of  a  mixture  of  ue  and 
salt,  then  believed  to  be  the  gioate.st  j>ossible  cold  In 
1714  Fahrenheit  changed  his  scale  at  the  suggestion  of 
the  Danish  astronomer  Roemer.  place.!  0'  at  hts  absolute 
zero,"  and  divided  the  space  between  that  and  the  warmth 
of  the  human  body  into  24  degrees  TUe.tfreezing  point 
of  water  thus  became  8°  For  convenience,  these  long 
degrees  were  divided  into  quarters,  uhirh  were.i^ftecwards 
termed  degrees;  thus  the  Ireezing  ixSinV  became  32'  and 
blood    hpat  96*      A    mercury  thennometer;  gifoduated  in 


A 


THERMOMETER 


289 


ITiis  way,' TTidi'divTsions 'of "equal  length  continued  above 
blood  lieat,'  leLjisteiod  21-°  in  boiling  water.  Thus  the 
Fahrenheit  scnic  came  from  a  duodecimal  reckoning. 

Dc  Lisle,  in  I7'24,  introduced  a  scale  in  which  the 
boiling  point  of  ^ater  was  marked  0°  and  the  temperature 
of  the  cellars  of  the  Paris  Observatory  100"  He  after- 
wards adopted  the  freezing  point  of  water  as  his  upper 
fixed  point,  and  called  it  150°.  This  scale  was  used  for 
many  years  in  Russia,  but  is  now  obsolete. 

In  1730  Reaumur  made  alcohol  thermometers  with  their 
■^ero  at  the  freezing  point  of  water,  and  degrees  of  ono- 
thousandth  of  the  volume  of  the  bulb.  On  some  of  these 
the  boiling  point  of  water  was  S0° ;  but  the  instruments 
were  defective  in  principle  and  very  unequal  in  their 
indications.  Deluc  introduced  mercury  thermometers 
"graduated  from  0°  in  melting  ice  to  80°  in  boiling  water, 
and  these,  with  Reaumur's  name  attached,  are  in  use  for 
popular  purposes  in  Germany,  Holland,  and  other  parts  of 
the  Continent. 

Celsius  adopted  a  centesimal  scale  in  1742.  The  boiling 
■point  was  marked  0°  and  the  freezing  point  of  water 
100°.  Linnsus  introduced  the  mode  of  reckoning  from 
0°  in  melting  ice  to  100°  in  boiling  water,  which  is  now 
known  as  the  centigrade,  and  is  used  tiniversally  in 
laboratories,  and  in  all  except  English-speaking  countries 
for  every  scientific  purpose. 

Fahrenheit's  scale  is  convenient  lor  meteorological  work 
on  account  of  its  short  degrees,  adnlitting^  of  great  accuracy 
in  reading  and  compactness  in  recording,  and  on  account 
of  its  low  zero,  which  makes  it  posabl'e  in  temperate 
climates  to  dispense  with  negative  quantities.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  centigrade  scale  is  on  the  whole  so  con- 
venient, its  use  is  so  nearly  universal,  and  the  advantage 
of  a  uniform  system  is  so  great  that  it  must  ultimately  be 
adopted  for  all  purposes.* 

AiK  Thermometer. — Under  constant  pressure  gases  expand 
equally  for  equal  increments  of  heat.  Hence,  when  an  air  thenno- 
metAT  is  graduated  between  two  fixed  points  the  graduation  may 
be  continued  above  and  below  these  points  in  degrees  of  the  same 
length  ;  and  any  number  of  air  thermometers  so  made  will  agree 
amongst  themselves  at  every  temperature.  The  principle  of  air 
thermometers  is  treated  of  in  Heat  [tU  sup.)^  and  examples  of 
special  forms  are  described  in  that  article  and  in  Pyrometer, 
The  sir  thermometer  is  the  ultimate  standard  of  reference  to  which 
ill  other  thermometers  are  referred. 

Alcohol  "Thermometer. — Alcohol,  the  first  liquid  used  for 
thermometric'  purposes,  possesses  numerous  advantages,  and  on 
account  of  its  low  freezing  point  it  is  always  used  for  observations 
in  polar  regions.  Alcohol  thermometers  are  graduated  by  fixing 
the  freezing  point  in  melting  ice  and  by  comparison  with  a  mer- 
cury or  air  thermometer  at  several  higher  and  lower  temperatures. 
Recently  low-temperature  thermometers  have  been  verified  at  Kew 
in  melting  mercury  at  the  temperature  of  -  40.  The  law  of  expan- 
sion of  alcohol  in  glass  at  low  temperatures  is  not  known  with  such 
precision  as  to  make  the  minimum  indications  of  Arctic  expedi- 
tions entirely  trustworthy.  The  graduation  of  ordinary  minimum 
alcohol  thermometers  used  for  meteorological  purposes  is  effected 
by  comparison  with  mercury  standards,  and  their  indications,  so 
far  as  this  source  of  nncertainty  is  concerned,  may  consequently 
be  relied  on. 

Mercury  ik  Glass  Thermometer. —The simplest  form  is  the 
Weight  Thermometer,  a  large  glass  bulb  terminating  in  a  capillary 
tube,  and  filled  with  a  known  weight  of  mercury  at  0°  C.  The 
weight  of  mercury  that  escapes  when  the  apparatus  is  heated  to 


^  The  process  of  converting  readings  of  any  one  of  the  three  existing 
wales  into  those  of  any  other  is  a  simple  matter  of  proportion.  They 
«Und  in  the  ratio  of  80  :  100  :  180  (32  being  subtracted  from  Fahren- 
heit temperatures  before  the  calculation  is  made,  and  added  to  the 
result  when  converting  from  Reaumur  or  centigrade  into  Fahrenheit). 
An  easy  rule  for  changing  centigrade  readings  into  Fahrenheit  meotally 
Isr-multiply  the  centigrade  temperature  by  2,8ubtTact  one- tenth  of 
the  product,  and  odd  32  -.e.g.,  10°  C. -=20-2  +  32-50°  F.  These 
rules  are  only  to  be  applied  to  thermometers  made  with  all  modem 
precautions.  When  the  boiling  point  was  determined  by  immersing 
the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  in  boiling  water  or  in  Rtearo  at  any 
pressure  other  than  760  mm.  appropriate  corrections  have  to  be 
ipplied.  For  a  detailed  historical  account,  see  Renoo,  "  Uiitoire  da 
rhermonUtni  "  ^luiiiatrt  &k.  UU.  it  France.  1878- 


100°  is  determined,  ana  the  temperature  of  any'enclosnro  is  then 
ascertained  by  placing  in  it  the  thermometer  filled  at  zero,  and 
weighing  the  liquid  that  runs  out.  Thermometers  on  this  principle 
were  used  by  Regnanlt  in  his  celebrated  researches  on  steam. 

Standard  Therm&mciers. — The  tubo  is  sometimes  made  witi^ 
elliptical  bore  to  ensure  visibility  of  the  mercury  column,  but  it  ia 
usually  circular  in  section.  The  internal  diameter  must  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  uniform.  This  is  tested  by  a  proliminary 
calibration  in  which  a  short  thread  of  mercury  is  measured  in 
different  parts  of  the  tube.  The  length  of  stem  and  the  range  of 
the  thermometer  having  been  decided  upon,  the  size  of  the  bulb  is 
calculated  from  the  known  e.\pansibility  of  mercury  and  the  section 
of  the  bore.  The  bulb  is  made  as  nearly  as  possible  the  required 
size,  either  by  blowing  it  from  a  tubo  or  prelerably  by  forming  it 
of  a  glass  cylinder,  and  attached  to  the  stem.  The  bulb  is  usually 
cylindrical  in  form  and  it  must  be  uniform  in  thickness.  The 
utmost  care  requires  to  be  exercised  to  keep  the  bulb  and  stem  dry! 
and  clean  and  to  fill  them  with  pure  mercury  recently  distilled.' 
The  mercury  is  boiled  in  the  thermometer  for  some  time  to  drive 
out  all  traces  of  air  and  moisture,  and  the  point  of  tho  stom  it 
sealed  off.  It  the  thermometer  is  not  intended  to  measure  tem- 
peratures up  to  the  boiling  point  of  mercury,  an  expansion  should 
■fie  made  at  the  top  of  the  tube  to  prevent  bursting  from  accidental 
overheating.  Under  Heat  (vol.  xi.  p.  561)  the  changes  of  volume 
which  thermometer  bulbs  undergo  in  cooling  and  for  a  long  time 
afterwards  are  discussed.  The  process  of  annealing  by  heating  to 
a  temperature  exceeding  400°  C.  for  some  hours  as  originally  pro- 
posed by  Person,^  or  in  vapour  of  mercury  for  several  days  as 
recently  practised  at  Kew,  renders  the  thermometer  much  less 
liable  to  suffer  change  of  zero  by  the  lapse  of  time  or  by  heating  to 
any  lower  temperature.  All  instruments  of  precision  shoula  be 
treated  in  this  way,  or  kept  for  several  years  after  they  have  been 
fiDed  and  sealed  before  they  are  graduated. 

The  first  fixed  point  on  the  scale  is  marked  at  the  place  where 
the  mercury  stands  when  the  thermometer  is  buried  in  melting  ice 
from  which  the  water  is  allowed  to  drain  away,  the  second  at  the 
place  where  the  mercury  stands  when  the  thermometer  is  immersed 
in  steam  of  water  boiling  freely  under  the  pressure  of  760  mm. 
(29-92  inches)  of  mercury  corrected  to  0°  C.  The  space  between 
these  may  be  graduated  either  in  arbitrary  equidistant  divisions, 
as  it  is  best  to  do  in  delicate  instruments,  or  in  degrees  of  any 
scale.  Each  degree  centigrade  is  y^  of  the  volume  of  the  tube 
between  the  freezing  and  boiling  points  ;  if  the  tube  is  quite 
uniform  in  bore  the  degrees  will  he  of  equal  length  and  may  be 
marked  off  correctly  by  a  dividing  en^ne.  If  the  preliminary 
calibration  showed  the  tube  to  vary  in  diameter,  the  degree  marks 
are  often  adjusted  to  correspond  to  intervals  of  equal  volume.  It 
is  better  in  all  cases,  whether  degrees  or  arbitrary  divisions  are 
adopted,  to  have  them  of  equal  length  and  correct  the  rflading<!  by 
the  calibration  curve.  The  scale  may  be  continued  above  ana 
beneath  the  fixed  points  in  degrees  or  divisions  of  the  same  length. 

Calibration  consists  in  measuring  the  iDtemal  volume  of  the 
thermometer  tube  by  means  of  a  thread  of  mercury  detached  from 
the  main  column.  There  are  several  ways  of  doing  this,  for  parti- 
culars of  which  reference  may  be  made  to  the  British  Assoaation 
RqMrt  on  the  subject  (1882,  pp.  145-204),  where_  references  to 
original  memoirs. are  given.  The  best  and  simplest  is  Gay  Lns&ic's 
"  step  by  step  ''  method. 

The  most  reijfent  and  approved  processes  of  manufacturing,  testing, 
and  using  stahdard  thermometers  of  great  delicacy  and  nigh  pre- 
cision are  described  by  Gnillaume  in  his  "Etudes  Thermom^triqnes'* 
( Travaxix  el  MemmTcs  du  Bureau  International  da  Poida  el  Mefaresi 
v.,  1886) ;'  for  additional  information  the  work  of  Pickering  cited 
below  may  also  be  consulted. 

Comparison  of  Thermometers. — As  the  apparent  ezpansioii  ol 
mercury  in  glass  from  -39°  to  100°  C.*  is  very  nearly  proportional 
to  the  amount  of  heat  imparted  to  it,  a  thermometer  made  and 
divided  as  indicated  above  is  a  natural  standard.  But  the  apparent 
expansion  with  different  kinds  of  glass  differs  (see  Heat,  vol,  xi. 
pp.  563-4),'  and,  except  at  the  fixed  points  or  near  them,  mercury 
thermometers  of  different  constmction  will  only  fortuitously  agree 
absolutely  among  themselves  or  with  the  air  thermometer, 
Bosscha^  states  that  at  60°  C.  the  mercury  thermometer  shows 
an  error  of  0°'5,  other  experimenters  place  it  as  high  as  1°,  but 
Mascart  found  it  to  amount  only  to  0°-06.'  For  purposes  of  ordi- 
nary experiment  thermometers  are  compared  at  several  tempera- 
tures with  some  standard  instrument  of  known  value — that  of  the 
Kew  observatory  for  Great  Britain, — and  all  results  are  stated  in 
terms  of  the  standard.     The  methods  of  comparison  at  Kew  are 

'  Comptes  Rendut,  lii.,  1844,  p.  1314.. 

•  Abstract  by  Guillaume  iu  the  Slanccs  de  la  Soc.  Franfaitl  dd 
Physique,  1886,  p.  219. 

•  Ayrton  and  Perry,  Phil.  ilag.  {5],  xrii.  1886,  p.  325. 

•  See  also  Kraffls,  Comptes  Jiaidus,  xcv.  836. 

•  Comptes  Rendiis,  Iili.  875.     See  Note  by  Regnault,  Hiid..  87* 
'  Barthelot,  Mtcanioue  Chimique.  U  158.     _ 

XXIIL   —   i7 


290 


THERMOMETER 


describ-xi   by  Welsh   {Proe.   R   S.,  vi    181)   and  Whipple  {PhU 
Afag.,  [5],  xxi..  1886,  p.  27). 

The  reading  of  thermometers  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  process 
of  enamelling  the  back,  and  still  more  by  that  of  entirely  surround 
ing  the  instrument  wiih  enamel  except  over  a  narrow  strip  thitiugh 
which  the  mercury  is  seen  *  The  enamel  must  not  be  allowed  to 
encroach  on  the  bulb,  for  that  would  endanger  the  homogeneity 
and  strength  of  the  glass 

Thermometers  Employed  por  Special  Vvrposzs. ^Physical 
and  Chmical  W(/rt.  — For  all  purposes  of  minutt:  accuracy  where 
thermometers  are  applioj^ble  stJinaard  instruments  must  be  em 
ployed.  They  must  be  used  in  one  position  only  The  stem  is 
usually  engraved  with  an  arbitrary  scjile  of  equal  divisions,  the 
total  range  not  exceeding  15°  C,  and  reailings  are  made  by  a 
cathecometer  at  some  distance.  The  use  of  an  intermediate  bulb, 
first  recommended  by  Person,  enables  the  fixed  points  to  be 
observed  on  instruments  of  very  short  range  Results  of  great 
5CCuracy^  certninly  to  0°  005  C,  may  be  obtained  in  this  way  for 
comparative  purposes  if  sufficient  care  be  taken  ;  but  the  greater 
the  sensitiveness  of  a  thermometer  the  more  difficult  ia  it  to  obtain 
ft  scries  of  oncordant  readings  (Heat,  vol  xi  p.  562).  Pickering* 
uses  thertnometers  of  extreme  sensitiveness,  in  which,  by  conveying 
tiie  excess  of  mercury  ioto  an  expansion  at  the  top  of  the  stem,  he 
seeores  that  the  same  part  of  the  short  arbitrary  scale  is  used  for 
every  temperature  that  has  to  be  measured.  In  physical  researches 
thermoelectric  junctions  are  more  often  used  tiian  thermometers 
for  measuring  very  small  differences  of  temperature. 

For  ordinary  work  in  a  chemical  or  physical  laboratory  thermo* 
meters  are  used  which  can  be  read  easily  to  one-tenth  of  a  degree 
ccntiCTade,  and  have  a  range  from  0°  to  100*.  or  in  some  cases  to 
850*  0.  They  are  always  either  engraved  on  the  stem  or  graduated 
OS  831  Lncladed  scale  (see  Hrat,  figs.  4.  5),  and  are  not  mounted  on 
frames  of  any  kind.  It  is  not  necessary  to  calibrate  such  thermo- 
meters ;  bnt  they  should  be  compared  with  a  standard  at  several 
temperatures  and  frequently  verified  in  melting  ico  and  steam  of 
boiling  water. 

Zincke'a  chemical  thermometer  for  high  temperature  has  a  scale 
commencing  at  100"  C.  In  Geissler's  nitrogen  thermometer  the 
range  is  extended  by  raising  the  boiling  point  of  the  included  mer 
cury,  the  upper  part  of  the  tube  being  filled  with  rarefied  nitrogen 

Meteorological. — The  thermometer  u-as  early  ap])licd  to  the  study 
of  ditferences  of  climate,  and  this  is  still  one  of  Us  most  im|>ortant 
uses.  The  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers  placed  in  the  shade 
give  the  temperature  and  humidity  (see  H\or.OMKTRY)  of  the 
•arrounding  air,  but  "shade"  and  "surrounding  air"  require  to 
be  defined.  Shade  is  intended  to  exclude  rain  and  prevent  all 
radiation ;  and  the  surrounding  air  is  that  of  the  atmuspnere  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  thermometer  outside  any  shelter  that  may  be 
used.  The  simplest  way  of  observing  is  to  hang  up  a  thermometer 
in  the  shadow  of  some  rather  distant  object  and  leave  it  until  it 
acquires  a  steady  temperature  ;  but  this  method  has  been  found 
impracticable  and  does  not  give  very  exact  results. 

In  different  countries  diflerent  patterns  of  thermometer  "sheUer 
we  employed  and  exposure  takes  place  at  a  different  height  above 
the  ground.  Results  so  obtained  cannot  be  critically  compared, 
and  the  relative  mean  temperatures  of  the  atmosphere  in  different 
countries  are  only  known  to  within  one  or  two  degrees.  The 
Stevenson  double-louvred  screen  (see  vol.  xvi.  p.  115),  a  box  open 
below,  provided  with  a  solid  roof,  is  used  at  all  meteorological 
stations  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  placed  4  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  painted  white  outside  and  inside.  The  results  derived  from 
its  use  are  comparable,  because  the  conditions  in  which  it  is  em- 
ployed are  the  same,  but  the  general  introduction  of  a  double  roof 
would  greatly  add  to  its  efficiency.  Exposure  outside  windows  or 
in  wall  boxes  is  the  rule  in  Austria.  In  France  the  Heuou  screen 
ia  largely  used  i  it  is  a  flat  roof  one  square  xth-xtq  in  extent,  and 
double;  tlie  thermometers  are  hung  under  it  two  metres  from  the 
ground.  A  similar  roof,  but  of  much  larijer  size,  is  employed  in 
Australia,  in  combination  with  a  metal  tliermometcr-box  A 
metallic  box,  constructed  of  double  louvres  with  an  air-space 
between,  finds  favour  in  Spain.  In  Russia  and  Switzerland  Wild's 
shelter  is  extensively  employed.  The  thermometers  are  enclosed 
in  a  case  composed  of  two  or  three  concentric  zinc  cylinders  per- 
forated to  admit  air,  and  placed  U  feet  above  the  ground.  They 
ere  protected  by  a  large  shelter  of  wood,  the  south  wall  and  roof  of 
which  aro  double  and  made  of  solid  boards,  between  which  air 
circulates ;  the  east  and  wtst  sides  are  louvred,  and  the  north  side 
entirely  open.  A  similar  shelter  is  u.sed  in  Canada,  to  cover  a  box 
of  single  shcct-iroa  louvres  in  which  the  tliermometers  are  placed 
4i  feet  from  the  ground.  Various  systems  of  exposure  were 
authorized  in  the  United  States  until  1885  It  was  thru  decided, 
a3  the  result  of  exi>criraents*  carried  on  for  nearly  two  ve.irs,  that 
a  uniform  pattern  of  shelter  be  adopted  by  the  Signal  S<'r\ice      It 

*  Wlilpplo.BriY.  Atioc.  Rrporti,  1885.  p  937. 

*  Phit.  *a(7..(J'>l.  xxl.  isafi.  p.  3.11;  xxlli..  18«7,  vp. -101.  400. 

•Ha  !liiz«n,  "Tlitrmuiuatr  HxuteUic,^' /'re/.  y'uj>c/j  b/ ^iu/toi  <Servuc. Nu 
»»U1.,  1685.  *-->/»  . 


is  a  single-louvrcd  wonden  box,  3  feet  6  inches  long,  3  feet  wide 
and  high,  with  a  movable  bottom  and  a  double  roof.  The  louvres 
are  provided  with  an  upright  flango  on  their  inner  side,  tlcsigncd 
to  koep  rain  from  the  thermometers.  The  bottom  of  the  shelter  is 
to  be  fixed  eithir  9  feet  above  a  roof  or  16  feet  above  grass. 

All  these  screens  are  confessedly  imperfect,  although  most  of 
them  are  well  adjptcd  for  the  climates  In  which  they  ure  used. 
Numerous  com|iarisons  of  different  screens  with  each  other  have 
been  made,*  but  in  some  cases  sufficient  precautions  in  the  way  of 
using  instruments  precisely  similar  and  only  dissimilarly  situated 
have  not  been  observed,  and  the  results  are  uncertain.  A  critical 
comparisun  of  the  leading  forms  of  thermometer  shelter  in  use  13 
still  a  desideratum 

The  sling  lucrniometer*  {tfunnomilre  frondc),  a  small  thermo- 
meter whirled  in  the  air  ut  the  cud  of  a  string,  is  often  used  as 
a  standard,  and  giv^s  n-orc  correct  readings  than  inoil  closed 
screens.  All  open  screens  are  untrustworthy.  Aitken*  has 
devised  a  series  of  thermometer  boxes  on  a  new  principle,  radiation 
being  taken  advantage  of  to  produce  a  constant  di-nnght  over  the 
thermometer  bulbs  by  the  use  of 
a  long  blackened  chimney.  These 
give  admirable  results.  Very  small 
and  bright  objects  are  little  atfected 
by  radiation  :  hence  thermometers 
with  bulbs  of  small  diameter  and 
coated  with  a  bright  deposit  of 
gold  or  silver  have  been  used  with- 
out screens.  The  air  temperature 
h:is  also  been  calculated  by  means 
of  a  formula  froui  the  n*adings  of 
two  similar  thcrmometers.the  bulbs 
of  which  are  unequally  affected  by 
radiation.  Some  form  of  sling  tber- 
niometer  should  always  be  used  for 
oliservations  at  sea;  the  Board  of 
Trade  screen  generally  employed  is 
thoroughly  objectionable,  and  can 
only  give  moderately  gooii  results 
by  the  exercise  of  great  precautions 
on  the  part  of  the  observer^ 

As  a  rule,  thermometers  for 
meteorological  purposes  are  made 
wnth  spherical  bulbs,  although 
cylindrical  reservoirs  present  cer- 
tain advantages.  To  ensure  per- 
fect uniformity  in  registration,  the 
bulbs  should  all  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  of  one  size,  constructed  of 
one  kind  of  gla.ss,  and  the  mount- 
ing perfectly  uniform.  Better-class 
instruments  have  the  bulb  clear  of 
the  frame,  and  the  stem  attached  ' 
to  a  slab  of  nietal,  of  porcelain,  Fio  3.— Aitken'aThennomcteTScreeD 
or  of  glass  backed  by  wood;  but  for  Mailmum  Thennometer. 
sometimes  they  are  simply  fixed  to  a  boxwood  scale.  In  all  oases 
they  shoOld  be  graduated  on  the  stem,  and  compared  with  a 
standard,  but  in  view  of  the  nncertainty  of  the  methods  of  ther- 
mometer exposure  great  delicacy  is  undesirable. 

The  influence  of  height  on  thermometers  for  ascertaining  the 
temperature  of  the  air  lias  been  investigated  with  somewhat  con- 
flicting re.sults,^  tho  disparity  is  at  least  partly  due  to  the  use  of 
dissimilar  instruments. 

Ju'yisicrmg  Tliermometers. — Rutherford's  maximum,  invented 
before  1790,*  was  au  ordinary  mercury  thermometer  placed  horizon- 
tally ;  the  column  pushed  before  it  a  small  steel  index,  which  was 
left  at  the  highest  |M)int  rcaehed.  It  is  little  used  now.  The 
maximum  thermometers  in  common  use  for  nietcorological  pur- 
poses are  Negretti  &  Zambra's  and  Pliillips's.  The  former  is  a 
modified  ouillow  thermometer  It  is  made  with  a  constriction  in 
tho  tube  near  tho  bulb,  past  which  the  niercnry  easily  cxi^nnd--^, 
but  cannot  return  when  tho  temperature  falls,  as  tiic  column 
breaks  at  the  narrowed  point  when  the  fluid  in  the  bulb  begins 
to-  contract  riie  thermometer  acts  horizontally,  but  EvcTctt 
devised  a  modification  which  is  hung  bulb  up|»crmost,  and  the 
mercury,  as  it  passes  the  constriction,  falls  down  and  stands  as  a 
column  iu  the  inverted  tube     The  thermometer  is  set  by  swinging 

*  Oastcr.  Quart  Wenthfr  ii^ port /or  /S79{1882).  Appendli  11.;  Wild,  Mitlheit. 
tier  Tiatftr/or.trfi  Ctftllifh  in  tern,  18C0,  103;  Marriott,  Quart.  J.  Hov.  Atrt. 
.Soc.,  IK71I,  V.  I'l;  .  Slow.  if..  l.^s:».  vltl.  '.>2S.  Gill,  ib.,  138^  viil.  238;  Mawltry,  t&., 
l*i.s-1.  X.  1 ;  Ailken.  JToe.  li  S  £..  1884.  xll.  CSI ;  Dickson,  it.,  18S5.  xMi.  la;'; 
ITaicn.  lof.  fit. 

^  lilt'  first  use  nr  th\%  instrument  Is  osufilly  staced  to  hnve  been  by  Anji^o 
(tBiivns  iB-'iS,  vili.  p.  iW).  h'li  Suussurc  emjiloyeil  it  fur  wet-bulb  utifturvaUuiis, 
ojiri  flt.Qi)tli-&s  Invented  It  (sic  Voi/o'/rs  dans  les  Alj-es.  17;ifi,  iv.  p.  267). 

*/'r.^./i.S    A.  1K.M.  xllfCO;   ISSO.  xili.  lay;    18S6,  llil.  ti32. 

'  Caltomc,  Quart.  J  Rny  Mfl   &K.,  I88I.  vU    10. 

"  II-uco.  toe.  cU.;  Wild  and  Cunloni  In  Report  o(  Vienna  Mctcoroloplral  CoB' 
fticiipc,  ll>74;  Symons.  Frvc.  li.  S.,  1W»3,  xxxv.  310;  Omon.t /'roc  R.  3,  &, 
la&f^-^n.  y  Trant  ti.  S,  £.,  Ul..  17SH,  p.  2^7. 


•1 


A     PhlTlips's  nmimnm,  claimed  »Iso  by  Walferdin.  has  a  nor- 
Sfhhl"^  'i^f'J^^^V  "^"".'"^  se,vir.ted  from  the  rest  by  a  minute 
bobble  of  air.      It   is  pbccd   hori^onully,  and,  as   timpcrature 
^creases,  the  deUched  porlion  of  mercury  is  pushed  forward  and 
IS  not  withdrawn  vaen  the  main  column  retreau  toward  the  bulb 
«D  coohng.     It  IS  set  for  a  new  ohservaUon  by  briDmn"  it  into  a 
l^'llfi}X'rTJ°,i  '^I'P'-g  i' sligl-lly      By  reducinslhe  length 
m.^.^M    f^  "'«>'*  of  the  stem  this  therniomeur  may  be 
made  suitable  for  nse  in  any  position  without  altenng  its  register. 
^t.^'?JJr^°7  maximum  thermometer  is  a  mSdificaiion  of 
that  of  Lord  Charles  Cavendish  ■  and   the  tvpe  of  a   number  of 
Bmilar  lustniinents.       t  is  set  by  filling  the  stem  entirely 
jnth  mercury  from  a  Uteral  chamber  at  the  top  i6s  4) 
The  instrument  is  placed  vertically,  and  as  tetipcraturi 
rises  mercury  overflows  into  the  reservoir     To  be  n^d 
the  thermometer  is  brooght  back  to  its  original  tempera: 
.T'f  .r  ^  L"T^'  °l  "^^Sree  spaces  left  vacant  at  the 
top  of  the  tube  shows  the  excess  of  maximum  tempera- 
ture above  that  at  the  time  of  setting 

.l.Jt'"f"i''f''°D'"u'^r"^°°'^'*'  '"  "«'  freouent  cso  is 
that  of  John  Kutherfor.l,  invented  in  1790.  I'  is  a  spirit 
thermometer,  preferably  611«1  with  arnyl  alcohol  to  reduce 
nsk  of  distillation,  in  the  column  of  which  a  small  porce- 
jam  index  v.  included.  The  in.-trument  is  hung^on-  n 
E^k  K^'.v"  'i*  '^"Peratare  falls,  the  index  is  dmwn  ^ 
tock  by  the  surface  tension  of  the  fluid      When  temperd-     ^S-  * 

uILr^  '  ''"''i  ''■°l^  P^'  ""«  '■"<>«  "^i'v-  "'•"■ng  it  at  the 
aZS\T:^^°,'^  ■  "^ 'i^'"  '"'^"'^  ^  tnodification  «1W  the 
fcSTT^.  .t^^^"  "'  i**2  ■  "  ^'^'^  vertically,  the  index  being 
^«ni,n,  P  I"";  f  "■  u'"'  thermometer,  and  set  by  a  lonf 
S^r^fairii;  ,1^  '°  A^'  "*?".  -bich.  when  the  instrument  if 

«S.^ L  J       ■"«f9"^"'  minimum  of  Casella  is  an  instrument  of 

S?il   fh^  fy  ^"'y-  "''«'"='?  duficult  to  make,  and  requir 
ing  careful  handling  in  its  •      ■•  is^un 

oae.  A  side  tube  of  wide 
bore  ac  (fig.  5)  is  joined 
to  the  stem  of  an  ordi- 
nary mercnrial  thermo- 
meter near  the  bulb.  This 
tube  terminates  in  a  small 
chamber  a*,  cut  olf  bv  a 


THERMOMETER 


n^  i 


perpendicular  glass  diaphragm  which  is  perforated  by  a  hole  of 
greater  diameter  than  the  thermometer  siem  When  set  the 
mercury  in  the  stem  indicates  the  actual  temperature,  and  the 
chamber  is  empty  On  the  principle  of  Balfour  Stewart  s  fluctua- 
bon  thermometer,'  when  the  instrument  is  heated  the  mercury 
remains  stationnry  in  tlie  stem  but  eiiands  into  the  chamber  J 
When  cooled,  the  mere urj' passes  out  of  the  chamber;  when  this  is 
mpty,  the  temperature  has  returned  to  that  at  which  the  inslru- 
SfflnTfi"'  ■■  l'>«^'-f^«, "traction  of  glass  and  mercury  prevents 
tte  fluid  leaving  the  duphragm  4.  and  all  subsequent  cbnttaction 
I^.t/'f*  f"""  the  stem  The  position  ofTh^  memiry  column 
to  the  stem  marks  the  minimum  temperature  since  last  setting 

^^r/n^^T"  f'""  ^^  '^"'"-  '^'  ''""'  '""J  ""J  """-"fg  all  the 
mercury  to  flow  from  the  chamber  ® 

^S^?"""*!!  "''*,'''  "^""^  "■"  ^'^'"^  temperature  at  any 
required  time,  by  a  change  of  position  produced  by  a  clock  were 
employed  by  Blacknddcr'  in  1S26  Ilis^rocess  was  complicated 
«d  uncertain  ^egrctli  i  Zambra  have' a  simpler  arTTuCTme^ 
^  ,  ?L^^  r"^.^"""^'  °'  ^''"'  ■^""^'"g  thermometeS  (s^e 
npnght  by  catches  wl„ch  are  withdrawn  in  turn  at  definite  internals 
Zll  w^  "•?'  "^"S^""^"'  regulated  by  a  clock.     Each  inst™! 

srenTu^rta'ijTSfi^j^r""  '"^  """^ "'  '^-p^-^'- "  ^^^ 

No  thoroughly  satisfactory  self-registering  maximum  or  minimum 

thermometer  has  yet  been  produced.     In  all  existing   forms  a^ 

ndica  ions  are  liable  to  be  dUturbcd  by  shaking      wTiereT^Lhol 

^  the  fluid  used.  It  ,s  apt  to  volatilize  aid  arcumtilate  at  t"eTp  o 

Af  tube   so  registering  a  much  lower  temperature  than  actuil°y 

h^T:-    ",'^«'^™<^ly  difficult  also  to  freJ  alcohol  themiometen 

~nl^  ,1  '"^  ^'^"">'  "^^  f™""  «""'i°"  1°  'h'  fluid  and 
renders  the  instrument  untrustworthy  or  even  useless. 

jMdmtim  TliCTmor7Mcrs.—The  intensity  of  solar  radiation  is 
EI^Tk"^  "il  ""  Py"'''i''"•''«^  "hlch  usuilly  consists  oaZiy 
heated  by  the  sun's  rays  and  a  thermometer  to  measure  the  nsTof 

mX"  ■''•.  '"  ■"^'^P™'"^  '*'''^'*°"  i*  measured  by  the™" 
fl^J^fi'"'''^"'^'^  "■'"•  blackened  bulbs.  Results  ofThe 
SSrsof'd!?;^""  ^.7"  l-y  <i'"'^^°'  methods.  As  there  is  no 
me^ns  of  determining  the  true  measure  of  radi-ition,  all  that  can 
«™  L"^  '°  '■^"^  ',''"  instruments  whose  indications  are  tol^ 
compared  constructed  and  exposed  in  the  same  way      The  usual 

»  VV«:  «.  B..  vul  IM.  ,  j.^   ^  5  ^    ,jjj  X.  3JT.  «t,. 


291 

:rard::m'et':'r' orb  "'  ir'"'^'"?  *  ?"^"  -rcir',:i  miriomett 
wh.Vh  ,H^f  t,  '  ''/  ^Idering  m  platinum  electrodes  through 
Tk,,  ,K  discharge  can  bo  made  in  the  interior,  it  1^01  ^entFal 
that  the  \*acuum  be  vprv  i.*.rf^nt .  *.«^„     l.  is  uot  essentia] 

a  £lobo  filled  with  H^^iirc'      ""^  observers  prefer  to  employ 

.d'?-ri'%'"^  ^r„l^^S':„Thl?tTetlS  I^TuH 

^tV\  T}"^  "^  perfectly  spherical  enclosures,  whTh  m^t 
ah*  be  of  equal  diameter  The  stem  should  be  as  s^l  a,  „„Sm„ 
in  proportion  to  the  bulb,  and  before  bein»  nsS  frr  ,^0!^'^  * 
purposes  all  ^dia.ion  theVmometershou  I  te1orpar°rv?i^h  an' 
arbitrary  standard  by  daily  exposure  for  severaTw?eks7„  sun  h^n\ 
from  ?,""""'  -^d'ation  thermometers,  intended  to  measure  ^  a  ion 
from  the  earth  at  night,  are  usually  filled  w,th  alcohol  a^murh 
ngennity  has  been  expended  on  increasing  the  r  delLev  jt 
bulteare  made  very  large  relatively  to  the^bore,  and  c^^imct^ 
so  as  to  expose  a  great  surface,  the  reservoir  be  ng  ofte^hdh^L 

^ntrt:^^"-  ^P»<"';^l'^P«=d,  forked,  or  even  lilce  a  ^3iron 
.hp^ll^^'™™;^--^"^"™  introduced  the  use  oFsSh 
thermometers  packed  in  non-conducting  material  for   takinTth» 
temperature  of  the  soil  at  different  depths.    Symon's  earlh  thfr^^ 
1?  bw.?  l"r  '^""."P'^  " "  ^lo'-action^nstrum'e^t  cied^n  flt^™, d 

'^"i^^riirer^^h'-e'i^^^rnrj;:^^^ 

round,  fitted  in  deep  bor?ngs  if  th^T^ik!  are  uSd"  aTthTob«^r 
tones  of  Greenwich  and  Edinburgh  for  investiratw  .,r^k  . 
gerature.     Those  at  present  esublfshed  at  th?RfyarObTrvatorT 
Edinburgh,' are  the  successors  of  a  set  fixed  in  the  rock  i7  183 7' 

^^tiinfr^T^vrii-  ""^i^^  pieced witTt\:rr  i 

that  of  the  thermometer,  nearly  filled  with  th.  =,1.  «   -/^u 
hermetically  sealed  at  the  lower^end,  is  fixed  teidi  the  tiie'r^"' 
meter  s..m      The  fluctuations  it  shows  are  duTso  ely  to  4^ 
art-ec  ing  the  stem  and  not  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  ^nd  tW 
are  eliminated  from  the  rea.lings  of  the  latter  '  ^ 

by  taking  account  only  of  the  difl-erence  of 
level  of  the  fluid  in  the  two  tubes. 

Beep-Sea  Thermometers.— Ih^  earliest  ob- 
servations of  warmth    beneath    the   surface 
were  made  by  raising  samples  of  water  in  a 
valved  box  and  noting  the  temperature  when 
It  w.as  brought  on  board.     Saiissure,  in  addi- 
tion    to   this    used   sluggish    thermometers, 
which    he   left   immersed    for  several    hours 
before  reading.     His  latest  thermometer  for 
sea.work  was  filled  with  alcohol,  and  had  a 
biUb  more  than  an  inch  in  diameter,  which 
was  imbedded  in  a  mass  of  wax  and  encloseds 
in  «  stout  wooden  ca'^      It  attained  the  tem- 
perature of  Its  surroundings  very  slowly    pre- 
served It  for  a  long  time,  and  gave,  in  his 
hands,  thoroughly  trustworthy  results      On 
the  introduction  of  registering  thermometers 
these  were  used,  but  the  unsuspected  magni- 
tude of  the  efl-ect  of  pressure  at  great  depths 
made  the  earlier  records  entirely  misleading 
A  modification  of  Sixe's  thermometer,  pFo- 
tected  from  pressure  by  the  addition  of  an 
out«r  bulb   partially  filh-d  wiih  a  liquid    is 
nowusu.nllyemployedondeep-seaexpeditions.       — — - 
1  hose  used  on  the  "  Challenger."  under  the   ^'o  «  -Miner-Cuella 
name  of  Miller-Casella   thermometere,  were         Thcmometer. 
of  the  form  shown    in   fig.    6      The   tube   is  (Jshapcd,  the  bend 
and  part  of  each  limb  filled  with  mercury,  the  rest  of  th;    Sbe   the 
bulb,  and  pin  of  the  expansion  on  the  other  side  with  afcobol'    A 
steel  index,  held  in  its  place  by  the  pressure  of  a  hair,  is?mmersed 


J  Quart.  J  K.  Uet.  Sot  ,  1673.  T.  Hi  ;  lgS4   i  a 
•  Signal  Srrrire  Pro/.  Paptrt.  No.  Jiii..  lf*l.  p  34 

«7c«;."iV,T7°.'  ""^  °'"'"^'  ""  *""'  "  ""  i««»l'»e,«e  BH,.  ^«c 
'Trani.R.'s.  £..  18S0,  uli   ,.  637. 


292 


THERMOMETER 


in  the  S|tiiil  MI  each  Iim^  abuve.the  mercury,  which,  pushes  one 
or  oliior  bcfoic  it  as  the  temperature  ia  rising  or  falling,  and 
leaves  thciii  at  points  denoting*  the  htgheat  and  lowest  tempera- 
tures [lasstil  tlii'ough  Tae  iuilex^  Sew  set  by  a  magnet.  The 
*'ChaIU-uger "  thciniometcps.  \vliicb  were  not  graduated  ou  the 
ttcnis.  wore  secured  side  by  side  with  porcelain  temperature  scales 
to  vulcanite  franius  and  placed  in  copper  cases  perforated  to  allow 
a  circulation  of  water  Tait  investigated  the  whole  subject  of  pres- 
sure cOMccltons  after  tlie  return  of  the  expL-dition,  and  found  that 
the  high  result  obtained  by  a  previous  experimeriter  was  due 
m.tinly  to  heat  developed  by  compression  of  the  vulcanite,  which 
affected  the  ihernionieter  m  the  press,  but  would  not  do  so  at  sea. 
The  correction  whieii  had  to  be  applied  was  rather  less  than  |  of  a 
degree  Fahr.  [ter  mile  of  depth.'  These  thermometers  require  to 
be  immcrseJ  from  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour  before  they 
acquire  the  teniperature  of  the  water,  they  can  only  be  read  to 
quaitei  degrees  Fahr  ,  and  they  simply  indicate  the  extreme  teiu 
peratures  ilirough  which  they  have  passed.  Bachanaa  has  greatly 
improved  the  instrument  by  reducing  the  bore  of  the  tube  on  tlm 
minimum  side,  which  is  that  most  frequently  med,  thus  giving 
long  degrees  An  arbitrary  scale  is  engraved  on  the  stem.*  His 
picrcury  piezometer  is  affected  by  temperature  and  by  pressure,  and 
enables  the  actual  temperature  at  any  known  depth  to  bo  found. 

Aime  in  1545^  invented  a  very'ingenious.airaugement  of  outflow 
thermometers,  which  were  inverted  by  a  weight  slipping  down  the 
line,  and   registered  as  they  were  being  drawn  up.     His  instru- 
ments were  accurate,  but  very  delicate  and  troublesome 
to  manage.     Within    the  last  few  years  Negretti  and 
Zambra  have  patented  several  forms  of  motlihed  out- 
flow thermometers.     Tbe  first  instrument  of  the  kind 
was  complicated   and   unmanageable,  but   that    now 
before  the  public  is  both  simple  and  convcuicut.     It 
consists  of  a  mercury  thermometer  ui*h  a  cylindrical 
bulb  and  a  stem  AC  (fig.  7)of\Wdcbore  terminating 
in  a  small  pyriforra  aneurism.     The  stem  is  coutra^ted 
and  contorted  just  above  the  bulb,  and  when  the  in* 
slrunient  is  turned  upside  down  the  inercury  coK.mn 
breaks  at  this  point  and  Hows  down  into  the  tube, 
which  is  giaJuated  in  the  inverted  position.     To  pro- 
tect  it  from    pressure   the   thermometer  is  hermeti- 
cally sealed    in   a  strong  glass  tube,  the  portion  of 
which  surrounding  the  bulb  contains   a  quantity  of 
mercury  secured   by  a  ring  of  india-rubber  cement. 
When  the  thermometer  is  made  to  turn  over  at  any 
depth  in  water  of  any  temperature,  the  record  remains 
nearly  unaltered,  and,  until   set  for  a   new  observa- 
tion, enables  the  actual  temperature  at  the  instant 
of  reversal  to  be  ascertained  at  any  subsequent  tiiuo 
and  in  any  other  place.     The  detached  column  stand- 
ing in  the  tube  changes  its  length  slightly  by  change 
of  temperature.     A  series  of  experiments  with  twelve 
instruments  has  shown  that  for  60*  F.  change  of  tem- 
perature there   is  a   difference  of  one  degree  in  the 
reading  of  the  inverted  thermometer.     Hence  a  cor- 
rection must  be  a[iplied  in  all  cases  where  the  tem- 
perature at  which  the  thermometer  is  read  differs  more 
than  a  few  degrees  from  that  at  which  it  was  inverted, 
contrary  to  the  opinion   of   the  German   observers.* 
If  a  thermometer  is  inverted  in  water  and  read  while 
wet,  ihe  temperature  by  which  it  should  be  corrected 
is  obviously  that  given  by  the  wet-bulb  in  air.     Jn  v,^'".!  ~"  , 
view  of  the  greut  range  of  temperature  experienced  in     zambras 
deep-sea  work    in   the  tropics,  the  size  of  the  little     Deep-Sea 
overflow  cell  B,  which  prevents  mercury  from  the  bulb  Thtrmo meter 
from  entering  the  tube  must  be  considerably  increased    ^'°^^'  *^"*' 
before  the  thermometer  can  be  used  with  safety  for  auch  purposes.- 
The  Negretti  and  Zambra  thermometer  acquires  the  temperature 
of  its  surroundings  very  rapidly  (two  or  three  minutes  are  usually 
sufficient),  it  can  be  read  easily  to  tenths  of  a  degree  Fahr.;  and, 
above  all,  it  ascertains  temperature  at  exact  points  of  depth,  and 
has  thus  revealed  layers  uf  remarkably  varying  tenij^wrature*  which 
could  not  have  been  detected  by  the  other  instruments  in  use. 

The  loaded  wooden  frame  originally  employed  for  reversing  the 
thermometer  is  unsati.^faetory,  and  Magnaghi's  reversing  gear 
actuated  by  the  revolution  of  a  small  propeller  set  in  motion 
by  the  water  when  tht*  thermometer  is  drawn  up  briskly,  is  not  to 
be  trusted  in  shallow  water  or  vi{Jierc  there  are  rapid  currents. 
Wlicn  the  pin  is  withdrawn  the  thermometer  case  turns  over  :ind 
is  clamped  by  a  side-spring  on  the  frame.  Rung*  adopted  a 
simpler  and  better  though  somewhat  clumsy  frame,  in  which  the 
thermometer  wa^madc  to  turn  by  slipping  a  weight  down  the  line. 

'  •■Challcv^n"  y.irratiee.  i)  .  App.  I..  1882. 

*  for  a  utii^iiU  rtccout.t  of  decji  acft  thcrmotneteTB,  see  Buchanan,  Proe.  R.  3. 
B .  X    \S7H.  :7i  „nil  ■•  Chal '    Reports,  NarraUve,  vol.  i.,  18tH,  p.  84. 

»  ^nri    CAim    /*/ij/j  .  [.11,  1846.  iv,  1, 

•  £r'/ebnitie  tier  Untcrsuchun^ens/nhrt  der  Drache.  BerllQ,  1886,  p.  J. 
»  Mill    Joar   S<:ol    Mel   Soc.  (."JI.  IWC,  No.  UL  p.  289, 

«  Ztoi  Teknuke  fortnmat  Ttdskri/t.  IBW 


I 


'■/  ■; 


The  United  States  Fish  Commissioiv    employ  the  thermometer  itt 

a  fiamc  adapted  for  use  on  a  wire  sounding  line,  and  also  actuated 
by  a  messenger,  but  the  thern.omcter  is  not  damped  on  turning 
over  The  Scottish  marine  station  produced^  a  modiiJcatioQ  of 
Magnaghi's  frame,  Iho  propellei  being  replaced  Ijy  a  forked  lever 
held  down  by  a  spnal  spring  and  raised  when  the  tlicrmoinetcr  is 
to  be  reversed  by  the  impact  of  a  Rung's  messenger  (hg  8)  A 
messenger  placed  on  t'  c  line  below,  and  hung  by  a  loop  to  the 
uppei  gioove  of  |he  thi  rmometer,  is  let  go  when  tho  theimometer 
turns  and  reverses  another  instmment  lower  douii.  Instead  of 
being  laslicd  to  the  sounding  line,  the  frame  is  retaiued  by  a  ram*9 
hoinspiial  below  and  clamped  by  a  small  vice 
at  the  upper  end.  Buchanan  litis  modified  and 
simphtied  the  frame,  eombmiDg  its  mode  of 
attaehmeut  to  the  line  with  tho  Americaa 
method  of  reversing  • 

Neumayer^  has  attempted  louse  a  photo- 
graphic iherniogiaph  for  deep-sea  work,  the 
light  being  supphed  by  aCeis^ler  tube  excited 
by  a  small  battel  y  Sicniens's  electrical  ther-' 
mometei  has  also  bcfn  experimented  with,'' 
but  has  hardly  been  broujiht  to  a  practicable 
state,  and  the  saniu  may  be  said  for  the  use 
of  thermoelectric  juuctiuns. 

Hypsmnelcr  — The  boiiiug-point  thermome 
ter  or  hypsometer  may  be  used  to  obtain  an 
independent  measure  of  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  so  to  determine  an  altitude 
or  verify  an  ;ineroid  barometer.  It  consists 
of  a  very  delicate  mercury  thermometer  gradu- 
ated only  for  20  or  25  degrees  Fahr.  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  boiling  point  of  water 
and  divided  on  the  stem  into  tenths.  A 
large  aneurism  on  ihu  tube  a  little  above  the 
bulb  should  allow  the  freezing  puint  to  be 
verified  frorn  time  to  time  on  the  [Kjrtion  of 
stem  beneath  it.  The  thermometer  is  hung 
m  a  cylindrical  tin  vessel  m  which  water  is 
boiled  by  a  spirit  lamp  placed  underneath. 
The  bulb  must  be  raised  considerably  above 
the  level  of  the  water,  and  the  whole  stem  to 
the  top  of  the  mercury  column  imiTicrsed  in 
the  steam.  After  steam  has  been  escaping 
freely  for  some  time  the  temperature  is  road, 
and  by  reference  to  a  table  the  barometric 
pressure,  and  consequently  the  altitude,  is 
obtained. 

Climcal  Thermometers. — The  first  use  to 
which  thermometers  woro  applied  was  the 
study  of  the  temperature  of  the  blood  in 
fevers  ;  and  the  constancy  of  the  temperature 
of  the  healthy  human  body  was  for  a  century 
considered  sufficient  to  entitle  it  to  the  posi- 
tion of  a  fixed  point  in  graduating  thermome* 
ters.  The  increased  importance  now  attached 
to  temperature  in  disease  has  led  to  the  pro- 
duction of  many  forms  of  clinical  thermo- 
meter. The  large  instruments  intended  to  be 
read  in  situ  are  now  entirely  superseded  by 
small  maximum  self-registering  thermometers. 
Graduation  is  carried  to  one-hfth  of  a  degree, 
and  the  usual  range  is  about  25  degrees  Fahr., 
—from  SS^or  90°toll0*or  115".  Olive-shaped 
bulbs  have  been  used,  but  a  cylindrical  form  ia  most  common.' 
There  should  be  an  arrangement  like  that  suggested  for  hypso- 
meters  to  enable  the  freezing  point  to  be  verified.  Casella's  thermo- 
meter on  Phillips's  system  has  a  small  expansion  on  the  stem, 
followed  by  a  contraction,  to  prevent  the  index  fullowuig  the  rest 
of  the  mercury  into  the  bulb  when  the  instrument  is  not  iu  use. 
The  "  half-minute  thermometer"  is  quick  in  action  ;  it  has  a  bulb 
of  very  small  diameter  and  an  extremely  tine  bore,  the  mercury 
thread  being  rendered  visible  by  Hicks's  arrangement  of  a  lens- 
fronted  stem.  Iinmisch's  avitreous  thermometer  is  recommended 
for  clinical  use  on  account  of  its  small  size,  convenient  shape,  and 
non  liability  to  get  out  of  order. 

Theriaviofters  for  Technical  Purposes. — These  are  made   in  an' 
infinite  variety  of  forms,  adapted  to  the  various  processes  of  manu- 1 
facture  and  industry.     The  scale  is  often  dispensed  with  in  these  i 
instruments,  a  movable  pointer  being  fixed  at  the  ^loint  at  which 
the  mercury  is  to  be  kept.     Air  or  steam  thermometers  (see  Pvno- 
METtit)  are  inpidly  superseding  mercury  instruments  for  all  tern- 
peraturcs  above  the  boiling  point  of  water.     Thu  cheap  OormaD 
paper-scalo  thermometers  arc  largely  used,  fitted  in  woodeu  casus, 

f  Jieport.  1882 

8  Mill.  /'rcH    R  S.  £.,  X\U  1884.^28. 
»  ?:aiurr,  VIII    195. 
»  *■  Cl-^ta^ger"  Jitportt^  Narrative.  1884.  I.  p.  9k 


Fig.  8.— Scot. 
tl8b  Frame  for 
Det-p-SciiThor^ 
moraeter  Mo 
Bengerdcacond- 
liiK  to  ruvei-se 
tlio  lastrumenb 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


293 


u  dairy  thermometers,  and  a  larger  size  for  brewing  purposes. 
Alarm  thermomstors  are  often  employed,  in  wliich  electric  contact 
is  made  and  a  bell  rung  wheu'the  tcniiierature  CNceeds  or  falls 
short  of  a  certain  limit  Thermostats  of  various  forms  are  made 
use  of,  ia  which  a  thermometer,  by  the' position  of  the  mercury  in 
the  stem,  regulates  the  gas-supply  of  a  burner  and  thus  the  heat 
of  an  enclosure. 

Metallic  ThermonuU-rs. — Thermometers  depending  on  change  in 
kngth  or  form  of  composite  metal  bars,  such  as  Crighton's  zinc-iron 
bar  and  Breguct's  silvcrgold-platmum  spiral  (see  l'VROMETElt),aio 
converted  into  registering  iustrumeuts  by  the  addition  of  two 
light  poiuters  pushed  forwaiil  by  the  index  needle  as  it  travels 
round  the  graduated  arc  to  either  side  and  left  at  then  extreme 
points  Jiirpensen  in  1841  constructed  a  chronometer,  the  balance 
wheel  of  which  was  arranged  so  as  to  exaggerate  the  efiecls  of 
change  of  temperature  and  thus  to  alTect  the  rale  It  furnished  a 
very  close  approximation  to  the  mean  temperature  between  the 
intervals  of  rating,  and  was  approvcil  by  Arago  for  use  in  o"bsorva- 
tions.  Hermann  and  Pfister's  nietallic  thermometer '  is  probably 
the  best  adapted  for  meteorological  purposes,  and  has  given 
catisfactory  results  at  the  Zurich  observatory.  It  is  a  flat  spiral  of 
btass  and  steel,  which  unrolls  and  coils  up  according  to  changes  of 
lemperaturg,  moving  an  index  on  a  divided  hori/ontal  circle  niid 
narking  the  maximum  and  minimum  by  light  pointers.  In  order 
to  secure  regular  results,  the  instrument  must  be  aonealed  by 
heating  for  some  time  in  boiling  linseed  oil. 

Several  instruments  known  popularly  as  metallic  thermometers 
depend  on  a  diSereiit  principle,  that  of  the  change  oC  form  in  a 
thin  metallic  enclosure  containing  liquid. 
Immisch's  avitreous  thermom,eter  (fig.  9)  is 
an  exaniple  A  minute  Boui'don's  tube  is 
fixed  at  one  end,  and  the  other  bears  on  the 
short  arm  of  a  lever,  the  long  arm  of  which 
act3  by  a  rack  on  the  pinion  forming  the 
axis  of  the  |>ointer.  It  is  only  one  inch  in 
diameter  and  extremely  accurate. 

Thermo'jraphs. — The  first  form  of  thermo- 
graph, due  to  Wheatstone,  was  an  electrical 
apparatus.  It  has  recently  been  improved 
by  Van  Rysselberghe,  in  whose  hands  it  has 
assumed  the  following  form  The  thermome- 
ter is  of  rather  wide  bore  and  open  above.  At 
intervals  of  quarter  of  an  hour  a  wire  is  moved 
gradually  down  the  tube  by  a  clock  until 
It  touches  the  mercury;  an  electric  circuit  AviirMusTiiermometer 
it  thus  completed,  and  causes  an  indentation  by  a  diamond  point 
which  moves  in  the  same  way  as  the  wire  down  a  rotating  cylinder 
covered  with  thin  sheet  coppei  or  zinc.  Tlie  metal  sheet  is  renewed 
at  each  revolution  of  the  cylinder,  and  it  is  sufficient  to  join  the 
indented  points  with  a  graver  to  have  a  plate  from  which  any 
number  of  copies  of  the  record  may  be  printed.  Cripp's  thermo- 
graph records  hourly  on  a  revohing  cylinder.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  mercury  thermometer  coiled  into  a  flat  spiral  and  sus- 
pended on  a  horizontal  axis.  Any  change  of  temperature  displaces 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  system,  and  the  instrument  rotates 
through  an  arc,  moving  a  pencil  as  it  does  So.  A  ^perfectly  con- 
tinuous record  is  produced  by  the  photographic  thermograph.  Wet 
and  dry  bulb  thermometers  are  so  arranged  that  a  beam  of  light 
passes  through  an  air-speck,  which  separ.^tes  part  of  the  mercury 
thread,  or  through  the  vacant  part  of  the  tube,  and  falls  on  a 
rotating  cylinder  covered  with  photographic  paper  on  \,hich  it 
traces  the  curve  of  temperature  fluctuation  This  apparatus  is 
probably  the  most  perfect  of  its  kind  In  Bowketts  thermograph 
the  change  of  form  of  a  curved  tube  containing  oil  moves  a  pencil 
radially  over  a  card  turned  horizontally  by  a  clock  .  The  resulting 
earre  is  referable  to  polar  instead  of  rectangular  coordinates  ;  the 
radius  measures  temperature,  the  angle  time.  Richard's  thermo. 
graph  is  also  actuated  by  means  of  a  sealed  metallic  capsule  cott- 
tainiog  fluid.  It  draws  a  continuous  curve  in  ink  on  a  revolving 
drum  on  which  one  sheet  lasts  for  seven  days.  This  instrument 
is  largely  employed  in  observatories  to  check  eye  observations,  and 
is  peculiarly  adapted  for  use  in  positions  to  wliich  access  can  only 
be  had  occasionally.  It  is  m.adc  in  many  forms,  one  of  which  is 
apccially  adapted  for  marine  work,  the  sealed  capsule  being  rolled 
into  tiie  form  of  a  cyLnder  and  exposed  to  the  water  on  both 
•nrfaces.  (H.  R   M.) 

THfiROIGNE  DE  MfiRICOURT,  Anne  Joseph 
(1762-1817/,  was  born  at  Marcourt  (from  a  corruption 
of  which  name  she  took  her  tjsual  designation),  a  small 
town  in  Luxembourg,  on  the  banks  of  theOurtbe,  on  13tb 
August  1762.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  well -to  do 
farmer,  Peter  Th^roigne.  She  appears  to  have  been  well 
educated,,  having   been   brought   up   in   the  convent   of 


Flo.  9. — Immisch's 


'  Repert.  JUr  MeUorologie,  L  pt  i.  p.  7. 


Robermont ;  she  was  quick  witted,  strikingly   handsome 
in  appearance,  and  intensely  [lassionate   in  temper ;  and 
she  had  a  strong  and  almost  volcanic  power  of  eloquence, 
which  she  used  with  great  effect  U|jon  the  mobs  of  Paris 
during  that  short  space  of  her  life  (1780-93)  which  alone 
is  of  historical   interest.     The  story  of  her  having  beeo 
betrayed  by  a  young  seigneur,  and  having  in  consequence 
devoted  her  life  to  avenge  her  wrongs  upon  aristocrats,  a 
story  which  is  told  by  Lamartine  and  others,  is  unfounded, 
the  truth  being  that  she  loft  her  home  on  account  of  a 
quarrel  with  her  stepmother      She  went  to  Paris, "and,  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  she  was  surrounded  by. a 
coterie  of  well-known  men,  chief  of  whom  were  Petion  and 
Desmoulins.     She  belonged  to  their  party  to  the  last, — 
became  in  fact  the  "  Fury  of  the  Gironde."    On  14th  July 
1789    she   came    prominently  into   notice   at  the  fall  of 
the  Bastille,  and  for  about  four  years  thereafter  she  was 
seen  in  many  of  the  stormiest  scenes  of  the  Revolution, 
being  known  as  "  la  belle  Liiigoise,"  and  singularly  attired 
in  a  riding  habit,  a  plume  in  her  hat,  pistols  in  her  belt, 
and  a  sword  dangling  by  her  side      Early  in  October  she 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  march  to  Versailles,  and  the 
return  journey  with  the  king  and  queen  to  the  capital. 
No  horror  appalled  her,  and  the  violence  of  her  language 
and  her  power  with  the  mob  were  no  less  remarkable  thao 
the  influence  which  she  was  able,  by  combining  cajolery, 
threats,  and  money,  successfully  to  e.\ert  on  the  royalist 
soldiers,  so  winning  them  over  to  the  Revolution      Being 
justly  accused  of  dangerous  conduct,  her  arrest  was  ordered 
in  the  following  year  (1790),  and  she  left   Pans  for  Mar- 
court,  whence  after  a  short  stay  she  proceeded  to  Liege,  io 
which  town  she  was  seized  by  warrant  of  the  Austrian 
Government,  and  conveyed  first  to  Tyrol  and  thereafter 
to  Vienna,  accused    of   havmg   been    engaged   in  a   plot 
against  the  life  of  the  queen  of   France.     After  an  inter- 
view, however,  with  Leopold  II.,  she  was  released  ,  and  she 
returned  to  Paris,  crowned  of   course  with  fresh   laurels 
because  of  her  captivity,  and  resumed  her  influence.     In 
the  clubs  of  Paris  her  voice  was  often  heard,  and  even  in 
the  National  Assembly  she  would   violently  interrupt  the 
expression  of  any  moderatist  views.     She  commanded  in 
person  the  3d   corps  of   the  so-called  army   of    the  fau- 
bourgs on  20th  June   1792,  and  again  won  the  gratitude 
of  the  people.     She  shares  a  heavy  responsibility  for  her 
connexion  with  the  riots  of  the  10th  of  August.     A  cer- 
tain contributor  to  Desmoulins's  journal,  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  Suleau  by  name,  earned  her  savage  hatred  by 
associating  her  name,  lor  the  sake  of  the  play  upon  the 
word,  with  a  deputy  named  Populus,  whom  she  had  never 
seen      On  the  10th  of  August,  just  after  she  had  watched 
approvingly  the  massacre  of  certain  of  the  national  guard 
in  the  Place  Vendome,  Suleau  was   pointed  out  to  her. 
She  sprang  at.-him,   dragged  him  among  the  infuriated 
mob,  and  he  was  stabbed  to  death  in  an  instant     But  the 
time  came  when  her  parly  was  in  peril  at  the  hands  of  one 
more  extreme,  and  she  now  wildly  urged  the  mob  to  inorc 
moderate  courses      Then  the  furies  of  the  "  Mountain  " 
seized  the  fury  of  the  Gironde,   and  they  stripped  her 
naked,    and    flogged    her    in    the    public   garden   of   the 
Tuileries.     The  infamous  affront  drove   her    mad.     She 
was  removed  to  a  private  house,  thence  in   1800  to  Ls 
Salpetriere  for  a  month,  and  thence  to  a  place  of  confina 
ment  called  the  Petites  Maisons,  where  she  remained — C 
raving  maniac — 11111807      She  was  then  again  removed 
to  La  Salpetriere,  wliere  she  died,  never  having  recovered 
her  reason,  on  9th  June  1817 

THESEUS,   the  great  hero  of  Attic  legend,'  son  ot 

-  Ail  the  passages  in  the  Iliad  and  Oitysseij  in  which  his  nanie  oi 
allusions  ta  his  legend  occur  are  regarded  with  more  or  lefts  probft 
bility  as  spurious. 


294 


THESEUS 


JJgeus,  king  of  Atltcns,  and  jTIthra,  daughter  of  Pittheus, 
king  of  Trffizen.    Thus  through  his  father  he  was  descended 
from  Erechtheus  and  the  autochthones  of  Attica;  through 
his  mother  he  came  of  the  Asjatic  house  of  Pelops;    ^geus, 
being  childless,  went  to  Delphi  to  consult  the  god,  who 
gave  him  an  ambiguous  answer      He  went   to  Troezen, 
and  told  the  oracle  to  Pittheus,  who,  seeing  its  bearing, 
contrived  that  ^geus  should  have  intercourse  with  bis 
dangbter  yEthra.     ^geus  then  departed  to  Athens,  and 
ill  due  time  yEthra,  who   remained   at  Troezen,  brought 
forth  Theseus.      It  was  given  out  that  the  child's  father 
was  Poseidon,  the  great  god  of  Tioezen,  and  in  after  ages 
the  TroEzenians  pointed  to  the  Holy  Isle  as  the  place  where 
Poseidon    and   /Ethra   met,   and  where   jEthra   raised   a 
temple   to  Athene  Apaturia,  at  which  Troezenian    maids 
dedicated  their  girdles  before   marriage.     For  his  tutor 
and  guardian  young  Theseus  had  one  Cannidas,  to  whom, 
down    to  Plutarch's   time,  the    Athenians  were   wont   to 
eacrifice  a  black  ram  on  the  eve  of  the  festival  of  Theseus. 
On  passing  out  of  boyhood,  Theseus,  in  accordance  with 
custom,  went  to  Delphi,  and  there  cut  off  his  front  hair. 
iEgeus  had  deposited  his  sword  and  boots  under  a  heavy 
rock,  telling  jEthra  that,  if  she  gave  birth  to  a  son  who, 
on  attaining  manhood,  should  be  able  to  lift  the  rock  and 
remove  the  sword  and  boots,  she  was  to  send  him  with 
all  secrecy  to  his  father  at  Athens.     Theseus  now  lifted 
the  rock,  removed  the  sword  and  boots,  and  set  out  for 
Athens.      He  encountered  many  adventures  on  the  way. 
First  he  met  Periphetes,  surnamed  Corynetes  (Clubman). 
Him  Theseus   slew,  and   carried   off   his   club.     At   the 
isthmus  of  Corinth  dwelt  Sims,  called  the  Pine-Bender, 
because   he  killed  his  victims  by  fastening  them  to  the 
top   of   a    pine-tree   (or   two    pine-trees),    which    he   had 
bent  down  and  then  suffered  to  fly  up     'Theseus  hoisted 
the  Pine-Bender  on  his  own  pine  tree      Now,  the  deceased 
Pine-Bender    had    a   pretty  daughter,   who    ran    and    hid 
herself    in  a    thicket  where  asparagus   grew   plentifully ; 
and,  when  Theseus  came  to  look  for  her,  she  prayed  to 
the  asparagus,  and  promised  that  if  it  would  hide  her  she 
would  never  injure  asparagus  any  more      Theseus  wiled 
her  from   the  thicket,  and  from  their   union    sprang  the 
family  of  the  loxids,  who  worshipped  asparagus      Next 
Theseus  despatched   the  Crommyonian   sow  (or  boar),  a 
dreadful  monster.     Then  he  flung  over  the  cliff  the  wicked 
Sciron,   who,  while  his  guests  were  perforce  washing  his 
feet,  used  to    kick  them    over  into  the  sea      In  Eleusis 
Theseus    wrestled    with   and    killed    Cercyon.       A    little 
farther  on  he  slew  Procrustes,  who  had  only  one  bed  for 
all  comers      if  his  guest  was  too  short  for  the  bed,  he 
stretched  him  out ;  if  he  was  too  long,  he  cut  him  down 
to  the  requisite  length     At  the  Cephissus  Theseus  was  met 
by  the  Phytalid  family,  who  purified  him  from  the  taint 
of  bloodshed      As  he  passed  through  the  streets  of  Athens, 
his  curls  and  long  garment  reaching  to  his  ankles  drew  on 
him  the  derision  of  some  masons,  who  were  putting  on  the 
roof  of    the  new  temple  of  Apollo    Delphinms     "Wty," 
they  asked,  "  was  such  a  pretty  girl  out  alone  ( "     In  reply 
Theseus  took  the  bullocks  out  of  their  cart  and  flung  them 
higher  than  the  roof  of  the  temple      He  found  his  father 
married  to  Medea,  who  had  Hcd  from  Corinth    Being  a  witch, 
she  knew  Theseus  before  his  father  did,  and  tried  to  persuade 
yEgeus  to  poison  his  son  ,  but  yEgeus  at  last  recognized  him 
by  his  sword,  and  took  him  to  his  arms.     Theseus  was 
now  declared  heir  to  the  throne,  and  the  Pallantids,  who 
had  hoped  to  succeed  to  the  childless  king,  conspired  against 
Theseus,  but  he  crushed  the  conspiracy     He  then  attacked 
the  flame-spitting  bull  of  Marathon  and  brought  it  alive 
to  Athens,   where  he  sacrificed  it  to  Apollo  Delphinius. 
Now  comes  the  adventure  of    the  Cretan  Minotaur  (see 
Minos),  whom  Theseus  slew  by  the  aid  of  Akiadne  {q.v. ). 


Wh'ih  Theseus  was  in  Crete,  Minos,  wishing  to  see  whether 
Theseus  was  really  the  son  of  Poseidon,  flung  his  ring 
into  the  sea.  Theseus  dived  and  brought  it  up,  together 
with  a  golden  crown,  the  gift  of  Amphitrite.  On  the 
return  voyage  the  ship  touched  at  Naxos,  and  there 
Theseus  abandoned  Ariadne.  He  landed  also  at  Delos, 
and  there  he  and  the  youths  danced  the  crane  dance,  the 
complicated  movements  of  which  were  meant  to  imitate 
the  windings  of  the  Labyrinth.'  In  historical  times  this 
dance  was  still  danced  by  the  Delians  round  the  horned 
altar — an  altar  entirely  composed  of  left-sided  horns. 
Theseus  had  promised  JEgeus  that,  if  he  returned  success- 
ful, the  black  sail  with  which  the  fatal  ship  always  put  to 
sea  -  should  be  exchanged  for  a  white  one.  But  he  forgot 
his  promise  ;  and,  when  from  the  Acropolis  at  Athens 
jEgeus  descried  the  black  sail  out  at  sea,  he  flung  himself 
from  the  rock,  and  died.  Hence  at  the  festival  which 
commemorated  the  return  of  Theseus  there  was  always 
weeping  and  lamentation.  Theseus  now  carried  out  a 
political  revolution  in  Atticaby  abolishing  the  semi-inde- 
pendent powers  of  the  separate  townships  and  concen- 
trating those  powers  at  Athens,  and  he  instituted  the 
festival  of  the  Panathenasa,^  as  a  symbol  of  the  unity  of 
the  Attic  race.  Further,  according  to  a  democratic  tradi- 
tion, he  abolished  the  monarchy,  and  substituted  in  its 
place  a  popular  government ;  but,  to  obviate  the  evils  of 
a  pure  democracy,  he  instituted  the  three  classes  or  castes 
of  the  eupatrids  (nobles),  geomori  (husbandmen),  and 
demiurgi  (artisans).  He  also  minted  coins  bearing  the 
figure  of  an  ox  He  extended  the  territory  of  Attica  as 
far  as  the  isthmus  of  Cormth. 

Ho  was  the  first  to  celebrate  in  their  full  pomp  the 
Isthmian  games  m  hon<  ur  of  Poseidon  ;  for  the  games 
previously  instituted  by  Hercules  in  honour  of  Melicertes 
had  been  celebrated  by  night,  and  had  partaken  of  the 
nature  of  mysteries  rather  than  of  a  festival.  Of  Theseus's 
adventures  with  the  Amazons  there  were  different  accounts. 
According  to  some,  he  sailed  with  Hercules  to  the  Euxine, 
and  there  won  the  Amazon  Antiope  as  the  meed  of 
valour  ;  others  said  that  he  sailed  on  his  own  account,  and 
captured  Antiope  by  stratagem.  Thereafter  the  Amazojis 
attacked  Athens.  Antiope  fell  fighting  on  the  side  of 
Theseus,  and  her  tomb  was  pointed  out  on  the  south  side 
of  the  acropolis.  By  Antiope  Theseus  had  a  son,  Hippo- 
lytus.  On  the  death  of  Antiope,  Theseus  married  Phajdra. 
She  fell  in  love  with  her  stepson  Hippolytus,  who,  resist- 
ing her  advances,  was  accused  by  her  to  Theseus  of  having 
attempted  her  virtue.  Theseus  in  a  rage  imprecated  on 
his  son  the  wrath  of  Poseidon.  His  prayer  was  answered  : 
as  Hippolytus  was  driving  beside  the  sea,  a  bull  issuing 
from  the  waves  terrified  his  horses,  and  he  was  thrown 
and  killed  This  tragi'c  story  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  extant  plays  of  Eurip  des. 

The  famous  friendship  between  Theseus  and  Pirithous, 
■king   of    the  Lapiths,  originated    thus.     Hearing  of    the 

'  The  Ostiaks  of  Siberia  liuve  au  elaborate  crane  dance,  in  which 
the  dancers  are  dressed  up  wilh  skins  and  the  heads  ol  cranea 
( I'allas,  Jieise  durch  verschuidene  Provinzen  des  russisclien  Reichs,  iiL 
CI) 

=  So,  too,  the  ship  that  sailed  annually  from  Thcssaly  to  Troy 
Willi  otTerings  to  tlie  shade  of  Achilles  put  to  sea  with  saljle  sails 
(Philostiatus,  Ilerinca.  )tx  20)  The  ship  Hull  was  to  bling  Iscult 
to  the  mortally  wounded  Tiistvam  was  to  hoist  a  white  sail  if  she  was 
on  board,  a  bhack  sail  if  she  was  not.  The  black  sails  recur  in  the 
modern  Greek  version  ol  the  tale  of  Theseu.s.  Compare  Asialide 
Kescarclus,  ix   97 

"  Besides  the  PaDathenia.  Theseus  is  said  fo  have  Instituted  the 
festival  ot  the  Synoikta  or  Metotkia  Warhsniuth  ingeniously  sup- 
poses that  the  latter  festival  coinmenioralcd  the  local  union  m  a  single 
city  of  the  separate  settlements  on  tne  Acropolis  and  its  immediate 
neighbourhood,  while  the  Paiialbena-'a  commemorated  the  political 
union  of  the  whole  of  Attica  (C.  Warbbniiitb,  1>U  Sladt  Athai  m 
AiU'Mium,  p.  iiiisq.). 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


295 


Stiength  and  courage  of  Theseus.  Pirithous  desired  to  put 
them  to  the  test  Accordingly  he  drove  away  from  Marathon 
Bome  cows  which  belonped  to  Theseus  The  latter  pursued, 
but,  when  he  came  up  with  the  robber,  the  two  heroes  were 
so  GUed  with  admiration  of  each  other  that  they  swore 
brotherhood.  At  the  marriageof  Pirithous  to  Hippodamia 
(or  Deidamia)  a  6ght  broke  out  between  the  Lapiths  and 
Centaurs,  in  which  the  Lapiths,  assisted  by  Theseus,  were 
victorious,  and  drove  the  Centaurs  out  of  the  country. 
Theseus  and  Pirithous  now  carried  off  Helen  from  Sparta, 
and  when  they  drew  lots  for  her  she  fell  to  the  lot  of 
Theseus,  who  took  her  to  Aphidnse,  and  left  her  in 
charge  of  his  mother  jEthra  and  his  friend  Aphidnus. 
He  now  descended  to  the  lower  world  with  Pirithous,  to 
help  his  friend  to  carry  off  Proserpine.  But  the  two  were 
caught,  and  conBned  in  Hades  till  Hercules  came  and 
released  Theseus.  Meantime  Castor  and  Pollux  had 
captured  Aphidnoe,  and  carried  off  their  sister  Helen  and 
.^thra  When  Theseus  returned  to  Athens,  he  found  that 
a  sedition  had  been  stirred  up  by  Menestheus,  a  descendant 
of  Erechtheus,  one  of  the  old  kings  of  Athens.  Failing  to 
quell  the  outbreak,  Theseus  in  despair  sent  his  children  to 
Eubcea.  and,  after  solemnly  cursing  the  Athenians,  sailed 
away  to  the  island  of  Scyrus,  where  he  had  ancestral 
estates.  But  Lycomedes,  king  of  Scyrus,  took  him  up  to 
a  high  place,  and  cast  him  into  the  sea,  that  be  died. 
Others  said  that  he  fell  of  himself  over  the  cliff  as  he  was 
taking  his  evening  walk  Menestheus  reigned  at  Athens, 
but,  when  he  died  before  Troy,  the  sons  of  Theseus  recovered 
the  kingdom  Long  afterwards,  at  the  battle  of  Marathon 
(490  B.C.),  many  of  the  Athenians  thought  they  saw  the 
phantom  of  Theseus,  in  full  armour,  charging  at  their  head 
against  the  Persians  When  the  Persian  war  was  over, 
the  Delphic  oracle  bade  the  Athenians  fetch  the  bones  of 
Theseus  from  Scyrus,  and  lay  them  in  Attic  earth.  It  fell 
to  Cimon's  lot  in  469  B.C.  to  discover  the  hero's  grave  at 
Scyrus,  and  bring  back  hb  bones  to  Athens  They  were 
deposited  in  the  heart  of  Athens,  and  henceforth  escaped 
slaves  and  all  persons  in  peril  sought  and  found  sanctuary- 
at  the  grave  of  him  who  in  his  life  had  been  a  champion 
of  the  oppressed.  His  chief  festival  was  on  the  8th  of 
the  month  Pyanepsion  (October  21st),  but  the  8th  day 
of  every  month  was  also  sacred  to  him. 

Whatever  we  may  think  of  the  historical  reality  of  Theseus,  his 
legend  seems  to  contain  recollections  of  historical  events,  e.g.,  the 
avvoiietands,  whether  by  this  we  understand  the  political  central- 
ization of  Attica  at  Athens  or  a  local  union  of  previously  separate 
settlements  on  the  site  of  Athens  The  birth  of  Theseus  at 
Trffizen  points  to  the  immigration  of  an  Ionian  family  or  tribe 
from  the  south  With  this  agrees  the  legend  of  tjie  contest 
between  Athene  and  Poseidon  for  supremacy  on  the  acropolis  of 
Athens,  for  Theseus  is  intimately  connected  uitli  Poseidon,  the 
great  Ionian  god  ^Egeus,  the  father  of  Theseus,  has  been  iden- 
tified by  some  modern  scholars  with  Poi-eidon. 

The  Athenian  festival  in  Octobei,  popularly  supposed  to  com- 
memorate the  return  of  Theseus  from  Crete,  is  interesting,  as 
some  of  its  features  are  identical  with  those  of  harvest-festivals 
still  observed  in  the  north  of  Europe  Thus  the  eircsioizt,  a 
branch  of  olive  wreathed  with  wool  ana  decked  with  fruits,  bread, 
tc,  which  was  carried  in  procession  and  hung  over  the  door  of  the 
house,  where  it  was  kept  for  a  year,  is  the  E-nUinnai  (Hw'vest  may) 
of  Germany  ' 

The  well-preserved  Doric  temple  to  the  north  of  the  acrojiolis  at 
Athens,  commonly  known  as  the  Theseum,  was  long  su|>po5eil  to 
be  the  sanctuary  in  which  the  bones  of  Thescus  reposed.  But 
archxologists  are  now  much  dividcil  on  this  question  It  is  agreed, 
however,  that  the  temple  isofthe  5th  century  i;.c.,  and  that  thedatc 
of  its  construction  cannot  differ  widely  froni'that  of  the  Parthenon.' 
There  were  several  (according  to  Philochorus,  four)  temples  or 
shrines  of  Theseus  at  Alliens  Milchhofer  thinks  he  has  found 
one  of  them  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Pira-us  ' 


•  Sec  W    Jlannhanlt,  Antike  Wold-  xind  F'MKtdU,  p.  212  sq. 

•  For  the  literature  on  the  subject,  see  .Niilcldrnfcr,  in  Ilaunicister's 
Denhndlir  lUs  classischen  AtUrUiums,  i.  p    170  j 

'  See  ETlanUemder  Text  to  the  Karlm  vm  A  Utka  (BerliD,  18S1 ),  i. 
1>.  37  str 


Our  chief  authority  for  the  legend  of  TheMu  la  th«  tifo  by  FlotMrcti,  vhlch 
is  a  compiKilion  from  earlier  writers  G  Gilbert,  who  has  inrcstiKatefl  tlie 
sources  fioin  which  Pliiiarrh  tlrew  for  his  life  of  Theseus,  b«-ltcTC3  thiit  his  chief 
aiilhnnty  was  the  AttMt  of  Ister,  anj  that  Isur  maioly  followed  f  tulucljoni*. 
bee  /'Ai.Vo^s,  xxxiii.,  1874,  p.  46  tq. 

Thete  Is  a  modern  Greek  fol!(-tale  whIc.^  presenres  some  features  i.f  the  kftefid 
of  Theseus  and  U>e  Minotaur,  but  for  the  Minotaur  has  t.een  subslituieil  a  seveis- 
he.id'.'d  snaXe  See  Bernard  Schmidt,  OruchiicJa  Mdfvcfun,  Sageti,  unj  VoUm- 
luder,  p.  lis  15  (J   G.  fR.) 

THESMOPHORIA,  an  ancient  Greek  festival,  cele- 
brated by  women  only  in  honour  of  Demeter  ©ec/toi^dpos- 
At  Athens,  AMera,  and  perhaps  Sparta,  it  lasted  three 
days  At  Athens  the  festival  took  place  on  the  Hth, 
12th,  and  13th  of  the  month  Pyanepsion  (24th,  25th, 
and  26th  October),  the  first  day  being  called  Anodos 
(ascent),  or,  according  to  others,  Kathodos  (descent),  the 
stcond  Nesteia  (fast),  and  the  third  Kailigeneia  (fair- 
born)  *  If  to  these  days  we  add  the  Thesniophoria,  which 
were  celebrated  on  the  1 0th  at  Halimus,  a  township  "on 
the  coast  near  Athens,  the  festival  lasted  four  days '  If 
further  we  add  the  festival  of  the  Stenia,  which  took  place 
on  the  9th,  the  whole  festival  lasted  five  days  '^  The 
Stenia  are  said  by  Photius  to  have  celebrated  the  return 
of  Demeter  from  the  lower  world  (Anodos),  and  the  women 
railed  at  each  other  by  night.'  The  Thcsmophoria  at 
Halimus  seem  to  have  included  dances  on  the  beach.* 
The  great  feature  of  the  ne.'it  day  (the  Anodos)  is  gene- 
rally assumed  to  have  been  a  procession  from  Halimus  to 
Athens,  but  this  assumption  seems  to  rest  enluely  on  an 
interpretation  of  the  name  Anodos,  and  it  loses  all  pro- 
bability when  we  observe  that  the  day  was  by  others  called 
Kathodos.'  Probably  both  names  referred  to  the  descent 
of  Demeter  or  Proserpine  to  the  nether  world,  and  ber 
ascent  from  it '"  The  next  day,  Nesteia,  was  a  day  of 
sorrow,  the  women  sitting  on  the  ground  and  fasting." 
As  to  what  took  place  on  the  Kailigeneia  we  have  no 
information  Nor  can  we  define  the  time  or  nature  of  the 
secret  ceremony  called  the  "  pursuit,"  or  the  "  Chalcidian 
pursuit,"  and  the  sacrifice  called  the  "  penalty."'- 

During  the  Thesmophoria  (and  for  nine  days  previously, 
if  Ovid,  Met.,  x  434,  is  right,  and  refers  to  the  Thesmo- 
phoria) the  women  abstained  from  intercourse  with  their 


*  Schoi  on  Aristoph.,  Thesmojihoriatuss,  SO  and  565  ;  Diog.  Laer., 
ii.  43;  Hesychius,  3.V.  Tpiiififpoi  (the  reading  here  is  uncert.'ii&) 
and  icoSot ;  Alciphron,  lii  39;  Athenaius,  307/.  Pltitaich  ( 'Vf. 
Veiiiosth.,  30)  states  that  the  Nesttia  took  place  on  tlie  16tli  of 
Pyanepsion,  but  io  this  he  stands  alone 

*  Schol  on  Anstoph-,  Thesjn.,  80,  Photius,  /rx.,  s.v.  Btafio^opt^r 
Tiufpa.1  5'  (where  Nat>er  should  not  have  altered  the  US.  readiug  5'  into 
i5')i  Hesychius,  s  v.  rpirrt  Qfffuotf'oplttit^. 

«  Schol.  on  Ari=toph.,  Jhesm.,  834 

'  Photius.  Ltj:.,  s.v.  ffriiyta;  cf.  Ajioltodonis,  1.  5,  1 

*  Plut.,  Solon,  8:  for  this  pass.ige  prohably  refers  to  the  Tliesmo- 
phnria.  tbeC.npeColiasmentionetl  being  near  lialinius(see  ErUii'Unitter 
Text  to  the  Karien  von  AUika.  ii.  1  57.)  The  Thesmopboniini  at 
Hatimtts  IS  mentioned  by  Pausantas  (i  31,  1). 

^  Hesychius  (s.v  &i/<;Sos)  and  tlie  Schol.  on  Arist..  Thcsm..  585, 
suppnse  that  the  day  was  so  called  t>ecause  the  women  ascended  to 
the  Tliesmo]>liorium,  which  (acconliiig  to  the  scholi.ist)  sto<Kj  on  a 
height  But  no  ancient  writer  mentions  a  procession  from  fl.iliruus. 
For  the  name  Kathodos,  .«ee  Schol.,  toe.  at.;  Photins,  Lex.,  sv. 
Qtfffiotpop'iwif  Tififpat  5'  For  the  statcnieiit  tlutt  at  one  pan  of  the 
festival  (commonly  assumed,  by  the  writers  who  ac-ept  the  statement, 
to  be  the  Anoilos)  the  women  camctl  011  tlieir  lic.-ids  tin  "  books  of 
the  law,"  we  have  only  the  authurity  of  the  scholinsi  rtii  The«cntus, 
iv.  25.  who  displays  his  iKiiorance  by  describing  the  wiiincii  .-j  rirgitii 
(see  below),  and  saying  that  lliey  went  in  procession  lr>  £leii»ls  TI,o 
statement  may  therefore  be  dismisse^l  as  an  etyiiiol<<-.^ical  hction. 
Aristophanes,  Ecctes.,  222,  is  no  evidence  lor  the  book-ciirying 

">  The  B<e<>tian  festival  of  Demi-lcr,  whirh  »vas  helil  at  aWiut  the 
same  time  as  the  Athenian  Theininplmria,  and  at  which  the  f7ir(7«ra{.sc« 
below)  were  o|»ened,  is  ilisttnctly  ^l,1U■,l  liy  I'lnUtrcli  {iJc  h  a  Osir., 
69}  to  have  been  a  mouniing  for  the  ilcsccnt  (Kathodos)  of  Pioseri-tiic- 

"   PliiL,  Dcm.,  30;   I.I..  /«  /J.  el  Os,r.,  O'J. 

"  Hesychius,  s.v.  9tw>M^ ;  .Simla-*,  s.v.  )faAri5urir  Utaytia  Hesy- 
chius. a.  V  ^Tjui'a.  For  iliirlit  and  pursuit  .i.s  jiorts  of  retr.-ious '-ore- 
monies,  cf-  Plutarch,  tjita:xt.  <'txc.,  38;  Id.,  (ji'xsi.  Ifimt..  53; 
Id.,  lie  he/.  One.,  15,  .lEliaii.  Xnl.  An.,  xii  31:  l'aii»niii.is.  1.  24,  4; 
Id.,  viii.  S3,  3;  Diodonis,  i.  91  ;  Loherk, /ly/uojKAatiitu,  p.  676:  Kaf 
qoardt.  SiatUsvervaUuny,  2d  eil,,  iii.  323. 


296 


T  H  E  S.  M  0  P^.H  O.  R  I  A 


husbands,  and  to  fortify  themselves' strewed  thcirTbeds 
with  A^nits  casfus  and  otlicr  "plants.f  The  women  of 
Miletus  strewed  their  beds  with  pine  branchOs,  and  put 
fir-cones  in  tiie  sanctuaries  of  Dcmcter.'  Wlicther  un- 
married women  were  admitted  to  the  festival  seems  doubt- 
ful ;  in  Lucian's  timo  it  woultl  appear  that  they  wcre.- 
The  women  of  each  dome  (township)  elected  two  married 
women  of  tlieir  number  to  preside  over  them  at  the 
festival  ;  and  every  married  man  in  the  township  who 
posspssed  property  to  the  value  of  three  talents  had  to 
provide  a  feast  for  the  women  on  behalf  of  Ids  wife.^ 
During  tlie  festival  the  women  seem  to  have  been  lodged 
by  twos  in  tents  or  huts,  proltably  erected  within  the  sacred 
precincts  of  tlie  Thcsniophorium.'*  They  were  not  allowed 
to  cat  the  seeds  of  the  pomegranate  or  to  wear  garlands 
of  flowers.^  Prisoners  wore  released  at  the  festival,'^  and 
during  tlic  Ncstcia  the  law-courts  were  closed  and  the 
ieenatc  <lid  not  meet."  Aristophanes's  play  on  the  festival 
sheds  little  light  on  the  mode  of  its  celebration. 

At  Thebes  Thcsmophoria  were  celebrated  in  summer 
on  the  acropolis  (Cadmcia)  ;  at  Eretria  during  the  Tbes- 
mophoria  the  women  cooked  their  meat,  not  at  fires,  but 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  nnd  they  did  not  invoke  Kalli- 
gcneia  (which  seems  to  mean  that  they  did  not  celebrate 
the  last  day  of  tho  festival)  ;  at  Syracuse,  during  the 
festival,  cakes  called  mylhi^  made  of  sesame  and  honey 
in  the  shape  of  pudenda  pndiebria^  were  handed  round.^ 
Agrigentum,  Ephesus,  and  Drymo,  in  Phocis,  had  also 
their  Thesmophorix^ 

Tho  ahovo  was  nearly  nil  tlnt'TvaVknown^ahout  tho  Thcsmo- 
phoria down  to  1S70.  In  tlirit  year  E.  Kolulo  published  in  the 
Rhcinischcs  Museum  (N.  F.  25,  p.  548  sq.)  a  soholion  on  Lurian 
(Dial.-  Mcntr.,  ii.  1),  whuli  hv  discovcrctl  in  the  Vatican  MS. 
Palatiuns  73,  and  wliich  furni.shc9  some  curious  details  about  the 
Thcsmophoi  ia.  It  also  cxplaius  two  obscure  and  corrupt  passaf^es 
of  Clemens  Alexandriniis  and  P.iusanias,  tho  true  meaning  of  which 
had  been  divined  by  Lobeek  {yhjlmph^mns,  p.  823  $q.).  The  suh- 
Btanro  of  the  sclinhon  is  tins.  When  Prosi-rpinc  was  carried  off 
by  PhUo,  a  swineht-rt^  calli^d  Eubuluus  was  lienhnj,'  )ns  swine  at 
,thc  spot,  and  his  herd  was  cn-iulfi-d  in  the  chasm  down  which 
jPluto  !»ad  vanishetl  with  rrosiTpine.  Accordin<;ly  at  the  Tliesmo- 
tphoria  it  was  customary,  in  memory  of  Eubulcus,  to  fliuK  pi'^s  into 
tho  "fiiasms  of  Dcniotcr  and  Proserpine.'  (Tiicse  "chasms" 
may  liavu  been  natural  caverns  or  perhaps  vaults.  The  scholiast 
sixjaks  of  thfin  also  as  adijtn  and  vicgaTa.^*^)  In  these  chasms  or 
adyta  lliere  were  .<:npposed  to  he  serpents,  wliieh  guarded  the  adyta 
and  consumed   most  cf  tho  Hesli   of  x\\q  pigs  lliat  were  thrown 

*  yEUan,  i^'■{(^  /!«.,  ix.  2''»;  Scho!.  on  T/wocr.,  iv.  25;  Ilesychius, 
s.v.  KVfwpov,  Pliny,  N.  II. ,  24.  59;  Dioscorides,  i.  135  (134,  ed. 
Sprengel);  Schol.  on  Nicandcr,  Thcr.,  70  so.;  Galen,  xi.  80S,  cd. 
iKuhu ;  Stcpli.  Uy?..,  s.v.  Mi'Atjtoj. 

,*  Lucian,  I)i<tl.  Mcrctr. ,  ii.  1.  On  the  othcF  hand,  wo  read  in  Strabo 
(i.  3,  20)  of  virpins  at  Alponus  ascending  a  toiver  as  spectators  (Kara 
bfSLv)  of  tho  Thcsmophoria,  which  would  snora  to  imply  that  they  did 
not  participate  in  it. 

2  Is;cus,  I)c  Cironis  Jlered.^  19;  fd.,  Dc  Pyrrhl  Jlcrcd.^  80. 

*  Arisloph..  Thesm.,  624,  C58,  willi  the  Schol.  ad  il.  As  to  tho 
^custom  of  campinj;  out  at  festivals,  Plutarch  {Qua:st.  Cimviv.,  iv.  6,  2) 
compares  tho  Jewisli  Feast  of  Tabernacles  with  the  Greek  Dionysia; 
'roin  which  we  mny  pprliaps  infer  that  the  worshippurc  camped  out  at 
the  Dionysia.      Cp.  Giunilla,  Ilisloirc  dc  I'Orowquc,  i.  p.  256  s^. 

'^.  Clem.  Alex.,  Prohrp.,  19.;  Schnl.  on  Sophocles,  (Ed.  Cot.,  681. 
*  *  Man.elhnus  on  Herniogenes,  in  Rhefarnt  Or&ci.  cd.  Walz,  iv.  4G2  ; 
^JOpate^,  ibid.,  viii.  C7. 

>'  Ahstoph.,  Thcsm..^  80.'  The  word  rpirri  seems  to  mean  the 
Mesteia,  as  the  Schol.  ad  I.  takes  il.  That  tho"'niddlft  day"  was 
ihe  Nestcia  wo  know  from  Athena;us,  307/. 

8  Xonophon,  Iltllrn.^  v.  2.  29:  Piutarcb.  Oi«w^'(7r,;31  CAtben-. 
ani9,  C47((. 

*  Pnlyx'nus,  V.  ],  1;  Herod otus.'^vi.  16;  Pansnnias.'x.  33,  12.v 

***  MrC.  T.  Newton  discovered  in  the  sauctuary  of  Demeter  and  the 
Infernal  Deities  at  Cnidus  a  chamlier  which  may  have  been  one  of  the 
\negara  reffrred  to  by  the  scholiast.  It  contained  bones  of  pigs  and 
marble  fij^nres  of  piRS.  The  cliatnber  was  not,  however,  origiDally 
Kubterranean.  See  Newton's  Discoveries  at  Ilahcarjiassus,  <fec.,  it. 
"p.  383  .t-;.  :  Id.,  Travels  and  Discnivncs  in  the  Levant,  ii.  p.  180  sq, 
^According  to  Porphyry  (De  Andro  Nympharum,  6)  the  Infernal 
■  Deities  had  T7M'(7(/ra,  aa  the  Olympian  had  templea^  aud  the  sacrificial 
■Jrtti  of:  the  former  corrupoDded  to  the  altars  of  the  latter.  / 


'inTjTlio  decaycd^rcmains  of  tlic  flesh  were  afterwards  fetclied 
by  women  calli-d  "drawers"  {anllctrini),  who,  after  obscrviug 
rules  of  ceremonial  purity  for  three  d.iys,  desccitdi_'d  into  the 
caverns,  and,  fiii^iitcnin;;  awny  llie  serpents  by  clappinjj  their 
hands,  broii;;lit  up  the  ivmairisatul  i>laci'il  them  on  ilm  altars." 
Wlioevcr  got  a  portion  of  this  decayed  llnsli  and  sowed  it  with  the 
seed  in  the  groimd  w.as  supposeil  thereby  to  secure  a  good  crop.** 
The  rest  of  tlie  bcholion  is  obscuri',  aud  pirhaps  corrupt,  but  tho 
following  seems  to  be  tho  sense.  Tho  ceremony  above  dcseribed 
was  called  the  arretophoria,  and  was  supposed  to  rxcrcisc  the  samo 
quickening  and  fertilizing  influence  on  uu-n  as  on  Melds.  ■  Kurlhcr,' 
alung  with  the  pigs,  sacred  cake**  made  of  diuigli,  in  tlic  shnjie  of 
scrjiLiils  and  of  plialU,  were  cast  uilo  the  caviins,  to  symbolize 
the  productivity  of  tho  cai tli  and  of  inan.  Brandies  r»i'  pines 
wern  thrown  in  '^  for  a  similnr  reason. 

The  custom  deserdied  in  this  important  scholion  is  clearly  th? 
same  as  that  referred  to  by  Clemens  Alexandriniis  {Prolrcp  ,  §  17) 
nnd  Paiisaiiias  (ix.  8,  1).  From  the  latter  we  learn  that  the  pigs 
were  sucking  pigs,  and  from  the  former  (if  wo  adopt  Lobcik's 
emendation  ft^ydpoi^  {i^i/ras  lor  tifyapi^ovm)  that  they  were  thrown 
in  alive.  From  I'ausanias  we  may  further  perhaps  infer  (though 
tho  passage  is  corrupt)  that  the  remains  of  the  pigs  thrown  down 
in  ono  year  were  not  fetched  up  till  the  samo  time  ne.xt  year  (cpJ 
Pans.,  X.  32,  14).  Tiie  (piestion  remains,  At  what  point  of  tho 
Tliesmoplinria  ditl  the  ceremony  described  by  tho  sclioliast  on 
Lueian  take  place?  Ilohdo  thinks  that  it  formed  part  of  tho  ccre-i 
monies  at  II. dim  us,  his  chief  ground  bting  that  Clemens  (T^rofrfT?.,' 
34)  and  Arnnbius  (v.  28)  mention  piialli  in  connexion  with  tho 
"  mysteries  at  llalimus";  I)ut  it  is  not  certain  that  these  mysteries 
wero  tho 'i'hesmophoria.  'l"lio  legend  of  Euhnleus  seems  to  show 
tliat  the  ceremony  commcmoraled  tho  descent  of  Proserpine  to 
tho  nether  winld;  and,  if  wc  are  riglit  in  our  interpretation  of  tho 
name  Kathodos  as  ai>plied  to  the  first  day  of  tlte  Thcsmophoria 
proper,  the  ceremony  described  would  nattirally  fall  oii  that  day.j 
Further,  if  our  interpretation  of  I'ausanias  is  correct,  the  samo' 
day  must  have  witnessed  tlio  descent  of  the  living  pigs  and  the 
ascent  of  the  rotten  poik  of  the  ])revious  year.  Hence  tlic  day 
might  bo  indillereully  styled  Kathodos  or_Anodos  (I'desccntV  or 
"ascent");  anil  so  in  fact  it  was. 

It  is  usual  to  interpret  Thesmophorus  ''lawgiver"  and  Thcsmo-^ 
phoria  "the  feast  of  the  lawgiver. "  Hut  tlic  Greek  for  *' lawgiver'* 
is  not  Thesmophorus  but  Thesmothetes  (or  Nomothetes,  when 
nomos  displacerH/ws7;fn5  in  the  sensi;  of  "law").  If  wc  comparo 
such  names  of  festivals  as  Oseliophoiia,  Lanipadephoria,  Hydro 
jthoria,  Seirophoria  ('*  the  carryings  of  grapes,  of  torehes,  of  water, 
of  uml)rellas'")  with  the  corresponding  U.sehophoriis,  Lampade- 
pborns,  Hydrophorus,  also  Thallo[ihorus  and  Kanephorns,  we  can 
scarcely  help  concluding  that  Thcsmoplioria  must  originally  have 
meant  in  the  literal  aud  physical  sense  the  carrying  of  the  tkcstiioi) 
and  Thesmophorus  tlic  person  who  so  carried  them;  and,  in  vicwj 
(if  tho  ceremony  disclosed  by  the  scholiast  on  Lucian  (compared 
witlifclhc  analogous  ceremony  observe<t  by  the  Arre]dioroi  at 
Athen';),  weare  strongly  temjilcd  to  su|>posc  that  the  women  whom^ 
he  calls  Antlelriai  may  have  beeit  also  known,  at  one  time  or  other,] 
as  Thesmophorni,  and  that  the  thcsnioi  were  the  sacra  which  they, 
carried  and  deposited  on  the  idtnr. '  The  word  would  then  be  used 
in  its  literal  sense,  "that  wliieh  is  sot  tlown."  }Iow  the  namo 
Thcsmoiiliorus  should  have  been  transferred  to  the  goddess  from' 
her  ministers  is  of  course  a  didiculty,  which  is  hardly  disposed  of 
by  pointing  to  the  epithets  Amallopborus  ("shcaf-beariDg")  and, 
Melophofus  ("apple-bearing"),  which  wero  applied  to  men  n^  well 
.as  to  the  goddess. 

As  to  tiic  origin  of  the  Thcsmophoria,' Herodotus  tii.  171)  asserts' 
that  they  were  introduced  into  Greece  from  Egypt  by  thedaughtera 
of  Danaus;  wliile,  aecording  to  Plutarch  (Frar/mcnts,  p.  55,  ed; 
Dubncr),  the  feast  was  introduced  into  Athens  by  Orpheus  tho 
Odrysian.  From  these  statements  wc  can  only  infer  the  similarity 
of  the  Thcsmophoria  to  the  Orphic  rites  and  to  tho  Egyptian  repre- 
sentation of  tlie  sullerings  of  Osiris,  in  connexion  with  wliieh 
Plutarch  mentions  them.  The  Thosmophoria  would  thus  form  onq 
of  that  class  of  rites,  widely  spread  in  Western  Asia  and  in  Europe, 
in  which  the  main  feature  appears  to  be  a  lamentation  for  the  annual 
dec^y  of  vegetation  or  a  rejoicing  at  its  revival.  This  seems  to 
have  be?n  tlic  root,  e.g.,  of  tho  lamentations  for  Adonis  and  AttiSj 
Sec  W.  Mannhardt,  AntiLx  U'ald-  nnd  Fdd-KuUc,  p.  264  sq. 

'..  '>  Comp.iro  the  functions  of  the  two  Arrephoroi  at  Athens  (Paus., 
i,  27,  3).  ^  For  serpents  in  connexion  with  Demeter,  compare  StraboJ 
ix.  1,9.   '  ,     _ 

^2  This,  as  Mr  Andrew  Lang  h.as  pointed  out,  resembles  the  Khond 
custom  of  burying  the  flesh  of  the  human  victim  in  the  fields  to 
fertilize  them.  The  human  victim  was  v;ith  the  Kbonds,  like  the  pig 
with  the  Greeks,  a  sacrifice  to  the  Earth  goddess.  See  W.  Macphet; 
son,  MemoTials  of  Service  in  India,  p.  129. 

'^  Reading  tn$d\\ov{Tt,  with  Rokde,  for  XafiQivOvmi'  Compare  th» 
custom  of  Miletus  mpra.  The  pine-tree  played  .in  important  part  Id 
the  worship  of  Cybele.  ^^Cp.  Marquardt,  SCaatsvenoaUunff,  iii.  371. 


i 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


297 


f 


On  t)w  TnesmopDona.  soe  Meorslas,  Ormeia  Feriala,  p.  ISl  tq. ;  L.  Prelier, 
Omrter  Mr,<i  Pentp\ome.  p.  S35  sq  .  Id..  On<cA,  Myth..  [3],  L  639  $g.\  Frltache't 
ed.  of  ihe  rfta'»icp!ioriaztux,  p.  577  tq.\  Auc-  Mommsen.  Beortciogit^  p.  237 
to. :  RJmtuKDei  ituinn.  xiT.  (18T0).  p.  M8  ;  OoifUe  Arc/uoiogi^ve,  18S0,  p.  17 ; 
Mr  Andrew  LMg,  In  ttniuaiin  CcMurf,  April  18S7.  (J.  G.  FB.) 

THESPIyE,  an  ancient  Greek  city  of  Boeotia.  It 
stood  on  level  ground  commanded  by  the  low  range  of 
hills  which  runs  eastward  from  the  foot  of  Mount  Helicon 
to  Thebes.  In  the  Persian  invasion  the  Thespian  con- 
tingent of  700  men  voluntarily  stayed  with  the  Spartans 
at  ThermopyL-e,  and  shared  their  fata  For  ita  resistance 
to  the  Persians,  the  city  was  burned  by  Xerxes  (480  B.C.). 
Nevertheless,  in  the  next  year  1800  Thespians  shared  in 
the  great  victory  of  Platsea.  At  the  battle  of  Delium 
(424)  the  flower  of  the  Thespians  fell  fighting  against 
Athens  on  the  side  of  Thebes,  and  in  the  following  year 
the  jealous  Thebans  availed  themselves  of  the  weakness 
of  their  gallant  confederate  to  pull  down  the  walls  of 
Thespiae.  The  walls  were  restored  by  the  Spartans  under 
Agesilaus  in  378,  but  were  again  destroyed  by  the  The- 
bans, apparently  before  the  battle  of  Leuctra  (371).' 
After  the  battle  the  Thespians,  who  had  taken  no  part 
in  it,  withdrew  to  a  strong  place,  Ceressus,  from  which, 
however,  they  were  expelled  by  the  Thebans.  In  343 
the  city  was  not  yet  restored ;  but  it  must  have  been  sub- 
sequently, for  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Roman  wars. 

In  the  2d  century  Pausanias  meotions  that  Thespi.'e  contained 
a  theatre,  a  niarket-placa  {agora),  and  sanctuaries  of  Aphrodite, 
the  Musfs,  and  Hercules.  Love  (Eros)  was  the  deity  most  vener- 
ated by  the  Thespians ;  they  possessed  a  very  ancient  image  of 
him  in  the  sh.ipe  of  an  unheivn  block  of  stone.  Tlie  marble  statue 
of  Love  by  Praxiteles  was  the  great  sight  at  Thespise,  and  drew 
crowds  to  tlie  place.  It  was  carried  off  to  Rome  by  Caligula,  re- 
stored by  Claudins,  and  again  carried  off  by  Nero.  There  was 
also  a  bronze  statue  of  Love  by  Lysippus.  From  an  inscription 
we  learn  that  one  of  the  deities  worsliipped  was  Demeter  Achea, 
the  *'  Slater  Dolorosa."  The  Thespians  also  wor>hippe  J  the  SIuscs, 
and  celebrated  a  festival  in  their  honour  in  the  sacred  grove  on 
Mount  Hehcon.  Remains  of  what  was  probably  the  micient 
citadel  are  still  to  be  seen,  consisting  of  an  oblong  or  oval  line  of 
fortification,  solidly  and  regularly  built.  The  adjacent  ground  to 
the  east  and  soath  is  covered  with  foundations,  bearing  witness  to 
the  extent  of  the  ancient  city.  The  neighbouring  village  Ereiiio- 
kastro,  on  higher  ground,  was  thought  by  Ulrichs  to  be  probably 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Ceressus.  In  1882  there  were  discovered, 
about  1200  yards  cast  of  Eremokastro,  on  the  road  to  Arkopodi 
(Leactra),  the  remains  of  a  polyandrion,  including  a  colossal  stone 
lion.  The  tomb  dates  from  the  5th  century  B.C.,  and  is  probably 
that  of  the  Thespians  who  fell  at  Plat^ea.  for  those  who  fell  at 
Thermopylae  were  buried  on  the  field. 

See  Lenke,  Travell  in  Northern  Greece,  11.  479  17. ;  Dodwell,  Tour  through 
Oreece,  1.  253;*  Bnr^ian,  Oeogr.  ron  Griuhen!nud,  1.  237  sq.;  Ulrich*.  Reitm'u. 
Forichungoi  in  O riechenland,  ii.  84  fj. ;  Mittheit.  d.  devlseh.  archaoj.  /nit.  in 
Athen,  laT9,  pp.  190  17  273  iq.;  UfiaxriKa  T155  iv  'Adnyiui  dpvfuoAoyiicfls 
ira^Ut,  18S2,  pp.  64-7*.  •  r\  7     n 

THESSALONIANS,  Epistles  to  the.  Thessalonica, 
now  Saioxica  {q.v.),  was  in  the  time  of  the  Romans  the 
most  important  town  of  Macedonia.  In  consequence  of 
its  advantageous  situation,  on  a  good  harbour  and  on 
the  Via  Egnatia,  the  great  trade  road  which  connected  the 
Adriatic  with  the  Hellespont,  the  town  had  surpassed  the 
eld  capital  Pella,  and  had  indeed  become  one  of  the  chief 
commercial  centres  of  the  ancient  world.  Since  the  Roman 
conquest  the  seat  of  the  Roman  provincial  government 
had  been  here.  Here,  as  in  Corinth,  the  conditions  were 
favourable  for  the  reception  of  Christianity.  The  popula- 
tion was  not  purely  Greek,  but  cosmopolitan,  a  mixture  of 
divers  nationalities.  Such  a  population  is  always  more 
susceptible  to  religious  novelties  for  good  and  for  evil 
than  one  of  old,  firmly  established  national  growth.  The 
apostle  Paul  experienced  this  to  his  great  joy  and  satis- 
faction here  al.^o,  as  he  for  thfe  first  time  set  foot  on  the 

'  Xeno^ihon  {l/ellen.;  *i.  3  1  and  S)  and  Diodoriis  (xv  46)  speak  of 
Thespiae  i=.  if  it  had  been  destroyed  and  in  inhabitants  driven  away 
before  the  battle  of  Lejictra  ;  but,  as  the  Tlie>piau  troops  were  present 
with  the  Tliehans  immediately  before  the  battle  (Paus.,  ix.  13,  8),  it 
would  -.eera  tliat  only  the  walls,  not  the  city  itself,  had  been  previously 
<er.i^'ed      See  Grot;,  HUl.  tij  Cruca,  ix.  p  .'(79. 


shores  of  Europe  with  the  messags  of  Jesus  Christ.  It 
was  about  the  year  52  or  53  that  he,  on  his  arrival 
from  Philippi,  preached  the  gospel  of  Christ  in  the  rich 
merchant  city.  As  in  other  places,  he  began  with  the 
Jews.  There  was  a  Jewish  congregation  at  Thessalonica, 
as  at  all  ^^^  great  ports  and  trading  centres  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, with,  their  own  synagogue  and  regular  servica 
For  three  Sabbaths  Paul  stood  up  in  the  synagogue,  prov. 
ing  by  the  Scriptures  that  Jesus  was  the  promised  and 
expected  Messiah  (Acts  xvii  1-3).  He  had  not  much 
success  with  the  Jews,  but  this  was  more  than  compen- 
sated by  the  number  of  "  devout  Greeks  "  (i.e.,  Gentiles 
who  already  had  some  connexion  with  Judaism)  whom  he 
won  to  a  belief  in  Christ.  He  found  hearing  especially 
\rith  the  chief  women  (Acts  xviii.  4).  But  Paul  had  also 
converted  a  not  smaller  number  of  real  heathens.  Indeed, 
they  must  have  co'nstituted  the  majority  of  the  Christian 
church  there  formed,  for  in  his  first  epistle  he  says  quite 
generally  that  his  readers,  in  consequence  of  his  preaching, 
had  turned  from  idols  to  the  one  true  God  (1  Thess.  i.  9). 

Paul's  stay  in  Thessalonica  was  short.  The  plots  of  the 
Jews  soon  obliged  him  to  leave  the  town,  and  he  betook 
himself  to  Bercea  (Acts  xvii.  10),  thence  to  Athens  (Acts 
xvii.  15),  and  finally  to  Corinth  (.\cts  xviii.  1).  The  two 
epistles  were  written  to  the  church  of  Thessalonica  during 
a  stay  of  a  year  and  a  half  in  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  11), 
about  53-54,  not  before  this  in  Athens,  as  is  asserted  io 
the  subscription  of  both  epistles  in  the  Codex  .Mexandrinus 
and  other  MSS.  For  when  Paul  wrote  the  first  epistle 
some  time  had  elapsed  since  the  formation  of  the  church  : 
some  members  were  already  dead  (1  Thess.  iv.  13),  and 
Paul  had  workfd  for  some  time,  not  only  in  Macedonia, 
but  also  in  Achaia  (i.  7,  8).  On  the  other  hand,  the  church 
appears  to  be  comparatively  young ;  the  conversions  are 
still  spoken  of  everywhere  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia  (i.  9). 
All  this  points  to  the  conclusion  that  the  first  epistle  was 
written  in  Corinth,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  opening 
salutation  (L  1),  in  which  Silvanus  (Silas)  and  Timotheus 
are  named  as  joint  authors,  for  they  were  in  Corinth  pith 
Paul  (Acts  xviti.  5). 

The  first  epjstle  gives  us  a  very  clear  picture  of  the 
disposition  and  state  of  such  a  young  church,  composed 
of  former  heathens.  They  had  received  with  enthusiasm 
the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Bringer  of  salvation,  the 
Saviour  in  the  approaching  day  of  judgment  (i.  9,  10). 
But  the  realization  of  this  salvation  is  now  awaited  with 
impatience,  and  a  sense  of  disappointment  is  expcrien(«d 
because  some  members  of  the  church  have  died  without 
having  seen  the  advent  of  the  Lord  (iv.  13).  At  the 
same  time  many  there  are  still  living  in  gross  heathen 
sins  and  vices  (iv.  1-8).  Paul  had  sent  back  Timotlicus 
from  Athens  to  Thessalonica  in  order  to  advise  the  young 
inexperienced  church,  and  to  obtain  news  concerning  it 
(iii.  1-5).  He  has  just  returned  to  Paul  (iii.  G),  and  the 
information  received  through  this  source  is  the  occasion 
of  the  first  epistle,^  designed  to  supply  the  place' of 
Paul's  personal  presence  and  bring  new  exhortation  and 
instruction  from  the  apostle  to  the  young  church,  which 
still  much  needed  guidance. 

We  have  no  information  concerning  the  effect  of  this 
letter  It  is  conceivable,  hc^•eve^,  that  the  cliurch  re- 
quired yet  further  advice  and  direction  from  the  apostlp, 
and  so  far  it  is  not  remarkable  that  Pajul.saw  the  need  for 
a  second  similar  letter  of  teaching  and''exhortatioM  This 
second  epistle  also,  if  it  is  genuine,  w.»s  written  duiing 
Paul's  stay  of  a  year  and  a  half  at  Corinth,  very  soon  after 

*  Acconling  to  Acts  xvii  14-lIi  uri.l  xvm.  5,  Silas  an. I  Tiinolheus 
had' reiiiainuil  lrt:tiind  in  Ueroia,  and  hrst  met  Paul  ;igain  in  Corinth. 
Butaccordiuy  to  1  Thes.s.  iii  1-D  it  hiust  be  iuulerstood  that  rimutbeus 
was  in  Athens  with  Paul,  and  bad  been  sent  thence  tb  Thesiilumc*. 

XX  J  U.  —  ^8 


298 


THE  —  T  H  E 


the  first,  f'or  it  also  is  written  in  the  conjoined  names  of 
Silvanus  and  Timothcus,  who  were  still  with  I'aul,  while 
we  must  understand  from  Acts  xviil.  18  that  after  Paul's 
departure  from  Corinth  they  ceased  to  be  his  companions. 
The  occasion  of  this  epistle  seems  especially  to  have  arisen 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  church  had  been  put  into 
fear  and  anxiety  about  the  advent  of  Christ,  perhaps  by  a 
pretended  letter  from  I'aul.  Two  passages  point  to  the 
existence  of  such  a  thing  :  iu  ii.  2,  Paul  says  that  the 
church  shall  not  let  itself  be  alarmed  "  by  word  or  by  letter 
OS  frorn  us  "  (i.e.,  nominally  coming  from  us),  and  in  iii.  1 7 
ttgain  Paul  lays  emphasis  on  his  signature  by  his  own 
hand  a?  the  token  (of  genuineness)  to  be  noticed  in  each 
letter.  In  any  case  the  chief  aim  of  the  epistle  is  to  tran- 
quillize the  church  concerning  the  advent  of  Christ,' which 
b  not  yet  immediately  imminent.  He  particularly  exhorts 
them  not  to  let  themselves  be  shaken  in  mind,  as  that  the 
day  of  Christ  is  at  hand  (ii.  1,  2).  For  before  this  day 
comes  the  "  man  of  sin  "  must  first  appear,  who  seats 
himself  in  the  temple  of  God,  and  gives  huncclf  ont  for 
God  (ii.  3-5).  And  he  too  is  for  the  present  kept  back  by 
another  power  (ii.  6,  7).  Only  when  the  latter  is  taken 
out  of  the  way  shall  "  that  wicked  "  be  revealed,  and  the 
great  falling  away  shall  follow  (ii.  8-12). 

The  genuineness  of  the  two  epistles  has  not  remained 
unquestioned  by  the  newer  criticism.  Baur  declared  him- 
self against  the  genuineness  of  both  epistle.s,'  and  he  is 
followed  by  Van  der  Vies '  and  several  others.'  But  in 
general  the  predominant  opinion  of  impartial  criticism  at 
present  is  that  the  genuineness  of  the  first  cpistla  is 
certain,  while  that  of  the  second  must  be  given  up. 

Tbi3  is  tltc  opinion  of  Hilscnfeld  {Z.  /.  vtIss.  Thtol,  1S62,  p. 
225-264;  18C6,  p.  295-301;  1S69,  p.  441  sq.;  1870,  p.  244  sq\ 
Van  M.Tticn  {Ondcrzock  nnar  dcxcJdktid  van  Paulus  tweatcn  britj 
lOTi  dt  TUssnlunicciscii,  Utrecht,  1865),  S.  Davidson  Unlrod.  to 
•he  New  Tasliiiiidii.  2J  iJ.,  1SS2,  i.  4-16,  336-351),  WcLzsackcr 
[Das  apostolische  Zitnlter,  1S86.  p.  249-261);  and  Holtzinann 
also  leans  to  the  same  view,  without,  however,  definitely  commit- 
ting  himself  {Einl.  %n  d.  N.  T.,  2dea.,  1886.  p.  433-241).  The 
genuineness  of  the  first  epistle  is  vindicated  by  LipsiuS  {TJiaal.  SC. 
u.  Kr.,  1854,  p.  905-934),  Von  Soden  {ibid.,  1885,  p.'  263-310), 
and  Paul  Schmidt  (L'erersfc  ThcssahnKherbrit;/ n^u  erkidrt,  Berlin, 
1885),  while,  on  the  other  hand.  Kern  {Tubing.  ZeUschr.  /  Theot., 
1339,  ii.  145-214)  and  Babiisen  {JahT-b.  far  prot.  Theol.,  1880, 
p.  681-706)  attack  that  of  the  second.  Grimm  {Theol.  Su  u.  Kr., 
1860,  p.  753-816)  and  Westrik  {Dc  echlhetd  van  den  tweedm  brief 
aan  de  Thessalonice-nsm,  Utrecht,  1879)  have  entered  tho  lists  for 
the  genuineness  of  both  epistles. 

The  final  decision  of  the  newer  criticism  is  justified  by 
the  evidence.  No  real  difficulties  can  be  brought  against 
the  genuinenes.s  of  the  first  epistle,  but  they  certainly  can 
igainst  that  of  the  second.  When  Baur  finds  that  the 
epistles  lack  the  characteristic  Pauline  ideas,  he  is  only  so 
far  right  that  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  is  not 
dealt  with,  for  which,  however,  no  occasion  arises.  It  has 
been  asserted  that  there  are  traces  of  imilation  of  the 
epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  but  the  points  pf  resemblance 
are' not  such  as  to  justify  this  conclusion.  Tho  connexion 
of  tho  passage  in  1  Thess.  ii.  16  (the  wrath  of  God  is 
already  come  upon  the  Jews)  with  the  destruction  of 
■Jerusalem  rests  on  an  arbitrary,  nay  false,  interpretation. 
And  it  cannot  be  maintained  on-  impartial  examination 
that  in  1  Thcafl.  ii.  14,  15,  thoTewish  churches  of  Palestine 
Rfe  set  forth  in  a  way  unlike  Panl,  as  an  example  for  the 
heathen  churches. 

The  objections  to  the  second  epistlo  are  much  weightier, 
though  here  also  not  all  the  argum^jits  adduced  by  hostile 

*  Pa^Ju*  der  AposUl  Jesni  Cliristi,  1846,  and  Tlt^oh'tiulie  Jnkr- 
Wichrr,  185,1,  p   141-168,  reprinted  in  2d  ed.  of  Vnu/uj.  ii.  341-369. 

'  De  Oci'fc  liTievm  nnn  de  ThfSSftlontcenserl,  t,oyden,  1865. 

•  Holsten  aJuo  (J<ihrl,.  f.  jirot.  Theol.,  1877;  p.  731  ^7.)  and  Slcrk 
UahTh.  f.  jjTot.  Thiol.,  1893.  p.  509-624)  diisputc  llic  pi-nuiDcneM 
at  tlie  tint  epiatle,  presupposing  the  epurioiisuess  oi  tlio  second. 


critics  are  valid.    "It  has  been  often  said  that  the  auJhSi^ 

like  tho  author  of  the  Apocalypse,  regards  Nero  aa  the 

Antichrist,  expecting  him  to  reappear  as  tho  arch.enemj 

of  Christ.     But  this  intcr[irctation  of  the  short  stiiteniem 

of  our  epistle  cannot  be  proved.     Tne  assumption  that! 

buforo  the  dawn  of  salvation  godlessness  would  reach  its 

height,  through  tho  appearance  of  an  arch-enemy  of  bod 

and  His  church  is,  sotohpcak,  a  dogmatic  postulate  which 

rusts  oil  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  and  other  prophets  of  the 

Old  Testament.     /Vud,  in  so  far  as  the  picture  of  this  arch; 

enemy  is  endowed  with  historical  features,  they  can  quite 

as   well    have  been  drawn  from  Caligula  as  from  Kero. 

For  Caligula  had  already  laid  claim  to  the  honours  of  a 

god,  and  because  of  this  appeared  to  tho  Jews  to  be  the 

embodiment  of  godlcssricss.     The  assumption  of  such  an 

Antichrist   would  not   be   striking  in   Pauh     Even  if  if 

.s   correct   (as   is  generally  and  with   reason   taken   for 

granted)   that   by  the   hindrance  which   keeps  back  the 

appearance  of  Antichrist  (2  Thess.  ii.  6,  7)  the  established 

might  of  the  Roman  emperor  and  empire  is  to  be  unaer. 

stood,   this  view  would  be  quite  in  keeping  with  Paul'a 

vicv!  about  the  Roman  dominion  /Horn.  xiii.  1-7).     Yet 

it  must  be  conceded  that  the  statements  on  this  head 

create  real  difiiculty,  if  wc  compare  them  with  those  of  tha 

first  epistle,  in  which  all  stress  is  laid  on  the  fact  that  the 

day  of  the  Lord  comes  as  a  thief  in  the  night,  and  that 

man  must  be  prepared  for  it  at  any  momcut  (1  Thess.  v 

1-11).     In  the  second  epistle  it  is  pointed  out  with  cquat 

emphasis  that  the  day  of  the  Lord  is  not  immediately 

imminent,   and   that  certain  events   must   come  first  ■(? 

Thess.  ii.  1-10).     It  is  certainly  very  striking  that  Paul 

so  soon  after  the  admonitions  of  the  first  kind,  should  ^ 

have  given  the  quieting  assurances  of  the  second.     And 

2  Thess.  ii.  2  and  iii.  7  can  hardly  be  explained  except  by 

tho  supposition  that   the  readers  had  been  thrown  into 

alarm  by  a  pretended  epistle  from  Paul.     Could  this  have 

been  dared  in  that  early  time,  almost  under  tho  eyes  of 

the  apostle?     Finally,  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  the  stylo 

of  the  second  epistle  is  different  from  that  of  tho  first,  and 

that  the  contents  often  appear  a  mere  imitation,  except  in 

the  eschatological  passages  on   account  of  which  it  was 

written.     It  must  therefore  be  admitted  that  weighty  if 

not  conclusive  considerations  have  been  produced  against 

its  genuineness.  (e.  s*.) 

THESSALONICA.     See  Balonica. 

THESSALY  is  tho  district  of  northern  Greece  which  Se»  to, 
intervenes    between    M.acedonia   and    the    more    purcjy  «i  Pl»te» 
Hellenic  countries   towards   tho  south,  and  between  the  !   "'"', 
upland  region  of  Epirus  and  the  yEgean  Sea.     It  forms  an  ,.„|  ,, 
irregular  square,  extending  for  about  sixty  miles  in  each  Pi   ill. 
direction,  and  this  area,  which  is  for  the  most  part  level 
is  enclosed  by  well-marked  boundaries — by  the  Cambuniar 
Mountains  on  the  north,  and  by  Othrys  on  the  south, 
while  on  its  western  side  runs  the  massive  chain  of  Pindus. 
which  IS  the  backbone  of  this  part  of  Greece,  and  towards 
the  east  Ossa  and  Pclion  stand  in  a  continuous  line  ;  at 
the  north-eastern  angle  Olympus  rises,  and  is  the  keystone 
of  the  whole  mountain  .<y.stcni.     The  elevation  of  some  ot 
the  summits  in  these  ranges  is  considerable,  for  three  oi 
tho  peaks  of  Pindu?-  aro  over  5000  feet,  and  Olympus 
Ossa,  and  Pelion  reach  respectively  the  height  of  9754 
6407,    and    6310   feet.     The   country  that   is  contained 
within   these   limits   is  drained   by  a   single   river,  the 
Pencius,  which,  together  with  the  water  of  its  numerous 
confluents,  passes  into  the  sea  through  the  Vale  of  Tempo. 
Tin's  pl.ace,  which  the  Greeks  were  ace  u.^iomcd  to  associate 
with  rural  delights,  is  a  chasm,  cloven  in  the  locks.  a;!  the 
fable  tells  us,  by  the  trident  of  Poseidon,  bcl«ei.ii  OI>inpHS 
and  Ossa ;  .but  though  it  possesses  every  clcnicm  ol  the 
jublimo,  yetjts  features  are_8oft._and  beautiful,  horn  \k<t 


T  H  E  — T  H  E 


299 


broad  winding  river,  the  lozariant  vegetation,  and  the 
l^lades  that  at  iaterrals  open  ont  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs. 
It  is  about  four  miles  And  a  half  long,  and  towards  the 
oajddle  of  the  pass,  where  tbo  rocks  are  highest,  the  pre- 
cipices in  the  direction  of  Olympus  fall  so  steeply  as  to 
bar  the  passage  on  that  side  ;  but  those  which  descend 
from  Ossa  are  the  loftiest,  for  they  rise  in  many  places  not 
less  than  loOO  feel  from  the  valley.  Owing  to  the  length 
and  nirrowness  of  the  ravine,  it  was  a  position  easily 
defended,  but  still  it  offered  a  practicable  entrance  to  aa 
invading  force,  in  consoiiuenec  of  which  a  number  of 
castles  Were  built  al  ditfcrcnt  times  at  the  strongest 
points.  On  thi?  north  side  of  Thcs-saly  there  was  an  im- 
portant pa.ss  from  Tctra  in  Pieria  by  the  western  side  of 
Olympus,  dctiouching  on  the  plain  northward  of  L;irissa  ; 
it  was  by  this  that  .\rr\es  entered,  and  we  learn  from 
Herodotus  (vii  17:1)  lli:it,  when  the  Grecki discovered  the 
existence  of  this  pas.-<ige,  they  gtive  up  all  thoughts  of 
defending  Tciii|io.  Ou  the  side  of  Epirus  the  main  line 
of  communication  pa.ssed  over  that  part  of  Pindus  which 
was  called  Mount  Lacmon,  and  descended  the  upix?r  valley 
of  the  Pencius  to  /■Egiiuum  in  the  north-wtst  angle  of 
Tbessaly,  near  which  pLace  now  stand  the  extraordinary 
monasteries  of  Meteora.  Tins  was  tbo  route  by  which 
Julius  Cc-ar  arrived  before  the  battle  of  Pharsalia. 
Another  pass  through  the  Hindus  chain  was  that  of 
Gompbi,  farther  south,  by  means  of  which  there  was  com- 
munication with  the  Ambracian  Gulf.  The  great  southern 
pass  was  that  of  Ciela,  which  cros.-ies  Mount  Otbrys  nearly 
opposite  Thorniopyl.-u.  These  ThessaUan  passes  were  of 
the  utmost  ini|)urtanee  to  southern  Greece,  as  commanding 
the  approaches  to  ihat  part  of  the  country. 

Though  Thessaly  is  the  most  level  district  of  Greece,  it 
does  not  present  a  uniform  unbroken  surface,  but  is  com- 
poeed  of  a  nuinU-r  of  sections  which  open  out  into  one 
another,  divided  by  ranges  of  hills.  The  principal  of  these 
•»ere  called  Upper  and  Lower  Thessaly,  the  former  com- 
jlrising  the  western  and  south-western  part,  which  con- 
tains the  higher  course  of  the  Peneius  and  all  those  of  its 
tributaries  that  flow  from  the  south — the  Enipeus,  the 
Apidanus,  the  Onochonus,  and  the  Pamisus;  while  the 
Litter,  which  reaches  ea.*tward  to  the  foot  of  Ossa  and 
Pelion,  is  inundated  in  parts  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year 
by  the  Peneius,  the  flood  water  from  which  forms  the  lake 
Nessonis,  and,  when  that  is  full,  escapes  again  and  fiours 
itself  into  the  Lake  of  di-be.  The  chief  city  of  the  latter 
of  these  districts  was  Larissa ,  and  the  two  were  se[)aratcd 
from  one  another  by  a  long  spur,  which  runs  southwards 
feom  the  Cambunian  Mountains  on  the  western  side  of 
diat  city.  Again,  when  Thessaly  is  entered  from  the 
aonth  by  the  pass  of  Ccela,  another  plain,  containing  a 
small  lake,  which  was  formerly  called  Xynias,  intervenes, 
and  a  line  of  low  hills  has  to  be  crossed  before  the  town  of 
Tbaumaci  is  reached,  which  from  its  commanding  position 
overlooks  the  whole  of  the  upper  plain.  The  view  from 
this  point  b^  been  described  by  Livy  in  the  following 
remarkable  passage  — "  When  the  traveller,  in  passing 
throDgb  the  rugged  districts  of  Thessaly,  where  the  roads 
are  entangled  in  the  windings  of  the  valleys,  arrives  at  this 
city,  on  a  sudden  an  immense  level  expanse,  resembling 
a  vast  sea,  is  outspread  before  him  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  eye  cannm  ea.*ily  reach  the  limit  of  the  plains 
extendeil  honealh  "  (x.<xii  4)  To  the  northeastwards  of 
this,  where  a  pornon  of  the  great  plain  begins  to  run  up 
into  the  mountains,  thej'lain  of  Pharsalia  is  formed,  which 
is  intersected  "by  the  river  Enipeus;  and  still  farther  in 
the  same  direction  Is  the  scene  of  another  great  battle, 
CYooscephali.  Thessaly  was  further  suMivided  into  four 
districts,  of  which  Pelasgiotis  embraced  the  lower  plain  of 
the  Peneios.  and  IIesti:;^otia  and  Thessaliotis  respectively 


the  northern  and  the  southern  portions  of  the  upper  plain 
while  the  fourth,  Phthiotis,  which  lies  towards  the  south- 
east, was  geographically  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the 
country,  being  separated  from  it  by  a  watershed.  The 
determining  feature  of  this  is  the  Pagasseus  Sinus  (Gulf 
of  V'olo),  a  landlocked  basin,  e.^tending  from  Pagasoe  at 
its  head  to  Aphetie  at  its  narrow  outlet,  where  the  chain 
of  PeUon,  turning  at  right  angles  to  its  axis  at  the  end  of 
Magnesia,  throws  out  a  projecting  line  of  broken  ridges, 
while  on  the  opposite  side  ri.-^e  the  heights  of  Othrys.  Id 
the  heroic  age  this  district  was  of  great  importance.  It 
was  the  birthplace  of  Greek  navigation,  for  this  seems  to 
be  implied  in  the  story  of  the  Argonauts,  who  started  from 
this  neighbourhood  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece.  From 
it  the  great  Achilles  came,  and,  according  to  Thucydides 
(i.  3),  it  was  the  early  home  of  the  Hellenic  race.  The  site 
of  lolcu.s,  the  centre  of  so  many  poetic  legend?,  is  at  no 
great  distance  from  the  modern  Volo.  Near  that  town 
also,  at  a  later  period,  the  city  of  Demetrias  was  founded  by 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  who  called  it  one  of  the  three  fetters 
of  Greece,  Chalcis  and  Corinth  being  the  other  two. 

The  history  of  Thessaly  is  clostly  Coiinectod  with  its  geography'. 
The  fertility  of  the  land  ottered  a  temptation  to  invaders,  and  waa 
tlius  Uio  primary  cause  of  the  early  migrations.  It  was  this 
motive  wliich  iirst  induccil  llic  Tlicssaluns  to  leave  tJieir  home  in 
Epirus  and  descend  into  tliis  *Iistrict.  and  from  this  movement 
arose  the  expulsion  of  the  Ikeutians  from  Arne,  and  Ihcir  settle- 
ment in  the  country  subsei^uenlly  called  Ba-utia  ;  while  another 
wave  of  the  same  tide  drove  the  Dori.ins  also  southward,  whose 
mi!»r.itinns  changetl  the  face  of  the  Pelo|>onnesc.  Again,  tliis  rich 
soil  was  the  natural  home  of  a  powerful  aristocracy,  such  as  the 
families  of  llio  Aieuad.-e  of  Lari;>sa  and  the  Scopada:  of  Crannon  ; 
and  tfie  af^sence  of  elevatM  positions  was  unfavourable  lo  the 
foundation  of  numerous  cities,  which  might  ti.ive  fostered  the 
spinlof  freedom  and  democracy.  Tlie  plains,  also,  were  ?iiiled  to 
the  breeding  of  horses,  and  consequently  the  I'orec  m  whieii  the 
Thessalian  nation  was  strong  was  cavalry,  a  kind  of  troops  wtiicb 
has  usually  lieen  associated  with  oligarchy.  The  wealth  :i:id  the 
semi-Hellenic  character  of  the  people— for  in  race,  as  in  gi  ograph- 
ical  position,  the  Thessalians  held  an  intermediate  place  K-tween 
the  non-Hellenic  Macedonians  and  the  Greeks  of  pure  LlooJ  — 
caused  them  to  bo  wanting  in  patriotism,  so  that  .at  the  time 
of  the  Persian  wars  we  find  the  A]euad,e  making  common  cause 
with  the  enemies  of  Greece.  VTien  they  were  united  they  were 
a  formidable  power,  but,  like  other  half-orgauized  communities, 
they  seldom  combined  for  long  together,  and  conseijueutly  they 
influenced  Iml  little  the  fortunes  of  the  Greeks. 

For  several  centuries  during  the  Middle  Ages  Koumanian  immi- 
grants formed  so  largo  a  part  of  the  population  of  Thessaly  that 
that  district  was  called  by  the  Byz-antine  writers  Great  Walachia 
(MtytiAT  RAaxfa)  :  the  Jewish  traveller,  IVnjamin  of  Tudela.  who 
passed  ihrouglj  the  country  in  the  latter  half  of  the  I2th  cenluryj 
describes  them  as  then  occupying  it  At  the  present  day  only  a' 
fey-  eolonies  of  that  race  remain,  the  printi|>al  of  which  arc  found 
on  tho  western  side  of  Olympus  and  in  some  ol  the  gorges  of 
Pindus.  The  Turkish  inluabitants  are  settled  in  the  largir  towns,' 
and  here  aud  th>-re  in  the  country  districts,  the  raost  important 
colony  being  those  called  Koniarates,  who  were  brought  froin 
Konieh  in  Asia  Alinor  shortly  before  the  taking  of  Constantinople, 
and  plantetl'under  the  south-west  angle  of  Olympus.  The  Greeks, 
however,  form  the  vast  majority  of  the  population,  so  much  so 
that,  even  while  the  country  belongeil  to  llie  Ottomans,  Greek  was 
employed  as  the  official  language.  In  accordance  with  the  pro-! 
visions  of  the  Berlin  treaty,  Thessaly  vva-*  ceded  to  thP  Gr\-eks  by 
the  Porte  in  ISSI.and  since  that  poi*od  it  ha:>  formed  a  portiot^ 
of  the  Hellenic  kingdom.  (H.  F.  T) 

THETFORD,  an  ancient  borough  and  market-town 
partly  in  Norfolk  and  partly  in  Suffolk,  is  situated  on  the 
Thet  and  Little  Ouse,  and  on  the  Great  Eastern  Railw.iy 
line  between  Cambridge  and  Norwich,  36  miles  south  west 
of  Norwich,  12  north  of  Bury  .St  Kdmunds,  to  which 
there  is  a  branch  line,  and  fi"'  north  north  oast  oi  L"'idi.n. 
The  Little  Ouse,  which  divides  the  counties,  is  crossed 
by  a  cast-iron  bridge  erected  in  ISli'J.  In  the  time  of 
Edward  IIL  the  town  bad  twenty  churches  and  eight 
monasteries.  There  are  now  three  churcties — St  Peter's, 
St  Cuthbert's,  and  St  Mary's :  of  these  St  Mary's,  en  th« 
Suffolk  side,  is  tho  largest.     There  arc  various  monastic 


300 


T  H  E— .T  H  I 


remains  in  the  town.  The  most  important  relic  of  anti- 
quity is  the  castle  hill7  a  mound  1000  feet  in  circumference 
and  100  feet  in  height,  probably  the  largest  of  the  Celtic 
earthworks  in  England.  The  grammar  school  was  founded' 
in  1610.  In  King  Street  is  the  mansion-house  occupied  as 
a  hunting  lodge  by  Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  L  Brewing 
and  tarming  are  carried  on ;  and  there  are  also  manure 
and  chemical  "works,  brick  and  lime  kilns,  flour-milk,  and 
agricultural  implement -works.  The  Little  Ouse  is  navi- 
gable from  Lynn  for  barges.  The  population  of  the  muni- 
cipal borough  (area  7296  acres)  in  1871  was  4166  and  in 
J.881  it  waa  4032. 

Thetford  is-snpposed  to  hare  been  the  Sitomagtcs  of  the  Romans. 
Xn  the  time  of  the  Sa.\oiis,  by  whom  it  was  called  Theodford,  it 
waa  the  capi*»l  o£  Xast  Anglia.  During  the  heptarchy  it  was 
frequently  desolated  by  the  Danes.  It  was  burned, by  them  in 
998  after  a  di-awn  battle  between  Swend  and  Ulfcytel,  and  again 
after  ijlfcyters  second  battle  at  Ringmere,  10th  Jlay  1004.  From 
the  reign  of  Athelstan  to  that  of  King  John  it  possessed  a  mint. 
The  see  of  Elmham  was  removed  to  it  in  1070,  but  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  Norwich  in  1094.  At  Domesday  it  had  iive  burgesses,  but 
by  the  time  of  Edward  III.  they  had  increased  to  953.  It  was  in- 
corporated by  Elizabeth  in  1573.  Itreturned  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment from  the  time  of  Eaward  VI.,  but  was  disfranchised  in  186S. 

THEYENOT,  Jean  de  (1633-1667),  an  eminent  Ori- 
ental traveller,  was  a  native  of  Paris,  where  he  received 
his  education  in  the  college  of  Navarre.  The  perusal  of 
works  of  travel  ^  moved  him  to  go  abroad,  and  his  circum- 
stances permitted  him  to  please  himself.  Leaving  France 
in  1652,  he  first  visited  England,  Holland,  Germany,  and 
Italy,  and  at  Rome  he-fell  in  with  D'Herbelot,  who  invited 
him  to  be- his  companion  in  a  projected  voyage  to  the 
Levant.  X)'Herbelot  -was  detained  by  private  affairs,  but 
Thevenot  sailed, fromlvome  in  May  1655,  and,  after  vainly 
waiting  five-jnonths -at  Malta,  took  passage  for  Constan- 
tinople alone.  He  remained  in  Constantinople  till  the  end 
of  the  following  August,  and  then  proceeded  by  Smj-rna 
and  the  Greek  islands  tO- Egypt,  landing  at  Ale-iandria  on 
New  Year's  Day  1657.  He  was  a  year  in  Egj-pt,  then 
visited  Sinai,  and,  returning  to  Cairo,  joined  the  Lent 
pilgrim  caravan  to  Jerusalem.  He  visited,  the  chief  places 
of  pilgrimage  in  Palestine,  and,  after  being  twice  taken  by 
corsairs,  got  back  to  Damietta  by  sea,  and  was  again  in. 
Cairo  in  time  to  view  the  opening  of  the  canal  on  the  rise 
of  the  Nile  (August  U,  1658).  In  January  1659  he 
sailed  from  Alexandria  in  an  English  ship,  taking  Goletta 
and  Tunis  on  the  way,  and,  after  a  sharp  engagement  with 
Spanish  corsairs,  one  of  which  fell  a  prize  to  the  English 
merchantman,  reached  Leghorn  on  April  12.  He  now 
spent  four  years  at  home  in  studies  useful  to  a  traveller, 
and  in  November  1663  again  sailed  for  the  East,  calling 
at  Alexandria  and  landing  at  Sidon,  whence  he  proceeded 
by  land  to  Damascus,  Aleppo,  and  then  through  Mesopo- 
tamia to  Mosul,  Baghdad,  and  Mendeli.  Here  he  entered 
Persia  (August  27,  1664),  proceeding  by  Kirmanshahan 
and  Hamadan  to  Ispahan,  where  he  spent  five  months 
(October  1664-February  1665),  and  then,  joining  company 
with  the  merchant  Taveester  (q.v.),  proceeded  by  Shiraz 
and  Lar  to  Bender- Abbas,  in  the  ho!>e  of  firuiing  a  passage 
to  India.  This  was  diffic^u,  because  of  th?  -opnosition  of 
the  Dutch,  and,  though  Ta vernier  ~was  able  to  proc<;cd, 
Thevenot  found  it  prudent  to  return  to  Shiraz,  and,  having 
visited  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  made  his  way  to  Basra,  and 
sailed  for  India  November  6,  1665,  in  the  ship  "Hope- 
well," arrinng  at  the  port  of  Surat  January  10,  1666. 
He  was  in  India  for  thirteen  months,  and  crossed  the 
country  by  Golconda  to  Masulipatam,  returning  overland 
to  Surat,  from  which  he  sailed  to  Bender-Abbas  and  went 
up  to  Shiraz.2     He  passed  the  summer  of  1667  at  Ispahan, 


'  His  uncle  Melchisedetli  had  similar  tastes,  and  poblisbed  a  well- 
inown  collection  of  Voyages  (fol.,  Paris,  1663,  5^.). 
>  tt  wa..!  ai  this  time  that  he  met  Cliazxliii  near  Persepolis.  but  thnt 


disabled  by  an  accidental  pistol  shot,  and  in  October 
started  for  Tebriz,  but  died  on  the  way  at  Miyana 
(November  28,  1667). 

Thevenot  was  an  accomplished  linguist,  skilled  in  Turkish, 
Arabic,  and  Persian,  and  a  curious  and  diligent  observer.  He 
was  also  well  skilled  in  the  natural  sciences,  especially  in  botany, 
for  which  he  made  large  collections  in  India.  His  personal 
character  was  admirable,  and  his  writings  are  still  esteemed,  though 
it  has  been  justly  observed  that,  unlike  Chardin,  he  saw  only  the 
outside  of  Eastern  life.  The  account  of  his  first  journey  waa 
published  at  Paris  in  1665  ;  it  forms  the  first  part  of  his  collected 
Voijcujes.  The  licence  is  dated  December  1663,  and  the  preface 
shows  that  Thevenot  himself  arranged  it  for  publication  before 
leaving  on  his  second  voyage.  The  second  and  third  parts  were 
posthumously  published  from  his  journals  in  1374  and  1684  (all 
4to).  A  collected  edition  appeared  at  Paris  in  1689,  and  a  second 
in  12mo  at  Amsterdam  in  1727  (5  vols.).  There  is  an  indifferent 
English  translation  by  A.  Lovell  (/ol.,  London,  1587). 

THIAN-SHAN,  or  Celestial  MonxTAiKS.  See  Asia' 
(vol.  ii.  p.  686),  Syb-Darla,  and  Turkestan. 

THEBAUT,  Amto.v  Fkiedeioh  Justus  (1774-1840), 
one  of  the  greatest  of  German  jurists,  was  born  at  Hameln,' 
in  Hanover,  January  4,  1774;  that  is,  ten  years  after  his 
contemporary  and  rival  Hugo,  about  a  year  before  Feuer-! 
bach,  and  five  years  before  Savigny.  Thibaut's  father  was' 
an  ofiEcer  in  the  Hanoverian  army,  a  skilful  mathematician,' 
and,  like  his  son,  a  man  of  much  force  of  character.  His 
inother  was  the  daughter  of  the  oberbiirgermeister  of  the 
town.  The  Thibauts  were  of  French  descent ;  they  came 
from  a  family  which  had  been  driven  out  of  France  on  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  As  a  child  and  youth,' 
Thibaut  lived  in  Hameln,  Harburg,  and  Hanover.  He  was 
fond  of  rowing,  skating,  and  swimming,  and,  above  all,  of 
music,  which  remained  his  passion  through  life.  As  a  lad 
he  set  his  heart,  chiefly  for  romantic  reasons,  on  being  a 
forester,  and  he  actually  spent  two  years  as  such.  But  he 
soon  became  di-senchanted,  and  in  1792  went  to  Gottingen 
to  study.  In  1793  he  moved  to  Kbnigsberg,  where  Kant 
still  taught  Thibaut  was  deeply  affected  by  the  critical 
philosophy;  his  very  latest  writings  bear  traces  of  it,  and 
it  is  not  unimportant  in  the  history  of  jurisprudence  in 
Germany  that  Hugo  was  equally  influenced  by  it.  From 
Konigsberg  Thibaut  moved  in  1794  to  Kiel,  where  he 
formed  a  friendship  with  Niebuhr,  at  that  time  a  student 
there.  They  lived  for  a  year  in  the  same  house,  taking 
their  meals  together,  and  holding  much  converse  on  litera- 
ture and  politics.  Both  already  displayed  the  bent  of 
their  minds —Niebuhr  despondent  and  affrighted  at  the 
progress  of  the  French  Revolution,  Thibaut  hopeful,  un- 
dismayed, and  certain  that  eventually  all  would  be  vvelL' 
In  1798  he. was  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  civil 
law,  and  in  the  same  year  appeared  his  Versnche  iiber 
einzelne  Theile  der  Theorie  des  MechU  (Kiel,  1798),  a  col- 
lection of  essays,  of  which  by  far  the  most  important  waa 
entitled  "Ueber  die  Einfluss  der  Philosophie  auf  die 
Auslegung  der  Positiven  Gesetze."  Taking  as  his  text  an 
observation  of  Leibnitz,  he  sought  tti  show  that  history 
without  philosophy  could  opt  interpret  and  explain  law.' 
The  essay  was  partly  by  anticipation  a  corrective  of  the 
teaching  of  the  historical  school  of  jurists.  It  enters  into 
speculations  on  the  possibility  of  forming  an  ideal  body  of 
law  as  a  measure  and  mode  of  exposition  of  particular  law, 
— speculations  which  have  never  been  continued,  certainly 
not  by  Thibaut.  In  1799  he  was  made  ordinary  professor 
of  civil  law.  In  that  year  was  published  his  Theorie  der 
logiscken  Ausler/ung  des  romiscfteii  Hechts,  one  of  his  most 
remarkable  works,  a  favourite  book  of  Austin's,  and,  as 
his  well-annotated  copy  in  the  Inner  Temple  library  shows, 
one  which  he  had  most  carefully  studied.  In  1800  Thibaut 
married  the  daughter  of  Professor  Ehlers  at  Kiel.     In  1802 

somewhat  envious  scholar  is  wrong  in  saying  that  this  was  Thevenot*» 
only\Tsit  to  the  ruins  (Chardin,  Voyages,  ed.  Langlea,  viii,  345^  -  Se» 
Tbevauot.  pt.  iL  bk.  3,  cbap.  6. 


1 


T  H  I  B  A  U  T 


he  published  a  sbort  criticnm  of   Feuerbach's  theory  of 
criminal  law,     ft  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  his  good 
•ense;  it  discriminates  between  what  is  good  and  what 
is  unsound  and  crude  in   the   writings  of  criminal  law 
reformers;   it  recalls  in   many  ways  the  speculations  of 
Bentham.     The  same  year  app»ared  Thibauis  essay  Ctber 
Bfsxu  und  rerjahrunff.     In   1S03  Thibaut  was  called  to 
Jeca,  where  he  spent  three  years,  made  happier  than  they 
otherwise  ».ould  have  been  by  intercourse  with  Goethe  and 
Schiller      At  the  invitation  ol  the  grand-duke  of  Baden  he 
went  to  Heidelberg  to  fill  the  chair  of  civil  law  and  to 
assist  in  organizing  the  university  ,  and  h".  never  quitted 
that  town,  though  he  received  in  after  years,  as  his  fame 
grew,  invituions  to  GbttingeM,  Munich,  and  Leipsic      His 
class  was  large,  hrs  mfluence  great .  and,  except  Hugo  and 
Savigny,  no  civilian  of  his  time  was  so  well  known.     In 
the  work  of  the  university  he  took  an  active  part ,  and  he 
cultivated  with  rare  devotion  his  favourite  art.     In  1S14 
appeared  his  Cinlutiscke  Abhandluwjen,  of  which  the  prin- 
cipal was  his  famous  essay,  the  parent  of  so  much  litera- 
ture, on  the  necessity  of  a  national  code  for  Germany, 
He  had  no  wish  to  enter  into   official  or    practical   life, 
"lam  Professor  Thibaut,  and  wish  to  be  nobody  else" 
In    1819    he  was   appointed    representative   m   the   first 
Chamber  of    the  Baden  parliament      He  was   also  made 
member  of   the   Scheidungsgericht       In    1825  appeared 
anonymously  his  work  Veber  die  Reinheu  der  Tonkutist,  in 
which  he  eulogized  the  old  music,  and  especially  that  of 
his  favourite   master.  Palestrina.      It  involved  him  in  a 
contest  with  Nageh  and  other  admirers  of  the  new  school 
Of   music  whose  ments  Thibaut  was  somewhat  slow  to 
own      This  has  been  translated  into  English  by  W    H 
Gladstone.     In  1836  Thibaut  published  his  Erarlerunyni 
den  romiseAen  Rechu      One  of  his  last  works  was  a  contri 
bution  m  1838  to  the  Arclitv  fur  du  eimtistische  Praxis, 
of  which  he  was  one  of  the  editors  (see  below)      He  died 
peacefully,  full  of  years  and  honour,  on  the  29th  of  March 
1840. 

Thibaut  was  of  the  middle  height  and  broad-shouldered, 
his  eyes  bright  and  piercing,  his  head  noble  and  striking  ' 
his  whole  appearance  told  of  power,  Bimplicitv,  and  reserve.' 
All  who  knew  him  speak  of   his  strong  personality,  his 
manly  consistent  nature     Young  men  loved  him,  and  he 
drew  to  the  young.      If  he  sometimes  signed  his  letters 
••Smper  idem   A    F    J.  Thibaut,"  it  was   not  a  phrase. 
Every  incident  told  of  him  has  a  curious  flavour      He  was 
much  more  than  ajurist    he  deserves  to  be  remembered 
10  the  history  of  music     Palestrina  and  the  early  com- 
posers of  church  music  were  his  delight       ■  Jurisprudence 
IS   my  business  ,   my  music  room   is  my  temple '       His 
friend,  Dr  Baumstark,  has  left  an  interesting  record  of  his 
musical  pursuits  and  of  the  work  of  his  "  Sangverein  "  at 
Heidelberg.     Among  the  masters  of  German  prose  Thibaut 
holds  no  mean  place.       Nothing  could   be  clearer,  more 
unpedantic  and  unpretentious,   than   his  exposition      his 
prose  IS  scarcely  inferior  to  Lessing-s      Like  his  speech 
bis  written  style  was  simple  and  manly,  but  it  is  simplicity 
marked   by  care,  and   is  rich   in  the  happy  accidents  of 
expression  which  come  only  to  true  artists.     He  liked  the 
old  classical  models,    he  read  and    reread   the  classics, 
ancient  and  modern,  his  taste  being  cathobc  enough  to 
include  Plato  and  Clirysostom,  Montaigne,  Hume's  Essays, 
Adam  Smith's  works,  Fergusons  Essay  on  the  History  of 
Ciiil  Society  (which   he  particularly  admired),  and  the 
later  developments  of  German  literature. 

Most  of  Thibant'8  works  have  already  been  mentioned.  Several 
or  them,  however,  deserve  further  uotice.  And  first  as  to  his  essav 
on  the  necessity  of  a  code  for  Germany  ("Ueber  die  Nothwendi/. 
ten  emes  allgememen  biirgerlichen  Rechts  fur  Deutschland  ") 
Nn  more  persuasive  argument  for  codification  was  ever  advancei 
It  Uaa  all  the  vigour  of  Benthaiu's  art-uments  for  the  same  cause. 


301 


rnVi    «"      °v  h's  pamphleteering  reckle.<aDess  of  expression, 
bnl.ke  Hugo,  whose  education  dated  back  to  the  time  when  French 

i  «?,n,.'rT^i'."PT-'"'  "■  ^<^"^^°y  ^"J  «ho  felt  himself  somewhat 
a  stranger  to  later  Oerman  culture,  Thibaut  was  of  his  own  time 
the'ba«lenf1'^'"  change  which  had  come  over  GenuanyX; 
,„  1  »^ll  ^  ^'P""'  ""^'""^  of  'he  insufficiency  of  Roman  law 
and  eager  to  promote  the  greatness  of  his  country.     In  his  con- 

the  :.o-called   historical   and    unhistoncal   sehool,"  he  tells  the 
h^tory   of  his   memorable  essay  on  the  necessity  of  a  code  fo 

u^i^x,  "'  *■  a^  ""'"  "^"y  '^«™^°  ^"'J-'^f^  '■>  'SH  about  t 
0,10?  ^  ??•  "'/r"i^''  ""^  <^han.e  which  this  denoted  ,  and 
out  of  the  lulness  of  his  heart  he  wrote  the  essay  m  a  fortnVht 
The  mode  of  tr^tment  is  more  comprehensive  than  the  theme- 
and  to-day.  pcrha[«  ,artly  for  thia  reason,  the  essay  .s  as  readable 
as  It  ever  was  .  junsts  have  not  yet  earned  out  all  the  sug- 
gestions which  it  contains.  For  Germany,  its  soil  freed  and  L 
honour  vindicated,  a  happy  future  had.  he  predicted,  been  opened 
up  Ihe  division  into  small  states  was  inevitable,  and  not  to 

be  deplored  The  existence  ol  great  states  is  alnays  id  a  sense 
unnatural .  it  implies  «  warm  life  only  at  one  point,-,  constant 
repression  of  individuals  lor  a  commou  object,  and  no  real  unitv 
between  Uie  rulers  and  the  subjects  In  a  land  of  .small  states  on 
the  other  hand,  the  peculianty  of  each  has  lulPplay  there  is 
development  ol    vanety    and  ih.  unity  of   pnnces  and'r«ople  ia 

i^^'  K       '""'*  ""°S        ^'^  •"">  ""'^>  practicable  and  niedful 
in    Ihibauts  judgment  was   one  of    law     and  for   such   all    the 
German  Governments  should  labour      His  review  of  the  state  of 
junspr^dence  m  Germany  is  severe     it  recalls  the  contemporane- 
ous criticisms  passed  by  Bentham  on  English  law     Thibaut  minted 
out  luminously  the  contrast  between  the  lunrtamenui  con.eptiona 
of  Koman  and  German  society,  and  the  madeouaey  ol  Roman  law 
to  supply  defects  in  German  jiinsprudenue      It  w«  not  pleasina 
to  many  junsts  to  be  told  that  a  few  lei-iures  on  the  laws  of  thi 
Persians  and  Chinese  would   do  nioru  t<.  a.vaken  a  true  judicial 
sense  than  minute  disquisitions  on  the  Koman  law  ot  intestacv— 
observations  the   full    efleci   ol    which   Thibuut    himselt  did  not 
perhaps  conceive      The  essay  was  as  much  a  condemnation  ol  tha 
entire  state  of  jurisprudence  a^  an  argument  loi  .-.^nhcation      it 
was  a  challenOT  to  civilians  to  jusiiiv  iheir  ver>-  ejcisiei.ce     Savi^y 
took  up  the  challenge  thus  il,i,.«n  du»n  ,  and  a  long  controverev 
as  to  points  not  very  cleaily  denned  took  place      The  glory  o'f 
the  controversy  belonged  to  Sav.gny;  the  real  victory  rested  with 
Thibaut.     By  r«;ent  legislation  Germany  has  earned  out  some  of 
the  Ideas  of  Thibaut ;  and  others  indicted  but  not  developed  in 
his  essay  remain  to  be  completed  by  a  scientihc  school  of  jurists. 
One  of  his  works  best  worth  reading  is  his  Theory  o/  Co,^ikaittn 
Though  directly  applicable  to  Roman   law.  it  ,s  ol  general   use. 
The  subject  is  divided  into  t>vo  branches-"  Inierpreiation  nach 
der  Absicht    des    Geset2geber  ■   and    "  Interpretation    nach   dcm 
UruDde  aes  Gesetzes,"  or,  as  Austin  expresses  the  distinction  in  a 
marginal  note  on  his  copy.  ••  What  the  legislator  would  have  con- 
templated had  he  conceived  his  purpose  completely  and  distmaiv 
and  what  the  legislator  actually  contemplated  "     It  would  be  inter- 
esting to  compare  the  rules  of  interpretation  stated  by  Tl.ibaut  with 
the  rules  of  construction,  familiar  to  English  law7ers.  laid  do.™  by 
Coke  in  Heydon  s  Case.  3,  76.  Reports.     Thibauts  best-known  work 
13  on  the  Pandects  I^Sysxem.  des  PandcAtenrecAls,  3  vols..  ]a03)  a 
part  of  which  was  tsanslated  by  Lord-Justice  Lindley      He  was 
one  of  the  earliest  to  cnticize  the  divisions  found  in  the  Institutes, 
and  he  earned  on  with   Hugo  a  controversy  as  to  these  iwints. 
1  hibant  s  own  classihcauon  earlier  is  unsatisfactory      He  divided 
the  subject  into  public  law  (that  which    treats  of  the   relation, 
between  Government  and  subjects),  pnvate  law,  and  inteniational 
law       Public  law  he  subdivided  into  consiitutional  law  (Slaais- 
TuAt.  the  laws  binding  o.,  the  sovereign)  and  administrative  l.nw 
{Hegierun^ccht,  or  cnminal  law.  and  laws  relatin-    o  finance  and 
police).     The  laws  relating  to  civil  process  were  dealt  with  partly 
under  administrative  law  and  partly  under  pnvate  law.      Status 
was  placed  partly  in  the  lormei   partly  in  the  latter,  and  the  law 
as  to  guardianship  and  parental  authority  is  treated  as  a  part  of 
the  law  of  police     Thibaut,  however,  abandoned  in  practice  tliis 
unscientific  division       One  of  his  most  interesting  works  is  his 
posthnmous  treatise  on  the  "Code  C^vil,"  IcJirbucA  dcs  fmnOs. 
iscAen  Uinlreclus  rn  suter  fergteichung  mxt  devi  ro>nuchcn  CivU- 
rteM      W  hile  criticizing  the  code,  which  he  designates  as  in  the 
highest  degree  unsystematic   he   recognizes  in  it  menu  which 
German  junsts  of  his  time  were  reluctant  to  admit 

In  modern  German  legal  literature  Thibauts  influence  is  not  very 
perceptible.  Even  at  Heidelberg  it  was  quickly  su)wr»?.lcd  by  that 
of  his  successor.  Vangerow.  and  in  Gennany  his  works  are  now  little 
used  as  text- books  But  those  best  able  to  jndge  Thibaut  have 
most  praised  him  Austin,  who  owed  much  to  him,  describes  him 
as  one  who  foi  penetrating  acuteness,  rectitude  of  judgmeut  and 
depth  of  learning,  and  eloqueuce  ol  exposition  m.iy  be  placed,  by 
the  side  of  Von  Savigny,  at  the  head  of  all  living  civilians,* 
and  elsewhere  he  praises  Thibauts  indefaugable  perSverance  and 


t;02 


T  H  I  — T  H  I 


"tegscity  not  san^&aaaW"  '*  High  thouglt  sach  culomca  aro,  thoy 
•te  scarcely  aucjUiUi.  In  Thibaut'a  works  aro  promises  which  ho 
did  not  fulfil,  and  they  contain,  fertile  suggestions  which  future 
jurists  may  utilize.  It  was  not  the  least  of  his  merits  that  he 
introdaced  scientific  methods  into  legal  practice  and  practical 
sense  into  jurisprudence.  (J.  M+. ) 

THIELT,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  West 
Flanders,  15  miles  south-south-east  of  Bruges,  on  a  brancli 
line  between  Ingelmunster  and  Deynze.  It  manufactures 
linen  and  woollen  goods,  gloves,  vinegar  and  spirits,  and 
has  tanneries  and  bleacheries.  There  is  also  some  trade  in 
cattle  and  grain.  The  town  was  of  considerable  import- 
ance in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  was  almost  entirely  destroyed 
jby  fire  in  1383,  a  calamity  from  which  it  never  wholly 
recovered.     The  population  in  1876  was  10,527. 

THIERRY,  the  name  of  two  excellent  Fretich  historians, 
brothers  (Augustin  and  Am6dte),  both  of  whom,  though 
their  literary  and  historical  faculty  was  not  quite  equal, 
displayed  the  same  devotion  to  historical  study. 

L  Jacques  Nicolas  At] GusTiN  Th FERRY  (1795-1856); 
th«  elder  and  most  gifted,  waa  born  at  Blois  on  the  10th 
May  1795.  He  had  ncredvantages  of  birth  or  fortune, 
but  was  greatly  distinguished  at  the  Blois  grammar  school, 
and  entered  the  ficole  Normale,  an  establishment  which, 
designed  on  the  best  principles  to  supply  France  with 
perfectly  equipped  teachers,  has  on  the  whole  done  more 
service  to'journalism  and  literature  than  to  pedagogy. 
He  appears  to  have  been  very  susceptible  to  personal 
influences,  and  waa  for  a  time  docile  to  St  Simon  and 
afterwards  to  Comto.  But  his  real  bent  was  towards  more 
solid  studies,  and,  under  the  impulse  of  the  strong  current 
setting  at  the  time  towards  mediseval  research,  he  began, 
and  in  1825pabliahed,  his  History  of  tlie  Korman.  Conr/uesl 
of  England,  much  altered  and  improved  in  the  later  edition 
of  1840.  Two  years  later  he  published  important  Lettres 
tuf  VHistoire  de  France,  attacking  the  traditional  method 
of  history-writing,  and  recommending  recourse  to  the 
original  documents.  About  this  time  the  heavy  calamity 
of  blindness  threatened  him,  and  by  1630  he  had  totally 
lost'  his  sight.  His  marriage,  however,  with  Julie  de 
Qudrengal,  a  woman  of  ability,  considerably  lightened  his 
misfortune,  and  about  the  same  time  he  was  elected  to 
the  AcadSmie  des  Inscriptions.  He  continued  to  pursue 
his  historical  studies,  now  through  other  eyes,  and  in 
1834  published  Dix  Ana  dtlludus  IlisUrriques,  which  was 
followed  by  his  capital  work,  the  PedU  MerovingieTis,  in 
1840.  His  later  years  were  chiefly  occupied  in  the  study 
of  the  history  of  the  Tiers  Etat,  which  bore  fruit  in  more 
than  one  publication.    Ho  died  at  Paris  on  May  22,  1856. 

The  duller  school  of  picturesque  Dryasdusts  (o  rather  miraculous 
combination)  who  havo  profited  by  Thierry's  labours  and  continued 
his  work  have  sometimes  charped  both  hira  and  his  brother  with 
lnrinR  entered  on  history  with  their  minds  full  of  Walter  Scott, 
«nd  witli  having  subordinated  facts  to  graphic  presentation.  Tho 
charge  is  entirely  unjust,  and  is  generally  found  in  the  mouths 
«f  those  who  are  particularly  ill  qualified  to  make  it,  inasmuch  as 
they  owo  Thierry  nearly  everything  in  style.  By  others  ho  is  de- 
ncribed  as  tho  founder  of  the  picturesque  school,  and  in  this  capa- 
city, no  doubt,  he  has  much  to  answer  for.  His  own  work,  how- 
ffver,  is  of  a  very  high  and  remarkable  character.  He  had  hardly 
any  forerunners,  unlesa  Gibbon  may  be  coiuited  as  one,  and  his 
freedom  from  the  besetting  sin  of  his  own  school — tho  subordina- 
tion of  sober  history  to  picturesque  description  and  romantic 
narrative — is  best  seen  by  comparing  him  with  his  contemporary 
lliiranto,  who,  however,  is  him:self  not  to  be  named  otherwise  than 
honoris  caitsa. 

II.  AmiSd^e  Simon  DomiNiqce  Thierry  (1797-1873) 
was  the  younger  brother  of  Augustin,  and  was  born  on 
the  2d  August  1797.  He  began  life  as  a  journalist  (after 
an  essay,  like  his  brother,  at  schoolmastcrinp),  was  con- 
nected with  the  famous  romantic  harbinger  the  Globe,  and 
obtained  a  small  Government  clerkship.  His  first  book 
was  a  brief  history  of  Ouienne  in  1825,  and  three  years 
(atcr  appeared  the  Hutoire  des  Gauluis,  which  was  received 


with  much  favour,  and  obtained  hici,'  from  the  royalist 
premier  Martignac,  a  history  professors-hip  at  Bosancjon. 
He  was,  however,  thought  too  liberal  for  the  Government 
of  Charles  X.,  and  his  lectures  were  stopped,  with  the 
result  of  securing  him,  after  the  revolution,  the  important 
post  of  prefect  of  the  Haute-SaOno,  which  ho  held  eight 
years.  During  this  time  ho  published  nothing.  In  1838 
he  was  transferred  to  the  council  of  state  as  master  of 
requests,  which  post  he  held  through  the  revolution  of 
1848  and  the  coup  detat  till  18C0,  when  he  was  made 
senator — a  paid  oflice,  it  must  be  remembered,  and,  in 
effect  a  lucrative  sinecure.  He  also  passed  through  all  the 
ranks  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  became  a  member  of  the 
Academic  des  Inscriptions  in  1841,  and  in  18C2  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  at  Oxford.  He  bad,  except 
during  the  time  of  his  prefecture,  never  intermitted  his 
literary  work,  being  a  constant  contributor  to  the  RevM 
des  Deux  Mondes,  his  articles  (usually  worked  up  after- 
wards into  booko)  almost  all  dealing  with  Roman  Gaul 
and  its  period.  The  chief  were  the  Histoire  d'Auila 
(1856),  frequently  reprinted,  the  J/istnire  de  la  Garde  sout 
I' Adminislralum  li'imaine  (1840-2),  a  Tableau  de  FEmpire 
Romain,  and,  in  imitation  of  his  brother,  certain  Eecits  of 
Roman  history,  a  book  on  St  Jerome  in  1867,  and  one 
on  Cliri/sostoni,  and  Eudoxia  in  1873.  He  died  March 
27,  1873. 

His  literary  and  historical  genins  was  perhaps  inferior  to  hia 
brothtr's,  and  he  exhibits  more  of  the  detects  of  the  auecdotia 
method  of  writing  history,  but  he  shared  Augustin's  passion  for 
going  to  t>ie  fountainhead  and  for^nimating  the  dry  bones  of  mere 
chrouiclea  and  mere  academic  discussions  with  accounts  of  the  lif» 
of  peoples. 

THIERS,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  department  of  Puy-de-Dome,  off  the  railway 
between  Clermont  and  St  Ltienne,  "24  miles  east-north- 
east of  the  former  town.  It  is  most  picturesquely  situated 
on  the  side  of  .1  hill,  at  the  font  of  which  the  Uurolle 
rapidly  descends  through  a  narrow  valley  into  the  Dore,  in 
its  turn  a  tributary  of  the  Allier.  The  streets,  rising  in 
steep  rows,  contain  many  wooden  and  gabled  houses,  some 
of  which  are  as  old  as  the  15th  century,  and  a  fine  view 
of  the  Plain  of  Limagne  and  the  Dome  Hills  is  obtainable 
from  tho  terraces.  All  the  processes  of  making  cutlery 
maybe  seen  at  Thiers,  giving  employment  to  12,000  work- 
men in  the  town  and  the  villages  within  a  radius  of  6  to  7 
miles.  Sheath-making,  tanning,  and  paper-making  (chiefly 
stamps  and  playiilg  cards)  employ  8000  hands,  aod  thiJ 
businessdone reaches £1,200,000  perannum.  Thechurcb 
of  Le  Moutier,  so  named. from  a  Benedictine  monastery 
of  which  it  formed  part,  contains  building  of  the  7th,  8th, 
and  11th  centuries;  the  tower  is  more  modern.  There 
were  12,005  inhabitants  in  1886  (commune  16,754) 

Thiers  was  sacked  in  f 23  by  the  soidifrs  of  Thierry,  the  son  of 
Clovis  ;  and  Gregory  of  Tours  speaks  of  a  wooden  chapel  which 
then  existed  here  {on  the  site  of  tlie  jireseut  cliurch  of  Le  MoQUer), 
The  church  of' St  Genez  was  built  in  573  by  Avitus,  bishop  of 
Clermont,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Tigcrnnni  Caslnivi,  was  rebuilt 
in  1016  by  Wido,  lord  of  Tliiers,  and  again  in  the  12th  century. 
There  is  some  cuiious  mosaic  work  of  the  12th  century,  and  a  5uo 
tomb  of  the  13th.  The  commercial  importance  of  Thiers  was 
preiitly  increased  three  centuries  ago,  when  the  manufacture  of  the 
larger  kinds  of  cutlery  was  introduced  from  ChatcldoQ,  between 
Vichy  and  Thiers. 

THIERS,  Louis  Adolthe  (1797-1877),  "liberator  oi 
tho  territory,"  as  even  the  short-lived  gratitude  of  Franca 
continues  to  call  him,  was  born  at  iSlarseilles  on  April  16, 
1707.  His  family  are  somewhat  grandiloquently  spoken 
of  as  "cloth  merchants  ruined  by  tho  Revolution,"  iut  it 
seems  that  at  the  actual  time  of  his  birth  his  father  was 
a  locksmith.  His  mother  belonged  to  tho  family  of  the 
Cht^niers,  and  he  was  well  educated,  first  at  the  Lycie  of 
Marseilles,  and  then  in  the  faculty  of  law  at  Aii.  Rora 
he   began  his  life-long  friendship  with  Migoet,  and  wa» 


THIERS 


303 


called  to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  23.  He  had,  however,  little 
taste  for  law  and  mach  for  literature  ;  and  he  obtained  (it 
is  said  by  an  ingeoious  trick,  and  ib  spite  of  unfair  and 
prejudic^  attempts  to  deprive  him  of  it)  an  academic 
prize  at  Ais — for  a  discourse  on  Vauvenargues.  In  the 
early  autumn  of  1S31  Thiers  went  to  Paris,  and  was 
quickly  introduced  as  a  contributor  to  the  ConstitiUionntl, 
at  first  on  literary  and  then  on  general  and  especially 
political  subjects,  as  well  as  art  and  the  drama.  In  each 
of  the  years  immediately  following  his  arrival  in  Paris  be 
collected  and  published  a  volume  of  his  Constiiutionnel 
articles,  the  first  on  the  salon  of  1822,  the  second  on  a 
toor  in  the  Pyrenees.  He  was  put  out  of  all  need  of 
money  by  the  singular  benefaction  of  Cotta,  the  well- 
known  Stuttgart  publisher,  who  was  part-proprietor  of  the 
CoTUtitutionnel,  and  made  over  to  Thiers  his  dividends,  or 
part  of  them.  Meanwhile  he  became  very  well  known  in 
Liberal  society,  especially  in  the  house  of  Laffitte,  and  he 
had  begtm  and  was  rapidly  compiling  (at  first  with  the 
assistance  of  M.  Felii  Bodin  and  afterwards  alone)  the 
celebrated  Hutoire  de  la  Revolution  Fran^aiae,  which 
founded  his  literary  and  helped  bis  political  fame.  The 
first  two  volumes  appeared  in  1823,  the  last  two  (of  ten) 
in  1827.  The  book  brought  him  little  profit  at  first,  but 
became  immensely  popular.  The  well-known  sentence  of 
Carlyle,  that  it  is  "as  far  as  possible  from  meriting  its 
high  reputation,"  is  in  strictness  justified,  not  merely  in 
regard  to  this,  but  in  regard  to  all  Thiers's  historical  work, 
which  is  only  too  frequently  marked  by  extreme  inaccu- 
racy, by  prejudice  which  passes  the  limits  of  accidental 
unfairness  an-1  sometimes  seems  to  approach  those  of 
positive  dishonesty,  and  by  an  almost  complete  indifference 
to  the  merits  as  compared  with  the  successes  of  his  heroes. 
Bat  Carlyle  himself  admits  that  Thiers  is  "  a  brisk  man 
in  his  way,  and  will  tell  you  much  if  you  know  nothing." 
In  other  words,  the  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  (again  like 
its  author's  other  work)  possesses  in  a  very  high  degree 
the  gifts  of  clearness,  liveliness,  and  intelligible  handling 
which  so  often  distinguish  French  writing.  Coming  as 
it  did  just  when  the  reaction  against  the  Revolution  was 
about  to  turn  into  another  reaction  in  its  favour,  it  was 
assured  of  success. 

For  a  moment  it  seemed  as  if  the  author  had  definitely 
chosen  the  lot  of  a  literary  man,  even  of  a  literary  hack. 
He  planned  an  Histoire  Generale,  and  was  about  to  survey 
mankind  from  China  to  Peru  on  the  deck  of  a  French 
man-of-war  as  a  preliminary  proces.s.  But  the  accession 
to  power  of  the  Polignac  ministry  in  August  1829  changed 
his  projects,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  year  Thiers, 
with  Armand  Carrel,  Mignet,  and  others,  started  the 
National,  a  new  opposition  newspaper,  which  openly 
attacked  the  older  Bourbon  line  and  was  foremost  in  pro- 
voking the  famous  and  fatal  Ordonnances  of  July.  Thiers 
himself  was  the  soul  (or  at  least  one  of  the  souls)  of  the 
actual  revolution.  What  share  he  had  in  the  process 
sometimes  attributed  to  him  of  "  overcoming  the  scruples 
of  Louis  Philippe"  is  no  doubt  a  debateable  question,  with 
the  problem  in  limine  of  the  debate  whether  Louis 
Philippe  had  any  scruples  to  overcome.  At  any  rate 
Thiers  had  his  reward.  He  ranked,  if  not  at  once,  yet 
very  roon,  as  one  of  the  radical  though  not  republican 
supporters  of  the  new.  dynasty,  in  opposition  to  the  party 
of  which  his  rival  Guizot  was  the  chief  literary  man,  and 
Guizot's  patron  the  duke  of  Broglie  the  main  pillar  among 
the  nobility,  and  which  might  be  called  by  comparison 
Conservative.  At  first  Thici^  though  elected  deputy  for 
Aix,  obtained  only  subordinate  places  in  the  ministry  of 
finance.  After  the  overthrow  of  his  patron  LaflBtte,  he 
seemed  to  change  his  politics  and  became  much  less 
radical,  and,  after  the  troubles  of  June  1832,  this  tend- 


ency was  strengthened  or  rewarded  by  his  appointment  to 
the  ministry  of  the  interior  He  repeatedly  changed  his 
portfolio,  but  remained  in  office  for  four  years,  became 
president  of  the  council  and  in  effect  prime  minister,  and 
began  the  series  of  quarrels  and  jealousies  with  Guizot 
which  make  one  of  the  chief  and  not  the  most  creditable 
features  of  the  politics  of  the  reign.  At  the  time  of  his 
resignation  in  1836  he  was  foreign  minister,  and,  as 
usual,  wished  for  a  spirited  policy  in  Spain,  which  he  could 
not  carry  out.  He  travelled  in  Italy  for  some  time,  and  it 
was  not  till  1838  that  he  began  a  regular  campaign  of 
parliamentary  opposition,  which  in  March  18-tO  made  him 
president  of  the  council  and  foreign  minister  for  the  second 
time.  But  he  held  the  position  barely  six  months,  and, 
being  unable  to  force  on  the  king  an  anti-English  and 
anti-Turkish  policy,  resigned  on  October  29,  after  having, 
as  was  generally  thought,  with  the  direct  purpose  of  stir- 
ring up  Anglophobia,  begged  the  body  of  Napoleon  from 
England.  This  was  made  the  occasion  of  the  ceremony 
immortally  ridiculed  by  Thackeray,  and,  it  is  said,  con- 
demned by  Thiers  himself  as  unworthy  of  the  occasion. 
He  now  had  little  to  do  with  politics  for  some  years,  and 
spent  his  time  on  the  preparation,  on  a  much  larger  scale 
than  his  first  work,  of  his  Hi^trAre  du  Consulat  ct  de 
I' Empire,  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared  in  18-t5,  and 
which  continued  to  occupy  him  for  more  than  twenty 
years  of  composition  and  nearly  twenty  of  publication. 
During  the  interval,  though,  he  was  still  a  member  of  the 
chamber,  he  spoke  rarely,  but  after  the  beginning  of  1846 
his  appearances  were  more  frequent,  and  he  was  evidently 
bidding  once  more  for  power  on  the  liberal  and  reforming 
side.  Immediately  before  the  revolution  of  February  he 
went  to  all  but  the  greatest  lengths,  and  when  it  broke 
out  he  and  Odillon  Barrot  were  summoned  by  the  king, 
but  it  was  too  late.  Thiers  was  unable  to  govern  the 
forces  he  had  helped  to  gather,  and  he  resigned.  ■ 

Under  the  republic  be  took  up  the  position  of  conserva- 
live  republican,  which  he  ever  afterwards  maintained  (his 
acceptance  of  the  republic  being  not  much  more  heartfelt 
than  his  subsequent  acceptance,  after  an  interval,  of  the 
empire),  and  he  never  took  office.  But  the  consistency  of 
his  conduct,  especially  in  voting  for  Prince  Louis  Napoleon 
as  president,  was  often  and  sharply  criticized,  one  of  the 
criticisms  leading  to  a  duel  with  a  fellow  deputy,  Bixio. 
On  the  whole,  his  conduct  during  these  years,  and  still 
more  during  the  last  years  of  Louis  Philippe,  may  be  said 
to  have  been  not  wholly  creditable.  He  was  arrested  at 
the  coup  d'etat  (when  some  malicious  and  apparently 
false  stories  were  spread  as  to  his  cowardice),  was  sent 
to  Mazas,  and  then  escorted  out  of  France.  But  in  the 
following  summer  he  was  allowed  to  return.  For  the  next 
decade  his  history  was  almost  a  blank,  his  time  being 
occupied  for  the  most  part  on  The  Consulate  and  the 
Empire.  It  was  not  till  1863  that  he  re-entered  political 
life,  being  elected  by  a  Parisian  constituency  in  opposition 
to  the  Government  candidate.  For  the  seven  years  follow- 
ing he  was  the  chief  speaker  among  the  small  band  of 
anti  Imperialists  in  the  French  chamber,  and  was  regarded 
generally  as  the  most  formidable  enemy  of  the  empire, — 
all  the  more  formidable  because  he  never  gave  occasion 
for  taking  any  violent  steps  against  him.  It  has  been 
pointed  out  that,  while  nominally  protesting  against  the 
foreign  enterprises  of  the  empire,  he  perpetually  harped 
on  French  loss  of  prestige,  and  so  contributed  more  than 
any  one  else  to  stir  up  the  fatal  spirit  which  brought 
on  the  war  of  1870,  and  that,  while  constantly  criticizing 
and  weakening  the  Government  of  his  country,  he  gave 
it  no  help  nor  even  offered  any.  Even  when  the  Liberal- 
Imperialist  OUivier  ministry  was  formed,  he  maintained 
at  first  an  anything  but  benevolent  neutrality,  and  then 


304 


THIERS 


an  open  opposition,  and  it  would  be  pleasant  to  feel  mora 
certain  than  we  can  feel  that  his  vigorous  dennncia- 
tion  of  the  war  with  Prussia  was  the  result  of  honest 
conviction,  and  not  merely  of  the  fact  that  it  was  not  /its 
war.  At  any  rate,  it  brought  him  great  unpopularity  for 
the  moment,  with  a  corresponding  reaction  of  gratitude 
when  the  crash  came.  Again  it  is  impossible  to  be  sure 
whether  mere  "canniness,"  or  something  better,  kept  him 
from  joining  the  Government  of  the  National  Defence,  of 
which  he  was  m  a  manner  the  author. 

Nevertheless  the  collapse  of  the  empire  was  a  great 
opportunity  (or  Thiers,  and  it  was  worthily  accepted.  He 
undertook  in  the  latter  part  of  September  and  the  6rst 
three  weeks  of  October  a  circular  tour  to  the  different 
courts  of  Europe,  in  the  hope  (wh;ch  he  probably  knew  to 
be  a  vain  one,  though  the  knowledge  neither  daunted  his 
spirit  nor  relaxed  his  efforts)  of  obtaining  some  inter- 
vention, or  at  least  some  good  offices.  The  mission  was 
unsiiccesslul  .  but  the  negotiator  was  on  its  conclusion 
immediately  charged  with  another — that  of  obtaining,  if 
possible,  an  armistice  directly  from  Prince  BismarcL  For 
a  time  this  also  (ailed,  as  the  Provisional  Government 
would  not  accept  the  German  conditions ;  but  at  last 
France  was  forced  to  yield.  The  armistice  having  been 
arranged,  and  the  opportunity  having  been  thus  obtained 
of  electing  a  National  Assembly,  Thiers  was  chosen  deputy 
by  more  than  twenty  constituencies  (of  which  he  preferred 
Pans),  and  was  at  once  elected  by  the  Assembly  itself 
practically  pro.'iident.  nominally  "chef  du  pouvoir  ex6- 
cuti(  '■  He  lost  no  time  in  choosing  a  coalition  cabinet, 
anil  then  per.sunally  took  up  the  negotiation  of  peace. 
Piiibablv  nil  statesman  has  ever  had  a  more  disgusting 
ta.sk  iind  the  tact  that  he  discharged  it  to  the  satisfaction 
ol  a  vast  niaiority,  even  in  a  nation  popularly  reputed  the 
vainest,  tlie  least  ballasted  with  common  sense,  and  the 
mo.st  uniraleful  to  pubJic  servants  who  are  unsuccessful,  is 
the  sironi.'est  testimony  to  Thiers's  merits.  After  contest 
iiii:  tbe  matter,  on  the  one  side  with  the  determination  of 
Gerniany  to  have  the  pound  of  flesh,  on  the  other  with 
tlie  ri'luciance  ot  the  Assembly  to  submit  to  the  knife,  he 
surcfHded  in  convincing  the  deputies  that  the  peace  was 
oecevsary,  and  it  was  (March  1,  IS71 )  voted  by  more  than 
*ive  10  one 

Tliicr.<  held  office  for  more  than  two  years  after  this 
evfnt  — a  lenuth  ot  tenure  which,  in  the  circumstances 
and  consideniii;  the  French  temper,  is  very  surprising,  and 
shows  tbe  strength  ot  the  general  conviction  that  he  alone 
could  be  trusted  He  had  at  first  to  meet  and  crush  at 
onw  the  mad  enterpri.<;e  of  the  Pans  commune  ,  and  the 
severity  which  was  undoubtedly  shown  in  doing  this  is 
nviie  I  ban  jii.<tified  by  two  considerations, — first,  that 
failiiri-  to  suppress  it  would  have  meant  anarchy  through- 
out France  ,  and.  -iecondly,  that  the  Germans  would 
almost  to  a  certainty  have  made  it  a  pretext  for  further 
demands  Soon  after  this  was  accomplished,  Thiers  be- 
came (Aufrust  ^0)  in  name  as  well  as  in  fact  president  of 
the  re|iublic,  and  he  set  himself  with  vigour  and  success 
to  the  tasks  of  rearranging  the  army,  the  finances  (includ- 
iiig  the  paving  off  of  the  war  indemnity),  and  the  civil 
service,  and  of  procuring  the  withdrawal  of  the  German 
arniy  of  occupation. 

The  strong  personal  will  and  inflexible  opinions  of  the 
president  had  much  to  do  with  the  resurrection  of  France ; 
but  the  very  same  facts  made  it  inevitable  that  he 
should  excite  violent  opposition.  It  seems  to  be  gene- 
rally acknowledged  that  to  him  personally  were  due  the 
establishment  and  retention  of  the  republican  rather  than 
♦.he  monarchical  form  of  government,  to  which  latter  the 
Assembly  as  first  elected  was  notoriously  disposed.  He 
was  a  confirmed   protectionist,  and  free-trade  ideas  bad 


made  great  way  in  France  under  the  empire  ;  he  was  au 
advocate  of  long  military  service,  and  the  devotees  of  la 
revanche  were  all  for  the  introduction  of  general  and  com- 
pulsory but  short  service.  Both  his  talents  and  his  temper 
made  him  utterly  indisposed  to  maintain  the  distant, 
Olympian,  apparently  inactive,  attitude  which  is  supposed 
to  be  incumbent  on  a  republican  president ;  and  (for  his 
tongue  was  never  a  carefully  governed  one)  he  aometiraea 
let  drop  expressions  scarcely  v  ./nsistent  with  constitutional 
theories  of  the  relation  of  the  chief  of  the  state,  whether 
president  or  king,  to  parliament.  In  January  1872  he 
formally  tendered  his  resignation  ,  but  the  country  was 
then  in  too  manifestly  disorganized  a  condition  to  allow 
even  his  enemies  to  accept  it.  His  position,  however,  was 
clearly  one  not  tenable  for  long  in  such  a  country  as 
France  The  Right  (and  not  mesely  the  Extreme  Right) 
hated  him  tor  his  opposition  to  the  restoration  ot  the 
monarchy,  and  with  some  justice  reminded  him  Of  (ormer 
declarations  and  opinions  on  the  subject ;  the  Extreme  Left 
could  not  forgive  the  suppression  of  the  commune,  while 
some  radical  leaders,  who  may  have  had  little  sympathy 
with  the  commune  itself,  saw  in  his  great  reputation  and 
imperious  personality  a  bar  to  their  own  accession  to  power. 
His  chief  supporters — men  like  Remusat,  Barth^lemy  Saint- 
Hilaire,  and  Jules  Simon — were  men  rather  of  the  past  than 
of  the  present ,  and  he  had  few  younger  adherents. 

The  year  1873  was,  as  a  parliamentary  year  in  France, 
occupied  to  a  great  extent  with  attacks  on  Thiers.  In 
the  early  spring  regulations  were  proposed,  and  on  April 
13  were  carried,  which  were  intended  to  restrict  the 
executive  and  especially  the  parliamentary  powers  of  the 
presiden*  On  the  27th  of  the  same  month  a  contested 
election  in  Paris,  resulting  in  the  return  of  the  opposi- 
tion candidate,  M.  Barodet,  was  regarded  as  a  grave 
disaster  for  the  Thiers  Government,  and  that  Government 
was  not  much  strengthened  by  a  dissolution  and  recon- 
atitution  of  the  cabinet  on  May  19  Immediately  after- 
wards the  question  was  brought  to  a  head  by  an  interpel- 
lation moved  by  the  duke  of  Broglie.  The  president 
declared  that  he  should  lake  this  as  a  vote  of  want  of 
confidence ;  and  in  the  debates  which  followed  a  vote  of 
this  character  (though  on  a  different  formal  issue,  and 
proposed  by  M.  Ernoul)  was  carried  by  16  votes  in  a 
house  of  704.     Thiers  at  once  resigned  (May  24). 

He  survived  his  fall  four  years,  continuing  to  sit  in  the 
Assembly,  and,  after  the  dissolution  of  1876,  in  the  Chamber 
ot  Deputies,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  speaking.  He 
was  also,  on  the  occasion  of  this  dissolution,  elected  senator 
for  Belfort,  which  his  exertions  had  .<aved  for  France  ,  but 
he  preferred  the  lower  house,  where  he  sal  as  of  old  for 
Pans.  On  May  16,  1877,  he  was  one  o(  the  "363  "  who 
voted  want  of  confidence  in  the  Broglie  ministry  (thus 
paying  his  debts),  and  he  took  considerable  part  in  organ- 
izing the  subsequent  electoral  campaign.  But  he  was 
not  destined  to  see  its  success,  being  fatally  struck  with 
apoplexy  at  St  Germainen-Laye  on  September  3.  Thiers 
had  long  been  married,  and  his  wife  and  sister-in-law. 
Mile.  Dosne,  were  his  constant  companions  ;  but  he  left  no 
children,  and  had  had  only  one — a  daughter, — who  long 
predeceased  him.  He  had  been  a  member  of  the  Academy 
since  1834.  His  personal  appearance  was  remarkable, 
and  not  imposing,  for  ne  was  very  short,  with  plain 
features,  ungainly  gestures  and  manners,  very  near-sighted, 
and  of  disagreeable  voice ;  yet  he  became  (after  wisely 
giving  up  an  attempt  at  the  ornate  style  of  oratory)  a  very 
effective  speaker  in  a  kind  of  conversational  manner,  and 
in  the  epigram  of  debate  he  had  no  superior  among  the 
statesmen  of  his  time  except  Lord  Beaconsfield. 

Thiers  Is  by  far  the  most  giftjd  and  interesting  of  the  group 
of  literary  statesmen — not  stiitesmen  who  have  bad  a  jtenchatU  for 


T  H  I—  T  H  1 


305 


litaratnre,  but  men  of  letters  whose  Ifterary  distinction  has  made 
them  politicians — which  forms  a  unique  feature  in  the  French 
political  history  of  this  century.  Numerous  as  these  are,  there  are 
only  tvfo  who  are  at  all  comparable  to  him — Gtiizot  and  Lamartine  ; 
and  as  a  statesman  he  stands  far  abore  both.  Nor  is  this  eminence 
mersly  due  to  his  great  opportunity  in  1870  ;  for  Guizot  might 
under  Louis  Philippe  have  almost  made  himself  a  French  Walpole,  at 
least  a  French  Palmerston,  and  Lamartine's  opportunities  after  1848 
were,  for  a  man  of  political  genius,  illimitable.     But  both  failed, 

Lamartine  almost  ludicrously, — while  Thiers  in  hard  conditions 

made  a  striking  if  not  a  brilliant  success.  A  devil's  advocate  may 
indeed  urge  that  his  egotist  and  almost  gasconading  temperainent 
stood  him  in  stead  in  the  trying  circumstances  of  his  negotiations 
with  the  powers  and  with  Prince  Bismarck,— but  this  is  not  really 
to  his  discredit.  No  less  masterful  methods  than  his  would  have 
sufficed  to  bring  France  into  order  from  the  chaos  succeeding  the 
fall  of  the  empire  and  the  invasion  of  the  Germans.  But  Thiers  only 
showed  well  when  he  was  practically  supreme.  Even  as  the  minister 
of  a  constitutional  monarch  his  intolerance  of  interference  or  joint 
authority,  his  temper  at  once  imperious  and  intriguing,  his  invete- 
rate inclination  towards  brigue,  that  is  to  say,  underhand  rivalry  and 
caballing  for  power  and  place,  showed  themselves  unfavourably ;  and 
his  constant  tendency  to  inflame  the  aggressive  and  chauvinist  spirit 
of  his  country,  though  it  may  fairly  claim  to  have  been  a  kind  of 
patriotism,  neglected  fact,  was  not  based  on  any  just  estimate  of 
the  relative  power  and  interests  of  France,  and  led  his  country  more 
than  once  to  the  verge — once,  thoogh  he  affected  to  warn  her  off, 
over  the  verge — of  a  great  calamity.  In  opposition,  both  under 
Louis  Philippe  and  under  the  empire,  and  even  to  some  extent  in  the 
last  four  years  of  his  life,  his  worse  qualities  were  always  manifested. 
But  with  all  these  drawbacks  he  conquered  and  will  retain  a  place 
in  what  is  perhaps  the  highest,  as  it  is  certainly  the  smallest,  class 
of  statesmen — the  class  of  those  to  whom  their  country  has  had 
recourse  in  agreat'disaster,  who  have  shown  in  bringing  her  through 
that  disaster  the  utmost  constancy,  courage,  devotion,  and  skill, 
and  who  have  been  rewarded  by  as  much  success  as  the  occasion 
permitted. 

As  a  man  of  letters  Thiers  is  very  mnch  smaller.  He  has  nt)t 
only  the  fault  of  diffiiseness,  which  is  common  to  so  many  of  the 
best-known  histories  of  this  century,  but  others  as  serious  or  more 
,so.  The  charge  of  dishonesty  is  one  never  to  be  lightly  made 
against  men  of  such  distinction  as  his,  especially  when  their  evi- 
dent_,confidence  in  their  own  infallibility,  their  faculty  of  ingenious 
casuistry,  and  the  strength  of  will  which  makes  them  (unconsciously, 
no  donbti  close  and  keep  closed  the  eyes  of  their  mind  to  all  incon- 
venient facts  and  inferences  supply  a  more  charitable  explanation. 
Rut  it  is  certain  that  from  Thiers's  dealings  with  the  men  of  the 
first  Bevolution  to  his  dealings  with  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  constant, 
angiy,  and  well-supported  protests  against  his  unfairness  were  not 
lacking.  Althongn  his  search  among  documents  was  undoubtedly 
wide,  its  results  are  by  no  means  always  accurate,  and  his  admirers 
themselves  admit  great  inequalities  of  style  in  him.  These  i 
characteristics  reappear  (accompanied,  however,  by  frequent  touches 
of  the  epigrammatic  power  above  mentioned,  which  seems  to  have 
come  tc  Thiers  more  readily  as  an  orator  or  a  journalist  than  as  an 
historian)  in  his  speeches,  which  have,  since  his  death,  been 
collected  in  many  volumes  by  his  widow.  Sainte-Beuve,  whose 
notices  of  Thiers  are  generally  kindly,  says  of  him,  "  M.  Thiers 
salt  tont,  tranche  tout,  parle  de  tout,"  and  this  omniscience  and 
' '  cocksureness"  ( to  use  the  word  of  a  prime  minister  of  England  con- 
temporary with  this  prime  minister  of  France)  are  perhaps  th^  chief 
pervading  features  both  of  the  statesman  and  the  man  of  lettei-s. 

His  histories,  In  many  different  editions,  and  his  speeches,  as  abore,  are  easily 
accessible;  his  minor  works  and  newspaper  articles  have  not,  we  believe,  been 
collected  in  any  form.  Works  on  him,  by  M.  Laya.  M,  de  Mazade,  his  colleaRue 
and  friend  M.  Jales  Simon,  and  others,  ore  nattisrons-  But  a  thoroagh  biograph- 
leal  stndy  of  blm  has  not  yet  been  made;  and,  thoogh  monoments  enongh  tiave 
been  raised  in  his  own  country,  it  is  even  there  often  complained  that  the 
Incessant  and  futile  political  stmggles  of  the  last  ten  years  have  too  much 
obscured  the  repatation  and  weakened  the  memory  of  the  last  great  statestrian  of 
'ranee.  (G.  SA.) 

THIRLWALL,  Connop  (1797-1875),  bishop  of  St 
David's,  was  born  at  Steppey  on  11th  January  1797,  and 
was' the  son  of  the  Rev  Thomas  Thirlwall,  at  the  time 
lecturer  at  St  Dunstan's,  Stepney,  and  afterwards  rector 
of  Bowers  GiSord,  in  Essex.  The  family  were  of  North- 
umbrian extraction.  Young  ConBop  showed  the  most 
remarkable  precocity,  learning  Latin  at  three,  reading 
Greek- at  four,  and  writing  sermons  at  seven."  When  he 
was  twelve  his  admiring  father  published  his  Primitis, 
sermons  and  poems,  the  thoughts  of  an  imitative  boy  in 
the  style  of  a  grown  man.  No  especial  greatness  could 
have  been  safely  predicted  from  these  performances,  which 
Thirlwall  assiduously  strove  to  suppress  in  after  years. 
He  shortly  afterwards  went  to  the  Charterhouse,  where 
23—13 


he  wrote  a  number,  of  letters  to  a  friend  named  John 
Candler,  some  of  which  have  been  preserved.  They  dis- 
play the  same  extraordinary  prematurity,  but  are  barren 
of  anything  original  except  what  he  himself  calls  "  sensi- 
bility to  the  great  and  beautiful  in  morality "  By  a 
curious  coincidence  his  future  rival  in  Greek  history, 
Grote,  and  Hare,  his  coadjutor  in  the  translation  of 
Niebuhr,  were  among  his  schoolfellows.  He,  took  up  his 
residence  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  liTOctober  1814, 
and  gained  the  Craven  university  scholarship,  one  of  three 
recorded  instances  of  this  honour  being  obtained  by  fresh- 
men, and  the  chancellor's  classical  medal  In  October 
1818  he  was  elected  to  a  fellowship,  and  immediately 
went  for  a  year's  travel  on  the  Continent.  At  Rome  he 
gained  the  friendship  of  Bunsen,  which  bad  a  most  import 
ant  influence  on  his  life.  On  his  return,  "distrust  of  his 
own  resolutions  and  convictions"  led  him  to  abandon  for 
the  time  his  intention  of  being  a  clergyman,  and  he  settled 
down  to  the  study  of  the  law,  "  with  a  firm  determination 
not  to  suffer  it  to  engross  my  time  so  as  to  prevent  me 
from  pursuing  other  branches  of  knowledge."  This  was 
not  the  way  to  become  lord  chancellor,  and,  though  he 
afterwards  says,  "  My  aversion  to  the  law  ha«  not  in- 
creased," he  adds,  "  It  scarcely  could."  How  little  his 
heart  was  with  it  was  shown  by  the  labour  he  soon  im- 
posed upon  himself  of  translating  and  prefacing  Schleier- 
macher's  essay  on  the  Gospel  of  St  Luke',  "  very  injudi- 
ciously," says  Maurice,  who  seems  to  think  that  it  may 
have  cost  Thirlwall  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  The 
translation,  nevertheless,  marks  an  era  in  English  theologj'. 
He  further,  probably  influenced  by  Hare,  who  had  already 
translated  Tieck,  rendered  two  of  the  Iktteirs  niost  recent 
Novellen  into  English.  In  1827  he  at  length  made  up  his 
mind  to  quit  his  uncongenial  professions-find  was  ordained 
deacon  the  same  year.  Beyond  all  question  he  might 
have  obtained  the  highest  distinction  both  as  jurist  and 
advocate,  had  law  interested  him  mote,  or  other  things 
less.  No  one  ever  possessed  a  more  judicial  mind.  Of 
his  oratory.  Mill,  whom  he  opposed  at  a  debating  society, 
says,  "  Before  he  had  uttered  ten  sentences  I  set  him 
down  as  the  best  speaker  I  had  ever  heard,  and  I  have 
never  since  heard  any  one  whom  I  placed  above  him. 

It  is  not  often  that  a  scholar  twice  makes  an  epoch  by  a 
translation.  Such  was  Thirlwall's  destiny  :  he  joined  with 
Hare  in  translating  Niebuhr's  History  of  Rome ;  the  first 
volume  appeared  in  1828.  The  translation  was  attacked 
in  the  Qnarterly  as  favourable  to  scepticism,  and  the 
translators  jointly  replied.  In  1831  the  friends  estab- 
lished the  Philological  Museum,  which  lived  through  only 
six  numbers,  though  among  Thirlwall's  contributions  was 
his  masterly  paper  on  the  irony  of  Sophocles, —  "the  most 
exquisite  criticism  I  ever  read,"  says  Sterling.  On  Hare's 
departure  from  Cambridge  in  1832,  Thirlwall  becamcr 
assistant  college  tutor,  which  led  him  to  take  a  memor- 
able share  in  the  great  controversy  upon  the  admission  of 
Dissenters  which  arose  in  1834.  Dr  Turton,  the  regius 
professor  of  divinity,  had  written  a  pamphlet  objecting 
to  the  admission,  on  the  pretext  of  the  apprehended  un- 
settlement  of  the  religious  opinions  of  young  churchmen. 
Thirlwall  replied  by  pointing  out  that  no  provision  for 
theological  instruction  was  in  fact  made  by  the  colleges 
except  compulsory  attendance  at  chapel,  and  that  this  was 
mischievous.  This  attack  upon  a  time-hallowed  piece  of 
college  discipline  brought  upon  him  a  demand  for  the 
resignation  of  his  office  as  assistant  tutor  He  complied 
at  once ,  his  friends  generally  thought  that  he  ought  'to 
have  tested  the  master's  power  The  occurrence  marked 
him  out  for  promotion  from  a  Liberal  Government,  and  in 
the  autumn  he  received  the  chancellor's  living  of  Kirby - 
under-Dale.  in  Yorkshire.     Though   devoted  to  bis  par 


306 


T  H  I  — T  H  I 


ochial  duties,  he  found  tiniu  to  begin  tbc  book  which  has  . 
remained  the  principal  woik  of  oim  whobe  performance, 
however  great,  rarely  rose  to  tlic  level  of  his  power.. r  His 
History  of  Greece,  unfortunately  for  hiin  and  for  us,  was  a 
commissioa  from  Lardner's  C'llnnet  Cyclopedia,  antl  was 
originally  intended  to  hava  been. condensed  into  two  or 
three  duodecimo  volumes.  The  scale  was  enlarged,  but 
Thirlwall  always  felt  cramped.  Ho  seems  a  little  below 
his  subject,  and  a  little  below  himself. ,  Yet,  suoh  was  his 
ability  that  his  history  is  usually  allowed  to  fall  only  just 
short  of  .Grote's,  a  work  undertake!)  with .  far  greater 
enthusiasm,  and  e.tecuted  with  far  greater  advantages. 
Sterling  pronounces  him  "a.writer  as  great  as  Thucydides 
and  Tacitus,  and  with  I'ar  more  knowledge  than  they." 
The  first  volume  was  published  in  1835,  the  last  in  1847. 
A,  noble  letter  from  Thirlwall  to  Grote,  and  Greta's 
generous  teply,  are  published  in  the  life'of  the  latter. 

In  184.0  ThlrlwaJl  was  raised  to  the  .see  of  St  David's. 
The  proniotion  was  entirely  the  act  of  Lord  Melbourne,  an 
amateur  In  theology,  who  had  read  Thirlwallls  introduction 
to  Schlejermacher,  and  satisfied  himself  of  the  propriety 
of  the  appointment.  "  I  don't  intend  to  make  a  heterodox 
bishop  if  I  kno.w  it,"  he  said.  Thirlwall  so  little  expected 
the  honour  that  he  was  absent  on  a  pedestrian  tour,  and 
it  was  some  days  before  he  could  be  found.  In-  most 
essential  points  he  was  a  model  bishop,  and  in  acquainting 
himself  with  Welsh,  so  as  to  preach  and  conduct  service  in 
that  language,  "he  performed  a  feat  which,  few  bishops 
could ;  have  imitated.  It  cannot  bo  said  that  he  was 
greatly  beloved  by  his  clergy,  who  felt  their  intellectual 
distance  too  groat,  and  were  alternately  frozen  by  his  taci- 
turnity and  appalled  by  his  sarcasm.  The  great  monu- 
ment of  his  episcopate  is  the  eleven  famous  charges  in 
which  he  from  time  to  time  reviewed  the  position  of  the 
English  Ohurch  with  reference  to  whatever  might  be  the 
most  pressing  question  of  tie.  day, — addresses  at  once 
judicial  and  statesmafllike,  fiJI  of  charitable  wisdom  "and 
massive  sense.  No  similar  productions,  it  may  safely  be 
said,  were  pver  so  eagerly  looked  for,  or  carried  with  them 
such  weight  of  authority.  His  endeavours  to  allay  ecclesi- 
astical* jSanic,  and  to  promote  liberality  of  spirit,  frequently 
required  no  ordinary  moral  courage.  He  was  one  of  the 
four  prelates  who  refused  to  inhibit  Bishop  Colonso  from 
preaching  in  their  dioceses,  and  the  only  one  who  with- 
held his  signature  from  the  addresses  calling  upon  Colenso 
to  resign  his  see.  Ho  took  the  liberal  side  in  the  questions 
of  Mayttooth,  of  the  ^mission  of  Jews  to  parliament,  of 
|the  Gorham  case,  and  of  the  conscience  clause. '  He  was 
,the  only  bishop  who  voted  for  the  disestablishment  of  th,e 
Irish  Church,  though  but  as  a  painful  necessity.  Concur- 
rent endowment  would  have  been  much  more  agreeable  to 
him.  For  many  years  he  was  the  only  statesman  on  the 
bench  ;  it  vrotild  have  been  a  great  benefit  to  the  Church 
of  England  had  it  been  possible  to  have  raised  him  to  the 
primacy  upon  the  death  of  Archbishop  Howley.  But  such 
|Was  the  complexion  of  ecclesiaetical  politics  that  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  most  impartial  prelate  of  his  day  would  have 
been  resented  as  a  piece  of  party  spirit. 

Thirlwall's  private  life  was  happy  and  busy?  He^never' 
'married,  but  found  sufficient  oiitlet  for  his  deep  affection- 
afeness  of  nature  in  his  tenderness  to  the  children  of 
others,  and  to  all  weak  things  except  weak-minded  clergy- 
men. He  was  devoted  to  animals,  and  rivalled  Southey , 
and  Jeremy  Bentham  in  his  lov6  for  cats.  Perhaps  the  most; 
durable  monument  to  his  memofy  will  be  his  incomparable' 
volume  .of  letters  to  a  friend,  Miss  Johnes  of  Dolaucothy,! 
a  young  lady  in  every  way  worthy  to; be  the  correspondent 
of  such  a  man.  Even  as  letters'  these  rank  with  the  best 
in  the  language  ;  but  as  lettcW  from  age  to  youtn,  syin 
pathi^ing  with  all  its  feelings,  entering  into  all  itjj  pleasures, 


at  once -inspiring  and  amusing,  guiding  without  seeming 
to  direct,  and  entertaining  wiiliout  seeming  to  condescend, 
they  aire  unique  in  llieir  delightful  brftncli  of  literature. 
They  are.  ^Iso  important  as  revealing  Thirlwall's  mind  on 
niimerous  subjects  which  he  has  not  elsewhere  treated,  and 
most  interesting  from  their  |jicturo  of  simplicity  of  char- 
acter associated  with  greatness  of  intellect,  and  of  the 
multiiilicity  of  his  intellectual  interests,  from  which  novels 
and  lir\e  art  were  by  no  means  excluded. >  During,  his 
latter  years  (le  took  great  interest  in  the  revision  of  the 
authorized  version  of  the  Bible,  and  .was  chairman  of  the  | 
revisers  of  the  Old  Testament.  j^Hg  resigned  bis  see 'in 
May  1874,  and  retired. to  Bath.where  ho. died  on  July 
27,  1875. 

As  scholar,  critic,  and  ecclesiastical  statesman  Thirlwall 
is  almost  above  praise.  He  was  not  a  great  original 
thinker;  he  lacked  the  creative  faculty  and  the  creative 
impulse.  The  world  owes  such  vestiges  of  his  power  as  it 
possesses  to  a  series  o^  fortunate  accidents — an  importunate 
editor,  vexatious  church  controversies,  and 'an  admirable 
friend.  Though  not  most  fully  exerted,  the  force  of  hif; 
mind  is  .perhaps  best  appreciated  in  the  volume  of  his 
letters  edited  by  Dean  Perowne.  His  treatment  of  every 
questionis  consummate  ;  the  largestand  the  smallest  seeiEi 
alike  to  him.  His  character,  with  its  mixture  of  greataessi 
and  gentleness,  was  thus  read  by  Carlyle  ; — "a  right 
solid  honest-hearted  man,  full  of  knowledge  and  sense,' 
and,  in  spite  of  his  positive  temper,  almost  timid." 

Thirlwall's  History  of  Greece  rem.iins  a  standard  book,  Hit 
literary  and  tlicological  remains  have  been  edited  by  Dcin  Perowna 
in  three  voliiTncs,  two  of  which  are  occupied  by  liis  charges.  Hij 
letters,  on  literary  and  theological  subjects,  with  a  connecting 
memoir,  have  licen  jiublislifd  by  Dean  Perowne  and  the  Rev.( 
Louis  Stokes.  His  Ldters  to  a  yrteiid  were  originally  published 
by  Dean  Stanley,  and  there  is  a  revised  and  corrected  edition.  Fo» 
a  general  view  of  Thirlwall's  life  -ind  character,  see  the  EdiiiMirgh 
Review,  vol.  cxUii, ,  for  a  picture  of  him  in  his  diocese,  Tetn^il^ 
Bar,  vol.  Ixxvi.  The  review  of  his  letters  in  Blackwood's  M,a0i^ 
zvic.  for  18G2  is  by  the  late  Rev.  W.  Lucas  Collins.  (R.  0.) 

THIRSK,  a  market-town  in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkj 
shire,  is  situated  oi»  the  North  Eastern  Railway,  and  on 
the  Codbeck,  a  branch  of  the  Swale,  21  miles  south  of 
Darlington,  11  north-east  of  Ripon,  Jind  210  no'rth  of 
London.  The  Codbeck  .is  crossed  by;  two  stone  bridge* 
connecting  the  old  and  the  new  towif .  The  church  of  St 
Mary,  in  the  Perpendicular  style,  with  parvise,  chatJJel, 
nave,  aisles,  porch,  and  tower  80  feet  in  height,  is  thfl 
noblest  church  in  the  Riding.  The  chancel  was  repaired 
in  1844,  and  the  whole  building  restored  in  1877.  The 
moat  of  the  ancient  castle  built  by!  the  Mowbrays  about 
980  still  remains.  ,  The  principal  modern  buildings  are 
the  assembly  rooms(lb49),  the  mechanics'  institute  (1852), 
and  the  new  court-house  (1886).  Standing  in  the  fertile 
district  of  the  'Vale  of  Mowbriy,  the  town  has  an  extensive 
home  and  foreign  agricultural  ipiplement  trade.  Iron- 
founding,  engineering,'  tanning,  and  brickmaking  are 
carried  on,  and  there  are  large  flour  mills.  .The  population 
of  the  parliamentary  borough,  now  disfranchised  (area 
11,828  acres),  in  1371  was  5734,  and  in  1881  it  was 
6312.  The  population  of  the  township  in  1881  was  3337. 
'  Thirsk  owes  its  origin  to  the  casUo  of  the  Mowbrays,  und  here 
Roger  de  Mowbray  erected  his  standard,  in  conjunction  with  the 
king  of  Scotland,  against  Henry  II.  '  Upon  the  suppression  of  Uie 
revolt  the  castle  was  destroyed.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  Heurv 
Percy,  earl  of  Northumberland,  is  said  lo  have  been  put  to  death 
beneath  an  elm. tree  which  formerly'  grew  on  St  James's  Green. j 
■Thirsk  was  a  borough  by  prescrhition,  but  was  never  incor|iorated.J 
]t  first  returned  members  to  parliament  in  the  reign  of  Sdward  I,,' 
but  not  again  till  the  last  parliament  of  Edward  VI.  In  }M2  the 
number  of  representatives  was  rtduced  lo  one,' and  in  I8&5  ii 
ceased  lo  be  separately  represented.^ 

THISTLE.  This  term,  as  generaiiy~empioyccl,~i8  ol 
vague  application,  being  given  to  almost  .'my  herbacroua 
pjant  that  i.H  of  a  spiny  character^     M.ore  strictly,  it  is  ap- 


T  H  T~T  H  O 


plied  to  the  species  of  Cdrduiu.    Tliese  are  Composite  lierbs 
witU  very  spiiiy  leaves,  and  similar  bracts  surrounding  a 
head  of  (lurplisii-wliitc.  tubular,  5-parted  Rowers  scatcd'on 
a  pitted  and  liaiiy  receptacle.     The  anthers  have  apiicnd- 
ages  both  at  the  apex  and  at  the  base.     The  style  has  a 
ring  of  hairs  at  the  point  of  bifurcation  of  the  two  stig- 
mata.    The  fruit  is  surmounted  by  a  tuft  of  silky  white 
hairs.    .The  species  are  numerous,  and  some  are  of  great 
beauty,  though  not  unnaturally  looked  on  with  disfavour 
by  the  farmer.     The  Cotton  Thistle,  remarkable  for   its 
covering   of    white  down,  is   Onopurdon  Acant/iium ,  the 
Blessed  Thistle  is  Ccirduus  benedxctus ;  the  Holy  Thistle, 
the  leaves  of  wliicli  are  spotted  with  white,  is  C.  Mari- 
anus.     The  common  C.  lanceulalus  seems  to  be  the  most 
suitable   prototype  for  the   Scotch  Thistle,'  though   that 
honour  is  also  conferred  on  Onopordon  Acantkium,   the 
cotton    thistle,  a  doubtful  native,  and   on  other  species. 
The  great  objection  to  thistles  from  an  agricultural  point 
of  view  resides  in  the  freedom  with  which  they  produce 
seed,  and  in  the  vigour  of  their  underground  growth,  which 
makes  their  uprooting  a  matter  of  difficulty.     Partial  up- 
rooting may  indeed,  in  the  case  of  the  perennial  species, 
increase  the  mischief,  for  each  fragment  left  behind  may 
grow  into  a  distinct  plant.     Annual  species  might  be  kept 
in  check  were  they  cut  down  before  the  flowers  appear,  but 
unless  all  the  cultivators  in  a  particular  district  co-operate 
the  efforts  of  individuals  are  of  little  avail.     The  Globe 
Artichoke  and  Cardoon  are  very  near  allies  of  the  thistles. 
The  Safflower,  Carthamus,  another  thistl^  yields  a  service- 
able dye  ;  the  Burdock,  Arctium  lappa,  has  an  edible  root ; 
and  numerous  allied  species  have  medicinal  properties. 

THISTLE,  Order  OF  THE.     See  Knioiituood.  vol  xiv 
p.  123.  • 

THISTLEWOOD   CONSPIRACY,   or  Cato  Street 
Conspiracy,  a   plot  formed    in    1820   to  murder   Lord 
Castlereagh  and  other  ministers  of  the  British  crown,  and 
to  seize  the  Bank  and  MansionHouse  and  proclaim  a  pro- 
visional  government.      Its   chief   instigator   was    Arthur 
Thistlewood,  or  properly  Thistlewaite,  boro  in   1770,  the 
son  of  a  civil  engineer  in  Lincolnshire,  who  had  held  a 
commission  in  themUitiaand  afterwards  in  the  line  in  the 
West  Indies.     In  America  and  in  Franco  he  had  imbibed 
revolutionary  views,  and,  having  lost  his  wife's  fortune  in 
speculation  and  on  the  turf,  had   planned  the  desiierate 
scheme  probably  for  his  own  benefit  as  well  as  the  good  of 
the  nation.     The  intention  was  to  murder  the  ministers  in 
the  house  of  the  earl  of  Harrowby  in  Mans6eld  Street  on  the 
evening  of  the  23d  February.     For  this  purpose  between 
twenty  and  thirty  men  assembled  in  a  stable  in  Cato  Street 
tdgeware  Road,  but. while  they  were  arming  themselves 
they  were  pounced  upon  by  the  police,  and  a  large  number 
captured    though   the   majority,    including  Thistlewood 
escaped.      A   reward  of  £1000   havmg   been  offered  for 
Ihistlewood,  he  was  arrested  next  day  at  10  White  Street. 
After  a  trial  Thistlewood  and  four  others  were  executed  on 
the  1st  May,  while  five  were  transported.     On  being  asked 
on  the  scaffold  if  ho  repented,  Thistlewood  replied,  "No, 
not  at  all  ;  I  shall  soon  know  the  last  granvl  secret  "' 

lHOLUCK,FRi£DRicHADODsT(;oTrRE(;  (1799-1877) 
German  theologian  and  preacher,  was  born  at  Breslau', 
March  30,  1799,  in  humble  circumstances.  He  received 
his  education  at  the  grammar  school  and  university  of  his 
native  town,  and  early  distinguished  himself  by  wonder- 
ful versatility  of  mind,  a  phenomenal  power  of  acquiring 
languages,  and  an  omnivorous  appetito  for  books  A 
romantic  love  of  the  East  and  its  literature  led  him  to 
exchange  the  university  of  Breslau  for  that  of  Berlin 
.that  hejnight  study  Oriental  languages  to  greater  advan- 


30? 


tage,  and    there  he  was'focelved  into  the  house  of  .'th^ 
Orientalist  Von  Dietz.      He  was    inircducod    to  Pietiifi* 
circles  in  Berlin,  and  came  specially  under  the  influence  o( 
Baron  Von  Kottwitz.  who  became  his  "spiritual  father.tanj 
of  the  historian  Neander.      Before  deciding  on  the  careejf 
of  theological  professor,  he  had  in  view  iliat°of  a  missionary 
in  the  East.     Meanwhile  he  was  feeling  the  influence  tg 
a  certain  degree  of  the  romantic  school,  and  of  Schloier. 
macher   and    Hegel    too,  though    he    never   sounded  the 
depths  of  their  systems.    At  length,  in  his  twenty  first  year, 
he  finally  decided  to  adopt  the  academical  calling      Frooj 
December  1820   to  April   1826  he  was   "  privat-docent  " 
and  "  prof,  extraordinarius  "of  theology  in  Berlin,  though 
he  was  at  the  same  time  most  active  in  the  work  of  horns 
and  foreign  missions.     He  lectured  on  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  ^theology,  apologetics,  and  the  history  of  the 
church  in  the  18th  century.     The  first  fruit  of  his  Oriental 
studies  and  his  introduction  to  his  profession  was  his  work 
SsKjismus,  sive  Theosophia  Persarum.  PmUheislica  ( 1 82 1 )  • 
following   the   same  line  of  study  he  published    Blutm^ 
sainmhm^  aus  der  moryenlandisc/ien  Myslik  (1825)  and 
Spnulativf  TrinildtsUhre  des  spaKren  Orients  (1826).     Uis 
well-known  essay  on  the  nature   and  moral  influence  of 
heathenism  (1822)  was  published  by  Neander,  with  high 
commendation,  in   his   Deiikumrdigkeiten ;   and  his   Com- 
mentart,  on  the  EpisUe  to  the  Romans  (1824)  secured  him 
a  foremost  place  amongst  the  most  suggestive,  if  not  the 
most   accurate.  Biblical   interpreters  of   that  time.     An- 
other work,  which  was  soon  translated  into  all  the  prin- 
cipal  European  languages,  Dix  Lehre  von  der  Siinde  und 
vom    Versbhaer  (1823),  the  outcome  of  his  own  religious 
history,  procured  for  him  the  position  which  he  ever  after 
held  of  the  modern  Pietistic  apologist  of  evangelical  Chris- 
tianity.    In  1825.  with  the  aid  of  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment, he  visited  the  libraries  of  England  and  Holland,  and 
on  his  return  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Halle, 
the  centre  of  German  rationalism.      Here  ho  made  it  his 
aim  to  combine  in  a  higher  unity  the  learning  and  to  some 
extent  the   rationalism  of  Semler,  with    the   devout  and 
active  pietism  of  Francke  ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  theological  faculty  of  the  university,  he  succeeded 
in  changing  the  character  of  its  theology.     This  he  effected 
partly  by  his  lecture-i,  particularly  his  exegetical  courses, 
but,  above  all,  by  his  personal  influence  upon  the  students^ 
and,  after  1833,  by  his  preaching.     His  theological  position 
was  that  of  a  mild  and .  large-hearted  orthodoxy,   which 
laid  more  stress  upon  Christian  experience  than  upon  rigid 
dogmatic  belief.     On  the  two  great  questions  of  miracles 
and  inspiration    he   made   great   concessions   to   modern 
criticism  and  philosophy      The  battle  of  his  life  was  on 
behalf  of  personal  religious   experience,  in  opposition  to 
the  externality  of  rationalism,  orthodoxy,  or  sacrament- 
arianism.    'He  fought  this  battle  with  weapons  taken  in 
the  first  instance  from  his  own  personal  history,  but  a'lo 
from  the  wide  world  of  human  culture,  ancient  and  modern, 
Carl  Schwarz  happily  remarks  that,  as  the  English  apolo-' 
gists  of  the  _18th  century  were  themsselves  infected  with 
the    poison    of   the   deists    whom    they   endeavoured    to 
refute,  so  Tholuck  absorbed  some  of  the  heresies  of  the 
rationalists  whom  he  tried  to  overthrow.     As  a  preacher 
Tholuck  ranked  amongst  the  foremobt  of  his  time.      He 
was  also  one  of  the  prominent  members  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance,  and  few  men  were  more  wi<iely  known  or  more 
beloved  throughout  the  Protestant  churches  of  Europe  and 
America  than  he.     He  died  at  Halle,  June  10,  1877. 

After  his  commentanes  (on  Romans,  the  Gospi-1  of  John,  th« 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  the  Epistle  to  thu  HeLrew.'!)  and  several 
volumes  of  sermons,  his  best-known  books  are  Stundcn  chnstluAcr 
Andacht  (1839,  8th  ed.  1870),  intended  to  take  the  place  of 
ZschokkoB  .standard  rationalistic  wi.rk  with  the  same  title,  and  his 
reply  to  Strauss's  Life  of  Jesus  (Qlaubwunligkeil  der^evangdixAei^ 


I30S, 


T  H  O  — T  H  O 


OischicJUe,  1837)-  He  publishei!  nt  various  times  vajuable  contribu- 
tloDs  towards  .-i  history  of  rationalism,  —  ^orgeschich/.c  des  Ration- 
ahsvtv^  (1863-62),  Gcschichte  cUs  RatumalisTmis.  i  (1865).  and  a 
nuniber  of  essays  conoccted  with  the  history  of  theology  and  espe- 
cially of  apologetics  His  views  of  inspiration  were  indicated  in 
his  work  Df.  Pruphctcn  and  ikre.  i^ eissagnntjtni  (I860),  in  his 
essay  on  the  "  Alte  Inspirationslehre,"  Deutsche  Zcitsckn/t  fiir 
christliche  IVisscnschaft  (1850),  and  tti  his  Gesprache  uber  die 
vomckmslcn  Glaiiicns/ragen  der  Zcit  (I846,  2d  ed    1867) 

Sec /)1J  Z-f6<-n  rAo/ufii,  by  L  Witte,  2  vnls  .  1884-1886 ,  A  Ttiotuctcnn  LebeM- 
afcrigj  by  M  Kfthlcr  (1877).  and  the  wtne  author's  art  "Tboluck."  In  Herzog's 
Utat  Enc],ktopa<iif .  "Zur  Erinnerunc  an  Tholuck,"  by  C  Slefifned. /*ro.«s((2nf- 
ijfie  K^rcttteitung,  i88&.  No  45,  and  1886  No  47;  Cari  Schwart.  Zur  Geicfiichtg 
tftfi  n^ucjfen  Tfieol"<jie  (4tb  ed.,  1869).  Nippold'a  Bandbncfi  der  neuttlen  Kirchen- 
ffet(htcf>lt 

THOMAS,  St,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  The  synop- 
tical Gospels  give  only  his  name,  associating  him  in  their 
lists  with  Matthew  (Mat.  x.  3,  Mark  in  18;  Luke  vi 
15)  ;  in  Acts  i.  13  he  is  coupled  with  Philip.  In  the 
Gospel  of  John  (xi  16;  xiv  5  ;  xx  24  «</  ;  xxi.  2}  he 
appears  in  a  characteristic  light,  full  of  personal  devotion 
kki  jready  to  die  with  his  Master,  but  slow  to  gras.p  the 
trae  significance  of  the  redeeming  death  of  Jesus,  and 
incredulous  of  the  resurrection  till  direct  evidence  con- 
vinces bim  I  of  its  truth  and  at  the  same  time  of  the 
Divinity  of  his  risen  Lord.  John  translates  the  Aramaic 
name  or  surname  Thomas  (SDwn)  by  the  Greek  equiva- 
lent Didymus  (twin)  Tradition  has  it  'hat  he  was  the  twin 
brother  of  a  sister  Lysia  (his  parents  being  Diophanes  and 
Rhoa,  and  his  birthplace  Antioch;  "XIL  Apost.  Patrias," 
in  Chron.  Pasch.,  ii.  142),  or  of  a  brother  Elieser  (Horn. 
Clem.,  ii  1),  or,  according  to  the  Acta  Thomm  (ed.  Bonnet, 
pp  11,  23),  of  Jesus  Himself.  The  last  form  of  the  tradi- 
tion seems  to  be  derived  from  the  name  Judas  Thomas, 
which  he  bears  in  Edessene  legend  (cf.  Eusebius,  U.  E., 

I.  13,  10),  and  implies  the  identification  of  Thomas  with 
Judas,  the  brother  of  the  Lord.  The.  most  ancient  tradi- 
tion makes  Thomas  the  evangelist  of  Parthia  (Eus.,  H.  E , 
iii.  1,1);  and  at  Edessa,  which  claimed  to  possess  his  bones, 
it  was   related    that   their   missionary   Thaddaeus   (^us., 

II.  E ,  i.  13,  10),  or  Addai  {Doctrine  of  Addai,  ed  Phillips, 
1876,  p.  5),  was  sent  to  them  by  him.  Later  tradition, 
originating  with  the  Gnostic  Acta  Thoma,  and  accepted 
by  catholic  teachers  from  the  middle  of  the  4th  century, 
makes  him  proceed  to  fndia  and  there  suffef  martyrdom. 
The  Indian  Tiing  Giindaphorus  of  the  Acta  is,  however, 
certainly  identical  with  the  historical  Goadophares  (see 
Persia,  vol.  xviii.  p  603),  whose  dynasty  was  Parthian, 
though  his  realm  included'  regions  loosely  reckoned  to 
India.  The  Parthian  and  Indian  missions  of  Thomas  may 
perhaps  therefore  be  regarded  as  derived  from  a  single 
tradition  Later  authors,  but  not  the  Acta,  give  as  the 
scene  of  his  martyrdom  the  city  of  Calamine,  which  the 
modern  Christians  of  St  Thomas  (see  below)  identify  with 
Mylapur,  but  which  Gutschmid  "would  connect  with  the 
Calama  of  Nearchus,  on  the  coast  of  Gedrosia,  which  was 
under  the  sceptre  of  Gondophares.  Other  names  of  his 
torical  persons  and  places  can  be  traced  with  more  or  less 
probability  in  the  Ada,  but  these  do  not  alter  the  utterly 
apocryphal  character  of  the  legend,  which  indeed  is  in 
many  respects  easier  to  understand  if  we  accept  the  bold 
hypothesis  of  Gutschmid,  that  it  was  borrowed  by  the 
Gnostic  author  from  a  Buddhist  story  of  the  conversion  of 
Arachosia  (A^  Rhexn  Mus  ,  xix    ICl  sq) 

The  Acta  Tftnmm.  very  imperfectly  published  by  Thilo  (1823) 
ind  Tisihetidnrf  (1851).  have  Deen  edited  in  Greek,  together  with 
(he  Latin  De  Miracutxi  and  Passw  S  Thorns,  hy  Bonnet  (Leipsic, 
1883 1.  and  in  Syriac,  with  an  English  translation,  by  W.  Wripht 
{AfKxryphat  /Ids.  2  vola,  London,  1871)  Sea  also  Lipsius,  Lhe 
apixr'ji'ktn  A/KisU/geschiciuen,  vol  1  (Brunswick.  1883),  for'lhese 
•  ij'l  tttht-r  vcPMons  of  the  legend.  The  -4cta  arc  said  by  Photius 
to  be  a  piit  f-f  the  ritpioStx  ruf  aToffT6\<iiv  of  the  Gnostic  Leucius 
Charinus,  but  this  unknown  personage  is  to  be  thought  of  as  a  col 
lector  of  Gnostic  "  Acts  of  Apostles,"  rather  than  as  the  first  author 
Ih  spite"  of  extensive  catholic  revision,  they  form  one  of  the  most 
'kDtcresting^^oouments  of  early  OnosticiBm      iDteroal  evidence 


assigns  them  with  great  probability  to  the  school  of  Banjesaoet 
and  the  very  ancient  allegorical  hymn  about  the  soul  which  is  in 
serted  in  the  Syriac  text  (p  271  ,50  ,  Eng.  tr  ,  p.  238  sj  )  is  per 
haps  by  Bardesanes  himself  (r/  Nofjeke  in  Z  D.  it  G  ,  1871,  p. 
676)      It  ia  one  of  the  most  remarkable  pieces  in  Syriac  literature. 

Christians  of  St  Thomas  is  a  name  often  applied  to,the 
members  of  the  ancient  Christian  churches  of  southern  India, 
which  claim  him  as  their  first  founder,  and  honour  as  their  second 
founder  a  certain  Thomas  of  Jerusalem,  who  is  said  to  have  led 
a  Christian  colony  to  Malabar  in  345  A  D.'  According  to  their 
tradition,  St  Thomas  went  frora  Malabar  to  Mylapur,  now  a- 
suburb  of  Madras,  where  the  serine  of  bis  martyrdom,  rebuilt  by' 
the  Portuguese  10  1547,  still  "stands  on  Mount  St  Thomas,  and 
wherea  miraculous  cross  is  shown  with  a  Pahlavi  inscription  which 
may  be  as  old  as  the  end  of  the  7th  century  We  know  from 
Cosmaslndopleustes  that  there  were  Christian  churches  of  Persian' 
(East-Sy  nan)  origin,  and  doubtless  of  Ncstorian  creed,  in  Ceylon,  in 
Malabar,  and  at  Caliana  (north  of  Pombay)  before  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century,  and  even  then  St  Thomas,  ths  reputed  aposlle  of 
Persia,  may  have  been  their  special  saint.  '  The  ancient  churches 
of  southern  India  never  died  out  or  wholly  lost  their  sense  of  con-| 
nexion  with  their  mother  church,  for  we  find  them  sending  dt-pulies 
in  1490  to  the  Nestorian  patriarch  Simeon,  who  furnished  them 
wrth  bishops  (Assomani,  Bib  Or  ,  ui  1.  590  s?  )  Hard  pressed 
by  the  Moslems,  they  welcomed  the  approich  of  the  Portuguese, 
but  proved  by  no  means  tractable  to  efforts  to  bring  them  witliin 
the  Roman  obedience.  At  length  a  formal  uniou  with  Rome  was 
carried  through  in  the  synod  of  Diampoi  (1599).  Syriac  was  to 
remain  the  ecclesiastical  'langu.^ge,  but  the  service  books  were 
corrected  and  purified  (rom  error,  A  century  and  a  half  of  foreign 
Jesuit  rule  followed,  but  the  love  of  independence  was  noi  lost 
A  great  schism  took  place  in  1653,  and  of  200,000  Christians  of  St 
Thomas  only  400  remained  loyal  to  Rome,  though  many  of  their 
churches  were  soon  won  ba<"k  by  the  (Carmelites.  Tho?e  wb^ 
remained  independent  fSll  under  the  influence  of  the  Jacobite  Mai 
Gregorius,  styled  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  who  reached  Malabar  in 
1665  as  an  emissary  from  Ignatius,  patriarch  of -Antioch.  From 
his  time  the  independent  .Christians 'have  been  Jacobites,  the 
counter  efforts  of  the  Nestoriaus 'under.  Mar.jGabrrel,  bijhop  ol 
Adharbaijaii,  having  apparently  come"lo  nothing  after  his  death  m 
1730  Siuce, the  visit  of  Claudius  Buchanan,  whose  CAnsIian  Re 
searches  in  Asia  (1811)  es*;^ited  great  interest,  much  has  been  done 
for  the  Christians  of  South  India  by  English  luissionaiy  efTort,  and 
Anglicans  have  cultivated  friendly  relations  with  the  clergy  of  the 
independent  native  church,  while  discouraging  dependence  on  the 
Jacobite  patriarch  of  Antioch 

A  valuable  though  tedious  and  til  arrajif^ed  btsuiry  of  the  Chrtstlans  of  Si 
Thomas  has  been  wiltten  by  W  Geraiann,  Oie  Kirche  der  TftcmasfhmteTi, 
GUlerBloh,  1877  See  aiao  La  Cooze.  HUtoire  du  Chnstiamime  det  tndes.  Tho 
Hague.  1724;  Alexius  de  Meneiea.  EiUorta  t'ccleum  MalabarxcK.  Latin  by  if 
KauIiD,  Rome.  174&  lespectally  for  the  Eynod  of  Dlamper) ;  Paullaus  a  S  Bar 
tbolomso,  /ndta  Ortentalu  Cnrutxana,  4to,  Rome,  1794. 

THOMAS,  St,  of  Aqoino.     See  AfjniNAS. 

THOMAS  BECKET,  or  A  Becket-  See  A  Becot. 
*  fHOMAS  Of  Celano^  the  contemporary  and  supposed 
biographer  of  Francis  of"  Assisi,  was  born  probably  towards 
the  end  of  the  12th  century,  and  died  about  1255.  He 
derives  his  surname  from  Celajjo  (q.v.),  in  the  Abruzzo 
Ulteriore.  His  name  does  not  occur  among  those  of  the 
earliest  disciples  of  Francis,  but  he  is  recorded  by  some 
historians  of  the  order,  though  not  by  all,  to  have  held  the 
office  of  custos  in  various  Franciscan  houses  (Cologne,  Maioz, 
Worms,  .Spires)  from  1221  onwards.  An  old  biography 
of  Francis,  which  is  incorporated  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  is 
attributed  to  Thomas  with  much  probability,  and  nothing 
cogent  has  been  urged  against  bis  authorship  of  the  Diet 
Ire  (see  Hymns,  vol  zii  p  583),  although,  so  far  as  is  at 
present  known,  his  name  is  not  associated  with  that  re- 
markable poem  by  any  writer  earlier  than  1385,    . 

TH>jMAS  OP  Erceldoone,  called  also  the-RHVMKR 
(f.  1225-f  1300),  occupiesa  prominent  pjace  as  ftpoet  and 
prophet  in  the  mythical  and.  legendary  literature  of  Scot- 
land. The  historical  person  of  that  name  figures  in  two 
charters  of  the  13th  century,  and  from  these  it  appears 
that  he  owned  lands  in  Erceldoune  (now  Earlston),  in 
Berwickshire,  which  were  made  over  by  his  son  and  heir 
to  the  cloister  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Soltra,  or  Soutra,  on 

'  See  the  sketch  in  Syriftc  ol  the  history  of  the  church  of  Malabar 
printed  ami  Irauslaled  by  Lund.  Anecd    Syr  ,  i    24  sq.      It  was  sent 
loSchaaf  at  Leyden  lu  1720  by  Mar  Gabnel,  the  last  Nestonan  bishop.  ■ 
111  Malabar  (see  Germann,  p.  542) 


,  T  H  0  —  T  H  0 


309 


the  borders  of  the  same  county.  He  figures  in  the  works 
of  Barbour  and  Blind  Harry  as  the  sympathizing  con- 
temporary of  their  heroes,  and  Wyntoua  tells  how  he 
prophesied  a  battle.  In  the  folk-lore  of  Scotland  his  name  • 
is  associated  with  numerous  fragments  of  rhymed  or  alli- 
terative verse  of  a  more  or  less  prophetic  and  oracular 
character  ;  bat  the  chief  extant  work  with  which  his  name 
is  associated  is  the  poem  of  Sir  TriMrem,  edited  from  the 
Auchinleck  MS.  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  1S04,  and  again  in 
1SS6  for  the  Scottish  Text  Society  by  Mr  G.  P.  M'Neill. 
In  the  latter  edition  the  claim  of  Thomas  to  the  authorship 
«f  this  work  (conceded  by  both  editors)  is  fully  discussed. 

THOMAS  A  KEMPIS.     See  Kempis. 

THOMASIUS,  Cbristian  (1655-1728),  German  jurist 
and  publicist,  was  born  at  Leipsic  January  1,  1655,  and 
educated  by  his  "father  Jacob  Thomasius,  professor  of 
philosophy  and  eloquence,  a  learned  man,  and  friend  of 
Spener.  Through  his  father's  lectures  Christian  came 
under  the  influence  of  the  political  philosophy  of  Grotius 
and  Pufendorf,  and  cofltinued  the  study  of  law  under 
Stryck  at  Frankfurt  on  the  Oder  In  1681  he  commenced 
the  career  of  professor  of  law  at  Leipsic,  and  soon  attracted 
attention  by  his  abilities,  but  particularly  by  his  daring 
attack  upon  all  ancient  prejudices.  His  views  on  matters 
of  law  were  heretical ;  he  made  the  daring  innovation  of 
lecturing  in  German  instead  of  Latin ;  he  published  a 
monthly  periodical  in  which  he  ridiculed  with  vast  wit  and 
humour  the  pedantic  weaknesses  of  the  learned ;  he  took 
valiantly  the  side  of  the  Pietists  in  their  controversy  with 
the  orthodox,  .and  defended  mixed  marriages  of  Lutherans 
and  Calvinists.  In  consequence  of  these  and  other  sins,  be 
was  preached  against  from  the  pulpits,  forbidden  to  lecture 
or  to  write  (May.  10,  1690),  and  his  arrest  was  soon  com- 
manded. He  escaped  the  latter  by  flight  to  Berlin,  and 
the  elector  Frederick  III.  oB"ered  him  a  refuge  in  Halle, 
with  a  salary  of  500  thalers  and  the  right  to  lecture  there. 
He  took  part  in  founding  the  university  of  Halle  (1694), 
where  he  became  second  and  then  first  professor  of  law 
and  director  of  the  university.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  university  teachers  and  influential  writers  of  his 
day  He  died,  after  a  singularly  successful  and  honourable 
career,  in  his  74th  year,  September  23,  1728. 

Titough  not  a  profound  and  systematic  philosophical  thinker,  but 
rather  a  clever  eclectic  of  the  common-sense  school,  Thomasius 
prepared  the  way  for  great  reforms  in  philosophy,  and,  above  all, 
ID  law,  literature,  ^cial  life,  and  theology  It  was  his  mission  to 
bring  all  the  high  matters  of  divine  and  human  sciences  into  close 
aud  living  contact  with  the  everyday  world.  He  made  learning, 
law.  philosophy,  and  theology  look  at  everything  from  a  rational 
common-sense  point  of  view,  and  speak  of  everything  in  vigorous 
German.  He  thus  created  an  epoch  in  German  literature,  philo- 
sophy, and  law,  and  Spittler  opens  with  him  the  modern  period  of 
e«clesiaslical-history.  Tholuck  pronounces  him  "the  personified 
spirit  of  ilfiwnioism-"  He  made  it  one  of  the  aims  of  his  life  to  free 
politics  and  jurisprudence  from  the  control  of  theology  He  fought 
bravely  and  consistently  for  freedom  of  thought  and  speech  on 
religious  matters.  He  is  often  spoken  of  in  German  works  as  the 
luthor  of  the  "  territorial  system,"  or  Erastian  theory  of  ecclesi- 
*stical-  gove'rnment.  But  he  taught  that  the  state  may  interfere 
with  legal  or  public  duties  only,  and  not  with  moral  or  private  ones. 
He  introduced  a  new  definition  of  heresy,  and  pronounced  it  a  bug- 
bear of  the  theologians.  He  would  not  have  even  atheists  punished, 
though  they  should  be  expelled  the  country.  He  came  forwaid 
as  an  earnest  opponent  of  th«  prosecution  of  witchps  and  of  the  use 
of  torture.  In  theology,  he  was  not  a  naturalist  or  a  deist,  but  a 
•believer  in  the  necessity  of  revealed  religion  for  salvation.  He  felt 
strongly  the  influence  of  the  Pietists  at  times,  particularly  of 
Spener,  and  there  was  a  mystic  vein  in  his  thought;  but  other 
«tement3  of  his  nature  were  too  powerful  to  allow  him  to  attach 
hijnself  finally  to  that  party. 

Thoinasius's  most  popular  and  influential  German  publications 
were  his  periodical  MonAtsgesprdchc ,  vornchmlick  iiber  nciic  Buchcr 
-  X16SS);  Kinkitujigzur  Fcrnu!i/tlehrc(\69'\,  5th  ed.  1719);  VcrnUnfl- 
'•ige  Oedanken  iiber  alUrhand  auserUscrnc,  gcmischtc,  philosophische, 
■und  jurijlische  Hdndtl  (1723-26);  Oeschickte  dcr  IViisheit  und 
.XhoTheit  (3   vok,    1693);  Kurze   LehrsiUze  «m  dem   Laster  dir 


Zaubcrei  mit  dim  BtZ€n}>Toc6ss  (1704);    J^'ciUre  ErlduUrungen  dcr 
Ticturen  tt^isscnscha/t  jtndcrcr  Galnnkcn  kennm  rw  lerncn  (1711). 

Sec  Hctnrich  Luden's  Cftritciiin  Thnmanui  nach  stinfn  Schieisalen  ur-l 
Scftrt/Un,  1305;  Zellev'i  Qfichichte  der  Pfiiloioj^ftie  ih  ncutichJand,  2d  cd.,  1ST  .. 
pp.  162-171;  Gass,  OtKhithtt  der  Pro^tilaiiutchtn  Dvomalik.  li.  484*17;  tl  ■-■ 
histories  of  Geiman  literature,  especially  Ileiliiei's  Ot:i<hUfttc  der  deatictien  Ui 
im  ISten  Jafirft.;  Tholuck's  artxle  In  Hcrzog's  fUal  LntyUop. 

THOMPSON,  Sir  Benjaiuin,  Codnt  Romford  (1753- 
1814),  an  eminent  man  of  science,  enlightened  pliilan 
thropist,  and  sagacious  public  administrator,  was  bnrn  at 
Woburn,  in  Massachusetts,  in  1753,  and  died  at  Autouil, 
near  Paris,  in  1814.  His  family  had  been  settled  in  New 
England  since  the  middle  of  the  century  preceding  his 
birth,  and  belonged  to  the  class  of  moderately  wealthy 
farmers.  His  fatherdied  while  Thompson  was  very  youn^, 
and  his  mother  speedily  married  a  second  time.  But  he 
seems  to  have  been  well  cared  for,  and  his  education  was 
.to  far  from  n^lected  that,  according  to  his  own  statement, 
he  was  at  the  age  of  fourteen  sufficientty  advanced  "  in 
algebra,  geometry,  astronomy,  and  even  the  higher  mathe- 
matics," to  calculate  a  solar  eclipse  within  four  seconds 
of  accuracy.  In  17C6  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  storekeeper 
at  Salem,  in  New  England,  and  while  in  that  employment 
occupied  himself  in  chemical  and  mechanical  experiments, 
as  well  as  in  engraving,  in  which  he  attais<!d  to  some  pro- 
ficiency. The  outbreak  of  the  American  war  put  a  stop 
to  the  trade  of  his  master,  and  he  thereupon  left  Salem 
and  went  to  Boston,  where  he  engaged  himself  as  assistant 
in  another  store.  He  afterwards  applied  himself  to  the 
study,  with  a  view  to  the  practice,  of  medicine,  and  then 
(although,  as  he  affirms,  for  only  six  weeks  and  three  d.iys) 
he  became  a  school  teacher — it  is  believed  at  Bradford  on 
the  Merrimack.  Thompson  was  at  that  period  between 
eighteen  and  nineteen  years  old,  and  at  nineteen,  he  says, 
"  I  married,  or  rather  I  was  married."  His  wife  was 
the  widow  of  a  Colonel  Rolfe,  and  the  daughter  of  a  Mr 
Walker,  "a  highly  respectable  minister,  and  one  of  the 
first  settlers  at  Rumford,"  now  called  Concord,  in  New 
Hampshire.  His  wife  was  possessed  of  considerable  pro- 
perty, and  was  his  senior  by  fourteen  years.  This  marriage 
was  the  foundation  of  Thompson's  success.  Within  three 
years  of  it,  however,  he  left  his  wife  in  America  to  make 
his  way  to  wealth  and  distinction  in  Europe,  and,  although 
his  only  child  by  her,  a  daughter,  subsequently  joined 
him,  he  never  saw  and,  so  far  as  anything  appears  to  the 
contrary,  never  attempted  or  desired  to  see  her  again. 

Soon  after  his  marriage  Thompson  became  acquainted 
with  Governor  Wentworth  of  New  Hampshire,  who,  struck 
by  his  appearance  and  bearing,  conferred  on  him  the 
majority  of  a  local  regiment  of  militia..  He  speedily 
became  the  object  of  distrust  among  the  friends  of  the 
American  cause,  and  it  was  considered  prudent  that  he 
should  seek  an  early  opportunity  of  leaving  the  country. 
On  the  evacuation  of  Boston  by  the  royal  troops,  therefore, 
in  1776,  he  was  selected  by  Governor  Wentworth  to  carry 
despatches  to  England.  On  his  arrival  in  London  he 
almost  immediately  attracted  the  attention  of  Lord  George 
Germaine,  secretary  of  state,  who  ap[iointed  him  to  a 
clerkship  in  his  office.  Within  a  few  months  he  was 
advanced  to  the  post  of  secretary  of  the  province  o( 
Georgia,  and  in  about  four  years  he  was  made  under- 
secretary of  state.  His  ofiicial  duties,  however,  did  not 
materially  interfere  with  the  prosecution  of  scientific 
pursuits,  and  in  1779  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  Among  the  subjects  to  which  he  especially 
directed  his  attention  were  the  explosive  force  of  gun- 
powder, the  construction  of  firearms,  and  the  system  of 
signalling  at  sea.  In  connexion  with  the  last,  he  made 
a  cruise  in  the  Channel  fleet,  on  board  the  "Victory," 
as  a  volunteer  uudcr  the  command  of  Admiral  Sir  Charles 
Hardy.  On  the  resignation  of  Lord  North's  administra- 
tion, of  which  Lord  George  Germaine  wa.s  one  of  the  least 


310 


T  H  0  — T  H  O 


lucky  and  most  unpopular  members,  Thompson  left  the 
civil  service,  and  was  nominated  to  a  cavalry  command 
in  the  revolted  provinces  of  America.  But  the  War  of 
Independence  was  practically  at  an  end,  and  in  1783  he 
finally  quitted  active  service,  yvjth  the  rank  and  half-pay 
of  a  lieutenapt-colonel.  He  now  formed  the  design  of 
joining  the  Austrian  army,  for  the  purpose  of  campaigning 
against  the  Turks,   and   so  crossed  over   from   Dover  to 

1  CsJais   with    Gibbon,    who,    writing   to   his   friend  Lord 

j  Sheffield,  calls  his  fellow-passenger  "  Mr  Secretary-Colonel- 
Admiral-Philosopher.  Thompson."  At  Strasburg  he  was 
introduced  to  Prince  Maximilian,  afterwards  elector  of 
Bavaria,  and  was  by  him  invited  to  enter  the  civil  and 

'  military  service  of  that  state.  Having  obtained  the  leave 
of  the  British  Government  {o  accept  the  prince's  offer, 
he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  from  George  IIL, 
and  during  eleven  years  he  remained  at  Munich  as  minister 
df  war,  minister  of  police,  and  grand  chamberlain  to  the 
elector.  His  political  and  courtly  employments,  however, 
did  not  absorb  all  his  time,  and  he  contributed  during  his 
stay  in  Bavaria  a  number  of  papers  to  the  Philosophical 
Transactions.  But  that  he  was  sufficiently  alert  as  the 
principal  adviser  of  the  elector  the  results  of  his  labours 
m  that  capacity  amply  prove.  He  reorganized  the  Bavarian 
army ;  he  suppressed  mendicity  and  iound  employment 
for  the  poor ;  and  he  immensely  improved  the  condition  of 
the  industrial  classes  throughout  the  country  by  providing 
them  with  work  and  instructing  them  in  the  practice 
of  domestic  economy.  Of  the  prompt  and  the  business- 
like manner  in  which  he  was  wont  to  carry  his  plans 
into  execution  a  single  example  may  serve  as  an  illustra- 
tion. The  multitude  of  beggars  in  Bavaria  had  long 
been  a  public  nuisance  and  danger.  In  one  day  Thompson 
caused  no  fewer  than  2600  of  these  outcasts  and  depre- 
dators in  Munich  and  its  suburbs  alone  to  be  arrested  by 
military  patrols,  and  transferred    by  them   to  an  indus- 

'  trial  establishment  which  he  had  prepared  for  their  recep- 
tion. In  this  institution  they  were  both  housed  and  fed, 
and  they,  not  only  supported  themselves  by  their  labours 
but  earned  a  surplus  for  the  benefit  of  the  electoral 
revenues.  The  principle  on  which  their  treatment  pro- 
ceeded is  stated  by  Thompson  in  the  following  memorable 
words : — "  To  make  vicious  and  abandoned  people  happy," 
he  says,  "  it  has  generally  been  supposed  necessary  first 
to  make  them  virtuous.  But  why  not  reverse  this  order  1 
Why  not  make  them  first  happy,  and  then  virtuous  ? "  In 
1791  he  was  created  a  oount  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
and  chose  his  title  of  Runiford  from  the  name  as  it  then 
was  of  the  American  township  to  which  his  wife's  family 
belonged.  In  1795  he  visited  England,  one  incident  of 
his  journey  being  the  loss  of  all  his  private  papers,  includ- 
ing the  materials  for  an  autobiography,  which  were  con- 
tained ic  a  box  stolen  from  off  his  postchaise  in  St  Paul's 
Churchyard.  During  his  residence  in  London  he  applied 
himself  to  the  discovery  of  methods  for  curing  smoky 
chimneys  and  the  contrivance  of  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  fireplaces.  But  he  was  quickly  recalled  to 
Bavaria,  Munich  being  threatened  at  once  by  an  Austrian 
and  a  French  army.  The  elector  fled  from  his  capital,  and 
it  was  entirely  owing  to  Rumford's  energy  and  tact  that  a 
hostile  occupation  of  the  city  was  prevented.  It  was  now 
proposed  that  he  should  be  accredited  as  Bavarian  am- 
bassador in  London  ;  but  the  circumstance  that  he  was  a 
British  subject  presented  an  insurmountable  obstacle.  He, 
however,  again  came  to  England,  and  remained  there  in 
a  private  station  for  several  years.  In  1799  he,  in  con- 
junction with  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  projected  the  establishment 
of  the  Royal  Institution,  which  received  its  charter  6f 
incorporation  from  George  III.  in  1800.  Rumford  him- 
self selected   Sir  Humpliry  Davy  as   the   first   scientific 


lecturer  there.  Until  1804,  when  he  definitively  settled 
in  France,  Rumford  lived  at  the  Royal  Institution  in 
Albemarle  Street,  or  at  a  house  which  he  rented  at  Bromp- 
ton,  where  he  passed  his  time  in  the  steady  pursuit  of 
those  researches  relating  to  heat  and  light  and  the  economy 
of  fuel  on  which  his  scientific  fame  is  principally  based. 
He  then  established  himself  in  Paris,  and  married  (his  first 
wife  having  been  dead  for  many  years)  as  his  second  wife 
the  wealthy  widow  of  Lavoisier,  the  celebrated  chemist. 
With  this  lady  he  led  an  extremely  uncomfortable  life,  till 
at  last  they  agreed  to  separate.  Rumford  took  up  his 
residence  at  Auteuil,  where  he  died  suddenly  in  1814,  in 
the  sixty-second  year  of  his  age. 

H«  was  the  founder  and  the  first  recipient  of  the  Rumford  medal 
of  the  London  Royal  Society.  He  was  also  the  founder  of  tlie 
Rumford  medal  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciencea 
and  of  the  Rumford  professorship  in  Harvard  university.  His 
complete  worlcs  were  published  by  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences  at  Boston  in  1872  ;  and  a  full  and  extremely  interest- 
ing memoir  of  the  author  which  was  issued  with  them  was  repub- 
lished in  London  by  Messrs  UacmiUan  in  1S76.  (F.  DR.)     I 

THOMPSON,  Thomas  Phbonnet  (1783-1869),  mathe- 
matician and  political  writer,  was  born  af  Hull  in  1783. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Hull  grammar  school,  and  in 
October  J 798  entered  Queens'  College,  Cambridge.  He 
entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  the  "Isis"in  1803, 
but  in  1806  exchanged  to  the  army.  Through  his  ac- 
quaintance with  Wilberforce,  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  Sierra  Leone  in  1808,  but  was  recalled  on  account  of 
his  hostility  to  the  slave  trade.  In  1812  he  returned  to 
his  military  duties,  and,  after  serving  in  the  south  of 
France,  was  in  1815  attached  as  Arabic  interpreter  to  an 
expedition  against  the  Wahhabees  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  with 
whom  he  negotiated  a  treaty  (dated  January  1820)  in 
which  the  slave  trade  was  for  the  first  time  declared 
piracy.  He  was  promoted  major  in  1825,  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1829,  and  major-general  in  1854.  He  entered 
parliament  as  member  for  Hull  in  1835,  and  afterwards 
sat  for  Bradford.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  corn- 
law  agitation,  his  Catechism  .of  the  Corn  Laws  (1827) 
being  by  far  the  most  effective  pamphlet  published  on 
the  subject.  He  was  joint-editor  of  the  Westminster  Review, 
to  which  he  contributed  a  large  number  of  articles,  repub- 
lished in  1824  in  six  volumes,  under  the  title  Exercises, 
Political  and  Others.  His  mathematical  publications  were 
.of  a  somewhat  eccentric  kind.  He  published  a  Theory  of 
Parallels  (1844),  and  was  also  the  author  of  Geometry 
without  Axioms,  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  "get  rid" 
of  axioms  and  postulates.  His  new  Theory  of  Just  Intona- 
tion (1850)  is,  however,  a  contribution  of  great  value  to 
the  science  of  musical  acoustics,  and  has  gone  through 
many  editions.  It  may  be  said  to  form  the  basis  of  the 
tonic  sol-fa  system  of  music.     He  died  6th  October  1869.  I 

THOMSON,  Sir  Charles  Wvville  (1830-1882),  was  ' 
born  at    Bonsyde,  Linlithgowshire,   became    professor   of , 
natural   history  in  Aberdeen,  Cork,  Belfast,  and   finally 
Edinburgh,  and  will  be  specially  remembered  as  a  student  | 
of  the   biological   conditions  of   the   depths  of  the   sea.  I 
Being  interested  in  crinoids,  and  stimulated  by  the  results 
of  the  dredgings  of  Sars  in  the  deep  sea  off  the  Norwegian  | 
coasts,  which  had  conclusively  disposed  .of  the   error  of 
Edward  Forbes,  that  animal  life  ceased  at  a  depth  of  a. 
few  hundred  fathoms,  he  succeedea,  along  with  Dr  \V.  B. 
Carpenter,  in  obtaining  the  loan  of  H.M.S.  "Lightning" 
and  "  Porcupine,"  for  successive  deep-sea  dredging  expedi- 
tions in  the   summers  of  1868  and  1869.     It  was  thus 
shown   that  animal  life  existed   in  abundance   down  to 
depths  of  650  fathoms,  that  all  invertebrate  groups  were 
represented  (largely  by  Tertiary  forms  hitherto  believed  ^ 
to  be  extinctV  and,  moreover,  that  deep-sea  temperatures 
are  by  no   neens  "^o  constant  as  was  supposed,  but  vary  ^ 


THOMSON 


311 


'considerably,  and  indicate  an  oceanic  circulation. ,  Further 
dredging  expeditions  at  greater  and  greater  depths  fol- 
'lowed.  The  remarkable  results  gained  for  hydrography 
as  well  as  zoology,  in  association  with  the  practical  needs 
'of  ocean  telegraphy,  soon  led  to  the  granting  of  H.M.S. 
"  Challenger "  for  a  circumnavigating  expedition,  and 
(Thomson  sailed  at  the  end  of  1872  as  director  of  the 
iscientilic  staff,  the  cruise  lasting  three  years  and  a  half. 
On  bis  return  ha  received  many  academic  honours,  and 
was  knighted.'  In  1877  he  published  two  volumes  of  a 
preliminary  account  of  the  results,  of  the  voyage,  mean- 
while carrying  on  his  administrative  labours  in  connexion 
with  the  disposition  of  the  si^ecial  collections  and  publi- 
cation of  the  monographs  of  these.  ^  His  health,  never 
robust,  was  meanwhile  giving  way;  from  1S79  he  ceased 
to  perform  the  duties  of  his  chair,  and  he  died  in  1882. 

Sec  obituary  notice  in  Prcx  R("j.  Stx.  3lin.,  18S3,  also  Thorn- 
ton's yomge  o/  I{  ^fS.  Chnllcnger,  Lojidon,  1877,  and  Thoni- 
•on  and  Murray,  Rtports  of  the  Voyage  of  H.  U.S.  Challenger,  Edin- 
burgh, 18S5     '  "  J 

■^  THOMSON,  James  ^■(1700-1748),-'authorfof"v  The 
Seasons,  was  a"  native  of  the  Scottish  Border  country, 
his  father  being  successively  minister  of  the  parishes  of 
Ednam  and  Southdean,  in  Roxburghshire.  ^  He  was  born  at 
Ednam  on  September  11,  1700,  and  was  reared  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  social  influences  and  literary  fashions  that 
helped  to  form  and  fix  the  manner  of  the  "  classical  " 
»chool,  the  monotony  of  which  he  was  the  first  to  break. 
Amidst  the  ban;  breezy  hills  and  glens  of  a  Border  parish, 
bis  youth  was  safe  against  the  a.scendency  of  the  taste 
established  in  the  metropolis.  Jedburgh  school  and 
Edinburgh  university  gave  him  his  book  learning  of  the 
ordinary  type ;  and  he  was  fortunate  enough  to  have 
neighbours  of  extraordinary  accomplishment,"who  opened 
his  eyes  to  the  poetic  side  of  nature,  and  encouraged  him 
in  verse-making.  The  teacher  from  wliom  he  learnt  most 
was  a  Mr  Riccalton,  or  Riccaulton,  a  graduate  of  Edin- 
burgh, who  had  taken  to  farming,  but  was  afterwards 
persuaded  to  enter  the  church,  and  made  some  contribu- 
tions to  theological  literature.  This  scholarly  enthusiast 
taught  Latin  to  the  boys  of  Jedburgh  in  an  aisle  of  the 
church,  and  encouraged  Thomson  in  his  poetical  turn  by 
example  as  well  as  precept.  We  have  the  poet's  own 
acknowledgment  that  the  first  hint  of  the  Seasons  came 
from  a  striking  dramatic  poem  by  Riccaulton  entitled  A 
Winter's  Day.  .-  As  a  schoolboy  Thomson  wrote  verses, 
and  at  the  university  he  continued  the  practice,  but  his 
early  efforts  were  not  particularly  promising.  „  He  was 
intended  for  the  ministry,  and  was  for  five  years  a  student 
of  divinity ;  but  in  1725  he  determined  to  follow  his 
friend  and  classfellow  David  Mallet  to  London,  and  seek 
his  fortune  there.  Through  the  influence  of  Lady  Grizel. 
Baillie,  herself  a  song-writer,  he  obtained  a  tutorship  in 
the  family  of  Lord  Binning ;  but  the  plain-looking  and 
plain-mannered  poet  had  not  the  adroitness  of  his  friend 
Mallet,  and  he  gave  up  the  post  after  a  few  months.  It 
,was  while  he  lingered  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Barnet, 
without  employment,  without  money,  with  few  friends, 
saddened  by  the  loss  of  his  mother  (his  father  had  died 
when  he  was  eighteen),  that  Thomson  conceived  the  idea  of 
the  first  of  his  poems  on  the  Seasons,  Winter.  The  lines — 
^  Welcome,  kindred  glooms, 

;  Congenial  horrors,  hail !  , 
came  from'tbe  heart;  they  expressed  his  own* forlorn' 
mood  on  the  approach  of  the  winter  of  1725.  ?  Winter 
appeared  in  the  spring  of  172G.  A  publisher,  Millan, — not 
Millar,  who  afterwards  published  for  him, — gave  him  three 
guineas  for  the  poem.  The  tradition  is  that  it  attracted 
no  notice  for  a  month,  but  that,  at  the  end  of  that  time,  a 
litefary  clergyman,  WTiatley,  chanced  to  take  it  up  from  a 
bookseller's  counter,  and  at  once  rushed  off  to  the  coffe&- 


I  houses  to  proclaim  the  discovery  of  a  new  poet  The' 
town  received  the  di.";covcry  with  acclamation  ;  in  anotlier, 
month  a  second  edition  was  called  for.  No  time  could 
have  been  better  suited  for  the  appreciation  of  Thomson's 
striking  qualities;  they  wer«  bO  entirely  unlike  what  the 
public  had  for  many  years  been  accu-.toined  to.  The  fresh 
treatment  of  a  .simple  theme,  the  warm  poetical  colouring 
of  commonplace  incidents,  the  freedom  and  irregularity 
of  the  plan,  the  boldness  of  the  descriptions,  the  manly 
and  sincere  sentiment,  the  rouyh  vigour  of  the  verse,  took 

t  by  surprise  a  generation  accustomed  to  witty  satire  and 
burlesque,  refined  diction,  translations  from  the  classics, 
themes  valued  in  proportion  to  their  remoteness  from 
vulgar  life.  Thomson  at  once  became  iamous,  and,  his 
naturally  easy  temper  roused  to  full  exertion,  vigorously 
followed  up  his  success  with  Summer  and  an  OJe  to  the 
Memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  Spring  was  completed  and 
published  in  1728.  A  longer  interval  elapsed  before  the 
appearance  of  Autumn;  it  v^as  published  in  1730,  and 
followed  presently  by  a  handsome  edition  of  the  whole 
four  Seasom.  Meantime,  drawn  into  the  ardent  political 
strife  of  the  time,  he  had  produced,  in  1729,  bis  Britannia, 
and  early  in  1730  had  made  his  first  attem[it  as  a  dramatist 
with  Sophonisba.  From  this  time  there  was  a  manifest 
slackening  either  in  his  will  or  in  his  power  to  produce. 
He  was  appointed '  travelling  tutor  to  the  son  of  Sir 
Charles  Talbot,  travelled  with  his  pupil  on  the  Continent, 
and  in  1733  obtained  a  small  sinecure  in  the  Court  of 
Chancery.  It  may  have  been  this  removal  of  the  spur  of 
necessity  that  made  him  take  longer  over  his  poerns.^,  But 
it  is  a  fair  theory  that  tK4  rigid  taste  of  the  time  for 
finish,  which  he  had  unconsciously  defied  with  triumphant 
results,  began  to  make  good  an  ascendency  over  him,  and 
that  he  wrote  less  because  "be  was  cramped  by  fear  of  the 
critics.  None  of  the  other  Seasons  have  the  same  large 
and  careless  freedom  as  ITinter  ;  Autumn  especially,  the 
last  of  them,  is  much  n^re  laboured,  and  his  revisions 
and  enlargements  in  successive  editions  show  an  anxious 
ambition  after  the  finish  of  the  classical  school.  ~  How-' 
ever  this"  may  be,  he  hesitated  long  over  his  next^poem,' 
Liberty  ;  the  first  part  was  published  in  1734  and  the 
conclusion  in  1736.  He  intended  it  to  be  his  masterpiece, 
but  with  all  his  care  and  pains  it  has  fallen  into  deserved 
oblivion.  In  1737  he  lost  his  sinecure  by  the  death  of  his 
patron,  but  was  recompensed  by  a  pension  from  the  prince.. 
Poverty,  rather  than  natural  fitness  or  inclination,  drove 
him  again  to  dramatic  composition.  _  Agamemnon  was 
produced  in  1738,  with  indifferent  success.,  ,  Next  year  a 
play,  written  in  the  interest  of  the  prince  and  the  oppo- 
sition, was  interdicted  by  the  lord  chamberlain.  The 
masque  of  Alfred,  written  by  Thomson  in  conjunction 
with  Mallet,  and  containing  the  song  Jiule  Britannia,  was 
produced  in  1740,  Tancred  and  Sigismunda  in  1745./  A 
year  before  this  last  event  the  "  poetical  posture  "  of  the 
poet's  income  was  improved  by  his  appointment  to  the 
sinecure  office  of  surveyor-general  of  the  Leeward  Islands. 
The  Castle  of  Indolence  was  his  last  work.  It  was  not 
published  till  the  year  of  his  death  (1748),  but  he  had 
been  long  engaged"  upon  it.  The  poem  is  full  of  character 
and  humour,  with  here  and  there  passages  of^laborately 
rich  description  ;  it  is  fuller  than  any  other  of  the  person-! 
ality  of  the  poet,  of  the  good-nature,  generosity,  and  solid, 
wisdom  which  gained  him  the  affection  of  so  many  friends ; 
but  still  it  is  in  the  Seasons,  and  especially  in  the  first  of 
them,  that  Thomson  is  seen  at  his  best  and  strongest 

Till  the  advent  of  Scott  and  Byron,  Thomson  was  the  most) 
widely  popular  poet  in  our  language;  and  as  late  as  the  middia 
of  this  century  a  sumptuous  edition,  illustrated  by  the  Etching 
Club  wa.?  printed  three  times  within  ten  years  (1842-52).  The 
popular  verdict  on  Thomson  has  been  unanimously  JustS6ed  by 
critics.  ^<W.'M.)    ' 


312 


THOMSON 


THOMSON,  Jambs  (1834-1882),  author  of  Tht  City  0/ 
Dreadful  Night,  \ras  born  at  Port  Glasgow,  in  Renfrew- 
shire, on  November  23,  1834,  the  eldest  child  of  a  mate 
in  the  merchant  shipping  service.  Hia  mother  was  a 
deeply  religious  woman  of  the  Irvingite  sect,  and  it  is  not 
ifoprobable  that  it  was  from'  her  the  son  inherited  his 
sombre  and  imaginative  temperament  On  her  death, 
James,  then  in  his  seventh  year,  was  procured  admission 
into  the  Caledonian  Orphan  Asylum,  from  which  he  went 
oaf  into  the  world  as  an  assistant  army  schoolmaster. 
At  the  garrison  at  Ballincollig,  near  Cork,  he  encountered 
the  one  brief  happiness  of  his  life-  he  fell  passionately  in 
love  with,  and  was  in  turn  as  ardently  loved  by,  the 
daughter  of  the  armourer-sergeant  of  a  regiment  in  the 
garrison,  a  girl  of  very  exceptional  beauty  and  cultivated 
mind.  Two  years  later,  when  Thomson  was  at  the 
training  college  at  Chelsea,  he  suddenly  received  news 
of  her  fatal  illness  and  deatL  The  blow  prostrated  him 
in  mind  and  body  ;  and  the  former  endured  a  hurt  from 
which  it  never  really  recovered.  Henceforth  his  life  was 
one  of  gloom,  disappointment,  misery,  and  poverty,  rarely 
alleviated  by  episodes  of  somewhat  brighter  fortune.  While 
in  Ireland  he  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mr  Charles 
Bradlaugh,  then  a  soldier  stationed  at  Ballincollig,  and  it 
was  .under  his  auspices  (as  editor  of  the  London  Investi- 
gator)  that  Thomson  first  appealed  to  the  pnbUc  as  an 
author,  though  actually  his  earliest  publication  was  in 
Tail's  Edinburgh  Magazine  for  July  1858,  under  the  signa- 
ture "  Crepusculus."  In  1860  was  established  the  paper 
with  which  Mr  Bradlaugh  has  been  so  long  identified,. 
The  National  Jt^ormer,  and  it  was  here,  among  other 
productions,  by  James  Thomson,  that  appeared  (1863)  the 
powerful  and  Eionorous  verses  "  To  our  Ladies  of  Death," 
and  (1874)  hia  chief  work,  the  sombre  and  imaginative 
City  ofDrmdful  Night.  In  October  1862  Thomson  left 
the  army,  and  through  Mr  Bradlaugh  (with  whom  for 
some  Subsequent  years  he  lived)  gained  employment  as 
a  solicitor's  clerk.  In  1869  he  enjoyed  what  has  been 
described  as  his  "  only  reputable  appearance  in  respect- 
able literary  society,"  in  the  acceptance  of  his  long  poem, 
"Sunday  up  the  River,"  for  Fraeer't  Magazine,  on  the 
advics,  it  is  said,  of  Charles  Kingsley.  In  1872  Thomson 
went  to  the  Western  States  of  America,  as  the  agent  of  the 
shareholders  in  what  he  ascertained  to  be  a  fraudulent 
silver  mine  ,  and  the  following  year  he  received  a  com 
mission  from  The  New  York  World  to  go  to  Spain  as  ita 
special  correspondent  with  the  Carlists.  During  the  two. 
months  of  his  stay  in  that  distracted  country  he  saw  little 
real  fighting,  and  was  himself  prostrated  by  a  sunstroke. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  continued  to  write  in  The 
Secularist  and  The  National  Reformer,  under  the  at  last 
well-known  initials  "  B.  V  "  1  In  1875  he  severed  his  con- 
nexion with  The  National  Reformer,  owing  to  a  disagree- 
ment with  its  editor  ,  henceforth  his  chief  source  of  income 
(1875-1881)  was  from  the  monthly  periodical  known  as 
Cope's  Tobacco  Plant.  Chiefly  through  the  exertions  of 
hia  friend  and  admirer,  Mr  Bertram  Dobell,  Thomson's 
best  known  book,  The  City  of  Dreadful  Night,  and  other 
Poems,  was  published  in  April  .1880,  and  at  once  attracted 
wide  attention  ;  it  was  succeeded  in  the  autumn  by  Vane's 
Story,  and  other  Poems,  and  in  the  follomng  year  by 
Essays  and  Phantanes.  AH  his  best  work  was  produced 
between  1855  and  1875  ("The  Doom  of  a  City,"  1857  , 
"Our  Ladies  of  Death,"  1861  ,  Weddah  and  Om-el- 
£onain  .  "  The  Naked  Goddess,"  1866-7  ;  The  City  of 
Dreadful  Night,  1870-74).  In  his  latter  years  Thomson 
too  often  sought  refuge  from  his  misery  of  mind  and  body 

'  Bysshe  Vanolia  ;  *'  Bysshe,"  as  the  commonly  used  Christian  name 
of  Shelley,  Thomson's  favourite  writer  ;  and  "  Vanolis,"  an  anagram 
of  NoraliSf'the  pseudonym  of  F   von  HABDEyBKBO  (q.v.). 


in  the  Lethe  of  opium  and  alcohoL  His  mortal  illnesk 
came  upon  him  in  the  iouse  of  «  poet  friend  ;  and  he'  was 
conveyed  to  University  College  hospital,  in  Gower  Street, 
where  shortly  after  he  died  {June  3,  1882).  He  was 
buried  at  Highgate  cemetery,  in  the  same  grave,  in  uncon- 
secrated  ground,  at  his  friend  Austin  Holyoake. 

To  the  productions  of  James  "Biomson  already  mAitioned  may 
be  added  the  posthumoos  volntne  entitled  A  Vakc  from  the  Nile, 
and  other  Poems  <1884),  which  has  the  advantage  of  Mr  Bertram 
Dobell's  valnable  prefatoi^?  memoir  and  an  etthcd  portrait  of  the 
poet  This  volume  contains  much  that  is  interesting,  hnt  nothing 
to  increase  Ihomson's  reputaticte.  If  an  attempt  be  made  to  point 
to  the  most  apparent  literary  relationship  of  the  author  oi  The 
City  ef  Dreadful  Night,  one  might  venture  the  suggestion  that 
James  Thomson  was  a  yotmger  brother  of  De  Qoinc^  If  he  haa 
distinct  a&aity  to  any  writer  it  is  to  the  author  of  Suspiria  de 
Profundia ;  if  we  look  further  afield,  we  might  perhaps  discern 
shadowy  prototypes  in  Leopardi,  Heine,  and  Bandelaire.  But, 
after  all,  'Thomson  holds  so  unique  a  place  as  a  poet  that  the  effort 
at  classification  may  well  be  dispensed  with*.  If  he  maintains  his 
own  lonely  little  height,  it  will  be  as  a  distinct  individuality. 
His,  it  is  absolutely  certain,  was  no  literary  pessimism,  no  assumed 
gloom.  The  poem  "Ii^omnia"  is  ft  -distinct  chapter  of  bio- 
graphy;  and  in  "Mater  Tcnebrarum '- and  elsewhere  among  hia 
writings  self-revelative  passages  are  frequent.  The  meriCs  of 
Thomson's  poetry  are  its  imaginative  powei,  its  sombre  intensity, 
its  sonorous  music  ;  to  these  characteristics  may  be  added,  in  his 
lighter  pieces,  a  Heine-like  admixture  of  strange  gaiety,  pathos,  and 
caustic  irony.  Much  the  same  may  be  said  of  his  best  prose.  His 
faults  are  a  monotony  of  epithet,  the  not  infrequent  use  of  mere 
rhetoric  and  verbiage,  and  perhaps  a  prevailing  lack  of  the  sense 
of  form  ;  to  these  may  be  added  an  occasional  vulgar  recklessness 
of  expression,  aa  in  parts  of  Van^s  Story  and  in  some  of  his 
prose  writings.  Time  will  reduce  his  noteworthy  work  within  a 
narrow  compass,  bat  within  that  limit  it  will  be  found  as  remark- 
able as  it  is  unique. 

THOMSON,  John  (1778-1840),  amateur  landscape 
painter — Thomson  of  Dndding8ton,<  as  he  is  commoiily 
styled, — was  born  on  September  1,  1778,  at  Dailly,  Ayr- 
shire. His  father,  grandfather,  and,  as  we  are  informed, 
great-grandfather  ako,  were  clergymen  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  The  father  determined  that  hie  son  should 
follow  the  ancestral  profession,  aind,  greatly  against  his 
natural  bent, — for  all  his  thoughts  turned  instinctively 
towards  art, — he  acceded  to  the  parental  wish.  He  studied 
in  the  university  of  Edinburgh ;  and,  residing  with  his 
elder  brother,  Thomas  Thomson,  afterwards  celebrated  as 
an  antiquarian  and  feudal  lawyer,  he  made,  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Francis  Jeffrey  and  other  young  members  of  the 
Scottish  bar  afterwards  notable.  The  pursuit  of  art,  how- 
ever, was  not  abandoned  ;  during  the  recess  he  sketched 
in  the  country,  and,  while  attending  his  final  college 
session,  he  studied  for  a  month  under  Alexander  Nasmytlii- 
After  his  father's  death  he  became,  in  1 800,  his  successor 
as  minister  of  Dailly;  and  in  1805  he  was  translated 
to  the  parish  of  Duddingston,  close  to  Edinburgh.  Tie 
practice  of  art  was  now  actively  resumed,  and  it  came  to 
be  continued  throughout  life — apparently  without  any 
very  great  detriment  to  pastoral  duties.  Thomson's  popu- 
larity as' a  painter  increased  with  his  increasing  artistic 
skill ;  and,  having  mastered  his  initial  scruples  against 
receiving  artistic  fees,  on  being  offered  £15  for  a  land- 
scape— reassured  by  "  Grecian  "  Williams's  stout  assertion 
that  the  work  was  "  worth  thrice  the  amount " — the 
minister  of  Duddingston  began  to  dispose  of  the  produc- 
tions of  his  brush  in  the  usual  manner.  In  1830  he  was 
made  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy. 
Besides  that  of  art,  Thomson  had  other  singularly  varied 
tastes  and  aptitudes.  He  was  an  accomphshed  performer 
on  violin  and  flhte,  an  exact  and  weB-read  student  of 
physical  science,  and  one  of  the  writers  pn  optics  in  the 
early  numbers  of  the  Edinburgh  Review.  His  life  passed 
peacefully  away  in  the  kindly  and  charitable  discharge  of 
his  clerical  duties,  varied  by  the  enthusiastic  pursuit  of  bit 
art,  and  the  enjoyment  of  intercourse  with  a  singularly 


T  H  O  — T  H  O 


313 


wide  and  eminent  circle  of  friends,  which,  among  artists, 
included  Turner  and  Wilkie,  and  among  men  of  letters 
Yillson  and  Scott, — the  latter  of  -whom  desired  that 
'Ehomson,  instead  of  Turner,  should  have  illustrated  the 
lollecteJ  edition  of  his  works.  He  died  at  Duddingston 
<  n  the  27  th  of  October  1810  (not  the  20th,  as  stated  by 
I  ame  authorities).  Thomson  was  thrice  married,  and  his 
t'Mond  wife,  the  widow  of  Mr  Dalrymple  of  Cleland,  was 
herself  also  a  skilful  amateur  artist. 

Thomson  holds  an  honourable  position  as  the  first  powerful 
landscapist  that  Scotland  produced,  and  he  is  still  among  her 
greatest.  His  styled  was  founded,  in  the  first  instance,  upon 
Se  practice  of  the  Dutch  masters  ;  but  ultimately  he  submitted 
to  the  influence  of  the  Poussins  and  the  Italians,  rightly  believ- 
ing that  their  method — in  the  richer  solemnity  of  its  colour  and 
the  deeper  gravity  of  its  chiaroscuro — was  more  truly  fitted  for 
the  portrayal  of  the  scenery  of  Scotland,  more  in  harmony  with 
the  gloom  and  the  glory  of  its  mountains  and  its  glens  and  tho 
passion  of  its  wave-vexed  diifs.  But  to  the  study  of  the  art  of  the 
past  he  joined  a  close  and  constant  reference  to  nature  which  kept 
his  own  work  fresh  and  original,  though,  of  course,  he  never  even 
approached  such  scientific  accuracy  in  the  rendering  of  natural 
form  and  effect  as  is  expected  from  even  the  tyro  in  our  recent 
■chools  of  landscape.  His  art  is  clearly  distinguished  by  "style" ; 
at  their  best,  his  works  show  skilful  selection  in  the  leading  Unes 
of  their  composition  and  admirable  qualities  of  abstract  colour  and 
'^e.  Thomson  is  fairly  represented  in  the  Scottish  National 
Gallery  ;  and  the  Aberlady  Bay  of  that  collection,  with  the  soft 
infinitv  of  its  clouded  grey  sky,  and  its  sea  which  leaps  and  falls 
again  in  waves  of  sparkling  and  of  shadowed,  silver,  is  fit  to  rank 
among  the  triumphs  of  Scottish  art. 

THOR,  See  iEsiE,  vol.  L  p.  210,  and  Mtthology, 
Tol.  xviL  p.  156. 

THOREAU,  Henby  David  (1817-1862),  one  of  the 
most  Etrongly-marked  individualities  of  modem  times, 
spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  place  where  he  was  bom — C!oncord,  a  village  town  of 
Massachusetts,  pleasantly  situated  some  twenty  miles  north- 
west of  Boston,  amidst  a  pastoral  country  of  placid  beauty. 
To  Horeau  this  Concord  country  contained  all  of  beauty 
and  even  grandeur  that  was  necessary  to  the  worshipper 
of  nature  :  he  once  journeyed  to  Canada ;  he  went  west  on 
one  occasion  ;  he  sailed  and  explored  a  few  rivers ;  for  the 
rest,  he  haunted  Concord  and  its  neighbourhood  as  faith- 
fully as  the  stork  does  its  ancestral  nest.  John  Thoreau,  his 
father,  who  married  the  daughter  of  a  New  England  clergy- 
man, was  the  son  of  a  John  Thoreau  of  the  isle  of  Jersey, 
who,  in  Boston)  married  a  Scottish  lady  of  the  name  of  Bums. 
This  last-named  John  was  the  son  of  Philippe  Thoreau  and 
his  wife  Marie  le  Gallais,  persons  of  pure  French  blood, 
•ettled  at  St  Helier,  in  Jersey.  From  his  New  England 
Puritan  mother,  from  his  Scottish  grandmother,  from'  his 
Jersey-American  grandfather,  and  from  his  remoter  French 
ancestry  Thoreau  inherited  distinctive  traits  :  the  Saxon 
element  perhaps  predominated,  but  the  "  hauntings  of 
Celtism  "  were  prevalent  and  potent.  The  stock  of  the 
Thoreaus  was  a  robust  one ;  and  in  Concord  the  family, 
though  never  wealthy  nor  officially  influential,  was  ever 
held  in  peculiar  respect.  As  a  boy,  Henry  drove  his 
mother's  cow  to  the  pastures,  and  thus  early  became 
enamoured  of  certain  aspects  of  nature  and  of  certain 
delights  of  solitude.  At  school  and  at  Harvard  university 
le  m  nowise  distinguished  himself,  though  he  was  an 
intelligently  receptive  student ;  he  became,  however,  pro- 
ficient enough  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  the  more  general 
acquirements  to  enable  him  to  act  for  a  time  as  a  master. 
But  long  before  this  he  had  become  apprenticed  to  the 
learning  of  nature  in  preference  to  that  of  man :  when  only 
twelve  years  of  age  he  had  made  collections  for  Agassiz, 
who  had  then  just  arrived  in  America,  and  already  the 
meadows  and  the  hedges  and  the  stream-sides  had  become 
cabinets  of  rare  knowledge  to  him.  On  the  desertion 
of  schoolmastering  aa  a  profession  Thoreau  became  a 
lacturer  and  author,  though  it  was  the  labour  of  his  hands 

23— la* 


which  mainly  supported  him  through  many  years  of  Lis 
life  5  professionally  he  was  a  surveyor.  In  the  effort  to 
reduce  the  practice  of  economy  to  a  fine  art  he  arrived  at 
the  conviction  that  the  less  labour  a  man  did,  over  and 
above  the  positive  demands  of  necessity,  the  better  for  him 
and  for  the  community  at  large  ;  he  would  have  had  the 
order  of  the  week  reversed, — six  days  of  rest  for  one  of 
labour.  It  was  in  1845  he  made  the  now  famous  experi- 
ment of  Walden.  Desirous  of  proving  to  himself  and 
others  that  man  could  be  as  independent  of  his  kind  as  the 
nest-building  bird,  Thoreau  retired  to  a  hut  of  his  own 
construction  on  the  pine-slope  over  against  the  shores  of 
Walden  Pond, — a  hut  which  he  built,  furnished,  and  kep* 
in  order  entirely  by  the  labour  of  his  own  hands.  During 
the  two  years  of  his  residence  in  Walden  woods  be  lived 
by  the  exercise  of  a  little  surveying,  a  little  job-work,  and 
the  tillage  of  a  few  acres  of  ground  which  produced  him 
his  beans  and  potatoes.  His  absolute  independency  was 
as  little  gained  as  if  he  had  camped  out  in  Hyde  Park ; 
relatively  he  lived  the  life  of  a  recluse.  He  read  consider- 
ably, wrote  abundantly,  thought  actively  if  not  widely, 
and  came  to  know  beasts,  birds,  and  fishes  with  an  intimacy 
more  extraordinary  than  was  the  case  with  St  Francis  of 
AssisL  Birds  came  at  his  call,  and  forgot  their  hereditary 
fear  of  man ;  beasts  lipped  and  caressed  him  ;  the  very 
fish  in  lake  and  stream  would  glide,  nnfearful,  between 
his  hands.  This  exquisite  familiarity  with  bird  and  beast 
would  make  us  love  the  memory  of  Thoreau,  if  his  egotism 
were  triply  as  arrogant,  if  his  often  meaningless  paradoxes 
were  even  more  absurd,  if  his  sympathies  were  even  less 
humanitarian  than  we  know  them  to  have  been.  His 
Walden,  the  record  of  this  fascinating  two  years'  experi- 
ence, must  always  remain  a  production  of  great  interest 
and  considerable  psychological  value.  Some  years  before 
Thoreau  took-  to  Walden  woods  he  made  the  chief  friend- 
ship, of  his  life,  that  with  Emerson.  He  became  one  of 
the  famous  circle  of  the  transcendentalists,  always  keenly 
preserving  his  own  individuality  amongst  such  more  or  less 
potent  natures  as  Emerson,  Hawthorne,  and  Margaret 
Fuller.  From  Emerson  he  gained  more  than  from  any 
man,  alive  or  dead ;  and,  though  the  older  philosopher 
both  enjoyed  and  learned  from  the  association  with  the 
younger,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  gain  was  equal.  There 
was  nothing  electrical  in  Thoreau's  intercourse  with  his 
fellow-men  ;  he  gave  off  no  spiritual  sparks.  He  absorbed 
intensely,  but  when  called  upon  to  illuminate  in  turn  was 
found  wanting.  It  is  with  a  sense  of  relief  that  we  read 
of  his  having  really  been  stirred  into  active  enthusiasm 
anent  the  wrongs  done  the  ill-fated  John  Brown.  With 
children  he  was  affectionate  and  gentle,  with  old  people 
and  strangers  considerate.  In  a  word,  he  loved  his  kind 
as  animals,  but  did  not  seem  to  find  them  as  interesting  as 
those  furred  and  feathered.  In  1847  Thoreau  left  Walden 
Lake  abruptly,  and  for  a  time  occupied  himself  with  lead- 
pencil  making,  the  parental  trade.  He  never  married, 
thus  further  fulfilling  his  policy  of  what  one  of  his  essayist- 
biographers  has  termed  "  indulgence  in  fine  renounce- 
ments." At  the  comparatively  early  age  of  forty-five  he 
died,  on  6th  May  1862.  His  grave  is  in  the  beautiful 
cemetery  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  beside  those  of  Hawthorne 
and  Emerson. 

Thoreau's  fame  will  rest  on  Walden,  the  Exmrsions,  and  his 
Letters,  though  he  wrote  nothing  which  is  not  deserving  of  notice. 
Up  till  his  thirtieth  year  he  dabbled  in  verse,  but  he  had  little  ear 
for  metrical  music,  and  ho  lacked  the  spiritual  impulsiveness  of  the 
true  poet.  He  had  occasional  flashes  of  insight  and  -could  record 
beautifully,  notwithstanding :  his  little  poem  "Haze"  is  surcharged 
with  concentrated  loveliness.  His  weakness  as  a  philosopher  is  his 
tendency  to  base  the  laws  of  the  universe  on  the  eiperienoe-botn 
thought-produced  convictions  of  one  man — himself.  His  weaknes' 
as  a  writer  is  the  too  frequent  striving  after  antithesis  and  paradox. 
If  he  had  had  all  his  own  originality  withojit  the  itch  of  appea""'-' 


314 


T  H  O  — T  H  O 


original,  he  would  have  made  his  fascination  irresistible.  As  it  is, 
Thoreau  holds  a  unique  place.  He  was  a  naturalist,  but  absolutely 
devoid  of  the  pedantry  of  science  ;  a  keen  observer,  but  no  retailer 
of  disjointed  facts.  He  thus  holds  sway  over  two  domains :  he 
has  the  adherence  of  the  lovers  of  fact  and  of  the  children  of  fancy. 
He  must  always  be  read,  whether  Icwingly  or  interestedly,  for  he 
has  all  the  variable  charm,  the  strange  saturninity,  the  contradic- 
tions, austerities,  and  delightful  surprises,  of  Nature  herself. 

See  W.  E.  Channiag,  Thoreau  the  Poet  Naturaliit,  Boston,  1873;  F.  B  San- 
bom,  Biography  o/  7"/,oreati (American  Men  of  Letters  Senes) ;  11.  A.  Page,  Bto- 
'ffraphyof  Thoreau;  Emerson,  Introduction  to  Exaintoru  \  J.  Russell  Lowell,  My 
Study  \rindou>i:  Will.  H.  Dlrcka,  Introduction  to  Walden  ;  Professor  Nicltol, 
Awuncan  Literature,  pp.  312  sq.  ;  Mr  Burrouphs  ;  Mr  Henry  James,  &c.  After 
Thoreau's  death  were  published  (besides  the  Ezcursiont.  1863)  The  Maine 
IFoods  (1864) ;  Capt  Cod  (1865):  Letters  anti  Foeim  [1&G5) ;  A  Yankee  in  Canada 
0866).  In  the  Attantu  Monthly,  In  1862,  appeared  "  Walking."  "  Autumn  Tints." 
and  "  Wild  Apples";  in  1863  "Night  and  Moouligbt."  His  best  known  work, 
Waldm,  constitutes  the  second  volume  o^  the  series  called  Tlie  Camelot  Ctassici ; 
otherwise  Tboreau's  productions  are  not  widely  known  In  Britain. 

THORIUM,  m  chemistry,  is  the  name  of  the  as  yet 
UDisolated  radicpl  of  thona,  one  of  the  now  numerous 
"  rai'j  earths."  Thoria  was  (discovered  by  Berzelius  in  1828 
in  the  mineral  now  called  thorite.  It  is  present  also  in 
pyrochlor,  monazite,  orangite,  and  euxenite.  Being  similar 
to  the  oxides  TiO,  and  Zr02  of  titanium  and  zirconium, 
thoria  IS  assumed  to  be  a  binoxide  ThOj.  The  atomic 
weight,  according  to  Cleve,  is  Th  =  233,  0  being  16 

THORN  (Polish  Torun),  an  interesting  old  town  in  the 
province  of  West  Prussia,  is  situated  on  the  right  b.iiik  of 
the  Vistula,  near  the  point  where  the  river  enters  Prussian 
territory,  26  miles  southeast  of  Bromberg  and  92  miles 
south  of  D.antzic.  Its  position  near  the  frontier  of 
Russian  Poland  makes  it  a  strategic  point  of  importance  ; 
and,  strongly  fortified  since  1818,  in  1878  it  was  converted 
into  a  fortress  of  the  first  class.  '  The  "  old  town,"  founded 
in  1231,  and  the  "new  town,"  founded  thirty-three  years 
later,  were  united  in  1454,  and  both  retain  a  number  of 
quaint  buildings  dating  from  the  15th  and  16th  centuries, 
when  Thorn  was  a  flourishing  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.  The  town-house,  of  the  14th  and  16th  centuries, 
the  churches  of  St  John  and  the  Virgin,  with  aisles  as 
lofty  as  the  nave,  the  ruined  castle  of  the  Teutonic  order, 
and  the  gates,  leaning  tower,  and  fragments  of  the  walls, 
all  of  the  13th  century,  are  among  the  most  interesting 
edifices.  The  ancient  wooden  bridge,  now  burned  down, 
at  one  time  the  only  permanent  bridge  across  the  lower 
Vistula,  has  been  succeeded  by  a  massive  iron  railway 
viaduct,  half  a  mile  long.  Thorn  carries  on  an  active 
trade  in  grain,  timber,  wine,  colonial  wares,  and  iron,  and 
has  manufactures  of  leather,  bats,  starch,  candles,  and 
numerous  other  articles.  It  is  famous  for  its  "  Pfefler- 
kuchen,"  a  kind  of  gingerbread.  Part  of  the  trade  is 
carried  on  by  vessels  en  the  Vistula.  In  1885  the  popu- 
lation was  23,914  (in  1816  7909),  about  three-fifths 
being  Protestants  and  two-fifths  (chiefly  Poles)  Roman 
Catholics. 

Tliorn,  founded  in  1231  by  the  Teutonic  order  as  an  outpost 
against  the  Poles,  was  colonized  mainly  from  Westphalia.  The 
fir.st  peace  of  Thorn,  between  the  order  and  the  Poles,  was  con- 
■cluded  in  1411.  In  1454  the  townspeople  revolted  from  the 
knights  of  the  order,  destroyed  their  castle,  and  attached  them- 
selves to  the  king  of  Poland.  This  resulted  in  a  war,  which  was 
terminated  in  1466  by  the  second  peace  of  Thorn.  In  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries  Thorn  was  a  Hanse  town  of  importance,  and 
received  the  titles  of  "queen  of  the  Vistula"  and  "the  beautiful." 
It  embraced  the  Reformation  in  1557,  and  in  1645  it  was  the  scene 
of  a  "colloquium  charitativum,"  or  discussion  betwixt  the  doctors  of 
the  rival  creeds,  which,  however,  resulted  in  no  aOTeement.  In 
1724  a  riot  between  the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  inhabitants 
■was  seized  upon  by  the  Polish  king  as  a  pretext  for  beheading  the 
burgoma.ster  and  nine  other  leading  Protestant  citizens,  an  act  of 
0T)pres8ion  which  is  known  as  the  "bloodbath  of  Thorn."  The 
second  partition  of  Pola.  d  conferred  Thorn  upon  Prussia;  by  the 
treaty  of  Tilsit  it  was  assigned  to  the  duchy  of  Warsaw ;  but  since 
the  congress  of  Vienna  it  has  again  been  Prussian.  Copernicus 
was  born  at  Thorn  in  147" 

THORNBACK  is  the  name  given  to  a  species  of  ray 
(Rcfja  clavata)  which  is  found  all  round  the  coasts  of 
Europe,  and  locally  abundant ;  it  derives  its  name  from 


the  peculiar  armature  of  the  skin  of  its  body,  the  upper 
and  lower  surfaces  of  the  body  of  the  female  being  armed 
with  scattered,  more  or  less  numerous,  large  round  osseous 
bucklers,  each  with  a  spine  in  the  centre  ;  the  tail  also  is 
armed  with  rows  of  similar  bucklers..  In  the  male  fish  these 
bucklers  are  absent,  or  nearly  so.  The  thornback  does 
not  grow  to  the  same  large  size  as  the  skates,  a  specimen 
three  feet  across  being  considered  large.  It  is  more  valued 
as  food  than  the  other  rays,  and  consumed  in  large 
quantities,  fresh  as  well  as  salted. 

THORNHILL, -Sir  James  (1670-1734),  historical 
painter,  was  born  at  Melcombe  Regis,  Dorset,  in  1676, 
coming  of  an  ancient  but  impoverished  county  family. 
His  father  died  while  he  w:;3  young,  but  he  was  befriended 
by  his  maternal  uncle,  the  celebrated  Dr  Sydenham,  and 
apprenticed  to  Thomas  Highmore,  ■  sergeant-painter  to 
King  William  III.,  a  connexion  of  the  Thornhill  family. 
Little  is  known  regarding  his  early  career.  About  1715 
he  visited  Holland,  Flanders,  and  France ;  and,  having 
obtained  the  patronage  of  Queen  Anne,  he  was  in  1719-20 
appointed  her  serjeant-painter  in  succession  to  Highmore, 
and  was  ordered  to  decorate  the  interior  of  the  dome  of 
St  Paul's  with  a  series  of  eight  designs,  in  chiaroscuro 
heightened  with  gold,  illustrative  of  the  life  of  that 
apostle, — a  commission  for  which  Louis  Laguerre  had 
previously  been  selected  by  the  commissioners  for  the 
repair  of  the  cathedral.  He  also  designed  and  decorated 
the  saloon  and  hall  of  Moor  Park,  Herts,  and  painted 
the  great  hall  at  Blenheim,  the  princesses'  apartments  at 
Hampton  Court,  the  hall  and  staircase  of  the  Southsea 
Company,  the  chapel  at  Wimpole,  the  staircase  at 
Easton-Neston,  Northamptonshire,  and  the  hall  at  Green- 
wich Hospital,  usually  considered  his  most  important  and 
successful  work,  upon  which  he  was  engaged  from  1708 
to  1727  Among  his  easel  pictures  are  the  altar-pieces  of 
All  Souls  and  Queen's  College  chapels,  Oxford,  and  that 
in  Melcombe  Regis  church  ;  and  he  executed  such  portrait 
subjects  as  that  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  in  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  the  picture  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1730,  now  in  the  possession  of  the  earl  of  Hardwicke,  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Hogarth,  who  married  Jane,  his 
only  daughter.  He  also  produced  a  few  etchings  in  a 
slight  and  sketchy  but  effective  manner,  and  executed 
careful  full-size  copies  of  Raphael's  cartoons,  which  now 
belong  to  the  Royal  Academy.  About  1724  he  drew  up 
a  proposal  for  the  establishment  of  a  royal  academy  of 
the  arts,  and  his  scheme  had  the  support  of  the  lord 
treasurer  Halifax,  but  Government  declined  to  furnish 
the  needful  funds.  Thornhill  then  opened  a  drawing- 
school  in  his  own  house  in  James  Street,  Covent  Garden, 
where  instruction  continued  to  be  given  till  the  time  of 
his  death.  He  acquired  a  considerable  fortune  by  his  art, 
and  was  enabled  to  repurchase  his  family  estate  of  Thorn- 
hill, Dorsetshire.  In  1715  he  was  knighted  by  George  I., 
and  m.l719  he  represented  Melcombe  Regis  in  parlia- 
ment, a  borough  for  which  Sir  Christopher  Wren  had 
previously  been  member.  Having  been  removed  from  his 
office  by  some  court  intrigue,  and  suffering  from  broken 
health  and  repeated  attacks  of  gout,  he  retired  to  his 
country  seat,  where  he  died  on  the  4th  of  May  1734. 
His  son  James  was  also  an  artist.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  serjeant-painter  to  George  II..  and  was  appointed 
"  painter  to  the  navy." 

The  high  contemporary  estimate  of  Sir  James  Thornhill's  works' 
has  not  since  been  confirmed;  in  spite  of  Dr  Young,  "late  times" 
do  liot 

"  Dnderstand 
'How  Rnphael's  pencil  lives  In  Thomhlirs  hands. 

He  13  weak  in  drawing, — indeed,  when  dealing  with  complicated 
figures  he  was  assisted  by  Thomas  Gibson;  and,  ignorant  of  the 
great  monumental  art  of  Italy,  ho  formed  himself  upon  the  lowai 


T  H  O  — T  H  0 


315 


model  of  Le  Bmn.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that,  in  the 
departments  of  art  which  ha  chose  for"  his  own,  he  was  the  best 
native  painter  of  his  time. 

THORWALDSEN,  Bertel  (1770-1S44),  a  very  able 
Danish  sculptor,  was  the  son  of  an  Icelander  who  had 
settled  ill  Copenhagen,  and  there  carried  on  the  trade  of 
a  wood-carver.  While  very  young,  Bertel  Thorwaldsen 
learnt  to  assist  his  father  ;  at  the  age  of  eleven  he  entered 
the  Copenhagen  school  of  art,  and  soon  began  to  show  his 
exceptional  talents.  In  1792  he  won  the  highest  prize, 
the  travelling  studentship,  and  in  1796  he  started  for  Italy 
in  a  Danish  man  of-war.  On  the  8th  of  March  1797  he 
arrived  in  Rome,  where  Canova  was  at  the  height  of  his 
popularity.  Thorwaldsen's  first  success  was  the  model  for 
a  statue  of  Jason,  which  was  highly  praised  by  Canova, 
and  he  received  the  commission  to  execute  it  in  marble 
from  Thomas  Hope,  a  wealthy  English  art-patron.  From 
that  time  Thorwaldsen's  success  was  assured,  and  he  did 
not  leave  Italy  for  twenty-three  years.  In  1810  he 
returned  to  Denmark,  where  he  was  received  with  the 
greatest  enthusiasm.  He  was  there  commissioned  to  make 
tha  colossal  series  of  statues  of  Christ  and  the  twelve 
apostles  which  are  now  in  the  Fruenkirche  in  Copenhagen. 
These  were  executed  after  his  return  to  Rome,  and  were 
not  completed  till  1838,  when  Thorwaldsen  again  returned 
to  Denmark.  He  died  suddenly  in  the  Copenhagen  theatre 
in  1844,  and  bequeathed  a  great  part  of  his  fortune  for 
the  building  and  endowment  of  a  museum  ic  Copenhagen, 
and  also  left  to  fill  it  all  hi% collection  of  works  of  art,  and 
the  models  for  all  his  sculpture, — a  very  large  collection, 
exhibited  to  the  greatest  possible  advantage.  Thor- 
waldsen is  buried  in  the  courtyard  of  this  museum,  under 
a  bed  of  roses,  by  his  own  special  wish. 

On  the  whole  Thorwaldsen  was  the  most  successful  of  all  the 
imitators  of  classical  sculpture,  .ind  many  of  his  statues  of  p.igan 
deities  are  modelled  with  much  of  the  antique  feeling  for  breadlh 
and  purity  of  design.  His  attempts  at  Christian  sculpture,  such 
as  the  tomb  of  Pius  VII.  in  St  Peter's\nd  the  Christ  and  Apostles 
at  Copenhagen,  are  less  successful,  and  were  not  in  accordance 
with  the  sculptor's  real  sympathies,  which  were  purely  classic. 
Thorwaldsen's  private  life  was  not  admirable;  he  worked  some, 
tim^  with  feverish  eagerness  ;  at  other  times  he  was  idle  for  many 
months  together.  Agreatnumber  of  his  best  works  exist  in  private 
collections  in  England.  His  not  very  successful  statue  of  Lord 
Byron,  after  being  refused  a  place  in  Westminster  Abbey,  was 
finally  deposited  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
The  most  widely  popular  among  Thorwaldsen's  works  have  been 
some  of  his  bas-reliefs,  such  as  the  Night  and  the  Jloining, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  modelled  in  one  day.  In  the  main  his 
•jiopularity  is  now  n  thing  of  the  past,  owing  chiefly  to  the  reac- 
tion against  the  pseudo-classic  style  of  sculjiture. 

A  wcll-illustralcJ  occnunt  of  TIinrwaHsen  and  his  works  is  given  by  Eugfenc 
rion.  T/ioncald^fn.sa  I'lV.  ±c..  P;!n^,  ISfiO;  see  niso  Andersen.  B.  Thoncntdsen, 
Bciiin.  Ifll.^;  Killcrup.  Tlioivnlihfu's  ArbeiteJi,  «kc.,  Copenhagen,  1852;  and 
"Thicle.  Thorwaldsen' t  Ltbeii,  Lcipsic.  lSoi-56. 

THOU,  Jacqctes  Auguste  de  (1553-1617),  sometimes 
known  by  the  Latinized  form  'Thuanus,  as  his  great 
history  is  by  the  name  Thuana,  was  born  at  Paris  on 
October  8,  1553.  He  belonged  to  a  family  of  distinction 
in  the  Orleanais,  of  which  the  elder  branch  had,  he  tells 
us,  been  noblesse  (Tepee,  though,  he  gives  no  particulars 
except  of  those  who  had  for  some  generations  been  noblesse 
de  rohe.  He  and  his  w;ere  closely  connected  by  birth, 
marriage,  and  friendship  with  several  of  those  great  legal 
families — the  Harlays,  the  Huraults,  the  Brularts,  the 
Lamoignons, .  and  others — which  for  many  generations 
furnished  France  with  by  far  her  most  valuable  class  of 
public  men.  The  historian's  father  was  Christophe  de 
Thou,  first  president  of  the  parlement  of  Paris,  a  man 
whose  strong  legal  and  religious  prejudices  against  the 
Huguenots  have  rather  obscured,  in  the  eyes  of  historians, 
his  undoubted  ability  and  probity.  Christophe's  brothers, 
Adrien  and  Nicolas,  were  both  men  of  mark,  the  former 
being  also  a  lawyer,  and  the  latter  ultimately  becoming 
bishop  of  Chartres,  in  which  capacity  he  "  instructed " 


Henry  IV.  at  his  conversion.  De  Thou's  mother  was 
Jacqueline  Tuleu,  dame  de  Celi.  Ho  was  a-»delicate 
child,  and  seems  by  his  own  account  to  have  been  rather 
neglected  by  his  parents  ;  perhaps  it  was  for  this  reason 
that,  though  he  grew  stronger  with  age,  he  was  destined 
for  the  church.  He  took  minor  orders;  and  obtained 
some  benefices.  It  was,  however,  to  the  legal  side  of  the 
ecclesiastical  profession  that  he  was  devoted,  and,  after 
being  at  school  at  the  College  de  Bourgogne,  he  studied 
law  at  Orleans,  Bourges,  and  Valence,  being  at  the  last 
two  [ilaces  under  the  tuition  of  jurists  no  less  celebrated 
than  Hotman  and  Cujas.  It  was  not,  however,  till  he 
approached  middle  life  that  he  definitely  renounced  the 
clerical  profession,  married,  and  accepted  lay  offices.  Meai»- 
while  he  had  travelled  much  and  discharged  important 
duties.  In  1573,  that  he  might  profit  by  seeing  foreign 
parts,  he  was  attached  to  the  suite  of  Paul  de  Foix,  who 
was  sent  on  a  circular  mission  of  compliment  to  tha. 
Italian  princes,  and  with  him  De  Thou  visited  Turin,. 
Milan,  ilantua,  Venice, 'Rome,  Florence,  and  many  minor 
places.  On  his  return  he  studied  for  four  years,  tra- 
velling to  the  Netherlands  in  the  interval,  and  in  1579 
to  Germany.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  to  a 
royal  commission  in  Guienne,  and  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Henry  of  Navarre  and  of  Montaigne.  He  had  already 
become  the  friend  of  most  of  the  eminent  men  of  letters 
of  the  time,  from  Ronsard  downwards,  and  was  particularly 
intimate  with  Pierre  Pithou,  the  soul  of  the  future-<S(i/ire 
Menippce.  De  Thou,  by  all  his  sympathies,  belonged  to 
that  later  and  better  phase  of  the  politique  party  which 
devoted  itself  to  the  maintenance  of  royalty  as  the  one 
hope  of  France;  and,  when  Henry  III.' was  driven  from 
his  capital  by  the  violence  of  the  Guises  and  the  League, 
De  Thou  followed  him  to  Blois.  After  his  renunciation  of 
orders,  he  had  been  made,  first,  master  of  requests,  and 
then  president  d,  mortier,  which  was  the  highest  dignity 
he  ever  attained.  After  the  death  of  Henry  III.  he 
attached  himself  closely  to  his  successor,  and  in  1593  was 
appointed  (he  was  a  great  bibliophile)  yrand  maitre  of  the 
royal  library,  in  succession  to  Amyot,  the  translator  of 
Plutarch  and  Longus.  It  was  in  this  same  year  that  he 
began  his  history,  the  composition  of  which  was  inter- 
rupted, not  only  by  his  regular  official  duties,  but  by 
frequent  diplomatic  missions  at  home  and  abroad.  Hiq 
most  important  employment  of  all  was  on  the  commission 
which,  in  face  of  the  greatest  difficulties  on  both  sides, 
successfully  carried  through  the  negotiations  for  the  edict 
of  Nantes.  Nor  were  his  duties  as  a  diplomatist  inter- 
mitted by  the  death  of  Henry  IV.,  though  the  Govern- 
ment of  Marie  de'  Medici  refused  him  the  place  oi  premier 
president  which  he  desired,  and  hurt  his  feelings  by 
appointing  him  instead  a  member  of  the  financial  com- 
mission which  succeeded  Sully.  This  appointnieut  he 
rather  strangely  chose  to  think  a  degradation.  It  is,  how- 
ever, absurd  to  say  that  the  affair,  which  he  survived  six 
years,  had  anything  to  do  with  his  death.  That,  as  far  as 
it  was  hastened  by  any  mental  afHiction,  seems  to  have 
been  rather  due  to  grief  at  the  death  of  his  second  wife,, 
Gasparde  de  La  Chatre,  of  whom  and  of  his  sons  and 
daughters  by  her  (his  first  marriage  with  Marie  de  Bar- 
bani;on  had  been  childless)  he  was  extremely  fond.  His 
eldest  son,  Franij-ois  Auguste,  was  the  friend  of  Cinq  Mars, 
and  shared  his  downfall  and  fate.  But  this  was  a  quarter 
of  a  century  after  De  Thou's  own  death,  which  happened 
on  May  7,  1617. 

Although  a  distinguished  ornament  of  France,  De  Thou  has 
nothing  to  do,  properly  speaking,  with  Fivncli  literature.  Besides 
minor  works  in  Latin  (a  uoem  ou  haivking,  some  paraidirase^  of 
the  Bible,  &c. ),  he  wrote  also  in  Latin  the  great  history  wliicli  has 
matle  his  name  known  Entitled  lllstoriry  Siii  Tcmporis,  it  begins 
shortly  before  the  authors  bath  (iu  lii6),  and  extends  to  \6ii7. 


316 


T  H  0  — T  H  O 


ten  years  before  liis  death.  The  firet  part,  in  eighteen  books,  was 
published  in  1604:  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  appeared  in  IHOe 
md  the  two  following  years  The  last  part,  whieh  rankesa  total 
of  1-38  books,  did  not  appear  till  1620,  under  the  eare  of  tlic  author  s 
friends  Rigault  and  Dupuy,  whom  he  had  named  his  literary 
executors.  The  first  named  likewise  put  finoi  touches  to  Dc  Thou  s 
autobiography,  which,  also  written  in  Latin,  appears  m  French  m 
most  collections  of  French  memoirs.  It  contains  minute  details  ' 
of  the  author's  life  down  to  1607,  mixed  with  rather  miscellaneous  I 
descriptions  of  interesting  places  which  he  had  visited  (such  as  I 
Mont  St  Michel,  an  eagle's  eyrie  in  Dauphine,  kc);  and  its  com- 
position is  said  to  have  been  partly  detcnnined  by  the  obloquy  east 
by  bigoted  adherents  of  the  papacy  on  the  Iltslory.  De  Thou  was  | 
indeedobnoxious  to  these  on  many  grounds  He  had  helped  to  nego-  | 
tiate  the  edict  of  Nantes,  he  had  opposed  the  acknowledgment  m  , 
France  of  the  decrees  of  Trent ;  he  had  been  a  steady  Anti-Leaguer ; 
and  he  was  accused  of  sfteaking  in  the  Bistory  itself  of  Prote.stnnts 
and  Protestantism,  not  merely  with  criminal  mildness,  but  with 
something  like  sympathy.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  these  hlot-s  in 
the  History  have  seemed  beauties  to  later  and  more  dispa.ssionate 
students.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  charges  of  partiality  on 
minor  and  mostly  personal  points  are  either  dispiovable  oi  unim- 
portant; and  the  whole  seems  to  be  as  fair  and  as  carefully  aourate 
as  at  such  a  time  wa-s  possible.  On  the  other  hand,  the  work  is 
undoubtedly  planned  and  executed  on  much  too  large  a  scale,  and 
the  inclusion  of  events  in  foreign  countries,  on  winch  the  author 
was  often  but  ill-informed,  has  not  improved  it.  Hut  it  is  elearly 
and  on  the  whole  excellently  written,  and  will  always  he,  as  far 
as  any  general  contemporary  history  can  be  so  called,  the  great 
authority  foi  at  least  the  French  part  of  its  subject  and  period.  It 
"Was  first  published  as  a  whole  wheu,  as  above  mentioned,  the  last 
partapjK'ared  in  1620.  and.it  was  .several  times  reprinted  More  than 
a  hundred  ycais  later,  in  1733,  an  tnglishinau,  Samuel  Huckley. 
working  in  part  on  the  materials  of  Thomas  Carte,  prodinred  at 
London  what  is  recognized  as  the  standard  edition  of  the  original, 
in  7  vols,  folio.  The  standard  French  translation  was  made  im- 
mediately afterwards  by  a  croup  of  literary  men.  the  best  known 
of  whom*  were  the  Ablie  Desfoutaincs  and  Prrvost,  the  author  of 
hinntm  Lcscauc  A  choice  copy  of  the  first  edition  of  the  first  part, 
with  the  arms  of  Henry  IV  on  the  binding,  is  m  the  British 
Museum  library 

-  TnOUSAXD  AND  ONE  NIGHTS.  The  Thnvsand 
ami  O'le  Nx'jkts,  commonly  known  in  Engli.'ih  as  The 
Ariilnnn  Ntyhls  Eulfrlainmmls,  la  a  collection  ol  tales 
•written  in  Arabic,  which  first  became  generally  known  m 
Kijro|>e  in  the  early  part  of  last  rentuiy  through  the 
French  translation  by  Antoine  0.m,lani)  ('/.v.),  and  rapidly 
attained  such  universal  poimlarity  that  it  is  iinnece.ssary 
to  describe  the  contents  of  the  book.  But  the  origin  of 
the  AiiMan  Xi'jhts  claims  discussion  in  this  place  In 
the  Journal  Asiutujue  for  1827,  p.  2.i.3,  Von  Hammer 
drew  attention  to  a  passage  in  the  Golden  Meadows  of 
Mas'iJdl  (ed.  Barbier  de  Meynard,  iv.  89  .s'/.),  written  in 
94.3  A.D.,  in  which  certain  stories  current  amon.u;  the  old 
Arabs  are  compared  with  "the  books  which  have  reached 
us  in  tianslations  from  Persian,  Indian,  and  Creek,  such 
as  the  book  of  Ihzdr  Afsdiw,  a  title  which,  translated  from 
Persian  into  Arabic,  means  'the  thousand  tales'  This 
book  is  popularly  called  Tht  Thousand  and  One  AifjhLs. 
and  contains  the  story  of  the  king  and  his  vizier  and  of 
his  daughter  Shlraz.'id  and  her  slave  girl  Dln.'izad.  Other 
books  of  the  .'-.ame  kind  are  the  book  of  Fer:a  and  Simdf, 
containing  stories  of  Indian  kings  and  viziers,  the  book  of 
Sindibid,  Ac."  'Von  Hammer  concluded  that  the  Thousand 
and  One  Nigfii-s  were  of  Persian  or  Indian  origin.  Against 
this  conclusion  De  Sacy  protested  in  a  memoir  (Mem.  de 
C Aead.  des  Inscr..  1833,  X.  30  sq.),  demonstrating  that  the 
character  of  the  book  we  know  is  genuinely  Arabian,  and 
that  it  must  have  been  written  in  Egjpt  at  a  compara- 
tively recent  date.  Von  Hammer  in  reply  adduced,  in 
Joio:  As.,  1839,  ii.  p.  I7D  sq.,  a.pa-ssago  in  the  Fihnst 
(987  A.I).),  which  is  to  the  following  effect; — 

"The  ancient  Persians  were  the  first  to  invent  tales,  and  make 
books  of  them,  and  .some  of  their  tales  were  put  in  the  mouths  of 
•nimals  The  Ashghani.ans,  or  third  dynasty  of  Persian  kings, 
and  after  them  the  Sasainans,  had  a  sfwcial  pari  in  the  development 
of  this  literature,  which  found  Arabic  translators,  and  was  taken 
op  by  accomplished  Arabic  literati,  who  edited  it  and  mutated  it. 
The  earliest  book  of  the  kind  was  the  IJciir  a/sdn  or  T)uinsand 


Tales,  which  hail  the  following  origin.  A  certain  Persian  king  wa» 
accustomed  to  kill  his  wives  on  the  mnrniiig after  the  consummation 
of  the  marriage.  But  once  he  married  a  clever  princess  called 
Shahrazad.  who  spent  the  marriage  night  in  telling  a  story  which 
in  the  morning  reached  a  point  so  interesting  that  the  king  spared 
her.  and  asked  next  night  for  the  sequel.  This  went  on  for  a 
thousand  nights,  till  Shahrazad  had  a  son.  and  ventured  to  tell 
the  kingof  her  device.  He  admired  her  intelligence,  loved  her.  and 
spared  her  life  In  all  this  the  princess  was  assisted  by  the  king's 
stewardess  Pinaiad  This  book  is  said  to  have  hern  written  for 
the  princess  Homai  (MSS.  Hom,ini),  daughter  of  Bahman.  .  .  It 
contains  nearly  two  hundred  stories,  one  story  often  occupying 
several  nights.  1  have  repeatedly  seen  the  complete  book,  bnt  it 
IS  really  a  meagre  and  uninteresting  proiluction "  iFihrist,  ed. 
Flugd,  p.  304). 

Per.\ian  tradition  (in  Firdausi)  makes  Princess  Hom4i 
the  daughter  and  wife  of  Bahman  Ardashlr,  i.f.,  Artaxerxes 
I.  Longimanus.  She  is  depicted  as  a  great  builder,  a  kind 
of  Persian  Semiramis,  and  is  a  half-mythical  personage 
already  mentioned  in  the  A  vesta,  but  her  legend  seems- 
to  be  founded  on  the  history  of  Atossa  and  of  Parysatis. 
Firdausi  .says  that  she  was  also  called  Shabraz,id  (Mohl, 
V.  II).  This  name  and  that  of  DinAz.id  both  occur  in 
what  Mas'ildl  tells  of  her.  According  to  him,  ShahrazAd 
was  Hom^i's  mother  (ii.  129),  a  Jewessfii  \'2'^)  Bahman 
had  married  a  Jewess  (i.  118),  who  was  in.struiuental  in 
delivering  her  nation  from  captivity.  In  ii.  122  this 
Jewish  maiden  who  did  her  people  tjiij  service  is  called 
DinAz.'ld,  but  "  the  accounts,"  says  our  author,  "  vary  " 
Plainly  .she  is  the  Esther  of  Jewish  story  Tabarf  (i  68S) 
calls  Esther  the  mother  of  Bahman,  and,  like  Firdausf, 
gives  to  Ho'iA'  the  name  of  Shahraz-ld.  The  story  of 
Esther  and  that  of  the  original  Kighls  have  in  fact  one 
main  feature  in  common.  In  the  former  the  king  is- 
offended  with  his  wife,  and  divorces  her,  in  the  Aruhian 
Niijhti  he  linds  her  unfaithful,  and  kills  her.  But  both 
stories  agree  that  thereafter  a  new  wife  was  brought  to- 
him  every  night,  and  on  the  mornnv  pas-sed  into  the  second 
house  of  the  women  (Esther),  or  was  slain  (Xx/hts).  At 
length  Esther  or  Shahraz.-ld  wins  his  heart  and  becomes- 
qiieen.  The  issue  in  the  Jewish  story  is  that  Esther  saves 
her  people  ;  in  the  Nights  the  gainers  are  "  the  daughters 
of  tlie  Moslems,"  but  the  old  story  had,  of  course,  some 
other  word  than  "  Moslems."  Esther's  foster-father  be- 
coims  vizier,  and  Shaliraz.'ld's  father  is  also  vizier  .Shah- 
razad's  plan  is  helped  forward  in  the  Nights  by  Dinaz.id, 
who  IS.  according  to  Mas'iidl,  her  slave  girl,  or,  according^ 
to  other  MSS.,  her  nurse,  and,  according  to  the  Fihnst, 
the  king's  stewardess.  The  hust  account  comes  nearest  to 
l-^stlitT  II.  \f^.  where  Esther  gains  the  favour  of  the  king's 
cli;iinberlain,  keeper  of  the  women  It  is  also  to  be  noted 
that  Ahasuerus  is  read  to  at  night  when  he  canma  sleep 
(Esther  vi  1)  And  it  is  just  possible  that  it  is  worth 
notice  that,  though  the  name  of  Ahasuerus  corresponds  to 
Xerxes,  Josephus  identities  him  with  Artaxerxes  I. 

Now  It  may  be  taken  as  admitted  ttmt  the  loi.k  of 
Esther  wa-s  written  in  Persia,  or  by  one  who  had  lived  in 
Persia,  and  not  earlier  than  the  3d  rentuiy  B.C.  If  non- 
there  IS  real  weight  in  the  points  of  contact  between  lhi» 
story  and  the  Arahan  N^ighls—a.nd  the  points  of  difference 
cannot  be  held  to  outweigh  the  resemblances  between  two- 
legends,  each  of  whtch  is  necessarily  so  far  removed  from 
the  hypothetical  common  source — the  inference  is  import- 
ant lor  both  stories.  On  the  one  band,  it  appears  that 
(at  least  in  part)  the  book  of  Esther  draws  on  a  Pcr.-.ian 
source  ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  becomes  probable  that  the 
Nights  are  older  than  the  SisAnian  period,  to  which  Lane, 
iii.  G77,  refers  them. 

It  IS  a  piece  of  good  fortune  that  Mas'rtdl  and  th(^ 
Fikrist  give  us  the  information  cited  above.  For  in 
general  the  Moslems,  though  very  fun. I  of  .stones,  are 
ashamed  to  recognize  them  a-s  objects  of  literary  curiosity. 
In  fact,  the  next  iiienlion  o(  the  Nighis  is  found  only  after 


T  H  O  — T  HO 


317 


a  lapse  of  three  centuries.  Ma^rfzl,  describing  the  capital 
of  Egypt,  quotes  froma  work  of  Ibn  Sa'fd  (c.  1250  A.D.), 
who  again,  cites  an  older  author  (AI-Kortob(),  who,  in 
speaking  of  a  love  affair  at  the  court  of  the  caliph  Al-Amir 
(1097-1130),- says  "what  is  told  about  it  resembles  the 
romance  of  Al-Battil,  or  the  Thousm\d  and  One  Nights  "• 
{Hita\  Tdlife  ed.,1  485,  ii.  181).  ' 

That  ihei  Nights  which  we  have  are  not  the  original  trans-' 
lation  of  the  Hezdr  Afsdne  is  certain,  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  stories  are  of  Arabian  origin,  and  the  whole  is  so 
thoroughly  Mohammedan  that  even  the  princes  of  remote 
ages  who  are  introduced  speak  and  act  as  Moslems.  It 
might  be  conceived  that  this  is  due  to  a  gradual  process  of 
modernization  by  successive  generations  of  story-tellers. 
But  against  this  notion,  which  has  been  entertained  by 
some  scholars.  Lane  has  remarked  with  justice  that,  much 
as  MSS.  of  the  Nights  differ  from  one  another  in  points  of 
language  and  style,  in  tlio  order  of  the  tales,  and  the 
division  into  nights, '  they  are  all  so  much  at  one  ^in 
essentials  that  they  must  bo  regarded  as  derived  from  a 
single  original.  There  is  no  trace  of  a  recension  of  the 
text  that  can  be  looked  on  as  standing  nearer  to  the  Hezdr 
'Afsdne.  And  the  whole  local  colour  of  the  work,  in  point 
of  dialect  and  also  as  regards  the  manners  and  customs 
described,  clearly  belongs  to  Egypt  as  it  was  from  the 
14th  to. the  16th  century.  Some  points,  as  De  Sacy  and 
Lane  have  shown,  forbid  us  to  place  the  book  earlier 
than  the  second  half  of  the  15th  century.  Galland's  MS. 
copy,  again,  was  in  existence  in  1548.  Lane  accordingly 
dates  the  work  from  the  close  of  the  15th  century  or  the' 
beginning  of  the  16th,  but  this  date  appears  to  be  too 
late.  For  Abu'l-Mahasin,  an  Egyptian  historian  who  died 
in  1470,  writing  of  Hamdi,  a  famous  highwayman  of 
Baghdad  in  the  10th  century,  remarks  that  he  is  probably 
the  figure  whp  used  to  be  popularly  spoken  of  as  Ahmed 
al-Danaf  (ed.  Juynboll,  ii.  305).  Now  in  the  "Nights 
Ahmed  al-Danaf  really  plays  a  part  corresponding  to  that 
of  the  historical  Haradi,  being  now  a  robber  (Lane,  ii. 
404)  and  again  a  captain  of  the  guard  (Lane,  ii.  249). 
It  would  seem  that  Abu'l-Mahdsin  had  read  or  heard  tlie 
stories  in  the  Nights,  and  was  thus  led  to  compare  the 
historical  with  the  fictitious  character.  And,  if  this  be  so, 
the'  Nights  must  have  been  composed  very  soon  after 
1450.1  - 

No  doubt  the' iVi^Afe  have  borrowed ~much  from  the 
Hezdr  Afsdne,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  even  in  the 
original  Arabic  translation  of  that  work  some  of  the  Per- 
sian stories  were  replaced  by  Arab  ones.  But  that  our 
Nights  differ  very  much  from  the  Hezdr  Afsdne  is  further 
manifest  from  the  circumstance  that,  even  of  those  stories 
in  the  Nights  which  are  not  Arabian  in  origin,  some  are 
borrowed  .  from  books  mentioned  by  Mas'udi  as  distinct 
from  the  Hezdr  Afsdne.  Thus  the  story  of  the  lyng  and 
his  son  and  the  damsel  and  the  seven  viziers  (Lane,  chap. 
xxi.  note  51)  is  in  fact  a  version  of  the  Book  of  Sindbdd,- 
while  the  story  of  JaU'dd  and  his  son  and  the  vizier 
Shammis  (M'Naghten,  iv.  366  sq.;  cf.  Lane,  iii.  530)" 
corresponds  to  the  book  of  Ferza  and  Simds? 
"  Not  a  few  of  the  tales  are  unmistakably  of  Indian'^or 

*  The  hypothesis  of  gradual  and  complete  modernisation  is  also 
opposed  to  the  fact  that  the  other  romances  used  by  Caireno  story- 
tellers (dbch  as  those  of  'Antar  and  of  Saif)  retain  their  original 
local  colour  through  all  variations  of  language  and  style. 
t  '  On  this  famous  book,  the  Syriac  Sindibdn,  the  Greek  Syntipas]' 
ind  the  Seven  Sages  of  the  European  West,  see  Stbjao  Litkbaturb 
(vol.  xxii.  p.  850)  and  Spain  (vol.  xxii.  p.  354). 

'Da  Sacy  and  Lane  suppose  that  the  original  title  of  the'Arabic 
translation  of  the  BezAr  A/sdne  was  The  Thousand  Nights.  But  most 
MSS.  of  Ma'iMdi  already  have  The  Thcnisand  and  One  Nights,  which 
l6  also  the  name  given  by  Makrizi.  Both  ciphers  perhaps  mean  only 
i^a  very  great  number,"  and  Fieischer  {De  Olossis  Ilahicktianis,  p.  4) 
tus  shown  that  1001  is  certainly  used  in  this  teose. 


!  Persian  "origin,'"and-  in'these'^poeticarpassages  are.rarely 
inserted.  In  other  stories '.'the  ^^  scene  ilies  in  Persia  or 
'  India,  andj  the  source  is  foreign,  but^  the  /  treatment 
thoroughly  Arabian  an,d  Mohammedani'  Sometimes, -in- 
deed, traces  of  Indian  origin  are  perceptible,  even  in  stories 
in  wliich  HAriin  al-Rashid  figures  and  the  scene  is  Bagh- 
dad or  Basra.*  ;  put  most  of  ^  the  tales,  in  ^substance  and 
form  alike,  are'Arabian,''and'so'many  of  them!hav6*the 
capital  of  the  caliphs  as  the''scene  of  action  that  it 'may 
be  guessed  that  the  author  used  as  one  of  his  sources  I  a 
book  of  tales  taken  from  the  era  of  Baghdad's  prosperity,  j 

The  late  date  of  the  'Nights  appears  from  sundry  ktia- 
chronisms.  f  In  the  story'of  the  men  transformed  into  fist'— 
white,  blue,'yellow,'or'rod  according' as  they  were  Moslems,' 
Christians,  Jews,'ior''Magians'(Lane,^i.^9y), — the  :first 
three  colours  are  those' of  theVturbans' which,  in  1301, 
Mohammed  b.  Keldiin  of  Egypt  commanded  his  Moslem, 
Christian, =>  and  Jewish  ^subjects '7  respectively  .  to^wear.^ 
Again,  in  the  story  of  the  humpback,  whose  scene  is  laid 
in  the  9th  century,  the  talkative  barber  say.s,  "  this  is  the 
year  653"  (=1255  a.C;  Lane,' i.  332,  writes  263,  but 
see  his' note),  and  mentions  the'^caliph  Mostansir '(died 
-1242),  who  is  incorrectly  called  son  of  Mostadl.^  jIn  the 
same  story  several  places  in  Cairo  are  mentioned  which 
did  not  exist  till  long  after  the  9th, century  (see  Lane,  i. 
379).',  The  very  rare  edition'of  the  first  200  nights  pub- 
lished at  Calcutta  in  1814  speaks  of  cannon,  which  are 
first  mentioned  in  Egypt  in  1383;  and  all  editions  some- 
times speak  of  coffee,  which  was  discovered  towards  the 
end  of  the  14th  century,  but"  not  generally  used  till  200 
years  later.'  In  this  and  other  points,  e.g.,  in  the  mention 
of  a  mosque  founded  in  1501  (Lane,  iii.  608),  we  detect 
fhe  hand  of  later  interpolators,  but  the  extent  of  such 
interpolations  can  hardly  perhaps  be  determined  even  by 
a  collation  of  all  copies.  For  the  nature  and  causes  of  the 
variations  between  different  copies  the  reader  may  consult 
Lane,  iii.  678,  who  e.xplains  how  transpositions  actually 
arise  by  traiiscribers  trying  to  make  up  a  complete^set  of 
the  tales  from  several  imperfect  copies.  ,,^  " 

Many  of  the  tales  in  the  Nig/its  have  an  historical  basis, 
as  Lane  has  shown  in  his  notes.  _Other  cases  in  point 
might  be  added  :  thus  the  chronicle  of  Ibn  al-Jauzl  (died 
1200  A.D.)  contains  a  narrative  of  Kamar,  slave  girl  of 
Shaghb,  the  mother  of  Al-Moktadir,  which  is  the  source 
of  the  tale  in  Lane,  i.  310  sg.,  and  of  another  to  be  found 
in  M'Naghten,  iv,  557  sq. ;  the  latter  is  the  better  story, 
but  departs  so  far  from  the  original  that  the  author 
must  have  had  no  more  than  a  gefleral  recollectioni  of  the 
narrative  he  drew  on.^  There  are  other  cases  in  the 
Nights  of  two  tales  which  are  only  variations  of  a  single 
theme,  or  even  in  certain  parts  agree,  almost  word  fo^ 
word.  Some  tales  are  mere  compounds  of  different  stories 
put  together  without  any  art,  but  .these  perhaps  are,  as 
Lane  conjectures,  later  additions  to  the  book ;  yet  the 
collector  himself  was  no  great  literary  artist.  _We  must 
picture  him  as  a  professional  story-teller  equipped  with  a 
mass  of  miscellaneous  reading,  a  fluent  power  of  narration, 
and  a  ready  faculty  for  quoting,  or  at  a  push  improvising, 
verses.,  His  stories  became  popular,  and  were  'written 
down  as  he  told  them,— hardly  written  by  himself,  else  we 
should  not  have  so  many  variations  in  the  text,  and  such 
insertions  of  "the'narrator  says,"  "my  noble  sirs,"  and 
the  like. '  The  frequent  coarseness  of  tone  is  proper' to  the 
condition  of  Egyptian  society  under  the  Mameluke  sultans, 
and  would  not  have  been  tolerated  in  Baghdad  in  .the  age 


'  Gildemeister,  De  Rebus  Indicts,  p.  89  sq. 
.^  Quatreraere,  Sultaris  Mamlotics,  ii.  2,  p.  177  sq.  -^^    ^^^ 
^  Lane,  i.  342,  .-irbitrarily  writes  "Montasir"  for  JiMost^BHD 
'  See  also  Edinl.  limew,  July  1886,  p.  191  sq. 
'  See  J)o  Goeje  m  Oids,  1876,  ii.  pp.  397-411. 


318 


T  H  R  — T  H  R 


to  which  so  many  of  the  tales  refer.  Yet  with  all  their 
taults  the  Ni^/Zits  have  beauties  enough  to  deserve  thsir 
popularity,  and  to  us  their  merit  is  enhanced  by  the 
pleasure  we  feel  in  being  transported  into  so  entirely  novel 
J  state  of  society. 

The  original  of  some  of  the  most  interesting  tales  in 
Calland's  version,  as  "  Aladdinand  the  Wonderful  Lamp," 
("AliBaba  and  the  Forty  Thieves,"  has  just  been  dis- 
(^o^'Cred  by  Dr  Zotenberg  in  a  MS  recently  acquired  by 
the  National  Liibrary  at  Paris.  A  careful  examination 
of  this  MS.  and  of  the  'Wortley-Montagu  MS.  in  the 
boJleian  may  lead  perhaps  to  a  more  certain  conclusion 
hs  to  the  time  of  composition. 

Tlio  Thousand  andJ)nc  Kights  bfx;amo  known  in  Europe  through 
A.  Calland's  FieuclT  version  {12  vols.,  12nio,  Paris,  1704-12)  ; 
tlio  public.ition  was  an  event  in  literary  history,  the  influence 
of  which  can  bo  traced  far  and  wide.  This  translation,  however, 
left  nnich  to  be  desired  in  point  of  accuracy,  and  especially  failed 
to  reproduce  tlie  colour  of  the  original  with  the  exactness  which 
Itliosc  wlio  do  not  read  merely  for  arausement  nmst  desire.  It  was 
Svith  a  special  view  to  the  remedying  of  these  defects  that  Lane 
(produced  in  1840  his  admirably  accurate,  if  somewhat  stilted, 
itranslntion,  enriched  with  most  valuable  notes  and  a  discussion  of 
the  origin  of  the  work  (new  edition,  w*th  some  additional  notes, 
'3  vols.,  8vo-,  London,  1859).  Lane's  translation  omits  the  tales 
.V'hich  lie  deemed  uninteresting  or  unlit  for  a  European  public. 
•Hci  full  translation  into  English  can  be  published,  and,  though  two 
'suchjiavc  been  privately  printed,  and  one  of  thesj  (by  Sir  R. 
jjurton)  is  being  reproduced  in  a'n  expurgated  form.  Lane's  version 
;is  still  unsuperseded  for  all  serious  use.  Of  the  Arabic  text  of  the 
)Ntghts\\\Q  principal  editions  are — (1)  M'Nagh ten's  edition,  4  vols., 
p-o,  C.-ilcutta,  1839-42  ;  (2)  the  Breslau  edition,  12  vols.,  12mo, 
;lS35-43,  the  first  8  vols,  by  Habicht,  the  rest  by  Fleischer  (com- 
pare as  to  the  defects  of  Habicht's  work,  Fleischer,  Dc  Glossis 
HnlilMianis,  Lcipsic,1836) ;  (3)  the  first  Biilak  edition,  4  vols., 
JS62-3  (M.  J.  dbG.) 

THRACE  is  a  name  -which  ■was  applied  at  various 
Jieriods  to  areas  of  different  extent,  but  for  the  purposes 
of  this  article  it  will  be  taken  in  its  most  restricted  sense, 
as  signifying  the  Roman  province  which  was  so  called 
(Thracia,  see  Plate  of  the  Roman  empire  in  vol.'  xx.) 
after  the  district  that  intervened  between  the  river  Ister 
(Danube)  and  the  Hcemus  Mountains  (Balkan)  had  been 
formed  into  the  separate  province  of  Mtesia,  and  the 
region  between  the  rivers  Strymon  and  Nestus,  which 
included  Philippi,  had  been  added_  to  Macedonia.  The 
boundaries  of  this  were — towards  the  N".  the  Hsmus,  on 
the  E.  the  Euxine  Sea,  on  the  S.  the  Propontis,  the  Helles- 
pont, and  the  .lEgean,  and  towards  the  W.  the  Nestus. 
The  most  distinguishing  features  of  the  country  were  the 
chain  of  Rhodope  (Despoto-dagh)  and  the  river  Hebrus 
(Maritza).  The  former  separates  at  its  northernmost  point 
from  the  Hiemus,  at  right  angles,  and  runs  southward 
at  first,  nearly  parallel  to  the  Nestus,  until  it  approaches 
the  sea,  when  it  takes  an  easterly  direction  :  this  bend 
js  referred  to  by  Virgil  in  the  line  {Georg.,  iii.  351) — 
Quaque  rcdil  medium  Rhodope  porrecta  sub  axem. 

The  summits  of  this  chain  are  higher  than  those  of 
JHremus,  and  not  a  few  of  them  range  from  5000  to  8000 
feet ;  the  highc.«t  point,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known  (for 
these  mountains  have  been  imperfectly  explored),  rises 
towards  the  north-west,  near  the  point  where. now  stands 
the  "famous  Bulgarian  monastery  of  Rilo.  The  Hebrus, 
together  with  its  tributaries  \vhich  flow  into  it  from  the 
north,  east,  and  west,  drains  nearly  the  whole  of  Thrace. 
It  starts  from  near  the  point' of  junction  of  Ha;mu3  and 
■Rhodope,  and  at  first  takes  an  easterly  direction,  the  chief 
jlown  which  lies  ca  its  banks  in  the  earlier  part  of  its 
(course  being  Pbilippopolis  ;  but,  when  it  reaches  the  still 
toiore  important  city  of  Hadrianopolis,  it  makes  a  sharp 
Jbend  towards  the  couth,  and  enters  the  sea  nearly  opposite 
the  i.sland  of  Samotliracc.  The  greater  part  of  the  country 
is  billy  and  irregular,  though  there  are  considerable  plains  ; 
l)ut  besides  Rhodope  two  other  tolerably_definite  chains 


intersect  it,  one  of  wikh  descends  from  Hsemus  to  Adrians 
ople,  while  the  other  follows  the  coast  of  the  Euxine  at 
no  great  distance  inland.  One  district  in  the  extreme 
north-west  of  Thrace  lay  beyond  the  watjcr.shed  that 
-separates  the  streams  that  flow  into  the  .(Egcan  from  those 
that  reach  the  Danube  :  this'w-as  the  territory  of  Sardica; 
the  modern  Sophia.  In  the  later  Roman  period  two  maio 
lines  of  road  passed  through  the  coujtry.  One  of  these 
skirted  the  southern  coast,  being  a  continuation  of  the 
Via  Egnatia,  which  ran  from  Dyrrhachium  to  Thessalonica, 
thus  connecting  the  Adriatic  and  the  .(Egean  ;  it  became 
of  the  first  importance  after  the  foundation  of  Constan- 
tinople, because  it  was  the  direct  line  of  communication 
between  that  city  and  Rome.  The  other  followed  a  north- 
westerly course  through  the  interior,  from  Constantinople 
by  Hadrianopolis  and  Philippopolis  to  the  Hxmus,  and 
thence  by  Naissus  (Nisch)  through  Mcesia  in  the  direction 
of  Pannonia,  taking  the  same  route  by  which  the  post-road 
now  runs  from  Constantinople  to  Belgrade.  The  climate  of 
Thrace  was  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  very  severe,  and 
that  country  was  spoken  of  as  the  home  of  the  north  wind, 
Boreas.  The  coast  in  the  direction  of  the  Euxine  also  was 
greatly  feared  by  sailors,  as  the  harbours  were  few  and 
the  sea  proverbially  tempestuous ;  but  the  southern  shore 
was  more  attractive  to  navigators,  and  here  we  find  the 
Greek  colonies  of  Abdera  and  Mesambria  on  the  ylCgean,- 
Perinthus  on  the  Propontis,  and,  the  most  famous  of  all, 
Byzantium,  at  the  meeting-point  of  that  sea  and  the 
Bosphorus.  Another  place  which  proved  attractive  to 
colonists  of  that  race  was  the  curious  narrow  strip  of 
ground,  called  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  that  intervened 
between  the  Hellespont  and  the  Bay  of  Melas,  which  pene- 
trates far  into  the  land  on  its  northern  side.  Among  tho 
cities  that  occupied  it,  Sestos  and  Callipolis  (Gallipoli)  are 
the  most  worthy  of  mention.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
incursions  of  the  Thracians,  a  wall  was  built  across  its 
isthmus,  which  was  less  than  five  miles  in  breadth.  The 
north-eastern  portion  of  the  j^gean,  owing  to  its  proximity 
to  the  coast  of  Thrace,  was  known  as  the  Thracian  Sef4 
and  in  this  were  situated  the  islands  of  Thasos,  Samo; 
thrace,  and  Imbros. 

There  is  no  sufficient '^cvide'uce  to  determine  the  ethnological 
affinities 'of  the  Thracian  race.  Their  language  has  perished,  and 
the  information  respecting  them  which  has  come  down  to  us  hardly 
furnishes  more  than  material  for  conjecture,  so  that  the  most  that 
we  can  affirm  on  the  subject  is  that  they  belonged  to  the  Indo- 
European  family.  The  most  striking  arclireological  monuments  of 
the  prehistoric  period  are  the  sepulchral  inouiuls,  which  have  been 
compared  iu  appearance  to  the  tumulus  on  the  jvlaiii  of  Marathon; 
these  arc  found  by  thousands  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  espe- 
cially iu  the  ueighbouihood  of  the  ancient  towns.  Aa  Roman 
implements  and  ornaments  have  been  found  in  some  of  them,  it  ia 
plain  that  this  mode  of  burial  continued  to  be  piMctised  until  a 
late  period.  The  deity  whose  worship  prevailed  most  extensively 
in  tho  count. y  was  Dionysus.  The  most  powerful  Tliracian  tiibo 
was  that  of  tlio  Odiys.T,  \.hoso  king.  Teres,  in  the  middle  of  tho 
5th  century  B  0.  extended  his  dominion  so  as  to  include  the  gi'eatJT 
part  of  Thrace.  During  the  Pcloponncsian  "War  his  son  Sitalcco 
was  an  ally  of  some  importance  to  the  Athenians,  because  he  kept 
in  check  the  Macedonian  monarch,  who  opposed  the  interests  of 
the  Athenians  in  the  Chalcidic  pejiinsula.  Ou  the  death  of  that 
prince  his  kingdom  was  divided,  and  the  power  of  the  Thracians 
was  consequently  diminished  ;  but  in  the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon 
wo  find  Cersobleptcs,  wlio  ruled  the  south-eastern  portion  of  tho 
country,  exercising  an  important  influence  on  the  policy  of  Athens. 
During  tho  early  period  of  tlio  Roman  empire  the  Thracian  king* 
were  allowed  to  maintain  an  independent  sovereignty,  wliile 
acknowledging  tho  su/erainty  of  Kome,  and  it  was  not  until  tho 
reign  of  'Vespasian  that  the  coiiutiy  W'as  reduced  to  the  form  of  a 
Itrovince.  From  its  ontlyin.g  position  in  the  northern  part  of  tho 
Balkan  peninsula,  it  was  nnuli  e\}ioscd  to  the  inroads  of  barl^arian 
iiiv;idci"s,  so  tli;it  it  was  oveiiuii  by  the  Goths  on  several  occasions, 
and  subsequently  t-y  the  Huns;  but  its  proximity  to  Constant iuople 
caused  Its  I'oituiies  to  be  closely  connected  with  those  of  that  city/ 
fioin  tho  time  when  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Eastorn  empire* 
In  the  course  of  time  its  inhabitants  seem  to  have  been  thoroughly, 
Romanized,  and  to  ]ia.vo  adopted  the  Latin  language,  and  then  it, 


T  H  R  — T  H  R 


319 


I 


much  probability  in  the  view  that  they  were  the  progenitors  of  the 
Vlachi,  or  Roumanians  south  of  the  Danube,  whoso  language  is  of 
Latin  origin,  and  who  at  various  periods  formed  aa  important 
factor  in  the  countries  to  the  northward  of  Greece.  The  first 
evidence  of  the  development  of  this  nationality  is  found  in  a 
curious  story  told  by  Theophane*  at  the  end  of  the  6th  centurj-. 
At  that  time  a  khan  of  the  Avars  had  overrun  the  Eastern  empire 
and  appeared  before  the  walls  of  Constantinople  ;  but  two  generals 
of  the  imperial  force;,  who  had  concealed  themselves  in  the  Balkan, 
Bueceeded  in  inusterm"  a  considerable  body  of  troops,  and  were  on 
their  way  to  surprise  the  rear  of  the  Avars  when  tneir  project  was 
brought  to  an  end  by  the  following  occurrence.  One  of  the  beasts 
of  burden  happened  to  fall  down  in  tho  line  of  march,  on  which 
eomo  one  close  by  called  out  to  its  driver,  in  the  language  of  tho 
country.  "  Torna,  toma,  fratre."  that  is,  "  Turn  him  ronnd,  brother." 
The  driver  did  not  hear  this,  but  the  other  soldiers  did;  and, 
thinking  the  enemy  were  upon  them,  and  that  this  was  the  sign 
for  retreat,  they  look  up  the  cry  **Toma,  torna,"  and  the  whole 
forco  fled  precipitately.  It  seems  probable  that  the  men  who  used 
these  words  were  Roumanian  inhabitants  of  the  Balkan  In  the 
course  of  the  .Middle  Ages  the  norlhom  parts  of  Thrace  and  some 
other  districts  of  that  country  were  occupied  by  a  Bulgarian  popu- 
lation ,  and  in  1361  tho  Ottomans,  who  had  previously  estoblishe<l 
themselves  in  Europe,  luadc  themselves  masters  of  Adnanople, 
which  for  a  time  became  the  Turkish  capital  When  Cunstaoti. 
Dople  fell  in  1453,  the  whole  country  passed  into  the  hanils  ol  the 
Turks,  and  m  their  possession  it  remained  until  18i3.  when,  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Ccilin,  the  northern 
portion  of  it  was  placed  under  a  separate  administration,  with  the 
title  of  Eastern  Koumelia;  this  province  has  now  become,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  a  part  of  the  principality  of  Bulgaria  The 
population  of  Thrace  at  the  present  day  is  composed  of  Turks, 
Greeks,  and  Bulgarians.  (H.  F   T.) 

THE  ALE.     See  Piozzi. 

THRASYBULUS,  &n  Athenian  who  played  a  distin- 
guished part  in  the  latter  years  of  the  Peloponneaian  War 
and  in  the  restoration  of  the  democracy  at  Athens.  In 
41 1  B.C.,  as  an  officer  m  the  Athenian  armament  at  Samos, 
he  energetically  opposed  the  oligarchical  conspiracy  of  the 
Four  Hundred,  and  was  mainly  instrumental  in  keeping 
the  fleet  and  army  loyal  to  the  democracy  and  in  procur- 
ing the  recall  of  the  banished  AJcibiades.  At  the  battle 
of  Cynnosema,  in  the  same  year,  he  commanded  the  right 
wing  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  and  to  his  valour  and  conduct 
the  Athenian  victory  was  largely  due.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  naval  operations  of  the  following  years,  being 
present  at  the  victories  of  Cyzicus  (410)  and  Arginusa; 
(406).  In  407  he  commanded  a  squadron  on  theThracian 
coast,  where  he  reduced  places  which  had  gone  over  to  the 
Lacedcemonians.  When  the  infamous  Thirty  Tyrants  were 
at  the  height  of  their  power  in  Athens,  Thrasybulus,  who 
cs  a  democrat  had  been  banished,  marched  from  Thebes 
with  about  seventy  men,  with  the  connivance  of  Thebes, 
and  established  himself  at  Phyle,  a  strong  place  in  the 
rear  of  Athens.  There  he  repulsed  an  attack  directed 
against  him  by  the  Thirty ;  his  numbers  increased,  and, 
after  surprising  and  routing  a  body  of  foot  and  horse,  he 
seized  Pirsus,  the  port  of  Athens,  but,  finding  the  circuit 
of  the  walls  too  great  to  be  defended  by  his  small  force, 
he  retired  into  the  adjoining  Munychia.  Here  he  was 
attacked  by  the  troops  of  the  Thirty,  but  in  the  street- 
fighting  the  democrats  had  the  best  of  it,  and  the  Thirty 
were  in  consequence  deposed  and  retired  to  Eleusis. 
Hostilities,  however,  continued  until  Pausanias,  one  of  the 
kings  of  Sparta,  intervened,  and  by  force  and  craft  effected 
a  reconciliation.  The  democrats  marched  into  Athens 
with  all  the  pomp  of  war,  and  sacrificed  to  Athene  on  the 
Acropolis.  This  restoration  of  the  democracy  by  Thrasy- 
bulus ranked  henceforward  with  the  memorable  deeds 
of  Athenian  history.  To  his  counsels  seems  due  in  part 
the  credit  for  the  wise  moderation  with  which  the  demo- 
crats used  their  victory,  and  the  inviolate  good  faith 
with  which  they  observed  the  political  amnesty.  The 
grate.ful  citizens  rewarded  their  champion  with  an  olive 
crown'.  In  395,  when  Thebes  was  threatened  by  Sparta, 
the  Athenians,  stimulated   by   Thrasybulus,    repaid   the 


friendly  shelter  which  the  Thebans  had  afforded  them  in 
e.xile  by  resolving  to  stand  by  Thebes  against  Sparta,  and 
by  actually  sending  a  force  under  Thrasybulus  to  her  aid. 
In  390,  while  the  war  known  as  the  Corinthian  was  still 
dragging  on,  Thrasybulus  was  sent  with  a  fleet  to  check  the 
growing  power  of  Sparta  in  the  yEgean.  He  substituted  a 
democracy  for  an  oligarchy  at  Byzantium,' and  won  the 
friendship  of  Chalcedon ,  then,  landing  in  Lesbos,  he 
defeated  a  joint  force  of  Lacedaemonians  and  Lesbians.  In 
the  following  spring  he  prepared  to  assist  Rhodes,  which 
was  threatened  by  the  Lacedaemonians  ;  but  to  recruit  his 
forces  he  levied  contributions  from  venous  cities.  At 
Aspendus,  in  Pamphylia,  an  outrage  committed  by  some 
of  his  men  roused  the  anger  of  the  people,  who  fell  on 
him  by  night,  and  slew  him  in  his  tent.  He  was  buned 
at  Athens,  in  the  Ceramicus,  near  the  graves  of  Pericles 
and  Phormio. 

THREADWORMS.     See  Nematoidea. 

THREE  RIVERS,  the  third  city  of  Quebec  province,. 
Canada,  and  capital  of  St  Maurice  county,  is  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  rivers  St  Maurice  and  St  Lawrence. 
The  St  Maurice  flows  in  from  the  north,  and,  being  divided 
at  Its  mouth  by  two  islands,  the  channels  give  the  towa 
,its  name.  It  is  on  the  line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Puail- 
way,  78  miles  south-west  of  Quebec,  and  92  north-east 
of  Montreal.  Founded  in  1634,  Three  Rivers  is  one  of 
the  oldest  towns  in  Quebec.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  large 
lumber  trade,  which  is  carried  on  by  the  St  Maurice  and 
its  tributaries.  Three  leagues  from  the  city  are  the  St 
Maurice  forges,  where  iron  wares  were  formerly  manu- 
factured extensively.  Other  industnes  are  furniture  and 
cabinet  making,  boot  and  shoe  making,  and  those  carried 
on  in  the  spool  factories,  brass  and  lead  foundries,  sawmills, 
and  carriage  factones.  The  city  is  the  residence  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  bishop  whose  diocese  bears  the  same 
name.  The  chief  trade  is  in  lumber,  grain,  cattle,  &c., 
which  find  sale  in  South  America,  the  West  Indies,  Great 
Britain,  and  the  United  States.  The  city  sends  one 
member  to  the  Canadian  House  of  Commons  and  one 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly.  The  population  of  the  city 
in  1881  was  8C70  (males  4173,  females  4497).  The 
district  of  Three  Rivers  comprises  the  counties  of  St 
Maurice,  Nicolet,  Champlain,  and  Maskinonge. 

THROAT  DISEASES.  These  form  a  large  and  import- 
ant class,  and  include  some  of  the  most  serious  and  fatal 
of  maladies  (see  Crodp  and  Diphtheria).  The  present 
article  will  be  devoted  mainly  to  a  general  account  of  the 
more  common  diseases  afi'ecting  the  upper  part  of  the  re- 
spiratory passages,  but  certain  morbid  conditions  of  the 
back  of  the  mouth  and  of  the  gullet  wiU  also  be  referred 
to.  The  diagnosis  of  not  a  few  of  these  diseases  has  been 
greatly  aided  by  the  introduction  into  medical  practice  of 
the  laryngoscope  ;  but,  while  the  use  of  this  instrument  is 
a  part  of  the  education  of  every  well-equipped  medicaJ 
practitioner,  the  minute  investigation  and  the  treatment 
of  the  more  occult  and  serious  maladies  affecting  the 
throat  are  by  general  consent,  and  with  much  advantage, 
relegated  to  the  specialist. 

Laryngitis,  or  inflamraatioQ  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  tho 
Larynx,  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic. 

AciUc  laryngitis  is  usually  produced  by  exposure  to  cold  directly, 
or  by  a  catarrh  extending  either  from  the  nasal  or  from  the  bronchia) 
mucous  membrane  into  that  of  the  larynx.  1 1  is  an  occa'sional  accom- 
p.%uiment  of  certain  of  the  infectious  diseases  in  which  the  throat 
IS  liable  to  suffer,  such  as  smallpox,  measles,  scarlet  fever,  and 
erysipelas.  Excessive  use  of  the  voice,  as  in  loud  speaking  or  sin'^- 
ing,  sometimes  gives  rise  to  laryngitis.  Further,  the  inhalation  of 
irritating  particles,  vapours,  &c.,  and  the  local  effects  of  swallowing^ 
very  hot  fluids,  are  wcll-iecognized  causes.  Tho  chief  changes  in' 
the  larynx'are  great  redness,  with  swelling  of  the  parts,  which  affect 
the  whole  interior  of  tho  cavity,  but  are  specially  marked  where 
the  tissues  are  lax,  such  as  the  neighbourhood  of  the  epiglottis  and 


320 


THROAT      DISEASES 


«f  thn  vocal  cords     The  effect  is  to  produce  narrowing  of   the 
"Lntirlhroa^aocc  of  air   and  to  th.s  the  ch.ef  dangers  are 
due      The  symptoms  vary  with  the  intensity  of  the  attack,  oui. 
a  ong  with  morJoi-  less  fev'enshness  and  constitutional  disturbance 
ther?is  usually  a  sense  of  heat,  dryness,  and  pain  in  the  ttroa 
attemled  with  some  dilliculty  in  the  act  of  svyallowing      Cough  is 
a  c' mstanrsymptom,  and  is  either  loud,  barking  or  clanging,  or 
else  huskv  and  toneless.      It  is  at  first  dry,  but  afterwards  is  ac 
tlp^.1  with  Ixpectoration.    The  voice,  like  the  cough,  -rough 
or  huskv      The  breathing  shows  evidence  of  laryngeal  ^struction 
bot'i   nJpira  ion  and  expfration  being  prolonged  and  dithcult   with 
^  ,nmawhat  hissing  sound,  and  with  almost  no  interval  between 
?he  two  act^     l1  sfvere  caies  the  face  and  surface  generally  become 
Wd,  and  SfTocation  threatens,  particularly  ^"""gthe  paroxysm 
of  couffhing      In  favourable  cases,  which  form  the  majority,  the 
attack  tend^s  to  abate  in  a  few  days,  but  on  the  other  hand  death 
may  occur    uddealy  ,n  a  suffocative  pa.oxysm,  particularly  in  the 
Tse  of  children.     Many  cases  of  acute  laryngitis  are  so  comt    a- 
uvely  slight  as  to  make  themselves  known  only  by  hoarseness  and 
the  chaiMter  of   the  cough,   nevertheless   in  every  instance   the 
ttack  dema'ndrserious  atS^ntion.     The  treatment  consist,  in  kee^- 
in»  the  natient  in  bed  in  an  atmosphere  of  60    to  70    i.,  made 
n^Ltbvs  earn      The   use  of  warm  gargles,  and  the   frequent 
Tn  a-,t?on  0    the  vlpour  of  hot  watcr.^co'iitaining  such  sooth.ug 
ubst^nci  ^  benzoin';  conium  hop  &c    and  the  ^-PP'"^r„rr^aUy 
fomentations  to  the  throat,  will  be  found  of  ""ch  value      Intennally 
diaiihorctics   such  as  sma  1  doses  of  antimony  or  Dover  s  powaer, 
.  e  aho   o  be  recommended.     Such  remedies  usually  suffiee  to  re 
hove  the  atuck    but  in  very  severe  cases  more  active  interference 
nay  be  necessary      When  t'here  is  much  swelling  of  the  mucou 
m^Lrane  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  larynz,  scarihcat.on  of  the 
parts   with   the  aid  of  the   laryngoscope   "^y  afford   reliet    but 
tracheotomy  should  not  be  neglected  where  death  appears  to  no 
mminent  f'^om  suffocation.     Attacks  of  laryngitis  may  be  larg  ly 
pTe"ented  in  those  l.aule  to  them  by  a  ^?,g'"cn  calculated  to  in- 
vigorate the  system,  such  as  the  cold  bath,  regular  open-air  exer- 

"'^Ckromc  lannndis  may  occur  as  a  result  of  repeated  attacks  of 
the  acutLforX  or  may  arise  independently  from  such  causes  as 
abm.a    e,p™ure  (e^pJcially  where' along  with  this  there  is  over- 
nUu    '  ICO  ^n  alcoho  ),  the  habitual  overuse  of  the  vocal  organs 
^     The  changes  taking  place  in  the  parts  are  more  perman  nt 
than  in  the-a«l»  form,  consisting  mamly  in  thickening  ol    the 
nuco  s  n,  nibra^e,  vocal  cords,  &c.     With  it  may  b^  "'elation 
Lnd  aUo  icin.  tiM.es  destruction,  of  the  cartilaginous  parts  of  the 
aiynx      The  symptoms  vary  according  to  tho  "tent  and  a  , 

as  well  as  the   duration,  of  the  inflammation.     Thus  there  may 
:^^„;ty  be  a  certain  huskiness  or  hoarseness  on  - U^P^f  J.^^^^ 
of  the  voice    tins  condition  being  well  exemplified  m  the  so-calieu 
clero^vn'ans'soe  throat  {d.jsphonm  clcruorum) ;  while,  on  the  other 
fin"  there  may  be,  not  o,dy' complete  loss  of  voice,  hut  severe  pain 
'n  the  act  of  swallowing  aid  great  difficulty  in  brea  hiug   accon  • 
panied  sometimes  with  expectoration  of  '"f 'V"^"'''^!",",,^,?"";^ 
In  the  cases  where  ulceration  is  present     Under  th's    ^'^y  ol    i^o 
disease  may  be  included  the  ulceration  due  to  syphilid  and  that 
occurnnr.n  the  course  of   phthisis,  both  of  which  are  attended 
w'thThe^ymptonis  now  mentioned.     The  diagnosis  and  the  treat- 
ment of  all  Xh  mses  IS  greatly  aided  by  the  use  of  the  laryngo_ 
Tcop^   by     hich  a  view  of  the  affected  parts  can  be  obtained,  and 
the'l.'roper  remedies  more  readily  applied.     In  the   t«at'ue'.t  of 
the  chronic  forms  of  laiyngit.3  rest  to  the  parts  is  essential,  any 
Itlempu  at  continuing  the"  use  of  the  voice  only  aggrayanr  the 
condition-  while  tonic  remedies  and  regimen  should  be  diligently 
cmploTad  to  s  lengthen  the  system  generally.     APpl.c.tions  to  the 
aZted  parts  in  the  forms  of  solutions  of  ^'""^  ^l'""' f"'.'=bf,"°  "i 
&c.,  either  by  means  of  a  sponge-probang  '"troduced  into  the  caMty 
or  by  the  simpler  methoi  of  spraying,  are  often  beneficial.      Ihe 
:,  sufflation  of  %wders,  such  as  iodoform,  or  starch  m'^d^th  a 
minute  quantity  of  morphia,  is  also  of  service,  as  arc  likewise  in 
hakil  on?  of  vapours  of  lo'dme,  carbolic  acid,  turpentine,  eucalyptus, 
ilc     7n  a^ravatcd  forms  of  this  disease  tracheotomy  is  occasion- 
allv  neccssaiv  to  relievo  threatened  suffocation. 

SvmDtoms  similar  to  those  already  described  arc  produced  by 
tumors  a^d  otl  r  growths  in  the  laii^nx.  Such  growths  may  bo 
of  s^mnle  character,  in  the  form  of  isolated  fibrous  lormatious 
a  U  3  by  a  peduncle  to  some  portion  of  the  laryngeal  inucous 
me"nb  ane,  or  as  warty  excrescences  occurring  ijion  or  m  the  neigl  - 
Whood  of  the  vocal  cords.  Th.y  are  detecle.  by  means  of  the 
larynEOsoote  and  can  often  be  dealt  with  effect  jally  by  the  surgeon, 
rthfmo'rserious  n.alignant.tumours  (cp'the  lomatous  or  ancer- 
ous),  which  pither  uke  origin  in  the  larynx,  or  ^Ptfd 'o  to  it  Ironi 
adjacent  parts,  interference  by  surgical  measures  can  only  afford 

""^^I^:L.s  of  the  larynx  are  of  purely  ne.^ous  origin,  and 
occur  independently  of  any  local  disease.  One  of  the  most  miport 
ant  of  theU  is  la^r>^nu^  stnduhcs.  otherwise  ca  Id  .A.M-cr.^ 
,„,  or  si>a^iwdic  croup.    This  condition  occurs  chiefly  during  the 


parlv  vears  of  childhood,  of'en  in  infants  during  dentition  and 
manifest  Itself  after  premonitory  symptoms  of  a  common  catarrh 
U.?t^nTr  day  or  ttvo"  by  the  occurrence  of  a  violent  suffocative 
a?tlck  due  to  sudden  spimodic  approximation  of  the  vocal  cords 
and  consequent  interru^ption  to  the  breathing.  The  symptoms  are 
rnt  connected  with  any  local  inflammatory  condition,  but  are  the 
csult  oTreflexTrntatio'n  affecting  the  ""ves  supplying  he  lajn- 
eeal  muscles.     Such  disturbance  appears  specially  apt  to  occu^  ^ 

The  sna^m  of  the  glottis,  and  unless  relief  speedily  comes  dea.h 
may  r  very  rapil  In  most  cases,  however,  the  attack  quickly 
niLs  off  and  The  child  s.ems  Uttle  the  worse.  A  liabdity  to  this 
SSoler  is  sometimes  observed  ,n  families,  and  m  such  instancy 
the  attacks  are  apt  to  occur  m  theur  more  serious  and  fatal  forms. 
Treatmenlto  be  of  any  avaU  must  be  promptly  apphed.  It.con- 
siS  mainly  m  the  employment  of  means  to  allay  the  spasm.  The 
use  o^the  wa™  bath  is  very  serviceable  for  this  purpose,  as  is  a^ 

"^ct  cabl  n  al    cases' ev'ery  effort  should  be  made  to  discover 

anv  causes  likely  to  produce  n/rvous  irriUtion,  such  as  teethmg. 
TesTmal   worms,   tl.  and    to  deal   with   these   by  appropnata 

■■"symMoms  not  unlike  those  now  described  sometimes  occur  ill 

chill  lolloiveu    uy  icvci,  p       "^     pyrenenced  iu    the   act    ol 

"^n  P°n'.'f,l'^  hr'itse,      The     ifia^mLt^on -s  usually  at  first 
^c:u1t";tfonTtotirruTouexamiuiug,hethi.at 

be  considerable  redness  a-'    --'^-^     ^   '\    .•^Tbae  a  copiotS 
mucous  "'""bvane,  the    u  u  .1    so  t  pame^  discomfort 

¥,rrcfraeig.^'cot&.nglydiflic-m 

this  bui^ts  or  -  c-cuf ;  'Xhll  th  Octsi'nali;  ho.ev^,  the 
is  soon  restored  to  his  usual  ''«"'"  ,        ,  •'        d  a  s  mdar 

mfl.inmiation  passes  from  Uie  one    ousil  to  the  otue  ,  a 
experience  has  to  be  gone  throng  i  again      A°  a'^ta^^Vas  a   rule 
la.oly  lasts   beyond    a   -^^^   or   ten   da) s.  ami  is  ^^^^^^^^^ 

attended  with  danger  to  h^' f '!"^^,^urst,n^  of  a  large  toiisdlat 
has  occasionally  occiirredow^..g  to. h^^^^^^^^  ^^_^^^_^o^  .,„„  ^^^ 
abscess  dining  sleep,  and  'h*^  "'»Y  ,  the.ame.-is  that  for 
trachea      The  t.e..tment  for  a  n"'  -     »  "^  ';'  j^f,;^„„,,,  ,,,,  ,„p,„y. 

1^- ^1  ^  ti,j;io»=^5:ridTirrt^: 

warm  garbles  of  milk  and  «"'^'  °'  "'^"",30  hot  applicatioci 
iu,,alat!o,i  of  vapour  al  on  1,11.1^  r^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

'the'^xtemal    fp^UcaUon  of  cold   compresses,  but  on  the  whole 


T  H  R— ^T  H  R 


321 


warmth  appears  to  b«  the  more  soothing  remedy.  When  an  abscess 
has  formed  it  may  be  punctured,  but  care  re:juires  to  be  observed  in 
doing  this  that  no  injury  be  iaflictedbn  any  important  blood-vessel. 

The  tonsils  are  frequently  the  seat  of  permanent  enlargement 
{ehronic  ionsiilUis),  which  may  result  from  frequent  attacks  of 
qoinsy  or  may  exist  independently."  They  are  often  seen  in 
delicate  young  people,  and,  in  the  case  of  some  at  least,  denote  a 
Btrnmous  tendency.  They  give  trouble  from  the  mechanical 
irapodiment  they  present  to  swallowing  and  clear  articulation,  and 
when  very  large  they  cause  the  breathing  to  be  more  or  less  noisy 
at  all  times,  but  especially  during  sleep,  while  again  they  may  give 
rise  to  a  measure  of  deafness.  They  are  treated  by  remedies  which 
promote  the  general  nutrition,  such  as  cod-liver  oil,  iron,  &c.,  by 
the  use  of  astringent  gargles,  and  when  necessary  by  excision. 

The  Pharijitx  or  upper  portion  of  the  gullet  (seen  to  a  large 
Extent  on  looking  at  the  back  of  the  mouth)  is  frequently  the 
seat  of  a  chronic  inflammatory  condition,  usually  associated  with 
derangements  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  sometimes  the  result  of 
excessive  tobacco  smoking.  On  inspection  the  mucous  membrane 
is  seen  to  be  unduly  red  and  glazed  looking,  with  the  enlarged 
follicles  standing  out  prominently.  It  produces  considerable 
irritation,  cough,  and  discomfort,  which  may  hoof  long  continu- 
ance unless  subjected  to  appropriate  treatment  This  consists  ■ 
in  removing  any  local  source  of  irritation,  in  rectifying  by  diet 
and  other  remedies  {see  Stomach  Diseases)  any  gastric  disturb- 
bnce,  and  by  the  application  to  the  parts  of  silver  or  qther  mild 
caustic  solution. 

^  The  (Esophagus'  or  gullet  may  be  the  seat  of  catarrhal  or 
inflammatory  condition's,  but  the  more  important  ailments  affect- 
ing this  tract  are  those  which  arise  from  local  injuries,  such  as  the 
swallowing  of  scalding  or  corrosive  substances.  This  may  cause 
nlceration  followed  with  cicatrization  which  narrows  the  passage 
and  produces  the  symptoms  of  stricture  of  the  oesophagus, — namely, 
pain  and  difficulty  in  swallowing,  with  regurgitation  of  the  food.. 
The  severity  of  the  case  will  necessarily  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  narrowing  and  consequent  mechanical  obstruction,  but  in  some 
instances  this  has  occurred  to  such  an  extent  as  practically  to 
occlude  the  canal.  ■  Cases  of  oesophageal  stricture  of  tho  kind  now 
referred  to  may  sometimes  bo  relieved  by  the  diligent  use  of  the 
bougie,  ■  but  not  unfrequently,  in  order  to  prevent  death  by 
starvation,  surgical  interference  is  requisite  to  form  an  opening 
into  the  stomach  by  means  of  which  food  may  be  introduced. 
■ .  A  still  more  serious  and  frequent  cause  of  cesophageal  stricture 
is  that  due  to  cancerous  growth  in  the  canal,  which  may  occur  at 
any  part,  but  is  most  common  at  the  lower  end,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  entrance  into"  the  stomach.  Tho  symptoms  of  this  condition 
are  increasing  difficulty  in  the  passage  downwards  of  the  food, 
the  steady  decline  in  strength,  and  the  development  of  the  cancer- 
ous cachexia,  together  with  enlargements  of  the  glands  in  the 
neck  ;,, while  the  diagnosis  is  rendered  the  more  certain  by  the 
absence'bf  any  cause,  such  as  local  injury,  for  tho  formation  of  a 
stricture,  aniL.by  the  age  (as  "a  rule  at  or  beyond  middle  life). 
Treatment  here  can  only  be  palliative  while  life  continues,  which 
in  general  is  not  long.  Feeding  by  the  bowel  (encmata)  may  bo 
advantageously  resorted  to;[as "supplementary  to  efforts  to  admin- 
ister liquid  nutriment  in  the  usual  way.  It  is  to  be  observed  in 
all  cases  of  organic  stricture  that  the  food  does  not  necessarily 
return  at  once,  but  seems  as  if  it  had  passed  into  the  stomach. 
In  reality,  however,  it  has  passed  into  the  dilated  or  pouched 
portion  of  the  canal,  which  is  almost  always  present  immediately 
above  the  seat  of  stricture,  where  it  remains  until,  from  its  amount, 
it 'regurgitates  back  into  the  mouth,  when  it  can  be  seen,  by  the 
absence' of  any  evidence  of  digestion,  that  it  has  never  been  within 
the  cavity  of  the  stomach.  While  in  this  way  a  large  quantity  of 
the  food  returns,  Jt  often  happens  that  a  small  amount  of  the 
liquid  portion  does  trickle  through  the  narrowed  canal  into  the 
stomach,  and  thus  life  may  be  prolonged  for  a  considerable  time. 

Strictures  of  the  cesophagns  may  also.be  produced  by  the  pres- 
sure of  tumours  or  aneurisms  within  the  cavity  of  the  chest  but 
external  to  the  canaL  Further,  a  variety  of  cesophageal  stricture 
is -not  unfrequently  met  with  which  is  due  entirely  to  nervous 
causes,  and  i«  quite  unconnected  with  organic  disease, — namely, 
that  form  occurring  in  hysterical  females  termed  spasmodic  etric- 
ture.;'.'  Here  the  attack  of  difficulty  in  swallowing  comes  on  usually 
when'the  patient  is  at  meals,  and  the  food  cannot  pass  down.  The 
absence,  however,  of  all  history  of  any  organic  source  of  disease, 
and  especially  the  perfect  facility  with  which  the  cesophageal  tube  or 
bougie  is  passed,  together  with  other  manifestations  of  hysteria  com- 
monly present,  serve  readily  to  establish  the  diagnosis.  The  remedies 
most  suitable  are  tonics  and  the  frequent  passage  of  the  Stomach- 
tube,  which  as  a  rule  soon  entirely  removes  the  tendency  to  spasm. 

Finally,  difficulty  in  swallowing  sometimes  occurs  in  certain 
serious  nervous  diseases  from  paralysis  affecting  the  nerves  supply- 
ing the  muscular  coats  of  the  oesophagus,  which  thus  loses  its 
propulsive  power.  When  such  complications  occur  they  usually 
denote  an  advanced  stage  of  the  central  dis^e  with  which  they 
ore  connected,  and  ajpeedily  f^tal  termination.  (J,  O.-A-t-t 


L 


.^  '  THRONDHJEM.^r'  Trondhjem  (Drontheim),-  the 
third  town  of  Norway,  capital  of  the  Throndhjem  stift 
and  of  the  South  Throndhjem  amt,  is  pleasantly  sitaated 
on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Throndhjem  fjord,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nid,  348  miles  by  rail  to  the  north  of 
Christianja,  in  63°  25'  52"  N.  lat.  and  10°  33'  19"  E.  long.' 
In  front' of  the  town  is  the  islet  of  Munkholm,  formerly 
a  monastery  and  now  a  fortress;  on. the  high  ground  to 
the  east  is  the  small  stronghold  of  Christiansten.^  The 
houses  of  Throndhjem,  principally  of  wood,  are  substan- 
tial, spacious,  and  well  lighted  ;  and  the  streets  are  wide,' 
regular,  and  scrupulously  clean.  The  principal  building  is 
the  cathedral,  partly  dating  from  about  1090,  but  chiefly 
belonging  to  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  (c.  1161-1248). 
Its  extreme  length  was  325  feet  and  its  e.^treme  breadth 
124  feet;  but  in  the  14th,  15th,  and  17th  centuries  it 
suffered  greatly  from  repeated  fires  ;  after  the  last  of  these 
the  nave  was  completely  abandoned,  and  soon  became  a 
heap  of  ruins.  The  building,  which  still  ranks  as  the 
finest  ecclesiastical  edifice  in  Norway,  and  is  the  place  of 
coronation  of  the  Norwegian  sovereigns,  is  now  undergoing 
extensive  blit  judicious  restoration.  The  workmanship  of 
its  eastern  windows  and  of  the  marble  or  steatite  columns 
of  the  choir  is  specially  noteworthy.  Throndhjem  po.ssessea 
three  churches  in  all,  and  among  its  other  public  buildings 
may  be  mentioned  the  residences  of  the  stiftsamtmand  and 
the  bishop,  the  grammar  School,  the  real  school,  the  head 
office  of  the  Bank  of  Norway,  the  deaf  and  dumb  institute, 
the  hospital,  and  the  theatre.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  royal 
Norwegian  scientific  society,  in  connexion  with  which 
are  an  excellent  library  and  a  good  zoological  and  anti- 
quarian museum.  Throndhjem,  which  has  steamboat  com- 
munication with  Christiania,  Hamburg,  and  Hull,  and 
is  connected  with  Sweden  by  the  Meraker  Railway  (63 
miles),  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  copper  (from  the 
Roros  mines),  timber,  oil,  and  dried  and  salted  fish  ;  the 
industries  include  shipbuilding,  sawmilling,  distilling, 
tanning,  rope-making,  and  ribbon-making. ,  The  popular 
tion  in  1875  was  22,152;   in  1885  it_was  estimated  at 

24,000.         S     "  ~  ,     .-.,"..     V       1 

Throndhjem,  originally  Nidaros,  was  founded  byOlafTryggvason, 
who  built  a  royal  residence  and  a  church  here  in  996.  It  was 
made  an  archbishopric  in  1152.  The  city  attained  its  highest 
development  about'the  latter  half  of  the  13tli  century,  by  which 
time  it  had  become  an  important  pilgrimage  centre  and  had  as 
many  as  fifteen  churches.  It  has  sustained  frequent  sieges,  as 
well  as  devastating  conflagrations.  _  Its  importance  declined  about 
tho  time  of  the  Reformation,  when  it  ceased  to  be  a  resort"  of  pil- 
grims. At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  its  inhabitants 
numbered  only  8832. 

THRUSH  (A.  S.  }»-ys(;e,'lcel.'l)roi<r,  Norw.'TrcwCO. 
H.  Germ.  Drosce,  whence  the  modern  German  Drossel,  to 
be  compared  with  the  analogous  English  form  Throstle,' 
now  almost  obsolete,  both  being  apparently  diminutives), 
the  name  that  in  England  seems  to  have  been  common  to 
two  species  of  birds,  \the  first  now  generally  distinguished 
as  the  Song-Thrush,  butknown  in  many  districts  as  the 
Mavis,^  the  second  called  ,the  Mistletoe-Thrush,  but  having 
many  other  local  designations,  of  which  more  presently. 

The  former  of  these  is  one'of  sthe  finest  songsters  in  Europe,  but 
it  is  almost  everywhere'. so  common  that  its  merits  in  this  respect 
are  often  disregarded,^and  not  unfrequently  its  melody,  when 
noticed,  is  asoribed  to  .the  prince  of  feathered  vocalists,  the 
Nightingale  (vol.  xvii.^p.  498).  The  Song-Thrush  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description,  for  in  the  spring  and  summer  there  is 
hardly  a  field,,  a  copse,  or  a  garden  that  is  not  the  resort  of  a  pair 
or  more;    and   tho  brown-backed   bird   with   its  spotted  breast, 

*  For  niany  interesting  facts  connected  with  the  words  "  Thrush '' 
and  "  Throstle  "  whicli  cannot  be  entered  upon  here,  the  .  readei 
should  consult  Prof.  Skeat's  EtymclogicaX  Dictionary^ 

*  Cognate  with  the  French  jt/aJai'5,"  though  that  is  nowadays  almost 
restricted  to  the  Redwing  (voI_.  xx.  p.  313).  -  Its  diminutive  ii 
JtfauvieUe,  the  modem  table-name  of  the  Skylark,  and  perhaps  Mavu 
was  in  English  originally  the  table-nama  of  the  Thrush,  i 

XXIIL  —  4-1 


322 


T  H  U  — T  H  U 


hopping  over  the  grass  for  a  few  yards,  then  pausing  to  detect  the 
movement  of  a  worm,  and  vigorously  seizing  the  same  a  moment 
after,  is  one  of  the  most  famiUar  sights.  Hardly  less  well  known 
is  the  singular  nest  bailt  by  this  bird — a  deep  cup,  lined  with  a 
thin  but  stiff  coating  of  fragments  of  rotten  wood  ingeniously 
spread,  and  plastered  so  as  to  present  a  smooth  interior — in 
which  its  sea-green  eggs  spotted  with  black  are  and.  An  early 
breeder,  it  builds  ncrt  after  nest  during  the  season,  and  there 
can  be  few  birds  more  prolific.  Its  ravages  on  ripening  fruits, 
especially  strawberries  and  gooseberries,  excite  the  enmity  of  the 
imprudent  gardener  who  leaves  his  crops  uuprotected  by  nets,  but 
he  would  do  well  to  stay  the  hand  of  revenge,  for  no  bird  can  or 
does  destroy  so  many  snails,  as  is  testified  to  the  curious  observer 
on  inspection  of  the  stones  that  it  selects  against  which  to  dash  its 
captures, — stones  that  are  besmeared  with  the  slime  of  the  victims 
and  bestrewn  with  the  fragments  of  their  shattered  shelK  Nearly 
all  the  young  Thrushes  reared  in  the  British  Islands— and  this 
expression  includes  the  storm-swept  isles  of  the  Outer  Hebrides, 
though  not  those  of  Shetland — seem  to  emigrate  as  soon  as  they 
are  fit  to  journey,  and  at  a  later  period  they  are  followed  by  most 
of  their  parents,  so  that  many  parts  of  the  kingdom  are  absolutely 
bereft  of  this  species  from  October  to  the  end  of  January.  On 
the  continent  of  Europe  the  autumnal  influx  of  the  birds  bred  in 
the  North  is  regarded  with  much  interest,  as  has  been  already 
stated  (Birds,  vol.  iii.  p.  765),  for  they  are  easily  ensnared  and 
justly  esteemed  for  the  «ible,  while  their  numbers  make  their 
appearance  in  certain  districts  a  matter  of  great  importance. 

The  second  species  to  which  the  name  applies  is  distinguished  as 
the  Mistletoe-Thrush,  or,  by  corrupt  abbreviation,  the  Missel- 
Thrush.  '  It  is  known  also  in  many  districts  as  the  "  Storm-cock," 
from  its  habit  of  singing  in  squally  weather  that  silences  almost 
all  other  birds,  and  "Holm-  (i.e..  Holly-)  Thrush,"  while  the  harsh 
cries  it  utters  when  angry  or  alarmed  have  given  it  other  local 
names,  as  "  Screech,"  "  Shrite,"  and  "  Skrike,"  all  traceable  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Scric.*  This  is  a  larger  species  than  the  last,  of  paler 
tints,  and  conspicuous  in  flight  by  the  white  patches  on  its  outer 
tail-feathers.  Of  bold  disposition,  and  fearless  of  the  sleety  storms 
of  spring,  as  of  predatory  birds,  the  cock  will  take  his  stand  on 
a  tall  tree,  "like  an  enchanter  calling  up  the  gale  "  (as  Knapp 
happily  wrote),  and  thence  with  loud  voice  proclaim  in  wild  and 
discontinuous  notes  the  fervour  of  his  love  for  his  mate  ;  nor  does 
that  love  cease  when  the  breeding-season  is  past,'since  this  species 
is  oae  of  those  that  appear  to  pair  for  life,  and  even  when,  later 
in  the  year,  it  gathers  in  small  flocks,  husband  and  wife  may  be 
seen  in  close  company.  In  defence  of  nest  and  offspring,  too, 
few  birds  are  more  resolute,  and  the  Daw,  Pie,  or  Jay  that 
approaches  with  an  ill  intent  speedily  receives  treatment  that 
causes  a  rapid  retreat,  while  even  the  marauding  cat  finds  the 
precincts  of  the  "master  of  the  coppice"  {Fen  y  lltayn),  as  the 
Welsh  name  this  Thrush,  unsuitable  for  its  stealthy  operations. 
The  connexion  of  this  bird  with  the  mistletoe,  which  ip  as  old  as 
the  days  of  Aristotle,  is  no  figment,  as  some  have  tried  to  maintain. 
Not  onjy  is  it  exceedingly  fond  of  the  luscious  viscid  berries,  but 
it  seems  to  be  almost  the  only  bird  that  will  touch  them.  Of  other 
.Srttish  Thrushes,  the  Fieldfare  (vol.  ix.  p.  142),  Redwing  (vol. 
XX.  p.  818),  and  the  Blackbird  and  Ring-OosEL  (vol.  xviii.  p.  76) 
have  been  before  noticed  in  these  pages,  as  has  been  (under-  the 
first  of  those  headings)  the  so-called  ' '  Robin  "  of  North  America. 

The  Thrushes  have  been  generally  considered  to  form  a 
distinct  Family,  Turdidbe,  which  is  placed  by  some  taxo- 
nomers  the  highest  in  rank  among  birds.  An  attempt  has 
already  been  made  (Oenithology,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  30,  48) 
to  point  out  the  fallacy  of  this  view,  and  space  is  here 
wanting  to  dwell  longer  on  the  matter..  This  is  the  more 
to  be  regretted,  for,  though  many  modern  systematists 
will  admit  the  close  connexion  of  the  Turdidse  and  some 
of  the  so-called  Family  Sylviidx  or  Waeblees  (q.v.),  the 
abolition  or  modification  of  the  latter,  by  wholly  or  par- 
tially merging  it  in  the  former,  has  not  yet  been  satis- 
factorily effected,  and  Mr  Seebohm,  in  his  portion  of  the 
British  Museum  Catalogue  of  Birds  (v.  p.  1),  being  com- 

*  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  bird  taking  its  name  from  the  plant 

,  Mistletoe  { Kwcu>;i  a/&wm),  about  the  spelling  of  which  there  can  be 

nr  uncertainty — A.S.  Misteltan,  the  final  syllable  origiaaUy  signifying 

*'  t\vig,"  and  surviving  in  the  modem  '*  tine,"  as  of  a  fork  or  of  a 

deer's  antler. 

'  It  seems  quite  possible  that  the  word  Shrike  (vol.  xii.  p  845), 
though  now  commonly  accepted  as  the  equivalent,  in  an  ornithological 
sense,  of  Lanius,  may  have  been  originally  applied  to  the  Mistletoe- 
Tbrush.  In  several  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Vocabularies  dating  from  the 
8th  to  the  11  th  century,  as  printed  by  Thomas  Wright,  the  word 
ScTJc,  v-bich  can  be  hardly  anything  else  than  the  early  form  of 
"  Shrike,"  is  glossed  Turdut. 


pelled  by  the  conditions  previously  laid  down  by  Mr 
Sharpe  (op.  cit.,  iv.  pp.  6,  7)  to  unite  them,  protests 
against  doing  so.  His  own  assignment  of  the  Subfamily 
TurdiTis  is  into  11  genera,  of  which,  however,  6  only 
would  be  commonly  called  Thrushes,  and  it  must  be  bornu 
in  mind  that  in  establishing  these  he  regards  coloration  as 
the  most  valid  character.  They  are  Geocichla  with  40 
species,  Turdus  with  48,  Merula  with  52,  Miirwdchla  with 
3,  Calharus  with  12,  and  MorUkola  with  10.  These  last, 
well  known  as  Rock-Thrushes,  make  a  very  near  approach 
to  the  Nightingale  (vol.  xvii.  p.  498),  Redstam  (vol. 
XX.  p.  317),  and  Wheateak  (q.v.)  (a.  n.) 

THUCYJJEDES.  Thucydides  was  the  greatest  historian 
of  antiquity,  and,  if  not  the  greatest  that  ever  lived,  as 
some  have  deemed  him,  at  least  the  historian  whose 
work  is  the  most  wonderful,  when  it  is  viewed  relatively 
to  the  age  in  which  he  did  it.  The  most  important  facts 
which  we  know  about  him  are  those  which  he  has  told 
us  himself.  It  matters  very  little,  fortunately,  that  the 
biographical  materials  are  scanty.  For  posterity,  his  lila 
is  represented  by  his  life's  labour,  the  Htstori/  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War  ;  and  the  biographical  facts  are  of  interest 
chiefly  as  aids  to  the  appreciation  of  that  history.  Ha 
was  probably  born  in  or  about  471  B.C.  The  only  definitaDsie  or 
testimony  on  the  subject  is  contained  in  a  passage  of  Aulus  hutl^ 
Gellius,  who  says  that  in  431  Hellanicus  "seems  to  have 
been  "  sixty-five  years  of  age,  Herodotus  fifty-three,  and 
Thucydides  forty  (Noct.  All.,  15,  23).  The  authority  for 
this  statement  was  Pamphila,  a  compiler  of  biographical 
and  historical  notices,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero. 
She  must  have  had  access  to  Greek  sources  of  the  4th 
century  B.C.;  and  her  precision — though  qualified,  in  the 
version  of  Gellius,  by  the  word  "  seems  " — would  warrant 
the  supposition  that  she  had  •  taken  some  pains  to  secure 
accuracy.  Further,  the  date  which  she  assigns  is  in  good 
accord  with  an  inference  fairly  deducible  from  the  language 
of  Thucydides  himself,  viz.,  that  in  431  he  had  already 
reached  the  full  maturity  of  his  powers.  Kriiger,  indeed, 
would  place  his  birth  earlier  than  471,  and  Ullrich  later, 
but  for  reasons,  ip  each  case,  which  can  scarcely  outweigh 
the  ancient  authority. 

The  parentage  of  Thucydides  was  such  as  to  place  him  Pareot. 
in  a  singularly  favourable  position  for  the  great  work  to  *8®- 
which  he  afterwards  devoted  his  life.  His  father  Olorus, 
a  citizen  of  Athens,  belonged  to  a  family  which  derived 
wealth  and  influence  from  the  possession  of  gold  rainej 
at  Scaptesyle,  on  the  Thracian  coast  opposite  Thasos,  and 
was  a  relative  of  his  elde;  namesake,  the  Thracian  prince 
whose  daughter  Hegesipjle  married  the  great  Miltiades, 
so  that  Cimon,  son  of  Ik  iltiades,  was  a  cousin,  perhaps 
first  cousin,  once  removed,  of  Thucydides.  It  was  in 
the  vault  of  the  Cimoniap  family  at  Athens,  and  near  the 
remains  of  Cimon's  sister  Elpinice,  that  Plutarch  saw  the 
grave  of  Thucydides.  Thus  the  fortune  of  birth  secured 
three  signal  advantages  to  the  future  historian  ;  he  was 
rich  ;  he  had  two  homes — one  at  Athens,  the  other  in 
Thrace, — no  small  aid  to  a  comprehensive  study  of  the 
conditions  under  which  the  Peloponnesian  War  was  waged  ; 
and  his  family  connexions  were  likely  to  bring  him 
from  his  early  years  into  personal  intercourse  with  the 
men  who  were  shaping  the  history  of  his  time. 

The   development  of   Athens   during   the   forty  years  The  years 
from  471  to  431  was,  in  itself,  the  best  education  which  <71-43I 
such  a  mind  as  that  of  Thucydides  could  have  received.  °°' 
In  the  first  two  decades  of  his  life  the  expansion  and  con- 
solidation of  Athenian   power  was   proceeding;   between 
his  twentieth  and  fortieth  year  the  inner  resources  of  the 
city  were  being  applied  to  the  embellishment  and  ennoble- 
ment of  Athenian  life.     As  Cimon  had  been  the  principal' 
agent  in  the  former  period,  so  Pericles  was  the  central 


THTJCYDIDES 


323 


figure  of  the  latter.  A  consciousness  of  such  periods  may 
be  traced  in  the  passage  of  the  Funeral  Oration  where 
Pericles  refers,  first,  to  the  acquisition  of  empire  by  the 
preceding  generation,  and^then  to  the  improvement  of  that 
inheritance  by  his  Qwn  contemporaries  (ii.  36.  5).  It  is 
a  natural  subject  of  regret,  though  it  is  not  a  just  cause 
of  surprise  or  complaint,  that  the  History  tells  us  nothing 
of  the  literature,  the  art,  or  the  social  life  under  whose  in- 
fluences its  author  had  grown  up.  The  Funeral  Oration 
contains,  indeed,  his  general  testimony  to  the  value  and 
Inner  the  charm  of  those  influences.  There  we  have  the  very 
Itfe  of  essence  of  the  Athenian  spirit  condensed  into  a  few  preg- 
Athene  ^^^^  sentences,  which  show  how  thoroughly  the  writer  was 
imbued  with  that  spirit,  and  how  profoundly  he  appreci- 
ated its  various  manifestations.  But  he  leaves  us  to 
supply  all  examples  and  details  for  ourselves.  Beyond  a 
passing  reference  to  public  "  festivals,"  and  to  "  beauti- 
ful surroundings  in  private  life,"  he  makes  no  attempt 
to  define  those  "recreations  for  the  spirit^'  which  the 
Athenian  genius  had  provided  in  such  abundance.  Ko 
writer  of  any  age,  perhaps,  has  rendered  a-more  impressive 
tribute  to  the  power  of  the  best  art  than  is  implied  in 
the  terse  phrase  of  .Thucydides,  when,  speaking  of  the 
works  which  the  Athenian  daily  saw  around  him,  he 
declares  that  "  the  daily  delight  of  them  banishes  gloom  " 
(iv  Kad'  riixipav  r]  ripifn.'i  to  Xtnrqpov  tKirATjcrcrft)-  But  it  is 
not  to  Thucydides  that  we  owe  any  knowledge  of  the 
particular  forms  in  which  that  art  was  embodied.  He 
alludes  to  the  newly-built  Parthenon  only  as  containing 
the  treasury  ;  to  the  statue  of  Athene  Parthenos  which  it 
enshrined,  only  on  account  of  the  gold  which,  at  extreme 
need,  could  be  dr'ached  from  the  image  ;  to  the  Propytea 
and  other  buildings  with  which  Athens  had  been  adorned 
under  Pericles,  only  as  works  which  had  reduced  the 
surplus  of  funds  available  for  the  war.  Among  the  illus- 
trious contemporaries  whose  very  existence  would  be 
unknown  from  his  pages  are  the  dramatists  .iEschylus, 
Sophocles,  Euripides,  Aristophanes  ;  the  architect  Ictinus ; 
the  sculptor  Phidias ;  the  physician  Hippocrates ;  the 
philosophers  Anaxagoras  and  Socrates.  If  Thucydides 
had  mentioned  Sophocles  as  a  general  in  the  Samian  War, 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  he  would  have  noticed  the 
circumstance  that  Sophocles  also  wrote  dramas,  unless  it 
had  been  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  him  from  a 
namesake.  And,  had  he  lived  to  carry  his  story  down  to 
the  debate  in  the  Athenian  ecclesia  after  the  battle  of 
Arginusse,  we  may  conjecture  that  Socrates,  if  named  at 
all,  would  have  been  barely  mentioned  as  the  one  prytanis 
out  of  fifty  who  resisted  an  unconstitutional  act, — with 
some  expression,  perhaps,  of  praise,  but  without  any  fuller 
characterization.  We  think  of  the  countless  occasions 
which  Herodotus,  if  he  had  dealt  with  this  period,  would 

»have  found  for  invaluable  digressions  on  men  and  manners, 
on  letters  and  art  ;  we  feel  the  severity  of  the  loss  which 
the  reticence  of  Thucydides  has  caused  to  us  ;  and  we 
might  almost  be  tempted  to  ask  whether  the  more  genial, 
if  laxer,  method  of  Herodotus  does  not  indeed  correspond 
better  with   a  liberal  conception  of  the  historian's  office. 
No  one  can  do  full  justice  to  Thucydides,  or  appreciate 
the  true  completeness  of  his  work,  who  has  not  faced  this 
question,  and   found   the  answer  to  it.     It  would  be   a 
liasty  judgment  which  inferred  from  the  omissions  of  the 
History  that  its  author's  interests  were  exclusively  polit- 
ical.    Thucydides  was  not  writing  the  history  of  a  period. 
Limit       His  subject  was  an  event^the  Peloponnesian  War, — a  war, 
^  "■*      as  he   believed,  of   unequalled   importance,  alike   in    its 
of  the      direct  results  and   in  its  political   significance  for  all  time. 
History.  To  his  task,  thus  defined,  he  brought  an  intense  concentra- 
tion of  all  his  faculties.     He  worked  \vith  a  constant  desire 
to  make  each  successive  incident  of  the  war  as  clear  as 


possible.     To  take  only  two  instances :  there  is  notning  ia 
literature  more  graphic  than  his  description  of  the  plague 
at  Athens,  or  than   the  whole  narrative  of  the   Sicilian 
expedition.     But  the  same  temper  made  him  resolute  in ; 
excluding  irrelevant  topics.     The  social' life  of  the  i-je,  I 
the  literature  and  the  art,  (ind_  no  place  in  his  picture 
simply  because  they  did  not  belong, to  his  subject.     His 
work  was  intended  :to  be  "  ai  possession   for  ever."     He 
could  conceive  a  day  when  Sparta  should  be  desolate, 
and  when  only  ruins  of  Athens  should  remain.     But  his 
imagination  never  projected  itself  Into  a  time  when  the 
whole  fabric  of  Hellenic,  civilization  should  have  perished. 
Could  his  forecast  have  extended  to  an  age  when  men  of 
"  barbarian  "  races  and   distant  climes  would  be  painfully 
endeavouring  to  reconstruct  a  picture  of  that  civilization, 
— when  his  own  narrative  would  need  the  help  of  side- 
lights which   seemed  to  him  wholly  unnecessary, — then, 
assuredly,  he  would    have  added  all   that  such   readers 
could  reqiiire.     But  he  would  not  have  done  this  in  the 
manner  of.Hcrodotu  ,  by  free  indulgence  in  digression; 
rather  he  would  have   gathered   up  the  social  and   intel- 
lectual phenomena  of  his  day  in  a  compact  and  systematic 
introduction,  specially  designed  for  the  non-Hellenic  reader. 
The  biography  which  bears  the  name   of  Maicellinus 
states  that  Thucydides  was  the  disciple  of  Anaxagoras  in  I'hm-,- 
philosophy  and  of  Antiphon  in  rhetoric.     Such  statements  diJos  anrt 
were  often  founded  on  nothing  more  than  a  desire   to  ^^"P""'"- 
associate  distinguished  names,  and  to  represent  an  eminent 
man   as  having  profited   by  the  best  instruction    in   each 
kind  which  his  contemporaries  could  afford.     In  this  case 
there  is  no  evidence  to  confirm  the  tradition.     But  it  may 
be  observed  that  Thucydides  and  Antiphon  at  least  belong 
to   the  same  rhetorical   school,  and  represent   the  same 
early  stage  of  Attic  prose.     Both  writers  use  words  of  an 
antique  or  decidedly  poetical  cast  ;  both  point  verbal  con- 
trasts by  insisting  on  the  precise  difference  between  terms 
of  similar    impurt  ;    and   both  use    metaphors  somewhat 
bolder  than   were  congenial    to  Greek   prose  in  its  riper 
age.     The  differences,  on   the   other  hand,   between   the 
style  of  Thucydides  and   that  of  Antiphon   arise  chiefly 
from    two    general    causes.     First,    Antiphon    wrote    for 
hearers,  Thucydides  for  readers  ;  the  latter,  consequently, 
can  use  a  degree  of  condensation,  and  a  freedom  in   the 
arrangement   of   words,   which  would  have  been    hardly 
possible   for   the  former.     Again,  the   thought  of  Thucy- 
dides is  often  more  complex   than  any  which  Antiphon 
undertook  to  interpret  ;  and   the  greater  intricacy  of  the 
historian's  style  exhibits  the  endeavour  to  express  each 
thought.'     Few  things  in  the  history  of  literary  prose  are  Style  of* 
mor*  interesting  than  to  watch  that  vigorous  mind  in  its  T''.'"^^" 
struggle   to  mould    a  language   of  magnificent  but   im-      ^ 
mature  capabilities.     The   obscuuty  with   which    Thucy- 
dides has  sometimes  been  reproached  often  arises  from  the 
very  clearness  with  which  a  complex  idea  is  present  to 
his   mind,  and   his  strenuous  effort  to  present  it    in    its 
entirety,  when  the  strong  consciousness  of   logical  cohe- 
rence will  make  him  heedless  of  grammatical  regularity. 
He  never  sacrifices  the  thought  to  the  language,  but  he 
will   sometimes   sacrifice   the   language   to  the   thought 
A  student  of  Thucydides  may  always  be  consoled  by  the 
reflexion  that  he  is    not  engaged  in  unravelling  a  mere 
rhetorical  tangle.     Every  light  on  the  sense  will  be  a  light 
on  the  words  ;  and,  when,  as  is  not  seldom  the  case,  Thucy- 
dides comes  victoriously  out  of  this  struggle  of  thought 
and  language,  having  achieve*^  perfect  expression  of  his 
meaning  in  a  sufficiently  lucid  form,  then  his  style  rises 
into  an  intellectual  brilliancy — thoroughly  manly,  and  also 
penetrated  with  intense*  feeling — which  nothing  in  Greek. 
prose  literature  surpasses. 


'  Sc<i  Jebb's  AUic  Orators,  vol.  i.  p.  35. 


324 


THUCYDIDES 


His 

relation 
to  publ. 
life. 


130. 
riie 
plague. 


424 


Fill  of 
\mphiv 

pnl.s 


The  History  shows  not  onJy  a  thorough  insight  into  the 
political  ideas  of  Pericles,  but  also  a  sympathy  with  him, 
and  an  admiration  for  his  character,  which  indicate  per- 
sonal friendship.  If,  before  431,  Thucydides  had  wished  to 
take  a  prominent  part  in  the  public  life  of  Athens,  every- 
thing was  in  his  favour.  Cut  there  is  no  trace  of  his 
having  done  so  ,  and  it  is  possible  that  his  opportunities 
in  this  respect  were  modified  by  the  necessity  of  frequent 
visits  to  Thrace,  where  the  management  of  such  an 
important  property  as  the  gold  mines  must  ha»e  claimed 
the  occasional  presence  of  the  proprietor  The  manner  in 
which  he  refers  to  his  personal  influence  in  that  region  is 
such  as  to  suggest  that  he  had  sometimes  resided  there 
(iv  105.1).  He  was  at  Athens  in  the  spring  of  430,  when 
the  plague  broke  out.  If  his  account  of  the  symptoms 
has  not  enabled  physicians  to  agree  on  a  diagnosis  of  the 
malady,  it  is  at  least  singularly  full  and  vivid  He  had 
himself  been  attacked  by  the  plague  ,  and,  as  he  briefly 
adds,  "he  had  seen  others  suffer"  The  tenor  of  his 
narrative  would  warrant  the  inference  that  be  had  been 
one  of  a  few  who  were  active  in  ministering  to  the  suff'erers 
— in  that  tearful  time  when  religion  and  morality  lost  all 
control  over  the  despairing  population  of  Athens — when 
all  the  ordinary  decencies  of  life  were  set  at  nought,  and 
when  even  the  nearest  relatives  failed  in  the  duties  of 
humanity  towards  the  dying. 

The  turning-point  in  the  life  of  Thucydides  came  in 
the  winter  of  the  year  424  He  was  then  forty-seven  (if 
his  birth  has  been  rightly  placed  in  471),  and  for  the 
first  time  he  is  found  holding  an  ofiicial  position.  He  was 
one  of  two  generals  entrusted  with  the  command  of  the 
regions  towards  Thrace  (ra  im  OpaKTj?),  a  phrase  which 
dcjnotes  the  whole  Thracian  seaboard  from  Macedonia  east- 
ward to  the  vicinity  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  though 
often  used  with  more  special  reference  to  the  Chalcidic 
peninsula.  One  reason  why  Thucydides  had  been  chosen 
for  the  post  was  the  local  influence  which  he  possessed 
among  the  people  of  the  Thracian  seaboard,  through  his 
family  connexions  and  his  ownership  of  the  gold  mines. 
His  colleague  in  the  command  was  Eucles.  About  the 
end  of  November  424  Eucles  was  in  the  city  ot  Amphi- 
polls,  on  the  river  Strymon  That  city  was  not  merely 
more  important  to  Athens  than  any  other  place  in  the 
region, — it  was  the  stronghold  of  Athenian  power  in  the 
north.  To  guard  it  with  all  possible  vigilance  was  a 
matter  of  peculiar  urgency  at  that  moment.  The  ablest 
of  Spartan  leaders,  Rrasidas,  was  then  in  Thrace  with  a 
Peloponnesian  army, — not,  indeed,  close  to  Aniphipolis, 
but  still  within  a  distance  which  imposed  special  caution 
on  Athenian  oflicers  He  was  in  the  Chalcidic  peninsula, 
where  he  had  already  gained  rajjid  success  ,  and  part  of 
the  population  between  that  peninsula  and  Aniphipolis 
was  already  known  to  be  disaffected  to  Athens  Under 
circumstances  so  suggestive  of  possible  danger,  we  might 
have  expected  that  Thucydides,  who  had  seven  ships  of 
war  with  him,  would  have  been  near  his  colleague  Eucles, 
and  ready  to  co-operate  with  him  at  a  moment's  notice. 
It  appears,  however,  that,  with  his  ships,  he  was  at  tue 
island'of  Thasos,  several  miles  distant  from  the  Thracian 
coast.  Brasidas,  making  a  forced  march  from  the  Chal- 
cidic peninsula,  suddenly  appeared  before  Aniphipolis. 
Eucles  sent  in  all  haste  for  Thucydides,  who  arrived  with 
his  ships  from  Thasos  just  in  time  to  beat  off  the  enemy 
from  Eion  at  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon,  but  not  in  time 
to  save  Amphipolis.  Only  a  few  hours  before,  it  had 
capitulated  to  Brasidas,  who  had  offered  exceptionally 
favourable  terms.  The  profound  vexation  and  dismay 
felt  at  Athens  found  expression  in  the  puni.shmeut  of  the 
commandei  who  seemed  primarily  responsible  for  so  grave 
a  disaster.      For  the   next   twenty   years — i.e.,  till  404 


— Thucydides  was  an  exile  from  Athen.s.  It  is  not  in!  -  Eiik.  of 
probable  that  the  charge  brought  against  him  was  that  of  Tbucy- 
treason  (TrpoSoo-i'a),  for  which  the  penalty  was  death,  and 
that  he  avoided  this  penalty  by  remaining  in  banish- 
ment. A  special  psepkism  is  said  to  have  been  required 
before  Thucydides  could  return  in  404,  which  would  have 
been  regular  if  a  capital  sentence  had  been  on  record 
against  him,  but  not  so  if  he  had  been  merely  under 
sentence  of  exile.  Cleon  i.s  said  to  have  been  the  prime 
mover  in  his  condemnation ;  and  this  is  likely  enough. 
Eucles  was  probably  punished  also.  Grote  was  the  first 
modern  writer  to  state  the  reasons  for  thinking  that 
Thucydides  may  have  been  really  guilty  of  culpable 
negligence  on  this  occasion,  and  that  his  punishment — 
which  had  usually  been  viewed  as  the  vindictive  act  of 
a  reckless  democracy — may  have  been  well  deserved. 
Everything  turns  on  the  que.stioa  why  he  was  at  Thasoa 
just  then,  and  not  at  Eion.  No  one  disputes  that,  after 
the  summons  from  Eucles,  he  did  all  that  was  possible. 
It  IS  true  that  the  facts  dl  the  situation,  so  fai  as  we 
know  them,  strongly  suggest  that  he  ought  to  have  been 
at  Eion,  and  do  not  disclose  any  reason  for  his  being  at 
Thasos.  But  it  is  only  fair  to  remember,  in  a  case  of  this 
kind,  that  there  may  have  been  other  facts  which  we  do 
not  know.  There  is  some  presumptive  evidence  of  careless- 
ness ,  but  we  can  hardly  say  more  than  that.  The  absence 
of  Thucydides  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Amphipolis  at 
that  precise  juncture  may  have  had  some  better  excuse 
than  now  appears. 

From  423  to  404  the  home  of  Thucydides  was  on  4^1-4  "i 
his  property  in  Thracg,  but  much  of  his  time  appears  to  Tr-'"  ^ 
have  been  spent  in  travel.  He  visited  the  countries  of 
the  Peloponnesian  allies, — recommended  to  them  by  his 
quality  as  an  exile  from  Athens ;  and  be  thus  enjoyed 
the  rare  advantage  of  contemplating  the  great  war  from  a 
point  of  view  opposite  to  that  at  which  he  had  previously 
been  placed.  He  speaks  of  the  increased  leisure  which  his 
ba,nishment  secured  to  his  study  of  events.  He  refers 
partly,  doubtless,  to  detachment  from  Athenian  politics, 
partly,  also,  we  may  suppose,  to  the  opportunity  of  visit- 
ing places  signalized  by  recent  events,  and  of  examining 
their  topography  in  the  light  of  such  information  as  he 
could  collect  on  the  spot.  The  local  knowledge  which  is 
often  apparent  in  his  Sicilian  books  may  have  been 
acquired  at  this  period.  Th?  banishment  of  Thucydides 
was  the  most  fortunate  event  that  could  have  occurred  for 
him  and  for  us,  when  it  enabled  him,  m  this  way,  to  look 
at  his  subject  all  round.  If  it  is  always  hard  for  an 
historian  to  be  impartial,  it  is  especially  so  for  the  historian 
of  a  great  war  in  which  his  own  country  has  been  one  of 
the  combatants.  The  mind  of  Thucydides  was  naturally 
judicial,  and  his  impartiality — which  seems  almost  super- 
human by  contrast  with  Xenophon's  Helhmca — was  in 
some  degree  a  result  of  temperament.  But  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  evenness  with  which  he  holds  the  scale; 
was  greatly  assisted  \>y  the  experience  which,  during  the' ■ 
years  of  exile,  must  have  been  familiar  to  him — that 
hearing  the  views  and  amis  of  the  Peloponnesians  set  foi 
by  themselves,  and  of  estimating  their  merits  ci^herwi-. 
than  would  have  been  easy  for  an  observer  in  a  hostil. 
camp. 

His  own  words  make  it  clear  that  he  returned  to  Athens, 
at  least  for  a  time,  in  404.  Classen  supposes  that  his  Pr •  - 
return  took  place  in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  about  six  a"-  ' 
months  after  Athens  had  surrendered  to  Lj'sander,  and 
while  the  Thirty  were  still  in  power.  Finding  that  the 
rule  of  the  oligarchy  was  becoming  more  and  more  violent, 
Thucydides  again  left  Athens,  and  retired  to  his  property 
in  Thrace,  where  he  lived  till  his  death,  working  at  his 
History.     The  preponderance  of  testimony  certainly  goes 


Uva-.h 
396 


C»Q- 

of  the 


to  show  that  he  diea  in  Thrace,  and   by  violence      It 
would  seem  that,  when  he  wrote  chapter  116  of  his  third 
book,  he  was  ignorant  of  an  erut.tion  of  Etna  which  tools 
place  in  390.     There  is  some  reasun  then,  for  believintr 
that  !ie  dul  not  survive  his  sevcnty-fifth  year.     According 
•.o  ancient  trad.ta.n,  he  was  killed  by  robbers.     His  relics 
were  brought  to  .Athens,  and  laid  m  the  vault  of  Cimon's 
lamily,  *here  I'  utarch  sa«-  their  resting-place.  The  abrupt- 
^aess  with  which  the  History  breaks  off  agrees  with  the 
story  of  a  sudden  death.     The  historian's  daughter  is  said 
to  Lave  ^ved  the  unfinished  work,  and  to  have  placed  it 
in  the  hands  of  an  editor.     This  editor,  according  to  one 
account  was  .\cnophon,  to  whom  Diogenes  Laertiul assigns 
the  creditor  havng  "  brought  the  work  into  reputation, 
when   he   might    have  suppressed  it."     The   tradition   k 
however,  very  doubtful.     In  its  origin,  it  may  have  been 
merely  a  ^ess,  suggested   by  a  feeling  that  no  one  then 
living  could  more  appropriately  have  discharged  the  office 
of  literary  executor  than  the  writer  who.  in  his  llellaiica 
continued  the  narrative. 


THUCYDIDES 


325 


ir.ltrtst 

cf  tl.e 
war. 


-I.c 


The 
pruse 
chroni 
cicrs 


•J^D'  °  ft'  "^  "'f  "'^'"^  ■>  ""'ydidcs  has  .ndic.-iteJ  his  Kcneral 
concr,.t.on  of  h.s  work,  an.l  hasstat.d  tl»-,.nnc,ples  which  goveWj 
n^n.°of'7h  "°"  "'\>'"'r»sc  had  been  forme/at  the  ve^  Win 
ning  of    he  war.  „,  the  conviction  that  i.  would  Prove  moreTm- 

beUi^.T.nts.  Athens  and  S|«.rta.  were  both  ..,  the  highest  condition 
rL\      ,7   ^'l'"l'">^nS    T*-'  '''"''«    H^""'':    «orld-,ndulin2 

g^:i  =x^-r;f[h^-l:^;l-^^ 
|,,,rv  would  Lrf:rr:;i^,ahr;U'°^;ir-wL',ie^j:-..fc'a;: 

head.  who^.  charact^n',  r.7'V'"'  '^"'  ^T'-  "'"'  """>"  ^'  their 

nZ.  Secon,  •  t,  're  wt  fh"  .n.In  '"  ^  "'"•"^•^  '"  '^^ 
calls" chroni,  lere-iAj^        l.    >     tu  ^'°^'  """^^  "''°'"  h» 

hasdescriLl  .  "■,t-Z^,.^f  h.r^c;  ^"'^"'■■>-'"  "f  Halic^nassua 
to  illustrate  Ihe  dlirer^n  <;  ;  ,w'.  M  rr!'  '  "??",  "'"^''  ^"^•^■ 
work  and  hi»  own      Th  ^  ",""•"    '  ''>  Thuc>dide.s  bttwtcn  their 

ledge  of  le^n-n.U     reseTv       F  ''*'r'  ""  '°  "^"^"^  ••  ''"»*• 


doubt  that  Thucydido/knew^h  ,  lij"     Tu     V'"'  ""  ^  "^  "  ' 
in  some  places  he  a  hides  to  it      The    ?l^       Herodotus  and  that  Ti  acy- 

of  an  immeasurably  higher  order.      While  they  d^nlt    in  a  boh? 

ng  of  evidence,  another,  the  mixture  of  »  fabulous  elemenTwith 

iSl  effect^  "of^h"";"-  '■■"'"^''  ""  o«t7on:l™™>>'ft 
I lolr^      ■        •  ,^,'  '""^  '^*'  '""  "><=  ':''>«f  instances  would  be 

nSnif'n°?at^r^!;-ltr  "■''■'  "■•"^''  Her^otut  som"^ 

mt^^^his  History,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been  com- 

Hi''^i'^r„''^'i'f'!t"°"""'^  ^'"■*^*"  "  f'"'rth  and  a  6fth  part  of  the„. 
Hi.tory.     If  they  w-e-e  eliniiaated,  ^n  admirable  narrathe  wo i.ld^*  v 

tL   .b^t'^..^  '  '''?^  °f  conteM,jx,rary  feeling  and  opinion 

^.Z:^tp  ^rtii:  J^s^:;'s^:?^r  ^iixi'^! 

wirHer^dT"""  ,^"S?cstive„ess  for    theS"it   of  'p^mii' 

out  the  pointi  ofa  sTn,„.„.nl  situa  lo^   "'  no     ;     .rit,  r"„   ,' if '",' 
have  atuined  tiie  cbjeu  by  com:......  i^red'";  rubjl.'d  "i'i  ^p^^^ 


326 


T  H  U-  T  H  U 


his  account  of  the  battle.  The  comparative  indifference  of  Thucy- 
dides  to  dramatic  verisimilitu-ie  in  these  military  orations  is  cari- 
ously  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  speech  of  the  general  on  the  one 
side  is  sometimes  as  distinctly  a  reply  to  the  speech  of  the  general 
on  the  other  as  if  they  hi-d  been  delivered  in  debate  We  may 
be  sure,  however,  that,  wherever  Thncydides  had  any  authentic 
clue  to  the  actual  tenor  of  a  speech,  he  preferred  to  follow  that 
"Voltain;  8  clue  rather  than  to  draw  on  his  own  invention  Voltaire  has, 
criticism,  described  the  introduction  of  set  speeches  as  "a  sort  of  oratorical 
falsehood,  which  the  historian  used  to  allow  himself  in  old  times." 
The  strongest  characteristic  of  Thucydides  is  his  devotion  to  truth, 
— his  laborious  persistence  in  separating  fact  from  fiction  ;  and  it 
is  natural  to  ask  why  he  adopted  the  form  of  set  speeches,  with 
the  measure  of  fiction  which  it  involved,  instead  of  simply  stating, 
in  his  own  person.  t!ie  arguments  and  opinions  which  he  conceived 
to  have  been  prevalent  The  question  must  be  viewed  from  the 
The  standpoint  of  a  Greek  m  the  5tb  century  BC      Epic  poetry  had 

Greek  then  for  mauy  generations  exercised  a  powerful  influence  over  the 
^ew.  Greek  mind  Hom^T  had  accustomed  Greeks  to  look  for  two  ele- 
ments in  any  complete  expression  of  human  energy, — first,  an 
account  of  a  man's  deeds,  then  an  image  of  his  mind  in  the  report 
of  his  words  The  Homeric  heroes  are  exhibited  both  in  action 
and  in  speech  Further,  the  contemporary  readers  of  Thucydides 
were  men  habituated  to  a  civic  life  in  wliicb  public  speech  played 
an  all-important  part  Every  adult  citizen  of  a  Greek  democracy 
wa3  a  member  of  the  assembly  which  debated  and  decided  great 
Issues,  The  law-courts,  the  festivals,  the  drama,  the  inarket-place 
Itself,  ministered  to  the  Greek  love  of  animated  description  To  a 
Greek  of  that  age  a  written  history  of  political  events  would  have 
seemed  strangely  insipid  if  speech  "  in  the  first  person  "  had  been 
absent  from  it,  especially  if  it  did  not  offer  some  mirror  of  those 
debates  which  were  inseparably  assoeiated  with  the  central  inter- 
ests and  the  decisive  moments  of  political  life.  In  making 
historical  i^ersons  say  what  they  might  have  said,  Thucydides 
confined  that  oratorical  licence  to  the  purpose  which  is  its  best 
justification  •  with  him  it  is  strictly  dramatic,  an  aid  to  the  com- 
plete presentment  of  action,  by  the  vivid  expression  of  ideas  and 
arguments  which  were  really  current  at  the  time  Among  later 
historians  who  continued  the  practice,  Polybius,  Sallust,  and 
Tacitus  most  resemble  Thucydides  in  this  particular  ;  while  in 
the  Byzantine  historians,  as  in  some  moderns  who  followed 
classical  precedent,  the  speeches  were  usually  mere  occasions  for 
rhetorical  display.  Botta's  Eistory  of  Italy  from  17S0  to  1814 
affords  one  of  the  latest  examples  of  the  practice,  which  was 
peculiarly  suited  to  the  Italian  genius. 

The  present  division  of  the  History  into  eight  books  is  one 
which  might  well  have  proceeded  from  the  author  himself, 
as  being  a  natural  and  convenient  disposition  of  the  contents. 
The  first  book,  after  a  general  introduction,  sets  forth  the  causes 
of  the  Peioponnesian  war  The  first  nine  years  of  the  war  are 
contained  in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  books, — three  years  in 
each  The  fifth  book  contains  the  tenth  year,  followed  by  the 
interval  of  the  ''insecure  peace."  The  Sicilian  expedition  fills 
the  sixth  and  seventh  bdoks.  The  eighth  book  opens  that  last 
chapter  of  the  struggle  which  is  known  as  the  "  Decelean  "  or 
"Ionian  "  War,  and  breaks  off  a' ruptly — m  the  middle  of  a  sen- 
tence, indeed — in  the  year  411.  The  words  m  which  Grote  bids 
farewell,  at  that  point,  to  Thucydides  well  express  what  every 
careful  student  must  feel.  "To  pass  from  Thucydides  to  the 
EelUmca  of  Xenophon  is  a  descent  truly  mournful  ;  and  yet, 
when  we  look  at  Grecian  history  as  a  whole,  w-e  have  great  reason 
to  rejoice  that  even  so  inferior  a  work  as  the  latter  has  reached  us. 
The  historical  purposes  and  conceptions  of  Thucydides,  as  set 
forth  by  himself  in  his  preface,  are  exalted  and  philosophical  to  a 
degree  altogether  wondeiful,  when  we  consider  that  he  had  no 
pre-existing  models  before  him  from  which  to  derive  them.  And 
the  eight  books  of  his  work  (in  spite  of  the  unfinished  condition 
of  the  last)  are  not  unworthy  of  these  large  promises,  either  in 
spirit  or  in  execution  " 

The  principal  reason  ngainst  believing  that  the  division  into 
eicht  books  was  made  by  Thucydides  himself  is  the  fact  that  a 
dillerent  division,  into  thirteen  books,  was  also  current  in  antiquity, 
OS  rjppears  from  Marcelhnus  (§  5S),  It  is  very  improbable — indeed 
hartily  conceivable — that  this  should  have  been  the  case  if  the 
eipht-book  division  had  come  down  from  the  hand  of  the  author. 
Wf  may  infer,  then,  that  the  division  of  the  work  into  eight  books 
was  introduced  at  Alexandria. — perhaps  in  the  3d  or  Cd  century 
B.C  That  division  was  already  familiar  to  the  grammarians  of 
the  Augustan  age.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  who  recognizes  it, 
h.is  also  another  mode  of  indicating  portions  of  the  work,  viz  .  by 
Siichnrrutna,  or  the  number  of  lines  which  they  contained.  Thus, 
in  the  MS.  which  he  used,  the  first  874chapters  of  book  i.  con- 
tained about  2000  lines  (equivalent  to  about  1700  lines  in  Bekkcr's 
stereotyped  Bvo  text). 
Order  Ullrich  has  maintained  with  much  acutcncss  that  Thucydides 

of  com-     composed  the  first  three  books  and  about  lialf  of  book  iv.  in  the 
poaitioa.    years  421-413,  and  the  rest  of  the  work  after  404.     His  general 


of  that 

dirisioji; 


ground  is  the  existence  in  i.-iv.  of  passages  which  seem  to  imply 
ignorance  of  later  events.  Classen  has  fully  examined  the  evidence^ 
and,  as  a  result,  has  arrived  at  the  following  conclusion.  It  is 
possible  that  a  first  rough  draft  of  the  History,  down  to  413,  may 
have  been  sketched  by  Tliucydides  before  405.  But  the  whole 
History,  from  the  first  book  onwards,  was  worked  up  into  it» 
presenr  form  only  after  404.  This  v  'cw  is  contiirued  by  some 
passages,  found  even  in  the  earliei  books,  which  imply  tnat  th& 
writer  already  knew  the  latest  incidents,  or  the  final  issue,  cf  the 
war  We  have  seen  that,  after  404,  Thucydides  may  have  enjoyed 
some  six  or  seven  years  of  leisure  Seveial  peculiarities  of  expres- 
sion or  statement  in  book  vui.  suggest  that  Jt  had  not  yet  lercivcd 
the  author's  final  revision  at  the  time  when  death  broke  off  the 
work  The  absence  of  speeches  fioni  tue  eighth  book  has  also  becrv 
remarked  But  it  should  be  observed  that  much  of  the  eighth 
book  IS  occupied  with  negotiations,  either  clandestine  or  indecisive, 
or  both  Its  narrative  hardly  presents  any  moment  which  required 
such  dramatic  emphasis  as  the  speeches  usually  impart.  The  mere 
misicpreseutations  by  which  Aicibiades  and  Chalculcus  pievailed 
on  the  Cliians  to  revolt  certainly  did  not  claim  such  treatment. 

The  division  of  the  war  by  summers  and  winters  (kotq  Q*pQs  ttai  Mode  of 
Xttti.it)va) — the  end  of  tiie  winter  bein^coiisidered  as  the  end  of  tlie  reckoning 
year — is  perhaps  the  only  one  which  Thnrydides  himself  used,  for  lime, 
there  is  no  indication  that  he  made  any  division  of  the  Htstoiy 
into  books  His  "  summer  *'  includes  spring  and  autumn,  and 
extends,  gcner.illy  speaking,  from  March  or  the  beginning  of  April 
to  the  end  of  Octooer.  His  winter" — November  to  February 
inclusive — means  practically  the  period  dunng  which  military 
operations,  by  land  and  sea,  are  wholly  or  [tartly  suspended. 
When  he  speaks  of  "  summer  "  and  "  winter  '  as  answering  respect- 
ively to  "half"  the  year  {v.  20.  3),  the  phrase  is  not  to  be  pressed: 
it  means  merely  that  he  divides  his  year  into  these  two  parts. 
The  mode  of  reckoning  i!»  essentially  a  rough  one,  and  is  not  to  be 
viewed  as  if  the  comjnencement  of  summer  or  of  winter  could  be 
precisely  fixed  to  constant  dales  For  chronology,  besxles  the 
festivals,  he  uses  the  Athenian  list  of  archons.  the  Spartan  list  of 
ephors,  and  the  Argive  list  of  priestesses  of  Hera. 

There  is  no  reference  to  the  History  of  Thucydides  in  the  extant 
Greek  writers  of  the  4th  century  B.C.  ;  but  Lucian  has  preserved  a 
tradition  of  the  enthusiasm  with  which  it  was  studied  by  Demo- 
sthenes The  great  orator  is  said  to  have  copied  it  out  eight  times, 
or  even  to  have  learnt  it  by  heart  It  is  at  least  beyond  doubt 
tbat  the  study  of  Thucydides  contributed  a  very  powerful  influence 
to  the  style  of  Demosthenes,  thougli  that  influence  rather  passed 
into  the  spirit  of  his  oratory  than  showed  itself  in  any  marked 
resemblances  of  form  The  Aipxandrian"  cnlics  acknowledged 
Thucydides  as  a  great  master  of  Atlic  Sallust,  Cnmelius  Nepos, 
Cicero,  and  Quiutilian  are  among  the  Koman  writers  whose  admira- 
tion for  him  can  be  traced  in  their  work,  or  has  been  expressly 
recorded  The  moit  elaborate  ancient  criticism  on  the  diotion  and 
composition  of  Thucydides  is  contained  in  three  essays  by  Dionysms 
of  Halicarnassus 

Amone  the  best  *ISS  of  Thucydides.  the  Codex  Vaticanus  12C  (llih  fent.)  re-  MSS.,  &C 
presents  a  recension  made  In  Itie  Alexandrian  or  RomAn  age  In  the  fint  bix 
boobs  the  number  of  passaccB  in  which  the  Vaticanns  alone  ha*  preserved  a  tnie 
reading  13  comparaiiveiy  amall :  in  t)t)olt  vii,  it  is  somewhat  lurpcr  .  in  book  tiiI- 
it  13  so  large  th^it  htre  the  Vatlcanus,  as  cimparcd  with  the  -^'hir  MSS  ,  acfiuirta 
the  character  of  a  revised  text  Oiherlmportani  MSS.  aie  the  I'slaimua  252(nttl 
cent  ).  the  Cas^elanus  fI262  A.D).  the  Augusianus  Monacensis  ^30  (I3i'l  a  D  ). 
A  collation,  in  bouLs  1  ti  .  of  two  Cambiidge  MiS  of  the  l5th  century  (Sn  S-  18. 
Kb  5  19»  has  been  published  by  Shill^io  Several  rnnsian  >ISS  (H  C  A-  F.). 
ajid  B  Venetian  MSS  (V.)  collated  by  Arnold,  olse  descive  mention  The  Aldine 
edition  was  published  in  1Mj2.  It  was  toi-merly  supposed  that  there  had  been  two 
JuDiine  editions,  ShUleto,  in  the  •'  Nonce  p^eh^ed  m  book  1  first  pointed  out 
that  the  only  Junline  edition  was  that  of  l^.'G,  and  that  iht-  belief  in  an  earlier 
Juntine,  of  i506.  arose  merely  from  the  accideniaj  omission  of  ll«  word  victumo 
ID  the  Latin  version  ol  the  impnni. 

Of  recent  editions,  the  most  cencrally  useful  Is  Classen's,  in  the  Weidmann 
sene9(Berlm.  IH62-78),  each  book  can  be  obtained  scpbratoJy.  Ai  nold  s  edltior* 
(1848-51)  contains  mucb  that  is  still  vahiablo  For  books  1.  and  ii.  Shilleto^ 
ediilon  (1S72-7*;)  furnishes  a  comirreniaiy  Vhich,  though  not  full,  deals  admirably 
with  manv  difficult  p"inis,  Am.ing  otnei  important  editions,  it  is  enough  to 
name  those  of  Duker,  IleKktr,  Coelier.  Pot.po,  and  Kruger  D(?iant  s  lexicon  to 
Thucydides  (2  toIs  ,  Geneva.  liWlJUs  well  executed.  Jowetl  s  translation  (Oxlord. 
1^93)  IS  supplemented  by  a  »olunie  of  notes  Dak  s  teision  iUohn)al50  deserves 
mention  for  its  tidelilv.  as  Crawley  s  (tendon,  I87fi)  (or  its  »icr>ui.  //eflanra 
(Londnn,  1880)  contains  an  easay  on  "  The  Speechea  of  Thucydides."  pp  2C6-323 
which  has  been  translated  into  German,  The  btst  clue  to  Thucydiikan  biblio- 
graphy is  !□  Engeltnann  s  Scnptcfrn  Grgcx.  pp   748  iq..  8th  cd.,  1880    (K.C.  J.* 

THUGS.     That   the  Sanskrit   root  stkaq  (Pali,  thak-K 
"to  cover,"   "to  conceal,"  was  mainly  applied  to  fraudu- 
lent   concealment,    appears    from   the   noun    $thaga,    *'  a 
cheat,"  which  has  retained  this  signification  »n  the  modern 
vernaculars,  in  all  of  which  it  has  assumed  the  form  tha^ 
(commonly  written  thug),  with  a  specific  meaning.     The 
Thugs  were  a  well-organized  confederacy  of  professional" 
assassins,  who  in  gangs  of  from   10  to  200  travelled  in^ 
various  guises  through  India,  wormed  themselves  into  the 
confidence  of  wayfarers  of  the  wealthier  class,  and,  when  a. 
favourable  opportunity  occurred,  strangled  them  by  throw- 


T  H  U  — T  H  U 


327 


ing  a  handkerchief  or"  noose  round  their  necks,  and  then 
iilundered  and  buried  them.  All  this  was  done  according 
«j  certain  ancient  and  rigidly  prescribed  forms  and  after 
ttie  performance  of  special  religious  rites,  in  which  the 
consecration  of  the  pick-axe  and  the  sacrifice  of  sugar 
formed  a  prominent  parL  ?■  From  their  using  the  noose  as 
■an  instrument  of  murder  they  were  also  frequently  called 
Phdnsijars,t  or  ."  noose-operators."  Though  theyT  them- 
selves trace  their  origin  to  seven  Mohammedan  tribes, 
Hindus  appear  to  "have  b^en  associated  with  tfaem  at  an 
■early  period  ;  at  any  rate,  their  religious  creed  and  prac- 
tices as' staunch  worshippers  of  Devi  ( Kali, 'DurgS),  the 
Hindu  goddess  of  destruction,  had  certainly  no  flavour  of 
Islam  in  them.  Assassination  for  gain  was  with  them  a 
religious  duty,' and  was  considered  a  holy  and  honourable 
profession.  They  had,  in  fact,  no  idea  of  doing  wrong, 
-and  their  moral  feelings  did  not  come  into  play.  The  will 
of  the  goddess  by  whose  command  and  in  whose  honour 
they  foUowed  their  calling  was  revealed  to  them  through 
a  very  complicated  system  of  omens.  In  obedience  to 
these  they  often  travelled  hundreds  of  miles  in  company 
with,  or  in  the  wake  of,  their  intended  victims  before  a 
safe  opportunity  presented  itself  for  executing  their  design ; 
and,  when  the  deed  was  done,  rites  were  performed  in 
honour  of  that  tutelary  deity,  and  a  goodly  portion  of  the 
spoil  was  set  apart  for  het.  The  fraternity  possessed  also 
a  jargon  of  their  own  (Eamasi),  as  well  as  certain  signs  by 
which  its  members  recognized  each  other  in  the  remotest 
parts  of  India.  Even  those  who  from  age  or  infirmities 
could  no  longer  take  an  active  part  in  the  operations  con- 
tinued to  aid  the  cause  as  watchers,  spies,  or  dressers  of 
food.  It  was  owing  to  their  thorough  organization,  the 
secrecy  and  security  with  which  they  went  to  work,  but 
chiefly  to  the  religious  garb  in  which  they  shrouded  their 
murders,  that  they  could,  unmolested  by  Hindu  or  Moham- 
medan rulers,  recognized  as  a  regular  profession  and  pay- 
ing taxes  as  such,'  continue  for  centuries  to  practise  their 
craft.  Both  the  fractions  into  which  they  were  divided 
by  the  Xerbudda  river  laid  claim  to  antiquity  :  while  the 
northern,  however,  did  not  trace  their  origin  farther  back 
than  the  period  of  the  early  Mohammedan  kings  of  Delhi, 
the  southern  fraction  not  only  claimed  an  earlier  and  purer 
descent,  but  adhered  alsa  with  greater  strictness  to  the 
rules  of  their  profession. 

The  earliest  authenticated  mention  of  the  Thugs  is 
found  in  the  following  passage  of  Zi4u-d  din  Bami's 
History  of  Firoz  Shdh  (written  about  1356):  "In  the 
reign  of  that  sultan,"  that  is,  about  1290,  "some  Thugs 
were  taken  in  Delhi,  and  a  man  belonging  to  that  frater- 
nity was  the  means  of  about  a  thousand  being  captured. 
But  not  one  of  these  did  the  sultan  have  killed.  Hegave 
oriers  for  tham  to  -be  put  into  boats  and  to  be  conveyed 
iotj  the  lower  country,  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Lakhnautf, 
where. they  were  to  be  set  free.  The  Thugs  would  thus 
have  to  dwell  about  Lakhnautl,  and  would  not  tipuble 
thj  neighbourhood  of  Delhi  any  more"  (Sir  H.  M.  Elliot's 
Hitlory  of  India,  vol.  iii.  p.  141).  The  first  European 
travellers  who  speak  of  them  without  mentioning  their 
name  are  Thevenot  (1665)  and  Fryer  (1673).  Though 
instances  of  Thuggee  had  been  known  to  the  English 
rulers  in  India  for  many  years,  and  sporadic  efforts  had 
been  made  by  them  towards  the  extinction  of  the  gangs,  it 
was  not  till  Lord  W.  Bentinck  (1823-35)  took  vigorous 
steps  in  this  matter  that  the  sj'stem  was  'gradually  un- 
masked, and  finally  all  but  stamped  out.'  His  chief  agent. 
Captain  (afterwards  Sir  William)  Sleeman,  with  several 
competent  assistants,  and.  the  co-operation  of  a  number  of 
native  states,  succeeded  in  completely  grappling  with  the 
evil,  so"  that  up  to  October  1835  no  fewer  than  1562 
JThugs  Lad  been  committed,  of  which  number  332  were 


hanged  and  936  transported  or  imprisoned  for  life.  "^It  is 
true  that,  according  to  the  Thuggee  and  Dacoily  Report 
for  1879,  the  number  of  registered  Punjabi  and  Hindus- 
tani Thugs  then  still  amounted  to  344.M  But  all.of  these 
had  already  been  registered  as  such  before  1852.  It  may, 
therefore,  fairly  be  assumed  that  none  are  alive  now,  and 
that  the  whole  fraternity  may  be  considered  "as  e.xiinct.r 

Full  particulars  concerning  the  system  of  TImggcc  arc  given  by 
Dr  Sherwood,  "On  the  Murdorers  called  Phansignrs,"  and  J.  SliaV'** 
spear,  ■*  Observations  regarding  Bradheks  and  Thegs"(l>oth  treat- 
ises ia  vol.  xiii.,  1820,  ot  the  Asialiclu^s^archis);  [W.  N.  Sleeinaa,] 
Jlamaseeana,  or  a  Vocabulary  of  the  Languaje  nsal  by  the  Thugs, 
with  an  Irdroditctionand  Appendix,  Calcutta,  1836  ;  the  Edinburgh 
licvieio  for  Jan.  1837  :  (E.  Thornton,!  lUuslralions  of  tlie  History 
and  Practices  of  the  Thugs,  London,  1837 ;  Meadows  Taylor. 
Confessions  of  a  Thug,  London,  1839;  Major  Sleeman,  yir/jori  on 
the  Depredations  coiH-natled  by  the  Thug  Gangs,  Calcutta,  1840  ;  J. 
Hutton,  Popular  Account  of  thiThugs  and  Dacoits,  London,  1857  ; 
Yule  and  Burnell,  Glossary  qf^nglo- Indian^Collcquiat  IVords 
and  Phrases,  London,  1586,  p.  696  sq.'         _  (R..  R.) 

THUGUT,  Fr.\nz  Maria  vo.v''(173431818),  foreign 
minister  of  Austria,  was  born  of  humble  parentage  at  Linz 
in  1 734,  placed  in  the  Government  school  of  Oriental  studies 
in  1752,  and  sent  to  Constantinople  as  an  interpreter,  in 
1757.  At  Constantinople  he  rose  from  post  to  post  in 
the  embassy,  until  in  1771  he  became  internuncius^or 
ambassador.  .In  1776,  after  the  war  between  Russia' and 
Turkey,  he  obtained  from  the  latter  power  the  cession  of 
the  province  of  Bukowina  to  Austria.  After  thus  crown- 
ing his  long  service  in  the  East  and  gaining  the  confidence 
'of  Maria  Theresa,  he  was  sent^by  her  withtiut  the  know- 
ledge of  her  son,  the  emperor  Joseph,  to  Berlin,  to  avert 
hy  a  peaceful  settlement  with  Frederick  the  Great  the 
threatened  Bavarian  war.  In  1790  he  was  employed  in 
the  negotiations  of  Sistova,  and  his  next  mission  was  to 
Paris,  where  he  entered  into  close  relations  with  Mirabeau 
as  the  friend  of  Marie  Antoinette.  On  the  invasion  of 
France'  by  the  allied  armies  in  1792,  Thugut  was  sent  to 
the  scene  of  operations.  It  is  well  known  that  Kaunitz, 
the  veteran  minister  of  Austria,  condemned  the  terms  of 
the  alliance  'with  Prussia,  as  securing  to  Prussia  the 
annexation  of  a  great  part  of  Poland,  while  only  holding 
out  to  Austria  an  uncertain  prospect  of  acquiring  its 
equivalent  in  Bavaria.  Thugut,  a  politician  of  the  same 
school,  viewed  the  new  alliance  with  even  greater  hatred. 
After  the  failure  of  the  campaign  of  1792  he  formed  the 
deliberate  opinion  that  persons  around  the  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick had  been  bribed  by  the  French,  and  that  the  retreat 
had  been  ordered  in  consequence.  A  few  months  later 
the  anticipations  of  Kaunitz  were  realized.  '  Prussia  seized 
western  Poland,  while  Austria  remained  as  far  as  ever  from 
gaining  Bavaria.  The  emperor  Francis  now  dismii-.-.cd^ 
the  ministers  responsible  for  the  Prussian  "allinncc,  ,and 
called  Thugut  to  power.  From  this  critical  moment  .the 
alliance  was  doomed,  and  the  allied  commanders  thwarted 
rather  than  assisted  one  another's  operations  on  the  eastero 
"frontier  of  France.  On  the  other  hand,  Thugut  drcw| 
nearer  to  Russia,  and  negotiated  at  St  Petersburg  for  the; 
seizure  of  Venice  by  Austria.  With  England  he  desired 
to  stand  on  a  good  footing ;  but,  while  Pitt's  object  was  the' 
overthrow  of  the  rsvolutionary  Government,  Thugut's  was 
simply  the  acquisition  of  territory  for  Austria.  This  dis- 
crepancy of  aim  led  to  results  exasperating  to  the  English 
ministry,  such  as  the  fall  of  Toulon,  to- which  Thugut 
neglected  to  send  the  troops  which  he  had  promised.  The 
evacuation  of  Belgium  in  1794, .  usually  attributed  to 
Thugut's  treachery,  was,  however,"  due  to  the  incapacity 
cr  intrigues  of  others.  ^  In  1795,  after  the  withdrawal  of 
Prussia  from  the  coalition,  Thugut  obtained  financial  help 
from  England,  gained  from  Russia  a  large  share  of  Poland 
in  the  last  partition,  and  prepared  to  carry  on  the  war 
'against  France  with  the  utmost  Energy.     The  campaigni 


328 


T  H  U  — T  H  U 


of  the  archduke  Charles  in  1796  drove  the  French  from 
the  east  of  the  Rhine,  and  Bonaparle,  vi-ho  had  conquered 
northern  Italy  up  to  Mantua,  narrowly  escaped  destruc- 
tion liefore  this  fortress.  Hut  for  the  genius  of  the 
French  commander  and  the  wretclied  character  of  the 
Austrian  generals  and  officers,  the  immense  efforts  made 
hy  Thugut  at  this  time  would  have  turned  the  tide  of  the 
war.  Defeat  after  defeat  seemed  to  make  no  impression 
upon  his  "  world-desolating  obstinacy  ",  and,  even  when 
Bonaparte  had  advanced  to  within  eighty  miles  of  Vienna, 
It  is  stated  that  the  empress  had  to  throw  herself  at  her 
husband's  feet  when  in  conference  with  his  minister,  in 
order  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  latter  to  an 
armistice.  The  subsequent  peace  of  Campo  Formio  was 
hotly  onndemned  by  Thugut,  who  tendered  his  resignation. 
Then  followed  the  congress  of  Ra.stadt  and  the  murder 
of  the  French  envoys,  long  attributed,  but  without  any 
real  ground,  to  Thugut  himself.  War  was  renewed  ;  the 
French  were  driven  out  of  Italy  by  Austrian  armies  as- 
sisted by  Suwaroff  ,  and  it  was  determined  that  the  allies 
should  conquer  Switzerland,  and  .so  invade  France  where 
the  frontier  is  most  open  Thugut,  now  at  the  height  of 
kis  power,  and  far  more  anxious  to  recover  Belgium  than 
to  overthrow  the  re()ublic,  took  the  fatal  step  of  withdraw- 
ing a  great  part  of  the  Austrian  forces  from  Switzerland 
at  the  very  moment  yhen  the  Russians  were  entering  it. 
The  result  was  the  destruction  of  the  Jiussians  by  Mass^na 
and  the  total  failure  of  the  campaign,  followed  by  the  se- 
cession of  Russia  from  the  coalition.  Still  full  of  designs 
for  annexation  in  Italy,  Thugut  continued  the  war  with 
the  help  of  England.  On  the  very  day  when  he  renewed 
his  engagements  with  England  the  news  arrived  of  the 
bat'le  of  Marengo,  which  at  one  blow  made  an  end  of  all 
that  Austria  had  won  in  Italy  in  the  preceding  year. 
Nothing  daunted,  Thugut  continued,  during  the  armistice 
which  followed,  his  preparation  for  the  struggle  with 
Moreau  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube;  and,  if  he  could 
have  inspired  his  master  with  his  own  resolute  spirit,  the 
result  of  the  war  might  have  been  different.  But,  while 
Thugut  was  actually  receiving  the  British  subsidies,  the 
emperor,  without  the  knowledge  of  his  minister,  surrend- 
ered the  fortresses  of  Ulm  and  Ingolstadt  to  Moreau, 
in  return  for  an  extension  of  the  armistice.  Thugul's 
(lassionale  indignation  on  learning  of  this  miserable  act 
IS  impressively  described  in  Lord  Minto's  despatches  from 
Vienna.  He  withdrew  from  office  ,  but  Lord  Minto's  pro- 
tests compelled  the  eiii|)eror  again  to  place  in  his  hands 
the  direction  of  affiirs,  which  he  held  until  the  battle  of 
Hohenliiiden  made  all  further  resistance  impos.sible.  He 
was  then,  in  deference  to  French  ii;flueuce,  banished  from 
Vienna,  and  never  resumed  office.  In  his  retirement  he 
was  occasionally  consulted,  as  after  the  battle  of  Wagram 
in  180S),  when  he  recommended  the  emperor  to  make 
peace  at  any  cost,  stating  that  the  existence  of  the 
Austrian  monarchy  was  at  slaKe  and  that  the  dissolution 
of  Napoleon's  empire  was  not  far  oft.  After  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon  he  returned  to  the  capital,  where  he  died 
May  2'J,  1818.  Thugut  possessed  many  of  the  qualities 
of  a  great  man, — indomitable  courage,  calmness  in  danger, 
vicvotion  to  public  interests,  enormous  industry  ;  but  all 
this  was  spoilt  by  the  persistent  disregard  of  obligations 
towards  allies  in  the  greedy  pursuit  of  Austria's  own 
aggrandizement,  and  by  the  intriguing  spirit  inseparable 
from  this  policy.  The  materials  for  forming  a  fair  estimate 
of  Thugut's  conduct  of  affairs  from  1793  to  1801  have  but 
recently  been  given  to  the  world.  Of  his  private  life  next 
to  nothing  IS  known. 

THI'LE  was  the  name  given  by  Greek  and  Roman 
geographers  to  a  land  situated  to  the  north  of  Britain, 
which  they  believed  to  be  the  most  northerly  portion  of 


Europe,  or  indeed  of  the  known  world.  The  Erst  writer 
who  mentioned  the  name  was  Pytheas  of  Massilis,  Avhoae 
statements  concerning  it  liave  been  already  given  under 
the  heading  1'vtheas.  Bui  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  deter- 
mine with  certainty  what  those  statements,  which  have 
only  been  transmitted  to  us  at  second  or  third  hand,  really 
were,  and  still  more  so  what  was  tueir  real  signification. 
It  is  almost  certain  that  Pytheas  did  not  himself  profess 
to  have  visited  Thule,  but  had  only  vaguely  heard  of  it» 
existence,  as  a  land  of  unknown  extent,  situated,  accord- 
ing to  the  information  he  had  received,  six  days'  voyage 
to  the  north  of  Britain.  This  account  was  adopted  by 
Eratosthenes  (though  rejected  by  Polybius  and  Strabo), 
and  accordingly  this  unknown  land  became  a  cardinal 
point  in  the  systems  of  many  ancient  geographers,  as  the 
northern  limit  of  the  known  world.  Nothing  more  was 
learnt  concerning  it  until  the  Romans  under  Agricola 
(about  84  A.D.)  accomplished  the  circumnavigation  of  the 
northern  point  of  Britain,  and  not  only  visited,  but 
according  to  Tacitus  subdiied,  the  Orcades  or  Orkney 
Islands.  On  this  occasion,  the  historian  tells  us,  they 
caught  sight  also  of  Thule,'  which  in  this  instance  could 
only  mean  the  group  of  the  Shetland  Islands.  No  further 
account  of  this  mysterious  land  is  found  in  any  ancient 
author,  except  vague  statements,  derived  from  Pytheas, 
but  mostly  in  an  inaccurate  and  distorted  form,  concern- 
ing its  position  and  the  astronomical  phenomena  resulting 
from  this  cause.  It  Is  probable  that  what  Pytheas  really 
reported  was  that  at  the  summer  solstice  the  days  were 
twenty-four  hours  in  length,  and  conversely  at  the  winter 
solstice  the  nights  were  of  equal  duration,  a  statement 
which  would  indicate  the  notion  of  its  position  in  about 
66°  N.  lat.,  or  under  what  we  now  call  the  Arctic  Circle. 
The  skill  of  Pytheas  as  an  astronomer  would  have  been 
quite  sufficient  to  lead  him  to  the  conclusion  that  this 
would  be  the  case  at  some  point  in  proceeding  northwards, 
and  the  rapid  changes  in  this  respect  that  would  be 
reported  to  him  by  any  navigators  that  had  really  followed 
the  shores  of  Britain  to  any  considerable  extent  in  that 
direction  would  confirm  him  in  the  correctness  of  his  views. 
He  had,  too,  a  very  exaggerated  notion  of  the  extent  of 
Britain  (see  Pytheas),  and  hence  he  would  be  led  to  place 
an  island  which  was  six  days'  voyage  to  the  north  of  it 
much  nearer  to  the  Arctic  Circle  than  its  true  position. 

The  statement  of  Pytheas  on  this  point  appears  to  have  obtained 
almost  universal  belief  until  the  time  of  filarinus  of  Tyre  and  his 
successor  Ptolemy,  who  were  led — apparently  from  their  knowledge 
tliat  the  proup  of  islands  to  which  the  name  of  Thule  had  been 
applied  by  the  Romans  was  really  not  very  far  distant  from  the 
Orcades — to  bring  down  its  position  considerably  more  to  the 
south,  so  that  Ptolemy  places  the  island  of  Thule,  which  he  still 
regards  as  the  most  northerly  point  of  Euroiw,  in  only  63"  N.  lat. 
Unfortunately  this  more  reasonable  view  has  been  discarded  by 
many  modern  writeh,  who  have  gone  back  to  the  statements  of 
Pytheas  concerning  the  length  of  the  day,  and  have  in  consequence 
insisted  upon  jilacing  Thule  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  have 
thus  been  icil  to  identify  it  with  Iceland.  The  improbability  of 
such  an  hypothesis,  when  we  consider  the  state  of  ancient  naviga- 
tion. IS  in  itself  a  sufficient  refutation,  and  there  appears  no  re.oson- 
able  doubt  that  the  Thule  of  Pytheas,  like  that  of  the  Romans  and 
of  Ptolemy,  was  merely  an  exaggerated  and  somewhat  erroneous 
conception  of  the  large  group  of  the  Shetland  Islands,  of  whitli  the 
l)nncipal,  called  Mainland,  is  in  fact  so  predominant  that  the 
whole  may  well  have  been  considered  as  one  large  island  rather 
than  a  scattered  group  like  the  Orkneys.  If  we  might  trust  to 
the  accuracy  of  Strabo's  quotation  (ii.  5,  p.  114),  that  Pytheas 
called  Thule  "the  most  northerly  of  the  British  Islands,"  this 
would  be  decisive  on  the  point ,  but  unfortunately  the  verbal 
accuracy  of  such  references  by  ancient  writers  can  seldom  be  relied 
on,  and  Strabo  had  evidently  never  seen  Pytheas's  original  work. 

It  appears,  however,  to  be  certain  that  Iceland  was  really  visited 
by  some  Irish  monks  long  before  its  discovery  by  the  Northmen, 
and  is  described  under  the  name  of  Thule  by  a  writer  named 
Dicuil,  himself  an  Irish  monk,  who  wrote  in  the  first  half  of  th« 

'  "  Dispecia  est  et  Thult,"  Tac,  Agrtc,  c.  10. 


T  H  U  — T  H  U 


329 


9th  '-^nti iry,  m  su**h  a  minner  as  tn  leave  no  donbt  that  h\a  state- 
ment3  r<?ally  r»f»r  to  th\t  extensive  but  remoto  island.  See 
Letroone,  JiifJun-fus  tur  Diaiil,  Picis.  1814. 

THtJMMEL,  MoRiTE  Adoctst  von  (1738-1817),  Ger 
man  writer  m  prose  and  v-erse,  one  of  tbe  imitators  of 
Wieland  (see  vol  s.  p.  541),  was  born  M.iy  27,  1738,  lo 
the  neighbourhood  of  Leipsic,  was  educated  at  Rosslcljen 
and  the  universitj' of  Leipsic,  and  from  1761  till  1783 
held  various  otBces  in  the  ducal  court  of  SaxeCoburg 
He  died  at  Coburg  on  October  26,  1817  He  wrote  a 
ccmic  prose  epic,  Wdlielnnnf,  lyler  /ifr  vermahlte  Pedant 
<'ir64);  Du!  iTvyulahon /ler  Liflie  (1771),  a  tale  in  verse, 
/f^;.?f  in  lilt  mitt'iglKhen  Pr/ynn-ym  vim  Fronkreich  (1791- 
f?0-5),  a  romance  in  10  vols.  ;  and  Dfr  heilige  Kilian, 
O'ii'r  das  Lithesjyiar  (1818).  An  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  at  Leipsic  in  8  vols,  in  18.54  -5f) 

THUN1BERG,  Carl  Peter  (1743-1828).  an  eminent 
traveller,  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  botani.sts  of 
the  school  of  Linnsus,  was  born  in  1743.  He  became  a 
pupil  of  Linnaeus  at  the  university  of  Upsala,  where  be 
graduated  in  mecficine  in  1770.  Obtaining  a  travelling 
scholarship,  he  visited  Holland,  whence  he  embarked  on 
a  voyage  of  exploration  to  .Java,  in  quest  of  vegetable 
treasures.  He  sailed  as  far  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in 
1771,  and  three  years  afterwards  went  to  Japan,  remain- 
ing five  years,  engaged  in  making  collections  of  plants, 
and  in  observing  the  habits,  manners,  and  language  of  the 
people.  On  his  return  in  1779  he  visited  England,  and 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks.  In  1777 
he  was  made  demonstrator  of  botany  at  Upsala,  and  he 
succeeded  Linnsus  as  professor  of  botany  in  1784 
Thunberg  published  in  1784  his  Flora  Japontea  ,  in 
1783  he  began  to  publish  his  travels.  He  completed  his 
Prodromus  P/antarum  in  ISOO,  in  180-5  his  /cones  Plant- 
-arum,  and  in  1813  his  Flora  Capensis.  Thunberg  pub- 
lished numerous  memoirs  in  the  Transactions  of  many 
Swedish  and  foreign  scientific  societies,  of  sixty-six  of 
which  he  was  an  honorary  member.     He  died  in  1828. 

THUNDERSTORM.  All  the  more  ordinary  pheno- 
mena of  thunderstorms  had,  about  1750,  been  conclusively 
traced  to  electrical  charges  and  discharges  (Electricity, 
voL  viii.  p  6),  so  that  they  could  easily  be  reproduced  on 
a  small  scale  in  the  laboratory  To  the  article  cited  we 
therefore  refer  for  their  explanation.  Some  of  the  laws 
of  relative  frequency  of  thunderstorms,  in  different  places 
at  the  same  season  or  in  the  same  place  at  different 
seasons,  will  be  found  in  Meteoeoloot  (vol.  xvi.  p.  128). 
A  discussion  of  the  cause  of  thunder,  and  of  the  circum- 
stances which  give  rise  to  a  crash,  a  roll,  or  a  peal  of 
thunder  is  given  under  Acodstics  (vol.  i.  p.  107).  In 
what  follows,  therefore,  the  rarer  phenomena  of  thunder- 
storms, and  the  possible  sources  of  tbe  atmospheric  elec- 
tricity, will  be  the  chief  points  treated 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  atmospheric  electricity, 
at  least  in  the  great  developments  which  characterize  a 
thunderstorm,  is  due  in  some  way  to  water.  Before  a 
great  thunderstorm  the  lower  air  is  usually  at  an  abnor- 
mally high  temperature,  and  fully  saturated  with  water 
vapour,  so  that  it  is  in  a  thoroughly  unstable  conditioa 
Immense  cloud  masses,  often  miles  in  vertical  thickness, 
which  produce  almost  midnight  darkness  by  day  in  the 
region  of  the  storm,  and  which  appear,  when  seen  from  a 
distance,  as  if  boiling  upwards,  are  always  a  notable 
feature  of  great  thunderstorms.  These  are  usually  accom- 
panied by  torrents  of  rain,  or  by  viole'nthail-showers.  And 
it  is  commonly  observed  that  each  flash  of  lightning  is 
followed,  after  a  brief  interval,  by  a  sudden  but  temporary 
increase  in  the  rate  of  rainfall.  At  what  stage  of  its 
transformations  the  electrification  is  developed  by  water- 
flabstance  is,  as  yet,  only  guessed  at, — though  it  seems 


most  reasonable  to  conclude  that  it  is  anterior  to  the 
formation  of  cloud,  ».e.,  to  the  condensation  of  vapour. 
And,  though  the  idea  was  at  one  time  very  generally  held 
and  stdl  has  many  upholders,  it  seems  unlikely  to  be  the 
direct  result  of  evaporation  For,  were  it  due  directly 
either  to  evaporation  or  to  condensation,  it  rs  almost  im- 
possible to  doubt  that  proof  would  long  since  have  been 
furnished  by  careful  experiment,  even  if  made  on  a  scale 
so  limited  as  that  afforded  by  our  laboratories.  No  trace 
of  electrical  effect  has  been  found  to  attend  the  precipita 
tion  of  moisture  ,  and  the  electrical  effects,  sometimes  con- 
siderable, which  have  been  found  associated  with  evapora 
tion  have  always  been  accompanied  by  relatively  violent 
physical  and  mechanical  actions  which  are  not  observed 
in  conjunction  with  atmospheric  electricity  It  has  been 
suggested  by  some  authorities  that  the  electricity  of  a 
thunderstorm  is  developed  during  the-  formation  of  hail, 
by  others  that  it  is  due  to  tbe  molecular  actions  which 
accompany  the  diminution  of  total  surface  when  two  or 
more  drops  of  water  coalesce  into  a  single  one.  It  has 
been  ascribed  to  the  friction  of  moist  against  dry  air, 
and  to  the  dust  particles  which  appear  to  be  necessary 
for  the  condensation  of  vapour  Again,  it  has  been 
suggested  that  it  may  be  a  mere  phenomenon  of  contact 
electricity,  due  to  the  impact  of  uncondensed  vapour 
particles  on  particles  of  air  It  is  almost  unnecessary 
to  observe  that,  whatever  hypothesis  we  adopt,  some 
explanation  must  be  given  of  two  important  points: — (1) 
What  becomes  of  the  electricity  equal  and  opposite  to  that 
in  each  drop,  which  must  be  produced  simultaneously  with 
it  ?  (2)  By  what  means  is  the  attraction  between  the  drops 
and  the  recipient  of  tbe  opposite  charge  of  electricity 
overcome  so  that  the  drops  may  be  enabled  to  part  with 
their  charge  ?  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  gravity  satisfies 
the  second  of  these  questions.  As  to  the  first,  it  seems  to' 
necessitate  the  presence  of  something  besides  water,  in 
order  that  the  electric  separation  may  be  commenced,  and 
thus  appeare  to  be  fatal  to  the  capillary  theory  indicated 
above.  Whatever  be  the  true  source  of  the  charge,  it  is 
easy  to  see,  by  known  properties  of  electricity,  that  even 
an  exceedingly  small  charge' on  each  vapour  particle  would 
lead  to  a  very  high  potential  as  soon  as  a  visible  drop  is 
formed,  and  that  as  a  drop  increases  in  size  its  potential  is 
proportional  to  its  surface.  That  drops  of  rain  are  often 
individually  electrified  to  a  very  high  potential  is  proved 
by  the  frequent  occurrence  of  "luminous  rain,"  when  the 
ground  is  feebly  lit  up  by  the  multitude  of  tiny  sparks 
given  out  by  the  drops  as  they  come  near  it.  The  flakes 
of  falling  snow,  also,  are  often  strongly  electrified,  so  that 
Smart  sparks  have  been  drawn  from  an  umbrella  on  which 
the  snow  was  falling.  But  tbe  law  of  electric  repulsion 
shows  us  at  once  that,  as  soon  as  the  drops  in  a  cloud  are 
sufficiently  electrified,  at  least  the  greater  part  of  their 
charge  must  pass  to  the  boundary  of  the  cloud.  When 
this  occurs,  the  nature  of  the  further  behaviour  of  the 
charge  presents  no  difficulty  The  reason  for  our  singu- 
larly complete  ignorance  of  the  source  of  atmospheric 
electricity  seems  to  lie  in  tbe  fact  that  it  can  only  bo 
discovered  by  means  of  experiments  made  on  a  scale  very 
much  larger  than  is  attainable  with  the  ordinary  resources 
of  a  laboratory  The  difficulties  will  probably  be  easily 
overcome  by  the  first  nation  which  will  go  to  the  expense 
of  providing  the  necessary  means. 

Numberless  other  explanations  of  the  origin  of  thunder- 
storms have  been  suggested  ;  but  the  more  reasonable  of 
these  do  little  more  than  shift  the  difficulty,  for  they  begin 
by  assuming  (without  any  hint  as  to  its  source)  an  elec- 
trification of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  or  of  the  lower  (some- 
times tbe  upper)  layers  of  the  atmosphere.  Induction, 
convection,    lic,    are  then   supposed   to   effect   the   rest. 


330 


T  H  U  — T  H  U 


Another  and  much  less  reasonable  class  of  explanations 
tlepends  upon  magneto-electricity.  Some  of  these  introduce 
the  so-called  "  unipolar  "  induction  supposed  to  be  due  to 
the  rotation  of  the  earth,  which  behaves  like  a  gigantic 
magnet.  Of  -  this  nature  is  the  suggestion  of  Edlund, 
which  was  t'ecently  crowned'  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Parie,"^  That  rapid  variatious  in  the  earth's  magnetic 
elements;  such  as  often  occur  on  a  largo  scale,  as  in  a 
"magnetic  storm,",  have  at  least  a  share  in  the  productioii 
of  the  aurora  is  a  perfectly  reasonable  and  even  plausible 
hypothesis,  long  ago  brouglit  forward  by  Balfour  Stewart 
But  we  have  yet  to  seek  the  source  of  these  variations.  _,  ^ 
The  brightness  of  a  flash  of  lightning  is  usually  much 
gti'derrated.  It  is  true  that  it  rarely  gives'cvcn  at  night 
an  illumination  greater  than  that  due  to  moonlight."'  i3ut 
it  must  be  remembered  that  Swan  has'  proved  that  the 
impression  of  a  flash  on  the  eye  depends  upon  the  duration, 
being  nearly  proportional  to  it,  and  steadily  increasing  for 
about  a  tenth  of  a  second.  Now  the  duration  of  a  light- 
tiing-flash  is  (roughly  speaking)  only  about  one  millionth  of 
b  second. '.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  most  rapidly 
totaling  .bodics_appear  to  bo  absolutely  steady  when  illu- 
minated by  it.  Hence,  if  it  could  bo  made  to  last  for  a 
.tenth  of  a  second,  it  would  give  near  objects  an  illumina- 
tion one  hundred  thousand  times  more  brilliant  than  that 
of  moonlight.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  flash  is 
feet  a  more  lino,  but  a  column,  of  intensely  heated  air, 
driven  outwards  from  the  track  of  the  discharge  at  a  rate 
initially  far  greater  than  that  of  sound.  (^ 

"What  is  called  "summer  lightning"  or.  " wild-fire !'  is 
ioinetimes  a  rather  puzzling  phenomenon. '"  in  the  majority 
of  cases  it  is  merely  the  effect  of  a  distant  thunderstorm. 
It  is  also  often  due  to  a  thunderstorm  in  the  higher  strata 
of  tho  atmosphere  overhead, — the  reason  why  wo  hear  no 
thunder  being  not  so  much  the  distance  from  the  spectator 
83  the  fact  that  sounds  generated  in  rarer  air  lose  rapidly 
in  intensity  as  they  are  propagated  into  denser  air.  But, 
besides  these  more  common  forms  of  the  phenomenon, 
there  is  certainly  a  form  of  sheet  lightning  which  occurs, 
without  either  sound  or  cloud,  often  close  to. the  spectator. 
The  cause  of  this  is  not  at  all  obvious.  ^  _   ^ 

But  tho  most  mysterious  phenomenon  is  whafgoes  by 
the  name  of  "globe  lightning"  or  ".fire-ball,"  a  pheno- 
menon lasting  sometimes  for  several  seconds,  and  therefore 
of  a  totally  different  character  from  that  of  any  other  form 
of  lightning.;  The  fire-ball  is  almost  incomparably  less 
brilliant  than  forked  lightning,  because,  though  it  lasts 
long  enough  to  give  the  full  impression  of  its  brightness, 
it  is  rarely  brighter  than  iron  in  tho  state  which  we  call 
,"  red-hot.",.  ,  It  is  always  spherical,  often  more  than  a  foot 
in  diameter,  and  appears  to  fall  from  a  thunder-cloud  by 
its  own  gravity,  sometimes  rebounding  after  striking  the 
ground.  It  usually  bursts  with  a  bright  flash  and  a  loud 
explosion,  occasionally  discharging  flashes  of  lightning. 
No  experimenter  has  yet  succeeded  in  producing  artificially 
anything  resembling  these  natural  and  intensely  charged 
Lcyden  jars. 

The  term  "thunderbolt,"  which  is  nowadays  rarely  used 
except  liy  poets  (and  by  tho  penny-a-liners),  preserves  the 
old  notion  that  something  solid  and  intensely  hot  passed 
along  tho  track  of  a  lightning  flash  and  buried  itself  in  the 
ground.  Two  distinct  classes  of  phenomena  probably  gave 
ri.so  to  this  notion.  When  lightning  strikes  the  ground  it 
often  bores  a  hole  of  considerable  depth,  which  is  found  to 
be  lined  in  its  interior  with  vitrifioil  sand.  This  presents 
uo  dilllculty.  But  Aerolites  (7.!'.)  arc  often  found,  in  the 
,lioIes  winch  they  have  made,  still  inten.seIy,.hot,-in  conse- 
quence of  their  rapid  passage  through  theair'.'  -A  'hasty 
genemli^alion  .sccnis  to  h;ive  connected  these  two  entirely 
jindopcndinl  phenomena,  and  thus  given  rise  to  the  notion 


of  the  thunderbolt,,, The  ancient  notion  that  a  lightning 

flash  could  occur  in  a  clear  sky  is  probably  to  be  accounted, 

for  by  the, occasional  appearance  of  these^ltramundan* 

visitors. ', 

I    The  sulphurous  smell  of  lightning,^which  irvividly  de? 

scribed  in  the  Odyssey,  is  now  known  to  bo  due  to  tho 

formation  of  Ozone  (q.v.).' 

►.-  For  the  precautions  necessary  to'prevent 'danger"  from 

thunderstorm,  see  Lightning  Conductor. f^        "*'" 

A  whole  volume  of  Arago's  collected  works  is  devoted  to  tliundct; 
storms,  and  many  important  observations  are  to  be  found  in  the  writ: 
ingsofM.  D'Abbadic  and  other  scientific  travellers.  ;v  (P.  G.  T.) 

.'  THUN-KHWA,'  or'  Thonegwa,  a  district  in"  thc'Pegu; 
division  of  Burmah,  lying  between  17°  37'  and  19°  28"; 
N.  lat,  and  between  95°  53'  and  96°  53'  E.  long.,  with 
an  area  of  5413  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.' 
by  Henzada,  E.  by  Rangoon,  S.  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal,' 
and  W.  by  Bassein  district  The  whole  district  is  a  large 
deltaic  plain,  divided  by  the  numerous'  channels  of  the 
Irrawaddy  into  saucer-shaped  islands,  with  deep  depressions 
in  the  centre.  The  Irrawaddy  traverses  Th\in-khwa  from 
north  to  south,  throwing  off  numerous  branches  until  it 
falls  into  tho  Bay  of  Bengal.  Geologically,  ThCin-khwa 
is  comjrased  of  "older  alluvial  clay,"  differing  from'thst 
of  the  Gangetic  basin  in  being  less  rich  in  lime.^^ 

The  population  of  Thiin-kli'va  in  1S81  was  returned  at  284.063 
(males  150,131,  females  133,032);  Hindus  numbcreil  723,  Moham- 
medans 16.')0,  Christians  C8'J4,  and  Buddhists  27,4, 237.  -  The  largest 
towns  in  the  district  aro  Yandoon  and  Pantanaw,  with  populationj 
(1S81)  of  12,673  and  CI?!  respectively.  The  land  is  ninth  less 
fertile  th,an  that  of  the  neighbouring  districts.  In  ISSO-SO  tho 
area  under  cultivation  w.as  349,259  acres,  anil  the  cultivable  arci 
1,202,374  acrea  The  principal  crops  are  rice,  fruits,  vegetables, 
and  sugar-cane.  The  total  revenue  realised  iu  the  yi-ar  18S5-89 
amounted  to  £194,737,  of  which  the  land  contiibutcd  £00.590.: 
Thun-khwa  was  constituted  a  district  in  1875,  .Tnd  its  history  previous 
to  that  date  is  identical  with  that  of  Henzada,  to  which  adminis- 
trative division  it  originally  belonged.  During  tho  first  liurmoso 
war  no  resistance  was  od'ered  to  the  Britisli  in  the  district  as  it  at 
present  exists  except  at  the  toivn  of  Donabyu.  At  the  time  of  tho 
second  war  Donabyu  was  undefended,  but,  after  tie  occupation  of 
Promo,  Myat  Htun,  an  cx-thugyi  of  a  small  circle,  succeeded  in 
-collecting  a  body  of  men  and  delicd  the  Biitish.  £arly  in  January 
1853  the  enemy  were  driven  out  of  Donabyu,  but  on  penctrnting 
into  the  interior  the  British  were  forced  to  retire  if  In  a  subsequent 
eng.agemcnt  the  British  were  driven  back;  bjit, the. enemy  were 
eventually  dispcrecd  and  their  works  captured. 

THURGAU,  or  Thdroovia,  a  canton  of  Switzerland 
(ranking  as  seventeenth  in  the  Confederation),  takes  its 
name  from  the  river  Thur. :  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  Rhine,  on  the  E.  by  tho  Lake  of  .Constance  (the  can- 
tonal frontier  being  so  drawn  as  to  leave  the  town  of  Con- 
stance to  Baden),  on  tho  S  by  a  line  running  from  Arbon 
on  the  lake  west  and  south-west  to  Hornii,  and  on  the  W.' 
by  a  line  drawn  from  Hornii  passing  cast  of  W'interthurand 
west  of  Frauenfeld  to  tho  Rhine,  a  little  west  of  Diessen-: 
hofcn  and  opposite  SchalThauson.  It  is  thus  shaped  like  a 
,  triangle,  of  which  the  Hornii  (3274  feet,  tlie  highest  point 
'in  the  canton)  is  tho  apex,  and  comprises  the  middle  basin 
of  the  Thur.  Its  total  area  is  3Sr4  square  miles,  of  which 
322'G  (or  84'G  |ier  cent.)  is  reckoned  as  "productive 
land,"  GO'S  being  covered  by  forests,  and  G9  by  vineyards.; 
Of  the  "un]iroductivo  "  portion  no  less  than  50'5  squara 
miles  consists  of  the  cantonal  share  of.  the  Lake  of  Con-' 
stance.  According  to  the  census  of  If  80,  the  population' 
amounted  to  99,502  (females  being  in  a  majority  of  1000),i 
an  increase  of  C252  on  tho  census  of  1S"0;  of  these,  99,026 
are  German-speaking.  In' religion 'the- inhabitants  aro 
divided,  there  being  71,821  Protestants  to  27,123  Roman 
Catholics;  the  canton  till  1815  was  in  the  diocese  of 
Constance,  and  since  1S2S  has  been  in  tho  reconstructed 
dioce.se  of  Basel,  though  for  some  time  after  1873  tho 
Government  would  not  recognize  the  authority  of  Bishop, 
lachat,  in  consequence  of  his  support  of  the  dogma  of 


I 


T  H  U  — T  H  U 


331 


I 


infalTThniry  at  the  Vatican  cotmci  The  capital  is  Fraaen 
•£eld(5SIl  inhabitants), and  Romanshorn  (population  3647) 
is  an  important  railway  centre  on  the  lake.  The  canton 
ha?  many  small  villages,  and  the  population  is  chiefly 
■employed  in:agrlciilttirai  pursnits,  though  cotton-gpinning 
is  rapidhfincreasing.  The  orchards  are  so  splendid  that 
Ihurgau  has  been  called  "  the  garden  of  Helvetia."  A 
network  of  well  made  roads  traverses  it  in  every  direc- 
tion. 

The  Thurgan  origmally-took  in  all  the  connbr,  roughly  speaking, 
bcTn-e«u  the  Reass,  the  Lake  of  Lncems,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Lake 
of  Constance ;  b^t  many  smaller  districta  (Ziirichgau,  Toggenburg, 
Arpenzell,  St  Gall)  -wEre  gradually  carved  out  of  it,  and  the  county 
was  reduced  to-abotst  the  size  of  the  present  canton  when  in  1264 
it  passed  bythe  gift  of  the  last  count  of  Kybnrg  to  his  nephew 
Rudolph  of  BapsbuTg.  eho»en  emperor  in  1273.  In  1416  thecount, 
Duke  Frederick  of  Austria  (a  Hapsburg),  was  put  under  the  ban  of 
the  empire  by  the  emperor  Sigismund  for  having  aided  Pope  John 
XXni.  to  escape  from  Constance,  and  the  couuty  was  overrun, 
Sigismuud  in  14 1 7  mortgaging  to  the  city  of  Constance  the  appellate 
jurisdiction  in  all  civil  and  criminal  mallei's  ("  landgericht "  and 
blulbaun")  arising  within  the  county,  which  he  had  declared  to  be 
forfeited  in  consequence  of  Frederick's  conduct.  In  1490  some  of 
the-Coufederates,  now  becoming  very  eager  for  conquests,  overran 
and  seized  the  county.  Winterthur  was  saved,  but  in  1461 
Fredericks  son,  Duke  Sigismund,  had  perforce  to  cede  the  county 
to  the  Confederates.  Henceforth  it  was  ruled  as  a  "subject  dis- 
trict "  by  seven  members  of  the  League, — Bern,  occupied  in  tlie  west, 
not  bein^  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  government  till  1712,  after 
one  of  the  wars  of  religion.  It  was  only  in  1499  that  the  Con- 
federation (then  consisting  of  ten  members)  obtained  from  Constance 
her  supreme  jurisdiction,  through  the  mediation  of  the  duke  of 
Milan,  but  there  were  still  forty-two  minor  jurisdictions  belonging 
to  various  lords,  spiritual  and  temporal,  which  went  on  till  1798 
snd  greatly  limited  the  power  of  the  Confederates.  Thurgau  had 
hoped,  but  in  vaiu,  to  be  admitted  in  1499  a  full  member  of  the 
Confederatiou 

At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  many  of  the  inhabitants  became 
Protestants,  and  bitter  quarrels  ensued  bet»,ien  the  Protestant 
snd  Catholic  (the  latter  having  a  large  majority)  members  of  the 
Confederation  who  had  rights  over  Thurgau,  with  regard  to  the 
toleration  of  the  new  doctrines  in  the  "subject  districtr"  such  as 
Thurgau.  By  the  first  peace  of  Kappel  (1529)  the  majority  in  each 
"commune"  was  to  settle  the  religion  of  that  "commune,"  but 
by  the  second  (1531,  after  Zwingli's  death)  both  religions  were  to 
be  allowed  side  by  side  in  each  "commune."  Thurgau  thus 
became  a  "canton  of  parity,"  as  it  is  to  this  day.  Its  rulers, 
however,  continued  to  watch  each  other  very  closely,  and  Kilian 
Kesselring,  one  of  the  chief  military  commanders  in  Thurgau,  was 
in  1633,  on  suspicion  of  having  connived  at  the  advance  of  the 
Swedes  through  Thurgau  on  Constance,  seized  by  the  Catholic 
cantons  and  severely  punished.  In  1798  Thurgau  became  free,  and 
was  one  of  the  nineteen  cantons  of  the  Helvetic  republic,  being 
formally  received  (like  the  other  "  subject  lands  ")  as  a  full  member 
of  the  Swiss  Confederation  in  1803  by  the  Act  of  Mediation.  It 
was  one  of  the  very  first  cantons  to  revise,  in  1830,  after  the  July 
revolution  in  Paris,  its  constitution  in  a  very  liberal  sense,  and  in 
1831  proposed  a  revision  of  the  federal  pact  of  1815.  This  failed, 
bnt  the  new  federal  constitutions  of  1848  (of  which  one  of  the 
two  drafters  was  Kem  of  Thurgau)  and  1874  were  approved  by 
very  large  majorities.  In  1849  the  cantonal  constitution  was 
revised  and  the  veto  introduced,  by  which  the  people  might  reject 
a  bill  passed  by  the  cantonal  a.isembly.  Finally,  in  1869,  the 
'texisting  constitution  was  drawn  up,  by  which  the  "initiative" 
(or  right  of  2500  electors  to  compel  the  cantonal  assembly  to  take 
any  subject  into  coosiderarion)  and  the  "obligatory  referendum" 
(by  which  all  laws  passed  by  the  cantonal  assembly,  and  all 
financial  resolutions  involving  a  capital  expenditure  of  50,000 
francs  or  an  annual  one  of  10,000,  must  be  submitted  to  a  popular 
vote)  were  introduced.  The  cantonal  government  consists  of  a 
legislative  assembly  (now  of  ninety-seven  members,  one  to  cyery 
250  electors)  and  an  executive  council  of  five  members,  both  elected 
directly  by  the  people;  5000  electors  can  at  any  time  call  for  a 
popular  vote  on  the  question  of  the  dismissal  of  either  one  or  the 
other  Further,  to  show  the  very  democratic  character  of  the 
constitution,  it  may  be  added  that  members  of  both  houses  of 
the  federal  assembly  are  in  Thurgau  elected  direct  by  the  people. 
The  "  conunuues  "  in  Thurgau  are  of  no  less  than  eleven  or  twelve 
varieties.  The  division  of  the  lands,  &c.,  of  the  old  "burgher 
communes "  between  them  and  the  new  communes,  consisting  of 
all  residents  (with  whom  political  power  rests),  was  carried  out 
(1S72)  in  all  of  the  214  communes;  but  there  are  still  thirty-eight 
giiilds  or  corporations  with  special  rights  over  certain  forests,  ic. 

The  best  history  of  the  canton  b  that  hy  J.  A  Puplkofer.  of  which  a  Becond 
-Id  r*nf  mncL  enlarged  edition  li  now  (1SS7)  belne  published 


THURTI,  or  'Ihoricm,  a  city  of  Magna  Grsecia  on  the 
Gulf  of  Tarentum,  near  the  site  of  the  older  Sybaris  (j.f.), ' 
but  farther  inland.  It  owed  its  origin  to  an  attempt  madej 
in  452  B.C.  by  Sybarite  exijes  and  their  descendants  to 
repeople  Aeir  old  home.  The  new  settlement  was  crushed 
by  Crotona,  but  the  Athenians  lent  aid  to  the  fugitives, ! 
and  in  446,  or  rather  in  443,  Pericles  senL^out  to  Thurii 
a  mixed  body  of  colonists  from  various  parts  of  Greece, 
among  whom  were  Herodotus  and  the  orator  Lysias.  The, 
pretensions  of  the  Sybarite  colonists  led  to  dissensions 
and  ultimately  to  their  expulsion  ;  peace  was  made  with 
Crotona,  and  also,  after  a  period  of  war,  with  Tarentum, 
and  Thurii  rose  rapidly  in  power  and  drew  settlers  from 
all  parts  of  Greece,  especially  from  Peloponnesus,  so  that 
the  tie  to  Athens  waa  not  always  acknowledged.  The 
oracle  of  Delphi  determined  that  the  city  had  no  founder 
but  ApoUo,  and  in  the  Athenian  war  in  Sicily  Thurii  was 
at  first  neutral,  though  it  finally  helped  the  Athenians. 
Thurii  had  a  democratic  constitution  and  good  laws,  and, 
though  we  hear  little  of  its  history  till  in  390  it  received 
a  severe  defeat  from  the  rising  power  of  the  Lucanians, 
many  beautiful  coins  testify  to  the  wealth  and  splendour 
of  its  days  of  prosperity.  In  the  4  th  century  it  continued 
to  decline,  and  at  length  called  in  the  help  of  the  Bomans 
against  the  Lucanians,  and  then  in  282  against  Tarentum. 
Thenceforward  its  position  was  dependent,  and  in  the 
Second  Punic  War,  after  several  vicissitudes,  it  was  de- 
peopled  and  plundered  by  Hannibal  (204).  In  194  a 
Roman  colony  was  founded,  with  Latin  rights,  known  for 
a  time  as  Copiae,  but  afterwards  by  the  old  name  of  Thurii 
It  continued  to  be  a  place  of  some  importance,  the  situa- 
tion being  favourable  and  the  region  fertile,  and  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  wholly  abandoned  till  the  Middle  Ages. 
Its  site,  near  Terranova  di  Sibari,  is  marked  by  consider- 
able ruins  of  the  Roman  period  (cf.  Lenormant,  in  Acadany, 
ivii.  73,  and  Barnabei,  ibid.,  xvi.  65  tq.). 

THURINOIA  (Germ.  ThUringen),  a  territorial  term 
without  modern  political  significance,  designates,  strictly 
speaking,  only  that  district  in  Upper  Saxony  that  is 
bounded  by  the  Werra,  the  Harz  Mountains,  the  Saale, 
and  the  Thuringian  Forest ;  but  in  common  parlance  it  is 
frequently  used  as  equivalent  to  the  Thuringian  states,  i.e., 
the  group  of  small  duchies  and  principalities  lying  between 
Prussia,  Hesse-Nassau,  Bavaria,  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  * 
The  name  is  derived,  with  great  probability,  from  that  of 
the  Hermunduri,  a  branch  of  the  great  Suevic  family  ,  and 
the  ancient  Thuringians,  a  heathen  tribe  first  mentioned 
in  the  5th  century  by  Vegetius  Renatus,  are  believed  to  be 
the  descendants  of  that  Teutonic  people.  The  Thuringians 
seem  at  one  time  to  have  occupied  territories  stretching 
from  the  Elbe  not  far  from  Hamburg  to  the  Danube  at 
Ratisbon  ;  but  about  531  their  empire  was  overthrown  by 
the  united  Franks  and  Saxons.  The  north  part  of  their 
lands  fell  to  the  Saxons,  and  was  known  for  some  time  aa 
the  North  Thuringian  gau ;  the  districtr  to  the  south  of 
the  Thuringian  Forest  was  called  Franconia  after  its  con- 
querors ;  and  the  name  Thuringia  was  restricted  almost  to 
the  narrow  limits  to  which  it  now  properly  applies.  The 
advance  of  the  Sorbs  to  the  east  bank  of  the  Saale  about 
the  middle  of  the  7th  century  made  the  limitation  still  more 
exact.  Thuringia  remained  under  Frankish  dominion,  and; 
various  Frankish  counts  ruled  in  the  different  "gaus", 
into  which  it  was  divided.  Christianity,  if  not  introduced, 
was  confirmed  in  this  district  by  the  British  Boniface  ,  a 

*  The  Thuringian  states  are  Sale- Weimar-Eisenach,  SaieCoburg- 
Gotha,  Saie-Meiningen,  SajeAltenburg.  Schwarrbuig-Rudolstadt, 
Schwarzburg-SondershauseD,  and  the  two  principalities  of  Reuas,  all 
of  which  are  separately  described.  Besides  these,  the  term  Thuringia 
also,  of  course,  includes  the  various  "exclaves"  of  Prussia,  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  and  Bohemia  which  lie  embedded  among  them. 


332 


T  H  U  — T  H  U 


bislio|.ric  was  founded  at  Errurt  ,  and  under  Charlemagne 
the  Tliuriiiyiaa  mark  was  the  base  of  active  operations 
aaairi.-%t  (lie  heathen  Sorbs.  In  839  the  title  of  duke  of 
TUuriiigia  (dueatus  Torimjubx)  appears  ;  but  that  of  land 
grave  an;ius  to  have  superseded  it ,  neither  dignity  implied 
bOVLTcignly  over  the  whole  district.  Otto  the  Illustrious, 
duke  of  Saxuny  (880),  added  Tharingia  to  his  duchy,  but 
the  union  was  not  permanent  About  the  beginning  of 
the  r.'th  ecntury  Louis  the  Springer,  builder  of  the  Wart- 
burg,  rose  to  emini.'nce  among  the  Thuringian  nobles  , 
and  about  1130  his  son,  ako  Louis,  was  appoint'ed  land- 
grave by  the  emperor  Loiliair  I  Tburingia  now  began  to 
be  a  united  land  under  one  prince,  and  the  landgravr*, 
who  acijuired  the  Saxon  palatinate  on  the  fall  of  Henry 
the  Lion  of  Sa'cony  in  1180,  rose  to  considerable  power. 
The  last  landgrave  of  this  line  was  Henry  Raspe 
(1242-1217),  brother  and  succe.>.>.or  of  Louis  the  Suint 
His  deatli  was  followed  by  a  devastating  war  of  succes- 
sion between  his  niece  Sophia,  duclicss  of  Brabant,  and 
Henry  the  Illustrious,  margraic  of  Meissen  (1221-1288), 
whose  mother  Jutta  was  a  Tliurir.gian  prince.ss.  Peace 
was  finally  established  lu  1203.  .Sopliia  received  Hesse, 
and  Henry  took  the  rest  of  Thuringia.  the  general 
history  of  which  thenceforth  merged  in  thnt  <i  Meissen, 
and  later  of  Saxony,  although  it  uiaintained  its  separate 
name.  Thuringia  was  included  in  the  admini.strative  circle 
of  Upper  Saxony  (see  vol  xxi  p  3J2,  note  3)  For  i(> 
subsequent  fate,  and  the  rise  of  ilie  jircsent  Thunngian 
slates,  see  under  SaXONY  (vol.  xxi   pp  353  sq.). 

The  most  striking  naturBl  feature  nf  TUurinxia'is  tlio  Thdribsian 
Forest  (Thuringrrt'-alJ),  .■*  r.iiij;f  'ir  vf^^fn^  of  hills.  cxten>llli;:  lii 
an  im-gular  line  fiom  the  n'-igl'biinrli..oJ  of  Eisenuch  in  the  north 
west  to  the  Lobeqsteuier  Kului  on  the  Bav;\naD  frontier  on  the 
south-east,  and  forming  the  southim  boundary  uf  Thuringia, 
t.ep.-iraiin:'  it  from  Franconia.  On  thw  soutli  cast  it  is  ronVinueJ 
»Ur.-ctly  by  the  Frankeiiwalii  Mountain?  to  tiie  Ficbtelgebirge. 
whieli  IS  in  iinraeiliate  connexion  w^th  'ho  Erzgebirge,  while  on 
tlie  north-east  it  approar-be-i  the  Harz  Mountains,  and  thus  takes 
its  jilaec  in  the  great  Sudetic  chain  of  central  Gennciny.  The 
lengih  of  the  Thurin^'ian  eiiaiu  is  70  miles,  and  its  breadth  varies 
from  8  to  2fi  miles.  It  nowhtre  nses  into  peaks,  and  only  a  few 
of  Its  rounded  summits  rcaeh  the  height  •)!  srtOO  feet .  the  successive 
hills  Qieli  into  eacli  other  in  gentle  umlulations.  forming  a  con- 
tinii'Mis  nnd  easily  traced  comb,  and  only  the  nottli  west  slopes  are 
prc' ipitoiis.  and  seamed  witli  winding  gorges.  This  mountain- 
riii;;*-  em  loses  maii\  ch.irming  and  ronuinlic  valleys  and  glens; 
till  ino.-»t  prominent  fv-atofi-  of  it<i  picturesnue  scenery  i.^  foinied  by 
the  hue  fi'iests,  ehirll)  of  pinCN  .ind  hrs,  uhich  cl-'the  most  of  the 
hilU  Thi  north  x^esi  pan  of  the  system  is  the  loftier  and  the  more 
delist  ly  wooded,  is  wt^l  an  the  more  beautiful,  the  h-ghest  sum- 
mits here  are  the  Gtosnm  Beerberg  (S225  (eel),  Sehneckojif  (3179), 
and  the  liiselb^rg  (2!)57l.  .ill  in  ihe  duchy  of  Goth.-i  Tlie  south- 
east part  of  the  Thuringian  Forest  is  the  moie  pf-[-ulous  and  in- 
dustrial;  the  chief  summits  are  the  Kleferle  (2851  feet)  at  .Stein- 
lieid.  the  Blessberg  (2834  feet)  near  Scbalkau.  tlm  Wurzelberg 
(27-10  feet)  near  Oehe,  and  the  Wetzstein  (2719)  near  Lehesien 
The  crest  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  from  the  Werra  to  the  Saale,  i? 
traversed  by  the  Rennstei^  or  Raiiistcig,  a  broad  path  of  unknown 
anli'iuity,  though  it  is  believed  to  be  referred  to  in  a  letter  of  Tope 
Oreijory  III.  -lated  738  The  name  means  probably  "frontier 
path  "  ;  and  the  [lath  marlES  in  fact  the  boundary  bi-tvveen  Thiuingia 
and  Franconi.i.  It  may  lie  also  regarded  as  p-irt  of  ibr-  l-onndaiy 
line  l>ctween  North  and  South  Gennany.  for  dialect,  customs,  local 
names  and  costume  are  difTerent  on  the  two  sides. 

THUHTNGORUM  LEX.  See  Salic  La 
THUHLICS,  an  ancient  market-town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Tijiiierary,  and  the  scat  of  the  Catholic  arch 
diocese  of  Cashel,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Suir.  and 
on  the  Great  Southern  and  Western  Railway,  4G  miles 
cast  of  Limerick,  29  wo«l  from  Kilkenny,  and  87  south- 
we.-.t  of  D'jblin.  The  cathedral  of  St  Patrick  is  a  beau- 
tiful building,  erected  at  a  cost  of  X4.'),00D.  The  town 
is  the  seal  of  other  imprirtant  Catholic  establishments, 
including  an  Ursuliiie  conv.eiit,  in  winch  is  a  large  board 
ing  school  for  young  ladies,  a  I'rcscntaiion  convent;  St 
I'atrick'ti  Catholic  college  (1S29)  for  ecclesiastical  students, 


where  was  held  in  1850  the  synod  of  Thurles,  composed 
of  all  the  Catholic  bishops  of  Ireland  ,  and  an  establish-] 
ment  of  Christian  Brothers,  who  devote  themselves  to  the 
instruction  of  buys  on  the  Lancastrian  method.  The  town 
has  a  considerable  agricultural  and  retail  trade.  Th6 
population  was  5008  in  1871,  and  4860  in  1881. 

Originally  the  town  teas  called  Durlas  O'Fogarty  In  the  lOth^ 
century  it  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Irihh  by  the  Danes, 
A  pieceptory  wa.s  founded  here  by  the  Kmglits  Tcinplai-s,  who  pos-^ 
sessed  iheiiisilves  of  a  castio  erected  e.aily  in  the  l;Jth  eeiiiiii>  A 
•  astlo  was  siibM-iueiitly  erected  by  Jame-.  Hiitlei,  hi^t  lotd  palatiuc- 
of  Tipperary,  of  whuh  tdl  recently  a  towel  slill  t- iii.iliied 

THCRLOW,  EnwARU  TiiDULOw,  Bm:on  (1732-lSOC)^ 
was  born  at  Bracon  A»li,  in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  in 
1732.  His  father  was  a  cleigjinan,  and  beld  successively 
the  livings  of  Little  Aslilield  in  .SuiKdk  and  of  Straiten  St 
Mary's  in  Norfolk.  Hl:^  iiiothei  Lli/.il.elli  wa^  the  daughter 
of  Robert  Smith  of  A.^liliild.  Thuih.w  received  lii>  early 
education  at  hornp.  He  was  next  jdaccd  under  the  caro 
of  Mr  Brett  at  Scarning,  where  he  remained  foi  four  years, 
and  was  then  sent  to  the  gramiiiar  school  of  Canterbury, 
where  he  was  considered  a  bold  refractory  clever  boy.  In 
October  1748  Thurlow  entered  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
and  speedily  justified  his  school  reputation.  The  dean  of 
the  college,  upon  the  extent  and  accuracy  of  whose  classical 
aciuircments  grave  sus[iicion  rested,  had  directed  him,  as 
,1  puiii.->hment  for  some  act  of  in.subordiuation,  to  translate 
a  ihjpii  r  of  the  S/.ci'iti.r  into  Creek.  Thurlow  executed 
his  task  with  care,  and  then  gave  it  for  revioal,  not  to  the 
dean,  but  to  the  tutor  o(  the  college.  When  reprimanded 
for  having  thus  infringed  the  college  rules,  Thurlow 
retorted  that  he  had  carried  his  cxeici.sc  to  one  who  could 
inform  the  dean  whether  or  not  he  had  obeyed  his  orders- 
The  insult  was  too  g  jve  tor  rustication,  and  yet  too  slight 
to  jiutify-expulsion  Thurlow  was  therefore  permitted  to 
withdraw  his  name  from  the  college  books,  and  he  left  Cam- 
bridge without  a  degree  (1751)  He  now  took  chambers, 
and  began  regularly  to  keep  terms  in  the  Inner  Temple, 
which  he  had  joined  while  still  an  undergraduate.  He 
was  for  some  time  a  pupil  along  with  the  poet  Cowper  in 
the  office  of  Mr  Chapman,  an  eminent. solicitor  in  Lincoln's 
Inn.  On  22d  November  1754  Thurlow  was  called  to  the 
bar,  and  subsequently  went  on  the  we.stern  circuit — at 
first  with  little  success.  But  the  tide  turned.  In  the 
case  of  Luke  Robinson  v.  the  Earl  of  VVinchelsea  (1758) 
Thurlow  came  into  collision  with  .Sir  Fletcher  Norton, 
then  the  terror  of  solicitors  and  the.  tyrant  of  the  bar,  and 
put  down  his  arrogance  with  dignity  and  success.  From 
this  time  his  practice  increased  rapidly  In  December 
1761  he  was  made  a  king's  counsel,  through  the  intluenco 
of  the  duchess  of  Qucensberry.  In  January  17G2  he  was 
elected  a  bencher  ol  the  Inner  Tem|ile.  It  now  became 
necessary  for  him  to  take  his  side  in  politics,  and,  after 
repeated  oscillations,  and  wjth  some  hesitancy,  Thurlow; 
threw  himself  into  the  ranks  of  the  Tory  parly.  In  May 
1768  he  became  member  for  Tamworlh.  In  17C9  the 
Douglas  Peerage  case  came  on  for  hearing  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  Thurlow,  who  had  drawn  the  pleadings  some 
years  before  (NUcs  ami  Qwrifs,  3d  ser.,  iii.  122),  led  for 
the  appellant  in  a  speech  of  great  ability  and  analytic' 
power  In  March  1770,  as  a  recognition  of, his  defence  ia' 
the  previous  January  of  the  expulsion  of  Wilkes,  Thurlow 
was  made  solicitor-general  on  the  resignation  of  Dunning, 
and  ill  the  following  year  (23d  January  1771),  after  he 
had  enhanced  his  reputation  "itii  the  Oo\crnnu-iil  by 
attacking  the  rights  of  juries  in  cases  ot  libel  (Kex  v. 
Miller,  20  .Stale  I'riuh,  87()-8!)ri)  ;iik1  the  liberty  of  the 
press  (16  f'arl(/.  II i.-! ,  1111).  Wii>  r.ii.-ed  U)  the  altoniejy 
general.->liip.  Thui'iw's  public  lib- was  , as  faiiiuusas  hia 
youth  had  been  daring  Ills  violent  hatred  of  tlic  Amer- 
ican colonists,  and  his  extreme  and  ijin>rudent_assQrtioa 


I 


T  H  U— T  H. 


V 


333 


that  as  attorney  general  he  might  set  aside  by  scire  facing 
as,  fdrfeiti'd    every   charter   in  America    (debate^ on   the 
American  Prohibitory  Bill,  IS  P.  H.,  999)  ;  his  speech  in 
aggravation  of  punishment  in  the  case  of  HorneTooke  (20 
St.  Tr.,  777-/783),  when  he  argued  that  the  prisoner  ought 
to  be  pilloried,  because  imprisonment  was  no  penalty  to 
a  man  of  sedentary  habits  and  a  fine  would  be  paid  by 
seditious  subscription  ;  and  his  consistent  opposition  to  all 
interference  with  the  slave  trade, — are  characteristic  of  the 
man.     In  1  77S  Thurlow  became  lord  chancellor  and  Baron 
Thurlow  ojf   Ashfield  (June),  and    took   his   seat  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  where  he  soon  acquired  an  almost  dicta-* 
lonal  powp.  ,  He  resolutely  opposed,  the  economical  and 
constitutional  reforms  proposed  by  Burke  and  Dunning. 
Under  Rockingham  he  still  clung  to  the  chancellorship, 
v.hile  conducting  himself  like  a  leader  of  the  opposition 
To^lhe  shortlived  ministry  of  Shelburno  he  gave  a  con- 
sistent support.'    Under  the  coalition  of  Fox  and  North  ^ 
(April,  to  December  1783)  the  great  seal  was  placed  in 
commission,  and  Lord  Loughborough  was  made  first  com- 
missioner.'   But -Thurlow,  acting  as    the   king's  -adviser,, 
and   in   accordance,  with,  his    wishes,   harassed   the  new 
ministry,  and  ultimately  secured  the   rejection   of    Fox's 
India  Bill  (24  P.- If.,  22G).  \Tlie  coalition  was  at)  once 
dissolved.  ^  Pitt  accepted  office,  and  Thurlow  again  became 
lord  chancellor  {December  .23,   1783).     At  first  he  sup- 
ported the.  Government  heartily,  but  soon   his  overbear- 
ing temp'er  asserted  itself...  Imprudently  relying  on  the 
friendship  of  the  king,  and  actuated  by  scarcely  disguised 
enmity  to  Pitt,-  Thurlow  passed  rapidly  from    occasional 
acts  of  hostjlity  to  secret  disaffection,  and  finally  to  open 
revolL^He  delivered  himself  strongly  against  a  bill,  intro- 
duced without  his  privity,  for  the  restoration  to  the  heirs 
of  £4tainted  owners  of  .estates  forfeited  in   tbe  Jacobite 
rebellion  of  ,1745.     Partly  to  please  the  king  and  queen, 
partly  from"  dislike"  to  Burke,  and  partly  perhaps  from  a 
real   belief,, in  the' groundlessness  of   the   accusation,   he 
supported  iVVarren  .  Hastings    on   every   occasion  ..".with 
indecorous^iolence."   .His  negotiations  with  ,the  Whigs' 
during  the  .discussion,  of   the   Regency  Bill  (1788-19tl) 
February  1789)  went  beyond  the  limits  of  mere  perverse 
coquetry,-.and  :  were   designed   to  secure  his  seat  on  the 
woolsack  in  the  event  of  Fox  being  called  to  powea'    The 
climax  was  reached  in  1792,  when  he  virulently  attacked 
Pitt's  bill  "  to  establish  a  sinking  fund  for  the  redemption 
of/\thc',national  debt,"  not   on  account,  of  the  economic 
objections  to  which  it  w£&  justly  liable,  but  on  the  trivial 
ground^that  it  was  an  unconstitutional  attempt  to  bind 
future  parliaments.  '   The  bill  was  carried,  but  only"  by  a 
narrow  majority,  and  Pitt,  feeling  that  co-operation  with 
such  a  colleague  was  impossible,  insisted  successfully  on 
his  dismissal  (June  15,  1792).:^  The   ex-chancellor,  who 
had   a  few,  days   before  (.June    12)  been   created    Baron 
Thurlow  of  Thurlow,  with  remainder  to  his  brothers  and 
their  male  descendants,  now  retired  into  private  life,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  a  futile  intrigue,  under  th^  auspices 
of_the  prince  of  Wales,  for  the  formation  of  a  ministry 
from  which  Pitt  and  Fox  should  be  excluded,  and  in  which 
the  earl  of  Moira -should  be  "premier  and  Thurlow  chancellor 
(1797),  fina^  abandoned   the   hopes   of  office   and  the 
dictatorship  which  he  tad  so  long  exercised  in  the  House 
of.Lords.     In  1795  he  opposed  tlic  Treason  and  Sedition 
Bills. without   success.     In    1801   he  spoke  on  behalf  of 
HorneTooke — now  his  friend — when  a  bill  was  introduced 
to, render  a  priest  in  orders  ineligible  for  a  seat  in  the 
House  of  Commons.     "His  last  recorded  appearance  in  the 
1  louse  of  Lords  wasjon  May  4,  1802.    He  now  spent  his  time 
between  his  villa  at  Dulwich  and  Brighton,  Bognor,  Scar- 
borough, and  Bath.     Hi"  died  at  Brig^iton  on  12th  Septem- 
ber 1 806,  and  was  buried  in  thfi  Temple  church.    Thurlow 


wag  never  married,  but  IsLt  three  natural  daugVters,  for 
whom  he  made  a  handsome  provision.  Tbe  title  descended 
to  his  neplTew,  son  of  the  bishop  of  DurhaYn. 

Lord  Thurlow  w.is  a  niastiT  of  a  coarse  caustic  wit,  which  habitu- 
ally to  hi.^  private  and  too  froniiciitiy  in  his  public  lifo  displayed 
itself  in  profanity.  He  was  a  j^ood  classical  scholar  ajid  made 
occasional  translations  in  vci^e  from  Homer  and  Euripides.  His 
judjcifll  and  his  ecclcsinstical  jiatranage  was  wisely  eicereised';  he 
was  the  patron  of  Dr  .lohnson  and  of  Ciabbc,  and  was  the  first  to 
detect  the  gteat  legal  merits  of  Eldon.  Tliurlow's  ]iersonal  ap- 
pearance was  striking.'*^  His^d.uk  complexion,  harsh  but  regular 
features,  severoand'digfiifiod  demcanonr.  piercing  black  eyes  a\id 
bnshy  eyebrows,  doubtless  eontribnted  to  his  professional  and 
political  eminence  and  provoked  tlie  sarcasm  of  Fox  that  he  lookxi 
wiser  than  any  man  ever  wns.'  Yet  he  was  far  from  being  an 
impostor.  By  intense  though  irregular  application  he  had  ac. 
quired  a  wide. if  not  a  profound  knowledge  of  law.  Clear. headed,' 
self.conP.deDt,  and  fluent,  able  at  once  to  reason  temperately  and 
to  assert  strongly,  capable  of  grasping,  rapidly  assimilating,  and 
forcibly  reproducing  minute  and  complicated  details,  Jic  possessed 
all  the  qualities  which  command  success.  His  speeches  in  the 
trial  of  the_duchess  of  Kingston  for  bigamy  (20  S.  T.,  355-651) 
are  singularly  vigorous  and  effective,  while  his  famous  opening  in 
the  Douglas  Peerage 'case  and  his  argument  for  the  crown  in 
Campbell  u  Hall  (20  S.  T.,  312-316)  show  that  he  might  have 
rendered  high  service  to  the  judicial  literature  of  his  country  had 
he  relied  more  upon, his  own  industry ..and_  Iiks  upon  tie  learning 
ofHargraveand  Kenyon 

.Sco  Lorii  Ciimpbcirs  Livu  of  the  Chanceltrirs,  vSI,  153-333;  Foss's  Judgel  r/ 
Engtahit,  viii.  3H-.nSj;  Publtc  Characters,  I79B;  l^oteB  and  Queries,  2d  Kcr.,  111. 
2.^.1.  3il 'srr  .  iii.  12'?;  Reports  fit  Iiis  (Ipcislnns  by  Blown.  Dickens,  and  V'esey 
(^unioi).  li\'o\isV,tim'^Statttmai<tflheTinieo/Oeorgetll.f  (A.  W.  R.) 

.THURSO,  a  seaport,  police  burgh,  and  burgh  o£ barony 
of  Caithness,  Scotland,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Thurso,  on  the"  beautiful  Thurso  Bay;  at  the  northern 
terminus  of  the  Highland  Railway,  21  mfles  northwest  of 
Wick,  and  3C7  north  of  Edinburgh  by  rail.  \  Tlie  new 
town,  regularly  built  with  broad  streets  and  good  houses, 
is' steadily  increasing  in  population.  ";In  ,  Macdonald 
Square,  now  laid  out  with  ornamental  walks,  there  is  a 
statue  of  Sir  John  Sinclair  (q.v.).  Along  "the  sands 
a  promenade  300  yards  in  length  was  formed  in  1882. 
The  town-hall  (1870)  embraces- a  court-room  and  rooms 
for  the  free  public  library  and  the  museum,  which  contains 
the  geological  and  botanical  specimens  of  Robert  Dick,' 
the ,"  Thurso  baker,"  commemorated  by  Samuel  Smiles,| 
as  well  as  a  large  collection  of  northern  birds.  In  the 
nerghbouihood  are  large  quarries  fpr  Caithness  flags,  which 
are  cut  and  dressed  in  the  town.  They  constitute  the 
principal  export,  but  the  trade  of  the  port  is  hinder^  by 
the  inconvenience  of  the  harbour. '^  There  is,  however, 
communication  with  the  south  and  west,  and  with  Orkney, 
by  steamer  from  Scrabster  piei*,"3  miles  to  the  north.  To 
the  east  is  Thurso  Castle,  the ,  residence  of  the  Ulbster 
branch  of  the  Sinclairs. 'jThe^ population. in  1871..wa!j: 
3622  and  in  1881  it  was  4026._"*' 

Thurso  was  the  centre  of  the  Norso  oower  on  the  mainland  whcii. 
at  Its  height  under  ThorBnn  (1014),  itiul  afterwards  till  the  battle 
of  Largs-  Count  Mo<ldan.  nephew  of  King  Duncan,  quartered  his 
army  For  a  time  at  Thurso,  which  he"  terms  "the  town  of  Caith- 
ness," and  was  plentifully  supplied  by  spoil  till  snrpiise.l  and 
slain  by  Thorkel  in  1040.  In  the  time  of  Malcolm  U.  tail  ICilend 
resiiled  in  the  town.  In  1G33  it  was  created  a  burgh  of  barony,; 
and  was  the  seat  of  the  sherilT.courts.of^the  county  till  they  were 
repioved  to  Wick  in  1S28. 

TH"i'ME.  The" genus' TViymui  (iiat,  ord.  Laliata)  com; 
prises  a  number. of  fragrant faromalicTundcrslirubs,  with 
very  small  leaves^andj whorls  lof  smalljhlac  llo.wcrs  in  the 
axils  of  the  leave*  or.  at  tbc'ends  of  ^the^brancbcs..  The 
common  garden  ;^thyme,'*a!  native  of  (the  Mediterranean 
region,  is  Thj/mn,^  vulgaris:  the  wild  thyme  of  our  banks  is 
T.  Strpyllum.  Marjoram  (Orifianum)  is  also  closely  allied. 
All  these, plants  are  remarkable  for  thcir'^Cssehtial  oil,  to 
which  their  fragrance'  is  due.\  From  this  ojl'  is  produced 
by  distillation  s,  substance  known  as  thymol,  analogous  to 
camphor.  U  'is  hoinologous  with  ph'enol  or  carbolie  acid,, 
and  may  be  used  asa  disinfectant  and  germicide. 


334 


T  I  B-'T  I  B 


-TIBBUS,  or  Tubus,  a  nomad  nice  of  North  Africa, 
occupying  -the  eastern  section  of  the  Sahara  from  about 
12'  where  they  are  contenninons  with  the  Tuareg  Berbers, 
bo  about  24°  E.  long.,  and  from  Fezzan  southwards  nearly 
io  Lake  Tchad,  25'  to  1 5°  N.  lat.  Their  westernmost  settle- 
ments are  the  oases  of  Agram,  Kawar,  and  Jebido,  their 
northernmost  the  distnct  of  Qatriin  within  the  Fezzan 
frontier,  while  south  and  south-east  they  merge  gradually 
in  the  Negroid  populatioas  of  Kanem,  Bomu  (Tchad  basin), 
Wadai,  and  jiorth  west  Dar  Fiir.  But  the  heart  of  the 
nation  is  con'-entrated  in  the  central  region  of  Tibestt  or 
Tu,  whence  they  take- their  collective  name  of  Tib-bu  or 
Tu-bu,  »«-,  "people  of  Tibesti  or  Tu."'  There  are  two 
main  divisions, — the  northern  Teda,  more  or  less  full-blood 
Tibbus,  and  the  southern  Dasa,  more  or  less  mixed  or 
Negroid  Tibbus.  Somewhat  more  distantly  connected  with 
the  same  family  are  the  Baele  of  the  eastern  and  south- 
eastern oases  and  the  ZoghAwa  (Zaghwa)  of  Dar  Kiir, 
making  a  total  population  of  about  190,000,  distributed 
as  follows  — 

Teda  (Tibesti,  Qatrun,  Kawar,  Agram,  &c.)    .  29,000 
Daaa  (Borku,  parts  of  Kanem,  Wadai,  Ennedi, 

and  Bornu)    _ 51,000 

Baele  (Ejinedi,  Wanyanga,  Ouro,  Win) 20,000 

Zoghiwa  (north  Dar-Fiir) 90,000 

190,000 
The  Tibbus,  who  are  not  expressly  mentioned  under  this  name  by 
any  ancient  or  mediaeval  writer,  are  usually  identified  with  the 
'Caramantes  of  Herodotus  (iv.  183),  whose  capital  was  Garama 
(Edrisi's  Germa)  in  Phazania  (Fezzan),  and  of  whom  Ptolemy  al- 
ready spoke  doubtfully  as  Ethiopians  (Negroes  ?) :  'Oftoiv  Si  «ai 
oi>ru;i'  1)5^  (ia\\oi>-  /ildidruiv  (i.  8).  But  Leo  Africanus  transfers 
them  to  the  Berber  connexion,  whose  fifth  great  division  he  deals 
■with  under  tha  names  of  Gumeri  (Garamantes?)  and  Bardsei.  or 
Bardoa.  that  is,  the  Teda  of  the  Bardai  oasis,  Tibesti.'  Lastly 
Barth  on  linguistic  grounds  grouped  them  with  the  Eanuri  of 
Bornu,  who  are  undoubtedly  Negroes  ,  and  since  his  time  (1852-53) 
the  Tibbus  have  been  regarded  oy  most  ethnologists  as  a  Negro  or 
at  least  a  Negroid  people.''  Nachtigal,  who  has  studied  them 
more  carefully  than  any  modern  observer,  sees  good  reason  to 
challenge  this  conclusion  (op  ciL,  ch  viL),  and,  although  his 
own  inferences  are  somewhat  vague,  he  supplies  sulficieut  evidence 
for  a  solution  of  this  difficult  ethnological  problem.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  Teda,  or  true  Tibbu,  probably  identical  with 
the  Tedamansii,  a  branch  of  the  Garamantes,  placed  by  Ptolemy 
south  of  the  Samamycii  in  Tripolitana,*  are  physically  a  Hamitic, 
not  a  Negro  people,  closely  resembling  their  western  Tuareg 
neighbours.  They  are  a  pure  homogeneous  race,  who  have  for 
ages  undergone  no  perceptible  change  in  their  rocky  homes,  and 
who  are  still  distinguished  by  the  regular  features,  long  black 
ringletty  hair,  haughty  bearing,  and  fierce  expression  common  to 
ao  taany  of  the  Berber  and  other  Hamitic  peoples.  Mostly  of 
middle  size,  they  are  finely  proportioned  in  all  their  Umbs,  except 
the  somewhat  too  small  hands  and  feet,  with  lighter  complexion 
than  that  of  the  southern  Dasa,  and  no  trace  of  the  flat  nose,  thick 
tumid  lips,  or  other  marked  characteristics  of  the  true  Negro 
*' Their  women  are  charming  while  still  in  the  bloom  of  youth, 
unrivalled  amongst  their  sisters  of  North  Africa  for  their  physical 
beauty,  pliant  and  graceful  figures"  (Keane's  Jiecliis,  xi.  p.  429). 
But  there  has  been  a  general  displacement  of  the  race  southwards  . 
»nd,  while  only  a  few  still  linger  in  the  northern  Qatrun  and  Kufara 
districts,  large  numbers  have  since  mediaeval  times  penetrated  into 
the  Kanem,  Bornu,  Wadai,  and  Dar-Fur  regions  of  central  Sudan. 
Here  they  have  everywhere  merged  with  the  natives,  so  that  in  the 
Dasa,  Kanembu.  Kannri,   Baele,  and  Zogbawa  groups  the  Tibbu 


'  Cf,  "Kanem-bu  =  people  of  Kanem,  bu  bemg  the  plural  personal 
postfix  answering  to  the  Bantu  prefix  ba,  7ca  (Ba-Suto,  Wa.Ganda, 
&c. ),  and  to  the  6^  of  Ful-be  =  Ful  people  or  Fulahs  from  Piil  Id 
Tedaga  the  root  fii  means  "rock",  hence  Tu  bu  =  "  rock-dwellers," 
as  described  by  Hnrodotus  and  as  explained  in  their  Arab  designation 
lUshiklfh,  from  reshad  —  mc'kt  hllL 

'  See  Vatcr.  MUhndalea.  iL  p.  45  of  Berlin  ed.  1812,  and  Nachtigal. 
Sdhara  vnd  Siuian,  1881.  ii.  p.  189. 

•  "  tlrsprtinglich  ein  Negervolk."  Lepsius,  Nubische  OrammalJc 
{Mnkilyng),  BerliD,  1880 

*  The  orifrioal  iobabitants  of  the  Kufara  (Kufra)  oasis  in  south 
Tripolitana  were  Teda,  some  of  whom  stiU  survive  in  a  small  hamlet 
south  of  Jebel  Nari.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  they 
have  been  replaced  elsewhere  in  Kufara  by  the  Zwiya  Arabs  from  the 
Leahkerreb  oases 


race  presents  all  the  shades  i  transition  between  the  true  Ne^t) 
and  the  true  Hamttn  that  aru  also  found  to  prevail  between  ihq 
tilacks  of  weeteru  Sudan  and  the  Tuareg  Berbers,  and  between  th^ 
Nuboa  and  other  eastern  Sudan  Negroes  and  tho  Hamitia  Oallafl, 
Surndli,  and  Bejas. 

The  same  traniitionaJ  stages  are  observed  in  tha  Tibbu  fbrmis^f 
sj»ce.ch,  which  consfjtuto  a  wide-spread  linguistic  family,  whose  most 
archaic  and  purest  branch  Ls  tho  Tedaga  of  Tibesti  (Nachtigal). 
Through  the  southern  Dasaga  the  Tedaga  merges  in  the  more 
highly  dcvclope-I  and  more  recent  Kaueui,  Bnniu  (Kauun),  Ennedi 
(Baele),  and-jL>ar  Fur  (Zoghawa)  dialects,  wliicli,  owing  to  thv  ab- 
si'n'W  of  grammatical  gender  ami  some  utlur  structural  features,  are 
usually  classed  as  Negro-  languages.  But  a  Negro  tongue  could 
not  have  ariseu  among  the  Hamites  of  the  TiK-jti  uplands,  and  the 
explanation  of  tliis  lingnistic  difficulty  im  obnously  Uie  same  as 
that  of  the  physical  puzzle.  The  Negro  altiuitius  of  the  southern 
members -of  the- group  have  arisen  through  assimilation  with  the 
original  and  now  partly  displaced  Negro  idioms  of  centhil  Sudan. 
There  remains  the  final  difficulty  that  Tedaga  itself  has  absolutely 
nothing  in  Common  with  the  Berber  or  any  other  Hamitic  tongue. 
If  therefore  it  is  neither  Hamitic  nor  Negro,  the  only  t^vo  stock 
languages  recognized  by  fjcpsius  in  Afri<a  (op.  ciL,  passim)^  how  is 
a  to  bo  placed?  First  of  all  Lcpsiuss  hasty  generalization,  wholly 
inconsistent  as  it  is  with  the  conditions  occurring  in  other  pans  of 
the  continent,  must  be  unhesitatingly  rejected  Room  having 
thus  been  found  for  other  linguistic  families,  the  Tedaga  of  Tibesti 
may  be  readily  explained  as  an  independent  evolution  from  a 
primeval  Tibbu-Berber  germ,  analogous  to  other  linguistic  evolu 
tions  in  other  isolated  or  inaccessible  highland  regions,  such  as  tb« 
Caucasus,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Anahiiac  tableland  The  common 
germ,  essentially  evanescent  in  its  nature,  has  long  since  perished, 
or  can  no  longer  be  detected,  and  the  Tibou  and  Berber  languages 
stand  side  by  side  as  now  fundamentally  distinct,  while  the  two 
races  still  remain  physically  one.  The  Tibbus  are  therefore  a 
Hamitic  people,  who  in  their  secluded  rocky  homes  have  had  time 
to  evolve  an  independent  form  of  speech,  which  southwards  has 
become  largely  assimilated  to  the  Suaanese  Negro  dialects 

Lying  on  the  track  of  the  great  caravan  route  between 
Fezzan  and  Lake  Tchad,  the  Tibbus  have  always  been  a 
predatory  race,  levying  blackmail  on  the  convoys  passing 
through  their  territory,  maintaining  intertribal  feuds,  and 
carrying  on  constant  warfare  with  the  surrounding  Berber 
and  Sudanese  populations.  This,  combined  with  tho 
severe  struggle  for  existence  m  their  inhospitable  upland 
valleys,  has  rendered  them  harsh,  greedy,  and  suspicious, 
— sentiments  reflected  in  their  hard  features  and  stern 
expression.  Till  comparatively  recent  times  all  were 
pagans,  whence  the  term  Kufra  (Kufara),  "Land  of  the 
Unbeliever,"  applied  by  the  Arabs  to  the  southern  oases 
of  Tripolitana.  But  for  two  or  three  centuries  they  have 
been  zealous  Mohammedans,  and  some  have  even  ktely 
been  brought  within  the  influence  of  the  political  Senusiya 
sect  (see  Teipoli,  below).  They  are  a  frugal  race,  living 
mostly  on  goat's  milk,  dates,  berries,  dunha,  and  the  fruit 
of  the  diim  palm  ,  nevertheless  they  are  of  robust  con- 
stitution and  remarkably  agile.  They  are  also  intelligent, 
crossing  the  wilderness  by  a  sort  of  instinct  quite  unintel- 
ligible to  the  stranger,  and  in  all  ordinary  transactions 
they  display  surprising  tact  and  shrewdness.  The  tribal 
organization  embraces  dnrdai  or  headmen,  matnaor  nobles, 
and  the  common  folk,  while  the  unwritten  law  of  custom 
rules  supreme  over  all  classes.  The  women,  who  are  orderlj 
and  industrious,  are  well  treated,  and  the  polygamy  allowed 
by  the  law  is  little  practised  But  the  vendetta  is  still  b, 
social  institution  (a   b   K.> 

TIBER.     See  Italy,  vol   xjii   pp  438  439  l 

TIBERLAS,  now  TABARtv/v.  a  city  of  Palestine,  on  tBI> 
western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  or  Lake  of  Tiberia^ ' 
occupies  a  narrow  strip  of  plain  under  a  bill  in  a  feverish 
but  fertile  situation  Recent  estimates  place  the  popula- 
tion at  from  2000  to  3000,— about  half  the  inhabitants 
being  .Tews,  and  many  of  i  he  laltir  immigrants  from  Poland. 
The  streets  are  indescribably  6lthy,  and  an  Arab  sayitig  is 
that  "the  king  of  the  fleas  holds  his  court  at  Tiberias" 
The  walls  of  the  town  and  the  castle  on  the  north  were 
in  great  part  ruined  by  ao  earthquake  m  1837,  when  half 
the  population  perished      The  most  uiterestmg  building 


T I B— T I B 


335 


is  a  very  ancient  synagogue  by  the  lake,  the  lower  story 
of  which  is  said  to  have  been  unaffected  by  the  earthquake. 
Outside  the  town  are  the  plastered  monuments  ("  whitod 
sepulchres")  of  R.  Akiba  and  Maimonides.  Half  an  hour 
to  the  south  are  the  famous  hot  baths  mentioned  by  Pliny 
(UN..  V  15  [71])  Jose[ihus  calls  this  place  Emniaus, 
which  has  suggested  an  identification  with  Hammoth  dor 
(Josh.  XXI  32)  or  Hanimon  (I  C'hron  vi  76  [CI]),  names 
which  perhaps  point  to  the  existence  of  thermal  springs. 

Tiberias  was  founded  by  Herod  Aiitipas  apparently  not  iK-fot**  26 
A.D.,'  and  so  was  quite  a  new  place  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  min- 
istry in  Galilee.  And,  though  it  became  the  capital  c."  Galilee,  it  was 
at  first  a  purely  Creek  city,  which  accounts  (or  its  not  appearing 
among  the  scenes  of  the  Galilxan  ministry  It  joined  in  the  war 
of  liberty,  but  yielded  without  resistance  to  Vespasian,  and  was 
restored  by  him  to  its  master  Agrippa,  on  whose  death  in  100 
it  fell  directly  under  Roman  rule  The  place  came  to  t>e  a  great 
artit  of  Jews  and  Jenish  learning:  it  was  the  residence  of  R.  Judah, 
the  editor  of  the  Mishoah  ,  and,  though  the  schools  of  Palestine 
were  ultimately  overshadowed  by  those  of  Babylonia,  the  school 
of  Tiberias  was  still  famous  in  the  time  of  Jerome.  According  to 
Epiphauius,  the  first  Christian  church  was  built  by  Constantine, 
and  from  this  time  we  hear  of  bishops  of  Tilicrias  The  Arabs  took 
Tiberias  in  637  .  it  «as  restored  to  Christendom  by  Tancred,  but 
yielded  to  Saladin  in  1187  after  the  battle  of  lliiiiii  It  was  again 
in  Christian  hands  from  1240  to  1247  In  the  middle  of  the  18th 
•entury  it  was  one  of  the  fortresses  of  the  renowned  Sheikh  Zahir, 
who  for  many  years  defied  the  Turkish  power 

TIBERIUS  (42  B.C.-37  a.d),  emperor  of  Rome,  whose 
full  name  was  Tiberids  Clactdids  Nero,  was  born  on  the 
Palatine  UiU  on  16lh  November  42  B.c  When  he  became 
a  member  of  the  imperial  family,  the  court  genealogists 
made  him  out  to  be  one  of  the  ancient  patrician  Claudii ; 
but  the  pedigree  js  at  some  points  difficult  to  trace  His 
father,  who  bore  the  same  name,  was  an  officer  of  Julius 
Caesar,  who  afterwards  proposed  to  confer  honours  on  the 
assassins,  then  joined  Mark  Antony's  brother  in  his  mad 
attack  on  Octavian,  took  refuge  with  Mark  Antony  and 
returned  to  Rome  when  the  general  amnesty  was  proclaimed 
in  39  B  c  Livia,  the  mother  of  Tiberius,  was  also  of  the 
Claudian  family,  out  of  which  her  father  had  passed  by 
adoption  into  that  of  the  Livii  Drusi  Early  in  38  Livia 
was  amicably  ceded  to  Octavian  (the  future  Augustus),  and 
three  months  after  her  new  marriage  Drusos,  brother  to 
Tiberius,  was  born.  Livia  had  no  children  by  Augustus,  and 
therefore  devoted  all  her  remarkable  gifts  to  the  advance- 
ment of  her  sons.  They  were  treated  with  high  considera- 
tion by  the  emperor,  yet  Augustus  held  firmly  to  the  hope 
that  his  throne  might  be  filled  on  his  death  by  one  in 
whose  veins  ran  the  blood  of  the  Octavii  ,  and  not  till 
Tiberius  was  past  forty  did  there  appear  any  probability 
that  he  would  ever  rise  to  be  emperor  He  passed  through 
tie  list  of  state  offices  in  the  usual  princely  fashion, 
beginning  with  the  quaestorsbip  at  the.  age  of  eighteen, 
and  attaining  the  consulate  for  the  first  time  at  twenty- 
nine  From  the  great  capacity  for  civil  business  which  he 
displayed  as  emperor  it  may  be  inferred  that  he  applied 
himself  with  determination  to  learn  the  business  of 
government 

But  from  22  to  6  Be  and  again  from  4  to  10  a.d.  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  Tibenus's  life  was  spent  in  the 
camp  Hia  first  service  was  as  legionary  tribune  in  one 
of  the  desperate  and  arduous  wars  whicn  led  to  peace  in 
the  Spanish  peninsula  through  the  decimation,  or  rather  the 
extermination,  of  the  rebellious  tribes.  In  20  B  c.  Augustus 
tent  Tiberius  with  an  army  to  seat  Tigranes  of  Armenia 
on  the  throne  as  a  Roman  vassal.  As  Tiberius  approached 
the  frontier  of  Armenia,' he  found  its  throne  vacant  through 
the  assassination  of  the  king,  and  Tigranes  stepped  into 
his  place  without  a  blow  being  struck.  Tiberius  crowned 
Tigranes  king  with  his  own  hand  Then  the  Parthian  mon- 
arch grew  alarmed  and  surrendered  "  the  spoils  and  the 


'  Sde  the  discussion  in  Schurer,  Gexh.  d.  Jnd.  Vdka 


127  «v- 


slandards  of  three  Roman  armies  The  senate  ordered  a 
thanksgiving  such  as  was  usually  celebrated  in  honour  of 
a  great  victory  The  following  year  was  passed  by  Tiberius 
as  governor  ot  Transalpine  GauL  In  the  next  year  (15) 
ho  was  despatched  to  aid  his  broiUer  Drusus  in  subjugat- 
ing the  Ra;ti  and  VmdeUci,  pcofdes  dwelling  in  the 
mountainous  region  whence  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  and  Danube 
take  their  rise'  Drusus  attacked  from  the  eastern  side, 
while  Tiberius  operated  from  iho  «pper  raters  of  the 
Rhine,  and  by  stern  measures  the  mountaineers  were  re- 
duced to  a  state  of  quietude,  ana  could  no  longer  cut 
communicatioiu  between  northern  Italy  and  Gaul,  nor 
prosecute  their  raids  in  tioth  countrie*  Id  1 2  b.c  Agrippa, 
the  great  general  of  Augustas,  to  wbom  tie  may  be  almost 
said  to  have  owed  his  throne,  and  who  was  its  chief  sup- 
port, died  at  tbs  age  of  fifty-one  leaving  Julia,  the 
emperor's  only  child,  a  widow  Agnppina,  daughter  of 
Agrippa  by  an  earlier  marriage,  *a»  wife  of  Tiberius, 
and  had  borne  hun  a  son,  Drusus,  afterwards  father  of 
Germamcua  Livia  with  great  dilficuJty  prevailed  upon 
Augustus  to  replace  Agrippa  by  Tiberius,  who  was  com- 
pelled to  exchange  Agrijipina  for  Julia,  lo  hij  bittei  gnef 
During  the  year  of  mourning  (or  Agrippa,  which  delayed 
his  new  marriage,  Tiberius  was  occupied  with  a  fictorioiu 
campaign  against  the  Pannonians,  followed  by  successful 
expeditions  in  the  three  succeeding  summers  For  hif 
victories  in  the  Danube  regions,  the  euiperor  conferred 
on  htm  the  distinctions  which  Sowed  trom  a  militarj 
triumph  in  republ'can  times  (now  first  separated  from  th« 
actual  triumph),  and  he  enjoyed  the  "ovation"  or  lessei 
form  of  triumphal  entry  into  the  capital  On  the  death 
of  Drusus  in  the  autumn  of  9  B.c  Tiberius,  whose  reputa- 
tion had  hitherto  been  echpsed  by  thai  of  his  iSrother, 
stepped  into  the  position  of  first  soldier  of  the  empire 
The  army,  if  it  did  not  warmly  admire  Tiberius,  entertained 
a  loyal  confidence  in  a  leader.who,  as  Velleius  tells  us; 
always  made  the  safety  of  his  soldiers  his  first  care.  In 
the  campaign  of  the  year  after  Drusus's  death  Tiberiuj 
traversed  all  Germany  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe, 
and  met  with  slight  opposition.  But  it  would  be  too  muci 
to  believe  the  statement  of  Velleius  that  "he  reduced 
Germany  almost  to  the  position  of  a  tributary  province.' 
He  was  rewarded  with  the  full  triumph,  the  military  title 
of  "  imperator,"  and  his  second  consulship,  though  the  op- 
position of  the  powerful  Sugambri  had  been  only  broken 
by  an  act  ot  treachery,  the  guilt  of  which  should  perhaps  be 
laid  at  the  door  ol  Augustus  In  7  b.c  there  was  anothei 
but  insignificant  campaign  in  Germany  Next  year 
Augustus  bestowed  on  his  stepson  the  tnbunician  authority 
for  five  years.  Tiberius  was  thus  id  the  most  formal 
manner  associated  with  the  emperor  in  the  conduct  of  the 
government  ou  the  civil  side  but  Tacitus  (Ann.,  lii.  56) 
goes  too  lar  when  he  says  that  this  promotion  marked  hun 
out  as  the  heir  to  the  throne 

Tiberius  now  suddenly  begged  permission  to  retire  to 
Rhodes  and  devote  himself  to  study  He  seem?  to  nave 
declined  absolutely  at  the  time  to  state  his  reasons  for 
this  course,  but  he  otistinately  adhered  to  it,  in  spite  ot 
the  tears  of  Livia  and  the  lamentations  of  Augustas  to 
the  senate  that  his  son  had  betrayed  him  If  we  may 
believe  Suetonius,  Tiberius  determined  to  commit  suicide 
i)y  atistention  from  food,  and  Augustus  only  gave  way 
when  this  design  was  all  but  accomphshed  The  depart- 
ure from  Italy  waS  as  secret  as  it  could  be  made  Years 
afterwards,  when  Tiberius  broke  silence  about  hts  motives, 
he  declared  that  he  had  retired  in  order  to  allow  the  young 
princes.  Gains  and  Lucius,  sons  of  Julia,  a  tree  course. 
There  was  perhaps  a  portion  oi  the  truth  wrapped  up  in 
this  declaration.  Like  Agrippa,  who  retired  to  Mytilene 
'  Horace,  Odes,  iv.  14 


336 


TIBERIUS 


to  avoid  the  young  Marcellus,  Tiberius  had  clearly  no 
taste  to  become  the  servant  of  the  two  children  whom 
Augustus  had  adopted  in  their  infancy  and  evidently 
destined  to  be  joint  emperors  after  his  death.  But  it  may 
well  be  believed  that  Tiberius,  unlike  Agrippa.  had  no 
burning  ambition  to  see  himself  in  the  place  destined  for 
his  stepsons  ,  and  it  may  have  been  in  his  eyes  one  of  the 
attractions  of  exile  that  it  released  him  from  the  obligation 
to  aid  in  carrying  out  the  far-reaching  designs  which 
Livia  cherished  for  his  sake  But  the  contemporaries  of 
Tiberius  were  no  douht  right  in  believing  that  the  scandal 
of  Julia's  life  did  more  than  all  else  to  render  his  po.sition 
at  Rome  intolerable  His  conduct  to  her  Irom  first  to  last 
gives  a  strong  impression  of  Ins  dignity  and  selfresfiect. 
When  at  last  the  emperor's  eyes  were  oi)ened,  and  he  in- 
flicted severe  puni^iment  upon  his  daughter,  her  husband, 
now  divorced  by  the  emperors  act,  made  earnest  interces- 
sion for  her,  and  did  what  he  could  to  alleviate  her  suffer- 
ing At  Rhodes  Tiberius  lived  simply,  passing  his  time 
mainly  in  the  company  of  Greek  profcs.-,ors,  with  whom 
he  associated  on  pretty  equal  terms  He  acquired  a  very 
considerable  proficiency  in  the  siudie>  of  the  day,  among 
which  must  be  reckoned  astrology  But  all  his  attempts 
at  composition,  whether  in  prost  or  verse,  were  laboured 
and  obscure.  After  hve  years  absence  from  Rome,  he 
begged  for  leave  to  return  but  tlie  IX)on  was  angrily  re- 
fused, and  Livia  with  dilhculty  liot  her  son  made  nomin- 
ally a  legate  of  Augustus,  so  as  in  some  degree  to  ved  his 
disgrace.  The  next  two  years  were  spent  in  solitude  aud 
gloom.  Then,  on  the  intercession  of  Gams,  Augustus 
allowed  Tiberius  to  come  back  to  Rome,  but  on  the  ex- 
press understanding  that  be  was  to  hold  aloof  from  all 
l>ublic  functions, — an  understanding  which  he  thoroughly 
carried  out. 

He  had  scarcely  returned  before  death  removed  (2  \.d.) 
Lucius,  the  younger  of  the  two  princes,  and  a  year  and  a 
half  later  Gaius  also  died  The  emperoi  was  thus  left 
with  only  one  remaining  male  descendant,  Agrippa  Pos- 
tumus,  youngest  son  of  Julia,  and  still  a  boy.  Four 
months  after  Gaius's  death  Augustus  adopted  Agrippa 
and  at  the  same  tinte  Tiberius  The  emperor  now  indi- 
cated clearly  his  expectation  that  Tiberius  would  be  his 
principal  successor.  The  two  essential  ingredients  in  the 
imperial  authority — the  proconsutare  vmpenum  and  the 
tribunicux  potestaa — were  conferred  on  Tibenus,  and  uot 
on  Agrippa,  who  was  too  young  to  receive  thenL  Tibenus's 
career  as  a  general  now  began  anew  In  two  or  three 
safe  rather  than  brilliant  campaigns  he  strengthened  im- 
mensely the  Roman  hold  on  Germany,  and  established  the 
winter  camps  of  the  legions  in  the  mtenor,  away  from  the 
Rhine. 

In  5  A.D.  it  became  necessary  to  attack  Maroboduus, 
who  by  combining  peoples  formerly  hostile  to  each  other 
had  constructed  a  formidable  power,  with  its  centre  in 
Bohemia,  menacing  the  Roman  acquisitions  in  Germany, 
Noricum,  and  Pannonia  The  operations  were  conducted 
both  from  the  Rhine  and  from  the  Danube,  Tibenus  being 
in  command  of  the  southern  army  Just  as  the  decisive 
engagement  was  about  to  take  place,  Tibenus  learned  that 
Pannonia  and  Dalmatia  were  aflame  with  insurrection  in 
his  rear.  He  was  therefore  forced  to  conclude  peace  on 
terms  honourable  to  Maroboduus  The  terror  inspired  m 
Italy  by  the  Pannonian  and  Dalmatian  rebellion  under 
the  able  chief  Bato  had  had  no  parallel  since  the  invasion 
of  the  Cinibn  and  Teutones.  The  four  serious  campaigns 
which  the  war  cost  displayed  Tiberius  at  his  best  as  a 
general.  As  he  was  about  to  celebrate  his  well -won 
triumphs,  the  tenible  catastrophe  to  Varus  and  his  legions 
turned  the  rejoicing  into  lasting  sorrow,  and  produced  a 
profound  change  in  the  Roman  jiolicy  towards  Germany. 


Although  Tiberius  with  his  nepnew  and  adopted  son  Get 
mamcus  made  in  9  and  10  a.d.  two  more  marches  into  the 
interior  of  Germany,  the  Romans  never  agam  attempted 
to  bound  their  domain  by  the  Elbe,  but  clung  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Rhine.  Tiberius  was  thus  robbed 
in  great  part  of  the  fruit  of  his  campaigns ;  but  nothing 
can  deprive  him  of  the  credit  of  bemg  a  chief  founder  of 
the  imperial  system  in  the  lands  of  Europe.  From  the 
begmning  of  11,  when  he  celebrated  a  magnificent  triumph, 
to  the  time  of  the  emperor's  death  in  1 4  Tibenus  remained 
almflst  entirely  in  Italy,  and  held  rather  the  position  of 
joint  emperor  than  that  of  expectant  heir.  Agnppa  Pos- 
tumus  had  proved  his  incapacity  beyond  hope,  and  had 
been  banished  to  a  o'jsolate  island.  In  all  probability 
Tibenus  was  not  present  when  Augustus  died,  although 
Livia  spread  rejiorts  (eagerly  amplified  by  Velleius)  of  an 
affectionate  interview  and  a  lingering  farewell. 

Tibenus  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  fifly-six.  \Miat  stnitk 
his  contemporaries  most  was  his  absolute  impenetrability.  As  waa- 
•iaid  of  a  very  different  man,  the  poet  Gray,  "  he  never  spokr  out." 
All  his  feelings,  desires,  passions,  and  ambitions  were  locked  behind 
an  impassable  barrier,  and  had  to  be  mterpreted  by  the  very  un- 
certain light  of  his  external  acts  It  is  recorded  of  him  that  only 
once  did  he  as  commander  take  counsel  with  his  officers  concerning 
military  operations,  and  that  was  when  the  desti-uction  of  Vanis's 
legions  had  made  it  imperatively  necessary  not  hghtly  to  risk  the 
loss  of  a  single  soldier.  He  was  an  unparalleled  master  of  passive 
and  sdent  dissimulation,  and  the  inevitable  penalty  of  his  inscrata- 
bility  was  widespread  dislike  and  suspicion  But  behind  his  defences 
there  lay  an  intellect  of  high  power,  cold,  clear,  and  penetrating  all 
disguises.  Few  have  ever  possessed  such  mental  vision,  and  he  waa 
probably  never  deceived  either  about  the  weaknesses  of  others  or 
about  his  own.  For  the  littleness  and  servility  of  public  Ufe  in 
regions  below  the  court  he  enteitained  a  strong  contempt  It  is  a 
question  whether  he  ever  liked  or  was  liked  by  a  single  being  ;  but 
he  did  his  duty  by  those  with  whom  he  was  connected  after  a 
thorough  though  stem  and  unlovable  fashion.  As  a  general  he 
commanded  the  full  confidence  of  his  soldiers,  though  he  was  a 
severe  disciplinarian ;  yet  the  men  of  his  o^ni  legions  greeted  his 
accession  to  the  throne  with  a  mnQsy.  Tiberius  proved  himself 
capable  in  every  department  of  theNtate  more  by  virtue  of  industry 
and  appUcation  than  by  genius.  His  mmd  moved  so  slowly  and 
he  was  accustomed  to  deliberate  so  long  that  men  sometimes  mada 
the  mistake  of  deeming  him  a  weakling  and  a  wavei«r.  He  was  in 
reality  one  of  the  most  tenacious  of  men  When  be  bad  once 
formed  an  aim  he  could  wait  patiently  for  years  till  the  favourable 
moment  enabled  htm  to  achieve  it,  and  if  compelled  to  yield  ground 
he  never  failed  to  re'»ver  it  m  the  end  The  key  to  much  of  his 
character  lies  in  the  observation  that  he  had  in  early  life  set  before 
himself  a  certam  ideal  of  what  a  Roman  m  high  position  ought  to 
be,  and  to  this  ideal  he  ngidly  and  religiously  adnered-  He  may 
m  one  sense  be  said  to  have  acted  a  part  throughout  life,  but  that 
part  had  entered  into  and  inlerpeneti-ated  his  .vhole  nature.  His 
ideal  of  character  was  pretty  much  that  of  the  two  Catos.  He 
practised  sternness,  silence,  simplicirj'  of  Ufe,  and  frugality  as  he 
deemed  that  they  had  been  practised  by  the  Fabricii,  the  Cimi, 
and  the  FabiL  That  Tiberins's  character  was  stained  by  vice  before 
be  became  emperor  no  one  who  fairly  weighs  the  records  can  believe. 
The  persuasion  entertained  by  many  at  the  end  of  his  life  that  he 
had  been  always  a  monster  of  wickedness,  but  had  succeeded  in 
concealing  the  fact  till  he  became  emperor,  has^'ightly,  but  enly 
abghtly,  discoloured  the  narratives  we  possess  of  his  earlier  years. 
The  change  which  came  over  him  in  the  'ast  years  of  his  hfe 
seems  to  have  been  due  to  a  kind  of  constitntional  clouding  of  the 
spirits,  which  made  him  what  the  elder  Pbny  calls  him,  "the 
gloomiest  of  luaakmd,"  and  disposed  him  to  brood  over  mysteries 
aud  superstitious.  As  this  gloom  deepeued  his  will  grew  weaker, 
his  power  tended  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  unworthy  instrnments, 
terrors  closed  iu  around  his  mind,  and  his  naturally  clear  vision 
was  perturbed. 

The  change  of  masters  had  been  anticipated  by  the 
Roman  world  with  apprehension,  but  it  was  smoothly 
accomphshed.  Tiberius  was  already  invested  with  th» 
necessary  powers,  and  it  may  even  be  that  the  senate  was 
not  permitted  the  satisfaction  of  giving  a  fonnal  sanction 
to  his  accession.  Agrippa  Postumns  was  put  to  death; 
but  Livia  may  be  reasonably  regarded  as  the  instigator 
of  this  crime.  Livia  indeed  expected  to  share  the  im- 
perial authority  with  her  sou.  At  first  Tiberius  allowed 
some  recognition  to  the  claim  ,  but  he  soon  shook  himself 


VOL.  XX III 


Page  337. 


T  I   B  — T  I  B. 


337 


free,  ant!  laltr  bccime  estranged  from  Uis  motbcr  and  luld 
ho  coinnmnication  with  her  for  ycai"s  before  her  death  Tlic 
history  of  Tibtrms's  relations  with  other  nicinhcrs  of  his 
family  is  hanlly  less  miserable  Perhaps  with  any  other 
commander  than  Oermanicus  the  dangerous  mutiny  of  the 
troops  on  the  Rhine  which  broke  out  soon  after  Tiberius s 
accession  wouhi  have  ended  in  a  march  of  the  discontcuted 
legions  upon  the  capital.  The  perilous  episode  of  Arminiuy 
caused  the  recall  of  Germanicus  and  his  despatch  to  the 
East  on  an  hououmble  but  comparatively  inactive  mission. 
|The  prnJe  aiid  passion  of  Agrippina.  the  granddaughter 
of  Augustus  and  wife  of  Germanicus,  tended  to  open  a 
breAch  between  lier  husband  and  the  emperor  In  his 
Eastern  command  Germanicus  found  himself  perpetually 
svatched  and  even  violently  opposed  by  Piso,  the  governor 
of  Syria,  who  was  suspected  to  have  received  secret  orders 
from  Tiberius.  When  Germanicus  died  at  Antioch  in  19 
A.D.,  the  populace  of  Rome  combined  with  Agrippina  in 
demanding  vengeance  upon  Piso ;  and  the  emperor  was 
forced  to  disown  him.  The  death  of  Germanicus  was 
followed  four  years  later  by  that  of  Drusua.  These  two 
princes  had  been  firm  friends,  and  Livilla,  the  wife  of 
Drusus,  was  sister  to  Germanicus.  Years  afterwards  it 
was  found  that  Drusus  had  fallen  a  victim  to  the  treachery 
of  his  wife  Livilla,  who  had  joined  her  ambition  to  that  of 
the  emperor's  minister  of  state  Sejanus.  When  Drusus 
died,  Tiberius  nominated  two  of  Aigrippina's  sons  as  his 
heirs.  But  Sejanus  had  grown  strong  by  nursing  the 
emperor's  suspicions  and  dislike  for  the  household  of 
Oermanicus,  and  the  mother  and  the  princes  were  im- 
prisoned on  a  charge  of  crime.  In  his  memoirs  of  hia  own 
life  Tiberius  declared  that  he  killed  Sejanus  because  he 
had  discovered  that  he  entertained  a  mad  rage  against  the 
sons  of  Germanicus.  But  the  destruction  of  Sejanus  did 
not  save  Agrippina  and  her  two  children.  The  third  son, 
Gaius  Caesar  (Caligula),  lived  to  become  emperor  when 
Tiberius  died  in  37. 

Throughout  his  reifru  Tiberius  strove  earnestly  to  do  his  duty  to 
the  empire  at  large  ;  his  guiding  principle  was  to  maintain  with  an 
almost  superstitious  reverence  the  constitutional  forms  which  had 
been  constructed  by  Augustus.  Only  two  changes  of  moment  were 
intro^luccd.  The  imperial  guard,  hitherto  only  seen  in  the  city  in 
small  detachments,  was  by  the  advice  of  Sejannn  encamped  per- 
manently in  fuLJ  force  close  to  the  walls.  By  this  measure  the  tur- 
bulence  of  the  populace  was  kept  in  check.  The  officer  in  command 
of  the  guard  became  at  once  the  most  important  of  the  emperor's 
neutenants.  The  other  change  was  the  practicaUv  complete  aboli* 
tioD  of  the  old  comitia.  But  the  senate  was  treated  with  an  almost 
hypocritical' deference,  and  a  pedantically  precise  compliance  with 
the  old  republican  forms  was  observed  towards  the  senatorial  magis- 
trates. Tlie  care  expended  by  Tiberius  on  the  provinces  was  unre- 
roittinff.  His  favourite  maxiTi  was  that  a  good  shepherd  should 
shear  tne  flock  and  not  flay  it  When  he  died  he  left  the  subiect 
peoples  of  the  empire  in  a  condition  of  piosperity  a^ch  as  they  nad 
never  knowD  before  and  never  knew  again.  Soldiers,  governors, 
and  officials  of  all  kinds  were  kept  in  wholesome  dread  of. vengeance 
if  they  oppressed  those  beneath  them  or  encouraged  irregularity  of 
any  kind  Strict  economy  permitted  light  taxation  and  enabled 
the  emperor  to  show  generosity  in  periods  of  exceptional  distress. 
Public  security  both  in  Italy  and  abroad  was  maintained  by  a  strong 
hand,  and  commerce  was  stimulated  by  the  improvement  of  com- 
munications Jurisdiction  both  within  and  without  the  capital 
was  on  the  whole  exercised  with  ateadineas  and  equity,  and  the 
laws  of  the  empire  were  at  many  points  improved.  The  social  and 
(BOi-al  reforms  of  Augustus  were  upheld  and  carried  further.  Such 
risings  against  the  emperor's  authority  as  occurred  within  the 
Roman  domain  wer«  put  do|wn  with  no  great  difficulty.  The 
foreign  or  rather  the  frontier  policy  was  a  policy  of  peace,  and  it 


was  pursued  with  con.'iideralilc  success.^  With  few  exceptions  tlie 
duties  of  llio«Roman  forces  on  the  borders  were  confined  to  watch- 
iii^-^  (lie  peoples  on  the  other  sido  while  they  destroyed  each  othcrJ 
Oil  the  Rhine,  at  least,  niasteriy  iuftctivity  achieved  tranquilUt>7 
wliiL-h  lasted  for  a  long  period 

'I'll*  disr^jnitc  which  attadics  to  the  roign  of  Tiberius  has  com c- 
maiitly  fioin  three  or  foiu  soimcl-s,  — from  the  lamentable  story  ot 
the  imperial  honsohold,  from  the  tales  ol  hideous  debauchery  prac* 
tised  in  deep  retirement  at  Caprca;  diiriiii,'  the  last  eluvcn  years  ot 
the  emperor's  life,  from  the  tyranny  whuli  Scjanus  was  permitted 
to  wield  in  his  master's  name,  and  from  the  political  prosecutions 
.nnd  executions  which  Tiberius  encouraged,  more  by  silent  compliance 
than  by  open  incitement.  Tlic  stones  of  immorality  arc  recorded^ 
chicdy  by  Suetonius,  w)io  has  evidently  used  a  poisoned  source,! 
jiossibly  the  memoirs  of  the  younger  Agrippina,  the  mother  ofi 
Nero.  Tiberius  loved  to  shroud  himsell  in  mystery,  and  such 
stories  are  probably  the  result  of  unfriendly  attempts  to  uplift 
-the  darkness.  If  history  ventures  to  doubt  the  blackness  ol 
Theodora,  that  of  Tiberius  grows  continually  lighter  under  the 
investigations  of  criticism.  Suetonius  makes  the  emperor's  con- 
dition to  have  been  one  of  mania,  issuing  frequently  in  the  aban- 
donment of  all  moral  restraint.  'But  in  that  case  the  authority 
of  Tiberius,  \*hich  was  as  firmly  upheld  during  the  years  spent  at 
Caprece  as  it  had  been  earlier,  must  have  fallen  to  pieces  and  come 
to  an  end.  With  respect  to  Sejanus  it  is  impossible  to  acquit 
Tiberius  of  blame.  If  he  was  deceived  in  his  favourite  he  must 
have  been  wilhng  to  be  deceived.  He  conferred  on  Sejanus  a 
position  as  great  as  had  been  held  by  Agnppa  during  the  reiglt 
of  Augustus,  and  the  minister  was  actually,  and  all  but  formally »' 
joiut  emperor.  Of  the  administrative  ability  of  Sejanus  there  can 
be  no  question  ;  but  the  charm  and  secret  of  bis  power  lay  in  the 
use  he  made  of  those  apprehensions  of  personal  danger  which  seerot 
never  to  have  been  absent  from  his  master's  mind.  The  growth  oJ 
•'delation,'*  the  darkest  shadow  that  lies  on  the  reign,  was  in  part 
a  consequence  of  the  supremacy  and  the  arts  of  Sejanus.  Historians 
of  Rome  in  ancient  times  remembered  Tiberius  chiefly  as  the  sove- 
reign under  whose  rule  prosecutions  for  treason  on  slight  pretexts 
first  became  rife,  and  the  hateful  race  of  informers  was  first  allowed 
to  fatten  on  the  gains  of  judicial  murder.  Augustus  had  allowed 
considerable  licence  of  speech  and  writing  against  himself,  and  had 
made  no  attempt  to  set  up  a  doctrine  of  constructive  treoFon.  But 
the  history  of  the  state  trials  of  Tiberius's  reign  shows  conclusively 
that  the  straining  of  the  law  proceeded  in  the  first  instance  from 
the  eager  flattery  of  the  senate,  was  in -the  earlier  days  checked  and 
controlled  to  a  great  extent  by  the  emperor,  and  was  by  him 
acquiesced  in  after  a  time  with  a  sort  of  contemptuous  indiff"erence,' 
till  he  developed*  under  the  influence  of  his  fears,  a  readiness  to 
shed  blood. 

The  principal  authorities  for  the  reign  of  Tiberiua  are  Tacitua  aud  tjuctonius^ 
The  Annntu  of  TacituB  were  not  published  till  nearly  eighty  years  after  the 
death  of  Tiberius,  He  rarely  quotes  an  authority  by  name.  In  all  probability 
be  drew  most  largely  from  other  histonanB  who  had  preceded  him  ;  to  some 
extent  be  availed  bimaelf  of  oral  traditiOD  ;  aQd  of  archives  aod  original  records 
he  made  aome,  but  comparatively  little,  uee.  In  hid  history  of  Tiberiua  two 
influeocea  were  at  work,  in  almost  equal  strength  :  on  the  one  hand  he 
Btrivea  continually  after  fairness ;  on  the  other  the  bias  of  a  man  steeped  ia 
senatorial  traditions  forbids  him  to  attain  it.  1'acitua  is  certaioly  not  among 
the  historians  in  whom  our  confidence  grows  by  repeated  reading.  Suetoniue 
was  ft  biographer  rather  than  an  historian,  and  the  ancient  biographer  waa 
even  less  given  to  exhPastivo  Inquiry  than  the  ancient  historian  ;  -moreover 
Huetoniue  waa  not  gifted  with  exeat  critical  faculty,  though  he  told  the  trutt* 
so  far  aa  he  could  see  it,  Hia  Liva  qf  the  Twdvt  Cu-sars  was  \vntten  nearly  at 
the  lime  when  Tacitua  waa  composing  the  Annals,  but  was  published  a  littla 
later.  Velleiua  Patercalus  la  by  fhr  the  oldest  authority  for  any  part  of  Tibe- 
rius's life.  He  had  Iwen  an  officer  under  Tiberma,  and  he  eulogizes  hia  old 
general  eDthuaiaatically,  —feeling  it  necessary,  however,  to  do  less  than  justice 
to  the  achievementa  of  Oerminicna.  To  Velleius  all  defenders  of  Tiberius  have 
eagerly  appealed.  Id  truth  it  Is  hia  silence  alone  which  aOords  any  ex'ternal 
aia  In  repelling  the  charges  of  Tacitua  and  Suetonius,  and  the  fact  that  Velleiua 
published  his  work  in  the  lifetime  of  his  master  deprives  that  silence  of  its 
vil-ie.  The  eulogy  of  S^anua  which  is  linked  wjth  that  of  Tibonus  must  iieeda 
shi  ke  faith  In  the  acnipulousness  of  the  author.  It  is  still  doubLful  whether 
Di'  CaaaiUB  (whose  History  ended  with  the  year  229)  in  hia  narrative  of  th& 
reign  of  Tiberiua  ia  toany  great  extent  independent  of  Tacitus.  In  recent  times 
a  considerable  mass  of  inscnplious  has  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  thia  emperor.  The  chief  account  of  Tiberius  in  English  is  thatt 
contained  in  Dean  Menvale'a  History  0/  the  Romans  uiuicr  fhe  Empire.  Mr 
Beesly  has  written  an  interesting  defence  of  him  in  his  Cadlme,  Godhis,  and 
Tiben-iLS.  The  best  recent  history  of  this  period  is  Hermann  Schillers  Ce* 
schirJiU  der  romuchen  Kaiserzett  (Gotha,  1883).  Numerous  monographs  relating 
to  the  reign  have  appeared  In  recent  times  on  the  Continent.  The  pnaciples 
of  the  imperial  administration  of  the  provinces  oy  Tiberius  have  been  treated 
by  Mommsen  in  the  fifth  volume  of  hia  History  0/  Home,  translated  into  English 
under  the  title  of  The  Rovian  Provinces  from  Augustus  to  Dioclctiah.  (J.  3.  R.J 

TIBKSTL     Seo  Sahaka,  vol.  xxi.  p.  149,  and  TiBBaa.. 


TIBET 


Platerv.nniBET,!  Thibet,  or  Tubet,  an  extennive  and  highly 
A.  elevated  region  in  the  heart  of  Asia,  comprising 
tablelands  ranging  from  10,000  to  17, GOO  feet  above  eea- 

'  The  Bacie  Tibet  iu^pt,  fl£  naualiy  alleged.  Moknown  ia  the  couatry 
3—14  ' 


level.    The  Himalayan  mountain  ranges  and  the  transvcr.se 
ranges  of  upper  Yun-nao  constitute  the  sonthern  scarp, 

itself,  though  only  foand  there  in  an  attenuated  fona.     The  following 
formo  are  also  mot  with     in  Chinese  annals  T'u-tat  (6th  cent.)  ftnd 

XXIII.  —  43 


338 


T  1   BET 


Igeoceapht 


Bonnd-  ii\B  Yun-Iing  MountamF  of  China  the  eastern  scarp,  and 
•"**  the  Kuen-Lun  ^Kjun-Luni  ranges  the  northern  scarp, 
toxi^rds  TnrkestaD  ind  Mongolia  on  the  west,  where  it 
aarrows  considerably  it  merges  into  the  Pamir  tablelands. 
Its  extreme  length  from  east  to  west  exceeds  1 600  miles , 
its  breadth  from  "north  to  aoutb  ranges  from  150  mile.=  in 
the  west  to  an  average  of  500  in  centra)  Tibet  and  % 
maximum  of  700  in  the  east  The  area  of  Tibet  exceeds 
700.000  square  miles 

Much  of  Tibet  is  wholJv  abandoned  to  wild  animals,  and 
much  is  nncultivable  and  occupied  o"'v  by  various  wan- 
deniig  tribes  ol  nomads      The  centres  of  the  settled  and 

Nama  Tie-lm-u,  J^u-tm-te  (lltb  cent.,  lu  Mongolian,  ruiei  Tobot;  in 
Arabic  Tvl^t:  Rabbi  Beniamin  U1G5).  Thibet;  i  de  Piano  Carpini 
(1247),  Thaiet;  Rubruquis  11253).  Marco  Polo  (1298),  Tebet  ,  Ibn 
BatuU  (1340),  T?iahat  Ibn  Haukal  (976|,  Al  Birum  (1020),  Odoric 
of  Pordenone  (c  1328),  Orazio  deUa  Penna  (1730;,  Tibet  A  Tibetan, 
arriving  at  Darchiendo  from  Lhasa,  states  that  he  comes  from  Teu-peu, 
vneaniDg  High  or  Upper  Tibet. — Stod-Bod  in  contradistinction  to  Smad- 
Bod-TT  Lower  Tibet  The  t'ormer  expression,  were  it  supportel  by 
dny  ancient  authority,  might  be  regarded  as  the  etymological  origin 
of-^*  Tibet  "  historical  evidence,  however,  seems  to  indicate  another 
source.  The  state  of  which  Lhasa  Is  the  capital  is  often  called  '*  Deba 
joDg '  or  ■ '  land  of  the  Oebas  "  (sdepa  Ijongs)  The  title  of  the  tepa 
lama  is  tamiliar  Chinese  records  say  that  the  king  of  the  country  is 
called  diba  and  Joh.  Grueber  informs  us  that  the  king  is  styled  deiu 
or  tera.  and  is  descended  from  an  ancient  race  of  Tangut  Tatars.  The 
Chinese  annalf  of  the  T'ang  dynasty  record  that  Fanni  Tubat,  the 
^listohcal  founder  of  a  state  in  the  east  of  Tibet  in  433,  gave  to  his 
-dominion  his  surname  of  Tubat.  This  was  a  famous  family  name 
^iroper  to  several  Tatar  dynasties  which  ruled  in  the  nortB  and  north- 
west of  China,  and  belonged  to  the  Sien-pi  race,  id  the  language  of 
■which  tvbal  meant  '*a  coverlet"  An  appended  legend  stated  that 
^the  fifth-  ancestor  of  Liluku,  the  founder  of  the  southern  Liang  dynasty 
-and  family  and  father  of  Fanni,  derived  the  surname  of  Tubat,  which 
'became  that  of  his  family,  from  the  fact  that  he  was  bom  m  a  cov/arlet 
while  his  mother  Huykshe  was  sleeping  However  worthless  the 
legend,  there'is  complete  similarity  between  the  name  of  the  Tubat  or 
'Tobat  Tatars  and  that  of  Tibet,  and  we  may  with  considerable  safety 
take  the  latter  woni  as  derived  from  the  former,  the  fact  bemg  that 
at  was  and  is  stiU  extensively  used  in  the  sense  of  *'great"  "chief," 
among  the  Tatar  tribes  Tibet,  however,  is  not  the  name  by  which 
Hhe  modem  Tibetans  designate  themselves  and  their  country  Bod-pa, 
"a  man  of  Bod,"  Bod-ynl.  "country  of  Bod.*  are  the  expressions 
rm  current  use  but  what  "  Bod  *'  means  Li  uncertain.  Hodgson  has 
mialntamed  that  before  the  arrival  of  Indian  teachers  the  people 
3iad  no  name  for  themselves  or  their  country,  and  the  present  Bod 
•jximes  trom  the  Sanskrit  B'6t — an  opmion  which,  though  inconsistent 
with  tlk»  evidence  collected  about  Tdbat.  is  rather  confirmed  by  a 
legendary  account  According  to  that  account,  the  country,  which 
■was  occupied  bv  a  race  of  men  not  yet  emerged  from  primitive  bar- 
barism, was  onginally  called  Bod-rgyal,  i.e,  "  Bod's  victory  '  The 
-secondary  name  then  might  be  in  its  simple  form  Bod,  g  Buddhist 
Appellative  suggested  by  the  Sanskrit  homonyms  of  -hat  or  -b'at,  part  of 
-the  name  brought  in  by  the  Tatar  conquerors  Anyhow  there  is  no 
■occasion  for  the  other  etymologies  suggested,  such  as  that  from 
Buddha,  or  that  proposed  by  Schiefner  (f'wi  and  pod,  both  meaning 
*'able*'  **  capable  "\  An  old  name  for  Tibet  in  the  native  books  is 
■tjdong-mar-gyi-yul.  "country  of  the  red-faced  men.  so  called  ap- 
■parently  from  the  ancient  national  custom  of  painting  the  tace  red, — 
.a  practice  which  was -forbidden  by  King  Srong-btsan  at  the  instance 
-of  his  wife  Wan  ch'eng,  a  Chinese  princess  Among  the  Mongols 
Tibet  was  simply  called  Barontala  (the  "nghtside").  in  contradis- 
■tinction  to  Dzontala  (the  "  left  side  "),  which  was  among  them  the 
aiame  of  Mongolia  In  China,  dunog  the  Yuan  or  Mongol  dynasty,  it 
was  called  Wei-sze-Tsang,  id  which  we  recognize  the  names  of  the  two 
■central  provinces  of  DbUs  (Ul  and  Tsang  R.hachi.  Khache,  Khaschi, 
Kashi,  are  vanous  forms  of  a  term  which  is  often  met  with  in  books 
as  applied  to  a  part  of  the  plateaus  of  Tibet,  and  v-hich  cannot  without 
■difficulty  be  identified  in  positive  geography  We  lake  it  to  be  simply 
31  revival  of  the  old  name  of  the  Tangut  or  Hia  kingdom,  the  Khashi 
■or  Ehoshl  of  the  Mongols  (982-1227),  on  the  north-east  of  Tibet,  on 
■the  west  of  the  Hoang-io.  whence  Ho-si  in  Chinese  history,  and  per- 
1[iape  the  origin  of  the  name  In  the  11th  century  Milaraspa  made 
■ose  of  the  term  K'ach6  for  Mussulman  ;  Hue  and  Gabet  have  reported 
"the  use  of  the  same  expression  in  the  central  provinces  with  a  similar 
^acceptation  A  popular  etymology  has  confounded  it  with  the  words 
K'a-chp  for  K'a-cben.  literally-*' big  mouth."  which  is  now  supposed 
to  be  Its  meaning  when  applied  to  Mohammedans  Kashmir  is  also 
-called  K'a-cbe.  from  the  fact  that  it  is  under  Mohammedan  rule,  says 
..Jaeschke ;  but.  as  this  has  been  the  case  only  since  1605,  there  is 
igreat  probability  that  here  the  l«rm  is  simply  used  as  an  abridged 
iform  of  Kashmir  |T.  de  L.  ) 


agricultural  population  Up  to  the  south,  in  a  region 
named  Bod-yul  (meaning  Bod-land)  by  the  inhabitants, 
who  are  called  Bod-pas  by  the  Hindus  it  is  called  Bhot, 
and  bv  the  Chinese  Si-tsang  The  greater  portion  oJ  this 
region  la  governed  uno-ir  the  supremacy  of  China,  by 
lamas  ana  gyalpos.  ecclesiastical  and  lay  Bodpaii.  the 
principal  seal  of  government  bemg  at  Lhasa,  the  chief 
city  of  Bod-yul  Portions  are  subject  to  Kashmir  and 
Nepal  and  to  independent  chieftains,  and  portion."  are 
directly  subject  to  China  r  but  the  Bod-pa  ethnological 
element  prevails  more  or  less  throughout 

Tibet  was  long  a  terra  iricogmta  to  Europeans  It  if 
diflScuIt  ol  access  on  all  sides,  and  everywhere  difficult  to 
traverse  Its  great  elevation  causes  the  climate  to  be 
rather  arctic  than  tropical,  so  that  tiierS  is  no  gradual 
blending  of  the  climates  and  physical  conditions  of  Indi» 
and  Tibet,  such  as  would  tend  to  promote  intercourse 
between  the  inhabitants  of  these  neighbourmg  regions 
on  the  contrary,  there  are  sharp  hnes  of  demarcation,  in  a 
mountain  barrier  which  is  scalable  at  only  a  few  points 
and  in  the  social  aspects  and  conditions  of  life  On  either 
side  No  great  armies  have  ever  crossed  Tibet  to  invade 
India,  even  those  of  Jenghiz  Khan  took  the  circuitous 
route  ma  Bokhara  and  Afghanistan,  not  the  direct  route 
from  Mongolia  across  Tibet  Thus  it  was  no  easy  matter  Ehp.- 
for  the  early  European  travellers  to  hnd  their  way  mto  P"" 
and  explore  Tibet  Friar  Odoric  ot  Pordenone  is  sup-^"^' 
posed  to  have  reached  Lhisa  circ  1328,  travelling  from 
Cathay  ttiree  centuries  afterwards  the  Jesuit  Antonw 
Andrada,  travelling  from  India,  entered  Tibet  on  the  weak 
in  the  Manasarowar  Lake-  region,  and  made  his  waj 
across  to  Tangut  and  north-western  China  in  1661 
Fathers  Grueber  and  D'Orville  travelled  from  Peking  vt* 
Tangut  to  Lhasa,  and  thence  through  Nepal  to  India , 
and  during  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century  various  Capu- 
chin fnars  appear  to  have  passed  freely  between  Delhi  and 
Lhasa,  by  way  either  of  Nepal  or  Kashmir  The  first 
Englishman  to  enter  Tibet  was  George  Bogle,  id  1774.  on 
an  embassy  from  Warren  Hastings  u>  the  tashi  (teaha) 
lama  of  Shigatze  In  1811  Thomas  Mannmg  made  hi* 
way  from  India  to  Lhasa  he  is  the  only  Englishmaa 
who  has  succeeded  in  reaching  the  sacred  city,  and  he 
had  soon  to  leave  it  During  the  19th  century  European* 
have  been  systematically  prevented  from  entering  the 
country  or  speedily  expelled  if  found  in  it  In  1 844-44 
the  French  missionaries  Hue  and  Gabet  made  their  way 
to  Lhasa  from  China,  but  were  soon  deported  back  again. 
In  1866  the  Abb6  Desgodins  travelled  through  portions 
ol  eastern  Tibet  and  reached  Chiamdo  (in  Kh4m),  but 
was  prevented  trom  approaching  any  closer  to  Lhasa. 
Last  ol  all  the  Russian  Colonel  Prejevalsky  succeeded  m 
exploring  portions  of  northern  Tibet,  but  was  unable  te 
penetrate  southwards  into  Bodland 

Geographers  have  long  been  in  possession  ol  maps  of  Tibet,  com-  Uap* 
piled  from  surveys  executed  early  in  the  18th  century  by  lamaa,  - 
under  instructions  from  the  -lesuit  fathers  who  ma^  a  survey  di 
China  for  the  emperor  Rang-he  The  lamas  maps  were  the  basib 
of  D'Anville's  AlUu,  published  in  1733.  and  were  employed  by 
Klaproth  m  constructing  his  map  ot  Asia  in  1824  but  tney  ar« 
generally  very  meagre,  only  reliable  in  the  vicinity  of  the  principal 
roads,  and  occasionally  very  misleading  Thev  must  have  beea 
compiled  at  best  from  rude  estimates  of  distance  and  direction,  and 
in  some  parts  from  mere  hearsay  or  con.iecture  They  are.  how- 
ever, supposed  to  have  been  based  on  astronomical  determinations 
ol  position  ■  but  this  is  improbable,  for  the  latitude."  ol  such  im- 
portant places  as  Lhasa  and  Batang  are  30  to  60  miles  in  error. 
Our  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the  country  is  complete  only  for 
portions  of  western  Tibet,  which  are  subject  to  the  maharajah  of 
Ka-shniir,  and  have  been  regularly  surveyed  This  knowledge  has 
been  largely  supplemented  during  the  last  twenty  years  by  th» 
work  of  natives  of  India— the  so-called  trans-Jlimalayau  explorcn 
of  the  Indian  Survey,  noUbly  Pandits  Nain  Singh  and  Krishn» 
(A — K)— who  have  been  trained  to  carry  route  surveys  througi 
regions  whictf  they  may,  but  Europeans  may  not,  ent«i 


CBO08*rnY 


) 


TIBET 


339 


Gtogr^-,  Tibet  is  commonly  divided  into  two  parts  called  Great 
phic»]  a:id  Little  Tibet, -the  former  lying  between  102°  and  79' 
1 -wots  £  ,gj,^,_  ,|,j,  mjg^  between  79°  and  74°.  Great  Tibet  is 
broadly  divisible  into  a  western  region,  in  which  there  is 
a  considerable  preponderance  of  tableland  over  hill  and 
mountain  and  of  lake  basins  over  river  basins,  and  an 
eastern  region,  in  which  the  reverse  holds  good  and  the 
surface  of  the  ground  is  so  greatly  corrugated  that  the 
natives  call  it  rong-rtsub,  "  a  rough  country  full  of  ravines." 
In  Little  Tibet  the  Himalayas  converge  towards  the  Kuen- 
Lun.and  the  breadth  of  the  plateau  meridionally  diminishes 
to  less  than  a  fourth  of  what  it  attains  in  Great  Tibet. 
The  entire  region  may  be  broadly  divided  into  three  longi- 
tudinal zones,  increasing  in  elevation  from  south  to  north, 
viz.,  a  southern  zone,  which  contains  the  centres  of  the 
«ettled  and  agricultural  population  ;  a  middle  zone,  com- 
prising the  pasture  lands  of  the  Bod-pa  nomads ;  and  a 
northern  zone,  for  the  most  part  abandoned  to  wild  animals, 
but  partly  occupied  by  tribes  of  Turkic  and  Mongolian 
nomads.  The  southern  and  middle  zones  comprise  Bod- 
land  proper  and  are  divided  into  four  provinces,  viz., — 
NAri  (NgAri,  Ari)  on  the  west,  between  74°  and  85°  E.  long. ; 
Kh.'lm,  otherwise  Do-Kh4m,  on  the  east,  between  92°  30' 
and  102° ;  and  in  the  centre,  Tsing,  adjoining  NAri,  and 
U  or  Us  (otherw  ise  Y  or  Wei),  adjoining  KhAm ;  the  two 
central  provinces  are  commonly  caJIed  U-tsAng,  as  one.  A 
considerable  belt  of  the  middle  zone  is  known  as  the  Hor 
country.  The  middle  and  northern  zones  embrace  the 
greater  portion  of  the  region  known  to  Bod-pas  as  the 
ChAng-tAng  (ByAn-tAng,  jAn-tAng)  or  "  Northern  Plain," 
which,  however,  protrudes  southwards  and  abuts  upon  the 
Himalayas  from  80°  to  85°  E.  long.,  thus  inteq)osing  a 
nomad  population  between  the  settled  populations  to  the 
east  and  the  west.  The  northern  zone  merges  on  the  west 
into  the  Pamir  tablelands. 
"TaWe-  The  tableland  of  Tibet  attains  its  maximum  elevation, 
liod.  17_GOO  feet  above  sea-level,  on  the  79th  meridian,  in  the 
Lingzi-tAng  plateau  of  the  northern  zone ;  thence  there 
is  a  gradual  fall  east,  west,  and  south,  the  plateau  level 
on  the  97th  meridian  being  about  13,500  feet  in  the 
northern  zone  and  10,000  in  the  southern.  Between  the 
82d  and  90th  meridians  the  northern  zone  is  known  only 
from  the  maps  of  the  lamas'  survey,  which  indicate  a  sur- 
face slightly  corrugated  with  hills  and  containing  numerous 
lakes,  some  of  great  size,  but  no  rivers  of  importance. 
iSfen.  The  river  basins  in  this  zone  apparently  commence  to 
the  east  of  the  90th  meridian  and  from  them  issue  the 
Di-chu'  (Chinese  Kin-shakiang),  whose  headwaters  unite 
at  Dichu  Rab-dun,  in  94°  30'  E.  long. ;  the  Chiamdo 
river  or  Lan-tsan-kiang ;  the  Hoang-ho.'in  about  9G°, 
which  flows  through  the  Kiaring  and  Orin  lakes  (13,500 
feel  above  the  sea  and'each  exceeding  80  miles  in  circum- 
ference) and  passes  northwards  out  of  Tibet  through  the 
KuenLun  ;  and  the  Jair.u  or  Yalung-kiang,  also  in  about 
90°  E.  long.,  which  flows  s'outhwards  through  eastern 
Tibet.  In  the  middle  zone  a  system  of  lakes  on  the  90th 
meridian  gives  birth  to  the  Nag-chu,  which  becomes  the 
Sokchu  and  lower  down  the  Giama-Nu-chu  —  known  to 
the  Chinese  as  the  Lutse-kiang — and,  trending  southwards, 
winds  round  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Himalayas.  In 
the  lower  zone  the  Indus  and  the  V'aro-tsanpo  rise  on 
either  side  of  the  82d  meridian  and  flow  in  opposite  direc- 
tions parallel  to  the  Himalayas,  and  then,  passing  through 
openings  in  those  mountains  twenty  degrees  apart  in  longi- 
tude, enter  India  on  the  extreme  east  and  west.  The  Lohit 
Brahmaputra  rises  behind  the  eastern  Himalayas  and  flows 

*  Tibttans  ciU  rivers  either  tsan^jo  =  river  or  f/ju=:  water,  the 
former  being  chiefly  employed  in  southern  Tibet,  as  for  the  great 
Yaro-tsaopo  {Upper  river)  and  its  principal  tributaries.  Lakes  are 
called  cho  or  tso.     A  mountain  pass  is  calkd  Id, 


south-westwards  into  India.  The  Giama-Nu-chu,  Chiam- 
do-chn,  and  Di-chu  flow  southwards  into  Burma.and  Yun- 
nan, through  closely  contiguous  valleys  between  a  system  of 
meridional  ranges  which  project  as  spurs  from  the  Tibetan 
plateau.  West  of  82°  a  single  water-parting  between  north 
and  south — that  of  the  Mus-tagh  and  Karakoram,  some- 
times called  the  Turkic — separates  Indo-Tibetan  from 
Turko-Tibetan  waters;  east  of  that  meridian  there  are 
longitudinal  water -partings  between  1  the  ., basins  of  the 
several  rivers  already  mentioned. 

The  Himalayan  Mountains,  which  constituteso consider- Himal«' 
able  a  portion  of  the  southern  scarp  of  Tibet,  consist  of  a  V^"  '^■ 
succession  of  longitudinal  chains,  running  in  general  paral-  S'""' 
lei  to  each  other  along  the  glacis  of  the  plateau.  These 
chains  are  much  higher  on  their  southern  than  on  their, 
northern  faces,  and  are  connected  In  some  parts  by  trans- 
verse ridges,  but  in  other  parts  are  broken  and  interrupted 
by  fissures  and  valleys.  The  principal  chain  is  the  one  of 
high  peaks  covered  with  perpetual  snow  which  culminates 
in  Mon't  Everest,  29,000  feet  above  the  sea.  This  chain! 
may  be  regarded  as  the  geographical  boundary  between 
Tibet  and  India.  In  some  parts  it  is  the  water-parting;' 
but  at  the  several  points  where  its  continuity  is  broken 
the  water-parting  recedes  to  an  inner  chain  on  the  plateau, 
and  basins  are  formed  between  the  two  chains,  the  waters 
of  which  descend  in  rivers  to  the  plains  of  Ii^ia.  The 
plateau  is  a  region  of  plains  and  wide  open  valleys  of  little 
depth ;  the  scarp  is  a  region  of  mountains  and  narrow 
conflned  valleys  of  great  depth.  The  narrow  valleys  of 
the  scarp,  being  lower,  are  warmer  and  more  favourably 
adapted  for  cultivation  than  the  broad  valleys  of  the 
plateau. 

Higher  than  these  last  are  the  plains  of  the  ChAng-tAng,  Ching; 
which  are,  for  the  most  part,  too  high  and  cold  for  any  '»"g 
but  pastoral  uses.  All  such  tracts  the  inhabitants  call""'' 
ehdiuj-tdng,  though  the  word  strictly',  signifies  "the""* 
Northern  Plain " ;  and  all  tracts  which  contain  valleys 
warm  enough  for  cultivation  they  call  rong  (signifying  a 
ravine  or  narrow  valley  or  cleft  in  a  hill),  but  more  par- 
ticularly the  lower  and  warmer  valleys  which  produce 
crops  twice  in  the  year ;  the  word  is  also  commonly  em- 
ployed to  indicate  a  warm  country.  The  alluvial  beds  in 
the  valleys  are  composed  of  the  debris  of  the  surrounding 
rocks,  laid  out  in  horizontal  deposits,  which  in  course  of 
time  have  become  furrowed  into  gigantic  ravines  with  a 
succession  of  narrow  terraces  in  steps  on  eacb.fiaafc.  It  is 
on  the  existing  lower  alluvial  beds  and  the  reiiiriants  of 
higher  beds  that  cultivation  is  carried  on,  in  plots  which 
are  usually  well  watered  and  very  fertile.  ~  The  sharp 
needle-peaks,  which  are  highest  of  all  and  bare  of  soil,  but 
covered  with  perjictual  snow,  are  met  with  most  frequently 
in  tracts  of  rong,  and  the  rounded  hills  coated  with  grass  to 
altitudes  sometimes  exceeding  16,000  feet  in  tracts  of 
chAng-tAng.  The  forest-clad  mountain  slopes  which  arc 
occasionally  met  with  occur  chiefly  in  the  rong.  The 
general  direction  of  the  hill  and  mountain  chains  is  cast 
and  west,  but  north-west  and  south-east  in  western  Tibet, 
northeast  and  south-west  in  the  province  of  U,  an(l 
north  and  south  in  eastern  Tibet.  The  peaks  rise  in  many 
parts  to  between  20,000  and  25,000  feet— in  the  iMus-tagh 
range  to  28,250— above  the  sea-level,  but  rarely  to  more 
than  10,000,  and  often  to  not  more  than  a  few  hundred, 
feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  plaieaus  from  -nhich 
they  spring.  The  principal  water  partings  in  some  dis- 
tricts follow  the  crests  of  low  ridges  and  gentle  undulations 
which  are  of  barely  appreciable  elevation  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground. 

NAri,  the  western  province  of  Bcdland,  is  divided  intoNiri" 
the  sub-provinces  of  Ladak  and  Balti  on  the  west,  between 
75°  and  79'  E.  long.,  now  a  part  of  Kasbmir ;  ICliorsum 


340 


TIBET 


["soGKAPHr: 


between  79'.  and  82°,  conterminous  with  the  Him  Jayan 
provinces  of '  British  India ;  and  Mang^yul  or  Dokthol, 
between  82°  and  87°,  conterminous  with  western  Nepal. 
The  last  two  are  under  the  government  of  Lhisa.  Western 
Niri  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  that  portion  of  the 
Himalayan  chain  of  snow-peaks  which  stretches  in  almost 
a  direct  line  north-west  from  the  Manasarowar  Lake 
region  to  the  Nanga  Parbat  peak  (26,620  feet),  at  first 
facing  the  plains  of  the  Punjab,  thenfpassing  north  of 
Kashmir.  The  provinces  appertaining  to  Kashmir  have 
already  been  described  in  the  article  Ladak  and  Balti 
(y.v.).  The  Karakoram  chain,  although  its  principal  pass 
is  18,500  feet  above  sea-level,  nowhere  rises  very  high 
above  the  tableland.  It  constitutes  a  portion  of  the  . 
water-parting  between  India  and  Turkestan,  separating  the 
Lingzi-tAng  plateau,  the  highest  in  all^  Tibet,  from  the 
.Jjroad  and  open  valley  of  Chang -chenmo;  it  has  been 
traced  eastwards  to  the  meridian  of  62°,  but  no  farther. 
Khor.  Khorsum  is  mainly  ching-tAng,  but  has  %ome  tipland 

«um.       ctiltivation  round  the  capital,  Rudok,  and  in  the  Gartang 
valley,  and  lowland  cultivation  in  the  rong  of  the-  great 
plateau  (120  miles  long  by  15  to  60  broad)  of  Guge  or 
Hundes,  the  upper  basin  of  the  Sutlej.     In  this  province 
lie,  within  the  small  area  of  a  square  degree,  the  sources 
of  four   great   rivers — the  Indus,  the  Yaro-tsanpo,  the 
Sutlej,  and  the  Kamali — the  sacred  lakes  of  Manasarowar 
and   Rakas  Tal^.,  15,300   feet  above  the  sea  and  each 
50  miles  in  c&wmference,  and  two  famous  mountains, 
Nimo  Namling  (25,360  feet)  to  the  south,  believed  by  the 
Tibetans  to  be  their  highest  mountain,  and  to  'the  north 
the  saciid  Kailas  Gangri  (21,830  feet),  the  Kantysee  of 
the  lamas'  survey.     From  the  Kailas  Gangri  a  chain  of 
hills  stretches  to  the  north-west,  separating  the  upper 
basins  of  the  Sutlej  and  the  Indus ;  to  the  north  of  that 
another  chain,  running  east  and  west,  culminates  in  the 
Aling  Gangri  peaks  (24,000  feet)  and  separates  the  Indus 
basin  from  the  Pangong  Lake  (100  miles  long,  from  3  to 
7  broad,  and  14,000  feet  in  altitude),  tear  which  Rudok 
13  situated.     Roads  pass  from  Ladak  to  LhAsa  through 
the  plains  of  Rawang  and  Sarthol,  the  gold-fields  of  Thok 
Jalung  and  Thok  Daurakpa,  and  the  Hor  country. 
Mans-         Mang-yul,  or  Dokthol,  contains  the  upper  basins  of  the 
yiil  or     ,Yaro-tsanpo — here  known  as  the  Niri-chu — and  its  prin- 
'^''"'°'  cipal  affluents,  the  Cha-chu  and  the  Charta-tsanpo.     The 
province  is  whollv  Ch.Ang-tAng  and  its  population  nomadic,^ 
the  capital,  Sarka  Jong,  being  merely  a  good-sized  village. 
U-ts;.g.-      The  common  border  of  the  provinces  of  N4ri  and  TsAng 
falls  nearly  on  the  87th  meridian.     Here  the  Ching-tAng 
recedes  from  the  Himalayas,  and  its  southern  scarp,  trend- 
ing north-east,  forms  the  upper  fringe  of  tracts  appertain- 
ing to  U-ts4ng  that  are  capable  of  producing  a  single  crop 
annually.      This  region   constitutes  the  most  important 
The         portion  of  the  basin  of  the  Yaro-tsanpo,  for  it  contains 
■^■"'o-      the  chief  tOMns  and  monasteries  of  the  settled  Bod-pas. 
.isanpo.    Cultivation  commences  on  a  slight  scale  where  the  river 
enters  TsAng  on  the  west.     The  first  town  of  any  import- 
mce  is  Junglache  (13,600  feet),  on  the  right  bank,  with  a 
large  monastery.     Thence  goods  may  be  taken  down  the 
river  for  some  distance  by  boats  of  leather  over  a  wooden 
framework,   light  enough   to   be  carried  back   overland. 
Eigbty-five  miles  lower  do'wn,  also  on  the  right  bank,  are 
the  city  of  Shigatze  or  Digarchi  (12,000  feet)  and   the 
great  monastery  of  Tashilunpo  (TeshuLumbo),  the  resi- 
dence of  the  "  tashi  lama,"  one  of  two  spiritual  incarnations 
of  equal  rank;  of  which  the  other,  the  "  dalai  lama,"  resides 
pt  Lhisa ;  the  monastery  contains  3500  lamas.     Between 
Jun;4lache  and  Shigatze  the  river  receives  the  Raka-tsanpo 
from  the  ching-tAng  on  its  left,,  and  the  SAkya-Jong<hu 
from  that  on  its  right.'    The  latter  descends  from  the 
H>mal9>yan  water-parting  past  ^e  monastery  of  SAkja 


(13,900  feet),  which  is  surrounded  by  ctiltivation  and 
governed  by  a  chief  lama  called  the  "sdkya-gAngma ' 
who  is  held  in  considerable  reverence  as  an  avatar.  At 
Shigatae  the  Yaro-tsanpo  receives  the  Pena-Nyang-chu 
from  a  valley  to  the  south-east  which  contains  the  towns 
of  Pena-jong  and  Gyangtse-jong  (13,000  feet),  and  numer- 
ous monasteries , and  villages,  and  through  which  passes 
the  main  road  from  Bhutan  to  Shigatze  travelled  by  Bogle 
in  1774.  A  little  lower  down  it  receives  from  the  left 
the  Shiang-chu,  which  rises  in  the  Ninchen-thangla  range 
and  flows  past  the  town  of  Namling  (12,200  feet,  200 
houses),  where  sheep  are  employed  as  baggage  aaimals, 
the  country  being  too  cold  for  donkeys  and  the  roads  too 
.stony  for  y^ks.  Then  at  Shangpa  (Jagsa)  it  receives  from 
the  right  the  Rong-chu  from  the  famous  Yamdok-tso  oi 
Scorpion  Lake  to  the  south-east.  This  lake  is  120  milet 
in  circumference,  13,800  feet  above  the  sea,  and  isrsur- 
rounded  by  villages  and  monasteries ;  its  scorpion  claws 
embrace  a  peninsula  which  rises  above  16,000  feet,  is  grass- 
grown  to  its  summit,  and  embosoms  the  Damo-tso,  a  sacred 
lake,  24  miles  round  and  500  feet  above  the  main  lake,' 
which  is  expected  some  day  to  rise  and  destroy  all  animal 
life  by  a  flood.  Here  the  roads  from  India  via  Bhutan 
and  from  Shigatze  to  LhAsa  converge,  and  after  crossing 
the-:  Khamba-14  (15,000  feet)  strike  the  Yaro-tsanpo  ai 
Chiak-jam-chori  ( =  "  the  iron  bridge  at  the  rocky  bank  "). 
The  river  in  its  course  from  Shangpa  down  to  this  point 
is  unnavigable,  passing  over  rapids  between  precipitous 
hills ;  there  is  no  road  on  either  bank.  A  little  below  the 
bridge  it  receives  from  the  left  the  Ki-chu,  the  river  ol 
LhAsa  (?.f.),  the  chief  city  of  Bodland.  Below  the  jiinc 
tion  of  the  Ki-chu  the  Yaro-tsanpo  continues  its  eastwarc 
course  through  a  broad  and  well -peopled  valley.  It  is 
crossed  at  Chetang  by  a  ferry  on  the  road  from  LhAsa  to 
Tawang  in  Bhutan  via  the  Yarlung-chu  vaUey  (right  bank), 
which  is  said  to  be  the  pleasantest  and  most  populous  iii 
Tibst ;  fruits  grow  in  profusion  at  its  lower  extremity  and 
the  hills  are  forest-clad.  At  Chetang  the  river  is  350 
yards  broad,  20  feet  deep,  and  11,000  feet  above  the  seji; 
and  has  a  sluggish  current.  On  crossing  the  meridian  of 
92°  30'  E.  it  passes  out  of  the  province  of  U  into  that  of 
KhAm  and  enters  its  eastern  basin.  After  traversing  the  EM«t-n 
Kongbo  (Khombo)  district,  it  tre'nds  north-east  for  100^?«i^<* 
miles — in  general  parallel  ■with  the  contiguous  Kongbo  ]^^^. 
ranges  and  the  distant  Ninchen-thangla — and  on  reaching  '  ' 
94°  ttims  abruptly  to  the  south.  Its  course  has  been  ex- 
plored 20  mUes  below  the  bend,  to  Cfya-la-Sindong  (800C 
feet),  but  no  farther.  The  basin  is  boimded  on  the  north 
and  east  by  the  continuous  plateaus  of  Lharugo,  Arig, 
PemDa  and  Lhojong,  Pashu,  Dainsi,  and  Nagong,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  inner  Himalayan  water-parting  Numer- 
ous tributaries  join  the  river  from  both  sides,  but  little  ir 
known  of  them.  Those  from  Kongbo,  Lharugo,  and  Arig 
are  said  to  unite  and  join  it  a  little  above  Gya-la-Silidong, 
and  one  from  Nagong  a  little  below.  This  last  rises  near 
the  Ata-Gang-IA,  a  pass  over  the  Himalayas  between  the 
Nagong  plateau  and  the  Zayul  district,  and  is  said  to  be 
on  the  direct  road  from  LhAsa  to  Zayul  I'ia  Gya-la-Sin- 
dong ;  it  is  probably  joined  by  the  Kenpu  river  of  the 
lamas'  survey,  which  rises  in  the  southern  scarp  of  the 
Pemba-Lhojong  plateau  and  pro'bably  flows  through  the 
Potod  and  Pomed  districts  of  KhAm.  The  independent 
Lhoyul  country  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Nagong-chu  (lit. 
"black  water").  The  region  is  generally  of  a- compara- 
tively low  elevation,  is'-^aid  to  have  much  more  of  rong 
than  of  chAng-tAng,  and  probably  contains  much  more 
forest  and"llixuriant  vegetation  than  any  other  part  ol 
Tibet  north  of  the  Himalayas.  Lower 

The  lower  course  of  the  'Varo-tsanpo  has  long  teen  a  matter  of  Varo- 
controversy  between  Engliih  and  French  geographers:  the  former  l>aiifo. 


.-.j-o-.R.\rnv.] 


TIBET 


341 


hai»  niamtained^iii  accor-l.uice  with  infornntiou' from  natives  of 
Tibet  and  Assam,  that  it  enters  the  Assam  valley  and  is  the  princi- 
pal scun.il  of  the  Bralimaputi-a  river,  of  which  tlie  Lohit  Brahma- 
putra river  is  the  cnjitcni  source  ;  the  latter  have  maintained,  on 
:lie  sothority  of  Chines*  j:«o^i-a pliers,  that  it  flows  into  Uunna  and 
,  IS  tln>|jrincipal  s»mri'e  of  the  Imwadi  river,  but  now  its  eastern 
tusMi  has  Iveii  expljretl,  and  the  Lohit  Unhmaputra  has  been 
fi<nii.l  to  have  its  sources  in  a  rsn,::e  iKn-deriu;;  the  l!iania-Nu-chu  ; 
Ihe  Yaro-tsiniH*  ninst  thwefore  necess^irily  pa^s  into  Ass;ini,  and 
nieasursJuents  of  the  dis^liarces  oi  the  principal  rivers  entering 
Assam  from  the  north  conclusively  identify  it  with  the  Dihong. 
That  river,-  which  rweives  the  Lohit  BrahniapuUti  a  little  below 
Satliva  (450  feet  above  the. sea),  has  lieen  explored  upwards  into 
the  Hiniabyas  to  a  point  within  100  miles  of  Gyala-Sindong  ;  but 
IS  yet  nothing  is  known  of  the  connecting  channel,  except  that  it 
jnnst  have  a  U[\  of  at>out  7000  f«t,  or  as  much  as  the  entir4fall  of 
the  Yaro-tsmjio  in  its  Tipjier  coui-sc  of  900  miles.  ^"  ' 

Si -uii;  The  Tibetan  basins  to  tlie  south  of  the  Yarotsanpo' which 

TibetK'  flre  ihchnled  between  the  Himalayan  chains  of  water-parting 
""  and  of  high  snow-peaks  are  the  Bheri,  the  Kali  Gandak, 
and  the  Buria  Gandak,  subject  to  Nepal ;  then  the  follow- 
ing, which  are  subject  to  Li.'isa : — (1)  the  Tirsuli  Gandak, 
on  the  direct  road  from  Kathmandu  to  Dokthol  via  Kirong 
(0700  feet);  (2)  the  Bhotia  Kosi,  through  which  the  road 
from  Kathmandu  to  Shigatze  passes  via  Nilam'Jong  or 
Knti  (13,900  feet)  into  (3)  the  Arun-Barun  basin,  120 
miles  by  30,  which  embraces  the  Dingri  Maidan  and  Shikar 
Jong  plateaus  and  the  great  Chomto  Dong  Lake  (li,700 
feet) ;  this  same  road,  after  passing  Sikkim  and  western 
Bhutan,  .where  the  chain  of  high  snow- peaks,  including 
Kanchinjinga  (27,815  feet),  :s  the  water-parting,  traverses 
^4)  the  Lhobra,  (5)  the  Cha-j-ul,"  and  (6)  the  Mon-yul 
basins,  which  are  also  crossed  by  fhe  road  between  Chetang 
and  Tawang.  ■  East  of  the  93d  meridian  the  height  of  the 
jpeaks  of  the  outer  Himalayan  chain  falls  to  about  15,000 
teet;  the  inner  line  of  water-parting  recedes  northwards,' 
and  with  it  the  boundary  of  Lhisa  rxile.  The  included 
basins  are  occupied  by  independent  semi-savage  tribes, — . 
Miris,  Abors,  Mishmis,  Ac. ;  but  about  the  97ih '  meridian 
Lhasa  rule  again  asserts  itself.  ^  The  mountains  again  rise 
'a  a  great  height  in  the  Kechin-Gangra  range,  the  eastern- 
most Himalaya,  which  terminates  about  the  9Sth  meridian 
in  spurs  thrown  off  to  the  north  and  south,  parting  the 
waters  of  the  Lohit  Brahmaputra  and  the  Giama-Nu-chu. 
The  southern  spur  bends  westwards  in  horse-shoe  fashion 
round  the  Zayul  basin,  and  then  merges  into  the  range 
which  separates  upper  Assam  and  eastern  Bengal  froni 
Burma.  Lhasa  rule  extends  over  Zayul,  and. for  a  short 
iistance  down  the  valley  of  the  Giama-Xu-chu,  embracing 
5ome  tracts  which  lie  outside  the  geographical  limits  of 
Tibet,  as  lower  Zayul,  where  the  elevation  faUs  below  4000 
feet  and  the  climate  is  so  warm  that-  criminals  are  sent 
there  from  Lhisa  as  a  punishment. 
Yue  \  The  Giama-N a-chu  is  called  by  the  Chinese  the  La-kiang  or  Lu- 

Giama-^  tse-kiang.  Its  course  is  known  down  to  about  27°  30'  N.  laL,  a  few 
>'i:-cha  marches  below  Bonga^  on  the  left  bank,  where  the  Abbe  Desgodins 
cstablishctl  a  mission  station  temporarily  ;  but  nothing  certain  is 
known  of  its  lower  course.  It  is  generally  believed  to  be  identical 
with  the  Salwiu-  river,  which  the  Chinese  also  call  the  Lu-kiang ; 
but  the  similarity  of  namo  is  not  conclusive  of  identity,  for  the 
Lq  country  covers  a  largo  area,  and  its  name  may  be  given  to  a 
second  river  rising  among  the  Ly-.'iU  and  Lutse  tribes  to  the  south. 
Nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  Sahrin  above  25°  N.  lat. ;  where  it 
is  crossed  on  the  road  from  Talifu  to  Bamo,  it  is  almost  certainly 
jof  too  small  a  volume  to  have  its  sources  farther  off  than,  say,  250 
miles  in  the  southern  Tihct«i  scarp,  and  not  far  away  in  the  heart 
of  Tibet  There  is  a  considcrab.j  probability  that  the  Giama-Nu- 
chu  is  the  source  of  the  Irawadi,  and  thus  that  Chinese  geographers 
have  been  right  in  assigning  a  Tibetan  origin  to  that  river,  though 
wrong  in  identifying  it  with  the  Yaro-tsanpo. 
Easum  The  Dayul  plateau,  with  the  lofty  moiintains't)!  Kokarpo 
a>Utea«.  .^  ^^^^  ^^^jjj  ^^^^  p^^^  (11,450  feet)  and  Dokela  to  the 
south  near  Bonga,  lies  between  the'  Giama  Nu-chu  and  the 
Chiamdo  or  Lan-tsan-kiang ;  the  latter  river  is  believed 
to  become  the  Mekong  of  Cambodia.  The  Ou-kio  river  of 
ihe  Abte  Desgodins  rises  in  an  important  valley  between 


the  Giama-Nu  and  Chiamdo  rivers  and^flowmg  past  Uayul, 
joins  the  former  above<JBonga.  Next  comes 'the^Makham 
plateau,  between  the  Chiamdoand  the  Di-chu,'of  whicTi 
the  chief  town  (11,900  feet)  is  called  Gartok  by  Tibetans 
and  Kiangka  by  Cliinese.  East  of  the  Di-chu  or  Kin-sha- 
kiang  lie  the  plateaus  of  Batang,.  Litang,  and  Darchendo,' 
which,  though  geographically  and  ethnologically  Tibetan, 
arc  directly  under,  China.  The  last  two  are  separated  by 
the  Ja-chu,  which  is  known  as  the  Yalung.in  its  southerly 
course  to  ioin  the  Kin-sha;  the  united  streams  flow  east- 
awards  through  China  as  the  Yang-tse-kiang  or  Blue  river.' 

The  western  Hor  country  lies  to  the  north,  on  the  direct  ■West«r^^ 
route  between  Ladak  and  Lhdsa ;  it  is  a  region  of  extensive  ^^' 
grassy  plains  and  uumerous  lakes,  some  of  great  size,  and  *<"'°'''yi 
occasional  hill  ranges,  which,  thjugh  often  snow-covered. 
are  of  no  great  elevation  above  the  tableland.  ^It  is  in- 
habited by  nomads — -XJhdng-pas  of  local  origin  and  Khim- 
pas  from  the  east — and  occasional  communities  of  gold- 
diggers  and  of  traders  in  salt  and  borax,  which  are  plenti- 
fully found  on  the  margins  of  the  lakes.  Thok  Daurakpa 
(15,300  feet),  the  centre  of  a  large  gold-field,  is  the  chief 
settlement.'L.,Within  a  remarkable  basin,  surrounded  by 
high  hills  and  enclosing  the  great  Dangra-Yum  Lake  and  a' 
cluster  of  small  but  well-built  villages,  Ombo,  aro  lands' 
which  produce  a  profusion  of  barley  at  an  altitude  of 
15,200  feet, — a  unique  instance  of  cultivation  at  so  great 
a  height,  no  other  cultivation'  occurring  within  300  miles 
on  either  side. .  The  Tengri-nnr  or  Nam-cho,  150  miles  in 
circumference  and  15,350  feei  above  the  sea,lies  to  the 
north-west  of  Lhdsa ;  and  beyond  it  there  is  said  to  be  a 
still  larger  lake,  the  Chargut-cho,  and  numerous  smaller 
lakes,  to  one  or  more  of  which  the'  sources  of  the  Giama- 
Nt^-chu  may  perhaps  be  traced,  though  as  a  rule  the  lakes 
in  this  region  have  no  outlet.  The  Ninchen-thangla  rang,o' 
lies  between  the  Tengri-nur  and  Lh.'isa ;  it  is  considered  by! 
some  wTiters  to  rival  the  Himalayas,  but  is' probably  not 
more  than  300  miles  long  nor  any^vhere  higher  than  24,000 
feet  above  the  sea. 

The  Ch.-lng-ting  attaIns'its7greatest'width"'(over'500T:i9 
miles)  on  the  meridian  of  85°;  north  of  Lh.-lsa  it  contracts  '"■'■'''* 
to  400  miles,  and  is  probably  narrowest  (140  miles)  on  the-'*'^ 
meridian  of  97°.'  It  is  covered  to  a  very  considerable  ex- 
tent, probably  everTwhere  below  16,000  feet,  with  a  succu- 
lent grass,  which  forms  from  May  to  August  the  softi;st  of 
green  carpets  and  furnishes  an  abundance  of  green  pai-tiirc. 
Willow  and  tamarisk  are  occasfonally  met  with  on  the 
margins 'of  the  lakes;  but  as  a  rule  there  is  little  wood 
or  scrub  of  any  kind,  and  cultivation  only  in  very  excep- 
tional localities,  such  as  Ombo.  Mj-riads  of  wild  animals 
— chiefly  the  yak  and  the  antelope,  but  also  the  ass  and 
ihe  camel — roam  over  the  entire  region,  but  mostly  con- 
gregate in  the  uninhabited  northern  portion ;  their  argols 
furnish  a  plentiful  supply  of  fuel,  without  which  it  would 
be  impossible  for  travellers  to- cross  the  country,  as  there 
are  stretches  of  hundreds  of  miles  in  which  no  other  fuel 
is  procurable.  As  the  ChAng-tAng  narrows  to  the  east, 
its  surface  becomes  corrugated  with  chains  of  low  hiUs; 
Here  too  there  is  more  marsh,  land,  than  on  the  west: 
the  Odontala  plateai>  at  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-ho  river 
is  described  by  Prejevalsky  as  one  vast  bog  in  summer, 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  south-west  monsoon  frcim  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  openings  between  the  meridion-'J  hill 
ranges  to  the  south  permit  the  rain  clouds  to  pass  up  to 
much  higher  latitudes  before  discharging  their  moisture 
than  on  the  west,  where  they  are  faced  by  the  great  longi- 
tudinal ranges  of  the  Himalayas. 

The  Kuen-Lun   has  been  identified,  geologi'Ally,'  ty  The 
Stoliczka,  as  far  west  as  the  Victoria  Like  on  the  great  Knen- 
Pamir,  in  74'  E.  long. ;  it  has  been  surveyed  between  77' 
and  82°,  where  it  rises. to  more  than  22,000  fee{,iand 


Lun 
ranga,. 


342 


TIBET 


JEGvJBAPHY. 


towers  above  the  plains  of  eastern  Turkestan.     To  the  east 
it  is  known  for  some  distance  as  the  Toguz-Davan  (Eleven 
Passes)  range ;   Prejevalsky  observed  a  prominent  peak 
(Jingri,  20,000  feet)  on  the  90th  meridian,  east  of  wliich 
successive  portions  are  known  as  the  Angirtakshia,  Shuga, 
Namohon,  '  urkhan  Budha,  and  Dzun-mo-Lun  ranges.    The 
rivers  flowing  north  through  openings  in  the  Kuen-Lun  are 
generally  small,  with  the  exception  of  the  Hoang-ho.     East 
of  the  85th  meridian  the  Kuen-Lun  constitutes  the  chord 
of  an  arc  formed  by  the  Altin  Tagh,  Nan-shan,  and  Koko- 
Qur  ranges,  which  project  northwards  and  border  the  plains 
of  the  Lob-nur  region  and  the  Chinese  province  of  Kan- 
suh  ;  several  hill  ranges  and  some  great  plateaus — notably 
those  of  Chaidam  or  Tsaidam — are  comprised  between  the 
arc  and  the  chord,  and  the  regjon  generally  is  closely  allied 
to  Tibet  in  its  physical  aspects.     Occasional  peaks  rise  to 
considerable  altitudes  and  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow ; 
the  plateaus  form  a  succession  of  steps  ascending  from  the 
filains  of  Gobi  to  the  Tibetan  plateau. 
Cooiffler-      Darchiendo,  called  Ta-chien-lu  by  the  Chinese,  on  the  extreme 
cia)  raaA  eastern  boundary  of  Tibet,  is  the  principal  emporium  of  the  trade 
from         between  that  country  and  China.      Thence  two  important  roads 
v.tstto     lead  to  Lhasa,  one  called  the  Jung-lam  or  "official  road"  (935 
east.         miles  long),  the  other  the  Chdng-Iam  or  "northern  road"  (890 
miles).     The  former,  which  is  the  more  direct,  is  the  post  road  and 
that  by  which  officials  travel  between  Lhasa  and  Peking  ;  but  it 
crosses  much  rugged  and  difficult  country.    The  other  is  preferred 
by  traders,  as  being  less  difficult  and  less  harassed  by  officials,  and 
mostly  passing  over  plains  with  an  abundance  of  pasture  for  their 
baggage  animals.     The  former  has  long  been  known  from  the  pub- 
iiSed  travels  of  Hue  and  Gabet  and  the  embassies  from  Nepal  to 
Chins,  and  its  eastern  section,  from  Batang  to  Darchiendo,  has  been 
traversed  by  several  Europeans  of  late  years.     The  latter  lies  in 
regions  in  eastern  Tibet  into  which  no  European  has  yet  penetrated, 
but  which  were  recently  crossed  by  Pandit  Krishna  from  north  to 
south  ;  they  belong  to  the  province  of  Eham,  which  appears  to  be 
split  op  inttf  »  number  of  districts,  each  governed  by  its  own  gyalpo 
or  chieftain,  who  in  some  instances  is  subject  to  Lhasa,  in  others 
to  China,  but  not  unfrequently  is  independent  of  both.    Darchiendo 
itself  lies  in  the  Minia  (Miniak)  district,  from  which  the  Chang- 
lam  passes  through  a  succession  of  petty  districts,  Tan,  DangOj  Dau, 
and  Rongbacha  or   Horko,   skirting  Niarong  (Gyarung?).  ■   The 
inhabitants  of-this  last  are  said  to  have  conquered  the  neighbouring 
districts  and  to  have  even  braved  the  Chinese,  but  at  last  to  have 
been  won  over  to  Lhdsa  by  bribery .•    Rongbacha  lies  in  the  valley 
of  the  Ja-chu  and  contains  the  large  fWn  and  monastery  of  Kanzego 
(2500  houses,  2000  lamas  ;  10,200  feet  above  the  sea).     Beyond  it 
lies,  in  the  vaUey  of  the  Di-chu,  the  district  of  Dar-ge  (De-gue), 
said  to  be  one  of  the' richest  and  most  populous  in  all  Tibet,  con- 
taining towns  in  which  theJ)est  jewellery,  saddlery,  guns,  and 
sWOTds  are  manufactiu-ed.     The  Ching-ldm  passes  through  Dar-ge 
np  to  Kegndo  (11,800  feet),  where  it  meets  roads  over  the  Chang- 
ting  from  Chaidam  on  the  north  and  the  Koko-nur  district  in  the 
north-east.     Very  little  is  known  of  the  country  between  the  Chang- 
lim  and  the  frontiers  of  China  ;  it  is  called  Sifan  or  "  the  country 
TOf  the  western  barbarians"  by  the  Chinese  ;  to  the  north  are  the 
districts  of  Chiamogolok  and  Banakhasum,  inhabited  by  marauding 
tribes,  ami  bwer  down  are  the  Amdo  and  Thochu  districts,  on  the 
borders  of  tracts  occupied   by  the  Manchu  tribes  of  Sze-chuen 
(China).  ,  From  Kegiido  the  Chang-lam  trends  westwards  over  the 
eastern  Hor  country,  all  ching-tang,  for  300  miles.     The  route  has 
not  yet  been  explored,  but  probably  passes  through  the  pasture- 
lands  of  the  Sok-pas  ;  on  reaching  Lake  Chomora  it  turns  south- 
wards, then   passes  the  monastery  of  Shiabdcn  (14,930  feet),  a 
notable  resting-place  for  caravans,  crosses  the  lower  scarp  of  the 
Ching-ting  by  the  Lani  pass  (15,750  feet),  and  finally  descends 
into  the  Lhisa  plateau. 
OfEcial         The  Jung  lam  or  official  road  from  Darchiendo  passes  through 
road         Litang  (13,400  feet;  2500  houses)  and  Batang  (8150  feet;  2000 
from  east  houses)  .to  Gartok  or  Kiangka,  crossing  cti  rout;  the  Yalung  and 
to  west    Kin-sha  rivers  ;  thence  it  proceeds  up  the  valley  of  the  Chiamdo- 
chu  or   Lan  ■  tsan  -  kiang,  and   has  been   traversed  by  the   Abbe 
Desgodins  via  Dayag  (his  Tchraya)  to  Chiamdo  (his  Tchamouto). 
He  says,  "To  get  an  idea  of  the  configuration  of  the  ground  let 
any  one  take  a  sheet  of  parchment,  crumple  it  in  his  hands  into 
many  creases,  and  then  spread  it  out  on  a  table,  and  he  will  obtain 
a  map  in  relief,  furrowed  with  depressions  and  steep  slopes  and 
presenting  very  little  flat  surface."     Chiamdo  is  the  chief  town  of 
the  province  of  Kham,  and,  being  considered  a  point  of  great 
strategic  importarice,  is  strongly  garrisoned  ;  it  has  a  large  monas- 
tery, containing  3000  lamas.     It  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  two 
rivers,  which  are  frozen  in  winter  ;  but  in  summer  the  valleys  are 


highly  cultivated.  Thence  the  Jnng-Iam  proceeds  south-west  to 
the  bridge  of  Shang-ye-Jam  ( Kia-yu-kiao)  over  the  Giima-Nu-chu 
— here  called  the  Sok  river — and  then  ascends  to  Lhojong  (13,140 
feet) — the  Lourondson  of  the  lamas'  survey — where  it  is  joined  by 
the  road  from  Gartok  via  Zayul  and  Nagong.  It  then  trends 
westwards  over  the  plateaus  already  mentioned  as  bordering  the 
eastern  basin  of  the  Yaro-tsanpo,  passes  occasional  small  villages, 
monasteries,  and  lakes,  crosses  two  lofty  passes — the  Nub-Gang-li 
(17,940  feet)  and  the  Tola-IA  (17,350  feet) — descends  to  the  little 
town  of  Giamda  (10,900  feet)  in  Kongbo,  and,  passing  out  of  Kham 
into  U,  enters  the  Lhasa  plateau.  From  the  capital  it  is  continued 
over  a  distance  of  about  900  miles  to  the  western  limits  of  Khorsmn, 
crossing  the  Yaro-tsanpo  at  the  Chiak-jam-chori  bridge  and  recross- 
ing  at  Junglache,  midway  passing  through  Shigatze ;  it  then  tra- 
verses a  great  breadth  of  chang-tang  and  crosses  the  meridional 
water-parting  at  the  Muriam-la  (15,500  feet).  There  are  twenty- 
five  staging  places  called  tarjwms^  from  20  to  70  miles  apart,  be- 
tween Lhasa  and  Rudok,  with  accommodation — sometimes  houses^ 
but  more  generally  tents — for  about  200  men  ;  they  are  under  th© 
charge  of  a  jalno,  who  is  bound  to  provide  yaks  and  other  beasts, 
of  burden  and  horses  for  carrying  the  mails,  impressing  them  from 
the  nomads  encamped  near  the  taijums.  The  road  is  generally  well 
defined ;  loose  stones  are  cleared  away  in  the  narrow  defiles,  and 
piles  of  stones,  surmounted  by  flags  on  sticks,  are  erected  at  placea 
on  the  open  stretches  of  tableland  where  the  track  is  liable  to  bo 
lost. 

The  climate  of  Tibet  differs  greatly  in  different  parts  and  at  dimaia. 
different  seasons  of  the  year.  In  western  Tibet  the  frost  is  perma- 
nent from  October  to  April,  and  the  lakes  and  rivers  down  to  8000 
feet  are  frozen  every  winter  ;  at  15,000  feet  the  thermometer  falls 
below  the  freezing-point  every  night ;  and  at  20,000  feet  there  ia 
probably  perpetual  frost  in  the  shade.  The  mean  monthly  tempera- 
•tures  and  ranges  of  temperature,  embracing  from  six  to  ten  years' 
observations  at  the  meteorological  observatory  at  Leh  (in  34"  10* 
N  lat.,  height  11,540  feet),  are  as  follows  in  degrees  Fahrenheit: — 


d 

4 

i 

a 

s 

CO 

a 

i 

a 
S 

& 

a 

d 

S 

a 

3 

S. 

s 

s 

& 

s 

a 

& 

a 

S 

S. 

Jan.     . 

-lR*-0 

2R--.'> 

April  1 12*-0 

si*-o 

July 

eri 

3r-2 

Oct. 

iV-} 

sor-i 

Feb.   .. 

21  •■0 

30" -0 

May 

4S*-6 

SO'I 

Aug. 

69'-6 

SI* -3 

Nov. 

sr-2 

26" -7 

M»rch 

32" -0 

28--0 

Jnno 

!Ki--4 

sru 

Sept. 

52" -8 

Sf-4 

Dec 

«•» 

ii-l 

At  Lhasa  (in  29"  39'  N.  lat,  height  11,800  feet)  the  mean  tem- 
peratures observed  by  the  pandits  were  36°  in  February  and  March 
and  61*  in  June  and  July.  Southern  Tibet  is  described  Ob  being 
delightful  in  summer, — the  land  covered  with  vegetation,  streams 
flowing  in  every  valley,  and  all  nature  bright,  sparkling,  and  fresh. 
But  in  winter  snow  and  frost  reign  supreme ;  all  vegetation  is  dried 
up ;  the  lakes  and  rivers  are  frozen  ;  the  roads  and  footpaths  are 
paved  with  ice ;  and  cold  cutting  winds  sweep  across  the  surface 
of  the  land.  In  northern  Tibet  Prejevalsky  found  "a  terrible 
climate"  in  summer  at  14,000  feet:  in  the  second  half  of  May 
wiutry  snowstorms  were  not  unfrequent  and  the  frost  by  night 
reached -9*  Fahr.  ;  and  in  June  and  July  there  were  frosts  (23° 
Pahr.)  every  clear  night  In  the  winter  the  cold  is  intense  ;  Hue 
and  Gabet,  crossing  the  Di-chu  river  in  1846,  found  a  great  herd 
of  yaks  entombed  in  ice,  the  river  having  frozen  whilst  they  were 
swimming  across.  (J  T  W. ) 

Ikddstky,  Trade,  A^^)  Government 

The  industrial  arts  are  at  a  somewhat  low  ebb,  though  in  metal-  Industry 
founding  the  natives  display  a  ceitain  amount  of  ability  and  taste. 
Their  stotues  and  small  bells  are,  however,  only  copies  of  Indian 
models.  They  use  the  iron  from  their  mines,  which  is  verv  good, 
for  making  excellent  blades  for  sabres  and  other  weapons.  Thoy 
are  very  fond  of  precious  stones,  but  do  not  know  how/to  work 
them.  Their  chief  industries  are  connected  with  wool,  the  great 
and  inexhaustible  staple  of  the  country.  Weaving  is  generally 
the  work'  of  women.  The  cloth  usually  employed  for  summer 
garments  is  the  luxi-vxt,  which  is  dyed  with  madder  or  indigo,  and 
sold  in  pieces  eight  or  t^n  inches  in  width  and  about  twelve  yards 
in  length.  Another  sort  of  cloth  largely  sold  is  the  cJiro  or  p'rug^ 
of  a  better  quality  of  wool,  finer  and  toicker,  which  is  often  manu- 
factured in  DbUs  (U),  whence  it  is  sometimes  called  DbUs  p'rug ; 
it  is  generally  dyed  dark  red.  Tenrui  is  a  superior  kind  of  thin 
woollen  cloth,  a  flannel-like  fabric,  dyed  dark  red,  of  which  there 
are  two  sorts, — le-t'er,  made  of  shawl  wool,  and  balt'er,  of  common 
wooL  Sag-lad  is  for  fine  cloth  made  of  fine  shawl  wool  (Ic-na) ; 
and  S7iam-bu  is  a  woollen  cloth,  very  coarse  and  loosely  woven,  the 
common  sort  of  which  is  not  dyed. 

Every  Tibetan  is  more  or  less  a  trader.     Officers  for  the  super-  Trad* 
intendence  of  trade,  called  garpons,  are  appoin^^d  by  the  king,  the 
ministers,  and  the  great  lamaseraia.     The  import  and  export  traffic 
is  carried  on  by  caravans,  which,  according  to  the  route  and  its 
diUicultv,  employ   yaks  or  sheep.     The  two  great  markets  are 


CTHiJOLOeY.  I 


TIBET 


Shigatze  lor  Uigarchi)  and   Lhasa,  wbere  the  caravans  arrive  in 
December  and-  January  from  China  and   Mongolia,   Kham  and 
Sze-chnen,  Bhutan,  Sikkim,  and  Nepal,  Kashmir  and  Ladat     Of 
the  four  principal  trade  routes  the  two  which  start  from  Darchiendo 
have  been  mentioned  above  (p.  342).     The  third  route,  915  miles 
D  length,  starting  from  Si-ning  in  Kan-su  (China),  runs  along 
iie  Koko-nur  to  Jun,  thence  to  Di-chu'Rab-dun,  crosses  the  homa 
■I   lower   Dangla,   and    proceeds   ma   Giaro   and    Lake   Chomora 
1-  Lhasa ,   this  route,  which  is  forbidden  to  the  Chinese,  is  less 
requented   than  the  others   because  of  the   numerous   bands  of 
■obbers  infesting  the  country  towards  Si-ning.     Mi^ch  more  im- 
.«rtant  is  the  route  which  comes  from  the  west,  with  Leh  as  its 
tarting  point ;  it  runs  via  Gartok,  Lake  Slanasarowar,  Muriam 
*ss,  Tadom,  and  Shigatze  to  Lhasa.     Like  the  other  caravans,  the 
'early  one  which  follows  this  route  stops  several  times  on  the  way 
■ir  local  fairs ;  the  districts  passed  through  are  compelled  to  fur- 
.ish  it  with  300  yaks  for  carrying  goods  and  to  provide  food  for 
ie  travellers     The  centres  for  Tibetan  trade  on  the  borders  are— 
or  Mongolia  and  north  China,  Si-ning  ;  for  Sze-chuen,  Darchiendo  ; 
Old  in  Assam,  Davangiri  and  Udalguri,  where  there  is  a  great  fair 
twice  a  year  in  connexion  with  the  Tawang  route.     Darjiling  is  the 
oentral  mart  for  the  Chumbi  valley  trade,'  Patna  for  that  pa.'ising 
through  Nepal,  and  Leh  and  Kashmir  in  the  west.     From  China 
come  silks  of  all  varieties  (Buddhist  prejudice  not  permitting  the 
Tibetans  to  rear  silk-worms  and  kill  them),  carpets,  and  hardware  ; 
from  Mongolia  leather,  saddlery,  sheep,  and  horses  ,  from  Kham 
perfume  ,  from  Sze-chuen  brfck  tea  (some  six  millions  of  pounds 
annually  ,  tea  in  leaf  is  not  in  use  in  Tibet) ;  from  Tawang,  Bhutan, 
and  Sikkim  nee  and  tobacco  ;  from  Nepal  broadcloth,  silk,  indigo! 
•■oral,  pearls,  sugar,  spices,  and  Indian  manufactures  ;  from  Ladak 
»nd  Kashmir  saffron  and  Indian  commodities.      Silver  and  gold 
*re  the  most  important  articles  of  export ;  then  follow  salt,  wool 
woollen  mamifacturet,  furs,  drugs,  and  musk.     By  the  Nepal  and 
ladak  routes  Tibet  exports  large  quantities  of  yaks'  Uils,  bora-t 
^Id,  silvei.  and  ponies      In  1883-83  the  total  exports  to  India 
amounted  to  £58,322  (Punjab  £17,710,  North-West  Provinces  and 
Oudh  £40.612).     The  imports  into  Tibet  reached  £24,197  (£1530 
Irom   Punjab,   £22,667   from  North -West  Provinces  and  Oudh) 
The  pnncipal  exports  were  borax  (£17,222),  salt  (£13,978),  wool 
Mid  woollen  goods  (£4936).     The  imports  included  grain  (£13,587) 
»tton  goods  (£2875),  and  sugar  (£2395).     In  188384  the  export 
■I  borax  had  moreased  by  12.329  maunds  {about  453  tons),  that  of 
wool  and  woollen  goods  by  2244  maunds  (S2  tons),  while  the  ex. 
forts  of  salt  had  decreased  by  572  maunds  (21  tons).     The  whole 
f  the  increase  in  borax  is  in  the  trade  with  Kumaun,  and  in  weight 
It  13  almost  double  the  increase  in  the  export  of  rice  from  that 
dJstnct,  for  which  it  is  bartered  in  Tibef-  the  usual  rale  of  exchange 
being  two  of  borax  to  one  of  rice      Tie  total  excess  of  the  value  of 
exports  over  imports  amounted  to  nearly  two  lakhs  of  rupees.     In 
ir^'?^„i'"'  ''*'"®  °^  *-^^  "°°'  *°<*  woollen  stuffs  exported  rose 
from  £4300  to  £8800      These  figures,  however,  convey  no  adequate 
Idea  of  the  Bnfish  trade  with  Tibet,  as  a  large  quantity  of  good» 
passes  through  Nepal      RussUn  wooUen  cloths,  coarse  anj  loose 
ol  s^rlet,  green,  bine,  and  violet  colour,  as  weU  as  hearthrugs 
.hickly  woven  and  of  a  flowered  pattern,  come  through  Yarkand 
and  are  conveyed  all  over  the  country 

^m™'  ^"""u''^?  '"'*'  ^^  "^^  *  dependency  of  China,  and  as  such  is 
iieni  nnder  the  Chinese  viceroy  of  Sze-chuen.  Chinese  authority  is  re- 
pr«cnled  by  two  imperial  delegates,  one  of  whom  is  the  assistant 
of  the  other  They  direct  exclusively  the  foreign  and  military  ad- 
ministration of  the  country,  leaving  the  civil  and  religious  govern- 
ment in  the  hands  of  the  Tibetans.  They  are  appointed  for  terms 
of  three  years.  Subordinate  to  these  are  two  daluM  or  great 
officers  and  two  paymasters,  residing,  one  of  each  grade,  at  Lhasa 
and  at  Bzhikartse  (Shigatze  or  Digarchi).  Next  in  rank  are  three 
^ZTl  1-  "^'^1°^  ^'  ,^''^  Digarchi,  and  Dingri  near  the 
«o„^  nm  i.^'""  ,^^^   ""    ""^^^  tirigpum,,  Don-commis- 

noned  officers,  who  complete  the  staff  of  mUitary  Chinese  officers 
in  the  country.  The  usual  number  of  Chinese  troops,  all  Manchu- 
latars.  in  Tibet  does  not  exceed  4500  men  (2000  at  Lhasa,  1000 
at  Digarchi.  1000  at  Giangchi,  500  at  Drngri).  In  matteiTof  civil 
government  the^ supreme  authority  belongs  to  the  dalai  lama,  the 
rgyat-ba  nn-po-O,  residing  in  the  famous  temple-palace  of  Potala 
■see  Lhasa,  vol.  xiv  p.  500).  But  he  is  consulted  only  in  cases 
of  emergency,  when  his  decision  is  never  questioned.  His  powers 
are  transmitted  to  a  special  officer  for  life,  nominated  iy  the 
Omiese  Government,  who  is  knoivn  by  several  titles,  such  as  d:.«-i 
or  ■%i.^°''^  "^"loi^'i,  "king  of  the  law";  he  is  the  rgyal.pa 
Z.o^^\  as  weU  as  the  pnme  minister  of  the  ialai  lama,  and  the 
regent  when  he  latter  is  a  minor.  He  is  selected  from  ..u,on' 
the  four  head- lamas  of  the  ChomoUng,  Konduliug,  Tangialiu.  u,"d 
Chajohng  divmons  near  Lh4sa.  so-cSlled  from  fheir  chief  tSinas 


3fi 


cooSie^cfm^A^'^'"'^  ^''-  tie- pas3  being  closed  by  the  Tibetans  in 
-i«>ild  pSL  tSo^h'NepTl  "^"  '^'^-  '"  ""'"  "^'  ""=  wtole  trade 


teries  or  dgonpa  {vulg.  gomba).  Each  of  the  lour  must  be,  likt 
the  dalai  lama,  an  avatar,  i.e.,  when  removed  by  death  he  must 
reappear  in  the  flesh  as  a  chUd.  and  be  raised  to  that  position.  Of 
equal  rank  with  the  nomokhan  is  the  deba  lama  of  dGa-ldan.  the 
great  monastery  near  Lhasa  ;  he,  however,  is  not  an  avatanau, 
lama :  his  appointment  has  to  be  confirmed  by  the  Chinese  em- 
peror. Next  to  him  is  the  lama  guru  or  chaplain  of  the  dalai 
lama,  the  director  of  his  conscience  ;  he  may  be  an  avatar  but  his 
nomination  is  also  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  emperor  and  thL' 
furnishes  an  interesting  clue  to  the  extent  of  the  imperial  power 
over  the  church  of  Tibet  The  nomokhan  rules  with  the  help  ol 
five  ministers :  four  of  these— laymen— are  lor  the  financial  judicial 
revenue,  and  home  departments,  and  a  fifth,  a  lama,  for  ecclesiasi 
tical  affairs.  The  four  provinces  of  Mngari-Khorsum,  DbUs,  gTsano 
(Tsang),  and  Khams  (Kham)  are  ruled  each  by  a  bka-blm  ot 
governor,  with  a  proper  staff  of  minor  officers,  under  the  authority 
of  the  nomokhan.  Besides  these  there  are  several  minor  kings  or 
rg)-al-pos  outside  of  the  four  provinces  ;  but  within  these  provirces 
there  are  four  principalities  which  are  under  the  direct  government 
"  ,  ,1  S,-"""^  imperial  delegates.  These  are  (I )  Dayag  or  Chraya 
and  (2)  KiamJo  or  Chiamdo,  both  on  the  east ;  (3)  bKra-sis-lhun-pa 
or  Tashilunpo,  where  resides  the  pan-ten  rin-po-ie  lama,  who  yields- 
to  none  but  the  dalai  lama  in  religious  importance,  and,  though  an 
avatar,  requires  also  the  confirmation  of  the  Chinese  emperor  to  his 
election  ;  (4)  Sakya-Kongma,  south-west  of  the  preceding.  There  is 
also  a  Chinese  officer  (y-tan)  in  residence  at  Lhasa  who  supenn- 
tends  several  minor  principalities  scattered  over  the  country  Every 
five  years  Lhasa,  Chiamdo,  and  Tashilunpo  send  envoys'  with 
presents  to  the  emperor.  In  the  east  of  the  countryis  the  princi- 
pality of  Darge  or  Degue,  in  the  up^r  course  of  the  Yalung-kian" 
rulea  by  a  king  who  recognizes  the  suzerainty  of  China,  and  at  the 
same  time  since  1-863  has  managed  to  keep  on  good  terms  with 
the  kmg  of  Lhasa,  to  whom  he  has  promised  submission.  On  the 
lower  course  of  the  same  river  are  the  Chentui  or  Gyarung  tribes 
who  from  the  conquest  of  Tibet  were  subject  to  China,  but  sinca 
1864  have  been  transferred  by  the  Chinese  Government  to  the  rule 
of  the  king  of  Lhasa,  who  is  now  represented  among  them  by  a 
Tibetan  resident  South  of  the  Chentui  is  the  principality  of 
Dar-rtse-mdo  or  Darchiendo,  the  Ta-chien-lu  (Tatsienlu)  of  the 
Cliinese,  the  rGyala  of  the  Tibetans,  where  the  government,  under 
the  supervision  of  Chinese  officersris  entrusted  to  a  native  king 
called  Ming.chang.se  by  the  Chinese  and  rGyak  rgyal-bo  or  king 
of  rGyala  by  the  Tibetans.  '         oj  & 

Ethnology 
The  Tibetans,  in  a  legend  of  the  Tandjur,  pretend  to  be  the  de-  Inhabit, 
scendants  of  an  ape,  sent  to  the  sncwy  kingdom  {i.e.  'Hbet)  by  anla. 
Chenresig  (Spyan-ras.gzigs  =  Avalokiteshvara),  and  of  a  Tibetan 
snnmo  (a  female  demon  or  rakshasi).    They  had  six  children,  whom, 
as  soon  as  they  were  weaned,  they  abandoned  in  a  forest  of  fruit 
trees.     Coming  back  after  a  few  years,  the  father  found  to  his  great 
surprise  that  their  number  had  increased  to  500.     But,  as  they  were 
starving,  he  had  recourse  to  his  patron  Chenresig,  who  declared  that 
he  would  be  the  guardian  of  the  race.     So  he  went  to  Mount  Tiso 
(or  Kaila  the  Su-Meru),  and  threw  down  a  great  quantity  of  the  five 
kinds  of  grain,  with  which  the  famished  apes  long  fed  themselves. 
As  the  consequence  of  eating  this  grain  the  monkeys'  tails  and  the 
hair  on  their  bodies  grew  shorter  and  shorter,  until  they  finally  dis- 
appeared.     The  monkeys  began  to  speak  and  became  men,  and 
clothed  themselves  with  leaves.     The  interest  of  this  legend,  when 
stripped  of  its  Buddhistic  adornments,  lies  in  the  fact  that  belief  in 
a  monkey  ancestor  seems  to  have  been  common  to  various  branches 
of  the  race.     The  Tang-chang  and  Peh-lang  tribes  boasted  also  ot 
being  descended  from  a  monkey  ;  they  were  the  two  great  divisions 
of  the  Tang-hiang  or  Tangut,  offsets  of  the  same  Sien-pi  stock  as 
that  of  the  conquerors  of  Tibet  under  Fanni  Tubat  (see  note,  p.  838 
above).     The  inhabitants  of  Tibet  belong  to  the  Mongoloid  races. 
Besiies  the  Tibetans  so  called,  occupying  the  greater  part  of  the 
country,  especially  in  the  south  from  west  to  east,  there  are  Turkic 
tribes  called  Hor  in  the  north-west,  Mongol  tribes  called  Sog  (Sok)  ia 
the  north-east,  and  several  ill-defined  tribes  on  the  borders  of  China, 
who  differ  from  the  others.     The  Tibetan  race  is  not  thoroughly 
homogeneous,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  various  accounts  of  travellers. 
On  the  west  they  are  described  as  being  short,  with  an  average 
stature  of  5  feet  2  inches,  according  to  the  measurements  of  General 
Alexander  Cunningham  ;  in  central  Tibet  and  the  east  they  are  of 
middle  stature,  rather  tall  than  short,— a  difference  resulting  ap- 
parently from  their  intermingling  with  the  surrounding  races.     As 
genera!  characteristics,  they  are  strong,  slender  in  limb,  with  black 
eyes  slightly  oblique,  large  mouth,  brown  hair,  no  beard,  a  clear 
ruddy  brownish  complexion  with  an  intelligent  expression.     They 
are.  a  people  of  good  natural  gifts,  mild  in  temper,  true  to  their 
word,  kind  and  siu  ,.le.  fond  of  music,  dancing,  and  singing,  but 
;horoughly  imbued  with  superetition  and  lacking  enterprise.     Ex- 
ception is  made  of  the  people  of  the  eastern  bordere.   who  ara 
described  as  being  cheats  and  cowards..   The  most  highly  gifted 
are  the  inhabitants  of  Amdo,  the  region  beyond  Kham,  having 


344 


.TIBET 


[ethnologyJ 


Knko-nur  OQthf?  nortb  an^China  on  the'cast.  Tailor  than  the 
Tibetans  of  the  west,  thoy  ara  famed  for  their  quick  intelligence 
and  open  disposition  ;  a  large  proportion  of  the  readers  and  chief 
tamas  of  the  great  schools  -and  the  higher  officials  belong  to  this 
race.  The  nomad  tribes  of  the  north-east  are  known  by  the  Chinese 
common  appellative  of  Sifan  ("western  aliens").  They  include 
Mongol,  Tibetan,  and  other  tribes.  In  the  east,  near  the  borders  of 
Ciiina,  are  the  numerous  tribes  called  Gyarung  or  Chentui ;  their 
(language  has  been  studied  by  Hodgson,  wlio  has  pointed  out  its 
remarkable  similarity  of  structure  to  that  of  the  Tagals  in  the 
Philippines.  To  the  soutli  of  thcs^-are  the  Laka  or  Lolo  (mainly 
in  Sze-chuen),  Liso,  and  Moso  j  the  last-named  have  advanced  to 
?o:;i'-  e.xt''nt  into  Indo  China.  The  Laka  or  Lolo  arc  remarkable 
for  their  European  white  features,  j.  Their  language,  along  with  that 
of  tlic  Liso  and  Moso,  &c. ,  forms  a  group  cognate  to  the  Burmese.' 
Not  so  far  east  are  the  Lutzo  or  Kunung,  Mclani;  Anu,  Pagny  or, 
Djion,  Telu/ and  Remepu,  all  speaking  a  dialect  of  Tibetan,  mixed 
%vith. foreign  words,  for  which  the  namo  of  iM  el  am  is  apftropriate. 
Savages  are  found,  says  the  pandit  explorer  A — K,  in  some  of  the 
valleys  of  the  range  north  of  Saithang  (i.e.,  the  Altin-tagh  north- 
of  the  Syi'tcn  plain).  They  have  a  thick  and  dark  skin,  arc  well 
liuilt  and  apparently  well  fed.  They  arc  clad  iri,6kins,  and  live  in 
caves  and  dens  or  under  the  shcltec  of  overhanging  rocks.  Being 
ignorant  of  tho  use  of  arms  in  the  chase,  thoy  Ho  in  wait  for, 
their  prey  near  springs  of  water  or  salt  flats.  "  They  are  remarkable 
for  their  fieetness  of-loot ;  even  a  horseman  finds  difliculty  in  pver-, 
taking  them.  Whentver  they  seo  a  civilized  man  they  run  off  in' 
great  alarm.  They  are  .said  to  know  how  to  kindle  a  Ore  by  means 
of  a  flint;  and  they  flay  the  animals  they  kill  with  sharp-edged 
stones.  This  is  not  the  only  survival  of  the  Stone  Age,  for  in  tho 
case  of  some  religious  rites  the  lamas  are  shaved  with  a  "lightning 
stone,"  The  country  is  thinly  peopled  and  laigc  tracts  in  the 
tipper  plateaus  and  Mngari-Khorsum  are  quite  uninhabited.  In 
the  province  of  Kham  the  population  is  very  irregularly  distributed,* 
and  tho  nomad  character  of  the  tribes  occupying  a  great  part  of  thc^ 
■nipper  country  makes  any  estimate  doubtful.  The  central  provinces 
of  DbUs  and  gTsang  arc  the  most  densely  peoplcil,  and  A — K  puts 
tBe  population  of  Lhasa  at  25,197  (7540  being  lanins). ';  The  totals 
lately  given  by  Chinese  authorities  (4,000,000)  and  by  the  Uussiau 
5taff-othcers  (6,000,000)  are  probably  nearer  the  truth  tlian  the' 
11,000,000  and  33.000,000  of  former  autlloritics.^  Tlii/ Tibetans' 
arc  a  very  social  people,  and  all  possible  circumstances,  especially! 
marriages  and  birtns,  arc  made  occasions  for  feasting  and  enjoyment. ' 
The  burial  customs  arc  peculiar.  .  First  the  hair  is  plucked  out  from 
the  top  of  the  head,  iu  order  to  faciliLatc  transmigration.  Tho 
:orpse  is  not  disposed  of  everywhere  or  always  in  the  same  way 
[lack  of  fuel  sometimes  preventing  cremat  ion),  and  the  lamas  decide  ■ 
whether  it  is  to  bo  piit  away  by  interment,  by  throwing  into  the 
river,  by  burning,  or  by  exposure  to  beasts  and  binls  of  prey.  The 
3ast-naraed  mode  (regarded  as  very  honourable)  has  almost  dis- 
appeared in  the  west,  but  is  still  practised  iii  the  central  and  eastern 
<nrovinccs  ;  the  body  is  cut  iu  pieces  and  the  bones  broken  into  frag- 
ffncnts  by  professional  corpse  butclicrs,  and,  when  all  tho  flesh  has 
been  devoured  at  the  selected  spot,  called  dur  krod,  to  which  the 
hody  had  been  previously  carried,  it  is  not  unusual  to  throw  the 
remaining  fragments  of  the  broken  bones  into  tho  river  ;  sometimes 
the  phalanges  of  the  fingers  are  preserved  to  be  used  in  bead-rolls. 
The  lamas  are  generally  inhumed  in  a  sitting  posture,  the  knees 
being  brought  up  to  tho  chin  and  corded  together  as  tightly  as 
{Kjssiblc.  In  the  case  of  the  gyalpos  or  kahlons  the  body  is  burned 
in  a  metal  vessel,  tho  ashes  bi-iug  afterwards  carefully  collected  to 
ho  ^nade  into  an  imago  of  the  deceased.  Polyandry  hag  been 
practised  from  the  earliest  times,  and  has  been  canied  by  the  spread 
ftf  tho  race  into  more  genial  countries,  such  as  Bhutan.  The  joint 
husbands  arc  usually,  but  not  always,  brothers.  Tho  arrangement 
seems  to  work  smoothly,  and  women  enjoy  general  consideration, 
•ccording  to  all-  travellers  who  l^ave  spoken  of  the  subject.  The 
redding  ceremony  takes  place  a't  the  house  of  the  bride's  parents, 
4fter  adequate  presents  have  been  oHcrcd  by  tho  older  brother, 
husband  or  bridegroom,  and  without  tho  assistance  of  any  priest. 
It  consists  chiefly  in  the  engagement  of  the  intending  spou^  and 
the  placing  of  a  piece  of  butter  by  the  bride's  i)arent  on  tne  head  of 
the  bridegroom  and  by  his  parent  on  that  of- the  bride.  Unless 
otherwise  stated  by  the  mother  in  each  case,  the  elder  husband  is 
*hc  putative  father  of  the  cliihlren,  and  the  othV^hs  are  uncles. 
4*olyandry  has  resulted  in  the  assignment  to  the  wife  of  a  paramount 
^sition,  which  in  the  north-east  and  east  of  the  country  has  grown 
im».ng  certain  tribes  into  a  real  sovereignty,  of  which  we'hear  from; 
■the  beginnings  of  Chinese  history,  and  which  has  left  certnin  sur-' 
■TiA-als  among  tlie  Loin  und  Moso  tribes  of  the  present  day  as  well 
as  in  tho  lalo  Burmese  court. 
ReHeioni  There  arc  two  religions  in  Tibet — Buddhism,  in  the  shape  of 
Lama  ISM  {q.v.),  and  an.  earlier  creed,  generally  called  the  Bon 
religion,  of  which  not  much  is  known.  The  latter,  a  creed  evolved 
from  Shara'Hniam.'does  not  seem,  from  what  is  FinkX  in  BuddhisU 
books,  to  have  received  any  regular  form  cither  in  doctrine  or  other- 
wise until  the  introduction  of  Buddhism,  which  incited  tho  Bonpo 


to  seek  in  a  better  organization  the  means  of  holdm'g  their^own; 
They  borrowed  much  from  the  BuddJiists,  as  the  latter  did  from 
them, — many  deities  supposed  to  be  Buddliist  because  of  their 
Buddhist  names  being  simply  Bon  gods.  At  the  present  day  the 
two  religions  exist  peaceably  side  by  side,  and  the  Bon  creed  has 
numerous  adherents  and  rich  convents  in  tho  central"  p'rovinces  of 
DbUs  and  gTsang,  but  few  in  the  western  and  eastern  provinces. 
The  Bonpo  are  sometimes  called  the  "Sect  of  the  Black,"  as  distin-  Bonpa. 
guishedfrom  the  "Kcd"  or  Old  and  "Yellow"  or  Reformed  Larnaists, 
both  appellations  being  derived  from  the  colour  of  their. garments 
though  Bonpo  have  been  seen  in  red  .as  well  as  in  black.  Tlity  arc 
also  called  Gruu-drun-pa(scc  below).  The  establishment  of  the  Bonpa 
or  Bon-fos,  i.e.,  the  lion  religion,  is  attributed  to  Gien-tiibs,  also 
called  Bstan-pa  Gscn-rabs,  i.e.,  Gsenrabs  of  tlio  doctrine,  the  n.imo 
under  which  he  is  worshipped  in  the  temples  of  his  sect,  aj,  for 
instance,  at  Tsodani  in  cast  Tibet,  not  far  from  Bonga  ;  his  statue, 
which  occupies  the  central  place,  represents  him  as  squatting,  with 
his  right  arm  outside  his  red  scarf,  and  holding  in  his  left  the  vaso 
of  knowledge.^  In  a  Bon  sutra  he  is  said  to  'hold  in  his  right 
hand  tho  iron  hook  of  mercy,  with  which  he  fishes  people  out  of  the 
ocean  of  transmigration,  in  his  left  hand  tho  seal  of  equality,  and 
to  wear  on  his  head  the  mitra  jewel.  His  full  namo  is  Bon  gscn- 
rabs-grun-drun.*  J.  Cscn-rabs-mi-po,  or  "(the)  excellent  human 
god,"  another  name  of  the  same  personage,  has  been  identified  by 
some  Tibetan  authorities  with  Lao-tsze  or  Lao-kiun  of  China.  This 
identificatioii,  however,  rests  only  on  the  slender  basi«of  an  apparent 
affinity  of  sound  between  the  sen  ohgscn  and  a  common  Chinese 
'appcUalivo  for  the  Taoists.  .  The  genuine  resemblances  botwcen 
Bonpa  and  Taoism  come  from  the  fact  that  both  religions  have  draxvii 
from  similar  sources,  from  the  native  rude  Shamanism  which  is  much 
the  same  in  both  countries,  from  the  tantric  and  esoteric  doctrines 
of  ludia.  and  from  Buddhist  ideas.  The  identity  is  suflicicnt  toliave 
deceived  the  uncritical  mind  of  native  scholars,  and  the  matter  ha? 
not  yet  been  carefully  examined  by  Europeans.  The  eiglith  book 
of  the  Gruh-mthtth-sel'hji-me-ioh,  in  twelve  books,  by  a  Tibetan 
lama,  Chkoikyi  Nyima  (1674  -1740),  which,  with  three  others,  has 
been  lately  translated  by  Sarat  Chandra  Das  (in  Jour.  As.  Soe. 
Bcng.  for  1881-1882),  gives  some  information  on  the  rise  of  the 
Bonpa  in  the  region  of  Shang-shung,  identified,  not  with  the  modern 
region  of  the  same  name  iu  the  north-west  of_  Lhasa,  but  with 
Gug(i  or  Ghughc  and  Knaor  or  Upper  Besahr.  ^,  Three  strides  are  . 

pointed  out  in  the  development  of  the  Bonpa'afler  the  time  ol 
its  mythical  founder,  who  reckoned  among  his  sjliritual  descendants 
sages  of  Persia,  Lcgtang-mnng  (some  names  of  Lao-kiun  ')  of  China, 
of  TJiouio,  of  Miniak  (east  Tibet),  of  Sumpar,  and  of  Shang-shung. 
The  first  stage  is  that  of  the  human  and  historical  founder  of  the 
religion,  a  sage  of  the  name  of  Shong-hon»  who  livetl  in  the  scnii- 
historioal  time  of  Thi-de-tsanpo,  the  sixth  king  of  Tibet  (the  first  U 
said  to  have  ruled  about  415  ac).  The  second  stage,  dating  fronj 
the  3d  century  ac,  is  that  at  which  Bon  theories  and  doLtnnes 
began  to"  exist,  a  beginning  coincident  with  the  arrival  in  tiic 
country  of  three  Bon  priests  from  Kashmir,  Dusha,  and  Shang- 
shung.  The  recital  down  to  this  point  gives  evidence  of  the  vagiie- 
ncss  of  tho  traditions  preserved  by  the  Tibetans  with  rcferenceto 
their  own  beginnings,  and  shows  th.at  the  author  has  striven  hard 
to  put  together  shreds  of  ancient  reminiscence  within  a-.ifaHulo\i8 
and  mythical  account.'  "With  the  third  stage  we  come'^ftown 
to  historical  times.  It  is  divided  into  three  periods,— tho  first 
dating  from  tho  arrival  of  an  Indian  pandit  hy  way  of  Kashmir, 
who  wrote  some  of  the  Bou  books  ;  the  second  being  that  of  tho 
introduction  of  Bu(Jdhism  and  the  consequent  persecution  leading 
the  Bonpo  to  multiply  their  sacred  books,  vhich  they  concealed  ; 
and  the  last  being  that  of  tho  reviv.il  of  the  Bonpa  and  the  bring- 
ing forth  of  tho  hidden  books  s\ibsequent  to  tiic  oyertlirow  and 
temporary  eflaccmcnt  of  Buil<lhism  by  gLang-dharnia  (i)08-1013). 
According  to  this  source,  which,  however,  is  certainly  tinged  by 
Buddhist  prejudice,  it  was  only  at  the  last-mentioned  date  that  ihe 
Bonpa  reached  its  complete  organization. 

Eighteeu  principal  gods  and  goildesses  are  enumerated,  inHud* 
ing'tho  red  wTathful  razor  spirit,  the  black  wiathful  razor  s].int, 
tho  tiger  god  of  glowing  fire  (the  popular  god  universally  wor- 
shipped), the  messenger  demon  Rgyal-po,  otherwise  Fe(d)kar 
rgyal-po  (much  dreaded  and  worshipped  in  the  central  povinces  r 
he  is  said  to  be  identical  with  the  deity  Kye-pang  of  Lhasa.  fi:,'un'J 
as  a  wooden  stick  or  log  decked  with  rags;  see  Jacschke.  Dkl.^ 
p.  7),  the  god  of  sound,  the  great  demon,  and  the  senjont  denioi- 
Information  is  lacking  as  to  tho 'specific  characteristics  of  these 
gods,  and  it  is  not  clear  to  which  of  them  belongs  the  title  o( 
kun-tu  Izang-po,  fireqiiently  cited  as  tho  chief  Bon  god  ;  he  is  re- 
puted to  have  a  wife  Yom-ki-long-mo,  the  eternal  female  prinripk-, 
and  from  their  union  have  resulted  all  the  minor  cods  and  the 
whole  world. 


1  Tho  torm  gyuh-drnh  {svai^li),  alsonri»bo.l  In  Ins  followers,  mean^  thL■c^.>^^ 
cr.imponni^e.  the  sxvstika,  simil.ir  to  Ih.-itof  llic  nticMlusts,  from  which  it  tlllli'it 
only  in  dirc.-iinn.  tho  Bonpo  manner  of  circunumbulation  rruml  a  shnnt 
or  deity  bciug  from  right  to  Iclt,  wtiilc  the  DudiiUist  iiinancr  n  fiom  lolt  \c 
right. 


HISTORY  J 


TIBET 


tiST"       ?r^  !^   r^^'/^5  '^o^°o'=  V  ™'"  translated  by  A.  Schiefcer 

t  ,  c  jj^"^"^  ^  ^''^  '"'■y  "*"'*  °»S^  ''>^  hundred  thousand -) ; 
but  Buddhjst  mfluenc*  ij  so  manifest  in  it  that  no  correct  idea  of 
the  pnmitiTe  ^n  reli^on  can  be  derived  from  it     In  a  native 

J^^^  n^,',  "^u  '•'  ^^'^  <*°'^  ^^  translated  by  Sarat 
Oxandra  Das,  the  following  are  enumerated-three  works  on  nbilo- 
^rJr.^,  metaphysics  four  meditative  works,  nine  ritual  serials. 
S^Jv  ?  .1  7-lf^.  ^^  *""  "5'^"'=  '■"l"  °f  a  '»'«  period,  in  all 
°J  J,^^  -^'.^ '^Iff  *,■■*•  t™^'^'«l  sntra  is  not  made'know^.  It 
1^^^  "J  *'l'  ,t^l^^on  that  these  Bon  scriptures  originally 
;^3f  "i  wholesale  plagiarisms,  subsequently  Altered  in  ortho- 
waphy  and  termmology  from  Buddhist  canonical  works.  The 
^^J^}"^A^'^  *°  ^^^  sot  the  counterparts  of  the  ^ah-gyur  in 
generaL  As  a  coirelative  of  the  sii -syllable  prayer  of  the  lamas 
fci  man.  pad-me  hum  (vnlgarly  "om-mani  peme:on  "),  they  have 
we  m  eight  sylUbles,  which  they  pronouncTma-M-riu-^r/M-ia! 
rTi..  o^??'  *"  °?'^  frequently  confounded  with  the  Red 
lAniis  or  Bud^ist.  of  the  Old  school,  who  are  distinguished  ^m 
the  Yellow  or  Reformed  sect  by  their  garments. 


345 


HisroBT. 

rf^?„^.f  ^^  T?^  ^"^  *^«  •^'^"'^  used  to  caU  by  the  name 
fa  K^^  tnoes  (about  150  in  number)  of  nomads  and  shepherds 
m  Koko-nur  and  the  north-east  of  present  Tibet ;  but  their \now- 

^nf^^^V""'*  ^  ^  ,™°^^  ^  '^'  >^^der  trib^  until  the  s^xfh 
century  of  our  era.     In  the  annals  of  the  Tang  dynasty  it  is  <iid 

i^Fal  S'^a^d"  "M*"^  '"r'^  originatedlroS^the'^^t.^n 
of  tl,.  ^S  ■  '  ^  t''l_"'formation  collected  in  the  first  part 
Tnt,  A^'^  concenung  Tu-bat,  afterwards  Tn-ban,  the  mXS 

«t/^or^„  ?),P^.'''  '""^"^  P~^'^  ^^  ^'*™^1  ="<i«^^'  from  a  ti.^ 
^,^^  J  ^^  ^"S  dynasty  (618  a.d.),  some  degree  of  reliance 
^i^i^'^"^  "".r  '"f^""'^'^  There  we  are  tSld  that  Fannt 
»  scion  of  tie  southern  Liang  dynasty  of  the  Tu-bat  family  (which 
t^"^  ^^  ^"  \°  "=  at'Liang^hu  in  Kan-suirwhr  h^ 
S^X^r^b- °  °°rt''«™  Liang  dynasty,  fled  in  433  I'ith  dl  iS 
people  from  his  governorship  of  Lin-sung  (in  Kan-chu)  westwards 
Z2'-f:^4^"'  '^J"'  ?°if°°"'i«i  befond  Tsih-Su.  (^Sy 
stones   )  a  sfaite  amidst  the  Eiang  tribes,  with  a  territory  eS 

enfbw't^  SSh"  V-  ^^  ^'^^  ^^  J-"'  "^'  heVJ^s'n 
o?»ir,^  to  establish  his  sway  over  an  immense  territory.  His 
SfSn^H  ^  ^Pl^'-^itly  situated  along  the  upper  Surse  of 
ir,tZf  ^S  l"i  ^°  ^"''"  of  "'^  Kin-sha-liang.  ^e  fore<^inK 
S^^t^?■.^^'^"^""°'*  P™'^"^  g^""^'  tiswry,  are  preS 
RnS^i^.,-^"''''^.''^  a  mass  of  legends  invented  by  the  native 
Buddhi^istoruns  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  the  J  monarch? 

intl^t.1^d''w"rrS^  ^''^-  ^"^""^  ^'  K"'**^  E.  von  Schlag- 
ld««  f.^-  .?  Chandra  Das  we  possess  five  copies  of  lists  of 
n^^li,  °  I'^'i?'^  ?°<"'  "^  Tibet  from  the  legendary  bSin 
S^vTm'  *B„tl"^  century  B.C.  down  to  the^  oT^e 
SxS^ri  Z  llll;  «™  'J'?  ^"ons  divergences  which  thev  show 
«it?enh>  .^=  <•  ^^  ^""^  "■  8e°«ral  outlines)  make  their  un- 
m^.^  >,  <=^"c*«''  Pl^  ^  the  last  published  list  is  accom- 
^fv  t.  )l*  comm«Ui7,  it  is  the  easiest  to  foUow77nd  rtS^ 
fro^th^  rK™PP''"'°''^  '^'^-^'^  therefrom  the  other  iSu^ 
from  the  Chinese  sources.     The  first  king,  Gnra-khri  btsan^  is 

^as  tem  ^It^^M*'''  f  5  ^^  °'  ^S  pSsenidjit^  Wa^i'l 
ll?as  iSTTh.  Si?°''^  ^^  l^^-  H*  fi<^<l  °orth  of  tlie  Him^ 
t^X.  ?  J  %!^  country,  where  he  was  elected  king  by  the 
twelve  chiefi  of  the  tabes  of  southern  and  central  Tibet  H«  took 
YLlun..^htrj°  '^'T^'^'^S  country  south  of  Lllai^  S^S 
V,nJ^  ?;,  w  •  ^^7'^  "s  name  from  the  Yalnng  of  the  state  of 
Fanni  Tu-ba^  ?.*  '}''"  '^'^ch  flows  into  the  Ya?o-tsanw  The 
first  k^g  and  his  six  successors  are  known  as  the  s^^eles^ 
tAn,  tne  next  senes  consists  of  six  kings  known  as  the^rtbT^ 
^  ;  and  they  were  foUowed  by  eight  iSfesS^  This  three^ 
Scient^W^S  StPP^^r'^  an  i;^ta«on  .r  a  del^«l  fo™  ^T. 
«i2,^=^  -T  o    '^'"^"'^y'  carttly,  and  human  rulers   which  "wa^ 

^^"dTibirAf  ?^  '""^  ^"'^  *^'  latter ll-unt^^ilS 
rtfT  *      Tibet,— the  relative  number  of  kings  bein»-  altered  in 

Sio^t  of  wh  wS-T,!"  "'^  '»-'  convenience  anStte^aU 
their^enu^thr™^^w  ' '^°™'^  by  a  combination  of  those  of 

^inhp,ae^^tT^^„SS^?lr^^^  :l^;-^.-~^^t 


appears  to  be  a  translation  of  Tsih-shih,  "heipy  stones,"  th« 
F°,1.n7^,T°,  r".'*'  '°5o°'=exion  with  the  founitioi  of  a  state  by 
a^^nmif  ^  I  ""^  during  his  reign  that  the  first  Buddhist  object 
fr«,nP  fl5  X  '^"  "^^.^"^  ^'^''  probably  from  Nepal  Little 
IS  said  of  his  three  immediate  successors.  The  fourth  vras  o-Nam-ri 
srong  btsan,  who  died  in  630.  During  his  reign  the  fibetans 
Ch^^th'^'^  fi^t  knowledge  of  arithmetic  anfmeSlciTC 
SS  fLt  "?rf "  V°u  e^*°^  ^^"^  "^  '^«  country  were  so 
fh!^  It  !,f .?  """S  ^^^  K  f^^  '^"**  cement  moist«.ed  with 
he  mJk  of  the  cow  and  the  yak. "  To  the  same  king  is  attributed 
the  discovery  of  the  inexhaustible  salt  mine  calleS  Chf^g-S: 
tZti^"'t^'?.^^.=  ""Orthem  salt "),  which  still  suppu5  S» 
S^n  <=r'"°°  °^  ^'^''•  ^^'  "'S"  of  "^  illustrious  sin,  Sro^ 
«.^>,^?"P?'  "P*!"-^  "P  a  "C"  era;  fie  introduced  Buddhism 
and  he  art  of  wnting  from  ftdia,  and  was  the  founder  (in  639)  of 
e^-i"  1^'  ^ft^™"-!^.  Lha-sa.  He  was  greatly  helped  ii  his  p4s- 
eh-tism  by  h.s  two  wves,  one  a  Nepal  princess,  daughter  of  Sina 

?-"l^A  l'^*^^  ^%^^  "T"  """^  princesses  from  the  Ru-yoni 
i7tJ.„  1?^*       IK^\  *^?°  <g^°''^'  appeUative  for  the  natioil 
be^.nL  K-""*  thelndian  plains)  co^tries.     As  a  conquero? 
nn^w!  r'^^.i'^'^i^  ^"  "■"  "*^  unsubdued  Kiang  tribes  of  the 
th^„b  V^  ?  '?.'  west  and  in  the  south  he  cai^ied  his  pow.r 
!^n^^^  J^tE?'  i"  '■''^  ^°'^'="'  ^'"^^  of  tl'^  Himalayas.     How  far 
foi  V.T^I  ^^""^  "Ir^""  "'  ^-J'  '^'^"'^^'l  i^  not  known  ;  but  S 
T?h„f^„^  •       1  the  country  of  the  Brahmans  rebelled,  and  tha 
TibetanTcmg,  the  third  successor  of  Srong  btsan  sgam-oo  was  killed 
whUe  atlempttng  to  r^tore  his  power.^  It  is  Sr^li^^^s  tit^ 
nothing  IS  said  of  this  Tibetan  rale  in  India,  except  in  the  Chined 
annals   where  it  is  mentioned  unril  the  endof  the  mona^^hy  ^tht 
J^LfS?"^'   ^J^l'^i-^.S  over  Bengal  to  the  sea,-the  Bay  of 
W^  being  called  the  Tibetan  Sea.     J.  R,  Logan  has  fomid  ethn^ 
logica    and  linguistic  evidence  of  this  dominalion,  which  was  left 
unnohced  in  the  Indian  histories.     Mang-srong  i^g  btsi?  St 
second  son  and  succ«sor  of  Srong  btsan^sgam.%,  coStinui^g  th» 
conquests  of  his  father,  subdued  the  TukSun  Ktars  around  th« 
l^r:^^  ',\''';  ^J-  u^'*"oked  the  Chinese  .-  afteTTomeTdveS* 
t^Vt   'l"*'  *o°J^  '^'"^  ^^"°S«  an'i  penetrated  as  far  as  LhaS! 
where  they  burnt  the  royal  palace  (Yi^bu-lagang).      Khri^ 
^g-brtan-m^ag-ts'oms,  the  grandson  of  Man^olg  and  second 
S>tl?„^?^°°/™"°  ^"?'  Promoted  the  spread  of  Buddhism  and 
hi^^l     ^"  «'n,  Jangts'a  Lhapon,  who  was  famous  for  the 
lKn?dL  tr'^^l'^'>?'^  of  the  accomplished  princess  Kyim! 
S^f"     nf^'-l"^'"^"  ^T^y^".  of  the  Chines^  emperor  J^- 
aSi^l„„5\  *.  b'^^  f"''"'  ^C*'  *^  ''^tb  of  her  betrrthed,  and 
after    ong  hesitation  became  the  bride  of  the  father      She  Vava 

Xl^^^,T-°'?°"''"'/^  oountry,  because  of  the  strenuous 
six  years  (743-789).  His  son  and  successor  Muni  btsai-po  beino- 
thlTh?^d*°>i"^,?"  ^  '"'"Jio'^  to  the  same  level,  ena^dlhat 
ZZt  ?r  ^  no  distinction  between  poor  and  rich,  humble  and 
CtL,^%TP,"'''  the  wealthy  to  sfire  their  richa  with  &l 
indigent  and  helpl^,  and  to  make  them  their  equals  in  respect  of 
f..,  ,K  ""^^"^^ioonditions  of  life.  He  repeated  this  Speri- 
ment  three  times ;  but  each  time  he  found  that  they  aUret^^ 
to  their  former  condition,  the  rich  becoming  stiU  richer  ^dtS 

^the'lr'T  V"'  ^^  \*t^'"^t^  this^curiou^  X^menoa 
^i^r,£^  *!if^  ^*^  of  their  former  Uves.  NotW  of  im 
&n  wb^"^  during  the  foUowing  reigns,  nnttl  thlfof  Ral- 
S^Hh\,*-7  -T!"  g'°/7  by  his  care  for  the  translations  o.'  the 
S^l  ,t  ^^"iit^^^^l'.ch  he  caused  to  be  completed,  or  rewritten 
more  accurately  when  required.     In  this  reign  a  severe  stmrele 

^n  ^nT  ^f.^l'h^^^'"'^  concludS^in  mZ^Si 
ngan  and  ratified  at  Lhasa  the  foUowing  year  by  the  erection  Sf 
bdingual  tablets,  which  stiU  exist.  fiipLhen  ^wTaSlS^t^ 
nli^^  T*"^  °^  gLang-dharma  and  thTconntry  feUir^dU- 
order.  gLang-dharma  instituted  a  violent  persecution  of  Buddhism  • 
but  he  was  soon  assassinated  in  his  turn,  and  the  kingdom  divided 

^^n  rt  ^'"^  ^  ^t^™  P"t  ^y  ^  two  sons.  The  partition 
did  not,  however,  prevent  mtemecihe  wai^.  The  history  1^  some 
rime  now  becomes  rather  intricate,  and  requires  some  attention 
iior  tsan,  tne  second  western  king,  after  a  reign  of  thirteen 
years  died  leaving  two  sons,  Thi  Tasi  Tsegpa-pal  Ind  Thi  Kyida. 
^ylmagon.  The  latter  went  to  Ngari  (Ungari)  and  founded  the 
capital  Pnrang;  he  left  three  sons,  of  whom  the  eldest  declared 
himself  king  of  Mang-yul  (the  Monhuil  of  our  maps),  the  second 
seized  Purang  and  the  youngest,  Detsud-gan,  becaie  king  of  the 
province  of  Sbang-sbung  (the  modern  Ghnghe).  The  revival  of 
Buddhism  began  with  the  two  sons  of  the  last-named,  the  dder  of 
whom  became  a  monk.  The  younger,  Khorre,  inherited  his  father'* 
throne,  and  was  followed  in  his  authority  by  twenty  successora. 
iasi  Isegpa  also  had  three  sons,— Palde,  Hodde,  and  Kyid-  The 
descendanta  of  the  first  made  themselves  mast.rs  of  Gun«-fan? 


Lugyalwa,  Chyipa,   Lhatse,  Langlung,   and  Tsakor,   where  th^ 
T::1±I^±'^  ff"y  chiefs.     The_  descendant,  of  Kj-ide  spread 


themselves  over  the    ilu,    Jang, 


23—14* 


Tanag,    Yaralag,    and  Gyalts* 
XSIII.  _  44 


346 


TIBET 


[langdags. 


districts,  where  they  also  ruled  as  petty  princes.  Hodde  left  four 
sons,— Phabdcse,  Thide,  Thich'ung,  and  Gnagpa.  The  first  and 
fourth  became  masters  of^^Tsangrong,  the  second  took  possession  of 
Amdo  and  Tsongkha,  the  third  became  king  of  DbUs,  and  removed 
the  capital  to  Yarlung,  south  of  Lhasa.  He  was  followed  on  his 
tlirone  from  son  to  son  by  eleven  successors.  History  is  silent  as 
to  the  fate  of  the  eastern  king,  the  othet-  son  of  gLang-dharma, 
and  his  successors,  but  the  geographical  names  of  the  chieftainships 
"enumerated  above  make  it  clear  that  the  western  kingdom  had 
extended  its  power  to  the  east.  Chronology  is  deficient  for  all  that 
period.  \Vhile  the  dynasty  of  Khorre  in  Shang-shung  and  that  of 
Tbicb'ung  in  BbUs  were  running,  another  authority,  destined  to 
tucome  the  superior  of  both,  had  arisen  in  Tibet.  Khorr^  left  his 
throne  to  his  son  Lhade,  who  was  himself  succeeded  by  his  three 
Bons,  the  youngest  of  whom  invited  the  celebrated  Indian  Buddhist, 
Atisha,  to  leave  his  monastery  Vikrama  Shila  for  Tibet,  where 
he  settled  in  the  great  lamaserai  of  Thoding  in  Ngari.  Besides 
religious  books  and  teachings,  he  introduced  in  102G  the  method 
of  computing  time  by  cycles  of  sixty  years,  "obtained  from  the 
Indian  province  of  Shambala.'*  He  was  the  first  of  the  several 
chief  priests  wh'ose  authority  became  paramount  in  the  country. 
The  kings  of  DbUs  greatly  patronized  them,  as  for  instance  in  the 
case  of  the  celebrated  Sakya  Pandita  by  the  seventh  of  these  kings. 
Tandita,  at  the  special  request  of  Kuyuk,  the  successor  of  Ogdai, 
paid  a  visit  to  his  court  in  1246-48.  Five  years  afterwards  Kublai 
Khan  conquered  all  the  east  of  Tibet ,  and,  after  he  had  ascended 
the  throne  of  China,  the  Mongol  emperor  invited  to  his  court 
Phagspa  Lodoi  Gyaltshan,  tht  nephew  of  the  same  Pandita.  He 
remained  twelve  years  with  the  emperor,  and  at  his  request  framed 
for  the  Mongol  language  an  alphabet  imitated  from  the  Tibetan, 
which,  however,  did  not  prove  satisfactory,  and  disappeared  after 
eighty-five  years  without  having  been  very  largely  used.  In  return 
for  his  services,  Kublai  invested  Phagspa  with  sovereign  power  over 

(1)  Tibet  proper,  comprising  the  thirteen  districts  of  U  and  Tsang, 

(2)  Kham,  and  (3)  Amdo.  From  this  time  the  Sakya-pa  lamas 
iecame  the  universal  rulers  of  Tibet,  and  remained  so.  at  least 
nominally,  under  twenty-one  successive  lamas  during  seventy  years 
(1270-1340).  Their  name  was  derived  from  the  Sakya  monastery, 
which  was  their  cradle  and  abode,  and  their  authority  for  temporal 
matters  was  exercised  by  specially  appointed  regents.  Mlien  the 
power  of  the  Sakya  began  to  wane,  that  of  the  rival  monasteries  of 
Digung,  Phagdub,  and  Tshai  increased  largely,  and  their  respective 
influence  and  authority  overbalanced  that  of  the  successors  of 
Phagspa.  It  was  at  this  troubled  epoch  that  Chyang  Chub  Gyalt- 
shan, better  known  as  Phagmodu  from  the  name  of  his  native  town, 
appeared  on  the  scene.  He  subdued  Tibet  proper  and  Kham,  for 
the  continued  possession  of  which  he  was,  however,  compelled  to 
fight  for  several  years  ;  but  he  succeeded  in  the  long  run,  and  with 
the  approval  of  the  court  of  Peking  established  a  dynasty  which 
furnished  twelve  rulers  in  succession.  When  the  Mongol  dynasty 
of  China  passed  away,  the  Mings  confirmed  and  enlarged  the 
dominion  of  the  Tibetan  rulers,  recognizing  at  the  same  time  the 
chief  lamas  of  the  eight  principal  monasteries  of  the  country. 
Peace  and  prosperity  gradually  weakened  the  benign  rule  of  the 
kings  of  this  dynasty,  and  during  the  reign  of  the  last  but  one 
internecine  war  was  rife  between  the  chiefs  and  nobles  of  U  and 
Tsang.  This  state  of  things,  occurring  just  as  the  last  rulers  of 
the  Ming  dynasty  of  China  were  struggling  against  the  encroach- 
ineuts  of  the  Manchus,  their  future  successors,  favoured  the  inter- 
ference of  a  Khoskot  Mongol  prince,  Tengir  To,  called  in  the 
Tibetan  sources  king  of  KoTco-nur.  The  Mongols  were  interested 
in  the  religion  of  the  lamas,  especially  since  1576,  when  Altan, 
khakan  of  the  Tumeds,  and  his  cousin  summoned  the  chief  lama  of 
the  most  important  monastery  to  visit  him.  This  lama  was  Sodnam 
rOyamtao,  the  third  successor  of  Gedundub.  the  founder  of  the 
Tashilumbo  monastery  in  1447,  who  had  been  elected  to  the  more 
important  abbotship  of  Galdan  near  Lhasa,  and  was  thus  the  first 
of  the  great,  afterwards  dalai,  lamas.  The  immediate  successor  of 
Gedundub,  who  ruled  from  1475  to  1541,  had  appointed  a  special 
officer  styled  depa  to  control  the  civil  administration  of  the  country. 
To  Sodnam  rGyamtso  the  Mongol  khans  gave  the  title  of  Vadjra 
Dalai  Lama  in  1576,  and  this  is  the  first  use  of  the  widely  known 
•title  of  dalai  lama.  During  the  minority  of  the  fifth  {really  the 
third)  dalai  lama,  when  the  Mongol  king  Tengir  To,  under  the 
pretext  of  supporting  the  religinn,  intervened  in  the  affairs  of  the 
country,  the  Pan-ch'en  Lo-sang  Ch  Vkyi  Gyal-ts'ang  lama  obtained 
the  withdrawal  of  the  invaders  ty  the  payment  of  a  heavy  war 
indemnity,  and  then  applied  for  help  to  the  first  Manchu  emperor 
of  China,  who  had  just  ascended  the  throne.  This  step  enraged 
the  Mongols,  and  caused  the  advance  of  Gushri  Khan,  eon  and 
auccessor  of  Tengir  To,  who  luraded  Tibet,  dethroned  all  the  petty 
princes,  including  the  king  of  Tsdng,  and,  after  having  subjugated 
the  whole  of  the  country,  made  the  fifth  dalai  lama  supremo 
monarch  of  all  Tibet,  in  1645.  Tlie  Chinese  Govemment  in  1653 
confirmed  the  dalai  lama  in  his  authority,  and  he  paid  a  visit  to 
the  emperor  at  Peking.  The  Mongol  Khoskotes  in  1706  and  the 
Sungara  in  1717  interfered  again  in  the  succession  of  the  dalai 


lama,  but  the  Chinese  army  finally  conquered  the  country  in  1720, 
and  the  present  system  of  government  was  established.  The  events 
which  have  happened  since  that  time  have  been  recorded  in  the 
articles  Lhasa  and  Ladak. 

Language*  and  Literature. 
Bod-skad  is  the  general  name  of  the  language  of  Tibet,  which  Lan- 
IS  also  occasionally  called  Gangs-6an-gyi  skad  (i.e.  "the  glaciers guage, 
language  ").  This  name  is  specially  applied  to  the  forms  in  use  in 
DbUs-gTsang  The  vernacular  is  called  p'dl'Skad  or  common 
language  in  contradistinction  to  the  to's-skad  or  book  language 
Besides  the  Bod-skad  there  are  two  chiof  dialects^  in  Great  Tibet, — 
that  of  Kharas,  spoken  in  the  three  provinces  of  Mdo  (Darrtse- 
mdo),  Kham,  and  Gong  in  the  east,  and  that  of  Ngari-Khorsum 
m  the  west.  Jaeschke  arranged  these  dialects  under  three  heads, — 
(1)  western,  including  those  of  Balti  and  Purig,  the  most  archaic, 
and  of  Ladak  and  Lahul ;  (2)  central,  including  those  of  Spiti  and 
of  DbUs  and  gTsang  ,  (3)  Khams.  To  the  same  Bhot  group  belong 
the  Changlo  or  Bhutam  or  Lhopa,  the  language  of  Bhutan,  of  which 
we  have  a  grammatical  notice  by  Robinson  (1849),  and  the  Serpa 
and  the  Takpa,  of  Tawang,  both  of  which  are  only  known  through 
the  vocabularies  collected  by  Hodgson.  The  later  Takpa  forms  the 
tiansition  between  the  Bhot  group  and  the  Si-fan  group,  which  in. 
eludes  the  Miniak,  Sungpan,  Lifan,  and  Thochu  dialects,  spoken 
near  the  eastern  borders,  as  well  as  the  Horpa,  spoken  on  a  larger 
area  west   of  the    preceding,   and  much  mi«ed   with  Turkic  in- 

l  The  Capuchin  friars  who  were  settled  in  Lhisa  for  a  quarter  of  a  century 
from  1719  studied  the  language  ;  two  of  them,  Francisco  Orazio  delta  Penna, 
well  known  from  his  accurate  description  of  Tibet,  and  Cassian  di  Maccrat* 
sent  home  materials  which  were  utilized  by  the  Augustine  friar  Aug.  Aut  Georgi 
of  Riraini  (1711.97)  in  his  Alphabelum  Tibetanum  (Rome,  1762,  4to),  a  ponderous 
and  confused  compilation,  whjch  may  be  still  referred  to,  but  with  great  caution. 
The  Tibetan  characters  were  drawn  by  Delia  Penna,  and  engraved  by  Ant. 
Fontarita  in  1738-  In  1820  Abel  Remusat  published  his  R^ercJus  rur  la 
Langues  Tarlarts,  a  chapter  of  which  was  devoted  to  Tibetan.  The  next  work 
of  importance  was  a  dictionary,  intended  for  European  students,  which  wms 
published,  with  Tibetan  types,  at  the  expense  of  the  East  India  Company,  In 
1826  at  Serampur,  and  edited  by  John  Marshman,  from  a  MS.  copy  made  by 
Fr.  Chr.  G.  Schroeter,  a  missionary  in  Bengal,  who  had  substituted  Bngli^ 
for  the  Italian  of  the  original.  It  was  the  UDsiTtea  result  of  the  labours  of 
an  unknown  Italian  missiouary,  who  bad  been  stationed  either  in  eastern  Tibet 
or  close  to  the  frontier  in  Bhutan.  It  was  properly  a  collection  of  all  the 
sentences  he  could  get  written  by  a  native  teacher,  completed  with  extracts 
from  the  Padma  tangyxg,  a  popular  senes  of  legends  about  Padma  Sambhava. 
Unfortunately  the  work  was  left  untinished,  and  unrevised,  as  there  was  do 
Tibetan  scholar  to  correct  the  proofs.  Though  richer  in  words  than  later 
dictionaries,  the  work  cannot,  for  these  reasons,  be  accepted  aa  an  authority 
on  any  doubtful  point.  The  grammatical  notice,  consisting  of  forty  pages  from 
Schroeter,  prefixed  to  this  Z>icfi(m«TT/o/ (fte  Bhotanto,  or  Butan. /.an^mafle,  hardly 
deserves  mention.  At  Calcutta  In  1834  the  Hlinganan  Alexander  Csoma  de 
Koros  (1784-1842)  brought  out  his  Dictionary,  Tibetan  and  English,  and  hia 
Grammar  of  Ihe  Tibetan  Language  xn  English,  prepared  on  the  western  frontier, 
where  he  had  resided  for  several  years  at  the  monasteries  of  Yangla  ami 
Pukdal  in  Zanskar,  and  finally  at  Ranum  in  Upper  Besahr,  enjoying  the  help 
of  native  scholars.  Bis  works  are  admirable  so  far  as  concerns  the  literary 
language  (chiefly  that  of  the  Buddhist  translations).  At  St  Petersburg  J.  J. 
Schmidt  published  his  GTammatik  der  Tibetischen  $prache  In  1839  and  hJs 
Tibetisch-Deulsches  Worterbuch  in  1841.  but  neither  of  these  works  justified  the 
great  pretensions  of  the  author,  whose  access  to  Mongolian  sources  had  enabled 
bim  to  enrich  tbe  results  of  hts  labours  with  a.certam  amount  of  information 
unknown  to  bis  predecessors.  In  France,  P  E.  Foucaui  published  in  1847  a 
tmnslatiOD  from  the  Rgya  tcher  rol  pa.  the  Tibetan  version  of  the  laiita  Vistara, 
and  in  1858  a  Grammawe  Thibetauu ;  while  Ant  Schiefner  had  begun  at  8t 
Petersburg  in  1849  his  senes  of  translations  and  researches.  His  Tibetue)u 
Studten(\SS\-tiS)  IS  a  valuable  collection  of  documents  and  observations,  lo 
18rtl  Lepsius  published  hts  puper  Ueber Chinesiscbe  vnd  Tihttischt^  LauiverMUtnisse; 
and  since  1864  L^on  Feer  has  brought  out  in  Pans  many  translations  of  texts 
from  Tibetan  Buddhist  literature-  In  1849  the  Jtrumal  of  the  Asiatic  Society 
of  Bengal  pubUshed  comparative  vocabulanes  of  spoken  and  written  Tibetan 
by  Bryan  H.  Hodgson,  and  grammatical  notices  of  Tibetan  (according  to  Csonu'a 
grammar)  and  of  Changlo.  a  Tibetan  dialect,  by  W-  Robinson  But  it  was  at 
Singapore  in  1652  that  the  general  relationship  of  the  Tibetan  and  the  Bunnan. 
now  admitted  in  comparative  philology,  was  established  for  the  first  time,  by 
J.  R.  Logan,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  Prof.  Max  Muller,  in  his 
"  Letter  on  the  Classification  of  the  Turanian  Lancuages"  of  1853,  arrived  rn- 
dependontly  at  aetmila;  conclusion.  In  1857  the  Moravian  nussionanea  estab- 
lished a  station  at  Eyelang,  distnct  of  Garza,  Bntish  Lahul,  m  Ladak,  a  school, 
and  a  lithographic  pre.sa,  and  it  la  to  the  labours  of  H.  A.  Jaeschke  of  thia 
mission  that  we  are  iniJcbted  for  the  most  valuable  materials  for  the  practical 
study  of  Tibetan.  From  1860  to  1867  that  scholar  made  several  important  com- 
munications, chiefly  with  reference  to  the  phonetics  and  the  dialectical  pro- 
nunciation, to  the  academies  of  Berlin  and  St  Petersburg,  and  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.  In  1868  at  Kyelang  he  published  by  lithography 
A  Short  Practical  Grammar  of  the  Tibetan  Language,  w^th  special  re/erenu  to  OU 
spoken  dialects,  and  the  following  year  a  Rnmanited  Tibetan  and  English  Dia- 
twnary.  He  also  published  m  187 1 -76  at  Onadau  in  Prussia  by  the  same  proceM 
a  Tibetan  and  OermaD  dictionary.  Aft«rward3  he  prepared  for  the  English 
Govemment  A  Tibetan-English  Dictionary,  with  special  rijermce  lo  Ihz  prrtvaxlinQ 
diaiects,  in  1881.  Pr  B.  Weozel,  one  of  his  pupils,  brought  out  in  1883  from 
Uia  MS.  a  Simplified  Tibetan  Grammar.  Major  Th.  H.  Lewin  with  the  help  of 
a  lama  compiled  A  Manual  of  Tibetan,  or  rather  a  senes  of  colloquial  phrases, 
which  was  brought  out  at  Calcutta  ui  1879.  A  portion  of  the  New  Testament 
has  been  translatwi  into  Tibetan.  As  regards  native  philology,  the  most 
ancient  work  extant  is  a  grammar  of  the  Tibetan  tongue,  by  Tonmi  Sambot.i, 
the  introducer  of  the  Indian  alphabet,  preserved  in  the  P.'Jtan-hgyiiT  (mdo 
cxiiv).  This  collection  also  contains  other  works  of  the  s.iraq  kind,  diction- 
aries by  later  writpra,  translations  of  many  Sanskrit  works  on  grammar 
vocabulary.  &c..  and  bilingual  dictionaries,  Sanskrit  and  Tibetan.     A  a  separate 

Publications  Ih^reare  several  vocabularies  of  Chinese  and  Tibetan  ;  Mongol  and 
ibetan;   Chinese,   Manchu.  Mongol,  Oolot,  Tibetan,  and  Turkish,  Tibetan. 
Sanskrit,  Manchu,  Mongol,  and  Chinese. 

3  There  are  mthout  doubt  many  minor  skad-tuga  or  dialects  which  are  ctUJ 
unkiio^vTi.  K.ir  instancr-.  m  the  Pan-yul  valley  north  of  Lhiisa  the  tDhabltanta 
are  BSid  to  speuk  an  indistinct  dkad-lugh. 


LANCrAGE.] 


TIBET 


347 


gredients.  \V'ith  the  exception  of  the  Sokpa,  a  Mongol  diiUect,  and 
of  the  Gyarung,  a  pre-Chinese  dialect,  the  languages  spoken  in  Tibet 
belong  to  the  large  linguistic  family  commonly  called  Tibeto- 
Burnian,  a  division  nf  the  Kucu-lun  group,  which  is  a  part  of  the 
Turano-Scytliian  stock. 
'ram-  Tiie  language  is  more  consonantal  than  vocalic,  though  much 

'2ar.  softened  in  the  central  dialect.  The  consonants,  30  in  number, 
which  are  deemed  to  possess  an  inherent  -ound  a,  are  the  follow- 
ing:— i'a,  Ar'a,  ga,  nga,  fca,  ta,  dja,  mja,  fa,  t^a,  da,  na,  pa,  pa,  M, 
jmr,  tsa,  ts'a,  aca,  ««,  sha,  za,  'A,  ya,  ra,  la,  sha,  5a,  ha^'a  ;  the  so- 
called  Sanskrit  cerebrals  are  represented  by  the  letters  ta,  t'a,  da, 
rta,  sha  turned  the  other  way.  y'a,  when  combined  as  second  con- 
sonant with  i-,  p-t  Ml-,  is  written  under  the  hrst  letter.  Ba,  when 
combined  as  second  letter  with  k-,  ^,  p-,  is  written  under  the  first, 
and  when  combined  with  anotlter  consonant  as  first  letter  over  the 
second.  The  vowels  are  a,  i,  it,  c,  o,  which  are  not  distinguished 
as  long  or  short  in  writing,  though  they  are  so  in  the  vernaculars 
ID  the  case  of  words  altered  by  phonetic  detrition.  Agglomerations 
of  consonants  are  not  objectionable  ;  and  they  are  often  met  with 
as  initials,  giving  the  appearance  of  telescoped  words — an  appearance 
which  historical  etymology  often  confirms.  Many  of  these  initial 
consonants  are  silent  in  the  softened  dialects  of  the  central  provinces, 
or  have  been  resolved  into  a  simpler  one  of  another  character.  The 
language  is  much  ruled  by  laws  of  euphony,  which  have  been  strictly 
formulated  by  grammarians.  Among  the  initials,  five,  viz.,  g,  d,  b, 
m,  'h,  are  regarded  as  prefixes,  and  are  called  so  for  all  purposes, 
though  they  belong  sometimes  to  the  stem.  As  a  rule  none  of 
these  letters  can  be  placed  before  any  of  the  same  organic  class. 
Post-positions,  pa  or  ba  and  ma,  are  required  by  the  noun  (sub- 
stantive or  adjective)  that  is  to  be  singled  out  ;  po  or  bo  (masc.) 
and  TOO  (fern.)  are  used  for  distinction  of  gender  or  for  emphasis. 
The  cases  of  nouns  are  indicated  by  suftixcs,  which  vary  their 
initials  according  to  the  final  of  the  nouns.  The  plural  is  denoted 
when  required  by  adding  one  of  several  words  of  plurality.  When 
several  words  are  connected  in  a  sentence  they  seldom  require  more 
than  one  case  element,  and  that  comes  last.  There  are  personal, 
demonstrative,  interrogative,  and  reflexive  pronouns,  as  well  as 
an  indefinite  article,  which  is  also  the  numeral  for  "one."  The 
personal  pronouns  are  replaced  by  various  terras  of  respect  when 
speaking  to  or  before  superiors,  and  there  are  many  words  besides 
which  are  only  employee!  in  ceremonial  language.  The  verb,  which 
is  properly  a  participle,  has  no  element  of  person,  and  denotes  the 
eonditions  of  tense  and  mood  by  an  external  and  internal  inflexion, 
or  the  addition  of  auxiliary  verbs  and  suffixes  when  the  stem  is  not 
susceptible  of  inflexion.  The  conditions  which  approximate  most 
closely  to  our  present,  perfect,  future,  and  imperative  are  marked 
either  by  aspiration  of  the  initial  or  by  one  of  the  five  prefix  con- 
sonants according  to  the  rules  of  euphony,  and  the  whole  looks  like 
a  former  system  thrown  into  confusion  and  disorder  by  phonetic 
decay.  As  to  the  internal  vowel,  a  or  e  in  the  present  tends  to 
become  o  in  the  imperative,  the  e  clianging  to  a  in  the  past  and 
future  ;  i  and  u  are  less  liable  to  change.  A  final  s  is  also  occasion- 
ally added.  Only  a  limited  number  of  verbs  are  capable  of  four 
changes ;  some  cannot  assume  more  than  three,  some  two,  and 
many  only  one.  This  deficiency  is  made  up  by  the  addition  of 
auxiliaries  or  suffixes.  There  are  no  numeral  auxiliaries  or  segrega- 
lives  used  in  counting,  as  in  many  languages  of  eastern  Asia, 
though  words  expressive  of  a  collective  or  integral  arc  often  used 
after  the  tens,  sometimes  after  a  smaller  number.  In  scientific 
and  astrological  works,  the  numerals,  as  in  Sanskrit,  are  expressed 
by  symbolical  words.  In  the  order  of  the  sentence  the  substantive 
precedes  the  adjective  and  the  verb  stands  last ;  the  object  and 
the  adverb  precede  the  verb,  and  the  genitive  precedes  the  noun  on 
which  it  depends.  An  active  or  causal  verb  requires  before  it  the 
■istrumental  instead  of  the  nominative  case,  which  goes  only  before 
a  neuter  or  intransitive  verb.  The  chief  differences  between  the 
classical  language  of  the  Tibetan  translators  of  the  9th  century  and 
the  vernacular,  as  well  as  the  language  of  native  words,  existed  in 
vocabulary,  phraseology,  and  grammatical  strncturc  and  arose  from 
the  influence  of  the  translated  texts. 
Philo-  The  Tibetan  language,  in  its  written  and  spoken  forms,  has  a 

\o^.  great  interest  for  philologists,  on  account  of  its  bearing  on  the 
'  history  of  the  so-called  monosyllabic  languages  of  eastern  Asia.  Is 
the  Tibetan  a  monosyllabic  language  passing  to  agglutination  ?  or 
the  "reverse  ?  ,  The  latter  is  the  fact,  as  we  shall  see  further  on. 
The  whole  question  has  turned  upon  the  elucidation  of  the  pheno- 
menon of  the  silent  letters,  generally  prefixed,  which  diflerentiate 
the  spelling  of  many  words  from  their  pronunciation,  in  the  central 
dialect  or  current  speech  of  Lhasa.  As  long  as  the  sounds  of  this 
dialect  only  were  known,  the  problem  could  not  be  fully  grasped. 
Remusat  rather  dubiously  suggested,  while  Schmidt  and  Schiefner 
maintained,  that  the  silent  letters  were  a  device  of  grammarians  to 
distinguish  in  writing  words  which  were  not  distinguished  in  speech. 
But  this  convenient  opinion  wa.".  not  sufficient  for  a  general  explaua- 
tion,  being  supported  by  only  a  few  Ci^es.  Among  these  are — (a) 
the  addition  of  silent  letters  to  foreign  Wt,'-ds  in  analogy  with 
older  terms  of  the  language  {e.g.,  the  Persian  UMJik  was  tran- 


scribed staggzig  ot  "tiger-leopard,"  because  the  foreign  term  left 
untouched  would  have  been  meaningless  for  Tibetan  readers) ;  (6) 
the  addition  for  the  sake  of  uniformity  of  prefixed  letters  to  words 
etymolof^ically  deprived  of  them  ;  (c)  the  probable  addition  of  letters 
by  the  Buddhist  teachers  from  India  to  Tibetan  words  in  order  to 
make  them  more  similar  to  Sanskrit  ex.pressions  (for  instance,  rje- 
for  "king,"  written  in  imitation  oi  raja,  though  the  original  word 
W3S>tf  or  sfie,  as  is  shown  by  cognate  languages).  On  the  other  hand, 
while  phonetically  the  above  explanation  was  not  inconsistent 
with  such  cases  as  xka,  dAah,  bA-ah,  bs^-a,  and  nga,  rnga,  ngag,  sngags, 
higa,  iigad,  and  bnsr.,  brdzjai,  dhtjar,  kc,  where  the  italicized  letters 
are  pronounced  in  full  and  the  others  are  left  aside,  it  failed  to  ex- 
plain other  cases,  such  as  dgra,  mgrcni,  spyod,  spyan,  sbrang,  sbndt 
bhra,  Ar'ri,  krad,  k'rims,  k'nis,  ic,  pronounced  da,  d&n,  cod  or 
hvod,  ten,  datig,  deti,  ta,  t'i,  tad  or  tek,  Ciyn,  tu,  kc,  and  many 
others,  where  the  spoken  forms  are  obviously  the  alteration  by 
wear  and  tear  of  sounds  originally  similar  to  the  wTitten  forms. 
Csoraa  de  Koros,  who  was  acquainted  with  the  somewhat  archaic 
sounds  of  Ladak,  was  .able  to  point  to  only  a  few  letters  as  silent 
But  Major  Cunningham,  in  his  book  on  the  same  country  (1854), 
held  that  the  Tibetan  writing,  when  first  applied  to  the  language, 
was  the  faithful  transcription  of  speech,  and  lie  gave  as  a  proof  that 
the  name  of  the  province  of  U,  written  DbUs,  was  the  Debasm  of 
Ptolemy.  Foucaux,  in  his  Grammaire  (ISOS),  quoted  a  fragment 
from  a  native  work  on  grammar  several  centuries  old,  in  which  the 
pronunciation  of  the  supposed  silent  letters  is  carefully  described. 
Since  then  the  problem  has  been  disentangled  ;  and  now  minor 
points  only  remain  to  be  cleared  up.  Jatrschke  devoted  special  at- 
tention to  the  dialectical  sounds,  and  showed  in  several  papers  and 
by  the  comparative  table  prefixed  to  his  dictionary  that  in  the 
western  and  eastern  dialects  these  sounds  correspond  more  or  less 
closely  to  the  written  forms.  Thus  tlie  valuable  testimony  of  these 
dialects  may  be  added  to  the  evidence  fuiniUied  by  foreign  tran- 
scriptions of  Tibetan  words,  loan  words  m  conterminous  languages, 
and  words  of  common  descent  m  kindred  tongues.  And  the  whole 
shows  plainly  that  the  written  forms  of  words  which  are  not  of 
later  remodelling  are  really  the  representatives  of  the  pronunciation 
of  the  language  as  it  was  spoken  at  the  time  of  the  transcription. 
The  concurrence  of  the  evidence  indicated  above  enables  us  to  form 
the  following  outline  of  the  evolution  of  Tibetan.  In  the  7tk 
century  there  was  no  difference  between  thes.poken  and  the  writteu 
language.  Soon  afterwards,  when  the  language  was  extended  t» 
the  western  valleys,  the  prefixed  and  most  of  the  important  con- 
sonants vanished  from  the  spoken  words.  The  ya-tag  a^nd  ra-tof 
or  y  and  r  subscript,  and  the  s  after  vowels  and  consonants,  wera 
still  in  force.  The  next  change  took  place  in  the  central  pro- 
vinces ;  the  ra-tags  were  altered  into  cerebral  dentals,  and  the  ya- 
tags  became?.  Later  on  the  superscribed  letters  and  finals  rf  and 
s  disappeared,  except  in  the  east  and  west.  It  was  at  this  stage 
that  the  language  spread  in  Lahul  and  Spill,  where  the  superscribed 
letters  were  silent,  the  d  and  g  finals  weie  hardly  heard,  and  as,  oa, 
us,  were  at,  oi,  «i.  The  words  introduced  from  Tibet  into  the 
border  languages  at  that  time  differ  greatly  from  those  introduced 
at  an  earlier  period.  The  other  changes  are  more  recent  and  re- 
stricted to  the  provinces  of  U  and  Tsang.  The  vowel  sounds  at, 
oi,  ui,  have  become  e,  o,  u  ;  and  a,  o,  u  before  the  finals  d  and  % 
are  now  a,  b,  u.  The  mcdi&  have  become  aspirate  tenues  with  a 
low  intonation,  which  also  marks  the  words  having  a  simple  initial 
consonant ;  while  the  former  aspirates  and  the  complex  initials 
simplified  in  speech  are  uttered  with  a  high  tone,  or,  as  the  Tibetans 
say,  "with  a  woman's  voice,"  shrill  and  rapidly.  An  inhabitant 
of  Lhasa,  for  example,  finds  the  distinction  between  sh  and  z}i,  or  be- 
tween s  ands,  not  in  the  consonant,  but  in  the  tone,  pronouncing  jA 
and  s  with  a  high  note  and  zh  and  z  with  a  low  one.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  important  compensation  of  tones  to  balance 
phonetic  losses  had  begun  several  centuries  before,  as  appears  from  a 
Tibetan  MS.  (No.  4626  St  Petersburg)  partly  published  by  Jaeschke 
{Monalsber.  Akad.  BcrL,  1667).  A  few  insunces  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate what  has  been  said.  In  the  bilingual  inscriptions,  Tibetan 
and  Chinese,  set  up  at  Lhasa  in  S22,  and  published  by  Bushell  in 
1880,  we  remark  that  the  silent  letters  were  pronounced:  Tib. 
^pudgya.\,  now  pugyal,  is  rendered  suk-pot-yc  in  Chinese  symbols  ; 
khri,  now  t'iy  is  kieh-li  ;  kbrong  is  puk-lung  ;  snyan  is  shch-njoh 
and  su-njoh  ;  srong  is  su'lun,  sji-liiTig,  and  si-tung.  These  tran- 
scriptions show  by  their  variety  that  they  were  made  from  the 
spoken  and  not  from  the  written  forms,  and,  considering  the 
limited  capacities  of  Chinese  orthoepy,  were  the  nearest  attempt 
at  rendering  the  Tibetan  sounds.  Spra  or  $p7-cu  (a  monkey),  now 
altered  into  dcu  at  Lhasa,  tea  in  Lahul,  Spiti,  and  Tsang,  is  still 
more  recognizable  in  the  Gyarung  shcpri,  ind  in  the  following 
degenerated  forms — shrcic  in  Ladak,  slrcu-yo  in  Khams  and  in 
cognate  languages,  soba  in  Limbu,  saheu  in  Lcpclia,  simai  in 
Tablung  Naga,  sibeh  in  Abor  Miri,  shibe  in  Sibsagar  Aliri,  sarrha  in 
Kol,  sara  in  Kuri,  &c  Gro^r-ma  (ant),  now  altered  into  the  spoken 
t'oma,  is  still  kyoraii.  in  Bhutan,  and,  without  the  suffix,  korok  iu 
Gyarung,  k'oro-  in  Sokpa,  k'orok,  k^aUk  in  Kiranti,  &c  Grang-^ 
(cold),  spoken  t'ammo,  is  still  giang-mo  in  Takpa,  k'yam  in  Eur- 


348 


T I B— T I B 


Ir-f 


Diese,  &c.  "i  respectful  word  for  "  head  "  is  «,  written  dhi,  which 
finds  its  cognates  in  Murmi' M060,  Kusnnda  chipi,  Sibsagar  Miri 
■tub,  &c.  Biju  (bird),  spokctt  chija,  is  stUl  }iiic  in  Gyarung.  Brjod 
(to  speak),  pronounced >o(f,  is  cognate  to  the  Burmese  pijauhtso,  the 
Garo  brot,  &.r..  The  word  for  "cowries"  is  'gro7i-  in  written,  rum- 
In  spoken  Tibetan,  and  i)ru<a  in  written  Burmese  j  slop  (to  learn), 
spoken  lop,  is  slop  in  Melam.  "Jloon"  iszlava  in  WTitten  and 
dau;a  in  spoken  language,  in  which  -va  is  a  stiffix  ;  the  word  itself 
is  zla;  cognate  to  the  Jlongol  ssara,  Sokpa  sara,  Gyarung  l-silc, 
jVayu  cholo,  &c.  The  common  spoken  word  for  "head"  is  go, 
written  711(10,  to  wliich  the  Munipuri  moko  and  the  Mislimi  vikura 
are  related.  Sometimes  the  written  forms  correspond  to  double 
words  which  have  disappeared.  For  instance,  gi/e  (eight),  which 
Is  written  brgyad  and  still  spoken  vrgyad  in  Balti  in  the  west  and 
Khams  in  the  cast,  is  gyad  in  Ladak,  Lahul.  and  U.  The  same 
word  docs  not  appear  ekcwhero;  but  we  find  its  two  parts  separately, 
such  .IS  Guri'.ng ;;;•(;,  Murm'  pre,  Taksya />/ire,  and  Takpa<7;/c',  Serpa 
gyc,  Garo  chct,  kc.  Rta  (horse)  is  reduced  to  ia  in  speech,  but  we 
find  ri,  rhyi,  roh  in  Sokpa,  Horpa,  Thochu,  Miniak,  and  td,  lah, 
tch,  t'ny  in  Lhopa,  Serpa,  Murmi,  Kami,  Takpa,  kc,  both  with  the 
^me  meaning.  Such  arc  the  various  pieces  of  evidence  obtained 
from  nn  endless  number  of  instances.  The  cases  referred  to  above 
do  not,  owing  to  the  difference  of  the  causes,  yield  to  any  explana- 
tion of  tliis  kind.  ^  'And  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  are  also 
many  cases,  tome  of  them  caused  by  irregularities  of  writing, 
aiodification  of  spelling  by  decay,  and  by  a  probable  use  of  prefixes 
kill  unascertained,  w-liich  also  resist  explanation,  though  the 
iccount  just  given  stands  good  whatever  solutiou^the  question  of 
'prefixes  may  receive  in  future. 

I  Little  is  known  of  the  non-reli"ious  literature  of  Tibet.  ^  The 
most  popular  and  widely  circulated  book  is  called  The  Hundred 
Thouso nd  Songs  of  Ike  Venerable  Mdaraspa..  ,Their  author  Milar- 
as™  (unless  the  work  should  bo  attributed  to  his  disciples),  often 
callcil  Mila,  was  a  Buddhist  ascetic  of  the  11th  century  ;  according 
to  J.acschkc,  during  the  inter\'als  of  meditation  he  travelled  through 
the  southern  part  of  middle  Tibet  as  a  mendicant  friar,  instructing 
the  iwople  by  his  "improvisations  in  poetry  and  song,  proselytizing, 
'refuting  and  converting  heretics,  and  working  manifold  miracles. 
'His  legends  are  not  without  wit  and  poetical  merit.  A  number 
\>i  poems  written  in  an  elevated  and  special  style,  dramatic  works, 
and  collections  of  fniry  tales  and  fables  are  said  to  be  in  existence. 
A  very  extensive  work,  the  Vjning  yg  (Sgiuiis  yg),  regarded  as  the 
national  epic  inJOi.-iin,  has  been  partly  seen  by  Desgodins  and 
Babcr.  It  is  in  prose;  but  the  dialogue,  interspersed  with  songs, 
is  metrical,  and  is  much  more  extensive  than  tlie  prose  framework. 
Religious  discussions  and  [ilulosopliical  dissertations  alternate  nith 
'comic  cpisodo3.|  ; It, includes  three  divisions,— the  Djiung  ling, 
*-hicli  describes  iho  invasion  of  part  of  Tibet  by  the  Djiung  or 
Moso  ;  the  //or 'W/ij,  which  recounts  theconquest  of  the  Hor(Turk 
tribes)  by.  the  Tibetans,  and  conveys  much  historical  information 
In  a  tale  of  magic  and  marvel ;  and  the  Djia  ling  (Chinese  division). 
Which  nai  rates  a_contcst  of  unknown  date  between  the  Tibetans 
and  the  ChincsCv  ^/fhis  work  has  apparently  never  been  published, 
and  even  the  manuscripts  of  the  three  divisions  cannot,  says  Baber, 
)x:  obtained  in  a  complete  form.  >  But  every  Tibetan;  or  at  least 
every  native  of  Kham,  who  possesses  any  education,  is  able  to  recite 
H-to  chant  passages  of  great  length.  ^  Auother^Tibctan  epic,  the 


Gyaldrung,  praises  Dagyolong,  a  famous  warrior  who  subdued  the 
savage  men  of  Kham.  Besides  these  poems  we  find  allusions  to  a 
sgrunq,  referring  to  the  Yesser  Khan.  Dramatic  works  exist,  as 
well  as  translations  of  Galen,  also  of  the  Ramnyana  in  the  first 
vol.  of  the  Bstodtsogs  of  the  Bstan-hgyur,  ^  For  the  religious 
literature,  which  is  considerable,  see  Lamaism.' 

Writing  was  not  introduced  until  the  7th  century.  '  Notched  Writing; 
sticks  {shing-ehram)  and  knotted  cords  wore  in  current  use,  but 
the  latter  contrivance  is  only  faintly  alluded  to  in  the  Tibetan 
records,  while  of  the  other  there  are  numerous  exarotiles.  No 
mention  is  anywhere  made  of  a  hierogljTihical  writing,  but  on  the 
eastern  fronricr  the  medicine-men  or  lomba  of  the  Moso  have  a 
peculiar  pictorial  writing,  which  is  known  in  Europe  from  two 
published  MSS.  (in  Joum.  Roy.  As.  Soe.,  1885,  vol.  xvii.) ;  though 
apparently  now  confined  solely  to  purposes  of  witchcraft,  it  perhaps 
contains  survivals  of  a  former  extensive  system  superseded  by  the 
alphabetic  writing  introduced  from  India  '  Accoriling  to  tradition 
— a  tradition  of  wTiich  the  details  are  open'  to  criticism— the  alpha- 
bet w-as  introduced  from  India  by  Tonmi  Samb'ota,  who  was  sent 
to  India  in  632  by  King  Srong  btsan  to  study  the  Sanskrit  language 
and  Buddhist  literature.  Tonmi  Samb'ota  introduced, the  so- 
called  "\mting  in  thirty  characters"  (six  of  which  do  not  exist  ia 
Sanskrit)  in  two  styles, — the  "thick  letters"  or  "letters  with 
heads,"  now  commonly  used  in  printed  books,  and  the  half-cursive 
"cornered  letters,"  so  called  from  their  less  regular  heads.  The 
former  are  traditionally  said  to  liave  been  derived  fiom  the  Landza 
character.  The  Landza  of  Nepal,  however,  is  certainly  not  the 
origin  of  the  Tibetan  letter,  but  rather  an  ornamental  development 
of  the  parent  letter.  The  close  resemblance  of  the  Tibetan  char-; 
acters  "  with  heads  "  to  the  Gupta  inscriptions  of  Allahabad  shovrs 
them  to  have  been  derived  from  the  monumental  writing  of  the 
period  ;  and  various  arguments  appear  to  show  that  the  other, 
Tibetan  letter  came  from  the  same  Indian  character  in  the  style  in 
which  it  was  used  in  common  life.^  The  Tibetan  half-cursive  was 
further  developed  into  the  more  current  "  headless"  characters  oi 
which  there  are  several  styles.  From  the  monumental  writing  of 
Tibet  was  derived,  for  the  special  use  of  the  Mongols  in  the  13th 
century,  the  short-lived  wTiting  known  as  Bagspa,  from  the  name 
of  the  lama  who  worked  it  out.         ^  ,^ 

5i6?iogmpftj/.— The  worka  of  Csoma  de  Kords,  AJcx.^CuQningham,  Sar.it 
Chandra  Das,  Desgodins,  L^on  Feer.  Ed.  Foucaux,  A.  A.  Georgi,  Bryan  II.' 
Hodgson,  n.  A.  Jaeschlie,  Th.  FI.  Lewin,  Max  Miiller,  A.  Wmusat,  W.  Hobln-' 
son,  J  J.  Schmidt,  F.  C.  G-  Schroeter.  and  A.  Schiefner  Iiavc  been  already  men- 
tioned, and  those  of  J.  W.  BusheU,  A.  Campbell,  T  W.  Rhys  Davids.  Hue  .ind 
Gabet,  Keeppen,  C.  Markhani,  Pallas,  Ssanang  Ssetsen.  Schott,  Pundit  N.iin 
Singh,  and  others  ye  referred  to  under  Lamaism,  Ladak  and  Oalti,  and 
Lhasa  (ij'^.r.).  The  following  also  may  be  nanie<l  ;  E.  Colbonie  Babcr, 
"Travels  and  Researches  in  Western  China,"  in  Ron  Gcmi^.  Soc.  Svppl.  Pairrs, 
I.,  1882;  C.  n.  Desgodins,  Le  Thibet  d'nprcs  la  corrcsjwtdance  tics  Misswnatrts, 
Paris,  1885;  Th.  Duka,  Life  and  Works  of  AUicmder  Cso^na  de  Koros,  London, 
188J :  Konrad  Ganzenmuller.  Tibet,  Stuttgart,  1878  ;  Krick,  Relation  d'  tin 
Voyage  au  Thibet  en  1S5S,  Paris,  18&4 ;  A.  Krishna.  Erplorntions  in  Great  Tibet 
and  Mongolia,  made  in  1879-8?;  Report  prepared  by  J.  B.  N.  Hennessey,  Dehra 
Dun,  1884,  fol  ;  Terrien  de  Licouperie,  "  Beginnings  of  Writing  in  .^iid  around 
Tibet,"  in  Joum.  Roy.  As.  Soc  ,  1885,  xvii.  ;  Id.,  The  Languages  of  China  heforf 
the  Chinese,  London,  18S7  ;  J.  R.  Logan,  in  Jonr^iat  of  the  Indian  Arenijxl.i'jo 
Eastern  Asia,  vol.  vi  ,  Singapore,  IS.W  .  W.  Wooilvdle  Rockill,  "The  Early 
Histflry  of  Bod-j-ul,"  append  Ut  The  Life  of  the  Buddha,  from  Tibetan  sources, 
London,  1884  ;  Em.  von  Schlagintweit,  Die  Koenigevon  Tibet,  Munich,  li^liO.  and 
Buddhism  in  Tibet,  London,  1  V»3  ;  H.  Strachey,  Physical  Gee,grophy  of  ll'e^tfrn 
Tilxti  Trailer,  Joum.  Roy.  Grog.  Soe.,  1877,  vol.  slvu.;  U.M^lc,  The  Book  of  So 
Marco  Polo,  2d  cd.,  London,  1874.  T.  DE  L  )  ,* 


TIBULLUSrALBius'(c.'  5-1-19  b.c),  was  the  second  in 
the  tetrad  of  the  elegiac  poets  of  Rome.'  As  we  learn 
from  Ovid,  he  was  the  succr-sor  of  Cornelius  Callus  and 
(bo  immediate  predecessor  of  Propcrtius.  The  informa- 
tion which  we  possess  about'  him  is  extremely  meagre. 
Besides  the  poems  themselves — that  is  to  say,  the  first  and 
second  books — we  have  only  a  few  references  in  later 
authors  and  a  short  Life  of  probable  but  not  undoubted 
genuineness.^  We  do  not  know  his  pra;nomen  ;  ,and  his 
birthplace  is  uncertain.  •  It  is,  however,  a  plausible  con- 
jecture that  he  came  from  Cabii.  i  Tlie  year  of  his  birth 
bas  been  variously  assigned  ;  but  54  B.C.  may  be  taken  as 
smproximatcly  correct.  This  would  make  him  about  twenty- 
five  when  lie  accompanied  Messala  on  his  Aquitanian  cam- 
paign ill  29,  and  tliirty-five  at  his  untimely  death  m  19. 
His  station  .was  that  of  a  Roman  knight;  and  he  had 
'inherited  a  very  considerable  estate.  But,  like  Virgil, 
Horace,  and  Properlius,  he  seems  to  have  lost  the  greater 
part  of  it  in  4  I  amongst  tlie  confiscations  wliich  Antony 
and  Octavian  found  expedient  to  satisfy  the  rapacity  of 
llieir  victorious  soldiery.  Tibullus,  like  Propertius,  seems 
to  have  lost  his  father  early.    He  once  mentions  his  mother 


and  sister ;' and,~according  to^Ovid's  elegy  apon  him7tliej' 
were  alive  at  his  death. ' 

V  Tibullus's  chief  friend  "and  ^patron  was  j^l.j  Valerius 
Messala  Corvinus,  himself  an  orator  and  poet  as  well  as  a 
statesman  and  commander.  Messala,  like  Ma:)ccnas,  wa£ 
the  centre  of  a  literary  circle  in  Rome  ;  but  the  bond  be- 
tween its  members  was  that  of  literature  alone.  'They 
stood  in  no  relations  to  the  court;  and  the  name  of 
Augustus! is  never  once  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of 
TibuUus.  It  was  doubtless  this  community  of  taste  which 
gained  the  young  poet  the  friendly  notice  of  Messala,  who 
offered  him  an  honourable  position  on  his  private  staH 
when  ho  was  despatched  at  the  end  of  30  by  Augustus  to 
quell  the  Aquitanian  revolt..  Tibullus  distinguished  him 
self  in  the  campaign  and  was  decorated  for  his  services 
But  this  did  not  rouse  in  him  any  military  ardour.  LIis 
tastes  lay  in  quite  other  directions;  and  he  always  speaks 
of  war  with  horror  and  dislike.  :  At  the  end  of  the  wai 
in  29  Tibullus  returned  to  Rome,  and  thenceforward  his 
life  seems  to  have  been  divided  between  Rome  and  his 
country  estate,  though  his  own  preferences  were  altogethei 
for  the  r.ouiitiy  life.     Soon  after  his  return  he  made  lh( 


TIBULLUS 


349 


E^i|uainlance  ot  liir  first  love,  Delia.  This  is  what  he 
calls  her  in  his  |K>cins ;  but  we  learn  from  Apuleius  that 
licr  real  name  was  Plania.  Delia  seems  to  have  been  a 
woman  of  middle  station.  It  is  impossible  to  give  an 
exact  account  of  the  intimacy.  The  poems  which  refer  to 
iicr  are  arranged  in  no  chronological  order.  She  appears 
now  as  single,  now  as  married ;  but  we  do  not  hear  any- 
thing either  of  Ucr  marriage  or  of  her  husband's  death. 
It  IS  cfear,  however,  that  it  was  the  absence  of  her  hus- 
band on  military  service  in  Cilicia  which  gave  Tibullus  the 
opportunity  of  making  or  renewing  the  acquaintance.  It 
■was  not  dropped  when  he  returned,  probably  with  Messala 
in  27.  It  was  not  a  difficult  task  to  deceive  the  simple 
soldier ;  and  Delia  was  an  apt  pupil  in  the  school  of  de- 
ception,— too  apt,  as  Tibullu3''saw  with  dismay  when  he 
found  that  he  was  not  the  only  lover.  His  entreaties  and 
tppeals  were  of  no  avail ;  and  after  the  first  book  we  hear 
no  more  of  Delia.  It  was  during  the  earlier  period  of  this 
attachment  and  probably  in  the  spring  of  28  that,  yielding 
to  his  friend's  earnest  and  repeated  requests,  Tibullus  left 
Delia  to  accompany  Messala  on  a  mission  to  Asia.  He 
fell  ill,  however,  and  could  not  get  farther  than  Corcyra. 
In  the  second  book  the  place  of  Delia  is  taken  by  Nemesis, 
which  is  also  a  fictitious  "name.  Nemesis  (like  the  Cj'nthia 
of  Propertius)  was  a  courtesan  of  the  higher  class  ;  and  she 
had  other  admirers  besides  Tibullus.  He  complains  bitterly 
of  his  bondage,  and  of  her  rapacity  and  hardheartedness. 
In  spite  of  all,  however,  she  seems  to  have  retained  her 
hold  on  him  until  his  death.  TibuUua  died  prematurely, 
probably  in  19,  and  almost  immediately  after  Virgil,  in 
order,  as  their  contemporary  Domitius  Marsus  pathetically 
puts  it, 

>  "  That  none  might  sing  of  gentle  love  in  elegy's  sad  lay, 
Or  K^llawt  march  of  royal  war  on  epic  feet  essay." 
The  chancter  of  Tibullus  is  reflected  in  his  poems.  Though  not 
jiH  admirable  it  is  certainly  au  amiable  one.  He  was  a  man  of 
■generous  impulses  and  a  gentle  unselfish  dijspositioa.  He  was  loyal 
lo  his  friends  to  the  verge  of  sclf-sacriBcc,  as  is  shown  by  his  leaving 
Delia  to  accompany  Messala  to  A5;ia,  and  constant  to  his  mistresses 
with  a  constancy  but  ill  deserved.  His  tendemesa  towards  them  is 
enhanced  by  a  refinement  and  delicacy  of  feeling  which  are  very 
rare  amongst  the  ancients,  Horace  and  the  rest  taunt  the  cruel 
fair  with  the  retribution  that  is  coming  with  the  years,  when  they 
will  exxilt  over  the  decay  of  the  once  imperious  beauty.  If  Tibullus 
refers  to  such  a  fate,  he  does  it  by  way  of  warning  and  not  in  any 
petty  spirit  of  triumph  or  revenge.  Cruelly  though  he  may  have 
Leen  treated  by  his  love,  he  does  not  invoke  curses  upon  her  head. 
He  goes  to  her  little  sister's  grave,  hung  so  often  with  his  garlands 
^nJ  wet  with  his  tears  and  bemoans  his  fate  to  the  dumb  ashes 
there.  Tibullus  has  no  leanings  to  an  active  life :  his  ideal  is  a 
^uiet  retirement  in  the  country  with  the  loved  one  at  his  side.  He 
has  no  ambitioo  and  not  even  the  poet's  yearning  for  immortality. 
His  muse  may  go  packing  if  it  cannot  propitiate  the  fair.  As 
^"ibullus  loved  the  country  life,  its  round  of  simple  duties  and 
innocent  recreations,  so  he  dung  to  its  faiths,  and  in  an  age  of  crude 
materialism  and  the  grossest  superstition  he  was  religious  in  the 
old  Roman  way.  A  simple,  gentle,  affectionate  nature  such  as  his 
could  not  fail  tovrin  esteem  ;  and  his  early  death  caused  deep  regret 
io  Rome.  Tibullus  was  remarkable,  his  biographer  tells  ns,  for  his 
go<xi  looks  and  the  care  that  he  bestowed  upon  his  person.  As  a 
poet  he  reminds  us  in  many  respects  of  the  English  Collins.  His 
clear,  finished,  and  yet  unsiffected  style  made  him  a  great  favourite 
with  his  conntrj'raen  and  placed  him,  in  the  judgment  of  Quin- 
tilian,  at  tfie  h^d  of  their  elegiac  writers.  And  certainly  within 
his  own  range  he  has  no  Roman  rivaL  For  natural  grace  and 
tenderness,  for  exqnisiteness  of  feeling -4nd  expression,  he  stands 
alone.  He  has  far  fewer  faults  than  Propertius,  and  in  particular 
he  never  overloads  his  lines  with  Alexandrian  learning.  Bnt,  for 
all  that,  his  range  is  limited  ;  and  in  power  and  compass  of  ima- 
gination, in  vigour  and  originality  of  conception,  in  richness  and 
variety  of  poetical  treatment,  he  is  much  his  inferior.  The  same 
differences  are  perceptible  in  the  way  the  two  poets  handle  their 
metre,  Tibullus  is  smoother  and  more  musical  but  liable  to  be- 
come monotonous  ;  Propertius,  with  occasional  harshnesses,  is  more 
vigorous  and  varied.  It  need  only  be  added  that  in  many  of 
TibuUus's  poems  a  symmetrical  composition  is  obvious,  althongh 
the  symmetry  must  never  be  reduced  to  a  fixed  and  unelastic  scheme. 
It  is  prolxtble  that  we  have  lost  some  of  the  genuine  poems'  of 
Tibnllua.     On  the  other  hand,  much  has  come  down  to  us  under 


his  name  which  must  certainly  tw  assigned  to  otners.  Only  the 
first  and  second  books  of  the  usual  order,  or  about  1240  verses,  can 
chiim  his  authorship.  The  fii^t  book  consistj  of  poems  written  at 
various  times  between  30  and  26.  It  was  probably  published  about 
25  or  24.  The  second  book  seems  to  have  been  a  posthumous  publi- 
cation. It  is  very  short,  containing  only  428  verses,  and  is  evi- 
dently incomplete.  In  both  books  occur  poems  which  give  evidence 
of  internal  disorder  ;  but  scholars  cannot  agree  upou  the  remedies 
to  be  applied. 

The  third  book,  which  contains  290  verses,  is  by  a  much  inferior 
hand.  The  writer  calls  himself  Lygdamus  and  the  fair  that  he 
sings  of  Neaera.  He  was  born  in  the  same  year  as  Ovid,  in  the 
consulship  of  Hirtius  and  Pansa  ;  but  there  is  nothing  Ovidian 
about  his  work.  He  has  very  little  poetical  power,  and  his  stj'le 
is  meagre  and  jejune.  He  has  a  good  many  reminiscences  and  imi_- 
tations  of  Tibullus  and  Propertius  ;  and  they  are  not  always  happy. 
The  separation  of  the  fourth  book  from  the  third  has  no  ancient 
authority.  They  form  one  in  the  best  MSS.,and  are  quoted  as  one 
in  the  anthologies  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  division  dates  from 
the  revival  of  letters,  and  is  due  to  the  Italian  scholars  of  the  15th 
century.  The  fourth  book  consists  of  poems  of  very  dilferent 
quality.  The  first  is  a  composition  in  211  hexameters  on  the 
achievements  of  Messala  ;  and  very  poor  stuff  it  is.  The  author  is 
unknown  ;  but  he  was  certainly  not  Tibullus.  The  poem  itself  was 
written  in  81,  the  year  of  Messala'*  consulship.  The  next  eleven 
poems  relate  to  the  loves  of  SulpiciA  and  Cerinthus.  Sulpicia  was 
&  Roman  lady  of  high  station  ana  the  daughter  of  Valeria,  Messala's 
sister.  She  had  fallen  violently  in  love  with  Cerinthus,  about 
whom  we  know  nothing  but  what  the  poet  tells  us  ;  and  he  soon 
reciprocated  her  feelings.  Thu  Sulpicia  elegies  divide  into  two 
groups.  The  first  comprises  iv.  2-6,  containing  ninety-four  lines, 
in  which  the  theme  of  the  attachment  is' worked  up  into  four  grace- 
ful poems  composed  for  Sulpicia  and  Cerinthus  aitemately.  The 
second,  fv.  8-12  (to  which  seven  should  be  added),  consists  of 
Snlprria's  own  letters.  They  are  very  short,  only  forty  lines  in  all ; 
but  they.have<a  quite  unique  interest  as  being  the  only  love  poems 
by  a  Eoman  woman  that  have  escaped  the  ravages  of  time.  Theii 
frank  and  passionate  outpourings  remind  us  of  Catullus.  The 
style  and  metrical  handling  betray  the  novice  in  poetical  writing; 
and  the  Latinity  is  "feminine."  The  thirteenth  poem  (twenty* 
four  lines)  claims  to  be  by  Tibullus  ;  but  it  is  a  miserable  forgery. 
It  is  little  more  than  a  cento  from  TibuUua  and  Propertius.  The 
fourteenth  is  a  little  epigram  of  four  lines.  There  is  nothing  to 
determine  its  authorship.  Last  of  all  comes  the  epigram  of  Domixius 
Marsus  already  referral  to.  To  sura  up  :  the  third  and  fourth 
books  appesr  in  the  oldest  tradition  as  a  single  book  ;  if  separated, 
they  would  contain  only  290  and  373  lines  respectively,  as' against 
812  of  the  first  book  and  42S  of  the  incomplete  second  ;  and  they 
comprise  pieces  by  different  authors  and  in  very  different  styles, 
none  of  which  can  be  assigned  to  Tibullus  with  any  certainty.  The 
natural  conclusion  of  this  is  that  we  have  hero  a  collection  of 
scattered  compositions  relating  to  Messala  and  the  members  of  bis 
circle  which  has  been  added  as  an  appendix  to  the  genuine  relics  of 
Tibullus.  When  this  collection  was  made  cannot  be  exactly  de- 
termined ;  bnt  it  was  certainly  not  till  after  the  death  of  TibuUos,' 
and  probably  not  till  after  Messala's.  Besides  the  foregoing,  two 
pieces  in  the  collection  called  Friapea  have  been  attributed  to 
Tibnllus  ;  but  there  is  very  little  external  and  no  internal  evidence 
of  hia  authorship.  The  text  of  Tibullus  is,  on  the-  whole,  better 
preserved  than  that  of  Catullus,  and  still  more  so  than  that  of 
Propertius.  But  it  still  contains  many  corruptions  and  several 
lacunae,  besides  the  disarrangements  already  referred  to. 

The  value  of  the  short  Vila  Tibulli,  which  is  found  at  the  end 
of  the  Ambrosian  and  Vatican,  also  of  inferior,  MSS.,  has  been 
much  discussed.  E.  Baehrens  maintains  that  it  is  genuine,  and 
possibly  an  abstract  from  the  book  of  Suetonius,  De  Poetis, — a  con- 
jecture supported  by  the  fact  that  even  in  so  short  a  piece  of  writing 
more  than  one  Suetonian  phrase  occurs  (Baehr.,  Twullische  BlatL, 
p.  4  $q.)^ — while  Schulze  {Ztschr.  f.  d.  Gymnasialioescn^  Berlin,  zxxiL 
658)  regards  it  as  a  mere  ri/aciTnento  of  Horace,  Bp.t  L  4,  and 
various  passages  in  Tibullus.  E.  Hiller  {Rhein.  Mus.j  rviii.  S50) 
thinks  it  genuine,  but  assigns  it  to  the  late  classical  period, — a 
view  qtiite  consistent  with  an  ultimate  Suetonian  origin.  It  is  as 
follows  : — "  Albius  XibuUus,  eques  R.  e  Gabiis  [Baehrens's  ingeni* 
ous  conjecture  for  the  MS.  eques  rtgalis,  R.  being  the  customary 
abbreviation  for  Romanitsi],  insignia  forma  cultuque  corporis  observa- 
bilis,  ante  alios  Corvinum  Messalam  ob  ingenium  [so  Baehr.,  MSS. 
originerTL,  others  oratoTeni]  dileiit,  cuius  et  contubernalia  Aquitanico 
bello  militaribus  donis  donatus  est.  Hie  multorum  iudicio  prindpem 
inter  elegiographos  optinet  locum.  Epistulae  quoque  eins,  quam- 
qoam  breves,  omnino  utiles  sunt  [so  the  MSS. ;  Baehrens  reads 
subiiXes.  The  letters  referred  to  are  Sulpicia's].  Obiit  adulesceas, 
ut  indicat  epigramma  superscriptum "  (i.e.,  the  one  ascribed  to 
Domitius  Marsus.  These  words  seem  to  be  a  later  addition  to  the 
Life). — Another  moot  question  of  some  importance  is  whether  our 
poet  should  be  identified  with  th^  Albius  of  Horace  (CW^,  i.  33  ; 
Epist.,  L  4),  as  is  done  by  the  commentator.  Porphyrio  (200-250^ 


350 


TIBULLUS 


■..D.)  in  his  Scholia.     In  the  rormer  passage  Horace  tells  Albius  to 
Qoderate  his  grief  at  the  cruelty  of  Glycera,  nor  to  descant  in 
piteous  elegies  on  her  broken  faith  and  the  victory  of  a  yoanger 
rival.     It  is  clear  that  Glycera  cannot  be  Nemesis  ;  for  it  is  a 
pseudonym,  as  the  context  shows,  and  Horace  would,  of  course, 
iave  nsed  the  same  pseudonym  as  Tibullus.     If,   on  the  other 
hand.  Nemesis  were  a  real  name,  Horace  had  no  occasion  to  use 
a  pseudonjTn.     It  is  possible  that  Tibullus  had  another  mistress, 
Glycera,  of  whom  we  know  nothing  further,  and  that  the  misembiles 
elegi  have  perished  ;  but  this  is  a  mere  supposition.     The  Albius  of 
the-  epistle  has  an  estate  at  Pedum,  where  Horace  conjectures  he 
may  be  musing  or  writing.     He  is  handsome,  rich,  and  knows  how 
to  enjoy  life.     Ho  is  wise  and  has  the  gift  of  speech,  popularity, 
reputation,  and  good  health  abuncU, — an  enviable  list  of  attributes, 
bat  certainly  one  which  does  not  agree  very  well  with  what  we 
know  from  elsewhere  of  Tibullus'.     The  theory,  then,  that  these 
passages  refer  to  Albius  Tibullus  must  be  pronounced,  with  Baehrens, 
unproven  ;  and  the  forma  of  Horace's  Albius  must  not  be  used,  as 
Sdhulze  uses  it,  to  subvert  the  credit  of  the  iTisitrnis  forma  of  the 
lAfe.—Ovii,  Trist.,  iv.  10,  63  aq.,  "successor  fuit  hie  [TibuUiis] 
tioi,  GaUe,  Propertius  illi,  quartus  ab  his  serie  temporis  ipse  fui." 
lo  the  preceding  couplet  he  had  said,  "  Vergilium  vidi  tantum  nee 
amara  Tibullo  tempus  amicitiie  fata  dedere  meae."     Ovid,  who  was 
born  in  43,  would  be  only  twenty-four  at  Tibullus's  death  if  it 
occurred  in  19. — The  loss  of  Tibullus's  landed  property  is  attested 
by  himself  (L    1,   19  sq.)^   "  Vos  quoque  felicis  quondam,   nunc 
pauperis  agri  custodes,  fertis  munera  vestra.  Lares.     Tunc  vitula 
innumeros  lustrabat  csesa  iuvencos  ;  nunc  agna  exigui  est  hostia 
parva  soli"  (comp.  41,  42).     Its  cause  is  only  an  inference,  though 
a  very  probable  one.     That  he  was  allowed  to  retain  a  portion  of 
his  estate  with  the  family  mansion  is  clear  from  iL  4,  53,  '*Quin 
etiam  sedes  iubeat  si  vendere  avitas,  ite  sub  imperium  sub  titulum- 
que,  Lares."    Compare  the  passages  quoted  above  and  i.  1,  77,  78. — 
Uessala  composed  epigrams  (Plin.,  Ep.,  v.  3)  and  bucolic  poems 
(comp.  the  pseudo-virgilian  Cataltpton^  ii. ) ;  but  he  was  more  con- 
spicuous as  a  patron  than  as  a  poet.     On  his  circle  and  that  of 
Maecenas,  see  Teuffel,   Oesch.  der  rdmiechcn  Literalur,  4th  ed.,  p. 
431  (vol.  L  p.  389  of  the  Eng.  transl.).     Other  members  of  the  circle 
were  Messala's  brother,  Pedius  Publicola,  ^milius  Macer  (probably 
the  Macer  addressed  in  ii.  6),  Valgius  Rufus,  Lygdamus,  Sulpicia, 
and  others,  and  even  Ovid  to  a  certain  extent  (Ov.,  Pont.,  i  7,  28 
tq. ;  TrisL ,'  iv.  4,  27  sj. ).     Tibullus  was  Messala's  conluiemalis  in 
the  Aquitanian  war  {yUa  Tib.  and  Tib.,  i.  7,  9  5?.,  a  poem  com- 
posed for  Messala's  triumph)      It  should  be  stated  that  the  date  of 
the  Aquitanian  'campaign    is   still   undetermined-      It  has  been 
assigned  to  30,  29,  and  28.     He  received  militaria  dona  ( Fita) ; 
Baehrens  unkindly  suggests  it  was  for  purely  poetical  services  ( Tib. 
BL,  p.  15).    Tibullus's^islike  of  war  is  always  coming  to  the  surface 
{e.g.,  i.  3  ;  i.  10),  and  so  also  his  love  of  quiet  and  retirement  (i.  1  ; 
iL  1  ,  3,  1  sq.). — Apuleius  {.Apol.,  10),  "accusent  Tibullnm  .  .  .  quod 
6]  sit  Plania  in  animo,  Delia  in  versn  "  ;  this  is  the  most  probable 
form  of  the  name,  Delia  (S^Xos)  being  a  translation  of  Plania.     As 
regards  her  station,  it  should  be  noticed  that  she  was  not  entitled 
to  wear  the  stola,  the  dress  of  Roman  matrons  (i.  6,  68).    Her  husband 
IS  mentioned  as  absent  (L  2,  67  sq.).     She  eludes  the  custodes  placed 
over  her  (i.  2,  15,  and  6.  7).     Tibullus's  suit  was  favoured  by  Delia's 
mother,  of  whom  he  speaks  in  very  affectionate  terms  (L  6,  57  sq.). 
For  Tibullus's  illness  at  Corcyra,  see  i.  3,  1  sq. ,  55  sq.     The  fifth 
elegy  was  written  during  estrangement  {discidium)  and  the  sixth 
aher  the  return  of  the  husband  and  during  Delia's  dquble  infidelity. 
On  the  ditSculty  of  "harmonizing"  the  Delia  elegies,  see  F.  I,eo 
(in  Kiessling  and  Wilaraowitz-Mollendorfs  Pkilol.  ITrUers.f  ii  pp. 
19-23),  who  is,  however,  too  scepticaL     Any  other  attachments  that 
Tibullus  formed  (such  as  the  supposed  one  for  Glycera)  must  have 
fallen  between  the  end  of  the  Delia  and  the  beginning  of  the 
Nemesis  connexion. — Ovid,  writing  at  the  time  of  "ribullus's  death 
(Am.,  iii  9,  31),  says — "  Sic  Nemesis  longum,  sic  Delia,  nomen  habe- 
bunt,  altera  cura  recens,  altera  primus  amor."     Nemesis  is  the  sub- 
ject of  book  ii.  3,  4,  6.'    The  mention  of  a  lerta  (iL  6)  settles  her 
position.     The  connexion  had  lasted  a  year  when  iL  5  was  written 
(see  ver.  109).     It  is  worth  noticing  that  Martial  selects  Nemesis  as 
the  source  of  Tibullus's  repntation,  *'  fama  est  arguti  Nemesis  lasciva 
TihuWi"  (Epvqr.,  viiL  73,  7);  compare  xiv.  193,  "ussit  amatorem 
Nemesis  lasciva  Tibullum,  in  tota  iuvit  quern  nihil  esse  domo," 
where,  however,  the  second  line  is  taken  from  one  of  the  Delia 
elegies.     Ovid,  Amores,  iii.  9,  58,  "me  tenuit  moriens  deficiente 
manu."   The  point  of  this  can  only  be  seen  by  reference  to  Tib.,  LI, 
60,  where  Delia  is  addressed,  "  te  teneam  moriens  deficiente  manu." 
— The  epigram  of  Domitius  Marsus  on  his  death  is  as  follows  :  "Te 
quoque,  Vergilio  comitem,  non  jequa,  Tibulle,  Mors  iuvenem  campos 
misit  ad  Elysios,  ne  foret  aut  elegis  moUes  qui  fleret  amores  ant 
caneret  forti   regia   bella   pede." — Tibullus  condemns  the  rough 
handling  which  the  inamorata  often  suffered  from  her  Roman  lover, 
e.g.t  L  10,  59-60 — "A!  lapis  est  femimque,  suam  quicumque  puellam 
rerberat ;  e  caelo  deripit  illo  deos."     The  tenderness  of  the  passage 
•Paraphrased  above  (ii.  6,  41)  is  perhaps  unmatched  in  ancient  poetry  : 
'desmo,  ne  dominse  luctus  renoventur  acerbL     Non  ego  sum  tanti 


ploret  ut  iila  semel." — His  love  for  a  rustic  life  and  rustic  worship' 
appears  throughout  whole  poems,  as  in  L  1  and  ii.  1,  2.  Of  his 
poetry  he  says  (ii.  4,  19),  "Ad  dominam  faciles  aditus  per  carmina 
qusero ;  ite  procul,  Musse,  si  nihil  ista  valent." — Specimens  of 
Tibullus  at  his  best  may  be  found  in  L  1,  3,  89-94  ;  5,  19-36  ;  9, 
45-63;  ii.  6.  Quintilian  says  l,Imt.,  x.  1,  93),  "Elegia  quoque 
Grsecos  provocamus,  cuius  mihi  tersus  atque  elegans  niaxime  videtur 
auctor  'Tibullus  ;  sunt  qui  Propertium  malint ;  Ovidius  utroque  las- 
civior  sicut  durior  GaUus." — Ovid  {Am.,  I.e.)  well  calls  him  cullus. 
Martial  argutus,  "  fine-toned."  A  short  but  not  inadequate  account 
of  Tibullus's  prosody  is  given  by  L.  Mueller  In  his  introduction 
to  Tibullus  {Catullus,  Tibullus,  wnd  Propertius,  Leipsic,  1880). 
Catullus  and  Tibullus  lengthen  a  short  vowel  ■  before  sp  and  fr  ; 
Propertius  always  keeps  it  short  in  similar  conjunctions,  even 
where  s  is  followed  by  two  consonants,  as  in  striges.  Catullus, 
and  in  three  cases  Tibullus,  allow  a  trisyllabic  verb  to  close  th« 
pentameter.  Propertius  never  permits  himself  this  liberty,  al- 
though in  his  earlier  poems  he  has  as  many  trisyllabic  endings  a» 
Tibullus.  — The  chronology  of  the  first  book  is  discussed  amongst 
others  by  Baehrens  {Tib.  Bl.,  pp.  12-24).  But  the  data  do  not 
admit  in  all  cases  of  his  precise  determinations.  Baehrens  and 
Hiller  {Bermes,  xviiL  353)  agree  that  the  second  book  was  post- 
humous. If  it  had  been  known  to  Ovid  when  he  wrote  his  elegy 
on  the  poet's  death,  it  seems  certain  that  he  would  have  quoted 
from  it.  Hiller  assigns  2  B.C.  as  an  inferior  limit,  by  which  time 
Ov.,  Ars  Am.,  iii.  3,  535  sq.,  must  have  been  written.  Amongst 
the  "disarranged  poems"  are  L  1,  4,  6  and  iL  3,  5.  Proposed  re- 
arrangements of  them  maybe  found  in  Hiller's  Tibullus  (1885). 
Charisius  (pp.  65  and  105)  quotes  part  of  a  hexameter  which  is  not 
found  in  the  extant  poems  of  Tibullus. 

The  Tibullian  authorship  of  book  iii.  has  long  ago  been  sur- 
rendered by  scholars.  Its  latest  defenders  have  been  Fuss  {De 
Elegg.  Libro  quem  Lygdami  esse  puta-rU,  Miinster,  1867)  and  the 
English  translator,  J.  Cranstoun.  It  has  Been  suggested  that 
Lygdamus  {\6yiot,  white  marble)  is  a  Grecizing  qf  Albius,  some 
relation  of  Tibullus  (compare  Hiller,  Mermes,  xviiL  353,  n.  2) ; 
and  this  is  possible.  Gruppe's  long-exploded  theory  that  Ovid 
was  the  author  has  been  recently  revived  by  J.  Kleeman  {Ve  Libri 
III.  tiarminibus  qiiss  Tibulli  Nomine  circumferuntur,  Strasburg, 
1876).  Considerable  diiSculty  is  caused  by  iii.  5,  15-20,  which 
contains  agreements  with  three  passages  of  Ovid,  Ars  Am.,  iL  669 
sq.  ;  Tr.,  iv.  10,  6:  "cum  cecidit  fato  consul  uterque  pari" 
(Lygdamus  and  Ovid  using  word  for  word  the  same  expression  for 
the  year  of  their  birth,  the  consulship  of  Hirtius  and  Pansa) ;  and 
Am.,  xL  14,  23  sq.,  which  are  mnch  too  close  to  be  accidental,  and 
in  which  the  theory  that  Ovid  was  the  imitator  is  excluded  by  th» 
fact  that  the  Unes  are  much  more  appropriate  to  their  surroundings 
in  Ovid  than  in  Lygdamus.  In  consequence  Baehrens  ( Tib.  Bl. , 
40)  regards  the  poem  as  written  after  13  a.d.,  the  date  of  the 
Trislia,  while  Huler  [I.e.,  p.  359)  regards  the  lines  as  a  later  addi- 
tion by  Lygdamus  himself  In  either  case  it  would  be  published 
after  13.  The  line  quoted  above  may  have  obtained  proverbial 
currency  before  either  of  the  passages  was  written,  as  the  death  of 
both  consuls  in  one  year  would  have  impressed  the  Roman  imagina 
tion  as  powerfully  as  the  coincident  deaths  of  Adams  and  Jefferson 
did  the  American.  In  that  case  no  part  of  book  iii  need  be  later 
than  the  Christian  era  For  Lygdamus's  imitations  of  Tibullus, 
see  Gmppe,  Die  rbmische  Elegie,  L  112  sq.  There  are  resemblances 
between  the  pseudo-Tibullus  and  the  Catalepton  {B^hr.,  op.  cit.,  p. 
52). —The  view  of  Baehrens  ( Tib.  Bldtl.,  49)  and  others  that  iiL 
and  iv.  originally  formed  one  book  may  now  be  considered  estab- 
lished, in  spite  of  Birt's  objections  {Das  antike  Buchwesen,  426  sq. ) ; 
and  Hiller  in  his  edition  prints  them  as  one.  They  were  published 
some  time  after  book  ii.,  probably  after  the  death  of  Messala  (Baeh- 
rens, op.  cit.,  48,  adds,  "and  of  his  eon  Messalinus").  Further 
determination  of  the  data  is  impossible.  We  do  not  know  when 
they  were  added  to  the  genuine  poems  of  Tibullus  ;  but  it  was  prob- 
ably before  the  Life  was  written. — Most  scholars  since  Lachmann 
{Kl.  SchT.,i\.  149)  have  condemned  the  "Panegyric  on  Messala." 
It  is  an  inflated  and  at  the  same  time  tasteless  declamation,  entirely 
devoid  of  poetical  merit.  The  language  is  often  absurdly  exagger- 
ated, e.g.,  190  sq.  The  author  himself  seems  to  be  conscious  of 
his  own  deficiencies  (1  sq.,  177  sq.).  All  that  we  know  about  him 
is  that  he,  like  so  many  of  his  contemporaries,  had  been  reduced 
to  poverty  by  the  loss  of  his  estates  (181  sq.).  The  date  is  fixed 
by  121  sg.— Sulpicia  was  the  daughter  of  Servius  Sulpieius  (iv.  10, 
4),  and  she  seems  to  have  been  under  tie  tutelage  of  Messala  (cf. 
14,  5-8),  her  uncle  by  marriage  (Haupt,  Bermes,  iv.  33  sq.).  Cerin- 
thus  is  a  real  name.  He  was  probably  a  Greek  (Baehr.,  p.  41  and 
note).  He  is  not  to  be  identihed  with  the  Comutus  addressed  in 
Tib.,  ii.  2,  3.  Gruppe  {op  cit.,  27)  and  Teuffel  {Studien,  367)  attri- 
bute iv.  2-6  to  Tibullus  himself ;  but  the  style  is  different,  and  it 
is  best  to  answer  the  question  as  Baehrens  does  (p.  46)  with  a  mo« 
liquet.  For  Sulpicia's  style  and  its  feminine  Latinity,  compare 
Gruppe  {op.  cit.,  i.  49  sq.). — The  direct  ascription  of  iv.  13  (versa 
13—"  nunc  licet  e«aelo  mittatur  arnica  Tibullo")  to  Tibullus  prob- 
ably led  to  its  being  included  in  the  coUectioil. .   Later  on,  it  and 


T I B— T I C 


351 


the  epigram  together  caused  the  addition  of  the  pseudo-TiboUiana 
to  the  genuine  works.  Although  not  suspected  till  recently,  it  is 
unquestionably  spurious  ;  see  the  examination  by  Postgate  {Joum. 
of  FhiL,  ix.  2S0  sq.). — The  authorship  of  the  two  Friapea  (one  an 
epigram  and  the  other  a  longer  piece  in  iambics)  is  discussed  by 
HiBer  {Henrus,  xviil  3-13-9).  His  conclusions  are  that,  as  regards 
the  iambics,  the  theory  that  Tibullus  was  its  author,  though  from 
the  nature  of  the  case  it  does  not  admit  of  complete  disproof,  rests 
upon  the  slightest  of  foundations,  and,  as  regards  the  epigram,  that 
the  hypothesis  of  a  Tibullian  authorship  is  quite  inadmissible. 

The  text  of  Tibullus  is  in  a  much  better  condition  than  it  was  in  Lachmann'B 
time,  thanks  to  the  recent  discovery  of  new  MSS.  by  E.  Baehrena.  Of  these 
the  Ambrosiacus  (A),  of  date  about  1374,  and  the  Vaticaous  (V).  end  of  the  14th 
or  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  agree  so  closely  that  they  can  be  referred  to 
*n  original  extant  id  the  early  part  of  the  12th  or  Uth  century  but  long  eince 
lost.  A  third  is  the  Gueiferbytanua  (G),  written  In  Lombard  characters,  but 
on  parchment  of  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century.  Baehrens.  who  attaches 
great  importance  to  the  original  readings  of  this  codex,  considers  it  a  faithful 
copy  of  •  10th  of  Htb  century  MS.  Besides  these  we  have  a  number  of  extracts 
from  Tibullus  in  the  FJoriUgium  Paruinum,  an  anthology  from  various  Latin 
writers  wbich  probably  dates  back  to  the  ilth  century,  and  which  we  have 
from  two  MSS.  at  Pans  (7647  and  17903) ;  see  Meyncke,  Rh^n.  Afia  ,  xiv.  369 
tq.  Baehrens  considers  that  these  excerpta  Pansina  and  O  are  closely  con- 
Bect«d,  and  that  their  ongmal  and  that  of  A  and  V  were  both  descended  from 
a  more  ancient  MS.,  wbich  he  calls  O,  but  which  was  still  fuP  of  corruptions. 
The  so-called  Eieerpta  Frisingensui,  preserved  in  an  llth<entary  MS.  (oow  at 
Monicb),  but  unfortunately  very  few  in  number,  are  extracted  from  a  much 
tetter  MS.  than  O.  Still  better  was  the  fm^m^/Uum  Cuuurianum,  which  we 
know  only  from  Scaligefs  collation  (in  the  library  at  Leyden),  and  which  ie 
to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  codex  Cuiacianus,  a  late  H3.  contaming 
CatoUus.  Tibullus,  and  Propertius,  and  stiU  extant.  It  only  contained  from 
Ul.  4,  66  to  the  end.  The  codices  which  Lachmann  used  are  later  than  all  the 
forgoing  and  fall  of  ioterpoLations.  Baehrens's  estimate  of  the  MS.  authorities 
for  TtbuUus  has  not  been  accepted  in  all  lU  details.  Id  particular  his  high 
estimate  of  G  has  been  disputed  by  Leo,  op.  cit.,  p.  3;  Rothstein,  De  Tiindli 
CodxcUfxis,  p.  67  iq.  (who  also  endeavours  to  raise  Lachmann's  MSS.  to  an  inde- 
pendent position  again);  and  others.  R.  Leonhard,  in  a  careful  disserta- 
Uon.  Dt  Codwnfrttj  Tt-buUiania  Capita  Tno  (Munich,  1SS2),  agrees  with  Baehrena 
to  the  main,  though  his  pedigree  of  the  MSS.  (p.  53)  is  more  elaborate. 

fdutoTu.— The  Brst  two  editions  of  Tibullus  and  the  pseodo-Tibulliana  are 
that  with  Catullus,  Propertius,  and  the  Silvse  of  Statius  by  Vindelin  de  Spira 
(Venice,  1472)  and  one  of  Tibullus  separately  by  Florentius  de  Argentina,  prob- 
ably printed  in  the  same  year.  Compare  Buschke,  Tibulluj,  Praf.,  vi.  tq., 
xxiii.  sq.  Amongst  others  we  may  mention  those  by  Scaliger  (with  CJatullos 
and  Propertius,  Pans.  1677,  1682,  &c),  Broukhuys  (Amsterdam,  1708X  Vulpioa 
(Padua,  1749),  Heyne  (Leipsic,  1817,  4th  ed.  by  Wunderlich ;  with  supplement 
by  Dissen,  1819),  Buschke  (Leipsic.  1819,  2  vols.),  Lachmann  (Bcrho,  1829, 
the  flr^t  critical  edition),  Dissen  (Gottingen.  1835).  The  moat  important  edition 
with  critical  apparatus  13  that  of  E.  Baehrens  (Leipsic,  1878).  TTie  most  recent 
edition,  with  critical  introduction  and  index,  is  E.  Biller's  (Leipsic,  1885). 
Recent  texts  are  those  of  L.  Mueller  (Leipsic,  1880;  also  with  C^atullus  and 
Propertius)and  Baupt-Vahlen  (Leipsic,  1886).  There  is  no  good  recent  comment- 
ary on  Tibullus;  we  nave  to  fall  back  on  Beyneand  Dissen.  That  by  B.  Fabricius 
(Berlin,  1881)  does  not  even  comprise  all  the  poema  Some  contributions 
are  made  to  the  subject  In  P.  Leo's  paper  in  Kiessling's  and  Wilamowitz- 
Uoellendorfs  PhUol,  Onters.,  It  p.  3  sq.,  and  by  J.  Vahlen  in  the  MoiiaUberichU 
of  the  Berlin  Academy,  1878.  pp.  343-366.  For  fnller  bibliographies,  see  Engel- 
inann  8  Bibliclfuca  Scnpt07-um  LaiiTurrum  (ed.  Preuss,  1882)  and  J.  E.  B. 
Mayors  Bibluj^aphuxU  Clue  to  Laiin  Lit<raiure  (1876X  For  the  older  editions, 
eee  the  preface  to  Buschke's.  There  isan  excellent  account  of  Tibullus  in  W. 
8.  Teuffels  Gesch.  <L  romxsch.  literalur  (4th  ed.,  L.  Schwabe,  1S82).  Those 
in  the  Eng.  tr.  and  Paul/s  ReaX-Encyidtypadit  are  antiquated.  The  following 
translations  into  English  verse  are  known,— by  Dart  (London,  1720).  Grainger 
(Ix}odon,  1739,  2  vols.,  with  Latin  text  and  notes,  subsequently  reprinted), 
Cranstoun  (Edinburgh  and  London, -1872).  An  Essay  tovyards  a  Neto  Edition  of 
tiu  BUgiea  of  TibiUlua,  vnth  a  Translation  and  Notes  (London,  1792),  merely  con- 
tains i.  1  and  7,  29-48.  Sir  C.  A-  Elton,  Specimens  of  the  Classic  Po<is  (London, 
1814,  vol.  xii.  141171)  contoina  i.  1 ;  li.  4  ;  iii.  2-4  ;  6,  33  to  end  ;  iv.  2,  3.  To 
these  ahoold  probably  be  added  Tibullus,  vrith  other  IranslatioTts  from  Ovid, 
Horace,  Ac,  by  Richard  Whifan,  London,  1829.  Cranstoun's  is  the  only  com- 
plete version  of  merit ;  but  it  is  fkr  inferior  to  the  tranalations  by  Elton,  from 
whom  Cranstoun  seems  sometimes  to  have  borrowed.  (J.  P.  P.) 

TIBUR.     See  Tivoli. 

TIC  DOULOUREUX.     See  Neitralgia. 

TICINO,  or  Tessin,  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  ranking 
as  eighteenth  in  the  Confederation,  consists  of  the  upper 
basia  of  the  river  from  -which  it  takes  its  name, — the  Val 
Leventina,  with  the  tributary  valleys  of  Blegno  and  Maggia 
— and  farther  south  takes  in  the  districts  of  Lugano  and 
Mendrisio  between  Lakes  Maggiore  and  Como.  Its  total 
area  is  1088*2  square  miles,  which  is  exceeded  by  only  four 
other  Swiss  cantons, — Graubiinden  ^Orisons),  Bern,  Valaia, 
and  Vaud.  Of  this  725^8  square  miles  are  classed  as  pro- 
ductive, including  215*5' square  miles  covered  by  forests 
and  Sc*  8  by  vines;  of  x the  unproductive  portion  24*3 
square  miles  are  occupied  by  lakes  (most  of  that  of 
Lugano  belonging  to  the  canton)  and  13*1  by  glaciers. 
The  highest  points  in  the  canton  are  the  Basodine  (10,749 
feet)  in  the  aorth-west  and  the  Valrhein  (11,148  feet)  in 
the  north-east  comers.  In  1880  the  population  was 
130,777  (the  females  exceeding  the  males  by  10,000, 
doubtless  owing  to  the  emigi'ation  of  the  latter),  being 
an  increase  of  11,158  on  that  of  1870 ;  the  increase  was 
particularly  marked-  in  the  Val  Leventina  and  is  due  to 
the  influence  of  the  St  Gotthard  Railway,  which  traverses 


the  entire  canton.  Of  this  population  129,409  speat 
Italian ;  342  of  the  remainder  form  the  German-speaking 
hamlet  of  Bosco  or  Gurin  in  the  Val  Caverna  (in  north- 
west)^ a  colony  from  the  neighbouring  valley  of  Forraazza. 
or  Pommat,  which  is  politically  Italian.  In .  religion 
130,017  are  Roman  Catholics.  Until  1859  Ticino  was 
partly  (Val  Leventina,  Val  Blegno,  and  the  Riviera)  in  the 
metropolitan  diocese  of  Milan,  chiefly  in  that  of  Como,  and 
is  still  practically  (though  not  legally)  administered  by 
these  two  bishops, — all  attempts  made  hitherto  to  incor- 
porate them  with  the  see  of  Chur  or  to  secure  the  erectiott 
of  a  special  see  for  them  having  failed.  The  chief  towns 
are  Lugano  (6129  inhabitants),  Airolo  (0674),  Mendrisio 
(2749),  Locarno  (2645),  and  Bellinzona  (2436).  Formerly 
Lugano,  Locarno,  and  Bellinzona  were  the  capital  by  turns 
of  six  years  each  ;  but  since  1881  the  seat  of  government 
has  been  permanently  fixed  at  Bellinzona.  Ticino  stands 
in  a  comparatively  low  position  as  regards  moral,  educa- 
tional, agricultural,  and  commercial  matters.  It  has  pro- 
duced a  number  of  sculptors,  painters,  and  architects. 
Many  of  the  men  migrate  during  the  summer  in  search  of" 
work  as  picture-dealers,  waiters  in  caf^s,  chinmey-sweeps, 
and  especially  as  masons,  plasterers,  labourers,  and  navvies, 
A  large  quantity  of  fruit  is  grown  ;  the  chief  articles  ex- 
ported are  cattle,  hay,  fish,  chestnuts,  and  earthenware. 
In  manners,  customs,  and  general  character  the  inhabitants 
strongly  resemble  their  Italian  neighbours. 

The  canton  is  made  up  of  all  the  permanent  conquests  (with  one 
or  two  trifling  exceptions)  made  by  difl'erent  members  of  the  Swiss 
League  south  of  the  main  chain  of  the  Alps.  Froin  an  historical 
point  of  view  Italian  Switzerland  falls  into  three  groups: — (1> 
Val  Leventina,  conquered  by  Uri  in  1440  (previously  held  from; 
1403  to  1426);  (2)  Bellinzona,  the  Riviera,  and  Val  Blegno  (held 
from  1419  to  1426),  won  in  1500  from  the  duke  of  Milan  by  mea. 
from  Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Nidwald,  and  confirmed  by  Louis  XIL  of 
France  in  1503  ;  (3)  Locarno,  Val  Maggia,  Lugano,  and  Mendrimo^ 
seized  in  1512  by  the  Confederates  when  fighting  for  the  Holy- 
League  against  France,  ruled  by  the  twelve  members  then  in  the- 
League,  and  confirmed  by  Francis  I.  in  the  treaty  of  1516.  These- 
districts  were  governed  by  bailifl"3  holding  office  two  years  and 
purchasing  it  from  the  members  of  the  League  ;  each  member  oT 
group  3  sent  annually  an  envoy,  who  conjointly  constituted  the- 
supreme  appeal  in  all  matters.  This  government  was  very  harsh, 
and  is  one  of  the  darkest  pages  in  Swiss  history.  Yet  only  one  open 
revolt  is  recorded — that  of  the  Leventina  against  Uri  in  17S6.  In- 
1798  the  people  were  distracted  by  the  Swiss  and  ''Cisalpine  re- 
public" parties,  but  sided  with  the  Swiss.  On  being  freed  from 
their  bated  masters,  they  were  formed  into  Uvo  cantons  of  the 
Helvetic  repubUc — Bellinzona  (  =  1  and  2  above)  and  Lugano  (  =  3)- 
In  1803  all  these  districts  were  formed  into  one  canton — Ticino — 
which  became  a  full  member  of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  Front 
1810  to  1813  it  was  occupied  by  the  troops  of  Napoleon.  The- 
roads  over  the  Bernardino  (1819-23)  and  the  St  Gotthard  (1820-30> 
were  made  under  the  constitution  of  1814.  But  many  of  the  old 
troubles  reappeared  and  were  only  done  away  with  by  the  consti- 
tution of  23a  July  1830,  which  (with  subsequent  modifications) 
prevails  at  the  present  time.  A  legislative  assembly  (112  members) 
chosen  by  direct  election  and  an  executive  (5  members)  chosen  by 
the  legislature  are  its  principal  features.  The  "optional  referen- 
dum" (permitting  the  submission  of  any  law  to  a  popular  vote  if 
asked  for  by  a  certain  number  of  citizens)  was  adopted  in  1883.  lib 
1848,  on  religious  grounds  and  owing  to  fears  as  to  customs  duties, 
the  canton  voted  in  the  minority  against  the  Federal  constitutioa 
of  that  year  ;  but  in  1874,'  though  the  people  voted  against  the  re- 
vised constitution,  the  legislature  adopted  it,  and  the  canton  was 
counted  as  one  of  the" majority.  Since  1830  the  local  history  of  the 
canton  has  been  very  disturbed  owing  to  the  fact  that,  though 
Roman  Catholicism  is  the  state  religion,  and  all  the  population  are 
Roman  Catholic  (the  few  Protestants  having  been  expelled  from 
Locarno  in  1555}|  they  are  divided  between  the  Radical  and  Ultra- 
montane parties.  Since  1876  the  intervention  of  Federal  troops 
(already  known  m  1870)  has  been  quite  common  in  consequence 
of  conflicts  of  the  local  authorities  itiUr  se,  or  against  the  Federal 
assembly. 
See  DcT  Kanton  Tetsin,  by  Stefano  Franscini  (St  G&U,  1835). 

TICK.     See  Mite. 

TICKELL,  Thomas  (1686-1 740),  English  man  of  letters^ 
the  son  of  a  clergyman,  was  born  at  Bridekirk,  near  Car- 
lisle, in   1686.      After  a  good  preliminary  education  he 


352 


T I C— T I C 


■Kcni  10  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where  in  1 70S  he  took 
Jirs  deKree,  and  of  which  college  he  was  two  years  later 
-■;l';cte<J  tellow  He  did  not  take  orders,  but  by  a  dispensa- 
ih)n  from  th«  crown  was  allowed  to  retain  his  fellowship 
cntU  his  ojarriage  in  1726.  Asa  poet  Tickell  displaj-ed 
very  mediocre  qualities.  His  success  in  literature,  as  in 
life,  was  oiamly  due  to  the  friendship  and  patronage  of 
Addison,  who  procured  for  hrni  (1717)  the  under-secretary- 
ship  of  state,  to  the  chagrin  of  Steele,  who  thenceforth  bore 
Tickell  no  good  will.  During  the  peace  negotiations  with 
France  TickeU  published  the  Prospect  of  Peace,  which  was 
well  spoken  of  in  \.\ie  Spectator  anA  reached  a  sixth  edition. 
In  1717  he  brought  out  a  translation  of  the  first  book  of 
the  Hiad  contemporaneously  with  Pope's  version.  Ken- 
wiglon  Gardens,  his  longest  poem,  which  appeared  in  1722, 
is  inflated  and  pedantic,  and  was  doomed  to  oblivion  from 
its  birth.  Dr  Johnson's  criticism  of  it  gives  it  its  due  meed 
■of  praise  and  blame.  The  most  popular  of  TickelTs  poeti- 
•eal  writings  was  the  ballad  of  "Colin  and  Lucy,"  which 
will  bear  comparison  with  some  of  the  ballad  poems  of 
Wordsworth.  Whether  from  fear  of  Pope's  rivalry  or  from 
■unbiassed  choice,  Tickell  abandoned  the  translation  of  the 
Iliad  and  set  about  rendering  the  Odyssey  and  Lucan  into 
English  In  1723  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  lords 
justices  of  Ireland, — a  post  which  he  retained  until  his 
death,  which  took  place  at  Bath  on  23d  April  1740. 
Tickell  rose  once  above  the  level  of  mediocrity,  when  he 
-wrote  his  elegy  addressed  to  the  earl  of  Warwick  on  the 
•death  of  Addison.  Posterity  has  endorsed  Dr  Johnson's 
affirmation  that  this  elegy  is  equal  in  sublimity  and  ele- 
gance to  any  funeral  poem  which  had  theretofore  appeared, 
— and  this  notwithstanding  Steele's  caustic  disparagement, 
that  it  was  only  "prose  in  rhyme."  TickeU  also  contributed 
*o  the  Spectator  and  the  Guardian 

See  "T.  Tickell,"  in  Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets',  the  Spectator  ; 
-&nder3on's  English  Poets  ;  Ward's  English  Poets 

TICKNOR,  George  (1791-1871),  historian  of  Spanish 
literature,  was  born  at  Boston  (Mass.),  on  1st  August  1791. 
He  received  his  early  education  from  his  father,  Elisha 
Ticknor,  who,  though  at  that  time  in  business,  had  been 
principal  of  the  local  Franklin  public  school  and  was  the 
•originator  both  of  the  system  of  free  primary  schools  in 
Boston  and  of  the  first  New  England  savings-bank.     He 
studied  at  Dartnlouth  College  from  1805  to  1807,  and  on 
leaving  it  was  placed   for  nearly  three  years   under   Dr 
Gardiner,  a  pupil  of  Dr  Parr.     In  the  autumn  of  1810 
Ticknor  entered  the   office   of   a    leading    Massachusetts 
Sawyer,  and,  though  his  studie.s  appear  to  have  been  liter- 
ary rather  than  legal,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1813. 
He  at  once  commenced  practice  ;  but  a  year's  experiment 
convinced  him  that  scholarship  and  letters  would  be  more 
congenial  to  his  abilities.    In  the  spring  of  1815  he  set  sail 
for  England.    Attractive  in  appearance,  cultured,  vivacious, 
and  sympathetic,  he  had  won  many  influential  friends  in 
America,  and  his  introductions  gave  him  access  to  most  of 
the  men  then  worth  knowing  in  Europe.     He  spent  nearly 
two  years  at  Gottingen  ;   but  he  also  visited   the  chief 
towns  on  the  Continent,  meeting  Prescott  for  the  first  timp 
at  Paris,  and  spending  some  months  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 
the  life  and  literatures  of  which  had  already  strong  attrac- 
tions for  him. '   Returning  to  America  in  the  summer  of 
181%^  he  was  inducted  in   the  August  following  to  the 
Smith  professorship  of  French  and  Spanishjiterature  and 
to  the  college  professorship  of  belles-lettres  at  Harvard. 
The  history  and  criticispi  of  Spanbh  literature  was  in 
many  respects  a  new  subject  at  that  time  even  in  Europe, 
— ^the  Spaniards  themselves  having  no  adequate  treatment 
of  their  literature  as  a  whole,  and  both  Bouterwek  and 
Sismondi  having  worked  with  scanty  or  second-hand  re- 
sources.    To  supply  this  want,  therefore,  be  gave  his  most 


serious  thon^t,  developing  in  his  lectures  the  scheme  «f 
his  more  permanent  "wort.  In  Jtme  1821  his  father  died, 
and  in  September  he  married  Anna,  daughter  of  Samttel 
Eliot,  a  merchant  and  founder  of  the  chair  of  Greek 
literature  at  Harvard  College.  In  the  years  following 
1821  Ticknor  made  a  vain  effort  to  introduce  measures  erf 
umversity  reform.  The  death  of  his  only  son  in  183-1  and 
the  subsequent  failure  of  his  wife's  health  led  him  to 
resign  his  post  at  Cambridge  to  Longfellow ;  and  in  the 
spring  of  1835  he  again  went  to  Europe,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1838.  From  that  time  till  his  death  ha 
lived  chiefly  at  Boston.  Till  1849  he  published  only 
occasional  reviews  and  papers,  such  as  his  essays  on 
Moore's  Anacreon,  on  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  and  on 
Thatcher's  ;^e)TOc;re.»,  in  1812  ;  on  Michael  Stiefel,  in  1816  ; 
on  Griscom's  Tour  in  Europe  and  on  General  La  Fayette, 
in  1824  ;  on  amusements  in  Spain  and  on  changes  in  Har- 
vard College,  in  1825;  on  Chateaubriand,  in  1827;  on 
Daniel  Webster,  in  1831  ,  and  on  the  best  mode  of  teach- 
ing living  languages,  in  1832.  His  History  of  Spanish 
Literature,  the  first  editions  of  which  appeared  in  New 
York  and  London  in  1849,  was  welcomed"  on  all  hands 
as  the  standard  work  on  the  subject,  and  was  rapidly 
translated  into  Spanish  and  other  Continental  languages. 
Whatever  its  defects,  it  at  least  reduced  to  system  and 
clearness  a  large  mass  of  varied  historical  material  hitherto 
only  vaguely  known  ;  and  its  copious  references  to  authori- 
ties and  editions  and  its  loving  exploration  of  the  byeways 
of  the  literature  made  it  as  valuable  to  scholars  as  iu 
direct  and  unpretentious  style  made  it  popular  with  general 
readers.  In  many  respects  it  was  the  admirable  literary 
complement  of  the  historical  work  of  Prescott.  Like  his, 
the  bent  of  Ticknor 's  mind  was  expository  rather  than 
critical ;  and  in  both  cases  the  standards  applied  were  of 
a  conventional  rather  than  of  an  advanced  nature.  As 
with  Prescott  the  glow  of  vivid  narration  often  hides  rather 
than  reveals  the  underlying  problems  of  social  and  philo- 
sophic import,  so  with  Ticknor  a  certain  fund  of  graceful 
and  genial  commonplace  is  apt  to  gloss  over  the  really  vital 
critical  issues  of  the  subject-matter.  At  crucial  momenta 
jn  place  of  the  keener  edge  of  criticism  one  is  apt  to  find 
only  the  paper-knife  intelligence  of  the  ordinary  book-lover. 
The  defect,  however,  was  common  to  the'  critical  schools  of 
the  time.  The  merits  of  the  work  in  its  accurate  survey 
of  comparatively  untrodden  ground  were  individual  and  of 
an  exceedingly  high  order.  Ticknor  subsequently  took 
an  active  part  in  the  establishment  of  the  Bostofl  public 
library,  in  the  interests  of  which  he  paid  in  1856  another 
visit  to  Europe,  and  to  which  he  left  at  his  death  his  fine 
collection  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  works.  In  1859,  on 
the  death  of  Prescott,  he  at  once  began  to  collect  materials 
for  a  life  of  his  friend,  which  was  published  in  1864.  His 
death  took  place  at  Boston  on  26th  January  1871. 

A  Life  of  Ticknor,  with  his  letters  and  joumids,  was  edited  by 
George's.  Hillard,  Boston,  1876. 

TICONDEROGA,  a  village  and  township  of  the  United 
States,  in  E^ex  county.  New  York,  situated  upon  th« 
stream-  connecting  Lakes  George  and  Champlain,  and  ex- 
tending back  upon  an  abrupt  promontory  which  separates 
the  two  lakes.  Two  railroads  enter  the  village, — the 
Delaware  and  Hudson  and  a  branch  of  the  Central  'Ver- 
mont.    The  population  in  1880  was  3304. 

Commanding  the  direct  route  from  the  St  Lawrence  to  the 
Hudson,  Ticonderoga  was  early  seized  by  the  French  and  fortified 
under  the  name  of  Fort  Carillon.  Id  July  1758  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully attacked  by  Abercrombie.  In  the  same  month  of  the  suc- 
ceeding year  it  was  abandoned  by  the  French  upon  the  approach 
of  an  English  army  under  Amherst,  who  occnpied  it  and  greatly 
strengthened  its  works.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  in 
1775,  the  fort  was  surprised  and  captured  by  Ethan  Allen  and  ■ 
party  of  Vermont  militia.  In  1778  it  was  retaken  by  the  English 
under  Burgoyne  and  was  held  by  them  until  the  close  of  the  war. 


353 


TIDES 


I.  Ox  THE  Natttre  of  Twra. 


DcSdi- 

tiOD. 


-A'.rvo- 

t-.lujic 


■waur 
50™  p«- 


Van- 

ability  of 

interval 

after 

moou's 

t7a]i5iL 


§  1.  Den  nit  ion  of  Tide. 
TTTHEN,  as  occasionally  happens,  a  ship  in  the  open  sea 
YV  meets  a  short  succession  o£  wa%'es  of  very  unusual 
magnitude,  is-e  hear  of  tidal  waves ;  and  the  large  wave 
caused  by  an  earthquoie  is  commonly  so  described.  The 
use  of  the  term  "  tide  "  in  this  connexion  is  certainly  incor- 
rect, but  it  has  perhaps  beep  fostered  by  the  fact  that  such 
waves  impress  their  records  on  automatic  tide-gauges,  as, 
for  example,  when  the  wave  due  to  the  volcanic  outbreak 
at  Rrakatoa  was  thus  distinctly  traceable  in  South  Africa, 
and  .perhaps  even  faintly  at  Brest,  We  can  only  adequately 
define  a  tide  by  reference  to  the  cause  which  produces  it. 
A  tide  then  is  a  rise  and  fall  of  the  water  of  the  sea  pro- 
duced by  the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon.  A  rise  and 
fall  of  the  sea  produced  by  a  regular  alternation  of  day 
and  night  breezes,  by  regular  rainfall  and  evaporation,  or 
by  any  influence  which  the  moon  may  have  on  the  weather 
cannot  strictly  be  called  a  tide.  Such  alternations  may, 
it  is  true,  be  inextricably  involved  ■n'ith  the  rise  and  fall  of 
the  true  astronomical  tide,  but  we  shall  here  distinguish 
them  as  meteorological  tides.  These  movements  are  the 
result  of  the  action  of  the  sun,  as  a  radiating  body,  on  the 
earth.  Tides  in  the  atmosphere  would  be  shown  by  a 
regular  rise  and  fall  in  the  barometer,  but  such  tides  are 
undoubtedly  very  minute,  and  we  shall  not  discuss  them  in 
this  article,  merely  referring  the  reader  to  the  Mkanique 
Celeste  of  Laplace,  bks,  L  and  xiiL  There  are,  however, 
very  strongly  marked  diurnal  and  semi-diurnal  inequalities 
of  the  barometer  due  to  atmospheric  meteorological  tides. 
Sir  William  Thom*)n  in  an  interesting  speculation '  shows 
that  the  interaction  of  these  quasi-tides  with  the  sun  is 
that  of  a  thermodynamic  engine,  whereby  there  is  caused 
a  minute  secular  acceleration  of  the  earth's  rotation.  This 
matter  is,  however,  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  article. 
We  shall  here  extend  the  term  "  tide  ",  to  denote  an  elastic 
or  "viscous  periodic  deformation  of  a  solid  or  viscous  globe 
under  the  action  of  tide-generating  forces.  In  the  techni- 
cal part  of  the  article  by  the  term  "a  simple  tide"  we 
shall  denote  a  spherical  harmonic  deformation  of  the  water 
on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  or  of  the  solid,  globe  itself, 
multiplied  by  a  simple  harmonic  function  of  the  time. 

§  2.  General  Descnplion  of  Tidal  Phenomma." 
If  we  live  by  the  sea  or  on  an  estuary,  we  see  that,the 
water  rises  and  falls  nearly  twice  a  day ;  speaking  more 
exactly,  the  average  interval  from  high  water  to  high 
water  is  about  12°  25™,  so  that  the  average  retardation 
from  day  to  day  is  about  50™.  The  times  of  high  water 
are  then  found  to  bear  an  intimate  relation  with  the  moon's 
position.  Thus  at  Ipswich  high  water  occurs  when  the 
moon  is  nearly  south,  at  London  Bridge  when  it  is  south- 
west, and  at  Bristol  when  it  is  east-south-eaSt.  For  a  very 
rou^h  determination  of  the  time  of  lughTvater  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  add  the  solar  time  of  high  water  on  the  days  of 
new  and  full  moon  (called  the  "establishment  of  the  port") 
to  the  time  of  the  moon's  passage  over  the  meridian,  either 
visibly  above  or  invisibly  below  the  horizon.  The  interval 
between  the  moon's  passage  over  the  meridian  and  high 
water  varies  sensibly  «-ith  the  moon's  age.  From  new 
moon  to  first  quarter,  and  from  full  moon  to  third  quarter 
(or  rather  from  and  to  a  day  later  than  each  of  these 
phases),  the  interval  diminishes  from  its  average  to  a  mini- 

'  Sociitu  -de   PLj-sique,   September  ISSl,  or  Proc.   Jio'j.   Soc.   of 
Ediiibimjh,  1881-82,  p.  396. 

'  FouuJcd  on  Airj-'s  "  Tides  aud  Waves, "  in  Eiuij.  Slclrop. 


mum,  and  then  increases  again  to  the  average ;  and  in  the 
other  two  quarters  it  increases  from  the  average  to  a  maxi- 
mum, and  then  diminishes  again  to  the  average. 

The  range  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  water  is  also  subject 
to  great  variability.  On  the  days  after  new  and  full  moon 
the  range  of  tide  is  at  its  maximum,  and  on  the  day  after 
the  first  andxhird  quarter  at  its  minimum.  .  The  maximum 
is  called  "spring  tide  "  and  the  minimum  "  neap  tide,"  and 
the  range  of  spring  tide  is  usually  between  two  and  three 
times  as  great  as  that  of  neap  tide.  At  many  ports,  how- 
ever, especially  non-European  ones,  two  successive  high 
waters  are  of  unequal  heights,  and  the  law  of  variability  of 
the  differehce  is  somewhat  complex ;  a  statement  of  that 
law  will  be  easier  when  we  come  to  consider  tidal  theories. 
In  considering  any  tide  we  find,  especially  in  estuaries, 
that  the  interval  from  high  to  low  water  is  longer  than 
that  from  low  to  high  water,  and  the  difference  between 
the  intervals  is  greater  at  spring  than  at  neap. 

In  a  river  the  current  continues  to  run  up  stream  for 
some  considerable  time  after  high  water  is  attained  and 
to  run  down  similarly  after  low  water.  JIuch  confusion 
'has  been  occasioned  by  the  indiscriminate  use  of  the  term 
"  tide  "  to  denote  a  tidal  current  and  a  rise  of  water,  and 
it  has  often  been  incorrectly  inferred  that  high  water  must 
have  been  attained  at  the  moment  of  cessation  of  the 
upward  current.  The  distincrion  between  "  rising  and 
falling"  and  "flowing  and  ebbing"  mast  be  carefully 
maintained  in  rivers,  whilst  it  vanishes  at  the  seaboard. 
If  we  examine  the  progress  of  the  ride-wave  up  a  river, 
we  find  that  high  water  occurs  at  the  sea  earlier  than 
higher  up.  If,  for  instance,  on.,  a  certain  day  it  is  high 
water  at  Margate  at  noon,  it  is  high  water  at  Gravesend 
at  a  quarter  past  two,  and  at  London  Bridge  a  few  minutes 
before  three.  The  intervalfrom  low  to  high  water  diminishes 
also  as  we  go  up  the  river ;  and  at  some  distance  up  certain 
rivers — as,  for  example,  the  Severn  —  the  rising  water 
spreads  over  the  flat-sands  in  a  roaring  surf  and  travels  up 
the  river  almost  likea  wall  of  water.  This  kind  of  sudden 
rise  is  called  a  "Txjre."  ^  jn  other  cases  where  the  differ- 
ence between  the- periods  of  rising  and  falling  is  consider- 
able, there  are,  in  each  high  water,  two  or  three  rises  and 
falls.     A  double  high  water  exists  at  Southampton. 

"When  an  estuary  -contracts  considerably,  the  range  of 
tide  becomes  largely  magnified  as  it  narrows  ;  for  example, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Bristol  Channel  the  range  of  spring 
tides  is  about  18  ieet,  -and  at  Chepstow  about  50  feet. 
This  augmentation  of  the  height  of  the  tide-wave  is  due 
to  the  concentration. of  the  energy  of  motion  of  a  large 
mass  of  water  into-  a  narrow  space.  At  oceanic  ports  the 
tidal  phenomena  are  much  less  marked,  the  range  of  tide 
being  usually  only  2  or  3  feet,  and  the  inter\-al  from  high 
to  low  water  sensibly  equal  to  that  from  low  to  high  ■n-ater. 
The  changes  -from-spring  to  neap  tide  and  the  relation  of 
the  time  of  high  water  to  the  moon's  transit  remain,  how- 
ever, the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  river  tides. 

In  long  and  narrow  seas,  such  as  the  English  Channel, 
the  tide  in  mid-channel  follows  the  same  law  as  at  a  station 
near  the  mouth  of  a  river,  rising  and  falling  in  equal  times; 
the  current  nms  in  the  direction  analogous  to  up  stream 
for  three  hours  before  and  after  high  watey,  and  down 
stream  for  the  same  period  before  and  after  low  water. 
But  near  the  sides  of  channels  and  near  the  mouths  df 
baj-s  the  changes  of  the  currents  are  very  complex  ;  and 
near  the  headlands  separating  two  bays  there  is  usually  at 
certain  times  a  verj"" swift  current,  termed  a  "race." 

'  See  a  series  of  paiwrs  bearing  on  this  kind  of  wave  by  Sir  W. 
Thomson,  in  I'ltU.  ilaij.,  1SS6-S7. 

XXm.  —  4  5 


Spring 

and 

neap. 


River 

tide. 


Distinc* 
lion  of 
ri.se  and 
fall  from 
tlood  aud 
ebb. 


Aug- 
menta- 
tion of 
height  iu 
e&tuaricK, 


Land- 
locked 
seas. 


354 


TIDES 


In  inland  seas,  such  as  the  Mediterranean,  the  tide's  are 
nearly  insensible  except  at  the  ends  of  long  bays.  'Thus 
at  Malta  the  tides  are  not  noticed  by  the  ordinary  observer, 
whilst  at  Venice  they  are  conspicuous.  _     . 

t\A\  The  effect  of  a  strong  •ftdnd  OQ. the  height  of  tide  is 

generally  supposed  to  be  very  marked,  especially  in  estu- 
aries.    In  the  case  of  an  exceptional  gale,  when  thfewind 
veered  round  appropriately,  Airy  states'  that  the  water  has 
been  knowu  to  depart  from  its  predicted  height  at  London 
by  as  much  as  5  feet.     The  effect  of  wind  will  certainly 
be  different  at  each  port!     The  discrepancy  of  opinion  on 
this  subject  appears  to  be  great, — so  much  so  that  we 
liear  of  some  observers  concluding  that  the  'effect,'  of  the 
'Atmo^     wind  is  insensible.'"' "Variations  in  barometric  pressure  also 
«pherio  , cause  departures  from  the  predicted  height  of  water,  high 
yrewurt.  i,arometer  corresponding  to  decrease  of  height  of  water. 
Roughly  speaking,  an  inch  of  the  mercury  column- will 
correspond  to  something  less  than  a  foot  of  water, , but 
the  effect  seems  to  vary  much  at  different  ports.^j  ! 

§  3.  Genei-al  Ejyplanation  of  (he  Cause  of  Tides. 
^•°*'  .  Tho  moon  attracts  every  particle  of  the  earth  and  ocean," 
uig'lorcosand  by  the  law  of  gravittition  the  force  acting  on  any  par- 
ticle is  directed  towards  the  moon's  centre,  and  is  jointly 
proportional  to  the  masses  of  the  particle  and  of  the  moon, 
'and  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  .of  the  distance 
;between  the  particle  and  the  moon's  centre.  •  If  we  imagine 
the  earth  and  ocean  subdivided  into  a  numljer  of  small 
portions  or  particles  of  equal  mass,  then  the  average,  both 
as  to  direction  and  intensity,  of  the  forces  acting  on  these 
particles. is  equal  to  the^orce  acting  on  that  particle  which 
is  at  the  earth's  centre./s.J'or  there  is  symmetry  about  the 
line  joining  the  centres  of  the  two  bodies,  and,  if  we  divide 
the  earth  into  two  portions  by  an  ideal  spherical  surface 
passing-through  the  earth's  centre  and  having  its  cen,tre 
at  the  moon,  the  portion  remote  from  the  moon  is  a  little 
lirger  than  the  portion  towards  the  moon,  but  the  nearer 
portion  is  under  the  action  of  forces  which  are  a  little 
stronger  than  those  acting  on  the  further  portion,  and  the 
resultant  of  the  weaker  forces  on  tl^e  larger  portion  is 
exactly  equal  to  the  resultant  of  the  stronger  forces  on  the 
smaller.  If  every  particle  of  the  earth  and  ocean  were 
ieing  urged  by  equal  and  parallel  forces,  there  would  be 
no  cause  for  relative 'motion  between  the  ocean  and  the' 
earth.'  Hence  it  is  the  departure  of  the  force  acting  on 
any  particle  from  the  average  which  constitutes  the  tide- 
generating  force..  Now  it  is  obvious  that  on  the  side  of 
the  earth' towards  the  moon  the  departure  from  the  average 
is  a  small  force  directed  towards  the  moon;  and  ou  the 
side  of  the  earth  away,  from  the,  moon  the  departure  is  a 
small  force  directed  away  from  the  moon.  ,  Also  these  two 
departures  are  very  nearly  equal  to  one  another,  that  on 
[he  near  side  being  so  little  greater  .than  that  on  the  other 
that  we  may  neglect  the  excess.  All  round  the  sides  of 
the  earth  along  a  great  circle  perpendicular  to  the  line 
joining  the  moon  and  earth,  the  departure  is  a  force  directed 
Inwards  towards  the  earth's  centre^,  .  Thus  we  see  that  the 
tidal  forces  tend  to  pull  the  water,  towards  and  away  fron^ 
the  moon,  and  to  depress  the  water  at  i-ight  angles  to  that 
direction.  If  we  could  neglect  the  rotations  of  the  bodies, 
and  could  consider  the' system  as  at  rest,  we  should  find 
that  the.  water  was-  ii  equilibrium  when  elongated  into  a 
prolate  ellipsoid  with  its  long  axis  directed  towards  and 
away  from  the  moon."^ 
Theory  But  it  must  not  be  assumed  that  this  would  be  the  case 
cjf  eqn.i-  -vvhen  there  is  motion.  For,  suppose  that  the  ocean  con- 
^'"'  J  0  ^'^'^  ^^  ^  canal  round  the  equator,  and  that  an  earthquake 
iirth.  or  ?iny  other  cause  were  to  generate  a  great  wave  in  the 
canal,  this  wave  would  travel  along  it  with  a  velocity  de- 


y  Airy,  "  Tiilc3  aud  "Waves." 


Airy,  op.  ci"(.,  §§  572-573.,_ 


pendent  on  the  depth."'  'If  the  canal  were,about  13  miles 
deep,-  the  velocity  of  the  wave  would  be  about  1000  miles 
an  hour,  and  with  depth  about  equal  to  the  depth  of  our 
seas  the  velocity  of  the  "wave  would  be  about  half  as  great. 
We  may  conceive  the  moon's  tide-generating  force  as 
making  a  wave  in  the  canal  and  continually  outstripping 
the  wave  "it  generates,  for  the  moon' travels' along  the 
equator  at  the  rate  of  about  1000  miles  an  hour,  and  the 
sea  is  less  than  13  miles  deep.  '  The  resultant  oscillation 
of  the  ocean  must  therefore  be  the  summation  of  a  serie? 
of  partial  .^vaves  generated  at  each  instant  by  the  mooii 
and  always  falling  behind  her,  and  the*  aggregate  wave, 
being  the  same  at  each  instant,  must  travel  1000  miles  an 
hour  so  as  to  keep  up  with  the  moon. 

Now  it  is  a  general  law  of  frictionless^oscillation  that, 
if  a. slowly  varying  periodic  force  acts  on  a  system  which 
would  oscillate  .quickly  if  left  to  itself,  the  maximum  ex- 
cursion on  one  side  of  the  equilibrium  position  occurs 
simultaneously  .with  the  maximum  force  in  the  direction 
of  the  excursion  ;  but,'  if  a  quickly  varying  periodic  force 
acts  on  a  system  which  would  oscillate  slowly  if  left  tc 
itself,  the  maximum  excursion  on  one  side  of  the  equili' 
brium  position"  occurs  simultaneously  with  the  maximum 
force  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  excursion. 
An  example  of  the  first  is  a  ball  hanging  by  a  short  string, 
wliich  we  push  slowly' to  and  fro ;  the  ball  will  never  quit 
contact  with  the  hand,  and  will  agree  "with  its  excursiona,' 
If,  however,  the  ball  is- hanging  by  a  long  string  we  can 
play  at  battledore  and  shuttlecock  with  it,  and  it  always 
meets  our  blows!  'The  latter  is  the  analogue  of  the  tides, 
for  a  free* "wave  in  our  shallow  canal  goes' slowly,  whilst 
the  moon's  tide-generating  action  goes  quickly.  Hence,  Tidetmi 
'when  the  system  is  left  to  .settle  into  steady  oscillation,  it  verted, 
is  low  water  under  and  opposite  to  the  moon,  whilst  the 
forces  are  such  as  to  make  it  high  water  at  those  times. 
'  If  we  consider  the  moon  as  revolving  round  the  earth, 
the  water  assumes  nearly  the  shape  of  an  oblate  spheroid 
with. the  minor  axis  pointed  to  the  moon.  The  rotation 
of  the  earth  in  the  actual  case  introduces  a  complexity 
which  it  is  not  easy  to  unravel  by  general  reasoning.  We 
can  see,  however,  that  if  water  moves  from  a  lo"wer  to  a 
higher  latitude  it  arrives  at  the  higher  ktitude  with' more 
velocity  from  west  to  east  than  is  appropriate  to  its  lati- 
tude, and  it  will  move  accordingly  on  the  earth's  surface- 
Following  put  this  conception,  we  see  that  an  oscillation 
of  the  water  to  and  fro  between  south  and  north  must  be 
accompanied  by  an  eddy.  Laplace's  solution  of  the  diffi- 
cult problem  involved  in  working  out  thi^'  idea  "will  bfr 
given  below. 

The  conclusftm  at  which  we  have  arrived  about  the  tide^ 
of  an  equatorial  canal  is  probably  more  nearly  true  of  the 
tides  of  a  globe  partially  covered  with  land  than  if  wt 
■were  to  suppose  the  ocean  at  each  moment  to  fissume  the 
prolate  figure  of  equilibrium.- ,;  In  fact,  observation  show^ 
that  it  is  more  nearly  low  water  than  high  water  when 
the  moon  is  on  the  nieridian.  If -we  consider  ■  how  the 
oscillation  of  the  watPr  would  appear  to  an  observer  ca,rried  ' 
round  "with  the  earth,  we  see  that  he  will  have  low  "water 
twice  in  the  lunar  day,  somewhere  about  the  time  ■\(i'hei^ 
the  moon  is  on  the  meridian,  either  above  or  belo"vv .  the 
horizon,  and  high  water  half  way  between  the  lo"W  water.^.' 

If  the  suuibe  now  introduced,  v:e  have  another  similar  Suii'aiu- 
tide  of  about  half  the"' height,  and  this  depends  on  solair- """'"'"■ 
time,  giving  low  water  somewhere  about '  noon  and  mid- 
night. The  superposition  of  the  two,"  modified  by  fric'tiow 
and  by  the  interference  of  land,  gives  the  actually  observed 
aggregate  tide,  and_  it.is  clear  that  about, new  and  full 
moon  we  must  have  spring  tides  and  at 'quarter  moons 
neap  tides,  and  that  (the  sum  of  the  lunar  and  solar  tide- 
generating  forces  being  about  three  timps..thejr  difference. 


TIDES 


355 


Iha  ran^a  of  fpimg  tide  will  be  about  three  timas  that 
I't  neap  tide. 
Diunul       So  far  we  have  supjiosed  the  luminaries  to  more  on  the 
!idf»       eqiutor ;  now  let  us  consider  the  case  where  the  moon  is 
lint  on  the  equator.     It  is  clear  iji  this  case  that  at  any 
|)hce  the  moon's  zenith  distance  at  the  upper  transit  is 
jlifierent  from  her  nadir  distance  at  the  lower  transit. 
Cut  the  tide-generating  force  is  greater  the  smaller  the 
jtenltli  or  nadir  distance,  and  therefore  the   forces   are 
ditferent  at  successive  transits.     This  was  not  the  case 
when  the  moon  was  deemed  to  move  on  the  equator. 
(Thus  there  is  a  tendency  for  two  successive  lunar  tides  to 
W  of  unequal  heights,  and  the , resulting  inequality  .of 
height  is  called  a  "diurnal  tide."  ^  This  tendency  vanishes 
when  the  moon  is  on  the  equator;  and,  as  this  occurs  each 
fortnight,  the  lunar  diurnal  tide  is  evanescent  once  a  fort- 
night.    Similarly  in  summer  and  winter  the  successive 
solar  tides  are  generally  of  unequal  height,  whilst  in  spring 
tnd  autumn  this  difference  ig  inconspicuous.'.^    ___ 
t»«ji«<.   ^  One  of  the  most  remarkable  conclusions  of  Laplace's 
**"  '",>/  '''^°T  of  the  tides,  on  a  globe  covered  with  ocean  to  a 
■mlforni   ""'fo''"!  depth,  is  that  tile  diurnal  tide  is  everywhere  non- 
.leoifc      existent.    But  this  hypothesis  differs  much  from  the  reality, 
.and  in  fact  at  some  portH  the  diurnal  tide  is  so  large  that 
during  two  ))ortions  of  each  lunation  there  is  only  one 
creat  high  water  and  one  great  low  water  in  each  twenty- 
four  hours,  whilst  in  other  parts  of  the  lunation  the  usual 
iemi  diurnal  tide  is  observed. 

%4.  Iliifarical  SketefiS. 

In  1687  Newton  laid  the  foundation  for  all  that  has 
•ince  been  added  to  the  theory  of  the  tides  when  he 
brought  his  grand  generalization  of  universal  gravitation 

Ksplor  to  bear  on  the  subject.  Kepler  had  indeed  at  an  earlier 
date  recognized  the  tendency  of  the  water  of  >  the  ocean  to 
^move  towards  the  centres  of  the  suu  and  moon,  but  he. 
j^-as  unable  to  submit  his  theory  to  calculation.  Galileo 
expresses  his  regret  that  so  acute  a  man  as  Kepler  should 
have  produced  a  theory  which  appeared  to  him  to  rein- 
troduce the  occult  qualities  of  the  ancient  philosophers. 
His  own  explanation  referred  the  phenomenon  to  the  rota- 
tion and  orbital  motion  of  the  earth,  and  he  considered  that 
it^alTorded  a  principal  proof  of  the  Copernican  system. 

f.euiwi.  ,In  the  19th  corollary  of  the  66th  proiio-sition  of  book  i. 
of  the  Principia,  Newton  introduces  the  conception  of  a 
canal  circling  the  earth,  and  he  considers  the  inlluenc«  of 
a  satellite  on  the  water  in  the  canal.  He  reiuarkB  that 
the  movement  of  each  molecule  of  fluid  must  be  accelerated 
in  the  conjunction  and  opposition  of  the  .satellite  with  the 
molecule,  and  retarded  in  the  quadratures,  so  that  the 
fluid,  must  undergo  a  tidal  oscillation.  It  i.s,  however,  in 
propositions  26  and  27  of  book  iii.  that  he  first  deter- 
mines the  tidal  force  due  to  the  sun  and  moon.  The  sea 
is  here  supposed  to  cover  the  whole  earth,  and  ■to  assume 
at  each  instant  a  figure  of  equilibrium,  and  the  tide-gener- 
ating bodies  are  sujiposed  to  move  in  the  .equator.  Con- 
sidering only  the  action  of"  tlie  sun,  he  assumes  that  the 
figure  is  an  ellipsoid  of  revolution  with  its  major  axis 
directed  towards  the  sun,  and  he  determines  the  ellipticity 
of  such  an  ellipsoid.  High  solar  tide  then  occurs  at  noon 
and  midnight,  and  low  tide  at  sunrise  and  sunset.  The 
action  of  the  moon  produces  a  sin>ilar  ellipsoid,  but  of 
greater  ellipticity.  '  The  superposition  of  these  ellipsoids 
gives  the  principal  variations  of  tide.  He  then  proceeds 
to  consider  the  .influence  of  latitude  on  the  height  of 
tide,  and  to  discuss  other  peculiarities  of  the  phenomenon. 
Observation  shows,  however,  that  spring  tides  occur  a  day 
and  a  half  after  syzj-gies,  and  Newton  falsely  attributed 

'  FoanJed  on  Laplace,  Micuniqw  Celeste,  bk.  xiii.  cli.ip.  i._ 


this -to  the  fact  that  the  oscillations  would  last  for  some 
time  if  the  attractions  of  the  two  bodies  were  to  cease. 

The  Newtonian  hypothesis,  although  it  fails  in  the  form'' 
which  he  gave  to  it,  may  still  be  made  to  ref)rcsent  the  "  A.sir<-« 
tides,  if  the  lunar  and.  solar  ellipsoids  have  their  major  fic'ifs-'" 
axes  always  directed  towards  a  fictitious  moon'and  sun.t 
which  are  respectively  at  constant  distances  from  the  true 
bodies;  these  distances  are  such  that  the  syzygies  of  the 
fictitious  planets  occur  about  a  day  or  a  day  and  a  hall 
later  than  the  true  sj'zygies.  In  fact^  the  actual  tides  may 
be  supposed  to  be  generated  directly  by  the  action  of  the 
real  sun  and  moon,  and  the  wave  may  be  imagined  to  take 
a  day  and  a  half  to  arrive  at  the  port  of  observation.^ 
This  period  has  accordingly  been 'called  "the  age  of  the  Aoeot 
tide."  In  what  precedes  the  planets  have  been  supposed  to  ti'l"- 
move  in  the  equator  ;  but  the  theory  of  the  two  ellipsoids 
cannot  be  reconciled  ■with  the  truth  when  they  move  in 
orbits  inclined  to  the  equator.  At  equatorial  ports  the 
theory  of  the  ellipsoids  would  at  spring  tides  give  morn- 
ing and  evening  high  waters  of  nearly  equal  height,  vliat- 
'ever  the  declinations  of  the  bodies.  But  at  a  port  in  any 
other  latitude  these  high  waters  would  be  of  very  difl'creiU 
heights',  and  at  Brest,  for  example,  when  the  declinations 
of  the  bodies  are  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  elliiitic,  tho 
evening  tide  would  be  eight  times  as  great  as  the  morning 
tide.  Now  observation  shows  that  at  this  \)o\t  the  two 
tides  are  nearly  equal  to  one  another,  and  that  their 
greatest  difference  is  not  a  thirtieth  of  their  sum. 
•  Newton  here  also  offered  an  erroneous  explanation'of 
the  phenomenon.  In  fact,  we  shall  see  that  by  Laplace's 
dynamical  theory  the  diurnal  tide  is  evanescent  when  tho 
ocean  is  of  uniform  depth  over  the  earth.  At  many  non-; 
European  ports,  however,  the  diurnal  tide  is  very  important; 
and  thus  as  an  actual  means  of  prediction  the  dynamical 
theory,  where  the  ocean  is  treated  as  of  uniform  depth, 
may  be  hardly  better  than  tho  equilibrium  theory. 

In  1738  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  offered,  as  a  U  Ccm- 
subject  for  , a  pri/.c,  the  theory  of  the  tides.  ''The  authors  <"'""""' 
of  lour  essays  received  prizes,  viz.,  Daniel  Bernoulli,  Eulcr,  '"'"^''^ 
Maclaurin,  and  Cavalleri.  Tiie  first  three  adopted  not  only 
the  theory  of  gravitation  but  also  Newton's  method  of  tho 
superposition  of  the  two  ellipsoids.  ..Bernoulli's  essay 
contained  an  extended  development  of  the  conception  oi 
the  two  ellipsoids,  and,  under  the  name  of  the  equilibrium 
theory,  it  is  commonly  associated  with  his  name.  Laplace 
gives  an  account 'and  critique  of  the  essays  Of  Bernoulli 
and  Euler  in  the  Micnnvjue  Celeste.  The  essay  of  Mac- 
laurin presented  little  that  -was  new  in  tidal  theory,  but 
is  notable  as  containing  thosT  theorems  concerning  the 
attraction  of  ellipsoids  which  we  now  know  by  his  name. 
In  1746  D'Alembert  wrote  a  paper  in  which  he  treated 
the  tides  of  the  atmosphere;  but  this  work,  like  Maclaurin's, 
is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  importance  of  collateral  points. 

The  theory  of  the  tidal  movements  of  an  ocean  was  LaplaceL. 
therefore,  as  Laplace  remarks,  almost  untouched  when  in 
1774  he  first  undertook  the  subject.  '  In  the  Jfecaniqut 
Celeste  he  gives  an  interestirig  account  of  the  manner  in 
which  he  was  led  to  attack  the  problem.  We  shall  give 
below  the  investigation  of  the  tides  of  an  ocean  covering 
the  whole  earth  ;  the  theory  is  substantially  Laplace's, 
although  presented  in  a  somewhat  different  form.  This 
theory,  although  very  wide,  is  far  from  representing  the 
tides  of  our  ports.  Observation  shows,  in  fact,  that  the 
irregular  distribution  of  land  and  water  and  the  variable 
depth  of  the  ocean  produce  an  irregularity  in  the  oscilla- 
tions of  the  sea  of  such  complexity  that  the  rigo'rous  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  is  altogether  beyond  the  power  ot 
analysis.N  Laplace,  however,  rested  his  discussion  of  tidal 
observation  on  this  principle — The  state  of  Oscillation  of  a 
system  of  bodies  in  which  the  primitive  conditions  of  move- 


356 


TIDES 


^rincijile 
of  forced 

ition^. 


Lubbock, 
AV'hewell, 
arnl  Airy. 


T.iblio 
^grnpliy 


Ti,k 
genei 
.itin; 
force* 


tnent  have  disappeared  Uirough  frkiion  is  coperiodic  with 
the  forces  acting  on  the  system.  Hence,  if  the  sea  is  solicited 
by  a  periodic  force  expressed  as  a  coefficient  multiplied  by 
the  cosine  of  an  angle  which  increases  proportionately  with 
the  time,  there  results  a  partial  tifle,  also  expressed  by  the 
cosine  of  an  angle  which  increases  at  the  same  rate  ;  but 
the  phase  of  the  ^gle  and  the  coefficient  of  the  cosine  in 
the  expression  for  -the  height  may  be  very  different  from 
those  occurring  in  the  corresponding  term  of  the  equilibrium 
theory  The  coefficients  and  the  constants  or  epochs  of  the 
ingles  in  the  expressions  for  the  tide  are  only  derivable 
fro'n,  observation.  The  action  of  the  sun  and  moon  is  ex- 
piessible  in  a  converging  series. of  similar  cosines ;  whence 
there  arise  as  many  partial  tides,  which  by  the  principle 
of  superposition  may  be  added  together  to  give  the  total 
tide  at  any  port.  In  order  to  unite  the  several"  constants 
of  the  partial  tides  Laplace  considers  each  tide  as  being 
produced  by  a  fictitious  satellite  moving  uniformly  on  the 
equator.  Sir  W.  Thomson  and  others  have  followed  La- 
place in  this  conception  ;  but  in  the  present  article  we 
shall  not  do  so.  The  difference  of  treatment  is  in  reality 
only  a  matter  of  phraseology,  and  the  proper  motion  of 
each  one  of  Lajilace's  astres  Jictifs  is  at  once  derivable  from 
the  argument  (or  angle  under  the  sign  of  cosine),  which 
we  .shall  liere  associate  with  the  partial  tides. 

Subsequently  to  Laplace  the  most  important  workers  in 
this  field  were  Sir  John  Lubbock  (senior),  Whewell,  and 
Airy!  The  work  of  Lubbock  and  Whewell  (see  §  34  below) 
is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  coordination  and  analysis  of 
enormous  masses  of  data  at  various  ports,  and  the  con- 
struction of  trustworthy  tide-tables  and  of  cotidal  maps. 
Airy  contributed  an  imjiortant  re.view  of  the  whole  tidal 
theory.  He  also  studied  profoundly  the  theory  of  waves 
in  canals,  and  explained  the  effects  of  frictional  resistances 
)n  the  progress  of  tidal  and  other  waves.  Of  other  authors 
whose  work  is  of  great  importance  we  shall  sjjcak  below. 

Amongst  all  the  grand  work  which  has  been  bestowed 
on  this  difficult  subject,  Newton,  notwithstanding  his  errors, 
stands  out  first,  and  next  to  him  we  must  rank  Laplace. 
However  original  any  future  contribution  to  the  science  of 
the  tidts  may  f.e,  it  would  seem  as  though  it  must  perforce 
be  basud  on  the  work  of  these  two. 

A  complete  list  of  works  bearing  on  the  theory  of  the 
tides,  from  the  time  of  Ne'.vton  down  to  1881,  is  contained 
ill  vol  li  of  the  /til-/ioi/rap/ue  de  I'Astronomie  by  Houzeau 
and  bincxsicr  (Brussels,  1882).  This  list  does  not  con- 
i.iin  pn|icrs  on  the  tides  of  jiarticular  ports,  and  we  are 
not  aw.trc  of  the  existence  of  any  catalogue  of  works  on 
Vraclical  ob-M-rvation,  reduction  of  observations,  prediction, 
till  tidal  instrument!).  References  are,  however,  given 
^Nilow  lo  iteveral  work»  on  these  points. 

II    TlDE'RENERATINR  FORCES. 
1 1    /..ir*. •(''''»"  of  Till'  grirraiing  PoterUiafand  Forces. 

\\f  invr  aln.i'ty  jjivi-n  a  ^♦■n^rnl  n^planation  of  the  nature  of 
lid**  pi-fii  riiMix  fon  <*  .  wr  ?iow  I'liw  (.»;d  to  a  n>^rous  invcsti^lion. 

If  .1  pUiii-t  I*  uMi  imIuI  Uy  ti  sin;;lf  satellite,  the  motion  of  any 
Vxvly  rrlaiivi'ly  !••  ihf  ifluTn-t  s  sulfate  la  found  by  the  process 
dcsriilwil  an  r<ilu'ifig  tne  plaiirt's  rentrc  to  rest  The  planet's 
cciiii'  Mill  tk*  itt  ri-st  if  every  ho.ly  in  the  system  has  impressed 
on  it  H  v*>Infity  Hi'ial  and  opfMistip  to  iliat  of  the  planet's  centre ; 
■D(J  tills  i»  %i-<oiii|>I)hIh^I  hy  iinnrasbin;;  on  rvery  lioily  an  accelera- 
lion  .-'|>i;tl  aoH  opjMisite  to  that  <if  llic  planel'tt  centli*. 

Let  Af,  m  If.  tite  ma&M'.s  of  th«i  planet  and  thi?  satellite;  r  the 
rKdius  vfi-Utr  iif  the  nateljite.  iiteasui%d  from  the  planet's  centre  ;  p 
thi  ratloiK  vector,  measured  from  the  same  point,  of  the  particle 
whow  tiMilion  wr  wislt  t  .determine  ,  and  :  tin-  an«Ie  l>etwecn  r  and 
p  Tin  Hatf-ljit*  niiivis  in  an  rlliptir  oiiiiT  aUnil  the  planet,  and 
the  a<  r^i'h  T.ttirtn  r<  laliv.lv  lo  Ihc  phtin-tH  centre  of  the  satellite  is 
(Af  *  ni\/r-  low:MtU  tlir  ptmo'l  alon;»  Ihf  rlulins  vector  T       Now  the 

centri- oi  •iieiiijol  ff,i  pbiiii  :ii,d  salcllite  rentains  fixed  in  sijftce, 
ftnil  tlif  i-t  nlntof  Ih.  pi. in.  I  .t.^^rilM-s  an  ofhit  roui^that  centre  of 
ineitiu  Minil'ir  lo  that  di-x  mImmI  hy  the  satellite  round  the  planet, 
but  with  lin«»i  diiiteiiMiona  reduixd  in  the  j>ro]K>rtion  of  m  to  ^f+  in. 


Hence  the  acceleration  ui  tlic  planet's  centre  isr  m/r- towards'l'hc* 

centre  of  inertia  of  the  tv.-o  bodies.     Thus,  in  order  to  reduce  the 

planet's  centre  to  vest,  wc  a)iply  to  every  rwrticle  of  the  system  ^ 

acceleration  ?«/r^  parallel  to  r,  and  directed  from  satellite  to  planet' 

Now  take  a  set  of  rectangiil.ir  axes  fixed  in  the  planet,"  and  let 

M,r,  M^r,  Mjj- be  the  coordinates  of  the  satellite  rejerred  thereto 5 

and  let  (p,  -rip,  fp  be  the  coordinates  of  the  particle  P  whose  radius 

is  p.     Then  the  component  accelerations  for  reducing  the  planet's 

centre  to  rest  are  -mMi/r*, -7nM«/r-,  -  TuMg/r'";  and  since  the» 

are  the  diiferential  coefficients  with  respect  to  pf,  f),  pf  of  the 

function  "iP/i«  ..     If        1L1  « 

j/CMj^  +  M.^i  +  Mji-), 

and  since  cos  :  =  M,{ -i- M ji)  +  Mjf,  it  follows  that  the  potential  oi: 
the  forces  by  wliich  the  planet's  centre  is  to  be  reduced  to  rest  is^ 


Now  let  .us  consider  the  other  forces  acting  on  the  particle.    The 

Slanet  is  spheroidal,  and  therefore  does  not  attract  equally  in  at 
irections  ;  but  in  this  investigation  we  may  make  abstmction  qI 
the  ellipticity  of  the  planet  and  of  the  ellipticity  of  the  ocean  due 
to  the  planetary  rotation.  This,  which  wc  set  aside,  is  considered 
in  the  theories  of  gravity  and  of  the  figures  of  pl.anets.  Outsida| 
of  its  body,  then,  the  planet  contributes  forces  of  which  thepoten^' 
tial  is  M/p>  Next  the  direct  attraction  of  the  satellite  contributes 
forces  of  which  the  potential  is  the  mass  of  the  satellite  divide^ 
by  the  distance  between  the  point  P  and  the  satellite  ;  this  is — 


V(''^  +  P'-2'Y>cos:l 
To  determine  the  forces  from  this  potential  wo  regard  p  and  j  k, 
the  variables  for  differentiation,  and  we  may  add  to  this  potential 
any  constant  we  please.  As  we  are  seeking  to  find  the  forces  whic'a 
urge  P  relatively  to  Af,  we  add  such  a  constant  as  will  make  the 
whole  potential  at  the  planet's  centre  zero,  and  thus  \ye  take  as  the 
potential  of  the  forces  due  to  the  attraction  of  the  satellite — » 


V  {r'  +  p'  -  2'p  cos  :)      r 
It  U  obvious  that  r  is  very  large  compared  with  p,  and  Wo^maj 
therefore  expand  this  in  powers  of  p/r.    This  expansion  gives  ua 


in  I 


;^t+^?ii  +  3A+&c. 


^•} 


Potfiu'.iaX 


where  Pi-cosz,  7*5=5  cos'r-J,  Pj=|cos'2-^  cos  i,  fee-   'Tht 
reader  famili.ar  with  spherical  harmonic  analysis  of  course  reco;; 
nizes  the  Legendre's  functions ;  but  the  result  for  a  few  terms,  whicl 
is  all  that  is  necessary,  is  easily  obtainable  by  simple  algebra. 
Now,  collecting  together  the  various  contributions  to  the  potential, 

and  noticing  that  —•-/',  =  --j  cos  i,  and  is  therefore  ciiual  and  oppo 

site  to  tho  potential  by  which  the  planet's  centre  was  redaccd  to 
rest,  we  have  as  "the  potential,  of  the  forces  acting,  on  a  partie'a' 
whose  coordinates  ore  pi,  pri,  pf 

-  +  -^(icos's-i)+-^(Scos»:-|cos;)  +  - (1). 

The  first  term  of  (1)  is  the  potential  of  gravity,  and  the  terms  o< 
the  series,  of  which  two  only  are  written,  constitute  the  tide-gener- 
ating potential.  In  all  practical  apnlications  this  scries  convcr^ges 
so  rapidly  that  the  first  term  is  amjiiy  suliicicnt,  and  thus  we  shal"- 
generally,  denote 

F='p>Hco.^z-i) ..,. :■:■■ 

as  the  tide-generating  potential. 

In  many  mathematical  works  the  tide-generating  force  is  pre-  Moon 
sented  as  being  due  to  an  artificial  statical  system,  wliirli  produces  and  aou 
nearly  the  same  force  as  the  dynamical  .*;ystcm  considciou  aliove.  moon 
This  statical  system  is  as  follows.     Slopjiing  all  the  rotations,  n'« 
divide  the  satellite  into  two  equal  jiarts,  anil  jilace  thcin  dianietri 
cally  opposite  to  one  another  in  the  orbit.     'I'licn  it  is  clear  thai 
instead  of  the  term 


we  have 


%y  {7^  +  p-  -  2rp  cos  r}      tlL 


hm 


■^{r'  +  p'-2rpcosz\ 
And  this  reduces  to 


^■^ir'  +  p'  +  irpcas:)  "r 


The  first  term  is  tho  same  as  before  ;  hence  the  itnlical  systeW 
produces  approximately  the  same  title  generating  force  as  the  true 
system.  The  "moon"  and  "anti-moon,"  however,  pioihire  rigor*' 
ously  the  same  force  on  each  side  of  tho  iilanct,  vlicrcua  lIic  true 
system  only  satisfies  this  condition  approxim.ately.* 

*  The  reader  may  refer  to  Thomson  and  Tait's  Natural  PhUosopkp 
(1883),  part  li.  §§  798-821.  for  further  considerations  on  this  attit 
analogous  subjects,  together  with  some  nitcrestuig  ei.^nu)les.j 


TIDES 


357 


§  G.  Form  of  EipiilibriuiA. 

Let  us  consiilpr  the  shape  assnined  by  a  layer  of  fliiiil  of  density 
»,  lying  on  a  globe  of  mass  if,  when  acted  on  by  Uisturbing  forces 
vhosc  i<otential  is  j,-_3"'.o/ 


r=|py(cos-'5-j). 


..(3). 


Suppose  the  layer  to  bo  very  thin,  and  that  the  mean  itiJius  of  the 
layer  is  a,  and  let  the  cq^uation  to  the  boundary  of  the  liuid  be 

p=a(l  +  e(co3';-J)]  (4). 

Wo  assume  this  form,  because  the  theory  of  harmonic  analysis  tells 
HE  tli.1t  the  departure  from  sphericity  must  be  represented  by  a 
fcinction  of  the  form  cos-:-  \.  -That  theory  also  gives  us  as  the 
potential  of  a  layer  of  matter  of  depth  ca(co3-  5  -  J),  and  density  r, 
al  an  external  point  the  value 

tTffo-^-yc(co3»5-S). 

Mence  the  whole  potential,  outside  of  and  up  to  the  fluid  layer,  is 

f +|^r(cos?=-  })  +  |r<ra'(2)  t(co5'z-  }) (5). 

'  \  ne  nrst  term  of  (5)  is  the  potential  of  the  globe,  the  second  that 
flf  the  disturbing  force,  and  the  third  the  potential  duo  to  departure 
from  sphericity. 

Now  the  fluid  must  stand  in  a  level  surface  ;  hence,  if  we  equate 
this  potential  to  a  constant,  we  must  get  back  to  the  equation  (4); 
which  was  assumed  to  be  tliat  of  the  surface.  In  other  words,  if 
we  put  />=rt[l  +  t(cos'''s- J)]'in  (5),  the  result  must  be  constant, 
provided  the  departure  from  sphericity  is  small  In  effecting  the 
substitution  for  p,  we  may  put  p^a  in  the  small  terms,  but  in  the 
fiist  term  of  (5)  wo  pnt 

J=^[I-t(co3=:-S)]. 

The  whole  potenti.-vl  (5)  can  only.be  constant  if,  after  this  snbstitti- 
tioD,  the  coefficient  of  cos-  z  -  J  vanishes.    Thus  we  must  have 

Birt  if  i  b«  thamean  density  of  the  planet  M=\TaH,  ,and  gitvity 
g  =  a  jo}.    Then  we  easily  find  that 

Zma      I 


Form  ef 

fqaul- 

bnom. 


'~2yH>l-i<r/« 
Tbos  tbe-eqaation  to  the  surface  is 


..{6). 


C     3w(i       1      ,      ,        ,^'\ 


■a). 


If  »•  be  small  compared  with  5,  the  coefficient  is  Zinaftgr* ;  thus  we 
see  that  1/(1  -fff/5)  is  the  coefRcient  by  which  the  mutual  attrac- 
tion of  the  fluid  augments  the  deformation  of  the  fluid  under  the 
action  of  the  disturbing  force.  If  the  density  of  the  fluid  be  the 
same  as  that  of  the  sphere,  the  augmenting  factor  becomes  4,  and 
we  have  t=^wlg^',  which  gives  the  forin  of  equilibrium  of  a  fluid 

sphere  tmder  the  action  of  these  forces.    Since  n~j=    (  ^  "  Ss  )^' 

it  follows  that,  when  the  form  of  equilibrinm  ia  />= o[.I + Kcos'a  -  J)], 
t^  potential  of  the  forces  is 

.    '^=!0-|^)"''('=-'-i) w. 

More  generally,  if  wc  neglect  the  attraction  of  the  fluid  on  itself, 
£0  that  <r/5  is  treated  as  small,  and  if  p=a(l  +  !J  be  the  equation  to 
the  surface  of  the  fluid,  where  *  is  a  functisn  of  latitude  and  longi- 
tude, then  the  potential  of  the  forces  jjnder  which  thiaia  an  equi- 
librium form  is 

F=?^,  (0), 

Tide-  It  thus  appears  that  we  may  specify  any  tide-generating  forces  by 

general-  rneans  of  the  figure  of  equilibrium  w;hich  the  fluid  would  assume 

ing  force  under  them,  and  in  the  theory  of  tho  tides  it  has  been  found  prac- 

specified  tically  convenient  to  specify  the  forces  in  this  way. 

by  equi-  By  means  of  the  principle  of  "  forced  vibrations"  referred  to  in 

libHom  the  historical  sketch,  we  shall  pass  from  tlie  equilibrium  form  to 

form.  the  actual  oscillations  of  the  sea. 

§  7.  Development  of.  Tick-generating  Poieniinl  in  Terms  of 
Hour-Angle  and  Declination. 
Develop-  -  -  We  now  proceed  to  develop  the  tide-generating  potential,  and 
ment    ol  shall  of  course  implicitly  (§  6)  determine  the  equation  to  the  equili- 
lide-gen-  brium  "figure. 

crating         We  have  already  seen  that,  if  s  be  the  moon's  zenith  distance  at 
".   'uStiaL  the  point  P  on  the.  earth's  surface,  whose  coordinates  referred  to- 
A,  B,  C,  axes  filtcd  in  the  earth,  are  of,  art,  a^,  then" 

cos  ^=|l^,■^1)M2■^f  jij, 
•here  M,,  ■  J[„,  M3  are'lhe  moon's  direction-  cosines  referred  ta  the 
-Bxii  axes.     Then  with  this  value  of  cos  i — 

23  3 


The  axis  of  C  is  taken  as  the  iwlar  axis,  and  AB  is  the  equatorial 
plane,  so  that  the  functions  off,  5;,  fare  functions  of  tlie  latitude 
and  longitude  of  the  point  P,  at  which  we  wish  to  find  the  potential. 

Tho  functions  of  M^,  Mo,  Af,  depend  on  the  moon's  position,  and 
we  shall  have  occasion  to  develop  tliem  in  two  different  ways, — 
liret  in  terms  of  her  hour-angle  and  declination,  and  secondly  (§ 
23)  in  terms  of  her  longitude  and  the  elements  of  the  orbit. 

Now  let  A  be  on  the  equator  in  the  meridi.in  of  P,  and  B  90° 

Hast  of  A  on  the  equator.  Then,  if  M  be  the  moon,  the  inclination  of 
ho  plane  JIC  to  the  plane  CA  is  the  moon's  eastei  ly  local  hour-angle. 
Let  A  =  local  hour-angle  of  moon  and  5=moon'3  declination:  wft 
have 

M,=cos5cosA,  M2=co55sinA,  M3=sin5, 
wheno^ 

2M,M;=co3'Jsin  2h,  Mi'-Mj^     =cos-Scos2h, 
.  ail.IJj  -  2  sin  J  cos  6  sin  A,  2  M'lM, = 2  sin  5  cos  J  cos  A, 

-J ^ 2.  =  i-siu=5. 

Also,  if  X  be  the  latitude  of  P, 

J  =  cos  X,  i;=0,  f=sin  X, 
and 

fl=0.i^'=Jcos»X,  |f=Jsin2X,  f,=0, 

*  J(f'-l-i)=-2i-»)  =  4-sin'.X. 

Henca  (10)  becomes 

cos'-'  s  -  i  =  i  cos'  X  cos'  S  cos  2A  -1-  sin  2X  sin  6  cos  8  cos  h 

-t-^(i-sin'«)(J-sin'A) (11). 

The  angle  A,  as  defined  at  present,  is  the  eastward  local  hour-angle^, 
and  therefore  diminishes  with  the  time.  As,  however,  this  function 
does  not  change  sign  with  A,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  regard 
it  as  the  westward,  local  hour-angle.  Also,  if  h^  be  the  Greenwich 
westward  hour-angle  at  the  moment  under  consideration,  an(l  I  bo 
the  west  longitude  of  tho  place  of  observation  P,  we  have 

h  =  ha-l (i2). 

Hence  we  have  at  the  point  P,  whose  radius  vector  is  o,' 

V=  -^-^  {J  cos'  X  c6s'  J  c«s  2(A|,  -  /)  ■^  sin  2X  sin  J  cos  6  cos  (A,  - 1) 

•^'^  -fJCJ-sin^ajCJ-sin'X)} , (13).      Poteo'.iaE 

The  tide-generating  forces  are  found  by  the  rates  of  valiation  of  ^devel- 
for  latitude  and  longitude,  and  also  for  radius  a,  if  we  care  to  find  "1*°  '" 

the  radial  disturbing  force.  ''°"r     . 

^  angle  anix. 

decliua- 
§  8.  Evalitaiion  of  Tide-generating  Forces,  and  Lunar  Deflexiwi    tion. 
of  Gravity. 

The  westward  component  of  the  tide-genirating  force  at  the  earth's 
surface,  where  p  —  a,  13  dV[a  cos  Xrf/,  and  the  northward  component 
\zdVlad\\  the  change  of  apparent  level  is  the  ratio  of  these  to 
gravity  g.    Therefore,  differentiating  (13),  changing  signs,  and 

writing  jT-^-  1  for  j— 3,  we  have  component  change  of  level  south- 
ward 


eos^z-  4,=_2i5M,Mj-h  2^^  '^^''- 


...aoi. 


=  tS^- Y  {sin  2X  cos*  J  cos  2{\  -  /)  -  2  cos  2X  sin  2 J coa  (A,  -  0 
*^^^'  •l-sin2X(l-3sin=«)l; 

"component  change  of  level  westward 


Lunar 

deflexioik 

ofgravlty 


Sm/oX 


2M\r/  -fsinXsin25sin(Ao-Z)} (l^)**    ■ 

TheWestward  component  is  made  up  of  two  periodic  terms,  one  going 
through  its  vaiiations  twice  and  the  other  once  a  day.  The  south- 
ward component  has  -also  two  similar  terms  ;  but  it  has  a  third 
term,  which  <loe3  not  oscillate  about  a  zero  value. .  If  A  be  a  de- 
clination such  ; that  the  mean  value  of  sin' 5  is  equal  to  sin' A, 
then,  to  determine  the  southward  component  so-that  it  shall  be 
a  truly"periodic  function,  we  mnst .,  subtract  from  the  abovo 
■  sin  2X(  1  -  3  sin'  A),  and  the  last  term  then  besomes 

3sin2X(sin'A-sin'a). 

In  the  case  of  the  moon,  A  varies  a  little  accordi"ng  to  the  position 
of  the  moon's  node,  but  its  mean  value  is  about  16°  31'. 

Jhe  constant  portion  of  the  southward  component  of  force  has 
its  efl"ect  in  causing  a  constant  heaping  up  of  the  water  at  tho 
equator ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  moon's  attraction'has  the  effect  of 
causing  asmall  permanent  ellipticity  of  the  earth's  mean  figure. 
This  augmentation  of  ellipticity  is  of  course  very  small,  but  it  is 
necessary  to  mention  it  in  order  that  the  meaning'to  be  attributed 
to  Innar  deflexion  of  gravity  may  be  clearly  defined. 

If  we  consider  the  motion  of  a  pendulum-bob  during  any  one  day. 
we  see  that,  in  consequence  of  fhe  semi-diurnal  changes  of  level,  it 
twice  describes  an  ellipse  with  major  axis  east  and  west,  with  ratio 
of  axes  equal  to  the  sine  of  the  latitude,  and  with  linear  dimensions 
proportional  to  cos' 5,  and  it  once  describes  an  ellipse  whose  north 
and  south  axis  is  proportional  to  sin  25  cos  2X  and  whose  ca't  and 


358 


TIDES 


ivest  axis  is  proportional  to  sin  25  sin  \.  Obviously  the  latter  is 
;irculav  in  latitude  30°.  When  the  moon  is  on  t!ie  equator,  the 
iiaximum  deflexion  occui's  when  the  moon's  local  hour-angle  is  45^ 
tnd  is  then  equal  Uj 

At  Cambridge  in  latitude  fia"  43'  this  angle  is  0"0216 

An  attempt,  made  by  George  and  Horace  Darwin,"  to  measure 
the  lunar  deflexion  of  a  pendulum  failed  on  account  of  incessant 
vaiiability  of  level  occurring  in  the  supports  of  the  pendulum 
and  arising  from  unknown  terrestrial  changes.  The  work  done, 
tliorefore,  was  of  no  avail  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  instituted, 
tiut  remained  as  a  contribution  to  an  interesting  subject  now  be- 
ginning to  be  studied,  viz.,  the  small  changes  which  are  always 
taking  place  on  the  nppcr  strata  of  the  eartli. 

§  9    Correction  to  Eqxiilibrium  Theory/or  Continents. 

In  the  equilibrium  theory  as  worked  out  by  Newton  and  Ber- 
noulli it  is  assumed  that  the  figure  of  the  ocean  is  at  each  instant 
one  of  equilibrium  under  the  action  of  gravity  and  of  the  tide- 
generating  forces.  Sir  \V.  Thomson  has,  however,  reasserted  °  a 
point  which  was  known  to  Bernoulli,  but  has  since  been  overlooked, 
namely,  that  tliis  law  of  rise  and  fall  of  water  cannot,  when  por- 
tions of  the  globe  are  continents,  be  satisfied  by  a  constant  volume 
of  water  in  the  ocean.  The  law  would  still  hold  if  wnter  were 
appropriately  supplied  to  and  exhausted  from  the  ocean  ,  and.  if  in 
any  configuration  of  the  tide-generating  body  we  imagine  water  to 
be  instanuneously  so  supplied  or  exhausted,  the  level  will  every- 
where rise  or  fall  by  the  same  height.  Now  the  amount  of  that 
rise  or  fall  depends  on  the  position  of  the  tide-generating  body 
with  reference  to  the  continents,  and  is  ditferent  for  each  such 
position.  Convei'sely,  when  the  volume  of  the  ocean  remains  con- 
stant, we  have  to  correct  Bernoulli's  simple  equilibrium  theory  by 
an  amount  which  is  constant  all  over  the  globe  at  any  instant,  but 
wliich  changes  in  time  Thomson's  solution  of  this  problem  has 
since  been  reduced  to  a  form  which  is  easier  to  grasp  intelligently 
tlian  in  the  sliaf*  in  which  he  gave  it,  and  the  results  have  also 
been  reduced  to  numbere.'  It  appears  that  there  arc  four  points 
on  the  earth's  suiiace  at  which  in  the  corrected  theory  the  semi- 
diurnal tide  is  evanescent,  and  four  others  where  it  is  doubled.  A 
similar  statement  holds  for  the  diurnal  tide.  As  to  the  tides  of 
long  ]>criod,  there  are  two  parallels  of  latitude  of  evanescent  and 
two  of  doubled  tide. 

Now  in  Bernoulli's  theory  the  scrai-diumal  tide  vanishes  at  the 
IKiIcs,  the  diurnal  tide  at  the  poles  and  the  equator,  and  the  tides 
of  long  period  in  latitudes  35°  16'  north  and  south.  The  numerical 
solution  of  the  corrected  theory  shows  that  the  points  and  lines  of 
doubling  and  evanescence  in  every  case  fall  close  to  the  points  and 
lin«s  wliere  m  the  uncori'ected  theory  there  is  evanescence.  When 
in  passing  iiom  the  uncorrected  to  the  corrected  theory  we  speak  of 
a  doubled  tide,  the  tide  doubled  may  be  itself  ml,  so  that  the  result 
may  srill  I»c  nd.  The  condnj^ion,  there'forc,  is  that  Thomson's  cor- 
rection, i-ltliou"h  theoretically  interesting,  is  practically  so  small 
that  it  may  be  loft  out  of  consideration. 


III.  DvSA.MiOALTHr.ORT  ofTide-s.  , 

§  10.  HisloTical  JSxplanation. 
The  problem  of  tidal  oscillation  is  cs.spntially  a  dynamical  one. 
Even  when  the  ocean  is  taken  as  covering  the  whole  earth,  it  pre- 
sents formidable  ditficultiCi,  and  this  js  the' only  case  in  which  it 
has  been  hitherto  solved  *  Laplace  gives  the  solution  in  bks.  i- 
and  iv  of  the  MicaniqM  Celeste  \  but  his  work  is  unnecessarily 
complicated  by  the  inappropriate  introduction  of  spherical  hai  monic 
analysis',  and  it  is  generally  admitted  that  his  investigation  is 
diflicult.  Airy,  in  his  "Tides  and  Waves"  (in  Enry  Melrop  ) 
presents  the  solution  free  from  that  complication,  but  be  has  made 
a  criticism  of  Laplace's  method  which  we  believe  to  be  wrong. 
Sir  W  Thomson  has  written  some  interesting  [xipcrs  (io  Phil,  filog  , 
1875)  in  justihcalion  of  Laplace,  and  on  these  wo  base  the  following 
paragrafilis  Tins  portion  of  the  article  is  given  more  fully  than 
others,  because  there  exists  no  complete  presentment  of  the  theory 
free  from  obja  tions  of  some  kind. 

§  1 1     EqueUions  of  Motion. 
iEqua  Let  r,  0,  tf>  be  the  radius  vector,  co-latitude,  and  cast  longitude  of 

'lions  of    a  point  vviih  reference  to  an  origin,  a  polar  axis,  and  a  Lero-mcridiun 
emotion     jotating  with  a  uniform  augular  velocity  u  from  west  to  east.    Then, 

if/.',  J/,  Z  be  the  radial,  co-latitudinal,  and  longitudinal  accelerations 

of  the  point,  we  have 


I  Hi-ports  to  Ihr.  tlritUh  Assoc.,  18S1  rVork)aiic]  1R82  (Southampton). 

»  Tli'im-iim  anJ  Tait,  NaJl.  Phit.,  §  «07. 

3  IMrwin  Kinl  Tiirricl.  Prnc.  H<iy  Soc.,  1886. 

<  6h  W  TlioHi-iOtrii  pap«i  "On  the  GruvitAtional  Oscillations  of  Rotating 
WnUT,"  in  t'hit.  Miuj.,  AuuuHt  IHRO.  b(*Hi:s  (in  tho  same  subject.  It  is  the  only 
nilt-iii|,t  whirh  li;is  hithorto  been  !ii;nlc  Ut  cooaiilcr  the  erTects  of  the  earth's 
lOitt'Ou  on  the  oaCiUaTioiiii  of  lanri-locVeO  sois. 


_    d'r    Jdd\-  n„/d<t>      \'= 

1  d/  „dO\  „        ./rf*       V- 

=  -  J  I  r-  -,   I  -  r  sin  9  cos  61  -ft") 

rdt\     dtl  \dl  ^    J 


1 


rs.\nedt\_  \dl       )S 


iT,. 


(IS). 


=  ^ ,  a  very  small  qoaatity , 

'Ill 


rf-j 


(16). 


Com- 
poocnt 
aci-elera- 
lion.s. 


Now  suppose  that  the  point  never  moves  far  from  a  zero  positioi, 
aud  that  its  displacements  {,  Tjsin^  co  latitudinally  and  longi- 
tudinally are  Very  large  compared  with  its  radial  dispiaceuient  p, 
aud  that  the  velocities  are  so  small  that  their  squares  and  products 
are  negligible  compared  with  wV' ,  then  we  have 

dr  _ds> 

dl 

d^ 

di. 

d« 
■"dl 
Hence  (15)  is  approximately 

7;= -iiVsin'fl 

S  =  ,  „  -  2«  slnv  vu^  •/  J-, 
at"  dt 

at-  al ) 

With  regard  to  the  fii^t  equation  of  (16),  we  observe  that  the  tifiia 
has  disappeared,  and  that  ]t  has  exactly  the  same  form  as  if  th« 
system  were  rendered  statical  by  introducing  a  potential  Jn-r%in'* 
and  aniinlling  the  rotation  of  the  axes.  Since  inertia  pkys  D« 
sensible  part  radially,  it  follows  that,  if  we  apply  these  txprcssiona 
to  the  formation  of  equations  of  motion  for  the  ocean,  tne  radial 
motion  need  not  be  coiLsidercd.  We  are  left,  therefore,  with  only 
the  last  two  equations  of  (16). 

We  now  have  to  consider  the  forces  by  which  an  element  of  th«  Com- 
occan  IS  urged  in  the  dirccliou  of  co  latitude  and  longitude.  These  ponent 
forces  arc  those  due  to  the  external  disturbing  forces  and  to  the  force* 
pressure  of  the  surrounding  lluid,  the  attraction  of  the  fluid  on 
itself  being  supixiscd  negligible.  We  have  seen  in  (9)  timt,  if 
fluid  on  a  sphere  of  radius  ii  bo  under  the  action  of  disturbing  force* 
whose  potential  is  Ur',  and  if  r  =a  -f  tj  be  the  cipiation  to  the  sur- 
face, then  must  yl)=  Cti'  Hence,  if  c  be  the  equilibrium  height  of 
tide,  the  potential  of  the  disluibing  force  is  gcr'/a^  But,  if  tbt 
elevation  dc  (j,  the  potential  under  which  it  would  be  in  equili- 
brium is  g\)r'/a,''.  'Therefoi-e,  if  I)  be  the  elevation  of  the  tid» 
in  our  dynamical  problem,  «ho  forces  due  to  hydrostatic  pressure 
on  an  clement  of  the  ocean  are  the  same  as  would  be  caused  by  a 
potential  -  jfjr'/o'.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  whole  forces  on  tb« 
element  are  those  due  to  a  potential  -  y(lj  -  t)r'la''  Therefore  fro« 
(16)  we  see  that  the  c^iuations  of  motion  are 

^-2,.inW^.-Jj^(0-O 

sin«|^.'2;,cos.^       =-„-l^i<^-' 

It  remains  to  tind  thcequatjon  of  continuity.  This  may  be  deduced 
geometrically  from  the  consideration  that  the  volume  of  an  element 
of  the  fluid  remains  constant ;  but  a  shorter  way  is  to  derive  it  froi* 
the  equation  of  continuity  as  it  occurs  in  ordinary  hydrodynamical 
investigations.  If  K be  a  velocity  potential,  the  equation  of  coar 
tinuity  for  incompressible  fluid  is 


(Ul- 


Equft-  ' 
l;OQS  of 
motion. 


Sr 


(^r^'~sm0S95<t>\ 


+  l<p ,  [r-  -.-  -  ■  .yjrie] 
lt(p\  T  6111  9  dip 

The  element  referred  to  in  this  equation  is  defined  by  r,  tf,  ^, 
r-i{r,  6  +  66,  <j,*lip.  The  oo-latitudiual  and  longitudinal  veloci- 
ties are  -the  same  for  all  the  elementary  prism  defined  by  ff,  i 

0  +  S6,  <l>^-S<tl,  a'nd  the  sea   Iwittom       'fheo    -r.  = -r,,  — ^-^-n  ■= 

Td6    dl  rsinedip 


dri 


and,  since  the  radial  pclocity  isrflj/rff  at  the  surface  of  tl*, 

a -I- 7,  and  is  zero  at  the  sea  bottom,  where  r=a, 

—  -".     Hence,  integrating  with  respect  to  r  froti 
y     dl 
T-a  -I  7  to  r  =  n,  and  again  with  respect  to  (  from  the  time  t  to  the 


ocean,  where  t 
dV    1 

we  have  t-  — 
dr 


time  when  f),  {,  i\  all  vanlih,  and  treating  7  and  f)  as  small  com- 
pared with  a,  we  have 

t(jsin9-t|^(y{sine)-f  j'_(7ij8ine)  =  0      .■      (18). 

This  is  the  equation  of  continuili',  and,  together  with  (17),  it  forma 
the  system  which  must  be  integrated  in  the  general  problem  of  the 
tides.  The  difliculliea  in  the  way  ofn  solution  are  so  great  that 
none  has  hitherto  been  found,  except  on  the  supposition  that 
7,  the  deiith  of  the  ocean,  is  only  a  function  of  latitude.  In  tbU 
ca-sc  (18)  becumes 


Eqr.;i- 
tion  of 
coDtina- 
ity. 


TIDES 


359 


1       d 


1" 


(19). 


§  12-    AdapttUufn  to  Forced  OsHlIalious 

AdApU-       Since  we  may  suppose  that  the  free  oscillatioDS  are  annulled  by 

tlOB  to      frictioQ,  the  solution  required  is  that  correspoiHling  to  forced  oscU- 

rorced       taCioQS.      Now  we  have  seen  from  (13)  that  r  (which  is  proportional 

o^oilla-      to  !'■)  has  terms  of  three  kinds,  the  6rst  depending  on  twice  the 

tioo&        moon's  (or  sun's)  hour-an"le,  the  second  on  the  hour-angle,  and  the 

third  independent  thereof     The  coefficients  of  the  first  and  second 

terms  vary  slowly,  and  the  whole  of  the  third  varies  slowly.     Hence 

I  ba«  a  seini'diurnal,  a  diurna),  and  a  long  period  term.     We  shall 

see  later  that  these  terms  may  be  expanded  in  a  senes  of  approxi- 

DUtely  aemi -diurnal,  diumal,  and  slowly  var^nng-  terms,  each  of 

which  IS  a  stncWy  harmonic  function  of  the  time.      Thus  we  may 

assume  for  t  a  form  ecos(2n/V-t-Jl-0-^a',  where/ and  k  are  numbers, 

and  where  e  is  only  a  function  of  co-latitude  and  of  the  elements  of 

the  orbit  of  the  disturbing  body      According  to  the  usual  method 

of  tr«acuig  oscillating  systems,  we  may  therefore  make  the  foUow- 

lOgiSSSumptioD  for  the  form  of  solution 

I  =  e  cos  (2n/l  i-kip  +  a)\ 
I)  =  h  cos (2n//  +  k^-^ail 
f  =  X  cos  (2n/<  +  i«  -I-  au 
v  =  y  sin  (2n//  +  lc<p  -*■  a;) 
"here  e,  h.  j,  y  are  functions  of  co. latitude  0  only.  Substituting 
these  values  m  (19),  we  have 


(20), 


— i  ixi^x  sin  0}  ^  l~i\  •»  bo 
swede' 


Then,  if  nr  write  ii  for  h  -  e 
(20)  in  (17;  leads  at  once  to 


and  put  ' 


(211- 
irafg,  substitiitiou  from 


x/'  +  y/sin  *cos*  = 


jf  sin  #  ■»■  x/  cos  e  =  - 
Solving  (22)  for  x  and  y,  we  have 

•*  sin  e  (/'  -  cos'  »)=  —  ( 

-  4"i  V 

Then  BubstitAting  from  (23)  in  1 21 1,  ' 


Am  de 
4m  sin  $ 


^k       COS* 

4m\rf«     7     sin  e 


eqttatioD. 


1       rfry{sin9 
an  e  de\_ V 


rfu     * 

de'/ 


,.(22). 


(231- 


siij  ej''-  cos'#i 


f-cos^e 

+  4ma<Q-^e)  =  0 (24). 

This  is  Laplace's  equation  for  tidal  oscillations  in  an  ocean  whoso 
depth  IS  only  a  function  of  latitude  When  u  is  founi^  from  this 
e<iaation,  its  value  substituted  in  (23)  will  give  x  and  y. 

§  13    Preparatum  for  Solution. 
Prepars-       The  ocean  which  is  considered  in  this  case  is  not  like  that  on  the 
tion  for    earth's  surface,  and  therefore  it  doe.s  not  seem  desirable  to  pursue 
wtntrab.  the  integration  of  (24)  except  in  certain  typical  cases. 

In  (13)  we  have  the  expansion  of  the  disturbing  potential  and 
implicitly  of  the  disturbing  forces  in  three  terms,  the  first  of 
which  is  variable  in  half  a  day,  the  second  in  a  day,  and  the  third 
in  half  the. period  of  revolution  of  the  tide-raising  body.  Forestal- 
ling the  results  of  chapter  iv.— each  of  these  terms  may  be  expressed 
as  the  sum  of  a  series  of  strictly  harmonic  functions  of  the  time  ; 
the  6r^t  set  of  these  have  all  approximately  semi-diurnal  periods, 
the  second  approximately  diurnal  periods,  and  the  third  vary 
slowly  in  dependence  on  the  periodic  time  of  the  tide-generating 
body-  The  first  set  involve  twice  the  terrestnal  longitude,  the 
second  the  longitude,  and  the  third  set  are  independent  of  the 
longitude  of  the  place  of  observation.  From  these  statements 
compared  with  (13)  we  see  that  in  the  semi-diurual  terms  /  is 
approximately  unity,  k  =  2,  and  r  =  E  sin'  e  ;  in  the  diumal  terms 
/  IS  approximately  4,  *  =  1,  and  t  =  E  sin  «  cos»  ;  in  the  terms  of 
long  period /is  a  small  fraction  (for  the  fortnightly  tide  about  ^), 
i  =  0,  f  =  E(J-cos'  ei  The  departure  from  exactness  in  the  rela- 
tion/=]  for  the  semi-diurnal.  and/=.J  for  the  diurnal  terms  is 
generally(except  for  certain  critical  depths  of  ocean)  not  such  as  to 
greatly  change  the  nature  of  the  results  from  those  obtained  when 
Laplace's/=1  and  J  rigorously.  Hence  the  integration  of  (24)  will  be 
three  j.ursned  on  these  three  hypotheses,  giving  Laplace's  three  lands  of 
kinds  of  oscillation-  The  hypothesis  which  will  be  made  with  regard  to  y 
osciUa-  is  that  7  =  i(l  -g  cos'  8),  and  in  the  case  of  the  semi-diurnal  tides 
tton.  .we  shall  be  compelled  by  mathematical  difficulties  td  suppose  q  to 
be  either  uniiy  or  zero.  The  tides  of  zonal  seas  may  be  worked  out, 
and  more  complex  laws  of  depth  may  be  assumed  ,  but  for  the 
discussion  of  such  cases  the  reader  Ls  referred  to  Thomson's  caoers 
ia  Phil.  Mati..  1875.  ^  ^ 

There  might  be  reason  to  conjecture  that  the  form  of  u  would  be 
Bucilir  to  that  of  e,  and  this  is  in  fact  the  case  for  the  diumal  tides 


for  any  value  of  q  and  for  the  semi-diumal  tides  when  q  is  unity.  PVeh 
Before  proceeding  further  it  will    be  convenient   to  exhibit   two  niinary 
purely  analytical   transformations  of  the  first  two  terms  of  (•24)  transfor 
which  hold  tnie  for  certain  values  of  k  and  /  and  when  u  has  such  mationj 
a  form  as  that  suggested.      If  we  put  ;•=  1, /=*,-,..  A'l -?  cos*  6), 
then,  if  t>  =  ^  sin  9  cos  e,  it  will  be  found  on  substitution  that 


1  A 


sin  #^ -(-211  cos  »j 


2  cot  0 


,1_V 

de    sin'  e 


-8/yi>  ..(25) 


smede  i-cos»«  '        J-cos'» 

Again,  if  weput/:  =  2./=l,  j  =  l,  >  =  /<  1  -  cos' 9)  =  f  sin' #,  and  if 


1      d 

sin  ede 


y\^me~^2Tcos.e\      cot«^-''-i 


.s'# 


-8/t.       (26)- 


\_d 

smOde 


7  (sir 


\~1  /cosftrfi,,      ki„\ 

*)       -  i-,.V    /    W^s-m-J 


Another  general  pio[*rty  of  (24)  is  denved  from  the  supposition 
that  u  IS  expressed  m  a  senes  proceeding  by  powers  of  /  ,  thus 

u  =  f,*r|-  +  ,j^-,.^    (27). 

Lot  t„,  Vj,  f.j,  &c  ,  be  so  chosen  that,  when  u  is  substituted  in  '24) 
the  coefficient  of  each  jKiwer  of  /  vanishes  independently  then 
the  term  independent  ol  ;  obviously  gives  1,=  -e.  and  the  connex 
ion  t)etween  successive  v's  is 

^  dv^     k 

sin  9-r.-  -l--:i„cosi  ,    ,  .     , 

de      I     •  I       -ky- 

/'  -  cos'  e             J  6in«C/'-cos'«) 

-f4m/i._^,  =  0  (28). 

We  shall  suppose  below  that  u  is  expansible  in  the  form  (27)  and 
shall  use  (28)  in  conjunction  with  (25)  or  (26)  for  finding'  tha 
successive  valnea  of  the  r  s. 

§  14     Dxvrnal  Tidt. 
Let  us 'irst  consider  the  diumal  tides.     We  have  e  =  E  sin  9cos  »  Diani.l 
*=1,  and/=J;  then  r„=  -  E  sin  »  cosS      Hence  by  (28)  and  (25)  Hde 
-  8/^1,-1- 47n;V|  =  0    (29), 

and  therefore  r,  =  ^i,.     Applying  the  same  theorem  a  second  time, 
r,  =  (29,/m  )ii,,  and  so  on  ;  therefore  a  =  tJ1  -f  2lqjma  *  {llqima )'  -^  -  - .] 
_         "0         _  e 

\-2lql7jta~  ~  1  -•Uqliiia  '"""' 

But  u  =  h-e  ;  hence  ,  21-q/ma 

^='l-2lq!ma'  t^l). 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  tide  is  "inverted,"  giving  low  water 
where  the  equilibnum  tide  mves  high  water  ltq  =  0,  so  that  the 
ocean  is  of  uniform  depth,  the  tide  vanishes. 

§  15    Semi-Ihumal  Tidt,  uith  Variahlt  DepOi. 
Next  let  us  consider  the  semi-diurnal  tide  in  the  case  where  q  =  1    Seat- 
so  that  7  =  isin'9.     Then  e=  E  sin' ».  A:  =  2,  /=1  ;  alsor„=  -e=:'dmnMi 
-Eam'S.     Hence  by  (28)  and  (26)  -8(i.„-(-4).iiv,  =  0,  whence  «;,=  tid«. 
2l'nv^     Applying  the  same  theorem  a  second  time,  rj  =  (2/m)*r, 
andsoon;  therefore  u  =  »„[l -i-2//ma -►(2f/);uz)'-f  .. .)  " 


Hence 


h  =  u-fe«i  - 


1  -  2;/iim         1  - 

2//7.UT 


2//7na" 


-(32). 


I-2//1110     

If  2//mo  =  j,  the  height  of  tide  is  equal  to  the  equilibrium  height ; 
but  it  is  inverted,  giving  low  water  where  the  eqnilibnum  theory 
gives  high  water-  In  the  case  of  the  earth  m  =  1/289,  and  therefora 
this  relation  is  satisfied  if  /  =  a/1 156.  Hence  in  a  sea  3000  fathoms 
deep  at  the  equator,  and  shallowing  to  the  poles,  we  have  invert'ed 
semi-diumal  tides  of  the  equilibrium  height. 

§  16.  Scmi-Diurnal  Tide,  u-ilh  Uniform  Depth. 
The  method  of  development  used  above,  where  we  proceed  by 
powers  of  the  depth  of  the  ocean,  is  not  applicable  where  the  depth 
is  uniform,  because  it  leads  to  a  divergent  series.  We  have  there- 
fore to  resume  equation  (24).  In  the  case  of  the  semi-diurnal  tides 
we  have  for  the  depth  y  =  l  (a  constant  by  hypothesis),  /t  =  2,/=l 
approximately,  anci  e=Esin'e.  Now  for  breiity  let  ^  =  47ita/l. 
i'  =  sin  e,  so  that  c  =  Ev-'.     Then  we  find  that  on  development  (24) 


becomes 


»'{1 


,.(fu      rfu 
'''^du''''d,'' 


(8-2i-'-/3.^)u=  -^&«  -    ...(33). 


Let  UB  now  assume  as  the  solution  of  this  equation 

u  =  (/!'j-KW'-fA><-fA-e^«-F...  -i- A-j,!-" -t- (34V 

Substituting  from  (34)  in  (33),  and  enuatingto  zero  the  coefficients 
of  the  successive  powers  of  >■,  we  find  K.  =  E,  K,  apparently  inde- 
terminate, and 

2t(2i-(-6)ir;..M-2!(2i-f3'/r».«-(-j5;rj,=o  .,':.. (3.5). 

Since  /r|,  =  0,  this  equation  of  condition  may  be  held  to  apply  for 
all  positive  integral  values  of  i,  beginning  with  i  =  0.  It  is  obvious 
that  A'j  is  determinable  in  terms  of  A\  and  A'„  A',  in  terms  of  A", 


3G0 


TIDES 


nn.l  A'„  tc,  so  that  all  tlic  K's  arc  to  be  fouml  in  terms  of  A'.,, 
nliiuli  is  Iniown,  and  of  A',,  which  is  apparently  indeterniinate. 
The  conJition  for  the  convcrgcncy  of  the  scries  (3-1)  for  u  and  for 
the  scries  da/Un  is  that  K^.+JK-a  shall  tend  to  a  limit  less  than 
unity.     Tb'".  equation  (35)  may  be  written 

A'2^H_2i  +  3  0  K^  ,3g, 

A'2j+2    2i  +  6     ■2i(2i  +  6)  Ar2.+2 

Now  AaW  A'ji  tend",  to  be  cither  infinitely  small  or  not  infinitely 
small.  If  it  be  not  infinitely  small  in  the  limit,  the  second  term 
on  the  right  of  (36)  becomes  evanescent  when  i  is  very  great,  and 
we  have  in  the  limit  when  i  is  veiy  large — 

AXt4?!::!J_2i+_3     r 3_-i     r  _  3-1 

A'u,«i'='+=~2i  +  6  L  2(i  +  3)J  L  2iJ 
Hut  the  ratio  of  successive  terms  of  \/{l-'-)  tends  to  become 
(1  _  ,5/,)i,2.  Hence,  if  K-m+'^K-^  docs  not  tend  to  become  infinitely 
small,  u  =  A  +  BVl  -  v-,  where  A  and  B  are  finite  for  all  values  of  v. 
Again,  under  the  same  circumstances- we  have  in  the  limit  when  i  is 
fcry  large—  , 

(2m^vVm|>^_2}  +  4.2!  +  3  ,_/,!_ Yj^_3_\2 

(2i  +  2)Arj,+u>'-*+'~2i  +  2'27T6        V      i  +  lA  ■■  2(i  +  3)/ 

=  (1-1/2jV.  .."        • 

But  the  ratio  of  successive  terms  of  (1  -y')"l  tends  to  (l'-iA>'. 

Hence,  if  A'ji+j/ATa  does   not   tend   to^,l)ecome    infinitely  small, 

iu/d>'=C  +  D(l  - 1--)-*,  where  C  and  D  are  finite  for  all  values  of  ». 

Now  ^'i=^Vr:7r=cVi— '+D. 

du  dii 
Therefore  at  the  equator,  where  p  =  \,  da/d9  =  'D,  a  finite  quantity. 
Hence  the  hypothesis  tliat  K,,^ilKu  tends  to  be  not  infinitely  small 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  u  and  dwjdd  are  finite  at  the  equator. 
But  on  account  of  the  symmetry  of  the  system  the  co-hititudinal 
displacement  {  must  vanish  at  the  equator,  and.  therefore  x  also. 
By  (23),  whcn/=l,  A  =  2,  ^  =  bin  61, 

»=x-=5— (  j^  +  2ucos9). 

But  we  have  just  seen  that  this  hypothesis  makes  u  finite  when 
r  =  l  or  tf  =  90°,  and  therefore  at  the  equator 

x  =  - —  , ,:,  a  finite  quantity. 
AnidV  . 

Now  symmetry  necessitates  a  vanishing  value  of  dwjdd  at  the 
equator.  Thus  the  hypothesis  that  K«,+nJk'^_,  tends  to  be  not  in- 
finitely sni.iU  is  negatived,  and  wo  conclude  that,  on  account  of 
the  symmetry  of  the  motion,  it  is  infinitely  small  for  infinitely  great 
values  of  i.     This  being  established,  let  us  write  (36)  in  the  form 

K,,+o_ i^ 

A'a  ~2i'  +  3i-(.2i'  +  6i)lC2i+,IKit+, 
Method    Hence  by  repeated  application  of  (36a)  we  havo 


.„,...,.(36a). 


of  coa- 
Untied 


2v'  +  3i 


(i'  +  3i)ff 


'lOlu- 


,  ,    [(i-H)»+3(i-l-l)]^ 

2(i  +  V''+3(i  +  l)--2(i+2)2  +  3(i  +  21-&c  (37). 
And  we  know  that  this  is  a  continuous  approximation  to  Km^Kt,, 
which  must  hold  in  order  that  tho  latitudinal  velocity  may  vaaisb 
at  the  equator.  Writing  1^^  =  K'-n+^/JCii,  all  the  A^a  may  be  pom: 
puted  from  the  continued  fraction  (37).     Then 

A'2=E,  KJE.=Nt.  AVE=Af,Arj,  KJE^N^U^^s,  &c     ^ 
We  cannot  compute  A'j  from  A'„  Kg  from  Kf,  and  so  on ;  for,  if  we 
do,  then,  short  of  infinite  accuracy  in  the  numerical  values,  we  sh»U 
be  gradually  led  to  successive  values  of  the  ATs  which  tend  Xq 
equality.* 

This  process  was  followed  by  Laplace  without  explaaatioa.  'It 
was  attacked  by  Airy  in  his  "  Tides  and  Waves "  (in  £ncy.,Ji!ctrop.) 
and  by  Ferrel  in  his  Tidal  Researches  (U.S.  Coast  Survey,  1873),  but 
was  justified  by  Sir  \V.  Thomson  in  the  PhiL  Afaj^  (1875,  p.  230). 
The  investigation  given  here  is  substantially  Thomson's. 

Laplace  gives  numerical  solutions  for  three  different  depthi  of 
the  sea.  ^^,  t,Vi.  ttt-tt;  of  the  earth's  radius.     Since  m=xh, 
these  correspond  respectively  to  the  cases  of  0=40.  10,  6,  and  the 
solutions  are 
a=40,  h  =  El'''  +  201862i.«  +10n64v«  -13-1047i^-15-4488i'l'' 

-7  45811-'--    219751''*-    0-450Ii'"'-O0687i''* 

-0O082i/»-    OOOOSi'--    O-OOOI.'"...! 
'8=]0,'h  =  Efp»'n-  619601'*  +   32474i'«  +   07238i/«+'  OOgigi-" 

+  0-0076>''^+   O-OOOJ*'*...} 
p=   5,  h  =  Eli''''+   0-75041'*  +  0-1566i'«  +  0-0157i''+00009i'"'  +  ...} 


1  Thomson  cills  tliis  a  disslpuion  of  accuracy.  It  may  be  illustrated  thus. 
Coiisi'liT  the  eriuntioii  i2_  3r+3'=0,  which  may  be  written  eiUier  i=il  +  ir2  or 
1=  a  -  2li.  i<o\t  let  i,,.^,  =  3  +  li>„  and  suppose  we  st^rt  with  any  value  To.  'ess 
than  unity,  and  compute  ii,  xa, .  •  ■  !,•  ThoD,  starting  with  I„  In  the  equation 
g  =  3  -  C/r„,  if  we  work  bacitwarda,  we  ought  to  coine  to  tho  original  value 
lo-"  In  fact,  however,  wc  shall  only  do  so  if  there  Isinflnir*  accuracy  in  all 
the  inuncn.Jil  v.ilnos.  Kor.  start  with  io=  4.  then  n,e  15,  ijc  8M2, 13= -MBO. 
r,  =  -9527  Tv  -  iiil'tj .  and  the  values  go  oji  appmifiniatiiig  to  1 ,  which  is  a  root  of 
the  i-nuat'ioii.  Ncvt  start  backwards  with  15=  VT,  and  we  llnd  £1=  -938,  r„=  -SfiS. 
t.j=-09a.  l,  =  -127,/o=-12  75,i_,=3117,l_!=2;>57.a-_3  =  2-lS6,i_=i072;and 
Jic  valueu  go  on  ajiproxiiuatiug  *.o  2,  the  other  root  of  tho  equation* 


Since  h  vanishes  when  i'  =  o,  there  is  no  rise  iind  fall  of  water  at 
the  poles.     AVhen  »'  =  1  at  the  equator,  we  find 

0  =  40,  h=  -7-434E 

0  =  10,  h=   ir267E 

0=  5,  h=  1-024E. 
The  negative  sign  in  the  first  case  shows  that  the  tide  is  inverted, 
at  the  eqnator,  giving  low  water  when  the  disturbing  body  is  on 
the  meridian.  Near  the  pole,  however,  tliat  is,  for  small  values  of 
V,  the  tides  are  direct.  In  latitude  18°  (approximately)  there  is  a 
nodal  line  of  evanescent  semi-diurual  tide.  In  the  second  and 
third  cases  the  tides  are  everywhere  direct,  increasing  in  magnitude 
from  pole  to  equator.  As  0  diminishes  the  tides  tend  to  assume 
their  equilibrium  value,  because  all  the  terms,  save  the  first,  become 
evanescent.  When  0  =  1  (depth  j^  of  radius)  the  tide  at  the  equator 
still  exceeds  its  equilibrium  value  by  II  per  cent.  As 0 diminishes 
from  40  to  10  the  nodal  line  of  evanescent  tide  contracts  round  the 
pole,  and  when  it  is  infinitely  small  the  tides  are  infinitely  great. 
The  particular  value  of  0  for  which  this  occurs  is  that  where  the  free 
oscillation  of  the  ocean  has  the  same  period  as  thfi  forced  oscilla-, 
tioiu  The  values  chosen  by  Laplace  were  not  well  adapted  for  the 
illustration  of  the  results,  because  in  the  cases  of  0=40  and  0  =  10 
the  depth  of  the  ocean  is  not  much  different  from  that  value  whioh 
would  give  infinite  semi-diurnal  tide.  For  values  of  ^greater  than 
40  we  should  find  other  nodal  lines  dividing  the  sphere  into  regions 
of  direct  and  inverted  tides.  We  refer  the  reader 'to  Sir  W 
Thomson's  papery  for  further  details  on  this  interesting  point,,' 

§  J7.   Tfdes  0/ Long  Period ;  iaplace's  ArgumaU' 
from  Fridion. 

In  treating  these  oscillations  Laplace.remarks  that-a  rery  small  LapUoo 
amount  of  friction  wUl  be  sufiSeient  to  canse  the  surface  of  the  org— 
ocean  to  asstune  at  each  instant  its  form  of  equilibrium,  and  he  ment 
adduces  in  proof  of  his  conclusion  the  considerations  given  below,  from 
The  friction  hero  contemplated  is  such  that  the  integral  effect  is  friction 
represented  by  a  retarding  force  proportional  to  the  velopty  of  the  ccsoumlk 
water  relatively  to  tho  twttom.     Although  proportionality  to  the 
square  of  the  velocity  would  probably  be  nearer  to  the  truth,  yet' 
Laplace's  hypothesis  suffices  for  the  present  discussion. 

In  oscillations  of  this  class  the  water  moves  for  half  a  perioa  nortli, 
and  then  for  half  a  period  south.  In  oscillating  systems,  where  tho 
resistances  are  proportiona)  to  the  velocities,  it  is  usual  to  specify  the 
resistance  by  a  mcdnlnjiof  decay,  namely,  that  period  in  which  a 
velocity  is  reduced  to  c*'  of  its  initial  Jalue  by.friction.  Now  tho 
friction  contemplated  by  Laplace  is  such  tliat  the  modulus  of  decoy 
is  short  compared  with  the  semi-period  of  oscillation.  The  quickest 
of  the  important  tides  of  long  period  is  the  fortnightly  (see  chapter 
jy.)  J  hence,  fbi  the  applicability  of  Laplace's  conclusion,  the  modulus 
of  decay  must  be  short  compared  with  a  week.  Now  it  seems  prac- 
tically certain  that  the  friction  of  the  bed  of  tlie  ocean  would  not 
materially  afff  ct  the  velocity  of  a  slow  ocean  current  in  a  day  or  two. 
Hence  we  cannqt  wcept  Laplace's  discussion  as  satisfactory.  How* 
ever  this  may  be,  we  now  give  what  is  substantially  his  argument. 

Let  us  write  6  for  the  reciprocal  of  the  modulus  of  decay.  •S^en 
the  frictioual  fcrc*8  introduced  on  the  left-hand  side  of  (17)  are 
-f-  edildt  in  the  first  and  sin  SSdv/dl  in  the  second.  Laplace's 
hypothesis  with  regard  to  the  magnitude  of  the  frietional  foriea 
enables  us  to  neglect  the  terms  d-(/dt-  and  sin  9  drri/d^  compared 
with  the  frietional  forces.  Then,  if  we  observe  that  in  Dscillation» 
of  this  class  the  motion  is  entirely  latitudinal,  equations  (17)  aijd, 
(19)  become       Ji 


«^-2nsinficos9t?=-2^(I,-C) 
aau  ^ 


sin  «e§-l-2n  cos  9^=0 
dl  dt 

f)asin9-f^(7{sin9)  =  0 


■ (38)1 


From  the  first  two  of  these  we  easily  obtain 

(..f'cos».)f  =-1^,(6-0 ^..mi 

As  a  first  approximation  we  treat  d^jdl  as  zero,  and  obtain  Ij^f* 
or  the  height  of  water  satisfies  the  equilibiiuiii  theoiy.  lu  thess 
tides  (see  chap,  iv.)  t  =  3£  (J-  cos-fl)  cos  !(,  so  th.nt  fioiii  the  tliU'd 
equationof  (38)  we  can  obtain  a  first  approximation  toj;  lheii,sub> 
stituting  in  (39),  wo  obtain  on  integration  a  second  opproMiiialioii 
to  Ij.  Laplace,  however,  consider  as  adequate  the  first  apiMuximpi 
tion,  which  is  simply  the  conclusiou  of  the  equilibrium  theory.- 

§  IS.  ^Tides  of  Long  Period  in  an  Ocean  of  Uniform  Depth 
As  it  seenas  certain  that  these  tides  do  not  s.itisfy  even  apprixi-  Tideii«»' 
mately  the  equilibrium  law,  we  now  proceed  to  find  tlio  solution  lon^ 
where  there  is  no  friction.     In  the  case  of  these  tides  A- =  0,/ a  small  [iaj-ioll 
fraction,  and  e  =  E(J-cos-fl).     The  equation  (24)  then  bcomca      williou 
<fU\  fnctioa 

_i-« />W'^*2gU4mr<'n-fo)  =  0, 


TIDES 


3iil 


,.(40). 


'V.  writing  fi  for  cos 9  and  c  =  E(i -;*-), 

Ve  shall  confine  tlic  invcb(i',Titioii  to  tlio  casa  nlicre  y  =  l,  a  con- 
st:int,  aiul  where  tlic  sea  covci-s  the  whole  surface  of  the  glolw. 
The  symmetry  of  tlie  motion  in  this  case  demands  that  u  when  ex- 
(landcd  in  a  series  of  powers  of  n  shall  only  invulve  even  [lowers. 
Let  us  .assume,  therefore,  that 

-Ti-^^'  =  B,M+IV../»'+...+Ba+iM-'^'+ (")• 

Then        i;:4*>^i3^^  +  (B^_  B  ,^,+  ...  +(1$.^^, .  R^-,V+'  +  ... 


dlAli'  -f  d/ij 


-B>-+. 


Again, 


+  (2.-+l)(B3+,-B;.-,)M='+. 


,...(42). 


,.+(B3i-i-/»Ba+i)M«+'+ (43). 


► 


•u  =  C- J/=B,^'  +  4(B,-/'B3V+  •••  i-2itBa-«-/'Ba.,)f'«+  (44), 

where  C  is  a  constant.  Then,  wTiting  ^  for  imafl,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  semi-diurnal  tide,  substituting  from  (42),  (43),  and  (44)  in  (40), 
and  c<]uating  to  zero  the  successive  coefficients  of  the  powers  of  «, 
y_cfind  C=-4E+Bi/i3 

B3-B,(l-s^/'^)  +  i^E=0 

^       -•'        ■'  j-{45). 

*^>-1'--0 -27(2?TT)-^-^  )  -  27(2^^-'=0 

thus  the  constant  C  and  TJ,,  Bj,  ic,  are  all  expressible  in  terms  of 

Pi.and  IJi  is  apjiarently  indeterminate.     AVc  may  remark  that,  if 

-^i!-,  =  i^E,orB..=  -2E. 

the  equation  of  condition  (45)  may  bo  held  to  apply  for  all  values 
of  1.  from  one  to  infinitj".  .  Let  us  write  (45)  in  the  lorni 

Ba-,~       2i(2i+l)-'  ^'^  2i(2»  +  l)Bj,-, ^"' 

\Vhen  t  Is  large  Ba+i/B»,-i  either  tends  to  become  infinitely  smaU 

or  it  docs  not  do  so.    Let  us  suppose  that  it  docs  not  tend  to  become 

infinitely  small.     Then  it  is  obvious  that  the  successive  B's  tend 

to  beconie  equal  to  one  another,  and  so  also  do  the  values  of 

(C;.-;-/^Ba.i)  jli  and  the  coefficients  of  duJdtL.     Hence  we  have 

i/u/rf^=  i+j'f/{l-M').  for  all  values  of  m,  where  L  and  M  are 

finite,    llcncc  this  hypothesis  gives  infinite  velocity  to  the  fluid  at 

llethtxl    the  pole,  where  fi  —  l.    But  with  a  water-covered  globe  this  infinite 

of  con-     velocity  is  impossible,  and  therefore  the  hypothesis  is  negatived, 

imued      and  Bi^i/Ba-i  must  tend  to  Ixjcome  infinitely  small.     This  being 

'fiaclioB    established,  let  us  write  (46)  in  the  form 

l5-=^Mi±lL         (17). 

2>(2i-H)~B,.-, 

Wy  repeated  applications  of  (47),  we  have  in  the  fortn  of  a  con- 
-inucd  fraction 

/9 


B,,.,          2!(2.-!-l) 

U.-.-J     ,        /'?     •        (21-4- 2X2^-4- 3) 

^' 

-  2.(2i-H).   ,            f'^       ' 

(2!-l-4)(2i-i-5) 

C2i  +  2X2i  +  3)\ 

f'P 

■  (2i  +  4)(2i  +  5)  +  '='^-(*8'- 
And  we  know  that  this  is  a  continuous  approximation,  which  must 
hold  in  order  to  satisfy  the  condition  that  the  water  covers  the 
whole  globe.  Let  us  denote  thiscontinucd  fraction  by-JVj.  Theh, 
if  we  remember  that  B_,=  -  2K,  we  have 

D,^2Ei\',.  B3/B,=  -X^  B.JR^=-X„  B,/B,=  -X,.  kc, 
30  that 

■  -K3= -2E^V,.V^  Bi  =  2EiV,,V,A'„  li,= -2EX,X.A'^y^,  ic, 
md  C=-iE-H2E.V,/;J. 

rhen  h  =  u-^e 

=  C-^4E-(E-l-irB,)^=-^l(B,-/•B3)M'-l-i(nJ-/!B>'-^. . . 
=  E  !2A-,/;3  -  (1  +_r-X,)^-  +  .t.V,(l  +/-X.)n' 

-  i-V.Xd  -i-/2.\>«-H. .  ."J   (49). 

Now  nc  find  that,  when  /3  =  40,  which  makes  the  ilepth  of  the 
sea  3000  fathoms  or  j^-,  of  the  radius  of  the  earth,  and  with 
/=0365012,  which  is  tiic  value  for  the  fortnightly  tide  (see 
chap,  iv.), 

-V,  =  30406!)2,  X  =  l-20137,  A^=-6C7J4,  JV4  =  -42S19,  A'i  =  -29S19, 

A'e  =  -21950,  ^V,=  16814.  A'^  =  -132S7,  A',j  =  -107,  A'„  =  -l. 
Jlicse  values  give 


I  2.V,/(3=  15203,  l-r/--.V,  =  100n,  i.V,(l +/^.V.)  =  1-5228. 

iXiX,il+/"-X,)  =  l-2\87,    iX^X,S\(il+/•■AV^)  =  ■600SS. 
J.V,....A',(l-l-/'iV5)  =  -20SSS,  |.V,..."jV,(l-l-./"i^'6)=05190. 
iXi...X^ii+j'X,)=00976,  iXt...X,a+f-X^  =  -001i. 
^A'l . . .  .Ay  1  +/--\8)  =  00017. 
So  that 
li/e=tl520-1004]M=  +  l-5225»*-l-2]8rM»+-C099M'--2089(i"     Solutions. 
•f0519M'=--Oe9SM"-i--0014K"--0002K'"l-=-(i-M-)  (50). 
At  the  pole,  where  fi  =  l,h=  -  E  x  1037  =  0  x -15561  ,,,. 
and  at  the  equator,  where  ^  =  0,  h=  -i-E  x  ■l.V.iO  =  c  x  -4561  /  '■'"•. 

Now  let  us  take  a  second  case,  where  /3=  10,  which  v. as  also  oii« 
of  those  solved  for  the  case  of  the  s<'nii-diiiinal  tide  by  Laplace, 
and  we  find 

h/E=  •2363-l-0016>i=-f  -jDIOm*-  ■1027;i'"- 4- -0258*1'-  -U026m'° 
.-1-  ■0002m''-. 
At  the  pole,  where  ii-l,  we  find  h=  -Ex  -3137  =  6 x  -471,  and  at 
the  equator  h=-»-Ex  -2363  =  6 x  -709.  With  a  deeper  ocean  wo 
should  soon  arrive  at  the  equiiihrium  value  for  the  tide,  for  X^,  X«, 
ic,  become  very  small,  and  2^\',/^  becomes  equal  to  J.  In  this 
case,  with  such  oceans  as  those  with  which  we  have  to  deal,  tlic 
tides  of  long  period  are  considerably  smaller  than  the  eauilibrium 
value. 

§  19.  Slabilitij  of  the  Ocean. 

Imagine  a  globe  of  density  S,  surrounded  by  a  spherical  layer  of  Stabiht/ 
water  of  density  a.    Then,  still  maintaining  the  spherical  fienre.  and  of  the 
with  water  still  covering  the  nucleus,  let  the  layer  be  displaced  oetah. 
sideways.    The  force  on  any  part  of  the  water  distant  /  from  the 
centre  of  the  water  and  r  from  the  centre  of  the  nucleus  is  Jrcrr' 
towards  the  centre  of  the  fluid  sphere  and  5ir(5  -  a)r  towards  the 
.centre  of  the  nucleus.     If  J  be  greater  than  a-  there  is  a  force  tend, 
ing  to  carry  the  water  from  places  where  it  is  deeper  to  places  where 
it  is  shallower  ;  and  therefore  the  equilibrium,  thus  arbitrarily  dis- 
turbed, is  stable.     If,  however,  5  is  less  than  cr  (or  the  nucleus 
lighter  than  w-ater)  the  force  is  such  that  it  tends  to  carrj-  the  water 
from  where  it  is  shallower  to  where  it  is  deeper,  and  therefore  the 
equilibrium  of  a  laj-er  of  fluid  distributed  over  a  nucleus  lighter 
than  itself  is  unstable.     As  Sir  AVilliam  Thomson  has  remarked,', 
if  the  nucleus  is  lighter  tlian  the  ocean,  it  will  float  in  the  ocean  Stabilttie* 
with  part  of  its  surface  dry.     Suppose,  again,  that  the  fluid  layer  of  lariom 
be  disturbed,  so  that  its  equation  is  r  =  n(l  +s,),  where  s,  is  a  sur-  orders. 
face  harmonic  of  degree  i ;  then  the  i>otcntial  due  to  this  deformar 

tion  is  -;r-j-j  St,  and  the  whole  potential' 

~3r'*"27+l  fi+J*" 

If,  therefore,  ir/(2i -Hi)  is  greater  than  55,  the  potential  of  the  forces 
due  to  deformation  is  greater  than  that  due  to  the  nucleus.  But 
we  have  seen  that  a  deformation  tends  to  increase  itself  by  nu\tual 
attraction,  and  therefore  the  forces  are  such  as  to  increase  the 
deformation.  If,  therefore,  ff=  J(2i-l-l)J,  all  the  deformations  up 
to  the  ith  are  unstable,  but  the  i-Hlth  is  stable.'  If.  however,  <r 
be  less  than  5,  then  all  the  deformations  of  any  order  are  such  that 
there  are  positive  forces  of  restitution.  For  our  present  purpose 
it  suffices  that  this  equilibrium  is  stable  when  the  fluid  is  lignter 
than  the  nucleus. 

§  20.  Precession  and  Xutaliony 

Suppose  w-e  have  a  planet  covered  with  a  shallow-  ocean,  and  that  I'recej-" 
the  ocean  is  set  into  oscillation.  Then,  if  there-are  no  external  dis-  sion  tn^ 
turbing  forces,  so  that  the  oscillations  are  "free,"  not  "forced,"  iiii;ati«lt 
the  resultant  moment  of  momentum  of  the  planet  and  ocean  remains 
constant.  And,  since  each  particle  of  the  ocean  executes  periodic 
oscillations  about  a  mean  position,  it  follows  that  the  oscillation  at 
the  ocean  imparts  to  the  solid  earth  oscillations  such  that  tlie  re- 
sultant moment  of  momentum  of  the  whole  system  rouains  constant.' 
But  the  mass  of  the  ocean  being  very  sni.iU  compared  witli  that  of 
the  planet,  the  component  angular  velocities  of  the  planet  nece.'vsarf 
to  counterbalance  the  moment  of  momentum  of  the  oscillations  of 
the  sea  are  very  small  compared  with  the  coniiioncnt  aiignlat 
velocities  of  the  sen,  and  therefore  the  disturbance  of  planetirv 
rotation  due  to  oceanic  reaction  is  negligible.  If  now  an  external 
disturbing  force,  surli  as  that  of  tho  moon,  .-icts  on  the  sj-stem,  tha 
resultant  moment  of  momentum  of  sea  and  earth  is  unaflccted  by 
the  interaction  bctw-cen  them,  and  the  preccssional  and  nutational 
coujiles  arc  the  sinic  as  if  sea  and  earth  were  rigidly  connected 
together.  Therefore  the  additions  to  these  couples  on  account  ol 
tiilal  oscillation  are  the  couples  due  to  the  attraction  of  the  moon 
on  the  excess  or  deficiency  of  water  alMVe  or  below  mean  sea.leveL 
Tlic  tidal  oscillations  are  very  small  in  height  compared  with  the 
equatorial  protuberance  of  the  earth,  and  the  density  of  water  is 
T*ithsof  that  of  surface  rock  ;  hence  tho  additional  couples  are  very 
small  compared  with  the  couples  due  to  the  moon's  action  on  the 

>  Thomson  and  Tait,  A'ol.  Fhil.,  §  S16.  :  "* 

2  Compare  an  impertaat  paper  by  Poincare.  in  .1cm  Matli.  (ISSi),  7 ;  3.  4' 

XXIII.  -^46 


362 


TIDES 


■<!o«Tec-  solid  equatoml  prot\ib«ra.nc«.  Therefore  precession  and  'nutation 
tiOD8.t4  take  place  sensibly  as  though  the  sea  were  congealed  iu  its  mean 
p-eces-  position.  If  the  ocean  be  regarded  as  fricfionlcss,  the  principles 
•ion  and  of  energy  show  us  that  tliese  insensible  additional  couples  must  be 
cutation  periodic  in  time,  and  thus  the  corrections  tanntatiou  mast  consist 
iBsen*  "  of  semi-diurnal,  diurnal,  and  fortnightly  ligations  of  absolutely 
Bible.  insensible  magnitude.  We  shall  have  much  to  say  below  on  the 
results  of  the  introduction  of  frictiou  into  the  conception  of  tidal 
oscillations  as  a  branch  of  speculative  astronomy. ' 


Tides  m 


§  2L  Some  Phenomena  'of  Tides  in  Rivers. 

In  §  2  we  have  given  a  description  of  some  of  the  phenomena  of 
!"'"'•  the  tide-wave  in  rivers.  As  a  considerable  part  of  our  practical 
knowledge  of  tides  is  derived  from  observations  in  estuaries  and 
rivers,  we  give  an  investigation  of  two  of  the  most  important 
features  of  tne  tide-wave  in'these  cases.  It  must  be  premised  that 
when  the  profile  of  a  wave  does  not  present  the  simple  harmonic 
form  it  is  convenient  to  analyse  its  shape  into  a  series  of  partial 
waves  superposed  on  a  fundamental  wave  ;  and  generally  the  prin- 
ciple of  harmonic  analysis  is  adopted,  in  which  the  actual  wave  is 
regarded  as  the  sum  of  a  number  of  simple  harmonic  waves. 

The  tide-wave  in  a  river  is  a  "long"  wave  in  which  the  vertical 
motion  of  the  water  is  yjry  small  compared  with  the  horizontal, 
the  river  very  shallow' cSinpared  with  the  wave-length,  and  the 
water  which  is  at  any  moment  in  a  vertical  plane  always  remains 
so  throughout  the  oscillation. 

Suppose  that  the  water  is  contained  in  a  straight  and  shallow 
canal  of  uniform  depth  ;  then  take  an  origin  of  coordinates  at  the 
bottom,  with  the  x  axis  horizontal  in  the  direction  of  the  canal, 
and  the  y  axis  vertical ;  let  A  be  the  undisturbed  depth  of  water ; 
let  A-t-i)  be  the  ordinate  of  the  surface  corresponding  to  that  fluid 
whose  undisturbed  abscissa  is  x  and  disturbed  abscissa  z -i- $  ;  and 
let  jbe  gravity..    The  equations  of  motion  and  continuity '  are 


^-^=gh— 


,.(52). 


vd^jdxf 
_-hdildx 
''"   \+dildx' 

For  brevity  we  shall  write  if=gh  and  u=vt-x,'  Since  for  "long" 
waves  dildx  is  small,  the  equations  (52)  become  approximately  / 
\d^_ 


ijsffsin  nil 


.(,: 


This  represents  the  oceanic  tide,  and.T!  is.th.ii  which  we  call  below 
(§  23)  the  speed  of  the  tide.  Then  obviously  m=njv,  so  that  at 
any  point  a:  np  the  river  ~ 

'  £)■ <^«^ 

(56)  gives  the  first  approxima'ion   to  the  forced  tide-wave,  and 
it  is  clear  that  any  number  of  oscillations  may  be  propagated  inde- 
pendently up  the  river  with  the  velocity  \/gh  due  to  the  depth  of  Over 
the  river.    In  passing  to  the  second  appnmmatioa  wc  must  separate  tidei.^ 
the  investigation  into  two  brandies. 

(L)  Orcr-Tidcs  (see  §  24).— We  now  suppose  that  the  tide  at  th« 
river  mouth  is  simply  (55).     On  substituting  the  approiimate 
values  (54)_in  (53)  our  equations  become 
'-m      .d--l 


-j-j= r— ;  -t-liAi'm'  sin.2inu 


h 


dx^ 

■  ^-f  JmW  -  ^m'a-  cos  2m« 


.(57). 


h        dx^\dx)     )   ' 


For  finding  a  first'approximation  we  neglect  the  second  term  on 
the  right  of  each  of  (53).     The  solution  is  obviously 

{  =  oc0S77i(rJ-z)=«C03mu\  154')^ 

(54)  gives  the  height  of  the  water  whose  undisturbed  abscissa  is 
X,  and  since  (  is  small  this  is  approximately  the  height  at  the  point 
on  the  bank  whose  abscissa  is  x.  But  now  suppose  that  at  the 
origin  (the  mouth  of  the  river)  the  canal  communicates  with  a 
'basin  in  which  there  is  a  forced  oscillation  of  water-level  given  by  : 
v=ffsm  ni (55). 


We  have  now  to  assume  an  appropriate  form  for  the  solution  of  (57), 

such  as  {  =  a  cos  mii-t- Azcos  27nu-i-B  sin  2mw (53). 

We  have  here  in  effect  assumed  that  the  second  and  third  terms  of 
(5S)  are  small  compared  with  the  first     It  "is  clear,  however,  that 
at  a  distance  from  the  origin  the  term  in  A  will  become  large. 
This  difficulty  may  be  eluded  by  taking  the  canal  of  finite  length, 
and  supposing  that,  where  the  canal  debouches  into  a  second  basin, 
a  second  appropriate  forced  oscillation  is  maintained-     The  length 
of  the  canal  remains  arbitrary,  save  that  the  second  term  of  (58) 
shall  still  be  small  compared  with  the  first.     On  substituting  from. 
(58)  in  (57)  we  have  B  indeterminate  and  A=  -  iahn? ;  hence 
7j/A  =  Jm'a'-masin7>n«-f3m'a^rsin2mu-f(2inB-Jm-a-)cos2m!t(59). 
This  gives  the  elevation  of  the  water  whose  iindisturbed  absciss* 
is  X,  that  is  to  say,  at  the  point  whose  abscissa  along  the  bank  is 
Jf=x-^f. '  If  we  put  a=X- J  in  the  largest  term  of  (59),  and  trea' 
i  as  small,  and  put  x  =  X  in  the  small  terms,  (59)  becomes, 
))/A=  -masinm^vt-  X)  +  lmVXsm2m{vl-X) 
-f  (3mB  -  Jm-o-)  cos  2m(r(  -  X). 
But  at  the  origin  (55)  holds  true,  therefore  B= j'l-jna',  -mah=B, 
and  mv=n.    Thus  the  solution  is 

/Ti/+.r71^='"2n0---|.)^66)| 

From'(CO)  we  can  see  what  the  proper  forced  oscillation  at  the  Solutioa 
further  end  of  the  canal  must  be  ;  but  this  matter  has  no  present  giving 
interest.     The  first  term  of  (60)  being  called  the  fundamental,  the  first 
second  gives  what  is  called  the  first  over-tide ;  and  by  further  over-tida. 
approximation  w-e  can  get  the  second,  third,  kz     The  over-tide 
travels  up  the  river  at  the  same  rate  as  the  fundamental,  bnt  it  has 
double  frequency  or  "speed,"  and  the  ratio  of  its  amplitude  to  that 

of  the  fundamental  is  --r  — =.T 

1  As  a  nnmerical  example,  let  the  range  of  tide  at  the  river  mouth 
be  20  feet  and  the  depth  of  river  50  feet.  The ''speed"  of  the 
semi-diurnal  tide  is  about  1/1  '9  radians  per  hour ;  •Jgh  =  27  miles 

on-   -,  Y"         1  ,-  -  , 

per  hour  ;  hence  -tt  — ^  =  xr%  S.    Therefore  34  miles  up  the  river 
.  in  -^Jgh     -^^ 


=Hs.m 


"('-is)- 


"312 


the  over-tide  is  •y'jth  of  the  fundamental  and  has  a  range  of  2  feet 
If  the  river  shallows  very  gradually,  the  formula  will  still  hold, 
and  we  see  that  the  height  of  over-tide  varies  as  (depth)"!. 

Fig.  1 '  read  from  left  to  right  exhibits  the  progressive  change 

of  shape.     The  steepness  of  the  advancing  crest  shows  that  it  is  a 

shorter  time  from  low  to  high  water  than  vice  versa.     The  law  of 

the  ebb  and  flow  of  currents  mentioned  in  §  2  may  also  be  easily 

determined  from  the  above  investigation.     We  leave  the  reader  to 

determine  the  efl'ect  of  friction,  which  is  given  by  inserting  a  term 

y-  lidildt  on  the  right-hand  side  of  (57). 

later-  ("■)  Compound   Tides  (see  §  24). — We  shall  now  consider  the 

ference      mutual  influence  of  two  waves  of  different  periods  travelling  up 

of  waves  the  river  together.     In  the  first  approximation  they  are  quite  inde- 

in  abil-     pendent,  and  we  may  assume 

low  4  =  a  cos  m(t't  -  r) -H  6  cos  [n{t!/ -  x) -(- 1]    (61). 

water.         ♦  jq  proceeding  to  the  second  approximation,  we  only  take  notice, 
of  those  terms  which  result  from  the  interaction  of  the  two,  and 
omit  all  others,  writing  for  the  sake  of  brevity 
jm-  n\  ={n  -n){vt-x)  -  (, 
Jjn-mj  =(m-l•r!)(tX-z)■^t..' 

With  the  value  of  4  assumed  in  (61),  we  find;  on  substituting  in  (53) 
and  only  retaining  terms  depending  on  mutual  influence,  that  the 
equations  for  the  second  approximation  are 

1  See,  for  example.  Lamb's  //yctrcdt/namics,  cbap.  vii 
'  Froia  Ajry,  "Tides  aod  Waves" 


cpi^'   ipe  \  ^ 

j-j=i^j4-f5«'a!w!n[(m-Kt)Ein  jm-l-n}  -(m-n)sin(m-n}]  I,,,  . 

i)/A=  -ahmn{cos{m-¥n)  -cos{nt-n}]-(i|/(ir  )^ 

Now  let  us  assume  as  the  solution  '  ' 

{  =  acosm(^'(-I)  +  AJ:cos^7)l-^7l( -hBsinjm-4-Ti}  .'1       ffiSI  ■ 

-4-6cos[n(i;i-x)-)-£]-HCicosJm-n)  -HDsiu{m-n}  J","'^     y 
and  let  us  elude  the  difficulty  about  the  increasing  magnitude  of 
the  second  term  in  the  same  way  as  before.     Substituting  in  th^ 
equation  of  motion,  we  have  for  all  time, 

2(m-Hn)Asin{m-ni}  ■h2(m-7i)Osin  {m-n} 
-t-5<iJmn[(m-ni)sia,jm-Hn|  -(m-n) sin  {m-nj]  =  0. 
This  gives  A=  -  \abmn  and  C=  -t- Jaimn.     B  and  D  remain  arbi- 
trary as  before,  and  will  be  dropped,  because  they  arc  to  be  deter, 
mined  by  the  condition  that  at  the  origin  the  terms  of  diidx  ii^ 
cos  jm-tnl,  cos)m-n)  are  to  vanish,  whence 

17/A  =  -  am  sin  m(vt  -  ar)  -  im  sin  [n(rf  -  i)  -k] 

-f  \abmn[{^m -i- n)x sin  (m  -ml  -  (m -  n)z sin  [m-nV) 

-f  terms  in  cos{m-(-?i}  and  cos  {m- pj  .* 

Then  we  pass  from  x  to  JT  as  in  the  last  section,  and  make  the. 

terms  in  cos  {m-^  n}  and  cos{m  -  n)  vanish  by  proper  values  of  B  and, 

D,  and  we  have 

i)  =  amAsinm(»i- J)  -  i7insin[7i(i'J- 1) -Htl. 
-f|aimnA'[(m-f7!)sin  |m-fn(  -(m-ii)sin{m- n}]  (64). 
Now  at  the  river's  mouth,  where  x  =  0,  suppose  that  the  oceanic  tidt» 
is  represented  by  i)=.ff,sinn,(-ffijSin(n._.(-K) 


TIDES 


Then  '-am=UJh,  -  bn^MJk,  habmn= ff^HJh, 


3Q3 


for  com- 

poozxl 

udea. 


it)  tha»  (61)  becomes 

1)  5- a;  Fin  n/<  _  — =  )  +  iTj  sin 


v=\/gh,     m±.n- 


VjS 


^^^] 


(65). 


'As  a 


.nnmencal  example  suppose  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  60  feet 
deep  that  the  solar  semi-diurnal  tide  has  a  range  2ff,  =  i  feet,  and 
theTuhar2^,  =  12  feet;  then  n,  +n,=f^radians|ertoir. 4-^=^ 
radians  per  hour,  and  as  tefore  V?A=27  miles  per  hour.  With 
ttesefigiires  ^HJl^n^^^  1  ^ 

Sl?^  mJ^'I"^  °P  ""^  •"''"  "";  q»»t"-<li''nial  tide  (iu  §  24  below, 
caUed  MS)  has  a  semi-range  of  an  inch.     But  the  Inni-soiar  fort- 

X^  't  <w^'''  *l?^^  §  '■"  """''i  ••"«  a  s;mi.™n^°of  ,Vh 
cf  an  inch.     Where  the  two  interacting  tides  are  of  nlarly  equal 

•peed   the  summation  compound  tide  is  very  large  compared  with 


TUtu, 


("1  + 


"j)(( 
(n, -»,)(/. 


and 
i|=C5iH-"J!r^in7!j 


\lgfl) 


\'gh' 


e  = 


2...-(.,  +  ^,—  ; 
f  ,    ^ 


Hi 


-    —  -J-     ^sin    27i,<- 


/-r'  sill 


yj.jh 


"^lv.\ 


'"'+'^';JJ 


Twe 
nethoda 
of  treat- 
ing <*. 
terra- 
lions. 
Syn- 
thetic 
'method. 


Tkree 
classes 
m  tides. 


i.^'^lS  f™?' slope  of  the  tide.wave  is  steeper  atspring'than  at 
L^Jl^.*"*^  the  compound  tide  shows  itself  in  tSe  fof m  of  an 
augmentation  .of  the  first  over-tide;  and  the  converse  statement 
^kli  L""P  *A^'-  •  ^^°  """■'^^t*'-  mark  is  lower  and  hi 'her 
alternat^y  up  the  nver  at  spring  tide,  and  higher  and  lower  aTter- 

fcrlnfi  ,' .°f  P  't^  i^  i  ='"^"  »""»">'  'hi-^h  depends  on  the  dif. 
Sternaln  w;,lH  Jl''  *\'  "^"'l  "^''^  ""^  were  considering!  the 
.uTweTor:utgh':r."  ""'^""'  ""'"^^  *"  actuality  be'either 

rv.  The  Habmootc  Analtsis. 
§  22.,  Methods  of  applying  Theory  to  Praetia, 

pie  comparison  between  tidal  observations  and  tidal  theories 
t^  tl  °  W  "°"  "^  ^"'^  r'^'^'^""e  the  tidal  os^illatfons  ofThe 
^  aX  .'^°  ?"""*  °"*  '"  '"«  different  ways,  which  mav  be 
caJled  the  "synthetic"  and  the  "analytic  "  ■'^ 

The  semi-diurnal  rise  and' fall  of  tide  withthe  weekly  alternation 
of  spnng  and  neap  would  naturally  suggest  to  the  invStor 
to  make  hu  formula  conform  to  the  a^arent  simpUc^ry  ofthe 
phenomenon.'.  He  would  seek  to  represent  the  height  ^fw^erbv 
ejther  one  or  two  periodic  functions  with  a  varUble  ampllSde^ 
Zb^/tP'1!"*^r";?  ''1\'  "'""  °f  ">«  =y°"«=«<=  method^    T^at 

T^^t  p*^'"  ^'?  "Y;'^  ^y  ""  ""^  P-^^t  investigators  of  the  past 
W^^p  ^'™°""'>  M^claurin,  Laplace,  Lubboc?^  WheweU  Airy" 
.Since  at  Eoropean  ports  the  two  tides  which  foUow  one  anothfr  ou 
any  one  aay  are  nearly  equal,  or,  in  other  words,  th^e  is  scarce^ 

l£Sr'.n  **,'•""','  'it''  '}^'''  i"^^=tigators  bestow'ed  c^mpar^t  v  v 
;httle  attention  to  the  diurnal  tides.     If  these  are  neglected   the 

^nttheride^T^''™/'^'  ^^  "  ^"^'^  f""^"""  suffiot  to  Lre- 
>ent  the  tide.  In  nou-European  ports-,  however,  the  diurnal  ti/e  is 
somet  mes  so  large  as  to  mask  the  semi-diurnal  and  to  make  onU 
Jenr"^  ntTh'^H-"^  ''A'^f^^  ^'^^  "^'-  '»  twenty  four  Ws  Tb 
'to^^rodM  ,.f  r-"t'  *"^' '"  '^'  '^^^'^''  method^ve  are  compelled 
to  introduce  ^t  least  one  more  function.  There  should  also  be  a 
tbrd  function  representing  the  tides  of  long  period  ;  tut  until  the 
W  t  I'^u^^^'Vt'  ^"""^  ''"''^y  teen  conside  ed,  and  there! 
m^fZ^^^^^"'  '■"  '  H^y  »f  them  in  explaining  the  s™thetic 
method.  The  e.-tpress.on  for  the  tide-generating  forces  due  to  either 
son  or  moon  consists  of  three  terms,  involving  the  declinations  am! 

it.Z^^}""  "'  '^'  P''"f  •  ^"'  °f  '^'''  '"-"S  f"  each  goes  thro"Rh 
Its  penod  approximately  twicS  a  day,  a  second  once  a  day  andX 

J?i,t  ^/"''  ?'?"'^  '^  ^)-  The  «iathema£ical  basis  of  the^k  nthetic 
method  consists  t,f  a  synthesis  of  the  mathematical  fomuliTl' 

^ctZ     *°™  '°'}^' '"°°''  ■=  fl's'^'l  ^"'h  that  for  tl°eTun,  and  the 

T^.Z    fV,  ^""^d  o-ut  for  the  diurnal  and  slowly  varying  ernTs 

ama^reveLif  Itanlr  f.  '  1"^" -^ere  thc^  diuSlidT  s 

"an,  even  il.  as  in  all  the  older  observations,  it  consists  merely 


fusk,n^i'f''tw^"''-  ^T'y  ^^^  ^"-^  '°^  ^^^t".  5°°"  shows  that  the 
toJerrese^trt!''"f.°5"='"'  P"i°dic  functions  is  insufficient 
to  represent  the  state  of  tide ;  and  the  height  and  time  of  hiirh 

TmotZ  in  rith^  ""^  ''"""''T  ^°'  'he  vafiations  of  deelinati?n. 
But  when  c^r  ^''^"^1°^-  ^"d  of  the  parallaxes  of  both  bodies, 
data  thl^  thoTof 'Jr'  b'^'-e^^Ses  were  set  up  far  more  extended 
investfrtor  °,!h  L     '  °^^"  observations  became  accessible  to  the 
investigator  and  more  and  more  corrections  were  found  to  be  ex 

If  uri  W  al?tl,i''d   T"^'""  *°  }^'  f^^*^-     ^  »a?ic  me  hod 

^eve^Pf'^"^*""^"'  '^^  theoretical  determin'ation  of  correclfon  ^ 
wl^^'"^'  ""'Tf  ''^"^  the  explicit  adoption  of  the  anaWtio 
method  as  a  gi-eat  advance.     In  this  method  we  conceive  the   fdal 
forces  or  potential  due  to  each  disturbing  body  to  be  developed  into 
a  series  ot  ter.ns  each  consbting  of  a  co°nstant  (determined  by  ?he 
elements  of  the  planet's  orbit  and  the  obliquity  of"he  eclfptic) 
S^.»?f  1^^  '  simple  harmonic  function  of  the  time      T  lus  hi' 
?id^,  wl  ?'  '"'"'•  "i  ?^  '^"thetic  method  for  tho  three  classes  ^1 
Ides  we  have  an  indefinitely  long  series  of  terms  for  each  of  tho 
hree  classes      The  loss  of  simpUcTty  in  the  expression  for  the  forces 
13  far  niore  than  counterbalanced  by  the  ga  n  of  facilitv  for  thl 
thf;Sa?/^"''•'"f'*•"°"^°f*hewa'ter.     f  his  facility  arles  from 
exrffinerl1rA""v\P""','P  "  "^J"'"'^  oscUlations,  which  we  have 
th?J  „,  \  .'°*he  historical  sketch.     Applying  this  principle,  we  see 
til    ,-^  '^dividual  term  of  the  harmonic  development  of  the  tide, 
generating  forces  corresponds  to  an  oscUlation  of  the  sea  of  the 
?en.nJi'"°'^'  ^'l^  ^^?  ^mpHtude  and  phase  of  that  oscillation  must 
4h'e  .lur  "^'™'-k  of  ""'s^  of  almost  inextricable  complication. 
IrL    ?  ^-      n"''^'  'h^n.  represents  tho  tide  at  any  port  by  a 
Jw.hJ''"''  ■  ^'?°°'\*'™' *hose  period  is  determined  from 
frZ  ik     "°S"l«rations,  but  whose  amplitude  and  phase  are  found 
from  observation.     Fortunately  the  series  representing  the  tidal 
onlv  »  m°^^'T  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  pe'rmit  us  to  conside. 
only  a  moderate  number  of  harmonic  terms  in  the  series 
in  thT,,'' "f  T^  likely  that  the  corrections  which  have  been  applied 
more.,,-  fV'°'y!.'*'''"'=  """'hod  might  have  been  clothed  in  a 
W  rfrtv^'"*°,'y,^''v  «'"=<^"?<^t  mathematical  form  had  investigators 
f-h!  J?      •        M°-  h^moi'c  development.  J  In  this  article  we  shall 
therefore  invert  history  and  come  6ack  on  the  synthetic  method 
from  the  analytic,  and  shall  show  how  the  formula  of  co^ecti^ 
f„  i!.„,V  h.a™'""'=  language  may  be  made  comparable  with  them' 
in  synthetic  language.     One  explanation  is  expedient  before  pro-  Fusion-or 
n  the^il'i^'''  ^^''"r'  •i'^'lP'^^Pt.     Ther^e  are  certain  te?ms  te™s 
i^i     r  i'^^''"^'"'"  '^°'"=  °f  *he  moon,-  depending  on  the  longi-  affected 
vef^     Nol7t°r\"'"'"r'  '^;*  ^^'Pif'^  *^^^  '^^"hition  in  18%  by  m! 
LhoA    r?u  \     "  ''•'°  ^""J"*.  Praotically  convenient,  in  the  appli-  tiin-of 
cation  of  the  harmonic  method,  to  follow  the  synthetic  plan  to  the  moon°s 
extent  of  clarifying  together  terms  whose  speed  differs  only  in  node 
consequence  of  the  movement  of  the  moon's  nide,  and  at  the  ime 
time  to  conceive  that  there  is  a  small  variability  in  tha  intensity  of 
tne  generating  forces. '  -         '' 

§  23. ^Developmmt  of  EquUibrium  Theim/  ofTidain  Terms. 
__  of  the  Elements  of  the  Orbits.  ' 

Within  the  limits  at  our  disposal  we  cannot  do  more  than  inr  Eouii:.' 
dirate  the  processes  to  be  followed  in  this  development.  ShZ 

Wnr^tt^^ilr.'"  ''^  '"^^  "'^  '^''^"'^  ^-  *'-  -°o>'3  theory; 


tide-generating  potential  is 


V=|^=(cos'.-J), 


and  ia  (10)  that 
■  cos'  I  -  J  =  2f,MiMa  +  2^^  ■  Hi! 


-m; 


elementfr. 
or  orbits 
intro. 
duced: 


^-h2,fMj5l3  +  2ffM,ir3 


2  3 


2?  M,'  +  M„2-2M,» 


.where  M,,M2,M3  are  the  direction  cosines  of  the  moon  referred  ttf 
axes  fixed  in  the  earth.    We  require  to  ,  «ieu  to 

find  the  functions  Mjjfj,  J(M,=  -M„2), 
&c.,  of  the  moon's  direction  cosines.'^ 
Let  A,  B,  C  (fig.  2)  be  the  axes  fixed 
in  the  earth,  C  being  the  north  pole 
and  AB  tho  equator;  let  X,Y  Z  be  a 
second  set  of  axes,  XY  being  the  plane 
of  the  moon's  orbit ;  M  the  projection  " 
of  the  moon  in  her  orbit ;  I=ZC,  the ," 
obliquity  of  the  lunar  orbit  to'  tho 
equator;  x  =  AX  =  BCY;  ;  =  MX,  the  p..  „     - 

a  kind  of  I  annon.e  analysis  for  reducing  tidal  observations-  but  as  Airvdid 
not  emancipate  himself  from  the  use  of  hour.angles,  dcclinatiins  4^  Ins  work 
can  hardly  be  considered  as  an  example  of  the  analytic  method  'sec  his ''raS 
and  Wave.s,  'and  Hatfs  rUnooient  da  .War.-K,  Paris  ISSo 

'  !■  or  further  details  of  the  analysis -of  this  section. 'see  the  Rnon  "Ois 
Harmonic  Analysis,  ic.,-  for  13S3  to  the  British  AssoSotion  CSouthl^X 


364 


T  I  D  E  B' 


..(67), 


.Moon  «  'Tnor-n's  longitude  in  her  orbit  mcasureil  from  X,  the  intci-soction  of 
f'.ungitiiilo'  tlip  fquator  » ilh  the  lunar  oibit,  hereafter  called  the  "iiitcrsoclioii." 
iiid  obli-  Tiicn 

.qnity  ot  M,=     cos  ^eosx  + sin /sin  xcos 

iliit  111-  M,=  -  cos  /  sin  X  +  sill  <  cos  X  cos 

'.jdticed.'  Mj=     siii/sm/ 

.AVriting  for  brevity  ;;  =  cos -i/,  j  =  sin  S!. 
\vc  fiad  that 

M,'  -  Jl.r  =;''  cos  2(x  -  ')  +  2//"?*  c°s  2x  +  ?* cos  2(x  +  0  "j 

-  2.\l|M'j  =  tho  same  witlPMJi'-s  in  place  of  cosines  I     v  '^ 

.M.;Mj=  -;y7TOs(x-2/)+/«?(p^-'r)<:osx+;'!r'c.os(x+20  HC^). 

MiiM3=i.tlie  same  \vith  sines  in  place  of  cosines  I 

i-M3-  =  J(/- VV  +  ?')  +  2r3-™s2J  J 

The.se  arc  the  required  functions  of  Mj,  Mj,  Jfj. 

Now  let  c  be  tJio  moons  uieaii  distance,  e  the  eccentricity  of  jliO 
moon's  orbit,  and  let 

r  =  }~    .- " (59)- 

'.Then,  putting 

X  =  [?ll^JlI„  r=[^-i^]5M„Z:i['M"]H  (70). 

i«  e  hava        '  ^, 

V-=-^-j^/=2{,XY  +  2«— 25L^-;-I%  2,fYZ  ;2{?X? 


-Moou's 
fltstauce 
aod  ec-    • 
•centricity 
iiilro-  — 


^■i 


SjV+i- 


-2{"X'  +  Y^-2Z°-. 
3 


..(71). 


Tide, 
.gener.v- 
JSOg  pn. 

•^-ential 


2  3 

Corfesponjing  to  tho  definition  of  a  simple  tido  given  in  1  1,  Iho 
t.\|ires3ion  for  each  term  of  the  tide-generating  jjoteutial  should 
coiist.'.t  of  a  soli*^  spherical  harmonic,  multiplied  by  a  fiimple  time- 
harmonic  In  (71)  p'ti,  p-(?^-»!-),  &c.,  are  solid  spherical  har- 
monics, and  in  order  to  complete  the  expression  for  V  it  is. necessary 
to  develop  tlic  five  functions  of  X,  Y,~Z  in  a  sei;ies  (ft  simple  time- 
harniunics.  But  (71)  may  be  simplified  in  such  a  way  that  the 
tive  functions  arc  reduced  to  three.  The  axes  fixed  in  the  earth 
may  be  taken,  as  in  §  7„to  have  their  extremities  as  follows: — the 
ixis  C  tlic  north  pole,  the  axis  B  90°  E.  of  A  on  tho  equator,  and 
the  axis  A  on  tlio  equator  in  the  meridian  of  the  place  of  observa- 
tion.    Thus,  if  \  bo'  the  latitude  of  that  place,  we  have 

4  =  cos  \,  T=  0,  {■=  sin  X. 
Then,  writing  a  for  the  earth's  radius  at  the  place  of  observation, 
(71)  becomes 


V  = -^^J  cos'MX' -  \'') -f  s.n  2\XZ 

+  5(5-sin=X)4(X2-fY=-2Z«)'] 


..(n&). 


The  process  of  developing  the  three  functions  of  X,  Y,  Z  consists 
in  the  introduction  of  the  formula;  of  elliptic  motion  into  (QQ) 
md  (70),  the  subsequent  development  of  tho  ^Y  Z  functions 
,n  a  series  of  trigonometrical  terms,  and  the  rejection  of  terins 
which  appear  nnmetically  to  be  negligible.  Tho  terms  depends 
ing  on  the  principal  lunar  inequalities — evoction  and  variation — 
are  also  introduced.  Finally,  tne  three  X-Y-Z  functions  aro  ob* 
taiiied  as  a  series  of  simple  time-harmonics,  with  theargummts  of 
the  sines  and  cosines  linear  functions  of  tho  earth's  roUilion,  the 
moon's  mean  motJon,'"and  the  longitude  of  the  moon's  perigee.  The 
next  step  is  to  pass,  according  to  the  principle  of  forced  oscillations, 
from  the  potential  to  the  height  of  tide  generated  by  the  forces 
corresponding  to  that  potential.  The  X-Y-Z  functions  being  simple 
time -harmonics,  tho  principle  of  forced  vibrations  allows  us  to 
conclude  that  the  forces  corresponding  to  V  in  (71a)  will  generate 
oscillations  in  the  ocean  of  the  same  periods  and  types  as  tlie  terms 
in  V,  but  of  unknown  amplitudes  and  phases.  'Sow  let  3P-^', 
XZ,  4{JE-  +  0^  -  22")  be  three  functions  having  respectively  similar 
forms  to  thoso  of 

X=-Y= 


XZ_       ,  T(X"-rY^-2Z^> 
'  (1-cT        3      {\-c^f      ' 


.height 
of  tide 
it  any 

port. 


but  differing  from  them  in  that  the  argument  of  each  of  the  simple 
time-harmonics  has  some  angle  subtracted  from  it,  and  that  the 
term  is  multiplied  by  a  numerical  factor.  Then,  if  g  be  gravity 
and  h  the  height  of  tide  at  the  place  of  observation,  we  mnst  have 

h  =  -^~'[ico3n(3?-g2j  +  8in2Xl2+3C4-sm3X)i(r  +  g2,2^')]   (V2). 

The   factoi;  ra-Jg  may  be  more  conveniently  written  nwl*)'^ 

where  J/  h  the  enrth's  mass.  It  has  been  so  chosen  that,  if  the  equili- 
brium theory  of  tides  were  fulfilled,  with  water  covering  the  whole 
earth,  the  numerical  factors  iTi  the  XViZ  functions  would  be  each 
Dtitini-  unity  and  the  alterations  of  phase  would  be  icro.  The  terms  in 
tion  of  Jl(JE'--f-§^-  2Z^\  require  special  consideration*  The  flinction  of  the 
Jdgh  tide  latitude  being  ^-sin'X,  it  follows  that,  wlicn  in  the  northera 
of  tlde-af  hemisphere  it  is  high  water  north  of  a  crrtaiu  critical  latitude,  it 
-long  is  low  water  on  the  opposite  side  of  that  parallel  ;  and  the  same  is 

,pi:riod.      true,  of  the  southern  hemisphere.     It  is  oest  to  adopt, a  uniform 


system  for  the  whole  earth,  and  to'rcgani  jugh  iiu«  and  nign  water 
as  consentaneous  in  tho  enuatorml  belt,  aud  of  opposite  meanings 
outside  of  the  critical  latitudti.  We  hero  conceive  the  function 
always  to  be  written  J  -  sin-  X,  so  that  outside  of  tho  critical  lati- 
tudes high  tide  is  low  water.  We  may  in  continuing  the  develop- 
ment write  the  jE-g-H  functions  in  the  form  appropriate  to  the 
e(|uilibiium  theory,  with  water  covering  the  whole  earth  ;  for  the 
i*-tual  case  it  is  only  then  necessary  to  multiply  by  the  reducing 
r.ictor,  and  to  subtract  tho  phase  alteration  k.  As  these  are  un- 
known constants  for  each  place,  they  would  only  occur  in  the 
development  as  symbols  of  quantities  to  be  deduced  from  observa- 
tion. It  will  be  understood,  therefore,  that  in  the  following 
schedules  the  "argument"  is  that  part  of  the  argument  which  is 
derived  from  theory,  the  true  complete  argument  being  the'*' argu- 
ment" '■  K,  where  k  is  derived  from  observation.' 

XJp  to  this  point  wc  )iave  supposed  the  moon's  longitude  and  tha 
earth's  position  to  be  measured  from  the  intersection  ;  but  in  ordei 
to  pass  to  tlie  ordinary  astronomical  formal;^  we  must  measure  the 
longit-ude  and  the  earth's  position  from  the  vernal  equinox.  Hence 
we  determine  the  longitude  and  right  ascension  of  the  intersection 
in  terms  of  tho  longitude  of  the  moon's  no<le  and  the  inclination  of 
the  lunar  orbit,  and  introduce  them  into  our  formula;  for  the  3E-J0-2 
functions.  ,  The  expressions  for  the  functions  corresponding**  to 
solar  tides  may  be  written  down  by  symmetry,  and  m  tliis  case  the 
int<!rsection  is  actually  the  vernal  equinox. 

The  final  result  of  tho  process  sketch»;d  \3  to  obtain  a  series  of  Explana- 
termd  ea-'h  of  which  is  a  function  of  the  elements  of  the  moort's  or  tion  of 
sun's  orbit,  and  a  function  of  the  terrestrial  latitude  of  the  place  of  schedules 
observation,  multiplied  by  the  cosine  of  an  angle  which  inci  cases  below. 
uniformly  with  the  time.     We  shall  now  write  down  thn  result  in 
the  form  of  a  schedule  ;  but  wc  mu.st  firtt  state  the  notation  em- 
ployed : — e,  c^— -eccentricities  of  lunar  and  solar  orbits  ;   /,  w  =  oh- 
liquities  of  cquaior  to  lunar  orbit  and  ecliptic;  p,/>,  =  longitudes  of 
lunar  and  solar  perigees  ;  ci,a,  =  hourly  increments  of;?,  ;», ;  s,  A  = 
moon's  and  suns  mean  .longitudes  ;  tr,  i;- hourly  increnunts  of  «, 
A;  i  =  local  mean  solar  time  reduced  to  anglB  ;  7  -  t?=  15"  pcrhour; 
X=latitndc  of  placo  of  observation  ;  ^,  i'  =  longitude  in  lu:iar  orbit, 
and  ICA.  of  tne  intersection  ;  A''=lon^tiidc  of  moori's  node  ;  i=. 
inclination  of  lunar  orbit.     Tho  speed  of  any  tide  is  ile^nicd  as  the  Speed 
rate  of  increase  of  its  argument,  and  is  expressible,  thcnfore,  as  defined. 
a  linear  ftinction  'of  y, »;,  a,  cr ;  for  wc  may  neglect  o,  as  being  very 
small. 

The  followyig  schedules,  then,  give  h  tho  height  of  tide.  Th< 
arrangement  is  as  follows.     First,  there  is  a  universal  coefficient 

^-jJ-)  a,  which  multiplies  every  term  of  all  the  schedules.  Secondly, 

there  arc  general  coefficients,  on-t  for  each  schedule,  viz.,  cos-  X  for 
the  semi-diurnal  terms,  sin  2\  for  the  diurnal,  and  J-  |  sm^X  fo* 
the  terms  of  long  period.  In  each  schedule  the  third  column, 
headed  "coefTicieiit,'  gives  tho  functions  of /and  c(and  in  twoc.tses 
also  of;?).  In  the  fourth  column  is  given  the  mean  sciui-rangc  of 
the  corresponding  term  in  numbers,  which  is  appiO,\imately  tlie 
v.alue  of  the  coeflicient  in  the  first  column  when  /  =  w  ;  but  we  pasa 
over  the  explanation  of  tlie  mode  of  computing  the  valnes.  Tlw 
fifth  (olumn  contains  arguments  linear  functions  oC^/iiS,;',*-,?.  In 
[A,  i.]  2t  +  2{h-v)  and  in  [A,  ii  J  t  +  {h-v)  are  common  to  all  the 
arguments.  The  arguments  are  grouped  i)»  a  manner  <;onvcnient 
for  subsecjuent  computation.  Lastly,  the  sixth  is  a  column  of 
speeds,  being  the  hourly  increase  of  the  arguments  in  the  preceding 
column,  estimated  in  degrees  per  hour.  It  has  been  found  practi- 
cally convenient  to  denote  each  of  these  partial  tides  by  an  initial 
letter,  nrbittaiily  ohosen.  In  the  first  column  we  give  a  descriptive 
name  for  "the  tide,  and  in  tho  second  the  arbitrarily  chosen  initial. 
In  somo  cases  no  initijd  has  been  chosen,  and  here  wo  indicate 
tho  tide  by  the  analytical  expression  for  its  speed,  or  hourly  increase 
of  argument 

The  schedule  for  the  solar  tides  is  drawn  up  in  precisely  the  same 
manner,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  coefficients  are  absolute 
constants.  The  eccentricity  of  the  solar  orbit  is  so. small  that  the 
elliptic  tides  may  he  omitted,  except  the  larger  elliptic  semi- 
diurnal tide.  In  order  that  the  comparison  of  the  importance  of 
the  solar  tides  with  the  lunar  may  be  complete,  the  same  universal. 

coeflicient  ^irA    )  «  is  retained,  and  the  special  coefficient  for  e^ch 

term  is  made  to  involve  tho  factor  -'.     Here  t,  =  5--j,  m,  being  tbi^ 

sun's  mass.     With 

^(=81  5;^;== -46035  =  ,-,^.^^. 

To  write  down   any  term,  take  tho  univei-sal  coefficient,   the  Mode  of 
general  coefficient  for  the  class  of  jtides,  the  special  coefficient^  and  reading  ■ 
multijjly  by  the  cosine  of  the  argument.     The  result,  taken  with  schedulei 
the  positive  sign,  is  a  term  in  the  equilibrium  tide,  with  water  cxidaioeij. 
covering  the  whole  earth.     The  transition  to  the  actual  caso  by 
the  introduction  of  a  factor  and  a  delay  of  phase  (to  be  derives    , 
from  observation)  has  been  already  explained.     The  sura  of  all  tho    ■ 
terms  is  the  complete  expression  for  tho  height  of  tido  h. 


TIDES 


365 


Schedule  of  Liuiar  Tides 

[A,  i.]— Universal  Coefficients  .^  \f\~)"- 
Semi-diurnal  Tides  ;  General  Coelficient^cos-X. 


Descrip- 
tive Name. 


f^DCipal 

lQO:ir. 

LuQi -solar 
(lunar 
portioo). 

Lamr     • 
elliptic. 

Bmiller 

elliplic' 

Elliptic. 

second 

order. 
Urger 
BvectionaI2 
Bmaller 
evectioDaL 
Varia- 

Uooal.* 


Ks 


}.J«os<l/» 
(l-12tn»L»s(2p-2$)j  i 


■01173 

■01 234 s 
01706 
■001763 
00330 
00730' 
01094 


Argument 
21+2(ft->.) 


-2(»-f) 


SO' 0821372 


-«(J-f)-(j-p) 
-2(j-{)+(s-p)-B+» 
where 
UiiR  =  . 


6sin2(p-{) 


colsi;-6cos'2(p-{) 
-2(.-f)-2(.-p) 

-2<i-?>+(»-P)-f2A-2J 

-2(s-f;-(s-p)-2A+2s+T 

-2()-$)  +  2ft-2> 


Speed  in 
Degrees 
per  rn.s. 
Hour. 


29"-4556254 
:7*-9662084 


[A, 

ii.]— Diurnal  Tides  ;  General  Coefficient  =  sin  2X. 

Descrip- 
tive Name. 

Initial 

Coefficient. 

ill 

Argumeut 
l+ih-y). 

Speed  in 

Degrees 

per  m  8. 

Hour. 

Lunar  di- 
urnal. 

y■^M. 
Luni-solar 

(lunar  poi 

tion). 
Larger 

elliptic 

Smaller 
elliptic* 

y+ff-o. 

EllipUc, 
second 
order. 

Evectional 

0 

00 
K. 

Q 
Ml 

J 

7-4<;+2t» 

7-3(T-o+27; 

l-5«2Hsin7cos2j; 
(l-te>)i  sin/sin'); 
(l-l-Je-Hiiin/cos/ 

(e.istD/cos-|/ 

e.Jsln/cos'J/x 
v')!  +  Jcos2(p-|)i 

{^^sio/cos/ 

Ve'.isin;cos5j; 

WnK.Jsio/cosS!/ 

■18S56 
■0OS12 
18115 

03651 

00522« 
01649 

■01485 

00187 

00512' 
00708 

-2(s-f)+iJr 
■(-2(s-0-jir 

-!"■ 

-2(5-f)-(5-p) 

+  Jr 

-(J-fHQ-iir 
where  UiiQ 
=  JUn(p-0 

-KJ-i')-lT 

-2(j-f)-2(5-p) 

+!"■ 

-2(..-f)+(s-p) 
+  2/i-2«+i7r 

^•■9430356 
16'139I016 
15'041O6S6 

13* 398660° 

14--4920521 

15*5854433 
12*-8542862 

I3-471514.I 

[A,  iii.]— Long  Period  Tides  ;  General  Coefficient  J  -  §sin'\ 


Descrip- 
tive Name. 

Initial- 

Coemcient 

iii 

Argument 

Speed  in  De- 
grees per  m.s. 
Hour 

Change  or 
mean  level. 

Monthly. 

Evectional 
monthly. 

Luni-solar 
fort- 
nightly." 

Fort- 
nightly 

Ter- 
mensual. 

Mm 

ff-3»7-t-0 
MSf 

Mf 

3r-CT 

(l-fjc2)l(l-;sin';) 

3<.J(l-isinS;) 
V^-Wl-Jni"^') 
3mSJ(l-jsin2/) 

\t.isia'l 

■252248 

04136 
-005809 
•00755 

■004229 
■00621 

•07827 
■01516 

Of  variable 
partisN.the 
long,  of  node 

s-p 
1    -C-P) 
1   -f2j--2ft 

2(I-M 

2(»-fl 
(«-r)-4-2(»-e) 

19'^34  per  annum 
0"^5443747 
0"-471521I 

r0158958 

r  0980330 
f6424077 

1  Fused  with  2-y- (7 -f-o. 

-  wi  is  the  ratio  of  tlie  moon's  mean  motion  to  the  sun's. 

3  Irr  these  three  entries  the  lower  number  gives  Ihe  value  when  the  co- 
efficients  of  the  evection  and  variation  have  their  full  values  asdenved  from 
lunar  theory. 

*  Indicated  by  SMS  as  a  compound  tide  (see  below.  §  24). 

*  A  fusion  of  7-<r±CT,  of  which  the  latter  is  the  tide  named. 

•  The  upper  Dumber  is  the  meao  value  of  the  coeffi<?if  nt  of  the  tide  7  -  ff  -  CT  ; 
the  lower  applies  to  the  tide  Mj,  compounded  from  the  tides  y-a-js  and 
■y-ff  +  CJ. 

?  The  lower  number  gives  the  value  when  the  coefTicieDtsin  the  evection  have 
Uieir  full  value  as  derived  from  lunar  theory. 

8  The  mean  value  of  this  coefficient  is  4<]-(-;f2)(i  _  53in2i)(l -}3iDiiai)= -25, 
and  the  variable  part  is  approximately -(l-t-je^)  sin i  cost  sinw  c08WCO8JV= 
-■0328  cos  N. 

•  The  lower  of  these  two  numbers  gives  the  value  when  the  coeflicienta 
in  the  evection  ana  variation  have  their  full  values  aa  derived  from  lunar 
theory. 

10  Indicated  by  MSf  as  a  compound  tide. 


[K]Schedule  0/ Solar  Tides. 

Solar  Tides ;  Universal  Coefficient=rt  —  (-)<*• 

2  m\cj 


Descriptive 
Name. 

"3 

a 

Coefficient. 

=  1 

n 

Argu- 
ment 

Speed  in 

Degrees 

per  in.-s. 

Hour. 

[i.]— Semi-diurnal  Tides  ;  General  Coefficient=:ros'' V       | 

Principal 

Sa 

f(l-S<.»)Jcos«iu 

■21137 

2( 

30"  0000000 

Luni-solar 
(solar  por- 
tion). 

K2 

l(l  +  it?)isiui(i 

■01823 

21-1-24 

30"  0821372 

Larger  el- 
liptic. 

T 

^■J!e.C03-liu              [01243 

21 -d -p.) 

■29'9589314 

[ii.] — Diurnal  Tides  ;  General  Coefficients  sin  2X.           | 

bolar  diur- 
nal 

P 

-'^'(1 -!«,')!  sin  ucosSJu 

■08775 

l-K+iw 

14'95S93I4 

Lunisolar 
(solar  por- 
tion). 

K, 

^'(l-^^«.^isinulCOsal 

■08407 

t  +  h-iTT 

15"  04 10686 

[iii.]— Long  Period  Tides  ;  General  Coefficient  =  2  -  4  sin^  X. 

i^nuLr^'      l^^l         f<l-i«.*)isin2u        |03643|         2h        |  0'0S21272 

Scale  oE 
import- 
ance of 
tides. 


From  the  fourth  columns  we  see  that  the  coefBcients  in  de- 
scending order  of  magnitude  are  Mj,  K,  (both  combined),  S^, 
0,  Ki  (lunar),  N,  P,  K,  (solar),  Kj  (both  combined),  Kj  (lunar),  Mf, 
y,   Mm,   Kj  (solar),   Ssa,  c,  M„   J,    L,  T,   2N,   m,   00,    3<r  -  a, 
y  -  3(7  -  tj  +  2-ij,  y-  4J-^2^,  ff-  2i;-l-!3,  2(it-  i;),  X. 
The  tides  depending  on  the  fourth  power  ol  the  moon's  parallax 

arise  from  the  potential  V  =  -j-/r'(5cos'2-  i  cosz).    They  give  rise 

to  a  small  diurnal  tide  M,,  and  to  a  small  ter-diurnal  tide  M, ;  but 
we  shall  not  give  the  analytical  development 

§  24.  ildearological  Tides,  Over-  Tides,  and  Compound  Tides. 

All  tides  whose  period  is  an  exact  multiple  or  suhmultiple  of  a  Meteoro. 
mean  solar  day,  or  of  a  tropical  year,  are  affected  by  meteorological  logical 
conditions.  Thus  sU  the  tides  of  the  principal  solar  astronomical  tides, 
series  S,  with  speeds  y-ri,  2(y-7)),  3(7-11),  ic,  arc  subject  to 
more  or  less  meteorological  perturbation.  An  annual  inequality  in 
the  diurnal  meteorological  tide  S,  will  also  give  rise  to  a  tide  7-  27;, 
and  this  will  be  fused  with  and  indistinguishable  from  the  astro- 
nomical P  ;  it  will  also  give  rise  to  a  tide  with  speed  y,  which  «ill 
be  indistinguishable  from  the  astronomical  part  of  K,.  Similarly 
the  astronomical  tide  K^  may  be  perturbed  by  a  semi-annual  in- 
equality in  the  semi-diurnal  astronomical  tide  of  speed  217-1)). 
Although  the  diurnal  elliptic  tide  S,  01  -y  - 1)  and  the  senii-anniial 
and  annual  tides  of  speeds '27)  and  ijaie  all  probably  quite  insensible 
as  arising  from  astronomical  causes,  yet  they  have  been  found  of 
sufficient  importance  to  be  considered  The  annual  and  scmi 
annual  tides  are  of  enormous  importance  in  some  rivers,  representing 
in  fact  the  yearly  flooding  in  the  rainy  season.  In  the  reduction 
of  these  tides  the  arguments  of  the  S  series  are  (,  2l,  3(,  ic.  and  of 
the  annual,  semi-annual,  ter-annual  tides  h,  2A,  3A.  As  far  as  can 
be  foreseen,  the  magnitudes  of  these  tides  are  constant  from  year 
to  year. 

We  have  in  §  21  considered  the  dynamical  theory  of  over-tides.  Over- 
The  only  tides  of  this  kind  in  which  it  has  hitherto  been  thought  tide»^ 
necessary  to  represent  the  change  of  form  in  shallow  water  belong 
to  the  principal  lunar  and  principal  solar  series.  Thus,  besides  the 
fundamental  astronomical  tides  M,  and  S.„  the  over-tides  M,.  Mj.  Mg, 
and  S4.  S5  have  been  deduced  by  harmonic  analysis  The  height 
of  the  fundamental  tide  M,  varies  from  year  to  year,  according  to 
the  variation  in  the  obliquity  of  the  lunar  orbit,  and  this  variability 
is  represented  by  the  coefficient  cos*  J/.  It  is  probable  that  the 
variability  of  M^  M,,  Mg  will  be  represented  by  the  square,  cube, 
and  fourth  power  of  that  coefficient,  and  theory  (§  21)  indicates  that 
we  should  make  the  argument  of  the  over-tide  a  multiple  of  the 
argumeut  of  the  fundamental,  with  a  constant  subtracted. 

Compound  tides  have  been  also  considered  dynamically  in  §  21.  Com-  • 
By  combining  the  speeds  of  the  iniportant  tides,  it  wUI  be  found  that  pound 
there  is  in  many  cases  a  compound  tide  which  has  itself  a  speed  tides, 
identical  with  that  of  an  astronomical  or  meteorological  tide.     We 
thus  find  that  the  tides  0,  K,,  Mm,  P.  Mj,  Mf,  Q,  M„  L  are  liable 
to  perturbation  in  shallow  waUr.     If  either  or  both  the  component 
tides  are  of  lunar  origin,  the  height  of  the  compound  tide  will 
change  from  year  to  year,  and  will  probably  vary  proportionally 
to  the  product  of  the  coefficients  of  the  component  tides.     For  the 
purpose  of  properly  reducing  the  numerical  value  of  the  compound 
tides,  we  require  not  merely  the  speed,  but  also  the  argument 
The  following  schedule  gives  the  adopted  initials,  argumeut.  and 
speed  of  the  principal  compound  tides.     The  coefficients  »r«  the 
products  of  those  of  the  two  tides  to  be  compounded. 


■366 


TIDES 


[C.  ]—Sdicdule  of  Compound  Tidei 

. 

!        Initials. 

Arguments  com- 
bined 

Speed. 

Speed  in  Degrees 
per  in. 3.  Huur 

ME 
M3 

Msr 

2M£ 
UN 

23M 
2HS 

Mj+K, 

Jlj-O 

Ma+S, 

S, -Mj 

Mj+O 

Mj-K, 

Sj+K, 

Ma+N 

S,+0 

8,-0 

Si-Mj 

M2+S4 

M4-Sj 

3-,.-2(T 

*y-2ll-f!l 

20- -2i) 
3^-40 

3^,-211 
4Y-5(r+o 
3y-2a-n 
V+2ir-27) 
2-y+2ir-4T) 
&7  -  2(J  -  4j7 
27-4ir+27j 
6y-i<r-'in 

44--0251T28 

68'-9S410J2 

r-0158958 

42'-9271398 

45'-04100S6 
sr  ■4238338 
43'-9430356 
16*-0569644 
3f-0158968 
68'-9841042 
27- -9682084 
87'-96S2084 

Final 

form 

tidal 

con- 

■Ktauts. 


"§25    On  the  F<mn.  of  PrescTUation  of  lUsuUs  of  Tidal  Observations. 
Smm»-  Supposing  n  to  be  the  speed  of  any  tide  in-degreea  per  mean  solar 

diate  re-  hour,  and  t  to  be  mean  solar  time  elapsing  since  0**  of  the  6rst  day 
suit  of  of  (say)  a  year  of  continuous  observation,  then  the  immediate  result 
Jiirmouic  of  harmonic  analysis  is  to  obtain  A  and  B,  two  heights  (estimated 
analysis,  in  feet  and  tenths)  such  that  the  height  of  this  tidQ  at  the  time  t 
13  given  by  A  cos  tU  +  B  sin  tU.  If  we  put  B=\/{A*  +  B')  and 
Ian  f^B/A,  then  the  tide  is  represented  by 

K  cos  {nt  -  t)- 
In  this  form  R  is  the  semi-range  of  the  tide  in  Britisb  feet,  and 
f  is  an  angle  such  that  f/n  is  the  time  elapsing  after  0*»  of  the  first 
day  until  it  is  high  water  of  thi«  particular  tide.  It  is  obvious 
that  f  may  have  any  value  from  0  to  360%  and  that  the  results 
of  the  analysis  of  successive  years  of  observation  will  not  be  com- 
parable with  one  another  when  presented  in  this  form. 

But  let  us  suppose  that  the  results  of  the  analysis  are  presented 
in  a  number  of  terms  of  the  form 

fHcos(J:+u-*r), 
where  f  is  a  linear  function  of  the  moon'a  and  sun's  mean  longi- 
tudes, the  mean  longitude  of  the  moon's  and  sun's  perigees,  and 
the  local  mean  solar  time  at  the  place  of  observation,  reduced  to 
angle  at  15*  per  hour.  K  increases  uniformly  with  the  time,  and 
its  rate  of  increase  per  mean  solar  hour  is  the  n  of  the  first  method, 
and  is  called  the  speed  of  the  tide.  It  is  supposed  that  u  standa 
for  a  certain  function  of  the  longitude  of  the  node  of  the  lunar 
orbit  at  an  epoch  half  a  year  later  than  O**  of  the  first  day.  Strictly 
-■speaking,  u  should  be  taken  as  the  same  function  of  the  longitude 
•of  the  moon's  node,  varying  as  the  node  moves  ;  but,  as  the  varia- 
tion is  but  small  in  the  course  of  a  year,  u  may  be  treated  as  a 
-constant  and  put  equal  to  an  average  value  for  the  year,  which 
.nvcrage  value  is  taken  as  the  true  value  of  u  at  exactly  mid  year 
Together  F  +  u  constitute  that  function  which  has  been  tabulated 
SiS  the  "argument"  lu  the  schedules  of  §  23.  Since  F+u  are  to- 
^ether  the  whole  argument  according  to  the  equilibrium  theory  of 
lides.  with  sea  covering  the  whole  earth,  it  follows  that  x/n  is  the 
lagging  of  the  tide  which  arises  from  kinetic  action,  friction  of  the 
-water,  imperfect  elasticity  of  the  earth,  and  the  distribution  of  land. 
It  IS  supposed  that  H  is  the  mean  value  in  British  feet  of  the 
senn-range  of  the  particular  tide  in  question  ;  f  is  a  numerical 
factor  of  augmcntatioD  or  diminution,  due  to  the  variability  of 
the  obliquity  of  the  lunar  orbit-  The  value  of  f  is  the  ratio  of  the 
"coefficient"  in  the  third  column  of  the  preceding  schedules  to  the 
mean  value  of  the  same  term  For  example,  for  all  the  solar  tides 
f  is  unity,  and  for  the  pnncipa]  lunar  tide  M,  it  is  equal  to 
cos*  J/H-cos*iw  coS*^i,  for  the  mean  value  of  this  term  has  a 
coefficient  cos*  Jw  cos*  ji-  It  is  obvious,  then,  that,  if  the  tidal 
observations  are  consistent  from  year  to  year,  H  and  k  should  come 
3Ut  the  same  from  each  year's  reductions.  It  is  only  when  the 
results  are  presented  in  such  a  form  as  this  that  it  will  be  possible 
to  judge  whether  the  harmonic  analysis  is  yielding  satisfactory 
results.  This  mode  of  giving  the  tidal  results  is  also  essential 
for  the  uSe  of  a  tide-predicting  machine  (see  §  38). 

"We  must  now  show  how  to  determine  H  and  k  from  R  and  f.  It 
'is  clear  that  H  =  R/f,  and  the  determination  of  f  from  the  schedules 
■depends  on  the  evaluation  of  the  mean  value  of  each  of  the  terms 
in  the  schedules,  into  which  we  shall  not  enter.  If  Kobe  the  value 
Df  V  at  0*»  of  the  first  day.  then  clearly 

-  i-=r  Ko  +  «  -  IC. 

«o  tha;  k  =  ^+Vq  +  v- 

Thus  the  ruie  for  the  determination  oficis:  Add  to  the  value  of 
^  the  valiu  of  the  argument  at  0^  of  the  first  day. 
Tida!  The  results  of  harmonic  analysis  are  usually  tabulated  by  giving 

con-  H,  K  under  the  initial  letter  of  each  tide  ;  the  results  are  thus 

tftaots.      comparable  from  year  to  year'     For  the  purpose  of  using  the  tide- 
predicting  machine  the  process  of  determining  H  and  k  from  R  and 


1  See,  for  oxwnple,  a  collection  of  results  by  Baird  and  Darwin,  Proc.  Boy.  ^—-, 


f  has  simply  to  be  reversed,  with  the  difference  that  the  instant  of 
time  to  which  to  refer  the  argument  is  0**  of  the  first  day  of  the 
new  year,  and  we  must  take  note  of  the  different  value  of  u  and  f 
for  the  new  year.  Tables '•'  have  been  computed  for  f  and  u  for 
all  longitudes  of  the  moon's  node  and  for  each  'kind  of  tide,  and 
the  mean  longitudes  of  moon,  sun,  and  lunar  perigee  may  be  ex- 
tracted from  any  ephemens.  Thus  when  the  mean  semi-range  H 
and  retardation  k  of  any  tide  are  known  its  height  may  be  com- 
puted for  any  instant.  The  sum  of  the  heights  for  ail  the  principal 
tides  of  course  gives  the  actual  height  of  water. 

§  26.  Numerical  Barmomc  Analysis  for  Tides  of  Short  Period. 

The  tide-gauge  (described  below,  §  36)  furnishes  us  with  a  con- Treat - 
tinuous  graphical  record  of  the  height  of  the  water  above  some  meat  of 
known  datum  mark  for  every  instant  of  time.     The  first  operation  tide 
performed  on  the  tidal  record  is  the  measurement  m  feet  and  deci-torves 
mals  of  the  height  of  water  above  the  datum  at  every  mean  solar 
hour.     The  period  chosen  for  analysis  is  about  one  year  and  the 
first  measurement  corresponds  to  noon.  ^ 

If  T  be  the  period  of  any  one  of  the  diurnal  tides,  or  the  doubk 
period  of  any  oue  of  the  semi-diurnal  tides,  it  approximates  mon.  * 
or  less  nearly  to  24  m.s.  hours>  and,  if  we  divide  it  into  twenty- 
four  equal  parts,  we  may  speak  of  each  as  a  T-hour.  We  shall  foe 
brevity  refer  to  mean  solar  time  as  S-time.  Suppose,  now,  ihaH 
we  have  two  clocks,  each  marked  with  360''  24  hours,  and  that 
the  hand  of  the  first,  or  ti-clock,  goes  round  once  in  24  S-houra, 
and  that  of  the  second,  orT-clock,  goes  round  once  in  twenty-four 
T-hours,  and  suppose  that  the  two  clocks  are  started  at  0°  or  0* 
at  noon  of  the  initial  day.  For  the  sake  of  distinctness,  let  na 
imagine  that  aT^hour  is  longer  than  an  Srhonr,  so  that  the  T-clock 
goes  slower  than  the  S-clock.  The  measurements  of  the  tide  curva 
give  us  the  height  of  water  exactly  at  each  S-hour  ;  and  it  is  re- 
quired from  these  data  to  determine  the  height  of  water  at  each 
T-hour.  For  this  end  we  are,  m  fact,  instructed  to  count  T-time, 
but  are  only  allowed  to  do  so  by  reference  to  S-time,  and,  moreover. 
the  time  is  always  to  be  specified  as  an  integral  number  of  hours. 
Commencing  with  0^  of  the  first  day,  we  begin  counting  0,  1,  2, 
&c,  as  the  T-hand  comes  up  to  its  hour-marks.  But,  as  the  S-hana 
gains  on  the  T-hand,  there  will  come  a  time  when,  the  T-band 
being  exactly  at  the;?  hour-mark,  the  S-hand  is  nearly  as  far  as 
p  +  ^.  When,  however,  the  T-hand  has  advanced  to  thep-t-l  hour- 
mark,  the  S-hand  will  be  a  little  beyond  p-f  1  +  i, — that  is  to  say, 
a  little  less  than  half  an  hour  before  p  +  Z  Counting,  then,  ia 
T-time  by  reference  to  S-time,  we  jump  from  p  to  p  +  2.  The 
counting  will  go  on  continuously  for  a  number  of  hours  nearly 
equal  to  2p,  and  then  another  number  will  be  dropped,  and  so  oa 
throughout  the  whole  year.  If  it  had  been  the  T-haud  whic^ 
went  faster  than  the  S-hand,  it  is  obvious  that  one  number  would 
be  repeated  at  two  successive  hours  instead  of  one  being  droppei 
We  may  describe  each  such  process  as  a  "change" 

Now,  if  we  have  a  sheet  marked  for  entry  of  heights  of  water  Method 
according  to  T-hours  from  results  measured  at  S-hours.  we  mustof  euuly 
enter  thoS-measurements  continuously  up  top,  and  we  then  com«  w. 
to  a  change  ;  dropping  one  of  the  S-senes,  we  go  on  again  continu- 
ously until  another  change,  when  another  is  dropped  ;  and  so  on. 
Since  a  change  occurs  at  the  time  when  a  T-hour  falls  almost 
exactly  halfway  between  two  S-hours,  it  will  be  more  accurate  at 
a  change  to  insert  the  two  S-entnes  which  fall  on  each  side  rf 
the  truth.  If  this  be  done  the  whole  of  the  S-series  of  measure- 
ments is  entered  en  the  T-sheet.  Similarly,  if  it  be  the  T-band 
which  goes  faster  than  the  S-hand,  we  may  leave  a  gap  in  the 
T-series  instead  of  duplicating  an  entry.  For  the  analysis  of  tbf 
T-tide  there  is  therefore  prepared  a  sheet  arranged  in  rows  and 
columns  ;  each  row  corresponds  to  one  T-day,  and  the  columns  are 
marked  0*",  !*»,...  23'*;  the  0"s  may  be  called  T-noons.  A  dot 
is  put  in  each  space  for  entry,  and  where  there  is  a  change  two 
dots  are  put  if  there  is  to  be  a  double  entry,  and  a  bar  if  there  la 
to  be  no  entry. ^  The  numbers  entered  in  each  column  are  summed ; 
the  results  are  then  divided,  each  by  the  proper  divisor  for  its  column, 
and  thus  the  mean  value  for  that  column  is  obtained.  In  this  way 
-4  numbers  are  found  which  give  the  mean  height  of  water  at  each 
of  the  24  special  hours.  It  is  obvious  that  if  this  process  were  con- 
tinued over  a  very  long  time  we  should  in  the  end  extract  the  tide 
under  analysis  from  amongst  all  the  others  ;  but.  as  the  process 
only  extends  over  about  a  year,  the  elimination  of  the  others  is  not 
quite  complete.  The  elimination  of  the  effects  of  the  other  tides 
may  be  improved  by  choosing  the  period  for  analysis  not  exactly 
equal  to  one  year. 

Let  us  now  return  to  our  general  notation,  and  consider  the  2C 
mean  values,  each  pertaining  to  the  24  T-hours.  We  suppose  that 
all  the  tides  except  the  T-tide  arc  adequately  eliminated,  and,  in 
fact,  a  computation  of  the  necessary  corrections  for  the  absence 
of  complete  elimination,  which  is  given  in  the  Tidal  Report  to  the 
British  Association  in  1872,  shows  that  thi^  is  the  case.     It  is 

*  Krixrrt  on  Harmonic  Analysis  to  Brit.  Assoc,  1883,  and  moi-e  extek.Jed  taW^ 
in  Baird'a  Manual  of  Tidal  Observation,  London,  1887. 
■    *  A  sample  page  is  given  in  the  Report  to  the  Brit.  Absoc.,  ^SS3. 


TIDES 


367 


Ntcts-      obTious  tint  any  one  of  the  24  values  docs  not  give  the  true  height 

siljr  for     of  the  T-tidc  at  (hit  T-hour,  but  gives  the  average  height  of  the 

lugmtot-  water,  as  due  to  tlie  T-tide,  estimated  over  half  a  T-liour  before 

!!>£  fac-    and  half  a  Thour  after  that  hour.     A  consideration  of  this  point 

tnez.  sliows  that  certain   augmenting  factors,  dilfeiing  sliglitly    from 

unity,  must  be  applied.     In  the  reduction  of  tlic  i>-serics  of  tides, 

the  numbers  treated  are  the  actual  heights  of  the  water  exactly  at 

the  S  hours,  and  therefore  no  augmenting  factor  is  requisite. 

We  must  now  explain  how  the  harmonic  analysis,  which  the  use 
of  these  fectors  presupposes,  is  carried  out. 

If  I  denotes  T-time  expressed  ic  T-hours,  and  n  is  15',  we  express 
the  height  h,  as  given  by  the  averaging  process  above  explained, 
by  the  formula 

h  =  A,  +  A,cosn<  +  B, sinni  +  A2Cos2s<  +  B,sin2Br  +  . . ., 
where  C  is  0.  1,  2, . .    23.     Theu,  if  S  denotes  summation  of  the 
scries  of  24  terms  found  by  attributing  to  t  its  24  values,  it  is 
obvious  that 
Analysu  A,=  ,',  Sh;  A|  =  ,>,2hcosn« ;  6,  =  ^,  Shsin  a/ ; 

A;  =  t'j  2:hcos2>ti  ;  B,  =  ,4  Zhsin2««  ;  kc,  ic. 
5<ince  n  is  15°  and  1  is  an  integer,  it  foUou-s  that  all  the  cosines 
and  sines  involved  in  these  series  are  equal  to  one  of  the  following, 
vi2.,0,  ±sinl5°,  ±sin30°,  ±sin  45°,  ±5in60°,  ±sin75°,  ±1.  It  is 
found  convenient  to  denote  these  sines  by  0,  ±S„±Sb±Sj,  ±S,, 
±S,.±1.  The  multiplication  of  the  24  h's  by  the  various  S's  and 
the  subsequent  additions  may  be  arf^ng^  'n  a  very  neat  tabular 
form,  like  that  given  in  a  Report  to  the  British  Association  in  1SS3. 
The  A's  and  B's  having  been  thus  deduced,  we  have  R  = 
%/(A*+  B').  R  must  then  oe  multiplied  by  the  augmenting  factor. 
We  thus  have  the  augmented  R.  Next  the  angle  whose  tangent 
is  B/A  gives  f.  The  addition  to  f  of  the  appropriate  y^^  +  u  gives 
«,  and  the  multiplication  of  R  by  the  appropriate  1/f  gives  H.  The 
reduction  is  then  complete.  An  actual  numerical  example  of 
harmonic  analysis  is  given  in  the  Aduiiraliy  ScUntific  Manual  {iSS6) 
In  the  article  "Tides"  ;  but  the  process  there  employed  is  slightly 
different  from  the  above,  because  the  series  of  observations  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  short  one. 

§  27.   Harvumic  Analysis /or  Tida  of  Long  Period. 
Tkles  of       For  the  purpose  of  determining  the  tides  of  long  period  we  have 
3oBg  to  eliminate  the  oscillations  of  water-level  arising  from  the  tides  of 

2<«nud.  short  perio<l.  As  the  quickest  of  these  tides  has  a  period  of  many 
days,  the  height  of  mean  water  at  one  instant  for  each  day  gives 
sufficient  data.  Thus  there  will  in  a  year's  observations  be  365 
heights  to  be  submitted  to  harmonic  analysis.  To  Bnd  the  daily 
mean  for  any  day  we  take  the  arithmetic  mean  of  24  consecutive 
hourly  values,  btginning  with  the  height  at  noon.  This  height 
will  then  apply  to  the  middle  instant  of  the  period  from  0''  to  23'', 
— that  is  to  say,  to  11 1"  30°  at  night.  The  formation  of  a  daily 
mean  does  not  obliterate  the  tidal  oscillations  of  short  period,  be- 
cause none  of  the  tides,  except  those  of  the  principal  solar  scries, 
have  commensurable  periods  in  mean  solar  time.  A  small  correc- 
tion, or  "  clearance  of  the  daily  mean,"  has  therefore  to  be  applied 
for  all  the  important  tides  of  short  period,  except  for  the  solar  tides. 
Passing  by  this  clearance,  we  next  take  the  365  daily  means,  and 
find  their  mean  value.  This  gives  the  mean  height  of  water  for 
the  year.  We  next  subtract  the  mean  height  from  each  of  the  365 
values,  and  find  365  quantities  6h,  giving  the  daily  height  of  water 
above  the  mean  height  These  quantities  are  to  be  the  subject  of 
the  harmonic  analysis,  and  the  tides  chosen  for  evaluation  are  those 
which  have  been  denoted  above  as  Mm,  Mf,  MSf,  Sa,  Ssa. 
Uirmo-  Let  4h  =  A  cos  (a  -  c)£-(- B  sin  (ir  -  o)<  \ 
Vitally  •fCcos2<r«  +D  sm'lat  I 

«alysed.  -fCcos2(ff-.;y-HD'sin2((T-i7)<  V  (73X 

-I-  E  cos  i)<  +f  5iai)l  I 

•♦■G  cos2i)«  -hH  sin2i)<  / 

where  (  is  time  measured  from  the  first  ll""  30"".  If  we  multiply 
the  365  oh"s  by  365  values  of  cos  (a--n)l  and  effect  the  summation, 
the  coefficients  of  B,C.D,  ic,  are  very  small,  and  that  of  A  is  nearly 
182J.  Similarly,  multiplying  by  sin  (<r- Ej)i,  C03  2ff(,  ic.,  we  obtain 
10  equations  for  A,B,C,  it,  in  each  of  which  one  coefficient  is  nearly 
1824  and  the  rest  small.  These  equations  are  easily  solved  by 
successive  approximation.  In  this. way  A,B,C,  ic,  are  found, 
and  afterwards  the  clearance  to  which  we  have  alluded  is  applied. 
Finally  the  cleared  A,B,C,  ic,  are  treated  exactly  as  were  the 
components  of  the  tides  of  short  period.  Special  forms  and  tables 
have  been  prepared  for  facilitating  these  operations. 

V.  SYSTanTic  Method. 

§  28.  On  the  Method  and  Notation. 

SyBthetic     The  general  nature  of  the  synthetic  method  has  been  already 

cLetbod.    explained  ;  we  now  propose  to  develop  the  expressions  for  the  tide 

from  the  result  as  expressed  in  the  harmonic  notation.     If  it  should 

be  desired  to  make  a  comparison  of  the  results  of  tidal  observation 

as  expressed  in  the  synthetic  method  with  those  of  the  harmonic 

method,  or  the  converse,  or  to'compute  a  tide-table  from  the  ha~- 

monic  constants  by  reference  to  the  moon's  transits  and  from  t*"» 


declinations  and  parallaxes  of  sun  and  moon,  the  analytical  ex- 
pressions of  the  following  sections  arc  necessarv. 

In  chapter  iv.  the  mean  semi-range  and  angle  of  retardation  or 
lag  of  any  one  of  the  tides  have  been  denoted  by  H  and  •.  We 
shall  licie,  however,  require  to  introduce  several  of  the  Hs  and  «'3 
into  the  same  expression,  and  they  must  therelore  be  distinguished 
from  one  another.  This  may  in  general  be  conveniently  done  by 
writing  as  a  subscript  letter  the  initial  of  the  corresponding  tide  ; 
for  example  H„,  k^  will  be  taken  to  denote  the  H  and  <  of  the 
principal  lunar  tide  M,.  This  natation  does  not  suit  the  K,  and 
k,  tides,  and  we  shall  therefore  write  H",  «'  for  the  semi-diurnal 
Kj,  and  H',  «'  for  the  diurnal  K,  tide.  These  two  tides  proceed 
according  to  sidereal  time  and  arise  from  the  sun  and  moon  jointly, 
and  a  synthesis  of  the  two  parts  of  cich  is  effected  in  the  harmonic 
method,  although  that  synthesis  'S  not  explained  in  chapter  iv. 
The  ratio  of  the  solar  to  the  lunar  part  of  the  total  K,  tide  is  46407  ; 
hence  -633  H"  is  the  lunar  portion  of  the  total  K,  There  will  be 
no  occasion  to  separate  the  two  portions  of  K„  and  we  shall  retain 
the  synthesis  which  is  effected  in  the  harmonic  method. 

§  29.  ScmiDiurnal  Tides. 

The  process  adopted  is  to  replace  the  mean  longitudes  and  ele- 
ments of  the  orbit  m  each  term  of  the  harmonic  development  of  the 
schedules  of  §  23  by  hour-angles,  declinations,  and  parallaxes. 

At  the  time  t  (mean  solar  time  of  port  reduced  to  angle)  let 
o,  5,  ^  be  J's  R.A.,  decimation,  and  hour-angle,  and  I  h's  longitude 
measured  from  the  "intersection."  These  and  other  symbols  when 
wTitten  with  subscript  accent  are  to  apply  to  the  sun.  Then  r 
being  the  R.A.  of  the  intersection,  we  have  from  the  right-angled 
spherical  triangle  of  which  the  sides  are  I,  S,  a-r  the  relations 

tan(a-»)  =  cos/ tan/,    sin  J  =  sin /sin  i      (74). 

Now  J  -  £  IS  the  I's  mean  longitude  measured  from  the  intersectioQ 
and  s-p  is  the  mean  anomaly  ;  hence  approximately 

l=3-(  +  2esm{s-p) (75). 

From  (74)  and  (75)  we  have  approximately 

a  =  J  -I-  (f  -  {)  -h  2<  sin  (s  -;))  -  Un' J/sin  2(j  -  (). 
Now,  h  being  the  O's  mean  longittide,  (-i-A  is  the  sidereal  hour- 
angle,  and  ^  =  C  +  h-a. 
Hence 

(■^-A-J-(»-f)  =  ^-^2<Sln{s-p)-tan»j/siIl2(J-|)  (76). 
Again,  if  we  put 

cos'ii  =  l-5sin'/      (77), 

we  have  approximately  from  (74)  and  (75) 

cos'5  -  cos-A  -v 

r^rr =C0s2(S-{)    I 

sinacosSrfS  „,       „   f  ('*>• 

whence  — tt-   -y-  =  Sia2t.s-i)  I 

asm-A    dt  J 

Obviously  A  is  such  a  declination  that  sin- A  is  the  mean  value  of 

sin' 5  during  a  lunar  month.     Again,  if  P  be  the  ratio  of  the  I's 

parallax  to  her  mean  parallax,  the  equation  to  the  ellipse  described 


Mean 

longi- 
tude and 
eleaKiita 
replaced 
by  koBT- 
angle. 
decliaa- 
tion,  ami 
paraUax. 


J(P-l)=cos(j-p)| 
'       '"'         ,        >   I- 


..(79X 


gives 

whence 

Now  it  appears  in  schedule  A  of  5  23  that  the  arguments  of  all 
the  lunar  semi. diurnal  tides  arc  of  the  form  :i;' +  A  -  i')±2(3-{)  or 
±{s-p).  It  IS  clear,  therefore,  that  the  cosines  ol  such  angles  may 
by  the  relations  (76),  (78),  (79)  be  expressed  in  terms  of  hour-angles, 
declinations,  and  parallaxes.  Also  Dy  means  of  (77)  we  may  intro- 
duce A  in  place  of  /  lu  the  coefficients  of  each  term.  An  approri- 
mate  formula  for  A  is  16°  51  ■^3°  44  co»  A'-0°19  cos  2.iV.  In  the 
Report  to  the  British  Associatwn  for  1885,  the  details  of  the  processes 
indicated  are  given. 

Before  giving  tho  fonnnla  it  must  be  remarked  that  the  result 
is  expressed  more  succinctly  by  the  introduction  of  the  symbol  J* 
to  denote  the  It's  declination  at  a  time  earlier  than  that  of  observa- 
tion by  an  interval  which  may  be  called  the  "age  of  the  declina- 
tiojial  inequality,"  and  is  computed  from  the  formula  tan  («"-  «„)/2<r 
or  52'' 2 tan  (it"-!,,).  Similarly,  it  is  convenient  to  introduce  F 
to  denote  the  value  of  /"  at  a  time  earlier  than  that  of  observation 
by  the  "age  of  the  parallactic  inequality,"  to  be  computed  from 
tan  (it„ -«„)/(»- o)  or  105'''3  tan  («■>-«„).  These  two  "ages" 
probably  do  not  differ  in  general  much  from  a  third  period,  com- 
puted from  («,  -  <i,)/2((r  - 1)),  which  is  called  the  "age  of  the  tide." 

The  similar  series  of  ttansformatious  when  applied  to  the  solar 
tides  leads  to  simpler  results,  because  A,  is  a  constant,  being  16°*33, 
and  the  "ages"  may  be  treated  as  zero  ,  besides  the  terms  depend- 
ing on  dSjdl  and  dPJdl  are  negligible.  If  now  we  denote  by  h| 
the  height  of  water  with  reference  to  mean  water-mark,  in  so  far 
as  the  height  is  affected  by  the  harmonic  tides  M,  S^  K^  N,  L, 
T,  R,'  the  harmonic  expression  is  trani^formed  into 

•  R  13  the  smaUer  solar  elliptic  tide  beariog  the  sarae  relation  to  T  that  L 
does  to  ^  amoD'-- 1  the  lunar  tides.    It  was  omitted  as  uaiinportant  lo  scbeduJ' 


Agerf 

dediiia- 
tioafil 
aud  p.«- 
raUacti4 
correc 


368 


Total 
Etemi- 
diurnal 
tide. 


One  solar 
and  one 
lunar 
term. 


TIDES 


cos'  A 

"  cos"  A, 

COSTS' 
+ 


„cos(2f-0  +  H,cos(2i(', 
"™*''^-683H"cos(2v[.-0 


".) 


siir  A, 

-  5,  -  cos-  A, 


sill-  A, 


^•317H"cos(2vt, -O 


a  sin-  A, 
cos- 


T- 


cos-  A, 


cos (k"  -  K 
cos  Kn 


■  H,  cos  K, 


;  I  sin 


■H„tan=A,    sin'{2^-/c, 


C0s(2i^-e) 


+  {^,-l) 


H,  -  H, 


is«A 


dP/dt  r 


4H„c- 


cos(2^^,-*r,) 
H„  H, 


■jjsin(2il.- 


/t,»)(80), 


'«cos-  A,  (ir  -  D)L'"""'    cos(v„-it„)     COS/ti-H, 

where  e  is  aii  auxiliary  angle  defined  by 

H^sinir  -Hisiniri  ,„ 

t3ne  =  ,-i " — 7j (81). 

H„  COS  /t„  -  Hi  cos  Ki 

The  first  two  terms  are  the  principal  tides,  and  the  physical  origin 
of  the  remaining  small  terms,  is  indicated  by  their  involving  S',  d„ 
ihjdt,  P,  P„  dFjdt.  The  terms  in  dSjdt  and  dPjdt  are  generally 
smaller  than  the  others.  •  «^  . 

The  approximation  may  easily  be  carried  further..:  rBut  the  above 
is  in  some  respects  a  closer  approximation  than  the  erpreseion  from 
which  it  is  derived,  since  the  hour-angles,  declinatiqns,  and  paral- 
laxes necessarily  involve  all  the  lunar  and  solar  ine'ijualities. 

§30. 


Coni- 
nlenco- 
nient  of 
j:\Tithesi3. 


Syntliescs  of  Solar  and  of  Lunar  Porlions  of  (he 

Semi-Diurtial  Tide. 

Let  us  write 

cos- 5' -cos- A   -r.oTT"       /  ff         X 
■••C83H  cos  («-«„) 


M='^-°?.:-t-n,„ 

cos- A, 


cos- A 
cos-  A, 
cos- 6' 


sin"  A, 

H„  cos  (f„  -  Hj  cos  Ki 
ccose 
•cos-  A 


(/'-D'-i?- 


C03(e -»„);■ 


•  683  H"sin  (<"-«„) 


cos- A 


cos*  A, 
sin  5  cos  5  rf5 


{/v.i,H,,cos«, 


5rf5  r 

'  d(.  Lc 


ccosc 
683  H" 


Hicosiri  .    , 

•sin(«- 


M,=H,-H 


A     J  ,  — T7'„---i-H„Un'A,"| 
ffSin-A,   di  Lcos(/c  -k,„)  J 

e  cos"  A,  (T  -  ra  L  cos  (/t, 

cos's   -cos" A, 


H, 


Hj 


sin"  A, 


'•317H''+(/',-l) 


fn)" 

H,- 


cos  (it,  -  K„)  . 


--(SS). 

Since  observation  and  theory  agi'ee  in  showing  that  k"  is  generally 
very  nearly  equal  to  n,,  we  are  justified  in  substituting  if,  for  i^  in 
the  small  solar  dcclinatioual  term  of  f80)  involviug  -317  H".  Then, 
using  (82)  in  (80),  .        . 

h,=Mcos2(\^-M)-l-M,cos2(f,-M,) (83). 

tf  the  equilibrium  theory  of  tides  were  true,  each  11  would  be  pro- 
portional to  the  corresponding  term  in  the  harmonically  developed 
potential.  This  proportionality  holds  nearly  between  tides  of  almost 
the  same  speed  ;  hence,  using  the  expressions  in  the  column  of  co- 
efficients in  schedule  [B,  i.  1,  §  23  (with  the  additional  tide  R  there 
omitted,  but  having  a  coefficient  (t,/7-)J.<c,  cos'Jw,  found  by  sym- 
metry with  the  lunar  tide  L),  and  introducing  A,  in  place  of  u  in 
the  solar  tides,  we  may  assume  the  truth  of  the  proportion 


sin- A, 


H,-H, 


=  H.., 


With  this  assumption,  M,  reduces  to 

,,      cos"  5, ,_      -,  „     ,,TT      cos"5,„  ^ 

M.  =  rrTTxH,  +  3(/'.-l)H.  =  -;^H,ll-fj(i',-i)J. 


Hence  M,  =  P,^ 


cos-  A. 
cos"  5, 


cos'-  A, 


^11... 


,...(84). 


'  cos"  A. 

This  is  the  law  which  we  should  have  derived  directly  from  the 
equilibrium  tlieory,  with  the  hypothesis  that  all  solar  semi-diurnal 
tides  SMiIer  nearly  equal  retardation.  Save  for  meteorological  influ- 
ences, this  must  certainly  bo  true. 

A  similar  synthesis  of  M  cannot  be  carried  out,  because  the  con- 
siderable diversity  of  speed  amongst  the  lunar  tides  makes  a  similar 
appeal  to  the  equilibrium  theory  incorrect.  It  may  be  seen,  how- 
ever, that  it  would  be  more  correct  to  write  cos"  5'  instead  of  cos"  A 
in  the  coefficient  of  the  parallactic  terms  in  M  and  2m. 

The  three  terms  of  M  in  (82)  give  the  height  of  lunar  tide  with  its 
declinational  and  parallactic  corrections,  and  similarly  the  fonpula 
for  IJL.  in  (82)  gives  its  value  and  corrections. 

If  now  T  deJiotcs  the  mean, solar  time  elapsing  since  the  moon's 
upper  transit  and  7  the  angular  Telocity  of  the  eailh's  rotation, 
kt  >s  clear  that  tlje  moon's  hour-angle 

^  =  (7-rfa/rfO'-; 


and,  siBce  Mcos2(^-/»)  is  a  maximum  when  ^=Mor  differs  froir 
li  by  180°,  it  follows  that  inKy-dajiit)  is  the  "interval"  from  the 
moon's  upper  or  lower  transit  to  high  water  of  the  lunar  tide.  Since 
T  is  necessarily  less  than  12^,  we  may  during  the  interval  from  transit 
to  high  water  take  as  an  approximation  da/dt  =  a,  the  moon's  mean 
motion.'  Hence  that  interval  is  )il(y-<r),  or  ^ip  hours  nearly, 
when  II  is  expressed  in  degrees.  Thus  (82)"for  fi.  gives  by  its  first 
term  the  mean  interval  for  the  lunar  tide,  and  by  the  Bubseqaent 
terms  the  declinational  and  parallactic  corrections. 

We  have  said  that  the  synthesis  of  M  cannot  be  carried  out  as  Approxi* 
in  the  case  of  M,,  but  the  partial  synthesis  below  will  give  fairly  mate 
good  results.     The  proposed  formula  is  lonnuli. 

cos"J'-cos-A  ,.„  „„       ,,        , 
■683H  C03(lt  -Km); 


M=i-,3£2^H, 


2m  = 


K„+- 


cos"  A,    "  sin"  A. 

cos"  5'  -  cos'  A 


sin"  A, 


.•683  H"  sin  («"-«„) ; 


'  cos^  A,   ' 


2m,  =  k, (85). 

These  formula  have  been  used  in  the  example  of  the  computation 
of  a  tide-table  given  in  the  Admiralty  Scientific  Manual  (1886). 

§  31.  Synihesia  of  Lunar  and  Solar  Semi-Diumal  Tida, 

Let  A  be  the  excess  of  I's  orer  O's  R.A.,  so  that 

A  =  o  -  a,,  \ 

Vf',=V'+A,  -  \ (8«). 

and  hj=M  cos-2(\J'  -  m)  -H  M,  cos  2(f  +  A  -  m,)  ) 

The  synthesis  is  then  completedby  writing 

H  cos  2(m  -<P) = M  +  M,  cos  2(  a  -  m,  -h  /»)■ 
Hsin2(>x-<?)=        M,sin2(A-Ai,-HM), 

sothat'  h,=Hco3  2((!'-#) (87). 

Then  H  is  the  height  of  the  total  semi-diurnal  tide  and  0/(7  -  dajdl 
or  <f>l{y  -  c)  or  ^  <p,  when  (p  is  given  in  degrees,  is  the  "interval ' 
from  the  moon's  transit  to  high  water. 
The  formulae  for  H  and  ^  may  be  writt«n    . 

H  =  V I M'  -1-  K' + 2MM,  cos  2(A  -  M,  +.^^»  1 

tan2(;.-^)  =  ,i|HMziVtf-  [ m 

^    ^'    M  +  M,co3  2(A-Ai,+/i)  } 

Tliey  may  be  reduced  to  a  form  adapted  for  logarithmic  calculation. 
Since  A  goes  through  its  period  in  a  lunation,  it  follows  that  H 
and  ^  have  inequalities  with  a  period  of  half  a  lunation.  These 
are  called  the  "fortnightly  or  semi-menstrual  inequalities"  in  the 
height  and  interval. 

Spring  tide  obviously  occurs  when  A=m, -M-  Since  the  mean 
value  of  A  is  s  -  A  (the  difference  of  the  mean  longitudes),  and  since 
the  mean  values  of /xand  m,  sre  i<m,  iff,  it  follows  that  the  mean 
value  of  the  period  elapsing  after  full  moon  and  change  of  moon  up 
to  spring  tide  is  (it,  -  it„)/2((T  -  tj).  The  association  of  spring  tide 
with  full  and  change  is  obvious,  and  a  fiction  has  been  adopted  by 
which  it  is  held  that  spring  tide  i§  generated  in  those  configura- 
tions of  the  moon  and  sun,  but  takes  some  time  to  reach  the  port 
of  observation.  Accordingly  (/f,  -  itm)/2(ff  -  rj)  has  been-  called  the 
"age  of  the  tide."  The  average  age  is  about  36  hours  as  far  as 
observations  have  yet  been  made.  The  ago  of  the  tide  appears  not 
in  general  to  differ  very  much  froin  the  ages  of  the  declmational 
and  parallactic  inequalities. 

Ill' computing  a  tide-table  it  is  lound  practically  convenient  not 
to  use  A,  which  is  the  difference  of  R.A.  s  at  the  unknown  time  ol 
high  water,  but  to  refer  the  tide  to  A,^  the  difference  of  R. A.'3  at  tho 
time  of  the  moon's  transit.  It  is  clear  that  A,  is  the  apparent  tim 
of  the  moon's  transit  reduced  to  angle  at  15°  per  hour.  We  havt 
already  remarked  that  ^l{y-da/dt)is  the  interval  from  transit  to 
high  water,  and  hence  at  high  water 

^  daldt-dajdt      ^  (89). 

7  -  aajat 
As  an  approTJmation  we  may  attribute  to  all  the  quantities  in 
the  second  term  their  mean  values,  and  we  then  have^ 


Synthe- 
sis to 
obtaio 
single 
term. 


Fort- 
nightly 
in  equal- 
ity. 


Age  of 
tide. 


Refer- 
ence to 
moon'e 
transit. 


and 


A  -ji,+,j.=A,- ^.+}^l^  =  A<,-l',  +  i>"  ■ —^^0^ 


This  approximate  formula  (90)  may  bo  used  in  computing  from 
(88)  the  fortnightly  inequality  in  the  "height"  and  "interval." 

In  this  investigation  we  have  supposed  that  the  declinational  and 
parallactic  corrections  are  applied  to  the  lunar  and  solar  tides  be- 
fore their  synthesis ,  but  it  is  obvious  that  tlie  process  might  be 
reversed,  and  that  we  may  form  a  table  of  the  fortnightly  inequality 
based  on  mean  values  H„  and  H„  and  afterwards  apply  corrections. 
This  is  the  process  usually  adopted,  but  it  is  less  exact.  The  labour 
of  computing  the  fortnightly  inequality,  especially  by  graphical 
methods,  is  not  great,  and  the  plan  here  suggested  se;ms  preferable. 

1  The  tide  has  be«Q  reXerrcd  by  Lubbock  and  oltieis  to  iin  earliei-  transit 
ond  nnt  to  the  on»  kniuediately  prtcfding  Iho  t.'mc  und"  consideration.  l! 
this  case  we  cannot  admit  with  great  acpurBc.3  t^at  *i;  <(  =  0 ,  wncc  the  intervs 
may  be  30  tr  40  hours. 


TIDES 


3G1) 


§  32:   IHurrml  Tides. 
Dinmil        Tbc!*  t1d<-3  nave  i.ot  been  usually  trcaled  with  completeness  in 
tiJw  not  the  9yntbi>tic  melhnd.     lu  the  tule  tables  u(  the  British  Admij^lty 


sily 

trrnted 

■y&lbet- 


(91), 


(92). 

,  fo  that  we 


Partiu 


we  6n<l  that  the  tides  at  some  ports  are  "affected  by  diurnal  in- 
equality"; such  a  statenii-nt  may  b«  interprtttd  as  meaning  that 
the  tides  arw  not  to  be  predicted  by  the  inforniatioD  given  in  the 
8o-call«l  lidotablo.  The  diurnal  tides  are  indeed  complex,  and  do 
Bot  lend  theiuselves  easily  to  a  complete  synthesis  In  the  har- 
muuic  notation  the  three  important  tides  are  K,,0,  P,  aid  the  lunar 
portion  ol  li,  is  nearly  equal  to  O  in  height,  whilst  the  solar  portion 
B  BCiirly  i^iual  to  1'.  A  complete  synthesis  may  be  carried  out  on 
the  liues  adopted  in  treating  the  semi-diurnal  tides,  but  the  ad- 
tiniagc  of  the  plan  is  lost  in  consequence  of  large  oscillations  of 
{he  aniplituile  through  tho  value  zero,  so  that  thu  tide  is  often 
rvppesented  by  a  negative  (|uantity  multiplied  by  a  circular  function. 
it  is  licst,  then,  only  to  attempt  a  partial  synthesis,  and  to  admit 
the  existence  of  two  diurnal  tides. 

We  s.e  from  achedulis  (A.  ii]  and  [B,  L],  §  23,  that  tho  princip.al 
diurnal  tides  are  those  lettered  ().  P.  K,.  Of  these  K,  occurs  both 
for  the  nax.n  and  the  eun.  The  synthesis  of  the  two  parts  of  K,  is 
effected  without  diBJculty,  and  the  result  is  a  formula  for  the  total 
K,  tide  like  tlial  in  [A,  ii  J,  but  with  the  ►  which  occurs  in  the  ar^- 
Bient  replaced  by  a  different  angle  denoted  as  »'.  If,  then,  we  write 
V„=«-i-A-2»-»-f2f-hjT\ 

V"=«-fA-r'  -Jt  /  " 

Uie  tbrce  tides  0,K„P  are  written  as  follows  :— . 

0  =foH„co3(V„-»„), 

Ki  =  f  Hco3(V'-<'), 

P  =-H.cosIV'-«'-(2A-»')  +  «'-'j.)l 

The  last  two  tides  have  very  nearly  the  same  speed 

may  assume  ii'  =  it^  and  that  tip  has  the  same  ratio  to  H'  a»  in  the 

equilibrium  theory.     Now,  in  schedules  (A,  iL],  [B,  ii. ],  §  23,  the 

coefficient  of  Ki,  viz.,  H'  (the  sum  of  the  lunar  and  iolar  parts),  i» 

•26522,  and  the  coefficient  of  P,  viz.,  H„  is  -08775,  bo  that  H' 

=  S'023  H^  or  say  =  3Hp.     Hence  we  have 

K,  -I-  P=  H'  [f  -  5  cos  (2A  - 1-')!  cos  (V  -  k) 
tynthesia  -H'i3in(2A-»'')8ln(V'-«'). 

If,  therefore,  we  put 

R'cosf  =  H'[r-4co3(2A-    »i\  ,0,^ 

R'sini^=Jirsin(2A-»')  /    *"'■ 

K,  +  P  =  K'cos(V  •fv''-'') 
It  is  clear  that  f  and  R'  have  a  semi-annual  inequality,  and  there- 
fore for  several  weeks  together  R'  and  ^  may  bo  treated  as  constant. 
Now  suppose  that  we  compute  V^  and  V  at  the  epoch — that  is,  at 
the  initial  noon  of  the  period  during  which  we  wish  to  predict  the 
tides — and  with  these  values  put 

fj  =  «j  -  Vj  at  ejioch,  {-  =  /t'  -  V  at  epoch  -  V. 

Then    the    speed    of    V^   is  7-2<r,    or    ]3''-94303    per    hour,    or 
360°-%5°-8673  per  day  ;  and  the  speed  of  V  is  7,  or  15°-0410686 
per  hour,  or  360'-9856  per  day.    Hence,  if  t  be  the  mean  solar  time 
on  the  ^n-^  l)th  day  since  the  initial  moment  or  epoch, 
V(,  -  «„= 360°B  +  1 3°  9-13  t  -  f„  -  25°-367re, 
V  -t  f  -  «■'  =  S80°n  +  15°041  t  -  f  -1-   0°-986n. 
TNnrnal    Therefore  the  diurnal  tides  at  time  t  of  the  (n  + 1  )th  day  are  giTen  by 
cotrec-                               0=f„HoCos[13°-943t-f,-25''-367n]  1  ,„,. 

tionato  K,  + P=K' cos[15°041  t  -  f" +  0°-986n]        / ^''*'- 

(J  \y        If  we  substitute  for  t  the  time  of  hi^h  or  low  water  aa  computed 

laJLfcW   simply  from  the  semi-diurnal  tidc^  it  is  clear  that  tho  sum  of  these 

two  expressions  will  give  the  diurnal  correction  foi*  height  of  tide 

at  high  or  low  water,  provided  thu  diurnal  tides  are  not  rer7  large. 

If  we  consider  Ih"  maximum  of  a  function 

i  cos  2(t  -  a)  -h  B  cos  n(t  -  (5), 

where  B  irf" small  compared  with  A  and  n  is  nearly  unity,  we  see 

that  the  time  of  maximum  is  given  approximately  by  t=a,  with  a 

correction  _5t  determined  from 

2A  sin  (25t)  -  nB  sin  n(a  -  jS)= 0 ; 

180°  nB   .      ,       „, 
ot  ot= — r~  •  TT  Sin  71(0  -  p) 


4A 


llinniaJ 
correc- 
bon  to 


In  this  way"we  find  that  the  corr«^tion3  to  the  time  of  high  water 

from  0  and  K,-)-  P  are 
bonto                              /(T\fTT  \ 

tinieof     Jt,=  -Ot-gfiSfl )  «V'8inn3''-943t-f„-25°-367i7l  J 

H.W.  _  )       TxR'  (»5). 

AiulUW   Jt'S'-0''-98S(^l-f— -^jgsin[15°-0«t-r-l-0°-986i!]       ^ 

H  denoting  the  hei<;ht  and  t  the  time  of  high  water  as  corapnted 
from  the  semi-diurtial  tide.  If  t  next  denotes  the  time  of  low  water 
tho  samn  corrections  with  opposite  sign  give  the  corrections  for 
low  water. 

If  the  diurnal  tides  are  large  a  second  approximation  will  be 
necessary.  These  formula  have  been  used  in  compnting  a  tide-table 
iu  the  eiample  given  in  the  Admirally  ScierUific  Manual  fl8861 

23—15 


§  33.  Bxplanaitim  of  Tidal  Tci-ms  in  common  use  ;  Datum  lyCivls. 

The  mean  height  at  spring  tide  between  high  and  low  w.iter  is  Tnlal 
called  the  sprimj  rise,  anil  is  equal  to  2(H„  +  H,).      Tho  height  terms  ex- 
between  mean  high-water  mark  of  neap  tide  and  iiicaB  low-walcr  j^lained 
mark  at  spring  tide  is  callini  the  Ti&rp  nic,  ap'l  is  equal  to  211^- 
The  mean  height  at  neap  tide  between  high  and  low  water  is  called 
the  rit^pravtje  ;  this  is  equal  to  2(11^  -  11,}.      Neap  range  is  usually 
about  one  third  of  spring  range.     The  mean  period  between  full  01 
change  of  moon  and  spring  tide  is  called   the  a/jc  of  the  tide  ;  this 
is  equal  to  (f,  -  «^m)/2(<r  -  1?},  or,  if  «,  - /im  be  expressed  in  degrees, 
0^*984  X  (k,- K„,)  ;  K,  -  «TO  is  commonly  al>out  36',  and  the  age  about 
36*1.     'ph^.  period  elapsing  from  the  moon's  upper  or  lower  transit 
until  it  is  high  water  is  cilled  the  intertill  or  the  lunitiiliU  interval. 
The  interval  at  full  moon  or  chaiigi^  of  moon  is  called  the  estaUiah- 
men/  of  tJu  port  or  tho  vulgar  cslAiUishnif^U.     The  interval  at  spring 
tide  is  called  the  currrri^d  or  mean  cMabtishmcnt. 

The  mean  establishment  may  bo  found  from  the  vulgar  establish 
ment  by  means  of  the  spring  and  neap  rise  and  tho  age  of  the  tide, 
as  follows. 

Let  a  be  the  age  of  the  tide  reiiuced  to  angle  at  the  rate  ol 
l°-016tolhehour.  Then  the  mean  establishment  in  hours  is  equal  to 
the  vulgar  establishment  in  hours,  diminished  by  a  period  exprcss-^d 
in  hours  numerically  equal  to  n^  of  the  angle  whose  tangent  is 
H,sin  a/(Hm-f- H,  cosa),  expre.s.scd  in  tit-grees.  Also  Il,/ll.„  is  equal 
to  the  ratio  of  the  excess  of  spring  rise  over  neap  rise  to  neap  rise. 
The  French  have  called  a  quantity  which  appears  U>  be  identical 
with  H„-^Hp  or  half  tho  spring  ri.se,  the  unit  of  height,  and  then 
define  the  Height  of  any  oilier  tide  by  a  tidal  cocllicieDt.' 

The  practice  of  the  Britisli  Admiralty  is  to  refer  their  soundings  Adoilr- 
and  tide- tables  to  *'  mean  low  water  roaik  of  ordinar)'  springtides."  ally 
This  datum  is  found  by  taking  tho  mean  of  the  low-water  iii.irks  of  datum 
such  observations  at  spring  tide  as  are  available,  or,  if  the  obser- 
vations are  very  extensive,  ny  excluiliug  from  the  mean  such  spring 
tides  as  appear  to  be  abnormal,  owing  to  tho  largeness  of  the  moon's 
parallax  at  the  time  or  any  other  cause.     The  Admiralty  datum  is 
not,  then,  susceptible  of  exact  scientific  definition  ;  but,  wiien  it 
has  once  been  fixed  -with  reference  to  a  bench  mark  ashore,  it  is  ' 

expedient  to  adhere  to  it,  by  whatever  process  it  w;is  first  fixed. 

It  is  now  proposed  to  adopt  for  any  new  Indian  tidal  stations  a  Indian 
low-water  datum  for  the  tide  table  to  be  railed  "  Indian  low-water  datum, 
mark,"'and  to  be  defined  as  R„+  H,-f  H'-fH,  below  mean-water 
level.  Although  such  a  datum  is  not  chosen  from  any  precise 
scientific  considerations,  it  is  suscoptiblo  of  exact  definiti>.n,  is 
low  enough  to  exclude  almost  all  negative  entries  from  the  table  (3 
sine  qua  non  for  a  good  datura),  and  will  diifcr  but  little  from  the 
Admiralty  datum,  nowever  that  may  be  determined  A  valuable 
list  of  datum  levels  is  given  by  Mr  J.  Sboolbred  in  a  Report  to  the 
British  Association  in  1879. 

\H^   Onthe  Beduclion  of  Ooserrations  oj  High  and  Lew  IVater.* 
A  continuous  register  of  tho  tide  or  observation  at  fixed  intervals  Observa 
of  time,  such  as  each  hour,  is  certainly  the  best ;    but  fur  the  tions  ol 
adequate  use  of  such  a  record  some  plan  analogous  to  harmonic  H.W, 
analysis  is  necessary.     Observations  of  high  and  low  water  only  andL,^. 
have,  at  ledst  until  recently,  been  more  usual.     Some  care  has  U> 
be  taken  with  respect  to  these  observations,  for  about  high  and  low 
water  an  irregtilarity  in  the  rise  and  fall  becomes  very  noticeable, 
especially  if  the  place  of  observation  is  badly  chosen.*    Observa- 
tions should  therefore  be  taken  every  five  or  ten  minutes  for  hall 
an  hour  or  an  hour,  emiiracing  tho  time  of  high  and  low  water. 
The  time  and  height  of  high  and  low  water  should  then  be  found 
by  plotting  down  a  curve  of  heights,  and  by  taking  as  the  true 
tide-curve  a  line  which  presents  a  sweeping  curvature  and  smoothes 
away  the  minor  irregularities.     A  similar  but  less  elaborate  process 
would  render  hourly  observations  more  perfect.     In  the  reduction 
the  immediate  object  is  to  connect  the  times  and  heights  of  high 
and  low  water  with  the  moon's  transits  by  means  of  the  establish- 
ment, age,  and  fortnightly  inequality  in  tho  interval  and  height. 
The  reference  of  the  tide  to  the  establishment  is  not,  however, 
scientifirally  desirable,   and  it  is  lictter  to  determine  the  mean 
establishment,  which  is  the  mean  intnrx'al  from  the  moon's  transit 
to  high  water  at  spring  tide,  and  the  ago  of  tho  tide,  which  is  the 
mean  period  from  full  raoou  and  change  of  moon  to  spring  tide. 

For  these  purposes  the  observations  may  bo  conveniently  treated  GraphiV 
graphically.^     An   equally  divided    horizontal    scale  is  taken   to  cal  treatt 
represent  the  twelve  hours  of  the  clock  of  civil  time,  regulated  tOmenU- 
the  time  of  the  port,  or — more  accurately — arranged  always  to  show 

1  Bee  nan,  P}thiort\iiit  da  Slarif.i,  p.  l.",!,  Paris.  1SS5 

*  See  r*refaccs  to  Indian  Offinal  Ttftr.Tabln  for  1SH7. 

3  Founded  on  Whewcirs  article  "Ti.Ies".  in  Admindty Se.  Manual {cd.  1841X 
and  nn  Airy's  "Tides  Bnd  Waves."  in  Enry.  Mttrop. 

*  Waves  with  a  period  of  fWini  five  to  twenty  minutes  arc  vet7  common,  and 
appear  to  be  acalocQus  to  the  "seiches"  of  Geneva  and  otber  lakes.  S«« 
Fnrel,  Bvto«'i  &X-,  Vdvd.  Sci.  Sal  ,  1S73,  IS75,  1877,  and  1S79 ;  Ann.  Chtmitct 
Fhysiqur,  vol.  ix.,  1S76;  Compta  Kend^ts,  1S79 :  AtA.  Sci.,  PS.,  f{  Kat.,  Gtntwa^ 
ISsi  :  also  Airy,  "  On  the  Tides  of  Malta,"  PhlL  Trona.,  1878,  part  i. 

*  For  a  ninnerical  treatment,  see  Dirttiions  for  iUducin^  Tidal  Obs^rrafiOfW. 
"by  Commander  fiordwood.  R.N..  tendon,  1876. 

'XXIIL  —  47 


370 


1  1  D  E  S 


Grapbt'  apparent  timo  by  being  fkst  or  alow  by  the  equattoa  of  time  ;  this 
cal  deter-  time-scalo  represents  the  time-of-clock  of  the  moon's  transit,  either 
mm&tion  upper  or  lower.     Tho  scale  is  perhaps  most  conveniently  arranged 

ofesub-   in  the  order  V,  VI XII.  I  .  .  .   IIII.     Then  each  interval 

iifihment,  of  time  from  transit  to  hiffh  water  is  set  off  as  an  ordinate  above 


^tc.  the  corresponding  time-ot'-clock  of  the  moon's  transit     A  sweeping 

cur\'e  ia  drawn  nearly  through  the -tops  of  the  ordinates,  so  as  to 
cut  off  minor  irregulanties.  Next  along  the  same  ordinates  are  set 
off  lengths  corri^ponding  to  the  height  of  water  at  each  hi^h  water. 
A  second  similar  6gure  may  bo  made  for  the  interval  and  height  at 
low  water  *  In  tho  curve  of  bigh-watcr  intervals  the  ordinate 
corresponding  to  XII  is  the  establishment,  since  it  gives  the  time 
of  high  water  at  full  moon  and  change  of  moon.  That  ordinate  of 
high-water  intervals  which  is  coincident  with  the  greatest  ordinate 
of  high-water  heights  gives  tho  mean  establishment.  Since  the 
inoou's  transit  falls  about  fifty  minutes  later  on  each  day,  in  setting 
off  a  fortnight's  observations  there  will  be  about  five  days  for  each 
four  times-of-clock  of  the  upper  transit.  Hence  in  these  figures  wo 
may  rugard  each  division  of  the  tiine-scale  1  to  11,  II  to  III,  &c. , 
as  representing  twenty-five  hours  instead  of  one  hour.  Tlicn  the 
distance  from  th,e  greatest  ordinate  of  Li^h-water  heights  to  XII 
is  called  the  ago  of  tho  tide.  From  these  two  figures  the  times  and 
hcighu  of  high  and  bw  water  may  in  general  be  predicted  with 

A  M  Uidni^ 

arirxTXVni'gir'grvwTiiii    i    xnn 


fair  approximation.     We  find  the  time-of-clock  oftho  moon's  upper  Graphu 
or  lower  transit  on  the  day,  correct  by  the 'equation  of  time,  read  cil  pre- 
off  the  corresponding  heights  of  high  and  low  water  from  the  Lgures,  diction, 
and  the  iutervab  being  also  read  off  are  added  to  the  time  of  the 
moon's  transit  and  give  the  times  of  high  and  low  water.     At  all 
ports  there  is,  however,  an  irregularity  of  heights  and  inlervals 
between  successive  tides,  and  in  consequence  of  this  the  cur'i'h  pre- 
sent  more  or  less  of  a  zigzag  appearance.      Where  tho  zigzag  is 
perceptible  to  tbe  eye,  the  cur\'c3  must  be  smoothed  by  drawing 
them  so  as  to  bisect  the  zigzags,  because  these  dioroal  nit(|uaLties 
will  not  present  fbemselves  similarly  in  tlie  future.      Wh'  u,  aa  in 
some  equatorial  ports,  tho  diurnal  tides  are  large,  this  method  o( 
tidal  prediction  fails. 

This  method  of  working  out  observations  of  high  and  low  water  Methods 
was  uot  the  earliest.     In  tho  Mecaniquc  CcUsU,  bki  i  and  v. ,  Liplnce  ol  Lu 
treats  a  large  mass  of  tidal  observations  by  dividing  thrni   into   yWxs, 
classes  depending  ou  thoconljguratiousof  Uie  tidu-goneratingbodus.   l.ui'l>>rK, 
Thus  he  separates  the  two  syzygial  tides  at  foil  inuon  and  chjri>;e   Wlicwull, 
of  moon  and  divides  them  into  euuinoctial  and  solstitial  tides. 
Ho  takes  into  consideration*tho  tides  ol  several  days  enibrat-jug 
these  contigurations.      Ho  goes  through  the  tides  at  quadratures 
on  tho  same  general  plan.     The  effects  of  declination  and  parallax 
and  tho  diurual  inequalities  arc  similarly  treated*     LubbocK  (i'Aii 


i\Q.  3.— Tide-ourvo  for  Bombay  from  Iho  bcftUining  of  tho  civil  year  1834,  to  the  mldnt^ht  ending  Jan.  14,  1884,  or  Irom  12h  I>ec  31,  1883, 

to  I'Jb  Jan.  14,  18^,  astroDomicaJ  timu. 


tuu^c 


Obser* «-" 

prr-^iit 

llUlL 


7r/i<i?,,  1S31  sq  )  improved  the  mctlioti  of  Laplace  by  taking  into 
actount  all  the  observed  tides,  and  not  merely  those  appertaining 
to  crlam  configurations.  He  divided  tho  observations  into  a 
numWr  of  classes.  First,  the  tides  are  separated  into  parcels,  one 
for  liich  month  ;  then  each  parcel  is  sorted  according  to  tho  hour 
of  the  moon's  transit  Another  classification  is  made  according  to 
dn  lination  ;  another  according  to  parallax;  and  a  last  for  tlie 
diurml  incfpnlMK'S  This  plan  was  followed  in  treating  the  tides 
of  London.  UieM,  St  Helena,  Plymouth,  Portsmouth,  and  Sheemess. 
Vh.-wcll  \Phil.  Trint  ^  1831  47)  did  much  to  reduce  Lubbock's 
results  to  a  mathematical  form,  and  made  a  highly  important 
odrame  by  the  introduction  of  graphical  methods  by  means  of 
rurws  The  rai-'thod  •■^plained  above  is  due  to  him.  Airy  remarks 
of  Whewcll's  papffs  that  they  appear  to  be  '*  the  best  specimens  of 
reduction  of  new  observations  tbak  w«  have  ever  seen." 

VI.  Tidal  Instruments  and  Tidal  PixEDicrrox. 
§  35.    General  Rffmarks. 
Practical  tidal  work  ie  divisible  into  the  ihr-'c  stages  of  observa- 


valion,  rrduriiou  of  "hsfrvatioiui, 
The  siniplrst   obiiT-rvation    is   that 


nd  prediction. 
of  tlie  h'lght  of  water  on 


I  .iri  ioiini(itc  of  thi«  kind  of  curvo  for  the  hij^h-wnlrr  ticiclits  for  Bombay, 
drTwn  aiiti'Tiiaiically  by  a  tu1ri:aui:e,  woiilft  l»e  whown  by  j^oiuinij  sH  the  lu;;li 
WatiT*  to^-'lu-r  (S5  III  flu.  0  by  a  rorriinuoua  rurvp  ;  aqd  a  simitar  rtjrvL> 
may  *jc  wristructcl  f-ir  (tin  low  wiUrs.  In  this  c-ise,  hoWev.H,  the  hours 
ol  ttiiTlork  drc  r^JI.f^•lt»■l^  iwict*  over,  s<»  (hat  tiie  morning  ami  cYonnig  tubs 
oci  ur  in  .lilTi-rrtit  lialvci  <*l  tin-  ll;:ure.  an*!  tho  hours  uro  nut  hour*,  of  Uio 
njfH.nit  traiMit.  but  Itu-  actuit  timt-f  or  Jn^h  walisf  It  l^  ubvicua  that  tbu* 
8<'|araiii>ri  ut  the  ui'jruiuji  ao'i  cvcuiDif  tiUus  iircvcDla  Uiu  M:«:uiTeDc4  of  Ibo 
Ei^Mi'*  rvfenod  to. 


graduated  staff  tixed  in  the  sea,  with  such  allowance  as  is  possible 
made  for  wave-motion.  It  is  far  better,  however,  to  sink  u  lube 
into  the  sea,  into  which  tho  water  penetrates  through  sinull  hoks. 
Tho  wave-motion  is  thus  annulled.  In  this  calni  water  thiu-  be* 
a  Hoat,  to  which  is  attached  a  cord  pa^sin;  over  a  pulley  and 
counterpoised  at  the  end.  The  motiuu  of  the  counterpoise  :igain:?t 
a  scale  is  observed.  In  cither  case  the  observations  may  be  nude 
every  hour,  which  is  preferable,  or  the  times  and  heights  ol  lugh 
and  low  water  may  bo  noted.  \Ve  have  fxplaui<>d  in  ^  ^4  t)io 
nifthods  of  reducing  the  latter  kind  of  obsir\'atiun  Although 
more  appropriate  for  rough  observations,  thi^  method  is  suM.eptiIdo 
of  great  accuracy  when  carefully  usfd  It  has  been  largrly  super- 
seded bv  the  harmonic  method,  but  is  still  adhered  to  by  the  linlu-b 
Admiralty.  In  mere  careful  observations  than  those  of  wlm  h  \\e 
are  speaking  the  tidal  record  is  autouiaTic  and  cuIlllllUuu^• .  tb<< 
reduction  may  be,  and  ftrobably  at  some  future  tinu*  will  1»-, 
mechanical  ,  and  the  predirtion  is  so  already.  We  shall  theritun 
devote  some  sparo  to  general  desenptions  of  the  three  eIu.s.M:>  »>l 
instrument.  The  harmonic  reductions  are  at  present  (1837)  adu- 
ally  done  numerically,  and  in  chapter  iv.  wo  have  mdiealed  tho 
nature  of  tho  arithmetical  [irocc  ses. 


§  36.    Vu:  1  Ldr-Oauqc. 

The  site  for  the  erection  of  a  tide-gauijo  Jepenos  on  local  circum-   tide 
stances.      It  should  be  placed  so  as  tu  hreseut  a  fair  representation  gaugv 
of  the  tidal  oscillations  of  the  surrounding  areii      A  tank  is  gener 
ally  provided,  comrauuicatirig  Lv  a  iharmel  with  tho  sea  at  about 
10  feet  (more  or  Ic.ia  according  to  the  pievalent  surf)  below  iht 
lowes^t  low. water  mark.     In  many  cases  on  open  coasts  and  fro 


TIDES 


371 


quently  in  estuaries  the  tank  may  be  dispensed  with.  At  any  rate 
we  suppose  that  water  is  provided  rising  and  falling  with  the  tide, 
without  much  wave-motion.  The  nature  of  the  installation  de- 
pends entirely  on  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  A  vertical  pipe 
is  fixed  in  the  water  in  such  a  way  as  to  admit  it  only  through 
boles  small  enough  to  annul  wave-motion  and  large  enough  to 
make  no  sensible  retardation  of  its  rise  and  fall  in  the  pipe.  The 
diameter  of  the  pipe  differs  greatly  in  different  instruments  :  some- 
times that  which  we  have  described  as  the  tank  serves  as  the  pipe, 
and  sometimes  the  pipe  alone  dips  into  the  sea.  A  cylindrical 
float,  usually  a  hollow  metallic  box  or  a  block  of  green-heart  wood, 
hangs  and  floats  in  the  pipe,  and  is  of  such  density  as  just  to  sink 
without  support.  In  Sir  W.  Thomson's  gauge  the  float  hangs  by 
a  fine  platinum  wire,  in  Newman's  (used  in  India)  by  a  metallic 
ribbon.  In  the  latter  a  chain  hangs  at  the  bottom  of  the  float  of 
such  weight  that,  whether  the  water  be  high  or  low,  there  is  the 
same  upward  force  on  the  float.  It  is  necessary  that  the  pull  on 
the  float  should  be  constant,  otherwise  a  systematic  error  is  intro- 
duced between  rising  and  falling  water.  The  suspension  wire  is 
wrapped  round  a  wheel,  and  imparts  to  it  rotation  proportional  to 
the  rise  and  fall  of  tide.  By  a  simple  gearing  this  wheel  drives 
another,  by  which  the  range  is  reduced  to  any  convenient  extent. 
A  fine  wire  wound  on  the  final  wheel  of  the  train  drags  a  pencil 
or  pen  up  and  down  or  to  and  fro  proportionately  to  the  tidal 
oscillations.  The  [pencil  is  lightly  pressed  against  a  drum,  which 
is  driven  by  clockwork  so  as  to  make  one  revolution  per  day.  The 
pen  leaves  its  trace  or  tide -curve  on  paper  wrapped  round  the 
drum.  Generally,  however,  the  paper  is  fixed  to  the  drum,  and 
the  record  of  a  fortnight  may  be  taken  without  change  of  paper. 
An  exam[ile  of  a  tide-curve  for  Apollo  Bunder,  Bombay,  from  1st 
to  15th  January  1SS4,  is  shown  in  fig.  3.  Sometimes  the  paper 
is  in  a  long  band,  which  the  drum  picks  ofl"  from  one  coil  and 
delivers  on  to  another  The  contact  of  the  pen  must  be  such  that 
the  work  done  in  dragging  it  over  the  paper  is  small,  otherwise  a 
varying  tension  is  thrown  on  to  the  Moat  wire.  Hence,  if  the  fric- 
tion is  considerable,  the  float  must  be  large. 

The  conditions  necessary  for  a  good  tide-gauge  appear  to  be  better 
satisfied  by  Sir  W.  Thomson's  than  by  any  other  ;  but,  as  his  in- 
strument is  recent,  other  forms  ha*e  been  much  more  extensively 
used,  and  have  worked  well.  The  peculiarity  of  Thomson's  tide- 
gauge  is  that,  by  giving  the  drum  ad  inclination  to  the  vertical, 
the  pressure  of  the  pen  on  the  paper  and  on  its  guides  is  very  deli- 
cately regnialed  to  the  raminium  necessary  for  clfecting  the  purpose. 
In  other  gauge's  the  drum  has  been  either  vertical  or  horizontal,  and 
the  amount  of  faction  kas  necessarily  been  considerably  greater.* 

§  37.    The  Bnrmoinc  Atialyser. 
Har-  If  a  function  ^  be  expressed  as  a  series  of  harmonic  terms,  and 

tiionic       if  one  pair  of  these  terras  be  A  cos  >ti-t-  B  sin  n(,  then,  if  T  be  a 
aoalyser.  multiple  of  the  complete  oenod  27r/7t,  we  have 

0     rT  9     /"r 

A=y5  /     Bcosnldl,  B  =  ^  /    ffsimUdt. 

Thus  a  machine  which  will  effect  these  integrations  will  give  A  and 
B  Such  a  machine  has  been  invented  by  Prof.  James  Thomson 
and  perfected  by  Sir  W.  Thomson.      "     "         "  " 

table,  capable  of  rotation  about  the 
inclined  shaft  s.  Let  S  be  a  sphere 
touching  the  table  anywhere  along 
its  horizontal  diameter.  LetC  be  a 
cylinder,  of  somewhat  smaller  diam- 
eter than  the  sphere,  capable  of  rota- 
tion about  a  horizontal  axis  parallel 
to  the  table,  and  touching  the  sphere 
so  that  CS  IS  parallel  to  TT'.  Sup- 
pose that  the  point  of  contact  of  the 
sphere  with  the  table  is  distant  x 
from  the  centre  of  the  table,  and 
nearer  to  us  than  the  shaft ;  then,  when  the  shaft  5  and  the  table 
TT'  turn  in  such  a  direction  that  T  rises  from  the  paper  and  T' 
goes  below  it,  the  sphere  will  turn  in  the  direction  of  its  arrow.  If 
the  radius  of  the  sphere  is  a,  and  that  of  the  cylinder  6,  then,  when 
the  table  turns  through  a  small  angle  5^,  the  sphere  turns  through 
a:S6la  and  the  cylinder  through  xddjb.  This  angle  vanishes  if  S 
touches  the  table  at  the  centre,  and  is  reversed  if  the  sphere  be 
moved  across  to  the  other  side  of  the  centre.  Also  whilst  the 
table  13  turning  the  sphere  may  be  rolled  backwards  and  forwards 
without  rubbing,  and  thus  transmits  motion  from  the  table  to 
the  cylinder  with'out  slipping.  Now  suppose  the  turning  of  the 
table  19  so  constrained  that  otf  =  ^cos  ^(:^i/',  whilst  x  is  constrained 
to  be  equal  to  the  arbitrarily  varying  quantity  H.  Then  the 
total  angle  turned  through  by  the  cylinder,  as  the  machine  rnns, 
is  proportional  to/H  cos  ^rfi/'.     If  we  impart  to  the  table  a  simple 

'  For  further  details  concerning  the  establishment  of  tide-gauces,  see  Major 
Braid's  Mavual  of  Tidnl  Observaiion,  London,  1887,  and  Sir  W.  ThomsoD,  "  On 
Tidal  Instruraentfl,"  in  Irist.  Civ.  Eng.,  vol.  Ixv.  p.  10. 


In  fig.  "4  let  TT'  be  a  circular 
t 


Fio.  4.— Hannonlc  analyser. 


harmonic  oscillatory  motion,  with  a  period  proportional  to  the  Innar 
half-day,  whilst  the  sphere  moves,  relatively  to  the  centre  of  the 
table,  proportionately  to  the  tide-heights  on  the  same  time-scale, 
then,  at  the  end  of  a  sufficient  number  of  lunar  days,  we  shall  find 
that  the  total  angle  turned  through  by  the  cylinder  is  proportional 
to  either  the  A  or  B  component  of  the  lunar  semi-diurnal  tide.  An 
index,  which  points  to  a  dial,  may  be  fixed  to  the  cylinder,  so  that 
the  required  result  may  be  read  off". 

In  the  harmonic  analyser  the  tide-curve  diagram  is  wrapped  on  a 
drum,  which  is  turned  by  one  hand,  whilst  with  the  other  a  pointer 
is  guided  to  follow  the  tide-curve.  As  the  drum  turns  proportion- 
ately to  mean  solar  time,  appropriate  gearing  causes  two  tables  to 
execute  harmonic  oscillations  in  phases  at  right  angles,  with  lunar 
semi-diurnal  period.  At  the  same  time  a  fork  attached  to  the  pointer 
guides  the  two  spheres  so  that  their  distances  from  the  centres  of 
their  tables  are  equal  to  the  tide-height  in  the  diagram.  The  in- 
dexes attached  to  the  two  cylinders  give  the  two  components  of  the 
lunar  semi-diurnal  tide,  and  the  approximation  improves  the  longer 
the  tide-curve  which  is  passed  through  the  machine.  Corresponding 
to  each  of  the  principal  lunar  and  solar  rides  there  are  a  pair  of 
tables,  spheres  with  guiding  forks,  and  cylinders  similarly  geared,  and 
there  is  another  sphere  and  another  table,  which  last  always  turns 
the  same  way  and  at  the  same  rate  as  the  drum,  from  which  the 
mean  height  of  water  is  determined.  Sueh  an  instrument  has  been 
constructed  under  the  supervision  of  Sir  W.  Thomson,  but  has  not 
yet  been  put  into  practical  use,  so  that  we  cannot  say  hdw*it  will 
compete  with  the  arithmetical  harmonic  analysis.  A  similar,  but 
less  complex  machine  for  the  analysis  of  meteorological  observations 
is  in  constant  use  in  the  Meteorological  Office  in  London,  and  is 
found  to  work  well.^ 

§  38.    The  Tide- Predicting  hisirununt. 

The  first  suggestion  for  instrumental  prediction  of  tides  was  given   Tide 
we  believe,  by  Sir  W.  Thomson  in  1S7'2,  and  the  instruments  since  ^r&h  jt- 
made  have  been  founded  on  the  prmciples  which  he  then  laid  down,  ing  in ' 
Mr  Edward  Roberts  btire  a  very  important  part  in  the  first  practical  struXDeDL 
realization  of  such  a  machine,  and  a  tide-predicter  was  constructed 
by  Lege  for  the  Indian  Government  nnder  his  direcrion.    Thomson's 
is  the  only  instrument  in  Europe  as  yet  in  re^Tilar  practical  use  for 
navigatioual  purposes.     It  requires  much  skiU  and  care  in  manipu- 
lation, and  it  has  been  ably  worked  by  Mr  Roberts  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  Indian  tide-tables  ever  since  its  completion.     We  refer 
the  reader  to  Sir  W.  Thomson's  paper  on  "Tidal  Instruments,"  in 
Iiist.  C.E.^  vol.  Ixv.,  and  to  the  subsequent  discussion,  for  a  full 
account  of  iiit  several  instruments,  and  for  details  of  the  share  borne 
by  the  various  persons  concerned  in  the  realization  of  the  idea. 

Fig.  5  illustrates  diagram matically  the  nature  of  the  instrument. 
A  cord  passes  over  and  under  a  succession  of  pulleys,  being  fised  at 
one  end  and  having  at  the  other  a  pen  which 
touches  a  revolving  drum.  If  all  the  pulleys  but 
one  be  fixed,  and  if  that  one  executes  a  simple 
harmonic  motion  up  and  down,  the  pen  will  exe- 
cute the  same  motion  with  half  amplitude.  ^If  a 
second  pulley  be  now  given  an  harmonic  motion, 
the  pen  takes  it  up  also  with  half 
amplitude.  The  same  is  true  if  all 
the  pulleys  are  in  harmonic  motion. 
Thus  the  pen  sums  them  all  up, 
and  leaves  a  trace  on  the  revolving 
drum.  When  the  drum  and  pul- 
leys are  so  geared  that  the  angular 
motion  of  the  drum  is  proportional 
to  mean  solar  time,  wnilst  the  har- 
monic motions  of  the  pulleys  cor- 
respond in  range  and  phase  to  all 

the  important  lunar  and  solar  tides,  the  trace  on  the  dmm  is  a 
tide-curve,  from  which  a  tide-table  may  be  constructed.  The 
harmonic  motion  of  the  pulley  is  given  by  an  arrangement  in- 
dicated only  in  the  case  of  the  lower  pulley  in  the  figure.  The 
pulley  frame  has  attached  to  its  vertical  portion  a  horizontal  slot, 
in  which. slides  a  pin  fixed  to  a  wheel.  Suppose  that  whilst  the 
drum  turns  through  15"  the  wheel  turns  through  2S°-9S4.  Now  a 
lunar  day  is  24-842  mean  solar  hours  ;  hence  as  the  drum  turns 
through  15°x24-842  the  wheel  turns  through  24-842  x  28°-984  or 
720°.  Thus,  if  the  drum  turns  with  an  angular  velocity  pro- 
portional to  solar  time,  the  wheel  turns  with  twice  the  angular 
velocity  proportional  to  lunar  time,and  the  pulley  geared  to  thewheel 
executes  lunar  semi-diurnal  harmonic  oscillations.  "When  the  throw 
of  the  pin  and  its  angular  position  on  its  wheel  are  adjusted  so  as  to 
correspond  with  the  range  and  phase'  of  the  observed  lunar  semi- 
diurnal tide,  the  oscillation  of  the  pulley  remains  rigorously  ac* 
curate  for  that  tide  for  all  future  tiOie,  if  the  gearing  be  rigorously 
accurate,  and  with  all  needful  accuracy  for  some  ten  years  of  tide 

2  For  fuither  details,  see  Appendixes  iii.,  iv.,  v.,  to  Thomson  and  Taifs  NoL 
Phil.,  1S79,  vol.  i.,  part  i.;  James  Thomson,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  vol.  xxlv.,  ISTtf^ 
p.  262,  and  (Sir  W.  Thomson)  pp.  2C9,  271 ;  Sir  W,  Thomson,  Proc.  Jnst.  C.i, 
vol.  Uv. 


FiQ.  5.— Tide-predicting  inatrmnent 


372 


TIDES 


Tirtesxin 
Induin 

mslru 


%ith  gearing  as  pracTically  constnictod.  The  upper  pulleys  have 
to  be  carefully  counterpoised  as  iadicated.  It  has  not  been  found 
itliat  any  nppreciablo  disturbance  is  caused  ty-the  inertia  of  the 
moving  parts,  even  wlion  the  speed  of  working  is  high.  The  pre- 
dictor of  the  India  Oflicc  takes  about  four  hours  to  run  off  a  yoar*s 
tides,  but  prcater  spend  scorns  attainable  by  modification  in  the 
gearing.  The  Indian  instrument,  in  the  store  department  at  Lam- 
beth, has  pulleys  for  the  following  tides  (sec  chnp.  iv.) :— Ma*  ^^4» 
Ma  Ki,  S,.  S-i,  0.  K.  P.  K.S  0.  v.  J.  L.  X.  2MS.  2SM,  MS,  Ssa.  Sa. 

§  39.  T^umerieal  Harmonic  A^intysis  and  Prediction 
Iq  chapter  iv.  wo  have  discussed  the  application  of  tho  numerical 
liarmonic  method  to  a  loti^  series  of  Hourly  observations.  An 
actu.il  numericiLl  example  of  this  analysis,  with  modifications  to 
icndt^r  it  applicable  to  a  short  series,  smih  as  a  fortniglit,  is  given 
in  the  A'hairaltij  Sncntijic  Manual,  ISSG,  w'licro  also  an  example 
of  tho  numerical  and  graphical  predirtion  of  the  tides  may  bo 
found.     The  fonnulce  used  arc  those  giv«'u  in  chapter  v. 

Vll.  I'RoocEss  OF  TQE  Tide-Wave  oveu  the  Sea, 

AND  the  Tides  of  the  Bkitisu  Seas. 

§  40.   Meaning  of  Cotidal  Lines. 

Rnfftriont  tidal  data  would  of  course  give  the  state  of  the  tide  at 

every  part  of  the  worhi  at  the  same  instant  of  time,  antl  if  we  were 


to  fo^o^^  the  successive  changes  wc  should  bo  able 'to  picture 
mentally  the  motion  of  tlic  wave  over  the  ocean  and  the  successive 
changes  in  its  height,  Tho  data  are,  liowever,  as  yet  very  incom- 
plete and  ouly  a  rough  sch'emo  is  possible.  A  map  purporting  to  ColidoJ 
give  the  progress  of  the  tide-wave  is  called  a  maj)  of  roii-li!  lint-s.  Imes. 
For  a  perfect  representation  three  series  of  maps  would  U:  r-jquin.-il, 
one  for  the  semi-diurnal  tides,  a  second  for  the  diuiiial  lidrs,  and 
a  third  lor  the  tides  of  long  period.  Each  class  of  map  would  then 
show  the  progress  of  the  wave  for  each  conhguration  of  tin;  tide* 
g'Mierators.  ISut  as  yet  tho  only  cotidal  maps  made  are  those  for 
the  mean  scrai-diurnal  tide,  and  only  for  the  conhguration  of  new 
and  full  moon.  The  knowledge  of  the  tides  is  not  v.;ry  acrnrato 
throughout  the  world,  and  tlierefore  in  the  maps  which  we  ;;ive  it 
is  assumed  that  the  same  interval  elapses  at  all  places  between  new 
and  full  moon  and  spring  tide. 

At  spring  tide,  as  we  have  scfn  in  (87)  and  {88), 
h.  =  {M  +  M,)cos2(it-/i), 
since  A  -a,  becomes  llVn  equal  10-/4.  As  a  rough  approximation 
spring  tide  occurs  when  the  moon's  transit  is  at  one  o'cloi  k  at  night 
or  in  the  day.  ^Ve  only  assume,  however,  that  it  occurs  simultan- 
cou>ly  everywhere.  Now  let  r  be  the  Gix-cnwicli  m<Mn  ttrn<;  of  high 
wat<T,  and  I  tlie  E.  long,  in  hours  of  the  place  of  observation,  ih»-n, 
the  local  time  of  high  water  being  the  time  of  the  moon's  transit 
plus  the  interval,  and  loci)  time  being  Grcenuu  li  time  jdus  E. 
long.,  wo  havo  t  =  nl(y  -  <r)  ~  I  =  ^^^  fi  -  /+  1'' 


Fio.  (j.— Cutidiil  liDen  of  the  worlil. 


wnerd  m  is  in  degrees.  Thoreloro,  if  wo  draw  over  the  ocean  u 
euccession  of  lines  defined  by  equidistant  integral  values  of  the 
Greenwich  timo  of  high  w:iter,  and  if  w<;  neg'ect  the  separation  of 
the  nioon  from  the  sun  in  longitude  in  twelve  Iiours,  thu*  successive 
lines  will  givtj  the  motiun  of  the  semi-diurnal  lide-wave  in  ouo  Lour. 

§41.   Cotidal  Lines  of  the  IPorld 

No  recent  revisal  of  cotidal  lines  has  been  made  with  tho  aid  of 

the  great  mass'  of  tidiil  data  whieh  is  now  being  arcumulated,  and 

we  therefore  reproduce  (fig.  f>)  the  rhart  of  the  world  prepared  by 

Sir  George  Airy  for  his  artiele  on  **  Tides  and  Waves."     The  jtarts 

<)f  the  world  foi  whieh  data  are  wanting  arn  omitted.     Tlie  K'iman 

numerals  upnn  tho  cotidal  liufc.<!  denote  tho  hour  in  Greenwich  time 

of  high  w.itiT  <"i   tho  day  of  new  or   full   moon.     Airy  remarks 

(§§  ^75-5fi-t)  that  (he  rotidal   linrs  of  tbo  North  Atlantic  ure  ac- 

turatfly  drawn,  l)iat  those  of  the  South  Atlantic  are  doubtful,  and 

io  tho  F*aciHc  east  of  New  Zealand  aro  almost  conjectural.     The 

embodiment  of  rerrnt  observations  in  a  eolida*  ch:«.rt  would  ncces- 

sitatH  some  modification  of  these  statementK. 

LiQei  When  a  free  wavu  runs  into  shallow  w;iler  it  travels  with  less 

crowdod^velocity  an<l   its  height  is  increa«ii;d.     This  is  ob.servablc  in  the 

Bear  flexure  and  crowding  of  the  cotidal  lines  near  continents  and  oceanic 

load.         islands,  as,  for  example,  about  the  Azores,  tho  Bennudas,  and  the 

coast  of  South  Anierica.     The  veloeil^  of  the  tub'- wave  gives  good 

information  as  to  tho  depth  of  tho  sea.     In  the  North  Sea  it  aj)pcar.s 

to  travel  at  about  4R  oulea  an  hour,  wlvieh  corresuonds  to  a  depth 


Kji  140  feet,  and  we  know  that  the  depth  aloug  tbo  (1ce]icr  channel 
is  greater  and  along  the  aides  less  than  this.  In  tho  Atlantic  tho 
wave  passes  over  90°  of  latitude,  from  the  southern  to  the  northern 
one  o'clock  line,  in  twelve  liours,  that  is  at  tho  rato  of  520  miles  an 
liour.  If  the  Atlantic  tide  conhl  be  considered  as  a  free  wavo 
generated  by  the  I'aciGc  tide,  this  velocity  would  correspond  to  a 
de[itii  of  18,000  feet.  Airy  considers,  however,  that  tho  Atlantic 
forms  too  large  a  basiin  to  perniit  the  neglect  of  the  direct  tidal 
action,  and  thinks  that  tlie  tides  of  this  ocean  derive  extremely 
little  of  their  character  from  the  Pacifi' 

"Tliero  is  another  consideration,"  ho  says,  ''which  must  not  ho  Sir  0 
Irft  out  of  sight.  It  is  tliat.  supposing  the  cotidal  lines  to  heaccu-  Airj 
r.itely  what  they  profess  to  be— namely,  the  lines  connecting  all  tho 
points  at  whwh  high  water  is  simultaneous — tliey  may,  ncvcrtliclcss, 
with  a  compound  series  of  lide-wavcs,  not  at  all  represent  the  ridgo 
of  the  tide  wavo  which  actually  runs  over  the  ocean.  Thus  an  eye 
at  a  gre^Tt  distance,  rapniih-  of  observing  the  swells  of  tho  tidc-wavefi, 
might  seo  one  hngo  longitudinal  lidgo  extending  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Amazon  to  the  sea  bi-yond  lecland,  making  high  water  at 
ono  time  from  Capo  do  Verde  to  tho  North  Cape,  and  at  another 
time  from  Florida  to  Greeidand,  and  another  ridgo  transversal  to 
the  forrner,  travelling  from  tho  coast  of  Guiana  to  tho  northern 
sea ;  and  the  cotidal  lines  which  wo  have  traced  may  depend  simnly 
on  tho  combination  of  these  waves.  It  does  not  appear  likely  tnat 
we  ran  ever  ascertain  whether  it  i-s  so  or  not ;  but  it  is  certainly 
[K>3sibl6  that  the  original  waves  may  havo  these  or  similar  forms  ;^ 


4 


TIDES 


373 


SirG 
Airy. 


ft  d  if  eo  it  is  vain  for  qb  to  attempt  entirely  to  explain  the  tides 
of  the  Atlantic." 

He  sums  up  the  discnssion  of  the  chart  by  saying  : — 
"Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  we  are  driven  to  the  conclusion 
that  we  cannot  at  all  explain  the  cause  of  the  form  of  the  cotidal 
lines  in  the  ocean,  so  far  as  they  have  been  traced  with  any  prob- 
ability. And,  supposing  us  to  know  with  tolerable  certainty  those 
corresponding  to  the  semi-diurnal  tide,  we  cannot  at  all  predict 
those  which  should  hold  for  the  diurnal  tide.  '* 

§  42.  Cotidal  Lines  of  the  British  Seas, 

Fig.  7  shows  the  cotidal  lines  in  the  seas  surrounding  the  British 
Islanda  Here  the  lines  refer  to  full  moon  and  change  of  moon 
and  not  to  spnng  tide.  The  small  figures  along  different  parts  of 
the  coast  deuote  the  extreme  range  of  the  tide  in  yards.  This 
6gure  is  from  the  same  source  as  the  preceding  one,  and  we  again 
reproduce  a  portion  of  Air>''8  remarks. 

"The  tides  iii  the  English  Channel  claim  notice  as  having  been 
the  subject  of  careful  examination  by  many  persons,  English  and 


Fio.  7.— CotiUal  Imes  of  British  seas. 


French.  It  appears  that  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Channel  the 
water  flows  up  tne  Channel  nearly  three  hours  after  high  water  and 
runs  dowD  nearly  three  hours  after  low  water  (this  continuanre 
of  the  current  after  high  water,  if  it  last  three  hours,  is  called  by 
sailors  lide-and-half-lide  ;  if  it  last  one  hour  and  a  half,  it  is  called 
tuU'and-quaTter.tide).  On  the  English  side  of  the  Channel,  especi- 
ally opposite  the  entrance  of  bays,  the  directions  of  the  currents 
turn  in  twelve  hours  in  the  same  direction  as  the  hands  of  a  watch  ; 
on  the  French  side  they  turn  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  is 
entirely  in  conformity  with  theory.  The  same  laws  are  recognized 
as  holding,  in  the  British  [Bristol']  Channel,  and  in  the  German 
or  North  Sea  near  the  Scotch  and  English  coasts. 

*'  With, regard  to  the  Irish  Channel  we  have  only  to  remark  that 
there  is  a  very  great  difference  in  the  height  of  the  tide  on  the 
different  sides,  the  tide  on  the  east  side  being  considerably  the 
preater  They  are  also  greater  in  the  northern  part  (north  of 
Wicklow  on  one  side,  and  of  Bardsey  Island  on  the  other  side) 
than  in  the  southern  part  Between  Wexford  and  Wicklow  they 
are  very  small. 

"  The  tides  of  the  German  Sea  present  a  very  remarkable  peculiar- 
ity. Along  the  eastern  coast  of  England,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames,  the  tide-wave,  coming  from  the  Atlantic  round  the  Orkney 
Islands,  flows  towards  the  south.  Thus,  on  a  certain  day,  it  is 
high  water  in  the  Murray  [Moriy]  Firth  at  eleven  o'clock,  at 
Berwick  at  two  o'clock,  at  Flambwrough  Head  at  five  o'clock,  and 
■so  on  to  the  entrance  of  the  Thames.  But  en  the  Belman  and 
Dutch  coasts  immediately  opposite,  the  tide-wave  flows  from  the 
south  towards  the  north.  Thus,  on  the  day  that  we  have  sup- 
jkosed,  it  will  be  high  water  off  the  Thames  at  eleven  o'clock  (the 
tide  having  travelled  in  twelve  hours  from  the  Murray  Firth)  and 
at  Calais  nearly  at  the  same  time  ;  hut  at  Ostend  it  will  be  at 
twelve,  off  The  Hague  at  two,  off  the  Helder  at  six,  and  so  on 


"We  believe  that  a  complete  eiphnation  may  be  found  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  great  shoals  of  the  North  Sea.  It  must  bo 
remarked  that  (except  within  a  very  small  diiitance  of  Norway)  the 
North  Sea  is  considerably  deeper  on  the  English  side  than  on  tlie 
German  side  ;  so  much  so  that  the  tide-wave  coming  from  the  north 
runs  into  a  deep  bay  of  deep  water,  bounded  on  the  west  side  by 
the  Scotch  and  English  coasts  as  far  as  Newcastle,  and  on  the  east 
side  by  the  great  Dogger  Bank.  As  far  as  the  latitude  of  Hull, 
the  English  side  is  still  the  deep  one  ;  and,  though  a  species  of 
channel  through  the  shoal  there  allows  an  opening  to  the  east,  yet 
immediately  on  the  south  of  it  is  the  Wells  Bank,  which'  again 
contracts  the  deep  channel  to  the  English  side.  After  this  (that 
ia,  in  the  latitude  of  Yarmouth)  the  deep  channel  expands  equally 
to  both  sides.  It  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  from  this  that  the 
gceat  set  of  north  tide  is  on  the  English  side  of  the  North  Sea,  both 
between  the  Dogger  Bank  and  England  and  between  the  Wells 
Bank  and  England  (a  branch  stream  of  tide  having  been  given  off 
to  the  east  between  these  two  banks),  and  that  any  passage  of  tide-  [ 
wave  over  these  banks  may  be  neglected.  Now  this  view  is  sup- 
ported in  a  remarkable  degre**  by  the  tidal  observations  on  two 
dangerous  shoals  called  the  Ower  and  Leman,  lying  between  Cromer 
and  the  Wella  Bank,  but  nearer  to  the  latter.  It  appears  that  on 
these  shoals  the  direction  of  the  tide-current  revolves  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  hands  of  a  watch,  proving  conclusively  that  the 
Ower  and  Leman  are  on  the  left  hand  of  the  main  stream  of  tide 
(supposing  the  face  turned  in  the  direction  in  which  the  tide  pro- 
ceeds), or  are  on  its  eastern  border,  and  therefore  that  the  central 
stream  is  still  nearer  to  the  coast  of  Norfolk.  From  a  point  not 
far  south  of  this  we  may  suppose  the  tide  to  diverge  in  a  fan-shaped 
form  over  the  unlTormly  deep  Belgian  Sea.  Along  the  English 
coast  the  wave  will  tluw  to  the  south  ;  but  it  will  reach  the  whole  . 
of  the  Bel^^ian  and  Dutch  coast  at  the  same  instant ,  and,  if  this 
tide  alone  existed,  we  doubt  col  th^t  the  time  of  high  water  would 
be  sensibly  the  same  along  the  whole  of  that  coast. 

"  But  there  is  another  tide  of  great  magnitude,  namely,  that  which 
comes  from  the  English  Channel  through  the  Straits  of  Dover. 
This  also  diverges,  we  conceive,  in  a  fan  form,  affecting  the  whole 
Belgian  Sea :  the  western  part  turns  into  the  estuary  of  the  Thames ; 
the  eastern  part  runs  along  the  Dutch  coast,  producing  at  successive 
times  high  water  (even  as  combined  with  the  North  Sea  tide)  along 
successive  points  of  that  coast  from  Calais  towards  the  Helder.  And 
this  we  believe  to  be  the  complete  explanation  of  the  apparently 
opposite  tide-currents.  The  branch  tide  of  the  North  Sea  running 
between  the  Dogger  Bank  and  the  Wells  Bank  will  assist  in  propa- 
gatmg  the  tide  along  the  German  coast  from  the  Helder  towards 
the  mouth  of  the  Elbe.  We  have  gone  into  some  detail  in  this 
esplanaLion  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  importance  of  consider- 
ing the  form  of  the  bottom  in  explanations  of  specific  tides. 

"  A  set  of  observations  has  been  made  by  Captain  Hewett  (at  the 
point  A,  fig.  7)  on  the  depth  and  motion  of  the  water  at  a  strictly 
definite  print  a  few  miles  south  of  the  Wells  Bank,  near  the  middle 
of  the  Bdgian  Sea.     The  result  was  that  the  change  of  elevation  • 

of  the  surface  was  insensible,  but  that  there  was  a  considerable 
stream  of  tide  alternately  north-east  and  south-west  (magnetic). 
The  point  in  question  cori-esponds  pretty  well  to  the  intersection 
of  the  cotidal  Imes  of  nine  o'clock  of  the  Nt)rth  Sea  tide  and  three 
o'clock  of  the  English  Channel  tide  (ordinary  establishment),  and 
these  tides  would  therefore  wholly  or  partially  destroy  each  othei 
as  regards  elevation.  As  regards  the  compound  tide-stre,^.  j,  the 
greatest  positive  current  from  oue  tide  will  be  combined  with  the 
greatest  negative  current  of  the  other,  and  this  will  produce  a  stream 
whose  direction  agrees  well  with  observation.  At  2>^  on  the  day  ol 
new  moon,  the  North  Sea  tide  would  be  running  north  (magnetic), 
and  the  English  Channel  tide  would  be  running  east,  and  therefore 
the  compound  current  would  he  running  north-east ;  at  9*^  it  would 
be  running  south-west.  Both  currents,  and  consequently  the  com- 
pound current,  wpuid  cease  at  about  0^,  6**,  &c.,  on  the  day  of  new 
moon  ,  and,  as  the  observations  were  made  rather  more  than  a  day 
before  new  monn,  the  slack  water  would  occur  an  hour  or  mora 
before  noon.    The  whole  of  this  agrees  well  \.tth  the  observations." 

VIII,  Tidal  Deformation  of  the  Solid  Earth. 
§  43.  Elastic  Tides. 
The  tide-generating  potential  vanes  as  the  square  of  the  distance  Elastia 
from  the  earth's  centre,  and  the  corresponding  forces  act  at  every  tides.   - 
point  throughout  i  ts  mass.     No  solid  matter  possesses  the  property 
of  absolute  rigidity,  and  we  must  therefore  admit  the  prooablo 
existence  of  tidal  elastic  deformation  of  the  solid  earth.      Tha 
problem  of  hnding  the  state  of  strain  of  an  elastic  sphere  under 
given  stresses  was  first  solved  by  Lame  ;*  he  made,  however,  butfew 
physical  deductions  from  his  solution.     An  independent  solution 
was  found  by  Sir  W.  Thomson,^  who  drew  some  interesting  conclu- 
sions concerning  the  earth. 

1  TfUorU  Math,  de  VtlastidU.  1866.  p.  213. 

9  ThoDisoD  aod  T&it,  Nak  Phil.,  §£  732-7S7  and  633-S43.  or  FKiL  Tnuu.,  pt 
a,  1&63,  p.  &83. 


374 


TIDES 


His  problem,  in  aa  far  as  it  is  now  matertal,  is  as  follows.     Let 

a  sphere,  of  radius  a  and  density  w,  be  made  of  clastic  material 
whose  bulk  and  rigidity  moduli  are  A-  and  n,  and  let  it  bo  subjected 
to  forces  due  to  a  potential  wr'-S.^  per  unit  volume,  where  S^  is  a 
surface  sijherical  luirnionicof  I  lie  second  order.  Then  it  is  required 
to  find  the  strain  ol'  the  sjiherc.  We  refer  the  reader  to  the  original 
sources  for  the  methods  of  solution  applicable  to  s[tlieric^il  sTiells 
and  to  solid  spiieres  In  order  to  write  Thomson's  solution  wc  put 
'r,  \,  I  for  radius  vector,  latitude,  and  longitude,  and  p,  fx,  v  for  the 
'corresDondinir  disulanements.     Then  tlie  solution  is  as  follows; — 


.P  = 


w 


{(8a-  -  3r)A-  +  larn]rS^ 


{^Q)\ 


For  either  tidal  or  rotational  stresses 

in  the  case  of  tides  t  =  3j/i/c^,  m  and  c  being  the  moon's  mass  and 
distance,  and  in  the  case  of  rotation  t=  -  ^w",  w  being  the  ungul.ir 
velocity  about  the  polar  axis.  The  equation  to  the  surlaco  is  founa 
by  putting  r  =  a  +  p,  where  in  the  csjircssion  for  p  wc  put  7=-a, 
Hence  from  (90)  tlie  form  of  surface  is  given  by 

I  U'"  L       l+irV«AJ  i 

In  most  solids  the  bulk  modulus  is  coiisidcraMy  larger  than  the 
rigidity  modulus,  an<l  in  this  discussion  it  is  sullicicnt  to  neglect  n 
compared  with  k, .  "With  this  apjiroxiniation,  tlio  eilipticitv  c  of  the 
surface  becomes  ^vn- 

OS). 

dwith  the  power  of  gravitation, 
(99), 


(97). 


\S>n 


Now  supposo  the  sphere  to  be  cndi 
and  write  19^ 

where  g  is  gravity  at  the  surface  of  the  globe  Then,  if  there  were 
no  elasticity,  the  ellipticity  would  bo  given  by  c  =  t/(J,  and  without 
gravitation  byc^r/r.  And  it  may  be  proved  in  several  ways  that, 
gravity  and  elasticity  co-operating, 

c  =  -^  =  --T-^- flOO). 

t  +  3    5    l+r/3 

If  n  be  the  rigidity  of  steel,  and  if  the  globe  have  the  size  and  mean 

density  of  the  earth,  r/2  =  '2,  and  with  the  rigidity  of  glass  t/3=  j. 

Hence  the  ellipticity  of  aTi  earth  of  steel  under  tide-generating  force 

would  be  ^  of  tliat  of  a  fluid  earth,  and  the  similar  fraction  for  glass 

would  be  ^.     If  an  ocean  bo  superposed  on  the  globe,  then,  if  the 

globe  rises  and  falls  with  the  tide  as  though  it  were  Huid,  there 

will  obviously  be  no  tide  visible  to  an  observer  carried  np  ai;d  down 

.with  the  solid  ;  and  with  any  degree  of  rigidity  the  visible  tide  will 

be  the  excess  of  the  tluid  tido  above  the  solid  tide.     Hence' on  an 

J  earth  with  rigidity  of  steel  the  oceanic  tides  would  bo  reduced  to  j, 

and  with  rigidity  of  glass  to  f  of  the  tides  on  a  rigid  earth. 

§  44.  Kigidity  of  (he  Earth. 

Bigidityf     Although  the  computation  of  oceanic  tides  is  as  yet  impossible, 

of^be       it  cannot  be  ndrnittca  that  perfect  rigidity  in  the  earth  would  aug- 

earth.       ment  the  tides  iu  the  proportion  of  5  to  ,2,  although  tlicy  might 

perhaps  be  augmented  in  the  proportion  4  to  3.     Thus  Thomson 

concludes  that  tho  earth's  mass  must  have  an  effective  rigidity  at 

least  as  great  as  that  of  steel     If  it  were  true,  as  was  held  until 

recently,  that  the  earth  is  a  fluid  ball  coated  with  a  crust,  that 

crust  must  be  of  fabulous  rigidity  to  resist  the  tidal  Burgings  ol 

subjacent  fluid.     Hence  wo  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  far  the 

larger  portion  of  the  earth's  mass,  if  not  all  of  it,  is  a  solid  of  great 

rigidity.     Up  to  the  present  time  the  argument  by  which  the  tides 

of  long  period  were  proved  to  have  approximately  their  equilibrium 

height  has  generally  been  accepted  without  much  doubt,  but  we 

have  (§  17)  shown  good  cause  for  rejecting  Laplace's  argument,  at 

Attempt  least  for  a  foi  tnightly  tide.    It  appeared  formerly  that,  fiom  numeri- 

tocvalueeal  data  as  to  the  heights  of  the  tides  of  long  period,  we  should 

rigidityi   be  able  to  compute  tho  actual  cITective  rigidity  of  tlie  earth's  mass. 

by  tides    Put  from  §  18  wc  sec  that,  although  these  tides  remain  incal'.ulable, 

of  long     Jet  with  such  oceans  as  ours  the  tides  of  long  period  must  conform 

pcrioJ.      much,  more  nearly  to  tho  equilibrium  laws  than  do  the  tides  of 

short  period,-,. Thus  a  comparison  of  the  observed  heights  of  the 

tides  of  long  period  with  tho  equilibrium   law  still  remains  of 

interest,  altliough  the  evaluation  of  the  earth's  rigidity  ajipcars 

with  present  data  unattainable.     Acting  on  the  old  belief,  II r  (i. 

H.  Darwin  has  compared  the  lunar  fortnightly  and  monthly  tides, 

aa  observed  for  thirty-three  years  at  various  Indian  and  European 

fiorts,  with  tho  equilibrium  theory,  and  has  found  that  the  tide- 
icights  were  about  two-thirds  of  tho  equilibrium  height.'  From 
this  the  conclusion  was  drawn  that  tho  effective  rigidity  of  the 
earth  was  as  great  aa  that  of  st«cl.     Whilst,  then,  this  precise  oora- 

I  Thornton  ana  Tilt.  Nat.  PKil.,  voL  I.  pt.  11.,  1S83,  §  847  tq. 


parison  with  the  rigidity  of  steel  falls  to  the  ground,  the  investiga-' 
tion  remaius  as  an  important  confirmation  of  Thomson's  conclusion 
as  to  tho  great  cITcctivc  rigidity  of  the  earth.     When  extensive  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  tides  has  been  attained,  the  attempted 
evaluation  of  the  rigidity  may  conceivably  be  possible,   because  The  19-* 
there  is  a  minute  tide  with  a  period  oT  18"6  years  (§  2.3,  schedule  yearly 
[A,  iii.])  of  which  Laplace's  argument  must  hold  good.    Great  accu-  tide, 
racy  will,  however,  bo  necessary,  because  the  height  of  the  tide  at 
the  equator  only  amounts  to  one-third  of  an  inch,  and  a  preliminary 
iuquiiy  seems  to  show  that  tliere  arc  other  relatively  considerable 
variations  of  sea-level  arisii\g  from  unex[ilaincd  causes.^ 

Sir  \V.  Thomson's  solution  of  the  strain  of  an  elastic  sphere  has  Weight' 
been  also  used  to  determine  what  degree  of  strength  tho  materials  of  con- 
of  the  earth  must  have  in  order  that  tho  great  continental  plateaus  liueota. 
and  mountains  may  not  sink  iu-^     In  another  investigation  it  hag 
been  :,!iown  that  local  clastic  yielding  on  the  coastlines  of  conti- 
nents may  produce  an  augmentation  of  apparent  tide  in  certain 
places  on  account  of  the  flexure  of  tho  up|ior  strata,  when  a  great 
weight  of  water  is  added  and  subtracted  from  the  adjacent  oceanic 
area  at  high  and  low  tido.*    There  is  reason  to  believe  th.at  such 
ile-xuie  has  actually  been  observed  by  a  delicate  form  of  level  on 
the  coast  of  the  Uay  ol'  Bisciy.* 

§  45.    yijcoiis  and  £lastico- Viscot^  Tides 

It  might  be  supposed  that  the  earth  is  composed  of  a  Ti.scou3  Viscous 
fluitl  of  great  stillness,  or  that  it  possesses  an  elasticity,  which  and 
breaks  down  under  continued  stress.     Both  these  hypotheses  have  eLostico 
been  considered,  and  the  results  arc  confii matory  of  tho  conclusion  viscous 
that  tlie  earth  is  made  of  very  stilf  material.^    These  problems  tides, 
appear  to  have  been  worthy  of  attack,  although  the  existence  of 
mea-surable  orcanic  tides  of  long  jieriod  negatives  the  adoption  of 
the  liypottiesis  of  true  viscosity,  at  least  under  stresses  comparable 
with  tide-generating  forces. 

If  a  sjilicre  of  radius-a,  density  v^,  viscosity  modulus-u,  be 
under  the  action  of  forces  due  to  a  potential  per  unit  volum? 
UT-S^cosiit,  so  tli.at  n  is  the  speed  of  the  tide,  the  soli>*;-)j.  oi  the 
problem  shows  that  tho  tide  of  the  sphere  ii  expressed  by 

— -  cnsecos(ii<-  t) (101), 

"hero  tanc  =  -ii-,    x  =  % — -,    R=l -- 

g  f.im-'    "     'a 

Thus  the  tides  of  tho  viscous  globe  are"  to  the  equilibrium  tides  ol 

a  fluid  globe  .as  cos  e  to  unity,  and  there  is  a  retardation  tjn  of  the 

time  of  high  tide  after  the  pass,age  of  the  tide-generator  over  the 

nug-idian.     purther,  by  arguments  similar  to  that  ajiplied  in  tho 

case  of  elastic  tides,  it  is  found  that  oceanic  tides  are  reduced  by 

the  yielding  in  the  projiortion  of  sin  f  to  unity,  and  that  there  is 

an  apparent  acceleration  of  tho  time  of  high  water  by  {W-t)}n, 

It  appears  by  numerical  calculation  that,  in  order  that  tlie  oceanic 

semi-diurnal  tide  may  have  a  value  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  full 

amount  on  a  rigid  globe,  tho  stilTness  of  the  globe  must  be  about 

twenty   thousand    times    as  great  as  that  of  pitch  at  freezing 

temperature,  when  it  is  hard  and  brittle.     We  must  here  pass  by 

the  results  of  the  hypothesis  of  an  elasticity  degrading  under  the 

influence  of  contiuned  stress. 

IX,  TiDAj,  Friction. 
§  46,  General  Eiplanalityr^ 
The  investigation  of  tho  tides  of  a  viscous  sphere  has  led  us  to  the  Genera] 

consideration  of  a  frietioually  retarded  tide.     The  effects  of  tidal  eiplana 
friction  are  of  such  general  interest  that  we  give  a  sketch  of  thetiou  of 
principal  results  without  the  aid  of  mathematical  symbols.     In  fig-  tidal  frici 
8  the  paper  is  supposed  to  bo  the  plane  of  the  orbit  of  a  satellite  M  tion. 
revolving  in  tho  direction  of  the, arrow  about  the  planet  C,  wliicl; 
rotates  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  about  an  axis  piJrpendicular  to 
the  paper.     The  rotation  of  the  planet  is  supposed  to  be  moie  rapid 
than  that  of  the  satellite,  so  that  the  day  is  shorter  than  the  month. 
Let  us  suppose  that  the  planet  is  either  entirely  fluid,  or  h.as  an 
ocean  of  such  depth  that  it  is  high  water  under  or  nearly  under  tho 
satellite.     When  there  is  no  friction,  with  tho  satellite  at  m,  the 
planet  is  elongated  into  the  cUip.soid.il  shape  shown,  cutting  the 
mean  sphere,  which  is  dotted.     IJut,  when  there  is  friction  in  the 
fluid  motion,  the  tide  is  retarded,  and  high  tido  occurs  after  the 
satellite  has  passed  the  meridian.     Then,  if  we  keep  the  same  figure 
to  represent  the  tidal  elongation,  the  satellite  must  be  at  11,  insti'ad 
of  at  m.     If  we  number  tho  four  qua^lrants  as  shown,  the  satellite 
must  bo  in  quadrant  1.    Theppotuhcrioice  P  is  nearer  to  the  satcllita 
than  I",  and  the  deficiency  (J  is  further  away  than  the  defieicucj 


~  n.irwin.  "  On  10- yearly  Title  at  ICamclii,"  in  Brit.  Assoc  Ticport,  1S3C- 
3  G.  II.  Uarivhi,  ml.  Trnns.,  pt  i.,  1SS2,  p.  1S7,  with  corroclil»J,Proo-  Jio'l. 
Sot.,  18S5- 

«  M-.  Jtrlt.  Assrv.  Pqi,  )RS2,  Or  Phil   Mixn.,  1.<;S2. 

5  D'AbUadlc,  Aiimihs  Soc.  Sc.  dc  linndles,  ISSl.  or  .quotlttjin  by-  Darwin, 
loc.  cit. 

6  G-  H.  D.irwln.  Fhit.  Trnhs.,  pt.  1.,  1S70,  p.  1  ;  -SCO  iilsn  T-Tiiili.,  "On  tlii 
OscUUtioDS  of  a  Viscous  Spheruiil,"  Proe.  Lo)u1.  MatK.  Soc.,  Nov.  lt)Sl,  ]>.  61. 


TIDES 


375 


Q'.  Hence  the  resultant  action  of  the  planet  on  the  satellite  mast 
be  in  some  such  direction  as  HIT.  The  action  of  the  satellite  on 
the  planet  is  equal  and 
opposite,  and  the  force  in 
KM,  not  being  through 
the  planet's  centre,  raust 
produce  a  retarding 
coople  on  the  planet's 
rotation,  the  magnitude 
of  which  depends  on  the  '^ 
length  of  the  arm  CN. 
This  tidal  frictional 
eonple  varies  aa  the 
height  of  the  tide,  and 
also  depends  on  the  sa- 
FIanet'<  tellite's  distance  ;  its  in- 
rotation     tensity  in  fact  varies  as 

retarded,  the  square   of    the    tide-  ^.      r-    a 

generating     force,     and  ^^' 

Qierefore  as  the  inverse  sixth-power  of  the  satellite's  distance  Thus 
tidal  friction  must  retard  the  planetary  rotation.  Let  us  now  con- 
sider its  effect  on  the  satellite.  If  the  force  acting  on  M  be  resolved 
along  and  perpendicular  to  the  direction  Gil,  the  perpendicular 
component  tends  to  accelerate  the  satellite's  velocity.  It  alone 
vould  carry  the  satellite  further  from  C  than  it  would  be  dragged 
back  by  the  central  force  towards  C.  The  satellite  would  describe 
a  spiral,  the  coils  of  w-hich  would  be  very  nearly  circular  and  very 
Dearly  coincident  If  now  we  resolve  the  central  component  force 
along  CM  tangentially  and  perpendicular  to  the  spiral,  the  tangential 
component  tends  to  retard  the  velocity  of  the  satellite,  whereas  the 
disturbing  force,  already  considered,  tends  to  accelerate  it.  With 
Satellite's  the  gravitational  law  of  force  between  the  two  bodies  the  retajja- 
velocity  tion  must  prevail  over  the  acceleration.'  The  moment  of  no 
retarded,  mentura  of  the  whole  system  remains  uriihanged,  and  that  of  the 
planetary  rotation  diminishes,  so  that  the  orbital  moment  of 
momentum  must  increase  ;  now  orbital  moment  of  momentum  in- 
creases with  mcreasing  distance  and  diminishing  linear  and  angular 
Telocity  of  the  satellite.  The  action  of  tidal  friction  may  apj>ear 
somewhat  paradoxical,  but  it  is  the  exact  converse  of  the  accelera- 
tion of  the  linear  and  angular  velocity  and  the  diminution  of  dis- 
tance of  a  satellite  moving  through  a  resisting  medium.  The  latter 
result  is  generally  more  familiar  than  the  actio"  of  tidal  friction, 
and  it  may  help  the  reader  to  re«lize  the  result  in  the  present  case. 
Tidal  frictiea  then  ditni"'<:hes  planetary  rotation,  increases  the 
satellite'  distanc  and  tnmiDisbe«  the  orbital  angular  velocity. 
The  comparative  rate  ^f  diminution  of  the  two  angular  velocities 
s  generally  very  different.  If  the  satellite  he  close  to  the  planet 
Ihcraie  of  increase  of  the  satellite's  periodic  time  or  month  is  large 
compared  with  the  rate  of  increase  of  the  period  of  planetary  rota- 
tion or  day  ;  but  if  the  satellite  is  far  off  the  converse  is  true. 
Hence,  if  the  satellite  starts  very  near  the  planet,  with  the  month 
a  little  longer  than  the  day,  as  the  satellite  recedes  the  month  soon 
increases,  so  that  it  contains  many  d^s.  The  number  of  days  in 
the  month  attains  a  maximum  and  tnen  diminishes.  Finally  the 
two  angular  velocities  subside  to  a  second  identity,  the  day  and 
month  being  identical  and  both  very  long. 

We  have  supposed  that  the  ocean  is  of  snch  depth  that  the  tides 
are  direct ;  if,  however,  they  are  inverted,  with  low  water  under  or 
nearly  under  the  satellite,  friction,  instead  of  retarding,  accelerates 
the  tide  ;  and  it  would  be  easy  by  drawing  another  figure  to  see 
that  the  whole  of  the  above  conclusions  hold  equally  true  with 
inverted  tides. 

§  47.  Exact  Investigation  ef  the  Seeular  Effects  of  Tidal  Friction. 
Tidal  The  general  conclusions  of  the  last  section  are  of  such  wide  in- 

friction.  terest  that  we  proceed  to  a  rigorous  discussion  of  the  principal  effects 
of  tidal  friction  in  the  elementary  case  of  the  circular  orbit.  In 
order,  however,  to  abndge  the  investipition  we  shall  only  consider 
the  case  when  the  planetary  rotation  is  more  rapid  than  the  satel- 
lite's orbital  motion. 

Suppose  an  attractive  particle  or  satellite  of  mass  m  to  be  moving 
in  a  circular  orbit,  with  an  angular  velocity  0,   round  a  planet 
of  mass  if,  and  suppose  the  planet  to  be  rotating  about  an  axis 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  orbit,  with  an  angular  velocity 
n  ;  suppose,  also,  the  mass  of  the  planet  to  be  partially  or  wholly 
imperfectly  elastic  or  viscous,  or  that  there  are  oceans  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  planet  ;  then  the  attraction  of  the  satellite  must  produce 
a  relative  motion  in  the  parts  of  the  planet,  and  that  motion  must 
U-  subject  to  friction,  or,  in  other  words,  there  must  be  frictional 
Energy      tides  r,[  some  sort  or  other     The  system  n'ust  accordingly  be  losing 
^™^'       energy  by  friction,  and  its  configuration  must  change  in  such  a  way 
ished  by    that  ia  whole  energy  diminishes.     Such  a  system  does  not  differ 
fncticn.     much  from  those  of  actual  planets  and  satellites,  and,  therefore,  the 
r^ults  deduced  in  this  hypothetical  case  must  agree  pretty  closely 
with  the  actual  course  of  evolution,  provided  that  time  e-  mgh  haa 

>  Thia  vay  of  preaentuig  th.  action  of  tidal  CrictioD  la  due  to  ProfesMr  Stokes. 


been  and  will  be  given  for  such  changes.  Let  C  be  the  moment  of 
inertia  of  the  planet  about  its  axis  of  roution,  r  the  distance  of  the 
satellite  from  the  centre  of  the  planet,  A  the  resultant  moment  of 
momentum  of  the  whole  system,  e  the  whole  energy,  both  kinetic 
and  potential,  of  the  system.  It  is  assumed  that  the  figure  of  the 
planet  and  the  distribution  of  its  internal  density  are  such  that  the 
attraction  of  the  satellite  causes  no  couple  about  any  axis  perpen- 
dicular to  that  of  rotation.  A  special  system  of  units  of  mass, 
length,  and  time  will  now  be  adopted  such  that  the  analytical  re- 
sults are  reduced  to  their  simplest  forms.  Let  the  unit  of  mass  be 
Mm!i.tf  +  m).  Let  the  unit  of  length  y  be  such  a  distance  that  the 
moment  of  inertia  of  the  planet  about  its  axis  of  rotation  may  be 
equal  to  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  planet  and  satellite,  treated 
as  particles,  about  their  centre  of  inertia,  when  distant  7  apart  from 
one  another.     This  condition  gives 


1  C(M+m)  1  i 
\      Mm      ) 


whence 

Let  the  unit  of  time  t  be  the  time  in  which  the  satellite  revolves 
through  57°'3  about  the  planet,  when  the  satellite's  radius  vector 
IS  equal  to  y.  In  this  case  1/t  19  the  satellite's  orbital  angular 
velocity,  and  by  the  law  of  periodic  times  we  have 

T-^  =  ^i/  +  7n), 
where  /x  is  the  attraction  between  unit  masses  at  unit  distance. 
Then  by  substitution  for  7 

^_fO(M+m)]i 
\   ^-{Mmf  ) 
This  system  of  units  will  be  found  to  make  the  three  following  Special 
functions  each  equal  to  unity,  viz.,  iiiMm  (Af+m)'i,  ti-Mm,  and  C.  units.   . 
The  units  are  in  fact  derived  from  the  consideration  that  these 
functions  are  each  to  be  unity.      In  the  case  of  the  earth  and  moon, 
if  we  take  the  moon's  mass  as  ^i  of  the  earths  and  the  earth's 
moment  of  inertia  as  JJ/a^  (as  is  very  nearly  the  case),  it  may  easily 
bo  shown  that  the  unit  of  mass  is  ^V  of  the  earth's  mass,  the  unit 
of  length  5-25  earth's  radii  or  33,506  kilometres  (20,807  miles), 
and  the  unit  of  time  2  hrs.  41  minutes.      In  these  units  the  present 
angular  velocity  of  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation   is  expressed  by 
"7044,  and  the  moon's  present  radius  vector  by  n'454.     The  two  Moment 
bodies  being  supposed  to  revolve  in  circles  about  their  common  of  mo- 
centre  of  inertia  ^vith  an  angular  velocity  fi,  the  moment  of  momen-  mentum. 
tum  of  orbital  motion  is 

,/(  -'^yn^3/r^yn=  #^ r--fi. 

\M+m/  \M+m/        it  +  m 

Then,  by  the  law  of  periodic  times  in  a  circular  orbit, 

whence  fir^  =ni(J/-Km)M. 

The  moment  of  momentum  of  orbital  motion 
=  M*ifm(J/■^m)-M, 
and  m  the  special  units  this  is  equal  to  r*.     The  moment  of 
momentum  of  the  planet's  rotation  is  Cn,  and  £7=  1  in  the  special 

units.     Therefore  h  =  n  +  A     (102). 

Since  the  moon's  present  radius  vector  is  11-454,  it  follows  that 
the  orbital  momentum  of  the  moon  is  3384.  Adding  to  this  the 
rotational  momentum  of  the  earth,  which  is  704,  we  obtain  4'083 
for  the  total  moment  of  momentum  of  the  moon  and  earth.  The 
ratio  of  the  orbital  to  the  rotational  momentum  i3:4'80,  so  that 
the  total  moment  of  momentum  of  the  system  would,  bnt  for  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  be  5-SO  times  that  of  the  earth's  rotation. 
Again,  the  kinetic  energy  of  orbital  motion  Is 

\M+mJ  •    \M+ml  ^M+m  '     r 

The  kinetic  energy  of  the  planet's  rotation  is  ^Cn'.  The  potential 
energy  of  the  system  is- tiMmlr.  Adding  the  three  energies  to- 
gether, and  transforming  into  the  special  units,  we  have 

2/=n=-  l/r    (103). 

Now  let  a:=n,  y=n,  Y=2e. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  x,  the  moment  of  momentum  of  orbital 
motion,  is  equal  to  the  square  root  of  the  satellite's  distance  from 
the  planet     Then  equations  (102)  and  (103)  become 

li  =  y  +  x (104). 

r=/-l/i:=  =  (A-j:)'     l/r" (105). 

(104)  is  the  equation  of  conservation  of  moment  of  momentum,  or, 
shortly,  the  equation  of  momentum  ;  (105)  is  the  equation  of  energy. 

Now  consider  a  system  started  with  given  positive  moment  of  . 
momentum  h  ;  and  we  have  all  sorts  of  ways  in  which  it  may  be 
started.      If  the  two  rotations  be  of  opposite  kinds,  it  is  clear  that  Maxt- 
we  may  start  the  system  with  any  amount  of  energy  however  great,  mum  and 
but  the  tnie  maxima  and  minimi  of  energy  compatible  with  the  minimum 
given  moment- of  mpmenti)m  are  supplied  by  dK/(ia:  =  0,  energy. 

or  «-A-i-l/r'  =  0, 

that  is  to  say,  a:*  -  Ajr* -H  I  =  0     1106). 

We  shall  presently  see  that  this  quartic  hat  either  two  real  roots 


376 


TIDES 


Ho  rela- 
tive mo- 
tion be- 
tween 
££C«Llit« 
and 
planet 
w'aen 
trtergy 
inaxi- 
inum>or 
minimum, 


"Equa- 
tiona  of 
mo- 

mentami 
euergy. 
end  DO 
Illative 
motion. 

Grapbical 

illustra- 
I  ion 


and  two  imaginary,  or  all  imapnary  roots.  The  quartic  may  be 
derived  from  quite  a  different  consideration,  viz.,  by  finding  the  con- 
dition under  which  the  satellite  may  move  round  the  planet  so  that 
tbe  planet  shall  always  show  the  same  face  to  the  satellite, — in  fact, 
90  that  they  move  as  parts  of  one  rigid  body.  The  conditicn  is 
Bimply  that  the  satellite's  orbital  angular  velocity  fi  =  n,  the  planet's 
angular  velocity  of  rotation,  or  i/=l/2r*,  since  n  =  y  and  7-i  =  n-i  =  x. 
By  substituting  this  value  of  y  in  the  equation  of  momentum  (104), 
we  get  as  before  r* -  Aj^  + 1  =0 

At  present  we  have  only  obtained  one  result,  viz.,  that,  if  with 
given  moment  of  momentum  it  is  possible  to  set  the  satellite  and 
planet  moving  as  a  rigid  body,  it  is  possible  to  do  so  in  two  ways, 
and  one  of  these  ways  requires  a  maximum  amount  of  energy  and 
the  other  a  minimum  ;  from  this  it  is  clear  that  one  must  be  a  rapid 
roUlion  with  the  satellite  near  the  planet  and  the  other  a  slow  one 
with  the  satellite  remote  from  the  planet      In  the  three  equations 

A  =  y  +  a: (107), 

K^(A-z)a-l/z2         .  (108), 

a?y=l    ..         -...(109), 

(107)  13  the  equation  of  momentum,  (103)  that  of  energy,  and  (109) 
may  be  called  the  equation  of  rigidity,  since  it  indicates  that  the 
two  bodies  move  as  though  parts  of  one  rigid  body  To  illustrate 
these  equations  geometrically,  we  may  take  as  abscissa  i,  which 
is  the  moment  of  momentum  of  orbital  motion  so  that  the  a,xis 
of  X  raay  be  called  the  axis  of  orbital  momentum.  Also,  for 
equations  (107)  and  fl09)  we  may  take  as  ordinate  y.  which  is  tlie 
moment  of  momentum  of  the  planet's  rotation,  so  that  the  axis 
of  y  raay  be  called  the  axis  of  rotational  momentum  For  (108) 
we  may  take  as  ordinate  i'.  which  is  twice  the  energy  of  the 
fiy<;teQii  so  that  the  axis  of  Y  may  be  called  the  axis  of  energy. 
Then,  as  it  wil)  be  convenient  to  exhibit  all  three  curves  in  the 
s.injf  fi^ire.  with  a  parallel  axis  of  x,  we  must  have  tlie  axis  of 
energy  identical  with  that  of  rotational  momentum  It  will  not 
be  mvessary  to  consider  the  case  where  the  resultant  moment  of 
momentum  h  is  negative,  because  this  would  only  be  equivalent  to 
reversing  all  the  rotations  ;  h  is  therefore  to  be  taken  as  essentially 
positive  Then  the  line  of  momentum  whose  equation  is  (107)  is  a 
straijrht  line  inclined  at  45°  to  either  axis,  having  positive  intercepts 
on  both  axes  The  curve  of  rigidity  whose  equation  is  (109)  is 
clearly  of  the  same  nature  as  a  rectangular  hyperbola,  but  it  has  a 
much  more  rapid  rate  of  approach  to  the  axis  of  orbital  momentum 
than  to  that  of  rotational  momentum.  The  intersections  (if  any) 
of  the  curve  of  rigidity  with  the  line  of  momentum  have  abscissa; 
which  are  the  two  root.-;  of  the  quartic  r*  -  Aj^  +  1  =0  Tlie  quartic 
Las,  therefore,  two  real  roots  or  all  imaginary  roots  Then,  since 
a:=\/r,  the  iuterspctinn  uliich  is  more  remote  from  the  origin 
indicates  a  configuration  where  tbo  satellite  is  remote  from  the 
planet;  the  other  gives  the  ronliguration  where  the  satellite  is 
closer  to  the  planet  We  have  already  learnt  that  these  two  cor- 
respond respectively  to  minimum  ami  inaximnra  energy  When  r 
is  very  large,  the  equation  to  the  curve  of  encrg}'  is  Y  =  {h  ~r'p, 
which  is  the  equation  to  a  [vir.ibola  ^nth  a  vertical  axis  parallel 
to  Kand  distant  h  from  the  origin,  so  that  the  axis  of  the  para- 
bola passes  through  the  lutcrsenlion  of  the  line  of  momentum 
with  the  axis  of  orbital  niomcntum  When  x  is  very  small,  the 
equation  becomes  K=  -  1/jr  Ucuce  the  axis  of  V  \s  asymptotic 
on  both  sides  to  the  curve  of  energy  Then,  if  the  line  of  mo- 
mentum intcrsect<i  the  curve  of  rigidity,  the  curve  of  energy  has  a 
maximum  vertically  underneath  the  point  of  intersection  nearer 
the  origin  and  a  minimum  uudcrncalh  the  point  more  remote. 
But,  if  there  are  no  intersections,  it  has  no  maximum  or  minimum. 
Fig.  9  shows  these  curves  when  drawn  to  scale  for  the  case  of  the 
earth  and  moon,  that  is  to  say,  with  k  =  A.  Tlie  points  a  and  6, 
which  are  the  maximum  and  minimum 
of  the  curve  of  energy,  are  supposed  to 
be  on  the  same  ordinates  as  A  and  B. 
the  intersertionsof  the  curve  of  rigidity 
^nth  the  line  of  momentum  The  in- 
tersection of  the  line  of  momentum  with 
the  axis  of  orbital  momentum  is  denoted 
D,  but  m  a  figure  of  this  size  it  neces- 


<sari1y  remains  indistinguishable  from  B.  As  the  zero  of  energy  is 
quite  arbitrary,  the  origin  for  the  energy  curve  is  displaced  down- 
wards, and  this  prevents  the  two  curves  from  crossing  one  another 
IZL  a  confusing  manner.     On  account  of  the  limitation  imposed  we 


neglect  the  case  where  the  quartic  has  no  real  roots.  Every  point 
of  the  line  of  momentum  gives  by  its  abscissa  and  ordinate  the  square 
root  of  the  satellite's  distance  and  the  rotation  of  the  planet,  and 
the  ordinate  of  the  energy  curve  gives  the  energy  corresponding  to 
each  distance  of  the  satellite.  Part  of  the  figure  has  no  physical 
meaning,  for  it  is  impossible  for  the  satellite  to  move  round  the 
planet  at  a  distance  less  than  the  sum  of  the  radii  of  the  planet 
and  satellite.  For  example,  the  moon's  diameter  being  about  2200 
mdes,  and  the  earth's  about  8000,  the  moon's  distance  cannot  be 
less  than  "51 00  miles.  Accordingly  a  strip  is  marked  off  and  shaded 
on  each  side  of  the  vertical  axis  within  which  the  figure  has  ao 
physical  meaning.  The  point  P  indicates  the  present  conligura- 
tion  of  the  earth  and  moon.  The  curve  of  rigidity  3^y=\  is  the 
same  for  all  values  of  h,  and  by  moving  the  line  of  momentum 
parallel  to  itself  nearer  to  or  further  from  the  origin,  we  may 
represent  aH  possible  moments  of  momentum  of  the  whole  system. 
The  smallest  amount  of  moment  of  momentum  with  which  it  is  Least  mo 

ffossible  to  set  the  system  moving  as  a  rigid  body,  with  centrifugal  mentum 
orce  enough  to  balance  the  mutual  attraction,  is  when  the  line  of  for  whu  h 
momentum  touches  the  curve  of  rigidity.     The  condition  for  this  no  rela 
IS  clearly  that  the  equation  x*  -  ha^  -»- 1  =  0  should  have  equal  roots,  live  mo- 
If  it  has  equal  roots,  each  root  must  be  ^A,  and  therefore  tion  po.s- 

(fA)*-MiA)^  +  l=0.  ^'^^^ 

whence  A*  =  4V33  or  A  =  4/3^  =  l-75      Tlie  actual  value  of  k  for  the 
moon  and  earth  is  about  4  ,  hence,  if  the  moon-earth  system  were 
started  with  less  than  -^  of  its  actual  moment  of  momentum,  it 
would  not  be  possible  for  the  two  bodies  to  move  so  that  the  earth  Maxi- 
should  always  show  the  same  face  to  the  moon.    Again,  if  we  travel  mum 
along  the  line  of  momentum,  there  niust  be  some  poiut  for  which  oumlx-r 
T/a**  is  a  maximum,  and  since  yr'^  =  nlU  there  must  be  some  point  of  days  iq 
for  which  the  number  of  planetary  rotations  is  greatest  during  one  mouth 
revolution  of  the  satellite  ;  or,  shortly,  there  must  be  some  con- 
figuration for  which  there  is  a  maximum  number  of  days  in  the 
mouth.     Now  ys^  is  equal   to  ar'(A-x-),  and  this  is  a   maximum 
when  x=^h  and  the  maximum  number  of  days  m  the  month  is 
i^hfih  -  ^h.)  or  Z^k*l4*  ;  if  A  is  equal  to  4.  as  is  nearly  the  case  for 
the  earth  and  moon,  this  becomes  27     Hence  it  follows  that  mp  uow 
have  very  nearly  the  maximum  number  of  days  m  llic  month.      A 
more  accurate  investigation  in  a  paper  on  the  "  Precesbiou  of  a 
Viscous  Spheroid"  in  Phil.  Trans.,  part  i.,  1879,  showed  that,  taking 
account  of  solar  tidal  friction  and  of  the  obliquity  to  tlie  ecliptic, 
the  maximum  number  of  days  is  about  29,  and  that  we  have  already 
passed  through  the  phase  of  maximum      We  will  now  consider  the  Discns- 
physical  meaning  of  the  figure      It  is  assumed  that  the  resultant  sion  of 
moment  of  momentum  of  the  whole  system  corresponds  to  a  positive  figure, 
rotation      Now   imagine  two  points  A\ith  the  same  abscissa,  one 
on   the  momentum  line  and  the  other  on  the  energy  curve,  and 
suppose  the  one  on  the  energy'  curve  to  guide  that  on  the  momentum 
line.     Then,  since  we  are  supposing  frictional  tides  to  be  raised  on 
the  planet,  the  energy  must  degrade,  and  iiowever  the  two  points 
are  set  initially  the  point  on  the  energy  curve  must  always  slide 
down  a  slope,  carrying  with  it  the  other  point     Looking  at  the 
figure,  we  see  that  there  are  four  slopes  in  the  energy  curve,  two 
running  down  to  the  planet  and  two  down  to  the  minimum     There 
are  therefbre  four  ways  in  which  the  system  may  degrade,  according 
to  the  way  it  was  stirted ;   but  we  shall  only  consider  one,  that 
corresponding  to  the  portion  AEha  of  the  figure.      For  the  part  of 
the  line  of  momentum  AB  the  month  is  longer  than  the  day,  and 
this  is  the  case  with  all  known  satellites  except  the  nearer  one  ot  Historyof 
Mars,     Now.  if  a  satoUite  be  placed  in  the  coudition  A — that  is  to  satellite 
say,  roo\*ing  rapidly  round  a  planet  which  always  shows  the  same  as  euergr 
face  to  the  satellite — the  condition  is  clearly  djiiamically  unstable,  degrades, 
for  the  least  disturbance  will  determme  whether  the  system  shall 
degrade  down  the  slopes  ac  or  ab — th-t  is  to  say,  whether  it  falls 
into  or  recedes  from  the  planet     If  the  equilibrium  breaks  dowa 
by  the  satellite  receding,  the  recession  will  go  on  until  the  system 
has  reached  the  state  corresponding  to  B.      It  is  clear  that,  if  tho 
intersection  of  the  edge  of  tue  shaded  stnp  with  the  line  of  mo- 
mentum be  identical  with  the  point  A,  which  indicates  that  the 
.•atcllite  is  just  touching  the  planet,  then  the  two  bodies  are  in 
effect  p.irts  of  a  single  body  in  an  unstable  configuration.      If. 
therefore,  the  moon  was  originally  part  of  the  earth,  we  should 
expect  to  find  this  identity      Now  in  fig.  9.  drawn  to  scale  to  re- 
present the  earth  and  moon,  there  is  so  close  an  approach  between 
the  edge  of  the  shaded  band  and  the  intersection  of  tho  line  ot 
momentum  and  curve  of  rigidity  that  it  would  be  scarcely  nossible 
to  distinguish  them      Hence,  there  seems  a  probability  that  the 
two  hndies  onc<»  formed  parts  of  a  single  one.  which  broke  up  in 
consequence  of  some  kind  of  instability.     This  view  is  confirmed 
by  the  more  detailed  consideration  of  the  case  in  the  paper  on  the 
'•  Precession  of  a  Viscous  Spheroid,"  already  referred  to,  and  sub- 
sequent papers,  m  the  Philosophical  Transaclums  of  tho  Royal 
Society.* 

1  For  further  consideration  of  thi-j  subject  see  a  series  of  papers  by  Mr  G.  H. 
Darwin,  in  Proceed,  and  Trans,  of  tne  Koyal  Society  from  1878  to  1881.  and 
Appendix  G  (b)  to  part  ii.  vol.  i.  of  Thomson  aod  Xait's  A'al.  PhiLt  1883> 


TIDES 


377 


Acceleri' 

tiou  of 

mooa's 

motion 

due  to 

tidal 

frictioD. 


VSTIOUS 

esti- 
mates of 
tcDoant. 


Vomeri- 
cal  result 
as  to 
earth's 
rotation. 


§  48.  Amount  of  Tidal  Retardation  of  Earth's  Eolation. 
With  respect  to  the  actual  amount  of  retardation  of  the  earth's 
rotation,  we  quote  the  following  from  Thomson  and  Tait's  Nat. 
PhU.  C1SS3),  §  S30.» 

"  In  observational  astronomy  the  earth's  rotation  serves  as  a  time- 
keeper, and  thus  a  retardation  of  terrestrial  rotation  will  appear 
astronomically  as  an  acceleration  of  the  motion  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  It  is  only  in  the  case  of  the  moon's  motion  that  such  an 
apparent  acceleration  can  be  possibly  detected.  Now,  as  Laplace 
first  pointed  out,  there  must  be  a  slow  variation  in  the  moon's 
mean  motion  arising  from  the  secular  changes  in  the  eccentricity 
,  of  the  earth's  orbit  around  the  sun.  At  the  present  time,  and  for 
'  several  .thousand  years  in  the  future,  the  variation  in  the  moon's 
motion  is  and  will  be  an  acceleration.  Laplace's  theoretical 
calculation  of  the  amount  of  that  acceleration  appeared  to  agree 
well  with  the  results  which  were  in  his  day  accepted  as  represent- 
ing the  facts  of  observation. '  But  in  1353  Adams  showed  that 
Laplace's  reasoning  was  at  fault,  and  that  the  numerical  results  of 
Damoiseau's  and  Plana's  theories  with  reference  to  it  consequently 
require  to  be  sensibly  altered.  Hansen's  theory  of  the  secular 
acceleration  b  vitiated  by  an  error  of  principle  similar  to  that 
which  affects  the  theories  of  Damoiseau  and  Plana  ;  but,  the  mathe- 
matical process  which  he  followed  being  different  from  theirs,  he 
arriyed  at  somewhat  different  results.  From  the  erroneous  theory 
Hansen  found  the  value  of  12"1S  for  the  coefficient  of  the  term  in 
the  moon's  mean  longitude  depending  on  the  square  of  the  time, 
the  unit  of  time  being  a  century  ;  in  a  later  computation  given  in 
his  DarU^ng  he  found  the  coefficient  to  be  12°'56.'  „ 

"  In  1859  Adams  communicated  to  Delaunay  his  final  result, 
namely,  that  the  coefficient  of  this  term  appears  f.  om  a  correctly  con- 
ducted investigation  to  be  S"'?,  so  that  at  the  end  of  a  century  the 
moon  is  5'1  before  the  position  it  would  have  'cad  at  th'  san-e  time 
if  its  mean  angular  velocity  had  remained  the  same  as  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  century.  Dekunay  verified  this  result,  and  added  some 
further  small  terms  which  increased  the  coefficient  from  5"7  to  S"'!. 
"Now,  according  to  Airy,  Hansen's  value  of  the  'advance' 
represents  very  we'd  the  circumstances  of  the  eclipses  of  Agathocles, 
Larissa,  and  'Thaies,  but  is  if  anything  too  small.  Newcomb,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  inclined  from  an  elaborate  discussion  of  the 
ancient  eclipses  to  believe  Hansen's  value  to  be  too  large,  and  gives 
two  competing  values,  viz.,  8"'4  and  10"'9.' 

"  In  any  case  it  follows  that  the  value  of  the  advance  as  theoreti- 
cally deduced  from  all  the  causes,  known  up  to  the  present  time  to 
be  operative,  is  smaller  than  that  which  agrees  with  observatioif. 
In  what  follows  12"  is  taken  as  the  observational  value  of  the 
advance,  and  6"  as  the  explained  part  of  this  phenomenon.  About 
the  beginning  of  1866  Delaunay-  suggested  that  the  true  explana- 
tion of  the  discrepancy  might  be  a  retardation  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion by  tidal  friction.  Using  this  hypothesis,  and  allowing  for  the 
consequent  retardation  of  the  moon's  mean  motion  by  tidal  reaction, 
Adams,  in  an  estimate  which  he  has  communicated  to  us,  founded 
on  the  rough  assumption  that  the  parts  of  the  earth's  retardation 
due  to  solar  and  lunar  tides  are  as  the  squares  of  the  respective 
tide-generating  forces,  finds  22  sec  as  the  error  by  which  the  earth, 
regarded  as  a  time-keeper,  would  in  a  century  get  behind  a  perfect 
clock  rated  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  'Thus  at  the  end  of  a 
century  a  meridian  of  the  earth  is  330"  behind  the  position  in 
which  it  would  have  been '  if  the  earth  had  continued  to  rotate 
with  the  same  angular  velocity  which  it  had  at  the  beginning  of 
the  century.  .  .  . 

"  Whatever  be  the  value  of  the  retardation  of  the  earth's  rotation 
it  b  necessarily  the  result  of  several  causes,  of  which  tidal  friction  is 
almost  certainly  preponderant.  If  we  accept  Adams's  estimate  as 
applicable  to  the  outcome  of  the  various  concuning  causes,  then,  if 
the  rate  of  retardation  giving  the  integral  effect  were  uniform,  the 
earth  as  a  time-keeper- would  be  going  slower  by  "22  of  a  second  per 
year  in  the  middle,  and  by  '44  of  a  second  per  year  at  the  end,  than  at 

the  beginnmg  of  the  century.    The  latter  is  =y;= — —^  of  the  present 

angular  velocity  ;  and,  if  the  rate  of  retardation  had  been  uniform 
during  ten  million  centaries  past,  the  earth  must  have  been  rotat- 
ing  faster  by  about  one-seventh  than  at'  present,  and  the  centri- 

'    See  aljo  G.  H.  Darwin's  Address  to  Sat.  A,  Brit.  Assoc,  meeting,  1886. 

2  *'  ii  appears  not  onosual  for  pLysical  aatroDomere  to  use  an  abbreviated 
phras?ologj,  for  specifjlDg  accelerations,  which  needs  explanation.  Thas 
When  ttwy  speak  of  the  secular  acceleration  being,  e.g.,  *  12"-56  In  a  century  ' 
tlicj-  mean  by  '  acceleration '  what  is  more  properly  '  the  effect  of  the  accelera- 
pon  on  the  moon's  raean  longitude."  The  correct  unabbreviated  statement  is 
the  acceleration  is  25"-12  per  century  per  century.'  Thus  Hansen's  result  is 
that  in  each  century  the  mean  motion  of  the  moon  is  augmented  by  an  angular 
velixity  of  25"-12  per  century,  so  that  at  the  end  of  a  century  the  mean  longi- 
tude 13  greater  by  \  of  25"12  than  it  wonld  have  been  had  the  moon's  mean 
motion  remained  the  same  as  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  Con- 
•idenng  how  absurd  It  would  be  to  speak  of  a  falling  body  as  eiperienclng  an 
acc«leratioo  of  16  feet  in  a  second,  or  of  64  feet  in  two  seconds,  and  how  tolse 
and  Inconvenient  it  is  to  speak  of  a  watch  being  20  seconds  tut  when  it  is  20 
seconds  in  advance  of  where  it  ought  to  be,  we  venture  to  anggest  that  to 
attain  clearness  and  correctness  without  sacrifice  of  brevity,  'advance' l)e  sub- 
stituted for  'acceleration'  in  the  ordinaryastronomlcal  phnseology  " 

*  &Karc»«  on  (As  ifolion  <i/(ft<  ifoon,  WashlnjitOD,  1878. 


Thom- 
son's ar- 
gument 
as  toagf 
of  con- 
solida- 
tion of 
earth. 


Great 
uncer- 
tainty 
in  pre- 
ce(Ung 
numbers. 


fugal  force  mnst  have  been  greater  in  the  proportion  of  817'  to 
7 17' or  of  67  to  51.  If  the  consolidation  took  place  then  or  earlier, 
the  ellipticity  of  the  upper  layers  must  have  been  ^^  instead  of 
about  5^5,  as  it  is  at  present.  It  must  necessarily  remain  uncertain 
whether  the  earth  would  from  time  to  time  adjust  itself  completely 
to  a  figure  of  equilibrium  adapted  to  the  rotation.  But  it  is  clear 
that  a  want  of  complete  adjustment  would  leave  traces  in  a  pre- 
ponderance of  land  in  equatorial  regions.  The  existence  of  large 
continents  and  the  great  effective  ligidity  of  the  earth's  mass 
render  it  improbable  that  the  adjustments,  if  any,  to  the  appropri- 
ate figure  of  equilibrium  would  be  complete.  The  fact  then  that 
the  continents  are  arranged  along  meridians  rather  than  in  an 
equatorial  belt  affords  some  degree  of  proof  that  the  consolidation 
of  the  earth  took  place  at  a  time  when  the  diurnal  rotation  differed 
but  little  from  its  present  value.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that 
the  date  of  consolidation  is  considerably  more  recent  than  a  thou- 
sand million  years  ago.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  add  that  Adams, 
lays  but  little  stress  on  the  actual  numerical  values  which  have 
been  used  in  this  computation,  and  is  of  opinion  that  the  amount 
of  tidal  retardation  of  the  earth's  rotation  is  quite  uncertain." 

§  49.  Effects  of  Tidal  Friction  on  the  Elements  of  the  Itaeii't 
Oi'bit  and  on  the  Earth's  Rotation, 

It  wonld  be  impossible  within  the  limits  of  the  present  article  to  Effects  of 
discuss  completely  the  effects  of  tidal  friction  ;  we  therefore  confine  tidal 
ourselves  to  certain  general  considerations  which  throw  light  on  friction, 
the  nature  of  those  effects.     We  have  in  the  preceding  sections 
supposed  that  the  planet's  axis  is  perpendicular  to  the  orbit  of  the 
satellite,  and  that  the  latter  is  circolar ;  we  shall  now  suppose  the 
orbit  to  be  oblique  to  the  equator  "and  eccentric,  and  shall  also 
consider  some  of  the  effects  o/  the  solar  perturbation  of  the  moon- 
earth  system. ,  For  the  sake  of  brevity  the  planet  will  be  called 
the  earth,  and  the  satellite  the  moon.     The  complete  investigation 
was  carried  out  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  planet  was  a  viscotis 
spheroid,  becatise  this  was  the  only  theory  of  frictionalJy  resisted 
tides  which  had  been  worked  out.     Although  the  results  would  be 
practically  the  same  lor  any  system  of  frictionally  resisted  rides, 
we  shall  speak  below  of  the  planet  or  earth  as  a  viscous  body.* 

We  shall  show  that  if  the  tidal  retardation  be  small  the  obliquity  Obli- 
of  the  ecliptic  increases,  the  earth's  rotation  is  retarded,  and  thequlty  of 
moon's  distance  Mid  periodic  time  are  increased.    Fig.  10  represents  the 
the  earth  as  seen  from  above  the  ^^^-— ^^..^  ecliptic 

south  pole,  BO  that  S  is  the  pole 
and  the  outer  circle  the  equator. 
The  earth's  rotation  is  in  the 
direction  of  the  curved  arrow  at 
S.  The  half  of  the  inner  circle /^  , 
which  is  drawn  with  a  full  line  is  *' "" 
a  semi-small-circle  of  south  lati- 
tude, and  the  dotted  semicircle  is 
a  semi -small -circle  in  the  same 
north  latitude.  Generally  dotted 
lines  indicate  parts  of  the  figure 
which  are  below  the  plane  of  the  ^    jq 

paper.  It  will  make  the  explana- 
tion somewhat  simpler  if  we  suppose  the  tides  to  be  raised  by  a 
moon  and  anti-moon  diametrically  opposite  to  one  another.  Let 
M  and  M'  be  the  projections  of  the  moon  and  anti-moon  on  to  the 
terrestrial  sphere.  If  the  fluid  in  which  the  tides  are  raised  were 
perfectly  frictionless,'  or  if  the  earth  were  a  perfect  fluid  or  per- 
fectly elastic,  the  apices  of  the  tidal  spheroid  would  be  at  M  and 
M'.  If,  however,  there  is  internal  friction,  due  to  any  sort  of 
viscosity,  the  tides  will  lag,  and  we  may  suppose  the  tidal  apices 
to  be  at  T  and  T'.  Now  suppose  the  tidal  protuberances  to  be 
replaced  by  two  equal  heavy  particles  at  T  and  T',  which  are  in- 
stantaneously rigidly  connected  with  the  earth.  ITien  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  moon  on  T  is  greater  than  on  T',  and  that  of  the  anti- 
moon  on  T'  is  greater  than  on  T.  The  resultant  of  these  forces  is 
clearly  a  pair  of  forces  acting  on  the  earth  in  the  direction  TM, 
T'M'.  These  forces  clearly  cause  a  couple  about  the  axis  in  the 
equator,  which  lies  in  the  same  meridian  as  the  moon  and  anti- 
moon.  The  direction  of  the  couple  ■.  shown  by  the  curved  arrows- 
at  L,L'.  If  the  effects  of  this  couple  be  compounded  with  the 
existing  rotation  of  the  earth  according  to  the  principle  of  the 
gyroscope,  the  south  pole  S  tends  to  approach  M  and  the  north 
pole  to  approach  M'.  Hence,  supposing  the  moon  to  move  in  the 
ecliptic,  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the  ecliptic  dimin- 
ishes, or  the  obliquity  increases.  Next  the  forces  TM,  'i"M'  clearly 
produce,  as  in  the  simpler  case  considered  above,  a  couple  about  th© 
earth's  polar  axis,  which  tends  to  retard  the  diurnal  rotation. 

This  general  explanation  remains  a  fair  representation  of  the 
state  of  the  case  so  long  as  the  different  harmonic  constituents  of 
the  aggregate  tide-wave  do  not  suffer  very  different  amounts  of  re- 


*  These  explanations,  together  with  other  remarks,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
abstracts  of  Mr  O.  H.  Darwin's  mepioirs  in  Proc.  iZoy-  Soc.,  l87§-to  1881. 

B  We  here  suppose  the  tides  not  to  be  inverted.  Ijf  they  are  inverted  the 
'  ~'>cla3iOD  is  precisely  the  same. 


378 


TIDES 


tardatioD  ;  and  this  is  the  case  lo  long  as  the  viscosity  is  not  great. 
The  rigorous  result  for  a  viscous  planet  shows  that  in  general  the 
obliquity  will  increase,  and  it  appears  that,  with  small  viscosity  of 
the  planet,  ;f  the  period  of  the  satellite  be  longer  than  two  periods 
of  rotation  of  the  planet,  the  obliquity  increases,  and  vice  versa. 
Hence  zero  obliquity  is  only  dynamically  stable  when  the  period 
of  the  satellite  is  less  than  two  periods  of  the  planet's  rotation. 
Inchna-  Suppose  the  motions  of  the  planet  and  of  its  solitary  satellite,to, 
liOD  of  be  referred  to  the  invariable  plane  of^  the  system.  The  axis  of 
plane  of  resultant  moment  of  momentum  is  normal  to  this  pTan^,  an.d  the 
orbit  component  rotations  are  that  of  the  planet  about  its  axis  of  figure 
geuerally  aud  the  orbital  motion  of  the  planet  and  satellite  round  their  com- 
Jorreasea.  mon  centre  of  inertia  ;  the  axis  of  this  latter'rotation  is  cleail/the 
normal  to  the  satellite's  orbit  Hence  the  normal  to  the  orbit,  the 
axis  of  resultant  moment  of  momentum,  aud  the  planet's  axis 
of  rotation  must  always  lie  in  one  plane.  From  tliis  it  follows 
that  the  orbit  and  the  planet's  equator  must  necessarily  have  a 
common  node  on  the  invariable  plane.  If  either  of  the  component 
'rotations  alters  in  amount  or  direction,  a  corresponding  change 
must  take  place  in  the  other,  such  as  will  keep  the  resultant 
'rooEaeot  of  momentum  constant  in  direction  and  magnitude.  It 
has  been  shown  that  the  effect  of  tidal  friction  is  to  increase  the 
'  iistance  of  the  satellite  from  the  planet,  and  to  transfer  moment 
of  momentum  from  that  of  planetary  rotation  to  that  of  orbital 
iDotion.  If,  then,  the  direction  of  the  planet's  axis  of  rotation 
does  not  change,  it  follows  that  the  normal  to  the  lunar  orbit  must 
approach  the  axis  of  resultant  moment  of  momentum.  By  dravv'ing 
&  series  of  parallelograms  on  the  same  diameter  and  keeping  one 
side  constant  'm^  direction,  this  may  be  easily  seen  to  be  true.  This 
is  equivalent  to  saying  that  the  inclination  of  tho  satellite's  orbit 
will  decrease.  But  this  decrease  of  inclination  does  not  always 
necessarily  take  place,  for  tho  previous  investigations  show  that 
anothet  effect  of  tidal  friction  may  be  to  increase  the  obliquity  of 
the  planet's  equator  to  the  invariable  plane,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
increase  the  inclination  of  the  planet's  axis  to  the  axis  of  resultant 
moment  of  momentum.  Now,  if  a  parallelogram  be  drawn  with 
a  constant  diameter,  it  is  seen  that  by  increasing  the  inclination 
of  one  of  the  sides  to  the  diameter  (and  even  decreasing  its  length) 
the  inclination  of  the  other  side  to  the  diameter  may  also  be  in- 
creased. The  most  favourable  case  for  such  a  change  is  when  the 
Bide  whose  inclination  is  increased  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  diameter. 
From  this  it  follows  that  the  inclination  of  the  satellite's  orbit  to  the 
invariable  plane  may  increase,  and  that  it  is  most  likely  to  increase, 
when  the  moment  of  momentum  of  planetary  rotation  is  large  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  orbital  motion.  The  analytical  solution  of 
the  problem  agrees  \vith  these  results,  for  it  shows  that  if  the  vis- 
cosity of  the  planet  be  small  the  inclination  of  the  orbit  always 
diminishes,  but  if  the  viscosity  be  large,  and  if  the  satellite  moves 
with  a  short  periodic  time  (as  estimated  in  rotations  of  the  planet), 
the  inclination  of  the  orbit  will  increase.  These  results  convey 
some  idea  of  the  physical  causes  which  may  havo  given  rise  to  the 
present  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  For  the 
analytical  investigation  shows  that  the  inclination  of  the  lunar 
erbit  to  a  certain  plane,  which  replaces  the  invariable  plane  when 
tho  solar  attraction  is  introduced,  was  initially  small,  that  it  then 
incri>ased  to  a  maximum,  and  that  it  Anally  diminished  and  is  stUl 
dimi»:ishing. 

But  the  laws  above  referred  to  would,  by  themselves,  afford  a  very 
unsatis.''actory  explanation^f  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit,  be- 
cause tK^  sun's  attraction  is  a  matter  of  much  importance.  It  has 
been  foui'd  that,  if  the  viscosity  of  the  planet  be  small,  the  in- 
clination of  the  orbit  of  the  solitary  satellite  to  the  invariable  plane 
will  always  diminish  ;  but,  when  solar  influence  is  introduced,  the 
corresponding;  statement  is  not  true  with  regard  to  the  inclination 
of  the  lunar  crbit  to  the  proper  plane,  for  during  one  part  of  the 
■  moon's  history  the  inclination  to  the  proper  plane  would,  have 
'  tncreased  even  if  the  viscosity  of  the  eartn  had  been  small. 
Eccen-  Consider  a  satellite  revolving  about  a  planet  in  an  elliptic  orbit, 

tricity  of  with  a  periodicVme  which  is  long  compared  with  the  period  of  rota- 
orbit         tion  of  the  planed ;  and  suppose  that  frictional  tides  are  raised  on 
generally  the  planet.     The  major  axis  of  the  tidal  spheroid  always  points  in 
increases,  advance  of  the  sat«^liite,  and  exercises  on  it  a  force  which  tends  to 
accelerate  its  linear  velocity.     When  the  satellite  is  in  perigee  the 
tides  are  higher,  and  this  disturbing  force  is  greater  than  when  the 
satellite  is  in  apogee.     The  disturbing  force  may  therefore  be  repre- 
sented as  a  constant  force,  always  tending  to  accelerate  the  motion 
of  the  satellite,  and  as  a  periodic  force  'which  accelerates  in  perigee 
and  retards  in  apogee.     The  constant  force  causes  a  secular  increase 
of  the  satellite's  mean  distance  and  a  retardation  of  its  mean  motion. 
,  The  accelerating  force  in  perigee  causes  the  satellite  to  swing  out 
further  than  it  would  otherwise  have  done,  so  that  when  it  comes 
round  to  apogee  it  is  more  remote  from  the  planet     The  retarding 
force  y»  apogee  acts  exactly  inversely,  and  diminishes  the  perigean 
distance.     Thus,  the  apogean  distance  increases  and  the  perigean 
But  il       distance  diminishes,  or,  in  other  words,  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit 
may  de-    increases.     Now  consider  another  case,  and  suppose  the  satellite's 
crease,      periodic  time  to  bo  identical  with  that  of  the  planet's  rotation. 


Then,  when  the  satellite  is  in  perigee,  it  fs  moving  faster  than  th« 
planet  rotates,  and  when  iti  apogee  it  is  moving  slower  ;  hence  at 
apogee  the  tides  lag,  and  at  perigee  they  are  accelerated  Now  the 
lagging  apogean  tides  give  rise  to  an  accelerating  force  on  the 
satellite,  and  increase  the  perigean  distance,  whilst  the  arcelerated 
perigean  tides  give  rise  to  a  retarding  force,  and  decrease  the 
apogean  distance.  Hence  in  this  case  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit 
will  diminish.  It  follows  from  these  two  results  that  there  most 
be  some  intcrrnediatC  periodic  time  nf  the  satellite  for  which  the 
■eccentricity  docs  riot  tend  to  vary. 

But  the  preceding  general  explanation  is  in  reality  somewhat  le$8' 
.satisfactory  than  it  seems,- because  it  does  not  make  clear  the 
cxisten'ce  of  certain  antagonistic  infliie'nces,  to  which,  however,  we 
shall  not.  refer.  The  rigorous  result,  for  a  viscous  planet,  shows 
that  in  gencml  the-  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  will  increase  ,  but,  if 
the  obliquity  pf  the  planet's  equator  be  nearly  90^  or  if  the  viscosity 
bo  so  great  as  to  approach  perfect  rigidity,  or  if  the  periodic  time 
\of  the  satellite  (measured  in  rotations  of  the  planet)  be  short,  the 
eccentricity  will  slowly  diminish;  When  the  viscosity  is  small  the 
law  of  variation  of  eccentricity  is  very  simple  :  if  eleven  periods 
ofthe  satellite  occupy  a  longer  time  than  eighteen  rotations  of  tho 
planet,  the  eccentricity  increases,  and  vice  versa..  Hence  in  the 
case  of  small  viscosity  a  circular  orbit  is  only  dynamically  stable 
if  the  eleven  periods  are  shorter  than  the  eighteen  rotations. 

X.  CosMOGONic  Speculations  founded  on  Tidal  FRiCTioy." 
§  50.  Eiitonj  of  the  Earth  and  Moon. 

We  shall  not  attempt  to  discuss  the  mathematical  methods  by 
which  the  complete  history  of  a-  planet,  attended  by  one  or  more 
satellites,  is  to  be  traced.  The  laws  indicated  in  the  preceding 
sections  show  that  there  is  such  a  problem,  and  that  it  may  be 
solved,  and  we  refer  to  Mr  Darwin's  papers  for  details  (Phil.  Trans., 
]  879-81).  It  may  be  interesting,  however,  to  give  the  various 
results  of  the  investigation  in  the  form  of  a  sketch  of  the  possible, 
evolution  of  the  earth  and  moon,  followed  by  remarks  ou  the  other  , 
planetary  systems  and  on  the  solar  system  as  a  whole. 

We  begin  with  a  planet  not  very  much  more  than  8000  miles  in  Oox^Jeo 
diameter,  and  probably  partly  solid,  partly  fluid,  and  partly  gaseous,  tuial 
It  is  rotating  about  an  axis  inclined  at  about  11"  or  12°  to  the  nor*  genealso/ 
mal  to  the  ecliptic,  with  a  period  of  from  two  to  four  hours,  and  is  moon 
revolving  about  the  sun  with  a  period  rot  much  shorter  than  our  from 
present  year.     The  rapidity  of  the  planet's  rotation  causes  so  gre^tterth. 
a  compression  of  its  figure  that  it  cannot  continue  to  exist  in  an 
ellipsoidal  form  with  stability  ;  or  else  it  is  so  nearly  unstable  that 
complete  instability  is  induced  by  the  solar  tides.     The  planet  then 
separates  into  two  masses,   the  larger  being  the  eartn  and  the 
smaller  tho  moon.     It  is  not  attempted  to  define  the  mode  of 
separation,  or  to  say  whether  the  moon  was  initially  a  chain  of 
meteorites.     At  any  rate  it  must  be  assumed  that  the  smaller  mass 
became  more  or  less  conglomerated  and  finally  fused  into  a  spheroid, ' 
perhaps  in  consequence  of  impacts  between  its  constituent  mete- 
orites, which  were  once  part  of  the  primeval  planet.     Up  to  this 
point  the  history  is  largely  speculative,  for  the  conditions  of  insta- 
bility of  a  rotating  mass  of  fluid  have  not  yet  been  fully  investigated. . 
We  now  have  the  earth  and  moon  nearly  in  contact  with  one  Earth 
another,  and  rotating  nearly  as  though  they  were  parts  of  one  rigid  and 
body.'     This  is  the  system  which  was  the  subject  of  dynamical  rnocKi 
investigation.     As  the  two  masses  are  not  rigid,  the  attraction  of  subject 
each  distorts  the  other  ;  and,  if  they  do  not  move  rigorously  with  of  inre^' 
the  same  periodic  time,  e?ch  raises  a  tide  in  the  other.     Also  the  ti^tloiw 
snn  raises  tides  in  both.     In  consequence  of  the  frictional  resistance 
to  these  tidal  motional  such  a  system  is  dynamically  unstable.     If 
the  moon  had  moved  orbitally  a  little  faster  than  the  earth  rotated, 
she  must  have  fallen  back  into  the  earth  ;  thus  the  existence  of 
the  raoon  compels  us  to  bblieve  that  the  equilibrium  broke  down 
by  the  moon  revolving  orbitally  a  little  slower  than  the  earth 
rotates.    In  consequence  of  the  tidal  friction  the  perioidic  rimes  both 
of  the  moon  (or  the  month)  and  of  the  earth's  rotation  (or  the  day) 
increase  ;  but  the  month  increases  in  length  at  a  much  greater 
rate  than  the  day.    At  some  early  stage  in  the  history  of  the  system 
the  moon  was  conglomerated  into  a  spheroi'dal  form,  and  acquired 
a  rotation  about  an  axis  nearly  parallel  to  that  of  the  earth. 

The  axial  rotation  of  the  moon  is  retarded  by  the  attraction  of  The 
the  earth  on  the  tides  raised  in  the  moon,  and  this  retardation  takes  moon 
place  at  a  far  greater  rate  than  the  similar  retardation  of  the  earth's 
rotation.  As  soon  a-i  the  moon  rotates  round  her  axis  with  twice 
the  angular  velocity  with  which  she  revolves  in  her  orbit,  the 
position  of  her  axis  of  rotation  (parallel  with  tho  earth's  axis) 
becomes  dynamically  unstable.  The  obliquity  of  the  lunar  equator  ^ 
to  the  plane  of  tho  orbit  increases,  attains  a  maximum,  and  then 
diminishes.  Meanwhile  the  lunar  axial  rotation  is  being  reduced 
towards  identity  with  the  orbital  motion.  Finally,  her  equator  is 
nearly  coincident  with  the  plane  of  the  orbit,  and  the  attraction  of 
the  earth  on  a  tide,  wluch  degenerates  into  a  permanent  ellipticity 

1  See  criticisms  by  Mr  Kolao,  Geiiesit  q/iloon,  Melbourne,  1S85 ;  also  Hatytrtt 
16th  February  1SS6. 


TIDES 


379 


of  the  lonar  equator,  causes  her  always  to  show  the  same  face  to 
the  eartK 
Theearth  All  this  must  have  taken  place  early  in  the  history  of  the  earth, 
indltmarto  which  we  now  return.  As  the  month  increases  in  length  .the 
9rbiL  lunar  orbit  becomes  eccentric,  and  the  eccentricity  reaches  a  maxi- 
mum when  the  month  occupies  about  a  rotation  and  a  half  of  the 
earth.  The  maximum  of  eccentricity  is  probably  not  large.  After 
this  the  eccentricity  diminishes.  The  plane  of  the  lunar  orbit  is 
at  first  practically  identical  with  the  earth's  equator,  but  as  the 
moon  recedes  from  the  earth  the  sun's  attraction  begins  to  make 
itself  felt.  We  must  therefore  introduce  the  conception  of  two 
ideal  planes  (here  called  the  proper  planes),  to  which  the  motion 
of  the  earth  and  moon  must  be  referred.  'The  lunar  proper  plane 
is  at  first  inclined  at  a  very  small  angle  to  the  earth's  proper  plane, 
and  the  orbit  and  equator  coincide  with  their  respective  proper 
planes.-  A3  soon  as  the  earth  rotates  with  tmce  the  angular  velocity 
with  which  the  moon  revolves  in  her  orbit,  a  new  instability  sets 
in.  The  month  is  then  about  twelve  of  our  present  hours,  and 
the  day  about  six  snch  hours  in  length.  The  inclinations  of  the 
lun^  o];bit  and  of  the  equator  to  their  respective  proper  planes 
increase.  That  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  its  proper  plane  increases  to 
a  n;aximum  of  6"  or  7°,  and  ever  after  diminishes,  that  of  the 
equator  to  its  proper  plane  increases  to  a  maximum  of  about 
2  45',  and  ever  after  <^minishes.  The  maximum  inclination  of 
the  lunar  orbit  to  its  proper  plan©  takes  place  when  the  day  is  a 
little  less  than  nine  of  our  present  hours,  and  the  month  a  little 
less  thn-n  six  of  our  present  days.  The  maximum  inclination  of 
the'  equator  to  its-  proper  plane  takes  place  earlier  than  this. 
"Whilst  these  changes  have  been  going  on  the  proper  planes  have 
been  themselves  changing  in  their  positions  relatively  to  one 
another  and  to  the  ecliptic.  At  first  they  were  nearly  coincident 
with  one  another  and  with  the  earth's  equator,  but  they  then 
open  ouf,  and  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  proper  plane  to  the 
ecliptic  continually  diminishes,  whilst  that  of  the  terrestrial  proper 
plane  continually  increases.  At  some  stage  the  earth  became 
more  rigid,  and  oceans  were  formed,  so  that  oceanic  tidal  friction 
probably  came  to  play  a  more  important  part  than  bodily  tidal 
mction.  If  this  be  the  case,  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit,  after 
passing  through  a  stationary  phase,  begins  to  increase  again. 
We  have  now  traced  the  system  to  a  state  in  which  the  day  an^ 
month  are  increasing,  but  at  unequal  rates,  the  inclination  of  the 
lunar  proper  plane  to  the  ecliptic  and  of  the  orbit  to  the  proper 
plane  are  diminishing,  the  inclination  of  the  terrestrial  proper 
,  plane  to  the  ecliptic  is  increasing  and  of  the  equator  to  its  proper 
plane  is  diminishing,  and  the  eccentricity  of  the  brbit  is  increasing. 
No  new  phase  now  supervenes  and  at  length  we  have  the  system 
in  its  present  configuration.  The  minimum  time  in  which  the 
changes  from  first  to  last  can  have  taken  place  is  54,000,000  years. 
Distor-  There  are  other  collateral  results  which  must  arise  from  a  sup- 
tion  of  posed  primitive  viscosity  or  plasticity  of  the  earth's  mass.  For 
plastic  during  this  course  of  evolution  the  earth's  mass  must  have  suffered 
planet,  a  screwing  motion,  so  that  the  polar  regions  have  travelled  a  little 
from  west  to  east  relatively  to  the  equator.  This  affords  a  possible 
explanation  of  the  north  and  south  trend  of  our  great  continents. 
Also  a  large  amount  of  heat  has  been  generated  by  friction  deep 
down  in  the  earth ;  and  some  very  small  part  of  the  observed  in- 
crease of  temperature  in  underground  borings  may  be  attribut^le 
to  this  cause.  The  preceding  history  might  vary  a  little  in  detail 
according  to  the  degree  of  viscosity  which  we  attribute  to  the 
earth's  mass,  and  according  as  oceanic  tidal  friction  is  or  is  not, 
now  and  in  the  more  recent  past,  a  more  powerful  cause  of  change 
than  bodily  tidal  friction.  The  argument  reposes  on  the  imperfeet 
rigidity  of  solids  and  on  the  internal  friction  of  semi-solids  and 
The  fluids  ;  these  are  veras  causa!.    Thus  changes  of  the  kind  here  dis- 

theory      cussed  must  be  going  on,  and  must  have  gone  on  in  the  past.     And 
postn-      for  this  history  of  tne  earth  and  moon  to  be  true  throughout,  it  is 
lates  suf-  only  necessary  to  postulate  a  sufficient  lapse  of  time,  and  that  there 
ficient      is  not  enough  matter  diffused  through  space  to  materially  resist 
lapse  of   the  motions  of  the  moon  and  earth  in  perhaps  200,000,000  years, 
time.        It  seems  hardly  too  much  to  say  that,  granting  these  two  postu- 
lates, and  the  existence  of  a  primeval  planet,  such  as  that  above 
described,  a  system  would  necessarily  be  developed  which  would  bear 
a  strong  resemblance  to  our  own.    A  theory,  reposing  on  veras  causae, 
which  brings  into  quantitative  correlation  the  lengths  of  the  present 
day  and  month,  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  the  incbnation 
and  eccentricity  of  the  lunar  orbit  should  have  claims  to  acceptance. 

§  5L    The  Other  Planetary  Subsystems. 

Other  If  this  has  been  the  evolution  of  th^  earth  and  moon,  a  similar 

pUnet-     process  must  have  been  going  on  elsewhere.     So  far  we  have  only 

ary  Bub-  considered  a  single  satellite  and  the  sun,  but  the  theory  may  of 

systems,  course  be  extended,  with  modifications,  to  planets  attended  by 

several  satellites.     We  will  now,  therefore,  consider  some  of  the 

other  members  of  the  solar  systam.     A  large  planet  has  much  more 

energy  of  rotation  to  be  destroyed,  and  moment  of  inomentnm  to 

be  redistributed,  than  a  small  one,  and  therefore  a  large  planet 

ought  to  proceed  in  its  evolution  more  elowlv  than  a  small  one. 


Therefore  we  ought  to  find  the  larger  planets  less  advanced  than 
the  smaller  ones.  The  masses  of  such  of  the  planets  as  have  satel- 
lites are,  in  terms  of  the  earth's  -mass,  as  follows: — Mars=|; 
Jupiter=340  ;  Satum  =  100;  Uranus=17;  Neptune=20. 

Mars  should  therefore  bo  furthest  advanced, in  its  evolution,  and  Vtxt, 
it  is  here  alone  in  the  whole  system  that  we  find  a  satellite  moving 
orbitally  faster  -than  the  planet  rotates.  This  will  also  be  the 
ultimate  fate  of  our  moon,  because,  after  its  orbital  motion  has 
been  reduced  to  identity  with  that  of  the  earth's  rotation,  solar 
tidal  .friction  will  further  reduce  the  earth's  angular  velocity; 
the  tidal  reaction  on  the  moon  will  then  be  reversed,  and  the 
moon's  orbital  velocity  will  increase  and  her  distance  from  the 
earth  diminish.  But,  since  the  moon's  mass  ia  very  large,  she 
must  recede  to  an  enormous  distance  from  the  earth  before  this 
reversal  takes  place.  Now  the  satellites  of  Mars  are  very  small, 
and  therefore  they  need  only  recede  a  very  short  distance  from  the 
planet  before  the  reversal  of  tidal  reaction.  The  periodic  time  of 
the  satellite  Deimos  is  30*  18™,  and,  as  the  period  of  rotation  of 
Mars  is  24''  37",  Deimos  must  be  still  receding  from  Mars,  but 
very  slowly.  The  periodic  time  of  the  satellite  Phobos  is  7''  39"°  j 
therefore  it  must  bo  approaching  Mars.  It  does  not  seem  likely 
that  it  has  ever  been  remote  from  the  planet.'  The  eccentricities 
of  the  orbits  of  both  satellites  are  small :  that  of  Deimos  is  '0057 
and  that  of  Phobos  '0065.  If  the  -viscosity  of  the  planet  be  small, 
or  if  oceanic  tidal  friction  be  the  principal  cause  of  change,  both 
eccentricities  are  diminishing  ;  but,  if  the  viscosity  be  large,  both 
are  increasing.  As  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  whether  the 
eccentricities  are  increasing  or  diminishing,  the  larger  eccentricity 
of  the  orbit  of  Phobos  cannot  be  a  fact  of  much  importance  either 
for  or  against  the  present  -views.  But  it  must  be  admitted  that  it 
is  a  slightly  unfavourable  indication.  The  position  of  the  proper 
plane  of  a  satellite  is  determined  by  the  periodic  time  of  the 
satellite,  the  oblateness  of  the  planet,  and  the  sun's  distance.  The 
inclination  of  the  orbit  of  a  satellite  to  the  proper  plane  is  not 
determined  by  anything  in  the  system.  Hence  it  is  only  the 
inclination  of  the  orbit  which  can  afford  any  argument  for  or 
against  the  theory.  The  proper  planes  of  both  satellites  are 
necessarily  nearly  coincident  with  the  equator  of  the  planet ;  but 
it  is  in  accordance  with  the  theory  that  the  inclinations  of  the 
orbits  to  their  respective  proper  planes  should  be  small.  Any 
change  in  the  obliquity  of  the  equator  of  Mars  to  the  plane  of  his 
orbit  must  be  entirely  due  to  solar  tides.  The  present  obliquity  is 
about  30°,  and  this  points  also  to  an  advanced  stage  of  evolution, 
at  least  if  the  axis  of  the  planet  was  primitively  at  aU  nearly  per- 
pendicular to  the  ecliptic 

Wo  now  come  to  the  system  of  Jupiter.  This  enormous  planet  Jupitec 
is  stUl  rotating  in  about  ten  hours ;  its  axis  is  nearly  perpendicular 
to  the  ecliptic  ;  and  three  of  its  satellites  revolve  in  seven  days  or 
less,  whilst  the  fourth  has  a  period  of  IC*  16*^.  This  system  is 
obviously  far  less  advanced  than  our  own.  The  inclinations  of 
the  proper  planes  to  Jupiter's  equator  are  necessarily  small,  but 
the  inclinations  of  the  orbits  to  tho  proper  planes  appear  to  be  ' 
very  interesting  from  .a  theoretical  point  of  view.  They  are  in  ! 
the  ease  of  the  first  satellite  0"  C  0",  in  the  case  of  the  second  i 
0°  27'  50",  in  that  of  the  third  0°  12'  20",  and  in  that  of  the  fourth 
0°  14'  58".  We  have  shown  above  that  the  orbit  of  a  satellite  is 
first  coinci.-Jent  with  its  proper  plane,  and  that  the  inclination 
afterwards  rises  to  a  maximum  and  filially  declines.  If  then  we 
may  assume,  as  seems  reasonable,  that  the  satellites  are  in  stages 
of  evolutton  corresponding  to  their  distances  from  the  planet,  these 
inclinations  accord  well  with  the  theory.  The  eccentricities  of  the 
orbits  of  the  two  inner  satellites  are  insensible,  those  of  the  outer 
two  small.  This  does  not  tell  strongly  either  for  or  against  the 
theory,  because  the  history  of  the  eccentricity  depends  considerably 
on  the  nature  of  -the  friction  to  which  the  tides  are  subject.  Yet 
it  on  the  whole  agrees  with  the  theory  that  the  eccentricity  should 
be  greater  in  the  more  remote  satellites.  It  appears  that  the  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter  always  present  the  same  face  to  the  planet,  just  as 
does  our  moon.     This  was  to  be  expected. 

The  case  of  Saturn  is  not  altogetner  so  favourable  to  the  theory.  Satun^ 
The  extremely  rapid  rotation,  the  ring,  and  the  short  periodic  time  '^  ' 
of  the  inner  satellites  point  to  an  early  stage  of  development ;  whilst 
the  longer  periodic  time  of  the  three  outer  satellites  and  the  high 
obliquity  of  the  equator  indicate  a  later  stage.  Perhaps  both  views 
may  be  more  or  less  correct,  for  successive  shedding  of  satellites 
would  impart  a  modem  appearance  to  the  system.  It  has  probably 
been  previously  remarked  that  the  Saturnian  system  bears  a  strong 
analogy  to  the  solar  system.  Titan  being  analogous  to  Jupiter, 
Hyperion  and  lapetus  to  Uranus  and  Neptune,  and  the  inner  satel. 
lites  to  the  inner  planets.  Thus  anything  which  aids  us  in  forming 
a  theory  of  the  one  system  will  throw  light  on  <he  other.  The 
details  of  the  Saturnian  system  seem  to  be  more  or  less  favourable 
to  the  theory.  The  proper  planes  of  the  orbits  'except  that  of 
lapetus)  are  nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  ring,  and  the  inclinations 
of  all"  the  orbits  thereto  appear  not  to  be  large.     As  the  result  of 

1  Ur  NolAD  coDBiders  the  ttaeor;  Inapplicable  to  the  case  of  M&rs ;  see  Aoture, 
S9th  July  18S6. 


380 


TIDES 


&  careful  series  of  obscrrationa  made  at  Washington  in  1873,  Prof. 
Ajaph  Hall '  finds  that  the  eccentricities  of  the  orbits  of  Mimas 
Enceladus,  Tethys,  Dione,  and  Rhea  are  insensible,  that  of  Titan 
ia  -0284,  of  Hyperion  -1000,  and  that  of  lapetus  -0278.  The  satel- 
lite lapctHS  appears  always  to  present  the  same  face  to  the  planet. ' 
Tlrajius  Concerning  Uranus  and  Neptune  there  is  not  much  to  bo  said, 
and  as  their  systems  are  veiy  little  known  ;  but  their  masses  are  much 

Neptune,  larger  than  that  of  the  earth,  and  their  satellites  revolve  with  a 
short  periodic  time.  The  retrograde  motion  and  high  inclination 
of  the  satellites  of  Uranus  are  very  remarkable.  The  theory  of  the 
inclination  of  the  orbit  has  been  based  on  an  as,^med  smallness  of 
'jKlination,  and  it  is  not  very  easy  to  see  to  what  results  investi- 
gation might  lead  if  the  inclination  were  large.  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted, however,  that  the  Uranian  system  points  to  the  probability 
Df  the  existence  of  a  primitive  planet,  whh  retrograde  rotation,  oi 
at  least  with  a  very  large  obliquity  of  equator. 

It  appears  from  this  review  that  the  other  members  of  the  solar 
system  present  some  phenomena  which  are  strikingly  favourable  tc 
the  tidal  theory  of  evolution,  and  none  -which  are  absolutely  con- 
demnatory.  We  shall  show  in  the  following  section  that  then, 
are  reasons  why  tlie  tidalfriction  arising  in  the  planetary  system? 
cannot?  have  had  so  much  effect  as  in  the  case  of  the  earth  and  moon. 
That  the  indications  which  we  liave  just  noted  were  not  inorf 
jnarked,  but 'yet  seemed  to  exist,  agrees  well  with  Ihic  conclusion. 

"  §  52.JnflMiiCe  of  Tidal  Friction  on  the  Evolvlion  qftht 
Solar  System. 

Sola.  According  to  the  nebular  hypothesis,  the  planets  and  the  satellites 

.•system     '*'"  portions  detached  from  contracting  nebulous  masses.  _  In  the 
iis'a  following  discussion  that  hypothesis  will  be  accepted  in  its  main 

whole.  outline,  and  we  shall  examine  what  modifications  are  necessitated 
.hy  the  inRuence  of  tidal  friction.  It  may  bo  shown  that  the 
reaction  of  the  tides  raised  in  the  sun  by  the  planets  must  have 
had  a  very  small  influence  in  changing  tho  dimensions  of  the 
planetary  orbits  round  the  sun.  .  From  a  consid<'ratlon  of  numerical 
data  with  regard  to  the  solar  system  and  the  planetary  subsystems, . 
it  appears  improbable  that  tho  planetary  orbits  have  ijceu  sensibly 
enlarged  by  tidal  friction  since  the  origin  of  the  several  planets. 
But  it  is  possible  that  some  very  small  part  of  the  eccentricities  of 
Piano-  the  planetary  orbits  is  due  to  this  cause.  From  arguments  similar 
tuj-y  sub-  to  those  advanced  with  regard  to  the  solar  system  as  a  whole,  it 
eyetems.  appears  unlikely  that  the  satellites  of  Jlars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn 
originated  very  much  nearer  tho  present  surfaces  of  the  planets 
than  we  now  observe  them.  But,  the  data  being  insuflficient,  wo 
cannot  feel  sure  that  the  alteration  in  the  dimensions  of  tho  orbits 
of  these  satellites  has  not  been  considerable.  It  remains,  however, 
nearly  certain  that  they  cannot  have  first  originated  almost  in  con- 
tact with  the  present  surfaces  of  the  planets,  in  the  same  way  as 
in  the  preceding  sketch  (§  50)  has  been  shown  to  be  probable 
with  regard  to  the  raoon  and  earth.  Numerical  data  concerning 
the  distribution  of  moment  of  momentum  in  the  several  planetary ' 
Bub-systems  exhibit  so  striking  a  difference  between  the  terres- 
trial system  and  those  of  the  other  planets  that  we  should  from 
this  alone  have  grounds  for  believing  that  the  modes  of  evolution 
Jiave  been  considerably  different.  Tho  difference  appears  to  lio 
In  the  genesis  of  tho  moon  close  to  the  present  surface  of  the 
'planet,  and  we  shall  see  below  that  solar  tidal  friction  may  be  as- 
'eigned  as  a  reason  to  explain  how  it  has  happened  that  tho  terres- 
■trial  planet  had  contracted  to  nearly  its  present  dimensions  before 
jthe  genesis  of  a  satellite,  but  that  this  was  not  the  case  wdth  the 
(exterior  plauets.  The  efficiency  of  solar  tidal  friction  is  very  much 
Icreater  in  its  action  on  the  nearer  planets  than  on  the  further  ones. 
The  time,  however,  during  which  solar  tidal  friction  has  been 
bperatin»  on  the  external  planets  is  probably  much  longer  than  the 
period  of  its  efficiency  for  the  interior  ones,  and  a  series  of  numbers 
proportional  to  the  total  amount  of  rotation  destroyed  in  the  several 
planets  would  present  a  far  less  rapid  decrease  as  we  recede  from 
the  sun  than  numbers  simply  expressive  of  tho  efficiency  of  tidal 
friction  at  the  several  planets.  Nevertheless  it  must  be  admitted - 
that  tho  effect  produced  by  solar  tidal  friction  on  Jupiter  ^nd 
Saturn  has  not  been  nearly  so  great  as  on  the  interior  planets. 
And,  as  already  stated,  it  is  Very  improbable  that  so  large  an 
amount  of  momentum  should  have  been  destroyed  as  to  materially 
laffect  the  orbits  of  the  planets  round  the  sun.  , 
Diatriba-  We  will  now  examine  how  the  differences  of  distance  from  the 
Uon  of  sun  would  be  likely  to  affect  the  histories  of  the  several  planetary 
satellites  masses.  According  to  the  nebular  hypothesis,  a  planetaiy  nebula 
amongst  contracts,  and  rotates  quicker  as  it  contracts.  The  rapidity  of  the 
tho  revolution  causes  it  to  become  unstable,  or  perhaps  an  equatorial 

rlansta.!  belt  gradually  detaches  itself;  it  is  immaterial  which  of  these  two 
really  takes  place.  In  either  case  the  separation  of  that  part  of  the 
'mass  which  before  tho  change  had  the  greatest  angular  momentum 
.permits  the  central  portion  to  resume  a  planetary  shape.  The 
'contraction  and  the  increase  of  rotation  proceed  continually  until 
^nother  portion  is  detached,  and  so  on.  There  thus  recur  at  inter- 
(Vals  a  aeries  of  epochs  of  instability  or  of  abnormal  change.  Now 
""^  >  a<>e  BtU.  Aiax.  Jitporl,  18S«.  p.  S43.  ~ 


tidal  friction  must  diminish"  the  rate  of  increase  of  rotation  "due  to' 
contraction,  and  therefore  if  tidal  friction  and  contraction  aro  at 
work  together  the  epochs  of  instability  must  recur  more  rarely! 
than  if  contraction  alone  acted.  If  the  tidal  retardation  is  suffi- 
ciently great,  the  increase  of  rotation  due  to  contraction  will  be  so' 
far  counteracted  as  never  to  permit  an  epoch  of  instability  to  occur-' 
Since  the  rate  of  retardation  duo  to  solar  tidal  friction  decreases' 
rapidly  as  we  recede  from  the  sun,  these  considerations  accord  with 
what  we  observe  in  the  solar  system.  For  ilcrcury  and  Venus 
have  no  satellites,  and  there  is  a  progressive  increase  in  the  number 
of  satellites  as  we  recede  from  the  sun.  Moreover,  the  number  of 
satellites  is  not  directly  connected  with  the  mass  of  the  planet,  foi^ 
Venus  has  nearly  the  same  mass  as  the  earth  and  has  no  satcllitef' 
and  the  earth  has  relatively  by  far  the  largest  satellite  of  the  wholql 
system.  M'hether  this  be  the  true  cause  of  the  observed  distribu^ 
tion  of  satellites  amongst  the  planets  or  not,  it  is  remarkable  that 
the  same  cause  also  affords  an  explanation,  as  we  shall  now  show,i 
of  that  difference  between  the  earth  with  the  moon  and  the  other' 
planets  with  their  satellites  which -has  caused  tidal  friction  to  bo', 
the  principal  agent  of  change  with  the  former  but  not  with  the  Case  of 
latter.  In  the  case  of  the  contracting  terrestrial  mass  w-c  may  earthu»> 
suppose  that  there  was  for  a  long  time  nearly  a  balance  betw-ecn  niooa^ 
the  retardation  due  to  solar  tidal  friction  and  the  acceleration  differwiiJ 
due  to  contraction,  and  that  it  was  not  lujtil  the  planetary  mass  from 
had  contracted  to  nearly  its  present  dimensions  that  an  epoch  others, 
of  instability  could  occur.  It  may  also  be  noted  that  if  there  be 
two  equal  planetary  masses  which  generate  satellites,  but, tinder 
very  different  conditions  as  to  the  degree  of  condensatiorL  of  the 
masses,  the  two  satellites  will  be  likely  to  differ  in  m^ss  ;  we 
cannot  of  course  tell  which  of  the  two  planets  would  generate  tho 
larger  satellite.  1'hus,  if  the  genesis  of  the  moon  was 'deferred 
until  a  late  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  terrestrial  mass,  the 
mass  of  tho  moon  relatively  to  the  earth  would  be  likely  to  differ 
from  the  mass  of  other  satellites  relatively  to  their  planets.  If 
the  contraction  of  the  planetary  mass  be  almost  completed  before 
the  genesis  of  the  satellite,  tidal  friction,  due  jointly  to  the  satellite 
and  to  the  sun,  will  thereafter  be  the  great  cause  of  change  in  the 
system  ;  and  thus  the  hypothesis  that  it  is  the  sole  cause  of  change 
wlU  give  an  approximately  accurate  explanation  of  the  motion  of 
the  planet  and  satellite  at  any  subsequent  time.  We  have  already 
seen  that  the  theory  that  tidal  friction  has  been  the  ruling  power 
in  the  evolution  of  the  earth  and  moon  coordinates  the  present 
motions  of  the  two  bodies  and  carries  us  back  to  an  initial  state 
when  the  moon  first  had  a  separate  existence  as  a  satellite  ;  and  the 
initial  configuration  of  the  two  bodies  is  such  that  we  are  led  tol 
believe  that  the  moon  is  a  portion  of  the  primitive  earth  detached 
by  rapid  rotation  or  other  causes.  There  seems  to  be  some  reay  i 
to  suppose  that  the  earliest  form  in  which  the  moon  had  a  separarte 
existence  was  as  a  ring  or  chain  of  meteorites  ;  but  this  conditiffti 
precedes  that  to  which  the  dynamical  investigation  leads  back. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  other  planetary  sub-systems.  The  satellites 
of  the  larger  planets  revolve  with  short  periodic  times ;  this  admits 
of  a  simple  explanation,  for  tho  smallness  of  their  masses  would 
have-  prevented  tidal  friction  from  being_  a  very  efficient  cause  ot 
change  in  the  dimensions  of  their  orbits,'aBd  tte  largeness  of  the 
planet's  masses  would  have  caused  them  to  proceed  slowly  in  their 
evolution.  If  the  planets  be  formed  itoia  chains  of  meteorites  or 
of  nebulous  matter,  their  rotation  has  arisen  from  the  excess  of 
orbital  momentum  of  the  exterior  over  that  of  the  interior  matter,  f 
As  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  how  broad  the  chain  may  have 
been  in  any  case,  nor  how  much  it  may  have  closed  in  on  tiie  sun 
in  course-Df  concentration,  we  are  unable  to  compute  the  primitive 
angular  momentum  of  a  planet. ,  A  rigorous  metnod  of  comparison 
of  the  primitive  rotations  of  the  several  planets  is  thus  wanting. 
If,  however,  the  planets  were  formed  under  similar  conditiona,'then 
we  should  expect  to  find  the  exterior  planets  now  rotating  more 
,  rapidly  than  the  interior  ones.  On  making  allowance  for  the  differ-, 
ent  degrees  of  concentration  of  the  planets,  this  is  the  case.-  That' 
the  inner  satellite  of  Mars  revolves  with  a  period  of  less  than  a  _ 
third  of  the  planet's  rotation  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  fact  Satel- 
in  the  solar  system.  The  theory  of  tidal  friction  explains  this  litea  of 
perfectly  ;  and  this  will  be  the  ultimate  fate  of  all  satellites,  be-  .Mam 
cause  the  solar  tidal  friction  retards  the  planetary  rotation  without 
directly  affecting  the  satellite's  orbital  motion,  _  Nutnerical  comv 
parison  shows'that  tho  efficiency  of  solar  tidal  friction  in  retarding 
the  terrestrial  and  martian  rotations  is  of  about  the  same  degree 
of  importance,  notwithstanding  the  much  greater  distance  of  the 
planet  Mars.  In  the  above  discussion  it  will  have  been  apparent 
that  the  earth  and  moon  do  actually  differ  from  the  other  planets 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  permit  tidal  friction  to  have  been  tho  most 
important  factor  in  their  history. 

By  an  examination  of  the  probable  effects  of  solar  tidal  frictioiiBummary 
on  a  contracting  planetary  mass,  we  have  been  led  to  assign  a 
cause  for  the  observed  distribution  of  satellites  in  the  solar  system 
and  this  again  has  itself  afforded  an  explanation  of  how  it  happened 
that  the  moon  so  originated  that  tho  tidal  friction  of  the  lunar 
Ttides  in  the  earth  should  have  been  able  to  exercise  so  large  an 


T  1  D  — T  I  E 


381 


influence.  We  hare  endeavoured  not  only  to  set  forth  the  in- 
flueuce  which  tidal  friction  may  have,  and  probably  has,  had  in 
the  history  of  the  system,  if  sulEcient  liiuc  be  granted,  but  also 
to  point  out  wliat  effects  it  cannot  have  produced.  These  invfcsti- 
gatioos  afford  no  grounds  for  the  rejection  of  the  nebular  hypo- 
thesis ;  but,  wliilc  they  present  evidence  in  favour  of  the  main 
outlines  of  tl  »'  theory,  tliey  introduce  modifications  of  consider- 
able importance.  Titlil  friction  is  a  cause  of  change  of  which 
Laplace's  theory  took  no  account;  and,  ahhough  the  activity  of 
tliat  cause  uuiy  he  rcganied  as  mainly  belonging;  to  a  later  period 
than  the  events  described  in  the  nebiilar  hypothesis,  yet  it  seems 
chat  its  InHuence  ha?  been  of  grcaU  and  iu  one  instance  of  even 


paramount  importance  in  determining  the  present  condition  cff  the 
planets  and  their  satellites.     Throughout  tite  whole  of  this  dis 
cussion  it  has  been  supposed  tliat  suthcicnt  time  is  at  our  dis- 
posal ;  Sir  W'.  ■Thomson  and  others  have,  however,  adduced  rcason- 
irtg  which  goes  to  show  that  the  history  of  the  solar  system  must  Limif^ 
bo  comprised  within  a  period  considerably  less  than  a  hundred  tioa  of 
million  years.'     It  would  perhaps  be  prcmat-ore  to  accept  this  as  timft 
the  final  and  definite  conclusion  of  science.     If,  however,  it  be  con- 
firmed, we  shall  only  be  permitted  to  accept  the  doctrine  that  tidal 
friction  has  effected  considerable  modification  in  the  configuration 
of  the  moon  and  earth,  and  must  reject  the  earlier  portion  of  the 
history  sketched  above.  (G.  H.  D.) 


Table  of  Contents. 


'Ch*p.  1.— Oxtwe  Natcre  of  Tides. 

f  I,  Definition  of  tifle. 

S  2.  Ccucnl  descnpiioD  of  tidal  pheoo- 

mena. 
$  3.  Gciicnl  expIuutioD  of  tUe  cause 

pf  iidrt. 
f  4.  Historical  sketch. 

CBaP.  II.— TlDE-GEKZaATlNO  FOBCE*. 

S  S.  lDvestigat:on   of   tide-geaeratuig 

potenual  and  forces. 
i  fi.  Form  of  equiUbriam. 
i  7,  I>cvcIopment  of   tide-generating 

potential  in  terms pT  bour-aDgle 

ani!  declination. 
i  S.  Evslu.-\tioQoftide-geijeratin?:rorccs 

and  lunar  deflexion  of  gravity. 
%  9.  Corrvct:i?n  to  equilibrium  tlieoiy 

for  continents. 

Chap.  IIL— Dynamicai-  Toeoey  or 
Tides. 
i  10.  Histoncal  explanation, 
f  11-  Equalioijs  of  motion. 
§  12.  AdapTatioQ  lo  forced  oscHlBUoiis. 
§  15.  PrefdratK'n  for  solution. 
$  \i.  DiurojJ  tide. 


5  15.  Semi-diunud  tide  with  variable 

dcpUi. 
S  16.  Sciiii -diurnal  tide  with  usifonu 

depth. 
1 17.  Tides  of  Mng  period ;  Lapocalfi. 

argument  from  friction.      *■ 
S  18.  Tides  of  I'^ng  period  in  an  ofican 

of  nntforni  depth. 
§  lO.  Sl-iUIity  of  the  ocean. 
§  -JO.  Precession  and  nutation. 
§  21.  Seme    pbeoomcoa    of    tides    in 

rivers, 

Ceap.  IV.— IUbmomc  Analtbm.  ^ 

§  22.  Methods  of  appl)'lDg  theAy  to 
prsctice. 

§  23.  Development  of  equilibrium 
theoo'  of  tides  in  terras  of  the 
elements  of  the  orbits. 

5  21.  Meteorolopcal  tides,  over-tides, 
and  compound  tides. 

§  25.  On  the  form  of  presentation  of  re- 
sults of  tidal  obser^-ation. 

§  26.  Kumerical  harracnic  analysis  for 
tides  of  short  period. 

S  27.  Harmonic  analysis  for  tides  of 
long  period. 


Chap.  V. — ST-WTHEnc  Method. 

$  2S.  On  the  method  and  notatiun. 

§  29.  Scm.i-dmmal  tides. 

§  30.  Synthesis  of  solar  and  of  lunar 
portions  of  the  semi-diiimal 
tide 

§31.  Synthesis  of  lunar  and  solar  semi- 
diurnal tides. 

§  32.  Diurnal  tides. 

§  33.  Explanation  of  tidal  terms  in 
common  use  ;  datum  levels. 

§  34.  On  redaction  of  obGerrations  of 
high -and  low  water. 

Chap.  VI.— Tidal  Ikstrctitents  ksd 

Tidal  Prediction. 
§  35.  General  remarks. 
§  36.  The  tide  gauge. 
§  37.  The  harmonic  analyser. 
5  3S.  Tne  tide-predicting  instrument 
§39.  Numerical  harmonic  analysis  and 

prediction. 
Chap.  VII.  —  Progress  of  the  Tide 
Wave    over    toe   Sea    and   the 
Tides  or  the  Bnirtsn  Seaa. 
§40.  McaniDg^of coUdallines. 


§  i\.  Cotidal  lines  of  the  world. 
§  42.  Cotidal  lines  of  the  British  seas.' 
CaAp.  VIII.— Tidal  DEFoniUTiosr 

OP  THE  SOUO  EARTa 

§43.  Elastic  tides. 
§44.  Rigidity  of  the  earth. 
§  45.  Viscous     and    ela^t:co  -  viscou 
tides. 

Cdap.  IX.— Tidal  FRicnoii. 
§  46.  General  explanation. 
§47.  BxactinvestipattnnofthesecnlAr 

effects  of  tidal  friction. 
§  4S.  Amount  of  tid.il  retardation  of 

earth's  rotation. 
§49.  Effects  of  tidal  friction  nn  th« 

elements  of  the  moon's  orbit 

and  on  the  earth's  rotation. 

Cbap.  X.— Cosmocovtc  Specilations 
founded  on  Tidal  Friction. 

§50.  History  of  the  earth  and  mooa.  \ 
§  51.  The  other  planct.-ir>-sub-system!i. 
§  52.  Influence  of  tiUal  friction  on  th« 
cvolutioa  of  tUc  solar  system. 


TIDOR,  or  TiDOKE,  an  island  (0*  39'  X.  lat.  and  127' 
23'  E.  long.)  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  off  the  west 
coast  of  JiLOLO  (?.r.)  and  south  of  Ternate,  is  nearly  cir- 
cular in  form,  and  has  an  area  of  about  58  square  miles, 
A  volcano  (5900  feet),  now  quiescent,  rises  in  the  centre 
and  occupies  nearly  the  whole  of  the  island  ;  its  sides  are 
densely  covered  with  forests.  The  principal  productions 
are  sago,  rice,  cocoa-nuts,  and  bananas.  The  capital,  Tidor, 
on  the  east  coast,  is  a  walled  town  and  the  seat  of  a  sultan 
tributary'  to  the  Dutch.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
7500.  Tidor,  which  is  included  in  the  residency  of  Ter- 
nate, is  administered  by  a  "controleur." 

TIECK,  LcDw^G  (1773-1853),  the  most  conspicuous 
figure  of  the  German  romantic  school  of  literature,  was 
bom  at  Berlin  on  31st  May  1773.  His  father,  a  rope- 
maker,  was  drj',  sarcastic,-  and  matter-of-fact ;  his  mother, 
gentle  and  pious,  -with  a  leaning  to  mysticism.  Tieck  par- 
took of  both  characteristics:  half  his  work  and  half  his 
genius  seem  a  sceptical  commentary  on  the  other  half. 
He  emancipated  himself  from  the  prosaic  influence  of  his 
father's  house  by  a  passionate  study  of  Shakespeare. 
After  a  brilliant  career  at  school  he  repaired  in  1792  to 
the  university  at  Halle,  and,  returning  to  Berlin  in  1794, 
devoted  himself  to  authorship,  in  which  he  had  already 
made  experiments.  As  is  so  commonly  the  case  with  young 
writers  of  genius,  his  first  tales  {Abdallah^  William  LovtU) 
partook  too  largely  of  the  melodramatic,  and  have  little 
permanent  value.  But  the  romantic  school  of  Germany, 
a  movement  comparable  to  the  Lake  school  of  England, 
was  already  in  the  air,  and  Tieck  was  deeply  sensitive  to 
its  influence.  He  was  strongly  fascinated  by  two  of  its 
aspects  in  particular — the  reaction  in  favour  of  German 
mediaeval  art  and  the  revived  interest  in  fairy  tales  and 
folk-lore  in  general.  Inspired  by  his  friend  Wackenroder, 
a  youth  of  pious  ardour  and  most  pious  simplicity,  he 
wrote  his  unfortunately  unfinished  romance  SUmbald's 
Travels^  a  very  gospel  for  the  artist,  at  once  the  comple- 
ment and  the  antitype  of  Wilhelm  Meister,  His  studies  in 
popular  lifercture  resulted  in  the  entertaining  adaptation 


of  Blue  Beard  entitled  Peter  Ltljrecld  and  several  kindred 
works.  Fair  Edcheri^  his  masterpiece,  and  the  master- 
piece of  all  romantic  fiction,  came  to  him,  he  said,  by 
inspiration.  He  may  well  be  believed :  no  artifice  could 
have  created  the  pervading  sensation  of  dreamy  solitude 
or  the  intense  thrill  of  the  catastrophe.  The  happy  idea 
of  dramatizing  popular  legend  led  to  the  production  of  a 
greatly  improved  Bliie  Beard,  and  subsequently  of  Puss 
in  Boots,  a  satire  on  Kotzebue  and  ISand,  such  an  alliance 
of  broad  humour  and  dainty  irony  as  we  might  expect  to 
find  in  the  lost  Middle  Comedy  of  Athens. 
'^  It  might  almost  have  been  better  if  Tieck  had  con- 
tinued to  walk  in  his  own  way.  His  was  a  susceptible 
nature,  too  sensitive  for  perfect  independence.  In  1798 
"he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  Schlegels,  and  was  drawn 
into  their  circle.  Novalis,  undoubtedly  the  greatest  genius 
of  the  romantic  school,  was  for  a  time  a  compensation  to 
him  for  the  death  of  "Wackenroder,  whose  essays  on  art  he 
edited  ■n'ith  additions  of  his  ovm.  But  Xovalis  himself 
soon  died,  and  the  influence  of  the  Schlegel  circle,  with  it^ 
bickerings  and  its  *' chopping  and  changing  of  ribs,"  was 
not  wholly  salutary  either  in  a  moral  or  a  literary  point 
of  view.  August  Schlegol  inspired  Tieck  with  a  passion 
for  the  Spanish  drama.  He  also  spent  much  time  on  a 
translation  of  ^Dqti  Quixote^  certainly  a  masterpiece,  and 
rendered  Ben  Jonson's  Silent  WomaJiy  having  previously 
adapted  Yolpone.  One  important  production  of  his  o^ti 
nevertheless  belongs  to  this  period,  the  romantic  drama 
of  Genoveva^  enthusiastically  admired  by  so  clear-headed 
and  impartial  a  judge  as  Bishop  Thirlwall.  He  also  pro- 
duced his  delightful  miniature  drama  of  Little  Pcd  Pidiyi^ 
Hood,  and  was  working  with  great  spirit  on  The  Emperor 
Od-avian  wh6n  '  he  ^-^laQ  suddenly"  attacked  by  rheumatic 
gout,  which  tormented  him  more  or  less  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  Between  pain  and  unpleasant  literary  disputes 
his  activity  was  long  greatly  impeded.  The  narrowness 
of  his  means  also  troubled  him.     He  had  married  the 


^  Thomson  and  Tail's  Nat.  Phil,  App.  E ; 
1887  ;  Wolf,  Thames  Cosmogoniques^  1886. 


ScUure»  27tb  January 


382 


T  I  E  C  K 


danghter  of  Pastor  Alberti,  and,  altloagh  he  was  an  ami- 
able man  and  nothing  is  alleged  against  his  wife,  his 
household  does  not  seem  to  have  been  entirely  comfort- 
able. He  lived  alternately  in  Jena,  Berlin,  and  Dresden, 
Where  he  became  very  intimate  with  Steffens,  and  wrote 
his  powerful  but  dismal  tale,  The  Runenberg.  The  Emperor 
Octavian  was  completed  in  1801,  with  less  success  than 
had  been  hoped.  In  the  following  year  Tieck  repaired  to 
Italy,  nominally  to  visit  the  baths  of  Pisa ;  but  he  made 
this  medical  injunction  the  plea  for  a  long  stay  in  the 
country.  The  effect  of  Italian  scenery,  plastic  art,  and 
new  impressions  in  general  was  to  wean  him  from  much 
of  the  mysticism  in  which  he  had  hitherto  indulged,  and 
to  direct  him  to  the  criticism  of  life.  The  transition  to 
his  new  manner  is  indicated  by  the  additions  to  his  former 
tales  and  dramas,  which,  after  several  years  spent  in  wan- 
dering and  in  sickness,  he  published  in  1812.  The  Elves, 
The  Philtre,  and  The  Goblet  are  tales,  distinguished,  the 
last  two  more  especially,  by  brilliant  colouring  and  elabo- 
rate art.  Fortunatiis,  a  drama  in  two  parts,  added  in 
1816,  wants  the  spirit  of  its  predecessors,  but  is  pervaded 
by  a  quiet  sarcastic  humour  exceedingly  enjoyable.  Plays 
and  stories  were  set  in  a  framework  of  sesthetio  conversa- 
tion, and  the  entire  collection  was  entitled  Phantasus.  By 
this  publication  Tieck  settled  accounts  with  the  romantic 
school,  and  could  no  more  be  regarded  as  its  leader. 

Tieck's  power  of  original  composition  failed  him  for 
some  years.  He  devoted  himself  especially  to  antiquarian 
and  dramatic  studies.  In  pursuance  of  the  latter  he  visited 
England,  saw  Kerable  and  Kean  on  the  stage,  and  renewed 
acquaintance  -n-ith  Coleridge,  whom  he  had  known  in  Italy. 
The  friendship  of  Solger  was  highly  important  lQ_ him,  and 
helped  him  to  the  clear  definite  principles  of  composition 
and  criticism  in  which  he  had  previously  been  deficient. 
The  period  of  reflexion  gradually  worked  itself  into  a- 
period  of  productiveness,  beginning  with  his  charming 
novelette  of  The  Pictures,  translated  by  Thirlwall.  It  was 
followed  by  a  series  of  sinillar  works  extending  over  nearly 
twenty  years,  very  unequal  in  value,  but  in  their  best 
examples  belonging  to  a  very- high  class  of  art.  Their  great 
peculiarity  is  the  blending  of  narrative  with  disquisition 
and  comment,  so  thoughtful  and  ingenious  that,  interest- 
ing as  the  action  commonly  is,  the  interruption  is  not 
resented.  They  have  usually  a  strongly  marked  ironical 
element,  as  though  the  vrriter  were  only  half  in  earnest,  a 
self-criticism  of  which  a  great  creative  genius  would  have 
been  incapable,  but  which  bestows  unusual  piquancy  on 
productions  of  the  second  order.  The  Pictures,  already 
mentioned,  is  a  fine  instance  of  the  masterly  conduct  of  a 
Btorj',  and  contains  a  very  original  figure,  the  shrewd, 
sottish,  graceless  old  painter  Eulenbock,  who,  ^\-ith  talent 
enough  to  have  made  a  name  and  a  fortune,  gains  a  pre- 
carious livelihood  by  forging  old  masters.  The  Betrothal, 
also  translated  by  Thirlwall,  is  a  severe  satire  on  hypo- 
:ritical  pietism.  Among  the  best  of  the  other  novelettes 
in  this  style  may  be  mentioned  The  Travellers,  one  of 
the  most  perfect  specimens  of  the  author's  irony ;  Luck 
brings  Brains,  a  fine  study  of  the  power  of  a  weak  charac- 
ter to  rise  to  its  opportunities  when  elevated  by  a  sense  of 
responsibility ;  and  The  Superfluities  of  Life,  an  anecdote 
delightfully  told.  The  Old  Book  and  The  Scarecrow,  two 
of  the  most  fantastically  imaginative,  resolve  themselves 
into  literary  satire.  The  motive  of  the  latter  was  bor- 
rowed by  Hawthorne  in  his  Mother  Righy's  Pipe.  Of 
fictions  with  an  historical  basis,  the  most  popular  are  those 
derived  from  the  lives  of  poets — A  Poet's  Life,  of  which 
Shakespeare  is  the  hero,  and  A  Poet's  Drdlh,  relating  the 
sad  history  of  Camocns.  The  Revolt  in  the  Cevennes  is  an 
historical  romance  of  considerable  compass ;  but  Tieck's 
masterpiece  in  this  department  is  his  Witches'  Sabbath,  a, 


tale  almost  nnpaialleled  in  liter&toie  for  its  delineation 
of  heart-breaking,  hopeless  misery.  The  Young  Carpertter 
(1836,  Ijut  commenced  mach  earlier)  can  hardly  be  as- 
signed to  any  of  these  classes.  It  has  a  strong  affinity 
to  Wilhdm  Meister,  and  may  be  compared  with  Stembald, 
both  for  its  resemblance  and  its  contrast.  Finally,  in 
Vittoria  Accorambona  (1840)  Tieck  takes  yet  another  new 
departure,  indicating  affinities  with  the  modem  French 
school  of  fiction.  The  novel  has  been  translated  into 
English,  but  is  probably  best  known  to  English  readers  by 
Mrs  Carlyle's  half-earnest  half-mocking  admiration  of  the 
hero  Bracciano,  a  Blue  Beard  on  the  highest  principles, 
and  her  wish  that  she  could  have  lived  two  hundred  years 
before,  "  to  have  been — his  mistress,  not  his  wife." 

These  novels  were  aU  written  at  Dresden,  where  Tieck 
had  settled  in  1819.  He  enjoyed  especial  favour  at  court, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  direction  of  the  royal  theatre, 
and  gained  a  new  description  of  celebrity  by  his  semi- 
public  readings  from  dramatic  poets  in  the  court  circle. 
According  to  the  almost  unanimous  testimony  of  his  hearers, 
he  was  the  finest  dramatic  reader  of  his  age.  His  daughter 
Dorothea,  who  united  her  father's  literary  talent  to  her 
grandmother's  mystic  piety,  was  of  great  assistance  to  hiili, 
especially  m  the  translation  of  Shakespeare  which  passes 
under  his  ULme.  Schlegel  had  translated  seventeen  plays. 
Tieck  had  undertaken  to  translate  the  remainder,  and  it 
has  been  generally  supposed  that  he  kept  his  word.  In  fact 
the  translation  was  almost  entirely  executed  by  Dorothea 
Tieck  and  Count  Wolf  Baudissin,  Tieck  contributing 
hardly  anything  but  his  advice  and  his  name.  The  truth 
slips  out  quite  innocently  in  the  pages  of  his  biographer 
Kopke,  and  is  fuUy  told  by  Gustav  Freytag  (/?»  Neuea 
Reich,  January  1880).  During  his  residence  at  Dresden 
he  collected  his  critical  writings,  produced  his  excellent 
■+ranslation  of  the  English  dramatists  anterior  to  Shakes- 
peare, and  edited  the  works  of  Novahs,  Kleist,  Lenz,  and 
other  contemporaries.  In  1842  he  accepted  the  invitation 
of  Frederick  William  TV.  to  settle  in  Berlin,  where  he  had 
already  been  to  conduct  the  representation  of  the  Antigone 
with  Mendelssohn's  music.  He  found  himself  but  little 
in  his  element  in  the  city  of  his  birth,  and  the  dramatic 
representations  directed  by  him,  including  revivals  of  some 
of  his  own  plays,  were  rarely  successful.  In  1851  his 
health  failed  entirely,  and  he  withdrew  altogether  from 
the  worid.     He  died  on  28th  April  1853. 

Though  not  a  writer  of  the  highest  rank,  Tieck  is  nevertheless  a 
most  original  genius,  very  unjustly  neglected  by  his  conntrymen. 
The  best  of  his  compositions  in  the  taste  of  the  romantic  school  are 
absolute  masterpieces ;  and  his  later  productions,  if  imperfect, 
occupy  a  unique  position  in  literature.  He  may  be  compared  to 
AVieland,  whom  he  decidedly  surpasses,  and  to  Ariosto,  whom  he 
would  have  more  than  rivalled  if  he  had  been  capable  of  a  great 
sustain'ed  effort.  His  susceptibility  and  self-distrust. checked  hi3 
genius,  but  at  the  same  time  gave  it  that  peculiar  ironic  flavour 
which  constitutes  its  special  distinction.  He  is  like  an  exquisite 
side  dish,  not  sufficiently  substantial  for  a  full  meal.  The  attempts 
to  extract  a  moral  significance  from  the  stories  in  Phantasus  seem 
entirely  thrown  away  ;  the  purpose  of  his  later  writings,  when 
there  is  any,  is  always  definite.  Perhaps  the  soundest  criticism 
upon  him,  at  bottjjm,  is  Heine's  in  his  Romantic  School,  though 
written  at  a  time  when  it  was  his  cue  to  show  the  works  of  that 
school  as  little  quarter  as  possible.  Carlyle's  criticism  is  excellent,! 
but  only  refers  to  the  Phanlasiis. 

The  principal  contribution  to  Tieck's  biography  is  the  delightful 
book  of  Rudolf  Kopke  (Leipsic,  1855),  chiefly  drawn  from  his  oral 
communications  and  containing  his  opinions  on  a  number  of  subjects,' 
Particulars  of  his  residence  at  Dresden,  more  especially  of  his  con- 
nexion with  the  theatre,  are  given  in  the  memoirs  of  Friesen 
(Weimar,  1871).  Tales  from  Phantasus  have  been  translated  in' 
Carlyle's  Specimens  of  German  Romance,  and  are  reprinted  in  his 
miscellanies.  A  greatly  inferior  version,  in  some  places  nnscmpu-' 
lously  altered  from  Carlyle,  was  published  in  1 845  with  au  elaborate 
preface  signed  by  J.  A.  F. ,  who  does  not,  however,  appear  to  have 
been  the  translator.  Several  of  Tieck's  other  works  have  been 
translated  into  English,  but  the  only  remarkable  rendering  ii^ 
Bishop  Thirlwall's  of  The  Pictures  and  Tl\e  BdrotluU.  ^X  com-^ 


T  1  E  — T  I  E 


383 


^ete  cbroTJOlogical  list  of  las  wruiDgs  13  afpuaded  to  Kbpke's 
work  (R.  G.) 

TIEDEMANX,  Friedrich  (I7S1-1S61),  German  anato- 
mist and  physiologist,  the  son  of  a  philosopJier  and 
psychologist  of  considerable  repute,  was  born  at  Cassel  on 
2od  August  17S1  He  graduated  in  medicine  at  Marburg 
in  lt>04,  but  soon  abandoned  practice  owing  to  disappointr 
ment  at  his  failure  to  check  his  father's  last  illness.  Re- 
pelled on  the  one  liand  by  the  brilliant  but  unsubstantial 
discourses  of  Schelling  on  the  "NaturphilosopLie,"  and 
attracted  on  the  other  hand  by  the  practical  skill  and  in- 
telligence of  the  surgical  anatomist  ScJnmiering,  he  returned 
to  the  study  tf  natural  science.  He  betook  himself  to 
Paris,  and  became  an  ardent  follower  of  Cuvier.  On  his 
return  to  Germany  he  maintained  the  claims  of  patient 
and  sober  anatomical  research  against  the  prevalent  specur' 
lations  of  the*chool  ofOken  (see  Okilv  and  Morphology), 
whose  fdremost  antagonist  he  was  long  reckoned.  His 
manifold  labours  in  the  field  of  Cuvicrian  anatomy  cannot 
be  recorded  bene ;  but  his  remarkable  studies  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  human  brain,  as  correlated  with  his 
father's  studies  on  the  development  of  intelligence,  may 
be  mentioned.  He  spent  most  of  his  life  (from  1S16)  as 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Heidelberg,  and 
died  at  Munich  on  22d  January  1S61. 

T'lEN'TSrX  is  the  largest  commercial  city  in  Chih-li, 
the  metropolitan  province  of  China.  It  is  situated  in 
39°  7'.N.  lat.  and  117°  11'  E.  long.,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Peiho"  ind  the  Wan-ho,  which  is  connected  by  the  Grand 
Canal  with  the  Yaiig-tsze-kiang.  It  is  a  prefectural  city, 
and  the  residence  of  the  viceroy  of  the  province  during  a 
great  portion  of  the  year.  The  town  is  built  on  a  vast 
alluvial  plain,  which  e.^ctenda  from  the  mountains  beyond 
Peking  to  the  sea,  and  through  which  the  Peiho  runs 
a  circuitous  course,  making  the  distance  by  water  from 
T'ientsin  to  the  coast  about  70  miles,  as  against  35  miles 
by  read.  The  soil  of  the  svirrounding  country  being 
strongly  impregnated  with  soda  and  nitre  is  not  fertile, 
but  produces  sorghum  and  other  coarse  grains.  The  city 
walls  are  well  built,  though  not  always  kept  in  good  order, 
and  measure  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile  each  way.  As 
in  all  C'ninese  cities,  the  more  wealthy  inhabitants  live  in 
the  suburbs,  but  even  their  houses  have  a  mean  appear- 
ance, being  built  mainly  of  mud  or  dried  bricks.  The 
streets  are  for  the  most  part  unpaved,  and  in  wet  weather 
are  little  better  than  quagmires.  Some  improvements 
have,  however,  been  made  in  this  respect  of  late.  The 
city  has  always  been  a  great  commercial  depot.  In  1885 
the  foreign  imports  amounted  to  £3,226,972  and  the  ex- 
ports to  £980,852,  and  375  foreign  vessels  of  279,829 
tons  visited  the  port,  tea  to  the  value  of  about  £904,496 
being  landed  for  carriage  overland,  via  Kalgan  and  Kiachta, 
to  Siberia,  During  the  winter  the  river  is  frozen,  so  that 
communication  has  to  be  carried  on  overland  toChin-kiang 
on  the  Yang-tsze-kiang,  to  which  point  also  a  line  of  tele- 
graph (now  extended  to  Peking)  was  opened  in  1881.  The 
principal  article.3  of  import  are  shirtings,  drills,  T-cloths, 
jeans  and  twnlls,  opium,  woollens,  steel,  lead,  needles, 
Japanese  sea-weed,  and  sugar;  and  of  export,  skins,  beans 
and  pease,  straw  braid,  coal,  dates,  wool,  tobacco,  and 
rhubarb.  The  coal  exported  is  brought  from  the  Kaiping 
colliery  to  the  ea.'st  of  T'ientsin;  its  output  in  1885  was 
181,039  tons,  54,976  tons  more  than  in  1884.  An  ex- 
perimental railway  neatly  two  miles  long  has  lately  been 
constructed  at  T'ientsin. 

In  1853  Ticnt^n  wa.'!  be.«icgfd  by  an  amiy  of  Taiping  rebels, 
wKich  had  b«rn  detached  from  the  main  force  at  Nanking  for  the 
capture  of  Peking.  The  defences  of  T'ientsin,  however,  saved  tbo 
capital,  and  the  rebels  were  forced  to  retreat  Five  years  later  Lord 
Elgin,  accompanied  by  the  representative  of  France,  stearocd  up  the 
CeUio.  after  naving  forud  the  barriers  at  Taku,  and  took  pe&r^abla 


possession  of  tlic  town.  Here  the  treaty  of  185'^  wf»s  signad.  Two 
yeai-s  later,  in  consequence  of  Ihft  trcicherniis  attack  m.jde  on  the 
Knglisli  plenipotentiary  the  prerrding  year  at  Taku.  the  city  anil 
sulnvrbs  were  occupicil  by  an  nlliod-  English  and  Frcucli  force,  and 
were  held  for  two  years.  The  city  \v,as  constituted  a'u  open  j>oit. 
On  the  establishnicut  of  Roman'  Catliolir  orphanages  sonic  yeai3 
later  the  pretensions  ttf  the  pri<'5t,«i  so  irritated  the  people  tliat  on 
the  occurrence  of  an  epidemic  in  tlie  schools  tliey  attacked  the 
French  and  Russian  cstablisliineuts  and  murdered  twenty  of  the 
foreign  inmates,  besides  numbers  of  their  native  followers.  The 
Chinese  Coverumcnt  at  once  suppressed  tl>e  riot,  and  sent  a  repre- 
scntativc  to  Europe  to  apologiTe  for  the  outbreak. 

TLERNEt,  George  (1761- 1830),  an  English  Whig 
politician,  was  boru  at  Gibrallnr  on  20t!i  March  1761 
being  the  son  of  a  wealthy  inenhant  resident  in  Spain, 
He  was  sent  to  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  in  1784,  and  w.is  cilled  to  the  bar ;  but, 
having  inherited  an  ample  fortune,  he  ai)andoned  law  and 
plunged  into  politics.  He  contested  Colchester  in  1788^ 
when  Ijoth  candidates  received  the  same  number  of  votes, 
but  Tiemey  was  declared  elected.  He  was,  however,  de- 
feated in  1790.  He  sat  for  Southwark  from  179G  to  1806, 
and  then  represented  in  turn  Athlone  (1806-7),  Baridon 
(1807-12),  Appleby  (1812-18),  and  Knaresborough  (I8I81 
30).  'U'lien  Fox  seceded  from  the  House  of  Commons, 
Tierney  became  a  prominent,  if  not  the  leading,  opponent 
of  Pitt's  _poIicy.  It  was  perhaps  for  this  reason  that  he 
was  disliked  by  Fox.  In  1797 — such  was  the  height  of 
political  passion  at  thi"  epoch — Wilberforce  noted  in  his 
diar5'  that  Tierney's  conduct  was  "truly  Jacobinical";  and 
in  May  1798  Pitt  accused  him  of  want  of  patriotism.  As 
the  words  were  not  withdrawn,  a  duel  ensued  at  Putney 
Heath  on  Sunday,  27th  May  1793;  but  neither  combatant 
was  injured.  In  1803  Tierney,  partly  through  gratitude 
for  the  peace  which  had  been  ratified  with  France  and 
partly  because  Pitt  was"  out  of  office,  joined  the  ministry 
of  Addington  as  treasurer  of  the  navy,  and  was  created,  a 
pri\7  councillor ;  but  this  ill-advised  step  alienated  many 
of  his  supporters  among  the  middle  classes,  and  offended 
most  of  the  influential  Whigs.  On  the  death  of  Fox  he 
joined  (1806)  the  Grenville  ministry  as  president  of  the 
board  of  control,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  and  thus 
brought  himself  once  more  into  line  with  the'  'Whigs. 
After  the  death  of  Ponsonby  in  1817  Tierney  became  the 
recognized  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. In  the  neutral  ministry  ^of  Canning,  the  place  of 
master  of  the  mint  was  held  by  hiui,  and  when  Lord 
Goderich  succeeded  to  the  lead  Tierney  was  admitted  tc 
the  cabinet ;  but  he  was  already  sufl'ering  from  ill-health 
and  took  little  part  in  its  deliberations.  He  died  suddenly 
at  Savile  Row,  London,  on  2oth  January  1830. 

Tierney  was  a  shrewd  man  of  the  world,  with  a  natural  aptitude 
for  business.  His  powers  of  sarcasm  were  a  cause  of  terror  to  his 
adversaries,  and  liis  piisencc  in  debate  was  much  dreaded.  His 
arguments  were  felicitous,  and,  though  he  never  aimed  at  the  high- 
est flights  of  eloquence,  his  choice  of  language  was  the  theme  of 
constant  admiration.  Lord  Lytton,  in  his  poem  of  St  Stcjilicn's, 
alludes  to  *'Tierney'3  airy  tread,"  and  praises  liis  "light  and  yet 
vigorous"  attack,  in  which  ho  inflicted,  "with  a  placid  smile,"  a 
fatal  wound  on  his  opponent. 

TIERRA  DEL  FL'EGO,  a  large  archipelago  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  South  America,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  Magellan  Strait,  at  the  Narrows  and  other 
points  scarcely  a  mile  wide.  The  group  lies  between 
52°  40'  and  55°  59'  S.  lat.  and  63°  30'  and  74°  35'  W.  long, 
stretching  nearly  in  a  line  with  the  Patagonian  Andes  for 
over  400  miles  north- west  and  south-east,  between  Capes 
Pdlar  and  Horn,  and  for  about  270  miles  west  and  east 
from  Cape  Pillar  to  Cape  Espiritu  Santo  (Catherine  Point) 
in  the  north;  southwards  it  tapers  to  120  miles  between 
Capes  Horn  and  St  Diego,  the  latter  being  continued  east- 
wards to  Staten  Island,  which  is  not  usually  included  i^ 
the  group.  Although  on  ordinary  maps  this  region  pre- 
sents to  the  eye  a  hopelessly  confused  aggregate  of  islahds. 


384 


,T  I  E  R  R  A     DEL     F  U  E  G  O 


cbanncls^andTjord  likelnleta,  as  if  it  had  beeu  submerged 
sufficiently  to  convert   its  deep  valleys  and   gorges  into 


oecjiN, 


^^^ 


^rf 
.«?*  > 


TIERRA    OEf  FUECO 
Fuegiui  Archipelago  /' 


"^  Map  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

iuarine  passages,  bays,  and  bights,  it  is  nevertheless  clearly 
Uisposed  in  three  main  sections,  wliich  may  be  conveniently 
iiamed  East,  West,  and  South  Fuegia. 
I  East  Fuegia  consists  of  the  single  island  of  King 
Charles's  South  Land  (eastern  Tierra  del  Fuego),  which  is 
|Very  much  larger  than  all  the  rest  of  the  group  together, 
being  considerably  over  200  miles  long  from  north  to 
Isouth. .  It  obviously  forms  a  southern  extension  of  the 
'Patagonian  pampas,  which  it  greatly  resembles  in  its  phy- 
sical constitution,  climate,  flora,  and  fauna.  The  low- 
lying,  flat  or  slightly  rolling  plains  are  covered  with  a  rich 
growth  of  tall  herbage,  which  is  frcciuented  by  the  rhea, 
guanaco,  and  other  animals  common  to  the  adjoining  main- 
land, and  also  peopled  by  a  branch  of  the  same  Tehuelche 
(Patagonian)  family.  In  the  south  a  long  peninsuja  pro- 
jects westwards  to  the  Pacific.  This  western  limb  as- 
sumes a  iiiountainous  character.  Mount  Darwin  (6800  feet) 
being  situateil  about  midway  on  its  south  side  and  Mount 
Sarinientii  (G'.)O(l,  or  perhaps  7000  feet),  the  culminating 
point  of  the  archipelago,  much  nearer  the  Pacific.  Although 
generally  supposed  to  bo  volcanic,  this  peak  presents  such 
extremely  |irucipitous,  in  fact,  almost  vertical  flanks  that 
'John  Ball  considers  it  iiioro  probably  "a  portion  of  the 
original  rock  skeleton  that  formed  the  axis  of  the  Andean 
chain  during  the  long  ages  that  preceded  the  great  vol- 
canic outbursts  that  have  covered  the  framework  of  the 
iwestern  side  of  South  America."'  This  is  altogether  an 
fllpine  region  with  numerous  snow-clad  summits  and  gla- 
ticrs  dcsoending  dnwu  to  the  sea  (Darwin). 
5  Along  the  soiilli  side  of  East  Fuegia  flows  Beagle 
fchannel,  about  .'55°  S.  lat.,  separating  it  from  South 
(Fuegia,  which  comprises  the  islands  of  Hoste,  Navarin, 
Gordon,  Londondeiry,  Stewart,  Wollaston,  and  numerous 
islets,  disposed'in  triangular  form  with  the  base  on  Beagle 
Channel  and  tlie-apex-  at  the  rocky  headland  of  Cape  Horn. 
At  ils  wcstein  end  Beagle  Cliannol  takes  the  name  of 
Darwin  Jsuund,  wludi  leads  to  the  Pacific  at  Londonderry 
and  Stewal-t  Islands.  North  of  these  lies  Brecknock 
J'emnsiila,  tTjiHWesiurflDiost  ij.xtension  of  East  Fuegia,  cut- 
ling  oti'  South  Fuegia  from  Clarence  Island  and  Desola- 
tion Land,  w.hsh  with  Dawson  Island  and  numerous  rocks 
and  islets  constitute  West'  Fuegia.  Desolation  Land,  so 
named  by  Cook,  who-  supposed  it  to  form  a  continuous 
mass  stretching  from  the  western  entrance  of  Magellan 
Strait  to  Coekburn-  Channel,  really  consists  of  at  least 
three,  and  possibly  mora  islands,  separated  from  each 
other  by  very  narrow  channels  flowing  between  the  Pacific 
and  the  western  branch  of  Magellan  Strait.  The  name 
Desolation  has  been  reserved  for  the  northern  member  of 
the  group  terminating  at  Cape  Pillar ;  the  one  next  to  it 


*  JVetes  of  a  Naluralisi  in  South  Arn^ica,  Lcuidou,  ISS^i  p.  245,., 


has  been  called  Santa  Inez ,  the  other  or  others  are  still 
unnamed.  When  Ball  passed  through  the  strait,  he  was 
shown  one  of  the  narrow  sounds  "  which  have  lately  been 
ascertained  to  penetrate  entirely  through  what  used  to  be 
considered  a  single  island"  {op.  ciC,  p.  241). 

Lying  almost  in  a  line  with  the  main  Andean  axis,  both  "West 
and  South  Fuegia  are  essentially  highland  regions,  cunformiDg  in 
their  general  charactfiristics  to  the  intervening  western  extension 
of  East  Fuegia.  As  compared  with  the  great  mass  of  the  latter, 
they  ar^  everywhere  extremely  rugged  and  moiintaraous,  having 
a  mean  elevation  of  not  less  than  3000  feet,  a  much  raoister  climate, 
and  arboreal  instead  of  grassy  vegetation.  The  isothermals  of 
32°Fahr.  for  July  (winter)  and  £0°  Fahr.  for  January  (summer),  with 
a  mean  annual  temperature  of  42"  Fahr.,  show  that  tolerably  mild 
winters  are  followed  by  cool  summers,  both  seasons  being  accom- 
panied by  overcast  skies,  constant  and  sudden  changes  from  fair  to 
foul  weather  ;  whilst  fogs,  mists,  rains,  snows,  and  high  winds 
(prevailing  throughout  the  year)  endanger  the  navigation  of  the 
intricate  inland  channels,  and  render  the  archipelago  one  of  the 
dreariest  regions  on  the  globe. 

A  botanical  parting  lino  seems  to  be  constituted  by  the  range  of 
hills  running  back  of  Punta  Arenas  along  the  east  side  of  Brunswick 
Peninsula  (which,  although  attached  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land  to 
Patagonia,  belongs  physically  to  the  insular  domain),  and  termin- 
ating at  Cape  Froward  (53°  54'  S.  lat.),  the  southernmost  point  of 
the  American  mainland.  West  and  south  of  this  line  the  pampas 
are  replaced  by  lofty  mountains  clothed  with  a  dense  forest  vege- 
tation from  the  water's  edge  to  heights  of  1000  and  1200  feet, 
above  which  stretcher  a  zone  of  peaty  soil  with  stunted  alpine 
plants  03  far  as  the  snow  line  (3000  to  3500  feet).  The  forest 
species  are  chiefly  an  evergreen  beech  {Fagus  antardica,  S.)  and 
the  winter  bark  (  H'inleria  aromaticn),  also  evergreen,  with  tall 
smooth  stem  and  glossy  leaves  like  the  laurel.  Wild  celerj-,  cress, 
cochlcaria,  and  other  anti-scorbutic  plants  occur  on  both  sides  of 
Magellan  Strait,  and  the  beech  nourishes  a  large  yellow  musliroom, 
which,  with  the  berries  of  a  dwarf  shrub,  is  the  only  vegetable  food 
of  the  natives. 

In  West  and  South  Fuegia  the  fauna  is  restricted  mainly  to  two 
species  of  fox,  a  bat,  rats,  mice,  the  sea  otter,  the  penguin  and  other 
aquatic  birds,  and  various  cetaceans  in  the  surrounding  waters. 

To  the  three  geographical  divisions  correspond  three  well-marked 
ethnical  groups,  —  the  Onas  of  East,  the  "^aghans  of  South,  and 
the  Alacalufs  of  West  Fuegia.  The  first  are  estimated  to  number 
2000,  the  others  3000  each,  making  a  total  population  of  some 
8000  for  the  whole  archipelago.  The  Onas  are  Patagonians  who 
have  crossed  the  strait.  The  Alacalufs  are  also  immigrants  from 
the  mainland,  hut  probably  they  came  at  an  earlier  date,  and  from 
the  western  uplands,  being  apparently  a  branch  of  the  Auca  (Arau- 
canian)  race  of  the  Patagonian  and  Chilian  Cordilleras.  They 
differ  altogether  in  speech  both  from  the  Onas,  with  whom  they 
come  scarcely  anywhere  in  contact,  and  from  the  Yahgans,  who  are 
the  true  aborigines  of  the  archipelago.  These  last  are  in  exclusive 
possession  of  South  Fuegia,  and  also  occupy  the  north  side  of 
Beagle  Channel  about  Mount  Darwin  and  further  west.  To  them 
alone  missionary  enterprise  has  hitherto  been  extended,  and  the 
English  station  of  Ushiwaya  on  Beagle  Channel  has  for  some  years 
been  the  only  centre  of  civilizing  influences  in  the  archipelago. 
As  Lieutenant  Bove  of  the  Italian  Antarctic  expedition  has  made 
a  special  study  of  this  branch,'  they  are  much  better  known  than 
either  of  the  neighbouring  races.  If  they  represent  an  earlier 
Araucanian  immigration  than  that  of  the  Alacalufs,  their  ex- 
tremely low  social  state,  on  which  all  observers  are  unanimous,! 
may  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  degradation  from  a  higher  con-j 
dition  during  their  long  sojourn  in  tlicir  present  inhospitable  en- 
vironment. But  it  seems  more  probable  that  they  are  the  direct 
descendants  of  the  primitive  race  by  which  the  archipelago  ha3 
been  occupied  from  a  vastly  remote  period,  as  is  shown  by  the  very 
great  number  of  kitchen-middens  recently  discovered  on  the  coast. 
Although  taller  than  the  Negritoes  of  the  eastern  hemisphere 
(4  feet  10  inches  to  5  feet  4  inches),  the  Vabgans  present  in  some 
respects  a  more  debased  type,  characterized  by  low  brows,  prominent 
zygomatic  arches,  large  tumid  lips,  (lat  nose,  loose  wrinkled  skin 
("  pelle  grinzosa  c  cadente,"  says  Bove),  black  restless  eyes  very  wide 
apart,  coarse  black  unkempt  hair,  and  head  and  chest  dis|)ropor-, 
tionately  large  compared  with  the  extremely  slender  and  outwardly 
curved  legs,  conveying  an  impression  of  top-heaviness  like  that  of 
the  Akkas  of  equatorial  Africa.  Their  menU)  qualities  are  on  the, 
same  low  level,  as  is  indicated  by  the  almost  total  absence  of  clothing 
under  such  inclement  skies,  by  the  brutal  treatment  of  their  women,' 
who  when  old  and  useless  are  often  eaten,  by  the  lack  of  human 
affections  or  love  of  offspring,  who  in  rough  weather  are  thrown 
overboard  (Dr  Fenton),  either  as  a  peace  ofleiing  to  the  spirits  of 
the  storm  or  to  lighten  the  canoe,  and  by  many  repulsive  practices 
connectfJ  with  their  food  and  social  habits.     The  tribal  organiza- 

^  „•  See  Guido  Cora's, (?o»mos  for  May  1883. 


T  I  F— T  I  G 


385 


tea  has  not  jet  been  reached,  each  famUy  circle  living  apart  and 
combining  only  in  small  groups  against  some  common  enemy,  but 
recognizing  uo  hereditary  chief  or  even  any  temporary  leader.  Yet 
the  missionaries,  who  have  reduced  the  language  to  writing  {Gospel 
of  St  Lake,  London,  18S1),  assert  that  it  contains  no  less  than  30,000 
words,  although  the  numerals  stop  at  Jirt,  already  a  compound 
farm  (ai-pash-pa\  and  although  the'  same  word  expresses  both  hand 
tndJiKger.  But  they  have  obviously  failed  to  distinguish  between 
distinct  terms  and  the  endless  grammatical  intricacies  in  which 
this,  like  so  many  other  rude  forms  of  speech,  is  still  involved. 

Since  1881  the  eastern  portion  of  Fuegia  (with  Staten  Island) 
has  belonged  to  the  Argentine  Kepublic  and  the  western  to  Chili. 
The  boundary  line,  which  is  purely  conventional,  runs  from  Cape 
Espiritu  Santo  doe  south  to  Beagle  Channel.  Neither  power  has 
hitnerto  occupied  any  part  of  Fuegia,  except  Punta  Arenas  (Sandy 
Point)  on  the  ratagonian  side  of  ilagellan  Strait,  where  the  Chilians 
have  for  some  ye&rs  maintained  a  convict  and  co:iling  station. 

Fnegi*  was  discovered  by  Magellan  in  1520,  wnen  he  sailed 
through  the  strait  named  after  him,  and  called  this  region  the 
"  Land  of  Fire,"  either  from  now  extinct  volcanic  fiames,  or  much 
more  probably  from  the  fires  kindled  by  the  natives  along  parts 
<rf  hja  course.  In  1578  Drake  first  sighted  the  point  whicn  in 
1616  was  named  Cape  Hoora  (Anglicized  Horn)  by  the  Dutch  navi- 
gators Lemaire  and  Schouten.  In  1619  the  brothers  Nodal  first 
circnnmavigatfid  the  archipelago,  which  was  afterwards  visited  at 
intervals  by  Wood  and  Narborongh  (1670),  Gennes  and  Froger 
(isaei,  Byron  (1764),  'Wallis  and  Carteret  (1767),  Cook  (1768),  and 
Weddel!  (1822).  But  no  systematic  exploration  was  attempted 
until  the  British  Admiralty  undertook  a  thorough  survey  of  the 
whole  group  by  King  (1826-28)  and  Fitzroy  (1831-36).  The  latter 
expedition  {Foyage  of  the  "  Beagle  ")  was  accompanied  by  Charles 
Darwin,  then  a  young  man.  To  these  admirable  surveys  is  duo 
most  of  the  present  geographical  terminology  of  the  archipelago. 
Since  then  the  work  of  exploration  has  been  continued  and  nearly 
completed  by  Dumont  d'TJrville  (1837),  Charles  Wilkes  (1839), 
Parker  Snow  (1855),  Bove  (1883),  and  various  English,  American, 
and  Roman  Catholic  missionaries. 

BiWvvrapHy. -De  Brossea,  ffijtoire  d«  yoriffOiiOTW  omc  TfTfw  ^itftroZe*,  Paris, 
1756  ;  J.  Bumey,  RvUrryof  Voi/aga  and  Dixxrvfria  in  tS£  Stnith  Sia^  London, 
ISOS-IT  ;  J.  Weddell,  A  Fojoje  lowords  Ou  StmOi  P6U  and  lo  Turm  dtX  F^ugo, 
^DdoD,  JS25  ;  Charles  Darwin,  JovtmoI  cf  Restar^lus,  he.,  dvHng  Cu  Voyigt  of 
Itle  "Btagtt"  nund  tiie  rr&rld,  LondoD,  1S45  ;  W.  Parker  Scow,  A  Tvo  Ytartt 
Crvise  off  Titrra  dd  Fut/go,  London,  1S57 ;  0.  Margolo,  "  La  Terro  de  Feu,"  in 
B-M.  di  la  See  ic  Giogr.,  No\-ember  1875;  J.  O.  Kohl,  Ctsch.  d.  Entdtckungs- 
TfisTK,  4c,  mr  Ma^dian'a  Strasst,  Berlin,  1877;  "La  Terre  de  Feu  et  ses 
fiabitants,"  ill  JovttuU  da  MUticns  tvangflupies,  Angnst  1876 ;  D.  Lovjsato, 
ApFitnti  Etnografiei  am  Aootnni  Geologici  niZla  TVrra  dd  Fuooo,  Turin,  18^ ; 
John  Ball,  iVotes  of  a  yaturalisi  in  ScitlX  Avurica,  L-^cdon,  1887 ;  R.  W. 
Coppinger,  Cruix  of  t>u  "Atert,"  London,  4th  ed.  1SS5 ;  G.  Scryl,  Anttvpotr!^ 
Fitim  ddlaFtufi'^  Rome,  1887 ;  Ramon  Ltsta,  '■  East  Fx:egla,^  In  Pji^ro/ir.Vf 
MUiciiungrn^  May  1887 ;  and  thq  worka  already  mentioned.  (A.  H.  E.) 


TIFFTN',  a  city  of  the  United  States,  in  Seneca  county 
(of  ■which  it  i3  the  conntv  seat),  Ohio,  stands  upon  the 
Sandusky  river,  in  41*  7'  N.  lat,  83°  1 1'  W.  long.,  42  miles 
south-east  of  Toledo.  The  city  is  situated  ia  the  midst  of 
an  agricultural  region,  for  which  it  serves  as  a  shipping 
and  supply  point,  and  has  three  railroads — the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio,  the  Indiana,  Bloomington,  and  Western,  and  the 
Korth-'Westem  Ohio.  It  is  the  seat  of  Heidelberg  College, 
one  of  the  minor  educational  institutions  of  the  State. 
Tiffin  had  in  1880  a  population  of  7879,  an  increase  of 
2231  over  that  in  1870. 

TTFLIS,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name  arid 
of  Russian  Caucasia,  is  picturesquely  situated  (44°  48'  E. 
long.,  41°  42"N.  lat.)  at  the, foot  of  high  mountains,  on 
both  banks  of  the  river  Kiir,  some  500  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  Black  Sea.  .  The  h6at  in  summer  is  excessive,  owing 
to  the  confined  .position ;  but  the  eurrounding  hills  (1350 
to  2400  fiet)  shelter  the  town  effectively  from  the  cold 
winds  of  a  generally  severe  winter.  A  large  square,  the 
cathedral,  one  or  more  handsome  streets,  gardens,  bridges, 
many  fine  or  neat  buildings — among  them  the  gi^d-ducil 
palace,  the  opera-house,  and  the  mnseum^*-European  shops, 
the  club  or  circle,  hotels,  and-  public  offices  ar6  evidence 
that  Western  civilization  has  not  only  penetrated  but  has 
long  prevailed  in  this  geographically  remote  town.  Of  its 
54  churches  26  are  Armenian,  2  Lutheran,  and  1  Catholic. 
The  (Sipn)  cathedral  traces  back  its  origin  to  the  5th  cen- 
tury ;  but  in  the  interval  it  has  suffered  much  and  often. 
Other  churches  date  from  the  14th  aniJ  15th  centuries, 
the  Armenian  cathedral  of  Vank  from  1480,  and  the 
Cetholic  ebtirch  from  the  14th  century.     Tiflis  has  two 


gymnasia  and  pro-gymnasia  for  boys  and  two  for  girls,  and 
a  number  of  other  schools ;  several  scientific  societies,  ol 
which  the  Caucasian  branch  of  the  geographical  society  is 
well  known ;  an  astronomical  *nd  a  physical  observatory , 
and  a  public  library.  The  manufactures  of  the  place  are 
limited  to  a  few  cotton  and  silk  factories,  tanneries,  soap- 
works,  and  brick-works.  But  the  petty  trades  are  largely 
developed ;  and  the  artisans  of  Tifljs  (aBout  8000)  are  re- 
nowned as  silversmiths,  gunsmiths,  and  sword-makers. 
Since  1883  Tiflis  has  been  in  railway  connexfon  with  Poti 
and  Batum  on  the  Black  Sea  and  T\-ith  Baku  on  the  Cas- 
pian ;  but  the  line  from  Russia  to  Vladikavkaz  has  not 
yet  crossed  the  main  chain  of  the  Caucasus.  The  trade 
is  of  great  importance,  as  Tiflis  is  the  chief  centre  for  the 
import  of  raw  silk  and  silken  goods,  raw  cotton,  carpets, 
and  dried  fruits  from  Persia,  as  well  as  from  trans-C^aucasia, 
while  a  variety  of  manufactured  wares  are  imported  from 
Russia,  The  foreign  trade  of  trans-Caucasia  with  Asia, 
mostly  carried  on  from  Tiflis,  in  1884  reached  the  value  of 
£1,729,800  for  exports,  and  j£857,070  for  imports.  In 
1883  the  population  numbered  104,024,  as  against  71,051 
in  summer  1865  and  60,085  in  winter,  exclusive  of  a 
garrison  of  6800.  Ethnologically,  the  numbers  are — Ar- 
menians 31,180,  Georgians  14,787,  and  Russians  12,142, 
with  an  admixture  of  about  1200  Germans,  7150  Persians 
(in  summer).  1500  Tatars,  and  some  Jews  and  Greeks. 

Many  chroniclers  and  travellers  have  written  about  Tiflis.  Per- 
haps one  of  the  fullest  accounts  is  contained  in  Brosset's  edition  of 
the  Description  Oiop-aphique  de  la  Giorgie  (St  Petersburg,  1812),  by 
the  illegitimate  son  of  Wakhtang  VI.,  king  of  Earthli,  who  became 
a  pensioner  of  Peter  the  Great.  English  travellers  since  1849  de- 
scribe Tiflis  in  its  main  features  much  in  the  same  terms.  Lady 
Shell,  writing  in  1S49,  calls  it  "most  thriving,  active,  and  bustling," 
Edward  Eastwick  (1860),  estimating  its  population  at  40,000  and 
the  height  of  the  mountains  overhanging  .t  at  3000  feet,  represents 
the  plain  in  which  the  city  is  situated  to  be  so  barren  that  "even 
the  Kur  .  .  .  imparts  to  it  but  a  limited  fertility."  Mounsey 
(1866)  speaks  in  warm  terms  of  its  social  charms  and  the  great 
hospitality  of  its  inhabitants,  and  notes  it  as  the  seat  oi"  government 
for  the  "  Caucasian  provinces  of  Russia,  headquarters  of  an  army 
of  150,000  men,  and  the  residence  of  the  governor-general."  In 
the  old  division  of  Tiflis  three  distinct  towns  were  included, — Tifiis 
Kal'a  (the  fort),  and  Isni ;  subsequently  Tiflis  seems  to  have  become 
known  as  Saijidabad,  KaTa  as  Tifiis,  and  Isni  as  Aulabar.  Eal'a 
and  Isni  possessed  citadels  ;  that  of  the  former  contained  the  church 
of  St  Nicholas  and  a  royal  palace,  that  of  the  latter  the  church 
of  tha  Holy  Virgin  and  the  residence  of  the  archimandrite.  The 
town  is  nop  divided  into  quarters : — the  Russian  (the  finest  of  all), 
the  German,  the  Armenian,  and  that  in  which  are  congregate 
Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  the  mass  of  Orientals.  Tiflis  can  lay 
claim  to  a  very  considerable  antiquity.  In  455  the  chieftain  of 
Georgia,  Wakhtang,  transferred  his  capital  from  .Mhtset  to  the 
warm  springs  of  Tpilisi,  where  he  erected  several  churches  and  a 
fort.  In  570  the  Persians  took  the  place  and  made  it  the  residence 
of  their  rulers,  but  retained  it'only  for  ten  years.  Tiflis  underwent 
successive  plunderings  and  devastations  at  the  hands  of  the  Greeks 
in  626,  of  one  of  the  commanders  of  Omar  in  731,  of  the  Eha2ars 
in  828,  and  of  the  Saracens  in  851.  The  Georgians,  however,  always 
managed  to  return  to  it  and  to  keep  it  in  their  permanent  posses- 
sion. In  the  course  of  the  succeeding  centuries  Tiflis  fell  repeatedly 
into  Persian  hands ;  and  it  was  plundered  by  Timur  about  the  end 
of  the  14th  century.  Afterwariis  the  Turks  seized  it  several  times, 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  1 7th  century  the  Lesghians  made  attacks 
npon  it.  In  1795,  when  the  shah-of  Persia  plundered  Tiflis,  Russia 
sent  troops  to  its  protection,  and  the  Russian  occupation  became 
permanent  in  1799. 

TIGER.  Although  this  name  is  often  applied  by  settlers 
and  sportsmen  to  several  of  the  larger  Feltdx,  as  the 
leopard  of  Africa  and  the  jaguar  of  America,^  it  should 
properly  be  restricted  to  the  well-known  striped  species 
of  Asia,  Felis  ligrU  of  Linnseus,  an  animal  which  is  only 
rivalled  by  the  lion  in  size,  strength,  and  ferocify  among 
the  cat-like^  beasts  of  prey.  It  is  a  trUe  cat  on  a  large 
scale,  and  possesses  all  the  essential  characters  of  the  genui 
as  defined  in  the  article  SlAMMALLi  (vol  xv.  p.  434).  It 
belongs  to  the  section  in  which  the  pupil  of  the  eye  con- 
tracts under  the  sfemulus  of  light  into  a  round  spot  and 
not  a  vertical  slit,  and  in  which  the  hyoid  bone  is  con. 

XXrCL  —  49 


386 


T  I  G  — T  I  G 


nectcd  loosely  with  the  skull  by  a  long  ligament,  instead 
of  by  a  continuous  chain  of  bones.  In  these  points  it 
agrees  with  the  lion  and  the  leopard  and  differs  from  the 
common  cat.  Almost  everj-thing  that  is  said  in  the  artiele 
Lio.v  (vol.  xiv.  pp.  680-681)  of  the  structure  of  the  skele- 
ton, teeth,  and  claws  of  that  animal  will  apply  equally 
well  to  the  tiger,  the  difference  between  the  two  lying 
mainly  in  the  skin*and  its  coverings.  There  are,  however, 
slight  distinctions  in  the  proportionate  size  of  the  lower 
teeth,  the  general  form  of  the  cranium,  and  the  relative 
length  of  tLe  nasal  bones  and  ascending  processes  of  the 
maxillaries  by  which  the  skull  of  the  lion  and  tiger  can 
be  easJy  discriminated  by  the  practised  observer. 

Although  examples  of  both  species  present  considerable 
variations  in  size,  and  reliance  cannot  always  be  placed 
UDon  alleged  dimensions,  especially  when  taken  from  skins 


Tiger  [Fdus  tt^/ns,  Linn.). 

stripped  from  the  body,  it  seems  well  ascertained  that  the 
length  of  the  largest-sized  Bengal  tiger  may  exceed  that  of 
any  lion.  Larger  specimens  are  certainly  recorded,  but  10 
feet  frcira  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  tail  is,  ac- 
cording to  Jerdon,  an  unusual  length  for  a  large  male  tiger. 
The  female  is  somewhat  smaller  and  has  a  lighter  and  nar- 
rower heud.  Tbe  tiger  has  no  mane,  but  in  old  males  the 
hair  of  the  checks  is  rather  long  and  spreading.  The 
ground  colour  of  the  upper  and  outer  parts  of  the  head, 
body,  Lmbs,  and  tail  is  a  bri^lit  rufous  fawn,  and  iLese 
parts  are  beautifully  marked  uiih  transverse  stripes  of  a 
dark,  almost  black  colour.  The  markings  vary  much  iu 
different  Individuals,  and  even  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
same  individual.  The  under  (arts  of  the  body,  the  inside 
of  the  linilis,  the  cheeks,  and  a  large  spot  over  eacb  eye 
are  ne;irly  white.  The  tigers  which  inhabit  bolter  regions, 
as  Bengal  and  the  south  Asiatic  l.-.lauds,  have  shorter  and 
smoother  hair,  and  are  more  rn  lily  euloiired  and  distinctly 
striped  than  those  of  northern  China  and  Siberia,  in  which 
the  fur  is  longer,  softer,  and  lighter  coloured. 

The  tiger  is  exclusively  A.siatic,  but  has  a  very  wide 
range  in  that  continent,  having  been  Imind  in  almost  all 
suitable  localities  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  river 
Euphrates,  passing  along  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian 
and  S(^  of  Aral  by  Lake  Baikal  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk 
Its  most  northern  range  is  the  territory  of  the  Amur, 
its  most  southern  the  islands  of  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Bali. 
Westward  it  reaches  to  Turkish  Georgia  and  eastward  to 
the  island  of  Saghalin.  It  is  absent,  however,  from  the 
great  elevated  plateau  of  Central  Asia,  nor  does  it  inhabit 


Ceylon,  Borneo,  or  the  other  islands  of  the  Indo-Malayan 
Archipelago,  except  those  named. 

The  principal  food  of  the  tiger  in  India  is  cattle,  d«er, 
wild  hog,  and  pea- fowl,  and  occasionally  human  beings. 
The  regular  "  man-eater  "  is  generally  an  old  tiger  whos& 
vigour  is  passed,  and  whose  teeth  are  worn  and  defective ; 
it  takes  up  its  abode  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  village, 
the  population  of  which  it  finds  an  easier  prey  than  the 
larger  or  wilder  animals  named  abo^-e.  Though  chiefly 
affecting  grassy  plains  or  swamps,  it  is  abo  found  in  forests, 
and  seems  to  be  fond  of  haunting  the  neighbourhood  of 
old  ruins.  As  a  rule,  tigers  do  not  climb  trees  ,  but  when 
pressed  by  fear,  as  dunng  an  inundation,  they  have  been 
known  to  do  so.  They  take  to  the  water  readily  and  are 
good  swimmers.  The  tigers  of  the  Sundarbans  (Ganges 
delta)  continually  swim  from  one  island  to  the  other  to 
change  their  hunting-grounds  for  deer.  The  following 
extract  from  Sir  J.  Fayrer's  Royal  Tiger  of  Bengal  {\ 87 o) 
may  complete  this  notice  of  the  tiger's  habits. 

"Tbe  tigress  gives  birtli  to  from  two  to  6ve,  even  sU  cubs  ,  but 
three  is  a  frequent  numl>»:r  She  is  i  most  affectionate  and  attached 
nioiber,  and  generally  gu  irds  and  'rain3  her  young  with  the  most 
watchful  solicitude.  They  remain  -nth  ber  until  nearly  ful|.gro\ni, 
or  atwat  the  second  year,  when  they  are  able  to  kill  for  theraselve* 
and  bcgm  life  on  their  own  account.  \\'liiUt  they  remain  with 
her  she  is  peculiarly  vicious  and  aggressive,  defending  tliem  with 
the  greatest  courage  and  energy,  and  when  robbed  of  tli-.m  is  terrible 
in  her  rage  ;  but  she  ha3  been  known  to  desert  them  when  pressed, 
and  even  to  eat  them  when  starved.  As  soon  as  they  begin  to 
require  other  food  than  her  milk,  she  kills  for  them,  teaching  them 
to  do  so  for  themselves  by  practising  on  smaU  animals,  such  as 
deer  and  young  calves  or  pigs.  At  these  times  she  is  wanton  and 
extravagant  in  her  cruelly,  killing  apparently  for  the  gratification 
ot  luT  ferocious  and  bloodihirsty  nature,  and  perhaps  to  excite  and 
instruct  the  young  ones,  and  it  is  not  untd  they  are  thoroughly 
disable  ol'  killing  tJK-ir  own  food  that  she  separates  from  them. 
Tile  yiiung  tig-rs  are  far  mote  destructive  than  the  old.  They  will 
kill  ihree  or  lour  cows  at  a  lime,  whilst  the  older  and  more  ez- 
p*'rien..ed  rarely  kill  more  than  one,  and  this  at  intervals  of  from 
three  or  four  days  to  a  week.  For  this  [lurposo  the  tiger  will  leav© 
Its  retreat  lu  (he  dense  jungle,  proceed  to  the  neighbourhood  of  a 
village  or  gowrie,  w livre  tattle  feed,  aud  during  the  night  will  steal 
on  and  strike  down  a  bullock,  drag  it  into  a  secluded  place,  and 
tlii'n  remain  near  the  "  murrie."  or  "kill,"  for  several  days,  until 
It  has  eaten  it,  when  it  will  proceed  in  search  of  a  further  supply, 
and,  having  found  good  hunting  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  a  village 
or  powrie,  continue  its  ravages,  destroying  one  or  t\ro  cows  or 
bululoes  a  week.  It  is  very  fond  of  the  ordinary  domestic  cattle, 
which  iu  tbe  plains  of  India  are  generally  weak,  half-starved, 
under-sized  creatures.  One  of  tiese  is  easily  struck  down  and. 
carried  or  dragged  off.  The  smaller  buffaloes  are  also  easily  dis- 
posed of;  but  tue  buffalo  bulls,  and  especially  the  wild  ones,  ari 
formidable  antagonists,  and  have.. often  been  known-^  beat  thf 
tiger  olf,  aud  even  to  wound  him  Striously."  (W.  H.  F. ) 

TIGER  CAT.     SeeOcELO'Er 

TIG  RAN ES,  or  Dikban,  a  name  borne  by  several  kings 
of  ancient  Armenia.  .According  to  the  legend  of  the  Ar- 
menians, the  first  of  these  kings  was  the  Tigranes  who  in 
Xeuophon's  romance  appears  as  the  schoolfellow  of  Cyrus, 
anil  to  him  they  a-scribe  the  foundation  of  Tigranocerta 
(Dikran9.gerd)  on  the  Tigris.  But  in  reality,  as  cla-ssical 
«iitej-f  rtjate,  this  city  was  built  by  the  first  historical 
Tigranes  oC  Armenia,  variously  known  as  Tigranes  II. 
ami  TiCR.AJJEs  J.,  for  whose  history  see  p^sn,  vol.  xviii. 
]■.  595  SI).  His  son  Tigranes  is  known  by  his  rebellion 
against  his  father  (Pei!>i.x,  vt  supra).  Tigranes  III 
(11  ), grandson  of  Tigranes  II.  (1),  had  ashort  reign,  which 
he  owed  to  a  revolution  at  Lome  and  the  favour  of  Augustus 
He  came  to  the  throne  in  2U  B.C.,  having  previously  been 
an  exile  at  Rome.  Tigranes  IV  (III  )  was  seated  on  the 
throne  by  the  rartkuns  (Persu,  p.  COO).  For  Tigranes 
V.  (c  CO  A  i> ),  a  great  grandson  on  his  mother's  side  of 
Uerod  the  Great,  .see  I'Eioi  %,  vol  xviii.  p.  002. 

TIGRIS,'  the  shorter  id  the  two  large  rivers  rising  in 

'  Tlie  Tigris  IS  the  lli.l.lek.l  ol  llie  Bible,  llic  Dikliilor  l.liklat  »l 
the  cuneiform  tuouiinRiils.  The  ol-I  PersLin  form  Tigni  ("swift  as  au 
arrow"),  whence  Ticiis,  seems  to  be  connected  etyoiologically  with. 


4 


T  r  L-— T  I  E 


387, 


the  hignlands  of  Armenia  and  Kurdistan,  and  (when  turned 
southward)  running  each  its  own  independent  course  to 
the  Persian  Gul^.  Like  the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris  rises 
from  two  principal  sources,  of  which  the  western  and  more 
distant — in  3S'  10'  N.  lat.  and  about  39°  20'  E.  long — is 
a  little  south  of  Late  Giuljek,  in  a  peninsula  formed  by 
the  Euphrates,  and  some  2  or  3  miles  only  from  the  channel 
of  that  river.  The  names  and  sources  of  the  different 
streams  forming  the  Western  Tigris — or  that  part  of  the 
upper  river  which  runs,  roughly  speaking,  from  Diarbekr 
to  the  junction  with  the  Eastern  Tigris,  about  50  miles 
north-north-west  from  Jezlra  Ibn  Omar — are  given  by 
Consul  Taylor  as  the  Arganeh  M'adan  and  the  Dibeneh  Su, 
nniting  at  Ammaneh  castle ;  the  Ambar  Su,  rising  at 
Hevni ;  the  Batman  Su,  formed  by  the  Kulp,  the  Kaushan, 
and  the  Sarum,  rising  north  and  north-west  of  Nerjiki ; 
and  the  Khuzu  or  Huzu  and  the  Arzen-Redhwan  or  Yezid 
Khaneh  Su.  Of  the  Eastern  Tigris  the  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Bohtan  Su  and  its  feeder  the  Bitlis  (which  receives 
the  Keyzer  or  Shirwan),  the  Mox,  the  Shattak,  the  Cham- 
karij'and  the  Sarhal  Su.  Of  these  the  most  northerly 
points  may  be  found  on  the  Kulp'  or  Dibeneh  Su  about  38° 
40'  N.  lat.  and  the  most  easterly  on  the  Shattak  in  42°  50' 
E.  long. 

After  the  junction  of  the  eastern  and  western  branches 
(see  the  accompanying  map)  the  river  pursues  a  winding 


Map  showing  the  tributaries  of  the  Tigris. 


course,  generally  south-east,  for  about  800  miles,  via  Mosul 
and  Baghdad,  to  the  point  of  union  with  the  Euphrates  at 
Kuma,  whence  it  becomes  known  as  the  Shattu  'l-Arab. 
and  falls  into  the  sea  some  70  miles  farther  down.  Between 
Mosul  and  Baghdad  the  Tigris  receives  from  its  left  the 
Great  and  the  Little  Zab  and  other  tributaries  from  the 
Kurdish  Mountains.  Below  the  confluence  of  the  latter 
it  is  joined  by  the  Diydla,  also  from  the  left,  while  on  the 
right  canals  and  watercourses  connect  it  more-  or  less 
directly  with  the  Euphrates,  which  in  the  vicinity  of  Bagh- 
dad it  approaches  to  within  30  or  35  miles.  The  Tigris 
is  navigable  for  light  freight-bearing  steamers  up  to  Bagh- 
dad, and  for  vessels  of  lighter  draught  to  20  miles  below 
Mosul,  but  thence  to  Diarbekr  only  for  rafts.  "  But  owing 
to  the  rapidity  of  the  current  the  traffic  is  all  down  stream, 
carried  on  mainly  by  a  primitive  style  of  craft,  which  is 
broken  up  at  Baghdad  and  transported  by  camels  back  to 
Mosul.  The  jotimey  between  these  points  occupies  three 
or  four  days  during  the  floods  and  from'  twelve  to  fourteen 
at  other  times." 
TILBURO,  or  Tilbobg,  a  town  of  Holland,  tn  the 

Uieae  name*.    The  sxxlera  Arsblc  name  is  D^jU  (AmSlua'DeUsth, 


province  of  North  Brabant,' 13  miles  to  the  east-south  east 
of  Breda,  contains  numerous 'and  ertensive  woollen- fac- 
tories, employing  from  5000  to  6000  persons,  and  also 
some  calico-printing  establishments.  It  has  the  usual 
public  buildings,  including  four  Roman  Catholic  churches,' 
a  Reformed  church,  and  a  synagogue,  but  none  of  architec- 
tural or  historical  interest.  The  population  in  1879  was 
28,390  and  in  1887  32,016. 

TILDEN,  Samttel  Joxes  (1814-188G),  .American  states- 
man, was  bom  at  New  Lebanon,  New  York,  on  the  9  th  of 
February  1814.  He  studied  at  Yale  and  at  the  university 
of  New  York,  but  ill-health  prevented  him  from  finishing 
his  course.  He  studied  law  and  rose  rapidly  to  the  first 
rank  at  the  New  Y'ork  bar.  From  boyhood  he  had  had  a 
fondness  for  politics,  but  had  sacrificed  it  to  the  practice 
of  law.  After  1860  he  drifted  into  New  York  State 
politics,  and  became  chairman  of  the  Democratic  State 
Committee  in  1866.  The  Tweed  "ring"  in  New  York 
city  dreaded  him,  and  in  1869  attempted  to  remove  him 
from  his  chairmanship.  Tilden  then  became  the  soul  of 
the  legal  attacks  upon  the  "ring,"  and  worked  for  the 
removal  of  the  corrupt  judges  who  were  their  tools  ;  and 
in  the  "ring  trials"  he  accomplished  the  mathematical  feat 
of  ascertaining  and  demonstrating  from  bank-books  the 
principle  on  which  the  spoils  had  been  divided.  In  1874 
he  was  elected  governor  of  the  State  by  the  Democrats. 
For  years  another  "  ring  "  had  been  making  money  out  of 
the  State  canals.  This,  too,  Tilden  succeeded  in  breaking 
up.  In  1876  the  National  Demofi^atic  Convention  nomi- 
nated him  for  the  presidency,  the  Republicans  nominating 
Governor  Hayes  of  Ohio.  The  result  was  the  disputed 
election  of  1876-77,  when  each  party  secured  about  the 
same  number  of  electors  outside  of  the  three  Southern 
states  of  Florida,  South  Carolina,  and  Louisiana.  The 
Democrats  had  a  majority  in  these  States ;  but  the  return- 
ing boards,  by  rejecting  votes  which  they  believed  had  been 
obtained  by  fraud  or  intimidation,  gave  their  States  to  the 
Republicans.  Two  sets  of  certificates  were  therefore  sent 
to  Washington,  and  as  no  provision  had  been  made  in  the 
United  States  constitution  for  a  dispute  of  this  kind 
there  was  no  power  authorized  to  decide  between  the  two 
parties.  In  this  emergency  Tilden  consented  to  the  ap- 
pointment of  an  extra-constitutional  body,  an  "electoral 
commission,"  to  decide  disputed  cases,  the  decisions  of 
which  were  to  hold  good  unless  reversed  by  concurrent  vote 
of  the  two  houses.  The  commission  decided  all  the  cases 
in  favour  of  the  Republican  candidates,  and  Tilden  was  de- 
feated. He  continued  in  retirement  until  his  death,  which 
took  place  at  Greystone,  New  Y'ork,  on  4th  August  1886J 

TILES  (Saxon  tiffel,  connected  with  Lat.  tegula)  are  used 
for  a  great  variety  of  architectural  purposes,  such  as  cover-1 
ing  roofs,  floors,  and  walls,  and  are  made  of  many  different 
materials. 

1.  Roofing  TiUe.^ — In  the  most  important  temples  of 
ancient  Greece  the  roof  was  covered  with  tiles  of  white 
marble,  fitted  together  in  the  most  perfect  way  so  as 
to  exclude  the  rain.  In  most  cases,  as  in  the  Athenian 
Parthenon  and  the  existing  temple  at  .(Egina,  the  tiles 
were  large  slabs  of  marble,  with  a  flange  along  each  side, 
over  which  joint-tiles  (apfio!)  were  afccuratcly  fitted  (see  A 
in  fig.  1).  In  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassa;,  though  the 
main  building  was  of  limestone,  the  roof  was  covered  with 
very  beautiful  tiles  of  Parian  marble,  which  are  specially 
mentioned  by  Pausanias  as  being  one  of  the  chief  beauties 
of  the  temple.  Some  of  these  were  found  by  Jlr  Cockerell 
during  his  excavations  at  Bassse  early  in  the  1 9th  century.- 
In  design  they  resemble  the  other  examples  mentioned 

'  In  Egypt  and  Assyria  temples  and  palaces  were  mostly  roofed  with 
stone,  while  inferior  buildings  had  flat  roofs  covered  with  beaten  clay. 
*  Bee  Cockerell.  TenjiUt  qf  JBfina  and  Bout,  Londoo,  18$0. 


388. 


TILES 


above^but'are  peculiar  in  having  the  joint-piece  worked 
out  of  the  same  slab  of  marble  as  the  adjacent  tiles  (see  B 
in  fig.  1),  at  a  great  additional  cost  of  both  material  and 
labour,  ^in  order   to  secure  a  more  perfect  fit.      Fig.   2 

A  B 


Fio.  1. — Esamples  of  roofing  tiJes  from  Greek  temples.  A,  B,  marble 
tiles  from  .^gina  and  Bassa,  showing  two  methods  of  working  the 
joint.tile.5.  C,  C,  clay  tiles  from  Olympia.  D,  sketch  showing 
method  of  jointing  at  the  lower  edge.  E,  longitudinal  section  of  a 
clay  joiut-tile  (dp/xii).     F,  joiat-tile  with  peg  to  fix  it. 

'shows  the  v/ay  in  which  they  were  set  on  the  roof.  Groat 
splendour  of  eflfect  must  have  been  gained  by  continuing 
the  gleaming  white  of  the  columns  and  walls  on  to  the 
roof.  All  along  the  eaves  each  end  of  a  row  of  joint-tiles 
was  usually  covered  by  an  nntefixa,  an  oval -topped  piece 


Fio."  2. — Perspective  sketch  showing  the  arraugement  of  tiles"  B  in 
fig.  1,  at  Bass,-E.  B,  B,  Dowels  to  fix.the  .ioint-tile3.^_C.  tilting 
piece,     a,  a,  fiat  surface  of  tjles. 

of  marble  with  honeysuckle  or  some  ottier  conventional 
pattern  carved  in  relief.'  ;  In  most  cases  the  Greeks  used 
terra-cotta  roofing  tiles,  shaped  like  the  marble  ones  of 
fig.  1,  A.  Others  were  without  a  flange,  being  formed  with 
a  concave  upper  surface  to  prevent  the  rain  getting  under 
the  joint-tiles.  -  The  lower  edge  of  the  tile,  whether  of 
marble  or  of  clay,  was  usually  half- lapped  and  fitted  into 
a  corresponding  rebate  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  next  tile 
(see  D  in  fig.  1).  •  The  dp/ioi  also  were  half-lapped  at  the 
joints  (see  E  in  fig.  1).  All  these  were  usually  fastened 
with  bronze  nails  to  the  rafters  of  the  roof.  In  some 
cases  each  joint-tile  had  a  projecting  peg  to  fix  it  to  the 
next  ap/io'5,  as  shown  at  F.  '  In  the  temples  of  imperial 
Rome  marUle  roofing  tiles  were  used  like  those  shown  at 
fig.  1.  These  were  copied  from  the  Greeks  along  with 
most  other  architectural  features.  ■•  For  domestic  and 
other'  less  important  work  clay  tiles '  (teg'ulx)  were  em- 
ployed,  of  the  form  shown  in  A,  fig.  3.    These  are  narrower 

'  Marble  tiles  are  said  to  have  been  first  made  by  Byzes  of  Naios 
about  §^  B.p.-;  see  Pausaiuas, -v.  10;  2. 


at  the  lower  edge,  so  as  to  fit  in  to  the  upper  edge  oi  the 
next  tile,  and  the  joints  were  covered  with  a  semicirculai 
joint-tile  (imbrex).  Rows  of  terra-cotta  antefixae  were  set 
along  the  eaves  of  the  roof,  and  were  often  moulded  with 
very  beautiful  reliefs.  In  localities  which  supplied  lami- 
nated stone,  such  as  Gloucestershire  and  Hampshire  ui 


Fig.  3. — A,  section  and  elevation  of  the  clay  tiles  commonly  used  in 
ancient  Rome.  B,  Roman  stone  tiles,  each  fixed  with  one  iron 
nail  at  the  top  angle.  C,  pan-ti'es  I'sed  in  mediffival  and  modem 
times. 

Britain,  the  Romans  olton  rooted  their  buildings  with 
stone  tiles,  fastened  ^\^th  iron  nails.  Fig.  3,  B,  shows  an 
example  from  a  Roman  villa  at  Fifehead  Neville  in  Dorset, 
England.  Each  slab  had  a  lap  of  about  2  inches  over  the 
row  of  tiles  below  it ;  many  large  iron  nails  were  found 
with  these  stone  tiles.  In  a  few  cases,  in  the  most  magni- 
ficent temples  of  ancient  Rome,  as  in  those  of  Capitoline 
Jupiter  and  of  Venus  and  Rome,  and  also  the  small  circular 
temple  of  Vesta,^  tiles  of  thickly  gilded  bronze  were  used, 
which  must  have  had  the  most  magnificent  effect.  -  Those 
of  the  last-named  building  are  specially  mentioned  by  Pliny 
(H.N.,  xxxiv.  7)  as  having  been  made  of  SjTacusan  bronze," 
— an  alloy  in  great  repute  among  the  Romans.  The  bronze 
tiles  from  the  temples  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  and  of  Venus 
and  Rome  were  taken  by  Pope  Honorius  I.  (625-638)  to 
cover  the  basilica  of  St  Peter,  whence  they  were  stolen  by 
the  Saracens  during  their  invasion  of  the  Leonine  city  in 
846.-' 

In  mcdixval  times  lead  or  copper  ^  in  large  sheets  was 
used  for  the  chief  churches  and  palaces  of  Europe;  but  in 
more  ordinary  work  clay  tiles  of  very  simple  form  were 
employed.  One  variety,  still  very  common  in  Italy,  is 
shown  in  C,  fig.  3.  In  this  form  of  so-called  "pan-tile" 
each  tilo  has  a  double  curve,  forming  a  tegula  and  imbrex 
both  in  one.  Stone  tiles  were  also  very  common  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages.  Another  kind  of  roofing  tile,  largely 
used  in  pre-Norman  times  and  for  some  centuries  later  for 
certain  purposes,  was  made  of  thin  pieces  of  split  wood, 
generally  oak;  these  are  called  "shingles."  They  stand 
the  weather  fairly  well,  and  many  old  examples  still  exist, 
especially  on  the  wooden  towers  and  spires  of  Ea.st  Anglia. 
At  the  present  day,  when  slate  is  not  used,  tiles  of  burnt 
clay  are  the  ordinary  roofing  material,  and  many  compli- 
cated forms  have  been  invented  to  exclude  rain.  Most  ol 
tliese  are,  however,  costly  and  do  not  answer  better  than 
a  plain  rectangular  tile  about  9  by  6  inches,  fastened  with 
two  copper  or  even  stout  zinc  nails,  and  well  bedded  on 
mortar  mixed  with  hair.  For  additional  security  clay 
tiles  are  usually  made  with  two  small  projections  at  the 


'  ^  The  dome  of  the  Pantheon  was  covered  with  tiles  or  plates  of 
bronze  thickly  gilt,  as  were  also  the  roofs  of  the  forum  of  Trajan. 

^  Bronze  tiles  for  small  buildings  such  as  this  were  usually  of  a 
pointed  oval  form,  something  like  the  feathers  of  a  bird.  "  Thia  kind 
of  tiling  is  called  pavonaceiim  by  Pliny,  I/./i.,  xxxvi.  22. 

*  Part  of  the  bronze  tiles  had  been  stripped  from  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  by  the  Vaudals  in  455  ;  see  Procopius,  Bell.  Van.,  i.  5.  <■ 

^  The  gilt  domes  of  Moscow  are  example."*  of  this  use  of  copper. 


TILES 


389 


*up{^>er  edge,  which  hook  on  to  the  battens- to  which  they 
are  nailed.  Broseley  (Shropshire)  is  on«  of  the  chief 
places  in  England  for  the  manufacture  of  roofing  tiles  of 
the  better  sort.  The  common  kinds  are  made  wherever 
good  clay  exists  In  some  places  pan-tiles  are  still  used 
and  have  a  very  picturesque  effect ;  but  they  are  liable  to 
let  in  the  rain,  as  they  cannot  be  securely  nailed  or  well 
bedded  in  mortar  In  Gloucestershire,  Yorkshire,  and 
Other  counties  of  England,  stone  tiles  are  still  employed, 
but  are  rapidly  going  out  of  use,  as  they  require  very  strong 
roof-timbers  to  support  them,  and  the  great  extension  of 
railways  has  made  the  common  purple  slates  cheap  in 
nearly  every  district. 

Some  of  the  mos<iue3  and  palaces  of  Persia  are  roofed 
with  the  most  magnificent  enamelled  lustred  tiles,  decorated 
with  elaborate  painting,  so  that  they  shine  like  gold  in  the, 
eun  They  were  specially  nsed  from  the  13th  to  the  loth 
century  In  style  and  method  of  manufacture  the  finest 
of  them  resemble  the  frieze  shown  in  fig.  5. 

2.  Wilt  Tiles. — These  have  been  partly  described  under 
Mcp.AL  Decoration 
(vol.  xvii.  p.  33)' 
In  most  Oriental 
countries  -tiles  were 
used  in  the  most  mag 
nificent  w-aythrough 
out  the  Middle  Ages, 
especially  in  Damas- 
cus, Cairo,  Moorish 
Sfiain,  and  in  the 
chief  towns  of  Persia 
Fig.  4  shows  a  fine 
example  from  a 
mosque  in  Damas- 
cus, From  the  1  '2th 
to  the  16th  century 
a  special  kind  of 
lustred  tile  was 
largely  employed  for 
dadoes,  friezes,  and 
other  wall  surfaces, 
being  frequently 
made  in  large  slabs 
and  modelled  boldly  ^ ''^-  ■*• 
in  rehef,  with  sen- 
tences from  sacred  books  or  the  names  and  dates  of  reifrn- 
ing  caliphs.  The  whole  was  picked  out  in  colour,  usually 
dark  or  turquoise  blue,  on  a  ground  of  cream-white  enamel, 
and  in  the  last  firing  minute  ornaments  in  copper  lustre 
were  added  over  the  whole  design,  giving  the  utmost 
splendour  of  effect  (see  fig.  5).  Great  skill  and  taste  are 
eho^vn  by  the  way  in  which  the  delicate  painted  enrich- 
ments are  made  to  contrast  with  the  bold  decoration  in 
relief.  These  lustred  tiles  sometimes  line  the  prayer-niche 
in  houses  and  mosques  ;  in  such  cases  the  slabs  u.sually  have 
a  conventional  representation  of  the  kaaVia  at  Mecca,  with 
a  lamp  hanging  in  front  of  it  and  a  border  of  sentences 
from  the  Koran  ^  The  mosques  of  Persia  are  specially 
rich  in  this  method  of  decoration,  magnificent  iC.xamples 
existing  at  Natenz,  Seljuk,  Tabriz,  Ispahan,  and  other 
places.'  In  the  IGth  and  17th  centuries  tiles  of  a  coarse 
kind  of  majolica  were  used  for  wall  decoration  in  southern 
Spain ;  some  rich  examples  still  exist  in  Seville.  These 
appear  to  be  the  work  of  Ilaban  potters  who  had  settled 
in  Spain.     The  amlejoe  (wall  tiles)  in  the  Alhambra  and 

*  For  Ibe  eoamelled  wail  tilea  of  aacient  Egj-pt,  see  Pottert,  vol. 
xii.  p  603 

The  South  KeDsiDgtoQ  Museum,  London,  containe"  ma&y  fiae  ex* 
tmples,  us  well  SLS  of  the  later  sorts,  like  those  shown  in  lig.  4. 

•  See  Coste,  JJ<mume7Ut  de  la  Perse,  Pans,  1867. 


-*V.-ili  liles  from  Damascus,  of  the 
16th  century. 


other  buildings  in  Spain  are  among  the  most  beautifiJ 
productions  of  Hispano-Moonsh  art.*  In  technique  they 
resemble  majolica ;  but  the  finest  kinds,  dating  from  the 


Fig.  5. — Persian  lustred  tilea  ol  the  l;ith  centur>',  forming 
part  of  a  fneze.     (South  Keuaington  Museum.) 

1-lth  and  loth  centuries,  have  designs  taken  from  mosaic 
patterns,  with  complicated  lines  of  geometrical  mterlacmgs.* 
3.  floor  Tiles. —  From  the  12th  to  the  Itith  century 
floor  tiles  in  most  northeid  countries  of  Europe  were  made 
by  filling  up  with  clr.y  of  a  diflferent  colour  patterns  sunk 
in  slabs  of -.clay  (see  ExcAUS-nc  Tiles).  In  Italy,  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  loth  and  the  first  half  of  the  J6th 
century,  majolica  tiles,  rich  both  in  pattern  and  in  colour, 
were  used  for  pavements  in  many  places.  Comparatively 
few  examples  now  exist ;  the  majolica  enamel  was  too  soft 
to  stand  the  wear  of  feet.  One  of  the  small  south  chapels 
in  the  church  of  S.  Maria  del  Poi>olo  in  Rome  has  a,  very 
fine  pavement  of  these  tiles,  executed,  probably  at  Forli, 
about  1480  for  Cardinal  della  Rovere  (Julius  11  ),  whose 
arms — an  oak  tree — are  repeated  frequently  among  the 
rich  decorations.  A  still  more  magnificent  tile  floor  in 
the  uppermost  of  Raphael's  Vatican  loggie  is  mentioned 
under  Robbia  (vol.  xx.  p.  591).  The  same  article  (p.  569) 
describes  the  exquisite  majolica  tiles  which  Luca  della 


Fio.  6. — Majohca  paving  tiles  Irom  Siena,  mude  in  1501# 
(South  Kensingtou  Museum.) 

Robbia  made  as  a  border  for  the  tomb  of  Bishop  Federighi 
at  Florence.  Fine  examples  of  tile  paving  of  14B7  exist 
in  the  basilica  of  S.  Petromo  at  Bologna,  and  others  of 

*  The  method  of  manufacture  employed  by  Moslem  races  for  tjlea 
is  the  same  as  that  used  for  their  iKjtleiy  ,  see  vol  ziz.  i>.  6'20,  also 
Mt:it4L  DECORi-noN,  vol.  xvu    pp.  36-36 

^  For  the  decorative  use  of  tileii,  dee  Juhen  Foy,  La  C^romifiM  dta 
Corutructioiu,  Faru,  1883. 


390 


T  I  L— T  I  L 


rather  earlier  date  ia  S.  Paolo  at  Parma.  The  chapel 'of 
St  Catherine  at  Siena  and  the  church  of  S.  Sebastiano  at 
Venice  have  majolica  paving  of  about  1510.  Fig.  6  shows 
an  example  of  about  this  date  from  the  Petrucci  Palace 
in  Siena,  now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museam.i  In 
the  early' part  of  the  16th  century  majolica  tiles  from 
Spain  were  occasionally  imported  into  England.  At  the 
south-east  of  the  mayor's  chapel  at  Bristol  there  exists, 
though  much  worn,  a  fine  pavement  of  Spanish  tiles  dating 
from  about  1520.  Others  have  been  found  in  London,  at 
Newington  Butts,  and  in  other  places.  At  the  present 
time  imitations  of  the  unfortunately  named  "  encaustic 
tiles  "  are  almost  the  only  sort  employed  in  England  and 
other  northern  countries.  Very  cOarse  and  poorly  designed 
majolica  tiles  are  still  made  and  used  for  paving  in  Italy 
and  Spain.  (j.  h.  m.) 

TILLEMONT,  SiSASXiEN  le  N.un  de  (1637-1698), 
ecclesiastical  historian,  was  born  at  Paris  on  30th  Novem- 
ber 1637,  and  received  his  education  in  the  "petites  ^coles" 
of  the  Port  Royalists,  Nicole  being  his  principal  master. 
At  an  early  age  he  became  an  admiring  student  of  Livy 
and  Baronius  and  began  to  accumulate  those  vast  collec- 
tions which  form  the  basis  of  his  monumental  works.  He 
continued  to  carry  on  his  studies  in  the  seminary  at  Beau- 
vais,  where  the  bishop  was  a  warm  patron ;  but  it  was 
not  until  1676,  two  or  three  years  after  his  return  to  Paris, 
that,  under  the  iniiuencs  of  Isaac  de  Sacy,  he  entered  the 
priesthood.  He  took  up  his  abode  in  a  humble  dwelling 
at  Port  Royal  des  Cha,raps,  where  he  remained  till  the  dis- 
persion of  .the  "solitaires"  in  1679,  after  which  event  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  (with -the  exception  of  a 
visit  to  Arnauld  in  Holland  in  1685)  at  TiUemont,  between 
Montreuil  and  Vincennes.  He  died  on  28th  January  1698 
and  was  buried  at  Port  Royal ;  in  1711  his  remains  were 
removed  to  the  church  of  St  Andr6  des  Arcs,  Paris. 

His  great  work,  M&rrunrcs  pour  smrir  d  Vhistoire  eeclesiastiqu^  des 
six  premiers  sUclts  to  513  A.D.  (1693-1712, 16  vols.,  4to),  ia  a  model 
of  patient,  exhaustive,  and  what  Gibbon  has  called  "sure-footed" 
erudition  (see  vol.  v.  p.  765).  Of  his  equally  learned  Histoire  des 
empereiirs  et  des  mitres  princes  qui  ont  rigni  dura-nt  Us  six  premiers 
eiiclcs  de  Teglise  (1690-1738,  4to)  no  more  than  four  volumes  were 
published.  TiUemont  also  gavp  valuable  assistance  to  Hennant, 
Du  Fosse,  and  other  Port  Koyaliats  in  their  historical  work. 

TILLOTSON,  John  (1630-1694),  archbLshop  of  Can- 
terbury, was  the  son  of  a  Puritan  clothier  in  Sowerby, 
Yorkshire,  where  he  waa  born  in  October  1630.  He  en- 
tered as  a  pensioner  of  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  in.  1647, 
graduated  in  1650,  and  was  made  fellow  of  his  college  in 
1651.  ChiUingwortb's  Religion  of  Protestantism  biassed 
his  mind  against  Puritanism,  and  tho  bias  was  further 
confirmed  by  intercourse  with  Cudworth  and  others  at 
Cambridge.  In  1656  he  became  tutor  to  the  son  of 
Edward  Prideaui,  attorney  general  to  CromwelL  In  what 
year  he  took  orders  is  unknown,  but,  according  tc  the  Life 
published  in  1717,  the  person  who  ord^ed'  him  was  Dr 
T.  Sydserf,  a  Scottish  bishop.  Tilloteon  was  present  at 
the  Savoy  Conference  in  1661,  and  remained  identified 
with  the  Presbyterians  till  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity in  1662.  Shortly  afterwards  he  became  curate  of 
Cheshunt,  Herts,  and  in  June  1663  rector  of.Keddington, 
Suffolk.  For  several  years  after  his  ordination  he  -devoted 
himself  to  an  exact  study  of  the  Scriptures,  ancient  ethics, 
and  the  vrritings  of  the  early  fathers,  especially  BasU  and 
Chrysostom.  The  result  was  seen  in  the  general  tone  6f 
Jiis  preaching,  which  was  practical  rather' than  theologicaj, 
^nd,  though  regarded  by  some  ae  latitudinarian,  was  char- 
acterized by  the  earnestness  of  sincere  conviction  and  the 
balanced  wisSom  gained  by  thoughtful  reflexion.  He  was, 
mol-eover,  a  man  of  the  world  as  well  as  a  divine,  and  in 


'  See  V«nzolini,  Fabbricht  di  Maioticht,  Peaaro,  1879,  iL  p.  229  sq. ; 
ted  Tnti,  Pavimmto  ntUa  Btu.  Peironiana,  Bologna,  1853. 


his  sermons  he  exhibited  a  certain  indefinable  tact  which 
enabled  him  at  once  to  win  the  ear  of  his  audience.  His 
style  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  clearness, 
and  in  this  respect  it  mirrored  his  own  candour  and  sin- 
cerity. The  qualities'  above  mentioned  won  him  in  his 
lifetime  the  reputation  of  "  having  brought  preaching  to 
perfection  ";  and  probably  it  was  because  he  was  neither 
brilliant,  original,  nor  profound  that  his  preaching  was  so 
universally  admired.  "His  sermons,"  says  Burnet,  "were 
so  well  heard  and  liked,  and  so  much  read,  that  all  the 
nation  proposed  him  as  a  pattern  and  studied  to  copy 
after  him."  In  1664  he  became  preacher  at  Lincoln's 
Inn.  The  same  year  he  married  Miss  French,  'daughter 
of  the  canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  niece  of  Oliver 
Cromwell ;  and  he  also  became  Tuesday  lecturer  at  St 
Lawrence,  Jewry.  TiUotson  employed  his  controversial 
weapons  with  some  skill  against  "atheism"  and  "Popery." 
In  1663  he  published  a  characteristic  sermon  on  "The 
Wisdom  of  being  Religious,"  and  in  1666  replied  to 
Sergeant's  Sure  Footing  in  Christianity  by  a  pamphlet 
on  the  Rule  of  Faith.  The  same  year  he  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.D.  In  1670  he  became  prebendary  and  in  1672 
dean  of  Canterbury.  Through  his  wife  TiUotson  becarne 
connected  with  Dr  Wilkins,  the  second  husband  of  her 
mother.  In  1675  he  edited  Wilkins's  Principles  ofJS^atural 
Religion,  completing  what  was,  left  unfinished  of  it,  and 
in  1682  his  Sermons,  with  a  preface  in  which  he  vindicated 
Wilkins  from  certain  misrepresentations  of  Wood  in  his 
History  and  ATiiiquiiies  of  the  University  of  Qxford.  In 
1680  he  brought  out  Barrow's  Treatise  of  the  Pope's  Su- 
premacy, and  in  1683  his  Sermons.  On  5th  November 
1678  TiUotson  preached  a  sermon  against  Popery  before- 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  which  he  maintained  that  it 
was  their  duty  to  make  provision  against  the  propagation 
of  a  religion  more  mischievous  than  irreligion  itself ;  but 
in  a  sermon  on  the  Protestant  religion  in  1680  before  the 
king  he  propounded  the  proposition  that  Catholics  could 
enjoy  their  own  faith,  but  not  openly  draw  men  off  from 
the  profession  of  the  established  religion.  Along  with 
Burnet,  TWotson  attended  Lord  Russell  on  the  scaffold  in 
1683,  and  after  the  publication  of  Lord  Russell's  speech 
was  appointed  to  appear  before  the  privy  covmcU ;  but  his 
explanations  were  regarded  as  satisfactory,  the  chief  sus- 
picions in  connexion  with  the  speech  resting  on  'Burnet,. 
TiUotson  afterwards  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Lady  Rus- 
sell, and  it  was  partly  through,  her  that  he  obtained  so 
much  influence  with  Princess  Anne,  who  foUowed  his  ad. 
vice  in  regard  to  the  settlement  of  the  crown  on  WiUiam 
of  Orange.  Ha  possessed  the  special  confidence  of  WiUiam 
and  Mary,  and  was  made  clerk  of  the  closet  to  the  king, 
27th  March  1689.  It  was  chiefly  through  his  advice  that 
the  king  appointed  an  ecclesiastical  commissioin  for  the 
reconciliatipn  of  the  Dissenters,  and  he  was  regarded  as 
the  representative  in  the  commission  of  the  views  of  the 
king  and  queen.  In  August  of  this  year  he  was  appointed 
by  the  chapter  of  his  cathedral  to  exercise  the  atchiepis. 
copal  jurisdiction  of  the  province  of  Canterbury  during 
the  suspension  of  Sancroft.  He  was  also  about  tho  same 
time  named  dean  of  St  Paul's.  Soon  afterwards  he  was 
elected  to  su(S:eed  Sancroft ;  but  he  accepted  the  promo- 
tion with  extreme  reluctance,  and  it  was  deferred  from 
time  to  time  at  his  request  tiU  AprU  1691.  His  attempt^ 
to  reform  certain  abuses  of  the  church,  especiaUy  that  of 
non- residence  among  the  clergy,  awakened  against  him 
much  Ul-will,  and  of  this  the  Jacobites  took  every  possible 
advantage  and  pursued  him,  to  the  end  of  his  life  with 
insult  and  reproach.  "  This,"  Bumet  says,  "  could  neither 
provoke  him,  nor  fright  him  from  his  duty;  but  it  affected 
his  mind  so  much  that  this  was  thought  to  have  shortened 
his  days."     He  died  of  palsy  on  24th  November  1694. 


T  I  L  — T  I  M 


391 


For  hi3  maouscnpt  sermons  Tillotson's  widow  received  2500 
^iceas,  then  an  unexampWd  sum,  and  for  many  years  their  popu- 
larity remained  unrivalled  During  his  lifetime  he  published  Ser- 
tiums  on  Seierat  OccasUns,  1671.  repubhshed  with  a  second  volume 
added  in  1678  ;  tyty  Sermons  and  the  Rule  of  FaUh,  1691  ,  Four 
Sermam  cancemxng  the  IhmnUy  and  [ncamalton  of  our  Bles^d 
SavwuT,  1693  ,  Six  Sermons  on  Several  Occasions,  1694  His  Post- 
•hunwus  Sermons,  edited  by  Dr  Ralph  Baker,  appeared  in  14  v.^ls  . 
1694.  third  ediiion,  1704  His  IVorks  were  published  in  1707 
J710,  and  were  frequently  reprinted  In  1752  an  edition  appeared 
in  3  vols,  with  Life  by  Thomas  Birrh.  D  D  ,  compiled  from  Tillot- 
son's original  papers  and  letters.  Of  the  many  suDsequent  editions 
the  best  is  that,  with  Life  by  Birch,  of  1820. 10  vols.  Various  selec- 
tions from  bis  sermons  and  works  have  been  published  separately 

See  la  addition  to  Birch  3  £,;/«,  Weifonl  «  ilemarials.  Bumel's  Own  T\ma.  aod 
Macaulay  3  Hvtory  o/  fnyfantt 

TILLY,  JoHiJJN  TsERCLAES,  CotTNT  OP  (1559-1632),  a 
famous  general,  was  born  ia  February  1559  at  the  chateau 
of  Tilly  in  Brabant.  It  was  originally  intended  that  lie 
should  become  a  priest,  and  he  vas  strictly  educated  by 
the  Jesuits  He  preferred,  however,  the  life  of  a  soldier, 
and  began  his  military  career  in  the  Netherlands,  under 
Alessandro  Farnese,  in  the  Spanish  service.  Afterwards 
he  joined  the  imperial  army,  and  as  lieutenant -colonel 
tinder  Duke  Philip  Emmanuel  of  Lorraine  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  in  Hungary  in  the  war  against  the  Turks 
For  his  brilliant  achievements  he  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  field-marshal.  In  1610  he  was  put  by  Maximilian  I. 
at  the  head  of  his  Bavarian  army  ;  and  soon  after  the  out- 
break of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  troops  of  the  Catholic  League.  In  this 
position  he  displayed  qualities  which  placed  him  among 
the  foremost  generals  of  the  age.  After  the  battle  of 
Prague  (the  White  Hill)  in  1620  he  thoroughly  subdued 
Bohemia,  and  in  1622  conquered  the  Palatinate, — a  ser- 
•vice  for  which  Ferdinand  II  gave  him  the  title  of  count. 
In  1623  he  defeated  Christian  of  Brunswick  at  Stadtlohn 
in  Westphalia,  and  in  1626  Christian  IV  of  Denmark  at 
Lutter  in  Brunswick.  The  consequence  of  the  latter 
victory  was  that  Tilly  and  Wallenstein  were  able  to  cross 
the  Elbe ;  but,  as  Tilly  was  wounded  before  Pinneberg  in 
Schleswig-Holstein,  the  task  of  finally  compelling  the  king 
of  Denmark  to  accept  terms  of  peace  had  to  be  left  to 
Wallenstein  alone.  When  WaUenstein  was  obliged  in  1630 
to  withdraw  for  a  while  into  private  life,  Tilly  added  to  the 
functions  he  already  discharged  those  of  commander  of  the 
imperial  forces.  From  this  time  the  only  important  success 
achieved  by  him  was  the  storming  of  Magdeburg  (May 
1631),  a  success  accompanied  by  frightful  cruelties,  for 
which  he  was  at  least  in  part  responsible.  Gustavus  Add- 
phus  had  now  come  forward  as  the  champion  of  Protest- 
antism, and  Tilly,  waih  all  his  genius  and  tenacity,  was  not 
a  match  for  the  Swedish  king.  Four  months  after  the 
capttire  of  Magdeburg  Tilly  was  defeated  at  Breitenfeld 
in  Saxony,  and  was  himself  so  severely  wounded  that  he 
escaped  from  the  field  with  difficulty.  In  March  1632  he 
drove  the  Swedes  from  Bamberg  and  placed  himself  in  an 
entrenched  camp  at  Rain  to  prevent  them  from  passing 
over  the  Lech.  Gustavus  Adolphus  crossed  the  stream, 
and  in  the  fight  which  ensued  Tilly  was  mortally  wounded. 
He  died  in  April  1632  at  Ingolstadt,  and  was  buried  at 
AluOetting  in  Bavaria. 

Tilly  was  of  medium  height,  reserved  in  manner,  and  wholly 
indifferent  to  eiternal  marks  of  honour  The  Roman  Church  nevet 
had  a  more  devoted  servant,  and  he  gave  evidence  of  the  essential 
simplicity  of  his  character  by  declining  the  ofi'er  of  the  emperor  to 
make  him  a  prince  and  to  grant  to  him  the  principality  of  Calen- 
berg.  As  he  was  not  married,  bis  title  and  estates  descended  to 
bis  nephew. 

See  SIopp,  Tilly  im  drtusigJSKr^jen  KrUgt,  Stuttgart.  1861. -uid  VillermoDt 
TiUj),  Toumiy.  185ft 

TILSIT,  a  commercial  town  of  East  Prussii,  ind  the 
capital  of  Prussian  Lithuania,  is  situated  on  the  i.  '  bank 
of  the  Memel  or  Niemen,  52  miles  south-east  of  th.  town 
of  Memel  and  60  north-east  of  Konigsberg.-    The  town 


IS  spacious,  and  has  a  number  of  handsome  modem  build- 
ings, including  a  town-house,  post-office,  law-courts,  and  a 
large  hospital  It  contains  three  Protestant  churches,  a 
Roman  Catholic  church,  and  a  Jewish  synagogue  The 
manufactures  include  soap,  leather,  shoes,  glass,  and  other 
articles,  and  there  are  iron  foundries  and  steam  flour  and 
saw  mills  Tilsit  carries  on  trade  in  timber,  grain,  hemp, 
flax,  herrings,  and  other  northern  produce  ,  but  its  trade 
with  Russia,  at  one  time  considerable,  has  fallen  off  since 
the  construction  of  the  railway  from  Konigsberg  ma  Inster- 
burg  and  Gumbinnen  to  Kovno  The  river  is  navigable 
beyond  the  town  The  market  gardening  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood deserves  mention,  and  the  annual  horse-fair  and 
markets  are  of  considerable  local  importance  In  1783 
the  population  was  8060,  m  1880  it  had  increased  to 
21,400,  and  in  1885  to  22,428 

Tilsit,  which  received  town  rights  in  1552,  grew  np  around  a 
castle  of  the  Teutonic  order,  kiiow-n  as  the  "Schalauner  Haus," 
founded  in  1288.  It  owes  most  of  its  interest  to  the  peace  signed 
here  on  9th  July  1807,  the  preliminaries  of  which  were  settled  by 
the  emperors  Alexander  and  Napoleon  on  a  raft  moored  in  the 
Memel  The  peace  of  Tilsit,  whirh  constituted  the  kingdom  of 
Westphalia  and  the  duchy  ol  Warsaw,  registers  the  nadu  of  Prussia's 
humiliation  under  Napoleon  (see  Prussia,  vol.  xx.  p  11).  Tb» 
poet  Max  von  Schenkendorf  (1784  J  817)  was  born  at  Tilsit. 

TIMBELR.  See  Building,  Forests,  and  Strength  of 
Mateeiaxs  ;  also  Fir,  Oak,  Pine,  Teak,  &c. 

TIMBUKTU, or  TiMBUCToo(Sonrhai,  Timbvtu ,  Berber, 
Tumbutku ,  Arab,  Tin-buktu),  a.  city  of  the  Sahara,  on  the 
southern  verge  of  the  desert,  in  18°  4'  N.  lat.  and  1°  45' 
W  long.,  at  the  north-east  extremity  of  the  Fulah  state 
of  Moassina  (Massina),  9  miles  north  of  its  riverine  port 
Kabara,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nvger,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  numerous  branches  of  the  Jobba  (upper  Niger) 
where  it  trends  eastwards,  and  at  the  converging  point  of 
the  main  trade  routes  from  the  Gulf  of  GJ^iinea  and  from 
the  Mediterranean  across  the  western  Sahara.  Timbuktu 
lies  on  a  terrace  formed  by  the  southern  scarp  of  the 
desert,  about  800  feet  above  sea-level,  and  overlooking  a 
chain  of  dkayaa  or  marshy  hollows,  fringed  here  and  there 
with  afew.mimosas  and  palm  thickets,  amid  the  surround- 
ing sandy  wastes.  These  dhayas,  which  are  flooded  every 
three  or  four  years,  converting  the  lowland  tracts  between 
th§  terrace  and  the  main  stream  into,  a  labyrinth  of 
channels  and  backwaters,  mark  the  bed  of  a  navigable 
creek  which  formerly  branched  from  the  Niger  northwards 
to  the  foot  of  the  scarp,  and  which  in  1640  inundated  a 
low  lying  quarter  of  the  city.  According  to  Pouyanne 
and  Sabatier,  the  main  stream  followed  this  course  before 
it  took  its  present  easterly  curve  to  Burum,  where  it  bends 
southwards  to  the  coast.  Here  also  it  was  probably  joined 
at  some  remote  period  by  the  now  dried  up  Wady  Messaura 
from  the  Tu4t  oases  south  oi  Algeria,  although  the  rough 
levels  taken  by  Oscar  Lenz  and  others  make  it  uncertain 
whether  the  flow  through  this  depression  was  northwards 
or  southwards.  In  any  case  Timbuktu  has  been  left,  so 
to  say,  high  and  dry  by  the  general  process  of  desiccation 
going  on  throughout  the  Saharian  region  It  was  founded, 
or  more  probably  captured,  by  the  Tuareg  Berbers  about 
the  1 1th  century,  and  under  the  Mandingo  kings  of  Mali 
(Mall^)  was  a  noted  mart  for  gold  and  salt  in  the  14th 
century,  mentioVi  of  "Timboutch  "  occnrring  on  a  Catalan 
map  dated  1373  Under  Askia,  founder  of  the  e.^itensive 
but  short-lived  Sonrhai  empire  (1492),  it  rose  to  great 
splendour  and  became  with  Gogo  a  chief  centre  of  Moham- 
medan culture  for  the  peoples  of  western  Sudan.  But 
since  the  overthrow  (1591)  of  the  Sonrhai  dynasty  by  the 
Morocco  captain,  the  Andalusian  Jodar  with  his  Ruma 
followers,  Timbuktu  has  continued  to  be  the  prey  of  the 
surrounding  unruly  populations— Tuaregs,  Arabs  or  Arab- 
ized  Berbers,  Fulahs  (1800),  and  Toucouleurs  (1865). 
Being  thus  at  the  mercy  of  all,  it  has  ceased  to  rebuild  its 


592 


T  I  M  — T  I  M 


Idjsmantled  walla,  being  content  to  pay  tribute  to  each  in 
turn  and  sometimes  to  more  than  one  simultaneously,  for 
which  it  indemnifies  itself  by  peaceful  intervals  of  trade 
whenever  the  land  routes  are  open  and  the  upper  and 
jlower  reaches  of  the  Niger  are  clear  of  pirates.  But  at 
,times  even  the  short  tract  separating  it  from  ELabara  is  so 
beset  with  marauders  that  it  bears  the  ominous  name  of 
("  Ur-immandess,"  that  is,  "  He  (God)  hears  not."  Recently, 
however,  it  has  ■enjoyed  a  considerable  interval  of  peace, 
and  the  population,  estimated  by  Barth  at  11,000  in  1853, 
had  risen  to  20,000  in  1880  (Lenz).  These  form  a  motley 
group  of  Sonrhais,  Tuaregs,  Mandingoes,  Arabs  from  Mor- 
occo, Berabish  Arabs,  Bambaras,  Fulahs,  and  since  1850  a 
few  Jewish  traders.  Apart  from  some  Christian  captives, 
the  place  was  reached  during  the  19th  century  by  only 
four  Europeans — Laing  from  Tripolitana  (1826),  who  was 
murdered  on  his  return  journey,  Cailli6  from  the  north 
(1828),  Barth  from  central  Sudan  (1853),  and  Lenz  from 
Morocco  (1880).  Since  1884,  however,  regular  relations 
have  been  opened  with  the  French  on  the  upper  Niger. 

From  the  ruins  covering  extensive  tracts  on  the  north  and  west 
sides,  it  is  evident  that  Timbuktu  was  formerly  a  much  larger 
place  than  at  present.  Even  the  great  mosquo,  which  must  at  one 
time  have  stood  in  the  centre,  now  lies  near  the  outskirts,  where 
its  high  but  unsightly  earth  tower  forms  a  striking  landmark. 
The  aggregate  of  mean  hovels  or  mud  houses  of  which  the  place 
consists  is  only  relieved  by  a  few  structures  of  a  better  class.  As 
in  former  times,  a  great  staple  of  trade  is  salt  from  Taudeni  and 
other  parts  of  the  Sahara,  here  exchanged  with  gold  dust  for  kola 
nuts  from  the  south,  Manchester  goods,  and  some  other  European 
wares,  which  with  tea  are  imported  from  Morocco  or  penetrate 
from  the  British  protected  territories  along  the  .lower  Niger. 
Coiyrio^,  slowly  yielding  to  European  moneys,  are  the  chief  currency. 
The  local  industries  are  'mainly  conQned  to  'some  fancy  and  other 
leatherwork  prepared  by  the  Tuareg  women.  _The  local  adminis- 
tration is  in  the  hands  of  an  hereditary  kahur^  a  kind  of  mayor, 
descended  from  o^e  of  the  Ruma  families.  The  kahia  is  himself 
more  or  less  under  the  control  of  a  neighbouring  Tuareg  chief  and 
of  the  powerful  Bakhai  family,  who,  as  "sheriis"  and  marabouts, 
are  revered  thronghout  the  westerii  Sahara.  Timbuktu,  which 
possesses  some  valuable  Arabic  manuscripts  and  is  still  a  centre  of 
Moslem  teaching,  is  a  converging  point  of  the  chief  west  Sudanese 
and  Saharan  races  —  Arabs  or  Arabized  Berbers  to  the  west; 
Sonrhais  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  and  thence  south-eastwards 
along  the  Niger;  Ireghenaten  or  "mixed"  Tuaregs  southwards 
across  the  Niger  as  far  as  the  Hombori  Hills  and  in  the  fertile 
Libbako  plains  beyond  them  ;  Fulahs,  Mandingoes,  and  Bambaras 
in  and  about  the  city  ;  and  Imohag  or  Imdsharh  Tuaregs  belonging 
'to  the  Awellimiden  confederation  mainly  to  the  north  and  east. 

TIME,  Measitrement  of.  Time  is  measured  by  suc- 
cessive phenomena  recurring  ,  at  regular  intervals.  The 
only  astronomical  phenomenon  which  rigorously  fulfils  this 
condition,  and  the  most  striking  one, — the  apparent  daily 
revolution  of  the  celestial  sphere  caused  by  the  rotation 
of  the  earth, — has  from  the  remotest  antiquity  been 
employed  as  a  measure  of  lime.  The  interval  between 
,two  successive  returns  of  a  fixed  point  on  the  sphere  to 
the  meridian  is  called  the  sidereal  day;  and  sidereal  time' 
is  reckoned  from  the  moment  when  the  "  first  point  of 
Aries "  (the  vefnal  equinox)  passes  the  meridian,  the 
hours  being  counted  from  0  to  24.  Clocks  and  chrono- 
meters regulated  to  sidereal  time  are  only  used  by  astro- 
nomers, to  whom  they  aro  indispensable,  as  the  sidereal 
time  at  any  moment  is  equal  to  the  right  ascension  of  any 
star  just  then  passing  the  meridian.  For  ordinary  pur- 
poses solar  time  is  used,  In  the  article  Astronomy  (vol. 
ii.  p.  771)  it  is  shown  that  the  solar  day,  as  defined  by 
the  successive  returns  of  the  sun  to  the  meridian,  does 
not  furnish  a  uniform  measure  of  time,  owing  to  the 
^slightly  variable  velocity  of  the  sun's  motion  and  the 
inclination  of  its  orbit  to  the  equator,  so  that  it  becomes 
necessary  to  introduce  aa  imaginary  mean  sun  moving  in 
the  equator  with  uniform  velocity.     The  equation  of  time 

iloc.  cit.,  pp.  772-773)  is  the  difference  between  apparent 
or  trae)  solar  time  and  mean  solar  time.    The  Utter  is 


that  shown  by  clocks  and  watches  used  for  ordinary  pur-' 
poses.  Mean  time  is  converted  into  apparent  time  by 
applying  the  equation  of  time  with  its  proper  sign,  as 
given  in  the  Nautical  Almanac  and  other  ephemerides  fot 
every  day  at  noon.  As  the  equation  varies  from  day  to 
day,  it  is  necessary  to  take  this  into  account,  if  the  appar- 
ent time  is  required  for  any  moment  different  from  noon. 
The  ephemerides  also  give  the  sidereal  time  at  mean 
noon,  from  which  it  is  easy  to  find  the  sidereal  time  at 
any  moment,  as  24  hours  of  mean  solar  time  are  equal  to 
24'' 3°  56'-5554  of  sidereal  time..  About  2l6t  March  of 
each  year  a  sidereal  clock  agrees  with  a  mean-time  clock,' 
but  it  gains  on  the  latter  3"  56'-5  every  day,  so  that  in 
the  course  of  a  year  it  has  gained  a  whole  day.  For  a 
place  not  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  the  sidereal  timel 
at  noon  must  be  corrected  by  the  addition  or  subtractionj 
of  9'  8565  for  each  hour  of  longitude,  according  as  tha 
place  is  west  or  east  of  Greenwich.  ^ 

While  it  has  for  obvious  reasons  become  customary  in 
all  civilized  countries  to  commence  the  ordinary  or  civil 
day  at  midnight,  astronomers  count  the  day  from  noon, 
being  the  transit  of  the  mean  sun  across  the  meridian, 
in  strict  conformity  with  the  rule  as  to  the  beginning  of 
the  sidereal  day.  The  hours  of  the  astronomical  day  are 
also  counted  from  0  to  24.  An  international  conference 
which  met  in  the  autumn  of  1884  at  Washington,  to  con- 
sider the  question  of  introducing  a  universal  day  (see 
below),  has  recommended  that  the  astronomical  day  should 
commence  at  midnight,  to  make  it  coincide  with  the  civil 
day.  The  great  majority  of  American  and  Continental 
astronomers  have,  .however,  expressed  themselves  very 
strongly  against  this  change;  and,  even  if  it  should  be 
made  in  the  British  Nautical  Almanac,  it  appears  very 
doubtfiil  whether  the  other  great  ephemerides  will  adopt 
it,  the  more  so  as  astronomers  have  hitherto  felt  no  in- 
convenience from  the  difference  between  the  astronomical 
and  the  civil  day.  - 

Determination  of  Time. — ^The  problem  of  determining 
the  exact  time  at  any  moment  is  practically  identical  with 
that  of  determining  the  apparent  position  of  any  known 
point  on  the  celestial'  sphere  with  regard  to  one  of  the 
fixed  (imaginary)  great  circles  appertaining  to  the  observer's 
station,  the  meridian  or  the  horizon.  The  point  selected 
is  either  the  sun  or  one  of  the  standard  stars,  the  places 
of  which  are  accurately  determined  and  given  for  every 
tenth  day  in  the  modern  ephemerides.  The  time  thus 
determined  furnishes  the  error  of  the  clock,  chronometer, 
or  watch  employed,  and  a  second  determination  of  time 
after  an  interval  gives  a  new  value  of  the  error  and  thereby 
the  rate  of  the  timekeeper. 

The  ancient  astronomers,  although  they  have  left  ns 
very  ample  information  about  their  dials,  water  or  sand 
clocks  (clepsydra),  and  similar  timekeepers,  are  very  re- 
ticent as  to  how  these  were  controlled.  Ptolemy,  in  hia 
Almagest,  states  nothing  whatever  as  to  how  the  time  was 
found  when  the  numerous  astronomical  phenomena  which 
he  records  took  place ;  but  Hipparchus  in  the  only  book 
we  possess  from  his  hand  gives  a  list  of  forty-four  stars 
scattered  over  the  sky  at  intervals  of  right  ascension  equal 
to  exactly  one  hour,  bo  that  one  or  more  of  them  would  be 
on  the  meridian  at  the  commencement  of  every  sidereal 
hour.  In  a  very  valuable  paper '  Schjellerup  has  shown 
that  the  right  ascensions  assumed  by  Hipparchus  agree 
within  about  1 6'  or  one  minute  of  time  with  those  calctilated 
back  to  the  year  140  b.c,  from  modern  star-places  and  pro- 
per motions.  The  accuracy  which,  it  thus  appears,  could 
be  attaine*'  Oy  the  ancients  in  their  determinations  of  time 


*  **B"  .erches  sor  rAatrouomie  des  Anciens  ;  I.  Sar  lechronomdtrtt 
o^Bste  Jippan]ne,"iaCppem>cu<.'  An  ItUemacimuit  Journal  a/ ^. 
tnmm  ,,  L  p.  2S.     " 


TIME 


393 


was  far  beyond  what  they  seem  to  have  considered  neces- 
sary, as  they.ouly  record  astronomical  phenomena  (<•;/•, 
cchpses,  occultations)  as  havipg  occurred  "  towards  the 
middle  of  the  third  hour,"  or  "about  8^  hours  of  the  night," 
witliout  ever  giving  minutes.'  Tlic  Arabians  had  a  clearer 
perception  of  the  importance  of  knowing  the  accurate 
time  of  phenomena,  and  in  the  j-ear  S29  we  find  it  stated 
that  at  the  commencement  of  the  solar  eclipse  on  30th 
November  the  altitude  of  the  sun  was  7°  and  at  the  end 
24°,  as  observed  at  Baghdad  by  Ahmed  ibn  Abdallah, 
called  Habash.-  This  seems  to  be  the  earliest  determina- 
tion of  time  by  an  altitude ;  and  this  method  then  came 
into  general  use  among  the  Arabians,  who  on  observing 
lunar  eclipses  never  failed  to  measure  the  altitude  of  some 
bright  star  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  eclipse.  In 
Europe  this  method  was  adopted  by  Purbach  and  Rcgio- 
montanus,  apparently  for  the  first  time  in  1457.  Bernhard 
Walther,  a  pupil  of  the  latter,  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  to  use  for  scientific  purposes  clocks  driven  by  weights  : 
he  states  that  on  IGth  January  1484  he  observed  the 
rising  of  the  planet  Mercury  and  immediately  attached 
the  weight  to  a  clock  having  an  hour-wheel  with  fifty-sis 
teeth;  at  sunrise  one  hour  and  thirty-five  teeth  had  passed, 
so  that  the  interval  was  an  hour  and  thirty-seven  minutes. 
For  nearly  two  hundred  years,  until  the  application  of 
the  pendulum  to  clocks  became  general,  astronomers  could 
place  little  or  no  reliance  on  their  clocks,  and  consequently 
it  was  always  necessary  to  fi.\  the  moment  of  an  ob- 
servation by  a  simultaneous  time  determination.  For 
this  purpose  Tycho  Brahe  employed  altitudes  observed 
with  quadrants ;  but  he  remarks  that  they  are  not  always 
of  value,  for  if  the  star  is  taken  too  near  the  meridian  the 
altitude  varies  too  slowly,  and  if  too  near  the  horizon  the 
refraction  (which  at  that  time  was  very  imperfectly  known) 
introduces  an  element  of  uncertainty.  He  therefore  pre- 
ferred azimuths,  or  with  the  large  "armillary  spheres" 
■which  played  so  important  a  part  among  his  instruments 
he  measured  hour-angles  or  distances  from  the  meridian 
along  the  equator.^  Transits  of  stars  across  the  meridian 
were  also  observed  with  the  meridian  quadrant,  an  instru- 
ment which  is  alluded  to  by  Ptolemy  and  was  certainly  in 
use  at  the  Marigha  (Persia)  observatory  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury, but  of  which  Tycho  was  the  first  to  make  extensive 
use.  It  appears,  however,  that  he  chiefly  employed  it  for 
determining  star-places,  having  obtained  the  clock  error 
by  the  methods  already  described. 

In  addition  to  these  methods,  that  of  "equal  altitudes" 
was  much  in  use  during  the  17th  century.  That  equal 
distances  east  and  west  of  the  meridian  correspond  to  equal 
altitudes  had  of  course  been  known  as  long  as  sun-dials 
had  been  used ;  but,  now  that  quadrants,  cross-staves,  and 
parallactic  rules  ^  were  commonly  ensployed  for  measuring 
altitudes  more  accurately,  the  idea  naturaj'y  suggested  it> 
self  to  determine  the  time  of  a  star's  or  the  ■sun's  meridian 
passage  by  noting  the  moments  when  it  reached  any  par- 
ticular altitude  on  both  sides  of  the  meridian.  But  Tycho's 
plan  of  an  instrument  fixed  in  the  meridian  was  not  for- 
gotten, and  from  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  when  Roemer 
invented  the  transit  instrument,  the  observation  of  transits 
across  the  meridian  became  the  principal  means  of  deter- 
mining time  at  fixed  observatories,  while  the  obseri'ation 
of  altitudes,  first  by  portable  quadrants,  afterwards  by  re- 
flecting sextants,  and  during  the  19th  century  by  port- 
able alt-azimuths  or  theodoUtes,  has  been  used  on  journeys. 

^  For  astroDoisiol  purposes  the  ancients  made  use  of  mean. time 
boors — wpoi  Urri^uptrai,  harm  equinocliaUs — into  which  they  translated 
ft.l  indicatioDS  expressed  in  civil  hoars  of  varying  length — Clfoi  KotpiKcU, 
i-orm  tempoTa2e3.     Ptolemy  coonU  the  mean  day  from  noon- 

'  Caussin,  Le  Here  dt  la  grande  tahU  HakemiU,  Paris,  1804,  p.  100. 

'  See  his  Epistclm  astTonamictE^  p.  73. 

*  See  NAVioATioa,  voL  xviL  pp.  251  •ml  25& 


During  the  last  fifty  years  the  small  transit  instrument, 
w  ith  what  is  known  as  a  "  broken  telescope,"  has  also  been 
much  employed  on  scientific  expeditions;  but  great  caution 
is  necessary  in  using  it,  as  the  difficulties  of  getting  a  per- 
fectly rigid  mounting  for  the  prism  or  mirror  ■n-hich  reflects 
the  rays  from  the  object-glass  through  the  axis  to  the  eye-^ 
piece  appear  to  be  very  great,  for  strange  discrepancies  in 
the  results  have  often  been  noticed.  The  gradual  develop- 
ment of  astrononucal  instruments  has  been  accompanied 
by  a  corresponding  development  in  timekeepers.  From 
being  very  untrustworthy,  astronomical  clocks  are  now 
made  to  great  perfection  by  the  application  of  the  pendu- 
lum and  by  its  compensation,  while  the  invention  oi 
chronometers  has  placed  a  portable  and  equally  trust- 
worthy timekeeper  in  the  hands  of  travellers. 

We  shall  now  give  a  sketch  of  the  principal  methods  of 
determining  time. 

lu  the  spherical  trianRlc  ZPS  between  the  zenith,  the  pole,  and 
a  star  the  side  ZP^ 90° - <?>  (<(>  bcin^'  tlio  latitude),  /'S=90°-!(J 
l>cing  the  declination),  and  ZS  or  Z-'^O"  minus  tlic  observed  alti- 
tude. Tlie  angle  ZPS  =  lh\.\\e  star's  hour-angle  or,  in  time,  the 
interval  between  the  moment  of  observation  and  the  meridian  passr 
age  of  the  star.     We  have  then 

.    cos ^- sin*  sin  J 

cos  ( = ^—i 

cos  <p  cos  0 

which  formula  can  be  made  more  convenient  for  the  use  of  logantJun^ 
by  putting  Z+^-i-S  =  2S,  which  gives 

^^^  s_in(5-^)sin(5-5) 
COSA' cos(i'-if) 
According  as  the  star  was  observed  west  or  «aso  ol  thfliiieridian, 
t  will  be  positive  or  negative,  if  a  be  the  riglit  ascension  of  the 
star,  the  sidereal  time  =i  t  a,  a  as  well  as  5  being  taken  from  an 
ephemeris.  If  the  sun  had  been  observed,  the  hour-angle  i  would 
be  the  apparent  solar  time.  The  altituile  observed  must  be  cor- 
rected for  refraction,  and  in  the  case  of  the  sun  also  for  parallax, 
while  the  sun's  semi-diameter  must  be  added  or  subtracted,  accord- 
ing as  the  lower  or  upper  limb  was  observed.  The  declination  ol 
the  sun  being  variable,  and  being  given  in  the  ephemerides  for ' 
noon  of  each  ilay,  allow-ance  must  be  made  for  this  by  interpolating 
with  an  approximate  value  of  the  time.  As  the  altitude  changes 
very  slowly  near  the  meridian,  this  methotl  is  most  advantageous 
if  the  star  be  taken  near  the  prime  vertical,  while  it  is  also  easy  to 
see  that  the  greater  the  latitude  the  more  uncertain  the  result. 
If  a  number  of  altitudes  of  the  same  object  are  observed,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  deduce  the  clock  enor  separately  from  each  observa- 
tion, but  a  correction  may  be  applied  to  the  mean  of  the  zenith 
distances.  Supposing  n  observations  to  be  taken  at  the  moraentA 
T",,  Tp  T,, . . .,  the  mean  of  all  being  7*0,  and  calling  the  z  corre- 
sponding to  this  Z,  we  have 

dZ,„      „,     1 


n)" 


f(^-n>^ 


Z='-l- 


and  so  on,  <  being  the  hour-angle  answering  to  JV     As  *;(  T  -  To) 

=  0,  these  equations  give 

-3-1-.--     1  (f^^(7'^-7^„)'^-(7^^-^^,)'■t-.■.: 

I  ~2   dl'  n 

__z^  +  z,-^:,+  ...     dT-Z  Z2s\n' h{T-T„) 

n  ~  dp—  n  — •      ■ 

But,  if  in  the  above-mentioned  triangle  we  designate  the  angles  »' 

Z  and  5  by  180°  -  A  and  p,  we  have 

sin  2  sin  .(4  =  cos  3  .sin  t ; 

sin  :  cos  ..4  =  -  cos  <>  sin  J  -(-  sin  0  cos  5  cos  I ; 

and  by  differentiation 

drZ _  cos  ip  cos  5  cos  A  co^p 

dt-  sin.? 

in  which  A  and  p  are  determined  by 

-     sin  ^        .       ,    .  sin  ( 

sin  A  =  -. — ^  cos  6  and  sin  n  =  - — ^  cos  q>.  V 
swZ  -^      sinZ  V_ 

■With  this  corrected  mean  of  the  observed  zenith  distances  the  hoar- 
angle  and  time  are  determined,  and  by  comparison  with  7"^  the  error 
of  the  timekeeper. 

The  method  of  equal  altitudes  pves  very  simply  the  clock  error 
equal  to  the  right  ascension  minus  half  the  sura  of  the  clock  times 
corresponding  to  the  observed  equa^.  altitudes  on  both  sides  of  the 
meridian.  When  the  sun  is  observed,  a  correction  has  to  be  applied 
for  the  change  of  declination  in  the  interval  between  the  observs- 
tioBii     Calling  this  interval  2t,  the  correction  to  the  sppaient  nooo 

XXUL  —  so 


394 


TIME 


giu'jn  tiy  tho  observitioD3  r,  lli<-.  cliango  of  divlination  iu  half  tlic 
intcrvil  tli,  anJ  the  ob3«;iT<J  aJtituJo  k,  wc  fiavo 

1  sin  *  =  sin  "^  sin  (5-  4o)  +  eos<^cos(S-  &S)i:on{C  t  x) 
ind  j  sin  A  =  sin  i sin  (J  4-i5)+cos0cos(i  + A5)coj((-:r), 
whence,  as  c  >s  i  may  be  put  =  1 .  sio  jr  =  i,  and  tan  A5  =  A5, 


\sia<     tan</ 


which,  diviloil  hy  15,  gifes  the  required  correction  in  seconds  of 
time.  Similarly  an  afternoon  observation  may  be  combined  with 
an  observation  raado  the  following  i:Iorniiig  to  find  the  time  of 
apparent  miduiglit 

The  observation  of  the  time  when  a  star  has  a  certain  azimuth 
mny  also  be  used  for  deterrainioe  the  clock  error,  as  the  hour-angle 
can  be  found  from  the  declination,  the  latitude,  and  the  azimuth. 
As  the  azimuth  changes  most  rapidly  at  the  meridian,  the  observa- 
tion is  most  advantageous  there,  besides  whicl^  it  is  neither  neces- 
sary to  know  the  latitude  nor  the  doclination  accurately.  In  tho 
article  Gkodesy  (vol  x.  p  1 66)  it  has  bi;en  shown  how  the  Observed 
time  of  transit  over  the  meridian  is  corrected  for  tho  deviations  of 
the  instrument  in  azimuth,  level,  and  collimation.  Thia  corrected 
time  of  transit,  expressed  in  sidereal  time,  should  then  be  equal 
to  the  right  ascension  of  the  object  observed,  and  tho  difference  ia 
the  clock  error.  In  observatories  tlie  determination  of  a  clock's 
error  (a  nei'cssary  operation  during  a  night's  work  with  a  transit 
circle)  is  generally  founded  on  observations  of  fonr  or  five  "clock 
stars,"  these  being  standard  stars  not  near  the  pole,  of  which  tho 
absolute  right  ascensions  havo  been  determined  with  groat  care, 
besides  observation  of  acloso  circumpolar  star  for  finding  the  error 
of  azimuth  and  determination  oflevel  and  collimation  error,* 

Observers  in  the  field  with  portable  instruments  often  find  it 
inconvenient  to  wait  for  the  meridian  transits  of  one  of  the  few 
close  circumpolar  stars  given  in  the  ephemeridea.  In  that  case 
they  have  recourse  to  what  is  known  as  the  method  of  time  deter* 
minuti'in  in  the  vortical  of  a  pole  star.  The  alt-azimuth  is  first 
dirccte.l  to  one  of  the  standartt  stars  near  the  pole,  such  as  a  or  j 
Ursa^  Minoris,  using  whichever  is  nearest  to  the  meridian  at  the 
time.  Xhe  instrument  is  set  so  that  the  star  in  a  few  minutea 
will  cross  the  middle  vertical  wite  in  the  field.  Tho  spirit-level  is 
in  the  meantime  put  on  the  axis  and  the  inclination  of  the  latter 
measured.  The  time  of  tho  transit  of  the  star  is  then  observed,  after 
which  the  instrument,  remaining  clamped  in  azimuth,  is  turned  to 
a  clock  star  and  the  transit  of  this  over  all  the  wires  is  observed. 
The  level  is  applied  again,  and  the  mean  of  the  two  results  is  used 
in  the  reductions.  In  case  the  collimation  error  of  the  instrument 
is  not  .accurately  known,  the  instrument  should  be  reversed  and 
anotlier  observation  of  the  same  kind  taken.  The  observations 
made  in  each  position  of  the  instrument  are  separately  reduced 
with  an  assumed  approximate  value  of  the  error  of  collimation, 
and  two  equations  are  thus  derived  from  which  the  clock  error  and 
conection  to  the  assumed  collimation  error  are  found.  This  use  of 
the  tTdrisii  or  alt-azimuth  out  of  the  meridian  throws  considerably 
more  w.irk  on  the  computer  than  the  meridian  observations  do,  and 
it  IS  thtretore  never  resorted  to  except  wlun  an  observer  during 
field  opi  rations  is  pressed  for  time.  The  formulai  of  reduction  as 
dcvclnp.-d  by  l-Linsen  in  the  Astronomischc  PCnckrichtrn{voV  xlviii. 
p  113  w;  i  arc  given  by  Cluuvcnet  iu  his  Sphrricnl  antl  Practwal 
Aatronomij  (vol  11  pp  210  s./  ,  4th  ed  ,  Phihdolnlua,  ISTb).  The 
eubjecl  h;>»  also  been  lieatcd  at  great  length  by  Dollcn  in  two 
memoirs,  Du  ^eiff'i^firnniuity  vrrm't'chl  rfc-^  tragharcn  Durchjjanrjs- 
insfri/metit  in  I'crlKalc  dci  PolarsUms  (St  Petersburg,  1863  and 
187-1,  410) 

Lonrjiiutic.  —  nithcrto  wc  have  only  spoken  of  the  do- 
Icrniinntion  of  local  time.  But  in  order  to  compare  ob- 
servations m.ade  at  different  places  on  tho  surface  of  the 
earth  a  knowledge  of  their  difference  of  longitude  becomes 
ncccs-s-iry,  as  the  local  time  varies  proportionally  with  the 
longitude,  one  hour  corresponding  to  1.5°.  Longitude  can 
be  dttormiucd  cither  gcodetically  or  astronomically.  The 
first  method  supposes  the  earth  to  be  a  spheroid  of  known 
dimensions."  Starting  from  a  point  of  departure  of  which 
the  latitude  has  becu  determined,  tho  azimuth  from  the 
meridian  (as  determined  a.stronoraically)  and  the  distance 
of  some  other  station  are  measured.  This  second  station 
then  serves  as  a  point  of  departure  to  a  third,  and  by 
repeating  this  process  the  longitude  and  latitude  of  places 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  original  starting-point 
may  be  found.  Referring  for  this  method  to  the  articles 
Eaktr  (F)otmE  OF  TqE),'  Oeodesv,  and  StrnvETDJo,  we 


*  The  probable  error  of  a  clock  correction  found  in  this  vyay  £rx>m 
Mie  Btai  with  the  Dunsink  tcansit  circle  w.is  ±0"'052. 


shall  here  only  deal  with  astronomical  methods  of  detei^ 

mining  longitude. 

The  earliest  astronomer  who  determined  longitude  by 
astronomical  observations  seems  to  have  been  Hipparchus, 
who  chose  for  a  first  meridian  that  of  Rhodes,  where  he 
observed ;  but  Ptolemy  adopted  a  meridian  laid  through 
the  "  Insula;  Forlunata;"  as  being  the  farthest  known  plac^ 
towards  the  west.^  When  tho  voyages  of  discovery  began 
the  peak  of  Teneriffe  was  frequently  used  as  a  first  meri- 
dian, until  a  scientific  congress,  assembted'by  Richelieu,  at 
Paris  in  1630,  selected  th,e  island  of  Ferro  for  this  purp6se. 
Although  various  other  meridian3,(c^.,  that  of  Uraniemjurg 
and  that  of  San  Miguel,  one  of  the  Azores,  2'9''  25'  west  of 
Paris)  continued  to  be  iiscd  for  a  lopg  time,  that  of  Ferro, 
which  received  tho  authorization  bf  I,oaL?  XIU.  on  25th 
April  1634,  gradually  superseded  the  othere.  In  1724  the 
longitude  of  Paris  from  the  west  coast  of  .Ferro  was  found 
by  Louis  Feuill^c,  who  had  been  sent  there  by  the  Paris 
Academy,  to  be  20°  1'  45";  but  on  the  proposal  of  Qoil- 
laumc  de  Lisle  (1675-1726)  the  meridiaa  of  Ferro  was 
assumed  to  be  exactly  20°  west  of  the  Paris  observatory. 
Modern  maps  and  charts  generally  give  the  longitude  from 
the  observatory  of  either  Paris  or  Greenwich  according  to 
the  nationality  of  the  constructor;  the  Washington  meri- 
dian conference  of  1884  has  recommended  the  exclusive  use 
of  tho  meridian  of  Greenwich,  On  the  same  occasion  it 
was  also  recommended  to  introduce  tho  use  of  a  "  uni- 
versal day,"  beginning  for  the  whole  earth  at  Greenwich 
midnight,  without,  however,  interfering  with  the  use  of 
local  time.' 

The  simplest  method  for  determining  difference  of  longi- 
tude consists  in  observing  at  the  two  stations  some  celestial 
phenomenon  which  occtirs  at  the  same  absolute  moment 
for  tho  whole  earth.  Hipparchus  ppinled  out  how  ob- 
servations of  lunar  eclipses  could  be  used  in  this  way,  and 
for  about  fifteen  hundred  years  this  was  the  only  method 
available.  When  Regiomontaitos  {qv.)  began  to  publish 
his  ephemerides  towards  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  they 
furnished  other  means  of  determining  the  longitude.  Thus 
Amierigo  Vespucci  observed  on  23d  August  1499,  some- 
where on  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  that  the  moon  at  7'  30" 
p  M.  was  1°,  at  midnight  5^°  east  of  Mars  ;  from  thls'h'8 
concluded  that  they  must  have  been  in  conjunction  at 
6°  30°,  whereas  the  Nuremberg  ephemeris  announced  this 
to  take  place  at  midnight.  This  gave  the  longitude  of  his 
station  as  roughly  equal  to  5J  hours  west  of  Nuremberg, 
The  instruments  and  the  lunar  tables  at  that  time  being 
very  imperfect,  the  longitudes  determined  were  very  er- 
roneous; see  Navigation  (vol.  xviL  p.  251),  to  which 
article  we  may  also  refer  for  a  history  of  the  long-discussed 
problem  of  finding  the  longitude  at  sea.  The  invention  of 
the  telescope  early  in  the  17th  century  made  it  possible  to 
observe  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites;  but  there  is  to  a 
great  extent  the  same  drawback  attached  to  these  as  to 
lunar  eclipses,  that  it  is  impossible  to  observe  with  suffi- 
cient accuracy  the  moments  at  which  they  occur. 

Eclipses  of  the  sun  and  occultationa  of  stars  by  the 
moon  were  also  much  used  for  determining  longitude  bo- 
fore  the  invention  of  chronometers  and  the  electric  tele- 
graph offered  better  means  fir  fixing  the  longitude  of 
observatories.  These  methods  are  now  hardly  ever  em- 
ployed except  by  travellers,  as  they  are  very  inferior  aa 
regards  accuracy.     For  the  necessary  formula;  see  Chau- 

•  This  waa  probably  first  done  in  the  first  century  by  M:irinus  of  Tyia. 

'  Thia  proposal  was  chiefly  dictated  by  a  wish  to  facilitate  the  inter- 
national telegraph  and  railway  traffic.  In  the  United  States,  where  the 
large  extent  of  the  country  in  longitude  makes  it  impossible  to  U3« 
the  time  of  one  meridian,  four  standard  meridians  were  adopted  in 
1883,  viz.,  75°,  90°,  105°,  120°  west  of  Greenwich,  so  that  clock»  show- 
ing  "Eastern,  Central,  Mountain,  or  Pacific  time"  are  exactly  fi7e,su« 
seven,  or  eight  hours  slower  than  a  Greenwich  mean -time  clock. 


TIME 


395 


jt'inet's  Spherical  and  Practical  Astrcnomi/~'vo\.  i.  pp.  518- 
642  and  550-557. 

^  We  DOW  proceed  to  consider"the  four  methods  for  find- 
ing the  longitudes  of  fixed  observatories,  viz.,  by  (1)  moon 
culminatioiis,  (2)  rockets  or  other  signals,  (3)  transport  of 
chronometers,  and  (4)  transmission  of  time  by  the  electric 
telegraph. 

1.  iloon  CidminatioTis.—0^\Ti"  to  the  rapid  orbital  motion  of  the 
tooon  the  sidereal  time  of  its  culmination  is  differenffoir  different 
meridians.  If,  therefore,  the  rate  of  the  moon's  change  of  right 
ascension  is  known,  it  is  easy  from  the  observed  tinje  of  culmina- 
tion at  two  stations  to  deduce  their  difference  of  longitude.  Let 
the  right  ascension  of  the  moon  a  and  its  differential  coefficients 
be  computed  for  the  Greenwich  time  T,  and  let  the  culmination  be 
observed  at  two  places  whose  longitudes  from  Greenwich  are  X  and 
X',  the  time  of  observation  being  T+t  and  T-ht'  Greenwich  time, 
or  in  local  time  2'-hi  +  X  =  fland  T-m-k-X^ff ;  wehavo  then 


ff-e 


-^'-^^%-'F 


-^)^- 


and,  as  the  difference  of  longitude  is  V-X=(ff'-fi)-(i'-0.  ^8 
have  only  to  determine  t'  - 1  from  the  first  equation.  This  is  simply 
done  by  a  suitable  selection  of  T.  Calling  T+y^t-¥t')=T,  we 
have  to  put  T-^ii-t)  and  r  +  >i{J.'-t)  for  T+i  and  T+S^  It 
is  then  easy  to  see  that 

„da  .1 ,<Po 


^-''=(''-%  +  ^''' 


■')W' 


and,  solving  this  equation  by  first  neglecting  the  second  tenn  on 
the  right  side  and  then  substituting  the  value  ott-t,  thus  found 

e'-e    1  ry  -  g-)  3  tPa 

'  daldt' u\jla.ldlS    dfi' 


in  that  term. 


i'-l  = 


In  order  to  be  as  much  as  possible  independent  of  instrumental 
errors,  some  standard  stars  nearly  on  the  parallel  of  the  moon  are' 
obser\'ed  at  the  two  stations ;  these  "  moon-culminating  stars  "  are 
given  in  the  ephemerides  in  order  to  secure  that  both  observers 
take  the  same  stars.  As  either  the  preceding  or  the  following  limb, 
not  the  centre,  of  the  moon  is  observed,  allowance  must  be  made  for 
the  time  the  semi-diameter  takes  to  riass  the  meridian  and  for  the 
change  of  right  ascension  during  this  time.  This  method  was 
proposed  by  Pigott  towards  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  and  has 
teen  much  used ;  but,  though  it  may  be  very  serviceable  on  journeys 
and  expeditions  to  distant  places  where  the  chronometric  and  tele- 
graphic methods  cannot  be  employed,  it  is  not  accurate  enough  for 
fixed  observatories.  This  is  due,  not  only  to  the  difficulties  attend- 
ing the  observation  (the  difference  of  personal  error  in  observing  the 
moon  and  stars,  the  different  apparent  enlargement  of  the  moon 
by  irradiation  in  different  telescopes  and  under  different  atmo. 
spheric  circumstances,  &C.),.  but  chiefly  to  the  large  coefficient 
with  which  d"  -S  has  to  be  multiplied  in  the  final  equation  for  X'  -  X. 
Errors  of  four  to  six  secomls  of  time  have  therefore  frequently 
been  noticed  in  longitudes  obtained  by  this  method  from  a  limited 
number  of  observations :  the  longituae  of  the  Madras  observatory 
was  for  many  years  assumed  to  be  S""  21™  3'77,  but  subsequently  by 
a  telegraphic  determination  thui  was  found  to  be  4"37  too  great. 

2.  Signals. — In  1671  Picard  determined  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude between  Copenhagen  and  the  site  of  Tycho  Brahe's  observa- 
tory  by  watching  from  the  latter  the  covering  and  uncovering  of  a 
fire  lighted  on  the  top  of  the  observatory  tower  at  Copenhagen. 
Powder  or  rocket  signalsTiave  been  in  use  since  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century ;  they  are  nowadays  never  used  for  this  purpose, 
although  several  of  the  principal  observatories  of  Europe  were  con- 
nected in  this  manner  early  in  the  19th  century.' 

3.  \Transport  of  Chronometers. — This  means  of  determiiiing  longi- 
tude Was  first  tried  in  cases  where  the  chronometers  could  be  brought 
the  whole  way  by  sea,  but  the  improved  means  of  communication 
on  land  led  to  its  adoption  in  1828  between  the  observatories  at 
Greenwich  and  Cambndge,  and  in  the  follomng  years  between 
many  other  observatories.  A  few  of  the  more  extensive  expedi- 
tions undertaken  for  this  object  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  In  1843 
more  than  sixty  chronometers  were  sent  sixteen  times  backwards 
and  fonrards  between  Altona  and  Pulkowa,  and  in  1844  forty 
chronometers  were  sent  the  same  number  cf  times  between  Altona 
and  Greenwich.''  In  1844  the  longitude  of  Valcntia  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  Ireland  was  determined  by  transporting  thirty  pocket 
chronometers  via  Liverpool  and  Kingstown  and  having  an  inter- 
mediate station  at  the  latter  place.  The  longitude  of  the  United 
States  naval  observatory  has  been  frequently  determined  from 
Greenwich.  The  following  results  will  give  an  idea  of  the  accuracy 
of  the  method.' 


.  '  Foriistance,  GrMDWich  and  Paris  in  1825  (Phil  Truns..  182fi>.  Thn  result. 
6=>21s-6,  is  ooty  about  0*'6  too  great. 

*  As  a  great  many  of  the  chronoraeters  used  in  1S44  were  made  by  DsDtaod 
were  of  superior  excellence,  a  smaller  number  was  considered  sufficient. 

a  Gould.  TmnKitlaiaU:  Lo-naitxidt^  p.  ^Wasbingtcn.  1869. 


PrevTons  to  1849,  SIS chronoinclert  ";; . .... . . .rrT.S'" 8»  12"-52 

Expedition  of  1S49,  Bond's  discussion  ll*-20 

„  ,„     Walker's        ,,  12"-0« 

„  '  ,,     Bond's  second  result 12»*26±0«*20 

„  1855,  52  chronometers,  6  trips,  Bond  . .  13'-49±0'19  • 

The  value  now  accepted  from  the  telegraphic  determination  it 
5h  gm  123-09.  The  probable  ,errors  of  the  results  for  Pulkowa. 
Altona  and  Altona-Greenwich  were  supposed  to'be  ±0'039  an! 
±0=042.  It  is  of  course  only  natural  that  the  uncertainty  of  tho 
results  for  the  trans-Atlantic  longitude  should  be  much  greater,' 
considering  the  length  of  time  which  elapsed  between  the  rating 
of  the  chronometers  at  the  observatories  of  Boston  (Cambridge, 
Massachusetts)  and-  Liverpool.  The  difficulty  of  the  method  con- 
sists in  determining  the  :*  travelling  rate."  ■  Zach  time  a  chrono- 
meter leaves  the  station  A  and  returns  to  it  the  error  is  determined, 
and  consequently  the  rate  for  the  time  occupied  by  the  journeys 
from  A  to  B  and  from  B  \o  A  and  by  the  sojourn  at  B.  Similarly 
a  rate  is  found  by  each  departure  from  arid  return  to  .B,  and  the 
time  of  rest  at  A  and  B  is  also  utilized  for  determining  the  station, 
ary  rate.  In  this  way  a  series  of  rates  for  overlapping  intervals  of 
time  are  found,  from  which  the  travelling  rates  may  be  interpolated. 
It  is  owing  to  the, uncertainty  which  necessarily  attaches  to  the 
rate  of  a  chronometer  during  long  journeys,  especially  by  land, 
where  they  are  exposed  to  shaking  and  more  or  less  violent  motion, 
that  it  is  desirable  to  employ  a  great  number.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  mention  that  the  temperature  correction  for  each  chrono- 
meter must  be  carefully  investigated,  and  the  local  time  rigorously 
determined  at  each  station  during  the  entire  period  of  the  operations.! 
4.  Tckgrajihic  Determination  o/  Lonfftlitdc. — This  was  first  sug- 
gested by  the  American  astronomer  S.  C.  Walker,  and  owed  its  de- 
velopment to  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  where  it  was  employed 
from  about  1849.  Nearly  all  the  more  important  public  observa- 
tories on  the  continent  of  Europe  have  now  been  connected  in  this 
way,  chiefly  at  the  instigation  of  the  "Europaische  Gradmessung,", 
while  the  determinations  in  connexion  with  the  transits  of  Venus 
and  those  carried  out  in  recent  years  by  the  American  and  French 
Governments  have  completed  the  circuit  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  globe.  The  telegrapnic  method  compares  the  local  time  at  one 
station  with  that  at  the  other  by  sieans  of  electric  signals.  If  a 
signal  is  sent  from  tlie  eastern  station  A  at  the  local  time  T,  and 
received  at  the  western  station  £  at  the  local  time  T^,  tben,  if  the 
time  taken  by  the  current  to  pass  through  the  wire  is  called  x, 
the  difference  of  longitude  is 

\  =  T-Ti  +  x, 

and  similarly,  if  a  signal  is  sent  from  B  at  the  time  T,  and  Teceived 
at  >4  at  Tj,  we  have  XsTj-Tj-x, 

from  which  the  unknown  quantity  x  can  he  eliminated.  ^ 

The  operations  of  a  telegraphic  longitude  detenr'-ation  .can  be 
arranged  in  two  ways.  Either  the  local  time  is  determined  at  both 
stations  and  the  clocks  are  compared  by  telegraph,  or  the  time 
determinations  are  marked  simultaneously  on  the  two  chronographs 
at  the  two  stations,  so  that  further  signals  for  clock  comparison 
are  unnecessaiy.  The  first  method  has  to  be  used  when  the  tele- 
graph is  only  for  a  limited  time  each  night  at  the  disposal  of  the 
observers,  or  when  the  climatic  conditions  at  the  two  stations  are 
so  different  that 'clear  weather  cannot  often  be  expected  to  occur  at 
both  simultaneously,  also  when  the  difference  of  longitude  is  so 
considerable  that  too  much  time  would  be  lost  at  the  eastern  station 
waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the  transit  record  of  one  star  from  the 
western  station  before  observing  another  star.  The  independent 
time  determination  also  offers  the  advantage  that  the  observations 
may  be  taken  either  by  eye  and  ear  or  by  the  chronograph,  and 
that  the  signals  may  be  either  audible  beats  of  a  relay  or  chrono- 
graphic  signals,  the  rule  bcin^  to  have  observations  and  signals 
made  by  similar  operations.  'The  best  way  of  using  audible  beats 
of  a  relay  is  to  let  the  circuit  pass  through  an  auxiliary  clock, 
which  from  second  to  second  alternately  makes  and  breaks  the 
current,  the  making  of  the  current  being  rendered  audible  by  the 
tapping  of  the  relays  at  both  stations.  If,  now,  the  auxiliary  and 
the  observing  clocks  are  regulated  to  a  different  rate,  the  coinci- 
dences of  the  beats  of  the  relay  with  those  of  the  observing  clock 
can  be  noted  with  great  accuracy,  fi  cm  which  the  difference  between 
the  two  observing  clocks  is  found.  It  has  been  proved  by  exprience 
that  the  degree  of  accuracy  with  which  the  clock  comparison  can 
be  made  by  one  coincidence  is  exactly  equal  to  that  of  one  chrono- 

fraph  signal, the  probable  error  being  in  both  cases  about  ±0'015.' 
t,  should,  however,  be  mentioned  that  the  interval  between  two 
consecutive  coincidences  cannot  be  made  less  than  two  minutes, 
whereas  the  chronograph  signals  may  be  given  every  second,  and, 
as  the  observations  made  with  the  chronograph  are  also  somewhat 
more  accurate  than  those  made  by^^^-e  and  ear,  the  chronograph 
should  be  used  wherever  possible.'"  •  The  other  method,  that  of 
simaltaneous  registration  at  both  'stations  of  transits  of  the  same 
stars,  has  also  its  advantages.  Each  tra'nsit  observed  at  both 
stations  furnishes  a  value  of  the  difference  of  longitude,  so  that 
the  final  result  is  less  dependent  on  the  clock  rate  than  in  the 
fiirst  method,  which  necessitatei,the  combination  of  a  series  of  oiock 


396 


T  T  M  —  T  I  M 


«rror3  determined  during  the  iiiglit  to"  fomi  a  value  of  the  dock 
error  for  the  time  when  the  exchange  of  signals  took  place.  AVIien 
using  this  method  it  is  advisable  to  select  the  stars  in  euch  a 
manner  that  only  one  station  at  a  time  is  at  work,  so  that  the 
intensity  of  the  current  can  be  readjusted  (by  means  of  a  rheostat) 
between  every  despatch  and  receipt  of  signals.  This  attention  to 
the  intensity  of  the  current  is  necessary  whatever  method  is  em- 
ployed, as  the  constancy  of  the  transmission  time  {x  in  the  above 
equations)  chieQy  depends  on  the  constancy  of  the  current.  The 
probablfi  error  of  a  difl'eren''e  of  longitude  deduced  from  one  star 
appears  to  be ' 

for  eye  and  ear  transits    iC^'OS, 
for  chronograph  transits  ±0s-07  ; 
Trhile  the  probable  error  of  the  final  result  of  a  carefully  platmei 
and  well  executed  scries  of  tclegra]ihiclongitude  operations  is  geilert 
ally  between  ±0^015  and  ±0^'025. 

It  is  evident  that  the  success  of  a  determination  of  longitude  de- 
pends to  a  very  great  extent  on  the  accurate  determination  of  time 
ot  the  two  stations,  and  great  caic  must  therefore  be  taken  to  de- 
termine the  instrumental  errors  repeatedly  during  a  night's  v-ork. 
But.  in  addition  to  the  uncertainty  which  enters  into  the  results 
from  the  ordinary  errors  of  observation,  there  is  another  source  of 
error  "hich  becomes  of  special  importance  in  longitude  work,  viz., 
the  so-called  personal  ciior.  Tlie  discovery  of  the  fact  that  all 
observers  differ  more  or  less  in  their  estimation  of  the  time  when 
a  star  crosses  one  of  tiic  spider  lines  in  the  transit  instrument  was 
made  bj-  Bessel  in  1820- ;  and,  as  he  happened  to  differ  fully  a 
second  of  time  from  several  other  observers,  this  remarkably  largo 
error  naturally  causeil  the  phenomenon  to  be  carefully  examined. 
Bessel  also  suggested  what  appears  to  be  the  right  explanation,  viz., 
the  co-operation  of  two  senses  in  observing  transits  by  eye  and  car, 
the  ear  having  to  count  the  beats  of  tlio  clock  \vhile  the  eye  com- 
pares the  distance  of  the  star  from  the  spider  line  at  the  last  beat 
before  the  transit  with  the  distance  at  the  first  boat  after  it,  thus 
estimating  the  fraction  of  second  at  which  the  ti-ansit  took  place. 
It  can  easily  be  conceived  that  one  pcr'%on  may  first  licar  and  then 
see,  while  to  another  these  sensations  take  place  in  the  reverse  order  ; 
and  to  this  possible  source  of  error  may  be  addctl  tlie  sensible  time 
required  by  the  transmission  of  sensations  through  the  nerves  to  the 
brain  and  for  the  latter  to  act  upon  them.  As  tlie  chronographic 
method  of  observing  dispenses  with  one  sense  (that  of  hearing)  and 
merely  requires  the  watching  of  the  stir's  motion  and'the  pressing 
of  an  electric  key  at  the  moment  when  the  star  is  bisecteu  by  the 
thread,  tlie  personal  errors  should  in  this  case  be  much  smaller  than 
■when  the  eye  and  ear  mctliod  is  employed.  And  it  is  a  fact  that 
in  the  former  method  there  have  never  occurred  errors  of  between 
half  and  a  whole  second  such  as  have  not  luifrequeutly  appeared 
in  the  latter  method. ^ 

In  astronomical  observations  j*cnerally  this  personal  error  does 
not  cause  any  inconvenience,  so  long  as  only  one  observer  is  cm- 
ployed  at  a  time,  and  unless  the  amount  of  the  error  varies  witii 
the  declination  or  the  magnitude  of  tlie  star  ;  but  when  absolute 
time  has  to  bo  determined,  as  in  longiturle  work,  the  full  amount 
of  the  personal  equation  between  tlie  two  observers  must  be  care- 
fully ascertamed  and  taken  into  account  And  an  observer's  error 
has  often  been  found  to  vary  very  considerably  not  only  from  year 
to  ytfar  but  even  within  much  shorter  intervals  ;  the  use  of  a  new 
instrument,  though  perhaps  not  differing  in  construction  from  the 
accustomed  one,  has  also  oeen  known  to  affect  the  personal  error. 
For  a  number  of  years  this  latter  circumstance  was  coupled  with 
another  which  seemed  perfectly  incomprclicnsiblc,  the  personal  error 
appearing  to  vary  with  the  reversal  of^thc  instrument,  that  is,  with 
the  position  of  the  illuminating  lamp  cast  or  west.  But  in  1869-70 
Hirsch  noticed  during  the  longitude  operations  in  Switzerland  that 
this  was  caused  by  a  sliifting  of  the  reflector  insid^e  tlie  telescope,  by 
means  of  which  the  field  is  illuminated,  which  produced  an  apparent 
shifting  of  the  image  of  the  spider  lines,  unless  the  eye-piece  was 
very  accurately  focused  for  the  observer's  sight  The  simplest  and 
best  way  to  find  the  equation  between  two  observers  is  to  let  one 
observe  the  transits  of  stars  over  half  the  wires  in  the  telescope, 
and  the  other  observe  the  transits  over  the  remainder,  each  taking 
care  to  refocus  the  eye-piece  for  himself  in  order  to  avoid  the  above- 
mentioned  source  of  error.  The  single  transits  reduced  to  the  middle 
wire  give  immediately  the  equation  ;  and,  in  order  to  ehminate 
errors  in  the  assumed  wire-intervals,  each  observer  uses  alternately 
the  first  and  the  second  half  of  the  wires.  Another  method  is  in 
vogue  at  Greenwich,  where  each  observer  with  the  transit  circle 
from  a  series  of  stars  determines  the  clock  error  and  reduces  this 
to  a  common  epoch  (0^  sid.  time)  by  means  of  a  clock  rate  found 
indepeudontly  of  personal  error.    The  differences  between  the  clock 

*  Albrecht,  Bestimmung  von  Ldngendiffcremen  wit  Iliilfe  rf«s  elee- 
tfiacken  Tdegraphen,  p.  80,  Leipsic,  1869,  4to. 

'  Maskelyne  bnd  in  1795  noticed  that  anfrof  bis  assistants  observed 
transits  more  than  half  a  second' later  than  himself,  but  this  was  sup> 
posed  to  arise  from  eoioe  wrong  method  of  observing  adopted  by  the 
#i8L3tant,  and  the  matter  was  not  further  looked  into. 


errors  thus  found  are  equal  to  the  pei-sonal  equations.  This  method 
cannot,  however,  be  recommended,  as  the  systematic  errors  in  the 
right  ascensions  of  the  stars  and  any  slight  variation  of  the  clock 
rate  would  affect  the  personal  equation  ;  the  fii-st  method  is  there- 
fore generally  used  in  longitude  work.  It  is 'advisable  to  let  the 
observers  compare  themselves  at  the  beginning,  middle,  and  end 
of  the  operations  and,  if  possible,  at  both  the  instruments  emploj^ed. 
A  useful  check  on  the  results  is  afforded  by  simultaneous  exi»eri» 
mcnts  with  one  of  the  instvuments  contrived  by  C.  Wolf,  Kaiser, 
and  others  (sometimes  called  "time  collimators"),  by  wliich  the 
absolute  personal  error  of  an  observer  can  be  determined.  Tliough 
dilTeruig  mu(;h  in  detiil,  these  instruments  arc  all  consfenicted  on 
the  same  principle:  an  artificial  star  (a  lamp  shining  through  a 
minute  hole  in  a  screen  mounted  on  a  small  carnage  moved  by 
clockwork)  passes  in  succession  across  a  number  of  lines  drawn  on 
oiled  paper,  while  an  electric  contact  is  made  at  the  precise  moment 
wlicn  tite  star  is  bisected  on  each  line  by  the  carriage  passing  a 
number  of  adjustable  contact  makers.  The  currents  thus  made 
register  the  transits  automatically  on  a  chronograph,  while  the 
observer,  viewing  the  apparatus  througKhis  telescope,  can  observe 
the  transits  in  the  usual  manner  either  uy  eye  and  ear  or  by  chrono- 
graph, thus  immediately  finding  his  personal  errors  On  the  Conti- 
nent tliese  contrivances  have  frequently  been  used  to  educate  pupils 
learning  to  observe,  and  experience  has  repeatedly  shown  that  a 
considerable  personal  error  can  bo  generally  somewhat  diminished 
through  practice. 

Z.i(er/i(!(r£;.— General  treatise.*!  on  srlierical  astmnoiny.  eucIi  as  Briinnow'a 
Ixhrbuchder sjihorischrn  Astrovnviiei'Med..  BiTlm,  1871  ,  tcinslate<l  into  E^gli^ll 
anil  several  nllici-  languages)  ami  Cliauvencfs  M<tn\iaL,  trtal  very  fully  of  tlie 
numerous  nwthwls  of 'Ifteninuinfilinie  liy  ooinliination  nfaltitufles  or  azimuths 
of  several  stars.  The  best  handUtok  of  ttIeRi'ai)hic  longitude  wnrk  is  Albreclit'a 
already  nn-ntioncd  ;  but  any  one  eng.i{ring  In  practical  w  hIc  of  tins  kind  should 
consult  the  accounta  of  the  numerous  longitude  determinations  carried  nut 
during  recent  years,  particularly  the  I^iblicatiomn  des  kon.  prexissiicheu 
fjrniluusrheri  liisttluts  ;  Telegraphic  Drtenuintilion  of  Differences  0/  Longiluclc  f»/ 
Officers  t>/  the  Vniled  Stntfs  I^'uvy  (Washington,  ISSO) .  Tdrgr.  Delenn.  0/  LongU 
li-tUs  in  Mejico,  Centra}  Aiwncn,  ami  ou  tlif  Wrst  Lwisl  t^f  South  America  (Wash- 
ington, ISSJ):  the  lte]if<rts  of  the  United  Sta**s  Cuast  and  Geodetic  Survey; 
vol.  IX.  of  the  Acrount  oj  the  Great  Trigonovutrical  Survey  0/  India  ;  and"  vol.  iii, 
of  Dun  Echt  observat^iry  Publtintiniis.  A  discussion  of  all  the  investigations 
on  i<ci50ual  ermi-s  up  to  1ST'>  was  pablislied  by  Ureyer  in  Proc.  R.  Irish.  A'Cid., 
2d  series,  vol.  ii.,  187G,  pp.  -164-028.  (J.  L.  E.  D.) 

TIMOLEON.  The  life  of  Timoleon,  one  of  the  noblest 
and  most  interesting  of  the  men  of  old  Greece,  is  clo.sely 
bound  up  with  the  "history  of  Sicily  (^.v.),  and  more  par- 
ticularly of  Syracuse  (q.v.),  in  the  latter  half  of  the  4th 
century  B.C.  It  is  as  the  champion  of  Greece  against 
Carthage,  and  of  constitutional  government  against  violence 
and  oppression,  that  be  stands  out  as  such  a  grand  figure. 
His  ^early  career  in  his  native  Corinth  was  shaped  by  a 
tragic  incident.  Timoleon  had  saved  the  life  of  his  brother, 
Timophanes,  on  the  field  of  battle  j  but,  when  that  same 
brother,  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  mercenary  soldiers,  took 
possession  of  the  acroix)lis  and  made  himself  practically  a 
military  despot  and  master  of  the  city,  Timoleon,  after  an 
ineffectual  protest,  let  him  be  struck  down  by.  his  brother- 
in-law  and  onft  or  two  other  friends  who  had  joined  in  his 
remonstrance.  By  the  public  opinion  of  Corinth  generally 
his  conduct  was  approved  as  patriotic ;  but  the  cui-ses  of  his 
mother  and  the  cold  looks  of  some  of  his  kinsfolk  and 
acquaintances  drove  him  from'  the  city  into  the  solitude 
of  the  fields,  and  there,  it  would  seem,  for  some  years  he 
pined  away,  hating  life  and  even  ^)ent  on  ending  it  by 
voluntary  starvation.  He  must  ha/ie  reached  middle  life 
when,  in  344  B.C.,  envoys  came  froini  Syracuse  to  Corinth 
to  appeal  to  the  mother-city  for  relief  from  the  intestine 
feuds  and  foreign  mercenaries  tinder  which  the  Syracusans, 
and  all  the  Greeks  of  Sicily,  suffered.  Carthage  too, 
their  old  and  bitter  foe,  after  soime  years  of  quiet,  was 
again  bestirring  herself  and  intriguing  with  the  local  des- 
pots. Corinth  could  not  refuse  her  help,  though  her  chief 
citizens  declined  the  responsibility  of  attempting  to  estab- 
lish a  settled  government  in  the  factious  and  turbulent 
Syracuse.  By  a  sort  of  Divine  inspiration,  says  Plutarch 
(Tim.y  3),  Timoleon,'  being  named  by  an  unknown  voice  in 
the  popular  assembly,  was  chosen  by  a  unanimous  vote  to 
undertake  the  mission.  He  sailed  for  Sicily  with  a  feW 
of  the  leading  citizens  of  Corinth  and  a  small  troop  of  Greek 
mercenaries.  On  arriving  at  Rhegium  he  found  that  hia 
movements  were  watched  by  a  Carthaginian  squadron,  act- 
ing under  th«!  advice  of  a  Syracusan.  Hicet^as,  who  had 


T  I  M  — T  I  M 


397 


made  himself  master  of  Leontini  and  aimea  at  supplanting 
with  Carthaginian  aid  the  younger  Dionysius,  still  nomin- 
ally tyrant  of  Syracuse,  but  actually  in  possession  only  of 
the  island  citadel  Hicetas,  whilst  seeming  to  favour 
Corinthian  intervention,  was  really  working  with  Carthage 
on  behalf  of  the  tyrants.  Timoleon,  however,  slipped  away 
from  the  Carthaginian  watch  and  landed  at'Tauromenium 
(Taormina),  where  he  had  a  very  friendly  reception.  At 
Adranumi,  an  inland  town,  to  which  he  came  by  invitation 
from  a  party  among  the  citizens,  he  surprised  Hicetas,  and 
drove  bim  back,  with  his  troops  utterly  defeated;  to  Syra- 
cuse. The  Sicilian  Greeks,  now  rallied  round  him,  and  the 
ftllovring  year  (343)  saw  the  surrender  of  Dionysius  and 
TimoleoQ  master  of  the  entire  city.  Hailed  by  the  citizens 
13  a  heaven-sent  deliverer,  he  at  once  began  the  work  of 
restoration,  bringing  in.  a  multitude  of  new  settlers  from, 
the  mother-city  and  from  Greece  generally,  and  establishing 
a  popular  government  on  the  basis  of  the  laws  of  Diocles, , 
■which  had  been  forgotten  under  the  Dionyaian  regime. 
The  impress  of  Timoleon's  reforms  Seems  to  have  lasted  to 
the  days  of  Augustus.  The  tyrants,  too,  in  the  other  Sici- 
lian cities  were  put  down,  and  his  old  enemy  Hicetas  went 
back  to  Leontini,  where  he  lived  as  a  private  though  power- 
ful citizen.  He  made  one  more  attempt  to  overthrow 
Timoleon,  and  induced  Carthage  to  send  (3iO-339)  a  great 
army,  wluch  landed  at  Lilybaenm  (Marsala).  The  Syra- 
cusans  could  hardly  be  brought  to  face  the  invader ;  but 
with  a  miscellaneous  levy  of  about  12,000  men,  ihost  of 
them  mercenaries,  Timoleon  marched  westwards  across  the 
island  into  the  neighbourhood  of  SeUnus  and  won  a  great 
and  decisive  victory  on  the  Crimisus.  The  Carthaginian 
host  is  said  to  have  outnumbered  Timoleon's  army  in  the 
proportion  of  seven  to  one.  The  general  himself  led  on  his 
infantry  in  person  (Plut,  Tim.,  27),  and  their  enemy's  dis- 
comfiture was  completed  by  a  blinding  storm  of  rain  and 
hail  driven  straight  in  their  faces  (Diod.,  xvi.  79).  This 
victory  gave  the  Greeks  of  Sicily  many  years  of  peace  and 
safety  from  Carthage.  Carthage  made,  however,  one  more 
effort  and  despatched  some  mercenaries  to  prolong  the  con- 
flict between  Timoleon  and  the  tyrants.  '  But  it  soon  ended 
(338  B.C.)  in  the  defeat  of  Hicetaa,  who  was  taken  prisoner 
and  put  to  death,  and  in  a  treaty  which  confined  the 
dominion  of  Carthage  in  SicUy  to  the  west  of  the  Halycus 
(Platani).  Timoleon,  having  put  down  the  despots  and 
given  freedom  to  the  Greek  cities  of  SicOy,  retired  into 
private  life,  though  he  remained  practically  supreme  not 
only  at  Syracuse  but  throughout  Sicily.  This  island,  not^ 
withstanding  the  many  elements  of  discord  which  political 
revolution,  with  the  return  of  exiles  and  the  influx  of  new 
settlers,  must  have  brought  in,  seems  to  have  been  during 
Timoleon's  Uf  etime  tranquil  and  contented.  There  are  some 
characteristic  stories  told  of  his  last  days.  Although  blind, 
he  used  to  come  in  his  car  into  the  assembly  in  the  theatre 
and  give  his  opinion,  which  was  commonly  accepted  by  a 
unanimous  vote.  An  officious  person  once  insisted  on  his 
giving  the  ordinary  bail  in  a  lawsuit ;  but  he  replied  that 
he  had  himself  always  been  the  consistent  champion  of  law 
and  of  legal  rights  for  them  alL  Again,  when  his  military 
strategy  was  unfavourably  criticized,  he  expressed  his  grati- 
tude to  heaven  that  he  had  won  for  the  Syracusans  the 
privilege  of  liberty  of  speecL  He  died  in  337,  and  was 
buried  at  the  cost  of  the  citizens  of  Syracuse,  who  erected 
a  grand  monument  to  his  memory  in  their  market-place. 

Plntarch's  Life  of  TimoUcn  and  portions  of  Diodoma  Sicnlus  are 
OUT  chief  sources  of  original  information.  There  ia  an  admirable 
and  most  interesting  account  of  his  life  and  work  in  chap,  Ixxxv. 
of  Grote's  HiMory  of  Greece. 

TIM  ON  of  Athens,  a-  noted-  misantlirope,  lived  during 
the  Peloponnesian  War.  He  is  more  than  once  alluded  to 
by  Aristophaneg,and  other  comedians  of  the  Attic  stage. 


Pltttarch  takes  occasion  to  introduce  a  short  account  of  his 
life  in  the  biography  of  Mark  Anteny  (ch.  70),  and  he 
gives  his  name  to  one  of  Lucian's  dialogues.  •  Shakespeare 
probably  derived  his  knowledge  of  Timon  mainly  from 
Plutarch ;  but  the  Tiinon  of  Shakespeare  resembles  the 
Timon  of  Lucian  in  so  many  points  that  some  critics  think 
Shakespeare  (or  whoever  wrote  the  first  sketch  of  the  play) 
must  have  had  access  to  the  dialogue  in  question. 

TIMON  of  Phlius,  the  well-known  siUograph  and  scep- 
tic philosopher,  flourished  about  280  B.C.  He  studied 
philosophy  under  Stilpo  the  Megarian  and  Pyrrho  of  Elis, 
the  famous  sceptic.  Thereafter  he  spent  some  time  in 
Chalcedon,  where  he  made  a  fortune  by  teaching  and  lec- 
turing. The  rest  of  his  life  was  passed  chiefly  at  Athens, 
where  he  died  at  an  advanced  age.  -    . 

The  writings  of  Timon,  if  we  may  trtist  Diogenes  Laertios  (ix. 
ch.  12),  were  exceedingly  numerous  both  in' prose  and  in  verse  : 
besides  the  SfXXot,  he  is  asserted  to  have  written  epic  poems, 
tragedies,  comedies,  satyric  dramas,  and  other  varieties.  But  he 
is  best  £nown  as  the  author  of  the  ZIXXm  or  sarcastic  hexameter 
verses  written  against  the  Greek  philosophers.  They  were  divided 
into  three  books ;  in  the  first  the  author  spoke  in  his  own  person, 
while  in  the  second  and  third  Xenophanes  of  Colophon  replied  to 
inquiries  addressed  to  him  by  Timon  about  early  and  late  philo- 
sophers. From  the  fragments  that  remain  (about  140  lines  or 
parts  of  lines, -printed  in  Mullach,  Frag.  Phil.Grsec.,  L  pp.  84-98) 
we  see  that  Timon  possessed  some  of  the  qualities  of  a  great 
satirist  together  with  a  thorough  command  of  the  hexameter  ;  but 
there  is  no  trace  of  any  loftier  aim  than  to  awaken  derisive  laughter,' 
Philosophers  are  "excessively  cunning  murderers  of  many  wise 
saws  "  (ver.  96) ;  the  onlv  two  whom  he  spares  are  Xenophanes, 
"the  modest  censor  of  llomer's  lies"  {v.  29),  and  Pyrrho,  agains' 
whom  "no  other  mortal  dare  contend"  (v.  126).  Besides  the 
2iXX«  we  have  some  lines  preserved  from  the  .'IvSoX/m)/,  a  poem  in 
elegiac  verse,  which  appears  to  have  inculcated  the  tenets  of  scepti- 
cism, and  one  or  two  lines  or  parts  of  lines-which' cannot  be  with, 
certainty  assigned  to  either  poem.  •' 

TIMOR,  an  island  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  the 
easternmost  and  largest  of  the  lesser  Sundanese  group, 
stretching  south-west  and  north-east  for  300  miles  between 
8°  40'  and  10°  40'  S.  lat.  and  123°  30'  and.  127°  E.  long. 
It  has  a  meanbreadth  of  60  miles,  an  area  of  over  11,000 
square  miles,  and  a  population,  roughly  estimated  at 
about  500,000.  Timor  lies  in  deep  water  a  little  to  the 
west  of  the  hundred  fathom  line,  which  marks  in  this, 
direction  the  proper  limit  of  the  shallow  Arafura  Sea, 
flowing  between .  it  and  northern.  Australia.  It  differs 
considerably  from  the  other  members  of  the  Sundanese 
group  both  in  the  lie  of  its  main  axis  (south-west  and 
north-east  instead  of  west  and  east),  and  ia  the  great  pre- 
valence of  old  rocks,  such  as  schists,  slates,  sandstones, 
carboniferoHS  limestones,  and  other  more  recent  sediment- 
ary formation^  and  in  its  correspondingly  slighter  volcanic 
character.  Ifc  comes,  however,  within  the  great  volcanic 
zone  which  sweeps  in  a  vast  curve  from  the  northern 
extremity  of  Sumatra,  through  Java  and  the  other  Sundan- 
ese islands,  round  to  Amboioa,  Tidor,  Temate,  Jilolo,  and 
the  Philippines.-  There  appear  to  be  at  least  two  quiescent 
and  other  extinct  cones,  and  the  surface  is  everywhere  ex- 
tremely rugged  and  mountainous,  with  numerous  irregular 
ridges  from  4000  to  8000  feet  high,  forming  altogether  a 
very  confused  orographic  system.  Mount  Kabalaki  in  the 
eastern  district  of  Manufahi  rises  above  10,000  feet  (H.  O. 
Forbes)  ;  the  culminating  point  appears  to  be  Mount  Alias 
(11,500  feet)  near  the  south  coast.  Owing  to  the  preva- 
lent dry  easterly  winds  from  the  sirid  plains  of  North 
Australia,  Timor,  like  Ombay,  Flores,  and  other  neigh- 
bouring islands,  has  a  much  drier  climate,  with  a  .corre- 
spondingly poorer  vegetation,  than  Java,  smd  has  few 
perennial  streams  and  no  considerable  rivers.  Hence, 
apart  from  almost  untouched  and  unsurveyed  stores  of 
mineral  wealth,  such  as  iron,  copper,  and  gold,  which  occur 
apparently  in  considerable  quantities' at  several  points,  the 
island  is  poor  in  natural  resources.     The  uplands,  hpweijer. 


398 


T  I  M  — T  I  M 


yield  good  wheat  and  potatoes,  -while  the  woodlaiKlt.  whielr 
nowhere  form  veritable  -forests,  contain  murfh  ejcceDent 
sandalwood.  This  and  a  noted  treed  of  hardy  ponies 
form  the  chief  articles  of  export.  Owing  doubtless  to  the 
zone  of  deep  water  flowing  between  Timor  aijd  the  Arafura 
Sea,  the  fauna  of  Timoi'  presents,  beyond  a  marsupial 
cuscus,  scarcely  any  Australian  types.  The  few  mammals, 
such  as  a  deer,  a  civet,  a  pig,  a  shrew,  and  monkeys,  as 
well  as  the  birds  and  insects,  resemble  ordinary  Malayan 
forms  aj  met  with  in  Java  and  more  especially  in  Celebes 
and  thfl'-'iloluccas.  In  its  natural  history,  as  well  as  its 
physical  constitution  and  oceanic  surroundings,  Timor.is 
thus  entii:ely  separated  from  Australia  and  should  perhaf s 
be  grouped-with  Celebes,  Burn,  Ceram,  and  Jilolo  as  the 
surviving  fragments  of  a  Miocene  continent  intervening 
between  Asia  and  Australia,  but  at  no  time  connected 
with  either. 

The  bulk  of  the  population  is  certainly  Papuan,  but  inter- 
mingled in  the  most  varied  proportions  with  Malayan,  Indonesian, 
and  othf^r  elements  ;  hence  it  presents  an  extraordinary  diversity 
of  physical  types,  as  is  clearly  shown  by  tlie  portraits  figured  in 
H.  0.  Forbes's  NaturalisCs  tf^andcrings  in  the  Ecistcrn  Archipelago. 
The  natives,  still  mainly  independent  of  their  nominal  Dutch  and 
Portuguese  rulers,  are  divided  into  a  large  number  of  more  or  less 
hostile  tribes,  spealiing  as  many  as  forty  distinct  Papuan  and 
Malayan  lanmrages  or  dialects.  Some  arc  extremely  rude  and  still 
addicted  to  ncad-hunting,  at  least  during  war,  and  to  other  bar- 
barous practices.  In  their  xivia-luli^  or  sacred  (tabooed)  enclosures, 
rites  are  performed  resembling  those  of  tho  Pacific  islanders. 

Politically  Timor  is  divided  between  Holland  and  Portugal,  the 
Dutch  claiming  the  western  section  of  4500  square  miles  and  200,000 
inhabitants,  the  Portuguese  the  eastern  of  nearly  6500  square  miles 
and  300,000  inhabitants ;  the  respective  capitals,  centres  of  govern- 
ment, and  outports  are  Kupang  at  the  western  extremity  and 
Deli  on  the  north-east  coast.  But  there  are  a  large  number  of 
practically  independent  petty  states,  as  many  as  forty-seven  in  the 
Portuguese  territory  alone,  where  they  take  the  name  of  "  renos," 
or  kingdoms,  under  absolute  "leoreis"  or  kinglets.  The  I3utch 
section  forms  with  Sumba,  Savu,  Rotti,  and  the  surrounding  islets 
a  residency  administered  by  a  Dutch  resident  stationed  at  Kupang, 
which  has  a  population  of  8000. 

TIMOR  LAUT  ("Seaward  Timor"),  caUed  also  Ten- 
IMBER,  an  insular  group  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago, 
forming  the  central  and  largest  link  in  a  double  chain  of 
islands  which  stretches  from  Timor  through  Kci  and  Aru  to 
New  Guinea.  It  lies  nearly  midway  between  Timor  and 
Aru,  and  forms,  not  one  continuous  mass,  as  used  to  be 
supposed,  but  a  group  of  three  large  islands, — Yamdena 
in  the  centre,  separated  by  Wallace  Channel  from  Larat 
in  the  north  and  by  Egeron  Strait  from  Selaru  in  the- 
south,  besides  a  cluster  or  chain  of  islets  on  the  west  and 
north  sides.  From  one  of  these  the  name  Tenimber 
appears  to  have  been  extended  to  the  whole  group,  which 
stretches  for  about  100  miles  south-west  and  north-east, 
nearly  parallel  with  Timor,  from  which,  however,  it  differs 
altogether  in  its  physical  constitution.  H.  O.  Forbes,  who 
surveyed  Wallace  Channel  and  the  northern  districts  in 
1882,  describes  it  as  a  low  coralline  group  seldom  rising 
above  100  feet,  except  at  Egeron  Strait,  where  the  cliffs 
are  400  feet  high,  and  at  Laibobar,  apparently  a  volcanic 
islet  on  the  west  side,  which  has  an  extinct  crater  2000 
feet  high.  There  are  no  streams,  and  the  poor  soil, 
covered  with  a  typically  coral  island  flora,  yields  little 
beyond  maize — the  staple  food — manioc,  sweet  potatoes, 
tobacco,  some  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  a  little  rice.  The 
fauna  includes  buffaloes  in  a  wild  state,  a  marsupial  cuscus, 
some  bats,  the  beautiful  scarlet  lory,  new  or  rare  varieties 
of  the  ground-thrush,  honey-eater,  and  oriole.  The  birds 
seem  to  have  come  mainly  from  New  Guinea,  the  insects 
from  Timor,  and  a  few  of  both  from  Australia. 

The  aborigines  are  evidently  Papuans,  with  a  language  like  that 
of  the  Kei  Islanders  ;  but  there  is  a  largo  intermingling  of  Malayan 
and  perhaps  Indonesian  elements.  ^  They  are  a  fine  race,  often 
over  d  feet,  and,  like  all  Papuans,  noted  for  their  artistic  sense, 
which  is  shown  especially  in  their  wood  and  ivory  carvings.  In 
other  respects  they  are  pagans  in  a  low  state  of  culture,  mostly 


diviiej  iBto  hostile  'costm\initie3  and  addicted  to  piracy.  The 
groupbelonK*  to  the  Dutch,  'isho  have  a  "  poat-holder  "  stationed 
at  Rit#bej  on  the' weat  coast  of  L&fKt,  a  trading  station  of  the 
Bughia  from  Celebes. 

TIMOTHEUS,  a  distinguished  Athenian  general,  was 
a  son  of  Conon,  who  restored  the  walls  of  Athens.  To  the 
military  quaUties  of  *hi3  father  he  added  a  love  of  letters, 
which  found  scope  in  his  friendship  with  Isocrates.  The 
considerable  fortune  which  he  inherited  from  his  father 
seems  to  have  been  exhausted  by  him  in  the  public  service. 
In  375  B.C.  the  Athenians,  then  at  war  with  Sparta,  sent 
Timotheus  with  a  fleet  to  the  Ionian  Sea,  where  he  gained 
over  Cephalonia  and  secured  the  friendship  of  the  Acar- 
nanians  and  of  Alcetas,  king  of  the  Molossians.  He  also 
made  himself  master  of  Corcyra,  but  used  his  victory  with 
a  moderation  which  won  the  goodwill  of  the  conquered 
At  the  same  time  he  defeated  a  Spartan  fleet  at  Alyzia  on 
the  Acarnanian  coast.  In  373  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  a  fleet  destined  for  the  relief  of  Corcyra,  then 
beleaguered  by  the  Spartans.  But  his  ships  were  not  fuUy 
manned,  and  to  recruit  their  strength  he  first  cruised  in 
the  iEgean.  The  delay  excited  the  indignation  of  the 
Athenians,  who  brought  him  to  trial ;  but,  thanks  to  the 
exertions  of  his  friends,  Jason,  tyrant  of  Pherae,  and  Al- 
cetas, king  of  the  Molossians,  both  of  whom  came  to  Athens 
personally  to  plead  his  cause,  he  was  acquitted,  but  removed 
from  the  command,  Iphicrates  being  appointed  in  his  room. 
Being  reduced  to  great  poverty — for  he  had  pledged  his 
private  property  in  order  to  put  the  fleet  in  an  efficient 
state — he  left  Athens  and  took  service  with  the  king  of 
Persia.  We  next  hear  of  him  in  367  or  366,  when  he 
was  sent  by  the  Athenians  with  an  armament  to  support 
Ariobarzanes,  satrap  of  Phrygia.  But,  finding  that  the 
satrap  was  in  open  revolt  against  Persia,  Timotheus  ab- 
stained from  helping  him  and  turned  his  arms  against 
Samos,  which  was  occupied  by  a  Persian  garrison.  He 
took  it  after  a  ten  montfe'  siege  (3'65  B.C.).  Sailing 
north,  he  then  captured  Sestus,  Crithote,  Torone,  Potidaea, 
Methone,  Pydna,  and  many  more  cities.  In  358  or  357, 
when  Euboea  was  in  danger  of  falling  into  the  hands  of 
Thebes,  the  Athenians,  in  response  to  a  spirited  appeal  of 
Timotheus,  crossed  over  into  the  island  and  expelled  the 
Thebans  in  three  days.  In  the  course  of  the  Social  War, 
which  broke  out  shortly  afterwards,  Timotheus  was  de- 
spatched with  Iphicrates,  Menestheus,  son  of  Iphicrates, 
and  Chares  to  put  down  the  revolt.  The  hostile  fleets 
sighted  each  other  in  the  Hellespont ;  but  a  gale  was  blow- 
ing, and  Iphicrates  and  Timotheus  decided  not  to  engage. 
Chares,  disregarding  their  opposition,  lost  many  ships,  and 
in  his  despatches  he  incriminated  his  colleagues  so  bitterly 
that  the  Atlftnians  recalled  them  and  put  them  on  their 
trial  for  having  taken  bribes  from  the  enemy  to  betray  the 
fleet.  The  accusers  were  Chares  and  Aristophon.  The 
former  was  an  officer  of  notoriously  bad  character ;  the 
latter  had  himself  stood  in  the  dock  no  less  than  seventy- 
five  times.  Iphicrates  was  not  above  browbeating  the 
jury,  who  accordingly  acquitted  him  and  his  son.  Timo- 
theus, who  condescended  to  no  such  means  of  securing  an 
acquittal,  was  condemned  to  pay  a  very  heavy  fine.  Being 
unable  to  pay,  he  withdrew  to  Chalcis.  The  time  and 
place  of  his  death  are  not  mentioned  by  ancient  writers. 
The  Athenians  afterwards  did  what,  they  could  to  repair 
the  wrong  they  had  done  to  Timotheus  by  remitting  the 
greater  paft  of  the  fine  to  his  son  Conon,  by  burying  his 
remains  in  the  Ceramicus,  and  by  raising  statues  to  his 
memory  in  the  agora  and  the  acPopolis. 

Our  msteriils  for  the  Ufe  of  Timotheus  arc  very  imperfect,  and 
the  chronology  is  in  some  points  uncertain.  The  chief  authorities 
are  Isocrates,  Or.,  xv. ;  Xenophon,  EcUenica,  v.  and  vi. ;  Diodorus, 
XV.  and  xvi. ;  Cornelius  Nepos,  Vit.  Tinu  ;  and  Polyeenus,  Slrai., 
iii.  10.  Other  scraps  are  to  be  gleaned  from  the  orators,  Plutarch, 
ic.     The  speech  Againtt  Timolhcu)  which  has  come  down  to  Ul 


T  I  M  — T  I  M 


399 


Dsder  the  name  of  Deinoethene»  is  probably  Dot  by  the  orator.  It 
is  chiefly  interesting  as  iUtistrating  the  straits  to  wliicli  Timotheus 
was  reduced  by  his  sacrihces  in  the  pubbc  cause. 

TIMOTHEUS,  a  celebrated  Greek  musician  and  poet, 
was  a  native  of  Miletus,  and  died,  according  to  the  Parian 
marble,  in  357  or  35C  B.C.,  at  the  age  of  ninety.  He 
added  one  or  more  strings  (the  cumber  is  uncertain)  to 
the  lyre,  whereby  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  con- 
servative Spartans.  The  few  fragments  of  his  poems  are 
collected  by  Bergk  in  his  Poftx  Lyrici  Grxci. 

TIMOTm',  or  XiMOTHEUS  (Acts  svi.  1,  xvii.  14,  ic),  a 
Lycaooian,  the  son  of  a  Gentile  father  but  of  a  Jewish 
mother,  Eunice  (2  Tim.  i.  5),  became  a  disciple  of  Piul 
at  the  time  of  his  visit  to  Derbe  and  Lystra,  and  in  deference 
to  Jewish  feeling  was  circumcised.  He  accompanied  the 
apostle  on  many  of  his  journeys,  and  was  employed  by  him 
on  important  missions  (1  Thess.  iii.  2 ;  1  Cor.  iv.  17,  svi. 
10).  His  name  is  associated  with  that  of  Paul  in  the 
opening  salutations  of  both  epistles  to  the  Thessaloniaas, 
the  second  epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  and  those-  to  the 
Ph&ippians  and  Colossians.  He  was  therefore  with  Paul 
at  ilome.  At  a  later  date  he  is  mentioned  in  Heb.  iiii. 
23  &3  having  undergone  imprisonment  but  been  released. 
For  the  epistles  of  Paul  to  Timothy,  see  Pastoral  Epistles 
(vol.  xviiL  p.  348).  On  the  basis  of  them  he  is  tradition- 
ally represented  as  bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  tradition  also 
tell*  that  he  suffered  under  Domitian.  His  martyrdom 
is  -celebrated  on  24lh  January.'  The  apocryphal  Acta 
Timothei  (Greek  and  Latin)  have  been  edited  by  Usener 
(Bonn,  1877)  ;  compare  Lipsiua,  Apokr.  AposUlgeschichieTL, 
a.  2  (1884). 

TIMUR.  TiMtSE  Bey  or  Timttk  "Laug  {Timur  i  Leng), 
"the  lane  Timur  " — vulgarized  into  Tamekl-ajte — the 
r«iown&d  Oriental  conqueror,  was  bom  in  133G  at  Kesh, 
better  known  as  Shahr-i-Sabz,  "  the  green  city,"  situated 
some  50  miles  south  of  Samarkand  in  Transoxiana.  His 
father  Teragai  was  head  of  the  tribe  of  Berlas.  Great- 
grandson  of  Karachar  Nevian  (minister  of  Jagatai,  son  of 
Jenghiz  Khan,  and  commander-in-chief  of  his  forces),  and 
distinguished  among  his  fellow<lansmen  as  the  first  con- 
vert to  Islamism,  Teragai  might  have  assumed  the  high 
military  rank  which  fell  to  him  by  right  of  inheritance ; 
but  Like  his  father  Buxkul  he  preferred  a  life  of  retirement 
and  study.  Under  the  paternal  eye  the  education  of 
young  Timiir  was  such  that  at  the  age  of  twenty  he  had 
not  only  become  an  adept  in  manly  outdoor  exercises 
but  had  earned  the  reputation  of  being  an  attentive 
reader  of  the  Koran.  At  this  period,  if  we  may  credit 
the  Memoirs  {Malfiiziit),  he  exhibited  proofs  of  a  tender 
and  sympathetic  nature. 

About  1358,  however,  he  came  before  the  world  as  a 
leader  of  armies.  His  career  for  the  next  tea  or  eleven 
years  may  be  thus  briefly  summarized  from  the  Memoirs. 
Allying  himself  both  in  cause  and  by  family  coimexion 
v.'ith  Kurgan,  the  dethroner  and  destroyer  of  Kezao,  chief 
of  the  Jagatai,  he  was  deputed  to  invade  Khorasan  at  the 
head  of  a  thousand  horse.  This  was  the  second  warlike 
expedition  in  which  he  was  the  chief  actor,  and  tho  accom- 
plishment of  its  objects  led  to  further  operations,  among 
them  the  subjection  of  Khwarizm  and  Urganj.  Alter  the 
murder  of  Kurgan  the  contentions  which  arose  among  the 
many  claimants  to  sovereign  power  wsre  arrested  by  the 
invasion  of  Tughlak  Tiraiir  of  Kasbgar,  a  descendant 
of  Jenghiz.  Timur  was  despatched  on  a  mission  to  the 
invader's  camp,  the  result  of  which  was  his  own  appoint- 
ment to  the  government  of  ilawari'lnahr  (Transoxiana). 
By  the  death  of  his  father  he  was  also  left  hereditary  head 
of  tho  Berlas.  The  exigencies  Of  his  quasi -sovereign 
position  compelled  him  to  have  recourse  to  his  formidable 
patron,  whose  reappearance  on  the  banks  of  the  Sihon 


created  a  constematSbn  net  c^y  allay ea.  MAwari'lnahr 
was  taken  from  Timiir  and  eutrusted  to  a  son  of  Tughlat; 
but  he  was  defeated  in  battle  by  the  bold  warrior  he  had 
replaced  at  the  head  of  a  oumerically  far  inferior  force. 
Tughlak's  death  facilitated  the  work  of  reconquest  iind 
a  few  years  of  perseverance,  and  energy  sufEced  for  ita 
accomplishment,  as  well  a?  for  the  addition  of  a  vast 
extent  of  territory.  During  tkis  period  Timiir  and  his 
brother-iu-law,  Hosain — at  l:rst  fellow-fugitives  and  wan- 
derers in  joint  adventures  full  of  interest  and  romance-^ 
became  rivals  and  antagonists.  At  the  close  of  1369 
Hosain  wa.s  assassinated  and  Timiir,  having  been  formally 
pr.xlaiiicd  sovereign  at  Balkh,  mounted  the  throne  at 
Samarkand,  the  capital  of  lus  dominions. 

The  next  thirty  years  or  so  were  spent  in  various  wars 
and  expeditions.  He  not  only  consolidated  his  rale  at 
home  by  the  subjection  of  intestine  foes,  but  sought 
extension  of  territory  by  encroachmentj  upon  the  lands  of 
contemporary  potentates.  His  couque-sta  to  the  west  and 
north-west  led  him  among  the  Mongols  of  the  Caspian, 
and  to  the  banks  of  the  Ural  and  the  Volga ;  those  to  the 
south  and  south-west  comprehended,  almost  every  pro- 
vince in  Persia,  including  Bajjhdad,  Kerbela,  and  Ktirdistan 
To  this  time  belong  the  ves'iges  of  his  presence  that  stiU 
remain,  such  as  the  ruined  monastery  at  Keghut  near  the 
Aras  (Araxes),  the  cleft  stoi.e  in  the  church  at  Dayira  '1 
"Omar  (M'ar  Jibr4il)  near  Iklanlin,  and  the  ruinless  sites 
of  such  ancient  cities  as  Zai  inj  in  Sistan.  In  1398,  when 
Timiir  was  more  than  sixty  years  of  age,  Farishta  tells  na 
that,  "  informed' of  the  commotions  and  civil  w&rs  of 
India,"  he  "  began  his  exjK:dition  into  that  country,"  and 
on  12th  September  "arriveil  oa  the  banks  of  the  Iidus." 
His  passage  of  the  river  and  upward  inarch  along  the 
left  bank,  tho  reinforcement  ha  provided  for  Ids  grandson 
Pir  Mohammed  (who  was  invested  in  Multin),  the  capture 
of  towns  or  villages  accompanied,  it  might  be,  with  de- 
struction of  the  houses  and  th3  massacre  of  the  inhabitants 
the  battle  before  Delhi  and  the  easy  victory,  the  trivjnphal 
er.try  into  the  doomed  city,  vrilh  its  outcome  of  horrors, — 
all  these  circumstances  belong  to  tho  annals  of  India.  In 
April  1399,  some  three  mouths  after  quitting  the  capital 
of  Mahmijd  Tughla^  Timur  was  back  in  his  own  capital 
beyond  the  Oxus.  It  need  scarcely  be  added  that  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  spoil  was  conveyed  away.  According 
to  Clavijo,  ninety  cap^'ored  tilephants  were  employed  merely 
to  carry  stones  from  certain  (jiuarries  to  enable  the  conqueror 
to  erect  a  mosque  at  Samarkand.  The  war  with  the  Turks 
which  succeeded  the  return  from  India  was  rendered  notable 
by  the  capture  of  Baghdail,  Aleppo,  and  Damascus,  and 
especially  by  the  defeat  and  imprisonment  of  Sultan 
Bayazid.  This  was  Timti/.i  last  campaign.  Another  wa» 
projected  against  China,  b-it  the  old  warrior  was  attacked 
by  fever  and  ague  when  enoimped  on  the  furtl  er  side  of 
the  Sihon  (Syr-Daria)  and  died  at  Atrir  (Otrar)  on  the 
17th  February  1405.  Markham,  in  his  introduction  to 
the  narrative  of  Clavijo's  embassy,  states  that  his  body 
"was  embalmed  with  miL^k  and  rose  water,  wi-apped  it) 
linen,  laid  in  an  ebony  coffia,  and  sent  to  Samarkand,  wher« 
it  was  buried."  Timur  had  carried  his  victorious  arms  on 
one  sido  from  the  Irtish  and  the  Volga  to  tho  y-jrsian  Gulf 
and  on  the  other  from  tho  Hellespont  to  the  Ganges. 

Timur's  generally  r?cognL:t-d  blocrupxiers  a/i'-**'A)j  Yi^d*, 
commonly  called  Shan.'u  'd-Diu,  author  of  the  y.^rs-an  Zi/air- 
ruima,  tionslafcd  by  Pt.is  de  la  Croix  in  1722,  and  frc.m  F.-«nrih 
into  English  by  J.  Daioy  io  tho  foil owingy tor ;  asd  ihmcd  iSta 
Jlohanuned  ibn  Abdallah,  al  Dimashki,  al  "Ajmi,  commonly  cali;;! 
Ibn  'Arabshih,  author  of  the  Axabi:  'Ajaibi^'l  Mo:^hlnJ:dl,  h^as- 
lated  by  the  Dutch  Orientalist  Golkus  in  1636.'  In  tho  wcrk  of 
the  former,  as  Sir "WilUam  Jones  remarks,  "the Tartarian  conqueror 
is  represented  as  a  liberal,  benevolent,  and  illustrious  prince  "  ;  in 
that  of  the  latter  he  is  "deformed  and  impious,*  of  a  low  birth  and 
detestable  principlef."    But  the  faTOOiable  accoost  was  written; 


400 


T  I  N-^T  I  N 


azider  the  pefbonal  supervision  of  Timiir's  grandson,  Ibrahim,  whUe 
the  other  was  the  production  of  his  diiest  enemy.  Few  indeed,  ii, 
any,  original  annals  of  this  class  are  written  otherwise  than  to 
oifler,  under  patronage,  or  to  serTe  a  purpose  to  which  truth  ia 
secondary.  Amoug'kss  reputed  biographies  or  materials  for  bio- 
graphy may  bo  mentioned  a  secoud  Za/amdma,  by  Maulani 
Nizimu  'd-Din  Shanab  Ghazdni  (Nizam  Shami),  stated  to  be  "  the 
earliest  known  history  of  Timur,  and  the  only  one  Arritten  in  hia 
Kfctime"  ;  and  voL  i.  of  the  Malta' u's-Sa'dain — a  choice  Persian 
MS.  work  of  1495— introduced  to  Orientalists  in  Europe  by  Ham- 
mer, Jahrbucher,  Dorh,  aud  (notably)  Quatremere.  There  are  also 
the  Memoirs  {Mal/uM)  and  IiislituU-i  (Tuzukdt),  of  which  an 
important  section  is  styled  Designs  and  Enterprise  ( TaJbinil  wa 
Kangdshalui).  Upon  the  genuineness  of  these  doubt  has  beep 
thrown.  The  circumst^iace  of  their  alleged  discOTsry  and  presenta- 
tion to  Shah  Jahan  in  1637  was  of  itself  open  to  suspicion. 
Alhazen,  (luoted  by  Purchns  in  his  quaint  notice  of  Timiir,  and 
referred  to  by  Sir  John  Malcolm,  can  nardly  be  accepted  as  a  seri- 
ous authority.  His  assumed  memoir  was  printed  for  English  readers 
in  1597  by  William  Ponsonby  under  the  title  of  a  Hislarie  of  the 
Great  Emperor  Tamerlan,  drawn  from  the  ancierU.  monutncnts  by 
Messire  Jean  du  Bee,  Abbot  of  Mortimer ;  and  another  version  ol 
the  same  book  is  to  be  found  in  the  Histc/ire  dii  Grand  Tamerlan, 
by  De  Sainctyon,  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1678.  But,  although 
the  existence  of  this  Alhajen  of  Jean  de  Bee  has  been  believed  By 
many,  the  more  trustworthy  critics  consider  the  history  aud  histo- 
rian to  be  equally  fictitious. 

Reference  may  be  made  to  two  more  sources  of  inlormation. 
(1)  Supposed  likenesses  of  Timur  are  to  be  found  in  books  and  in 
the  splendid  collection  of  Oriental  manuscripts  and  drawings  in  the 
British  Museum.  One  contained  in  the  Shah  Jahdn  Ndma — a 
gorgeous  specimen  of  illuminated  Persian  m.innscript  and  exquisite 
caligraphy — represents  a  most  ordinary,  middle-aged  Oriental, 
with  narrow  black  whisker  fringing  the  cheek  and  meeting  the 
tip  of  the  chin  in  a  scanty,  pointed  beard  ;  a  thin  moustache 
sweeps  in  a  semicircle  from  above  the  upper  lip  ;  the  eyebrow  over 
the  almond-shaped  eye  is  marked  but  not  bushy.  But  it  were 
Tain  to  seek  for  an  expression  of  genius  in  the  countenance. 
Another  portrait  is  included  in  a  set  of  sketches  by  native  artists, 
some  of  which,  taken  probably  from  life,  show  great  care  and 
cleverness.  Tiraiir  is  here  displayed  as  a  stoutish,  long -bodied 
man,  below  the  middle-height,  in  age  and  feature  not  unlike  the 
first  portrait,  but  with  thicker  and  more  sti-agglin^  hair,  aud  dis- 
lincter,  though  not  more  agreeable  character  in  the  facial  expres- 
sion, yet  not  a  sign  of  power,  genius,  or  any  elements  of  grandeur 
or  celebrity.  The  uncomfortable  figure  in  the  Bodleian  Library 
does  not  give  much  help.  SirJohn  Malcolm  has  been  at  some 
pains  to  invest  his  portrait  of  Timiir  with  individuality.  But  an 
analysis  of  his  results  leaves  the  reader  in  more  perplexity  than 
satisfactioQ  at  the  kind  of  information  imparted,  ana  ha  revert= 
insensibly  to  the  sources  from  which  his  instructor  has  bimsell 
been  instructed.  (2)  As  regards  plays,  in  Marlowe's  Tamburlainc 
Timiir  is  described  as  tall  of  stature,  straightly  fashioned,  large  ol 
limb,  h.iving  joints  strongly  knit,  long  ana  sinewy  arms,  a  breadth 
of  shoulders  to  "boar  old  Atlas's  burden,"  pale  ol  complexion,  and 
with  "amber  hair  wrapp'd  in  curls."  Tlie  outline  of  this  de- 
jcription  might  be  from  Sharilu  'd-Din,  while  the  colours  are  the 
poet's  own.  A  Latin  memoir  of  Tameilane  by  Perondinus,  printed 
m  1600,  entitled  Magni  Tamerlanis  Scytharum  Imjieratoris  Vita, 
describes  Timiir  as  tall  and  bearded,  broad-chested  and  broad 
shouldered,  well-built  but  lame,  of  a  fierce  countenance,  and  will 
receding  eyes,  which  express  cruelty  and  strike  terror  into  tin 
lookers-on.  But  Jean  du  Bee's  account  of  Timiir's  appearance  is 
quite  dilferent.  Now  rumiurZaiJic:  was  written  in  1586.  The  first 
English  translation  of  Jean  du  Bee  is  dated  in  1595,  the  Life  by 
Perondinus  in  1600,  and  Petis  de  la  Croix  did  not  introduce 
Sharifu  'd  Din  or 'All  Yazdi  to  European  readers  till  17'2'2.  The 
dramatist  must  have  heard  of  Timur  in  other  quarters,  equally 
-eliable  it  may  be  with  those  available  in  the  present  sl.age  of 
Oriental  research.  At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  Timur 
was  represented  in  Rowc's  Tamerlane  as  a  model  of  valour  and 
»irtue.  The  plot,  however,  has  little  to  do  with  history,  and  is 
Improbable  and  void  of  interest.  By  Matthew  Gregory  Lewis 
•gain  "Tiraour"  is  depicted  as  tho  conventional  tyrant  of  a 
gorgeous  melodrama,  slaying,  burning,  slaughtering,  and  commit- 
ting every  possible  atrocity  until  checked  bv  violent  death  and  a 
Doctical  climax. 

Apart  from  moaeni  European  saixnM  ana  historians,  ari  tht 
(nore  strictly  Oriental  chroniclers  who  have  WTitten  in  Persian, 
Turkish,  or  Arabic,  the  folloiving  authorities  may  be  cited — Laoiiicus 
Chalcondylas,  Joannes  Leunclavins,  Joachimus  Camcrarius,  Petrus 
Perondiuus,  Lgzaro  Soranzo,  Simon  Mairlus,  Matthew  Michiovius. 
A  score  or  so  of  other  names  are  given  by  Samuel  Purchas.  See 
also  Clements  Markham's  Clavtjo,  in  the  Hakluyt  Society's  pub- 
lications ;  White'a  edition  of  Da'/y's.kratiaUtion  of  the  Institutes 
(1783);  Stewart's  translation  of  the  Mofl/usM  ;  Malcolm's  jUisIori/ 
qf  Persia  :  and  Trans.  Boy.  Soc..  1886..  (F.  J.  G-)' 


TIN  (Lat.  ttannum,  whence  the  chemical  symbol  "Sn": 
atomic  ■weight  =  117'6,  0  =  16),  being  a  component  of 
bronze,  was  used  as  a  metal  thousands  of  years  prior  to 
the  dawn  of  history.  But  it  does  not  follow  thdt  pre- 
historic bronzes  were  made  of  metallic  im.  When  the  un- 
alloj'ed  metal  was  first  introduced  cannot  be  ascertains^ 
with  certainty.  AU  we  know  is  that  about  the  1st  century 
the  Greek  word  Kao-o-ircpo?  designated  tin,  and  that  tin  was 
imported  from  Cornwall  into  Italy  after,  if  not  before,  the 
invasion  of  Britain  by  Julius  Csesar.  From  Pliny's  writings 
it  apoears  that  the  Romans  in  his  time  didnot  reali70  the 
distinction  between  tin  and  lead  :  the  former  wrjs  called 
plumbum  albuin  or  candidum  to  distinguish  it  from  plum/- 
Lum  nigrum  (lead  proper)  The  word  stannum  definitely 
assumed  its  present  meaniug  in  the  4th  century  (H.  Kopp). 

Grains  of  metallic  tin  occur  as  a  subordinate  admiiture 
in  the  gold  ores  of  Siberia,  Guiana,  and  Bolivia,  Of 
tin  mineral  compounds  (which  are  not  numerous)  tinstone, 
SnOj,  is  the  most  imjiortant ;  besides  it  only  tin  pyritea, 
which,  according  to  Rammelsberg,  exists  in  two  varieties, 
FeCujSnS^  and  ZnFeCu.,Sn.,S8,  need  be  named  here. 

Tinslojie  or  Cassiterite. — This  native  oxide  of  tin,  SnO», 
forms  very  hard  quadratic  crystals  of  specific  gravity -6 ■ol 
The  pure  mineral  is  colourless,  and  it  b  very  scarce ;  most 
specimens  are  brown  owing  to  the  presence  of  ferric  oi 
manganic  oxide  The  faces  of  the  crystals  exhibit  diamond 
lustre.  There  is  also  another  native  form,  known  as  "  wood 
tin,"  occurring  in  roiindish  masses  with  a  fibrous  radiating 
iracture.  Tho  ore  is  found  in  veins  or  layers  within  the 
older  crystalline  rocks  and  slates.  Being  much  more  highly 
prool  against  the  action  of  water  and  carbonic  acid  than 
us  matrix,  the  ore  often  presents  itself  in  loose  crystals  as 
part  of  the  sand  of  rivers  (stream  tin).  The  oldest  knowD 
deposit  of  tinstone  is  that  of  Cornwall,  where  it  occurs  io 
granite  and  in  the  "  killas  "  (a  kind  of  metaiiii./i  phic  clayisb 
slate),  associated  with  wolframite,  ap;ajte,  ti^paz,  mica, 
tourmaline,  arsenide  of  iron,  and  other  minerals  Corniqh 
tin  ore  is  characteristically  rich  in  a.'-'caic.  Minor  Euro* 
pean  deposits  occur  in  the  Erzgebirge,  ia  Brittany,  and  in 
Galicia  (Spain).  A  very  considerable  dcpi'-n  of  p'lre  ore 
(chiefly  stream  tin)  exists  in  the  island  of  Uanca :  and  in 
Malacca  tinstone  is  found.  Other  relatively  abundant 
deposits  occur  in  Bolivia  and  Peru,  and  in  Queensland 
and  New  South  Wales  (lately  discovered). 

Metallurgy. — In  the  extraction  ol  tin  from  tinstone  ore 
the  first  step  is  to-  pound  the  crude  ore  and  wash  away  the 
lighter  gangue  with  water  (see  Metalhtrgy,  vol.  xvL  p'. 
59).  The  washed  ore  is  "  roasted "  to  burn  away  the 
arsenic  and  sulphur  and  to  convert  the  iron,  originally 
present  in  the  iieavy  and  compact  form  of  pyrites  or 
arsenide,  into  light  friable  oxide,  whicn  is  removed  by  a 
•second  washing  process.  If  much  oxide  of  copper  is  con. 
tained  in  the  product,  it  is  extracted  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  and  from  the  solution  is  recovered  by  precipitation 
with  metallic  iron  (see  Copper,  vol.  vi.  p.  347).  The  piin^i 
fied  orf>  known  as  "black  tin."  goes  to  the  smelting  fuma«ew' 
During  the  roasting  process  the  ore  must  be  constant!^ 
agitated  to  prevent  caking,  and  to  bring  the  arseniierous,' 
ic,  parts  to  tho  siu'face.  To  save  manual  labour,  Oxland 
and  Hocking  have  constructed  a  mechanical  roaster,  It 
consists  of  a  slanting  tube  of  boiler-iron,  coated  inside  with 
fire-brick.  The  lower  end  opens  into  the  fire-place ;  th0 
upper  commimicates  with  a  set  of  chambers  for  the  con4 
densation  of  the  white  arsenic  produced.  The  washed 
ore,  after  being  dried  op  tho  top  of  the  chamber,  is  run 
thence  by  a  funnel  into  the  pipe,  which  is  made  to  rotate 
about  its  axis  from  three  to  eight  times  per  minute  Before 
the  ore  has  travelled  far  down  the  arsenic  and  sulphur 
catch  fire,  and  by  tho  time  it  reaches  the  bottom  it  is  fully 
roasted.     It  falls  into  a  receptacle  below  the  level  of  the 


T  I  IN 


401 


fire.  Ot  the  impuncies  ol  tiio  ore  tne  woliramite  (tungstate 
of  iron  and  manganese)  is  the  most  troublesome,  because 
on  account  of  its  high  specific  gravity  it  cannot  be  washed 
away  as  gangue.  To  remove  it,  OsJand  fuses  the  ore  with 
a  certain  proportion  of  carbonate  of  soda,  which  suffices  to 
convert  the  tungsten  into  soluble  alkaline  tungstate,  with- 
out producing  noteworthy  quantities  of  soluble  stannate 
from  the  oxide  of  tin ;  the  tungstate  is  easily  removed  by 
treatment  vrith  water. 

Smelting. — The  purified  ore  is  mixed  with  about  one- 
fifth  of  its  weight  of  anthracite  smalls,  the  mixture  being 
mobtened  to  prevent  it  from  being  blown  off  by  the 
draught,  and  is  then  fused  on  the  sole  of  a  reverberatory 
.  furnace  for  five  or  sis  hours.  The  slag  and  metal  pro- 
duced are  then  run  off  and  the  latter  is  cast  into  bars ;  these 
are  in  general  contaminated  with  iron,  arsenic,  copper,  and 
other  imptuities.  To  refine  them,  the  bars  are  heated 
cautiously  on  an  inclined  hearth,  when  relatively  pure 
tin  runs  off,  while  a  skeleton  of  impure  metal  remains. 
The  metal  run  off  is  further  purified  by  poling,  i.e.,  by 
stirring  it  with  the  branch  of  a  tree, — the  apple  tree  being 
preferred  traditionally.  This  operation  is  no  doubt  in- 
tended to  remove  the  oxygen  diffused  throughout  the  metal 
as  oxide,  part  of  it  perhaps  chemically  by  reduction  of  the 
oxide  to  metal,  the  rest  by  conveying  the  finely  diffused 
oxide  to  the  surface  and  causing  it  to  unite  there  with  the 
oxide  scum.  After  this  the  metal  is  allowed  to  rest  for  a 
time  in  the  pot  at  a  temperature  above  its  freezing  point 
and  is  then  ladled  out  into  ingot  forms,  care  being  taken 
at  each  stage  to  ladle  off  the'  top  stratum.  The  6riginal 
top  stratum  is.  the  purest,  and  each  succeeding  lower 
stratum  has  a  greater  proportioa  of  impurities ;  the  lowest 
consists  largely  of  a  solid.^  or  >emi-soM  alloy  «£  tin  an4 
iron. 

To  test  the  purity  of  the  metal,  the  tin-smelter  heats  the 
bars  to  a  certain  temperature  just  below'the  fusing  point, 
and  then  strikea^hem  with  a  hammer  or  lets  them  fall  on 
a  stone  floor  from  a  given  height.  If  the  tin  is  pure  it 
BpUts  into  a  mass  of  granular  strings.  Tin  which  has 
been  thus  manipulated  and  proved  incidentally  to  be  very 
pure  is  sold  as  grain  tin.  A  i  lower  quality  goes,  by  the. 
name  of  block  tin.  Of  the  several  commercial  varieties', 
Banca  tin  is  the  purest ;  it  is  indeed  almost,  chemically 
jHire.  Next  comes  English  grain  tin.  For  the  preparation 
of  chemically  pure  tin  two  methods  are  employed,  (1) 
Commercially  pure  tin  is  treated  with  nitric  acid,  which 
converts  the  tin  proper  into  an  insoluble  hydrate  of  SnOj, 
while  the  copper,  iron,  <S:c,,  become  nitrates ;  the  oxide  is 
washed  first  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  then  with  water,  and 
is  lastly  dried  and  reduced  by  fusion  with  black  flux  or 
cyanide  of  potassium.  (2)  A  solution  of  pure  stannous 
chloride  in  very  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  is  reduced  with 
a  galvanic  current.  According  to  Stolba,  beautiful  crystals 
of  pure  tin  can  be  obtained  as  follows.  ,  A  platinum  basin, 
coated  over  with  wax  or  paraffin  outside,  except  a  small 
circle  at  the  very  lowest  point,  is  placed  oti  a  plate  of  amal- 
gamated zinc,  lying  on  the  bottom  of  a  beaker,  and  is  filled 
with  a  solution  of  pure  stannous  chloride.  The  besJker 
also  is  cautiously  filled  with  acidulated  water  up  to  a  point 
beyond  the  edge  of  the  platinum  basin.  The  whole  ia  then 
left  to  itself,  when  crystals  of  tin  gradually  separate  out  on 
the  bottom  of  the  basin. 

Properties  of  Pure  Tin. — An  ingot  of  pnra  tin  is  pure  white  (ex- 
cept for  a  slight  tinge  of  blue) ;  it  exhibits  considerable  lustre  and 
is  Dot  subject  to  tarnishing  on  exposure  to  normal  air.  The  metal 
is  pretty  soft  and  easily  flattened  oat  under  the  hammer,  but  almost 
devoid  of  tenacity.  That  it  is  elastic,  within  narrow  limits,  is  proved 
by  its  clear  rin"  when  struck  with  a  hard  body  under  circumstances 
permitting^  of  Tree  vibration.  The  specific  gravity  of  ingot  tin  is 
7"293  at  13°  C.  (Matthiessen).  A  tin  ingot,  though  seemingly  amor- 
phoni,  has  a  crystalline  stmcture,  consisting  of  an  aggregate  of 
•^oadiatio  octahedra ;  hence  the  cluiracterialic  cncklisg  noise  vhifih . 

:il— i6 


a  bar  of  tin  gives  out  when  cein?  bent.  This  structure  can  be 
rendered  visible  by  superficial  etching  \vith  diiiite  acid.  As  the 
minuter  crystals  dissolve  more  quickly  than  tl:e  larger  onea,  t.'ie 
surface  assumes  a  frosted  appearance  (moirie  nUtallique),  not  uililvo 
that  of  a  frozen  window-pane  in  winter  time.  Its  crystalline  struc- 
ture must  account  for  the  striking  fact  that  the  ingot,  when  e.inosDd 
for  a  sufficient  time  to  very  low  temperatures  (to  -aa'  C.  for  14  iiours), 
becomes  so  brittle  that  it  falls  into  powder  under  a  pe.^tle  or 
hammer  ;  it  indeed  sometimes  crumbles  into  powder  spontaneously. 
At  ordinary  temperatures  tin  proves  fairly  ductule  under  the  haranier 
and  its  ductility  seems  to  increase  as  the  temperature  rises  up  to 
about  100°  C.  At  some  temperatuie  near  its  fusing  pomt  it  be- 
comes  brittle  {vide  supra),  and  stiU  more  brittle  from  -14°  C. 
don-nwards.  This  behaviour  of  the  metal  may  probably  be  explained 
by  assuming  that  in' any  tin  crystal  the  coefficient  of  thermic  ex- 
pansion has  one  value  in  the  diiection  of  the  principal  axis  and 
anotheriu  that  of  either  of  the  subsidiary  axes.  From  0°  to  100' the 
two  coefficients  are  practically  identical ;  below  -14'  and  from, 
somewhere  above  100  C.  upwards  they  assume  different  values ; 
and,  as  the  several  crystals  are  oriented  in  a  lawless  fashion,  this 
must  tend  to  disintegrate  the  mass.  Tin  fuses  at  232°-7  (Persoz)  j 
at  a  red  heat  it  begins  to  volatilize  slowly  ;  at  1600°  to  1803°  C. 
(Carnellcy  and  Williams)  it  boils.  The  hot  vapour  produced  com-' 
bines  with  the  oxygen  of  tha  air  into  white  oxide,  SnOn. 

Industrial  Applications. — Commercially  pure  tin  is  used  (princi- 
J)ally  in  Germany)  for  the  making  of  pharmaceutical  apparatus, 
such  as  evaporating  basins  for  extracts,  infusion  pots,  stills,  &o. 
It  is  also^employed  for  making  two  varieties  of  tin-foil, — one  for  the 
silvering  of  mirrors  (see  JIirrob,  vol.  xvi.  p.  500),  the  other  for 
wrapping  up  chocolate,  toUet  soap,  tobacco,  &c  The  mirror  foil 
must  contain  some  copper  to  prevent  it  from  being  too  readily 
amalgamated  by  the  mercury.  For  making  tin-foil  the  metal  is 
rolled  into  thin  sheets,  pieces  of  which  are  beaten  out  with  a  wooden 
mallet.  As  pure  tin  does  not  tarnish  in  the  air  and  is  proof  against 
acid  liquids,  such  as  vinegar,  lime  juice,  &c.,  it  is  utilised  for 
culinary  and  domestic  vessels.  But  it  is  expensive,  and  tin  vessels 
have  to  be  made  very  heavy  to  give  them  sufficient  stability  of  foiTO  ; 
hence  it  is  generally  employed  merely  as  a  protecting  coating  for 
utensilsmiade  essentially  of  copper  or  iron.  The  tinning  of  a  copper 
basin  is  an  easy  operation.  The  basin,  made  scrupulously  clean,  is 
heated  over  a  charcoal  fire  to  beyond  the  fusing  point  of  tin.  Molten 
tin  is  then  poured  in,  a  little  powdered  sal-ammoniac  added,  and 
the  tin  spread  over  the  inside  with  a  bunch  of  tow.  The  sal- 
ammoniac  removes  the  last  unavoidable  film  of  oxide,  leaving  a 
purely  metallic  surface,  to  which  the  tin  adheres  firmly.  For 
tinning  small  objects  of  copper  or  brass  {i.e.,  pins,  hooks,  &c)  a 
wet-way  process  is  followed.  One  part  of  cream  of  tartar,  two  of 
alum,  and  two  of  common  salt  are  dissolved  in  boiling  water,  and 
the  solution  is  boiled  with  granulated  metallic  tin  (or,  better,  mLxed 
with  a  little  stannous  chloride)  to  produce  a  tin  solution  ;  and  into 
this  the  articles  are  put  at  a  boiling  heat.  In  the  absence  of 
metallic  tin  there  is  no  visible  change  ;  but,  as  soon  as  the  metal  is 
introduced,  a  galvanic  action  sets  in  and  the  articles  get  coated  over 
'with  a  firmly  adhering  film  of  tin.  Tinning  wrouglit  iron  is  eflected 
by  immersion.  The  most  important  form  of  the  operation  is  mak- 
ing tinned  from  ordinary  sheet  iron  (making  what  is  called  "  sheet 
tin  ").  The  iron  plates,  having  been  carefully  cleaned  with  sand 
and  muriatic  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  lastly  with  water,  are  plunged 
into  heated  tallow  to  drive  away  the  water  without  oxidation  of 
the  metal.  They  are  next  steeped  in  a  bath,  first  of  molten  ferrugin- 
ous, then  of  pure  tiiL  They  are  then  taken  out  and  kept  suspended 
in  hot  taDow  to  enable  the  surplus  tin  to  run  oS'.  The  tin  of 
the  second  bath  dissolves  iron  gradually  and  becomes  fii  for  the 
first  bath.  To  tin  cast-iron  articles  they  must  be  decarburetted 
superficially  by  ignition  within  a  bath  of  ferric  oxide  (powdered 
haematite  or  similar  material),  then  cleaned  with  acid,  and  tinned 
by  immersion,  as  explained  above.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
tin  produced  metallnrgically  is  used  for  making  tin  alloys,  the 
majority  of  which  have  been  ti-eated  of  in  preceding  articles  ;  see 
Lead,  vol.  xiv.  p.  378  ;  Pewter,  vol  xviii  p.  7-5 ;  Beoxze,  vol 
iv.  p.  366  ;  Phosphorus,  vol.  xviii.  p.  817. 

Tin  Compounds. — The  most  important  of  these  may  be  arranged 
into  two  classes,  namely,  stannous  compounds,  SnX„,  and  stannic 
compotmds,  SaX^,  where  X  stands  for  CI,  Br,  JO,  &c.  Stannous 
compounds  are,  in  general  at  least,  characteristically  prone  V>  pass 
into  the  stannic  form  by  taking  up  additional  Xj  in  the  i^<!tc^  of 
oxygen,  chlorine,  &c. 

Stamwus  Chleride,  SnCV — ^This  can  be  obtained  pure  only  by 
heating  purtt  tin  in  a  current  of  pure  iiy  hydrochloric  acid  gas. 
It  is  a  white  solid,  fusing  at  250°  C.  and  volatiliziuq  at  a  red  beat 
in  nitrogen,  a  vacuum,  or  oydrochloric  acid,  without  decomposition. 
The  vapour  density  below  700°  C.  corresponds  to  Sn„Cl„  above  8C0°C. 
to  nearly  SnCU  (Von  Meyer  and  Zublin).  The  chloride  readily  com- 
bines with  water  into  an  easily  soluble  crystallizable  hydrate  ('*tia 
crystals  ").  This  is  made  without  difficulty  by  dissolving  tin  ia 
strong  hydrochloric  acid  and  allowing  it  to  crystalline.  For  its 
indostrial  preparation  Kollner  passes  sufficiently  bydiated  hydro- 

xxm.  —  ii 


(402 


T 1 K— T I N 


chloric  acid  gas  ov^r'gnimiiated  tin  contained  in  stoneware  bottles 
and  evaporates  tho  concentrated  solution  produced  in  tin  basins 
over  granulated  tin.  The  basin  itself  is  not  attacked.  The  crystals 
contain  one  H3O  according  to  Berzelius,  while  Marignac  finds  two  ; 
probably  both  arc  righL  The  crystals  are  very  soluble  in  cold 
water,  and  if  the  salt  is  really  pure  a  small  j)roportion  of  water 
forms  a  clear  solution  ;  but  on  adding  much  water  most  of  the  salt 
is  decomposed,  with  the  formation  of  a  precipitate  of  oxy-chlnridfl— 

2SnCl3  +  3H2O  =  2HC1  +  Sn20Clo.2H20. 
According  to  Michel  and  Kraft,  one  litre  of  cold  saturated  solution 
of  tin  crystals  weighs  1827  grammes  and  contains  1333  grammes  of 
SnCU.  The  same  oxy-chloride  is  produced  when  the  moist  crystals, 
or  their  solution,  are  exposed  to  tjie  air  ;  by  the  action  of. tbeatmo*. 
spheric  oxygen 

O  +  3SnCl3= SnaCljO  +  SnCI^. 
Jlence  all  tin  crystals  as  kept  in  the  laboratory  ^ve'witlT'water 
a  turbid  soIuCion,  wliich  contains  stannic  in  addition  to  stannous 
chloride.  The  complete  conversion  of  stannous  into  stannic  chloride 
may  be  effected  by  a  great  many  reagents, — for  instance,  by  chlorine 
(bromine,  iodine)  readily  ;  by  mercuric  chloride,  HgClj,  in  the  heat, 
with  precipitation  of  calomeL,  HgCl,  or  metallic  mercury  ;  by  ferric 
chloride  in  tho  heat,  with  formation  of  ferrous  salt,  FeClj  ;  by  ar- 
Benious  chloride  in  strongly  hydrochloric  solutions,  with  precipita- 
hon  of  chocolate-brown  metallic  arsenic.  All  these  reactions  are 
available  as  tests  for  stanuosum  or  tho  respective  agents.  In  opposi- 
tion to  stannous  chloride,  even  sulphurous  acid  (solution)  behaves 
as  an  oxidizing  agent.  If  the  two  reagents  are  mixed,  a  precipitate 
of  yellow  stanuic  sulphide  is  produced.     By  first  intention/ 

S03H2  +  3Sn"Cl2  =  3Sn"Cl,0  +  H2S.  ' 
Tho  stannic  'oxy-chloride  readily  exchanges  its  0  for  Cl^  at  the"cx- 
pense  of  the  hydrochloric  acid,  which  is  always  present,  and  tho 
H2S  decomposes  one-half  of  a  molecule  of  SnCl^  with  formation  of 
SnSj.  A  strip  of  metallic  zinc  when  placed  in  a  solution  of  stan- 
nous chloride  precipitates  the  tin  in  crystals  and  takes  its  place  in 
the  solution.  Stannous  chloride  is  largely  used  in  the  laboratory 
as  a  reducing  agent,  in  dyeing  as  a  mordant- 

*"  StamiQus  Oxide, — This  as  a  hydrate  is  obtained  from  a  solution  of 
stannous  chloride  by  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda;  it  forms  a  white 
precipitate,  which  can  be  washed  with  air-free  water  and  dried  at 
80°C.  without  much  change  by  oxidation.  If  the  hydrate  is  heated 
in  carbonic  acid,  the  black  anhydride  SnO  remains  (Otto).  Precipi- 
tated stannous  hydrate  dissolves  readily  in  caustic  ix)tash  ley  ;  if 
the  solution  is  evaporated  quickly,  it  suffers  decomposition,  with 
/brmation  of  metal  and  stannate, 

2SnO  -¥  K.p  =  anO.EoO  -t-  Sn. , 
If  it  isevaporated  slowly,  anhydrous  stannous  oxide  crystallizes 
out  at  a  certain  stage  (Otto).  Dry  stannous  oxide,  if  touched  with 
a  glowing  body,  catches  fire  and  burns  into  binoxide,  SnOj-  Stan- 
nous oxalate  when  heated  by  itself  in  a  tube  leaves  stinnous  oxide 
(Liebig). 

Stannic  chloride,  SnCl^,  is  obtained  by  passing  dry  chlorine  over 
granulated  tin  contained  in  a  retort ;  tho  tetrachloride  distils  over 
as  a  heavy  ln^uid,  from  which  the  excess  of  chlorine  is  easily  re- 
moved by  shaking  with  a  small  quantity  of  tin  filings  and  rc-dis- 
tilling.  It  is  a  colourless  fuming  liquid  of  specific  gravity  2  269  at  0° 
(Pierre)  and  2'234  atlS^C.  (Gerlach),  is  fluid  at  -29''C.,  and  boils 
at  115*'"4  C.  under  7531  mm.  pressure  (Pierre).  The  chloridaunites 
energetically  with  water  into  crystalKne  hydrates  (ex.  SnCl^.SH^O), 
easily  soluble  in  water.  It  combines  readily  with  alkaline  and 
other  chlorides  into  double  salts:  thus  SnCl4-l-2KCl  =  SnCIgK2, 
analogous  to  the  chloro-platinat*  ;  another  example  is  the  salt 
SnClfl(NHj)5,  known  industrially  as  *'  pink  salt,"  because  it  is  used 
OS  a  mordant  to  produce  a  pink  colour.  The  plain  chloride  solution 
is  similarly  usei  It  ia  usually  prepared  by  difaolTiug  the  metal 
in  a<{ua  regia. 

Stannic  Oxide,  SnOj. — This,  if  the  term  is  taken  to  include  the 
liydrates,  exists  in  a  variety  of  forms.  (1)  Tinstone  (see  above)  is 
proof  against  all  acids.  Its  disintegration  for  analytical  purposes 
can  be  effected  by  fusion  with  caustic  alkali  in  silver,  with  the 
formation  of  soluble  stannate,  or  by  fusion  with  sulphur  and  car- 
bonate of  soda,  with  the.  formation  of  a  soluble  thio-stsnnate, 
SnSj  +  xN^agS.  (2)  A  similar  oxide  is  produced  by  burning  tin  in 
air  at  high  temperatures  or  exposing  any  of  the  hydrates  to  a  strong 
red  hMt.  Such  tin-ash,  as  it  is  called,  is  used  for  the  polishing  of 
opti(ial  glasses.  (S)  Mela-stannic  acid  {H.jOSnOj,  generally  written 
HioSnjOjj,  to  account  for  the  complicated  composition  of  meta- 
stannates,  e.g.,  the  soda  salt  HsNajSn^Ois)  is  the  white  hy^ato 
produced  from  the  metal  by  means  of  nitric  acid.  It  is  insoliible 
ID  water  and  in  nitric  acid  and  apparently  so  in  hydrochloric  acid  ; 
but  if  heated  with  this  last  for  some  time  it  passes  into  a  hydro* 
chlorate,  which,  after  the  acid  mother  liquor  has  been  decanted  off, , 
dissolves  in  water.  The  solution  when  subjected  to  distillation 
behaves  pretty  much  like  u  physical  solution  of  the  oxide  in  hydro- 
chloric acid,  while  a  solution  of  ortho-stannic  acid  in  hydrochloric 
acid  behaves  like  a  aolutioa  of  SnCL  in  water,  i.e.,  gives  off  no 
bydrochlohcftcidjuid  no  precipitate  or bydrat«d  SnOt-    (4)  Ortho- 


stannic  acid  is  obtained  113  a  white  precipitate  on^the  addition^ 
carbonate  of  soda,  or  the  exact  quantity  of  precipitated  carbonate 
of  lime  to  a  solution  of  the  chloride.  This  hydrate,  SnOjHaO,  ia 
readily  soluble  in  acids  forming  stannic  salts,  and  in  caustic  potash 
and  soda,  with  the  formation  of  orthots  tan  nates.  Of  these  stannata 
of  sodium,  Na2Sn02,  is  produced  industrially  by  heating  tin  with 
Chili  saltpetre  and  caustic  soda,  or  by  fusing  very  finely  powdered 
tinstone  with  caustic  soda  in  iron  vessels.  A  Bofution  of  the  purs' 
salt  yields  fine  prisms  of  the  composition  Na^SnOa-t-lOHjO,  whichi 
effloresce  in  the  air.  The  salt  is  much  used  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing 
and  calico-printing.  Alkaline  and  other  stannates  when  treated 
with  aqueous  hydrofiuoric  acid  are  converted  into  fluo-stannatefl 
{e.g.,  K^^nOa  into  K^nFg),  which  are  clo.sely  analogous  to,  and  iao; 
morphous  with,  ftuo-silicates. 

Sulphides.  —  If  tin  is  heated  with"sulphur  the  two  tinite  Tery 
readily  into  stannous  sulphide,  SnS,  a  lead-grey  mass,  which  undet 
the  circumstances  refuses  to  take  up  more  sulphur.  But,  if  a 
mixture  of  tin  (or,  better,  tin  amalgam),  Qulphur,  and  eal-ammoniac 
in  proper  proportions  be  heated,  stannic  sulphide,  SnSj,  is  produced 
in  the  beautiful  form  of  auram  inusivum  (mosaic  gold^ — a  soHd 
consisting  of  golden  yellow,  metallic  lustrous  scales,  it  is  used 
chiefly  as  a  yellow  *' bronze"  for  plaeter-of- Paris  statuettes,  &c. 

Analysis. — Tin  compounds  when  heated  on  charcoal  with  car- 
bonate of  soda  in  the  reducing  blowpipe  flame  yield  metal  and  a 
scanty  ring  of  white  SnO,.  The  reduction,  however,  succeeds  better 
with  cyanide  of  potassium  as  a  flux.  Stannous  salt  solutions  yieht 
a  brown  precipitate  of  SnS  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  \i 
insoluble  in  cold  dilute  acids  and  in  real  sulphide  of  ar^monium, 
(N  114)33  ;  but  the  yellow,  or  the  colourless  reagent  on  addition  of 
sulphur,  dissolves  the  precipitate  as  SnSj  salt  TJie  solution  oij 
acidification  jnelds  a  yellow  precipitate  of  this  sulphide.  Stannid 
8alt,^nClj,  solutions  give  a  yellow  precipitate  of  SnSawith  sulphnrJ 
etted  hydrogen,  which  is  insoluble  in  cold  dilute  acids  but  readily 
soluble  in  sulphide  of  ammonium,  and  is  re- precipitated  therefrom 
as  SnSj  on  acidification.  Only  stannous  salts  (not  stannic)  give  a 
precipitate  of  calomel  in  mercuric  chloride  solution,  A  mixture  oi 
stannous  "and  stannic  chloride  when  added  to  a  sufficient  quantitV 
of  solution  of  chloride  of  gold,  gives  an  intensely  purple  precipitate 
of  gold  purple  (purple  of  Caasius), — a  compound  which,  although 
known  for  centuries,  is  to  this  day  little  understood  cbemicallyj 
It  behaves  on  the  whole  like  a  compound  of  Sn^Oj  with  Au^Oj 
The  test  is  very  delicate,  although  the  colour  is  not  in  all  cases  a 
pure  purple.  (W.  D.) ' ' 

TZNAMOU,  the  name  given  in  Guiana  to  a  certain 
bird  as  stated  in  1741  by  Barrero  {Fraitce  EquijioxiaU^  pj 
138),  from  whom  it  was  taken  and  used  in  a  more  general 
sense  by  Buffon  (Hist.  Nat.  Oiseavjr,  iv,  p.  502).  In  1783 
Latham  (S^nopsis^  ii.  p.  724)  adopted  it  as  English,  and 
in  1790  (hidex^  ii.  p.  633)  Latinized  it  Tinamiis,  as  the 
name  of  a  new  and  distinct  genus.  The  "Tinamou"of 
Barrere  has  been  identified  with  the  "Macucagua"  described 
and  figured  by  Marcgrave  in„1648,  and  is  t\i& ^TiTiamta 
major  of  modern  authors.^ 

Buffon  and  his  successors  saw  that  the  Tinamous,  though 
passing  among  the  European  colonists  of  South  America 
as  "  Partridges,"  could  not  bo  associated  with  those  birds, 
and  Latham's  step,  above  mentioned,  was  generally  ap- 
proved. The  genus  he  had  founded  was  iieually  placed 
among  the  GaUin^,  and  by  many  writers  was  held  to  be 
allied  to  the  Bastards,  which,  it  must  be  remembered,  were 
then  thought  to  bo  *' Slruthious."  Indeed  the  likeness  of 
the  Tinamou's  bill  to  that  of  the  BaJiA"(voL  xx.  p.  506) 
was  remarked  in  1811  by  llliger.  On  the  other  hand 
L'  Herminier  in  1 827  saw  features  in  the  Tinamou's  sternum 
that  in  hia  judgment  linked  the  bird  to  the  Rallid^.  In 
1830  Wagler  (Nat.  Syst,  Amphibian,  6lc.,  p.  127)  placed 
the  Tinamous  in  the  same  Order  as  the  Ostrich  and  its 
allies  ;  and,  though  ho  did  this  on  very  insuflScient  grounds^ 
his  assignment  has  turned  out  to  be  not  far  from  the  mark, 
as  in  1862  the  great  affinity  of  these  groups  was  shown  by 
Prof.  Parker's  researches,  which  were  afterwards  printed 
in  the  Zoological  Transa4:iio7vs(v.  pp.  205-232,  236-238,  pis. 
xxxix.-xli.),  and  was  further  substantiated  by  him  in  tho 
FhUosopkical  Transactiom  (1866,  pp.  174-178,  pL  xv.). 
Shortly  after  this  Prof.  Huxley  in  bis  often -quoted 
paper  in  the  Zoological  Proceedings  (1867,  pp.  425,  426) 


*  BriasoD  and  after  him  LioDeuii  confonnded  this  bird,  whicVthex 
had  never  seea.  vitb  the  TfinuPETEB  (9. v.). 


T  T  N  — T  T  N' 


40» 


tras  enabled  to  place  Uie  whole  maiier  m  a  clear  ligbt, 
•rging  that  the  Tinamous  formed  a  very  distinct  group  of 
tirds  which,  though  not  to  be  removed  from  the  CarLn<xi&, 
presented  so  much  resemblance  to  the  Ratttst  as  to  indicate 
ihem  to  be  the  bond  of  union  between  those  two  great 
H»nsjons.'  The  group  from  the  resemblance  of  its  palatal 
characters  to  those  of  the  Emeu  (vol.  viii.  p  171),  Dnniac-u^ 
be  called  DroTn&ognatJiss^  and  his  decision,  if  not  hi'-  name, 
tas  since  been  v\ndely  accepted. 

The  Tinamous  rbus — by  whau'vi^r  uanit;  we  call  thetu,  Drom-^o 
jnrtiAa.  T^nt}m^,o^  Cryptun — wrll  bescPD  to  be  of  gf  at  inip<)rtance 
from  a  taxonomtr's  point  of  view,  though  in  regard  ft  nuaibi-rs  they 
fcre  lomparalively  Vnsignifi'-aot.  In  1873  Messrs.  Sciater  an*!  SaIvid 
iL  iheir  A'l'nuntdiUor  (pp  15-2,  153)  recognized  nine  genen  and 
:hirty  nine  s|>ertes,  sinc«  whi<'b  tinoe  about  half  a  dozen  other 
»pecies  may  hav»;  been  des«  nbcd  .  but  in  1880  Schl(^I( ;l/'ts  Pays- 
Ala,  vui  .  Qlonogr  41,  pp  1-51)  would  only  admit  five  genera  and 
thirtTi'^ne  sp»«'it^s — the  brt^r  be«*-aus*»  u  was  the  number  possessed 
by  the  L»-yden  tuu;>«-um  They  art  ppculiaj  to  the  Nw>tropical 
ReeiOD  — four  speries  only  finding  their  way  into  noathern  Mexico 
kDo  none  Wvotid.  Some  of  them  itihabit  fornstsand  others  the  njore 
jpeo  couutr>  ,  but  settingnside  size  (which  in  this  group  vanes  (roni 
tlut  of  a  Qyjii.ll  ro  that  ofu  large  uoninmn  Fowl)  there  is  tin  untDi>- 
ukable  UD  Jonuity  of  appearance  among  them  as  u  u-holtj,  so  thai 
almost  anybody  having  6»*n  one  species  of  the  group  would  Jways 
retognize  another  Yet  in  minor  oharacters  there  la  cotisidfrabie 
difference  among  them  ;  and  first  of  all  the  group  may  be  dmded 
into  iwo  sijb  f'lmiliea,  the  first,  Titm-mm^,  baving  four  toes,  and 
ihe  second  Tf-narnotiding^  having  nui  tnrei- — the  lattei  cotitauiing. 
ao  far  as  is  known,  but  Cwo  geren^  Caloprzu-''  hhJ  Tinamofia^  •-acn 
rons)}>tinp  nf  a  siuirle  speci*»s.  while  tbi-  former  ftCcordiDg  to  Messrs. 
Sclatt-r  and  Salvia  xut  supra)^  may  he  separated  into  nevvo  genera, 
iwo  t>euig  Tinatrius  and  NothocerciLS,  chaActenzed  by  the  roughi:ea3 
of  tbeiT  posterior  tarsal  scales,  the  others,  Orifpluru^.  R}iynch'>f>ui, 
S.thopTim'/a.,  NothuTo^  and  Taoniscus,  having  smooth  legs. 

To  the  ordinary  spectator  Tinamous  have  uiucL  the 
lt»ok'of  Parti idges,  but  the  more  attentive  observer   »tU 


•"/^•^J^-^    .i^lC^Ti^^  ~^M^^ 
Rufous  ttuamou  {Rkynchitius  ru/escem). 

hotice  that  their  elongated  bill,  their  Email  bead  and 
slender  neck,  clothed  with  very  short  feathers,  give  them  a 
different  air.  The  plumage  is  generally  inconspicuous 
some  tint  of  brown,  ranging  from  rufous  to  slaty,  and  often 
more  or  less  closely  barred  with  a  darker  shade  or  black. 
is  the  usual  style  of  ccloration  ,  but  some  species  are 
characterized  by  a  white  throat  or  a  bay  breast  The 
wings  are  short  and  rounded,  and  in  some  forms  the 
feathers  of  the  tail,  which  in  all  are  hidden  by  thjir  coverts, 
are  soft.  In  bearing  and  gait  the  birds  show  some  resem- 
blance  to    their   distant    relatives   the   Raiilst,   and    Mr 

*  M  AWj  also  baj>  from  ao  independeot  iovestigatioD  of  the  osteo- 
Ofry  ftnd  myology  of  Nothura  tmyor  cooje  to  virtually  the  same  con- 
dlH!£0  (Joum.  dt  Zootofu,  iti.  pp  !<!<'  and  2P2,.pl«.  vUi-n.). 


I  Banieii  snows  (PriK.  HwA  Suciety,  1868,  p  115,  pL  ziL) 
that  this  la  e.spetuiUy  seen  in  the  newly  hatched  young. 
He  also  notices  the  .still  stronger  Ftatitv  character,  that  tha 
male  takes  on  himself  the  duty  of  incubation  The  eggs 
are  very  remarkable  objects,  curiously  unlike  those  of  other 
hjrd.-i  .  and,  as  before  stated  (BtRDS,  voL  iii  p.  775),  their 
fhell  '  looks  as  if  it  were  of  highly-bamiahed  metal  or 
glazed  porcelain,  presenting  also  various  colours,  which 
seem  to  be  constant  in  the  particular  species,  from  pale 
primrose  to  sage-green  or  light  indigo,  or  from  chocolate- 
brown  to  pinkish  orange  All  who  have  eaten  it  declare 
the  flesh  of  the  Tinamou  to  have  a  most  dehcate  taste,  as 
It  has  a  most  inviting  appearance,  the  pectoral  muscles 
being  semi-opaque  Of  their  habits  not  iCQch  has  been 
told.  Darwin  (Jourm^J,  chap  iiL)  has  remarked  upon  the 
silliness  they  show  in  allomng  themselves  to  be  taken,  and 
this  is  Wholly  in  accordance  with  what  Prof.  Parker  ob- 
serves of  their  brain  capacity,  and  is  an  additional  testi- 
mony to  their  low  morphological  ranL  At  least  one 
sfwcies  of  Tinamou  has  bred  not  unfreqneutly  in  confine- 
ment, and  an  interesting  account  of  what  would  have  been 
a  successful  attempt  by  Mr  John  Bateman  to  naturalize 
this  species,  Rhyiu-Jintiutrufescfns^  in  England,  at  Brightling- 
sea  in  Essex,  appeared  in  Tlw  Field (23d  Feb  1884  and  12th 
Sept  1885).  The  expenment  unfortunately  failed  owing 
to  the  destruction  of  the  birds  by  foxes.  (a.  n  ) 

TINDAL,  Matthew  ( 1 65r>  1  7.5.1),  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  popular  of  the  English  deists,  the  son  ot  a  clergyman, 
was  bom  at  Beer  Ferris,  Devonshire,  in  1  fi56  He  studied 
law  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  where  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  the  High  Churchman  George  Hickes,  dean  <»f 
Worcester  ,  and  in  his  twenty-second  year  he  was  elected 
fellow  of  Ail  Souls  College,  and  held  his  fellowship  till 
his  death.  About  1685  he  saw  "that  upon  his  High 
Church  notions  a  separation  from  the  Church  of'  Rome 
could  not  be  justified,"  and  accordingly  he  joined  the  latter 
But,  discerning  the  baselessness  and  absurdity  of  Rome's 
claims,  he  returned  to  the  Church  ot  England  at  Easter 
1 688.  In  1 694  he  published  an  Esxot/  of  Obedience  to  the 
Stiprenu  Powers,  in  which  be  justified  the  Revolution 
against  notions  of  passive  obedience  and  j'lts  divinum  ;  in 
1697  an  E&sny  on  the  Power  of  (lie  Magistrate  and  the 
Rights  of  MaiLklnd  m  Matters  of  Ri/u/ion,  an  able  vindica- 
tion of  liberty  of  conscience,  though  he  allows  no  right  of 
toleration  to  "  atheists  ",  and  in  1 698  an  essay  on  The 
Litierty  of  the  Press,  a  vigorous  exposure  of  the  proposal 
to  appoint  Lcensers  of  the  press  and  a  powerful  plea  for 
the  free  discussion  of  religion.  The  first  of  his  two  larger 
works,  The  Rights  of  the  Chnstvan  Church  associated  against 
the  Romish  and  all  other  priests  who  claim  an  independent 
pouter  over  it,  parti.,  appeared  anonymously  in  1706  (2d 
ed.,  1706;  3d,  1707;  4th,  1709).  The  book  was  regarded 
in  its  day  as  an  extremely  forcible  defence  of  the  Erastiat 
theory  of  the  supremacy  of  the  state  over  the  church,  and 
at  once  provoked  a  storm  of  counter-argument  and  abuse 
on  the  part  of  those  who  maintained  the  independent  right* 
and  authority  of  the  church.  The  law  also  wa.<  invoked 
against  it,  and,  after  several  attempts  to  prnscribe  the  work 
had  failed,  one  against  the  author,  (iciblisher,  and  printei 
succeeded  on  12th  December  1707.  arul  another  against  • 
bookseller  for  selling  a  cojiy  the  next  day  The  pro.<!C4-u 
tion  did  not  prevent  the  issue  of  a  fourib  edition  uml  gavt 
the  author  the  opportunity  of  issuni)^  A  Drjerue  <./  .'*» 
Rights  of  the  Chnstuin  Church,  in  twn  |pur^^  ('Jd  od  I  "(19) 
The  book  continued  to  be  the  subject  <>)  denumiatuin  lor 
years,  and  Tindal  believed  he  was  charged  hy  |)r  (Iitwoa 
bishop  of  London,  in  a  Pastorai  Leit^.  wilL  bnvm^  uudei 
mined  religion  and  promoted  atheism  and  inbdrliiy.  — • 

'  Herr  voD  Natbusiiu  baA  described  it«  micm»n>i>i(  atruiiun '-'i»»»*"» 
fur  xiTistentch.  Zootogic,  1871.  pp.  3S0  354). 


404 


T I N— T I N 


charge  to  which  he  replied  in  an  anonymous  tract,  An 
Address  to  the  InhahitanU  of  London  and  Westminster,  a 
second  and  larger  edition  of  which  appeared  in  1730  In 
this  tract '  he  makes  a  valiant  defence  of  the  deists  and  of 
the  use  of  reason  in  religious  matters,  and  anticipates  here 
end  there  his  Christianity  at  Old  as  the  Creation  ;  or  the 
1  Gospel  a  Republication  of  tKe  Religion  of  Nature,  London, 

1730  (2d  ed.,  1731 ;  3d,  1732  ;  4th,  1733),  which  was  re- 
garded by  friends  and  foes  alike  as  the  "  Bible  "  of  deism. 
It  was  really  only  the  first  part  of  the  whole  work,  and  the 
second,  though  written  and  entrusted  in  manuscript  to  a 
friend,  never  saw  *he  light.  It  was  said  that  Dr  Gibson 
prevented  its  f  jblication.  The  first  part  made  a  great 
noise,  and  the  answers  to  it  were  numerous,  the  most  able 
being  by  Dr  James  Foster  (1730),  Dr  John  Ck)nybear6 
(1732),  Dr  John  Leland  (1733),  and  Bishop  Butler  (1736). 
It  was  translated  into  German  by  J  Lorenz  Schmidt 
(1741),  and  f.om  it  dates  the  influence  of  English  deism 
on  German  theology.  It  is  by  this  book  that  Tindal  is 
now  chiefly  remembered ;  but  he  had  probably  adopted 
substantially  the  principles  it  expounds  before  he  wrote 
his  essay  of  1697  He  objected  to  be  called  a  simple  deist, 
and  claimed  the  name  of  "  Christian  deist,"  as  he  held  that 
true  Christianity  is  identical  with  the  eternal  religion  of 
nature.     He  died  at  Oxford  on  16th  August  1733. 

The  religious  system  expounded  io  Tindal's  Christianity  as  Old 
as  the  Creation,  unlike  the  earlier  system  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury,  was  based  on  the  empirical  principles  of  Locke's  philosophy. 
It  assumed  the  traditional  deistic  antitheses  of  external  and  in- 
ternal, positive  and  natural,  revelations  and  religions,  and  perpetu- 
ated at  the  same  time  the  prevalent  misconceptions  as  to  the  nature 
of  religion  and  revelation.  The  system  was,  moraover,  worked  out 
by  the  purely  a  priori  method,  with  all  but  a  total  disregard  of  the 
facts  of  religious  history.  It  starts  from  the  tremendous  assump- 
tions that  true  religion  most,  both  from  the  nature  of  God  and  the 
nature  of  things,  be  eternal,  universal,  simple,  and  perfect ;  it  main, 
tains  that  this  religion  can  consist  of  nothing  but  the  simple  and 
universal  duties  towards  God  and  man,  the  orst  consisting  in  the 
fulfilment  of  the  second, — in  other  words,  the  practice  of  morality. 
The  author's  moral  system  is  somewhat  confused  and  inconsistent, 
but  is  es-wntially  utilitarian.  From  such  principles  it  follows  neces- 
sarily that  the  true  revealed  religion  can  be  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  a  republication  of  the  religion  of  nature  or  reason,  and  that, 
if  Christianity  is  the  perfect  religion,  it  can  only  be  that  republica- 
tion, and  must  be  as  old  as  the  creation.  The  special  mission  of 
Christianity,  therefore,  was  simply  to  deliver  men  from  the  super- 
stitioQ  which  had  in  course  of  time  got  mixed  up  with  the  religion 
of  nature.  True  Christianity  consequently  must  be  a  perfectly 
*'rea^Dable  service";  arbitrary  and  positive  precepts  can  form  do 
true  pa-  of  it ;  revelation  ana  reason  can  never  disagree  ;  reason 
must  be  supreme,  and  the  Scriptures  aA  well  aj*  all  religious  doc- 
trines must  submit  to  its  tests  ;  and  only  such  writings  can  be  re- 
garded as  Divine  Scripture  which  lend  to  the  honour  of  God  and 
the  good  of  man  Thus  tested,  much  in  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments  must  be  rejected  as  defective  ib  morality  or  erroneous 
in  fact  and  principle.  The  strength  of  Tindal's  position  was  th^ 
underlying  conviction  of  the  essential  harmony  between  man's  re- 
ligious and  rational  nature,  and  consequently  of  the  rationality 
of  Christianity.  Its  weakness  was  that,  like  the  whole  religious 
philosophy  of  the  time,  it  was  founded  on  a  total  misconception  of 
the  nature  of  religion  anil  of  revelation,  and  on  as  completo  a  disre- 
card  of  the  course  of  man's  religious  development.  Weak  points 
ID  it  were  ably  exposed  by  Foster,  Conybeare,  Butler,  and  others  ; 
but  its  radical  errors  needed  for  their  complete  exposure  the  higher 
conceptions  of  religion  and  religious  history  which  were  originated 
by  Leasing,  Schleiermacher,  and  Hegel. 

See  Lelaod.  yuw  n/  tht  Prinrxpal  Dti^ical  Wriltri  (Loodoo,  ITM) :  Lecbler, 
Ctschi^KU  dfM  englucAci  DfumujtStutt^rt.  1*11).  Tht^logiaH  fUvUno,  November 
18A4  ;  Hunt,  B^hgunu  Thought  in  England  from  r\«  Reformation  to  ttu  EnA  of 
last  Centuri/ (London,  1870  73).  Lei]it  SlepiieD  /lutory  of  En^tUft  TAoiifl'ir  in 
tfu  EigtUuTitA  Ctntury  (LondoD,  1876-80) ;  A.  9.  Farrar,  BamptoQ  Lecture  (1862), 
lect  Iv 

TINGHAE.     See  Cbdsan. 

TINNfi,  Alexaxdbink  (1839-1869),  African  traveller, 
born  at  The  Hague  on  17th  October  1839,  was  the  daughter 
of  an  English  merchant  and  his  wife.  Baroness  van  Steen- 
gracht-Capellen.     Her  father  died  when  she  was  five  years 

'  A  Second  Address  to  the  InkabitanU,  &c.,  with  replies  to  some  of 
the  critics  of  that  book,  bears  the  same  date^  1730,  though  some  of  the 
Works  it  refers  to  appeared  in  1731. 


old,  leaving  her  the  richest  heiress  in  the  Netheriandau 
After  travelling  in  Norway,  Italy,  and  the  East,  and  visit- 
ing Egypt,  when  she  ascended  the  Nile  to  near  the  equator. 
Mademoiselle  Tinni  left  Europe  again  in  ISGl  for  a  pro- 
longed sojourn  in  the  Nile  regions.  Accompanied  by  her 
mother  and  her  aunt,  she  set  out  from  Cairo  on  9th  Janu- 
ary 1862.  After  a  short  stay  at  Khartoum,  the  party 
ascended  the  White  Nile  as  far  as  Gondokoro  and  explored 
a  part  of  the  Sobat,  returning  to  Khartoum  in  November. 
Baron  von  Heuglin  and  Dr  Steudner  having  meantime 
joined  the  ladies  at  Khartoum,  the  whole  party  set  out  in 
February  1863  to  explore  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal.  The  limit 
of  navigation  at  the  Bahr-el  Homr  was  reached  on  lOtb 
March.  From  Lake  Rek  a  journey  was  made  overland, 
across  the  Bahr  Jur  and  south  west  by  the  Baht  Kosango, 
to  Jebel  Kosango,  on  the  borders  of  the  Niam-Niam 
country.  During  the  journey  all  the  travellers  suffered 
severely.  Steudner  died  in  April  and  Madame  TinnS  in 
June,  and  after  many  fatigues  and  dangers  the  remainder 
of  the  party  reached  Khartoum  in  July  1864  Made- 
moiselle Tinn6  returned  to  Cairo  by  Berber  and  Suakira. 
The  geographical  and  scientific  results  of  the  expedition, 
largely  into  a  new  country,  were  highly  important,  as  will 
be  seen  in  Heuglin's  narrative  in  Petfrmann's  Millheilungen 
(Erg.-hft,  Nov.  15,  1865),  and  in  bis  own  Travels  in  the 
Region  of  the  White  NUe  (1869).  At  Cairo  Mademoiselle 
Tinn6  lived  in  somewhat  Oriental  style  during  the  next 
four  years,  visiting  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  other  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean.  In  January  1869  3he  started  from  Tripolis 
with  a  caravan,  intending  to  proceed  to  Lake  Tchad,  and 
thence  by  Wadai,  Darfur,  and  Kordofan  to  the  Upper 
Nile.  In  July,  however,  on  the  route  from  Murzuk  to 
Rhat,  she  was  murdered  by  her  escort. 

Besides  the  references  already  given,  see  .Tohn  A  Tinne's  Geogra' 
pkical  Notes  of  an  Expeduion  in  Central  Africa  bv  three  Dutdi 
Ladies,  Liverpool,  1864. 

TINNEVELLI,  or  TrNAVELLV,  a  district  of  British 
India,  in  the  Madras  presidency,  lying  between  8*  9'  and 
9°  56'  N.  lat.  and  77°  16'  and  78°  27'  E.  long.  It  has  an 
area  of  5381  square  miles,  and  a  coast-line  of  nearly  100 
miles.  Madura  district  bounds  it  on  the  N  and  N  E.,  on 
the  S.  and  S.E.  the  Gulf  of  Mannir,  and  on  the  VV  the 
southern  Ghats.  TinnevelLi  is  a  large  plain,  with  an  aver- 
age elevation  of  200  feet,  sloping  to  the  east  with  slight 
undulations.  Along  the  western  boundary  ibe  mountains 
rise  to  4000  feet ;  but  they  send  out  no  spurs  into  the 
district,  nor  are  there  any  isolated  bills  The  district  is 
watered  by  numerous  short  streams,  the  principal  being 
the  Tambrapaml  (length  80  miles).  In  the  north  the 
scenery  is  unattractive  and  the  soil  poor,  in  the  south 
red  sandy  soil  prevails,  in  which  little  save  the  Palmyra 
palm  will  grow.  But  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  are 
rice-fields  and  a  variety  of  trees  and  crops  Many  shoals 
occur  near  the  shore,  and  in  the  north-east  numerous  rocks 
and  reefs.  The  hills  which  divide  Tinnevelli  from  Travan- 
core  are  chiefly  granite  and  gneiss ;  and  along  the  coast 
stretches  the  broad  belt  of  alluvium  common  to  the  whole 
east  coast  of  India,  and  in  it  ure  marv  salt  marshes,  divided 
by  sand-dunes  from  the  sea.  Several  veins  of  calc  spar 
cross  the  district  from  east  to  west,  and  the  beds  of  all  the 
rivers  are  more  or  less  encrusted  with  a  deposit  of  lime,  j 
The  district  contains  many  ancient  and  magnificent  build- 
ings; but  the  most  interesting  antiquities  are  the  large 
sepulchral  earthen  urns  of  prelxistoric  races  which  have 
been  found  at  several  places,  especially  along  the  course  of 
the  TAmbrapant,  and  which  contain  bones,  pottery  of  all 
sorts,  beads  and  bronze  ornaments,  iron  weapons,  imple- 
ments, (tc.  As  the  seat  of  Dravidian  civilization  Tinnevelli 
possesses  more  antiquarian  interest  than  any  other  part 
of  Madras.      The  climate  is  very  hot  and  dry  except  at 


T I N— T I P 


405 


the  season  of  the  monsoons ;  tne  average  annual  rainfall 
throughout  the  district  is  less  than  25  inches.  Tinnevelli 
possesses  several  roads,  but  no  canals  The  South  Indian 
Railway  enters  the  district  five  miles  north  of  Virudupatti 
and  runs  to  Tuticorin  (77  miles) ;  a  branch  line  (18  miles) 
■connects  this  last  town  with  Tinnevelli. 

In  1851  the  population  numliereJ  1.699,747  (males  825,887, 
females  873,860).  of  whom  1,468,977  were  Hindus,  89,767  Moham- 
medans, and  140,946  Christians.  Tinnevelli  has  twelve  towns  with 
over  10,000  inhabitants  each,  viz  .  Tinnevelli  (see  below) ;  Srivil- 
liputur,  15,256;  PaKnmcotla,  17,964;  Tuticorin,  16.281;  Kulase 
Kliarapatnam,  14,972;  Sivasiri,  13,632,  Viravanalliir,  12.318; 
Raiapalayam,  12.021,  Tenkasi,  11,987,  Kdyalpaln.iin,  11,806; 
KalUdakuichi,  10,936;  and  Sivakasi,  10,833.  Out  of  the  total 
area  of  53S1  square  miles  1403  arc  uncultivahle  waste  In  1885-86 
cereals,  chiefly  rice  and  spiked  millet  or  kambu,  the  staple  food  of 
the  district,  occupied  842,741  acres,  pulses  192.341,  oil  seeds  78,127, 
and  cotton  206,717.  The  total  area  of  forest  is  roughly  estimated 
at  1500  square  miles.  Tuticorin  is  the  only  port  of  any  importance. 
The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  coflfee,  jaggery,  chillies,  kc. ;  sheep, 
horses,  cattle,  and  poultry  are  also  sent  to  Ceylon.  There  is  a  con- 
siderable inland  trade  with  Travancore.  The  pearl  fishery  on  the 
<oast  is  now  unimportant.  Coastal  navigation  is  dangerous.  In 
1835-86  the  total  revenue  of  the  district  was  £365,744,  of  which 
the  land-tax  yielded  £305,850. 

The  early  history  qf  Tinnevelli  is  mixed  up  with  that  of  Madura 
*nd  Travancore.  Dowu  to  1781  it  is  a  confused  tale  of  anarchy 
and  bloodshed.  In  that  year  the  nawab  of  Arcot  assigned  the 
revenues  to  the  East  India  Company,  whose  officers  then  undertook 
the  interna!  administration  of  a^airs.  Several  risings  subsequently 
took  place,  and  in  1801  the  whole  Camatic,  including  Tinnevelli, 
was  ceded  to  the  British.  Tinnevelli  is  now  the  most  Christian 
<iistrict  of  all  India,  both  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant 

TINNEVELLI,  chief  and  largest  town  of  the  above  dis- 
trict, is  situated  1 J  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  T4m- 
brapaml  in  8°  43'  47'  N.  lat.  and  77°  43'  49"  E.  long. 
The  town  was  rebuilt  about  1560  by  VisvanAtha,  the 
founder  of  the  Ndyakkan  dynasty  of  Madura,  who  erected 
many  temples,  ic.,  among  them  the  great  Siva  temple. 
Tinnevelli  is  an  active  centre  of  Protestant  missions  in 
south  India.  In  1881  the  population  was  23,221  (10,963 
males  and  12,258  females). 

TINTORETTO     See  Robusti. 

TLPPERAH,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Chitta- 
gong  division  of  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal, 
situated  between  23°  0'  and  24'  16'  N.  lat.  and  90°  36'  and 
91°  39'  E.  long.,  with  an  area  of  2491  square  miles.  It 
is  botuided  on  the  N.  by  Maimansinh  and  Sylhet,  on  the 
B.  by  NoAkhdll,  on  the  W.  by  the  river  Meghna,  separating 
it  from  Maimansinh,  Dacca,  and  BAkarganj,  and  on  the  E. 
by  the  state  of  Hill  Tipperah.  The  district  presents  a 
continuous  flat  and  open  surface,  with  the  exception  of  the 
isolated  LilmSi  range  (100  feet),  and  is  for  the  most  part 
laid  out  in  well-cultivated  fields,  intersected  in  all  direc- 
tions by  rivers  and  kAah  (creeks),  which  are  partially 
affected  by  the  tides.  In  the  lowlands  the  soil  is  uni- 
formly light  and  sandy ;  but  in  the  higher  parts  a  deep 
alluvi%l  soil  alternates  with  bands  of  clay  and  sand.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Meghna,  which  is  navigable  through- 
•ont  the  year  for  boats  of  4  tons  burden,  and  the  Gumti, 
DAkitii,  and  TitAs,  which  are  ako  navigable  for  craft  of  4 
tons  for  a  considerable  portion  of  their  course.  There  are 
many  marshes  or  bhils.  The  principal  road  is  the  grand 
trunk  (63  miles),  which  traverses  the  district  from  east  to 
west.  The  wild  animals  include  elephants,  tigers,  leopards, 
I  wild  boars,  jackals,  and  buflaJoes.  The  climate  is  mild, 
■agreeable,  and  healthy. 

I  The  population  of  the  district  m  1881  was  1, 51 9.338  (males  770,893, 
ifemales  748.445) ;  of  theae  Hindus  numbered  511,02J,  Mohammed- 
-•DB  1,007,740,  and  Christians  199.  There  are  only  two  towns 
with  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  each,  viz.,  Comillah  (13,372) 
«nd  BrihmAnbaria  (17,438)  Comillah  ia  the  chief  town  of  the 
district  and  is  situat^  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Gumri,  in  23°  28' 
N.  lat  and  91°  14'  E.  long.  Rice  is  the  staple  crop  of  the  district ; 
wheat  and  ba/ley,  Indian  corn  and  millet,  pease,  gram,  and  several 
«thei  pulses  are  also  cultivated,  as  well  as  betel-leaf  and  betel-nut, 
«igar-cane,  tobacco,  ice.    The  chief  exports  are  rice,  jute,  and  betel- 


nuts  ;  and  the  principal  imports  sugar,  timber,  cotton  goods,  cocoa* 
nut  oil,  bamboos,  spices,  salt  tobacco,  &c.  In  1885-86  the  net 
revenue  of  the  district  amounted  to  £181,481,  the  lan«-tax  contri- 
buiing  £102,866.  Tippkrah  came  under  the  East  India  Company 
in  1765  ;  but  more  than  a  fifth  of  its  present  area  was  under  the 
immediate  rule  of  the  raja  of  Hill  Tipperah.  who  paid  a  tribute  of 
ivory  and  elephants.  At  that  time  Tipperah  formed  part  of  JalAl- 
pur  ;  but  in  1822  it  was  separated,  and  since  then  great  changes 
nave  been  mcde  in  its  botmdaries.  With  the  exception  ofaseriou* 
raid  in  1860  by  the  Kukia  or  Lushdis,  nothing  has  disturbed  the 
pea^je  of  the  district 

TIPFERARY,  an  inland  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Munster,  is  bounded  N  W.  by  Galway,  N.E.  by 
King's  county,  E  by  Queen's  County  and  Kilkenny,  S  by 
Waterford,  and  W  by  Cork,  Limerick,  Clare,  and  Galway. 
Its  greatest  length  north  to  south,  from  the  confluence  of 
the  Little  Brosna  and  the  Shannon  to  the  Knpckmealdown 
Mountains,  is  70  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  west  and 
east  40.  The  area  is  1,061,731  acres,  or  about  1659  square 
miles. 

The  surface  is  extremely  varied  and  picturesque.  The 
Knockmealdown  Mountains  on  the  southern  border  (2609 
feet)  are  principally  of  clay  slate  formation.  To  the  north 
of  this  range  are  the  picturesque  Galtees,  composed  of 
Silurian  strata  overlaid  by  Old  Red  Sandstone  (Galtymore 
3015  feet).  To  the  east,  bordering  Kilkenny,  are  the 
Slieveardagh  Hills,  composed  of  coalstone  shales  and  sand- 
stones, and  near  Templemore  the  Devil's  Bit  Mountains, 
with  a  curious  gap  on  the  summit.  In  the  north-west  there 
is  a  Silurian  and  sandstone  group  (Keeper  Hill  2265  feet). 
The  greater  part  of  the  county  is  a  gently  undulating  plain, 
belonging  to  the  central  Carboniferous  limestone  plain  of 
Ireland.  From  the  rich  level  country  the  rock  of  Cashel, 
also  composed  of  limestone,  rises  with  great  boldness  and 
abruptness.  Tipperary  has  only  one  river,  the  Suir,  which 
has  its  source  in  the  Devil's  Bit  Mountains,  and  flows  south- 
wards by  Templemore,  Thurles,  Caher,  and  Clonmel.  The 
Nore,  which  also  rises  in  the  Devil's  Bit  Mountains,  soon 
passes  into  Queen's  county,  and  the  Shannon  forms  part 
of  the  western  border.  A  spur  of  the  Leinster  coal-field, 
the  most  important  in  Ireland,  runs  into  Tipperary,  extend- 
ing to  Cashel,  a  distance  of  20  miles  with  an  average 
breadth  of  5  miles.  All  the  measures  are  represented.  The 
productive  portion  of  the  field  b  at  Killenaule.  It  con- 
sists of  a  narrow  trough  ranging  in  a  nortb-east  direction, 
the  beds  dipping  towards  the  axis  at  a  high  angle.  The 
coal  is  anthracite  and  the  seams  are  thin,  the  workable 
portion  being  of  limited  extent.  In  the  lower  measures 
are  marine  fossils,  and  plant  impressions  are  numerous. 
Copper  is  obtainable  at  Lackamore  and  at  Hollyford  near 
Thurles,  but  only  in  small  quantities.  There  is  a  vein  of 
lead  at  Shallee,  and  zinc  has  recently  been  dug  in  consider- 
able quantities  at  Silvermines  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Keeper  Mountains.  Manganese,  malachite,  galena,  and 
barytes  are  also  obtainable.  There  are  slate  quarries  at 
Eallaloe.  Between  Caher  and  Clonmel  are  extensive  de- 
posits of  fine  pipe-clay.  The  Mitchelstown  stalactite 
caverns,  discovered  accidentally  in  1833,  attract  a  large 
number  of  visitors. 

AsricuUure. — Tipperary  ranks  among  the  best  agricnltura)  dis- 
tricts of  Ireland.  The  subsoil  in  the  Tower  grounds  is  limestoi.e, 
which  is  overlaid  by  a  rich  calcareous  loam,  capable  of  yielding  the 
fineat  crops.  The  centre  of  the  county  is  occupied  by  the  Golden 
Vale,  the  most  fertile  district  in  Ireland,  which  stretches  from 
Cashel  to  the  town  of  Limerick.  On  the  higher  districts-the  soil  , 
is  light  and  thin,  partaking  much  of  the  character  of  the  clay  sla'« 
and  sands  on  which  it  rests.  Detached  portions  of  the  Bog  of  .Allei} 
encroach  on  the  north-eastern  parts  of  the  county.  The  total  num- 
ber of  holdings  in  1S85  was  23,763,  of  which  14,369  were  under 
80  acres  in  extent,  — 4841  between  15  and  30  acres,  4444  between  5 
and  16,  2861  between  1  and  5.  and  2223  less  than  1  acre.  Of  the 
total  area  24 '8  per  cent  was  under  crops,  including  meadow  and  ; 
clover,  67*9  under  grass,  "1  fallow,  2'5  plantations,  49  bog  and 
marsh,  6*4  barren  mountain  land,  and  3*4  water,  roads,  fences,  itc 
The  area  under  corn  crops  decreased  from  85.883  acres  in  1876  ta 


406 


T  I  P  — T  I  P 


78,753  in  1885,  the  decrease  'havuig  taken  place  sinee  1882,  the 
areas  in  the  pr^rioiLs  years  having  wen  remarkably  uniform  The 
area  undpr  wheat  derroased  from  n.423  acrea  in  1882  to  5474  in 
1885,  and  th.it  of  oats  from  57,3:i2  to  50,196  '  But  the  area  under 
barley,  for  which  di^tiiiation  tausps  a  steady  demjind,  lose  from 
13,551  acres  in  1876  to  17,998  in  1885  The  area  un.ler  gr^en 
crops  manifests  also  a  tendency  to  decrease  ;  the  tola!  area  in  18K5 
Wis  5S,833  acres,  33,012  lieing  under  poutix-s,  19.196  tuniiivs.  2096 
mangolds  anf*  IcptrO'tt,  ati'i  4199  other  gteen  riojis  The  area 
und'  r  ine;i'hiw  and  clover  has  le-^n  stpaddy  increasing.  l»eing  1 14.149 
in  1876  and  127,478  in  1885  The  lotul  ruinlK-r  of  horses  in  1885 
^,13  27,365,  of  whl'h  17.173  were  useil  for  agriculture  ;  the  number 
of  cattle  254,488.  of  whi*  h  80,508  were  nuh  h  cows,  the  manufac 
ture  of  butter  occupying  consid>:rjbIe  attpution  ;  of  shepp  203.798, 
pigs  80,475,  goats  13  01 1,  anl  (.oultry  681,239  A'cording  to  the 
Intest  landowners'  F'Otrrt  (1876),  the  county  was  divide<l  among 
237^  propru'tors  on-ning  1.012,457  acres  of  an  annual  value  of 
X676.683,  the  avenge  valiie  of  the  land  being  ijpaily  Kls  per  acre. 
The  following  possessed  upwards  of  10.000  ai  les  each  .  —  viscount 
Lisraora,  34,915;  Lord  Dunallev,  2l,«'l  ,  <i  K  .S  M  Dawson, 
19,093-  Lady  Murg.iret  Chartcris,  16,617,  maiquis  of  Oimonde, 
15,7691  Vis-ount  H,iwarden,  15,272,  N  Bui  kley.  13,260;  earl  of 
Clodmel,  11,098  ;•  and  A    Moore,  10,200. 

Afimufnctiirr^'i  — A  few  persons  aip  employed  iiiViining.  but  the 
occupation  of  the  inlial'll-ints  is  chndly  agri'ullural  There  are  a 
coDsidcrahle  numl>ei  of  meal  and  flour  mills. 

HoibDniji. — The  county  is  rem:ukftl.ly  well  supplied  vinlh  rail- 
^vays.  A  branch  of  the  Great  Southein  and  Western  runs  from 
Roscrea  to  N'-n.tgh.  wliere  it  joins  a  bran' li  of  the  Limjerick  and 
W'aterford,  which  in  its  progri-ss  south  e.istwards  fioro  Limerick 
crosses  the  southenj  comer  of  the  county  by  Liineiick  Junction, 
Tippprary,  Caher,  and  Clonmel  The  oiain  line  of  the  Oreat 
SoutliTin  and  WestPin  to  Cork  and  Killarney  crosses  the  centre  of 
the  coitnty  l-y  Tpmf'Icmore,  Tburlcs,  and  Limerick  Junction.  A 
lu.mch  of  the  Limerick,  and  Wateiford  connects  Thurles  with 
CloumeL 

A'l'ninuitrnlum  onil  PnpiCnUon  — Tipperary  is  divided  into  a 
north  and  .south  ridiug.  each  consisting  of  six  baronies.  For  parlia- 
inpotary  fKjipost-s  it  ls  separated  into  four  divisions — East,  Mi-I, 
North,  and  .South — each  returtiing  one  member  ]t  contains  193 
parishes  and  3253  town  laniis.  It  is  in  the  Leinster  circuit.  Assizes 
for  the  north  riding  are  held  in  Nenagb  and  for  the  south  riding 
in  Cloorael  Quarter  sessions  are  held  at  Cashel.  Clonmel,  Nenagh. 
Roscroa,  Thnrlcs,  and  Tipperary.  There  are  twenty  four  petty 
sessions  districts  ami  parts  of  six  others.  The  county  is  within  the 
Cork  iiolitary  dislriit  Ec.-lesiastically  it  l>elong3  to  the  dioceses 
of  Ca-^hel,  Einly.  lijilaloe.and  Lismore.  Since  1841  the  population 
lias  de(reasc-d  more  than  one  half  Froru  435,553  in  that  year  it 
fell  to  216,718  in  1871  and  to  199,612  in  1881.  The  following 
to>ers  in  18M  possessed  over  4000  iiihabitantsfeach,  viz  — Clonmel 
(partly  in  Watei fold). 9325;  Tipi)erary,7274  ;  Carrickon  Suir  (partly 
in  NVateiloid).  65S3  ,  Nenagh.  5422;  and  Thurles,  4850  Tlip 
number  of  ('prions  who  could  read  and  write  was  115.185,  who 
could  read  ouly,  21,386;  the  icniaindcr— 60,041  — were  unable  to 
reiid  or  \»n-ite.  There  were  2l8  persons  who  spoke  Irish  only  and 
23.5;.S  able  to  spe.ik  Irish  as  well  as  Englis'h. 

H'^torij  atid  Antiqiniifis — Anciently  Tipperary  was  included  in 
the  territory  of  the  Tiiatha  De  Danaun,  and  afterwar<ls  probably 
of  the  clan  of  Degrud  Henry  11  ,  who  landed  at  W.itprford  in 
Ocrolier  1 172.  re-  eivcd  at  Cashel  the  homage  of  Donald  O'Brien,  king 
of  TbomoncL  It  was  niade  a  county  by  King  John  in  1210;  in 
1328  E'i^ard  III  made  it  a  county  palatine  in  favour  of  the  e.irl 
of  Ormonde  ;  aud,  lliough  the  king  shortly  afterwards  resumed  his 
regal  preroganve,  the  county  was  regranted  in  1337.  In  1372  Pie 
cram  was  confiimcd  to  James,  seconti  earl  of  Ormonde,  the  lands 
oelonging  to  the  church  retaining,  however,  a  separate  jurisdiction, 
— a  dicisiou  which  continued  tUl  the  Restoration.  In  1617  James 
I  took  the  county  palatine  into  his  own  hands.  It  was,  however, 
restored  in  1661  to  James,  twelfth  earl  and  first  duke,  whose  re- 
galities were  further  made  to  include  the  portions  of  the  county 
foimerly  under  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  On  the  attainder  of 
James,  second  ddfee,  in  1715  the  jurisdiction  reverted  to  the  crown. 
There  are  v»o  Toiind  towers  within  the  county, — one  at  Roscrea 
»nd  the  oileer  on  the  Tock  of  Cashel.  Of  the  old  castles  there  are 
few  importHni  examples.  That  built  by  the  first  eaci  of  Ormonde 
fit  Thurles  has  how  disappeared.  On  the  rock  of  Cashel  there  arc  a 
massive  guard  tower  and  some  remains  of  the  ancient  wall.  The 
stronghold  of  Cipher,  now  occupied  as  a  barrack,  is  still  in  good  pre- 
•ervation.  At  Roscroa  one  of  the  towers  of  the  castle  built  by  King 
John  still  remains,  and  the  stronghold  of  the  Ormondes,  erected  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  forms  the  depot  attached  to  the  barracks. 
The  ccclesia>tical  ruins  on  the  rock  of  Cashel  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  in  Ireland,  They  consist  of  a  cathedral  in  tne  Pointed 
•tyle  of  the  13th  century,  partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1495  ;  a  curi- 
ous 3axon  chapel,  ascribed  to  Cormac  MacCuUinan,  archbishop  of 
Cashel  (b,  631);  the  bishop's  palac«  ;  the  "vicar's  choral-bouse," — 
•II  on  the  summit  of  the  rook  ;  and  Hor«  abbey  at  its  foot,  founded 


for  Benedictines  in  1272.  Tha  abbey  of  Holy  Cross  was  foundril 
in  1182  for  Cistercian  monks,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  monastic 
niins  in  Ireland.  The  relic  of  the  true  cross,  from  which  the  abbey 
takes  its  name,  is  in  possession  of  the  Catholic  hierarchy  of  ths 
district.  The  other  [iriQcipal  ecclesiastical  ruins  are  the  priory  of 
Aihassel,  fiiunded  for  Augustinian  monks  about  1200,  Fetbard 
aiibey,  foundpd  in  the  Nth  century,  now  used  as  a  chapel  ,  the 
gable  and  p<jrph  of  the  abbey  of  Roscrea.  founded  by  St  Cronan  in 
the  7th  century  ,  and  a  poitioti  of  the  Franciscan  friary  founded 
in  the  same  town  in  1490 

TIPPER AR",  a  market  town  id  the  above  couoly,  ia 
beautifully  situated  near  the  base  of  the  Slieve-na  muck 
or  Tipperary  Hills,  a  branch  of  the  Galtee  range,  on  tha 
Waterford  and  Limerick  Railway,  3  miie.-i  south-east  of 
Linfierick  junction  and  1 10  .southwest  of  Dublin,  It  con- 
tains a  handsome  Protestant  church,  a  Catholic  chapel,  aa 
endowed  grammar  school,  a  town  hall,  and  a  new  corn  and 
butter  market  Owing  to  its  situation  in  the  centre  of  a 
fine  agricultural  district,  it  enjoys  considerable  prosperity, 
■and  its  butter  market  ranks  next  to  that  of  Cork  The 
town  is  of  great  antiquity,  but  first  acquired  importance 
by  the  erection  of  a  castle  by  King  .Tohn,  of  which  there 
are  now  no  remains.  A  monastery  founded  for  Augustin. 
ians  by  Henry  III.,  which  has  also  disappeared,  gave  a 
second  impulse  to  its  growth.  Formerly  it  was  a  corpora- 
tion from  agrant  made  in  1310  by  Edward  II  ,  but  is  now 
governed  by  commissioners  under  provision  of  the  Towrr 
Improvement  Act  of  18.54.  The  population  in  1871  wa» 
6638,  and  in  1881  it  was  7274. 

TIPPOO  SAHIB  (1749-1799),  sultan  of  Mysore,  was 
the  son  of  Hvber  Ali  (qv),  and  was  born  in  1749  He 
received  a  careful  Mohammedan  education,  and  was  in- 
structed in  military  tactics  by  the  French  officers  in  the 
employment  of  his  father.  In  J767  in  the  invasion  ot 
the  Carnatic  he  commanded  a  corps  of  cavalry,  and  he 
subsequently  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mahratta  War 
of  1775-79.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  ficst  My.sore  War  in 
1780  he  was  put  at  the  head  of  a  large  body  of  troops, 
with  which  he  achieved  several  successes;  in  particular  ha 
entirely  defeated 'Bratbwaite  on  the  banks  of  the  Coleruu 
in  February  1782.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  December 
1782,  and  in  1784  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
English.  In  the  same  year  he  assumed  the  title  of  sultan. 
In  1787-88  he  subjugated  the  Nairs  of  Malabar,  and  in 
1 789  provoked  EngUsh  invasion  by  ravaging  the  territories 
of  the  rajah  of  Travancore.  When  the  English  entered 
Mysore' in  1790,  he ' retaliated  by  a  counter-invasion,  but 
he  was  ultimately  compelled  by  Cornwallis's  victory  at 
Ari]<era,  near  Seringapatam,  to  purchase  peace  by  the 
cession  of  the  half  of  his  dominions  (16th  March  1792). 
The  English  having  deemed  it  necessary  to  renew  hostilities 
in  March  1799,  be  was  in  less  than  two  months  shut  up 
in  Seringapatam  and  accidentally  killed  during  the  siege 
(4th  May  1799).     See  India,  vol.  xii.  pp.  803-4. 

TIPTON,  a  town  of  England,  in  Staffordshire,  is  situated 
in  the  valley  of  the  Stour,  on  the  Loudon  and  North- 
western Railway,  4i  miles  south-east  of  Wolverhampton 
and  121  north-west  of  London.  It  is  built  in  a  somewhat 
scattered  and  irregular  manner,  with  coal-pits  and  iron, 
and  other  •works  interspersed.  Branches  of  the  Birming- 
ham Canal  supply  it  with  water  communication.  It  de- 
pends chiefly  on  its  iron  manufactures,  especially  of  a 
heavy  kind,  and  has  numerous  large  furnaces  and  roUing- 
mllls.  Its  principal  goods  are  rails,  engine-boilers,  tubes, 
fenders,  and  fire-irOns.  It  also  possesses  works  for  making 
iron  bridges  and  stations,  cement-works,  brick-works,  and 
maltings.  There  are  no  public  buildings  of  importance. 
Tipton  has  six  churches.  The  parish  church  is  of  very 
ancient  cate,  and  its  registers  go  back  to  the  year  1513. 
Formerly  the  town  was  sometimes  called  Tibbington. 
It  is  tinder  the  government  of  a  local  board  formed  ia 
1866.      The  population   of   the   urban   sanitarj  di«*rict 


T I R— T I R 


407 


^  30,013.' 

TlRABOSCHl,  GiEOLiMO  (1731-1794),  the  first  his- 
torian of  Italito  literature,  was  born  at  Bergamo  on  18th 
becember  1731.vHe  studied  at  the  Jesuit  college  at  Monza, 
jctcred  the  order,  and  was  appointed  in  1755  professor  of 
eloquence  in  the  university  of  Milan.  Here  he  produced 
(1766-68)  Vetera  SumUiatorum  ilonurtierUa  (3  vols.),  a  his- 
tory of  the  extinct  order  of  the  Umiliati,  which  gave  him 
it  once  a  distinguished  place  in  literature.  Nominated 
in  1 7  70  librarian  to  Francis  III.,  duke  of  Modena,  he  turned 
to  rxcount  the  copious  materials  there  accumulated  for  the 
composition  of  hiS  Storia  delta  Letteralura  Jtaliana.  This 
vast  work,  ir.  which  the  progress  of  Italian  literature  from 
the  time  iii  the  Etruscans  to  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
is  traced  in  detail,  occupied  eleven  assiduous  years,  1771- 
8°,  and  the  thirteen  quarto  volumes  embodying  it  appeared 
successively  at  Modena  during  that  period.  A  second  en- 
larged edition  (16  vols.)  was  issued  from  1787  to  1794, 
and  was  succeeded  by  many  others,  besides  abridgments 
in  German,  French,  and  English.  -  Tiraboschi  died  at 
Modena  on  3d  June  1794,  leaving  a  high. reputation  for 
virtue,  learning,  and  piety. 

Tiraboschi  wrote  besides  Bii/io««ea'i/«tm«<"(6  vols.,'1781-85)T 
J^oiizii  dtf*  Putcriy  ScuUori,  Incisori^  ed  ArchiUtXi  Modenesi  (1786)' 
Hcmorit  SCorictu  Modeiusi  (5  vols.,  1793-94),  and  many  minor 
vorka.  He  edited  the  Xucvo  Gitrmalt  dei  LeiUrati  d' Italia  (1773- 
pO),  and  left  materials  for  a  work  of  great  research  entitled  Dizion- 
urio  Top<igrafico-St43TW>  dcgli  St^i^£st£nsi  (2  vols.  4to.  Modena, 
1824-25). 

TIRESIAS,'a  famous  Theban  seer  of  Greek  legend,  was 
a  son  of  Everes  and  Chariclo,  and  a  descendant  of  Udaeus, 
one  of  the  men  who  had  sprung  up  from  the  serpent's 
teeth  sown  by  Cadmus.  He  was  blind,  for  which  various 
tauses  were  alleged.  Some  said  that  the  gods  had  blinded 
him  because  he  had  fevealed  to  men  what  they  ought  not 
to  know.  Others  said  that  Athene  (or  Artemis)  blinded 
him  because  he  had  seen  her  naked ;  when  his  mother 
prayed  Athene  to  restore  his  sight,  the  goddess  instead 
purged  his  ears  so  that  he  could  understand  the  speech  of 
birds  and  gave  him  a  staff  wherewith  to  guide  his  steps. 
Another  story  was  that  on  Moiint  Cyllene  (or  on  Cythaerum) 
he  saw  two  snakes  coupling ;  he  killed  the  female  and 
became  himself  a  woman.  Seven  years  afterwards  he  saw 
the  same  sight,  and  killing  the  male  became  himself  a  man 
again.  When  Zeus  and  Hera  disputed  whether  more 
pleasure  was  enjoyed  by  the  male  or  the  female  sex,  they 
re/erred  the  question  to  Tiresias,  as  he  had  experience  of 
both.  He  decided  in  favour  of  the  female  sex,  and  Hera 
in  her  anger  blinded  hijn  ;  but  Zeus  gifted  him  with  long 
life  and  infallible  divination.  He  lived  for  seven  or, 
according  to  others,  nine  ■generations.'  In  the  war  of  the 
Seven  against  Thebes  he  foretold  to  the  Thebans  that  they 
would  be  victorious  if  Menoeceus  offered  himself  in  sacrifice. 
In  the  war  of  the  Epigoni  he  advised  the  Thebans  to  flee. 
They  Sed,  and  he  with  them ;  but  coming  to  the  Tilphusian 
well  he  drank  of  it  and  died.  According  to  others,  Tiresias 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the"  victorious  Argives  and  died 
while  they  were  taking  him  to  Delphi.  ■  The  Argives  took 
his  daughter  Manto  (or  Daphne)  prisoner  and  sent  her  to 
'Apollo  at  Delphi,  where,  being  as  .^killed  a  seer  as  her 
father,  she  gave  oracles.  A  different  version  of  the  legend 
of  Tiresias  was  given  by  the  elegiacLpoet  Sostratus  (reported 
by  Eustathioa  on  Od.,  x.  492).  -Ac«)rding  to  him,  Tiresias 
Was  originally  a  girl,  but  had  been  changed  into  a  boy  by 
Apollo  at  the  age  of  seven ;  after  undergoing  several  more 
transformations  from  one  sex  to  the  other,  she  (for  the 
^al  sex  was  feminine)  was  turned  into  a  mouse  and  her 
Jover  Arachnus  into  a  weasel  Tiresias'a  grave  was  at  the 
(Tilphusian -spring;  bat  there  was  a  cenotaph  of  him  at 
Tliebes,  where  also  in  later  times  his  ."observatory,"  or 


place  loi  w-itching  for  omens,  was  pointed  out  He  hacf 
■an  oracle  at  Omhomenus,  but  during  a  plague  it  became 
silent  and  remained  so  in  Plutarch's  time.  According  to 
Homer,  Tiresias  was  the  only  person  ia  the  world  of  the 
dead  whom  Proserpine  allowed  to  retain  intelligence.  He 
figured  in  the  great  paintings  by  Polygnotus  in  the  Lesche 
at  Delphi,  The  story  of  his  transformation  into  a  woman 
is  perhaps  to  be  explained  by  the  custom  of  medicine-men 
dressing  like  women,  which  prevails  in  Borneo,  Patagonia,' 
Kadiak  (off  Alaska),  and  probably  elsewhere.' 

TIRHUT,  or  Tiehoot,  a  district  of  British  India,  was 
formerly  the  largest  and  most  populous  in  Bengal.  On 
1st  January  1875  it  was  divided  into  the  two  districts  of 
Darbhangah  and  Muzaffarpur.  For  the  latter,  see  Muzat- 
PAHPcrs.  The  former,  with  an  area  of  3335  square  miles,' 
lies  between  25°  30'  and  26°  40'  N.  lat.  and  85°  34'  and 
86°  46'  R  long.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Nepal^  on 
the  E.  by  Bhigalpur,  on  the  S.  by  Monghyr,  and  on  the 
W.  by  Muzaffarpur.  The  population  of  Darbhangah  in 
1881  was  2,633,447  (males  1,295,788,  females  1,337,659); 
of  these  Hindus  numbered  2,323,979,  Mohammedans 
308,985,  and  Christians  325.  Its  chief  toivns  are  Dar- 
bhangah, the  capital,  with  65,955  inhabitants;  Madhu- 
bani,  11,911;  and  Eusera,  11,578.  The  total  revenue  of 
Darbhangah  district  in  1885-86  araoiinted.  to  £157,037.  of 
which  the  land  revejlue  yielded  w£80,44'3. 

The  alluTial  tract  of  country  formerly  known  as  Tirhnt  is  varied 
by  undulations,  with  groves,  orchards,  and  woods.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Ganges,  Gandak,  Baghmati.  Tiljugi,  and  Karai,  which 
are  rarely  navigable,  except  during  the  rainy  season,  when  they  are 
mostly  rapid  and  dangerooa.  Tirhut  produces  all  sorts  of  crops,' 
rice  being  the  principal ;  others  are  wbeat,  barlej',  maiz'e,  oil-seeds, 
&c. ;  opium  and  tobacco  are  largely  grown  for  export.  The  chief 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of  indigo,  saltpetre,  coarse  doth, 
pottery,  and  mats.  The  Tirhat  State  Railway  runs  from  Mokameh 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges  through  Darbhangah  and  Muzaf- 
farpur districts  north-west  into  Champaran  district  as  far  as  Bettia.' 
A  ferry  over  the  Ganges, at  Mokameh  tonneets  it  with  the  East 
Indian  JtaUway.  There  are  two^  branches,  one  extending^  from 
Muzafifarpur  south-west  to  Hajipur  (to  be  connected  with  the  Bengal 
and  North-'Western  Railway  at  Sonapur  by  a  bridge  over  the  Gan. 
dak),  the  other  (226  miies  open  for  trafcc-  in  March  1886)  from 
Samaatipur  via  Darbhangah  to  Janjarpur,  from  which  it  will  ex- 
tend eastwards  to  Partabganj,  a  mart  upon  the  Kosi  river  near  the 
Nepal  frontier. 

TERLEMOKT  (Flem.  Thimen),  a.  town  of  Belgium,~in 
the  province  of  Brabant,  29|  miles  by  rail  to  the  east  of 
Brusseb,  on  the  Great  Geete.  'The  old  walls,  dismantled 
since  1804,  are  nearly  6  miles  in  circuit,  but  enclose  a 
large  extent  of  arable  and  garden  ground.  The  streets 
are  regular,  and  there  are  some  spacious  squares ;  the 
market-place  contains  the  town-hall,  recently  restored,  and 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame  du  Lac^  founded  in  1298, en- 
larged in  the  15th  century,  but  etill  unfinished.  The 
church  of  St  Germain  dates  partly  from  the  9th  century^ 
The  industries  of  the  place  inchide  the  making  of  steam- 
engines,  brewing,  distilling,  soap-making,  tanning,  and 
various  woollen  and  cotton  manufactures..  The  population 
in  1876  was  13,296. 

Tirlemont  was  once  a  much  lai^r  and  more  flonrishing  tows 
than  it  now  is  ;  it  has  suffered  much  in  war  and  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1635,  by  Marlborough  in  1705,  and  again  by  the  French 
in  1793.  John  Holland,  the  famous  editor  nf  the  Acta  Sav^torum^ 
was  bom  here  in  1596. 

TERYNS,  the  Ti'pri-s  reix^ovTo-a  of  Homer  (Ic,  li.  659), 
was  a  small  Peloponnesian  city,  in  the  prehistoric  period 
of  the  Achaean  race,  long  before  the  Dorian  immigration. 
It  stood  on  a  small  rock  in  the  marshy -plain  of  Argolis. 
about   3  miles   from_  the  sea,  and  was  •fabled  to  have 

i  On  this  custom  see  Journals  of  James  Brooke  of  Sara-wok^  ii.  p. 
65  tq. ;  H.  Low,  SaraMxik,  p.  176  tq.\  Perelaer,  Kthnogr.  Betchrijving 
dtr  Dajaks,  p.  32  k[.  ;  Carl  Book,  Head  Hunters  of  Borneo,  p-  222  n. ; 
Fulkner,  Lescriptum  of  Patagonioy  p.  117;,  TVani  £iJinoli>g.  Soe.' 
L<md.,  new  serits,  vii.  p.  323;  Holmberg,  J^EAnogr.  Skizieo,"  ia 
1  Acta  fSoc  Mont.  JFenrMx,  ir.  p.  400  tq. 


408 


T  I  R  Y  N  S 


oeen  founded  by  King  Proetus,  the  brother  of  Acrisius, 
■rfho  was  succeeded  by  the  hero  Perseus.  It  was  the  scene 
of  the  early  life  of  Heracles,  who  is  hence  called  Tiryn- 
iLius.  The  massive  walls  were  said  to  have  been  the 
work  of  Cyclopean  masons.  Its  period  of  greatest  splen- 
dour was  during  the  11th  and  10th  centuries  B.C.;  but 
the  city  continued  to  exist  till  about  468  B.C.,  when  it  was 
destroyed  through  the  jealousy  Of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
neighbouring  Argos,'  who  had  not  assisted  in  the  final  de- 
feat of  the  Persians  at  Plataea.'^ 

Excavations  made  in  1884-85  by  Schliemann  and 
Dorpfeld  over  part  of  the  rock  on  which  Tiryns  stood  have 
exposed  a  most  interesting  building,  quite  unique  as  an 
example  of  a  Greek  palace  of  the  lllh  or  10th  century 
B.C.,  and  of  special  interest  from  the  way  in  which  it  closely 
illustrates  the  Homeric  palaces  of  Alcinous  and  Odysseus, 
and  throws  a  new  light  on  scenes  such  as  the  slaughter  of 
the  suitors  {Od.,  xxi.  and  xxii.). 


Fio.  1.— PlflD  of  the  palace  in  the  upper  part  of  Tiryns.  1.  Main  gate  in  the 
outer  walJ.  C.  Inuer  gate,  approached  between  massive  walla.  3  Main 
propyljeari  6  Inner  propylffiora,  6.  Court(av\Tj)of  the  men,  surrounded 
by  a  colonoade  on  ttree  aides  ;  the  altar  to  Zeua  Herceua  la  by  the  entrance. 
6,  AtSovca,  portico  of  the  men's  megaroD.  7.  np65o^io5,  inner  porch.  8. 
Mens  megarou.  with  roof  supported  on  four  columns,  and  the  circular  hearth 
in  the  middle  9.  Bath-room  and  small  daXdfxoi,  10,  10.  Chambers  round 
the  great  court.  U,  11.  Guard  chambers  by  the  main  propylaeum.  12. 
Passage  {\avp7})  from  the  main  propylaeum  to  the  women's  part.  13>  13. 
Courts  of  the  women.  14.  Women's  megaron.  15.  Chambers  (daXi/ioi) 
in  the  women's  part.  16.  Passage  from  women's  part  to  the  rock-cut  stnirs. 
17.  Small  postern  door  In  the  semicircular  bastion,  approached  by  flight  of 
rock-cut  steps  18,18.  Massive  outer  wall  of  city.  19.  Inner  wall  to  guard 
^le  entrance  passage.  20.  Part  of  outer  wall,  with  intermediate  passage  and 
-t)we  of  chambers,  as  shown  in  flg.  2. 

The  rock  on  which  Tir3Tis  is  built,  ig  of  an  irregular  oval  shape, 
about  330  yards  long  uy  1]2  at  the  widest  part,  and  's  surrounaed 

*  Homer  {/I.,  ii.  559)  speaks  of  the  Tirynthians  as  subject  to  Argos. 

*  See  Diod.,  iv.  10  ;  Paus.,  ii.  25  ;  and  Herod.,  vi.  83,  ix.  28.  Schlie- 
mauD  {Tinjns,  London,  ISStJ)  and  Mahaffy  (in  Bermathena,  Dublin), 
however,  deny  the  truth  of  this  statement,  believing  that  Tiryns  ceased 
to  exist  some  centuries  earlier,  in  spite  of  the  strong  evidence  given  by 
the  inscription  on  the  bronze  column  {now  in  Constantinople),  formed 
by  three  twisted  serpents,  which  once  supported  the  golden  tripod 
dedicated  to  Apollo  out  of  the  spoils  from  Plataa.  Tiryns  occurs  in 
the  list  of  allied  states  present  at  that  battle  ;  moreover,  recent  dis- 
coveries have  brought  to  light  remains  of  an  important  building  of 
about  600  B.C. 


like  ^ 


by  a  very  massive  wall,  varj'ing  from  30  to  40  feet  in  tWctilfli^, 
and  a\eraging  when  complete  about  50  feet  in  height,  measormg,  ■ 
from  its  base  outaids.  Inside,  the  wall  was  probably  not  mora' 
than  10  or  12  feet  high  above  the  ground,  '•o  the  masonry  acts  as 
u  retaining  wall  to  a  considerable  depth  of  earth  which  covers  tho 
rock  (see  fig.  2  below).  The  wall  is  built  of  very  large  hammer- . 
dressed  blocks,  some  as  much  as  10  feet  long  by  3  feet  3  inchta  or> 
3  feet  6  inches  wide,  with  smaller  ones  to  fill  up  the  interstices.! 
The  whole  was  bedded,  not  in  mortar,  but  in  clay,  which  hua 
mostly  been  washed  out  of  the  joints  ;  originally  the  surface  wa» 
probably  protected  with  a  cciting  of  stucco.  The  only  important 
gateway,  which  was  on  the  east  side,  away  from  the  sea,  probably 
resembled  the  "lion  gate"  at  Mycense.  The  other  entrances  ar* 
mere  slits  in  the  wall.  One  of  these  and  the  chief  gate  are  shown 
in  fig.  1.  Internally  the  area  of  the  city  was  divided  by  cross  walla 
into  three  parts  at  successive  levels.  The  lowest  and  middle  divi- . 
siona  have  not  yet  been  excavated  ;  the  upper  part  at  the  south, 
^nd  of  the  rock  was  completely  exposed  in  1884-85  by  Schliemanik, 
and  Dorpfeld,  and  the  almost  complete  plan  of  the  various  struc* 
tures  clearly  made  out.  This  division  contains  the  palace  of  th* 
ruler  of  Tiryna,  a  building  which  shows  careful  and  skilful  con* 
Btruction,  elaborate  decoration,  and  a  well-arranged  plan,  <«uitabl» 
to  the  wants  of  a  wealthy  autocratic  chief,  who  lived  in  i  n^anner 
which  partly  recalls  the  luxury  of  an  Oriental  king,  and  al&>  re- 
sembled the  feudal  state  of  a  mediaeval  baron,  surrounded  b)*  a 
crowd  of  vassals.  From  the  main  gate,  which  was  defended  by  t.% 
tower,  a  strong  passage  led  between  the  outer  wall  and  an  inne-t 
one  to  an  inner  gate,  thence  to  a  propylaeum  or  double  porch,  with 
two  wooden  columns  on  each  side,^  adjoining  which  were  chambers 
for  guards.  Then  came  another  similar,  but  smaller  propylaeum^ 
*and  opposite  to  that  was  the  entrance  to  the  great  court  (auXiiX 
nearly  53  by  70  feet,  in  which  stands  the  altar  to  Zeus  Hercens, 
with  a  circular  pit  beneath  it  to  catch  the  victims'  blood.  This 
court  was  surrounded  by  wooden  columns  supporting  a  roof,  ''*">  •- 
medieval  cloister ; 
on  the  south  side  are 
chambers  for  attend- 
ants (^aXd/ioi).  On 
the  north  side  is  the 
great  hall  {yjiyapov  *), 
with  an  outer  portico 
supported  by  two 
columns  {oldovoa) 
and  an  inner  vesti- 
bule (ir^So^os)  with 
three  doors.*  The 
hall  is  about  40  by 
30  feet,  with  a  cir- 
cular hearth-stone  in 
the  centre  (iarta  or 
iax^po.).  Four  col- 
umns supported  the 
roof,  the  central  part 
of  which  probably 
-ose  above  the  rest 
like  a  mediaeval 
'* lantern"  ;  and  in 
this  there  was  prob- 
ably a  door  leading 
out  c:>  the  flat  roof 
round  it — possibly 
the  dpcodufrrj  of 
Homer  (Oif.,  xxii. 
126),  through  which 
one  of  the  suitors 
escaped  and  so  got 
arras  from  the  treasury  or  annonry,  which  was  on  an  upper  fioor 
(see  Od.,  xxii.  142  and  xxi,  5).  On  the  west  side  of  the  nail  are  a 
number  of  small  chambers  (^aXd/wt)  for  the  unmarried  men,  and 
a  bath-room  about  i2  by  10  ft  t,  with  its  floor  formed  of  one  great 
slab  of  stone,  sloped  so  as  to  drain  out  at  one  side  through  a  pipe 
which  passes  through  the  wall.  The  women's  pai .  of  the  house 
is  of  equal  importance  to  that  of  the  men,  and  has  its  hall  and 
two  open  courts  with  pillars.  It  is  approached  in  a  very  cir* 
cuitous  way,*  either  by  a  passage  {\avp7})  leading  from  a  sida 


Fio.  2.— Section  through  the  cuter  wall  df  the  city  at, 
20  in  fig.  1.  A.  Outer  base  of  wall  R  Inside  level ; 
of  city.  C.  Intermediate  platform  for  the  garrisoiL 
D.  Chambers  opening  on  to  it,  with  roof  formed  of 
projecting  courses  of  stone  in  large  blocks.  E.  Top 
of  main  wall,  paved  with  clay,  level  with  the  inside. 
F.  Wooden  columns  on  existing  stone  bases,  form- 
ing a  porticus  or  covered  walk  along  the  top  of  tha 
wall.  G.  Outer  wall  of  the  colonnade  built  of  brick, 
now  missing.  H.  Probable  roof  of  the  colonnada 
of  wood,  covered  with  beaten  clay. 


'  The  arrows  in  fig.  1  show  the  way  from  the  city  gate  to  the  pala*^ 
court  and  hail. 

*  The  women's  hall  is  also  called  the  megaron  ;  see  Od. ,  rvui.  198L  ( 

*  The  Trp65ofioi  is  mentioned  by  Homer  (77.,ix.  473,  and  Orf.,  iT. 
302)  ;  but  in  the  palace  of  Odysseus  the  aXdovffa  seems  to  have  been  tha 
only  vestibult  to  the  megaron.  In  several  respects  the  palace  ol  Tiryns 
is  more  magnificent  than  that  of  Odysseus,  whose  hall  was  paved  with 
clay,  not  concrete  as  at  Tiryns  ;  see  Od.,  xxi.  122,  where  Telemaciina 
&^<pl  5i  yaiav  (va^t,  after  cutting  a  trench  to  fix  the  row  of  axes. 

*  The  way  to  the  harem  in  a  modem  Oriental  house  is  filmJlad?  . 
made  as  circuitous  as  possible,  for  the  sake  of  privacy. 


T  IS  — T  I  S 


409 


ooor  in  the  main  propylseum  or  by  another  long  passage' which 
winds  round  the  ''■sck  of  the' men's  hall,  and  so  leads  by  a  long 
flight  of  steps,  cut  inVUie  rock,  to  the  little  postern  door  in  the 
semicircular  bastion.  vXhe  ftiany  small  rooms  in  this  part  of  the 
palace  were  probably  the  bedroonks  of  the  women  and  married 
couples  of  the  chiers  family..  A  staircase  at  16  led  to  an  .upper 
floor,  like  the  nXifmi  u^tjXi)  of  Od.  xxl  5.  The  circuit  wall  round 
the  palace  is  more  strongly  constructed  than  the  rest  On  the 
south  side  it  is  built  in  two  offsets,  forming  a  level  platform  for  the 
garrison  halfway  up.  lu  the  uppr  and  thinner  part  of  the  wall 
two  narrow  passages  at  different  levels  are  formed  m  its  thickness. 
They  are  rooted,  by  projecting  courses  of  slone  in  large  blocks.  The 
waM  on  the  east  side  has  a  similar  intermediate  platform,  on  to 
which  open  a  series  of  small  chambers  formed  in  the  mass  of  the 
upper  wall  (see  fig  2).  At  the  top  level  the  wall  was  covered  by  a 
colonnads  of  » oo3  pillars  resting  on  circular  stone  blocks.  This 
supported  a  fiat  roof  and  was  open  to  the  inside  of  the  city.  The 
back  of  the  colonnnde  was  built  of  brick,  and  is  now  missing,  as 
are  all  the  brick  parts  of  the  city,  owug  to  the  bricks  having  been 
only  sun-dried. 

The  methods  of  construction  employed  in  the  Tirj-ns  palace  are 
of  the  highest  interest  The  foundations  and  about  3  feet  of  the 
Tails  above  the  ground  are  made  of  large  blocks  of  stone  bedded  in 
clay ;  above  this  the  wall  was  of  brick,  sun-dried-,  and  covered  with 
stuc<X).  The  upper  story  was  probably  of  wood.  Some  of  the 
thresholds  of  the  doors  were  massive  blocks  of  stone  (XdiVor  ovS6t) ; 
others  were  of  wood  {SpCii'm  oM^).  Wood  was  also  used  for  all  the 
columns,  doorposts,  and  ants  (irapo^rrddes),  and  in  some  cases  the 
walls  of  the  rooms  were  Lned  with  wood,  carefully  fixed  by  dowels, 
the  holes  for  which  still  exist*  The  doors  bad  pivots  of  bronze  re- 
volving in  well  fitted  bronze  cup-like  sockets  let  into  the  thresholds. 
In  the  megaron  and  other  rooms  the  fioors  are  of  good  concrete, 
decorated  with  a  simple  series  of  incised  lines,  coloured  blue  and 
red.  The  stucco  bf  the  internal  wall  is  decorated  with  bold  and 
very  effective  patterns — birds  aud  scroll-work  of  semi -Oriental 
style  ;  in  many  cases  the  motives  are  obviously  taken  from  textile 
ornaments,  as  in  the  most  archaic  style  of  vase  painting.  One 
example  of  rich  and  costly  decoration  remains, — part  of  a  frieze  of 
white  alabaster,  sculptured  in  relief  with  rosettes  and  interlacing 
patterns,  and  studded  with  jewel-like  pieces  of  blue  glass  or  enameU 
the  dptyxdi  Kvdvoio  of  Od.  vii  87.^  Further  excavations  in  the 
lower  parts  of  the  city  will,  probably  bring  to  light  the  dwellings 
of  the  citizens  who  garrisoned  the  place.  The  great  bulk  of  the 
Tiryntbians  must  have  lived  in  houses  outside  the  citadel,  but 
under  the  shelter  of  its  protection,  just  as  in  mediseval  Italy  villages 
grew  up  round  the  castles  of  any  powerful  lord.^  (J.  H.  M. ) 

TISCHENDORF,*  Lobegott  Feiedrich  KoNSTAiJTiN 
(1815-1874),  an  eminent  Biblical  critic,  the  son  of  a 
physician,  was  bom  on  18th  January  1815  at  Lengenfeld, 
near  Plauen,  in  the  Sason  Voigtland.  From  the  gym- 
nasium at  Plauen  he  passed  in  1834  to  the  university  of 
Leipsic,  where  he  was  mainly  influenced  by  Winer,  and 
began  to  take  special  interest  in  New  Testament  criticism. 
In  1840  he  qualified  as  university  lecturer' in  theology 
with  a  dissertation  on  the  recensions '  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment text,  the  main  part  of  which  reappeared  in  the  follow- 
ing  year  in  the  prolegomena  to  his  first  edition  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  importance  of  these  early  textual 
studies  was  that  they  convinced  him  of  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  new  and  exacter  collations  of  MSS.,  and  to  this 
work  he  now  gave  himself.  Above  all  he  desired  to  go  to 
Rome;  but  lack  of  help  and  money  compelled  him  to  turn 
first  towards  Paris,  where  he  remained  from  October  1840 
till  January  1843,  busy  with  the  treasures  of  the  great 
library,  eking' out  his  scanty  means  by  making  collations 
for  other  scholars,  and  producing  for  Didot  several  editions 
of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  one  of  them  exhibiting  the 
form  of  the  text  corresponding  most  closely  to  the  Vulgate. 
The  great  triumph  of  these  laborious  months  was  the  de- 
cipherment of  the  palimpsest  Codex  Ephraemi  Hescripius, 
of  which  the  New  Testament  part  was  printed  before  he 
left  Paris  and  the  Old  Testament  in  1845.  His  success 
in  dealing  with  a  MS.  much  of  which  had  been  illegible 


*  TLe  marks  of  the  wooden  wall  linings  are  specially  clear  in  the 
little  'oath-room 

*  The  genuineness  of  this  line  has  been  questioned,  but  apparently 
without  much  reason. 

*  In  modern  Itali-an  castello  means  a  "  village"  as  well  as  a"  castle," 

*  In  1869  he  became  Konslaiitin  von  Tischendorf,  having  been  raised 
to  a  place  in  the  hereditary  nobility  of  Russia. 

23—16* 


tojcarlier  collators  brought  him  into  note  and  gained  publio 
and  private  support  for  more  extended  critical  expeditions. 
From  Paris  he  had  paid  short  visits  to  Holland  (184 1)  and 
England  (1842).  In  1843  he  visited  Italy,  and  after  a 
stay  of  thirteen  months  went  on  to  Egypt,  Sinai,  Palestine, 
and  the  Levant,  returning  by  Vienna  and  Munich,*  From 
Sinai  he  brought  a  great  treasure,  forty-three  leaves  of 
what  is  now  known  as  the  Codex  Sinaitiau  (k).  For  the 
time  he  kept  the  place  of  discovery  a  secret,  hoping  to 
return  and  procure  the  rest  of  the  book,  and  the  ^gments 
were  published  in  1846  as  the  Codex  Friderico-Augustanus, 
a  name  given  in  honour  of  the  king  of  Saxony.  •  He  now 
became  professor  in  Leipsic  and  married  (1845).  His 
teaching  was  apparently  not  very  remarkable ;  but  his 
vacations  were  often  occupied  by  fruitful  critical  journeys, 
and  in  1853  and  1859  be  made  a  second  and  a  third 
voyage  to  the  East.  In  the  last  of  these,  in  which  he  had 
the  active  aid  of  the  Russian  Government,  he  at  length  got 
access  to  the  remainder  of  the  precious  Sinaitic  codex,  and 
persuaded  the  monks  to  present  it  to  the  czar,  at  -whose 
cost  it  yas  published  in  1862.  To  gain  for  critical  study 
a  manuscript  in  point  of  age  second  only  to  the  famous 
Vatican  Bible  was  a  splendid  triumph,  but  Tischendorf's 
Eastern  journeys  were  rich  enough  in  other  less  sensational 
discoveries  to  deserve  the  highest  praise.^  Side  by  side 
■with  his  industry  in  collecting  and  collating  MSS.,  Tischen- 
dorf pursued  a  constant  course  of  editorial  labours,  mainly 
on  the  New  Testament,  until  he  was  broken  down  by  over- 
work in  1873.     He  died  on  7th  December  1874  at  Leipsic. 

The  great  edition,  of  which  the  text  and  apparatus  appeared  in 
1869  and  1872,'  was  called  by  himself  edi(io  nit. ;  but  this  number 
is  raised  to  twenty  or  twenty-one  if  mere  reprints  from  stereotype 
plates  and  the  minor  editions  of  his  great  critical  texts  arc  included ; 
posthumous  prints  bring  up  the  total  to  forty-one.  Four  main 
recensions  of 'rischendorfs  text  may  be  distinguished,  dating  respect- 
ively from  his  edirions  of  1841,1849, 1859(eii.  »ti.),1869-72  (erf.  viii.). 
The  edition  of  1849  may  be  regarded  as  historically  the  most 
important  from  the  mass  of  new  critical  material  it  used  ;  that  of 
18u9  is  distinguished  fjom  TischendorTs  other  editions  by  coming 
nearer  to  the  received  text ;  in  the  eighth  edition  the  testimony  of 
the  Sinaitic  SIB.  received  great  (probably  too  great)  weight.  The 
readings  of  the  Vatican  US.  were  given  ^vilh  more  eyactness  and 
certainty  than  had  been  possible  in  the  earlier  editions,  and  the 
editor  had  also  the  advantage  of  using  the  published  labours  of 
Tregelles.  ^Vhatever  judgment  may  be  passed  on  Tischendorfs 
critical  tact  and  power,  the  apparatus  of  this  final  edition  will  not 
soon  be  superseded,  and  sums  up  a  vast  series  of  most  important 
services  to  Biblical  study. 

Much  less  important  was  Tischendorfs  work  on  the  Greek  Old 
Testament  His  edition  of  the  Romau  text,  with  the  variants  of 
the  Alexandrian  MS.,  the  Codex  Ephraemi,  aud  the  Fridcrico- 
Augustanus,  was  of  service  when  it  appeared  in  1850,  bat  being 
stereotyped  was  not  greatly  improved  m  subsequent  issues.  Its 
imperfections,  even  within  the  limited  field  it  covers,  may  be  judged 
of  by~the  aid  of  Nestle's  appendix  to  the  sixth  issue  (1880).  Besides 
this  may  be  mentioned  editions  of  the  New  Testament  Apocrypha 
{Acls  of  Apostles,  1851  ;  Gospels,  1853,  2d  ed.  1876  ;  Apocalypses. 
1866),  and  various  minor  writings,  in  part  ofan  apologetic  character, 
such  as  IFann  wurdcn  unsere  Evangdien  vcrfasst?  ( 1865)  and  .ffaien 
■wir  den  echien  Sckri/Uexi  der  Evangelisten  uiid  Apostel  f  (1873). 

TISIO,  or  Tisi,  BEm-ENUTO  (1481-1559),  commonly 
called  II  Gakofalo,  a  painter  of  the  Ferrarese  school 
He  was  bom  in  1481  at  Garofolo,  in  the  Ferrarese  terri- 
tory, and  /lonstantly  used  the  gillyflower  {garofalo)  as  a 
sjTnboI  with  which  to  sign  his  pictures.  He  took  to  draw- 
ing in  childhood,  and  was  put  to  study  under  Domenico 
Panetti  (or  Laneto),  and  afterwards  at  Cremona  under  his 
maternal  uncle,  Niccol6  Soriani,  a  painter  of  credit,  who 
died  in  1499;  he  also  frequented  the  school  of  Boccaccio 

^  See  bis  Reise  in  den  Orient,  Leipsic,  1845-46. 

'  The  MSS.  brought  to  Europe  on  the  first  two  journeys  are  cat*-' 
logued  in  \.\it  Anecdota  Sacra  et^rof ana  (Leipsic,  1 855.  enlarged  1861). 
See  also  the  Monumenta  Sacra  Inedita  (Leipsic,  1846),  and  A'mn 
Colleclio  of  the  same  (1855-69).  The  thu-d  volume  of  the  .A'ova  CUt, 
gives  the  results  of  his  last  Eastern  journey  [ 

'  The  prolegomena  remained  unfinished  at  his  death,  and  ar«  being 
jsunplied  by  C.  R.  Gregory. 

XXUL  —  52 


410 


T  I  T  — T  I  T 


Boccaccino.  Removing  to  Rome,  he  stayed  fifteen  months 
with  Giovanni  Baldini,  acquiring  a  solid  style  of  draughts- 
manship, and  finally  to  Mantua,  where  he  remained  two 
years  with  Lorenzo  Costa.  He  then  entered  the  service  of 
the  marquis  Francesco  Gonzaga.  Afterwards  he  went  to 
Ferrara,  and  worked  there  four  years,  showing  diligence 
and  delicacy  without  much  severity  or  elevation  of  style. 
Attracted  by  Raphael's  fame,  and  invited  by  a  Feri:arese 
gentleman,  Geronimo  Sagrato,  he  again  removed  to  Rome, 
and  found  the  great  painter  very  amicable  ;  here  he  stayed 
two  years,  rendering  some  assistance  in  the  Vatican  frescos. 
From  Rome  family  affairs  recalled  him  to  Ferrara ,  there 
Ehike  Alphonso  I.  commissioned  him  to  execute  paintings, 
along  with  the  Dossi,  in  the  Villa  di  Belriguardo  and  in 
other  palaces.  Thus  the  style  of  Tisio  partakes  of  the 
Lombard,  the  Roman,  and  the  Venetian  modes.  He  painted 
extensively  in  Ferrara,  both  in  oil  and  in  fresco,  two  of  his 
principal  works  being  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents  (1519), 
in  the  church  of  S.  Francesco,  and  the  Betrayal  of  Christ 
(1524),  accounted  his  masterpiece.  For  the  former  he  made 
clay  models  for  study  and  a  lay  figure,  and  executed  every- 
thing from  nature.  Both  in  the  Ferrarese  territory  and  in 
Rome  his  fiictures  of  small  dimensions  are  very  numerous. 
He  continued  constantly  at  work  until  in  1550  blindness 
overtook  him, — an  affliction  which  he  bore  with  patience, 
being  a  man  of  pleasant  friendly  disposition  and  of  devout 
feeling.  La  the  later  years  of  his  work  he  painted  on  all 
feast-days  in  monasteries  for  the  love  of  God.  He  had 
married  at  the  age  of  forty-eight  and  died  at  Ferrara  on 
6th  (or  16th)  September  1559,  leaving  two  children. 

Garofalo  combined  sacred  inventions  with  some  very^  familiar 
details.  A  certain  archaism  of  style,  along  with  a  strone  glow  of 
colour,  suffices  to  distinguish  from  the  true  method  of  Raphael  even 
those  pictures  in  which  he  most  closely  resembles  the  great  master, 
and  this  is  sometimes  very  closely.  He  was  a  friend  of  Giulio 
Romano,  Giorgione,  Titian,  and  Ariosto  ;  in  a  picture  of  Paradise 
he  painted  this  poet  between  St  Catherine  and  St  Sebastian.  In 
youth  he  was  fond  of  lute-playiag  and  also  of  fencing.  Ha  ranks 
as  the  best  of  the  Ferrarese  painters  ;  his  leading  pupil  was  Giro- 
lamo  Carpi.  The  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  in  the  church  of  St 
George  near  Ferrara,  and  a  Peter  Martyr,  in  the  Dominican  church, 
Ferrara  (sometimes  assumed  to  have  been  done  in  rivalry  of  Titian), 
are  among  his  principal  works  not  already  mentioned.  The  Palazzo 
Chigi  and  the  Palazzo  Borghese  contain  numerous  examples,  and 
the  London  National  Gallery  four,  one  of  them  being  a  Madonna 
and  Christ  enthroned,  with  St  Francis  and  three  other  saints. 

TITANIUM  (atomic  weight '  =  48  08,  0=16),  desig- 
nates in  chemistry  a  relatively  rare  element,  which  ia  cus- 
tomarily classed  with  the  metals,  although  it  comes  nearer 
in  its  character  to  silicon  than  to  any  of  the  ordinary 
metals.  Its  discovery  as  an  element  was  due  to  William 
Gregor,  who  found  in  the  mineral  menaccanite  a  new  earth, 
which  was  regarded  as  the  oxide  of  a  new  metal,  menachin. 
Independently  of  him  Klaproth  in  1793  discovered  a  new 
metal  in  rutile  and  called  it  titanium ;  he  subsequently 
found  that  it  was  identical  with  Gregor's  element.  The 
latter  name  was,  however,  retained.  Titanium,  although 
pretty  widely  diffused  throughout  the  mineral  kingdom, 
is  not  found  in  abundance.  The  commonest  titanium 
raineral  is  rutile  (TiOj) ;  anatase  and  brookite,  though 
mineralogically  different  from  rutile  and  each  other,  are 
forms  of  the  same  binoxide. 

Metallic  titanium  is  little  known.  In  1822  Wollaston  examined 
a  specimen  of  those  beautiful  copper-like  cryBtals  which  are  occa- 
flionally  met  with  in  iron -furnace  slags,  and  declared  them  to  be 
metallic  titanium.  This  view  had  currency  until  1849,  when 
■Wohler  showed  that  the  crystals  are  a  compound,  Ti(NC),  -I-  3Ti,N^ 
of  a  cyanide  and  a  nitride  of  the  metal.  Real  titanium  was  made 
ty  Wohler  and  Deville  in  1857  by  heating  to  redness  fiuo-titanate 
of  potassium  (see  below)  in  vapour  of  sodium  in  an  atmosphere  of 
dry  hydrogoa,  and  eitracting  the  alkaline  fluoride  formed  by  water. 
The  metal  thus  produced  had  the  appearance  of  iron  as  obtained 
by  the  reduction  of  its  oxide  in  hydrogen.  When  heated  in  air, 
H  bonis  brilliantly,  with  the  formation  of  binoxide.     Its  most  curi- 

'  According  to  T.  £.  Thorpe's  researches,  published  in  IR*" 


ous  property  is  the  readiness  with  which  it  onites  with  nitrogen  gas 
into  a  nitride.  The  exact  composition  of  this  nitride  is  not  known  ; 
but  when  heated  in  hydrogen  it  loses  part  of  its  nitrogen  as  am- 
monia, and  becomes  Ti^N^  a  metallic-looking  yellow  solid,  and  this 
when  heated  in  nitrogen  gas  passes  into  higher  nitrides,  which  are 
again  available  for  the  production  of  ammonia.  Tessie  du  Mothay 
in  1872  proposed  to  utilize  these  reactions  for  the  production  of 
ammonia  from  atmo^heric  nitrogen.  Of  other  titanium  compounds 
the  most  important  are  those  formed  on  the  type  of  TiXj,  when 
X  =  Cl,Br,  or  40,  ic. 

The  binoxide  TiOi  exists  as  rutile  One  method  of  preparing  a 
purer  oxide  from  the  mineral  is  to  fose  it,  very -finely  powdered, 
with  six  times  its  weight  of  bisulphate  of  potash  in  platinum,  then 
extract  the  fuse  with  cold  water,  and  boil  the  filtered  solution  for 
a  long  time.  Titanic  oxide  separates  out  as  a  white  hydrate,  which, 
however,  is  generally  contaminated  with  ferric  hydrate  and  often 
with  oxide  of  tin,  SnOj.  A  better  method  is  Wbhler's.  He  fiises 
the  finely  powdered  mineral  with  twice  its  weight  of  carbonate  of 
potash  in  a  platinum  crucible,  pounds  the  fuse,  and  treats  it  in  a 
platinum  basin  with  aqueous  hydrofluoric  acid.  The  alkaline  titan 
ate  first  produced  is  converted  into  crystalline  fluo-titanate,  TiF^K^ 
which  is  with  difficulty  soluble,  and  is  extracted  with  hot  water 
and  filtered  off.  The  filtrate,  which  may  be  collected  in  glass 
vessels  if  an  excess  of  hydrofluoric  acid  has  been  avoided,  deposits 
the  greater  part  of  the  salt  on  cooling.  The  crystals  are  collected, 
washed,  pressed,  and  recrj'stallized,  whereby  the  impurities  are  easily 
removed.  The  pure  salt  ia  dissolved  in  hot  water  and  decomposed 
with  ammonia  to  produce  a  slightly  ammoniacal  hydrated  oxide ; 
this,  when  ignited  in  plarinum,  leaves  pure  TiO,  in  the  form  of 
brownish  lumps,  the  specific  gravity  of  which  varies  from  8*9  to 
4  '25,  according  to  the  temperature  at  which  it  was  kept  in  igmring. 
The  more  intense  the  heat  the  denser  the  product  The  oxide  u 
fusible  only  in  the  oxy-hydrogen  flame.  It  is  insoluble  in  all  acids, 
except  in  hot  concentrated  sulphuric,  when  finely  powdered.  Sup- 
posing the  excess  of  vitriol  to  nave  been  boiled  away,  the  residue, 
after  cooling,  dissolves  ia  cold  water  The  solution,  if  boiled,  de- 
posits its  titanic  oxide  as  a  hydrate  called  meta-titanic  acid,  'be- 
cause it  diflers  in  its  properties  from  ortho-titanic  acid,  obtained 
by  decomposing  a  solution  of  the  chloride  in  cold  water  with  alka- 
lies. The  ortho-body  dissolves  in  cold  dilute  acids  ;  themeta-body 
does  not  If  titanic  oxide  is  fused  with  excess  of  alkaline  carbonate 
it  expels  CO,  parts  of  carbonic  acid  for  TiO,  parte  of  itsel£  The 
salt  EjOTiO,  is  decomposed  by  water  with  the  formation  of  a  solu- 
tion of  alkali  free  of  titanium,  and  a  residue  of  an  acid  titanste, 
which  is  insoluble  in  water  but  soluble  in  cold  aqueous  mineral 
acids. 

Tht  ehloriie  TiClf  is  obtained  as  a  distillate  by  heating  to  dell 
redness  an  intimate  dry  mixture  of  the  binoxide  and  ignited  lamp- 
black in  dry  chlorine.  The  reaction  may  be  carried  out  in  a  hard 
glass  tube.  For  methods  of  purification  we  refer  to  the  handbooks 
of  chemistry.  The  pore  chloride  is  a  colourless  liquid  of  1 7604 
8T>ecific  gravity  at  0°C.,  boiling  at  136°'4  under  763 '3  mm.  pressure 
(T.  E.  Thorpe).  It  fumes  strongly  in  moist  air.  When  dropped 
very  cautiously  into  cold  water  it  dissolves  into  e  clear  solution, 
which,  however,  when  boiled,  deposits  most  of  its  oxide  in  the 
meta- hydrate  form.  There  are,  at  least,  two  lower  chlorides  of 
titanium, — one  of  the  composition  TijCl,  and  another  of  the  com- 
position TiCl^  both  solids-  and  both  extremely  prone  lo  pass  into 
titanic  compounds.  A  soluricn  of  the  tetrachloride  in  water,  as 
well  as  of  the  soluble  hydroxide  in  dilute  acid  generally,  when  kept 
in  contact  with  metallic  zinc,  is  reduced  to  one  of  the  lower  chlorides 
with  development  of  a  violet  colour.  With  regard  to  the  detection 
of  titanium  we  need  not  add  much  to  what  we  have  already  given 
incidentallv.  Acid  solutions  of  TiO,  are  not  precipitated  by  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  ;  but  sulphide  of  ammonium  acts  on  them  as 
if  it  were  ammonia,  the  H,S  oeiog  liberated.  Oxide  of  titanium 
when  fused  with  microcosmic  salt  (i.e.,  NaPO.)  in  the  oxidizing 
flame  yields  a  bead  which  is  yellowish  in  the  neat  but  colourless 
after  cooling.  In  the  reducing  Same  the  bead  becomes  violet,  more 
readily  on  the  addition  of  tin  ,  in  the  presence  of  iron  it  becomes 
blooc  -red.  Titanic  oxides  when  fused  on  charcoal,  even  with  cyan- 
ide ot  potassium,  yield  no  metal. 

TITANS,  powerftj  beings  of  Greek  mythology,  the 
children  of  Sky  and  Earth.  According  to  Hesiod,  the  mala 
Titans  were  Oceanus,  Coeus,  Crius,  Hyperion,  lapetus,  and 
Cronus;  the  female  were  Thea,  Rhea,  Themis,  Mnemosyne^ 
Phoebe,  and  Tethys,  to  whom  Apollodonis  adds  Dione. 
For  the  rebellion  of  the  Titans  against  their  father  Sky 
(Uranus),  the  success  and  reign  of  Cronus,  and  the  final 
consignment  of  the  Titans  to  Tartarus  by  Zeus,  see  Mytho- 
looy;  vol  rvii.  p.  155,  and  Satttrn,  vol  xxL  p.  320  tq. 

TITHES.  It  has  been  explained  in  Sacbificb  (vol 
zxi.  p.  133)  that  among  ancient  peoples  sacrificial  gifts 
freijuently  assume  the  character  of  a  tribute  in  kind,  paid! 


T  1  T  H  E  S' 


411; 


I 


fo  the  deity  id  aoknowledginent  of  the  fruits  of  the  land, 
or  the  increase  of  flocks  attributed  to  his  blessing.  At 
first  this  tribute  is  not  measured  or  enforced  by  law  .  the 
gift  IS  a  voluntary  one,  the  magnitude  of  wUich  may  be 
fbfd  by  a  vow,  or  influenced  by  public  opinion  as  to  what 
is  reasonable,  but  is  not  prescribed  by  any  stated  authority 
having  power  to  exact  what  is  prescribed.  In  the  oldest 
Hebrew  legislation  sacrificial  gifts  to  Jehovah  (firstling 
and  firstfruiu)  are  demanded  ,  but  apart  from  the  consecm- 
tioQ  of  the  firstluigs,  which  is  imperative  (Elxod.  xxii  29 
tq ,  xsxiv.  19  sq  ),  the  amount  is  not  fixed.  In  Deutero- 
nomy (xiv  22  siji ),  on  the  other  hand,  the  tithe  or  tenth 
of  corn,  wine,  and  oil  is  required  in  addition  to  the 
firstlings  of  the  flock  and  the  herd.  This  precept,  written 
down  in  the  7th  century  bc,  is  plainly  no  innovation, 
but  rests  on  older  usage  (cp  Gen  xxviii.  22  ,  Amos  iv..4), 
the  new  point  emphasized  is  not  that  tithes  must  be  paid, 
but  that  they  must  be  consumed  at  the  central,  instead  of 
a  local,  sanctua  y  (Deut  xij  6,  11,  xiv.  23*9?  ),  apparently 
at  the  great  autumn  feast  or  Feast  of  Taberhacles  {q.v  ) ' 
Such  a  tithe  is  still  nothing  more  than  the  old  ofl'ering  of 
first-fruits  (biki-unm)  made  definite  as  regards  quantity, 
and  it  was  only  natural  that  as  time  went  on  there  should 
be  some  fijced  standard  of  the  due  amount  of  the  annual 
sacred  tribute.'^  The  establishment  of  such  a  standard 
does  not  necessarily  imply  that  full  payment  was  exacted  ; 
in  Gen.  xxviii.  22  Jacob  vows  of  his  own  free  will  to  pay 
tithes,  just  as  the  Arabs  ussd  to  vow  the  tithe  of  the  m- 
crease  of  the  flock  (schol.  on  HAnth,  Moalt ,  I.  69,  ed 
Arnold).  The  Arab  did  not  always  fiilfil  his  vow,  and 
there  was  no  foroe  to  make  him  do  so.  But,  however  in- 
exactly it  may  often  have  been  paid,  the  proportion  of 
one  part  in  ten  seems  tc  have  been  accepted  in  man-, 
ancient  natiodS~"ks  the  ojrmal  measure  of  sacred  tribute 
paid  from  the  gains  of  husbandry,  trade,  or  even  of  wdr  '' 
The  tithe,  in  fact,  appears  to  have  1  een  a  common  form 
of  tax  upon  the  produce  of  land  or  other  revem  es,  for 
civil  as  weU  as  for  sacred  purposes  We  find  it  in  Greece 
(as  at  Athens),  and  in  Sicily  and  Asia,  under  the  Roman 
empire;  but  its  special  home  was  in  the  East.  It  was 
exacted  on  agricultural  products  and  flocks  by  Hebrew 
kings  (1  Sam  viii  15,  17),  and  on  imports  by  the  monarchs 
of  Babylon  (Aristotle, fficon  ,ed  Berlin,  p  1352b).  Aristotle 
gives  the  tithe  on  fruits  of  the  soil  the  first  place  among 
the  revenues  of  satraps  (Pnd ,  p  1345b),  and  it  still  tonus 
an  important  element  in  the  fiscal  system  of  Mohammedan 
states.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  proportion  of  one  in 
ten  has  been  applied  in  the  East,  and  in  antiquity  generally, 
to  imports  of  very  diflerenl  kinds,  and  in  Mohammedan 
taxation  we  find  the  name  retained  in  cases  where  much 
less  than  a  tinth  is  actually  taken  In  like  manner  Aris- 
totle (ul  svpra)  makes  Stua-nj  a  mere  synonym  of  <K<^pioi', 
or  tax  on  pioduce ;  the  proportion  of  one  to  ten,  it  would 
seem,  was  so  commonly  taken  in  antiquity  as  the  basis  of 
ad  valorem  taxes  that  any  such  tax  or  tribute  might  be 
called  a  tithe.  As  regards  the  sacred  tithe  of  the  Hebrews, 
h  distinction  is  drawn  in  Deuteronomy  between  the  ordi- 
nary annual  tithe,  which  may  not  have  been  a  full  tenth. 
and  the  "whole"  or  "full  tithe,"  paid  once  in  three  years 
•  

r  '  Cp  Deul  xivi.  wijh  1  Sam  i.  21  (Sept  ).  and  ,'erome  oo  Ezek  I 
^ ;  and  see  WoUhauseD.  Prolegommn,  p   P4  (Bng.  tr  ,  p.  92  sq ). 

*  Id  DeuteroDoray.  accordingly,  the  tir,t  fruit*  ^hnkkuriui)  are  not 
toentioned  ;  the  litbe  Uil<es  tbfir  place  The  word  translated  "  tirst 
fmita"  in  Deut  (rfish'iih)  is  o  sm-iU  eift  to  ibe  onesta.  a  mere  ba;sket- 
ful  {rnii,  4,  xxvx  2  ^q.). 

.  *  For  in!:tances  see  Spencer,  De  L€(n^us  Betrrseirrum^  lib.  iii ,  cap 
10,  §  1.  Among  the  Semites  in  pnrttcular  cote  the  tithe  paid  by  the 
Carthaginians  to  the  Tyrian  Melk.irth  (Diod..  ll  14),  and  the  tithe  of 
frankincense  paid  in  Arabia  to  the  god  Sabis  (Pliny.  B  N  ,  x\\  32  , 
«nd  coDip..W  K  Smith.  Pmphrts  o/  hrnd,  p  382  sj  ).  A  lithe  of 
attle  appears  m  l.^duj^ic  X>amasc.,  (i.  24).  \ 


(Deut.  xiv.  28,  xxvi.  12),  which  the  legislator  directs  tcl 
be  stored  at  home,  and  spent  in  feeding  the  poor. 

From  Amos  iv.  4  it  is  sometimes  inferred  that  in  the  8th  century 
B.C  the  sacnficial  tithe,  presented  at  a  sanctuary,  was  triennial. 
But  when  the  prophet,  mocking  the  false  zeal  of  tlie  people,  s.iy3„ 
"Bring  your  sacrifices  every  morning  and  your  tithes  every  three 
days"  (not  "years,"  as  E  V.),  he  hardly  implies  more  than  that 
occasions  of  satrihce  were  three  times  as  Ireijuent  as  tithe-day,  and 
so  alludes  to  the  fact  that  there  were  by  old  usage  three  annual 
feasts  and  one  annual  tilhe.  A  triennial  sacnbtml  tithe  is  incun* 
ceivable  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  tube  is  only  an  exteusioa 
of  the  first-fruits  The  triennial  tithe  in  Deuteronomy  seems  to 
be  rather  au  innovation  necessary  in  the  interests  of  the  poor,  whea 
sacrificial  feasts  weM  transferred  to  the  central  sanctuary,  and 
ceased  to  benefit  the  neighbours  of  the  offerer,  who  bad  a  prescrip- 
tive claim  to  be  considered  on  such  occasions  (conip.  1  Sam.  xjsv.  3 
sqq  ,  Neh.  vui.  10  ;  Luke  xiv,  13). 

The  priests  of  the  sanctuaries  had  of  old  a  bhare  in  the 
sacrificial  feasts',  and  among  those  who  are  to  share  in  the 
triennial  tithe  Deuteronomy  includes  the  Levites,  i  e.,  the 
priests  of  the  local  sanctuaries  who  had  lost  their  old 
perquisites  by  the  centralization  of  worship.  Alter  the 
return,  and  before  the  work  of  Ezra,  when  Denteronoiny 
was  still  the  law  of  the  new  Israel,  but  the  Levites  had 
become  subordinate  ministers  of  the  temple,  and  required 
a  more  regular  provision,  the  "whole  tithe"  was  naturally 
fixed  on  for  this  purpose ;  but,  instead  of  remaining  in  the 
hands  of  the  tilhc-payers  to  be  doled  out  in  charity,  it  was 
stored  in  the  temple  Such,  at  least,  was  the  plan  pro- 
posed, though  from  Mai.  iii,  8  sqq  it  appears  that  it  was 
very  imperfectly  carried  out.  As  Malachi  speaks  in 
Deuteronomic  phrase  of  the  "  whule  tithe,"  the  paj-ment 
to  the  Levites  was  perhaps  still  only  triennial ;  and,  if 
even  this  was  difficult  to  collect,  we  may  be  sure  that  the 
minor  sacrificial  tithe  had  very  nearly  disappeared  The 
indifl'erence  complained  of  in  Mai.  i.  was  in  great  part  due 
to  the  fundamental  changes  in  the  religion  of  IsVael,  which 
made  private  altar  gifts  and  feasts  almost  meaningless. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  provision  of  regular  support  for 
the  priests  and  Levites,  the  ministers  of  the  public  ritual, 
was  now  all  important,  and  received  special  attention 
from  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Neh  x  27  »/q ,  xiii  10  577). 
They  eS'ected  it  by  enforcing  the  new  law  ot  the  priestly 
•ode  (Num.  xvm  21  sq'/ ),  in  which  it  is  lormaJly  laid 
down  that  the  tithe  is  a  tribute  paid  to  the  Levites,  who 
in  turn  pay  a  lithe  of  it  to  the  priests.  The  plain  inten- 
tion of  the  priestly  cede  is  to  allow  the  old  tube  of 
Deuteronomy  to  drop,  but  the  harnionislic  interpretation 
of  the  later  scribes  was  to  the  eflect  that  two  tithes  were  to 
be  paid  every  year,  and  a  third  tithe,  for  the  poor,  on  every 
third  year  (Tob  1  7  sq  ,  Jos.,  Ant ,  iv  8,  §  22)  The  last 
change  in  the  system  was  the  appropriation  of  the  Levitical 
tithe  by  the  priests,  which  appa/ently  wase9"ected  by  John 
Hyrcanus,  though  a  tradition  glaringly  inconsistent  v-ilh 
Nehemiah  ascribes  it  to  Ezra  {Mm/inafi,  "  Ma'aser  Sh  ,"  v, 
1"^ ,  "Sota,"  IX.  10.  and  Wagenseils  nole).«  (w  r.  s.) 
Tithes  in  Law. 

Tithes  were  generally  regarded  up  to  the  17th  -enrur}*  as  existing 
jure  dtvinv,  and  as  having  been  payable  to  the  suf-port  of  tha 
church  ever  since  the  eailifst  days  of  Chnsuamiy  History,  as 
Selden  showed  in  his  learned  arid  exhaustive  tieati^e  (//<s'(" j/ 0/ 
rif/Kji.  1618),  doe.' not  bearoul  this  view  '  Inlhewoidsol  Hallam, 
"  the  slow  and  gradual  manner  in  which  parothial  chmi  hes  b»'Canie 
imieftendeut  aj'^iears  to  be  of  itself  a  sutb<  lent  fir.swei  ti>  iho-ve  who 
.ijcribe  a  pieat   nr.thjuity  to  the   universal    [Mtmenl  ol   tubes'  * 

*  A  cattle  tube  IS  demanded  in  Levit  ixvii  3i.  ai,d  -pollen  of-  m 
2  Cliron  xxii  6  It  is  doubilul  if  tins  was  e^er  aikr.oxledged  in 
practice  See  Kuenen.  (*f«fsrf(f  ">(.  11  269  57  aijd  Wt-iJiMu^r-u  o/»  ri/ ,t. 
1.  §  2  [Eng,  tr,  p  156  s^  ).  who  argue  that  thr  passa^'e  in  Leviiir u?  is  a 
later  addition.  Tb«  tendency  of  the  Pharisees  was  to  pav  tiihe  on 
everything,  and  to  make  a  self  righteous  boast  of  this  iMatl.  ixiu  23  ^ 
Luke  xviii.  121.  -^ 

'  It  Avas  his  denial  of  the  divine  nght  of  tithes  that  brought  down 
the  wTatb  of  the  Star  Chamber  upon  the  authoi  He  was  lorced  t<^. 
retract  an  opinion  too  liberal  for  the  ume.     See  Scu>£M, 


412 


TITHES 


Long  before  the  8th  century  payment  of  t>th"  ^^^  f?i°  ,■  I 
eccl^iastical  wriurs  and  by  councUs  of  the  church  ;  but  the  earhest 
fnthentic  example  of  anything  like  a  law  of  the  sUte  enforcing 
payment  appeal  to  occur  in  the  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne  at 
the  end  of  thTsth  or  beginning  of  the  9th  century.  T.th^  were 
by  that  enactment  to  be  applied  to  the  maintenance  of  the  bishop 
and  clergy,  the  poor,'  and  the  fabric  of  the  churchy  In  course  ot 
time  the  principle  of  payment  of  tithes  was  extended  far  beyond 
its  ori-inaM  intention.  Thus  they  became  transfcrable  to  laymen 
and  saleable  like  ordinary  property,  in  spite  of  the  injunctions  of 
the  third  Lateran  councU,  and  they  became  payable  out  of  sources 
of  income  which  were  not  originally  tithable  The  canon  la*  con- 
Uins -nomerovs  and  minut«  provisions  on  the  subject  of  tithes 
The  Decretu.,n  forbade  their  alienation  to  lay  proprietors  denounced 
eicommuBication  against  those  who  refused  to  pay,  and  bascJ  the 
right  of  the  church  upon  Scriptural  precedents'  The  Decretals 
contained  provisions  as  to  what  was  and  what  was  not  tithable 
property,  as  to  those  privUeged  from  pa)'ment,  as  to  sale  or  hypo- 
theStion  to  laymen,  as  to  priority  over  state  taxes,  ic  Vanous 
questions  which  arose  later  were  settled  by  Boniface  VIII.  Ihe 
council  of  Trent  enjoined  due  payment  of  tithes,  and  cicommuni- 
cated  those  who  withheld  them  *  .  . 

In  England  the  earliest  example  of  legal  recognition  of  tithes  is, 
accordinl  to  Selden,  a  decree  of  a  synod  in  786."  Other  examples 
before  the  Conquest  occur  in  the  Fadus  ^1/redt  ei  Guthrumani 
the  laws  of  Athelstan,  Edgar,  and  Canute  '  The  tripartite  division 
of  tithes  docs  not  appear  to  have  been  recognized  in  tngland  Dy 
any  genuine  legal  enactment  except  as  what  Mr.  Freeman  caUs  a 
counsel  of  perfection  " »  The  earliest  mention  of  tithes  m  statute 
law  proper  U  in  the  Statute  of  Westminster  the  Second  m  1285, 
e  5  of  which  deals  with  the  patron's  vrrit  cU  advocation  dectvw.rum. 
From  that  dat€  until  the  present  year  (1887)  there  have  been  a  arge 
number  of  Acts  dealing  with  tithes,-the  earliest  which  is  still  law 
being  2  Hen  IV.  c  4,  making  it  an  offence  to  purchase  a  buU  from 
the  Sope  for  the  discharge  of  land  from  rithes.  The  law  has  only 
attained  its  present  condition  by  slow  degrees,  and  by  the  combined 
effect  of  sututes  and  judicial  decisions.  The  effect  of  the  T, the 
Commutation  Act  of  1836  has  been  to  make  most  of  the  old  law  o 
merely  hUtorical  interest,  as  in  the  course  of  the  commutation  all 
the  questions  of  law  as  to  prescription,  csemprions,  &c  would 
have  been  duly  considered  by  the  commissioners  before  the  rent- 
charge  was  finally  apportioned. 

Tithes  in  English  law  are  of  three  kinds,— predial,  arising  imme- 
diately from  the  soil,  as  of  corn  ;  mixed,  arising  from  things  nourished 
by  Ihe  soil,  as  of  milk  or  wool ;  personal,  as  of  the  profits  of  manual 
occupations  or  trades.     The  right  to  the  last  was  considerably  re- 
stricted  by  2  and  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  13.    They  are  also  divided  frorn  other 
points  of  view  into  ordinary  and  extraordinary,— the  latter  being  a 
tithe  at  a  heavier  rate  charged  on  bop  and  market  gardens,— and 
into  great  and  small,  as  a  rule  those  which  go  to  the  rector  and 
vicar  respectively.     In  general  great  rithes  are  predial,    small  are 
mixed  and  personal.     It  is  not  everything  that  is  tithable  ;  ex- 
emptions are  claimable  either  from  the  nature  of  the  property  or 
the  privilege  of  the  owner.     Stone,  lime,  and  such  other  substances 
as  are  not  of  annual  increase  are  exempt.     So  are  creatures /cr« 
luUuTiB.     Exempt  by  privilege  are  the  crown  by  its  prerogative, 
and  spiritual  corporations  in  accordance  with  the  maxim  recognized 
equally  by  canon  and  common    law,  ecclcsia  danmas  nm  solnl 
adtsue.     Thus  a  rector  pays  no  rithes  to  his  vicar,  or  a  vicar  to 
his  rector.     On  the  same  principle  it  is  a  ground  of  exemption  that 
lands  were  anciently  the  property  of  the  pnvileged  orders  (at  the 
time  of  the  dissolution  of  raona-steries.  the  Cistercians  and  Hos- 
pitallers), or  were  lands  of  the  greater  monasteries  discharged  from 
tithe  by  31  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13.     Exemption  may  abo  be  claimed  by 
redemption,  by  substitution  of  a  rent-charge,  by  a  real  composition 
(that  is,  an  agreement  between  the  incumbent  and  the  landowner, 
with  the  consent  of  the  ordinary  and  patron,  for  the  discharge  from 
payment  of  tithe  by  means  of  satisfaction  by  giving  of  land  or  some 
other  real  recompense),  by  a  modia  (that  is.  a  partial  discharge 
owine  to  some  customary  method  of  tithing  or  -modus  dicima-ndi), 
or  by  prescriprion  under  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c.  100.     Tithes  in  extra- 
parochial  places  belonged  at  common  law  to  the  crown,  except  by 
custom.     Tithes  are  incorporeal  hereditamento  (sec  Real  Estate), 
and  may  he  dealt  with  like  any  other  real  estate  of  that  nature 
Thus  they  arc,  if  in  lay  hands,  t«nemenU  which  may  be  entailed 
or  leased,  are  subject  to  dower  and  curtesy,  are  assets  for  the  pay- 
ment of  debts,  and  are  (whether  in  lay  hands  or  not)  within  the 
Sutute  of  Limiutions.    They  do  not,  however,  issue  out  of  the  land 
like  rents,  but  are  collateral  to  it.     Accordingly  tithes  are  always 
freehold,  even  though  they  are  charged  on  copyhold  bmds     Tithes 

>  OeeDinU,  Par.  xiL  93.  "dfcimcuqur  sum  pauperum  Dei." 
a  Pt  iL  16  7.  3  Bb.  111.  30.  *  Extrar.  Cffmm.,  DK.  nl  7. 

■     •  8ess  irv   12  *  C.  viii.  8.  2. 

»  The  giani  said  to  have  been  made  by  /Ethdwulf  In  855,  to  which  the 

Sneral  payment  ot  tlthca  in  England  has  been  commonly  traced,  appears  not 
rest  on  nalisdctory  evidence ;    see  nallam,  iliddlt  Agti   "iupplementaJ 
Botes,  p.  180.  ,  _  „  ... 

•  8e«  Rev.  Morris  Fuller  in  HalumoX  Remm,  November  li 


are  presumed  to  go  to  the  parson  of  the  parish.  This  presumption 
may  be  rebutted  by  proof  that  some  or  all  the  tithes  go  to  th» 
vicar  where  the  rector  is  in  holy  orders,  or  to  a  lay  in.piopri.itor. 
It  IS  said  that  about  a  third  part  of  the  tithes  lu  England  is  in  th» 
ha  ds  of  laymen  At  one  time  arbitrary  consecration  of  tithes  wa» 
allowed  —that  is.  payment  to  any  priest  at  the  will  of  the  tithe- 
Thiswas  forbidden  by  a  decretiil  epistle  of  Innocent  111., 


paye 
about  1200, 


This  epistle  de'cretall."  says'Coke,  "  bound  not  th» 
subjects  of  this  realm,  but  the  same  being  just  and  reasonable  they 
allowed  the  same,  and  so  became  to  Urric"'>  A  vestige  of  tho 
arbitral^  consecration  perhaps  exists  in  the  rarely  ""curring  rigbt 
of  the  parson  of  one  parish  to  a  portion  of  the  tithes  of  another. 
Tithes  are  payable  by  all  persons  alike,  whether  members  of  tho 
Church  of  England  or  not.  Special  enactmenU  deal  with  their 
recovery  from  Roman  Catholics  and  Quakers.  Up  to  1836  lithe* 
were  paid  in  kind,  unless  where  any  other  method  of  payment 
applied  in  a  particular  case,  such  as  a  modus  in  the  nature  of  a 
pecuniary  compensation,  or  a  pecuniary  payment  under  the  terms 
of  a  public  or  private  Act,  as  in  the  city  of  London  by  37  Hen. 
VIII  c  12,  22  and  23  Car.  II.  c  15,  and  other  Acts  Even  before 
1836,  however,  the  bulk  of  the  tithes  had  been  commuted,  but  such 
comtnuUtion  was  in  ordinary  cases  good  only  during  the  t.nure  of 
a  particular  incumbency,  and  did  not  bind  the  incumbent's  suc- 
cessors. The  Act  of  1836  merely  completed  and  gave  legislative 
sanction  to  a  tendency  which  had  been  long  on  the  increase.  i 

The  effect  of  the  Tithe  Commutation  Act.  1836  (6  and  7  Will. 
IV    c.  71,   frequently  amended  since),  was  to  substitute  for  the 
tithe   paid   in   kind  or  the  fluctuating  commuted   tithe  a  rent- 
charge— commonly  called  the  rithe  rent-charge— equivalent  to  the 
market  valu'  from  time  to  time  on  a  septennial  average  of  the 
exact  quantiries  of  wheat,  bariey,  and  oats  which  made  up  tho 
legal  tithes  by  the  estimate  in  1836.     Excepted  from  the  operation 
of  the  Act  are  (unless  where  there  is  a  special  provision  approvecl 
by  the  commissioners)  tithes  of  fish  or  of  fishing,  or  any  pei60nal_ 
rithes  other  than  those  of  mills,  or  any  mineral  tithes,  or  pay, 
ments  or   rent -charges   in  lieu  of  rithes   in   London  and  other 
places,  resring  on  the  authority  of  local  Acts.     The  Act  has  not 
beeu  wholly  successful  in  its  working.     By  the  transfer  of  estates, 
and  by  changes   in   local  agriculture,   the  old  estimates  are   no 
longer  fairly  applicable  in  all  cases.     The  commuution  has  been, 
on  the  whole,  to  the  advantage  of  the  landowners,  for  the  tithe 
remains  fixed  while  the  rental  of  land  since  1836  has  risen,  accord- 
in<»  to  Sir  James  Caird,  from  33  millions  to  52  millions  per  annum. 
Colnrautation  under  the  Act  is  either  by  a  volnoUry  agreement, 
confirmed  by  the  rithe  commissioners."  or  by  an  award  of  tho 
commissioners.     The  machinery  for  determining  the  tithe  for  any 
given  year  is  as  follows -.-the  Board  of  Trade  is  to  cause  the 
average  prices  per  imperial  bushel  of  each  sort  of  Bntish  corn  to 
be  computed  from  the  summaries  sent  by  the  inspectors  of  corn 
returns,  obtained  from  the  averages  stated  by  the  inspectors,  and 
published  in   the  London  GazctU  weekly,  quarteriy,  and  yearly, 
and  a  septennial  average  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  sum  of  the 
annual  averages  divided  by  seven  (45  and  46  Vict,  c  37,  supersed- 
ing sect.  56  of  the  Act  of  1836).    The  rent-charge  is  computed  on  the 
b^is  of  one-third  for  wheat,  one-third  for  bariey,  and  one-third 
for  oats.     The  respective  prices  were  originally  fixed  by  7  Will.  IV. 
and  1  Vict    c   69,  a.  7  (as  altered  by  the  London  GazeUt  of  9th 
December  1837),  at  73.  IJd.  for  wheat,  3s.  UJid.  for  bariey,  and 
23   Od    for  oats  per  bushel.      The  prices  for  1887  were  4s.  lid., 
3s    lOd     and  28.  7Jd.  respecrively.     Owing  to  this  fall  in  prices, 
tithe  rent-charge  which  stood  at  £100  in  1836  was  worth  in  1887 
only  £87,  88    lOd.  ,     „„,     „  ,      , 

After  the  coming  into  force  of  the  Act  of  1836  all  lands  werp 
discharged  from  tithe,  and  the  tithe  rent-charge  was  substituted, 
payable  by  equal  half-yeariy  payments,  each  1st  of  July  and  1st  of 
January  A  tenant  paying  the  rentcharge  is  to  be  allowed  the 
sam?  in  account  with  his  landlord.  The  charge  thus  ultimately 
falls  upon  the  landlord,  whether  or  not  he  pays  it  in  the  first  in- 
stance to  the  rithe. o^vner,  Land  may  be  given  instead  of  a  rent- 
charge  where  the  rithe-owner  is  an  ecclesiasrical  person  Gardens 
or  small  tenements  may  be  exempt  from  tithe  by  3  and  4  Vict.  c. 
15.  LaUr  Acts  give  a  power  of  redemprion  of  rentcharge  in  tho 
case  of  land  required  for  public  purposes,  settled  land,  ic.  (9  and 
10  Vict  c.  73  ;  23  and  24  Vict  c  93  ;  41  and  42  Vict,  c  42  ;  45 
and  46  Vict  c  38).  Merger  of  the  rent-charge  is  allowed  by 
tenants  in  fee  or  in  tail  under  the  Act  of  1836,  and  by  persons 
having  powers  of  appointment,  tenanta  for  life,  and  owners  of 
glebes  under  1  and  2  Vict  c.  64  and  2  and  3  Vict.  c.  62.  The  mode 
tf  recovery  of  arrears  provided  by  the  Act  of  1836  was  a  new  one. 
Up  to  that  time  arrears  could  not  be  distrained  for,  unless  in 
exceptional  cases.  The  remedy  of  the  parson  was.  a  suit  for 
subtraction  of  tithes,  which,  by  2  and  3  Edw.  VI.  c.  13  could 
onlv  be  brought  in  a  spiritual  court.  Tho  remedy  of  thf  lay- 
bolder  was  a  suit  or  action  in  any  temporal  court  by  32  Hen.  VIJI. 

»2;n»t..641.  ,  .  ...     ,v_| 

10  By  the  Settled  Land  Act.  1582.  the  tithe  commlesloncrB  have,  with  ottti  j 
bodies,  been  merged  in  the  land  commissioners  constituted  by  the  Act 


T  I  T  — T  I  T 


413 


£"7."*  It  13  provided  by  the  Art  of  1836  that,  if  tlie  rcnt-charg?  be 
in  iirear  for  tsrenty-one  days,  the  person  entitled  to  it  may,  after 
ten  days*  notice  in  writing,  distrain  upon  the  lands  liable  to  the 
parment  of  it.  If  it  be  m  arrear  for  forty  days,  and  there  be  no 
sumcient  distress  on  the  promises,  a  writ  of  habere  facias  posus- 
tiOTtim  may  issue,  directing  the  sheriff  to  summon  a  j  ory  to  assess 
arrears.  Not  more  than  two  years'  arrears  can  be  recovered  by 
either  means.  It  appears  from  these  sections  of  the  Act  that  the 
charge  binds  the  land  alone,  and  that  there  is  no  personal  liability 
of  either  landlord  or  tenant  Though  the  charge  is  on  the  land, 
it  is  not  on  the  inheritance,  and  it  has  been  recently  decided  that 
vrears  are  not  recoverable  by  sale  of  the  lands  out  of  which  the 
T«Dt<^arge  issnesL  The  assessment  of  the  rent-charge  on  -nastes, 
coounon  or  Lammas  lands,  coppice  wood,  turnips,  cattle  agisted,  ic, 
and  the  commutation  of  com  rents  created  by  local  Acts,  are  the 
lubject  of  special  provisions.  The  Act  of  1836  and  later  Acts  pro- 
rided  for  the  division  of  the  charge  upon  hop  grounds,  orchards, 
fniit  plantations,  and  market  gardens  inlo  the  ordinary  and  extra- 
ordinary charge,  the  latter  to  bo  a  rate  per  acre  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  charge.  The  estraordinary  tithe  applies  only  while  the 
Und  is  cultivated  as  a  hop  ground,  ^c,  and  in  cose  of  new  cultiva- 
tion comes  inlo  operation  gradually,  the  full  rate  not  being  levied 
at  once.  The  incidence  of  thee.^traordinary  tithe  having  becu  found 
an  impediment  to  agriculture,  especially  in  Kent,  the  Estraordinar)' 
Tithe  Commutation  Act,M8S6  (49  and  50  Vict  c.  54),  was  passed  as 
a  remedy.  It  provides  that  no  extraordinary  tithe  is  to  be  charged 
upon  any  land  newly  cultivated  after  the  passing  of  the  Act.  With 
regard  to  land  subject  at  the  passing  of  the  Act  to  extraordinary 
tithe,  the  Act  enables  the  land  commissioners  to  certify  the  capital 
value  of  the  extraordinary  tifhe  on  each  farm  or  parcel  of  land,  the 
land  to  be  charged  in  lien  of  the  tithe  with  the  payment  of  an 
annual  rent-charge  equal  to  4  per  cent  on  the  capital  value.  Tlie 
ouTicr  or  any  other  person  interested  in  the  land  may  redeem  the 
charge  at  its  capital  value.  Tithe  rent-charge  is  subject  by  the 
Act  of  1836  to  all  parliamentary,  parochial,  and  county  rates,  and  is 
an  hereditament  within  the  Poor  Rate  Act  of  the  same  year  (6  and  7 
|Will  IV.  c.  96).  The  latter  Act  further  enacts  that  in  estimating 
the  net  annual  value  of  rateable  hereditaments,  the  rent  is  to  be 
estimated  free,  inter  alitz,  of  tithe  commutation  rent-charge,  if  any.* 

ScotlaTid. — The  temw  "tithes "and  **  teinds"  are  both  in  use,  but 
the  latter  is  the  more  common.  Teinds  are  either  drawn  in  kind, 
valued,  or  redeemed  Originally  they  were  aJl  drawn  in  kind,  as  in 
England,  but  their  commutation  or  redemption  was  the  subject  of 
'many  Acts  of  the  Scottish  parliament,  especially  those  passed  in 
,1633,  the  practical  effect  of  which  has  been  to  maJ^e  a  fixed  burden 
on  the  land  take  the  place  of  a  fluctuating  payment,  and  to  sub. 
stitute  a  payment  of  one-fifth  of  the  rent  for  one-tenth  of  the  pro- 
duce. ;.  In  the  first  instance  all  teinds  went  to  the  church  ;  but, 
when  at  the  Refonnation  the  crown  became  proprietor  of  th^church 
lauds,  grants  were  made  by  it  to  the  lords  of  erection  or  titulars 
of  the  tithes,  laymen  holding  of  the  crown.  The  Act  1587,  c.  29, 
annexed  the  church  lands  to  the  crown,  with  certain  exceptions  in 
favour  of  lay  holders  and  others.  All  bishops'  teinds  and  those 
formerly  part  of  the  revenue  of  the  chapel  royal  are  now  crown 
property.  The  Church  Patronage  Act  of  1874  does  not  affect  the 
right  to  tvinds  of  a  patron  or  titular.  Teinds  in  lay  hands  are  sub. 
ject  to  the  burden  of^ providing  a  suitable  provision  for  the  minister, 
the  stipend  bein^  fixed  by  the  Court  of  TeLids.  All  lands  are  sub- 
ject to  teinds  except  those  which  before  the  Reformation  were  feued 
mm  rfect'mw  inclusis  et  nuTupiam  anUa  separatis,  so  that  the  grantee 
held  lands  and  teinds  toother.  In  order  to  prove  such  an  excmp- 
lion,  the  person  claiming  liuder  a  dccimx  irtcluss  title  must  show 
that  the  lands  and  teinds  belonged  to  a  monastery,  that  the  lands 
were  never  teindable,  that  they  were  novalia,  or  reclaimed  by  the 
monks  themselves,  that  the  title  bears  that  the  lands  are  held  cum 
deeimis  inciusis,  &c.,  and  that  it  is  previous  to  1587.  The  judges 
of  the  Court  of  Session  sit  as  commissioners  of  teinds, — a  jurisdic- 
tion specially  preserved  by  art  lix.  of  the  Act  of  Union, — and 
exercise  wider  powers  than  any  existing  body  in  England,  as  they 
possess  at  once  the  jurisdiction  of  a  court  ol  jostioc  and  of  the 
English  land  commissioners.  The  constitution  and  procedure  of 
the  Court  of  Teinds  is  regulated  by  48  Geo.  III.  c.  138  and  sub- 
sequent Acts.- 

Jreland.  —  iUjiy  Acts  of  the  Irish  parliament  deal  with  tithes, 
both  generally  and  locally,  the  earliest  being  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12, 
based  upon  the  English  Act,  28  Hen.  VIII.  c.  20.  After  the 
■'tithe  war 'iat  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  a  tithe  composi- 
tion payable  by  the  occupier  was  fixed  by  4  Geo.  I V.  c  99.  I  n  1 SHS 
an  annual  icnt<harge  equal  in  amount  to  three-fourths  of  th"  tithe 

*  See,  in  addition  to  the  authorities  already  cited,  Montesquieu, 
Espnl  cUs  Lois,  bk.  llli.  c  12  ;  Prideani,  On  TMes ;  Eagle,  On 
Tithes  ;  Shelford,  On  the  Tiihe  Commutation  Acts  ;  Pbillimore,  £c- 
cUtiastietU  Law,  vol.  ii.,  1483 ;  Stephen.  Comm.,  voL  ii.  bk.  iv.  pt  ii. 
cb.  iii. 

'  See  Selden,  Jlulon/ o/ TUhts,' c.  vii.  a.  9;  G.  J.  Bell,  Prin<:iples, 
/J§837,  1147;_W._BeU,  iauiXhW.  and  Digest,  "Teinds." 


composition  was  substituted  for  the  latter  by  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  109. 
The  rent-charge  is  recoverable  by  distress  where  the  person  liable 
is  the  occupier,  in  other  cases  by  action  in  the  High  Court  of  Justice, 
or  by  civil  bill  in  claims  under  £20.  The  Irish  Church  Act,  1869 
(32  and  33  Vict.  c.  42),  vests  all  tithe  re.it.charge  then  belonging 
to  clergy  of  the  Irish  Church  in  the  commissioners  of  church  tem- 
poralities in  Ireland.  By  that  Act  and  the  amending  Act,  35  and 
36  Vict.  c.  90,  tho  commissioners  are  enabled  to  purchase  the, 
surrender  or  assignment  of  any  subsisting  lease  of  tithe  rent-charge 
made  by  an  ecclesiastical  person  or  corporation,  and  to  sell  any- 
rent-charge  vested  in  them  to  the  owner  of  the  land  charged 
therewith  for  a  sum  equal  to  twenty- two  and  a  half  years'  pur-; 
chase.  (J.  Wt.) 

TITHONUS,  a  character  of  Greek  mythology,  a  son  orj 
according  to  others,  a  brother  of  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy.l 
He  was  beloved  by  Eos  (the  Morning),  who  carried  him' 
away  and  dwelt  with  him  at  the  limit  of  tiie  world,  by  the 
Ocean  stream.  Eos  begged  of  Zeus  that  her  lover  might 
live  for  ever,  and  her  re<fnest  was  granted  ;  but  she  forgot 
to  ask  immortal  youth  for  him,  so  he  shrivelled  up  intoiv 
hideous  old  man,  whom  Eos  kept  shut  up  in  a  ch.imbcr.; 
At  last  Tithonns  prayed  to  be  rid  of  the  burden  of  old  age 
and  was  turned  into  a  grasshopper.  Eos  had  two  sons  by 
him — Meranon,  king  of  j^thiopia,  and  Emathion.  Jlemnon 
was  killed  before  Troy  by  Achilles;  but  the  legend  is  lat* 
than  the  Hiad,  which  does  not  mention  it.  As  to  Eos  her-( 
self,  her  name  is  etymologically  identical  with  the  Sanskrit 
vsh  and  the  Latin  aurora,  both  meaning  "  morning."  Ac-| 
cording  to  Hesiod,  Eos  was  a  daughter  of  Hyperion  and 
Thea,  and  sister  of  the  Sun  and  Moon.  Homer  represents 
her  arising  every  morning  from  the  couch  of  Tithonus  to 
carry  light  to  gods  and  men,  drawn  in  a  chariot  up  the 
sky  by  her  svi'ift  steeds  Lampus  and  Phaethon.  Her  com- 
mon epithet  in  Homer  is  "  rosy-fingered,"  the  meaning  of 
which  is  disputed.  Besides  Tithonus  she  loved  Orion,  till 
Artemis  shot  him  with  an  arrow  in  Ortygia. '  She  also 
loved  and  carried  off  the  youthful  hunter  Cephalus ;  he 
was  already  married  to  Procris,  to  whom,  in  spite  of  his 
infidelity,  he  was  afterwards  reconciled.  A  peculiar  form 
of  the  Cephalus  legend  is  given  by  Apollodorus  (iii.  14,  3): 
Cephalus,  a  son  of  Hermes  and  Herse,  was  carried  off  by 
Eos,  and  from  their  union  in  SjTia  sprang  Phaethon.  By 
Astrseus,  Eos  became  the  mother  of  the  Morning  Star  and 
all  the  starry  host. 

With  regard  to  representations  in  art,  the  comb.it  between  Achillea 
and  Memnon  was  bgured  on  the  chest  of  Cj-pselus  (Pau-sanias,  v.' 
19,  1),  and  it  appears  on  early  Greek  vases  of  Melos,  Corinth,  ami 
Chalcis.  There  was  a  group  of  Eos  carr^'ing  off  Cephalus  on  tha 
roof  of  the  Stoa  Basileios  at  Athens,  and  the  same  scene  was  repre-; 
sentcd  on  the  throne  atAmycIa  (Pans.,  i.  3,  1 ;  iii.  IS,  12).  It' 
also  appears  on  vases,  and  formed  an  acrotcrion  group  on  the  temple,' 
at  Delos.     Eos  in"  her  chariot  is  represented  on  vases. 

See  Rcischer,  Aus/uhrlttJies  LeriKon  tier  grtech.  a-  rom.  AJyikotogie,  p.  1262  sq.  \ 

TITIAN  (1477-1576).  Tiziano  Vecellio,  or  Vecelli,: 
one  of  the  greatest  painters  of  the  world,  and  in  espeoial 
the  ty])ical  represeiitative  of  tho  Venetian  school,  was  com-| 
monly  called  during  his  lifetime  "  Da  Cadore,"  from  the^ 
place  of  his  birth,  and  has  also  been  designated  "II' 
Di\ino."  The  country  of  Cadore,  in  the  Friuli,  barrea 
and  poor,  is  watered  by  the  Piave  torrent  poured  forth 
from  the  Carnic  Alps,  and  is  at  no  great  distance  from 
Tyrol.  Titian,  therefore,  was  not  ia  any  sense  a  Venetian 
of  the  lagoons  and  Adriatic,  but  was  native  to  a  co'intry, 
and  a  range  of  association,  perception,  and  observation,  of 
a  directly  different  kind.  Venice  conquered  Friuli  at  a 
date  not  very  remote  from  the  birth  of  Titian;  and  Cadore, 
having  to  choose  between  Venetian  and  imperial  allegiance,' 
declared  for  the  former.  Approaching  the  castle  of  Cadore 
from  the  village  Sotto  Castello,  one  passes  on  the  right  a 
cottage  of  hiunble  pretensions,  inscribed  as  Titian's  birth- 
place ;  the  precise  locality  is  named  Arsenale.  The  neai 
mountain — all  this  range  of  hills  being  of  dolomite  for-' 
mation — ia  called  Marmarolo.  At  the  neighbouring  village 
of  Valle  was   fought  in   Titian's  lifetime  the  battle   of, 


114 


TITIAN 


Dadore,  a  Venetian  victory  which  ae  recorded  in  a  paint- 
ing. In  the  12th  century  the  count  of  Camino  became 
count  also  of  Cadore.  He  was  called  Guecello ;  and  this 
name  descended  in  1321  to  the  podesti  (or  mayor)  of 
Cadore,  to  the  stock  to  which  the  painter  belonged. 
Titian,  one  of  a  family  of  four,  and  son  of  Gregorio 
Vecelli,  a  distinguished  councillor  and  soldier,  and  of  his 
wife  Lucia,  was  bom  in  1477 

It  used  to  be  said  that  Titian,  when  a  child,  painted 
upon  the  wall  of  the  Casa  Sampieri,  with  flower-juice,  a 
Madonna  and  Infant  with  a  boy-angel;  but  modern 
connoisseurs  say  that  the  picture  is  a  common  work,  of  a 
date  later  than  Titian's  decease.  He  was  still  a  child 
when  sent  by  his  parents  to  Venice,  to  an  uncle's  house. 
There  he  was  placed  under  an  art -teacher,  who  may  per- 
haps have  been  Sebastiano  Zuccato,  a  mosaicist  and 
painter  now  forgotten.  He  next  became  a  pupil  of 
Gentile  Bellini,  whom  he  left  after  a  while,  because  the 
master  considered  him  too  offhand  in  work.  Here  he  had 
the  opportunity  of  studying  many  fine  antiques.  His 
last  instructor  was  Giovanni  Bellini ;  but  Titian  was  not 
altogether  satisfied  with  his  tutoring.  The  youth  was  a 
contemporary  of  Giorgione  and  Palma  (Vecchio) ;  when 
his  period  of  pupilage  expired,  he  is  surmised  to  have 
entered  into  a  sort  of  partnership  with  Giorgione.  A 
fresco  of  Hercules  on  the  Morosini  Palace  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  his  eajliest  works ;  others  were  the  Virgin 
and  Child,  in  the  Vienna  Belvedere,  and  the  Visitation  of 
Mary  and  Elizabeth  (from  the  convent  of  S.  Andrea),  now 
in  the  Venetian  academy.  In  1 507-8  Giorgione  was  com- 
mibsioned  by  the  state  to  execute  frescos  on  the  re-erected 
Fondaco  de'  Tedeschi.  Titian  and  Morto  da  Feltre  worked 
along  with  him,  and  some  fragments  of  Titian's  paintings, 
which  are  reputed  to  have  surpassed  Giorgione's,  are  still 
discernible.  According  to  one  account,  Giorgione  was 
nettled  at  this  superiority,  and  denied  Titian  admittance 
to  his  bouse  thenceforth.  Stories  of  jealousies  between 
painters  are  rife  in  all  regions,  and  in  none  more  than 
in  the  Venetian, — various  statements  of  this  kind  apply- 
ing to  Titian  himself.  One  should  neither  accept  nor  re- 
ject them  uninquiringly  ;  counter-evidence  of  some  weight 
can  be  cited  for  Vecelli's  vindication  in  relation  to  Moroni, 
Correggio,  Lotto,  and  Coello.  Towards  1511,  after  the 
cessation  of  the  League  of  Cambrai — which  had  endea- 
voured to  shatter  the  power  of  the  Venetian  republic,  and 
had  at  any  rate  succeeded  in  clipping  the  wings  of  the 
lion  of  St  Mark — Vecelli  went  to  Padua,  and  painted  in 
the  Scuola  di  S.  Antonio  a  series  of  frescos,  which  con- 
tinue to  be  an  object  of  high  curiosity  to  the  students 
of  his  genius,  although  they  cannot  be  matched  against 
his  finest  achievements  in  oil  painting.  Another  fresco, 
dated  1523.  is  St  Christopher  carrying  the  Infant  Christ, 
at  the  foot  of  the  doge's  steps  in  the  ducal  palace  of 
Venice.  From  Padua  Titian  in  1512  returned  to  Venice; 
and  in  1513  he  obtained  a  broker's  patent  in  the  Fondaco 
de'  Tedeschi,  termed  "  La  Sanseria  "  or  "  Senseria  "  (a  pri- 
vilege much  coveted  by  rising  or  risen  artists),  and  became 
superintendent  of  the  Government  works,  being  especially 
charged  to  complete  the  paintings  left  unfinished  by  Gio- 
vanni Bellini  in  the  hall  of  the  great  council  in  the  ducal 
palace.  He  set  up  an  atelier  on  the  Grand  Canal,  at  S. 
Samuele, — the  precise  site  being  now  unknovfn.  It  was 
not  until  1516,  upon  the  death  of  Bellini,  that  he  came 
into  actual  enjoyment  of  his  patent ;  at  the  same  date  an 
arrangement  for  painting  was  entered  into  with  Titian 
alone,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  artists  who  had  heretofore 
been  associated  with  him.  The  patent  yielded  him  a  good 
annuity  — 120  crowns — and  exempted  him  from  certain 
taxes, — he  t-^ing  bound  in  retiim  to  paint  likenesses  of 
^Ue  successive  doges  of  his  time  at  the  fixed  price  of  eight 


crowns  each.  The  actual  number  which  he  executed  was 
five.  Titian,  it  may  be  well  to  note  as  a  landmark  in  this 
all  but  centenarian  life  of  incessant  artistic  labour  and 
productiveness,  was  now  in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age. 
The  same  year,  1516,  witnessed  his  first  journey  to  Fer- 
rara.  Two  years  later  was  produced,  for  the  high  altar  of 
the  church  of  the  Frari,  one  of  his  most  world-renowned 
masterpieces,  the  Assumption  of  the  Madonna,  now  in  the 
Venetian  academy.  It  excited  a  vast  sensation,  being 
indeed  the  most  extraordinary  piece  of  colourist  execution 
on  a  great  scale  which  Italy  had  yet  seen.  The  signoria 
took  note  of  the  facts,  and  did  not  fail  to  observe  that 
Titian  was  neglecting  his  work  in  the  hall  of  the  great 
council. 

Vecelli  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  fame ;  and  towards 
1521,  following  the  production  of  a  figure  of  St  Sebastian 
for  the  papal  legate  in  Brescia  (a  work  of  which  there 
are  numerous  replicas),  purchasers  became  extremely  urgent 
for  his  productions.  It  may  have  been  about  1523,  after 
some  irregular  living  and  a  consequent  fever,  that  ho 
married  a  lady  of  whom  only  the  Christian  name,  Cecilia, 
has  come  down  to  us ;  her  first  child,  Pomponio,  was  born 
in  1525,  and  two  (or  perhaps  three)  others  followed. 
Towards  1526  he  became  acquainted,  and  soon  exceedingly 
intimate,  with  Pietro  Aretino,  the  literary  bravo,  of  influ- 
ence and  audacity  hitherto  unexampled,  who  figures  so 
strangely  in  the  chronicles  of  the  time.  Titian  sent  a 
portrait  of  him  to  Gonzaga,  duke  of  Mantua.  A  great 
affliction  befell  him  in  August  1530,  in  the  death  of  his 
wife  He  then,  with  his  three  children^-one  of  them 
being  the  infant  Lavima,  whose  birth  had  been  fatal  to  the 
mother — removed  to  a  new  home,  and  got  his  sister  Orsa 
to  come  from  Cadore  and  take  charge  of  the  household. 
The  mansion,  difficult  now  to  find,  is  in  the  Biri  Graiide, 
then  a  fashionable  suburb,  being  in  the  extreme  end  of 
Venice  on  the  sea,  with  beautiful  gardens  and  a  look-out 
towards  Murano.  In  1532  he  painted  in  Bologna  a  portrait 
of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  was  created  a  count  pala- 
tine and  knight  of  the  Golden  Spur,  his  children  also 
being  made  nobles  of  the  empire, — for  a  painter,  honours 
of  an  unexampled  kind. 

The  Venetian  Government,  dissatisfied  at  Titian's  neg- 
lect of  the  work  for  the  ducal  palace,  ordered  him  in 
1538  to  refund  the  money  which  he  had  received  for 
time  unemployed  ;  and  Pordenone,  his  formidable  rival  of 
recent  years,  was  installed  in  his  place.  At  the  end  of  a 
year,  however,  Pordenone  died ;  and  Titian,  who  had 
meanwhile  applied  himself  diligently  to  painting  in  the 
hall  the  battle  of  Cadore,  was  reinstated.  This  great 
picture,  which  was  burned  with  several  others  in  1577, 
represented  in  life-size  the  moment  at  which  the  Venetian 
captain,  D'Alviano,  fronted  the  enemy,  with  horses  and 
men  crashing  down  into  the  stream.  Fontana's  engraving, 
and  a  sketch  by  Titian  himself  in  the  gallery  of  the  Ufiizi 
in  Florence,  record  the  energetic  composition.  As  a  matter 
of  professional  and  worldly  success,  his  position  from  about 
this  time  may  be  regarded  as  higher  than  that  of  any  other 
painter  known  to  history,  except  Raphael,  Michelangelo, 
and  at  a  later  date  Rubens.  In  1540  he  received  a  pen- 
sion from  D'Avalos,  Marquis  del  Vasto,  and  an  annuity  of 
200  crowns  (which  was  afterwards  doubled)  from  Charles 
V.  on  the  treasury  of  Milan.  Another  source  of  profit — 
for  he  was  always  suflSciently  keen  after  money — was  a 
contract,  obtained  in  1542,  for  supplying  grain  to  Cadore, 
which  he  visited  with  regularity  almost  every  year,  and 
where  he  was  both  generous  and  influential.  This  reminds 
us  of  Shakespeare  and  his  relations  to  his  birthplace, 
Stratford -on -A  von  ;  and  indeed  the  great  Venetian  and 
the  greater  Englishman  had  something  akin  in  the  essen- 
tially natural  tone  of  their  inspiration  and  performance^ 


TITIAN 


.415 


\nd  in  tbc  personal  tendency  of  each  to  look  after  practical 
success  and  "tbe  main  chance  "rather  than  to  work  out 
aspirations  and  pursue  ideals.'  ;  Titian  had  a  favourite 
villa  on  tbe  neighlK)uring  Manza  Hill,  from  which  (it  may 
be  inferred)  be  made  his  chief  oliservations  of  landscape 
form  and  cflfect.  'The  so-called  Titian's  mill,  constantly 
discernible  in  his  studies,  is  at  Collontola,  near  Belluno. 
'a  visit  was  paid  to  Rome  in  154C,  when  he  obtained  the 
freedom  of  the  city,  his  immediate  predecessor  in  that 
honour  having  been  Michelangelo  in  1537.  He  could  at 
the  sanre  time  have  succeeded  the  painter  Fra  Sebastiano 
in  his  lucrative  office  of  the  piombo,  and  he  made  no  scruple 
■)f  becoming  a  friar  for  the  purpose ;  but  this  project 
.apsed  through  his  being  summoned  away  from  Venice  in 
1547  to  paint  Oharlfts  V.  and  others  in  Augsburg.  He 
was  there  ago.iD  in  1550,  and  executed  the  portrait  of 
Philip  II.,  which  was  sent  to  England  and  proved  a  potent 
auxiliary  in  the  suit  of  the  prince  for  the  hand  of  Queen 
Mary.  In  the  preceding  year  Vecelli  had  affianced  his 
daughter  Lavinia,  the  beautiful  girl  whom  he  loved  deeply 
and  painted  various  times,  to  Cornel  io  Sarclnelli  of  Serra- 
valle  ;  she  had  succeeded  her  aunt  Orsa,  now  deceased,  as 
the  manager  of  the  household,  which,  with  the  lordly  in- 
come that  Titian  made  by  this  time,  was  placed  on  a  cor- 
responding footing.  The  marriage  took  place  in  1554. 
She  died  in  childbirth  in  15G0.  The  years  1551  and 
'1552  were  among  tho.'^e  in  which  Titian  worked  least 
assiduously, — a  circumstance  which  need  excite  no  surprise 
in  the  case  of  a  man  aged  about  seventy-five.  He  was  at 
the  council  of  Trent  towards  1555.  of  which  his  admirable 
picture  or  finished  sketch  in  the  Louvre  bears  record.  He 
waa  never  in  Spain,  notwith.°.landing  the  many  statements 
which  have  been  made  in  the  affirmative.  Titian 'a  friend 
Aietinodied  suddenly  in  1556,  and  another  close  inti- 
mate, the  sculptor  and  architect  Sansovino,  in  1570.  With 
his  European  fame,  and  many  sources  of  wealth,  Vecelli 
is  the  last  man  one  would  suppose  to  have  been  under  the 
necessity  of  writing  querulous  and  dunning  letters  for  pay- 
ment, especially  when  the  defaulter  addressed  was  lord  of 
Spain  and  of  the  American  Indies  ;  yet  he  had  consu-intly 
to  complain  that  his  pictures  remained  unpaid  for  and  his 
pensions  in  arrear,  and  in  the  very  year  of  his  death 
(February)  he  recites  the  many  pictures  which  he  had 
sent  within  the  preceding  twenty  years  without  receiving 
their  piSce.  In  fact,  there  is  ground  for  thinking  that  all 
his  pensions  and  privileges,  large  as  they  were  nominally, 
brought  in  but  precarious  returns.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  that  in  the  summer  of  1566  (when  he  was  elected  into 
the  Florentine  academy)  he  made  an  official  declaration  of 
his  income,  and  put  down  the  various  items  apparently 
below  their  value,  not  naming  at  all  his  salary  or  pensions. 
Possibly  there  was  but  too  much  reason  for  the  omission. 
,.  In  September  1 565  Titian  went  to  Cadofe  and  designed 
the  decorations  for  the  church  at  Pieve,  partly  executed 
ty  his  pupib.  One  of  these  is  a  Transfiguration,  another 
an  Annunciation  (now  in  S.  Salvatore,  Venice),  inscribed 
"  Titianns  fecit  fecit,"  by  way  of  protest  (it  is  said)  against 
the  disparagement  of  some  persons  who  cavilled  at  tbe 
veteran's  failing  handicraft.  He  continued  to  accept  com- 
missions to  the  last.  He  had  selected  as  the  place  for  his 
burial  the  chapel  of  tie  Cmcifix  in  the  church  of  the  Frari ; 
and,  in  return  for  a  grave,  he  offered  the  Franciscans  a 
picture  of  the  Pieti,  representing  himself  and  his  son  Orazio 
before  the  Saviour,  another  figure  in  the  composition  being 
a  sibyl.  This  work  he  nearly  finished  ;  but  some  differences 
arose  regarding  it,  and  he  then  settled  to  bo  interred  in 
his  native  Pieve.  Titian  was  ninety-nine  years  of  age 
(more  or  less)  when  the  plague,^  which  was  then  raging  in 
'  Out  of  a  total  population  of  190,000  there  periabed  at  this  time 

eo.ooo.  r- 


Venice,  seized  him,  aad  carried  him'ofi  on  L'/th  August 
1 576.  He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  Frari,  as  at  first 
intended,  and  his  Picta  was  finished  by  Palnia  Giovane. 
He  lies  near  his  own  famous  painting,  the  Madonna  di 
Casa  Pesaro.  No  memorial  marked  his  grave,  until  by 
Austrian  command  Canova  executed  the  monument  so  well 
known  to  sightseers.  Immediately  after  Titian's  own 
death,  his  son  and  pictorial  assistant  Orazio  died  of  the 
same  epidemic.  His  sumptuous  mansion  was  plundered 
during  the  plague  _by  thieves,  who  prowled  about,  scarce 
controlled. ' 

Titian  was  a  man  of  correct  features  and  handsome  person.witfi 
an  uncommon  air  of  penetrating  observation  and  self-possessed 
composure,  —  a  Venetian  presence  worthy  to  pair  with  any  of  those 
"most  potent,  grave,  and  rcveicnd  signers"  whom  his  pencil  has 
transmitted  to  posterity.  He  was  higlily  distinguished,  courteous, 
and  winning  iu  society,  personally  unassuming,  and  a  fine  spe.iker, 
enjoying  (as  is  said  by  Vasari,  wlio  saw  him  in  the  spring  of  15C6) 
health  and  prosperity  unequalled.  The  numcrmis  licads  i-uiTcullf 
named  Titian's  Mistress  might  dispose  us  to  regard  the  painter 
as  a  man  of  more  than  usually  relaxed  morals;  the  .Oict  is,  liowever, 
that  tliese  titles  are  mere  fancy-names,  and  no  inference  one  way  or 
the  other  can  be  dravvn  from  them.  He  gave  splendid  entertain-' 
ments  at  times  ;  and  it  is  related  that,  when  Henry  III.  of  France 
passed  througli  Venice  on  his  way  from  Poland  to  take  the  French 
throne,  lie  called  on  Titian  with  a  train  of  nobles,  and  the  painter 
presented  him' as  a  gift  with  all  the  pictures  of  which  he  inquired 
the  price.  He  was  not  a  man  of  universal  genius  or  varied  faculty 
and  accomplishment,  like  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Miclielangelo  i 
his  one  great  and  supreme  endowment  was  that  of  painting. 

Ever  since  Titian  rose  into  celebrity  the  general. verdict  has  been 
that  he  is  the  greatest  of  painters,  considered  technically.  In 
the  first  place  neither  the  method  of  fresco  painting  nor  work  o( 
the  colossal  scale  to  wlijch  fresco  painting  ministers  is  here  in 
question.  Titian's  province  is  that  of  oil  painting,  and  of  painting 
on  a  scale  which,  though  often  large  and  grand,  is  not  colossal  either 
in  difcension  or  in  inspiration.  Titian  may  properly  be  regarded 
ns  tiie  greatest  manipulator  of  paint  in  relation  to  colour,  tone; 
luminosity,  richness,  texture,  surface,  and  harmony,  and  with  a 
view  to  the  production  of  a  pictorial  whole  conveying  to  the  eyfl 
a  true,  dignified,  and  beautiful  impression  of  its  general  subject- 
matter  and  of  the  objects  of  sense  which  form  its  constituent  partsj 
In  this  sense  Titian  has  never  been  deposed  from  his  sovereignty 
in  painting,  nor  can  one  forecast  the  time  in  which  he  will  be 
deposed.  For  the  complex  of  qualities  which  we  sum  up  in  the 
words  colour,  handling,  and  general  force  and  hamiony  of  cITect.' 
he  stands  nnmatched,  although  in  particular  items  of  forcible  or, 
impressive  execution  —  not  to  speak  of  creative  invention  —  some 
painters,  one  in  one  respect  and  another  in  another,  may  indisput- 
ably be  preferred  to  him.  He  carried  to  its  acme  that  great  colourist 
conception  of  the  Venetian  school  of  which  the  first  masterpieces 
are  due  to  the  two  Bellini,  to  Carpaccio,  and,  with  more  fully  derc-l 
loped  suavity  of  manner,  to  Giorgione.  Pre-eminent  inventive; 
power  or  sublimity  of  intellect  he  never  evinced.  Even  in  energy, 
of  action  and  more  especially  in  majesty  or  affluence  of  composition! 
the  palm  is  not  his  ;  it  is  (so  far  as  concerns  the  Venetian  scliool) 
assignable  to  Tintoretto.  Titian  is  a  painter  who  by  wondrous 
magic  of  genius  and  of  art  satisfies  the  eye,  and  through  the  eye 
the  feelings, — sometimes  the  mind. 

Titian's  pictures  abound  with  memories  of  his  home-country  and 
of  the  region  which  led  from  the  hill-summits  of  Cadore  to  the 
queen -city  of  the  Adriatic  He  van  almost  the  first  painter  to 
exhibit  an  appreciation  of  mouptains,  mainly  those  of  a  turreted 
type,  exemplified  in  the  Dolomites.  Indeed  he  gave  to  landscape 
generally  a  new  and  original  vitality,  expressing  the  quality  of  the 
objects  of  nature  and  their  control  over  the  sentiments  and  ima- 
pnation  with  a  force  that  had  never  before  been  approached.  The 
earliest  Italian  picture  expressly  designated  as  "landscape"  was 
one  which  Vecelli  sent  in  1552  to  Philip  II.  His  productive  faculty 
was  immense,  even  when  we  allow  for  the  abnormal  length  of  his 
professional  career.  In  Italy,  England,  and  elsewhere  more  than  a 
thousand  pictures  figure  as  Titian's  ;  of  these  about  250  m.ay  be 
regarded  as  dubious  or  spurious.  There  are,  for  instance,  9  picture? 
in  the  London  National  Gallery,  18  in  the  Louvre,  16  in  the  Pitti.i 
18  in  the  Uflfizi,  7  in  the  Naples  museum,  8  in  the  Venetian  academy, 
(besides  the  series  in  the  private  meeting- hall),  and  41  in  th?' 
Madrid  museum. 

Naturally  a  good  deal  of  attention  has  been  given  by  artists^ 
connoisseurs,  and  experts  to  probing  the  secret  of  how  Titian 
managed  to  obtain  such  astonishing  results  in  colour  and  .«urface. 
The  npshot  of  this  research  is  but  meagre  ;  the  secret  seems  to  be 
not  so  much  one  of  Workmanship  as  of  faculty.  His  figures  were 
put  in  with  the  bmsh  dipped  in  a  brown  solution,  and  then  altered 
and  worked  Dp  as  his  intention  developed.  ~  The  later  pictures  were 


416 


TITIAN 


t 


V  J  (T  ^r,{AU  ti-IUnff  well  from  a  distant  view.  He  himself 
it°±f  that  a?U  ^bU  vfaft  to  Ron,e  in  1546  he  had  sreatly  jm- 
.verrel  that  alter  m  said-cerUinly  with  the 

LX";  of  ge-'..-  P-ha';,  au'o  wUh  sLe.of  the  tenacity  of  old  age 
th?t  he  was  then  begiDU.ng  to  understand  what  pain  ing  meant 
Tu\t  ^,IT.  pictures^th.  lamut  of  colour  resU  ■^^ly;/""^^'!^ 
ind  Len,  in  the  later  ones  upon  deep  yeUow  and  bl"=;_  T.^^ 
n?m.fnt3  which  he  used  were  nothing  unusual  ;  indeed  they  were 
L^few  and  common.  Palma  Giovane  records  that  Vecelh  wou  d 
eet  Pi  -ures  aside  for  months,  and  afterwards,  examining  them  with 
refill  couuLnance  as  if  they  were  l'i^--f ' -J^rJ"  iny 
to  work  upon  them  like  a  man  possessed  ,  also  that  he  ^«It  ""^n^y 

S  ri^';i^lt:*^mul!t5^^:"v^2iotsjf;rLw: 
S^S^I^a^^r-th^s^^ft^dit^siv^  ^ 

tho  f If  ""^^  °'  ",      jT       -J   ..  That  man  would  have  bad  no  equal 
Tar^t  hrdCt  mu'chtV  binf'as  nature."     He  waa  thinking 
Principally  of  severity  and  majesty  of  ,d""g^'^"'J°^S'P'   '°',,'l^ 
Jdded  "P.ty  that- in  Venice  they  don't  learn  how  to  draw  we 
As  a  draughtsman   of    the   human    figure   Tit.an   was    not   on  y 
Competent -but  good  and  fine,  and  be  is  reported  U>  tave  ^tu^ed 
anatomv  deeply  ;  but  one  can  easily  understand  that  he  leU  not  a 
mtle"hort  o    the  standard  of  Michelangelo,  and  even  of  otl.er 
idinrFlorent  nes.     Ke  waa  wont  to  paint  in  a  nude  figure  with 
V^neUan  ^supplemented  by  a  little  lake  in  the  contour  aud 
towiS  the  «treraitie3.     He  observed  that  a  colounst  ought  to 
^rnYnulat*  white   black   and  red,  and  that  tho  carnations  cannot 
ra  t  a  ^t  ^Hog,  but 'by  replicating  vanoua  tinU^nd 
mineliuK  the  colouiC    Ho  distanced  all  predecessors  in  the  study 
S  CO  our  a^  applied  to  draper.es.-working  on  the  pnnc.ple  (.a 
"Jh  etc  orgion^e^may  perhapVhave  forestalled  him    that  red  comes 
forward  to  the  eye,  yellow  retains  the  rays  of  li»bt.  and  blue  s^i 
mlutes    o  shadow.^   In  his  subject- pictures  ttie  figures  are  not 
«rv  numerous,  and  the  attitudes  are  mostly  "^^'^f  ■•,^,'"°"' 
bacchanals  or  battles  the  athletic  display  has  more  of  faohty  than 
of  furor       His  architectural  scenes  were  somet.mes  executed    by 
oth«  ?^rsons,  especially  the  Rosas  of  Brescia.     The  glow  of  late 
efUrnoCor  the%assionate  ardour  of  early  sundown,  ^^  ">"  ^ 
Effected  by  Tit  an  in  the  lighting  of  hia  pictures^    Generally  it  may 
belfd  that  he  took  great  pains  in  completing  his  work^.  =■"!  P^" 
.Isr  n  concealing  the  traces  of  labour.      He  appears  to  have  had 
little  hkine  Tor  teaching,  partly  from  distaste  of  the  trouble,  and 
MtlY  (i    we  are  to  befcve  biograpb"^)  f""  J^l<»"y-     "VhU 
SutewUing,  however,  to  turn  to  some  account  the  work  of  his 
3Lh^1,^     il    3  related  that  on  going  out-cfdoors  ho  would  leave 
kiSioocen    so  that  the  pupils  had  a  clandestine  opportunity 
^f  copstg  ru'w^rks   and  if 'thLop.es  proved  of  saleable  quahty 
ha  woSd^uy  them  cheap,  touch  them  up,  and  resell  them. 

Titian's  family  relations  appear  to  have  been  happy,  except  aa 
reArTs  his  eldest  son  Pomponio.     This  youth,  at  the  age  of  s  x 
wS  aund^ed  upon  the  ecclesiastical  career    hut  he  P-^d  -st-^fu 
Md  worthless,  and  Titian  at  last  got  so  disgusted  with  b""  ihat 
S^  obtSried  the  transfer  to  a  nephew  of  a  benefice  destined   for 
Pot^p^n^      The   fortune  which  *he  left  was,   after  h,s   decease, 
Muande  ed  by  tho  tonsured  prodigal.     The  other  son  Cranio,  born 
towads  1528,  who  (as  we  have  seen)  assisted  Titian  professionaUy, 
becime  a  portrait-painter  of  mark,-some  of  l.is   ikenesses,  a  mo.t 
comparable  with  Titian's  own,  being  often  ^^.f-^fed  with  h. 
by  owners  and  connoisseurs.      He  executed  an  ■■opo^'^'"  P"t"^ 
ii  the  hall  of  the  great  council,  destroyed  by  fire      He  ga«  to 
Schemy  some  of  thf  time  which  might  have  been  bestowed  upon 
taintrng      Several  other  artists  of  the  Vecelh  family  followed  m 
[he  wako  of  Titian.     Francesco  Vecelli.  his  elder  brother    was  in- 
rodu?ed  to  painHng  by  Titian  (it  is  said  at  the  age  of  twelve 
but  chronology  will  hardly  admit  of  this),  and  painted  in  the 
church  of  3.¥itoin  Cadori  a  picture  of  the  titular  saint  armed 
TM    was  a  noteworthy  porformancc,  of  which  Titian  (the  "sual 
etory)  became  jealous  ;  so  Francesco  was  diverted  from  pa'ntmg    o 
soldiering,  and  afterwards  to  mercantile  life.     Marco  Vecelh,  called 
Marco  di  Tiziano,  Titian's  nephew   bom  m  1545.  ^T^^" "?""  'y 
with  the  master  in  his  old  age.  and    earned  his  n=e  hods  of  work 
He  has  left  some  able  productions, -in  the  ducal  palace    the  Meet- 
"g  of  Charles  V.  and  Clement  VII.   in  1529;   ""  §.  G.acomo  dl 
Rillto,  an  Annunciation  :  in  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  Christ  Fulminant^ 
A  son  of  Marco,  named  Tinano  (or  Tizianello).  painted  early  in  the 
17th  century.    From  a  different  branch  of  the  family  came  Fahruio 

Sso  left  some  pictures,  is  well  known  by  his  book  of  ^ng^^d 
wstumes.  AbiUAMM  «  M<xUn,i.  Tommaso  Vecelh,  also  a 
painur.  died  in  1620.  There  was  another  relative,  Girolamo  Dante, 
Vrho  being  a  scholar  and  assistant  of  Titian,  was  called  Girolamo  di 
Tiziino  Various  pictures  of  his  were  touched  up  by  the  master, 
and  are  difficult  to  distinguish  from  originals.  Apart  from  mem- 
bers of  his  family,  the  scholars  of  Titian  were  not  numerous ; 


Paris  Bordone  and  Bonifazio  were  the  two  of  superior  eicellenco. 
Domenico  Teoscopoli  (or  Domenico  Greco)  was  employed  b^  the 
master  to  engrave  from  his  works.     It  is  said  that  Titian  himself 
enpraved  on  copper  and  on  wood,  but  this  may  well  he  questioned. 
\Ve  must  now  briefly  advert  to  Titian's  individual  works,  tatong 
them  in  approximate  order  of  time,  and  merely  dividmg  portraits 
from  other  pictures,    DelaUs  already  given  indicate  that  he  did  not 
exhibit  any  extreme  precoci'v  ;  the  earliest  works  which  we  proceed 
to  mention  may  date  towarus  1505.     In  the  chapel  of  S.  Rocco. 
Venice   is  his  Christ  Carrying  the  Cross,  now  greatly  dilapidated, 
which  'was  an  object  of  so  much  popular  devotion  as  to  produoe 
offenngs  which  formed  the  first  funds  for  building  the  Scuola  di 
S    Roico  •   in  the  scuola  itself  is  his  Man  of  Sorrows      The  siuga- 
briy  beautiful  picture  (see  Schools  of  Painting,  voh  xxl  p^  436, 
fie    161  in  the  Borgbese  Palace  in  Rome,  commonly  named  Uivine 
and  Human  Love  (by  some.  Artless  and  Sated  Love),  bears  some 
obvious  relation  to  the  style  of  Palma  Vecchio.    The  story  goes  that 
Titian  was  enamoured  of  Palma 's  daugbUr;  but  nothing  distinct 
on  this  point  U  forthcoming.     The  Tnbute  Money  (Chnst  and  the 
Pharisee),  now  in  the  Dresden  gaUery,  dates  towards  1508  ;  Titian  is 
said  to  have  painted  this  highly  finished  yet  not  "n^ling    pictuje 
^  order  to  prove  to  some  Germans  that  the  effect  o^O^d  could  bo 
produced  without  those  extreme  mmutix  which  mark  the  style  ol 
Albert  Durer.     The  St  Maik  in  the  church  of  the  Salute-the 
evangelist  enthroned,  along  with  SS.  Sebastian,  Roch,  Cosmo,  and 
Damlano-a  picture  much  in  the  style  of  Giorgione,  belongs  to 
151-'      Towards  1518  was  painted,  also  in  the  same  class  of  stjle, 
the  Three  Ages,  now  in  Bndgewatcr  House,-a  woman  guiding  the 
fingers  of  a  shepherd  on  a  reed-pipe,  two  sleeping  chddxen.  a  cup  d. 
an^old  man  wit^  two  skulls,  and  a  second  shepherd  'n.tbe  distance. 
_^ne  of  the  most  poetically  impressive  among  »" Jitun  s  work,^ 
Another  work  of  approximate  Jate  was  the  Worship  of  Venus   m 
fhc   Madrid  museum,  showing  :.  sUtue  of  Venus,  t^o  ny^Pb^. 
numerous  cupids  hunting  a  hare,  and  other  figures.   Jwo  of  the 
Loudon  National  GaUery  pictures-the  Holy  Family  and  St  Cathe- 
rine  and  the  Noli  Me  Tangere-were  going  on  at  "J"^''  \''^  =^™! 
time  as  the  ereat  Assumption  of  the  Madonna.     In  1521  veceiii 
WsbS  a  pafnting  which  had  long  been  due  to  Duke  Alnhonso  o 
Fe^ara    probably  the  Bacchanal,  with  Anadne  dozing  over  het 
tine-^up!  which  is  now  in  Madrid.      Tho  f^"ous  Bacchus  and 
Triadne  in  the  National  Gallery  was  produced  for  the  same  patroiM 
in  15''3      The  Flora  of  the  Uffizi,  the  Venus  of  Darmstadt,  and  the 
ovely  Venus  Anadyomene  of  the  Bridgcwater  Gallery  may  date  a 
elr  or  so  eariier.     Another  work  of  1523  is  the  stupendous  En. 
lonibmcnt  of  Christ  in  the  Louvre,  whose  depth  of  colour  and  o 
hadow  stands  as   the   pictorial   eqmvJcnt  of  '^d-vidual   faaJ 
expression;  the  same  composition,  a  les.  admirable  work  appearJ 
tn^h?  Manfrini  GaUery.  '^  The  Louvre  picture  comes  from   th^ 
Goiaga  coUection  and  from  the  gallery  of  Charles  I.  ^  Wlut^ 
hall    ^n   1530  Titian  completed  the   S     Peter  M^r^-^ /"L.  J^« 
church  of  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo;  for  this  work  he  bo  e  off  the 


church  of  SS.  Giovanni  o  raoio  ;  im    u..^    j  i  JT    ^fif  Til 

prize  in  competition  with  Palma  Vecch.o  and  Pordenone      Of  aU 

^s  pictures  this  was  the  most  daring  in  design  of  motion   whd. 

it  sne  ded  to  none  in  general  power  of  workmanship  and  of  feelmg. 

t  Showed  the  infiuence  of  M\chelangelo,_who  was  in  Venice  whJe 

Vecelli  was  engaged  upon  it.     A  calamitous  fire  destroyed  it  m 

1867     the  copy  of  it  which  has  Uken  its  place  is  tne  handiwork  ol 

Cirdi'da  C.golL     To  1530  belongs  also  the  Madonna  del  Con.gbo 

Souvre),  patnted  for  Gonzaga  f  to  1536  the  Venus  of  Florence ; 

to  1538  the  portraits  of  the'' Twelve  Cesars    for  Gonzaga -and 

l^    539  the  Presentation  of  the  Virgin  in  the  Temple.-one  of   he 

conspicuous  examples  in  the  Venetian  academy    yet  not  of  the 

first'in7crest  or  iiSportance.     About  1540  were  done  the  forcible 

but  rather  uninspired  paintings  lor  S.  Spinlo,  Venice,  now  m  the 

church  of  the  Salute-dain  Killing  Abel,  tne  s^^f^-^of  Abraham 

d  David  and  Goliath;  in  1543  the  Ecce  Homo  of  the  V,  nna 

calien-    whSre  Aretino  figures  as  Pilate.     The  Venus  and  Cupid 

?    rZence.  the  Venus  of°Madrid.  and  the  S"PPe;  of  Emmaus  m 

the   Louvre  were  stUl  in  hand,  or  J"st  completed,  when  Titian 

wi  summoned  to  Augsburg  in  1547.     In  1554  he  sent  to  Philip 

M    in  England  a  seconfDalae  and  a  Venus  and  Adorns^     About 

he  same  time  he  sent  to   ChaHes  V.  a  Trmity  (or    as  Titian 

li  nsdRerrd  it,  Last  Judgment),  which  represented  the  empe^r 

with  his  famUy  and  others,  all  in  shrouds,  praying  to  theGoa- 

hcad      Moses  and  various  other  personages  are   also  portrayed. 

Tlfis  was  the  object  upon  which  Charies  continued  to  keep  his  eyes 

Id  unti     he  fi  m  of'^eath  closed  on  them.     L»ter  pictures  from 

h  T^(i::u^)"  DS^°^d  z^-^^:^  '={ 

f,nrpii7a^:l^L:ndo;a^'d';S"en,,a.  Phd 
was  equally  ou/iii  with  nudities  and  with  s.-incti  los.  The  Jupiter 
and  Antiope,  now  much  restored,  is  commonly  called  La  \  enus  del 
Pardo  haSng  at  first  been  in  the  Pardo  Palace.  The  MfSdaleno 
here  snokln  of  (1561)  seems  to  be  the  pictnie  now  in  the  Ulfia 
of  Flor««  :  Titicn.  in  one  of  his  letters,  said  that  it  was  the  m«d 


1  I  T— T  I  T 


417 


popnlar  picture  he  had  ever  painted.  El  1563  Vecelli  offered  to 
Pbilip  II.  his  Last  Supper,  which  had  been  in  hand  for  six  years  ; 
it  wias  cut  down  in  the  Escorial  to  suit  s  particular  space,  and 
offers  now  little  noticeable  beyond  the  fine  grouping.  The  St 
Jerome  of  the  Brcra  Gallen'  in  Milan,  a  work  of  wonderful  energy, 
•pint,  and  farce,  especially  for  a  more  than  octogenarian  hand, 
was  pnjbably  rslher  earlier  than  this;  there  is  a  replica  of  it  in 
the  Escorial-  One  of  the  master's  latest  pi'-tures  (1574-75)  is  in 
Madrid,  and  commemorates  the  Battle  of  Lepanto  ;  it  is  a  work 
of  failing  power — but  still  the  power  of  a  Titian.  Two  of  the 
mosaics  m  St  Mark's  church,  \emce, — the  Mark  in  pontificals, 
■nd  the  sword-sheathing  angel  on  the  right  of  the  high  altar, — are 
»fter  Vecellfs  designs  ;  out  they  are  contrary  to  the  true  spirit  of 
mosaic  work,  and  the  Mark  in  especial  is  a  decided  eyesore. 

"We  now  turn  to  the  portraits, — works  so  great  in  style,  so  stately, 
end  in  the  best  sense  so  simple  in  perception  and  feeling  that,  after 
allowing  everything  which  can  be  said  on  behalf  of  some  other 
masters  of  the  crafl,  such  as  Raphael,  Velazquez,  Rubens,  and 
Rembrandt,  one  b  still  compelled  to  say  that  Titian  stands  on  the 
whole  supreme-  -Amongthe  Highest  examples  are — Alphonso,  duke 
of  Ferrari  (Madrid) ;  tie  same  duke  and  his  second  wife  Laura 
Diaiiti  (LoQvre),  commonly  called  Titian  and  his  Mistress;  Francis 
I.  (Lou%Te),  painted  towards  1536,  bnt  not  from  direct  sittings,  for 
,Titian  never  saw  the  French  king;  various  likenesses  of  himself, 
one  of  about  1542,  and  another  of  1562  .  Paal  III.,  also  the  same 
pope  with  his  grandsons  Cardinal  Alessandro  and  Duke  Ottavio 
(Naples), — the  former,  done  in.  about  four  weeks,  was  presented  to 
the  pontiff  in  May  1543,  and  cost  two  gold  ducats  ;  Pietro  Aretino 
(Pitti) ;  Titian's  daughter  Lavinia  (with  a  fan  in  the  Dresden 
^Uery,  with  a  jewelled  casket  in  Lo^d  Cowper's  collection) ;  the 
Comaro  Family  (Alnwick  Castle) ;  L'Homme  au  Gant  (Louvre), 
ftn  unknown  personage,  youthful  and  handsome,  the  nc  plus  ultra 
of  portraiture  ;  Sansovino,  Eleonors  duchess  of  L^rbino;  Francesco 
dnbe  of  Urbino,  Catherine  Cornaro  queen  of  CSprus  (these  four  are 
in  the  Cffizi)  ;  Charles  V.  on  horseback  (Madrid) ;  Cardinal  Bembo 
(Naples),  discovered  in  an  nncared-for  condition  in  1878,  very 
onlike  the  portrait  in  the  Barberini  Gallery.  The  female  portraits 
done  by  Titian  are  few,  and  are  almost  invariably  of  women  of 
exalted  rank.  Of  Ariosto,  with  whom  Titian  was  intim.ite  in 
Ferrsra,  though  there  may  probably  have  been  nothing  approach- 
ing to  a  romantic  friendship  between  them,  the  painter  is  said  to 
have  done  three  portraits.  Much  uncertainty,  however,  besets  this 
matter.  One  of  the  three  appears  as  a  w-oodcut  in  an  edition  of  the 
Orlando  Furioso.  A  seco'hd,  now  at  Cobham  Hall,  corresponds 
with  the  woodcut  likeness,  and  is  signed  "  Titianus  F."  The 
third,  a  work  of  admirable  beauty,  and  a  most  fitting  likeness  of  a 
poet,  is  in  the  National  Caller)-  of  London.  It  is  difficult,  how- 
ever, to  reconcile  the  features  hero  with  the  other  portraits,  and 
some  connoisseuTB  do  not  admit  that  the  work  is  really  a  Titian. 

A^iAorities. — For  English  readers,  the  Lifi  and  Tifnrs  of  Titvin  hy  Crowe 
and  CavalcaseUe  0S7T)  has  superseded  all  previous  works,  such  as  those  of 
Sir  Abraham  Hume  flStS)  End  Northcote  (16.30>.  Mr  Josiah  GllLrfs  lionk. 
Ccdirrt,  or  Titmnt  C^nintry  (1S69),  supplies  many  interesting  side  light*  on  the 
rabjecL  Mr  R-  F.  Hestb's  monograph  <lSSj)  is  founded  mainly  on  Crowe  and 
Cavalcaselle  and  on  Gilbert,  and  forma  a  very  convenient  compendium.  In 
Italian,  ae©  the  usual  authorities — Ticozzi,  RidoUl,  L^ozi,  tc.       fW.  M.  R.) 

TITLES  OF  HONOUR  are  words  and  phrases  used 
for  marking  and  distinguishing  the  rank  or  station  of 
the  persons  to  whom  they  are  assigna^and  appropriated. 
Whatever  may  have  been  their  actual  or  verbal  origin,  it 
is  certain  that  among  nations  which  have  made  any  con- 
siderable progress  in  civilization  their  immediate  derivation 
has  been  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,irom  some  kind  of 
public  office  or  employment.  As  Mr  Freeman  has  jtointed 
out,'  the  principal  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  the  merely 
complimentary  additions  which  it  is  usual  to  accord  in 
Europe  and  America  to  persons  who  have  no  ascertained 
place  or  precedence  in  the  social  scale.  Among  ourselves 
"mister"  or  "  master"  (mnijister)  and  its  feminine  equiva- 
lents, and  on  the  Continent  signor,  seiior,  and  sieur  (senior) 
and  their  feminine  equivalents,  are  the  leading  examples. 
They  are  employed  sinijily  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  calling 
those  to  whom  they  are  applied  by  their  proper  names 
only,  and  are  not  indicative  of  any  special  rank  or 
station.  In  France,  .however,  ma'Ure,  which  answers  to 
our  mister  or  master,  is  the  professional  designation  of  an 
avocat,  and  in  England  "sir,"  which  answers  to  siynor, 
tenor,  and  suur,  is  the  appropriate  prefix  to  the  Christian 
name  and  surname  of  a  baronet  or  a  knight.  Of  the 
derivatives  of  dominxu — don,  donna,  and  dame — the  last 
In  French  compounded  like  sieur  with  the  possessive  pro- 
'  In  IxmgmaKt  Mag.,  «iL  ii.  p.  477-»gi 


noun  in  ordinary  speech  and  appearing'inTnarfameaa 
the  feminine  equivalent  of  monsieur,  much  the  same 
may  be  said  as  of  the  derivati\  es  of  magister  and  senior. 
And,  although  our, word  "  lord  "  has  a  special  reference  to 
the  House  of  Lords,  as  the  German  Hen-  has  to  the 
Herrenhaus  in  certain  of  its  uses,  it  largely  partakes  of 
the  character  which  belongs  to  them.  Its  derivation  ia 
analogous  to  theirs,  and  within  somewhat  narrower  limits 
it  is  almost  a»- indiscriminately  employed.  More  strictly 
lord  and  lady  are  the  equivalents  of  baron  and  baroness, 
the  fifth  grade  of  the  British  peerage.^  But  colloquially 
it  is  applied  to  all  grades  of  the  peerage  e.^cept  the  first ; 
and,  though  duchesses  are  iiot  called  ladies  in  society, 
dukes  are  unquestionably  lords  in  their  capacity  as  members 
of  the  second  chamber  of  the  legislature.  Certain  of  the 
sons  and  daughters  of  peers  are  lords  and  ladies  by  courtesy, 
while  the  wives  of  baronets  are  legally  and  the  irives  of 
knights  are  conventionally  called  ladies,  although  the  ivives 
of  knights  are  more  accurately  described  as  dames.  But 
besides  this  we  have  our, lord  the  king  and  our  lady  the 
queen,  lord  bishops,  lord  lieutenants,  lord  justices,  lord 
advocates,  lord  mayors,  lord  provosts,  lords  of  the  council, 
lords  of  the  treasury,  lords  of  the  admiralty,  lords  of 
manors,  and  a  variety  of  other  lords  who  have  no  neces- 
sary connexion  with  the  nobility.  Lord  and  lady  in  fact 
are  among  the  titles  of  honour  which  have  never  been 
historically  associated  «Tth  any  particular  function.  ■  Lord 
was  originally  in  Anglo-Saxon  hldford,  probably  a  corrup- 
tion of  htdficeard,  "the  warden  of  bread."  Lady  in 
Anglo-Saxon  -  is  hlstfdige,  and  has  also  some  conn'ection 
'with  hldf.  Neither  name  acquired  by  means  of  official 
association  any  definite  signification  bevond  the  more  or 
less  general  ascription  of  superiority.-  ^ 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  distribute  titles~of  honour, 
into  rigidly  distinct  categories.  The  following  is  as_near 
an  approximation  as  we  are  able  to  make. 

I.  Supreme  Sovereign  Titles. — Among  titles  implying  sovereignty 
the  first  place  is  occupied  by  "emperor"  and  "king."  Under 
existing  international  arrangements  the  crowned  head*  of  Europe 
take  precedence  according  to  the'  date  of  theii'  accession,  and  their 
rank  is  precisely  the  same,  whether  their  style  is  imperial  or  royal.' 
Hut  the  proper  meaning  of  emperor  is  the  chief  of  a  confederation 
of  states  of  which  kings  are  members.  The  German  emperor  is  an 
emperor  in  this  sense,  and  he  of  course  has  precedence  of  the  kings 
of  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Wuftemberg,  whose  dominions  are  in- 
cluded in  his  empire.  But  neither  he  nor  the  emperors  of  Russia 
and  Austria  have  any  precedence  as  such  of  the  queen  of  the 
United  Kingdom  or  the  kings  of  Italy  and  Spain.  Originally  the 
title  of  king  was  superior  to  that  of  emperor,  and  it  was  to  avoid 
the  assumption  of  the  superior  title  of  rex  that  the  chief  magi. 
strates  of  Rome  adopted  the  names  of  Csesar,  imjteralor,  and  prin- 
crps  to  signalize  their  authority.  Aa  impcrator  was  the  distimtivo 
title  of  the  ruler  of  the  Western  empire,  so  ySaiTiXew  was  the  dis- 
tinctive titl»  of  the  ruler  of  the  Eastern  empire,  and  the  Greek 
^acriXcK  13  the  exact  equivalent  of  the  Latin  rex.  The  emperor  of 
the  East  was  called  airroKpirwp  as  well  as  /SoaiXfit.  But  ^oaAeii 
came  to  mean  the  same  as  imperaior  in  so  special  a  wav  that  the 
word,  p-j^  was  borrowed  to  express  what  had  grown  to  be  the  in- 
ferior dignity  of  king.*  Under  Charlemagne  the  imperial  style  of 
Rome  anil   the  royal  style  of  Germany  wire  united  '      It  was, 

"  "  The  baroo  alone  among  the  ranks  of  peerage  can  hardly  be  called 
official,  except  so  far  as  peerage  itself  is  an  office.  His  title  rather 
marks  a  rank  or  class  than  an  office ;  it  does  not  at  once  point  out  eveo 
the  memory  of  distinct  functions  like  those  of  the  d'ikft,.tho  marquis, 
or  the  earl "  {Longman's  ^fag.,  vol.  ii.  p.  483). 

•  .Muller,  Led.  Hci.  Lang..  2d  ser.,  p.  255. 

'  Freeman,  Ciniipa.Tat've  Politics,  pp.  161162.^^ 

*  "The  great  triumph  in  the  life  of  Charles  the  Great  was^when'tha 
ambassadora  of  the  Eastern  emperor  Michael  addressed  him  according 
to  the  full,  imjierial  style  (Eginhanl,  Annals,  812), "  Aquisgrafil,  nbi  nl 
tm[,enilorem  venerunt  .  .  more  suo,  id  est,  Glts^ca  lingua,  laudes  ei 
Jixenint,  Imperaiorctn  euni  cl  Basilcinn  appellanles'" (Freeoiaa,  Covi' 
parative  Politics,  p.  353).  Mr  Freeman  notices  also  the  great  con- 
troversy concerning  the  impenal  titles,  especially  the  word  fiaffiXfis. 
which  .irose  three  generations  later  between  the  emperors  Basil  the 
.Macedonian  and  Lewis  the  Second.  See  also  John  Lydus,  Di 
Magistratidus,  1,  3,  on  the  distinction  between  rvpoprot,  fiaat\eCt,  vii 
airoKpiTwD,  discossed  in  Freeman,  Comp.  Pot.,  p   445.  " 

"       XXIIL  — .S3i 


418 


TIT—TIT 


however,  from  Csesar,  *flich  waa  couimoii  to  the  Wesiem  ana  the 
f'aaterD  emperors  alike,  that  the  Teutonic  word  for  emperor— 
kaiser  —  was  derived  Until  cecent  times,  m  fact,  no  sovereign 
thought  of  TCalling  himself  emperor  uuless  he  claimed  in  some  way 
to  represent  the  Roman  Ciesars  Uu^vd  to  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century  a  German  eiuperor  whu  was  not  Roman  empefor 
would  have  been  ao  anooialy  At  remule  periods  more  than  one 
of  the  West  Saxon  kings  called  bunself  eniperur  of  Britain,  and 
more  than  one  king  of  Castile  called  himself  emperor  of  the  Spains. 
But  these  assumptions  apjHiai  t^*  have  been  merely  intended  as 
protest5i  against  the  assertinn  of  superiority  over  them  by  the 
Roman  em|».'rors  German  or  Gret-k  Later  oo  the  kings  of  Portu 
gal  called  th»*mseK■^'3  »-niiH:nir  of  thd  Indies.  But  that  title.iike 
the  quei-ij  of  the  United  Kingdom  s  title  of  empress  of  India,  was 
•econdary  only  and  did  not  alfeut  their  ufficial  designation  in  the 
hierarchy  of  European  sovBrfigna 

Tho  title  of  king  does  not  suggest  any  of  the  questions  which 
^ave  been  raised  by  that  of  trm|»eror  "TherH  is.  as  Mr  Freeman 
faj'S,  "a  common  idea  of  kingship  which  is  at  once  recognized, 
however  hard  it  may  be  to  ddine  it  This  is  ehowu  amoug  other 
things  by  the  (act  that  no  difficulty  u»  ever  felt  as  ro  translating  the 
word  king  and  the  words  which  aii^jwer  to  it  ut  other  languages."' 
Etymologically  indeed  th«  Romance  and  T»-ufODic  words  for  king 
have  qiiite  distinct  origins.  The  Latin  res  corresponds  to  the 
Sanskrit  rajah,  and  meant  originally  steersman.  The  Teutonic 
king  on  the  contrary  corresponds  to  the  Sanskrit  gmuika^  and 
psimply  meai*it  father,  the  father  ot  a  family,  the  king  of  his  own 
Jtin,  the  father  of  a  clan,  the  father  of  a  pfople  "'  In  English 
ithere  is  no  feminine  form  of  king  like  konigm,  the  feminine  form 
'<>{  konig  in  German.  As  the  feminine  equivalent  of  king,  queen  is 
iused,  which  Prof  Max  Muller  says  is  "the  old  word  for  mother  " 
He  also  cites  the  translation  of  the  Bible  by  Ulfilaa  in  the  4th 
Jjentury  to  prove  its  meaning  ut  that  early  period  as  wife  or  woman. 
"The  queen  was  in  fact  in  a  special  sense  "  the  woman."  or  "  the 
fwife,'  the  highest  of  women  and  the  highest  of  wives  in  the  king- 
dom.* i^ing  should  properly  describe  the  head  of  a  nation  in 
'distinction  from  the  heaa  of  a  tribe,  as  emperor  should  pronerly 
Idescribe  the  head  of  a  confederation  in  distinction  from  the  head 
'of  a  nation.  The  idea  of  territonal  sovereignty,  of  kingship  over 
a  laud  instead  of  over  a  people,  grew  up  unuei  the  feudal  system. 
In  Britain  it  was  unknown  until  long  after  the  Norman  Conquest 
jWilliam  the  Conqueror,  like  Harold  or  Edward,  was  king  of  the 
English,  and  it  was  only  from  the  reign  of  Henry  II  that  his 
successors  were  transformed  into  kings  of  England.  The  Eastern 
;titles  of  sultan  and  shah  are  accepted  as  equivalent  to  those  of  em- 
peror and  king  in  the  West  The  sovereigns  of  China  and  Japan 
;are  called  emperors  both  in  common  and  m  diplomatic  parlance. 

II.  HoTiorary  Religious  Titles  of  Sovereigns- — The'German  em- 
perors were  formerly  styled  "defenders  of  the  church,"  while  the 
kings  of  France  were  called  "  very  christian  majesty  "  and  *'  eldest 
sons  of  the  church."  The  queen  of  England  is  "defender  of  the 
(faith,"  the  emperor  of  Austria  as  king  of  Hungary  "apostolic 
majesty,"  the  emperor  of  Russia  as  king  of  Poland  "orthodox 
(majesty,"  the  king  of  Spain  "catholic  majesty,"  and  the  king  of 
Portugal  "very  faithful  majesty."  All  these  titles  were  originally 
conferred  by  the  popes.     But  the  queen  of  the  United  Kingdom 

.*  Freeman,  Comp.  Pol.,  p.  138. 

^  Max  MuUer,  Lect.  ;Scu  Lang.,  2d  ser.,  p.  255.  "All  people, 
feave  those  who  fancy  that  the  name  king  has  something  to  do  with  a 
'Tartar  A/ian  or  with  a  "cannmg"  or  "cunning"  man.  are  agreed  that 
the  English  cyning  and  the  Sanskrit  ganaka  both  come  from  the  same 
root,  from  that  widely  spread  root  whence  comes  our  own  cyn  or  kin 
and  the  Greek  yivot.  The  only  questiOD  is  whether  there  is  any  con- 
nexion between  cyning  and  ganaka  closer  than  that  which  is  implied 
VD  their  both  coming  from  the  same  original  root  That  is  to  say,  are 
we  to  suppose  that  cymng  and  ganaka  are  strictly  the  some  word  com- 
mon to  Sanskrit  and  Teutonic,  or  is  it  enough  to  think  that  cymng  is 
lu  independent  formation  made  after  the  Teutons  had  separated  them- 
selves from  the  common  stock  "•  .  The  difference  between  the  two 
Jorivations  is  not  very  remote,  as  the  cyn  is  the  ruling  idea  m  any 
case  ;  but  if  we  make  the  word  immediately  cognate  with  ganaka  we 
hring  in  a  notion  about  '  the  father  of  his  people  '  which  has  no  place 
if  we  simply  deriv**  cyning  from  cyit  "  {Freeman,  Comp.  Pot  ,  pp. 
450-451  ,  see  also  his  Nonru  Conq.^  vol.  i.  p.  583,  and  Orowlh  of 
^Jtc  English  Constitution,  p.  171) 

*  '"^he  king's  w-ife  was  called  regina  in  Latin  from  the  beginning ; 
but  there  is  no  English  word  answering  to  ngina  :  we  have  not  and 
n'-^'er  had  any  worJ  like  the  German  konigin.  The  queen  is  simply 
queer  {r,oen),  woman,  wife,  the  highest  of  wives  in  her  husband's 
acninions  So  the  earl  ?  wife  was  .simply  the  earl's  wife ;  the  Nor- 
fnan  style  of  connTt-ji?;  now  caroe  ip  to  £b  up  what  was  thought  a 
defect  So  with  all  Ktrictly  English  titles,  knight,  sheriff,  portreeve, 
•Iderman  ■  they  hav#.  dp  ff mmines ,  in  most  cases  the  wife  does  not 
share  her  husband  ^  dignity  But  the  mayor,  being  a  French  title, 
toas  his  mayoress,  just  as  the  duke  has  his  duchess  '*  {Freeman  on 
"JTitles J-' in  Longman' x  Magazine^  x^^h  ii.  ft,,485)j 


and  the  emti^ror  oi  ^^..^una  atone  umpM-y  thfcui  aa  part  of  tH^ 
official  description 

III  InferxoT  Titles  of  Sovereignty  — Grand-dokes  rank  next  ta 
kings..  Grand  duke  was  the  original  title  of  the  czars  and  wa^ 
introduced  into  western  Europe  by  Pope  Pius  V.,  who  created 
Cosimo  de  Medici  grand-duke  of  Tuscany  m  the  last  half  of  the 
16th  century  There  are  now  seven  reigning  grand  -^nkes  in 
Germany  Pnoce  and  duke  are  title.^  also  borne  oy  the  reignme. 
chiefs  of  minor  Germanic  states.  There  ar«  reigning  princes  oi 
Monaco  and  Montenegro.  The  Eastern  equivalents  for  these  sub;; 
ordinate  titles  are  khedive,  emir    khan,  and  bey. 

IV.  Titles  of  Notnlity  —The  titles  of  the  greater  nobility  are 
pnoco,  dake,  marquis,  earl  or  count  vL><',ount,  and  baron,  and  most 
of  them  exist  in  all  European  empires  and  kingdoms.  In  the 
United  Kingdom  there  are  no  princes  outside  the  royal  family. 
In  Russia  thert-  ure  no  dukes  except  the  imperial  grand -dukes 
and  neither  marquises  nor  viscounts.  In  Germany  there  are  no 
viscounts.  Among  the  titles  of  the  losaer  nobdity  or  gentry  barone^ 
and  esquire  are  peculiar  u^  tb«  United  Kingdom  Knight  chevalier^ 
and  ritter  are  recognized  throughout  Europe,  and  as  far  as  Persia 
and  Japan.  Of  old  time  in  Scotland  baron,  now  represented  by 
laird,  was  not  a  title  of  the  greater  nobdity,  and  the  same  may  D» 
said  of  fre-Lke-rr  in  Germany  The  peculiar  designations  of  th» 
chit^fsof  some  of  the  Scottish  clans  and  Irish  septs,  as  The  Chisholm, 
The  O  DoDoghu^-.  Cameron  of  Lochiel.  Macgillicuddy  of  the  Reeks^ 
and  others  must  also  be  included  among  titles  of  honour.  It- 
would  be  improper  to  prefix  "mister,"  or  to  affix  "esquire,"  to- 
then  names  in  addxe^ng  tLtm  either  orally  or  in  writing,  and 
their  wives  are  always  called  m-f  iam.  Pasha,  bey,  and  effondi  aro 
the  most  familiar  of  the  Eastern  titles  of  nobility.  The  eccleai-« 
astical  titles  of  archbishop,  bishop,  dean,  &c.,  and  the  militarj^ 
and  naval  titles  of  6eld-marshal,  admiral,  general,  colonel,  majorat 
captain,  &c.,  aru  common  to  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  and 
are  expressed  by  words  in  their  several  languages  which  are  the 
precise  equivalents  of  each  other.  But  their  incidentally  digni&ed 
character  is  so  overshadowed  by  their  essentially  admiaistrativ^ 
character  that  they  can  be  regarded  as  titles  of  honour  only  in  th<( 
same  sense  as  the  titles  of  officers  of  state  or  justice. 

To  the  foregoing  titles  of  honour  may  be  added  the  large  assort? 
ment  of  complimentary  epithets  which  are  attendant  on  them,  and! 
which  are  used  as  alternatively  descriptive  of  the  persons  by  whomj 
they  are  borne  The  Roman  Caesars  were  by  decree  of  the  senate 
called  in  Latin  angustus,  or  sacred,  which  was  rendered  in  Greek! 
by  o'e;3tt(rT6s,  or  adorable.  They  were  also  habitually  styled  divif 
jnus  a.nd  felix,  cl-emens,  tranquillus,  and  sanctissimtls.  Jkugxistalis 
jnajestas  and  07(0  0a<Ti\cia  were  among  the  styles  of  the  Western' 
and  Eastern  emperors  respectively.  Majesty,  sacred  majesty,  oil 
Caesarean  majesty,  was  the  peculiar  title  of  the  emperors,  and  it 
was  not  assumed  by  any  of  the  other  sovereigns  of  Europe  until 
comparatively  modern  times.  But  it  is*  said  to  have  been  adopted 
in  France  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Louis  XI  ,  in  England  the  first 
king  who  used  it  was  Henry  VI II.  Before  that  the  kings  of  Eng-j 
land  had  been  called  grace  and  highness,  and  sometimes  excellent 
grace  and  kingly  highness.  All  emperors  are  now  imperial  majes- 
ties, and  all  kings  majesties,  while  grand-dukes,  roj'al  highueases, 
and  all  inferior  reigning  potentates  are  highnesses  of  one  sort  or 
another  Imperial  or  royal  higiiness  is  the  proper  title  of  the  son* 
and  daughters  of  emperors  and  kings,  serene  highness,  or  highneaa 
merely,  being  that  of  the  member)  of  princely  families.  The 
German  hohcit,  althougti  it  is  commonly  employed  as  the  equivalent 
of  highness  or  a/tesse.  has  a  special  signification  of  its  own.  It 
holds  an  intermediate  rank  between  altesse  royal  or  royal  highnes* 
and  altesse  s^r^n tssime  or  serene  highness,  unless  it  is  qualified  by 
the  adjectives  kaistrlichc  or  konigliche.  For  many  years,  however, 
it  has  been  appropriated  to  the  less  important  reigning  and  the 
mediatized  princely  houses,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  princely 
houses  of  new  creation  and  the  mediatized  countly  houses,  to  whonk 
the  titles  ot  durcklaiicht  r.nd  cr.'ancM  are  severally  a.ssigned.  In 
the  United  Kingdom  grace  is  the  title  of  dukes  and  duchesses,  and 
lordship  and  ladyship  of  all  other  grades  of  tho  peerage  and  the 
bearers  of  courtesy  titles  of  superior  rank  to  any  one  of  them. 
Dukes  and  duchesses  are  styled  most  noble,  marquises  and  mart 
chionesses  most  honourablo,  and  all  other  peers  and  peeresses,  lorde' 
and  ladies  by  courtesy ;  pri^  councillors  and  the  lord  mayor  of 
London  are  styled  right  honourable.  Honourablo  is  the  title  of 
the  younger  sons  ol  carls,  the  sons  and  daughters  of  viscounts  and 
liapons.  and  the  judges  of  the  High  Court  of  .lustice.  Archbishops 
are  most  reverend,  bishops  right  reverend,  dean?  very  reverend/ 
archdeacons  venerable,  and  all  clcr,_;ymcn  reverend  The  pope  is 
hi5t  holine&s.  and  cardinals  are  eminences.  Viceroys,  ambassadors,' 
and  governors  are  excellencies.  But  we  have  not  yet  rivalled  the 
nice  gradations  in  the  descending  scale  of  jllitsfrcs,  sffcctabilcs,  clar^ 
issimi,  perfectissimt.  and  cgfegii  which  characterized  the  official  0^ 
administrative  hierarchy  of  the  later  Roman  empire.       (F.  DR.) 

TITMOUSE  (Anglo-Saxoii  Mase  and  Ti/tmase,  Germai. 
Meise^  Swedish  Mes^  Dutch  J/ew^,  prench  jt^esan/yc),  th^. 


T  I  T  — T  T  T 


419 


I 


Tiame'  long  in  nse.  for  several  species  of  sraafl  English 
birds  which  are  further  distinguished  frou  one  snother 
by  some  characteristic  appellation.  These  go  to  make  up 
the  genus  Parus  of  Liunxus,  and  with  a  very  uncertain 
number  of  other  genera  form  the  Family  Paridx  of 
Wiodera  ornithology.  Its  limits  are,  however,  very  ill- 
'defined  ;  and  here  only*flie  species  best  known  to  English 
jeadcrs  can  be  noticed. 

The  first  tc  be  mentioncJ  is  that  called  from  its  comparatively 
large  sue  the  Great  Titmouse,  P.  mnjor,  but  known  alao  in  many 
^rts  as  the  Oxeye,'  conspicuous  by  its  black  head,  white  checks, 
and  yellow  breast,  down  which  runs  a  black  line,  while  in  spring 
the  cock  makes  himself  heard  by  a  loud  love-note  that  resembles 
the  noise  made  in  sharpeninf:  a  saw.  It  is  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  British  Islands,  and  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
Europe  and  northern  Asia.  The  next  is  the  Blue  Titmouse,  Blue- 
cap,  or  Nun,  P  con'^ikns,  smaller  than  the  last  and  more  common. 
Its  names  are  so  characteristic  aa  to  make  any  description  needless. 
'a  third  common  species,  but  not  so  numerous  as  either  of  the 
^foregoing,  is  the  Coal-Titmouse,  P  atcr,  distinguished  by  its  black 
«ap,  white  cheeks,  and  white  nape.  Some  interest  attaches  to  this 
species  because  of  the  diflerence  observable  bt-twccn  the  race  in- 
habiting the  scanty  n^mnants  of  the  ancient  Scottish  forests  and 
'that  which  occurs  throughout  the  rest  of  Britain.  The  former  is 
more  brightly  tinted  than  the  latter,  having  a  clear  bluish  grey 
tuantle  and  the  lower  part  of  the  back  greenish,  hardly  cither  of 
jwhicli  colours  are  to  be  seen  in  the  same  parts  of  more  southern 
examples,  which  last  have  been  describi-d  as  forming  a  distinct 
species,  P  britanutcus  Hut  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  denizens 
of  the  old  Scotch  firwoods  arc  neatly  midway  in  coloration  between 
the  diiig>'  southern  birds  and  those  whii  h  prevail  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  Continetit.  It  would  lliertTore  seem  unreasonable  to 
speak  of  two  species  only  ;  there  should  be  eilhcr  three  or  one,  and 
the  latter  allei native  is  to  bo  preferred,  provided  the  existence  of 
the  local  races  be  duly  recognized  Much  the  same  thing  is  to  be 
noticed  in  the  next  species  to  be  mentioned,  the  Marsh  Titmouse, 
,P.  pafustris,  which,  sonibie  as  is  its  plumage,  is  subject  to  con- 
siderable local  variation  in  its  very  extensive  ran^e,  and  has  been 
called  P  bvrcnhs  in  Scandinavia,  P.  afpcslris  in  the  Alps,  and  P. 
•lugxihris  in  sonlhcastcrn  Europe,  to  say  nothing  of  forms  like 
P.  battraknsis,  P.  armchatkcn^s,  and  others,  whose  names  denote 
its  local  variations  in  northern  Asia,  w-hile  no  great  violence  is 
exercised  if  to  these  be  tacked  on  P  airicnpilla  with  several 
geographical  races  which  inhabit  North  Ameiica  A  fifth  British 
species  is  the  rare  Crested  '^itniouse,  P.  cristatzis,  only  fountl  in 
limited  districts  in  Scotland,  though  common  enough,  especially 
:in  pine-w-oods.  in  many  jiarts  of  Europe. 

It  is  impossible  to  stale  how  many  species  of  Pants  exist,  their 
recognition  at  present  Iwing  wholly  subiective  to  the  view  taken 
by  the  investigator  of  the  group.  Its  latest  monographer  is  Dr 
■Gadow  {Cnl  B  Dr  i/useutn,  viii.  pp.  3-53),  who  recognizes  forty- 
eight,  bt-sides  several  subspecies  North-American  ornilhologisls 
include  some  fifteen  as  inhabitants  of  Canada  and  the  United  States  ; 
but  scarctly  tw-o  wiitcrs  agree  ou  this  point,  ow-ing  to  the  existence 
of  so  many  loc.il  forms.  Of  the  species  inhabiting  the  Indian  and 
Ethiopian  Regions  there  is  no  sp.are  here  to  treat,  and  foi  the  same 
reason  ihc  presumably  allied  forms  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
must  be  left  unnoticed  During  the  gieatcr  part  of  the  year  the 
various  species  of  the  genus  Pnnu  asson-itc  in  family  parties  in  a 
way  that  has  been  alieady  dcscrilied  (BrnDS,  vol.  iii.,  p  7CG),  and 
only  break  up  into  fairs  at  the  bi-ginning  of  the  breeding-season. 
The  nests  are  nearly  always  placed  in  a  hollow  stump,  and  consist 
'of  a  mass  of  moss,  feathers,  and  hair,  t)ie  last  being  worked  almost 
into  a  kind  of  felt.  Thereon  ihe  eggs,  often  to  the  number  of  eight 
or  nine,  are  laid,  and  these  have  a  translucent  white  shell,  freckled 
or  spotted  with  riist  colour.  The  first  pluniage  of  the  young 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  parents  ;  but,  so  far  as  is  known,  it  has 
always  a  yellower  tinge,  veiy  apparent  on  the  ]»arts,  if  there  be 
such,  which  in  the  adid;  are  white.  Few  birds  are  more  restless 
in  disposition,  and  if  "  irritability"  lie  the  test  of  high  organiza- 
tion, as  a  much  bepraised  systematiat  asserts,  the  Paridx  should 
stand  very  near  the  top  of  the  list.  RIost  of  the  European  species 
and  some  of  the  North-American  become  familiar,  haunting  the 
neighbourhood  of  houses,  especially  in  winter,  and  readily  availing 


*  iTie  prefijt  "Tu,"  by  heedless  writers  often  used  alone,  though 
equally  proper  to  the  Titlark  (cf  Pipit,  vol  xix.  p.  112),  is  perhaps 
cognate  with  the  Greek  riTi's,  which  ongioally  meant  a  small  chirping 
bird  {Amt.  flat.  I/ntori/,  ser.  4,  x.  p.  227),  and  has  a  diminutive  t^orm 
in  the  Icelandic  Tillinfjur—lhi:  English  or  at  least  Scottish  Titling. 
It  is  by  false  aoalr^gy  that  the  plural  of  Titmouse  is  made  Titmice  i  it 
■bould  be  Tit-mouses.  A  nickname  is  verj*  often  ad<h-d,  as  with  many 
other  famHiar  English  birds,  and  in  this  case  it  is  "Tom.'' 

'  The  signification  of  this  name  is  obscure.  It  may  perhaps" be 
correlated  with  a  Swedish  name  for  the  bird — Talgozc  - 


themselves  of  sucn  scraps  of  food,  about  the  nature  oi  wdiich  tncj 
are  not  particular,  as  they  can  get.^'  By  gardeners  every  Tit- 
moaso  is  generally  regarded  as  an  enemy,  for  it  is  supposed  to  do 
infinite  damage  to  the  buds  of  fruit  trees  and  bushes  ;  but  the 
accusation  is  wholly  false,  for  the  buds  ilestroycd  are  always  found 
to  be  those  to  which  a  grub — the  bud's  real  object — has  got  access, 
so  that  fl'ere  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Titmouse  is  a  great 
benefactor  to  tho  horticulturist,  and  hanlly  ever  more  so  than 
when  the  careless  spectator  of  its  deeds  is  supposing  it  to  be  bent 
on  mischief 

Akin  to  the  genus  Pans,  but  in  many  respects  differing  from  it) 
is  Acredula^  containing  that  curious-looking  bud  the  Long-tailed  or 
Bottle-Titmouse,  with  its  many  local  races  or  species,  wliich  must 
be  here  passed  over  without  a  word.  The  bird  itself,  having  its 
tail  longer  than  its  l)ody,  is  unlike  any  other  found  in  the  northern 
hemisphere,  while  its  nest  is  a  perfect  marvel  of  construction, 
being  in  shape  nearly  oval  with  a  small  hole  in  one  side.  The 
exterior  is  studded  with  pieces  of  lichen,  worked  into  a  firm  texture 
of  moss,  wool,  and  spiders'  nests,  and  the  inside  is  profusely  lined 
with  soft  feathers — 2379  having  been,  says  Macgillvi-ay.  couuted 
in  one  cxampln.  Not  inferior  in  beauty  or  ingenuity  is  tho  nest 
built  by  the  Pendulina  Titmouse,  jSgithalus  pendulmus,  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  which  diifers,  however,  not  merely  in  composition 
but  in  being  suspended  to  a  bough,  while  the  former  is  nearly 
always  placed  betweeu  two  or  more  branches. 

The  so-called  Bearded  Titmouse,  Panurus  biarmicus, 
has  habits  wholly  unlike  those  .of  any  of  the  foregoing, 
and  certainly  does  not  belong  -to  the  Family  Paridx, 
though  its  real  affinity  has  not  yet  been  clearly  shown. 
It  was  formerly  found  in  many  parts  of  England,  especially 
in  the  eastern  counties,  where  it  bore  the  name  of  Recd- 
Pheasanf ;  but  through  the  draining  of  meres,  the  destruc- 
ticfti  of  rccd-beds,  and  (it  must  be  aiidod)  the  rapacity  of 
collectors  it  now  only  exists  as  a  native  in  a  very  few 
localities.  It  is  a  beautiful  little  bird  of  a  bright  tawny 
colour,  variegated  with  .black  and  white,  while  the  cock  is 
further  distinguished  by  a  bluish  grey  head  and  a  black 
tuft  of  feathers  on  each  §ide  of  the  chin.  Its  chief  food 
seems  to  be  the  smaller  ..kinds  of  freshwater  mollusks, 
which  it  finds  among  the  reed-beds  it  seldom  quits." 

The  general  affinities  of  the  Panda:  seem  to  lie  rather 
with  the  Sutidx  {cf.  NnTH.\TCH,  vol.  xvii.  p.  GG5)  and 
the  Tree-Creepers;  and  those  systematists  who  would 
ally  them  to  the  Laniidx  (Shrike,  vol.  xxi.  p.  845),  or 
still  more  interpose  the  last  between  the  former  FamiJies, 
have  yet  to  find  grounds  for  so  doing.  .  (a.  N.) 

TITUS.  By  this,  his  Roman  praenomen/  is  usually 
knowTi  the  eleventh  of  the  Twelve  Cossars,  Titus  Flavius 
S/VBi.vDs  Vespaslo'us,  emperor  from  79  to  81  a.d.  With 
his  father  Vespasiali,  who  rose  to  empire  from  the  camp,' 
began  tho  Flavian  line  of  emperors,  the  last  three  CxsarsJ 
Titus  was  born  in  40,  the  year  of  the  assassination  of  the 
fourth  Coesar,  Caius  Caligula,  and  was  brought  up  in  the 
household  of  Claudius,  with  that  emperor's  son,  Britanni- 
cus.  There  was  a  story  that  he  was  dining  at  Nero's 
table  when  Britannicus  was  poisoned,  and  that  he  himself 
tasted  the  fatal  cup,  and  had  in  consequence  a  serious 
illness.  Some  time  afterwards  he  erected  two  statues  to 
the  young  prince's  memory.  Educated  in  the  imperial 
court,  he  was  thoroughly  trained  in  all  elegant  accom- 
plishments :  he  could  speak  Greek  fluently,,  and  could 
compose  verses ;  he  was  a  proficient  in  muaic ,  lie  could 
write  shorthand,  and  could  imitate  handwriting  oo  skil- 
fully that  he  used  to  say  that  he  might  have  been  a  most 

^  Persons  fond  of  watching  the  h.ibits  of  birds  may  with  little 
trouble  provide  a  j'leasiiig  spectacle  by  adopting  the  plan,  practised 
by  the  late  Mr  A.  E.  Knox,  of  hanging  a  lump  of  suet  or  tallow  by  a 
short  string  to  tho  end  of  a  flexible  rod  stuck  aslant  into  the  ground 
close  to  the  window  of  a  sitting- room.  It  is  seldom  long  before  a 
Titmouse  of  some  kind  finds  the  dainty,  and  once  found  visile  are 
made  to  it  until  every  ninr^el  is  picked  oil".  The  attitudes  of  the  birdi 
as  they  cling  to  the  swinping  lure  are  very  diverting,  and.noue  but  ft 
Titmouse  can  sutceeil  in  keeping  a  foothold  upon  it. 

*  Tlie  common  nanies  given  to  this  bird  are  so  very  inapplicable 
that  it  is  a  pity  that  *'Silerella"  (from  st/er,  an  osier)  bestowed  upon 
it  by  Sir  T.  Bro^vne,  its  original  discoverer,  caiuiot  be  restored. 


420 


T  T  T— T  1  TJ 


successful  forger. '"He  was  very  handsome,  with  a  fine 
•commanding  expression,  and  a  vigorous-  frame,  well 
trained  in  all  the  exercises  of  a  soldier.  As  a  young  man 
he  served  wfth  credit  in  Germany  and  in  Britain,  and  he 
practised  at  the  bar.  Soon  he  had  the  command  of  a 
legion,  and  joined  his  father  in  Syria ;  he  took  an  active 
part  ia  the  Jewish  war,  capturing  several  important  fort- 
resses, among  them  Tarichaese  and  Gamala.  In  68  he 
went  at  his  father's  bidding  on  a  visit  of  congratulation 
to  the  newly  proclaimed  emperor,  Galba ;  but,  hearing  of 
Galba's  death  and  of  the  general  confusion  in  the  Roman 
world,  he  returned  to  his  father  in  Palestine,  having  in 
the  meantime  consulted  the  oracle  of  the  Paphian  Venus 
as  to  his  prospects  and  received  a  favourable  answer. 
In  the  following  year  Vespasian,  who,  through  his  son's 
pleasing  manner  and  adroit  management,  had  made  a 
friend  of  Mucianus,  the  governor  of  Syria,  became  em- 
peror, and  left  Titus  to  finally  settle  the  Jewish  war  by 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  Titus  conducted  the  siege  of 
the  city,  which  for  some  months  was  defended  amid  in- 
credible horrors,  with  signal  ability,  and  took  and  destroyed 
it  in  September  70.  The  army  saluted  their  victorious 
general  by  the  title  of  "imperator";  in  the  East  Titus 
was  now  supreme,  andjiractically  emperor.  On  his  return 
to  Italy  by  way  of  Alexandria  he  fell  in  with  that  strange 
professor  of  mystical  philosophy  and  magic,  Apollonius  of 
Tyana,  and  listened,  it  is  said,  to  his  pedantic  talk  and 
advice.  ■  As  soon  as  bo  arrived  at  Rome  there  was  the 
usual  triumph  for  a  decisive  victory,  and  both  father  and 
son  shared  it.  On  the  arch  of  Titus,  as  it  is  called, 
erected  some  few  years  afterwards  (see  vol.  xx.  p.  830), 
may  still  be  seen  sculptured  representations  of  Jewish 
captives  and  of  the  captured  trophies.  Titus  was  now 
formally  associated  with  his  father  in  the  government,  with 
the  title  of  Caesar,  and  during  the  nine  remaining  years  of 
.Vespasian's  reiga  he  controlled  the  administration,  and 
•was  in  fact  emperor.  '  He  was  anything  but  popular ;  he 
had  the  character  of  being  luxurious,  self-indulgent,  pro- 
fligate, and  cruel.  Summary  execution  of  obnoxious  per- 
sons seems  to  have  been  not  uncommon.  There  was  a 
bad  scandal  too  about  his  connexion  with  the  .shameless 
Jewish  beauty  Berenice,  the  sister  of  the  Agrippa  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  both  brother  and  sister  followed 
Titus  to  Rome,  and  were  allowed  to  reside  in  the  imperial 
palace.  •  Public  opinion  at  Rome  was  outraged,  and  Titus, 
though  he  had  promised  Berenice  marriage,  felt  obliged 
to  send  her  back  to  the  East.  Vespasian  died  in  79, 
leaving  his  son  a  safe  throne  and  a  well-filled  treasury. 
The  forebodings  of  the  people  were  agreeably  disappointed, 
for  Titus,  who,  it  was  feared,  would  be  a  second  Nero, 
■was  known  as  the  "  love  and  delight  of  mankind."  It  is 
possible  that  his  popularity  was  in  some  degree  due  to 
the  fears  which  the  depravity  of  his  brother  Doraitian, 
who,  it  was  known,  was  to  succeed  him,  had  begun  to 
excite;  but  he  had  the  tact  to  make  himself  liked  by  all. 
He  seems  to  have  been  thoroughly  kindly  and  good- 
natured  ;  he  delighted  in  giving  splendid  presents,  and 
his  memorable  saying,  "I  have  lost  a  day," is  said  to  have 
been  uttered  one  evening  at  the  dinner  table  when  he 
suddenly  remembered  that  he  had  not  bestowed  a  gift  on 
any  one  that  day. 

Titus,  like  his  father,  spent  money  on  great  public  works 
and  in  adding  to  the  magnificence  of  Rome.  The  Colosseum 
was  completed  and  d.dicated  in  his  reign,  with  combats  of 
gladiators,  shows  of  wild  beasts,  and  sham  sea-fights  and 
representations  of  some  of  the  great  Greek  naval  battles. 
He  gave  the  city  what  we  should  now  call  "a  people's 
palace"  in  his  splendid  baths,  which  surpassed  those  of 
Agrippa  and  of  Nero,  and  supplied  the  D\ob  with  every 
luxurious  appliance  free  of  cost. 


Durmg  his  reign,  in  79,  occurred  the  memorable  erup." 
tion  of  Vesuvius  which  destroyed  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii.  The  emperor  visited  the  scenes  of  desolation 
and  contributed  liberally  to  the  relief  of  the  distressed 
inhabitants.  During  his  absence  a  fire  raged  for  three 
days  at  Rome,  in  which  the  Capitol  was  burnt ;  then 
followed  a  pestilence,  and  again  Titus  not  only  helped 
freely  with  his  purse,  but  took  pains  to  acquaint  himself 
with  the  sufferers  and  gave  them  his  personal  sympathy. 
Italy  and  the  Roman  world  generally  were  quiet  and  peace- 
ful during  this  brief  reign.  The  only  fighting  was  in 
Britain  under  Agricola,  who  in  the  year  80  carried  the' 
Roman  arms  into  Scotland  as  far  as  the  Tay.  In  the 
following  September  Titus  died,  being  in  his  fortieth 
year,  after  a  reign  of  two  years  and  rather  more  than 
two  months.  On  his  deathbed  he  said,  so  the  story  went, 
that  there  was  but  one  thing  of  which  he  repented :  this 
was  commonly  supposed  to  point  to  his  having  spared  to 
punish  his  brother  Domitian,  who  had  more  than  once 
plotted  against  his  life,  and  whose  succession  to  empire  he 
must  have  felt  would  be  a  calamity  for  Rome.  The  verdict 
of  history  is  on  the  whole  favourable  to  Titus,  and  perhaps 
deservedly  so ;  but  the  general  feehng  throughout  the 
Roman  world  after  his  death  was  that  he  had  been 
fortunate  in  the  briefness  of  his  reign, 

An  admirable  account  of  this  emperor  Will  be  found  in  Merivale's 
History  of  the  Romans  KwUr  the  Empire,  ch.  60.     '  '    (W.  J.  B. )    , 

TITUS,  one  of  the  companions  of  ^t  Paul,  was  of  Greek 
origin  (Gal.  iL  3),  and  appears  to  have  been  among  the 
apostle's  earliest  converts ;  he  is  first  mentioned  (Gal.  ii. 
1)  as  having  accompanied  Paul,  then  in  the  course  of  his 
second  missionary  journey,  from  Antioch  to  Jerusalem. 
Here  the  Judaizing  brethren  desired  that  he  ?lWald  be 
circumcised;  but  the  liberty  of  the  gospel  was  successfully 
maintained.  He  was  afterwards  sent  by  Paul  from 
Ephesus  to  Corinth,  with,  it  would  seem,  a  letter,  no 
longer  extant,  more  than  once  referred  to  in  2  Corinthians 
(ii.  3,  vii.'S;  comp.  vol  vi.  p.  401).;  He  rejoined  the 
apostle  with  favourable  reports  from  Corinth  in  Mace- 
donia, and  was  again  sent  (from  Philippi)  with  another 
epistle,  probably  what  is  now  known  as  the  second,  to  the 
Corinthians,  and  charged  with  the  further  duty  of  promot- 
ing the  proposed  collection  for  poor  Christians  in  Judsea, 
This  is  practically  all  that  is  kno\vn  of  him  from  the  un- 
disputed Pauline  epistles.  He  is  nowhere  mentioned  in 
the  Acts.  In  the  pastoral  epistle  with  which  his  name  is 
associated  he  is  represented  (Tit.  i.  5)  as  having  been 
left  by  Paul  in  Crete  to  "  set  in  order  the  things  that  are 
wanting,  and  ordain  elders  in  every  city."  He  is  expected 
afterwards  to  join  Paul  at  Nicopolis  (iii.  1 2).  In  2  Tim. 
iv.  10  he  is  spoken  of  as  having  gone  to  Dalmatia.  Tradi- 
tion, obviously  resting  on  the  Epistle  to  Titus,  has  it  that, 
he  died  in  Crete  as  bishop  at  an  advanced  age.        ''^_  .^--^ 

TITUS,  Epistle  TO.;  \See  Pastoral  Epistles,  vof, 
xviii.  p.  348  sq.        ^   _^^,  . 

TITUSVILLE,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  in  Craw- 
ford county,  Pennsylvania,  in  41°  38'  N.  lat.  and  79* 
42'  W.  long.,  stands  upon  Oil  Creek,  in  the  midst  of  the 
oil  region  of  north-western  Pennsylvania.  Its  predomin- 
ant industries  have  reference  to  the  production,  refining, 
and  transportation  of  petroleum.  It  has  two  railroads— 
the  Dunkirk,  Allegheny,  and  Pittsburg,  and  the  Bufiklo,' 
New  York,  and  Philadelphia.  The  city  had  a  population 
of  8639  in  1870  and  of  9046  in  1880. 

Titusville,  originally  a  small  lumbering  town,  bc^n  its  oaroer 
of  prosperity  in  1859,  when  oil  was  discovered  in  this  region,  and 
during  the'succecding  years  it  was  the  scene  of  very  great  activity. 
It  was  chartered  in  1867,  when  at  the  zenith  of  its  prosperity. 
Since  that  time  it  has  settled  down  to  a  less  feverish  and  mora 
healthy  growth. 

TIUMEN.  \  See  Tyumen.. 


T  I  V  — T  L  A 


421 


TIVERTON',  a  borough  of  Devonshire,  England,  is 
finely  situated  in  the  midst  of  beautiful  scenery  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Lowman  and  the  Exe,  14|  miles  north  of 
Exeter  and  1S4  west-south-west  of  London.  Al)ranch  line 
connects  it  with  the  Great  Western,  and  the  Exe  Valley 
Railway  with  Exeter  and  Dulverton.  The  greater  part  of 
the  town  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Exe ;  the  four  principal 
streets  are  wide  and  regular.  Since  1262,  when  Amicia, 
countess  of  Devon,  caused  a  stream  of  water  to  be  directed 
from  Norwood  to  Tiverton,  a  distance  of  5  miles,  every 
street  has  had  a  constantly  flowing  supply.  At  points 
now  spanned  by  bridges  there  were  formerly  two  fords,  one 
over  the  Exe  and  the  other  over  the  Lowman  ;  hence 
Twofordton  and  Twj-fordton  the  former  names  of  the  town. 
There  still  remain  the  principal  gateway  and  an  octagonal 
turret  of  the  ancient  castle  (now  a  private  residence),  built 
in  1106  by  Richard  de  Riparus'or  Redvers,  first  earl  of 
Devon,  and  the  chief  residence  of  the  Redvers  till  the  execu- 
tion of  Henry  Courtenay,  marquis  of  Exeter,  in  1539.  The 
most  ancient  part  of  the  church  of  St  Peter  is  the  Norman 
doorway;  the  embattled  western  tower  is  120  feet  in 
height.  For  Blundell's  free  grammar-school  (1604)  new 
buildings  have  recently  been  erected  in  the  Tudor  style. 
Among  other  educational  establishments  are  the  school  of 
science  and  art,  the  blue  <foat  charity  school  (1714;  re- 
established as  a  middle  boys'  and  middle  girls'  school  in 
1876),  and  the  Chilcott  free  school  (1611).  The  other 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  market-house  (1830-31), 
the  infirmary  (1852),  the  town-hall  (1864),  and  several 
almshouses.  Tiverton  was  formerly  famed  for  its  woollen 
manufacture,  introduced  in  the  14th  century;  its  annual 
returns  in  1612  ware  estimated  at  £300,000,  about  8000 
persons  being  employed  in  the  industry.  It  is  now  chiefly 
noted  for  its  lace  manufacture,  established  by  John  Heath- 
coat,  the  inventor  of  the  bobbin  net  frame.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  municipal  borough  (area,  17,491  acres)  in  1871 
was  10,024,  and  in  1881  it  was  10,462. 

The  towu  existed  in  Sa.>;on  times.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  it  was  held  by  vassals  or  servants,  and  in  Domesday  it 
is  entered  as  terra  regis.  In  1200  it  had  a  market  and  three  annual 
fairs.  After  the  introduction  of  the  woollen  trade  in  1353  it  rapidly 
increased,  and  Camden  states  that  the  trade  had  brought  it  "  much 
gain  and  glory."  The  town  and  castle  were  taken  by  Fairfax  in 
1645.  Tiverton  suffered  from  the  plague  in  1591  (when  it  had  5000 
inhabitants),  and  from  fire  in  1598,  1612,  and  1731.  It  was  incor- 
porated by  James  I.  in  1615  ;  but  in  1732  its  charter  was  forfeited, 
and  a  second  was  not  bestowed  till  1 737.  The  borough  was  deprived 
of  parliamentary  representation  in  1885. 

See  Harding'3  HlsUrry  of  Tiverton,  2  vols.,  1845. 

TIVOLI  (Lat.  Tibur),  a  town  of  Italy,'  situated  17 
miles  east -north -east  of  Rome  on  one  of  the  spurs  of 
Monte  Ripoli,  830  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  position  is 
very  striking  and  beautiful  -  it  stands  partly  at  the  edge 
of  the  lofty  clifi'  over  which  the  river  Anio  falls  in  a  most 
•  imposing  mass  of  water.  The  present  aspect  of  the  fall 
is  very  difi"erent  from  what  it  was  in  ancient  times,  as  the 
water  has  undermined  and  carried  away  great  masses  of 
the  rock.  In  1881  the  population  of  the  town  was 
9730,  and  of  the  commune  10,297. 

Ancient  Tibur  was  founded,  according  to  the  legend  adopted  by 
the  Roman  ppets,  many  centuries  before  Rome,  by  the  Siculi.' 
They  were  expelled  by  a  Greek  named  Tiburtus,  the  sou  of  Catil- 
lus,  who  became  the  eponymous  hero  of  Tibur.-  During  the  early 
historic  period  Tibur,  which  stood  on  the  borders  of  the  Sabine 
territory,  was  always  a  bitter  enemy  of  Rome,  and  on  many 
occasions  allied  itself  to  various  peoples,  even  the  Gauls,  in  their 
attacks  on  the  city.  With  the  rest  of  Latium,  Tibur  was  finally 
conquered  by  Rome  in  335  B.C.,  and  on  account  of  its  constant 
enmity  was  treated  with  much  severity,  not  being  admitted  to  the 
Roman  franchise  till  towards  the  close  of  the  republican  period. 
Almost  no  mention  of  Tibnr  occurs  during  the  time  of  the  empire  ; 
but  the  t&\\Ti  is  recorded  to  have  suffered  severely  during  the  Gothic 
invasion  in  the  6th  century. 

'  Dion.,  i.  16,  and  PUd.,  B.  N.,  xvi.  87. 
'    »  Hor,  Od,.  i.  18,  2  ;  Ov.,  Fast.,  v.  74  ;  Virg.,  ^n.,  viL  670. 


Remains  of  its  city  wall  still  exist,  built  of  s,|uarod  blocks  of 
tufa ;  but  the  whole  circuit  is  not  clearly  determinable.  Even 
the  site  of  the  large  and  wealthy  temple  of  Hercules  is  doubtful, 
which  stood  in  an  extensive  temenos,  containing  libraries  and  » 
portions,  where  Augustus  sometimes  administered  justice.'  At  the 
ed£6  of  the  cliff  still  stands  a  small  circular  temple,  of  doubtful 
dedication,  which  once  had  eighteen  columns,  and  closely  re- 
sembled that  in  the  Forum  Boanum  of  Rome.  Its  cella  walls  are 
of  concrete  faced  with  opus  reticulatum,  and  its  columns  of  tra- 
vertine ;  it  dates  from  about  the  time  of  Christ.  Its  popular 
name  is  the  "temple  of  the  Sibyl."*  Close  by  is  another  small 
prostyle -tetrastylo  temple  resembling  that  (so  called)  of  Fortuna 
Virilis  in  Rome.  Remains  of  tho  circuit  wall  of  the  forum  also 
exist,  with  a  large  apsidal  projection,  as,  well  as  an  extensive 
crypto- porticus,  faced  with  blank  arcading  and  divided  internally 
by  a  row  of  twenty-eight  columns.  Tibur  was  a  favourite  summer 
residence  of  many  wealthy  Romans  under  the  empire,  and 
especially  of  Horace  and  Maecenas.'  One  of  the  chief  aqueducts  of 
Rome,  "Anio  vetus,"  started  from  the  Anio  at  Tibur.  The 
ancient  "lapis  Tiburtinus"  (modern  travertine)  was  so  called 
from  its  chief  quarries  at  Tibur,  where  i,t  has  been  during  long 
ages  deposited  by  the  water  of  the  river  Anio. 

Hadrian's  villa,  which  stands  at  the  foot  of  tho  Tibur  spur  of 
hill  about  2  miles  distant,  is  one  of  the  most  important  Roman 
remains  in  the  world.  Between  1870  and  1882  the  greater  part  of 
its  immense  area  was  excavated  ;  the  whole  circuit  wis  once  no 
less  than  8  miles.  The  scheme  of  this  wonderful  group  of  build- 
ings was  the  fancy  of  the  rich  and  highly  educated  emperor 
Hadrian,  who  desired  to>reproduce,  within  a  short  distance  of 
Rome,  a  number  of  tho  chief  Greek  sites  and  buildings  which  he 
had  visited  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  Besides  his  own  palace 
he  built  a  large  stoa  poecile,  copied  from  that  at  Athens,  an  odeum, 
a  lyceum,  an  academy  (with  its  gardens,  halls,  and  porticus), 
libraries,  Latin  and  Greek  theatres,  a  stadium,  palccstra,  hippo- 
diome,  baths,  and  many  temples.  Large  gardens,  divided  into  an 
artificial  "Vale  of  Tempe,"  "  Elysian  Fields,"  and  "Tartarus," 
were  watered  by  a  winding  stream  named  the  "Euripus."  In 
another  place  stood  a  "serapeum,"  copied  from  that  at  Alexandria, 
and  filled  with  pseudo-Egyptian  statues  and  reliefs,  many  of  which 
have  been  recently  unearthed.  Barracks  for  the  prstorian  guard 
and  rows  of  dwellings  for  slaves  completed  this  magnificent  group 
of  buildings.  In  many  parts  the  existing  remains  are  well  pre- 
served and  in  some  cases  the  uses  of  the  dilferent  buildings  can  be 
determined.'  The  main  walls  aro  of  concrete  faced  with  mixed 
brick  and  opus  reticulatum,  once  wholly  covered  with  magnificent 
Oriental  marbles  and  crowded  with  fine  Greek  and  GrKco-Roman 
sculpture  ;  mosaic  of  marble  and  glass  was  lavishly  used  for  floors, 
walls,  and  vaults,  together  with  the  most  elaborate  painted  decora- 
tions. A  large  number  of  fine  works  of  art  have  been  discovered 
here,  such  as  the  mosaic  of  "  Pliny's  doves"  and  the  Faun  in  rosso 
antico  now  in  the  Capitol.  It  is  probable  that  the  Venus  de' 
Medici  came  from  this  villa,  together  with  many  other  statues 
found  in  the  16th  century  vt'bose  provenance  is  now  forgotten. 

TLAXCALA  {Tlascala,  i.e.,  "  House  of  Bread  "),  an  his- 
torical city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the  state  of  Tlaxcala,  which 
nearly  coincides  with  tho  old  native  republic  of  Tlaxcala, 
occupying  the  easternmost  of  tho  four  sections  into  which 
the  Anahuac  plateau  is  here  divided  by  ranges  of  hills, 
between  19°  and  20°  N.  lat.  The  modern  town,  standing 
on  the  site  of  the  old  Indian  ca|iital,  lies  (in  19°  19'  N. 
lat.,  98°  6'  W.  long.)  on  the  little  river  Papagallo  (Atoyac, 
formerly  Zahuatl),  which  flows  between  two  hills  at  aD 
altitude  of  considerably  over  7000  feet,  some  30  miles- 
north  of  La  Puebia  and  170  by  rail  from  Vera  Cruz. 
Tlaxcala  was  founded  probably  about  the  close  of  the 
13th  century,  when  the  TIaxcaltecs,  a  branch  of  the 
Nahuatl  race  closely  akin  to  the  Aztecs,  withdrew  from 
the  western  side  of  the  central  lacustrine  district  and 
established  a  powerful  democratic  state  in  a  somewhat 
secluded,  hill-encircled,  but  highly  productive  tract,  90 
miles  in  length  by  70  in  breadth,  with  a  total  area  of 
over  1550  square  miles..  The  TIaxcaltecs,  hereditary  foes 
of  the  Aztecs,  became,  after  a  short  resistance  (September 
1519),  the  firm  allies  of  the  Spaniards,  their  co-operation 
contributing  largely,  if  not  mainly,  to  the  overthrow  of 


'  See  App.,  Bell.  Civ.,  v.  24  ;  and  Suet.,  /I  "jr.,  72. 

*  It  has  also  been  called  the  temple  of  Vesta,  but  the  rpal  site  of 
this  last  was  on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  ,  '' 

'  Hor.,  Ocl.,  I  7,"  10,  and  ii.  6,  5. 

'  Many  of  the  names  given  to  different  parts  by  the  Roman  antii 
quaries  are  based  on  mere  conjecture. 


422 


.T  L  E  — T  O  A 


the  Mexican  empire.  "But  the  resuIC  was  the  enslavement 
of  Tlaxcala  itself,  the  general  decay  of  the  country,  and 
the  dispersion  of  most  of  the  inhabitants  by  Cortes. 
'Although  now  reduced  to  a  population  of  a  little  over 
6000,  or,  including  the  commune,  to  36,000,  and  with  no 
monuments  beyond  a  fine  church,  an  old  episcopal  palace, 
and  a  town-hall,  the  city  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  was 
a  very  large  place,  containing  nearly  as  many  inhabitants 
as  the  whole  of  the  modern  state  (130,000).  When 
occupied  by  the  Spaniards,  its  size  and  splendour  excited 
the  admiration  of  Cortes,  who  describes  it  in  somewhat 
€.xaggerated  language  as  "  much  larger  and  much  stronger 
iha.n  Granada,  with  as  fine  buildings  and  much  more  people 
than  Granada  had  at  the  time  it  was  captured,  also  much 
better  supplied  with  the  things  of  the  earth  "  (Cartas,  67). 
It  was  disposed  in  four  distinct  quarters  separated  by  high 
stone  walls,  each  with  a  palace  for  the  ruling  chief,  besides 
temples,  and  stone  buildings  for  the  nobles.  But  most  of 
the  other  houses  were  low  mud  or  adobe  structures.  In 
the  daily  market,  which  was  said  to  be  frequented  by 
30,000  people,  were  exposed  for  sale  the  products  (j£  .the 
surrounding  country, — mai^e,  maguey  (extracted  from' the 
aloe),  and  chilli  pepper ;  to  these  are  now  added  ^heat,' 
barley,  pease,  lentils,  and  a  great  variety  of  fruits. 
'  A  prominent  feature  of  the  landscape  is  the  Sierra  de  Malintzi.  or 
Malinche,  that  is,  "  Lord  of  Marina,"  a  name  given  to  Corte3  aft«r 
his  alliance  with  the  "heroine  of  the  conquest."  The  Sierra 
{originally  Matlacuezatl),  which  rises  grandly  (more  than  16,000 
feet)  above  the  plateau,  takes  a  prominent  place  in  Tlaxcaltecan 
mythology,  owing  to  the  peculiar  shape  of  its  summit,  representing 
in  rougli  outline  the  body  of  a  native  woman  lying  at  full  length  in 
its  grave  and  partly  wrapped  in  its  cerements.  There  are  some 
woollen  manufactures,  centred  chiefly  in  the  capital,  and  also  a 
few  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  coal  mines  in  the  San  Ambrosio  and  San 
Mateo  ranges  ;  but  the  state  is  essentially  agricultural,  yielding 
large  annual  crops  of  maize  and  wheat,  the  total  produce  losing 
valued  at  over  £1,000,000. 

f  TLEMCEN,  or  TilimsIn,  a  town  of  Algeria,  chef-lieu  of 
anarrondissement  in  the  department  of  Oran,  lies  86  miles 
S.W.  of  Oran,  2625  feet  above  the  sea,  on  a  terrace  on  the 
northern  slope  of  a  range  of  rocky  hills  (3430  feet).  Its 
•white  minarets,  towers,  and  battlements  rise  picturesquely 
above  the  surrounding  verdure,  which  is  nourished  by 
numerous  springs,  and  even  in  ancient  days  gave  rise  to  the 
Roman  name  Pomaria.  The  various  quarters  are  grouped 
around  the  principal  mosque, — the  Je\vish  to  the  south- 
west, the  Moorish  to  the  south-east,  that  of  the  merchants 
to  the  north-east,  while  the  new  town  with  the  civic  build- 
ings lies  to  the  north-west.  Of  the  sLxty-four  mosques 
■which  existed  at  the  period  of  the  French  conquest,  several 
have  disappeared.  The  great  mosque  has  a  minaret 
adorned  with  marble  columns,  and  cased  with  mosaic  of 
the  most  varied  designs ;  a  fountain  of  alabaster  stands 
in  the  alabaster- paved  inner  court;  and  seventy-two 
columns  support  the  pointed  arches  of  the  interior.  The 
mosque  of  Abid  Hasan,  now  used  as  a  French  and  Arab 
school,  has  two  series  of  arches,  which  rest  on  alabaster 
pillars,  and  the  courts  are  ornamented  by  sculptures  of  ^reat 
beauty  and  richness ;  the  delicately  carved  cedar  ceiling 
bears  traces  of  polychromatic  painting.  The  mosque  of 
El-Halawi  is  specially  interesting  for  the  sculptured  capitals 
of  its  magnificent  alalbaster  columns.  Tlemcen,  besides 
numerous  other  mosques,  possesses  a  fine  modern  Roman 
Catholic  church  in  the  Byzantine  style  and  five  syna- 
f,ogues.  The  military  authorities  occupy  the  Mehuar  or 
•citadel,  built  in  1145,  which  separates  the  Jewish  and 
Moorish  quarters,  and  was  formerly  the  palace  of  the 
nilers  of  Tlemcen.  Only  the  mosque  and  the  battlemented 
wall,  flanked  by  two  towers,  remain  of  its  former  magnifi- 
cence. Among  the  antiquities  preserved  in  the  museum  is 
the  epitaph  of  Boabdil,  the  last  king  of  Granada,  who 
<lied  at  Tlemcen  in  1494.     The  vast  basin  under  the  old 


walls,  now  used  as  a  reservoir  (720  feet  in  length,  49t/ 
in  width,  and  10  in  depth),  was  apparently  made  for  naval 
exhibitions  bj-  the  sovereigns  of  Tlemcen.  The  barracks 
of  the  Spahis  occupy  all  that  remains  of  Kissaria,  a 
settlement  of  European  merchants  from  Pisa,  Genoa, 
Catalonia,  and  Provence.  Leather,  saddles,  Turkish 
slippers,  arms,  and  woollen  goods  are  manufactured  in 
Tlemcen ;  the  production  of  oil  and  flour  and  market- 
gardening  occupy  Europeans  and  natives ;  good  tobacco 
is  also  grown.  There  is  an  active  trade  in  cattle,  wool, 
grain,  and  fruit.  A  railway  (37  miles)  is  being  built 
(1887)  to  connect  Tlemcen  with  Rahgun,  its  port.  In 
1886  the  population  (natives,  Europeans,  and  Jews)  was 
19,745  (26,395  in  the  commune). 

The  town  was  ori^nally  at  Agadir  (Pmnaria),  to  the  east  of  th« 
present  site,  where  Roman  inscriptions  have  been  found.  At  the 
time  of  the  Arab  invasion  the  district  was  Beld  by  the  Beni  Ifren 
tribe  of  Zenata  Berbers,  who  ultimately  founded  here  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  Beni  Ya'la  (1002- 1080).  In  1080  the  Almoravid 
king,  after  besieging  and  sacking  the  place,  built  a  new  town  oa 
the  site  of  his  camp.  His  successors  reigned  sixty-five  yeari, 
when,  after  holding  Agadir  four  years  against  the  enemy,  .they 
were  overcome  by  the  AlniohaJes,  who  massacred  the  inhabitants, 
rebuilt,  enlarged,  and  repeopled  the  ruined  town,  and  surrounded 
Tlemcen  and  Agadir  with  a  common  wall.  Tlemcen  nowflourished 
greatly  nnder  the  'Abd  al-Wad,  also  a  Zenata  dynasty,  who  ruled 
nrst  for  the  Almohades  and  after  1242  as  nominal  vassab  of  the 
Hafsites  of  Tunis.  In  1337  their  power  was  temporarily  extin. 
gxiished  by  the  Merinidj,  who  built  the  town  of  Mansujd,  west 
of  Tlemcen.  They  left  some  fine  monuments  of  the  period  'of  tbeLr 
ascendency,  which  lasted  twenty-two  years.  Once  more,  under  the 
'Abd  al-Wad,  from  1359  to  1553,  Tlemcen  enjoyed  prosperity, 
when  it  had  a  population  of  125,000,  an  extensive  trade,  a  brilliant 
court,  a  powerful  army,  and  its  finest  buildings  were  reared."  The 
Spanish  occupation  of  Oran  struck  a  fatal  blow  at  the  European 
commerce  of  tne  town,  which  gradually  lost  all  its  territory  to  the 
Turks  after  they  had  seized  Algiers.  When  the  French  entered 
Algeria  the  sultans  of  Morocco  were  worsted  by  the  Euluglis  in 
their  attempt  to  bold  the  town.  In  1834,  and  again  in  1837, 
Abd  el-Kader  sought  to  re-establish  the  ancient  empire  of  Tlezncen, 
but  the  French  definitely  took  possession  in  January  1842. 

TOAD.  This  animal  belongs  to  the  Anurous  division 
of  the  Amphibia,  and  toads  and  frogs  are  the  only  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Anura  or  Batrachia  indigenous  to  Britain.' 
To  an  ordinary  observer  the  toad  is  proved  to  be  an  am- 
phibian by  its  moist  soft  skin,  an  anuran  or  tailless  am- 
phibian by  the  want  of  a  separate  taiL  The  toad  difl'ers 
from  the  frog  in  the  following  points : — It  has  no  teeth 
on  either  of  its  jaws- or  on  the  roof  of  its  mouth,  while  the 
frog  has  a  series  of  fine  teeth  on  the  upper  Jaw  and  also 
teeth  on  the  palate ;  the  tongue  in  both  animaJa  is  attached 
in  front  and  free  behind,  but  that  of  the  frog  is  forked  at 
its  free  extremity,  that  of  the  toad  is  not ;  the  skin  of  the 
toad  is  rough  vritl.  large  protuberant  warts,  while  that  of 
the  frog  is  smooth  ;  the  body  of  the  toad  is  more  globular 
and  puffy  than  that  of  the  frog ;  the  hind  legs  in  the  toad 
are  shorter,  and  the  posterior  digits  not  so  completely 
webbed,  the  animal  being  more  terrestrial  in  its  habits 
than  the  frog.  In  the  toad,  as  in  the  frog,  there  are  four 
digits  anteriorly,,  five  posteriorly.  The  warts  of  the  toad's 
skin  contain  large  cutaneous  glands,  which  secrete  a  thick 
yellowish  fluid  with  acrid  properties,  capable  of  irritating 
and  producing  slight  inflammation  on  the  human  skin. 
The  use  of  this  secretion  is  probably  to  protect  the  toad 
from  being  devoured  by  camiForous  animals.  Like  other 
Amphibia,  it  has  a  large  menlbranous  bladder  cpmmuni-, 
eating  with  the  terminal  part  of  the  intestine — the  allantoic 
bladder, — in  which  fluid  accumulates,  probably  from  the 
kidneys,  though  the  ureters  do  not  open  directly  into  the 
bladder.  The  toad,  when  handled  or  alarmed  in  anyway,' 
ejects  the  contents  of  its  bladder.  Owing  to  these  peculi- 
arities and  its  appearance,  the  animal  is  commonly  rcgar^d 
with  loathing,  and  credited  with  far  more  poisonous-  pro- 
perties than  it  possesses.  In  its  breeding  habits  the  toad 
resembles  the  frog :  its  eggs  are  fertilized  ext«rnaUy  at  lli« 


T  0  B— T  0  B 


423 


momcnt'of  ertrusion,  as  in  the  frog,  the  parents  resorting 
to  the  water  for  the  [lurposo  of  reproduction.  The  ova  are 
l.iiij  in  spring,  and  are  arranged,  not  in  shapcli-^ss  masses, 
but  in  a  string  containing  a  double  series  of  eggs  adher- 
ing by  their  gelatinous  envelopes  ,  the  string  extends  to  a 
length  of  three  or  four  feet  The  tadpoles  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  frog,  lnjt  blacker  ;  their  nietainor|ihosis  takes 
place  in  the  same  manner,  the  three  pairs  of  external  gills 
being  first  absorbed  and  replaced  for  a  time  by  internal  gills, 
"which  are  in  their  turn  lost,  the  branchial  slits  being  i^loscd 
by  the  coalescence  of  the  opercular  membrane  with  the 
skiQ.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete  m  autumn.  The 
toad  is  carcuvoroui!,  feeding  on  liies  and  other  insects  and 
.worms.  It  hibernates  in  wnntor,  passing  its  period  of 
torpidity  ia  holes  or  burrows  in  thf  earth.  The  finding  of 
toads  in  a  ..-tate  of  hibernation  has  given  rise  to  stones 
of  their  being  found  in  the  centre  of  trunks  of  trees  or 
imbedded  in  solid  rock  The  myth  of  the  jewel  in  the 
bead  (Shakespeare)  is  probably  founded  on  the  brightness 
of  the  eyes,  ia  which  the  iris  is  (lame-coloured. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  tood  in  Dntain, — the  Common 
Toad,  which  is  almost  black  in  colour,  and  the  Natterjack 
Toad,  which  is  Lghter,  smaller,  and  has  a  bright  yellow 
line  along  iho  middle  of  the  b.ick.  The  length  of  the 
•common  toad  is  3^  inches,  of  the  natterjack  2J  inches. 
The  male  natterjack  possesses  a  bladder  or  vocal  sack 
beneath  the  throat  communicating  with  the  mouth,  which 
acts  as  a  resonator  to  its  voice  ,  its  cry  is  "  gluck  gluck." 
The  vocal  sack  is  absent  in  the  common  toad,  and  only  in- 
completely developed  in  the  Green  Toad  of  the  Continent. 

In  zoological  classification  the  (o.tI  bi'lon;^  to  the  genus  Biifn,  first 
constitiito'l  by  Lanronti  in  the  S>i^<y}>v%  H^pfihum,  of  uliich  tlio  fol- 
lowuig  diignosis  is  givrn  in  Ihc  ^r;f   Mt,s  Cm   Balr  Sn!  ,  ]f%2  — 

Pupil  horizontal.  Tonf.nic  elliptical  or  pynform,  enlire  and  (roo 
fcebiii'J.  Vomerine  and  maxillary  teeth  none.  Tjinpaiium  ilis- 
tinct  or  hidden,  selOom  absent  Fingers  fiee;  toc3  more  or  less 
Avebbed  ;  the  tips  >imple  or  ddated  into  small  disks.  Outer  raet.a- 
tarsals  united,  Otnostemum  generally  tnissmg .  if  present  cartila 
■gino'is;  stemnm  a  cartilaj^nous  plaii^.  sometimes  more  or  less 
ossified  along  tbo  median  Une  Diapopbyscs  of  sacral  vertebne 
'Dore  or  less  dilated  Terminal  phalanges  obtuso  or  triangular. 
Distribution  cosmopolitan,  except  Australia. 

£u/ovulgaris,  Laurenti.  the  Common  Toad,  is  thns  distinguished 
^own  without  bony  ridges.  First  finger  as  long  a-s  or  longer  than 
the  second.  Parotids  distinct  Tympanum  stiiallei  than  tbe  eye 
Toes  half  webbed  ;  no  tarsal  fold  ;  subarticular  tuliercles  of  toes 
(double.  The  species  is  widely  dustnbuted,  occurring  throughout 
jEurnpe.  Asia,  and  north-west  Afrir^a. 

Biifo  cnhmiia,  Lauren'i,  the  Natter  jack  Toad,  shows  the  follow- 
ing differences  from  B.  vulgaris  —toes  not  half  webbed  ,  tj-mpanum 
rather  indistinct;  a  tarsal  fold.  It  is  distributed  throughout 
Europe. 

According  to  Boulenger  there  are  77  species  of  Bu/o  known,  of 
'which  35  arc  confined  to  the  Old  World,  the  re^t  to  the  American 
continent.  No  species  is  common  to  tho  two  great  continents. 
iThe  only  other  species  occurring  iu  Europe  twsides  tho  two  which 
are  found  in  Uiitain  is  Bu/o  wrirli.t,  Laurenti,  which  ranges  tlirough- 
'out  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  Africa 

TOBACCO  consists  of  the  leaves  of  several  species  of 
Nicotirmn  (nat.  ord.  Solnn-aJ-.es),  variously  prepared  for 
Vise  as  a  narcotic.  ^VhUo  it  is  principally  manufactured 
•or  smoking,  a  large  amovurt  is  also  prepared  for  chewing, 
and  to  a  more  limits!  extent  it  is  taken  in  the  form  of 
snuff.  Under  one  or  other  of  these  forms  the  use  of 
(tobacco  is  more  widely  spread  than  is  that  of  any  other 
narcotic  or  stimulant, 
.wry..  Although  the  fact  has  been  controverted,  there  cannot 
:be  a  doubt  that  the  knowledge  of  tobacco  and  its  u.ses 
•came  to  the  rest  of  the  world  from  America.  In  Novem- 
ber 1492  a  party  sent  out  by  Columbus  from  tho  vessels 
of  his  first  expedition  to  explore  the  island  of  Cuba 
brought  back  information  that  they  had  seen  people  who 
'carried  a  lighted  firebrand  to  kindle  fire,  and  perfumed 
jthemselves  with  certain  herbs  which  they  carried  along 
.with  them.     The  habit  of  snuft-taking  wbs  observed  and 


described  by  Ramon  Pane,  a  Franciscan,  nlio  accompanied: 
Columbus  on  his  second  voyage  (1-194-'G),  and  the  practice; 
of  tobacco-chewing  was  Erst  seen  by  the  Spaniards  on  the 
coast  of  South  America  in  1-502  As  the  continent  of 
America  was  opened  up  and  explored,  it  became  evidtni, 
that  the  consumption  of  tobacco,  es[xcially  by  smoking.i 
was  a  universal  and  immemorial  usage,  in  many  cases  bound 
up  «Tth  the  nio^t  significant  and  solemn  tribal  ceremonies. 
The  term  tobacco  apfiears  nut  to  have  been  a  commordy 
used  original  name  for  the  plant,  and  it  has  come  to  us 
from  a  peculiar  instrument  used  for  inhaling  its  smoke  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Ilispaniola  (.San  Donungo).  The  instru- 
ment, desciibed  by  Oviedo  ([liil'/na  dt  /us  Inih(f.<  Ofulctt- 
tales,  Salamanca,  1535),  consisted  of  a  small  holl6w  wooden 
tube  shaped  Uke  a  Y-  'lie  t^^o  points  of  which  being  in- 
serted in  the  nosfr-of  the  smoker,  the  other  end  was  held 
into  the  smoke  of  burning  tobacco,  and  thus  the  fume? 
were  inhaled.  This  apparatus  the  natives  called  "  tabaco  "; 
but  it  must  be  said  that  the  smoking  pipe  of  the  con- 
tinental tribes  was  entirely  diDerenl  from  the  imperfect 
tabaco  of  the  Canbees.  Bcnzom,  on  the  other  hand,  whose 
Troi-fls  in  America  (15-12-50)  were  published  in  15G5, 
says  that  the  Mexican  name  of  the  herb  was  "  tabacco." 

The  tobacco  plant  itself  was  first  brought  to  Europe  in 
1558  by  Francisco  Fernandes,  a  physician  who  had  been 
sent  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  to  investigati  the  products  oi 
Mexico.  By  the  French  ambassador  to  Portugal,  Jeac 
Nicot,  seeds  were  sent  from  the  Peninsula  to  the  queen, 
Catherine  de'  Medici.  Tho  services  rendered  by  Nicot  in 
spreading  a  knowledge  of  tho  plant  have  been  commemo- 
rated in  the  scientific  name  of  the  genus  Nicotima.  At 
first  the  plant  was  supposed  to  possess  almost  miracidous 
healing  powers,  and  was  designated  "  herba  panacea," 
"  herba  sanla,"  "  sana  sancta  Indorum  " ;  "  divine  tobacco  " 
it  is  called  by  Spenser,  and  "  our  holy  herb  nicotian  "  by 
William  Lilly.  While  the  plant  came  to  Europe  through 
Spain,  tho  habit  of  smoking  it  was  initiated  and  spread 
through  English  example.  Kalph  Lane,  the  first  governor 
of  Virginia,  and  Sir  Francis  Drake  bi'ought  wnth  them  io 
1 586,  from  that  first  American  possession  of  the  English 
croivn,  the  implements  and  materials  of  tobacco  smoking, 
which  they  banded  over  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Lane  is 
credited  wnth  having  been  the  first  English  smoker,  and 
through  the  influence  and  example  of  the  illustrious 
Raleigh,  who  "  tooke  a  pipe  of  tobacco  a  little  before  he 
went  to  the  scaflTolde,"  the  habit  became  rooted  among 
Elizabethan  courtiers.  During  the  17th  century  the 
indulgence  in  tobacco  spread  with  marvellous  rapidity 
throughout  all  nations,  and  that  in  tho  face  of  the  most 
resolute  opposition  of  statesmen  and  priests,  the  "counter- 
blaste  "  of  a  great  monarch,  penal  enactments  of  the  most 
severe  description,  the  knout,  exconimuuication,  and  capitaJ 
punishment.  , 

The  speeie.s  of  Nicoiiana  number  about  fifty,  but  those  of  which  Botanjt 
the  leaves  arc  used  as  sources  of  tobacco  are  tew.  "With  the  excep- 
tion of  two  species,  one  native  of  New  Caledonia,  the  other  proper 
to  Au-sfralia.  they  are  all  of  American  origin.  They  form  two 
well-detined  groups,  the  first  of  which  is  characterized  by  the 
po.ssession  of  an  elongated  corolla  tube,  red  in  colour,  tho  plants 
having  a  single  unbranchcj  stalk  which  attains  a  height  of  from 
5  to  7  feet ;  whUe  to  the  second  group  belong  such  as  have  • 
swollen  corolla  tube  of  a  greenish-yellow  colour,  and  a  much-' 
branched  st/m  reaching  a  height  of  only  from  2  to  6  feet  The' 
tj-pe  of  the  first  group  is  the  Virginian  Tobacco,  A'.  Tabacuvi,\ 
while  tho  best  known  representative  of  the  second  is  the  GreeUi 
Tob.acco,  N.  nistica.  These  two  species,  together  with  their) 
numerous  varieties,  and  with  the  Persian  Tol)aeco,  N.  pcr^^a, — the* 
sonrco  of  llio  famous  Tumbekj  or  Sliiraz  tobacco, — aro  the  sole' 
sources  of  commercial  tobacco.  N  Tabacim  is  the  species  from '  ' 
which  the  tobaccos  of  Cub.a,  the  United  States,  and  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  the  Latakia  of  Turkey,  are  derived,  and  it  is  thus 
the  source  of  not  only  the  greater  proportion  of  the  tobacco  of 
commerce  but  also  the  most  highly  prized  and  valuable  of  tn 
varieties.     A'^nufico,  originally  a  native  of  Brazil,  is  cultivated 


4i4 


TOBACCO 


io  a  coiisiderable^fcent  in  SoutbCfirmaDy,  Hang&ry»  and  thn  East 

The  Virginian  tob^ico* plant,  A^  I'atacum^  is  a  coarse  rank- 
l^ning  annual,  with  a  simple  unbranched  cylindrical  stem  which 
CttaiDs  a  height  of  6  feet  and  upwards,  terminating  in  a  panicle 
OiLDink.flowera.     J t  "has  alternate  simple  oblong  lanceolate  leaves. 


FigTI.— i'lowcrlng  Tod  of'J^.  Tabacum. 

those  at  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  being  slightly  atalkedrand  of 
large  size,  reaching  to  two  feet  in  length,  while  the  upper  are  semi- 
amplcxicaul  and  of  variable  outline.  "The  seeds  are  brown  in  colour, 
^rith  a  rough  surface,  of  minute  size,  and  exceedingly  numerous,  as 
many  as  40,000  having  been  counted  on  a  single  plant.  The  whole 
of  the  green  i>art3  of  the  plant  are  covered  with  long  soft  hairs 
which  exude  a  viscid  juice,  giving  the  surface  a  moist  glutinous 
feeling.  The  liairs  are  multicellular,  and  of  two  .kinds,  one 
branching  and  ending  in  a  fine  pointy  while  the  other,  unbranched, 
terminates  in  a  clump  of  small  cells.  Stomata  occur  on  both 
surfaces  of  the  leaves,  and,  with  the  peculiar  hair  structure,  render 
the  microscouic  aunearauce  of  the  plant  highly  characteristic. 


Fig.  2.— Microscopic  Structure  of  Tobacco  Leaf. 

Cultlva>  Tobacco*  will  flourish  over  wide  areas  and  in  very'dissimilar 
tion;  3Cliraates,  but  it  is  best  suited  for  regions  having  a  mean  tempera- 
lure  of  not  less  than  40°  T.  and  where  early  autumn  frosts  do  not 
occur.  It  develops  the  most  highly  appreciated  qualities  in  tropical 
lands  possessed  of  a  comjiarativcdy  dry  climate.  Tobacco  is  a  most 
fxhausting  crop,  and  requires  rich  and  abundant  manuring,  the 
character  of  wliich  exercises  a  distinct  inlluence  on  the  quality  of 
the  product.  A  crop  grown  under  such  widely  ditfcrent  conditions 
of  climate  and  agriculture  as  is  the  case  with  tobacco  must  of 
:iccessity  be  suhjoct  to  vaiicd  treatment  both  in  cultivation  and  in 
ijuring,  and  here  we  can  refer  only  to, the  geueral  features  of  the 
jTOwiug  and  securing  of  the  crop. 

,'Iu  European  cultivation,  tlie  tobacco-seed  issownin^a  hotbed 
about  the  end  of  Maioh.  The  seed-beds  are  kept  covered  with 
damp  straw  or  williLMcd  leaves  till  the  seedlings  appear  above  the 
grcuod,  aftiM-  which  the  covering  is  removed,  aud,  to  protect  the 
young  jilants  from  frobt,  to. wliich  they  arc  extremely  scrsitive,  the 


bedsore  covered  at  night  with  mata.  so  soon  as  the  plants  can  be 
bandied,  they  are  picked  out  in  rows  in  a  garden  bed,  where  they 
remain  protected  from  night  frost  till  they  have  developed  five  or 
sir  leaves  and  have  a  height  of  3  to  4  inches.  They  are  then  ready 
for  transplanting,  by  preference  in  moist  weather,  into  prepared 
drills  20  to  25  inches  apart  in  the  field.  The  transplanting  is 
do:ie  about  the  end  of  May,  or  earlier  in  localities  free  from  nigh' 
frf  sts,  and  in  dry  weather  the  field  is  )>lentifully  soused  with  liquid 
manure.  The  plants  are  carefully  weeded  anil  attended  to,  and 
the  soil  is  frequently  stirred  witli  narrow  hoes  until  the  period!' 
when  they  show  symptoms  of  flowering.  Tliis  may  be  when  theT 
are  only  3  feet  high,  or  not  until  tliey  have  reached  their  propeij 
beight,of  6  or  8  feet  ;  but  the  tlowers  must  not  be  allowed  to  form/ 
except  in  the  case  of  a  few  plants  left  purposely  for  seed.  TO 
obtain  fine  and  strong  leaves  on  the  plant  is  the  great  object  of  the' 
cultivator,  and  a  fiue  tobacco  plant  ought  to  have  from  eight  to 
twelve  large  succulent  leaves.  Cultivators  commonly  diminish  th^ 
number  of  leaves  by  ' '  topping  "  or  breaking  off  the  top,  under  the 
idea  that  the  remaining  ones  will  aftbrd  the  strongest  tobaccoi 
Suckers  or  shoots  near  the  root  are  carefully  reniovfd,  and  every- 
thing'_is  done  to  concentrate  the  strength  of  the  plant  in  the  leaves.^ 
Every  leaf  injured  by  insects  is  removed,  aud  the  crop  is  watched 
until  the  leaves  have  a  yellowish  tint  aud  begin  to  droop,  wheni 
they  are  fit  to  be  gathered.  This  is  usually  iu  September,  so  that 
the  plants,  from  the  time  of  their  insertion  on  the  n:ouuds,  have' 
occupied  the  ground  four  months,  during  which  time  they  have' 
been  subject  to  many  vicissitudes, — from  the  attacks  of  insects,' 
from  a  disease  called  "firing,"  caused  by  the  long  continuance  oi 
Very  wet  or  very  dry  weather,  and  from  the  occurrence  of  autunm 
frosts  while  the  crop  is  yet  in  the  field.' 

In  the  harvesting  of  the  tobacco  crop  several  distinct  methodi 
are  followed.  In  ordinary  European  cultivation  the  ripe  leave* 
are  separated  from  the  standing  stalks  in  the  field,  ike  three! 
lower  root-leaves  are  first  stripped  off  and  laid,  face  downwardj 
around  the  root  to  wilt,  after  which  they  arc  bundled  and  carried 
to  the  barn.  Afterwards  toJie  remainder  of  the  leaves  are  separated,^ 
working  from  the  top  downwards,  and,  similarly, Uhey  are  spread 
ou  the  ground  till  by  wilting  they  lose  their  lyittleness.  They  are 
then  buudk'd  and  packed,  tops  upward,  closely  on  the  floor  of  the 
barn  for  some  time  to  sweat,  by  which  the  uniform  ripening  and, 
subsequent  favourable  drying  are  promoted.  The  bundles  are 
carefully  watched  to  prevent  overheating,  which  would  blacken 
and  injure  the  leaves.  In  the  tubacco-gi-owing  districts  of  thei 
United  States  the  entire  i)lant  is  cut  down  in  the  field  close  to  thej 
ground,  then  the  stalks  arc  spitted  on  long  rods  or  laths,  care 
being  taken  to  keep  the  leaves  from  touching  each  other,  and  oc! 
these  rods  they,  are  carried  aud  hung  in  the  barn  or  curing-hous^ 
for  drying.'  _  _  ^  —    —.  . 

Tiie  curing -^fLheleaves  which  follows"  ha.':  for~its  objects  the  JCiUing 
drying  and  preservation  of  the  tobacco,  and,  by  a  process  of  slow, 
fermentation,  the  modification  of  certain  of  the  leal  constituents,! 
and  the  development  of  the  charactcristv?  a.ioma  of  the  substance.j 
Subject  to  various  minor  modifications,  the  process  of  curing  i3 
carried  out  either  slowly  by  the  air-cure  process  or  rapidly  by  fire*, 
curing.  The  European  cultivators,  who  generally  cute  by  the 
slow  process,  either  spit  the  leaves  through  the  middle  on  a  long 
rod  or  string  them  on  a  cord,  taking  care  to  keep  each  leaf  from 
touching  its  neighbour.  These  rods  or  cords  of  leaves  are  suspended 
in  a  barn  or  curing-shed  in  a  way  which  allows  the  free  circulation 
of  the  air,  and  at  the  same  time  brings  the  whole  contents  of  the 
shed  equally  under  the  drying  influence  of  the  air  currents.  AVhen 
the  weather  is  clear  and  dry,  free  circulation  of  the  air  is  in  every 
way  promoted,  but  on  humid  days  the  moist  air  is  excluded  and 
sometimes  artificial  heat  is  required  to  prevent  mildew  and  rotting 
of  the  leaves.  Under  favourable  circumstances  the  tobacco  will  be 
dry  and  i^eady  for  further  treatment  in  from  six  to  eight  weeks,  and 
the  leaves  should  then  have  a  fine  bright  warm  brownj  colour. 

In  the  United  States  the  quick-drying  process  by  artificial  heat 
is  employed  principally  for  the  preparation  of  export  tobacco,' 
Formerly  the  neat  was  obUiined  by  mpans  of  an  open  charcoal  fire 
within  the  curing-barn,  but  now  the  structure  is  heated  by  a 
system  of  flues  which  permits  of  the  burning  of  any  kind  of  fueL] 
For  dark  shipping  tobacco^  the  entire  plants,  cut  down  close  to  the 
ground,  are  immediately  housed,  and  at  once  dried  off.  Red 
shipping  qualities  are  prepared  by  leaving  the -cut  stems  either  in 
the  field  or  hung  on  scaffolds  in  the  barns  for  a  few  days  to  wilt 
and  wither  in  the  air,  after  which  they  are  dried  by  artificial  heatj 
In  the  treatment  of  both  dark  and  red  kinds  the  temperature 
within  the  barn  is  gradually  raised  till  it  reaches  170° -F.,  and  the' 
drying  is  complete  in  from  four  to  five  dayii. 

By  whichever  way  treated,  the  tobacco-leaf  at  this  stage  is 
brittle,  and  cannot  be  handled  without  cmrabling  to  powder.  The' 
contents  of  the  barn  are  therefore  left  till  moist  weather  occure, 
and  then  by  the  admission  of  atmospheric^ir  the  leaf  blades  absorbj 
moisture  and  become  soft  aud  pliant.  In  this  condition  the  leavca 
are  stripped  from  the  stems,  sorted  into  qualities,  such  as  *' lug8,'1 
or  lower  leaves,  JI„hrsts,|^andJj  seconds.?    These  are  made  up  intg 


TOBACCO 


4251 


•*  hands,"  or  small  bundles  of  from  six  to  twelve  leaves.  Each 
bundle  13  tied  round  with  a  separate  leaf,  and  in  this  condition 
the  tobacco  is  ready  for  bulking  for  fermentation 

For  fermentation  the  tobacco,  whether  in  bundles,  hands,  or 
separate  leares,  is  piled  up  or  bulked  on  the  floor  in  a  bard  into  a 
solid  stack  to  the  height'of  5  or  6  feet  Wuhm  this  stack  a 
processor  fermentation  is  quickly  set  up,  and  the  temperature  of 
,the  mass  rises  steadily  nil  it  reaches  about  130^  F.  Great  care  is 
now  taken  to  prevent  overheating,  and  to  secure  the  uniform 
fermentation  of  all  the  tobacco.  The  pile  is  from  time  to  time 
taken  down  and  rebuilt,  the  tobacco  from  the  top  going  to  the 
bottom,  and  that  exposed  at  the  edges  being  turned  in  to  the  centre. 
In  from  three  to  five  weeks  the  fermentation  should  be  sufficiently 
carried  out,  and  the  leaves  then  have  a  nice  uniform  brown  colour. 
,The  cured  stack  may  in  this  condition  be  piled  up  in  store  without 
'fear  of  further  fermentative  activity,  till,  with  increasing  summer 
heat,  it  is  subject  to  the  May  sweat,  which  renders  further  watch- 
fulness necessary. 
Cbemis-  The  components  of  tobacco,  like  those  of  all  vegetable  matters, 
^try.  arrange  tht-raselves  under  the  three  heads  of  water,  mineral  acids 

and  bases  (which  pass  into  the  ash  on  combustion),  and  organic 
substances.  According  lo  an  investigation  carried  out  by  Beauchcf 
in  GayLussac's  laboratory,  the  amuuot  of  ash  from  lOo  parts  of 
toatter  dried  at  100'  C  ia  m  the  roou  6  to  8,  in  the  stems  10  to  13. 
and  in  the  ribs  and  leaves  18  to  22  per  cenL  The  greater  |>art  of 
the  ash  consists  of  insoluble  salts,  principally  carbouate  of  lime 
?he  soluble  part  consists  largely  of  potash  salts  (KCI,  K^-COj, 
KjSO^),  which  may  amount  to  from  5  to  35  percciiL,  and' it  is 
A  remarkable  that  tobacco  contains  no  soda.     In  addition  to  the 

mineral  sal t.<t  proper,  tobacco  contains  salts  of  ammonia  and  nitrates. 
In  the  leaf  the  proportion  of  nitrates  is  greater  in  the  rib  than  in 
the  laminx  In  the  former  it  mav  amount  to  as  much  as  10  per 
jcent.  (calculating  the  nitric  acid  as  K  NO^)  According  to  Schloesiug 
AAnn.  Chim  Ph'js  .  [3],  xl.  479).  the  pruportion  of  (combined)  nitric 
Acid  in  tobacco  has  nothing  to  do  with  its  conibustibility,  that  is, 
ithc  length  of  time  a  ligl:ied  cigar  will  glow  spontaneously.  This 
Quality  is  a  function  cliicfly  of  the  potash  present  in  combiDatiou 
(with  organic  acids.  An  incombustible  tobacco,  i.e  ,  a  tobacco 
(which  docs  not  keep  a  glowing  ash,  contains  its  organic  acids  in  the 
iforin  of  lime  and  magnesia  s,ilts.  The  e.xplanation  is  that,  while 
'organic  potibh  saUs,  b<.ing  fusible,  yield  when  heated  a  porous 
charcoal  which  glows  readily,  the  corresponding  infusiblt;  lime 
isalts  yield  a  compact  chircoal  which  is  far  less  combustible.  A 
Combustible  tobacco  can  be  rendered  incombustible  by  the  incor- 
poration of  sulphate  or  chloride  of  calcium  or  magnesium  By 
•cultivation  experiments  in  a  potash-free  soil,  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  chloride  of  potassium  used  as  a  manure  does  not  add  to  the 
organic  potash  salts  in  the  It^ves,  bnl  the  sulphate,  carbonate,  and 
Initrate  do  give  up  their  potash  for  t'u^;  formation  of  organic  salts. 

Subjoined  is  an  enumi.-ralion  of  the  proximate  organic  com- 
tponents  of  tobacco  leaves,  and  their  relative  proportions  in  100 
parts,  according  to  the  numerous  analyses  made  in  the  laboratories 
isf  the  French  state  tobacco  factories  :  — 

Nicotine,  Cij^H^Nj,  a  liquid  volatile  alkaloid,  from  1  5  to  9  per 

cent 
Essential  oil, — according  to  Schloesing,  an  important  element 
in  the  flavour  of  tot-icco,  although  its  proportion  is  exceed- 
ingly small. 
Nicotianine,  a  solid  camphor-like  body  to  which,  according  to 

other  authorities,  the  odour  of  tobacco  is  principally  due. 
Malic  and  citric  acids,  together  10-14  per  cent.,  calculated  as 

anhydrides. 
Acetic  acid,  very  little  in  fresh  leaves,  but  increasing  in  their 

fermentation.     In  snuff  it  may  rise  to  3  per  cent 
Oxalic  acid,  1  to  2  per  cent. 
Pectic  acid,  about  5  per  cent. 
Resins,  fats,  and  other  bodies,  ex  tractable  by  other,  4  to  6  per 

cent 
Sugar,  little   in  the  leaves,  more  in  the  steins ;  in  the  fer- 
mentation it  disappears. 
•Cellulose,  7  to  8  per  cent. 

Albuminoids,  calculatrd  from  the  nitrogen  not  present  as 
nicotine,  nitrates,  or  ammonia,  about  25  percent. 
Excepting  the  nicotine,  the  several  organic  compooenis  of  the 
leaves  develop,  roughly  speaking,  pan  passu  until  fructification, 
when  certain  componcnta  are  attracted  to  the  fruit,  suffenng 
chemical  changes  while  so  moving.  The  nicotine  determines  the 
strength  of  a  tobacco,  but  not  its  flavour  or  aroma.  The  manure 
supplied  to  a  tobacco  field  does  not  increase  the  proportion  of 
nicotine,  but  affects  only  the  woight  of  the  crop.  The  percentage 
of  nicotine  in  the  leaves  may  to  some  extent  be  modified  lu  cultiva- 
tion,— plants  wide  af»art  developing  few  leaves,  but  these  thick, 
fleshy,  and  rich  in  nicotine,  while  closely  packed  plants  throw  out 
numerous  but  thin  and  membranous  leaves  having  little  nicotine. 
(The  proportion  of  nicotine  present  increases  with  the  age  of  the 
t)lant  Schloesing  found  in  leaves  at  various  stages  of  growth  the 
following  percentage  of  nicotine; — May  25  (very  young  leaves). 


0  79.  July  18.  1-21    Aug.  6,  1?3,  Aug   27,  2  27;  Sept.  8.  ?  36.) 
Sept.  25,  4-32. 

Regarding  the  changes  which  take  pJaco  in  the  manufacluredj 
leaf,  we  take  the  case  of  snuff,  because  with  it  the  chemical  changes! 
arc  carried  farthest,  and  yet,  qualitatively  speaking,  they  ere  of  the] 
same  nature  as  those  which  smoking  tobacco  undergoes.  In  ths, 
fermentation  begun  in  curing  and  continued  in  the  sauced  leaf.  ti^O/ 
malic  and  citric  acids  and  the  nicotine  undergo  partial  o.\idation.| 
The  oxalate  of  lime  and  the  pectates  icniain  almost  unchanged,^ 
and  there  are  formed,  of  intermediate  (not  fully  oxidized)  bodies,, 
ammonia,  acetic  acid,  and  blatk  liumic  acid,  the  last  giving  tn* 
snuff  its  dark  colour.  A  little  methyl  alcohol  is  aUo  at  the  sam^ 
time  formed  At  this  stage  the  tobacco  leaf  is  a».id  in  reaction  ij 
but  after  it  is  iK>wdercd,  and  again  subnnited  for  a  prolongea 
period  to  a  slow  fermentation  lu  air  tight  boxes,  it  become* 
decidedly  alkaline  by  the  ammonia,  because,  while  aceti>.  acid{ 
contioLes  to  be  formed  and  the  ammonia  and  ni«.oline  remair  wha*! 
they  are,  the  malic  and  citric  acids  are  progressively  destroyed.! 
Unless  snuff  contains  free  ammonia  it  is  "flat,"  and  deslitcie  o^ 
pungency. 

As  to  the  composition  of  tobacco  smoke,  numerous  investiji»tion(« 
have  been  made.  Kissling  {Ding  Potyt.  Jour.,  ccliv.  234  «:46),j 
experimenting  on  cigars,  found  ih;^t  a  large  proportion  f-i  th-^ 
nicotine  passes  unaltered  into  the  smoke.  Deahng  with  a  t-  oaccoi 
containing  3  75  per  cent  of  nicotine,  he  recovered  from  the  smok^ 
52  02  |>er  cent,  of  the  t'^tal  nicotino  consumed,  while  in  tlic  uncon* 
suiiied  remains  of  th*  tobacco  the  proportion  of  nicotine  wafi 
increased  to  5  03  per  cent  With  a  second  sample  of  tobacco,'' 
having  likewise  3  75  ptr  cent  of  uicotine,  iho  smoke  yielded  only 
27  83  per  cent,  of  the  total  nicotine  consunied,  and  the  pcrcentag**' 
in  the  unconsumed  remains  was  raised  to  4  51.  From  a  tobaccOf 
containing  only  0  30  of  nicotine  he  recovered  84 "23  of  nicotine  ioj 
the  smoke  The  composition  of  tobacco  smoke  is  highly  complex,, 
but  beyond  nicotine  the  only  substances  found  in  appieciable  quan- 
tities are  the  lower  members  of  the  picolme  series. 

The  commercial    varieties   and  the   sources   of  supply  of   leaf-  Commsff^ 
tobacco  are  exceedingly  numerous.     Special  qualities  ot  tobacco,  as  cial  vsrl^f 
of  wines,  &c  ,  belong  to  particular  localities,  outside  of  which  tbcy  tios.. 
cannot  be  cultivated.     These  tobaccos  are  therefore  natural  mono- " 
iH^lies.     Moreover,  as  is  also  the  case  wjth  wines,  the  crops  vary 
in  richness  and  delicacy  of  flavour  with  the  seasons  of  their  gro  .'h, 
so  that  in  ceitain  years  thu  produce  is  of  much  greater  value  tl.ba, 
in  others.       Further,   the  properties  of  certain  classes  of   tobacco 
render  them  specially  suitable  for  cigar  making      Others  are  best 
litted  for  smoking  in  pipes;  and  there  are  numerousqualities  whii,h 
are  valuable  for  snuffmaking      National  tastes  and  habits  again 
frequently  determine   the   destination  of   tobacco.      Thus  heavy^ 
strong,  and  full  flavoured  cigars  and  tobaccos  are  in  favour  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  while  on  the  Continent  lighter  and  more  brisk* 
binning  qualities  are  sought  after,  and  the  materials  consumed  in 
the  kalians  of  Persia  and  the  Fast  are  nut  suitable  for  use  in  ths 
short  pipes  of  the  Western  nationa 

Of  cigar  tobaccos  the  most  valuable  qualities  in  the  world  are 
cultivated  in  the  north  west  portions  of  the  island  of  Cuba.  Ths 
district  of  Vuelta  Abajo  is  the  source  of  the  highest  quality,  after 
which  comes  the  produce  of  Paitidos  and  Vuelta  Arriba.  A  largfr 
portion  of  the  tobacco  is  made  into  cigars  in  the  inland,  but  con-, 
siderablc  quantities  are  also  exported  to  Europe  and  the  United 
States  for  mixing  with  commonerqualilies  to  give  Havana  character 
lo  the  home-made  cigars.  In  recent  years  a  large  cxportof  tobacco' 
from  Brazil,  especially  from  the  proviuce  of  Bahia,  has  sprung  up,i 
most  of  which  goes  to  Germany  and  Austria  for  cigar  making.l 
The  "seed-leaf"  tobacco  of  Pennsylvania.  Connecticut,  and  Ohio,' 
grown  from  Havana  seed,  is  devoted  to  cigar  making  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  East  the  most  important  cigar  tobacco  itgion  is 
the  Philippine  Islands,  from  which  come  the  well-known  Manila 
cheroots  and  cigars  and  a  large  qunnlity  of  leaf  tobacco  of  dis-1 
tinctive  aroma.  Immense  quantities  of  cigar  tobacco  are  also  ex-, 
ported  from  Java  and  Sun^alra.  most  of  which  passes  through  the 
markets  of  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam.  In  the  Madras  [-residency 
and  in  Burmah  cigar  tobacco  is  largely  cultivated,  the  strong  heavy 
qualities  of  which  are  well  known  to  the  British  public  in  the 
Burmese,  Lunka.  and  Dindigul  cheroots. 

Of  ordinary  smoking  tobacco,  among  the  most  esteemed  quali-| 
ties  are  Varin^is  or  kanaster,  grown  in  the  districts  of  Varinas,! 
Merida,  Margarita,  &c.,  in  Venezuela.  The  name  kanaster,  which- 
covers  several  varieties  of  tobacco  from  South  America,  is  given 
on  account  of  the  wicker  baskets  (Spau.  kanaslra)  in  which  the 
material  is  packed  for  export.  The  tobacco  regions  of  the  United 
States— Kentucky,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  Ohio— send  great  -•sup- 
plies of  smoking  leaf  of  various  qualities  into  the  European  market, 
especially  into  the  United  Kingdom,  which  is  almost  exclusively  ' 
supplied  from  these  sources.  Smoking  tobaccos  of  the  highest 
quality,  rivalling  indeed  the  cigar  tobacco  of  Cuba  in  flavour  and 
value,  are  grown  in  Turkey,  and  specially  in  the  province  of. 
Salonioa.  The  famous  Latakia  of  the  English  smokers  is  pro- 
duced in  the  province  of  Saida,  in  the  northern  part  of  Syria  (se* 


426 


TOBACCO 


Latakia),   and   thougliout  Asiatic  Turkey  there  is  an  extensive 
cultivation  and  fexport  of  smoking  tobacco. 
^aaii-  Iq  the  mauulactuje  of  tobacco  foe  smoking,  we  have  to  do  with 

lictuju  the  numerous  forms  of  tobacco  used  forsraokingin  pipes,  embrac- 
'ing  cut  smoking  mixtures,  cake  or  plug,  and  roU  or  spun  tobacco. 
Under  this  lieading  come  also  the  cigar  and  cigarette  manufacture. 
The  raw  •material  in  the  warehouses  is  of  various  qualities  :  some 
is  strong,  rough,  and  harsh,  and  so  is  unfit  for  ordinary  smoking  ; 
other  samples  are  mild  and  fine,  witli  aromatic  and  pleasant 
flavour,  but  devoid  of  strength.  By  a  proper  mixing  and  blending 
the  manufactn'ier  is  enabled  to  prepare  the  smoking  mixture  which 
is  desirable  for  his  purpose;  but  certain  of  the  rough,  hitter 
qualities  cannot  hv  manufactured  without  a  preliminarj-  treatment 
by  which  llieir  intense  disagreeable  taste  is  modified.  The  storing 
of  such  tobacco  for  a  lengtltened  period  matures  and  deprives  it  of 
harsliness.  and  the  same  result  may  be  artificially  hastened  by 
macerating  the  leaves  in  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  washing  them  out  with  pure  water.  The  most  efficient  means, 
however,  of  improving  strong,  iU-tasting  tobacco  is  by  renewed 
fermentation  artificially  induced  by  moisture  aud  heat 
Smoking-  ^  The  manufacturer  having  prepared  his  mixture  of  leaves,  proceeds 
mixtures,  to  damp  them,  pure  water  alone  being  used  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
whereas  on  the  Continent' and  in  America  certain  "sauces"  are 
CTOpIoved,  which  consist  of  mixtures  ot'aromatic  substances,  sugar, 
liquorice,  common  salt,  and  saltpetre,  &c.,  dissolved  in  water.  The 
primary  object  is  to  render  the  leaves  soft  aud  pliant  ;  the  use  of 
the  sauces  is  to  improve  the  flavour  and  burning  qualities  of  the 
leaves  used.  "When  uniformly  damped,  the  leaves  arc  separately 
opened  out  and  smoothed,  the  midrib,  if  not  a'ready  removed,  is 
torn  out,  except  when  "bird's  eye"  cut  is  to  be  made,  in  which 
Jnixture  the  midrib  gives  the  peculiar  "bird's  eye"  appearance. 
The  prepareji  tobacco,  while  still  moist  and  pliant,  is  pressed  between 
cylinders  into  "a  light  cake,  and  cut  into  fine  uniform  shreds  by  a 
machine  analogous  to  the  chaff-cutter.  The  cut  tobacco  is  now 
roasted,  partly  with  the  view  of  driving  off  moisture  and  bringing 
the  material  into  a  condition  for  keeping,  but  also  partly  to  improve 
its  smoking  quality.  The  roasting  is  most  simply  effected  by 
.spreading  it  on  heated  slabs,  on  which  it  is  constantly  turned  ;  but 
such  a  method  does  not  yield  uniform  results,  aud  it  exposes  the 
workers  to  a  most  deleterious  atmosphere  and  noxious  fumes.  A 
.roasting  machine  is  in  use,  which  consists  of  a  revolving  drum  in 
which  the  tobacco  is  rotated,  gradually  passing  from  one  end  to 
the_  other,  and  al  I  the  time  under  the  influeLce  of  a  current  of  heated 
air  passing  through  it, 
Roll  For  roll,  twist,  or  pigtail  tobacco  the  raw  material  is  damped  or 

tobaccot  sauced  as.  in  the  case  of  cut  tobacco.  The  interior  of  the  roll 
"consists  of  small  and  broken  leaf  of  various  kinds,  called  "  fillers"  ; 
and  this  is  enclosed  within  an  external  covering  of  large  whole  l^af 
of  bright  quality,  such  loaves  being  called  "covers."  The  material 
is  supplied  to  the  twisting  machin'-ry  by  an  attendant,  and  formed 
into  a  cord  of  uniform  iliickness.  twisted,  and  wound  on  a  drum  by 
mechanism  analogous  to  that  used  in  rope-spinning.  From  the 
drum  of  the  tvvisting  machine  the  spun  tobacco  is  rolled  into 
cylinders  of  various  sizes.  These  are  enclosed  in  canvas,  and  around 
the  surfice  of  each  stout  hempen  cord  is  tightly  and  closely  coiled. 
In  till'*  form  a  large  number,  after  being  cooked  or  stoved  in  moist 
heat  for  about  twenty-four  hours,  are  piled  between  plates  in  an 
hydraulic  press,  and  subjected  to  great  pressure  for  a  month  or  six 
Weeks,  during  which  time  a  slow  fermentation  takes  place,  and  a 
considerable  exudation  of  juice  results  from  the  severe  pressure. 
^Thc  juice  is  coIlT'cted  for  use  .is  a  sheep-dip. 
Cake  Cake  or  plug  tobacco  is  mado  by  enveloping  the  desired  amount 

Vjbacco.i  of  filbrs  within  covering  leavps  of  a  fine  bright  colour.  A  large 
number  of  such  p.ackage3  arc  placed  in  moulds,  aud  submitted  to 
powerful  pressure  in  an  hydraulic  press,  by  which  they  are  moulded 
into  solid  cakes.  Both  cake  and  roll  tobacco  are  e-qually  used  for 
smoking  and  chewing  ;  for  the  latter  purpose  the  cake  is  frequently 
eweeteiied  with  liquorice,  and  sold  as  honey-dew  or  sweet  cavendish. 
Clears.  For  cigar-making  the  finest  and  most  delicately  flavoured  qualities 

of  loboL'CO  are  generally  selected.  A  cigar  consists  of  a  core  or 
central  mass  of  fillers  enveloped  in  an  inner  and  an  outer  cover  or 
robe  The  fillers  or  inner  contents  of  the  cigar  must  be  of  uniform 
quality,  anrl  so  packed  and  distributed  in  a  longitudinal  direction 
that  the  tobacco  may  burn  uniformly  and  the  smoke  can  be  freely 
dmwn  from  end  to  end.  For  the  inner  cover  whole  leaf  of  the 
same  quality  as  the  fillers  is  used,  but  for  the  outer  cover  only 
aelected  loaves  of  tho  finest  quality  and  colour,  free  from  all  injury, 
3re  employed.  The  covers  are  carefully  cut  to  the  proper  size  and 
shap'--  with  a  sharp  knife,  and,  being  damped,  a  pile  of  them 
smoothed  out  arc  placed  together.  In  making  cigars  by  the  hand, 
thit  ofH'ratur  rolls  together  a  sufficient  quantity  of  material  to  form 
thH  filling  of  one  cigar,  and  experience  enables  him  or  her  to  select 
Tery  uniform  quantities.  This  quantity  is  wrapped  in  the  inner 
cover,  an  oblong  piece  of  leaf  the  length  of  the  cigar  to  be  mado, 
and  of  width  suihcient  to  enclose  the  whole  materiol.  The  cigar 
is  then  rolled  in  the  hand  to  consolidate  the  tobacco  and  bring  it 
into  proper  shape,  after  which  it  im  wrapped  in  the  outer  covefi  a 


shaped  piece  made  to  enclose  the  whole  in  a  spiral  manner,  begin-' 
ning  at  the  thick  end  of  the  cigar  and  working  down  to  the  pointed 
end,  where  it  is  dexterously  hnished  by  twisting  to  a  fine  point 
between  the  fingers.  The  finished  cigars  are  either  spread  oat  in 
the  sunlight  to  be  dried,  or,  where  that  is  impracticable,  they  are 
exposed  to  a  gentle  heat  They  are  then  sorted  into  qualitie9 
according  to  their  colour,  packed  and  pressed  in  boxes,  in  which 
thi-y  are  ttored  for  sale.  Machinery  is  now  employed  for  forming 
and  moulding  the  fillings  of  cigars. 

Havana  cigars  are,  as  regards  form,  classification,  method  of 
puttingup.and  nomenclature,  the  models  followed  Ijymanufacturera 
of  all  classes  of  the  goods.  Genuine  (*' legitimas")  Havana  cigars 
are  such  only  as  are  made  in  the  island ;  and  the  cigars  made  in 
Europe  and  elsewhere  from  genuine  Cuban  tobacco  are  clas-sed  a3 
"Havanas."  Other  brande  of  homo  manufacture  contain  some 
proportion  of  Cuban  tobacco  ;  and  very  good  cigars  may  be  made 
in  which  the  name  only  of  that  highly-prized  leaf  is  employed.) 
When  we  come  to  the  inferior  classes  of  cigars,  it  can  only  be 
said  that  they  may  be  mado  from  any  kind  of  leaf,  the  more 
ambitious  imitations  being  treated  with  various  sauces  designed  t», 
give  them  a  Havaua  flavour.  The  highest  class  of  Cuban-made 
cigars,  called  "  vegueras,"  are  prepared  from  the  very  finest  Vuelta 
Abajo  leaf,  rolled  when  it  is  just  half  dry,  and  consequently  never 
damped  with  water  at  all.  Nest  come  the  "regalias,"  similarly 
made  of  the  best  Vuelta  Abajo  tobacco;  and  it  is  only  the  lowef 
qualities,  "ordinary  regalias,"  which  are  commonly  found  in  conl^ 
mcrcc,  the  finer,  along  with  the  "vegueras,''  being  exceedingly 
high-priced.  The  cigars,  when  dry,  are  carefully  sorted  according 
to  strength,  which  is  estimated  by  their  colour,  and  classed  in  a 
scale  of  increasing  strength  as  cUiro,  Colorado  daro,  maduro^  and 
oscuTO.  They  are  pressed  into  the  cigar  boxes  for  sale,  and  branded 
with  the  name  or  trade  mark  of  their  makers.  Cheroots  differ  from 
ordinary  cigars  only  in  shape,  being  cither  in  the  form  of  a  trun- 
cated cone,  or  of  uniform  thickness  throughout,  but  always  having 
both  ends  open  and  sharply  cut  across.  Cheroots  come  princi- 
pally from  Manila,  but  there  are  now  large  quantities  imported 
into  the  United  Kingdom  from  the  East  Indies  and  Burmah. 

Cigarettes  consist  of  small  rolls  of  fine  cut  tobacco  wrapped  m  a  Cigar* 
covering  of  thin  tough  paper  specially  made  for  such  use.     Origin-  ettea.', 
ally  cigarettes  were  entirely  prejiared  by  the  smoker  himself ;  but, 
now  that  the  consumption  of  cigarettes  has  attained  gigantic  pro- 
portions, especially  in  France,  they  are  very  largely  made  with  tho 
aid  of  an  elaborate  system  of  automatic  machinery.    The  machines 
cut  the  paper,  gum  its  edge,  measure  out  the  proper 'quantity  of 
tobacco,  wTap  it  up,  make  the  gummed  edge  adhere,  cut  tho  ends,  ^ 
and  pack  the  cigarettes  in  boxes. 

The  manufacture  of  snuff  is  the  most  complex,  tedious,  and  Snuft 
diflicult  undertaking  of  the  tobacco  manufacturer;  but  it  is  an  art 
now  of  relatively  little  and  of  decreasing  importance.  The  tobacco 
best  suited  for  snufl'-making  is  thick  fleshy  leaf  of  a  dsrk  colour,' 
the  finest  qualities  of  snutf  being  made  with  dark  Virginia  leaf 
and  the  Amersfoort  leaf  of  Holland;  but  manufacturers  work- 
up mauy  kinds  with  fragments  from  tho  making  of  smoking 
tobacco,  midribs,  kc  The  varieties  and  qualities  of  snutf  aro 
many,  the  dilfcrences  being  dependent  on  the  material  employed, 
the  sauces  with  which  it  is  treated,  and  the  method  of  manufacture. 
The  saucesforsnulfconsistof  solutions  of  common  salt,  with  various, 
aromatic  substances  .according  to  the  llavour  desired  in  the  finished' 
snuff,  and  with  occasional  additions  of  potash,  sal  ammoniac,  and* 
other  palts.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  method  adopted  in' 
making  snu:T  on  the  great  soale  in  the  state  manufacture  of  France. 
The  toh;icco  loaves  are  moistened  with  about  one-fifth  of  theic 
weight  of  salt  and  water  (sp.  gr.  1"089),  made  up  into  blocks,  and 
piled  in  large  rectangular  heaps,  in  quantities  of  40  or  50  tons; 
The  temperature"  gradually  rises  to  140"  F.,  and  sometimes  reaches 
170°;  but  the  heat  must  be  regulated,  or  parts  of  the  mass  would 
become  blank  as  if  charred.  The  heaps  are  made  up  in  spring  and 
autumn,  and  the  fermentation  is  continued  for  five  or  ai.x.  tnontbs, 
when  the  temperature  remains  stationary  or  begins  to 'decline. 
The  heap  is  then  opened,  and  the  tobacco  is  ground,  by  which  means 
a  pale  brown  dryish  powder  {rdp^  sec)  is  obtained.  This  is  mixed 
with  about  four-tenths  of  its  weight  of  a  solution  of  common  t.alt, 
and  is  passed  through  a  sieve,  that  the  powder  may  be  uniformly 
moistencl.  It  is  then  packed  in  large  open  chests  in  quantities  ol 
from  25  to  5^  tons,  where  it  remains  for  nine  or  ten  months,  and 
undeigoes  another  fermentation,  the  temperature  rising  in  the 
centre  of  the  mass  to  120'  or  130".  During  this  process  the  snuff 
acquires  its  dark  colour  and  develops  its  aroma.  But  it  is  not 
uniform  in  quality  throughout,  and  is  removed  to  a  second  chest; 
in  such  a  way  as  thoroughly  to  mix  all  the  ditferent  parts  toge'.herJ 
and.  after  the  lapse  of  two  months,  it  is  again  turned  over  ;  a;id  th« 
process  is  sometimes  repeated  a  third  time.  When  the  snuff  is 
ripe,  the  contents  of  the  various  chests  are  mixed  together  in  al 
large  room  capable  of  bold'-ag  350  toD«  of  siiuff,  where  it  is  left  for 
about  six  weeks,  and  the  whole  mass  being  uniform  in  quality  is 
I  sifted  into  barrels  for  the  mark>.t.  The  process  of  manufactura 
i  occupies  in  aU  from  eighteen  to  twenty  months.     DariBK  these 


T  0  B  — T  0  B 


repeated  fennentations  about  two-thirds  of  the  nicotine  is  destroyed, 
the  acidity  of  the  snuff  disappears,  and  the  mass  becomes  distinctly 
alkaJine,  notwithstanding  that  acetic  acid  is  continuously  evolved. 
The  dnstruction  of  malic  and  citric  acids  continues,,  and  the  bases 
thereby  set  free  saturate  the  acetic  acid  formed,  lea-\in"  free 
•mmoDia  in  the  snuff  The  properties  of  snuff  are  dependent  on 
.he  presence  of  free  nicotine,  tree  ammonia,  and  the  peculiar 
«romatic  principle  developed  in  the  fermentation. 

The  reduction  of  tobacco-leaf  to  a  snuff  powder  is  a  task  of  con- 
eiderable  difficuJty,  owing  to  the  gmnmy  nature  of  the  substance, 
which  tends  to  coat  and  clog  grinding  surfaces.  In  early  times 
the  duly  sauced  and  fermented  leaves  were  made  up  into  ''  carottes  " 
—tightly  tied  op  spindle-formed  bundles,  from  the  end  of  which 
the  suuffer,  by  means  of  a  "snuff  rasp,"  rasped  off  his  own  supply, 
and  hence  the  name  "rdp^"  which  Ke  have  still  as  "  rappee,''  to 
indicate  a  particular  class  of  snuff  The  practice  of  tying  up  the 
leaves  in  the  form  of  carottes  is  stiU  followed  by  makers  of  6ne 
snulf  as  the  very  slow  fermentation  which  goes  on  within  the 
bundles  is  favourable  to  the  development  of  a  rich  aroma.  For 
pulvenzatioQ,  the  leaves  are  first  cut  to  shreds  with  a  revolvin.' 
knife,  and  then  powdered  either  by  a  kind  of  mortar  and  pestle  mill! 
or  by  falling  stampers  suppUed  with  knife  cutting  edges,  or  more 
commonly  they  are  treated  in  a  conical  mdi,  in  wt(ich  both  the  re- 
volving  cone  and  the  sides  have  sharp  cutting  edges,  so  that  the 
matenal  undergoes  a  cutting  rather  than  a  grinding  action.  The 
snuff  from  the  mill  is  sifted,  and  that  whioh  remains  on  the  sieve 
IS  returned  to  the  miU,  the  remainder  being  passed  on  as  rdpe  sec 
for  farther  treatment  as  described  above. 
riseal  In  nearly  all  civUized  countries  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  and 

Mstno     its  manufacture  are  conducted  under  eUte  supervision,  and  form  an 
•wM.;      important  source  of  public  revenue.     In  France,  Austria.Hungary, 
Italy,  and  Spam  the  cultivation  is  a  state  monopoly,  and  in  other 
countries  the  crop  is  subject  to  heavy  excise  duties.      Since  the 
time  of  Charles  II.  the  growth  of  tobacco  in  England  has  been 
.practically  prohibited,  the  original  legislative  exactment  to  that 
.effect  having  been  passed  with  the  view  of  encouraging  trade  with 
,the  young  colony  of  Virginia.     When  that  motive  ceased  to  have 
force  the  supposed  difficulties  of  coUecting  th«  internal  taxation 
still  inBuenced  the  legislature  to  continue  their  prohibition   and 
consequently  a  penalty  or  prohibitive  tax  equafto  sixteen  hundred 
pounds  per  acre  is  exigible  on  tke  cultivation  of  tobucco  in  the 
United  Kingdom.    In  Ireland  the  duty  on  the  cultivation  of  tobacco 
was  abandoned  between  1822  and  1830,  and  in  that  interval  the 
i,I^^°d  ^^^  ""  ''''°"'  *  thousaad  acres  were  under  the  crop.; 
In  1886  the  Government  permitted  the  experimental  cultivation  of 
tobacco  in  England,  under  certain  precautions  and  restrictions  for 
the  security  of  the  revenue.     Several  proprietors  in  Kent,  Norfolk 
^nd  other  coipties  grew  experimental  patches  with  such  success  as 
10  warrant  the  continuance  of  the  experiment  and  to  prove  the 
entire  practicability  of  cultivating  tobacco  as  an  English  agricultural 
crop.     The  climate  is,  however,'  so  variable  that,  were  all  restric- 
tions removed,  and  tobacco  groivn  subject  only  to  excise  supervision 
for  collecting  an  equitable  tax,  it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether  its 
.       growth  would  be  a  safe  and  profitable  undertaking 
lori~r    -.       f  'IjAuence  0'  tobacco  on  health  and  morals  has,  ever  since 
iS^      n   '"  ™<'"^"°?  '"to  Europe,  been  a  fruitful  subject  of  controversy, 
enecta.     On  all  grounds,  except  as  a  medicine,  it  met  the  most  nncom- 
proinisiDg  opposition  when  it  first  became  known  ;  but  it  was 
precisely    the  expecUtions  entertained   regarding  its   medicinal 
virtues  which   were  completely    disappointed.      Burton    in   the 
Analomy  of  Melanduyly,  gives  strong  expression  to  the  two  views  ■ 
iobacco    dmne,  rare,    superescellent  tobacco,    which  goes  far 
beyond  aU  the  panaceas,  potable  gold,  and  philosopher's  stones  is 
a  sovereign  remedy  in  all  diseases.     A  good  vomit,  I  confess,  a  rir- 
tuous  herb  if  it  be  well  qualified,  opportnnely  taken,  and  medi- 
cinally  used  ;   bi>t,  as  it  is  commonly  abused  by  most  men   which 
take  It  as  tinkers  do  ale,  'tis  a  plague,  a  mischief,  a  violent  pur-'e 
of  goods,  lands,  health, -hellis£,  devilish,  and  damned  tobacco 
the  rum  and  overthrow  of  body  and  souL"     Burton's  meanin.'- 
that  tobacco  m  moderation  is  a  good  thing,  while  its  excessive  use 
causes  many  physical  and  other  evils— has  many  sympathizers  ■  bat 
the  difficulty  is  to  define  moderation  and  excess.     Amono'  modern 
ftuthonties,  Dr  Jonathan  Pereira  says,  "  I  am  not  acquainted  with 
any  we  1-ascerUined  ill  effects  resulting  from  the  habitual  practice 
of  smoking.       Similarly  Sir  Robert  Christison   conclud(5    '■  In 
many  individuals  who  use  it  habitually,  the  smoke  has  an  extra- 
ordinary power  in  removing  exhaustion,  listlessriess,  and  restless- 
ness, especially  when  brought  on  by  bodily  or  mental  fa'rigue  and 
this  property  IS  the  basis  of  its  general  use  as  an  article  of  luxury  " 
UT  t..  A.  Parkes  suma  up  his  observations  thus  :  "  I  confess  mvself 
quite  uncertain.     I  can  find  nothing  like  good  evidence  in  bo^ks  • 
too  olten  a  foregone  conclusion,  without  any  evidence  to  back  it    is 
given.    I  think  we  must  decidedly  admit  injury  f-xjm  excess  ;  from 
moderato  use  I  can  sec  no  harm,  e.vccpt  it  may  be  in  youth.'     On 
tte  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  by  the  opponents  of  tobacfl«s  and  by 
the  anti-tobacco  socieUes,  that  tho  habitual  use  of  this  narcotic 
.iewli,  enpeciaUy  in  the  yoang,  to  d«ciea*9  of  bodily  aad  mentrf 


427 


Total 

Per  — 

Consumpiion. 

Head,   ' 

lb 

02. 

.  is:i 

I5.59S.I52 

11-71 

1S31 

19,533.841 

12-80 

1*41 

22,303.360 

13-21 

18.51 

29.062.3T3 

IS^if 

1S7I 

42.775.334" 

21-49 

ISSl 

43,820,403 

22-60 

vigour,  and  specially  produces  s.rmptoras  of  anamia,' palpitation; 
intermittent  pulse,  and  other  affections  of  the  heart  and  circula- 
tion  It  IS  an  admitted  fact  that  a  disease  of  the  vision— tobacco 
amblyopia-is  contracted  by  smokers,  and  is  not  uncommoa 
aniong  those  using  strong  heavy  preparations,  such  as  black  t^vist. 
Allowing  that  such  incidental  evils  may  arise  from  even  compara- 
tively moderate  indulgence  in  tob.icco,  they  are  after  all  as  nothine 

compared  to  the  vast  agCTegatc  of  gentle  exhUaration.  sootkin.',  and 
social  comfort,  extracted  from  the  Virginian  weed. 

With  the  almost  universal  prevalence  of  the  use  of  tobacco,  it  Com- 

r',h«  ll°n  r?^     i  ""  ^?°L'"'  "''™"'^J  y<^"ly  is  veiy  great,  m.reft. 
In  the   United  Kingdom,  which 

is  much  less  a  tobacco-consumin" 

country  than  the  United  States 

or  many  European  countries,  the 

consumption  per  head  has  steadily 

increased,   as   is  shown    in   the 

accompanying  table. 

The  customs  duty  derived  from 

imports  of  tobacco  amounted  in 

1SS6  to £9,298,990,  and  there c«r- -, 

tainly  is  a  considerable  quantity  of  manufactured  tobacco  smug.'ledl 

into  the  kingdom  which  comes  into  no  official  lecoi-d.    In  the  United 

Sutes  the  production  of  tobacco  was  in   1840  219  163  319  lb    in 

1850  199,752,655  lb,  in  1860  434,209,461  tt>,  in  1870262  735  341  lb  ' 

and  in  1880  472,661,157  lb.     During  tho  ten  years  ending  1881 

the  average  annual  production  was  472,000,000  lb,  cultivated  on 

i'Tr.^^'l;^^'"  '2  ^°°'"°''  ^'i'^'  ">=  "^^"^  of  "^«  <:fops  ranging  from 
$10,000,000  to  $45,000,000.  In  the  same  ten  years  2,540  SIS  001  lb 
of  leaf  were  exported,  1,897,606,249  lb  were  manufactured  for  home 
consumption,  and  the  quantity  conijumed  by  growers  was  estimated 
to  be  equal  to  280,000,000  lb.  "ui^icm 

For  'Tobacco  Pipe,  see  Pipe, 
n,Z!!f„''i^'^'°";f'J°''"'"',''  "  "^'^  ""enstve."  The  Ute  Mr  William  BriMe  of 

would  h^v^,^^'^  '°  ^f  '"f "°  '"""^  '''"'"'  ""^''  »  ""*  o'  authorities  It 
would  be  >s,n  liete  to  make  selections,  but  mention  may  be  made  of  Fairbolfj 
Mpltal  gOM.pmE  work.  r<.6a«o.  „.,  IliMry  m^d  A»o,iJcn,.  (2d  ed     1S«)      A, 

?  JZ'"'"  *-''°""  Reports  of  the  United  St-iies  (1SS3X  'ol  HI.,  theie  areaseriS 
o^  e^borale  paper,  on  tHe  ciUU.alio,.,  manu/act'ure,  ind  .utistlc^ 'f  Amed^ 
"""°-  (J.  PA.-\V.  D.) 

TOBAGO,  the  most  southerly  of  the  Wintiward  group 
of  British  West  ludian  Islands  (11°  9'  N.  lat  60°  I'''  WJ 
I/,r,™  \    on   _;i »-i-  ..    .    f  „, '.  .  T 


bug.),  20  miles  north-east  from  Trinidad,  is  26  miles  id 
length  and  7i  at  its  greatest  breadth,  with,  an  area  of  114 
square  miles  (73,313  acres).  Its  formation  is  volcanic^' 
and  the  physical  aspect  irregular  and ,  picturesque,  with 
conical  hills  and  ridges;  the  main -jidge  is  1800  feet 
high  and  18  miles  long.  There  are  several  exceUent  har-- 
hours.  The  products  are  sugar,  rum,  molasses,  and  fruits' 
of  various  kinds,  only  the  low  ground  being  cultivated- 
production  is  not  increasing.  In  1885  the  revenue  wai 
£10,826  and  the  expenditure  £12,031,  while  the  imports 
were  £30,758  and  the  exports  £26,414.  The«popula,doa 
in  1885  was  19,363  (9368  males  and  9995  females),  princiJ 
pally  of  African  race,  the  whites  being  very  few.  Tobago 
has  a  small  legislative  council  and  an  administrator  under 
the  Government  of  the  Windward  Islands.  Its  capital 
IS  Scarborough  (1200  inhabitants),  on  the  south-east 
coast. 

Tobago  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  the  British 
flag  was  first  planted  in  1580,  the  island  being  then  occupied  by 
Caribs^  It  has  subsequently  been  held  by  the  Dutch  and  the 
irencb,  but  ultimately  was  ceded  to  the  British  cro»»-n  in  1814. 

TOBIT,  The  Book  of,  one  of  the  Old  Testament 
apocrypha,  relates  with  many  marvellous  circumstances' 
the  virtues,  trials,  and  final  deliverance  of  Tobit,  a  pious 
Israelite  who  was  carried  to  Nineveh  in  the  captivity  of 
the  ten  tribes,  and,  after  rising  into  favour  and  wealth  asi 
a  trader  at  the  royal  court,  was  reduced  to  poverty  becausal 
he  habitually  buried  those  of  his  nation  whom  the  tyrant 
slew  and  ordered  to  be  cast  forth  unburied.  Besides  this 
he  lost  his  eyesight  through  an  accident  Reduced  almout 
to  despair,  like  Job,  and  taunted  like  Job  by  his  wif^j 
("where  are  thy  alms  and  righteous  deeds?"),  he  yet  puts' 
his  faith  in  Gnd  and  prepares  to  die,  but  first  resolves  to 
send  his  son  Tobias  to  RhagK  (Rai),  in  Media,  to  reclaim, 
an  old  loan.     Now  his  prayers  are  heard  and  his  rightooosi 


428 


T  O  B  — T  0  B 


oess  rewarded,  for  Raphael,  one  of  the  seven  angels  that 
present  the  prayers  of  the  saints  before  God,  is  sent  in 
human  form  to  conduct  Tobias  on  his  journey.  Thus 
aided,  Tobias  not  only  recovers  his  father's  money,  but  by 
killing  a  fish  which  attacks  him  as  he  washes  his  feet  in 
the  Tigris,  becomes  possessed  of  two  invaluable  drugs,  its 
liver  with  the  heart  and  its  galL  By  fumigation  with 
the  former  he  drives  away  tho  demon  Asmodeus,  who  had 
slain  the  seven  bridegrooms  of  a  virtuous  Jewish  maiden, 
Sara  of  Ecbatana,  his  own  kinswoman,  aud  so  wins  a  good 
wife,  and  with  the  gall  ho  heals  his  father's  eyes.  In  spite 
of  the  absurd  machinery  and  other  puerilities,  the  story  is 
ingenioasly  constructed,  and  the  picture  of  Tobit's  piety 
is  natural  and  touching,  so  that  the  whole  is  a  very  good 
exhibition  of  the  veaknesa  and  tho  strength  of  Judaism 
as  it  was  among  the  Israelites  of  the  dispersion. 

The  date  of  tha  book  caniiot  be  precisely  determined. 
It  was  written  before  the  destruction  of  the  temple  (xiv. 
5),  and  is  cited  by  early  Christian  writers.  On  the  other 
(hind,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  the  Greek 
text  is  original,'  in  which  case  the  book  can  hardly  be 
earlier  than  the  2d  century  B.C.  A  date  about  the  middle 
of  this  century,  or  a  little  earlier,  at  the  time  of  bitter 
conflict  with  the  Greeks,  seems  to  accord  best  with  the 
tone  of  the  book.  The  sympathy  shown  for  the  victims  of 
tyranny,  to  whom  burial  was  denied,  acquires  fresh  mean- 
ing when  fcompared  with  such  a  passage  as  2  Mac.  v.  10, 
and  the  prominence  given  to  eschatological  hopes  in  the 
closing  verses  fits  a  time  when  interest  in  the  prophecies 
of  Israel's  future  glory  was  revived  by  the  struggle  for 
national  independence  in  Judaia. 

That  Tobit  was  written  by  a  Jew  of  the  Eastern  dis- 
persion (so,  eg.,  Ewald,  Gesck.,  iv.  269)  will  hardly  be 
maintained  by  any  one  who  accepts  the  Greek  text  as 
original.  The  book  remained  almost  unknown  to  the 
Syriac  church,  a  fact  which  tells  strongly  against  the 
hypothesis  of  an  Eastern  origin  ;  and  at  the  period  to 
which  the  work  caa  be  best  referred  Egypt  is  the  only 
probable  place  for  a  Jewish-Greek  composition.  The 
writer  knoivs  nothing  about  the  geography  of  the  East 
beyond  a  few  names  which  every  Jew  must  have  heard, — 
tha  Tigris,  which,  by  an  error  common  among  the  Greek.i 
but  hardly  possible  to  an  Oriental  Jew,  he  regards  as 
flowing  between  Nineveh  and  Media ;  Rhagse,  which  was 
a  royal  residence  of  the  Parthians ;  the  famous  city  of 
Ecbatana;  and  Elymais  (iL  10),  which  was  associated 
with  the  disaster  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  And  in  both 
forms  of  the  Greek  text  (vi.  9  in  the  common  text,  and 
■V.  6  in  the  longer)  Rhagm  is  falsely  represented  as  quite 
near  Ecbatana.^  Noldeke  surmises,  as  others  havo  done 
before  him,  that  the  "  fish  "  which  attacked  Tobias  was  the 
Egyptian  crocodile,  and  this  conjecture  is  raised  almost  to 
certainty  when  we  read  in  Kazwini  i.  132  that  the  smell 
of  tho  smoke  of  crocodile's  Uver  cures  epilepsy  and  that  its 
dung  and  gall  cure  leucoma,  which  was  the  cause  of  Tobjt's 
blindness.'  Thus  the  cures  of  Sara  and  Tobit  are  natural 
(<•/.  the  longer  Greek  text,  vi.  4  s^.) ;  the  angel's  help  is 
necessary  only  to  secure  the ,  medicaments  and  explain 
their  use.  ' 

But  tliough  the  story  may  have  been  written  in  Egypt 
it  contains  Persian  elements.     There  is  no  inconsistency  in 

'  See  th»  arguments  of  Nblilek«,  A/wxJfeJ.  BerL  Ak.,  1879,  p.  iS  sq. 
This  paper  also  containi  tho  best  discussioa  of  tUe  relatiOB  of  tho 
various  texts  of  the  book. 

*  Noklekc  sliows  that  tiie  same  error  in  a  less  gross  form  appeara 
in  both  texts  iu  chap.  ix.  The  further  erroneous  Etatemcnt  of  the 
longer  text  that  Kcbatana  lies  in  a  plain  occurs  also  in  Diod.,  ii.  13,  6, 
In  a  passage  dcpcnJeiit  on  Ctesias,  from  whom  the  addition  n^oy  have 
been  taken. 

*  Very  similar  statements  as  to  the  medic-al  virtues  of  thfl  crocodile 
(aquatic  or  terrestcial)  occur  in  Creek  and  Latin  writeix. 


this,  for  the  authors  of  Jewish  Haggada  generally  borrowetf 
the  themes  which  they  embeUished,  and  that  from  very 
various  quarters.  In  fact,  at  the  close  of  our  book  there 
is  a  brief  allusion  to  another  story,*  quite  unknown  to  ub, 
which  the  author  evidently  did  not  invent.  The  proof  of  4 
Persian  element  in  the  tale  lies,  not  in  the  locahties,  but  ii> 
the  angelology  and  demonology  Asmodeus  is  the  Iranian 
evil  spirit  Aeshm4  Daeva,  and  Raphael,  as  the  guardian  Of 
Tobias,  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Iranian  Craosha.' 
Such  precise  adaptations  of  Zoroastrian  ideas  were  hardly' 
the  common  property  of  Judaism  S,t  so  early  a  date ;  they 
lead  us  to  conjecture  that  the  writer  borrowed  from  an 
Iranian  story.^  And  only  in  this  way  can  we  explain  the 
appearance  of  the  dog  who  goes  out  and  returns  with 
Tobias  and  Raphael.  This  trait  is  so  inconsistent  with 
Jewish  feelings  towards  the  unclean  animal  that  it  ia 
omitted  in  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  versions.  But  to  the 
Iranians  the  dog  was  not  only  a  sacred  animal,  the  pro- 
tector of  herds  and  homes,  but  was  the  companion  of  the 
protecting  spirit  Craosha  (BuTuiahesh,  chap,  xiz.),  to  whom 
Raphael  in  our  tale  corresponds. 

The  Greek  text  of  Tobit  is  found  in  a  shorter  recension  (the 
usual  text)  and  in  a  longer  form  preserved  in  the  Codex  Sinaiticna 
(published  by  F.  H.  Reusch,  4to,  Bonn,  1870).  There  arc  frae- 
raents  of  another  form  of  the  longer  text  iu  sever.al  cursives.  All 
tho  forms  are  given  in  Fritzsche's  Libri  Apocryplii,  Lcipsic,  1871. 
The  shorter  text,  in  tho  judgment  of  Fritzsche  and  Noldeke,  is  tha 
earlier.  The  longer  text  is  also  represented  by  the  Latin  versions, 
tho  second  part  of  the  rare  Syriac  version  (the  first  part  is  from 
the  hexaplar  Greek),  and  two  closely  allied  Jewish  versions,  th© 
Aramaic  (published  by  Neubaucr,  from  a  unique  Midrash  iu  the 
Bodleian,  Oxf,  1878)  and  the  Hebrew,  first  printed  in  Constantin- 
ople (1516),  reprinted  by  Munster  in  1542  (whence  its  common 
name  Hcbrxus  j/it«steri) and  included  in  Neubaucr's  edition.  The 
Aramaic  seems  to  bo  a  late  form  of  the  text  known  to  Jorome,j 
and  of  which  he  made  use  for  the  Vulgate  Latin ;  it  is  certaiul  '| 
a  translation  from  tho  Greek,  There  are  recent  commentaries  on 
Tobit  by  Fritzscho  (Kurzgcf.  Bandb.  zu  den  AjMcr.,  ii.,  Leipsio,' 
1853),  Keusch  (Freiburg,  1857),  Scngclmann  (Hamburg,  1857), 
and  Gutberlet  CTheissing,  1877).  Noldeke's  paper  already  quoted 
is  indispensable.  For  other  literature,  see  Schurer,  NTlichd  Ziit' 
SfMcA.,  u.  609.      "  (W.  R.S.) 

TOBOLSK,  a  government  of  Western  Siberia,  having 
the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  N.,  Archangel,  Vologda,  Perm, 
and  Orenburg  on  the  W.,  Akmolinsk  and  Semipalatinsk 
on  the  S.,  and  Tomsk  and  Yeniseisk  on  the  E.,  is  one 
of  the  largest  provinces  of  tho  Russian  empire,  occupy- 
ing nearly  7  per  cent.  (531,980  square  miles)  of  its  total 
area.  It  borders  on  the  Arctic  Ocean,  from  the  rivtr 
Kara  to  the  Bay  of  the  Ohida,  the  broad  peninsula  of 
Yalmat  projecting  between  the  Kara  Sea  on  the  west  afid 
the  Bay  of  the  Ob;  this  last  penetrates  into  the  continent 
for  more  than  550  miles,  with  a  width  of  from  60  to  70 
miles,  and  receives  another  long  and  wide  outlet — the  bfty 
of  the  Taz  (Tazovskaya).  Another  wide  bay  of  the  Kara 
Sea — tho  Baidaratsk,  or  Kara  Bay — runs  up  into  the 
Yatmat  peninsula  from  tho  northwest.  The  islands  be- 
longing to  the  government  are  few  ;  Byeiyi,  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  Yatmat,  and  a  few  small  ones  along  the  west 
coast  of  the  peninsula,  as  also  in  the  Obi  Bay,  are  for  the 
most  part  ice-bound.  This  extensive  province  occupies  tho 
greater  part  of  the  lowlands  of  northwestern  Asia,  which 
extend  eastward  from  the  Urals,  and  ouly  in  tho  far  north 
does  it  include  the  eastern  slopes  of  these  mountains.  The 
Paiho  coast-ridge  only  touches  Tobolsk  with  its  south-! 
eastern  extremity.  The  Urals  proper,  which  run  south-' 
west  from  the  Kara  Sea  as  far  as  to  the  Tell-poss  group 
(5540  feet),  and  thence  take  a  southerly  direction,  form 
the  boundary  between  Tobolsk  and  Vologda  as  far  as  the 

*  The  story  of  Nadab  and  Achlicharus.  The  names  are  uncertain,' 
and  one  text  substitutes  Aman  (Hsman)  for  Nadab.  But  the  allusion 
is  not  to  the  book  of  Esther. 

•  Compare  what  is  eaid  under  THOUSiND  and  One  Nicnrs  (p.  312) 
a4  to  the  probable  influence  of  ao  Iranian  legend  on  tha  book  of  £stber.    , 


TOBOLSK 


429^ 


•ources  of  the  Petchora  (61°  30'  N.  lat.),  but  farther 
south  their  eastern  slopes  are  included  in  the  Russian 
government  of  Perm,  and  only  their  lowest  spurs,  200 
miles  from  the  main  ridge,  belong  to  Tobolsk.  The  aver- 
age height  of  the  northern  Urals  is  about  3000  feet,  and 
several  of  their  summits  range  from  3300  to  4000  and 
even  4370  feet  (Net-yu,  in  68°  N.  lat.).  The  remainder 
of  the  government  is  of  lowland  character,  hardly  at  any 
point  rising  above  the  sea  by  more  than  a  few  hundred 
feet,  but  these  lowlands  vary  greatly  in  their  different 
parts.  They  assume  the  character  of  grassy  steppes  or 
prairies  in  the  south,  of  immense  marshes  sparsely  covered 
with  forest  in  the  north,  and  of  treeless  tundras  as  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  are  approached.  The  southern 
steppes,  in  their  turn,  may  be  subdivided  into  two  distinct 
portions, — the  Tobot  and  Ishim  steppe  in  the  west,  and 
the  Baraba  in  the  east.  The  former,  nearly  43,000  square 
miles  in  area,  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  parts  of  the  empire. 
One-third  is  under  forest,  and  the  remainder  has  a  soil 
of  very  fertile  black  earth,  which  has  the  further  advant- 
age of  being  sufficiently  watered.  The  climate,  indeed, 
is  very  severe,  the  mean  annual  temperature  (30°  to  34° 
F.)  being  such  as  is  found  only  in  the  north  of  Sweden 
and  in  Archangel;  but  the  warm  sutiimer  (65°  to  68°  in 
July)  and  the  amount  of  light  received  from  a  bright  sky 
combine  to  make  vegetation  develop  with  a  rapidity  quite 
unknown  to  western  Europe.  This  region  now  has  a 
population  of  more  than  800,000,  almost  all  Russians 
(only  14,000  aborigines),  so  that  it  may  be  said  to  be 
more  thoroughly  Russian  than  the  Volga  provinces.  The 
area  under  crops  every  year  is  3i  million  acres,  and  the 
region  promises  to  become  a  regular  granary  for  Siberia  and 
northeastern  Russia.  The  second  portion  of  the  southern 
olains,  which  might  be  called  the  Baraba  region,  being 
mistly  occupied  by  the  Baraba  steppe,  covers  about  55,000 
8qui\re  miles.  Only  its  western  borders  belong  to  Tobolsk. 
It  also  is  perfectly  flat,  and  covered  with  recent  deposits ; 
but,  as  there  is  no  definite  slope,  the  surface  waters  move 
slowly,  and  accumulate  into  a  very  large  number  of  lakes 
and  marshes.  The  climate  is  moister  and  the  summer 
still  shorter  and  less  hot  than  in  the  preceding  region. 
Forests,  consisting  chiefly  of  birch,  are  spread  in  clusters 
over  its  surface.  The  soil  of  this  region  also  is  very  pro- 
ductive, but  the  fertile  patches  are  separated  by  marshy 
grounds,  and  the  dense  clouds  of  mosquitoes  which  float 
over  it  in  summer  are  a  positive  plague  to  both  man  and 
beast.  The  population  numbers  only  250,000,  also  almost 
all  Russians  (only  4000  aborigines),  and  the  area  annually 
under  crops  is  about  1,350,000  acres.  To  the  north  of  the 
regions  just  specified  is  that  occupied  by  the  administra- 
tive districts  of  Tora,  Tobolsk,  and  Tara,  with  an  area  of 
about  11 0,000  square  miles ;  this  may  be  described  as  the 
taiga  region.  It  is  covered  throughout  with  impenetrable 
forests  and  quivering  marshes — the  dreadful  urmans,  which 
are  penetrated  by  man  only  for  some  20  to  50  miles 
around  the  widely  separated  settlements.  Immense  cedar- 
trees,  larches,  firs,  pines,  birches,  and  maples  grow  very 
densely,  and  the  underwood  is  so  thick  that  a  passage  can 
bv  forced  only  with  the  aid  of  the  hatchet,  the  difficulties 
being  further  increased  by  the  layers  of  decayed  wood  and 
by  the  marshes.  To  cross  these,  which  are  treacherously 
concealed  under  a  swaying  layer  of  grassy  vegetation,  a 
kind  of  snow-shoe  must  be  used  even  in  the  summer,  and 
many  can  be  crossed  only  in  winter.  Immense  areas  of 
the  urmaru,  especially  on  the  Vasyugan,  have  never  been 
visited  by  man  ;  but  still,  from  time  to  time  a  Russian 
settlement  arises  in  the  forests,  mostly  founded  by  Non- 
conformists in  hiding,  who  freely  receive  all  sorts  of 
fugitives.  The  south-western  parts  of  this  region  are 
crossed  by  the  Siberian  highway,  and  to  this  circumstance 


alone  is  it  indebted  for  its  population  of  nearly  450,000 
(32,000  aborigines).  Only  2  per  cent,  of  this  area  is  under 
culture.  Farther  north  extend  the  tundras,  where  the  aver- 
age temperature  rapidly  decreases  from  the  25°  F.  found 
in  the  preceding  region  to  15°,  10°,  and  7°.  The  frozea 
soil  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  summer  thaws  only  for 
a  few  inches  beneath  the  surface.  The  frost  sets  in  early, 
and  a  thick  envelope  of  snow  lowers  the  spring  tempera- 
ture. Forests  cover  the  southern  parts,  but  the  trees 
become  poorer,  shorter,  and  thinner,  and  huddle  into  im- 
penetrable thickets  ;  while,  farther  north,  only  the  creep- 
ing variety  of  birch  and  the  dwarf  varieties  of  willow  hold 
their  ground.  Within  the  Arctic  Circle  the  last  traces  of 
arboreal  vegetation  disappear,  their  northern  limit  being 
pushed  south  by  the  double  bay  of  the  Ob  and  the  Taz, 
and  by  the  proximity  of  the  Kara  Sea. 

Apart  from  the  Urals,  there  are  no  traces  of  hard  rock  anywhere 
in  Tobolsk.  Down  to  its  southern  borders  it  is  covered  with 
Post-Pliocene  deposits,  which  are  met  with  as  far  as  the  water- 
parting  between  tne  Irtish  and  the  Aral-Caspian  depression.  This 
range  of  flat  hills  rises  a  few  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-Ievel,  and 
it  seems  to  mark  the  limit  of  extension  of  the  Pcst-Glacial  gulf 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean  which  covered  western  Tobolsk  during  tho 
Glacial  period.  Contrary  to  Humboldt's  hypothesis,  it  remains, 
however,  doubtful  whether  it  was  connected  in  Post-Glacial  times 
with  the  Aral-Caspian  Sea  otherwise  than  by  means  of  narrow 
straits,  which  disappeared  at  any  rate  at  an  early  stage  in  that 
geological  period. 

The  climate  of  Tobolsk  is  one  of  great  extremes,  the  differences 
between  the  averages  for  the  hottest  and  coldest  months  reaching 
as  much  as  70°  F.  Tho  average  temperatures  at  Bcrezoff,  Narym, 
Tobolsk,  and  Ishim  respectively  are  24°,  28°,  31°-8,  and  32° 
(January,  -  8°-3,  -  8°,  -  2°,  and  -  4° ;  July  from  62°  to  67").  Only 
194  days  at  Ishim  and  153  at  Berezoff  have  a  temperature  above 
32°;  and  the  Ob  at  Obdorsk  continues  ice-bound  for  219  days  (the 
Irtish  176  days  at  Tobolsk). 

The  government  is  watered  by  the  Ob,  which  traverses  it  for  more 
than  1300  miles,  and  is  navigabU  throughout.  It  receives  many 
tributaries,  some  of  which  are  200  to  350  miles  long,  but  flow 
through  quite  uninhabited  regions.  The  Irtish,  a  left-hand  tribu- 
tary of  the  Ob,  covers  all  the  southern  part  of  Tobolsk  with  its 
numerous  tributaries.  It  waters  Tobolslc  for  760  miles,  and  is 
navigable  for  the  whole  of  its  length  ;  it  receives  the  great  Tobot, 
about  420  miles  long,  also  navigable,  the  Ishim,  and  a  number  of 
less  important  streams ;  while  the  Tura,  a  tributary  of  the  Tobot,  is 
also  a  channel  for  navigation.  The  navigation  lasts  for  nearly  six 
months  in  tho  south.  The  first  steamer  on  the  Ob  system  was 
launched  in  1845  and  the  second  in  1860;  since  the  latter  date 
steam  navigation  has  steadily  developed. 

Lakes,  some  of  them  salt,  occur  in  great  numbers  on  the  water- 
parting  between  the  Irtish  and  the^ral-Caspian,  and  everywhere 
in  South  Tobolsk.  Lake  Tchany,  the  largest,  covers  1265  square 
miles.  All  are  being  rapidly-iiried  up,  and  even  within  the  last 
hundred  years  they  have  undergone  great  changes.  Thus,  in  th3 
group  of  lakes  of  Tchany,  in  the  Baraba  steppe,  whole  villages  have 
arisen  on  ground  that  was  under  water  in  the  earlier  years  of  this 
century.'  Immense  marshes  cover  Tolwlsk  beyond  57°N.  lat., — the. 
Vasyugan  marshes  in  the  east,the  Kondinsk  and  Berezovsk  marshes 
in  the  west,  both  joining  farther  north  the  tundras  of  the  Arctic 
shores. 

The  population  reached  1,283,000  in  1882.  Although  recent 
immigrants,  the  Russians  already  constitute  94  per  cent,  of  the 
aggregate  population,  and  their  numbers  are  steadily  incrc.ising  by 
immigration,  and  partly  also  by  the  arrival  of  exiles.  No  fewer 
than  43,750  immigrants  from  Russia  settled  at  Tobolsk  between 
1846  and  1878,  but  of  late  this  figure  has  greatly  increased.  In 
1879  as  many  as  69,134  exiles  were  ui  the  registers,  but  of  these 
more  than  20,000  had  left  their  abodes  and  disappeared.  As  a  rule 
the  exiles  belong  to  the  poorest  class  of  population.  According 
to  M.  Yadrintseff,*  Ihe  native  population  of  Tobolsk  was  repre- 
sented in  1879  by  29,150  Tartars  and  8730  other  Turkish  inhabit- 
ants, chiefly  in  the  SQUth,  22,350  Ostiaks,  chiefly  on  the  Ob.  6920 
Samoyedes  in  the  north,  and  6100  Voguls  in  the  north-west;  the 
total  amounted  to  74,220,— that  is,  6'1  per  cent  of  the  aggregate 
population  (1,206,000  in  1879).  The  Ostiaks  (j.t>.)  are  in  a  very 
miserable  condition,  having  come  under  heavy  obligations  to  the 
Russian  merchantM,  and  being  compelled  to  hand  over  to  them 
nearly  all  the  produce  of  their  hunting  and  fishing.  The  Tartar 
settlements  in  the  south  are  prosperous,  but  not  in  the  Tobolsk 
district,  where  their  lands  have  been  appropriated  for  the  Russian 

'  See  YadrintseSF  in  Iirxstia  Rutt.  Ceogr.  Soc.,  1886. 
'  Siberia  at  a  Colony  (Russian). 


430 


T  O  B  —  T  0  C 


eettlere.  Of  tho  Russians  nearly  1)6,000  are  Nouconformiats,  accord- 
iiig  to  official  6gures,  but  the  number  is  greatly  understated.  Many 
of  the  SamoyeJes,  Ostiaks,  and  Voguls  arc  nominally  Christians. 
The  Russians  and  the  Tartars,  who  chiefly  inhabit  South  Tobolsk, 
mostly  live  by  agriculture.  Of  the  total  acea  of  land  regarded  as 
•uitable  for  cultivation  (28,400,000  acres),  15,600,000  are  owned 
[by  the  peasant  communities.  Summer  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley, 
•nd  some  buckwheat  are  raised.  Flax  and  hemp  and  tob-occo  aie 
cultivated  in  the  south,  where  cattle-breeding  also  is  extensively 
carried  on.  The  ravages  of  anthrax,  however  (see  MunUAiN,  vol. 
xvii.  p.  58),  are  very  severe,  especially  in  the  marshy  iiarta  of  the 
province.  Tho  indigenous  inhabitants  of  the  north  nad,  in  the 
same  year,  more  than  100,000  reindeer.  Dogs  are  used  in  sledges 
in  the  far  north.  In  the  forest  region  the  chief  means  of  existence 
are  found  in  the  forests.  The  nursuit  of  bears,  wolves,  fo.xes, 
squirrids,  ermines,  stagN,  elks,  as  also  of  sables  and  beavers  (rapidly 
disappearing),  is  a  regular  occupation  with  tho  Russian  peas.Tnts 
as  well  as  with  the  indigenous  inhabitants ;  sledges  and  cars, 
mats,  bicves.  wooden  vessels,  and  pitch  and  tar  are  also  manu- 
factured to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  villages  (valued  at  about 
£150,000).  Cedar-nuts  (from  5000  to  8000  cwts.  every  year)  are 
gatheredi,  partly  for  the  sake  of  their  oil.  The  fisheries  of  the  Ob 
and  the  southern  lakes  are  important;  no  fewer  than  1700  Ostiaks 
are  engaged  in  them  on  the  Ob.  No  less  than  200,000  cwts.  of  fish 
are  annually  caught  in  the  district  of  Tara  alone,  and  Surgut 
exports  it  to  the  value  of  £10,000,  while  in  the' Narym  region 
10,000  cwis.  of  salt  are  used  for  preserving  the  fish. 

The  industries  are  iusignificant  (chiefly  tanning,  distilling,  and 
tallow-melting);  iron-works  and  woollen-cloth  mills  are  still  in 
their  infancy.  The  export  of  cattle,  hides,  tallow,  com,  flour,  fish, 
and  fure  to  Russia,  both  from  Tobolsk  and  from  the  Kirghiz  steppe, 
is  of  some  importance.  Spirits  are  sent  farther  east,  to  Tomsk; 
while  all  kinds  of  manufactured  wares  are  imported  from  Russia. 
The  fairs  of  Irbit  and  Ishim  are  the  chief  centres  for  trade. 

The  educational  institutions  are  few.  It  is  worthy  of  remark 
that  of  "secondary  schools"  (gymnasia  and  pro-gymnasia)  there 
were  in  1883  eight  for  girls,  with  1065  scholars,  and  only  four 
for  boys,  with  711  scholars;  of  primary  schools  there  were  250, 
with  5844  boys  and  1403  girls. 

Tobolsk  is  divided  into  ten  districts  (ohrugs),  tho  chief  towns 
(with  populations  in  1883)  being  Tobolsk  (20,130),  Berezoff  (1990), 
Ishim  (7100),  Kurgan  (8570),  Sijrgut  (1460),  Tara  (8640),  Turinsk 
(4650),  Tyukatmsk  (3900),  Tyuroefl  (14,300),  and  Yalutorovsk 
(4500).  Ofthe.se  towns,  only  Tobolsk  andTyfMES  {g.v.)3Te  really 
entitled  to  the  designation,  the  others  bcin,<<  mere  villages,  of  less 
importance  than  many  others  on  the  great  Siberian  highway  which 
crosses  the  government  from  Tyumen  to  Tomsk.  (P.  A.  K.) 

TOBOLSK,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irtish,  near  its  junction  with  the 
Tobot.  It  is  1535  miles  from  Moscow,  and  since  the 
alteration  of  the  course  of  the  great  Siberian  highroad 
from  Tyumeii  to  Tomsli  it  has  become  an  out-of-the-way 
place,  and  is  no  longer  either  capital  of  Western  Siberia 
or  even  an  administrative  centre  for  exiles,  as  it  was  for- 
merly. Viewed  from  the  Irtish,  the  town  has  a  picturesque 
aspect,  with  its  kreml,  or  stone  walls,  built  on  a  crag  "200 
feet  high,  its  twenty-one  churches,  and  several  elegant 
buildings.  The  kreml,  built  under  Peter  I.  by  Swedish 
prisoners,  in  imitation  of  the  kreml  of  Moscow,  is  430  yards 
long  by  200  yards  in  breadth,  and  contains  two  cathedrals 
erected  towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century.  The  bell 
of  Uglitch,  which  rang  the  alarm  when  tho  czarevitch 
Dmitri  was  assassinated  by  order  of  Boris  Godunoff,  and 
therefore  had  its  "  ear  torn  away,"  and  was  exiled  to 
Siberia,  stands  close  by.  The  palace  of  the  governor,  the 
idministrative  offices,  the  seminary  where  the  historian  of 
liberia,  Slovtsoff,  received  his  education,  the  gymnasium 
where  MendeleeS  the  chemist  was  trained,  and  the  Marie 
ichool  for  girls,  which  now  supplies  Siberia  with  so  many 
teachers,  are  in  the  upper  part  of  the  town,  where  broad 
grassy  spaces  separate  the  wide  streets  paved  with  thick 
planks.  A  monument  to  Yermak,  the  rebel  Cossack  who 
conquered  Siberia,  stands  in  a  prominent  place;  and  one 
of  the  sides  of  the  large  square  on  the  crag  is  occupied  by 
the  immense  prison,  where  more  than  2000  exiles  are 
gathered  during  the  period  of  navigation.  The  lower  part 
of  the  town  stands  on  a  sandy  beach  of  the  Irtish,  and 
often  suffers  from  floods.  Its  sanitary  condition  is  very 
bed.     The  merchants  of  Tobolsk  carry  ou  a  fairly  brisk 


trade  in  com  from  the  south,  ealt  from  Kemipalatinsk, 
timber  and  fish  from  the  lower  Ob.  The  population  is 
almost  stationary  (20,130  in  1883,  as  against  15,500  in 
1839  and  15,200  in  1772).  Some  12  miles  to  the  south- 
east are  the  ruins  of  the  ''  fort  of  Kutchum,'.' — the  seat  of 
the  capital  of  Siberia,  Isker,  before  the  Russian  conquest 

Tobolsk  was  founded  in  1587  by  500  Cossacks  who  left  Tyumeft 
under  Tchulkoff,  and  built  a  wooden  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Old 
Tobot.  During  the  next  ftficea  years  several  other  forts  were 
erected  ou  the  territory  now  occupied  by  Tobolsk.  The  O.stiaks 
and  Sanioyedes  soon  submitted  to  Russian  rule,  but  the  Tartars 
and  Bashkirs  made  frequent  raids,  so  that  a  Ifne  of  forts  had  to  b« 
built  in  the  17th  century  from  Orenburg  to  Ishim.  In  1752  a  new 
line  of  forts  was  erected  some  150  miles  farther  south,  and  sinca 
that  time  Russian  settlers  have  been  able  quietly  to  colonize  tho 
most  fertile  parts  to  the  soutn  of  Tobolsk. 

TOCQUEVILLE,  Alexis  HEirei  Cbarles  Ch6kei^ 
CoMTE  DE  (1805-1859),  was  born  at  Verneuil  on  July 
29,  1805.  His  family  on  the  father's  side  were  of  good 
descent,  and  distinguished  both  in  the  law  and  in  arms, 
while  his  mother  was  the  granddaughter  of  Malesherbes. 
Alexis  de  TocqueviLle  was  brought  up  for  the  bar,  or,  rather, 
according  to  the  division  of  that  profession  in  France,  for 
the  bench,  and  became  an  assistant  magistrate  in  1830. 
A  year  later  he  obtained  from  the  Government  of  July  a 
mission  to  examine  prisons  and  penitentiaries  in  America, 
and  proceeded  thither  with  his  lifelong  friend  Gustave  da 
Beaumont.  Hereturued  in  somewhat  less  than  two  years, 
and  published  a  re|iort  on  the  subject  of  his  mi.=;sion,  but 
the  real  result  of  his  tour  was  the  famous  De  la  Democralie 
en,  Amerique,  which  appeared  in  1S35,  and  very  soon  made 
his  reputation.  It  was  at  once  caught  up  by  infiuential 
members  of  the  Liberal  party  iu  England,  which  country 
Tocqueville  soon  after  visited,  and  where  he  married 
an  Englishwoman.  Returning  to  France,  and  beginning 
life  as  a  country  gentleman  at  Tocqueville,  he  thought  to 
carry  out  the  English  ideal  completely  by  standing  for 
the  chamber  of  deputies.  But.  with  a  scruple  which  illus- 
trated his  character,  he  refused  Government  nomination 
from  MoW,  and  was  defeated.  Later  he  was  successful, 
and  sat  for  several  years  both  before  and  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  February,  becoming  in  1849  vice-president  of  the 
assembly,  and  for  a  few  months  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
He  was  a  warm  supporter  of  the  Roman  expedition,  but 
an  equally  warm  opponent  of  Louis  Xapoleon,  and  after 
being  one  of  the  deputies  who  were  arrested  at  the  coup 
d'etat  he  retired  from  public  life.  Twenty  years  after 
his  first,  ho  produced  another  book,  De  I'Ancien  liegime, 
which  almost,  if  not  quite,  equalled  its  success.  His 
health  was  never  very  strong,  and  in  1858  he  broke  a 
blood-vessel.  He  was  ordered  to  the  south,  and,  taking 
up  his  residence  at  Cannes,  died  there  on  the  16th  of 
April  1859.  He  had  published  some  minor  pieces  during 
his  lifetime,  and  his  complete  works,  including  mucli  un- 
published correspondence,  were  produced  after  his  death 
in  uniform  shape  by  De  Beaumont. 

During  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life,  and  for  perhaps  half 
that  time  after  his  death,  Tocqueville  had  an  increasing  European 
fame,  which  for  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  has  been  stationary  if 
not  diininisliing.  Both  phenomena  are  susceptible  of  explanation. 
Although  he  has  been  accused  by  some  of  his  own  countrymen 
of  having  "le  style  triste,"  his  manner,  which  is  partly  imitated 
from  Montesquieu,  has  consideitible  charm;  and  he  was  the  first 
and  has  remained  the  chief  writer  to  put  the  orthodox  liberal 
ideas  which  governed  European  politics  during  the  first  half  or  two- 
thirds  of  the  19th  century  into  an  orderly  aud  attractive  shape. 
He  was,  moreover,  as  has  been  said,  much  taken  up  by  influen- 
tial persons  in  England, — Senior,  John  Stuart  Mill,  and  others,— 
and  he  had  the  great  advantage  of  writing  absolutely  the  first 
book  of  reasoned  politics  on  the  ("acts  of  democratic  government  as 
observed  In  America.  Besides  all  this  he  was,  if  not  an  entirely 
impnrti.ll  writer,  neither  n  f.-iuatical  devotee  of  democracy  nor  a 
fanatical  op|>oncnt  of  it.  All  this  gave  him  a  very  great  advanta^ 
which  he  has  not  yet  wholly  lost.  At  the  same  time  he  had  defects 
which  were  certain  to  make  themselves  fell  as  time  went  oo,  evea) 


T  0  D  — T  0  D 


431 


without  the  alteration  of  the  centre  of  liberal  opinion  which  has 
taken  place  of' late  yean<.  The  chief  of  these  was  a  certain  weakness 
which  can  hardly  be  described  in  English  by  any  word  more  dig- 
oLGed  than  the  familiar  term  "  priggishness.  '  His  correspondence 
with  Mole  abora  alluded  to  is  an  instance  of  this,  and  it  was  also 
reticctedon  in  various  epigrams  by  countryraeo  and  contemporaries; 
one  of  these  accuses  him  of  having  nolucloly  "  begun  to  think  before 
be  had  begun  to  learn,"  while  another,  with  more  real  than  apparent 
inconsistency,  declares  that  he  "  avait  I'air  de  i:.^•oir  de  toute 
^temite  ce  qu'il  venait  d'apprtndre."  His  book  on  America,  though 
undoubtedly  a  very  remarkable  piece  of  political  deduction,  has  the 
drawback  of  proceeding  on  very  insuthcieLt  premisses  and  of  trying 
to  be  too  systematic  His  book  on  the  Aruruni  lUgnm  is  also  want- 
ing in  solid  information,  and  commits  the  great  error  of  assuming 
rather  than  proviu"  that  the  Revolution  of  17S9  was  a  proceed- 
ing of  unmixed  good,  which  delivered  France  from  a  state  (not  of 
onmixed  evil,  for  Tocqueville  was  too  careful  a  student  to  imagine 
that,  but)  of  evil  exclusively  caused  by  the  existence  of  monarchical 
and  aristocratic  institutions.  In  fact,  the  fault  of  both  books  is 
•hat  their  author  is  not  a  practical  politician,  a  fault  which  is 
constantly  illustrated  and  exhibited  in  his  correspondence.  He 
appears  both  in  reading  history  and  in  conducting  actual  political 
business  (of  which,  as  has  been  seen,  he  had  some  experience)  to 
have  been  constantly  surprised  and  disgusted  that  men  and  nations 
did  not  behave  as  he  expected  them  to  behave.  This  excess  of  the 
deductive  spirit  explains  at  once  both  the  merits  and  the  defects  of 
his  two  great  works,  which  will  probably  remain  to  some  extent 
poUtical  classics,  though  they  are  less  and  less  likely  to  be  used  as 
practical  guides. 

\TOD^VS.  See  NfLcmi  HillsTvoL  xviTp.  509. 
,  TODLEBEN,  or  Totleben,  Eduahd  Ivanovich  (1818- 
1884),  Russian  general,  was  bom  at  Mittau,  in  Courland, 
on  May  20,  1818.  His  parents,  who  seem  to  have  been  of 
German  descent,  were  of  the  mercantile  class,  and  he  him- 
self was  intended  for  commerce,  but  a  strong  instinct  led 
him  to  seek  the  career  of  a  military  engineer.  He  entered 
the  school  of  engineers  at  St  Petersburg  in  1835,  and  passed 
from  that  into  the  army  in  1838.  In  1847  and  the  two 
following  years  he  was  employed,  as  captain  of  engineers,  in 
the  campaigns  against  Schamyl  in  the  Caucasus,  where  he 
directed  the  siege  operations/against  the  principal  mountain 
fortresses.  On  the  outbreak  of  war  between  Russia  and  the 
Porte  in  1853,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  staff  of 
General  Schilder-Schuldner,  by  whom  Silistria  was  besieged. 
This  general  being  wounded,  Todleben  acted  in  his  place 
until  the  siege  was  raised.  He  was  then  transferred  to  the 
Crimea.  Sebastopol,  while  strongly  fortified  toward  the 
sea,  was  almost  unprotected  on  the  land  side.  Todleben, 
though  still  only  of  colonel's  rank,  became  the  animating 
genius  of  the  defence.  By  his  adnce  the  fleet  was  sunk,  in 
order  to  blockade  the  mouth  of  the  harbour,  and  the  de- 
ficiency of  fortifications  "on  the  knd  side  was  made  good 
before  the  allies  could  take  -advantage  of  it.  The  con- 
struction of  earthworks  and  redoubts  was  carried  on  with 
extreme  rapidity,  and  to  these,  was  transferred,  in  great 
part,  the  artillery  that  bad  belonged  to  the  fleet.  In  what- 
ever direction  the  besiegers  drew  their  lines,  there  Todleben 
met  them  with -counterworks,  until,  with  the  arrival  of 
heavy  Russian.reinforcements,  the  besiegers  almost  became 
the  besieged.  It  was  in  these  improvised  operations  by 
means  of  earthworks  that  Todleben's  peculiar  power  and 
originality  showed  itself ;  he  was  not  a  great  military 
leader  in  the  wider  sense,  nor  was  he  the  creator  of  a 
great  permanent  system  of  defence  like  Vauban.  But  for 
the  special  problems  of  Russian  warfare,  both  in  1854 
and  at  a  later  epoch,  be  was  exactly  the  man  wanted. 
Until  June  1855  he  conducted  the  operations  of  defence 
at  Sebastopol  in  person  ;  he  was  then  wounded  in  the  foot, 
and  at  the  operations  which  immediately  preceded  the  fall 
of  the  fortress  he  was  not  present.  When  he  recovered 
from  his  wounds  he  was  employed  in  strengthening  the 
fortifications  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  and  also  those 
oi  Cronsta<lt.  In  1856  he  visited  England,  where  his 
merits  were  well  understood.  In  1860  he  was  appointed 
Assistant   to   the  grand-duke  Nicholas,  and  he .  became 


subsequently  chief  of  the  department  of  engineers.  For 
reasons  which  are  not  knoNvn  he  was  given  no  command 
when  war  with  Turkey  began  in  1877.  It  was  not  until 
the  disasters  before  Plevna  had  heaped  discredit  upon  the 
incompetent  leaders  of  the  Russian  army  that  the  soldier 
of  Sebastopol  was  called  to  the  front,  Todleben  saw  that 
Plevna  could  not  be  taken  by  assault,  and  that  it  would 
bo  necessary  to  reduce  it  by  drawing  works  round  Oaman 
Pasha,  and  cutting  him  off  from  communication  with  the 
other  Turkish  commanders.  In  duo  time  Plevna  felL 
Todleben  then  undertook  the  siege  of  the  Bulgarian  for- 
tresses. After  the  conclusion  of  preliminaries  of  peace,  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  whole  Russian  army,  and 
became  responsible  for  the  government  and  administra- 
tion of  the  occupied  districts.  In  the  discharge  of  these 
duties  be  is  said  to  have  distinguished  himself  by  his 
combined  firmness  and  good  temper  in  dealing  both  with 
Turkish  authorities  and  with  the  native  population.  ,He 
received  the  highest  military  honours  and  commands  when 
the  war  was  over,  and  became  governor  of  Odessa.  But 
his  health  was  broken  ;  and  after  much  suffering  he  died 
at  a  German  watering-place  in  June  1884.  He  was  buried 
with  great  solemnity  at  SebastopoL  . .  - 

TODMORDEN,  a  market^town  of  England,  partly  la 
Lancashire  but  chiefly  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
stands  on  the  Calder,  on  the  Rochdale  Canal,  and  on  the 
Lanca.shire  and  Yorkshire  Railway,  13  miles  west  of  Halifax, 
9  north  of  Rochdale,  and  207|  north-north-west  of  London. 
It  lies  in  three  valleys  amidst  scenery  originally  romantic, 
and  still  in  part  retaining  that  characteristic.  The  town- 
hall  (1875)  bridges  the  counties  boundary,  the  Calder,' 
enabling  the  magistrates  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  both 
counties.  Of  the  other  buildings,  the  Unitarian  church, 
the  market-hall,  the  free  endowed  school,  and  the  Unita-, 
rian  free  school  may  be  mentioned.  A  bronze  statue  has 
been  erected  to  John  Fielden,  to  whoso  energy  in  develop- 
ing the  cotton  manufactiae  the  town  owes  much  of  its 
prosperity.  The  staple  industry  is  the  spinning  and  weav- 
itig  of  cotton,  and  there  are  also  foundries  and  machine^ 
works.  The  population  of  the  township  of  Todraordcn 
and  Walsden  (area  7007  acres)  in  1871  was  9333,  and  in 
1881  it  was  9237.  In  addition  to  this  (situated  wholly 
in  Yorkshire),  the  urban  sanitary  district  includes  parts 
of  Langfield  and  Stansfiald  in  Yorkshire,  and  of  CliNnger 
in  Lancashire,  the  total  area  being  15,690  acres,  with  a 
population  in  1871  of  21,764,  and  in  1881  of  23,862-.  ' 

As  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Todmorden  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  Radcliffes,  a  branch  of  the  Radclures  of  RadclifTft 
Tower,  but  it  was  sold  by  them  about  the  close  of  the  17th  century. 
Todmorden  Hall  is  an  interesting  old  building  of  various  dates. 

TODY,  Pennant's  rendering  (Cen.  Birds,  pp.  15,  61)! 
through  the  French  Todier  of  Brisson  (Ornilkohgie,  iv.; 
p.  528)  of  the  s&mewhat  obscure  Latin  word  Todus,^  not, 
unhappily  applied  in  1756  by  Patrick  Browne  (Civ.  and 
Nat.  Hist.  Jamaica,  p.  476)  to  a  little  bird  remarkable  for 
its  slender  legs  and  small  feet,  the  "  Green  Sparrow  "  or 

'  In  Forcellini's  Lexicon  (ed.  De  Vit,  1875)  we  find  "Todus  genua 
parvissimm  avis  tibias  habens  perexiguas."  Ducan£;e  in  his  Gtossa> 
rium  quotes  from  Festus,  an  ancient  grammari.nn,  "  Toda  est  avis  qu:e 
non  habet  ossa  in  tibiis;  quare  semper  est  in  motu,  luide  Todius  (.iL 
TodiDus)  dicitur  ille  qui  velociter  todet  et  movetur  ad  niotium  lod.-e,' 
et  todere,  moveri  et  tremere  ad  modum  todie."  The  evidence  that 
such  a  substantive  as  Todus  or  Tixla  existed  seems  to  rvst  on  the 
adjectival  derivative  found  In  a  fragment  of  a  lost  play  [Sijrus)  by 
Plautus,  cited  by  this  same  Festus.  It  stands  "cum  extritis  \ex[ortis\ 
talis,  cum  todillis  [todinis]  crusculis";  but  the  passage  is  lieM  by 
scholars  to  be  corrupt.  Among  naturalists  Gesner  in  1555  gave 
currency  {Eist.  Antmalium,  iii.  p.  719)  to  the  word  as  a  substantive, 
and  it  is  found  in  Levios's  Manipnlus  Vocairulorutii  of  1570  (ed. 
Wheatley,  1867,  coL  225)  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Englis'n"  Titmouse." 
Ducange  allows  the  existence  of  the  adjective  todinia.  Stephaou? 
suggests  that  todi  comes  from  tut0oi,  but  bis  view  is  not  accepted. 
The  verb  todire  may  perhaps  be  EugUshed  to  "  toddle*^  ■"       ^'    ' 


432 


T  O  G  — T  O  K 


"Green  Humming-Bird"  of  Sloane  (Voyage,  ii.  p.  306). 
The  name,  having  been  taken  up  by  Brisson  {loc.  cit.)  in 
1760,  was  adopted  by  Linnaeus,  and  has  since  been  recog- 
nized by  ornithologists  as  that  of  a  valid  genus,  though 
many  species  have  been  referred  to  it  which  are  now 
k.iown  to  have  no  affinity  to  the  type,  the  Todiis  viridis  of 
Jan^aica,  and  accordingly  have  since  been  removed  from  it. 
The  genus  Todiis  was  at  one  time  placed  among  the  Musci- 
tapidx  (cf.  Flycatcher,  vol.  is.  p.  351);  but  Dr  Murie's 
investigations  (Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1872,  pp.  664—680,  pi. 
Iv  )  have  conclusively  proved  that  it  is  not  Passerine,  and 
is  nearly  allied  to  the  Momotidx  (cf.  Motmot,  voL  xviL 
p  3)  and  Aicedinidse  (cf.  Kxngfishek,  vol.  xiv.  p.  81), 
tliough  it  should  be  regarded  as  forming  a  distinct  Family 
Todidsp,  peculiar  to  the  Greater  Antilles,  each  of  which 
islands  has  its  own  species,  all  of  small  size,  thelargest 
not  exceeding  four  inches  and  a  half  in  length. 

Of  the  species  already  earned,  T.  viridis,  Mr  Gosse  (B.  Jamaica, 
pp.  72-80)  gives  an  interesting  account.  "Always  conspicuons 
from  its  bright  grass-green  coat  and  crimson-velvet  gorget,  it  is 
Itill  a  very  tame   bird;  yet  this  seems  ratherthe  lameness  of 


Tody  (Todus  vindis).     (After  Gosse.) 

indifTerence  than  of  confidence ;  it  will  allow  a  person  to  approach 
very  near,  and,  if  disturbed,  alight  on  another  twig  a  few  yards 
distant ....  commonly  it  is  seen  sitting  patiently  on  a  twig,  with 
the  head  drawn  in,  the  beak  pointing  upwards,  the  loose  plumage 
puffed  out,  when  it  appears  much  larger  than  it  is.  It  certainly 
nas  an  air  of  stupidity  when  thus  seen.  But  this  abstraction  is 
more  apparent  than  real ;  if  we  watch  it,  we  shall  see  that  the  odd- 
looking  grey  eyes  are  glancing  hither  and  thither,  and  that  ever 
and  anon  the  bird  sallies  out  npon  a  short  feeble  flight,  snaps  at 
something  in  the  air,  and  returns  to  his  twig  to  swallow  it."  Mr 
Gosse  goes  on  to  describe  the  engaging  habits  of  one  that  he  for 
a  short  time  kept  in  captmty,  which,  when  turned  into  a  room, 
immediately  began  catching  all  the  insects  it  could,  at  the  rate  of 
about  one  a  minute.  The  birds  of  this  Family  also  shew  their 
affinity  to  the  Eiogfishcrs,  Motmots,  and  Bee-eaters  by  burrowing 
holes  in  the  ground'  in  which  to  make  their  nest,  and  therein 
laying  eggs  with  a  white  translucent  shell  The  seies  differ  little 
in  plumage. 

All  the  four  species  of  Todus,  as  now  restricted,  present 
a  general  similarity,  of  appearance,  and,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed, possess  very  similar  habits.  The  genus  has  been 
monographed  by  Mr  Sharpe  (/Iw,  1874,  pp.  344-355); 
but  b':  w.--.  unfortun.itely  misled  by  an  exceptionally  bright- 

f  *  Thi9  habit  and  their  green  colour  has  given  them  the  French  name 
of  Pcrmpitt  or  Tudier  de  tent,  by  which  they  have  been  distinguished 
from  other  species  wrongly  assigned  to  the  genus  by  some  Bystematists ; 
kod,  if  we  may  believe  certain  French  travellers,  they  must  in  former 
days  have  inhabited  some  of  the  Lesser  Antilles ;  but  that  is  hardly 
nrobable. 


coloured  specimen  to  add  a  fifth  and  bad  species  to  thoM 
that  exist — and  even  these,  by  some  ornithologists,  might 
be  regarded  as  geographical  races.  The  Cuban  form  is 
T.  multicolor;  that  of  Hispaniola  is  T.  subulatus  or  domi- 
iiicensis;  and  that  of  Porto  Rico,  originally  named  in  error 
T.  mexicanus,  has  since  been  called  hypockondriacus.  ■  /.part 
from  their  structural  peculiarities,  one  of  the  chief  pointi 
of  interest  attaching  to  the  Todidx  is  their  limitatioii,' 
not  only  to  the  AntiUean  Sub-region,  but,  as  is  now, 
believed,  to  its  greater  islands,  (a.  n.) 

TOGA.     See  Costdme,  vol.  vi.  p.  456! 

TOGO-LAND,  one  of  the  portions  of  the  African  con-] 
tinent  under  the  protection  of  the  German  empire.  It 
forms  part  of  the  territory  on  the  west  coast  formerly  dis- 
tinguished as  the  Slave  Coast,  tiod  is_ bounded  on  the  P..  by 
Little  Popo,  on  the  S.W.  by  the  British  Gold  Coast  Colony, 
and  on  the  N.W.  by  the  still  independent  territory  of  the 
Anlo  tribes.  The  coast-line  is  only-22  mUes  in  length,' 
and  with  an  area  of  about  500  square  miles  Togo-land  is 
estimated  to  hr.vo  a  population  of  40,000  souls.  The 
great  physical  feature  of  the  country  is  the  Togo,  Hakko, 
or  Avon  lagoon,  which  is  cut  ofit  from  the  ocean  by  the 
narrow  belt  of  sandy  soil  on  which  are  situated  Bagida, 
Porto  Seguro,  and  Bay.  The  town  of  Togo  lies  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Togo  lagoon,  where  it  extends  eastward 
to  Little  Popo  Lake.  The  lagoon  is  fed  by  a  stream  from 
the  north,  the  Haho  or  Hakko,  first  discovered  by  John 
Duncan  in  1846. 

See  Hugo  Zoller,  Togoland;  Peiennann'e  ifiUheilungen  (1886); 
and  Scott.  Oeofr.  Mag.  (1886),  all  of  which  give  maps. 

TOKAT,  a  decayed  provincial  town  of  Turkey,  in  the 
vilayet  of  Siv43,  and  capital  of  the  upper  basin  of  the  Iris 
(Yeschil  Irmak),  ia  a  poorly-built  place  of  about  10,000 
inhabitants,  in  a  hot,  narrow  valley,  dominated  by  the  ruins 
of  a  Byzantine  castle,  and  surroanded  by  gardens  watered 
by  the  Iris.  It  was  once  an  important  commercial  station, 
and  has  still  copper  foundries.  Six  miles  up  the  valley 
are  the  ruins  of  the  Pontic  Comana  (?.».). 

TOKAY,  or  Tokaj,  a  small  town  in  the  county  of 
Zempl6n,  in  the  north-east  of  Hungarj,  at  the  inflnx  of 
the  Bodrog  into  the  Tisza,  in  48°  T  N.  lat,  21°  4'  E. 
long.  The  slopes  of  the  adjacent  mountains  of  Hegyallya, 
which  are  of  volcanic  origin,  produce  excellent  wine, 
several  kinds  of  which  are  of  perhaps  the  best,  sweetest^ 
and  strongest  quality  in  the  world.  Of  these,  -however, 
none  or  hardly  any  come  into  the  market,  the  wine  usually 
sold  under  the  name  of  Tokay  not  being  a  natural  wine, 
and  often  not  coming  from  the  district  at  all.  Tokay, 
along  with  about  twenty-fivo  neighbouring  villages,  pro- 
duces annually  an  average  of  2,200,000  gallons.  The 
vine  culture  has  been  greatly  improved  of  late  years  by  a 
company  in  Budapest.  The  timber  trade,  fishing,  and 
export  of  fruits  are  also  considerable.  The -population 
was  4479  in  1880., 

TOKIO,  formerly  called  Yedo,  the  present  capital  of 
the  empire  of  Japan,  is  situated  in  35°  41' N.  lat.  and 
139°  46'  E.  long.,  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  south-east  coast  of  Hondo  (mainland),  the 
largest  of  the  group  of  Japanese  islands.  It  is  connected 
with  the  seaport  of  Yokohama  %y  a  railway  18  miles  in 
length.  The  bay  of  Tokio  is  shallow,  and  therefore  not 
well  suited  for  the  navigation  of  large  vessels.  The  wide 
river  Sumida,  also  called  Oka wa (*' great  river")  near  its 
mouth,  runs  through  the  town.  For  administrative  pur-| 
poses  "Tokio  proper  is  divided  into  fifteen  ku  (districts),  of 
which  thirteen  lie  to  the  west  and  two  to  the  east  of  the 
Suniida.  Each  ku  is  presided  over  by  an  official  appointed 
by  the  Government,  called  theiu-cAto  (chief  of  the  ku),  and 
an  assembly  (Ku-Kwai)  for, local  administrative  purposes  is 
elected  every  four  years  by  the  inhabitants.     These  ku  and 


T  0  K  I  O 


433 


mx  rvn  (suburban  districts)  collectively  form  the  Tokio-Fu, 
aud  are  uliHer  the  general  superintendence  of  \hefu-chiji 
/^vernor).  Matters  affecting  the  interests  of  the  whole  fu 
Ate  discussed  by  an  assembly  (Fu-Kwai)  composed  of  repre- 
sentatives from  all  the  ku  and  gun.  Order  is  maintained  by 
a  well-organized  body  of  police  (3648  men  in  1885)  under 
the  command  of  a  keishisokan  (chief  commissioner),  who, 
like  the  fu-chiji,  is  responsible  to  the  central  Government. 
Since  the  establishment  of  this  system  crime  has  very 
materially  decreased.  There  is  also  a  fire  brigade  of  2000 
men,  which  is  connected  *ith  the  police  system,  and 
renders  effective  service  in  checking  the  spread  of  the 
fires  to  which  the  tovrn  is  peculiarly  liable.  Buildings  of 
brick  and  stone  have  lately  been  erected  in  many  parts  of 
the  town.  The  fifteen  ku  which  form  Tokio  proper  cover 
an  area  of  4'01  square  n,  and  the  sir  gun  27-94  square 
ri,  the  .whole  fn  thus  extending  ta  about  32  square  ri 
{about  l90  square  miles).  Tns  greater  part  of  the  town 
is  flat,  particularly  near  the  Sumida,  and  is  intersected  by 
numerous  moats  and  canals,  which,  with  the  bridges  cross- 
ing them,  form  a  distiBCtive  feature.  There  are  hills  vary- 
ing in  height  from  60  to  100  feet  in  the  six  districts  of 


£a\iroiis  of  Tokio. 

Hongo,  Koishikiwa,  Ushigome,  Totsuya,  Akasaka,  A^abn,^ 
and  in  part  of  Shiba.  The  numerous  residences  of  the  old 
daimios  were  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  town,  especi- 
ally in  the  Kojimachi-kn.  Many  of  these  have  been  de- 
molished and  Gfovemment  offices  erected  on  their  sites; 
some  have  given  place  to  new  streets  and  houses ;  others' 
having  survived  the  downfall  of  the  shogunate,  still  remain 
surrounded  by  large  gardens,  which  are  celebrated  for  their 
elaborate  rock-work,  artificial  lakes,  and  magnificent  trees. 
Nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  Kojimachi-ku,  on  an  eminence, 
surrounded  by  moats,  stood  the  residence  of  the  shoguns, 
which  was  burnt  down  in  1872.  An  imperial  palace  is 
now  in  course  of  construction  on  this  site.  Outer  moats 
connected  with  those  already  mentioned  enclose  the  whole 
KOjimachi-ku  and  a  greater  portion  of  Kahda-ku  ;  one  of 
the  moats. terminates  at  the  Sumida.  The  Xihonbashi, 
JCiobashi,  and  Kanda-ku,  through  which  the  0-dori  (main 
ftreet)  passes,  are  the  business  quarters  of  the  town.  The 
Xihonbashi  (Bridge  of  Japan),  in  the  ku  of  the  same  name, 
olso  in  the-  0-dori,  is  fhe-centre  from  which  all  distances 
are  calculated.  Nearly  all  the  principal  buildings  of  the 
city— such  as  the  Gwaimusho  (Foreign  Office),  the  Nai- 
mu^hS  (HomeOa5ce),  the  Ok-urasho  (iUnistry  of  Finance), 
the  Monbosha  (Ministry  of  Education),  and  other  Govern- 
ment offices,  <ta— are  situated  in  those  four  ku.  Among 
the  parks,  those  of  Shiba  and  Uyeno  rank  first  in  size  and 
beauty,  the  lattejr  containing  a  large  sheet  of  water.  In 
2*— 1> 


1 868,  when  the  imperial,^rmy  entered  the  city,  a  boei,  . 
men  called  the  shogitai;  loyal  to  the  cause  of  Tokugawa, 
here  made  a  last  itand,  abdiduring  the  fighting  the  mag- 
nificent temple  of  Toyesau,  on  the  hills  of  Uyeno,  was 
burnt  down.  This  park,  as  also"  the  Mukojima  (the  em- 
bankment of  the  Sumida),  and  the  Asukayama  park,  which 
is  at  some  distance  north-west  of  Uyeno,  are  celebrated 
for  their  sakura  trees  (species  of  cherry),  which,  when 
in  full  bloom,-  attract  crowds  of  all  classes.  The  famous 
temple  of  Kwannon  (goddess  of  ^ercy)  is  in  the  Asakusa 
park,  in  which  a  continual  fair  is  held,  with  the  usual  ac- 
companiments of  booths,  shows,  tea-houses,  ic.  The  dis- 
tricts of  Fukagawa  and  Honjj  li^on  the  east  bank  of  the 
river,  and  are  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  town  by  five 
wooden  bridges  of  considerable  length  ;  they  are  inter- 
sected by  numerous  canals,  and  the  streets  there  are  regu- 
Jarly  laid  out.  The  means  of  communication  are  imperfect ; 
the  streets  of  Tokio  are  in  general  irregular,  and  many  are 
so  narrow  that  they  are  unsuitable  for  carriages.  The 
jinriiuha^  a  kind  of  chaise  drawn  by  one  or  in  some  cases 
by  two  or  more  men,  supplies  their  place  to  a  great  extent. 
The  introduction^ of  tramways  in  some  parts  of  the  town 
has  had  the  good  effect  of  diminishing  the  number  of 
second-rate  carriages  drawn  by  miserable  horses.  .^ 

There  are  no  reliable  data  as  to  the  population  of  Yedo 
during  the  shogunate  (see  below).  Owing  to  the  influx 
caused  by  the  periodical  visits  of  the  daimios  with  their 
numerous  attendants,  it  probably  exceeded  one  million 
during  the"  early  part  of  the  present  century.  At  the 
abolition  of  the  shogunate  there  was  a  marked  decrease, 
but  the  returns  of  recent  years  (1,121,560  in  1881; 
1,173,603  in  1883;  1,300,073  in  1885)  indicate  a  rapid 
increase.  Of  the  1,519,781  who  constituted  the  popula.^ 
tion  in  1886,  1,211,357  are  to  be  classed  as  belonging 
to  the  town  proper,  and  308,424  to  the  six  suburban 
districts.  The  sanitary  condition  of  the  city  leaves  much. 
to  be  desired,  but  extensive  improvements  are  now  being 
carried  out.  The  general  health,  iowever,  is  good,  and 
the  enforcement  of  vaccination  has  virtually  stamped  out 
the  scourge  of  small-pox.  The  deaths  from  cholera  are 
occasionally  very  numerous,  especially  among  the  lower 
classes. 

A  well-organized  system  of  education  exists,~under~the 
supervision  of  the  ministry  of  education.  In  1885  there 
were  in  the  Tokio-Fu  658  public  and  private  elementary 
schools,  with  1563  teachers, — the  cost  of  maintaining 
public  schools  being  145,152  yen  (Japanese  dollars).  In 
^the  same  year  the  boys  and  girls  of  school  age  numbered 
172,653,  of  v^hom  77,001  attended  schools  recognized  by 
the  Government.  Kindergartens  on  the  European  system 
have  been  introduced.  There  are  also  the  ihihahgaklo 
(normal  schools),  the  ckugakko  (middle  schools),  and 
schools,  both  Government  and  private,  for  special  branches. 
In  the  district  of  Hongo  is  the  imperial  university,  sub- 
divided into  the  four  branches  of  law,  science,  medicine, 
and  literature.  Matiy  of  the  students  attain  a  high  degree 
of  proficiency.  . 

Xo  m.eDtion-ia  made  of  Tokio  in  Japanesehistoiy  bc'cre  the  end 
of  the  12th  centnry..  It  appears  to  have  assumed  no  imnortaaco 
till  abont  1457,  when  Ota  Dokwau,  a  general  in  the  service. of 
UyesQgi  Sadamasa,  governor  of  Kamakura,  bnilt  a  castle  there. 
About  thirty  years  later  the  town  fell  into  the  hands  of  H6j6  of 
Odawara,  and  subseqnently,  on  his  overthrow  by  Hidevoshi  and 
lyeyasu,  the  castle  was  granted  to  the  latter,  who  was  the  founder 
of  the  shognn  house  of  Tokngawa.  In  1590  lyeyasa  made  his 
formal  entr>-  into  the  castle  of  Vedo,  the  e.-ttent  of  which  he  greatly 
enlarged.  From  this  date  the  real  importance  of  Yedo  commenced. 
The  family  of  the  Tokugawas  furnished  the  shoguas  (or  tycoons) 
of  Japan  for  ne.irly  three  hundred  years,  and  these  resided  during 
that  period  at  Vedo.  Under  thtm  the  town  was  vastly  •extende<i, 
land  was  reclaimed  from  the  Kiy,  canals  were  eonstructed,  and  a 
water  supply  introduced.  The  shoguns  comptUed  the  daimios 
(feudal  Icrtis)  to  reside  at  Yedo  with  their  numerous  Jrtjnues  dur-j 

_X.\IIL  -  55 


434 


T  O  L  — T  O  L 


ing  a  considerable  portion  of  their  lives,  and  thus  the  prosperity 
of  the  town  rapidly  increased.  At  the  restoration  of  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  emperor  in  1S68  the  shogunate  was  abolished,  and 
the  population  of  Yedo  speedily  decreased.  A  fresh  vitality  was 
again  lu-.parted  by  the  transfer  of  the  court  from  Kioto,  and  the 
town  then  received  its  present  name  Tokio  (eastern  capital).  It 
has  since  been  the  seat  of  the  imperial  Government,  and  may.  be 
considered  the  centre  of  the  political,  commercial,  and  literary 
activity  of  Japan.  It  is  the  channel  through  which  the  stream  of 
European  civilization  pours  into  the  country,  and  all  recent  pro- 
gress has  there  taken  its  rise.  (K-  S.  L.) 

TOLAND,  John  (1670-1722),  or  Janus  Junius,  as  his 
sponsors  are  said  to  have  named  him,  usually  described 
as    a    chief    leader    of    the    English   deists,    was    born 
November  30,   1670  or  1671,  in  the  north  of  Ireland, 
near   Londonderry.      He   was   the   son,  perhaps   illegiti- 
mate, of  Catholic  parents,  and  was  brought  up  in  their 
faith.     But  in   his  fifteenth  year  he  became   a  zealous 
Protestant,  and   in   1687  he  passed   from   the   school   at 
Redcastle   to   Glasgow  university,   recommended    by  the 
magistrates  of  Redcastle  "  for  his  affection  to  the  Protest- 
ant religion."     Thus  early  in  life  he  became  "  accustomed 
to  examination  and  inquiry,  and  was  taught  not  to  cap- 
tivate his  understanding  to  any  man  or  society."     After 
three  years  at  Glasgow  he  entered  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, taking  his  M-A.  degree  there  June  30,  1690.     He 
then  spent  a  short  time  in  some  Protestant  families  in 
England,  and  with  their  assistance  went  to  Leyden  univer- 
sity, to  qualify  him  for  entering  the  Dissenting  ministry. 
He  spent   about  two  years  in  Leyden,  studying  ecclesi- 
astical history' especially  under  the  famous  scholar  Fred- 
erick Spanheim.     At  the  e.'cpiration  of  that  time  he  took 
up  his  abode,  January  7,  1694,  at  Oxford,  having  good 
introductions  to  Creech,  Mill,  and  others.     Here  he  made 
large  use  of  the  Bodleian  Library,  and  soon  acquired  the 
reputation  of  being  "  a  man  of  fine  parts,  of  great  learn- 
ing, and  of  little  religion,"  though  there  is  no  evidence  to 
show  that  the  last  distinction  was  justly  his  due.     His 
letters   show   that  .he    then    claimed    to   be   a    decided 
Christian,  and  that  he  was  too  orthodox  to  be  classed  with 
the   Arians   or   the   Socinians.     At   the   same   time   the 
characteristic  freedom   and  originality  of  his  mind  were 
displayed    by   his   anticipation   of  subsequent   doubts  of 
the  integrity  of  the  book  of  Job,  and  the  separation  of 
the  historical  prologue  and  the  speeches  of  Elihu  from  the 
original  poem.   -While  at  Oxford  he  commenced  the  book 
which  called  him  into  notoriety,  and  became  one  of  the 
standard  "deistical  writings" — his  Ch-istianiiy  not  Mys- 
terioiis}     The  book  gave  great  offence,  and  several  replies 
to  it  were  immediately  published.     The  author  was  pro- 
secuted by  the  grand  jury  of  Middlesex  the  year  of  its 
publication ;  and,  when  he  attempted  to  settle  in  Dublin 
at  the  beginning  of  1697,  he  was  greeted  with  dangerous 
denunciations  from  the  pulpits  and  elsewhere.     He  was 
soon  prosecuted  before  the  court  of  King's  Bench,  and  on 
September   9th  his   book  was   condemned   by  the   Irish 
parliament  to  be  burned  and  its  author  to  be  arrested. 
He  escaped  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence  by  flight  to 
England.     The  title  and  the  philosophical   principles   of 
Toland's  book  were  singularly  akin  to  those  of  Locke's 
famotxs  work,    The   Reasonablenfsa   of  Christianity,    pub- 
lished the  year  before ;  and  Locke's  opponents  seized  the 
opportunity  of  fathering  opon  the  philosopher  the   doc- 
trines of   his  more  heterodox  and  less  guarded  disciple. 
Thus  Toland's  work  became  the  occasion  of  the  celebrated 
controversy   between   SlLUingfleet   and   Locke,  in   which 
Locke  takes  pains  to  show  the  difference  between  his  posi- 
tion and  Toland's      Toland's  next  work  of  importance  was 

*  The  first  edition,  Londo,n,  1696,  was  anonymous  ;  the  second, 
published  the  same  year,  bore  on  the  title-page  his  name,  and  received 
a  preface  and  some  alight  alterations  ;  and  ths  third  appeared  in  1702 
wiLh  an  appended  Apology  for  Mr  Toiand, 


his  Life  of  Miiton  (1G98),  in  which,  in  connexion  with  his 
exposure  of  the  fictitious  authorship  of  the  Eikon  Basilike, 
he  found  occasion  to  make  reflexions  on  "  the  numerous 
supposititious  pieces  under  the  name  of  Christ  and  His 
apostles   and   other   great   persons."     This  provoked  the 
charge   that  he   had  called  in   question  the  genuineness 
of  the  New  Testament   writings,  and  he  replied   in   his 
Amyntor,  or  a  Defence  of  Milton's  Life  (1699),  to  which  he 
added  a  remarkable  hst  of  what  are  now  called  apocryphal 
New  Testament  writings.     In  his  remarks  he  really  opened 
up  the  great  question  of  the  history  of  the  canon,  towards 
the  examination  of  which  Stephen  Nye,  Jeremiah  Jones, 
and  Nathanael  Lardner  made  in  reply  to  him  the  first  valu- 
able contributions.    The  next  year  his  Amyntor  and  Chris- 
tianity not  Mysterious  were  under  discussion  in  both  Houses 
of  Convocation,  and  the  Upper  House  declined  to  proceed 
against  the  author.     In  1701  Toland  spent  a  few  weeks 
at   Hanover  as   secretary  to  the  embassy  of  the  earl  of 
Macclesfield,  and  was  received  with  favour  by  the  electress 
Sophia  in  acknowledgment  of  his  book  Anglia  Libera,  a 
defence  of  the  Hanoverian  succession.     On  his  return  frota 
the  Continent  he  published  a  defence  of  himself,  and  of 
the  bishops  for  not  prosecuting  him,    Vindicius  Liberiia 
(1702),  and  several  political  pamphlets.     The  next  year 
he  visited  Hanover  and  Berlin,  and  was  again  graciously 
received  by  the  electress  and  her  daughter  Sophia  Char- 
lotte, queen  of  Prussia.     On  his  return  to  England  (1704) 
he  published  Letters  to  Serena,  and  afterwards  acknowledged 
that  the  queen  of  Prussia  was  intended  by  the  pseudonym. 
In  these  letters  he  anticipated  some  of  the  speculations  of 
modern  materialism.    The  next  year  appeared  his  AccouiU 
of  Prussia  and  Hanover,  of  which  Carlyle  has  made  use 
in  his  Life  of  Frederick  the  Great.     From  1707  to  1710 
he  is  again  on  the  Continent, — at  Berlin,  Hanover,  Diissel- 
dorf,  Vienna,  Prague,  and  The  Hague,  with  very  varying 
fortunes,  but  generally  of  an  adverse  character.     In  1709 
he   published  Adeisidxmon  and   Origims  Judai<?k    (The 
Hague),  in  which,  amongst  other  things,  he  maintained 
that  the  Jews  were  originally  Egyptians,  and  that  the  true 
Mosaic  institutions  perished  with  Moses.     This  work  pro- 
voked a  number  of  replies  from  Continental  theologians. 
In  1710  he  returned  to  England,  living  chiefly  in  London 
and  latterly  at  Putney,  loving  the  country  and  his  books, 
and  subsisting  precariously  upon  the  earnings  of  his  pen 
and  the  benevolence  of  his  patrons.     His  literary  projects 
were   numerous  (see  the  incomplete  list  in   Mosheim); 
and  the  nobler  traits  of  his  warm  Irish  nature  appear  in 
his  projected  history  of  the  ancient  Celtic  religion  and  his 
chivalrous  advocacy  of  the  naturalization  of  the  Jews.    The 
last  of  his  theological  works  were  Nazarenns,  or  Jewish, 
Gentile,  and  Mahometan  Christianity  (1718),  and  Tetra- 
dymus  (1720),  a  collection  of  essays  on  various  subjects, 
in  the  first  of  which,   "  Hodegus,"  he  set  the  example 
subsequently  followed  by  Keimarus  and  the  rationalistic 
school  in  Germany,  of   interpreting  the  Old  Testament 
miracles  by  the  naturalistic  method,  maintaining,  for  in- 
stance, that  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  of  fire  of  Exodus  waa 
a  transported   signal-fire.     His   last  and   most  ofifensive 
book  was  his  Pantheislicon  (Cosmopoli,  1720).     He  died 
May  11, ,1722,  as  he  had  lived,  in  great  poverty,  in  the 
midst  of  his  books,  with  his  pen  in  his  hand;  and  left 
behind  him  a  characteristic  Latin  epitaph,  in  which  he 
could  justly  claim  to  have  been  "veritatis  propugnator, 
libertatis  asSertor." 

Toland  h  generally  classed  with  the  deists,  but  at  the  thne 
when  he  wrote  his  first  book,  Christianity  not  Mysterious,  he  Was 
decidedly  opposed  to  deism,  nor  docs  Leland  deal  with  that  work 
as  an  exposition  of  deistical  views.  The  design  of  the  work  was  to 
show,  by  an  appeal  mainly  to  the  tribunal  of  Scripture,  that  there 
are  no  facts  or  doctrines  of  the  "gospel,"  or  "the  Scriptures,"  or 
"Christian  revelation"  which,  when  revealed,  are  not  perfectly 


T  0  L  — T  0  L 


435 


'platn,  jntellirible,  antl  reasonable,  being  neither  contrary  to  reason 
nor  inconiprehensible  to  it.  The  work  undoubtedly  aimed  a  blow 
at  some  of  the  dogmas  of  later  Christian  times,  but  it  claimed  to 
be  "a  rindieation  of  God's  revealed  will  against  the  most  unjust 
imnutations"'  which  occasioned  "so  many  deists  and  atheists," 
Tciand'e  line  of  argument  is  to  show  that  the  supposition  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  gospel  being  repugnant  to  clear  and  distinct  ideas 
and  common  notions  leads  into  absurdities  and  inevitable  scep- 
ticism ;  that  the  proof  of  the  Divinity  of  Scripture  is  its  self- 
evidencing  power;  that,  though  men  are  dependent  on  Divine 
levelation  for  the  knowledge  of  the  most  imi»ortant  truths,  the 
troths  must  themselves  be  plain  and  intelligible  when  revealed; 
that  all  the  doctrines,  precepts,  and  miracles  of  the  New  Testament 
»re  perfectly  intelligible  and  plain;  that,  though  reason  is  dis- 
orJered  in  tho  case  of  many  men.  the  disorder  is  not  in  the  faculty 
itself  but  in  the  use  made  of  it;  that  in  the  New  Testament 
"mystery"  never  means  anylhitig  incoiiccivaMe  in  itself,  but 
things  naturally  intelligible  enough,  which  are  either  so  veiled  by 
figurativo  words  or  rites,  or  so  lodged  in  God's  sole  knowledge  and 
decree,  that  they  could  not  b«  disiemed  without  special  revela- 
tion; that  no  miracle  of  the  gosjicl  is  contrary  to  reason,  for  they 
were  all  produced  according  to  the  laws  of  nature,  though  above  its 
onlinary  operations,  which  were  therefore  supcriiaturally  assisted ; 
that  mysteries  were  first  iutrotlnced  into  Christianity  by  the  early 
admission  into  the  church  of  Lcvitical  ceremonies  and  heathen 
riles  and  mysteries,  and  especially  by  mixing  up  heathen  philo- 
aopby  with  the  simple  religion  of  Christ  The  work  was  intended 
to  be  the  first  of  three  discourses,  in  the  second  of  which  he  was 
to  attempt  a  jiarticular  and  rational  explanation  of  the  reputed 
mysteries  of  the  gospel,  and  in  the  third  a  demonstration  of  the 
verity  of  Divine  revelation  against  atheists  and  all  enemies  of  re- 
vealed religion.  But,  like  so  many  other  of  his  numerous  projects, 
this  faileil  of  execution.  After  his  Chrisimnity  not  MysUrious 
aod  his  Amynlcr,  Toland's  Kazaremis  was  of  chief  importance,  as 
calling  attention  to  the  right  of  the  Ebionites  to  a  place  in  the 
early  church,  though  it  altogether  failed  to  establish  his  main 
argument  or  to  put  the  question  in  the  true  light.  His  Panl/ieis- 
ticoa,  fi«  Formuin  ceUbrandx  Stxialitatis  Socratics,  of  which  he 
printed  a  few  copies  for  private  circulation  only,  gave  great  offence 
as  a  sort  of  liturgic  service  made  up  of  passages  from  heathen 
luthors,  in  imitation  of  the  Chorch  of  England  liturgy*.  The  title 
also  was  in  those  days  alarming,  and  still  more  so  the  mystery 
which  the  author  threw  rouud  the  question  how  far  such  societies 
of  pantheists  actually  existed.  Poor  Toland  had  been  outlawed 
by  the  churches  of  his  day,  and  took  a  most  imprudent  delight  in 
alarming  and  mystifying  his  persecutors.  This  and  all  his  later 
works  must  be  read  from  the  point  of  view  first  suggested  by 
Herder;  "  Whocan  refuse  to  sec  in  Toland  the  man  of  wide  readiug 
and  of  clear  intellect,  and  the  earnest  iiinuirer,  although,  as  em- 
bittered by  persecutions,  with  every  fresh  book  he  dipped  his  pen 
in  a  more  biting  acid?" 

See  Mo*helTn'«  Vtndicim  Aniitjvr  Christianonm  uUftplinx^  1st  ed,  1720,  2d 
ed.,  17^*2  (the  life  of  Toland  prefixed  to  the  3d  edition  of  tills  essay  Rtres  still  the 
best  itid  ir.c«l  ipsmeJ  account  wc  liave  of  his  life  sn.l  writings);  "  Memoirs  of 
the  Life  snd  Writlncs  of  Mr  Jfhn  Tolanil,"  by  De»  Msizcanx,  prefixed  to  The 
MiMtfftanrotu  Worki  of  Ur  John  Toiamd.  in  2yii1«..  T.ondon.  1747;  Lcland'S  Vieir 
of  Ike  Prt-K^pat  Dfiitual  n'rilert;  UCTdvT'i'  Adraslra:  Lechler's  Ceichichte  det 
engtixiifn  Dfiim^t ;  Isaac  Dlsraeti*8  CafantftVs  cf  Authors  ;  Thnlogicat  Rerie^, 
Noxrailirr  l?*4;  flunl's  article  la  ConleirtpcrarfTifrifte,  toI.  Tiii  .  and  his  /Jc^i- 
fiom  noufkt  <M  Emfftaad\  Leslie  Stephens  Untorf  of  English  Thovght  in  Etgh- 
ttauh  Coifary;  Cairns's  Caasiv^Aam  Lerturft  for  ISiO.  On  Tolanifa  relation  to 
the  subsr^nent  Tubingen  tchool,  as  presented  in  his  Xazarfnui,  see  Thniogical 
Rfrint.  Oct..  1877;  aod  00  Ids  r^Lalioo  to  tratefiajism,  F.  A.  Lange's  Gesehichle 
4a  UatotatUmM.  (J.  F.  S.) 

TOLEDO,  a  province  of  Spain,  in  New  Castile,  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Avila  and  Madrid,  on  the  E.  by 
Cuenca,  on  the  S.  by  Ciudad  Real,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Ciceres,  and  has  an  area  of  5G20  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  throughout  lofty,  and  in  a  great  part  of  its 
extent  liiounlainous.  Towards  the  centre,  indeed,  there 
are  extensive  plains  or  tablelands,  but  the  whole  of  the 
south  and  east  is  occupied  by  the  Monies  de  Toledo,  which 
separate  the  waters  of  the  Tagus  on  the  north  from  those 
of  the  Guadiana  on  the  south.  These  mountains  are  of  no 
great  height ;  and  they  were  once  densely  covered  with 
forests,  which  have  now  been  almost  entirely  cut  down, 
although  there  are  still  woods  and  groves  of  considerable 
extent  on  their  lower  slopes.  Branches  of  this  chain 
enclose  the  province  on  the  east  and  west,  and  part  of 
the  range  that  stretches  north  of  the  Tagus  approaches 
its  northwestern  frontier.  Toledo  is  well  watered  by  the 
Tagus  and  its  affluents,— the  Tajuna,  Jarama,  Guadar- 
rama,  Alberche.  and  Tietar  on  the  north,  and  the  Algodor, 
Torcon,  Pusa,  Sangrera,  and  Cedron  on  the  south.     The 


Guadiana  forms  for  a  short  distance  the  south-western 
frontier,  and  its  tributary  the  Gignela  waters  the  eastern 
part  of  the  province.  The  country  is  rich  in  minei^ls,  aa 
yet  almost  entirely  unworked,  containing  veins  of  gold, 
silver,  lead,  iron,  quicksilver,  copper,  and  tin.  'Coal,  alum, 
cinnabar,  &c.,  are  also  found.  The  soil  produces  com, 
pulse,  potatoes,  oil,  wine,  fla-t,  oranges,  lemons,  chestnuts, 
and  melons  in  fair  abundance,  but  the  trade  in  agricultural 
products  is  almost  confined  to  the  province  itself.  The 
number  of  sheep  and  goats  is  few,  of  horses  and  mnles 
still  less  ;  while  the  only  oxen  are  those  used  in  agri» 
culture.  Bees  and  silkworms  are  kept  in  considerable 
number.  Manufactures  once  flourished,  but  are  now  in  a 
very  low  state, — silk  and  woollen  cloth,  earthenware,  soap, 
oil,  chocolates,  wine,  rough  spirit  (aguardiaitt),  guitar 
strings,  and  arms  being  almost  the  only  articles  made. 
The  province  is  traversed  by  three  lines'  of  railway, — 
that  of  Madrid  Seville-Cadiz  in  the  east,  Madrid-Toledfv 
Ciudad  Real  through  the  centre,  and  Madrid-Ciceres- 
Lisbon  in  the  north.  There  are  12  partidos  judiciales 
and  206  ayuntamientos  ;  and  tbree  senators  with  eight 
deputies  are  returned  to  the  cortes.  The  total  population 
in  1885  was  332,000;  the  only  towns  with  a  population 
exceeding  10,000  are  Toledo  (20,251)  and  Talavera  de  la 
Reina  (11,986).  Some  of  the  most  brilliant  fighting  of 
the  Peninsular  War  took  place  in  Toledo  and  the  neigh- 
bouring province  of  Oiceres,  the  battle  of  Talavera  de  la 
Reina  being  fought  on  the  27th  and  28th  of  July  1809. 

TOLEDO,  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  and  once 
of  the  whole  of  Spain,  stands  upon  a  circle  of  seven  hills, 
2-iOO  feet  above  the  sea,  and  washed  on  three  sides  by  the 
Tagus.  It  is  37  miles  west  south-west  of  Madrid.  The 
river  is  spanned  by  two  fine  stone  bridges, — the  Alcantara, 
a  Moorish  bridge  of  a  single  arch,  giving  entrance  to  the 
city  from  the  east,  and  the  other,  that  of  San  Martin,  from 
the  west,  while  between  them  the  river  makes  a  sweep 
southwards.  The  place  is  enclosed  on  the  land  side  by 
two  walls,  still  in  fairly  perfect  condition, — the  inner  one 
being  built  by  King  Wamba  in  the  7th  century,  the  outer 
by  Alfonso  VI.  in  1109.  The  gates  are  numerous  and 
xvell  preserved,  the  most  noteworthy  being  the  famous 
Puerta  del  Sol,  the  Puerta  Yisagra,  and  the  Cambron. 
Some  Roman  remains  (a  circus,  ic.)  lie  without  the  walls, 
on  the  plain  to  the  north-west.  The  appearance  of  Toledo 
from  a  distance  is  imposing  in  the  extreme,  from  its  noble 
situation  and  the  terraced  lines  of  its  buildings ;  but  upon 
a  nearer  approach  it  reveals  itself  as  dull  and  decayed 
enough,  with  little  or  no  traffic  in  the  streets,  and  a 
strange  silence  brooding  over  all  its  ways.  The  houses 
are  large,  massive,  and  gloomy,  generally  Moorish  iu  style, 
of  the  12th,  13th,  and  14th  centuries,  with  a  great  central 
paiio  (courtyard),  and  yielding  abundant  traces  of  Arabic 
decoration.  The  principal  public  square  is  the  Zocodover. 
It  forms  the  favourite  promenade,  and  from  it  the  one  fairly 
wide  street  of  the  city  leads  to  the  cathedral  The  latter 
is  the  glory  of  Toledo,  and  one  of  the  finest  monuments  of 
art  in  Spain.  Built  upon  the  site  of  an  ancient  mosque, 
and  commenced  in  1227,  it  was  completed  in  1492  ;  and, 
though  sacked  over  and  over  again, — finally  by  the  French 
under  La  Houssaye  in  1808, — it  is  still,  with  the  excep- 
tion, perhaps,  of  the  cathedral  of  Seville,  the  richest  and 
most  magnificent  foundation  in  the  Peninsula.  The  ex- 
terior is  unfortunately  bidden  to  a  great  extent  by  mean 
surrounding  buildings,  but  the  fine  western  facade,  with 
its  two  towers,  one  rising  325  feet,  is  effeetive.  The 
interior  is  somewhat  dwarfed  in  appearance  by  the  immense 
width.  It  is  404  feet  long  by  204  feet  broad,  and  is 
divided  by  84  pillars  into  five  naves,  with  central  lantern 
and  choir,  and  a  complete  series  of  side  chapels.  Most 
of  these  latter  are  late  additions,  of  the  15th  and  IS'.h. 


436 


T  O  L^T  O  L 


centuries,  and  are  very  magnificent  in  detail.  The  16tb- 
century  stained-glass  windows,  chiefly  of  Flemish  work, 
are  superb  ;  and  the  treasury,  reliquaries,  and  library,  not^ 
withstanding  their  repeated  despoilings,  are  not  unworthy 
of  the  see  which  styles  itself  the  "  first  of  all  the  Spains." 
lu  the  Muzarabic  chapel  the  ritual  known  by  that  name 
is  still  performed  daily  Within  the  precincts  of  the 
cathedral  are  interred  the  archbishops  and  cardinals 
Tenorio,  Fonseca,  Mendoza,  Ximenez,  the  great  constable 
Alvaro  de  Luna,  and  a  long  array  of  kings  and  heroes. 
The  archbishop  is  primate  of  Spain,  and  has  for  suffragans 
Coria,  Cuenca,  Siguenza,  and  Palencia  Besides  the 
cathedral  Toledo  still  possesses  a  great  number  of  fine 
churches  and  other  religious  buildings,  together  with 
numerous  Moorish  and  Jewish  monuments  The  most 
important  church  is  the  15th-century  florid  Gothic  San 
Juan  de  los  Reyes,  built  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
The  best  Moorish  work  is  to  be  found  in  the  old  Jewish 
synagogues  of  Santa  Maria  la  Blanca  and  El  Trinsito, 
sn  the  mosques  of  Cristo  de  la  Luz  and  Las  Tornerias, 
in  some  private  houses,  and  in  the  later  churches  of  San 
Roman,  Santo  Tom^,  Santiago,  and  Santa  Leocadia.  The 
patio  and  staircase  of  the  hospital  of  Santa  Cruz  pre- 
sent some  of  the  finest  Renaissance  work  extant.  Seen 
from  afar,  the  Alcazar,  or  royal  palace,  is  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  features  of  the  city.  It  stands  upon  a  com- 
manding position  overlooking  the  Tagus,  and  was  origin- 
ally built  by  King  Wamba,  but  has  been  repeatedly  altered 
and  pulled  about.  It  was  almost  entirely  rebuilt  by 
Charles  V  and  Philip  II.,  under  the  architects  Covarrubias 
and  Herrera,  and  has  lately  been  converted  into  a  huge 
military  academy.  The  city  is  provided  with  numerous 
elementary  schools,  a  public  library,  museum,  town-hall, 
and  several  large  hospitals.  The  well-known  manufactory 
of  swords  is  about  a  mile  to  the  north-west,  beyond  the 
Caratron  gate.  It  is  in  excellent  order,  and  produces 
blades  as  perfect  as  ever,  but  is  no  longer  of  great  im- 
portance, emplojing  only  about  120  hands. 

Toledo  existed  in  the  time  of  tlie  Ronnns,  who  conquered  it 
in  193  B.C.  They  strengthened  the  fortifications,  and  built  an 
aqueduct  to  supply  the  place  with  water.  By  the  Goths,  who 
captured  tiie  city  in  467  ad.,  these  works  were  kept  up  and 
improped;  .lud,  under  the  iloorish  domination,  from  714  to  1085, 
Toledo  W.13  second  only  to  Cordova  in  rank  and  importance,  with 
a  population  of  200,000  souls.  Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile  and  Leon 
recovered  the  stronghold  in  1085;  and  under  him  and  his  succes- 
sors it  continued  to  flourish  until  the  permanent  estahlishment  of 
the  court  at  Madrid  gave  a  deathblow  to  its  prosperity.  The 
population  now  is  no  more  than  20,000. 

)  TOLEDO,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  county  seat 
«f  Lucas  county,  Ohio,  is  situated  in  41°  40'  N.  lat.  and 
J3°  33'  \V.  long.,  chiefly  upon  a  peninsula  between  the 
Maumee  on  the  south  and  the  Ottawa  upon  the  north, 
ju3t  above  their  points  of  discharge  into  Maumee  Bay, 
and  5  miles  from  Lake  Erie  A  sn.»ll  part  of  it,  for- 
merly knov/n  as  Maungee  City,  lies  south  of  the  Maumee. 
Toledo  includes  an  area  of  2 15  square  miles  within  its 
corporate  limits.  The  bay  and  river  form  an  excellent 
harbour  and  roadstead.  The  harbour  is  easily  made  and 
is  well  sheltered,  and  the  bottom  affords  good  holding 
ground.  Besides  being  open  to  the  navigation  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  Toledo  is  the  terminus  of  the  Miami  and 
Erie  Canal,  connecting  it  with  Cincinnati  (184  miles 
distant).  Seventeen  railroad  lines  enter  it,  making  it  one 
of  the  jirlncipal  railroad  centres  of  the  country  The  site 
of  Toledo  and  the  surrounding  country  are  very  level,  and 
only  slightly  elevated  above  Lake  Erie.  The  soil  is  very 
productive,  and  is  highly  cultivated,  being  largely  devoted 
to  market  gardening.  There  are  three  public  parks, 
having  a  total  area  of  41  acres.  The  city  is  well  sewered. 
Water  is  obtained  by  pumping.  The  city,  which  is 
divid'ed   into  eight  wards,  had  in   1880  a  population  of 


50,137.  The  number  is  probably  now  (1887)  not  far 
from  65,000.  In  1840,  1850,  1860,  and  1870  respect- 
ively the  population  was  returned  at  1224,  3829,  13,768, 
and  31,584 

Besides  its  large  commercial  interests,  as  one  of  the  principal 
pores  upon  the  Great  Lakes,  and  its  importance  as  one  of  the  leading 
railroad  centres  of  the  country,  Toledo  holds  high  rank  as  a  manu- 
facturing city.  The  capital  invested  in  this  cla.ss  of  industries  in 
1880  exceeded  $5,500,000,  aad  the  products  were  valued  at  double 
this  sum.  They  employed  nearly  7000  persons,  and  paid  in  wages 
over  two  and  a  quarter  millions  of  dollars.  'These  industries  are 
very  varied  in  character,  but  consist  largely  in  lumher  manufactures^ 
brewing,  and  iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

The  first  settlement  within  what  are  now  the  corporate  limits  of 
Toledo  was  made,  shortly  after  the  war  of  1812,  upon  the  south 
bank  of  the  Maumee  North  of  the  river  no  settlements  were 
attempted  until  1832,  when  the  villages  of  Port  Lawrence  and 
Vistula  were  commenced  in  what  is  now  the  heart  of  the  city  In 
the  following  year  they  were  united  under  the  present  name.  The 
city  was  incorporated  in  1837.  In  1852  it  was  made  the  county 
seat,  and  in  1874  its  corporate  limits  were  considerably  enlarged. 

TOLL  IS  a  sum  of  money  paid  for  the  use  and  enjoy- 
ment of  a  privilege.  In  England  it  is  now  always  or 
almost  always  a  sum  of  money;  but  formerly  tolls  in  kind 
were  not  unknown  An  instance  is  afforded  by  the  Act 
of  3b  Geo  IlL  c.  85,  substituting  a  money  payment  for 
tolls  of  corn  in  kind  taken  by  millers,  with  an  exception 
in  favour  of  tolls  taken  by  custom  in  soke  mills.  Such 
customary  tolls,  if  any  such  now  exist,  are  apparently  the 
only  examples  remaining  of  tolls  in  kind.  'The  Weights 
and  Measures  Act,  1878,  enacts  that  all  tolls  are  to  be 
charged  and  collected  according  to  imperial  weights  and 
measures. 

The  word  toll,  in  its  earliest  use,  appears  to  have  signified  a 
franchise  enjoyed  by  lords  of  manors,  and  is  defined  by  Glanvill 
as  the  liberty  of  buying  and  selling  in  one's  own  land  ;  "  tol, 
quod  nos  vocamus  theloneum,  scilicet  libertatem  emendi  et 
vendendi  in  terra  sua."  The  word  then  became  used  to  denote 
duties  payable  to  the  crown,  especially  on  wool,  generally  with  an 
inseparable  epithet  indicative  of  unpopularity.  It  thus  took  the 
form  of  "maletote"  or  "malum  tolnetum,"'  against  which  many 
early  statutes  were  directed,  from  the  Magna  Carta  of  John  till  the 
final  abandonment  of  the  duty  by  Kdward  111  In  modern  English 
law  toll  is  either  an  incident  of  a  Franchise  iq.v.),  as  of  a  market 
or  fair,  or  is  independent  of  franchise.  In  tho  latter  case  it  is 
claimed  by  prescription,  as  toll  traverse  or  toll  thorough,  or  is 
created  by  Act  of  Parliament,  as  in  the  case  of  turnpikes,  railways, 
harbours,  navigable  rivers,  and  canals.  Toll  traverse  is  paid  for 
passing  over  a  private  way,  bridge,  oi  ferry.  No  consideration 
need  be  proved.  Toll  thorough  is  paid  for  the  use  of  a  highway. 
In  this  case,  if  charged  by  a  private  person,  some  consideration, 
such  as  repair  of  the  highway,  must  be  shown,  as  such  a  toll  ia 
against  common  right  In  one  case,  that  of  the  Cornish  cnstom 
of  tin-bounding,  the  right  to  tin  tolls  may  depend  upon  custom. 
At  common  law  a  toll  must  be  reasonable.  The  same  principle 
appears  in  various  Acts  of  Parliament  Tlie  Statute  of  Westminster 
the  First,  3  Edw.  I.  c.  31,  inflicts  a  penalty  for  taking  excessive 
toll.  The  Railway  Clauses  Consolidation  Act,  1845,  and  most 
special  Acts  of  railway  companies  provide,  by  what  are  known  aA 
"the  Shaftesbury  clauses,"  for  the  equality  of  tolls,  that  is,  that 
all  jtersons  and  classes  of  goods  shall  under  like  circumstances  be 
treated  alike  as  to  charges.  A  right  of  distress  is  incident  to  the 
right  to  impose  tolls,  but  the  distress  cannot  be  sold  unless  an  Act 
of  Parliament  expressly  authorizes  the  sale.  Tolls  are  rateable  for 
the  relief  of  the  poor  where  they  are  a]ipurtenant  to  land,  but  not 
where  they  are  extrinsic  profits  not  arising  from  the  possession  of 
land.  Exemption  froni  tolls  may  be  claimed  by  the  prerogative,  iy 
by  grant  or  prescription,  or  by  Act  of  Parliament.  The  king  pays 
no  toll,  and  may  grant  to  another  exeniption  from  toU.  The 
exemptions  by  Act  of  Parliament  mainly  affect  persons  in  the 
public  service,  clergy  on  their  parochial  duty,  and  persons  going 
to  or  returning  from  their  usual  phce  of  religious  worship.  Most 
of  the  exceptions  from  turnpike  tolls  will  be  fouud  in  3  Geo.  IV. 
c.  12S.  Turnpike  tolls,  bridge  money,  and  causeway  mail  were 
aboHslied  iu  Scotland  by  the  Roads  and  Bridges  Act,  1878,  as  from 
the  Jst  June  1883.  In  England  there  has  been  no  such  general 
abolition,  but  the  abolition  of  tolls  has  been  facilitated  by  several 
recent  Turnpike  Acts,  and  their  entire  disappearance  is  only  a 
question  of  lime. 

In  the  United  States  tolls  are  a  subject  for  State   legislation. 


'  The  SBiAe  term  was  kiiowu  in  mediaval  Italy.     Dante,  lu  Inferno, 
zi.  36,  alludes  to  "toilette  daunose." 


T  0  L  -T  0  M 


437 


except  in  a. few  instances  in  which  Acts  of  Congress  Iiave  dealt 
with  tolls  in  riveis  and  harbours  (see  Revised  Statutes,  tit.  IxiiL). 
The  question  .T)f  tolls  fras  at  one  time  an  important  one  in 
international  law.  Tolls  were  exacted  on  certain  straits  and  tidal 
rivera  by  virtue  of  the  sovereignty  of  a  particular  state.  Such 
toUa  have  mostly  ceased  or  been  redeemed.  Notable  instances 
wete  the  Scheldt  tolls  and  the  Sound  dues  levied  by  Denmark. 
See  Navigation  Laws. 

TOLUCA,  or  ToLOCCA>r,  a  city  of  Mexico,  the  capital  of 
the  state  of  Mexico,  od  the  Mexican  National  Railway,  45 
miles  south-^rest  from  the  federal  capital.  It  lies  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Anahuac  tableland,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
San  Miguel  de  Tutucuitlalpillo,  at  an  elevation  of  8653 
feet  above  the  sea,  being  the  highest  town  in  the  republic 
next  to  the  mining  station  of  Ameca-meca  (which  is  8800 
feet).  Toluca  had  in  1886  a  population  of  about  12,000, 
and  is  uanally  described  as  a  well-built  flourishing  town, 
with  fine  buildings  and  clean  well-drained  streets.  But 
T.  M.  Brocklehnrst,  who  visited  it  in  1880,  gives  an  un- 
favourable impression  of  the  place,  which  presented  nothing 
attractive  beyond  the  Portales,  a  fine  arcade  running  round 
a  large  block  of  central  buildings,  with  a  number  of  good 
shops  under  the  aichesJMexico  To-day,  p.  222).  There 
i^  also  a  good  theatre^  and  in  the  Plaza  de  los  Martires 
a  well-executed  white  marble  monument  to  the  patriot 
'Miguel  Hidalgo  y  Costilla.  But  the  Carmen,  Vera  Cruz, 
and  one  or  two  other  churches  are  dirty  and  tawdry,  with- 
out presenting  any  striking  architectural  features.  The 
city  is  traversed  by  a  foul  stream  flowing  at  the  bottom 
of  a  barranca  or  deep  ravine,  along  whose  banks  are 
herded  numerous  swine  in  a  half-wild  state,  which  supply 
the  hams  and  sausages  for  which  the  place  is  noted. 
Here  also  soap  and  wax  candles  are  manufactured  and 
supplied  to  the-  surrounding  districts.  In  the  south-west 
the  Nevado  de  Toluca,  an  extinct  snow-clad  volcano  with 
a  flooded  crater,  rises  to  a  height  of  15,156  feet  above 
sea-iflvel.,  - 

.  Ailhocgh  Tolnca  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest  Toltec 
settlamenta  in  Anahuac,  its  foundation  dating  probably  from  the 
6th  century,  it  has  preserved  no  remains  of  its  ancient  grandeur, 
nor  have  any  monuments  been  discovered  in  the  district  in  any 
way  eomparable  to  those  of  Cholula,  TuU,  Teotihuacan,  and  other 
ancient  centres  of  Toltec  culture.  ^According  to  SI.  Chamay,  Toluca 
formed  one  of  the  chief  starting  points  of  the  great  migrations 
which,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Toltec  empire  by  the  Chichimec 
irmption  in  t^ie  11th  century,  moved  in  two  parallel  streams  south- 
wards, converging  at  Copan  and  spreading  their  arts  and  industries 
over  Chianas,  Yucatan,  and  Guatemala  (Ancient  Cities  of  tfie  New 
Wvrld,  1887,  p.  125). 

TOMATO.     See  EoETicxTLTiraE,  vol.  xii.  p.  288. 

TGMPA,  MihXly  (  =  Michael)  (1817-1868),  one  of 
the  best  and  tenderest  Hungarian  lyric  poets,  was  born  in 
1817  at  Kima-Szombat,  in  the  county  of  Gomor,  of  very 
humble  parentage,  his  father  being  village  bootmaker. 
He  studied  law  and  theology  in  Saros-Patak,  and  subse- 
quently at  Budapest ;  but,  feeling  little  inclination  for  the 
first-mentioned  career,  after  many  vicissitudes  he,  at  the 
age  of  thirty,  accepted  the  post  of  Protestant  minister  in 
Beje,  a  small  village  in  his  native  county,  whence,  in  two 
years,  he  removed  to  Kelem^r,  and  four  years  later  to 
Hanva,  in  the  county  of  Borsod,  where  he  remained  till 
his  death  in  1868".  • 

At  the  age  of  four-and-twenty  Tompa  published  his  first  poems 
in  the  Athenetum,  which  soon  procured  for  him  a  high  reputation. 
His  first  volume,  Nipregtk  is  Ntpmondak  {"Folk-Legends  and 
Folk-Tales"),  in  1846,  met  with  great  success,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Poems"  in  1847.  In  1848  he 
took  part  in  the  war  ot  independence,  acting  as  field  chaplain  to 
the  volunteers  of  his  county  and  seeing  several  battles ;  but  the 
unfortunate  close  of  that  heroic  struggle  silenced  his  poetic  vein 
for  a  considerable  time,  and,  when  in  1852  and  1853  he  gave  vent 
to  his  patriotic  gi'ief  in  some  masterly  allegories  on  the  state  of 
oppressed  Hungary,  he  was  twice  arrested  by  the  Austrian  authori- 
Viea.  Afterbeing  released  he  published  his  VirAgregek  ("  Legends 
of  Flowers"),  a  collection  of  poems  of  the  highest  order,  showing 
great  imagination  and  love  of  nature,  and  displaying  the  loftiest 


humanity  and  great  meditative  power.  Soon  after  this  he  became 
oppressed  with  melancholy  and  abandoned  this  branch  of  poetry.i 
Indefcd  from  this  time  he  produced  comparatively  little.  He  put>- 
lished  three  volumes  of  sermons,  ''which,"  says  his  biographer,' 
Charles  Szasz,  Protestant  bishop  of  Budapest,-  "are  among  the  best 
in  Hungarian  literature,  and  will  favourably  compare  with  those 
of  Robertson,  Monod,  or  Parker."  His  collected  poetical  works,' 
in  six  volumes,  were  published  at  Budapest  in  1870,  and  again,  i^ 
four  volumes,  in  1885. 

TOMSK,  a  government  of  Western  Siberia,  extending 
from  the  Chinese  frontier  to  60°  N.  lat.,  is  bounded  by- 
Tobolsk  on  the  N.W.,  by  Yeniseisk  on  the  N.E.,  by  th& 
Chinese  province  of  Khobdo  on  the  S.E.,  and  by  Semi- 
palatinsk  on  the  S.W.  Its  area,  329,040  square  miles,  is 
fully  one  and  a  half  times  that  of  France.  The  surface  is 
most  varied,  including  in  the  southeast  the  high  alpine 
tracts  of  the  Altai  Mountains,  with  an  elevated  steppe 
which  skirts  these,  and  in  the  north-west  and  west  the 
lowlands  of  the  Irtish  and  the  marshy  tracts  of  the  Ob. 

The  Altai  Mountains,  which  cover  within  the  limits  of 
the  Russian  empire  an  area  of  53,000  square  miles,  or 
three  times  that  of  the  whole  of  Switzerland,  although 
visited  by  many  geologists,  still  remain  very  imperfectly 
known,  even  as  regards  their  orography.  The  country  has 
been  mapped  only  along  the  rivers  and  the  course  of  a  few 
footpaths,  and  great  confusion  still  prevails  with  reference 
to  the  directions  of  the  different  chains  of  the  Altai  and  their 
mutual  relations  (compare  Sibekia).  The  best  descrip- 
tions, however  (including  the  most  recent  by  M.  Potanin),' 
indicate  in  that  part  of  Asia  the  very  same  leading  orograph-;' 
ical  features  that  are  seen  in  the  Tian-Shan  Mountains 
farther  south,  and  in  the  West  Sayan  range  farther  north. 
A  plateau  with  an  average  altitude  of  more  than  4000 
feet,  watered  by  the  tributaries  of  the  upper  Yenisei,  all 
flowing  in  open  valleys  3000  to  4000  feet  above  the  sea,' 
is  known  to  rise  in  that  part  of  north-western  Mongolia 
which  is  drained  by  the  upper  Yenisei  and  Selenga.  The 
surface  of  this  plateau  is  diversified  by  ridges,  and  by 
depressions  like  that  of  the  TJbsa-nor — a  relic  of  what  was 
formerly  a  much  larger  lake.  A  lofty  mountain  chain; 
which  has  its  south-east  foot  on  the  plateau  and  its 
north-west  foot  in  the  valley  of  the  Us,  fringes  the 
plateau,  and  has  all  the  characters  of  a  border-ridge. 
The  present  writer  has  proposed  to  call  this  Erghik-shan.' 
It  juns  from  north-east  to  south-west  along  the  Eusso- 
Chinese  frontier,  and  is  pierced  by  a  deep  gorge  through 
which  flows  the  Yenisei.  A  belt,  some  200  miles  io 
width,  of  alpine  tracts,  made  up  of  three  or  four  chains 
parallel  to  the  border  ridge,  fringes  the  outer  border  of  the 
plateau,  and  fills  up  the  ilinusinsk  region.  The  structure 
of  the  hniy  tracts  (watered  by  the  Kemtchik)  between  the 
Yenisei  and  the  Altai  remains  quite  unknown,  no  sci^-' 
tific  man  or  topographer  having  ever  visited  it.  But  the' 
very  same  orographical  features  as  those  already  described 
reappear  in  the  Altai  region.  There  is  now  no  doubt  that 
the  backbone  of  the  Altai  is  a  huge  and  lofty  border-ridge, 
the  Sailughem,  which  includes  the  small  alpine  plateaus  of 
Ukek,  the  upper  Tchuya,  and  Juvlu-kul,  and  runs  from 
south-west  to  north-east,  being  a  continuation  of  the 
border-ridge  of  the  West'  Sayan.' .  Its  flat  dome-shaped 
summits  rise  to  about  10,OOQ  feet,  and  the  small  alpine 
plateaus  just  named  range  from  7800  to  8200  feet  in 
elevation.  .It  has  a  very  steep  slope  towards  the  north- 
west, i.e.,  towards  the  broad  valleys  of  the  upper  Bukh- 
tarma  and  Tchuya,  and  a  very  gentle  slope  towards  the 
south-east,  and  its  south-eastern  hillfoots  are  on  the  level 
of  the  plateau  of  Khobdo  (from  4500  to.  5000  feet).  A 
broad  alpine  region  spreads  to  the  north-west  of  the  border- 
ridge,  but  in  the  imperfect  state  of  our  knowledge  it  is 

*  Jivopistiayci  Rossiya,  vol.  xi.;  Skelches  of  X.  W.  MongoliOt.^Qis.i' 
and  ill. ;  Addenda  to  Hitter's  Asia. 


438 


TOMSK 


difficult  to  discriininato  the  real  directions  of  its  chains. 
Nevertheless,  another  lofty  chain,  containing  the  enow-clad 
Alps  of  the  Katun  (Katunskiye  Byetki)  and  those  of  the 
Tchuya,  and  running  also  from  south-west  to  north-east, 
parallel  to  the  Sailughem  border-ridge,  can  be  distin- 
guished in  the  labyrinth  of  confusedly  scattered  mountains 
seen  on  our  present  maps.  It  is  one  of  the  most  pictur- 
esque chains  of  the  region,  and  contains  the  Byelukha 
peak,  estimated  at  11,000  feet,  and  the  Alas-tu,  of  nearly 
the  same  height.  It  is  pierced,  however,  by  so  many 
rivers,  which  rise  on  the  north  west  edge  of  the  plateau, 
and  find  their  way  to  the  lowlands  by  a  series  of  gorges, 
that  its  continuity  could  be  easily  overlool-ed.  Farther  to 
the  north-east  itjiins,  in  the  opinion  of  the  present  writer, 
the  high  chain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kemtchik,  which  is 
continued  by  the  picturesque  Alps  on  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Us.  A  third  system  of  mountain  chains,  also 
parallel  to  the  above,  can  be  distinguished  in  the  succes- 
sion of  the  Terektinsk  Mountains,  those  which  are  pierced 
by  the  Tchulyshman  and  those  which  follow  the  right 
bank  of  the  Abakan  ,  while  traces  of  a  fourth  plication  of 
the  rocks  may  be  discovered  in  the  Tigeritsk  Mountains, 
those  pierced  by  the  Biya  below  Lake  Teletskoye,  and  the 
Kuznetskiy  Atatau,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Abakan.  A 
number  of  smaller,  much  lower,  and  shorter  chains  faintly 
appear  as  outer  walls  of  this  extensive  alpine  region. 
As  for  the  Great  Altai,  or  Altain-Nauru,  ouf  knowledge  of 
which  has  been  greatly  increased  by  the  recent  explora- 
tions of  M  Potanin,'  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  south-western 
border  ridge  of  the  Kbobdo  plateau,  with  its  steep  slope 
facing  towards  the  wide  Dzungarian  depression,  or  rather 
to  the  broad  trench  of  the  Ulungur.  Its  direction  is 
nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  above,  running  from  north- 
west to  south-east,  like  the  '''-.rbagatai  Mountains  (see 
TuR&ESTAx),  and  it  is  continued  farther  to  the  south-east 
by  the  Irdyn-ulaand  Artsa  bogdo  Mountains,  which  separ- 
ate the  eastern  Gobi  from  the  Tarim  depression.  It  is 
most  probable  that  upheavals,  having  the  same  north- 
western direction  (which,  according  to  M.  Mushketoff,  are 
in  Central  Asia  more  recent  than  the  north-eaGtern  ones), 
have  to  a  certain  extent  modified  the  old  north-eastern 
chains  of  the  Altai,  and  complicated  the  chains  of  its 
alpine  region  If  so,  the  structure  of  the  Altai  would  be 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  Turkestan  mountains.  A  chain 
having  a  north-western  direction — the  Salair  Mountains — 
shoots  off  from  the  main  ranges  of  the  Altai,  between  the 
Tom  and  the  Tchumysh  ;  it  is  about  170  miles  in  length, 
with  a  width  of  nearly  60  miles,  and  contains  the  best 
silver  mines  of  the  region,  as  also  several  gold-washings, 
jits  upheaval  belongs  to  a  more  recent  epoch  than  that  of 
[the  Sailughem  ridge,  and  (like  the  mountains  of  Turkestan, 
having  a  north  west  direction)  it  is  due  to  dioritic  rocks. 
In  the  Kuznetsk  depression  it  is  covered  with  depo.sits  of 
the  Lower  and  Upper  Carboniferous,  containing  beds  of 
coal.  The  Kuznetskiy  Afatau,  in  which  Humboldt  saw 
one  of  his  meridional  upheavals,  consists  of  a  series  of 
ridges  running  south-west  to  northeast,  with  further  con- 
tinuations within  South  Yeniseisk.' 

The  alpine  region  of  the  Altni  is  most  picturesque ;  most  of  its 
chains,  rising  over  8000  and  9000  feet,  are  snowclad,  and  a  great 
glacier  descends  from  the  hollows  under  the  Byelukha  |>eak  ;  several 
other  less  known  glaciers  occur  in  the  different  *'  byetkis"  (snowclad 
rhains).  A  thick  forest  vegetation  clothes  the  mountain  slopes, 
while  beautiful  valleys,  often  of  great  length,  such  as  that  of  tho 
Bukhtarma  (180  miles)  or  that  of  the  Uimon  and  iCoksu,  offer  on 
thei'r  fertile  and  well-sheltered  flnore  most  favourable  conditions  for 
agriculture.  Several  lakes  are  met  with,  some,  like  the  Juvlukul 
and  Kendykty-kul  on  the  small  alpine  plateaus,  at  heights  where 
only  the  dwarf  hirch  grows  and  the  polar  marmot  takes  up  its  abode, 


^    •  Skttcha  of  K.  Vf.  Mongolia.  St  Petersburg.  1883  (Russian). 

-  •  Kropotkine,  "  Orographical  Sketch  of  the  Districts  of  MiousinKk 

mi  Krasnoyarsk,"  in  Mem.  Rius.  Oeogr.  Soe.,  vol.  v.,  1875. 


while  two  others.  Lakes  Kotyvanskoye  and  Teletskoye.  respectivclj 
1170  and  ICOO  feet  above  the  sea,  from  their  position  amiast  steep 
and  picturesque  mountains,  recall  those  of  Geneva  and  Lucerne. 

The  Altai  flora  is  very  rich.  Although  the  European  flora  (in- 
cluding the  beech)  which  clothed  the  Altai  at  a  recent  period  has 
disappeared,  and  the  Siberian  flora  invades  its  hillfoots  from  the 
north-west,  while  the  steppe  flora  is  advancing  from  the  south, 
still  in  a  zone  ranging  from  1000  to  6000  feet  above  the  sea  the 
botanist  has  to  admire  a  flora  rich  in  bright  flowers,  tall  grasses, 
and  shrubs,  several  of  which  are  now  common  ornamental  plants 
in  European  gardens;  and  the  zoologist  discovers  in  the  Altai  tho 
meeting-place  of  the  northern  fauna  (including  the  reindeer)  with 
that  of  the  high  Central-Asian  plateau  (including  the  tiger  and 
the  two-bumped  camel  of  bactriana). 

A  strip  of  elevated  plains  or  grassy  steppes,  also  about 
200  miles  in  breadth,  girdles  the  alpine  region  upon  the 
north  west.  Its  outer  border  can  be  roughly  indicated  by 
a  line  running  north-east  from  Lake  Gorkoye  to  Tomsk. 
They  have  an  average  altitude  of  from  700  to  1000 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  are  covered  with  a  luxuriant 
grass  vpgetation ;  the  conditions  for  agriculture  are  excel- 
lent, and  Russian  villages  are  rapidly  springing  up.  The 
south  west  portion  is  known  as  the  Kumandinsk  steppe. 
An  innumerable  succession  of  small  lakes — rivers  in  the 
process  of  formation — cover  this  steppe,  where  we  have  a 
system  of  parallel  undulations,  resulting  in  tributaries  of  the 
Ob,  all  flowing  north-eastward  with  remarkable  regularity. 

Beyond  the  high  plains,  that  is,  all  over  north-western 
Tomsk,  are  the  lowlands,  which  may  be  subdivided  into 
two  portions, — the  Baraba  steppe  in  the  south-west  (see 
Tobolsk),  and  the  marshy  region  of  the  Ob  (the  Vasyugan 
and  Narym  regions).  The  latter  is  one  boundless  marsh, 
a  few  settlements  of  native  hunters  occurring  only  along 
the  rivers.  The  interior  is  for  the  most  part  inaccessible 
alike  to  boats  and  tcv  human  feet.  Low  hills,  or  rather 
swellings,  intersect  it,  but  even  the  highest  points,  barely 
200  or  300  feet  above  the  sea,  are  covered  witl)  marshy 
forests.  The  forests  themselves  grow  on  marshy  ground  ; 
but  where  the  trees  disappear  one  sees  for  hundreds  of 
miles  nothing  but  green  flowery  carpets,  which,  when 
trodden  on,  treacherously  yield  under  the  unwary  traveller. 
Similar  in  character  must  have  been  the  marshes  in  which 
the  Siberian  mammoths  and  rhinoceroses  of  the  Quater- 
nary epoch  found  their  graves.  Only  the  light  and  broad- 
hoofed  reindeer,  but  not  the  elk,  can  cross  them.  This 
inhospitable  region  is  inhabited  only  by  Ostiaks,  who  have 
been  driven  into  it  by  stress  of  circumstances,  and  support 
themselves  partly  by  fishing  and  partly  by  hunting. 

The  Sailughem  ridge,  and  the  high  Khobdo  plateau  as  well,  con- 
sist of  granites,  syenites.  pori»hyrics  covered  only  with  the  oldest 
metamorphic  slates  belonging  to  the  Archiic  formation  (Huronian 
and  Laurentian).  The  structure  of  the  outer  chains  of  the  Altai 
is  more  complicated.  Their  backbone  is  also  composed  of  granites, 
.porphvries.  and  porphyrites  covered  with  metamorphic  slates  which 
are  intersected  by  layers  of  crystalline  limestones,  breccias,  and 
veins  of  jade.'  Diorites.  diabases,  augitic  porphyries,  and  hyper- 
sthcnites  also  appear,  but  they  are  of  a  more  recent  origin.  Silurian 
clay-slates  arc  widely  spread  in  the  southern  Altni,  Devonian 
slates  and  limestones  are  also  developed  in  the  southern  Altai,  and 
the  metalliferous  deposits  of  Zmeinogorsk,  Petrovsk,  Riddersk, 
ic. ,  belong  to  that  age.  C.irbonifcrous  dolomitic  limestones  and 
slates  are  Widely  spread  both  in  the  southern  and  northern  AltaL 
After  the  Carboniferous  epoch  the  southern  Altai  w.is  not  again  sub- 
merged, while  tho  northern  Altai  was  covered  by  the  Jurassic  sea, 
and  has  thick  Jurassic  deposits  containing  a  copious  fossil  flora  and 
rich  beds  of  coal.  Basaltic  eruptions,  dating  from  the  Jurassic 
period,  have  been  found  in  the  Salair  Mountains.  Thick  diluvial 
deposits  cover  the  whole  area,  and  in  many  valleys  are  traces  of 
immense  former  glaciers  ;  in  fact,  the  whole  of  the  Sailughem  ridge 
must  at  OTIC  titne  have  been  clotherl  with  an  ice-cap.* 

The  .southriii  Altai  is  rich  in  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  line;  whila 
in  the  AhLiu  are  concealed  its  chief  auriferous  alluvial  (ordilavi.il) 
deposits,  iron-ores,  and  coal-scams.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  Altai 
is  really  immense,  hut  only  a  verv  few  of  the  mines  alreadv  known 
arc  worked.     In  18S1  4030  lb  of' gold,  14.820  lb  of  silver,  13.100 

,    "  Prof.  Mushketoff  in  Picturaqut  Russia,  vol.  xi.  « 

•"  •  See  Potaniu,  Sketchts  of  X.  W.  Mongolia,  vol.  iii.  pp.  S,  9  «g. 


-i 


T  0  M  — T  O  N 


439 


cwti  of  lead,  6720  cwts.  of  copper,  240,000  cwta.  of  coal,  330,000 
cwts.  of  salt,  and  30,000  cwts.  of  bitter  saH'  were  obtained.  In 
the  iame  year  onlv  3000  cwts.  of  iron  were  manafactured,  and.that 
meul  is  still  imported  from  the  Urals.  The  jade,  beautiful 
porphyries,  and  the  like  of  the  district,  which  are  cbt  into  works 
of  art*  at  the  crown  works  of  Kotyvan,  are  well  known  through 
the  urns  and  vases  shown  at  th§  St  Petersburg  Hermitage.  The 
mineral  waters  of  the  Altai  are  of'Tiigh  quality. 

Tomsk  13  watered  mainly  by  the  Ob  and  its  tributaries,  only  its 
south-east  comer  draining  into  the  Abakan,  a  tributary  of  the 
YeniseL  The  Ob,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Biya  and  EatuiS, 
has  within  the  government  a  course  of  more  than  800  miles,  and  is 
navigated  as  far  as  Barnaut  and  Biysk  its  tributaries,  the  Tom 
(450  miles),  the  Vasyngan  (530  miles),  the  Ket  (230  miles),  and 
the  Tym  (200  miles),  are  all  navigable.  The  Tchutyiu  and  the 
Tchumysh  are  also  great  rivers.  Of  tributaries  of  the  Irtish,  the 
Bukhtanna,  the  Om,  the  Uba,  and  the  Tara  are  worthy  of  notice. 
As  many  as  1500  lakes  have  been  counted  on  the  maps,  but  this 
number  is  exceeded  by  the  reality.  Some  of  them  are  alpine ; 
others  dot  the  steppes  or  the  marshy  tracts.  Lake  Tchany,  not- 
withstanding its  rapid  desiccation,  still  covers  1265  square  miles. 
Many  brackish  lakes,  Kutundinsk,  Kutchuk,  be,  attain  a  great 
size,  and  some  small  salt  lakes  yield  about  100,000  cwts.  of  salL 

The  climate  is  very  severe,  and  has,  mureover,  the  dissdvantage 
of  being  very  wet  in  the  uorth-west  The  average  yearly  tempera- 
tores  at  Tomsk,  Kainsk,  and  Bamant  are  30'-2,  31',  and  32°7 
(January.  4°.  -6°-2,  and  3°-7;  July^  65°-5,  6S'-5.  and  62°:). 
The  Altai  steppes,  enjoying  a  much  drier  climate  than  the  low- 
lands, are  covered  with  a  beiutifal  vegetation,  and  in  the  sheltered 
Talleys  com  is  grown  to  heights  of  3400  and  4250  feet. 

The  population,  which  is  rapidly  increasing,  in  1882  reached 
1,134,750.  The  Russians  are  in  a  large  majority,  the  indigenous 
inhabitants  numbering  in  1879  only  63,600,  or  66  per  cent,  of 
the  aggregate  population.  They  include  23,600  Altaian  Tartars, 
5730  Teleutes,  17,020  Mountain  Kalmucks  (see  Tartars),  10,000 
Tomsk  Tartare,  2920  Samoyedes,  and  4210  Ostiaks  The  prevail- 
ing religion  is  Greek-Orthodox,  but  there  are  also  some  50,000 
Nonconformists,  7320  Catholics,  2600  Jews,  10,700  Mohammedans, 
and  about  28,000  pagans. 

Agriculture  is  the  prevailing  occupation.  It  is  most  productive 
on  the  elevated  plains  of  Tomsk,  Mariinsk,  Barnaut,  Kuznetsk, 
and  Biysk.  Cattle-breeding  is  much  developed,  especially  in  the 
Kutundinsk  steppe;  and  bee-keeping  is  an  important  source  of 
wealth.  Fishing  and  hunting  are  extensively  carried  on  in  the 
forest  region.  Mining  occupies  several  thousands  of  men  in  the 
Altai.  Manufactures  are  insignificant,  the  aggregate  production 
— chiefly  from  distilleries  and  tsnueries — hardly  amounting  to 
jC250,000.  Trade  is  actively  carried  on  at  Tomsk  and  Barnaut,  which 
are  two  great  centres  for  the  expojt  and  import  trade  of  Siberia  with " 
Russia.  The  Biysk  merchants  carry  on  exchange  trade  with  ilon- 
golia  and  China.  There  are  eight  gymnasia  (696  boys  and  569 
girls  in  1883)  and  225  primary  schools  (5680  boys,  1730  girls). 
The  government  is  divided  into  six  districts,  the  chief  towns  of 
which  (with  populations  in  1884)  are  Tomsk  (31,380),  Barnaut 
(17,180).  Biysk  (18,960),  Kainsk  (4050),  Kuznetsk  (7310),  and 
Hariinsk  (13,090).  Narj-m  (1600)  also  has  muuiciiial  institutions ; 
it  is  the  centre  for  the  administration  of  the  wide  Narym  region. 
Of  the  above  towns  only  Tomsk  and  Barnaut  have  the  aspect  of 
European  towns.  Barnaut,  capital  of  the  mining  district  of  the 
Altai,  which  belongs  to  the  "  Cibinetof  the  Emperor,"  is  a  wealthy 
city,  with  a  mining  school  and  laboratory,  a  botanic  garden,  a 
museum  of  mining  and  natural  history,  and  a  meteorological 
observatory  Kotyvan,  with  a  stone-cuttiog  manufactory,  has 
12,250  inhabitants.  Several  mining  villages  are  more  important 
than  the  district  towns: — Zyryanovsk  (silver-mine  ;  4500  inhabit- 
ants), Eidderek,  Zmeinogorsk  (6160),  Suzunsk  (5400),  and  Salairsk 
(3500).  (P.  A.  K.) 

TOMSK,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated 
on  the  Tom  at  its  confluence  with  the  Ushaika,  27  miles 
above  its  junction  with  the  Ob,  and  2377  miles  from 
Moscow  It  is  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Siberia,  second 
only  to  Irkutsk  in  population  and  trade  importance  The 
great  Siberian  highway  from  Tyumen  to  Irkutsk  passes 
through  Tomsk,  and  it  is  the  terminus  of  the  navigation 
by  steamer  from  the  Urals  to  Siberia.  It  has,  moreover, 
commonication  by  steamer  with  Barnaut  and  Biysk  in  the 
AltaL  The  position  of  Tomsk  determines  its  character, 
which  is  not  that  of  an  administrative  centre,  like  so 
many  Russian  cities,  but  that  of  an  entrepot  of  wares, 
with  many  storehouses  and  wholesale  shops  Before  1824 
it  was  a  mere  village;  but  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
the  district  it  grew  rapidly ;  and,  although  -the  immense 
'  Yadr3tsofr*s  Siberia 


wealth  that  accumulated  tuddenljr  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
proprietors  of  gold  diggings  was  as  rapidly  squandered, 
it  continued  to  maintain  its  importance,  o-ving  to  the 
navigation  on  the  Irtish  and  the  Ob,  which  meanwhile  had 
grown  up.  It  is  built  on  two  terraces' on  the  high  right 
bank  of  the  Tom,  and  is  di»iu-".d  into  two  parts  by  the 
Ushaika.  The  streets  are  rather  narrow  and  steep  ;  many 
houses  of  the  richer  merchants  are  of  stone,  but  father 
heavy  in  appearance,  and  altogether  the  aspect  of  the 
'Streets  is  not  attractive.  The  best  building  is  that  of  the 
future  university,  which  is  a  spacious  and  elegant  struc- 
ture, with  ample  accommodation  for  library,  museums,  and 
clinical  hospitals.  The  Government  has  not  as  yet  given 
permission  to  inaugurate  the  building.  A  large  cathedral, 
begun  some  five-and-twenty  years  ago  by  proprietors  of 
gold  diggings,  collapsed  after  considerable  progress  had 
been  made.  The  industries  are  almost  entirely  confined 
to  tatining  and  the  manufacture  of  carriages.  The  trade 
is  of  great  importance,  Tomsk  being  not  only  a  centre 
for  traffic  in  local  produce,  in  which  sledges  (50,000 
every  year)  and  cars  are  prominent  items,  but  also  for 
the  trade  of  Siberia  with  Russia.  The  population  in  1884 
was  31,380. 

TONGA.     See  Friendly  Islajtds. 

TONG-KING,  Tcng-Klsg,  Tonqdin,  or,  as  it  is  called  See  voL 
by  the  Annamese,  Dong  king,  consists  of  that  portion  of  ^^xi  PL 
Annam  between  18°  N.  lat.  and  the  frontiers  of  the 
Chinese  provinces  of  Kwang-se  and  Yun-nan,  with  an  area 
of  60,000  square  miles.  (5n  the  W.  it  is  bounded  by  the 
Tran-ninh  range,  which  forms  the  limit  of  the  Lao  states, 
and  on  the  R  by  the  sea.  In  shape  it  resembles,  roughlj 
speaking,  an  isosceles  triangle,  having  its  apex  at  its  jane- 
ture  with  Annam  and  its  base  along  the  Chinese  boundary. 
The  name  Tong-king,  "  the  eastern  capital,"  was  originallj 
applied  to  Hanoi,  but  was  eventually  adopted  as  that  of  the 
whole  country.     It  is  the  same  word  as  Tokio  (q.v.). 

Geographically  Tong-king  is  divided  into  three  well- 
defined  areas.  First,  there  is  the  delta  of  the  Song-koi 
("  Red  river")  and  its  affluents,  which,  beginning  at  Sontay, 
widens  out  into  the  low  lands  which  constitute  the  most 
fertile  district  in  Tong-king,  and  within  which  are  situated 
the  principal  cities  of  the  country.  Here  is  grown  the  rice 
which  constitutes  39  per  cent  of  the  total  exports  trotD 
Tong-king,  and  which  is  reckoned  in  the  Eong-Kong 
market  to  be  equal  in  quality  to  the  rice  from  Siam  and 
superior  to  that  from  Cochin-China.  During  the  rainj 
season  this  part  of  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  the 
embankments,  is  under  water,  but  notwithstanding  this  the 
climate  is  fairly  healthy,  and  the  prevalence  of  fever  and 
dysentery  is  not  so  great  as  might  be  expected.  From  the 
delta  northward  and  westward  rise  plateau  districts,  while 
westward  of  103°  E.  long,  there  stretches  a  forest  region 
about  which  very  little  is  known,  but  which  is  said  by  the 
natives  to  be  inhabited  only  by  savages  and  wild  beasts. 

Politically  the  country  is  divided  into  sixteen  provinces, 
of  which  the  following  seven  are  in  the  delta  mentioned  :— 
Bac-ninh,  Sontay,  Hanoi,  Hai-Dzjong,  Hung-yen,  Nam- 
Dinh,  and  Ninh-Binh.  Five  provinces  constitute  the 
upland  districts,  viz.,  CaoBanh,  Lang  son,  Thai-Nguyen, 
Tuyen-Kwan,  and  Kwang-yen ;  while  the  forests  form  the 
province  of  Hung-hoa.  The  main  geographical  t&dture  in 
the  country  is  the  Song-koi,  which,  taking  its  rise  near 
Tali  Fu,  in  Yun-nan,  enters  Tong-king  at  Lao-kai  ("  the 
Lao  boundarv "),  and  flows  thence  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  to  the  Gulf  of  Tong-king.  It  was  this  river  which 
mainly  in  the  first  instance  attracted  the  Frencl  .  Tong- 
king,  as  it  was  believed  by  the  explorers  that,  forming  the 
shortest  route  by  water  to  the  rich  province  of  Yun-nan,  it 
would  prove  abo  to  be  the  most  convenient  and  expedi- 
tious means  of  transporting  the  tin,  copper,  silver,  and 


440 


TON  G-K  I  N  G 


gold  which  are  known  to  abound  there.  This  belief  has, 
however,  proved  fallacious.  The  upper  course  of  the 
stream  is  constantly  impeded  by  rapids,  the  lowest  being 
about  30  miles  above  Hung-hoa.  Beyond  this  point  navi- 
gation i.s  impracticable  during  the  dry  season,  and  at  all 
other  times  of  the  year  goods  have  to  be  there  transferred 
into  flat-bottomed  boats  built  for  the' purpose.  Within 
the  limits  of  Yun-nan  the  navigation  is  still  more  difficult. 
Near  Sontay  the  Song-koi  receives  the  waters  of  the  Black 
river,  the  Clear  river,  and  other  streams,  and  from  that 
.point  divides  into  a  network  of  waterways  which  empty 
themselves  by  coufitless  outlets  into  the  sea. 

Hanoi,  the  capital,  is  a  fine  city,  and  stands  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Song-koi,  at  a  distance  of  SO  miles  from  the 
sea.  The  commercial  town  extends  along  the  water  face 
for  a  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half,  while  behind  it  stands 
the  citadel,  which  encloses  within  its  walls  tlie  palace,  the 
treasury,  the  court  of  justice,  the  royal  pagoda,  the  prison, 
the  barracks,  public  offices,  and  official  residences.  Era- 
broidery  and  mother-of-pearl  work  are  the  principal  in- 
dustries of  Hanoi,  which  never  has  been  and  probably  never 
will  be  a  great  commercial  centre.  But,  notwithstanding 
this,  the  population  is  said  formerly  to  have  numbered 
150,000,  a  number  .which  has  of  late  years  probably  been 
reduced  by  at  least  one-third. 

Next  in  importance  to  Hanoi  is  Nam-Dinh,  on  one  of 
the  lower  branches  of  the  Song-koi.  It  is  the  centre  of 
an  extremely  rich  silk  and  rice  district,  and  was  before  the 
war  a  great  resort  of  Chinese  merchants.  But  the  chief 
place  of  trade  is  Hai-phong,  on  the  Song-tam-bac  Canal,  14 
miles  from  the  sea.  This  is  the  port  of  Tong-king,  and 
its  trade  represents  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country. 
In  1880,  the  last  year  of  anything  like  normal  trade, 
goods  were  imported  to  the  value  of  5,407,315  francs, 
and  the  exports  amounted  to  7,507,528  francs.  Of  the 
imports  34  per  cent,  consisted  of  English  cotton  goods  and 
yarn,  21  per  cent,  of  opium,  11  per  cent,  of  Chinese  medi- 
cines, 9  per  cent,  of  Chinese  water-pipe  tobacco,  5  per  cent. 
of  tea,  and  20  per  cent,  of  miscellaneous  goods.  From 
97  to  98  per  cent,  of  these  goods  came  from  Hong-Kong. 
Saigon  furnished  about  i  per  cent.,  and  rather  more  than 
2  per  cent,  represented  the  trade  from  Annam  and  else- 
where. The  exports  were  in  the  following  proportions  : — 
rice,  39  per  cent.;  raw  silk  and  eilk  piece  goods,  21  ;  tin, 
16;  lacquer  oil,  6;  and^  miscellaneous  goods,  18.  Of 
these  79  per  cent,  were  shipped  to  Hong-Kong,  16  per 
cent,  went  to  Saigon,  and  the  remaining  5  per  cent,  were 
distributed  among  the  coast  ports. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  doubtless  con- 
siderable, though  so  little  has  been  done  in  the  direction 
of  working  it  that  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  idea  of  its 
richness.  According  to  Major-General  Mesny,  there  are 
flourishing  gold-fields  in  seventeen  districts,  while  silver 
and  copper  mining  occupies  a  great  deal  of  native  and 
Chinese  labour.  Only  very  small  quantities  of  these  min- 
erals, however,  are  produced  in  evidence. 

The  population  of  Tong-king  is  estimated  at  about 
12,000,000,  and  consists  of  Tong-kingese,  Chinese,  and  an 
admixture  of  Lao  from  beyond  the  western  frontier.  The 
Tong-kingese  belong  to  the  Indo-Chinese  stock.  They  are 
taller  and  a  finer  people  than  the  Annamese,  and  they  are 
more  frivolous  and  excitable  than  their  northern  neigh- 
bours, the  Chinese.  Their  intelligence  is,  generally  speak- 
ing, of  a  very  low  order  ;  they  are  dirty  in  their  habits  ; 
and  their  natural  timidity  serves  to  make  them  deceitfol. 
As  traders  they  show  little  enterprise,  and  are  quite  unable 
to  compete  with  the  Chinese,  into  whose  hands  the  com- 
merce had,  before  the  arrival  of  the  French,  entirely  fallen. 
Their  spoken  language  is  allied  to  the  Cambodian,  while 
Chinese  forms  the  medium  of  literary  communication. 


The  Chinese  records  cnrry  the  history  of  Tong-king  as  far  bhoir 
as  the  22d  century  B.C.,  but,  as  the  data  are  neitlier  well  authenti- 
cated nor  particularly  interesting,  we  need  not  dwell  upon  Ihem. 
There  is,  however,  one  mention  of  Tong-king,  or  Yueb,  as  it  was 
then  called,  in  the  12th  century  B.C.,  which  acquires  importance 
from  the  fact  that  ambassadors  from  that  country  are  said  to  have 
arrived  at  the  Chinese  court,  bringing  with  them  "south-pointing 
chariots."  These  are  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  mariner's- 
corapasses,  but  it  is  difficult  to  pronounce  any  opinion  on  a  state- 
ment so  obscure.  During  the  reign  of  Che  Hwang-te  (218  B.C.), 
the  emperor  who  made  himself  famous  by  building  the  Great  Wall 
of  China  and  burning  the  books,  a  Chinese  army  invaded  Tong-king 
and  captured  the  town  of  Luliang,  possibly  the  modeiii  Hanoi, 
The  occupation,  however,  was  only  temporary,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  rise  to  power  of  the  Han  dynasty  that  any  serious  attempt  was 
made  to  subjugate  tho  country.  At  that  time  a  Chinese  general, 
Chaou  T'o,  who  had  established  a  principality  consisting  of  the 
two  modern  provinces  of  Kwang-tung  and  Kwang-se,  with  his 
capital  at  Canton,  invaded  Tong-king,  but  was  defeated  and  driven 
out  of  the  country  by  the  ruler,  An-yang,  whose  victories  were 
achieved  mainly  by  the  help  of  a  foreign  "divine  mechanic." 
This  man,  whoever  he  may  have  been,  seems  to  have  been  thrown 
aside  after  serving  his  immediate  purpose ;  and,  having  thus 
deprived  himself  of  his  xight  hand,  An-yang  fell  an  easy  victim 
when  attacked  by  a  second  army  sent  by  Chaou  T'o.  On  the 
subjugation  of  the  empire  by  the  Han  sovereign,  Chaou  T'o's 
principality  was  absorbed  with  the  rest,  and  in  116  B.C.  Tong-king 
became  a  dependency  of  China. 

But  this  connexion  brought  no  peace  to  the  country,  and  for 
centuries  rebellion  followed  on  rebellion.  A  particular  uprising 
in  the  1st  century  is  noticeable  from  two  sisters,  Cheng  Tseh  ana 
Cheng  Urh,  leading  the  rebel  forces  against  the  Chinese  garrisons, 
with  such  success  that  the  celebrated-  Ma  Yuen  had  to  be  sent 
against  the  malcontents.  After  an  arduous  campaign  Ma  dis- 
persed the  rebels  and  captured  and  executed  the  two  sisters,  thus 
putting  an  end  to  the  rebellion.  The  next  foiirteen  centuries  fur- 
nish a  perpetual  record  of  wars  and  rumours  of  wars,  the  discon- 
nected narrr.tive  of  which  is  generally  uninteresting  and  sometimes 
unintelligible.  In  1427  Li  Loi  acquired  the  throne,  as  so  many 
of  his  predecessors  had  done,  by  violent  means,  but,  unlike  them, 
he  established  some  degree  of  peace  and  order  in  the  land.  In 
the  following  century,  however,  the  spirit  of  revolt  broke  out,  and 
one  of  his  successors  owed  the  maintenance  of  his  throne  to  tho 
skill  of  his  general  Nguyen  Dzo,  on  whom  the  title  of  hereditary 
viceroy  was  consequently  conferred.  This  viceroy  gradually  assumed 
the  supreme  authority  in  the  district  under  his  control  and  virtually 
separated  Tong-king  from  Annam,  holding  the  first  under  his  own 
sway  and  leaving  tho  southern  portion  of  the  country  to  the  r&i 
faineants  In  this  disunited  condition  the  two  countries  remained 
during  the  17th  century  and  part  of  the  18th,  till  a  successor  of 
Nguyen  invaded  Annam,  captured  the  imperial  city  of  Hue,  and 
dethroned  the  king,  Gia  Long,  who  fied  to  Siani.  The  Si&mese 
sovereign  entertained  the  fugitive  with  hospitality,  but  declined  to 
help  him  to  recover  his  throne.  It  happened,  however,  that  st  this 
time  (1787)  the  Jesuit  establishment  of  Bangkok  was  presided  over 
by  Bish()p  Pigneaux  de  Eetaine,  who  thought  he  saw  in  the  political 
condition  of  Annam  a  means  of  establishing  the  power  of  France  in 
the  east^n  portion  of  Indo-China.  With  this  object  he  proposed, 
to  Gia  Long  that  he  should  accompany  him  to  Paris  to  enlist  the 
aid  of  Louis  XVI.  for  the  recovery  of  his  throne.  This  the  king 
declined  to  do,  but  as  a  compromise  he  sent  his  eldest  son.  The 
young  prince  was  cordially  received  by  Louis,  before  whom  the  bishop 
laid  the  following  reasons  for  the  interference  of  France  on  behalf 
of  Gia  Long.  "  The  balance  of  political  power  in  India  appears  at 
the  present  moment  to  be  largely  in  favour  of  the  Euglishi  and 
one  may  be  justified  in  looking  upon  it  as  a  matter  of  no  little 
difficulty  to  restore  the  equilibrium.  In  nfy  opinion  the  establish- 
ment of  a  French  colony  in  Cochin-China  will  be  the  surest  and 
most  efficaciona  means  to  the  end.  .  .  .  The  most  certain  way  of 
damaging  the  English  in  India  is  to  ruin,  or  at  any  rate  to  weaken, 
her  commerce  in  time  of  peace.  Being  situated  nearer  to  China, 
we  should  undoubtedly  absorb  mnch  of  her  trade.  .  .  .  In  time  of 
war  it  would  be  still  more  easy  to  stop  all  commerce  between  China 
and  any  hostile  nation.  .  .  .  From  such  a  coign  of  vantage  it 
would  be  easy  to  interfere  with  the  designs  which  the  English  evi- 
dently have  of  extending  their  frontier  more  to  the  east " 

The  embassy  resulted  in  a  treaty  with  Gia  Long,  by  which  the 
French  king  engaged  to  restore  that  monarch  to  his  throne  on  con- 
dition that  he  accepted  the  virtual  protectorship  of  France  over 
Annam.  But  even  before  the  initial  steps  towards  the  (fulfilment 
of  this  contract  could  be  carried  out,  the  political  uprising  which 
finally  brought  the  French  king  to  tho  scaffold  made  all  interference 
in  the  East  impossible.  In  these  circumstances  the  bishop  deter-  ' 
mined  to  raise  a  sufficient  force  from  the  French  and  other  adven- 
turers who  then  frequented  India  and  the  neighbouring  countries, 
and,  with  an  army  so  recruited,  he  landed  in  Annam.  The  Anna- 
mese resistance  was  of  the  feebleat  kind  ;  the  usurper's  power  w«» 


T  O  N  G  -  K  I  N  G 


441 


broken  -al  the  first  enceisifcr,  and  Gia  Long  once  again  Aseeiulod 
liis  tU^qoe.  As  a  reward  for  the  services  thus  rendered  to  him, 
he  extendTeda  liberal  protection  to  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries 
and  their  converts,  and  engaged  French  otncers  to  fortify  his  towns 
and  to  drill  his  troops.  He  soon  found,  hc»\"^er,  that  his  new 
allies  had  more  ambitious  designs  than  could  be  satisfied  by  doing 
him  sen-ice.  He  therefore  withdrew  hLs  countanauce  from  them, 
and  emphasized  his  displeasure  by  leaving  his  throne  away  from  his 
eldest  SOD,  who  h.ad  pleaded  his  cause  in  Paris,  and  by  giving  it  to 
hij  youngest  son.  This  change  of  policy  told,  as  was  natural,  with 
greatest  force  on  the  missionaries  and  their  converts  in  the  interior 
of  the  country.  From  1833  to  1839  eleven  missionaries  were  put 
{o  death,  and  thousands,  it  is  said,  of  the  native  Christians  suffered 
•  martyrdom.  Keitherchangeofsovereign  nor  varying  circumstances 
brooght  any  relief  to  the  persecuted  Christians,  until  in  1859  the 
French  Government  determined  to  intervene  on  their  behalf.  In 
that  year  Admiral  Rigault  de  Cenouilly  took  Saigon  by  assault, 
and  was  attempting  to  open  negotiations  with  the  king  of  Annam, 
when  the  outbreak  of  the  China  war  compoUed  him  to  satisfy  him- 
stlf  with  holding  the  captured  town,  bo  soon,  however,  as  the 
Peking  treaty  was  signed,  the  French  resumed  active  operations  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Saigon  and  took  possession  of  the  provinces 
of  Mitto  and  Bienhoa  in  Cochin-China.  These  victories  led  to  the 
coDclosioa  of  a  treaty  with  the  king,  Tu  Due,  which,  however, 
did  not  prevent  the  French  from  adding  the  provinces  .of  Kinh- 
laong,  Chandoc,  and  Ha-tien  to  their  acquired  territory. 
I  Having  tlias  firmly  established  themselves  in  Annam,  they  began 
to  turn  their  attention  to  Tong-king,  attracted  by  the  reported 
richness  of  its  mineral  wealth.  They  found  a  ready  pretext  for 
interfering  in  its  atfairs  in  the  disturbances  arising  from  the  in- 
vasion of  its  northern  provinces  by  the  disbanded  followers  of  the 
Tai-ping  rebels.  Acting  on  the  protectorship  which  they  professed 
to  exercise  over  all  the  territories  of  Tu  Due,  they  proposed  to 
him  that  a  joint  expedition  composed  of  French  and  Annamese 
troops  should  be  sent  to  quell  the  disturbances.  On  Tu  Due  declin- 
ing to  accede,  the  French  admiral  was  on  the  point  of  starting 
"  to  protect"  Tong  king,  when  as  before  the  outbreak  of  war  put 
an  end  to  the  enterprise.  The  events  of  1870  forbade  any  advance 
in  the  direction  of  Tong-king,  but  the  return  of  peace  In  Europe 
was  once  more  the  signal  for  the  renewal  of  hostilities  in  the  East. 
The  appearance  of  Garnier's  work  on  his  expedition  nJthe  Mekong 
aroused  again  an  interest  in  Tong-king,  and  the  reported  wealth  of 
the  country  added  the  powerful  motive  of  self-interest  to  the  yearn- 
ings of  patriotism.  Already  M.  Dnpuis,  a  trader  who  in  the  pursuit 
of  hiscalliughad  penetrated  into  Yun-nan,  and  had  thus  discovered 
that  the  higher  waters  of  the  Song-koi  were  navigable,  had  visited 
Hanoi  with  a  small  force  of  desperadoes,  and  was  aMcmpting  to 
negotiate  for  the  passage  up  the  river  of  himself  and  a  cargo  of  mili- 
tary stores  for  the  Chinese  authorities  ia  Yun-nan.  Meanwhile 
Captain  Senez  appeared  from  Saigon,  having  received  instructions 
to  open  the  route  to  French  commerce.  But  to  neither  the  trader 
nor  the  naval  officer  would  the  Tong-kingese  lend  a  favourable  ear, 
and  in  default  of  official  permission  Dupuis  determined  to  force  his 
way  up  the  river.  This  he  succeeded  in  doing,  but  arrived  too  late, 
for  he  found  the  rebellion  crushed  and  the  stores  no  longer  wanted. 
■  On  his  return  to  Hanoi,  Dupnis  found  that  the  opposition  of  the 
aathorities  had  gathered  strength  during  his  absence.  His  arrival 
served  to  restore  the  position  of  the  French,  and,  not  wishing  to 
make  an  open  attack  upon  them,  the  Tong-langese  general  wrote 
to  the  king,  begging  him  to  induce  the  governor  of  Saigon  to 
remove  the  intruder.  An  order  was  thereupon  issued  calling  upon 
Dnpuis  to  leave  the  country-  This  he  declined  to  do,  and,  after' 
some  negotiations,  Garmer  with  a  detachment  was  sent  to  Hanoi 
to  do  the  best  ho  could  in  the  difficult  circumstances.  Gamier 
threw  hiniselX  heart  and  soul  into  Dopuis's  projects,  and,  when  the 
ToDg-kiugesu  authorities  refused  to  treat  with  him  except  on  the 
subject  ol  Dupuls's  expulsion,  hfr  attacked  the  citadel  on  November 
20,  1873,  and  carried  it  by  assault.  Having  thus  secured  his  posi- 
tion, he  sent  to  Saigon  for  reinforcements,  and  meanwhile  sent 
small  detachments  against  the  five  other  important  fortresses  in 
the  delta  lUiiug-yen,  Phu-ly,  Hai  Dzuong,  Ninh-Binh,  and  Nara- 
Dmh),  and  captured  them  all.  The  Tongkingcse  now  called  in 
the  help  of  Liu  Vnng-fa,  thu  leader  of  the  *' I^ck  Flags,"  who 
at  once  marched  wnth  a  large  force  to  the  scene  of  action.  Within 
a  few  days  ho  recaptured  several  villages  near  Hanoi,  and  so 
tlireal^euing  did  his  atntude  appear  that  Garnier,  who  hari  hurried 
back  after  capturing  Nam-Dinh,  made  a  sortie  from  the  citadel. 
The  rVi^vemeut  pnjvcd  a  disastrous  orje,  and  resulted  in  the  death 
of  Cartilw  and  of  lus  second  in  command,  Baluy  d'Avricpurt. 

Meantvhilt;  the  news  of  O.irnier's  hostilities  had  alarmed  the 
governor  of  Saigon,  who,  having  no  desire  to  be  plunged  into  a 
war,  scntPliilastre,  an  inspector  of  native  affairs,  to  oiTer  apologies 
tc)  the  king  of  Annam.  When,  however,  on  arriving  in  Tong- 
king  Philastre  heard  of  Garnier's  death,  he  took  command  of  the 
French  foa-es,  and  at  once  ordered  the  evacuation  of  Nam-Dinh, 
Ninh-Binh,  apd  Hai-Dzoong, — a  measure  which,  however  advan- 
tageous it  may  have  been  to  the  French  at  the  moment,  was  most 


disastrous  to  the  natjve  Christian  population,  the  withdrawal  of 
the  French  txing  the  signs!  for  a  general  massacre  of  the  converts. 
In  pursuance  of  the  same  policy  Philastre  made  a  convention  with 
the  authorities  (February  6,  1S7J),  by  which  he  bound  his  countrj-. 
men  to  withdraw  from  the. occupation  of  the  country,  retaining 
only  the  right  to  trade  at  Hanoi  and  Hai-phong,  and  agreed  to  put 
an  end  to  Dupuis's  aggressive  action.  On  the  15th  of  March 
a  treaty  was  signed  at  Saigon. 

For  a  time  affairs  remained  in  statu  quo,  but  in  1882  Le  Myre 
de  ViUers,  the  governor  of  Saigon,  sent  Kivi^re  with  a  stnall  force 
to  open  up  the  route  to  Yun-nan  by  the  Song-koi.  With  a  curious 
similarity  the  events  of  Garnier's  campaign  were  repeated.  Find- 
ing the  authorities  intractable.  Riviere  stormed  and  carried  the 
citadel  of  Hanoi,  and  then,  with  very  slight  loss,  he  captured 
Nam-Dinh,  Hai-Dzuong,  and  other  towns  in  the  delta.  And  once 
again  these  victories  brought  Liu  Yung-fu  and  his  Black  Flags 
into  the  neighbourhood  of  Hanoi.  As  Garnier  had  done,  so 
Riviere  hurried  back  from  Nam-Dinh  on  news  of  the  threatened 
danger.  Like  Garnier  also  he  headed  a  sortie  against  his  enemies, 
and  like  Gamier  he  fell  a  victim  to  his  own  impetuosity. 

In  the  meantime  the  Annamese  court  had  been  seeking  to  enlist 
the  help  of  the  Chinese  in  their  contest  with  the  French.  The  tie 
which  bound  the  tributary  nation  to  tho  sovereign  state  had  been 
for  many  generations  slackened  or  drawn  closer  as  circumstances 
determined,  but  never  had  it  been  entirely  dissevered,  and  from 
the  Annamese  point  of  view  this  was  one  of  the  occasions  when  it 
was  of  paramount  importance  that  it  should  be  acknowledged  and 
acted  upon.  With  much  more  than  usual  regularity,  therefore,  the 
king  despatched  presents  and  letters  to  tho  court  of  Peking,  and  in 
1880  he  sent  a  special  embassy,  loaded  with  unusually  costly  offer- 
ings, and  with  a  letter  in  which  his  position  of  a  tributary  was 
emphatically  asserted.  Far  from  ignoring  the  responsibility  thrust 
upon  him,  the  emperor  of  China  ordered  the  pubUcation  of  the 
letter  in  the  Peking  Gazelle.  The  death  of  Riviere  and  the  defeat 
of  his  troops  had  meanwhile  placed  the  French  in  a  position 
of  extreme  difficulty.  The  outlying  garrisons,  with  the  exception 
of  Nam-Dinh  and  Hai-phong,  were  at  once  withdrawn  to  Hanoi,' 
and  that  citadel  was  made  as  secure  as  circumstances  permitted.  | 
The  Black  Flags  swarmed  round  its  walls,  and  tho  reinforcements' 
brought  by  Admiral  Courbet  and  General  Bouet  were  insufficient 
to  do  more  than  keep  them  at  bay.  So  continued  was  the  pressure 
on  the  garrison  that  Bouet  determined  to  make  an  advance  upon 
Sontay  to  relieve  the  blockade.  After  gaining  some  triHing  suc- 
cesses, ho  attacked  Vong,  a  fortified  village,  but  he  met  with  such 
resistance  that,  after  suffering  considerable  loss,  he  was  obliged  to 
retreat  to  HanoL  In  the  lower  delta  fortune  sided  mth  the  French, 
and  almost  without  a  casualty  Hai-Dzuong  and  Phu-Binh  fell  into 
their  hands.  These  successes  led  to  an  ultimatum  being  sent  to 
the  king  of  Aimanl,  in  which  were  demanded  the  fulfilment  of  the 
tre^ity  of  1874  and  the  acceptance  of  the  protectorate  ofFranca 
over  the  whole  of  Annam,  including  Tong-king.  This  document  ' 
met  with  no  favourable  reception,  and,  as  at  this  moment  a  rein- 
forcement of  7000  men  arrived  from  France,  Courbet,  determining 
to  supei-sede  diplomacy  by  arms,  appeared  with  his  fleet  before 
Hue.  He  found  that,  though  Tu  Duo  was  dead,  his  policy  of 
resistance  was  maintained,  and  he  therefore  stormed  tho  city. 
After  a  feeble  defence  it  was  taken,  and  the  admiral  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  king  (August  25,  1883),  in  which  the  French  pro- 
tectorate was  fttlly  recognized,  the  king  further  binding  himself 
to  recall  the  Annamese  troops  serving  in  Tong-king,  and  to  con- 
struct a  road  from  Saigon  to  Hanoi. 

Though  this  treaty  was  exacted  from  the  king  under  pressure,' 
the  French  lost  no  time  in  carrying  out  that  part  of  it  which  gave 
them  the  authority  to  protect  the  country,  and  on  the  1st  September 
Bouet  again  advanced  in  the  direction  of  Sontay.  But  again  the 
resistance  he  met  with  compelled  him  to  retreat,  after  capturing 
the  fortified  post  of  Palan.  The  serious  nature  of  the  opiK>sirion 
experienced  in  these  expeditions  induced  the  French  commanders 
to  await  reinforcements  before  again  taking  the  field.  Meanwhile, 
on  the  determination  to  attack  Sontay  becoming  known  in  Paris, 
the  Chinese  ambassador  warned  the  ministry  that,  since  Chinese 
troops  foraicd  part  of  the  garrison,  he  should  consider  it  as  tanta- 
mount to  a  declaration  of  war.  But  his  protest  met  with  no  con- 
sideration. On  the  arrival  of  reinforcements  an  advance  was  agniu 
made;  and  ou  the  16th  December,  after  some  dcsper-ate  fighting, 
Sontay  fell. 

The  immediate  object  of  the  French  commanders  was  at  this 
time  to  make  themselves  secure  in  the  delta,  and  to  inflict  such 
chastisement  on  tlie  Black  Flags  and  their  allies  as  would  prevent 
their  disturbing  the  peace  of  the  garrisons.  This  could  not  be 
attained" so  long  as  Bac-Ninh  remained  in  tho  hands  of  the  enemy. 
Generals  Ncgrier,  Briere  de  I'lsle,  and  Millet  accordingly  marched 
against  the  town,  and  began  to  shell  it  But  it  was  already 
deserted,  and  Millet  entered  the  gates  without  striking  a  blow. 
Thus,  while  one  part  of  the  programme  was  fulfilleil  to  the  letter, 
the  other  part,  which  was  to  have  sealed  the  fate  of  the  garrison, 
failed  conspicuously.      In  these  circumstances    it  was   thought 

xxin.  —  s6   ■ 


412 


T  ON—T  0  N 


advSable  to  push  on  along  the  great  -north-eastern  road  to  China ; 
and  Negrici-  iidvanoed  about  30  miles  towards  Lang-son,  captured 
a  village  there,  and  then  returned  to  Bac-Ninh. 
I  Meauvrhile  Briere  'de  I'lslc  followed  up  that  portion  of  the  Bac- 
ITiuh  garrison  which  had  escaped  along  the  northern  road  in  the 
directiou  of  Thai-Nguyeu.  He  ■  captured  the  fort  of  ■  Yen-Te, 
ond  marched  on  to  Thai-Nguyen,  where,  as  on  so  many  occjisions, 
there  was  a  great  display  of  martial  ardour  so  long  as  the  French 
were  beyond  firing  distance,  but  the  discharge  of  a  few  shells  com- 
pletely discomfited  the  defenders,  who  fled  out  of  the  north  gate  as 
the  French  marched  in  .at  the  south.  As  Britre  de  I'lsle  had  posi- 
tive orders  not  to  holdihe  town,  he  burnt  some  of  the  buildings, 
and  evacuated  it.  The  Chinese  troops- immediately  returned,  and 
again  were  driven  out  a  month  later,  only  to  retiu-n  again  on  the 
withdrawal  of  the  French.  Once  more,  however,  a  column  was  sent 
against  the  city,  which  on  this  occasion  was  burnt  to  the  ground. 
'  The  whole  of  the  lower  delta  was  thus  made  secure  in  the  hands 
of  the  French.  Hung-Hoa  (a  town  aboiit  15  miles  north-east  of 
Sontay)  and  Tuyeu-Kwan  (a  fortified  place  about  40  miles  farther 
north)  both  fell  before  the  invaders,  but  from  both  the  garrisons 
escaped  practically  miscathed. 

In  the  meantime  M.  Fournier,  the  Fren'ch  -consul,  at  Tientsin, 
had  been  negotiating  for  peace,  so  far  as  China  was.cpnceraed,  with 
Li  Hung-ohang,  and  on  May  17,  1884,  had  signed  -and  sealed  a 
nemorandum  by  which  the  Chinese  plenipotentiary  agteed  that 
the  Chinese  troops  should  evacuate  the  nortliern  provinces  of  Tong- 
king  " imnUdiaUment."  This  expression  was  undeniably  vague, 
jand  the  French  general  in  Tong-king,  impatient  of  delay,  iu  June 
dispatched  Colonel  Dugenne  at  the  head  of  a  strong  force  to  occupy 
Laug-son.  The  e.vptdition  was  badly  arrange^  the  baggage  train 
was  far  too  unwieldy ;  and  the  pace  at  which  the  mea  were  made 
to  march  was  too  quick  for  that  scorcfiing  time  of  the  year.  They 
advanced,  however,  within  25  miles  of  Lang-son,  when  they 
suddenly  came  upon  a  Chinese  camp.  An  irregular  engagement 
leommenceJ,  and,  in  the  pitched  battle  which  ensued,  the  Chinese 
fbroke  the  Frsnch  lines,  and  drove  them  away  in  headlong  flight. 
^This  brought  the  military  operations  for  the  season  to  a  close. 

During  the  I'rainy  season  fevers  of  all  kinds  became  alarmingly 
prevalent,  and  the  number  of  deaths  and  of  men  invalided  was  very 
large.  In  the  meantime,  however,  an  expedition,  led  by  Colonel 
Donnier,  against  the  Chinese  garrison  at  Chu,  about  10  miles  south- 
east from  Lang-kep,  was  completely  successful  ;  and  in  a  battle 
fought  near  Chu  the  Chinese  were  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  3000  killed, 
the  French  loss  being  only  '20  killed  and  90  wounded.  In  the 
skirmishes  which  followed  the  French  were  generally  victorious,  but 
not  to  such  a  degree  as  to  warrant  any  enlargement  of  the  campaign. 

The  arrival  in  January  1885  of  10,000  men  having  brought  up 
the  force  under  Briei-e  de  I'lsle  to  40,000,  he  ordered  an  advance 
towards  Laug-son.  The  difflculties  of  transport  greatly  impeded 
his  movements,  still  the  expedition  was  successful.  On  the  6th 
February  three  forts  at  Dong-Song,  with  large  supplies  of  stores 
and  ammuiiition,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  Three  days' 
heavy  fighting  made  them  masters  of  a  defile  on  the  -road,  and  on 
the  iSth  Lang-son  was  taken,  the  garrison  having  evacuated  the 
town  just  before  the  entrance  of  tlie  conquerors.  With  his  usual 
energy  Nc'grier  pressed  on  in  pursuit  to  Ki-hea,  and  even  captured 
the  frontier  town  of  Cua-ai.-  But  Briere  de  I'lsle  had  now  to 
hurry  back  to  the  relief  of  Tiiyen-Kwan,  which  had  been  attacked 
by  a  Chinese  force,  and  Negi'ier  was  left  in  command  at  Lang-son. 
Tlie  withdrawal  of  Briere  de  I'Jsle's  division  gave  the  Chinese 
greater  confidence,  and,  though  for  a  time  Negricr  was  able  to 
nold  his  own,  on  the  '2'2d  and  'iSd  of  March  he  sustained  a  severe 
check  between  Lang-son  and  Thatke,  which  was  finally  converted 
into  a  complete  rout,  his  troops  being  obliged  to  retreat  precipi- 
tately through  Lang-son  to  Than-moi  and  Dong-Song.  Briere  de 
I'lslg"  reached  Tuyen-Kwan  on  the  3d  of  March,  and  found  the 
Black  Flags  and  Yunnan  braves  strongly  posted  on  the  side  of  an 
almost  inaccessible  pass.  After  having  su.-^.tained  a  succession  of 
attacks  for  eighteen  days,  and  seven  actual  assaults,  the  delight 
of  the  garrison  ut  seeing  Briere  de  I'Isle's  relieving  force  may  be 
imagined.  It  was  while  matters,  were  in  this  position  that  Sir 
Robert  Kart  succeeded  in  negotiating -peace  beCxveen  the  two  coun- 
tries. ■  By  the  terms  agreed  on  (April  6,  1885),  it  was  stipulated  that 
France  was  to  take  Tong-king  under  its  protection  and  to  evacuate 
Formosa.  Tho  Chinese  undertook  at  the  same  time  to  expend 
80,000,000  francs  on  the  construction  of  roads  in  South  China. 

The  future  fortunes  of  the  colony  must  depend  greatly  on  the 
administrative  ability  of  the  governors  selected  to-  rule  over  it. 
The  death  of  Paul  Bert  was  in  this  respect  a  great  loss  to  Tong-king. 

.    .See  France  and  Tong-King,  by  J.  Q.  Scott,'  1885;  TOTllHn,  by  C.  B.  Norman, 
,*881 ;,  Tungkijig,  by  W.  Ik-siiey,  1884.  (It.  K.  D.) 

TONGUE.     See  Anatomy,, voL  i.  p.  895,  and  Taste.  '' 
..TONNAGE,  .Register  Tonnage,,  or  International 
Keoister  Tonnage,  is^the  unit  on,ij^'ljjlcli,-tlie  assessment  of 
duos  and  charges  on  shipping  is  based.     The  system  at  pre- 
sent in  force  is  known  as  the  Mo'orsom  system.  •  A  register 


ton  is  100  cubic  feet  of  internal  -volume.  Thus  a-vessel  of 
100,000  cubic  feet  of  internal  space  within'  the  points  of 
measurements  prescribed  by  the  law  is  1000  tons 'tegister. 
Vessels  are  sometimes  bought  and  sold  under  this  unit. 
The  tonnage  rules,  wtich  are  very  full  and  elaborate, 
are  contaJined  in  part  ii.  of  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act, 
1854,  sections  20  to  29  inclusive,  and  in  section  9  of  the 
Merchant  Shipping  Act,  1867,  the  latter  .being  a  special 
section  in  reference  to  a  deduction  from  the  gross- tonnage 
in  respect  of  crew  space,  which  space  must  be  fit  for  the 
proper  accommodation  of  the  men  who  are  to  occupy  it  to 
entitle  to  such  deduction.  .This  enactment  has  led  ta 
great  improvement  in  seamen's  quarters.  _      ' 

Section  60  of  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  1862,  pro-~ 
vides  on  the  point  of  international  tonnage  as  follows  : — • 
"  Ships  belonging  to  foreign  countries  which  have  adopted 
the  British  System  of  tonnage  need  not  be  remeasured  in 
this  country."  The  British  system  has  been  adopted  by 
the  following  countries  at  the  dates  named  : — United 
States,  1865  ;  Denmark,  1867  ;  Austria-Hungary,  1871 ; 
Germany,  1873  ;  France,  1873;  Italy,  1873  ;  Spain,  1874 ; 
Sweden,  1875;  Netherlands,  1876;  Norway,  1876;  Greece, 
1878;  Russia,  1879;  Finland,  1877;  Hayti,  1882;  Belgium,' 
1884;  Japan,l884.    It  is  also  under  consideration  by  China. 

There  are  slight  differences  in  the  rules  for  deduction 
for  engine  room  in  some  of  the  countries,  but  owners  or 
masters  of  foreign  steamships,  where  this  difference  exists,' 
piay  have  the  engine-rooms  remeasured  in  the  Unitsd 
Kingdom  if  they  desire;  in  other  words|  their  net'tonnage 
may  be  reduced  to  exact  English  measure. 
■  The  British  system  was  also  mainly  adopted  by  the 
International  Tonnage  Commission  assembled  at  Constan- 
tinople in-  1873,  the  rules  of  such  commission  forming 
the  basis  of  dues  levied  on  the  ships  of  all  countries 
passing  through  the  Suez  Canal.  •  A  special  certificate  is 
issued  in  the  respective  countries  for  this  purpose.  ,:  The 
main  point  of  difference  from  the  British  system  is  with^ 
respect  to  the  deduction  for  engine  room. 

There  are  throe  terms  used  in  respect  of  the  tonnage 
of  ships, — ^namely,  tonnage  under  decks,  gross  tonnage, 
and  register  tonnage. 

In  obtaining  the  gross  measurement  the  space  under 
the  tonnage  deck  is  first  measured — sections  20  and  21 
(1),  (2),  and  (3) ;  then  the  space  or  spaces,  if  any,  between 
the  tonnage  deck  (the  tonnage  deck  is  the  second  deck 
from  below  in  all  ves.?els  of  more  than  two  decks  and  the 
upper  deck  in  all  other  vessels)  and  the  upper  deck — 
section  21  (5)  of  Act;/and  finally  the  permanent  closed-in 
spaces  above  the  upper  deck  available  for  cargo,  stores, 
passengers,  or  crew — section  21  (4)  of  Act.  ^ 

The  allowance  for  engine  room  is  governed  by  the' 
percentage  the  net  engine  room — that  is,  the  space  es-^ 
elusive  of  the  coal  bunkers — bears  to  the  gross  tonnage, 
and  varies  in  paddle-  and  screw-steamers  as  laid  down  Jn 
section  23  of  the  Act. 

In  obtaining  the  tonnage  under  tonnage  deck,  ships  are  divided 
in  respect  of  their  length  into  five  classes  as  follows; — 

■,  Class  1.    Lengtb  CO  feet  ami  under Into  4  equal  paTIs. 

„     2.         „        00    „    and  nol  exceeding  1'20  fc-ct,  6  „ 

„     3.  „       VO    „  ,,  ,-  180    „      8  „. 

,,     4.  >,       ISO    „  ..  '    ,,  S'i5    „    10  ,:^, 

\  „     5.         „       S'25    „    un J  upwards. .7. 12         'tt\ 

\  The  following  is  an  epitome  of  the  rule  for  tonnage  under  tHe 
tonnage  deck : — 

Length  is  taken  insjdo  on  tonnage  deck,  from  inside  of  pianK  at 
steru  to  inside  of  midship  stern  timber  or  plank;  the  length  so 
taken,  allowing  for  rake  of  bow  and  of  stern  in  tho  thickness  o! 
the  deck,  andjone-third  of  tlie  round  of  beam,  is  to  bo  divided 
into  the  prescribed  number  of  equal  parts  (which  determines  the 
stations  of  the  are.as),  according  to  tho  length  of  vessel,  as  above.    , 

Area  1  is  at  the  extreme  limit  of  the  bow.  Area  2  is  at  tho  first 
point  of  division  of  the  length.  ;  Thu  rest  are  numbered  in  succes-, 
sion,  the  iaat  being  atthe  extreme  limit  of  tho  stern.  _, 

Depths  SIJB  taken  at  eiJch  point  of  division  of  the  K-n.^jlh,  or  statioi^ 


T  0  N  — T  0  N 


443 


of  r-afh  nrca,  from  the  umlcrsiJe  of  tlic  tonna;;c  deck  to  ceiling  at 
loner  edge  of  tiinhtT  strakc,  deducting  theitfroin  onc-tliird  of  the 
round  of  the  bc.un.  The  dciiths  so  taken  are  to  be  divided  into  four 
c<iual  parts,  if  niid^hip  depth  should  not  fxceed  16  feet;  otherwise 
into  six  equal  parts. 

Breadths  are  taken  at  each  point  of  division  of  the  depths  and 
also  at  the  upper  and  lower  points  of  the  depths.  The  upper 
breadth  uf  each  area  is  to  be  set  down  in  its  respective  column  iu  a 
Hnc  with  No.  1  (left-hand  numerals),  and  the  rest  in  succession. 

The  number  of  columns  for  artas  will  vary  according  to  the 
length,  as  in  the  several  classes,  and  will  be  enual  to  the  number  of 
ports  into  which  the  lengtli  is  divided  plus  one. 


Tlie  space  or  spaces  between  decks  above  the  tonnai^c  defk  ar© 
dealt  with  by  a  similar  formula.  A  mean  horizontal  area  of  th© 
space,  or  each  .spaceif  more  than  one,  is  found  and  multiplied  by 
the  mean  hei^^ht. 

The  permanent  closed-in  spaces  above  the  upper  deck  available 
for  cargo,  stores,  passengers,  or  crew  are  measured  in  the  same 
manner  by  finding  a  mean  area  and  multiplying  by  a  mean  height. 

The  measurement  of  net  engine  room  is  governed  by  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  space,  ami  is  measured  as  a  whole  or  id  parts  as  may 
be  required  by  its  particular  form. 

The  following  is  an  example  under  class  2.  depth  under  16  feet, 
of  tonnage  under  tonnat^e  deck:  — 


Length  H2-7J  Feet  -^  6=  IS  791  Feet,  the  Common  lotcrraJ  between  Areas. 


Dcpilis  -i-  4.  the  Miilille  Depth  beinff  less  than  16  Feet 


Depths 

Common  )nter-l 

val    tHftween; 

breadths ) 


No.  of 

BJths- 
1 


Muhi. 

pliers 

1 


Aren  I.  1  Arcn  '.* 


Fcer 


JcomtEunlnter- 1 
val   between 

breadths J 


Being 
sharp 
at  the 
stem  tio 
mcos- 
ivred 
area. 


Feet 


Bdths 

Pro- 

Feet. 

ducts. 

19-35 

19M 

1SS3 

75-4 

16G.S 

33  3 

1185 

4/  4 

I8S 

1  85 

1TT3 
1  05 


88«5 
17730 


Fecr 
123. 


FfCI 
II  83 


Bdllis. 
Feu- 1. 

■:o! 

204 
20  15 
106 
30 


PlO- 

Bdlhs. 

Pro- 

ducls. 

Feet. 

ducts. 

202 

20-4 

20  4 

81  6 

205 

82  0 

4U.t 

30 -25 

403 

;6-4 

I0S5 

75  4 

3  0 

6  35 

635 

2235 
1  M 


6T0.-, 
-■2350 


93 


20.5785 
205786 


Feet 
114 


Ddihs. 

Pro- 

Feet. 

ducts. 

20  2 

202 

20  35 

31-4 

200 

40  0 

17  8 

71  2 

C35 

635 

2I9I5. 
95 


109.575 
197235 


Feet, 
109 


Bdtlis. 
Feet. 
19  1 
IS  t.) 
14  95 
8  7.5 
10 


Pro- 
ducts. 
191 
74  6 
23  9 
35  0 
1  0 


I59t> 
«1 


1590 
14364 


Beini?  ' 
sliarp 
at  the 
stei-n  no 
(neas. 
lucj 
area. 


Cubic  Content  ard  negisler 
Tonoijgc 


Areas 

No.  ol 

.Mnhl. 

brcugtil 

Areas. 

pliers. 

np. 

Sq.  Ft. 

0 

2 

166  17 

3 

230-21 

1 

226-30 

s 

208-19 

0 

I 

146-24 
0 

Pro- 
dDcts. 

0 
744  68 
46012 
905-44 
416-38 
5S0-96 

0 


3107-68 

6-26=  J  commoQ  tnterr&l 
between  areaa. 

I.«n4723 
621576 
18617-23 


19155  32-^100=194-55  under  deck. 


This  formula  is  also  applicable  for  findiDg  displacement  tonnage 
of  ships,  that  is,  the  external  displacement  measured  by  taking 
transverse  areas  to  the  height  of  the  load  water-line  to  find  tho 
cnbic  content,  which  content  divided  by  35  gives  the  displacement 
m  tons  weight,  the  difference  between  the  light  and  load  displace- 
ment representing  the  carrying  powers  of  a  vessel  in  tons. 

**The  rule,"  says  Sir  Moorsom,  "  is  founded  on  the  purest  mathe- 
matical principles.  It  was  first  published  in  the  Phdusophical 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  179S  by  Attwood,  in  his 
"Disquisition  on  the  Stability  of  Ships,'  who  there  descrilws  it 
as  one  of  those  formulae  invented  by  Sterliog  for  measuring  spaces 
bounded  by  irregular  curves,  founded  on  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  dis- 
covery of  atheorem — a  discovery  which  the  immortal  authorhimself 
considered  amongst  his  happiest  inventions — by  which  the  areas  of 
all  curvilinear  spaces  not  geometrically  quadrible  nor  discoverable 
by  auy  known  rules  of  direct  investigation  are  so  closely  approxi- 
mated as  to  amount  to  geometrical  exactness." 

Mr  Allan  Gilmoiir  at  the  middle  of  the  present  century  expressed 
his  opinion,  after  a  careful  consideration  of  the  tonnage  question, 
which  wastecciving  much  attention  at  that  time  owing  to  the  law 
8  and  9  Vict.  cap.  ?9,  which  had  been  adopted  in  place  of  the 
old  tonnage  law  13  Geo.  III.  cap.  74,  not  giving  satisfaction,  (hat 
the  "system  franted  by  Mr  Moorsotn  will  as  it  w-ere  compel  every 
ono  to  build  strong,  fast-sailing,  and  good  seagoing  ships,  and 
that,  in  fact,  it  w-ill  stand  as  long  as  the  world  remains."  It  will 
be  admitted  th.-it  great  progiess  lias  been  made  in  every  w.-iy  in 
British  shipping  of  late  years,  and  for  this  due  praise  must  be 
given  to  the  influence  of  the  picsent  tonnage  laws.         (W.  M*.) 

TONNAGE  AND  POUNDAGE  were  customs  duties 
SDciently  imposed  upon  exports  and  imports,  the  former 
being  a  duty  upon  all  wines  imported  in  addition  to 
prisage  and  butlerage,  the  latter  a  duty  imposed  ad 
val'jifiii  at  the  rate  of  twelvepence  in  the  pound  on  all 
merchandise  imported  or  exported.  The  duties  were 
levied  at  first  by  agreement  with  merchants  (poundage 
in  1302,  tonnage  in  1347),  then  granted  by  parliament  in 
1373,  at  first  for  a  limited  period  only.  They  were  con- 
sidered to  be  imposed  for  the  de.'ence  of  the  realm.  From 
the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  until  that  of  James  I.  they  were 
usually  granted  for  life.  They  were  not  granted  to 
Charles  I.,  and  in  1628  that  king  took  the  unconstitutional 
course  of  levying  them  on  his  own  authority,  a  course 
denounced  a  few  years  later  by  16  Car.  I.  c.  18,  when  the 
Long  Parliament  granted  them  for  two  months.  After  the 
Restoration  they  were  gj-aated  to  Charles  II.  and  his  two 


successors  for  life.  By  Acts  of  Anne  and  George  I.  the 
duties  were  made  perpetual,  and  mortgaged  for  the  public 
debt  In  1787  they  were  finally  abolished,  and  other  modes 
of  obtaining  revenue  substituted,  by  27  Geo.  III.  c.  13. 
.  Poundage  also  signifies  a  fee  paid  to  an  ofhccr  of  a  court  for  his 
services,  e.g.^  to  a  sheriff's  officer,  who  is  entitled  by  23  Eliz.  c.  4 
to  a  poundage  of  a  shilling  in  the  pound  on  an  execution  u{>  to 
£100,  and  sixpence  in  the  jwund  above  that  sum 

TONQUA  BEAN.  The  Tonqua,  Tonka,  or  Tonquin 
bean,  also  called  the  coumara  nut,  is  the  seed  of  Dipienx 
odorata,  a  Leguminous  tree  growing  to  a  height  of  80  feet, 
native  of  tropical  South  America.  The  drupe-like  pod 
contains  a  singly  seed  possessed  of  a  fine  sweet  "  new- 
mown  hay  "  odour,  due  to  the  presence  of  a  crystallizable 
principle  called  coumariu,  to  which  also  the  dried  stalks  of 
Melilotvs  cjiaiialis  and  the  vernal  grass  A  nlhoxanlhun. 
odoratum  owe  their  odour.  Tonqua  beans  are  used  princi- 
pally for  sccating  snuflf  and'  as  an  ingredient  in  perfume 
sachets  and  in  perfumers'  "bouquets." 

TONQUJN.     See  To.va-Kixp. 

TONSILLITIS.     See  Throat  Diseases 

TONSURE.  The  reception  of  the  tonsure,  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  is  the  initial  ceremony  which 
marks  admission  to  orders  and  to  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  clerical  standing.  It  is  administered  by  the  bishop  with 
an  appropriate  ritual.  Candidates  for  the  rite  must  have 
been  confirmed,  be  adequately  instructed  in  the  elements 
of  the  Christian  faith,  and  be  able  to  read  and  write. 
Those  who  have  received  it  are  bound  (unless  in  excep- 
tional circumstances)  to  renew  the  mark,  consisting  of  a 
bare  circle  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  at  least  once  a  month, 
otherwise  they  forfeit  the  privileges  it  carries.  A  verj 
early  origin  has  sometimes  been  claimed  for  the  tonsure, 
but  the  earliest  instance  of  an  ecclesiastical  precept  on  tha 
subject  occurs  in  can.  41  of  the  council  of  Toledo  (633 
A.D.):  "  omnes  clerici,  detonso  superius  capita  toto,  inferius 
solam  circuli  coronam  relinquant."  Can.  33  of  the  Quini. 
se-xt  council  (092)  requires  even  singers  and  readers  to  b« 
tonsured.  Since  the  8th  century  tliree  tonsures  have  beeo 
more  or  less  iu  use,  known  res[.)ectively  as  the  Roman, 


444 


T  0  N  — T  O  O 


the  Greek,  and  the  Celtic.  The  first  two  aro  sometimea 
disliDguished  as  the  tonsure  of  Peter  and  the  tonsure  of 
Paul ;  in  the  latter  the  whole  head  was  shaven,  but  when 
now  practised  in  the  Eastern  church  this  tonsure  is  held 
to  be  adequately  shown  when  the  hair  is  shorn  close.  In 
the  Celtic  tonsure  (tonsure  of  St  John,  or,  in  contempt, 
tonsure  of  Simon  Magus)  all  the  hair  in  front  of  a  line 
drawn  over  the  top  of  the  head  from  ear  to  ear  was  shaven. 
TONTINE.  This  system  of  life  insurance  owes  its 
name  to  Lorenzo  Tonti,  an  Italian  banker,  born  at  Naples 
early  in  the  17th  century,  who  settled  in  France  about 
1650.  In  1658  he  proposed  to  Cardinal  Mazarin  a  new 
scheme  he  had  devised  for  promoting  a  public  loan.  His 
plan  was  to  the  following  effect.  A  total  of  1,025,000 
livres  was  to  be  subscribed  in  ten  portions  of  102,500  livres 
each  by  ten  classes  of  subscribers,  the  first  class  consisting 
of  persons  under  7,  the  second  of  persons  above  7  and  under 
14,  and  so  on  to  the  tenth,  which  consisted  of  persons 
between  63  and  70.  The  whole  annual  fund  of  each  class 
was  to  be  regularly  divided  among  the  survivors  of  that 
class,  and  on  the  death  of  the  last  individual  the  capital 
was  to  fall  to  the  state.  This  plan  of  operations  was 
authorized  under  the  name  of  "  tontine  royale  "  by  a  royal 
edict,  but  this  the  parlement  refused  to  register,  and  the 
idea  remained  in  abeyance  till  1689,  when  it  was  revived 
by  Louis  XIV.,  who  established  a  tontine  of  1,400,000 
livres  divided  into  fourteen  classes  of  100,000  livres  each, 
the  subscription  being  300  livres.  Although  the  classes 
were  not  quite  filled,  this  tontine  was  carried  on  till  1726, 
when  the  last  beneficiary  died, — a  widow  who  at  the  time 
of  her  decease  was  deriving  from  this  source  an  annual 
income  of  73,500  livres.  Several  other  Government  ton- 
tines were  afterwards  set  on  foot  ;  but  in  1763  restric- 
tions were  introduced,  and  in  1V70  all  tontines  at  the 
time  in  existence  were  wound  up.  Private  tontines  con- 
tinued, however,  to  flourish  in  France  for  some  yt  s,  the 
"tontine  Lafarge  "  having  been  opened  as  late  as  1791. 

Tho  tontine  principle  has  often  been  applied  in  Great  Britain, 
chiefly  to  the  purchase  of  estates  or  the  erection  of  buildings  for 
which  tte  necessary  funds  coiilJ  not  be  procured  by  ordinary 
methods.  The  speculative  element  in  the  system  has  proved  an 
attraction.  The  investor  stakes  his  money  on  the  chance  of  his 
own  life  or  the  life  of  his  nominee  enduring  for  a  longer  period 
than  the  other  lives  involved  in  the  speculation,  in  which  case  he 
expects  to  win  a  large  prize.  The  only  thing  v;hich  will  serve  to 
distinguish  this  from  an  ordinary  lottery  is  the  assumption  that 
some  may  apply  greater  care  or  skill  in  the  selection  of  lives  than 
others  of  the  players.  The  tontine  principle  is  nearly  the  converse 
of  ordinary  lite  assunince,  where  it  is  the  man  who  dies  early  who 
obtains  an  advantage  for  his  heirs  at  the  exjiense  of  the  long  liver. 
But  it  has  been  occasionally  introduced  into  life  assurance  in  the 
distribution  of  prohts  oi-  surplus,  and  so  far  it  tends  to  redress  the 
inequalities  of  the  original  contract,  the  profits  being  assigned  to 
the  longest  livers  to  a  larger  extent  than  in  the  comnum  life 
assurance  system.  The  tontine  principle  has  been  brougiit  into 
considerable  prominence  by  some  American  life  offices  (see  Insur- 
ance, vol.  xiii.  p.  183).  All  that  is  wanted  to  make  the  system  fair 
is  that  every  one  should  understand  that  in  order  to  secure  a  dis- 
proportionate share  of  profits  in  the  event  of  his  surviving  and 
Keeping  up  his  policy  he  must  make  a  corresponding  sacrifice  if 
be  dies  early  or  discontinues  his  insurance. 

'  TOOKE,  John  Hoene  (1736-1812),  an  ardent  poli- 
tician and  an  erudite  philologer,  was  the  third  son  of  John 
Home,  a  poulterer  in  Newport  Market,  whose  business 
the  son,  when  a  pupil  at  Eton  with  other  boys  of  a  more 
aristocratic  position,  in  early  life  happily  veiled  under  the 
title  of  a  "Turkey  merchant."  He  \vas  born  in  Newport 
Street,  Long  Acre,  Westminster,  on  25th  June  1736. 
Some  portion  of  his  school  days  was  passed,  when  he 
was  about  seven  years  old,  in  "an  academy  in  Soho 
Square,"  and  when  three  years  older  he  went  to  a  school 
in  a  Kentish  village.  For  a  time  (1744-46)  he  was  at 
Westminster  School,  but  the  greater  part  of  bis  educa- 
tion was  got  at  Eton,  and  then   under  private  tuition. 


first  at  Sevenoaks  in  Kent  (1753)  and  then  at  Raven- 
stone  in  Northamptonshire.  In  1755  he  was  entered  at 
St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  took  his  degree  of 
B.A.  in  1758,  as  last  but  one  of  the  senior  optimes, 
Beadon,  his  life-long  friend,  afterwards  bishop  of  Bath 
and  Wells,  being  among  the  wranglers  in  the  same  year. 
Strange  to  say,  the  object  of  all  this  care  and  expense 
found  himself  doomed  to  the  drudgery  of  ushership  at  a 
boarding  school  at  Blackheath,  and  the  pleasures  of  his 
lot  were  not  enhanced  by  his  father's  strongly  expressed 
desire  that  he  should  take  orders  in  the  Church  of  England. 
A  strange  vacillation  marked  his  career  at  this  period,  a 
vacillation  probably  due  to  a  constant  struggle  between 
his  own  inclination  and  the  wishes  of  his  father.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  diaconate  of  the  church,  and  almost 
at  the  same  time  was  entered  at  the  Inner  Temple.  He 
studied  for  the  bar  for  some  time,  mostly  in  the  company 
of  Dunning  and  Kenyon,  and  then  was  ordained  as  a 
priest  of  the  national  church  by  the  bishop  of  Salisbury. 
After  this  event  his  father  obtained  for  him  the  next 
presentation  to  the  small  vicarage  of  New  Brentford,  to 
which  Home  was  duly  admitted,  and  he  retained  its 
scanty  profits  until  1773.  During  a  pa't  of  this  time  he 
was  absent  on  a  tour  in  France,  acting  as  the  bear-leader 
of  a  son  of  the  miser  Elwes.  To  his  credit  be  it  said  that 
while  he  resided  at  Brentford  he  discharged  with  exem- 
plary regularity  all  the  duties  of  his  profession,  and  that, 
reviving  a  practice  of  the  previous  century,  he  studied 
medicine  for  the  benefit  of  his  poorer  parishionera  Under 
the  excitement  created  by  the  actions  of  Wilkes  and  the 
blunders  of  his  ministerial  opponents.  Home  plunged  into 
politics  with  consuming  zeaL  The  newspapers  abounded 
with  his  productions,  but  his  chief  effort  was  a  scathing 
pamphlet  on  Lords  Bute  a,nd  Mansfield,  setting  out  the 
"petition  of  an  Englishman."  In  1765  he  again  went 
abroad  as  tutor,  and  on  this  occasion  he  escorted  to  Italy 
the  son  of  a  Mr  Taylor,  who  lived  near  his  Middlesex 
parish,  a  young  man  subject  to  fits  of  insanity.  It  was 
while  passing  through  Paris  on  this  tour  that  he  made 
the  personal  acquaintance  of  Wilkes,  and  it  was  while  at 
Montpellier,  in  January  1766,  that  a  letter  addressed  by 
Home  to  Wilkes  laid  the  seeds  of  that  personal  antipathy 
which  afterwards  grew  so  rapidly.  In  the  summer  of 
1767  tlie  travelled  parson  landed  again  on  English  soil, 
and,  in  spite  of  his  latent  distrust  of  the  so-called  "  patriot," 
his  exertions  quickly  obtained  for  Wilkes  that  seat  for  the 
county  of  Middlesex  which  ensured  his  fortune.  Home 
was  deeply  concerned  in  all  the  proceedings  of  the  corpo- 
ration of  London  in  support  of  the  popular  cause,  and  he 
advised,  if  he  did  not  actually  draw  up,  the  celebrated 
speech  which  Alderman  Beckford  addressed  to  his  sovereign. 
As  an  incidental  act  in  this  struggle  with  the  court  aiid 
the  majority  of  the  House  of  Commons,  Hcrne  involved 
himself  in  a  dispute  with  George  Onslow,  the  member  for 
Surrey,  which  culminated  in  a  civil  action,  ultimately 
decided  in  Home's  favour,  and  in  the  loss  by  his  oppo- 
nent of  his  seat  in  parliament.  An  influential  association, 
called  "the  Society  for  Supporting  the  Bill  of  Rights,"  was 
founded,  mainly  through  the  exertions  of  Home,  in  1769, 
but  the  members  were  soon  divided  into  two  opposite 
camps  of  the  thick  and  thin  partisans  of  Wilkes  and  of 
those  who  refused  to  be  labelled  by  the  name  of  any 
combatant,  and  in  1770  Home  and  Wilkes  broke  out  into 
open  warfare.  Into  this  controversy,  carried  on  with  that 
unflagging  zeal  which  always  springs  from  personal  hatred, 
none  will  now  care  to  enter ;  it  benefited  the  fortunes  of 
neither  of  the  combatants,  and  it  damaged  the  success  of 
the  cause  for  which  they  had  both  laboured  energetically, 
lu  1771  Horns  obtained  at  Cambridge,  though  not  with- 
out some  opposition  from  meiubois  of  both  the  political 


T  0  o  E  :e 


445 


parties^tis  degree  of  Jl.A.,  and  in  the  same  year  ho  em- 
barked on  a  more  laborious  and  costly  undertaking,  that 
of  vindicating  the  right  of  printing  an  account  of  the 
debates  in  parliament^  in  -which,  after  a  protracted  struggle 
between  the  ministenai  majority  and  the  civic  authorities, 
tha-right  was-definiteiy  established.  The  energies  of  the 
indefatigable  parson  kJiewBo  bounds.  In  the  same  year 
(1771)  he-  cro^d  swordawith.  Junius,  and  ended,  in  dis- 
arming^ Jiis  masked  antagonist.  It  is  a  curious  corollary 
to-  this  controversy  that  more  than  one  speculator  has- 
identifiedhiniwith.Junius.  ~  Home  had  now  passed  mors 
than  tii^lf  the  allotted  span  of  life,  and  his  only-fixed 
income  «»nsisted  of  those  scanty  emoluments  attached,  to 
a  position  ivhich  gaJIed  him  daily.  He  resigned  his  bene 
fice,  and  betook,  himself  to  the  study  of  the  law  and  to  his 
studies  inphilology^  An  accidental  circumstance,  however, 
occurred  at  this  moment  which  largely  affected  his  future. 
His  friend  -ilr  William  Tooke  had  purchased  a  consider- 
able estate-  south  of  the  tovm  of  Croydon  in  Surrey,  part 
of  which  seems,  to  have  consisted  of  Purley  Lodge  in 
Coulsdon.  The  possession  of  this  property  brought  about 
frequent  disputes  with  an  adjoining  landowner,  and,  after 
many  actions  in  the  law  courts,  the  friends  of  Mr  Tooke's 
opponent  endeavoured  to  obtain,  by  a  bill  forced  through 
the  Houses  of  Parliament,  the  privileges  which  the  law 
had  not  assigned  to  him.  Home  thereupon,  by  a  bold,  libel 
on  the  Sjieaker,  drew  public  attention  to  the  case,  and, 
although  he  himself  -was  placed  for  a  time  in  the  custody 
of  the  sergeant^at-arms,  the  clauses  which  "were  injurious 
to  the  interests  of  Mr  Tooke  were  eliminated  from  the  bill 
through  the  publicity  which  his  conduct  had  given  to  the 
matter,  Mr  Tooke's  gratitude  knew  no  bounds ;.  he 
declared  his  intention  of  makihg  his  friend  the'  heir  to  his 
fortune,  and,  if  the  design  was  never  carried  into  effect, 
Horne  derived  from  the  generous  old  man  during  his  life- 
time large  gifts  of  money.  No  sooner  had  this,  jaatter 
been  happily  settled  than  Home  found  himself  involved 
ia  a  more  serious  trouble  than  any  that  had  yet  befallen 
liim.":  Vm  his  conduct  in  signing  the  advertisement  soli- 
citing subscriptions  for  the  .relief  of  the  relatives  of  the 
Americans  murdered  by  the  king's  troops  at  Lexington 
and  Concord,  he  was  tried  at  the  -Gtuldhall  in  July  1777 
before  Lord  Mansfield,,  found  guOty,  and.committed  to 
the  King's  Bench  prison  in  St  George's  Fields,  from  which 
he-only  emerged  after  a  year's  durance,  and  after  a  ioss, 
in -fine  and  costs,  amounting  to, £1200.  Soon  after  his 
deliverance,  as  he  had  thrown  off',  as  he  thought,,  his 
clerical  gown,  he  applied  to  be  called  to  the  bar,  but  his 
application  was  negatived -on  the  grotind  that  his  orders  in 
the  church  were  indelible.  To-  retum  to  the  church  was 
now  impossible  ;  and  Home  tried  his  fortune,  but  without 
success,  in  fanning  some  land  .in  Huntingdonshire?^  Two 
tracts  which  were  penned  by  him,  one  before -^d  the 
other  after  this  failure  in. practical  life,  exercised -great - 
influence  in  the  country.  One  of  them,  criti^dzihg  the 
measures  of  Lord  North's  ministry,  passed  through  nume- 
rous editions;  the  other  set  out  a  scheme  of  reform  which 
he  afterwards  -withdrew  in-  favour  of  that  advocated  by 
Pitt.  On  his  retvim  from,  his  voluntary  banishment  in 
Huntingdonshire,  he  'oecame  once  more  a  frequent  guest 
at  Mr  Tooke's  house  of  Purley,  and  in  1782  assumed  the 
name  of  Home  Tooke,  which  is  now  invariably  assigned 
to  him.  In  1786  Home  Tooke  conferred  perpetual  fame 
bpon  his  benefactor's  country  house  by  adopting  as  a  second 
title  ef  his  elaborate  philological  treatise  of  Etcu  UTipoevra, 
the  more  popular  though  misleading  title  of  The  Diveraums 
of  Purley.  The  treatise  at  once  attracted  attention  in 
England  and  the  Continent,  was  universally  read  by  the 
vulgar  as  well  as  the  learned,  and,  while  its  conclusions, 
ii   not  always   carrying  conviction   to  the  erudite,  were 


deemed  by  them  worthy  of  consideration  as  proceeding 
from  a  mind  of  extensive  learning  and  singular  acute- 
cess,  the  fame  given  to  Purley  by  the  choice  of  the  title 
gratified  its- owner.  The  first  part  was  published  in. 1786, 
the  second  in  1805.  The  best  edition  is  that  whick"tt4fl 
published  in  1829,  under  the  editorship  of  Richard  Tay5p/». 
-with  the  additions  written  in  the  author's  interleaved -copy'i 

Between  1782  and  1790  Tooke  gave  his  supportr  to  Pitt,' 
and  in  the  election  for  Westminster,  a  constituency  ia 
which  Fox  was  vitally  interested,  he  threw  all  his  energies 
into  the  ministerial  cause.  With  Fox  he  was  nev^r  on 
terms  of  Iriendship,  and  Samuel  Eogers,.iu  \n&^  Table  J!alk, 
asserts  that  their  antipathy  was  so  pronounced  that  at -a 
dinner  party  given  by  a  prominent  Whig  not  the  slightest- 
notice  -was  taken  by  Fox  of  the  presence  of  Horne  Tooke,' 
It  was  after  the  election-of  Westminster  in  1788  that 
Tooke  depicted  the  two  rival  statesmen  in  his  celebrated 
pamphlet  of  Two .  Pair  of  Portraits.  At  the  genera^ 
election  of  1790  he  came  forward  as  a  candidate  for  that- 
distinguished  constituency,  in  opposition  to  Fox  and  Lord. 
Hood,  but  was  defeated ;  and,  though  he  again  sought  the 
suffrages  of  its  voters  in  1796,  and  his  speeches  at  the 
htistings  were  never  exceeded  in  ability,  he  -was  again  at 
the  bottom,  of  the  poll  Meantime  the  excesses  of  the 
French  republicans  had.  unhinged  the  minds  of  all  sections 
of  society  in  England,  and  the  actions  of  the  Tory  min- 
istry^ iaithfuHy"  represented  the  feelings  of  the  country. 
Home  Tooke  was  arrested  early  on  the  morning  of  16th 
May  1794,  and  conveyed  to  the  Tower.  His  trial  for 
high  treason  lasted  for  six  days  (October  17-23)  and. 
ended-in  his  acquittal,  the  jury  only  requiring  the  short 
space  of  .eight  minutes  to  settle  their  verdict.  The  evi- 
dence "which  the  crown  could  adduce  in  support- of  tha 
charge  proved  to  be  of  the  slightest  description,  and  tha 
demeanour  of  the  accused  throughout  the  proceedings 
furnished  abundant  proofs  oL.the  resolution  of  his  mind 
and  the  force  of  his  abilities.  His  public  life  after  this 
event  was  only  distinguished  by  one  act  of  importance,' 
Through  -  the.  influence  of  Lord  Camelford,  the  fighting 
peer,  he  -was  returned  to  parhament  in  1801  for  the 
pocket  borough  of  Old  Samm.  No  sooner  was  he  returned 
to  the  House  of  Commons  than  Lord  Temple  endeavoured 
to  secure  his  exclusion  on  the.  ground  that  he  had  tfikea 
orders  in  the  church,,  and  one  of  GiUray's  caricatures 
delineates  the  two  pohticans.  Temple  aud  Camelfordj 
playing- ut  battledore  and  shuttlecock,  with  Horne  Tooke 
as  the  shuttlecock.  The  ministry-of  Addington  would  not 
support  this  suggestion,  but  a  bill  was  at  once  introduced 
by  -them  and-carried  into  law,  which  rendered  all  persoim 
in  holy  orders  ineligible  to  sit  in  the-  House  of  Commons. 
The  parliamentary  hfe  of  ^he  membei-for  Old  Sarum  -was 
preserved  through  one  parliament,  but  at  its  expiration  ha 
was  excluded  for  ever. 

The  last  years  of  Tooke's  life  were -spent  in  retirement 
in  a  house  on  the  west  side  of  Wimbledon  Common,  and 
there  he  was  visited  by  the  leading  members  of  the  party  of 
progress.  The  traditions  of  his  Sunday  parties  have  lasted 
unimpaired  to  this  day,  and  the  most  pleasant  pages  penned 
by  his  biographer  describe  the  i)oliticians  and  the  men  of 
letters  who  gathered  round  his  hospitable  board.  His  con- 
versational powers  rivalled  those  of  Dr  Johnson  ;  and,  if 
more  of  his  sayings  have  not  been  chronicled  for  the  benefit 
of  posterity,  the  defect  is  due  to  the  absence  of  a  Boswell. 
Through  the  liberality  of  his  friends,  his  last  days  -were 
treed  from  the  pressure  of  poverty,  and  he  was  enabled  to 
place  his  illegitimate  son  in  a  position  which  soon  brought 
him  wealth,  and  to  leave  a  competency  to  his  two  illegiti- 
niflite  daughtei-8.  Illness  seized  him  early  in  1810,  and  for 
the  next  two  years  his  sufferings  -were  acute.  He  died  in 
his  house  at  Wimbledon  on.lStkMarch  1812,  and  his  bod/ 


446 


T  0  P  —  T  0  R 


was  buried  with  that  of  his  mother  at  Ealing,  the  tomb 
which  he  had  prepared  in  the  garden  attached  to  his  house 
at  Winioledon  being  found  unsuitable  for  the  interment. 
An  altar-tomb  still  stands  to  his  memory  in  Ealing  church- 
yard.    A  catalogue  of  his  library  was  printed  in  1813. 

The  Life  of  Home  Tookc,  Ijy  Alexander  Stepliens,  is  written  in  an 
nnattractive  style,  and  was  the  work  of  an  adn-.ia'r  only  adnnttcd 
to  his  acquaintance  at  the  close  of  his  days.  Its  main  fact^'  arc 
reproduced  with  more  brightness  in  an  essay  uy  Mr  J.  E.  ThoiolJ 
Rogers  in  the  second  series  of  his  Bistiyrical  Glcaninijs.  Many  of 
Home  Tooke's  wittiest  sayings  are  preserved  in  the  Tabic  Tulk  of 
.Samuel  Rogers  and  S.  T.  Coleridge.  (W    P.  C  ) 

TOPAZ.  It  appears  that  the  stone  described  by  ancient 
writers  under  the  name  of  toto^io?,  in  allusion  to  its 
occurrence  on  the  island  of  Topazion  in  the  Red  Sea,  was 
the  mineral  which  we  now  know  as  the  chrysolite  or 
Peridote  (9.T.).  The  topaz  of  modern  mineralogists  was 
unknown  to  tue  ancients.  Topaz  occurs  either  crystallized, 
in  association  with  granitic  rocks,  or  in  the  form  of  rolled 
pebbles  in  the  beds  of  streams.  The  crystals  are  ortho- 
rhombic  prisms,  with  a  perfect  cleavage  parallel  to  the 
base,  or  transverse  to  the  long  a.tis  of  the  prism.  Tlis 
cleavage  is  recognized  by  the  lapidary  fis  the  "  grain  "  of 
the  stone.  It  is  notable  that  crystals  of  topaz  are  com- 
monly hemimorphic  ;  in  other  words,  the  prisms  are  ter- 
minated by  dissimilar  faces.  This  hemimorpbism  is  as.so- 
elated  with  the  property  of  pyroelectricity  (see  Miner- 
alogy, vol;  xvi.  p.  376).  The  chemical  composition  of  the 
topaz  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion,  but  the  mineral  is 
now  generally  regarded  as  a  silicate  of  aluminium  associ- 
ated with  the  fluorides  of  aluminium  and  silicon.  When 
strongly  hcaied  it  suffers  considerable  loss  of  weight. 
Brewster,  examining  the  topaz  microscopically,  detected 
numerous  fluid  cavities,  whence  ho  concluded  that  it  had 
been  formed  in  the  wet  way.  •  Two  of  the  fluids  obtained 
from  these  cavities  have  received  the  names  of  brewstrr- 
linite  and  cryptolinite.  Some  of  the  finest  topazes  are 
almost  colourless,  and  may  be  occasionally  mistaken  for 
diamonds.  The  topaz,  however,  is  inferior  in  hardness  ,  it 
lacks  "fire",  and  it  becomes  electric  when  heated — a  pro- 
perty not  possessed  by  the  diamond  Coloin'less  topazes 
are  known  to  French  jewellers  as  gonttcs  dean,  and  in 
Brazil  as  jnngas  d'agoa — names  which  refer  to  the  limpi- 
dity of  the  stone — ivhile  in  England  they  pass  in  trade 
under  the  curious  name  of  minas  novas.  The  beauty  of 
the  stone  is  best  developed  when  in  the  form  of  abrijliant. 
The  topaz  is  cut  on  a  leaden  wlieel  by  means  of  emery, 
and  is  polished  with  tripoli.  Coloured  topazes  are  usually 
either  yellow  or  blue.  The  pleochroism  of  the  stone  is 
very  marked :  thus  the  colour  of  the  sherry-yellow  crystals 
from  Brazil  is  resolved  by  the  dicliroiscope  into  brownish 
yellow  and  rose-pink.  The  colour  is  unstable,  the  yellow 
topaz  especially  being  liable  to  suffer  bleaching  by  exposure 
to  sunlight.  Hence  the  fine  scries  of  crystals  of  Siberian 
topaz  from  the  Kochscharow  pollection,  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  is  carefully  protected  from  light  by  means  of 
opaque  pasteboard  caps.  In  1750  a  Parisian  jeweller 
named  Dumelle  discovered  that  the  yellow  topaz  of  Brazil, 
ivhen  exposed  to  a  moderate  heat,  assumed  a  rose-pink 
colour,  it  is  generally  believed  that  all  the  pink  topaz 
occurring  in  jewellery  owes  its  tint  to  artificial  treatment. 
Formerly  it  was  the  practice  to  heat  the  stone  in  a  sand- 
bath,  but  the  change  of  colour  is  now  generally  effected 
by  wrapping  the  stone  in  German  tinder,  which  is  then 
ignited.  This  "  burnt  topaz "  is  sometimes  known  to 
jev.ellers  as  "  Brazilian  ruby."  In  like  manner  the  blue 
topaz  occasionally  passes  under  the  name  of  "  Brazilian 
sapphire,"  and  the  palo  green  as  "aquamarine  " — a  name 
which  is  strictly  applicable  only  to  the  sea-green  beryl. 
The  largest  known  cut  topaz  is  a  fine  brilliant,  weighing 
368  carats,  and  termed  the  "  Maxwell  Stuart  topaz." 


The  topaz  is  Gcca.sioDally  found  in  Britiin,  but  U3u?.lly  in  small 
crystals  unlit  for  jewellery.  It  occurs  in  granite  at  St  Jlichael's 
Mount  in  Cornwall,  in  Lunuy  Island,  and  in  Arran,  but  the  finest 
British  specimens  are  obtained  from  the  Highlands  of  Scotland. 
Beii-a  bourd,  one  of  the  Cairngorra  group,  yields  good  blue  crystals. 
Topa?  occurs  in  colourless  and  blue  crystals  in  the  granite  of  the 
Mourne  Mountains  in  Ireland;  and  microscopic  crystals  are  not' 
uiiconimon  in  ceitain  other  granites.  The  famous  lopa2.rock  of 
tlie  Schneckenstein,  in  Saxony,  yields  pale  yellow  crystals  of  great 
benuly  as  mineralogical  specimens,  but  not  snited  for  cutting. 
The  yellow  Saxon  topaz  does  not  seem  to  change  coloor  on  exposure 
to  heat.  Sonic  of  the  finest  topaz  cocoes  from  near  Odon  Tchelon, 
m  Siberia  ;  while  the  well-known  deep-yellow  crystals  of  Brazil 
occur  near  Villa  Rica  (Ouro  Preto).  Fine  topaz,  palo  blue  and 
colouilebs,  is  found,  as  rolled  crystals,  in  Tasmania  and  on  Flinders 
Island  in  Bass's  Strait.  It  also  occurs  in  the  tin-drifts  of  New 
South  Wales  ;  and  beautifully-formed  limpid  crystals,  of  small  size, 
accompany  slrean-.-tiii  at  Duringo,  in  Mexico.  Fine  topaz  fit  for 
jewellery  li.is  recently  been  worked  at  the  Platte  Mountain,  near 
Pike's  Peak,  Colorado.  One  stone,  weighing  125  carats,  has  been 
described  as  being  *'as  fine  a  gem  as  America  has  produced  of  any 
kiud"{Kunz,  1S85).  Topaz  also  occurs  in  cavities  in  rhyolite  at 
Nathrop  and  Chalk  Mountain,  Colorado,  and  in  trachyte  near  devier 
Lake,  Utah.  It  is  likewise  foimd  in  Arizona,  m  New  Mexico,  and 
at  Stoneham,  Maine. 

Oriental  topaz  is  the  name  sometimes  given  to  yellow  corundum, 
a  mineral  which  is  readily  distinguished  from  ordinary  topaz  by 
its  superior  hard-ess  and  density.  The  yellow  and  smoky  varieties 
of  quartz,  or  cairngorm,  are  often  known  in  trade  as  Scoteh  topaz, 
but  these  are  inferior  to  true  topaz  in  hardness  and  in  density. 
The  chief  differences  between  the  three  may  be  thus  expressed;  — 


Scotcti  Topaz. 

True  Topu. 

OHeDtal  Topu. 

Hardness 

Specific  gravity 
Crystallization. 

7 

2G 
Hexagonal. 

8 

35 
Orthorhombic. 

9 

i 

Hexagonal. 

TOPEKA,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  county  seat 
of  Shawnee  county  and  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Kansas, 
is  situated  (39°  3'  N.  lat.  and  95°  39'  W.  long.)  for  the 
most  part  upon  the  south  bank  of  the  Kansas  or  Kaw 
river,  upon  a  level  prairie  bench  considerably  elevated 
above  the  river.  A  small  portion,  known  locally  as  North 
To(ieka,  lies  upon  the  north  side  of  the  river.  Besides  the 
State  capitol,  which  is  an  imposing  building  in  the  midst 
of  an  extensive  park,  the  city  contains  the  State  insane 
asylum  and  the  reform  school.  The  Atchison,  Topeka, 
and  Santa  Fe  Railroad  Company  has  its  offices  and  work- 
shops here,  and  the  city  is  also  intersected  by  a  branch 
of  the  Union  Pacific  line.  In  18G0  Topeka  had  only  759 
inhabitants  ;  in  1870  the  number  had  risen  to  5790.  In 
1880  the  population  was  15,452  (8140  males  and  7312 
females) ;  and  in  1886  the  number  is  returned  at  25,005, 
making  Topeka  the  .second  largest  city  in  the  State.  The 
assessed  valuation  in  1886  was  S6,547,079,  and  the  debt 
of  the  corporation  only  8422,900. 

TORCELLO,  a  small  island  6  miles  north-east  ot 
Venice,  now  almost  deserted,  but  once  a  place  of  much 
importance.  Torcello  was  one  of  the  parent  islands  from 
which  Venice  was  colonized,  and  possessed  a  cathedral 
church  long  before  St  Mark's  was  founded.  In  the  11th 
century  Torcello  had  already  begun  rapidly  to  decline. 
The  existing  cathedral  of  S.  Maria  is  a  building  of  the 
highest  ecclesiological  importance,  unique  in  Europe  as  a 
perfect  example  of  the  arrangement  of  the  choir  in  the  6th 
or  7th  century,  when  the  original  cathedral  was  built,  and, 
though  most  of  the  upper  structure  was  rebuilt  by  Bishop 
Orseolo'  about  lOOSj  the  plan  ot  the  church  and  the 
fittings  of  the  choir  still  exist  as  they  were  originally 
designed.  •  The  church  consists  of  a  nave,  with  ten  bays 
of  arches  on  marble  monoliths,  and  three  aisles  each 
terminated  by  an  apse.  Round  the  walls  of  the  central 
apse  are  six  tiers  of  seats  for  the  officiating  clergy,  and, 
in  the  centre,  raised  above  the  others,  a  marble  throne 
for  the  bishop,  approached  by  a  flight  of  steps  (see  vol. 

'  .Son  of  the  Venetian  doge  Pietro  Orseolo  L 


TO  E  — T  0  E 


-447 


uL  p.  418,*  fig"  16).-  The  high  altar  stood  iu  front  of  the' 
steps,  and  the  celebrant  stood  with  his  back  to  the  apse^ 
I'Xiking  over  the  altar  towards  the  congregation.  An 
exactly  similar  arrangement  still  exists  in  manj-  of  the 
early  Coptic  churches  of  Old  Cairo  :  the  church  of  Abu 
Sergeh  is  a  specially  perfect  example.'  A\'hen  the  church 
vras  reconstructed  in  lOOS,  Bishop  Orseolo  did  not  interfere 
with  the  older  and  then  obsolete  arrangements  of  the 
choir,  but  added  a  later  choir,  formed  bj:  marble  screens, 
projecting  three  bays  into  the  nave,  with  seats  along  three 
sides  of  the  enclosure, — an  arrangement  like  that  which 
8till  exists  in  the  church  of  S.  Clemeute  in  Rome  (see 
KoME,  voL  sx.  p.  S33).  The  present  choir-stalls  date  from 
the  15th  century.  A  fine  marble  ambo  was  at  the  same 
time  placed  outside  the  cancelli,  and  the  position  of  the 
celebrant  at  the  high  altar  wa^  reversed.  The  vaults  of 
the  three  apses  are  covered  with  fine  glass  mosaics,  added 
probably  in  the  I"2th  century  :  in  the  centre  is  a  large 
figure  of  the  Virgin,  with  the  twelve  apostles  below ;  other 
mosaics  cover  the  vaults  of  the  aisle-apses  and  the  whole 
entrance  walL_  The  latter,  much  restored,  has  scenes  of 
the  Crucifixion,  the  Doom,  and  Heaven  and  Hell.  The 
sculpture  of  the  nave  capitals  and  on  h  5  marble  cancelli 
is  very  graceful  work  of  Byzantine  style,  closely  resembling 
similar  panels  at  Kavenna.  One  remarkable  peculiarity 
of  this  church  is  the  marble  shutter  which  closes  each 
window  on  the  right  wall;  these  have  pivots  which  revolve 
in  projecting  corbels — a  very  early  method  of  closing 
windows  of  which  very  few  examples  still  exist.  Even 
when  the  shutters  were  closed  some  dim  light  passed 
through  the  semitranslucent  marble  slabs.^  An  octagonal 
baptistery,  also  built  by  Bishop  Orseolo,  stood  outside  the 
main  entrance  to  the  chiarch,  but  has  been  rebuilt  on  a 
smaller  scale.  The  crypt  under  the  central  apse  of  the 
cathedral  is  probably  part  of  the  original  church,  unaltered" 
by  any  later  changes.*  The  small  church  of  S.  Fosca,  which 
is  connected  with  the  cathedral  by  a  loggia,  is  also  a 
building  of  exceptional  interest,  dating  from  the  10th  cen- 
tury. It  is  purely  Oriental  in  plan,  and  much  resembles 
that  of  St  Mark's  at  A'enice  and  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna,  on  , 
a  small  sc-:'ie.  It  has  a  cruciform  nave,  with  a  large  dome 
supported  on  eight  columns,  and  a  projecting  choir  with 
three  apses.  Externally  it  is  surrounded  by  a  loggia, 
supported  on  marble  columns  with  rich  Byzantine  capitals. 
S.  Fosca  was  partially  rebuilt  in  the  12th  century,  and  has 
since  been  much  modernized,  but  its  original  very  interest- 
ing plan  still  remains  but  little  changed. 

TORGAU,  a  fortified  town  in  the  Prussian^  province  of 
Saxony,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the. Elbe,  SO  miles 
north-east  of  Leipsic  and  26  miles  south-east  of  Witten- 
Iserg.  ;  Its  most  conspicuous  building .  is  the  Schloss 
Hartenf els,' on  an  island  in  the  Elbe,  begun  in  1481  and 
completed  in  1544  by  the  elector  John  Frederick  the 
Magnanimous.  This  castle  is  one  of  the  largest  Renais- 
sance buildings  in  Germany,  and  contains  a  chapel  con- 
secrated by  Luther  in  1544. ,  The  town-house  is  a  quaint 
building  of  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  and  there  are 
several  other  large  and'  fine  buildings,  chiefly  modem. 
The  parish  church  contains  the  tomb  of  Catherine  von 
Bora,  Luther's  wife.  The  once  flourishing  weaving  and 
brewing  industries  of  Torgau  have  declined  in  modern 
times ;  but  the  town  has  manufactures  of  gloves  and 

'  See  .Middleton  in  Archxologia,  ToL  xlviiL  p.  39S. 
^   '  Similar  marble  slabs,  not  made  to  move,  stiU  eiist  in  the  apse 
^windows  of  S,  Miniato,  near  Florence,,  and  once  existed  in  the  basilica 
6f  S.  Loreniofaori  le  ilura,  Rome. 

'  The  cathedral  of  Parenz'o,  in  Istna,  a  -Kork  of  the  6th  centniy, 
innch  resembles  the  cathedral  of  Torcello  (see  vol.  iii.  p.  418,  fig.  17). 
Similar.plans  are  -also  to. be  seen  in  many  of  the  earlj  chnrches  of 
Bjria  (see  Dc  Vogfie,-  S^-^CenirbXe,  Pans,  1S65J  aiAdl  as  in,  the 
CoBlic  ciiorches  cf  Egypt;' 


miscellaneous  articles,'and  carries  on  trade  in  grain,  kc, 
on  the  Elbe  and  by  rail.  The  fortifications,  begun  in 
1807  at  Xapoleon's  command,  are  largely  surrounded  with 
water ;  they  include  a  tete-de-pont  at  the  end  of  the  bridge 
across  the  Elbe.  In  18S5  the  population  was  10,9fcS 
(in  1V83  4000),  a  large  proportion  of  them  soldiers. 

Torgau  is  said  to  have  existed  as  the  capital  of  a  distinct  princi- 
pality in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Henry  1.,  but  by  1305  it  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  margrave  of  Meissen.  It  was  a  frequent  resi- 
dence of  the  electors  of  Sa.\ony.  In  Reformation  tinits  Torgau 
appears  as  the  spot  where  John  of  Saxony  and  Philip  of  Hesse 
formed  their  league  against  the  Roroaa  Catholic  imi>cri;J  estates ; 
and  the  Torgau  Articles,  drawn  up  here  by  Luther  in  1530,  were 
the  basis  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  The  Thirty  Years'  War 
inflicted  great  suffering  on  the  town.  In  1760  Frederick  the  Creat 
defeated  the  Austrians  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Torgau.  The  town 
capitulated  to  Tauenuieu  oa  January  10,  1S14,  after  a  siege  of 
three  months. 

TORONTO,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Ontario  and 
the  second  largest  city  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  is 
situated  on  a  large  and  finely  sheltered  bay  on  the  north 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  between  the  rivers  ,Don  and 
Humber.  The  magnetical  and  meteorological  obVervatory, 
in  the  university  grounds,  stands  at  a  height  of  108  feet 
above  the  lake,  and  approximately  342  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  inlat.  43°  39'  35"  X.,  long.  79°  23'  39"  W.' 
Toronto  is  39  miles  north-east  of  Hamilton,  at  the  head  of 
Lake  Ontario,  and  310  mUea  west-south-west  of  Montreal 
The  bay  is  formed  by  a  peninsula  or  island  about  6  miles 
long,  enclosing  a  fine  basin  of  3-44  square  miles,  with  a 
narrow  entrance  at  the  west  end.  This  forms  a  safe  and 
commodious  harbour.  The  city  stands  on  a  thick  deposit 
of  boulder  clay,  overlying  shaly  sandstones  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati or  Hudson  River  group,  practically  equivalent  in 


S— ,-1 — I—' — ■' — \ — 1"^^=^  ,'' '    I 


tr'''-^  " F il .1        jl 


Plan  of  Toronto. 


1.  Front  street. 

2.  King  Street  (West), 
3!  Kinfi  Street. 

4.  King  Street  (EastX  ; 

5.  Richmond  Street.    • 

6.  Queen  Street  (West). 
7   Queen  Sn^eet. 

8.  Qnein  Street  (East). 

9.  York  Street. 


Baild- 


10.  Bas  Street. 

11.  Yonce  Street 

12.  Pariiamens 

lags. 

13.  Government  Hotise 

14.  Upper    Canada    Col- 

lege, 
i5.  Osgoode  HolL 
16.  St  Michael'sCathedTal. 


17.  Metropolitan  Chtu-du 
13.  Fiee  Ltbraiy. 
19.  St  James's  CatheCTi. 
CO.  River  Don. 

21.  Knox  CulleEB. 

22.  University  College. 

23.  MacneiicObservatorj. 

24.  Queen's  Park. 

25.  St  JaiDes's  Pirk. 


position  to  the  Caradoc  horizon  of  British  geology.  These 
thin-bedded  sandstones  crop  out  on  the  lake  shore,  and 
have  been  quarried  for  flagging  and  building  purposes  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Humber.  In  the  northern  part  of  the 
city  the  boulder  clay  is  overlaid  by  stratified  clays  of  the 
Post-Glacial  age,  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks, 
of  which  many  of  the  houses  are  built.  The  site  slopes 
gradually  from  the  margin  of  the  bay  for  a  distance  of 
3  miles  to  a  terrace  or  ancient  lake  margin  immediately 
outside  the  northern  limits  of  the  city,  which  occupies 
an  area  of  12'83  square  miles,  or  of  17'99  square  milea 
including  the  harbour  and  island.  The  streets  cross  each 
other  at  right  angles.  ^Yonge  Street,  the  main  thoronga- 


4^i8 


TORONTO 


fare  miming  north  and  soutli,  was  ccnsfci-ucted  as  a  great.] 
military  road  in  179G,  and  extends  under  the  same  name, 
for  upwards  of  30  miles,  to  Lake  Simcoe.     It  constitutes 
the  dividing  line  of  the  city,.the  streets  being  reckoned 
east  or  west  according  to  their  relation  to  it. 

The  city  is  the  seat  of  the  provincial  Government, 
with  the  official  residence  of  the  lieutenant-governor,  the 
parliament  buildings  and  Government  offices,  the  courts 
of  law,  and  the  educational  departmental  buildings  for 
Ontario.  The  provincial  legislature  occupies  the  old  par- 
liament buildings  erected  in  1849,  when  Toronto  was  the 
cipital  of  Upper  Canada ;  but  they  have  long  been  recog- 
nized as  inadequate  for  the  purpose.  Plans  have  accord- 
ingly been  prepared,  and  the  new  buildings  are  now  in 
process  of  erection.  The  site  is  in  the  centre  of  the  Queen's 
Park,  a  finely  wooded  park  of  upwards  of  30  acres, 
originally  laid  out  for  the  provincial  university,  and  on 
■which^the  old  buildings  of  King's  College  stood.  The 
new  university  building  occupies  a  fine  site  immediately 
to  the  west  It  is  an  imposing  structure,  of  great  architec- 
tural beauty,  in  the  Norman  style,  with  a  massive  central 
tower.  The  buUdings  of  the  provincial  school  of  practical 
science,  and  of  the  magnetical  observatory,  are  also  erected 
in  the  university  grounds.  The  observatory  is  one  of  the 
meteorological  stations  established- by  the  British  GoveVn- 
ment,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Royal  Society,  in 
1840.    It  is  nowniaintained  by  the  Dominion  Government 

The  tmiversity,-  University  CoUege,  -and  the  school  of 
practical  science  embrace  in  their  conjoint  teaching  a 
comprehensive- system,^  of  "training  in  arts  and  science; 
and  in  them  upwards  of  500  students  receive  their  training 
in  arts,  in.  the  natural  and  applied  sciences,  and  in 
engineering.  There  is  also  a  medical  faculty,  reorganized 
under  a  recent  Act,  in  conjunction  with  the  department 
of  science  in  the  university.  The  university  and  college 
constitute  iinitedly  the  state  institution  maintained  by 
public  funds,  and  strictly  secular.  But  it  is  surrounded 
with  the  theological  and  training  -colleges  of  different 
denominations  in  affiliation  with  it,  the  students  of  which 
pursue  their  undergraduate  course  in  the  university  for 
a  degree  in  arts.  The  affiliated  colleges,  some  of  which 
give  degrees  in  divinity,  include  Knox  College  (Presby- 
terian), Wycliffe  CoUege  (Church  of  England),  St  Michael's 
College  (Roman  Catholic),  Macmaster  Hall  (Baptist),  and 
Victoria  College  (Methodist).  Besides  the  provincial  uni- 
versity and  its  affiliated  colleges.  Trinity  College  (Church 
of  England)  gives  instruction  in  divinity  and  arts,  and. 
confers  -degrees  in  aU  the  faculties.  Toronto  and  Trinity 
medical  schools  occupy  convenient  buildings  in  the  imme- 
diate viciidty  of  the  general  hospital,  the  Burnside  lying-in 
hospital,  and  the  Mercer  eye  and  ear  infirmary.  The 
students  in  medicine  number  nearly  500,  including  a  small 
number  of  lady  students,  for  whom  special  instruction 
is  provided^  Upper  Canada  College,  founded  in  1829, 
is  a  provincial  institution  analogous  to  one  of  the  great 
English  public  schools.  It  has  about  300  students.  The 
Collegiate  Instituteoccupies  a  fine  building  immediately 
to  the  west  of  the  horticultural  gardens.  It  is  the  higher 
school,  forming  an  important  feature  in  the  provincial 
system  of  education,  and  is  maintained,  along  with  the  free 
public  schooLs,  from  local  taxes.  .  Its  students  number 
443,  of  whom  182  are  females. 

Osgoode  Hall,  the  seat  of  the  superior  courts  of  law  and 
equity,  is  an  ornate  Italian  building,  extended  at  various 
dates.  The  provincial  asylum  for  the  insane  affords 
accommodation  for  upwards  of  700  patients ;  it  is  sur- 
rounded with  recreation  grounds  extending  to  DO  acres. 

The  city  charities  are  numerous  and  well  organized. 
The  churches  include  some  large  and  handsome  buildicga 
Among  the  more  important  public  buildings  are  those  of 


-the  educational  department,  including  n  museum  and 
gallery  of  art,  normal  and  model -Schools  ;  the  custom- 
house, a  fine  Renaissance  building,  with  extensive  ware- 
houses attached ;  and  the  post-office,  also  of  tasteful 
architectural  design.  The  free  city  library  occupies  a  com- 
modious building  in  Church  Street,  in  addition  to  branch 
libraries  in  different  parts  of  the  city.  It  contains  upwards 
of  47,000  vols.  There  are  35  city  public  schools,  occupying 
large  and  commodious  buildings,  with  262  teachers  and 
20,213  children.  The  separate  (Roman  Catholic)  schools 
number  13,  with  60  teachers  and  3792  children. 

Toronto  is  the  seat  of  many  flourishing  industries,  in- 
cluding foundries,  tanneries,  furniture,  stove,  shoe,  and 
other  manufactories,  flour-mills,  breweries,  ha.  The  site 
of  the  city  is  favourable.to  commerce.  It  is  the  centre  of 
a  rich  agricultural  district ;  and  its  harbour  is  of  easy 
access  to  the  largest  vessels  that  navigate  the  lakes.  It  lies 
directly  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara  river,  distant 
40  miles  ;  and  throughout  the  season  of  navigation  wtU- 
appointed  steamers  maintain  communication  with  the  prin-- 
cip>al  routes  of  travel  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
By  means  of  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Great  Western,  the 
Northern,  the  Canada  Pacific,  and  other  railways,  it  forms 
an  important  commercial  centre  for  distribution  ;  and  it  is 
the  seat  of  the  head  offices  of  most  of  the  banks  and  of 
the  chief  wholesale  trade  of  western  Canada,  The  direct 
route  from  the  lower  lakes  to  Lake  Superior  and  the  great 
North-West  is  by  the  Northern  Railroad  to  Georgian  Bay, 
where  lines  of  steamers  maintain  constant  communication 
from  Collingwood  and  Owen  Sound  to  Prince  Arthur's 
Landing  and  the  railways  to  Manitoba  and  the  North-West 

In  1861  the  population  numbered  44,821  ;  in  1871  it 
had  increased  to  56,092  ;  in  1881  to  86,415  ;  andin  1887 
it  is  believed  to  amount  to  140,000.  The  actual  number 
on  the  assessment  rolls  is  111,800.  The  estimated  yaloe 
of  real  estate  in  Toronto  is  $105,000,000.  The  assessed 
value  in  1886  was  $83,556-,811.  The  annual  revenue  of 
the  city  is  estimated  for  1887  at  $1,812,941.  The  amount 
of  customs  duties  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  30th  June  1887 
was  $4,273,038.  The  value  of  exports  to  the  same  date 
was  $3,192,157,  and  of  imports  $21,020,528.  The  city 
returns  three  members  to  the  Canadian  House  of  Commons, 
and  three  to  the  provincial  legislature  of  Ontario. 

In  the  despatches  of  Canadian  officials  of  Louis  XIV.  in  the  17th 
century  Toronto  means  the  country  of  the  Huj-ons,  a  region  lying 
between  Lake  Simcoe  and  Lake  Huron,  about  40  miles  north.  The 
river  Humber,  which  enters  Lake  Ontario  immediately  to  the  west 
of  the  Bay  of  Toronto,  though  navigable  only  for  a  short  distance 
even  by  canoes,  formed  with  its  portages  a  line  of  communication 
between  Lake  Ontano  and  the  Huron  country.  Hence  the  station 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river  became  the  common  landing-place  for 
trading  aud  hunting  parties  bound  for  the  region  known  of  old  as 
Toronto,  and  so  received  its  name.  A  French  trading  post,  built 
there  in  1749,  and  originally  named  Fort  Rouille,  after  the  French 
colonial  minister  Antoine  Louis  Rouille,  comte  de  Jouy,  was 
familiarly  known  as  Fort  Toronto.  The  Northern  Railway,  the 
fii-st  one  constructed  in  Upper  Canada,  followed  the  route  of  the 
old  Indian  trail,  and  established  a  direct  line  of  communication, 
by  means  of  steamers  from  Collingwood,  with  Lakes  HorOD, 
Michigan,  and  Superior.  The  railway  passes  through  a  fine  agri- 
cultural country,  and  is  now  exteuded  into  the  Muskoka  and 
Nippitsing  districts,  bringing  an  extensive  lumbering  region  into 
direct  communication  with  Toronto. 

The  site  for  the  town,  was  surveyed  inl  793  by  Surveyor-General 
Bouchette,  under  the  instruction  of  the  lieutenant-governor, 
General  Simcoe;  and  in  his  narrative  of  the  original  survey 
■  Bouchotte  describes  the  untamed  aspect  of  the  scene,  with  the 
■group  of  wigwams  of  a  little  band  of  Mississnga  Indians  who  coo- 
stVtuted  the  sole  occupants  of  the  land  ;  while  the  waters  of  the 
bay  and  the  neighbouring  marshes  were  the  haunts  of  innumerable 
coveys  of  wildfowl  The  first  parliament  of  Ui)ptr  Canada  held 
its  second  session  in  May  1793  at  the  town  of  Newark,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Niagara  river  ;  but  in  the  following  August  the  seat 
of  government  was  transferred  to  Toronto,  to  which  General  Simcoe 
gavo  the  name  of  York,  in  honour  of  the  duke  of  York,  tbe'second 
80Q  of, George  III.     Under  its  new  nain^  the  embryo  mettopoUa 


T-O  R  — T  O  R 


449 


i 


slowly  progn;ssed  as  the  siitronnding  country  was  clerired  and  settled. 
Tue  entiuuco  to  the  baiboor  was  guarded  by  two  block  houses  ; 
provision  was  made  for  barracks  and  garrison  stores ;  buildings  were 
erected  for  the  legislature  ;  .ind  there  the  members  of  ^>al■li£.raen^ 
summoned  by  royal  proclamation  to  "meet  us  in  our  provincial 
mrliament  in  our  towuof  York,"  assembled  on  the  1st  of  June  1797. 
Sixteen  years  later  the  population  numbered  only  456.  The  town 
was  twice  sacked  in  the  war  of  1312.  General  Dearborn  captured  it 
at  the  head  of  a  force  of  upwards  of  2000  dntwn  from  the  neighbour- 
ing States.  On  their  advance  to  the  out^vorks  of  the  garrison,  the 
magazine  of  the  fort  exploded,  whether  by  accident  or  design,  killing 
many  of  the  invaders.  The  halls  of  legislature  and  other  buildings 
were  burnt,  and  the  town  pillaged.  On  the  restoration  of  peace  the 
work  of  creating  a  capital  for  Upper  Canada  had  well  nigh  to  begin 
anew.  But  the  city  advanced  with  the  general  progress  of  the 
country.  Trade  centred  in  the  little  capital;  the  population  in- 
creased; and  needful  manufactures  were  established.  Theorganiza- 
tion  of  Upper  Canada  College  in  1830,  with  a  staff  of  teatheis  nearly 
all  graduates  of  Cambridge,  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  city  and  pro. 
vince.  In  1S34  the  population  of  York  numbered  fully  10,000  ;  and 
an  Act  of  the  provincial  legislature  conferied  on  it  a  charter  of  in- 
corporation, giving  it  for  the  first  time  an  etficient  system  of  munici- 
pal government,  with  a  mayor,  aldermen,  and  councilraen,  entrusted 
with  the  administration  ol  its  affairs.  Under  this  charter  it  was 
constituted  a  citv,  with  the  uarae  of  Toronto.  "  "  (D.  W. ) 
■  ...  <■  -  f       '  •> 

TORPEDO.  Torpedoes' may  be  briefly  described  as 
charges  of  some'  e.vi)losive  agent,  enclosed  in  watertight' 
cases,  and  moored  or  propelled  under  water  at  snch  depths 
that  by  their  e.^plosion  they  may  sink  or  seriously  damage 
a  vessel  in  their  vicinity.  The  u.sfc  of  torpedoes  in  naval 
warfare  was  proposed  and  even  attempted  in  the  end  of  the 
last  and  beginning  of  the  present  century,  but  no  successful 
application  of  them  was  made  until  the  American  Civil  War 
of  1861-64.  The  word  "submarine  mine"  is  generally 
substituted  for  "  torpedo  "  when  speaking  of  defensive  or 
stationary  mines,  the  latter  term  being  reserved  foe  loco- 
motive torpedoes,  or  others  used  in  offensive  oneration.s. 

1.  Submarine  Mines. — Submarine  mines  are  divided  into 
three  classes: — (1)  observation  mines,  fired  by  an  electric 
current  when  the  enemy  is  observed  to  be  within  the  de- 
structive area  of  the  mine;  (2)  electro-contact  mines^which, 
when  struck,  fire  by  automatically  completing  the  electric 
circuit  from  the  battery  ashore;  (3)  mechanical  mines, 
which,  when  struck,  fire  through  the  action  of  some  con- 
trivance within  themselves,  and  are  not  connected  with  the 
shore.  Mines  of  the  first  class  are  used  in  places  where  a 
channel  has  to  be  kept  clear  for  screw  steamers  to  pass, 
the  second  class  in  those  parts  of  the  channel  where  there 
is  little  traffic,  and  the  third  class  in  channels  which^it  is 
intended  to  bar  equally  against  friend  or  foe. 

Electrical  mines  have  the  advantage  over  mechanical 
that  by  the  removal  of  the  firing  battery  the  passage  of  a 
ship  is  rendered  perfectly  safe,  and  that  the  condition  of 
the  mine  can  be  ascertained  by  electrical  tests,  but  the 
electric  cables  are  liable  to  damage,  and  add  grestly  to  the 
expense  of  the  defence. 

Gun-cotton  and  dynamite  are' the  explosives  generally 
used  in  mines,  the  charges  varying  from  30  Bb  to  500 
fc,  according  to  the  description  of  mine.  In  all  mines 
the  charge  is  exploded  by  means  of  a  detonatoi  con- 
taining fulminate  of  mercury.  In  mines  loaded  with 
gun-cotton  the  detonator  is  inserted  in  a  priming  charge 
of  dry  gun-cotton,  this  priming  charge  being  in  a  metal 
case,  flosely  surrounded  by  the  wet  gun-cotton  comprising 
the  remainder  of  the  charge.  Where  dynamite  is  employed 
tfie  priming  charge  is  not  necessary.  Experiments  made 
to  determine  the  horizontal  distance  at  which  an  ironclad 
will  be  vitally  injured  by  different  charges  have  yielded 
the  following  general  results  : — 


Choige. 

Submergence. 

rilstahce. 

.../». : 

10  to  35  ft 
30  ft. 

60  ft. 

4  ft. 
10  ft. 
15  ft. 

£50  lb  ground  mine  ... 

.-  M 

The  explosion  of  500  lb  of  gun-cotton_  at  a  horizontal 
distance  of  30  feet  would  seriously  injure  a  vessel,  and  30 
tt)  in  contact  with  the  bottom  below  the  armour  would 
probably  blow  a  hole  through. the  outer  and  inner  skin. 
The  deiiths  given  above  are  approximately  the  best  depths 
to  get  the  fullest  effect  out  of  the  charges ''mentioned. 
\\T)en  the  water  is"  so  deep  that  if  the  mine  were  placed 
on  the  bottom  it  could  not  exert  its  full  destructive  effect 
oil  the  bottom  of  a  ship,  it  is  given  enough  buoyancy  to 
allow  it  to  float  above  its  moorings, — a  mine  on  the  bottom 
being  termed  a  "  ground  mine,"  and  a  mine  floating  above^ 
its  moorings  a  "  buoyant  mine." 

If  mines  are  placed  too  close  together  the' explosion'of 
one  will  damage  those  near  jt,  the  interval  which  roust  be 
left  between  them  being — for  a  100  lb  mine,  100  feet  ;  for 
a  250  lb  mine,  250  feet  ;  and  for  a  500-lb  mine,  300  feet. 
There  is  therefore  always  a  possibility  of-  a  ship  passing 
through  a  single  line  of  mines  without  coming  within  the 
destructive  area  of  any.  Mines  are  .therefore  generally 
arranged  in  two  or  more  lines,  the  mines  of  one  line 
covering  the  spaces  left  between  the  mines  of  the  next, 
or  several  mines  may  be  laid  close'  together,  and  .the 
whole  exploded  simultaneously. 

The  electric  circuit  of  all  electrical  mines  is  very  similar. 
A  voltaic  battery  ashore  has  one  pole  put  permanently  to 
earth  and  the  other  pole  joined  to  the  electric  cable  lead- 
ing to  the  mine.  This  cable  passes  into  the'  mine  case 
through  a  water-tight  joint,  and  is  connected  up  to  one 
jtole  of  the  electric  detonator,  the-other  pole  of  the  deton- 
ator being  connected  to  the  mouth  piece  of  the  mine  and 
consequently  to  earth.  To  prevent  the  mine  being  fired 
until  the  proper  moment  has  arrived,  this  circuit  must  be 
broken  somewhere,  and  means  provided  for  completing  it 
when  the  nyne  is  to  be  fired.  In  the  case  of  observation 
mines  this  is  done  by  inserting  A  fiiring. key  in  the  electric 
cable  near  the  bafterj',  and  in  electro-contactlmines  by  a 
circuit  closer  in  the  mine. 

The  right  moment  to  fire  an  observation  mine  is  determined  by^Obser- 
two  observers  ashore,  who  have  each  adjusted  two  sights  in  line  vation 
with  the  mine,  as  it  was  lowered  into  losition, — the  stations  for.minca. 
these  observers  being  chosen  so  that  their  lines  of  sight  may  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  The  electric  cable 
from  the  mine  is  led  past  both  observers  and  connected  to  a  firiug 
battery,  one  pole  of  which  is  pnt  i)ermanenlly  to  earth.  A  firing 
key  inserted  in  the  circuit  at  the  station  of  each  observer  renders 
the  simultaneous  pressure  ol  both  keys  ncCL-ssary  to  explode  the 
mine,  if  each  observer  depresses  his  firing  key  as  the  centre  of 
the  enemy  crosses  his  own  line  of  sight,  both  keys  can  only  bo 
pressed  simultaneously  if  the  enemy  arrives  at  the  intersection  of 
the  two  lines  of  sight,  and  consequeutly  over  the  mine.  When 
many  mines  are  placed  in  one  channel,  it  is  usual  to  moor  them  in 
three  hues,  the  prolongation  of  each  line  converging  to  an  observing 
station,  where  the  direction  of  each  line  is  marked  by  sights.  The 
electric  cables  from  all  the  mint-s  come  to  another  observing  station, 
and  are  there  connected  to  separate  firing  keys,  each  of  which  has 
one  pole  joined  up  to  a  firing  battery.  The  observer  at  thi.'?  station 
13  also  provided  with  a  sej»arate  sight  marking  the  direction  of  each 
mine  in  all  the  lines.  The  former  station  is  termed  the  "  couverg- 
ing"  and  the  latter  tlie  "firing"  station.  The  observer  at  the 
converging  station  telegraphs  to  the  firing  station  the  instant  at 
which  the  centre  of  the  enemy  is  on  one  of  the  lines  of  mines,  the 
observer  at  the  firing  station  determining  by  means  of  his  sights 
which  individual  mine  the  enemy  is  over,  and  he  can  fire  it  by 
pressing  the  eorres^>onding  key. 

Instead  of  scjiarate  sights  for  each  mine,  observing  arcs  may  bo 
used.  These  instruments  are  furnished  w-itli  a  telescoi»e,  which 
can  be  constantly  directed  on  the  enemy,  a  bar  attachment  auto- 
ntatically  closing  the  circuit  when  the  direction  of  the  enemy  cor- 
responds to  a  mine.  The  camera  obscura  has  also  been  used  foC 
determining  the  position  of  an  enemy  in  the  mine  field. 

Electro-contact  mines  are  buoyant  mines  moored  about  10  feet  Electro- 
below  the  surface,  and  arc  in  connexion  with  an  electric  battery  contacti 
a.^hore.     They  are  arranged  to  cvplode  on  being  struck  by  a  passing  mine.*w 
ship,  by  means  of  an  apparatns  contain.cd  in  the  mine  itself,  called 
a  circuit  closer.     Many  dilTerent  kinds  oi  circuit  closers  arc  in  use,' 
hut  they  all  depend  ujion  there  being  a  break  in  the  electric  circuit 
vhile  the  circuit  closer  ie  at  rest,  the  circuit  closer  completing  tho 
circuit  when  the  mine  receives  a  blow.     That  most  commonly  useJ 

xxni.  —  57  ■     ' 


450 


T  O  R  P  E  D  a 


(%.  j)  consists  of  a  steel  s(nnJle  a  carrying  a  weiylit  b  oaitsTjpper 
«oa.  This  steel  spindle  carries  au  insulate  J  brass  ringc,  to'wiucK 
iho  wire  from  the  detonator  d  is  attached,  the  other  pole^of  the 
detonator  being  connected  to  the  cable  e  leading  to  tne  electric 
battery.  On  the  mine  being  struck  the  inertia  of  the  weight  causes 
the  steel  rod  to  vibrate  sufficiently  to  bring  the  insulated  ring  iu 
contact  mth  bi-ass  springs  in  connexion  with  the  earth,  thus  com- 
pleting the  circuit  of  the  electric  battery  through  the  detonatoo^ 
Another  form  of  circuit  closer  is  a  tube  of 
mercury,  which  by  splashing  up  when  the 
fnino  is  struck  completes  the  electric  circuit 
between  two  previously  insulated  points. 

A  single  main  cable  from  the  battery  may 
have  several  electro-contact  mines  attached 
to  it;  the  expense  of  leading  a  separate  wire 
from  each  mine  to  the  battery  is  thercfoif 
avoided.  If  one  mine  was  fired  the  brokei. 
fcud  of  its  branch  wire  from  the  main  cable 
vrould  be  left  in  thq  water,  and  on  auotlier 
mine  being  struck  it  would  ouly  receive  a 
portion  of  the  current,  as  the  battery  would  bo  connected  to  earth 
through  the  broken  branch.  Each  branch  wire  must  therefore 
have  ft  disconnector  in  circuit,  clear  of  the  explosion.  The  discon- 
nector consists  of  a  ]>latinuiu  mrc  fuse  contained  in  a  strong  iron 
case,  and  the  same  current  wliich  fires  the  detonator  in  the  mine 
fuses  the  platinvim  wire  bridge  of  the  disconnector,  and  the  circuit 
to  the  broken  branch  remains  insulated. 
Muchan-^  Mechanical  miues,  of  which  thoi'e  are  many  different  patterns, 
leal  contain  the  means  of  ignition  within  themselves,  and  are  uncou- 

mines.      nected  with  any  aj^paratus  ashore.     They  ni.ay  bo  ignited  by  per- 
cussion, friction,  chemical  action,  and  electricity. 

A  simple  form  of  mechanical  mine  has  a  heavy  top,  which,  on 
being  pushed  off  by  a  passing  ship,  eitlier  pulls  out  a  pin  and  I'e- 
leascs  a  pluugcr,  which  is  then  forced  by  a  powerful  spring  iuto  a 
detonator,  or  a  friction  tube  is  fii-ed  when  the  weight  falls  on  a  line 
attached  to  it.     Another  form,  known  as  Abel's  mcchaniail  e.t- 
ploder,  consists  of  a  glass  tube  containing  sulphuric  acid,  and  sur- 
rounded by  chlorate  of  potash  and  sugar.     The  whole  is  contained 
in  an  india-rubber  tube,  which  projects  from  the  top  of  the  mine, 
the  lower  end  being  in  communication  with  the  charge.     When 
struck,  the  india-rubber  tube  bends,  and,  the  glass  tube  breaking, 
the  sulphuric  acid  mixes  with  the  chlorate  of  potash  and  sugar  and 
inBames  the  charge. 
Electro-       Electro-mechanical   mines  can   bo  made  by  placing  a  voltaic- 
rcijchan'  battery  inside  the  mine  iti-elf  and  joining  it  up  to  a  fuse  and  circuit 
ical  closer,  the  circuit  closer  completing  the 

minea  circuit  when  the  mine  is  struck.  Another 
'form  of  electro-mechanical  mine  {fig.  2) 
'has  several  projecting  horns  {a,  a,  a)  of 
lead  tubing.  Iniide  each  horn  is  a  gIa•^b 
tubo  containiiiy  bichromate  of  potash, 
and  immediat'.l  '  under  it  a  row  of  smal' 
zinc  and  carton,  plates,  b,  in  a  contain- 
ing cell  On  any  one  of  the  lead  horns 
being  beut,  the  glass  tube  is  broken,  and 
tho  bichromate  o^  ]X)tash  -tlrops  into  the 
coll,  convorting  the  arrangement  into  a 
voltaic  battery,  which,,  being  already  counecteJ  to  "the  electric 
fuse  c,  firos  the  mine. 

All  mecbaniciid  and  electro-mechanical  mines  aro  provided  ^vitK 
Bome  contnvanc*  to  guard  against  accidental  explosion  during  tho 
process  of  laying.  In  mechanical  mines  a  safety  pin  can  be  with- 
drawn aft«r  the  mine  is  in  position,  or,  in  the  case  of  Abel's  exploder, 
the  projecting  tubo  is  surrounded  by  iron  segments  which  fall  olT 
when  tha  mine  is  In  jwsitiou.  In  electro-mechanical  mines  two 
of  the  wires  forming  part  of  the  circuit  inside  the  mine  may  bo 
brought  through  to  the  outside  and  kept  apart  till  the  mine  is  in 
position,  those  wires  being  long  enough  to  allow  of  the  operator 
retiring  clear  of  the  explosion  before  joining  them  up  and  rendering 
the  mine  dangerous. 

Mech»>^cal  mines  have  the  advantage  over  electrical  that  they 
require  ^6*cr  trained  men       5 
for  their  mani|inlatiou,  are  :■ " 
cheaper,  andean  be  placed  in  1 
position  very  rapidly.     But ,' 
no  really  efficient  method 
has  yet  been  devised  that 
will    ensure   a    mechanical 
mine,    after    it    has    been 
placed    in    position,   being 
safely  taken   up  again    for' 

examination  or  removal,  nor  can  any  tests  bo  applied  to  ascertain 
\Sit  remains  in  an  efficient  condition. 
.Ccuiitei  All  mines,  especially  those  with  electric  cables  attached,  must 
ffilolDg.  be  protected  by  gun  fire  or  guard  boats,  as,  if  the  mine  field  is  un- 
protected, they  can  be  easily  destroyed  by  countcnnlning  or  creep- 
ing.    Countermining  is  carried  out  by  exploding  a  succaaaion  of 


clmrges  in.  &n  enemy's  mine  field.  Mines  containing  heavy  clnr~r'> 
■would  be  used  for  the  purpose,  several  of  these  mines  being  droppc  d 
in  succession  from  a  boat  towed  by  a  fast  steamer,  the  whole  line 
being  exploded  together  as  soon  as  the  last  miue  had  been  dropped. 
Numerous  experiiuents  have  proved  that  the  explosion  of  a  500  K> 
mine  will  effectually  destroy  any  mine  within  a  radius  of  100  feet; 
the  countermines  would  therefore  be  di'opped  at  double  this  distance 
ai^rt,  and  the  channel  so  cleared  marked  by  buoys.  Electric  cables 
can  also  bo  caught  and  raised  to  the  surface  by  grapnels  ;  or  the 
grapnel  may  have  a  case  of  explosive  between  its  arms,  so  that, 
instead  of  raising  the  wire,  it  may  bo  cut  by  firing  the  chaigc. 

2.  Locomotive  Tor}>edoes. — Locomotive  torpedoes  are  a 
numerous  class,  the  principal  being  tho  Whitehead,  Lay, 
Sims,  Brennan,  and  Ericsson.  The  Whitehead  is  the  only 
one  which  can  be  considered  a  well-developed  uava! 
weapon. 

This  torpedo  (fig.  SJMs  made  in  different  sizes,  varying  white- 
from  12  feet  to  19  feet  in  length  and  from  12  to  15bea.t 
inches  in  diameter ;  the  cross  section  is  circular,  tapering  '"T^'  '■''• 
to  a  point  at  each  end.  It  is  capable  of  being  so  adjusted 
that  on  being  discharged  it  will  travel  at  any  depth  be- 
tween 5  and  15  feet  below  the  surface,  and  it  wll  maintain 
this  depth  for  its  entire  run.  The  torpedo  travels  at  a 
uniform  speed  for  the  whole  of  its  range,  the  speed  and 
range  varying  for  different  patterns  ;  the  latest  type  has  a 
speed  of  24  knots  for  600  yarda.  The  toriiedo  can  be  set 
so  that,  in  the  event  of  its  not  striking  the  ship  aimed  at, 
it  will  stop  at  the  end  of  its  range  and  siuL  For  exercise 
it  can  be  set  to  stop  at  any  distance  \vithia  the  limits  of 
its  range,  rise  to  the  sui-face,  and  float.  The  torpedo  is 
divided  into  several  compartments.  The  foremost  A  con-' 
tains  a  charge  of  from  30  to  100  lb  of  gun-cotton,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  torpedo.  This  charge  is  fired  on  the 
torpedo  striking  a  ship  by  a  pistol  which  screws  into  the 
uose  of  the  tori)edo.  On  impact  the  point  of  tho  pistol  is 
driven  inwards  and- forces  tho  pobit  of  a  steel  striker  into 
a  detonator.  By  means  of  powerful  air-pumps  air  is  com- 
pressed, into  the  iiir-chamber  B  to  a  pressure  of  1000  lb  on 
the  square  inch,  and  actuates  a  thiee-cylinder  engine,  which 
drives  two  propellers  revolviug  in  opposite  directions  in  the 
taiL  The  mechanism  in  the  balance-chatnber  C  works  two 
exterior  rudders  ou  each  side  of  the  tail,  which  keep  the 
torpedo  at  a  uniform  depth  during  its  run.  This  device 
has  never  been  patented,  but  is  a  secret;  the  details  of  it, 
however,  have  been  purchased  by  all  prominent  maritime 
nations. 

The  tail  F'is  fitted  with  four  broad  fins,  which  tend  to 
keep  the  torpedo  on  a  straight  course  and  prevent  it  roll- 
ing. The  horizontal  tail  fins  carry  four  rudders,  two  hori- 
zontal and  two  vertical.  The  horizontal  rudders  worked 
from  the  balance-chamber  keep  the  torpedo  at  its  set 
depth ;  the  vertical  rudders  are  permanently  adjusted  so 
as  to  cause  the  torpedo  to  travel  in  a  straight  line. 

The  air-chamber  of  a  torpedo  is  usually  made  of  fluid 
compressed  steel,  the  remaining  compartments  of  thin 
steel  plate,  and  the  interior  mechanism  of  phosphor-bronze. 
In  Germany  torpedoes  are  now  made  entirely  of  phosphor- 
bronze. 

The  torpedo  can  bo  discharged   from  above  or. below 


Fio.  3.— Wlillehead  Torppdn. 

water.  From  above  water  it  is  shot  out  of  an  air  gun  (fig.  H) 
mounted  on  Iho  deck  of  a  ship  and  pointing  through 
the  side.  The  air-gun  consists  of  a  metal  tube  a,  a,  a,  of 
the  same  length  as  the  torpedo,  the  rear  end  being  closed 
by  an  air-tight  door.     The  gnn  carries  a  reservoir  <•■  «i 


T  0  R  — T  0  R 


451 


loompresscd  air,  the  content*  of  which,  by  means  of  a  suit^ 
able  firhig^ Valve  d,  can  be  instantaneously  admitted  into 
the  gun.  ^V'hen  the  torpedo  is  to  be  discharged  this  firing 
valve  is  oji^Eed,  and  the  compressed  air  in  the  reservoir 
foroa  the  t«rpedo  out  at  a  high  velocitj',  a  tripper  6  pro- 
jecting through  the  top  of  the  gun  throwing  back  the 
starting  lever  of  the  torpedo  on  its  way  out.  From  below 
water  tlic  torpedo  is  discharged  through  a  tube,  the  muzzle 
of  which  forma  part  of  the  stem  of  the  ship,  the  tube  being 
fitted  with  an  outside  ■  vaKo,  which  prevents  the  water 
from  entering  while  the  torpedo  is  placed  in  the  tube. 
Latterly  powder  has  been  used  instead  of  ^compressed  air 
for  the  ejecting  force. 

(jy  Tlio  Lay  torpedo  is  a  boat  of  cylindrical  form,  the  fore  part  being 

torjusdo    chargexl  with  an  expletive.     The  motive  power  is  carbonic  .icid  <;as 
generated  in  the  usual  way.     As  only  a  very  small  jmrtion  of  the 
boat  is  visible  on  the  surface,  two  ^uide  roJs,  one  on  each  end  of 
the  vessel,  maik  its  position  at  any  part  of  its  run.     The  boat  can 
be  started,  stopped,  and  steered  by  njeaus  of  an  electric  cable,  con- 
taining several  insulated  wires,  which  is  paid  out  from  the  boat 
as  it  travels. 
Sims    ^        The  Sims  toritedo  is  cig<ir-shaped,  and  is  subi>ciulcd  to  a  boat*' 
torpeilo.^s1iaiicd  flo.it.     The  torpedo  is  propelled  by  screws  driven   by  an 
*electr2.  %iotclT  situated   in   the   body,  tlie   current   for  wliieh   is 
supplied  from  a  dyuamo  ashore.     The  electric  cable  is  coiled  on  a 
drum  iu  the  torpedo,  and  pays  6nt  as  the  torpedo  advances.     The 
torpedo  is  also  steered  from  the  shore  bv  an  eiectriti  current.     Its 
•speed  is  about  12  knots. 
Br«nii»n      Tlie  principle  of  the  Brcnnan  torpedo  is  as  follows.     The  torpedo 
corpcrfoi   contains  two  dnims  upon  which  a  large  amount  of  pianoforte  wire 
is  wound.     Ouo  euii  of  the  wiie  from  each  drum  is  taken  to  l.uge 
,drums  ashore,  which  are  revolved  by  a  steam-engine.     By  winding 
up  on  the  large  drums  ashore  a  rotatory  motion  is  imparted  to  the 
tlfunis  in  the  torpedo,  which  by  means  of  gearing  revolve  two  screw 
pT0|)cller3,  and  these  drive  the  torpedo  through  the  water.     The 
-torpedo  can  bo  steered  from  the  shore  in  any  direction,  by  winding 
on  one  drum  faster  than  the  other,  which  alteration    in  mo'iou 
moves  a  vertical  rudder  on  the  torjiedo. 
Kricsaoi^       The  Ericsson  torpedo  is  a   long   fush-shapcd  weapon,    made  of 
torpedo,!. wood,  and  weighted  so  as  to  have  little  or   no   buoyancy.     The 
charge  is  contained  in  a  metal  case  at  the  fore  end.    -It  is  pro- 
jicUed  by  a  charge  of  gunpowder,  ont  of  a  submarine  grin  fixed 
'in  the  bows  of  a  ship,     lu  range  is  about  300  feet,  and  it  fires 

on  im[>acL  *  .  

Out- .  V  Outrujgcr,  Dri/ling.  aiul  Towing  7'oc;>crfo?s.— Before  the  introduc 
T^^S"", ,  tion  of  .the  Whitehead,  vessels  armed  with  torpedoes  were  priuci- 
dnfting  ■  jo.lly  supplied  with  the  outrigger  torpedo.  The  explosive  is  con- 
--»nil  to».  tained  in  a  metal  case  secured  to  the  end  bf  a  steel  or  wooden  pole, 
infj  tor-  .  which  lies  fore  and  aft  in  the  vessel  carrying  it.  The  pole  can  be 
I'mJooa.-  rigged  out  until  the 'torpedo  is  submerged  a  short  distance  ahead  of 
the  vessel,  and  is  iired  on  contact  with  the  enemy's  side,  either  by 
an  0|ierator  in  the  boat  completing  the  electric  circuit,  or  bv  the 
circuit  being  completed  by  a  circuit  closer  in  the  torpedo".  In 
livers,  or  places  with  a  current,  drifting  torpedoes  can  be  used. 
They  should  be  suspended  from  floats,  and  arranged  in  groups  or 
pairs  counected  together  by  a  rope,  so  that  they  may  catch  across 
the  bows  of  a  vessel  at  aiichor.  They  can  be  fired  after  a  given 
l-ipse  of  time  by  clockwork  and  other  ilevices,  or  can  be  .so arranged 
that  the  firing  arrangement  is  released  on  ft  catch  being  withdrawn 
by  the  action  of  a  propeller  wheel,  which  remains  stationary  .is 
Jong  as  the  torjiedo  drifts  with  the  current,  but  is  revolved  by  the 
force  of  the  current  when  the  torpedo  is  stopped. '  Towing  torpedoes 
aro  constructed  to  diverge  fro'n  cither  side  of  a  ship  when  towed, 
which  is  clfected  by  shaping  the  torpedo  like  an  otter!  The  torpedo ' 
tows  on  the  surface,  and,  on  striking  a  ship's  side,  the  head  con- 
taining the  charge  drops  olT,  and  fires  as  its  weight  tautens  a  line 
connecting  it  to  the  body. 
Torpedo  Torpedo  Bonis. — Tnc  great  improvements  made  of  late  years  in 
*joats--  .tnavhine  guns  have  rendered  the  outrigger  and  towing  torpedo  of 
little  value  for  torpedo  boats,  as  it  wouldbc  almost  iiivpassible  to 
approach  a  vessel  near  enough  to  use  them  before  the  boot  would 
^  destroyed  by  the  storm  of  missiles  which  would  be  fired  at  her. 
(AH  toriK'ilo  boats  under  construction,  and  most  of  those  already 
completed,  are  therefore  armed  with  the  Whitehead  toi  pedo.  A 
moileni  torpedo  boat  is  built  entirely  of  steel,  the  pl.ites  often  not 
.exceeding  ,';  inch  in  thickness,  as,  in  order  to  get  the  netc^saly 
|high  speed,  the  minimum  of  weight  consistent  with  the,  necessary 
stivnglh  is  of  the  first  imporiancc.  There  are  three  classes  of  boats, 
known  as  first,  second,  and  third.  The  first  are  ca|able  of  keeping 
the  sea  on  their  own  arconiit ;  the  second  arc  for  harbour  defeiicel 
and  the  thinl  can  be  carried  on  board  a  ship. 

The  following  tabic  gives  the  dimensions  and  other  details  of  a 
noat  ?f  each  type: —  ' 


Tvpc  or 

boat.  _ 

Length. 

Beam. 

Dis- 
plncc- 

Full 

Speed 

In 

Inillcalcil 
Horse- 
P.iwcr 
m  Full 
Speed. 

Boiler 

PlVSSUlC, 

Ih  per 
Squ.-irc 
Inch. 

Distance  Bo.it 
can  steam  with 
Coul  curl  icd  at 

■j  Knots. 

Fnll 
Speed. 

Hair 

Speed, 

1st  cituts.. 
■2.1  il.ss... 
3.1  lUss  , 

Ft. 
li.5 
K 
04 

Ft.  in 
11     0 
II     0 
7     f. 

T..11V 

ss 

M 
I.'.', 

J1- 

20 

ll.iO' 

4.-.D  ■, 
1.111 

ijo  ■' 

124 
130 

Knots. 
400 
l.'.O 
100 

Knots. 
VOOO 

400 

250 

The  boilers  and  machineiy  ate  protected  by  coal,  and  an  armoured 
tower  protects  the  st.-ering  gear  and  telegraphs  for  controlliitgthe 
engines. 

Torjmlo  Nets.— The  introduction  of  the  modern  toriiedo  boat  has  Torncda 
causitd  great  attention  to  be  pai.l  to  any  means  which  will  [.roteet  nets, 
a  ship  from  the  torpedo.  Most  iialioiis  are  adopting  steel-wire 
netting,  suspended  from  booms  attached  to  the  ship's  tide,  the  booms 
keeping  the  nets  sufficiently  far  off  to  prevent  afiy  damage  being 
done  to  the  bottom  by  the  explosion  of  the  largest  charge  carried 
by  a  Whitehead.  This  netting,  besides  being  cumbersome  and 
heavy,  cannot  be  used  unless  the  ship  is  stationary  or  nearly  so,  so 
that  in  many  cases  it  would  be  useless,  but  for  ships  at  anchor  it 
is  of  great  value.  Increased  cellular  subdivision  is  also  being  given 
to  ships  under  construction,  and  special  vessels,  called  "torpedo 
catchers,"  are  being  built  by  most  nations.  "A  torpedo  catcher 
is  a  vessel  of  superior  size  ami  strength,  but  with  the  same  high 
speed  as  a  torpeJo  boat,  the  principal  arm  of  the  torpedo  catcher! 
beiug  machine  guns.-  (E.  P.  G  ) 

TORQUATUS.   '  See  M'anlids. 

TORQUAY,  a  watering-place  ol  England,"  is  finely 
situated  on  the  northern  recess  of  Tor  Bay,  Devonshire, 
and  on  the  Dartmouth  and  Torbay  branch  of  the  Great 
Western  Railway,  12  mifes  north  of  Dartmouth,  23  south' 
of  E.xeter,  and  220  west-south  west  of  London.  Owing 
to  the  beauty  of  its  site  and  the  equability  of  its  climate, 
it  is  the  favourite  watering-place  of  Devon,  and,  being 
screened  by  lofty  hills  on  the  north,  east,  and  west,  and 
open  to  the  .sea  breezes  of  the  south,  it  has  a  high  reputa- 
tion asawintcrresi- 
deiice.  V  The  tem- 
perature seldom 
rises  as  "  high  as 
70°  in  summer  or 
falls  below  freezing  - 
point  in  winter  i 
The  lower  ground 
is  s  occupied  by 
shops,  hotels,  and 
the  plainer  class  of 
houses,  while  man- 
sions and  villas 
occupy  the  pictur- 
esque acclivities  of 
the  well-wooded 
limestone  .  cliffs, 
commanding  ^  a 
great  variety  '  of  - 
fine  views.      There  tnvirons  of  Torquay., 

are  still  some  remains' of  the  original  Torre  abbey, 
founded  for  Prsmonstratensians  by  William,  Lord  Brewer, 
in  U9G.  'They  stand  to  the  north  of  the  modern  man- 
sion, but,  with  the  exception  of  a  beautiful  pointed-arch 
portal,  are  of  comparatively  small  importance.  On  the 
south  of  the  gateway  is  an' old  13th-century  building, 
kno»-n  as  the  Spanish  barn.'  On  Chapel  Hill  are  -the 
remains  of  a  chapel  of  the  12th  century,  dedicated  to  St 
Michael,  supposed  to  have  formerly  belonged  to  the  abbey. 
St  Saviour's  parish  church  of  Tor-Mohun,  or  Tormohain, 
an  ancient  stone  structure,  was  restored  in  I.''74.  The 
old  church  at  St  Mary  Church,  to  the  north  of  Torquay, 
has  been  rebuilt  in  the  Early  Decorated  style;  and  in 
1871  a  new  tower  was  also  erected  as  a  memorial  to  Dr 
Fhillpotts,  bishop  of  Exeter,  who  with  his  wife  is  buried 
in  the  churchyard.  St  John's  church,  by  Street,  is  a  very 
fine  example  of    modern  Gothic     Among  ,  the   princijial 


452 


T  0  R  — T  O  R 


secular  buildings  aro  the  towu-hall  with  square  tower 
(1852),  the  post-office  (1865),  the  museum  of  the  natural 
history  society  (1874-),  the  theatre  and  opera-house  (1880), 
the  couuty  police  court,  the  market,  and  the  schools  of  art 
aod  science  (ejctended  in  1887).  There  are  a  number  of 
ieuevolent  institutions,  including  the  Torbay  infirmary  and 
dispensary  (1843),  the  homoeopathic  dispensary  (1848),  the 
Western  hospital  for  consumption  (1852),  Crypt  House 
institution  for  invalid  ladies  (1854),  and  the  Mildmay 
home  for  incurable  consumptives  (1886)  In  1886  the 
local  board  purchased  from  the  lord  of  the  manor,  at  a 
cost  of  ^685,000,  the  harbours,  piers,  baths,  assembly  rooms, 
Ac,  including  60  acres  of  pleasure  grounds  and  open 
spaces.  The  town  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  Dart- 
moor hills,  16  miles  distant,  at  a  cost  of  XI  20,000. 
There  is  a  couvenieut  harbour,  extended  in  1870  at  a 
cost  of  £70,000,  and  having  a  depth  of  over  20  feet  at 
low  water.  The  principal  imports  are  coals,  timber,  and 
slates,  and  the  principal  exports  are  stones  of  the  Transi- 
tion limestone  or  Devonshire  marble,  which  is  much  valued 
for  building  purposes.  In  the  town  are  a  number  of 
marble-polishing  works.  Terra-cotta  ware  of  very  fine 
quality  is  also  manufactured  from  a  deposit  of  clay  at 
Watcombe  and  at  Hele.  The  population  of  the  urban 
sanitary  district  (Tormoham  with  Torquay,  area  1465 
acres)  in  1871  was  21,657,  and  in  1881  it  was  24,767 

Tliere  wns  a  village  at  Torre  even  before  the  foundation  of  the 
abbey,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Torre  are  remains  of  Roman 
ocoupaliou.  The  manor. was  granted  by  William  the  Conqueror  to 
Richard  de  Bruvere  or  de  Brewere,  and  was  subsequently  known 
as  Tor  Brewer.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  Don 
Pedro's  galley  was  brought  into  Torbay;  and  William,  prince  of 
Orange,  landed  at  Torbay  5th  November  1688.  The  bay  was  a 
rendezvous  for  the  British  fleet  during  the  war  with  France,  and 
the  first  good  houses  at  Torquay  were  built  for  the  officers.  Until 
hair  a  century  ago  it  was  an  insignificant"  lishing  village. 
See  Blewitt's  Panorama  0/  Torifuay,  1832,  ami  White's  Histori/  of  Torquay,  1878. 

TORQUEMADA,  Juan  de  (1388-1468),  or  rather 
Johannes  de  Turbecremata,  cardinal,  was  born  at 
Valladolid  in  1388,  and  at  an  early  age  joined  the  Do- 
minican order,  early  distinguishing  himself  for  learning 
and  devotion.  In  1415  he  accompanied  the  general  of  his 
order  to  the  council  of  Constance,  whence  he  proceeded 
to  Paris  for  study,  and  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  1423. 
After  teaching  for  some  time  in  Paris,  he  became  prior  of 
the  Dominican  house  first  in  Valladolid  and  then  in 
Toledo.  In  1431  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  called  him  to  Rome 
and  made  him  "  magister  sancti  palatii."  At  the  council 
of  Basel  he  was  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  prominent 
supporters  of  the  view  of  the  Roman  curia,  and  he  was 
rewarded  with  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1439.  He  died  in 
1468. 

His  principal  works  are  In  Gratiani  Decrctum  Crnnmmlarii,  i 
vols.,  Venice,  1578;  Expositio  Brevis et  Ulilis  super  Toto  Psalterio, 
Mdiii5  474;  QuaEstwiics  SpirilimUs  super  Evangclia  Totiiis  Anni^ 
Bn«en  1498;  Smmna  Ecclcsiaslica,  Sa.\SimancA,  IbfiO.  The  last- 
ii.imed  work  has  the  following  topics:— (1)  De  Universa  Ecclesia; 
(2)  De  Ecclesia  Romana  et  Pontificis  Primatu ;  (3)  De  Universali- 
bus  Conciliis ;  (4)  De  Schismaticia  et  Haereticjs. 

TORQUEMADA,  Tomas  de,  inquisitor-general  for 
Castile  and  Leon,  was  born  early  in  the  15th  century,  and 
died  in  1498.  When  called  to  the  work  with  which  his 
name  is  so  unenviably  associated  he  was  prior  of  the 
Dominican  house  in  Segovia,     See  IwQnisiTioN. 

TORRE  ANNUNZIATA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Naples,  12J  miles  south-east  from  that  city, 
on  the  Bay  of  Naples,  at  the  southern  base  of  Vesuvius. 
The  inhabitants  are  mainly  occupied  in  fishing  and  in 
a  brisk  coasting  trade ;  there  are  also  manufactures  of 
arms,  paper,  and  macaronL  The  population  in  1881  waa 
20,060. 

TORRE  DEL  GRECO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Naples,  7  J  miles  to  the  south-east  of  that  city,  lies 


at  the  south-west  foot  of  Vesuvius,  on  the  shore  of  th» 
Bay  of  Naples  It  is  built  chiefly  Of  lava,  and  stands  on 
the  lava  stream  of  1631,  which  destroyed  two-thirds  of 
the  older  town  Great  damage  was  done  by  the  erup- 
tions of  1737  and  1794,  when  immense  streams  of  lava 
flowed  through  the  town  into  the  sea ,  the  earthquake 
of  1857  and  the  eruption  of  December  8,  1861,  were 
even  more  destructive.  After  each  disaster  the  people 
have  returned  and  repaired  the  ruin,  the  advantage  de- 
rived from  the  rich  landion  the  flauks  of  the  volcano 
and  the  proximity  to  the  sea  and  to  Naples  being  more 
than  enough'  to  overcome  apprehensions  of  danger  Id 
the  outskii'ts  are  mauy  beautiful  villas  and  gardens.  The 
inhabitants  are  largely  employed  in  fishing  (tunny,  oyster, 
sardine,  and  especially  coral),  and  the  neighbourhood  is 
famed  for  its  fruit  and  wine.  The  population  in  1881 
was  21,588. 

TORRE  Y,  John  ( 1796- 1 873),  a  distinguished  American 
botanist,  was  a  member  of  an  old  New  England  family 
which  contributed  several  officers  to  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence. He  was  ixirn  at  New  York,  and  spent  his  school 
days  there,  save  for  the  concluding  year  at  Boston  When 
he  was  15  or  16  years  of  age  his  father  received  a  prison 
appointment  at  Greenwich,  and  there  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Amos  Eaton,  one  of  the  foremost  pioneers 
of  natural  history  studies  and  popular  science  teaching  in 
America.  He  thus  learned  the  elements  of  botany,  as- 
well  as  something  of  mineralogy  and  chemistry,  so  deter- 
mining the  studies  of  his  life.  In  1815  he  commenced  the 
study  of  medicine,  meanwhile  finding  time  to  prepare  his 
first  catalogue  of  plants,  and  to  establish  a  correspondence 
with  American  and  foreign  botanists,  andiu  1818  he  com- 
menced practice.  Stimulated  by  Elliott's  account  of  the 
flora  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  Torrey  commenced  a 
systematic  account  of  the  botany  of  the  Northern  States, 
of  which  the  first  and  only  volume  appeared  in  1824  In 
the  same  year  he  obtained  the  chair  of  chemistry  and 
geology  at  West  Point  military  academy,  whence  he  was- 
translated  three  years  later  to  the  chemical  professorship 
in  the  college  of  physicians,  New  York.  He  next  de- 
scribed the  collections  of  the  first  exploration  of  the 
Colorado  Territory,  so  laying  the  foundation  of  all  subse- 
quent v/ork  upon  the  flora  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
these  years  he  also  monographed  the  sedges,  and  did  good 
service  in  substituting  the  natural  for  the  LiuuEean  system 
In  1836  he  was  appointed  botanist  to  the  State  of  New 
York,  producing  his  Flora  of  the  State  in  1843  while 
from  1838-43  he  carried  on  the  publication  of  the  earlier 
portions  of  Flora  of  North' America,  with  the  assistance  of 
his  pupil  Asa  Gray.  Becoming  more  and  more  immersed 
in  chemical  labours,  which  from  1857  passed  partly  and 
soon  completely  into  those  of  U.S.  assayer,  he  notwith- 
standing continued  to  accumulate  and  work  up  masses  of 
material  for  this  vast  undertaking,  which  still  awaits  com- 
pletion at  the  hands  of  his  colleague  and  successor.  Prof. 
Gray.  He  evinced  a  continued  interest  in  botanical  teach- 
ing, and  made  over  his  valuable  herbarium  and  library  to 
Columbia  College  two  or  three  years  before.his  death.  He 
will  be  remembered  not  only  as  the  father  of  American 
systematic  botany,  and  an  accurate  and  faithful,  if  some- 
what excessively  cautious,  investigator,  but  also  as  an 
eminent  teacher,  and  for  an  excellence  of  personal  char- 
.acter  and  simplicity  of  beliefs  much  resembling  Faraday's. 
His  memory  is  literally  kept  green  by  the  beautiful  Con- 
iferous genus  Torreya,  and  his  labours  commemorated  and 
continued  in  the  valuable  memoirs  of  the  Torrey  Botanical 
Club. 

See  Gray,  in  Silliman's  Journal,  1873. 

TORRICELLI,  Evangelista  (1608-1647),  physicist 
and  mathematician,  was  born  at  Faenza,  October  15,  1608 


T  O  R  — T  O  R 


453 


l.eft  fatherless  at  an  early  age,  he  ^ras  carefully  educated 
under  the  care  of  his  uncle,  a  CamaJdolese  monk,  who  in 
1627  sent  him  to  Rome  to  profit  by  the  scientific  teachings 
of  Benedetto  Castelli.  The  peruial  of  Galileo's  Dialogki 
~d(Ue  Nvove  Scieiue  {\GZS)  inspired  his  fertile  mind  with 
many  fresh  developments  of  the  new  mechanical  principles 
there  set  forth,  which  he  embodied  in  a  treatise  -De  ilotu 
(printed  amongst  his  Opera  Cr'ometrica,  1644).  Its 
-commnnication  by  Castelli  to  Galileo  ic  1541  led  to  lb© 
adoption  as  a  disciple  by  the -Florentine  vi<^  of  one  who 
jseemed  not  unworthy  to  become  his  successor.  Torricelli 
accordingly,  repairing  to  Florence,  October  10,  1641, 
resided  with  Galileo,  and  acted  as  his  amanuensis  during 
the  three  remaining  months  of  his  life.  ,0n  its  close  his 
contemplated  return  to  Rome  was  anticijiated  by  his 
•nomination  as  grandducal  mathematician  and  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  Florentine  academy.  The  discovery 
which  has  peq)etuated  his  fame  was  made  in  1643. 
•Galileo  had  failed  to  perceive, why  water  refuses  to  rise 
•above  33  feet  in  a  closed  tube.  It  occurred  to  Torricelli 
to  try  the  experiment  in  a  more  compendious  form.  The 
anticipated  resmt  ensued  that  the  suspended  column  of 
mercury  was  shorter  than  that  of  water  in  the  proportion 
of  its  greater  specifi  ^  gravity.  He  immediately  concluded 
both  to  be  sustained  by  atmospheric  pressure,  and-  con- 
structed the  "  siphon-barometer  "  expressly  for  the  purpose 
•of  measuring  its  fluctuations.  By  this  momentous  dis- 
•covery  the  obscure  notion  of  a  fuya  vacai  :was  banished 
from*  physical  science,  -and  its  progress  most  notably 
quickened.  The  mercurial  barometer  was  long  known  as 
the  "  Torricellian  tube,"  and  the  vacunnrit-includes  is  still 
designated  the  "  Torricellian  vacuum."  ~ 

The  publication  amongst  Torricelli 's  Ojjeni  Geometrica 
(Florence,  1644)  of  a  tract  ca  the  properties  of  the  cycloid 
involved  him  in  a  controversy  with  Eobervaf,  who  accused 
him  of  plagiarizing  his  earlier  solution  ofthe  problem  of 
its  quadrature.  There  seems,  however,  no  room  for -doubt- 
that  Torricelli's  was  arrived  at  independently;  1' Jle  matter 
was  still  in  debate  when  he  was  seized  witL  fever  and- 
pleurisy,  and  died  at  Florence,  after' twenty  days'  illntss, 
October  2-5,  1647,  at  the  age  of  39.  He  was  buried  in 
San  Lorenzo,  and  a  commemorative  statue  of  him  erected 
at  Faenza  in  1864.  He  was  of  a  singularly  amiable  dis- 
position, and  possessed  qualities  the  most  felicitous  for  the 
investigation  of  nature.  Among  the  new  truths  detected 
by  him  was  the  valuable  mechanical  principle  that  if  any 
number  of  bodies  be  so  connected  that,  by  their  motion, 
their  ceutre  of  gravity  can  neither  ascend  nor  descend, 
then  those  bodies  are  in  equilibrium.  He  also  discovered 
the  remarkable  fact  that"  the  parabolas .  described  (in  a 
vacutim)  by  indefinitely  numerous  projectiles  discharged 
from  the  same  point  ■with  equal  velocities,  but  in  all 
directions,  are  situated  within  a  paraboloid  which  is  a 
tangent  to  all  of  them.  His  theorem  that  a  fluid  issues 
■from  a  sma'J  orifice  with  the  same  velocity  (friction  and 
atmospheric  resistance  apart)  which  it  wotild  have  acquired 
in  falling  through  the  depth  from  its  surface  is  of  funda- 
mental importance  in  hydraulics.  He  greatly  improved 
both  the  telescope  and  microscope,  and  invented  the  simple 
microscope  composed  of  a  globule  of  melted  glass.  Several 
large  object  lenses,  engraven  with  his  name,  are  preserved 
at  Florence.  He  used  and  developed  Cavalieri's  method 
of  indivisibles. 

A  selection  from  Torricelli's  manuscripts  was  published  by 
Tommaao  Bonaventura  in  1715,  with  the  title  Ledmii  Accadanichc 
(Florence).  They  inclode  an  address  of  acknowledgment  on  his 
admission  to  the  Accadcmia  delU  Cnisca.  His  essay  on  the 
inundations  of  the  Val  di  Chiana  was  printed  in  Puvxolla  iAulori 
the  tToUano  del  Moto  dciC  Acqite  (vol  iv.  p.  115,  Florence,  1768) 
■and  amongst  Opixoli  Idraulici  (voL  iiL  p.  347,  Bologna,  1822). 
.For  his  life,  see  Fabroni,  KiZb  ItaloruTn,  vol.  I  p.  345;  GHinaasi, 
Xtitere  fin,  qui  ImdiU  di  £vaj\geluia  Torricelli  (Faenia,  1864)i 


Tii-aboschi,  Storia  delta  LctL  II.,  vol.  viii.  p.  302  (fil.  1824); 
Montuela,  HisL  des  Matt'i.',  voL  ii.;  Marie,  Hist,  dcs  SAeucis,  VoL 
iv.  p.  1S3. 

TORRIGIANO,  Pibtko  (r.  1470-1522),  a  Florentine 
sculptor,  was,  according  to  Vasari,  one  of  the  group  of 
talented  youths  who  studied  art  under  the  patronage  of 
Lotenio  the  Magnificent  in  Florence.  Ben.  Cellini,  report- 
ing-a  conversation  with  Torrigiano,  relates  that  he  and 
Michelangelo,  while  both  young,  were  copying  the  frescos 
in  the  C^mine  chapel,  when  some  slighting  remark  made 
by  Michelangelo  so  enraged  the  violent  temper  of  Torri- 
giano that  he  struck  him  on  the  nose,  and  thus  catised 
that  disfigurement  which  is  so  conspicuous  in  all  the 
portraits  of  Michelangelo.  Soon,  after  this  Torrigiano 
visited  Rome,  and  helped  Pinturicchio  in  modelling  the 
elaborate  stucco  decorations  in  the  Appartamenti  Borgia 
for  Alexander  VL  After  some  time  spent  as  a  hired 
soldier  in  the  service  of  different  states,  Torrigiano  was 
in'vited  to  England  to  execute  the  magnificent  tomb  for 
Henry  VII.  and  his  queen  which  still  exists  in  the  lady 
chapel  of  Westminster  Abbey.  This  apj^ears  to  have  been 
begun  before  the  death  of  Henry  VII.  in  1509,  but  was 
not  finished  till  1517.  It  consists  of  two  colossal  recum- 
bent effigies  in  gilt  bronze  on  an  altar-tomb  of  black 
marble,  decorated  with  very  graceful  medallions  of  the 
patron  saints  of  Henry  and  his  wife,  and  other  enrichments 
in  bronze.  TLe  two  effigies  are  well  modelled,  and  have 
life-like. but  net  too  realistic  portraits.  After  this  Torri- 
giano received  the  commission  for  the  altar,  retable,  and 
baldacchino  which  stood  at  the  west,  outside  the  screen  of 
Henry  VIL's  tomb.  The  altar  had  marble  pilasters  at  the 
angles,  two  of  which  still  exist,  and  below  the  mensa  was 
a  life-sized  figure  of  the  dead  Christ  in  painted  terra-cotta. 
The  retable  consisted  of  a  large  relief  of  the  Resurrectioa 
The  baldacchino  was  of  marble,  with  enrichments  of  gilt 
bron'ze ;  part  of  its  frieze  still  exists,  as  do  also  a  large 
number  of  fragments  of  the  terra-cotta  angels  which  sur- 
mounted the  baldacchino  and  parts  of  the  large  figure  of 
Christ,  The  whole  of  this  work  was  destroyed  by  the 
Puritans  in  the  17th  century.^  Henry  \'1IL  also  com- 
missioned Torrigiano  to  make  him  a  magnificent  tomb, 
somewhat  similar  to.  that  of  Henry  Vll.,  but  one-fourth 
larger,  to  be  placed  in  a  chapel  at  Windsor  {q-v.);  it  was, 
however^  never  completed,  and  its  rich  bronze  was  melted 
by  the  Commonwealth,  together  with  that  of  Wolsey's  tombi 
The  indentures  for  these  various  works  still  exist,  and  are 
printed  by  Xeale,  Westmimter  Abbey,  London,  1818,  voL 
i.  p.  54-59.  These  interesting  documents  are  written  in 
English,  and  in  them  the  Florentine  is  called  "  Peter 
Torrysany."  For  Henry  VIL's  tomb  he  contracted  to 
receive  £1500,  for  the  altar  and  its  fittings  £1000,  and 
£2000  for  Henry  VLH.'s  tomb.  Other  works  attributed 
from  internal  evidence,  to  Torrigiano  are  the  tomb  of 
Margaret  oi  Richmond,  mother  of  Henry  VH,  in  the 
south  aisle  of  his  chapel,  and  a  terra-cotta  effigy  in  the 
chapel  of  the  Rolls._ 

Wliile  these  royal  works  were  going  on,  Torrigiano  vis- 
ited Florence  in  order  to  get  skilled  assistants.  He  tried 
to  induce  Ben.  Cellini  to  come  to  England  to  help  him, 
but  Cellini  refused,  partly  from  his  dislike  to  the  brutal 
and  swagg  ring  manners  of  Torrigiano,  and  also  because 
he  did  not  wish  to  live  among  "such  beasts  as  the  Eng- 
lish." The  latter  part  of  Torrigiano's  life  was  spent  in 
Spain,  especially  at  Seville,  where  some  terra-cotta  sculp- 
ture by  him  still  existsj    His  violent  temper  got  him  into 

*  An  old  drawing  irtill  exists  shou-ing  this  elaborata  worit  :  it  is  en- 
graved in  the  Hierargia  Amjlicana,  London,  184S,  p.  267.  Many 
hundreda  of  fragments  of  this  terra-cotta  Kculptoie  were  found  a 
few  years  ago  bidden  under  the  floor  of  the  tnforinm  in  the  abbey ; 
they  are  ttsfortonately  too  muck  broken  and  imperfect  to  be  fictad 
together.. 


,454 


T  O  R  — T  O  R 


di65culties  witli  the  authoritiBs,  ^nd  he  eodefl  his  life  in 
1522  in  the  prisons  of  the  Inquisf^ion. 
'  "  TORSHOK,  a  district  town  of  JRassia,  in  thtf  jowrt- 
ment  of  Tver,  on  the  river  Tvertsa,  SS  miles  by  rail  to  the 
south-west  of  the  Ostashkovo  station  of  the  &t  Petersburg 
and  Moscow  railway.  It  dates  from  the  11th  cenfeii^, 
and  the  very  name  ("  market-place  ')  shows  that  this  de- 
pendency of  Novgorod  was  a  commercial  centre.  It  was 
strongly  fortified  with  a  stone  wall,  which,  however,  only 
partially  protected  it  from  the  attacks  of  Mongols,  Lithu- 
anians, and  Poles.  Torshok  is  now  celebrated  in  Russia 
for  its  embroidered  leather-work  and  manufacture  of  travel- 
ling bags,  and  for  its  trade  in  corn  and  flour.  The  popu- 
lation in  1881  wasl2,900. 

TORT,  as  a  word  of  art  in  the  law  of  England  and  the 
United  States,  is  the  name  of  civil  wrongs  (not  being 
merely  breaches  of  contract)  for  which  there  is  a  remedy 
by  action  in  courts  of  common  law  jurisdiction.  It  may 
be  said_  to  correspond  approximately  to  the  terra  "delict" 
in  Roman  law  and  the  systems  derived  from  it.  But  this 
is  only  a  rough  approximation.  For  in  English  usage 
tort  includes,  not  only  those  matters  which  in  Roman  law 
are  classed  under  obligations  q^iasi  ex  delicto,  but  various 
others  which  ■  Roman  or  modern  Continental  lawyers 
would  refer  to  the  law  of  ownership  or  real  rights,  and 
not  to  any  such  head  as  "delict."  The  truth  is  that 
the  actual  development  of  tort  as  a  legal  genus  has 
been  purely  historical  and  to  no  small  extent  accidental. 
Xothin_g  can  be  learnt,  of  course,  from  the  word  itself. 
It  is  merely  the  French  word  for  "  wrong,"  specialized 
in'o  a  technical  meaning  by  a  process  which  was  com- 
pleted only  in  the  latter  years  of  the  17th  century  and  the 
earlier  of  the  18th.  _. 

The  early  common  law  had  no  theory  of  obligations  in 
the  Roman  sense,  and  hardly  any  theory  of  contract.  Its 
remedies  were  directed  either  to.  the  restitution  of  some- 
thing which  the  defendant  unjustly  detained  from  the 
plaintiff — were  it  land,  goods,  or  money — or  to  the  repres- 
sion of  violent  wrongdoing.  Only  the  former  class  of 
remedies-  was  purely  civil ;  the  latter  included  a  penal 
element  of  which  lofmal  traces  remained  long  after  the 
substance  had  vanished.  '  A  man  who  trespassed  on  his 
neighbour  with  force  and  arms  offended  the  kitg  as  well 
as  his  neighbour,  and  was  liable  not  only  to  pay  damages 
to  his  neighbour  but  to  make  a  fine  to  the  king.  Gradu-^ 
ally  the  category  of  "  force  and  arms  "  was  held  to  include' 
all  manner  of  direct  injuries  to  person,  land,  or  goods, 
though  the  force  might  consist  in  nothing  more  than  the 
bare  setting  foot  without  lawful  cause  on  the  soil  pos- 
sessed by  one's  neighbour.  But  this  was  still  a  long  way 
from  making  room  for  the  modern  growth  of  the  law  of 
torts.  The  decisive  opening  was  given  by  the  Statute  of 
Westminster,  which  enabled  actions  to  be  framed  "  on  the 
case" — in  consimUi  casu, — that  is,  allowed  legal  remedies 
to  be  extended  by  analogy  to  the  forms  of  action  already 
recognized.  Now  those  forms  and  their  incidents  were 
archaic  and  inelastic  :  the  procedure  was  cumbrous,  and 
plaintiffs  were  liable  in  many  ways  to  irrational  and 
irreparable  discomfiture  _jThe  more  modern  action  on.tbe 
case  .was  free  from  these  drawbacks.  Hence  it  was  the 
aim  of  ingenious  pleaders  to  extend  the  action  on  the  case 
as  much  as  possible  ;  and  so  successful  was  this  movement 
that  in  the  ICth  century  a  special  form  of  "  trespass  on 
the  case  " .  became,  under '  the  name  of  assumpsit,  the 
common  and  normal  method  of  enforcing  contracts  not 
made  by  deed,  and  .remained  so  till  the  middle  of  the 
present  century!^  It  still  holds  its  place  in  those  Amer- 
ican States  where  the  old  forms  of  action  have  not  been 
abolished.  Note  that  "assumpsit"  had  become  a  sub- 
stantive title  of  the  law,  and'  was  consciously  referred  to 


its  proper  genus  of  contract,  before  the  goiius  or  order  of 
torts  was  formed.  Meanwhile  other  actions  on  the  case, 
framed  mostly  on  the  analogy  of  trespass,  but  partly  oa 
that  of  other  generically  similar  remedies  of  the  old  law,' 
were  apjilied  to  the  redress  of  miscellaneous  injuries  to 
person  or  property  which  for  one  and  another  reason  could 
not  bo  touched,  or  could  not  be  conveniently  dealt  with,! 
by  the  old  action  of  trespass  itself.  Some  of  these  actions'- 
on  the  case  acquired  fixed  forms-of  their  own  and  becanje' 
distinct  species ;  others  did  not ;  there  remained  (and' 
there  still  remains  in  theory)  an  undefined  region  of  pos4 
sible  new  actions  applying  the  principles  of  legal  right  and 
duty  to  new  exigencies  of  fact. 

The  extension  of  forms  of  remedy  grounded  on  trespass 
caused  those  forms  which  were  grounded  on  restitution  to 
fall  into  the  background,  with  the  curious  result  that  ia 
the  modern  common  law  nothing  is  left  answering  to  the 
mndicatio  of  the  Roman  law.  We  have  an  elaborate  law 
of  property,  but  when  it  comes  to  the  practical  protection 
of  our  rights  we  find  that  we  can  recover  our  property 
only  by  complaining  of  a  wrong  done  to  our  possession  or 
right  to  possjssion.  The  law  puts  the  actual  possessor  m 
the  first  line,  and  allows  an  owner  definitely  out  of  posses- 
sion to  sue  only  for  "  injury  to  the  reversion,"  though  an 
owner  who  can  resume  possession  at  will  is  indeed  more 
favourably -treated.  Its  remedies  are  made  efficient,  but 
at  the  cost  of  straining  the  theory  at  various  pointa^ 
Hence  many  difficulties  of  detail  and  much  obscurity  of, 
principle.  The  distinction  between  dominium  and  obli^ 
(jatio  exists,  of  course,  in  English  law,  but  it  is  peculiarly 
hard  for  an  English  lawyer,  with  the  usual  unsystematic 
training, .  to  grasp  it^with  certainty  or  trace  it  with 
accuracy. 

■  There  is  also  a  region  of  considerable  obscurity  about 
the  points  of  contact  between  contract  and  tort.  Th& 
questions  thus  raised  are  too  technical  for  discussion  here^ 
Since  pleadings  have  ceased  to  be  formal  they  are  much 
less  likely  to  arise  ; '  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  more 
likely,  in  the  exceptional  cases  where  they  may  still  arisa^ 
to  be  unexpected  and  baffling.  ' 

For  the  practical  purposes  of  modem  law  we  m.iy  divide  torts  into- 
three  groups, — wrongs  of  a  pereonal  character,  wrongs  alfectiiis 
property,  and  wrongs  affecting  person  and  projierty,  eitlier  or  both. 
Under  the  first  group  come-  the  wrongs  of  pliy»ical  violence  and 
restraint,  namely,  assault  and  false  impri-sonmeut ;  then  the  wrong 
done  to  men's  good  name  by  libel  and  slander,  in  wliich  kind  then 
are  sundry  curious  and  not  wlioUy  rational  distinctions;  and  w» 
must  here  rather  than  elsewhere  count  deceit,  and  a  somewhat  ill-; 
defined  class  of  wrongs  of  a  like  nature,  of  whicli  the  generic  mark, 
is  the  neces.Si\iy  prese'nce  of  a  fraudulent  intention,  or  at  least  reck-- 
less  disregard  of  good  failli.  In  one  case,  that  ofnalieions  prose-, 
cution,  evil  motive  must  be  shown;  in  tact,  tho 'much-tormented 
word  "  malice  "  has  very  nearly  its  natural  and  ordinary  mcaningj 
So-called  slander  of  title  belongs  to  this  class,  being  in  tnith  a 
special  form  of  deceit.  Wilful  interference  with  the  exerdse  of 
public  or  private  rights  may  be  an  actionable  wrong,  thon^i  the 
competitive  exercise  of  like  rights  is  none;  and  it  is  held.  tioDgh 
not  without  doubt,  that  procuring  a  person  to  break  his  contract 
for  one's  on-n  advantage  (for  example,  a  singer  engaged  by  a  rival 
opera  manager,  or  a  Sfiecially  skilled  workman  in  a  rival  factory) 
is  on  this  principle  a  wrong  to  the  other  contracting  party. 

With  regard  to  property  the  broad  mle  of  the  common  law  is- 
that  a  man°meddle3  with  whatever  belongs  to  others  at  his  peril. 
This  has  been  established  and  woiked  out  only  through  a  senes  of 
intricate  formal  distinctions.  But  the  result  is  that,  special  excep- 
tions e.\ccpted,  even  the  most  iimocent  assumption  of  dominion 
without  a  real  title  makes  one  liable  to  the  true  omier- 

Wiongs  of  the  mixed  kind  allecting  both  person  'and  property 
arise  from  the  use  of  one's  own  property,  or  the  doing-of  acts  lawfur 
in  themselves,  in  a  manner  inconsistent  with  the  '--afcty  and  con- 
venience of  others.  The  accustomed  lieads  of  ruch  MTongs  are, 
nuisance  and  negligence.  Generally  some  failure  in  due  diligcnoj- 
is  involved;  but  in  some  cases  the  law  has,  on  grounds  of  gcpeial; 
policy,  imposed  an  absolute  or  all  but  absolute  duty  of  avoiding 
harmful  results.  One  must  do  certain  things  at  cue's  peni,  if  »t 
all,  though  the  doing  of  them  is  not  in  itself  unlawfiJ  ;  others  aj» 
done  not  at  one's  peril,  and  yet  nnder  a  wider  respoi.  Jtbility  thar- 


T  0  Pt  — T  0  R 


455; 


the  common  run  of  b«ful  acts  It  is  mil  "lonf;  to  maKL'  .iii 
ariiticial  ivservoir  ot"  watci  on  one's  own  bnj  ;  but  the  lauJowncr 
\vho  tlocs  so  must  answer  for  :\U  damage,  tliougb  uo  failuic  in  ii\ic 
diligence  be  show  n,  if  the  wutor  escapes  by  any  cause  which  reason- 
able humaii  care  couIJ  possibly  have  provideil  against.  Again, 
the  occupier  of  a  place  of  business  must  keep  it  in  safe  repair,  for 
tiie  benefit  of  customoi-s  anil  otliens  lawfully  coming  there;  anil,  if 
liarm  is  done  through  the  want  of  rei«ir,  it  is  no  excuse  for  him 
lo  say  that  he  hntl  cugageJ  on  apparently  competent  person  to 
jkeep  tilings  in  order.  These  an:  modern  principles  in  the  law,  and 
'seem  to  have  hardly  yet  reached  their  full  development.  The 
floctrinc  of  negligence  i'.  also  mus4ly  modern.  Questious  of  much 
interest  and  difficulty  are  l•ni^ell  by  "eontriliutory  negligence,"  i.e., 
when  it  is  alleged  by  way  of  derencc  that  the  party  complaining 
sufiered  wholly  or  mainly  by  his  own  want  of  care.  The  true 
principle  appears  to  lie  that,  if  nnder  the  circumstances  the  harm 
Mitferid  by  the  plaiutilf  was  the  natiiial  and  probable  conseriuencc 
of  the  defendant's  want  of  faie,  the  defendant  is  liable, — and  this 
whether  the  idaintilT,  or  some  thud  person,  has  or  has  not  in  any 
degree  contributed  to  the  final  result  by  want  of  rare  on  his  own 
jnrt,  or  even  by  a  voluntary  act,  provided  that  the  act  be  such  as 
might  have  been  foiesecn  and  expected.  I'.nt  if  the  plaintiff  has 
done  something  which,  though  induced  by  the  defendant's  default, 
was  not  a  natiiial  and  probable  conse'|ncnce  of  it,  or  if  the  harm 
snrferod  ii  due  to  some  act  of  a  third  person  wliich  could  not  have 
been  rea.son.-.bly  foreseen  or  expected,  then  the  defendant  will  not 
be  liable. 

I  A  great  number  of  special  duties  have  been  iinpised  on  different 
classes  of  persons— public  officers,  undertakers  of  public  occnpa. 
tious.  and  .so  forth  — by  modern  Acts  of  ParUament,  and  are  enfoic- 
ftble  by  penalties.  In  some  cases  the  breach  of  such  a  duty  confers 
A  separate  riglrt  of  action  upon  a  person  who  thereby  suffers 
ilamage,  in  others  not,  aeconling  to  what  appears  to  be  the  iiiten- 
!ion  of  the  enactment.     No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down. 

In  practice,  a  large  proportion  of  actionable  injuries,  especially 
injuries  by  negligence,  are  due  to  the  acts  or  defaults  of  servants 
or  workmen,  from  whom  no  substantial  redress  ^'ould  be  obtainetl 
or  expected.  It  is  held  in  the  common  law,  and  appears  to  be 
held  in  all  modern  systems,  that  a  master  is  liable  for  the  acts  and 
defaults  of  the  servants  employed  by  him,  provided  those  acts  or 
defaults  oc<ur  in  the  course  of  the  servant's  employment,  that  is, 
while  the  servant  is  about  the  master's  bosiness,  ard  acting  with 
a  view  to  the  master's  interest,  and  not  for  some  different  private 
purpose  of  his  own.  But  a  man  is  not  generally  liable  for  the 
conduct  of  an  "independent  contractor "^a  person  who  under- 
takes to  do  or  get  done  certain  work,  but  not  to  be, under  the 
employer's  control  as  to  the  manner  of  doing  it.  One  may  be  so 
liable,  however,  in  viitue  of  special  duties  attached  to  particular 
situations  by  positive  rules  of  law.  When  a  servant  is  injured  by 
the  act  or  default  or  another  servant  working  'under  the  same 
employer,  the  general  i-ule  of  liability  has  been  largely  modi6ed  in 
the  employer's  favour,  on  grounds  which  have  neither  been  con- 
sistently expounded  nor  generally  received  as  satisfactory.  The 
Employers'  Liability  Act  of  1S80  has  remedied  the  most  obvious 
hardships  coDseijuent  on  the  decisions,  but  only  by  Avay  of  particu- 
lar exceptions,  so  that  the  law  as  a  whole,  if  more  just  than  it  was, 
is  mnch  more  intricate,  and  does  not  appear  to  rest  on  any  intel- 
ligible piineiple.  The  Scottish  courts  were  in  a  way  to  develop  a 
more  rational  doctrine,  but  the  House  of  Lords,  instead  of  adopting 
it,  forced  the  law  of  Scotland  into  conformity  with  judgments 
which  were  still  of  only  recent  authority  in  England.  The  subject, 
however,  has  given  trouble  everywhere,  and  legislative  experiments 
have  been  tried  in  many  Continental  countries.  See  Parliamentary 
Fapirs,  Commcrcinl,  No.  21,  188ti.  '  , 

Liicrat'ire. —Thvrc  aic  seiciitl  modci-n  Enijlisti  nnd  American  lexl-bonks  on 
Iho  law  ol  toils  ■ — C  G.  Atldison.  ircoiii?'  arid  tlteir  Kemfdif^,  being  a  Trcnttae  Qn 
M*  iawo<7'i>/-(5,ethe<t.. by  Horace  Smilli.  Lon.l'.n,  16ft7.  U.  8vo:  M.  .^I  liicel-w 
LeoJirtg  Ca^rs  on  ll,e  iaic of  Torts,  Boston,  .^Iass..  187,1,  la.  8vo:  Id  .  t'leinnils  of 
the  Lfi\c  of  Torii,  '^  cti..  Posion,  Mass..  18SG,  sm.  8vo;  C  Collctt.  Mmtunl  of  the 
LaxD  of  To'is  Olid  of  iUe  Measure  ot  Daiimoet,  6th  cd  .  Madias,  1S86.  8t-q,  t  M. 
Coolcy.  A  Tiralisf  on  (Ac  Low  of  toils.  Chicat-o,  ISSO.  Svo  ;  S  Hastings.  A  Tien- 
tin  on  Tons,  London.  1S.S5.  In,  Svo;  F.  HiUiard.  7*/"'  L^m  of  Torts  or  Prunti: 
Wrongs,  4tli  ett.  Boston.  Mass.,  I8i-».  Li  8vo.  2  i  ols  ;  F.  T  PiCE'itt.  Principles  o/ 
the  Law  0/  Torts.  London,  1S&.5,  8\o  .  F.  Pollock.  The  Late  of  Torts,  London,  18.S7. 
five;  A.  UndciluM.  A^^onnnari/  of  tl*g  Lam  of  Torts,  3d  cd  .  London.  ISSl.  Svo 
Tlicrc  are  also  Wittt-knon-n  woiks  ..f  a  widL-r  scope  which  touch  on  many  puiis  of 
the  subject,  such  as  that  ol'  .^ll^yne  on  tlamaces:  nnd  inonoi;pAf,hs  on  special 
parts,  sucli  as  Itiose  on  Neqhgencc  by  Campbell,  Homce-  Smiili,  Sheaiman  and 
Kedfleld.  aDd  Wharton,  and  Ihos*:  onLlfecI  and  Slii.->dgi  Ijv  staikic  (recent,  ed.  by 
Folkard)  and  Blake  Odgei-s.  'CUe  Covtmrncnt  of  India  ha>  f  jkcn  steps  to  odify 
the  law  of  chil  wroOKS  (Whitley  StoRte^^y/ie  Anglo-tiuliaii  Codes),  llie  RCneral 
Instil ntlonal  books  (BlacksUmcand  K^:  end -the  la'.ci'  adaptations  of  Blackstone 
In  Enclandlare  of  little  use.  na  In  slmosl  ev-eiy  tasncli  the  law  has  been  largely 
developed  tJid  inodUled  by  ttie  decL-ions  of  the  last  fifty  ycais.  (F  PO  ) 

TORTOISE.  •  Of  the  tbree  Dames  generally  used  for 
this  order  of  reptiles,  viz.,  Tortoise,  Turtle,  and  Terrapin, 
the  first  is  derived  from  the  old  French  word  l')rtis,  ie., 
twisted,  and  was  probably  applied  first  to  the  common 
Eur.>pean  species   on  account  of  its  curiously  bent  fore- 


legs. Turtle  is  believed  to  be  a  corruidioii  of  tlio  same 
word,  but  the  origin  of  the  name  terrapin  is  unlmown  :' 
since  the  time  of  tlio  navigators  of  the  IGtlScentury  it  he).'? 
been  in  general  u.sc  for  freshwater  species  of  the  tropics, 
and  especially  for  those  of  the  New  World.  The  name 
tortoise  is  now  generally  applied  to  the  terrestrial  members 
of  this  group  of  aniinal.s,  and  that  of  turtle  to  these  which 
live  in  the  sea  or  pass  a  great  part  of  their  existence  in 
fresh  water. 

Tortoises  and  turtles  constitute  one  of  the  orders  of| 
Reptiles,  the  Chetonut.  They  are  characterized  by  having 
the  trunk  of  the  body  incased  in  a  more  or  less  ossified 
carapace,  which  consists  of  a  dorsal  more  or  less  convex 
portion,  and  of  a  flat  ventral  one,  the  so-called  plastron. | 
Thci.e  portions  are  generally  more  or  less  firnily  united  on 
the  side,  but  leave  a  wide  opening  in  front  through  which 
the  head  and  neck  and  the  fore-limbs  protrude,  and  one 
liehiiid  for  the  tail  and  liindlimb.s.  The  dorsal  carapace 
is  (with  the  exception  of  Sphitriji.-<)  formed  by  the  dorsal 
verlebr;e,  by  the  ribs  which  are  so  much  expanded  as  to 
form  sutures  with  each  other,  and  by  a  number  of  lateral| 
dermal  ossifications  (marginals).  The  plastron  consists  of 
from  eight  to  eleven  niorfor  loss  dilated  dermal  bones,  the 
sternal  elements  of  high^  Verlebriita  being  absent.  This 
osseous  case  or  shell  receives  in  its  interior  the  organs  ot 
the  chest  and  abdomen,  the  humeral  and  pelvic  bones,  and 
the  muscles "ftr  the  humerus  and  femur.  In  many  species, 
especially  those  of  the  family  7'eslitiHiiithv,,  or  tortoises 
proper,  the  neck  and  head  and  the  limbs  can  be  withdrawn 
within  the  shell,  the  cervical  and  the  proximal  caudal 
vertebra;  retaining  their  mobility.  In  the  majority  of 
Cheloniaus  the  osseou,s  shell  is  covered  with  a  hard  epider- 
moid coat,  which  is  divided  into  large  symmetrical  plates 
(commonly  called  "  tortoise-shell "  in  those  species  from 
which  the  article  of  commerce  is  obtained),  which  can  be 
detached  from  the  underlying  bones.  These  epidermoid 
plates  do  not  corresiiond  'in  an'angement  or  extent  with 
the  bones  of  the  carapace  ;  they  vary  considerably  in  form, 
and  are  therefore  generally  noticed  in  the  descriptions  of 
species.  Their  arrangement  and  terminology  may  Ix: 
learned  from  fhe  accompanying  illustrations  (figs.  1,  2). 

The  integnments  of  the  head,  neck,  tail,  and  limbs  are 
either  soft  and  smooth  or  tubercular  or  scaly,  the  tubercles 
and  scales  having  frei^uently  an  csseous  nucleus. 

Other  parts  also  of  the  skeleton  show  icmarkable  pecu- 
liarities, so  that  the  sometimes  very  fragmentary  remains 
of  Chelunians  can  ahnost„always  be  recognized  as  such. 
All  the  bones  of  the  «kuB  are  suturally  united,  with  the 
exception  of  the  mandible  and  hyoid  bone  ;  the  dentary 
portion  of  the  rriandible  consists  of  one  bone  only.  The 
pectoral  arch  is  composed  of  the  scapula,  with  which  the 
precoracoid  is  united,  and  the  coracoid.  Clavicles  (epi-, 
plastra)  are  represented  by  the  anterior  elements  of  the) 
plastron.     Two  pairs  of  limbs  are  invariably  present. 

All  Chelonians  possess  a  tail,  which  is  generally  short, 
but  sometimes  elongate,  and  always  provided  with  strong 
muscles  at  the  base.  No  Chelonian  jiossesses  teeth  ;  but 
their  jaws  are  provided  with  horny  sheaths,  with  hard  and 
sharp  edges,  forming  a  beak  like  that  of  a  parrot.  , 

The  number  of  Chelonians  known  at  present  may  be 
estimated  at  about  2'20,  the  freshwater  species  being  far 
the  most  numerous,  and  abundant  in  well-watered  districts 
of  the  tropical  and  subtropical  zones.  Their  number  and 
variety  decrease  beyond  the  tropics,  and  in  the  north  they 
disappear  entirely  about  the  50th  parallel  in  the  western 
and  about  the  56th  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  whilst  in 
the  southern  hemisphere  the  terrestrial  forms  seem  ta 
advance  to  30°  S.  lat.  only.  The  marine  turtles,  which 
are  spread  over  the  whole  of  tlie  equatorial  and  subtropical' 
seas,  sometimes  stray  beyond  those  limit?     As  in  othe* 


456 


TORTOISE 


frdeVs  of  Repti^es,  tlie  most  specialized  and  the  largest 
forms  are  restricted  to  the  tropics  (with  the  exception  of 
Afacric/fmmys)  ,' but,  unlike  lizards  or  snakes,  Chelonians 

Fij.  I.' 


(^ 

J>yp 

h\/rt 

• 

^ 

Ti 

\ 

/      a,t 

'P 

■J  ' 

) 

n.h  \ 

\ 

\     f^  . 

^ 

KIc    .'. 

f  ics  \.  1  — Sliell  (if  Teitiido  pnrdc'is  to  show  tne  divisions  of  tlie  infepiiment, 
Mhlrh  nre  marked  by  entile  lines,  nnd  of  tlie  OHseniis  carapncc.  tliese  ijeinu 
'mnrlted  by  dotted  iiiics.     Fig    I    Iluper  or  dorsal  aspect      Fig.  2.  Lo>*er  oi 

,    vent  ml  Aspect- 

Dct-mnl  Scutes  :—ro,  coslnls;  r,  vertebi-nls;  m,  miii^nals;  9.  giilors;  pg.  post. 
fiilmSi  p,  pectoi'His.  ab.  ubdnmiiials,  pa,  pifennuls;  an.  niiuts  *' 

Bones  of  tlie  Carapace;— ro'.  costals.  «(?,  neuials;  nu,  naclial.  pj/.  Pyffa' ;  '"'. 
marpluals;  rnl.  i.ntoptdslion .  fp,  eplplastron;  titfo,  liyoplaatron ;  Ityp,  Iiypo- 
plastron;  j-j/p,  xypliiplastfoii  ' 

«re  unable  to  exist  in  sterile  districts  or  at  great  altitudes.' 
Chelooians  are  strictly  animals  of  plains,  or  at  least  of  low 
country. 

Chelonians  show  a  great  divergence  in  their  mode  of 
life, — some  living  constantly  on  land,  others. having  partly 
terrestrial  partly  aquatic  .habits,  others  again  rarely  leav- 
ing the  water  or  the  sea  The  first'mentioned,  the  land 
tortoises  pro|icr,  have  short  club-shaped  feet  with  bhint 
claws,  and  a  very  convex,  heavy,  completely  ossified  shell 
In  the  freshwater  forms  the  .jciints  of  the  limb  bones  are 
much  more  mobile,  the  digits  distinct,  armed  with  sharp 
claws,  and  united  by  a  membrane  or  web  ;  their  shell  is 
less  convex,  and  is  flattened,  and  more  or  less  extensive 
areas  may  remain  cartilaginous  to  lessen  its  specific  gravity 
As  a  rule,  the  degree  of  development  of  the  interdigital 
web  nnd  of  convexity  of  the  shell  indicates  the  prevalence 
of  aquatic  or  terrestrial  habits  of  a  species  of  terrapin. 
Finally,  the  marine  turtles  have  paddle-shaped  limbs  .re- 
sembling those  of  Cetaceans.* 

Land  tortoises  are  sufficiently  jirotcrted  by 'their  cara  ! 
pace,  and   therefore  have  no  need  of   any  special  modi 
fication  of  structure  by  means  of  which  their  ajijiearance 
would  be  assimilated  to  the  surroundings,  and  thus  give 
tbem  additional  security  from  their  cnemiea.     These,  how- 


ever, are  bat  few  in  cumber  :  the  large  cats  of  South 
America  .ire  said  to  be  able  to  tear  them  out  of  the  shell 
with  their  claws  ;  and  the  ancient  tale  of  /Eschylus  having 
been  killed  by  a  tortoise  carried  aloft  by  t,n  eagle  and 
dropped  on  the  head  of  the  unfortunate  ])oet  seems  tQ  be 
founded  on  the  fact  that  tortoises  are  a  favourite-  prey 
of  the  Liimmerseyer  (Oyjxifhts),  which  lias  the  habit  of 
dropping  them  from  a  height  on  rocks  in  order  to  brea)< 
the  shell.  On  the  other  band,  among  the  camivorou* 
terrapins  and  freshwater  fitrtles  instances  of  protectivo 
resemblance  are  not  scarce,  and  may  even  attain  to  ft-high 
degree  of  specialization,  a'i  in  Chely^  ;  their  shells  offer 
them  less  protection,  and  their  enemies  (crocodile.s  and 
alligators)  are  more  numerous ;  they  also  require  thii 
special  provision  to  enable  them  to  approach  or  seize  thejr 
prey  with  greater  ea.se  The  colours  of  land  tortoises  are 
generally  plain  or  in  simple  patterns,  whilst  those  of  manj 
terrapins  are  singularly  varied,  bright,  and  beautiful. 

Chelonians  are  diurnal  animals  ;  only  a  few  are  active 
during  the  night,  habitually  or  on  special  occasions,  as, 
for  instance,  during  oviposition.  Land  tortoises  are  hIow 
in  all  their  movements,  but  all  kinds  living  in  wa^ei^  can 
execute  extremely  rapid  motion.s,  either  to  seize  their  prey 
or  to  escape  from  danger  All  Chelonians  are  stationary, 
residing  throughout  the  year  in  the  same  locality,  with  the 
exception  of  the  marine  turtle.s,  which  periodically  migrate 
to  their  breeding  stations  Species  inhabiting  temperate 
regions  hibernate 

'  Chelonians  possess  great  tenacity  of  life,  surviving 
injuries  to  which  other  Keptiles  would  .succumb  in  a  .short 
time.  The  heart-  of  a  decapitated  tortoise  continues  to 
beat  for  many  hours  after  every  drop  of  blood  has  been 
drained  from  the  body,  and  the  musoles  of  the  trunk  and 
head  show  signs  of  reflex  action  twenty  four  hours  after 
the  severance  of  the  spinal  cord,  i  The  longevity  of  tor 
toi.ses  is  likewise  a  well-known  fact,  to  which  reference  will 
again  be  made.  ^     "^ 

Land  tortoises,  a  few  terrapins,  and  some  of  the  marinfl 
turtles  are  herbivorou.s  the  others  carnivorous,  their  prey 
consisting  diicfly  of  Hsh,  frogs,  and  other  small  aquatic 
animals.  ■  , 

•  All  Chelonians  are  oviparous,  and  the  e£rgs  are  generally, 
covered  with  a  hard  .shell. 

In  the  system'  proposed  by  Dumi^ril  and  Bibron,  and 
afterwards  modified  by  Gray  and  Strauch,  the  Chelonians 
are  arranged  according  to  their  mode  of  life,  and  divided 
into  terrestrial,  paludine,  fluviatile,  and  marine  forms. 
However  natural  such  an  arrangement  may  appear  at  first, 
a  more  careful  examination  proves  it  to  be  (as  all  arrange, 
ments  ba.sed  solely  upon  the  mode  of  life)  at  variance  with 
the  structural  affinities,  whether  the  recent  forms  alone  be 
considered  or  the  fossil  as  well.  The  divi.sion  of  the  bulk 
of  the  order  into  Cri/plndirn  and  J'/eumr/irn,  as  suggested 
by  Agassiz,  Cope,  and  Kutimeyer,  was  a  decided  progress,' 
as  IS  also  the  elimination  of  the  suborders  Alheca  and 
ynowyc/io/t/fa  recently  pro[iosed  by  Cope  and  Baur..  .. 

:  1'  The  order  of  Chelonians  may  then  be  divided  into^the 
following  suborders  and  families  ; ' — _ 
^_,,...  SunoRDF.R  I    ATHEC/E 

Vertehraeand  ribs  free,  separati'il  from  a  bony.esoskeleton. 

V  Limb.s  padille-shnpcd,  (lawless;  plialanni/s  without  condyle«.| 
Pl.Lslron  rcduceil  to  an  annular  series  of  ciglil  email  bones.  E!xOt| 
skeliaon  consisting  ot  nunisrous  .small  bony  plates  arranged  lik«^ 
mosaic.  '  Pelagic 

Genus  :  ^c  iiuilocliffi/i  (Spliaroik).  ' 

Fussll  eeniia  ftrplwplwrnt  (Pliocene).  Prolosphargis  (Cretaceous).  Proloslrga 
(Cietaceoils).  fi.rphodenno'*  (Tiiasalc) 

.'  '  The  more  important  worlis  nn  this  order  of  Reptiles  have  been- 
ennnicrateil  in  tlie  article  Rkptilks.  vol.  xx.  p.  440 

"  Only  the  .noro  imporlanlAnd  best  knowi)  of  the  extinct  genen 
are  admitted  into  this  synopsis. 


TORTOISE 


457 


Suborder  11.  TESTUDINATA. 
Dorsal  vertcbnc  and  ribs  immovaMy  united  and  expanded  into 
bonv  piatoi  fornirn.!:;  a  cnrapacc,  which  is  boideifd  by  a  complete 
series  of  niarj^in;il  bones.  Epiplastia  (clavicles)  in  contact  with 
hyoplastia;  entoplastron  (interclavicle),  if  present,  oval,  rhoni- 
boidal,  or  T  shaped.  Sacral  and  caudal  ribs  articulating  "ith  the 
centrum  and  the  neural  arch.  Digits  with  not  more  than  three 
tphalanges. 

SEr.iE.'?  A    CRYPTODIRA. 
Neck  retractile  by  a  sigmoid  curve  in  a  vertical  plane.     Pelvis 
not  anchylosed  to  the  carapace  and  plastron.     Karely  one  or  two 
epidermic  scutes  (intergular)  in  addition  to  the  normal  six  pairs. 
Gkoup  a.  Digitata 
Digits  short  or  moderately  elongate;  phalanges  with  condyles. 
claws  four  or  five.     Neck  completely  retractile. 
Family  1.  Testudikid^. 
FlastraJ  bones  nine      Nuchal  bone  without  costiform  processes 
Carapace   with   epidermic    scutes.      Caudal    vertebne   proccelous. 
Tropical  and  temperate  zones,  with  the  exception  of  Australia. 

Itcct'til  (rencra:  Dtrmatemys,  Jinlarjur,  Oemmi/x,  Pnng&hufa,  Geoemffda,  Cj/ele- 
titf/i.  E'lij/s.  CislUflo.  Afarniirtft.  Tesluf/o,  Ifoutopiis.  O'nv-"*.  Py-ris. 

Fossil  pcnera:  EurystPinum  (Jiuassic),  Clntracephatus  (Cietaceoiis),  Adocus 
(Cretaceous)  Palivothtfys  (Miocene),  Ptychogaster  (Miocene),  CofouocAelys  (Plio- 
cene) 

Family  2.   Platysternid-e. 
Plastral  bones  nine.     Nuchal  bone  withmtt  costifomi  processes. 
Carapace  with  epidermic  scutes.     Caudal  vcrtobrco  mostly  opistho 
coelous.     Indian  region 

Genus     p/atyilenwut 

Family  3.   BAEN'tn^. 
Plastral  bones  eleven,  mesoplastra  being  present.     Nuchal  bone 
without  costiform    processes.      Carapace   with   epidermic  scutes. 
Caudal  vertebrse  o  pi  st  hoc  felons; 

Fossil  genera-  /•/a/j/cAd/ir*  (Jutassic);  Bti^/m  (Eocene). 

Family  4.  Cheltdridje. 

Plastral  bones  nine  Nuchal  bone  with  long  costiform  processes, 
extending  below  the  marginals.  Carapace  with  epidernxic  scutes. 
Caudal  vertebrrc  mostly  opisthoccelons.  Northern  and  tropical 
American  regions. 

Recent  Rcncm:  Chetyi/ra,  Maerodemmya, 

Fussil  genus ■  7''"f/(?.«V)««'ji  (Creiaceous). 

Family  5.  Staitrotypid«  (Buulengcr) 
Plastral  bones  nine;     Nuchal  bone  with   short  costiform   pro- 
cesses, extehdinjj  below  the  maTginals.     Carapace  with  epidermic 
scutes.     Caudal  vcrtebrre  procoelans.     Central-American  district. 
Genei'o    Statnotypus.  Claudius. 

Family  6    CixosterkiD/E. 
Plastral  bones  eight,  the  entoplastron    being  absent.     Nuchal 
bone  with  short  costiform  processes,  extending  below  the  marginals 
Carapace   with   epLdermic  scutes.      Caudal    vertcbrce   procoelous 
Northern  and  tropical  American  regions. 

Genera'  Aromnchely*.  Cinosteiuum. 

Family  7.   PsEUDOTiiiONVCHrD*  (Boulenger). 
Shell  without  epidermic  scutes. 

Fossil  geneui     Pteudotrtovyx  and  AnotUra  (Eoreno). 

Groui'  B.   Pinnata. 
Limbs  paddle-shsped  ;  phalanges  without  condyles;  claws  one 
or   two       Neck    imperfectly  retractile;  cervical    vertebrte   short, 
mostly  articulated  by  amphiarlhrosis. 

Family  8.  Chflonid.€. 

Plastral  bones  nine.  Nuchal  without  costiform  processes. 
Carapace  with  epidermic  scutes.  Hyo-  and  hypopiastra  not  meet- 
ing mesially       Pelagic 

Jicccnt  cenei-n  .  Cheloue,  Cnnuana,  Cnrflta. 

Fossil  genus ■  Piipfigeiiis  (Miocene  and  Eoceee) 

Sekics  B    PLEURODIRA 

Neck  not  ictractilo,  bending  laterally.     Pelvis  anchyloscd  to  the 
carapace  and  plastron.     When  epidermic  scutes  are  present,  one  or 
two  intcigulars  in  addition  to  the  normal  pla.stral  scutes. 
Family  1.  CHELVDiDiB. 

Plastral  bones  nine.  Carapace  with  epidermic  .swtes  Limbs 
with  four  or  five  claws.  Australian  and  tropica!  American 
regions. 

Itecent  jrcnera-  Pfatemys,  Cherymys,  E/seya,  Chelodxnn.  I/i/draspis.  Hydro 
medusn,  Chelys. 

Fossil  gcnei.i:  Plesioc/ie/ys  (Jiirassir),  Craspcdochehjs  (Jurassic),  tdiochely^ 
(Jurassic).  .Volomorpfia  (Eocene) 

Family  2.    Pelomedusid^. 
Plastral   bones  eleven,    mesoplastra  being  present      Carapace 
with  epidermic  scutes.     Limbs  with  four  or  five  claws.     African 
and  tropical  American  regions. 

Recent  genera-  Peloiiicdiisa,  Siernoth.i-ruSt  Dumerifia.  Podoctiemis,  Peltf- 
rrphalus. 

Fossil  genera;  Plcurosicnivm  (Cretaceous,  Eocene).  Botfircrnys  (C'etaceoos), 
Taphroiphys  (Crctaceousl. 


Family^  Caijettochelydidal 
Plastral  bones  nine.     No  epidermic  scutes  on  the  shell.     Limb* 
paddle-shaped,  with  only  two  claws.     New  Guinea. 

Genus:  Careftofhelyi. 

Family  4.   MiOLANiiDfi  (Boulenger). 
Caudal  vertebne  opisthocoelous  ;  tail  long  and  encased  in  a  bony 
sheath.     Australia. 
Fossil  genus  .  Uiolania  (Pleislocene). 

Suborder  III.  TRIONYCHOIDEA. 

Dorsal  vertebra;  and  ribs  immovably  united,  forming  a  carapace  ^ 
no  pygal  plate;  marginal  plates  absent  or  forming  an  inconiplcttf 
serits.  Plastron  formed  of  nine  bones,  cpiplastra  seiarated  fron> 
the  hyoplastra  by  the  entoplastron,  which  is  ^-shaped,  without 
longitudinal  process.  Sacral  and  caudal  ribs  attached  to  transverst 
processes  .of  the  neiiral  arch  Fourth  digit  with  four  o>*  fiv(» 
phalanges. 

Family  1.  TriontchiujE. 

No  epidernnc  scutes.  '  Limbs  with  three  claws,  Indian,  African, 
ajid  American  regions. 

Genera ;  Cfiitra,  lieptailittm^  Trianiis,  CiiclaiwsUfts,  Emyda. 

We  add  a  few  notes  on  such  of  the  genera  enumerated 
in  this  synopsis  as  have  some  special  interest,  attached  to 
them,  either  from  a  scientific  or  an  economic  point  of  view. 

The  family  Sphargidvs  is  represented  in  the  recent  fauna  by  a 
single  species,  Dermatockchjs  or  Sphargis  coriacca,  the  Leathery 
Turtle,  the  range  of  which  extends  over  the  tropical  and  subtropical 
seas  of  both  hemispheres,  and  wiiich  occasionally  strays  into  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  its  occurrcnoe  on  the  British  coast 
having  been  recorded  three  or  four  times  within  the  last  century. 
It  differs  from  all  other  Chelonians  by  its  carapace  being  formed 
by  ossi6cations  of  the  skin  only  Neither  the  vertebne  nor  the 
ribs  enter  into  its  formation;  the  hitter  remain  free,  and  are  not 
particularly  dilated.  During  the  life  of  the  animal  tlie  carapaoe  is 
liexiblc  like  thick  leather,  the  bony  deposits  being  arranged  like 
mosaic,  with  several  longitudinal  ridges  of  larger  osseous  tubercles. 
The  limbs  are,  as  in  other  marine  turtles,  paddle,  or  tin  shaped,  the 
anterior  much  longer  than  the  posterior,  and  all  destitute  of  claws. 
This  turtle  is  probably  the  laigest  living  Chelonian,  exceeding  6 
feet  in  length.  The  names  Testudo  lyia,  Sphargis  viercurialis,  kc, 
have  reference  to  the  myth  that  the  shell  of  this  or  some  other 
turtle  was  used  by  Mercury  in  his  construction  of  the  lyre. 

The  family  Testwiinidm  is  composed  of  aji  unbroken  series,  from 
thoroughly  aquatic  freshwater  tortoises  Hke-  Dc-nnatcmys  and 
BaUirjnr  to  the  tortoises  which  live  exclusively  on  land  and  are 
jierfectly  helpless  in  water.  In  the  Central. American  genus  Dcr 
ivatrmys  the  digits  are  very  broadly  webbed,  the  epidermic  scutes  ar© 
thin,  and  the  nose  is  much  produced,  — characters  which,  together 
with  the  strong  depression  of  the  shell,  give  these  terrapins  some, 
what  the  aspect  of  the  freshwater  turtles  or  TrionydticUe.  They 
feed  exclusively  upon  leaves,  grass,  and  especially  fruit,  and  are 
eaten  by  the  natives.  Of  the  freshwater  tortoises  of  Ihe  Old  World 
the  most  thoroughly  aquatic  are'the  Batagurs,  which  inhabit  the 
East  Indies,  add  attain  to  a  length  of  2  feet.  Like  their  American 
representative,  DcnnaUviys^  they  are  essentially  herbivorous,  and 
their  flesh  is  eaten.  The  geuus  Clcminys  is  extremely  abundant  in 
species,  most  of  which  are  of  small  size,  and  elegantly  ornamented 
with  symmetrical  markings  of  bright  colour.  The  majority  of  the 
species  occur  in  North  America  and  Mexico,  and  are  of  amphibious 
habits.  Only  one  species,  C.  kprvsa,  inhabits  southern  Europe. 
A  second  European  species  belongs  to  the  genus  Bmy.'i,  E.  orbi- 
cularis, which,  towards  the  end  of  the  Quaternary  period  appears 
to  have  been  distributed  over  a  great  part  of  northern  Europe, 
remains  having  been  found  in  peat  in  England,  Belgium,  Denmark, 
and  Sweden.  Its  habitat  is  now  restricted  to  southern  Europe, 
south. western  Asia,  and  north-western  Africa;  but  singularly  it 
has  survived  in  a  few  isolated  northern  stations,  for  instance,  ia 
the  neighbourhood  of  Berlin  and  Kdnigsbeig,  although  it  is  there 
on  the  verge  of  extinction.  The  mobility  of  the  lobes  of  the 
plastron,  which-  distinguishes  Emys  from  Clcmmys,  is  carried  a 
degree  further  in  the  North. American  genus  Cistudo,  the  Box 
Tortoise;  this  terrapin  possesses  a  hinge  in  the  plastron,  rendering 
its  anterior  and  posterior  portions  movable,  and  converting  them 
into  lids  by  which  the  openings  of  the  shell  can  be  completely 
closed  when  the  head  and  limbs  are  retracted.  A  similar  protective 
apparatus  exists  in  the  tortoises  of  the  genus  Cinoslenivm.  In  the 
African  terrestrial  genus  Cinyxis  it  is  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
carapace  that  is  movable,  and  separated  from  the  anterior  by  a 
hinge.  True  land  tortoises,  Tcshido,  occur  in  Africa,  southern 
Europe,  southern  Asia,  South  America,  and  the  southern  parts  of 
North  America.  Those  best  known  in  Europe  are  Tcstudo  rfrsxa 
and  the  Moorish  Tortoise,  Tcstudo  mauritanica,  large  numbers  of 
which  are  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom,  chiefly  from  Morocco. 
But  the  most  interesting  are  the  gigantic  tortoises  which  formerly 
inhabited  in  extreme  abundance  the  Mascarene  and  GalapaOTS 
Islands,,  and  are  now  on  the  verge  of  extinction,  or  have  actually 

XXIIL— s8 


458 


TORTOISE 


become  cxtiuct.     At  the  time  of  tlieir  discovery  those  islands  were 
tininhabitcd  by  man  or  any  large  mamiDal ;  the  tortoises,  therefore, 


Alligator  Terrapin  (Chtlt/dra  serpentina). 


<«HJoyed  perfect  security;  and  this,  as  well  as  their  extraordinary 
degree  of  longevity,  accounts  for  their  enorTnous  size  and  their  large 
numbers.  They  could  be  captured,  in  any  quantity  with  the  greatest 
ease  within  a  few  days,  and  proved  to  the  ships'  companies  who 
■during  their  long  voyages  had  to  subsist  mainly  on  salt  provisions 
«  most  welcome  addition  to  their  table.     They  could  be  carried  in 


870  lb,  and,  althongn  Known  to  have  been  more  than  eighty  years^ 
old,  was  still  growing  at  the  time  of  its  death.-  -There  is  no  evidence 
to  show  that  any  of  these  tortoises  were- 
indigenous  in  the  Seychelles ;  the  speci- 
mens kept  there  in  a  semi -domesticated 
state  havel>ecn  either  directly  imported 
from  AJdabra  or  are  tlie  descendsints  of 
irCi ported  indi^'iduais. 

The  family  of  -Chdydridse  includes 
freshwater  tortoises,  which  are  known 
under  the  names  of  Suap)>ers  or  Alli- 
gator Terrapius  (fig.  3),  on  account  of 
their  ferocity  and  long  s;ompressed 
crested  taiL  They  are  now  confined 
to  North.  America  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  Centj-al  America,  and  north- 
west South  Ameiica,  but  remains  of  two 
species  of  Clichjdra,  closely  related  to 
their  recent  representative,  have  been, 
found  in  the  Oligocene  and  Mioccna 
of  central  Europe.  A  second  genus,  closely  allied  to  Chelydra^ 
Macroclcmmys  tcinmindcii^  the  shell  of  which  attains  to  a  length  of 
3  feet,  and  which  is  the  largest  known  freshwater  Chelonian,  is 
restricted  to  the  river-systems  tributary  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico- 

The  family  of  Cinostcrnidie  contains  a  rather  large  number^f 
small-sized  species,  distributed  from  the  northern  parts  of  the 
United  States  to  the  northern  parts  of  Brazil.  They  are  of 
amphibious  habits.  The  front  and  hind  lobes  of  the  plastron  are 
movable,  and  in  certain  species  of  Cinostenunih  the  animal  can 
completely  shut  itself  op  in  its  shell. 

The  Chelonidm,  or  marine  turtles,  contain  but  few  species,  which 
are  referred  to  three  genera, — Caoiuina^  Ckclonc,  amd  CarcUa. 
Their  limbs  are  wholly  modified  into  paddles,  by  means  of  which 
they  can  propel  themselves  with  extraordinary  rapidity  through 
the  water,  but  which  are  entirely  unfit  for  locomotion  on  land, 
where  the  progress  of  these  animals  is  as  awkward  as  that  of  a 
seal.  The  toes  are  enclosed  in  a  common  sldn,  out  of  which  only 
one  or  two  claws  project.  The  carapncc  is  broad  and  much  de- 
pressed, so  that  when  the  turtles  are  surprised  on  shore  and  turned 


Jig  4  Loggerhead  {Caonana  carctia) 
the  hold  of  a  ship,  without  food,  for  months,  and  were  slaughtered 
as  occasion  required,  each  tortoise  yielding,  according  to  size,  from 
80  to  300  pounds  of  excellent  and  wholesome  meat..  Under  theSe 
circumstances  the  numbers  of  these  helpless  creatures  decreased  so 
rapidly  that  in  the  beginning  of  this  century  their  extermination 
was  accomplished  in  the  Mascarencs,  and  )iow  only  a  few  remain 
in  a  wild  state  in  Aldabra  and  in  some  of  the  "islands  of  the  Gala- 
pagoS  group.  Singularly,  the  majonty  of  these  islands  were  in- 
habited each  by  one  or  more  peculiar  forms,  specifically  distinct 


Fig.  5.— Green  Turtle  {Chdonia  vinJu 

Sroto  those  of  the  other  islands.     A   large  male  sj>ecimen ,  from 
Aldabfa,  which  was  imported  into  Loudon  sotuc  years  ago,  weighed 


I  iG.  G.— Mawksbill  Tunle  (Carcffa  tnibnca(a). 

over  on  their  back,  they  cannot  regain  their  natural  position. 
Their  capture  forms  a  regular  pursuit  wherever  they  occur  in  any 
numbers.  Comparatively  few  are  caught  in  the  open  sea,  others 
in  stake  nets,  but  the  majority  are  intercepted  at  well-knowii 
periods  and  localities  where  they  t^o  ashore  to  deposit  their  eggs. 
These  are  very  numerons,  from  100  to  250  being  produced  by  ont 
female,  and  buried  by  her  iu  the  sand;  they  are  eagerly  searched 
for  and  eaten.  Some  of  the  marine  turtles  are  highly  esteemed 
for  the  delicacy  of  their  meat  and  of  the  gelatinous  skinny  parts  of 
their  neck  and  fins;  others  yield  oil,  and  others  again  the  tortoise- 
shell  of  commerce.  Probably  the  largest  of  these  marine  turtles  is 
the  Loggerhead  {Caouajui),  which  possesses  fifteen  vertebral  and 
costal_^!aelds,  and  occui's  iu  the  Atlantic  as  well  as  in  the  Indian 


TORTOISE 


Ocean  (Sg.  4).  It  is  carnivorous,  feeding  on  fish,  mollascs,  and 
•crustaceans,  and  not  esteemed  as  food,  althoagh  it  is  eaten  by  the 
jutive  fi-ibemien.     A  great  part  of  the  turtle-oil  which  finds  its 


Fw.  7.— The  MalamatA  iChetps  Jimbriata),  with  side  view  of  head,  and 
"  eeparate  view  of  plastron. 

'way  into  the  market  is  obtained  fiWn  t^e  Atlantic  species  of  this 
^Dus;  also  tortoiseshell  of  an  inferior  quality  is  obtained  from  it. 
The  Green  Turtle  (fig.  5).  «  are  herbivorous,  feeding 

which  yields  the  mate-  ^k  „„   ^^j^^  ^;       „^,  5 

nab  for  the  celebrated  jHA  they  occur  in  the  Indo- 
soup.  _b«I.ongs    to    the        ^^^       PacificandAtlantic;  and, 

although  several  species 
have  been  distinguished, 


f;eau9  ChtUmia ;  it  is  dis- 
tinguished from  Caouana 
by  having  thirteen  ver- 
tabnl  and  costal  shields 
•polj,  which  are  not  im- 
bricate..   These  animals 


they  all  may  possibly  be 
referable  to  one  only. 
The  turtle  imported  into 
Europe     comes    chiefly 


*ia.  8.— Cpper  View  of  the  Turtle  of  the  Enphratcs  (rciotiyr  niphratiea):  , 
from  thvWest  Indies.  Instances  are  recorded  of  the  flesh  of  this 
s^cie»h«\ingacquired  poisonous  qualities.  The  Hawksbill  Turtle, 
•CdTtUa  ( fig.  «),  80  named  from  its  rather  elongate  and  compressed 


curved  upper  jaw,  docs  not  reach  tl: 
and  is  readily  recognized  by  the 
carapace.     It  seems  to  he  more  abu 
Atlantic   Ocean,    but   is 
plentiful  ouly  in  certain 
localities.     As,  however, 
these  turtles  always  re-' 
sort  to  the  locality  where' 
they  were  born,  or  where 
they  have  been  wont  to 
propagate  their  kind, and 
as  their  capture  is  very 
profitable,   they  become 


,459 

le  same  size  as  the  other  turtles,' 
thirteen  imbricate  scutes  of  its 
ndant  in  the  Indian  thau  in  the 

scarcer  and  scarcer  at 
places  where  they  are 
known  to  have  been 
abundant  formerly.  If 
the  plates  of  tortoise- 
shell  are  detached  froni 
the  animal  when  decom. 
position  has  set  in,  their 
colour  becomes  clouded 
and   milky,   and   hence 


Fio.  9.— Lower  View  of  Trumyj:  evphratiea, 

the  cruel  expedient  is  resorted  to  of  suspending  the  turtle  over  Are 
till  heat  makesHhe  shields  start  from  the  bony  part  of  the  cara- 
pace, after  which  the  creature  is  permitted  to  escape  to  the  water. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  turtles  thus  allowed  to  escape  to  the  water 
after  such  an  operation  may  survive ;  but  it  is  very  improbable  that 
the  epidermal  shields  are  ever  sufiiciently  regenerated  to  be  fit  for 
use.  At  Celebes,  whence  the  finest  tortoiseshell  is  exported  to 
China,  thc'nativeskill  the  turtle  by  blows  on  the  head,  and  immei'se 
the  shell  in  boiling  water  to  4etach  the  plates;  dry  heat  is  only 
resorted  to  by  the  unskilful.  The  natives  eat  the  flesh  of  thia 
turtle,  but  it  is  unpalatable  to  Europeans;  the  eggs,  however,  are 
regarded  as  equal  to  those  of  the  other  turtles. 

Of  the  family  Chclydidx  the  most  remarkable  type  is  the 
Matamata,  Chelys  fimbriata,  a  native  of  the  Guianas  anil  northern 
Brazil  (fig.  7).  In  its  strongly  depressed  and  flat  head,  long  tube- 
like snout,  weak  jaws,  minute  eyes,  skinny  tentacles,  it  bears  a 
striking  similarity  to  the  Surinam  toad,  Pijia  americanci,  which 
inhabits  the  same  countries.  The  neck  is  very  broad  and  depressed, 
and  /ringed  with  foliated  tentacles,  floating  in  the  water  like  some 
vegetable  growth,  whilst  the  rough  bossed  carapace  resembles  a 
stone, — an  appearance  which  evidently  is  of  as  grtut  use  to  this 
creature  in  escaping  the  observation  of  its  enemies  as  in  alluring  to 
it  unsuspicious  animals  on  which  it  feeds. 

>  The  family  of  CarcUochelydidx  contains  a  single  genus,  CareUo- 
chclys,  quite  recently  discovered  in  the  Fly  river.  New  Guinea,  audi 
exhibiting  a  remarkable  combiuation  of  characters.  Its  limbs  ar« 
formed  very  much  like  those  of  the  marine  turtles,  whilst  the 
shell  lacks  epidermic  scutes,  as  in  the  Trionychidss, 

III  the  freshwater  turtles,  or  Trionyckidse  (iigs.  8  and  S),  the  cara- 
pace is  icduced  to  a  flat  disk,  which  is  covered  with  soft  skin.  The 
neck  and  limbs  can  be  lodged  under  the  broad  skinny  borders  of 
the  carapace  ;  also  the  plastron  is  very  imperfectly  ossified,  and  some- 
times dilated  into  laige  flexible  lobes  which  may  cover  the  limbs. 
The  latter  are  much  flattened  and  broadly  webbed,  and  only  the 
three  inner  toes  armed  with  claws.  The  jaws  are  concealed  under 
broad,  fleshy  lips,  the  nose  projecting  like  a  short  proboscis.  These 
turtles  are  carnivorous,  and  very  ferocious;  when  they  want  to  bile 
or  seize  their  prey  they  project  their  neck  and  head  with  lightning 
rapidity.  They  are  well  known  on  the  upper  Nile,  Euphrates, 
Ganges,  Yangtsekiaiig,  an8  Mississippi,  and,  indeed,  distributed 
over  all  the  large  fresh  waters  of  the  geographical  regions  to  which 


460 


T  0  R  — T  0  R 


these  nv  IS  belong.  Somt  of  the  species  exceed  a  length  of  3  lect. 
IntheUi  ited States  v]iete-t-Kosyecie&,Tn(myxmulu:us^iidTrianyx 
feroZy  oiiiir  the  tteshof  the  latter  is  said  to  ha  most  delicate  to  eat, 
far'sur}/,    ing  io  flaronr  that  of  the  green  turtle.  (A.  C.  G  ) 

TOR  O'SESHELL  The  tortoisestell  of  commerce 
consists- of  the  epidermic  plates  of  the  Lawksbill  turtle, 
Caretta  imWicata.  The  plates  of  the  back  or  carapace, 
techniciUy  called  the  head,  are  13  in  aumber,  5  occupying 
the  centre,  flanked  by  4  oil  each  side.  These  overlap  each 
other  to  the"  extent  of  one-third  of  their  whole  size,  and 
hence  they  attain  a  large  size,  reaching  in  the  largest  to  .8 
inches  by  13  inches,  and.  weighing  as  much  as  9  ounces. 
The  carapace  has  also  24  marginal  pieces,  called  hoofs  or 
claws,  forming  a  serrated  edge  round  it ;  but  these,  with 
the  plates  of  the  plastron,  or  belly,  are  of  inferior  value. 
The  plates  of  tortoiseshell  consist  of  horny  .matter,  but 
they  are  harder,  more  brittle,  and  less  fibrous  than  ordinary 
horn.  Their  value  depends  on  the  rich  mottled  colours 
they  display — a  warm  translucent  yellow,  dashed,  and 
spotted  ivith  rich  brown  tints — and  on  the  high  polish 
they  take  and  retain.  The  finest  tortoiseshell  is  obtained 
from  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  particularly  from  the  east 
ccast  of  Celebes  to  New  Guinea ;  but  the  creature  is  found 
and  tortoiseshell  obtained  from  all  tropical  coasts,  large 
supplies  coming  from  the  West  Indian  Islands  and  Brazil. 

,  Tortoiseshell  is  worked  precisely  as  Iiorn;  but,  owing  to  the 
high  value  of  the  material,  care  is  taken  to  prevent  any  waste  in 
its  working.  The  plates,  as  separated  by  heat  from  the  bony 
skeleton,  are  keeled,  curved,  and  irregular  in  form.  They  are  first 
flattened  by  heat  and  pressure,  and  superficial  inequalities  are 
rasped  away.  Being  harder  and  more  brittle  than  horn,  tortoise- 
shell  requires  cireful  treatment  in  moulding  it  into  any  form,  and 
Si  "high  heat  tends  to  darken  and  obscure  the  material  it  is  treated 
atas  low  a  heat  as  practicable.  For  many  purp9ses.it  is  necessary 
to  increase 'the  thickness  or  to  add  to  the  superficial  size  of  tortoise- 
shell,  and^this  is  readily  done  by  careful  cleaning  and  rasping  of 
the  surfaces  to  be  luiited,  softening  the  plates  in  boiling  water  or 
sometimes  by  dry  heat,  and  then  pressing  them  tightly  together 
by  means  of  heated  pincers  or  a  vice.  The  licit  softens  and 
liquefies  a  superficial  film  of  the  horny  material,  and  that  with  the 
pressure  effects  a  perfect  union  of  the  surfaces  brought  together. 
Heat  and  pressure  are  also  employed  to  mould  thesubstance  into 
bo.xes  and  the  numerous  artificial  forms  into  which  it  is  made  up. 

Tortoiseshell  has  been  a  prized  ornamental  .material  from  very 
early  times.  It  was  one  of  the  highly  esteemed  treasures  of  the 
far  East  brought  to  ancient  Rome  by  way  of  Egypt,  and  it  was 
eagerly  sought  by  wealthy.  Romans  as  a  veneer  for  their  rich 
furniture,  in  modern  times  it  is  most  characteristically  used  in 
the  elaborate  inlaying  o.f  cabinet  work  known  as  buhl  furniture. 
It  |s  also  employed  as  a  veneer  for  sriiall  bo.xes  and  frames.  It  is 
cut-  into  combs,  moulded  into  snuffboxes  and  other  small  boxes, 
formed  into  knife-handles,  and  worked  up  into  many  other  similar 
minor  articles.  The  plates  from  certain  other  tortoises,  known 
commercially  as  turtle-shell,  possess  a  certain  industrial  value,  but 
they  are  either  opaque  or  soft  and  leathery,  and  cannot  be  mis- 
taken for  tortoiseshell.  A  close  "imitation  of  tortoiseshell  can  be 
made  by  staining- translucent  horn.     See  Comb,  voh  vi.  p.  178. 

TORTOL.A..     See  Virgi.v  Islands. 

TORTONA,  a  town  -*(  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Ales- 
sandria, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Scrivia,  at  the  northern 
foot  of  the  Apennines,  13  miles  to  the  east  of  Alessandria, 
was  formerly  a  place  of  strength  until  its  fortifications 
were  destroyed  by  the  French  after  Marengo  (1799);  the 
ramparts  are  now  turned  into^shady  promenades.  The 
cathedral,  erected  by  Philip  II.,  is  architecturally  uninter- 
esting, but  contains  a  remarkably  fine  Roman  sarcophagus. 
Silk-weaving,  tanning,  and  hat-making  are  the  chief  indus- 
tries ;  and  there  is  some  trade  in  wine  and  grain.  The 
population  in  1881  was  9023(commune  14,442). 
,  Dtrtona  is  spoken  of  by  Strabo  as  one  of  the  most  important 
towns  of  Lignria,  and  is  alluded  to  by  Pliny  as  a  Roman  colony. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  it  w^  zealously  attached  to  the  Guclphic 
cause,  on  wliicli  account  it  was  twice  ■  laid  waste  by  .Frederick 
Barbarossa  (in  1155  and  1163). 

TORTOSA,  a  fortified  city  of  Spain,  in  the  provincaiof 
Tarragona,  and  40  miles. b}-  rail  to  the  south-west  of  that 
tdiira,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 


Ebro  (here  crossed  by -a  bridge  of  boats),  22  mile»  abo7e> 
its  moutt.  It  is  for  the.  most  part  an  old  walled  town 
with  narro^v,  crooked,  ftnd  ill-paved  streets ;  the  lowsea 
are  lofty,  and  massively  built  of  granite.  .  The  slope  oa 
which  it  stands  is  crowned  with  an  old  ruined  castle,  com 
manding  a  splendid  "view.  The  cathedral  is  a  conspicuous- 
building  near  the  river ;  it  occupies  the  site  oC  a  mosque 
built  in  914  by 'Abd  alBahmin ;  the  present  structure, 
whi6h  dates  from  1347,  has  its  Gothic  character  disguised 
by  a  classical  facade  with  Ionic  pillars  and.  much  tasteless 
modernization.  The  stalls  in  the  choir,  carved  by  Cristo- 
bal de  Salamanca  in.  1588-93,  and  the  sculpture  of  thd 
pulpits,  as  well  as  the  ironwork  of  the  choir-raijing  and 
some  of  the  precious  marbles  with  which  the  chapels  are 
adorned,  deserve  notice.  None  of  the  other  public  build- 
ings, which  include  an  episcopal  palat*,  a  lown-hali,  and 
numerous  churches,  xequire  special  Mention.  The  manu- 
factures of  Tortosa  include  paper,  h  jts,  leather,  porcelain, 
majolica,  soap,  and  spirits.  There  is  an  important  fishery 
in  the  river,  and  an  active  trade  is  carried  on  through  th* 
harbour,  which  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  100  tons  burden, 
corn,  vine,  oil,  wool,  silk,  fruits,  and  liquorice  (a  specialty 
of  the  district)  being  among  the  leading  articles  of  export. 
Near .  Tortosa  are  rich  quarries  of  marble  and  alabaster, 
and  the  whole  surrounding  country  is  very  fertile  and 
beautiful.  The  population  within  the  municipal  boundaries 
in  1878  was  24,057. 

Tortosa,  the  JDcrtosa  of  Strabo  and  the  Volonia  Julia  Augusta 
DcTtosa  of  numerous  coins,  was  a  city  of  the  Ilercaones  in  Hispania. 
Tarraconensis.  Under  tlie  Moors  it  became  a  place  of  great  import- 
ance as  the  key  of  the  Ebro  valley.  It  was  taken  by  Louis  the 
Pious  in  811  (after  an  unsuccessful  siege  two  years  before),  but  was 
soon  recapturtd.  Having  become  a  haunt  of  pirates,  and  exceed- 
ingly injurious  to  Italian  commerce,  it  was  made  the  object  of  a. 
crusade  proclaimed  by  Pope  Eugenius  III.  in  1148,  and  was  accord, 
ingly  captuied  by  Raymond  herengar,  assisted  by  Templais,  Pisans, 
and  Genoese.  Tortosa  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  duke  of  Orleans 
in^l703,  and  was  again  surrendered  in  the  War  of  Independence  iul. 
1811  to  the  French  undcr-Suchet,  who  heldJt  till  1814. 

'- 'TORTURE.  It  is  proposed  to  treat  in. this  place  not 
si)  biuch  the  innumerable  modes  of  inflicting  pain  which 
■ha;}e  been  from  time  to  time  devised  by  the  perv'erted. 
ingenuity  of  man  as  the  subject  of  legal  torture  as  it 
existed  in 'the  civilized  nations  of  antiquity  and  of  modern 
Europe,  that-is  to  say,  torture  inflicted  with  more  or  less 
appearance  of  legality  by  a  responsible  executive  or  judi- 
cial authority.  From  this  point  of  view  torture  was 
always  inflicted  for  one  of  two  purposes — (1)  as  a  means  of 
eliciting  evidence  from  a  witness  or  from  an  accused  person 
either  before- or  after  condemnation,  (2)  as  a  part  of  the 
punishment.  Torture,  as  a  part  of  the  punishment,  may  be 
regarded  as  including  every  kind  of  bodily  or  mental  pain 
beyond  what  is  necessary  for  the  safe  custody  of  the 
offender  (with  or  without  enforced  labour)  or  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  life, — in  the  language  of  Bentham,  an  afflictive  as 
opposed  to  a  simple  punishment.  Thus  the  unnecessary 
sufferings  endured  in  English  prisons  before  the  reforms 
of  Howard  (see  Howard  and  Prison  Discipline)  and  the 
drawing  and  quartering  in  the  old  executions  for  treason 
fall  without  any  straining  of  terms  under  the  category  of 
torture.  The  whole  subject  is  now  one  of  only  historical 
interest  as  far  as  Europe  is  concerned.  It  was,  however, 
up  to  a  comparatively  recent  date  an  integral  part  qt 
the  law  of  most  countries  (to  which  England,  Aragon, 
and  Sweden'  formed  honourable  exceptions),  as  much  a 
commonplace  of  law  as  trial  by  jury  in  England.  One 
reason  for  its  long  continuance  was  no  doubt  the  view- 
taken  in  an  age  of  judicial  perjury-  that  truth  was  only  to- 
be  attained  by  Violent  means,  if  not  by  torture  then  by 
ordeal  or  trial  by  baAle.     Speaking  generally,  tortnre  may 

^  Bot  even  in  these  coiOtriea,  whatever'the  law  was,  torture  cerfciualy- 
ex^ted  in  fact.  'lam.  iliddie  Aoa.  vol.  L  jj.  282_ 


TORTURE 


461 


be  said  to  have  succeeded  the  ordeal  and  trial  by  battle 
(comoart  Ordeal).  /O'here  these  are  found  in  full  vigour, 
as  in  the  capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  there  is  no  provision 
for  torture.  It  was  no  doubt  accepted  reluctantly,  but 
tolerated  in  <he  absence  of  any  better  m«ans  of  eliciting 
Vuth,  especially  in  cases  of  great  gravity,  on  the  illogical 
assumption  that  extraordinary  offences  must  be  met  by 
extraordinary  remedies. 

-  The  opinions  of  the  best  authorities  have  been  in  theory 
almost  unanimously  against  the  use  of  torture,  even  in  a 
system  where  it  was  as  completely  established  as  it  was  in 
Roman  law  "  Torment*,"  says  Cicero,'  in  words  which  it 
is  almest  impossible  to  translate  satisfactorily,  "  gubernaf 
dolor,  regit  qussitor,  flcctit  libido,  corrumpit  spes,  infirmat 
metus,  ut  in  tot  rerum  angustiis  nihil  veritati  loci  reUnqua- 
tur."i  Seneca  sa/s  bitterly,  "  it  forces  even  the  innocent  to 
lie."x  St  Augustine- recognizes  the  fallacy  of  torture.  "If," 
says  he,  "  the  accused  be  innocent,  he  will  undergo  for  an 
uncertain  crime  a  certain  [mnisbment,  and  that  not  for 
having  committed  a  crime,  but  because  it  is  unknown 
whether  he  committed  it."  At  the  same  time  he  regards  it 
as  excused  by  its  necessity.  The  words  of  Ulpian,  in  the 
2>t^fs(  of  Justinian,' are  no  lesi  impressive.  "The  torture 
(qussiio)  is  not  to  bo  regarded  as  wholly  deserving  or 
wholly  undeserving  of  confidence  ;  indeed,  it  is  untrust- 
worthy, perilous,  and  deceptive.  For  most  men,  by  patience 
or  the  severity  of  the  torture,  come  so  to  despise  the  torture 
that  the  truth  caunot  be  elicited  from  them  ;  others  are  so 
impatient  that  they  will  lie  in  any  direction  rather  than 
suffer  the  torture  ;  so  it  happens  that  they  depose  to  con- 
tradictions and  accuse!  not  only  themselves  but  others." 
Montaigne's''  view  of  torture  as  a  part  of  fhe  punishment 
is  a  most  just  one:— '•"All  that  exceeds  a  simple  death- 
appears  to  me  absolute  cruelty  ;  neither  can  our  justice 
expect  that  he  whom  the  fear  of  being  execute  by  being 
beheaded  or  hanged  will  not  restrain  should  be  any  more 
awed  by  the  imagination  of  a  languishing  fire;  burning 
pincers,  or  the  wheel."  ,  Montesquieu^  speaks  of  torture  in 
s  most  guarded  manner,  condemning  it,  but  without  giving 
reasons,  and  eulogizing  England  for  doing  without  it.  The 
system  was  condemned  by  Bayle  and  Voltaire  with  less 
reserve.  Among  the  Italians,  Betcaria,"  Verri,"  and  Mao- 
zoni'  will  be  found  to  contain  most  that  can  be  said  on  the 
subject  The  influence  of  Beccaria  in  rendering  the  use 
of  torture  obsolete  was  undoubtedly  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  legal  reformer.  The  great  point  that  he  makes 
is  the  unfair  incidence  of  torture,  as  persons'  minds  and 
bodies  differ  in  strength.  Moreover,  it  is,  says  he,  to  con- 
found all  relations  to  expect  that  a  man  should  be  both 
accuser  and  accused,  and  that  pain  should  be  the  test  of 
truth,  as  though  truth  resided  in  the  muscles  and  fibres 
of  a-  wretch  under  torture.  The  result  of  the  torture  is 
simply  a  matter  of  calculation.. .  Given  the  force  of  the 
muscles  and  the  sensibility  of  the  nerves  of  an  innocent 
person,  it  is  required  to  find  the  degree  of  pain  necessary 
to  make  him  confess  himself  guilty  of  a  given  crime. 
Bentbara's'  objection  to  torture  is  that  the  effect  is  exactly 
the  reverse  of  the  intention.  "  Upon  the  face  of  it,  and 
probably  enough  in  the  intention  of  the  framers,  ihs  object 
of  this  institution  was  the  protection  of  iimocence ;  the 
protection  of  guilt  and  the  aggravation  of  the  pressure 
tipon  innocence  was  the  real  fruit  of  it"  The  apologists 
■of  torture,  even  among  jurists,  are  not  numerous.  In  fact, 
theoretical  objections  to  it  are  often  urged  by  the  authors 
of» books  of  practice,  as  by  Damhouder,  Von  Rosbach,  Von 


■  Pro  SuUa,  c.  28. 

•  2)ij.,  ilvui.  18,  23. 

*  Stpr.  da  Lois,  bk.  vi.  c.  1 7. 
'  Ostmaaar.i  ruUa  Tvrtura. 
^.Wortt,  vol.  vii.  p.  523. 


-  Di  Civ.  Dei,  bk.  xix.  c.  6. 

*  Essiy  IxT.  (Cotton's  trans.). 

•  Dei  Delittiedtlk  Pmt,  c  ivi. 
^  Storia  delta  CoUmna  S^fame, 


Eoden,  and  Voet.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  as  illus- 
trative o!  the  feeling  of  the  time,  that  even  Bacon  '"  com- 
pares experiment  in  nature  to  torture  in  civil  matters  as 
the  best  means  of  eliciting  truth.  ^  .Muyart  de  Vouglans  ■' 
derives  the  origin  of  torture  from  the  law  of  God.  Other 
apologists  are  Siniancas,"bishoi>  of  Badaios.'^  Enm-I.' '  and 
in  England  Sir  R.  Wiseman." 

Gruce. — The  opinion  of  Aristotle 'was  in  favour,  ol 
torture  as  a  mode  of  proof.  It  is,  he  says,  a  kind  ot 
evidence,  and  appears  to  carry  with  it  absolute  cieilibility 
because  a  kind  of  coni^traint  is  applied.  .  It  is  cla.s.'icd  as  one 
of  the  "  artless  persuasions"  (ariyyai  jrco-Tci!).'^  .'\t  .Athens 
slaves,  and  probably  at  times  resident  aliens,  were  tortured, 
but  it  was  never  applied  to  free  citizens,"'  such  application 
being  forbidden  by  a  p.wphism  passed  in  the  archonship 
of  Scamandrius.  After  the  mutilation  of  the  Herm;e  in 
415  B.C.  a  proposition  was  made,  but  not  carried,  that  it 
should  be  applied  to  two  senators  named  by  an  informer. 
In  this  particular  case  Andocides  gave  up  all  his  slaves  to 
be  tortured."  Torture  was  sometimes  inflicted  in  open 
court.  The  rack  was  used  as  a  punishment  even  for  free 
citizens.  Aotiphon  was  put  to  death  by  this  means.", 
The  torture  of  Nicias  by  the  Syracusans  is  alluded  to  by 
Thucydides  "  as  an  event  likely  to  happen,  and  A  was  only 
in  order  to  avoid  the  pos.sibility  of  inconvenient  disclosures 
that  he  wa.s  put  to  death  without  torture'  Isocrates  and 
Lysias  refer  to  torture  under  the  generic  name  of  o-rpc- 
/JAoxriq.'  As  might  be  expected,  torture  was  frequently 
inflicted  by  the  Greek  despots,  and  both  Zcno  and  Anax- 
archus  are  said  to  have  been  put  to  it  by  such  irresponsible 
authorities.  At  Sparta  the  deSpot  Nabis  was  accustomed, 
as  we»learn  from  Polybius,^  to  put  persons  to  death  by  an 
iustrument  of  torture  in  the  form  of  his  w-ife  Apega,  a 
mode  of  torture  no  doubt  resembling  the  Junafemhiss  once 
in  use  in  Germany. 

Rome. — The  Roman  system'was  the  basis  of  all  subset 
quent  European  systems  which  recognized  torture  as  a  part 
of  their  procedure.  The  law  of  torture  was  said  by  Cicero 
to  rest  originally  on  custom  (mores  mnjr/rum')^  There  are 
frequent  allusions  to  it  in  the  classical  writers'-'  both  of 
the  republic  and  the  empire.  The  law,  as  it  existed  under 
the  later  empire,  is  contained  mainly  in  the  titles  Df 
Quaisdunibus  --'  of  the  Digest  and  the  CoJe,^ — the  former 
consisting  largely  of  opinions  from  the  Senlt^lLr  Rtreptx  ol 
Paulus,^*  the  latter  being  for  the  most  part  merely  a  re- 
petition of  constitutions  contained  in  theTheodosianCode.^ 
Both  substantive  law  and  procedure  were  dealt  with  by 
these  texts  of  Roman  law,  the  latter,  however,  not  as  fully 

'"  Km.  Org.,  bk.  i.  aph  98.  In  the  Advancement  of  Leammtj,  bk. 
iv.  ch.  4,  Bacon  collects  many  instances  of  cou:>tancy  under  torture 

"  Instttutsdu  Droit  Criminel,  Paris,  1757. 

^  De  Caihalicis  IiuttitiUionibus  Liber,  adprxcavendaset  ezlirpandas 
Hferescs  admodum  necessarius,  Rome,  1575. 

"  De  Tortura  ez  Foris  Christianis  mm  proscribenda,  Leipsic'  1^3. 

"  Law  of  Laws,  p.  122.  London.  16S6..' 

"  Rhet.,  L  15,  2(i. 
,  '•  The  opinion  of  Cicero  {De  PaTlilionibus  Oratorits,  §  34).' that'll 
was  so  applied  at  Athens  and  Rhodes,  s«ems,'as  far  as  regards  Athens, 
not  to  be  justified  by  existing  evidence.  . 

"  See  Grote,  Hist,  of  Greftc,  vol.  vii.  p.  274. 

"  See  Diet,  of  Antiq.,  s.v  Bdacwnt..  In  the  Ranseot  Aristophantsl, 
V.  617,  there  is  a  list  of  kinds  of  torture,  and  the  wheel  ia  alluded  to 
in  Lysistrata,  v.  846.  '«  vii.  86.  ^  xiii.  7 

^  An  interacting  one.  illustrating  the  uselessness  of  torture  in  the 
face  of  courage  and  re^^olution,  is  the  abortive  result  of  the  torture  of 
a  Spani:>h  pe.^sant  in  25  ad  oq  the  charge  of  being  the  murderer  vf 
'Lucius  Piso  (Tac.,  Ann.,  iv.  45).  A  somewhat  similar  caj>e.  occurring 
in  Sicily,  is  given  by  Valerius  Maximus,  bk.  iii.  c.  iii.  Tlie  horrible 
torture  of  Epicharis,  a  freed  woman,  is  described  l-y  Tacitus,  Ann., 
XV.  57.  In  Pliny's  letter  to  Trajan  {Eyisl.,  x.  97),  ho  mentiont 
having  put  to  the  torture  two  Ciiristian  deaconesses  (ttUnistrit). 

"  Qtisstio  included  the  whole  process  of  which  torture  was  s  part. 
In  the  wonU  of  Cujacius,  "  qusestto  est  interrog&tio  quae  fit  per 
tormenta,  vei  de  reis,  vel  de  testibus  qui  facto  intervenisse  dicantair. 

»  I>ig.,  xlvUL  18  ;  Cod.,  ix.  41.         "  ».  14,  15,  16.         ■it  85. 


462 


T  0  11  T  U  R  E 


as  in  mediaeval  codes,  a  large  discretion  beinf;  left  to  tlie 
judges.     Torture  was  used  both  in  civil  and  criminal  trial?, 
but   in   ths   former  only   upon   slaves  and   freed  men   or 
infamous   persons — such   as   gladiators-  -and    where    tbe 
truth  could  not  be  otherwise  elicited,  as  in  cases  affecting 
the  inheritance  {res  hereditarise).     Its  place  in   the  case 
of  free  citizens  was  taken  by  the  reference  to  the  oaih 
of  the  party  (see  Oath).      During  the  republic   torture 
appears  to  have  been  confined  to  slaves  in  all  cases,  but 
with  the  empire  (according  to  Dion  Cassius  under  Tiberius) 
a  free  man    became   liable  to  it  if   accused  of   a  crime, 
though   not  as  a  witness.      If  a  Christian,   of   however 
high  a   condition,  he  was  subject    to  torture  during  the 
period  between  the  edict  of   Diocletian  in  303  and    the 
edict  of  toleration  of  (Valerius  in  311.     This  short  period 
excepted,  the  liability  of  a  free  man  depended  upon  two 
conditions,  the  nature  of  the  accusation  and  the  rank  of 
the   accused.      On  an   accusation  of   treason  every   one, 
whatever  his  rank,  was  liable  to  torture,  for  in  treason  the 
condition  of  all  %vas  equal.'     The  same  was  the  cise  of 
those  accused  of   sorcery  (ma^i),  who  were   regarded  as 
humani  generis  iniinici.'     A  wife  might  be  tortured  (but 
only   after   her   slaves   had  been   put   to  the  torture)  if 
accused   of   poisoning   ber   husband.     In   accusations   of 
crimes   other   than   treason   or   sorcery,    certain    persons 
were  protected  by  the  dignity  of  their  position  or  their 
tender  age.     The  main  exemptions  were  contained   in  a 
constitution  of   Diocletian  and  Maximian,    and   included 
soldiers,  nobles  of  a  particular  rank,  i.e.,  emiiientusimi  and 
perfeclissivii,  and  their  descendants  to  the  third  generation, 
and  decunoiKs  and  their  children  to  a  linnted  extent — that 
is  to  say,  they  were  subject  to  the  torture  of  the  plmnbnts 
in  certain  cases,  such  ps  fraud  on  the  revenue  and  extor- 
tion.    In  addition  to  these,  priests  (but  not  clergy  of  a 
lower  rank),  children  under  fourteen,  and  pregnant  women 
were  exempt.     A  free  man  could  be  tortured  only  where 
he  had  been  inconsistent  in  his  depositions.     No  one  was 
to  be. chained  in  prison  before  trial,  nor  could  a  prisoner  be 
tortured  while  awaiting  trial.     The  rules  as  to  the  torture 
of  slaves  were  numerous  and  precise.     It  was  a  maxim  of 
Roman  law  that  torture  of  slaves  was  the  most  efficacious 
■means  of  obtaining  truth.'     They  could  be  tortured  either 
as  accused  or  as  witnesses,  but  against  their  masters  only 
in  accusations  of  treason,  adultery,  frauds  on  the  revenue, 
coining,  and  similar  offences  (which  were  regarded  as  a 
species  of  treasov),  attempts  by  a  husband  or  wife  on  the 
life  of  the  other,  and  in  cases  where  a  master  had  bought 
a  slave  for   the  special  reason  that   he  should    not  give 
evidence  against  him.     The  privilege  from  accusations  by 
the  slave  extended  to  the  master's  father,  mother,  wife,  or 
tutor,  and  also  to  a  former  master.     On  the  same  principle 
a  frecdman  could  not  be  tortured  against  his  patron.     The 
privilege  did  not  apply  where  the  slave  was  joint  property, 
and  one  of  bis  masters  had  been  murdered  by  the  other, 
or  where  he  was  the  property  of  a  corporation,  for  in  such 
a,  case  he  could  be  tortured  in  a  charge  against  a  member 
of  the  corporation.     Slaves  belonging  to  the  inheritance 
could  be  tortured  in  actions  concerning  the  inheritance. 
The  adult  slaves  of  a  deceased  person  could  be  tortured 
where  the  deceased  had  been  murdered.     In  a  charge  of 
adultery  against  a  wife,  her  husband's,  her  own,  and  her 
father's  slaves  couid  be  put  to  the  torture.     A  slave  manu- 
mitted  for  the  express  purpose  of  escaping  torture  was 
reg.irded  as  still  hable  to  it.     Before  putting  a  slave  to 
torture  without  the  consent  of  his  master,  security  must 
be  given  to  the  master  for  his  value.     The  master  of  a 
slave  tortured  on  a  false  accusation  could  recover  double 
his  value  from  the  accuser.     The  undergoing  of  torture 
ha4  at  one  tiriie  a  serious  effect  upon  the  after-life  of  the 


slave,  for  in  the  time  of  Gains  a  slave  who  had  beeir 
torlured  could  on  manumission  obtain  no  higher  civil 
rights  than  those  of  a  dediticius.*  The  rules  of  procedure 
were  conceived  in  a  spirit  of  as  much  fairness  a^  such  rules- 
could  be.  Some  of  the  most  important  were  these.  The 
amount  of  torture  was  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge,  but 
it  was  to  be  bo  applied  as  not  to  injure  life  or  limb.  The 
examination  was  not  to  begin  by  torture  ,  other  proofs 
must  be  exhausted  first.  The  evidence  *  must  have  ad 
vanced  so  far  that  nothing  but  the  confession  of  the  slave 
was  wanting  to  complete  it.  T^ose  of  weakest  frame 
and  tenderest  age  were  to  be  tortured  first.  Except  in 
treason,  the  unsupported  testimony  of  a  single  witjiesSwas 


not  a  sufficient  ground  for  torture. 


voice  and  manner 


'  Cod.,  in.  8,  4. 


'  Cod.,  ix.  18,  7. 


'  Cod.,  i.  3,  8. 


of  the  accused  were  to  be  carefully  observed.  A  spon- 
taneous confession,  or  the  evidence  of  a  personal  enemy, 
was  to  be  received  with  caution.  Repetition  of  the  torture 
could  only  be  ordered  in  case  of  inconsistent  depositions  or 
denial  in  the  face  of  strong  evidence  There  was  no  rule 
limiting  the  number  of  repetitions.  Leading  questions 
were  not  to  be  asked.  A  judge  was  not  liable  to  an  action 
for  anything  done  during  the  course  of  the  examination. 
An  appeal  from  an  order  to  torture  was  competent  to  the 
accused,  except  in  the  case  of  slaves,  when  an  ajipeal  could 
be  made  only  by  the  master.'  The  appellant  was  not  to 
be  tortured  pending  the  appeal,  but  was  to  remain  in 
prison.'  The  principal  forms  of  torture  in  use  were  the 
equuleus,  or  rack  (mentioned  as  far  back  as  Cicero),  th» 
plumbcUs,  or  leaden  balls,  the  ungxda,  or  barbed  booka^ 
and  the  fidiadx,  or  cord  compressing  the  arm.  Other 
allusions  in  the  Ditjest  and  Code,  in  addition  to  those 
already  cited,  may  be  shortly  noticed.  The  testimony  of  8 
gladiator  or  infamous  person  (such  as  an  accomplice)  was. 
not  valid  without  torture.^  This  was  no  doubt  the  origin 
of  the  mediaeval  maxims  (which  were,  however,  by  no 
means  universally  recognized), —  Vihtas  personse  est  jutta 
causa  (orquendi  testem,  and  Toriura  purgatur  infamia. 
Torture  could  not  be  inflicted  during  the  forty  dayo  of 
Lent.5  Robbers  and  pirates  might  be  tortured  even  on 
Easter  Day,  the  Divine  pardon  being  hoped  for  where  the 
safety  of  society  was  thus  assured.'''  Capital  punishment 
was  not  to  be  suffered  until  after  conviction  or  confession 
under  torture."  Withdrawal  from  prosecution  (abolitioy 
was  not  to  be  allowed  as  a  rule  after  the  accused  had 
undergone  the  torture.'^  In  charges  of  treason  the  accuser 
was  liable  to  torture  if  he  did  not  prove  his  case.''  The 
.infliction  of  torture,  not  judicial,  but  at  the  same  time 
countenanced  bylaw,  was  at  one  time  allowed  tocreditorsw 
They  were  allowed  to  keep  their  debtors  in  private  prisons, 
and  most  cruelly  ill-use  them,  in  order  to  extort  payment,'* 
Under  the  empire  private  prisons  were  forbidden.'^  In 
the  time  of  Juvenal,  if  his  sixth  satire  may  be  believed,  the 
Roman  ladies  actually  hired  the  public  torturors  to  torture 
their  domestic  slaves.  As  a  part  of  the  punishment 
torture  was  in  frequent  use.  Crucifixion,  mutilation,  ex- 
posure to  wila  beasts  in  the  arena,  and  other  cr:;ol  modes 

*  Gaius,  i,  13.  ' 

'  The  evidence  on  which  the  accused  intglit  be  tortiircii  was  ex- 
pressed in  Roman  law  by  the  terms  argnvtentum  and  ifidicium.  The 
i.ilter  term,  as  will  be  seen,  afterwards  became  one  of  the  most  ino- 
jwrtant  in  the  law  of  torture,  but  the  analysis  of  iiidtcium  is  later 
than  Roman  law.  Indicium  was  not  quite  the  same  thing  a.*!  icmi/j/of* 
probatio,  though  the  terms  appear  to  be  occasionally  used  as  synonym.^. 
Indicium  was  rather  the  foundation  or  cause  of  probalw,  whether 
plena  or  semtptena.  An  indicium  or  a  concurrence  of  indicia  migfau 
according  to  circumstances,  constitute  a  plena  or  seiniplcna  prohalto. 
The  difference  between  the  words  may  be  illustrated  by  a  passage  froBk 
Justin,  **  Ad  ciijub  rei  probationein  immittit  indices,"  xxxii.  2. 

"  Dig.,  xlix.  1,  15.  '  Cod.,  vii.  C2,  12. 

«  Dig.,  xxii.  5,  21,  2.  •  Cod.,  iii.  12,  6. 

'"  Cod.,  iii.  12,  10.  "  Cod.,  ix.  47,  16. 

"  Cod.,  ix.  42,  3.  "  Cod.,  ix.  8,  3. 

"  See,  for  insUnce,  Livy,  vi.  C6.  "  Cod.,  i.  4,  23 ;  ix.   V . 


TORTURE 


463 


of  destroying  life  were  common,  especiallj  in  the  time 
■>i  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  under  Nero  '  Cruci- 
tlxioQ  as  a  punistment  was  abniishp.d  by  Constantine  in 
315,  in  veneration  of  the  memory  of  Hinj  who  was  crucified 
for  manliind.  The  punishment  of  mutilation  was  mode 
rated  by  Justinian,  who  forbade  amputation  of  both  hands 
or  feet  or  of  any  limb,  and  coutjoed  it  in  future  to  ampu 
tation  of  one  hand.^  Scourging  was  niHicted  only  on 
slaves  ,  free  men  were  exempt  by  the  L-'-r  h'nmn  and  Lex 
Valeria,  except  in  a  few  cases,  such  as  that  of  adultery, 
the  penalty  for  which  was  scourging  and  cutting  off  the 
nose.'  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  interests  of  the 
church  were  concerned,  the  tendency  was  in  favour  of 
greater  severity  Thus,  by  the  Theodosian  Code,  a  heretic 
was  to  be  flogged  with  lead  (cmitn-ius  plumbo)  before 
banishment,'  and  Justinian  made  liable  to  torture  and 
exile  any  one  insulting  a  bishop  or  pne-st  in  a  church* 

The  Church. — As  far  as  it  could  the  church  adopted 
the  Roman  law,  with  the  important  and  characteristic 
difference  (dating  from  the  severe  edicts  of  Thendosius  the 
Great  in  381)  that  heresy  took  the  place  of  treason,  it 
being  regarded  as  a  kind  of  treason  against  Uod  ("  crimen 
Issae  majestatis  divinse  ").'  The  doctrine  of  couhscation 
for  treason  was  so  convenient  and  profitable  that  it  was 
rapidly  adopted  by  the  church '  As  most  instances  in 
which  torture  was  inflicted  by  ecclesiastical  tribunals  would 
be  accusations  of  heresy  or  Judaism — a  specially  revolting 
form  of  heresy  to  mediaeval  Christians — this  theory  practi- 
cally equalized  all  persons  for  the  purpose  of  torture,  in 
accordance  with  the  doctrine  that  in  treason  all  were 
equal  The  church  generally  secured  the  almost  entire 
immunity  of  its  clergy,  at  any  i-ate  of  the  higher  ranks, 
from  torture  by  civil  tribunals.^  In  many  instances 
councils  of  the  church  pronounced  against  torture,  e.y.,  in 
a  synod  at  Rome  in  384.'  Torture  even  of  heretics  seems 
to  have  been  originally  left  to  the  ordinary  tribunals. 
Thus  a  bull  of  Innocent  FV.,  in  1252,  directed  the  torture 
of  heretics  by  the  civil  power,  as  being  robbers  and 
murderers  of  souls,  and  thieves  of  the  sacraments  of  God.'" 
The  church  also  enjoined  torture  for  usury  "  A  character- 
istic division  of  torture,  accepted  by  the  church  but  not- 
generally  acknowledged  by  lay  authorities,  was  into 
spiritual  and  corporal,  the  latter  being  simply  the  imposi- 
tion of  the  oath  of  purgation,  the  only  form  originally  in 
use  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  The  canon  law  contains 
little  on  the  subject  of  torture,  and  that  little  of  a  com- 
paratively humane  nature.  It  laid  down  that  it  was  no 
sin  in  the  faithful  to  inflict  torture, '^  but  a  priest  might 
not  do  so  with  his  own  hands,"  and  charity  was  to  be  used 
in  all  punishments."  No  confession  was  to  be  extracted 
by  torture.'^  The  principal  ecclesiastical  tribunal  by  which 
torture  was  inflicted  in  more  recent  times  was  of  course  the 

'  The  well-known  lines  of  Juvenal  {Sat.,  i.  155), 
"Tsda  lucebis  in  ilia, 
Qoa  stantes  ardent  qui  fixo  gutture  fumant, ' 
will  serve  as  an  example  of  such  punishments. 
'  AW,  cxxiiv.  13.  '  Cod.,  \x.  9,  37.  •  x-/i.  53. 

'  \ov.,  cxxiii.  31.  On  the  subject  of  torture  in  Roman  law  refer- 
ence may  be  niarte  to  Weistphal,  Die  TortuTtr  der  Oriechm,  Rbmer, 
vnd  DnUschen.  Lcipsic,  1785;  Wasserschleben,  Uiatoria  Qusstionum 
per  Tarmenla  apud  Rmnanos,  Berlin,  1836. 

•  This  term,  which  included  blasphemy  and  cognate  offences,  is 
used  both  by  ecclesiastical  anrl  ."iecular  jurists,  e.ff.,  by  Suarez  de  Paz 
and  by  Jou3.se,  Traite  de  la  Justice  Criminelle. 

'  See  an  article  by  Jlr  Lea  tn  The  E-nylish  historical  Review, 
April  1887,  "Confiscation  for  Heresy  in  tbe  Middle  Age.s." 

'  See  Escobar,  Mor.   Tltcol.,  tract,    vi.  c.    2.     They  were  to   be 
tortured  only  by  the  clergy,  where  possible,  and  only  on  indicia  of 
ipecial  gravity. 
'  Ita,  Superatieion  and  Force,  p.  419,  3d  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1878. 
"  Leges  el  Constituiiunes  contra  hwreiicos,  §  26. 
^*  Lecky,  Ratuma/usin  in  Europe,  vol.  ii.  p.  34,  n. 
"  necr.,  pt.  ii.  23,  4,  4.i.  "  Deer.,  pt.  i.  86,  2:.. 

"  Deer.,  pt.  ii.  12,  2.  U.  ^  Deer.,  pt.  ii.  ir.  6,  1. 


Inquisition  (7.1;.)      The  code  of   instructions  issued   by 
Torquemada  in  Spain  in  1484  provided  that  an  accused 
person  might  be  put  to  the  torture  if  semiplena  probatio 
existed  against  the  accused, — that  is,  so  much  evidence  as 
to  raise  a  grave  and  not  merely  a  light  presumption  of 
guilt,  often  used  for  the  evidence  of  one  eye  or  ear  witness 
of  a  fact.      If  the  accused  confessed  during  torture,  and 
afterwards  confirmed  the  confess.,      he  was  punished  as 
convicted  ,  if  he  retracted,  he  was  tortured  again,  or  sub- 
jected to  extraordinary  puuishment.     One  or  two  inquis- 
itors, or  a  commissioner  of  the  Holy  Oflice,  were  bound  to 
be  present  at  every  examination.     Owing  to  the  occurrence 
of  certain  cases  of  abuse  of  torture,  a  decree  of  Philip  II. 
was   issued,    en    IS.'iS,   forbidding   the    administration    of 
torture  without  an  order  from  the  council      But  this  decree 
does  not  appear  to    have    been   fully  observed      By  the 
edict  of  the  inquisitor-general  Valdc^s,  in  \f^%\,  torture  was 
to  he  left  to  the  prudence  and  equity  of  the  judges.     They 
must  consider  motives  and  circumstances  before  decreeing 
torture,  and  must  declare  whether  it  is  to  be  employed  m 
caput  propnum,  i.e.,  to  extort  a  confession,  or  m  caput 
atrnium,  i.e.,  to  incriminate  an  accomplice.     The  accused 
was  not  to  be  informed  of  the  grounds  of  torture.      He 
was  not  to  be  questioned  on  a  particular  fact,  but  was  to 
be  allowed  to  say  what  he  pleased      Torture  was  not  to 
be  decreed  until  the  termination  of  the  process,  and  after 
defence  heard,  and  the  decree  was  subject  to  appeal,  but 
only  in  doubtful  cases,  to  the  Council  of  the  Supreme.     It 
was  also  only  in  doubtful  cases  that  the  inquisitors  were 
bound  to  consult  the  council,  where  the  law  was  clear  (and 
of  this  they  were  the  judges)  there  need  be  no  consultation, 
and  no  appeal  was  allowed.     The  judges,  the  registrar,  and 
the    executioners    were  the   only    persons   allowed  to   be 
present  at  the  torture      They  were  to  be  careful  that  the 
jailer  suggested  nothing  to  the  accused   during  the  tor- 
ture     On   ratification  twenty-four  hours  afterwards  of  a 
confession  made  under  torture,  the  accused  might  be  re- 
conciled, if  the  inquisitors  beheved  him  to  be  sincerely 
repentant      If  convicted  of  bad  faith,  lie  might  be  relaxe(^ 
I.e.,  delivered  to  the  secular  power  to  be   burned.     The 
inquisitors  had  a  discretion  to  allow  the  accused  to  make 
the  canonical    purgation  by    oath  Instead  of    undergoing 
corporal  torture,  but  the  rule  which  allows  this  to  be  done 
at  the  same  time  discountenances  it  as  fallacious.     It  is 
remarkable   that  the   rules  do    not   allow    much    greater 
efficacy  to  torture      They  speak  of  it  almost  in  the  terms 
of  Roman  law  as  dangerous  and  uncertain,  and  depending 
for  Its  effects  on  physical  strength."'     Torture  had  ceased 
to  be  inflicted  before  the  suppression  of  the  Inquisition, 
and  in  1816  a  papal  bull  decreed  that  torture  should  cease, 
that  proceedings  should  be  public,  and  that  the  accuser 
should  be  confronted  with  the   accused."     It  was   still, 
however,  customary  for  the  fiscal,  even  in  the  latest  times. 
to  end  the  requisition  by  demanding  torture  as  a  matter  of 
form.     The  rules  in  themselves  were  not  so  cruel  as  the  con- 
struction put  upon  them  by  the  inquisitors.     For  instance, 
by  Torquemada 's'  instructions  torture  could  not  be  repeated 
unless  in  case  of  retractation      This  led  to  the  subtlety  of 
calling  a  rSnfewed  torture  a  continuation,  and  not  a  repe- 
tition."*   The  rules  of  Torquemada  and  of  Vald^s  are  those 
of  the  greatest  historical  importance,  the  latter  forming 
the  code  of  the  Holy  Office  until  its  suppression,  not  only 

^^  The  rules  will  be  found  in  Llorente's  Hist,  of  the  Inquisition,  cc. 
VI.,  xxii. 

^'  A  case  of  actual  torture  occurred  in  Spain  in  the  case  of  Van 
Haleii,  iu  1817,  in  spite  of  the  papal  bull.  In  South  America,  as  late 
as  1809,  power  to  torture  was  conferred  on  inquisitors  by  the  tliMii 
and  chapter  of  Santiago.  See  Francisco  Moyen,  or  Ute  Inqruisiiion 
in  South  A  merica,  by  B.  V.  M.ackenna  (tranel.  by  J  W  Duffy, 
1869),  p.  217. 

'*  Prescott,  Ferdinand  aiul  tsahella,  vol.  i.  p.  327. 


464 


TORTURE 


in  Spain,  but  in  other  countries  where  the  Inquisition  waa 
established.  But  several  other  codes  of  procedure  existed 
before  the  final  perfection  of  the  system  by  Valdis.  The 
earliest  is  perhaps  tfbe  instruclions  for  inquisitors  (Dirrc- 
torivrn  Inquisitorum)  compiled  a  century  earlier  than 
Torquemada  by  Nicholas  Eymerico,  grand  inquisitor  of 
Aragon  about  1368.'  Rules  of  practice  were  also  framed 
two  centuries  later  by  Simancas,  whose  position  as  an 
apologist  has  been  already  stated.  The  text-book  of  pro- 
cedure of  the  Italian  Inquisition  was  the  Sacro  ArsenaU? 
In  the  Netherlands,  Francis  Van  der  Heist  was  appointed 
inquisitor-general  in  1521,with.authority  to  torture  heretics 
without  observing  the  ordinary  forms  of  law,  and  without 
appeal.^  In  1545  and  1550  instructions  for  the  guidance 
of  inquisitors  were  issued  by  Charles  V.*  The  liability  of 
a  judge  for  exceeding  the  law  was  not  always  recognized 
by  the  Inquisition  to  the  same  extent  as  by  the  lay 
tribunals.  Llorente  gives  an  instance  of  a  warrant  by  an 
inquisitor  to  a  licentiate  ordering  the  torture  of  an  accused 
person,  and  protesting  that,  in  case  of  death  or  fracture  of 
limbs,  the  fact  is  not  to  be  imputed  to  the  licentiate.' 

Thus  far  of  the  law.  i\\  practice  all  the  ingenuity  of 
cruelty  was  exercised -to  find  new  modes  of  torment."' 
These  cruelties  led  at  times  to  remonstrance  from  the  civil 
power.  One  example,  is  the  edict  of  Philip  II.  just 
mentioned.  Another  and  an  earlier  one  is  an  ordonnance 
of  Philip  the  Fair,  in  1302,  bidding  the  Fnquisition  confine 
itself  within  the  limits  of  the  law.^  At  Venice  the  senate 
decreed  that  three  senators  should  be  present  as  inquisitors. 
Further  details  of  the  varieties  of  torture  will  be  found,  by 
those  curious  in  such  matters,  in  the  works  of  Llorente, 
Herculano- (.history  of  Ihi  Inquisition  in  Portugal),  Motley, 
Garrido  and  Cayley,  and  Picart,  to  which  may  be  added 
works  giving  acBounts  of  the  sufferings  of  individuals 
under  the  Inquisition,  such  as  the  narrative  of  the  suffer- 
ings of  William  Lilhgow  at  Malaga  in  1622  and  of  Van 
Halen  in  1817,  and  (in  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
colonies)  the  capes  of  Francisco  Moyen  in  Chili, -and  of 
Dellon  at  Ooa  in  1673.^  Mental  torture  may  be  exempli- 
fied by  Excommunication  {q.v.),  and  by  the  secrecy  and 
uncertainty  of  the  proceedings  of  the  inquisitors. 

As  the  practice  of  torture,  both  by  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  power,  became  more  systematized,  it  grew  to 
be  the  subject  of  casuistical  inquiry  by  churchmen,  to  an 
Sxtent  far  exceeding  the  scanty  discussion  of  the  question 
in  the  text  of  the  canon  law.  It  will  be  sutficient  here  to 
cite  as  an  example  the  treatment  of  it  by  Liguori,  who 
incorporates  the  opinions  of  many  of  the  Spanish  casuists. 
On  the  whole,  his  views  appear  to  be  more  humane  than  the 
prevailing  practice.  The  object  of  torture  he  defines  very 
neatly  as  being  to  turn  semiplena  into  plena  probatio.  For 
this  proper  indicia  are  necessary.  He  then  proceeds 
to  decide  certain  questions  which  had  arisen;  the  most 
interesting  of  which  deal  with  the  nature  of  the  sin  of 
vfhich  the  accused  and  the  judge  are  guilty  in  particular 
instances,     A  judge  sins  gravely  if  he  does  not  attempt  all 

'  An  edition  wts  published  at  Rome  in  1658,  and  a  compendiara 
«t  Lisbon  in  1762.  and  by  Marchena  at  Montpellier  iu  1821, 

•  The  only  editioa  which  the  writer  has  seen  is  dated  Gfinoa  and 
Perugia,  1653. 

'  Motley,  Dutch  Republic,  voL  i.  p.  528. 
'  III.,  p.  329,  =  Llorente,  c.  xiv. 

■  '  Among  others  were  the  gradual  pouring  of  water,  drop  by  drop  on 
%  particular  spot  of  the  body,  the  iormento  de  toca,  or  pouring  of 
water  into  a  g.iuze  bag  in  the  throat,  which  gradually  forced  the  gauze 
Into  the  stomach,  and  the  phulola,  or  swineing  pendulum,  eo  graphi- 
ially  described  in  one  of  Edgar  Poe's  tales. 
" ,  '  OrdonnancfS  dcs  Rois,  vol.  i.  p.  346. 

*  The  history  of  Dellon's  narrative  of  his  experiences  in  the  prison 
df  the  Inquisition  is  remarkable.  It  was  translated  into  English  in 
1688  by  (he  Rev.  R.  Wharton,  a  chaplain  of  /irchbishop  Saocroft, 
but  was  refused  a  licence,  as  being  contrary  to  the  king's  religion,  and 
the  publisher  was  imprisoned. 


milder  means  of  discovering  truth  befcve  resorting  to  tor- 
ture. He  sins  in  a  criminal  cause,  or  in  one  of  notable 
infamy,  if  he  binds  the  accused  by  oath  tp  tell  the  tr\)tb 
before  there  is  proof  against  him.  It  is  the  same  if  with- 
out'oath  he  uses  threats,  terror,  or  exhibition  of  torments 
to  confound  the  witness.'  If  any  one,  to  avoid  grave 
torments,  charges  himself  with  a  capital  crime,  he  does  not 
sin  mortally."'  It  was  a  doubtful  question  whether  he 
sinned  gravely  in  such  a  case. 

-England. — It  is  the  boast  of  the  common  law  of 
England  that  it  never  recognized,  torture  as  legal.  One, 
perhaps  the  chief,  reason  for  this  position  taken  by  the  law 
is  the  difference  of  the  nature  of  the  procedure  in  criminal 
cases  from  that  in  general  use  in  Continental  countries. 
To  use  words  more  familiar  in  foreign  jurisprudence,  the 
English  system  is  accusatorial  as  distinguished  from 
inquisitorial.  The  common  law  of  England  has  always 
shown  itself  averse  to  the  inquisitorial  system,  and  so  (at 
least  in  theory)  to  the  torture  which  may  |je  regarded  as 
an  outcome  of  the  system  whose  one  end  was- to  obtain  a 
confession  from  the  accused.  The  tendency  of  the  small 
amount  of  statute  law  bearing  on  the  subject  is  in  the 
same  direction.  It  was  provided  by  Magna  Charta,  §  20, 
"that  no  free  man  .  .  .  .  %  should  be  destroyed  in  any 
way  unless  by  legal  judgment  of  his  equals  or  by  the  law 
of  the  land."  On  this  Sir  E.. Coke  comments,  "  No  man 
destroyed,  <Sic.,  that  is,  forejudged  of  life  or  limb,  dis- 
inherited, or  put  to  torture  or  death."""  The  Act  of  27 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  4  enacted  that,  owing  to  the  frequent  escape 
of  pirates  in  trials  by  the  civil  law,  "  the  nature  whereof 
is  that  before  any  judgment  of  death  can  be  given  against 
the  offenders  they  must  plainly  confess  their  offence  (which 
they  will  never  do  without  torture  or  pains),"  such  persons 
should  be  tried  by  jury  before  commissioners  under  the 
Great  Seal.  Finally,  the  Bill  of  Rights  provided  that  cruel 
and  unusual  punishments  ought  not  to  be  inflicted.  The 
opinions  of  the  judges  have  been  invariably  against  torture 
in  theory,  however  much  some  of  them  may  have  been  led 
to  countenance  it  in  practice.  The  strongest  authority  is 
the  resolution  of  the  judges  in  Felton's  case  (1628),  "  that 
he  ought  not  by  the  law  to  be  tortured  by  the  rack,  for  no' 
such  punishment  is  known  or  allowed  by  our  law."  '^  in 
accordance  with  this  are  the  opinions  of  Sir  John 
Fortescue,"  Sir  Thomas  Smith,i«  ^nd  Sir  E.  Coke.  The 
latter  says,^"  As  there  is  no  law  to  warrant  tortures  in 
this  land,  nor  can  they  be  justified,  by  any  prescription, 
being  so  lately  brought  in."  '^  In  spite  of  all  this  torture 
in  criminal  proceedings  was  inflicted  in  England  with  more' 
or  less  frequency  for  some  centuries,  both  as  a  means  of 
obtaining  evidence  and  as  a  part  of  the  punishment.  But 
it  should  be  remarked  that  torture  of  the  former  kind  waa 
invariably  ordered  by  the  crown  or  council,  or  by  some 
tribunal  of  extraordinary  authority,  such  as  the  Star 
Chamber,  not  professing  to  be  bound  by  the  rules  of  the 
common  law.  In  only  two  instances  was  a  warrant  to 
torture  issued  to  a  common  law  judge. '^ 

A  licence  to  torture  is  found  as  early  as  the  Pipe  Roll 
of  34  Hen.  11.'^  The  Templars  (see  Templars)  were 
tortured  in  1310  by  royal  warrant  addressed  to  the  mayor 


9  Theol.  Mot.,  bk.  ix.  §  202.         '»    §  274.  "  2  InsL,  486. 

"  3  State  Trials,  371.  "  De  Laudibus  Le^m  Anglix,  c.  22. 

"  Commontixalth  of  England,  bk.  ii.  c.  27.  It  is  curious  that  Sir 
T.  Smith,  with  all  his  hatred  of  torture,  was  directed  by  a  warrant 
under  the  queen's  scil  alone  (not  through  the  council)  to  torture  tho 
duke  of  Norfolk's  servants  in  1571.  In  a  letter  to  Lord  Buruhley  he 
plc.ided  for  exemption  from  so  thankless  a  task. 

"  3  Inst.,  35.  Nevertheless,  in  the  trial  of  Lords  Essex  and  South- 
ampton, Coke  is  found  extolling  the  queen's  mercy  for  not  racking  or 
torturing  the  accused,  1  State  Trials,  1338. 

"  Jaixline,  licking  on  the  Cm  of  Tnrtvre  in,  the  CntiUnat  Lav  oj 
England  (1837),  p.  62.  '  ' 

"  Pike,  Hist.  <ijf  Crime  t«  England,  vol.  i.  p.  427^ 


TORTURE 


465 


ftnd  shi-rifas  of  London.  To  this  case  it  is  recorded  that 
torture  was  unknown  in  England,  and  that  no  torturer  was 
to  b«  foufld  in  the  realm.^  A  commission  was  issued  con- 
cerning the  turtures  at  Newgate  in  1334.'  The  rack  in 
the  Tower  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  b>  the  duke  of 
Exeter  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and  to  have  been  thence 
called  ■•  the  duke  of  Exeter's  daughter. "  *  In  this  reign 
torture  seems  \o  have  taken  its  place  as  a  part  of  what  may 
be  called  extraordinary  criminal  procedure,  claimed,  and 
it  miy  be  said  tacitly  recognized,  as  exercisable  by  virtue 
of  the  prerogative,  and  continued  in  use  down  Ui  1640' 
The  iolliclion  of  torture  gradually  became  more  common 
under  the  Tudor  tnonarchs  Under  Ueory  VIII  it  appears 
to  have  been  in  frc<iuent  use  Only  two  case.-!  are  rtcocJcd 
under  Edward  VI  .  and  t-ight  under  Mary  ••  The  reign  ol 
Elizabeth  was  its  cjluunating  point-  !o  the  words  of 
Hallam,  "the  rack  M-ldum  stood  idle  in  the  Tower  for  all 
the  latter  pan  of  Elizabeth's  reign  "'  The  varieties  of 
torture  used  at  this  period  are  fully  described  by  Dr 
Lingard,'  and  consisted  of  the  rack,  the  scaven^ei'i 
dau^'hter,'  the  irou  gauntlets  or  bilboes,  and  the  cell 
called  "  Little  Ease."  The  registers  of  the  council  during 
the  Tudor  and  early  Stuart  reigns  are  full  of  entries  as  to 
the  u.se  of  torture,  both  for  state  and  for  orduiar)  vfiFences  '" 
Ajnong  notable  prisoners  put  to  the  torture  were  Anne 
Ascue,  the  Jesuit  Campion,  Ojy  Fawkes,"  and  Peachain 
(who  was  examined  by  Bacon  "  before  torture,  in  torture, 
and  after  torture").''^  The  prevalence  of  torture  lu 
Elizabeth's  reign  led  to  the  well-known  defence  attributed 
to  Lord  Burghley,  "A  declaration  of  the  favourable  dealing 
of  Her  Majesty's  commissioners  appointed  for  the  exannn 
ation  of  certain  traitors,  and  of  tortures  unjustly  reported 
to  bo  done  upon  them  for  matter  of  religion."  {."iSS  '^ 
The  use  of  torture  in  England  being  always  of  an  extra- 
ordinary and  extrajudicial  nature,  it  b  comparatively 
certain  that  it  could  hardly  have  been  applied  with  that 
observation  of  forms  which  existed  in  countries  where  it 
was  regulated  by  law.  There  were  no  rules  and  no  re- 
sponsibility beyond  the  will  of  the  crown  or  council  This 
irresponsibility  is  urged  by  Seldou  '<  as  a  strong  objection 
'o  the  use  of  torture. 

So  far  of  what  may  be  called  torture  proper,  to  which 
the  common  law  professed  itself  a  stranger  There  were, 
however,  cases  fully  recognized  by  the  common  law  wbicb 
differed  from  torture  only  in  name  The  print  forte  ft 
dure  was  a  notable  example  of  this  If  a  prisoner  stood 
mule  of  malice  instead  of  pleading,  he  was  condemned  to 
the  peine,  that  is,  to  be  stretched  upon  his  back  and  to 
have  Iron  laid  upon  him  as  much  as  be  could  bear,  and 
more,  and  so  to  continue,  fed  upon  bad  bread  and  stagnant 
watc  through  alternate  days  until  he  pleaded  or  died  "    It 

>  Rymer,  Focdrra.  vol    iii    228.  HI 

*  Hallaai.  UuldU  Ayea.  vol  ui.  p   232 

'   Pike,  vol.  i    p    481  •  3  Injt  .  34. 

'  This  I*  iho  ddte  of  iba  iate:)t  wimini  In  Mi  Jinline  9  worli 

*  It  IS  to  be  uoticed.  a.-  Mi  Janliut;  .»b.^erves,  that  aJl  thp^e  «re 
case^  of  an  oritinary  nalare,  and  allDrd  uc  ground  foi  the  issBrtion? 
madfi  by  Strutt  and  I^idho)-  Buj-i-^l  that  innun;  was  u^ed  to  bcretJ''« 
ts  heretics.  Cnst    Hisl  .  voi    1    p   201 

*  //w£   of  SngtaTia,  vol    vin  .  «p|,«>n'li«.  note  v. 

.*  These  two  were  exa<ll>  ipposltcui  pnm-iple.  The  racU  stretched 
the  liQili$  of  the  suflerct  .  the  scaveuijer'a  daugb  er  compressM  bin* 
into  A  ball. 

'"  Fifty-Hve  of  these  will  n«  found  lu  the  ippetitit  to  Mr  JanHoe* 
work  An  ordinary  robber  of  plate  was  threate  led  with  lorturu  to 
1567. -FVoudo,  Hist,  u/  Engla;4,  vol    'Mi   p   386 

'*  It  U  not  certain  whether  he  wa*  mtked,  bLl  probably  he  was. 
to  accorilance  with  the  king  -  letter  — "  II  be  wi  1  not  otherwisp  con- 
feas.  the  gpiitleMt  tortures  arc  to  be  fir-it  itsed  Uj  aim,  and  (to  on.  step 
by  step,  to  the  Di'->st  severp,  and  so  Giwl  -ipeed  the  good  work." 

*'  Dalryuiple,  Memoirs  and  L^ii^rs  of  Jamf-"  /. .  D-  ^8  ,  MacAnlav'a 
E9£tty  on  the  Work.-*  of  Bacon. 

"  Lord  Somers's  Trcuis,  vol    1    p.  189  '*    Table  Tadt.  "  Triat 

■»  Slepbeu.  Jltxi    o/Ui£  Criminal  Lav.,  vol    L  j.   i9'- 

25— W 


was  abolished  by  1 2  Geo  1 1 1  c.  20  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  2( 
enacted  that  a  plea  of  "  not  guilty  "  shoild  be  entered  foi 
a  prisoner  so  standing  mute  A  case  of  pnue  ticcurred 
a,-,  lately  as  172G  At  tinitj.s  t)iMg  the  thumbs  «ilh  whip- 
cord was  used  instead  ol  the  /Hint.  This  was  said  to  be  a 
..oranion  practice  at  the  Old  Uuiluy  up  to  the  la.st  century.'* 
In  trials  for  witclicrafl  tlic  legal  pruceediiigs  often  partook 
of  the  nature  of  torture,  as  in  the  tbruiMng  of  the  reputed 
witib  i.ito  a  pond  tu  .see  wlielliec  she  «wuld  sink  or  swim, 
111  diaw.iig  her  blood,''  iind  in  ihiusliiig  pins  into  the  body 
to  try  tu  find  the  insensible  spot  Colli  ssions,  too,  appear 
to  h.nv  "iciti  tilten  e.xturled  by  actual  torture,  and  luilure 
ol  an  unusual  nature,  as  llie  devil  was  suppu.-ed  to  piolert 
bis  voUiries  fiuiii  ihr  itlei  ts  ol  urdiiiaij  torture. 

Torture  as  a  part  ol  the  puiusLiiient  existed  In  fact,  il 
uot  in  name,  down  to  a  veiy  recent  period  Mutilation 
as  a  punishment  appears  in  sonic  of  the  pre  Compiest 
codes,  such  as  those  ol  Allied,  Ailielstan.  and  Canute. 
Bracton,  »ho  does  not  notice  toiiuie  as  a  means  of  nbtaiQ- 
ing  evidence,  divides  corjiural  puiiisbiiient  into  that  iiiHicted 
with  and  without  torture  '"  Later  instances  are  the  punish- 
ment of  burning  to  death  inlluled  on  heretics  under  the 
Six  Articles  (31  Hen  VI II  c.  11)  and  other  Acts,  and  oo 
women  for  petit  treason  (abolished  by  3U  Ceo.  111.  c  48), 
the  mutilation  indicted  for  v^jleiMe  in  a  ro)al  palace  by 
33  Hen  VIII  c.  12,  the  puni^linient  for  high  trea.son, 
whiih  e.xisted  nominally  until  1870  (^e<i  Ti:laso.n),  the 
pillory  (abolished  by  7  Wdl  IV  and  1  Vict  c.  23),  the 
stocks,  and  the  burning  in  the  hand  for  felony  (abolished 
by  19  Geo  III.  c  74)  Corporal  punishment  now  tsista 
only  if  the  case  of  juvenile  oDeiiders  (see  ScmmaRV 
JuRisuiCTlo.N)  and  of  robbery  with  violence  (see  Thlft). 
It  was  abolished  in  the  army  by  the  Army  Act,  1881. '^ 

Scotland. — Torture  was  lon^  a  reco'Tii^ed  part  of  Scottish  criiiiinaJ 
procedure,  and  wjsat  knotvli-d^rd  a-^su-  li  by  inauy  All^aud  warrants 
of  the  Scottish  [xirUaiueut,  aifl  *  jjidots  ol  the  crown  and  llie  [»»ivy 
coiiucil.  Some  ol  the  more  iuj[>ori;tnt  in^iaiices  uie  the  tolIo'« ing. 
Ill  1542  the  foifeiluie  of  Jobij.  bold  OLtnifnis,  was  reduccil  b)  the 
parliaUR'tit  as  having  prori-eiletl  oii  a  confession  eMorted  by  threats 
ol  the  "  pyuebankis."  hi  15b7  lour  pi-r-.ou3  were  ordered  by  the 
Privy  Council  to  be  lorlured  foi  coniptidiy  in  Dainley's  murder  *• 
In  1591  a  coDimission  issufd  I<)  lortjie  ceit-iin  |K;rsons  aicused  of 
witvhcrafl.^'  Janit's  VI.,  in  1596.  em poweied  the  provost  and  bai lies 
ol  Eiiiaburgh  to  try  rioters  by  torture.  lUt  torture  waa  ufiplied 
to  Rhynd  in  16UU,  on  a  clijr;;e  of  licing  privy  to  ihe  Go*rie  Houso 
conspiracy,"  Two  Acts  in  16-1'J  .loali  with  torture:  one  took  the 
forru  of  a  warrant  to  examine  witnesseit  against  Wilhara  Barton  by 
any  form  of  probjiion,*-'  the  other  of  a  wairant  to  a  corn  milt  eo  to 
impure  as  to  the  use  oriorturi-  again>t  peisous  suspected  ol  witch- 
craft-"* lu  16r»0  the  parliart<*-ui  «,rdjiiied  ilie  committer  apjKnnted 
for  the  e.xamiiiation  of  prisoners  to  intimate  to  Colonel  Sibbald 
that  if  his  exannn.^tioii  »eie  nut  s.ilisfacioiy  the  parliament  woidd 
ord  iiu  him  to  be  lorlured  Thejudges.  in  1689,  were  empowered 
by  the  estales  lo  torture  Chrcsly  of  Dalrye,  charged  with  the 
niurdei  of  the  Lord  Presiderii  Loikhart,  in  order  ti'  di.<:covcr  ac- 
Cornplires.  In  the  same  year.  llie  use  of  torture  vxilliout  evidence 
or  to  ordinary  cases  wa.--  tlei  lared  illegal  in  the  Ctain;  of  Kight. 
The  Careful  wording  of  Ihls  will  be  outiccd:  It  does  not  object  tH 
toitore  Mliogi-ihei.  but  rest  rvc.1  it  for  ca.«esi  where  a  bajis  ol 
evidence  had  already  Iteen  laid,  and  for  crmies  of  great  gravity, 
thu.-»  .idrirtling  the  dangerous  jirimijile,  founded  on  Human  law, 
ihal  llie  imi-Mi.irice  of  the  crime  is  a  reason  for  deparritig  from  the 
ordiii-iry  rules  of  justice  However  great  the  crime,  ii  is  no  mors 
certain  llian  in  I  he  cose  of  a  crime  of  less  gravity  that  Ihe  person 
acriisetl  wa.-  the  pirsori  whi-  cotiimillcd  it  A  warrant  issued  in 
the  jitnie  year  to  put  to  I  be  tfTture  certain  persons  accused  of  con- 
spiring iig.iiust  th"-  CovemmenI,  nnd-^lso  ceit^im  dragoons  suspected 
of  eiirres|ion.ling  with  Lord  Dundee  In  1690  an  Act  pa-wed  recit- 
ing ihu  torture  ol   William  Carstures,  »  ruinistei.  in  1683,  and  re- 

'•  Stephen,  vol    i.  p   300,  Keljiig,  Reports,  p.  27. 

"  Tlie  superstitiou  was  llial  any  one  dniwing  a  witch'*  Mood  «"i: 
free  from  her  power.  Thiji  is  alluded  to  in  Henry  V/  ,  pi  i  act  t. 
fie  5 ,  "  blood  will  1  draw  ou  thee  .  tbou  art  a  xvitch. " 

'»  104*.  '»  44  Viei   c.  »   8  7. 

•>  Regtstn  »/  thr  P-vay  CimrfrU    v-d    1.  p    525. 

"  Itnd  .  vol   iv    p   680.  "  /tirf.,  vol   vl    ^  166 

"  -  »R3.  "  c.  370 

X)4eiL  -  S9 


466 


TORTURE 


establishing  his  competchcy  as  a  witness. '  The  la«t  rtarrant  appears 
to  be  one  in  1690  for  torturing  a  man  accused  of  ra^/e  and  murder. 
In  1703  torture  in  Scotland  was  finally  abolished  bj  7  Anne  c  21, 
■§  5  Many  details  of,  the  tortures  inflicted  will  be  found  in 
Pitcairu's  Crimnud  Trials  and  the  introduction  to  Maclaurin's 
Crimiital  Cases  Among  other  varieties— the  nature  of  some  of 
them  can  only  be  guessed — v/ero  the  rack,  the  pilnie\^nkis,  the 
boot,'  the  caschie-laws,  the  lang  iniis,  the  narrow- bore,  aad,  worst 
of  all,  the  waking,  or  artificial  prevention  of  sleep.^  The  ingenuity 
of  torture  was  exercised  in  a  special  degree  on  charges  of  witchcraft, 
iiotably  in  the  reign  of  James  VI.,  an  expert  both  in  witchcraft  and 
in  torture  The  Act  of  1649  already  cited  shows  that  the  prin- 
ciple survived  hira  Under  the  government  of  the  dukes  of 
Lauderdale  and  York  torture  as  a  practice  in  charges  of  religious 
and  political  offences  reached  its  height.  "The  privy  counciTwas 
accus'toioed  to  extort  confessions  by  torture  ;  that  grim  divan  of 
bishops,  lawyers,  and  peers  sucking  in  the  groans  of  each  undaunted 
enthusiast,  in  hope  that  some  imperfect  avowal  might  lead  to  the 
sacrifice  of  other  victims,  or  at  least  warrant  the  execution  of  the 
present"*  With  such  examples  before  them  in  the  law,  it  is 
scarcely  to  be  wondered  at  that  persons  m  positions  of  authority, 
especially  the  nobility,  sometimes  exceeded  the  law  and  inflicted 
torture  at  their  own  will  and  for  their  own  purposes  There  are 
several  instances  in  the  register  of  the  privj  council  of  suits 
against  such  persons,  e.g.,  against  the  earl  of  Orkney,  in  1605.  for 
putting  a  son  of  Sir  Patrick  Bellenden  in  the  boots. 

Irelntid  seems  to  have  enjoyed  a  comparative  immunity  from 
torture  It  was  not  recognized  by  the  common  or  statute  law,  and 
the  cases  of  its  infliction  do  not  appear  to  be  numerous  In  1566 
the  president  and  council  of  Munster,  or  any  three  of  them,  were 
empowered  to  inflict  torture,  "in  cases  necessary,  upon  vehement 
presumption  ot  any  great  ofTence  in  any  party  committed  against 
the  Queen's  Majesty"'  In  1583  Hurley,  an  Irish  priest,  was 
tortured  in  Dublin,  by  "  toasting  his  feet  against  the  fire  with  hot 
boots  ""  In  the  case  of  Myagh,  in  15S1,  the  accused  was  brought 
■over  Irom  Ireland  by  command  of  the  lord  deputy  to  be  tortured 
in  tlie  Tower'  In  1615  one  O'Kenuan  was  put  to  the  rack  in 
Dublin  by  virtue  of  the  lord  deputy's  commission  "  In  1527  the 
lord  deputy  doubted  whether  he  had  authority  to  put  a  priest 
named  O'Ciillenan  to  the  rack  An  answer  was  returned  by  Lord 
Killultagh  to  the  eflect  that  "you  ought  to  rack  him  if  you  saw 
cause  and  hang  him  if  you  found  reasou  "* 

Briiish  Colonies  and  Dependencies.  —The  infliction  of  torture  in  any 
British  colony  or  dependency  has  usually  been  regarded  as  contrary 
to  law  and  ordered  only  by  arbitrary  authority  It  is  true  that  in 
the  trial  of  Sir  Thomas  Victon  in  1806,  for  subjecting,  while  governor 
of  Trinidad,  a  woman  named  Luisa  Calderon  to  the  torture  of  the 
picnuet,'"  one  of  the  grounds  of  defence  was  that  such  torture  was 
authorized  by  the  Spanish  law  ot  the  island,  but  the  accused  was 
convicted  in  spite  of  this  defence,  and  the  final  decision  of  the 
Oouit  of  King's  Bench,  inl812,  decreeing  a  respite  of  the  defendant's 
recognizances  till  further  order,  was  perhaps  not  so  much  aii 
affirmation  of  the  legality  in  the  particular  instance  as  the  practical 
expression  of  a  wish  to  spare  an  eminent  public  servant  "  As  to 
India  the  second  charge  against  Warren  Hastings  was  extortion 
from  the  begums  of  Oude  by  means  of  the  torture  of  their  servants 
In  the  present  Indian  Penal  Code  and  Evidence  Act  there  are  pro- 
visions intended,  as  Sir  James  Stephen  says."  to  prevent  the 
practice  of  torture  by  the  police  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  con- 
fessions from  persons  in  their  custodv  "  In  Ceylon  torture,  which 
had  been  allowed  under  the  Dutch  government,  was  expressly 
abolished  by  royal  proclamation  in  1799 

Uwled  States  —One  instance  of  the  peine  forU  et  dure  is  known. 
It  was  inflicted  in  1692  on  Giles  Cory  of  Salem,  who  refused  to 
plead  when  arraigned  for  witchcraft"  The  constitution  of  the 
UniteJ  States  provides,  in  the  words  of  the  Bill  of  Ri"hts,  that 
cru»l  and  unusual  punishments  are  not  to  be  inflicted  '«  This  is 
repeated  m  the  constitutions  of  most  States.  The  infliction  of  cruel 
and  unusual  punishment  by  the  master  or  officer  of  an  American 
vessel  on  the  high  seas,  or  within  the  maritime  junsdiction  of  the 
United  States,  is  punishable  with  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both 


1  The  llmmljacrcw  with  whioh  Carsturer  had  been  tortured  wu  afterwards 
orcscnled  to  lilm  as  a  remcmbranca  by  the  P.rivy  CouocU.  ...  .    ^ 

•  Persons  subjected  to  more  than  usual  torture  from  the  t»ot  were  said  to  be 

'  This  seems  to  have  been  used  In  one  case  Id  'England  Lccliy,  Riatonaliim 
in  Europe,  vol.  1.  p.  IM.  „       «..  ,   > 

«  lUllam,  Conil.  //(<(,  vol.  III.  p.  4.16  See  Doniet,  Uili.  oj  Oxen  Time.  vol.  I. 
p.  £83,  and  ScOTLxiib.  vol.  111.  p.  616 

»  Froode,  ^i>l.  o/finjtowf,  vol.  vill   p.  386  «  /Mi.,  vol.  xl.  p.  263. 

'  Janline,  p.  29.  '  Cal  Stole  Paferl  (Irish  aeries.  1616-1625),  p.  78. 

•  Jardine.  p.  64. 

10  In  (he  picquot  the  sufferer  was  supported  only  on  the  great  toe  (which  rested 

on  0  sharp  sukcl,  and  by  a  rope  attaclied  to  one  ann. 
"  30  Slatt  Trial).  Wi.  _ 

"  See  the  Report  ot  the  Proceedlncs.  vol.  1..  and  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Warren 

fl«8tlnR».  13  Stephen,  Indian  Evidence  AeX,  p.  126 

"«  §5  327-831  of  Code ;  {J  25-27  of  Act. 
!•  Elouvler,  Late  Diet.,  e.v.  "Peine  Forte  et  Dure.' 
M  AmeodmenM.  Art.  vld.  l'  Recited  Slat..  {  63« 


ConCinmtal  Slm''S. — The  priocjplej  of  Roman  iiw  were  gmprally 
adopted.     'Want  of  spaco  unfortunately  prevents  a  detailed  exami- 
nation of  the  law  cf  other  countries,  but  that  of  It.dy  may  fiiirly 
he  taken  as  the  type"  of  a  system  which  rrachcd  at  its  maturity  a 
certain  revolting  corapi«teness  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  speak  \»itli 
patieace.     The  law  as  ijexisted  in  Italy  is  contained  in  a  Ion*;  line 
of  authorities,  chiefly  su^splied  by  tfc«  school  of  Bologna,  beginning 
with  the  ghssatores  &nd  cstning  down  tbroufi;b  the  posl-ght^torcy, 
until   the   sj'stem  attained    its    perfection   id    the   vnst    woik    of 
Farinaccius,  written  early  in  the  17th  century,  where  every  pos- 
sible question  that  could  ari^  is  treated  wi:h  elaborate  crinuteiiesa. 
The  writings  of  jurists  were  supplemented  by  a  large  body  of  legis- 
lative enactments  in  most  of  the  Italian  staies,  extending  from  the 
constitutions  of  the  emperor  Frederick  11-  do-wn  to  the  last: century. 
It  is  not  until  Bartolas  (1314-1367)  that  the  law  begins  t»  assume 
a  definite  and  complete  form.     In  bis  ccmmcntary  on  bocic  xlviii. 
of  the  Digest  he  follows  Roman  law  closely,  but  JDtrodur«s  some 
further  refinements;    e.g.,  though  leading  qiBestioos  may-  not  bo 
asked  in  the  main  inquiry  they  are  admissible  as  subsidiary.    There 
is  a  beginning  of  classification  cf  indicia.     A  very  full  diccnssion 
of  the  law  is  contained  in  the  vfork  on  practice  of  Hippolytus  de 
Marsiliis,^^  a  jjirist  of  Bologna,  notorious,  on  hi&  ows  admission,  aa 
the  inventor  of  the  torture  of  keeping  without  sleep.     He  defines 
the  question  as  iuguisitio  veritatic  per  tomicnta  ot  cordis  dclorcTTtf 
thus  recognizing  the  mental  as  well  as  the  physical  elements  in 
torture.    It  was  to  be  used  only  in  capital  cases  and  atr«ious  crimes. 
The  works  of  Fariuaccius  and  of  Julius  Ciarus  neady  a  ccatury 
later  were  of  great  authority  from  the  high  official  positions  filled 
by  the  writers.    Farinaccius  was  procurator- gMieral  to  Pope  Paul  V., 
and  his  discussion  cf  torture  is  one  of  the  most  complete  of  amy.'* 
It  occupies  251  closely  printed  foljo  pages  mth  double  columns. 
The  length  at  which  the  subject  is  treated  is  one  of  the  best  proofs 
of  the  science  to  which  it  had  been  reduced.     The  ahi«f  feature  of 
the  work  is  the   minute   and  skilful   analysis  of  indicm,  fama, 
prxsumplio,  and  other  technical  terms.   Many  definitions  oUndimum 
are  suggested,  the  best  perhaps  being  conjectura  sx prctiabilibns  einou 
nccejSariis  orta,  a  quibus  potest  abesse  Veritas  scd  jion  verisimili'Mdo. 
For  every  infliction  of  torture  a  distinct  iiuficium  is  required.     But 
this   rule   does   not  apply  where   it   is   inflicted   (or  discovonng 
accomplices  or  for  discovering  a  crime  other  than  that  for  which  it 
was  originally  inflicted.     Torture  may  be  ordered  io  all  crinrinal 
cases,  except  small  ofl'ences,  and  in  certain  civil  cases,  such  as 
denial  of  a  depositum,  bankruptcy,  usury,  treasure  trove,  and  fiscal 
cases      It  may  be  inflicted  on  all  persons,  unless  specially  exempted 
(clergy,  minors,  &c.),  and  even  those  exempted  may  be  tortured 
by  command  of  the  sovereign      There  aro  thi«e  kiads  of  torture, 
Icvis,  grans,  and  gravissima,  the  first  and  second  correspondiag  to 
the  ordinary  torture  of  French  writers,  the  last  to  the  extraordinary. 
The  extraordinary  or  gravissima  was  as  much  as  could  possibly  bs 
borne  without  destroying  life.     An  immense  variety  of  tortures  is 
mentioned,  the  most  usual  being  the  tying  of  one  hand  only  with 
the  cord      The  judge  could  not  begin-  with  torture  ;  it  was  only 
a  subsidium      If  inflicted  without  due  course  of  law,  it  was  void 
as  a  proof      The  judge  was  liable  to  ]>enalties  if  he  tortured  without 
proper  indicia,  if  a  privileged  person,  or  if  to  the  extent  that  death 
or  "permanent  illness  was  the  result.     An  immense  variety  of  tor 
tures  is  mentioned,  and  the  list  tended  to  grow,  for,  as  Farinac- 
cius says,  judges   continually  invented  new   modes  of  torture  to 
please  themselves      Numerous  casuistical  questions  are  trtated  at 
length      Could  a  priest  reveal  an  acknowledgment  of  an  intended 
crime  made  to  him  in  confession  ?    What  kinds  of  reports  or  how 
much  hearsay  evidence  constituted  fame?     How  far  was  a  con- 
fession allowed  to  be  extorted  by  blandishments  or  false  promises- 
on  the  part  of  the  judge  ?    Were  there  three  or  five  grades  ill 
torture!    Julius  Ciarus  of  Alessandria  was  a  member  of  the  council 
of  Philip  II  *>    Toagreat  extent  he  follows  Farinaccius.     He  put» 
the  questions  for  the  consideration  of  the  judge  with  great  clear- 
ness.    They  are— whether  (1)  a  crime  has   been  committed,   (2) 
the  charge  is  one  in  which  torture  is  admissible,  (3)  the  fact  can 
be  proved  otherwise,  (!)  the  crime  was  secret  or  open,  (5)  the  object 
of  the   torture   is   to  elicit   confession  of  crime  or  discovtry  of 
accomplices.     He  admits  the  tremendous  power  given  to  a  judge  of 
torturing  a  witness  should  he  suspect  that  the  latter  knows  the 
truth  and  is  concealing  it.     An  accuser  may  not  be  racked  with 
the  accused   in  order  to  test  his  sincerity      The   clergy  can  be 
tortured   only  in  charges  of  treason,  poisoning,  and  violation  of 
tombs.     On   the   great  question  whether   there  are  throe  or  five 
grades,  ht  decides  in  favour  of  five,  viz,,  threats,  taking  to  the 
place  of  torment,  stripjiing  and  binding,  lifting  on  tho  rack,  rack, 
ing.     Other  Italian  writers  of  less  eminence  have  been  referred  to 
for  the  purposes  of  this  article.     The  burden  of  their  writings  is 
practically  the  same,  but  they  have  not  attained  the  systematic 
perfection  of  Farinaccius.     Citations  from  many  of  them  are  made 
by  Manzoni  (see  below).     Among  others  are  Guido  de  Suzara,  Paris 

IB  Praclica  Oiminalil  qux  Acerotda  nuntupalur,  Venice.  1632 

10  PraiU  el  Tiieoriea  Cnminalii,  bk.  li.  lit.  v.  QUKSt.  36-61.  Frankfort,  1633 

**  Piaettca  Criminatii  Finalii,  Lyons,  1637. 


T  0  R  — T  O  T 


467 


lie  Puteo.  Jigidius  Boasios  of  Milan,  Casonns  of  Venice,  Deciantu, 
Foilsrios,  and  TnnquiUus  Ambrosianos,  whose  works  cover  the 
perifJ  from  the  13th  to  the  end  of  the  17th  century  The  law 
depended  mainly  on  the  writings  of  the  jurists  as  interpreters 
of  custom.  At  the  same  time  in  all  or  nearly  all  the  Italian 
states  the  customary  law  was  Umited,  supplemented,  or  amended 
by  legislation  That  a  check  by  legislative  authonty  was  neces- 
sary appeal  from  the  glimpses  afforded  by  the  writings  of  the 
jurists  thst  the  letter  of  the  law  was  by  no  means  always  fol- 
lowed '  The  earliest  legislation  after  the  Roman  law  seems  to 
be  the  constitutious  of  Uie  emperoi  Frederick  11,  for  Sicily  pro- 
tnnlgaied  in  123] 

Se^reral  instances  of  the  torture  of  eminent  persons  occur  in 
Italian  history  The  histoncal  cas«  of  the  greatest  literary  interest 
la  that  of  the  persons  accused  of  bnnging  the  plague  into  Milan 
tn  1630  by  smeanng  the  walls  of  houses  with  poison.  An  analysis 
of  the  case  was  undertaken  by  Vern '  and  Maozoni,'  and  puts  in  a 
dear  light  some  of  the  abuses  to  which  the  system  led  in  times 
of  popular  panic  Convincing  arguments  are  urged  by  Manzoni, 
after  an  eTh^.usrive  review  of  the  authorities,  to  prove  the  ground- 
lessness of  the  charge  on  which  two  innocent  persons  underwent 
the  torture  of  the  canapt,  or  hempen  cord  (the  effect  of  which  was 
partial  or  complete  dislocation  of  the  wnst),  and  afterwards  suffered 
death  by  breaking  on  the  wheel  The  main  arguments,  shortly 
stated,  are  these,  all  based  upon  the  evidence  as  recorded,  and  the 
law  as  laid  down  by  jurists  (1)  The  unsupported  evidence  of  an 
accomplice  was  treated  as  an  indiciwn  in  a  case  not  one  of  those 
siceptional  ones  in  which  such  an  ludteium  was  sufficient.  The 
evidence  of  two  witnesses  or  a  confession  by  the  accused  was  neces- 
sary to  establish  a  remote  indicium,  such  as  lying.  (2)  Hearsay 
evidence  was  received  when  primary  evidence  was  obtainable.  (3) 
The  confession  made  under  torture  was  not  ratified  afterwards. 
(4)  It  was  made  in  consequence  of  a  promise  of  impunity.  (5)  It 
was  of  an  impossible  crime. 

Macn  general  informarloo  on  the  so^aeV'WllI  be  foond  In  the  works  of  Mr  Lea 
acd  Mr  Lecky,  to  wbldl  nieretiC9  has  al'eady  been  made.  In  the  Penrtf  C^lo- 

£xdia,  ».»  "Torture,"  lo  Zedler's  Unictrtat  Lexicon.  s.v.  "Tortur,"  and  In 
[ej-er's  Etpf^  dtt  InstilutUyru  Jutfifiotm.  For  Eocland,  JardiQc'a  work  is  ihe 
■Candard  aathority.  Thirtr-sli  kinds  of  tornire  are  de^rlbed  in  Meyers  Kon- 
veTuiJiont-Lelikon.uv.  "Torrcr."  Instruments  of  tortnre  are  still  prrterred  In 
the  Tower  of  London  and  tn  the  mnsetuns  of  Hontcb,  Radsbon,  Nnremberg,  Tlie 
Ba^e,  and  other  places.  Those  at  the  Tower  are  the  iron  collar,  the  bilboes,  the 
thtunbscrew.  and  Uie  acayenger's  daughter  There  la  also  a  model  of  one  of  the 
forms  of  the  rack.  (J  Wt,) 

TORY,     See  Whig  axb  Toet 

TOTEMISM.  A  totem  is  a  class  of  material  objects 
which  a  savage  regards  with  superstitious  respect,  believing 
that  there  ejrists  between  him  and  every  member  of  the 
class  an  intimate  and  altogether  special  relation.  The 
name  is  derived  from  an  Ojibway  (Chippeway)  word  which 
was  first  introduced  into  literature,  so  far  as,  appears,  by 
J.  Long,  an  Indian  interpreter  of  last  century,  who  spelt 
it  totam*  The  connexion  between  a  man  and  bis  totem 
is  mutually  beneficent  the  totem  protects  the  man,  and 
the  man  shows  his  respect  for  the  totem  in  various  ways, 
by  not  killing  it  if  it  be  an  animal,  and  not  cutting  or 
gathering  it  if  it  be  a  plant  As  distinguished  from  a 
fetich,  a  totem  is  never  an  isolated  individual,  but  always 
a  class  of  objects,  generally  a  species  of  animals  or  of 
plants,  more  rarely  a  class  of  inanimate  natural  objects, 
very  rarely  a  class  of  artificial  objects. 
Siads  of  Considered  in  relation  to  men,  totems  are  of  at  least 
wtems.  three  kinds  : — (1)  the  clan  totem,  common  to  a  whole  clan, 
and  passing  by  inheritance  from  generation  to  generation  ; 
(2)  the  sex  totem,  common  either  to  all  the  males  or  to  all 
the  females  of  a  tribe,  to  the  exclusion  in  either  case  of 
the  other  sex  ,  (3)  the  individual  totem,  belonging  to  a 
single  individual  and  not  passing  to  his  descendants. 
Other  kinds  of  totems  exist  and  will  be  noticed,  but  they 
may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  varieties  of  the  clan  totem. 
The  latter  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  all ;  and  where 
we  speak  of  totems  or  totemism  without  qualification  the 
reference  is  always  to  the  clan  totem. 
Clan  Tfix  Clan  Totem. — The  clan  totem  is  reverenced  by  a 

yoftm,      body  of  men  and  women  who  caU  themselves  by  the  name 

^  For  instance,  Paris  de  Puteo  illustrates  the  axtra-legal  cruelties 
sometimes  practised  by  asserting  that  he  saw  a  judge  seize  an  accused 
by  the  hair  of  the  head  and  dash  his  head  against  a  pillar  in  order  to 
iitort  a  confession.  *  Osservazioni  suUa  TortMra. 

'  Storia  dilia  CoCbnna  In/ame. 

'   Voyagu  and  TraixU  of  an  Indian  hftrprtter,  p.  86,  1791, 


of  the  totem,  believe  themselves  to  be  of  one  blood,  de- 
scendants of  a  common  ancestor,  and  are  bound  together 
by  common  obligations  to  each  other  and  by  a  common 
faith  in  the  totem.  Totemism  is  thus  both  a  religious  and 
a  social  system.  In  its  religious  aspect  it  consists  of  the 
relations  of  mutual  respect  and  protection  between  a  man 
and  his  totem  ;  in  its  social  aspect  it  consists  of  the  rela- 
tions of  the  clansmen  to  each  other  and  to  men  of  other 
clans.  In  the  later  history  of  totemism  these  two  -sides, 
the  religions  and  the  social,  tend  to  part  company ;  the 
social  system  sometimes  survives  the  religious ,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  religion  sometimes  bears  traces  of  totemism 
in  countries  where  the  social  system  based  on  totemism 
has  disappeared.   .We  begin  with  the  religions  side. 

Totemism  as  a  Reli^on,  or  the  Relation  between  a  Man 
and  his  Totem, — The  members  of  a  totem  clan  call  them- 
selves by  the  name  of  their  totem,  and  commonly  believe 
themselves  to  be  actually  descended  from  it. 

Thus  the  Turtle  clan  of  the  Iroquois  are  descended  from  a  fat 
turtle,  which,  burdened  by  the  weight  of  its  shell  in  walking,  con- 
trived by  great  esertions  to  throw  it  off,  and  thereafter  gradually 
developed  into  a  man.'  The  Oey-Fish  clan  of  the  Choctaws  were 
originally  oray-fish  and  lived  underground,  comin"  up  occasionally 
through  the  mud  to  the  surface  Once  a  party  of  Chocuws  smoked 
them  out,  amd,  treating  them  kindly,  taught  them  the  Choctaw 
language,  taught  them  to  walk  on  two  legs,  made  them  cut  otf  their 
toe  nails  and  plnck  the  hair  from  their  bodies,  after  which  they 
adopted  them  into  the  tribe.  But  the  rest  of  their  kindred,  the 
cray-fish,  are  still  living  underground. '  The  Osages  are  descended 
from  a  male  snail  and  a  female  beaver.  The  snaM  burst  his  shell, 
developed  arms,  fee^,  and  legs,  and  became  a  fine  tall  man ;  after- 
wards he  married  the  beaver  maid.'  Some  bf  the  clans  of  wcsiem 
Australia  are  descended  from  ducks,  swans,  and  other  waterfowl.' 
In  Senegambia  each  family  or  clan  is  descended  from  an  animal 
(hippopotamus,  scorpion,  &c. )  with  which  it  counts  kindred  ' 

Somewhat  different  are  the  myths  in  which  a  human  ancestress 
is  said  to  have  given  birth  to  an  animal  of  the  totem  sp*fcies. 
Thus  the  Snake  clan  among  the  Mfequis  of  Arizona  are  descended 
from  a  woman  who  gave  birth  to  snakes.'**  The  Bakalai  in  western 
equatorial  Africa  believe  ttfat  their  women  once  gave  birfli  to  the 
totem  animals ;  one  woman  brought  forth  a  calf,  others  a  crocodile, 
hippopotamus,  monkey,  ioa,  and  wild  pig." 

Believing  himself  to  be  descended  from,  and  therefore 
akin  to,  his  totem,  the  savage  naturally  treats  it  with  respect. 
If  it  is  an  animal  he  wiJl  not,  as  a  rule,  kill  nor  eat  it.  In 
the  Mount  Gambler  tribe  (South  Australia)  "a  man  does 
not  kill  or  use  as  food  any  of  the  animals  of  the  san^e  sub- 
division with  himself,  excepting  when  hunger  compels,  and 
then  they  express  sorrow  for  having  to  eat  their  icingong 
(friends)  or  tumanang  (their  flesh).  VMien  using  the  last 
word  they  touch  their  breasts,  to  indicate  the  close  relation- 
ship, meaning  almost  a  part  of  themselves. 

To  illustrate  : — One  day  one  of  the  blacks  killed  a  crow  Three 
or  four  days  afterwards  a  Boortwa  (crow)  named-  Lai-ry  died  H& 
had  been  ailing  for  some  days,  but  the  killing  of  his  ^ctngtmg 
hastened  his  death. '^  The  tribes  about  the  GiiU  of  Carpentaria 
greatly  reverence  their  totems :  if  any  one  were  to  kill  the  totem 
animal  in  presence  of  the  man  whose  totem  it  was,  the  latter  would 
say,  "  What  for  you  kill  that  fellow  ?  that  my  father  '  "  or  "  That 
brother  belonging  to  me  you  have  killed  ;  why  did  yon  do  it  '"  " 
Sir  George  Grey  says  of  the  western  Australian  tribes  that  a  man 
will  never  kill  an  animal  of  his  >cobtmg  (totem)  species  if  he  finds 
it  asleep  ;  "  indeed,  he  always  kills  it  reluctantly,  and  never 
without  affording  it  a  chance  to  escape.  This  arises  from  the 
family  beHef  that  some  one  individual  of  the  species  is  their  nearest 
friend,  to  kill  whom  would  be  a  great  crime,  and  to  be  carefully 
avoided."  "    Amongst  the  Indians  of  British  Columbia  a  man  wiil 


Totem- 
ism as  a 
religion. 

Dec-cent 

from 

totem. 


Respect 
shown  tc 
totenj. 


*  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Buseau  of  £f^no/o^^WashingtoD, 
1883,  p.  77.  '  CiXiin,  A'orth  American  Indmnsyii    p    128. 

'  Schoolcraft,  7^  American  Indians,  p.  95  sq. ,  Lewis  and  Clarke. 
Travels  to  the  Source  of  the  Missouri  Rirer,  London,  IS15,  i    p.  12. 
®  Sir  George  Grey,  Vocabulary  of  Dialects  of  S   W  Australia 

*  Remce  •{ Ethnographie,  iiL  p   396,  r   p.  81 

'"  Bourke,  Snalx  Dance  of  the  Moquis  of  Arizona,  p   177 
*^  Du  Cbailla,  Explorations  in  Equatorial  Africa,  p.  308. 
"  Stewart  in  Fison  and  Hon-itt,  Kamilaroi  and  Kvmai,  p    169 
"  Jour.  Anthrop.  Inst.,  xiii.  p.  300. 

'*  Grey,  Journals  of  Too  Expeditions  in  «VortA-  West  and  IVeMtmt 
AvstraHa,  ii,  p,  223. 


k46d 


vT  0  T  E  M  I  S  M 


Fplit 
totems 

Plant 

totems 


liever  Wl  Ins  totem  snimai ;  If  Tie  sMMpptner  do  it,  he  will  hide  ' 
bis  face  for  shame,  and  aFtcrwards.  demand  compensation  for 
tne  act  Whenever  one  of  these  Indians  exhibits  his' totem 
badge  (as  by  paintin^it  onhis  forehead),  all  persons  of  the  same 
totem  !iro  bound  to  do  honour  to  it  by  casting  pro|iei-tv  before  it.' 
The  Damaras  in  South  Africa  are  divided  inio  totem  clans,  called 
"eandas";  and  according  to  the  claa  to  which  tlu-y  belong  they- 
Tefuse  to  partake,  e.g.,  of  an.  ox  marked  «ri(h  black,  white,  or  r.:u 
spots,  or  of  a  sliecp  without  hbrn.s,  or  of  drauglit  oxen,  iome  "of 
them  will  not  even  touch  vessels  in  which  such  food  has  been 
cooked,  and  avoid  cvi-n  tbc  smoke  of  the  fire  whicli  has  been  used 
to  cook  it^  The  negroes  of  Seneganibia  do  not  eat  their  totems.^ 
Tho  Muudas  (or  Mimdaiis)  and  Oraons  in  Bengal,  who  are  divided 
into  exogamous  totem  clans,  will  not  kill  or  eat  the  totem  animals 
whicb  give  '.heir  names  to  the  clans.''  ■  A  remarkable  feature  of 
porae  of  these  Oraon  totems  is  that  they  are  not  whole  aniuiaU,  but 
parts  of  animals,  as  the  head  of  a  tortoise,-  the  stomach  .of  a  pig. 
In  such  cases  (which  are  not  confined  to  Bengal)  it  is  of  course 
not  the  whole  animal,  but  only  the  special  part,  that  the  clans- 
men are  forbidden  to  cat.  Such  totems  may  be  distinguished  a.s 
spin  loUms.  The  .lagann.ithi  Kumhar  in  Bengal  abstain  from 
killing  or  injuring  tlic  totems  of  their  rcspectivo  clans,  and  they 
bow  to  their  totems  when  tlu-y  meet  them.' 

^\''hen  the  totem  is  a  [ilaQt  the  rules  are  such  as  these. 
A  native  of  western  Australia,  whose  totem  is  a  vegetable, 
'"  may  not  gatlier  it  under  certain  circumstances  and  at  a 
particular  period  of  the  year."''  An  Oraon  clan,  whose 
totem  is  the  kujrar  tree,  will  not  eat  the  oil  of  that  tree, 
nor  sit  in  its  shade.^  The  Kcd  Maiae  clan  of  the  Omahas 
will  not  cat  red  maize.  Those  of  the  people  of  Ambon 
and  Uliase  who  arc  descended  from  trees  may  not  ttse 
.these  trees  for  firewood.' 

The  rules  not  to  kill  or  cat  tue  totem  are  not  the  ociy 
taboos ;  the  clansmen  are  often  forbidden  to  touch  the 
totem  or  any  part  of  it,  sometimes  even  to  look  at  it. 

Tlius  the  Elk  clan  of  ihc  Oni.iliasneithereat  the  flesh  nor  touch  any 
part  of  the  male  cik.^  T'lc  Deer-Head  clan  of  the  Omahas  may  not 
touch  the  skin  of  any  aniniiu  of  the  deer  family,  nor  wear  moccasins 
of  deerskin,  nor  use  the  fat  of  Tlie  deer  for  hair-oil;  hut  they  may  eat 
the  flesh  of  dccr.^  Of  the  totem  clan.s  inl-Jengal  it  is  s.iid  that  they 
"are  prohibited  from  killing,  eating,  cutlmg.  burning,  carrying,  u>ing, 
&c. ,"  the  totem.''-'  The  Bchuana^  in  Soutli  .Africa,  who  have  a  well - 
developed  totem  system,  may  no:  eat  nor  clothe  tlicmsclvcs  in  the 
skin  of  the  totem  animal."  They  even  avoid,  at  least  in  some  ca,scR, 
to  look  at  the  totem.  Thn?  to  a  man  of  the  Bakuena  (Bakwain)  or 
Crocodile  clan,  it  is  "hateful  and  unlucky"  to  meet  or  gaze  on  a 
crocodiic  ;  the  sight  is  thouglit  to  cause  iniiammaticn  of  the  eyes. 
Totem  Sometimes  Ihe'totetn  .-.ninia!  is  fed  or  even  kept  alive  in  captivity. 

kept  in  Among  the  mountaineers  of  Formosa  each  clan  or  village  keeps  its 
captivity,  totem  (serpent,  leopard,  &c.)  in  a  cage.'-  A  Samoan  clan  wliosc 
totem  was  theee!  tised  to  present  the  lirst  fruits  of  llie  taro  planta- 
tions to  the  eels.'''  Amongst  the  Narnnyeri  in  Soutli  Australia  men 
of  the  Sn.ake  clan  soiiiciimes  cotch  snakes,  pull  out  their  teeth  or 
saw  up  their  mouths,  utnl  keep  ilieni  as  ].eLs.'^  In  a  Pigeon  clan 
of  Samoa  a  pigeon  was  carefully  kept  and  feil."  Amongst  the 
Kala.ng  in  Java,  » Lose  totem  is  the  red  dog,  each  family  as  a  rule 
keeps  one  of  these  animal.-,  w  hieh  thev  will  on  no  account  allow  to 
be  struck  or  ill-used  by  any  one,"" 
Totem  The  dead  totem  is  mourneii  t'.ir  ana  Durieu  like  a  ucad  chansraan. 

buried       Tn   Samoa,  if  a  man  of  the  Owl  totem  found  a  dead  owl  by  the 
tr.d  road  side,  he  would  sit  down  and  weep  over  it  and  beat  his  forehead 

tjoiiniei  with  stones  till  tl'.e  blood  ll.jwed.  The  bird  would  then  be  wrapped 
up  and  buried  with  as  much  ceremony  -as  if  it  had  been  a  liuman 
being.  "Tliis,  however,  was  not  tlie  death  of  the  god.  He  was 
JupposeJ  to  be  yet  alive,  and  incarnate  in  all  the  owls  in  existence."" 
The  generalization  here  iniplicd  is  characteristic  of  totemism;  it  is 
flot  merely  an  individual  but  the  species  that  is  reverenced.  The 
Wanika   ia  eastern  Africa   look  on    the    hya;na  as  one  of   their 


fotem 
taboos. 


'  R.  C.  Maj-ne,  Jlnlis'i  Vohimlun,  p.  268. 

»  C.  J.  Anderson,  Lnkc  .\'gm„\,  2-.22  sq.         »  7?<t.  d'Elhn.,  iii.  39G. 

*  Dalton  in  Trans,   lltlmolog.   Soc,  new  series,  vi,    p.  36;  Id., 
Etknol.  of  Bengal,  pp.  ISO,  2G-) ;-  As.  Qimrl.  Jtcv.,  July  1S8G,  p.  76. 

»  As.  Quart.  /;«'.,  July  18SC,  p.  79.         '  Grey,  Journals,  li.  22S  sj. 

'  Paltnn,  Klhn.  of  Ik-ngal,  •I'.A;  Id.,  Trans.  F.Lhml.  Soc.,  vi.  3C. 

"  E.  James,  Kxpulitiun  from  PitlJmrr/h  to  tlie  Rockt)  Mountains, 
I.  p.  47;    Third  llrp.  liur.  Ktlinul.,  p.  225. 

»  Janic5,  loc.  cil. ;  Third  Hep.,  245.       ">  As.  Quart.  Rev.,  July  1886. 
"  Cisalis,  The  Dnsutos,  211. 

"  Verkandl.  drr  Berliner  CcstU.  f.  Anthrorolnaie,  1882,  p.  (02). 
'*  Turuer,  .Samoa,  p.  71. 

W  A'alne  Tnbcs  of  S.  Australia,  p.  63.         "  Turner,  op.  cit.,  p.  B4. 
>•  Rallies,  Jhsl.  of  Java,  i.  p.  328.  cd.  1817;  • 
."  Turner,  op.  cit.,  p.  21,  <f.  26,  00  sq. 


ancestors,  and"  the  acam  ui  au  iiysrua  is  mournel  tjy  the  w^oI« 
people ;  the  mourning  for  a  chief  is  said  to  be  as  nothing  compared 
to  the  monrnjng  for  Sin  hy.Tna. "  .A  tribe  of  southern  Arabia  used  to 
bury.a  dead  gazelle  wbeiever  they  found  one,  and  the  whole  tribe 
mourned  for  it  ^ven  days.'»  A  Califomian  tribe  which  reverenced 
thi9bii"»rJ  held  an  annual  festival  at  which  thechief  ceremony  was 
tna  killing  of  a  buzzard  without  losing  a  drop  of  its  blood.  It  wan 
then  skinned,  tho  feathers  were  preserved  to  make  a  sacred  dress  for 
the  medicine-man,  and  the  body  was  buried  in  holy  ground  amid 
the  lamentations  of  the  old  women,  who  mourned  aa  ^r  tlie  loss  of 
a  relative  or  friend.  =° 

As  some  totem  clans  aVoid  looking  at  their  totem,  so  others  are  Totem 
careful  not  to  speak  of  it  by  ita  proper  name,  but  use  descriptive  not  re- 
epithets  instead.     The  three  totems  of  the  Delawares— the  w„Ii,  f.rred  to 
turtle,  and  turkey — wero  referred  to  respectively  as  "round  foot,"  bj'  aaine. 
"crawler,"  and  "not  chewing,"  the  last  referring  to  the  bird's  habit 
of  swallowing  its  food  ;  and  tho  clans  called  themselves,  not  AVolves, 
Turtles,  and  Turkeys,  but  "  Ronnd  Feet,"  "  Crawlers,''  and  "  These 
who  do  not  chew.'"-'    The  Bear  clan  of  the  Oltawas  called  them- 
selves not  Bears  but  Big  Fect^^    The  object  of  these  circum'"eu- 
tions  IS  probably  to  give  no  offence  to  tbe  worshipful  animal. 

The  penalties  supposed  to  be  incurred  by  acting  disre-  Conse- 
spoctfuUy  to  the  totem  are  various.     The  Bakalai  think  1*™" 
that  if  a  man  were  to  eat  his  totem  the  -women  of   his 


of  dis- 
respect 


clan  would  raiscarrj'  and  give  birth  to  animals  of  the  totem  to  totem 
k'.ad,  or  die  of  an  awful  disease. ^^  The  Elk  clan  among 
the  Omahas  believe  that  if  any  clansman  were  to  touch 
any  part  of  the  male  elk,  or  eat  its  flesh  or  the  flesh  of 
the  male  deer,  he  would  break  out  in  boils  and  white  spots 
in  different  parts  of  the  bodj-."*  The  Red  Maize  .subclan 
of  the  Omahas  believe  that,  if  they  were  to  eat  of  the  red 
maize,  they  would  have  running  sores  all  round  their 
mouth.-^  And  in  general  the  Omahas  believe  that  to  eat 
of  the  totem,  even  in  ignorance,  would  cause  sickness,  net 
only  to  the  eater,  but  also  to  his  wife  and  children.'^ 
The  worshipper?  of  the  Syrian  goddess,  whose  creed  ■aas 
saturated  with  totemism,  believed  that  if  they  ate  a  sprat 
or  an  anchovy  their  whole  bodies  would  break  out  in  ulcers, 
their  legs  would  waste  away,  and  their  liver  melt,  or  that 
their  belly  and  legs  would  swell  up.^" 

The  Sa  moans  thought  it  death  to  injure  or  eat  their 
totems.  The  totem  was  supposed  to  take  up  his  abode  in 
the  sinner's  body,  and  there  to  gender  the  very  thing 
^yhich  he  had  eaten  till  it  caused  his  death.^  ^ 

Tlius  if  a  Turtle  man  ate  of  a  turtle  he  grew  verj'  ill,  and  the  Sarioan 
voice  of  tho  turtle  was  heard  in  his  inside  saying,  "  He  ate  me  ;  'node  of 
I  am  killing  liim.'"-^     In  such  cases,  however,  the  Samoans  had  a  apt  '.-asini 
mode  of  appeasing  the  angry  totem.     The  ofTeiider  him-self  or  one  totem 
of  his  clan  was  wrapped  in  leaves  and  laid  in  an  unheated  oven, 
as  if  he  were  about  to  be  baked.     Thus  if  amongst  the  Cuttle-Fish 
clan  a  visitor  had  caught  a  ciUilc-fish  and  cooked  it.  or  if  a  Cuttle- 
Fish  man  h.ad  been  present  at  thecatingof  acuttlc-ii=^,  the  Cuttle- 
Fish  clan  met  and  chose  a  man  or  woman  who  went  through  the 
pretence  of  being  baked.     Otherwise  a  cuttle-fish  would  grow  in 
the  stomach  of  some  of  tbe  clan  a^id  bo. their  death.** 

In  Australia,  also,  the  puni.shment  for  eating  the  totem  Aus- 
appears  to  have  been  sickness  or  dcath.^'     But  it  is  not  Y^^" 
merely  the  totem  ■which   is  tabooed   to  the  Australians,  ^'aboot. 
they  have,  besides,  a  very  elaborate  code  of  food  prohibi- 
tions, which  vary  chiefly  with  age,  being  on  the  whole 
strictest  and  most   extensive   at   puberty,  and  gradually 
relaxiijg  with  advancing  years.     Thus  young  men  are  for- 
bidden to  eat  the  emu ;  if  they  ate  it,  it  is  thought  that 
they  would  be  afflicted  with  sores  all  over  their  bodies.^-   • 

"  Charles  New,  Life,  Wanderings,,  de.,  in  Eastern  Africa,  p.  122. 

"  Robertson  Smith,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia,  p.  195. 

■""  Boscaua,  in  Allred  Tlobiusou's  Life  in  California,  p.  291  sq.: 
Bancroft,  A'atii-e  /(a,-es  of  the  Pacifc  Slates,  iii.  p.  168. 

-'  Bnnton,  The  Laiape  and  their  Legends,  ]f.  30 ;  Morgan,  ./4n«.  &>c., 
p.  171 ;  Ueckewelder,  p.  247. 

"  See  Acad.,  27th  Sept.  1884,  p.  203. 

a  Du  Chaillu,  Equal.  Afr.,  p.  309.  ■  "  Third  Jiep.,  225. 

"  Tlid.,  231.         -'  James,  Ezpal.  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  ii.  p.  50 

"  Plut.arch,  De  Superst.,  10;  Seldcn,  De  Dis  Si/ris,  p.  2G9  sq., 
Leipsic,  1668.*         ^  Turner,  Samoa,  p.  1"  sq.  '■'■'  Jbid.,  p.  50. 

2"  Turner,  Samoa,  p.  31  sq.  "  /.  A.  I.,  xiii.  p.  192. 

"  T.  L.  Mitchell,  Thru  Expeditions  iido  the  Interior  of  Eastort 
Australia,  IL  p.  341. 


X..0  T  E  M  I  S  M 


lOd 


'•.fm 
.'.  not 
.iiure 


rotem    . 

belps 

cUosnian. 


Totem 


The  relation  Iwtwctu  o  ui*a  and  his  toiein  is  Ouo  ot 
mutual  help  and  protectioo  If  the  man  respects  and  cares 
for  the  totem,  he  expects  that  the  totem  will  do  the  tame 
bj'  him.  In  Senegambia  the  totems,  when  they  are 
dangerous  animals,  will  not  hurt  their  clansmen  ,  e.y  ,  men 
of  the  Scorpion  clan  alfirm  that  scorpions  (of  a  very  deadly 
xind)  will  run  over  their  bodies  without  biting  them  '  A 
Snake  clan  (Ophiogenes)  in  Asia  Minor,  believing  that 
•hey  were  descended  from  snakes,  and  that  snakes  were 
heir  kinsmen,  submitted  to  a  practical  test  the  claims  of 
iny  man  amongst  them  wlmm  they  suspected  of  being 
■o  true  clansman  They  made  a  snake  bite  him,  if  he 
■jrvived,  he  was  a  true  clansman  ,  if  he  died,  he  was  not.- 
"he  Hsylli,  a  Snake  clan  in  Africa,  had  a  similar  test  of 
:insh:p  ,  they  exposed  iheir  new  born  children  to  snakes, 
lOd  if  the  snakes  left  them  unharmed  or  ooly  bit  without 
^illine  them,  the  children  were  legitimate  ,  otherwise  they 
*ere  bastards.^  In  Senegambia,  at  the  present  day,  a 
fiYttron  is  expected  to  visit  every  child  of  the  Python  clan 
vithin  eight  days  after  birth  ' 

Other  totem  clans  regard  a  man  who  has  been  bitten  by 
the  totem,  even  though  he  survives,  as  disowned  by  the 
totem,  and  therefore  they  expel  him  from  the  clan. 
Among  the  Crocodile  clan  of  the  Bechuanas,  if  a  man  has 
been  bitten  by  a  crocodile,  or  me.ely  had  water  splashed 
over  him  by  a  crocodile's  tail,  he  is  expelled  the  clan.* 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  the  totem  should  merely 
abstaiu  from  injuring,  he  must  positively  benefit  the  men 
who  put  their  faith  in  him.  The  Snake  clan  (Ophiogenes) 
of  Asia  Minor  believed  that  if  they  were  bitten  by  an 
adder  they  had  only  to  put  a  snake  to  the  wound  and 
their  totem  would  suck  out  the  poison  and  soothe  away 
the  inrianimation  and  the  pain.^  Hence  Omaha  medicine- 
men, in  curing  the  sick,  imitate  the  action  and  voice  of 
theit  (individual)  totem.'  Members  of  the  Serpent  clan  in 
Senegambia  profess  to  heal  by  their  touch  persons  who  have 
;een  bitten  by  serpents.^  A  similar  profession  was  made 
in  antiquity  by  Snake  clans  in  Africa,  Cyprus,  and  Italy.' 
Again,  the  totem  gives  his  clansmen  important  informa- 
tion by  means  of  omens  In  the  Coast  Muning  tribe  of 
New  South  Wales  each  man's  totem  warned  him  of  com- 
ing danger  ,  if  his  totem  was  a  kangaroo,  a  kangaroo 
would  warn  him  against  his  foes'"  The  Samoan  totems 
gave  omens  to  their  clansmen.  Thus,  if  an  owl  flew 
before  the  Owl  clan,  as  they  marched  to  war,  it  was  a 
i.ignal  to  go  on  ,  but  if  it  flew  across  their  path,  or  back- 
wards, it  was  a  sign  to  retreat  "  Some  kept  a  tame  owl 
in  purpose  to  give  omens  in  war  '^ 

When  the  conduct  of  the  totem  is  not  all  that  his 
:Iansmen  could  desire,  they  have  Tarious  ways  of  putting 
pressure  on  him. 

Thns,  in  harvest  time,  when  the  birds  eat  the  com,  the  Small  Bird 
clan  of  the  Omahas  take  some  com  which  they  chew  and  spit  over 
the  field.  This  is  thought  to  keep  the  birds  from  the  crops.'*  If 
worms  infest  the  com  the  Reptile  clan  of  the  Omahas  catch  some  of 
them  ar.d  pound  them  up  with  some  grains  of  corn  which  have  been 
heated.  They  make  a  soap  of  the  mtstuie  and  eat  it,  believing  that 
ihe  coro  will  not  be  infested  again,  at  least  for  that  year."  Diirin" 
I  fog  the  men  cf  the  Turtle  subclan  of  the  Omahas  used  to  draw 

^  /Uvue  (C Ethrwgraphie^  iii.  p.  3S6. 

'  VaiTO  in  Priscian,  x.  32,  vol.  i.  p.  524,  ed.  KciL  For  the  snake 
lescent  of  the  clan,  see  Strabo,  xiii  1,  14 ;  ^Uan,  tf.  A.,  xii.  39. 

'  Varro,  ioc.  cU.;  Phny,  N.  H.,  vii.  §  14.  Pliny  has  got  it  wrong 
»nd  on.  He  says  that  if  the  snake.';  did  not  leave  the  children  they 
•ere  b^tards.     We  may  safely  correct  his  statement  by  Varro's. 

*  lievue  d^ Ethnographies  iii.  p.  397. 

'  Livingstone,  Sdh.'A  Africa,  p.  255.  •  Strabo,  liii.  1,  14. 

'  James,  Expedition  to  the  Rocky  itountaiTU,  i.  p.  247. 

'  Jievue  d^ Bihnoffraphie,  iiL  p.  396. 

'  PUny,  V.  II.,  x.Tviii.  30.  ">  J.  A    1 .  xiii.  195  n,  ivL  46. 

•'  Tnraer,  Samoa.,  21,  24,  60.  '^  Ibid.,  25  sq. 

*  Third  Report,  p.  '238  sj.  The  idea  perhap';  ii  that  the  birds 
•It  in  the  persons  of  their  dannneD,  and  give  tangible  evidence  that 
aaj  hav8  eaten  their  fill,  '•  Third  Rep.,  248. 


Ilia  h^uro  ol  A  turtle  on  me  g.iiunJ  with  iN  fa'C  to  the  soutli. 
On  the  head,  tall,  middle  of  the  back,  and  on  each  leg  were 
placed  sniail  pieces  uf  a  red  breech-cluth  «ith  soma  tobacco.  This 
was  thought  to  make  the  fog  disappear  " 

lu  order,  apparently,  to  put  himself  more  fully  under  M=n 
the  protection  of  the  totem,  tho  clansniau  is  lu  thu  habit  assimi- 
of  assimilating  himself  to  the  totem  by  dr«wing  lu  tht  skin  !j^'**  ,. 
ot  other  part  of  the  totem  animal,  arranging  his  hair  and  ig  taUJa 
mutilating  his  body  so  as  to  resemble  the  totem,  and  repra.- 
senting  it  on  his  body  by  cicatrices,  tattooing,  or  paint. 

Among  the  Thlinkets  on  solemn  occ^iions,  such  ds  dance^ 
meniori.i!  festivals,  and  burials,  individuals  often  appear  dis-'uised 
in  the  full  form  of  their  UUt- m  animals  ,  and,  as  a  rule,  each  clans 
man  carrit-s  at  letust  an  ea-sily  recognizable  part  of  his  toteti,  witfc 
him."  Amongst  theOuiahas, the  smaller  boysof  rlie  Black  Sliouidei 
(ButfaloJ  Clan  wear  two  locks  of  liair  in  imitation  of  horns.''  Tb» 
Small  Bird  clan  of  the  Oinah.Ts  "  leave  a  little  bail  in  front,  ovei 
the  forehead,  for  a  bill,  and  sunic  at  the  back  of  the  he,id.  for  thi 
bird's  tail,  with  much  over  each  ear  lor  the  wings  "  ■*  The  Tartli 
subclan  of  the  Onialias  ''cut  olf  all  th,'  hair  from  a  b<'»y"s  head 
except  six  locks  ,  ti'o  are  left  on  eac  h  >iJe,  one  over  tbe  forehead 
and  one  hangino  donii  the  back  in  inntdiion  of  the  legs,  bead,  and 
tail  of  a  turtle  "  '*  Tlie  practice  of  knocking  out  the  upper  IronI 
teeth  at  puberty,  which  prevails  in  Australia  dnd  elsewhere,  is.  o: 
was  once,  probably  an  mutation  of  the  totem.  The  liatoka  ic 
Africa  who  adopt  this  practice  say  that  they  do  so  in  order  to  tw 
like  oxen,  while  those  who  retain  their  teeth  are  like  zebras.'* 

The  Haida-s  of  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  are  universally  tattooed  \ati^, 
the  design  being  in  all  cases  the  totem,  executed  in  a  conventional  '*'  ^' 

style.  When  several  families  of  ditfereot  totems  live  together  in 
the  same  large  house,  a  Haida  chief  will  hava  all  their  totemi 
tattooed  on  his  person  "  Tribes  in  South  Amenca  are  especially 
distinguished  by  their  tatioo  marks,  but  whether  these  are  toteir 
marks  is  not  said  "  Tlie  Australians  do  not  tattoo  bnl  raisi 
cicatrices  ;  iu  some  trihes  these  cicatrices  are  arranged  in  pattern, 
which  serve  as  the  tribal  badges,  consisting  of  lines,  dots,  circles 
semicircles,  ic  '*  According  (o  one  authority,  these  Australiai 
tribal  badges  are  sometimes  representations  of  the  totem  ''* 

Again,  the  totem  is  sometimes  painted  on  the  person  of  the  claD» 
man.  This,  as  wc  hare  seen  (p.  468),  is  sometimes  done  by  thi 
Indians  of  British  Columbia.  Among  the  Hurons  (Wyandots,' 
each  clan  has  a  distinctive  mode  of  painting  the  face  ;  and.  at  leasi 
in  thf  case  of  the  chiefs  at  iust-illation,  this  painting  represent) 
the  totem."  Among  the  Moquis  the  representatives  of  the  clans  al 
foot  races,  dances,  &c. ,  have  each  a  conventional  representation  a' 
his  totem  blazoned  on  breast  or  back  * 

The  clansman  also  affixes  his  totem  mark  as  a  signatnr« 
to  treaties  and  other  documents,'^'  and  paints  or  carves  it 
on  his  weapons,  hut,  canoe,  ifcc. 

The  identification  of  a  man  with  his  totem  appears 
further  to  have  been  the  object  of  various  ceremoniei 
observed  at  birth,  marriage,  death,  and  on  other  occasions. 

Birth  Ceremonies.— Oa  the  fifth  day  after  birth  a  child  Birth 
of  the  Deer  Head  clan  of  the  Omahas  is  painted  with  red"™: 
spots  on  its  back,  in  imitation  of  a  fawn,  and  red  stripes  """"**• 
are  painted  on  the  child's  arms  and  chest.     All  the  Deer- 
Head  men  present  at  the  ceremony  make  rod  spots  on  theii 
chests. ^^    When  a  South  Slavonian  woman  has  given  birtl 
to  a  child,  an  old  woman  runs  out  of  the  house  and  calls 
out,  "A  she-wolf  has  littered  a  he  wolf,"  and  the  child  is 
drawn  through  a  wolfskin,  as  if  to  simulate  actual  birth 
from  a  wolf.     Further,  a  piece  of  the  eye  and  heart  of  a 
">  7'^ird  Report,  240.  ' 

"  Holniberg  in  ArMi  Sec.  Scient   Fer  niciE,  iv.  293  s?.,  S23  ,  Petro^ 
Report  on  Popndation,  Industries,  and  Resources  of  Alaska,  p.  166. 
"  Third  Rep.,  229.  ^  Ibid.,  23S.  ■«  Ibid.,  21C 

^  Livingstone,  South  Africa,  p.  632. 

'^'Gcolog.   Suit,  of  Canada,   Rep.  for  IS7S-79,   pp.   IOSb,   185e 
Smithsonian  Cuntrib.  to  KnoicI,  vol.  xxi.  No.  267,  p.  3  sq. ,  Xaturt, 
20th  Januar}'  IS87,  p.  285;  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  ^f 
Elhiohgi/,  \V.^shington,  1886,  p.  67  sg. 
"-■"■'  Martins,  Zuy  Ethnogrnphie  Ainerica*3,  zumal  Brasiliens,  p.  55. 
^  Broiigli  Smyth.  Aborigines  of  Victoria,  i.  p.  sli.  sq.,  295,  ii.  318; 
Eyre,  Jour.,   ii.   333,  335;  Ridley,   Kamilaroi,  p.    140;  Jour,  and 
Proe.  R.  Soc  iV.  S.    Wales,  1882,  p.  201. 

•*  Mr  Cfaatfield,  in  Fison  and  Howitt,  Kamilaroi  and  Kumat,  pi 
66  D.     On  tattooing  in  connexion  with  totemism,  see  Haberlaodt  ifi 
Mitlhcit.  der  anthrop.  GeselL  in  H'lcn,  xv.  (1885)  p.  [53]  sj. 
»  First  Rep.,  pp.  62,  64  »  Bourke,  Snake  Dance,  p.  229. 

"  Heckewelder,  Indian  iVatiatis,  p.  H7. 
®  Third  Rep.,  p.  245  sj. 


470 


T  O  T  E  M  i;  S  M 


wolf  are  sewek,  into  the  child's  shirt,  or  hung  round  its 

neck ;  and,  if  several  children  of  the  flmily  halve  died- 

before,  it  is  called  Wolf.     The  reason  assigned  for  some  of 

these  customs  is  that   the  witfhes  who  devour  children 

will  not  attack  a  wolf.'     In  other  words,  the  human  child 

is  disguised  as  a  wolf  to  cheat  its  supernatural  foes.     The 

sam3°desire  for  protection   against   supernatural   danger 

may  be  the  motive  of  similar  totemic  customs,  if  not  of 

totemisrn  io  general. 

MsJTiage      Marriage   Ceremonies.— kmong   the   Kalang.of   Java, 

ce«-       whose  totem  is  the  red  dog,  bride  and  bridegroom  before 

m«iea.rm^rriage  are  rubbed  with  the  ashes  of  a  red  dog's  bones.^ 

Among  the  Transylvanian' Gipsies,  bride  and  bridegroom 

are  rubbed    with  a  weasel   skin.^     The  sacred   goatskin 

(sgis)   which    the    priestess   of    Athene    took   to   newly 

married  women  may  have  been  used  for   this   purpose.* 

At  Rome  bride  and  bridegroom  sat  down  on  the  skin  of 

;the  sheep  which  had  been  sacrificed  on  the  occasion.^     An 

Italian  bride  smeared  the  doorposts  of  her  new  home  with 

wolf's  fat."     It  is  difficult  to  separate  from  totemism  the 

custom  observed  by  totem  clans  in  Bengal  of  marrying  the 

bride  and  bridegroom  to  trees  before  they  are  married  to 

each  other.     'I'he  bride  touches  with  red  lead  (a  common 

■marriage  ceremony)  a  mahwi  tree,  clasps  it  in  her  arms, 

and  is  tied  to  it.     The  bridegroom  goes  through  a  like 

ceremony  with  a  mango  tree.'' 

Death  Ceremonies. — In  death,  too,  the  clansman  seeks 
to  become  one  with  his  totem.  Amongst  soma  totem 
clans  it  is  an  article  of  faith  that,  as  tha  clan  sprang  from 
the  totem,  so  each  clansman  at  death  reassumes  the  totem 
form.  Thus  the  Moquis,  believing  that  the  ancestors  of 
the  clans  were  respectively  rattlesnakes,  deer,  bears,  sand, 
water,  tobacco,  i-c,  think  that  at  death  each  man,  accord- 
ing to  his  clan^  is  changed  into  a  rattlesnake,  a  deer,  ikc.^ 
Amongst  the  Black  Shoulder  (Buffalo)  clan. of  the  Omahas 
a  dying  clansman  was  wrapped  in  a  buffalo  robe  with  the 
hair  out,  his  face  was  painted -with  the  clan  mark,  and  his 
friends  addressed  him  thus :  "-You  are  going  to  the 
animals  (the  buffaloes).  You  are  going  to  rejoin  your 
ancestors.  Vou  are  going,  or  your  four  souls  are  going, 
0  the  four  winds.  Be  strong."  >* 
j,^.j.^  Ceremonies  at  Puberty. — The  attainment  of  puberty  is 

monies  at  celebrated  by  savages  with  ceremonies  some  of  which  seem 
iiaiic-.ty.  jg  (jg  ^[^Qctly  connected  with  totemism.  The  Australian 
rites  of  initiation  at  puberty  include  the  raising  of  the.=6 
Bears  on  the  persons  of  the  clansmen  and  clanswomen  which 
serve  as  tribal  badges  or  actually  depict  the  totem.  They 
also  include  those  mutilations  of  the  person  by  knocking  out 
teeth,  itc,  which  we  have  seen  reason  to  suppose  are  meant 
to  assimilate  the  man  to  his  totem. 

At  one  stage  of  these  Australian  rites  a  number  of  men  appear 
on  the  scene  howlmg  and  running  on  all  fours  in  imitation  of  the 
dingo  or  native  Australian  dog  ;  .at  last  the  leader  jumps  up, 
clasps  his  hands,  and  shouts  the  totem  name  "wild  dog."'"  Tho 
Coast  Murring  tribe  in  New  South  Wales  had  an  initiatory  cere- 
DiOiiy  at  which  the  totem  name  "brown  snake"  was  shouted,  and 
a  mcdicinc-rnan  produced  a  live  brown  snake  out  of  his  mouth." 
As  tho  fundamental  rules  of  totem  societies  are  rules  regulating 
social  intercourse,  perhaps  these  pantomimes  were  intended  to 
bupply  the  youths  with  a  symbolic  language  by  means  of  which 
they  might  communicate  with  (wrsons  speaking  different  languages. 


'  Krau5«,  Sillc  und  Drauch  dcr  Siidstaven,  p.  541  sq. 

■  Kafflcs,  J/ist.  0/  Java,  i.  328.  On  rubbing  with  ftshes  as  a, 
religious  ceremony,  cf.  Spencer,  De  Legibus  Beirssorum,  Ritualibus,. 
Vol.  ii.  diss.  iii.  lib.  iii.  cap.  1. 

'  Orir/mal-.Villheil.  ans  der  etlinolog.  AhOieit.  dcr  kmigl.  Musem 
tu  Berlin,  i.  p.  156.  *  Suidas,  s.v.  alyts.  ' 

'  Servius  on  Virgil,  jEn.,  iv.  37');  Festus,  s.v.  In  pelle. 

'  Pliny,  Knt.  Jhsl.,  xxviii.  142. 

'  Dalton,  £lhn.  of  ncnrial,-l^i  (Muudas),  319  (Kuiinis).     Among 
the  Mundas,  both  bride  and  bridegroom  are  sometimes  married  to  roasg^  , 
trees.     For  K urmi-totetn«,  see  /4s.  Qi«7r(.  Bti).,  July  1886,  p.  TTT. 

»  Schoolcraft,  7>u2.  Tr.,  iv.  86.  '  Third  Rep.,  p.  229.  • 

I" /.  a.  /.,  xiA  460.  "  Wrf..  xvi.  p.  48. 


audi  thus 'aacertain  whtfoet  tiiey  belonged  to  clans  with  which 
nuirriage  was  ^owed.  Tho  totem  cUas  of  the  Bcchuanas  have 
■each  jta  special  danco  or  pantomime,  and  when  they  wish  to 
ascertain  a  stranger's  clan  th^'ask  him,  "What  do  you  dance  t"" 
We  find  ekewhere  that  dauclog  has  been  used  ss  a  means  ef 
sexual  delectioiu 

But  in  some  cases  these  dances  seem  to  be  purely  re- 
ligious. At  their  initiatory  rites  the  Yuin  tribe  in  New 
South  Wales  mould  figures  of  the  totems  in  earth  and  dance 
'before  them,  and  a  medicine-man  brings  up  out  of  his  inside 
the  "magic"  appropriate  to  tho  totem  before  which  he 
stands  :  before  the  figure  of  the  porcupine  he  brings  up  a 
sins'  like  chalk,  before  the  kangaroo  a  slufi  like  glass,  &cJ' 
Again,  it  is  at  initiation  that  the  youth  is  solemnly 
forbidden  to  eat  of  certain  foods  ;  but,  as  the  list  of  foods 
prohibited  to  youths  at  puberty  both  in  Australia  and 
America  extends  far  beyond  the  simple  totem,  it  would 
seem  that  we  are  here  in  contact  with  those  unknowu 
genera!  ideas  of  the  savage,  whereof  totemism.  is  only  r 
special  product. 

Thus  the  Narrinyeri  youth  at  initiation  are  forbidden  to  eat 
twenty  different  kinds  of  game,  besides  any  food  belonging  to 
women.  If  they  eat  of  theso  forbidden  foods  it  is  thought  "they 
will  grow  ugly."  In  the  Mycoolon  tribe,  near  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria,  tho  youth  at  iiiitiarion  is  lorbiddrn  to  cat  of  eagle-^ 
hawk  and  its  young,  native  companion  and  its  yonng,  some  snakes, 
turtles,  ant-eaters,  and  emu  eggs."  Tho  Kurnai  _)-outh  is  not 
allowed  to  eat  the  femile  of  any  animal,  nor  tiie  emu,  nor  tho 
porcupine.  He  becotnes  free  by  having  the  (at  of  the  animal 
smeared  iin  his  face. '5  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  said  th.it  "initiation 
confers  many  privileges  on  tho  youths,  as  they  are  now  allowed  to 
eat  many  articles  of  food  which  were  previously  forbidden  to 
them.""  Thus  in  New  South  Wales  before  initiation  a  boy  may 
eat  only  the  females  of  iho  animals  which  he  catches  ;  but  after 
initiation  (which,  however,  may  not  be  complete  for  several  years) 
he  may  eat  whatever  he  finds."  In  North  America  tho  Creek 
youths  at  puberty  were  forbidden  for  tweivs  months  to  eat  of  yOung 
bucks,  turkey-cocks,  fowls,  pease,  and  salt.'* 

These  ceremonies  seem  also  to  be  meant  to  admit  the  Admlg. 
youth  into  the  life  of  the  clan,  and  hence  of  the  totem,  a'on  to 
The  latter  appears  to  be  the  meaning  of  a  Carib  ceremony,  |^' 
in  which  the  father  of  the  youth  took  a  live  bird  of  prey, 
of  a  particular  species,  and  beat  his  son  with  it  till  tha, 
bird  was  dead  and  its  bead  crushed,  thus  transferring  the 
life  and  spirit  of  the  martial  bird  to  the  future  warrior. 
Further,  he  scarified  his  son  all  over,  rubbed  the  juices  of 
the  bird  into  the  wounds,  and  gave  him  the  bird's  heart  to 
eat.^"  Amongst  some  Australian  tribes  the  youth  at  initia- 
tion is  smeared  with  blood  drawn  from  the  arms  either  of 
aged  men  or  of  all  the  men  present,  and  he  even  receives 
the  blood  to  drink.  Amongst  some  tribes  on  the  Darling 
this  tribal  blood  is  his  only  food  for  two  days.  Among 
some  tribes  the  youths  at  initiation  sleep  on  lbs  graves  of 
their  ancestors,  in  order  to  absorb  their  virtues.^'  It  is, 
however,  a  very  notable  fact  that  the  initiation  of  an 
Australian  youth  is  said  to  be  conducted,  not  by  men  of 
the  same  totem,  but  by  men  of  that  portion  of  the  tribe 
into  which  he  may  marry.^  In  some  of  the  'Victorian 
tribes  no  person  related  to  the  youth  by  blood  can  interfere 
or  assist  in  his  initiation,^  'U'hether  this  is  true  of  all' 
tribes  and  of  all  the  rites  at  initiation  does  not  appear. 

Connected  with  totemism  is  also  the  Australian  cere-  RMMieo 
mony  at  initiation  of  pretending  to  recall  a  dead  man  to  *ion. 
life  by  the  utterance  of  his  totem  name.     An  old  man  lies  ^ 


'2  Livingstone,    South  Africa,    p.   13 ;   J.    Mackenzie,   Ten    Year 
XoTth  of  the  Orange  River,  p.  391,  cf.  p.  135  ii. ;  J.  A.  /.,  xvi.  83. 

'3  Jour,  and  Proc.  R.  Soc.  A'.  S.  ITnto,  1882,  p.  206. 

''  Kat.  Tribes  of  S.  Austral.,  p.  17.         "  J.  A.  /.,  xiii.  p.  295. 

'«  Ibid.,  xiv.  p.  310.  .  "  Ibid.,  360. 

V  Jour,  ar.d  Proc.  R.  Soc.  N.  S.  Waks,  1882,  pp.  208. 

"  Qi^\.!.ch<:\.,  Migration  L'ijcnd  of  the  Creek  Indians,  i.  p.  185. 

'■^  Kochefort,  Hi.'^i.  nat.  ct  tnur.  des  Iks  Antilles  (Rotterdam,  166S\ 
p   556;  Du  Tertre,  Ilistoire ginirale  dcs  Antilles,  vol.  ii.  p.  377; 
■  ='  Jour,  ajiri  Proc.  R.  Soc.  If.  S.  Wales,  1882,. p.  172; 

"  Howitl  in  J.  A.  /.,  xiii.  458.  _ 

"  Dawson,  Australian  Aborigines,  p.  30; 


T  O  T  E  ^I  I  S  M 


471 


tiirth. 


»3cri£ca 
of  toteoL 


Sex"*, 


I 


aonm  ia  a  grave  and  is  covered  up  lightly  with  earth ;  but 
at  the  meotion  of  his  totem  name  he  starts  up  to  life.' 
SoQietioies  it  is  believed  that  the  youth  himself  is  killed 
by  a  being"  called  Thuremlui,  who  cuts  him  up,  restores 
him  to  life,  and  knocks  out  a  tooth. ^  Here  the  idea 
seems  to  be  that  of  a  second  birth,  or  the  beginning  of  a 
new  life  for  the  novice  ;  hence  he  receives  a  new  name  at 
the  time  when  he  is  circumcised,  or  the  tooth  knocked 
out,  or  the  blood  of  the  kin  poured  ox)  him.'  Amongst  the 
Indiansi  of  Virginia  and  the  Quojas  in  Africa,  the  youths 
after  initiation  pretended  to  forget  the  whole  of  their  former 
lives  (parents,  language,  customs,  <tc.).  and  had  to  learn 
everything  over  again  like  new-born  babes.'  A  Wolf  clan 
in  Texas  used  to  dress  up  in  wolf  skir.3  and  run  about  on 
all  fours,  howling  and  mimicking  wolves;  at  last  they 
scratched  up  a  Lving  clansman,  who  had  been  buried  on 
purpose,  ^nd,  putting  a  bow  and  arrows  In  his  hands,  bade 
him  do  as  the  wolves  do — rob,  kill,  and  murder.'  This 
may  hav«  been  dn  initiatory  ceremony,  revealing  to  the 
novice  in  pantomime  the  double  origin  of  the  clan — from 
wolves  and  from  the  ground.  For  it  is  a  common  belief  with 
totem  clarjs  that  they  issued  originally  from  the  ground. 

Connected  with  this  mimic  death  and  revival  of  a  clans- 
man appear  to  be  the  real  death  and  supposed  revival  of 
the  totem  itself.  We  have  seen  that  some  Califomian 
Indians  killed  the  buzzard,  and  then  buried  and'mourned 
over  it  like  a  clansman.  But  it  was  believed  that,  as  often 
as  the  bird  was  killed,  it  was  made  alive  again.  Much 
tTie  same  idea  appears  in  a  Zuni  ceremonj-  described  by  an. 
eyewitness,  Mr  Gushing.  He  tells  how  a  procession  of  fifty 
men  set  ofi  for  the  spirit-land,  or  (as  the  Zanis  call  it) 
"the  home  of  our  others,"  and  returned  after  four  days, 
$ach  man  bearing  a  basket  full  of  living,  squirming  turtles. 
One  turtle  was  brought  to  the  house  where  Mr  Gushing 
was  staying,  and  it  was  welcomed  with  divine  honours. 
It  was  addressed  as,  "  Ah  !  my  poor  dear  lost  child  or 
parent,  my  .sister  or  brother  to  have  been  !  Who  knows 
which  t  May  be  my  own  great  great  grandfather  or 
mother?"  Nevertheless,  next  day  it  was  killed  and  its 
flesh  and  bones  deposited  in  the  river,  that  it  might 
,"  return  once  more  to  eternal  life  among  its  comrades  in 
the  dark  waters  of  the  lake  of  the  dead."  The  idea  that 
the  turtle  was  dead  was  repudiated  with  passionate  sorrow;, 
it  had  only,  they  said,  "  changed  houses  and  gone  ^o  live 
for  ever  in  the  home  of  'our  lost  others.'"*  The  mean- 
ing of  such  ceremonies  is  not  clear.  Perhaps,  as  has  been 
suggested,"  they,  are  piacular  sacrifice',  ia  which  the  god 
dies  for  his  people.  This  is  borne  out  !./>■  the  curses  with 
which  the  Egyptians  loaded  the  head  of  the  slain  bull.' 

Sex  Totems. — In  Australia  (but,  sD  far  as  is  krown  at 
present,  nowhere  else)  each  of  the  sexes  has,  at  least  in 
some  tribes,  its  special  sacred  animal,  whos>e  name  each 
individual  of  the  sex  bears,  regarding  the  animal  as  his  or 
her  brother  or  sister  respectively,  not  killing  it  nor  sufler- 
ing  the  opposite  sex  to  kill  it.  These  sacred  animals 
therefore  answer  strictly  to  the  definition  of  totems. 

Thus  aoioi.^t  the  Kurnai  &]1  the  TOeo  were  called  Yeerung 
(Emu- Wren)  anQ  a>i  '.Lc  women  Djeelgun  (Superb  Warbler)-  The 
birds  called  Veerung  were  tlje  "  brothers"  of  the  men,  and  the 
birds  called  Djectgun.  were  the  women's  "  ^Liters"  If  the  men 
killed  an  emu  wrpa  they  were  attacked  bj  the  Komen.  if  the 
women  killed  a  superb  warblt-r  they  were  assailed  by  the  men. 
Veerung  and  Ojectguii  were  the  mytbiciil  ancestors  of  tlie  Kurnai.' 

^'  J.  A    /.,  xiii    453  M.  =  Ik.,  xiv.  aiS. 

?  '  Angas.  i    115  ,  Brough  Smyth,  i.  75  n;  J.  A.  I ,  xir.  357,  339; 

llal.  Tr.  of  S.  Austr  .  pp.  232,  269 

*  R.  Beverley,  History  of  Virginia  (London,  1722),  p.  177  sj.; 
Dapper,  Description,  ie  I'Afrique,  p.  268. 

,'  Svhoolcraft,  Ind.   Tr.,  v.  683. 

•  Mr  Cushing  io  Centvri)  Magazine,  May  1*83. 

'  See  SACBiFicf;,  vol.  xii.  p.  137.  ,,.      _ 

,J  Herod.,  ii.  39.  '  Fison  and  Howiit,  1&4,  -ZOl'sq.,  Hb,  235. 


The  Euliii  tnbe  in  Vintona,  in  addition  to  sixteen  clan  totems, 
has  two  pairs  of  sex  totems;  one  pair  (tlie  emu-wren  uud  superb 
warbler)  is  identical  with  the  ICuniai  p.iir,  the  other  pair  is  the 
b.it  (male  totem)  and  the  small  night  jar  (female  totem).  The 
latter  pair  extends,  to  the  extreme  uorth-wcstern  confines  of  Vic« 
toria  as  the  ''man's  brother"  and  the  "woman's  sister."*^  The 
Ta-t.a  thi  gi-oup  of  tribes  in  New  South  Wales,  in  addition  to  regu- 
lar clan  totems,  has  a  pair  of  sex  totems,  the  bat  for  men  and  a 
small  owl  for  women  ;  men  and 'women  address  carh  other  a^  OwU 
and  Bala;  and  theie  is  a  hglit  if  a  woman  kills  a  l^at  or  a  man  kills 
a.scia!l  owl.u  Of  some  Vi-'loriau  tribes  it  is  said  that  "  tke  cocimoc 
bat  belongs  to  the  mc*o,v.l,o  protect  it  against  iujui-y.  even  to  the 
half  killing  of  their  wives  for  its  sake.  The  fernowl,  or  large  goat- 
.sucker,  belongs  to  the  women,  .•>.iiJ,  although  a  bird  of  evil  omen, 
creating  I'error  atnight  by  its  ciy,  it  i.s  jealou.sly  protected  by  them. 
If  a  man  kills  one,  they  arc  as  much  enraged  as  if  it  was  one  o{ 
their  children,  and  will  strike  him  with  their  long  poles."" 

The  sex  totem  seems  to  be  still  more  sacred  than  the 
clan  totein  ;  for  men  who  do  not  object  to  other  people 
killing  their  clan  totem  will  fiercely  defend  their  sex  toteia 
against  any  attempt  of  the  opposite  ses  to  injure  it.'^ 

Individual  Totems. — It  is  not  only  the  clans  and  thelndl., 
sexes  that  have  totems  ;  individuals  also  have  their  own  rt^»8l, 
special  totems,  i.e.,  classes  of  objects  (generally  species  of  '"'^^ 
animals),  which  they  regard  as  related  to  themselves  by 
those    ties   of  mutual  respect  and   protection  which  are 
characteristic  of  totemism.     This  relationship,  however,  in 
the  case  of  the  individual  totem,  begins  and  ends  with  the 
individual  maUj  and  is  not,  like  the  clan  totem,  transmitted 
by  inheritance.     The  evidence  for  the  existence  .of  indi- 
vidual  totems   in   Australia,  though   conclusive,  is   very 
scanty.     In  Xorth  America  it  is  abundant. 

In  Australia  we  heir  of  a  medicine-ma'n  whose  clai:  totem  through 
bis  mother  was  kanganw,  but  whose  "secret"  (i.e.;  individual) 
totem  was  the  tigcr.snake.  .^nakesof  that  species,  therefore,  would 
not  hurt  hira  "  An  .Xnstralian  se^ms  usually  to  ^et  his  individual 
totem  by  dreaming  that  he  has  been  trausfonned  into  an  animal  of. 
the  species.  Thus  a  man  dreamed  tlirce-tiraes  he  was  a  kangaroo; 
hence  he  became  one  of  the  kangaioo  liijidrcd,  and  might  not  eart 
any  part  of  a  kaiig.iroo  on  which  th<Te  was  blotjd ;  he  might  not 
even  carry  home  oik*  nn  wluch  there  was  bloo*l.  He  mi^ht  eat 
cookei?kan^'aroo;  but,  if  h"  were  to  eat  the  meat  with  th9- blood  on 
it,  the  spirits  would  no  longer  Take  him  up  aloft"   .' 

In  Am«it--a  the  individual  totem  is  usually  the  first  animal  of, 
which  a  youth  dreams  during  the  long  and  generally  solitary  fast^ 
wluch  American  Indians  o!»serve  at  puberty.  He  kill^  the  ar.imal- 
01  bird  of  which  he  ilreams.  and  henceforward  wears  its  ekin  or! 
fe.Tthers,  or  some  part  of  them,  as  an  auiulet,  especially  on  the^ 
warpath  and  in  hunting  '*  A  man  may  even  (though  this  seems 
exceptional)  acquire  several  totems  in  this  way;  thus  an  Ottawa 
rnedh  ine.man  had  for  his  individiial  totems  the  tortoise,  8waD,j 
wood(»ecker,  and  crow,  because  lie  bad  dreaired  of  them  all  In  his 
fast  at  (Hiberty.  The  re5:pei:t  paid  to  the  individual  totem  varies 
ill  *litrerent  tribes.  Among  the  Slave,  Hare,  and  D'ogrib  Indians 
a  man  may  not  eat,  skin,  nor  if  possible  kill  his  individual  totem^ 
which  in  these  tribes  is  s-iid  to  be  always  a  carnivorous  animah; 
EacIi  mau  carries  with  him  a  picture  >A  his  totem  (bought  of  a' 
trader);  when  he  is  unsuccessful  in  tli£  chase,  he  pulls  out  the' 
picture,  smokes  to  it,  and  luakes  it  a  ?j>cech." 

The  Indians  of  Cana '.i  changed  their  okki  or  manitoo  (indivi-* 
dual  totem)  if  they  had  riason  to  lie  dis^tisHcd  with  it.;  their  womeuj 
had  also  their  okkis  or  maiutoos,  but  did  not  pay  so  much  heed  to; 
them  as  did  the  men  They  tattooed  thcH  individual  totems  on  their 
persons  '•  Amongst  l)..*Itidian3  of  S»n  Juan  Capistrauo,  a  figure 
of  the  lodividujl  totem,  which  was  acquired  as  usual  by  fasting, 
was  moulded  io  a  |i^..sle  made  of  crushed  herbs  on  the  right  arm 
of  the  novice.  Fire  wa.s  then  set  to  it,  and  thus  the  figwre  of 
the  totem  was  burned  into  the  flesh."  S^xnclimes  the  individual 
totem  is  not  acquired  by  the  individual  himself  at  puberty,  but  is 


'?  J.  A.  I  ,  XI   p.  416  ;  //  nil    p  50".  J 

"  Ibid  ,  xiv   350.         "  Daw^oD,  j1 '/jYrfl.';(2n  AhorigiTies,  p.  52. 

"  J   A.  /.,  xiv   p.  35ft  "  Va.1..  XVI.  p    .W.         "  Ihid.,  45. 

**  Catlin,  JV  Atr,£T.  Indians,  i.  p  36  57.,  Schoolcraft,  Ind.  Tr.,  v.. 
p.  196;  Id.,  Atner.  Ind-,  p.  213;  Sproat,  &^ncs  and Sttuliiso/Savage 
Life,  p.  173  sq.;  Bincroft.  i  283  sq  ;  Id  ,  iii.  156:  MavTie,  Bril. 
Coltmb  ,  p.  302,  P.  J..i,e6,  Hisl    Ojebxcay  lid.,  p.  il  sq.,'kc. 

'^  Anniiat  Hejtort  of  the  Smithsonian  InstitutioA  for  1SG6,  p.  507. 

^®  Charlevoix,  Hist',  dt  la  Souv.  Fr.,  vi.  67  59.  The  word  ot:^-i  is 
Huron ;  marUtoo  is  Algonk'in  {tbid. ;  Sagard,  Le  grand  Voyagedujiayt 
dcs  Hurons,  p.  231). 

"  Boscana  in  A.  Robinson's  Lift  in  California,  pp.  270  sg.,  273;' 
Bancroft,  i.  414,  iii.  167  sq. 


472 


T  0  T  E  M  I  S  M 


fixed  for  him  ind-'pendeEtly  of  his  will  at  bijth.  Thus  anjong 
the  tribes  of  the  istbmus  of  Tefauantepec,  tvhen  a  woman  was  about 
to  be  confined,  the  relations  assembled  in  the  hut  and  drew  ou  the 
floor  figures  of  difVrent  animals,  ribbing  each  one  out  as  soon  as 
it  was  finished.  This  went  on  tiU  the  child  was  born,  and  the  figure 
that  then  remained  sketched  on  the  ground  was  the  child's  toiui  or 
totem-  When  he  grew  older  the  chUd  procured  his  totem  animal 
and  took  care  of  il,  bcliering  that  his  life  was  bound  up  with  the 
ppimal's,  and  that  when  it  died  he  too  must  die.^  Similarly  in 
Samoa,  at  child-lirth  the  help  of  several  "gods"  was  invoked  in 
succession,  and  the  one  who  happened  to  be  addressed  at  the 
moment  of  the  b  r^.h  was  the  infant's  totem.  These  "gods  "were 
|dogs,  eels,  shark;-,  lizards,  &c  A  Samoan  had  no  objection  to  eat 
another  cnan's  "  /.od  "  ;  but  to  eat  his  o^vn  would  have  been  death 
or  injury  to  him  '  Sometimes  the  okk-is  or  maijtoos  acquired  by 
dreams  are  not  totems  but  fetiches,  being  not  rla.-.scs  of  olycts  but 
■^diWdual  objeCs,  such  as  a  particuiir  tree,  rock,  knife,  pipf,  kc' 

Besides  tbe  clan  totem,  sex  totem,  and  inilividual  totem, 
there  are  (as  has  been  indicated)  some  other  luiids  or 
varieties  of  totems;  bat  the  consideration  of- them  had 
better  be  deferred  till  after  the  consideration  of  the  social 
organization  based  on  totemism. 
Blood  Social  Asp^i  of  Totemism,  or  the  relation  of  the  men  of 

feed.,  g  lijif^  to  each  other  and  to  men  of  other  totems. — (1)  All 
the  members  of  a  totem  clan  regaxd  each  other  as  kins- 
men or  brothers  and  sisters,  and  are  bound  to  help  and 
protect  each  other.  The  totem  bond  is  stronger  than  the 
bond  of  blood  or  family  in  the  modern  sense.  This  is  ex- 
pressly stated  of  the  clans  of  western  Aostralia  and  of 
north-western  America,'  and  is  probably  true  of  all  societies 
where  totemism  exists  in  full  force.  Hence  in  totem  tribes 
every  local  group,  being  necessarily  composed  (owing  to 
exogamy)  of  members  of  at  least  two  totem  clans,  is  liable 
to  be  dissolved  at  any  moment  into  its  totem  elements  by 
the  outbreak  of  a  blood  feud,  in  which  husband  and  wife 
must  always  (if  the  feud  is  between  their  clans)  be  arrayed 
on  opposite  sides,  and  in  which  the  children  will  be  arrayed 
against  either  their  father  or  their  mother,  according  as  de- 
scent is  traced  through  the  mother  or  through  the  father.l 
•In  blood  feud  the  whole  clan  of  the  aggressor  is  responsible 
for  his  deed,  and  the  wbole  clan  of  the  aggrieved  is  entitled 
to  satisfaction.^  Nowhere  perhaps  Is  this  solidarity  carried 
farther  than  among  the  Goajiros  Ln  Colombia,  South  Ame- 
rica. The  Goajiros  are  divided  into  some  twenty  to  thirty 
totem  clans,  with  descent  in  the  female  line ;  and  amongst 
them,  if  a  man  happens  to  cut  himself  with  his  own  knife, 
to  fall  off  his  horse,  or  to  injure  himself  in  any  way,  his 
family  on  the  mother's  side  immediately  demand  payment 
'as  blood-money  from  him.  "  Being  of  their  blood,  he  is 
not  allowed  to  spill  it  without  paying  for  It."  ^His  father's 
;fami!y  also  demands  compensation,  but  not  so  muck' 
Efo-,  (2)  Exogamy. — Persons  of   the   same  totem    may  not 

KMoy-  marry  or  have  sexoal  intercourse  with  each  other.  The 
Navajos  believe  that  if  they  married  within  the  cian 
''their  bones  would  dry  up  and  they  would  die."*  But 
the  penalty  for  infringing  this  fundamental  law  is  not 
merely  natural ;  the  clan  stops  in  aud  punishes  the  offenders. 
In  Australia  the  regular  penalty  for  sexual  intercourse  with 
a  person  of  a  forbidden  chin  is  death. 

It  matters  not  whether  the  woman  be  of  the  same  local  group  or 
has  been  captured  in  w^r  from  anoiher  tr.be  ;  a  nian  of  the  wrong 

'  Binrroft,  i.  661.    ^  '  Turner,  S<moa,  17. 

^  Lafitiu,  ^JvHTsths  ^uvfj^es  A^nrnijihit'ns,  i.  370 57  ;  Charlevoix, 
Hif-t  df  la  Xouv.  Fr  ,  vi    68  ;  K'ihl.  K^lcln  r.ami,  L  85  sq 

*  Grey,  .tour.,  n.  J.'il  .  fttpml  •,/  ll.r  Sm:thsonian  Inst,  for  1HG6, 
p.  315;  Pclrnff.  Urp.  pti  aI'IsI.",  p.  165.  Other  authorities  speak 
to  thft  fitipcrioriiy  of  the  totem  bond  over  the  tribal  bond  (Morgan, 
Leagw  0/  the  Iroqvms,  p.  82 ;  Mayno,  Brit.  Cnlwnb.,  p.  257  , 
American.  Anliqvarian,  11    p    109). 

•  Grey,  Jminnls.  ii.  230,  238  sq  ;  Smtt/isonian  Rep.,  tec.  cU. 

.•  Fi<:on  and  Howitt.  15()S7.,  216  sj.  Sometimes  the  two  clans  meet 
ind  settle  it  by  single  combat  between  picked  champions  {Jour,  and 
Proc.  /).  Soc.  A'.  5.  Wales,  1882,  p.  226). 

1'  Simons  ill  Pruc.  R.  Genir.  5«-.,  Dec.  1885,  p.  789  ij. 

i."  Bourke.  SnnheDanct  0/ the  Moiuii qf  Ariiana,  \^.  279. 


clao  who  uses  her  as  his  wifo  is  hunted  down  and  killed  by  his 
clansmen,  and  so  is  the  woman  ;  though  in  some  cases,  if  tbey  suc- 
ceed in  eluding  capture  for  a  certain  time,  the  offence  may  he  con- 
doned. In  the  Ta-ta-thi  tribe,  New  Soutli  Wales,  in  the  rare 
c.nses  which'Occur,  the  man  is  killed  but  the  v.oman  is  only  beateu 
or  speared,  or  both,  till  she  is  nearly  dead  ;  the  reason  given  for  not 
actually  kilUng  her  being  that  she  was  probably  coerced.  Even  in 
casual  amours  the  clan  prohibitions  are  strictly  observed  ;  any 
violations  of  these  prohibitions  "arc  regarded  with  the  utmost 
abhorrence  and  are  punished  by  death."'  An  important  exceptiou 
to  these  rules,  if  it  is  correctly  reported,  is  that  of  the  V-.'l  Liucolo 
tribe,  which  is  dinded  into  two  cljns,  Mattiri  and  liarraru,  and  it 
is  said  that  though  persons  of  the  same  <:lan  never  marr>",  yet  "  they  I 
do  not  seem  to  consider  less  virtuous  conncxious  between  parties  of 
the  same  class  [clan]  incestuous."'"  Again,  of  the  tnbes  on  the 
lower  Murray,  lower  Darlini;,  &c..  it  is  said  that  though  the  slight- 
est blwd  relationship  is  with  them  a  barto  marnage.  yet  in  their 
sexual  intercourse  they  are  perfectly  free,  and  incest  of  every  grade 
continually  occurs  *' 

In  America  the  Algonkins  consider  it  highly  criminal 
for  a  man  to  marry  a  woman  cf  the  same  totem  as  himself,' 
and  they  teli  of  cases  where  men,  for  breaking  this  rule, 
have  been  put  to  death  by  their  nearest  relations.'^ 

In  some  tribes  the  marriage  prohibition  <inly  extends  to  Phratnea. 
a  man's  own  totem  clan  ;  he  may  marry  a  wotnan  of  any 
totem  but  his  own.  This  is  the  case  with  the  Haidas  of 
the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands,'^  and,  so  far  as  appears,  the 
Namnyeri  in  South  Australia,'-  and  the  western  Aus- 
tralian tribes  described  by  Sir  George  Grey."  Oftener,' 
however,  the  prohibition  includes  several  clans,  in  none  of 
which  is  a  man  allowed  to  marry.  For  such  an  e-Togamous 
group  of  clans  within  the  tribe  it  is  convenient  to  have  a 
name  ;  we  shall  therefore  call  it  a  phratry  {L.  EL  ilorgan), 
defining  it  as  an  exogamous  division  intermediate  between 
the  tribe  and  the  clan.  The  evidence  goes»to  show  that 
in  many  cases  it  was  originally  a  totem  clan  which  has 
undergone  siitidivision. 

The  Choctaws,  for  example,  were  divided  into  two  phratries,  American 
each  01  which  included  four  clans;  marriage  was  prohibited  be- phr&triea. 
tween  members  of  the  same  phratry,  but  members  of  either  phratry 
could  marry  into  any  clan  of  the  other  '®  The  Seneca  tribe  of 
the  Iroquois  was  divided  into  two  phratnes,  each  including  four 
clans, — tbe  Bear,  Wolf,  Beaver,  and  Turtle  clans  forming  one 
phratry,  and  the  Deer,  Snipe.  Heron,  and  Hawk  clans  forming  the 
other.  Originally,  afiamong  the  Choctaws,  marriage  was  prohibited 
within  the  phratry  but  was  permitted  »-ith  any  of  the  clans  of 
the  other  phratry ;  the  prohibition,  however,  ba^  n*5w  broken  down,; 
and  a  Seneca  may  marr>*  a  woman  of  any  clan  but  his  own.  Hence 
phratries.  in  our  sense,  no  longer  exist  among  the  Senecas,  though 
the  organutation  survive.*  lor  certain  religious  and  social  purposes.'' 
The  phratries  of  the  Thlink*'l3  and  the  Mohcgans  deserve  especial 
attention,  because  each  phratry  bears  a  name  which  is  also  the 
name  of  one  of  ihecl.ans  included  in  iL  The  Thlinkets  are  divided 
as  follows  :  — Rd^'en  phratry,  with  clans  Itaven,  Frog,  Goose,  Sea-! 
Lion,  0>v|.  Salmon  ;  Wolf  phratry,  with  clans  Wolf,  Bear,  Eagle,' 
Whale,  Shark,  Auk.  Members  of  the  Raven  phratry  most  marry 
members  of  the  Wolf  phratry,  and  vux  versa^^  Cousidcring  the 
prominent  parts  playea  in  Thlinliet  mi-lhology  by  the  ancestors  of 
the  two  phratnes,  and  considering  that  the  names  of  the  phratries 
-are  also  names  of  clans,  it  seems  probable  that  the  Raven  and 
Wolf  were  the  two  original  clans  of  tne  ThUnkets,  which  afterwards 
by  subdivision  became  phmtries.  This  w.is  the  opinion  of  the 
Russian  .missionary  Veniaminolf.  the  bfst  early  authority  on  tbe 
tnbe  '*  Still  more  clearly  do  the  Mohcgan  phratries  appear  to 
have  tteeu  formed  by  subdivision  from  clans.  They  are  as  follows  ;  • 
—  Wolf  phratrj-,  with   clans    Wolf.    Bdr,   Dog,  Opossum;  Turtle 


'  Howitl  in  Rrp.  0/  Smithsonian  /nst  for  ISS3,  p  80J  ;  Fisos  and 
H.«>ntl.  pp   6*-67,  289,  344  sq..  J   A.  I.,  XIV.  p.  351  sq 

'"  .Va(.  Tr.  o/S   Australia,  p   222 

"  your  and  Proc.  H.  Sor  A'.  5.  Wai'-s,  1883,  p.  24  ;"  Trauattumt 
*>f  the  Royal  Society  of  Victoria,  vi    p.  16. 

"  James  in  Tanner's  Sarr.,  p.  313. 

"  Ofol   Sur.  0/ Canada,  H.j,  fur  JS7S-79,  p.  134B. 

"   iVnJ.    Tr.  0/  S    A'LSlr.,  p.   }2  ,  J.  A.  /.,  JOL  p.  iG. 

"  Orey,  Jour.,  11.  p   226. 

"  Arclurolugia.  Americana,  Trans.  andColUU.  Atitric.  Antiq.  Sfc^ 
vol.  11    p   109,  Moi^nn.  A    S  ,  pp.  99,  162. 

"  MuriMii.  n/i  eil  ,  pp   90,  94  sq. 

"  A  Krause,  D:e  Tlmkil  /ndiarurr,  112,  220;  Hotobei^,  op.  at; 
293,  313.  Piuart  in  Bull.  Soc  Anthrop.  Parit,  7tb  Nov.  1872.  f,, 
792  «9  ;  I'etrotr,  fUp   on  4.laaka,  p.  165  S9.  * 

"  Petroff,  r,j..  cit,  p.l66.   ■  '         ™  Moisau,  ^  174. 


TOTEMISM 


473 


phratTT,  whh  claps  Little  Turtle,  Jtud  Tnrtle,  Great  Turtle.  Yellow 
Eel ;  Turkey  phratry,  with  clans  Turkey,  Crane,  Chicken.  Here 
we  nre  almost  forced  to  conclude  that  the  Turtle  phratry  was  origin- 
ally a  Turtle  clan  which,  subdivided  into  a  number  of  clans,  each 
of  which  took  the  name  of  a  particular  kind  of  turtle,  while  the 
Yellow  Eel  clan  may  have  beeu  a  later  subdivision.  Thus  we  get 
a  probable  explanation  of  the  ongin  of  split  totems;  they  seem  to 
have  arisen  by  the  segmentation  of  a  single  original  clan,  which 
had  a  whole  animal  for  its  totem,  into  a  number  of  clans,  each  of 
whicii  took  the  name  either  of  a  part  of  the  original  animal  or  of  a 
subspecies  if  it.  We  may  conjecture  that  this  was  the  orijnn  of 
the  Grey  Wolf  and  Yellow  Wolf  and  Great  Turtle  and  Little  Turtle 
clans  6f  the  Tnscarora- Iroquois,'  the  Black  Eagle  and  White  E.Tgle 
and  the  Deer  and  Deer-Tail  clans  ot  the  Kaws;^  and  of  the  Highland 
Turtle  (stri|ied),  Highland  Turtle  (black).  Mud  Turtle,  and  Smooth 
Large  Turtle  clans  of  the  Wyandots  (Hurons).'  Warren  actually 
states  that,  the  numerous  Beiir  clan  of  the  Ojibways  was  formerly 
subdivided  into  subclans,  c.ich  of  which  took  for  its  totem  some 
part  of  the  Bear's  body  (he.id,  foot,  ribs  &a),  but  that  these  have 
now  merged  into  two,  the  Common  Bear  and  the  Grizzly  Bear.* 
The  subdivision  of  the  Turtle  (Tortoise)  clan,  which  on  this  hypo- 
thesis has  taken  place  among  the  Tuscarora-Iroquoid,  is  nascent 
unong  the  Onondaga-Iroquois,  for  among  them  "the  name  of  this 
dan  IS  Hahnowa,  which  is  the  general  word  for  tortoise;  but  the 
clan  is  divided  into  two  septs  or  subdivisions,  the  Hauyatengooa, 
or  Great  Tortoise,  and  the  Kikahnowaksa,  or  Little  Tortoise,  which 
together  are  held  to  constitute  but  one  clan.*'* 

On  the  other  hand,  fusion  of  clans  is  known  to  have 
taken  place,  as  among  the  Haidas,  where  the  Black  Bear 
and  Fin-Whale  clans  have  united  ;^  and  the  same  thing  has 
happened  to  some  extent  among  the  Omahas  and  Osages.' 
Auj-  In  Australia  the  phratnes  are  still  more  important  than 

''*''*°  in  America.  Messrs  Howitt  and  Fison,  who  have  done 
ptintne*.  ^^  much  to  advance  our  knowledge  of  the  social  system  of 
the  Australian  aborigines,  have  given  to  these  exogamous 
divisions  the  name  of  classes  ;  but  the  term  is  objection- 
able, because  it  fails  to  convey  (1)  that  these  divisions  are 
kinship  divisions,  and  ("2)  that  they  are  intermediate 
divisions  ;  whereas  the  Greek  term  phratry  conveys  both 
these  meanings,  and  is  therefore  appropriate. 

We  have  seen  examples  of  Australian  tribes  in  which 
members  of  any  clan  are  free  to  marry  members  of  any 
clan  bat  their  own  ,  but  such  tribes  appear  to  be  excep- 
tionaL  Oiten  an  Australian  tribe  is  divided  into  two 
(exogamous)  phratnes,  each  of  which  includes  under  it  a 
number  of  totem  clans ;  and  oftener  still  there  are  sub- 
pbratries  interposed  between  the  phratry  and  the  clans, 
each  phratry  including  two  subphratries,  and  the  sub- 
phratries  including  totem  clans.  We  will  take  examples 
of  the  former  and  simpler  organization  first. 

The  Turra  tribe  in  Yorke  Peninsula,  South  Australia,  is  divided 
into  two  phratrics,  Wiltu  (Eaglehawk)  and  MCdta  (Seal).  The 
Eaglehawk  phratry  includes  ten  totem  clans  (Wombat,  Wallaby, 
Kangaroo,  Iguana,  Wombat-Snake,  Bandicoot,  Black  Bandicoot, 
Crow,  Rock  Wallaby,  and -Emu);  and  the  Seal  phratry  includes 
fix  ( Wild  Goose,  Butterfish,  Mullet,  Schnapper,  Shark,  and  Salmon). 
The  p'aratries  are  of  course  exogamous,  but  (as  with  the  Choctaws, 
Mohegan,  and,  so  far  as  appears,  all  the  American  phratries)  auy 
clan  of  the  one  phratry  may  intermarry  with  any  clan  of  the  other 
phratry.'  Bat  the  typical  Australian  tribe  is  divided  into  two 
exogamous  phratries;  each  of  these  phratrics  is  subdivided  into 
two  subphratries;  and  these  subphratnes  are  subdivided  into  an 
indefinite  number  of  totem  clans.  The  pliratries  being  exogaiuous, 
it  follows  that  their  subdivisions  (the  subphratnes  and  claus)  ,ire 
eo  also.  The  jffell-known  Kamilaroi  tri'oe  in  New  South  Wales 
will  serve  as  a£  example.      Its  subdivisions  are  as  follows .  " — 


Phiumes.        Sn&phratrlea. 

Totem  Cans. 

i                       t 
KnplWn.       {     [P^it^.         { 

Kangaroo,  Opossnm,  Unndicoot.  Padiniclon, 
IgOAna,  Black  Duck,  EnglflinM-k.  Scrub 
Turkey.  VeUow-i-"Uh,  Honey-Fii/i,  Bream. 

Emu,  CLfpct-SnakP,  LlRck  Snako,  fiL-d  K.-xii- 
Karoo.  H&ney,  Walirroo.  f  rug,  Cod-Fish. 

'  Morgan,  op.  cit  .  p.  73.      '  Morgan,  p.  150.      '  First  liep.,f. 

•  G>lUclions  of  the  Minnesota  Histcmcal  Soneti/,  v.  p.  49. 

•  H.  Hale,  Tfii  Irorpims  Book  of  Rites,  p.  53  sq. 

•  Geol.  SuTV.  of  Canada.  Rep.  for  1S7S-7U.  p.  134b. 
'  Third  Rip.,  p.  235,  Ainerican  A'alural'ii.  xviii.  p. 

•  Fison  and  Howitt,  p.  285.  '  J.  A    1.,  xii. 
"  Corresponding  female  forms  are  made  bj  .adding  Via  to  these  male 

:  Mttii— Matb-t  (for  Muritha),  Kubi— Kubilha,  kc    , 


114. 

500. 


In  such  tribes  the  freedom  of  marriage  is  still  more  curtailed. 
A  subphratry  is  not  free  to  marry  mto  either  subphratry  of  tbfl 
other  phratry ;  each  subphratry  is  restricted  in  its  choice  of  partners 
to  one  subphratry  of  the  other  phratry ;  Muri  can  only  marry 
Kumbo,  and  vice  rcrsa ;  Kubi  can  only  marry  Ijiai,  and  via  versa. 
Hence  (supposing  the  tribe  to  be  equally  distributed  between  the 
phratries  and  subphratries),  whereas  under  the  two  phratry  and 
clan  system  a  man  is  free  to  choose  a  wife  from  half  the  women  of 
the  tribe,  under  the  phratry,  subphratry,  and  clan  system  he  is 
restricted  in  his  choice  to  one  quarter  of  the  women. 

A  remarkable  feature  of  the  Australian  social  organiza- 
tion is  that  divisions  of  one  tribe  have  their  recognized 
equivalents  in  other  tribes,  whose  languages,  includiag  the 
names  for  the  tribal  divisions,  are  quite  different.  A 
native  who  travelled  far  and  wide  through  Australia  stated 
that  "  he  was  furnished  with  temporary  wives  by  the 
various  tribes  with  whom  he  sojourned  in  his  travels ;  that 
his  right  to  these  women  was  recognized  as  a  matter  of 
course ;  and  that  he  could  always  ascertain  whether  they 
belonged  to  the  division  into  which  he  could  legally  marry, 
'  though  the  places  were  1000  miles  apart,  and  the  lan- 
guages quite  different.' "  i'  Again,  it  is  said  that  "  ia  cases 
of  distant  tribes  it  can  be  shown  that  the  class  divisions 
correspond  with  each  other,  as  for  instance  in  the  classes 
of  the  Flinders  river  and  ^Iitchell  river  tribes ;  and  these 
tribes  are  separated  by  400  miles  of  country,  and  by  many 
intervening  tribes.  But,  for  all  that,  class  corresijonds  to 
class  in  fact  and  in  meaning  and  in  privileges,  although 
the  name  may  be  quite  different  and  the  totems  of  each 
dissimilar."'-  Particular  information,  however,  as  to  the 
equivalent  divisions  is  very  scanty.'^  This  systematic  cor- 
respondence between  the  intermarrying  divisions  of  distinct 
and  distant  tribes,  with  the  rights  which  it  conveys  to  the 
members  of  these  divisions,  points  to  sexual  communism 
on  a  scale  to  which  there  is  perhaps  no  parallel  elsewhere, 
certainly  not  in  North  America,  where  marriage  is  always 
within  the  tribe,  though  outside  the  clan.'*  But  even  in 
Australia  a  man  is  always  bound  to  marry  within  a  certain 
kinship  group ;  that  group  may  extend  across  the  whole 
of  Australia,  but  nevertheless  it  is  exactly  limited  and 
defined.  If  endogamy  is  used  in  the  sense  of  prohibition 
to  marry  outside  of  a  certain  kinship  group,  whether  that 
group  be  exclusive  of,  inclusive  of,  or  identical  with  the 
man's  own  group,  then  marriage  among  the  totem  societies 
of  Australia,  America,  and  India  is  both  exogamous  and 
endogamous ;  a  man  is  forbidden  to  marry  either  within 
his  own  clan  or  outside  of  a  certain  kinship  group." 

(3)  Rides  of  Descent. — In  a  large  majority  of  the  totem 
tribes  at  present  known  to  ns  in  Australia  and  North 
A.merica  descent  is  in  the  female  line,  i.e.,  the  children 
belong  to  the  totem  clan  of  their  mother,  not  to  that  of 
their  father.  In  Australia  the  proportion  of  tribes  with 
female  to  those  with  male  descent  is  as  four  to  one ;  in 
America  it  is  between  three  and  two  to  one. 

As  to  the  totem  tribes  of  Atnca.  descent  among  the  Damaras  is 
in  the  female  line,"  and  there  are  traces  of  female  kin  among  the 
Bechuanaa"  Among  the  Bakalai  property  descends  in  the  mala 
line,  but  this  is  not  a  conclusive  proof  that  descent  is  so  reckoned; 
all  the  cl.ins  la  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Eakalai  have  female 
descent  both  for  blood  and  jiroperty.'*  In  Bengal,  where  there  is  a 
considerable  body  of  totem  tribes,  Mr  Risley  says  that  after  careful 
search  he  and  his  coadjutors  have  found  no  tribe  with  female 
descent,  and  only  a  single  trace  of  it  in  one,"    Among  the  totem 


Equiva- 
lence 
of  Aus- 
tralian 
tribal 
divisions 


Rnlesof 
descenU 


"  Fison  and  Howitt.  p.  53  sq. ;  cf.  Brough  Smyth,  i.p.  9L 

'=  J   A.  I ,  xiii.  p.  300. 

"  For  a  few  particulars  see  Fison  and  Howitt,  38,  40;  Erough 
Smjth,  11.  28S;  J.  A.  I ,  xui.  304,  308,  346.  liv.  348  sq.,  351. 

"  Fi-.st  Rep.,  p.  63.  Between  North-American  tribes  "there  were 
CO  mtermarriages,  no  social  iiitjr.  oarse,  no  intermingling  of  any  kind, 
except  that  of  mortal  strife  "  (Dodge,  Our  Wild  Indians',  p.  45). 

"  Cf.  First  Rep.,  loc.  cit..  As.  Quart.  Rev.,  July  1886,  p.  89  s.7. 

'^  Anderson,  Lake  iVaaim,  p.  221. 

>'  Casalis,  TIte  Basiitcs,  p.  179  s.7. 

'»  Du  Chaillu,  Jouniey  to  Ashar.go  Land,  4-29  ;  Id.,  Eqitat.  Afr., 
808  SQ.  "  As.  Quart  Kev.,  July  1886,  p.  94. 

XXIU    —  60 


£3— 18» 


474 


T  O  T  E  M  I  S  M 


tribes  of  Beogal  descent  is  male.^  In  Assam  the  exogamous  totem 
rlans  of  the  Kasias  have  female  descent,^  as  albo  have  the  exogamous 
clans  of  the  Garo3,  but  it  does  not  appear  whetlier  their  clans  are 
totem  clans,  though  some  of  their  legends  point  to  totemism.^ 
Indirect  In  the  Australian  tribal  organization  of  two  phratries, 
descent,  four  subphratries,  and  totem  clans,  there  occurs  a  peculiar 
form  of  descent  of  which  uo  plausible  explanation  has  yet 
boen  offered.  It  seems  that  in  all  tribes  thus  organized 
the  children  are  burn  into  the  subphratry  neither  of  their 
father  nor  of  their  mother,  and  that  descent  in  such  cases 
is  either  female  or  male,  according  as  the  subphratry  into 
which  the  children  are  born  is  the  companion  subphratry 
of  their  mother's  or  of  their  father's  subphratry.  In  the 
former  case  we  have  what  may  be  called  indirect  female 
descent  ,  in  the  latter,  indirect  male  descent.  But  it  is 
only  in  the  subphratry  that  descent  is  thus  indirect.  In 
the  totem  clan  it  is  always  direct  ;  the  child  belongs  to 
the  clan  either  of  its  mother  or  of  its  father.  Thus,  in  the 
typical  Australian  organization,  descent,  whether  female 
or  male,  is  direct  in  the  phratry,  indirect  in  the  sub- 
phratry, and  direct  in  the  clan. 

To  take  examples,  the  following  is  the  scheme  of  descent,  so  far 
as  the  phratries  and  siihphratnes  are  concerned,  in  the  Kamilaroi  — 


Dilbi.  ■{ 

Eiipalhin      < 


Male. 


Muri. 
Kubl. 
Ipai 
Kumbo. 


Manies 


Kumbo. 
I  pal 
K  u  bi . 
Muri 


Chililreii  arc 

Ipal. 
K  limbo 
Mun. 
Kubl. 


This  is  an  example  of  indirect  female  descent,  hecause  the  child- 
ren belong  to  the  companion  subphratry  of  their  mother,  not  to 
the  cunipanion  .stil'pliratry  of  th<.-ir  father  But  in  the  totems  the 
iemalc  descent  is  direct  ;  c  3  ,  if  the  faliier  Is  Mun-Kangaroo  and 
the  mother  is  KumboEmu.  the  children  will  be  Ipai-Emu  ;  if  the 
mother  is  Knmho-Bundiooot.  the  children  will  be  Ipai-Bandiooot.^ 

The  tbllou-ing  is  the  scheme  of  descent  in  the  Kiabara  tribe:*— 


Pbnunes. 

Male, 

Mnii'ies 

Cliildrcn  aic 

DUebl.             1 
Cu^atiQe.       j 

During. 

Turowine. 

Buloin. 

Biindah. 

Pimdab. 
Biilcoin, 
Tuiv^w.ne. 
Daring 

Turnwinc. 
Baiinc. 
Bundah. 
DuJtoio. 

Til  is  is  an  ex.imple  of  indiroct  male  desceot,  because  the  children 
beloD^  to  the  com|i.inion  subphratry  of  their  father,  not  to  the 
companiou  subphratry  of  their  mother.  Wc  have  no  information 
as  to  the  totems,  but  on  the  analogy  of  indirect  female  descent  we 
shcuhl  expect  them  to  lie  taken  from  the  father.  Tliis  at  any  rate 
is  true  of  a  harnc  tribe  or  g'o^P  "'  trilpcs  to  the  south  of  the  Gu'.f 
of  Car[)entaria ;  their  rules  of  marriaj^cand  descent,  so  far  as  concerns 
the  suhpliratnes.  are  like  those  of  tiie  Kiabara,  and  the  totems 
(which  at  the  lower  Leichhardt  river  are  tlie  names  of  fish)  a;c 
inherited  from  father  to  son.^ 

In  some  Atistralian  tribes  sons  take  their  totems  from  their 
father  and  daiii;hters  from  their  mollier.  Thus  tlie  Dieri  in  South 
Australia  are  diviiied  into  two  phratries,  each  of  which  includes 
under  it  sixteen  totem  clans,  (Caterpillar,  Mullet,  Dog,  Rat, 
Kangaroo,  Frog,  Crow,  &c  );'  and  if  a  Dog  man  marries  a  Rat 
woman,  the  sons  of  tliis  marriage  are  Dogs  and  the  daughters  "are 
Rats  '  The  Ikula  (Morning  Star)  tribe,  at  the  head  of  the  Great 
Australian  Bight,  has,  with  certain  exceptions,  the  same  nile  of 
descent.' 

rraosi-         Besides  the  tribes  whose  line  of  de.icent  is  defitiitely 

tionlrom  fi^ed  ill  the  female  or  male  line,  or,  as  with  the  Dieri  ond 

•I'roale    ^''"'^'  l^alf  way  between  the  two,  there  are  a  number  of 

iescenU    tribes  among  whom  a  child  may  be  entered  in  either  his 

mother's  or  his  father's  clan.     Among  the  Haidas,  children 

regularly  belong  to  the  totem  clan  of  their  mother;  hut 

in  very  exceptional  cases,  when  the  clan  of  the  father  is 

reduced  in  numbers,  the  newly-born  child  may  be  given 

•  jis.  Quart.  Iter  ,  .July  18S6,  p.  9i. 

"  DaltoD,  Ellm.n/licnn.,jt.5esg.:  W.  W  Hunter,  Statistical  Ac- 
cminl  of  Assam-,  ii.  p.  217  sq, 

'  D.ilton,  op.  cit..  60,  63;  Hunter,  op.  cil.,  ii.  154  sq. 

•  Fison  and  Howitt,  p.  37  sq.;  J.  A.  /.,  xiii.  335,  341,  344. 
'  J.  A.  I.,  xiii.  336,  341.  6  Ibid.,  xii.  504. 

Ibul..  xii.  500.  8  Letter  of  Mr  S.  Gason  to  the  present  writer. 

•  /.  «l.  /.,  xii   509. 


to  the  father's  sister  to  suckle.  It  is  then  spoken  of  as 
belonging  to  the  paternal  aunt,  and  is  counted  to  its 
father's  clan.'"  Among  the  Delawares  descent  is  regularly 
in  the  female  line  ;  but  it  is  possible  to  transfer  a  child  to 
its  father's  clan  by  giving  it  one  of  the  names  which  are 
appropriated  to  the  father's  clan."  In  the  Hervey  Islands, 
South  Pacific,  the  parents  settled  beforehand  whether  the 
child  should  belong  to  the  father's  or  mother's  clan.  The 
father  usually  had  the  preference  ;  but  sometimes,  when  the 
father's  clan  was  one  which  was  bound  to  furnish  human 
victims  from  its  ranks,  the  mother  had  it  adopted  into  her 
clan  by  having  the  name  of  her  totem  (ironounced  over  it.'* 
In  Samoa  at  the  birth  of  a  child  the  father's  totem  was  usu- 
ally prayed  to  first;  but  if  the  birth  was  tedious,  the  mother's 
totem  was  invoked  ,  and  whichever  happened  to  be  invoked, 
at  the  moment  of  birth  was  the  child's  totem  for  life." 

When  a  North  American  tribe  is  on  the  march,  the  members  of 
each  tutem  clau  camp  together,  and  the  clans  arc  .arranged  lu  a 
6xed  order  in  camp,  the  whole  tribe  being  dr»-ange>l  in  a  great 
circle  or  in  several  concentric  circles. '*  When  the  tribe  lives  in 
settled  villages  or  towns,  each  clan  has  its  separate  ward  '* 
The  cbiis  of  the  Osages  are  divided  into  war  clans  and  peace  clans  , 
when  li.ey  .iie  out  on  the  biillalo  hunt,  they  camp  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  tribal  circle,  and  the  peace  clans  are  not  allowed  to  take 
.ininial  life  of  any  kind  ,  they  must  therefore  live  on  vc-ietables 
unless  thev  can  oiitain  meat  in- exchange  for  vegetables  from  the 
warclans.^''  Members  of  the  same  clan  are  buried  together  and 
apart  from  those  of  other  clans;  hence  the  remains  of  husband 
aud  wife,  belonging  as  they  do  to  separate  clans,  do  not  rest 
together  *'  It  is  remaikable  that  among  the  Thiinkets  the  bodj 
must  always  be  carried  to  the  funeral  pyre  and  burned  by  men  of 
ariother  totem. '^  and  the  presents  distributed  on  those  occasions  by 
the  representatives  of  the  deceased  must  always  bo  made  to  men 
of  a  dilferent  clan.'^ 

Here  we  must  revert  to  the  religious  side  of  totemism, 
in  order  to  consider  some  facts  which  have  emerged  from 
the  study  of  its  social  aspect.  We  have  seen  that  some 
phratries,  both  in  America  and  Australia,  btar  the  names 
of  animals;^"  and  in  the  case  of  the  Thiinkets  and  Mohegans 
we  have  seen  reason  to  believe  that  the  animals  .vbich 
give  their  names  to  the  phratries  were  once  clan  totems. 
The  same  seems  to  hold  of  the  names  of  the  Australian 
phratries,  Eaglehawk,  Crow,  and  Seal,  or  at  least  of  Eagle- 
hawk  and  Crow,  for  lhe.se  are  clan  totems  in  other  tribes, 
and  are,  besides,  important  figures  in  Australian  mytho- 
logy. Indeed,  there  appears  to  be  direct  evidence  that  both 
the  phratries  and  subphratnes  actually  retain,  at  least  in 
some  tribes,  their  totems.  Thus  the  Port  Mackay  tribe  in 
Queensland  is  divided  into  two  phratries,  Yuiigaru  and 
Wutaru,  with  subphratries  Gurgela,  Burbia,  VVuugo,  and 
Kubera;  and  the  Yungaru  phratry  has  for  its  totem  the 
alligator,  and  Wutaru  the  kangaroo,^'  while  the  sub- 
phratries have  for  their  totems  the  emu  (or  the  carpet  ' 
snake),  iguana,  opossum,  and  kangaroo  (or  scrub  turkey).^ 

'"  Geol  Sun.  of  Canada.  Rep.  for  1S78-79,  p.  134D. 

"  .Morgan.  A.  S., -p.  172  sq. 

"  Gill,  jVylhs  and  Songs  of  the  Smith  Pacific,  p.  36. 

"  Turner,  Sa^noa,  p.  78  sq.  The  child  might  thus  be  transferred 
to  a  clan  which  was  that  neither  of  his  father  nor  of  his  mother, 

"  First  Rsp.,  64;  Third  ftip.,  219;  Avt^.  Naturalist,  xviii.  113 

"  Gatschet,  Migration  Legend  of  the  Creek  Indians,  154  ;  Bourke, 
Snake  Dance,  229;  Aoad.,  27th  Sept.  1884,  p.  203. 

***  Rev.  J.  Owen  Dorsey  in  American  Naturalist,  xviii.  p,  113. 

"  Adair,  Hist.  AmtY.  Ind  ,  183,'j.;  Morgan,  A.S.,  83  sq.;  Brinton, 
The  Lf  nape  and  their  Legends,  54;  Id.,  Myths  of  the  Nf.w  Worlds 
87  n ;  A.  Hodgson,  Letters  from  North  America,  i.  p.  259  ;  Dalton, 
Eth.  of  Beng.,  56  ;  cf.  Robertson  Smith,  Kinship  and  Marriagt 
in  Early  Arabia,  315  sq.  ^^  Holmberg,  op.  cit.,  324. 

'»  Krause,  Die  Tlinkit-Indianer,  223. 

^^  As  among  the  Chickasas,  Thiinkets,  and  Mohegans.  in  America^ 
and  the  Turra,  Ngarego,  and-Theddora  tribe.s  in  Australia.  Tae  sub- 
phcitries  of  the  Ki.abara  also  bear  animal  names. 

-'  Fison  and  Howitt.  38  sq.,  40. 

'^  Fison  and  Howitt,  p.  41.  The  totem's  of  the  phratries  and  sub- 
phratries are  given  by  different  authorities,  who  wTitethe  native  names 
of  the  subphratries  dilVercntly.  But  they  seem  to  be  speaking  of  the 
Same  tribe;  at  le^st  Mr  Fisoa  understands  them  so. 


Arrange- 
ment of 
clans  <^D 
thi,iiai-cb. 


Phratrtc 
and  sub- 
phratrk 
totems. 


TOTEMISM 


475 


Sub- 


As  the  siibpuratries  of  this  tribe  are  said  to  be  equivalent 
to  the  ^ubphratriea  of  the  Kamilaroi,  it  seems  to  follow 
that  the  subphratries  o|  the  Kamilaroi  (Muxi,  Kubi,  Ipai, 
and  Kumbo)  have  or  once  had  totems  also.  Hence  it  ap- 
peals that  ia  tribes'  organized  ia.  phratries,  subphratries, 
^^d  claos  each  man  has  three  totems-^his  pkratry  totem, 
his  subphratry  totem,  and  his  clan  totem.  If  we  add  a 
Bex  totem  and  an  individual  totem,  each  man  in  tl^e  typical 
Austrahan  tribe  has  five  distinct  kindj  of  totems.  What 
degree  of  allegiance  hp  owes  to  his  subphratry  totem  and 
phratry  totem  respectively  we  are  not  told  ;  indeed,  the 
very  existence  of  such  totS'ins,  as  distinct  from  dan  totems, 
appears  to  have  been  generally  overlooked.  But  we  may 
suppose  that  the  totem  bond  diminishes  ia  strength  in 
proportion  to  its  extension;  that  therefore  the  clan  totem 
ia  the  primary  tie,  of  which  tjo  subphratry  and  phratry 
totems  are  successively  weakened  repetitions. 

In  these  totems  superposed  on  totems  may  perhaps  be 
discerned  a  rudimentary  classification  of  natural  objects 
under  heads  which  bear  a  certain  resemblance  to  genera, 
species.  Sic  This  classification  is  by  some  Australian  tribes 
extended  so  as  to  include  the.  whole  of  nature.  Thus  the 
Fort  Mackay  tribe  in  Queensland  (see  above)  divides  all 
nature  between  the  phratries  ;  the  wind  belongs  to  one 
phratry  and  the  rain  to  another  ;  the  sun  is  Wutaru  and 
.he  moon  ia  Yungarn  ;  the  stars,  trees,  and  plants  are  also 
divided  between  the  phratries.*  As  the  totem  of  Wutaru 
is  kangaroo  and  of  Yungaru  alligator,  this  is  equivalent  to 
making  the  sun  a  kangaroo  and  the  moon  en  alhgator. 

T!ie  Mount  Gauibier  tribe  in  South  Australia  is  divided  into  two 
phratries  ( Kumi  and  Kroki),  which  again  are  subdivided  into  totem 
claos.     EverytluDg  in  nature  belongs  to  a  totem  clan,  thus;  • — , 


Phratries. 

Tftem  Odns. 

Including 

Kami.  • 
Kroki. 

l.S!ula=  Fish-Hawk. 
?.  Paroagals  Pelican. 

3.  W5  =  Crow. 

4,  Wna=BIack  Cockatoo. 

1.  W£rto=Tea-Tree. 

2.  Murna=An  edible  RCot. 

3.  EarMl=Blackcres:les3Ccck- 

■too. 

Srr.oke,  honeysucfcJe,  trees,  ic. 

/  Do^s,  blackwood  trees,  Are.  frost 

\     {f«;m.) 

/Rain,  thunder,  lightnmg.  winter, 

\     hailvclouda,  <lc. 

Stars,  moon,  Ac. 

/  Fish,   stringybark    trees,   seals, 

\     eels.  Ac 

Ducks,  wallabies,  owis,  CTdv-fish.  Ac 

/  BusUrds.  quails,  doWlch  <ii  small 

1      kangaroo). 

/  Kangaroo,  she-oak  irecs^.  sammcr. 

\     sun,  autumn  (fem  >,wind  (fern  ) 

With  reference  to  this  classification  Mr  D.  S.  Stewart,  the 
fcuthority  for  it,  says,  "  I  have  tried  in  vain  to  find  some  re.ison  for 
the  arrangement.  I  asked,  *To  what  division  does  a  bullock 
belong?'  After  a  pause  camo  the  answer,  'It  cats  grass:  it  is 
Boortvterio."  I  then  said,  'A  cray-fish  does  not  eat  grass;  why  is 
it  Boortwerio?'  Then  came  the. standing  reason  for  all  puzzling 
qaeations :  '  That  Is  what  oar  fathers  said  it  was. ' "  '  The  natural 
objects  thus  classed  nnder  and  ahario"  the  respect  due  to  the  totem 
may  be  conveniently  called,  as  Mr  Howitt  proposes,*  subtotems. 
Again,  the  Wotjoballufc  tribe  in  north-western  Victoria  has  a  system 
of  subtotems,  thus  :' — 


SabU)t£in9. 


(I  1.  Hot  Wind. 

■<  I  2.  Whtu  creiitless  Cockatoo. 
(  3.  Belonging  to  the  Sun. 
1 1  4.Desf  Adder. 
,  J'  5.  DIack  Cockatoo. 
(1  6,  FeVlan. 


Each  totem  hu  subonilnate  to  It 
a  Dumber  of  objects,  animal  or 
vegelalj^e,  e.g.,  kangaroo,  red 
gnm^ree,  Ac 

Do. 


Of  the  subtotems  in  this  tribe  Mr  Howitt  says,  "They  appear  to/ 
"toe  to  be  totems  in  a  state  of  development.  Hot  wind  has  at  least 
five  of  them,  white  cockatoo  has  seventeen,  and  so  OB  for  the  others. 
That  these  subtotems  are  now  in  process  of  gaining  a  sort  of  inde- 
pendence may  be  shown  by  the  following  instance;  a  man  who  is 
Krokitch- Wartwut  (hot  wind)  claimed  to  own  all  the  five  subtotems 
of  hot  wind  (three  snakes  and  two  birds),  yet  of  these  there  was 
one  which  he  specially  claimedas  'belonging'  to  him,  namely, 
Moiwuk  (carpet-snake).  Thus  his  totem,  hot  wind,  seems  to  have 
been  in  process  of  subdivision  into  minor  totems,  and  this  man's 


'  Brough  Snijth,.  i.  91 
xiiL  300. 

•  Fisoo  and  Howitt,  loc.  ciL 
•  •  In  Snitlumi..Jiep:/or  i&W.  r  8)8 


Fison  aud.^  Howitt,  168  ;  c/.  J.    A.  I., 

'  Fisnn  and  Howitt,  169. 
'  ibid. 


Ism. 


divLsioii  might  Jiave  bccomu  hot  wind  carpet-snake  had  not 
civilization,  rudely  sto|>(<od  the  process  by  almost  extinguishing 
the  tribe" 

Gcograpliical  Di/usioK  of  Totemism. — In  Australia  Diffusion 
totemism  is  almost  universal*"  In  North  America  it  may  °/J*"'°' 
be  roughly  said  to  prevail,  or  have  prevailed,  among  all  the 
tribes  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,^  and  among  all  the 
Indian  (but  not  thu  Eskimo)  tribes  on  the  north-west  coast 
as  far  south  as  the  United  States  frontier.  On  the  other 
hand,  highly  competent  authorities  have  failed  to  find  it 
among  the  tribes  of  western  \Vashington,  north-western 
Oregon,  and  California.*  In  Panama  it  exists  apparently 
among  the  Guaymies  :  .each  tribe,  family,  and  individual 
has  a  guardian  animal,  the  most  prevalent  being  a  kind  of 
parrot.*  ■  In  South  America  totemism  is  found  among  ihe 
Qoajiros  on  the  borders*of  Colombia  and  Venezuela, "^  the 
Arawaks  in  Guiana,"  the  Bosch  negroes  also  in  Guiapa,'' 
and  the  Patagonians.'^  Finding  it  at  such  distant  points  of 
the  continent,  ■we  should  expect  it  to  be  widely  prevalent ; 
but,  with  our  meagie  knowledge  of  the  South  American 
Indjans,  this  is  merely  conjecture.  The  aborigines  of  Peru 
and  the  Salivas  on  the  Orinoco  believed  in  the  descent  of 
their  tribes  from  animals,  plants,  and  natural  objects,  such 
as  the  sun  and  earth  ;  '^  but  this,  though  a  presumption,  is 
not  a  proof  of  totemism.  -»' 

In  Africa  totemism  prevails  in  Senegambia,  among  the 
Bakalai  on  the  equator,  on  the  Gold  Coast  and  in  Ashantee, 
and  among  the  Damaras  and  Bechuanas  in  southern  Africa." 
There  are  traces  of  totem.ism  elsewhere  in  Africa.  Ip  east- 
ern Africa  the  Gallas  are  divided  into  two  exogaraous  sec- 
tions, and  have  certain  forbidden  foods."'  In  Abyssinia 
certain  district^  or  families  will  not  eat  of  certain  animals 
or  parts  of  animals."  The  territory  of  the  Hosas  in  Mada- 
gascar is  divided  and  subdivided  into  districts,  the  names 
of  the  subdivisions  referring  "  rather  to  clans  and  divi- 
sions of  people  than  to  place."  One  of  these  names  is  "  the 
powerful  bird,"  i.e.,  either  the  eagle  or  the  vulture.  The 
same  clan  is  found  occupying  separate  districts.'*  One 
Jladagascar  tribe  regard  a  species  of  lemur  as  "  an  embodi- 
ment of  the  spirit  of  their  ancestors,  and  therefore  they 
look  with  horror  upon  killing  them."  Other  ifalagasy 
tribes  and  families  refrain  from  eating  pigs  and  goatS) 
others  will  not  eat  certain  vegetables  nor  even  allow. them 
to  be  carried  into  their  houses.'^  The  only  occasion  when 
the  Sakalava  tribe  in  Madagascar  kill  a  bull  is  at  the  cir> 
cumcision  of  a  child,  who  is  placed  on  the  bull'iback  during 
the  customary  invocation.^ 

In  Bengal,  as  we  have  seen,  there  are  numerous  totem 
tribes  among  the  non-Aryan  races.     In  Siberia  the  Yakuts 

*  Perhaps  the  only  known  exceptions  are  the  Kurnai  in  eastern 
and  the  Gournditch-uior.%  in  western  Victoria.  For  the  latter  see 
Fison  and  HoN^itt,  p.  276. 

'  Gatschet,  Migration  Legend  of  the  Creek  Indians^  153;  H.  Hale, 
.Tfte  Iroquois  Book  of  RiUs,  p.  51. 

*  George  GibUs  in  Contrib.  to  *V.  American  £thnol.^  i.  184;  S» 
Powers,  Tribes  of  Calif.  5. 

®  A.  Pinart  in  Revue  d' £thnographie,  vi.  p.  36. 

>»  Simons  in  Proc.  R.  Geog.  Sec,  Dec.  1885,  pp.  7S6,  7S6. 

"  Brett,  Ind.  Tribes  of  Guiana,  96  ;  Im  Thurn,  Ammr)  tlie  Indiattf 
of  Guiana,  175  sq, 

^*  Crevaux,  Voyages  dans  VAm^lque  duSud,  p.  59. 

***  FaJkccr,  Descr.  of  Patatjonia,  114. 

'*  Garcila-sso  de  la  Vejja,  Royal  Commentaries  of  the  Jticns,  pL  i- 
bk.  i.  chs.  9,  10,  11, 18  ;  Guniilla,  /list,  de  'VOrfiiu<ine,  i.  175  57. 

"  Revue  d' Ethnologic,  iii.  396  sq.,  v.  81 ;  A.  B.  Ellis,  The  Tshi. 
speaking  People  of  the  Gold  Coast,  p.-  204  sq.\  Bowdich,  Mission  la 
Ashavlee,  ed.  1873,  p.  216;  Du  Cluiillu,  Equal.  Afr.,  308  sq.-.  Td., 
Journey  to  Ashango  Land,  427,  429  ;  C.  J.  Anderson,  J.ake  Againit 
221  sq.;  Livingstone,  Trcivls  m  S.  Africa,  13;  Casalis,  The  Dastttos, 
211  ;  J.  Mackenzie,  Ten  I'ears  ^'orth  of  the  Orange  River,  393; 
J.  A.  I.,  xii.  S3  sq. 

*^  Charles  New,  Life,  Wanderings.  *tc.,  in  Eastern  Africa,  272,  274. 

"  Mansiield  Parkjns,  Life  m  Abyssinia,  293;  Tr.  EthnoL  Soe., 
new  series,  vi.  292.  '^  Ellis,  .'/u^  of  Madagiu.cur.  i.  87- 

"  FUkLore  P.coril,  a.  22,  30.  ^  »  Jbid  .  iv.  45. 


476 


-T  0  T  — T  O  U 


are  divided  into  totem  clans ;  the  clansmen  will  not  kill 
their  totems  (the  swan,  goose,  raven,  iic.) ; '  and  the  clans 
are  exogamous.^  The  Altaians,  also  in  Siberia,  are  divided 
into  twenty-four  clans,  which,  though  interfused  with  each 
other,  retain  strongly  the  clan  feeling ;  the  clans  are  exo- 
gamous  ;  each  has  its  own  patron  divinity  and  religious 
ceremonies  ;  and  the  only  two  names  of  clans  of  these  and 
kindred  tribes  of  which  the  meanings  are  given  are  names 
of  animals. 3  Totemism  exists  among  the  mountaioeers 
of  Formosa,*  and  there  are  traces  of  it  in  China.^  In 
Polynesia  it  existed,  as  we  have  seen,  in  Samoa.  In 
Melanesia  it  appears  in  Fiji,''  the  New  Hebrides,'  and 
the  Solomon  Islands.'  Among.st  the  Dyaks  there  are 
traces  of  totemism  in  the  prohibitioi^of  tlie  fiesh  of  certain 
animals  to  certain  tribes,  respect  for,  certain  plants,  &c.^ 
It- exists  in  the  islands  of  Ambon,  Uliase,  Leti,  Moa, 
Lakor,  Keisar  (Makisar),  Wetar,  and  the  Aaru  and  Babar 
archipelagos.'"  In  the  Philippine  Islands  there  are  traces 
of  it  in  the  reverence  for  certain  animals,  the  belief  that 
the  souls  of  ancestors  dwell  in  trees,  ic." 

With  regard  to  ancient  nations,  totemism  may  be  re- 
garded as  certain  for  the  Egj'ptians,  and  highly  probable 
for  the  Semites,'-  Greeks,  and  Latins.  If  proved  for  one 
Aryan  people,  it  might  be  regarded  as  proved  for  all;  since 
totemism  could  scarcely  have  been  developed  by  any  one 
Aryan  branch  after  the  dispersion,  and  there  is  no  evi- 
dence or  probability  that  it  ever  was  borrowed.  Prof. 
Sayce  finds  totemism  among  the  ancient  Babylonians,  but 
his  evidence  is  not  conclusive.'^ 

No  satisfactory  explanation  of.  the  origin  of  totemism 
has  yet  been  given.  Mr  Herbert  Spencer  finds  the  origin 
of  totemism  in  a  "misinterpretation  of,  nicknames": 
savages  first  named  themselves  after  natural  objects,  and 
then,  confusing  these  objects  with  their  ancestors  of  the 
same  names,  reverenced  them  as  they  already  reverenced 
their  ancestors."  But  this  view  attributes  to  verbal  mis- 
understandings far  more  influence  than,  in  spite  of  the 
so-called  comparative  mythology,  they  ever  seem  to  have 
exercised. 

I  Literature. — .Ipart  from  the  origiual  authorities,  the  literature 
on  totemism  is  very  scanty.  The  importance  of  totemism  for  the 
tarly  history  of  society  was  first  recognized  by  Mr  J.  F.  M'Lennan 
in  papers  published  in  the  Fortnightly  Rcvif.w  (Oct.  and  Nov.  1869, 
t'eS.  1870).  The  subject  has  since  been  treated  of  by  E.  B.  Tyler, 
Early  History  of  i/ankivrl,  p.  284  sq. ;  Sir  John  Lubbock,  Origin 
of  Cnilnalwn,  260  sq.;  A.  Lang,  Citsfom  awi  Myth,  p.  260,  &c. ; 
Id.,  lUylh,  Eilnal,  and  Hdigton,  i  p.  58  sq.,  4c.;  E.  Clodd. 
Mylhaand  Dreams,  p.  99  sq-\  W.  Robertson  Smith,  Kinship 
niiii  Mnrrwgc  in  Early  Arabw.  See  also  SACRIFICE,  vol.  x.xi.  p. 
13.1  For  fuller  details,  see  J.  G.  Frazcr,  Totemism  (Edinburgh, 
1887).  (J.  G.  FR.) 

TOTILA.     See  Jdstinian  and  Naeses. 
(• 

*  Slrahlenberg,  Description  t*f  the  Xorth  and  Eastern  Parts  of 
EuTO/ie  and  Asm,  London,  1738,  p.  383. 

'  Middenriorf,  .SiSrr  Rcise,  p.  72,  quoted  hy  Lubbock,  Origin  of 
Civilization,  p.  135  The  present  ^vTlte^  h3«  been  un.ible  to  find  the 
pissige  of  MuUlendorf  referred  to. 

'  W     RadlofT,   Alts  Sibcricn,  i.   216,   258.     The  Ostiaks,  also  in 
Sibena_,rore  divided  into  cxogamous  clans,  and  they  reverence  the  bear 
(Castren     Vorlesvngen    ubcr   die  Altaischcn    Volker,    107,    115,    117). 
This,  however,  by  no  means  amounts  to  a  proof  of.totemism. 
V  *  Verliainlt.  d.  Rerl   Oesell.  Anthropologie,  4c.,  1882.  p.  (62): 

*  Morgan,  A.  5  .  p.  304  sq.  One  of  the  aboriginal  Inbes  of  China 
Worships  the  image  of  a  dog  (Gray.  China,  ii    306). 

1.  '  Williams,  Fiji  and  the  Fi/ians,  eii.  1860,  i.  219  sq. 

'  Turner.  Sum™,  334.  '  Fison  and  Howitt,  p.  37  n. 

.'  Lovy,  Sarctivak.  -265  sq.,  272-274,  300;  St  John,  Life  m  the 
ttrre.ils  of  tlie  Far  East,  i.  186  sg.,  203;  ef.  VVilken  in  Jnd.  Gids, 
Iniie  1SS4.  p.  988^7.;  Ausland,  16lh  June  1884,  p.  470. 

'^  Ricdcl,  De  .ilni/c.  en  hocsharige  reisscn  tusschcn  Papua  en  Selebes^ 
>n.  32,  61,  253,  334,  341,  376  Sq.,  414,  432. 

*'  Itlumentritt,  Der  Ahnencultus  unH  die  religioscn  Anschauungen 
^tr  Malaien  des  PhilippirTen-Archt'pel,  159  sq. 

^-  See  W.  R.  Smith,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia. 
'**  A   H.  S.iyce,  The  P.eliyinn  nf  the  Aneirnt  Litbylonians,  p.  219  sg. 

}*  bpcuccr.  Principles  of  .^ciologj/,  i.  307. 


TOTTENHAM,  or  Totttnham  High  Cross,  a  suburb 
of  London,  in  the  county  of  Middlesex,  is  situated  on  the 
old  "  Great  Northern "  road,  about  4 J  miles  north  from 
Shoreditch.    The  croGS  at  Tottenham  is  not  a  market-cross, 
and  its  origin  is  doubtful     Towards  the  close  of  the  16th 
century  it  consisted  of  a  column  of  -wood,  capped  with  a 
square   sheet  of   lead.     The  present  cross  of   brick  was 
erected  by  Dean  Wood  about  1600,  and  the  ornamental 
work  of  stucco  was  added  in  1809.     -In  the  time  of  Isaak 
Walton  -there  stood  over  it  a  shady  arbour  of  woodbine, 
sweetbriar,  jessamine,  and  mj^rtle.     Formerly  Tottenharu 
was  noted  for  its  "greens,"  in  the  centre  of  one  of  which 
stood  the  famous  old  elm  trees  called  the  "Seven  Sisters"; 
these  were  removed  in  1840,  but  the  name  is  preserved  in 
the  Seven  Sisters  Road.    Bruce  Castle,  occupying  the  site 
of  the  old  mansion  of  the  Bruces,  but  built  probably  by 
Sir  William  Compton  in  the  beginning  of  the  I6th  century, 
is  now  occupied  as  a  private  boarding  school.    The  churcE 
of  All  Hallows,  Tottenham,  was  given  by  David,  king  of 
Scotland,  probably  when  he  visited  Henry  in  1126,  to  the 
canons  of  the  church  of  Holy  Trinity,  London.     It  has 
frequently  been   restored   and   altered.     The  older  parts 
are  the  tower,  nave,  and  south  aisle  of  the  Perpendicuhcr 
period  and  the  south  porch  of  the  16th  century.     There 
are  a  large  number  of  monuments  and  brasses.    Tottenham 
consists  chiefly  of  an  irregular  line  of  houses  for  about  two 
miles   along  the  high  road,   with  short  side   streets   at 
intervals.     There  are  a  number  of  almshouses,  including 
.the  Sanchez  almshouses,  founded  in   1596  by  Balthazar 
Sanchez,  or  Zanchero,  confectioner   to   PhOip   of  Spain ; 
Reynardson's  (1685);    Pheasunt's,  or  "The  Pound,"    for 
poor  widows,  originally  founded  by  George  Hynninghonx^ 
in  15.36,  and  further  endowed  by  Pheasunt  and  Saunders; 
and  the  sailmakers'  almshouses,  founded  in  1869  by  the' 
Drapers'  Company  for  forty-five  inmates.     The  free  gram- 
mar school  was  enlarged  and  endowed  in  1686  by  Sarah,' 
dowager  duchess  of   Somerset.      The  population   of   the 
urban   sanitary  district  (area   4642   acres)   in   1871  was 
22,869,  and  in  1881  it  was  46,456. 

In  the  reign  of  the  Confesior  the  manor  of  Tottenham  was  pos- 
sessed by  Earl  Waltheof,  who  in  1070  married  Judith,  niece  of  tho 
Conqueror,  and  was  created  in  1072  carl  of  Northumberland, 
Huntingdon,  and  Northampton,  but  joined  the  conspiracy  against 
William,  was  betrayed  by  his  wife,  and  was  beheaded  at  "Winchester, ' 
It  was  inherited  by  his  daughter  Maud,  who  was  married  first  t(f 
Simon  de  St  Liz  and  afterwards  to  David,  sou  of  Malcolm  HI.,' 
king  of  Scotland,  who  was  created  by  Henry  1.  earl  of  Hunting- 
don, and  received  possession  of  all  the  lands  formerly  held  by  Earl 
Waltheof.  In  1184  the  manor  was  granted  by  William  the  Lion, 
king  of  Scotland,  to  his  brother  David,  carl  of  Angus  and  Gallo-, 
way',  the  grant  being  confirmed  in  1199  by  King  John  of  England, 
who  created  him  earl  of  Huntingdon.  He  married  Maud,  heiress 
of  Hugh,  earl  of  Chester,  and  his  son  John  inherited  both  earldoms. 
The  son  married  Helen,  daughter  of  Llewelyn,  prince  of  Wales, 
by  whom  he  was  poisoned  in  1237,  dying  without  issue.  She 
retained  possession  till  1254,  when  the  manor  was  divided  between 
his  coheirs  Robert  de  Brus.  John  de  Baliol,  and  Henry  de  Hastings, 
each  division  forming  a  distinct  manor  bearing  the  name  of  its 
owner.  In  1429  they  all  came  into  the  possession  of  Alderman 
Cedeney.  William  Beiwell,  tho  Arabic  scholar,  was  vicar  of 
Tottenham,  and  published  in  1632  a  Briefc  Description  of  the 
Tou-ne  of  Tollenhnm,  in  which  ho  printed  lor  the  first  time  ths 
burlesque  poem,  the  "Tuinament  of  Tottenham." 

S«-e  Robinfion's  Hutory  of  TultenJiam,  1840. 

TOUCAN,  the  Brazilian  name  of  a  bird,"  long  since 
adopted  into  nearly  all  European  languages,  and  aiiparentiy 
first  given  currency  in  England  (though  not  then  used  as 
an  Engli.sh  word)  in  1668"*  by  Charleton  (Onomasticon,  p. 
115)  ;  but  tho  bird,  with  its  enormous  beak  and  feather- 

"■  Commonly  believed  to  bo  so  called  frohi  its  cry ;  but  Prof.  Skeat 
{Proc.  Philolog.  .%ciety,  15lh  May  1885)  adduces  evidence  to  prove  that 
the  Guarani  Tiicd  is  from  ti,  no.se,  and  cAhg,  bone,  i.e.,  nose  of  bona. 

"  In  1656  the  beak  of  an  "  Aracari  of  Brazil,"  which  was  a  Toucan 
of  some  sort,  was  contained- in  the  Mnsxuni  Tradescaiitiamim  (p.  2), 
but  the  word  Toucan  does  not  appear  there. 


TOUCAN 


^77 


like  tongue,  was  described  by  Oviedo  in  his  Sumario  de  la 
Natural  Uistoria  de  las  ludias,  first  published  at  Toledo  in 
1527  (chap.  42),'  and,  to  quote  the  translation  of  part  of 
the  passage  in  Willughby's  Ornithology  (p.  129),  "there 
is  no  bird  secures  her  young  ones  better  from  the  Monkeys, 
jkich  are  very  noisom  to  the  young  of  most  Birds.  For 
when  she  perceives  the  approach  of  those  Enemies,  she  so 
settles  her  self  in  her  Nest  as  to  put  her  Bill  oat  at  the 
hole,  and  gives  the  Monkeys  such  a  weicom  therewith, 
that  they  presently  pack  away,  and  glad  they  scape  so." 
Indeed,  so  remarkable  a  bird  must  have  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  earliest  European  invaders  of  America,  the 
more  so  since  its  gaudy  plumage  was  used  by  the  natives 
in  the  decoration  of  their  persons  and  weapons.  In  1555 
Belon  (//lit.  A'at.  Oyseaux,  p.  1 84)  gave  a  characteristic 
figure  of  its  beak,  and  in  1558  Thevet  (SingularUez  de  la 
France  Antarctique,  pp  S8-90)  a  somewhat  long  descrip- 
tion, together  with  a  woodcut  (in  some  respects  inaccurate, 
bat  quite  unmistakable)  of  the  whole  bird,  nnder  the  name 
of  "Toucan,"  which  he  was  the  first  to  publish.  In  1560 
Oesner  {Icones  Avium,  p,  130)  gave  a  far  better  figure 
(though  still  somewhat  incorrect)  from  a  drawing  received 
from  Ferreriua,  and  suggested  that  from  the  size  of  its 
beak  the  bird  should  be  called  Burhynchus  or  Ramphestes. 
This  figure,  with  a  copy  of  Thevet's  and  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion, was  repeated  in  the  posthumous  edition  (1585)  of 
his  larger  work  (pp.  800,  801).  By  1579  Ambroise  Pare 
((Evares,  ed.  Malgaigne,  iii.  p.  783)  had  dissected  a  Toucan 
that  belonged  to  Charles  IX.  of  France,  and  about  the 
same  time  L6ry  (  Voyage  fait  en  la  Terre  dit  BresU,  chap, 
xi.),  whose  chief  object  seems  to  have  been  to  confute 
Thevet,  confirmed  that  writer's  account  of  this  bird  in 
most  respects.  In  1599  Aldrovandus  (Omitfiotogia,  i.  pp. 
801-803),  always  ready  to  profit  by  Oosner's  information, 
and  generally  without  acknowledgment,  again  described 
and  repeated  the  former  figures  of  the  bird  ,  but  he  cor- 
rupted his  predecessor's  Ramphestes  (which  was  nearly 
right)  into  Ramphuslos,  and  in  this  incorrect  form  the 
name,  which  should  certainly  be  Rhamphestes  or  Rham- 
phastas,  was  subsequently  adopted  by  Linnseus  and  has  since 
been  recognized  by  systemattsts.  Into  the  rest  of  the  early 
liiBtory  of  the  Toucan's  discovery  it  is  needless  to  go  * 
Additional  particulars  were  supplied  by  many  succeeding 
writers,  until  in  1834  Gould  completed  his  itonograpli 
of  the  family'  (with  an  anatomical  appendix  by  Sir  R. 
Owen),  to  which,  in  1835,  he  added  some  supplementary 
plates;  and  in  1854  be  finished  a  second  and  much 
improved  edition.  The  latest  systematic  compendium  on 
Toucans  is  Cassin's  "  Study  of  the  Raraphastid*,"  in  the 
Proceedings  of  tbn  Philailelphia  Acad«mv  for  1^67  fpp. 
100-124) 

By  recent  systemanata  5  genera  aad  from  50  to  60  species  of  the 
Family  are  recognized  ;  but  tKe  charactera  of  the  former  have  never 
been  aatisfactorily  defined,  nmoli  less  those  of  unnierous  snbtlivisiona 
which  it  has  pleased  some  wnters  to  invent  There  cau  be  little 
doubt  that  the  bird  first  figured  and  described  by  the  earlie-st 
lUthors  above  named  is  the  R   Uko  of  nearly  all  ornithologists,  and 

*  The  writer  haa  only  been  able  to  consult  the  repnut  of  this  rare 
iroT-k  cootained  io  the  BUil'oUxa  de  AuCores  EspaHoUi  'ixif.  op.  473- 
h\b).  published  at  Madrid  lu  1852. 

■^  One  point  of  some  interest  may.  tiuwever,  ne  noticed.  In  1705 
Plot  (.V.  H.  Oxfordshire,  p.  182)  reconJed  a  Toucan  found  within  two 
Diilesof  Oxford  in  164  4.  the  bo<iy  of  which  was  given  to  the  repository 
in  the  mescal  school  of  that  university,  where,  he  said,  "  it  la  stilt  to 
be  aeeo."  Already  io  1700  Leigh  in  hia  L'xncashiTf  (i.  p  195,  Birds, 
tab  \,  fig.  2)  bid  ti^rfel  another  which  had  been  fftund  dead  m  the 
coa&t  of  that  county  about  two  years  before  The  bird  is  e.-uiily  kept 
In  captivity,  and  no  doubt  from  early  times  many  ^^re  brought  alive 
to  Europe.  Besides  the  one  dissected  by  Pare,  a.-;  ibovo  mentioned, 
Joh.  Faber,  in  his  additions  to  Hernandez'a  work  on  the  Natitml 
History  of  Mexico  (1651),  figures  (p.  697^  nne  -•"lo  "ml  .lescribed  bv 
Puteus  (Dal  Poz2o)  at  FonUinebleau. 

^  Of  this  the  brothers  Sturm  In  1841  pubUahed  at  Nuremberg  a 
Dermaa  voraioD^ 


as  such  is  properly  n-garded  as  the  type  of  the  genus  and  thcreforo 
of  the  Family.  It  is  one  of  the  largest,  measuring  2  feet  in  length, 
and  has  a  wide  range  .throughout  Guiana  and  a  great  part  ol 
Brazil.  The  huge  beak,  looking  liko  the  great  claw  of  a  lobster, 
more  than  8  inches  long  and  3  Iiigli  at  the  base,  is  of  a  deep  orango 
colour,  with  a  large  black  oval  spot  near  the  tip.  Tho  eye,  with 
its  double  iris  of  green  and  yellow,  has  a  broad  blue  orbit,  and  la 
burrounded  by  a  Dare  space  of  deep  orange  skin.  The  olumago 
generally  is  black,  but  the  threat  is  white,  tinged  with  yellow  and 
commonly  edged  beneath  with  red ,  tho  upper  tail-ooveits  ara 
white,  and  the  lower  scarlet  In  other  species  of  the  genus,  14  to 
17  in  number,  the  bill  is  mostly  narticoloured — green,  yellow,  red, 
chestnut,  blue,  tmd  black  variously  combining  so  as  often  to  form  Q 
ready  diagnosis;  but  some  of  these  tints  are  very  Heeling  and  often 
leave  little  or  no  trace  after  death.  Alurnations  of  the  brighter 
colours  are  al-o  displayed  in  the  feathers  of  the  throat,  breast,  and 
tail-coverta,  so  as  to  be  in  like  manner  characteristic  of  the  species, 
and  in  several  the  bare  space  round  the  eye  is  yellow,  green,  blue, 
or  lilac.  The  sexes  are  almost  alike  in  coloration,  and  externally 
differ  chiefly  in  size,  the  males  being  largest.  Tho  tail  is  nearly 
square  or  moderately  rounded.  In  tho  genus  Ptcroglossics,  the 
"  Aracaris"  (pronouni.-ed  Arassan"),  the  sexes  more  or  less  differ  io 
appearance,  and  the  tail  is  graduated  The  species  are  smaller  in 
size,  and  nearly  all  ore  banded  on  the  belly,  which  is  generally 
yellow,  with  black  and  scarlet,  while  except  in  two  the  throat  o! 
the  males  at  least  is  black.  One  of  the  most  nmaikable  and 
beautiful  is  P.  bcaukanialsi,  by  some  authors  placed  in  a  distinct 
^enus  and  called  Bcauhamaisxns  utocunins  In  ihis  the  feathers  ol 
the  top  of  the  head  are  very  singular,  looking  like  glossy  curled 
shavings  of  black  horn  or  whalebone,  the  effect  being  due  to  thq 
dilatation  of  the  shaft  and  its  coalesct-nco  with  the  consolidated 
barbs.  Some  of  the  feathers  of  the  straw-coloured  throat  and 
checks  partake  of  the  same  structure,  but  in  a  less  degree,  while 
the  subterminal  part  of  the  laintna  is  of  a  lustrous  pearly-white.* 
The  beak  is  richly  coloured,  being  green  and  crimson  above  and 
lemon  below.  The  upper  plomage  generally  is  dark  green,  but  th( 
mantle  and  rnmp  are  crimson,  as  are  a  broad  abdominal  belt^  the 
fiauks,  and  many  crescentic  markings  on  the  otherwise  yellow 
lower  parts.*  The  group  or  genus  Selenodera,  proposed  by  Gould 
in  1837  {Ictmes  Avium^  pt.  1),  contains  some  6  or  7  species,  having 
the  beak,  which  is  mostly  transversely  striped,  and  tail  shoitai 
than  in  Puroglossas.  Here  the  sexe^i  also  differ  in  coloration,  the 
males  having  the  bead  and  breast  black,  and  the  females  the  same 
parts  chestnut ;  but  all  havo  a  yellow  nucha!  crescent  (whence  th< 
name  of  the  group)  Tho  so-called  Hill-Toucans  have  been  separ- 
ated as  another  genus,  ATidigena^  and  consist  of  some  5  or  6  speciej 
chiefly  frequenting  the  slopes  of  the  Andes  and  reaching  an  eleva 
tion  of  10,000  feet,  though  one,  often  placed  among  them,  but 
perhaps  belonging  rather  to  Pteroghssiis,  the  A.  bailloni,  remark* 
able  for  its  yellow-orange  head,  neck,  and  lower  parts,  inhabits  the 
lowlands  of  southern  Brazil  Another  very  singular  form  is  A. 
laminirostris,  which  has  affixed  on  either  side  of  the  maxilla,  neaj 
the  base,  a  quadrangular  ivory  like  plate,  forming  a  feature  uniqm 
in  this  or  almost  in  any  Family  of  Birds  The  group  Aulaco- 
rham/jhus,  or  "Groove- bills,"  with  a  considerable  but  rath^^-  un- 
certain number  of  species,  contains  the  rest  of  the  Toucans. 

The  monstrous  serrated  bill  that  so  many  Toucans  possess  was 
by  Buffon,  after  his  manner,  accountt-d  a  grave  defect  of  .Nature, 
and  U  must  be  confessed  that  no  one  has  given  what  seems  to  be  a 
satisfactory  explanation  of  its  precise  use,  though  on  evohilionary 
principles  none  will  now  doubt  its  btnes?*  to  thd  bird's  require- 
ments. Sobd  as  it  looks,  its  weight  is  inconsiderable,  ana  the 
perfect  hinge  by  which  the  maxdia  is  urticiilated  ailds  to  its 
?fficiency  as  an  inslmmunt  of  prcbeuNion  Swamsou  {Cla-isif. 
Binti,  i\.  p  \2H)  imagined  it  meiely  "to  conuin  an  infinity  ol 
nerves,  disposed  like  ru-t-work,  ill  of  winch  lead  'uimediately  tc 
the  nostri',3."  and  add  to  the  olfactory  (atultv  This  notion 
seems  to  be  borrowed  from  Trail  (  Trmci  Linn  Sociclxf.  xi  p, 
2ii9),  who  admittedly  had  it  front  VVHifiiun.  and  suite*)  that  i( 
was  "  an  admirable  contrivance  of  tMtme  to  tncreasr  the  delicacj 
of  the  organ  of  smell  , '  but  Sir  R.  Owen's  de  cription  shews  this 
view  to  be  groundless,  and  he  attributes  tlm  en  traordinary  develop- 
ment of  the  Toucan's  benk  to  tJie  need  of  co  ufiens.iting,  by  tlif 
additional  power  of  mastication  thu^  givi-n.  fo.  the  ab;.eiice  of  any 
of  the  grinding  structures  that  arc  so  ?li.iracieristic  of  the  ia* 
testinal  tract  of  vegetable-eating  birds— its  digcsiivc  o'jfaus  posse.ss- 
ing  a  general  sininlicity  of  formation  The  (|ucsi:oii  i»  oiio  worth 
deriding,  and  would  not  be  difficult  to  decide  by  those  *ho  havt 
the   opportunity.     The  oostiils  are  placed    so  as   to  be  in  most 


*  This  curious  peculiarity  natnnlly  attracted  the  notiie  of  the  first 
lisoverer  I'f  the  specie'*,  Poeppig,  who  hnetlv  de>fnl>ed  it  in  ft  tettQ 
puhli^hed  in  Fronep's  Solncn  (xxxii    p.  Hti)  for  December  1S31. 

*  RcH.der3  of  Mr  Bates's  yaturahst  on  the  Jitvtr  Amazons  ^iD 
recollect  tho  account  (ii  p.  344)  and  illustration  there  given  of  bij 
encounter  with  h  flock  of  ihU  specter  of  Toin-un  Uis  remarks  OB  Uw 
other  species  with  which  he  met  are  olso^^JCcelieau. 


478 


T  0  U— 'T  0  U 


forms  invisible  until  sought,  being  obaenred  by  the  frootal  feathers 
or  the  backward  prolongation  of  the  homy  fheath  of  the  beak. 
The  wmga  are  somewhat  feeble,  and  the  legs  have  the  toes  jjlaced 
in  pairs,  two  before  and  two  behind  The  tail  is  capable  of  free 
vertical  motion,  and  controlled  by  strong  muscles,  so  that,  at  least 
io  the  true  Toucans,  when  the  bird  is  preparing  to  sleep,  it  is  re- 
verted and  lies  almost  flat  on  the  bacK,  ou  which  also  the  huge 
bill  reposes,  pointing  in  the  opposite  direction. 

As  naay  be  inferred  from  the  foregoing,  the  Toucans  are 
a  Neotropical  form,  and  by  far  the  greater  number  inhabit 
the  northern  part  of  South  America,  especially  Guiana  and 
the  valley  of  the  Araazona.  Some  three  species  occur  in 
Mexico,  and  several  in  Central  America.  One,  R.  vUell- 
inns,  which  has  its  headquarters  on  the  mainland,  is  said 
to  be  common  in  Trinidad,  but  none  are  found  in  the 
Antilles  proper.  The  precise  place  of  the  Family  In  the 
heterogeneous  group  Ficarue  cannot  yet  be  determined 
Its  nearest  allies  perhaps  exist  amoug  the  CapiiomdsE ,  but 
none  of  them  are  believed  to  have  the  long  feather-like 
tongue  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  Toucans,  and  is,  so 
far  as  known,  possessed  besides  only  by  the  Momotiddb  {cj 
MoTMOT.  vol.  xvii.  p.  3).  But  of  these  last  there  is  no 
reason  to  deem  the  Toucans  close  relatives,  and,  according 
to  Swainson  {ut  supra^  p.  l4l),  who  had  opportuoilies 
of  observing  both,  the  alleged  resentbtance  in  their  habits 
has  DO  existemc.  Those  of  the  Toucans  in  confinement  have 
'been  well  described  by  Brodenpand  Vigois  {Zool  Jout-nat, 
i.  p.  484  ;  ii.  p.  478),  and  indeed  may  be  partially  observed 
in  many  zoological  gardens.  Though  feeding  mainly  on 
fruits,  little  seems  amiss  to  them,  and  they  swallow  grubs, 
reptiles;  and  small  birds  with  avidity  They  are  said  to 
nest  in  hoUow  trees,  and  to  lay  white  eggs.  (a.  n.) 

TOUCH  may  be  defined  aa  a  sense  of  pressure,  referred 
usually  to  the  surface  ot  the  body.  It  is  often  understood 
as  a  sensation  of  contact  as  distinguished  from  pressure, 
but  it  is  evident  that,  however  gentle  be  the  contact,  a 
certain  amount  of  pressure  always  exists  between  the 
eeoaitive  surface  and  the  body  touched  Mere  contact  m 
buch  circumstances  is  gentle  preasore  ,  a  greater  amount 
of  force  causes  a  feeling  of  resistance  or  of  pressure  referred 
to  the  ekio  ;  a.  still  greater  amount  causes  a  feeling  of 
, muscular  resistance,  as  when  a  weight  is  supported  on  the 
palm  of  the  band  ,  whilst,  finally,  the  pressure  may  be  so 
great  as  to  cause  a  feeling  of  pain.  The  force  may  not 
be  exerted  vertically  on  the  sensory  surface,  but  in  the 
Opposite  direction,  as  when  a  hair  on  a  sensory  surface  is 
pulled  or  twisted.  Touch  is  therefore  the  sense  by  which 
mechanical  force  is  appreciated,  and  it  presents  a  strong 
resemblance  to  hearing,  in  which  the  sensation  is  excited 
by  intermittent  pressures  on  the  auditory  organ.  In 
addition  to' feelings  of  contactor  pressure  referred  to  the 
eenyory  surface,  contact  may  give  rise  to  a  sensation  of 
temperature,  according  as  the  thing  touched  feels  hot  or 
cold.  These  sensations  of  contact,  pressure,  or  tempera- 
ture are  usually  referred  to  the  skin  or  integument  cover- 
ing the  body,  but  they  are  experienced  to  a  greater  or  less 
,€xtent  when  any  serous  or  mucous  surface  is  touched 
The  skin  being  the  chief  sensory  surface  of  touch,  it  is 
there  that  the  sense  is  most  highly  developed,  both  as  to 
delicacy  io  detecting  minute  pressures  and  as  to  the  char 
acter  of  the  surfacft  touched.  Tactile  impressions,  pro 
pcrly  so  called,  are  absent  from  internal  mucous  surfaces, 
as  lias  been  proved  in  men  having  gastric,  intestinal,  and 
tirinary  fistuhe.  Io  these  cases,  touching  the  mucous 
surface  caused  pain,  and  not  a  sensation  of  touch 

Orgaiui  u/  Toiicfi. — Comparative  Sketch. — The  organs  of  touch 
present  mony  varieties  of  form,  from  a  simple  filament  of  sensitive 
protopliiMm  to  a  highly  complex  end*organ  connected  with  the 
coinitieiiccment  of  a  aenKory  nerve-fibre.  The  bodies  of  the  lowest 
organi.sms  are  formed  of  coutractile  protoplasm,  and  niet-hamcal  coo 
tact  with  any  resisting  aiibstances  causes  a  change  of  form.  Heit- 
18  the  simplest  kind  of  touch — a  lebponse  on  the  part  of  any  portion 
of  the  surface  of  the  body  to  a  mechanical  Btimiilus.  The  paeudopodia 


of  the  Rhv3opoda  are  also  organs  of  touch,  and  probably  the  Cilia, 
the  tlagellae,  and  the  short  rod-like  bodies  seen  on  many  Infusoria 
belong  to  the  same  class  of  sensory  organs.  Among  the  CcelcTUera 
(hydroid  polyps,  tubularians,  Hydromedusm,  Medusm,  ArUhozoaot 
sca-aneraones)  tentacles  are  found,  usually  arranged  in  circles 
around  the  mouth  or  on  portions  of  the  body  engaged  in  locomo- 
tion, as  on  the  margins  oi  the  umbrella  of  Medicsse.  These  have  a 
large  amount  of  sensibility,  iind  serve  as  organs  of  touch.  In  some 
also  there  are  stitT  hairs  on  the  tentacles  and  around  the  mouth, 
more  differentiated  tactile  organs.  The  Vermes  show  organs  of 
touch  in  the  form  of  modified  cells  of  the  ini-egument,  connected 
with  sensory  nerves.  These  cells  often  assume  the  form  of  stiff 
rods  projected  from  the  surface  (tactile  seti?).  Such  are  often  found 
over  the  whole  body  of  Turbellana  and  /^eviertiTia,  on  the  tentacles 
of  Bryozoa,  oo  the  head  segment  ol  Lumbricidaz,  aod  on  the  tentacles 
and  anteuDLt  of  Chmiopoda.  In  the  latter  group  of  animals  tactile 
organs  are  also  found  in  nng-like  arrangements,  called  cirrhi,  on  the 
foot-stumps  or  parapodia.  In  some  Htnidin^a  (leeches)  compli- 
cated taotile  rods  are  embedded  lu  cup-shaped  organs  scattered 
over  the  body.  Large  prominences  of  the  cuticle,  called  tactile 
pamllae,  are  also  found  in  many  of  the  Vemi^s  near  the  oral  and 
genital  onticea.  The  Echmoden/iata  have  also  special  parts  devoted 
to  touch,  and  these  show  their  h;gheat  differentiation  in  the  tentacles 
of  the  Bolothuroida-  Arthropoda  show  tactile  organs  in  the  form 
usually  of  rod-like  bodie^i  projecting  from  the  surface  of  the 
appendages  and  chiefly  connected 
with  nerves  passing  to  gangliuotc 
cells.  Io  CruusUicea  such  organs  >ire 
foQuU  on  the  antenme  and  other 
appendages,  and  on  the  antenna;  in 
Stfynupoda  hqOl  Iiisecta  In  the 
latter  they  are  also  found  on  the 
tarsal  joiuta  of  the  feet.  The  ap 
pearauce  of  these  rod-like  bodies  is 
seen  in  fig,   1. 

Ciliated  tentacular  processes  exist 
in  the  larva  of  Brachiopuda  which  ' 
are  probably  touch  organs,  but 
there  are  no  definite  organs  of  this 
kind  in  the  adult  form.  The  Mot- 
lusca  hiivo  the  seHse  of  touch  widely 
diffused.  All  the  soft  parte  of  the 
body  are  callable  of  feeling  when 
touched,  and  in  vaiious  situations 

there  arehue  hair-like  prolongations  Fio.     I  —  Merve-ending 
from  cells.     These  are  aupi.lied  with    {*tth  tnctiie  roda  Irom 
J  .         .         '^'  c      I,      f^e  proboscis  of  &  fly 

nerves,  and  are  touch  organs,  buch  (j/,;r<-rt,,  «  nurve.  y 
are  found  on  ttie  edge  of  the  manlle  gaughonk  »«iriji(ic.  *.  mcuItriHia. 
Ill  LamellibrauchiaUK  wjiere  they  c.  fine  i.uirs  oi  cuhcIp  tL*>th>;). 
niay  be  in  rows,  they  also  exist  on  the  siphons,  and  "  they  serve 
to  watch  over  the  particles  that  get  into  the  mantle  entity  with 
the  water  *  (Gegenbaur).  F'rocesses  of  a  tactile  kind  are  alsi.  found 
on  the  e['i[ju(lium.  the  edge  of  the  mKOtle.  and  the  cephalic  it-nfaides 
in  many  Gastcropodf^,  and  oo  the  doisal  lufta  of  the  NuUith-anchuila. 
Here  and  there  al.so  there  are  enlargements  of  the  integument 
covered  with  cilia  and  supplied  by  a  nerve  wtiich  have  been  regarded 
as  touch  organs,  but  are  by  some  supposed  to  be  connected  with 
smell  (see  Smell/  The  Tnnicuta  have  cells  wuh  long  hlamenloua 
processes  m  the  integument,  which  are  probably  tactile  in  function. 
In  the  K'eat  majoiity  uf  fishes  touch  is  hmited  to  the  lips,  to 
parts  of  the  hiis.  and  to  tpecial  organs  called  barbela  In  the 
Cyprinoidii  there  is  a  told  of  skin  borderjig  the  mouth  which  is 
higlily  tactile.  The  Up  of  the  sturgeon  is  coveied  with  •tumerous 
papillie,  the  sucking  lip  ot  the  lamprey  is  pTtpillosB  tti.d  highly 
sensitive.  The  tins  are  in  many  fishes  modified  to  serve  us  organs 
of  touch  Thus  the  gurnards  (Tnytidss)  have  three  soft  flexible 
rays  detached  from  the  fan.  and  *'  the  filiform  radial  iippendag^,.-i  of 
the  Polijiictnid/e,  the  piolontjed  ventral  fins  of  Osphrirtncmui,  Tiicho- 
gasUT,  and  other  LahyMnthibiuiichb,  *ind  of  ttif  Upkidixds,."  ar© 
examples  of  this  class  of  otgaus  (Owen).  The  bu.rhel.'.  are  long 
slender  proces.ses  of  skin,  eitltei  cingle  or  in  pairs,  found  in  the 
Sihirida-,  loaches,  barbel:),  cuds,  :>iui<>tiin9,  Aud  in  the  parasitic 
Myximdm  The  nerves  for  the  burbels  come  from  the  fifth  pair-  of 
cr.'iiiial  nerves.  "A  cod,  blind  by  absence  or  destruction  of  both 
eyeballs,  hiis  be<*ii  captured  in  good  couditioo.  and  it  may  be  sup- 
posed to  hnv(^  found  its  food  by  exploring  with  the  flvrnph,  sial 
barhule.  as  well  as  by  the  sense  of  smell  "  (Owen)  Bodies  some- 
what simiiiir  to  iht)  pacinian  corpviNules  (to  be  afterwards  described) 
were  di.scoveied  by  Savi  in  1&44  in  the  torpedo,  they  am  lUTaoged 
in  linear  series  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  mouth  nnd  uo.Htnls,  and 
ov('r  the  fore  part  of  the  electrical  oigaua  Each  is  composed  of 
two  eiipsules,  oile  connected  with  the  other,  and  containing  a 
granular  suhsTjince  in  wlueh  the  nerve  end  is  embeddeii  Peuuliar 
^lucous  glands  are  also  found  outside  the  electrical  orj-aus  of  the 
torpedo  wliK-h  hic  believed  to  luinistei  to  touch.  Simdai  organs 
exist  in  sharks,  and  John  Hun  dissected  the  snoul  of  the  spotted 
dog-hsh  {Scylhum)  *'  to  show  ihe  manner  ot  the  nervea  ramijfying, 


TOUCH 


479 


to  also  their  apparent  termination  in  U113  part,  etch  nltiinate  nerve 
■ppearing  to  terminate  in  the  bottom  of_a  tabe  or  dact,  the  sides 
H  which  secrete  and  convey  a  thick  mucas  to.  the  skin."  These 
"nervo-mucoos"  organs  are  foand  in  the  sides  and  onder  part  of 
the  head  and  on  the  fore  part  of  the  trunk. 

The  Amphibiiz  and  Reyiilia  Jo  not  show  any  special  organs  of 
tonch.  The  lips  of  tadpoles  have  tactile  papillae.  Some  snakes 
have  a  pair  of  tent  xs'.es  on  the  snout,  but  the  tongue  is  probably 
the  chief  organ  of  touch  in  most  serpents  and  lizards.  All  reptiles 
possessing  climbing  powers  hare  the  sense  of  touch  highly  developed 
m  the  feet. 

Birds  have  epithelial  papills  on  the  soles  of  the  toes  that  are  no 
doubt  tactile.  These  are  of  great  length  ia  the  capercailzie  ( Telrax 
UTogalliis),  "enabling  it  to  grasp  with  more  securitj-  the  frosted 
branches  of  the  Norwegian  pine  trees"  (Owen).  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  delicate  "papillose"  digits  of  the  smaller  birds 
assbt  them  in  nest-building  by  haWng  the  sense  of  touch  highly 
developed,  ground  the  root  of  the  bill  in  many  birds  there  are 
special  tactile  organs,  assisting  the  bird  to  use  it  us  a  kind  of  sensi- 
tive probe  for  the  detection  in  soft  ground  of  the  worms,  grubs,  and 
dags  that  constitute  its  food.  Special  bodies  of  this  kind  have 
been  detected  in  the  beak  and  tongue  of  the  duck  and  goose,  called 
the  tactile  corpuscles  of 
jUerkel,  or  the  corpuscles 
of  Grandry  (fig.  2).  Sim- 
ilar bodies  nave  been 
foxmd  in  the  epidermis 
'of  man  and  mammals,  in 
the  outer  root-sheath  of 
tactile  hairs  or  feelers. 
They  consist  of  small 
bodies    composed   of    a  •* 

oapsuld  enclosing  two  or    Fic.  2.  —Tactile  Corpoaciee  from  dvcK'e  tongst^ 
more  flattened  nucleated  "•  ""'^ 

eella,  piled  in  a  row.  Each  corpuscle  is  separated  from  the  others 
by  a  transparent  protoplasmic  disk.  Nerve  fibres  terminate  either 
in  the  cells  (Merkel)  or  in  the  protoplasmic 
interceiinlar  matter  (Ranvier,  Hesse,  Izqui- 
erdo).  Another  form  of  end-organ,  has  been 
described  by  Herbst  as  existing  iu  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  duck's  tongue.  These  cor- 
puscles of  Herbst  are  like  small  Paciniau  cor- 
pnfcles  with  thin  and  very  close  lamells. 
Developmentaofintegnmentdevoidof  feathers, 
anch  as  the  "wattles  "  of  the  cock,  the  "ca- 
nmcles''  of  the  vnltore  and  turkey,  are  not 
tactile  ia  their  function. 

In  the  great  majority  of  Mammalia  the 
general  surface  of  the  skin  shows  sensitive- 
ness, and  this  is  developed  to  a  high  degree 
on  certain  parts,  such  as  the  lips,  the  end  of  Fio.  3.— TactDe  Corpuatde 
1  teat,  and  the  generative  organs.  Where  '""» 'te  hand, 
touch  is  highly  developed,  the  skin,  more  especially  the  epidermis, 
is  thin  and  devoid  of  hair.  In  the  Monkeys  tactile  papills  are  found 
in  the  skin  of  the  fingers  and  palms,  and  ia  tho 
skin  of  the  prehensile  tails  of  various  species  {AUUs), 
Such  paplUs  also  abound  in  the  naked  skin  of  the 
nose  or  snout,  as  in  the  shrew,  mole, 
pig,  tapir,  and  elephant.  In  the  Or- 
niih/rrhyjickus  the  skin  covering  the 
mandibles  is  tactile  (Owen).  In  many 
animals  certain  hairs  acquire  great 
size,  length,  and  stiffness.  These  con- 
stitute thevibrissoe.orwhiskers.  Each 
large  hair  grows  from  a  firm  capsule 
sunk  deep  in  the  true  skin,  and  the 
Hair  bulb  is  supplied  with  sensory 
aerve  filaments.  In  the  walrus  the 
sapsule  is  cartilaginous  in  texture. 
the  marine  Camiivcra  have  strong 
vibrissa  which  "act  as  a  staff,  in  a 
Brayanalogous  to  that  htld  and  applied 
by  the  hand  of  a  blind  man  "  (Owen). 
E^ch  species  has  hairs  of  this  kind 
developed  on  the  eyebrows,  lips,  or 
cheeks,  to  suit  a  particular  mode  of  existence,  as,  for  example,  the 
long  fine  whiskers  of  the  night-prowling  felines,  and  in  the  aye-aye, 
»  mopkey  having  nocturnal  habits  In  the  b'ngulala  the  hoofs 
need  no  delicacy  of  touch  as  regards  the  discrimination  of  minute 
points.  Such  animals,  however,  have  broad,  massive  sensations  of 
touch,  enabling  them  to  appreciate  the  firmness  of  the  soil  on  which 
they  tread,  and  under  the  hoof  we  find  hi=!bly  vascular  and  sensitive 
lamellie  or  papillje,  contributing  no  doubt,  not  only  to  the  growth 
of  the  hoof,  but  also  to  its  sensitiveness  The  Cctacca  have  numerous 
papilla  in  the  skm,  regarding  which  John  Hunter  remarks  "  These 
rilli  are  soft  and  pliable  ,  they  float  in  water  ,  and  each  is  longer  or 
ihorter  according  to  the  ai/e  of  the  animaL     In  the  spermaceti 


Fio.  4. — TaccOe  Corpuscles  Trom 
ditcria  of  rabbit,    n,  oerve. 


whale  they  are  abont  a  quarter  of  an  inqh  long ;  in  tne  grampcs! 
bottlenose,  much  shorter;  in  all  they  are  extremely  vascular;  uiey 
are  sheathed  in  correspomling  hollows  of  the  epiderm."  In  some 
whales  the  skin  is  thrown  into  numerous  longitudinal  plaits  on 
the  under  and  fore  part  of  the  body  (BalxnopUra).  Prof.  Owen 
remarks  regarding  these  :  "  It  is  peculiar  to  the  swifter  swimming 
whales  that  pursue  mackerel  and  herring,  and  may  serve  to  warn 
them  of  shoals,  by  appreciation  of  au  impulse  of  the  water  rebound- 
ing therefrom,  and  so  conveying  a  sense  of  the  propinquity  of 
sunken  rocks  or  sand  banks.  Sensitiveness  to  the  movements  of 
the  ambient  ocean  is  indicated  by  certain  observed  pheDoraena.| 
The  whale-fishers  avei  that  when  a  straggler  is  attacked.its  fellows 
will  bear  down  from  some  miles'  distance,  as  if  to  its  assistance ; 
and  it  may  be  that  they  are  attracted  by  perception  of  the  vibration 
of  the  water  caused  by  the  struggles  of  the  harpooned  whale  or' 
cachalot"  (Owen's  Ctrnparalive  Anatomy,  vol.  iii.  p.  189).  Bat* 
have  the  sense  of  touch  strongly  developed  in  the  wings  and  external 
ears,  and  in  some  suecies  in  the  flaps  of  skin  found  near  the  nose.i 
These  "  nose-leaves  '  and  expanded  ears  frequently  show  vibratile 
movements,  like  the  antennae  of  insects,  enabling  the  animal  to 
detect  slight  atmospheric  impulses.  In  the  vampires  {Dcsmodi) 
and  fmit-eating  bats  {Pteropi)  the  auricular  and  nasal  appendages 
are  small;  "such  sensitive  tactile  guides  or  wamers  m  (light  are 
only  needed  in  the  bats  of  active  food,  which  must  follow  in  swift 
evolutions,  like  the  swallows,  but  in  gloom,  the  volatile  insects 
that  people  the  summer  air  at  dawn  or  dusk"  (Owen).  There  is 
little  doubt  that  many  special  forms  of  tactile  organs  will  be  found 
in  animals  using  the  nose  or  feet  for  burrowing.  A  peculiar  end- 
organ  has  been  found  in  the  nose  of  the  mole,  while  there  are  "end; 
capsules  "  in  the  tongue  of  the  elephant  and  "  nerve  rings  "  in  the 
^ais  of  the  mouse. 

End-Organs  of  Touch  xn  Man. — la  man  three  special 
forms  of  tactile  end-organs  liave  been  described,  and  can 
be  readily  demonstrated. 

(1)  The  End- Bulbs  of  Krause. — These  are  oval  or 
rounded  bodies,  from  ^J-j  to  .j-l-g  of  an  inch  long.  Each 
consists  of  a  delicate  capsule,  composed  of  nucleated  con- 
nective tissue  enclosing  numerous  minute  cells.  On  tracing 
the  nerve  fibre,  it  is  found  that  the  nerve  sbsath  is  con^ 
tinuous  with  the  capsule,  whilst  the  azis  cylinder  of  the 
nerve  divides  into  branches  which  lose  themselves  among 
the  cells.  Waldsyer  and  Longworth  state  that  the  nerve 
fibrils  terminate  in  the 
cells,  thus  making  these 
bodies  similar  to  the  cells 
described  by  Merkel  (ut 
supra).  See  fig.  5.  These 
bodies  are  found  in  the 
deeper  layers  of  the  con- 
junctiva, margins  of 
the  lips,  nasal  mu- 
cous membrane,  epi- 
glottis, fungiform 
and  circnm  vallate 
papillae  of  the 
tongue,  glans  penis 
and  clitoris,  mucous  mem  Diane  of  the  rectum  of  man,  and 
they  have  also  been  found  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
"  toes  of  the  guinea-pig,  ear  and  body  of 
the  mouse,  and  in  the  wing  of  the  bat " 
(Landois  and  Stirling).  In  the  genital 
organs  aggregations  of  end-bulbs  occur, 
known  as  the  "  genital  corpuscles  of 
Krause"  (fig.  4).  In  the  synovial  mem- 
brane of  the  joints  of  the  fingers  there 
are  larger  end  bulbs,  each  connected  with 
three  or  four  nerve-filaments. 

(2)  The  Touch  Corpuscles  of  Wagner 
and  Aleissner.  —  These  are  oval  bodies, 
about  3.^  of  an  inch  long  by  y^  of  an 
inch  in  breadth.  Each  consists  ot  a 
series  of  layers  of  connective  tissue 
arranged  transversely,  and  containing  in 
the  centre  granular  matter  with  nuclei 
(fig  7).  One,  two,  or  threu  nerve  fibres  pass  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  corpuscle,  wind  transverselj-  around  it,  lose  tha 


Flo.  5. — End-Bolb  from  naicaik 
conjunctiva.  a,  nncl'jated 
capsule;  6,  core;  c,  enterinn 
Dcrve-^bre  tenoinatiog  ia  ibe 
core  at  ^ 


Flo    6  — End-Bum  frofn 
con]ullcU%-aofcalf.    r.. 


480 


TOUCH 


whftti  substance  of  Schwann,  penetrate  into  the  corpusclp., 
whsre  the  axis  cylinders,  dividing,  end  in  some  way  un- 
known The  cor 
puscles  do  not  con  .~  vTvV  \ 
tain  any  soft  core, 
but  are  apparently 
built  up  of  irregu- 
lar septffl  of  con- 
nective tissue,  in 
the  meshes  of 
which  the  nerve 
fibrils  end  in  ex- 
pansions similar 
to  Merkel's  cella 
Dr  Thin  describes 
simple  and  com- 
pound corpuscles 
according  to  the 
number  of  nerve 
fibres         entering  ^'?-  '^-^'l'"' *="'°?  "1""  ^}°  "l  '5"  P*H?  °' "" 

rm,                   o  liand     a.  blood-vessel ;  6,  papilla  of  the  coUs  Tera: 

them.  These  bodies  e,  capillary;  d,  nerve-flbre  passtlie  10  a  toach-cor- 

««-o     f/\,,f,^      oKitn  piiscle  i    e,    Wagner's   touch-corpuscle;    /,    nt;n-e- 

are     louna      aoua-  fibre,  cUrtdcd  transveraely.  9,  ceils  of  the  Malpiglilan 

dantlv  in  the  palm     '"V"''  "'  "'=  s"""-    (Fron"  Laodois  um  suiIidk, 

f     .-,        ,        _i  J      after  BlesiadedU.) 

of    the  band  and 

sole  of  the  foot,  where  there  may  be  as  many  as  21  to 
every  square  millimetre  (1  mm.  =  ,'j  mch)  They  are  not 
eo  numerous  .on  the  back  of  the  hand  or  foot,  mamma,  lips, 
and  tip  of  the  tongue,  and  they  are  rare  in  the  genital 
organs.  "  Kollmann  describes  three  special  tactile  areas 
in  the  hand  • — (1)  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  with  24  touch 
corpuscles  in  a  length  of  10  mm.  ,  (2)  the  three  eminences 
lying  on  the  palm  behind  the  slits  between  the  fingers, 
with  5-4-2"7  touch-corpuscles  m  the  same  length  .  and 
(3)  the  ball  of  the  thumb  and  little  finger,  with  31-3-5 
touch  corpuscles  The  first  two  areas  also  contain  many 
of  the  corpuscles  of  Vater  or  Pacini,  whilst  in  the  latter 
these  corpuscles  are  fewer  and  scattered.  In  the  other 
parts  of  the  hand  the  nervous  end- 
organs  are  much  less  developed" 
(Landois  and  Stirhng). 

(3)  Tke  Corpuscles  of  Vater  or 
Pacini. — These,  first  described  by 
Vater  so  long  ago  as  174  U  are 
small  oval  bodies,  quite  visible  to 
the  naked  eye,  from  ^%  to  -^  of 
an  inch  long  and  j^  to  ^  of  an 
inch  in  breadth,  attached  to  the 
nerves  of  the  hands  and  feet  They 
can  be  readily  demonstrated  in  the 
mesentery  of  the  cat  (fig.  8).  Each 
corpixscle  consists  of  40  to  50 
lamell*  or  coats,  like  the  folds  of 
an  onion,  thinner  and  closer  to- 
gether on  approaching  the  centre. 
Each  lamella  is  formed  of  an  elastic 
material  mixed  with  delicate  con- 
nective tissue  fibres,  and  the  inner 
surface  of  each  is  lined  by  a  single 
continuous  layer  of  endothelial 
cells.  A  double-contoured  nerve 
fibre  passes  to  each.'  The  white 
substance  of  Schwann  becomes 
continuous  with  the  lamellae,  whilst  p,^  8._vrter-8  er  Pacini-.  Cor- 
the  axis  cylinder  passes  into  the    puscie.  o,  stain :  (Miei'vo-fibro 

.      1  ,         ,  "^  n  1        u enterlne  It;   c,  d.   connective 

body,  and  ends  in  a- small  knob  or  tissue  envelope:  <■.  axwcyiin- 
in  a  plexils.  Sometimes  a  blood-  <icr.  »itiiitaenddki(iedat/. 
vessel  also  penetrates  the  Pacinian  .body,  entering  along 
with  the  nerve.  Such  bodies  are  found  in  the  subcutaneous 
tissue  on  the  nerves  of  the  fingers  and  toes,  near  joints, 
attached  to  the  Dorves  of  tlie  abdominal  plexuses  of  the 


I  sympathetic,  on  the  coccygeal  gland,  on  the  dorsum  of  the 
jienis  and  clitoris,  in  the  meso-colon, -ia  the  course  of  the 
intercostal  and  periosteal  nerves,  and  in  the  capsules  of 
lymphatic  glands  (William  Stirling). 

Pkysiology  of  Touch  in  Man. — Such  are  the  special  end- 
organs  of  touch.  It  has  also  been  ascertained  that  many 
sensory  nerves  end  in  a  plexus  or  network,  the  ultimate 
fibrils  being  connected  with  the  cells  of  the  particular 
tissue  in  which  they  are  found.  Thus  they  exi.'^l  in  the 
cornea  of  the  eye,  and  at  the  junctions  of  tendons  with 
muscles.  I  n  the  latter  situation  "  flattened  end  (lakes  or 
plates  "  and  "elongated  oval  end-bulbs"  have  also  been 
found  (Sachs,  Rolletl,  Oolgi)  A  consideration  of  these 
various  types  of  structure  show  that  they  facilitate  inter 
mittent  pressure  being  made  on  the  nerve  endings  They 
are  all,  as  it  were,  elastic  cushions  into  which  the  nerv* 
endings  penetrate,  so  that  the  slight  variation  of  pressure 
will  be  transmitted  to  the  ner.ve.  Probably  also  they  8er»» 
to  break  the  force  of  a  sudden  shock  on  the  nerve  endings 

Sensitiveness  aiid  Sejisc  of  Locality. — The  degree  of  sensitiveness 
(fr  the  ekin  U  determined  by  fiadiog  the  smallest  distance  at  which 
the  two  points  ^^ 

of    a    pair  of     p,^ «.  jCLj. 

compasses  can     ^  '^        ^ 

be  felt  This 
method,  first 
followeti  by 
Weber,  is  em- 
ployed by  phy- 
sicians ID  the 


li  1 1  r  1 1 1 1  rrh 


lb 


/     Fio.  ».— . 


'£stbeslonicter  of  Slereklng. 


MUllmetrea. 

11 

11) 

2-2-3 

1-7] 

4-6 

8-9] 

*-4-5 

8-»] 

fr-5-5 

6-8 

14-61 

6-8 

14  6] 

diagnosis  of  nervous  affections  involving  the  sensitiveness  of  the 
skin  The  following  table  shows  the  sensitiveness  in  millimetres 
for  an  adult,  whilst  the  corresponding  numbers  for  a  boy  12 
years  of  age  are  given  within  brackets  (Landois  and  Stirling,  after 
Weber)  :— 

Tip  of  tongue 

Third  phalanx  of  finger,  volar  surface... 

Red  part  of  the  lip 

Second  phalanx  of  finger,  volar  surface 

First  phalanx  of  finger,  volar  surface 

Third  phalanx  of  finger;  dorsal  surface 

Tip  of  nose -  

Head  of  metacarpal  bone,  volar 6-6-8 

BaU.of  thumb 6*6-7 

Ball  of  little  finger 6'B-6 

Centre  of  palm ---•  8-9 

Dorsum  and  side  of  tongue  ;  white  of  the  lips ; 

metacarpal  part  of  the  thumb 9 

Third  phalanx  of  the  great  toe,  plantar  surface,  11  'S 

Second  phalanx  of  the  fingers,  dorsal  surface...  11 '3 

Back.... ll-S 

Eyelid -,  "S 

Centre  of  hard  palate. 13'5 

Lower  third  of  the  fore-arm,  volar  surface 16  _ 

In  front  of  the  zygoma IB'8 

Plantar  surface  of  the  great  toe 16'8 

Inner  surface  of  the  lip 20'3 

Behind  the  zygoma » -■•• 226 

Forehead ■•••- 22'8 

Occiput .- « 27'1 

Back  of  the  hand « 81-6 

Under  the  chin 8S'8 

Vertex „ 888 

Knee 86-1 

Sacrum  (gluteal  region) i 44'* 

Fore-arm  and  leg —  45'1 

Neck _  64-1 

Back  of  the  fifth  dorsal  vertebra ;  lower  dorssl 

and  lumbar  region, ,  64*1 

Middle  of  the  neck 87-7 

Upper  arm;  thigh;  centre  of  the  hack 6'-7  [31-6-40-11) 

These  investigations  show  not  only  that  the  skin  is  sensitive, 
but  that  one  is  able  with  great  precision  to  distinguish  the  part 
touched.  This  latter  power  is  usually  called  the  sense  of  locality, 
and  it  is  influenced  by  vaiious  conditions.  The  greater  the 
■  number  of  sensory  nerves  in  a  given  area  of  ekin  the  greater  is  tha 
degree  of  accuracy  in  distinguishing  different  points  Contrast 
in  this  way  the  tip  of  the  finger  and  the  hack  of  the  hand.  Sensi- 
tiveness increases  from  the  joints  towards  the  extremities,  and,  as 
pointed  out  by  Vierordt,  sensitiveness  n  srcat  in  parts  of  the  body 
that  are  actively  moved.     The  senoibilitv  of  the  limbs  is  finer  in 


[4-6] 


[6-81 
[68) 
[91 
[»j 
[9J 
[11-8) 

[11-8= 

[9] 
[13  •61 
[15-81 
[18) 
[22 '6 
[22  " 
[22 '6 
[226) 
[31  61 
[33 '8} 
r.S3'8) 
(361) 


T  OUCH 


\b»  iTansTcrso  iMs  th.in  in  the  long  axis  of  the  lirab,  to' the  extent 
of )  00  tin-  llcxor  siirfaco  of  the  upjicr  limb  anJ  i  on  the  extensor 
sorCico  (Ljndois),      It  u  rioiibrruJ  if  exorcise  improves  sensitive- 
ness, as  Fnincui  Gallon  found  that  the  performances  of  blind  boys 
were  not  supcnor  to  those  of  other  hoys,  and  he  says  that  "the 
guidance  of  (he  blind  depends   mamly  on  the  luultitndo  of  col- 
IflCeril  indications,  to  which  tliey  give  much  herd,  and  not  their 
mpermnty  to  uiiy  ono  of   theiu  "     When    the  skin   is  moistened 
*iih  iodirt>>n;nt  lluids  scnsibiht)-  is  increased.     Suslovva  made  the 
cu.njus  discovery  th  it,   if  the  ^rca  bct»c-eu  t«o  p.iints  distinctly 
felt  be  tickled  ur  bo  stimiililcl  by  a  «-<-,ik  electric  current,   the 
iniprcssious  are  fuv.iL     Stretchim;  the  skin,  and  baths  in  water 
coniamini;  uirbouic  acid  oi  coiiiiiioii  salt,  increase  the   power  of 
localising   tactile  luipic-wions.     In   exii'iiniciitiiiij  with   the  com- 
ws-ses.  It  will  be  found  th.it  a  sniallcr  di<t.iiice  can  be  distinguished 
iJoue  f.rnievds  liuiu  j;i..iivr  to  «ni,UJer  di-,tancc3  than  in  there- 
verse   dircctiuii.  ■  A  sni  .llc-r  diNt.iuce  lau  .il>o   be  detected  when 
the  points  of  the  Cvmhims.-,.-,  are  placiid  ono  after  the  other  on  tho 
skin  than  when  tluy  are  placed  simulUneoiisIy      If  the  pouits  of 
Uie  conip*>sis  aro  iuio.|ailIy  heated,  tho  sensation  of  two  contacts 
becomes  confused.     Anauu^mrc  condition,  ora  suto  of  venous  con- 
gestion, or  the  .-ipplicrttn.il  of  cold,  or  violent  siretchingof  tho  akin, 
or   tho   use  of  such    snb^Liuces   us   utropine,    daturin,    niurpliia, 
strychnine,  aliMhol,  bromide  of  i>otassiiiiu,  canuabin,  and  liydnite 
of  chloral  bhint  sensibility       The  onlv  active  snlKl-oncft  «.-.i.l  to 
increase  it  is  lalfciiL 

AhaoluU  s^njUtimcsa,  eis  inutcateu  Dy  a  s<iu«  0/  prasmre,  has 
been  determrncj  by  various  metliods.  Two  diirercnt  weights  are 
placed  on  tho  part,  and  the  smallest  dilfcrenco  in  weight  tliat  can 
be  perceived  13  noted.  Weber  idaced  siuall  weighu  dii-ectly  ou 
the  skin ;  Aubert  and  Kamiuler  loaded  suiall  plates ;  Dohm  made 
use  of  a  balance,  having  a  blunt  point  at  one  end  of  the  beam,  rest- 
mg  on  the  skin,  whilst  weights  were  placed  on  tho  other  end  of  the 
beam  to  equali2e  tho  pressure;  Eulenberg  invented  an  instrument 
hke  a  spiral  spring  pa|)cr-clip  or  balance  (tho  barffistheiiom.-ler), 
having  an  index  showing  the  pressure  in  grammes;  Goltz employed 
an  india-rubber  tube  filled  wuh  water,  and  this,  "  to  ensure  a  con- 
rtant  surface  of  conuct,  bent  at  one  spot  over  a  pice*  of  cork  is 
touched  at  that  spot  by  the  cutaneous  part  to  ba  examined,  and, 
by  rhythmically  exerted  pressure,  wavia  analogous  to  those  of  the 
arterial  pulse  nre  pro<luce»l  in  the  tube"  (Hermann);  and  Landois 
inventea  a  mercunal  balance,  enabling  him  to  make  r.ipid  variations 
ID  the  weight  without  giving  rise  to  any  shock  (tigurcal  in  Landois 
and  Stirling's  /'Aysw%y.  p  1155)  These  methods  have  given  the 
following  general  resulu.  (1)  The  greatest  acuteiie-ss  is  on  the 
forehead,  temples,  and  back  of  the  hand  and-forearm,  which  detect 
a  pre.isure  of    002  gramme;   fingers  detect 


481! 


In/an,mlim /n>m  TactiU  Impressions. -These  mMe  us  to  corn* 
o  the  foUowing  conclusions.  (1 )  We  note  the  existence  of  some, 
thing  touching  the  sensory  surface.  (2)  From  the  mtensny  ol  tin 
sensation  we  determine  the  weight,  tension.  ,.r  iiiiensity  of  the  pros. 
f'"","^r.^'*'"^"°°,'""  'hehrst  instance  refeiied  to  the  skin, 
but  after  the  pressure  has  reached  a  certain  amount  niuseul.ir  sciivv 
tions  are  also  experieoced-thc  so-called  n,„scubr  sense  (3)  The 
ocality  of  the  part  touched  is  at  once  deteiirMiied.  and  fiom  thi» 
the  nrobable  position  of  the  touching  body      Like  the  visual  fuld 

to  which  all  retinal  ini[uessions  .ire  leferr^-.l.  i»,i,t  for  i ,t    there 

IS  a  tactile  held,  to  which  all  points  ou  the  skin  surLire  ,",ny  ba 
referred.  (4)  Uy  touching  a  body  at  various  pni.ua.  fioui  this 
■lillerence  of  pressure  and  fioni  a  comp.iiisou  of  the  iKisiliou,  o« 
various  [>ouiU  lu  the  t.ictile  held  we  ju.lg..  of  the  co„i;:;u,ati.,>,  o( 
the  body  A  number  ol  "  tactile  piclu.es  "  are  obuiucd  by  insa. 
ing  the  skin  over  Ihc  touched  body,  and  the  sh  ,p,  of  il,^  1,o,lv  {• 
further  determined  by  a  kno«lc,lge  of  the  muscular  niovcmoitl 
necessary  W  bring  the  cutaneous  suiface  into  contact  with  d.Hcrent 
iwrtions  of  it.  ll  there  is  abnomial  displ.ic.meiil  of  position  a 
hilse  conception  may  arise  as  to  the  sliaiie  of  the  body  n.us'i) 
a  small  marble  or  a  pea  be  placed  l«t«een  the  ii,dc.<  and  m..|,'||( 
hnger  so  as  to  touch  (with  the  palm  downwards)  ih^  outer  sid.-  ol 
the  index  finger  and  the  inner  side  of  the  mhhlle  hugc^*.  a  scnsntioii 
ol  Uiuching  ,/w  round  body  is  experienced,  but  if  |the  hngeis  b« 
crossed,  so  that  the  marble  touches  (be  inner  side  ol  th.  indei 
huger  and  tho  outer  side  of  the  middle  finger,  tbeie  «iil  be  a 
Iceling  of  two  rounil  bodies,  bec.iu.se  ui  these  circunistaiices  there 
is  added  to  the  feelings  of  conuct  a  feeliiic;  of  distortion  (or  ol 
muscular  action)  like  what  would  uke  place  if  the  liugers,  for  pur. 
poses  of  touch,  were  placed  in  that  abuoinni  r«sitiou.  A"ain 
assho«ing  that  our  knowledge  of  the  tactile  field  is  precise  Ther. 
IS  the  wellkuown  fact  that  when  a  piece  of  skin  is  ti-insplantcd 
from  the  forehead  to  the  nose,  in  the  opeiation  for  removin.'  a 
deformity  of  the  nose  arising  from  lupus  or  other  iilceratlvt 
disease,  the  patient  feels  the  new  nasal  pan  as  if  it  were  his  fore- 
head,  and  he  niay  have  the  cunoius  sensation  of  a  nasal  instea.1  ol 
a  frontal  headache.  (5)  From  the  number  of  iKjints  touched  w« 
judge  as  to  tho  smoothness  or  roughness  of  a  body.  A  b.>.ly  havine 
a  uniformly  level  surface,  like  a  billiard  ball,  is  smooth  ,  a  b.idi 
having  pouits  irregular  in  size  and  number  in  a  given  ar^a  is  iou"h 
and  ll  the  points  are  very  close  together  it  gives  itsc  to  a  sens..troit 
like  that  of  the  pile  of  velvet,  alnmst  inLiK-iablc  to  some  iiulivj. 
duaU.  Again,  if  the  pressure  is. so  uniform  as  not  to  be  felt,  as  «hei: 
the  body  is  immersed  m  water  (paradoxical  as  this  may  seem,  it  i) 
the  case  that  the  sensation  of  contact  is  felt  only  at  the  limit  of  tV 
Huid),  we  experience  the  sensation  of  being  in  contact  with  a  lluicL 
(6)  Lastly,  it  would  appear  that  touch  isal«ays  the  result  of  varii 


.,-     ,  ,.  ,         ^       .      •   --=---  - 005  to  -015  gramme. 

lilPspHii'sisiigiiiis 

01    touch.     ii()  £ulenb.rrg  found  the   lollowiiig  gradations   in  tho  Th^^r,:,  „  ,„  t^..,i.      -ri  ......      .1       ," '""^"  "'^I'^".'^^- 

fineneis  ol    the   pressure  sense— the  forehead,  li|«,  back  of  the 

cheeks,  and  temples  appreciate  diiferences  of  ,',  to  Vj  (2jO     205  to 

800  :  310  giamnies).     The  back  of  the  last  ph.ilanx  ol  the  fingcra 

the  forearm,  hand.  1st  and  2d  phalanges,  the  palmar  iUrface  of  the 

hand,  forearm,  and  u(.per  aim  .listinguish  dilleieii.es  uf  A  to  J, 

(200  ■  220  to  20^;  :  210  gramnies).     The  front  of  the  leg  and  ihi.d" 

IS  similar  to  the  forearm.     Then  follow  the  bajk  of  the  foot  and 

toes,  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  the  back  of  the  leg  ami  thigh      Dohru 

placed  a  weight  of  1  gramnm  on  the  skin    aii.l  then  deteimined  thu 

least  additioiMl  weight  that  could  be  .leUcte  I,  with  this  result  — 

Sd  phalanx  of  linger,  -4911  gramme  ;  back  of  tho  foot,    5  gramme  • 

2d    phalanx.     771    gramme.    1st   phalanx       82    gramme ;  leo     1 

gramme;  back  of  hand,   1156  gioinmcs;  palm,   llils  grammes; 

patella,    15   gianimes;  forearm,    1  99   grammes:   uinbili.^us    3  5 

grammes,  and  biick.  3  S  gran. lues  (Land. us  ami  Stirling)      (i)  la 

passing  from  light  to  l.caiier  weights,  the  ...  iiteu.-.s3  incivases  at 

once,  a  masimum  is   lei.  I1..I.  and  then  witli  h.avy  wei-hts  the 

povverofdistiiig.i,.hi.,g  the  .lirterences  .liminisbes  (HeiingrBiedcr- 

mann)      (5)  A  s.iivaii..n  of  piessuie  iifter  the  ueigbts  have  been 

removed  may  be  nntned  (.i«ir /,r,v>,<rj  «.cv,(,„),),  e~|«cially  if  tho 
Weight  be  cuiisldrial.le.  (6)  Valentine  notic.^l  that,  if  ilio  fin. -or 
were  held  ogiMista  bl.int-t..oihed  *hal,  and  the  uhiel  wein  rolarcd 

with  a  ceruin  ra|.iility,  he  Iclt  a  srnovtli  margin  fhus  was  ex- 
pencil,  ed  when  the  intrcval,  .A  umu  between  the  contacts  of  suc- 
eesKive  teeth  -."ere  less  than  Irom  ji,  to  rtj  of  a  second.  The  s.nine 
ejpciimeiit  can  Iw  readily  made  hv  holding  the  linger  over  ihe  holes 
in  one  of  the  outeiin.,st  .  irdes  of  a  huge  ^yrcu  routing  ipiickly  : 
the  Sensations  o(  in.livi.lual  UAvs  become  fused,  so  as  to  give  rise 
to  a  feeling  of  ii.u.  Iiinj  a  slit  (7)  Vilmuinus  of  strings  are  de- 
tected even  v^  bi-n  the  n.inibcr  is  about  1 5uO  per  second  :  above  this 
the  Sensation  of  vii.ration  cases  By  attaching  bristles  to  the 
prongs  ol  tuning  f..rks.  and  bringing  these  into  cnnUct  with  the 
Up  or  tongue,  sensations  of  a  very  acute  character  are  exiieiienced 
ivflicli  are  most  intense  when  the  forks,  vibrato  from  600  to  1500 
pet  Mcood, 


riuoncs  IS  to.  Touch.— To  e\\.hm  tho  i.hcnom.  nnn  of  the  Uctil* 
field  and  inore  especially  the  remarkable  vaiiations  of  tactile 
sensibility  above  describo.l  vailnus  theories  have  Leeii  .,.lv,„lv.ed 
(1)  rhe  ono  most  g.-ncially  knoivn  is  that  of  L  11.  Weber  ai 
modified  or  resute.l  by  Lot^e.  ,M,.issncr,  Czermik,  and  others  ll 
issu.nes  that,  uhilst  we  refer  every  Uit.le  senlation  to  a  ceitaio 
position  in  the  tactile  field,  we  do  not  icf.r  it  meiely  toa  iKunt  but 
to  a  circular  or  oval  area  on  the  skin,  called  a  circle  ol  s,  usihilay. 
further,  it  is  .assumed  that  if  two  such  circle.s  to.ich  or  overlap  thev 
cannot  be  indmdu.olly  perceived,  and  that  they  can  only  l...  sc 

individually  perceived  when  one  or  more  circles  of  sensibility  iute& 
vene,  or.  In  othei 

wor.ls,  when  there  ^ 

is    a    *'pon-irri 

tiled  sco.':ury  elc- 
(4)  In  i  ment'      between 

the    two     points 

touched  (hf»9    10 

and  11) 

Each  circle  ol 

jensibility     may 

bo    supposed    tc 

be  inncivateil  by 
a   distinct    fibi'e. 

Thns.snppose  the  „  •"'«• "  ■^c- " 

sensitive   surface         '  **"**'^  i..— utacran.s  01  i.-ictllc  1nner\atien 
of  the  skin  to  be  """""•  '''""•''"^'■' J'-"""") 

diagianiin.itically  represented  as  lu  figs  10  anil  11  each  square 
would  be  a  "  circle  of  sensibility."  lu  mnic  sensitive  ivfions  the 
squares  woul.l  be  smaller  and  the  nnnibci  of  nerve  terminations 
gn'atcr  than  in  less  sensitive  regions  In  lig  10  the  areacnnuins 
nine  "circles''  and  has  nine  nerve  terminalltnis,  whiUt  in  lig  11, 
ilthough  the  total  .irea  is  the  same,  Iheie  arc  thirty  si»  •'circles" 
ind  tlMrty-six  nerve  filaments.  If  the  points  of  the  compasses  bfl 
placed  at  .7  an.l  ciin  tig.  10  tfio  sensation  will  bo  that  of  one  f«int  - 
then  would  also  iie  a  neintutioii  ofjiuo  point  if  th.v  weiv  placed  at  c 

xxiiC— .61 


a      c    a.  c 


a     c     a  c 


(From 


482 


TO  U  C  H 


Fio.  1 2.— Diagram  showing  oveTlapplng  of 
"circles  of  seDSiblUty."    (From  BeauDis.) 


ft&d  d  ;  but  if  the  points  touch  c  and  e  tliere  wili  be  a  double  sensa- 
tion, because  the  "circle"  rf  intervenes.  Again,  in  fig.  11,  where 
the  "  ckcles  "  are  much  smaller  and  more  numerous,  the  minimum 
distance  at  which  two  sensations  are  experienced  is  much  less  than 
in  6g.  10.  for  this  would  happen  when  the  compasses  touch  a  and  d. 
It  will  also  be  obserrcd  that  the  same  distance  d  cm  fig.  10  would 
give  a  single  sensation,  whilst  it  would  give  a  double  sensation  in 
fig.  11.  But  c  f  in  fig.  10  gives  a  double  sensation,  and  yet  the  same 
distance  would  give  a  single  sensation  if  the  points  of  the  com- 
passes touched  adjoining  "circles."  A  "circle  of  sensibility," 
however,  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  anatomical  magnitude  or 
"  cutaneous  sensory  uuit,"  or,  in  other  words,  the  area  of  distribu- 
tion of  a  single  nerve-fibre.  The  extent  of  any  such  hypothetical 
circle  can  be  altered  hy  practice  and  attention,  an-1  we  may  therefore 
asiunie  that  the  circles  overlap,  and  that  even  the  same  area  of  skin 
receives  numerous  nerve  fila- 
ments, and  thai  consequent- 
ly, wlieu  a  body  is  touched, 
it  e:tcites  at  once  many  fila- 
ments. This  is  illustrated 
by  fig.  12. 

It  will  be  seen  that  each 
area  receives  a  certain  num- 
ber of  nerve  fibres  and  each 
nerve  fibre  supplies  fibiiU 
that  cross  the  fibrils  of  ad- 
joining nerves.  If  the  point 
of  tlie  compass  touch  at  a, 
it  will  irritate  all  the  fibre's 
from  1  to  7,  hut  these  will 
not  be  excited  with  equal  in- 
tensity ;  the  excitation  will 
be  at  a  maximum  at  4,  more 
feeble  for  3  and  5,  and  still 
more  feeble  for  2  and  6 ;  so 
tliat  the  intensity  of  the  excitation  may  be  represented  by  the  curve 
above  rt.  In  this  case  the  sensation  will  be  that  of  one  point,  because 
all  the  fibrils  have  been  excited.  If  the  other  point  of  the  compass 
be  placed  at  6,  there  will  be  an  intermediary  region  not  excited,  and 
two  points  will  be  felt.  Suppose  now  the  second  point  of  the  com- 
passes is  moved  to  c,  all  the  hbnls  between  the  two  points  a  and  c 
are  excited,  and  there  is  likely  a  sensation  of  single  contact  ;  but 
the  excitation  of  the  fibrils  7  and  8  is  very  feeble,  and  it  is  possible, 
by  attention  aud  practice,  to  leave  these  out,  and  then  tlirre  will  be 
a  sensation  of  two  contacts  (Benunis).  This  mechanicnl  theory  has 
no  anatomical  basis,  except  it  be  the  statement  made  by  Krause  tbat 
the  distance  of  the  two  points  of  the  compasses  at  which  two  points 
are  felt  includes  in  the  mean  12  tactile  corpuscles.  V;hiNt  atten- 
tion hns  been  inniuly  directed  to  the  skin  as  the  locality  >^fhere  an 
anatomical  explanation  is  to  be  sought  for.  it  must  not  be  toigoitcn 
that  pioci=ises  may  be  in  operation  in  the  nerve  centres.  It  is 
well  known  that  irradiation  of  nervous  impulses  occur  in  the  nerve 
'centics  (se^  Hhysiologv,  vol.  xix.  p  29).  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that, 
when  a  nervous  impression  reaches  the  bi-ain  from  a  particular  area 
'of  skin,  this  may  be  diffused  to  neighbouring  nerve-cells,  exciting 
these,  and  lliat  then  the  effect  on  these  ccHr.  in  accordance  with 
the  law  that  sensations  in  nerve  centres  are  lelericd  to  the  origins 
in  the  periphery  of  the  sensory  utrve  fibres  reaching  them,  will  be 
referred  to  adjoining  areas  of  skin,  or.  in  other  words,  to  adjoining 
points  in  the  tactile  held. 

Wundt  has  propounded  a  psycho-physiological  theory  that  every 
part  of  the  skin  with  tactile  sensibility  alw.iys  conveys  an  imprcs- 
sion  of  the  loraliry  o!  the  sensation.  Each  area  of  skin  has  a 
[*'  local  colour."  and  this  diminishes  from  ar^-a  to  area.  The  grada- 
tion is  sudden  wht-ie  the  sense  of  locality  is  acute  and  gradual  where 
it  is  obtuse.  "A  ciicle  of  sensation  is  an  area  where  the  local 
colour  changes  so  little  that  two  separate  impressions  luse  into  one  " 
(Landois).  Practice  -enables  one  to  notice  the  changes  of  local 
colour,  aud  thus  more  and  more  arcuratelv  to  discriminate  points 
closer  and  closf-r  together.  This  theory  does  not  ap^vear  to  explain 
anythiug.  it  simply  restates  the  phenomciitt  for  which  an  explana- 
tion is  desired. 

SE^MATlt>N<  OF  TEMPEKATfRE. — Tlie  skin  is  not  merely  the  seat^ 
of  tactile  impressions  but  also  of  imjiressiona  of  temperature. 
This  depends  on  thermic  irritati<>n  of^  the  terminal  organs,  as 
pvovtjd  by  the  following  experiment  of  E.  H.  Wi-ber  :-*-"  II"  the 
elbow  be  dipped  into  a  very  cold  fluid,  the  cold  is  only  felt  at  the 
immersod  part  of  the  body  (where  the  fibres  terminate);  pain, 
liOMuvcr.  is  fell  in  the  terminal  organs  of  the  ulnar  nerve,  rwmely, 
in  the  hnger  points;  this  pain,  at  the  same  time,  deadens  the  local 
sensation  of  cf>ld."  If  the  sensation  of  cold  were  due  to  the 
irritation  of  a  specific-nerve  fibre,  the  sensation  of' cold  would  be 
rcferrrd  to  the  tips  of  the  fingers:  Whon  any  part  of  the  skin 
is  above  its  normal  mean  temperature,  warmth  is  -  felt  ;  iri  the 
bpposito  case,  cold.  The  normal  mean  tern  pern  tti  re-  of  a  given 
larea  vari**s  according  to  the  distribution  of  hot  blood  in  it  and  to 
the  activity  of  nutritive  chariees  occurring  in  it.     When  the  skin 


IS  brought  into  contact  with  a  good  conductor  of  heat  there  fa  k 
sensation  of  cold.  A  sensation  of  heat  is  experienced  when  heat  is- 
carried  to  the  skin  in  any  way.  The  following  are  the  chief  factr, 
that  have  been  ascertained  regarding  the  temperature  eense.  (ly^ 
E.  H.  Weber  found  that,  with  a  skin  temperature  of  from  IS^'S  C.\ 
to  35*"  C,  the  tips  of  the  fingers  can  distinguish  a  difi'erence  of* 
■25"  C.  to  •2°C.  Temperaturesjust  below  thatof  the  blood  (33' C- 
27*  C. )  are  distinguisned  by  the  most  sensitive  parts,  even  to  "05* 
C.  (2)  The  thermal  sense  varies  in  different  regions  as  follows  : — 
tip  of  tongue,  eyelids,  cheeks,  lips,  neck,  belly.  The  "perceptible 
minimum  "  was  found  to  be,  in  degrees  C.  : — breast,  •4*;  back,  '9*  ; 
back  of  hand,  '3"  ;  palm,  A"  \  arm,  '2'  ;  back  of  foot,  •4'  ;  thigh^ 
•5°;  leg,  -6' to  '2*;  cheek,  -4°;  temple,  Z".  (3)  If  two  different 
temperatures  are  applied  side  by  side  and  simultaneously,  the 
impressions  often  fuse,  especially  if  the  areas  are  close  together.' 
(4)  Practice  is  said  to  improve  the  thermal  sense.  (5)  Sensations 
of  heat  and  cold  may  cunously  alternate  ;  thus  "  when  the  skin 
is  dipped  first  into  water  at  10°  C.  we  feel  rold,  and  if  it  be  then 
dipped  into  water  at  16"  C.  we  have  at  fii^st  a  feeling  of  warmth,' 
but  soon  again  of  cold"  (Landois).  (6)  The  same  temperature 
applied  to  a  large  area  is  not  appreciated  in  the  same  way  as  when 
applied  to  a  small  one;  thus  ".the  whole  hand  when  placed  in 
water  at  29'''5  C.  feels  wanner  than  when  a  finger  is  dipped  into 
water  at  32'  C. 

There  is  every  reason  to  hold  that  there  are  different  nerve  fibres 
and  ditferent  central  organs  for  the  tactile  and  thermal  sensations, 
but  nothing  definite  is  known.  The  one  sensation  undoubtedly 
affects  the  other.  Thus  the  minimum  distance  at  which  two  com- 
pass points  are  felt  ia  diminished  when  one  point  is  warmer  than 
the  other.  Again,  a  colder  weight  is  felt  as  heavier,  "  so  that  the 
apparent  difference  of  pressure  becomes  greater  when  the  heavier 
weight  is  at  the  same  time  colder,  and  less  when  the  lighter  weight 
is  colder,  and  difference  of  pressure  is  felt  with  equal  weights  of 
unequal  temperature"  (E.  H.  Weber).  Great  sensibility  to  differ- 
ences of  temperature  is  noticed  after  removal,  alteration  by  vesi- 
cants, or  destruction  of  the  epidermis,  and  in  the  skin  affection 
called  herpes  zoster.  The  s?me  occurs  in  some  cases  of  locomotor 
ataxy.  Removal  of  the  epidermis,  as  a  rale,  increases  tactile 
sensibility  and  the  sense  of  locality.  Increased  tactile  sensibility 
is  termed  hyperpsc/nphcsia,  and  is  a  rare  phenomenon  in  nervous 
diseases.  Paralysis  of  the  tactile  sense  is  called  hypopselaphesia^ 
whilst  its  entire  loss  is  npselaphcsia.  Brown-Sequard  mentions  a 
case  in  which  contact  of  two  points  gave  rise  to  a  sense  of  a  third 
point  of  contact.  Certain  contlitions  of  the  nerve  centres  affect 
the  senses  both  of  touch  and  temperature.  Under  the  influence  of 
moqihia  the  person  may  feel  abnormally  enlarged  or  diminished  in 
size.  As  a  rule  the  senses  are  affected  simultaneously,  but  cases 
occur  where  one  may  be  affected  more  than  the  other.  Herzen 
states  that  "limbs  which  are  sleeping"  feel  heat  and  not  cold 
(Landois). 

Pain. — In  addition  to  sensations  of  touch  and  of  temperature 
referred  to  the  skin,  there  is  still  a  third  kind  of  sensation  unlike 
either,  namely,  pain.  This  sensation  cannot  be  supposed  to  be 
excited  by  irritation^  of  the  end-organs  of  touch,  or  of  specific 
thermal  end-organs  (if  there  be  such),  but  rather  to  irritation  of 
ordinary  sensory  nerves,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
painful  impressions  make  their  way  to  the  brain  along  spinal 
tracks  in  the  spinal  cord.  If  we  consider  our  mental  condition 
as  regards  sensation  at  any  moment,  we  notice  numerous  sensations 
more  or  less  definite,  not  leferred  directly  to  the  surface,  nor  to 
external  objects,  such  as  a  feeling  of  general  comfort,  free  or  im- 
pelled breathing,  hunger,  thirst,  malaise,  horror,  fatigue,  and  pain. 
These  are  all  caused  by  the  irritation  of  ordinary  sensory  nerves  in 
different  localities,  and  if  the  irritation  of  such  nerves,  by  chemical, 
thermal,  mechanical,  or  nutritional  stimuli,  passes  beyond  a  certain 
maximum  point  of  intensity  the  result  is  pain.  Irritation  of  a 
nerve,  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  "peripheral  reference  of 
Rcnsotion,"  will  cause  pain.  Sometimes  the  irritation  applied  to 
the  trunk  of  a  sensory  nerve  may  be  so  intense  as  to  destroy  its 
normal  function,  and  loss  of  sensation  or  anaisthesia  results.  If 
then  the  stimulus  be  increased  further,  pain  is  excited  which  is 
referred  tn  the  end  of  the  nerve,  with  the  result  of  producing  what 
hos  been  called  miststkesia  dolorosa.  Pains  frequently  cannot  be 
distinctly  located,  probably  owing  to  the  fact  of  irradiation  in  the 
nerve  centres  and  subsequent  reference  to  areas  of  the  body  which 
are  not  really  the  seat  of  iiriUtiona.  The  intensity  of  pain  depends 
on  the  degree  of  excitability  of  the  sensory  nerves,  whilst  its  mas- 
eiveness  depends  on  the  number  of  nerve  fibres  affected.  The 
quality  of  tne  pain  is  probably  produced  by  the  kind  of  irritation 
of  the  nerve,  as  affected  by  the  structure  of  the  part  and  the  greater 
or  less  continuance  of  severe  nressure.  Thus  there  are  piercing, 
cutting,  bonng,  burning,  throbbing,  pressing,  gnawing,  dull,  and 
acute  varieties  of  pain.  Sometimes  theexcitability  of  the  cutaneous 
nerves  is  so  great  that  a  breath  of  air  or  a  delicate  touch  may  ' 
give  rise  to  suffering.  This  kyptralgia  is  found  irr  inflammatory 
alfectioDsof  the  skin.  In  neuTalgia  the  pain  is  characterized  by 
its  character  of  shooting  alqng  the   course  of  the  nerve  and  by 


T  O  U  — TOU 


483 


•severe  exacerbations.  In  many  nervous  diseases  there  are  dis- 
•Vi-UivU  Sfiisatioiis  referred  to  t!»o  skin,  such  as  alternations  of  heat 
nud  cold,  bunnug,  oixepiug,  itehin;;,  and  a  feeling  as  if  iusects 
were  crawling  ou  the  surliiee  (formicatiou).  This  ionditien  is 
termed  /nrut.jia  Tlie  term  hi/fnlijia  is  applied  to  a  diminution 
and  annljia  to  paralysis  of  [xiin.  as  is  protiuced  by  anoeslhetics. 
•  -MuscaLAK  Sense. — The  sensory  impressions  considered  in  this 
article  are  closely  related  to  the  so.called  muscular  sense,  or  that 
sense  or  feeling  by  which  we  are  aware  of  the  sute  of  the  muscles  of 
a  Umb  as  regards  contraction  or  rela.\atioii.  Some  have  iield  that 
the  muscular  sense  is  really  due  to  greater  or  leis  stretcliing  cf  the 
skiu  and  therefore  to  irritation  of  the  nerves  of  that  organ.  That 
this  IS  not  the  case  is  evident  from  tlie  fact  that  disorcfered  move- 
ments indicating  perversion  or  loss  of  this  sense  are  not  ulfected  by 
removal  of  the  skin  (Clau.le  Bernard).  Further,  cases  in  the  huniaii 
being  have  been  noticed  where  there  was  an  entire  loss  of  cutaneous 
sensibility  whilst  the  muscular  sense  was  unimpaired.  Ic  is  also 
known  that  muscles  possess  sensorv  nerves,  giving  rise,  in  certain 
cii-curastauces,  to  fatigue,  and,  when  strongly  irritated,  to  the  pain 
of  cramp.  Muscular  sensations  are  really  e.xcited  by  irritation  of 
sensory  nerves  passing  from  the  muscles  themselves.  Wo  are  thus 
made  conscious  of  whether  or  not  the  muscles  nro  coutracted,  and 
of  the  amount  of  contraction  necessary  to  overcome  resistance,  and 
this  knowledge  enables  us  to  judge  of  the  amount  of  voluntary  ini- 
pUise.  Lo^  or  diminution  of  the  muscular  sense  is  seen  in  chorea 
,imd  c,-i|wciully  in  locomotor  nuxy.  Increase  of  it  is  rare,  but  it  is 
wen  in  the  ciuious  affection  called  anxietas  tibiarum,  " a  painlul  con- 
dition ..f  nnicst,  whicli  leads  to  a  continual  change  in  the  position 
Of  the  limbs     (Landois).     See  also  Physiolooy.  (J.  G.  M.) 

TOUL,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arrondissement 
ID  the  department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Moselle,  199  miles  east  of  Paris  by  tlie  raiUvMy  to 
^'ancy,  at  the  [joint  where  the  Marne  Canal  joins  those  of 
the  Rhine  and  the  East.  The  isolated  hills  of  St  Michel 
and  Barine  respectively  rise  548  feet  and  574  feet  above 
the  to^v^,  which  is  a  stronghold  of  the  first  order,  the 
centre  of  an  entrenched  camp  protected  by  numerous  forts 
and  redoubt.s,  and  a  link  in  the  chain  of  fortifications 
which  extends  from  Verdun  to  Belfort.  The  light  and  ' 
elegant  church  of  St  Etienne  (formerly  the  cathedral)  has 
a  fine  choir  and  transept,  dating  from  the  13th  century  ; 
the  nave  and  aisles  are  of  the  14th,  and  the  beautiful 
recently  restored  facade  and  the  towers  (246  feet)  of  the 
15th.  The  interior  (118  feet  in  height,  289  in  length,  and 
89  la  width)  lias  fine  glass,  a  remarlcable  organ-loft,  and 
some  interesting  monuments.  The  bas-reliefs  of  the 
charming  Gothic  cloister  (13th  and  14th  centuries  were 
much  damaged  during  the  Revolution.  The  choir  and 
transept  of  St  Gengoult,  a' fine  church  of  the  13th  century 
with  a  facade  of  the  15th,  contain  some  interesting  13th- 
century  glass  ;  and  the  light  groups  of  supporting  columns, 
and  the  sculptures  in  the  cloisters  (first  half  of  the  ICth 
century),  .should  ako  be  mentioned.  The  old  episcopal 
palace  (18th  century)  is  now  used  as  the  town-hall;  it 
contains  the  museum  and  library,  in  which  Is  preserved 
the  ^golden  bull  by  which  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  in 
136"  confirmed  the  liberlies  of  the  city.  The  population 
!JC32  in  1881,  was  9981  in  1886  (commune  10,459). 

Toul  {Tutlum)  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  France;  ori-inally 
Capit-nl  of  the  Leiici,  in  the  Belgic  confederation,  it  acnuiird  .--rcat 
importance  iiiwler  the  Knmans.  It  Has  evangelized  bv  St  Jlansuy 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  4  th  century,  and  became  one  of  the  leadiii" 
^5  of  north-east  Oaiil.  Allcr  l.eing  sacked  successively  by  Goths' 
Burgiindians,  Vandals,  and  Huns,  Toul  was  conquered  by  the 
Franks  in  450.  Under  the  Merovingians  It  was  governed  by  counts 
Msisted  by  elecrtive  ollictrs.  The  bishops,  who  had  become 
increasingly  powrlul,  were  invested  with  sovereign  lights  in  the 
10th  century,  holding  only  of  the  emperor,  and  for  a  period  of 
SOOyeai-s  (l:Sth  toIGlli  centuries)  the  cituens  maintained  a  Ion..- 
Struggle  against  them.  The  town  was  forced  to  yield  for  a  lime  to 
the  count  of  V'audeniont  in  the  12tli  centiiiy,  and  twice  to  the  duke 
Of  Lorraine  in  the  l.^th,  and  was,lhrice  devastated  by  the  plague  in 
the  IGth.  Charles  V,  made  a  solemn  entry  into  the  town  i[ri544 
out  in  the  following  year,  at  the  iiisUnce  of  the  Cardinal  de 
Lorraine,  it  placcil  itself  under  the  [icrpetual  protection  of  the 
kings  of  France.  Henry  II.  took  [lossession  in  15D2,  but  the  town 
with  its  territory  was  not  oliiclally  incorj»orated  wilh  France  till 
1648.  Henry  IV,  was  ieci:ived  in  state  in  IHM.  and  in  1637  the 
l>arl«m<nt  of  Metz  was  transferred  to  Toul.     In  1700  Vauban  lecon- 


structcd  tho  fortifications' of  the  town,  and  in  1790  the  bishopric 
was,  suppressed  and  the  diocese  united  to  that  of  Nancy.  Toul 
capitulated. in  1S70,  after  a  bombardment  of  twelve  days  from 
heights  now  included  Lu  the  new  fortifications. 

TOULON,  a  French  fortress  of  the  first  class,  chet-Iicu 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Var,  of  the 
5th  nava!  arrondissement,  and  of  a  military  subdivisioa,  is 
situated  on  the  Mediterranean,  42  miles  east-south-east  of 
Jlarseilles  by  the  railway  to  Nice.  The  bay,  which  opens 
to  the  east,  has  two  divisions,  the  "grand  rade  "  and  the 
"petite  rade";  it  is  sheltered  on  the  north  and  west  bj 
high  hilLs,  closed  on  the  south  by  the  peninsula  of  Cape; 
SiciiJ  and  Cipet,  and    protected  on    the  east  by  a  hug« 


Environs  of  Toulon. 

breakwater, — the  entrant*,  1300  feet  wide,  being  defensible 
by  torpedoes.  A  ship  coming  from  the  open  sea  must  first 
pass  the  forts  of  St  Marguerite,  of  Cape  Brun,  of  La 
Malgue,  and  of  St  Louis  to  the  north,  and  the  battery  ot 
the  signal  station  to  the  south ;  before  reaching  the  petite 
rade  it  must  further  pass  under  the  guns  of  the  battery  ol 
Le  Salut  to  the  east,  and  of  the  forts  of "TBaiaguier  and 
L'Eguillette  to  the  west.  The  Bay  of  La  Seyne  lies  west 
of  the  petite  rade,  and  is  defended  by  the  forts  of  Les 
Six-Fours,  Napoleon  (formerly  Fort  Cairo),  and  Malbous- 
quet,  and  the  batteries  of  Les  Arenes  and  Les  Gaus.  Tc 
the  north  of  Toulon  rise  the  defensive  works  of  Mont 
Faron  and  Fort  Rouge,  to  the  east  the  forts  of  Artigues 
and  St  Catherine,  to  the  north-east  the  formidable  new 
fort  of  Le  Coudon,  and  to  the  south-east  that  of  La  Colle 
Noire,  respectively  dominating  the  highway  into  Italy 
and  the  valley  of  Hyeres  with  the  Bay  of  Carqueyranne. 
The  port  of  Tou'on  consists  of  the  old  dock,  of  which 
one-third  is  reserved  for  the  national  navy,  a  new  dock, 
wholly  so  devoted,  a  harbour  capable  of  receiving  trading 
vessels  drawing  from  16  to  18  feet,  but  only  used  for  car- 
goes ot  wood  and  wine,  and  the  Castigneau  dock.  The 
naval  arsenal  (including  the  arsenal  of  Castianeau,  which 
IS  contiguous  with  it,  in  the  direction  of  La  Seyne)  extends 

To^nnr  '"''*'''  "^^^  *"  ^''^^  °^  ^'^'^  ^"^^'  ^^^  employs  from 
r-,000  to  13,000  men.  It  contains  the  offices  connected 
with  the  administration  of  the  port,  tho  otfice  of  naval 
construction,  a  well-stored  naval  museum,  und  a  great 
In'"rn'^//7°'''''''°P'-  .These  last  include  a  rope-work 
W.,0  X  66  feet,  covered  building  yards,  careening  basins, 
torges  armourers'  and  joiners'  shops,  general  magazines, 
recon.truotPd  on  a  fireproof  principle  since  the  conflagr..^ 


484 


T  O  U  —  T  O  U 


fion  of  1793,  in  which  are  stored  all  materials  required  in 
tlje  arsenal  and  on  board  ship,  a  park  of  artillery,  a 
splendid  collection  of  arms,  and  separate  storehouses  for 
various  classes  of  rigging.  The  Castigneau  arsenal  con- 
tains the  navy  bakery  of  twenty  ovens,  capable  of  cooking 
600,000  rations  daily,  the  foundry  and  boiler-making 
works,  engineers'  workshops,  forges,  three  large  careening 
basins,  a  washing  house,  a  slaughter  house,  stores  of  pro- 
visions, coals,  anchors  and  machinery,  and  the  like.  The 
Mourillon  arsenal,  to  the  south-east  of  the  town,  has  stores 
of  wood,  building  yards,  and  appliances  for  naval  con- 
struction in  wood  and  iron.  The  town,  enlarged  to  the 
north  under  the  second  empire,  has  on  that  aide  a  fine  new 
quarter  ;  but  in  the  old  town  the  streets  are  for  the  most 
part  narrow,  crooked,  and  dirty,  and  to  their  insanitary 
state  the  cholera  epidemic  of  18Si  has  been  attributed. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  old  cathedral  of  St  Marie 
Majeure,  the  church  of  St  Louis,  the  town-hall,  the  theatre 
(seating  2000  persons),  the  museum,  the  library  (18,000 
volumes),  the  naval  and  military  hospital,  with  a  natural 
history  collection  and  an  anatomical  museum  attached,  a 
naval  school  of  medicine,  a  school  of  hydrography,  and 
large  barracks.  The  imports  are  wine  {■2.470,000  gallon* 
in  18S1),  corn,  wood,  coal,  hemp,  iron,  sugar,  coffee,  and 
fresh  fish  ,  the  exports  are  salt,  copper  ore,  barks  for 
tanning,  and  oils.  In  1882  the  movement  of  the  port 
was  represented  by  'J80  vessels  (41,000  tons).  The  in- 
teresting buildings  and  gardens  of  the  ho.spital  of  Si 
Mandner  stand  on  the  peninsula  of  Cape  Cipet,  and  ni^ar 
them  i.^  the  lazaretto  In  1881  the  pi-puliiion  of  Toulon 
was  4>' 83l',  and  in  1880  it  was  .'>3,'J4l,  e.<olusiie  of 
1 2.487  f-.)ldiers,  sailers,  A-c.  (commune  70. 122). 

T!ie  R-'Hiin  T- 1'»  MartiuH  is  suj-pos^jj  to  havv  -i.wkI  n'i.\r  tie 
Ki/arelto  Tl"?  ti.^ro  «-a?  succc-iaivcly  .sai'kt'ri  t-\  C'<lhs.  burj^uu 
<iiaiis  Frwii,'.  inJ  .Sara.-eos  L'urihg  tlie  .arlv  .Mi,l-<W  Afl'S,  ah.l 
(111  .viiqui'"!  by  f  lla^k■^ 'jf  Ari|uii  in   l'i:i9,  II  "  i«  ■mrtii   li.cj-- of 

ll*  O'.vn.   40.1  ■  T.I,,H,<1  llllo  dlllHIK'U  Villi  t  ho    Ic  J'nl't  nj   vf    .\1  a  I  >»- 1  i  1 1'.-* 

an-l  Ari^»  >i  L-^ui.^  Lo»ii?  Xll  ,  and  l'ran''i&  1  slftiigtlniie'i  ii? 
forllli' n'lnos  ll  vm  acized  by  tlve  *m|'>T"i  ri.i.iln  V  ui  l.'.:4 
•  III  ID-W  Il-iiiy  IV.  fniindcil  a  nnval  .irsiual  al  Tmil.iM.  wln.'b 
ua-i  I'lirih.-f  -iirfngiheiierj  b)  Ki»  hr-Ii-u.  anJ  Va,.lf.in  iii^i.ie  liitfin-w 
doik.  a  n»''»  €u«-c>nie  411.I  ^ev,>ral  fori*  auJ  Ir.iiicru**  In  Ktt" 
Ihe  to'VQ  waA  Mfi«nioi  fsaiiilly  be.<i''j:pd  by  tli'*  -liik^  01  Sa>c'y,  l*riiirt 
Eu;;.'nf,  in  I  an  Eu^lisli.  lUt-i  In  1701  iliert-  «.isjn  ouU'r>'ak  ol 
llic"  pl.<^uo  111  K92.  ilui  grr^l  and  MnjriiMiarv  .li-."c!er.  llie 
roj  All.■.t^  01  I*!''  I''-"^  n  xjlljjtil  !hf  sul-l'orl  of  111**  Eii;.'ll^b  .tfjd  .Sl-aiiis!i 
flfpis  nuiiing  III  the  tirt^tiboiiilKMnJ  Tlic  t.-iivf«itK'ii  b.a\iiij' 
rel'Ilfd  I'V  I'jltini;  ttie  l'»«i,  "  hors  la  U'l,"'  llit-  iiiliiibitanls  opfitctl 
Ihfit  haiiwur  10  ill.-  tnjli^li  Tlic  army  of  tbr  ici-iibiir  no-J  Isi.l 
si(.i;e  10  ib^  ti>-An.  nnd  tl  *aH  on  tlii»  occasion  thnt  N.ij-ok-on  [vin* 
I'lltc  tint  ini.l<  bii  name  .i!>  a  soldier  Tlie  f"il?  roniui.in.liiic  ib» 
town  lilMMf;  bi-cii  |jk<-n.  Ih.'  Enjilivb  ships  rfiiird  ,11. 1  x-lung  fiu- 
to  tlic  .iisviial.     TJu'cnnrtagiatioii  tiaspviiufzinsbtd  b>  I  If  (.rwrji,.-rs, 

bill  not  Ub'ie  .IS  OIII  of  a  toUl  of  f">  \Csst-N  had  Ui'll  dr.sfri.')rd 
I'ruK'l  ibc  Dirrolor\  Toulon  Ijcc.iiiic  tlic  most  iiiii<*iitanl  ricncti  null 
l.iry  fort  on  tlic  M.-.Jit.-riain-flii  ,  it  was  licrc  tliat  Nni-oleon  *.»r^i>in/.d 
tlic  Ejjplian  raiiipii^ii  and  the  cn|»rdilii«n  ajjainsi  AI;;icrs  scl  cot 
Ir.Mii  T'oiilcn  III  ISJO  I'lic  furlihi  jtn.in  bavo  l«ci>  -trcii-lbci.cd 
b)   Na(.olc<Mi  1  .  I..1II1S  I'liiliipi;,  N:i|.olcnu  111  ,  and  since  ipTu 

TOl'LOrSK.  chef  lieu  of  the  Krencli  d»partnicnt  ol 
lljute  Ci.iioiiiio,  4  7S  miles  .soulli  from  Paris  and  lliO  suiitli 
cast  (n^ni  Bonloaux.  stands  on  the  right  bank  td  the 
Caronno,  which  here  desciibes  a  bold  outw.ird  curie  to  the 
east.  On  the  kit  lank  is  the  I'auboiirg  St  C'v  prien.  Tin: 
river  is  spanned  by  three  bridges  —  tliit  ol  St  I'lerrc  lo  ihe 
north,  lliul  of  St  Mnliel  towards  the  south,  and  the  I'oiit 
Neuf  in  the  centre  ,  the  last  named,  a  tine  i-oiistructioti  vi 
seven  arches,  was  bo^'un  in  l''4.3  The  city  is  peculiarly 
.subject  to  great  floods,  such  as  that  of  18-''>.'".,  nliieli  de- 
stroyed the  suspension  bridge  of  St  I'lerre,  or  the  still  mure 
disastrous  one  of  Juno  1875,  which,  besides  carrying  a»ny 
that  of  St  Michel,  laid  the  Faubourg  St  Cyprien  under 
water,  destroyed  70U0  houses,  and  drowned  300  jicople. 
East  and  north  of  the  city  runs  the  great  Canil  du  Midi 
(from  the  Mediterranean),  which  here  joins  the  Caroline. 


Between  this  canal  and  the  city  proper  extends  the  long  line 
of  boulevards  (Boulevards  Lacrosses,  d'Arcole,  du  22  Sen- 
tembre,  &c.)  leading  by  the  AU^e  St  Etienne'to  the  Boulid- 
grin,  whence  a  series  of  allees  shoot  out  in  all  directions. 
South-west  the  AlliSe  St  Michel  leads  towards  the  Garonne, 
and  south  the  Grande  Alice  towards  the  Faubourg  St 
Michel.  These  boulevards  take  the  place  of  the  old  city 
walls.  Between  them  and  the  canal  lie  the  more  modern 
faubourgs   of   St  Pierre,  Arnaud- Bernard,  Matabiau,  Ac 


Plan  of  Toulouse. 

The  more  ancient,  part  of  the  city  consists  of  narrow  irregu- 
lar pebble  paved  streets.  Most  of  the  houses  arc  of  brick, 
and  none  of  any  great  architectural  pretensions,  except 
those  which  <!^it<*  lack  at  least  to  the  ITih  century.  In 
1808  the  niuiiuipal  aiithoiities  determined  to  construct  two 
entirely  new  .<^trecis,  broad  and  sir.ii^ht  intended  to  cut 
one  another  at  rii:lit  angles  ne.ir  the  centre  ol  the  city.  Of 
these  the  first,  the  liuc  de  Mel^.  stalls  eastward  from  the 
Pont  Neiif,  and  will  ultimately  intersect  the  Hue  d'Alsace- 
Lorraine  running  from  luTtli  to  south  These  alterations, 
however,  go  on  \ery  slowly  The  I'luce  du  Capitolo  may  be 
rcgnidcd'as  the  cciitif,  wlmiee  stieels  branch  out  in  every 
direction  Lastwaid  and  norlh-ensl  the  line  La  Fajctte 
load^  across  Ihe  b..iilLv;irds  townrils  the  Alice  La  Fayette, 
beyond  which.  Kcrots  the  Can.il  dn  Midi,  are  the  l->olc 
Veterinaiie  and  the  i.iilway  station,  uiid  ."i'lll  farther  off 
the  olwlisk  erected  to  uniiinoniontle  the  battle  of  Toulouse 
(.\piil  10,  18U|,  tind  the  observatory.  From  the  north- 
west of  the  I'hici;  du  Capilole  the  Kue  dii  Taur  runs  due 
north  past  the  miciciit  I'^glise  du  Tmir  to  the  great  Kglisc 
St  Seriiiii.  tlio  largest  and  must  f.iiii.'us  church  of  southern 
France  From  the  north  west  crner  of  the  same  Place  the 
line  des  Loiscomlucts  t.<vv:irds  the  Fcole  de  I'roit  and  the 
arsenal.  In  a  more  wi-iefly  direct  ion  the  Itue  Pargamin- 
lire  stretches  towards  th.;  vcneinble  <liiiirh  and  the  .bridge 
of  St  Peter  From  the  .soiilh  west  corner  the  Kun  des 
)l.ilaiice.s  exliiids  towards  the  line  do  Melz  and  the  Pont 
Noiif.  From  Ihe  south  ihe  Kue  St  liomC,  Kue  des  Changes, 
and  Kue  des  Filatiers  lead  to  the  Place  des  Carmes  or  de 
la  Ib^piiblique  ;  while  from  the  .south-east  corner  the  Rue 
de  ll  Poiiiniu  and  the  Kue  KouUionne  lead  across  tlje  Rue 
d'Alsacu  Lorraine  to  Ihe  catliedial  of  St  Stephe^i,     lo  the 


TOULOUSE 


485 


south  of  the  city  lies  the  palais  de  justice,  near  which  are 
the  ancient  church  of  the  Inquisition  and  several  of  the 
finest  houses  in  Toulouse.  Going  northwards,  the  traveller 
passes  the  £glise  de  la  Dalbade  on  his  way  towards  the 
Pont  Neuf,  immediately  to  the  north  of  which  is  the  £glise 
de  la  Daurado.  North  of  this  church,  but  somewhat  farther 
from  the  river,  is  the  military  hospital,  to  the  immediate 
cast  of  which  lie  the  lycee,  the  church  of  the  Jacobins, 
and  the  public  library.  South-east  from  this,  about  half- 
¥ray  towards  the  cathedral,  is  the  museum.  North  of  the 
military  hospital  and  beyond  the  Rue  Fargaminiere  lie  the 
arsenal  and  the  Faubourg  St  Pierre.  Slightly  to  the  north- 
west of  the  Pont  St  Pierre  the  Canal  de  Bnenne  (finished 
1778)  cuts  across  the  angle  formed  by  the  Garonne  and 
Canal  du  Midi.  Between  the  Canal  de  Bnenne  and  the 
Garonne  is  the  chief" manufacturing  part  of  the  city,  where 
the  great  Bazacle  flour-raill  stands.  Aiung  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  run  the  various  quays  of  St  Pierre,  ttc.  In 
the  Faubourg  St  Cyprien,  just  north  of  the  Pont  Neuf,  is 
the  Hotel  Dieu  St  Jacques,  said  to  have  been  founded  before 
the  r2th  century,  with  its  large  gardens.  Close  to  the 
Pont  St  Pierre  is  the  hospital  of  St  Joseph  de  la  Grave, 
which  makes  up  1432  beds,  and  affords  shelter  to  found- 
lings and  the  aged.  South  of  the  Allee  St  Michel  is  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes,  founded  by  the  ill-fated  La  Perouse. 

The  most  interesting  building  ia  the  church  of  St  Scrnin  or 
Saltiminus,  whom  legend  represents  as  the  first  preacher  of  the 
gospel  in  Toulouse,  wliere  he  was  perhaps  martyred  towards  the 
middle  of  tlie  3d  century.  The  oldest  part  of  the  present  building 
was  consecrateil  by  Urban  II.  in  1096.  This  church  is  now  the 
larj;est  cilitice  of  soiuhern  France,  being  375  feet  from  cast  to  west 
and  217  feet  in  its  utmost  brcadlb.  The  nave  (r2th  and  13th  cen- 
turies) is  remarkable  for  having  double  aisles.  Four  pillars,  sup- 
portinj;  the  central  tower,  are  surrounded  by  heavy  masonry,  which 
somcwh^tt  S[X)ils  the  gcner.il  harmony  of  the  interior.  In-  the 
6outhern  transept  IS  tiie  "  porLid  dcs  combes,"  so  named  because 
near  it  lie  tin;  tombs  of  Willian?  Taillefer,  Pous,  and  other  early 
counts  of  Toulouse.  The  Iitlle  chapel  in  which  these  lombs  (as- 
cribed to  the  11th  century)  are  found  was  restored  by  the  capitols 
of  Toulouse  in  164S.  Another  chapel  contains  a  Byzantine  Christ 
of  late  11th-century  workmanship.  Tiie  choir  (11th  and  12th  cen- 
turies) ends  in  .in  apse,  or  rather  che'vet,  sun-ounded  by  a  range  of 
columns,  markini;  oir  an  nisle  which  in  its  turn  opens  into  five 
chapels.  The  stalls  are  of  16th-century  work  and  very  grotesquely 
carved  Aj^ainst  the  northern  wall  is  an  ancient  tat Icd'autd,  which 
an  lUh-century  inscription  declares  to  have  belongeil  to  St  Scrnin. 
In  the  crypts  are  many  relics,  which,  however,  were  robbed  of  their 
gold  and  silver  shrjn«  durinj;  the  Revolution.  The  finest  gate  is 
on  the  south,  nnd  is  surmounted  by  a  fine  representation  of  the 
Ascension  in  Byzantine  style.  The  capiUls  of  the  St  Scrnin  pillars 
are  sometimes  ornamented  with  leaves  and  sometimes  witli  grot- 
esque ammils.  kc.  The  belfry  consists  of  five  stories,  of  which  the 
two  highest  are  of  later  date,  but  harmonize  very  well  with  the 
three  lower  ones.  The  catliedml,  dedicated  to  St  Stephen,  dates 
from  three -diiferent  epochs.  The  n.tve,  commenced,  by  Raymond 
VI  towanis  the  begmnmg  of  the  13th  century,  still  displays  the 
sculptured  arms  of  its  founder,  and  a  few  yeare  ago  preserved  the 
pulpit  in  which  St  Bernard  and  St  Dominic  are  said  to  have 
preaclied.  The  choir,  commenced  by  Benrand  de  Lille  (c.  1272), 
was  burned  in  1609.  but  restored  in  the  same  century.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  seventeen  chapels,  which  were  finished  by  the  Cardinal 
dOrlcaus,  nephew  of  Louis  XI  ,  towards  the  beginnmg  of  the  16th 
century.  These  chapels  are  adornetl  with  glass  dating  from  the 
IPth  to  the  17th  century.  The  j-reat  western  gate  was  constructed 
by  Peter  du  Moulin,  archbishop  of  Toulouse,  from  1439  to  1-151.  It 
has  been  greatly  battered,  and  presents  but  a  poor  approximation  I 
to  Its  aucient  U-.Tuty.  Over  this  ffrand  sate,  which  was  once  i 
ornamented  with  the  statups  of  St  Sernin.  St  Exupenus.  and  the  1 
twelve  apostles,  as  well  as  those  of  the  two  brother  archbishops  of  • 
Toulouse.  Denis (1423-1 439)  and  Peter  du  Moulin,  there  is  a  bcauti-  ! 
ful  13th-ccnturv  rosc-wmdow.  whose  centre,  however,  is  not  in  a 
perpon*licular  line  with  the  point  of  the  Gothic  arch  below.  In 
the  same  way  the  choir  and  the  nave  have  not  the  same  axis. 

Among  oiher  rt-niarkahlc  churches  may  be  noticed  those  of  St 
Pierre  dr?  Cuisin.s  tl2lh  rcntury),  with  its  beautifully  sculptured 
capitals;  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Daurade.  near  the  Pont  Neuf.  built 
on  the  site  of  a9th-ccninrv  Bcnedicime  abl>ey,  but  reconstructeil 
in  1764.  and  of  N'otre  Dame  do  la  Dalbade.  perhaps  esistins  m  i 
the  nth  ceniurv  but  in  it^  present  form  dating  from  the  15ih.   I 
The  Egllsc  dcs  Jacobins,  heldbv  Viollet  le  Due  to  be  **  one  of  the  I 
most  beautiful  bnck  churehes  constructed  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  I 


wa.1  built  towards  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  and  originally  con* 
sisted  of  but  one  structure  divided  into  two  aisles  by  a  range  of 
columns.  It  has  a  beautiful  octagonal  belfry.  Before  the  Rcvolu- 
tion  it  contained  the  mausoleum  of  Thomas  Aquinas.  On  the  left 
of  the  Garonne  stands  the  church  of  St  Nicholas,  also  with  an  octa- 
gonal belfry  and  a  spire  dating  from  the  loth  century.  There  are 
many  other  churches  of  considerable  antiquity. 

Of  secular  buildings  the  most  noteworthy  are  the  capitole,  tho 
museum,  and  the  lycee.  The  capitole  ilCth-17th  centuries)  has  a 
long  Ionic  facade  constructed  by  Canimas  (1750-60).  The  theatre 
is  situated  in  the  left  wing.  Running  along  almost  the  whole 
length  of  the  first  floor  is  the  "sallcdes  illustres"  adorned  with  the 
busts  of  forty-four  great  natives  of  Toulouse;  the  word  "native" 
has,  however,  been  construed  very  liberally.  In  the  capitole  tho 
Acadenuedes  Jeux  Floraux  holds  its  annual  meetings.  The  museum 
(opened  1795)  occupies  the  church  and  other  buildings  of  the  Angus- 
tiiiLin  convent  (I4th-15th  cent.).  It  contains  a  splendid  collcctioo. 
of  antiquities  arranged  in  two  cloisters,  nnd  a  collection  of  pictures. 
The  natural  history  museum  i^  at  the  Jardin  dcs  Plantes.  The 
lycee  occupies  the  group  of  boildings  known  as  '  Les  Jacobins/* 
the  Hotel  Bernui  (16th  century),  ic  Here  is  the  public  library 
(65,000  volumes). 

Toulouse  is.singularly  rich  in  mansions  of  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries.  Several  of  these  are  richly  adorned  by  Bachelier,  Michel- 
angelo's pupil.  The  Hotels  d'Assezat,  de  St  Jean,  Las  Bordes,  Fcl- 
zins,  Duranti,  and-Maison  de  Pierre  may  be  si>ecially  mentioned. 
A  few  houses  are  said  to  date  from  the  I4tli  century  or  even  earlier. 
Near  the  Allee  St  Michel  is  the  palais  de  justice,  the  old  meeting 
house  of  the  parlement  of  Toulouse.  "  Close  by  was  the  old  Chateau 
Narbonnais. 

Besides  its  university,  which  ranks  next  to  those  of  Paris  and 
Lyons,  and  has  faculties  of  law,  -science,  letters,  an_jl  medicine, 
Toulouse  possesses  many  educational  and  learned  societies,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  £coIe  des  Beaux  Arts  et  des  Sciences 
Industnellcs,  the  iScole  Normale,  the  Ecole  de  Musique,  the  Aca- 
demies des  Jeirc  Floraux,  des  Sciences  et  des  Belles  Lettreset  Arts, 
and  de  Legislation,  the  Societe  d*Agriculture,  and  the  archseological 
Societe  du  Midi. 

The  geographical  position  of  Toulouse,  on  the  plain  of  Languedoc, 
has  mado  it  the  chief  entrepot  of  the  district  for  wine,  corn,  and 
almost  all  the  industries  of  the  neighbourhood!.  Btsides  the  grind- 
ing of  flour, 'its  leading  industries  are  cabinetmaking,  hat-making, 
calico  printing,  the  manufacture  of  pots  and  pans,  macaruni,  and 
starch,  leather-making  (morocco),  doth  and  paper  making,  glass- 
blowing,  saddlerj*,  and  pottery.  The  tobacco  factory  occu]>ies  1250 
hands,  and  manufactures  1000  tons  of  snulf,  a  corresponding 
quantity  of  tobacco,  and  250  tons  of  cigars  annually. 

The  population  of  the  city,  127,196  in  1881,  numbered  133,775 
Id  18S6,  that  of  the  commune  being  147,617. 

Tolosa  (ToKuaaa),  chief  town  of  the  Voloe  Tectosages,  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  a  place  of  gieat  importance  during  the  early 
centuries  of  the  Roman  rule  in  Gaul,  though  one  incident  in  its 
early  history  gave  nse  to  the  famous  I*itin  proverb  "habet  aurum 
Tolosanum"  iAuL  Geli.,  lii.  c,  12).  It  was  possessed  of  a  circus 
and  an  amphitheatre,  but  its  most  remarkable  remains  are  to  be 
found  on  the  heights  of  Old  Toulouse  (vetus  Tolosa)  some  6  or  7 
miles  to  the  east,  where  huge  accumulations  of  broken  pottery 
and  fragments  of  an  old  earthen  wall  mark  tiie  site  of  an  ancient 
settlement-  The  numerous  coins  that  have  been  discovered  on  the 
same  spot  do  not  date  back  farther  than  the  2d  century  E.t;.,  and 
seem  to  indicate  the  position  of  a  Roman  mnnnfacturing  centre 
then  beginning  to  occupy  the  Gallic  hill-fortress  that,  in  earlier 
days,  had  in  times  of  peril  been  the  stronghold  of  the  native  tribes 
dwelling  on  the  river  bank.  Tolosa  does  not  seem  to  have  been  a 
Roman  colony;  but  its  importance  must  have  mcreased  greatly 
towards  the  middle  of  the  4th  century.  It  is  to  be  found  entered  in 
more  than  one  itinerary  dating  from  about  this  time  .  and  Auson- 
ius.  in  his  Ordo  Nofnlium  Urhiurtt,  alludes  to  it  in  terms  implying 
that  It  then  had  a  large  population.  In  419  it  was  taken  by  Wallia, 
king  of  the  Visigoths,  under  whom  or  whose  successors  it  became 
the  seat  of  the  great  Teutonic  kingdom  of  the  \VestCoth?.  — aking- 
doni  that  within  fifty  years  had  extended  itself  from  the  Loire  to 
Gibraltar  and  from  the  lihone  to  the  Atlantic  On  the  defeat  of 
Alaric  11  (o07)  Toulouse  fell  into  the  hantis  of  Clovis.  who  carried 
awav  the  royal  treasures  to  Angoulcme.  Under  the  Merovingian 
kiii2s  It  seems  to  have  remained  the  greatest  city  of  southern  Gaul, 
ami  IS  said  to  hrive  been  governed  by  dukes  or  connisdei«endent  on 
one  or  other  of  the  nval  kings  descended  from  the  gicat  founder  of 
the  Frankif-h  monarchy.  It  fijiurcs  prominently  in  the  pages  of 
Gregory  of  Tours  and  Sidonius  A|K>llinaris.  About  628  l>agol>crl 
erected  South  Aquitaine  into  a  kingdom  for  his  brother  Charibert, 
who  chose  Toulouse  as  his  capital.  For  the  next  eighty  years  its 
history  is  obscure,  till  wc  reach  the  day.s  of  Charles  Mm  id,  when 
it  was  besieged  by  Sema.  the  leader  of  the  Saracens  from  Si»ain  (c. 
715-20).  but  delivered  by  Eudo,  "princeps  Aquitanis,"  in  whom 
later  wTitcrs  discovered  the  ancestor  of  all  the  later  counts  of  Toul- 
ouse     Modern  criticism,  however,  has  discredited  this  genealogy ; 


486 


T  0  U  —  T  O  U 


and  the  real  history  of  Toulouse  recoraoienccs  in  780  or  781,  when 
Charlemagne  appointed  his  little  son  Louis  king  of  Aquitaine, 
with  Toulouse  for  his  chief  city. 

Daring  the  minority  of  the  young  king  his  tutor  Chorson  ruled 
at  Toulouse  %vith  the  title  of  duke  or  count.  Being  deposed  at  the 
council  of  Worms  (790),  he  was  succeeded  by  'William  Courtnez,  the 
traditional  hero  of  southern  France,  who  in  806  retired  to  his  newly 
founded  monastery  at  Gellone,  where  he  died  in  812.  In  the  uu- 
i>appy  days  of  Louis  the  Pious  and  his  children  Toulouse  suffered  in 
coiumOQ  with  the  rest  of  westeru  Europe.  It  was  besieged  by 
Charles  the  Bald  in  844,  and  taken  four  years  later  by  the  Normans, 
who  in  843  had  sailed  up  the  Garonne  as  far  as  its  walls.  About 
852  Raymond  1.,  count  of  Querci,  succeeded  his  brother  Fridolo 
as  count  of  Rouergue  and  Toulouse;  it  is  from  this  noble  that  all 
the  later  counts  of  Toulouse  trace  their  descent.  Raymond  l.'s 
grandchildren  divided  their  parent's  estates ;  of  these  Raymond  II., 
the  elder  (d.  924),  became  count  of  Toulouse,  and  Ermengaud,  the 
younger,  count  of  Rouergue,  while  the  hereditary  titlos  of  Gothia, 
Querci,  and  Albi  were  shared  between  them.  Raymond  1 1,  "s  grand- 
eon,  William  Taillefer  {d.  c.  1037),  married  Emma  of  Provence,  and 
handed  dow^x  part  of  that  lordship  to  his  younger  son  Bertrand.* 
William's  elder  son  Pons  left  two  children,  of  whom  William  IV. 
succeeded  his  father  in  Toulouse,  Albi,  Queici,  &c. ;  while  the 
younger,  Raymond  IV.  of  St  Gilles  (c.  1066;,  made  himself  master 
©f  the  vast  possessions  of  the  counts  of  Rouergue,  nianied  Ins  cousin 
the  heiress  of  Provence,  and  about  1085  began  to  rule  the  immense 
estates  of  his  elder  brother,  who  was  still  livmg. 

From  this  time  the  counts  of  Toulouse  were  the  greatest  lords 
in  southern'  France.  Raymond  IV.,  the  hero  of  the  first  crusade, 
assumed  the  formal  titles  of  marquis  of  Provence,  duke  of  Nar- 
bonne,  and  count  of  Toulouse.  While  Raymond  was  away  in  tlie 
Holy  I^aud,  Toulouse  was  seized  by  William  IX.,  duke  of  Amutaine, 
who  claimed  the  city  in  right  of  his  wife  Philippa,  the  daughter 
of  William  IV.,  but  was  unable  to  hold  it  long  (1098-1100). 
Ravraond'ssonand  successor  Bertrand  followed  his  father's  example 
and  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land  in  1109,  leaving  his  great  estates 
at  his  death  to  his  brother  Alphonse-Jourdain.  The  rule  of  this 
prince  was  disturbed  by  the  ambition  of  William  IX  and  his  grand- 
daughter Eleanor,  who  urged  her  husband  Louis  VII.  to  support 
her  claims  to  Toulouse  by  war.  On  her  divorce  from  Louis  and 
her  marriage  with  Henry  II.,  Eleanor's  claims  passed  on  to  this 
monarch,  who  at  last  forced  Raymond  V.  tqjjo  hini  homage  for 
Toulouse  in  1173.  Raymond  V.,  the  patron  of  tlie  troubadours, 
died  in  1194,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Raymond  VI.,  under 
whose  rule  Languedoc  was  desolated  by  the  remoryeless  crusaders 
of  SimoD  de  Montfort.  Raymond  VII.,  the  son  of  Haymcnd  VI. 
and  Princess  Joan  of  England,  succeeded  his  father  m  1222,  and 
<iied  in  1249,  leaving  an  only  daughter  Joan,  married  to  AKouso  the 
brother  of  Louis  IX.  On  the  death  of  Alfonso  and  Joan  in  1271 
the  vast  inheritance  of  the  counts  of  Toulouse  lapsed  to  the  crown.* 

From  the  middle  years  of  the  12lh  century  the  people  of  Toulouse 
Seem  to  have  begun  to  free  themselves  from  the  most  oppressive 
feudal  dues.  An  act  of  Alphonse-Jourdain  (1141)  exempts  thcni 
from  the  tax  on  salt  and  wine;  and  in  1152  we  have  traces  of 
a  '*  commune  con.siiiutu  Tolosfc  "  making  police  ordinances  in  us 
own  name  "  with  the  advice  of  Lonl  Raymond,  count  of  Toulouse, 
duke  of  NarboDne,  and  marquis  of  Provence."  This  act  is  witnessed 
by  six  "  capitularii,"  four  duly  appointed  judges  (jnrhccs  constitvti ). 
and  two  advocates.  Twenty-three  years  later  there  are  luehc 
capitularii  or  consuls,  six  for  the  city  and  six  for  its  suburbs,  all 
of  them  elected  and  sworn  to  do  justice  m  whatever  municipal 
matters  were  brought  before  them.  In  1222  their  number  was 
increased  to  twenty-four;  but  they  were  forbidden  to  touch  the  city 
property,  which  was  to  remain  m  the  charge  of  certain  "commun- 
arii  "  chosen  by  themselves.  Early  in  the  14th  century  the  consuls 
took  the  name  of  "domiiii  de  capitulc,*'  or,  a  little  later,  that  of 
"  capitulum  nobilium."  From  the  Kith  century  the  con.'^uls  nietin 
their  own  house,  the  "palatium  coniniumtalis  Tolosre"  or  hotel- 
de-ville.  In  the  16th  century  a  false  derivation  changed  the  ancient 
consuls  {doTnini  de  capituh)  into  the  modt-rn  "  capitouls  "  {domtni 
capitolii  Tolosani),  a  barbarous  etymology  which  in  its  turn  has, 
in  the  present  century,  transformed  the  old  assembly  house  of 
Toulouse  into  the  capitole. 

The  parlement  of  Toulouse  was  established  as  a  permanent  court 
in  J443.  Louis  XI.  transferred  it  to  Montpellier  in  1467,  but 
restored  it   to  Toulouse  before  the  clo^e  of  tne  next  year.     This 

1  About  975  there  was  a  psriltlon  of  rhe  estates  whlcl'  Winiam  ToiJIefer  and 
hts  fiUMn  Itayraond  II.  of  Auveienc  htlil  in  common, — Albi,  Querci,  Ac,  falling 
to  Wlllirim,  nnd  Gcihls,  ac.  to  Raymond, 

2  List  o(  thaoounts  of  Toulouse,  mainly  fmna  He  Vic  and  Vnls.3Cte  : — 


Chorson 778-790 

William 7flO-606 


Dercnger 817-fl:?5 

Ecfrid «._..  83A-S45 

Fridolo -..&45-8.V2 

Raynumi) 
Benfti-d 


rtnvmond  H..  01H-9'.^4 
Kaymond  III  3;f4~c.'J'.0 
Gai'scndc,  (or 

her  son c.9't0-c.  07.'* 

Wniiam  Tail- 
lefer  r97Vc.l<pri7 

WV-K64  i  Pons iy:{7-10(;0 

864-87.1    Wltliam  IV      lOWW.ltWS 


Eodo. &7&-9I8  I  Kaymond  IV       1093-110.'^ 


Bcrtnnd 1096-1109 

Al[ilion9e-Jour- 

dain nft!».Il4fl 

Kaymnnd  V....  IHS-nM 
r.dymond  VI  .  lia4-lVW 
Ravmonil  VII.  vni-VlA'd 
AlfonM'i       and 

Joan 1240-1271 


parlement  was  for  Languedoc  and  southern  France  wh:ii  the  parle- 
ment of  Paris  was  for  the  north.  Towards  the  cud  of  the  Ifith  cen- 
tury, during  the  wars  of  the  League,  it  was  split  up  into  llirce 
different  sections,  sitting  respectively  at  Carcassonne  or  Ctzicrs,  at 
Castel  Sarrasin,and  at  Toulouse.  The  three  were  reunited  in  1596. 
Under  Francis  1.  it  began  to  persecute  heretics,  and  tn  1615  rendered 
itself  notorious  by  burning  the  philosopher  Vanini.  The  univer- 
sity of  Toulouse  owes  its  on^n  to  the  action  of  Gregory  IX.,  who 
in  1229  bound  Raymond  VII.  to  maintain  four  masters  to  teach 
theology  and  eight  others  for  canon  law,  grammar,  and  the  liberal 
arts.  Civil  law  and  medicine  were  taught  only  a  Uw  years  later. 
The  famous  "floral  Games"  of  Toulouse,  in  whicli  the  poets  of 
Languedoc  contended  (May  1-3)  for  the  prize  of  the  golden  violet 
and  other  gold  or  silver  Ilowei-s,  given  at  the  expense  of  tlie  city, 
were  instituted  in  1323-24. 

See,  besides  the  various  ciiide-books,  De  Vic  nnrt  Vnisscfi-,  Ifistoi>'e  tff  Lat^ 
gucdoc.  ed.  1873  sq.;  Cuicl,  Untoire  de  Tou/onsf.  ir.23  ;  Ln  F^itili'.  /Imtone  de  Tout' 
ouse,  IfiST.  1701;  Du  Mtire,  tiii-toire  des  /fisitiulwn  de  TouIohsc,  4  vols..  1&44- 
46;  D'Alde«mcr.  Hisloiredela  VUle  de  Touloine,  J833-35.  (T.  A.  A.) 

TOUNG-NGD,  a  district  in  the  extreme  north  of  the 
Tenasserim  division  of  Eurmah,  with  an  area  of  6354 
square  miles,  and  lying  between  17°  37'  and  19°  28'  N. 
lat.,  and  between  95^"  53'  and  96°  53'  E.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Upper  Burmab,  on  the  E.  by  a 
high  mountain  range  known  as  the  "Great  Watershed."  on 
the  S.  by  Shwe-gyeng  district,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Ptgu 
Yomas.  Three  mountain  ranges  traverse  the  district — the 
Pegu  Yomas,  the  Poung-loung,  and  the  Nat-toung  or  "Great 
Watershed," — all  of  which  have  a  north  and  south  direc- 
tion, and  are  covered  for  the  most  part  with  den.se  forest. 
The  Pegu  Yomas  have  a  general  elevation  of  from  800  to 
1200  feet,  while  the  central  range  averages  from  -000  to 
3000  feet.  The  rest  of  Toung-ngu  forms  the  upjier  portion 
of  the  valley  of  the  Tsit-loung  (Sittang)  river,  the  only 
large  river  in  the  district,  the  chief  tributaries  of  which 
are  the  Tshwa,  Khaboung,  Hpyu,  Thouk-re-gat,  and  Kouk- 
thwa-wa,  all  being  navigable  for  a  great  portion  of  their 
course.  Limestone  appears  in  various  places,  and  in  thfr 
north-east  a  Iigbt  grey  marble  is  quarried  for  lime.  The- 
rivers  form  the  chief  means  of  communication  during  the 
rainy  season.  Of  late  years  some  good  roads  have  been 
constructed,  and  the  Burmah  State  Railway,  when  com- 
pleted, will  intersect  the  district  from  south  to  north. 

In  1881  the  population  numbered  I'JS.SIS  (males  68,484,  females 
60,364),  of  whom  'jy.DUr  were  liiuldhists.  17,448  Christians,  2083 
Hindus,  1962  Mohanimiuhios,  and  12,612  abonj^ines.  The  only 
town  in  the  diNlnct  is  Toniiy-ngii.  on  the  T'^it-toiing  river  m 
18"  55'  24"  N.  lat  and  96"  'M'  4"  E.  long.,  witli  a  y>opulnlu>B  of 
17,199  in  1881  Of  the  total  area  only  .^'9  square  milts  .iic  .irtually 
under  cullivatmn,  ouin;;  mainiy  to  tlie  hilly  nature  of  the  country. 
Kite  i.s  tlie  chief  pn>dtnl,  otlicr  crops  nitlndc  oil-hrcds,  siigar- 
CiMie,  cotton,  (ruit,  and  vigv tables.  The  pi i nopal  m.mufartuivb art- 
silk,  saltpt-trc.  and  ^uiipo\\diT.  In  1885-86  the  gross  value  of  the 
flistnct  was  X15,09S,  of  which  the  land  produced  £5880. 

TOUR,  Maurice  Quf.ntin  de  la  (1704-1788).  the 
renowned  pastellist,  was  born  at  St  Quentin  on  the  5th 
Septeinbei  1704.  On  leaving  Picardy  for  Pans  he  entered 
the  studio  of  an  artist  named  Du  Pouche,  and  then  that  of 
Spo^de, — an  upright  man,  but  a  poor  master,  rector  of  the 
Academy  of  St  Luke,  who  still  continued,  in  the  teeth  of 
the  Royal  Academy,  the  traditions  of  the  old  guild  of  the 
master-painters  of  Pans.  This  possibly  contributed  to  the 
adoption  by  De  la  Tour  of  a  line  of  work  foreign  to  that 
impo.sed  by  an  academical  training  ;  for  pastels,  though 
occasionally  used,  were  not  a  principal  and  distinct  branch 
of  work  until  1720,  when  Ro^ialba  Camera  brouglit  them 
into  fashion  with  the  Parisian  world.  In  1737  De  )a  Tour 
exhibited  the  first  of  that  splendid  series  of  a  hundred  and 
fifty  portraits  which  formed  the  glory  of  the  Salon  for  the 
succeeding  thirty-seven  years.  In  1746  he  was  received 
b)  the  Academy  ;  and  in  1751,  the  following  year  to  that 
in  which  he  received  the  title  of  painter  to  the  king,  he 
was  promoted  by  that  body  to  the  grade  of  councillor. 
His  work  had  the  rare  merit  to  satisfy  at  once  both  the 
taste  of  his  fashionable  models  and  the  judgment  of  his 
brother  artists.      His  art,  consummate  of  its  kind,  achieved 


T  0  U  —  T  O  U 


487 


the  task  of  flattering  his  sitters,  whilst  hiding  that  flattery 
behind  the  just  and  striking  likeness  which,  says  Mariette, 
he  hardly  ever  missed.  His  portraits  of  Rousseaa,  of 
Voltaire,  of  Louis  XV,,  of  his  queen,  of  the  dauphin  and 
dauphiness,  are- at  once  documents  and  masterpieces  un- 
surpassed except  by  his  life-size  portrait  of  Madame  de 
Pompadour,  which,  exhibited  at  the  Salon  6f  1755,  is  still 
the  chief  oroaraeot  of  the  cabinet  of  pastels  in  the  Louvre. 
It  is  and  will  probably  always  be  the  most  perfect  model 
of  this  class  of  work  as  long  as  time  and  damp  spare  the 
fragile  dust  to  which  it  owes  its  beauty.  The  museum  of 
St  Quentm,  however,  also  possesses  a  magnificent  collection 
of  works  which  at  his  death  were  in  his  own  hands  De 
la  Tour  retired  to  St  Quentin  at  the  age  of  80,  and  there 
he  died  on  17th  February  1788.  The  riches  amassed  dur- 
ing his  long  life  were  freely  bestowed  by  him  in  great  part 
before  his  death  ,  he  founded  prizes  at  the  school  of  6ne 
arts  in  Pans  and  for  the  town  of  Amiens,  and  endowed 
St  Quentin  with  a  great  number  of  useful  and  charitable 
institutions.  He  never  married,  but  lived  on  terms  of 
warm  affection  with  his  brother  (who  survived  him,  and 
left  to  the  town  tlie  drawings  now  in  the  museum),  and 
bis  relations  to  Mdlle.  Fel.  the  celebrated  singer,  were  dis- 
tinguished by  a  strength  and  depth  of  feelmg  not  common 
to  the  loves  of  the  1 8th  century. 

See,  in  addition  to  the  general  works  on  French  art.  Desraaze. 
three  works,  of  wltich  tie  most  important  is  Lt  iltlxquaxTt  de  la 
Tour,  Guifftcy  and  Toumeux,  Corrcspondance  bUdtU  di  -V  Q  de 
la  Tout  ,  Ctiampfleury,  Dc  la  Tout,  and  PciMres  de  Loon  et  de  Si 
Queniin;  and  DreoUe  de  Nodon,  £loge  Biographique  de  HI  Q.  de 
la  Tour 

TOURACO,  the  name,  evidently  already  in  use,  under 
which  in  1743  Edwards  figured  a  pretty  African  bird,* 
and  presumab'y  that  applied  to  it  in  Guinea,  whence  it 
had  been  brought  alive.     It  is  the  Cuailus  persa  of  Lin- 


White-Crested  Touraco  ( Turacus  albicris'atus).     After  Schle^el. 


naeus,  and  Turacus  or  Corytkaix  persa  of  later  authors,  who 
perceived  that  it  required  generic  separation.  Cuvier,  in 
1799  or  1800.  Latinized  its  native  name  (adopted  in  the 
meanwhile  by  both  French  and  German  writers)  as  above, 
for  which  barbarous  term  lUiger,  in  1811,  substituted  a 

'  '.pparently  the  first  ornithologist  to  make  the  bird  known  was 
A"  ,in,  who  figured  it  in  1738  from  the  life,  yet  badly,  as  **The  Crown, 
bird  of  Mexico."  He  had  doubtless  been  misinformed  as  to  its  proper 
country;  but  Touracos  were  called  "Crown-birds"  by  the  Europeans 
in  West  Africa,  as  witness  Bosnian's  Description  of  the.  Coast  of  Guinea 
(1721).  ed.  2,  p.  251,  and  W.  Smith's  Voyage  to  Guinea  (1745),  p. 
149.  though  the  namo  was  aUo  given  to  the  Crowned  Cranes, 
flalearica. 


more  classical  word.  In  1788  Isert  described  and  figured 
(Beobackt.  GesetUck.  naturf.  Freunde,  iii.  pp.  16-20,  pi.  1) 
a  bird,  also  from  Guinea,  which  he  called  Musophaga 
viotacea.  Its  afhnity  to  the  original  Touraco  was  soon  re- 
cognized, and  both  forms  have  been  joined  by  modern  sys- 
tematists  in  the  Family  Musophwjidx^  commonly  Englished 
Plantain-eaters  or  Touracos,  sometimes  spelt  Tourakoos. 

To  take  first  the  Plantain-eaters  proper,  or  the  genoa  Musophaga^ 
of  which  only  two  species  are  known.  One  about  the  size  of  a 
Crow  is  coinpiratively  common  in  museums,  and  is  readily  recog- 
nized by  having  tho  horny  base  of  its  fine  yellow  bill  prolonged 
backwards  over  the  forehead  in  a  kind  of  shield.  The  top  of  the 
head,  and  the  primaries,  except  their  outer  edge  and  tip,  are  deep 
crimson;  a  white  streak  extends  beliind  the  eye;  and  the  rest  of 
the  plumage  is  of  a  rich  glossy  purple.  The  .<iecoQd  species,  M. 
rossx,  which  is  rare,  chietly  ditfers  by  wantinf;  the  white  eye-streak. 
Then  of  the  Touracos — the  species  originally  described  is  about 
the  size  of  a  Jay,  and  has  the  head,  crest  (which  is  vertically  com- 
pressed and  lipped  with  red),  neck,  and  breast  of  a  fine  grass-green, 
varied  by  two  conspicuous  white  streaks — one,  from  the  gape  to  the 
upper  part  uf  the  ciimson  orbit,  separated  by  a  black  patch  from 
the  other,  which  runs  beneath  ana  behind  the  eye.  The  wing- 
coverts,  lower  part  of  the  back,  and  tail  are  of  a  bright  steel  purpl6, 
the  primaries  deep  crimson,  edged  and  tipped  with  bluish-black. 
Over  a  dozen  other  congeneric  species,  more  or  less  resembling  this. 
have  now  been  debcnbed,  and  all  inhabit  some  district  of  Africa; 
but  there  is  oiily  room  here  to  mention  that  found  in  the  Cape 
Colony  and  Natal,  where  it  is  known  as  the  "  Lory"  {cf.  vol.  xv. 
p  7,  note  11,  and,  though  figured  by  Uaubenton  and  others,  first 
differentiated  in  1841  by  Strickland  {Ann.  Not.  Bistory,  vii.  p. 
ct3)  as  Tnracus  alb tcr Ls[a( u^i —lis  crest  hav  ng  a  conspicuous  white 
border,  while  the  steel-purple  of  T.  persa  is  replaced  by  a  rich  and 
glossy  bluish-green  of  no  less  beauty.  In  nearly  all  the  species  of 
this  genus  the  nostrils  are  almost  completely  bidden  by  the  frontal 
feathers;  but  there  are  two  others  in  which,  though  closely  allied, 
this  is  not  the  case,  and  some  systeraatists  would  place  them  id  a 
separate  genus  Gallircx,  while  anotlier  species,  the  giant  of  the 
Family,  has  been  moved  into  a  tiiird  genus  as  Corythxola  cnstala. 
This  differs  from  any  of  the  foregoing  by  the  absence  of  the  crimson 
coloration  of  the  primaries,  and  seeuis  to  lead  to  another  group, 
Schizorrhis,  in  which  the  plumage  is  of  a  still  plainer  type,  and, 
moreover,  the  nostrils  here  are  not  only  exposed  but  in  the  form  of 
a  slit,  instead  of  being  oval  as  in  all  the  rest.  This  genus  contains 
about  half  a  dozen  species,  one  of  which,  S.  concolor,  is  the  Grey 
Touraco  of  the  colonists  in  Natal,  and  is  of  an  almost  uniform  slaty- 
brown  A  good  deal  has.  been  written  about  these  birds,  which  form 
the  subject  of  one  of  the  most  beautiful  monographs  evei  published 
— De  Toerakos  afgcbeld  en  tc^cftrei'en, — by  Schlegel  and  Westerman. 
brought  out  at  Amsterdam  in  1860;  while  the  latest  collected 
information  is  contained  in  an  elaborate  essay  by  Herr  Schalow 
(Jour.  f.  Omilhtjlogie,  1886,  pp.  1-77).  Still,  much  remains  to 
be  made  known  as  to  their  distribution  throughout  Africa,  and 
their  habits  They  seem  to  be  all  fruit-ealeis,  and  to  frequent  the 
highest  trees,  seldom  coming  to  the  ground.  Very  little  can  be 
confidently  asserted  as  to  theii  nidification,  but  at  least  one  speciea 
of  Schizorrhis  is  said  to  make  a  rough  nest  and  therein  lay  three 
eggs  of  a  pale  blue  colour.  An  extraordinary  peculiarity  attends 
the  crimson  coloration  which  adorns  the  primaries  of  so  many  of 
the  i\fusophfjgidfe.  So  long  ago  as  1813.  Jules  Verreaus  observed 
f  Proc.  Zool.  Sociehj.  1S71,  p  40)  that  in  the  case  of  T.  albieristatui 
this  beautiful  hue  vanishes  on  exposure  to  heavy  rain  and  reappears 
only  after  some  interval  of  time  and  when  the  leathers  are  dry.' 

The  Musopkagid^t  form  a  very  distinct  Family  of  Prof 
Huxley's  Coccppomoyphne,  having  peihaps  the  ColiidiSc.^^ 
Cuculir/ai  as  their  nearest  allies.  Eyton  pointed  out  (Ann. 
iVat.  History^  ser  3,  ii.  p.  458)  a  feature  possessed  id 
common  by  the  latter  and  the  Musopkagidae,  in  the  "  process 
attached  to  the  anterior  edge  of  the  ischium,"  which  he 
likened  to  the  so-called  "marsupial"  bones  of  Didelphian 
Mammals  J  T  Reinhardt  has  also  noticed  ( Vufensk. 
Med'iels.  Naturhist,  Forening^  1871,  pp.  326-341)  another 
Cuculine   character   offered  by  the   os  uncinatum  aSixed 

^  The  fact  of  this  colouring  matter  being  soluble  in  %vater  was  inci- 
dentally mentioned  at  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological  Society  hy  Mr 
Tegetmeier,  and  brought  to  the  notice  of  Prof.  Church,  who,  after 
experiment,  published  in  1868  {Student  and  Intellectual  Observer^  L 
pp.  161-168)  an  account  of  it  as  "Turacin,  a  new  animfvl  pigment  con- 
taining copper,"  Further  informatiou  on  the  .subject  was  given  by 
Monteiro  (Ckem.  Ntws,  xxviii.  p.  201 ;  Quart.  Jmir.  Science,  ser.  2, 
iv.  p.  132).  The  property  is  possessed  by  the  crimson  feathers  of  all 
the  bii-ds  of  the  Faruily. 


488 


T  O  U  —  T  O  TJ 


to  the  lower  side  of  the  ethmoid  in  the  Plantain-eaters 
ind  Touracos  ;  but  too  much,  dependence  must  not  be, 
placed  on  that,  since  a  similar  structure  is  presented  by  , 
the  Frigate-bird  (vol.  ix.  p.  786)  and  th§  Petrels  (vol 
Kviii.  p.  711).  A  corresponding  process  seems  also  to  be 
found  in  TiiooON  (t/.v.).  The  "bill  of  nearly  all  the  species 
of  Muioplwupdx  is  curiously  serrated  or  denticulated  along 
the  margin,  and  the  feet  have  the  outer  toe  reversible. 
No  member  of  the  Family  is  found  outside  of  the.conti- 
nental  portion  of  the  Ethiopian  Region.  (a.  n.) 

TOURCOING,  a  manufa^cturing  town  of  France  in  the 
department  of  Nord,  7  mjl<)s  north-east  of  Lille  on  the 
railway  to  Ghent,  is  rapidly  becoming  one  with  ihe  neigh- 
bouring town  oT  RoDBAi.x  {'i-v.').  Wool,  cotton,  linen,  arid 
silk  are  spun  in  more  than  65  mills  (40,000. spindles); 
there  are  upwards  of  25  combing  establishifients  (by 
machine  and  hand),  50  to  55  manufactories  of  velvet-pile 
carpet.*;,  furniture  stuffs,  and  all  kinds  of  woven  goods,  be- 
sides dye-works,  soap-works,  a  sugar  refinery,  and  machine 
■workshops.  The  total  industrial  production  of  Tourcoing 
may  be  set  down  at  about  £6,800,000  per  annum.  Tour- 
coing possesses  a  chambei  of  commerce,  a  conseil  de  prud- 
hommes,  a  consultative  chamber  of  arts  and  manufactures, 
a  wool  "conditioning"  bureau,  schools  of  drawing,  paint- 
ing, mnsic,  and  architecture,  and  a  horticultural  society. 
In  18CG  a  pyriunid  was  erected  to  commemorate  a  battle 
gained  by  Jourdan  and  .Mnreau  in  the  ncighbourliooil  in 
HiU.  The  puj.ulntion,  34,415  in  1881,  was  41,570  in 
188G  (commune  58.008). 

Fjiiii'ti  >iiiL»r  the  1-ltti  fcnhiiy  for  ilH  wi.nlK'n  mftimrat'tiirps, 
Tuurctiiii^  wa^  liTiirif.i  l.v  tht  KltTiiintrs  when  l.ouis  ,\ I  of  Kiiincc 
dit^'ftuti'J  tilt  iiilitiiiiiiH'e  f.f  Cli^iilcsilit.'  Bi'ld  wilii  Mur\'  r.t  ttut<;iiiidy. 
Tlie  U'\^\t  siitt.  i«-'i  mijth  Irnni  the  KrHiuIi  m  1^77,  from  ilic 
]lu<:iN-riol«  III  l.'i.'irt,  aiiil  li)  hn- III  ItiO/ftnil  171 1  'I'Im- iiilmt)it;int>, 
18,000  III  Ke'.i  >MH'  ii'ilii...!  h\  the  Fri-IKll  Kovi.Iuliun  lo  10.11(10, 
but  a  iicw  ,1.1  .jf  )>ioit|Trit>  ti'-;::in  in  18^2.  In  1601  Ihc  |h>|>u1u- 
tioii  of  liie  owiiiiiiiiii'-  "i-  J;i,49o.  and  in  1871  it  w.as  43,322- 

TOUliCUF.VIKKF,  1\  vN  (1818-  18S:5),  the  descendant 
of  an  old  l!usMuii  l.iiiiil^,  «;is  Ijoni  a\  Orel,  in  the  govern- 
iiicnl  of  the  sjinc  ininii-,  in  I8I'<  His  talln.r,  I  lie  colonel  of 
a  cavalry  rigiiiit.iil.  ilieil  «litii  our  auilim  «u9  sixteen  .'(ears 
of  a^'e.  Icu>iii;j  iw./  ■M.ns,  Niuhohis  and  Ivan,  «ho  were 
brc'Ui.'lil  ii|'  uiiiJL-i  iliL  care  of  ilii'ir  niuthei,  llii-  heiress  of 
the  Litvtiiull'..  a  lady  who  owm-d  large  estate.*  and  many 
.*orrs.  Ivan  stuiliril  for  a  )ear  at  the  iiiinerMty  of  .Mus- 
cow,  thfii  at  ."^t  r>  ii.T.-.lini^',  and  was  tinally  bent  in  ISj.'J 
to  Ijvrlio.  lli»  ciliicalion  at  liiniie  liail  Ixren  conducted  by 
Gcrniaii  and  liviiih  liHiirs,  and  v\as  allogetlur  foreign, 
hi3  niulher  only  ^pi-aking  Russian  to  her  servaiit.s,  as 
became  a  great  lady  ot  the  old  school.  For  his  first 
aci|u:untaMci-  wiih  ilio  litrratuie  of  Ins  country  the  future 
novelist  «.i^  iiiilel'iid  to  a  serf  of  the  family,  who  used 
to  lead  to  liiiii  vcr.ses  from  the  RusskiU  ot  Kheia-ikofI,  a 
oncecclubratid  poet  of  last  century.  Tourguenielf's  early 
atteinpis  in  litnature,  consisting  of  poems  and  trilling 
sketches,  may  be  passed  over  here  ,  they  were  not  witL- 
out  iiiilicjiiviis  of  genius,  and  were  favourably  spoken  of 
by  lln,liiiski,  then  the  leading  Russian  critic,  foi  wliiuii 
TouryUL-niill  ever  cherished  a  warm  regard.  Our  author 
lirst  made  a  name  by  his  striking  sketches  "  The  I'apers 
of  a  Sportsman"  (Ziipixki  Ohlmtuikd),  in  which  the  miser- 
able condition  of  the  peasants  was  de.srribeil  «itli  startling 
realism.  The  work  appeared  in  a  collected  fonii  in  185'2. 
It  was  read  by  all  classes,  including  the  ein|ieii)r  himself, 
and  it  undoubtedly  hurried  on  the  great  wurk  of  eiiian- 
cijrtlion.  Tourgueniefl  had  always  .synipathized  with  the 
W7(i/(i/v ,  ho  had  often  been  witness  of  the  Cruelties 
of  his  mother,  a  narrow-minded  and  vindictive  woman. 
In  some  interesting  pa/icrs  recently  contributed  to  the 
"European  Messenger"  (Vieshiik  Evriii>'i)  by  a  lady 
brought  up  in  the  household  of  Mme  Tourgueniell,  sad 


detail*  are  given  illustrative  of  her  character.  Thus  the 
dumb  porter  of  gigantic  stature,  drawn  with  such  power 
in  Miimji,  one  of  our  author's  later  sketches,  was  a  real 
person.  We  _are,  moreover,  told  of  his  mother  that  she 
could  never  understand  how  it  was  that  her  son  became  an 
author,  and  thought  that  he  "had  degraded  himself.  How 
could  a  Tourgaenieff  submit  himself  to  be  criticized  1 

The  next  production  of  the  novelist  was  "  A  Nest  of 
Nobles "  ( Dvoriansioe  Gniezdo),  a  singularly  pathetic 
story,  which  greatly  increased  his  reputation.  This  ap- 
peared in  1859,  and  was  followed  the  next  year  by  "On 
the  Fve  "  {Nakan-une), — a  tale  which  contains  one  yi  his 
most  beautiful  female  characters,  Helen.  In  1862  wa» 
published  "  Fathers  and  Children  "  (Otzi  i  Dieti),  in  which 
the  author  admirably  described  the  nihilistic  doctrines 
then  beginning  to  spread  in  Russia,  he  himself  inventing 
the  word  nihilism,  which  seems  likely  to  become  permanent. 
In  1867  appeared  "Smoke"  {Dim),  and  in  1877  his  last 
work  of  any  length,  "  Virgin  Soil "  (Nov).  Besides  his 
longer  stories,  many  shorter  ones  were  produced,  some  of 
great  beauty  and  full  of  subtile  psychological  analysis, 
such  as  Rvdin,  "  The  Diary  of  a  Useless  Man  "  (Dntunik 
Lishiiayo  Chelouieka),  and  others.  These  were  afterwards 
collected  into  three  volumes.  The  last  works  of  the  great 
novelist  were  "  Poetry  !u  Prose "  and  "  Clara  Milich," 
which  appeared  in  the  pages  of  the  "  European  Messenger." 

Tourguenieff,  during  the  latter  jiart  of  his  life,  did 
not  reside  much  in  Russia;  he  lived  either  at  Baden 
Baden  or  Paris,  and  chiefly  with  the  family  of  the 
celebrated  singer  Viardot  Garcia,  to  the  members  of 
which  lie  was  much  attached.  He  occasionally  visited 
England,  and  in  1879  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  was  conferred 
upon  him  by  the  university  of  Oxford.  He  died  at 
fjougival,  near  l'ari.%  on  September  4,  1"883  ;  according  to 
his  wish,  his  remains  were  taken  to  St  Petersburg,  and 
buried  in  the  Volkotf  cemetery,  near  those  of  the  critic 
Bielmski. 

Unquestionably  Tourguenieff  may  be  considered  one  of  the 
gro:iU'st  novelists  of  our  o«  n  or  any. other  times,  and  worthy  to  \ia 
ranked  with  Thackeray,  l>ickens,  and  George  Eliot :  wltli  ihe genius 
of  the  la.it  of  these  he  hun  many  alfinities.  His  studies  of  linmaii 
natnie  are  [irofunnd.  and  he  has  the  wide  syinjtathies  whiih  are 
essential  to  genius  of  the  highest  order.  A  inelanelioly.  almost 
Jiessiniist,  feeling  pervadt-s  his  writings,  but  jierhaj'S  thl^  is  always 
found  111  thosi^  ulio  havi-  truly  listened  to  the  '*  still,  sad  music 
of  linmanity."  This  morbid  self^.iiialysis  seems  natural  to  the 
Slavonic  mind,  and  Tourguenietf  has  ^iven  ahundant  j>roof  of 
possessing  it.  The  closing  chajitei  of  *'A  Nest  of  Nobles"  is 
one  of  the  saddest  and  at  the  same  time  truest  pagcS  in  ihe  whole 
range  of  existing  novels.  ^ 

Tlie  writings  of  Tourguenieff  have  been  made  familiar  to  persons 
uiiaoijuainted  with  Russian  by  Freiitli  translations  There  are  some 
versions  in  Kiiglish.  but  the  only  two  worthy  of  notice  are  the 
tr.-tnslation  of  the  "  Nest  of  Nobles  "  under  the  name  of  "  l..isa,"  by 
Ml  KaUlon,  and  "  Virgin  Soil,"  by  the  late  Mr  Aslitou  iJllfee. 

TOU  I!  MA  LINE.  See  Eleotkicitv,  vol.  viii.  p.  99 ;  Geo- 
Loov,  viil    X    p.  2J8  ,  and  Mi.nekalooy,  vol   xvi.  p.  409. 

TOUHNAl  (Flem.  Duoriui),  a  town  of  Belgium,' 
capital  of  an  arrondissemvnt  in  the  province  of  llaiiiault, 
5.'(  miles  liy  rail  west-south  west  from  Brussels,  is  divided 
into  two  parts  by  the  Scheldt,  which  is  here  spanrred  by 
.sL'\i-ii  bridges  and  lined  with  spacious  tree-shaded  quay.s. 
The  ohler,  which  is  also  the  busier  and  more  important 
[lortion  ui  the  town,  stands  on  the  left  bank  ;  the  .new 
town  is  distinguished  by  its  neat  regular  streets  and 
iiKidern  architecture.  The  cathedral,  which  is  a  fine 
exanijile  of  the  Roiiiaiios(|ue  style,  is  a  cruciform  basilica, 
with  a  series  of  chapels  and  five  to^ers.  The  nave  was 
probably  consecrated  in  1171;  the  transepts  date  from  the 
nth  century,  arrd  the  (Gothic)  choir  was  completed  in 
1:(:!8,  at  which  time  also  the  lioiiianesi|ue  fai;ade  was 
_alluied,  and  a  porch  in  the  Pointed  style  added.  The 
sculjitures  in  the  porch  range  iii  date  from  the  13th  to  the 


T  O  U  —  T  O  U 


489 


17th  ccnmiy,  and  doserve  special  notice,  [larticularly  those 
of  latfif  dale  by  native  artists.  The  general  effect  of  the 
interior  ia  harmonious  and  impressive.  The  capitals  of 
the  pillarsare  rich  and  varied  ;  the  passage  round  the  choir 
contains  scleral  pictures  of  the  Flemish  school ;  the  richly 
sculptured  IJenaiss.-xnce  roodloft  dates  from  1 566;  and 
most  of  the  stained  glass  in  the  transept  dates  from  about 
14.'>G.  "The  adjacent  bolfry,  dating  originally  from  1187, 
and  partly  rebuilt  in  1391,  was  restored  in  1853.  In  the 
Grande  Place,  not  far  from  the  cathedral,  is  the  church  of 
St  Quentin,  sometimes  spokea  of  as  "  la  petite  cath^drale," 
in  the  Transition  style,  and  nearly  of  the  sam6  date  as  the 
cathedral.  ^  The  church  of  St  Jacques  dates  from  the  1 3th 
and  Hth  centuries,  and  that  of  St  Brice  from  the  12lli. 
The  buildings  cf  the  old  monastery  of  St  Martin,  on  the 
south-west  side  of  the  town,  aie  now  used  as  an  hotel  dc 
ville,  in  coune.\ion  with  which  there  is  a  small  picture 
gallery  containing  seme  examples  of  Rembrandt,  Rubens, 
and  Van  Dyck.  The  town  contains  courts  of  law,  an 
athenxum,  a  theatre,  a  school  of  arts  and  manufactures,  an 
episcopal  palace  and  seminary,  a  nafUral  history  museum, 
besides  other  public  buildings.  The  fortifications  of 
Vauban,  extended  after  the  second  treaty  of  Paris,  are  now 
demolished,  and  their  place  taken  by  boulevards.  The  lead- 
ing objects  of  manufacture  are  stockings  and  "  Brussels  " 
carpets  ;  the  other  industries  include  paper-making,  thread- 
making,  and  the  spinnina  of  wool  and  flax.  The  trade 
of  the  place  is  very  considerable,  as  vessels  of  150  tons 
burden  can  ascend  the  river  to  this  point,  and'its  railway 
■communications  are  good.  'The  population  in  1870  was 
32,145. 

Tournay,  supposed  to  be  thie  CivUns  JVcrviomm  of  Cjcsar,  and 
afterwanls  known  as  Tournaciis,  was  one  of  the  first  pliices  con- 

?uered  by  the  Fr.-inks.  and  Cloft'is  ni.nle  it  for  a  time  liis  capital. 
II  modern  times,  standing  as  it  does  on  the  frontitr  htrtwecii 
Belgium  and  France,  it  has  been  fretpienlly  besie"ed  and  taken. 
History  records  specially  the  siege  liy  Alexander  of  rarma  in  1581, 
when  it  was  bnively  but  unsuccessfully  defended  by  the  princess 
D'Epinoy,  whose  statue  now  stands  in  the  Grande  Place,  i*erkin 
'V\'arbeck  wa'?  a  native  of  Tournat 

TOURNAMENTS.  Tournaments  and  jousts  were  tb5> 
chief  military  exercises  and  displays  of  the  age  of  chivalry. 
Besides  being  the  appropnlite  sports  and  pastimes  of  a 
warlike  era  and  caste,  they  vere  intended  to  test  the  skill 
and  exhibit  the  prowess  of  the  knights  and  squires  who 
took  part  in  them.  "Considered  under  their  more  serious 
aspect,  apart  from  their  association  with  pomp  and 
festivity,  they  were,  practically  speaking,  the  equivalents 
of  the  reviews  and  sham-fights  of  later  times,  and  were 
designed  as  a  preparation  for  the  actual  manoeuvres  and 
real  conflicts  of  the  battlefield.  Tournaments  and  jousts 
differed  from  one  another  principally  in  the  circunistance 
that  in  the  first  several  combatants  on  each  side  were 
engaged  at  once,  and  in  the  second  the  contention  was 
between  two  combatants  only.  The  former  consisted  of 
the  mutual  charges  of  equal  troops  of  cavalry,  while  the 
latter  consisted  of  a  duel  on  horseback.  Du  Cange  says 
that  the  French  toumoi,  English  "  tournament,"  "  was  a 
general  expression  which  comprehended  all  sorts  of  com- 
bats that  were  performed  by  way  of  exercise.  But  it  more 
properly  meant  such  as  were  performed  by  companies, 
■where  many  were  in  conflict  against  the  same  number, 
representing  the  form  of  a  battle.  When  those  general 
combats  were  ended,  then  single  ones  commenced  ;  for  all 
who  were  desirous  of  displaying  their  address,  and  attract- 
ing public  notice  for  their  valour,  offered  single  combat 
with  sword  or  lance  against  all  who  should  present  them- 
selves"; and  he  adds  that  these  combats  were  called  by 
the  old  French  writers  "  joustes,"  which  is  the  same  word 
as  the  English  "jousts."  Put  jonsts  were  held  far  more 
freqtieptly-  then,  -and  quite    independently    of,   regular 


tournaments  throughout  the  period  in  which  the  customs^ 
of  chivalry  were  observed,  and,  according  to  some  authori 
itiesi,  the  lancealone  was  used  in  them,  while  in  the  others 
all  weapons  except  firearms  were  employed.  In  both  cases 
such  weapons  were  usually  although  not  invariably  rendered 
innocuous,  and  it  was  only,  rarely  that  the  combatants 
were  killed  or  injured  by  wounds,  as  distinguished  from 
falls  and  bruises.  But  in  one  way  or  another  tournament-s 
and  jousts  were  always  extremely  dangerous,  and  a  long 
list  of  eminent  persons  met  their  deaths  in  them,  from 
l{aoul,  Comte  deGuines,  to  Henry  II.  of  France.  It  may 
be  assumed  that  jousts  in  .some  shape  existed  at  all  periods,' 
in  which  men  fought  in  armour  and  on  horseback,  and 
Were  in  the  habit  of  practising  themselves  in  time  of  peace 
for  the  exigencies  of  warfare.  But  it  is  very  doubtful 
when  and  where  tournaments,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
term,  were  originally  instituted.  The  older  writers  on 
the  subject  sought  to  connect  them  with  the  "  Troja  "  or 
"  ludus  Troj.'e  "  among  the  Romans.  But  this  is  a  piece 
of  archaeology  of  the  same  sort  as  that  which  identified  the 
knighthood  of  the  Middle  Ages  with  the  ancient  "ordo 
equestris,"  and  will  not,  of  course,  bear  examination.  Much 
reliance  again  has  been  placed  by  some  of  them  on  the 
account  of  a  sham-fight  which  was  ield  at  the  celebrated 
interview  between  the  emperor  Louis  and  Charles  the  Bald 
in  841,  which  in  certain  respects  bore  a  close  resemblance 
to  a  tournament,  and  was  no  doubt  the  kind  of  exhibition 
out  of  which  the  tournament  of  a  later  age  was  developed.' 
Others  attribute  the  institution  of  tournaments  to  the 
emperor  Henry  the  Fowler,  who  died  in  936,  or  to  Geoffrey 
de  Preuilly,  the  ancestor  of  the  counts  of  Tours,  who  died 
in  1066.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  they 
were  in  vogue  on  the  Continent  at  the  end  of  the  1 1th 
century,  and  that  in  the  early  part  of  the  12th  century 
they  were  introduced  into  England.  In  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries  they  were  comraun  all  over  Christendom,  including 
the  Eastern  as  well  as  the  Western  empire  and  the  states 
comprised  in  or  adjacent  to  it.  It  was  not  until  the  end 
of  the  I6th  century  that  tilts  and  hastiludes  passed  out  of 
fashion  in  Britain,  and  even  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  17th 
rentury  they  were  occasionally  celebrated  under  the  patron-' 
age  of  Henry,  prince  of  Wales,  son  of  King  James  I. 
,  ^The  older  authorities  od  tournament.s  and  jousts  arc  exceedingly 
nunierou.s.  But  all  that  is  material  in  what  they  Iiave  written  will 
be  found  in  Ste  Palaye's  Mtmoircs  sur  I'Anctcnnc  Clicvahne  and 
Mills's  History  of  Chivalry,  The  '*  Dissertations '*  of  Du  Cange  at 
the  end  of  Joinville's  Mc-irwirs  aud  the  Chronidcs  of  Froissart  and 
Monstrelet  may  also  be  consulted.  Ste  Palaye  and  Mills  were  both 
industrious  compilers,  and  the  second  is  much  indebted  to  the  liist. 

TOURNEBOUT,  a  wind  instrument  of  wood,  in  which 
a  cylindrical  column  of  air  is  set  in  vibration  by  a  reedj 
The  lower  extremity  is  turned  up  in  a  half  circle,  and  from 
this  peculiarity  it  has  gained  the  French  names  lotirnrboxit 
and  crnmorne, — the  latter  a  corruption  of  the  German  name 
Ki-ummhurn.  There  appears  to  be  no  English  equivalent.! 
The  reed  of  the  tournebout,  like  that  of  the  bassoon,  is 
formed  by  two  tongues  of  cane,  adapted  to  the  small  end 
of  a  conical  brass  tube,  the  large  end  being  inserted  in  the 
body  of  the  instrument.  It  presents,  however,  this  dilTcr- 
ence,  that  it  is  not,  like  that  of  the  bassoon,  in  contact  with' 
the  player's  mouth,  but  is  covered  again  by  a  cap  pierced 
with  a  hole  in  the  upper  part,  through  wh.ich  opening  the 
air  is  introduced  which  sets  the  reed  in  vibration,  the 
reed  being  therefore  subject  to  no  pressure  of  the  li|is,l 
The  compass  of  the  in.strumeqt  is  naturally  limited  to  the 
simple  fundamental  sounds  which  the  successive  opening 
of  the  lateral  holes  gives  rise  to.  The  tournebouts  have 
not  much  length  for  the  deep  sounds  they  produce,  wliich 
arises  from  these  instruments  .jounding,  like  all  tubes  of 
cylindrical  bore  pirovided  with  reeds,  the  same  as  the 
stopped  picas  of  en  orgac     That  is  to  say,  theoretically 

XXIII.  —  62 


'490 


T„0  U  —  T.O.E 


they  require  oc!y  haif  the  Isngtbe  necesaary  for  the  open 
pipes  of  an  organ,  or  for  conical  tubes  pro- 
vided with  reeds,  to  produce  notes  of  the 
same  pitch.  Moreover,  when,  to  obtain  a 
harmonic,  the  column  of  air  is  divided,  the 
tournebout  will  not  give  the  octave  like  the 
oboe  and  bassoon,  but  the  twelfth,  corre- 
sponding in  tliis  peculiarity  with  the  clarinet 
and  all  stopped  pipeS'br  bourdODs.i  With 
the  ordinary  boring  of  eight  lateral  holes, 
tlie  tournebout  possesses  a  limited  scale  era- 
bracing  a  ninth.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
deeper  sounds  are  completed  by  tlie  addition 
of  one  or  more  keys.  By  its  structure  the 
tournebout  is  one  of  the  oldest  wind  instru- 
ments ;  it  is  evidently  derived  from  the 
Greek  aulos  and  the  Roman  tibia,  which 
consisted  equally  of  a  simple  cylindrical 
pipe  of  which  the  column  of  air  was  set  in 
vibration  by  a  double  reed. 

Notwithstanding  the  successive  improve- 
ments that  were  iutroduced  in  the  manu- 
facture of  wind  instruments,  the  tournebout 
scarcely   ever  varied  in   the  details  of  its 
construction.    Such  as  we  see  it  represented 
in  the  treatise  by  Virdung  '  we  find  it  again  "j 
about   the    epoch   of   its    dis- 
appearance, in  i'yl?-^  du  Faiseur 
'd' Instruments  cie  I' Encyciopedie  . 
'de  Didi^-ot  et  d! AUmhert  (Paris,, 
1751-80). 

The  tourneboyts  existed  as  a  com- 
plete fuuiily  from  the  J.5th  centuiy.^ 
According  to  Virdung,  it  was  forraed  of  four  individual  instru- 
raenis;  Pr.etorius-  cites  five, — thj  deep  bass,  the  bass,  the  tenor 
or  alto,  the  cantus  or  soprano,  and  the  high  soprano,  with  com- 
pass respectively  of 


Bass  Toai*nebout.> 


a^: 


and 


m 


-\ — ^ — -± — 

■^  A  baod,  or,  to  use  the  expression  of  Prie- 
torius,  an  "accort,"  of  tournebouts  compre- 
hended— 1  deep  bass,  2  bass,  3  alto-tenor,  2 
cantus  (soprano),  1  high  soprano  =  9. 
The  tournebouts  were  not  always  an  orchestra  by  themselves ; 
they  allied  themselves  also  to  other  instruments,  and  notably  to 
flutes  and  oboes.  It  was  thus  that  the  little  groups  of  musicians 
in  the  service  of  princes,  or  those  engaged  by  some  large  town  on 
the  oceasion  of  a  festival  or  public  ceremony,  were  composed  of 
eeveral  tournebout  players  combined  with  some  flautists  and  obue 
players.  In  1685  the  orchestra  of  the  Neue  Kliehe  at  Strasburg 
comprised  two  tournebouts,  and  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
these  instruments  formed  part  of  the  music  called  "la  graude 
ecurie"  in  the  service  of  the  French  kings.  Tournebouts  have  in 
our  days  become  of  extreme  latity,  and  scarcely  exist  in  collections 
The  museum  of  the  Conservatoire  Royal  de  Musi(|ue  at  Uru.sscls 
has  the  good  fortune  to  possess  a  complete  family,  which  is  regarded 
as  having  belonged  to  the  duke  of  Feirara,  Alphonso  II.  d'Este,  a 
prince  who  reigned  from  1509  to  1597.  The  soprano  {cantus  or 
discant)  has  the  same  compass  as  above,  while  the  alto,  the  tenor 
(furnished  with  a  key),  and  bass  have  an  extent  respectively  of 


BE^ 


-4^- 


BE 


S 


:t: 


;  and  aim 


dz 


The  bass  {see  accompanying  figure),  besides  having  two  keys,  is 
distinguisiied  from  the  others  by  a  kind  of  small  bolt,  two  of  which 
slide  in  grooves  and  close  the  two  lioles  that  form  the  lowest  notes 
of  the  instrument.  It  is  very  curious  to  ob.serve  that  tlie  employ- 
ment of  these  bolts,  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  tournebout  and 
out  of  reach  of  the  lingers  of  tho  instrumeutalist,  forces  him  to 
Yetiuire  the  assistance  of  a  person  whose  sole  mission  is  to  attend 
to  these  bolls  during  the  performance. 

The  "Platerspil"  of  which  Virdung  gives  a  drawing  is  only  u 
kind  of  tournebout.     It  presents  espcciaUy  the  peculiarity  that, 


\ 


*   iUttsica  ydutscht  tetld  aus.zgeMffin,  Basel,  151  l.y' 
'  J}ryanouraphiu,  Wolfeubuttel,  1618.  /•'  '     ~ 


instead  of  having  a  cap  to  cover  over  cne  reed,  mere  is  a  spherical 
receiver  surrounding  the  reed,  to  which  the  tabe  for  insufflation  is 
adapted.  This  receiver  was  of  wood  worked  round,  or  perhaps 
consisted  of  a  simple  gourd.        ""  {V.  M.)  ^ 

TOURNEFORT,  Joseph  Pitton  be  (1606-1708),  ;a^ 
botanist  of  considerable  reputation,  "was  born  at  Aix,  in 
Provence,  in  1656.,  ^He  studied  in  the  convent  of  the 
Jesuits  at  Aix,  aud  was  destined  for'the  church,  but  the 
death  of  his  father  left  him  free  to  follow  his  botanical 
inclinations.  After  a  couple  of  years  tollecting,  he  studied 
medicine  at  Montpellier,  but  soon  returned  to  his  favourite 
pursuit,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  botany  at  the 
Jardin  des  Planles  in  1GS3.  By  the  king's  order  he 
.travelled  through  westtrn  Europe,  where  he  made  very  ex- 
tensive collections,  and  sub.seciuently  spent  three  years  in 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor  (1700-1702).  Of  this  journey  a 
description  in  a  series  of  letters  was  posthumously  pub: 
lished  in  3  vols.  (^Rdation  d'un  Voyaye  du  Levant,  Lyons, 
1717).  His  principal  work  is  entitled  Instituti<jne3  Bet 
Herbariee  (3  vols.,  Pari.s,  1700),  and  upon  this  rests  chiefly 
his  claims  to  remembrance  as  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  the  systematic  botanis\s  who  prepared  the  way  for 
Linnaeus.  _  His  exact  po.sition  among  these  has  been  dia-j 
cussed  at  length  by  Sachs  {Geschic/Ue  d.  Botanik^  Munich; 
1875).     He  died  December  28,  1708. 

TOURNEUR,  Cyeil,  a  tragic  poetol  the  .first  order, 
has  left  no  record  of  his  existence  beyond  the  respective 
dates  of  his  first  and  last  extant  works  (lC00-lG13).OAn 
allegorical  poem,  worthless  as  art  and  incomprehensible  as 
allegory,  is  the  earliest  of  these  ;  an  elegy  ou  the  death  of 
Prince  Henry,  son  of  James  L,  is  the  latest.  The  two 
plays  on  which  his  fame  rests,  and  on  which  it  will  rest 
for  ever,  were  published  respectively  in  1607  and  1611,' 
but  all  students  have  agreed  to  accept  the  internal  evidence 
which  assures  us  that  the  later  in  date  of  publication  must 
be  the  earlier  in  dale  of  composition.  >  His  only  other 
known  work  is  an  epicede  on  Sir  Francis  Yere,  of  no  great 
merit  as  poetry,  but  of  some  value  as  conveying  in  a 
straightforward  and  masculine  style  the  poet's  ideal  con-j 
ception  of  a  perfect  knight  or  "  happy  warrior,"  comparable 
by  those  who  may  think  fit  to  compare  it  witii  the  more 
nobly  realized  ideals  of  Chaucer  and  of  Wordsworth.  But 
if  Tourneur  had  left  on  record  no  more  memorable  evi-| 
deuce  of  his  powers  than  might  fce  supplied  by  the  survival 
of  his  elegies,  he  could  certainly  hSKiB  claimed  no  liigher 
place  among  English  writers  than  is  now  oscupied  by  the 
Rev.  Charles  Fitzgeoffrey,  whose  voluminous  aud  fecvgnt 
elegy  on  Sir  Francis  Drake  is  indeed  of  more  actunl  value,' 
historic  or  poetic,  than  either  or  than  both  of  Tourneur's 
elegiac  rhapsodies. '^  The  singular  power,  the  singular 
originality,  and  the  singular  limitution  of  his  genius  are 
all  equally  obvious  in  Tfie  Alfu-i^t's  Tragedy,  a  dramatic 
poem  no  less  crude  and  jiuerile  and  violent  in  action  and 
evolution  than  simple  aud  noble  and  natural  in  expression 
and  in  style.^  The  executive  faculty  of  the  author  is  in 
the  metrical  parts  of  his  first  play  so  imperfect  as  to  sug-, 
gest  either  incompetence  or  perversity  in  tho  workman; 
in  The  Rnrwjrr's  Tragedy  it  is  so  magnificent,  so  siiiijile, 
impeccable,  aud  sublime,  that  the  finest  jiassagcs  of  this 
play  can  be  compared  only  with  the  noblest  examples  of 
tragic  dialogue  or  monologue  now  extant  in  English  or 
in  Greek.  There  is  no  trace  of  imitation  or  derivation 
from  an  alien  source  in  the  genius  of  this  poet,  The  first 
editor  of  Webster  has  observed  how  often  lie  imitates 
Shakespeare ;  and,  in  fact,  essentially  and  radically  inde; 
pendent  as  is  Webster's  genius  also;  the  sovereign  influence 
of  his  master  may  be  traced  not  only  in  the  general  tone 
of  his  style,  the  general  scheme  of  his  coinpo.-sition,  but 
now  and  then  in  a  direct  and  never  an  unworthy  or 
imperfect  echo  of  Shakespeare's  very  phrase  and  accent. 
But  the  resemblance  between  the  tragic  verse  of  Tourneur, 


T  0  tJ  —  T  O  U 


4f>l 


anu  the  tragic  verse  of  Shakespeare  is  simply  such  as 
proves  the  natural  affinity  between  two  great  dramatic  , 
poets,  whose  inspiration  partakes  now  and  then  of  the 
quality  more  proper  to  epic  or  to  lyric  poetry.  The  fiery 
impulse,  the  rolling  music,  the  vivid  illustration  of  thought 
by  jets  of  insuppressible  passion,  the  perpetual  sustenance 
of  passion  by  the  implacable  persistency  of  thought,  which 
|re  recognize  as  the  dominant  and  distinctive  qualities  of 
such  poetry  as  finds  vent  in  the  utterances  of  Hamlet  or  of 
Timon,  we  recognize  also  in  the  scarcely  Ipss  magnificent 
poetry,  the  scarcely  less  fiery  sarcasm,  with  which  Tourneur 
has  informed  the  part  of  Vindice — a  harder-headed  Hamlet, 
a  saner  and  more  practically  savage  and  serious  Timon. 
He  was  a  satirist  as  passionate  as  Juvenal  or  Swift,  but 
with  a  finer  faith  in  goodness,  a  purer  hope  in  its  ultimate 
security  of  triumph.  "This  fervent  constancy  of  spirit 
relieves  the  lurid  gloom  and  widens  the  limited  range  of 
a  tragic  imagination  which  otherwise  might  be  felt  as 
oppressive  rather  than  inspiriting.  His  grim  and  trehchant 
humour  is  as  peculiar  in  its  sardonic  passion  as  his  elo- 
quence is  original  in  the  strenuous  music  of  its  cadences, 
in  the  roll  of  its  rhythmic  thunder.  As  a  playwright, 
his  method  was  almost  crude  and  rude  in  the  headlong 
straightforwardness  of  its  energetic  simplicity ;  as  an 
artist  in  character,  his  interest  wais  intense  but  narrow, 
his  power  magnificent  but  confined  ;  as  a  dramatic  poet, 
the  force  of  his 'genius  is  great  enough  to  ensure  him  an 
enduring  place  among  the  foremost  of  the  followers  of 
Shakespeare,  _  ,  (a.  c.  s.) 

.  TOURS,  a  town  of  France,  formerly  the  capital  of 
Touraine,  now  chef-lieu  of  the  department  of  Indre-et- 
Loire,  the  .see  of  an  archbishop,  and  the  headquarters  of 
the  9th  corps  d'arm^e,  lies  145  miles  (by  rail)  south-west 
of  Paris,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  a  little  above  the 


Plan  of  Toots.  . 

junction  of  the  Loire  and  Cher.  Many  foreigners,  especi- 
ally English,  live  at  Tours,  attracted  by  the  town  itself,  its 
mild  climate,  its  beautiful  situation  in  "  the  garden  of 
Trance,"  and  the  historic  chateaus  of  the  neighbourhood. 
The  Loire  is  crossed  by  two  suspension  bridges,  by  a  rail- 
way bridge,  and  by  a  fine  stone  bridge,  but  its  waters  too 
often  either  expose  large  stretches  of  sand,  or  come  down 
in  devastating  flood.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  belong 
to  the  leisured  class,  and  the  town  possesses  societies  of , 
Science,  art,  and  literature,  of  agriculture,  of  horticulture, 
bf  archseology,  of  medicine,  and  a  library  (.50,000  volumes, 
and  1200  MSS.,  including  a  gospel  of  the  8th  century,  on 
which  the  kings  of  France  took  oath  as  honorary  canons 
of  the  church  of  St  Martin).  .  The  industrial  establishments 


include  four  large  silk  mills,  tn'e  printing  and  publishing 
works  of  Mame  (1200  workmen),  manufactories  of  cloth.) 
carpets,  files,  white  lead,  stained  glass,  boots  and  sliops^ 
and  pottery.  A  considerable  trede  is  carried  on  in  wine,' 
brandy,  and  dried  fruits,  and  the  sausages  arid  confecti'in- 
ery  of  the  town  are  well  known.  _  The  population,  52,20^ 
in  1881,  was  59,,^S.')  in  1SS6. 

Tours,  under  the  Gauls  the  capital  of  the  Turones  or  Turons,' 
originally  stood  on  the  right  bojak  of  the  Loire,  a  little  above  the 
present  village  of  St  Symphoricn.  At  first  called  Allioiios,  the 
town  was  al'teruards  officially  known  as  Cecsarodunum.  The' 
Romans  lemoved  the  town  from  the  hill  where  it  originally  stood  to' 
the  plain  on  tlie  left  bank  of  the  river  Behind  the  preseni  cathe-' 
dral,  remains  of  the  amphitheatre  (443  feet  in  length  by  394  in' 
breadth)  built  towards  the  end  of  the  2d  century  might  till  lately 
be  seen.  Tours  became  Christian  about  250  through  the  preaching 
of  Gatien,  who  founded  the  bishopric.  The  fir'^t  cathedral  was  Unit 
a  hundred  years  later  by  St  Litorius.  The  bishopiic  became  an 
archbishopric  when  Gratian  made  Tours  the  cajiital  of  Lugdnnensis 
Tertia,  and  about  the  same  time  the  official  name  of  Cssarodunum 
was  changed  for  that  of  Civitas  Turonorum,  St  Martinj  the  great 
apostle  of  the  Gauls,  was  bishop  of  Tours  in  the  4tirteTitury,  and 
he  was  buried  in  a  suburb  jvhich  soon  became  as  important  as  the 
town  itself  from  the  number  of  pilgrims  who  flocked  to  his  tonih.j 
Towards  the  end  of  the  4th  century,  apprehensive  of  barbarian  inva-j 
sion,  the  inhabitants  pulled  down  some  of  their  earlier  buildings  in 
order  to  raise  a  fortified  wall,  the  course  of  which  can  still  be  traced 
in  places.  Their  advanced  fort  of  Laicay  still  overlooks  the  valley' 
of  the  Cher.  Affiliated  to  the  .\rmorican  confederation  m  433,  the 
town  did  not  fall  to  the  Visigoths  till  473,  and  the  new  nj.Tsters 
were  ajways  hated.  It  became  part  of  the  Prankish  dominions 
under  Clovis,  who,  in  consideration  of  the  help  afforded  by  St  .Martin,; 
presented  the  church  with  rich  gifts  out  of  the  spoils  take.i  from 
Alaric,  confirmed  and  extended  its  right  of  sanctuary,  and  acceptrd 
for  himself  and  his  successors  the  title  of  canon  of  St  .Martin.  T.ie 
basilica,  built  under  Bishop  St  Perpetuus  from  472  to  477,  wa.s  t;.e 
largest  and  finest  church  of  France,  and  one  of  the  most  important' 
built  in  the  AVest  during  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  :  it  is. 
said  by  St  Gregory  of  Tours  to  have  been  160  feet  long,  60  wide,' 
and  45  high.  It  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  first  which  had^ 
an  ambulatory  round  the  choir.  Tours  grew  rapidly  in  prosperity, 
under  the  Jlerovingians,  but  abuse  of  the  right  of  sanctuary  led  to 
great  disorder,  and  the  church  itself  became  a  hotbed  of  crime.! 
Charlemagne  re-established  discipline  in  the  disorganized  nionasteiy 
and  set  over  it  the  learned  Alcnin,  who  established  at  Tours  one  of 
the  oldest  public  schools  of  Christian  philosophy  and  theology.' 
The  abbey  was  made  into  a  collegiate  church  in  :be  Uth  century,-' 
and  was  for  a  time  affiliated  to  Cluny,  but  soon  came  unSer  the 
direct  rule  of  Rome,  and  for  long  had  bishops  of  its  own.  The 
suburb  in  which  the  monastery  was  situated  became  as  impoi-tant 
4s  Tours  itself  under  the  name  of  Martinopolis.  The  Normans,- 
attracted  by  its  riches,  pillageil  it  in  853  and  903.  Strong  walls  were 
erected  from  906  to  910,  and  in  the  12th  century  the  name  was 
changed  to  that  of  Chateauueuf  Philip  Augustus  abolished  the  dis- 
orderly commune  in  1212,  but  the  innumerable  offerings  cf  princes, 
lords,  and  pilgrims  maintained  the  prosperity  of  the  town  all  through 
the  Middle  Ages.  A  13th-ceutury  writer  speaks  with  enthusiasm  of 
the  wealth  and  luxury  of  the  inhabitants,  of  the  beauty  and  cliasiity 
of  the  women,  and  of  the  rich  shrine  of  the  saint.  A  third  churfh, 
replacing  one  which  had  been  built  after  the  burning  of  that  of  St 
Perpetuus  in  997,  was  begun  in  1175,  and  finished  in  the  lath 
century.  It  was  374  feet  long  and  85  feet  high,  and  had  five 
towers,  of  which  only  two  remain.  The  rest  of  the  church,  sold 
to  speculators  after  the  Revolution,  disappeared  under  the  first 
empire.  Of  the  monastic  buildings,  only  a  beautiful  inclosed 
gallery,  built  by  Bastien  Franfuis,  nephew  of  Michel  Colomb,  iii^ 
the  time  of  the  Renaissance,  remains,  but  the  streets  which  formeriy, 
belonged  to  Chateauneuf  show  many  interesting  relics  of  eoeiesi-; 
astical  and  civil  architecture.  About  1130  Archbishop  HiUlevert' 
built  a  cathedral  in  the  old  Roman  town  itself,  on  the  ruins  of 
those  successively  erected  by  Litorius  and  Gregory  of  Tours.  This 
was  burnt  in  1166  during  the  quarrel  between  Louis  VII.  of  FranCii' 
and  Henry  II.  of  England,  the  latter  being  lord  of  Tours  and  cor.nt' 
of  Anjou.  The  work  was  resumed  in  1175,  but  not  finished  till 
1547.  Part  of  the  towers  belong  to  the  12th  century  ;  the  choir  to 
the  13th  ;  the  transept  and  first  bays  of  tlie  nave  to  the  14th  ;  the 
remaining  bays,  the  cloister  on  the  north,  and  the  fine  facade  to 
the  15th  ;  and  the  two  Renaissance  towers  (217  feet  and  223  feet) 
to  the  I6th.  The- building  is .  nevertheless  remarkable  for  thi 
harmony  and  regularity  of  its  construction ;  specially  noteworthy, 
details  are  the  triple  western  portal,  the  upper  staircase  of  the 
north  tower,  a  Renaissance  staircasd  iu  the  cloister,,  the  old  .wood-l 
work  in  chestnut-wood,  and  the  splendid  glass  of  the  13th,  14^0i,i 
and  15th;' Centuries.  A  pretty  little  mausoleum,  built  in  1506 
by  Jean  Juste,  is  the  burial-place  o(  .three  young  sous  of  Charlc^ 


492 


T.  0  U  —  T  O  W 


VIII.  The  arclibishop's  palace  is  to  the  right  of  the  cathedral, 
with  an  interesting  clc.npel  of  the  12lh  century,  and  an  outside 
pulpit  of  the  16th.  During  the  10th  century  the  Benedictine 
nbbey  of  St  Julien  was  re-est.iblished  hy  Archbishop  Theotoion, 
and  a  Ronianesiine  chuicli  built,  of  which  the  great  square  lower 
still  rcniains.  St  JuUen  h.as  a  fine  nave  and  double  aisles;  the 
slraigiit  terminal  wai!  has  two  16tli  century  apses  attached.  There 
arc  some  paintings  of  the  12th  ocntuiy  under  the  tuwcj. 

The  magniSccuce  of  Tours  declined  in  th=  14th  century  .  it  was 
thin  united  to Chatcauneuf  by  a  common  wall,  of  which  an  clog.int 
round  tower  (the  Tour  de  Guise)  remains  near  the  quay,  and  both 
touiis  were  put  under  the  same  goTcrnment.  The  numerous  and 
long  cuMtmucd  visits  of  Charles  VII  ,  Louis  XI  ,  and  Charles  VIII. 
in  Toui.iine  duiiug  the  15lh  century  favoured  the  conimeiLe  and 
industry  of  the  town,  then  peopled  by  75,000  inhabitants  To  the 
lloiirishing  school  of  art  which  existed  at  the  Kcnais.sance  aie  due 
several  private  houses,  a  fountain,  and  the  church  of  Notie  Dame 
La  liiche,  with  splendid  windows  by  Piniigricr.  An  uciniportaiit 
building,  pait  ofa  modern  chateau,  is  all  that  remains  of  the  royal 
residence  and  maginficent  gardens  of  Fle.ssis  l.-s-Tours,  where  Louis 

XI  shut  himself  up  and  died,  the  states  in  1506  proclaimed  Louis 

XII  the  father  of  his  people,  and  Henry  111  and  Henry  of  Navarre 
united  in  1589  again«t"  tiie  League  From  that  year  Tours  was 
dcseit^d  by  the  kings  of  France.  A  fine  bridge  of  fifteen  arches 
was  built  across  the  Loire  from  17(55  to  1777  by  Bayeux.  The 
chief  modem  buildings  are  the  theatre,  the  church  of  St  Joseph, 
the  railway  station,  aud  a  museum  with  collections  of  antiquities, 
pictures,  pottery,  aud  mineralogy.  There  nre  also  antiquities  in 
the  museum  of  the  archicological  society  of  Indre-et-Loire.  The 
gardens  and  a  remaikable  portal  of  the  archbishop's  palace,  a 
magnificent  iron  ^ato  ofi  the  ISth  century  in  the  prefectme,  once 
tht'  convent  of  the  Visitation,  and  the  general  hospital  (1200  "leds) 
ehould  also  be  mentioned.  In  1870  Tours  was  the  seat  oi  the 
government  of  the  national  defence.  Tours  is  the  birthplace  of 
the  heretic  Berengarius,  the  two  marshals  tJoucicaut,  the  novelist 
Honore  do  Balzac,  the  poet  Destoiiches,  the  painters  Fouquet  aD» 
Clouet,  and  Madame  de  la  Valliero. 

TOUSS.MNT  LOUVERTURE,  PreRRE  Dominique 
(174G-1803),  one  of  the  liberators  of  Hayti,  claimed  to  be 
descended  from  an  African  chief,  bis  father,  a  slave  in 
Hayti,  being  the  chief's  second  son  He  •A'as  born  ■20th 
May  174G  at  Ureda,  and  was  at  first  surnamed  Breda, 
which  was  changed  to  Louverture  in  token  of  the  results 
of  bis  valour  in  causing  a  gap  in  the  ranks  of  the  enemy. 
From  childhood  he  manifested  unusual  abilities,  and  suc- 
ceeded, by  making  the  utmost  use  of  every  opportunity, 
in  obtaining  a  remarkably  good  education.  He  obtained 
the  special  confidence  of  his  master,  and  was  made  super- 
intendent of  the  other  negroes  on  the  plantation.  After 
the  insurrection  of  1791  he  joined  the  insurgents,  and, 
having  acquired  some  knowledge  of  surgery  and  medicine, 
acted  as  physician  to  the  forces.  His  rapid  rise  in  influ- 
ence aroused,  however,  the  jealousy  of  Jean  Francois,  wlio 
caused  his  arrest  on  the  ground  of  his  partiality  to  the 
whites.  He  was  liberated  by  the  rival  insurgent  chief 
Baisson,  and  a  partisan  war  ensued,  but  after  the  death 
of  Baisson  he  placed  himself  under  the  orders  of  Jean 
Franijois.  Sub.sequenlly  be  joined  the  Spaniards,  but, 
when  the  French  Government  ratified  the  Act  declaring  the 
freedom  of  the  slaves,  he  came  to  the  aid  of  the  French. 
In  1796  he  was  named  commandei-inchief  of  the  armies 
of  St  Domingo,  but,  having  raised  and  disciplined  a  power- 
ful army  of  blacks,  he  made  himself  master  of  the  whole 
country,  renounced  the  authority  of  France,  and  announced 
himself  "  the  Buonaparte  of  St  Domingo."  For  further 
details  of  his  career  see  Hayti  (vol.  xi.  p  545).  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  treachery  on  the  part  of  France,  and  died 
in  the  prison  of  Joux,  near  Besamjon,  27th  April  1803. 

See  MiynoiTcs  written  by  himself,  1853;  Saint-Remy,  Vie  dc 
Toitssaiut  Louverture,  1850  ,  Gragnon-Lacoste,  TmtAsautt  Louver- 
lure,  Gtniral  en  Chif  de  VArmie  de  SaiiU- Domingite  surnoiii}iie  U 
Previkr  des  Koirs,  based  on  private  papers  of  the  Louverture 
family,  1877 

TOWN,  TOWNSHIP.  See  Borough,  City.  Moni- 
ciPAMTY,  and  United  State-s,  pp.  731,  8'27. 

TOWNSHEND,  Ch.vrles  Townshend,  Second  Vis- 
count (1G74-1738),  a  statesman  of  unsullied  integrity, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Horatio,  the  first  viscount,  and  was 


born  in  1674.     He  succeeded  to  the  peerage  i  .  JececibCK 
16S7,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  King's  Ccilege,  Cam. 
bridge.     When  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  bis 
sympathies  leant  to  Toryism,  but  this  predilection  £-jon 
faded  away,  and   in  February   1701-2   it  was  rumoured 
among  the  courtiers  that  he  would  hold  the  ofBce  of  f  ■'ivj 
seal  in  the  Whig  ministry  which  William  ILI.  had  in  view. 
For  some  years  after   the   accession  of  Queen  Anne  ha 
remained  without  olfice,  but  on  '29th  September  1707   he 
was  created  captain  of  the  yeomen  of  the  guard,  and  io 
(lie  same  year  h&  was  summoned  to  the  privy  council,  a 
distinction  renewed  by  the  queen's  two  successors  on  ihfl 
throne.     The  command  of  the  yeomen  remained   in   his 
hands  until  13th  June  1711,  but  its  responsibilities  did 
not  prevent  him  from  acting  as  joint  plenipotentiary  with 
the  duke  of  Marlborough  in  the  peace  negotiations  with 
France  which   were   car.-ied  on  at  Gertruydenberg,  neaf 
Breda,  or  from  servin^'  asamba-ssador  extraoidinary  at  The 
Hague  congress (-2^  Ma.v  1709-2Gth  March  1711)      Town- 
shend  was    high   n:  favour  with  George  I.,  and  en  that 
kioc's  arrival  at  The  Hague  In  September   1714  be  pub- 
lis!  ed  the  appointment  of  Townshend  as  secretary  o'  state 
for  iiie  soutbetn  department,  and  entrusted    to  hi;  new 
minisl'''   the  j;nvilege  of  nominating  his  own  cull>  ague. 
Horace    "-ilpole,  his  brother  inlaw  and  private  seci-i-ary, 
recommt .  ied  St-inhope  for  the  vacant  post,  and  Slarhope 
was  (ijly  appointed.     Townshend  did  not  neglect  to  avail 
h:;^ijt!t'  of  the  advantages  afforded  by  his  attendants  on 
^he  liirig,  and  before  the  arrival  of  George  I.  in  Eugland 
je  had  obtained  complete  ascendency  both  over  his  mind 
and  the  dispositions  of  the  advisers  by  whom  his  line  of 
conduct  xvf.s  generally  determined.     The  policy  of  the  new 
ministers  .it  home  and  abroad   lay  in  the  promotion  of 
peace.     Witb  this  object  they  endeavoured   to  limit  the 
charges  agaic-;t  their  predecessor  Harley,  Lord  Oxford,  to 
high  crime.s  and  misdemeanours.     To  gain  this  end  thej 
brought  about,  in  1716,  an  alliance  between  those  ancient 
rivals   in  arms,   France  and  England.     !a  spite  of  their 
success,  their  infiuence  was  gradually  undermined  by  the 
intrigues  of  Lord  Sunderland  ind  by  thediscoutent  of  the 
Hanoverian  favourites,  who  deemed  the  places   and   the 
pensions  which  they  had  gained  a.-i  insufficient  reward  for 
their  exertions.     In  October  1716  Stanhope  accompanied 
the  king  on  his  jourr.  y  to  Ha-nover,  and  during  this  visit 
was  seduced  from  his  i.Uegiance  to  hi-  colleagijes  by  the 
wily  Sunderland,  who  hi i  ingratiated  hitcself  into  the  royal 
favour.     George  I  was  induced  to  believe  that  Townshend 
and  Walpole  were  caballing  with  the  prince  of  Wales,  and 
were  forming  designs  against  the  royal  autho,-ity.     Town- 
shend was  dismissed  in  December  1716  from  .'i;s  fflace  of 
secretary  of   sfte,  and  was  offered   in    lieu  thereof  the 
splendid  banisltment  of  lord  lieuter.ant  of  Ireland,  a  gilded 
sinecure   which  he  at  first  contem;>tuous)y  declined  and 
only  condescended  ultimately  to  ace  ,  t  on  the  condition 
that  he  was  not  required  to  set  foot  on  Irish  soil.     His 
latent  spirit  of  hostility  to  this  arrangement  quickly  devel- 
oped into  open  antagonism,  and  in  March  1717  Townshend 
was  dismissed  from  his   position.     At  the  close  of  May 
1720  a  partial  reconciliation  took  place  between  the  op- 
[losing  Whig  sections  of  Stanhope  and  Townshend.     The 
latter  was  readmitted  into  the  ministry  as  lord  president  oi 
the  council  (11th  June  1720),  and  his  devoted  relation  and 
colleague   Sir  Robert  Walpole  became  paymaster-general 
When"  the  South   .Sea  Bubble  burst,   the  fortunes  of  the 
principal  members  of  the  ministry  shared  in  the  misfortuna 
of  the  scheme  which  they  had  promoted.     Stanhope,  in  a 
paroxysm  of  pa.ssion  during  a  heated  debate,  broke  a  blood- 
ves.sel,  and  Sunderland,  though  acquitted  of  the  charge  of 
personal  corruption,  «as  forced  to  retire  into  private  Ufa 
The  withdiawal  of  these  statesmen  assigned  to  their  rivals 


TOW  N'S  ff  E  N  r 


49S 


ihe  chief  pniea  id  thu  siatc  Towu^Lctxl  becscie  (10th 
Febru^y  1721)  setreUry  of  state,  and  Walpolo  gained  the 
positioi^  of  6rst  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  The  death  of  George  I.  threatened  a  change 
of  odvuert,  but  the  dismay  of  the  new  king's  favourite, 
Spencer  Compton,  at  being  called  upon  to  draw  up  the 
royal  speech,  led  to  the  old  ministers  of  the  crown  being 
retained  in  their  pUttis.  WLai  the  attacks  of  the  opposi 
tioo  could  uot  eSect,  the  internal  strife  of  the  administra 
tion  acconiplishc'l.  TownabcnJ  waa  of  a  proud,  impetuous 
disposition,  born  with  a  nature  more  accustomed  to  rule 
than  to  obey  His  family  bad  for  several  generations 
Stood  higher  in  the  social  life  of  Nurfulk  than  Walpole'a 
piogeiiitor^  and  «'hcu  he  himself  attinne.!  to  distinction  In 
politics  his  position  as  a  Oiember  of  the  I'ppor  House  was 
greater  than  that  enjoyed  by  his  friend  in  the  Commons 
As  the  power  of  the  Lower  House  iucf eased,  and  as 
Walpole  became  more  and  more  the  object  of  the  attacks 
of  the  Tories,  the  pre  eminence  of  Townsbeud  passed  from 
him.  So  long,  to  use  the  witty  remark  of  Sir  Robert 
Walpole,  as  the  firni  was  Toonshend  and  Wal|jole,  things 
went  well  wuh  tliem.  I'ut  wLen  the  p<isitiona  were  r& 
versed  jealousies  aiose  between  the  parlneis.  The  grow- 
ing alienation  was  hastened  by  the  death,  In  1726,  of 
the  secretary  s  wife,  the  sister  of  Walpole  At  the  close 
of  ]""J9  TownsDend  endeavoured  to  obiain  the  appoint- 
ment nf  his  old  and  attached  friend.  Lord  Chesterfield,  as 
bis  fellow  secretary  of  slate,  and  the  failure  of  the  attempt 
brought  about  a  iierce  scene  between  Walpole  and  himself. 
They  broke  out  into  passionate  words,  seized  one  another 
by  their  coat-collars,  and  would  have  come  to  blows  had 
they  not  been  prevented  by  tbeir  friends  who  were  pre- 
eent.  After  this  outbreak  of  passion  further  co-operation 
was  impossible,  and  Townshend,  having  the  good  sense 
to  recognize  the  position,  retired  into  private  life  on  15th 
May  1730.  The  chief  domestic  events  of  his  "ministry 
were  the  impeachment  of  Bishop  Atlerbury,  the  partial 
restoration  of  Lord  Bolingbroke,  and  the  troubles  in  Ireland 
over  the  granting  to  a  man  called  Wood  of  a  patent  for 
coining  pence.  Its  concluding  act  was  the  signing  of  the 
treaty  of  Seville  (9tli  November  1729)  Townshend  died 
of  apopleiy  21st  June  1738 

TowDsheod  rt-aa  sl.iw  in  forming,  but  rpsolute  in  adhering  to, 
his  rtpinioo.  aotl  like  most  ollici  nit-n  of  iliai  slarnp.  was  nopatiL-nt 
of  contTdJiriion  His  manners  have  lj,.-en  siyjcj  "coarse,  nislic. 
and  seemingly  bnjul,  '  but  these  <iefett>  wer*  not  visiMc  in  hi-* 
domestif  lifti  Never  did  niiuister  leave  oftue  wnh  cit-atier  han<ls. 
be  Ji<l  n<-t  I'M  <^nr-  tyirt  to  bis  estate  not  leave  tar^c  fortunes  to  Llh 
yoenget  children 

TaWNSHENT),  CbaRLES  (1725-1767),  a  politician 
6\et  to  be  remembered  as  the  embodiment  of  wit  and  in 
uisiretion.  wai  the  second  son  of  Charles,  third  Viscount 
Townshend.  who  married  Audrey,  the  daughter  and  heiress 
of  Edward  Hurris(:n  of  Balls  Park,  near  Hertford,  a  lady 
who  rivalled  her  son  in  brilliaocy  of  wit  and  frankness 
sf  eipression  Charles  was  born  29tb  August  172.5,  and 
was  sent  for  his  education  to  Leydeo  and  Oxford.  At  the 
Dutch  uaiversiiy.  where  he  matriculated  27th  October 
1745,  he  ftsstKiated  with  a  small  knot  of  English  youth.';, 
iflerwards  well  known  in  various  circles  of  life,  among 
whom  were  Askew,  the  book  collector,  Dowdeswell,  his 
lubsequent  rival  in  politics,  Wilkes,  the  witty  and  un- 
principled reformer,  and  AJexaodei  Carlyle.  the  grnial 
bcolthman.  who  devole,<  some  of  the  pnges  of  his  Aulnliut 
jTaphy  to  chronicling  their  sayings  and  their  doings  He 
represented  Great  Yarmouth  in  parliament  from  1747  to 
1761.  when  he  found  a  seat  in  the  treasury  borough  of 
Barwich  Public  attention  wa.s  first  drawn  to  his  abilitie-<< 
B  1763.  when  he  delivered  a  lively  attack,  as  a  younjjer 
ion  who  might  hope  to  proi^iote  his  advancement  by  allying 
liuiselt  in  marriage   to  a  wealthy  heiress,  aeainst   Lord  ! 


HarawicSes  moirUgB  bill  Although  this  measure  passed 
into  law,  he  attained  this  object  in  August  of  the  follow- 
ing year  by  marrying  Caroline,  the  elde-st  daughter  of  the 
second  duke  of  Argyle  and  the  widow  of  Francis,  Lord 
Dalkeith,  the  eldest  son  of  the  second  duke  of  Buccleugh. 
In  April  1754  Townshend  was  transferred  from  the  posi- 
tion of  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  which  he  had 
held  from  174  9.  to  that  ol  a  lord  of  the  admiralty,  but 
at  the  close  of  1755  his  passionate  attack  against  the 
policy  of  the  ministry,  an  attack  which  shared  in  popular 
e.tiniation  witli  the  scathing  denunciations  of  Put,  the 
supreme  success  of  Single-Speech  Hamilton,  and  the  liope- 
less  failure  of  Lord  Chesterfield's  illegitimate  son,  caused 
his  instant  dismissal  In  the  administration  which  was 
formed  in  December  1T36,  and  which  was  ruled  by  Pitt, 
the  lucrative  office  ol  tieasurer  of  the  chamber  was  given 
to  Townshend,  and  in  the  following  spring  he  was  sunji 
moned  to  the  privy  council  With  the  accession  of  the 
new  mont.rch  m  1760  this  volatile  politician  transferred 
his  attent  ons  from  Pitt  to  the  young  king's  favourite,  Bute, 
and  wher,  at  the  lattet's  insLnnce,  seveial  changes  were 
made  in  the  ministry,  Townshend  wa^  promoted  to  the 
post  of  secretary  of  war  In  this  place  he  remained  after 
the  great  commoner  had  withdrawn  from  the  cabinet,  but 
in  December  1762  he  threw  it  up.  Bute,  alarmed  at  the 
growth  in  numbers  and  in  inBuence  ol  his  enemies,  tried 
to  buy  back  Townshend's  co-operation  by  sundry  tempting 
promises,  and  at  last  secured  his  object  in  March  1763 
with  the  presidency  of  the  Board  of  Trade  When  Bute 
retired  and  George  Grenville  accepted  the  cares  of  official 
life,  the  higher  post  of  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  fell  to 
Townshend's  lot,  but  with  his  usual  impetuosity  he  pre- 
sumed to  designate  one  of  his  satellites  to  a  place  under 
him  at  the  board,  and  the  refusal  to  accept  the  nomioatioQ 
led  to  his  exclusion  from  tjie  new  administration.  While 
in  opposition  his  mind  was  swayed  to  and  fro  with  con- 
flicting emotions  of  dislike  to  the  head  of  tho  ministry  and 
of  desire  to  share  in  the  spoils  of  office.  The  latter  feeling 
ultimately  triumphed  ;  he  condescended  to  accept  in  the 
dying  days  of  Crenville's  cabinet,  and  to  retain  through 
the  "  lutestring  "  administration  of  Lord  Rockingham, — 
"  pretty  summer  wear,"  as  Townshend  styled  it,  "  but  it 
will  never  .nand  the  winter," — the  highly  paid  jiosition  of 
paymaster-general,  refusing  to  identify  himself  more  closely 
with  its  fortunes  as  chancellor  of  the  exche<|uer.  The 
position  which  he  refused  from  the  hand^  of  Lord  Rocking- 
ham he  was  forced  to  accept  from  the  imjicrious  Pitt 
(August  17C6),  and  a  few  weeks  later  his  urgent  appeals 
to  the  great  nnnisler  for  inrrea-sed  power  were  favourably 
answered,  and  he  was  adnutted  to  the  inner  circle  of  the 
cabinet.  Dowdu-swell,  his  predcie.ssor  at  the  excliequcr, 
resented  his  removal  lor  his  brilliunt  riv.il  The  new 
chancellor  pro[iosed  the  continuance  ol  the  land  ta.x  at 
four  shillings  In  the  pound,  while  he  held  nut  hopes  that 
it  might  be  reduced  next  yeiii  to  threi  slullinp.s,  where- 
upon his  predecessor,  by  thi-  aid  of  the  Lin. led  j;i  nlleincn, 
carried  a  motion  that  the  redmiion  .slruiM  tike  ctlei  t  ,it 
once.  This  defeat  proved  a  great  moitilii:itiiin  In  Lord 
(Ipiithani.  and  in  his  irritation  .igainsi  To«n>lii  nd  Inr  this 
bhiw,  as  well  as  for  some  aits  of  liisubordiiiillnn,  he 
iiiudilated  the  removal  of  his  .-hi'Wy  riilUa^'ue  Before 
this  eould  be  arcoinplHhed  Ch-iiham '^  iiiiird  bee.'ime  im- 
paired by  .some  mystirions  malady,  and  Tnwnsliend.  who 
was  the  most  dell  riiiiiied  mid  influenli.il  ol  bis  cilleagiics, 
swayed  the  mini.stry  as  he  likiid.  Hi--  wife  vv.-u-.  created 
(August  17G7)  Baroness  (jicenwich.  and  his  brother  was 
made  lord-lieulenant  of  Ireland  He  biniself  deliveivd  m 
the  House  of  Commons  many  sjieechts  unriMilled  in 
parliamentary  history  for  wit  and  recklessness,  and  one  of 
them  still  lives  in  history  as  the   "  champagne  etMwJi/ 


494 


T  0  X  — T  R  A 


His  last  act  was  to  pass  thiougli  parliament  resolutions 
which  even  his  colleagues  deprecated  in  the  cabinet,  for 
taxing  several  articles,  such  as  glass,  paper,  and  tea,  on 
their  importation  into  America,  which  he  estimated  would 
produce  the  insignificant  sum  of  £40,000  for  the  English 
treasury,  and  which  shrewder  observers  prophesied  would 
lead  to  the  loss  of  the  American  colonies.  Shortly  after 
this  event  he  retired  to  his  wile's  country  seat  in  Oxford- 
shire, where  he  died  on  4th  September  1767,  from  a  fever 
which  he  had  neglected. 

The  universal  tribute  of  Townshend's  colleagues  allows  him  the 
possession  of  boundless  wit  and  ready  eloquence,  set  off  by  perfect 
melody  of  intonation,  but  marred  by  an  unexampled  lack  of  judg- 
ment and  discretion.  He  shifted  his  ground  in  politics  with  every 
new  moon,  and  the  world  fastened  on  him  the  nickuamt,  which  he 
iiiinself  adopted  in  his  "champagne"  speech,  of  the  Weathercock. 
His  official  knowledge  was  considerable ;  and  it  would  be  unjust  to 
his  memory  to  ignore  the  praises  of  his  contemporaries  or  his 
profound  knowledge  of  his  country's  commercial  interests.  The 
House  of  Commons  recognized  in  him  its  spoilt  child,  and  Burke 
happily  said  that ' '  he  never  thought,  did,  or  said  anything  "  with- 
out judging  its  effect  on  his  fellow-members.  Charles  Townshend 
is  the  subject  of  a  memoir  by  Mr  Percy  Fitzgerald. 

TOXICOLOGY.     See  Poisons. 

TRACHIS,  a  city  of  ancient  Greece,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  QEta,-a  little  to  the  north-west  of  Thermopylae. 
As  commanding  the  approach  to  Thermopylse  from  Thes- 
saly,  it  was  a  place  of  great  military  importance.  Accord- 
ing to  Homer,  it  was  one  of  the  places  subject  to  Achilles, 
and  was  famed  in  legend  as  the  scene  of  Hercales's  death — 
an  event  which  forms  the  subject  of  Sophocles's  play  The 
Trachinian  Women.  In  historical  times  it  first  attained 
importance  on  the  foundation  of  Heraclea  by  the  Spartans 
in  426  B.C.  The  Thessalians,  jealous  of  the  establishment 
of  a  Spartan  outpost  on  their  borders,  attacked  Heraclea, 
and  in  420  the  Heracleots  were  defeated  by  them  with 
heavy  loss.  In  the  winter  of  409-8  Heraclea  sustained 
another  disastrous  defeat.  In  395  the  Thebans  expelled 
the  Spartans,  and  restored  the  city  to  the  old  Trachinian 
and  (Etiean  inhabitants.  In  later  times  Heraclea  was  one 
of  the  mainstays  of  the  yEtolian  power  in  northern  Greece. 
In  191  B.C.,  after  the  defeat  of  Antiochus  at  Thermopylae, 
Heraclea  was  besieged  and  taken  from  the  .^tolians  by 
the  Romans  under  the  consul  Acilius  Glabrio.  From  Livy's 
account  of  the  siege  (xxxvi.  24),  it  appears  that  the  citadel 
was  outside  the  town,  which  lay  on  the  low  ground  be- 
tween the  rivers  Karvunaria  (Asopus)  and  Mavra-Neria 
(Melas).  There  are  still  traces  of  the  citadel  on  a  lofty 
rock  above. 

TRACT  SOCIETIES  are  associations  for  publishing 
or  circulating  religious  treatises  or  books.  The  Circulation 
of  short  treatises  for  the  promotion  of  Christian  know- 
ledge is  older  than  the  invention  of  printing.  Wickliffe, 
for  instance,  was  a  great  writer  and  circulator  of  tracts, 
employing  his  Oxford  friends  and  pupils  to  multiply 
copies.  So  was  Luther  in  his  day,  with  the  help  by  that 
time  of  printer  and  bookseller.  In  later  times  John  Wesley 
was  a  busy  worker  in  this  way;  and  Hannah  More,  from 
her  own  pen,  produced  what  were  known  as  the  "  Cheap 
Repository  Tracts,"  highly  lauded  by  Bishop  Porteus, 
and  widely  used  towards  the  close  of  the  18th  century. 
Before  this  time  there  had  been  efforts  of  associated 
labour  for  the  same  object,  a  "  book  society  for  promoting 
religious  knowledge  among  the  poor "  having  been  estat 
lished  in  1750.  A  similar  society  was  formed  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1793.  Lut  it  was  at  the  close  of  the  century,  in 
1799,  that  there  was  founded  in  London  the  Religious 
Tract  Society,  an  'nstitution  unparalleled  in  the  extent 
and  variety  of  its  operations, 'and  the  parent  of  numerous 
societies  ir  diffjrent  parts  of  the  emigre  as  well  as  in  the 
United  States  and  on  the  continent  of  Eu.ope.  There  are 
other  associations  with  kindred  objects,  but  m  connexion 


with  particular  ecclesiastical  systems.  Thus  the  tract 
department  of  the  Christian  Knowledge  Society  is  specially 
connected  with  the  Church  of  England;  and  the  Wesleyans, 
Baptists,  and  other  denominations  have  their  own  tract 
societies.  The  Church  of  Rome  also  has  now  similar 
associations.  The  Religious  Tract  Society  is  alone  in  being 
conhned  to  the  diffusion  of  religious  truth  common  to  all 
Protestant  Christians,  to  the  exclusion  of  topics  touched 
by  ecclesiastical  divisions.  This  catholicity  is  secured  by 
the  fundamental  rules  of  the  society,  and  by  its  managing 
committee  being  composed  half  of  Churchmen  and  half  of 
Nonconformists  of  all  denominations. 

A  brief  statement  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Religious  Tnet 
Society,  as  presented  in  its  latest  annual  i2(7wr(,  will  best  serve  ta 
show  the  general  objects  and  operations  of  all  such  organizations,— 
any  special  or  varied  action  elsewhere  adopted  being  noted  as  we 
proceed.  The  main  object  of  the  society  is  the  preparation  and 
publication  of  religious  literature.  At  first  this  consisted  mostly 
of  tracts  and  small  treatises.  After  a  time  larger  books  were  puh- 
lished,  including  series  of  reprinted  works  of  the  early  Reformers 
and  English  Protestant  theologians  and  Biblical  cxpositoi's,  and 
also  books  on  common  subjects  treated  in  a  religious  spirit  The 
society  also  issues  magazines  for  all  classes.  Four  of  these  period- 
icals, the  Leisure  Hour,  the  Sunday  at  Home,  the  Jioys^  Own  Paper, 
and  tlie  Girls'  Chim  Paper,  have  a  united  circulation,  including 
monthly  parts  and  yearly  volumes,  of  nearly  -600,000  numbers 
weekly,  or  above  30  millions  in  th?  year.  The  trotal  annual  issue, 
including  books,  tracts,  &c.,  at  home  a,nd  abroad,  is  nearly  88 
milUons. 

The  distribution  of  this  is  chiefly  through  the  ordinary  channels 
of  trade,  with  the  exception  of  the  tracts,  which  are  circulated  by 
home  and  foreign  missionary  societies,  and  various  agencies  public 
and  private.  Almost  every  missionary  agency  is  indebted  to  the 
Religious  Tract  Society  for  the  work  carried  on  through  the  press. 
Grants  are  made,  either  free  or  as  nearly  as  possible  at  cost  price ; 
and,  when  it  is  advisable  to  produce  publications  at  foreign  stations, 
grants  of  paper  and  other  material,  as  well  as  money  payments, 
are  voted.  The  publications  are  in  almost  every  tongue,  the  list 
containing  works  in  174  languages  and  dialects. 

The  funds  for  this  large  and  varied  work  come  partly  from 
donations,  subscriptions,  and  legacies,  but  chiefly  from  the  profits 
of  the  sales  of  the  society's  publications.  The  total  missionary 
and  evangelistic  expenditure  in  the  year  ending  March  31,  1886, 
amounted  to  £47,722,  of  which  £19,019  was  supplied  from  the  trade 
funds,  which  have  also  borne  the  entire  cost  of  management,  bo^h 
of  the  business  and  missionary  departments.  The  total  amount 
received  from  -  sales,  subscriptions,  and  all  other  sources  was 
£212,731,  lis.  8d. 

The  American  Traot  Society  and  some  of  the  Continental 
societies  undertake  the  distribution  as  well  as  the  production  of 
tracts  and  books,  by  means  of  paid  colporteurs  and  other  agents. 
The  Continental  societies  produce  most  of  their  own  books  and 
tracts,  aided  largely  by  grants  of  money  and  paper  from  the 
Religious  Tract  Society. 

TRACTION,  Electeic.  The  driving  of  vehicles  by 
electricity  was  made  commercially  practicable  by  the  in- 
vention of  the  dynamo-electric  machine,  which  gave  a 
ready  means  of  producing  electrical  energy  by  the  expendi- 
ture of  mechanical  work,  and  by  the  further  discovery  that 
the  function  of  the  dynamo  could  be  reversed, — that  it 
was  capable  of  acting  efficiently  as  a  motor  to  do  mechan- 
ical work  when  supplied  with  energy  in  the  electrical 
form.  Experiment  has  shown  that  when  a  dynamo  is 
used  to  produce  an  electric  current,  which,  in  its  turn, 
drives  another  dynamo  serving  as  a  motor,  the  double  con- 
version of  energy  may  be  performed  with  no  very  serious 
loss.  In  favourable  cases,  when  the  dynamo  and  motor 
are  close  together,  the  motor  will  yield  more  than  80  per 
cent,  of  the  work  which  is  spent  in  driving  the  dynamo. 
When  they  are  far  apart  there  is  an  additional  loss,  due  to 
the  resistance  of  the  conductor  which  connects  them,  and 
a  further  loss  due  to  its  imperfect  insulation.  The  use  o' 
high  electromotive  force,  which  reduces  the  first  of  these, 
tends  to  increase  the  second  ;  it  is,  however,  practicable 
to  keep  both  within  reasonable  limits.  Early  attempts  to 
apply  electricity  to  traction  were  made  by  Robert  David- 
son, who  placed  an  electromagnetic  locomotive  on  the 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Railway  in  1837,  and  by  Jacobi 


TRACTIOK 


495 


of  St  Petersburg,  who  propelled  a  boat  oq  the  Neva  in 
1839  by  an  electromagnetic  engine  driven  by  a  battery 
of  Grove's  cells.  The  inefficiency  and  bulkiness  of  early 
electrotnot)rs,  and  the  cost  of  producing  electric  energy 
vhea  a  galvanic  battery  was  the  source,  made  it  impossible 
for  electricity  under  such  conditions  as  these  to  compete 
with  other  methods  of  traction.  A  good  battery  using 
zinc  as  the  active  metal  consumes  from  1  to  2  fi)  of  zinc 
per  hour  per  horse-power  developed  ;  a  good  steam-engine 
consumes  from  2  to  3  lb  of  coal  in  doing  the  same  amount  of 
work,  and  the  cost  of  zinc  is  about  fifty  times  that  of  coal. 
Hence,  notwithstanding  modern  improvements  in  electro- 
motors, the  cost  of  producing  mechanical  power  by  means 
of  electricity,  when  a  zinc-consuming  battery  is  the  sourc^ 
is  still  prohibitive. 

The  earliest  practical  electric  railway  was  constructed  at 
tne  Berlin  exhibition  of  1879  by  Dr  \Verner  Siemens.  At 
one  station  was  a  dynamo  driven  (by  a  steam-engine.  The 
current  was  conducted  to  the  moving  car  through  a  special 
rail  placed  between  the  ordinary  irails  and  insulated  from 
the  ground  by  blocks  of  wood.  Trom  this  rail  it  passed 
through  a  motor-dynamo  on  the  car,  and  the  ordinary  rails 
completed  the  circuit.  Electrical  contact  with  the  ordinary 
rails  was  made  by  the  wheels,  and  with  the  central  rail 
by  a  pair  of  bushes  made  of  copper  wire  which  rubbed 
against  its  sides  Spur-wheels  were  used  to  connect  the 
motor  shaft  with  the  wheels  and  to  effect  a  suitable  reduc- 
tion of  speed.  The  line  was  half  a  mile  long  and  of  2-feet 
gauge.  The  motor  developed  about  3i  horse-power,  and 
was  carried  by  a  separate  truck,  forming  a  locomotive 
which  drew  a  car  with  20  passengers  at  a  speed  of  from  4 
to  7  miles  an  lionr. 

The  success  of  the  Berlin  experim,ent  was  complete,  and 
Messrs  SiemeTis  followed  it  up  in  1881  by  the  construction 
of  a  permanent  electric  tramway,  IJ  miles  in  length,  at 
Lichterfelde,  which  has  now  (1887)  been  in  continuous 
operation  for  six  years.  At  Lichterfelde  the  ordinary 
rails,  iusulated  by  wooden  sleepers,  are  the  only  con- 
ductors. \\Tiere  roads  cross  the  line  the  rails  are  cut  out 
of  circuit,  and  the  (iurrjnt  is  carried  past  the  gap  by 
onderground  ci.bles,  but  switches  are  provided  by  which 
the  current  can  be  sent  into  the  insulated  sections  if  re- 
quired. Each  :ar  takes  24  passengers,  and  runs  at  a  speed 
of  1 2  milec  an  hour.  There  is  no  separate  locomotive,  the 
mo'or-dyn  mo  being  on  the  car  itself.  Ip  1882  Messrs 
Siemens  constructed  an  electric  tramway  in  the  mines  of 
Zankerode,  in  Saxon>,  and  built  for  it  a  locomotive  able  to 
draw  8  tons  at  a  speed  of  7i  miles  an  hour.  Overhead 
conductors  were  employed,  cdnsisting  of  a  pair  of  insulated 
1-shaped  rails  fixed  to  the  roof  of  the  workings;  the 
current  was  conveyed  to  and  from  the  locomotive  by  means 
of  a  pair  of  contact  carriages  sliding  on  these  conductors, 
and  connected  with  the  car  by  short  flexible  cables.  A 
Bimilar  line  was  opened  in  1883  at  the  Hohenzollem  col- 
liery in  Upper  Silesia. 

The  same  year  witnessed  the  completion  of  another 
pioneer  underta  ang~af— the  first  importance,  an  electric 
tramway  6  miles  long  connecting  Portrush  and  Bushmills, 
in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Here  the  insulated  conductor  is 
a  special  rail,  carried  alongside  of  the  line  on  wooden  posts 
at  a  height  of  1  i  feet  above  the  ground.  Contact  is  made 
by  springs  shaped  like  carriage-springs,  which  project  from 
one  side  of  the  car  at  both  ends,  so  that  the  length  of  the 
car  enables  continuous  contact  to  be  maintained  at  cross- 
roads, where  there  are  gaps  in  the  conducting  rail,  past 
which  the  current  is  taken  by  underground  cables.  The 
ordinary  rails  serve  as  return  conductors.  The  dynamos 
Sre  driven  by  turbines  at  a  station  nearly  a  mile  distant 
from  the  line;  they  supply  a  current  of  100  amperes 
with  an  electromotive  force  of  250  volts.     The  motors  are 


placed  on  passenger  cars  ;  their  speed  is  regulated  by 
means  of  resistance  coils,  which  the  driver  of.  the  car 
switches  into  the  circuit.  A  similar  tramway,  3  miles 
long,  connecting  Bessbrook  and  Newry,  was  opened  in 
1885;  there  also  water-power  is  made  use  of  to  driva 
the  generating  dynamos.  On  these  lines  the  train  wsui 
ally  consists  of  a  motor  car  with  passengers,  followed  by 
two  or  three  goods  waggons,  and  the  whole  working  ex- 
penses are  from  3d.  to  4d.  per  train-mile.  The  speed  <s 
10  miles  an  hour. 

Amongst  early  electrical  railways  Mr  Volk's  short  line 
on  the  beach  at  Brightoa  deserves  mention.  There  the 
rails  themselves  act  as  conductors,  and  are  insulated  only 
by  wooden  sleepers  lying  on  the  shingle.  The  line  has 
been  in  operation  since  1883,  with  a  working  expense  of 
only  2d.  per  car-mile. 

Other  English  and  Continental  lines  will  be  referred  to 
later ;  it  is,  however,  in  America  that  electrical  traction 
has  hitherto  found  its  widest  development.  In  1880  Mr 
Edison  ran  an  electric  locomotive  on  an  experimental  track 
near  his  laboratory  at  Menio  Park.  Soon  after  the  Chicago 
exhibition  of  1883,  at  which  an  electric  railway  was  shown 
in  action,  a  large  number  of  permanent  lines  were  estah' 
lished.  There  are  now  more  than  twenty  electrical  tram- 
ways at  work  in  the  United  States,  under  the  patents  ot 
Edison,  Field,  Daft,  Van  l)epoele,  Sprague,  and  others. 
Many  more  lines  are  projected,  and  experiments  are  in 
progress  on  the  application  of  electrical  traction  on  a  large 
scale  to  the  elevated  railways  of  New  York. 

In  all  the  instances  which  have  been  referred  to  above,  electricity  Electdc 
is  employed  as  a  means  of  transmitting  power  as  it  is  wanted  from  traction 
a  generating  station  to  the  cars,  through  a  conductor  extending  by  storag* 
along  the  track.     Another  method  of  effecting  electric  traction  is  batteruSu 
to  carry  a  store  of  energy  on  the  car  or  on  a  special  locomotive,  by 
using  secondary  batteries  which  are  charged  from  time  to  time  at 
the  generating  station.     This  system,  which  was   introduced   in 
England  by  Mr  Reckenzaun  and  on  the  Continent  bv  il.  Julien, 
has  been  successfully  employed  on  several  lines. 

'The  system  of  storage,  by  means  of  secondary  batteries,  has  the' 
^eat  advantage  over  the  system  of  transmission  through  a  con- 
ductor that  it  makes  each  car  independent  and  that  it  is  applicable 
to  ordinary  tramway  lines.  As  regards  economy  of  power,  we  have 
in  the  storage  system  a  more  complex  series  of  transformation  of 
energy,  and  therefore  a  larger  number  of  itenis  of  loss.  In  both 
systems  alike  we  have  a  certain  loss  of  energy  at  the"  dynamo  and  at 
the  motor.  A  secondary  battery  yields  in  the  electrical  form  only 
about  70  per  cent  of  the  energy  given  to  it.  In  comparing  the  two 
methods,  the  loss  which  this  involves  has  to  be  set  off  against  that 
which  occurs  in  the  transmission  system  in  the  process  of  conduc- 
tion, an  item  which  may  be  very  small  ia  favourable  cases,  but  which 
becomes  large  when  there  are  inuny  cars  to  be  driven,  when  the 
line  is  long,  and  when,  owing  to  the  use  of  an  exposed  conducior, 
the  electromotive  force  has  lo  be  kept  low.  Under  average  con- 
ditions it  is  probable  that  the  conductor  system  has  a  slight  ad- 
vantage over  the  other  in  this  respect,  but  the  difference  is  not 
material,  especially  as  the  cost  of  power  is  a  comparatively  small 
part  of  the  whole  working  expense  of  a  line.  The  dillerence  is 
slightly  affected  by  the  fact  that  in  the  storage  system  there  is  an 
extra  weight  to  be  carried — namelj*,  the  batteries — amounting  to 
about  }  or  i  of  the  whole  weight,  and  the  t^acti^■c  force  required  to 
overcome  friction  is  increased  in  acorrespondingdegiee.  A  serious 
objection  to  the  storage  system  is  the  probable  cost  of  renewing 
batteries.  In  respect,  however,  both  of  durability  and  of  power 
(in  relation  to  weight)  secondary  batteries  have  of  late  undergone 
a  marked  improvement:  and  it  is  likely  that  the  storage  system 
will  prove  the  most  applicable  to  tramways  in  city  streets,  where 
conductor^  on  the  level  of  the  road  are  impracticable  and  overhead 
conductors  would  not  be  ]ierniitted. 

The  existing  methods  of  electrical  traction  as  applied  to  tramways  Classifi6a 
may  be  classified  as  follows: —  tion  or 

I.  Jlotor  driven  by  storage  batteries,  the  batteries  and  motor  systems., 
being  carried  either  (a)  in  the  car  itself  or  (6)  on  a  separate  truck 
forming  a  locomotive.  Eeckcnzauu's  and  Julicn's  tars,  "in  whicU 
the  batteries  are  under  the  seats,  are  examples  of  the  first  plan, 
which  is  in  operation  on  lines  at  Antwerp,  Hamburg,  Bi'ussels,  and 
New  York.  Jlr  EUeson's  tramway  locomotive  working  in  Ix>ndon 
on  the  North  Metropolitan  tramways  is  an  example  of  the  second 
plan.  It  is  obviously  preferable,  when  space  can  be  found  ou  the 
car  itself  for  the  motor  and  batteries,  to  place  them  there  rathei 
than  on  a  separate  truck.     Whed  a  separate  locomotive  is  used  il 


496 


T  R  A  C.T  I  O  N 


must  be  heavy  enough  to  grip  the  rails,  and  the  wcoie  ^*"igh*  tA  bo 

draivn  is  then,  cousideiably  greater. ' 

II.  Conductor  systems,  which  may  be'classiiied  tKOs:— 

(o)  Those  using  the  ordinary  rails  as  the  only  conductors.    He 

lines  at  Lichterfelde  and  Brighton,  already  mentioned,  are  exam- 

Slca  of  this  plan,  which  is  quite  inapplicable  where  the  rails  are  laid 
ush  with  the  roadway  as  in  city  streets. 

(6)  Those  using  a  third  (insulated)  rail,  above  ground.  To  this 
class  belong  the  Portrush,  the  Bessbrook,  and  several  American 
lines.     This  plan,  like  the  last,  is  not  applicable  to  city  streets. 

((■)  Those  using  one  (or  in  some  cases  two)  overhead  conductors. 
'A-line  of  this  type  has  been  successfully  worked  between  Modling 
and  Hintcrbriihl,  near  Vienna,  and  another  between  Frankfort  and 
Olfenbach,  both  since  1884,  at  a  cost  of  about  3Jd.  per  car-mile. 
The  conductors  consist  of  slotted  tubes  1  inch  in  bore  supported  On 
posts  18  feet  high  and  stayed  by  wires  at  intermediate  points  to 
Keep  them  from  sagging.  The  contact  carriages  are  pistons  sliding 
in  the  tubes.  ^  The  Daft  lines  at  Baltimore  and  other  places  in 
America,  and  the  Van  Depoele  lines,  of  which  some  SO  miles  are  in 
^operation,  are  mostly  worked  by  means  of  overhead  conductors. 

(rf)  Those  using  underground  conductors  in  a  slotted  channel  or 
conduit.  This  system,  which  has  the  obvious  advantage  that  the 
conductor  is  placed  entirely  out  of  the  way  of  street  traffic,  has  been 
introduced  at  Blackpool  by  Mr  Holroyd  Smith,  ami,  in  America, 
at  Cleveland  by  Messrs  Bentlcy  and  Knight  and  at  Philadelphia  by 
Mr  Schlesinger.  In  the  Blackpool  line  the  conductor  is  split  into* 
two  parts  which  nin  parallel  to  each  other  within  the  conduit  on 
its  two  sides,  and  are  touched  by  a  contact  arm  which  reaches 
down  through  a  narrow  central  slot  at  the  level  of  the.  street;  an 
electromotive  force  of  200  volts  is  employed.  The  conduit  is 
placed  midway  between  the  rails,  but  it  may  be  qnestioned  whether, 
in  view  of  the  conditions  of  ordinary  street  traffic,  a  better  place  for 
it  would  not  be  at  one  side.  Mr  Field  has  proposed  a  tramway 
with  two  conduits,  one  beside  each  rail,  containing  two  conductors, 
one  to  be  charged  positively  and  the  other  negatively,  so  that  a 
conjparatively  high  resultant  difference  of  potential  is  available  for 
the  motor  although  the  potential  of  neither  conductor  differs  to  a 
dangerous  degree  from  that  of  the  earth. 

(c)  One  system  remains  to  be  described,  which  was  proposed  in 
1881  by  Messrs  Ayrton  and  Perry  as  specially  applicable  to  electric 
railways  of  considerable  length,  in  which  an  exposed  conductor 
would  give  rise  to  much  lo«s  through  leakage.  Their  plan  is  to 
use  a  well-insulated  conductor  in  a  closed  channel  underground. 
The  line  is  divided  into  short  sections ;  each  of  these  has  an  exposed 
conductor,  which  may  be  one  of  the  rails,  and  {his  is  placed  in 
temporary  contact  with  the  insulated  conductor  as  the  train  p.isses, 
by  the  pressure  of  the  wheels  on  a  flexible  rail  or  stud,  or  by  means 
of  automatic  electromagnetic  switches.  Leakage  is  thus  restricted 
to  the  continuous  and  well-insulated  conductor,  together  with  that 
section  of  the  surface  conductor  which  is  in  contact  with  the  former 
at  any  one  time ;  and  the  system  has  the  further  advantage  that 
it  gives  the  means  of  providing  an  automatic  block  by  which  suc- 
cessive trains  are  kept  from  overtaking  oue  another. 
:,  The  form  and  disposition  of  the  motor-dynamo  and  the  mode  by 
Tphich  it  is  connected  with  the  driving-axle  of  the  car  are  matters 
in  which  niucli  variety  of  practice  exista.  The  question  of  gearing 
is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  the  frame  of  the  car  oscillates  verti- 
cally with  respect  to  the  axles.  Spur-wheels,  worm-gear,  friction- 
gear, belts,  multiple-band  gear,  and  chain-gear  are  or  have  been 
used.  Mr  Rcckcnzaun's  car  is  carried  by  two  bogie  trucks,  one 
under  each  end,  and  each  oogie  carries  a  motor  whose  axlr.  placed 
longitudinally,  drives  a  central  spur-wheel  on  one  axle  of  the  bogie 
by  means  of  a  worm.  An  advantage  possessfed  by  two  motors  is 
that,  by  coui>ling  them  in  series  or  parallel,  or  by  using  one  only, 
the  driver  is  able  to  command  different  grades  of  power  without  the 
Bse  of  resistance  coils.  In  cars  driveu  by  storage  batteries  the  same 
object  may  be  secured  by  various  groupings  of  the  cells. 

Tr.lphcrngc. — In  all  the  methods  o^  electrical  traction  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  the  road  on  which  the  cars  run  is  essen- 
lially  a  railway  or  tramway  of  the  kind  used  in  horse  traction  and 
(Ream  traction.  In  1831  the  late  Prof.  Fleeming  Jenkin  dtvised  a 
svstem  of  electric  locomotion  in  which  the  vehicles  are  hung  upon 
what  resembles  an  exaggerated  telegraph  line. .  To  this  he  gave  the 
name  of  telpherage.  As  developed  by  the  inventor,  in  conjunction 
with-Mcssrs  Ayrton  and  Perry,  the  system  is  especially  adapted  to 
the  transport-of  goods  at  a  slow  speed,  in  localitfes  where  the  traffic 
would  be  insufficient  to  support  an  ordinary  railway. 

The  telpher  line  is  a  steel  rod  or  cable,  suspended  from  brackets 
jon  posts~aliout  70  feet  apart;  it  serves  at  once  as  carrier  of  weights 
Ttnd  conductor  of  electricity.  The  line  may  be  made  rigid,  and  in 
jthat  case-a  high  speeU  of  transit  may  be  attained',  but  in  general  the 
Tine  is  flexible  and  the  trains  travel  slowly  in  what  may  be,  if  the 

'    1  For  a  compnrlson  of  the  wclRhts  to  he  dra^ni  nnd  the  tractive  force  required 
In  different  sysltmN,  see  a  pnpcr  by  Mr  I^eckcnzaan,  Elect.  Rev.,  May  21,  1886. 

2  For  details  of  the  consli-uctinn  end  wtirkiiic  expcHBes  of  theBe  and  other 
ttoe*  -ee  the  valuable  pnper  by  Mr  Kcckenzaun,  ./oar.  5t>c.o.^  ^i-fa.  April  20.  J8^7. 
StfltJstle*  of  American  lines  will  be  f.'und  In  a  paper  by  T.  C.  Martin,  read  before 
the  AB,eilca[i  JnsUtute  of  JCIectrlcal  EnglnMtB,  May  18, 1887. 


i  T<jlame  of  trafii'c  reqoina  it,  a  nearly  contUiuoss  gtre&m.  ta^ 
ti»in  consists  of  a  series  oi  buckets  or  sVepa  which  hang  each  from 
a  single  running  wheel  or  pair  of  wheels,  and  are  snaceJ  by  wooden 
connecting  bars.  A  small  electric  motor,  'which  nangs  below  the 
line  and  is  gepred  by  spur  and  chain  gearing  to  a  pair  of  driving, 
wheels,  forma  the  lofomotivo.  In  general,  the  line  is  electricalTyi 
divided  into  equal  Bections,  which  have  the  same  length  as  a  single 
train,  so  that  the  front  carriage  is  always  on  the  section  in  advance 
of  the  rear  carriage.  .  The  train  is  funiished  with  a  continuous 
conductor  from  end  to  end,  through  which  it'makes  electric  con- 
tact between  the  section  in  frontand-the  section  behind, jind  the 
motor  is  included  in  the  circuit  pf,  this  conductor.  Two  systems 
of  working  are  used,  which  ed'able  trains  to  bo  run  either  in 
electrical  series  or  "^rallel.^  In, the  scries  system  the  successive 
sections  of  the  line  are  electrically  tounected,  so  long  as  no  train 
is  on  them,  by  means  of  switches  at  the  joints  between  the  sections, 
so  that  the  whole  forms  one  continuous  conductor.  -  When*  a  trails 
comes  on  any  oue  section  it  breaks  contact  at  the  joint  .between 
that  section  and  the  one  behind  it ;  the  cir^'ut,  however,  remains 
closed  through  the  conductor  on  the  train  itself,  and  in  this  way' 
the  motor  receives  the  current  which  is  passing  through  the  line. 
Other  trains  at  other  places  in  the  line  receive  the  same  current, 
each  by  breaking  for  the  time  the^  ordinary  contact  between  the 
two  section's  it  touohes,  and  substituting  a  contact  through  its  own 
conductor  and  motor.  When  a  tmn  leaves  a  section  it  replaces 
the  switch  that  makes  contact  with  the  section  behind.  If,  how- 
ever, there  are  more  than  one  train  on  the  line,  an  automatic  block 
svstem  is  added  to  prevent  one  from  overtaking  another  by  letting 
the  section  which  a'train  leaves  stand  insulated  for  a  time.  No 
control  is  exercised  from  the  vehicles  themselves ;  in  fact,  the  trains 
mn  without  attendants.  In  thb  simplest  parallel  system  of  tel- 
pherage a  continuous  conductor'distinct  from  the  line  w  stretched 
alt>ngside  of  it;  the  trains  make  contact  between  the' two.  '  The 
figure  shows  another  plan,  known  as  the  cross-over  parallel  system, 


Qi 


(?     i     r^ 


Cross-over  Parallel  System  of  Telpherage. 

which  is  suitable  where  a  double  line  of  trains  is  desired.  There 
A,,  Bj,  A9 .  .  .  form  successive  sections  of  one  line,  and  Bj,  A„  B. 
.  .  ;  of  another.  A„  A„  A, .  . .  are  electrically  continuous,  ana 
are  connected  to  one  pole  of  the  dynamo-  B],  B„  B,  .  .  .  trs  also, 
continuous,  and  are  connected  to  the  other  pole.  Thus  the  sections 
of  each  line  are  alternately  positive  and  negative.  Any  train,  such 
as  P  or  Q,  bridges  the  gap  between  two  sections  and  receives  a 
current  which  suffers  reversal  as  the  tiain  passes  from  one  section 
to  the  next.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  space  does  not  admit  of  any 
description  of  the  details  of  telpherage,  many  of  which  present  the 
utmost  ingenuity.  The  system  was  shown  to  bepracticable  by 
experiments  on  an  experimental  line  at  Weston.  Toe  first  telpher 
line  on  a  commercial  basis  was  erected  in  1885  at  Glynde,  in  Sussex, 
and  has  been  maintained  in  operation  notwithstanding  many  diffi- 
culties inseparable  from  so  completely  novel  an  undertaking. 

The  electrical  propulsion  of  boats,  by  means  of  storage  batteries,  pro. 
has  been  the  subject  of  several  successlul  experiments,  out  has  not  p,i|slog 
found  systematic  application.     In  this  connexion  rcfcicnee  should  o(  boat 
be  made  to  a  scheme  proposed  by  Ayrton  and  Perry  for  the  haulage 
of  boats  on  canals  or  of  waggons  upon  roads.     Their  proposal  was 
to  have  a  conductor  ranged  along  the  towing  path,  or  along  the 
side  of  the  road.     A  motor  running  on  this  waa  to  pull  itself  aloi-.c 
and  drag  the  boat  or  waggon  after  it. 

In  aerial  navigation,  storage  batteries  working  an  electric  motor  Aerial 
have  been  uicd  to  drive  the  propeller  of  a'"  dirigible"  balloon.  navigat 

■  Space  does  not  admit  of  more  than  the  briefest  reference  to  the  Theory 
theory  of  electric  motors.  A  motor  may  be  regarded  as  a  dynamo  oi  ' 
acting  to  produce  an  electromotive  force  e  which  is  opposite  in  motors, 
direction  to  the  externally  impressed  electromotive  force  E  The  " 
resultant  electromotive  force  is  E  -  c,  and  on  this,.togrther  with 
the  resistance  of  the  circuit,  the  strength  of  the  current  C  depends. 
'Tlie  electrical  power  supplied  is  CE,  and  of  this  the  piotor  utilizes 
Ce.  The  efficiency  is  «/E.  It  is  easily  seen,  os  was  first  shown  by 
Jacobi,  that  the  power  developed  by  the  motor  (Cc)  is  a  mnximum 
when  e-JE.  But  this  condition  of  maximum  pouer  involves 
that  hulf  the  energy  supplied  is  wasted  ;  to  secure  higher  efficiency,' 
motors  are  in  practice  run  at  much  less  than  their  maxinmm 
power,  so  that  «  may  approach  more  nearly  to  equality  with  E." 
The  field  magnets  of  motors,  like  those  of  dynamos,  may  be  \voiind 
with  coils  in  series  with  the  armature  coil,  or  with  coils  forming  a 
shunt  to  the  armature,  or  with  a  combination  of  both.  A  very 
important  part  of  the  theory  deals  with  the  automatic  regulation 
of  siiecd^'by  the  use  of  compound  winding.  In  a  paper  of  funda- 
mental importance  with  rc,i;ard  to  this  part  of  the  subject,  Messrs 
Ayrton  and  Perry 'have  shown  that  a  motor  may  be  made  to  run 
■■ "  Electromotora  and  their  Government,"  Jour.  Soc,  Tet.  Eng.t  18^ 


T  R  A  — T  R  A 


497 


\l  constant  8pe«l  under  varying  loads  when  the  external  electro- 
motive force  U  constant,  provided  that  a  differential  combination 
'of  dii-ect  shunt  and  reverse  series  winding  Lie  employed, — the  shunt 
'eoil  serving  to  energize  the  mngneta  and  the  seiies  coil  to  reduce 
their  magnetisoi  to  a  certain  extent  when  the  current  in  the  ainia- 
*  tare  is  increased.  The  proportion  of  series  to  shunt  wiuding 
necessary  (or  this  result  depends  on  the  relation  of  the  resistance 
of  the  armature  to  that  of  the  shunt  coil,  and  it  is  an  easy  deduction 
from  the  theory  that,  when  the  resistance  of  the  armature  is 
negligibly  small,  the  speed  of  a  simple  shunt-wound  motor  driven 
by  means  of  a  constant  external  electromotive  force  is  sensibly 
•constant,  a  result  which  has  been  experimentally  demonstrated  by 
Mr  Mordey  [Phil.  Mag.,  Jan.  1S86).  It  is  shown  in  the  same 
paper  that  a  similar  means  of  governing  may  be  used  when  the 
current  passing  through  the  motor  is  kept  constant,  instead  of  the 
external  electromotive  force.  The  principle  of  differential  com- 
pound winding  to  secure  automatic  regulation  of  speed  has  been 
applied  in  several  American  motors,  notably  by  Mr  Sprague. 

DeuUs  of  most  of  the  electrical  tramway]  and  railways  mentioned  in  the  text 
wUl  tie  fouod  In  the  jourmila  F.'ectrical  Retnctr,  £!ecCriHan,  aod  Electrical  World 
(Vew  York)  of  the  dates  referred  to.  See  also  The  EUaric  i/<Kor  and  Us  Appli- 
tations,  by  T.  C.  Mania  and  J.  Wetzler  (N'ew  York,  1887).  Tlie  Poitinsh  line  Is 
deacnt>ed  b  -  E  Hopkinson  and  A.  Siemens  In  a  paper  read  l>efore  the  Society  of 
Arts.  Apnl  ^883.  For  telpherage.  In  adJItloti  to  articles  to  the  Journals  named, 
•e«  n<emiog  Jenkin,  "  On  TelpaeraRe,"  Jovr,  Sec  Artt^  May  1884  ;  also  Profei- 
tiemal  Paptrt  of  the  Coips  of  Ro^-al  £Dgtiieers.  Ctuubom,  voL  x  ,  1884.    (J.  A.  £.) 

TKACY,  AsToiNE  Lonxs  Claude  Destutt,  Comte  de 
(1754-1836),  was  born  in  Bourboinais  on  July  20,  1754. 
The  noble  family  to  which  he  belonged  was  of  Scottish 
descent,  tracing  its  origin  to  Walter  Stutt,  a  gentleman  who 
in  1420  accompanied  the  earls  of  Buchan  and  Douglas  to 
the  court  of  France,  and  whose  family  afterwards  rose  to 
be  counts  of  Tracy.  The  father  of  Destutt  de  Tracy  (as  he 
is  uatudly  called)  was  a  soldier,  and  died  a  field-marshal. 
DestQtt  de  Tracy  began  his  studies  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  his  mother,  and  afterwards  prosecuted  them  at  the 
university  of  Strasburg.  During  his  student  days,  how- 
ever, he  was  chiefly  noted  for  his  skill  in  every  kind  of 
manly  exercise.  On  leaving  the  utiiversity  he  embraced  a 
military  career,. in  which  his  advance  was  rapid.  When 
the  Revolution  broke,  Tracy,  who  was  then  thirty-five^'ears 
of  age,  took  an  active  part  in  the  provincial  assembly  of 
Bourbonnais.  He  was  elected  a  deputy  of  the  nobility  to 
the  states-general,  where  he  sat  alongside  of  his  friend 
La  Fayette.  In  the  spring  of  1792  he  received  the  rank  of 
field-marshal,  along  with  the  sole  command  of  the  cavalry 
in  the  army  of  the  North  ;  but,  as  the  conduct  of  affairs 
fell  more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  the  extremists,  he 
took  an  indefinite  leave  of  absence,  and  settled  with  bis 
family  at  Auteuil.  Here,  in  the  society  of  Condorcet  and 
Cabanis,  he  devoted  himself  to  scientific  studies.  Under 
the  Reign  of  Terror  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  for 
nearly  a  year.  It  was  his  solitary  meditations  at  this 
period,  we  are  told,  which  discovered  to  him  his  true  bent. 
Under  the  influence  of  Locke  and  Condillac  he  aband- 
oned the  natural  sciences  for  the  study  of  mind.  On  theft 
motion  of  Cabanis  he  was  named  associate  of  .the  Institute 
in  the  class  of  the  moral  and  political  sciences,  •  He  goon 
began  to  attract  attention  by  the  mexnmres  which  he  read 
before  his  colleagues — papers  which  formed  the  first  draft 
of  his  comprehensive  work  on  ideology.  The  society  of 
"  ideologists  "  at  Auteuil  embraced,  besides  Cabanis  and 
Tracy,  who  have  been  called  respectively  the  physiologist 
and  the  metaphysician  of  the  school,  Volney,  who  has  been 
called  its  moralist,  and  Garat,  its  professor  in  the  National 
Instituta  Under  the  empire  he  was  a  member  of  the 
senate,  but  took  little  part  in  its  deliberations.  Under 
the  Restoration  he  became  a  peer  of  France,  but  protested 
jigainst  the  reactionary  spirit  of  the  Government,  and  re- 
mained in  opposition.  In  1808  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy  in  room  of  Cabanis,  and  in  1832 
he  was  also  named  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral 
Sciences  on  its  reorganization.  He  appeared,  however, 
only  once  at  its  conferences.  He  was  old  and  nearly 
blind,  and  filled  with  sadness,  it  is  said,  by  the  loss  of  his 
friends  and  the  discredit  into  which  his  most  fiianly 
23—19 


cherished  opinions  had  fallen.  "  His  only  distraction  was 
to  have  Voltaire  read  aloud  to  him."  He  died  at  Pans 
on  the  9  th  of  March  1836. 

Destutt  de  Tracy  was  the  last  eminent  representative  of  the 
sensualistic  school  which  Condillac  founded  in  rrance  upon  a  one- 
sided interpretation  of  the  doctrines  of  Locke.  He  pushed  the 
sensualistic  principles  of  Condillac  to  their  last  conser|uence3,  being 
in  full  agreement  with  the  materialistic  views  of  lus  friend  C-.banis, 
though  the  attention  of  the  latter  was  devoted  more  to  ihe  physio- 
logical, that  of  Tracy  to  the  psychological  or  "  ideological  "  side  of 
man.  His  ideology,  he  fraukly  staled,  formed  "a  ('art  of  zoology," 
or,  as  we  should  say,  of  biology.  To  think  is  to  feel  The  four 
faculties  into  which  he  divides  the  conscious  life — perception, 
memory,  judgment,  will — are  all  vaiieties  of  sensation  Perception 
is  sensation  caused  by  a  present  affection  of  the  e.^tei  nal  extremities 
of  the  nerves;  memory  is  sensation  caused,  in  the  absence  of  pre- 
sent excitation,  by  dispositious  of  the  nerves  which  aie  the  result  of 
past  experiences:  judgment  is  the  perception  of  relations  between 
sensations,  and  is  itself  a  species  of  sensation,  because  if  we  are 
aware  of  the  sensations  we  must  also  be  aware  of  llio  relations 
betweeii  them;  will  he  identities  with  the  feeling  of  desire,  and 
therefore  includes  it  as  a  variety  of  sensation,  it  is  easy  to  sea 
that  such  conclusions  ignore  important  distinctions,  and  are,  indeed, 
to  a  large  extent  an  abuse  of  language.  As  a  psychologist  Destutt 
de  Tracy  deserves  credit  for  his  distinction  between  active  aod 
passive  touch,  which  has  developed  into  the  modern  theory  of  the 
muscular  sense.  His  account  ot  the  notion  of  external  existence, 
asdenved,  not  from  puro  sensation,  but  from  the  experience  of  action 
on  the  one  hand  and  resistance  on  the  other,  may  he  comparec 
with  the  account  of  Bain  and  later  psychologists.  Tracy  worked 
up  his  separate  monographs  extending  over  a  number  of  years  into 
\.\>f:  ilenients cT Idiologje\\i,\l -\S  and  182-1-5);  which  presents  his 
complete  doctrine.  He  also  wTote  In  1806  a  Convncntaire  sur 
I'Esprit  des  Lois  de  Miyntesquieu,  in  which  be  argues  ably  iu  sup- 
port of  a  free  constitution  on  gioiinds  which  hardly  admit  of  hcin^ 
harmonized  with  his  general  philosophical  principles.  The  book 
was  translated  in  America  by  his  friend  President  Jefferson,  who 
recommended  it  for  use  in  the  colleges.  The  first  French  edition 
appeared  in  1817,  and  it  \vas  several  times  reprinted. 

TRADE,  BoAW)  of.  The  greater  part  of  such  super- 
vision of  commerce  and  industry  as  exists  in  the  United 
Kingdom  is  exercised  by  the  "  Committee  of  Privy  Council 
for  Trade  "  (see  Privy  Council),  or,  as  it  is  usually  called, 
the  Board  of  Trade.  As  early  as  the  14  th  century  councife 
and  commissions  had  been  formed  from  time  to  time  to 
advise  parliament  in  matters  of  trade,  but  it  was  not  till  th* 
middle  of  the  17th  century,  under  the  Commonwealth,  that 
any  department  of  a  permanent  character  was  attempted. 
Cromwell^s  policy  in  this  respect  was  continued  uader  the 
Restoration,  and  in  1660  a  committee  of  the  privy  council 
was  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  information  a» 
to  the  imports  and  exports  of  the  country,  and  improving 
trade.  A  few  years  later  another  committee  of  the  council 
was  appointed  to  act  as  intermediaries  between  the  crowa 
and  the  colonies,  or  foreign  plantations,  as  they  were  then 
called.  This  joint  commission  of  trade  and  plantations  was 
abolished  in  1675,  and  it  was  not  until  twenty  years  later 
that  the  Board  of  Trade  was  revived  under  William  HI, 
Among  the  chief  objects  set  before  this  hoai<d  were  thft 
inquirj'  into  trade  obstacles  and  the  employment  of  the 
poor  ;  the  state  of  the  silver  currency  was  also  a  subject 
on  which  John  Locke,  its  secretary,  lost  no  time  in  m^.king 
representations  to  the  Government.  Locke's  retirement 
in  1700  removed  any  chance  of  the  Board  of  Trr  le  advo- 
cating more  enlightened  opinions  on  commerciri  subjects 
than  those  generally  held  at  that  time.  It  had  only  a| 
small  share  in  making  the  constitutions  of  the  colonies,  as 
all  the  American  ones  except  Georgia  and  Nova  Scotia 
were  formed  before  the  reign  of  Charles  II,;  and  in  1760- 
a  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  was  appointed,  to  whom 
the  control  drifted  away.  In  1780  Burke  made  his  cele- 
brated attack  on  the  public  offices,  which  resulted  in  the 
abolition  of  the  board.  In  1786,  however,  another  per- 
manent committee  of  the  privy  council  was  formed  by 
order  in  council,  and  with  one  or  two  sm.iil  e.xceptions  tha 
legal  constitution  of  the  Board  of  Trade  is  still  regulated 
by  tbat'Order^    Under  it  all  the  principal  officers  of  st^te, 

XXIII.        (•■ 


.198- 


T  K  A  — T  R  A 


t 


fncluding  the  first  lorda  of  the  treasury  and  admiralty, 
the  secretaries  of  state,  aud  certain  members  of  the  privy 
council,  among  whom  was  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
obtained  seats  at  the  board  fx  officio ;  and  ten  unofficial 
members,  including  several  eminent  statesmen,  were  also 
placed  on  the  committee.  The  duties  of  the  revived  board 
were  made  the  same  as  they  were  in- the  beginning  of  the 
century,_but,  in  addition,  the  regulation  of  the  food  supply 
f  the  country,  by  restricting  or  relaxing  the  export  and 
mpoTt  of  corn,  was  brought  into  prominence  owing  to  a 
larger  population  requiring  to  be  fed.  New  duties  were 
thrown  on  the  board  by  the  gro\nh  of  joint-stock  com- 
panies, the  development  of  railways,  aud  the  increase  in 
ehipping,  and  it  was  necessary  to  break  it  up  into  depart- 
■Pients  charged  with  the  administratiun  of  the  various  Acts 
'of  Parliament.  The  I5oard  of  Trade  thus  became  a  mere 
inamo,  the  president  being  practically  the  secretary  of  state 
'for  trade,  and  the  vice-president  became,  in  1S07,  a  parlia- 
imentary  secretary,  with  similar  duties  to  those  of  a  par- 
liamentary uudcr-secretary  of  state. ..  At  present,  besides 
■the  president,  who  has  usually  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  the 
parliamentary  secretary,  aiid  a  permanent  secretary,  there 
ore  six  assistant  secretaries,  each  in  charge  ofa  department. 

t '  1.  T/ic  Commercial  l)'i,artmcid  13  the  real  remains  of  tlie  01  igiuiij 
Bo.inl  of  TraJe,  as  il  lOUiljiucs  ibe  iliarge  of  tlic  IraJo  statislifs 
fivitli  tlif  geueral  coDsultatn-e  Julies  wilh  which  King  Charles  II. 's 
iboarj  Has  uiyinally  entrusted.  Tho  statistical."woik  includes 
ilcompiliiig  the  abstracts  ulaling  to  the  United  Kingdom,  the  col- 
iinies,  and  Ibreijin  counliies,  tiie  sufjervisiou  of  the  trade  accounts, 
inJ  the  preparation  of  shipping,  railway,  emigration,  and  fishery 
.statisti'-s.  A  record  of  the  prices  of  coj  u  has  been  obtained  from 
Hctual  sales  in  the  chief  uiaiket  towns  for  about  a  hundred  years, 
the  original  object  being  the  sliding  scale  of  corn  duties,  but  these 
.are  now  continued  to  govern  the  titbe  payments,  and  form  an  iin- 
^broken  series  of  prices  based  on  actual  transactions,  and  not  merS 
market  .(notations.  ioieign  aud  colonial  customs  tarifTs  and 
regulations  are  also  niat'^ii's  on  which  inrormation  is  published, 
and  laboiu-  statistics  are  for  the  future  to  hare  special  attention. 
In  1S72  one  of  the  most  impoitant  functions  of  the  commercial 
department,  viz  ,  the  negotiation  of  commercial  treaties,  was  trans- 
ferred to  llie  Foreign  Office,  lint  the  Boaid  of  Trade  is  still  con- 
sulted on  these  matli-i-s  by  the  Foreign  Office,  as  well  as  by  the 
Colonia!  Office  on  colonial  connnercial  niattei^,  and  by  tho  other 
public  de|iartmeuts.  The  li.inliruptcy  Act  of  18S3  added  a  new 
branch  of  work,  but  for  this  llicre  is  now  a  se|iarate  establishment 
under  an  in>pector-geiieral.  The  last  new  woik  unJeitaken  by  (he 
department  is  the  publicalion  (begun  Angust  lb86)  of  a  Mo^'tkhj 
Journal  ol  couituercial  infoniutlon,  cliielly  from  official  sources. 

2.  Th',  FMdim'i  D'-iiortnu,i(  w.is  originally  constiluletl  in  184fl, 
and  nei1<inns  inuHil'arious  duties  iiinier  vtinous  Railnay  Acts, 
Inclodiiig  tho  iusii^ctiou  of  ijilna^--  Ixl'oro  they  are  o]K>n.  inquiries 
-bito  accident-i.  reporU  on  pr..po.ied  railways.  ap['i-oval  of  bye-laws, 
appointmeiit  of  arbitiatoi^  in  disputes,  as  well  as  many  iluties  inidor 
private  liadway  Ads.  The  iu>|^clion  of  tianiways,  iheir  byelaws 
>nd  ■•proi'isioual  orders,"  are  all  iKalt  with  here,  as  are  similar 
onlers  relating  to  ga*  and  water  af  hemes  and  to  electric  lifting. 
Patents,  designs,  and  tude  niaiks'aie  now  dealt  with  by  the  Patent 
Office,  whiih  IS  sulnit.liiijt..-  lo  ihe  laihv.iy  deiiartmcnt,  aud  copy- 
right, art  unions,  and  ludusliial  t.xhibilious  aro  aU,o  among  the 
pialters  deah  witn  by  the  depultmelit. 

3.  The  ilnniv  V'pirhnjiU  11  a,  cre.ated  a  separate  branch  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  in  liiiflr  about  which  lime  many  new  and  import- 
But  ntai-ino  (^utvstions  came  under  Ihe  lioard  of  Trade,  such,  for 
exampl",  a»  tho  suivey  of  pa-senger  sicamers,  the  compulsory 
e.taniin ition  of  misteis  and  ui.iirs,  the  estahlishraent  of  shipping 
offices  tor  the  1  Tigagerncni  and  disi  Inige  of  seamen.  Further  work 
fell  to  the  ni.iiine  depirtnoiil  by  the  Act  of  1».'>3,  which  gave  it 
the  Control  ol  lighthouse  funds,  and  lo  a  certain  extent  of  pilotage. 
Tho  cousoli.kiiug  Jdcrcli.int  Shipping  Act  of  1854  aud  subsequent 
legi.sl.iti'.-n  <io  iniich  incrciscd  (he  defiartment  that  in  1866  it  was 
diviijcd  into  three,  viz.,  the  presint  marine  department,  which 
deals  with  ships  and  seauieu,  the  harbour  department,  and  tho 
finance  di-fiaitnient, 

i.  Tlie  llnrlhiur  D'])arUiiitU  jv(*,  as  stated  above,  a  branch  of 
tho  maiiiio  dep.ictnKMit  until  ISG6,  so  far  as  it  is  connected  with 
the  physical  adjuncts  of  navigution,  but  various  other  matters  have 
sincii  Ijeeu  ailded,  c.7.,  the  charge  of  the  foreshore  belonging  to 
the  crown,  foinuTly  managed  by  the  commissioners  of  woods  and 
forests,  and  tho  protection  of  navigable  harbours  and  channels, 
long  under  the  control  of  the  Admiralty.  Lighthoose  funds,  pro- 
vi:,ioDai  orders  for  oyster  and  mussel  flsheriea,  the  management  of 


Holyhead  and  Ramsgate  harbours  and  of  Dover  pier,  wreck,  afidf 
quarantine  are  all  among  the  matters  dealt  with  by  this  depart^ 
ment,  which  also  has  cnargo  of  the  standards  department  for 
weights  and  measures.'  '. 

6.  Tlie  Finance  DepaSrhne'il  was,  like  the  harbour  department 
separated  in  1866  from  the  marine  department..  The  accounts  ol 
all  the  branches  of  the  feoard  of  Trade  are  in  its  charge,  including 
the  subordinate  offices.  It  also  deals  with  the  accounts  of  harbours,- 
lighthouses,  and  mercantile  marine  offices,  and  of  the  merchant 
seamen's  fund,  and  with  the  consuls'  accounts  for  disabled  seamen' 
abroad-  Savings  banks  and  seamen's  money  ordeis  are  also  among 
the  accounts  and  paymeutswith  which  it  is  chargedj  and  outside 
these  marine  matters  it  has  to  prepare  for  fiarliament  the  life  in- 
surance companies'  accounts  and  to  take  charge  of  the  bankruptcy 
estate  accounLs. 

6.  TTw  Fisheries  Department. — By  a  recent  Act  the  powers  of  the 
Home  Office  over  salmon  aud  other  fisheries  have  been  transferred  to' 
the  Board  of  Trade,  and  a  small  defiartment  has  consequently  been 
created  charged  with  the  care  of  those  industries.  ' 

TRADE-MARKS.     There  seems   no   reason  to  doubt 
that  the  practice  of  employing  a  mark  to  denote  the  goods 
of  a  particular  trader  (not  necessarily  the  manufacturer) 
grew  out  of  the  use  of  signs,  which,'  first  affixed  to  the 
dealer's  shop,  were  afterwards  represented  on  his  tokens, 
and  eventually  placed  on  the  goods  themselves.     Trade- 
marks proper  appear  to  have  been  in  use  in  England  in 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth.      The  first  reported  case  was  in 
1783,  when  Lord  Mansfield  decided  that  the  sale  by  the! 
defendants  of  a  certain  medicine  under  the  name  or  marki 
of  the  plaintiff  was  a  fraud.     By  other  decisions  it  was' 
affirmed  that  the  use  of  another's  trade-mark  was  action-! 
able,  even  witho^^t  the  .J  intent  to  defraud.     The  law,  how-J 
ever,  remained  in  Sci  unsatisfactory  condition  tiU,  by  the 
Merchandise  Marks  Act  in  1862,  it  was  made  a  misdemean-j 
our  to  forge  or  counterfeit  a  tradp-mark,  while  penalties  wer^ 
inflicted  for  the  sale  of  articles  bearing  a  forged  mark. 
1.     In  1875  the  Trade  Marks  Registration  Act  established, 
for  the  first  time  a  registry  of  trade-marks  in  Britain,! 
greatly   facilitating   the   proof  of  title.      A  more  precise' 
definition  of  a  trade-mark  was  also  provided.     In  1883  this 
Act  was  repealed  by  the  Patents,  Designs,  and  Trade  Marks 
Act,  in  which  its  principSl  provisions  were  incorporated, 
.■Ml  proceedings  for  the  registration  of  trade-marks  are  nowi 
regulated  by  the  Patents  Act.     A  trade-mark  may  be  a 
name  printed  or  otherwise  delineated  in  some  particular  or 
distinctive  manner,  or  a  signature,  or  a  device,  mark,  brand,' 
(S.C.     Registration  is  couiimlsory,  at  least  in  the  sense  thatj 
the  owner  cannot  prevent  infringement  or  sue  for  damages] 
for  infrhigement  unless  be  has  registered,  though  it  would 
appear  that  this  disability  exists  only  in  the  case  of  a^ 
mark  capable  of  being  registered  under  the  Act.     There 
are  certain  indicia  which  cannot  be  registered  because  they, 
do  not  fall  within  the  definition  of  a  trade-mark,  but  which 
may  yet  be  protected  at  equity.^   Registration  is  deemed 
equivalent  to  public  use  of  the  mark,  and,  after  the  expira- 
tion of  five  years,  is  conclusive  evidence  of  right  to  exclusive 
use.     Applications, for  regis^iation  have  to  be  addressed; 
to  the  comptroller  of  patents  ;  should  he  refuse  to  register,', 
there  is  an  appeal  to  the  Board  of  Trade.     If  there  is, 
opposition,  the  matter  goes  to  the  High  Court  of  Justice.' 
Registration  holds  good  for  fourteen  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  it  has  to  be  renewed.      Special  provision  is 
made  in  the  Act  for  the  retention  of  certain  of  the  ancient 
privileges  of  the  Cutlers  Company  of  Sheffield.     The  total 
number  of  marks  now  upon  the  register  is  fiearly  50,000,  j 

Tho  Customs  Consclidation  Act,  1876.  forbids  the  importation 
of  articles  of  foreign  manufacture  bearing  any  mark  purporting  ta 
be  the  mark  of*  manufacturers  resident  in  the  United  Kingdom,  or 
stating  or  implying  that  such  articles  were  manufactured  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  Merchandise  Marks  Act,  1 887,  consolidated 
and  amended  the  law  of  offences  relating  to  tmde-roarks  and  trada 
descriptions.  It  repealed  the  Act  of  1862  and  replaced  it  by  fullef; 
provisions.  It  is  now  an  offence  to  forge  a  trade-mark,  to  faUely 
apply  to  goods  any  trade-mark  or  any  mark  so  nearly  reeemblina 
a  tiade-mark  its  to  deceive,  to  make  any  die,  kc,  for  the  purpose  w 


T  R  A  — T  R  A 


499 


forgingor  lor  oeing  usea  lor  lorginj;  d  trade-mark,  to  apply  any 
f.ilse  trado  dcsciiption  to  goods,  to  dispose  of  or  have  in  po»sessiou 
toy  die,  tc,  for  the  purpose  of  forgiiig  a  tr.ide-raark,  or  to  cause 
1'  >•  of  tlie  above-mentioiiid  things  to  be  done.  There  are  special 
•s^'tuns  in  the  Act  dealing  with  its  application  to  watche.3  and 
«-atch-cases.  ^V^lere  a  watch-case  is  of  I'oreiga  manulacture  it 
must,  if  stamped  at  an  assay  oflSoe  in  the  United  Kinjjdom,  bear  a 
mark  ditferins;  from  the  mark  placed  upon  watches  manufactured 
in  tlio  United 'Kingdom  A  warranty  is  implied  in  the  sale  of  goods 
bearing  a  trade-mark  or  trade  description.     See  WiKr.vSTT. 

In  most  foreign  countries  provisions  have  long  csL-ted  for  the 
registration  of  trade-marks  ;  and, they  also  form  one  of  the  classes 
of"" industrial  property"  for  the  protection  of  which  an  inter 
national  convention  w:i3  formed  in  1SS3  This  convention  now 
includes  sLfteen  states,— the  more  imporUnt  being  Belgium. 
France,  Great  Briuin,  luly,  Netherlands,  Norway,  Portu;j.il, 
Spain,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  and  tlie  United  States.  The  subjects 
of  all  the  contracting  states  enjoy  in  each  state  the  same  rights 
and  privileges  as  that  state  grants  to  its  own  subjects  for  the  pro- 
tection of  trade-marks.  Registration  also  in  one  of  the  states  con- 
fers certain  rights  of  priority  in  the  others 

Cniicd  Stales. — Tlie  legislation  of  the  different  States  and 
iTerritorio^  varies  considerably,  some  proWding  for  the  registration 
of  trade-marks  either  ivith  or  without  protection  for  unregistered 
trade-marks,  while  othere  provide  only  for  protection  without 
registration.  On  March  3,  ISSl,  Congress  passed  an  Act  "tn 
aothorue  the  registration  of  trade-marks  and  to  protfct  the  same," 
wliich  provides  that  owners  of  traile-marks  used  in  commerce  with 
foreign  nations  or  with  the  Indian  tribes,  provided  such  owners  be 
domiciled  in  the  United  States  or  located  in  any  foreign  country 
or  tnbe  which  affords  similar  privileges  to  citizens  of  the  Unit«d 
States,  may  obtain  registration  of  trade-marks  under  the  Act. 
Kegistraliou  is  not  compulsory  ;  failure  to  register  a  trade-mark, 
or  to  renew  registration,  doe-s  not  deprive  the  owner  of  any  remedy 
he  might  have  at  law  or  in  equity  ;  and  the  courts  will,  generally 
speaking,  protect  the  unregistered  equally  with  the  registered. 
'  For  fu:ii>r  Informalioa  pce  L.  B.  Sebaatjaia's  Zviy-  *>/  Tradt  Marti,  or  R.  W. 
iW.(l!3CC  s  edirioa  of  the  Patents,  Designs,  aiij  Trade  Marks  Art  ;  and  m  America 
Rowl.in'!  C^ss  AmfrUan  Trad^-it'irk  Cai'i-  Cox  s  yavrml  of  Trade-Mark  Cases, 
^d  Wijj.^ra  Henry  Bro^ti's  Trcatist  on  tfu  Law  c/  Tradi  Marks. 

TRADE  UNIONS  are  combinations  for  regulating  the 
relations  between  workmen  and  masters,  workmen  and 
workmen,  or  mastersand  masters,  or  for  imposing  restric- 
tive conditions  on  the  conduct  of  any  indastry  or  husinesi. 
By  the  commonJaw  all  such  combinations  were,  with  cer- 
tain rare  and  utiimportant  esceptions,  regarded  as  illegal. 
They  were  considered  to  be  contrary  to  public  policy,  and 
were  treated  as  conspiracies  in  restraint  of  trade.  Those 
who  were  engaged  or  concerned  in  them  were  Liable  to  be 
criminally  prosecuted  by  indictment  or  information,  and  to 
be  punished  on  con%ncrion  by  fine  and  imprLsonraeut.  The 
offence  was  precisely -the -same  whether  it  was  committed 
by  masters  or  by  workmen.  But,  although  the  provisions 
of  the  common  law  applied  muiaJv;  muJarulU  to  both  of 
them  alike,  it  was,  practically  speaking,  in  reference  rather 
to  the  latter  than  to  the  former  that  their  effects  were 
developed  and  ascertained.  While  it  was  held  to  be 
perfectly  lawful  for  workmen,  as  individuals,  to  con.sent  or 
to  refuse  to  labour  for  any  remtmeration  or  for  any  time 
they  pleased,  when  two  or  more  of  them  ioined  together, 
and  agreed  to  labour  oaly  on  certain  stipulated  terms  with 
respect  either  to  the  payia'ent  or  the  duration  of  their 
labour,  they  were  guilty  tpso /n/io  of  a  misdemeanour.  It 
was  immaterial  ^phether  the  end  they  had  in  view  was  to 
determine  wages  or  to  limit  work ;  or  whether  the  means 
they  adopted  for  promoting  its  attainment  was  a  simul- 
taneous \vithdrawal  from  employment,  an  endeavour  to 
■prevent  other  workmen  from  resuming  or  taking  employ; 
iiient,  or  an  attempt  to  control  the  masters  in  the  manag* 
ment  of  their  trade,  the  engagement  of  journeymen  or 
apprentices,  or  the  use  of  machineiy  or  industrial  proce.sses  ; 
or  whether  in  seeking  to  enforce  cheir  demands  they  relied 
merely  on  advice  and  solicitation,  or  resorted  to  reproach 
and  menace,  or  proceeded  to  actual  violence.  In  any  event 
their  combination  in  itself  constituted  a  criminal  conspiracy, 
^nd  rendered  them  amenable  td  prosecution  and  punishT 
nient.  From  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  to  the  reign  of  George 
iV,  the  operation  of  the  common  law  was  enforced  and 


enlarged  by  between  thirty  and  torty  Acts  of  Parliament, 
all   ol  which  were  more  or  less  distinctly  and  explicitly 
designed  to  prohibit  and  prevent  what  we  have  learned  ta 
describe  and  recognize  as  the  "  organization  of  labour  " 
But  the  rise  of  the  manufacturing  sy:,lem  towards  iho.  end 
of  the  last  century,  and  the  revolution  which  accompanied 
it  in  the    industrial  arrangements   of  the  country,   were 
attended  by  a  vast  and  unexpected  extension  of  the  move- 
ment which  the  legislature  had  for  so  long  and  with  so 
much  assiduity  essayed  to  suppress.     Among  the  muli.r- 
tudes   of  workmen  who   tlien   began   to  be  employed   in 
single  factories  or  in  neighbouring  factories  in  the  samp 
towns,  trade  unions  in  the  form  of  secret  societies  speedi!f 
became   numerous   and   active,    and    to  meet    the   ncvei 
requirements  of  the  situation  a  more  summary  method  of 
procedure  than  that  which  had  hitherto  been  available  was 
provided  by  the  40lh  Geo.  III.  cap.  lOG.     By  this  statute; 
passed  in  1800,  it  was  enacted  that  all  persons  combining 
with  others  to  advance  their  wages  or  decref.^e  the  quantity 
of  their  work,  or  in  any  way  to  affect  or  conttol  those  who 
carried  on  any  manufacture  or  trade  in  the  conduct  and 
management  thereof,  might  be  convicted  before  one  justice 
of  the  peace,  and  might  be  committed  to. the  common  jail 
for  any  time  not  exceeding  three  ca'endar  months,  or  be 
kept  to  hard  labour  in  the  house  of  correction  lor  a  term 
of  two  calendar  months      The  discontent  and  disorder  of 
which,  in  conjunction  with  a  state  of  commercial  depres- 
sion and  national  distress,  the  introduction  of  steam  and 
improved  appliances  generally  into  British  manufactures 
was  productive  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  current  century 
led  to  the  nomination  of  a  select  comiuittee  by  the  House  of 
Commons,  t*  inquire  into  the  whole  question  of  what  were 
popularly  and  comprehensively  designated  the  "combina^ 
tion  laws,"  in  the  session  of  1824      After  taking,  evidence; 
the  committee  reported  to  the  House  that  "  those  laws  had 
not  only  not  been  efficient  to  prevent  combinations  either 
of  masters  or  workmen,  but  on  the  contrary  had,  in  the 
opinion  ofmany  of  both  parties,  had  a  tendency  to  produce 
mutual    irritation   and    distrust,    and    to   give   a   violent 
character  to  the  combinations,  and  to  render  them  highly 
dangerous  to  the  peace  of  the  community."     They  further 
reported  that  in  their  judgment  "  masters  and  workmen 
should  be  freed  from  such  restrictions  as  regards  the  rate 
of  wages  and  the  hours  of  working,  and  be  loft  at  perfect 
liberty  to  make  such  agreements  as  they  mutually  think 
proper."     They  therefore  recommended  that  "  the  statute 
laws  which  interfered  in  these  particulars  between  masters 
and  workmen  sbould  be  repealed,"   and  also  that  "the 
common  law  under  which  a  peaceable  meeting  of  masters 
or  workmen  might  b6' prosecuted  should  be  altered."     In 
pursuance  of  their  report,  the  4th  Geo.  IT.  cap.  95  was  at 
once  drafted,  brought  in,  and  passed.     But  the  immediate 
results  of  the  change  which  it  effected  were  regarded  as  so 
inconvenient,  formidable,  and  alarming  that  in  the  session 
of  1825  the  House  of  Commons  appointed  another  select 
committee  to  re-examine  the  various  problems,  and  renew 
and  reconsider  the  evidence  which  had  been  submitted  to 
their  predece.^ors  in  the  previous  year.      They  reported 
without  delay  in  favour  of  the  total  repeal  of   the  4th 
Geo.  IV.  cap.  95,  and  the  restoration  of  those  prorisions 
of  the  combination  laws,  whether  statutory  or  customary, 
which  it  had  been  more  particularly  intended  to  abrogate. 
The  consequence  was  the  enactment  of  the  6th  Geo.  TV. 
cap.    129,  of  whioh  the  preamble  declares  that  the  4th 
Geo.  IV.  cap.  95  had  not  been  found  effectual,  and  that 
combinations  such  as  it  had  legaLi7.ed  were  '■'  injurious  to 
trade  and  commerce,  dangerous  to  the  tranqvuUity  of  the 
country,  and  especially  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  all 
who  were  concerned  in  them."  .  The  effect  of  the  6th  Geo. 
IV.  cap.  129  was  to  leave  the_  common  law  of  conspiracy 


•500 


T  K  A  B  E      UNIONS^ 


■'in  full  force  against'all  combinations  in  restraint  of  trade, 
except  such  as  it  expressly  exempted  from  its  operation  as 
it  had  been   before   the  4th  Geo.  IV.  cap.  95  was  passed. 
'It   comprised,   however,  within    itself    the  whole   of   the 
statute  law  relating  to  the  subject,  and  under  it  no  persons 
were  liable  to  punishment  for  meeting  together  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  consulting  upon  and  determining  the  rate  of 
wages  or  prices  which  they,  being  present,  would  require 
for  their  work  or  pay  to  their  workmen,  or  the  hours  for 
which    they  would  work  or  require  work    in   any  trade 
or  business,  or  for  entering  into  any  agreement,  verbal 
or  written,  for  the  purpose  ot   fixing  the  rate  of  wages  or 
'prices  which  the  parties  to  it  should  so  receive  or  pay. 
'But  all  persons  were  subjected  to  a  maximum  punishment 
jof  three  months'    imprisonment  with   hard   labour   who 
should  by  violence,  threats  or  intimidation,  molestation, 
!or  obstruction  do,  or  endeavour  to  do,  or  aid,  abet,  or 
assist  in  doing  or  endeavouring  to  do,  any  of  a  series  of 
things  inconsistent  with  freedom  of  contract  which  the  Act 
enumerated  and  defined.     Afterwards,  in  order  to  remove 
certain  doubts  which  had  arisen  as  to  the  true  import  and 
meaning  of  the  words  "  molestation  "  and  "  obstruction," 
it  was  provided  by  the  22d  Vict.  cap.  34  that  "  no  person, 
by  reason  merely  of  his  endeavouring  peaceably  and  in  a 
reasonable  manner,   and  without  threat   or   intimidation 
direct  or  indirect,  to  persuade  others  to  cease  or  abstain 
from  work,  in  order  to  obtain  the  rate  of  wages  or  the 
altered   hours  of   labour  agreed  to  by  him  and  others, 
should  be  deemed  to  have  been  guilty  of  '  molestation  '  or 
k' obstruction.'"     In  spite  of  the  partial  recognition  which 
trade  unions  had  thus  received,  they  continued  to  be  un- 
lawful, although  not  necessarily  criminal,  associations.     In 
certain  cases,  they  were  by  statute  exempted  from  penal 
consequences,   and   their   members   were    empowered   to 
combine  for  specified  purposes,  and  to   collect    funds  by 
voluntary  contributions  for  carrying  them  into  effect.     But 
in  the  estimation  of  the  common  law  the  special  privileges 
which  had  been  accorded  to  them  under  particular  circum- 
stances did  not  confer  any  general  character  of  legality 
upon   them,  and  where  their   rules  were  held  to  be  in 
restraint  of  trade,  as  in  the  prohibition  of  piece-work  or 
the  limitation  of  the  number  of  apprentices,  they  were  still 
regarded   as   conspiracies.  "  Hence  they  were   practically 
excluded  from  the  advantages  in  regard  to  the  security  of 
their  property  and  the  settlement  of  their  disputes  which, 
under  the  Friendly  Societies  Act,  18th  and  19th  Vict.  cap. 
63,  had  been  granted  to  all  associations  established  for  any 
purposes  which  were  not  illegal..    In  this  condition  the  law 
was  when  what  became  notorious  as  the  "  Sheffield  and 
Manchester  outrages  "  suggested  the  appointment  of  the 
royal  commission  on  trade  unions,  which  investigated  the 
subject  from   18li"  to  18G9.,    The  outcome  was,  first,  a 
temporary  measure  for  the  more  effectual  protection  of  the 
funds  of  trade  unions,  passed  in   1869,  and,  secondly,  the 
|two  measures  which,  as  amended  and  amending,  are  cited 
together  as  the  "Trade  Union  Acta  1871  and  1876" — 
the  34th  and  3iith  Vict,  cap., 22  and  the  39lh  and. 40th 
Vict  cap.  31        _^,_ 

I  By  thi-ie  stDtutcs,  construed  nith  tne  Conspiracv  an"  Protection 
■'of  Property  Ait,  1875,  the  38  and  39  Vict.  cap.  86,  the  law  relat- 
ing to  c'0inliiiiati'>ri3,  whether  of  worknjen  or  of  masters,  assumed 
the  shape  in  uhieh  it  exists  at  the  present  time.  In  connexion 
with  trade  disputes  no  person  can  now  be  proseruted  for  eonsjiiracy 
to  commit  an  act  which  would  not  he  criminal  if  committed  by 
him  sin^ily,  and  consequently  employers  and  employed  alike  may 
,lnwfiiUy  do  in  combination  all  that  they  would  be  entitled  to  do  as 
-  individuals.  The  purposes  of  a  trade  union  are  not  to  be  deemed 
illepal  merely  because  they  are  in  restraint  of  trailu,  and  the  cir- 
cumstance that  they  are  in  restraint  of  trade  is  not  to  render  any 
member  of  it  liable  to  prosecution,  nor  is  it  to  avoid  or  make  void- 
able any  ar;reemcnt  or  trust  relating  to  it.  No  court,  however, 
can  entertain  lc;:al  proceedings  with  the  object  of  directly  enforcing 
jpr  recovering  damages  for.thebreach_of_an  agreement  bebvcen  the 


members  of  s  trade  nnion  as  snch,  coaceming  the  conditioDa  en 
which  the  members  for  the  time  being  shall  or  shall  not  sell  thei^ 
goods,  transact  their  business,  employ  or  be  employed,  or  the  payv' 
ment  by  any  person  of  any  euhscription  or  penalty  to  a  trade  union,! 
or  for  the  application  of  the  funds  of  a  trade  union  to  provid^l 
benefits  or  to  furnish  contributions  to  any  employer  or  workman^ 
not  a  member  of  such  trade  union  in  consideration  of  such  employer 
or  workman  acting  in  conformity  with  the  rules  or  resolutions  of 
such  trade  union,  or  to  discharge  any  fine  imposed  upon  any  person 
by  any  court  of  justice  or  any  agreement  made  between  one  trado 
union  and  another,  or  any  bond  to  secure  such  agreements.  But 
such  incapacity  to  sue  on  such  agreements  is  not  to  be  taken  a^^ 
constituting  auy  of  them  illegal.  Every  person,  however,  com-j 
mits  a  misdemeanour,  and  on  conviction  is  liable  to  a  maximum 
fine  of  £2U,  or  to  a  maximum  imprisonment  of  three  months  with 
hard  labour,  who  wilfully  and  maliciously  breaks  a  contract  of 
service  or  hiring,  knowing,  or  having  reasonable  cause  to  believe,' 
that  the  probable  conse()uence  of  his  so  doing,  either  alone  or  in' 
combination  with  others,  will  be  to  endanger  human  life  or  causa 
serious  bodily  injury,  or  to  expose  valuable  property,  wTietlier  reai 
or  personal,  to  destruction  or  serious  injury  ;  or  who,  being  cm- 
ployed  by  a  municipal  authority  or  by  any  company  or  contractor 
on  whom  is  imposed  by  Act  of  Parliament,  or  who  'have  otherwise 
assumed,  the  duty  of  .-upplyingany  place  with  gas  or  water,  wilfully, 
and  maliciously  breaks  a  coutract.of  service  or  hiring,  knowing,  or 
having  reasonable  cause  to  believe,  that  the  probable  consequencd 
of  his  so  doing,  alone  or  in  combination  with  others,  will  be  to 
deprive  the  inhabitants  of  that  jilace,  wholly  or  in- part,  of  their 
supply  of  gas  or  water  ;  or  who,  with  a  view  to  compel  any  other 
person  to  do  or  to  abstain  from  doing  any  act  which  Buch  other 
person  has  a  right  to  abstain  frpm  doing  or  to  do,  wrongfully 
and  without  legal  authority  uses  violence  to  or  intimidates 
such  other  person  or  his  wife  or  children,  or  injures  his  property; 
or  who  persistently  follows  such  person  about  from  place  to  place  ; 
or  who  hides  any  tools,  clothes,  or  other  property  owned  or  used 
by  such  other  jierson,  or  deprives  fiim  of  or  hinders  him  in  the  nst* 
thereof;  or  who  watclies  or  besets  the  house  or  other  place  where 
such  person  resides  or  works  or  carries  on  business  or  happens  to 
be,  or  the  approach  to  such  house  or  place  ;  or  who  follows  such 
other  person  with  two  or  more  other  persons  in  a  disorderly  manner 
in  or  through  any  street  or  road.  But  attending  at  or  near  the 
house  or  place  where  a  person  resides  or  works  or  c-arries  on  busi- 
ness in  ordei  merely  to  obtain  or  communicate  infomiation  is  not 
watching  or  besetting  within  the  statute.  In  regard  to  registration, 
trade  unions  are  placed  on  a  similar  footing  wilh  friendly  and 
provident  and  industrial  societies,  and  they  enjoy  all  the  privileges,' 
advantages,  and  facilities  which  those  associations  possess  and 
command.  On  their  side,  however,  they  have  to  comply  with  the 
same  conditions,  are  subject  to  the  same  liabilities,  and  are  com-; 
pelled  to  make  the  same  periodical  returns. 

Although  there  are  several  large  and  influential  societies  among 
the  employers  of  labour  which  come  within  the  legal  definition  of 
trade  unions,  what  are  commonly  as  well  as  more  accurately  meant 
by  trade  unions  are  societies  exclusively  composed  of  the  employed, 
—the  suppliers-of  labour  whether  skilled  or  unskilled  Of  trade 
unions  in  thissen^e,— those  of  which  the  members  are  all  artisans  or 
labourers, —  the  organization  is  everywhere  pretty  much  the  same, 
although  the  rules  and  regulations  of  various  associations  differ  in 
detail  more  or  less  distinctly  and  Midely  from  one  another.  Theii 
ordinary  constitution  is  that  of  a  socicfy  divided  into  district^,  and 
again  into  smaller  local  bodies.  The  seat  of  the  governing  authority 
— the  general  or  executive  council — is  usually  fixed  at  some  large 
centre  of  industry  or  commerce,  as  London,  Manchester,  or  Bir- 
mingham,  and  it  is  often  changed  ot  stated  interi'als  by  a  vote  of 
the  society  at  large.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  trade  union*,  by  this 
method  of  organization,  to  extend  the  area  of  their  inlluence,  and 
so  to  increa.se  their  power  in  dealing  with  the  masters  or-  in  con- 
trolling their  own  members  in  any  emergency  Ea>Ii  ol  the 
branches  h:i3  a  separate  government  for  .-pecial  purjioses.  But  for 
general  purposes  all  the  branches  are  under  the  eonimand  of  the 
executive  couticil  or  central  committee,  vhicb  is  constituted  of 
members  or  officers  who  are  ele.ted  by  the  whole  society  The 
terms  on  which  members  are  admitted  are  ditlennt  in  different 
!V,3ociations.  But  in  all  of  them  there  are  rerlain  limits  as  to  nge 
and  the  number  of  years  during  which  the  candidate  has  been 
apprenticed  to  or  has  worked  in  the  trade.  'I  he  re'enue  and 
reserve  of  all  the  societies  are  derived  from  admi-ition  fees  and 
weekly  or  monthly  subscriptions,  together  with  Iho  uiiiount  ol  the 
fines  which  are  imposed  for  neglect  of  duty  and  breaches  ot  the 
rule-i  and  icgulations.  These  sou.-ees  of  income  are  suflicicnt  for 
ordinary  purposes  ,  and  extMordinnry  Charges,  such  as  are  cliUileJ 
by  a  "strike"  or  a  "lo.koul,"  arc  nearly  always,  if  not  invari- 
ably, met  by  means  of  "  levies"  made  on  the  membeni  by  order  ol 
the  executive  council  or  central  committee.  The  following  aecouut 
of  the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineers  may  be  accepted  u 
furnishing  a  typical  examjile  of  the  organiMtwn  and  management 
_of  a  laige  and  Ilourishing  feadc  unions 


TRADE      UNIONS 


501 


AccordiDg  to  tbe  thirty-third  annoal  Report  of  that  society,  it 
«pp«srs  that  in  18S3  the  onioa  consisted  of  424  branches,  chieSy 
in  towns  in  the  British  IsJea,  but  with  a  fair  sprinkling  in  Canada, 
the  United  States,  Australia,  India,  and  other  parts  of  the  ^lobe. 
The  number  of  membera  was  50,418.  A  branch  must  consist  of 
not  fewer  than  seven  members  or  more  than  three  hundred.  Tlie 
constitution  is  pre-eminently  democratic  Each  branch  ia  itself  a 
completely  organized  body.  It  selects  and  elects  its  own  officers  ; 
it  collects,  holds,  and  spends  its  own  funds  ;  and  it  manages  the 
whole  of  the  business  which  aSects  itself  alone.  The  officers  of  the 
branch  are  elected  at  general  meetings  at  which  every  member 
most  be  present  under  the  penalty  of  a  fine.  Members  who  refuse 
to  be  nominated  for  office,  or  who  refuse  to  serve  if  elected,  are  also 
subject  to  fines,  and  officers  who  neglect  their  business  either  by 
coming  late  to  meetings  or  absenting  themselves  altogether  are 
similarly  punished.  A  meeting  of  the  members  of  each  branch  is 
held  every  fortnight  for  the  transaction  of  ordinary  business,  such 
«s  receiving  subscriptions  and  deciding  upon  propositions  for  new 
members.  These  meetings  begin  at  naif-past  7  in  the  evening, 
«nd  close  at  half-past  9  or  10  o'clock,  but  the  hours  are  altered 
when  it  is  convenient  to  alter  them.  The  duties  of  the  secretary 
are  onerous,  and  his  responsibility  is  great  No  one  therefore  is 
eligible  who  has  not  been  in  the  society  two  years  successively,  and 
**  DO  member  shall  be  elected  as  secretary  who  keeps  a  public  or 
beer  house."  He  has  charge  of  the  accounts  of  bis  branch,  and  con- 
ducts its  correspondence.  He  has  to  see  to  the  payment  of  members 
who  are  entitled  to  travelling  relief  donation,  sick,  superannuation, 
or  funeral  benefit  He  has  to  summon  meetings,  keep  minntes, 
report  to  the  gener^  secretary  as  to  the  state  of  trade  in  the  dis- 
tnct,  the  number  of  men  out  of  work,  or  on  the  other  hand  ho  has 
to  state  what  men  are  wanted,  and  he  has  also  "to  transact  any 
other  business  that  belongs  to  his  office."  The  president,  vice- 
president,  and  assistant  secretary  of  a  branch  are  elected  quarterly, 
while  the  secretary  and  referee  are  elected  annually.  Members  are 
azempt  if  they  are  fifty  years  of  age,  or  if  they  reside  more  than 
S  miles  from  the  clnh  house  ;  and  they  are  disqualified  if  they  are 
lOa.  in  arroar  with  their  contributions.  There  are  also  book- 
keepers, money  stewards,  doorkeepers,  treasurers,  and  auditors, 
the  natoia  of  whose  work  is  evident  from  their  titles.  There  are 
abo  sick  stewards,  whose  duties  are  to  visit  the  sick  twice  a  week, 
to  report  their  visits  to  the  meetings  of  the  branch,  and  to  carry 
the  invalid  his  sick  benefit.  None  of  the  offices  are  honorary.  In 
branches  nombering  fewer  than  fifty  members  every  officer  is  allowed 
4d.,  and  in  branches  numbering  fifty  and  upwards  6d.,  for  his 
ftttendance  on  branch  meeting  nights.  The  secretary  is  paid 
annually  and  accordiilg  to  the  size  of  the  branch.  The  lowest 
amount  is  £1,  Ss.  for  a  branch  of  ten  members,  the  highest  £10, 
4a  for  a  branch  of  three  hundred.  The  auditors  are  paid  at  a 
lower  rate,  which  varies  from  9d.  to  4s.  8d.,  while  the  treasurer  is 
paid  10  per  cent  on  the  sum  set  apart  for  use.  Each  branch  has 
mlso  a  committee,  which  has  power  to  determine  anything  whereon 
the  society's  rules  are  silent  The  books  of  the  branch  are  open  to 
their  inspection ;  they  can  stunmon  meetings,  and  they  have  vari- 
ous other  duties.  Each  member  of  this  committee  receives  6d.  for 
each  meeting  he  attends,  and  is  fined  6d.  for  each  meeting  from 
which  he  is  absent  In  any  district  in  which  there  are  more 
branches'tiun  one,  a  local  district  committee  must  be  formed,  con- 
sisting of  aeven  members,  each  branch  as  nearly  as  practicable 
selecting  an  equal  number.  Where  there  are  seven  'oranches,  each 
one  sends  a  representative.  The  duties  of  this  committee  are  to 
"  watch  over  the  interests  of  the  trade,  and  transact  such  business 
u  affects  the  district  generally."  It  must  not,  however,  interfere 
with  the  business  of  any  particular  branch  of  the  society.  The 
central  authority  is  vested  in  a  general  or  eie<;utiv6  council,  con. 
listing  of  thirty-seven  members,  of  whom  eleven  represent  metro- 
politan branches,  the  others  being  from  the  provinces,  including 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  As  the  country  councillors  cannot  con- 
veniently attend  frequent  meetings  in  London,  the  ordinary 
management  is  entrusted  to  the  eleven  London  members,  wfco  are 
called  the  local  council,  and  the  council  is  also  further  broken  up 
into  various  committees  for  managing  the  details  of  the  society. 
This  council  hears  appeals  from  branches,  advises,  forbids,  initiates, 
and  terminates  strikes.  The  general  secretary  receives  a  salary  of 
X4  a  week  and  lives  rent  free  He  also  receives  Is.  8d.  each  time 
he  attends  a  uonncil  meeting,  and  is  paid  for  any  special  journeys 
tindertaken  or  extra  work  done.  His  assistants  receive  £2,  10s.  a 
week  each,  and  have  to  give  the  whole  of  their  time  to  the  associa. 
tion.  They  have  to  compile  and  issue  a  monthly  .report  as  well  as 
quarterly  and  yearly  reports.  The  lastnamed  is  quite  a  formid. 
able  volume,  consisting  of  nearly  400  pages  of  large  post  octavo, 
and  those  of  other  societies  are  similar.  The  general  secretary's 
hours  of  business  are  fixed  from  9  a.  m.  to  6  p.m.  He  has  power  to 
authorize  members  who  are  on  donation  to  be  removed  from  one 
branch  to  another  where  there  is  a  probability  of  employment,  and 
he  has  to  keep  a  register  of  all  the  members  of  the  society,  stating 
when  and  where  admitted,  age,  married  or  single,  and  whether  a 
-■Mmber  has  received  any  part  of  the  financial  money.     In  the 


Ainalganiated  Society  of  Engineers  the  contribution  of  each  membei 
is  generally  Is.  a  week,  and  if  a  man  be  in  arrears  he  is  suspended 
from  the  benefits  of  the  society,  unless  indeed  he  is  out  ul  woik  or 
in  distressed  circumstances.  At  the  end  of  1883  the  umon  had  a, 
balance  in  ha«l  of  £178,128,  or  upwards  of  £3,  lUs.  a  man 

In  some  trade  unions — for  example,  those  of  the  coiii;iusiiors— 
there  is  a  special  body  ("  fathers  of  chapels")  whose  business  it  is  to 
see  that  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  societies  they  belong  to  are 
faithfully  observ.d  in  the  establiehnients  where  they  are  en.ployed. 
Inothers  again— for  instance,  in  the  National  AgriciiUural  Labourers 
Union,  as  distinguished  from  the  Federal  Unfon  of  AKruultural 
Labourers — the  system  of  management  is  completely  ceiitrahzed, 
the  secretary  or  the  executive  committee  having  cniirc  control  of 
the  funds  and  business  of  the  whole  association.  In  all  laiye 
towns  there  are  trade  councils  formed  oi  delegates  from  rhe  dulercnt 
trade  unions  within  their  area,  whose  function  it  is  to  discuss  and 
supervise  the  general  interests  of  the  unionists  in  the  several  trades 
of  which  they  are  representative.  Moreover,  an  annual  trade  unions 
congress  is  held  in  some  great  centre  of  industry  and  populaiion 
in  one  of  the  three  kingdoms,  at  «hich  delegates  frum  almost  all 
the  trade  unions  throughout  the  realm  are  present  ond  take  part  in 
debating  questions,  whether  social  or  political,  which  arc  of  special 
interest  to  the  working  classes.  At  these  assemblies,  which  have 
now  been  held  for  twenty  consecutive  years,  a  parliamentary  com- 
mittee, which  remains  in  existence  for  the  ensuing  tuelveaionth, 
is  chosen,  to  whom  the  whole  body  of  trade  unionisTs  looks  for 
counsel  and  assistance  with  respect  to  legislation  intended  or  desiitd 
on  their  behalf.  To  the  action  of  the  trade  unions  congress  and 
their  parliamentary  committee  much  of  the  legislation  nhich  has 
been  recently  effected  on  questions  affecting  the  welfare  of  the 
order  of  the  community  to  which  they  belong  is  to  be  attn 
buted,  —  notably  the  Employers'  Liability  Act  and  the  amended 
Factory  and  Mines  Act^,  (See  Trade  Uniuiis,  kc  ,  by  Wilham 
Trant) 

The  objects  of  trade  anions  are  twofold,— first,  those  of  a  friendly 
or  benefit  society,  and,  secondly,  those  of  a  trade  society  or  guild 
In  the  former  capacity  they  afford  relief  to  their  members  whec 
they  are  out  of  work  from  any  cause,  including  sickness  or  accident; 
they  occasionally  provide  them  with  superannuation  allowances, 
and  they  almost  always  make  burial  allowances  on  account  of 
deceased  members  and  their  wives.  In  the  latter  capacity  it  is 
their  special  business  to  promote  what  they  conceive  to  be  the 
interests  of  the  trade  with  which  they  are  connected  by  placing  the 
workmen,  so  far  a^eombination  will  fnlhl  that  purpose,  on  a  footing 
approaching  to  equality  with  the  capitalists  by  whom  they  are 
employed  in  the  disposal  of  their  labour.  Of  course  this  is  the 
great  object  for  which  the  unions  really  exist-  But,  a-s  the  com- 
missioners on  trade  unions  have  pointed  out,  it  is  found  desirable 
to  conjoin  the  objects  of  a  friendly  or  benefit  society  with  it, 
because  by  that  means  additional  members  and  funds  are  obtained, 
and  the  authority  which  the  union  as  a  trade  society  has  over  its 
members  is  thus  augmented  The  leading  aims  of  all  trade  union- 
ism are  to  increase  wages  and  to  diminish  the  labour  by  which  it 
is  oeedftU-  to  earn  them,  and  further  to  secure  a  more  equal  dis- 
tribution of  work  among  the  workmen  in  any  given  trade  than 
would  be  the  case  under  a  regime  of  unrestricted  competition. 
Hence  their  rules  prescribe  a  minimum  amount  of  wages  to  be 
accepted  and  a  maximum  amount  of  work  to  be  done  by  their 
members,  and  prohibit  piece  work  or  working  overtime.  The 
methods  by  which  the  unionists  endeavour  to  accomplish  their 
end.  which  is  in  a  sense  the  monopoly  of  the  labour  mark.;t,  are 
either  direct  or  iudirect.  The  direct  method  is  a  "strike,"  or 
simultaneous  cessation  of  labour  on  the  part  of  the  workmen.  It 
is  the  ultimate  sanction  as  between  the  employed  and  their  em. 
ployers  of  the  demands  made  by  the  union.  But.  where  thf 
unionists  are  strong,  the  mere  threat  of  a  strike  is  often  sufficient 
to  fulfil  the  intended  purpose,  and  arbitration  is  still  more 
frequently  found  effectual  for  bringing  about  a  settlement  or  com 
promise.  The  indirect  methods  tow-hich  the  trade  unionists  resort 
for  reaching  their  aims  are  by  limiting  the  number  of  workmen  to 
be  employed  in  any  trade  and  by  repressing  or  discountenancing 
competition  among  those  who  are  actually  employed  in  it  Most 
of  tnem  forbid  the  admission  of  more  than  a  stipulated  proportion 
of  apprentices,  aud  some  of  them  prohibit  the  engagement  ot 
women  to  do  work  which  can  be  done  by  men.  Nearly  all  of  them 
resist  the  common  employment  of  nuionists  and  non-unionists,  and 
do  their  best  to  exclude  non-unionists  from  employment  altogether 
But  the  amount  expended  by  trade  unions  in  the  conduct  of  trade 
disputes  is  very  much  less  than  is  generally  imagined  Mr  George 
Howell,  for  instance,  showed  conclusively  in  the  Contemporary 
Review  that  such  was  the  case  three  or  four  years  ago,  and  Jli 
Murchie,  the  chairman  of  the  parliamentary  committee,  stated  at 
the  trade  unions  congra^  at  Stockport  in  the  autumn  of  I8S5  that 
Mr  Howell's  contentions  had  been  signally  confirmed  by  more 
recent  experience.  Taking  the  seven  largest  trade  unions,  those 
whose  statistics  had  been  t-elied  on  by  Mr  Howell — namely, 
the  Amalgamated  Engineers,  the  Ironfounders,  the  Boiler  Maker* 


502 


T  R  A  — T  R  A 


»nd  Iron  Shipbuilders,  the  Steam-Eogine  Makers,  Ironmonlders  of 
ticotlaod,  Amalgamated  Tailor?,  and  Amalgamated  Carpenters  and 
Joiners — he  affirmed  that,  while  in  the  nine  years  preceding  1884 
their  receipts  were  £2,818,548,  their  ezpenditnre  was  £2,963,i8G, 
of  which  amonxtt  £1,207,180  was  spent  in  unemployed  benefit, 
£592,273  in  sicfe  benefit,  £975,052  in  compensation  for  loss  of  tools, 
euperannuatiocs,  accidents,  funerals,  minor  grants  and  benefits,  and 
expense  of  management,  only  £188,630  had  been  spent  in  connexion 
with  "  trade  movements,"  or  abont  64  per  ceut  of  the  whole  sum 
expended. 

There  are  no  really  trustworthy  means  of  arriving  at  anything 
Approaching  to  an  accurate  e3timate  of  the  actual  numerical  strength 
of  the  trade  unions  in  the  United  Kingdom  According  to  the  last 
Jteport  of  the  registrar  general  of  friendly  societies,  there  were  in 
the  year  1883  registered  in  his  office  195  trade  unions  with  253,088 
members  and  £431,495  funds,  of  which  12  returned  over  £10,000 
funds,  9  over  10,000  members,  and  6  over  £10,000  income  But 
tJiis  of  course  conveys  a  very  inadequate  notion  of  the  dimensions 
^o  which  trade  unionism  has  attained,  since  many  of  the  largest 
and  most  influential  societies  are  still  unregistered. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  delegates  and  the 
aggregate  membership  of  the  societies  represented  by  them  at 
the  trade  onions  congresses  in  the  years  from  1880  to  1888,  both 
inclusive ; — 


Namber 

Trade 
CoandJs 

Trade 

Tola) 

Nniiitwr 

Unionists 
repre- 
sented 
directly 

(.ipproxi 
mate) 

Nomber 
of 

or 

Bodies 

Uniotu 
repre- 

Nuraber 
of  Peiaons 

repre- 
sented by 

Delegates. 

repre- 
seoted. 

repre- 
sen  ted. 

sented 
direcUy. 

repre- 
sented. 

Trade 
Counclid. 

•  1880 

IW 

105 

K 

88 

474,213 

92.511 

381,702 

18SI 

154 

122 

18 

104 

460.797 

86,376 

374,421 

1882 

153 

126 

23 

103 

508,337 

10S.97J 

405,365 

1883 

173 

135 

21 

114 

5S1.091 

94.166 

466,925 

I8S4 

142 

115 

21 

95 

597,636 

10?.9S4 

487.652 

1885 

163 

13S 

27 

109 

631,606 

131,368 

500,238 

1885 

143 

121 

24 

97 

635,380 

12;,207 

513,173 

Weshallnotbe  far  wrong,  perhaps,  ifweset  down  thenumberof  trade 
onionista  in  all  the  three  kingdoms  at  about  800,000.        (F.  DR.) 

TRAGEDY      See  Drama. 

TRAJAN  {c.  53-1 17  a.d.).  Marcos  Ulpius  Traianus, 
the  fourteenth  Roman  emppror,  was  a  native  of  Italica,  in 
Spain.  The  family  to  which  he  belonged  was  probably 
Italian  and  not  Iberian  by  blood  His  father  began  life 
as  a  common  legionary  soldier,  and  fought  his  way  up  to 
the  consulship  and  the  governorship  of  Asia-  He  was  one 
of  the  hardest  fighters  in  Judaea  under  Vespasian  and 
Titus;  he  served  too  against  the  Parthians,  and  won  the 
highest  military  distinction  open  to  a  subject,  the  grant  of 
the  triumphal  insignia.  Thus  he  acquired  a  prominent 
place  among  the  brand  new  patricians  created  by  the 
Flavians  as  substitutes  for  the  nobles  of  old  descent  who 
had  succumbed  to  the  cruelty  and  rapacity  of  the  emperors 
from  Tiberius  to  Nero.  The  younger  Trajan  was  rigor- 
ously trained  by  his  father,  and  deeply  imbued  with  the 
same  principles  and  tastes  He  was  a  soldier  born  and 
bred.  No  better  representative  of  the  true  old  hardy 
Roman  type,  little  softened  either  by  luxury  or  educa- 
tion, had  come  to  the  head  of  affairs  since  the  days  of 
Marius.  The  date  of  his  birth  was  probably  53  ad 
His  training  was  almost  exclusively  military,  but  his  ex 
perience  as  an  officer  gave  him  an  acquaintance  with 
almost  every  important  province  of  the  empire  which  was 
of  priceless  value  to  him  when  he  came  to  the  throne. 
For  ten  years  he  held  a  commission  as  military  tribune, 
■which  took  him  to  many  lands  far  a:.under;  then  he  filled 
important  posts  in  Syria  and  Spain.  How  much  actual 
warfare  Trajan  saw  in  those  days  we  can  hardly  tell  ;  he 
certainly  went  through  some  severe  service  under  his 
father's  command  against  the  Parthians.  By  the  year  89 
he  had  achieved  a  considerable  reputation.  At  that  time 
L.  Antonius  Saturninus  headed  a  rebellion  in  Germany, 
which  threatened  seriously  to  bring  Domitian's  rule  to  an 
end.  Trajan  was  ordered  in  hot  haste  from  Further  Spain 
to  the  Rhine.  Although  he  carried  his  troops  over  that 
long  and  arduous  march  with  almost  unexampled  rapidity, 
he  only  arrived  after  the  insurrection  had  been  put  down; 


But  hi.s  promptitude  raised  him  higher  in  the  favour  of 
Domitian,  and  he  was  advanced  to  the  consulship  in  91. 
Of  the  next  five  years  of  his  life  we  know  nothing  posi 
tively.     It  is  not  unlikely  that  they  were  spent  at  Rome 
or  in  Italy  in  the  fulfilment  of  some  official  duties.     When 
the    revolution   of   96    came,   and    Nerva   replaced   the 
murdered  Domitian,  Trajan  had  conferred  upon  him  one 
of  the  most  important  posts  in  the  empire,  that  of  consulai 
legate  of  Upper  Germany      Xa  officer  whose  nature,  as 
the  event  showed,  was  interpenetrated  with  the  spirit  of 
legality  was  a  fitting  servant  of  a  revolution  whose  aim 
it  was  to  substitute  legality   for  personal  caprice  as  the 
dominant  principle  of  affairs.     The  short  reign  of  Nerva 
really  did  start  the  empire  on  a  new  career,  which  lasted 
more  than  three  quarters  of  a  century      But  it  also  demon- 
strated how  impossible  it  was  for  any  one  to  govern  at 
all  who  had  no  claim,  either  personal  or  inherited,  to  the 
respect  of  the  legions.     Nerva  saw  that  If  he  could  not 
find  an  Augustus  to  control  the  army,  the  army  would  find 
another  Domitian  to  trample  the  senate  under  foot.     In 
his  difficulties  be  took  counsel  with  L    Licinius  Sura,  a 
lifelong  friend  of  Trajan,  and  in  October  97  he  ascended 
the  Capitol,  and  with  all  due  solemnity  proclaimed  that 
he  adopted  Trajan  as  his  son      The  senate  confirmed  the 
choice,  and  acknowledged  the  emperor's  adopted  son  as 
his  successor      In  a  letter  which  Nerva  sent  at  once  to 
Trajan  he  quoted  most  significantly  a  line  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the   Iliad,  where  Chryses,  insulted  by  Achilles, 
prays  to  Apollo  •    "  May  thy  shafts  afford  me  vengeance 
on  the  Greeks  for  my  tears"     After  a  little  hesitation 
Trajan  accepted  the  position,  which  was  marked  by  the 
titles  of  imperator,  Caesar,  and  Germanicus,  and  by  the 
tribunician  authority     He  immediately  proceeded  to  Lower 
Germany,  to  assure  himself  of  the  fidelity  of  the  troops  in 
that  province,  and  while  at  Cologne  he  received  news  of 
Nerva's  death  (January  98).     The  authority  of  the  new 
emperor  was  recognized  at  once  all  the  empire  over,      fhe 
novel    fact   that  a  master  of   the  Romans   should  have 
been  bom  on  Spanish  soil  seems  to  have  passed  with  little 
remark,  and   this  very  absence  of    notice  je  significant 
Trajan's  first  care  as  emperor  was  to  write  to  the  senate 
an  assurance  like  that  which  had  been  given  by  Nerva, 
that  he  would  neither  kill  nor  degrade  any  senator      He 
ordered  the  establishment  of  a  temple  and  cult  in  honour 
of  his  adoptive  father,  but  he  did  not  present  himself  at 
Rome  for  nearly  two  years  after  his  accession.     Possibly 
he  had  taken  measures  before  Nerva's  death  to  secure  the 
revenge  which  Nerva  craved,  but  probably  did  not  live  to 
see.     In  his  dealings  with  the  mutinous  praetorians  the 
strength  of  the  new  emperor's  hand  was  shown  at  once. 
He  ordered  a  portion  of  the  force  to  Germany.     They  did 
not  venture  to  disobey,  and  were  distributed  among  the 
legions  there.     Those  who  remained  at  Rome  were  easily 
overawed  and  reformed.     It  is  still  more  surprising  that 
the  soldiers  should  have  quietly  submitted  to  a  reduction 
in  the  amount  of  the  donative  or  gift  which  it  was  custom- 
ary for  them  to  receive  from  a  new  emperor,  though  tho 
civil  population  of  the  capital  were  paid  tbeir  largess  (congi- 
arium)  in  full.     By  politic  management  Trajan  was  abla 
to   represent  the  diminution  as   a   sort  of   discount   for 
immediate  payment,  while  the  civilians  had  to  wait  a  con-i 
siderable  time  before  their  full  due  was  handed  to  them.    | 
The  secret  of  Trajan's  power  lay  in  his  close  personal 
relations  with  the  officers  and  men  of  the  army  and  in  the 
soldierly  qualities  which  commanded  their  esteem.     He 
possessed  courage,  justice,  and  frankness  to  a  high  degree. 
Having  a  good  title  to  military  distinction    himself,  he 
could  afford,  as  the  unwarlike  emperors  could  not,  to  be 
generous  to  his  officers.     The  common  soldiers,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  fascinated  by  his  personal  prowess  and 


TRAJAN 


50.3 


his  somewhat  ostentatious  camaraderie.  His  features  were 
firm  aud  clearly  cut ;  his  figure  was  tall  and  soldierly, 
and  exhibited  the  sinewy  hard  health  of  a  veteran  cam- 
paigner His  hair  was  already  grey  before  he  came  to  the 
throne,  though  he  was  not  more  than  forty-four  years  old 
The  stoutness  of  the  emperor's  arm  had  been  proved  in  the 
face  of  his  men  in  many  a  hard  fight.  WMen  on  service  he 
Uiied  the  mean  fare  of  the  common  private,  dining  on  salt 
pork,  cheese,  and  sour  wine.  Nothing  pleased  him  better 
than  'o  take  part  with  the  centurion  or  the  soldier  in 
fencing  or  other  military  exercise,  and  he  would  applaud 
»ny  shrewd  blow  which  fell  upon  his  own  helmet  He 
loved  to  display  his  acquaintance  with  the  career  of  dis 
,  ting\::shed  veterans,  and  to  talk  with  them  of  their  bat- 
tles and  their  wounds.  Probably  he  lost  nothing  of  his 
popularity  with  the  army  by  occasional  free  indulgence 
in  sensual  pleasures,  with  which,  as  Bacon  remarks,  the 
eoldier  is  apt  to  pay  himself  for  the  perils  he  encounters. 
Yet  every  man  felt  and  knew  that  no  detail  of  military 
duty,  however  minute,  escaped  the  emperor's  eye,  and  that 
any  relaiation  of  discipline  would  be  rigidly  punished,  yet 
with  unwavering  justice.  Trajan  emphasized  at  once  his 
personal  control  and  the  constitutionality  of  his  sway  by 
bearing  on  bis  campaigns  the  actual  title  of  "  proconsul," 
which  no  other  emperor  had  done.  All  things  considered, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  he  was  able,  without  serious 
opposition  from  the  army,  to  remodel  the  whole  military 
institutions  of  the  empire,  and  to  bring  them  into  a 
shape  from  which  there  was  comparatively  little  departure 
so  long  as  the  army  lasted.  In  disciplinary  matters  no 
emperor  since  Augustus  had  been  able  to  keep  so  strong  a 
control  over  the  troops.  Pliny  rightly  praises  Trajan  as 
the  lawgiver  and  the  founder  of  discipline,  and  Vegetius 
classes  Augustus,  Trajan,  and  Hadrian  together  as  restorers 
of  the  morale  of  the  army  The  confidence  which  existed 
between  Trajan  and  his  army  finds  expression  in  some  of 
the  coins  of  his  reign. 

For  nearly  two  years  after  his  election  Trajan  did  not 
appear  in  Rome.  He  had  decided  already  what  the  great 
task  of  his  reign  should  be — the  establishment  of  security 
upon  the  dangerous  north-eastern  frontier.  Before  visiting 
Ihe  capital  he  determined  to  put  affairs  in  train  for  the 
attainment  of  this  great  object.  He  made  a  thorough  in- 
spection of  the  great  lines  of  defence  between  the  Danube 
snd  the  Rhine,  and  framed  and  partly  carried  out  a  vast 
scheme  for  strengthening  and  securing  them.  The  policy 
of  opposing  uncivilized  tribes  by  the  construction  of  the 
limes,  a  raised  embankment  of  earth  or  other  material, 
intersected  here  and  there  by  fortifications,  was  not  his 
invention,  but  it  owed  in  great  measure  its  development 
to  him.  It  is  probable  that  the  northernmost  part  of 
the  great  limes  Germanise,  from  the  Rhine  at  Rheinbrohl, 
Dearly  midway  between  Coblenz  and  Bonn,  to  a  point  on 
the  Main  east  of  Frankfort,  where  that  river  suddenly 
changes  its  course  from  north  to  west,  was  begun  by 
Domitian.  The  extension  of  this  great  barrier  southwards 
was  undertaken  by  Trajan,  though  we  cannot  say  how  far 
he  carried  the  work,  which  was  not  entirely  completed  till 
long  after  his  time.  The  limes  leaves  the  Main  at  Milten- 
berg,  a  point  at  which  the  north  and  south  course  of  the 
river  is  broken  by  a  great  angle,  and  then  follows  a  line 
generally  parallel  to  the  stream  of  the  Neckar,  till  it  reaches 
Lorch,  a  place  between  Stuttgart  and  Aalen.  Here  it 
meets  the  so-called  limes  Rsttise,  which  trends  eastward  till 
it  cuts  the  Danube  at  Kelheim.  a  place  some  distance  short 
of  Ratisbon,  the  ancient  Caslra  Regina.  This  grand  work, 
which  would  have  excited  the  envy  of  Augustus,  is  trace- 
able in  its  main  extent  at  the  present  day  We  may  with- 
out hesitation  follow  the  opinion  of  Mommsen,  who  main- 
tains that  the  limes  was  not  intended,  like  Hadrian's  wall 


between  the  Tyne  and  the  Solway,  and  like  the  great  wall 
of  China,  to  oppose  an  absolute  barrier  against  incursions 
from  the  outside.  It  was  useful  as  marking  definitely  the 
boundary  of  the  Roman  sway,  aud  as  assuring  the  Romans 
that  no  inroad  could  be  made  without  inteUigence  being 
had  of  it  beforehand,  while  the  limes  itself  and  the  system 
of  roads  behind  it  enabled  troops  to  be  directed  rapidly  to 
any  threatened  point,  and  the  fortified  positions  could  be 
held  against  large  numbers  till  reinforcements  arrived. 
Great  importance  was  no  doubt  attached  to  the  perfection  of 
the  lines  of  communication  bearing  on  the  limes.  Among  a 
people  of  roadmakers,  Trajan  was  one  of  the  greatest,  and 
we  have  definite  evidence  from  inscriptions  that  some  of 
the  military  roads  in  this  region  were  constructed  by  hia. 
The  more  secure  control  which  the  Romans  now  maintained 
over  the  territory  within  the  limts  tended  to  it3  rapid 
civilization,  and  the  Roman  influence,  if  not  the  Roman 
arms,  soon  began  to  affect  powerfully  the  regions  beyond. 

After  his  careful  survey  of  the  Rhine  end  of  the  great 
defensive  barrier,  Trajan  proceeded  to  consider  it  and  plan 
it  from  the  Danube.  From  the  age  of  Tiberius  onwards 
the  Romans  possessed  the  whole  southern  bank  of  tha 
river  from  its  source  to  the  Euxine.  But  the  precarious 
tenure  of  their  possession  had  been  deeply  impre3.<;ed  on 
them  by  the  disasters  and  humiliations  they  had  under- 
gone in  these  districts  during  the  reign  of  Domitian.  A 
prince  had  arisen  among  the  Dacians,  Decebalus  hy  name, ' 
worthy  to  be  placed  ^t  the  head  of  all  the  great  burbariaQi 
antagonists  of  Rome.  Like  Maroboduus,  he  was  able  tc 
combine  the  forces  of  tribes  commonly  hostile  to  each 
other,  and  his  military  ability  almost  went  the  length  of 
genius.  After  he  had  swept  the  province  of  MoDsia  bare, ! 
he  was  defeated  by  ona  of  Domitian's  lieutenants,  but' 
the  position  of  affairs  on  the  Danubio-Rhenish  border  was' 
still  80  threatening  that  the  emperor  was  glad  to  conclude 
a  treaty  which  conferred  extraordinary  advantages  on  his 
foe.  Not  only  did  the  Romans  stipulate  to  pay  to  Dec©.! 
balus  an  annual  subsidy,  which  he  must  have  regarded  as 
a  tribute,  but  they  agreed  to  supply  him  with  engineers 
and  craftsmen  skilled  in  all  kinds  of  construction,  bClt' 
particularly  in  the  erection  of  fortifications  and  defensive 
works.  During  the  nine  or  ten  years  which  had  elapsed! 
since  the  conclusion  of  this  remarkable  treaty,  the  Dacianj 
prince  had  immensely  strengthened  the  approaches  to  his' 
kingdom  from  the  Roman  side.  He  had  also  equipped  i 
and  drilled  his  formidable  army  after  the  Roman  fastdon. 
It  was  impossible  for  a  soldier  like  Trajan  to  endure  tho 
conditions  laid  down  by  Domitian  ;  but  the  conquest  of  j 
Dacia  had  become  one  of  the  most  formidable  tasks  that' 
had  ever  confronted  the  empire.  Trajan  no  doubt  planned 
a  war  before  he  left  the  Danube  for  Rome  late  in  99. 

The  arrival  of  the  emperor  had  been  awaited  in  ths 
capital  with  an  impatience  which  is  expre^si'd  by  Pliny  and 
by  Martial'  All  that  had  happened  since  Trajan's  eleva- 
tion  to  the  throne  had  raised  high  at  Romo  the  hope  of  a 
prosperous  and  glorious  reign.  Ai  he  entered  the.  city 
and  went  on  foot  to  the  Capitol,  the  plaudits  of  the 
people  were  unmistakably  genuine.  During  bis  stay  in 
the  city  he  riveted  more  firmly  still  the  affections  buth 
of  the  senate  and  of  the  people.  The  reconci'iution  of 
the  empire  with  hberty,  inaugurated,  as  Tacitus  says,  by 
Nerva,  seemed  now  to  be  securely  achieved.  Trajan  was 
absolutely  open  and  simple,  and  lived  with  men  a;  Rome 
as  he  had  Uved  with  his  soldiers  while  on  Eervi».b.     He 


*  It  has  been  conjectured,  not  Improbably,  that  the  Oerruinia  t.f 
Tacitus,  written  at  thia  period,  had  for  one  of  its  aims  the  enlighten- 
ment of  the  Romans  concerning  the  formidable  character  of  the  Ger- 
moois,  so  that  they  might  at  once  bear  more  readily  with  the  tmpj'or's 
prolonged  absence  and  be  pi'epared  for  the  necessity  of  decisive  liCtioa 
on  the  frontier. 


■504 


TRAJAN 


realized  the  senate's  ideal  of  the  citizen  ruler.  The  assur- 
ance that  no  senator  should  suffer  was  renewed  by  oath. 
All  the  old  republican  formalities  were  most  punctiliously 
observed — even  those  attendant  on  the  emperor's  election 
to  the  consulate,  so  far  as  they  did  not  involve  a  restora- 
tion of-  the  old  order  of  voting  at  the  comitia.  The  vene- 
ration for  republican  tradition  is  curiously  attested  by  the 
reproduction  of  many  republican  types  of  coin  struck  by 
senatorial  officers.  Trajan  seized  every  opportunity  for 
emphasizing  his  view  that  the  priruxps  was  merely  the 
greatest  of  the  magistrates,  and  so  was  not  above  but 
under  the  laws.  He  was  determined,  he  said,  to  be  to 
his  subjects  such  a  ruler  as  he  had  desired  for  himself 
when  a  subject.  There  is  a  pretty  story  to  the  effect  that 
he  handed  the  commander  of  the  praetorians  his  sword, 
and  said,  "  Use  it  for  me  if  I  do  well,  but  against  me  if  I 
do  ill."  Martial,  who  had  called  Domitian  his  lord  and 
his  god,  now  cried,  "  In  him  we  have  no  lord,  but  an 
imperator ! "  Real  power  and  influence  were  accorded 
to  the  senate,  which  had  now,  by  the  incorporation  of 
members  whose  origin  was  provincial,  become  in  a  manner 
representative  of  the  whole  empire.  Trajan  associated 
with  the  senators  on  equal  terms,  and  enjoyed  in  their 
company  every  kind  of  recreation.  All  pomp  was  dis- 
tasteful to  him,  and  discarded  by  him.  There  was  practi- 
cally no  court,  and  no  intrigues  of  any  kind  were  possible. 
The  approach  to  his  house  was  free,  and  he  loved  to  pass 
through  the  city  unattended,  and  to  pay  unexpected  visits 
to  his  friends.  He  thirsted  for  no  senator's  blood,  and 
used  severity  against  the  delatores  alone.  There  was  but 
one  insigniticant  conspiracy  against  him  during  his  whole 
reign.  Though  not  literary  himself,  Trajan  conciliated 
the  literary  men,  who  at  all  times  had  close  relations  with 
the  senate.  His  intimate,  M.  Licinius,  played  an  excellent 
Maecenas  to  his  Augustus.  In  his  efforts  to  win  the  affec- 
tions of  Roman  society,  Trajan  was  excellently  aided  by 
his  wife  Plotina,  who  was  as  simple  as  her  husband,  bene- 
volent, pure  in  character,  and  entirely  unambitious.  The 
hold  which  Trajan  acquired  over  the  people  was  no  less 
firm  than  that  which  he  maintained  upon  the  army  and 
the  senate.  His  largesses,  his  distributions  of  food,  his 
public  works,  and  his  spectacles  were  all  on  a  generous 
scale.  The  exhibitions  in  the  arena  were  perhaps  at  their 
zenith  during  his  tenure  of  power.  Though,  for  some  un- 
explained reason,  he  abolished  the  mimes,  so  beloved  of 
the  populace,  at  the  outset  of  his  reign,  he  availed  himself 
of  the  occasion  of  his  first  triumph  to  restore  them  again. 
The  people  were  delighted  by  the  removal  of  the  imperial 
txedra  in  the  circus,  whereby  five  thousand  additional  places 
were  provided.  Taxation  was  in  many  directions  reduced, 
and  the  financial  exactions  of  the  imperial  officers  controlled 
by  the  erection  of  a  special  court.  Elaborate  precautions 
were  taken  to  save  Italy  from  famine  ,  it  is  said  that  corn 
for  seven  years'  consumption  at  the  capital  was  retained 
in  the  granaries.  Special  encouragement  was  given  to 
merchants  to  import  articles  of  food.  The  corporation 
of  bakers  was  organized,  and  made  more  etfective  for  the 
service  of  the  public.  The  internal  trade  of  Italy  was 
powerfully  stimulated  by  the  careful  maintenance  and 
extension  of  the  different  lines  of  road.  But  the  most 
striking  evidence  of  Trajan's  solicitude  for  his  people's 
welfare  is  found  in  his  institution  of  the  ahmenta,  whereby 
means  were  provided  for  the  rearing  of  poor  and  orphan 
children  in  Italy.  The  method  had  been  sketched  out  by 
Nerva,  but  its  great  development  was  due  to  Trajan.  The 
moneys  allotted  by  the  emperor  were  in  many  cases  sup- 
plemented by  private  benevolence.  As  a  soldier,  Trajan 
realized  the  need  of  men  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
empire  against  the  outer  barbarians,  and  he  preferred 
that  these  men  should  be  of  Italian  birtL     He  was  only 


carrying  a  step  farther  the  policy  of  Augustus,  who  by 
a  system  of  rewards  and  penalties  had  tried  to  encourage 
marriage  and  the  nurture  of  children.  The  actual  effect 
of  Trajan's  regulations  is  hard  to  measure ;  they  were 
probably  more  effectual  for  their  object  than  those  of 
Augustus.  The  foundations  were  confiscated  by  Pertinax, 
after  they  had  existed  less  than  a  century. 

During  the  year  100,  when  Trajan  was  consul  for  the 
third  time,  Pliny,  who  had  been  designated  consul  for  a 
part  of  it,  was  appointed  to  deliver  the  "  Panegyric  "  which 
has  come  down  to  us,  and  which  forms  the  most  important 
source  of  our  knowledge  concerning  this  emperor.  Pliny's 
eulogy  of  Trajan  and  his  denunciation  of  Domitian  an 
alike  couched  in  extravagant  phrases,  but  the  former  per- 
haps rests  more  uniformly  on  a  basis  of  truth  and  justice 
than  the  latter.  The  tone  of  the  "  Panegyric  "  certainl; 
lends  itself  to  the  supposition  of  some  historians  that  Trajaa 
was  inordinately  vain.  That  the  emperor  had  an  honest 
and  soldierly  satisfaction  in  his  own  well-doing  is  clear; 
but,  if  he  had  had  anything  like  the  vanity  of  a  Domitian, 
the  senate,  ever  eager  to  outrun  a  ruler's  taste  for  flattery, 
would  never  have  kept  within  such  moderate  bounds. 

Towards  the  end  of  100,  or  early  in  101,  Trajan  left 
Rome  for  the  Danube.  Pretexts  for  a  Dacian  war  were 
not  difficult  to  find.  Although  there  was  no  lack  of  hard 
fighting,  victory  in  this  war  depended  largely  on  the  work 
of  the  engineer.  The  great  military  road  connecting  the 
posts  in  Upper  Germany  with  those  on  the  Danube,  which 
had  been  begun  by  Tiberius,  was  now  extended  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  as  far  as  the  modem  OreoTa.  Th» 
year  101  was  spent  mainly  in  road-making  and  fortifica- 
tion. In  the  following  campaign,  after  desperate  fighting 
to  the  north  of  the  Danube  in  the  mountainous  region 
of  Transylvania,  such  as  Caesar  never  encountered  in  all 
his  Gaulish  wars,  the  capital  of  Decebalus  was  taken,  and 
he  was  forced  to  terms.  He  agreed  to  raze  all  fortresses, 
to  surrender  all  weapons,  prisoners,  and  Roman  deserters, 
and  to  become  a  dependent  prince  under  the  suzerainty  of 
Rome.  Trajan  came  back  to  Italy  with  Dacian  envoys, 
who  in  ancient  style  begged  the  senate  to  confirm  the  con- 
ditions granted  by  the  commander  in  the  field.  The  em- 
peror now  enjoyed  his  first  Dacian  triumph,  and  assumed 
the  title  of  Dacicus.  At  the  same  time  he  royally  enter 
tained  the  people,  and  no  less  royally  re»arded  his  braive 
officers.  But  the  Dacian  chief  could  not  school  his  high 
spirit  to  endure  the  conditions  of  the  treaty,  and  Trajan 
soon  found  it  necessary  to  prepare  for  another  war.  A 
massive  stone  bridge  was  built  across  the  Danube,  near  the 
modern  Turn  Severin,  by  ApoUodorus,  the  gifted  architect 
who  afterwards  designed  the  forum  of  Trajan.  In  105 
began  the  new  struggle,  which  on  the  side  of  Decebalus 
could  now  only  lead  to  victory  or  -to  destruction.  The 
Dacians  fought  their  ground  inch  by  inch,  and  their  army 
as  a  whole  may  be  said  to  have  bled  to  death.  The  prince 
put  an  end  to  his  own  life.  His  kingdom  became  an 
imperial  province  ;  in  it  many  colonies  were  founded,  and 
peopled  by  settlers  drawn  from  different  parts  of  the 
empire.  "The  work  done  by  Trajan  in  the  Danubian 
regions  left  a  lasting  mark  upon  their  history.  The 
emperor  returned  to  the  capital  in  106,  laden  with  cap- 
tured treasure.  His  triumph  outdid  in  splendour  all  those 
that  went  before  it.  Games  are  said  to  have  been  held 
continuously  for  four  months.  Ten  thousand  gladiators 
contended  in  the  arena,  and  eleven  thousand  beasts  were 
killed  in  the  contests.  Congratulatory  embassies  came 
from  all  lands,  even  from  India.  The  grand  and  enduring 
monument  of  the  Dacian  wars  is  the  noble  pillar  which 
still  stands  on  the  site  of  Trajan's  forum  at  Rom& 

The  end  of  the  Dacian  wars  was  followed  by  seven  years 
of  peace.     During  part  of  that  time  Pliny  was  imperial 


T  R  A— T  R  A 


legate  in  the  provinces  of  Bithynia  and  Pontus,  and  in 
constant  communication  with  Trajan.  The  correspondence 
is  extant,  and  gives  us  the  means  of  observing  the  prin- 
ciples and  tendencies  of  the  emperor  as  a  civil  governor. 

The  provinces  (hitherto  senatorial)  were  in  considerable  disorder, 
which  Pliny  \v,is  sent  to  cure.  It  is  clear  from  the  emperor's  letters 
that  in  regard  to  nine  out  of  ten  of  the  matters  which  his  anxious 
and  defeix'nlial  Ic^te  referred  to  him  for  his  decision  he  would 
have  been  better  pleased  if  the  legate  had  decided  them  for  him- 
self. Trajan's  notions  of  civil  government  were,  like  those  of  the 
duke  of  Wellington,  strongly  tinged  with  military  prepossessions. 
He  regauled  the  provincial  ruler  as  a  kind  of  officer  in  command, 
who  ought  to  be  able  to  discipline  his  province  for  himself,  and 
only  to  appeal  to  the  comn^ander-in-chief  in  a  difficult  c;ise.  In 
advising  Pliny  about  the  ditferent  free  communities  in  the  pro- 
vinces, Trajan  showed  the  same  regard  for  tradjlional  rights  and 
privileges  which  he  had  exhibited  in  f;ice  of  the  senate  at  Rome. 
At  the  same  time,  these  letters  bring  home  to  us  his  conviction 
that,  particularly  in  financial  affairs,  it  was  necessary  that  local 
self-government  should  be  carried  on  under  the  vigilant  super- 
vision of  imperial  officers.  The  ''ontrol  which  he  began  in  this 
way  to  exercise,  both  in  Italy  and  in  the  provinces,  over  the 
"municipia"  and  "liber*  civitates,"  by  means  of  agents  entitled 
(then  or  later)  "correctores  civitatium  liberarum,*'  was  carried 
continually  farther  and  farther  by  his  successors,  and  at  last  ended 
in  the  complete  centralization  of  the  government.  On  this  account 
the  reign  of  Trajan  constitutes  a  turning  point  in  civil  as  in 
military  liistory.  In  other  directions,  though  wo  tiiid  many 
salutary  civil  measures,  yet  there  were  no  far-ieacliing  schemes 
of  reform.  Many  details  in  the  administration  of  the  law,  and 
particularly  of  the  criminal  law.  were  improved.  To  cure  corruption 
in  the  senate  the  ballot  was  introduced  at  elections  to  magis- 
tracies. The  finances  of  the  state  were  economically  managed, 
and  taxpayers  were  most  carefully  guarded  from  oppression. 
Trajan  never  lacked  mooey  to  expend  on  great  works  of  public 
utility;  as  a  ouilder,  he  niay  fairly  be  compared  with  Au£;ustus. 
His  forum  and  its  numerous  appendages  were  constructed  on  a 
magnificent  scale.  Many  regions  of  Italy  and  the  provinces 
besides  the  city  itself  benefited  by  the  care  and  munificence  which 
the  emperor  bestowed  on  such  public  improvements.  His  attitude 
towards  religion  was,  like  that  of  Augustus,  moderate  and  con- 
servative. The  famous  letter  to  Pliny  about  the  Christians  is, 
according  to  Roman  ideas,  merciful  and  coosideraic.  It  was  im- 
possible, however,  for  a  Roman  magistrate  of  the  time  to  rid  him- 
self of  the  idea  that  all  forms  of  leligioii  must  do  homage  to  the 
civil  power.  Hence  the  conflict  which  made  Tr.ijan  appear  in  the 
eyes  of  Christians  like  Tertullian  the  most  infamous  of  monsters.^ 
On  the  whole,  Trajan's  civil  administration  was  sound,  careful, 
and  sensible,  rather  than  brilliant  or  epoch-making. 

In  113  or  114  Trajan  left  Italy  to  make  war  in  the 
East.  The  never  ending  Parthian  problem  confronted  him, 
and  with  it  were  more  or  less,  connected  a  number  of  minor 
difficulties.  Already  by  106  the  position  of  Rome  in  the 
East  had  been  materially  improved  by  the  peaceful  anne.xa- 
tion  of  districts  bordering  on  the  province  of  Syria.  The 
district  of  Q^mascus,  hitherto  a  dependency,  and  the  last 
remaining  fragment  of  the  Jewish  kingdom,  were  incor- 
porated with  Syria ;  Bostra  and  Petra  were  permanently 
occupied,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  Nabatha;an  kingdom 
was  constituted  the  Roman  province  of  Arabia.  Rome 
thus  obtained  mastery  of  the  most  important  positions 
lying  on  the  great  trade  routes  from  East  to  West.  These 
changes  could  not  but  affect  the  relations  of  the  Roman 
with  the  Parthian  empire,  and  the  affairs  of  Armenia  be- 
came in  1 14  the  occasion  of  a  war  which  has  been  described 
under  Persia,  vol.  xviii.  p.  603.  Trajan's  campaigns  in 
the  East  ended  in  complete  though  brilliant  failure.  In 
the  retreat  from  Ctesi|)hon  (117)  the  old  emperor  tasted  for 
ttlmost  the  first  time  the  bitterness  ol  defeat  in  the  field. 
He  attacked  the  desert  city  of  Hatra,  westward  of  the 
Tigris,  whose  importance  is  still  attested  by  grand  ruins. 
The  want  of  water  made  it  impossible  to  maintain  a  large 
force  near  the  city,  and  the  brave  Arabs  routed  the  Roman 
cavalry.  Trajan,  who  narrowly  escaped  being  killed,  was 
forced  to  withdraw.  A  more  alarming  difficulty  lay  before 
him.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence  of  the  emperor  in 
the  far  East,  and  possibly  by  an  understanding  with  the 
lea(1ers  of  the  rising  in  Armenia  and  the  annexed  portions  of 

23— 111* 


Parthia,  the  Jews  all  over  the  East  had  taken  up  arma  2.t  t'uo 
same  moment,  and  at  a  given  signal.  The  massacres  they 
committed  were  portentous.  In  Cyprus  240,000  men  are 
said  to  have  been  put  to  death,  and  at  Cyrenc  220,000, 
At  Alexandria,  on  the  other  hand,  many  Jews  were  killed. 
The  Romans  punished  massacre  by  massacre,  and  the 
complete  suppression  of  the  insurrection  was  long  delayed, 
but  the  Jews  made  no  great  stand  against  disciphned 
troops.  Trajan  still  thought  of  returning  to  Mesopotamia, 
and  of  avenging  his  defeat  at  Hatra,  but  he  was  stricken 
with  sickness  and  compelled  to  take  ship  for  Italy.  His 
illness  increasing,  he  lauded  in  Cilicia,  and  died  at  Selinus 
in  that  country  about  the  end  of  July  117.  Trajan,  who 
had  no  children,  had  continually  delayed  to  settle  the  suc- 
cession to  the  throne,  though  Pliny  in  the  "Panegyric" 
had  pointedly  drawn  his  attention  to  the  matter,  and  it 
must  have  caused  the  senate  much  anxiety.  Whether 
Hadrian,  the  cousin  of  Trajan,  was  actually  adopted  by 
him  or  not  is  impossible  to  determine  ;  certainly  Hadriao 
had  not  been  advanced  to  any  great  honours  by  Trajan. 
Even  his  military  service  had  not  been  distinguished. 
Plutina  asserted  the  adoption,  and  it  was  readily  and  most 
fortunately  accepted,  i£  not  believed,  as  a  fact. 

The  senate  had  decreed  to  Tiajan  as  many  triumphs  as 
he  cho.se  to  celebrate.  For  the  first  time  a  dead  general 
triumphed.  When  Trajan  was  deified,  he  appropriately 
retained,  alone  among  the  emperors,  a  title  he  had  won  for 
himself  in  the  field,  that  of  "  Parthicus."  He  v.asa  patient 
organizer  of  victory  rather  than  a  strategic  genius.  He 
laboriously  perfected  the  military  machine,  which  when 
once  set  in  motion  went  on  to  victory.  Much  of  the  work 
he  did  was  great  and  enduring,  but  the  last  year  of  his  life 
forbade  the  Romans  to  attribute  to  him  that/c/tci/as  which 
they  regarded  as  an  inborn  quality  of  the  highest  generals. 
Each  succeeding  emperor  was  saluted  with  the  wish  that 
he  might  be  "  better  than  Trajan  and  more  fortunate  than 
Augustus."  Yet  the  breach  made  in  Trajan's  fdicilas  by 
the  failure  in  the  East  was  no  greater  than  that  made  in 
the  filkttas  of  Augustus  by  his  retirement  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  question  whether  Trajan's 
Oriental  policy  was  wise  is  answered  emphatically  by 
Mommsen  in  the  affirmative.  It  was  certainly  wise  if 
the  means  existed  which  were  necessary  to  carry  it  out 
and  sustain  it.  But  succeeding  history  proved  that  those 
means  did  not  exist.  The  assertion  of  .Nlommsen  that  the 
Tigris  was  a  more  defensible  frontier  than  the  desert  line 
which  separated  the  Parthiau  from  the  Roman  empire  can 
hardly  be  accepted.  The  change  would  certainly  have 
created  a  demand  for  more  legions,  which  the  resources  of 
the  Romans  were  not  sufficient  to  meet  without  danger  to 
their  possessions  qn  other  frontiers. 

The  rccortis  of  Trajan's  reigti  are  miserably  deficient.  Our  best 
authority  is  the  6Stli  book  of  Die  Cassius,  then  conies  the  "  Pane- 
gyric" of  Plmy,  with  his  correspondence.  The  facts  to  be  gathered 
from  other  ancient  writers  are  scattered  and  scanty.  Fortunately 
the  inscriptions  of.  the  time  are  abundant  and  iini'ortant.  Of  modern 
histories  which  comprise  the  reign  of  Trajan  the  best  in  Engbsh  is 
that  of  Mertvale  ;  but  that  in  German  by  H.  Schiller(Ccic/..(Afc</(.r 
Toniischcn  Kaiscrzeit,  Gotha,  1S83)  is  move  on  a  level  witii  recent 
inquiries.  There  are  special  works  on  Trajan  by  H.  Fiancka 
(Cnstrow,  1837),  De  la  Berge  (Paris,  1S77),  ant  Dicraucr  (in  M. 
Budinger's  Untcrsttthungcn  zur  rdmischcn  /CaiscrgcschtchCe,  Lcipsic^ 
I86S).  A  paper  by  Mommsen  in  Ilenncs,  iii.  pp.  ZQ  sq.,  cTititled 
"  Zur  Lebensgescbichto  des  jungeren  Pliuius,"  is  iuiportant  fur  tha 
chronology  of  Trajau's  reign.  (J.  ^-  K.) 

TRALEE,  a  market  town  and  seaport,  and  the  chief 
town  of  Kerry,  Ireland,  is  situated  on  the  Eallymulljii  or 
Leigh  river,  about  a  mile  from  where  it  discharge.^  itself 
into  Tialce  Say.  and  on  the  Great  Southern  and  Vi"usicrn 
Railway,  21  niitos  north-west  of  Killarney  and  18  smth- 
west  of  Listowel.  It  is  a  neat,  wellbuilt,  and  compara- 
tively prosperous  town.     The  principal  public  buildings  ara 

XXIII.  —  64 


506 


T  R  A  — T  R  A 


c'je  court-bonsa,  the  town-ball,  the  corn  exchange,  the 
chamber  of  commerce,  the  workhouse,  the  infantry  barracks, 
the  county  hospital,  and  the  fever  hospital.  A  ship  canal, 
permitting  the  passage  of  ships  of  200  tons  burden,  and 
constructed  at  an  expense  of  w£30,000j  connects  it  with 
Tixilee  Bay.  Coal,  iron,  and  timber  are  imported,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  export  of  grain.  There  is  a  large 
trade  in  butter.  The  population  of  the  town  in  1871  was 
9506  and  in  1881  it  was  9396. 

Ti-alee,  anciently  Tralci^h,  the  "strand  of  tne  Leigh,"  owes  its 
origin  to  tlie  foundation  of  a  Dominican  monastery  in- 1213  by 
John  FiU-Thomas,  of  the  Geraldine  family.  Daring  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  it  was  in  the  possession  of  Earl  Desmond,  on  wliose  for- 
feiture it  came  into  possession  of  the  Dennys.  At  the  tiu:u  of  the 
rebellion  in  1641  the  English  families  in  the  neighbourhood  asked 
to  be  pb.cej  in  the  castle  under  the  charge  of  Sir  Edward  Denny, 
but  duriog  bis  absence  a  surrender  was  made.  The  town  was  in- 
corporaied  by  a  charter  in  the  10th  of  James  I  ,  and  had  the  priri- 
lego  of  sending  two  members  to  the  Irish  parliament  Though 
disfranchised  at  the  Union,  it  obtained  the  privilege  of  returning 
one  member  in  1832,  but  in  1885  it  Was  merged  in  the  county. 

TRAMWAY.  Originally  a  tramway  signified  a  wheel 
track  laid  with  timbers,  and  afterwards  with  iron  plates,, 
having  a  flange  on  the  inner  edge  by  which  wheels  of  the 
ordinary  sort  were  kept  in  the  track  (see  Railway).  The 
introduction  of  the  flanged  wheel  and  edge  rail  caused 
tramways  to  be  superseded  by  railways,  but  not  until  many 
miles  of  tramroads  had  been  laid  and  successfully  worked 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Although  the 
name  is  sometimes  given  to  a  light  railway,  by  a  tramway 
is  now  geneially  understood  a  street  railway,  constructed 
60  as  to  interfere  but  little  with  the  ordinary  traffic,  on 
which  vehicles  having  flanged  wheels  are  propelled  by 
animal  or  mechanical  power.  Tramways  in  this  sense 
originated  in  the  United  States. 

A  street  railway  for  passengers  was  laid  in  New  York 
ID  1832,  but  it  was  soon  removed  on  account  of  the 
accidents  caused  by  it.  In  1852  a  French  engineer, 
Loubat,  revived  tramway  in  New  York,  and  they  were 
soon  afterwards  laid  in  other  American  cities.  A  short 
Lne  was  also  laid  in  Paris  in  1853.  The  rails  used  were 
of  wroughtriron,  5  inches  wide,  having  a  groove  for  the 
flanged  wheels  pi  the  cars  If  to  2}  inches  wide  and  1  to 
lA  inches  deep  (fig.  1).  To  lessen  the  inconvenience  to 
ordinary  traffic  occasioned  by 
this  rail,  the  "  step  rail  "  (fig.  2 )  ^ 

was  introduced,  consisting  of  a  i''^  '//M// 
flat  surface  3  to  5  inches  wide,  '^^  ''■'  '^^ 
which  can  be  used  by  ordinary 
wheels,  and  a  raised  tread  on 
the  outer  side  1  inch  higher  and 
1 J  inch  wide,  on  which  the 
flanged  wheels  of  the  cars  run. 
This  form  of  rail  is  still  very  general  in  America,  and  is  a 
good  one  for  the  tramways,  though  not  for  the  general  public. 
In  1858-9  Train,  an  American,  endeavoured  to  obtain  an 
Act  of  Parliacment  authorizing  tramways  in  London  ;  failing 
in  that,  he  laid  tramways,  by  consent  of  the  road  author- 
ity, first  in  1860  at  Birkenhead,  and  soon  afterwards  in 
London  The  rail  laid  at  Birkenhead  had  a  step  of  J  inch 
between  flat  surfaces  3  inches  and  1  i,  inches  wide.  That 
laid  in  London  was  narrower,  with  a  step  of  half  an 
inch,  but  the  slippery  fiat  surface  and  the  step  of  the  rail 
caused  serious  inconvenience  and  numerous  accidents  to 
iu.rriages,  and  the  tramways  were  removed  in  a  few 
months,  after  one  of  them  had  been  successfully  indicted 
A3  a  nuisance  In  Birkenhead,  in  spite  of  complaints  of 
the  inconvenience  caused  to  the  general  trafl^c,  the  original 
rails  remained  until  1864,  when,  after  a  short  length  had 
been"  laid  as  an  experiment  with  a  rail  of  the  grooved 
section  now  in  general  use  (fig.  3),  the  whole  of  the  tram- 
way, several  miles   in  length,  was   relaid  with    it.     The 


Fig  1 


Fig  2 


tramway  was  subsequently  indicted  as  a  nuisance,  but  the 
trial  resulted  in  a  verdict  in  favour  of  the  grooved  rail. 
In  1868  an  Act  of  Parliament  authorizing  the  consfruction 
of  about  6J  miles  of  tramways  in  Liverpool  was  obtained ; 
and  in  1869-71  Acts  for  61  miles  of  tramways  in  London 
were  passed,  and  were  soon  followed  by  other  Acts  for 
tramways  in  Glasgow,  Dublin,  Edinburgh,  and  other  pro- 
vincial towns. 

In  1870  the  Tramways  Act  was  passed,  enabling  the  Tram- 
Board  of  Trade  to  make  provisional  orders  authorizing  the  ''">'* 
construction  of  tramways  in  Great  Britain,  with  the  con-  *" 
sent  of  the  local  authorities,  and  giving  considerable  powers 
for  regvdating  their  construction  and  working.  By  the 
Act  the  gauge,  unless  otherwise  prescribed  by  special  Act, 
is  to  be  such  as  will  admit  of  the  use  of  carriages  con- 
structed for  use  on  railways  of  a  gauge  of  4  feet  8 J 
iuches.  Tramways  for  which  Acts  had  been  previously 
obtained  were  of  4  feet  8i  inches  gauge,  to  comply  with  a 
standing  order  intended  for  railways,  and  not  to  make 
them  available  for  railway  rolling-stock,  which  the  narrow 
groove  of  an  ordinary  tramway  rail  will  not  admit.  There 
is  reason  to  think  that  a  narrower  gauge,  such  as  3  feet 
6  inches,  is  often  sufficient  and  preferable  to  the  4  feet  8J 
inches  gauge. 

Tramways  in  towns,  authorized  by  provisional  order, 
are  to  be  constructed  in  the  middle  of  the  road,  and 
are  not  to  be  so  laid  that  for  30  feet  and  upwards  a 
less  space  than  9  feet  6  inches  shall  be  left  between  the 
outside  of  the  footpath  and  tie  rail,  if  one-third  of  the 
owners  or  occupiers  of  premises  abutting  upon  that  part  of 
the  road  object.  Vehides  are  thus  enabled  to  stop  at  the 
road  side  without  hindrance  from  the  tramcars.  To  leave 
9  feet  6  inches  on  each  side  of  a  single  line  of  tramway  of 
4  feet  8i  inches  gauge  a  street  must  be  upwards  of  24 
feet  wide.  No  carriage  used  on  a  tramway  must  extend 
more  than  11  inches  beyond  the  outer  edge  of  the  wheels, 
and  there  must  be  a  space  of  atleagt  15  inches  between 
the  sides  of  the  widest  carriages  or  engines  to  be  used, 
when  passing  one  another.  A  width  of  not  less  than  3 
feet  2  inches  between  double  lines  and  at  passing  places 
is  thus  necessary,  and  a  double  line  of  tramway,  leaving 
9  feet  6  inches  space  on  each  side,  requires  a  street  at 
least  32  feet  6  inches  wide  between  the  footways.  In  nar- 
row roads  there  is  a  convenience  in  having  the  tramway 
at  the  side,  and  it  is  sometimes  provided  for  in  special 
Acts.  The  space  between  the  rails,  and  for  18  inches 
beyond  them,  is  repairable  as  part  of  the  tramway.  Power 
is  given  to  local  authorities  to  purchase  traajwaj'S  at  the 
expiration  of  twenty-one  years,  and  they  may  be  removed 
under  certain  circumstances. 

It  appears  from  a  parliamentary  return  that  iir  1886 
there  were  779  miles  of  street  tramways  open  for  traffic  in 
Great  Britain,  on  which  a  capital  of  £11,503,438  had  been 
expended,  the  net  receipts  for  the  year  being  £563,735,  and 
the  worting  expenses  79  per  cent  of  thegtoss  receipts 

The  grooved  rail  first  laid  in  England  was  4^  inches  wide  and  Cod- 

an  inch  thick,  having  a  tread 
or  rolling  surface  for  the  wheel 
1  j  inches  wide,  and  a  groove  f 
inch  deep,  |  inch  wide  at  the 
bottom,  and  IJ  inches  wide  at 
the  top  (fig.  3).  The  rail  was 
spiked  through  to  a  longitudinal 
timber  laid  on  cross  sleepers, 
and  secured  to  them  by  angle 
brackets  and  spikes.  This  rail 
and  method  of  laying  were  gene- 
rally adopted,  but  it  was  found 
that  the  heads  cf  the  spikes  wore 
olT,  and  the  rails  required  re- 
spiking,  and  split  and  worked  loose  at  the  joints.  A  rail  known 
as  the  bo.x-rail  was  introduced,  having  flanges  below  on  each  side,  • 
through  holes  In  which  clips  are  driven  to  fasten  the  rail  to  the  tiro- J 


Fig  3. 


TRAMWAY 


507 


ber.  This  constitutes  a  good  fastening,  and  the  flanges  give  stiffness 
to  the  rail,  but  the  clifJS  cause  gaps  between  the  rail  and  the  paving 
atones,  which  lead  to  the  formation  of  ruts  alongside  the  rails.  Tbe 
longitudiual  timbers,  instead  of  being  laid  on  cross  sleepers,  on  which 
the  paving  does  not  bed  well,  are  often  fixed  in  cast-iron  chairs  con- 
nected by  transverse  tie-bars.  A  bed  of  concrete  13  always  laid  under 
the  longitudinal  timbers,  and  should  extend  to  the  whole  width  of 
the  paving  The  rails  first  laid  weighed  40  lb  per  yard,  but  it  was 
eooQ  found  desirable  to  increase  the  weight  to  60  Eb  per  yard.  It  is. 
however,  impossible  to  fish  the  joints  of  rails  like  the  above,  and  it 
was  found  that  the  working  of  the  joints  under  the  passage  of  the  cars 
loosened  the  ends  of  the  rails,  dislocated  the  paving,  and  daniai^ed 
both  the  tramway  cars  and  ordinary  vehicles.  Tramways  proved 
hardly  able  to  withstand  heavy  street  traffic  ;  and  to  provide  for 
steam  traction  a  stronger  form  of  rail  and  a  better  system  ot  perma 
cent  way  became  necessary  Many  forms  of  iron  bearings  have  been 
devised,  the  rail  being  either  supported  continuously  or  on  chairs 
At  intervals.  In  the  best  of  these  the  tram  rai-  can  be  replaced 
when  worn  without  disturbing  the  foundation  In  the  system  used 
in  Liverpool  cast-iron  longitudinal  sleepers  weighing  80  and  90  lb 
«  yard  carry  steel  rails  of  a  T  section  (fig  4)  weighing  40  tb  a  yard, 
both  sleepers  and  rails  being  held  down  by  bolts  to  jaws  anchored 
in  the  concrete  foundation  The  rails  can  be  renewed  and  the 
•leeperscan  be  taken  up  with  very  little  disturbaoce  of  the  paving. 


faring. 


Fig.  4 


Fig  6 


Bteel  rails  of  a  flatfooted  or  a  bridge  section,  and  of  such  a  depth 
•3  to  constitute  both  rail  and  sleeper,  are  also  used.  In  some  of  the 
latest  and  best  examples  the  rail  is  of  a  Hatfooted  section  {fig.  5), 
6  or  7  inches  deep,  and  6  or  7  inches  wide  at  the  base,  weighing 
C5  to  93  tb  per  yard.  The  head  has  a  groove  either  planed  out  or 
rolled  in  it,  giving  the  Ubual  prohle  to  the  upper  surface.  The 
joints  are  fished  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  are  as  .strong  as  the  rail 
Itself.  Cross  ties  are  sometimes  used,  but  when  the  rail  is  slightly 
bedded  in  the  concrete  foundation  they  are  dispensed  with  The 
paving  is  set  in  cement  close  against  the  rail,  and  is  bedded  directly 
or  in  sand  on  the'base  of  the  rail,  upon  which  there  is  a  bearing  of 
14  or  2  inches.  Such  a  tramway  will  stand  steam  traction  and 
the  heaviest  street  traffic,  but  the  rail,  which  is  of  an  expensive 
section,  requires  entire  renewal  when  the  head  is  worn  out.  Iron 
or  steel  continuous  bearings  are  less  elastic,  and  therefore  more 
jarring  and  noisy  than  timber  sleepers. 

The  profile  of  the  upper  surface  of  tram  rails  has  been  little  altered 
since  the  fir.U  grooved  rail  was  devised  for  Birkenhead  in  1863, 
though  slight  modifications  have  been  made  in  the  form  of  the 
groove  with  the  object  of  lessening  tractive  resistance.  For  the 
eake  of  the  ordinary  traffic  the  groove  should  not  exceed  1  inch  in 
width,  and  a  rounded  section  with  sides  splaying  outwards  facili- 
tates the  forcing  out  of  the  mud  and  dirt.  A  nearly  upright  side 
next  the  tread  or  rolling  surface  with  a  splay  on  the  inner  side 
throws  the  mud  away  from  the  wheel.  The  upper  corners  of  the 
rail  should  be  angular,  to  make  as  thin  a  joint  as  possible  between 
the  rail  and  the  p.iving  There  has  been  a  tendency  to  diminish 
the  width,  and  a  rail  as  narrow  as  3  inches  has  been  laid.  A 
deviation  from  the  usual  profile  has  been  adopted  in  Liverpool, 
where  the  groove  is  in  the  middle  of  a  lail  3\  iuclies  wide. 

A  tramway  must  not  only  afford  a  good  rolling  surface  capable  of 
bearing  the  weights  running  on  it,  but  it  must  also  be  able  to  resist 
the  shocks  of  heavy  vehicles  crossing  the  rails  in  all  directions. 
The  space  between  the  rails,  and  for  18  inches  beyond  them,  which 
is  repairable  with  the  tramway,  is  always  paved,  sometimes  in  pro- 
vincial towns  and  in  the  suburbs  of  London  with  wood,  but  generally 
I  with  stone  sets  in  the  best  manner  on  a  concrete  foundation.  The 
.  sctsalongside  the  rail  shouhl  be  carefully  dressed  and  fitted  to  mi»ke 
A  thill  joint  There  is  much  cxtia  wear,  and  a  tendency  to  form  a 
rut  alongside  the  nil,  aiising  from  ordiuary  wheels  using  the  tram 
rail,  and  unless  the  surface  of  the  paving  is  kept  to  the  level  of  tlio 
rail  the  wheels  of  carriages  arc  caught  by  the  rail,  and  damage  and 
accidents  are  caused.  To  resist  the  wear  near  the  rails,  clii"ed  cast- 
iron  blocks  have  been  used  where  the  traffic  is  great  On  a  mac- 
adamized road  there  is  the  same  tendency  to  form  a  rut  along  the 
outer  edge  of  the  tramway  paving,  which  is  to  someexieut  prevented 
by  giving  a  serrated  edge  to  the  pavmg.  There  is  always  great  diffi- 
culty in  keeping  the  road  surface  to  the  level  of  tlie  paving,  and  it  is 
better  to  pave  the  entire  width  of  a  street  in  which  a  tramway  is  laid. 


Although  cars  can  be  drawn  round  very  sharp  curves,  the  latter  Cxirvei) 
should  be  as  easy  as  possible.  A  radius  of  150  to  200  feet  is  the 
least  that  should  be  used  when  there  13  any  choice,  but  necessity 
may  compel  the  use  of  curves  of  50  or  even  30  feet  radius.  Oa 
such  curves,  however,  the  oars  are  lubte  to  bi;  strained,  and  the 
resistance  to  traction  is  greatly  increased. 

A  single  line  of  tramway  must  have  passing  places  for  the  cars,  Passmg 
consisting  of  pieces  of  double  hue  of  length  sumcient  to  hold  two  places, 
cars  at  least,  with  connecting  curves  and  the  nectrssary  points  and 
crossings.  Where  steam  or  other  mechanical  power  is  to  be  used 
the  passing  loops  should  be  at  least  200  feel  in  length.  There  iB 
inevitable  delay  and  loterlereoce  with  the  street  traffic  at  passing 
places,  and  where  cars  are  to  be  run  at  ire^uent  intervals  it  is 
better  to  lay  down  a  double  tine  if  the  street  is  wide  enough.  It 
IS  a  great  advantage  to  the  ordinary  traffic  Co  have  the  care  moving 
always  in  the  same  direction  on  the  same  line  of  rails 

For  horse  traction  fixeJ  points  of  chilled  cast-iron  or  steel  are  Pointa 
sufficient,  as  the  driver  can  turn  bia  horses  and  direct  the  car  on  to  and 
either  line  of  rails  When  mechanical  power  is  used,  drop  fnjints  cross- 
or  movable  pomls  are  retjuired  In  the  former  ^  groove  tfudiog  luga 
into  tht  road  to  be  taken  is  ot  the  full  depth,  anu  the  other  i^roov.- 
shallow  so  that  the  engine  and  cars  naturally  take  the  former., 
On  coming  out  of  the  shallownr  groove  to  the  deeper  there  is.  bow- 
ever,  a  drop  encountered  which  is  damaging  to  the  rollmg  stock, 
and  especully  to  the  engines.  Movable  [luints  require  setting  by 
hand,  or  they  are  actuated  by  a  spring  or  balance  weight  "In  one 
form  of  spnng  point  one  groove  is  filled  up  by  a  tongue  which  is 
pressed  down  by  wheels  passing  out  of  a  loop,  but  which  forms  the 
Side  of  the  groove  for  wheels  running  the  opposite  direction  A 
spring  point  of  steel,  which  is  forced  aside  by  the  tUoge  of  the 
wheel  passing  out,  and  shuts  close  again  by  its  own  elasticity,  is 
also  successfully  used  A  movable  point  on  one  side  of  the  way 
IS  sufficient  Crossings  are  either  built  up  from  rails  cut  to  the 
required  angle,  or  they  are  cast  solid  in  steel  or  chilled  iron.  Fill- 
ing pieces  of  the  same  material,  roughened  on  the  surface  for  foot- 
hold, are  inserted  between  the  raits  at  the  angles  of  pointa  and 
crossings.  Both  points  and  crossings  vve^r  rapidly,  and  are  trouble- 
some to  maintain  in  good  condition,  and  when  uot  so  maintained 
are  dangerous  to  ordiuary  tralEa 

The  tramcars  generally  in  u^e  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  con-  Cars, 
structed  to  carry  22  persons  inside  and  24  outside.  They  are  16 
feet  long  in  the  body,  or  24  feet  including  the  platforms  at  each 
end,  and  weigh  2^  to  2J  tons  when  empty  and  about  5^  tons  v  bea 
fully  loaded.  Smaller  cars  to  carry  20  or  14  persons  inside,  drawn 
by  one  horse,  are  useful  to  run  at  short  intervals  when  the  traffic 
is  not  great,  a  frequent  service  of  cars  being  a  great  element  of 
success.  The  car  wheels  are  usually  of  steel  or  chilled  iron,  with 
a  flango  half  an  inch  deep,  aud  are  fitted  with  powerful  brakes. 
The  axles  are  about  6  feet  apart,  giving  a  short  wheel-base  to 
enable  the  cars  to  pass  sharp  curves,  but  with  the  disadvantage  ol 
overhanging  ends.  Cars  to  be  drawn  by  mechanical  power,  espe- 
cially if  outside  passengers  are  to  be  carried,  should  have  a  flexible 
wheel-base,  either  by  means  of  bogie  frames  or  radiating  axles. 
In  Hamburg  and  Copenhagen  tramcars  have  wheels  without  flanges, 
and  a  small  guiding  wheel  running  in  the  groove,  which  can  be 
raised  to  allow  the  car  to  leave  the  track.  * 

The  tractive  force  required  on  a  straight  aud  level  tramway  is  Traction, 
found  to  vary  from  xhi  to  ^  of  the  load,  according  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  rails.  On  a  trartwaj  in  average  condition  it  is 
about  1-Jtj.  The  resistance  is  thus  at  the  best  nearly  double  that 
on  a  railway,  and  sometimes  as  much  as  on  a  good  pavement. 
This  is  due  to  the  friction  of  the  tlange  of  the  wlieel  in  the  grooved 
rail,  and  to  the  circumstance  that  the  latter  is  always  more  or  less 
clogged  uith  dirt.  The  clearance  between  the  flange  and  the 
groove  IS  necessarily  small,  hs  the  former  must  have  sufficient 
strength,  and  the  latter  must  be  narrow.  The  least  inaccuracy  of 
gauge,  therefore,  causes  extra  fiiction,  which  is  greatly  increased 
Oh  curves.  By  removing  the  flanges  from  two  of  the  four  wheels 
of  a  tramway  car  Tresta  found  that  the  resistance  was  reduced 
fiom  iVir  to  ■jj^  of  the  load.  The  resistance  due  to  gravity  is  of 
couise  uot  lessened  on  a  tramway  ;  and,  if  yths  of  ^be  load  be  the 
tractive  force  required  on  the  level,  twice  as  much,  or  3^  of  the  load, 
will  be  required  ou  a  gradient  of  1  in  100  and  three  times  as  much 
on  a  gradient  of  1  in  50  To  start  a  tiamcar,  four  or  five  times  as 
great  a  pull  is  required  as  will  keep  it  in  motion  afterwards,  and 
the  constant  starting  alter  stoppages,  especially  on  inclines,  is 
very  destructive  to  horses.  Horses  employed  on  tramways  aro 
worked  only  a  few  hours  a  day,  a  day's  work  being  a  journey  of  10 
or  12  nules,  or  much  less  on  steep  gradients.  In  London  a  tiam- 
car hoi"se  bought  at  the  age  of  five  years  has  to  be  sold  at  a  low 
price  after  about  four  years"  work.  On  the  Edinburgh  tramways,  in 
conscquciicr.  of  the  bteep  gradients,  the  horses  last  a  less  time,  and 
they  have  to  b6  constantly  shifted  fiom  steep  to  easier  gradients. 
The  cost, of  traction  by  horses  is  generally  6a.  or  7d.  per  mile  for 
two  liorses,  nnd  more  when  the  gradients  are  steep. 

The  application  of  steantas  a  motive  power  on  street  tramways  Steam 
is  attended  with  special  oifficulties,  arising  from  the  conditions  traction. 


508 


TRAMWAY 


(  om- 


^der  which  tha  engines  have"  to  work. '  A  Jramway  engine  must 
.be  able  to  draw  it3  load  upfiteep  gradients,  liemanding  perhaps  seven 
or  eight  tunes  the  power  required  on  a  level,  and  it  must  have 
the  necess&y  adhesion  without  being  too  heavy,  for  the  permanent 
way.  It  muit  be  capable  of  traversing  sharp  corves,  of  going 
backwards  or  forwards  with  safety,  and  of  stopping  and  starting 
quickly.  For  the  safety  and  convenience  of  the  public  the  Board 
of  Trade  require  that  tramway  engines  shall  have  brakes  to  each 
wheel,  to  be  applied  by  hand  and  by  steam,  a  governor  so  arranged, 
as  to  shut  off  the  steam  and  apply  the  brakes  when  the  engine 
exceeds  the  speed  of  10  miles  an  honr  or  other  stated  speed,  an 
indicator  to  show  the  speed,  a  whistle  or  bell  to  be  sounded  as  a 
warning,  and  a  fender  to  push  aside  obstructions  >  the  engine 
must  be  free  from  noise  produced  by  blast,  and  from  clatter  of 
machinery  such  as  to  constitute  a  reasonable  ground  of  complaint; 
and  the  machinery  and  fire  must  be  concealed  from  view;  no 
smoke  or  steam  must  be  emitted  so  as  to  constitute  any  reasonable 
ground  of  complaint  to  passengers  or  the  public 
'  The  first  attempt  to  use  steam  on  a  modern  tramway  was  with 
Grantham's  combined  engine  and  car.  It  was  about  25  feet  long, 
having  a  vertical  boiler  in  a  central  compartment,  with  the  steam 
cylinders  below,  diiving  one  pair  of  wheels  2  feet  6  inches  in 
diameter.  It  carried  20  passengers  inside  and  24  outside,  weighing 
64  tons  empty  and  12  tons  when  fully  loaded.  In  a  later  car  the 
boiler  and  machinery  were  at  one  end,  and  the  body  of  the  car  was 
carried  on  a  bogie  frame.  In  a  combined  engine  and  car  the 
weight  of  the  car  and  passengers  is  utilized  for  adhesion  of  the 
driving  wheels,  and  this  is  conveniently  effected  in  Rowan's  car, 
in  which  there  are  two  four-wheel  bogies,  the  leading  one  carrying 
the  engine  and  boiler,  and  half  the  body  of  the  car  and  passengers. 
The  engine  can  be  detached  from  the  car  for  repair  and  another 
engine  can  be  substituted  in  a  few  minutes.  Economy  of  rolling 
stock;  and  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  use  cars  intended  for 
horses,  are  in  favourxif  independent  engines.  They  are  nsually  in 
general  construction  similar  to  locomotives,  but  are  enclosed  so  as 
to  resemble  in  outward  appearance  a  short  tramcar.  The  cylinders 
are  6  to  9  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  stroke  of  10  to  12  inches. 
The  wheels  are  coupled,  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter,  and  thS  engines 
weigh  4  to  6  tons  with  fuel  and  water.  The  governor  to  shut  off 
steam  and  apply  the  brakes  when  any  determined  speed  is  attained 
is  actuated  either  by  the  engiue  wheels  or  by  an  independent 
wheel  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the  brakes  being  pnt  on  when 
the  driving-wheels  slip.  An  effectual  way  of  rendering  the  exhaust 
steam  invisible  is  to  condense  it  by  passing  it  through  water  in  a 
tank,  or  through  a  shower  of  water  let  off  at  each  blast,  but  when 
the  water  gets  not  it  must  be  changed,  and  in  streets  it  is  difficult 
,to  get  rid  of  the  hot  water.  Several  methods  of  superheating  by 
passing  the  exhaust  steam  through  the  fire  have  been  adopted,  but 
they  are  all  attended  with  an  increased  consumption  of  fuel,  which 
in  cold  damp  weather  is  considerable.  It  is  now  preferred  to  pass 
the  steam  into  tubes  exposed  to  the  air  on  the  top  of  the  engine 
car,  from  which  the  condensed  water  is  returned  to  the  feed-tank, 
to  be  again  pumped  into  the  boiler  at  a  high  temperature.  Any 
steam  remaining  uncondensed  passes  into  the  smoke-box.  Com- 
pound cylinders  have  been  applied  to  tramway  engines,  giving  a 
greater  range  of  power,  economizing  fuel,  and  rendenng  the  exhaust 
iteam  easier  to -deal  with.  The  extra  complication  .of  a  compound 
engine  is,  however,  a  drawback. 

I  The  cost  of  steam  ti&ttion  with  engines  of  ordinary  size  is  gene- 
rally 3d.,  to  4d.  per  mile  run  by  the  engine,  and  more  on  lines  with 
Itcep  gradients.  To  this  must  be  added  for  depreciation  10  per 
Mnt,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  15  percent,  on  the  original 
cost  of  the  engines,  making  altogether  4d.  to  6(1.  per  mile  run  on  a 
tramway  with  average  gradients. 

IFireless  engines  were  first  tried  in  New  Orleans,  and  have  been 
'h  successful  nse  on  tramways  in  France  for  some  years.  The 
.-uotive  power  is  obtained  from  water  heated  under  pressure  to  a 
'ery  high  temperature  in  stationary  boilers  and  carried  in  a 
reservoir,  where  it  gives  off  steam  as  the  pressure  and  temperature 
are  reduced.'  Two  tons  of  water  heated  to  give  a  steam-jpressure  of 
250  lb  to  the  square  inch  serves  for  a  run  of  8  or  10  miles,  leaving 
more  than  -fn  of  the  water  and  a  pressure  of  20  to  25  lb  above  the 
atmosphere  on  returning  to  the  boiler.  Large  boiler-power  is 
required  to  reheat  the  engine  reservoirs  quickly,  and  this  cannot. 
be  afforded  for  only  a  few  engines,  but,  when  worked  on  asufiicient 
scale,  the  fireless  engines  are  claimed  to'^e  economical,  the  economy 
resulting  from  the -generation  of  the  -team  in  large  stationary 
boilels^ 
"CoiiTiil'essed  air  «  a  motive  power  offers  the  advantage  of  having 
Ineither  steam  nor  the  products  of  combustion  to  be  got  rid  of. 
In  Scott  Moncricir?  engine,  which  was  tried  on  the  Vale  of  Clyde 
tramways  in  1876,  air  was  compressed  to  310  tb  on  the  square  inch, 
and  enpaiided  in  the  cylinders  from  a  uniform  working  pressure  to 
that  of  the  atmosphere.  There  is  a  considerable  loss  of  heat  during 
the  expansion  of  the  air  which  is  attended  with  a  serious  loss  of 
pressure,  and  in  Mekariki's  system,  which  has  been  in  use  for  the 
Biopulsion  of  traiiic»r\«t  N«iites  for  seven  years,  the  loss  of  pres^ 


sure  is  considerably  lessened  by  heating  the  air  during  expansion,' 
The  air,  at  a  pressure  of  426  lb  per  square  inch,  is  stored  in  cylindrical 
reservoirs  beneath  thecar^and  before  use  is  passed  through  a  vessel 
three  quarters  full  of  water  heated  to  300°  F.,  by  which  it  is  heated 
and  mixed  with  steam.  The  heat  of  the  latter  is  absorbed  by  the 
air  during  its  expansioix,  first  to  a  working  pressure  which  can'  be 
regulated  by  the  driver,  and  then  to  atmospheric  pressure  in  the 
cylinders.  At  Nantes  the  average  cost  for  three  years  for  propel- 
ling a  car  holding  34  pereons  was  about  6d.  per  mile. 

In  San  Francisco  a  main  charged  with  air  at  a  pressure  of  about, 
120  Tb  per  square  inch  has  been  laid  along  the  tram  route,  from 
which  reaorvx>irs  on  the  Cars  are  charged  by  means  of  standpipes 
and  flexible  connexions  at  convenient  "points,  the  operation  taking 
a  very  short  time.  The  inventor  claims  to  utilize  30  per  cent,  of,' 
the  power  applied  to  the  compressor. 

Street  tramways  worked  by  means  of  a  wire  rope  have  "  h-e  in  Cabli 
successful  operation  in  San  Francisco  since  1873.  There  t-j  Lcwtram-' 
upwards  of  24  miles  of  double  line  in  San  **y?f 

Francisco,  and  10  miles  in  Chicago,  and  the 
system  is  being  adopted  in  other  American 
and  colonial  cities.  It  has  also  been  in 
operation  in  England  at  Highgate  Hill  for, 
several  years,  and  is  about  to  be  adopted-in 
other  localities.  The  motive  power  is  trans- 
mitted from  a  stationary  engine  by  a  rope  of 
steel  wire  running  always  in  one  direction 
up  one  track  and  down  the  other,  in  4  tube 
midway  between  the  rails,  on  pulleys  which 
are  arranged  so  as  to  suit  curves  and  changes 
of  gradient  as  well  as  straight  and  level 
lines.  Over  the  rope  is  a*  slot  |  inch  wide, 
in  which  travels  a  flat  arm  of 
steel  connect'ing  the  dummy 
car  with  -the    gripper   which 


_ripp 
grasps  the  cable.    The  flat  arm 
is   in   three    pieces,   the   two 
outer  ones  constituting  a  frame 
which  carries  theJower  jaw  of 
thegripper,  with  grooved  rollers 
at  each  end  of  it,  over  which 
the  cable  runs  when  the  gripper 
is  not  in  action.     The  apperj 
jaw  is  carried  by  the 
middle    piece,     which 
slides  within  the  outer 
frame,  and  can  be  de- 
pressed by  a  lever  or 
screw,      pressing      the 
cable  firstonthe  rollers, 
and  then  on  the  lower 


jaw  until   it  is  firmly  t 
held.    The  speed  of  the 
cable,  which    is  gene- 
rally 6  to  8  miles  an 
hour,  is  thus  imparted  <^^^^^ 
to    the    car  gradually 
and  without  jerk.    The 
arrangements  for  pass- 
ing    the    pulleys,    for  F».  6.-Gripper. 
changing   the   dummy 

and  cars  from  one  line  to  the  other  at  the  end  of  the  road,  fori 
keeping  the  cable  uniformly  taut,  and  for  crossings  and  junction** 
with  other  lines  are  of  considerable  ingen-; 
uity.     "When  the  cars  are  cast  off  from  the  ■ 
cable  they  must  be  stopped  by  hand  brakes, 
which  on  steep  gradients  especially  must 
be  of  great  I'ower. 

The  system  has  advantages  on  double 
lines  with  lew  and  easy  curves  when  the 
gradients  are  long  .ind  steep,  and  it  can  be 
employed  on  gradients  too  steep  for  s^eam 
traction.  On  level  lines  it  is  doubtful  if  it 
could  compete  in  economy  with  steam,  or 
even  with  horse  traction,  unless  with  a  very  frequent  service  of  cars 
Uiough  then  it  presents  the  advantages  of  being  cotsparatively 
quiet,  and  free  from  smoke  and  steam,  and  of  admitting  a  frequent 
service  of  cars  with  little  extra  cost  Ob  the  cable  roads  of  San 
Francisco  it  has  been  found  that,  of  the  average  daily  power  em- 
ployed, 68  per  cent  is  expended  in  moving  the  cables,  ic. ,  28  pei 
cent,  for  the  cars,  and  4  j>er  cent,  for  passengers.  It  is  considered 
that  it  is  practicable  to -utilize  in  moving  cars  and.4)assenger8  as 
much  as  60  per  cent,  qf  the  power,  provided  the  cars  are  full» 
lo.Tded  and  run  at  short  ^ptervals. 

Electricity  has  been  allied  as  a  motive  power  -on  a  traB-wi\  Ziectnit 
about  2  miles  long  at  Blac'kpool.     The  current  is  conveyed  bj  t»u  molor^ 
copreer  conductors  in  a  central  channel  beneath  the  roadway,  and 
is  communicated  to  the  motors  in  the  car  by  a  collector  runuiug, 


Fit  7.— CarTTlng  Polle)-.^ 


T  R  A  — T  R  A 


509 


apoD  the  conductors  and  passing  throagh  a  narrow  slit  in  the 
channel.  The  return  current  passes  through  the  rails.  The  cars 
carrv  as  many  as  56  passengers  on  a  l»vel  line  Tramways  have 
•  I-  L»een  worked  by  accuTiulatorsat  AQtwerp  and  Brussels,  but  the 
Weight  of  them  appears  to  be  at  present  prohibitory  to  this  method 
of  applying  electricity,  ejtcept  for  short  trips.     See  Traction 

For  fuller  uiforTnat>OD,  k«  D  K  Clara.  Tramvars,  tttetr  Conurvetitm  and 
MaiMavoKe.  F  S^iafon,  LfS  Tramcofi  ef  1*3  C^inins  tf«  Fer  ttir  Kotttti : 
" Street  Tr»m»8TB,"  Prtx.  Inu  C  C.  »ol  I  -»ol  Ixtil,  -The  Working  o(  Tmm 
«f«ys  by  St«8m."  /6*/.  »oI.  IxUx.;  and  F   B.  Sinith.  Cabl'  Trarwtavi       (T  C  1 

TRANCE  See  Sleep;  also  Magnetism  (Animal) 
TR.\NI,  a  seaport  of  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic,  id  the 
provioce  of  Bari.  and  26  miles  by  rail  west  north  west  of 
that  town,  still  retains  its  old  walls  and  bastions,  with  the 
citadel,  now  used  as  a  prison  Some  of  the  streets  remain 
much  as  they  were  i-i  the  mediaeval  period,  and  many  of 
the  houses  display  more  or  less  of  Norman  decoration 
The  cathedral,  on  a  raised  open  site  near  the  sea,  dating 
from  about  the  year  1100,  is  a  basilica  with  three  apses,  a 
large  crypt,  and  a  lofty  tower  The  arches  of  the  Roman- 
esque portal  are  beautifully  ornamented,  in  a  manner 
suggestive  of  Arab  influence  .  the  bronze  doors,  executed 
by  Barisanus  of  Trani  •'.  1175,  rank  among  the  best  of 
their  period  in  southern  Italy  The  capitals  of  the  pillars 
in  the  crypt  are  fine  e.xamples  of  the  Romanesque  The 
interior  of  the  cathedral  has  been  barbarously  modernized 
The  vicinity  of  Trani  produces  an  excellent  wine  (Moscado 
di  Trani);  and  its  figs,  oil.  almonds,  and  corn  are  also  pro 
Stable  articles  of  trade  The  harbour  was  once  deep  and 
good,  but  latterly  has  got  silted  up  The  population  of 
the  town  in  1881  was  25,173  (commune  25.647) 

Trani  is  the  Turenum  of  the  itineraries  It  first  became  a 
flourishing  p'ace  under  tbe  Normans  and  during  the  crusades,  but 
attained  the  acme  of  lis  prosperity  as  a  seat  of  trade  with  tbe  East 
under  the  Angevioe  princes  Several  synagogues  continue  to  aiford 
An  indication  of  its  former  commercial  yrosj^erity 

TRANQUEBAR,  a  seaport  town  in  the  Tanjore  district 
of  Madras  presidency,  India,  in  II'  !'  37"  N  lat.  and 
79°  55'  E.  long.  In  the  17th  century  it  belonged  to  the 
Danes;  it  was  taken  by  the  British  with  other  Danish 
settlements  in  1807,  but  restored  in  1814,  and  finally 
purchased  in  1845  for  a  sum  of  £20.000  In  Danish 
times  Tranquebar  was  a  busy  port,  but  Its  prosperity  has 
fluctuated  considerably  of  late  years,  and  is  now  at  a  very 
low  ebb.  It  was  the  first  settlement -of  Protestant  mis- 
sionaries in  India,  founded  by  Ziegenbalg  and  Plutschau 
(Lutherans)  in  1706  ;  and  as  a  mission  station  it  still 
retains  its  importance. 
See  vol.  TRANSBAIKALIA  (ZabaikaUkaya  OUasl).  a  province 
pSe  L  °^  Eastern  Siberia,  to  the  east  of  Lake  Baikal,  has  Irkutsk 
00  the  west,  Yakutsk  on  tbe  north,  the  province  of  Amur 
on  the  east,  and  Mongolia  on  the  south  Its  area 
(240,780  square  miles)  is  about  as  great  as  that  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  but  its  |X)pulation  is  under  half  a  million  With 
regions  of  a  purely  Siberian  character  on  the  one  hand, 
and  including  on  tbe  other  the  outer  borders  of  the 
Mongolian  steppes  and  the  upper  basin  of  the  Amur, 
Transbaikalia  forms  an  intermediate  link  between  Siberia, 
Mongolia,  and  the  northern  Pacific  littoral  The  mountains 
of  the  Yablonovoi  Kbrebet,  which  run  in  a  northeasterly 
direction  from  the  sources  of  tbe  Kerulefi  to  the  bend  of 
the  Olekma  in  06°  N  lat ,  divide  the  province  into  two 
quite  distinct  parts  •  to  the  west  the  upper  terrace  of  tbe 
high  East  Asian  plateau  continued  from  the  upper  Selenga 
and  Yenisei  (from  4000  to  5000  feet  high)  towards  the 
plateau  of  the  Vitim  (3500  to  4000  feet) ;  and  to  the  east 
the  lower  terrace  of  the  same  plateau  (about  2800  feet 
Ligh),  which  appears  as  a  continuation  of  the  eastern 
Gobi.  Tbe  continuity  of  the  high  plateau  extending  from 
the  upper  Selenga  to  the  upper  Vitim  was  for  a  long  time 
overlooked  in  consequence  of  a  broad  and  deep  valley  by 
which  it  is  intersected.  Beginning  at  Lake  Baikal,  it 
pierces  ths  huge  north-western  border-ridge  of  the  plateau, 


and  runs  eastward  tip  the  Uda,  with  an  imperceptible' 
gradient,  like  a  gigantic  railway  cutting  enclosed  between . 
two  steep  slopes,  sending  another  branch  south  towards 
Kiakhta  After  having  served,  through  a  succession  of 
geological  periods,  as  an  outlet  for  the  water  and  ice  which' 
accumulated  on  the  plateau,  it  is  now  utilized  for  the  two' 
highways  which  lead  from  Lake  Baikal  over  the  plateau  I 
(3500-4000  feet)  to  the  An\ur  in  the  east  and  the  Chinese 
depression  in  the  south  Elsewhere,  the  high  and  massive 
border-ridge  on  the  north  western  edge  of  the  plateau  can 
be  crossed  only  by  difficult  footpaths  The  border-ridge 
just  mentioned,  pierced  by  the  wideopening  of  the  Selenga, 
runs  from  south  west  to  north-east  under  different  names, 
being  known  as  Kbamar-daban  to  the  south  of  Lake  Baikal 
(the  Khamardaban  peak  raising  its  bald  summit  to  a 
height  of  6900  feet  above  the  sea),  and  as  the  Barguzin 
Mountains  (7000  to  8000  feet)  aloug  the  eastern  hank  of 
tbe  Barguzin  river,  while  farther  to  the  north  east  it  baa 
been  described  by  the  present  writer  under  the  names  of 
the  South  Muya  and  Tchara  Mountains  (6000  to  7000 
feet)  Resting  its  south-east  base  on  the  plateau,  it 
descends  steeply  on  the  northwest  to  the  lake,  or  to  the 
broad  picturesque  valleys  of  the  Barguzin,  the  Muya,  and 
the  Tchara  Larch,  fir,  and  cedar  forests  thickly  clothe 
the  ridge,  whose  dome-shaped  rounded  summits  {goltsy) 
rise  above  tbe  limits  of  tree  vegetation,  but  do  not  reach 
the  snow  line  (here  above  10,000  feet).  The  high  plateau 
Itself  has  the  aspect  of  an  undulating  table-land,  intersected 
by  low  ranges,  which  rise  some  1500  or  2000  feet  above  its 
surface,  and  are  separated  by  broad,  flat,  and  marshy 
valleys,  which  the  rivers  languidly  traverse  till  they  find 
their  way  across  the  border-ridges.  Those  of  the  valleys 
which  are  better  drained  have  fine  meadow  lands,  but  as  a 
whole  the  plateau  has  the  appearance,  especially  in  the 
north,  of  a  wet  or  marshy  prairie  in  the  hollows,  while  the 
hills  are  thickly  clothed  with  forests  (almost  exclusively  of 
larch  and  bircb).  Numberless  lakes  and  pnnds  occur  along 
the  river  courses  Tungus  hunters  find  a  livelihood  in  the 
forests  and  on  the  meadows,  but  permanent  agricultural 
settlements  are  impossible,  corn  seldom  ripening  on  account 
of  the  eai  ly  frosts  The  lower  parts  of  the  broad  and  flat 
valley  of  the  Djida  have,  however,  a  few  Cossack  settle- 
ments, and  on  the  upper  Selenga  and  Yenisei  Mongolian 
shepherds  (Uryankhes  and  Darkhates)  inhabit  the  high 
grassy  valleys  about  Lake  Kossogol  (5560  feet  above  the 
sea).  Quite  different  is  the  lower  terrace  of  the  plateau, 
occupied  by  the  eastern  Gobi  and  the  Nertcbinsk  region 
of  Transbaikalia,  and  separated  from  the  above  by  the 
Yablonovoi  ridge._  This  last  is  the  south-eastern  border 
ridge  of  the  higher  terrace.  It  rises  to  8250  feet  in  the 
Sokhondo  peak,  but  elsewhere  its  dome-shaped  summits 
do  not  exceed  5000  or  6000  feet.  When  crossing  it  from 
the  north-west,  about  Tchita,  the  traveller  hardly  perceives 
that  he  is  approaching  the  great  water  parting  between  the 
Arctic  and  the  Pacific  oceans.  Numberless  lakes,  with  flat 
undefined  borders,  feed  streams  which  flow  lazily  amidst 
marshes,  some  of  them  to  join  tbe  tireat  northward  rivers, 
others  to  find  their  way  to  the  Amur  and  the  Pacific.  Low 
hills  rise  gently  above  the  edge  of  the  plateau,  but  an 
abrupt  slope  descends  towards  the  south-east,  where  the 
hill  foots  of  the  Yablonovoi  are  nearly  1500  and  2000  feet 
lower  than  on  the  north-west  Climate,  flora,  and  fauna 
suddenly  change  as  soon  as  the  Yablonovoi  has  been 
crossed  ;  the  steppes  of  Daiyia  (continuations  of  th-ose  of 
the  Gobi),  covered  with  a  bright  luxuriant  vegetation, 
meet  the  view  of  the  spectator.  The  Siberian  flora  gives 
way  to  the  much  richer  Daurian  flora,  which  in  turn  ia! 
exchanged  for  the  Pacific  littoral  flora  as  soon  as  the 
traveller  descends  from  the  lower  terrace  of  the  plateau 
towards  the  Manchurian  plains  and  lowlands. 


510 


TRANSBAIKALIA 


The  lower  terrace,  occupied  in  Transbaikalia  by  the 
Nertchinsk  district,  has  the  character  of  a  steppe,  but  is 
also  intersected  by  a  number  of  ranges,  all  running  south- 
west to  north-east,  and  all  being  plications  of  Silur'an  and 
Devonian  rocks,  containing  silver,  lead,  and  copper,  and  also 
auriferous  sands.  Agrifiulture  can  be  easily  carried  on  in 
the  broad  prairies,  Ihe  only  drawbacks  being  droughts,  and 
also  frosts  in  the  settlements  in  the  higher  close  v<i,ileys  of 
the  Nertchinsk  or  Gazimur  Mountains.  The  lower  terrace 
ia  in  its  turn  fringed  by  a  border-ridge — the  Great  Khingan 
■ — which  has,  vnth  reference  to  the  lower  terrace,  the  same 
characters  as  vhe  Yablonovoi  in  relation  to  the  upper,  and 
separates  Siberia  from  northern  Manchuria.  This  import- 
ant ridge,  as  shown  elsewhere  (vol.  xsii.  pp.  3,  4),  does  not 
tun  from  south  to  north,  as  represented  on  the  old  maps,  but 
from  south-west  to  north-east ;  it  is  pierced  by  the  Amur 
near  Albazin,  and  joins  the  Okhotsk  ridge,  which  in  its  turn 
does  hot  join  the  Yablonovoi  Mountains.  The  mountains 
drawn  west  and  east  on  older  maps  to  connect  the  Yablo- 
novoi with  the  Okhotsk  ridge  have  no  actual  existence. 

The  rivers  belong  to  three  different  systems, — the  affluents  of 
Lake  Baikal,  of  the  Lena,  and  of  the  Amur.  Of  the  first  the 
Selenga  (800  miles  long)  rises  in  the  Hanghai  Mountains  of  north- 
Vestern  Mongolia,  one  of  its  great  tributaries  (the  Ebin-gol)  being 
an  emissary  of  Lake  Kossogol.  It  flows  past  Selenghinsk  and 
enters  Lake  Baikal  from  the  south-east,  forming  a  wide  delta.  The 
Tchikoi,  the  Khitok,  and  the  Uda  are  its  chief  tributaries  in 
Transbaikalia.*  The  Earguzin  and  the  Upper  Angaraare  two  large 
tributaries  of  Lake  Baikal  from  the  north-east  Of  the  tributaries 
of  the  Lena,  the  Vitim  with  its  affluents  (Karenga,  Tsipa,  Muya, 
Katar,  Katakan)  flows  on  the  high  plateau  through  uninhabited 
regions,  as  aUo  does  the  Olekraa.  The  tributaries  of  the  Amur, 
which  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Shilka  and  the  Argiifi,  are 
much  more  important.  The  ArguS,  which  at  a  quite  recent  epoch 
received  the  waters  of  the  Dalai-nor,  and  thus  had  the  KeruleB  for 
its  source,  is  no  longer  in  communication  with  the  rapidly  drying 
Mongolian  lake,  and  has  its  sources  in  the  Gau,  which  Aowb  i^rom 
the  Great  Khingao.  It  is  not  navigable,  but  receives  the  Gazimur 
and  several  other  streams  which  water  the  Nertchinsk  raining 
district.  The  Shilka  is  formed  by  the  union  of  thp  Onon  and  the 
Tchita  rivers,  and  is  navigable  from  the  town  of  Tchita,  thus  being 
an  important  channel  of  transit  to  the  Amur. 

Lake  Baikal,  with  an  area  of  12.430  square  miles  (nearly  equal  to 
that  of  Switzerland),  extends  in  a  half  crescent  from  south-west  to 
north-east  ;  it  has  a  length  of  over  400  miles  and  a  width  of  from 
20  to  f>3  miles.  Its  level  is  1561  feet  above  the  sea.^  About 
the  middle  it  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  Great  Lake  and  the 
Little  Lake,  by  lh&  Island  Olkhon  and  the  peninsula  of  Svyatoi 
Nos,  which  closely  approach  one  another.  Between  the  two  there 
is  a  submerged  ridge,  which  must  bo  considered  as  a  continuation 
of  the  Barguzin  Alps.  The  wide  delta  of  the  Selenga  narrows  the 
Great  Lake  in  its  middle  part,  and  renders  it  more  shallow  in 
the  east  than  iri  the  west — the  greatest  depth  (4186  feet)  having 
Iwen  reached  by  Dr  Godlevski  in  the  soutn-west.  The  def.th  of 
the  Little  Lake  does  not  exceed  210  feet.  According  to  Tchersky, 
the  trough  now  occupied  by  the  base  had  its  origin  in  three  sepa- 
rate synclinal  valleys,  which  date  from  the  Azoic  epoc"i,  and  were 
gulfs  of  the  ocean  during  the  Silurian  or  Huronian  period.  They 
coalesced  at  a  much  later  epoch.'  Of  other  lakes,  the  Gusinoye 
and  Lake  Baunt  on  the  Vjtim  plateau,  and  Orun  at  its  base,  are 
worthy  of  notice.  Many  lakes  yield  common  salt  or  8ulphat«  of 
natron. 

The  high  plateau  consists  of  granites,  gneisses,  and  syenites, 
covered  with  Laurentian  scliists.  Silurian  and  Devonian  marine 
deposits  occur  only  on  the  lower  terrace.  Since  that  time  the  region 
has  not  been  nnder  the  sea,  and  only  freshwater  Jurassic  deposits  and 
coal  beds  are  met  with  in  the  depressions.  During  the  Glacial 
period  most  of  the  high  terrace  of  the  plateau  and  its  border  ridgts 
were  undoubtedly  covered  with  vast  glaciers.  Volcanic  rocks  of 
more  recent  origin  (Mesozoic  1)  are  met  with  in  the  north-western 
border  ridge  and  on  its  slopes,  as  wpII  as  on  the  Vitim  plateau. 
Daring  the  Glacial  period  the  fauna  of  the  lowest  parts  of  Trans- 
baikaJJa  was  decidedly  arctic;  while  during  tho  Lacustrine  or 
Post-Glacial    period    it  was   covered  with    numberless   lakes,    the 


1  Steamer*  have  asccniJod  the  lower  Selenga  and  the  Uda  op  lo  Verkncudinsk. 

9  According  to  itie  leTelling  made  In  1875-76  from  Zvermogolovsk,  in  Oren- 
burg, to  Lake  Bmkal  Tlure  Ih  unceftaloty  as  to  tbe  Bl)inlule  altitude,  that  of 
ZfcrtDogoloTsk.  3IS  feet.  Iiaviag  stlU  to  be  verified  See  Mem.  Rust  Qeogr  Soc  : 
Phyi.  Oeoffr  ,  »ol    xv,,  I68i 

>  I.  Tchersky,  "  KeoDlu  of  the  Exploration  of  Lake  Baikal,"  In  Jttfm.  ttusi. 
Ofogr.  Soc.  .  Fhyt  Qeogr. ^  vol  xv  .  1886,  with  a  gcolofflcal  map  on  a  scale  of  7 
miles  to  an  inch;  Fr.  Schmldfa  report  In  the  yearly  Rfport  of  the  RuMlan  Geo- 
graphical S«ciety  for  1866  (both  RussIod). 


shores  of  which  were  inhabited  by  NefcUthicman.  Only  few  trace* 
of  these  have  remained,  and  they  are  rapidly  drying  up.  Earth- 
quakes are  very  frequent  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Baikal,  especially 
at  the  mouth  ot  the  Selenga,  extending  as  far  as  Irkutsk,  Barguzin, 
and  Selenghinsk ;  in  1862  an  extensive  area  was  submerged  by  "thO' 
lake.  Numerous  mineral  springs,  some  of  them  of  high  repute, 
are  spread  all  over  Transbaikalia,  '^lie  chief  of  them  are  the  hot 
alkaline  springs  (130*  F.)  at  Turka,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Barguzin, 
whitber  hnndredp  of  patients  resort  annually,  those  of  Pogromna 
on  the  Uda  (very  similar  to  the  Seltzer  springs),  those  of-Motokova 
near  Tchita,  and  those  of  Darasun  in  the  Nertchinsk  district  (very 
rich  in  carbonic  aoid  and  phosphate  of  iroti). 

Tho  flora  and  fauna  of  Transbaikalia,  iwing  to  their  intermedial* 
character  between  a  purely  Siberian  flora  and  fauna  and  those 
characteristic  of  the  Mongolian  and  Manchurian  regions,  have  been 
the  subject  of  many  careful  investigations  since  the  time  of  Pallaa 
down  to  those  of  Turczaninoff,  Middendorff,  Schrenck.  Radde,  and 
Polyakoff.  Their  various  characters  in  dilterent  parts  of  this  ex^ 
tensive  territory  could  not  be  described  without  entering  too  largely 
into  details.  The  reailer  may  consult  the  works  of  the  author* 
just  named  (see  vol.  xxii.  p.  12). 

The  climate  is,  as  a  whole,  exceedingly  dry  and  extrema  Tb» 
winter  ia  cold  and  dry  ;  snow  is  so  trifling  that  the  horses  of  the 
Buriats  find  their  -food  throughout  the  winter  on  the  steppes,  and 
in  the  very  nriddle  of  the  winter  wheeled  vehicles  are'Xised  all  over 
the  west.  To  the  east  of  the  Yablonovoi  ridge  the  Nertchinsk 
district  feels  the  influence  of  the  North  Pacific  monsoon  region, 
and  snow  falls  more  thickly,  especially  in  the  valleys,  but  the 
summer  continues  to  be  hot  and  dry.  On  the  high  plateau,  even 
the  summer  is  cold,  owing  to  the  altitude  and  the  humidity  arising 
from  the  marshes,  and  the  soil  is  frozen  to  a  great  depth.  lu  the 
vicinity  of  Lake  Baikal  the  raoderaring  influence  of  the  great 
water-basin  is  felt  to  some  extent,  and  there  is  a  cooler  summei*; 
in  winter  exceedingly  deep  snow  covera  the  goitsya  and  valleys  of 
the  mountains  around  the  lake.* 

The  population  (497,760  in  18S2)  is  exceedingly  sparse,  urdess 
the  immense  uninhabitable  spaces  of  tbe  plateaus  be  left  ovit  of 
account.  Even  on  the  lower  terrace  nearly  the  whole  of  the  ngion 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Shilka  is  unsuited  for  apiculture,  as  also 
are  the  Gazimur  Mountains,  where  only  a  few  settlers  gain  a  liveli- 
hood in  some  of  the  valleys,  struggling  against  aa  unhealthy 
climate  and  the  influence  of  goitre.  The  Russian  population  there 
gathers  around  tlie  crown  minis  of  the  Nertchinsk  district,  while 
the  steppes  are  occupied  by  Buriats.  A  succession  of  villages, 
supported  partly  by  agriculture  and  partly  by  hunting  and  trade 
with  Mongolia,  are  settled  along  the  Shilka  between  Tchita  and 
Sryetensk,  while  farther  down  tbe  river  flows  in  such  a  wild 
mountain  region  that  only  a  few  families  are  settled,  at  distances 
some  20  miles  apart,  to  maintain  communication.  The  same  is  true 
with  regard  to  the  lower  Argun.  The  valleys  of  the  Uda,  tbe  lower 
Selenga,  and  especially  the  Tchikoi  and  the  Khitok  have  been 
occupied  since  the  b§ginning  of  the  century  by  Raskolniks,  who 
have  received  the  name  of  Se'ineisknye  on  account  of  their  large 
(compound)  families,  and  there  one  finds,  in  a  condition  of  pros  pfenty 
such  as  is  unkno^vn  in  Russia  proper,  some  of  the  finest  represi;n> 
tatives  of  the  Russian  race.  The  remainder  of  the  step pe  of  iho 
Uda  is  occupied  by  Buriats,  while  the  forests  and  raarsben  of  (he 
plateau  are  the  hunting  grounds  of  the  nomad  Tunguses.  Otly 
the  valley  of  the  Djida  in  the  south  of  the  Khamar-daban  is  settled 
in  it3  lower  parts. 

The  Russians  of  Transbaikalia  present  a  great  variety  of  ethno> 
logical  types.  Mainly  owing  to  the  difficulties  of  communication^ 
many  Great  Russian  Raskolniks  and  Little  Russian  settlers  h.ii'e 
preserved  their  ethnographical  features  puie  from  any  admixtuie ; 
while  there  are.  on  the  other  hand,  villages  in  the  Nertchinsk 
district,  chiefly  composed  of  the  earliest  Russian  settlers,  wberi!  a 
great  admixture  of  Tungusian  or  Mongolian  blood  is  obseivahlo. 
On  the  upper  Argufi  the  Cossacks  are  in  features,  character,  I.in 
guago,  and  manners  largely  Mongolian.  The  Russians  along  the 
Chinese  frontier  constitute  a  separate  voisko  of  the  Transbaikalian 
Cossacks.  There  is  great  uncertainty  as  to  the  numbers  of  the- 
Buriats  ;  they  are  estimated  at  about  150,000.  The  Tunguses  num-' 
Iwr  only  a  very  few  thousands.  I 

Agriculture  is  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent  by  the  Buriats  and  ia^ 
all  Russian  settlements;  but  it  prospers  only  in  the  valleys  of  west 
Transbaikalia,  and  partly  in  the  Nertchinsk  region,  while  in  thu 
steppes  of  the  Arguft  and  Onon  even  the  Russians  resort  chiefly  to 
cattle-breeding  and  trade,  or  to  hunting.  On  the  whole,  corn  has 
to  be  imported  ;  summer  wheat  and  summer  r^^,  oats,  and  barley 
are  the  chief  crops  in  the  east,  .winter  rye  not  bemg  sown  in  con- 
sequence of  the  want  of  enow.  Cattle-Tearing  is  extensively  carried 
on,  especially  by  tho  Buriats,  but  their  herds  and  flocks,  which 
wander  freely  over  the  eteppes  throughout  the  winter,  are  oftei* 
destroyed  in  great  numbers  by  the  *inow  storms  of  spring.  Hunt- ', 
ing  is  an  important  occupation,  even  with  the  Russians,  many  ot  t 

«  "DusIOlmavoD  OBt-Slbineo,"  by  A.  Woyelkoff,  \q  Meteor  ZetUctt.,  1684. 


T  R  A-^T  R  A 


ill 


I  whom  leave  their  homes  in  Octclvr  to  spend  six  wwka  in  the  taiga 
(forest-region).  The  fisheries  of  Lake  Baikd  and  the  lower  parts 
of  its  atilaeutfi  tre  impjitaat.  Enormous  quantities  of  Salnw 
omui  aro  taken  erery  year;  and,  although  the  curing  is  most 
primitive,  the  annual  yield  is  valued  at  £20,000.  The  Salmo 
s  thymaiii3t  S.  oxt/ThyitckiLS^  and  S.  Jluviatilis  are  also  taken 
largely. 

The  possibilities  of  discoveries  of  gold  are  absorbing  all  the 
lodustrml  forces  of  Transbaikalia.  GolJ-diggioga  occur  chiefly  in 
the  basins  of  the  Shilka  and  the  upper  Vitiru,  also  on  the  Tcbikoi 
and  the  Khilok.  No  less  than  25^400  lb  is  extracted  anuually  by 
private  enterprise,  and  about  3200  lb  by  the-  crown,  at  the  Kara 
gold-diggings,  where  nearly  1400  convicts  are  employed.  The 
silver  miuing  formerly  carried  on  at  several  crown  works  is  now 
on  the  decrease  (see  Ne&tchinsk);  the  quantity  extracted  in  1884 
was  only  241  tb.  Evtry  kind  of  man u lac tu red  wjre  has  to  be 
imported  from  Russia;  and  even  petty  trades  are  almost  unknown 
iu  the  villages. 

The  trade  of  the  province  is  chiefly  represented  by  that  of 
Eiakbta  The  Cossacks  on  the  frontier  carry  on  some  trade  in 
brick-tea,  cattle,  and  hides  with  Mongolia.  The  export  of  furs  is 
of  considerable  value. 

The  communications  of  Transbaikalia  are  limited  to  the  great 
Amur  highway,  which  fringes  the  south  coast  of  Lake  Baikal  and 
passes  through  Verkhnendiusk,  Tchita,aod  Nertchinsk  toSryetensk, 
whence  steamers  ply  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amur;  in  wiuter, 
further  communication  with  the  Amur  lieyond  Sr)'etenpk  is  main- 
taioed  on  sledges  on  the  ice  of  the  Shilka,  but  in  the  autunin  and 
spring  a  horseback  journey  as  far  as  Kumara  is  the  only  possible 
method  of  reaching  the  middle  Amur.  Steamer  communication  is 
also  maintained  for  six  or  seven  months  across  Lake  Baikal,  from 
Posolskoye,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Selenga,  to  Listvenichnaya,  4U  miles 
from  Irkutsk.  A  highway  connects  Verkhnendiosk  with  Seleng- 
hinsk  and  Eiakhta,  and  communication  on  the  steppes  of  the  ArguA 
and  the  Onon  as  well  asnp  the  Barguzin  is  easy.  The  rest  of  Trans- 
baikalia can  be  visited  only  on  horseback. 

Transbaikalia  is  divided  into  5ve  districts,  the  chief  towns  of 
which  (with  populations  in  1880)  are  Tchita,  capital  of  the  province 
(12,600  inhabiUnts),  Barguzin  (800),  Nertchinsk  (4070),  Seleng- 
binsk  (U60),  and  Veikhneudinsk  (4150).  Kiakhta  has  4290 
inhabitants,  and  Sryetensk,  being  at  the  head  of  the  navigation,  is 
a  rising  town.  ^P.  A.  K.) 

See  vol  TRANSCASPIAN  REGION  (Zakasmt/ska^a  Oblast), 
TY^'V*  ^°  extensive  territory  to  the  east  of  the  Caspian,  annexed 
by  Russia  within  the  last  fifteen  years,  is  bounded  on  the 
S.  by  the  highJands  of  Khorasan  and  Afghanistan,  on  the 
N.  by  Uralak  (from  which  it  is  divided  by  a  line  drawn 
from  the  Mortvyi  Kuttuk  Bay  of  the  Caspian  to  the  south 
extremity  of  Lake  Aral),  on  the  N.E.  by  Khiva  and 
Bokhara,  and  on  the  S.E.  (where  it  penetrates  towards 
Herat  on  the  elopes  of  the  Paropamisus,  and  includes  the 
Badhyz  plateau)  by  Afghan  Turkestan.  So  defined,  it  has 
an  area  of  220,000  square  mile.s. 

Although  nine-tenths  of  this  territory  consists  of  unin- 
habitable desert,  an  interest  attaches  to  it  on  account  of 
the  great  physical  changes  it  has  undergone  during  the 
PostrOIacial  period.  Since  Pallas  visited  its  borders,  and 
still  more  since  Humboldt  discussed  its  history,  it  has 
never  ceased  to  attract  the  attention  of  geographers.  In 
fact,  .some  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of  geography, 
8uch  as  those  relating  to  the  changes  in  the  course  of  the 
Jaxartes  and  the  Oxus,  the  bifurcation  and  the  oscillation 
of  a  great  river,  and  the  supposed  periodical  disappearance 
of  Lake  Aral,  are  connected  with  the  Trauscaspian  deserts  ; 
and  it  is  here  that  we  must  look  for  a  clue  to  the  great 
physical  changes  which  transformed  the  Mediterranean  of 
Western  Asia— the  Aral-Caspian  and  Pontic  basin — into  a 
series  of  separate  seas,  and  desiccated  them,  powerfully 
influencing  the  distribution  of  floras  and  faunas,  and  com- 
pelling the  inhabitants  of  Western  and  Central  Asia  to 
enter  upon  their  great  migrations.  But  down  to  a  very 
recent  date  the  dry  and  barren  deserts,  peopled  only  by 
wandering  Turcoman  bands,  remained  almost  a  iei^a  xTicog- 
nitay  and  only  now  are  we  beginning  to  make  the  very 
first  steps  towards  their  really  scientific  exploration. 

A  moutitain  chain,  in  length  comparable  to  the  AJps,  separates 
the  deserts  of  the  Transcaspian  from  the  highlands  of  Khorasan. 
It  runs  Irom  uorth*west  to  south-east,  and  appears  as  a  continua-^ 
inn  of  the  Cuucasus.      It  begins  iu  the  Krasnodovsk  peninsula  of 


the  Caspian,  under  the  names  of  Kuryanin-kara  anti  Great  Balkans, 

whose  masses  of  granite  and  other  crystalline  rock  reach  a  height 
of  more  than  5000  feet.  Farther  to  the  south-east  these  are  con- 
tinued in  the  much  lower  Little  Balkans  and  Kyuren-dagh  (200O 
teccj,  the  Kopepet-dagh,  Kosty-dagh,  Asilma,  and  Zaryn-kul, — ther 
name  of  Kopepet-dagh  or  Kopet-dagli  being  often  now  used  tO' 
designate  the  whole  chain  which  rises  steep  and  wild  above  the  flat 
deserts  from  the  Caspia.n  to  the  river  Murghab, — a  stretch  of  600 
miles.  In  structure  it  is  homologous  with  the  Caucasus  chain ;  it 
appears  as  an  outer  wall  of  the  Khorasan  plateau,  and  is  separated 
from  it  by  a  broad  valley,  which,  like  the  Rion  and  Kura  valley, 
of  Transcaucasia,  is  watered  by  two  nvera  flowing  in  opposite 
directions, — the  A  trek,  which  flows  north-west  into  the  Caspian^  . 
and  the  Keshefrud,  which  flows  to  the  sonth-east,  and  is  a  tribu- ; 
tary  of  the  Murghab.  On  the  other  side  of  this  valley  the  Allah- 
dag  h  and  the  Binalund  border-ridges  (9000  to  11,000  feet)  fringe 
tlie  edge  of  the  Khorasan  plateau.  At  its  south-eastern  extremity 
this  outer  wall  loses  its  regularity  where  it  meets  with  the  spurs 
of  the  Hindu-kush.  Descending  towards  the  steppe  with  steep^ 
stony  slopes,  it  rises  to  heights  of  6000  and  9000  feet  to  the 
east  of  Kizil-arvat,  while  the  passes  which  lead  from  the  Turcor' 
man  deserts  to  the  valleys  of  Khorasan  are  seldom  as  low  as  3500, 
usually  rising  to  5000,  6000,  and  even  SCOO  feet,  and  in  most 
cases  being  very  difliCult.  This  wail  is  pierced  by  but  ene  wide 
opening,  that  between  the  Great  and  Little  Balkans,  through 
which  the  sea  which  once  covered  the  steppe  maintained-connesioa 
with  the  Caspian. 

While  the  Allahdagh  and  BinMuud  border-ridges  are  chiefly 
composed  of  crystalline  rocks  and  metamorphic  slates  covered  with 
Devonian  deposits,  a  series  of  more  recent  formations — Upper  and 
Lower  Cretaceous,  and  Miocene — are  shown  in  the  outer  wall  of  the 
Kopet-dagh.  Here  again  we  find  that  the  mountains  of  Asia  which 
stretch  towards  the  north-west  continued  to  be  uplifted  at  a 
geologically  recent  epoch.  Quaternary  deposits  have  an  extensive 
development  on  its  slopes,  and  its  hiUfoots  are  bordered  by  & 
girdle  of  loess. 

The  loess  terrace,  called  *'Atok"  ("mountain  base")i  is  but 
narrow,  ranging  in  width  from  10  to  20  miles  ;  still  its  chain  of 
settlements  have  rendered  it  possible  to  lay  down  a  railway  which 
now  connects  the  Caspian  with  Sarakhs.  It  is  very  fertile,  but 
could  produce  nothing  without  irrigation,  and  the  streams  flowing 
from  the  Kopet-dagh  are  few  and  meagre.  The  winds  which  reach 
the  northern  slope  of  the  mouotaius  have  been  deprived  of  all 
their  moisture  in  crossing  the  Kara-kum— the  Black  Sands  of  the 
Turcoman  desert ;  and  even  such  rain  as  tails  on  the  Kopet-dagh 
(10^  inches  at  KLzil-arvat)  too  often  reaches  the  soil  in  the  shape 
of  showers  which  do  not  saturate  ft,  so  that  the  average  relative 
humidity  is  but  56  and  the  average  nebulosity  only  3"9,  as  against 
62  and  41  at  even  so  dry  a  place  as  Krasnovodsk  StiJl,  at  those 
places  where  the  mountain  streams  are  closer  to  one  another,  as  at 
Geok-tepe,  Askabad,  Lutfabad,  and  Kabka,  the  villages  are  more 
populous,  and  the  houses  arc  surrounded  by  gardens,  every  square 
yard  and  every  tree  of  which  is  fed  by  irrigation. 

Beyond  this  narrow  strip  of  irrigated  land  begins  the  desert, — 
the  Kara-kum, — which  extends  from  the  mountains  of  Khorasan 
to  Lake  Aral  and  the  Ust-Urt,  and  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Amo^ 
interrupted  only  by  the  oases  of  Merv  and  TejeS.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  the  terrible  shifting  sands  blown  into  barkhxms,  o? 
elongated  hills,  sometimes  50  and  60  feet  in  height,  are  grouped 
chiefly  in  the  west,  where  the  country  has  more  recently  emerged 
from  the  sea.  Farther  to  the  east  the  barkkans  are  more  stable, 
their  slopes  being  covered  with  bushes  (for  the  most  part  leafless); 
the  caravans  sometimes  follow  their  crests,  and  the  shifting  sands 
occupy  restricted  spaces.  Large  areas  amidst  the  sands  are  occupied 
by  Uik-yrs,  or  flat  surfaces  covered  with  clay  which  is  ..ard  as  a  rule, 
but  becomes  almost  impassable  after  heavy  rains.  In  these  ia^yri 
the  Turcomans  dig  ditches,  draining  into  a  kind  of  cistern — the 
kak — where  the  water  of  the  spring  rains  keeps  for  a  few  mouths. 
Wells  are  sunk  also  along  the  routes  of  the  caravans,  and  water 
is  found  in  them  at  depths  of  10  to  50  or  occasionally  100  feet  and 
more.  All.  is  not  desert  in  the  strict  sense  ;  in  spring  there  is  foe 
the  most  part  a  covering  of  grass,  which  allows  of  journeys  across 
the  desert  There  are  footpaths  in  several  directions,  especially 
from  the  irrigated  and  cultivated  Atok  towards  Khiva. 

The  vegetation  of  the  Kara-kum  cannot  be  described  as  poor; 
the  typical  representative  of  the  sand  deserts  of  Asia,  the  saksaul 
(Anabasis  Ainmodcndron),  has  been  almost  destroyed  within  the 
last  hundred  years,  and  never  appears  in  forests,  but  the  borders 
of  the  spaces  covered  with  salted  clay  are  brightened  by  forests  of 
tamarisk,  wliich  are  inhabited  by  great  numbers  of  the  desert 
warbler  {Atraphoniis  uralcnsis)  —  a  typical  inhabitant  of  the 
sands, — sparrows,  aud  ground-choughs  (Podoccs);  the  Houbara 
mncqiicnnii.  Gray,  though  not  frequent,  is  characteristic  of  the 
region.  Hares  and  foxes,  j;\cUa]s  niul  wolves,  marmots,  moles, 
hedgehogs,  aud  one  species  of  marten  live  in  the  steppe,  especially 
in  spring.  As  a  whole,  the  fauna  is  richer  than  nnght  be  sup* 
posed,  while  in   the  Atok  it  contains  representatives  of  all  thff 


r>i2 


TRAKSCASPIAN     REGION 


species  known  in  Turkestan,  inixcil  uith  Tcrsian  and  Himalayan  | 
Fpecies  * 

The  Uzboi. — A  feature  ilistinclivo  of  the  Turcoman  desert  is  seen 

,  in  the  very  numerous  shurs^  or  elongated  depressions,  the  lower  . 
iwrtioni'  of  which  are  occupied  mostly  with  sand  impregnated  with 
brackish  water.  They  are  obviously  the  remains  of  brackish  lakes, 
and,  like  the  lakes  of  the  Kirghiz  steppes,  they  often,  follow  one 
another  in  close  succession,  thus  closely  resembliug  river-beds. 
As  the  directioQ  of  these  shors  is  generally  from  the  higher  terraces 
wauTed  by  the  Amu-Dari  towards  the  lowlands  of  the  Caspian, 
thry  Wire  usually  regardtJ  us  old  beds  of  the  Amu-Daria,  aud  were 
held  to  support  the  idea  of  its  once  having  flowed  across  the  Turco- 
riKiu  depart  towards  what  is  now  the  Caspian  Sea.  A  few  years 
ago  it  se«med  almost  settled,  not  only  that  that  river  (see  Oxus) 
(lowed  jnto  the  Caspian  during  histoiical  times,  but  that,  after 
having  ceased  to  do  so  in  the  7th  century,  its  waters  were  again 
diverted  to  the  Caspian  about  1221.  A  succession  of  elongated 
depressions,  having  a  faint  resemblance  to  old  river-beds,  was 
traced  from  Urgenj  to  the  gap  between  the  Great  and  the  Little 
Balkans,  marked  on  the  maps  as  the  Uzboi,  or  old  bed  of  the 
Oxus.^  The  idea  of  again  diverting'  the  Amu  into  the  Caspian 
was  thus  set  afloat,  and  expeditions  were  sent  out  for  explora- 
tions with  this  view.  The  result  of  these  investigations  by  Russian 
engineers,  especially  Hedroitz,  Ronshin,  MushketoflT.  Lessar,  and 
Svintsofi','*  was,  however,  to  show  Ihat  the  Uzboi  is  no  river-bed 
at  all,  aud  tliat  no  riper  has  ever  discharged  its  waters  in  that 
direction.  The  existence  of  an  extensive  lacustrine  depression,  where 
the  small  Sary-kamysh  lakes  are  now  the  only  remains  of  a  wide 
basin,  was  proved,  and  it  became  evident  that  this  depression,  having 
a  length  of  more  than  130  miles,  a  width  of  70  miles,  and  a  depth 
of  280  feet  below  the  present  level  of  Lake  Aral,  would  have  to  be^ 
filled  by  thoAmu,  before  its  waters  could  advance  farther  to  the 
south-west.  The -sill  of  this  basin  being  only  28  feet  below  the 
present  level  of  Lake  Aral,  this  latter  couM  not  bo  made  to  dis- 
appear, .  or  even  be  Tiotably  reduced  in  size  by  the  Amu  flowing 
from  Urgenj  to  the  south-west.  A  more  careful  exploration  of  the 
Uzboi  has  shown  moreover  that,  while  the  deposits  in  the  Sary- 
kamysh  depression,  and  the  Aral  shells  they  contain,  bear  nnmia- 
takablc  testimony  as  to  the  fact  of  the  basin  having">once  been  fed 
by  the  Amu-Daria,  no  such  traces  are  found  along  tne  Uzboi  below 
the  Sary-kamysh  depression;*  on  the  contrary,  shells  of  molluscs, 
still  inhabiting  the  Caspian  are  found  in  numbers  all  along  it,  aud 
the  supposed  old  bed  has  all  the  characters  of  a  series  of  lakes  which 
continued  to  subsist  at  the  hiUfoots  of  the  U.st-Urt  plateau,  while 
the  Caspian  was  slowly  receding  westwards  during  the  Post-Pliocene 
period.  On  rare  occasions  only  did  the  waters  of  the  Sary-kamysh, 
when  raised  by  inundations  above  the  sill  just  mentioned,  send 
their  surplus  into  the  Uzboi.  It  appears  most  probable  that  in  the 
16th  century  the  Sary-kamy.sh  was  confounded  with  a  gulf  of  the 
Caspian;*  and  this  gives  much  plausibility  to  Konshin's  supposi- 

I  tion  that  the  changes  in  the  lower  course  of  the  Amu  {which  no 
geologist  would  venture  to  ascribe  to  man,  if  they  were  to  mean 
the  alternative  discharge  of  the  Amu  into  the  Caspian  and  Lake 
Aral)  merely  meant  that  by  means  of  a^-propriate  dams  the  Amu 
wa=  made  to  flow,  in  the  13th,.  14th,  15th,  and  16th  centuries, 
aUcr:i;itcly  into  Lake  Aral  and  into  the  Sary-kamysh. 

As  for  the  ancient  texts  with  regard  to  the  Jaxartes  and  Oxus, 
it  bc'-omes  more  and  more  probable  that  their  interpretation,  if 
possible  at  all,  is  only  so  when  it  is  admitted  that,  since  the  epoch 
to  wliich  these  relate,  the  outlines  of  the  Caspian  Sea  arid  Lake 
Aral  Lave  undergone  notable  changes,  commensurate  with  those 
which  are  supposed  to  have  occurred  in  the  courses  of  the  Central 
Asian  livers.  The  desiccation  of  the  Aral-Caspian  basin  proceeded 
with  such  rapidity  that  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  could  not  possibly 
maintain  for  some  twenty  centuries  the  outlines  which  they  have 
at  present.  When  studied  in  detail,  the  general  configuration  of 
the  Transcaspiau  region  leaves  no  doubt  that  both  the  Jaxartes 
and  the  Oxus,  with  its  former  tributaries,  the  Murghab  and  the 
Tejefi,  once  flowed  towards  the  west;  but  the  Caspian  of  that  time 

I  *  Sec  N  Zaiudnyi,  "Lea  Oiseaux  de  la  Contr^e  Transcaspienne,"  in  Bull. 
Sot.  All   A/o^c.  1885. 

9  It  Is  to  be  observed  Ihat  on  the  oiiclnal  Russian  map  of  tlic  Tr.insca'«pinn, 
drawn  Immediately  alter  the  smvcy  o(  ihc  Uzboi  had  been  completed,  ihc  Uzboi 
lia<*  not  the  continuity  which  Is  civi;n  to  it  on  subsifiuout  mnps. 

3  Thth  oripiniil  papci.1  are  punted  in  tlic  /rr^'dn  of  ilic  lliissian  Gcogr  Soc., 
1883  to  1887,  as  also  In  the  Journal  of  llic  Ilubbi^in  Minl^tiy  of  Roads  aod  Com- 
Biunicatkons 

*  Accoidmp  to  A.  E.  Iltdroltt  and  A.  M.  Konshin  the  old  Tonu-Dnrla  bed  of 
fhe  Amu  contains  shells  of  molhiscs  now  hvlnj;  in  (lie  Amu  {Cyrena  fluminatti, 
Drttttfna  polymorphu,  tmd  Anodouta)  The  Sdry-kamysh  baatn  is  eharnctei  Ized 
by  dvpDslts  contnmtng  /^cn.'inti  hturatu,  Dreitieua  potvmorpha,  and  Lymuxus, 
characlfilsilc  of  thl^  basin  iJflort  Ilic  Sacy-kamysh  there  arc  no  moie  deposits 
conUiinlnc  shells  cliarancilstic  ('.r  the  Amif;  Anodont-v  are  found  quite  occasion- 
ally on  the  BuifdCt.  not  in  bt;>K  In  company  with  the  Ctisi'lan  Cardium  {Oidaena) 
trigonoidtn  var  rras^'um,  C^'dtutn  piramidatum,  fh-fiisena  po/ymorpha,  D. 
roilrtformii,  Hyilrobia  fOipid.  Stnlina  liturata,  anil  />rfi,t.scna  brardii ;  the 
rei  claya  with  t\xi-^(i  foB«i1s  extend  for  130  miles  to  itie  cast  of  the  Caspian 
llitfttia  of  Rusa.  Gcog.  Soc.  1863  and  \»66). 

*  As  by  .Icnkinson,  who  menllona  a  SMcut-w^ter  rqU  of  the  Caspian  within  six 
diiys'  mavcli  from  Khwarezni,  by  which  gulf  he  coDld  mean  noi  lilpg  but  the  Sary- 
fcaoiyah  depression. 


was  not  the  sea  of  our  days ;  its  gulfa  penetrated  the  Turcomai* 
step[ie,  and  washed  the  base  of  the  Ust-Urt  plateau,  as  is  showo 
by  the  deposits  of  its  shells  described  by  the  Kusbian  engineers. 

Kdif -Uzboi. — There  is  also  no  doubt  that,  instead  of  flowing 
north-westward  of  Kelif,  the  Amu  once  flowed  to  join  the  Murghab 
and  Tejeft  ;  the  succession  of  depressions  described  by  the  Russian 
engineers  as  the  Kelif-Uzboi®  supports  this  hypothesis,  which  a 
geographer  cajinot  avoid  making  when  studying  a  map  oi  the 
Transcaspian  region ;  but  the  date  at  which  the  Oxus  followed 
such  a  course,  and  tlie  extension  which  the  Caspian  basin  then  had 
towards  the  east,  remain  unsettled.  Much,  however,  has  still  to 
be  done  before  we  ca:u  fully  reconstruct  the  geological  history  of 
that  region  since  the  Pliocene  epoch,  or  show  how  far  the  data  of 
Pliny,  Strabo,  and  Ptolemy  were  descriptions  of  actual  facts  ' 

Population. — With  the  exception  of  some  35,000  Kirghiz  en- 
camped with  their  herds  on  the  Ust-Urt  plateau  (a  swelling  some 
600  to  1000  feet  in  height  and  nearly  92,000  square  miles  in  extent, 
which,  owing  to  ita  dryness  and  cold  winter,  can  be  inhabited  only 
by  nomad  cattle-breeders)  and  a  few  Persians  in  the  Lutfabad  and 
Sbilghyan  villages  of  the  Atok,  the  whole  of  the  population  of  the 
Transcaspian  region  consists  of  Turcomans,  Until  a  very  recent 
date  their  chief  occupation  was  cattle-rearing  and  robbery.  Even 
those  Turcomans  who  had  settled  abodea  on  the  oases  of  the  Atok, 
TejeB,  and  Merv  were  in  the  habit  of  encamping  during  spring  in 
the  steppes,  and  there  practising  robbery.  Robber  bands  were 
easily  formed,  and  on  their  powerful  horses  they  extended  their 
excursions  to  distancesof  200  and  3^0  miles  from  their  abodes.  They 
infested  the  Abtrabad  province  ;  and  the  villages  of  the  khanatca 
of  Afghan  Turkestan,  from  Balkh  to  Meshbeo,  were  periodically 
devastated  by  them.  The  aspect  of  the  steppe  has,  however, 
greatly  changed  since  the  Rasaian  advance,  the  fall  of  the  Turco- 
man stronghold  of  G«)k-tepe,  and  the  massacres  which  ensued  ; 
the  Persians  are  already  beginning  to  avenge  themselves  on  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Atok  by  disputing  with  them  the  supplies  of 
water  coming  from  the  Kopet^dagh. 

The  chief  oasis  of  the  Turcoman  desert  is  the  Atok,  which 
extends  along  the  base  of  the  Kopet-daeh,  and  is  now  traversed 
by  the  Transcaspian  railway.  The  AkhflJ  and  the  Arakadj  oases, 
collectively  called  Atok,  now  have  a  populatiou  of  about  42,000 
Tekke-Turcoraans,  who  have  recently  settled  there,  and  live  for  the 
most  part  in  miserable  clay  huts  or  in  felt  tents  (Hbitkas).  They 
raise  wheat,  barley,  aud  lucerne  ;  and  the  Pereians  have  excellent 
gardens.  Some  cotton  is  also  gro*n,  and- the  culture  of  the  silk- 
worm is  beginning  to  spread.  The  chief  settlements  are  Askabad, 
Kizil-arvat,  and  Geok-tepe. 

The  oasis  of  Merv  {q.v.)  is  inhabited  by  Akhal-tekkes  (about 
160,000).  mostly  poor.    In  January  1887  they  submitted  to  Russia. 

The  oasis  of  Tejeft  has  recently  spmng  up  where  the  river  Tejefi 
(Heri-rud)  terminates  in  the  desert.  Formerly  it  was  only  tem- 
porarily visited  by  the  Tekkes'who  came  to  cultivate  the  fields  in 
summer.     In  1883  it  was  estimated  to  have  7500  inhabitants. 

South-  West  Turcovuinia. — The  region  between  the  Heri-rud  and 
the  Murghab,  as  they  issue  from  the  highlands,  described  in  English 
maps  under  the  name  of  Badhyz,  andby  the  Russians  as  South- West 
Turcomania,  has  of  late  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention  since  the 
Russian  octupationof  Sarakhs  on  theTeje&  (see  Afghanistan  and 
Persia)  and  Penjdeh  on  the  Murghab.  It  has  the  characters  of  a 
plateau  reaching  about  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  with  hills  600  and 
600  feet  high  covered  with  sand,  tlie  spaces  between  being  filled 
with  loess.  The  Borkhnt  Mountains  which  connect  the  Kopet-dagh 
with  the  Sefid-kuh,  reach  3000  to  4000  feet,  and  are  crossed  in  a  gorge 
by  the  Heri-rud.  Thickets  of  poplar  aod  willow  follow  the  courses 
of  both  theMurghab  and  Heri-rud,  and  the  treesreach  a  considerable 
size.  Pistachio  and  mulberry  trees  grow  in  isolated  groups  on  the 
hills ;  but  there  are  few  places  available  for  culture,  and  the  Saryks 
(some  60,000  in  dumber)  congregate  in  only  two  oases  at  Yot-otan 
and  Penjdeh.  Cattle-breeding  is  their  chief  occupation,  and  enables 
them  to  live  in  a  certain  degree  of  aflluence.  Brigandage,  formerly 
a  notable  source  of  income,  is  now  being  suppressed.  The  Sarakhs 
oasis  is  now  occupied  by  the  Salore,  hereditary  enemies  of  the 
Tekkes,  who  number  about  3000  tents  at  Old*  Sqrakhs,  and  1700 
more  on  theMurghpb,  at  Tchardjui,  at  Maimene,  ana  close  to  Herat. 

Great  modifications  in  the  life  of  the  steppe  have  of  course  been 
brought  about  by  the  Russian  conquest,  which  was  followed  with 

•  In  connexion  with  this  southern  "old  bed,"  It  Is  worthy  of  notice  that  the 
Ersail-Turcomans  call  It  UnRhynz  or  OnRuz  C"  diy  old  bed  "),  and  there  can  be 
no  douM  that  when  the  Bolsliol  Tcheitezh  of  the  I6th  century  (speaking  from 
anterior  information)  mcnilons  a  liver.  Ugtiyuz  ov  Upus,  flowing  to  the  west  from 
the  Amu  toward-i  the  Caspian,  li  is  meiely  describing  as  a  ilvcr  what  Its  very 
naiTie  shows  to  liavc  been  a  Ory  bed,  only  suppfiSfd  to  have  been  onco  occupied 
by  a  li^ci  The  ^l^litality  of  the  names  Onuua  and  Ugus  with  the  Ogus  and 
Oihu^  IS  so  stnkiPC  tliat  one  is  Inclined  to  see  in  the  Ogus  Oi  Ochns  nothing  but  j 
the  mention  of  a  drv  oM  bed.  Compare  Petvusevlich.  "The  South  Eust  Shores  j 
of  Ihc  Casi'ian,"  in  /^apiikiol  the  Caucasian  Geom.  Soc,  ^ol.  xl  ,  1880.  f 

7  Siicimn  intcimlnghne  of  modem  data  with  older  Imditions  is  not  tmKnnwn" 
to  pcocraphers.  A  siriklnp  instance  of  It  U  given  In  the  supposcu  enniicxion  of 
Luke  Aial  wl'h  the  ArttiC  Ocean  duiing  histoiical  times  ;  physical  change*  oiO 
proLCcdinc  so  rapidly  In  Asia  that  we  find  tracea  of  like  survivals  of  tradUioM 
even  In  this  ai;e  of  accurate  surveys. 


T  R  A  — T  R  A 


513 


?«-e  vol. 
XX  i. 
Piates 
II.,  III. 


great  rapidity  by  the  constrnction  of  a  railway  from  Mikbailovsk 
on  the  Caspian  to  Kizil-arrat  and  Sarakhs,  and  thence  to  Merv  and 
north-eastward  to  Tchardjoi  on  the.  Anm.  from  which  point  it  is 
now  being  continued  across  Bokhara  towards  Samarkand.  Attempts 
at  growing;  cotton  and  tea  are  being  made,  and  land  has  been 
rented  at  ilerv  for  cotton  plantations.  Cotton  is  to  be  pressed  by 
€team  at  Bokhara  and  Tchardjoi,  to  be  sent  to  Russia  by  the  Trans- 
Caspian  railway.' 

Caspian  Littoral. — The  Caspian  littoral  is  divided  into  two 
districts,  Erasnovodsk  and  Manghishiak.  The  former  has  about 
15,500  settled  inhabitants  and  3056  Turcoman  kibitkas  (partly 
shifted  in  summer  to  Persian  territory).  The  chief  settlements 
of  the  district  are  Krasnovpdsk  on  the  Erasnovodsk  Gulf; 
Mikbailovsk,  the  tenninosof  the  Transcaspian  railway,  in  regular 
communication  by  steamer  with  Baku  ;  and  Tchikishfyar,  close  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Atrek.  The  Manghishiak  district,  which  includes 
the  Ust-Urt  plateau,  has  a  population  of  about  3i,500  Kirghiz. 
Its  chief  settlement  is  Alexandrovsk. 

The  total  population  of  the  Transcaspian  region  was  estimated 
in  1883— that  is,  before  the  annexations  in  South- West  Turcomania 
—at  from  214,000  to  260,000  inhabiUnts  (P.  A.  K.) 

TRANSCAUCASIA,  the  name  given  to  that  portion  of 
the  Russian  empire  (in  Caucasus,  Armenia,  and  Asia 
Minor)  which  lies  to  the  south  of  the  main  Caucasus  ridge. 
It  comprises  the  governments  of  Kutais  (inclusive  of  the 
province  of  Batum),  Tiflis,  Elisabethpol,  Erivaii,  and  Kars, 
with  parts  of  Daghestan  and  most  of  Baku,  and  the 
S'  parate  military  districts  of  Tchernomorsk  and  Zakataty. 
&i)metimes  Transcaucasia  is  identified  with  Southern 
Ciucasus,  and  then  it  is  intended  to  include  the  whole  of 
Daghestan.  So  defined,  it  would  have  an  area  of  95,930 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  4,173,380. 

Three  regions  must  be  distinguished  : — (1)  the  narrow 
strip  of  land  between  the  main  Caucasus  ridge  and  the 
Black  Sea  (Tchernomorsk  district,  q.v.)  ;  (2)  the  broad 
valley,  watered  by  the  Rion  in  the  west  and  the  Kura  in 
the  east,  which  separates  the  main  Caucasus  ridge  from 
the  region  next  to  be  mentioned  ;  (3)  the  highlands, 
mountains,  and  plateaus  of  Lazistan,  Kars,  and  Armenia. 

The  valley  referred  to,  which  crosses  the  isthmus  from 
the  Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian,  consists  of  two  widely 
different  sections.  —  the  drainage-area  of  the  Rion,  which  is 
Mediterranean  in  its  physical  characteristics,  and  the  valley 
of  the  Kura  and  Araxes,  which  slopes  to  the  Caspian, 
and  in  its  lower  parts  becomes  purely  cis-Caspian.  The 
Mesques  or  Meshik  Mountains  (3000-5000  feet),  a  ridge 
running  south-west  to  north-east,  and  probably  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Black  Sea  coast  ridge  (Tchorokh  Moun- 
tains), separate  the  two.  The  drainage  area  of  the  Rion, 
which  corresponds  approximately  to  the  government  of 
Kutais,  includes  the  former  provinces  of  Imeritia,  Min- 
grelia,  Curia,  and  Swanetia  on  the  upper  Ingur  and  Tshenis- 
tsbali.  With  the  exception  of  the  valley  of  the  Rion 
(some  25  miles  broad),  and  the  sandy  and  marshy  littoral, 
it  is  wholly  occupied  by  spurs  of  the  main  Caucasus  ridge, 
the  Meshik,  and  the  Wakhan  Mountains;  the  last-named  rise 
to  10,000  and  1 1,000  feet  above  the  sea  in  their  highest 
summits,  and  are  intersected  by  deep  and  fertile  valleys. 
The  region  is  characterized  by  a  heavy  rainfall  and  a  moist 
maritime  climate.  The  vegetation,  which  is  lux-.iriaut,  is 
of  a  oircum-Meditenanean  character  :  fine  forests  of  de- 
ciduous trees  clothe  the  mountain  slopes,  and  the  high- 
land villages  nestle  amid  thickets  of  azalea,  almond,  and 
rhododendron.  Maize,  the  mulberry,  the  vine,  and  a  great 
variety  of  fruit  trees  are  cultivated.  Mingrelia  and 
Imeritia  are  the  real  gardens  of  Caucasus  ;  but  the  Ligii 
valhjys  tributary  to  the  Ingur,  inhabited  by  Swanians,  are 
wild  and  difEcult  of  access  ;  in  some  of  thern,  which  arc 
narrow  and  marshy,  fevers  and  scurvy  prevail.  The  Rion 
is  not  navigable,  and  of  its  tributaries  only  the  Tshenis- 

1  No  Russian  sea  shows  so  rapid  a  growth  of  navig.ition  as  the  Caspian 
Sea  Jurin?  the  last  liiteeu  years.  In  18S4  uo  less  tban  1945  steamers 
(611,  OOf^  tons),  engaged  in  foreign  trade,  entered  the  Russian  ports  of 
the  ijaspiau,  ia  against  409  (113,000  tons)  in  1876. 


tshali  and  tlie  Kvirila  are  worttiy  of  mention.  Several 
lakes  (such  as  the  Paleostom,  surrounded  by  marshes  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rion)  occur  in  the  coast  region.  The  popu- 
lation consists  of  Imeritians,  Mingrelians,  Gurians,  and 
Swanians,  all  belongio-g  to  the  Kartvelian  branch  of 
Caucasians  (see  voL  x.  p.  433),  with  a  few  Ossetians,  Jews, 
Armenians,  and  Tartars.     Russians  are  not  numerous. 

The  pass  of  Suram,  by  which  the  Transcaucasian  railway  now 
crosses  the  llesqucs  Mountains,  leads  from  the  valley  of  tho  Rion 
to  that  of  the  Kura.  Spurs  from  the  Caucasus  and  the  Anti- 
caucasua  fill  up  the  broad  lougitudinal  depression  between  these,' 
so  that  above  Tiflis  the  bottom  of  the  valley  is  but  a  narrow  strip- 
But  below  that  city  it  suddenly  widens,  i(nd  stretches  for  nearly 
350  miles  eastward  towards  the  Caspian  with  a  steadily  increasing 
breadth,  until  it  becomes  nearly  100  miles  wide  in  the  steppe  of 
Magail  on  the  Caspian  littoral.  The  snow-clad  peaks  of  the  main 
Caucasus,  descending  by  short  steep  slopes,  fringe  the  valley  on 
the  north-east ;  while  a  huge  wall,  much  lower,  and  having  the 
characters  of  a  border-ridge  of  the  Armenian  plateau,  bounds  the 
valley  on  the  south-west.^  The  floor  of  the  valley  gently  slopes 
from  1200  feet  at  Tiflis  to  500  feet  in  its  middle,  and  to  85  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  ocean  on  the  Caspian  shore  ;  but  a  plateau  ranging 
fifim  2000  to  3000  feet  in  height,  very  fertile  along  the  Atazah,  a 
left-hand  tributary  of  the  Kura,  stretches  along  the  southern  hill- 
foots  of  the  main  ridge.  In  its  lower  course  the  Kura  is  joined  by 
the  Araxes,  a  river  nearly  as  large  as  itself,  which  brings  to  it  the 
waters  of  the  Armenian  plateau. 

The  highest  mo-r,  ains  of  the  Caucasus  enclose  the  upper  parts 
of  the  valley  (now  the  government  pf  Tiflis).  An  unbroken  series 
of  peaks,  from  10,000  to  12,600  feet  in  height,  mostly  snow-clad 
and  separated  by  but  slight  depressions,  is  seen  in  profile  as  one 
looks  from  some  height  of  the  Ajiticaucasus  towards  the  main  chain 
and  the  broad  valley  of  the  Kura.  Deep  short  gorges  and  valleys 
indent  the  steep  slopes  which  are  inhabited  by  Ossetians,  Tushes, 
Pshavs,  and  Khevsurs  in  the  west,  and  by  the  various  tribes  of  the 
Lesghians  in  the  east.  Every  available  patch  is  used  in  these  high 
and  stony  valleys  for  the  culture  of  barley,  even  at  heights  of  7000 
and  8000  feet  above  the  sea ;  but  cattle-breeding  is  the  chief 
resource  of  the  mountaineers,  whose  little  communities  are  separated 
from  one  another  by  passes  in  few  cases  lower  than  10,000  feet. 
The  steppes  which  cover  the  bottom  of  the  valley  are  for  the  most 
part  too  dry  to  be  cultivated  without  irrigation.  It  is  only  nearer 
the  hillfoots  in  Kahetia,  where  multitndinous  streams  supply  the 
fields  and  the  gardens  of  the  plateau  of  the  Atazan,  tbat  wheat, 
millet,  and  maize  are  grown,  and  orchards,  vineyards,  and  mulberry- 
tree  plantations  are  possible.  Lower  down  the  valley  cattle-rearing 
becomes  the  chief  -source  of  wealth,  while  in  the  small  towns  and 
villages  of  the  former  Georgian  kingdom  (see  Georgia)  various 
petty  trades,  testifying  to  a  high  development  of  artistic  taste  and 
technical  skill,  are  widely  difl^uscd.  Further  down  the  Kura,  in  the 
government  of  Elizabethpol,  and  especially  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  a  population  of  Russian  agriculturists — chiefly  Nonconformists 
— is  rapidly  springing  up,  so  that  com  is  exported  from  the  villages 
on  the  Ganja.  The  slopes  of  the  Anticaucasus  are  covered  with 
beautiful  forests,  and  the  vine  is  grown  at  their  base,  while  in  the 
broad  and  wide  steppes  the  Tartars  rear  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep. 
The  lower  p:irt  of  the  Kura  valley,  which  belongs  mainly  to  the 
province  of  Baku,  assumes  the  character  of  a  dry  steppe  where  the 
rainfall  hardly  reaches  137  inches  at  Baku,  and  is  still  less  in  the 
Mugah  steppe  (in  most  striking  contrast  with  the  moistness  of  the 
Lenkoran  region  close  by).  The  steep  slopes  of  the  Great  Caucasus 
are  still  covered  with  thriving  forests ;  but  forests  and  meadows  dis- 
appear in  the  steppe,  whose  scanty  vegetation  lias  a  Central-Asian 
character.  Only  tugais,  or  thickets  of  popla^,  dwarf  oak,  tama- 
risk, and  so  on,  follow  the  actual  course  of  the  Kuru,  whose  delta  is 
covered  with  impenetrable  growths  of  rushes.  The  Mugan  steppe, 
however,  does  not  deserve  it&  ancient  evil  reputation  ,  the  serpents 
with  which  it  was  said  to  abound  are  entirely  fabulous,  and  in  the 
winter  it  is  full  of  life;  herds  of  antelopes  roam  over  it,  and  itit 
southern  irrigated  parts  promise  to  become  the  granary  of  Caucasus," 
although  its  unirrigated  parts  will  piobably  never  recover  then* 
former  richness,  the  Kura  haviog'excavated  its  bed  to  a  much  greatei 
depth-  The  Apsheron  peninsula,  in  which  the  Greait  Caucasus 
terminates  at  Baku,  to  be  continued  farther  south-east  by  a  sub- 
Tiiarino  plateau  of  the  Caspian,  is  the  seat  of  those  remarkable 
n.^plitlia  si'riDgs  which  have  recently  given  rise  to  an  important 
iiuiii.stry  and  now  supply  most  of  the  Volga  steamers  witn  fuel; 
while  tile  western  shores  of  the  wide  Kizil-agatch  Bay — the  Tatysb, 
or  Lenkoran  district  on  the  slopes  of  the  Armenian  plateau — on 
account  of  theirrich  vegetation,  fertile  soil,  and  moist  climate,  are 
one  of  the  most  beantiful  possessions  of  Russia  in  Asia- 


^  For  this  valley  and  the  contrasts  between  the  Caucasus  and  Anti- 
caucasus, see  Radde  s  Omis  Cancasica,  C.assel,  1884. 

■*  Seidhtz,  Spiski  naseieitvykh  mytst  Bakit^koi  gubemii. 

xxm.  —  6s 


"51^ 


TRANSCAUCASIA 


The  popnlation  includes  only  a  few  Hasstans  (sbont  16,000) ;  the 
majority  are  Tartar  shepherds,  next  to  whom  come  the  Iranian 
Tates  and  Talyshes  (the  latter  probably  aborigines  of  Baku),  "ho 
constitute  23  1  percent.  «f  the  popnlation;  some  27,000  Armenians, 
chiefly  about  SnHnakha,  and  35,000  Kurins,  or  Lezghians,  on  the 
slope  of  the  Great  Caucasus,-  must  be  added,  as  also  some  Jews  and 
Arabs. 

oA  mining  industry  of  some  importance  has  been  growing  up  of 
late  in  this  part  of  Transcanoasia.  The  copper  works  of  Kedabek  in 
Elizabethpol  yield  from  10,000  to  15,000  cwts.  of  copper  annually; 
nearly  300,000  cvrts.  of  manganese  are  extracted  in  Kutais,  and 
30,000  cwts.  of  sulphur  in  Daghestan  and  Baku  ;  the  coal-mines  of 
Kutais,  the  alum  ores  of  Elizabethpol,  and  the  fire-clay  and  cement 
of  Tchemomorsk,  are  but  recently  opened  up. 

The  highlands  of  Transcaucasia,  which  extend  from 
north-west  to  south-east  for  nearly  375  miles,  with  an 
average  width  of  160  miles,  must  in  their  turn  be  sub- 
divided into  two  sections — the  Armenian  plateau,  including 
the  provinces  of  Erivan  and  Kars  and  parts  of  Baku,  and 
the  Black  Sea  coast-region,  including  the  former  province 
of  Batum  (now  the  Batum  and  Artvin  districts  of  Kutais). 

The  former  of  those  is  an  immense  plateau  separated  by 
the  valley  of  the  Araxes  from  the  highlands  of  Adherbaijan 
and  of  Turkish  Armenia,  which  belong  to  the  drainage-areas 
of  the  Euphrates  or  those  of  Lakes  Van  and  Urmia.  All  over 
Kars  and  Erivaii  is  a  series  of  plateaus  ranging  in  altitude 
from  5000  to  6500  feet,  sometimes  quite  flat,  sometimes 
broadly  undulating,  covered  with  rich  meadows,  and  for 
the  most  part  available  for  agriculture.  Dome-shaped 
mountains,  isolated,  or  grouped  into  relatively  low  ridges, 
rise  from  these  plateaus  to  heights  which  range  from  8000 
to  9500  feet,  and  occasionally  reach  10,000  or  11,000 
above  sea-level.  Several  summits  in  the  east  exceed  that 
ieight,  and  the  Alaghoz  reaches  13,436  feet. 
/  This  plateau  region  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  valley  of  the 
JAraxes,  the  river  which  forms  the  frontier  with  Turkey,  except 
mhere  it  is  crossed  by  Russia  in  the  south  of  Kars  and  west  of 
'Erivaii.  There  the  river  Hows  in  a  broad  valley  4500  feet  above 
'eea-level,  and  the  Kars  plateau  falls  towards  it  by  a  eteej)  slope, 
while  on  the  other  side  a  steep,  rocky  ridge  of  exceedingly  wild 
aspect  rises  as  the  northern  border-ricfge.of  the  South  Armenian 
(Alashkert)  plateau  and  the  water-parting  between  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  the  Indian  Ocean.  This  ridge,  which  includes  the  AUah-daoh 
and  Kbsa-dagh  (10,720  and  11,260  feet  respectively),  as  also  the 
Great  and  Little  Ararata  (17,100  and  12,990  feet),  has  no  general 
name,  but  is  described  under  the  names  of  Shah-ioly,  or  Agri-dagh.^ 
(  A  number  of  lakes  occur  on  the  plateau,  especially  along  its 
northern  border-ridge,  the  chief  being  that  of  Goktcha,  an  extensive 
alpine  basin  (500  square  miles  6310  feet  above  sea-level)  sur- 
rounded by  wild  mountains.  Most  of  the  depressions  of  the 
plateau  bear  traces  of  having  been  under  water  during  tiie  Lacustrine 
(Post-Glacial)  period.  Granites  and  other-  unstratified  rocks  con- 
stitute the  nucleus  of  the  Armenian  and  Kars  plateaus.  .These  are 
covered  with  Azoic  slates,  and  partly  with  Devonian  and  Carbonifer- 
ous deposits  ;  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  are  wanting,  but  the  Tertiary 
(Eocene  and  Miocene)  are  widely  spread  both  in  the  valley  of  the 
Rion  and  Kura  and  in  the  depressions  of  the  plateau.  Rocks  of 
volcanic  origin  are  widely  diffused  all  over  Erivaii :  the  Alexandropol 
plateau,  surrounded  by  extinct  volcanoes,  is  all  covered  with  volcanic 
products,  which  overlie  the  Tertiary  deposits  and  in  turn  are  covered 
\^ith  Glacial  boulder-clay. 

(  The  Alaghoz,  the  Ararats,  and  the  peaks  around  Lake  Goktcha 
are  huge  ti'achitic  masses  surrounded  by  volcanic  rocks.  "Iron  and 
copper  ores  are  widely  spread ;  alum  and  rock-salt  are  obtained, 
the  latter  at  Kulpi  and  NakhichevaiS.  Mineral  springs  are  numer- 
ous. The  region  is  watered  by  the  upper  Araxes — too  rapid  and 
rocky  to  be  navigated — and  its  tributaries,  most  of  which  flow  at 
the  bottoms  of  deep  gorges.  The  upper  Kura  waters  western  Kars. 
The  climate  presents  all  the  varieties  which  might  be  expected  in 
B  region  of  so  varied  altitudes.  While  cotton  grows  in  the  dry  and 
hot  climate  of  the  valley  of  the  lower  Araxes,  the  winter  ia  severe 
on  the  plateau,  and  Alexandropol  (5010  feet)  has  an  average 
temperature  of  only  41°-5  (Jan.  T2°"8;  July,  73°-6).  The  diflerence 
between  summer  and  winter  is  stHl  more  striking  at  ErivaSl  (3210 
feet),  which  has  in  January  an  average  of  only  B"  while  that  of 
August  reaches  77''7.  On  the  Kara  plateau  the  winter  is  still  more 
•evere.  Kaghyzman  (4620  feet)  and  Sary-kamysh  (7800  feet)  have 
the  winter  temperature  of  Finland,  and  the  latter  place,  with  an 
annual  mean  the  same  aa  that  of  Hammerfest  (3g°  F,),  haa  frosts  of 

'  W.    Massalsky,    "Oovemment  of  Kars,"  in  Iseuiia  of  Rubs. 
Geogr.  Soc,  vol.  xxiiL,  1887. 


27°  and  heats  of  99°.  Tlie  vegetation  of  the  Karsplateail  reflects; 
these  extremes  of  climate,  and,  besides  the-alpine  vegetation  of  tb* 
high  yailas  (alpine  meadow8),.we  find  there  the  Anatolian,  Arinenian, 
and  Pontic  floras  meeting.  The  popnlation  of  Erivan  consists  of 
Armenians  (54  per  cent),  Tartars  (40  per  cent.),  some  28,000  Kurds,) 
and  some  4400  Russians,  together  with  a  few  Greeks  and  Jews,j 
In  localities  under  4000  feet  cotton  and  rice  are  the  chief  crops.i 
oil-yielding  plants,  the  vine,  the  mulberry,  and  fruit  trees  being', 
also  cultivated.  Higher  up  wheat  and  barley  are  grown,  while  at 
altitudes  above  6000  and  7000  feet  the  Tartars  and  Kurds  support 
themselves  by  rearing  cattle.  Many  petty  trades  are  developed  in 
the  towns  among  the  Armeuians,  and  the  trade  of  Erivaii  with. 
Persia  ami  Turkey  amounts  to  about  10,000,000  roubles. 

The  population  of  the  province  of  Kars  (167,610  in  1883)  is  very 
inixed.  In  a  remote  antiquity  it  was  inhabited  by  Armenians,! 
whose  capital  Ani,  Mren  with  its  beautiful  ruins  of  a  grand 
cathedral,  and  several  other  towns  now  in  ruins  testify  to  the 
former  wealth  and  populousness  of  the  country.  After  the  fall  of 
the  Armenian  empire  the  Turks  occupied  the  region  ;  Kurds  from' 
Kurdistan  and  Diarbekr  invaded  tlie  alpine  pasturages  of  the 
valley  of  the  Araxes ;  later  on,  Kahards,  Circassians,  Osses,  ani 
Karapapakhs  found  refuge  there  ;  and  finally,  after  the  last  war 
the  Mohammedans  emigrated  to  Asia  Miuor  (82,760  in  1878-81),j 
while  Cliristian  Armenians,  Greeks,  Russian  Raskolniks,  and  some 
Yezids  took  their  place.  The  population  consists  now  of  Turks,j 
Armenians,  Turcomans,  Greeks,  Kurds,  Adherbaijan  Tartars, 
Gipsies,  and  Rus^ans.  The  Kars  sanjak,  which  was  one  of  th& 
granaries  of  Turkey,  has  lost  this  reputation  ;  but  the  crop* 
(chiefly  wheat  and  barley)  are  now  again  increasing  where  the  early 
frosts  do  not  interfere  with  agriculture.  Cotton  is  raised  in  th» 
Olty  region;  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Aiaxes  gardening  and  the| 
culture  of  the  silkworm  are  widely  difl'used;  while  cattle-rearing^ 
is  the  chief  source  of  income  in  the  highlands,  especially  with  the 
Kurds,  who  move  their  felt  tents  on  the  yailas  to  higher  levels  as- 
the  summer  sun  burns  up  the  vegetation.    '      ~ 

The  western  part  of  the  Transcaucasian  highlands  com-*, 
prises  the  Batum  and  Artvin  districts,  which  now  belong- 
to  Kutais.  The  whole  of  the  region  is  occupied  by  alpina 
ridges — the  Pontic  ridge  in  the  west,  and  those  of  Arjar 
and  Arsian  in  the  east,  whose  highest  peaks  rise  to  10,000 
and  11,000  feet,  without,  however,  reaching  the  limits  o£ 
perpetual  snow.  The  Tchorokh  and  its  tributaries,  moun- 
tain streams  enclosed  in  deep  valleys,  water  the  region  j, 
the  Tchorokh  is  navigable  by  small  boats  for  60  miles. 

The  coast  region  enjoys  an  excellent  climate;  the  average  yearly 
temperature  at  Batum  is  65°  F.,  that  of  the  coldest  montli 
(February!  being  41°'5,  and  that  of  July  76°'5.  During  the  last 
four  years  the  thermometer  never  fell  lower  than  39°  5  at  Qatum.' 
The  rainfall  is  excessive  (93  "4  inches),  and  days  are  recorilctl  on 
which  the  amount  of  rain  exceeded  10  inches.  The  region  IiM- 
accordingly  a  very  luxuriant  and  subtropical  vegetation,  auj  c\'i'i» 
higher  up  the  hills  the  villages  are  litei'ally  buried  amidst  gardens.' 
The  higher  hills  have  luxuriant  meadows.  Rice  is  cultivated  ia 
the  coast  region,  and  millet,  barley,  tobacco,  and  a  variety  of  frnit- 
trees  on  higher  altitudes.  The  inhabitants  (about  90,000  in  1684)^ 
are  chiefly  Georgians,  apj>roaching  the  Gurians  most  nearly.  Tli© 
Lazes  number  about  2000  and  the  Kurds  about  1000.  A  fi-w 
KhemshiUi,  or  Mohammedan  Armenians,  have  found  refuge  iu  the 
gorge  of  Makrial. 

Towns. — The  chief  towns  of  Transcaucasia  are^  more  important 
than  those  of  northern  Caucasus.  TiFLIS  (?.«.),  with  104,024  in-' 
habitantsin  U.83,  is  the  capital  of  Caucasia.  KtiTAIS(j.ti.)(]3,000),j 
to  wliich  tradition  assigns  an  age  of  4000  or  5000  years,  has  grown 
rapidly  of  late,  owing  to  its  situation  at  the  head  of  the  alluvial 
plain  of  the  Rion  and  the  proximity  of  the  Tkvibula  coal  deposits 
and  the  Kvirila  manganese  mines.  Khoni  (4000)  and  Orpiri  are 
mere  administrative  centres  of  Kutais.  Redut-kale  (620)  has  lost 
its  importance  as  a  seaport,  and  Poti  (3110),  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Rion,  has  not  yet  become  an  important  port,  notwithstanding  efforts 
to  improve  its  roadstead  and  its  raijivay  connexion  with  Tiflis  and 
Baku.  The  chief  Black  Sea  port  of  Transcaucasia  is  Batvm  (g.v.),' 
which  has  been  diligently  fortified  of  late,  and  his  now  a  popula- 
tion of  12,000.  Artvin  (5860)  and  Ardjari  are  the  two  other  chief 
towns  of  tl;o  Batum  region.  The  chief  towns  of  the  government  of 
Tiflis  besides  its  capital  are  Gori,  capital  of  Georgia  (populntioQ 
4800),  Mtzhet  (770)  at  the  junction  of  the  Vladikavkaz  highway, 
with  the  Transcaucasian  railway,  Telav  (7020),  Dushety  (3800); 
Zakataty  (1080),  chief  town  of  a  separate  military  district,  and  Sig- 
nakh  (10,340),  which  are  built  in  the  spurs  of  the  main  chain ;  wliile 
Akhattsikh  (18,270),  on  the  upper  Kura  and  on  the  Kars  plateau,  is 
o  busy  centre  for  petty  trades.  The  old  city  of  Ahatkatakr  (3200)  on 
tho  same  plateau  is  now  a  Russian  fort  F.lizabethpol,  Nttkha, 
and  SuDBHA  igq.v.)  are  the  principal  towns  in  the  province  of 
£lizabetbpol.     Baku  ig.v.),  the  terminus  of  the  Tranecaucasiau. 


T  R  A  — T  R  A 


raUway,  and  in  regular  stesmer  communication  with  Mikhailovs6 
in  the  Transcaspian  region,  derives  its  importance  from  the  naphtha 
wells  which  surround  it  Shemakha  (j.iv)  (28,810),  and  Saliany 
(10,170),  at  the  head  of  the  delta  of  the  Kura,  and  notable  for  its 
fisheries,  are  the  only  places  of  importance  in  the  province  of  Baku 
ERIViiJ  (y.p.)  (12.450),  capital  of  the  province  of  ErivaB,  and  the 
chief  city  of  the  Armenian  plateau,  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  the 
country,  and,  owing  to  its  position,  would  be  much  more  important 
than  it  is.  but  for  its  climate  Etchmiadzin.  or  Vagarshapad  (2910), 
is  the  reaJrapital  (the  Rome)  of  Armenia,  for  its  antiquities,  mon- 
astery, library,  and  printing  offices.  Nakhitcherah  (5390)— the 
Naxuaoa  of  Ptolemy — is  another  centre  of  Armenia.  The  most 
populous  town  of  the  re^oo,  however,  is  Alesandropol  (23,010)  or 
GcMRi  (?. f. ),  the  chief  Russian  fortress  of  Transcaucasia, — the 
other  towns  of  Erivai  being  Ani,  or  Oni,  Novobayazot  at  Lake 
Coktcha,  and  Ordubad  (3600).  The  long-disputed  KaRS  (?.  i'), 
which  has  now  7340  inhabitants,  is  the  chief  town  of  the  new 
Russian  province  of  the  same  name,  annexed  in  1878.  Kaghyzraan 
(3700),  on  the  upper  Araxes,  is  but  a  collection  of  clay  houses  sur- 
rounded hy  rich  gardens;  Ardahan  (1270),  "n  the  upper  Kura,  and 
Olty  (530)  are  the  only  other  towns  of  Kars  worthy  of  notice  as 
administrative  centres.  (P.  A.  K. ) 

TRANSIT  CIKCLE,  or  Mekidun  Circle,  an  instru- 
meat  for  observing  the  time  of  a  star's  passing  the 
meridian,  at  the  same  time  measuring  its  angular  distance 
from  the  zenith.  The  idea  of  having  an  instrument 
(quadrant)  6xed  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian  occurred 
even  to  the  ancient  astronomers,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy,  but  it  was  not  carried  into  practice  until  Tycho 
Brahe  constructed  a  large  meridian  quadrant.  This  instru- 
ment enabled  the  observer  to  determine  simultaneously 
right  ascension  and  declination,  but  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  much  used  for  right  ascension  during  the  17th 
century,  the  method  of  equal  altitudes  by  portable  quad- 
rants or  distance  measures  with  a  sextant  being  preferred 
(see  Observatory  and  Time).  These  methods  were,  how- 
ever, very  inconvenient,  which  induced  Roemer  (q.v.)  to 
invent  the  transit  instrument  about  1690.  It  consists  of  a 
horizontal  axis  in  the  direction  east  and  west  resting  on" 
firmly  fixed  supports,  and  having  a  telescope  fixed  at  right 
angles  to  it,  revolving  freely  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian. 
At  the  same  time  Roemer  invented  the  altitude  and  azimuth 
instrument  for  measuring  vertical  and  horizontal  angles, 
and  in  1704  he  combined  a  vertical  circle  with  his  transit 
instrument,  so  as  to  determine  both  coordinates  at  the 
same  time.  This  latter  idea  was,  however,  not  adopted 
elsewhere,  although  the  transit  instrument  soon  carae  into 
universal  use  (the  first  one  at  Greenwich  was  mounted  in 
1721),  and  the  mural  quadrant  continued  till  the  end  of 
the  century  to  be  employed  for  determining  declinations. 
The  advantage  of  using  a  whole  circle,  as  less  liable  to 
change  its  figure,  and  not  requiring  reversal  in  order  to 
observe  stars  north  of  the  zenith,  was  then  again  recog- 
nized by  Ramsden  (q.v.),  who  also  improved  the  method 
of  reading  off  angles  by  means  of  a  micrometer  microscope 
as  described  below.'  The  making  of  circles  was  shortly 
afterwards  taken  up  by  Trouqhton  (g-v.),  who  in  1806 
constructed  the  first  modern  transit  circle  for  Mr  Groom- 
bridge's  observatory  at  Blackheath,  but  he  afterwards 
abandoned  the  idea,  and  designed  the  mural  circle  to  take 
the  place  of  the  mura!  quadrant.  In  the  United  Kingdom 
the  transit  instrument  and  mural  circle  continued  till  the 
middle  of  the  present  century  to  be  the  principal  instru- 
ments in  observatories,  the  first  transit  circle  constructed 
-there  being  that  at  Greenwich  (mounted  in  1850),  but  on 
the  Continent  the  transit  circle  superseded  them  from  the 
years  1818-19,  when  two  circles  by  Repsold  (q.v.)  and  by 
ReichenbaCH  (q.v.)  were  mounted  at  Gottingen,  and  one 
by  Reichenbach  at  Konigsberg.'  The  firm  of  Repsold 
was  for  a  number  of  years  eclipsed  by  that  of  Pistor 
and  Martins  in  Berlin,  who  furnished  the  observatories  of 

'  The  most  notable  exception  was  the  transit  instrunietit  aftd 
vertical  circle  of  the  Palkova  obser\'atory,  specially  designed  bythe 
elder  Struvo  for  fundamental  determinations! 


Copenhagen,  Albany,  Leyden,  Leipsic,  Berlin,  Washington, 
and  Dublin  with  ficst  class  instruments,  but  since  the 
death  of  Martins  the'Repsolds  have  again  taken  the  lead, 
and  have  of  late  years  made  transit  circles  for  Strasburg, 
Bonn,  Wilhelmshafen,  Williamstown  (Massachusetts), 
Madison  (Wisconsin),  ita  The  observatories  of  Harvard 
College  (United  States),  Cambridge,  and  Dun  Echt  have 
large  qircles  by  Tronghton  and  Simms,  who  also  made  the 
Greenwich  circle  from  the  design  of  Airy.^ 

We  shall  describe  the  principal  features  of  a  transit 
circle,  referring  for  smaller  transit  instruments  and  altazi- 
muths to  the  article  Sdrveyino  (vol.  xxii.  p.  719). 

In  the  earliest  transit  instrument  the  telescope  was  not  placed 
in  the  middle  of  the  axis,  but  much  ne.Trcr  to  one  end.  in  order  to 
prevent  the  axis  from  bending  under  the  weight  of  the  telescope. 
It  IS  now  always  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  axis.  The  latter 
consists  of  one  piece  of  brass  or  gun-metal  with  carefully  turned 
cylindrical  pivots  at  each  end.  The  centre  of  the  axis  is  shaped 
like  a  cube,  the  sides  of  which  form  the  basis  of  two  cones  which 
end  in  cylindrical  parts  The  pivots  vest  on  V-shaped  bearings, 
either  let  into  the  massive  stone  or  brick  piers  which  support  the 
instrument  or  attached  to  metal  frameworks  bolted  on  the  tops  of 
the  piers  In  order  to  relieve  the  pivots  from  the  weight  of  the 
instrument,  which  would  soon  destroy  their  figure,  the  cylindrical 

fiart  of  each  end  of  the  axis  is  supported  by  a  hook  supplied  with 
riction  rollers,  and  suspended  from  a  lever  supported  by  the  pier 
and  counterbalanced  so  as  to  leave  only  about  10  pounds  pressure 
on  each  bearing.  Near  each  end  of  the  axis  is  attached  a  circle  or 
wheel  (generally  of  3  or  3J  feet  diameter)  finely  divided  to  2'  or  5' 
on  a  slip  of  silver  let  into  the  face  of  the  circle  near  the  circum- 
ference. The  graduation  is  read  oflf  by  means  of  microscopes, 
generally  four  for  each  circle  at  90*'  from  each  other,  as  by  taking  the 
mean  of  the  four  readings  the  eccentricity  and  to  a  great  extent  the 
accidental  errors  of  graduation  are  eliminated.'  In  the  earlier  instru- 
ments by  Pistor  and  Mar-  wards  they  let  the  piers  be 
tins  the  microscopes  were  tSj  made  narrower,  so  that  the 
fixed     in     holes     drilled     ^^     microscopes  could  be  at  the 


through  the  pier,  but  after- 


attached   to 


Transit  Circlet 

radial  arms  starting  from  near  the  bearings  of  the  axis.  This 
is  preferable,  as  it  allows  of  the  temporary  attachment  of  auxil- 
iary microscopes  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the  errors  of 
fraduation  of  tho  circle,  but  the  plan  of  the  Repsoids  and  of 
imms,  to  make  the  piers  short  and  to  let  the  microscopes  and 
supports  of  the  axis  be  carried  by  an  iron  framework,  is  better 
still,  as  no  part  of  the  circle  is  exposed  to  radiation  from  the  pier, 
which  may  cause  strain  and  thereby  change  the  angular  distance 
between  various  parts  of  the  circle.  Each  microscope  is  furnished 
with  a  micrometer  screw,  which  moves  a  frame  carrying  a  cross,  or 

^  This  instrument  differs  in  many  particulars  from  others  :  the 
important  principfe  of  symmetry  in  all  the  parts  (scrupulously 
followed  in  all  others)  is  quite  discarded  ;  there  is  only  one  circle ;. 
and  the  instrument  cannot  be  reversed.  There  is  a  simUar  instrument 
at  the  Cape  observatory. 

^  On  Reichenbuch's  circles  there  were  verniers  instead  of  micTO- 
scopes,  and  they  were  attached  to  an  alidade  circle,  the  immovability 
of  which  was  tested  by  a  leveL 


516 


T  R  A  — T  R  A 


better  two  close  parallel  threads  of  Bpider's  web,  with  which  the 
disunce  of  a  .i.v.s.on  line  from  the  centre  of  the  field  can  be 
mSS"d  the  drum  uf  the  screw  being  divided  to  single  seconds  of 
™fftf'l  beine  estimated)  while  the  number  of  revolutions  arc 
counted  by  alind  of  comb, n  the  field  of  view.  The  renodic 
errorTof  tL  screw  must  be  investigated  and  taken  into  account 
!nd  care  must  be  taken  that  the  microscopes  are  placed  and  kept 
t?suTa  dLtance  from  the  circle  that  one  rcvo  ul.on  will  corre- 
SBond  to  Ithe  excess  or  defect  (error  of  run)  being  determined 
f?om  tir^e  ti  time  by  measuring  st'andard  intervals  of  2  or  6   on 

^'^Thrtelescope  consistsof  two  slightly  conical  lubes  screwed  to  the 
«entr^l™b"onh°axis.    U-of  grS>t  imporUncc  that  .hisconnexjon 
should  be  as  firm  and  the  tube  as  slitf  as  possible  '  as  the  Unsure 
oUhe  tube  v«ll  affect  the  declinations  deduced  (ro...  the  obse.  utiuns. 
The  Veiure  in  the  horizontal  position  of  the  tube  inay  be  deter- 
lined  by  mJ^ns  of  two  collimators  or  telescope,  placed  hori.outally 
^  ?he  meridian,  north  and  south  of  the  transit  circle,  with  their 
obieet  ™^U  towards  it.       If  these  are  pointed  on    one  anoth  r 
?throU  holes  in  the  central  cube  of  the  telesc,.|,e),  eo  that    he 
Tr^cfosses  in  their  foe.  coincide,  then   the   "'"-l'!;  "'  r;'"'Ji' 
I  first  to  one  and  then  to  the  otlier,  will  have  described  esactlj  180 
aSd  by  readins  off  the  circle  each  time  the  amount  of  flexure  ml 
be  found      MLoewy  has  constructed  «  very  ingenious  apparatus^ 
for  dXrminng  the  flexure  in  any  zenith  distance,  bit  geue,^   y 
the  observer  of  standard  stars  endeavou,:*  to  eliminate  the  effect 
of  llexure  in  one  of   the   following  w.iys  -either  the  tube  is  so 
a  ranged   that  eye  piece   and    object-glass    can   be   interchanged 
whereby  the  mean  of  two  observations  of  the  same  star  in  the  two 
;os    onsof  the  object  glass  will  be  free  from  the  eflect  o    flexure 
5r  astar  is  not  only  observed  directly  (in  eenith  dusUnce  ^,  but 
also  by  reflexion  from  a  mercury  trough  (in  zenith  distance  180  -^). 
Is  the  mean  result  of  the  Z  D   of  the  direct  and  reflexion  observa- 
tions,  betoie  and  after  reversing  the  instrument  east  an<l  we.t    will 
only  contiin  the  terms  of  the  flexure  depending  on  sin2/,  6in4^,  &u 
In  order  to  mise  the  instrument  a  reversing  carnage  is  provided 
»hich  runs  on  rails  between  the  piers,  and  on  which  the  axis  with 
crck-s  and  telescope  can  be  raised  by  a  kind  of  screw-jack    wheeled 
«ut  from  between  the  piers,  turned  exactly  180°,  wheeled  back,  and 

gently  loweied  on  its  bearings.  

The  eve  end  of  the  telescope  has  in  a  plane  through  the  focus 
.  number  of  vertical  and  one  or  two  horizontal  wires  (spider  lines) 
The  former  are  used  for  observing  the  transits  of  the  stars,  each 
wire  furnishing  a  separate  result  for  the  time  of  transit  over  the 
roid.lle  wire  by  adding  or  subtracting  the  known  interval  between 
Sie  latter  and  the  wire  in  question  The  intervals  are  determined 
by  observing  the  time  UUen  by  asUr  of  known  decimation  to  pass 
from  one  wiT.  to  the  other,  the  pole  star  being  best  on  account  of 
its  slow  motion  '  The  instrument  is  provided  with  a  clamping 
apparatus,  by  which  the  observer,  after  having  beforeliand  set  to 
the  approximate  dnclination  of  a  star,  can  clamp  the  axis  so  that 
the  telescope  cannot  be  moved  except  very  slowly  by  a  handle 
DU3hin<r  thfend  of  a  fine  screw  against  the  clamp  arm,  which  at 
the  oth°6r  side  is  pressed  by  a  strong  spring.  By  this  slow  motion 
the  star  is  made  lo  run  along  one  of  the  honzontaJ  wires  (or  if  there 
are  two  close  ones,  in  the  middle  between  them),  after  which  the 
microscopes  are  read  off.  The  field  or  the  wues  can  be  illuminated 
at  the  observers  pleasure  ;  the  lamps  are  placed  at  sonie  distjince 
from  the  piers  in  order  not  to  heat  the  instrument,  and  the  light 
passes  through  holes  in  the  pier^  and  through  the  hollaw  axis  to 
the  cube,  whence  it  is  directed    to  the  eye-end    by    a  system  of 

'"'The  time  of  the  star's  transit  over  the  middle  wire  is  never 
e-tactly  enual  to  the  actual  time  of  its  meridian  passage  as  the 
plane  in  which  the  telescope  turns  never  absolutely  coincides  with 
the  meridian  Let  the  production  of  the  west  end  of  the  axis 
meet  the  celestial  sphere  in  a  point  of  whi.h  the  altitude  above  the 
horizon  is  6  (the  error  of  inclination),  and  of  which  the  azimuth  is 
90° -a  (the  azimuth  being  counted  from  south  through  west)  while 
the  optical  axis  of  the  telescope  makes  the  angle  90  +c  with  the 
west  end  of  the  axis  of  the  instrument,  then  the  co.rection  to  the 
•       -11  K       6in(»-5)  .  ^cos((»-S)  . 

observed  time  of  transit  will  be  a      ^^^  ^  ■■  +  6  — 75J5     +  '  ^'^  "• 

where  <(.  is  the  latitude  of  the  station  and  6  tho  declination  of  the 
star  (see  Geodesy,  vol  x  p  166)  This  is  called  Tobiaa  Mayers 
formula,  and  U  very  convenient  if  only  a  few  observatiuus  have 
U>  be  reduced.  Puttingft  sin  » -a  cos-0  =  n,  we  get  Hansen  sjor- 
I  Reiflimbacli  BiippUed  Ms  tutHM  wllh  counwrpoising  tovera  Uko  ttiMOOntho 
Darptt  nrfr»ct(jr  (iwe  TtLSScorB,  ttfi.^iO). 

»  ^n^.w»"ai'"'imicr "oer'vcS  by  "eye  unci  efir,"  couitlni!  the  second  bents 
of  1:, :  Clock  .n.l  con>parin<:  the  aisMice  ot  the  .lar  from  ll.e  wire  at  the  last  beat 
b.ro,<  the  lran,lt  over  .1,.  wire  -Uh  the  dljl-ince  at  the  flr>t  beat  after  Iho 
tranl't,  lo  this  way  «.lroutl,.g  the  tln.e  ot  tratiilt  lo  0-1  .  or  the  olMsiver 
eSh  .-chrono^aph,"  and  oy  prcs^lns  an  electric  key  cause,  a  mark  1..  be 
made  OD  a  paper  .traced  ovei  a  unlloiTOly  r.volvlng  draw,  o.i  which  the  cimk 
iK-alB  KT*  at  the  aame  time  also  marked  electrically  . 

.  ThTide.  of  lllamlnaiii.K  thiough  the  il5  1!  dac  to  Ussher.  professor  ol 
pmmomf  1«  DnbUn  /<).  l"OI. 


niula.  which  gives  the  correction  -  6  sec  <.  ■^  n  (tan  8  '  t^"  *' +  ^  ^f  *• 
which  is  more  convenient  for  a  greater  number  of  observation^ 
The   daUy  aberration  is   always    deducted   from  c,  as   it   is  aiso 
muUiplied    by   sec  8  (being   (/.Slcos^sec  8).       The  above  cojec. 
tions  are  for  upper  culmination  ;  below  the  pole  180  "  «  has  U>  bo 
substituted  for  5.     The  constant  c  is  determmed  by  pointing  the 
instrument  on  one  of  the  coUimators   measunng  the  <!'stance  of  Os 
wire-cross  fr'.m  the  centre  wire  of  the  transit  circle  by  «  vert.i^ 
wire  movable  by  a  micrometer  screw,  reversing  the  'nstrnment  and 
repeating  Xhi  operation,  or  (without  reversing)  by  pou>t.ng  the  twa 
collimators  *n  one  another  and  measunng  the  distance  of  fi™t  one 
and  then  the  other  wire-cross  from  the  centre  wire.     The   nclin 
ari on  b  is  measured  directly  by  a  level  which  can  be  ^°m^fj^ 
the  pivots.     Having  thus  found  6  and  c,  the  observation  of  two  stare 
of  known  right  as^insion  will    furnish  two  equations  from  wh  ch 
?he  clock  error  and  the  azimuth  can  be  found.     For  finding  the 
azimuth  it  is  most  advanUgeous  to  use  two  stars  diffenng  as  nearly 
90'  in  declination  as  possible,  such  as  a  star  n^r  the  pole  and  on. 
near  the  equator,  or  better  stUl  (if  the  weather   permits  it)  two 
successive  meridikn  transits  of  a  close  circumpolar  star  (one  above 
and  one  below  the  pole),  as  in  this  case  errors  in  the  assumed  nght 
ascension  will  not  influence  the  result 

tKo  Tnterval    of  time   between  the    culminations  or   mendian 
transits  of    two   stars  is  their  difference  of  tight  ascension,   24 
S^u^  corresponding  to  360°  or  1  hour  to  15°.     1?  once  tho  ai^olvU 
^HasccJo^  of\  number  of  staM  .tor.   are  ^nown    it  is 
very  simple   by   means  of  these  to  detenmne   the  K.A.  ot  any 
Tumbrof  Stars'    The  absolute  B-A.  of  a  star  is  "-d  ^y  "^.-rviog 
the  interval  of  time  between  its  culmination  and    hat  o    the  sun. 
If  the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic  (.)  is  known,  and  the  declination 
of  the    un  (6)  is  observed  at  tL  tiine  of  transit,  we  have  sin  a  tan  . 
»tan5.  which  gives  the  R.A.  of  the  sun.  from  which   together 
with  the  observed  interval  of  time   corrected  for  the  rate  ui    he 
dock    v'"  "Ot  the  R.A.  of  the  star.      Differentiation  of  the  formula 
show;  that  observations  near  the  e^iuinoxes  are  "'ost  advai,.ag«,us 
and  that  errors  in  the  assumed  ,  and  the  observed  5  "U  ha^e  no 
influence  if  the  Aa  is  observed  at  two  epochs  when  the  sun  s  K  A^ 
is  A  and  180-  A  or  as  near  thereto  as  [.ossible       A  great  number 
of  tb^rvations  of  this  kind  will  furnish  materials  for  a  st.-tndard 
cataSTbut  the  right  ascensions  of  many  important  catalogues 
have  &  found  by  "making  use  of  the  R.A.-S  of  a  P^'ou^/-^" 
logue  to  determine  the  clock  error  and  thus  to  improve  the  indi- 
vidual adopted  R.A. 's  of  the  foniier  catalogue. 

In  order  to  determine  absolute  declinations  or  polar  distances,  it 
is  first  necessary  to  deteraiine  the  co-latitude  (or  distance  of  the  pole 
from  the  zenith)  by  observing  the  upper  and  lower  '■"1™  "»t  on 
of  a  number  of  circumpolar  stars.  The  dilferenco  etween  the 
circle  reading  after  observing  a  star  and  the  reading  cm-respond  ng 
TL  zenith  is  the  zenith  distance  of  the  star  and  this  plus  the 
CO  latitude  is  the  north  polar  distance  or  90°  -  6.  Iti  ojder  to 
determine  the  zenith  point  of  the  circle,  the  telescope  is  directed 
vertically  downwards  and  a  basin  of  mercury  is  placed  "ider  it, 
forVnngL  absolutely  horizontal  mirror.  Looking  through  the 
te  escope  the  observer  sees  the  horizontal  wire  and  a  reflected 
image  of  the  same,  and  if  the  telescope  is  moved  so  as  *o  make 
,    *>        _   -.1.    ;..  '.;„„!  „v;c  vrlll  ho  ni-mendicu  ar  to  the  plane  of 


imaee  of  the  same,  ana  it  ine  icicscui..;  .^  „>-.-..  --  —  -  -— 
th^  coincide  its  optical  axis  will  be  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
the  horizon,  and  the  circle  reading  wilT  bo  180°  +  zei„th  point.  In 
observation;  of  stai-s  refraction  has  to  be  taken  into  •recount  as  well 
as  the  errors  of  graduation  and  flexure,  and.  if  the  bisection  of  the 
1  on  thehonfonul  «ire  was  not  made  in  the  centre  of^the  field 
allowance  must  be  made  for  curvature  (or  the  d^'-^t  on  of  the 
Star's  path  from  a  great  circle)  and  for  the  inclination  of  the  hon- 
z^ntll  wue  to  the  horizon.  The  amount  of  this  inclination  is  foniid 
by  takin-  repeated  observations  of  the  zenith  distance  of  a  star 
during  the  one  transit,  the  pole  star  being  most  suitable  owing  to 
ita  slow  motion. 

i„c™<.,r,_Tl.c  methods  ot  investigating  the  errors  »'"'";"»''  ;^' !;';,'  j^jj 
c.ncct.iik  the  results  of  obse.Tatlons  lor  them  are  Riven  In  ■>■"""»»  '»"° 
r^,^,, IS  manuals  (>ee  Time)  Foi  detailed  .lescriptions  of  modem  transit 
c  ,  V  «c  p^nlc,"  >  y*/»n^/i.  i.r  S,r„..arU  ,»  i.„rf".  (vol.  U.  the  »-o;''";5'»» 
5^;ii.^S  (or  8  5  and  ihe  pubtHalimsof  the  Washburn  observatory  (vol  II.). 
SrGTocawlcb  ci-de'f.  delcr'ud  la  un  appcndl.,  u>  the  <7rc»...<cA  (».^-'»« 
(or  1852  ^  ■ 

TRANSMIGRATION.    See  Metempsychosis. 

TRANSPORTATION.    See  Prison  Discipline. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION.     See  Ehcharist. 

TRANSVAAL,  or  Sooth  African  Republic,  a  country  See  vol  i 
in  South  Africa,  Dortheinmo,st  of  the  European  states,  Plate  U 
lying  between  22°  15'  aixl  28°  S  lat.,  and  25  and  32  10 
E.  long.,  is  bounded  N.  and  N.W.  by  the  Limpopo,  separat- 
ine  it  from  the  Makalaka  and  Bamangwato  countries ;,W. 
partly  by  the  Marico  and  the  Hart,  partly  by  an  Irregufar 
ine  between  tbest>  streams,  separating  it  from  the  new 
British  prplectorate  of  Bechuaualand  ;  S.  by  the  Vaal  anil 
I  the  Buffalo,  separating  it  from  the  Orange  Free  State  aud 


TRANSVAAL 


517 


Natal ;  E.  by  the  Libomba  Mountains,  separating  it  from 
Zululaiid  and  the  Portuguese  East  African  possessions.' 
Transvaal  thus  forms  a  compact  inland  territory  nearly  as 
broad  as  long,  not  more  than  45  or  50  miles  from  the 
Indian  Ocean  at  Delagoa  Bay,  but  otherwise  lying  com- 
pletely within  the  outer  rim  of  the  vast  South  African 
tableland.  A  line  drawn  from  the  south-west  extremity, 
where  It  touches  Griqualaud  West,  north-eastwards  to  the 
Limpopo-Shasha  confluence,  gives  an  extreme  length  of  500 
miles,  the  distance  from  the  same  confluence  southwards  to 
the  Natal  frontier  being  425,  and  the  greatest  length  east 
and  west  between  the  Zulu  and  Becbuana  frontiers  about 
400  miles.  In  the  absence  of  accurate  surveys,  the  total  are.i 
has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  110,000  to  r20,000 
square  miles,  with  a  population  (including  aborigines) 
roughly  calculated  at  from  750,000  to  SOO.OOO. 

Physical  Features. — Physically  Transvaal  forms  a  well- 
marked  section  of  the  great  South  African  plateau,  an 
zlevated  shallow  basin  with  a  mean  altitude  of  over  3000 
feet,  whose  conformation  has  beeu  compared  to  that  of  a 
•aucer.  On  the  south  and  east  this  basin  is  separated 
from  the  coast  by  a  lofty  inner  and  less  elevated  onter 
rim,  the  former  from  COOO  to  10.000,  the  latter  about 
2000  feet  high,  sweeping  round  in  curves  concentric  with 
that  of  the  seaboard,  from  Cajie  Colony  through  Natal  and 
the  east  side  of  Transvaal  northwards  to  the  equatorial 
regions.  The  inner  rim,  whose  various  sections  in  the 
extreme  south  are  known  as  the  Roggeveld,  Nieuweveld, 
and  Quathlaraba  ranges,  takes  in  Natal  and  Transvaal 
the  general  name  of  the  Drakenberg  Mountains.  From 
the  Natal  frontier  to  the  Lipalule  (Olifant)  tributary  of 
the  Limpopo,  the  Drakenberg  maintains  the  aspect  of  a 
more  or  less  continuous  range  5000  to  7000  feet  high, 
culminating  in  the  Mauchberg  (8725),  the  highest  point  in 
Transvaal  A  little  to  the  east  is  the  Spitskop  (5637),  and 
further  south  the  Klipstad  (6020)  and  Holnek  (5600). 
This  section,  whose  several  ridges  are  known  as  the  Verza- 
melberg,  Randberg,  Slangapiesberg,  and  Komatiberg,  falls 
everywhere  precipitously  eastwards  towards  the  Libomba 
range,  or  outer  rim  of  the  plateau,  which  maintains  a  mean 
elevafion  of  2000  feet  along  the  eastern  border  of  Trans- 
Taa!  Beyond  the  Lipalule,  the  Drakenberg  loses  the 
character  of  a  well-defined  mountain  system,  broadening 
out  into  uplands  moderately  elevated  above  the  surround- 
ing plateau,  and  breaking  into  ridges,  such  as  the  Murchi- 
«on  and  Zoutpansberg  ranges,  which  run  east  and  west 
between  the  Lipalule  and  Limpopo.  The  whole  system 
slopes  gently  westwards  to  the  central  tableland,  which  is 
itself  intersected  by  several  broken  ranges,  such  as  the 
Maquassieberg,  Gat  Rand,  Witwater  Rand,  and  Magalies- 
berg  in  the  south,  the  Dwarsberg,  Marikele,  Hanglip, 
Waterberg,  and  Blauberg  in  the  north,  all  mostly  trending 
in  the  direction  from  east  to  west.  But  few  of  these 
ridges  rise  much  above  4000  feet,  and,  as  the  plateau  has 
a  mean  altitude  of  considerably  over  3000  feet,  they 
detract  little  from  the  aspect  of  a  vast  level  or  slightly 
rolling  upland  plain,  almost  everywhere  presented  by 
Transvaal  west  of  the  Drakenberg  orographic  system. 

The  numerous  fossil  remains  of  aquatic  life,  together 
with  extensive  sandy  tracts  and  the  presence  in  several 
places  of  water-worn  shingle,  give  to  the  central  tableland 
the  appearance  of  an  upheaved  lacustrine  basin,  whose 
waters  escaped  at  one  time  through  the  Limpopo  to  the 
Indian  Ocean,  at  another  through  the  Vaal  to  the  Orange 
river,  and  thence  to  the  Atlantic.  The  Vaal  and  Limpopo 
are  still  the  two  great  fissures  in  the  plateau,  which  carry 
ofifmostof  the  surface  waters  to  the  surrounding  marine 

'  The  boandaries  of  Transvaal,  long  a  subject  of  dispute  with  Great 
firitain  aod  the  other  contenniBous  states,  were  at  last  precisely 
defined  by  the  couveution  of  February  27,  IS84. 


basins.  The  water-parting  between  these  two  river  systems^ 
lies,  not  in  the  Drakenberg,  itself  pierced  by  the  Lipalule 
and  several  of  its  affluents,  but  in  the  Witwater  Rand 
towards  the  south-west  of  the  state.  From  this  point  the 
Limpopo,  01  Crocodile,  sweeps  round  first  to  the  west,  then 
to  the  north-east,  describing  a  semicircle  of  about  1000; 
miles  to  the  Limvuba  (I'afuri)  confluence,  where  it  leaves 
Transvaal,  flowing  thence  for  nearly  340  miles  through 
Portuguese  territoiy  south-east  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Captain  G.  A.  Chaddock  has  shown  (1884)  that  it  i» 
navigable  for  stenniers  to  this  confluence,  above  which 
it  is  obstructed  by  the  Tolo  Azime  and  other  rapids. 
Tlirouglioiit  Its  whole  course  it  receives  numerous  affluent' 
on  both  sides,  such  as  the  Sliaslia  and  Nuanetsi  from  tte 
north,  the  Marico,  Nyl,  Limvuba,  Lipalule,  and  others 
from  Transvaal,  of  which  region  it  drains  fully  95,000 
square  miles.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  tracts  watered 
by  the  headstreams  of  the  Buffalo  (Tugela),  Mvolozi  Usutu, 
and  Umcomati  (King  George),  flowing  in  independent 
channels  eastwards  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  all  the  rest  of 
Transvaal  is  drained  by  the  Vaal  westwards  to  the  Orangfr 
and  Atlantic.  The  Vaal  has  its  easternmost  .'jources  in  the 
Wakkerstroom  district  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Draken- 
berg, whence  it  flows  for  about  450  miles,  partly  within, 
but  mainly  along,  the  southern  frontier  of  Transvaal,  of 
which,  with  the  Hart  and  other  tributaries  on  its  right 
bank,  it  drains  about  20,000  square  miles  altogether. 
Besides  these  perennial  streams,  there  are  numerous  shallow- 
lagoons  or  saltpans  scattered  over  the  western  and  northera 
districts,  as  well  as  thermal  and  mineral  waters,  such  a» 
the  Warmbad  in  the  Nyl  valley.  But  the  only  lake  pro- 
perly so  called  is  Lake  Chrissie,  a  sheet  of  water  nearly 
40  miles  round,  and  in  parts  very  deep,  which  lies  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Drakenberg,  5755  feet  above  sea-level. 

CHmoU.  —  Although  lying  on  the  border  of  and  partly  xvithin 
the  tropics,  Transvaal,  tnanKs  to  its  great  elevation  above  tlie  sea, 
and  to  the  absence  of  extensive  marshy  tracts,  enjoys  on  the  wholo 
a  healthy  invigorating  climate,  well  suited  to  the  European  consti- 
tution. Owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  air,  due  to  the  proximity  of 
the  Kalahari  desert,  the  western  and  central  districts  are  specially 
favourable  to  persons  suffering  from  consumption  and  other  chest 
complaints.  But  some  of  the  low. lying  inoist  tracts  along  the- 
Limpopo  and  other  river  valleys,  close  to  or  within  the  torrid  zone, 
are  extremely  insalubrious,  fever  of  the  general  African  type  being- 
here  endemic,  and  its  prevalence  usually  marked  by  tlie  presence 
of  the  destructive  tsetse  fly.  The  route  from  Delagoa  Bay  to  the 
interior  also  traverses  a  fever  stricken  coast  district  l>€tween  th-i 
sea  and  the  Libomba  escarpment,  dangerous  especially  in  the  rainy 
summer  season.  The  rains  generally  begin  about  Octolter.  sonic- 
times  a  little  before  or  after,  and  last  intermittently  till  April.  Hut 
the  rainfall  is  very  unequally  distributed,  most  of  the  moisture  bear- 
ing clouds  from  the  Inaian  Ocean  being  arrested  by  the  great  barrier 
of  the  Drakenberg,  or  counteracted  by  the  dry  west  winds  fiora  llio- 
Kalahari  desert.  Thus,  white  there  is  abundance  of  rain  in  the- 
east,  the  country  gradually  becomes  drier  as  it  approaches  Bccbuana- 
land.  During  the  dry  winter  season  (April  to  September)  keea 
frosty  winds  blow  from  the  south,  sweeping  freely  over  the  central 
plains  and  carrying  the  moisture  to  be  precipitated  as  snow  along: 
the  eastern  highlands.  Nevertheless,  according  to  the  careful 
meteorological  observations  made  by  Mr  Lys  at  Pretoria  between 
1877  and  18S0,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  considerably  over 
68°  F  ,  falling  to  about  40°  in  June  and  rising  to  90°  and  occa-sion- 
ally  even  95°  in  January.  The  rainfall  in  the  same  central  district 
seldom  reaches  30  inches,  which  is  probably  a  fair  average  for  tho 
whole  of  Transvaal,  falling  to  12  towards  the  western  and  rising  to 
60  on  the  eastern  frontier. 

Afuieral  Jic-wurc£s. — Transvaal  yields  to  no  other  African  region' 
in  the  abundance  of  its  mineral  resonrcis,  while  it  is  allnj^-ifier  un*- 
rivalled  in  their  extraordinary  variety.  These  include,  besides  the 
precious  metals  and  diamonds,  iron,  copper,  lead,  coh;dt,  sulptiiir, 
saltpetre,  and  coal,  this  last  with  gold,  copper,  and  irf-n  being 
probably  the  most  abund.Tnt  and  widrly  distributed.  OoM.  largely 
diffused  tlirnughout  the  Oi-nkcnbci;:and  in  the  northern  Znu!p;uiS- 
bcrg  and  \V;itcrbcrg  districts  and  in  tho  Riist«fnburg  and  Marico 
districts  in  the  extreme  west,  as  well  .is  in  the  Inj^bbinds  hctweeiv 
Transvaal  and  the  Zambesi,  b.is  hitherto  been  worked  chiefly  ia 
the  rich  auriferous  region  of  Lydenburg  about  Mount  Mauchberg: 
and  Mount  Spitskop  in  the  central  parts  of  the  Drakentwrg  range, 
and  farther  south  in  the  Johannesburg  aud  Lower  Kaap  (Sheba)) 


518 


TRANSVAAL 


district,  lUddelbnrg.  -•  The  Lydenbnrg  _  deposits,  diaoovered  in 
1873,  lie  at  an  elevation  of  4500  to  6000  £eet  •10  aiilea  south  of  the 
lipalule  river  and  125  north-west  of  Lorenzo  "Marques  on  Delagoa 
Bay,  the  chief  dig^gs  being  at  Pilgrim's  Best  and  Mao  Mac  close 
to  the  Spitskop.  In  the  Middelburg  district  the  chief  centres  of 
mining  operations  are  the  recently  founded  towns  of  Barberton  and 
Johannesburg.  In  some  years  the  Lydenburg,  Marabastad,  and 
other  diggings  have  jointly  yielded  over  £300,000,  obtained  by 
washing  and  vrithoat  any  qnartz-cmshing.  Iron  ores  are  also 
widely  distributed,  and  JIis  Yzerberg  ("Iron  Mountain")  near 
Marabastad  (24°  S.,  80°  E.)  consists  of  an  enormous  mass  of  rich 
iron  ore,  which  the  natives  have  worked  for  ages.  Diamonfls  are 
chiefly  confined  to  the  Bloemhoff  district  on  the  Vaal  above  the 
great  diamantiferons  region  of  Kimberley  in  Griqualand;/West 
Coal  abounds  in  the  south-eastern  districts  (Wakk^rsfroom, 
Tltrecht),  and  also  farther  north  in  Middelburg  (Nazareti.l  and 
Lydenburg.  In  some  places  seams  7  or  8  feet  thick  lie  so  near 
the  surface  that  they  are  quarried  and  the  coal  carted  away  by  the 
uatives.  The  prevailing  formations  where  this  great  mineral  wealth 
is  embedded  are  quartz,  porphjrry,  granites,  clay  slates,  greenstone, 
Lower  Devonian  strata,  conglomerates,  and  limestones. 

Fl<rra. — In  Transvaal,  as  in  most  of  the  continent,  an  heroaceotts 
flora  prevails  largely  over  forest  growths,  which  are  here  confined 
chiefly  to  the  deep  kloofs  (gorges)  Of  the  mountain  ranges,  and  to 
the  courses  of  the  larger  streams.  Bush,  including  mimosas,  thorn 
thickets,  and  creepers,  covers  extensive  tracts  on  the  northern  and 
southern  plains,  and  the  Wakkerstroom  and  Utrecht  districts  to- 
wards Natal  are  well  wooded.  But  elsewhere  the  characteristic 
features  are  grasslands,  downs,  hill  slopes,  flats,  and  even  many 
parts  of  the  higher  uplands  being  covered  with  savannahs  generally 
stfording  good  pasturjige  and  fodder  for  cattle.  In  the  woodlands 
the  prevailing  species  are  thrse  varieties  of  yellow  wood  (Podo- 
tarpns),  often  growing  to  an  enormous  size,  the  Cape  beech  (MyT- 
's'lu),  several  varieties  isf  the  wild  pear  {OlinUt)  and  of  stinkwood 
i^Oreodaphni),  iroawood,  and  ©"bony.  ,  The  Boers  and  other  settlers 
have  hitherto  occupied,  themselves  chiefly  *nth  stock-breeding 
<sheep,  cattle,  and  horses),  but  there  can  be  no  donbt  that  much  of 
the  country  is  eminently  suited  for  the  culrivation  of  cereals,  j-jeld- 
ing  two  annual  crops  and  producing  some  of  the  finest  wheat  in  the 
world.  Tobacco,  the  vine,  and  most  European  fmits  and  vegetables 
also  thrive  well,  vrfhile  semi-tropical  products,  such  as  cotton,  sugar, 
■ind  cotfee,  might  be  raised  in  tie  warmer  northern  districts.  ^  .'.^ 
^' Fauna. — By  the  early  settlers  Transvaal  was  described  as  the 
"paradise"  of  hunters,"*  abounding  In  the  characteristic  large 
animals,  such  as  the  lion,  leopard,  rhinoceros,  elephant,  giraffe, 
zebra,  quagga,  several  varieties  of  antelope,  and  the  ostrich,  which 
roam  over  the  continent  from  Soudan  to  the  Cape.  All  these 
animals  still  exist,  but  in  greatly  reduced  numbers,  being  now 
largely  replaced  by  the  domestic  animals — cattle,  sheep,  and  horses 
'—introduced  by  the  white  settlers.  All  the  largo  rivers  are  in- 
habited by  the  hippopotamus  and  crocodile,  the  latter  giving  an 
alternarive  name  to  the  Limpopo;  the  buffalo,  gnu,  eland,  spring- 
bok, wildbeeste,  baboon,  and  several  other  members  of  the  ape 
family  are  also  frequently  met  with.  The  country  is  occasionally 
swept  by  destructive  flights  of  locusts;  but  the  greatest  enemy  of 
the  stock-breeder  is  the  tsetse  fly,  which  infests  the  coastlands  and 
many  of  the  riverine  tracts,  but  shows  a  tendency  to  disappear 
Svith  the  large  game,  retreating  with  the  advance  of  the  plough. 
A  tsetse  belt  40  miles  wide  along  the  whole  course  of  the  Limpopo 
still  bars  the  spread  of  European  settlements  bevond  Transvaal  in 
the  direction  of  the  Zambesi.  , 

t  /«Aa6itan«j.— Of  the  population  not  more  than  50,000  are  wnites, 
mostly  Boers  (descendants  of  the  early  Dutch.  French,  and  German 
immigrants  to  the  Cape),  with  a  large  and  increasing  percentage  of 
British  settlers,  attracted  in  recent  years  especially  to  the  Lyden- 
burg and  other  mining  districts.  All  the  rest  are  natives,  belong- 
ing  mainly  to  the  Basiito  and  Bechuana  branches  of  the  Bantu 
family,  and  consequently  allied  in  speech  and  to  a  large  extent  iu 
physique  to  their  Zulu-Kalire  neighbours.  A  considerable  number 
of  these  natives  have  abandoned  tlio  tribal  state  and  taken  service, 
either  freely  or  by  Compulsion,  witli  the  whites  as  farm  labourers  iu 
the  rural  districts,  and  as  doiueatic  servants  in  the  towns,  and  are 
now  also  largely  employed  in  mining  operations.  The  great  bulk 
of  the  rest,  who  reUiiii  their  national  usages  and  recognize  the 
authority  of  more  or  leas  independeot  tribal  chiefs,  are  concentrated 
iu  the  northern  aud  eastern  proviuc«;s  of  Zoutpansberg  (364,000), 
|Waterberg  (174,000),  and  Lydenburg  (123,0UU).  There  are  also 
about  40,000  in  Bloemhoff  (extreme  south-weit),  and  the  same 
number  in  the  western  provinces  of  Knstenburg  and  Marico,  but 
only  a  few  scattered  groups  in  all  the  rest  of  the  country.  These 
western  and  southwestern  tribes  (Barolongs.  Batlapius,  Bakwenas, 
Bakhatlis,  ic.)  are  all  Bechuunns;  the  others  mainly  Ilakatis,  as 
tho  Basutos  are  here  collectively  called.  It  may  be  stated  in  a 
general  way  that  the  whole  country  south  of  the  Lipalule  is  now 
free  of  native  claims  and  open  to  European  colonization,  while 

"  I  On  the  rODte  between  the  Oranee  and  Vaal  (1835-37)  tho  **Toor-trekKcr8^ 
fcrosald  to  bavekilleil  tta  luaay  6a  200  Uonw  jl'       "  "        ^~' 


the  nostnern  region  between  that  rivsrecd  tha  Limpopo  is  stil 
to  a  large  extent  oceupiad  by  unredDced  «r  unbrokes  Basnto 
communities. 

NatuTal  and  FolUwil  Divisions. — Transvaal  has  been  divided 
into  three  more  or  less  distinct  natural  regions,  determined  chiefly, 
by  the  relief  of  the  land,  and  its  climatic  and  economic  conditions,' 
These  are — (1)  the  Hooge  veld,  or  uplands,  comprising  the  southern 
districts  drained  by  the  Vaal  and  the  Drakenberg  highlands  as  fai 
north  as  the  Lipalule,  about  35,000  square  miles  altogether,  with 
an  altitude  ranging  from  4000  to  7000  feet;  (2)  the  Banken  veld, 
or  terrace  lands,  comprising  the  low  eastern  zone  between  the 
Drakenberg  and  Liboraba  ranges,  falling  in  many  places  down  to  a 
level  of  2000  feet,  with  an  area  of  15,000  to  20,000  squaro  miles; 
(3)  the  Bosch  veld,  or  bush  country,  comprising  all  the  rest  of  the 
land,  with  an  altitude  of  3000  to  4000  feet  and  an  area  of  60,000 
square  miles.  For  administrative  purposes  the  country  is  again 
divided  into  thirteen  provinces ; — Zoutpansberg  and  Waterberg  in 
the  north ;  Lydenburg,  Middelburg  {formerly  Nazareth),  Pretoria, 
Rustenburg,  and  Marico  in  the  centre;  Utrecht,  Londina,  Wak- 
kerstroom, Heidelberg,  Potchefstroom,  and  Bloemhoff  in  the  south.1 
In  the  southern  part  of  Lydenburg  lies  the  somewhat  detached 
district  of  New  Scotland,  comprising  some  500,000  acres  selected 
by  the  late  Mr  M'Corkindale  as  a  Scotch  pastoral  and'agricultura) 
settlement.  It  is  a  healthy  prosperous  country,  lying  on  the  slopes 
of  the  Drakenberg,  within  310  miles  of  Durban,  Natal.  But  the 
most  thickly  settled  province  is  Potchefstroom,  a  feitile  tract,' 
3500  to  5000  feet  high,  abundantly  watered  by  the  Mooi,  SchoenJ 
and  other  streams  flowing  to  the  Vaal,  and  well  iuited  for  till^^ 
and  pasturage.  Its  capital  of  like  name  (derived  Ijom  elements  in 
those  of  Potgieter,  Sehcif,  and  Stockenstrooni,  thite  popular  Boer 
leaders  during  the  early  migrations)  is  the  most  settled  and  one  of 
the  largest  towis  in  Transvaal.  The  only  other  places  deserving 
the  name  of  town  are  Pretoiia,  capital  of  the  province  of  like  name 
and  of  the  state,  occupying  a  somewhat  central  position  100  miles 
north-east  of  Potchefstroom,  980  from  Cape  Town,  820  from  Port 
Elizabeth,  and  400  from  Durban  ;  Barborlon.  in  the  Lower  Kaap 
mining  district,  150  miles  by  road  from  Dela,'',i'a  Ray,  only  three 
years  old,  but  already  by  far  the  largest  place  lu  the  state,  with  a' 
population  (1887)  of  15,000;  aud  Johannesburg,  centre  of  the  gold-! 
fields  of  the  same  name,  30  miles  south-east  of  Pretoria,  and  72 
east  of  Potchefstroom,  founded  in  1886,  but_alreadv_  larger  than 
Pretoria,  with  a  population  of  over  4000.  ^ 

•  Administratum  and  SUUisiics. — TransvaaFcnjoys  representative' 
institutions,  with  a  volksraad  or  parliament  of  forty. four  membera 
elected  for  four  years,  one-half  retiring  every  two  years,  the 
executive  being  entrusted  to  a  president  elected  for  five  years  by. 
the  whole,  body  of  electors,  assisted  by  a  council  of  four,  the  eaw 
0,^10  vice-president  and  the  state  secretary,  with  two  others^ 
appointed  by  the  volksraad.  j  The  revenue,  derived  chiefly  fromj 
land  sales,  quit  rents,  stamps,  hut-tax,  and  customs,  balanced  the 
expenditure  in  1S85,  and  exceeded  it  by  £15,000  in  1886,  the  re-^ 
spective  sums  being  £260,000  and  £245,000.  In  1884  the  pubUis 
debt  was  £396,000,  the  exports  (gold,  ivory,  com,  wool,  hides,  cattle,' 
ostrich  feathers,  &c.)  about  £600,000,  and  the  imports  probablyl 
over  £1,000,000.  The  long-projected  railway,  intended  to  afford 
an  outlet  to  the  coast  at  Delagoa  Bay,  was  completed  in  1887  from 
Lorenzo  Marques,  the  seaward  terminus,  to  the  Transvaal  frontier,] 
a  distance  of  50  miles.  Transvaal  is  in  telegraphic  communication 
with  the  Cape  and  tha  rest  of  the  world. through. the  Oranee  Freej 
State. 

History.'— The  historic  life' of  Transvaal  begins  with  the  "Great 
Trek,"  or  general  exodus  of  tho  Cape  Colony  Boers,  who,  being  dis-' 
satisfied,  especially  with  the  liberal  policy  of  the  British  Govemmentj 
towards  the  natives,  removed  northwards  in  large  numbers  between 
the  years  1833  and  1837.  By  1836  some  thousands  had  already 
crossed  the  Vaal,  that  is,  had  reached  the  "Trans- Vaal"  conntry,! 
which  at  that  time  was  mostly  under  the  sway  of  the  powerful 
refugee  Zulu  chief  Moselekatze,  whose  principal  kraal  was  at 
Mosega  in  the  present  Marico  district  on  the  west  frontier.  To 
avenge  the  massacre  of  some  emigrant  bands,  the  Boers  under 
Maritz  and  Potgieter  attacked  and  utterly  defeated  Moselekatze  a^ 
this  place  in  1837.  Next  year  the  Zulu  chief  withdrew  beyond  tha 
Limpopo,  where  he  founded  the  present  Matebele  state  between 
that  river  and  the  Zambesi,  thus  leaving  the  region  between  tha 
Vaal  and  Limpopo  virtually  in  the  hands  of  the  Trekkcrs.  But 
their  position  was  rendered  insecure  on  the  east  side  by  the  militaryj 
despotism  of  the  fierce  Zulu  chief  Dingaan,  who,  after  the  murder 
of  his  brother  Chaka,  had  asserted  his  authority  over  the  whole; 
of  Zululand  and  most  of  the  present  Natal.  The  situation  .wa^ 
rendered  almost  desiicrate  by  the  complete  rout  and  wholesale 
massacre  (1838)  of  the  right  division  of  the  emigrant  Boers,  whoi 
had  ventured  to  cross  the  Buffalo  under  Pietef  Relief,  and  whd 
were  defeated  by  Dingtian,  first  at  Umkongloof  ("  Aceldama  "),  theni 
at  Weenen  ("  Weeping  "),  and  again  soon  after  under  Uys,  Maritz; 
and  Potgieter,  when  as  many  as  SQO  fell  before  the  irresistible 
onslaught  of  the  disciplined  Zulu  warriors.  At  this  critics' 
*  uncture  the  ^Tiekkers  were  saved  from  utter  extermination  .b 


T  R  A -T  R  A 


619 


iodries  Pretorius  of  Graaff  Reinet,  by  whom  DinRMn  met  with  a 
3ist  check  before  the  close  of  1838.  foUowpd  id  Jahuary  1840  by 
A  still  more  crushing  defeat  Diugaan  having  been  soon  after 
Tnnrdered,  the  friendly  Panda  was  set  up  in  his  place,  and  Natal 
\>roclaimed  a  Boer  republic.  Bat  the  Bri'ish  occupation  of  that 
Umtory  in  1843  induced  the  Boers  to  retire  in  two  bands  across 
the  Drakenberg,  the  southern  division  settling  in  the  present 
Orange  Free  State,  the  northern  again  passing  into  Transvaal. 
But,  owing  to  internal  dissensions,  and  the  perpetual  bickerings  of 
the  two  most  prominent  personalities,  Pretorius  and  Potgieter,  all 
Ittempta  at  establishing  an  organized  system  of  government  through- 
out Transvaal  ended  in  failure,  till  Pretorius  iuduced  the  British 
Government  to  sign  tho  Sand  River  convention  (January  17,  1862), 
vbich  virtually  established  the  political  independence  of  that 
region  The  death  both  of  Pretorius  and  Potgieter  in  1853  pre- 
pared the  way  for  a  period  of  internal  peace  under  Pretonus's  eldest 
3on  Marthinus  Wessels  Pretorius,  6rst  president  of  the  "Dutch 
African  Republic,"  whose  title  was  afterwards  altered  (1858)  to 
that  of  the  "South  African  Republic  "  But  a  laul  element  of 
weakness  lay  in  the  persistent  refusal  of  the  Boers  to  treat  tho 
Obtives  on  a  footing  of  equality,  or  even  with  common  justice.  The 
wjrder  of  Hermann  Potgieter  and  family  (1854),  avenged  by 
f  retorius  at  Makapan's  Cave,  was  followed  (1956)  by  the  "Apprentice 
Law,"  establishing  a  system  of  disguised  slavery,  which  was  lurther 
strengthened  by  the  sanctiooOSoS)  of  the  Grand  wet,  or  "funda- 
mental Law,"  declaring  that  the  "  people  will  admit  of  no  equality 
of  persons  of  colour  with  the  white  inhabitants  either  in  slate  or 
church."  Giving  to  this  policy  opposition  was  coDslantly  shown 
both  to  the  English  traders,  disposed  to  deal  fairly  with  all,  and 
to  the  missionaries,  preachers  of  universal  equality,  as  illustrated 
by  the  plunder  <A  Livingstone's  house  by  the  commando  sent 
against  the  native  chief  Secheli  iii  1852  A  brief  chronicle  must 
here  suffice  of  subsequent  events  down  to  the  present  time  — 
1857.    invasion  of  the  Orange  Free   State  by  Pretorius,   dispute 

settled  without  bloodshed  by  the  treaty  of  June  1 
1859    Pretorius  elected  president  of  the  Free  State,  fails  Uj  effect 

the  union  of  the  two  states. 
1863  Return  of  Pretorius,  during  whose  absence  affairs  had  fallen 
intoconfu.'-ion  ,  continued  troubles  with  the  natives  ,  quarrels 
with  the  Bailapins.  Barolongs,  and  Gnquas  in  the  west .  in 
the  east  with  Ketthywavo,  king  nf  Zululand,  about  the 
Boers"  right  to  the  Wakkerstroorti  and  Utrecht  districts/ 

1867  Discovery  of  diamonds,  and  Mauch's  announcement  of  gold 
fields  in  the  interior 

1868  Pretonus's  pioclamation  extending  the  boundaries  of  the 
state  west  to  Lake  Ngami,  east  to  Delagoa  Bay.  whence 
disputes  and  negotiations  with  England  and  Portugal, 
Delagoa  Bay  being  ulnmaiely  aw.irded  (July  1875)  to 
Portugal  by  the  French  president.  Marshal  MacMahoD.  to 
whose  decision  the  matter  had  been  referred 

1871  Boundary  disputes  towards  the  south  west  settled  by  the 
award  of  Lieutenarit  Governor  Ktate  of  Natal,  leading  to 
the  resignation  of  Pretorius  and  appomtment  of  President 
Burgers. 

1875.  The  Fundamental  Law  forces  Burgers  to  measures  leading  to 
the  war  with  Sikokuni,  chttl  of  the  BapeJi.  south  of  the 
Olifant  river,  nho  claimed  large  part  of  Lydenburg  and  even 
of  Pretoria;  Bnrgeis'e  visit  to  Europe  lo  connexioii  uith  the 
Delagoa  Railway  scheme  ;  on  l>is  return  he  hnds  everything 
in  the  greatest  confusion;  Boers  dispirited  by  repeated 
reverses  in  the  Sikokuni  war,  &3  empty  treasury,  broken 
credit;  the  state  practically  bankrupt  and  exposed  to  im 
minent  danger  of  invasion  by  Bapedis  and  Zulus      Hence 

1876-77.  Intervention  of  England,  and  Sir  Theoj.hilus  Sbepstone's 
proclamation  (April  12,  1877)  annexing  "Transvaal,  followed 
by  the  appointment  of  Sir  W  Owen  Lanyon  as  British 
administrator 

1880-81  Revolt  of  the  discontented  Boers,  who,  being  successful 
in  a  few  contests  with  British  troops,  induced  the  British 
Government  to  resloie  the  republic  under  the  "suzerainty" 
of  the  queen,  by  the  treaty  of  peace  of  Uaicb  21,  1881,  a 
British  residei".  being  appointed,  with  the  functions  of  a 
consul-general. 

1883.  S.  J.  Paul  Kniger  elected  president. 

1884.  Convention  of  London  (Febiuary  27,  ratified  by  the  volks- 
raad,  August  8)  recogjuzing  the  bt.at6  aa  the  South  African 
Republic,  and  considerablyrestricting  the  British  suzerainty. 

1886.  Proclamation  (March  23)  of  the  British  protectorate  over 
Becbuanaland,  thereby  arresting  tie  westward  advance  of 
the  Boers  into  the  Baraangwato,  Bakwena,  Bniigwaketsi, 
and  Barolong  territories,  and  keeping  open  the  great  trade 
route  from  Cape  Colony  through  Hopetowu  and  Shoshoog 
to  the  Zambesi. 

1886.  Presh  discoveries  of  rich  aur  Jcrous  deposits  especially  in  the 
Middelburg  province,  followed  b^  a  great  influx  of  English- 
speaking  populations,  thuateomg  to  swamp  the  Boer 
element. 


1886.  Projected  South  African  confederation,  opposed  by  Kriiger, 
but  supported  by  the  Orange  State,  Cape  Colony,  and  a 
majority  of  the  Transvaal  Boers.  Connected  with  this 
scheme  is  the  proposal  of  a  uniform  tariff  and  the  immediate 
construction  of  a  through  railway  from  Cape  Town  to 
Delagoa  Bay.  (A.  H.  K.) 

TRANSVERSE  FLUTE,  The,— or  German  Flute,  as 
it  was  formerly  designated  in  Great  Britain, — may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  musical  instrument  in  which  a  column  of  air  is 
set  in  vibration  by  regular  pulsations  derived  from  a  current 
of  air  directed  by  the  lips  of  the  executant  against  the  side 
of  an  orifice  serving  as  an  embtsuchure,  pierced  laterally  in 
tho  substance  of  the  pipe  and  towards  its  upper  extremity. 
This  mode  of  blowing  appears  to  be  of  very  ancient  origin: 
the  Hindus,  Chineoe,  and  Japanese  claim  to  have  used  it 
from  time  immemorial  ;  in  Europe  the  high  antiquity  of  a 
lateral  embouchure  is  generally  admitted,  although  it  does 
not  really  rest,  so  far  as  our  present  knowledge  goes,  on 
any  conclusive  evidence  ' 

The  oblique  flute  of  the  Greeks  was  of  Egyptian  origin, 
and  it  is  therefore  safest  to  suppose  it  to  have  been  like 
the  instrument  frequently  Bgured  on  the  monuments  of 
ancient  Egypt,  which,  held  obliquely,  was  blown  through 
the  oriBce  itself  of  the  pipe  at  its  upper  extremity  The 
same  instrument  (called  "  nay  ")  is  still  used  in  Moham- 
medan countries  The  flute  is  often  mentioned  in  mediaeval 
poetry,  but  no  details  of  its  construction  are  given.  It 
was  the  custom,  moreover,  to  designate  various  instru- 
ments by  this  name  The  oldest  representation  we  know 
of  the  transverse  flute  is  found  in  the  11th-century  frescos 
of  the  cathedral  of  St  Sophia  at  Kieff.  Eustache  Des- 
champs,  a  French  poet  of  the  14  th  century,  in  one  of  his 
ballads,  makes  mention  of  the  "  flute  traversaine,"  and  we 
are  justified  in  supposing  that  he  refers  to  the  transverse 
flute  It  had  certainly  acquired  some  vogue  in  the  15th 
century,  being  figured  in  an  engraving  in  Sebastian  Vird- 
ung's  celebrated  work,'^  where  it  is  called  "  Zwerchpfeiff," 
and,  with  the  drums,  it  already  constituted  the  principal  ele- 
ment of  the  military  music.  Agricola  ^  alludes  to  it  as  the 
"Quercbpfeiff  "  or  "  Schweizerpfeiff,"  the  latter  designa- 
tion dating,  it  lb  said,  from  the  battle  of  Marignan  (1515), 
when  the  Swiss  troops  u^ed  it  for  the  first  time  in  war. 

From  Agricola  onwards  transverse  flutes  formed  a  complete  family, 
said  to  comprise  the  di&cant,  the  alto  and  tenor,  and  the  hass, — 

n     ^__^.^     ,,__ respectively       There   is   evidently 

~Y  H.     I        ry-  an    error    iii    the    indications    of 

vy  r)~  I        pitch    here   given,   for  the  instru- 

*^    ^  ~0        meuts  must  in  fact  have  produced 

1^  sounds  an  u(.lii\e  higher  than  those  noted  Prstorius,* 
who  in  tt  special  note  warns  his  readers  against  inaccuracies  of  this 
kind  which  were  theu  frequciit,  designates  the  transverse  flute  as 
"  traversa  Querpfeifl""  and  "Querflot."  and  notilics  the  bass  in 
'\-    fj    •     the  tenor  "0  and  the  ~^  '  .3—  asv.irietiesthen 

'        .  and   alto  M^ ].~  ,  discant  mi_0_  in  use.     A  flute 

in  *J'0'~     in  \j  concert  at  that 

time  included  two  discants,  four  altos  or  * -nors.  and  two  basses. 
The  same  author  distinguishes  between  the  "  Travei-sa  "  and  tho 
"Schweizerpfeiff"  (which  he  also  calls  *' Feldpfeiff,"  re,  mili- 
tary flute),  although  the  construction  was  the  same.     There  were 

respectively,  they  were  em- 
'ed  exclusively  with  the 
itary  drum.' 

*  The  Louvre  has  two  ancient  statues  (from  the  Villa  Borghesej 
represeotmg  satyrs  playing  upon  transverse  flutes.  Unfortunately 
tbese  roarblea  have  been  restored,  especially  in  the  details  affecting 
our  present  subject,  and  are  therefore  exaniples  of  no  value  to  us. 
Another  statue  represenung  a  flute-player  occuu  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  instrument  has  been  rupposed  to  be  ri  transverse  flute, 
but  erroneously,  for  the  insctflation  of  ttie  l.-xteial  tube  .against  which 
the  insli-umentali6l  presses  liis  lips,  could  nut,  VMtlioiit  the  ioterveution 
of  a  reed,  excite  the  vibratory  movement  of  the  rolunin  of  air. 

3  Musica  getuUcht  uJu2  avszfjeiogen,  Basel,  1511 

*  Mustca  /ustruni^ntitUs,  \\  iltcol-er^,  162^ 

*  Organographia,  WoKviilultel,  ISlS. 

'  It  is  from  the  word  P/ciJf  lUal  the  Freucli  Fi/ic  and  the  English 
Fi/e,  still  applied  to  the  military  flutes  in  present  use,  are  evidentlj 
derived. 


tary  flute),  although  the  construction  was 
two  kmds  of  ''y    ~]  y  respei 

"FeldpfeiS,"  Bn    j     and  ms    jti  ploye 
in  tT tJcT-  miliu 


520 


TRANSVERSE      FLUTE 


Mersenne's^  account  of  the  transverse  flute,  then  designated 
"6ute  d'alleniand"  or  "fldte  alleraande"  in  France,  is  obscure 
enough;  but  the  tablatures  and  an  "Air  do  Conr"  foi  four  flutes  in 
his  work  lead  us  to  believe  that  there  were  then  iu  use  in  France 
the  sopra-  T7  '  the  tenor  -"fi  and  the  bass  ^-    ~\ — : 

no      flute  ^)     jzn ,  or      alto  ^  flute  descend-  eJ      . 

in  K/'^         flute     in  tT'lZZ      ing  to  

The  Museum  of  the  Conservatoire  "C7^  Royal  of  Brussels  pos- 
sesses specimens  of  all  varieties  hitherto  mentioned  except  the  last. 
All  of  them  are  laterally  pierced  with  six  fiuger  holes  ;^  they  have 
a  cylindrical  bore,  and  are  fashioned  out  of  a  single 
piece  of  wood.  Their  compass  consists  of  two 
octaves  and  a  fifth.  The  successive  opening  of  the 
lateral  holes  gives  rise  to  a  series  of  fundamental 
notes  forming  the  first  octave.  By  a  stronger  pres- 
sure of  the  breath  these  notes  are  reproduced  in  the 
next  octave  high-r,  and  the  extent  of  compass  of 
the  instrument  is  completed  in  the  higher  region 
by  the  production  of  other  harmonics.' 

The  largest  bass  flute  in  the  Brussels  museum  is  in 

f-^.  1 at  the  French  normal  pitch  A -435  double 

iJ.'..  PgZ  vibrations  per  second.     It  measures  0  95 

m,  from  the  centre  of  the  blow  orifice  to 

the  lower  extremity  of  the  tube.  The  disposition 
of  the  lateral  holes  is  such  that  it  is  impossible  to 
cover  thera  with  the  fingers  if  the  flute  is  held  in 
the  ordinary  way.  The  instrument  must  be  placed 
against  the  mouth  in  an  almost  vertical  direction, 
inclining  the  extremity  of  the  tube  either  to  the 
right  or  the  left  This  inconvenient  position  makes 
it  necessary  that  the  instrument  should  be  divided 
into  two  parts,  enabling  the  player  to  turn  the 
bead  joint  that  the  embouchure  may  be  most  com- 
modiously  approached  by  the  lips,  which  is  not  at 
all  easy.  The  first  and  fourth  of  the  six  lateral 
holes  are  double,  but  those  holes  are  stopped  up 
witli  wax  which  have  become  useless  through  the 
playei-'s  habit  of  using  the  fingers  of  the  right  or 
left  hand  to  cover  the  higher  three  holes.  The 
bass  flute  shown  in  fig.  1  is  the  facsimile  of  ao 
instrument  in  the  Museo  Civico  of  Verona.  The 
original,  unfortunately  no  longer  fit  for  use,  is 
.  nevertheless  sufficiently  well  preserved  to  allow  of 
all  its  proportionate  measurements  being  given 
The  lowest  note,  E[j,  is  obtained  with  a  remark- 
able amplitude  of  sound,  thus  upsetting  a  very 
prevalent  opinion  that  it  is  impossible  to  produce 
by  lateral  insufilation  sounds  which  go  a  little  Fie.  i.  Fig.  2. 
lower  than  the  ordinary  limit  dowuwards  of  tlie  modern  orchestral 
flute* 

The  bass  flute  cited  by  Mersenne  should  not  differ  much  from 
that  of  the  M  useo  Civico  at  Verona  We  suppose  it  to  have  been  in 
r\,  .  and  that  it  was  furnished  with  an  open  key  like  that 

"'    o      which  was  applied  to  the  recorders  (fiuUs  dmiccs)  of  the 

same  epoch,  the  function  of  the  key  being  to  augment 

by  another  note  the  compass  of  the  instrument  in  the  lower  part 
Following  Quantz,*  it  was  in  France  and  about  the  middle  of  the 
17t}i  century  that  the  first  modifications  were  introduced  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  flute.  The  improvements  at  this  period  con- 
listed  of  the  abandonment  of  the  cylindrical  bore  in  favour  of  a 
conical  one,  with  the  wide  part  in  the  head  of  the  instrument  At 
the  same  time  the  flute  was  made  of  three  separate  pieces  called 
head,  body,  and  foot,  which  were  ultimately  further  sutnlivided. 
The  body  or  middle  joint  was  divided  into  two  pieces,  so  that  the 
instrument  could  be  tuned  to  the  di9"erent  pitches  then  in  use 
by  a  replacement  with  longer  or  shorter  pieces.  It  was  probably 
about  1677,  when  LuUy  introduced  the  German  flute  into  the  oi^era, 
,that  recourse  was  had  for  the  first  time  to  keys,  and  that  the  key 
of  Dj(  was  applied  to  the  loA-er  part  of  the  instrument.®  The  en- 
graving of  B.  Ficart,  dated  1707,  which  ornaments  the  work  of 
the  French  flautist  Hottetcrre-le-Romain,'  represents  the  flute 
ts  having  reached  the  stage  of  improTement  of  which  we  have 
just  ppoken,  but  the  body  was  still  formed  of  one  piece  only.  In 
1726  Quantz,^  finding  himself  in  Paris,  had  a  second  key  applied  to 

i     *  Harmmie  Unirerselle,  Paris,  1636. 

'  >  It  Is  uBofll  to  Indicate  the  tonality  of  flutes  by  the  note  produced  when  the 
tin  lateral  holea  are  coTered  by  tlie  flnpcrs.  This  custom  is  objectionable,  because 
It  ts  the  diepoaitlon  of  the  flnuers  which  Is  made  use  of  to  sound  D.  The  prac- 
tice has  for  Ita  re-iult  that  the  tonality  is  always  s  note  lower  than  the  signature 
toed,     Thus  the  (lutein  D  Is  reaUy  in  C;  that  Id  Fin  tfcj,  ic. 

•  Victor  Mablllon,//intJ  on  the  Fimjfring  o/ the  Borhm    Flute,  Lonilon,  1884. 
'     *  F^tis,  /iapport  sur  la  Fabi-ication  det  Instrvmentt  de  Aluiiquea  iExposition 
VHivtrselle  <i£  I'aris,  en  JS55. 

:    »  Vertttcfi  fine-  Anteeistwt;  die  Flote  travfriiere  zn  spielen,  Berlin.  1752. 
',  •  Unless  where  the  conimry  is  stated,  we  have  always  In  view,  in  describlnR 
Jhenjccessive  iniprovt-ments  of  the  flute,  the  treble  flute  In  D,  which  isconsidcrcU 
^be  typical  f.f  the  lamlly.  7  Prineipes  de  la  Flute  Travtrixire. 

J  a  "Uerrn  Johann  Joachim  Quantzius  Lcbcnslanf,  Ton  Ihm  selbst  eotworfen," 
U  the  BiiLoriich-KriiiKhe  lieitrage  zur  Aufiiahme  der  Hunk  by  Marpurg, 
Berlla.  I7i4.     Quanti  was  professor  of  the  flute  to  Frederick  tbc  Great. 


the  flute,  placed  nearly  at  the  samo  height  as  the  first,  that  of  the 
^  ,  intended   to  differentiate  the  Dj  and  the  £[».      Thi» 

(\y  ^  j  innovation  was  generally  well  received  in  Germany,  but 
t/  JfcJ  ■■  does  not  appear  to  have  met  with  corresjiojiding  success  in 
other  countries.  In  France  and  Engjand  manufacturers  adopted 
it  but  rarely;  in  Italy  it  was  declared  useless.^  About  the  same 
time  flutes  were  constructed  with  the  lower  extremity  IciigllicneA 
and  furnished  with  two  supplementary  keys  to  produce  the  Cjt  and. 
C.  This  innovation,  spoken  of  by  Quantz,  did  not  meet  with  a 
very  favourable  reception,  and  was  shortly  afterwards  abandoned. 
Passing  mention  may  be  made  of  the  drawing  of  a  flute  witih  a  C 
key  in  the  Music-Saat  of  J.  F.  B.  Mayers,  Nuremberg,  1741. 

The  tuning  of  the  instrument  to  different  pitches  was  eflfected,. 
as  already  explained,  by  changes  in  the  length,  and  notably  by 
substituting  a  longer  or  shorter  upper  piece  in  the  middle  joint 
So  wide  were  the  differences  in  the  pitches  then  in  use  that  sovci* 
such  pieces  for  the  upper  portion  of  it  were  deemed  necessary. 
The  relative  proportions  between  the  different  parts  of  the  iustru- 
ment  being  altered  by  these  niodihcations  'n  the  length,  it  was 
conceived  that  the  just  relation  could  be  reestablished  by  dividing- 
the  foot  iuto  two  pieces,  below  the  key.  These  two  pieces  were 
adjusted  by  means  of  a  tenon,  and  it  was  asserted  that,  in  this  way, 
the  foot  could  be  lengthened  proportionately  to  the  length  of  the 
middle  joint  Flutes  thus  improved  took  the  name  of  "flutes  k- 
registre."  The  register  system  was,  about  1752,  applied  by  Quantz 
to  the  head  joint,  and,  the  cnibouchnic  section  being  thus  capable- 
of  elongation,  it  was  allowable  to  the  performer,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  this  professor,  to  louer  the  pitch  of  the  flute  a  semitone, 
without  having  recourse  to  other  lengtiiening  pieces,  and  without- 
disturbing  the  accuracy  of  intonation.  i 

The  upper  extremity  of  tho  flute,  beyond  the  embouchm  e  orifice, 
ifl  closed  by  means  of  a  cork  stopper.  On  the  position  of  tliis  corfc 
depends,  in  a  great  measure,  the  accurate  tuning  of  the  flute.  It  £2 
is  in  its  right  place  when  the  accompanying  octaves  are  __/)  j^ 

true.    Quantz,  in  speaking  of  this  accessory,  mentions  y('~~t~f^ — 
the  use  of  a  nut-screw  to  give  the  required  position  to  •Jjj)  ~j~r —  • 
the  cork.     He  does  not  name  the  inventor  of  this  ap-  ^ 
pliance,  but,  according  to  Tromlitz,'**  the  improvement  was  due  to 
Quantz  himself     The  invention  goes  back  to  1726. 

When  the  Method  of  Quantz  apiwared  there  were  still  in  use, 
besides  the  orchestral  flute  in  D,  the  little  fourth  ffute  in  G,  th« 
low  fourth  flute  in  Af^and  the  fltite  d'amour  a  note  higher ;  iu 
France  they  had,  moreover,  the  little  octave  flute  in  D  (octave).  A 
bass  flute  in  D  had  also  been  attempted  (see  fig.  2).  When  Ribocq^ 
published  his  Bemerhingen  iiber  die  Flote  '*  the  flote  had  already 

the  five  keys  here  shown.     This  author  does  __a^ ■   , ' 

not  cite  the  inventor  of  these  new  keys,  but  yL~  ■  '  1  Tjin^J 
some  claim  them  for  Kusder,  a  musical-instru-  ij|)itli't?^^.j:?ff^^f^ 
ment  maker  in  London,  others  for  Johann  ^  W^ 
George  Tromlitz  of  Leipsic,  and  Rihocq  declares  he  has  seen  no  flutes 
so  constructed  other  than  by  these  two  nxakers.  But  Tromlitz  lays 
no  claim  for  himself  to  the  credit  of  this  improvement.  lie  only 
says  that  "  he  had  occupied  himself  for  several  years  in  applying, 
these  keys  so  as  not  to  augment  the  difficulty  of  playing,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  to  reuder  the  handling  of  thera  as  easy  as  possible."** 
We  may  therefore  regard  the  London  maker  as  the  author  of  the 
first  flute  with  five  keys,  with,  however,  a  reservation  as  to  tlie  G^ 
key,  which,  from  1727,  had  been  applied  by  Hoffmann  of  Pasten- 
berg  '^  to  the  transverse  flute  and  the  oboe.  The  higher  key  of  CB, 
adopted  from  1786  by  Tronditz,  we  believe  to  have  been  first  re- 
commended by  Ribocq  (1782). 

In  1785  Richard  Potter,  of  London,  improved  Quantz's  slidt 
applied  to  the  head  joint  as  well  as  to  the  register  of  ti»e  foot  by 
a  double  system  of  tubes  forming  double  sliding  air-tight  joints. 
In  the  document"  describing  this  improvement  Potter  patentee 
the  idea  of  clothing  the  holes  which  were  covered  by  keys  formed 
by  metal  conical  valves.  The  keys  mentioned  in  the  patent  were 
four. — Dj(,  F,  Gj}.  A^  The  idea  of  extending  the  compass  of  the 
flute  downwards  was  taken  up  again  about  the  same  time  by  twc 
players  of  the  flute  in  London  named  Tacet  and  Florio.  They  dc* 
vised  a  new  disposition  of  the  keys  C  and  Cjf,  and  confided  the  execu- 
tion of  their  invention  to  Potter.  In  Dr  Arnold's  New  Instiiictiom- 
for  the  German  Flute  occurs  a  tablature,  the  engraving  of  which 
goes,  back  to  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  and  bears  the  following 
title,  "A  Complete  Drawing  and  Concise  Scale  and  Description  oV 
Tacet  and  Florio's  new  invented  German  Flute,  with  ,ill  thi?  ad^. 
tional  keys  explained."  It  explains  the  use  of  six  keys, — C,  CiL 
D|,  F,  GJ,  A|,— that  are  not  always  figured,  because  the  employ- 
ment of  so  many  keys  was  at  once  admitted.  Tromlitz  himself^ 
who,  however,  made  flutes  with  nine  keys, — adding  £[?,  another  F. 
and  Ct|,  declared  that  he  was  not  in  favour  of  so  great  a  compliua' 
tion,  and  that  he  preferred  the  fluto  \*ith  only  two  keys,  D^  and  E[(, 

fl  Antonio  Lorenzoni,  Saggio  per  ben  sonare  itflauto  traverso,  Vlcenza,  177ft, 
10  Aus/uhrhcher  und  gnndiicher  Onierricht  die  Flote  tu  tpieten,  Lelpalc.  1797. 
Compaie  Schilling.  Univ. -Lexicon.  Lelpalc,  1836.  "  Stendul,  1782.    , 

'*  Kurte  Abhan4{ung  von  Fiolenspitlen,  LelpsIc,  1786. 
15  Gerbcr,  Lexicon  Oct  TonJciinula;  Lelpalc,  1790.        »  EugUsh  patent.  No.  149ft 


T  R  A-T  R  A 


^th  a  rp^ister  foot  joint  and  n  cork  nut-screw  at  the  head  joint 
This  instrument  met  all  requirements.  He  was  even  against  the 
use  of  the  keys  for  Cfl  and  Cj,  Kcause  thev  altered  the  recognized 
quality  of  tone  of  the  instrument.  When  Tromiitz  published  his 
method,  the  family  of  flutes  had  become  modified.  It  compre- 
hended only  the  typical  flute  in  D,  the  fliite  damour  a  minor 
third  lower,  a  "third"  fluto  a  miuor  third  liif;her,  and,  finally, 
the  little  octare  flute. 

While  Troinlitz  \ras  stmggling  in  Germany  with  the  idea  of 
angmenling  the  compass  of  the  Rule  downwards  by  employing  open 
keys  for  CB  and  C^  an  Italian,  Giovanni  Batista  Orazi,'  increased 
the  scale  of  the  instrument  do»*ward.«  by  the  application  of  five 
new  Eeys,  viz.,  B,  Bb,  A,  &),.  and  G  At  the  same  time  that  he 
produced  this  inventio-. "  he  conceived  the  plugging  ot  the  lateral 
holes  by  the  valve  keys  then  recenMy  invented  by  Potter  But 
It  was  hardly  possible  to  obtain  a  perfect  plugging  of  seven  lateral 
holes  with  the  aid  of  as  many  keys,  for  the  control  of  whicli  there 
were  only  the  two  little  fingers,  and  therefore  this  invention  of 
Orazi  proved  a  failure. 

In  1S03  Frederick  Nolan,' of  Stratford,  neat  London,  conceived 
an  open  key,  the  lever  of  which,  terminating  by  a  ring,  permitted 
the  closing  of  a  lateral  hole  at  the  same  time  the  key  was  being 
acted  upon.  The  combination  in  this  double  action  is  the  embryo 
of  the  mechanism  that  a  little  later  was  to  transform  the  system  of 
the  flute.  Two  years  later  Macgregor,'  a  musical  instrument  maker 
in  London,  constructed  a  bass  flute  an  octave  lower  than  the  ordi- 
nary flute.  The  idea  wa-i  not  new,  as  is  proved  by  the  existence 
of  the  bass  flute  mentioned  above  The  difference  between  the  two 
instmmentp  lies  in  the  mechanism  of  the  kevs.  That  employed  by 
Macgregor  consisted  of  a  double  lever,  a  contrivance  dating  from 
before  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  of  which  the  application  is 
seen  in  an  oboe  of  large  dimensions  preserved  in  the  National 
Mnseum  at  Munich.' 

About  1830  the  celebrated  French  flautist  Tulou  added  two  more 
keys,  those  of  Fjf  and  C|,  and  a  key,  called 
de  cadence,"  to  facilitate  the  accompany- 
ing shakes. 

To  increase  the  number  of  keys,  to  improve 
their  system  of  plugging,  and  to  extend  the 

scale  of  the  instrumert  in  the  lower  region,  \y 

—these  had  hitherto  been  the  principal  problems  dealt  with  in 
the  improvement  of  the  flute.  No  maker,  no  inventor  whoso 
labours  we  have  called  attention  to,  had  as  yet  devoted  hb  atten- 
tion to  the  rational  division  of  the  column  of  air  by  means  of  the 
lateral  holes.  In  1831-  Theobald  Boehm,  a  Baranan,  happening  to 
be  in  London,  was  struck  with  the  power  of  toue  the  celebrated 
fcnglish  performer  Charles  Nicholson  drew  from  his  instrument 
Boehm  learned,  and  not  without  astonishment,  that  his  English 
coUeagne  obtained  this  result  by  giving  the  lateral  holes  a  much 
greater  diameter  than  was  then  usually  admitted.  About  the 
same  time  Boehm  made  the  acquaintance  of  an  amateur  player 
named  Gordon,  who  had  efl'ected  certain  improvements  ;  he  had 
bored  the  lateral  hole  for  the  lower  E,  and  had  covered  it  with  a 
key,  while  he  had  replaced  the  key  for  F  with  a  ring.  These  innova- 
tions set  Boehm  about  attempting  a  complete  reform  of  the  instru- 
ment He  went  resolutely  to  work,  and  during  the  year  1832  he 
produced  the  new  flute  which  bears  his  name.  This  instrument  is 
distin^ished  by  a  new  mechanism  of  keys,  as  well  as  by  larger 
holes  disposed  along  the  tube  in  geometrical  progression. 

Boehm 's  system  had  preserved  the  key  of  Gi  open  ;  Coche  '  a 
professor  in  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  assisted  by  Auguste  Buffet 
the  younger,  a  musical-instrument  maker  in  that  city,  modified 
Boehm  s  flute  by  closing  the  GJ  with  a  key.  wishing  thus  to  render 
the  new  fiiigenng  more  conformable  to  the  old.  He  thus  added  a 
key,  facilitating  the  shake  upon  CS  with  Di  and  brought  about 
some  other  changes  in  the  instrument  of  less  importance 

Boehm  had  not,  however,  altered  the  bore  of  the  flute,  which  had 
been  conical  from  the  end  of  the  17th  century.  In  1846  however 
he  made  further  experiments,  and  the  results  obtained  were  put  in 
practice  by  the  construction  of  anew  instrument,  of  which  the  body 
was  bored  cylindrical,  but  the  head  was  modified  at  the  embouchure 
1  he  inventor  thus  obtained  a  remarkable  equality  in  the  tones  of 
the  lower  octave,  a  greater  sonorousness,  and  a  iierfect  accuracy  of 
intonation,  by  establishing  the  more  exact  proportions  which  a 
eolnmn  of  air  of  cylindrical  form  permitted. 

The  priority  of  Boehm's  invention  was  long  contested  his 
detractors  maiutaining  that  the  honour  of  having  reconstructed 
the   flute  was  due   to   Gordon.     But  an    impartial   investigation 

-i!»T!!f,  '"J^  "l  'Ws.lsrce  finle  was  taken  up  again  In  I8la  by  Trexler  of  Viennn. 
'  L^T'l,  "l*^":?"-  »!"">«  'he  Mme.  constracied  about  177.5  andTaied 
IM7^nd  w   «    B  "°!^''-"  ''"''dU  ue^itn   Vfrbuserungm  dttselbm,  Mainz, 

»  Bxaniai  crUiq^ue  de  la  Flit,  Orilnaire  a.mi,arie  i  la  FlOle  Sxhm,  Paris,  1938. 


521 


vindicates  the  claim  of  the  former  to  the  invention  of  the  large 
lateral  holes."  His  greatest  title  to  fame  is  the  invention  of  the 
mechanism  which  allows  the  production  of  the  eleven  chromatic 
semitones  intermediate  between  the  fundamental  note  and  its  first 
harmonic  by  means  of  eleven  holes  so  disposed  that  in  opening 
them  successively  they  shorten  the  column  of  air  in  exact  propor. 
tional  quantities."  Boehm  '»  has  published  a  diagram  or  scheme  to 
be  adopted  in  deterrnming  the  position  of  the  note-holes  of  wind 
instruments  for  every  given  pitch.  This  diagram  gives  the  position 
of  the  intermediate  holes  which  he  had  been  enabled  to  establish  by 
a  rule  of  proportion  based  on  the  law  of  the  lengths  of  strings. 

The  Boehm  flute,  notwithstanding  the  high  degree  of  perfection 
it  has  reached,  has  not  secured  Unanimous  favour  ;  even  now  ther« 
aie  players  who  prefer  the  ordinary  flute.  The  change  of  fingering 
required  for  some  notes,  the  great  delicacy  and  liability  to  deiange- 
ment  of  the  mechanism,  have  something  to  do  with  thi«  In  Eng. 
land  especially,  the  ordinary  Hute  reUins  many  partisans,  thanks  tq 
the  improvements  introduced  by  a  clover  player,  Abel  Siccama,  in 
1S45  "  He  bored  the  lateral  holes  of  E  and  A  lower,  and  covered 
them  with  open  keys.  He  added  some  keys,  and  made  a  better 
disposition  of  the  other  lateral  hqjes,  of  which  he  increased  the 
diameter,  producing  thus  a  sonorousness  almost  equal  to  that  of 
the  Boehm  flute,  while  yet  preserving  the  old'  fingering  for  the 
notes  of  the  first  two  octaves.  But  in  spite  of  these  improvements 
the  old  flute  will  not  bear  an  impartial  comparison  with  that  o( 


Boehm. 


(V    M.) 


TRANSYLVANIA  (Germ.  Sicbmburgen),  a  mountain- 
ous principality  (Gross-Fiirstenthum)  forming  the  extreme 
eastern  portion   of   Austria-Hungary,    is  bounded  on  the 
W.  and  N.   by  Hungary  proper,  on  the  E.  by  Bukowina 
and  Moldavia,  and  on  the  S.  by  Walachia.     Tlie  German 
name  is  usually  derived  from  the  seven  principal  fortified 
towns   or    "burgs"    founded    by  the   German    colonists, 
though  some  authorities  prefer  to  connect  it  with  the  Zibin 
Mountains  on  the  south  frontier.     The  Latin  name  appears 
first  after  the    12th  century,  and  signifies  "beyond    the 
woods,"  i.e.,  fiom   Hungary  ,  the  Magyar  and  Roumanian 
names  (Erdely  and  Ardealu)    both    mean    "  forest-land." 
For  all  political  and  administrative  ends,  and  in  the  ofiicial 
statistics  and  returns,  Transylvania  is  now  wholly  incor- 
porated with  HuNQiRV  (q.v.),  and  to  all   intents   and   pur- 
poses is  a  part  of  that  kingdom.     The  principality  has  the 
form  of  an  irregular  circle,  with  an  area  of  about,  21,000 
square  miles,  and  is  on  all  sides  surrounded  by  mountain 
chains,  wTiile  the  interior  is  barred  and  striped  with  lower 
ranges.     On  the  west  or  Hungarian  side  there  are  various 
wide  and  comparatively  easy  passes  into  the  interior,  but  on 
the  east  and  south  frontiers  the  lofty  bounding  mountains 
present  steep  and  rugged  faces  outwards,  giving  to  Transyl- 
vania the  general  aspect  of  a  huge  natural  fortress.     These 
mountains   are   a    continuation    of    the    Hungarian   and 
Galician  Carpathians  ;  in  fact,  the  mountains  of  Transyl- 
vania  may  be   regarded  together  as    forming  the  south- 
eastern   main    group   of   the    Carpathian    system.       The 
loftiest  and  most  rugged  peaks  are  on  the  north  and  south 
boundaries.     On    the    north   the    highest   summit  is  the 
Pietross  (75.34  feet),  one  of  the  Rod.ia  Alps  ,  on  the  south 
are  the  Butshetsh  (82C2  feet),  the  Konigstein  (7357  feet), 
and    the    Negoi    (8340    feet).     The   ea'st  is  bounded  by 
several  parallel  chains,  the  highest  peak  in  which  is  the 
Pietrossul  (6910  feet) ;  and  on  the  west  border  the  greatest 
height  is  attained  towards  the  south,  where  several  peaks 
reach    7200    feet.     On   the  west  are    the    Transylvanian 
Ore  Mountaiiis  (Erzgebirge),  with  the  curious  Detunata 
("  thunder-smit "),  and  the  Bihar  group,  with  its  numerous 
paverns.     There  are  numerous  valleys,  ravines,  and  canons 
in  the  network  of  mountains  covering  the  interior  of  the 
country,  but  it  is  only  along  the  courses  of  the  principal 
rivers  that  plains  of  any  size  are  found.     The  chief  rivers 
are   the   Aluta   or   Alt,   which    flows   south,  pierces   the 
southern  boundary  mountains  at  tlie  Rother  Thurm  Pass, 


I  Vl'^  s»|stcd  lone  before,  tiowevtr,  in  the  Chinese  Ty  and  the  Japanese  Fuy. 

0  The  reader  ijny  consult  with  adventarre  Ml-  C  Welch's  ff.j/ory  of  the  &.Mi» 
null  (Umdon.  1SS3),  wherein  all  the  documents  relaUng  to  this  interesting  dl.- 
cnssion  have  been  collected  with  creat  impui-tiality. 

If"  See  the  Esia^  on  the  Construction  ttf  Flutes,  already  cited 

"  Patent,  No.  10563. 


XXIIL 


66 


522 


T  R  A  — T  R  A 


and  joins  the  Danube,  and  the  Maros,  to  the  west,  and  the 
Szarios,  to  the  north,  both  tributaries  of  the  Theiss,  which 
also  falls  into  the  Danube.  All  these  are  navigable,  and  are 
fed  by  various  tributaries.  The  largest  lake  is  the  Hodoser 
or  Eseger  See,  13  miles  long.  Transylvania  abounds  in 
mineral  springs  of  all  kinds,  especially  saline  and  chaly- 
beate. The  climate  is  tolerably  .severe :  hot  summers  alter- 
'nate  with  very  cold  winters ;  but  the  rainfall  is  not  great. 
The  mineral  wealth  of  Transylvania  is  very  considerable;  Gold 
is  found- in  certain  quantity  in  mines,  and  it  is  also  "washed"  in 
some  of  the  streams,  chiefly  by  Gipsies.  The  gold  is  often  found 
in  conjunction  with  tellurium  (first  discovered  in  Transylvania  in 
1782,  and  until  the  present  century  not  found  anywhere  else,  see 
Telluridm).  Silver,  copper,  lead,  and  iron  are  also  worked  to 
some  profit.  Coal  occurs  in  considerable  abaudance,  and  it  is 
mined  in  the  Schilthalj  but  the  superabundance  of  timber  has  re- 
tarded its  exploitation.  Hills  largely  formed  of  pure  salt  are  met 
with  here  and  there,  and  there  are  also  very  rich  Birbterranean 
deposits  of  salt,  sometimes  cropping  up  on  the  surface.  Some  of  the 
saline  springs  also  yield  salt  enough  to  render  their  evaporation 
proBtable.  The  vegetation  of  Transylvania  is  lu.vuriant,  except  of 
course  in  the  higher  mountain  zones.  Fruits  abound,  as  apples, 
pears,  peaches,  apricots,  plums,  cherries,  chestnuts,  and  almonds  ; 
mulberries  are  also  cultivated.  The  vine  flourishes  best  io  the 
valley  of  the  Maros.  Agincnlture  is  one  of  the  most  important 
industries,  though  the  available  good  land  is  by  no  means  fully 
taken  up.  The  chief  crop  is  maize  ;  but  wheat,  rye,  and  other 
grains,  potatoes,  saffron,  hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco  are  also  grown. 
Extensive  forests  clothe  much  of  the  country,  but  are  in  a  some- 
what neglected  condition.  On  the  boundary  mountains  the  trees 
are  mainly  coniferous  ;  in  the  ijiterior  oakg^  elms,  beeches,  and 
ashes  aro  conspicuous. 

The  forests  afford  cover  for  tnany  wild  animala  Bears,  wolves, 
foxes,  boars,  and  various  varieties  of  game  are  found,  and  on  some 
of  the  mountains  the  chamois.  There  is  abundant  pasturage  on 
which  excellent  cattle  are  reared ;  and  in  some  districts  buHaloes 
are  bred  for  draught  purposes.  More  important  is  the  breeding  of 
a  sturdy  race  of  horses,  tliousands  of  which  are  annually  exported. 
The  mountains  maintain  very  large  flocks  of  sheep,  of  which  two 
kinds  are  distinguished — with  a  fine  short-stapled  and  a  coarse 
long-stapled  wool  respectively.  Silkworms  are  bred,  and  some  silk 
is  spun ;  and  the  export  of  honey  and  wax,  from  both  wild  and 
domestic  bees,  is  not  inconsiderable.  Neither  the  means  of  com- 
munication with  the  external  world  nor  the  manufacturing  industry 
in  Transylvania  is  developed  to  any  important  extent;  the  latter, 
indeed,  has  to  a  certain  extent  gone  back.  The  most  industrious 
and  in  general  the  most  advanced  of  the  population  are  the 
"Saxons  ;  and  trade,  the  great  bulk  of  which  is  with  Roumania, 
is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  Armenians  and  Greeks.  The  chief  com- 
mercial centres  and  principal  towns  are  Herrmannstadt,  Eroustadt, 
Bistritz,  and  Szamos-TJjvar. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  point  in  connexion  with  Transyl- 
vania is  the  variety  of  its  population,  which  in  1880  numbered 
2,084,048  in  all.  Until  1848  the  chief  influence  and  privileges,  as 
well  as  the  only  political  rights,  were  divided  among  the  three 
"privileged  nations"  of  the  Hungarians,  Szeklers,  and  Saxons. 
The  first  are  the  descendants  of  the  Magyar  conquerors.  The 
Szeklers,  i.e.,  "guardians,"  chiefly  on  the  east  borders,  settled  in 
eastern  Transylvania  to  act  as  guardians  of  the  frontiers.  The 
Saxons  are  the  posterity  of  the  German  immigrants  brought  by 
King  Geisa  II.  {1141-1161)  from  Flanders  and  the  lower  Rhine  to 
cultivate  and  repeople  his  desolated  territories.  At  first  these  were 
known  as  Teutones,  Teutonic!  Hospites,  and  Flandrenses,  but  since 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  century  the  general  name  of  "Saxons," 
as  tantamount  to  "Germans,"  has  prevailed  {cf.  Saxony,  vol.  xxL 
p.  351).  The  Hungarians  and  Szeklers  together  number  609,208, 
and  the  Saxons  204,713,  but  by  far  the  most  numerous  element, 
though  long  excluded  from  power  and  political  equality,  is  formed 
by  the  Walachians  or  Roumanians,  1,146,611  in  number,  a  mixed 
race,  not  entitled  to  the  descent  which  they  claim  from  the  early 
Roman  colouists  of  Dacia.  The  Gipsies  of  Transylvania,  who  are 
heard  of  under  a  voivode  or  prince  of  their  own  in  1417,  are  esti- 
mated  at  46,460:  many  of  tnem  have  abandoned  a  nomadic  life 
and  have  taken  to  agriculture  or  gold-washing.  Jews,  Armenians, 
Bulg-irians,  Ruthenians,  and  Greeks  are  also  represented  in  the 
medley  of  peoples.  About  70,000  (chiefly  children)  are  returned, 
nnclasred,  as  "not  able  to  speak  "  The  Magyars  aro  mostly 
Roman  Catholics  or  Unitarians,  the  Germans  Protestants,  and  the 
Boumanians  adherents  of  the  Greek  Church. 

Transylvania  formed  part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Dacia. 
After  the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans  J.he  country  became  for 
centuries  the  prey  of  the  various  peoples  who.  swept  across  it  in 
their  restless  migrations.  At  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century 
(1004)  Stephen  I.  of  Hungary  made  himself  master  of  the  land, 
irbicb  was  thenceforward  governed  as  an  Huiignrian  province  by  a 


voivode.  In  1538  the  voivodc,  John  Zapolya,  succeeded  in  render- 
ing himself  independent,  and  he  and  his  successors,  who  were- 
generally  elected  by  the  people,  were  supported  by  the  Turks 
against  the  house  of  Austria,  while  the  difficult  nature  of  their 
country  preserved  them  on  the  other  hand  from  becoming  too 
dependent  on  their  powerful  allies-  After  the  defeat  of  the  Turks 
at  Vienna  in  1683,  their  influence  in  Transylvania  waned,  and  in 
1699,  by  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  the  Porto  acknowledged  the 
suzerainty  of  Leopold  I.  of  Austria  over  Transylvania.  By  the  Leo- 
poldine  diploma  of  1691  Leopold  had  guaranteed  the  ancient  rights 
and  laws  of  the  land,  and  united  it  formally  with  the  Hungarian 
crown.  Ij  1766  Maria  Theresa  made  it  agrand  principality  (Gross- 
Fiirstenlhum).  The  eflorts  of  the  Roumanian  inhsbitants  to' 
secure  recognition  as  a  fourth  "  nation,"  and  th«  opposition  of  the 
uon-Magyar  population  to  a  closer  union  -with  Hungary,  led  to 
troubles  and  disagreement  early  in  the  19th  century,  culminating 
in  bloody  internecine  struggles  in  1848.  In  1849  Ti-ansylvania 
was  divided  from  Hungary  by  an  imperial  decree,  and  became  an 
Austrian  crown-laud  ;  but  in  1860  the  old  order  was  renewed, 
and  tl  ?  complete  incorporation  with  Hungary  was  perfected  in 
1868.  Since  that  time  the  policy  of  the  Hungarian  party  has  on 
the  whole  prevailed,  and  the  Magyarization  of  the  principality, is 
steadily  being  carried  through,  in  spite  of  the  bitter  protests  and 
discontent  of  both  the  Saxons  and  Roumanians.  An  Hungarian 
university  was  founded  at  Klausenburg  in  1872;  and  Hungarian  is 
recognized  as  the  official  language.  (F.  MU.) 

TRAPANI,  a  seaport  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Trapani,  and  an  episcopal  see,  lies  on  the  extreme 
north-west  coast  of  Sicily,  19  miles  to  the  north-north-east 
of  Marsala  and  4  miles  to  the  west^south-west  of  Monte 
St  Giuliano.  It  lies  on  a  sandy  peninsula  resembling  a 
sickle  (whence  the  name,  from  ipmavov),  projecting  west- 
ward and  concave-  towards  the  north.  It  is  a  place  of 
considerable  enterprise ;  the  streets  are,  comparatively 
speaking,  regularly  built  and  well  kept ;  and  the  popula- 
tion are  above  the  average  in  industry  and  inteUigence. 
The  town  is  still  surrounded  by  a  wall  with  bastions. 
Some  of  the  mediseval  houses  are.  interesting  architec- 
turally, but  none  of  the  public  buildings  require  special 
notice.  Among  the  institutions  of  Trapani  may  be  men- 
tioned the  lyceum  (with  natural  history  collection  and 
picturfe  gallery),  the  gymnasium,  the  technical  and  navi- 
gation schools,  and  the  library.  Some  of  the  churches 
contain  choice  works  of  art.  The  industries  of  the  place 
include  linen  manufacture  and  works  in  coral,  wood,  iron, 
marble,  alabaster,  mother-of-pear^ ;  there  are  also  extensive 
salt  lagoons  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  and  there  is 
considerable  traflBc  in  salt,  soda,  sulphur,  and  grain.  The 
harbour,  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  sickle,  is  sheltered 
by  a  mole  and  protected  by  a  fort  in  the  islet  of  Colum- 
bara  ;  it  has  a  lighthouse  at  the  entrance,  and  is  accessible 
to  vessels  of  about  400  tons.  The  population  in  1881  was 
32,020. 

Trapani,  the  ancient  Drepanvm  or  Drcpana,  was  the  seaport  of 
Eryx  (see  Eryx  and  MoNTB  San  Giuliano),  and  is  reprtbcnted 
by  Virgil  as  the  scene  of  the  death  of  Anchlses,  and  of  the  funeral 
games  celebrated  in  his  honour.  Towards  the  beginning  of  the 
First  Punic  War  (c.  260  E.G.)  it  was  made  a  fortress  by  llamilcar 
Barca,  who  removed  hither  the  greater  number  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Eryx,  the  remainder  being  transferred  in  249.  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans  at  the  end  of  the  war,  and  does  not  figuro 
again  in  ancient  history.  It  appears,  however,  to  have  continued 
to  flourish  as  a  commercial  town,  being  mentioned  both  by  Cicero- 
and  by  Pliny      In  the  Middle  Ages  it  became  a  royal  residence. 

TRAPPISTS.  The  abbey  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Maison- 
Dieu  de  la  Trappe  was  founded  in  1140  by  Kotrou,  count 
of  Perche,  at  Soh'gny-la-Trappe,  a  village  of  Haut-Perche, 
now  in  the  arrondissement  of  Mortagne,  department  of 
the  Orne,  so  named  from  the  narrow  gorge  which  iorwa 
its  entrance,  comparable  to  a  trap-door.  It  was  at  fir.^t 
attached  to  the  congregation  of  Savigny,  a  minor  olf- 
shoot  of  the  order  of  Fontevrault,  but  that  congregation 
was- united  in  1148  to  the  Cistercian  order,  and,  by 
the  special  intervention  of  St  Bernard,  was  afliliated,. 
with  all  its  dependencies,  to  his  own  abbey  of  Clairvaux. 
No  medi;r-val  monastic  order  fell  more  rapidly  anif 
signally  from  the  spirit  of  its.  original  iustitute  than  tL; 


TRAPPIST8 


523 


Cistercian,  afld  La  Trappe  formed  no  exceptioQ  to  the 
general  decay.  Indeed,  its  geographical  position  in  a 
district  fiercely  contested  during  the  long  war  between 
France  and  England  hastened  its  declension,  for  it  was 
several  times  taken  and  pillaged,  while  the  members  of  the 
community,  at  last  compelled  to  break  up  and  disperse, 
returned  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  their  traditions 
interrupted,  their  discipline  relaxed,  and  their  moral  tone 
deteriorated.  Xor  was  this  the  worst.  The  introduction 
of  the  "commendam"  system  into  the  French  Church, 
whereby  secular  ecclesiastics  were  empowered  to  hold 
monastic  benefices  without  residence  or  conformity  to  the 
rule  of  the  society  in  which  they  ranked  as  beads,  wrought 
yet  further  mischief ,  and,  though  the  Trappists  at  first 
endeavoured  to  resist  Jean  du  Bellay,  the  celebrated 
bishop  of  Paris  (afterwards  cardinal-bishop  of  Ostia), 
whom  Francis  I.  nominated  in  1526  as  abbot  commend- 
atory, and  were  upheld  by  the  pope  in  continuing  to  elect 
their  own  abbots,  yet  their  efforts  were  fruitless,  and  Du 
Bellay  was  succeeded  by  a  series  of  titular  abbots,  under 
whose  nominal  rule  the  estates  of  the  abbey  were  impov- 
erished, the  buildings  suffered  to  fall  into  nearly  total  ruin, 
and  the  conduct  of  the  monks  became  a  public  scandal. 
In  fact,  the  community  was  broken  up,  the  dismantled 
monastic  buildings  were  abandoned  to  a  few  domestics  and 
their  families,  and  the  scattered  Trappists  seldom  reas- 
sembled save  for  hunting  parties  and  similar  amusements. 
Such  was  the  condition  of  things  when  a  reformer  arose 
iu  the  person  of  one  of  those  very  abbots  commendatory 
who  had  been  the  ruin  of  the  institute. 

Arniand  Jean  Bouthillier  de  Ranc^,  second  son  of  Denis 
Bouthillier  de  Ranc6  and  Charlotte  Joly  his  wife,  was 
born  in  Paris  on  January  9,  1626.  By  his  father's  side 
he  was  sprung  from  a  patrician  family  of  Breton  origin 
long  settled  in  Normandy ;  by  his  mother's  he  was  con- 
nected with  powerful  members  of  the  official  hierarchy. 
His  near  kindred  were  wealthy,  titled,  and  highly  placed 
in  the  magistracy,  the  army,  and  the  dignities  of  the 
church  ,  while  the  fact  that  Cardinal  Richelieu  was  one  of 
his  sponsors  and  gave  him  his  own  fore-names  sufficiently 
attests  the  political  influence  just  then  at  their  disposal 
The  child  showed  early  tokens  of  considerable  abilities, 
and  was  intrusted  by  his  father  to  accomplished  tutors, 
under  whom  he  made  rapid  progress.  lie  was  originally 
intended  to  enter  the  order  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,  but 
the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in  1637,  after  a  long  illness, 
changed  his  father's  plans,  and  the  child  (who  had  been 
tonsured  in  1635  by  way  of  precaution  against  such  a 
contingency)  was  at  once  put  in  possession  of  the  various 
benefices  which  had  been  secured  for  his  elder  ;  so  that, 
while  still  under  eleven  years  of  age,  he  was  canon  of 
Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  abbot  of  La  Trappe,  of  Notre  Dame 
du  Val,  and  of  St  Svmphorian  of  Beauvais,  and  prior  of 
Boulogne,  near  Chambord,  and  of  St  Clementin,  in  Poitou. 
In  1642  he  was  sent  to  the  College  d'Harcourt,  where  he 
began  the  usual  course  of  philosophy,  but  addicted  himself 
almost  at  once  to  the  then  popular  study  of  judicial  astro- 
logy, which  he  soon  forsook  for  the  cognate  delusion  of 
alchemy.  Nevertheless,  he  distinguished  himself  in  the 
more  accredited  studies  of  the  college,  and  graduated  as 
M.A.  in  1644.  It  was  then  usual  for  Parisian  students  in 
theology  to  attend  the  course  of  lectures  delivered  at  the 
Sorbonoe,  but  De  Rancc  preferred  to  return  home  and 
pursue  his  theological  studies  under  private  instruction 
He  was  ordained  dtacon  in  1648,  and,  being  in  the  hey- 
tlay  of  youth,  with  high  spirits  and  po|nilar  manners,  fell 
readily  into  the  dissipations  of  the  time,  leading  a  very 
irregular  life,  yet  not  so  as  to  forfeit  the  goodwill  of  even 
his  stricter  acquaintance.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1651, 
but  made  no  alteration  iu  his  habits,  and  yet  so  far  kept 


up  his  studies  that,  when  examined  m  1652  for  his  licence 
as  bachelor  in  theology,  he  came  out  at  the  head  of  the 
candidates,  while  the  famous  Bossnet  ranked  only  as  third. 
In  1653  he  lost  his  father,  who  bequeathed  pioperty  to 
him  which  doubled  his  already  large  income,  and  in  1654 
he  graduated  as  doctor  of  divinity,  when  his  uni^la,  tht 
archbishop  of  Tours,  made  him  one  of  his  archdeiicons, 
hinting  that  this  preferment  would  be  merely  the  prelim- 
inary of  a  mitre.  He  never  so  much  as  pretended  tc 
discharge  the  duties  of  his  new  office,  but  spent  his  time 
amusing  himself  at  his  chateau  of  V^retz  ;  in  despite  ot 
which  his  uncle  nominated  him  as  deputy  from  the 
diocese  of  Tours  to  the  general  assembly  of  the  French 
clergy  convoked  by  the  king  in  1655  to  discuss  the 
Jansenist  controversy.  The  chief  matter  of  interest  ia 
this  connexion  is  that  he  was  one  of  the  minority  of  65 
doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  who  refused  to  vote,  with  the 
majority  of  127,  a  censure  upon  the  Jansenist  leader 
Arnauld,  though  he  took  part  later  against  that  school. 
The  sudden  death  of  the  duchess  of  Rohan-Montbazon, 
with  whom  he  was  intimate,  and  whose  relations  with  huu 
were  the  subject  of  much  hostile  comment,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  great  shock  which  began  the  process' of 
change  inhis  views  of  life  and  duly.  A  story,  which  was 
first  given  currency  in  an  anonymous  account  of  his  con- 
version published  at  Cologne  in  1668,  much  heightens  this, 
by  alleging  that  De  Ranc6  arrived  at  the  duchess's  houss 
unaware  of  her  death,  and  went  direct  to  her  apartment 
without  being  warned  by  the  servants,  only  to  find  her 
head  lying  apart  from  her  decapitated  body,  having  been 
cut  off  becanise  the  cofl'in  was  too  short  abd  there  was  no 
time  to  procure  another  The  truth  of  this  story  (itself 
containing  several  improbable  incidents)  was  promptly 
denied  by  Maupeou,  the  earliest  of  De  Ranch's  biogra- 
phers, and  has  been  rejected  by  Bayle  and  St  Simon, 
though  accepted  by  La  Harpe  and  Voltaire.  What  is  cer- 
tain is  that  the  alteration  in  his  habits  nearly  synchronizes 
with  the  death  of  Madame  de  Montbazon,  and  that  the 
years  1657,  1658,  and  1659  were  mainly  spent  in  solitary 
studies  or  in  visits  to  the  monasteries  of  which  he  was 
titular  head,  varied  by  conferences  with  eminent  ecclesi- 
astics whose  advice  be  sought,  while  in  1660  the  death 
of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  whose  chief  almoner,  he  was, 
appears  to  have  given  the  final  direction  to  his  thoughts, 
though  it  was  not  for  some  years  that  he  carried  out  his 
new  plans  to  the  full.  His  first  resolution  was  to  sell 
his  patrimony  and  resign  his  benefices,  and  in  1662  he 
actually  sold  his  chateau  of  V^retz,  made  over  two  man- 
sions in  Paris  to  the  hOtel-dieu,  and  obtained  permission 
to  transfer  all  his  abbeys  except  Boulogne  and  La  Trappe 
to  resident  heads  chosen  by  himself.  His  canonry  of  Notre 
Dame  had  been  resigned  so  far  back  as  1653  because  of 
some  difficulty  about  residence.  After  making  provision 
for  family  claims,  and  retaining  a  comparatively  small  sura 
for  the  repair  of  Boulogne  and  La  Trappe,  he  distributed 
the  remainder  of  his  property  to  the  poor.  In  1662  ho 
visited  La  Trappe,  which  he  found  in  a  deplorable  condi 
tion,  and  the  few  resident  monks  -so  Indisposed  to  listen 
to  his  projects  of  reform  that  they  threatened  to  murder 
him  and  throw  his  body  into  the  abbey  ponds.  In  his 
turn  he  threatened  them  with  the  king's  direct  interfer- 
ence, and  such  was  the  terror  of  Louis  XIV.'s  name  that 
they  at  once  submitted,  and  consented  to  retire  upon  the 
payment  of  a  moderate  pension  ,  whareupon  De  Ranc^ 
filled  their  places  in  1663  with  monks  of  tl'e  .strict 
Cistercian  observance,  and  carefully  repaired  the  monastic 
buildings  there  and  at  Boulogne.  Ia  \hat  same  year  he 
finally  decided  to  enter  the  monaetic  life,  aBd  began  his 
noviciate  at  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Perseiglie  in  Maine, 
as.suinin£.  on  Ui.<  yrofe-ssiuii  in  1664.  the  actual   headship 


524 


TRAP  F  IS  T  S 


of  the  abbey  of  La  lYa^i^o,  whose  uoramal  abbot  .he  had 
been  for  nearly  thirty  years.  ,  Associating  himself  with 
other  personages  who  desired  to  revive  the  Cistercian  dis- 
cipline, he  made  two  journeys  to  Rome  to  obtain  papal 
sanction  for  their  plans,  and  after  considerable  delay  a 
brref  w^S  procured  from  Alexander  VII.  authorizing  the 
abbot  of  Citeaux,  as  general  of  the  Cistercians,  to  hold  a 
grand  chapter  of  the  order  to  discuss  the  proposed  reforms, 
which  actually  did  meet  in  1667.  But  De  Ranch's  ideas 
went  much  beyond  the  mere  re-establishment  of  the  strict 
observance  ;  and,  though  he  judged  some  details  of  the 
original  rule  unsuited  to  his  own  day,  and  blended  with  it 
t.omi;  particulars  borrowed  from  the  Benedictine  rule,  yet . 
ht;  was  so  far  from  diminishing  its  general  austerity  that 
hi!  added  to  the  protracted  fasts,  the  total  abstinence 
from  flesh-meat,  fish,  eggs,  and  wine,  the  laborious  manual 
ocrupations,  the  hard  beds,  and  the  severe  asceticism,  even 
in  the  church  services,  which  made  part  of  the  original 
rule,  also  the  obligation  of  perpetual  silence,  save  at  prayers 
(to  which  eleven  hours  daily  are  devoted),  and  save  also 
the  "  Memento  mori  "  with  which  the  Trappists  greet  each 
other  on  first  meeting,  which  is  the  distinguishing  feature 
of  La  Trappe,  a  rule  from  which  none  are  dispensed  save 
the  abbot  and  the  guest-master,  as  obliged  to  hold  some 
degree  of  intercourse  with  outsiders ;  and  he  further  or- 
dained that  each  monk  should  spend  some  time  each  even- 
ing digging  his  own  grave,  and  should  sleep  on  straw  in 
his  coffin  for  a  bed.  These  austerities,  though  cheerfully 
embraced  by  the  monks  of  La'  Trappe,  and  attracting 
enthusiasts  from  without,  were  far  from  being  approved 
generally,  even  in  the  Cistercian  order  itself,  and,  when  a 
decree  was  issued  by  the  council  of  state  in  167^5  giving 
the  abbot  of  Crteaux  absolute  authority  over  all  Cistercians 
of  the  strict  observance,  De  Ranc6  took  alarm,  and,  think- 
ing it  possible  that  an  attempt  might  be  made  to  mitigate 
the  severities  he  had  introduced  (particularly  as  the  mor- 
tality amongst  the  members  of  his  society  had  been  very 
large,  and  was  currently  attributed  to  insufljcient  nutri- 
ment), induced  them  to  renew  their  vows  and  to  pledge 
thems'elves  against  the  aduiission  of  any  relaxations.  Nor 
was  he  content  with  opj)Osip?  this  kind  of  resistance  >.o 
the  bishops,  abbots,  and  others  who  remonstrated  with 
him  upon  the  subject,  but  he  also  took  up  his  pen  in 
-defence  of  his  views,  and  published  in  1683  his  treatise 
De  la  Sainlete  et  (Us  Devoirs  de  In  Vie  Monnshque,  which 
involved  him  in  much  controversy,  notably  with  the 
learned  Benedictine  Mabillon,  who  replied  to  him  in  his 
well-known  work  Trade  des  Etudes  Monasttques,  published 
in  1691.  Advancing  years  and  unremitting  asceticism 
told  even  on  the  strong  constitution  of  De  Ranee,  and  lie 
found  himself  unable  to  take  his  share  of  the  manual 
labours  of  the  house,  or  evi/n  to  be  present  in  chapter,  so 
that  in  1695  he  felt  obliged  to  resign  the  abbacy,  and  pro- 
cured the  nomination  of  the  prior  Zosimus  to  succeed  him, 
but  he  died  before  the  arrival  of  the  bulls  for  his  instal- 
lation, and  Dom  Francis  Armand  was  substituted  in  his 
room,  and  inducted  into  office  in  1696.  He  proved  a 
failure  as  a  ruler,  and  La  Trappe  broke  up  into  two  fac- 
tions during  his  headship,  some  holding  to  him  and 
others  to  De  Ranee,  till  the  new  abbot  resigned  in  a  fit  of 
disgust  of  which  he  soon  i^epented,  but  could  not  succeed 
in  recalling  his  abdication.  Dom  Jacques  de  la  Tour,  a 
man  in  sympathy  with  De  Ranc6,  was  then  nominated  by 
the  crown,  and  while  he  was  still  abbot  De  Ranee  died, 
on  October  20,  1700,  in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his  age. 

De  Rance  was  a  tolerably  cofrious  author,  though  most 
of  his  writings  were  little  more  than  occasional  pamphlets 
■suggested  by  the  controversies  in  which  he  was  engaged, 
;fhort  devotional  treatises,  and  notices  of  deceased  members 
•of  his  coilirtitinity,  but  his  reputation  for  ability  and  scholar- 


ship was  never  contested, '  tie  was  a  successful  admini- 
strator, and,  though  the  extreme  severity  of  his  institute 
resulted  in  the  failure  of  fully  six-sevenths  of  the  postu- 
lants who  presented  themselves,  he  gathered  round  him 
during  his  government  of  the  abbey  no  fewer  than  three 
hundred  ascetics,  French,  Belgians,  Germans,  Italians, -and 
Irishmen,  oije.third  of  whom  were  drawn  from  leas  aostere 
communities  or  from  the  ranks  of  the  parochial  clergy  an^ 
candidates  for  the  priesthood.  Qf  lay  outsiders  who  joined 
him,  the  largest  proportion  cobsisted  of  rural  artisans  and 
labourers,  and  of  soldiers,  froid'  officer  to  private  (a  class 
for  which  La  Trappe  has  always  continued  to  have  attrac- 
tions), with  a  small  sprinkling  of  the  legal  profession  { 
while  two  physicians  and  a  single  tradesmap  complete  the 
ta]e  of  those  who  persevered  out  of  the  \,^o  thonsand'or 
so  who  presented  themselves.  No  daughtS'  houses  were 
founded  from  La  Trappe  during  De  Ranch's- Ufe,  for,  though 
he  was  ready  enough  to  send  some  of  his  liionks  for  a  time 
or  even  permanently  to  revive  the  Cistercian  discipline  in 
other  monasteries,  he  was  opposed  on  principle  to  every 
scheme  which  tended  to  drain  the  resources  of  La  Trappe 
itself,  and  it  was  not  till  1705  that  the  first  offshoot  of  the 
Trappists  was  planted  at  Buon-Solazzo,  near  Florence,  at 
the  solicitation  of  Cosmo  III.,  grarid-duke  ol  Tuscany. 

No  remarkable  events  occurred  in  connexion  with  La 
Trappe  till  the  French  Revolution,  when  the  order  waa 
included  in  the  geueral  suppression  of  monastic  societies 
by  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1790.  Even  then  the  higt 
character  borne  by  Ln  Trappe,  and  honourably  distin- 
guishing it  from  too  many  monasteries  at  that  time,  seemed 
likely  to  exempt  it  from  the  common  fate,  and  great  efforts 
were  made  to  obtain  its  exclusion  from  the  operation  of 
the  decree.  A  petition  addressed  by  the  Trappists  to  the 
National  Assembly  was  referred  to  the  council:general  of 
the  department  of  the  Ome  at  A-len^on,  which  reported 
against  it  to  the  ecclesiastical  committee  of  the  assembly, 
though  admitting  that  all  the  locU  municipalities  which 
they  had  consulted  were  in  favour  of  sparing  the  abbey. 
Dom  Augustin  (Louis  Henri  L'E^trange),  at  that  time 
master  of -the  novices,  foreseeing  the  result  of  the  inqairy.i 
went  to  Switzerland  to  provide  a  refuge  for  tht  brethren,' 
and  obtained  permission  from  the  authorities  of  canton 
Freiburg  to  take  possession  of  Val  Sainle,  an  unoccupied 
Cistercian  monastery,  and  to  bring  no  more  than  twenty-' 
fi"ve  persons  thither.  This  necessitated  leaving  more  than 
a  hundred  at  La  Trappe  to  await  the  coming  etorm,  wlich 
burst  upon  Trinity  Sunday,  llune  3,  1792,  when  com- 
missioners seized  all  the  movable  goods  scheduled  in  their 
inventory,  and  compelled  the  inmates  to  disperse.  Some 
betook  themselves  to  ^leure ;  a  few  retired  singly  into 
private  dwellings  ;  but  jvarious  groups  set  out  together  to 
found  colonies  in  Spain,  IGermany,  England,  and  Canada  ; 
while  the  earlier  Swiss  a6d  Tyrolese  houses  were  compelled 
to  break  tip  and  seek  refuge  elsewhere  from  the  French 
invaders.  But  amidst  all  didiculties  and  discouragements 
the  order  not  merely  maintained  itself,  but  grew  and 
strengthened,  and  in  1808  ventured  to  plant  anew  two 
houses  in  France  itself.  This  same  year,  however,  saw  the 
division  of  the  order  into  two  congregations,  becau.sc  the 
Trappists  of  Darfeld,  under  their  prior  Eugene  de  Prade, 
resisted  what  they  considered  to  be  the.  excessive  demands 
made  upon  them  by  the  ab^ot  of  the  order,  that  very 
L'Estrange  who  had  led  out  the  colony  of  Val-Sainte  (knd 
vv'ho  had  been  constituted  its  head,  and  that  of  the  whole 
society,  by  a  brief  of  Pius  VI  ^n  1794),  and  the  dispute 
was  appealed  to  Rome,  with  the  result  thati  in  June  1808 
judgment  was  given  against  L'Estrange,  and  Darfeld  was 
erected  into  an  independent  abbey  under  De  Prade  M 
abbsjt,  and  subjected  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of 
,  Minister.     Nearly  every  Trappist  house  at  this  date  was 


T  R  A  — T  R  E 


525^ 


within  Napoleon's  dominions,  and,  as  the  order  sided  with 
the  pop^  against  the  emperor,  the  latter  expelled  its  monks 
from  all  monasteries  in  the  empire,  and  imprisoned  not  a 
few  of  them.  With  his  fall  they  revived  again,  and  ob- 
tained permission  to  return  to  France,  whither  between 
1S14  and  1825  they  drifted  back  from  most  of  their  places 
of  exile,  though  1450  were  expelled  anew  in  18S0  under 
the  operation  of  the  Ferry  laws.  La  Trappa  itself  was 
repurchased  by  L'Estrange,  and  became  once  more  the 
mother  house,  while  there  are  fifteen  other  French  mon- 
asteries of  the  order,  four  Belgian,  two  English  (Mount  St 
Bernard,  Leicestershire,  and  Stape  Hill,  Dorset),  two  in 
Ireland,  one  each  in  Germany,  Savoy,  and  Algiers,  two  in 
Italy,  two  (Gethsemane  in  Kentucky  and  New  Melleray 
in  Iowa)  in  the  United  States,  and  one  originally  settled 
in  Pennsylvania,  but  now  at  Tracadie  in  Nova  Scotia.  An 
order  of  Trappistine  nuns  was  founded  by  Dom  Augustin 
in  1827,  and  has  nine  French  houses  and  one  English.  The 
total  numbers  are  computed  at  3000  members  of  both  sexes. 
The  bibliography  relating  to  De  Ranee  Snd  the  Trappists  is 
copious,  and  the  foUoTing  list  is  not  exhaustive.  Savary  (Bishop 
of  Seez),  Imago  H,  P..  Bom.  Am,  Joaiu  U  Bmdkillier  cU  Raiue, 
Ahbatis  de  Trappa,  1701 ;  Maupeoo,  Vit  de  M.  VAbbi  dc  la  Trappe, 
Paris,  1702;  Marsollicr,  Vie  ae  I' Abbi  BoiUhillUr  dt  Rand,  Paris, 
1702;  La  Nain  (brothir  of  Tillemont),  VU  dc  Le  Boulhillicr  dc 
Jiajic^,  Abbe ct  Jie/oTmaieur de  ta  Trappc,  Rouen,  1715;  Inguimbert, 
Genuiniis  Character  J/,  Arm.  Joannis  Buiiilieri  Katic&i,  Rome, 
1718;  Charles  Butler,  '.'Life  of  De  Ranee,"  ifisccllanies,  vol.  iii., 
'  LoodoD,  1817  ;  Dubois;  Hisloire  de  ^  Abbe  De  FUince  U  de  sa  Refon''e_^ 
2  vols.,  Paris,  1866;  Pelibien,  Descriplian  de  la  Trappc,  PSH , 
1672;  Helyot  and  Badiche,  Histctre  dea  Ordres  Jieligicux,  art.  "  La 
Trappe,"  Paris,  1859 ;  Wetzer  and  W'clte,  Kirchenlexicon,  art. " Trap- 
Jjisten,"  Freiburg,  1849.  (R  F.  L.) 

TRAS-OS-MONTES  {i.e.,  "  Behind  the  Mbantains  ")  is 
thfe  north-east  frontier  province  of  Portugal,  situated  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Serra  de  Marao  from  Oporto.  On  the 
W.  it  is  bounded  by  Entre  Miaho  e  Douro,  and  on  the  S. 
by  Beira.  The  area  is  4260  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion increased  from  393,279  in  1878  to  396,676  in  1881. 
Physically  the  province  is  a  mountainous  plateau,  the  most 
elevated  in  Portugal,  and  characterized  by  the  picturesque- 
ness  and  wildness  of  its  scenery.  Monte  Zinho  reaches  a 
height  of  7445  feet.  Vast  tracts  are  covered  with  heath  ; 
but  in  certain  parts  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  rich  wine- 
growing district  on  the  upper  Douro  (Alto  Douro)  is  the 
native  couutry  of  port.  Silk-growing  is  also  carried  on ; 
and  wheat,  rye,  hemp,  and  flax  appear  among  the  exports. 
The  province#i3'  divided  iiito  the  two  adninistrative  dis- 
tricts of  Villa  Real  and  Braganza.  Besides  the  two  towns 
thus  named,  two  only,  Chaves  and  Miranda  do  Douro,  are 
of  any  considerable  size. 

TRAVANCORE,  a  native  state  in  Madras  presidency', 
India,  between  8°  4'  and  10°  22'  N.  lat.  and  between  76° 
12' and  77°  38'  E.^long.,  with  an  area  of  6730  square  miles. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  native  state  of  Cochin, 
on  the  E.  by  the  British  districts  of  Madura  and  Tinnevelli, 
and  on  the  S.  and  W.  by  the  Indian  Ocean.  This  state 
is  described  as  one  of  the  most  picturesque  portions  of 
southern  India.  Its  most  marked  physical  feature  is 
furnished  by  the  Western  Chits,  which  rise  to  an  elevation 
of  8000  feet  and  are  clothed  with  magnificent  primeval 
forest ;  they  throw  out  spurs  towards  the  coast,  along 
which  there  is  a  belt  of  flat  country  of  about  10  miles  in 
width,  covered  with  an  almost  unbroken  mass  of  cocoa- 
nut  and  areca  palms,  which  to  a  great  extent  constitute 
the  wealth  of  the  country.  The  whole  surface  is  undulat- 
ing, and  presents  a  series  of  bills  and  valleys  traversed 
from  east  to  west  by  many  rivers,  the  floods  of  which, 
arrested  by  the  peculiar  action  of  the  Arabian  Sea  on  the 
coast,  spread  themselves  out  into  lagoons  or  backwaters, 
connected  heje  and  there  by  artificial  canals,  and  forming 
ftu  inland  Una  of  smooth-water  communication  for  nearly 


the  whole  length  of  the  coast.  "^  The  chief  river  is  the- 
Periyir,  which  is  navigable  for  60  miles ;  other  important 
rivers  are  the  Pambai  and  its  tributary  the  Achinkoil,  the 
Kallada,  and  the  Western  TAmbraparni.  Iron  is  abundant. 
Elephants  are  numerous,  and  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  bison, 
elk,  and  various  kinds  of  deer  abound  in  the  forests.  The 
state  possesses  some  good  roads,  and,  on  the  whole,  internal 
communication  is  tolerably  complete.  Travancore  has  an 
abundant  rainfall,  with  every  variety  of  climate  and 
temperature. 

In  1881  the  population  of  Travancore  was  found  to  number 
2,401,I58  (males  1,197,134,  females  1,204,024),  of  whom  1,755,61» 
wcreHindus.146.909  Jlohanimedans,  and  493,542  Christians.  The 
chief  towns  are  Trivanduum  (7  t'.),  the  capital,  Aleppi,  the  com- 
mercial centre  and  chief  seaport  of  the  state,  and  Quilon,  another 
seaport  and  military  beadtiuarters.  Among  the  principal  articles 
which  the  state  produces  are  rice,  cocoa-nut  palm,  pepper,  ai-eca- 
nut,  cardamoms,  tamarind,  cotTee,  timber,  tc.  The  manufactures 
comprise  cocoa-nut,  gingelly,  lemon-grais,  and  laurel  oils,  jaggery 
and  molasses,  salt,  arrack,  cotton  cloths  and  yarns,  pottery,  and 
coir  yarn,  rope,  and  Oiatting.  Its  revenue  in  1884-85  was  esti- 
mated at  £640,548.  Travancore  state  is  in  subsidiary  alliance  with 
the  British  Government,  to  which  it  pays  a  tribute  of  £80,000  a 
year.  It  is  one  of  the  few  states  which  have  never  turned  against 
the  British.  Under  the  enlightened  rule  of  the  late  maharajah  the 
country  made  great  progress,  and  it  now  stands  very  high  among 
native  states.  It  is  free  from  debt,  and  has  a  surplus  of  revenue 
over  expenditure.  The  sovereignty  as  well  as  the  inheritance  of 
property  passes  in  the  female  line. 

TRAWLING.     See  Fisheries. 

TREASON.  The  law  which  punishes  treason  is  a 
■necessary  consequence  of  the  idea  of  a  state,  and  is  essen- 
tial to  the  existence  of  the  state.  Most,  if  not  all,  nations 
have  accordingly,  at  an  early  period  of  their  history,  made 
provision  by  legislation  or  otherwise  for  the  punishment 
of  those  offences  against  public  order  which  consist  in 
more  or  less  direct  attacks  upon  the  safety  of  the  state  or 
its  chief.  The  principle  is  universal;  it  is  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  wjhich  leads  to  differences  of  opinion. 
What  would  have  been  a  capital  crime  at  Rome  under 
Tiberius  may  be  no  offence  at  all  in  England.  It  is  to  the 
advantage  of  both  the  state  and  the  citizen  that  what  is 
treason  and  what  is  not  should  be  clearly  defined,  so  that 
as  little  as  possible  discretionary  power,  apt  to  be  strained 
in  times  of  popular  excitement,  should  be  left  to  the 
judicial  or  executive  authorities.  The  importance  of  this 
was  seen  by  Montesquieu.  Vagueness  in  the  crime  of 
treason,  says  he,  is  suGBcient  to  make  the  government 
degenerate  into  despotism.'  At  the  same  time,  it  may  be 
observed  that  despotic  Governments  have  not  always  left 
the  crime  undefined. .  The  object  of  Henry  VIII.,  for 
instance,  was  rather  to  define  it  as  closely  as  possible  by 
making  certain  acts  treason  which  would  not  have  been  so 
without  such  definition.  In  both  ancient'  and  modem 
history  treason  has  generally  been  a  crime  prosecuted  by- 
exceptional  procedure,  and  visited  with  afflictive  as  dis- 
tinguished from  simple  punishments  (to  uje  the  termino-. 
logy  of  Bentham). 

In  Roman  law  the  offences  originally  falling  under  tha 
head  of  treason  were  almost  exclusively  those  committed 
in  military  service,  such  as  in  England  would  be  dealt 
with  under  the  Army  Act.  The  very  .name  perdueltio,  the 
name  of  the  crime  in  the  older  Roman  law,  is  a  proof  of 
this.  PerduelUi  were,  Strictly,  public  enemies  who  bore 
arms  against  the  state ;  and  traitors  were  regarded  as 
having  no  more  rights  than  public  enemies.  The  Twelve 
Tables  made  it  punishable  with  death  to  communicate  with 
the  enemy  or  to  betray  a  citizen  to  the  enemy..  Other 
kinds  of  perdueliio  were  punished  by  interdiction  of  fir* 
and  water.  The  crime  was  tried  before  a  special  tribunal, 
the  duumviri  perduellionU,  perhaps  the  earliest  pertnanent 
criminal  court  existing  at  Rome.     At  a  later  peridd  tha._ 

'  Eepril  dtt  /'tit,  Hl  loL  L  T. 


526 


TEE  A  SO  N 


name  of  perdueUio  gave  place  to  that  of  Isesa '  majestas, , 
deminu'.a  or  minuta  'majfsia&,  or  simply  majestas.  The  lex 
Julia  majestatis,  to  which  the  date  of '48  B.C.  has  beea, 
coDJectorilly  assigned,  continued  to  be 'the-  basis  of  the: 
Komao  law  of  treason  until  the  latest  period  of  the  empire. 
The  original  text  of  the  law  appears  .to  have  still  dealt 
with  what  were  chieliy  military  offences,  such  as  sending 
letters  or  messages  to  the  enemy,  giving  up  a  standard 
or  fortress,  and  desertion.  With  the  empire  the  law  of 
mcyeslas  received  an  enormous  development,  mainly  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius,  and  led  to  the  rise  of  a  class  of  pro- 
fessional informers,  called  delatores}  The  conceptioQ  of 
the  emperor  as  divine  -  had  much  to  do  with  this.  It 
became  a  maxim  that  treason  was  next  to  sacrilege '  in 
gravity.  The  law  as  it  existed  in  the  time  of  Justinian  is 
contained  chiefly  in  the  titles  of  the  Digest*  and  Code^ 
"AdUgevi  Juliam  majestatis."  The  defioition  given  in  the 
Digest  (taken  from  Ulpian)  is  this  :  "majestatis  crimen  illud 
est  quod  adversus  populimi  Roniauuu-  vel  adversus  securi- 
tatem  ejtis  committitur."  Of  treasons  other  than  military 
offences,  some  of  the  more  noticeable  were  the  raising  of 
an  army  or  levying  war  without  the  command  of.  the 
emperor,  the  questioning  of  the  emperor's  choice  of  a  suc- 
cessor, the  murder  of  (or  conspiracy  to  murder)  hostages 
or  certain  magistrates  of  high  rank,  the  occupation  of  public 
places,  the  meeting  within  the  city  6f  persons  hostile  to 
the  .state  with  weapons  or  stones,  incitement  to  sedition 
or  administration  of  unlawful  oaths,  release  of  prisoners 
justly  confined,  falsification  of  public  documents,  and 
failure  of  a  provincial  governor  to  quit  his  province  at 
the  expiration  of  his  office  or  to  deliver  his  army  to  his 
succesior.  The  intention  (voluntas)  was  punishable  as 
much  as  an  overt  act  {effectus),^  The  reported  opinions  as 
to  what  was  not  treason  show  the  lengths  to  which  the 
theory  of  treason  must  have  been  carried  by  at  least  some 
person  in  authority.  -It  was  not  treason  to  repair  a  statue 
of  the  emperor  which  had  decayed  from  age,  to  hit  such  a 
statue  with  a  stone  thrown  by  chance,  to  melt  down  such 
a  statue  if  unconsecrated,  to  use  mere  verbal  insults 
against  the  emperor,  to  fail  in  keeping  an  oath  sworn  by 
the  emperor,  or  to  decide  a  case  contrary  to  an  imperial 
constitutioiL  ^Treason  was  one  of  the  "  publica  judicia,"  i.e., 
one  of  those  crimes  in  which 'any  citizen  was  entitled  to 
prosecute.  The  law  went  further  than  this,  and  deprived 
the  accused  in  a  charge  of  treason  of  his  ordinary  remedy 
for  malicious  prosecution.  It  also  took  from  him  the 
privilege  (which  those  accused  of  other  crimes  generally 
possessed)  from  accusation  by  women  or  infamous  persons, 
from  liability  to  be  put  to  the  torture,  and  from  having 
his  slaves  tortured  against  him  (see  Toktdre).  The 
punishment  from  the  time  of  Tiberius  was  death  (usually 
by  beheading)'  and  confiscation  of  property,  coupled  with 
complete  civil  disability.  A  traitor  could  not  make  a  will 
or  a  gift  or  emancipate  a  slave.  Even  the  death  of  the 
accused,  if  guilty  of  treason  of  the  gravest  kind,  such  as 
levying  war  against  the  state,  did  not  extinguish  the 
charge,  but  the  memory  of  the  deceased  became  infamous, 
find  his  property  was  forfeited  as  though  he  had  been  con- 
victed in  his  lifetime.  .  _ 


'  See  Men  vale,  Hist,  of  the  Rojnans  vnder  the  Empire,  vol.  iii. 
p.  407,  vol.  V.  p.  141. 

■  '*  PriDcipes  instar  deorum  es3e"  are  the  words  of  Tacitus. 

'  Tliis  crime  was  called  tiesa  majestas  diviiia  in  later  law. 

■•  jlv.ii  4.  '  ix.  8. 

*  A  BunLlar  provision  v.-as  contained  in  the  Golden  Bull  of  Charles 
iV.  c.  24.  In  English  law,  wjth  the  onu  exception  of  a  statute  of 
Kijjhard  II  (21  Ric.  11.  c.  3)  repealed  in  the  first  year  ot  Kenr;-  J  v.. 
fin  overt  act  has  always  been  necessarf.  The  difficulty  of  ptcving  a 
mere  intention  is  obvious.  In  French  and  Germaa  law  the  overt  act 
(flttetit^t  or  Untcmekinen)  is  aa  ioAispensable  as  in  English. 

'  To  harbour  a  fugitive  enemy  waa  punishable  only  by  deportation, 
Dig.,  i;lrii'u  19,  40. 


The   law   of   England    corresponds  to  a   considerable 
extent  with    Roman  law ;   in   fact,   treason  is   made  bj 
Blackstone  the  equivalent  of  the  mmen  Issx  majestatis. 
The  history  of  the  crime  in  the  two  systems  agrees  in  thii 
that  in  both  the  law  was  settled  by  l^lslation  at  a  com 
paratively  early  period,   and   subsequently  developed  b]   • 
judicial  constructiotL  .  In  both,  too,  there  were  exceptiona 
features  distinguishing   this  crime   from   other  offences.! 
For  instance,  at  common  law  treason  was  not  bailablj 
(except  by  the  Queen's  Bench)  or  clergyable,  could  not  h{ 
cleared  by  sanctuary,  and  did  not  admit  of  accessories,  fol 
all  were  principals,  nor  could  a   married   woman  pleac 
coercion  by  he^  husband.     To  stand  mute  and  refuse  tc 
plead  did  not  save  the  lands  of  the  accused,  as  it  did  in 
felony,  so- that  the  "  peine  forte  et  dure  "  (see  Toetdre)  wa< 
unnecessary  in  treason.     These  severities  were  due  to  tht 
conception  of  treason  as  a  breach  of  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
Other  differences  introduced  by  statute  will  be  mentioned 
later.     In  some  cases  a  statute  simply  afiSrmcd  the  common 
law,  as  did  the  Statute  of  Treasons  to  a  great  extent,  and 
as  did  26  Hen.  VIII.  c.   13,  depriving  those  accused  ot 
treason  of  the  benefit  of  sanctuary.     How  far  the  Roman 
law  was  consciously  imitated  in  England  it  is  impossible 
to   determiii&.'It  was  certainly  not  adopted  to  its  full 
extent,  for   many  acts  were   majestas  which  were   never 
treason,  even  in  the  most  despotic  periods.     Treason  was 
the   subject   of  legislation  in  many  of   the  pre-Conquest 
codes.     The  laws  of  Alfred  "  and  yEthelred  '"  punished  with 
death  any  one  plotting_ against  the  life  of  the  king.   '  Soon 
after  the  Conquest  th\2  Leges  Ifenrici  Primi^^  put  ary  one 
slaying  the  king's  messenger  in  the  king's  mercy.     The 
crime  was  shortly  defined  by  Glanvill '-  and  at  greater 
length  by  Bracton,'^  who  follows  Boman  law  closely.     He, 
includes   under   treason   sedition  and   coining.     Treasonl 
seems  to  have  rested  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  upon  common 
law  until  the  year   1352,  when  the  famous  Statute  of; 
Treasons  (25  Edw.   III.  st.   5,  c.  2)  was  passed^    The 
statute  appears   to  have  arisen    from  a  petition  of  the 
Commons  in  1348,  praying  for  a  definition  of  the  offence 
of  accroaching  royal  power,  a  charge  on  which  several 
persons — notably    Gaveston    and    the    Despencers — had 
suffered.     The  offences  made  treason  by  the  statute  are 
these  : — (1)  to  compass  or  imagine  '*  the  .death  of   the 
king,'*  the  queen,  or  their  eldest  son  and  heir  ;  (2)  to 
violate  tho   king's    companion,   or    his   eldest   daughter 
unmarried,  or  the  wife  of  his  eldest  son  anc>  heir ;  (3)  to 
levy  war  against  the  king  in  his  realm,  or  be  adherent  tc 
the.  king's  enemies  in  his  realm,  giving  them  aid  and  com- 
fort  in  the  realm  or  elsewhere ;  (4)  to  counterfeit  the 
king's  great  or  privy  seal  or  his  money  ;  (5)  to  bring  false 
money  into  the  realm,  counterfeit  to  the  money  of  Eng- 
land, as  the  money  called  Lushburgh,"  knowing  the  money 
to  be  false ;  (6)  to  slay  the  chancellor,  treasurer,  or  the 
king's  justices  of  the  one  bench  or  the  other,  justices  in 
eyre,  or  justices  of  assize,  and  all  other  justices  assigned 
to  hear  and  determine,  being  in  their  places  dtiing  their 
offices.     The  statute  further  defined  petty  treason  to  be 
the  slaying  of  a  master  by  his  servant,  a  husband  by  his 
wife,  or  a  prelate  by  a  man  secular  or  religious  owing  him 
allegiance.     In  all  cases  of  treason  not  specified  in  the 
statute  the  justices  before  whom  the  case  came  were  to 
tarry  without  going  to  judgment  until  the  cause  had  been 

*  The  position  of  treason  as  a  special  crime  prosecuted  by  speci«l 

procedure  is  one  common  to  most  legal  systems  at  some  per.oj  of 

their  existence.     For  instanoe,  in  Germany,  by  a  constitution  of  Henry 

VII.  the  procedure  was  to  be  summary,  sine  sirepitv,  ct  f'jura  jiidicii. 

«  c.  4.  '»  v.  30.  "  Ixxix.  2.  '-  xiv.  1.  "  118J.  ( 

"  Tnese  words,  according  to  Ludere  (Z«w  Tracts,  note  ad  Jin. ), 
mean'^o  attempt  or  contrive. 

"  This  by  1  JIary,  sess.  3,  c.  1  includes  a  queen  reanaul. 

"  ii*,,  Luxembuij, 


TREASON 


•howed  and  declared  before  the  king  and   bis  parliament 
■whether  it  ought  to  be  judged   treason  or  felony.     The 
statute,  so  far  as  it  defines  the  offence,  is  still  law,  except 
the  clauses  as  to  counterfeiting  the  seal,  coining,  and  petit 
treason,  repealed  respectively,  after  a  considerable  amount 
■of  intermediate  modification   by  statute,  by  11    Geo  IV 
and  1  Will.  IV.  c.  66,  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c.  34.  30  Geo.  III. 
«.  48,  and  9  Geo.  IV.  c   31.      Petit  treason  is  now  treated 
«s  niu.Jer,  24  and  25  Vict.  c.  100.'     From  the   time  of 
the  pa.'^sing  of  the  Statute  of  Treasons  the  limits  of  treaion 
were  continually   being  extended    for  a  time,  and  again 
reduced  to  the  bounds  fixed   by  the  statute.     It  protected 
•only  the  king's  life,  and  its  insufficiency  was  supplemented 
in  periods  of  danger  by  legislation,  often  of  a  temporary 
oature.      Under  Richard    II.  and    Henry  VIIL  many  new 
offences  were  made  treason.^  but  the  Acts  creating  these 
new  treasons  were  repealed  at  the  earliest  opportunity  by 
the  parliaments  of  their   successors,  and   the  Statute  of 
Treasons  was  made  the  final  standard   by  I  Mary,  sess    1, 
c.  1.     The  reign  most  prolific  in  statutory  additions  to  the 
law  of    treason    was   undoubtedly   that  of    Henry   VIII. 
Legislation    in  this   reign  was  little  more  than  a   register 
of  the  fluctuating  opinions  of  the  monarch.     Thus,  by  25 
Hen.   VIII.  c.   22  it   was    treason   not   to    believe   Mary 
tiiegitirnate  and  Elizabeth    legitimate;  by  28   Hen   VIII. 
c   7  it  was  treason   to  believe   either   legitimate ;   by   35 
Hen     VIII     c     1    It    was   treason    not   to   believe    both 
Jeuitiniate.     An    interesting  act  of  .this  reign,   37    Hen 
VIII   c    10,  shows  that  a  class  of  men  like   the   Roman 
dAalo)>s  must  have  been  called  into  existence  by  all  the 
new  legislation.     The  Act  constituted   it  felony  to   make 
anonymous  charges  of  treason  without  daring  to  appear  in 
support  of  them   before  the  king  or  council.     Out  of  the 
mass  of   Henry  VIII. 's  Acts,  only  two  are  still  law —98 
Hen.  VIII.  c.    15  and  35   Hen.  VIII.  c  2,  giving  pow'er 
to  try  treasons  committed  within   the  jurisdiction   of   the 
admiralty  and  out  of  the  realm.      Many  other  instances  of 
offences  of  a  temporary  kind   made  treason  at  different 
times  occur  among  the  statutes,  especially  in  those  levelled 
at  the  papal  jurisdiction  by  the  parliaments  of  Elizabeth. 
A  few  of   the   more  interesting  of  other  kinds  may   be 
briefly   noticed.     It  was   treason   by   21   Ric    II.  c.  4   to 
attempt  to  appeal  or  annul  judgments  made  by  parHament 
against  certain  traitors,  by  2  Hen.  V.  st.  I,  c.  6,  and  29 
Hen.  VI   c.  2   to  break  a  truce  or  safe-conduct,  by  5  and 
6  Edward   VI.  c.  1 1    to  hold  castles,  fortresses,  or  muni- 
tions of  war  against  the   king;  by    17   Car.    II.  c.  5   to 
adhere  to  the  United    Provinces;   by  9  Will.  Ill   e    1   to 
return  without  licence  if   an  adherent  of  the  Pretender  ■ 
by     2  and   13  Will.  III.  c.  3   to  correspond  with   the  Pre- 
tender ;  and   by  57   Geo.  III.  c.  6  to  compass  or  imagine 
tlie  death   of   the    prince  regent.     In    addition   to  these 
many  Acts  of  attainder  were   passed  at  different   times' 

u""  J  ,o  .',"°''  ^^''"^  ^"^  t*"*'  against  Catherine 
Howard.  33  Hen  VIII  c.  21,  which  went  as  far  as  to 
make  It  treasonable  for  any  queen  to  conceal  her  ante- 
nuptial incontinence.  Other  Acts  were  those  against 
Archbishop  Scropc,  Owen  Glendower,  Jack  Cade,  Lord 
Seymour.  Sir  John  Feiiwick,  James  Stuart,  and  Bishop 
Atterbury.  In  one  case,  that  of  Cromwell,  Ireton,  and 
Bradshaw,  an  Act  of  attainder  was  passed  after  the  death 
of  those  guilty  of  the  treason,  12  Car.  II.  c.  30.     At  times 


527 


Acts  of  indemnity  were  passed  to  relieve  those  -who  had 
taken  part  in  the  suppression  of  rebellion  from  any  possible 
liability  for  illegal  proceedings.  Three  such  Acts  were 
passed  in  the  reign  of  William  in.  j 

The  Statute  of  Treasons,  as  interpreted  by  the  judges,  is  still  th« 
standard  by  whicl.  an  act  is  determined  to  be  treason  or  not    The 
judicial  interpretation  has  been  sometimes  strained  to  meet  cases 
scarcely  within  the  cootemnlation  of  the  franiers  of  the  statnte- 
e.g.,  it  became  established  doctrine  that  a  conspiracy  to  levy  war 
afpinst  the  king's  person  or  to  imprison  or  depose  him  miTht  be 
given  in  evidem-e  as  an  overt  act  of  compassing  his  death  an3  that 
spoken  «ords,   though  tliey  could   not  in  themselves  amount  to 
treason,  might  constitute  an  overt  act,  and  so  be  evidence.     Fksides 
decisions  on  particular  c;»ses,  the  judges  at  different  times  came  to 
general  resolutions  which  had  an  appreciable  effect  on  the  law     The 
principal  resolutions  were  those  of  1397  (coflfinned  by  21  Ric.  IL 
c.  12).  of  1557.  and  those  agreed  to  in  the  case  of  the  regicidea  at 
the  Kcstoration  and  reported  by  Sir  John  Kelyng     A  ren.arkable 
resolution  in  fnvorcm  rei  among  the  latter  was   thai  a  prisoner 
ought  not  to  bo  ironed  during  trial    The  result  of  judicial  decisions 
on  the  Statute  of  Treawns  was  summed  np  in  Acts  pas.sed  in  Iz'SB 
made  pei-manent  in  1817  and  in  1848  (57  Geo    III    c.  6  and  li) 
Vict.  c.  12,  the  latter  often  called  the  Treason  Felony  Act)      The 
effect  of  this  legislation,  accniding  to  Jlr  Justice  Stephen,  is  that 
such  of  the  judicial  constructions  as  extend  the  imagining  of  the 
kings  death  to  ii.iag.ning    his  death,  destruction,  or  any  bodily 
harm  tending   to  death  or   destruction,  maim  ot  wounding    im- 
prisonment  or  restraint,  have  been  adopted,  while  such  of  the  con- 
structions as  make  the  iiiiagiuing  of  his  deposition  conspiring  to 


Since  the  disappear.'ince  of  petit  treason  as  a  distinct  crime  it 
«ems  useless  to  retain  the  old  name  of  l,,gl,  treason  by  which  w'uat 
may  be  called  tre.isoii  proper  was  foi-merly  knonm 

.„  ;"^'''1,?/'""  "'^''"'=  "'''°  °"''=°<="  "'^"™  "ther  than  felony 
«as  m,  doubt  to  give  the  crown  ratl,er  than  the  lor<l  of  tho  f^e  Uie 

bet  feloav  n     l"-'"  "^  l^\"""i-l  °"  forfeiture.     Had  .the  offences 
«n  tvi     ,^         V '""  "■°"''^  '"'^'  ■'^'^  ""'y  Ws  year,  day,  and  waste 

uet^rof-^^r^f  ^-v^rvvr  ^^^  ">»  ^^ '-  -"--  ^^f- 


. ^..^  i....^^,uuiM  ui  uis  ueposition  conspinng  to 

levy  war  against   him,  and    instigating   foreignets  to   invade  the 
real^m,  have  not  been  abolished,  but  are  left  to  rest  on  tbeauthorit* 
of  decided  cases      The  present  state  of  the  law  has  been  incorpor- 
ated  by  skilled  lawyers  in  the  draft  criminal  code,  which  willno 
doubt  become  an  Act  when  parliament  has  leisure   to  devote  to 
mattei^s  of  this  kind     The  code  draws  a  distinction  between  treason 
and  treasonable  cnmes,  the  former  including  such  acts  fomittin» 
those  that  are  obviously  obsolete)  as  by  the  Statute- of  Treasons  an3 
subsequent  legislation  are  regarded  as  treason   proper,  the  lattei 
including  the  crimes  contained  in  the  Act  of  1848.     In  the  worda 
of  the  code  (§  76)     treason  is  (a)  the  act  of  killing  Her  JIajesty,  or 
doing  her  any  bodily  harm  tending  to  death  or  d«truction,  maim  or 
wounding,  and  the  act  of  imprisoning  or  restraining  her;  or  (6)  the 
loiming  and  manifesting  by  an  oveit  act  an  intention  to  kill  Her 
Majesty,  or  to  do  her  any  bodily  harm  tending  to  death  or  destruc- 
luii.  maun  or  wounding,  or  to  imprison  or  to  restrain  her;  or  (c) 
the  act  of  killing  the  eldest  son  and  heir-apparent  of  Her  Jl.iicstv 
or  the  queen  consort  of  any  king  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Kntain  and  Ireland;   nr  (rf)  the  forming  and  manifesting  by  an 
overt  act  an  intention  to  kill  the  eldest  son  and  heir-appaient  of 
Her  Majesty    or  the  queen  consort  of  auv  king  of  the  United 
kmgdoni  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland;  or  (<:)  conspiiiug  with  any 
person  to  kdl  Her  M.ajesty,  or  to  do  her  any  bod:ly  harm  tending 
to  death  or  destruction,  maim  or  wounding,  or  conspiring  with  any 
person  to  imprison  or  restrain  her ;  or  (/)  levying  war  aiainst  Her 
Majesty  either  with  intent  to  depose  Her  Jl/jesfy  from  the  style, 
honour,   and  royal  name   of  the  imperial  crown  of  the    United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  or  of  any  other  of  Her 
Majesty  s  doiiimions  or  countries ;  or  in  order  by  force  or  constraint 
to  compel  Her  Majesty  to  change  her  measures  or  counsels,  or  in 
order  to  intinihjate  or  overawe  both  Houses  or  either  House  of 
Parliament;   or  (g)  conspiring   to  levy  war  against  Her  Majesty 
with  any  such  intent  or  for  any  such  purpose  as  aforesaid ;  or  (A) 
instigating  any  foreigner  with  force  to  invade  this  realm  or  any 
other  of  the  doiiiinions  of  Her  Majesty ;  or  (i)  assisting  any  pubUc 
enemy  at  w-ar  with  Her  JInjesty  in  such  war  by  aay  means  wLatso- 
ever;  or  U\violating,  whether  with  her  consent  or  not,  a  queen 
consort  or  the  wife  of  the  eldest  son  and  heir-apparent  for  the  time 
being  of  the  king  or  nucen  regnant."    Thet«  are  a  few  other  Acts 
slUl  in  force  besidi^  those  of  1817  and  1848  which  have  dealt  with 
substantive  law-^     By  11  Henry  VII.  c.  1  obedience  to  the  de /ado 
sovereign  for  the  timo  being  is  not  treason.     By  I.Anne  st  2  c; 
21.  It  IS  treason  to  endeavour  to  hinder  the  next  successor  to  the 
Cl■n^yn    from   succeeding,  and   by  6  Anne  c.  41  it  is   treason    to 
maliciously^  advisedly,  and  directly  by  writing  or  printing  main- 
tain  and  affirm  that  any  person  has  a  right  to  the  crown  otherwise 
than  according  to  the  Acts  of  Settlement  and  Union,  or  that  the 
crown  and  |iarliamciit  cannot  pass  statutes  for  the  limitation  of  the 
succession  to  the  crown. 

The  Acts  dealing  with  procedure  and  punishment  are  more 
numerous,  and  arecliaiacterized  by  a  slowly  increasing  favour  shown 
to  the  accused, -ui  fact,  considerably  greater  than  in  felony  for 
counsel  were  not  allowed  to  prisoners  in  charges  of  felony  until 
1636,  and  such  prisoners  are  still  not  entiUed  to  a  copy  of  the 
indictment  or  the  names  of  the  witnesses  or  jury.  With  respect  to 
the  mode  of  trial,  the  effect  of  common  law  and  legislation  is  that 
Uieie  are  uow  four  varieties,— Imi'Eacumkxt  (s.v.),  trial  of  a  peer 


528 


TREASON 


by  the  peers,  court  martial,  aod  trial  by  a  judge  of  the  High  Court 
,.f  .lustice  aud  a  jury.     Tlie  offence  cannot   be  tried  at  quarter 
se'isioDS.     Trial  by  battle  in  cases  of  treason  ceased  in  the  14tli 
century   as  far  as  regards  appeals  in  the  common  law  courts  or  in 
iiarliament,  by  the  elfect  of  several  statutes  passed  between  1332 
aud  1399.     Appeals  of  treason  were  finally  abolished  in  1819   see 
APPEAL)      In  the  court  of  the  lord  high  constable  an  award  ot 
battle  occurred  as  lately  as  1631  in  the  case  of  Lord  Rea.'     Traitors 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  and  perhaps  later,  were  at  times  tried 
by  martial  law      The  issue  of  commissions  of  martial  law  m  time 
of  peace  was  declared  illegal  by  the  Petition  of   Right  in  1628. 
The  preroc^live  of  the  crown  to  try  traitors  by  martial  law  in  time 
of  open  rebellion  still  exists,  and  is  recognized  by  statute.     In  two 
Acts,  for  instance,  dealing  mth  Ireland,  43  Geo.  111.  c    117  and  6 
and  4  Will    IV    c   4,  it  was  provided  that  nothing  in  the  Acts  was 
to  take  away  the  undoubted  prerogative  of  the  crown  for  the  public 
safety  to  resort  to  the  exercise  of  martial  law  agamst  open  enemies 
and  traitors.      A  peer  js  tried  before  the  House  of  Lords,  or  the 
court  of  the  lord  high  steward  if  the  trial  be  during  the  recess  of 
parliament      Procedure  in  such  trials  is  regulated  by  7  and  8  Will, 
ill    c   3   and  other  Acts.     The  last  trial  of  a  peer  for  treason  was 
that    of   Lord    Lovat   in  1746-47.     Persons   subject   to   naval   or 
military  law  are  triable  by  court  marti.al  m  certain  cases  under  the 
powers  given  by  the  Naval  Discipline  Act,  1866,  and  the  Army 
Act    1881      The  trial  of  treason  committed  out  of  the  realm  is 
regillated  by  35  Hen.    VIII.  c.   2,  5  and  6  Edw.  VI.  c    11    and  7 
Anne  c.  21      Lord  Macguire  was  tried  by  jury  in  England  under 
35  Hen    VIII    c   2  for  treason  committed  in  Ireland.'     Procedure 
before  and  at  the  tr«l  depends  upon  a  'a^ge  number  of  Acts   of 
which  the  most  important  is  one  passed  in  1695  (7  and  8  Will.  UL 
c  3)      It  enacted  that  persons  indicted  for  treason  are  to  have  a 
copy  of  the  indictment  delivered  to  them  five  days  before  tii.il. 
The  court  is  empowered  to  assign  counsel  for  the  prisoner  (a  power 
extended  to  impeachments  by  20  Geo.  U.  c.  30).     The  oath  of  two 
witnesses,  or  confession  in  open  court,  or  refusal  to  plead,  or  per- 
emptory challenge  of  more  than  thirty-five  jurors  is  necessary  for 
conviction.     The  witnesses  must  be  both  to  the  same  overt  act  or 
one  to  one  aii.l  the  other  to  another  overt  act  of -the  same  treason 
If  two  or  more  treasons  of  divers  kinds  are  alleged  in  one  indict- 
ment   one   witness   to    prove  one   treason   and    another  to   prove 
another  arc  not   sufficient.     No  person    is    to    be  indicted  unless 
williin  three  years  after  the  offence,  except  on  a  charge  of  attempted 
assassination  of  "the  king.     The  accused  is  to  have  copies  of    he 
panel  of  tne  jury^  two  Jays  before  trial.      He  is  entitled  to  the 
same  process  to  compel  his  intoesses  to  appear  as  is  usually  granted 
to  compel  the  witnesses  for  the  prosecution.      No  evidence  is  to  be 
eiveii  ol  anv  overt  art  not  expressly  laid  in  the  indictment.      1  be 
Act  expressly  denied    Uie    prison.-,    the    names   ol    the    witnesses 
against  luin.     The  law  on  this  puint  was  altered  by  7  Anne  c.  21, 
winch  enacted  that  a  list  of  such  witnesses  was  to  be  .lelivered  to 
l.im  ten  davs    belore   trial      Such  witnesses  had  pieviously  been 
made  exainioabte  upon  oath  bv  1    Anne  st.   2,  c.    9.      ^y  5  and  b 
VicL   c    51    (e<t.ending    the    provisions   of    an    Act  of    1800)    tne 
advantages  given  by  the  Act  of  WUIiam  III    are  not  to  extend  to 
a  prisoner  charged  with  treason  in  compassing  or  imagining  any 
bodily  harm    tending   to    the   death  or   destruction,   maiming   or 
woundiii"  of  the  queen,  where  the  overt  act  is  an  attempt  to  injuie 
the  perso".  of  the  queen.      In  such  a  case  the  trial  is  to  proceed  in 
every  resiiect  and  on  the  like  evidence  as  if  it  were  for  murder.     By 
II  Vict,  c    12  no  prosecution  for  a  felony  under  the  Act.  in  so  lar 
as  It  i.»  exprei«cd    by  open   and  advised  speaking   only,   is  to  be 
instituted  unless  information  be  given  to  a  justice  or  shenll  witliiu 
SIX  days  and  a  warrant  issued  within  ten  days  of  the  information, 
and  no  pei-son  is  to  be  couvicled  of  such  an  offence  except  on  con- 
fe:,-,ion  III  open  court  or  proof  by  two  witnes.ses.     The  pnsoner  is 
nol  to  be  acquitted  if  the  facts  amount  to  treason.     Tnere  may  be 
aecesHories  to  felonies  under  this  Act,  which,  as  has  been  already 
sUted.  there  cannot  be  to  treason      The  prosecutor  and  witnesses 
are  not  entitled  to  costs.     By  a  later  Act  of  the  same  year  (11  and 
12  VicL   c    42    g  23)  a  person  charged  with  treason  is  not  to  he 
admitted  to  bjil  except  by  order  of  a  secretary  of  state  or  by  the 
Queen  s  Reoch  Division  or  a  judge  thereol  in  vacation. 

The  punishment  of  treason  at  common  law  was  barbarous  in  the 
extreme  •  The  sentence  was  that  the  otieiider.  if  a  man.  be  drawn 
on  a  hurdle  to  the  place  of  exccnt.on,  that  there  he  be  hanged  by 
the  neck  till  he  be  dead,  that  his  head  be  severed  from  his  body 
and  tiut  his  body  be  divided  into  four  quarters,  the  head  ami 
quarters  10  be  at  the  dis,K)sal  of  the  .  ruwn  A  womnn  w-.=  o.awn 
to  the  place  of  execution,  ami  there  burned  alive  .  r.e  Acts  ol  M 
Geo    III.  c    48  and  64  Geo    III    c.    146  rh»...;.;;d  the  sentence  to 

1  Sl,.l,f.pe..e  >w,ee  .Ti.ke.  .Hecu-e  u»  ol  Ihc  lilal  b,  bailie  ...  ucMon.  In 

J  by  II..:  B.ll  ..(  invhl.  Ihe  larom  in  tr.al,  tor  ue..-»n  masl  b.ve  been  fre<^ 
Loldel      r-i.s  o.ov.vc.n  ol  ihe  Ac!  w».  r.-l>e..le<l  by  9  Geo.  I\    c    SO 

'  ".  «<,ei,ir„„.l  .1..n.cier  ol  the  pon..h,.,enl,llk6  that  »' ""=  P"7^^"'','l  JJ 
•  rt^pms  ihem  "> '"»  i"">  tnro«i..g  tbem  Alto  a  lumace  U  aUudeil  lo  by  Dame. 

H/frttt,  jxiu.  ee. 


hant-ui"  lU  the  case  of  women,  and  In  the  ca.sc  of  men  enabled  th& 
crow'n,''by  warrant  under  the  sign  manual  countersigned  by  a 
secretary  of  state,  to  change  the  scntciirc  to  beheading  or  remit  it 
altoceth'cr.  By  the  Felony  Act,  1870,  the  pniirsliiiient  is  hanging 
only"  but  54  Geo.  HI.  c-  146  appears  to  be  still  so  far  m  force  that 
beheading  may  be  substituted  by  wariant  of  the  crown  wlicro  t ho 
criminal  is  a  man.  Attainder  and  lorfeitnio  are  abolished  by  Ui« 
Felony  Act,  1870,  except  where  tlic  otfcndcr  has  been  outlawed. 
The  maxiuinm  penalty  for  a  felony  under  the  Act  of  1848  is  penal 
servitude  for  life.  In  every  pardon  of  treason  the  offence  is  to  b» 
particularly  specified  therein  (see  Paiidon). 

Trials  for  treason  m  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  have  been  very 
numerous,  and  occupy  a  large  part  of  the  numerous  volumes  of  the 
State   Trials.     Some  of  the  more  interesting  may  be  mentioned. 
Before  ths  Statute  of  Treasons  were  those  of  Gaveston  and  the 
Despensers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  on  charges  of  accroaching 
the  royal  power.     After  the  Statute  were  those  (some  before  the 
peers  by  trial  or  inipeachmeut.  most  befoic  the  ordinary  criminal 
courts)  of  Enipson  au.l  Dudley,  Fisher,  More,  the  earl  of  Surrey, 
the  duke  of  Somerset,  Anue  Boleyn,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt  Cranmer,  the  queen  of  Scots,  Sir  Waller  Raleigh.  StialTord, 
Laud   Sir  Henry  Vane  and  other  regicides,  William.  Lord  Russell. 
Algernon  Sidney,  the  duke  of  Moniiiontli,  and  those  implicated  id 
the  Pih'nmage  of  Grace,  the  Gunpowder,  Popish,  Rye  House,  and 
other  plots.     Cases  where  the  proceeding  was  by  bill  of  attainder 
have  been  already  mentioned      Occasionally  the  result  of  a  trial 
was  confirmed  by  statute.      In   some  of  these   tiial-s,  as  is  well 
known,  the  law  was  considerably  strained  in  order  to  insure  a  con- 
viction     Since  the  Revolution  there  have  been  the  cases  of  those 
who  took  part  in  the  risings  ol  1715  and  1746,  Lord  George  Gordon 
ill  1780;  Hardy  and  Home  Tooke  in  1794,  the  Cato  Street  con- 
spirators in  1820,  Frost  in  1840,  and  the  Fenians  in  1867.     It 
should   be   noticed  that   many  cases  of   proceedings   for   treason 
a-amst  foreigners  occur.     Treason  committed  by  them  within  the 
r?alm  is  a  breach  of  what  h.is  been  called  local  allegiance,  due  to 
the  sovereign  of  the  country  in  which  they  reside.     Such  ore  the 
cases  of  Leslie,  bishop  of  Ross,  ambassador  to  Elizabeth  from  the 
queen  of  Scots,  the  Marquis  de  Guisoard  in  Queen  Amies  reign, 
and  Gyllenborg,  the  ambassador  from  Sweden  to  George  11.      Pro- 
ceedings ac-ainst  ambassadors  for  treason  have  never  gone  beyond 
inipnsoiimSiit,  more  for  safe  custody  than  as  a  punishment.     No 
amount  of  residence  abroad  will  suffice  to  exem|.t  a  native-born 
subiect  from  the  penalty  ot  treason  if  he  bear  arms  against  the 
country  of  his  birth.'  •     .u  j 

Misrr'^w,t  (from  the  old  French  vicspris)  of  treason,  in  the  words 
of  Blackstone,  "  consists  m  the  bare  knowledge  and  concealment  of 
treason,  without  any  degree  of  assent  thereto,  for  any  assent  makes 
the  party  a  principal  traitor."  At  con.mon  law  even  the  conceal- 
ment was  treason,  but  5  and  6  Edw.  VI.  c  11  and  1  and  2  Ph. 
and  M  c  10  made  con.^ealment  a  misprision  only.  Hie  ollencc 
was  dealt  with  by  many  Acts,  under  some  of  which  rather  remark- 
able cnii.es  were  made  misprision;  eg..  14  Eliz.  c.  3  constituted 
the  counterfeiting  of  foreign  coinage  a  misprision.  The  i.roccuure 
in  trials  for  misprision  is  in  general  the  same  as  that  followed  ID 
trials  for  treason,  most  of  the  Acts  regulating  procedure  including 
both  mines  The  punishment  is  loss  of  the  pioht  of  the  lands  of 
the  otfen.icr  during  life,  an.l  imprisonment  for  life.  „,„. 

CoQ,uUc  Ofic,iccs.-Vuiier  this  bead  may  be  conveniently  grouped 
cert.1,11  olfciices  against  public  order  which,  though  not  technically 
treason  or  treasonable  olTciices  (to  use  the  language  of  the  dralt 
criminal  co.le),  are  so  nearly  allied  to  them  as  to  make  it  convenient 
to  ireat  thein  nii.ler  the  head  of  treason.  The  most  interesting  o 
these  for  historical  reasons  is  7.r«,;i»mr«.  T^ie  word  is  derived 
from  vTHn.uunrf  or  pr«„w,«r,/na,«,  the  introductorv  woi-ds  of  the 
writ  of  summons  to  the  defendant  to  answer  the  charge.  From 
this  the  wo.d  came  to  be  used  to  denote  the  offences  proseciited 
by  means  of  such  a  writ,  usually  of  an  ecclesinstica  kiud.  The 
Statute  of  Prieiniiniie,  si-ecially  so  called,  is  16  Ric.  11.  c.  5  eliact- 
„,.T  that  the  procuring  ..t  Rome  or  elsewhere  of  any  translations. 
bulls  &c  ,  against  the  king  puts  the  persons  olTeuding  out  of  tlia 
king  s  protection,  subjects  their  goods  to  forfeiture  amt  themse  v« 
to  attachment  or  process  of  pr^m„n,re  faca.     The  Act  introduced. 

.r     .....     ...    ..r,.,.,„..„il     fbe    nntl-nanal    Dolic  < 


to  attachment  or  processoi /^^it"!"".'...;' — —     ;: -        ^ 

no  new  principle,  but  simply  continued  the  anti-papa  puir, 
visible  in  the  Statutes  of  Provisors.  the  earliest  of  winch  dateu  fn.n 
l;lii7  At  different  times  many  other  Ac'j  .veic  pas.se,l,  extending 
the  penalties  of  pnemiinire  toother  crimes,  usually  those  coiinectea 
!'";f:h.  siir-remaoy  ol  the  pope  (2  Hen.  I V  c.  4  m.ntinned  under 
T.-1E.S  IS  an  ex..iiiple),  but  soiiielimes  of  a  mor«  distinctly  pohticaj 
as  Jistingnished  from  religious  nature.  Thus  it  is  p^mnnire  by 
13  Car  r  c.  1  to  alfirm  the  (Kiwer  of  parliament  lo  legislate  with- 
out  the  crown,  by  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  to  send  a  prisoner  beyond 
seas  and  to  verbally  assert  the  right  of  a  peisor  to  the  crown  con- 

.  P-.e-.-  ...er  '^ ^'^^^-l^^ll^fS^^T^^^^ir::!^  T.lt'lZ 
been  t.ken     bat  "'">  ,"»  »  ." '^  "  j,,  £.  c.ko  l-t /It;. .  S?)  smtcs  th.t  tlior. 
":',°.:i1„  ;;  b^cTUl'^'tr  ol  Te  J^f»^'  ol  „,.e  Lin  ,'n  rebeUloa  on  vl«^ 
I      «  See  jEneM  UacdonnlJ  s  case,  18  Slate  Triall.  857. 


TREASON 


529 


trary  to  the  Acts  of  SottJomcnt  and  Union  is  praemunire  by  6  Anne 
c.  4 1  To  do  so  by  writing  or  printing  is,  as  has  been  said,  treason. 
The  latest  Act  constituting  a  pi-a:niunire  is  the  Royal  Marriage 
Act,  12  Ceo  1 II.  c.  1 1,  which  subjects  to  the  penalties  of  premunire 
ony  one  guilty  of  a  breach  of  the  provisions  of  the  Act.  A  peer 
chargeJ  with  prxmunire  is  not  entitled  to  trial  by  his  peers,  but  is 
to  be  tried  by  a  jury.  The  most  famous  historical  instance  of  a 
prosecution  on  the  Statute  of  Pra?munire  was  that  of  Wolsey  in 
1529.  Other  oflTenccs  cognate  to  treason  are  publishing  scandalous 
stones  about  the  king  (the  leasing- making  of  Scotch  law),  mal- 
administration and  sale  of  public  offices,  coining,  ofTences  against 
the  Foreign  Enlistment  Act,  and  the  crimes  specially  provided 
against  by  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  12  and  5  and  6  Vict.  c.  51.  The 
former  Act  punished  malicious  striking  in  the  king's  palace  by 
perpetual  imprisonment,  fine,  and  loss  of  the  right  hand.  The 
mmutc  provisions  for  the  mutilation  of  the  offender  are  very 
curious,  but  not  of  immediate  interest,  as  that  part  of  the  Act 
which  inflicted  mutilation  was  repealed  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31.  By 
5  and  6  Vict.  c.  51  it  is  a  high  misdemeanour,  punishable  by  penal 
servttolo  for  seven  years,  to  wilfully  discharge,  point,  aim,  or 
preser.t  at  the  per;  in  of  the  queen  any  gun  or  other  arms,  loaded 
or  not,  or  to  strike  at  or  attempt  to  throw  anything  upon  the 
queens  person,  or  to  produce  any  firearms  or  other  arms,  or  any 
explosive  or  dangerous  matter,  near  her  person,  with  intent  to 
injure  or  alarm  her  or  to  commit  a  breach  of  the  peace.  For  other 
olfenccs  which  are  more  or  less  nearly  connected  with  treason  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  the  articles  Libel,  Oaths,  Petition,  Riot, 
and  Sedition.' 

Scotland.  — Treason  included  treason  proper,  or  crimes  against  the 
CTt>wn  or  the  state,  such  as  rebellion,  and  crimes  which,  though  not 
technically  treasonable,  were  by  legislation  punished  as  treason. 
Examples  of  the  latter  were  the  remaining 'in  England  against  the 
king's  will,  1430,  c.  19;  wilful  fire-raising,  1526,  c  10;  kidnapping, 
1557, c  27  ;  theft,  reset,  and  stouthrief  by  banded  men,  1587,  c.  34. 
There  were  also  many  acts  dealing  with  offences  in  the  nature  of 
resistance  to  authority,  such  as  unlawful  convocations,  and  with 
treasons  of  a  merely  transitory  nature,  such  as  attempting  to  restore 
the  Ruthvens  (1600),  taking  or  owning  the  Covenants  (1685),  or 
corresponding -with  .lames  VII.  (169S).  Acts  of  forfeiture  were 
sometimes  directed  against  individuals,  as  1645,  c,  23,  against  the 
marquis  of  Huntly.  Scottish  procedure  was  as  a  rule  less  favour- 
able to  the  accused  than  English.  In  one  matter,  however,  the 
opposite  was  the  case.  Advocates  compellable  to  act  on  behalf  of 
the  accused  were  allowed  him  by  1587,  c.  57,  more  than  a  century 
before  the  concession  of  a  similar  indulgence  in  England.  At  one 
time  trial  in  absence  and  even  after  death  was  allowed,  as  in  Roman 
law.  In  the  case  of  Robert  Leslie,  in  1540,  a  summons  after  death 
was  held  by  the  estates  to  be  competent,  and  the  bones  of  the 
deceased  were  exliumed  and  presented  at  the  bar  of  the  court^ 
The  Act  1542,  c.  13,  confined  this  revolting  procedure  to  certain 
treasons  of  the  more  heinous  kind.  By  7  Anne  c  21  'trial  in 
absence — the  last  instance  of  which  had  occurred  in  1698 — was 
aboli.'ihed.  The  same  Act  assimilated  the  law  and  practice  of 
treason  to  that  of  England  in  other  respects  by  enacting  that  no 
crime  should  be  treason  or  misprision  in  Scotland  bat  such  as  was 
treason  or  misprision  in  England.  The  Act  further  provided  that 
the  trial  was  tobe  by  a  jury  of  twelve,  not  fifteen  as  in  other  crimes, 
before  the  court  of  justiciary,  or  a  commission  of  oyer  and  terminer 
containing  at  least  three  lords  of  justiciary.  To  slay  a  lord  of 
justiciary  or  lord  of  session,  or  to  counterfeit  the  great  seal,  was 
made  treason.  The  Act  also  contained  provisions  as  to  forfeiture,' 
p'lalification  of  jurors,  and  procedure.  Outlawry  for  treason  was 
regulated  by  22  G«o.  II.  c.  48.  The  punishment  still  remains  the 
same  as  it  was  in  ■  England  before  the  Felony  Act,  1870,  and 
attainder  and  forfeiture  are  stiH  the  effects  of  condemnation  for 
treason,  the  Act  of  1870  not  extending  to  Scotland.  One  or  two 
other  statutory  provisions  may  be  briefly  noticed.  The  trial  of  a 
peer  of  Great  Britain  for  treacon  committed  in  Scotland^is  to  be  by 
a  commission  from  the  crown,  on  indictment  found  by-'a  jury  of 
twelve  (6  Anne  c.  23,  6  Geo.  IV.  c.  66).  Bail  in  treason-felony  is 
only  to  be  allowed  by  consent  of  the  public  prosecutor  or  warrant 
of  the  high  or  circuit  court  (11  Vict.  c.  12).  The  term  lcsc-majesty_ 
was  sometimes  used  for  what  was  treason  proper,  e.g.  in  1524,  c.  4, 
making  it  lese-majesty  to  transport  the  kmg  out  of  the  realm, 
sometimes  as  a  synonym  of  Uasing-makinj.    This  crime  (also  called 


t  Auikoritiex. — ^Thc  text-writers  on  criminal  law.  sucti  as  Hale  and  Hawkins ; 
Bacon,  Law  Tracd,  Cases  of  Treason;  Coke.  3  /nst.,  1-39;  Sir  R.  Holbourne, 
Reading  on  the  StaluCe  of  Treasorts;  Luders,  Law  Tracti',  Foster,  Discount  of 
Treason;  Stcplien.  Comm.,  vol.  U.  bk.  vi.  ch  vi.  The  Statute  of  Treasons  is 
roLiced  by  Hallam,  Con&t.  Hist  ^  voi.  iii.  p.  203;  Stubbs,  Const,  ffist.,  vol  lU. 
p.  613.  The  most  valual)!c  modem  authorities  are  Stephen.  Hist,  of  the  Criminal 
lau,  vol.  11.  ch.  x.xlll..  and  Willis  Bund.  Selection  of  Cases  from  t!i^  State  Trials. 

2  In  the  one  instance  in  EnKland— that  of  CromweU.  Ireton.  and  Bradshaw — 
where  the  bodies  of  alleged  traitors  were  exhumed  after  death  they  were  not 
broufrbt  to  the  bar  of  a  court  as  in  Scotland. 

3  The  provisions  in  the  Act  as  to  forieiture  (now  repealed)  were,  according  to 
Blackstone,  Ctotnm.,  vol.  iv.  p.  3S4,  the  result  of  a  compromise  between  the  House 
cV  Ijords,  in  favour  of  Its  continuance,  and  the  House  oC.  Commons,  supported  by 
the  Scottish  nation,  BtrnggUng  to  sectue  a  total  immunity  from  this  dlaabUiCy. 


verbal  sedition)  consisted  in  the  engendering  discord  between  king 
and  people  by  slander  of  the  king.'  The  earliest  Act  against 
Icasing-making  co  nomiite  was  in  1524.  The  reign  of  James  VI. 
was  pre-eminently  prolific  in  legislation  against  this  crime.  It  is 
now  of  no  practical  interest,  as  prosecutions  for  leaaing-making 
have  long  fallen  into  desuetude.  Atone  time,  however,  the  powers 
of  the  various  Acts  were  put  into  force  with  great  severity,  especially 
in  the  trial  of  tho  earl  of  Argyll  in  1681.  The  punishment  for 
leasing-making,  once  capital,  is  now,  by  6  Geo.  IV.  c  47,  fine  or 
imprisonment,  or  both.  The  offence  of  praemunire  was  introduced 
into  Scotland  at  a  comparatively  late  period.  By  6  Anne  c  23  it 
is  pnemtinire  for  the  peers  of  Scotland  assembled  to  elect  represen- 
tatives to  treat  of  any  other  matter.' 

Ireland. — Numerous  Acts,  beginning  with  18  Hen.  VI.  c  2, 
were  passed  by  the  Irish  parliament — in  many  cases  mere  echoes  of 
previous  English  legislation.  As  in  England  and  Scotland,  thera 
was  a  tendency  to  include  under  treason  crimes  of  quite  another 
character.  Murder  was  made  treason  by  10  Hen.  VII.  c.  21,  and 
arson  by  13  Hen.  VIII.  c.  1.  Apparently  the  law  must  sometimes 
have  been  strained  against  accused  persons,  for  3  and  4  Ph.  and  M. 
c  11  enacted  that  trials  for  treason  were -to  be  according  to  the 
common  law.  Treasons  of  a  temporary  nature  were  often  the 
subject  of  legislatioiL  An  example  is  1 1  Eliz.  c.  6,  making  it  treason 
to  assume  the  name  and  authority  of  O'Neill.  The  provisions  of  tha 
English  Act  of  William  III.  as  to  witnesses,  &c.,  were  not  extended 
to  Ireland  until  1821  by  1  and  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  24.  Many  Acts  of 
indemnity  were  passed  both  by  the  parliaments  of  Ireland  aud'of 
the  United  Kingdom.  Among  the  more  important  were  an  Irish 
Act  of  1799  (39  Geo.  III.  c.  3),  indemnifying  those  who  had  been 
active  in  suppressing  the  treasonable  rising  of  the  previous  year, 
and  one  of  the  parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom  (41  Geo.  III.  c. 
104),  indemnifying  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the  suppression 
of  rebellion  subsequent  to  1799.  The  law  is  now  practically  the 
same  as  that  of  England,  unless  where  exceptional  political  circum- 
stances have  led  to  exceptional  legislation.  Thus  a  series  of  enact- 
ments called  the  "  Whiteboy  Acts"  (passed  by  tho  Irish  and  the 
United  Kingdom  parliaments  between  1775  and  1830)  was  intended 
to  give  additional  facilities  to  the  executive  for  the  suppression  of 
tumultuous  risings.  Many  Irish  Acts  dealt  with  unlicensed  posses- 
sion and  manufacture  of  arms.  A  similar  policy  was  continued 
after  the  Union,  and  appears  in  the  Peace  Preservation  Act,  1881, 
continued  in  1887  for  five  years.  Some  Acts,  such  as  3  and  4  Will. 
IV.  c.  4,  went  as  far  as  to  make  offenders  in  a  proclaimed  district 
triable  by  court-martial.  By  the  Prevention  of  Crime  Act,  1882, 
now  expired,  the  lord-lieutenant  was  empowered  to  issue  special 
commissions  for  the  trial  without  jury  of  treason  and  treason-felony. 
The  power  was  never  exercised.  The  Criminal  Law  and  Procedure 
(Ireland)  Act,  1887,  deals  with  resistince  to  authority  and  offences 
of  a  treasonable  nature,  especially  "  dangerous  associations,"  though 
treason  is  not  mentioned  by  name. 

British  Colonies  and  Dependencies. — The  law  in  the  main  agrees 
with  that  of  the  mother  country,  but  it  is  quite  competent  for  a 
colony  to  deal  with  treason  by  its  own  legislation  which  need  not 
necessarily  be  in  accordance  with  English  law,  and  is  sometimes  ex- 
pressed in  more  definite  terms.  Thus  the  Indian  penal  code  makes 
it  punishable  with  transportation  for  life  to  wage  war  against  the 
Government  of  any  Asiatic  power  in  alliance  or  at  peace  with  the 
queen,  or  to  attempt  to  excite  feelings  of  disaffection  to  the  Govern- 
ment. Numerous  temporary  Acts  were  passed  about  the  time  of 
the  mutiny,  one  of  the  most  characteristic  being  an  Act  of  1858 
making  rebellious  villages  liable  to  confiscation.  By  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  statutes  it  is  treason  to  deliver  arms  or  gunpowder  to 
the  queen's  enemies.  Many  colonies  adopt  the  English  legislation 
as  to  procedure,  and  some,  as  Now  South  Wales,  &c,  enact  the 
Treason  Felony  Act  A  striking  feature  of  colonial  legislation  on 
this  subject  is  the  great  number  of  Acts  of  indemnity  passed'after 
different  rebellions.  Instances  of  such  A'cts  occur  in  the  legislation 
of  Canada,  Ceylon,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  New  Zealand,  St  Vin- 
cent, and  Jamaica.  The  most  important  in  the  history  of  law  is 
the  Jamaica  Act  of  1866,  indemnifying  Mr  Eyre  for  any  actj  com- 
mitted during  the  suppression  of  the  rising  in  the  previous  year. 
It  was  finally  held  by  the  Exchequer  Chamber  in  1870  that  this  Act 
protected  Mr  Eyre  from  being  sued  successfully  in  England  on  a 
cause  of  action  arising  out  of  his  acts  during  the  outbreak  ("  Phil- 
lips r.  Eyre,"  Law  Reports,  6  Queen's  Bench,  1). 

United  Stoics. — The  law  is  based  upon  that  of  England.  By 
Art.  3  s.  3  of  the  constitution  "treason  against  the  United  States 
shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  a^inst  them,  or  in  adhering  to 
their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be 
convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to 
tho  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court.  The  Congress 
shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason ;  but  no 
attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corniption  of  blood  or  forfeiture, 
except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted."     By  Art  2  s.  4 

^  It  is  called  by  llaUam  "  the  old  mystery  of  iniquity  in  Scots  law." 
6  For  the  exisUup  Scots  law  of  treason  see  Macdonaid,  Crimtnat  Icie,  p.  220. 
For  leaslOK-makinc  sec  Hume,  Comm.,  voL  I.  p.  345. 

XXIIL  —  67 


530 


T  R  E  —  T  R  E 


Impeachment  for  and  conviction  of  treason  is  a  grouiiii  for  remov- 
ing the  prosiJent,  v^e-president,  and  otlicr  civil  olTicers.  The 
punishment  by  an  Act  of  1790  was  declared  to  be  death  by  banging. 
But  during  the  Civil  War  a  new  Act  (17  July  16G2)  was  pabsed, 
providing  that  the  punishment  should  be  death,  or,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  court,  imprisonment  at  hard  labour  for  not  less  than  five 
years,  and  a  fine  of  not  less  than  10.000  dollars  to  be  levied  on  the 
real  and  personal  property  of  the  olTendcr,  in  addition  to  disability 
to  hold  any  oHice  under  the  United  States.  The  Act  of  lS6'.i  and 
other  Acts  albo  deal  with  the  crimes  of  inciting  or  eng;iging  in 
rebellion  or  insurrection,  criminal  correspondence  with  foreign 
Governments  in  relation  to  any  disputes  or  controversies  with  the 
United  Slates,  or  to  defeat  tho  measures  of  tlie  Govciriment  of 
the  United  States,  seditions,  conspiracy,  recruiting  soldiers  or 
sailors  and  enlistment  to  serve  against  the  United  Slates.  The 
Act  of  1790  further  provides  for  the  delivery  to  the  prisoner  of 
a  copy  of  the  indictment  and  a  list  of  the  jurois,  for  defence  by 
counsel,  and  for  the  finding  of  the  indictment  within  three  years 
tfter  the  commission  of  the  treason.  Misprision  of  treason  is  de- 
fined to  be  the  crime  committed  by  a  jicrson  owing  allegiance  to 
the  United  Slates,  and  having  knowledge  of  the  commission  of  any 
crime  against  them,  who  conceals  and  docs  not  as  soon  as  may  be 
disclose  and  make  known  the  same  to  the  president  or  to  some 
judge  of  the  United  States,  or  to  the  governor  or  to  some  judge 
or  justice  of  a  particular  State.  The  punishment  is  imprisonment 
for  not  more  than  seven  years  and  a  fine  of  not  more  than  1000 
dollars  (see  Revised  Staiulcs.  §§  10.3.3,  1034, 1043,  5331-533S;  Story, 
Constilution  of  the  United .  Stales,  §§  1296-1301,  1796-1802). 
Treason  against  the  United  States  canuot  be  inquired  into  by  any 
State  court,  but  the  States  may,  and  some  of  them  have,  their  own 
-constitutions  and  legislation  as  to  treasons  committed  against 
themselves,  gcneially  following  the  lines  of  the  constitution  and 
legislation  of  the  United  States.  In  some  cases  there  arc  dilfer- 
-enccs  which  are  worth  notice.  Thus  tiie  constitution  of  Massa- 
chusetts, §  25,  declares  that  no  subject  ought  in  any  case  or  in 
any  time  to  be  declared  guilty  of  treason  by  the  Icgibialnrc.  The 
same  provision  is  contained  in  the  constitutions  of  Vermont, 
Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  Alabama,  and  others-  In  some  Stales 
tho  Clime  of  treason  cannot  be  pardoned  ;  in  others,  as  in  New 
York,  it  may  be  pardoned  by  the  legislature,  and  the  governor  may 
suspend  the  sentence  until  the  end  of  the  session  of  the  legislature 
next  following  conviction.  In  some  States  a  person  convicted  of 
treason  is  disqualified  for  exercising  the  franchise.  In  Nev/  York 
conviction  carries  with  it  forfeiture  of  real  estate  for  the  life  of  the 
convict  and  of  his  goods  and  chattels.  (J.  \Vt. ) 

TREASURE-TROVE  is  defined  by  Blackstone  to  be 
money  or  coin,  gold,  silver,  plate,  or  bullion  found  hidden 
in  the  earth  or  other  private  place,  the  owner  thereof  being 
unknown.  This  definition  is  simply  an  extension  of  the 
Roman  law  definition  of  thesaurus  inventus  as  an  ancient 
deposit  of  money  (vetus  depositio  pecunix)  found  by 
accident  and  without  actual  search.  The  right  to  treasure- 
trove  was  not,  however,  tho  same  in  Roman  and  English 
law.  The  former  at  its  latest  stage  divided  it  between  the 
finder  and  the  owner  of  the  land  on  which  it  was  found, 
except  where  it  was  found  on  public  or  imperial  property, 
when  one-half  went  to  tho  fisc-  If  a  man  found  treasure 
on  his  own  land,  ho  had  a  right  to  the  whole.  The  rights 
of  the  crown,  modified  by  those  of  the  feudal  lord,  gradu- 
ally became  more  extensive  in  the  feudal  law'  of  Europe, 
so  much  so  as  to  become,  in  the  words  of  Grotius,  "jus 
commune  et  quasi  gentium."  In  more  recent  times  there 
has  been  a  return,  at  any  rate  in  the  case  of  France,  to  the 
division  made  by  the  Roman  law.  In  England  the  com- 
mon law,  which  at  one  time  apparently  conferred  treasure- 
trove,  wherever  found,  upon  the  finder,  now  gives  it  all  to 
the  king,  in  accordance  with  the  maxim  ''quod  uuUius  est 
fitdomint  regis."  This  is  always  provided  that  the  owner 
-  cannot  be  known  or  discovered.  If  he  can  be  he  and  not 
the  king  is  entitled  to  it. 

A  right  to  treasure-trove  mav  be  granted  by  the  British  crown  as 
a  FiiANCUISE(f/.r. ).  It  is  the  duty  of  one  finding  treasure  to  make 
it  known  to  the  coroner.  liy  the  statule  De  OJ/icio  Corcnuttoris 
(4  Edw.  I.  sL  2),  the  coroner  is  to  inquire  of  treasuic  th.it  is  found, 
who  were  the  finders  anil  likewise  who  is  suspected  thereof,  and 
that  may  be  well  perceived  where  one  liveth  riotously,  haunting 
taverns,  and  hath  done  so  of  long  time.  Concealme  it  of  treasure- 
trove  is  a  niisiierui-nnour  at  common  law.  There  can  lie  no  larceny 
'•fit  until  it  has  been  found  by  the  coroner  to  be  the  property  of 
the  crowD.     The  Home  Office  has  receotly  issued  a  notification 


modifying  the  existing  regulations  so  far  as  to  iierinit  the  finders 
of  coins  and  antiquities  coming  under  the  description  of  treasure* 
trove  to  retain  articles  not  actually  required  for  national  iiistitu* 
tions,  and  the  sum  received  from  such  institutions  as  tlicaiitiquailaa 
value  of  any  articles  retained,  subject  to  a  deduction  ©f  20  per  cent- 
from  the  antiquarian  value  of  the  objects  retained  and  10  per  cent, 
from  the  value  of  other  objects.  In  the  United  States  treasure* 
trove  is  usually  vested  in  the  State  as  boiia  vacantia.  Louisiana 
follows  the  French  Cotic  Civil,  aud  gives  half  to  the  finder  and  haU 
to  the  landowner.  The  importance  of  treasure-trove  in  mdia  led 
to  the  passing  of  the  Indian  Treasure-Tiove  Act  (Act  vi  of  1878). 
It  provides  that  treasure  is  to  be  delivered  to  the  Under  if  no  owner 
api>ears.  If  the  owner  can  be  found,  tliree-fpurtlis  go  to  t)ie  finder 
and  one-fourth  to  the  owner,  power  being  reserved  to  tlyj  Covcrn- 
nient  to  acquire  it  by  payment  of  a  sum  equal  to  ono-fifth  mora 
than  tiie  value  of  the  niateiial. 

TREATIES-  1  A  treaty  is  a  contract  between  two  or  Termiao 
more  states.  The  term  "  tractatus,  "  and  its  derivatives,  '<>sy- 
though  of  occasional  occurrence  in  this  sense  from  the  13tb 
century  onwards,  only  began  to  be  commonly  so  employed, 
in  lieu  of  the  older  technical  terms  "conventio  publica," 
or  "  foedus,"  from  the  end  of  the  17th  century.  In  the 
language  of  modern  diplomacy  the  term  "  treaty  "  is  re- 
stricted to  the  more  important  international  agreements; 
especially  to  those  which  are  the  work  of  a  congress,  %¥hile 
agreements  dealing  with  subordinate  questions  are  de- 
scribed by  the  more  general  term  "convention."'  The 
present  article  will  disregard  this  dii'linction. 

2.  The  making  and  the  observance  of  treaties  is  neces-  Antl- 
sarily  a  very  early  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  civilization,  quily. 
and  the  theory  of  treaties  was  one  of  the  first  departments 

of  international  law  to  attract  attention.  Treaties  are 
recorded  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt  and  Assyria;  they 
occur  in  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures ;  and  questions 
arising  under  (rviBiJKai  and  "fuidcra"  occupy  much  space 
in  the  Creek  and  Roman  historians.' 

3.  Treaties  have  been   classified   on   many   principles,  Clas-sifica. 
of  which  it  will  suffice  to  mention  the  more  important.     A*'""- 
"personal  treaty,"  having  reference  to  dynastic  interests, 

is  contrasted  with  a  "real  treaty,"  which  binds  the  nation 
irrespectively  of  constitutional  changes  ;  treaties  creating 
outstanding  obligations  are  opposed  to  "  transitory  con- 
ventions," e.y.,  for  cession  of  territory,  recognition  of  inde- 
pendence, and  the  like,  which  operate  irrevocably  once  for 
all,  leaving  nothing  more  to  be  done  by  the  contracting 
parties ;  and  treaties  in  the  nature  of  a  definite  transaction 
{Rechtsfjesc/id/l)  arc  opposed  to  those  which  aim  at  estab- 
lishing a  general  rule  of  conduct  (Rec/Ussatz).  With  refer- 
ence to  their  objects,  treaties  may  perhaps  be  conveniently 
classified  as  (1)  political,  including  treaties  of  peace,  of 
alliance,  of  cession,  of  boundary,  for  creation  o?  inter- 
national servitudes,  of  neutralization,  of  guarantee,  o.l' 
submission  to  arbitration  ;  (2)  commercial,  including  con- 
sular and  fishery  conventions,  and  slave  trade  and  naviga* 
tion  treaties  ;  (3)  confederations  for  special  social  objects, 
such  as  the  Zollverein,  the  Latin  monetary  union,  and  th< 
still  wider  unions  with  reference  to  posts,  telegraphs,  sub- 
marine cables,  and  weights  and  measures;  (4)  relating  tfl 
criminal  justice,  e.rj.,  to  extradition  and  arrest  of  fugitive- 
seamen  ,  (-5)  relating  to  civil  justice,  e.ij.,  to  the  protection 
of  trademark  and  copyright,  to  the  execution  of  foreign 
judgments,  to  the  reception  of  evidence,  and  to  actions  by 
and  against  foreigners;  (fi)  providing  general  rules  for  the 
conduct  of  warfare,  e.t/.,  the  declaration  of  Paris  and  tho 
convention  of  Geneva-  It  must  be  remarked  that  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  assign  a  treaty  wholly  to  one  or  other 
of  the  above  classes,  since  many  treaties  contain  in  com- 
bination clauses  referable  to  several  of  them. 

'  For  the  celebrated  treaty  of  .'i09  c.c.  between  i! e  and  Garthage, 

see  Folybius  iii.  22;  and,  on  tbe  subject  generally,  Carbeyrac's  lull 
but  very  uncritical  llisioire  des  Anciens  Truitez,  17.39;  Miiller- 
•locliiTius,  Oeschichte  des  Votkerrcchts  im  Altcrtkutii,  1818;  B.  Ii.i.'!,'er, 
Eludes  I/islorigues  sur  tes  TraitH  f^ui/tics  c/iez  tes  Orecs  et  ch'j  Itt 
liomaiTis,  new  e-l.;  1866; 


TREATIES 


531 


Ana- 


Retfjui- 


4.  The  analogy  between  treaty-making  and  legislation 
is  striking  when  a  congress  agrees  upon  general  principles 
which  are  afterwards  accepted  by  a  large  number  of  states, 
as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  the  Geneva  convention  for 
improving  the  treatment  of  the  wounded.  Many  political 
treaties  containing  "transitory"  conventions,  with  reference 
to  recognition,  boundary,  or  cession,  become,  as  it  were,  the 
title-deeds  of  the  nations  to  which  they  relate.*  But  the 
closest  analogy  of  a  treaty  is  to  a  contract  in  private  law, 
as  will  appear  from  the  immediately  following  paragraphs. 

5.  The  making  of  a  valid  treaty  implies  several  re- 
quisites. (1)  It  must  be  made  between  competent  parties, 
i.e.,  sovereign  states.  A  "concordat,"  to  which  the  pope, 
as  a  spiritual  authority,  is  one  of  the  parties,  is  therefore 
not  a  treaty,  nor  is  a  convention  between  a  state  and  an 
individual,  nor  a  convention  between  the  rulers  of  two 
states  with  reference  to  their  private  affairs.  Semi- 
sovereign  states,  such  as  San  Marino  or  Egypt,  may  make 
conventions  upon  topics  within  their  limited  competence. 
It  was  formerly  alleged  that  an  infidel  state  could  not  be 
a  party  to  a  treaty.  The  question  where  the  treaty- 
making  power  resides  in  a  given  state  is  answered  by  the 
municipal  law  of  that  state.  It  usually  resides  in  the 
executive,  though  sometimes,  as  in  the  United  States,  it  is 
shared  by  the  legislature,  or  by  a  branch  of  it.  (2)  There 
must  be  an  expression  of  agreement.  This  is  not  (as  in 
private  law)  rendered  voidable  by  duress ;  e.g.,  the  cession 
of  a  province,  though  extorted  by  overwhelming  force,  is 
nevertheless  unimpeachable.  Duress  to  the  individual 
negotiator  would,  however,  vitiate  the  effect  of  his  signa- 
ture. (3)  From  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  agreement  of 
states,  other  than  those  the  government  of  which  is  auto- 
cratic, must  be  sfgnified  by  means  of  agents,  whose 
authority  is  either  express,  as  in  the  case  of  plenipoten- 
tiaries, or  implied,  as  in  the  case  of,  e.jr.,  military  and  naval 
commanders  for  matters,  such  as  truces,  capitulations,  and 
cartels,  which  are  necessarily  confided  to  their  discretion. 
When  an  agent  acts  in  e-xcess  of  his  implied  authority  he 
is  said  to  make  no  treaty,  but  a  mere  "sponsion,"  which, 
unles.'?  adopted  by  his  Government,  does  not  bind  it,  e.g., 
the  affair  of  the  Caudine  Forks  (Livy,  ix.  5)  and  the  con- 
vention of  Closter  Seven  in  1757.  (4)  Unlike  a  contract 
in  private  law,  a  treaty,  even  though  made  in  pursuance 
of  a  full  power,  is,  according  to  modern  views,  of  no  effect 
till  it  is  ratified.  (5)  No  special  form  is  necessary  for  a 
treaty,  which  in  theory  may  be  made  without  writing.  It 
need  not  even  appear  on  the  face  of  it  to  be  a  contract 
between  the  parties,  but  may  take  the  form  of  a  joint 
declaration,  or  of  an  exchange  of  notes.  Latin  was  at  one 
time  the  language  usually  employed  in  treaties,  and  con- 
tinued to  be  so  employed  to  a  late  date  by  the  emperor 
and  the  pope.  Treaties  to  which  several  European  powers 
of  difTerent  nationalities  are  parties  are  now  usually 
drawn  up  in  French  (the  use  of  which  became  general  in 
the  time  of  Louis  XIV.),  but  the  final  act  of  ths  congress 
of  Vienna  contains  a  protest  against  the  use  of  this 
language  being  considered  obligatory.  A  great  European 
treaty  usually  commences  "  In  the  name  of  the  Most  Holy 
and  Indivisible  Trinity,"  or,  if  the  Porte  is  a  party,  "  In 
the  name  of  Almighty  God."  (G)  It  is  sometimes  said 
that  a  treaty  must  have  a  lawful  object,  but  the  danger 
of  accepting  such  a  statement  is  apparent  from  the  use 
which  has  been  made  of  it  by  writers  who  deny  the  validity 
of  any  cession  of  national  territory,  or  even  go  so  far  as  to 
lay  down,  with  Fiore,  that  "all  should  be  regarded  as  void 
which  are  in  any  way  opposed  to  the  development  of  the 
free  activity  of  a  nation,  or  which  hinder  the  exercise  of 
its  natural  rights."     (7)  The  making  of  a  treaty  is  some- 


'  Cf.  Sir  EdwarU  Hertslot's  very  useful  collection  entitled  Tht  Map 
C/Eunpeln/  Treaty,  1875.  , 


times  accompanied  by  acts  intended  to  secure  its  better 
performance.  The  taking  of  oaths,  the  assigning  of  "con- 
servatores  pacis,"  and  the  giving  of  hostages  are  now 
obsolete,  but  revenue  is  mortgaged,  territory  is  pledged, 
and  treaties  of  guarantee  arn  entered  into  for  this  purpose. 

6.  A  "  transitory  convention  "  operates  at  once,  leaving  Duration, 
no  duties  to  be  subsequently  performed,  but  with  reference 

to  conventions  of  other  kinds  questions  arise  as  to  the 
duration  of  the  obligation  created  by  them,  in  other  words, 
as  to  the  moment  at  which  those  obligations  come  to  an 
end.  This  may  occur  by  the  dissolution  of  one  of  the 
contracting  states,  by  the  object-matter  of  the  agreement 
ceasing  to  exist,  by  full  performance,  by  performance  be- 
coming impossible,  Ly  lapse  of  the  time  for  which  the  agree- 
ment was  made,  by  contrariv.'s  c07isen.vis  or  mutual  release, 
by  "denunciation"  by  one  party  under  a  power  reserved 
in  the  treaty.  By  a  breach  on  either  side  the  treaty 
usually  becomes,  not  void,  but  voidable.  A  further  cause 
of  the  termination  of  treaty  obligations  is  a  total  change  of 
circumstances,  since  a  clause  "rebus  sic  stantibus"  is  said 
to  be  a  tacit  condition  in  every  treaty.-  Such  a  conten- 
tion can  only  be  very  cautiously  admitted.  It  has  been 
put  forward  by  Russia  in  justification  of  her  repud'ation 
of  the  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  neutralizing  the  Black 
Sea,  and  of  her  engagements  as  to  Bat  uni  contained 
in  the  treaty  of  Berlin.  The  London  protocol  of  1871, 
with  a  view  to  prevent  such  abuses,  lays  down,  perhaps  a 
little  too  broadly,  "  that  it  is  an  essential  principle  of  the 
law  of  nations  that  no  power  can  liberate  itself  from  the 
engagements  of  a  treaty,  nor  modify  the  stipulations 
thereof,  unless  with  the  consent  of  the  contracting  powers, 
by  means  of  an  amicable  arrangement."  Treaties  are  in 
most  cases  suspended,  if  not  terminated,  by  the  outbreak 
of  a  war  between  the  contracting  parties,  and  are  therefore 
usually  revived  in  express  terms  in  the  treaty  of  peace. 

7.  The  rules  for  the  interpretation  of  treaties  are  not  so  Interpre- 
different  from  those  applicable  to  contracts  in  private  law  tation. 
as  to  need  here  a  separate  discussion. 

8.  Collections  of  treaties  are  either  (i.)  general  or  (ii.)  CoHec- 
national.  ''0"s:  y 

(i.)  The  first  to  publish  a  general  collection  of  treaties  was  general ; 
Leibnitz,  whose  Codex  Juris  GeMium,  containing  documents  from 
1097  to  1497,  "  ea  quie  sola  inter  liberos  populos  legum  sunt  loco," 
appeared  in  1C93,  and  was  followed  in  1700  by  the  Ifanlissa.  The 
Corps  Vniversel  Diplomatiqitc  du  Droit  dcs  Gens  of  Duinont,  con- 
tinued by  Barbeyiac  and  Rousset  in  thirteen  folio  volumes,  con- 
taining treaties  from  315  A.D.  to  1730,  was  published  in  1726-39. 
Wenck's  Corpns  Juris  Gentium  Jxccenlissimi,  3  vols.  8vo,  1781-95, 
contains  treaties  from  1735  to  1772.  The  8vo  Jlecncil  of  G.  F.  de 
Martens,  continued  by  C.  de  Martens,  Saalfeld,  Murhard,  Samwer, 
Hopf,  and  Stoerk,  commenced  in  1791  with  treaties  of  1761, 
and  is  still  in  progress.  The  series  in  1887  extended  to  sixty-four 
volumes.  See  also  the  following  periodical  publications- — Das 
Staalsarchiv,  Savimlung  dcr  ojicidlcn  •Actcnstiicke  zur  Gcschichl« 
dcr  Gcgenwart,  Leipsic,  commencing  in  1861;  Archil  Dipto- 
■maliques,  Stuttgart,  since  1821;  Archives  Diplomatiqucs,  Heeueil 
Mau^Lel  de  Diplomalie  et  d'Hisloirc,  Paris,  since  1S61 ;  and  Herts- 
let's  British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  from  the  termination  of  ths 
IVar  of  IS  14  lo  tlie  latest  period,  cmnpilcd  at  the  Foreign  Office  by  the 
Librarian,  and  Keeper  of  llie  Papers,  London,  since  1S19,  and  Still 
in  progress. 

(ii.)  The  more  important  coUcctionl'  of  national  treaties  are  national. 
those  of  M.  Neumann  and  M.  de  Plassan  for  Austria,  1855-84; 
13cutner  for  the  German  empire,  1883;  Calvo  for  "I'Amirique 
Latine,"  1862-69  ;  De  Olercq  for  France,  1S64-S6  ;  De  Garcia  de 
la  Vega  for  Belgium,  1850-83  ;  Lagemans  for  the  Netherlands, 
1853-82  ;  Soutzo  for  Greece,  1858  ;  Count  Solar  de  la  Marguerite 
for  Sardinia,  1836-61  ;  De  Castro  for  Portugal,  1855-79  ;  Rydberg 
for  Sweden,  1877  ;  Kaiser  (1861),and  Eichmann  (1885)  for  Switzer- 
land ;  Baron  de  Testa  (1861-82)  and  Aristarchi  Bey  (1873-74)  for 
Turkey  ;  F.  de  Martens  for  Russia,  1874-85  ;  JIaycrs  for  China, 
1877.  The  official  publication  for  Italy  begins  in  1864,  for  Spain 
in  1843,  for  Denmark  in  1874.  The  treaties  of  .lapan  were  pub- 
lished by  authority  in  1884.  Those  of  the  United  States  are  con- 
tained in  the  Statutes  at  Large  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the 


*  Cf.  Bynkershoek,  Qusst.  Jut.  Pub.,  ii  c.  10. 


-I 


532 


TREATIES 


collections  of  J.  Elliott  (1834)  and  H.  Minot  (1844-50);  see  also 
Mr  Baucroft  Davis's  Notus  upon  Ihr.  Treaties  of  the  United  States  v;i(lt 
other  Powers,  preceded  by  a  List  of  the  Treaties  ami  Conventions 
•with  Foreign  Powers,  chronolo<jicaUy  arranged,  and  followed  by  an 
Analytical  Index  and  a  Synoptical  Index  of  the  Treaties,  1873. 
In  England  no  treaties  were  published  before  the  17th  century, 
6uch  matters  being  thought  "hot  fit  to  be  made  vulgar."  The 
treaty  of  1604  with  Spain  was,  however,  published  by  authority, 
ns  were  many  of  the  treaties  of  the  Stuart  kings.  Rynicr's  Fcedera 
was  published,  under  the  orders  of  the  Government,  iu  twenty 
volumes,  from  1704  to  1732.  Treaties  are  olhcially  published  at 
the  present  day  in  the  London  Gazette,  and  are  also  presented  to 
parliament,  but  for  methodical  collections  of  treaties  made  by 
Great  Britain  we,  are  indebted  to  private  enterprise,  which  pro* 
duced  three  volumes  in  1710-13,  republished  with  a  fourth  vol- 
ume in  1732.  Other  three  volumes  appeared  in  1772-81,  tlic 
collection  commonly  known  as  that  of  C.  Jenkinsou  (3  vola. )  in 
1785,  and  that  of  Chalmers  (2  vols.)  in  1795.  J.  Macgregor  pub- 
lished (1841-44)  eight  volumes  of  commercial  treaties,  but  the  great 
collection  of  the  commercial  treaties  of  Great  Britain  is  that  of  L. 
Hcrtslet,  librarian  of  the  Foreign  Office,  continued  by  his  sou  and 
aucccssor  in  office,  Sir  Edward  Hertslct,  entitled  A  Complete  Collec- 
tion of  tho  Treaties  a7id  Conventions  and  Reciprocal  Regulations  at 
present  subsisting  between  Great  Britain  and  Foreign  Powers,  a-iid 
of  the  Laws  aiui  Orders  in  Council  eo'nceming  the  same,  so  far  as 
they  relate  to  Commerce  and  Navigation,  the  Slave  Trade,  Post 
OJicc,  <tc.,  and  to  the  Privileges  and  Interests  of  the  Subjects  of  the 
Contracting  /"arttos,  1 820-86, 16  vols.  Sir  Edward  Hertslct  also  com- 
menced in  1875  a  series  of  volumes  containing  Treaties  and  Tariffs 
regulating  the  Trade  between  Britain  and  Foreign  Nations,  aiid 
Extracts  of  Treaties  between  Foreign  Poiucrs,  containing  the  Most 
Favoured  Nation  Clauses  applicable  to  Great  Britain.  The  treaties 
affecting  British  India  are  officially  set  out,  with  historical  notes, 
in  A  Collection  of  Treaties,  Eivjaycments,  and  Sannuds  relating  to 
India  and  Neighbouring  Countries,  by  C.  W.  Aicheson.  This  work, 
with  the  index,  extends  to  eight  volumes,  which  appeared  at 
Calcutta  iu  1862-66. 

List  <,f  9-  It  may  be  worth  while  to  add  a  list  of  some  of  the 

"ui'ur'anttnore  important  treaties,  now  wholly  or  partially  in  force, 
lea  ics,  ggpggjjijy  tjjQse  to  which  Great  Britain  is  a  party,  classified 
according  to  their  objects,  in  the  order  suggested  in  para- 
graph 3. 
political;  (i.)  The  principal  treaties  a£fecting  the  distribution  of 
territory  between  the  various  states  of  Central  Europe  are 
those  of  Westphalia  (Osnabriick  and  Miinster),  164S; 
Utrecht,  1713;  Parisand  Hubertsburg,  1763;  for  the  parti- 
tion of  Poland,  1772,  1793;  Vienna,  1S15;  London,  for  the 
separation  of  Belgium  from  the  Netherlands,  1831,  1839  ; 
Zurich,  for  the  cession  of  a  portion  of  Lombardy  to  Sardinia, 
1859;  Vienna,  as  to  Schleswig-Holstein,  1864;  Prague, 
whereby  the  German  Confederation  was  dissolved,  Austria 
recognizing  the  new  North  Gferman  Confederation,  trans- 
ferring to  Prussia  her  rights  over  Schloawig-Holstein,  and 
ceding  the  remainder  of  Lombardy  to  Italy,  1866  ;  Frank- 
fort, between  France  and  the  new  German  empire,  1871. 
The  disintegration  of  the  Ottoman  empire  has  been  regu- 
lated by  the  great  powers,  or  some  of  them,  in  the  treaties 
of  London,  1832,  1863,  1864,  and  of  Constantinople, 
1881,  with  reference  to  Greece;  and  by  the  treaties  of 
Paris,  18.56  ;  London,  1871  ;  Berlin,  1878  ;  London,  1883, 
with  reference  to  Montenegro,  Roumania,  Servia,  Bulgaria, 
and  the  navigation  of  the  Danube.  The  encroachments  of 
Russia  upon  Turkey,  previous  to  the  Crimean  War,  are 
registered  in  a  series  of  treaties  beginning  with  that  of 
Kutchuk-Kainardji,  1774,  and  ending  with  that  of  Adrian- 
ople  in  1829.  The  independence  of  the  United  States  of 
America  was  acknowledged  by  Great  Britain  in  the  treaty 
of  peace  signed  at  Paris  in  1783.  The  boundary  between 
the  United  States  and  the  British  possessions  is  regulated 
in  details  by  the  treaties  of  Washington  of  1842,  1846, 
1871.  Switzerland,  Belgium,  Corfu  and  Paxo,  and  Lux- 
emburg are  respectively  neutralized  by  the  treaties  of 
Vienna,  1815,  and  of  London,  1839,  1864,  1867.  A  list 
of  treaties  of  guarantee  to  which  Great  Britain  is  a  party, 
and  which  are  supposed  to  be  still  in  force,  beginning  with 
a  treaty  made  with  Portugal  in  1373,  was  presented  to 
parliameot  in  1859. 


(ii.)  For  the  innumerable  conventions  to  which  Great 
Britain  is  a  party  as  to  commerce,  consular  jurisdiction, 
fisheries,  and  the  slave  trade,  it  must  suffice  to  refer  to 
the  exhaustive  and  skilfully  devised  index  to  Hertslot's 
Commercial  I'reaties,  forming  volume  xvi.,  1885. 

(iii.)  The  social  intercourse  of  the  world  is  facilitated  by 
conventions,  such  as  those  establishing  the  Latin  monetary 
union,  1865;  the  international  telegraphic  union,  1865; 
the  universal  jrastal  union,  1874;  the  international  bureau 
of  weights  and  measures,  1875  ;  and  providing  for  tho 
protection  of  submarine  cables  in  time  of  peace,  1884. 
Such  treaties  are  somewhat  niisloadingly  spoken  of  by 
recent  writers  (L.  von  Stein  and  F.  de  Martens)  as  con- 
stituting a  "  droit  administratif  international." 

(iv.)  The  following  are  the  now  operative  treaties  of 
extradition  to  which  Great  Britain  is  a  party: — with 
the  United  States,  1842;  Brazil  and  Germany,  1872; 
Austria,  Denmark,  Italy,  Norway  and  Sweden,  1873  ; 
Hayli  and  Netherlands,  1874;  Belgium  and  France,  1876  > 
Spain,  Portugal  (as  to  India  only),  1878;  Tonga,  1879; 
Luxemburg,  Equador,  and  Switzerland,  1880;  Salvador, 
1881;  Uruguay,  1884;  Guatemala,  1885;  Russia,  IS86. 
It  will  be  observed  that  all  these,  except  the  treaty  with 
the  United  States,  are  subsequent  to  and  governed  by  the 
provisions  of  33  and  34  Vict.  c.  52,  "The  Extradition  Act, 
1870."  Before  the  passing  of  this  general  Act,  it  Lad 
been  necessary  to  pass  a  special  Act  for  giving  effect  to 
each  treaty  of  extradition.  The  most  complete  collec- 
tion of  treaties  of  extradition  is  that  of  F.  J.  Kirchner, 
L'Exlradiiion,  Recueil,  <tc.,  London,  1883. 

(v.)  General  conventions,  to  which  most  of  the  Euro- 
pean states  are  parties,  were  signed  in  1883  at  Paris  for 
the  protection  of  industrial,  and  in  1886  at  Bern  for  the 
protection  of  literary  and  artistic,  property. 

(vi.)  Certain  bodies  of  rules  intended  to  mitigate  the 
horrors  of  war  have  received  the  adhesion  of  most  civilized 
states.  Thus  the  declaration  of  Paris,  1856  (to  which, 
however,  the  United  States,  Spain,  Mexico,  Venezuela, 
Columbia,  Bolivia,  and  Uruguay  have  declined  to  accede), 
prohibits  the  u.se  of  privateers  and  protects  tho  commerce 
of  neutrals;  the  Geneva  convention,  1864,  gives  a  neulral 
character  to  surgeons  and  hospitals;  and  the  St  Peters- 
burg declaration,  1868,  prohibits  the  employment  of  ex- 
plosive bullete  weighing  less  than  400  grammes. 

It  were  greatly  to  be  wished  that  the  official  publication 
of  treaties  could  be  rendered  more  speedy  and  more 
methodical  than  it  now  is.  The  labours  of  the  publicist 
would  also  be  much  lightened  were  it  possible  to  con- 
solidate the  various  general  collections  of  diplomatic  acts 
into  a  new  Corps  Diplomatique  Universet,  well  furnished 
with  cross  references,  and  with  brief  annotations  showing 
how  far  each  treaty  is  supposed  to  be  still  in  force. 

10.  In  addition  to  the  works  already  cited  in  the  course  of  this 
article  the  followingare  for  various  reasons  important : — Job.  Lupus, 
Lie  Confederalione  Principum,  Strasburg,  1511  (tho  first  published 
monograph  upon  the  subject);  Bodinus,  Dissertatio  de  Contrnctibu» 
Summarum  Potcstatnm.,  Halle,  1696  ;  Neyron,  De  Vi  Faxhruin 
inter  Gentes,  Gbtt.,  1778;  Ncyro;),  Essai  Uistorique  et  Politique 
sur  Ics  Garanties,  &c.,  Gott.,  1797;  Wachter,  De  Modis  Tolkndi 
Pacta  inter  Gcntcs,  Stuttg.,  17S0;  Drcsch,  [/eber  die  Daiicr  der 
Volkcrvertrage,  Latidshut,  1808  ;  C.  Bergbohm,  Staatsvcrtrage 
und  Gescl:e  als  Qucllcn  dcs  Volkerrcchls,  Dorpat,  1877;  Jellineii, 
Die  reehtliche  Natur  der  Statenvertrdgen,  Vienna,  1880;  Holzen- 
dorir,  llandbuehdcs  Volkcrrechts,  vol.  iii.,  1887.  On  the  history  o( 
the  great  European  treaties  generally,  see  the  Ifistoire  Abrfgce^des 
Traites  de  Paix  entrc  Ics  Puissances  dc  VEurope,  by  Kocli,  as  recast 
and  continued  by  Schbll,  in  1817  and  1818,  and  again  by  Count 
do  Garden  in  1848-59;  as  also  the  Rccucil  Manuel  of  Dc  Martens 
and  Cussy,  now  continued  by  Gell'cken.  For  the  peace  of  West 
phalia  Putter's  Geist  des  wcstphdlischcn  Fricdcim,  1795,  is  useful; 
for  tho  congress  of  Vienna,  Kliiber's  Aclcn  des  li^icner  Congresses^ 
1815-19,  and  Le  Congris  de  Fienne  el  les  Traitts  de  ISIS,  jpricidt 
des  Conferences  de  Dresde,  de  Pragne,  ct  de  ChatiUon,  sitivi  des 
Congris  d'Aix-la-Chapclle,  Trojiimi,  Laybach,  ct  Fermw,  by  Count 


commer- 
cial: 


social ; 


tk£  to  ex- 
traditioo 


as  to 

copyriglii, 

te- 


as to  ll>e 
eoniliRi 
of  war- 
fare. 


Litera- 
ture- 


T  R  E  —  T  R  E 


533 


Aiiy-'ii^'.  The  l:i.«t-i)K-iiti3in;(l  writer  lias  also  published  colicc- 
lioi's  <jf  treaties  itlating  to  Poland,  1702-1862;  to  tho  Italiatr 
mu-stion,  1S59;  to  the  congress  of  I'aris,  1S5C,  and  tho  revision 
of  its  work  by  tho  coiiferoiico  of  Loudon,  1871 ;  and  to  the  Franco- 
Gcrniau  War  of  1870-71.  For  tho  treaties  rcgulatinj;  tho  Eastern 
HUcstion,  Si'O  Tlic  Euroiican  Conccri  in  (he  Eastern  Question,  by  T.  E. 
Holland,  16SJ,  and  Za  Turqidc  ct  le  TanzimeU,  by  E.  EngcHiardt, 
1882-Si.  (T.  E.  H.) 

TREMZOXD,  ill  Greek  Trapezus,  a  city  of  Asia 
Minor,  situated  on  the  Black  Sea,  near  its  south-eastern 
angle,  from  the  time  of  its  foundation  as  a  Greek  colony 
to  the  present  day  has  always  been  a  considerable  emporium 
ot  commerce,  and  at  one  time  was  for  two  centuries  and  a 
half  the  capital  of  an  empire.  Its  importance  is  due  to 
its  geographical  position,  because  it  commands  the  point 
where  the  chief  and  most  direct  trade  route  from  Persia 
and  Central  Asia  to  Europe,  over  the  tableland  of  Armenia 
by  Bayazid  and  Erzeroum,  descends  to  the  sea.  Its  safety 
also  was  secured  by  the  barrier  of  rugged  mountains  which 
separates  its  district  from  the  rest  of  Asia  Minor,  rising  to 
the  height  of  7000  or  SOOO  feet  above  the  sea-level.  So 
complete  is  the  watershed  that  no  streams  pass  through 
these  ranges,  and  there  is  hardly  any  communication  in 
this  direction  between  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor  and  the 
coast.  For  the  same  reason,  together  with  its  northern 
aspect,  the  climate  is  humid  and  temperate,  and  favourable 
to  the  growth  of  vegetation,  unlike  that  of  the  inland 
regions,  which  are  exposed  to  great  extremes  of  heat  in 
summer  and  cold  in  winter.  The  position  which  was 
occupied  by  the  Hellenic  and  mediaeval  city  is  a  sloping 
table  of  ground  (whence  the  original  name  of  the  place, 
Trapezus,  or  the  "Tableland"),  which  falls  in  steep  rocky 
precipices  on  the  two  sides,  where  two  deep  valleys,  de- 
scending from  the  interior,  run  parallel  at  no  great  distance 
from  one  another  down  to  the  sea.  The  whole  is  still 
inclosed  by  the  Byzantine  walls,  which  follow  the  line  of 
the  cliffs,  and  are  carried  along  the  sea-face  ;  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  level,  which  is  separated  from  the  lower 
by  an  inner  cross  wall,  forms  the  castle ;  while  at  the 
highest  point,  where  a  sort  of  neck  is  formed  between  the 
two  valleys,  is  the  keep  which  crowns  the  whole.  The 
fortifications  and  their  surroundings  are  singularly  pictur- 
esque, for  the  towers,  some  round,  some  angular,  which 
project  from  them  are  in  many  cases  covered  with  creepers, 
and  the  gardens  that  occupy  the  valleys  below  teem  with 
luxuriant  vegetation.  On  each  side,  about  half-way  be- 
tween the  keep  and  the  sea,  these  ravines  are  crossed  by 
massive  bridges,,  and  on  the  further  side  of  the  western- 
most of  these,  away  from  the  city,  a  large  tower  and  other 
fortifications  remain,  which  must  have  served  to  defend  the 
approach  from  that  quarter.  The  area  of  the  ancient  city 
is  now  called  the  Kaleh,  and  is  inhabited  by  the  Turks  ; 
eastward  of  this  is  the  extensive  Christian  quarter,  and 
beyond  this  again  a  low  promontory  juts  northward  into 
the  sea,  partly  covered  with  the  houses  of  a  well-built 
suburb,  which  is  the  principal  centre  of  commerce.  The 
harbour  lies  on  the  eastern  side  of  this  promontory,  but  it 
IS  an  unsafe  roadstead,  being  unprotected  towards  the 
north-east,  and  having  been  much  silted  up,  so  that  vessels 
cannot  approach  within  a  considerable  distance  of  the 
shore.  The  neighbourhood  of  this  is  the  liveliest  portion 
of  the  city,  as  it  is  from  here  that  the  caravans  start  for 
Persia,  and  at  certain  periods  of  the  year  long  trains  of 
camels  may  be  seen,  and  Persian  merchants  conspicuous  by 
their  high  black  caps  and  long  robes.  The  total  population 
of  the  place  is  estimated  at  32,000,  of  whom  2000  are 
Armenians,  "000  or  8000  Greeks,  and  the  rest  Turks. 

The  city  of  Trapezus  was  a  colony  of  Sinope,  hut  it  first  comes 
into  notice  at  the  time  of  the  Ketreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  who 
found  repose  there.  Notwithstanding  its  commercial  importance, 
the  remotenesa  of  its  position  prevented  it  from  being  much 
known  to  fame  either  in  the  Hellenicor  the  early  mediaval  period; 


its  grcrtncss  dates  from  the  time  of  tho  fourth  crusailo  (1204), 
when  the  IJyzantiuo  cmpiro  was  disnitinbcied  and  its  cipital 
occupied  by  the  Latins.  During  the  coiifnsioii  that  lolloweil  that 
event  a  scion  of  the  imperial  family  of  tlio  Coiiinoiii,  called  Alexius, 
escaped  into  Asia,  and,  having  coUcctud  an  army  of  llicrian 
nici-ccnaries,  entered  Trcbizoiid,  where  ho  was  acknowledged  as  tho 
legitimate  sovereign,  and  assumed  the  title  of  Graud  Comnenus. 
Thougli  only  twenty-two  years  of  agn,  -\Icxius  was  a  man  of  ability 
and  resolute  will,  capable  of  estaidislung  order  in  a  time  of  an- 
archy; and  thus  ho  succeeded  without  difficulty  in  making  himself 
master  of  the  greater  part  of  tho  southern  coast  of  the  Black  Si'a. 
The  empire  that  was  thus  founded  continued  to  exist  until  14C1, 
when  tho  city  was  taken  by  Moliainn;cd  II.,  eight  years  after  ha 
liad  captured  Constantinople.  The  cause  of  this  long  duration,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  secret  of  its  Idstorj',  is  to  be  found  in  tho 
isolated  i>osition  of  Trebizond  and  its  district,  between  the  moun- 
tains and  the  sea,  which  has  already  been  described.  Ily  thi.<i 
means  it  was  able  to  defy  both  the  Seljiiks  and  tho  Ottomp.us,  and 
to  maintain  its  independence  against  the  emperors  of  Nicea  aud 
Constantinople.  But  for  tho  same  reason  its  policy  wrj,  always 
narrow,  so  that  it  never  exercised  any  beneficial  influence  on  the 
world  at  large.  It  was  chiefly  in  the  way  of  matrimonial  alliances 
that  it  was  brought  into  contact  with  other  states.  The  imperial 
family  were  renowned  for  their  beauty,  and  the  princessias  of  this 
i-ace  were  sought  as  brides  by  Byzantine  emperors  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Palceologi,  by  Western  nobles,  and  by  Moliammedan  princes ; 
and  the  connexions  thus  formed  originated  a  variety  of  diplomatic 
relations  agd  friendly  or  offensive  alliances.  The  palace  I'.f  Trebi- 
zond was  famed  for  its  magnificence,  tho  court  for  its  lu::ury  and 
elaborate  ceremonial,  while  at  the  same  time  it  was  frequently  3 
hotbed  of  intrigue  and  immorality.  The  Grand  Comneni  wera 
also  patrons  of  art  and  learning,  and  in  consequence  of  this  Trebi- 
zond was  resorted  to  by  many  eminent  men,  by  whose  agency 
the  library  of  the  palace  was  provided  with  valuable  roanuscripta 
and  the  city  was  adorned  with  splendid  buildings.  The  writers 
of  the  time  speak  with  enthusiasm  of  its  lofty  towers,  of  the 
churches  and  monasteries  in  the  suburbs,  and  especially  of  the 
gardens,  orchards,  and  olive  groves.  It  excited  the  admiration  of 
Gonzales  Clavijo,  the  Spanish  envoy,  when  he  passed  through  it 
on  his  way  to  visit  the  court  of  Timur  at  Samarkand  fClaWjo, 
Historia  del  Gran  Tamorlan,  p.  84) ;  and  Cardinal  Bessarion,  who 
was  a  native  of  the  place,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  when  the 
city  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Jlohammeduns',  and  he  was 
himself  a  dignitary  of  the  Roman  Church,  so  littlu  forgot  the  im- 
pression it  had  made  upon  him  that  he  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The 
Praise  of  Tre'bizond"  (^i.yKwiJLiov  TpairefoCvros),  uhich  exists  in 
manuscript  at  Venice.  Little  was  known  of  thn  history  of  the 
empire  of  Trebizond  until  the  subject  was  taken  in  hand  by  Prof. 
Fallmerayer  of  Munich,  who  discovered  the  chrouicle  of  Michael 
Panaretus  among  the  books  of  Cardinal  Bes.sarion,  and  from  that 
work,  and  other  sources  of  information  which  were  chiefly  unknown 
up  to  that  time,  compiled  his  GcschicMe  des  Raiserthums  vm 
TrapczuTit  (Munich,  1827).  Finlay's- account  of  tho  period,  in  tho 
fourth  volume  of  his  HUtory  of  Greece,  is  based  on  this.  From 
time  to  time  the  emperors  of  Trebizond  paid  tribute  to  the  Seljiik" 
sultans  of  Iconium,  to  the  grand  khans  of  the  Mongols,  to  Timur 
the  Tartar,  to  the  Turcoman  chieftain.^  and  to  the  iHtomans;  but 
by  means  of  skilful  negotiations  they  were  enabled  practically  to 
secure  their  independence.  We  find  them  also  at  war  with  many 
of  these  powers,  and  with  the  Genoese,  who  endeavoured  to 
monopolize  the  commerce  of  the  BlacK  Sea.  The  city  was  several 
times  besieged,  th^  most  formidable  attack  being  that  which 
occurred  in  the  reign  of  Andronicus  I.,  the  second  emperor,  when 
the  Seljiiks,  under  the  command  of  Melik,  the  son  of  the  great 
sultan  Ala-ed-din,  first  assaulted  the  irorthernwall  in  the  direction 
of  the  sea,  and  afterwards  endeavoured  to  storm  the  upper  citadel 
by  night  They  failed,  however,  in  both  attempts  ;  and  in  tho 
latter,  owing  to  the  darkness,  and  to  the  occurrence  of  a  violent 
storm  which  suddenly  swelled  the  torrents  in  the  ravines,  their 
force  was  thrown  into  inextricable  confusion,  and  they  wer«  com- 
pelled to  abandon  their  camp  and  make  the  best  of  their  escape 
from  the  country.  So  great  was  the  strength  of  the  fortifications 
that,  when  Jlohammed  II.  turned  his  thoughts  towards  the  subju- 
gation of  this  state,  he  might  have  experienced  much  difficulty  in 
reducing  it,  and  might  have  been  disposed  to  oiler  favourable 
terms,  had  it  not  been  for  the  pusillanimous  conduct  of  David,  the 
last  emperor,  who  surrendered  the  place  almost  unconditionally. 

Several  interesting  monuments  of  this  period  remain  at  Trebizond 
in  the  form  of  churches  in  the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture. 
One  of  these  is  within  the  area  of  the  old  city,  viz.,  the  church  of 
the  Paiiaghia  Chrysokephalos,  or  Virgin  of  the  Golden  Head,  a 
largo  and  massive  but  excessively  plaiu  building,  which  is  now  the 
Orta-hissar  mosque.  On  the  further  side  of  the  eastern  ravine 
stands  a  smaller  but  very  well  proportioned  structure,  the  church 
of  St  Eugenius,  the  patron  saint  of  Trebizond,  now  the  Yeni  Djuma 
djami,  or  2\ew  Friday  mosque.  Still  more  important  is  the  church 
of  Haghia  Sophia,  which  occupies  a  conspicuous  position  overlook- 


534 


T  R  E  — T  R  E 


ing  the  sea,  abont  two  miles  to  the  west  ot  the  city.  The  porches 
of  this  are  handsomely  ornamented,  and  ahout  a  hundred  feet  from 
it  rises  a  tall  campanile,  the  inner  walls  of  which  have  been  covered 
in  parts  with  frescos  of  religioas  subjects,  though  these  are  now 
much  defaced.  But  the  most  remarkable  memorial  of  the  Mid !  Is 
Ages  that  existrin  all  this  district  is  the  monastery  of  Sumelas, 
which  is  situated  among  the  mountains,  about  25  miles  from 
Trebizond,  at  the  side  of  a  rocky  glen,  at  a  height  of  4000  feet 
above  the  sea.  Its  position  is  most  extraordinary,  for  it  occupies 
a  cavern  in  the  middle  of  the  face  of  a  perpendicular  cliffa  thousand 
feet  high,  where  the  white  buildings  offer  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
brown  rock  which  forms  their  setting.  It  is  approached  bj'  a 
zigzag  path  at  the  side  of  the  cliif,  from  which  a  flight  of  stone 
stops  and  a  wooden  staircase  give  access  to  the  monastery.  The 
valley  below  is  filled  with  the  richest  vegetation,  the  undergrowth 
being  largely  composed  of  azaleas  and  rhododendrons.  An  antiquity 
of  1500  years  is  claimed  for  the  foundation  of  the  monastery,  but 
it  is  certain  that  the  first  person  who  raised  it  to  importance  was 
the  emperor  Alexius  Comnenus  III.  of  Trebizond ;  he  rebuilt  it  in 
1360,  and  richly  endowed  it.  The  golden  bull  of  that  emperor, 
which  became  thenceforth  the  charter  of  its  foundation,  is  still 
preserved  ;  it  is  one  ot  the  finest  specimens  of  such  documents, 
and  contains  portraits  of  Alexius  himself  and  his  queen.  The 
monastery  also  possesses  the  firman  of  Mohammed  II.  by  which  he 
accorded  his  protection  to  the  monks  when  he  became  master  of 
the  country.  (ll.  F.  T.) 

TREDEGAH,  a  tovm  of  Monmouthshire,  England,  is 
situated  on  the  Sirhowy  river,  and  on  the  Loudon  and 
North  Western  Railway  system,  7  miles  east-north-east  of 
Merthyr  Tydvil  and  £49  west  of  London.  The  town  owes 
its  existence  to  the  establishment  in  the  beginning  of  the 
century  of  the  works  of  the  Tredegar  Iron  and  Coal 
Company,  who  lease  the  soil  and  minerals  from  Lord 
Tredegar.  The  iron-works,  chiefly  for  the  smelting  of 
iron  and  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  rails,  are  of 
enormous  extent,  and  employ  upwards  of  4000  men.  The 
town  is  also  surrounded  by  iron  and  coal  mines,  the  pro- 
perty of  the  company.  It  consists  chiefly  of  workmen's 
houses,  bat  is  built  with  regularity  and  neatness,  the  prin- 
cipal streets  diverging  from  an  open  space  called  the 
Circle,  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  where  there  are  a  number 
of  good  shops.  The  church  of  St  George  is  a  tasteful 
modern  building  in  the  Norman  style.  The  temperance 
hall,  union  workhouse,  and  literary  institute  and  library 
deserve  notice.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  7029  acres),  a  small  portion  of  which  is  in 
Brecknockshire,  in  1871  was  16,989  and  in  1881  it  was' 
18,771. 

TREE-CREEPER,  one  of -the  smallest  of  British  birds, 
and,  regard  being  had  to  its  requirements,  one  very  gene- 
rally distributed.  It  is  the  Certkta  familians  of  ornitho- 
logy, and  remarkable  for  the  stiflfened  shafts  of  its  long 
and  pointed  taO-feathers,  aided  by  which,  and  by  its  com- 
paratively large  feet,  it  climbs  nimbly,  in  a  succession  of 
jerks,  the  trunks  or  branches  of  trees,  invariably  proceed- 
ing upwards  or  outwards  and  generally  in  a  spiral  direc- 
tion, as  it  seeks  the  small  insects  that  are  hidden  in  the 
bark  and  form  its  chief  food.  When  in  the  course  of  its 
search  it  nears  the  end  of  a  branch  or  the  top  of  a  trunk, 
it  flits  to  another,  always  alighting  lower  down  than  the 
place  it  has  left,  and  so  continues  its  work. 

InconspicnoDs  in  colour,  for  its  upper  plumage  is  mostly  of 
various  shades  of  brown  mottled  with  white,  buff,  and  tawny,  and 
beneath  it  is  ol  a  silvery  white,  the  Tree-Creeper  is  far  more  common 
than  the  iiicunous  suppose ;  but,  attention  once  drawn  to  it,  it  can 
be  frequently  seen  and  at  times  he-ird,  for  though  a  shy  singer 
its  song  is  loud  and  sweet.  The  nest  is  neat,  generally  placed  in 
a  chink  formed  by  a  half-detached  piece  of  bark,  which  secures  it 
from  observation,  and  a  considerable  mass  of  material  is  commonly 
used  to  partly  stuff  up  the  opening  and  give  a  sure  foundation  for 
the  tiny  cup,  in  which  are  laid  from  six  to  uine  eggs  of  a  translucent 
white,  spotted  or  blotched  with  rust-colour.  The  Tree-Creeper 
inhabits  almost  the  whole  of  Europe  as  well  as  Algeria,  and  has 
been  traced  across  Asia  to  Japan.  It  is  now  recognized  as  an 
inhabitant  of  the  greater  part  of  Norti  America,  though  for  a  time 
examples  from  that  part  ot  the  world,  which  differed  slightly 
in  the  tinge  of  the  plumage,  were  accounted  a  distinct  species 
(C  americana),  and  even  those  from  Mexico  and  Giiatemala  (C. 


mcxUana)  have  lately  been  referred  to  the  same.  It  therefore 
occupies  an  area  not  exceeded  in  extent  by  that  of  many  Passerine;. 
birds,  and  is  one  of  the  strongest  witnesses  to  the  close  alliance  of 
the  so-called  Nearctic  and  Palaearctic  Regions. 

Allid  to  the  Tree-Crecpcr,  but  wanting  its  lengthened  and  sti^ 
tail-feathers,  is  the  genus  Tichcdroma,  the  single  member  of  whidfe 
is  the  Wall-Creeper  (2'.  muraria)  of  the  Alps  and  some  other- 
mountainous  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  occasionally  seen  by 
the  fortunate  visitor  to  Switzerland  fluttering  like  a  big  butterfly 
against  the  face  of  a  rock,  conspicuous  from  the  scarlet-crimson  of 
its  wing-coverts  and  its  white  spotted  primaries.  Its  bright  hue  is 
hardly  visible  wheu  the  bird  is  at  rest,  and  it  tien  presents  a  dingy 
appearance  of  grey  and  black.  It  is  a  species  of  wide  range,  ex- 
tending from  Si>aiQ  to  China;  and,  though  but  .wldom  leaving  its 
cliffs,  it  has  wandered  even  so  far  as  England.  Jlerrett  (Pinax,  p. 
177)  in  1667  included  it  as  a  British  bird,  and  the  correspondence 
between  Marsham  and  Gilbert  White  {Proc  Norf.  and  Norw.  Nat. 
Society,  ii.  p.  180)  proves  that  an  example  was  shot  in  Norfolk,  30tb 
October  1792 ;  while  another  is  reported  [Zoologist,  ser.  2,  p.  4839) 
to  have  been  killed  in  Lancashire,  8th  May  1872. 

The  genus  Certhia  as  founded  by  Linnaeus  contained 
25  species,  all  of  which,  except  the  two  above  mentioned, 
have  now  been  shewn  to  belong  elsewhere  ;  and  for  a  long 
while  so  many  others  were  referred  to  it  that  it  became  a 
most  heterogeneous  company.  At  present,  so  few  are  tlie 
forms  left  in  the  Family  Certhiidx  that  systematists  are 
not  wanting  to  unite  it  with  the  Sittidx  {cf.  Nuthatch), 
for  the  two  groups,  however  much  their  e.\-treme  members 
may  diflfer,  are  linked  by  so  many  forms  which  still  exist 
that  little  violence  is  done  to  the  imagination  by  drawing 
upon  the  past  for  others  to  complete  the  series  of  descend- 
ants from  a  common  and  not  very  remote  ancestor,  one 
that  was  possibly  the  ancestor  of  the  Wrexs  (q.v.)  as  well. 
One  thing,  however,  has  especially  to  be  noticed  here.  The 
Certhiides  have  not  the  least  aflSnity  to  the  Picidx  {cf. 
Woodpecker,  infra),  but  are  strictly  Passerine,  though 
the  Australian  genus  Climacteric  may  possibly  not  belong 
to  them.  (a.  a.) 

TREE-FERN.  In  old  and  well-grown  specimens  of 
some  of  the  famihar  ferns  of  our  temperate  climates  the 
wide-spreading  crown  of  fronds  may  be  observed  to  rise  at 
a  distance  often  of  a  good  many  inches  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  from  a  stem  of  considerable  thickness. 
The  common  male  fern  Sephrodium.  (Lastrssa)  furnishes 
the  commonest  instance  of  this  ;  higher  and  thicker  trunks 
are,  however,  occasionally  presented  by  the  royal  fern 
{Osmvnda  regalis),  in  which  a  height  of  2  feet  may  be 
attained,  and  tliis  with  very  considerable  apparent  thick- 
ness, due,  however,  to  the  origin  and  descent  of  a  new 
series  of  adventitious  roots  from  the  bases  of  each  annual- 
set  of  fronds.  Some  tropical  members  and  allies  of  these 
genera  become  more  distinctly  tree-like,  e.g.,  Todea  ;  Picns 
also  has  some  sub-arboreal  forms.  Oleandra  is  branched 
and  shrub-like,  while  Angioptens  and  Marattia  {Marat- 
tiaceie)  may  also  rise  to  2  feet  or  more.  But  the  tree-ferns 
proper  are  practically  included  within  the  family  Cyaihe- 
acese.  This  includes  five  genera  (Cyat/iea,  Alsophita, 
Bemitelict,  Dicksonia,  Balanttum)  and  nearly  200  species, 
of  which  a  few  are  herbaceous,  but  the  majority  arboreal 
and  palm-like,  reaching  frequently  a  height  of  50  feet  or 
more,  Alsophila  excelsa  of  Norfolk  Island  having  some- 
times measured  60  to  80  feet.  The  fronds  are  rarely 
simple  or  simply  pinnate,  but  usually  tripinnate  or  decom- 
pound, and  may  attain  a  length  of  20  feet,  thus  forming  a 
splendid  crown  of  foliage.  The  stem  may  occasionally 
branch  into  many  crowns.  The  genera  are  of  wide  geo- 
graphical range,  mostly  of  course  within  the  tropics  of  the 
Old  and  New  World  ;  but  South  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
and  the  Southern  Pacific  islands  all  possess  their  tree-ferns. 
In  Tasmania  Alsophila  atistralis  has  been  found  up  to  the 
snow-level,  and  in  the  humid  and  mountainous  regions  of 
the  tropics  tree-ferns  are  also  found  to  range  up  to  a  con- 
siderable altitude.  The  fronds  may  either  contribute  to 
the  apparent  thickness  of  the  stem  by  leaving  more  or  less 


T  R  E  — T  R  E 


535 


I 


of  their  bases,  which  become  hardened  and  persistent,  or 
they  may  be  articulated  to  the  stem  and  tall  off,  leaving 
characteristic  scars  in  spiral  series  upon  the  stem.  The 
stem  is  frequently  much  increased  in  apparent  thickness 
by  the  downgrowth  of  aerial  roots,  forming  a  black  coating 
several  inches  or  even  a  foot  in  thickness,  but  its  essential 
structure  differs  little  in  principle  from  that  familiar  in  the 
rhizome  of  the  common  bracken  (Ptens).  To  the  ring  or 
rather  netted  cylinder  of  fibro-vascular  bundl'^s  character- 
istic of  all  fern  stems  scattered  internal  as  well  as  external 
bundles  arising  from  these  are  superadded  ,  and  in  a  tree- 
fern  these  are  of  course  in  greater  numbers.  The  outer 
bundles  give  off  branches  to  the  descending  roots  from  the 
region  where  they  pass  into  the  leaves. 

Tree-ferns  arc  of  course  cultivated  for  their  beauty  alone ;  a  few, 
however,  are  of  some  economic  apphcations,  chiefly  as  sources  of 
starch.  Thus  the  beautiful  ^Isophita  exceUa  of  Norfolk  Island  is 
said  to  be  threatened  with  extinction  for  tho  sake  of  its  sago-like 
pith,  which  is  greedily  eaten  by  hogs ;  Cyalhea  metiidlaris  also 
furoishes  a  kind  of  sago  to  the  natives  of  New  Zealand,  Queens- 
land, and  the  Pacific  islands.  A  Javanese  species  of  Vicbsonia 
{D.  chrysotricha)  furnishes  silky  hairs,  which  have  been  imported 
as  a  styptic,  and  tlie  long  silky  or  rather  woolly  hairs,  so  abundant 
on  the  stem  and  frond-leaves  in  the  various  species  of  Ciholium, 
have  not  only  been  put  to  a  similar  use,  but  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands  furnish  wool  foi  stuffing  mattresses  and  cushions,  which 
was  formerly  an  article  of  export.  The  "Tartarian  lamb,"  or 
■  Agnus  sajlhiciis  of  old  travellers'  tales  in  China  and  Tartary,  is 
simply  the  woolly  stock  of  C.  Baroinelz,  which,  when  dried  and 
inverted  and  all  save  four  of  its  frond-stalks  cut  away,  has  a  droll 
resemblance  to  a  toy  sheep. 

See  Fbks:  J  Smith.  Historia  Filicum;  Lirerssen,  J^fd.  Pharm.  Botanik',  and 
(or  the  structure  of  the  stera,  De  Bary's  Tergleich,  Anatomic  d.  Fhanerttg.  u. 
Fame. 

TREGELLES,  Samuel  Prideaus  (1813-1875),  New 
Testament  scholar,  was  born  at  Wodehouse  Place,  near 
Falmouth,  on  January  30,  1813.  His  parents  were 
Quakers,  and  he  himself  for  many  years  was  in  communion 
with  the  (Darbyite)  Plymouth  Brethren,  but  latterly  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  was 
educated  at  Falmouth  grammar  school,  and  afterwards, 
without  having  attended  any  university,  held  various 
modest  educational  appointments,  but  finally  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  a  laborious  student  life,  until  he  was 
incapacitated  for  literary  work  by  paralysis  in  1870.  He 
died  at  Plymouth  on  April  24,  1875. 

Most  of  his  numerous  publications  had  reference  to  his  great' 
critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament  (see  Bible,  vol.  iii.  p.  648). 
They  include  an  Account  of  the  Printed  Text  of  the  Greek  New 
TcstamcrU  (1854),  a  new  edition  of  Home's  Introduction  (I860), 
and  Carum  ^fuTttlorianus .  Earliest  CaUxlogiie  of  Books  of  the  New 
Testament  (1868).  As  early  as  l.'J44  he  published  an  edition  of 
the  Apocalypse,  with  the  Greek  text  so  revised  as  to  rest  almost 
entirely  upon- ancient  evidence.  Tiegelles  wrote  Heads'''  Hebrew 
Grammar  (1852),  translated  Geseniiis's  Hebrcto  Lexieou,  and  was 
the  author  of  a  little  work  on  theVa>Koi«(s  (1851)  and  of  various 
works  in  e.itposition  of  his  special  eschatological  views  {Jiemarks  on 
the  Prophelie  Visions  of  Daniel,  1852,  new  ed.  1864). 

TREMATODA,  popularly  known  as  "  flukes,"  form  one 
of  the  three  main  divisions  of  the  flatworms  or  Plnlyhel- 
minthes.     They  have  been  defined  thus  (.Jackson,  1):'  — 

"  Unisegmental  Vermes,  with  a  flattish,  leaf-like,  more  or 
less  cylindrical  body  provided  with  organs  of  adhesion  in  the 
shape  of  suckers  and  sometimes  of  chitinoid  hooks.  The 
cuticle,  so  called,  appears  to  be  a  metamorphosed  layer  of 
cells.  There  is  a  well-developed  nervous  system,  the 
ganglia  of  which  are  entirely  supra-pharyngeal,  i.e.,  dorsal. 
There  is  a  mouth,  and  an  alimentary  canal  which  is  usually 
forked,  but  no  anus.  The  e.xcretory  system  has  the  form 
of  more  or  less  branching  tubes  commencing  with  flame- 
cells,  and  either  ending  in  a  contractile  vesicle  or  opening 
by  two  independent  orifices.  Hermaphrodite  self-impreg- 
nation occurs,  as  well  as  reciprocal  impregnation.  The 
embryo  either  develops  direct  into  the  sexual  form  (mono- 
genetic  Tremaioda)  or  gives  origin  to  a  series  of  inter- 

'  T.he.se  tigares  refer  to  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of  the  article. 


mediate  non-sesual  dimorphic  forms  (digenetic  Treiruxtoda). 
Parasitic." 

Hislorkal  Sketch. — Some  of  the  more  salient  points  id 
the  history  of  our  knowledge  of  these  animals  have  already 
been  alluded  to  in  the  article  Parasitism  (q.v.) ,  a  few 
additional  facts  must,  however,  be  mentioned  here.  The 
Trematoda  were  first  formed  into  a  group  by  Rudolphi  (2), 
who  included  in  it  the  following  genera  . — Monostmna, 
Ampliistoma,  Distoma,  Tristoma,  Paitastoma,  and  Poll/- 
stoma  ;  the  name  had  reference  to  the  suckers,  which 
Rudolphi  regarded  as  being  for  the  most  part  openings 
into  the  body  (Gr.  tfj^/xo,  an  aperture).  Some  of  these 
forms  were  soon  perceived  to  have  but  small  connexion 
with  the  others ;  and  Cuvier  (3)  reduced  the  whole  to  one 
genus,  for  which  he  adopted  the  name  Fasciola,  Lino.  The 
Pentastomes  have  since  been  transferred  to  the  Arachnida 

Our  scientific  acquaintance  with  the  group  may  be  said 
to  date  from  1831,  when  Mehlis  noticed  that  the  eggs  of 
certain  Distomes  hatched  into  a  minute  ciliated  body  with 
an  eye-speck  resembling  an  Infusorian,  an  observation 
which  gave  the  key  to  the  life-history  of  these  forms. 
Von  Siebold  in  1833  (4)  supplemented  this  discovery  by 
the  observation  that  the  ciliated  eiiibryo  of  Moiwstomum 
mutabile  contained,  as  a  "necessary  parasite,"  as  it  was 
termed,  an  organism  identical  with  the  "  kingsyellow 
worm  "  (Redia),  found  by  Bojanus  in  pond-snails,  and  Von 
'Baer  had  previously  shown  (5)  that  these  gave  rise  to 
free-swimming  organisms  not  unlike  tailed  Trematodes. 
The  materials  were  thus  ready  to  hand  for  a  co-ordination 
of  the  whole  life-history,  and  Steenstrup  recognized  it  as 
an  instance  of  the  so-called  "  alternation  of  generations  " 
(6).  These  researches  received  important  additions  at  the 
hands  of  Pagenstecher  (7)  and  others,  who  showed  experi- 
mentally that  encysted  Distomes  grow  mature  directly  after 
their  transference  from  one  host  to  another,  and  thus  that 
a  migration  is  necessary  to  the  attainment  of  their  mat- 
urity. Diesing's  great  work  (8)  appeared  in  1850,  and 
has  formed  the  groundwork  of  all  subsequent  treatises  on 
the  systematic  arrangement  of  parasitic  worms,  although 
it  included  forms  which  really  belong  to  quite  different 
groups.  In  1861  Van  Beneden  gained  a  prize  offered  by 
the  French  Academy  by  his  elaborate  memoir  on  the  intes- 
tinal worms  (9),  in  which  he  not  only  described  many  new 
and  interesting  forms,  but  gave  anatomical  details  regard- 
ing others  previously  known,  and  entered  into  detailed 
comparisons  between  the  Cestodes  and  Trematodes,  both 
in  their  adult  and  immature  states.  Of  recent  years  the 
chief  additions  to  our  knowledge  have  been  more  in  the 
direction  of  further  details  regarding  the  structure  and 
life-history  of  special  forms  than  the  elaboration  of  new 
general  principles. 

Anatoynij. — In  endeavouring  to  give  a  very  brief  account  of  the 
more  saliclit  ]>oiiits  in  the  anatomy  of  th  Trematoda  it  has  been 
thought  expedient  to  select  some  well-known  form  as  a  type, 
and  afterwards  to  indicate  the  chjracter^  in  which  other  speciw 
differ  fioni  it  ;  for  this  pur(iose  tho  common  liver-fluke,  Fasciola 
{Dislnmmii)  luyrUica  has  been  chosen,  as  it  is  not  unfrequently 
found  in  the  bilc-ducts  of  siiccp  and  other  domestic  animals,  and 
constitutes  a  scourge  much  drc^idod  by  farmers.  The  account  hero 
given  is  in  the  m^iin  absti-actcd  from  yommer  (10). 

External  Apptarancc.  — The  animal  lias  a  flattened  oval  shape,  with 
a  sub-triangular  process  on  the  broader  end,  which  represents  the 
hcd.  The  total  length  varies  from  :^0  to  35  mm.,  the  breadth  from 
6  to  12  mm.  On  superficial  examination  two  narrower  lateral  areas 
may  generally  bo  disti.iguished  from  a  broader  median  one  ,  the 
former  are  occasionally  of  a  coarsely  granular  appearance  and 
icddishbiowii  or  orange  in  colour,  and  increase  in  breadth  towards 
the  posterior  end  of  the  body,  where  they  commonly  unite.  The 
median  area  is  commonly  greyish-yellow  in  colour,  sometimes 
spotted  with  black  ;  its  anterior  portion  corresponds  to  the  uteres, 
the  posterior  to  the  testes.  Two  sncijcrs  (fig.  1,  A,  o,  s)  are  in  the 
middle  line  of  the  body;  one  is  at  tHe  anterior  extremity,  and  i» 
directed  forwards  and  somewhat  downwards  ;  it  is  known  as  tba 


636 


T  R  E  M  A  T  0  D  A 


anterior  or  oral  sucker,  being  perforated  by  the  cc-sophagus.  The 
posterior  or  ventral  sucker  ia  situated,  as  ics  name  implies,  on  the 
inferior  surface  of  the  body,  just  behind  the  head-papilla.     The 


FlO.  1.— A,  Fcuetckt  hepatica,  from  tbe  rentral  surface  (x  2) ;  the  alimenrnry  and 
nervoua  systems  oaly  shown  on  the  left  eide  of  lliu  figure,  the  cxcvetory  only 
OD  the  rigbt.  a,  right  ronln  branch  of  the  iotestine;  c,  a  diverticulum;  g. 
Literal  ganglion  ;  n,  lateral  nerve;  o,  mouth,  p,  pharynx;  s,  ventral  sucker; 
ct,  cimu  sac ;  d,  left  anterior  dorsal  excretory  vessel ;  m,  ronln  vessel ;  i>,  left 
aDbeiiQr  ventral  trunk ;  x,  excretory  pore.  B,  Anterior  portion  more  highly 
magnified  (from  Marshall  and  Hurst,  after  Sommcr).  cs.  cirrus  sac  ;  d,  ductus 
ejacutatorius ;  /,  female  aperture;  o,  ovary:  orf,  oviduct;  p,  penis;  s.  shell- 
gland  ;  (,  anterior  testis;  u,  uterus  ;  va,  vp,  vasa  deferentla;  vs.  vesicula  semin- 
olla;  y,  yolk-gland;  yd,  itsduct  C,  genital  sinus  and  neighbouring  parts 
(from  Sommer).  a,  ventral  sucker ;  6.  cirrus  sac ;  c,  genital  pore  ;  d,  evaglnated 
cirrus  sac  (?  penis) ;  e.  end  of  vagina ;  /,  vjisa  deferentia ;  g,  vesicula  seminalis»; 
A.  ductna  ejaculatorius:  t,  accessory  gland.  D.  A  ciMuted  funnel  from  the  ex- 
cretory apparatus,  highly  magoified  (from  Fraipont.)  o,  orifice  of  the  funnel. 
E,  Egg  oi-~Faseu>la  hepatica ;  x  330  (from  Thomas). 

suckers  measure  on  an  average  about  1  mm.  in  'diameter,  the  ven- 
tral being  slightly  the  larger.  The  internal  organs  communicate 
with  tbe  outer  world  by  four  apertures  :— (1)  the  mouth  (o),  situated 
at  tbe  antel^iior  pole  of  tlie  body  and  perforating  the  oral  sucker  ; 
(2)  the  excretory  pore  (x),  placed  at  the  opposite  extremity,  and 
giving  exit  to  the  effete  products;  (3)  the  poms  genitalis  {fig.  1,  B, 
p),  leading  into  a  sinus  into  which  the  duets  of  both  sets  of  genital 
organs  open, — it  is  to  be  found  on  the  under  surface  of  the  hea.d- 
papilla  at  or  near  it5  centre ;  (4)  the  opening  of  the  Laurer-Stieda 
canal,  situated  on  th*^  dorsal  surface  of  the  animal,  near  the  junction 
of  the  two  portions  of  the  median  area, — it  Is  excessively  minute 
and  difficult  of  detection,  and  leads  by  a  narrow  canal  into  the  duct 
of  the  yolk-gland. 

InUr-iial  StrvHure.  —All  TrcTnaloda  have  been  commonly  re- 
garded, like  other  flat-worms,  aa  devoid  of  a  body-cavity  (ccelom), 
and  as  consisting  of  parenchymatous  tissue,  in  which  the  various 
organs  were  embedded.  Recent  researches  of  Fraipont  (15)  appear 
to  show,  however,  that  the  intercellular  spaces  in  this  tissue  are  to 
be  regarded  as  the  homologue  of  a  ccelom.  The  body  is  enclosed 
by  a  complex  sheath  (cortex),  which  may  be  resolved  into  several 
layers,  which  will  be  discussed  in  order,  proceeding  from  without 
inwards,  (i)  The  cuticle,  which  encloses  the  wjiole  body,  is  a  thin, 
pellucid,  structureless  membrane;  at  the  margin  of  the  mouth  it  is 
reflected  so  as  to  form  a  lining  for  the  oesophagus,  and  similarly  at 
the  opening  of  the  genital  sinus  it  passes  inwards  to  form  a  lining 
to  the  vagina.  The  same  phenomenon  is  observed  at  the  excret- 
ory aperture.  By  the  apphcatioil  of  ammonia  the  cutide  may  be 
separated  from  the  subjacent  tissues  and  its  peculiarities  demon- 
strated; -although  apparently  smooth  to  the  naked  eye,  it  presents 
under  the  microscope  numerous  sharp  backwardly  directed  pro- 
cesses, cacb  of  which  encloses  a  hard  stylet-shaped  body.  These 
prominences  are  closely  set  over  the  whole  body  except  immediately 


around  the  suckers,  extending  even  into  the  interior  of  tbe  sinua 
genitalis.  The  cuticle  is  furthermore  perforated  by  innumerable 
fine  pores,  directed  outwards  and  somewhat  backwards.  With 
regard  to  the  homology  of  tbe  cutule  of  Trematodi^  the  same  un- 
certainty prevails  as  to  the  case  of  Cestodes  (see  T.\rE-WoRMs) , 
the  general  opinion  is  that  it  is  not  comparable  with  the  chitin- 
ous  cuticle  of  Arthropoda,  but  is  either  a  specially  developed  base- 
ment-membrane (Kerbert,  H)  or  a  layer  of  modified  cells  (Ziegler, 
12,  and  Schwarze,  13).  (2)  The  outer  cellular  layer  is  the  matrix 
of  the  cuticle.  (3)  The  muscular  coat  consists  of  three  diflcrent 
layers  — (i. )  a  thin  layer  ot  circular  fibres;  (ii.)  the  longitudinal 
muscles,  which  form  a  aeries  of  separate  bundles;  {iii. )  the  oblique 
muscles,  confined  to  tbe  anterior  half  or  third  of  the  body,  and 
crossing  so  as  to  forui  a  rhomboidal  lattice- work, — they  are  espe- 
cially strong  on  the  anterior  ventral  aspect  of  the  animal.  (4)  Tho 
inner  cellular  layer  consists  of  elements  which  closely  resemble  those 
of  the  outer,  but  are  somewhat  larger;  they  have  been  mistaken  by 
various  observers  for  cuticular  glands.  The  suckers  may  be  con- 
sidered as  parts  of  the  cortical  layer  ;  speaking  generally,  each  has 
the  form  oi  the  segment  of  a  sphere,  although  the  anterior  one  is 
shallower  at  the  lower  than  at  the  upper  margin,  and  is  penetrated 
by  the  oesophagus.  Each  consists  of  three  sets  of  muscles, — a  thin 
outer  equatorial  layer,  a  second  meridional,  and  a  mass  of  radially 
disposed  fibres  forming  the  greater  part  of  the  substance.  It  would 
appear  that  the  function  of  the  first  two  of  these  groups  is  to  Ratten 
out  the  sucker,  whilst  the  radial  ones  restore  its  cavity  and  thus 
produce  a  suctorial  action.  To  the  ventral  sucker  are  attached  a 
number  of  muscular  fibres  belonging  to  the  dorso-ventral  system, 
and  in  particular  a  strong  bundle,  which  passes  from  behind  down- 
wards and  forwards. 

The  digestive  system  {fig.  1,  A),  the  presence  of  which  furnishes  Digeotive 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  differences  between  Trematodes  and  syitein. 
Cestodes,  extends  throughout  the  body  on  a  plane  between  tho 
peripheral  nervous  and  reproductive  systems.  It  has  only  one 
aperture,  as  above  mentioned,  in  the  centre  of  the  anterior  sucker. 
The  anterior  portion  or  pharynx,  although  very  .«ihort,  measuring 
not  much  more  than  1  mm.  in  length,  is  again  divisible  into  two 
sections.  The  hinder  of  these  is  the  larger,  and  is  sometimes  spher- 
oidal but  more  commonly  fusiform  in  shape  ,  it  has  strong  muscular 
walls,  which,  in  conjunction  with  protractor  and  retractor  musi^les, 
bring  about  a  kind  of  pumping  action  whereby  nutritive  fluids  are 
taken  into  the  stomach,  which  name  may  be  applied  to  the  larger 
posterior  section  of  the  alimentary  tract,  since  in  it  the  digestive 
processes  are  carried  on.  The  canal,  which  leads  from  the  posterior 
end  of  the  pharynx,  divides  almost  immediately  into  two  branches, 
which  diverge  at  first  rapidly  and  then  run  almost  parallel,  as  far  as 
the  hinder  end  of  the  body.  Each  of  these  gives  off  from  its  outer 
aspect  some  16  or  17  lateral  branches  (c),  which  divide  and  sub- 
divide till  their  ramifications  fill  nearly  the  whole  area  of  the  body. 
The  digestive  tract  is  lined  by  a  layer  of  simple  cells,  resembling 
a  cylinder  epithelium.  These  behave  towards  the  blood  coqmscles 
and  other  contents  of  tbe  intestine  exactly  as  would  a  number  of 
Ama:bEE,  putting  out  processes  or  pseudopodia,  which  ingest  them, — 
so  that,  in  common  with  many  of  the  lower  Invertebrates,  the  liver- 
fluke  lives  by  "intracellular  digestion  "  (see  Metschnikoff,  14). 

The  canals  of  the  excretory  system  (m)  may  be  divided  into  three  Excretory 
gT0U(»3.  (1)  The  collecting  netvt'ork  consists  of  very  fine  tubules  system, 
which  anastomose  freely  with  each  other;  they  are  situated  on  the 
boundary  between  the  cortical  and  middle  layers,  and  are  therefore 
visible  from  either  side  of  the  body.  (2)  Conducting  vessels  (y,  d) 
receive  the  contents  of  this  network.  Each  of  these  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  the  delicate  canals  just 
described,  and  after  a  longer  or  shorter  course  opens  into  the  median 
excretory  canal  (m).  On  the  way,  however,  it  communicates  with 
the  neighbouring  vessels,  so  that  a  second  network  is  formed,  which 
is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  collecting  tubules  by  the  greater 
size  of  its  meshes  and  by  the  fact  that  it  is  specially  visible  from 
the  dorsal  surface  of  the  animal.  In  the  head  four  of  these  con- 
ducting vessels  arise,  which  are  disposed  in  two  pairs,  one  situated 
dorsally  and  one  ventrally.  As  they  pass  backwards  they  receive 
many  branches,  the  dorsal  unites  with  tho  ventral  of  its  own  side, 
and  the  two  tubes  thus  formed  unite  to  constitute  the  last  division 
of  the  excretory  system.  (3)  The  median  vessel  (?n)  passes  along 
the  body  for  the  posterior  two-thirds  of  its  len^h,  immediately 
beneath  the  dorsal  cortical  layer  It  is  widest  near  the  commence- 
ment, where  it  measures  about  0'5  mm.  in  diameter,  and  finally 
opens  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body.  The  wall  of  the 
excretory  apparatus  is  constituted  everywhere  by  an  exceedingly 
delicate  elastic  membrane,  which  exhibits  neither  a  cellular  lining 
nor  ciUa;  furthermore,  neither  valves  nor  musclfes  have  been  de- 
monstrated in  connexion  with  it.  It  contains  a  thin  colourless 
fluid,  in  which  very  small  highly  refractive  drops  are  suspended. 

The  details  of  the  termination  of  the  excretory  system  seem  to 
have  been  first  clearly  made  out  by  Fraipont  (15),  who  worked 
upon  species  in  which  they  are  more  distinct  than  in  the  form  now 
under  consideration.  The  spaces  between  the  round  connective- 
tissue  cells  of  the  body  are  star-shaped  in  form,  and  into  these  the 


TREMATODA 


537 


finest  eicKtcry  tub.iles,  above  nientioiicJ,  op«o  by  funnels  (fig.  !, 
i>),  into  each  of  which  projects  a  vibratile  cilinm,  thus  constituting 
the  so-calleJ  "flatne-cells."     These  researehes  have  given  rise  to 
numerous  differences  of  opinion,  as  regards  questions  both  of  fact 
(16)  and  of  priority  (17). 
Repro-        The  liver-fluke  contains  a  complete  set  of  male  and  female  organs, 
dnotivt     which  form  the  most  conspicuous  part  of  its  anatomy,  and  both  of 
organs,     which  open  into  the  genital  sinus  which  has  been  described  above. 
A.  The  Male  Organs,    (i. )  The  testes  (fig.  1,  B,  t)  aro  two  in  number, 
situated  one  behind  the  other  in  the  hinder  division  of  the  median 
area.     They  rest  upon  the  ventral  cortical  layer  in  the  parenchyma 
of  the  body,  and  immediately  above  them  are  the  ramifications  of 
the  digestive  tract.     Each  consists  of  a  large  number  of  ramifying 
tubes,  often  with  slightly  dilated  extremities.     These  unite  into 
three  or  four,  and  eventually  into  two,  main  excretory  dacts  (m, 
ty),  which  terminate  at  the  base  of  the  cirrus-pouch.     Within  the 
testicular  tubules  may  be  found  spermatozoa  in  all  stages  of  de- 
velopment; the  first  stage  appears  to  consist  of  small  roundish 
membraneless  cells  with  a  single  nucleus;  the  nucleus  then  divides 
and  the  cells  become  polygonal  from  mutual  pressure.     These  large 
cells  lie  in  the  middle  rather  than  at  the  sides  of  the  tube,  and 
among  them  are  a  number  which,  while- they  possess  on  one  side  a 
smooth  evenly  rounded  contour,  are  on  thp  other  very  irregularly 
and  deeply  serrated.     These  serrations  elongate  until  they  become 
the  delicate  filaments  of  spermatozoa,  the  small  shining  heads  of 
which  lire  still  embedded  in  the  protoplasm  of  the  coll.    (ii.)  The  vasa 
deferentia  (ra,  ly)  are  a  pair  of  slender  elongated  canals,  which  lie 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  middle  line,  and  unite  at  the  inner  extremity 
of  the  cirrus-pouch,  which  they  penetrate  in  common.     Their  walls 
consist  of  a  very  delicate  homogeneous  but  resistant  membrane, 
upon   which   contractile   fibres  are  disposed,  close  together  and 
parallel  to  the  a.tis.     (iii.)  The  cirrus-pouch  (c  s)  is  a  muscular  egg- 
shaped  organ  ;  the  upper  pole,  which  receives  the   united   vasa 
deferentia,  is  situated  above  the  ventral  sucker  and  separated  by 
only  a  very  sliglit  interval  from  the  dorsal  cortical  layer.-whilst 
the  position  of  the  lower  pole  is  indicated  by  the  porus  genitalis  {p). 
The  mnscles  are  disposed  in  two  layers,  of  which  the  inner  is  thin 
and   composed  of  circular  fibres;  the  outer  longitudinal  layer  is 
much  thicker,  and  its  fibres  are  disposed  in  bundles ;  furthermore 
its  apex  receives  a  large  number  of  dorso-ventral  fibres.     Within 
the  cirrus-pouch  the  two  terminal  sections  of  the  male  conducting 
apparatus  are  situated,    (iv. )  The  first  of  these  is  the  vesicula  sernin- 
alis  (fig.  1,  B,  vs;  C,  g),  a  large,  spindle-shaped  dilatation  of  the  canal 
usually  more  or  less  curved  upon  itsejf     Its  wall  is  somewhat  more 
complex  than  that  of  the  vasa  deferentia,  consisting  of  a  layer  of 
tissue  with  many  nuclei  but  no  distinct  cell-boundaries,  succeeded 
by  a  delicate  layer  of  circular  muscular  fibres,  which  is  again  fol- 
lowed by  a  layer  of  longitudinal  ones,    (v.)  The  ductus  ejaculatorius 
(fig.  1,  C,  A),  which  immediately  succeeds  the  vesicula  seminalis,  is 
a  long  slender  tube,  disposed  in  coils,  and  usually  projecting  like 
A  papilla  into  the  base  of  the  sinus  genitalis.     Its  walls  are  furnished 
with  a  number  of  unicellular  glands.     B:  The  Female  Organs. 
The  female  reproductive  apparatus  may  be  roughly,  divided  into 
two  portions,  that  which  produces  the  eggs  and  that  which  conveys 
them  to  the  outside  of  the  body  ;  in  the  former  of  these  processes 
three  organs  take  part— one  producing  the  germ,  another  the  second- 
ary or  food-yolk,  and  a  third  the  egg-shell,     (i.)  The  geimarium  or 
3vary-(fig.  1,  B,  o)  is  situated  between  the  anterior  testis  and  the  ven- 
tral sucker,  in  about  three  cases  out  of  four  on  the  right  hand  side  of 
the  body.     It  has  the  form-  of  a  branching  tubular  gland,  the  rami- 
fication being  dichotoraous  throughout;  in  most  cases  the  branches 
are  about  as  large  as  the  stems  which  give  rise  to  them.     The  ovi- 
duct passes  towards  the  shell-gland,  narrowing  as  it  approaches  this, 
and  finally  unites  with  the  excretory  duct  of  the  yolk-glands,     (ii. ) 
Tie  yolk-glands  (y)  of  the  liver-fluke  are  paired  organs  of  consider- 
able size;  they  extend  over  both  lateral  areas,  to  which  they  impart 
the  opaque  appearance  and  reddish  colour  above  alluded  to.     They 
are  composed  of  innumerable  email  acini,  spheroidal  in  shape  and 
situated  in  groups  on  minute  ductules,  which  unite  to  form  a  longi- 
tudinal canal  on  either  side-of  the  body.    These  canals  are  on  the 
whole  parallel  to  the  margins  of  the  animal  and  distant  from  it 
about  one-fifth  of  its  greatest  breadth.     At' the  anterior  margin  of 
the  testicular  area  each  longitudinal  canal  gives  off  a  transverse 
branch,  which  unites  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side  in  the 
niiddle'Une  to  form  a  pear-shaped  reservoir,  situated  just  behind 
the  posterior  margin  of  the  shell-gland.     From  this  reservoir  the 
common, yolk-duct  passes  forwards  in  the  substance  of  the  sliell- 
gland  and  there  uiiites  with  the  oviduct.     Previously  to  this,  how- 
ever, it  gives  off  a  minute  canal,  which  after  an  upward  course  opens 
on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  animal ;  it  is  known  as  the  Laurer- 
Stieda  cnnal,  and  its  function  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discus- 
sion.    It  has  been  siipposcd  (1)  "  to  serve  for  copulatory  purposes  " 
OS  has  been  seen  by  Zeller  (18)  in  Puhjstovmm;  and  as  is  supported 
S''*/'™^'"''^  in  Axine  and  Microcolylc,  and  (2) "  to  act  as  a  safety 
tube  for  the  escape  of  over-abundant  or  altered  vitelline  products 
and  spermatozoa, '  the  main  argument  in  support  of  which  is  that 
Va  oaUbre  is  too  narrow  to  admit  of  copulation  taking  place  by 

2.3—20* 


iU  means;  compare  Sonimer  (10),  Kerbert  (11),  Poirier  (19),  Looss 
(20),  and  Lorenz  (21).  (iii. )  The  uterus  or  female  conducting  appa- 
ratus («)  originates  at  the  union  of  the  ducts  of  the  germarium 
and  yolk-gland.  Its  first  portion,  which  lies  within  the  shell-gland, 
is  a  delicate  narrow  canal,  except  when  it  is  distended  either  by 
eggs  or  by  semen.  The  median  section  of  the  organ  is  by  far  the 
largest  both  in  length  and  breadth ;  it  occupies  almost  the  whole 
of  the  anterior  part  of  the  median  area  of  the  animal,  between  the 
ventral  sucker  and  the  shell-gland,  and  forms  four  or  five  large  coils 
lying  alternately  right  and  left,  which  as  a  rule  arc  filled  witli  com- 
pletely formed  eggs.  The  third  section  of  this  organ  includes  the 
coils  which  lie  aboj-e  and  anterior  to  the  ventral  sucker ;  it  is  some- 
times called  the  vagina.  When  it  contains  eggs  these  are  generally 
ill  a  single  file,  and  thus  giveitamoniliform  appearance  ;  it  lies  en- 
tirely  on  the  left  side  of  the  body,  gradually  approaching  the  middle 
line  as  it  passes  forward,  until  it  ends  below  the  cirrus-pouch  at  the 
left  and  posterior  aspect  of  the  genital  pore  (fig.  1,  C,  c).  (iv.)  The 
shell-gland  (fig.  1,  B,  s),  which  (as  its  name  implies)  furnishes  the 
external  coating  of  the  eggs,  has  been  already  several  times  men- 
tioned. In  the  Trematodes,  as  in  the  tape-worms,  it  forms  a  kind 
of  central  point  of  the  female  generative  system ;  it  is  a  spheroidal 
mass  of  unicellular  glands,  each  of  which  opens  by  its  owil  special 
duct  into  the  commencement  of  the  uteru.s.  The  secretion  of  the 
shell-gland  is  liberated  in  the  form  of  small  pellucid  droplets,  which 
unite  to  form  drops  ;  afterwards  it  becomes  thick  and  viscid  and  of 
a  mahorany  brown  colour.  In  this  condition  the  drops  are  dis- 
persed through  the  uterus  mixed  with  the  secretions  of  the  other 
genital  glands,  and  they  apply  themselves  to  the  recently  formed 
eggs,  producing  a  delicate  membrane  around  them.  This  process 
is  carried  on  in  those  coils  of  the  uterus  which  lie  immediately  out- 
side the  shell-gland,  corresponding  to  the  "ootype"  described  by 
Van  Beneden  in  other  Trematodes. 

The  eggs  undergo  a  gradual  development  as  they  pass  along  the 
uterus.  The  ripe  primitive  ovum,  on  entering  the  female  conduct- 
ing apparatus,  becomes  coated  with  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of 
spherules  of  secondary  yolk,  and  then  undergoes  the  process  of 
segmentation  which  leads  to  the  formation  of  a  morula.  At  this 
point  it  receives  the  secretion  of  the  shell-gland.  The  completely 
termed  egg  (fig.  1,  E)  has  a  length  of  0  13  mm.  and  is  ovoid  in  shape.- 
with  a  small  lid  or  operculum  at  the  broader  end  ;  its  contents 
consist  of  a  number  of  roundly  polygonal  cells,  with  only  a  small 
quantity  of  secondary  yolk  remaining,  among  them.  All  of  these 
but  one  have  a  thick  granular  protpplasm,  the  exceptional  cell 
having  homogeneous  and  strongly  refracting  contents.  It  usually 
lies  immediately  under  the  operculum,  and  is  partly  embedded  in 
the  other  cells.  They  are  often  present  in  the  bile-ducts  in  such 
quantities  as  to  form  -a  stiff  brownish  mass  resembling  wet  sand, 
and  the  number  produced  by  a  single  fluke  has  been  estimated  at 
half  a  million. 

The  mode  of  fertilization  of  the  liver-fluke  has  given  rise  to  inuch 
discussion.  According  to  Sommer,  the  organ  which  has  usually 
been  described  as  a  cirrus  or  penis  is  merely  the  genital  sinus  eva- 
ginated  by  abnormal  pressure  (fig;  1,  C,  d) ;  it  is  furthermore  but 
ill-adapted  to  enter  either  of  the  canals  which  could  possibly  servo 
as  a  vagina.  He  is  therefore  of  opinion  that  self-impregnation 
occurs,  the  external  aperture  being  closed  by  the  oblique  muscles, 
and  the  semen  passing  directly  from  the  vas  deferens  througli  the 
genital  sinus  into  the  uterus.  The  whole  question  of  the  fertiliza- 
tion ofthe  Trematodes  is  a  matter  on  which  very  varied  opinions 
have  been  expressed,  even  by  authors  who  have  examined  the  same 
forms.  The  assertion  of  Von  Siebold  that  a  direct  internal  com- 
munication exists  between  the  male  and  female  organs  has  been 
denied  by  Stieda  (22)  and  by  many  subsequent  writere,  but  has  been 
restated  by  Lorenz  (21)  and  by  Zeller  in  the  case  of  Polystomum 
iMegemmum.  (18) ;  however  this  may  be,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  self-impregnation  does  occur  in  certain  cases.  The  structure 
of  the  organs  renders  it  more  than  probable  in  some  species  (see 
Poirier,  19,  p.  582) ;  Zaddaeh  has  observed  it  actually  taking  place 
in  Dwlomum  cirrigenim  encysted  in  Astacus  (23),  and  a  single  Poly- 
slomum  integcrrimum  has  been  found  in  a  frog's  bladder  with  sperm 
in  the  female  passages.  Reciprocal  fertilization,  in  which  two  in- 
dividuals -act  both  as  mal^  and  female  simultaneously,  has  been 
recorded  by  Zeller  in  Pohislmmim  integcrrimum,  by  Looss  (20)  in 
Distomum  clavigcrum,  and  by  Cobbold  in  Distomum  eampula. 

The  neivous  system  consists  of  a  commissure  passing  round  the  Nervoui 
oesophagus  very  obliquely,  and  swelling  out  into  ganglia  at  three  system, 
points.      Tristamum  molm  possesses  eyes  of  an  extremely  simple 
type,  the  retina  being  merely  a  ganglion  cell  (Lang,  24).        , 

Life-Eistary  and  Development.— The  life-history  of  Fasciold 
hepatiea  was  worked  out  indejiendently  by  Thomas  (25)  and 
Leuckart  (26) ;  regarding  the  question  of  priority  see  Jackson  (27). 
The  development  of  the  cmbrj'O  can  only  take  place  outside  the 
body  of  the  host  and  at  a  lower  temperature,  the  most  favourable 
be;rtg  from  23°  to  26°  C,  at  which  the  process  occupies  two  or  three 
weeks.  The  free  embryo  (fig.  2,  A )  is  conical  in  shape,  with  a  rounded 
apex,  its  average  lengtli  being  013  mm.  At  the  broader  anterior 
end  is  a  retractile  liead-papilla,  with  tlie  exception  of  which  the  body 

XXni.  —  68 


538 


TREMATODA 


is  ciliated  all  over.  The  interior  of  the  body  is  composed  of  granular 
nucleated  cells^  and  it  coTitains  a  double  eye-spot,  composed  of  two 
crescentic  masses  of  pigment.  There  are  also  two  cHiated  funnels 
forming  the  rudiments  of  tlio  excretory  system  and  a  granular  mass 
behind  the  head-papilla,  probably  representing  the  digestive  tract. 
The  embryo  swims  actively  about,  but  if  it  does  not  succeed  in  nieet- 
ingtl>£  appropriate  host  for  its  next  stage  of  development  {ZimssKS 
triincatuius,  a  small  pond  snail)  its  period  of  vitality  seems  to  be 
limited  to  about  eight-houis.     If  it  should  meet  with  one  of  these 

A 
I. 


FlO.  3.— Five  stages  In  the  life-history  of  Faseioh  hepatiea ;  all  highly  magnified. 
A,  The  free-swimmine  embryo.  B,  A  sporocyst  containing  young  redlED.  C, 
A  young  rediu,  tiio  digestiTe  tract  shaded.  D,  An  adnlt  redia,  containing  a 
daughtcr-redia,  two  almost  matuie  ccicaria,  and  germs..  E.  A  free  ccrcarla. 
The  letters  have  the  same  significance  throughout,  e.  neaily  ripe  cercaria?; 
ce,  cystogenous  cells;  dr,  daughter-jedla;  dt,  limbs  of  tha  dlgcstivfe  tract; 
/,  head-paplUa ;  h,  eye-spots ;  h',  same  degenerating  ;  *',  germinal  cell ;  /.cells 
of  Ihe  anterior  row  ;  7n.  embryo  in  optical  section.  gasUulaatagG  ;  n,  pharynx 
of  redIa ;  o,  digestive  sac ;  oe,  cesophagus ;  p,  lips  of  redia ;  ?,  collar ;  r,  processes 
serving  as  rudimentary  feet;  t,  embryos;^,  trabccuis  crossing  body-cavity  of 
redia  ;  u.  glandular  cells  (?) ;  v,  birth-opening;  tr,  w",  morulre  ;  v,  oral  sucker ; 
I/*,  ventral  sucker;  r,  pharyas.    (AH  from  Marshall  and  Hurst  after  Thomaa.) 

euails  it  applies  the  head-papilla  to  some  part  of  its  surface  and 
begins  to  bore,  twisting  round  and  round  on  its  axis  by  means  of 
its  cilia,  the  head-papilla. becoming  pointed  and  elongated  to  four 
or  fivo  times  its  original  length.  Eventually  the  tissues  of  the 
enail  are. separated  as  if  by  a  wedge,  and  a  gap  is  formed  through 
which  the  embryo  forces  an  entrance  into  its  body.    Here  it  under* 

f;oes  a  metamorphosis,  losing  its  organs  of  locomotion  and  becora- 
ng  what  is  tertfled  a  "sporocyst"  (tig.  2,  B).  This  ia  an  elliptical 
sac,  which  commonly  attains  a  length  of  07  mm.  Its  wall  con- 
sists'of  a  structureless  cuticle,  beneath  which. are  external,  circular, 
and  internal  longitudinal  muscIe-Sbrcs.  These  are  succeeded  by 
an  epithelium,  the  elements  of  which  vary  greatly  in  size.  These 
aporocysts  may  bo  produced  by  a  process  of  transverse  fission. 
Within  the  sporocyst  rounded  masses  of  cells  are  formed  (morulsp), 
which  undergo  a  process  of  invagination,  producing  a  gastrula, 
which  again  Jevelops  by  the  formation  of  a  digestive  tract  hito  what 
is  known  as  a  "  redia"  (iig  2,.  C,  D).  This  forces  its  way  through 
the  wall  of  the  sporocyst,  which  heals  up  immediately,  and  then 
wanders  through  the  tissue  of  the  snail,  most  commonly  finding  its 
"way  to  the  liver  If  many  rediae  are  present  the  snail  usually 
perishes.  The  adult  redia  may  attain  lengtli  of  1  6  mm.  It  has 
an  olong.ited  cylindrical  form,  and  near  its  posterior  extremity  are 
two  processes  directed  backwards,  which  probably  serve  as  aids  to 
locmiiotion.  At  the  anterior  extremity  is  the  mouth,  leading  into 
s  muscular  pharynx,  followed  by  a  saccular  digestive  tract,  A 
ring-shaped  tliickcning  is  seen  a  little  way  behind  the  mouthj  and 
immediately  posterior  to  this  a  special  aperture  for  the  exit  of  the 
germs  lormetf  withiii  the  redia.  About  a  score  of  these  are  usually 
to  bo  found  in"  all  stages  of  development,  the  earliest  being  a 
roundeJ  awa  of  cells  Onnrula),  which  elongates,  one  end  at  the 


same  time  bcecmnig  more  attenuated  than  the  other,  and  gradually 
formmg  an  elongated  tail,  while  the  body  becomes  oval  and  do- 
pressed  (fig.  2,  E).  Two  suckers  and  the  rudiment  of  the  future 
digestive  tract  make  their  appcarai_^e.  As  soon  as  the  "cercaiid," 
this  being  the  name  given  to  the  present  organism,  has  attained 
this  stage  of  development  it  emerges  from  the  redia,  and  by  the.atd 
of  its  snokci'S  and  tail  wriggles  its  v^ay  out  of  tho  host,  swimming 
freely  about  in  the  water.  Like  other  cercari;e  developed  in  redi» 
this  one  has  no  head-spine,  but  in  mature  examples  the  anterior  of 
tho  body  often  exhibits  a  number  of  very  minute  spines.  An 
interesting  feature  in  the  animal  is  the  presence  of  tho  *'cystc 
genous  cells,"  two  lobate  masses  arranged  one  on  each  side  of  the 
body.  These  cells 'contain  small  rod-like  bodies,  whence  they  have 
been  termed  "cellules  k  batonnets,"  and  similar  bodies  have  been 
found  in  the  protective  cyst  which  they  excrete ;  Sonsino  (28)  has 
suggested  that  they  may  assist  in  imparting  stiffness  to  this  struo- 
ture,  and  has  npticed  that  they  are  more  abundant  in  those  forms 
which  encyst  in  the  open  air.  When/lhe  cercaria  has  swum  about 
for  a  short  time  it  finds  its  way  to  the  water-plants,  and  encysts 
itself  on  their  stems  and  leaves.  During  this  process  the  tail  is 
swung  vigorously  about,  until  finally  a  more. violent  motion  de- 
taches it ;  at  the  same  time  the  cells  just  mentioned  throw  out  a 
gummy  secretion,  which  rapidly.hardens  and  encloses  the  cercaria 
in  a  kind  of  case.  It  is  in  this  condition  that  the  larvae  are 
swallowed  by  the  grazing  sheep  to  form  sexually  mature  flukes  in 
their  livers. 

The. life-history  of  a  typical  digonctic  Trematode  may  be  summed, 
up  as  follows:— (1)  the  cjt?,  produced  sexually;  (2)  the  ciliated 
embryo;  (3)  tho  sporocysi;  (-1)  the  redia,  produced  asexually  ;  (5) 
the  cercaria,  produced  asexually;  (6)  the  adnU  'trematode.  Hence 
it  would  appear  that  the  digenetic  forms  have  at  least  one,  lusually 
many,  asexual  generatio'as  before  the  sexual  one  appears.  Tho 
embryo  may  form  either  a  sporocyst  or  a  redia,  these  two  form; 
being  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  digestive  tract  and  of  a 
special  birth-opening  in  the  latter.  Within  these  parent  forms 
the  germs  may  arise  from  two  sources, — the  cells  which  occupy  the 
central  region  of  the  young  sporocyst  or  redia,  or  the  epithelium 
lining  the  body-walls.  "The  germs  to  which  a  sporocyst  gives 
origin  may  develop  in  some  instances  into  sporocysts,  in  others 
into  rediie  or  into  ccrcariK.  And  it  does  not  seem  certain  that 
there  is  any  limit  to  the  possible  number  of  successive  generations 
of  rediae.  Both  cercari;e  and  rediae  may  occur  side  by  side  in  the 
same  nurse.  The  last  term  in  the  series  is,  however,  invaiiably 
a  cercaria. " 

Pagenstecher,  Ercolani  (29),  and  others  have  stated  that  the 
tail  of  a  cercaria  may  become  a  sporocyst  and  produce  germs,  but 
this  has  not  met  with  general  acceptance,  and  the  supposition  is 
not  supported  by  tho  structure  of  the  tail,  which  consists  of  a  "  con- 
tractile substance,  occupying  tlie  axis  and  periphery,  with  largo 
vesicular  cells  between  (Schwarze,  13).  Ercolani  (29)  has  also 
published  striking  statements  to  the  elfect  that  the  structure  of 
these  entozoa  is  so  profoundly  modified  by  their  habitat  that  what 
haye  been  hitherto  described  as  distinct  species  may  be  only  "  local 
varieties'.',  thus  he  finds  that  Cercaria  armata  develops  in  Tropi' 
donctiis  into  Di'stomuiri  signatu7n,  whilst  ia  Mus  miiscutiis  and  M~ 
decumanus  it  becomes  a  distinct  dwarfed  form,  D.  viuris. 

Pat/iological  and  Economic  Melations. — Although  the  miiroerof 
Trematodes  which  have  been  recorded  from  the  human  body  is 
about  equal  to  that  of  the  Cestodes,  the  medical  significance  of  tho 
former  is  much  less  than  that  of  the  latter,  because  as  a  rule  they 
occur  in  smaller  numbers  and  are  less  apt  to  invade  organs  of  vital 
importance.   The  Trematodes  which  have  been  found  in  man  arB— 


Faeciola  hepalica,L\nn.,  . 

tn  the  liver. 

Distomum  lanceolaCum,  MehUs, 

„     liver. 

D.  ophthalmoHum,  Dlesing, 

„      lenaoftlieeye. 

'Z>.  hctcrophves.  Bilharz,     .                          . 

„     sDiall  intestine. 

D.  cras$um,  Biisk  =  i).  huskii,  W'edl, 

„     Intestine. 

D.  capcnsc,  Hailey,    . 

„     eggs  in  thohlaod. 

D.  spaCulaium,  Leuckartj . 

„     liver. 

D.  etidemievm,  Baelz,          , 

„     liver. 

D.  hepatif,  iTniocuum,  Baelz,              .        , 

„     liver. 

D.  rj/Tioiiis:,  I'oirier  (42), 

„     Jiver. 

Bilharzia  ftceinalobia,  Cobbold, 

„     veins  of  bladder,  A^ 

ilonoslomian  lentis,  Nordmnnn, 

„     lens  of  the  eye. 

Hexathyridivm  pinguicola^  Trcutlei*, 

„     ovary. 

H.  venarum,  Treuiler, 

„     veins. 

For  the  general  principles  which  govern  the  pathological  effects 
of  Trematodes  in  common  .with  other  etitozoa,  reference  may  be 
made  to  the  article  Tape-Worms;  only  a  few  special  cases  need 
be  alluded  to  here.  The  occurrence  of  most  of  the  forms  in  the 
above  list  hds  only  been  recorded  very  few  times,  and  in  many 
cases  the  eHeots  produced  were  very  inadequately  studied,  sotbst 
wo  can  hardly  bo  said  to  possess  a  knowledge  of  their  individual 
pathology.  In  a  case  of  Distomum.  lanccolatiim  which  occurred  iiJ 
feohemia,  the  liver  was  enormonsly  enlarged  and  tho  contracted 
gall-bladder  contained  eight  calculi  and  forty-seven  flukca.j  the 
symptoms  during  life  were  .emaciation,  pain  over  tho  liver,  Mlft 
distention  of  the  abdomen. 

The  effects  produced  by  Silfiarda  hiematohia  are  very  well  de- 
fined and  exceedingly  disastrous.     The  mature  wornts  in  coufleS' 


TREMATODA 


539 


I 


inhabit  the  veins,  esr>ecifiUy  those  of  the  urinary  bladder  and 
tneseulery  ;  extravasaticus  of  blood  and  villous  growths  •r  ulcera- 
tions of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bladder  present  themselves, 
and  thus  the  eggs  of  the  ctarasite  find  their  way  into  the  urine,  in 
which  they  are  evacuateo,  and  can  be  detected  by  microscopic 
exajnioation.  "With  the  characteristic  "presence  of  the  eggs  are 
associated  colic,  anjemia,  and  great  prostration  of  the  vital  powers, 
more  particularly  in  the  later  stages ;  the  disease  when  once  fairly 
establialied  is  almost  always  fatal  ;  see  Cobbold  (1). 

From  a  practical  point  of  view  by  far  the  most  important  Trema- 
Ipde  U  Fasdola,  {Distonuim)  fiepatica,  which  gives  rise  to  the  disease 
known  as  "liver  rot "  in  sheep.  It  is  always  more  or  less  abund- 
ant in  certain  districts,  and  it  is  estimated  that  in  tho  United 
Kingdom  the  annual  loss  of  sheep  due  to  it  is  not  less  than 
1,000,000.  The  s)Tnptora3  are  said  to  be  emaciation,  tenderness 
in  the  loins,  harshness  and  dryness  of  the  wool,  and  a  scaly  con- 
dition of  the  skin.  On  post-mortem  examination  fluid  is  found  in 
the  peritoneal  cavity  and  the  viscera  have  a  blanched  appearance  ; 
the  liver  is  dark  chocolate  or  sometimes  pale  in  colour,  nodular, 
end  uneven,  the  ducts  are  thickened  and  Distomes  are  found 
within  them.  Dead  flakes  have  been  known  to  furnish  the  nuclei 
of  gall-stones  in  the  gall-bladder.  Briefly  stated,  the  principal 
preventive  measures  seem  to  be  as  follows  : — (1)  destruction  of  the 
eggs,  and  especially  abstention  from  putting  manure  of  rotten 
sheep  on  damp  ground  ;  (2)  slaughter  of  sheep  which  are  badly 
fluked';  (3)  adequate  drainage  of  pastures ;  (4)  an  allowance  of  salt 
and  a  little  dry  fobd  to  the  sheep ;  and  (5)  dressings  of  lime  or 
salt  on  the  ground  to  destroy  the  embryos  (Thomas,  25).  A  series 
of  wet  seasons  increases  the  prevalence  of  the  malady,  and  animals 
which  have  been  allowed  to  graze" in  low-lying  iJl-drained  lands 
are  specially  liable  to  infection — facta  which  are  readily  explicable 
on  a  consideration  of  the  life-history  given  above. 

Systematic  Arrangement. — The  Trematoda  may  be  classified  as 
follows ; — 

I.  UO.VQGEN'EA.^an  Beaedea ;  development  direct,  that  Is,  without  the  m&Sia^ 
tiou  of  ourse  fonns. 
(L)  T&isToiOLS,  Lenckart;  body  ronndish  or  elongate;  posterior  extretolty 
never  specially  derelcped.    Two  adoral  nickers  often  present;   a  large 
ventral  sucker  o/teo  armed  with  chitinold  structures.    Sexual  apertures 
on  the  left  side  or  admediao.    Laurer-Sticda  canal  single  or  double. 
Ova  with  a  filament  at  one  pole  only. 
L  Trlstooiidx,   Van   Seneden. — 1.    Trittomum,   Cuvler ;    abonS   a    dozen 
genera  of  previous  writers  are  here  included;   otbt  14  spedea  are 
known,  all  parasitic  on  fishes;  Ta5cheut>erg(S0). 
J.  HoDocoCyUdae,   Taschenberp.— L  Calico'.yle,  Diesing;   only  Bpfldes  C. 
kroyerH^iy    2.  /*j«idoc<rff  fe,  Taschenberg.    3.  Mo7iccoty?e,  Taschen- 
■berg;  only  one  ppedes,  JT.  mi/liobattM,  on  the  gills  of  the  eagle-ray 
{iffliobatis  aquila). 
S.  Ddooellidfi,  Johnston.—!.  Udorulla,  Jhnst;  five  species,  the  type  being 
f7.  caHgcrum,  parasitic  on  a  crustacean  iCaiigtu),  wiiich  in  its  turn  In- 
fests the  \iQ\it\xli,nippogloiiUi  vulgaris), 
(U.)  POLTSTOME^E,  Leuckart;  body  elongate,  pointed  and  narrow  anteriorly; 
broad  behind  and  generally  provided  with  special  organs  of  adhesion  in 
the  shape  of  suckers  or  diitinoid  hooks,  of  sockers  or  clampers  with 
Chltinoid  8tru<flures.     Two  adoiid  suckers  In  £ome  Instances.     Sexual 
apertures  median.     Lanrer-Stieda  canal  single  or  dcnble.     Mala  sexual 
aperture  often  armed  with  chitinoid  hooka.     Ova  frequeatly  provided 
<rith  two  long  appendages. 
I.  Octobcthriidae.    TaschenberK.— I.    (kiobothr<um,   Nordmann;    about  a 
dozen  genera  of  various  authors  are  here  tnduded  by  Taschenbcrg  (SO), 
containing  fourteen  spedes,  parasitic  on  6ah«s,  and  almost  iiiTariably 
on  the  gillfl.     2.  ArUhocoiyle,  Hesse  and  Van  Beneden ;  one  spedes 
(A.  merlueii),  found  In  the  hake.     3.   Phsfliocotyie,  Hesse  and  Van 
Beneden ;  one  spedes.froin  the  gurnard.   4.  Plat^cotyle^  Hesse  and  Van 
Beneden  ;  one  spedea,  from  the  gurnard.    5.  Pleurocotyle,  Gemls  and 
Van  Beneden  ( =  Qrubca  cochlear.  Dies.);  one  spedea,  from  the  gijls  of 
the  Djackerel.    6.  Diplozoon,  Kordmann  (see  below).    7,  Bcxacolylt, 
Blainville ;  one  fpede*.  from  Th'/rmus  br  achy  pi  ems.   8.  PlectarMcotyle, 
Dies.;  from  the  gills  of  Labrax  mucT-onatm. 
t    Pelystomidz',  Van  Beneden— I.  Poiystomunt,  Zeder;  two  spedes,  best 
known  P.  inttgerrimum  (see  below) ;   Htxathyridium  Is  probably  a 
synonym,    2.  Oitchocotj/lt,  Dies.;  flve  spedes,  from  tiie  pills  of  sharks 
and  rays,     3.  Erpocotyle,  Hesse  and  Van  Beneden;  one  species,  from 
the  gills  of  Muttelut  Ixeis.    4.  Diplobothrium,  f.  S.  Leuckart;  one 
species,  from  the  gills  of  a  sturgeon. 
8    MicrocotjlidsB,  Taschenberg. — 1.  Axim,  Ablldgaard ;  two  spedes.    2. 
Hicrocctyl:,  Van  Beneden  ;  about  half  a  dozen  species,  all  parasitic  on 
the  gills  of  fishes  (see  below).    3.  Oaitrocotyle,  Hesse  and  Van  Bene- 
den ;  one  species,  fiom  the  gills  of  Caranx  trachuna.     4,  Aspido- 
^fatter.   Von  Baer  (see  below).     5.   OHylaspis,  Leidy ;   one  spedes, 
occurring  in  Anodonta,    6.  Aspidocotyle,  Dies. 
4,  Gyrodactjrtids,  Van  Beneden.— 1,  Gyrodactylus,  Xcrdraann  (see  below). 
2.  Dactylogyrus,  Dies.;  about  twenty  species,  all  parasitic  on  fishes, 
mostly  on  the  giUs.    3.  Tetraonchu^.  Dies.;  three  species,  on  the  gills 
of  freshwater  fishea    4.  IHpiectanum,  Dies.     5.  Calceottomvm,  Van 
Beneden ;  one  species,  on  the  gills  of  Scixra  aqnila.    $.  Sphynmura, 
Wright (34, 45);  one  species,  from  the  mouth  of  MeJiobranchu*  lattralU. 

ft.  DIGEKEA,  Van  Beneden  ;  one  or  more  non-sexual  forms  Interrene  between 

two  successive  sexual  f  orms. 

(L)  IffonosTOHiDA.  V&n  Beneden  ;  elongate,  oral,  or  nmnded  In  shape  ;  one 

oral  sucker. — 1.  Monostomum,  Zeder ;  fifty  to  sixty  spedes  in  mammals, 

birds,  and  fishes ;  type,  it.  mtUabVt,  Zeder,  fonnd  in  the  body-cavity 

and  eye  of    water-birds.      2.  A'otocotyle,    Dies.  ;    !f.  truerii^e.  Dies. 

(=J/oi)Ojfoinam  rernnofHm). 

(tt.)  DiBTomD-s,  Van   Beneden;   body  flattlsh,  more  or  less  leaf-like  or 

elongate;   an  oral  anii  a  ventral  eub-median  or  posterior  sacker. — I. 

Dittomum,  Kelzios  (see  below).    2.  Pasciola,  Linn.;  three  spedes  are 

kno'wn ;  F.  hepatica  is  described  above ;  P.giganiea  inhabits  the  liver  of 

the  giraffe.    3.  BUhartia,  Ccbbold  (=OpnsKophorvi,  Dies.) ;  one  spedes 

(sec  belowJL     4.  EthiTtotiomvTTi,  I>njardin  ;  E.  gadorvm,  V*n  BenedeU, 

in  the  tuteetine  of  Gadus  carticnarius  (the  coal-flsb),  and  twenty-flve 


ether  species  In  the  allnenury  canal  of  mammals,  birds,  and  flsbea. 
S.  Amphistomum,  P.adolphi ;  alMut  twenty  species  in  different  Verte- 
brates; A.  sutriasMi/m  {kmozz)  \a\he  reciutn  of  the  frog.  G.  Gaslrodis-' 
eus  (5).  I^euckart  (stc  also  S7).  7.  Uomatogaiter,  Poirier  (33).  8.  (Jos- 
trothy.'ax,  Poirier.  9.  Euryeeelxum,  Brock  (44),  has  the  excretory  vesseU 
dilated  into  wide  chambers  (?  ccslom). 
(UI.)Gastebostomidje,  Von  Sitbold;  oral  suckersub-medlan  and  ventral;  also 
an  anterior  sucker. — 1.  Ooi'.erostontum,  Von  Siebold ;  eight  spedes,  all 
tu  fishes;  larval  form  Bucephalus  (soc  bel»w). 
Qy.)  Holostoui  D.e,  Claus  (43);  body  flat:cned.  and  divided  Into  an  anterior 
and  posterior  part,  the  former  bearing  an  anterior  and  ventral  sucker; 
two  adoral  lobes  with  glands  In  connexion,  or  a  clrcumoiel  fold  with 
tobes. — I.  Bolouomum,  Nitische;  t\^cnty-three  species,  rao^I  In  water- 
birds:  n.  rariabUe,  In  various  raptorial  birds;  larval  forms  Tetraeotyla 
and  Dipfostomum.  2.  ffemUtomum,  Dies.;-  three  spedes,  one  In  the 
wild-cat,  twd  in  birds.  3.  EiistemTna^  Dies, 
The  tme  position  of  the  following  is  doubtful : — A^emalobothrium,  Van  Bene* 

den  (9);  Lidj/ijiotoony  Von  Linsiow  (30);   Stichocotyle,  Cunijingham  (39). 
Diptotoon  paradoxvm  (18)  Infests  the  gill  of  the  minnow  in  large  numbers. 

The  eggs  batch  In  the.  water,  coutlnoing  to  be  attached  to  the  gill  by  a  filament  at 


Fro.  8. — A,  Diplozoon  paradoxvm;  two  united  specimcnj.  B,  Pofystomv^.  inte* 
gerrimaim;  xabout  100  (afterZ-lIer).  C,  Miaoct^yU  mcrmyri  \  x7.  D,  E, 
two  views  of  the  chitinons  framework  of  a  sucker  of  Axine  belongs ;  highly 
magnJfled  {ifter  Lorenz).  F,  Aspidogatter  conchicola;  xabout  2C  (after 
Anbert).    G,  Oyrodactyltu  elegant;  xabout  80 (after  Wegener). 

one  extremity.  The  embryo  Is  elongated  oval  in  shape,  and  cTiateJ  all  over ;  on  ia 
~tack  are  two  eyes,  ccnslsting  of  a  cnp-shaped  mass  of  pigrricnt,  wth  a  spheroidal' 
lenticular  body.  It  presents  also  the  mouth  »itli  two  peculiar  suckers,  the  oeso- 
phagus end  intestine,  and  the  two  claspers  of  the  Dipojpa.  The  embrjo  swims 
vigorously  about  until  It  finds  its  way  to  the  gill  of  a  minnow,  failing  which  it  dies 
in  about  six  honrs.  .Attached  to  its  host  it  may  live  isolated  for  a  considerable 
time,  Increaaing  In  size;  Dsudlly,  liowever,  it  unites  with  another  individual  In  a 
kind  of  reciprocal  copclat^on  (flg,  3,  A).  Ons  Individual  by  means  of  Its  ventral 
sacker  seizes  the  dorsal  papIlJa  of  another,  and  then  the  two  twisf -across  each 
other  so  that  fhe  sucker  of  the  second  seizes  the  papilla  of  the  first  After  this  s 
complete  fusion  of  the  Individuals  takes  place,  the  papillffl  and  euckera  growing 
together  so  firmly  as  to  be  anatomically  inseparable.  Both  Individuals  continna 
to  grow  and  develop  a  second,  third,  and  sometimes  a  fourth  pair  of  claspers. 

In  Polyiiomum  integemmum  (18),  which  inhabits  the  bladder  of  the  frog,  the 
eggs  are  developed  during  the  winter  and  are  laid  in  the  spring,  when  the  frogs 
r^ort  to  the  water ._  It  appears  probable  that  the  worm  protrudes  its  body  fromlhe 
frog  and  thus  depo'sits  the  egg  directly  in  the  water.  The  yotmic  worm,  as  U 
escapes  from  the  egg,  which  takes  plac&  after  a  lapse  of  fix  or  eight  weeks, 
measures  ebout  0*3  mm.  In  length,  and  swims  vigoroujUy  about  by  the  aid  of  a 
coating  of  cHia.  At  Its  posteriorextiemlty  Is  a  rounded  disk  (flg,  3,  B  ,  ronnd  the 
margin  rf  which  sixteen  uelicare  hooks  are  placed  at  equal  intervals.  Above  the 
four  hindmost  of  these  aie  two  others  still  smaller  and  more  delicate.  Upon  the 
back  are  situated  four  eyes  disposed  In  pairs.  The  mouth  is  wide  and  leads  into  a 
pharynx,  and  this  Into  the  intestine;  two  excretory  vessels  are  present,  bntthero 
is  no  trace  of  generative  organs.  The  hindermost  pair  of  suckers  is  the  first 
to  be  developed,  and  they  cndose  th^se  two  hooks  which  lie  at  the  outer  side  of 
the  very  delicate  ones  mentioned  above,  which  eventually  become  the  strong 
terminal  hooks  of  the  adult.  Tlie  other  two  pairs  of  Backers  are  formed  In  A 
similar  manner,  the  development  of  all  three  being  usually  completed  darintt  the 
month  of  July.  The  young  Polyitomum  attacks  not  the  f nil-grown  frog  but  the 
tadpole,  entering  the  gill-cavity  end  subsequently  proceeding  to  the  blaoder. 
Like  the  frog  It  requires  four  or  five  years  to  attain  sexual  maturity.  In  certain 
cases  the  Polyttomum  does  not  migrate ;  it  then  becomes  prematurt:ly  eexiuU  and 
dies  when  tlie  tadpole  undergoes  metamorphosis  ;  tmder  these  circumstances  the 
scxuaI  organs  are  simpler  than  nsual :  the  testis  is  simple ;  the  cerm^rium  is  tocg 
and  coiled;  there  Is neitlier  prostate  nor  Laurer-Stieda canal;  and  the  oridoctttts 
no  dilated  anterior  portion. 

Microzotyte  mormyri,  Lorenz  (21)  (fig.  3,  C),  hns  no  penis,  the  semen  Issuing  by 
on  opea.ng  posterior  to  the  spiked  birth-opeuing ;  the  vagina  opens  medlaDy,  doc 


540 


T  R  E   -T  R  E 


„argm.lW.  TheposteriorextremHy .spotted     ^x,n.Wo^^AtnW^^^^^ 

tt,butl. broad  ai>d  obliquely  •™°f'=<','^'''"/if'',t7oTot»  hand-satchel  (fis  3. 
'iventy  peculiar  'J'*^'';X''rS  isented  by  a  compS^^^  ehlf.ous  (ranm»ork. 

roie.part  of  the  animal  (flt  3,  n  ^  ,„,,^je  ot  tbe  body  of  the 

Oiirodac:yltts  elegam  (33)  '%Vl';"°.  °"  ^.h™  ,„d  measuves  about  O-o  mm.  in 
pike!  stickleback,  »"?  °'J" '^"'^''.''"/towaVS"  eltl>er  end  (Se-  3,  O).  At  the 
cnc'h  ;  11  is  flattened  In  (orm  an^  <»P«''  JJ"  posterior  la  furnished  with  a  sub- 
anterior  extremity  arc  two  '«i',f ''■"''"'.(  ,,£ihmeni  In  the  shape  ot  two  larp 
triangularplate.which  beaiatheoigansof  at^chmen  ^j^^„„,„,„,e.    The 

cuned  hook,  in  its  ■^<^"-.';  »"S„?^J!!f  o^Ss   „°ni  is  to  be  found  in  the  (act  ha 
most  interesting  pecuhaiity,  bO"««er  °l  tnis  ^^^j    j„„5)  contains  another 

7XTZ  t-hir^riWUralfhiitsoXt^three  embryonic  generations  are 

thrpre'ent  time  o.;er  300  'll-;^--^i]'Z"a'uT^^l'^^^''^^^-  ""=  """"  '""»■ 
the  most  Important  are  perhaps  ^^ '""fff""' " „■  ,v,„  ,„,  an.l  D.  militare.  Van 
lo'ns  OS  Fa,ciola>,evai^c^.Dclav^ge^^.  fr^m  tb="-og,^^,_„^,  (Linn.)  has  Cbe 
Beneden.  from  the  'n'",H"=°''J'^''Rer2ius  which,  how„vir,  has  obtiiincd  ei- 
oriorlty  over  Dxstomum  iDulama)  °<  •<^^™J  ""';  ^,cly  be  used  in  a  rcstiicted 
Ee^ur^eney  Jljf  "™; /S  ?ie^  diSe  ra«,  F.  /.^o,.c.  above  de- 
sense  for  forms  which  havea  »""'^'^^^^f=,„  b„,  „otn,et  with  central  r.cog- 
.cribed  being  taken  as  the  W=-  ™  ^'P'^'^'^t.^olj  (i,.  Weinland  has pioposed 
nttion,  althouch  supported  ^^  ^tochard  ana  u  J^   ^^^  putomum,  ictaininK 

to  substitute  the  term  ^'''«=°^\?,'°°;„*i]bai  not  iet  with  acceptance.  Tlie 
f„Kfo/a  'orthetype.speces.buttbls^opoE^in  ^^  ^^^^^  which,  like  D. 

Distomes  vaiy  in  size  from,  forms  almost  m^  j       ^^  ^^,^  ^^  ,„  ,^5  fresh 

(n^ens,  Monicz  (35),  measure  6  cm.  '""«  "  7™'' ,[^    (jell  (36).  is  parasitic  upon  a 

eo'di.ion  (0.  i-'i-'^.^^^S^.tho^r^T   ".«»""-  "•'^™^^^  "'  ''^  "/  '"^^ 

deep-sea  fish  taken  in  1090  fa»»ms.  ^  47„;^,^Me  laical  foiTO  known  as  Lenco. 
woodpecker  (.Ipleniuj  "■■■'"?^"''' J"  "j  f™„„  S»cc.>.ca  pulr.s.  and  consists  of  a 
Mor,d,u„,  puradcx^m,  "'';'^J™^lIh  d  are  developed  we  or  two  contractile 
;:::;?(irrrD>    ThJlJ^K^owl^SsS^^       tentade'^uutU  it  bursts  and^^c 


r„.  4.-A.  M,.an,a  ,'i--/[-X«)"  r.^-lSS-?--. rvJig 

;i;^Swra'„^itL'V<c|rrp5e|^,.^^ssx'"er^^^^^^^^^^ 

luded:  x30.    C,  Snail  (SMCinra).  the  tcntaclesocion  to    j^^^^^^     ^^^^^^^  ^.^^ 

natural   size.     D.  '■'"'""'"rfyZZTp^^-  Sy  mapnlfi^l  (aft^r  Zlegler). 

(aJter  Z.llev).    E.  ''""?'' f  "J „^°!ZP^B"ljpTali  in  process  ot  development; 

F    Portion  of  a  sporocyst  containing   mcepnai^        r 

X  about  50  (after  Lacaze-Duthicrs).  .,„„„„,„!„  onlv  (iranular  cells, 

ftanss  outwards.  The  threads  -"''i" '"i"  f^  m  oToi°d'"nTo^^wi,h  a  thick 
whilst  the  cont, actile  sac  ,s  »«"?-«•;',""„ °  ^J?  ™ tract.'nnd  excretoiT  system. 
dear  boider.lhe  rud.mentsof  »»f  ^''"'■",°  f^  most  dancerous  human  parasites 

a,H,arjm/.iemalo6.a.Cobbold(I^I    soncottliem  _^^^  mcsenlcry  and 

end  occurs  in  ll.c  blood  of  the  portal  "^  '[";,,'  ,,.„„,  ,c  to  20  mm.  in  length, 
bladder.  The  scxc,  are  'l'^''""' '''^,,',r™.„„Jrfic,al  examinnlion.  The  male  1» 
and  somewhat  icscmhling  a  ^,™»',"''^  ""i,  thicUei  The  surface  of  the  female  is 
only  from  M  l'>  ^'^  "''■"■  •"^''"f'\X;""'„ri!iZ  tall;  at  the  anterior  pointed 

r;t%m^,t;l^ro;K^cTer':?;:rw^s7n,r,o.  „^^^^^ 

Jb7"ir  p:.'-i^.v""  rirr'attrrnr  ■r?a  ve„,ra,  sucker  is  placed 


"^-sSJ^'^Kf^»|iS5^hJ?/eS?:^5aS:^^^ 
r„o*.;»  or  U..0.  where  it  '^'1  '.''.'SeT't'octti's  cht  fly  n  fhe Tver^na 

-  tri^;i^SnS'^:^^^pS/ E  HSs^'r '^ 

of  the.se  iamifiedtu^?a  are  formed  balls  ot  eels  each  of  wm^^^^^^  ^^w 

tot  the  alimentary  canal.    This.  iNwever,  opens  aoiui  o,,ophagua,  and  a 

and  consists  of   a  ,'"-;«f'^  Plr/," J;,' '°I""em^e™nM 
S'le  rnTcro^e  "'"ol^eilo'rt;  fn^rH  l^^^hat  its  contraction  d,.ves.,o 
flSd  I'nto  the  tail^  »>«^«  "  P™„rai^lo"n1a«d'p'.ugy  «m  In  thrhind°e'r  founh 

The  tail  isdouhle   and  from  about05^ 

contraction^  Each  l'»''="°'^';f°'„d>'agjs contain  many  nuclcaied  coni.vei.ve. 
tapering  hlament.  ihesecauaa  "FH^  ^v  q.^^  ]„vvTi  swim  free  y  in  tlK  w. iter. 
tiJsiie  cells  wilh  fine  P:"»P'?™'"^,K=honrs  unless  they  entei  the  mouth  of 
but  Sink  and  perish  after  "t"™' '"«'',J„^™'V  "-hen  (4)  t'L  lose  their  tails  and 
ee.tain  'i'bes(e.|,.   ie««cas  en,«rop«/ia/.«u.^^^^  ^^^^^  „„^,^, 

become  encapsulcd  under  the  skln^  ',°f„r  sucker  are  'o'^ed  It  the  flsh  ihu. 
developed;  cutlculai  spines  and  J^e  antennr  sudter  are  ,^0  ™^e  ^^^  ^^^  ^^ 

£m1adu!t:ci"nrue\o  C S  fhe  tatestlnj,  and  produce  eggs     For  further 

,n irine  ?hem  w  th  tlio  former  are  the  possession  of  a  commonly 

^:  l^?ISl^cLtede^ei^fi(LeucJ^^^^ 

Uipsic.  1863.  new  edition  and  Engb^h  trans  ationi    P^  w^^^,      ^„,„„„^  l„„<,„„. 
u.id  Zurn,  ParasUen  *»   '^'^''t    ;  t^^F   %\,i,,,,wkm  Hisi    fiU  .  Amsterdam. 

1808^9.  and  ''■"'««»?;\^*"°''T\^"'Ji°;,c),  (  18:»  (5)  Von  Baer.  /l'o.»  -4c/» 
,829;  (4)  VonSiebold,^rcA.„^.  A»  ajcA     1       8»^_y^        Ceaerar.n".,  Kay 

Society,  8V0.   «ndon,1845;  (OPoKenstecuei.jrir  ^      „„    issp.   (9    Van 

Heidelherg,  1867;  (8)  ^''^''^%^'tTl,,T^e^'""^'>e\.mSommer.  Znrl,r 
Reneden    " Verslntestinaus.    (^""P'"  """?..■    ,',,t,    A„al     xlx.  ISSli    ll2) 

Zieglcr,  ZttcHr.  icss.  ^ool  xaxlv,  1883  "S)^'"  g,^  '(ij^  Fralnont.  /ircft  d. 
(14)  Metschnikolt  <2u"ri  Joar.  il<cr  /"-„"  ;J,  ll'ien  111.1880;  (17)  Van 
Wot  t  1880,  ii..  1831 .  (16)  Pin.ner.  f  :  Jj-',  'Ss  8  Zeiler,  Z<.<r;,.-,  ...!. 
Ben.ien  and  Lankester,  ZcoL  ■^"  'poiflef  ;>™a  2oi' ^^^^y"-  '"■  "*Pli,T 

S:U^l^^.^^I^.'-:fHSSs^r.^!  »n; 

'i,  /I    /S  BW.,  vl..  1885;  (29)  E/'O  "">.  ^' "'/f^fj'jo  'Tasclienberg.  Z<«rAj- 

fs82,l,i.,  '8«^«'»°t''»Y|-?V  1S  We™  ski;  2'.^  T"  ^"'.i  Tr'  i"V 
gesomml.  Kalurxs.  In-,  18'».  J^-'  ,  ',,  '  1K77  (33)  Wai;cn.r.  Aieli  /  "'"" 
(32)  Huxley.  Anal.  IncerLAmm  Lrnid™,  isy  ■  ^  ^  35,  Mo„i„j,  /,„//  s« 
i  pftB!  ,  18W,  (34)  Wright,  /'.«  C»>wi. /""  ■  '  ■  J^  \^  ^^^  .  i887  .  (37) 
"zool  F^d^ce.  x>  188G;  l^)  Be  '>"''-«'',f,''^  38  Poirlet,  .■/»»  .Soc.  /•/iif...- 
Loitcnyi. /fiftaiidl  &nr*-  fj,'"  .™  ;•  '  '  T™n<  ;toi/  Sot  iiiin  ,  xxxii .  1884 
PanTm.  'ii  .  1883;  (39)  Cunningham,  rrons^W  "J  schaJ.nsiand  /^ 
f40)    Fewkes,    /tfier,    .(o_>-r_  Sc.  ,    (3).,/™;;,    '»^„;.r;.  pj,.  v.,  1S87  ,  (43)  Vo. 


„.-.^ ■        .'•    >;'•.""■;;■;)    rrnir'  iil,  v.,  TssY,  (43)  Voo 

■i;i^scAr.,  xvi.,  1883;   (42)  PT'^x^iif   IsVi      (44)  S^o'k.  (jiVi^jer  ;y«/,,-.rt.™. 

TRENCH     RICHARD    CHENBVix    (1807-1886)    arch 
t.S'^?^ SuUin,  poet,  scholar  and  jv  -   .as  bo,  t.  _a 
Dublm,  September   9     1807,   ^^^  faa   ^_^^^^  ^^  ^^^^ 
College,  Cambridge,  '°    f  ;f     '  ^^'^^    ;„   Hampshire,  he 
'''K  ?'TTxiyTmlZ  !?£,^  Martyr  Indotker 

followed  ^^^^^^^^ji:::J^c..  T^ose 

fotr  rt^al^d  "the^'lthor^as  decidedly  the  most  gifted 


T  R  E  — T  R  E 


541 


I 


of  tho  immediate  disciples  of  Wordsworth,  with  a  warmer 
colouring  and  more  pronounced  ecclesiastical  sympathies 
than  the  master,  and  strong  affinities  to  Tennyson,  Kcblc, 
and  Milnes.  In  1S41  he^re^iigned  his  living,'  to  become 
curate  to  Samuel  Wilberforce,  then  rector  of  Alverstoke, 
and  upon  Wilberforce's  promotion  to  the  deanery  of  West- 
minster, in  1S45,  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Itchenstoke.  In  1845  and  184G  he  preaclicd  the  Hulscan 
lecture,  and  in  the  former  year  was  made  examining 
chaplain  to  Wilberforce,  now  bishop  of  Oxford.  He  was 
shortly  afterwards  appointed  theological  professor  and 
examiner  at  King's  College,  London.  In  1851  he  estab- 
lished his  fame  as  a  philologist  by  his  charming  little  work 
on  The  Slttdy  of  Wor<ls,  originally  delivered  as  lectures  to 
the  pupils  of  the  Diocesan  Training  School,  Winchester. 
His  purpose,  as  stated  by  himself,  was  to  show  that  in 
words,  even  taken  singly,  "  there  are  boundless  stores  of 
moral  and  historic  truth,  and  no  less  of  pas-sion  and  im- 
agination laid  up"— a  truth  enforced  by  a  number  of  most 
apposite  illustrations.  The  book  may  be  regarded  as  a 
comment  on  the  saying  that  "  language  is  fossil  poetry." 
It  was  followed  by  two  equally  delightful  little,  volumes  of 
similar  character — English  Past  and  Present  (1855),  and  A 
Select  Glossary  of  Engluh  Words  (1859).  All  have  gone 
through  numerous  editions,  and  they  have  probably  con- 
tributed more  than  all  the  labours  of  severer  but  less 
cultured  and  tasteful  philologists  to  promote  the  historical 
study  of  the  English  tongue.  Yet  Trench  did  little  more 
than  indicate  the  existence  of  a  vast  region  of  research 
extending  over  all  literary  languages.  Another  great 
service  to  English  philology  was  rendered  by  his  paper, 
read  before  the  Philological  Society,  "  On  some  Deficiencies 
in  our  English  Dictionaries"  (1857),  which  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  the  great  enterprise  now  proceeding  under 
the  auspices  of  Dr  Murray.  His  advocacy  of  a  revised 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  (1858)  powerfully  aided 
to  promote  another  great  national  undertaking.  In  1856 
he  published  a  valuable  essay  on  Calderon,  with  a  transla- 
tion of  a  portion  of  Life  is  a  Dream  in  the  original  metre. 
He  had  not,  meanwhile,  been  forgetful  of  professional 
claims  upon  his  pen.  In  1841  he  had  published  his  Notes 
on  the  Parables,  and  in  1846  his  Notes  on  the  Miracles, 
works  which,  containing  much  to  gratify  every  school  of 
thought,  and  little  to  offend  any,  obtained  the  most  exten- 
sive popularity,  and  have  been  resorted  to  by  English 
theologians  of  all  persuasions,  who  have  turned  the  author 
to  the  same  account  as  be  has  turned  his  patristic, 
Romanist,  and  Lutheran  predecessors.  There  is,  in  fact, 
very  little  originality  in  these  volumes,  but  they  are 
treasuries  of  erudite  and  acute  illustration,  selected  from 
various  quarters  with  admirable  judgment,  and  displayed 
with  consummate  taste. 

In  1856  Trench  was  raised  to  the  deanery  of  West- 
minster, probably  the  position  in  the  whole  church  which 
suited  him  best.  In  January  1864  he  was  advanced  to 
the  more  dignified  but  less  congenial  post  of  archbishop  of 
Dublin.  Stanley  had  been  named,  but  rejected  by  the 
Irish  Church,  and,  according  to  Bishop  Wilberforce's  corre- 
spondence. Trench's  appointment  was  favoured  neither  by 
the  prime  minister  nor  the  lord  lieutenant.  It  was,  more, 
over,  unpopular  in  Ireland,  and  a  blow  to  English  litera- 
ture ;  yet  the  course  of  events  soon  proved  it  to  have  been 
most  fortunate.  Trench,  indeed,  could  do  nothing  to 
prevent  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish. Church,  though 
he  resisted  with  dignity,  and  repelled  the  insidious  pro- 
posal that  she  should  do  execution  upon  herself.  But, 
when  the  disestablished  communion  had  to  be  reconstituted 
under  the  greatest  difficulties,  it  was  found  of  the  highest 
importance  that  the  occupant  of  his  position  should  be  a 
mail  of  a  liberal  and  genial  spirit,  able  to  ward  off  the 


narrowness  which  would  have  alienated  the  s^ympathies  of 
English  churchmen,  and  sown  the  seeds  of  schism  in  a 
body  beyond  all  others  in  need  of  amity  and  unity.  This 
was  the  work  of  the  remainder  of  Trench's  life ;  and,  if 
less  personally  agreeable  and  of  less  general  utility  than 
the  literary  performances  which  might  have  been  expected 
from  him  if  he  had  remained  at  Westminster,  it  was  much 
more  weighty  and  important.  It  exposed  him  at  times  to 
considerable  misconstruction  and  obloquy,  but  he  came  to 
be  appreciated,  and,  when  in  November  1884  he  resigned 
his  archbishopric  from  infirmity,  clergy  and  laity  unani- 
mously recorded  their  sense  of  his  "  wisdom,  learning,  dili- 
gence, and  munificence.''  He  had  found  time  for  Lectures 
on  Medixval  Church  History  (1878)  ;  his  poetical  works 
were  rearranged  and  collected  in  two  volumes  (last  edition 
1SS5).  He  died  in  London,  after  a  lingering  illness,  on 
March  28,  1886. 

As  a  man  Trench  was  universally  beloved  and  esteemed.  He 
was  rcniarkublc  foraliigh  spirit,  muni  ficcncc,  and  general  elevation 
of  .sentiment.  As  a  (irose  author  lie  ranks  among  the  most  useful  and 
agreeable  of  his  generation,  and  may  almost  be  said  to  gain  in  both 
respects  by  his  deficiency  in  originality.  Both  as  Biblical  commen- 
tator and  philologist,  he  has  done  f.ir  move  by  popularizing  the 
researches  of  morif  exact  scholars  and  more  piolound  tliinkers  than 
lie  could  have  done  by  striving  to  make  discoveries  of  his  own. 
For  durable  fame  as  a  poet  originality  is  indispensable,  and  here 
.Trench  fails.  The  style  of  liis  poems  is  frequently  admirable,  but 
even  when  not  obviously  derived  from  some  other  writer  it  wants 
the  stamp  of. strong  iadividuality.  He  has  written  little  beyond 
the  reach  of  any  man  uniting  exquisite  culture  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  verse:  the  pieces  where  poetry  seems  a  natural  langnago 
\vith  him  are  chiefly  to  be  found  among  his  elegiac  poems,  which 
express  real  personal  experience,  and  appeal  movingly  to  the 
heart.  (R- G-) 

TRENCK,  the  name  of  two  barons  of  old  German 
extraction,  who,  endowed  with  exceptional  physical  powers, 
and  each  blending  to  a  singular  if  not  to  an  insane  degree 
the  iiero  and  the  Bobadil,  have  left  startling  records  of  not 
wholly  dissimilar  adventures  and  misfortunes. 

1.  Feanz,  Baron  von  der  Trenck  (1711-1749),  was 
born  at  Reggio,  Calabria,  where  his  father  was  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  Austrian  service.  After  his  rough  early 
training  in  the  camp,  he  made  himself  so  unendurable  at 
the  college  of  Vienna  that  he  was  speedily  removed,  and 
entered  in  1727  as  ensign  in  the  Palfy  regiment,  from 
which,  however,  after  a  brief  but  riotous  course  of  duelling, 
gambling,  and  love-making,  he  received  a  new  dismissal. 
He  returned  to  his  father,  and,  on  the  outbreak  of  war 
between  the  Russians  and  'Turks,  raised  a  corps  of  300  men 
at  his  own  expense  and  joined  the  Russian  army  on  the 
Hungarian  frontier.  His  brilliant  exploits  won  him  the 
favour  of  bis  commander,  but  a  breach  of  orders,  followed 
by  an  assault  on  his  colonel,  brought  him  under  sentence 
of  death,  from  which  a  daring  feat  of  arms  alone  saved 
him.  A  sentence  of  exile  to  Siberia,  incurred  soon  after 
by  a  second  affray  with  a  superior  officer,  was  commuted- 
to  imprisonment  at  Kieff  and  expulsion  from  the  country. 
His  term  of  imprisonment  having  expired,  he  retired  to  his 
estate,  where  he  armed  and  drilled  his  vassals,  and  in  a 
series  of  encounters  compelled  the  Slavonian  brigands  to 
seek  refuge  in  Turkish  territory.  From  these  marauders 
he  recruited  in  1740  the  formidable  body  of  paiidours 
with  which  he  joined  the  levies  in  aid  of  Maria  Theresa. 
Repulsing  the  French  near  Linz,  he  penetrated  into 
Bavaria,  took  Deckendorf  and  Reichenhall,  and  destroyed 
Cham, — the  conduct  of  his  troops  being  marked  not  less 
by  atrocity  than  by  desperate  courage.  Recalled  to  Vienna 
to  render  account  for  the  cruelties  practised,  he  refused  to 
defend  himself,  and,  being  set  atf  liberty,  rejoined  his  men, 
opened  in  1743  a  passage  across  the  Rhine  for  the  army, 
and  became  as  much  the  terror  of  Alsace  as  he  had  been 
of  Bavaria.  On  the  retreat  of  the  army  to  Bohemia  he 
covered  the  rear  and  took  several  towns,  but  had  his  right 


542 


T  E.  E  —  T  R  E 


foot  crushed  by  a  cannon-ball.  Maria  Theresa  sent  him  a 
surgeon,  and,  having'  made  a  siiccies  of  triumphal  entry 
into  Vienna,  ho  resumed  his  command.     But  in  September 

1745,  after  having  boldly  penetrated  with  his  pandours  to 
the  tent  of  Frederick  II.,  he  suffered  the  king  to  escape 
liim  while  his  followers  were  stopping  to  plunder,  and  he 
was  thereupon  accused  of  having  been  bribed  by  that 
monarch  to  release  him.  Ho  was  condemned  on  inquiry 
to  pay  an  indemnity  for  peremptory  dismissal  to  the 
cfTicers  accusing  liim,  but  lie  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
sentence,  and,  raising  new  troops,  added  to  the  list  of  his 
exploits.  His  conduct  leading  to  a  renewal  of  the  inquiry, 
he  laid  bauds  on  the  president  of  the  c?)urt-martial  and 
was  thrown  into  prison,  but  was  enabled  to  escape  by  the 
baroness  Lestock,  with  whom  he  fled  to  Holland.  He  was 
brought  back  to  Vienna,  and  condemned  to  perpetual  im- 
prisonment in  the  Spielberg,  where,  finding  escape  impos- 
sible, he  poisoned  himself,  October  1749,  at  the  age  of  38. 

Sec  his  autobiography — Mcrkvyiirdigcs  Lcbcn  und  Tfutlcn  dcs 
Fnihcrm  Franz  von  dcr  Trend:,  Vienna,  1770;  also,  Franz  von  dcr 
Trend:,  by  E.  F.  Hiibner,  with  preface  by  Scbubart,  3  vols.,  1788. 

2.  FRiEonicn,  pREinERR  von  der  Teenck  (172G-1794), 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Konigsberg,  16th  February 
1726.  His  precocious  abilities  won  him  the  favour  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  in  whose  guards  he  was  enrolled  at 
an  early  age  as  cadet,  and  by  whom  lie  was  made  cornet  in 
1743  and  aide-decamp  for  his  gallantry  in  1744.'  An 
intrigue  with  the  princess  Amelia,  sister  of  the  king,  led 
to  bis  temporary  confinement  until  the  campaign  of  1745 
recalled  him  to  the  army.  He  was  again  thrown  into 
prison,  however,  on  the  discovery  of  a  correspondence 
between  him  and  his  cousin,  then  fighting  with  his 
pandours  in  the  service  of  Maria  Theresa,  but  in  December 

1746,  after  many  failures,  he  succeeded  in  escaping  from 
the  fortress  of  Glatz.  He  went  to  Vienna,  was  involved  in 
several  duels  by  his  cousin,  who  was  too  closely  confined 
to  give  expression  to  his  animosities  except  by  proxy, 
and  finally  accepted  a  company  in  the  service  of  the  czar. 
On  the  declaration  of  peace  the  empress  Elizabeth  bestowed 
on  him  a  diamond-hilted  sword,  and  a  Russian  princess  left 
him  a  fortune,  which  was  still  further  increased  by  the 
death  of  his  cousin,  who,  on  condilioo  of  his  entering  none 
but  the  Austrian  service,  made  him  his  heir.  The  latter 
inheritauce  being  heavily  burdened,  he  spent  the  next 
three  years  in  a  series  of  lawsuits,  and  then,  after  a  journey 
to  Italy,  became  a  captain  in  an  Austrian  regiment  of 
cuirassiers.  At  the  death  of  his  mother  he  revisited  Ger- 
many, but  «as  jiromptly  seized  by  the  unforgetful  king 
and  closely  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Magdeburg,  his 
efforts  to  e-seupe  securing  him  the  honour  of  a  specially 
constructed  cell,  a  heavy  burden  of  chains,  and  the 
additional  puni.shnient  of  being  roused  every  quarter  of  an 
hour  by  the  sentries.  Still  unsubdued,  he  found  means  to 
remove  his  chains  in  the  brief  intervals  afforded  him,  and 
occupied  himself  with  French  and  German  composition. 
In  the  meantime  the  princess  Amelia  had  not  ceased  to 
move  in  favour  of  his  release,  and  Trenck,  having  been  set 
free  in  17G3,  returned  to  Vienna  only  to  bo  reconfined 
there  as  a  lunatic.  He  was  speedily  released  by  the  inter- 
vention of  the  king,  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  major  by  way 
of  compensation  ;  but,  being  by.  this  lime  satiated  with 
royal  patronage  and  prisons,  he  retired  to  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
commenced  business  as  a  wine  rtierchant,  and  devoted  his 
leisure  to  literature  and  politics,  publishing,  among  other 
works,  a  gazette  entitled  the  Friend  of  Mnu  and  an  attack 
on  Frederick  II.  as  the  "Macedonian'  hero."  His  cimi- 
mercial  experiences,  however,  were  not  encouraging,  and, 
after  spending  three  years  (1774-1777)  in  England,  ho 
returned  to  Vienna,  became  the  secret  agent  of  Maria 
Theresa,  and  at  her  death  withdrew  to  his  Castle  of  Zwer- 


bacli,  where  he  gave  himself  to  agriculture  and  wrote  hi' 
famous  autobiography.  Not  until  17S7  was  he  permitted 
to  return  to  his  own  country,  where  he  is  said  to  have  Lad 
an  affecting  interview  with  the  princess  Amelia  a  few  days 
before  her  death.  The  publication  of  his  memoirs  (Lebens- 
geschichtc)  in  1786,  translated  into  French  by  himself  it) 
17S9,  gave  Jiim  immediate  and  wide  notoriety,  and  wax 
effigies  of  the  illustrious  prisoner  in  his  chains  were  exhi- 
bited on  the  Parisian  boulevards  a  dciix  sojis  en  sortant. 
Despite  the  grounds  which  the  memoirs  undoubtedly 
furnish  for  Carlyle's  torso  characterization  of  him  ac  an 
"  extensively  fabulous  blockhead,"  they  took  a  strong  hold 
of  the  popular  imagination,  and  obliterated  for  a  time  the 
fame  of  his  more  darkly  passionate  pandour  cousin.  The 
tragic  elements  in  the  story  were,  however,  to  be  empha- 
sized by  a  still  more  tragic  close.  'His  ready  advocacy  of 
the  French  Revolution  involved  him  in  disgrace  with  the 
Austrian  authorities,  and,  after  deprivation  of  his  pension 
and  further  imprisonment,  he  set  out  towards  the  close  of 
1791  for  Paris.  In  place  of  an  enthusiastic  reception,  he 
was  arrested  by  order  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety 
as  a  secret  emissary  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  and, -after  con. 
finement  in  the  St  Lazarus  prison,  was  literally  dragged 
to  the  guillotine  on  2r)th  July  1794.  His  iSammtlicke 
Gedichle  und  Schriflen  were  published  at  Leipsic  in  1786. 
TRENDELENBURG,  Friedricu  Adolf  ^1802-1872), 
one  of  the  chief  revivers  of  Aristotelian  study  in  the  pre- 
sent century,  w-as  born  on  November  30,  1802,  at  Eutin, 
near  Llibeck.  He  received  his  education  at  the  gymnasium 
of  his  native  town  and  at  the  universities  of  Kiel,  Leipsic, 
and  Berlin,  displaying  from  his  earliest  years  an  extras 
ordinary  industry  and  thirst  for  knowledge.  He  was  intro- 
duced to  philosophy  by  Konig,  the  rector  of  the  gymnasium 
a  Kantian  ;  and  at  Kiel  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
Reinhold  and  Von  Berger,  to  the  latter  of  whom,  a 
follower  of  Schelling,  some  of  his  own  most  characteristic 
views  may  be  traced.  At  Berlin  he  heard  Hegel  and 
Schleicrmacber ;  but  his  university  studies  lay  chiefly  in 
the  direction  of  classics  and  classical  philology  under 
Wachsmuth,  Hermann,  and  Boeckh.  The  combination  of 
the  philosopher  and  the  philologist,  together  with  a  defi- 
nitely historical  turn  of  mind,  is  what  is  most  distinctive 
of  all  Trendelenburg's  work.  He  became  more  and  more 
attracted  to  the  study  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  his 
doctor's  dissertation,  published  in  182G,  was  an  attempt 
to  roach  through  Aristotle's  criticisms  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  Platonic  philosophy  {Plalonis  de  h'eis 
el  A'unieris  Doctrina  ex  AYistolele  lUustrata).  Recognizing 
the  sphere  in  which  his  best  life-work  could  be  done,  be 
declined  the  offer  of  a  classical  chair  at  Kiel,  and  accepted 
instead  a  post  as  tutor  to  the  son  of  Herr  von  Nagler, 
pastmaster-general,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Altenstoin, 
the  enlightened  minister  of  education  in  Prussia.  Heboid 
this  position  for  seven  years  (1826-33),  occupying  hi; 
leisure  time  with  the  preparation  of  a  critical  edition  of 
Aristotle's  De  Auima,  and  conscientiously  extending  his 
knowledge  in  all  directions.  His  acquaintance  with  Karl 
Ferdinand  Becker,  the  philologist  and  •  scientific  gram- 
marian, was  of  importance  for  his  own  views  on  the  origin 
of  the  logical  categories  and  the  relation  of  thought  to 
language.  In  1833  Trendelenburg  was  appointed  extra- 
ordinary professor  in  Berlin,  and  four  years  later  he  was 
advanced  to  an  ordinai^y  professorship.  During  nearly 
forty  years  he  proved  himself  mark,edly  successful  as  an 
academical  teacher,  treating  in  turn  all  the  usuab  philo- 
sophical disciplines,  besides  holding  more  select  classes  for 
thoBtudy  of  Aristotle  with.advanced  student-s.  During  the 
greater  part  of  that  time  he  had  also  to  examine  in  philo- 
sophy and  pedagogics  all  candidates  for  the  scholastic  pro- 
fession in  Prussia.     He  died  on  the  24th  of  January  1872. 


T  R  E  — T  R  E 


543 


It  was  with  a  new  to  the  philosophical  preraration  in  the 
eymaasia  that  he  published  {1S36)  bis  EUmerUa  Lcgica  Arista- 
Uhac.  This  useful  little  book  contains  a  selection  of  passages  from 
the  OrganoK,  giving  in  a  connected  form  the  substance  of  Aristotle's 
logical  doctrine  The  Greek  text  is  furnished  with  a  Latin  transla- 
tion and  notes,  aud  at  a  later  date  Trendelenburg  supplemented 
this  book  with  further  explanations  for  the  use  of  teachers 
(ErlauUrmgea  zu  den  Ekm'mlm  der  aristt/.disd.in.  Logik.  1842). 
The  SkwutUa  has  passed  through  eight  editions,  and  the  ErlduUr- 
tagm  throngh  three.  In  1840  appeared  the  first  of  his  important 
works,  which,  cnder  the  modest  title  of  Logischu  UnUrstuhungcn, 
develops  a  coherent  philosophical  theory,  besides  acutely  criticiz- 
ing other  standpoints,  and  in  particular  the  then  dominant  Hegelian 
jystem.  The  Logisehe  UiUersuchungen  were,  indeed,  an  important 
factor  in  the  reaction  against  Hegel  which  set  in  about  that  time 
in  Germany.  Two  articles  written  by  Trendelenburg  in  the  con- 
troversy which  ensued  were  republished  separately,  under  the  title 
Die  logisehe  Frage  in  Hegets  System  (1843).  A  secoud  and  en- 
larged edition  of  the  Logisehe  UntersuehuTtgen  appeared  in  1862, 
and  a  third  in  1870.  In  1S46  he  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
"  Historical  Contributions  to  Philosophy  "  (Historische  Seilrdge 
zur  Philosophie),  containing  a  history  of  the  doctrine  of  the  cate- 
gories, which  forms  a  pendant  to  his  own  elaboration  of  the  same 
subject  in  the  Logisehe  Untersuckungen.  A  second  volume  of  the 
;'  Historical  Contributions  "  appeared  in  1855,  and  a  third  in  1867, 
consisting  of  detached  essays  on  points  of  iuterest  in  the  history  of 
philosophy.  A  number  of  these  are  papers  originally  read  before 
the  Prussian  Academy  of  the  Sciences,  of  which  Trendelenburg 
was  made  a  member  in  1846.  He  was  secretary  of  the  philosophico- 
historical  section  from  184"  tili  1S71>  and  devoted  much  of  his 
valuable  time  to  the'duties  devolnng  upon  him.  A  number  of  his 
papers  dealing  with  non-philosophical — mainly  with  national  and 
educational — subjects  have  been  collected  fti  his  Kleine  Schriften 
(2  vols.,  1871).  In  1S60  the  second  of  bis  larger  works  appeared, 
Kiiturreeht  auf  dan,  Orandt  der  Ethik  (second  enlarged  edition, 
1863).  In  1865  Trendelenburg  became  involved  in  a  controversy 
with  Eono  Fischer  on  the  interpretation  of  Kant's  doctrine  of 
space,  which  was  carried  on  with  no  little  acrimony  for  a  number 
of  yeiars.  The  war  of  1870  drew  from  him  a  short  treatise  on  the 
defects,  of  international  law, — LUcken  im  Volkemcht-  He  had 
always  had  s  deeply  patriotic  interest  in  the  political  development 
of  Prussia,  and  through  Prussia  of  Germany,  and  in  the  stormy 
times  after  1S43  had  even  acted* for  a  short  period  as  deputy  to 
tlie  Prussian  chamber. 

Trendelenburg's  philosophizing  is  conditioned  throughout  by  bis 
loving  study  of  Plato  and   Aristotle,  whom  he  regards  not  as 
opponents  but  as  building  jointly  ou  the  broad  basis  of  idealism. 
His  own  standpoint  may  almost  be  called  a  modem  version  of 
Aristotle  thns  interpreted.     While  denying  the  possibility  of  an 
absolute  method  and  an  absolute  philosophy,  as  contended  for  by 
Hegel  and  others,  Trendelenburg  was  emphatically  an  idealist  in 
the  ancient  or  Platonic  sense ;  his  whole  work  was  devoted  to  the 
demonstration  of , the  ideal  in  the  real.     Bat  he  maintained  that 
the  procedure  of  philosophy  must  be  analytic,  rising  from   the 
particular  facts  to  the  universal  in  which  we  find  them  explained. 
We  divine  the  system  of  the  whole  from  the  part  we  know,  just  as 
from  a  torso  we  may  reconstruct  a  work  of  art;  but  the  process  of 
reconstruction  must,  in  the  case  of  philosophy,  remain  approxi- 
mative.     Our  position  forbids  the  possibility  of  a  final  system.- 
Instead,  therefore,  of  constantly  be^nning  afresh  in  speculation,  it 
should  be  onr  duty  to  attach  ourselves  to  what  may  be  considered 
the  permanent  results  of  historic  development.      The  classical 
expression  of  these  results  Trendelenburg   finds  mainly  in  the 
Platonico-.Aristotelian  system.    The  philosophical  question  is  stafcd 
thus— How  are  thought  and  being  united  in    biowledge  ?  how  does 
thought  get  at  being?  and  how  does  being-enter  into  thought? 
Proceeding  on  the  principle  that  like  can  only  he  known  by  uke, 
Trendelenburg  next  reaches  a  doctrine  peculiar  to  himself  (though 
based  upon  Aristotle)  which  plays  a  central  part  in  his  speculations. 
Motion  is  the  fundamental  fact  common  to  being  and  thought ;  the 
actual  motion  of  the  external  world  has  its  counterpart  in  the 
constructive  motion  which  is  involved  in  every  instance  of  percep- 
tion or  thought    From  motion  he  proceeds  to  deduce  time,  space, 
and  the  cat<^ories  of  mechanics  and  natural  science.     These,  being 
thus  derived,  are  at  once  subjective  and  objective  in  their  scope. 
It  is  true  matter  can  never  be  completely  resolved  into  motion, 
but  the  irreducible  remainder  may  be  treated  like  the  ipttri)  v\rt 
of  Aristotle  as  an  abstraction  which  we  asiTrptotically  approach 
but  never  re-ioh.     The  facts  of  existence,  however,  are  not  ade- 
quately explained  by  the  mechanical  categories.    The  ultimate  inter- 
pretation of  the  universe  can  only  be  found  in  the  higher  category 
ofi£nd  or  final  cause.     Here  Trendelenburg  finds  the  dividing  line 
between  philosophical  systems.     On  the  one  side' stand  those  which 
acknowledge  none  but  eBBcient  canses, — which  make  force  prior  to 
thought,  and  explain  the  universe,  as  it  were,  a  lergo.    This  may 
be  called,  typically,  Democritism.     On  the  other  side  stands  the 
■organic'   or  teleological  view  of  the  world,  which  interprets  the 


parts  through  the  idea  of  the  whole,  and  sees  in  the  efficient  causes 
only  the  vehicle  of  ideal  ends.  Tliis  may  be  called  in  a  wide  sense 
Platonism.  Systems  like  Spinozisni,  wliich  seem  to  form  a  third 
class,  neither  sacrificing  force  to  thought  nor  thouglit  to  force,  yet 
by  tlieir  denial  of  final  causes  inevitably  fall  back  into  the  Uemo- 
critic  or  essentially  materialistic  standpoint,  leaving  us  with  the 
great  antagonism  of  tlie  mcchnnical  and  the  organic  systems  of 
philosophy.  The  latter  view,  which  receives  its  first  support  in 
th»  facts  of  life,  or  organic  nature  as  such,  finds  its  culmination 
and  ultimate  verification  in  the  ethical  world,  which  essentially 
consists  in  the  realization  of  ends.  Trendelenburg's  KaturrccIU 
may,  therefore,  be  taken  as  in  a  manner  the  comiiletion  of  his 
sj-stem,  his  working  out  of  the  ideal  as  present  in  the  real.  The 
ethical  end  is  taken  to  be  the  idea  of  humanity,  not  in  the  abstract 
as  formulated  by  Kant,  but  in  the  contest  of  the  slate  and  of 
history.  Law  is  treated  throughout  as  the  vehicle  of  ethical 
requirements.  In  Trendelenburg's  treatment  of  the  st-ite,  as  the 
ethical  organism  in  which  the  individual  (the  potential  man)  may 
be  said  first  to  emerge  into  actuality,  we  may  truce  his  nurture  on 
the  best  ideas  of  Hellenic  antiquity.  (.A.  SE. ) 

TRENT  {Tridenlum  ■,  Ital.  Trento ,  Germ.  Triml),  a 
city  of  the  Austrian  empire,  capital  of  Italian  or  "  Welsch  "i 
Tyrol,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige,  where  it  is 
joined  by  the  Fersina,  on  the  Brenner  Railway,  35  miles 
below  Botzen  and  60  miles  above  Verona.  It  has  a  very 
picturesque  appearance,  especially  when  approached  from  _ 
the  north,  with  its  embattled  walls  and  towers  filling  ther 
whole  breadth  of  the  valley,  a  conspicuous  feature  being 
the  rocky  citadel  of  Dos  Trento  (the  Roman  Verrvia)  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river.  Of  the  old  walls  some  massive 
remains  are  attributed  by  local  tradition  to  Theodoric  the 
Goth.  Notwithstanding  many  symptoms  of  decay,  Trent, 
with  its  numerous  palaces,  substantial  houses,  broad  streets, 
and  spacious  squares,  still  retains  the  aspect  of  a  flourish- 
ing Cisalpine  town.  In  appearance  it  is  quite  Italian,  and 
the  inhabitants  speak  Italian  only.  The  cathedral, .  on 
the  south  side  of  the  spacious  Piazza  del  Duomo,  was 
begun  in  its  present  form  in  12r2,  and  finished  about  the 
beginning  of  the  15th  century.  It  preserves,  however, 
some  Lombardic  features  of  ornamentation  in  the  portals 
and  elsewhere  which  possibly  date  from  the  7th  or  8th 
century.  Tlie  church  of  St  Maria  Maggiore,  a  simple  buj 
good  example  of  the  Italiati  style  of  the  loth  century,  was 
the  meeting-place  of  Ihe  famous  council  (see  below),  and 
possesses  a  picture  containing  portraits  of  the  members. 
Trent  is  the  seat  of  a  prince-archbishop,  and  has  all  the 
public  offices  according  with  its  administrative  rank.  It 
has  a  museum  and  library,  a  gymnasium,  a  "  lyceura,"  a 
seminary,  and  a  deaf  and  dumb  institute.  The  chief 
industries  are  silk-spinning  and  weaving,  tanning,  sugar- 
refining,  and  glass-blowing  ;  and  there  is  considerable  trade 
in  wine,  grain,  and  fruit,  as  also  in  marble  from  th* 
extensive  quarries  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  population 
in  1880  was  19,585. 

Tridentum  is  mentioned  by  the  geographers  as  capital  of  the  Tri- 
dentini,  and  seems  ultimately  to  have  been  made  a  Roman  colony. 
ltsufi"ered  much  during- the  period  of  barbaric  invasion,  but  was 
resuscitated  by  Theodoric,  becoming  the  seat  successively  of  Gothic 
and  Lombard  dukes  and  Prankish  counU.  In  1027  it  passed  under 
the  rule  of  its  bishops,  with  whom  it  had  frefjueut  disputes,  in 
which  it  sought  the  favour  and  alliance  of  the  lords  of  Tyrol.  Tho 
■Venetians  made  repeated  efforts  to  set  up  the  lion  of  St  Mark  within 
the  walls  of  Trent,  but  were  decisively  and  finally  repulsed  in  1487. 

TRENT,  The  Council  ok,  which  may  be  described  as 
the  watershed  of  Roman  Catholicism  and  Protestantism, 
is  the  most  important  occurrence  in  post-mediseval  church 
history.  It  is  the  culminating  event  in  a  long  series  of 
similar  a.ssemblies,  convoked  to  remedy  the  evils  occasioned 
during  and  by  the  great  schism  of  the  papacy,  and  by  the 
dissolution  of  lay  and  clerical  morals  to  which  the  i>agan 
temper  of  the  Renaissance  had  largely  contributed.  But 
the  councils  if  Pisa,  Constance,  Basel,  Ferrara-Florence, 
and  the  Lateran  had  met  and  parted  without  attempting 
to  deal  effectually  with  any  of  the  practical  scandals  and 
abuses  in  the  church  which  were-sappiug  the  loyalty  and 


544 


TRENT 


[council. 


affection  it  had  formerly  enjoyed ;  and  these  repeated  fail- 
ures, by  destroying  all  hope  of  redress  at  the  hands  of  the 
constituted  authorities,  precipitated  the  crash  of  the  Re- 
formation, which  was  in  its  inception  scarcely  concerned 
with  doctrinal  issues  directly,  but  aimed  mainly  at  faults 
of  administration  and  morals. 

Consequently  a  largely  new  problem  presented  itself 
for  solution,  and  necessitated  a  fundamental  change  in 
the  attitude  of  those  concerned.  Hitherto,  whatever  may 
have  been  the  fierceness  and  bitterness  of  the  disputes 
which  the  ISthcentury  councils  had  attempted  to  allay, 
they  were,  so  to  speak,  family  quarrels  'between  members 
of  the  same  great  household,  accustomed  to  the  same  mode 
of  looking  at  religious,  questions,  acknowledging  the  same 
hierarchy,  and  accepting  the  same  standards,  and  thus 
with  a  vast  body  of  agreement  to  go  upon  as-  a  basis  of 
reconciliation,  leaving  only  comparatively  minor  details  to 
be  adjusted.  But  the  German  and  Swiss  Reformation  had 
generated  new  communions,  novel  alike  in  their  polity  and 
much  of  their  theology,  and  in  active  revolt,  not  merely 
against  this  or  that  detail  or  abuse,  but  against  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  its  entirety,  hierarchical,  doctrinal,  and 
political.  The  movement  had  not  been  confined  long  to  its 
earlier  limits,  but  had  spread  over  all  western  Europe,  had 
virtually  conquered  Holland  and  Scandinavia,  was  mak- 
ing great  strides  in  France  and  England,  and  was  begin- 
ning to  threaten  even  Italy  and  Spain.  Thus,  the  task  was 
no  longer  the  comparatively  simple  one  of  satisfying  the 
demands  of  friendly  remonstrants,  but  of  winning  back 
alienated  nations,  and,  if  that  were  too  much  to  hoi)e 
for,  at  least  of  saving  the  remnant  of  the  Roman  obedience 
fropi  further  disintegration.  And  for  this  purpose  it  was 
no  longer  sufficient,  as  it  would  have  been  a  few  years 
earlier,  to  discuss  administrative  details  alone,  but  a  review 
of  the  tvhole  theological  fabric  of  Latin  Christianity,  no 
part  of  which  had  been  left  wholly  unimpeachcd,  became 
a  necessary  factor  in  any  possible  scheme  of  reconcilia- 
tion. True,  a  precedent  had  been  set  in  the  theological 
discussions  at  the  council  of  Ferrara-Florence,  w'ith  its 
abortive  effort  to  reunite  Oriental  and  Latin  Christendom, 
but  the  area  and  number  of  differences  to  bo  reconciled 
upon  that  occasion  were  incomparably  smaller  than  those 
which  had  subsequently  arisen,  and  the  situation  was  thus 
one  of  extreme  ■difficulty  and  delicacy,  sIjicc  there  was 
always  the  danger  of  alienating  many  who  had  continued 
loyal  so  far,  if  very  largo  concessions  were  made  to  the 
revolted  Protestants,  not  a  few  of  whom,  besides,  had 
nready  passed  beyond  the  possibility  of  reconciliation. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  Luther  had  himself  appealed  to  a 
general  council  from  the  bull  "  E.\surgc  Domino"  launched 
at  him  by  Leo  X.  in  1.520,  and  his  demand  was  taken  up 
by  the  emperor  and  the  princes  of  Germany,  whether 
Catholics  or  Protestants,  as  the  only  conceivable  means 
ai  terminating  a  crisis  whose  religious  and  [lolltlcal  results 
might  prove  far  more  serious  than  even  tlie  least  hopeful 
ventured  to  forecast.  There  was  thus  steady  pressure  from 
one  side  put  upon  the  Roman  curia  to  obtain  the  con- 
vocation of  such  a  council,  while  scarcely  less  resistance 
to  the  proposal  was  offered  by  two  very  unlike  parties  in 
the  Roman  Church  itself.  For  not  only  did  those  oppose 
it  who  were  interested  in  the  maintenance  of  the  principal 
abuses  complained  of,  and  who  feared  that  sweeping 
measures  might  be  taken  for  their  abolition,  but  some  of 
the  ablest  cham|)ionsof  internal  reforms,  snch  as  Cardinals 
Sadolet,  Contarini,  and  Reginald  Pole,  were  equally  hostile 
to  it,  for  the  very  diffcrerrt  reason  that  they  believed  any 
such  council  likely 'to  contain  a  majority  determined  on 
making  it  as  abortive  as  those  great  synods  had  been 
which  were  fresh  in  the  memory  of  all.  Accordingly,  this 
section  ijave  its  voice  for  the  alternative  scheme  of  pro- 


ceeding by  way  of  less  formal  conferences,  at  which 
mutual  explanations  and  concessions  might  be  made  by 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  whereby  a  modus  viveudi  could 
be  established,  with  less  chance  of  the  whole  effort  being 
wrecked  by  the  Intrigues  of  tho.se  who  desired  nothing 
less  than  practical  reforms.  A  fresh  difficulty  was  pre- 
sented by  the  opposition  of  the  German  princes  to  tlio 
assemblage  of  the  council  at  Rome  or  anywhere  outside 
Germany,  as  they  distrusted  the  probable  action  of  the 
Italian  element,  certain  to  preponderate  in  that  event ; 
and,  as  the  curia  was  equally  bent  on  holding  it  within 
the  siihere  of  direct  papal  influence,  this  dispute  made  it 
impracticable  to  agree  even  on  the  preliminaries  during 
the  pontificates  of  Hadrian  VI.  and  Clement  VII.  The 
diet  of  Spires  in  1.529  renewed  the  demand  for  a  general 
council,  to  be  held  in  some  large  German  city  ;  and  the 
diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530  summoned  the  Lutherans  to 
return  into  Catholic  communion  at  once  and  uncondition- 
ally, leaving  their  doctrines  (formulated  in  the  Confession 
of  Augsburg  that  very  year)  to  bo  judged  of  in  a  future 
council,  which  the  emperor  Charles  V.  pledged  himself  to 
obtain  within  a  brief  space.  Clement  VII.,  then  pope, 
was  displeased  at  this  initiative  on  the  emperor's  part,  but 
offered  to  convoke  a  council  in  some  Italian  city,  such  as 
Mantua  or  Milan,  belonging  to  the  empire,  and  outside  the 
States  of  the  Church, — e.Npressing  his  wish  that  Charles  V. 
should  personally  attend  it.  I'.ut  he  hampered  this  pro- 
posal witli  conditions  which  made  it  valueless  for  the  main 
object  of  such  an  assembly,  by  declaring  that  no  theo- 
logical questions  upon  which  the  church  had  spoken  could 
be  reopened,  and  that,  if  Protestants  were  to  be  admitted 
to  the  council  at  all,  it  must  be,  not  as  disputants,  but  as 
on  their  trial,  and  pledged  beforehand  to  submit  to  the 
decisions  of  the  council.  No  result,  consequently,  followed 
upon  this  step,  nor  was  an  embassy  which  Clement  .sent 
In  1533  to  the  German  princes  and  to  the  kings  of  France 
and  England  with  very  similar  provisions  more  successful, 
for  it  merely  drew  out  a  peremptory  rejection  of  the 
scheme  from  the  Protestants  assembled  at  Schmalkald,  by 
the  emperor's  desire,  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  it.  So 
the  matter  rested  till  the  accession  of  Alexander  Farnese 
to  the  papal  throne  as  Paul  III.  in  1534.  A  much  abler 
man  than  his  predecessor,  he  was  also  more  alive  to  the 
imperative  need  of  at  least  appearing  to  a]>prove  some 
measure  of  reform,  if  the  church  was  to  be  .saved  from 
impending  dangers  (indeed,  a  report  on  this  subject,  drawn 
up  at  his  desire  by  a  committee  of  cardinals  In  IS.'iG,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  documents  of  the  era),  and  ho 
was  thought  to  be  favourable  to  the  project  of  a  council, 
whereas  there  is  little  doubt  that  Clement  VII.  had 
weighted  his  acceptance  of  the  plan  with  impossible  con- 
ditions, in  order  to  avoid  its  realization,  yet  so  as  to  let  the 
responsibility  of  refusal  rest  with  others  than  hinjself. 
Paul  III.  sent  Vorgerio  as  envoy  into  Germany,  to  confer 
with  the  emperor  and  the  princes,  offering  to  convoke  a 
council  at  Mantua,  and  urging  the  danger  of  attempting 
to  hold  it  in  Germany,  by  reason  of  the  violent  lengths  to 
which  the  Anabaptists  were  then  proceeding.  But,  while 
the  Catholic  princes  were  content  with  this  offer,  it  was 
refused  by  the  Protestants,  and  th'e  ambassadors  of  France 
and  England  supported  them  in  their  attitude.  Vcrgcrio, 
who  had  also  a  fruitless  interview  with  Luther,  returned 
to  Rome  early  in  1 530,  but  Paul  III.  was  not  discouraged 
by  his  failure,  and  proposed,  in  a  consistory  ou  Aprd  8,  to 
convoke  a  council  at  Mantua.  This  plan  was  in  turn 
u|pset,  not  only  by  the  continued .  resistance  of  the 
Protestants,  but  by  the  refusal  of  the  duke  of  Mantua  to 
permit  the  use  of  his  city  for  such  a  purpose,  unless  upon 
conditions  which  the  pope  was  unwilling  to  accept. 
Notice  was  accordingly  given  of  a  council  to  be  opened 


•COUNCIL,  j 


TRENT 


54S 


at  Vicenia  on  May  1,  1538,  and  legates  were  despatched 
thitber  to  make  the  preliminary  arrangements,  and  to 
preside  so  soon  as  the  members  should  assemble.  But 
when  the  appointed  time  was  only  five  days  off  not  one 
bishop  had  arrived,  and  the  pope  was  forced  to  prorogue 
the  council  again  and  again  Meanwhile,  the  method 
vhich  Contarini  and  Sadolet  had  recommended,  that  of 
conferences  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants,  was 
being  acted  oa  in  Germany,  and  meetings  of  this  nature 
were  convened  successively  at  Haguenau,  Worms,  and 
Ratisboo,  at  the  last  of  which,  in  1541,  Contarini  was 
present  as  legate  of  the  pope,  and  showed  so  much  tact, 
moderation,  and  sympathy  that  he  succeeded  in  securing 
a  large  measure  of  agreement  upon  the  controversies  in 
dispute,  notably  on  the  vexed  question  of  Justification. 
But,  as  his  concessions  and  explanations  were  promptly 
repudiated  at  Rome,  no  practical  result  followed.  In  1542 
Paul  rU  sent  Morone  as  his  envoy  to  the  diet  of  Spires 
to  offer  Trent  as  his  final  concession  of  the  place  of 
assembly,  on  the  ground  that  its  position  in  Tyrol,  and  its 
being  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  king  of  the  Romans, 
ought  to  meet  all  the  reasonable  requirements  of  the 
German  princes.  Ferdinand,  king  of  the  Romans,  who 
presided  at  the  diet,  was  content  with  this  offer,  as  were 
the  Catholic  princes  generally,  but  the  Protestants  con- 
tinued to  object,  and  refused  any  council  which  should  not 
be  completely  free  from  papal  influence  and  authority. 
However,  the  pope  issued,  on  May  22,  1542,  a  bull 
appointing  the  meeting  of  the  council  for  November  1  fol- 
lowing. He  sent  three  legates  to  Trent  to  make  prepara- 
tions,— Morone,  Parisio,  and  Reginald  Pole  ;  but  they  did 
not  reach  the  city  tiU  three  weeks  later  than  the  appointed 
date  for  opening  the  council,  and  so  few  bishops  arrived 
during  seven  months  from  that  time  that  it  was  necessary 
to  prorogue  the  assembly  In  fact,  the  idea  of  the  council 
was  distasteful  to  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  Latin 
clergy,  especially  such  as  apprehended  danger  to  their 
private  interests  from  the  reforming  plans  of  the  pope,  and 
also  such  as  were  alarmed  lest  serious  religious  innova- 
tions might  be  made  in  order  to  conciliate  the  Protestants. 
While  this  delay  continued,  another  diet  at  Spires  in 
1544  resulted  in  great  advantages  to  the  Lutherans,  who 
availed  themselves  of  the  political  straits  of  Charles  V. 
to  extort  several  important  concessions  from  him.  The 
obnoxious  edicts  passed  against  them  at  Worms  and 
Augsburg  were  rescinded ;  they  were  permitted  to  retain 
such  ecclesiastical  property  as  they  had  seized  ,  they  were 
made  eligible  for  such  civil  and  ecclesiastical  offices  as  had 
been  previously  barred  against  them ;  and  general  tolera- 
tion for  the  time  being  was  established  This  policy  was 
extremely  distasteful  to  the  pope,  who  addressed  a  brief 
to  the  emperor,  strongly  remonstrating  against  it,  and 
renewing  his  offer  of  a  council  Charles  V.,  who  had  not 
been  a  free  agent  in  the  matter,  was  much  of  the  pope's 
mind,  and  proceeded  to  relieve  himself  of  one  difficulty  in 
the  way  of  reversing  his  action,  by  concluding  peace  with 
Francis  I.  of  France  on  September  8,  1544  Hereupon 
Paul  III.  directed  public  thanksgivings  to  be  offered 
throughout  the  whole  Latin  Church,  and  issued  a  bull 
removing  the  suspension  of  the  council,  and  summoning 
it  to  meet  at  Trenton  March  15,  1545  Unable  from  age 
and  illness  to  be  present  himself,  as  he  had  wished,  he 
named  Giammaria  del  Monte,  bishop  of  Palestrina  (after- 
wards Pope  Julius  IIL),  Marcello  Cervini  (afterwards  Pope 
Marcellus  IL),  and  Reginald  Pole  as  his  legates.  The  ex- 
perience of  former  abortive  openings  was  repeated,  for 
they  found  but  one  bishop  awaiting  them,  and  so  few  con- 
tinued to  arrive  that  a  fresh  prorogation  was  forced  upon 
the  legates,  and  the  pope,  in  the  bull  authorizing  this 
action,  added  a  proviso  that  no  proxies  should  be  received. 


but  that  all  bishops  summoned  should  attend  in  person, 
under  severe  penalties  for  contumacy.  On  November  7, 
1545,  the  legates  received  final  instructions  to  opea  the 
council  upon  December  13,  and  did  so  with  solema  cere- 
monial, but  only  as  a  formal  initiative  of  the  proceedings, 
for  the  first  session  was  postponed  till  January  7,  1546. 
When  that  time  arrived,  no  more  than  some  five  aid 
twenty  archbishops  and  bishops,  five  generals  of  religious 
orders,  and  the  ambassadors  of  King  Ferdinand  had  as- 
sembled, and  none  of  the  conciliar  officers  had  yet  bees 
nominated,  nor  any  programme  of  procedure  sketched  out 
The  most  important  question  arising  under  this  last  head 
was  whether  the  voting  should  be  taken  by  nations,  as  at 
the  council  of  Constance,  or  by  individuals,  and  the  matter 
was  referred  to  the  pope,  who  gave  his  decision  for  the 
latter,  as  at  once  the  more  ancient  (since  Constance  and 
Basel  were  the  only  precedents  for  the  national  vote)  and 
the  more  convenient.  Moreover,  this  ruling  secured  from 
the  outset  a  wofkitg  majority  of  Italian  bishops  in  the 
assembly,  at  once  by  reason  of  the  small  size  of  the  average 
Italian  diocese,  and  of  the  greater  ease  with  which  Treat 
could  be  reached  from  Italy  than  from  any  other  country 
which  sent  representatives  thither,  besides  enabling  the 
pope  to  swell  the  majority  (as  in  the  Vatican  council  three 
centuries  later)  with  bishops  in  partibua,  having  no 
dioceses  or  jurisdiction,  thus  amply  justifyipg  the  objec- 
tion taken  all  along  by  the  German  Protestants  to  the 
assemblage  of  the  council  anywhere  outside  Germany. 

Some  preliminaries  had  to  be  settled  before  the  second  session, 
and  the  plan  of  holding  private  "general  congregations.''  where 
theologians  of  non-epi^copal  i-ank  could  sit  and  share  in  the  dis- 
cussion and  preparation  of  the  decrees  to  be  proposed  and  voted  O" 
in  public  session,  was  at  once  adopted  and  observed  thenceforward- 
And  first,  the  question  wa3  raised  whether  any  persons  except 
bishops  sbnuld  be  allowed  to  vote  upon  matters  of  aoctrine.  Tho 
decision  was  that  the  vote  should  be  allowed  to  the  generals  o: 
religious  orders  also,  and  that  the  right  of  the  proxies  of  abscc; 
bishops  to  vote  should  be  referred  to  the  pope.  The  title  to  be 
given  to  the  council  at  th,e  head  of  the  decrees  in  each  session  waji 
then  discussed,  and  a  proposal  to  add  the  words  "representing  the 
church  universal "  (as  at  Basel  and  Constance)  to  the  usual  formula 
"general  and  oecumenical"  was  rejected  at  the  instance  of  the 
legates,  as  indirectly  menacing  to  papal  autocracy.  The  legates 
also  privately  informed  the  pope  that  the  majority  of  the  members 
desired  to  take  up  the  question  of  practical  reforms  before  that  ci 
doctrine,  and  that  it  might  be  necessary  to  yield  the  point  to  avoid 
scandal  or  the  imputation  of  sympathy  with  abuses,  out  that  thev 
would  insist,  in  that  case,  on  making  the  measures  of  reform  apply 
all  round,  to  pnnces  and  laymen  as  well  aa  to  ecclesiastics,  wmcb 
would  probably  damp  the  ardour  of  its  advocates. 

The  actual  bttsiness  of  the  second  session  (January  7,  1546)  was 
confined  to  the  promulgation  of  a  decree  touching  the  discipline  t^ 
be  observed  by  the  members  of  the  couneildurine  its  progress,  ao 
well  in  the  matters  of  their  private  devotion  and  their  food  as  lo 
the  conduct  of  the  debates.  The  congregations  \thich  preceded 
the  third  session  were  mainly  occupied  with  debating  the  thorny 
question  of  the  order  in  which  the  discussion  of  faith  and  of  dis- 
ciplina  was  to  come,  and  it  was  at  last  agreed  to  take  theo. 
simultaneously. 

So  few  additional  bishops  had  arrived  up  to  this  time  that  it  was 
judged  inexpedient  to  promulgate  any  decrees  in  the  third  session 
(February  4, 1648),  and  little  was  done  except  the  public  rscitation 
of  the  Niceno-Constantinopolitan  creed  as  the  authoritative  con- 
fession of  the  Roman  Church,  and.  as  the  council  worded  it,  "  that 
firm  and  only  foundation  against  which  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not 
prevail"  A  fortnight  after  this  third  session  Martin  Luther  died 
(February  18,  1546),  just  as  the  situation  in  Germany  was  becoming 
more  strained,  and  the  emperor,  alarmed  at  the  rapid  advance  of 
Reformed  opinions  and  practices  (ooUbly  in  the  Palatinate,  where 
the  elector  had  made  large  concessions),  was  taking  measures  for 
suppressing  tie  religious  revolt  by  force  of  arms.  The  canon  o( 
Scripture  was  proposed  in  the  congregations  before  the  fourth 
session  as  the  subject  for  discussion,  and  the  three  foUowine 
questions  were  raised  —(1)  Were  all  the  books  of  both  Testaments 
to  be  approved  and  received  f  (2)  Was  there  to  be  a  fresh  inquiry 
into  their  canonical  character  before  giving  such  approval'  (3) 
Should  there  be  any  distinction  drawn  between  the  books,  as  being 
some  of  them  read  merely  for  moral  instruction,  and  othera  foi 
proving  the  doctrines  of  Christian  belief!  The  first  of  these 
questions  was  decided  affirmatively.     The  second  led  to  much  de- 

XXIIL  —  69 


646 


TRENT 


bate;  the  conclusion  arrived  at  was  tliat  a  secret  cxamiuatioii  of 
the  evidence  should  be  made,  but  not' suffered  to  appear  in  the 
public  acts  of  the  council.  The  third  question  was  decided  nega- 
tively. These  congregations  were  the  first  wherein  theological 
experts  and  canonists,  not  being  members  of  the  council,  were 
admitted  to  a  share  in  the  discussions.  The  nature  and  function 
of  tradition  was  also  debated  at  this  time,  and  the  legates  informed 
the  pope  that  there  was  a  strong  tendency  in  the  council  to  set  it 
aside  altogether,  and  to  make  Scripture  the  sole  standard  of  appeal. 
Another  burning  question  debated  was  that  of  vernacular  transla- 
tion and  lay  study  of  Scripture.  The  result,  in  the  fourth  session 
(April  8,  1546),  was  the  promulgation  of  two  decrees,  the  first  of 
which  enacts,  under  anathema,  that  Scripture  and  tradition  are  to 
be  received  and  venerated  equally,  and  tliat  the  deutcro-canonical 
books  are  part  of  the  canon  of  Scripture.  The  second  decree  de- 
clared the  Vulgate  to  be  the  sole  authentic  and  standard  Latin 
version,  and  gave  it  such  authority  as  to  supersede  tlie  original 
texts;  forbade  the  interpretation  of  Scripture  contrary  to  the  sense 
received  by  tlie  church,  "or  even  contrary  to  the  unanimous  con- 
sent of  the  fathers";  imposed  various  restrictions  upon  printers 
and  vendors  of  Cibles;  made  licences  to  read  any  Biblical, manu- 
script or  publication  compulsory;  and  prohibited  the  application 
of  Scripture  language  to  profane  and  superstitious  purposes.  The 
subjects  next  taken  up  were  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  and  the 
reformation  of  abuses  concerned  with  preachers  an<l  lecturers,  whicli 
were  made  the  matter  of  two  decrees  in  the  fifth  session  (Juno  17, 
1546).  -The  most  noticeable  point  in  the  former  is  the  saving 
clause,  whereby  the  tenet  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  tlie 
Blessed  Virgin  is  excepted  from  decision,  and  left  oiwn ;  the  latter 
enjoins  the  erection  of  a  lectureship  of  Scripture  in  all  cathedrals, 
collegiate  churches,  and  monasteries,  imposes  the  duty  of  preaching 
upon  all  bishops  and  persons  with  cure  of  souls,  lays  down  stringent 
rules  as  to  preaching  licences,  and  forbids  tlie  "questors"  (tliat 
is,  the  collectors  of  alms  commissioned  by  the  mendicant  orders) 
to  preach  anywhere.  There  was  a  treaty  concluded  between  the 
pope  and  the  emperor  a  few  days  after  tliis  session,  to  make  war 
against  the  German  Protestants  on  the  express  ground  of  their 
refnsal  to  submit  to  the  council,  and  from  tliis  may  be  datc<l  the 
end  of  any  serious  effort  in  the  council  itself  to  deal  with  the 
question  of  reconciliation,  althougli  the  original  motive  for  its 
convocation.  Moreover,  so  little  interest  was  fell  even  by  the 
liomau  episcopate  in  the  proceedings  at  Trent  that,  instead  of  fresh 
accessions  coming  to  recruit  the  small  numbers  present,  constant 
defections  took  place,  and  a  proposal  to  stop  this  by  forbidding 
any  bishop  to  quit  Trent  without  formal  permission  was  carried. 
The  doctrine  of  Justification,  made  a  burning  question  by  the  pro- 
minence given  to  it  in  Lutheran  theology,  was  next  taken  up,  and, 
this  being,  so  to  speak,  a  new  controversy,  with  few  precedents 
to  guide  the  council,  the  discussion  w.rs  pioportionably  protracted. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  Luther's  views  found  some  supporters,  and 
the  resignation  of  the  legateship  at  tliis  time  by  Ucgmald  Pole, 
and  his  departure  from  the  council,  never  to  return,  is  attributed  to 
his  dissatisfaction  with  tlio  conclusions  arrived  at  upon  this  subject 
in  its  decree.  The  disciplinary  .question  discus.scd  at  this  time  was 
that  of  the  obligation  of  residence,  especially  as  regards  bishops ; 
and  decrees  upon  both  these  subjects  were  promulgated  in  the  sixth 
session  (January  13,  1547),— that  on  Justification  being  a  formal 
dogmatic  treatise  in  sixteen  chapters,  tliirty-threo  canons;  that 
on  residence  reviving  former  canons,  and  imposing  new  penalties, 
but  avoiding  the  solution  of  a  question  hotly  debated  in  the  council, 
whether  the  residence  of  bishops  was  obligatoiy  jure  divino,  or 
merely  by  ecclesiastical  precept.  Meanwhile,  Charles  V  was 
victorious  in  his  war  with  the  Protestants,  and  had  all  Germany 
In  his  power,  but,  inste»d  of  using  the  opportunity,  as  the  pope 
Expected,  to  put  down  the  Reformers,  he  alleged  that  the  recent 
war  had  not  been  one  of  religion,  and  assumed  an  attitude  of  tolera- 
tion. Hereupon  Paul  III.,  in  order  to  break  up  this  truce,  sent 
instructions  to  the  legates  to  press  on  decrees  displeasing  to  the 
Protestants,  judging  that  the  emperor's  well-known  interest  in  the 
council  would  cause  him  to  be  accounted  responsible  for  its  measures, 
nnd  thus  lose  all  credit  for  his  recent  forbearance.  In  the  seventh 
session,  held  on  March  3,  1547,  two  decrees  were  promulgated.— one 
[Icfiniiig  the  -sacraments  as  seven  in  number,  and  as  being,  all 
channels  of  grace,  also  adding  speci.al  canons  concerning  baptism 
and  confirmation  ;  the  other  dealing  with  pluralities,  unions  ol 
benefices,  repair  of  churches,  and  kindred  matters,  but  with  no 
great  stringency.  A  more  important  part  of  the  business  of  this 
session  was  the  open  declaration  of  a  nieasnro  which  the  pope  and 
the  legates  had  been  privately  planning  for  some  time,  the  trans- 
ference of  the  council  from  Trent  to  some  city  more  directly  under 
fa|)al  control ;  for,  while  Trent  sufficed  for  headquarters  as  against 
rotestaiits,  yet  it  was  found  that  a  virtual  coalition  between  the 
Spanish,  French,  and  German  bishops  to  resist  the  Italians  inter- 
fered with  the  intentions  of  the  papal  court,  and  could  be  most 
effectively  broken  up  by  a  change  of  place.  Occasion  was  accord 
ingly  taken  from  nil  outbreak  of  disease,  alleged  to  be  infectious, 
at  Trent  to  issue  a  hull  transferring  the  council  to  Bologue,  which 


[COUKCIL. 

was  read  in  the  seventh  session,  while  the  promulgation  of  a  decree 
in  accordance  with  it  formed  the  whole  business  of  the  eighth 
session  (March  U,  1547).  When  it  had  been  passed,  the  legatet 
produced  a  brief  which  they  had  obtained  more  than  two  years 
before,  empowering  them  to  transfer  tho  council  as  they  pleased. 
But,  while  they  themselves  quitted  Trent  the  next  day,  and  were 
followed  by  the  majority  of  the  bishops,  those  of  the  emperor's 
party  continued  in  session  at  Trent,  and  refused  to  leave  it  without 
the  permission  of  their  sovereign,  though  they  abstained  from  al' 
conciliar  action,  in  order  to  avoid  the  charge  of  schism.  Charles 
V  .  incensed  at  the  pope's  action,  sent  a  mandate  approving  and 
confirming  their  conduct  The  ninth  session,  held  at  Bologiit 
(April  21,  1547),  and  the  tenth  also  (June  2,  1547),  were  merely 
formal,  nothing  being  done  save  to  prorogue  the  council.  The 
practical  result  of  this  split  in  the  council  was  to  relieve  the  Pro- 
testants from  imminent  peril ;  for,  while  the  emperor's  successes 
enabled  him  to  put  severe  pressure  upoir  them  to  submit  to  it 
decrees,  it  was  itself  incapacitated  for  valid  action,  as  neither  the 
bishops  at  Bologna  nor  those  at  Trent  could  claim  to  be  the  whole 
council,  nor  demand  acceptance  of  their  acts  as  binding.  Hence 
Charles  V.  was  urgent  for  the  return  of  the  entire  body  to  Trent, 
and  threatened,  in  caso  of  refusal,  to  go  to  Rome,  and  hold  th( 
council  there  himself  And  he  took  an  even  more  peremptory  step 
by  constituting  himself  arbiter  of  the  whole  controversy,  appointing 
Julius  Pllug,  bishop  of  Naumburg,  a  prelate  known  to  be  friendly 
to  the  Lutherans,  Michael  Holding,  called  Sidonius,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Merscburg,  and  John  Agricola,  a  Lutheran  writer  of 
some  mark,  to  draft  an  eirenicon  upon  the  points  in  dispute,  which 
was  published  under  the  title  of  the  "  Interim,"  by  the  emperor's 
authority,  at  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  May  15,  1548.  It  proved, 
however,  inefficacious,  and  was  formally  repudiated  and  answered 
by  tho  Catholic  princes  and  states  of  the  empire,  nnd  yet  mora 
peremptorily  by  tbe  Protestants,  its  only  result  being  the  "  In- 
terimistic  controversy."  It  was  succeeded  by  another  fornrulary 
concerning  reformation,  accepted  by  the  diet.  While  the  emperor 
was  endeavouring  to  force  the  "  Interim  "  upon  his  dominions,  the 
pope,  on  his  part,  strove  to  remove  the  dead-lock  of  the  divided 
council,  and  convoked  a  committee  to  consist  of  members  of  both 
the  Bolognese  and  the  Tridentine  sections  to  confer  upon  ecclesi- 
astical reforms.  But  the  bisliops  at  Trent,  having  communicated 
with  the  emperor,  and  waited  three  weeks  for  his  sanction,  re- 
fused to  leave  that  city,  and  the  pope  was  compelled  to  direct  the 
legates  at  Bologna  to  dismiss  the  bishops  assembled  there,  and  to 
announce  the  suspension  of  the  council,  which  was  accordingly 
done  upon  September  17,  1549.  Paul  III  died  on  November  10, 
1549,  and  was  succeeded  on  February  7,  1550,  by  Cardinal  del 
Monte,  the  chief  legate  at  t!ie  council,  who  took  the  title  of  Juliur 
III  "I'l'.e  break  in  the  continuity  of  tho  council  occasioned  by 
these  proceedings  lasted  till  May  1,  1551,  when  the  eleventh  session 
was  held  at  Trent  under  the  presidency  of  Cardinal  Crcscenzio. 
sole  legate  in  title,  but  with  two  nuncios,  Pighini  and  Lipporaani, 
as  co-ordinate  assessors.  It  was  merely  formal,  as  was  also  the 
twelfth  session,  on  September  1,  1551.  Just  at  this  time  Henry 
II.,  king  of  France,  having  quarrelled  with  the  pope  about  the  duchy 
of  Parma,  sent  an  envoy  to  the  council  at  Trent,  with  letters 
styling  it  a  "convention,'*  denying  its  cecumenical  character, 
declaring  that  it  was  not  accessible  to  himself  or  to  the  French 
bishops,  and  notifying  a  protest  against  the  validity  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, which  he  desired  might  be  registered,  and  a  copy  of  the 
register  returned  to  iiim.  No  reply  was  made  to  this  demand  ;  so 
Henry  dismissed  the  papal  nuncio  from  his  court,  and  published  a 
manifesto  to  justify  liiiiisclf,  at  the  same  time  that,  in  order  to 
repel  any  charge  of  sympathy  with  the  Protestants,  he  promulgated 
a  severe  edict  against  tliein.  Cut  the  absence  of  Fieiich  bishops, 
and  the  comparatively  scanty  attendance  from  Germany,  threw 
matters  more  than  ever  into  the  hands  of  the  Italian  majority,  as 
appeared  from  tlie  decrees  promulgated  in  tho  thirteentfi  session 
(October  11,  1551),  and  indeed  from  the  attitude  taken  up  by  the 
legates  just  before  it  For  the  obstinate  refusal  of  the  Protestants 
to  attend  or  even  recognize  the  council  was  on  the  point  of  giving 
way,  and  the  imperial  ambassadors  demanded  a  safe-conduct  for 
such  as  miglit  present  themselves,  with  some  warranty  that  it 
should  be  really  safe.  They  also  desired  the  postponement  of  auy 
decision  on  tlie  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist,  ^nd  especially  as  regards 
the  communion  of  the  laity  in  the  chalice.  The  pope  expressed 
himself  willing  to  giant  both  these  demands,  but  no  real  attention 
was  paid  to  either  of  them.  As  respects  the  attendance  of  the 
Protestants,  the  letters  of  Francis  Vargas,  fiscal  (attorney-general) 
in  Spain  to  Charles  V.,  nnd  his  agent  at  the  council,  state  plainly 
that  the  legates  merely  pretended  to  desire  it,  and  were  secretly 
doing  everything  to  prevent  it,  while  the  very  points  as  to  which 
delay  had  been  promised  were  made  the  subject  of  the  decrees  JD 
the  above-named  session  The  decree  on  the  Knehanst  was 
specially  directed  against  Lutheran  and  Zwinglian  opinions  then 
recently  broached,  and  was  couched  in  eight  cfiapters  with  eleven 
canons  appended.  It  reasserted  tlie  doctrine  of  TiansubstantiatioD, 
already  defined  by  the  fourth  Laterau  council  in  1216,  while,  b]p 


COL'SCIL,] 


TRENT 


547 


the  third  cf  the  oaiions,  wliich  declares  that  the  wnole  sacrament  is 
entire  in  each  kind,  it  indirectly,  though  effectively,  ruled  against 
the  gmnt  of  the  chalice  to  the  laity;  and  in  fact  the  Reformed 
thesis  that  they  were  entitled  to  it  by  divine  right,  and  could  not 
b«  debarred  from  it  without  sin,  was  uuKuimously  condemned  in 
the  previous  con"regation.  Some  unimportant  decrees  affecting 
the  criminal  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  and  for  referring  the  trials  of 
bishops  themselves  to  the  pope,  were  enacted  at  the  same  time; 
but  more'noteworthy  was  a  decree  for  postponing  the  decision  upon 
lay  and  infant  communion,  and  for  granting  a  safe-conduct  to  the 
Protestants,  which  was  the  last  businesa  transacted  upon  this 
sccasion.  But  the  safe-conduct  was  worded  so  as  to  excite  general 
ind  reasonable  suspicion  on  the  part  of  those  to  whom  it  was 
jflered,  and  Vargas,  who  was  no  friend  to  their  opinions,  comments 
freely  upon  its  deceptive  ambiguity.  In  the  fourteenth  session 
;Kovember  25,  1551)  decrees  upon  penance  and  extreme  unction, 
prepared  in  the  congregations,  and  embodied  in  twelve  chapters 
upon  the  former  and  three  on  the  latter  topic,  followed  severally 
by  fifteen  and  four  canons,  were  promulgated.  Some  disciplinary 
enactments  affecting  the  clergy,  and  corrective  of  minor  abuses, 
were  enacted  at  the  same  time,  the  most  important  provisions  being 
the  abolition  of  the  papal  dispensations  exempting  their  holders 
from  the  jurisdiclioa  ot  the  ordinary,  and  the  restriction  of  th« 
iction  of  titular  bishops.  But  the  reforming  party  in  the  council 
was  much  discontented  with  the  inadequacy  of  these  measures, 
which  added  little  to  the  very  small  progress  made  so  far  in  the 
revival  of  discipline.  Although  no  Protestant  theologians  had  yet 
presented  themselves  at  Trent,  representatives  of  the  duke  of 
Wiirtemberg  arrived  at  tliis  time,  who  were  instructed  fo  lay  the 
Wiirtemberg  Confession  before  the  council,  and  to  say  that  Pro- 
testant divines  w-ho  could  give  explanations  of  it  were  waiting  some 
forty  miles  from  Trent,  and  were  prepared  to  attend  the  conncil  so 
soon  as  a  safe-conduct  exactly  conformable  with  that  granted  to 
the  Bohemians  by  the  council  of  basel  was  issued,  and  on  the 
further  conditions  that  the -discussions  actually  going  on  should 
b«  suspended  and  all  the  matters  so  far  decided  be  reopened,  that 
the  pope  should  cease  to  preside  by  legates  or  otherwise,  but 
declare  his  own  submission  to  the  decrees  of  the  council,  and 
absolve  the  bishops  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to  himself  in 
order  to  secure  their  liberty  of  action.  The  envoys  refused  to  treat 
ith  the  legates  at  all,  and  conducted  their  negotiations  through 
,Ae  imperial  ambassadors  Crescen?!©  was  very  angry,  and  refused 
ill  concession,  even  going  so  far  as  to  abstract  the  conciliar  seal, 
lest  the  safe-conduct  mi^'ht  be  granted  ;  but  pressure  was  put  upon 
him  by  the  imperial  anibasbadors,  and  he  was  forced  to  consent  to 
the  admission  of  the  Protestant  envoys  at  a  private  congregation 
to  be  held  in  his  own  house,  though  he  resisted  the  demand  for 
introducing  them  to  a  public  session.  And,  when  the  safe-conduct 
was  reca.st,  it  was  found  to  diH'er  seriously  from  that  proposed  as 
its  model,  especially  by  failing  to  give  the  Protestants  the  rights 
)f  session  and  suffrjige,  of  obser^'iog  their  own  religion  in  their 
houses,  and  of  being_guarant<;*'d  against  insults  to  their  creed.  To 
the  remonstrances  made  in  consequence  the  legate  returned  a  per- 
emptory reply,  refusing  to  make  any  further  change,  and  only  the 
instances  of  the  oin>eror,then  at  Innsbruck,  but  three  days'journey 
from  Trent,  indnced  the  Protestant  envoys  to  remain  a  little  longer, 
to  find  if  any  better  terms  could  be  obtained.  Some  more  Protestant 
envoys  from  Strasburg  nnd  other  cities,  and  from  Maurice  of 
Saxony,  arrived  early  in  1552,  and  were  admitted  to  a  congregation 
held  on  January  24,  where  they  renewed  the  demands  already 
mentioned,  and  required  also  that  the  decrees  of  Constance  and 
Basel,- declaring  the  pope  inferior  and  subject  to  a  general  council, 
should  be  reaffirmed.  They  were  promised  an  answer  in  due  time, 
and  the  fifteenth  session  was  held  the  next  day  (January  25,  1552), 
wherein  the  council  was  prorogued,  and  a  safe-conduct  more  in 
accordance  with  the  Protestant  demands  was  drawn  up  and  pub- 
lished. It  is  remarkable,  howe^.  for  one  omission,  and  for  one 
significant  clause.  The  omission  is  that  of  toleration  for  the 
pfivate  exercise  of  their  religion  ;  the  insertion  is  a  proviso  pledging 
the  council  not  to  availltself,  "for  this  one  occasion,"  of  any  laws 
or  canons  whatever,  "especially  those  of  Constance  and  Siena,"  as 
against  the  Protestants.  The  reference  is  to  the  canon  of  Constance 
by  means  of  which  John  Huss  was  tried  and  burut,  declaring  a 
safe-conduct  no  protection  against  trial  for  heresy,  even  if  the 
accused  has  come  in  reliance  on  the  safe-conduct,  and  would  not 
have  come  without  it,  which  canon  was  reaffirmed  at  the  council 
of  Siena  in  1423  While  the  negotiations  occasioned  by  these 
proceedings  were  in  course,  war  broke  out  anew  in  Germany, 
and  Maurice  of  Saxony  obtained  considerable  successes  over  the 
emperor,  took  Augsburg,  and  was  marching  down  upon  Tyrol, 
so  that  Charles  V.  fled  in  haste  from  Innsbruck,  and  the  legate 
convened  the  sixteenth  session  (April  28,  1552)  of  the  council, 
wherein  a  decree  was  promulgated  .'suspending  it  for  two  years  in 
consequence  of  the  perils  of  war.  There  was  a  general  stampede 
from  Trent  at  once,  and  the  legate  Crescenzio,  tlien  very  ill,  had 
just  strength  to  reach  Verona,  where  he  died  three  days  after  his 
arrival. 


So  ended  what  is  styled  by  some  historians,  and  cor- 
rectly, the  first  council  of  Trent,  for,  although  the  usual 
computation  recognizes  only  one  such  council,  yet  an  in- 
terruption of  ten  years,  a  widely  changed  personality,  and 
a  marked  alteration  in  tone  make  the  resumed  synod 
virtually  another  assembly,  and  one  by  no  means  entitled 
to  the  degree  of  respect  which  the  ability  and  learning  of 
many  members  of  that  first  convoked  won  for  it.  When 
the  council  dispersed,  Julius  III.  at  once  in  consistory 
repeated  the  policy  of  Paul  III.,  and  nominated  a  com- 
mittee to  .prepare  a  scheme  of  reform,  bu^  it  never  took 
action  of  any  kind  ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  two  years' 
suspension  of  the  council  the  question  was  put  in  con- 
sistory as  to  the  resumption  of  the  sessions,  and  decided, 
with  the  pope's  approval,  in  the  negative.  Julius'  IIL 
died  on  March  23,  1555,  and  was  succeeded  on  April  11, 
1555,  by  Cardinal  Marcel  lo  Cervini,  one  of  the  former 
legates  at  the  council,  a  man  of  high  reputation  for 
personal  devoutneas  and  freedom  from  that  sympathy  with 
abuses  which  marked  too  many  of  the  dignitaries  of  the 
time.  He  took  the  title  of  Marcellus  II.,  and  his  first 
public  utterance  was  to  intimate  his  purpose  of  re- 
assembling the  council,  and  of  carrying  out  a  plan  of 
thorough  reform  in  discipline,  particularly  directed  to 
abating  the  pomp  and  luxury  of  the  prelacy.  But  he  was 
in  feeble  health  when  elected,  and  the  fatigues  of  his  new 
position  brought  on  an  attack  of  apoplexy  which  carried 
him  oS  three  weeks  after  his  accession.  In  his  room 
was  chosen,  on  May  23,  1555,  Cardinal  Giovanni  Pietro 
Caraffa,  who  took  the  title  of  Paul  IV.  He  was  known 
to  profess  great  austerity  of  life,  to  have  actually  founded 
the  Theatines,  an  ascetic  community,  and  to  be  a  stern  and 
implacable  advocate  for  several  measures  of  repression 
against  innovators  in  matters  of  religion  or  impugners  of 
papal  prerogative,  as  he  quickly  showed  by  setting  up  the 
Inquisition  in  Rome,  and  taking  care  that  it  should  not  be 
idle.  His  election  consequently  caused  much  alarm,  and 
was  especially  displeasing  to  the  emperor  ;  and  the  earlier 
acts  of  his  pontificate  seemed  to  justify  the  estimate 
formed  of  his  character  and  the  fears  of  those  who 
apprehended  that  he  n-ould  proceed  to  reform  discipline 
in  a  swifter  and  more  drastic  fashion  than  had  hitherto 
been  essayed.  For  in  fact  he  pledged  himself  to  this 
effect  in  the  first  bull  published  after  his  accession,  follow- 
ing it  up  with  a  show  of  activity  by  at  once  setting  some 
minor  reforms  on  foot. 

During  these  three  years  important  events  had  taken 
place  in  Germany.  By  the  peace  of  Passau  in  1553,  the 
Protestants  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  were  secured  from 
all  molestation,  and  in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion 
and  of  their  civil  rights,  and  this  was  followed  up  by  a 
decree  of  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  on  September  25,  1553, 
that,  failing  a  national  council  to  settle  the  religious 
disputes,  the  emperor,  the  king  of  the  Romans,  and  the 
other  Catholic  princes  should  not  interfere  in  any  way  with 
the  religious  liberties  of  the  Lutherans  holding  to  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  provided  they  in  their  turn  would 
exhibit  equal  tolerance  towards  Catholics,  that  no  penalty, 
save  the  loss  of  benefices,  should '  be  imposed  on  any 
Catholic  ecclesiastics  joining  the  Lutheran  body;  and  that 
such  benefices  as  the  Protestants  had  already  annexed  for 
the  support  of  their  schools  and  ministers  should  remaiD 
in  their  possession.  Paul  IV.  was  much  incensed  at  these 
proceedings,  and  used  all  efforts  to  procure  their  repeal, 
on  the  failure  of  which  be  openly  broke  with  the  emperor, 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  French  king  against  him,  and 
imprisoned  the  cardinals  and  other  personages  of  the 
imperial  party  on  whom  he  could  lay  hands,  confiscating 
the  property  of  such  as  saved  themselves  by  flight.  He 
'  "ontinued  for  a  time  in  the  measures  of  reform  with  which 


548 


TRENT 


[council. 


he  began  his  reign,  striking  against  jobbery,  pluralities, 
dispensations,  and  laxity  of  clerical  manners  ;  but  all  this 
short-lived  zeal  was  speedily  neutralized  by  his  nepotism, 
surpassing  that  of  any  of  his  predecessors,  and  throwing 
the  government  of  the  States  of  the  Church  into  the  hands 
of  his  dissolute  nephews,  upon  whom  he  rained  all  the 
wealth,  honours,  and  authority  in  his  power  to  bestow. 
And,  as  was  to  be  expected,  he  set  himself  steadily  to 
oppose  every  one  of  the  class  of  reforms  which  touched 
:lcJEtrinal  questions,  just  those  for  which  the  Protestants 
were  urgent,  encouraging  only  such  as  promoted  the  unity 
»nd  discipline  of  the  Roman  Church  itself,  and  made  it 
;nore  capable  of  efEective  resistance  to  the  Reformation. 
tie  was  not  favourable  to  the  reassembling  of  the  council, 
not  merely  because  of  his  experience  of  its  languid  action, 
nor  even  his  dislike  of  the  straggles  of  the  non-Italian 
minority  to  assert  some  measure  of  independence  against 
the  coercive  tutelage  exerted  by  the  several  papal  legates 
from  the  very  first,  but  because  he  regarded  himself  as  the 
!ole  and  proper  person  to  consider  such  matters  at  all,  and 
a  bull  of  his  own  promulgation  a  better  mode  of  procedtire, 
it  once  in  fulness  of  authority  and  swiftness  of  formulation, 
than  any  conciliar  decree.  Consequently,  no  step  for  the 
resumption  of  the  council  was  taken  during'  his  reign, 
which  ended  on  August  18,  1559.  After  a  longer  inter- 
regnum than  usual,  Giovanni  Angelo  de'  Medici  (not  a 
member  of  the  great  Florentine  house,  but  of  humble 
Milanese  extraction)  was  elected  on  December  26,  1559, 
is  Pius  rV.  Markedly  unlike  his  predecessor  in  almost 
every  personal  quality,  he  was  much  his  superior  in 
practical  shrewdness  and  tact,  and  had  none  of  that  dislike 
to  a  councU  which  Paul  IV.  had  shown.  So  great,  too, 
bad  been  the  strides  made  by  the  Reformation  during  his 
predecessor's  reign  that  h'o  might  well  think  Paul  IV.'s 
policy  undesirable,  and  he  had  this  special  motive  for 
reversing  it,  that  a  movement  was  going  on  in  France  for 
the  convocation  of  a  national  council  there  to  consider  the 
whole  religious  situation,  which  might  very  conceivably 
result  in  a  revolt  like  that  of  England  from  the  Roman 
obedience.  Accordingly,  Pius  IV.  determined  on  the 
resumption  of  the  council  of  Trent,  and  issued  a  bull  on 
ITovember  29,  1560,  convoking  it  anew. 

But  the  whole  face  of  Western  Christendom,  the  whole 
religious  situation,  had  materially  changed  since  the  ori- 
ginal assemblage  of  the  synod  in  1545.  First,  the  imposing 
personality  of  Charles  V.  was  removed  from  the  scene, 
ind  Ferdinand  I.,  his  successor,  enjoyed  neither  his  per- 
sonal ascendency  nor  his  political  power,  and  could  not 
be  accounted  as  a  possible  competitor  with  the  pope  for 
the  first  place  in  the  Catholic  world,  nor  even  ca  an  ally- 
tvith  means  for  crushing  the  Reformation.  Next,  the 
Reformation  itself  was  by  this  time  an  accprnplished  fact, 
1  consummated  revolt  from  mediaeval  Christianity.  It 
bad  taken  definite  shape  in  various  countries ;  it  had  its 
DWTi  theological  systems  and  traditions ;  besides  that  a 
whole  generation  had  now  grown  up  under  its  influence, 
lever  having  had  any  personal  associations  with  Latin 
Christianity.  And,  on  the  .other  hand,  the  very  lengths 
X)  which  some  of  the  Reformers  had  gone  in  their  revolt 
renerated  a  corresponding  reaction  in  the  Roman  Church, 
10  that  many  influential  persons  who  had  been  in  favour 
)f  moderate  reforms  and  of  explaining  disputed  points  of 
;heology  were  convinced  that  no  limits  could  be  logically 
)r  practically  set  to  concessions  in  this  direction,  and 
iherefore  that  it  was  necessary  to  make  a  stand  against 
my  concessions  at  all.  And,  what  is  more,  one  noticeable 
iffect  of  the  wave  of  controversy  which  had  swept  over 
vestem  Europe  was  to  accentuate  points  of  difference,  to 
lose  questions  previously  open,  to  make  the  current  beliefs 
nore  incisive  and,  so  to  speak,  legal  iir  form,  to  diminish 


seriously  the  neutral  area  between  the  competing  religious 
systems,  and  thus  to  bring  them  face  to  face  as  irrecon- 
cilable foes.  One  factor  more,  of  greater  importance  at 
the  time  than  any  other,  contributed  to  the  revolution 
which  is  marked  by  the  second  council  of  Trent.  As 
Spain  took  the  political  lead  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  16th 
century,  so  it  took  also  the  lead  in  theology.  The  Spanish 
divines  were  abler  and  more  learned  than  all  save  the  very 
foremost  in  any  other  country,  and  their  influence  was 
throughout  the  greatest  at  the  council  of  Trent  on  purely 
theological  issues.  Now,  the  political  and  the  theological 
genius  of  Spain  had  both  just  found  their  highest  exponent 
in  one  person  and  the  organization  which  he  devised, 
Ignatius  Loyola  and  the  Company  of  the  Jesuits.  Two  of 
his  immediate  disciples  and  recruits,  Salmeron  and  Laynez, 
were  chosen  to  be  the  pope's  theologians  at  the  council  of 
Trent,  and  exercised  a  greater  influence  than  any  other 
divines  there  in  the  formulation  of  its  dogmatic  decrees. 
But  the  Jesuits  were  to  do  more  than  this.  The  militant 
spirit  of  their  founder  had  nothing  in  common  with  the 
alarm  and  vacillation  which  had  for  the  most  part  marked 
the  action  of  the  Roman  Church  in  dealing  vrith  the 
Lutheran  and  Calvinist  revolt ;  and,  instead  of  being  con- 
tent with  devising  schemes  ior  standing  on  the  defensive, 
and  saving  the  remnant  yet  left  to  the  Roman  obedience, 
he  conceived  the  bolder  and  safer  plan  of  vigorous  aggrea. 
sion,  to  reconquer  all  that  had  been  lost,  and  to  add  fresh 
acquisitions  thereto.  The  Counter-Reformation  which  he 
initiated  was  in  full  operation  when  the  second  council  of 
Trent  assembled,  and  it  was  by  this  spirit  that  it  was 
guided  in  its  deliberations  and  decrees.  The  very  thought 
of  compromise  was  abandoned  in  fact,  if  not  in  open 
expression,  and  the  only  reforms  thenceforward  taken  into 
consideration  were  such  as  would  remove  causes  of  weak- 
ness and  scandal  in  the  Latin  Church,  enabling  it,  without 
sacrificing  one  of  its  claims,  to  overcome  by  superior  mass 
and  discipline,  by  closer  unity  and  more  organized  enthusi- 
asm, the  heterogeneous,  disordered,  and  alrlady  dissociated 
forces  of  Protestantism.  The  most  obvious  effect  of  these 
principles  upon  the  second  council  of  Trent  was  that  the 
diminution,  the  all  but  disappearance,  of  variety  of  opinion 
amongst  its  members,  and  the  resolution  to  crush  Protest- 
antism rather  than  to  parley  with  it  in  any  scheme  of 
mutual  concession  or  accommodation,  tended  to  shorten 
the  preliminary  discussions  in  a  marked  degree,  so  that 
little  is  to  be  noted  of  the  long-  and  animated  debates  of 
the  earlier  period,  and  the  last  few  sessions  exhibit  even 
tokens  of  actual  hurry  to  end  the  matter  anyhow 

There  was  no  intention  on  the  pope's  part  to  proclaim 
the  Counter-Reformation  as  the  policy  of  the  council,  even 
if  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that  he  could  predict  its 
action,  and  he  sent  nuncios  to  the  Protestant  sovereigns 
as  well  as  to  the  Catholics  to  signify  the  approaching 
resumption  of  its  sittings.  Francis  II.  of  France  had  died 
between  the  promulgation  of  the  bull  and  its  notification 
in  France,  but  the  young  king  Charles  IX.,  by  the  advice 
of  the  parlement  of  Paris,- dire«ted  all  the  bishops  of  the 
kingdom  to  be  in  readiness  for  journeying  to  Trent. 
Three  nuncios  were  despatched  to  Germany,  but  the 
princes  assembled  in  diet  at  Naumburg  received  them 
unfavourably,  asserting  anew  their  determination  to 
recognize  no  council  which  did  not  avow  Scripture  as  its 
standard  of  appeal  and  give  right  of  free  discussion  to 
Protestants,  denying  the  right  of  any  one  save  the  emperor 
to  convene  a  general  council  at  all,  and  inveighing  strongly 
against  the  papacy.  The  king  of  Denmark  declined  to 
admit  the  nuncio  on  any  terms,  declaring  that  neither  be 
nor  his  father  had  ever  had  any  dealings  with  the  pope ; 
and  Martinenghi,  the  nuncio  commissioned  to  Elizabeth  of 
England,  was  stopped  by  a  messenger  while  still  on  the 


C0CXC1L.J 


TRENT 


S49 


CoQtinental  side  of  the  Channel,  and  informed  that  he 
would  not  be  permitted  to  land  on  the  English  coast. 
The  free  cities  of  the  empire  also  refused  the  summons,  a's 
did  five  of  the  Swiss  cantons  ;  and  even  a  large  number 
of  Roman  Catholic  prelates,  while  professing  unqualified 
obedience  to  the  pope's  commands,  showed  much  unwilling- 
ness to  act  upon  them,  and  pleaded  age,  illness,  or  dio- 
cesan business  as  excuses  for  absenting  themselves  from 
the  council.  In  this  unpromising  posture  of  affairs  the 
preparations  for  the  council  were  pressed  on,  and  Cardinals 
Ercole  Gonzaga,  bishop  of  Mantua,  Seripando,  Hosius, 
Simoneta,  and  (later  on)  Altemps,  the  pope's  nephew,  were 
named  as  legates,  being  directed  to  open  the  session  of  the 
council  upon  Easter  Day,  April  6,  1561.  But  they  did 
not  even  arrive  in  Trent  until  April  16,  and  found  no 
more  than  nine  bishops  awaiting  them.  Several  causes 
conduced  to  this  disappointment :  the  king  of  Spain  had 
not  yet  accepted  the  bull  convoking  the  council ;  the 
French  bishops  were  more  than  fully  occupied  with  the 
rapid  advances  of  the  Reformation  in  their  midst ;  and 
the  Germans  had  no  great  inclination  for  the  repetition  of 
their  experience  ten  years  before.  It  was  thus  necessary 
to  postpone  the  assemblage  till  January  I  and  then  to 
January  18,  1562.  That  there  might  be  a  sufficient 
number  of  Italian  bishops  present  to  outvote  any  possible 
combination  of  others,  the  pope  collected  a  large  number 
of  prelates,  appointed  them  salaries  for  maintenance,  and 
sent  them  otf  to  Trent.  Two  questions  of  the  highest 
practical  importance  came  up  for  discussion  in  the  pre- 
liminary congregation,  wherein  ninety-two  bishops  v.ere 
present; — (1)  Was  the  council  to  be  styled  a  "continua- 
tion "  of  the  previous  one,  or  to  be  reckoned  as  a  new 
synod  1  (2)  Should  the  unprecedented  clause  in  the  papal 
decree  for  opening  the  council  (but  not  found  in  the  bull 
of  convocation),  "  proponentibus  legatis  ac  praesidentibus," 
be  accepted  and  acted  on,  or  rescinded  1  To  declare  the 
council  a  "  continuation  "  of  its  precursor  was  to  accept 
and  ratify  all  which  had  been  done  therein  ;  to  treat  it  as 
a  new  one  was  to  make  every  decree  of  the  earlier  sessions 
merely  provisional  and  alterable.  To  adopt  the  novel 
clause  embodied  in  the  papal  decree  was  to  gag  the  council 
from  the  outset  and  deprive  it  of  freedom  by  concentrat- 
ing the  initiative  in  the  hands  of  the  legates ;  and  Guerrero, 
archbishop  of  Granada,  pressed  this  objection  with  much 
urgency.  On  the  other  hand,  this  same  prelate,  acting  on 
the  orders  of  Philip  U.,  demanded  that  the  council  should 
be  plainly  declared  a  continuation  of  its  precursor,  for 
Philip  had  already  introduced  some  of  the  regulations  of 
that  synod  into  his  dominions,  and  would  lose  credit  if 
they  were  rescinded,  or  even  treated  as  lacking  full 
sanctic^D  Contrariwise,  the  bishops  of  other  nations 
present  held  that  there  was  no  prospect  of  inducing  the 
Germans,  English,  and  other  partly  alienated  nationalities 
to  send  representatives,  unless  the  proceedings  so  far  should 
be  regarded  as  capable  of  reconsideration  and  alteration  at 
the  hands  of  the  actual  assembly.  The  authorities  at 
Rome  were  not  unprepared  for  some  difficulty  on  this 
head,  and  had  endeavoured  to  evade  it  by  using  the 
indeterminate  word  "celebrated,"  which  might  be  taken 
either  way,  and  the  Spanish  remonstrants  were  privately 
told  that  it  was  understood  that  business  should  be  taken 
up  just  where  it  had  left  oS  under  Julius  III.,  thus 
making  the-  synod  a  continuation  of  the  former  one,  but 
that  any  express  statement  to  that  effect  had  been  carefully 
avoided,  lest  the  Protestants  should  take  ofiEence,  and  thus 
one  aim  of  the  council  might  be  defeated.  The  Spaniards 
were  partly  contented  with  this  reply,  but  urged  that 
nothing  which  could  be  interpreted  as  the  convocation  of 
a  new  council  should  be  suffered  to  appear  in  the  wording  of 
the  decree  about  to  be  publicly  read,  which  was  conceded. 


Tlie  seventeenth  session  w.is  licld  (.January  IS,  1562)  in  the 
presence  of  the  legates, — 100  bishops,  4  abbots,  4  generals  of  orders, 
and  the  duke  of  Mantua,  nephew  of  the  nhief  legate,  being  present. 
Four  Spanish  bishops  lodged  a  protest  against  tlie  proposing  clause 
— two  of  them  unreservedly,  two  in  a  more  qualified  manner — and 
they  particularly  objected  to  the  novelty  of  the  clause,  and  to  the 
manner  in  which  it  had  been  sprung  upon  the  council,  the  arch- 
bishop of  Granada  and  tlie  bishop  of  Orense  pointing  out  that  it 
was  not  in  the  original  bull,  with  whicli  the  subsequent  decree 
ought  to  be  in  complete  agreement,  aud  the  former  adding  that  it 
was  not  even  in  the  copy  of  the  decree  shown  to  him.  But  the 
Italian  majority  was  too  strong,  and  the  protest  was  overruled, — 
the  prorogation  of  the  council  to  February  26,  15G2,  being  the  only 
further  business  transacted.  But  a  very  important  question  was 
laid  before  the  congregations  wliich  followed  this  session,  that  of 
providing  some  remedy  for  the  injury  done  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  by  the  circulation  of  more  or  less  hostile  books,  a  difficulty 
made  incomparably  greater  from  the  middle  of  the  15th  century 
onwards  than  at  any  previous  time  in  history,  by  reason  of  the 
invention  of  printing.  The  council  of  Latcran  in  1515  had  made 
a  licence  from  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  requisite  before  any 
book  could  be  printed,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  but  this 
penalty  did  not  affect  Protestant  printers,  and  the  issue  of  a 
catalogue  of  books  forbidden  to  Catholic's  became  a  necessary  addi- 
tion. Such  a  catalogue  was  issued  by  Paul  IV,  in  1559,  but  some 
machinery  for  supplementing  it  as  fresh  books  poured  from  the 

Sresa  could  alone  meet  the  permanent  danger.  Another  matter 
ebated  in  these  congregations  was  the  invitation  of  Protestants  to 
attend,  and  in  what  character.  In  the  eighteenth  session  (February 
26,  1662)  two  decrees  on  these  subjects  were  promulgated, — one 
appointing  a  committee  to  report  to  the  council  on  the  whole 
question  of  heretical  books ;  the  other  publishing  a  safe-conduct  to 
the  German  Protestants,  extended  by  a  rider  to  those  of  other 
nations.  The  congregations  held  after  this  session  were  busied 
chiefly  with  the  questions  of  residence  and  the  abuse  of  indulgences, 
besides  several  less  important  details  of  reform,  A  warm  debate 
arose  as  to  the  nature  of  the  obligation  to  reside, — the  Spaniards 
holding  it  to  be  of  divine  right,  the  Italians  to  be  of  no  more  thar 
ecclesiastical  precept.  So  powerful  a  body  in  the  council  took  the 
Spanish  view  that  the  legates  were  alarmed,  especially  as  ominoui 
speeches  were  made  to  the  effect  that  the  Roman  curia  must  be  re- 
formed on  the  basis  of  the  report  cf  cardinals  to  Paul  III.  befori 
anything  of  moment  could  be  done  in  the  way  of  real  improvement. 
Accordingly,  they  sent  a  messenger  to  the  pope,  bringing  with  him 
a  schedule  of  the  proposed  reforms,  and  askiug  for  advice  in  'the 
crisis.  The  pope  desired  them  to  counteract  the  opposition  bishops, 
to  postpone  the  question  of  residence,  if  they  could  not  suppress  it 
altogether,  and  despatched  Viscontl,  bishop  of  Ventimiglia,  a£ 
extra  nuncio  to  t'ne  council,  to  report  accurately  to  him  everything 
said  or  done  there,  and  with  him  sent  also  all  the  bishops  who 
could  be  collected  at  Rome  to  swell  the  Italian  vote,  and  thus 
defeat  the  opposition  indirectly.  There  was  much  debate  also  OD 
the  scope  of  the  safe-conduct,  as  the  Spaniards  were  anxious  that 
it  should  not  protect  those  against  whom  the  Inquisition  had  taken 
action,  while  others  desired  to  see  its  terms  enlarged  sufficiently 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  Protestants,  who  objected  to  its 
suspicious  silence  on  several  weighty  particulars.  As  the  French 
ambassadors  were  expected,  nothing  was  done  in  the  nineteenth 
session  (May  14,  1562)  save  to  prorogue  the  council.  Oil  May  26, 
1652,  DeLanssac  (who  had  been  lately  French  envoy  at  Rome), 
Du  Ferrier,  and  De  Pibrac,  envoys  from  Charles  IX  ,  were  ad- 
mitted to  audience,  and  demanded,  amongst  other  matters,  that 
the  council  should  be  formally  deela.-ed  a  new  one,  wherein  the 
imperial  ambassadors  supported  them,  while  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
contrariwise,  insisted  that  it  should  be  declared  a  continuation  of 
the  former  synod.  The  legates  strove  to  satisfy  both  parties,  and 
received  contradictory  directions  from  Rome,  at  first  ordering  them 
to  announce  the  continuation  of  the  former  council,  and  afterwards 
leaving  the  matter  to  their  discretion.  So  little  agreement  could 
be  arrived  at  that  the  twentieth  session  (Jane  4,  1562)  was  held 
merely  to  prorogue  the  council  The  question  of  communion  in 
both  kinds  was  the  next  to  come  up  for  consideration.  It  was 
such  a  capital  one,  if  any  hope  of  winning  back  the  Protestants 
was  to  be  entertained,  that  the  imjierial  and  French  ambassadors 
tad  special  injunctions  to  forward  by  all  means  in  their  power  an 
afi  raative  decision.  The  Frenchmen  saw  little  prospect  of  carry- 
ing this  matter  in  the  temper  of  the  Italian  majority,  and  were  for 
opposing  the  discussion  which  the  legates  had  announced,  but 
the  imperial  ambassadors  were  more  hopeful,  and  persuaded  them 
to  give  way.  While  the  question  Was  being  debated  in  the  con- 
gregations, the  Venetian  and  Bavarian  ambassadors  arrived,  the 
latter  armed  with  a  formidable  schedule  of  complaints  against  pre- 
valent abuses,  and  of  demands  for  correspondingly  drastic  reforms, 
beginning  with  the  pope  and  the  curia,  and  making  havoc  amongst 
cardinals,  dispensations,  exemptions,  pluralities,  office-books,  ex- 
clusively Latin  services,  and  other  like  matters,  thus  threatening 
all  manner  of  vested  interests  andf  long-rooted  cnstoms.    The 


550 


TRENT 


[council. 


lemtea  put  them  off,  alksing  the  pressure  of  other  business,  notably 
the  question  of  communion  in  both  kinds,  which  was,  m  '»«, 
bein"  discussed  and  decided  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the 
Italians  and  Sijiniards,   and  against  those  of  the  Frencli  and 
Germans.     In   the  twenty-first  session  (July  16,  1552)  a  decree 
couclied  in  four  dogmatic  chapters  and  four  cauons  was  promul- 
gated upon  it,  to  the  following  purport.— laymen,  and  pnests  other 
than  the  actual  celebrant,  are  not  bound  by  divine  right  to  com- 
municate in  both  kinds;  the  church  has  full  power  to  ma^e  what 
chaiK'esit  pleases  in  the  mode  of  administering  sacraments;  the 
whole  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist  is  received  entire  under  either 
kind  singly;  and  little  children  are  not  bound  to  communicate. 
The  canons  pronounce  anathemas  against  raaintainers  of  the  con- 
trary propositions.     At  the  same  time  a  decree  upon  reformation 
was'enacted,  most  of  the  clauses  deaUcg  with  the  duties  of  bishops 
to  the  matters  of  ordination,  patronage,  division,  and   union  ol 
benefices,  discipline  of  ineffective  parish  priests,  and  visitation  ol 
monasteries,  but  a  more  permanent  interest  attaches  to  the  ninth 
and  concluding  chapter  of  the  decree,  whereby  the  name  and  othce 
of  tlie  "questors  of  alms,"  that  is  to  say,  the  vendors  of  indulg- 
ences, are  aboUshed  on  the.  ground  of  the  impossibUity  of  otber- 
B-ise  putting  a  stop  to  the  abuses  and  depravity  of  their  proceedings. 
All  nrivilegcs  and  customs  to  the  contrary,  even  if  of  time  im- 
memorial, are  rescinded ;  the  publication  of  indulgences  is  confined 
thenceforth  to  the  ordinaries  of  each  place,  assisted  by  two  members 
of  the  chapter;  and  these  same  ofBcers  are  directed  to  collect  the 
ilms  and   charitable  donations  of  the  people,  but  forbidden  to 
receive  any  commission  or  payment  for  so  doing.     This  decree  is  a 
virtual  confession  of  the  justice  of  tjie  agitation  against  Tetzel  and 
his  fellows  which  served  as  the  signal  for  beginning  the  great 
religious  strife  of  the  16th  century ;  and  it  is  noticeable  that  it  was 
the°pope"s  own  voice  against  the  system  which  decided  the  action 
of  the  council,  wherein  a  powerful  minority  was  found  to  defend 
it.     Several  weighty  matters  then  came  before  the  congregations, 
that  of  residence  again  being  pressed  by  the  Spaniards,  wbUe  the 
imperial  and  Bavarian  ambassadors  renewed  their  requisition  for 
permissive  communion  in  both  kinds  (for  the  decree  on  that_  subject 
had  "one  no  further  than  to  declare  it  unnecessary,  and  had  not 
explicitly  forbidden  it),  and  the  French  ambassador  not  only  sup- 
ported them  in  their  demand,  but  added  on  his  own  part  that  in 
France  they  desired   vernacular  services,  the  abolition  of  image- 
worship,  and  permission  for  the  clergy  to  marry.     The  nuncio 
Visconti  wrote  to  the  pope  in  great  alarm,  expressing  apprehensions 
at  th»  very  free  language  employed  by  the  Tathers  of  the  council 
on  these  matter.s.  the  probability  of  their  conceding  the  emperors 
demands,  and  of  similar  ones  being  advanced  thereupon,  all  making 
in  the  same  direction.     An  intrigue  to  compel  the  resignation  ot 
Cardinal  Gonzaga,  who  was  not  thought  sufficiently  opposed  to  those 
measures,  and  who  was  far  less  peremptory  in  his  presidency  o! 
the  council  and  use  of  the  closure  than  Crescenzio  had  been,  was 
set  on  foot,  and  defeated  only  by  the  strong  representations  made 
at  Rome  by  the  archbishop  of  Lanciano,  who  said  that  there  was 
already  so  much  division  in  the  council  that  it  could  but  just  ho.U 
to>-cther   and  would  almost  certainly  be  broken  up  by  any  step  ol 
the  kind.     The  next  subject  which  was  brought  on  for  considera- 
tion was  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  the  debates  thereon  were 
very  animated,  disclosing  considerable  variety  of  opinion  amongst 
the  theologians, -no  fewer  than  five  clearly  distinct  views  of  the 
tenet  apart  from  mere  verbal  or  minor  differences,  being  adduceJ 
and  argued  for.     As  sixty  French  bishops,  to  be  accompanied  by 
twelve  theologians,  and  headed  by  Charles  de  Guise,  cardinal  of 
Lorraine,  wer?  under  orders  to  repair  to  Trent,  the  French  arabas. 
sador  pressed  the  legates  to  postpone  the  next  session  t'''  t'":'^ 
arrival,  as  De  I'lsle,  ambassador  at  Rome,  did  the  pope ;  but  each 
replied  evasively,    referring    the  applicant   to   the    other.       liie 
ouestion  of  communion  in  both  kinds  was  also  very  warmly  dis- 
cussed, and  the  council  was  warned  that  a  negative  decision  won  d 
lead  to  the  secession  of  multitudes  who  had  not  yet  broken  w'lth 
the  Roman  Church ;  but  tlie  Jesuit  Laynez,  who   was   the  chief 
advocate  for  refusal,  replied  that  to  diminish  the  church  would  not 
destroy  it,  and  that  anything  was  better  than  concession  in  the 
matter      The  numbers  in  the  division  taken  on  the  question  were 
as  follows:— 2D  were  in  favour  of  granting  communion  in  both 
kinds  ;  31  agreed  thereto,  but  desired  the  execution  of  the  decree 
to  be  left  to  the  pope's  discretion :  38  were  for  total  refusal ;  U 
strove  to  evade  responsibility  by  referring  the  matter  to  the  pope 
entirely:  19  were  willing  to  make  the  concession  to  the  Bohemians 
and  Hungarians,  but  would  refu«  it  to  all  others;  H  asked  for  a 
postponement;  and    U  remained   neutral    declining  to  vote  any 
way-being  a  total  of  166  .suffrages,  so  split  up  as  to  make  it  im- 
practicable to  frame  a  decree.     In  this  difficulty   the  legate  seized 
the  opportunity  of  persuading  the  council  to  refer  the  matter  to 
the  liopc's  decision,  thereby  at  once  checkmating  the  reform mg 
section     and   indirectly   ruling  the  vexed   point   of  the  relatiic 
superiority  of  pope  and  council  in  favour  of  the  former    and  so 
virtually  reversing  those  decrees  of  Constance  and  Base   whicli  had 
long  been  thorns  in  the  side  of  the  Roman  curia.     In  point  ol 


fact,  t'-».  pope  had  written  some  time  before  to  t^e  legates   worn- 
mendii^g^hL  to  yield  to  the  emperor's  demand  of  ^^e  chalice  for 
To  laity,  but  the/ had  replied  that  it  would  be  impo  itic  to  make 
Ua  cone  liar  act,  and  that  it  would  be  more  expedient    o  frame  » 
mere  general  declaration  that  it  might  be  proper  to  X''!„  ^°X 
cessiol  in  certain  cases,  but  that  the  pope  should  be  the  so  «  Judge 
of  them.     In  the  twenty-second  session  (September  17,  1562)  the 
decree  on  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  was  promulgated  lu  nine  chapters 
and  as  many  canons,  directed  for  the  most  part  aS^'"^'/"™"* 
Protestant  objections  to  the  doctrine  and  ceremonial  of  the  Missal. 
Rules  to  secure  greater  order  and  reverence  in  the  celebration  of 
Mass   and  for  the  suppression  of  sundry  superstitious  observances 
connected  therewith,  were  also  enacted, -besides  some  ""nor  re- 
forms of  little  note,  and  a  decree  referring  to  the  pope  the  whole 
question  of  the  concession  of  the  chalice.     The  meagreness  anJ 
insignificance  of  the   reforms  enacted  thus  tar  caused  much  d.s- 
picture  in  France,  and  the  king  directed  his  ambassador  to  l^ress 
ince  more  for  delay  till  the  arrival  of  the  French,  German,  and 
Polish  bishops  who  were  expected  at  Trent,  as  the  emperor  also 
instructed  his  envoy      But  the  pope  was  busy  in  Tecruiti:!g  the 
Italian  majority,  and  was  unfavourable  to   this  request,    est  the 
Italians  should  be  outvoted  by  the  new-comers;  yet  so  contentious 
were  the  debates  on  the  sacrament  of  orders,  and  on  the  natureand  ex- 
tent of  the  rights  of  bishops-notably  whether  they  were  inherently 
above  priest!  and  whether  they  were   necessaiily  subject  to  the 
pope,  deriving  their  jurisdiction  and  other  powers  so  ely  through 
Lle^tion  from  him,  or  if  they  were  not  of  Divine  institution,  and 
h     Colleagues  rather  than  his  deputies  (which  Latter  thesis  was 
steadily  n°aintained  by  the  Spaniards)-that  it  proved  .mpossible 
to  frame  the  decrees  and  hold  the  session  before  the  arrival  of  the 
cardinal  of  Lorraine,  who  reached  Trent  on  November  13      562. 
accompanied  by  fourteen  bishops,  three  abbots  and  eighteen  Iheo- 
lo"ians      The  discussions,  further  complicated  with  the  question 
of°residence.  were  renewed  hereupon,  and  Ion-  b<=f7?f"y J'f"^,"' 
agreement  were  visible   the  French   ambassadors  laid   before  the 
le°<'ate*  a  schedule  of  reform  in  thirtj'-tour  articles,  requiring,  not 
only  the  removal  of  various  abuses  in  patronage   and  the  punish- 
ment of  negligence   on  the  part  of  the   P^roch-al  a"-!  .™°"^t'= 
clergy   but  TlsS  that  vernacular  services  should  be  permitted,  and 
comminion  in  both  kinds  enjoined,  while  all  abuses  and  supersti- 
tions  connected  with  image-worsliip.  indulgences,  pilgrimages  and 
relics  should  be  summanly  abolished.     Lorraine   on  being  asked 
how  far  he  agreed  with  these  demands,  said  that  he  4>P_PPf»"d  o 
some  of  them,  but  that  if  he  had  not  eonsen  ed  to  take  <=' mrge  M 
them  in  their  actual  form,  they  would  have  been  ^^f'J'-^^;^'''^^ 
drastic      No  definite  action  was  taken  upon  them  cither  at  Irent 
0   M  Rome,  and  the  proceedings  dragged  on  ineffectively  for  some 
months  longer.     On  March  2,  1563,  Cardinal  Gonzaga,  first  legate, 
S  cl    and   was  speedily   followed   by   Cardinal   Ser.panda     The 
imoerial  and  French  ambassadors  endeavoured  to  ge    the  ca^dina 
of  Lorraine  named  as  first  legate  and  president   but  he  was  not 
acceptable  at  Rome,  and  the  post  was  given  to  Cardmal  Morone 
with  whom  Cardinal  Navagero  was  associated,  to  fill  the  place  of 
S     p^ndo     All   these  events  delayed   the   twenty  third   session 
untirjulv  15   1563,  nearly  ten  months  later  than  the  preceding 
o  e      A  decVoe  on  the  sacrament  of  orders   in  four  cl^F'f^  »"J 
e  4t  canons   laid  down  that  there  is  a  saciificial  priesthood  of  the 
Nev-re5tan;n     instituted  by  Christ;  that  there  have  been  seven 
orUrs  ill  ?he  Christian  ministry  from  the  ear  ies.  '•-^  ;.«^^^^J>°'/„ 
order  i=  a  sacrament  ;  tl-.at  orders  are  indelible  ;  that  bishops  are 
sunerio  ■  io  priests  ;  that  a  call  from  the  laity,  or  from  any  secular 
aulhori  y  is^unnec^ssary  as  a  title  to  ordination,  and    I't't  ^  m"^y 
Uy  call  is  invalid,  while  bishops   appointed  solely  by  the  pope, 
wfthou     he  intervention  of  any  other  persons,  are  validly  created^ 
A  decree  of  er-hteen  chapters  on  reformation,  enacting,  rfmongsl 
much  ek»    pen^alties  for  non-residence  on  the  part  of  beneficiaries 
Td  providing  for  the  erection  of  those  theological  seminaries  which 
■have'^ever  sifco  been  the  nurseries  of  the  Latm  fl"gy- wa^  al» 
r.romuVatcd  in  this  session.     The  congregations  which  '» "?'•«'{, '' 
werToccupied  chiefly  with  the  question  of  matrimony,  which  had 
been  moot'ed  earlier.^ut  with  no  definite  result,  and  -tl>  f""^'  S 
a  scheme  to  repress  the  encroachments  of  the  civil  power  upon  the 
church  in  most  countries,  one  clause  of  which  proposed  to  exempt 
all  eccksiXs  from  civ  1  jurisdiction  in  all  cases  whatever,  and 
?nrtte"p"  •.",;[  of  taxes,  iith  penalty  of  c-ommn,.,cat,on  upon 
such  civil  authorities  as  contravened  this  ruling.     This  »»s  "-.exer 
pushed    0  the  stage  of  promulgation,  but  -t.^^f,  f •"«'",'  ^^ 
Manifestation  agafnst  the   reforming  P"  V   '"     '' V^hT/' "-Iged 
actually  drove  tho  French  ambassadors  away,  since  tnc>  JW'S"" 
hlir  farther  Ve^ence  useless  in  such  a  temper  o    the  as«.mWy. 
Yef  it  was  itself  bv  no  means  agreed  or  h.irnionious.     i  he  oia  ais 
pute    alout  the  cbim  of  the  c?uncil  to  represent  the  «  "m- 
vcrS   about  the  proposing  clause,  limiting  t^ie  initiat/ve  .o  the 
e"S  ;,  and  about^l^e  need  of  refom.  in  the  Ron>.an  cum  .t^  f 
were  renewed,  and  that  with  much  acrimony,  ^"1  wul.  no  prac 
tical  result      In  the  twenty-fourth  session  (November  11,  1563)  a 
decree  on  matrimony,  couched  in  ten  chapters  and  eleven  canons 


COCXCIL.] 


TRENT 


551 


<ras  promulgated,  the  most  noticeable  points  of  vrbich  are  the 
&&5ertioQ  that  the  church  can  constitute  otlicr  impediments  to 
matrimon)-  besides  the  forbidden  degrees  of  the  Lcvitical  code,  and 
can  dispense  with  such  imptdiironts  .  that  clerks  in  holy  orders 
and  regulars  vowed  to  celibacy  cannot  contract  valid  marriage  ; 
and  that  celibacy  is  superior  to  matrimony.  The  simultaneous 
Jecrte  on  reformation  lays  down  rules  for  the  creation  of  bishops 
and  cardinals,  so  as  to  avoid  unlit  promotions ;  directs  that 
diocesan  synods  shall  be  held  yearly,  and  provincial  synods  tricn- 
oially  ;  lays  down  rules  for  episcopal  visitations,  and  for  the  quali- 
fications to  be  exacted  of  persons  promoted  to  cathedral  dignities 
And  canonries ,  appoints  the  provincial  synod  the  judge  of  minor 
causes  against  bishops,  referring  graver  causes  to  the  poiie's  de- 
cision ,  and  enacts  various  other  technical  reflations.  By  this 
time  all  concerned  were  thoroughly  weary  of  trie  council,  .lud  the 
remaining  matters  for  discussion  were  hurriedly  discussed,  result- 
ing, in  the  twenty-fifth  and  last  session  (December  3  and  4,  1563), 
in  a  decree,  very  cautiously  worded,  upon  purgatory,  the  cullus  of 
saints,  and  that  of  relics  and  images.  In  this  same  session  was 
4lso  enacted  a  decree  in  twenty-two  chapters,  regulating  several 
matters  affecting  the  discipline  of  convents  of  monks  and  nuns ; 
tnd  another  decree  on  reformation,  in  twenty-one  chapters,  the 
most  important  of  which  enjoin  all  cardinals  and  bishops  to  keep 
modest  households,  and  not  to  enrich  their  kindred  with  church 
property  ;  that  all  prelates  shall  receive  and  publish  the  decrees  of 
the  council  ;  that  duelling  shall  be  prohibited  under  severe  penal- 
ties ;  and  that  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Sec  both  is,  an  is  to  be 
understood  to  be,  untouched  by  any  decrees  of  the  council  touch- 
ing the  reform  of  morals  and  di^iplino.  On  tlie  last  day  of  the 
session  was  passed  a  somewhat  indefinite  decree  upon  indulgences, 
forbidding  all  evil  gains  connected  therewith,  and  directing  that, 
wherever  abuses  or  superstitions  are  prevalent  concerning  them, 
the  bishops  shall  collect  the  facts,  lay  them  before  the  provincial 
synod,  and  after  discussion  there  refer  them  to  the  pope  for  ulti- 
mate decision.  The  distinction  of  meats,  and  the  due  obsen-auce 
of  festivals  and  fastS;  were  also  enjoined  ;  and  a  formal  statement 
was  made  that  the  committees  which  had  been  engaged  upon  the 
index  of  prohibited  books,  on  the  draft  of  a  catechism,  and  on  the 
revision  of  the  Missal  and  Breviary,  thinking  that  the  synod  could 
not  deal  with  them  conveniently,  had  determined  to  lay  their 
reports  before  the  pope  to  ratify  and  publish  at  his  pleasure. 
Formal  acclamations,  and  an  anathema  against  all  heretics,  closed 
the  session  ;  and  the  legates,  after  forbidding  any  bishop,  under 
pain  of  excommunication,  to  leave  Trent  till  be  had  either  signed 
nis  assent  to  the  decrees,  or  left  documentary  proof  of  such  assent, 
gave  the  blessing  and  dissolved  the  assembly. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty-five  signatures  were  attached  to 
the  decrees,  and  also  those  of  the  ambassadors  still  remain- 
ing at  Trent  The  bull  of  confirmation  was  issued  at 
Rome  on  January  26,  loSi,  and  followed  by  another  fixing 
May  1,  1564,  as  the  date  from  which  the  decrees  should  be 
held  binding.  The  bull  of  confirmation  forbade  all  persons 
whatsoever,  whether  ecclesiastics  or  laymen,  to  gloss  or 
interpret  the  decrees  upon  any  pretext  whatever,  without 
papal  authority  for  the  purpose.  The  republic  of  Venice 
was  the  first  power  to  signify  its  reception  of  the  decrees, 
followed  speedily  by  the  other  Italian  states  (except  Naples) 
and  by  Portugal ;  but  the  king  of  Spain,  though  receiving 
the  decrees,  issued  them  at  first  in  his  own  name,  and  not 
in  that  of  the  pope  ;  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  Bohemia 
demanded  the  lay  use  of  the  chalice  and  the  marriage  of 
priests  as  the  terms  on  which  they  would  accept  the 
council,  and  obtained  a  partial  concession  of  the  former 
demand,  but  were  refused  the  latter  ;  and  in  France,  while 
the  dogmatic  decrees  were  accepted,  the  disciplinary  ones 
were  not,  and  have  never,  in  spite  of  efforts  many  times 
renewed,  made  part  of  French  ecclesiastical  law.  The  pro- 
vision referring  the  explanation  of  the  council  to  the  pope 
was  given  shape  by  Si.xtus  V.,  who  erected  in  1588  a  Con- 
gregation of  the  Council  of  Trent  to  sit  permanently  at 
Rome,  where  it  has  ever  since  continued  to  be  included 
amongst  those  standing  committees  which  divide  among 
them  the  administration  of  the  pontifical  government. 

Two  questions  remain  to  be  considered  in  relation  to  this 
great  synod ; — how  far  was  it  free,  and  representative  of 
the  mild  of  Latin  Christianity  at  that  time?  and  what  have 
been  its  effects  upon  dogma  and  discipline  1  Ample 
materials  exist  for  answering  the  first  question,  in  the  form 
of   contemporary   letters,  either   separately  published,  as 


those  of  Vargas,  or  included  in   the  great  collection  of 
documents  made  by  Le  Piat,  and  in  the  oflScial  acts  of  the 
council  itself,  drawn  up  by  the  secretaries  Paleotto  and 
Massarelli.     From    these   it   is   perfectly   clear  that   the 
council  was  never  free  for  a  moment,  but  was  hampered 
and  fettered,  not  merely  by  the  permanent  fact  of  a  large 
Italian  majority,  subsidized   by   the   pope,'  but   by  the 
method   of   procedure  in  the   congregations,   since  by  a 
skilful  distribution  of  the  members  into  groups  or  classes, 
so  as  to  prevent  combined  action,  and  by  careful  packing 
of  the  sub-committees  to  which  the  preparation  of  business 
for  debate  was  entrusted,  little  could  be  done  save'  when 
and  how  the  majority  pleased  ;  and,  above  all,  the  vigilant 
supervision  exercised  by  the  legates,  their  constant  refer- 
ence to  Rome  of  every  point  of  any  importance  before  they 
would  permit  it  to  come  on  for  regular  discussion  (so  that 
Lanssac,  one  of  the  French  envoys,  somewhat  profanely 
said  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  brought  to  the  council  in  a 
carpet-bag  from  Rome),  and  their  uncompromising  use  of 
their  presidential  authority  to   interrupt   or  silence   un- 
acceptable speakers  (as  frequently  appears   in   the   Acts) 
effectually  boilnd  the  council  hand  and  foot ;  and  thus  its 
decisions,  as  a  whole,  represent  little  more  than  the  Italian 
and,  to  some  extent,  Spanish  opinions  of  the  time,  and  not 
those  of  German,  French,  or  Hungarian  Catholics.     The 
demeanour  of  the  legates  differed  much,  and  there  is  a 
wide  interval  between  the  open  browbeating  employed  by 
Crescenzio  and  the  high-bred  dignity  of  Gonzaga  or  the 
diplomatic  subtlety  of  Morone ;  but  the  policy  was  alike 
in  all  cases,  and  its  results  the  same.     As  to  the  dogmatic 
effect  of  the  council,  it  went  much  'further  th^n  merely 
restating    the    current    Catholic    theology   of    the   pre- 
Reformation  era ;  for  it  marks  a  new  departure,  closing 
many  questions  previously   left   open   (nothing   is   more 
noteworthy  in   the  debates   than  the  manner   in   which 
several  divines  of  unquestioned  ability  and  loyalty  delivered 
themselves  of  opinions  closely  allied  to  those  advocated  by 
leading  Reformers,  and  then  still  tenable  within  the  Roman 
obedience),  re-wording  old  propositions,  or  framing  new 
ones,    in   an    incisive    fashion.      It   recovered   for   papal 
authority  all  it  had  lost,  or  was  likely  to  lose,  through  the 
action  of  Basel  and  Constance  ;  and,  above  all,  it  unified 
Roman  teaching  for  the  first  time,  and  crystallized  it  into 
rigid  compactness.    Thus  it  made  concessions  and  explana- 
tions for  the  reconciliation  of   the  revolted  Protestants, 
although  the  primary  cause  of  the  council,  practically  im- 
possible thenceforward,  since  the  Roman  Catholic  system, 
thus  hastily  consolidated   out  of  a   former  condition  of 
partial  flux,  became  like  a  '•  Prince  Rupert's  drop,"  from 
which,  if  the  smallest  fragment  be  broken,  the  mass  is  at 
once  resolved  into  disintegrated  powder.     In  the  matter  of 
disciplinary  reform   the  council   enacted  but  little  of  an 
effective  nature,  except  in  the  abolition  of  the   traffic  in 
indulgences,  and  the  establishment  of  theological  seminaries, 
which  has  proved  the  most  effectual  agency  for  creating 
that  doctrinal  uniformity  which  now  prevails  throughout 
the  Roman  obedience  ;  and  the  real  honours  of  the  Counter- 
Reformation  rest  with  the  Jesuits,  to  whose  unremitting 
diligence,  powerful  organization,  and  ceaseless  precept  and 
example  must  be  attributed  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the 
abatement   of    ecclesiastical   abuses   and   scandals   which 
marks   the    succeeding    era.     Doubtless,    the   Tridentine 
decrees,  in  strong  and  resolute  hands,  proved  most  useful 
subsidiary  weapons  to  compel  local  reforms ;  but  decrees 
of   little  less  stringency  had   been   enacted  by  previous 


'  The  Italian  character  of  the  council  of  Trent  can  best  be  exhibited 
by  a  classified  table,  showing  the  nationality  of  the  bishops  present  in 
the  later  sessions: — Italians,  1S9  ;  Spaniards,  31 ;  French,  26  ;  Greeks 
(titulars),  6;  Portugfuese,  3;  IlI>Tians,  3;  Irish,  3;  Germacs.  2: 
Flemish,  2 ;  Polish,  2 ;  Croatian,  1 ;  .Moravian,  1 ;  English,  1. 


552 


T  R  E  — T  R   E 


synods,  and  had  rusted  unused,  because  there  was  no  one 
able  and  willing  to  put  them  in  operation  against  the 
passive  resistance  of  powerful  vested  interests. 

The  bibllopsphy  of  the  council  of  Ti ent  is  very  extensive,  but  a  comparatively 
•inall  nuraber  of  volLmes  really  suffices  the  stutlcot.  The  lirst  work  of  Import- 
ance Is  F.  Paolo  Sai-pl's  /storia  dtl  Concilia  Tnder.ciiw.  originally  published  in 
LundOD(1619)by  Antonio  de  Dominis,  aichbishop  o{  Spalato.  undei'the  pseudonym 
■if  Pietro  Soave  Polano  (an  impel  feet  anagram  of  Paolo  Sarpl  Veneto).  but 
t)€tt9r  stndfed  in  the  French  version  by  Pftre  Le  Courayer,  with  valuable  notes 
(See  Sarpi).  The  rival  work  of  Sforza  Palavicino,  htoria  del  Coneitio  di  Trento 
m>5i>-57),  written  to  oider  as  a  refutation  of  Sarpl's  woik.  Is  also  indispensable. 
He  hud  free  access  to  many  official  documents  wliicli  Sarpi  could  not  consult,  and 
Dflen  conecta  Idm  upon  points  of  detail,  but  a  careful  reader  will  find  that  he 
confinns  hmi  far  oftener  than  he  refutes  him.  It  Is  not  eiiougli.  as  Ranke  points 
out,  to  compare  tiiose  two.  and  take  the  mean  statement  as  a  guide,  for  they  are 
uometiraes  in  blank  contradiction,  and  other  witnesses  must  be  called  In  to  decide 
Che  matter.  The  Acts  of  the  council,  so  fjr  as  they  were  drafted  by  Paleotto. 
were  fii-st  piililished  by  Mendham  in  1842;  the  cooiplete  Acts,  by  both  Paleotto 
and  Massarelli,  were  not  accessible  till  published  as  Ada  Genmna  (Ecumenici 
Coiicilii  Tndentini  by  Tlieiner  in  1874  The  vast  compil.Ttlon  of  Jodociis  Le  Plat. 
Uoniamntorum  ad  Historiam  ConHtti  Tridevtini  Ampjtsstma  Colleclto  (7  vols 
4to,  I78I-S7),  Is  full, of  valuable  and  inteiesiing  mniter.  The  spt-eches  of  the 
Jesuit  Laynez,  which  had  such  a  powerful  effect  upon  the  council,  have  been 
recently  published  under  the  title  of  Lainez,  Disjmlaltones  Trtdnuwiv,  2  vols., 
18S6.  Varcas.  Letlres  el  ifeinoires  concemaTit  le  Coiicile  de  Trent  (1700,  paitly 
translated  In  Geddes,  T/ie  Council  of  Trent  no  Free  Assembly,  1714).  is  of  much 
value.  The  canons  and  decrees  of  the  council  have  been  many  times  published, 
and  are  readily  accessible;  the  best  edition  fs  that  by  Richter  and  Scliulte  (1853) 
There  Is  a  convenient  abildgraent  of  Palavicino's  history  prefixed  to  the  Fev. 
James  Waterwoith's  English  version  of  the  Decrees  and  Canons  of  Trent  (1848), 
hut  It  Is  not  trustwortliy,  for  the  translator  has  suppressed  many  statements  of 
tlie  original  which  tell  In  various  ways  against  the  freedom  of  the  action  of  the 
council.  To  these  may  be  added  Slckel,^^i^■te«stKr4e  tur  Oeschidile  des  Komils 
tu  Trient,  1872;  Caleilzio,  Documenti  Inediti  e  JVuooi  Lavori  Letterarii  sul  Con- 
rilio  di  Trento,  1874;  Ddliinger.  Samuilung  von  Urkunden  zur  Oeschichtc  des 
Concils  ron  Trient,  1876;  and  the  aitlcle  on  the  council  id  Wetzer  and  Weltes 
KircIiaUejriccn.  (R,  F    L  ) 

TRENTON,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  county  seat  of 
Mercer  county,  New  Jersey,  and  capital  of  the  State,  is 
situated  in  40°  14'  N.  lat.  and  74°  45'  W.  long.,  33  miles 
north-east  of  Philadelphia  and  57  south-west  of  New  York. 
It  lies  very  near  sea-level  (under  45  feet),  upon  the  left 
(eastero)  bank  of  the  Delaware  river,  at  the  head  of  navi- 
gation. The  city  is  irregularly  built,  the  streets  of  different 
eections  running  in  various  directions,  without  any  appear- 
ance of  system  ;  this  is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that 
different  portions  of  the  city  were  originally  settled  as 
independent  villages.  Till  recently  Trenton  was  rather 
backward  in  the  matter  of  municipal  improvements,  but 
an  extensive  system  of  paving  and  sewage  has  now  been 
entered  on.  The  water  supply  is  obtained  by  pumping 
into  a  reservoir.  Street  cars  run  upon  one  or  two  of  the 
principal  streets;  and  the  city  is  traversed  by  the  main 
line  of  the  New  York  division  of  the  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road. Manufactures  are  the  leading  industry,  the  capital 
invested  in  1830  having  been  §6,966,830  and  the  produc- 
tion $12,712,762.  In  iron  and  steel  manufactures  over 
$2,000,000  were  invested,  the  industry  next  in  importance 
being  the  manufacture  of  stone  and  earthen  ware,  for  which 
this  city  has  a  national  reputation.  Rubber  goods,  watches, 
and  woollen  Vloths  are  also  made.  The  population,  22,874 
in  1870,  was  29,910  in  1880. 

Trenton  wis  formed  by  a  consolidation  under  one  charter  of 
several  independent  villages,  known  as  Falls  of  the  Delaware 
(settled  In  1680),  Kingsborough,  Bloonisburg,  and  Lamberton. 
The  name  Trenton  was  given  to  the  settlements  about  1720.  Its 
early  growth  was  slow.  In  1790  it  was  selected  as  the  Sute 
capital,  and  two  years  later  it  received  a  city  charter.  Its  growth 
eince  that  time  has  been  steady,  and  during  the  past  thirty  years 
has  been  very  rapid. 

TREPANG.     See  BfiCHE-DE-MEE. 

TRESPASS,  in  law,  is  any  transgression  of  the  law  less 
than  treason,  felony,  or  misprision  of  either.  The  term 
includes  a  great  variety  of  torts  committed  to  land,  goods, 
or  person,  distinguished  generally  by  names  drawn  from 
the  writs  once  used  as  appropriate  to  the  particular  trans- 
gression, such  as  vi  et  armis,  quare  claitsum  /regit,  de  bonis 
asportatis,  de  uxore  abducta  cum  bonis  viri,  quare  Jilium 
et  heredcm  rapuit,  &c.  Up  to  1694  the  trespasser  was 
regarded,  nominally  at  any  rate,  as  a  criminal,  and  was 
liable  to  a  fine  for  the  breach  of  the  peace,  commuted  for 
a  small  sum  of  money,  for  which  5  W.  antl  M.  c.  12  sub- 
stituted a  fee  of  6s.  8d.  recoverable  as  costs  against  the 
defendant.     Trespass  is  not  now  criminal  except  by  special 


statutory  enactment,  e.g.,  the  old  statutes  against  forcible- 
entry,  the  Game  Acts,  and  the  private  Acts  of  many  rail- 
way companies.  When,  however,  trespass  is  carried  suffi- 
ciently far  it  may  become  criminal,  and  be  prosecuted  as 
assault  if  to  the  person,  as  nuisance  if  to  the  land.  At 
one  time  an  important  distinction  was  drawn  between 
trespass  general  and  trespass  special  or  trespass  on  the 
case,  for  which  see  Tort.  The  difference  between  trespass 
and  case  was  sometimes  a  very  narrow  one  ;  the  general 
rule  was  that  where  the  injury  was  directly  caused  by  the 
act  of  the  defendant  the  proper  remedy  was  trespass, 
where  indirectly,  case.  The  difference  is  illustrated  by  the 
action  for  false  imprisonment :  if  the  defendant  himself 
imprisoned  the  plaintiff  the  action  was  trespass ;  if  a 
third  person  did  so  on  the  information  of  the  defendan* 
it  was  case.  A  close  parallel  is  found  in  Roman  law  in 
the  actio  directa  under  the  lex  Aquilia  for  injury  t^used 
directly,  the  ar.tio  viilis  for  that  caused  indirectly.  One 
of  the  reasons  for  the  rapid  extension  of  the  action  on  the 
case,  especially  that  form  of  it  called  assumpsit,  was  no 
doubt  the  fact  that  in  the  action  on  the  case  the  defendant 
was  not  allowed  to  wage  his  law  (see  Wager). 

In  its  more  restricted  sense,  trespass  is  generally  used 
for  entry  on  land  without  lawful  authority  by  either  a 
man,  his  servants,  or  his  cattle.  To  maintain  an  action 
for  such  trespass  the  plaintiff  must  have  possession  of  the 
premises.  The  quantum  of  possession  necessary  to  enable 
him  to  bring  the  action  is  often  6,  question  difficult  to 
decide.  In  most  instances  the  tenant  can  bring  trespass, 
the  reversioner  only  case.  By  the  Judicature  Act,  1873, 
a  mortgagor  in  possession  can  sue  for  trespass  in  his  own 
name  Remedies  for  trespass  are  either  judicial  or  extra- 
judicial. The  most  minute  invasion  of  private  right  is 
trespass,  though  Ihe  damages  may  be  nominal  if  the 
injury  was  trivial.  Ou  the  other  hand,  they  may  be 
exemplary  if  circumstanees  of  aggravation  were  present. 
Pleading  in  the  old  action  of  trespass  was  of  a  very  tech- 
nical nature,  but  the  old-fashioned  terms  alia  enormia, 
replication  de  injuria,  new  assignment,  &c.,  once  of  such 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  reports,  are  of  merely  historical 
interest  since  the  introduction  of  a  simpler  system  of 
pleading,  unless  in  those  American  States  where  the  old 
pleading  has  not  been  reformed.  The  Venue  (q.v.)  in 
trespass  was  formerly  local,  in  case  transitory  In  addi- 
tion to  damages  for  trespass,  an  injunction  may  be  granted 
by  the  court.  The  power  to  grant  injunctions  against 
threatened  or  apprehended  trespass  has  been  considerably 
enlarged  by  the  Judicature  Act.  1873.  The  principal 
instances  of  extra-judicial  remedies  are  distress  damage 
feasant  of  cattle  trespassing,  and  removal  of  a  trespasser 
without  unnecessary  violence,  expressed  in  the  terms  of 
Latin  pleading  by  molliier  manus  imposu\t. 

Trespass  may  be  justified  by  exercise  of  a  legal  right,  as  to  serve 
the  process  of  the  law,  or  by  invitation  or  licence  of  the  owner,  or 
may  be  excused  by  accident  or  inevitable  necessity,  as  deviation 
from  a  highway  out  of  repair.  Where  a  man  abuses  an  authority 
given  by  the  law,  his  wrongful  act  relates  back  to  his  entry,  and 
he  becomes  a  trespasser  ab  initio,  that  is,  liable  to  be  treated  as  a 
trespasser  for  the  whole  time  of  his  being  on  the  land.  Mere 
breach  of  contract,  such  as  refusal  to  pay  for  wine  in  a  tavera 
which  a  person  has  lawfully  entered,  does  not  constitute  him  a 
trespasser  ab  initio.  A  trespass  of  a  permanent  nature  is  called  a 
continuing  trespass;  such  would  be  the  permitting  of  one's  cattle 
to  feed  on  another's  land  witliout  authoiity 

In  Scots  law  trespass  is  used  only  for  torts  to  land.  By  the 
Trespass  (Scotland)  Act,  1865,  trespassers  are  liable  on  summary 
conviction  to  line  and  imprisonment  for  encamping,  lighting  fires, 
&c.,  on  land  without  the  consent  and  permission  of  the  owner. 

TREVES  (French,  Treves;  Geiman,  Tner),  formerly 
the  capita!  of  an  archbishopric  and  spiritual  electorate  of 
the  empire,  and  now  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop 
and  the  chief  town  of  a  governmental  district  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  the  Rhine,  is  situated  on  the  right 


T  R  E  — T  R  E 


553 


hank  of  iba  ifoselle,  pleasantly  surrounded  by  low  vine- 
clad  hills,  -60  miles  south-west  of  Coblentz  and  S6  miles 
south  of  Cologne.  It  lies  in  the  midst  of  a  carefully 
cuhiTated  and  fertile  plain,  the  rich  vegetation  of  which 
forms  a  pleasing  setting  to  its  red  sandstone  walla  and 
veneraHe  towers.  Most  of  the  old  streets  of  the  town  are 
<juaint  and  irregular  ;  but  much  of  the  space  enclosed 
within  the  circuits  of  the  walls  is  now  occupied  by 
orchards  and  gardens.  The  population  of  Treves  in  1885 
was  26,125,  five-sixths  of  whom  were  Roman  Catholics. 
Their  chief  occupations  are  fruit-growing  and  vine-dressing ; 
the  industries  of  the  place,  including  the  manufacture  of  • 
cotton  and  linen,  dyeing,  and  tanning,  are  not  very  exten- 
sive. A  specialty  of  Treves  is  the  preparation  of  stones 
for  Gfothic  churches,  which  are  sent  off  ready  to  be  at  once 
placed  in  position.  A  river  traffic  is  carried  on  in  wine, 
cattle,  and  wood. 

Treves  claims  to  be  the  oldest  town  m  Germany,  and  it  contains 
more  important  Roman  remains  than  any  other  place  in  northern 
Europe.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  Porta  Nigi-a,  a  huge 
fortified  gateway,  115  feet  long,  70  to  95  feet  high,  and  30  feet 
deep.  It  is  formed  of  uncemented  blocks  of  sandstone,  held 
together  by  claLtps  of  iron,  and  now  blackened  with  time ;  the 
details  ace  very  rude.  Opinions  vary  widely  as  to  the  date  of  its 
erection,  bat  recent  authorities  refer  it  to  the  1st  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  Doric  5  the  Middle  Ages  the  structure  was  converted 
into  two  churches,  one  above  the  other ;  all  additions  have,  how- 
ever, now  been  removed,  except  the  apse  at  the  east  end.  The 
badlica,  long  used  as  the  archiepiscopal  palace  and  now  consecrated 
as  a  Protestant  chnreh,  probably  dates  com  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tice.  The  so-called  Roman  baths  are  in  all  probability  the  relics 
of  an  extensive  imperial  palace.  Just  outside  the  town  are  the 
remains  of  an  amphitheatre,  capable  of  accommodating  30,000 
spectators,  where  Constantine  caused  several  thousand  Franks  and 
Bructeri  to  be  butchered  for  the  public  amusement.  Perhaps  the 
oldest  Roman  remains  in  Treves  are  some  of  the  piera  of  the  bridge 
over  the  Moselle,  dating  from  about  28  B.C.  This  bridge,  which 
is  at  one  comer  of  modem  Treves,  lay  near  the  middle  of  the  much 
more  extensive  Roman  city.  There  are  also  numerous  Roman 
antiquitiea  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Treves,  the  most  important  of 
which,  are  the  Igel  column,  a  sepulchral  monument  of  the  2d 
century,  and  the  mo«aic  pavements  at  Xecnig  and  Fliessem. 

Another  group  of  interesting  buildings  belongs  to  the  second 
period  of  prosperity  enjoyed  by  Treves  under  the  rule  of  its  mediseval 
prelates.  The  cathedral,  described  by  Labke  as  the  most  important 
example  of  pre-Carlovingian  building  in  Germany,  mirrors  the 
entire  history  of  the  town.  Its  kernel  consists  of  part  of  a  Roman 
basilica  of  the  4th  csntory,  which  seems  to  have  been  converted 
into  a  Christian  church  at  a  very  early  period.  It  was  restored  by 
Bishop  Xicetius  about  550,  and  in  the  11th  and  12th  centuries  it 
was  again  restored  and  greatly  extended  by  Archbishop  Poppo  and 
hb  successors,  who  added  an  apse  at  each  end  and  left  it  substanti- 
iUy  in  its  present  form.  The  cathedral  is  connected  by  beautiful 
cloisters  of  the  13th  century  with  the  circular  Liebtrauenkirche, 
one  of  the  most  interesting  early  Gothic  churches  in  Germany 
11227-43),  catching  up  the  architectural  thread  at  the  point  dropped 
by  the  cathedral  Among  the  treasures  of  the  latter  is  the  "  holy 
Mat  of  Treves,"  believed  by  the  devout  to  be  the  seamless  garment 
worn  by  our-Saviour  at  the  crucifixion,  and  said  to  have  been  pre- 
sented to  the  town  by  the  empress  Helena,  the  central  figure  in 
Treveran  Christian  legend.  Its  exhibition  in  1844  attracted  a 
aiUlion  and-  a  half  of  pilgrims  to  Trcvea  According  to  recent 
authorities,  -the  earliest  churches  in  Treves  were  those  of  Sts 
Eucharius,  Maximin,  Matthew,  and  Paul,  all  without  the  walls, 
now  rebuilt  or  converted  to  secular  purposes.  Of  the  modem 
buildings  none  call  for  special  remark.  The  town  library  contains 
about  100,090  volumes,  including  several  valuable  specimens  of 
early  printing.  Its  greatest  treasure  is  the  Codex  Aureiis,  a 
manuscript  of  the  Gospels  presented  to  the  abbey  of  St  Maximin 
by  Ada,  sister  of  Charlemagne.  The  same  building  also  contains 
an  interesting  collection  of  Roman  and  mediwwal  antiquities. 

A  raediseval  legend,  preserved  in  an  inscription  on  the  old  Rothes 
Haus  inn,  places  the  foundation  of  Treves  1300  years  before  that  of 
Rome,  and  ascribes  it  to  Thebetas,  son  of  Ninus,  king  of  Assyria. 
But,  fable  apart,  we  must  sMU  allow  that  Treves  has  good  claim  to 
call  itself  the  oldest  town  in  Germany.  It  is  a  little  doubtful 
whether  the  Treviri  were  of  Teutonic  or  Celtic  stock.  St  Jerome 
records  that  the  language  of  the  Treviri  of  the  4th  century  resembled 
that  of  the  Gauls  of  Asia  ;  but,  even  if  we  admit  this  evidence  as 
conclusive  of  their  Celtic  origin,  we  must  recognize  the  fact  that 
they  were  Celts  who  were  long  under  Teutonic  influence.  Their 
(Btbentic  history  begins  with  the  story  of  their  subjection  by  Julias 


Coesar  (56  B,c.),  who  describes  them  as  a  warlike  race,  with  the  best 
cavalry  in  Gaul.  The  Rom.in  town,  Colonia  Auffu^ta  Trevirorum 
(or  Trercroruyn),  was  probably  founded  by  the  emperor  Claudius,and 
rapidly  obtained  a  wealth  and  importance  which  justified  the  poet 
Ausoniu.s  (4th  centur))  in  describing  it  as  the  second  metropolis 
of  the  empire,  or  "  Kcrae  beyond  the  Alps."  It  became  the  capital 
of  Belgica  Prima,  and  during  the  4'.h  centur;.-  was  a  favourite 
residence  of  Constantine  and  other  Roman  emperors.  Most  of  tho 
palaces  and  public  buildings,  of  which  the  remains  are  still 
extant,  were  built  at  this  period,  while  the  surrounding  hills  were 
covered  with  villas.  Treves  was  laid  in  ruins  by  Attila  in  451,  and 
about  465  was  permanently  taken  possession  of  by  the  Franks.  It 
was  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  and  became  a  German 
city  in  S70.  Like  its  prototype  Rome,  it  attained  a  second  era  of 
prosperity  and  importance  as  an  ecclesiastical  capital  (see  below), 
and  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  "  Sancta  Civitas  Trevirorum  "  swarmed 
with  "religious"  of  all  kinds  and  grades.  Unlike  most  of  the 
German  episcopal  cities,  however,  it  did  not  succeed  in  shaking 
otf  the  ecclesiastical  yoke,  nor  did  it  attain,  except  transitorily, 
the  position  of  a  free  imperial  city.  Wars  and  sieges  occasionally 
checked  but  did  not  stop  its  growth.  Art  and  science  were 
sedulously  fostered  in  the  monastic  schools,  and  a  university, 
founded  in  1473,  existed  down  to  1793.  The  importance  of  Treves 
departed  with  the  overthrow  of  the  ecclesiastical  principality.  la 
1786  the  last  elector  shifted  his  residence  to  Coblentz,  and  from 
1794  to  1814  Treves  was  capital  of  the  French  department  of  the 
Sarre.     Since  the  latter  date  it  has  belonged  to  Prussia. 

The  archbishopric  and  ecclesiastical  electorate  of  Treves,  bounded 
by  Nassau,  Cologne,  Luxemburg,  Lorraine,  the  Rhenish  Palatinate, 
Hesse-P.heinfels,  and  Katzenelnbogen,  had  an  area  of  about  3200 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  250,000  to  300,000.  Its  suffragan 
bishops  were  those  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  and  after  1777  also 
those  of  is'ancy  and  St  Die.  As  elector  of  the  German  empire  the 
archbishop  took  the  second  place,  and  borethestyleof  arch-chancellor 
of  Gaul  or  Burgundy.  Legend  places  the  foundation  of  the  bishopric 
of  Treves  in  the  1st  century  of  the  Christian  era,  but  the  tirst 
bishop  known  to  history  is  Agricius,  who  flourished  about  314. 
The  see  appears  as  an  archbishopric  in  the  9th  century,  and  in  the 
Middle  Ages  the  archbishops  attained  considerable  temporal  power. 
Among  the  most  prominent  were'Baldivin  of  Luxemburg  (1307- 
1354y,  brother  of  the  emperor  Henry  VII.,  who  may  be  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  territorial  greatness  of  the  see,  and  Richard 
von  Greifienklau  (1511-1531),  who  distinguished  himself  by  his 
successful  opposition  to  the  Reformation.  The  last  archbishop  was 
Clemens  Wenceslans  (1 765-1802)  of  Saxony.  The  part  of  the 
archbishopric  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  was  taken  by  France  in 
1801,  and  the  rest  was  secularized  in  favour  of  the  prince  of  Nassau- 
Weiibnrg  in  1803.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  the  archbishopric 
was  incorporated  with  Prussia.  A  new  tishopric  of  Treves  was 
instituted  in  1821,  the  boundaries  of  which  are  almost  conterminous 
with  those  of  the  old  archbishopric  ;  the  bishop  is  a  sufiragan  to 
the  archbishop  of  Cologne. 

See  "AogTista  Treveronim,"  an  article  by  E.  A.  Freeman  in  the  Brituh 
Quarterly  tigview  for  July  1375. 

TREVmANUS,  Gottfried  Reinhold  (1776-1837), 
German  naturalist,  was  bom  at  Bremen,  February  4,  1776, 
studied  medicine  at  Gottingen,  in  1797  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Bremen  lyceum,  and  died  at  Bremen, 
February  16,  1837. 

He  jnade  numerous  important  contributions  to  comparative 
anatomy,  especially  in  regard  to  birds  and  spiders^  Though  noted 
for  his  learning  and  acute  observation,  his  studies  in  geographical 
distribution  cannot  be  said  to  have  led  to  any  very  definite  results. 
It  is  rather  on  account  of  his  contributions  to  aetiology  that  he  de- 
serves to  be  remembered,  though  his  work  in  this  department  has 
been  to  a  great  extent  overlooked.  In  the  first  of  his  larger  works. 
Biologic  oder  Philosophie  der  lebcndcn  Natur,  which  appeared  from 
1802-1805,  he  gave  clear  expression  to  the  theory  of  "descent  with 
modification."  He  believed  that  simple  forms  (Protists),  which  he 
termed  "zoophytes."  were  "the  primitive  types  from  which  all  the 
organisms  of  the  higher  classes  had  arisen  by  gradual  development." 
"Everj-  living  creature  has  a  potentiality  of  endless  modification 
of  adapring  its  structure  to  the  changes  in  the  external  world." 
He  also  maintained  that  each  species  has  its  day  or  period,  at  the 
end  of  which  it  does  not  become  extinct,  but  has  simply  ceased  to 
be,  because  it  has  become  something  else.  That  he  stated  the  theory 
of  descent  with  much  clearness,  and  with  a  sufficient  background  of 
actual  knowledge  of  forms,  must  be  acknowledged  by  all ;  the  only 
difficulty  relates  to  the  question  of  priority.  The  first  volume  of 
his  biology  was  published  in  1802,  but  he  states  that  this  ha,!  been 
written  about  1796.  Now  it  was  not  till  ISOl  that  Lamarck  first 
began  to  free  himself  from  the  traditional  dogma  of  the  immuta- 
bility of  species,  and  to  publish  his  views  of  evolution.  Neither 
Goethe  aor  t)ken  cati  be  said  to  have  done  much  more  th.in  follow 
up  the  ironical  insinuations  of  Buffon  (1753-76)  and  the  ingenious 
suggestions  of  Erasmus  Darwin,  whose  Zoonomia  was  translated 

xxiir.  —  7o 


554 


T  R  E  —  T  R  E 


into  German  between  1795  and  1797,  while  both  Treviranua  and 
Lamarck  tackled  the  problem  not  merely  of  the  theory  of  descent 
bat  of  the  mechanism  of  evolution.  On  this  point  the  merits  of 
Lamarck  certainly  outweigh  those  of  his  contemporary.  Trcvir- 
anus  laid  down  as  a  fundamental  proposition  "  that  all  living  forms 
are  the  results  of  physical  influences  which  are  still  in  operation, 
and  vary  only  in  degree  and  direction."  Like  many  after  hira,  he 
directed  attention  to  the  influeuce  of  the  male  elemeuts  in  fertiliza- 
tion as  a  Kource  of  variation,  but  laid  emphasis  orJy  on  the  intra- 
organismal  power  of  adaptation  to  surroundings.  Whatever  opinion 
ho  entertained  in  regard  to  the  priority  and  the  importance  of  the 
contribution  made  by  Treviranus  to  the  theory  of  evolution,  it 
19  at  least  certain  that  ho  was  a  learned  naturalist  and  an  acute 
thinker  His  most  important  later  work  of  a  synthetic  nature 
was  entitled  Erscheinungen  und   Oesclze  des.  organischen  Lebens 

(18S1X 

See  EvoLDTios;  E.  Haeckel's  ScMpfungigeteMchie.  pp.  8a-5;  Caroa,  Oeschichta 
iter  Zoolotjie,  p  610 

TREVISO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  lies  in  the  midst  of  a  district  of  great  fertility,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Piavesella  with  the  Sile,  which  is  here 
navigable  for  large  boats  and  communicates  by  canals  with 
the  lagoons  of  Venice  (17  miles  distant).  It  is  an  old  town, 
with  narrow  irregular  colonnaded  streets  and  some  good 
squares.  The  cathedral  of  San  Pietro,  dating  from  1141 
and  restored  and  enlarged  in  the  15th  century  by  Pietro 
Lombardo,  but  still  unfinished,  contains  a  fine  Annunciation 
by  Titian  (1519),  an  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,  the 
masterpiece  of  Paris  Bordone  (born  at  Treviso  in  1500), 
and  frescos  by  Pordenone.  There  are  numerous  statues  and 
reliefs  by  Pietro,  TuUio,  and  Martino  Lombardo,  and  by 
Sansovino.  The  Gothic  church  of  San  Niccol6  (1310-52) 
contains  a  fine  tomb  by  Tullio  Lombardo,  frescos  by 
Giovanni  Bellini,  and  a  large  altar-piece  by  Fra  Marco 
Pensabene  and  others  ;  in  the  adjoining  chapter-house  are 
forty  portraits  of  celebrated  Dominicans  by  Tommaso  da 
Modena  (1 352).  The  Monte  di  Pieti  contains  an  Entomb- 
ment by  Pordenone  (according  to  others  by  Giorgione). 
The  churches  of  S.  Leonardo,  S.  Andrea,  S.  Maria 
Maggiore,  and  S.  Maria  Maddalena  also  contain  precious 
art  treasures,  and  the  town  is  enriched  besides  by  various 
open-air  frescos.  The  town-hall  and  theatre  are  also 
conspicuous  buildings.  Silk  and  cotton  goods,  cutlery, 
majolica,  and  paper  are  the  chief  manufactures  of  the 
place,  and  an  active  trade  is  also  carried  on  in  corn,  fruit, 
and  cattle.     The  population  in  1881  was  31,249. 

Treviso,  the  ancient  Tarvisium,  is  not  mentioned  by  any  of  the 
ancient  geographers,  though  Pliny  speaks  of  the  Silis  as  flowing 
"  ex  montibus  Tarvisanis.  '  In  the  6th  century  it  appears  as  an 
important  place.  From  1318  it  was  for  a  short  time  the  seat  of  a 
university  (see  Universities).  In  1339  it  came  under  the  Venetian 
sway  In  the  15th  century  its  walls  and  ramparts  were  renewed 
under  the  directioh  of  Fra  Giocondo,  two  of  the  gates  being  built 
by  the  Lombardi.  Treviso  was  taken  in  1797  by  the  French  under 
Jlortier  (duke  of  Treviso).  In  March  1848  the  Anstrian  garrison  was 
driven  from  the  town  by  the  revolutionary  party,  but  in  the  follow- 
ing June  the  town  was  bombarded  and  compelled  to  capitulate- 

TREVITHICK,  Richard  (1771-1833),  inventor  of  the 
locomotive,  was  descended  from  a  family  of  great  antiquity 
in  the  county  of  Cornwall,  and  was  born  13th  April  1771, 
in  the  parish  of  Illogan.  Shortly  afterwards  the  family  re- 
moved to  Penponds,  near  Camborne,  where  the  boy  attended 
bis  first  and  only  school,  his  attainments  being  limited  to 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  Though  slow  and  obstin- 
ate as  a  scholar,  he  spent  much  time  dravring  lines  and 
figures  on  his  slate,  and  possessed  such  instinctive  skill  in 
mechanics  that  while  still  a  youth  he  was  able  to  solve  a 
difficulty  in  the  correction  of  underground  levels  which  had 
puzzled  some  of  the  mine  agents.  He  inherited  more  than 
the  average  strength  for  which  his  family  were  famous, 
standing  6  feet  2  inches  in  height,  while  his  frame  was  the 
very  model  of  an  athlete.  His  feats  in  wrestling  and  lift- 
ing and  throwing  weights  were  unexampled  in  the  district 
At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  began  to  assist  his  father  as  mine 
manager,  and,  manifesting  great  fertility  of  mechanical  in- 


vention, was  soon  recognized  as  the  great  rival  of  Watt  in 
improvements  on  the  steaai-engme  (see  vol.  xxii.  p.  476). 
On  the  death  of  his  father  in  17  97,  he  succeeded  him  as 
leading  engineer  in  Cornish  mining.     He  married  the  same 
ye.ar.    His  earliest  invention  of  importance  was  his  improved 
plunger  pole  pump  (1797),  which  has  superseded  ail  others 
for  deep  mining.     In  1798  he  applied  the  principle  of 
the  plunger  pole  pump  to  the  construction  of  the  water- 
pressure  engine,  which  he  subsequently  improved  in  various 
ways.     About  this  time  he  also  perfected  a  high-pressure 
mn-conducting  steam-engine,  which  became  a  successful 
rival  of  the  low-pressure  steam-vacuum  engine  of  Watt. 
At  an  early  period  he  had  begun  experiments  in  the  con- 
struction of  locomotives,  and  a  model  constructed  by  him 
before  1800  is  now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.    On 
Christmas  eve  1801  his  common  road  locomotive  carried 
the  first  load  of  passengers  ever  conveyed  by  steam,  and  on 
24th  March   1802  he  and  Andrew  Vivian  applied  for  a 
patent  for  steam-engines  in  propelling  carriages.     In  1803 
his  locomotive  was  run  in  the  streets  of  London,  from 
Leather  Lane  by  Gr  ly's  Inn  Lane  and  along  Oxford  Street 
to  Paddington,  the  return  journey  being  made  by  Islington. 
The  cost  was,  however,  found  too  great,  and  his  thoughts 
were  now  directed  to  the  construction  of  a  steam  loco- 
motive for  tramways,  with  such  success  that  in  February 
1804  he  worked  a  tramroad  locomotive  in  Wales,  running 
with  facility  up  and  down  inclines  of  1  in  50.     In  1808 
he  constructed  a  circular  railway  in  London  near  Euston 
Square,  on  which  the  public  were  carried  at  the  rate  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  miles  an  hour  round  curves  of  50  or  100 
feet  radius.     The  ideas  of   Trevithick   were   successfully 
developed  by  Stephenson  so  as  to  revolutionize  the  system 
of  modern  travelling,  but  Trevithick  had  made  consider- 
able progress  towards  this  before  Stephenson  had  begun 
his   experiments.      Trevithick  applied   his   high-pressure 
engine  with  great  success  to  rock  boring  and  breaking,  as 
well  as  to  dredging.     In  1806  he  entered  into  a  twenty- 
one  years'  engagement  with  the  board  of  Trinity  House, 
London,  to  lift  ballast  from  the  bottom  of  the  Thames,  at 
the  rate  of  500,000  tons  a  year,  for  a  payment  of  6d-  a 
ton.     The  following  year  he  was  appointed  along  with 
Vazie  to  execute  the  Thames  driftway,  but  the  work  was 
abandoned  owing  to  disputes  about  payment  when  unex- 
pected difficulties  had  occurred      He  then  set  up  work- 
shops at  72  Fore  Street,  Limehouse,  for  the  construction  of 
iron  tanks  and  buoys  and  model  iron  ships      He  was  the 
first  to  recognue  the  importance  of  iron  in  the  construction 
of  large  ships,  and  in  various  ways  his  ideas  have  also 
influenced  the  construction  of  steamboats      In  the  appli- 
cation of   steam    to  agriculture  the    name  of  Trevithick 
occupies  one  of  the  chief  places.     A  high-pressure  steam 
threshing  engine  was  erected  by  him  in  1812  at  Trewithen, 
the  property  of  Sir  Charles  Hawkins,  while,  m  the  same 
year,  in  a  letter  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  he  stated  his 
belief  that  every  part  of  agriculture  might  be  performed 
by  steam,  and  that  such  a  use  of  the  steam-engine  would 
"double  the  population  of  the  kingdom  and  make  onr 
markets  the  cheapest  in  the  world."     In  1814  he  entered 
on  an  agreement  for  the  construction  of  engines  for  the 
Peruvian  mines,  and  to  superintend  their  working  removed 
to  Peru  in  1816.     Thence  he  went  in  1822  to  Costa  Rica. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1827,  and  in  1828  petitioned 
parliament  for  a  reward  for  his  inventions,  but  without 
success.     Ho  was  equally  unsuccessful  in  his  endeavours 
to  induce  the  lords  commissioners  of  the  Admiralty  to 
afford  him  facilities  for  demonstrating  the  value  of  certain 
improvements  he  claimed  to  have  made  in  steam  navigation. 
He  died  22d  April  1833. 

SaelA/e  qf  Richard  Trevithick,  with  an  Account  of  hit  Invcnticng, 
hj  Francis  Trevithick.  C.E..  2  vols.,  1872. 


T  R  1  —  T  R  I 


555 


TRIAL,  in  law,  is  the  examination  of  a  cause  before 
ft  court  of  justice.  It  is  the  stage  in  the  cause  next 
after  Pleabdjo  (q.v.).  Advance  in  legal  development 
is  generally  marked  by  difiference  in  the  mode  of  trial. 
This  was  especially  the  case  in  the  history  of  Roman  law, 
and  it  has  been  the  same  in  England  (see  Action).  Many 
farms  of  trial,  notably  those  by  Crdeal  (q.v.),  by  wager 
of  battle  or  of  law  (see  Wagee),  and  by  grand  assize,  have 
become  obsolete,  and  new  forms  have  been  created  by 
legislation  in  order  to  meet  altered  circumstances  of  society. 
Up  to  a  very  recent  date  the  tendency  of  the  Roman  and 
English  systems  was  in  opposite  directions.  In  the  former 
and  in  systems  founded  on  it,  such  as  the  Scotch,  trial  by 
the  judge  became  the  rule,  in  the  latter  tnal  by  judge 
%nd  jury."  But  the  Judicature  and  Summary  Jurisdiction 
Acts  have  recently  made  considerable  mnovations  upon  the 
old  common-law  right  to  trial  by  Juyly  {q.v.)  or  per  pais, 
tks  It  was  also  called.  The  modes  of  trial  in  England  are 
very  numerous,  as  to  a  certam  extent  each  Coctrt  {q.v.) 
has  its  o'wn  procedure.  Certain  broad  rules  of  justice. are 
observed  by  all  courts,  such  as  that  both  sides  are  to  be 
heard,  or  to  have  an  opportunity  of  being  heard,  before 
decision,  and  that  (unless  in  very  exceptional  cases)  the 
trial  is  to  be  in  public. 

For  purposes  of  convenience  rather  than  as  a  scientific  division 
trials  may  be  divided  into  civil  and  criminal.  An  ordinary  trial 
in  a  civil  case  may  be  either  in  a  court  of  appellate  jurisdiction  (in 
which  case  it  is  perhaps  more  properly  called  a  hearing),  in  the 
High  Court  of  Justice  before  a  judge  or  referee,  or  in  an  inferior 
court  Where  the  tnal  is  m  a  court  of  first  instance,  it  may  be 
either  with  or  without  a  jury.  In  Chancery  and  Admiralty  pro- 
ceedings a  jury  is  not  used,  and  the  right  to  a  jury  in  tho  Queen's 
Bench  Division  has  been  considerably  restricted  by  the  Rules  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  1883,  Order  xxrvi.  Before  these  rules  cither 
party  had  an  absolute  right  to  have  issues  of  fact  in  ~an  action  in 
that  division  tried  by  jury.  Now,  unless  in  certain  actions,  mainly 
of  tort,  in  which  a  jnry  is  as  of  right,  a  jury  can  only  be  obtained 
by  application  of  a  party  to  the  action,  subject  to  the  power  of  the 
coort  to  direct  tnal  without  a  jury  of  any  issue  fequiriBg  prolonged 
examination  of  documents  or  accounts  or  scientific  or  local  investi- 
eatioQ.  The  question  of  Ventje  {q-v.)  in  civil  actions  has  ceased  to 
be  of  importance  since  the  Judicature  Acts.  Most  courts  are  en- 
titled in  proper  cases  to  the  assistance  of  assessors.  Trial  with- 
assessors  is  in  frequent  use  in  the  Admiralty  Division.  A  trial 
whether  by  jury  or  not  may  be  by  affidavit  or  on  viva  voce  evidence. 
The  latter  is  the  rule  where  the  trial  is  by  jnry.  In  a  county  court 
a  jury  of  five  is  allowed  in  certain  cases  on  application.  In  other 
inferior  courts  of  local  jurisdiction  a  jury  is  sometimes  the  rule,  as 
in  the  (London)  Lord  Mayor's  Court,  sometimes  not,  as  in  the 
Chancellor's  Court  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge.  In  criminal  cases  the 
trial  is  by  jury,  except  where  a  court  of  Summary  Jurisdiction 
(j.c.)  is  empowered  to  try  offences  of  a  comparatively  unimportant 
nature.  The  right  to  tnal  by  due  process  of  law  before  condemna. 
tion  IS  secured  to  the  subject  by  sec.  29  of  Magna  Charta.  A  new 
tnal  may  be  ordered  in  civil  actions  and  in  misdemeanours  (in  the 
latter  case  only  after  conviction  of  the  defendant)  on  various  grounds, 
the  most  usual  of  which  are  misdirection  by  the  judge,  improper  ad- 
mission or  rejection  of  evidence,  and  the  finding  of  a  verdict  against 
the  weight  of  evidence.  In  actions  in  the  High  Court  new  tiials 
are  less  liberally  granted  than  was  the  case  before  the  Judicature 
Acts,  Order  xxxix.  considerably  restricting  the  right.  An  applica- 
tion for  a  new  tnal  of  an  action  is  no  longer  made  by  ex  parte 
motion  in  the  first  instance,  as  was  the  course  before  1883,  but 
upon  notice  of  motion.  Besides  the  ordinary  modes  of  trial,  there 
are  others  of  an  exceptional  nature  or  of  r*re  occurrence.  In  a 
trial  by  arbitration,  the  tribunal  Ls  chosen  by  the  parties  themselves, 
and  they  are  not  entitled  to  object  to  the  trial  as  conducted  by  the 
arbitrator  as  long  as  it  conforms  to  rules  of  ordinary  justice.  Peers 
tre  tried  for  treason  or  felony  before  the  House  of  Lords,  or  the 
court  of  the  Lord  High  Steward  if  the  trial  takes  place  during  the 
recess  of  parliament.  A  trial  at  bar — a  survival  of  the  universal 
mode  of  trial  before  the  writ  of  Nisi  Pbius  (q.v.)  was  given  by  the 
Statute  of  Westminster  the  Second— takes  .place  before  three  or 
four  judges  of  the  Queen's  Bench  Division,  and  is  in  use  as  of  right 
where  the  crown  is  interested  in  the  litigation,  or  at  the  discretion 
of  the  court  in  other  cases  where  questions  of  unusual  importance 
or  difficulty  are  raised-  The  trial  of  a  petition  of  right  (see  Petition, 
vol  xviiL  p.  705)  is  now  assimilated  to  that  in  civil  actions.  Trials 
by  record,  oy  certificate,  and  by  inspection,  though  not  expressly 
abolished,  appear  to  have  become  obsolete.  Impeachment  {q.v.) 
is  still  s  rignt  of  the  House  of  Commons,  bat  has  not  recently  been 


exercised.  Coubt-Martial  (7. v.  )  is  the  mode  of  trial  for  offences 
committed  by  pei*sons  in  the  naval  or  military  service  of  the  crown. 
In  Scotland  and  the  United  States  trials  are  either  with  or  with- 
out a  JU17.  The  most  usual  tnals  in  Scotland  are  those  before  a 
judge  of  the  Court  of  Session  or  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary  or 
in  a  shenfif  court.  In  the  United  States  trials  ar«  either  in  a  United 
States  or  a  State  court ,  in  the  latter  case  they  arc  regulated  by 
State  legislation. 

TRIBONIAN,  the  famous  jurist  and  minister  of  Justi- 
nian, was  born  in  Pamphylia  in  the  latter  part  of  the  5th 
century.  Adopting  the  profession  of  an  advocate,  he 
came  to  Constantinople  and  practised  in  the  prefectural 
courts  there,  reaching  such  eminence  as  to  attract  the 
notice  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  who  appointed  him  in 
528  one  of  the  ten  commissioners  directed  to  prepare  the 
first  Codex  of  imperial  constitutions.  In  the  edict  creat- 
ing this  commissron  (known  as  Hsc  Qtue)  Tribonian  is 
named  sixth,  and  is  called  "  virum  magnificum,  magisteria 
digmtate  inter  agentes  decoratum "  (see  Bxc  Quss  and 
Summa  Retpublicx,  prefixed  to  the  Codex).  ^Tien  the 
commission  of  sixteen  eminent  lawyers  was  created  in 
530  for  the  far  more  laborious  and  difficult  duty  of  com- 
piling a  collection  of  extracts  from  the  writings  of  the  great 
jurists  of  the  earlier  empire,  Tribonian  was  made  presi- 
dent and  no  doubt  general  director  of  this  board.  He  had 
already  been  raised  to  the  office  of  quaestor,  which  at  that 
time  was  a  sort  of  ministry  of  law  and  justice,  its  holder 
being  the  assessor  of  the  emperor  and  his  organ  for  judi- 
cial purposes,  something  like  the  English  lord  chancellor 
of  the  later  Middle  Ages.  The  instructions  given  to  these 
sixteen  commissioners  may  be  found  in  the  constitution 
Deo  Aitctore  {Cod.,  i.  17,  1),  and  the  methoa  in  which  the 
work  was  dealt  with  in  the  constitution  Tanta  {Cod.,  i.  17, 
2),  great  praise  being  awarded  to  Tribonian,  who  is  therein 
called  ex-quKstor  and  ex-consul,  and  also  as  magister  offici- 
orum.  This  last  constitution  was  issued  in  December  533, 
when  the  Digest  was  promulgated  as  a  law-book.  During 
the  progress  of  the  work,  in  January  532,  there  broke 
out  in  Constantinople  a  disturbance  in  the  hippodrome, 
which  speedily  turned  to  a  terrible  insurrection,  that  which 
goes  in  history  by  the  name  of  Nika,  the  watchword  of 
the  insurgents.  Tribonian  was  accused  of  having  pros- 
tituted his  office  for  the  purposes  of  gain,  and  the  mob 
searched  for  him  to  put  bun  to  death  (Procop.,  Per.?.,  L 
24-26).  Justinian,  yielding  for  the  moment,  removed 
him  from  office,  and  appointed  a  certain  Basilides  m  his 
place.  After,  the  suppression  of  the  insurrection  the  work 
of  codification  was  resumed.  A  little  earlier  than  the 
publication  of  the  Digest,  or  Pandicts,  there  had  been 
published  another  but  much  smaller  lawbook,  the  Iiisti- 
tutes,  prepared  under  Justinian's  orders  by  Tribonian,  with 
Theophilus  and  Dorotheus,  professors  of  law  (see  Preface 
to  Institutes).  About  the  same  time  the  emperor  placed 
Tribonian  at  the  head  of  a  fourth  commission,  consisting 
of  himself  as  chief  and  four  others, — Dorotheus,  professor 
at  Beyrut,  and  three  practising  advocates,  who  were  directed 
to  revise  and  re-edit  the  first  Codex  of  imperial  constitu- 
tions. The  new  Codex  was  published  in  November  534  (see 
constitution  Cordi  ifobis  prefixed  to  the  Codex).  With  it 
Tribonian's  work  of  codification  was  completed.  But  he 
remained  Justinian's  chief  legal  minister.  He  was  re- 
instated as  qUiBstor  some  time  after  534  (Procop.,  Pers.,  L 
25  ;•  Anecd.,  20),  and  seems  to  have  held  the  office  as  long 
as  he  lived.  He  was  evidently  the  prime  mover  in  the 
various  changes  effected  in  the  law  by  the  novels  of  Justi- 
nian {NovelleR  Constitutiones),  which  became_  much  less 
frequent  and  less  important  after  death  had  reifioved  the 
great  jurist.  The  date  of  his  death  has  been  variously 
assigned  to  545,  546,  and  547.  Procopius  says  {Aiucd,, 
20)  that,  although  he  left  a  son  and  many  grandchildren, 
Justinian  confiscated  part  of  the  inheritance. 


556 


T  R  I  —  T  R  I 


The  above  facts,  which  are  all  thai  we  know  about  Tnbonian, 
rest  oa  the  authority  of  his  contemporary  Procopius  and  of  the 
various  imperial  constitutions  already  cited.  There  are,  however, 
two  articles  in  the  Lexicon  of  Saidas  under  the  name  "Tribonianos." 
Tliey  appear  to  be  different  articles,  purporting  to  refer  to  different 
persons,  and  have  been  generally  so  received  by  the  editors  of 
Suidas  and  by  modern  legal  historiana  Some  authorities,  how- 
ever, as  for  instance  Gibbon,  have  supposed  them  to  refer  to  the 
same  person.  The  first  article  is  unquestionably  meant  for  the 
jurist  It  is  based  on  Procopius.  whose  very  words  are  to  some 
extent  copied,  and  indeed  it  adds  nothing  to  \vhat  the  latter  tells 
us.  except  the  statement  that  Tribonian  was  the  son  of  Macedunianus, 
was  awh  oiKT)y6puv  tQv  i'irdpx<^^' ,  and  was  a  heathen  and  atheist, 
wholly  averse  to  the  Christian  faith  The  second  article  says  that 
the  Tribonian  to  whom  it  refers  was  of  Side  (in  Pamphylia),  was 
also  airb  5iKTjy6pu}u  rujc  vrdpxf^^t  was  a  man  of  learning,  and  uTote 
various  books,  among  which  are  mentioned  certain  astronoraicil 
treatises,  a  dialogue  Oa  Happiness,  and  two  addresses  to  Justinian 
None  of  these  books  relate  to  Jaw  ;  and  the  hotter  opinion  seems  to 
be  that  there  were  two  Tribonians,  apparently  contemporaries, 
though  possibly  some  of  the  attributes  of  the  jurist  have  been,  by 
a  mistake  of  the  compilers  or  transcribers  of  the  Lexicon  of  Suidas, 
extended  to  the  man  of  letters  of  the  same  name. 

The  character  which  Procopius  gives  to  the  jurist,  even  if  touched 
by  personal  spite,  is  entitled  to  some  credence,  because  it  is  con- 
tained in  the  Histories  and  not  in  the  scandalous  and  secret 
Anecdota.  It  is  as  follows: — *' Tribonian  was  a  man  of  great 
natural  powers,  and  had  attained  as  high  a  culture  as  any  one  of 
his  time  ;  but  he  was  greedy  of  money,  capable  of  selling  justice 
for  gain,  and  every  day  he  repealed  or  enacted  some  law  at  the 
instance  of  people  who  purchased  this  from  him  according  to  their 
several  needs.  .  .  .  He  was  pleasant  in  manner  and  generally  agree- 
able, and  able  by  the  abundance  of  his  accomplishments  to  cast  into 
the  shade  his  faults  of  avarice"  {Pcrs  ,  i.  24.  25).  In  the  Anecdota 
Procopius  adds  as  an  illustration  of  Justinian's  vanity  tne  story 
that  he  took  in  good  faith  an  observation  made  to  him  by  Tnbonian 
while  sitting  as  assessor,  that  he  (Tribonian)  greatly  feared  that 
the  emperor  might  some  day,  on  account  of  his  piety,  be  suddenly 
carried  up  into  heaven.  '  This  agrees  with  the  character  for  flatleiT 
which  the  minister  seems  to  have  enjoyed.  The  charge  of  heathenism 
we  find  in  Suidas  is  probable  enough  ;  that  is  to  say,  Tribonian  may 
well  have  been  a  crypto-pagan,  like  many  other  eminent  courtiers 
and  litterateurs  of  the  time  (including  Procopius  hira.self),  a  person 
who,  while  professing  Christianity,  was  at  least  iodiffeient  to  its 
iiogmas  and  rites,  cherishing  a  sentimental  recollection  of  the  older 
and  more  glorious  days  cf  the  empire. 

In  modern  times  Tribonian  has  been,  as  the  master  workman  of 
Justinian's  codification  and  legislation,  charged  with  three  oli'encfes, 
— bad  Latinity,  a  defective  arrangement  of  the  legal  matter  in  the 
Ca/t' and  Digest,  and  a  too  free  handling  of  the  extracts  from  the 
older  jurists  included  in  the  latter  compilation.  The  first  of  these 
charges  cannot  be  denied  ;  but  it  is  hard  to  see  why  a  lawyer  of  the 
6th  century,  himself  born  in  a  Grcek-speaking  part  of  the  empire, 
should  be  expected  to  write  Latin  as  pure  as  that  of  the  age  of 
Cicero,  or  even  of  the  age  of  Gaius  and  the  Antonines.  To  the 
second  charge  also  a  plea  of  guilty  must  be  entered.  The  Cod^ 
and  Digest  are  badly  arranged  according  to  our  notions  of  scientific 
arrangement.  These,  however,  are  modern  notions.  The  ancients 
generally  cared  but  little  for  what  we  call  a  philosophic  distribu- 
tion of  topics,  and  Tribonian  seems  to  have  merely  followed  the 
order  of  the  Perpetual  Edict  which  custom  had  already  established, 
and  from  which  custom  would  perhaps  have  refused  to  permit  him 
to  depart-  He  may  more  fairly  be  blamed  for  not  having  arranged 
the  extracts  in  each  title  of  the  Digest  according  to  some  rational 
principle;  for  this  would  have  been  easy,  and  would  have  spared 
much  trouble  to  students  and  practitioners  ever  since  As  to  the 
third  complaint,  that  the  compilers  of  the  Digest  altered  the  ex- 
tracts they  collected,  cutting  our  and  inserting  words  and  sentences 
at  their  own  pleasure,  this  was  a  process  absolutely  necessary  ac- 
cordmg  to  the  instructions  given  them,  which  were  to  prepare  a 
compilation  representing  the  existing  law,  and  to  be  used  for  the 
actual  administration  of  justice  in  the  tribunals.  The  so-called 
Emblcmata  (insertions)  of  Tnbonian  were  therefore  indispensable, 
though,  of  course,  we  cannot  .-.ay  whether  they  were  alwavs  made  in 
the  best  way.  Upon  the  whole  sul^ject  of  the  codification  and  legis- 
lation m  which  Tnbonian  bore  a  part,  sre  Justinian 

Tribonian,  from  the  little  we  know  of  him.  would  seem  to  have 
been  a  remarkable  man.  and  ,n  the  front  rank  of  the  great  ones  of 
h.«  t.mr.      There  is  nothing  to  show  thnt  he  was  a  profound  and 


his  time. 


philosophical  jurist,  like  P.mnian  or  Ulpian.  But  he  was  an 
energetic  clear-headed  man.  of  great  practical  force  and  skill,-cul- 
Inl?  ?^/f  rP''^*'"^*   agreeable,   flexible,  possibly  unscrupulous, 

Tbo  usual  cntlcisma  on  TribonmD  .uay  be  found  lu  the  AM-Tra^mrtus 


(1567)  of  Francis  Hntman.  Che  aim  of  which  Is  shown  by  \xs  attoroatlve  title. 
Hive  discursui  in  quo  juTi^rrutUntias  Triboniantte  Bterititas  et  Ugum  jxttrioritm 
excellentia  eihibetvr  ,  and  ao  answer  to  them  m  J  P  von  Liidewig.  Vtui  Jut. 
tiniani  et  Thecdorae,  n£c  ito'i  Tribcnuitti  (J    BR.) 

TRIBUNE  (tnbunus)  was  a  name  assigned  to  officers 
of  several  ditfereni  descriptions  in  the  constitution  of 
ancient  Rome.  The  connexion  of  the  word  with  tnbui, 
"tribe,"  i.s  obvious.  The  original  tribunes  were  no  doubt 
the  commanders  of  the  several  contingents  of  cavalry  and 
infantry  which  were  supplied  to  the  Roman  army  by  the 
early  gentilician  tribes, — the  Ramnes,  the  Tities,  and  the 
Luceres  In  the  historical  period  the  infantry  in  each 
legion  were  commanded  by  six  tribunes,  and  the  number 
six  is  probably  to  be  traced  to  the  doubling  of  the  three 
tribes  by  the  incorporation  of  the  new  elements  whiclf 
received  the  names  of  Ramnes  secundi,  Tities  secundi, 
Luceres  secundi.  The  tribuni  celerum  or  commanders  of 
the  cavalry  no  longer  existed  in  the  later  times  of  the 
republic,  having  died  out  with  the  decay  of  the  genuine 
Roman  cavalry.'  So  long  as  the  monarchy  lasted  these 
tribunes  were  doubtless  nominated  by  the  commander-in- 
chief,  the  king  ;  and  the  nomination  passed  over  on  the 
establishment  of  the  republic  to  his  successors,  the  consuls. 
But,  as  the  army  increased,  the  popular  assembly  insisted 
on  having  a  voice  in  the  appointments,  and  from  362  B.C. 
six  tribunes  were  annually  nominated  by  popular  vote, 
while  in  31 1  the  number  was  raised  to  sixteen,  and  in  207 
to  twenty-four,  at  which  figure  it  remained.  The  tribunes 
thus  elected  ranked  as  magistrates  of  the  Roman  people, 
and  were  designated  tribuni  militum  a  populo,  while  those 
who  owed  their  office  to  the  consuls  bore  the  curious  title 
of  tribuni  ru/uli.  The  rights  of  the  assembly  passed  on  to 
the  emperors,  and  "the  military  tribunes  of  Augustus" 
were  still  contrasted  with  those  nominated  in  the  camp  by 
the  actual  commanders.  The  obscure  designation  tribunus 
aerarivs,  "tribune  of  the  treasury,"  had  also,  in  all  prob- 
ability, a  connexion  with  the  early  organization  of  'the 
army.  The  officer  thus  designated  was  at  any  rate  the 
paymaster  of  the  troops,  and  the  soldier  who  was  defrauded 
of  his  pay  was  allowed  to  exact  it  from  this  tribune  by  a 
very  summary  process.  There  was  still  another  and  im- 
portant class  of  tribunes  who  owed  their  existence  to  the 
army.  In  the  long  struggle  between  the  patrician  and 
plebeian  sections  of  the  population,  the  first  distinctions 
in  the  public  service  to  which  the  plebeians  forced  their 
way  were  military,  and  the  contest  for  admission  to  the 
consulate  was  in  large  part  a  contest  for  admission  to  the 
supreme  command  of  the  national  forces.  In  445  B.C.,  the 
year  in  which  mixed  marriages  of  patricians  and  plebeians 
were  for  the  first  time  permitted,  power  was  given  to  the 
senate  (then  wholly  patrician)  of  determining  from  year 
to  year  whether  consuls  or  military  tribunes  with  consular 
authority  (tribuni  militares  consulari  potesiate  or  imperio) 
should  be  appointed.  But,  even  when  the  senate  decided 
in  favour  of  electing  tribunes,  no  election  was  valid  without 
the  express  sanction  of  the  senate  superadded  to  the  "vote 
of  the  centuriate  assembly  If  it  happened  to  be  too  in- 
vidious for  the  senate  openly  to  cancel  the  election,  it  was 
possible  for  the  patricians  to  obtain  a  decision  from  the 
sacred  authorities  to  the  effect  that  some  religious  practice 
had  not  been  duly  observed,  and  that  in  consequence  the 
appointment  was  invalid.  According  to  tradition,  recourse 
was  had  to  this  device  at  the  first  election,  a  plebeian 
having  been  successful.  Forty-five  years  elapsed  after  the 
creation  of  the  officg  before  any  plebeian  was  permitted  to 
fill  it,  and  it  was  held  by  very  few  down  to  the  time  at 
which  it  was  abolished  (367  B.C.)  and  the  plebeians  were 
fully  admitted  to  the  consulate.     The  number  of  consular 

*  In  the  legends  of  the  foundation  of  the  republic  Bnitus  is  repre* 
.senTed  as  having  exercised  authority,  when  the  king  was  baiiuliet^ 
merely  by  virtue  of  holding  the  office  of  tribunm  celenaiu 


TRIBUNE 


557 


tribunes  elected  on  eacli  occasion  varied  from  three  to  six  ; 
there  was  no  year  without  a  patrician,  and  to  the  patrician 
members  were  probably  confined  the  most  highly  esteemed 
duties,  those  relating  to  the  administration  of  the  law 
and  to  religion. 

But  by  far  the  most  important  tribunes  who  ever  existed 
in  the  Roman  community  were  the  tribunes  of  the  com- 
mons (iribuni  plebis).  These,  as  has  been  explained  in 
Rome  (vol.  xx.  p.  736  sq.),  were  the  most  characteristic 
outcome  of  the  long  struggle  between  the  two  orders,  the 
patrician  and  the  plebeian.  When  in  494  B.C.  the  plebeian 
legionaries  met  on  the  Sacred  Mount  and  bound  themselves 
to  stand  by  each  other  to  the  ■end,  it  was  determined  that 
the  plebeians  should  by  themselves  annually  appoint  ex- 
ecutive officers  t"  stand  over  against  the  patrician  officers, 
— two  tribunes  (the  very  name  commemorated  the  military 
nature  of  the  revolt)  to  confront  the  two  consuls,  and  two 
helpers  called  xdiles  to  balance  the  two  patrician  helpers, 
the  qnxstors.  The  name  acdile  is  obviously  connected  with 
xdes,  "a  temple,"  and  is  an  indication  of  the  fact  that  there 
was  a  religious  core  to  the  insurrection,  just  as  there  was 
a  religious  core  to  the  patrician  opposition.  The  temple  of 
Diana  and  Ceres  on  the  Aventine  Hill  became  for  a  time 
to  the  plebeians  what  the  temple  of  Saturn  was  to  the 
patricians, — their  official  centre  and  their  record  office. 
The  insurgent  leaders  also  pressed  religion  into  their 
service  in  another  way.  The  masses  assembled  on  the 
Sacred  Mount  bound  themselves  by  a  solemn  oath  to  re- 
gard the  persons  of  their  tribunes  and  xdiles  as  inviolable, 
and  to  treat  as  forfeited  to  Diana  and  Ceres  the  lives  and 
property  of  those  who  offered  them  insult.  That  this 
purely  plebeian  oath  was  the  real  ultimate  basis  of  the 
sanctity  which  attached  to  the  tribunate  during  the  whole 
time  of  its  existence  can  hardly  be  believed,  though  this 
view  has  hadpowerful  support  both  in  ancient  and  in  recent 
times.  The  revolution  must  have  ended  in  something 
which  was  deemed  by  both  the  contending  bodies  to  be  a 
binding  compact,  although  the  lapse  of  time  has  blotted' 
out  its  terms.  The  historian  Dionysius  may  have  been 
only  technically  wrong  in  supposing  that  peace  was  con- 
cluded between  the  two  parties  by  the  fetial  priests,  with 
the  forms  adopted  by  Rome  in  making  treaties  with  a 
foreign  state.  If  this  were  fact,  the  "sacrosahctity"  of  the 
tribunes  would  be  adequately  explained,  because  all  such 
formal  foedera  were  "sacrosanct."  But,  notwithstanding 
that  the  plebeians  may  safely  be  assumed  to  have  been 
conscious  of  having  to  a  large  extent  sprung  from  another 
race  than  the  patricians  and  their  retainers,  it  is  not  likely 
that  the  feeling  was  sufficiently  strong  to  permit  of  the 
compact  taking  the  form  of  a  treaty  between  alien  powers. 
Yet  there  must  have  been  a  formal  acceptance  by  the 
patricians  of  the  plebeian  conditions ;  and  most  probably 
the  oath  which  was  first  sworn  by  the  insurgents  was  after- 
wards taken  by  the  whole  community,  and  the  "sacro- 
sanctity"  of  the  plebeian  officials  became  a  part  of  the 
constitution.  There  must  also  have  been  some  constitu- 
tional definition  of  the  powers  of  the  tribunes.  These 
rested  at  first  on  an  extension  of  the  power  of  veto  which 
the  republic  had  introduced.  Just  as  one  consul  could 
annul  an  act  or  order  of  his  colleague,  so  a  tribune  could 
annul  an  act  or  order  of  a  consul,  or  of  any  officer  inferior 
to  him.  There  was  no  doubt  a  vague  understanding  that 
only  acts  or  orders  which  sinned  against  the  just  and 
established  practice  of  the  constitution  should  be  annulled, 
and  then  only  in  cases  affecting  definite  individuals.  The 
tribune  was  to  give  his  help  against  illegality  in  concrete 
instances.  The  cases  which  arose  most  commonly  concerned 
the  administration  of  justice  and  the  levying  of  troops. 

Although  the  revolution  of  494  gave  the  tribunes  a  foot- 
iiold  in  the  constitution,  it  left  them  with  no  very  definite 


resources  against  breaches  of  compact  by  the  patricians. 
The  traditional  history  of  the  tribunate  from  494  to  451 
B.C.  is  obscure,  and,  so  far  as  details  are  concerned,  nearly 
worthless  ;  but  there  is  a  thread  running  through  it  which 
may  well  he  truth.  We  hear  of  attacks  by  patricians  on 
the  newly  won  privileges,  even  of  the  assassination  of  a 
tribune,  and  of  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  plebeians 
to  bring  patrician  offenders  to  justice.  The  assembled 
plebeians  attempt  to  set  up  a  criminal  jurisdiction  for 
their  own  assembly  parallel  to  that  practised  by  the  older 
centuriate  assembly,  in  which  the  nobles  possess  a  pre- 
ponderating influence.  Nay,  more,  the  plebs  attempts 
something  like  legislation  ;  it  passes  resolutions  which  it 
hopes  to  force  the  patrician  body  to  accept  as  valid.  As 
to  details,  only  a  few  are  worth  notice.  In  the  first  place, 
the  number  of  tribunes  is  raised  to  ten,  how  we  do  not 
know ;  but  apparently  somt-,  constitutional  recognition  of 
the  increase  is  obtained.  Then  an  alteration  is  made  in 
the  mode  of  election.  As  to  the  original  mode,  the  ancient 
authorities  are  hopelessly  at  variance.  Some  of  them 
gravely  assert  that  the  appointment  lay  with  the  assembly 
of  the  curix — the  most  ancient  and  certainly  the  most 
patrician  in  Rome,  even  if  we  allow  the  view,  which,  in 
spite  of  great  names,  is  more  than  doubtful — that  the 
plebeians  were  members  of  it  at  any  time  when  it  -still 
possessed  political  importance.  The  opinioft  of  Mommsen 
about  the  method  of  election  is  more  plausible  than  the 
others.  It  was  in  accordance  with  the  Roman  spirit  of 
order  that  the  tribunes,  in  summoning  their  assemblies, 
should  not  ask  the  plebeians  to  come  en  masse  as  individuals, 
and  vote  by  heads,  but  should  organize  their  supporters  in 
bands.  The  curia  was  certainly  a  territorial  district,  and 
the  tribunes  may  have  originally  used  it  as  the  basis  of 
their  organization.  If  tribunes  were  elected  by  plebeians 
massed  curiatim,  such  a  meeting  would  easily  be  mistaken 
in  later  times  for  the  comilia  curiata.  At  any  rate,  a 
change  was  introduced  in  471  by  the  Publilian  Law  of 
Volero,  which  directed  that  the  tribunes  should  be  chosen 
in  an  assembly  organized  on  the  basis  of  the  Servian  or 
local  tribe,  instead  of  the  cuna.  This  assembly  was  the 
germ  of  the  comitia  tributa.  The  question  by  what  authority 
the  Law  of  Volero  was  sanctioned  is  difficult  to  answer. 
Possibly  the  law  was  a  mere  resolution  of  the  plebeians 
with  which  the  patricians  did  not  interfere,  because  they 
did  not  consider  that  the  mode  of  election  was  any  concern 
of  theirs.  In  the  first  period  of  the  tribunate  the  tribunes 
almost  certainly  agitated  to  obtain  for  their  supporters  a 
share  in  the  benefits  of  the  state  domain.  And,  whatever 
view  may  be  taken  of  the  movement  which  led  to  the 
decemvirate,  an  important  element  in  it  was  of  a  certainty 
the  agitation  carried  on  by  the  tribunes  for  .the  reduction 
of  the  law  of  Rome  to  a  written  code.  Until  they  obtained 
this,  it  was  impossible  for  them  effectually  to  protect  those 
who  appealed  against  harsh  treatment  by  the  consuls  in 
their  capacity  of  judges. 

During  the  decemvirate  the  tribunate  was  in  abeyance.  It  was 
called  into  life  again  by  the  revolution  of  449,  which  gave  the 
tribunes  a  considerably  stronger  position.  Their  personal  privi- 
leges and  those  of  the  a;diles  were  renewed,  while  sacrosanctity  was 
attached  to  a  body  of  men  called  judias  decemviri,  who  seem  to 
have  been  the  legal  assistants  of  the  tribunes.  The  road  was  opened 
up  to  valid  legislation  by  the  tribunes  through  the  assembly  of  the 
tribes,  but  in  this  respect  they  were  submitted  to  the  control  of  the 
senate.  The  growth  of  the  influence  of  the  tribe  assembly  over 
legislation  belongs  rather  to  the  history  of  the  Co.m:tia  (j.f.)  than 
to  that  of  I  he  tribunate.  After  the  Hortensian  Law  of  287  B.C.  down 
to  the  end  of  the  republic  nearly  all  the  legislation  of  Rome  was 
in  the  Iiands  of  the  tribunes,  the  details  of  the  history  of  the 
tribunate  in  its  second  period,  from  449  to  367  B.C.,  are  hardly  less 
obscure  than  those  which  belong  to  the  earlier  time.  There  was, 
however,  on  the  whole,  undoubtedly  an  advance  in  dignity  and 
importance.  Gradually  a  right  was  acquired  of  watching  and  inter- 
fering with  the  proceedings  of  the  senate,  aod  even  with  legislation. 


558 


TRIBUNE 


Whether  the  absohite  right  of  veto  had  ^''',.^yZi.^!'''^^^l 
may  well  be  doubted.  But  the  onginal  aiunjmm  or  r.ght  of  pro 
Acting  individuals,  was,  during  th.s  penod,  ^J^'^^'f'^StJJll 
remarkable  expansion.  From  forb.ddmg  a  smgle  act  of  a  magis- 
trate in  relation  to  a  single  person,- the  tribunes  adv.inccd  to  for- 
bWding  by  anticipation^ll  acts  of  a  certain  class,  whoever  the 
^rsonf  affected  b?  them  might  prove  to  be.  It  therefm-e  bc^une 
iseless  for  the  senate  or  the-oomitia  to  pass  ordmance»  >f  ^  t"bune 
wM  ready  to  forbid  the  magistrates  to  carry  them  out.  Ultimately 
Thtml^J  Announcement  o?  such  an  intention  by  -  tnbune  «^s 
sufficient  to  cause  the  obnoxious  project  to  drop  :  that  =  to  ^f.  ''>^ 
tribunes  acauired  a  right  to  stop  all  business  both  >"  'he  ^ehbcra^ 
live  assemWy,  the  senate,  and  in  the  legislative  assemble...  the 
ImUia.  ThV  technical  name  for  this  right  of  ^e  o  is  «to_c«.». 
To  what  extent  the  tribunes  during  the  time  from  449  to  367  took 
part  in  criminal  prosecutions  is  matter  of  doubt.  The  XI L  1  ab  e» 
Ld  settled  that,  offenders  could  only  be  punished  in  person  b>  the 
centuries,  but  tradition  speaks  of  prosecutions  by  tnbunes  before 
the  tribes  where  the  penalty  sought  was  pecuniary.  The  two  main 
objects  of  the  tribune^  how-ever,  at  the  time  of  which  r.^V/'t' 
ing  were  the  opening  of  tlie  consulate  to  plebeians  and  the  regu  a. 
tion  of  the  state  domain  in  the  interests  of  the  whole  community. 
Both  were  attained  by  the  Licinio.Sextian  L,iws  of  367. 

Then  a  considerable  change  came  over  the  tribunate.  From  being 
»n  opposition  weapon  it  became  an  imporUnt  wheel  in  the  regular 
machine  of  state.  The  senate  became  more  and  'nef^.Pl^beian  and 
a  new  body  of  nobility  was  evolved  which  comprised  both  ordcra 
in  the  sute.  The  tribunes  at  first  belonged  U>  the  same  no  able 
plebeian  families  which  attained  to  the  consulate.  The  old  frict  on 
l«tween  senate  and  tribunes  disappeared.  It  was  found  that  the 
tribunate  served  to  fill  some  gaps  in  the  constitution  and  its  po«er 
was  placed  by  common  consent  on  a  so  id  constitutional  basis 
From  357  to  134  B.c.  (when  Tiberius  Gracchus  became  tribune)  the 
tribunate  was  for  the  most  part  a  mere  organ  of  senatorial  govern- 
ment  As  the  change  made  by  the  Gracchi  was  nither  in  the 
practice  than  in  the  theory  of  the  tribunate,  it  will  be  convenient 
at  this  point  to  give  a  definite  sketch  of  the  conditions  and  prni- 
leges  attaching  to  the  office.  .  .  , .    , 

Even  after  the  difference  between  patncian  and  plebeian  birth 
had  ceased  to  be  of  much  practical  consequence  in  other  J;;f  tions. 
the  plebeian  character  was  a  necessity  for  the  tribune      ^V  hen  tlie 
patricians  P.  Sulpicius  Rufus  and,  later,  P.  Cloduis  (the  antagonist 
bf  Cicero)  dcsirecf  to  enter  on  a  demagogic  course,  they  were  com- 
pelled  to  divest  themselves  of  their  patrician  quaiity  by  a  peculiar 
Wl  process.     Even  the  patricians  who  became  so  by  m"«-fiat  ot 
th°e  emperors  were  excluded  from  the  tribunate.     The  other  neces- 
eary  qualifications  were  for  the  most  part  such  as  attached  to  the 
other  Roman  magistracies, -complete  citizenship,  absence  of  certain 
conditions  regar'Sed  as  disgraceful,  fulfilment  of  military  duties 
The  minimum  age  required  for  the  office  was,  as  m  the  case  of  the 
qusstorship,  twenty-seven.    The  tribunate  stood  outside  the  lound 
3f  magistAcies  the  conditions  of  which  were  regulated  by  the 
Vinian  Law  of  180  B.C.   The  election  took  place  in  a  purely  plebeian 
assembly,  ranged   by  tribes,  under  the   presidency  of  a  tribune 
selected  by  lot     The  tribune  was  bound  by  law  to  see  a  complete 
St  of  ten  tribunes  appointed,     Technically,  the  tribunes  were 
reckoned,  not  as  magistrates  of  the  Roman  people,  but  as  magis- 
trates of  the  Roman  plehs ;  they  therefore  had  no  special  robe  of 
office,  no  lictors,  but  only  messengers  (;^?f)\''° ^^Jif-^^tlk 
like  the  curule  seat,  but  only  benches  {suisellia).    Their  right  to 
eummon  the  plebs  together,  whether  for  the  purpose  of  listening 
to  a  speech  (in  which  case  the  meeting  was  a  w^/to)  or  for  passing 
ordinances  (comUia  Inhula),  was  rendered  absolute  by  the     laws 
onder  sacred  sanction"  (&?M  sacrntx),  which  had  been  incorpor- 
ated with  the  constitution  on  the  abolition  of  the  decemvirate. 
The  rit-ht  to  summon  the  senate  and  to  lay  business  before  it  was 
Required  soon  after  367,  but  was  seldom  exercised,  as  the  tnbunos 
had  abundant  means  of  securing  what  they  wanted  by  Pressure 
applied  to   the  ordinary  presidents,  —  the  consuls  or  the  urban 
Cnetor      When  an  inUrregnum  came  about  and  there  w-ere  no 
•■  magistrates  of  the  Roman  people,"  the  plebeian  tribunes  became 
the  proper  presidents  of  the  senate  and  conductors  of  ordinary 
state  business.     At  the  end  of  the  republic  there  were  inUrrcjna 
of  several  months'  duration,  when  the  tribunes  held  a  position  ol 
more  than  usual  imporUnce.     A  tenure  of  the  tnbimate  did  not, 
onti!  a  comparatively  late  period  (probably  about  the  time  of  the 
Becond  Punic  War),  confer  a  claim  to  a  permanent  seat  in  tne 
Mnate.    The  candidates  for  the  office  were  mainly  young  men  ot 
cood  family  who  were  at  the  beginning  of  their  political  career, 
tut  the  office  was  often  filled  by  older  men  of  ambition  who  were 
'stniKTling  upwards  with  few  advantages.     The  plebeian  aediles 
ix-ery  soon  after  367  became  dissociated  from  the  tribunes  and  as- 
Wiated  with  the  curale  adiles,  so  that  in  the  political  hierarchy 
Jthey  really  ranked  higher  than  those  who  were  originally  their 
eunerior  officers,—  ....     v    •_»— 

The  real  kcrnal  of  the  tribune's  power  consisted  in  his  inter- 
uavi  or  right  of  annulling  ordinances,  whether  framed  by  the  senate 


or  proposed  by  a  magistrate  to  the  crniUxa,  or  issued  by  a  migi^trate 
hi  Ti^uance  of  his  office.     From  367  B.C.  down  to  the  fme  o   th^ 
tocchi  the  power  of  veto  in  public  matters  was  on  the  whole  used 
in  the  interests  of  the  aristocratic  governing  families  to  check 
opposition  arising  in  their  own  ranks.     A  recalcitrant  consul  was 
most  readily  brought  to  obedience  by  an  excrcu^e  of  tnbunician 
power      But,  although  modern  readers  of  the  ancient  historians 
are  apt  to  carry  away  the  idea  that  the  tribunate  was  an  intensely 
prfitol  office,  it  is  sife  to  say  that  the  occasions  on  which  tnbunes 
Fou  d  it  possible  to  play  a  prominent  part  in  politics  were  extremely 
few   even  in  the  late  republic.     On  the  other  hand,  the  tnbunes 
found  a  field  for  constant  activity  in  watching  the  administration 
of  J-.istice  and  in  rendering  assistance  to  those  who  had  received 
ha4  treatment  from  the  magistrates.     The  tnbunes  were  in  fact 
primarily  legal  functionaries,  and  constituted  in  a  way  the  only 
wurt  of  appeal  in  republican  Rome.     It  was  to  this  end  that  they 
were  forbidden  to  paSs  a  whole  night  away  from  the  city,  except 
durin  "the  Latin  festival  on  the  Alban  Mount,  and  that  they  were 
expected  to  keep  their  doors  open'  to  suppliants  by  night  as  well 
as^v  day.     They  held  court  by  day  in  the  Fprurn  close  by  the 
Porcian  basilica,  InA  frequently  made  elaborate   egal  '"?"'"">"'» 
cases  where  their  help  was  sought.     Naturally  this  ordinary  hum- 
dmm  work  of  the  tribunes  has  left  little  mark  on  the  pages  of  the 
h  storians,  but  we  hear  of  it  not  unfrequently  in  Cicero  s  speeches 
and  ir^  other  writings  which  deal  with  legal  matters     According   o 
the  general  principle  of  the  constitution,  magistrates  could  foi  bid 
the  lets  of  magistfates  equal  to  or  inferior  to  themselves.     For  th  s 
purpose  the  tribunes  were  deemed  superior  to  al   other  officers^    If 
I  tribune  exercised  his  veto  no  other  tnbune  could  anmil  it  for   he 
veto  could  not  be  itself  vetoed,  but  it  was  possible  for  another  tn- 
bune  to  protect  a  definite  individual  from  the  consequences  of  dis- 
obedience.    The  number  of  the  tribunes  (ten)  made  it  always  pos- 
sible  that  one  might  baulk  the  action  of  another,  except  at  times 
when  popular  feeling  was  strongly  roused.     In  any  case  ,t  was  of 
U  tleuse'^for  a  tribune  to  move  in  any  important  matter  un  ess  he 
had  secured  the  co-operation  or  at  least  the  neutrality  of  all  his 
collel^es     The  veto\vas  not,  however,  absolute  in  all  directions 
Inlome  it  was  limited  by  statute :  thus  the  law  passed  by  Gams 
Gracchus  about  the  consular  provinces  did  not  permit  a  tribune  ^^ 
veto  the  annual  decree  of  the  senate  concerning  them.    \\  hen  there 
wi  a  dictator  at  the  head  of  the  state  the  veto  was  of  no  aval 
a^Tiinst  him.     One  of  the  important  political  functions  of  the  tri- 
tfnes  wasTo  conduct  prosecutions  of  state  offenders,  particularly 
ex-magistrates.     These%rosecutions  began  with  a  sentence  pro- 
nou3  by  the  tribune  upon  the  culprU.  »b"C."ron,  exercising  he 
ric-ht  given  him  by  the  XII.  Tables,  the  culprit  appealed.     If  the 
trTbune  sought  to  inflict  punishment  on  the  culprits  person   the 
appeal  was°to  the  assembly  of  the  centuries-  if  b^.-;f  ^^  f.*, 
llr^e  fine,  the  appeal  was  to  the  assembly  of  'be  tribes.     As  the 
ribune  had  no  ri/ht  to  summon  the  centuries,  he  had  to  obtain  the 
necrsary  mcetinis  through  the  urban  praetor      In  the  other  even 
he  himself  called  togethef  the  tribute  assembly  and  proposed  a  bill 
for  fining  the  culprtt.     But  the  forms  of  trial  gone  through  were 
very  similar  in  both  cases.  ,        . 

ft  is  commonly  suted  that  a  ^reat  change  passed  ?^er  Jho  m- 
bunate  at  the  time  of  the  G.acchT  and  that  from  their  day  to  the 
end  of  the  republic  it  was  used  as  an  insttiiment  for  setting  on  foot 
political  agitation  and  for  inducing  revolutionary  changes.     This 
?-?ew  iTantiversion  of  the  facts.     The  tribunate  did  not  create   ho 
Citation  and  the  revolutions,  but  these  found  ""t  through  the 
tnbunate    which  gave  to  the  democratic  leadere  the  hope  that 
acknowled-Idevilf  might  be  cured  by  constitutional  means  and 
in  the  disparate  struggle  to  realize  it  the  best  democratic  tribunes 
strained  the  theoretic  powers  of  their  office  to  their  ruin.     For  fhe 
bad  tribuneVdiTnot  hesiute  to  use  for  bad  ends  the  powei^  which 
had  been  strained  in  the  attempt  to  secure  what  was  good.     But 
?cin  the  trrhuiiate  only  fared  li|e  all  other  parts  o  the  repuj^icai, 
constitution  in  its  last  period.     The  consuls  and  the  senate  ^ere  at 
least  as  guilty  as  the  tribunes.     After  a  severe  restriction  of  its 
p^werbrsulia  and  a  restoration  by  Pom pey  which  gve  a  twenty 
•ears'  respite,  the  tribunate  was  merged  into  the  imperial  con 
"stitution   of  which  indeed  it  became  the  chief  comer-stone.     The 
mpernsdid  not  become  tribunes,  but  took  "P  "'o  ^^^P^i^i^^l^ 
the  essence  of  the  office,  the  "  tribunician  authority.       'his  ais 
tri^n  l^tween  the  essential  principle  of  the  office  and  the  actual 
tenure  of  the  office  was  a  creation  of  the  late  republic.     Pompey, 
:"  xample,  when  he  went  to  the  East.  -V^^^^l^t^'lTJ^l 
of  all  the  Eastern  provinces,  but  he  exercised  in  them  a     pro 
consular  authority  "  wh  ch  was  superior  to  that  of  the  actual  pro 
coSsSs-^an  authority  which  was  the  prototype  of  the  imperrJ 
authority  on  its  mili'ta.7  side.     8'""^"'?  '.t ATuke  ^ua li^ 
governor,  without  being  tribune  exercised  Po"  %"  °f ''''?,^^"?l^y 
with  the  powers  of  the  t?ibune.  though  of  superior  force.    By  virtue 

of  his  tribunician  authority  he  ^^S^J-^f.  \^^'^  »" 'Xtl li?  ^e, 
became  the  supreme  court  of  appeal  for  the  empire,  and  to  "«  per- 
s^^^  alSl  the  ancient  ^Sosanctity.  Augustus  show^e 
high^^staTesmanship  in  fo-    ling  bis  power  upon  a  metamorphoeed 


T  R  I  — T  R  I 


559 


tribunate,  rsther  than  npon  a  raetamorphoscJ  dictatorship,  upon 
traditions  which  were  democratic  rather  than  upon  traditions  which 
wer«  patrician  and  optimjte.  The  tribunes  continued  to  exist  till 
4  late  period,  with  gradually  vanishing  dignity  and  rights  ;  but  it 
is  not  necessary  here  to  trace  their  decay  in  detail. 

The  name  "tribune"  was  once  again  illuminated  by  a  passing 
glory  when  assumed  by  Cola  di  Rienzi.  The  movement  which  he 
neaded  was  in  many  respects  extremely  like  the  early  movements 
of  the  plebeians  against  the  patricians,  and  his  scheme  for  uniting 
Italy  in  one  free  republic  was  strangely  parallel  with  the  greatest 
<lream  of  the  Gracchi.     See  Rome,  vol.  xx.  p.  800  sq. 

The  history  of  the  thbuoate  is  ioterworen  with  that  of  Rome,  and  must,  to 
ft  lAT^  extent,  be  sought  for  in  the  same  sources.  The  priuciptes  attaching  to 
the  omce  are  profoundly  analysed  by  Mommseo  in  his  Sitmtsrtx)it,  and  are  clearly 
set  forth  by  E.  Herzog  in  his  GeschichU  u.  System  der  romischtn  Staatsverfasstinff 
(Uipsic,  ISS4).  (J.  S.  R) 

TRICHINA,  TRICHINOSIS.  See  NfiiUTOiDEA,  and 
Parasitism,  vol.  .wiii.  p.  270. 

TRICHINOPOLI,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
Madras  presidency,  lying  between  10°  37'  and  11°  30'  N. 
lat.  and  78°  12'  and  79°  30'  E.  long.  Its  area  is  3561 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  north-west 
by  Salem,  on  the  north  and  north-east  by  South  Arcot, 
on  the  east  and  south-east  by  Tanjore,  on  the  south  by 
Pudukottai  state  and  Madura,  and  on  the  west  by  Coim- 
batore.'  The  surface  is  generally  flat,  though  diversified 
by  masses  of  crystalline  rock,  of  which  the  Trichinopoli 
rock  in  the  fort  is  a  well-known  example.  The  district 
is  well  wooded,  though  nothing  worthy  of  the  name  of 
forest  is  to  be  found  in  it.  The  only  mountains  are  the 
Pachaimalais,  which  rise  to  2500  feet  and  extend  into 
Salem  district.  The  Kaveri  (q-v.)  and  its  branch  the 
Colerun  are  the  only  rivers  of  any  importance.  Trichi- 
nopoli has  numerous  roads,  and  the  South  Indian  Railway 
traverses  it  from  east  to  west.  The  climate  is  very  hot, 
and  not  liable  to  great  variations;  the  annual  average 
rainfall  is  about  38  inches. 

In  1 8S1  the  population  of  the  district  was  1,215,033  (males  536, 434, 
females  628,599),  of  whom  Hindus  numbered  1,119,434,  Moham- 
medans 34,104,  and  Christians  58,809.  The  only  town  with  a 
population  exceeding  10,000  is  Trichinopoli,  the  capital,  witli 
84,449  inhabitants.  This  city  is  chiefly  noticeable  for  its  strong 
fort,  perched  on  a  granite  peak  500  feet  high,  and  the  group  of 
temples  and  temple  buildings  situated  on  and  around  it  'The  town 
next  in  importance  is  Skirangam  (q.v.).  The  chief  crops  of  the 
district  are  rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  sugar-cane,  cocoa-nut, 
plantain,  areca-nut,  and  chillies;  and  the  most  important  local 
industries  are  weaving  and  the  manufacture  of  cigars.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are  grain  of  all  kinds,  especially  rice ;  the  imports, 
tobacco  and  salt  In  1885-86  the  gross  revenue  of  the  district 
was  £225,896,  the  land-tax  yielding  £185,889.  Trichinopoli  dis- 
trict, along  with  the  rest  of  the  Carnatic,  of  which  it  formed  part, 
passed  to  the  British  by  treaty  in  1801. 

TRIG  TRAC.     See  Backgammon,  vol.  iii.  p.  199. 

TRICYCLE.  Though  velocipedes  were  made  and  used 
more  than  one  hundred  years  ago,  none  were  practically 
successful  until  the  brothers  Starley  constructed  in  1876 
the  Coventry  tricycle.  One  of  the  earliest  descriptions 
of  a  cycle  occurs  in  the  Journal  de  Paris  of  17th  July 
1779.  Somewhat  later  M  Richard  invented  a  machine 
driven  by  mechanism  almost  identical  with  that  of  the 
modem  omnicycle,  but  without  the  expanding  segments. 
Early  in  the  19th  century  the  cranked  axle  worked  by 
treadles  and  levers  came  into  fashion ;  then  the  heavy 
four-wheelers  were  preferred.  All  these  machines,  how- 
ever, laboured  under  three  fatal  defects :  it  was  almost 
impossible  to  drive  them  up-hill,  to  check  them  in  going 
down -hill,  and  to  prevent  their  overturning  in  rounding 
a  comer. 

It  was  the  success  of  the  early  bicycle  (see  Bicycle) 
which  suggested  the  belief  that  a  serviceable  tricycle  could 
be  made.  One  of  these  bicycles  was  specially  constmcted 
for  ladies,  the  hind  wheel  being  placed  well  on  one  side ; 
but,  thodgh  it  could  be  ridden,  it  was  not  a  commercial 
success.  The  brothers  Starley,  by  putting  a  second  small 
wheel  in  front  of  the  large  driving  wheel  and  on  the  same 
side  as  the  small  hind  wheel,  gave  stability  to  the  machine; 


it  was  steered  by  turning  the  small  wheels  opposite  ways, 
and  driven  by  the  large  wheel  by  means  of  cranks  and 
connecting  rods.  The  same  machine  with  chain  driving 
— the  Coventry  rotary  —  is  still  very  largely  used.  In 
1877  James  Starley,  it  is  believed  without  any  knowledge 
of  the  gear  used  by  Fowler  for  traction  engines,  re-in- 
vented the  same  differential  gear  for  tricycles.  By  this 
the  same  force  is,  under  all  circumstances,  applied  to  each 
of  two  equal  driving  wheels,  and  the  evil  effects  of  driving 
a  single  wheel  are  done  away  with.  This  gear  was  used 
in  the  original  Salvo  tricycle,  which  is  the  type  of  the 
surest  machine  at  the  present  day.  In  the  early  days  of 
the  modern  tricycle  other  designs  were  carried  out,  which 
have  now  become  practically  obsolete.  In  one  form  the 
hind  wh-el  of  a  bicycle  was  replaced  by  a  pair  of  equal 
wheels,  one  on  each  side,  but  the  instability  of  such  a 
construction  was  fatal.  In  another,  the  allenge,  the 
two  wheels  were  placed  in  front  of  the  large  driver  and 
turned  together  to  steer  the  machine ;  .stability  was  ob- 
tained by  putting  the  rider  in  front  of  the  Isurge  wheel 
and  lower  down,  the  power  being  communicated  by  crahka 
and  connecting  rods.  But  the  weight  of  this  machine  and 
the  small  proportion  of  the  load  on  the  driving  wheel  were 
serious  defects. 

Single-driving  rear-steerers  were  at  this  time  very  com- 
mon, and,  though  highly  objectionable,  are  still  to  be  seen. 
Rear-steerers  were  improved  by  making  both  front  wheels 
drivers  ^nd  allowing  for  the  overrunning  of  one  or  the 
other  by  clutch,  as  in  the  Cheylesmore,  or  by  ratchet  driv. 
ing  ;  but  steering  by  the  hind  wheel  is  essentially  wrong, 
and  these  machines  are  avoided  by  experienced  riders. 
Rear-steerers  have,  however,  lately  been  made  with  a 
through  axle  and  differentia]  gear  (Rover),  the  rider  being 
placed  further  back  so  as  to  increase  the  load  on  the 
steering  wheel ;  but  the  evil  of  rear-steering  is  only  re- 
duced, not  removed.  The  clutch  is  also  employed  en  some 
front-steerers ;  and,  though  in  certain  respects  it  has  an 
advantage  over  the  differential  gear,  for  general  use  it  is 
not  so  suitable.  The  differential  gear  is  ao  essential 
feature  of  the  modern  tricycle. 

In  1878  Messrs  Doubleday  and  Humber  patented  the 
Humber  machine,  which  is  both  driven  and  steered  by 
the  two  front  wheels,  the  rider  being  seated  on  a  trailing 
backbone  and  hind  wheel  as  in  the  bicycle.  This  machine 
requires  skill  to  manage :  the  steering  is  at  first  difficult 
to  control  and  a  spUl  over  the  handles  is  quite  possible ; 
under  a  skilful  rider,  however,  the  Humber  is  generally 
recognized  as  one  of  the  fastest  machines.  It  is  steered 
by  a  cross  handle,  like  the  bicycle,  and  this  method  of 
steering,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  boxes  the  rider  into 
the  machine,  is  becoming  very  general  in  front  steerers  in 
place  of  the  rack  and  pinion  steering  hitherto  in  use.  The 
Cripper  is  a  very  popular  example.  The  brake  is  an  im- 
portant featiu-e  in  roadster  tricycles.  It  is  always  made 
to  act  on  the  box  of  the  differential  gear  where  that  is 
used ;  but  in  clutch  or  single-driven  machines  one  or  two 
independent  band-brakes  or  spoon-brakes  are  used. 

In  early  day?  the  steering  wheel  was  made  small  to 
save  weight ;  the  drivers  were  often  50  inches  or  more  in 
diameter;  and  the  machine  was  as  short  as  possible. 
Owing  to  the  discomfort  attending  a  small  wheel  and  a 
short  base  the  tendency  at  present  is  to  increase  the  size 
of  the  steering  wheel  and  the  length  of  the  base,  and 
to  diminish  the  diameter  of  the  drivers, — two  notable 
examples  being  the  Quadrant  and  the  Crescent.  It  is 
usual,  especially  when  small  driving  wheels  are  used,  to 
gear  the  machine  up,  just  as  in  the  old  daj-s  they  were 
commonly  geared  down ;  that  is,  the  chain  wheel  on  th€ 
crank  axle  has  more  or  fewer  teeth  than  that  on  the  wheel 
axle,  and  thus  the  wheels  turn  faster  or  slower  than  the 


3G0 


T  R  I  —  T  R  1 


cranks,  or  are  equivalent  to  larger  or  smaller  wheels.  Two- 
speed  gears  are  becoming  general,  among  which  may  be 
especially  mentioned  the  Cryptodynamic.  By  means  of 
these  it  is  possible  to  change  the  gear  of  the  machine  so 
as  to  have  a  high  gear  under  favourable  conditions  and  a 
low  gear  when  mud,  wind,  or  an  ascent  make  travelling 
difficult.  Although  chain  gearing  is  used  in  nearly  every 
machine  made,  connecting  rods,  wheels,  or  bands  are  fitted 
instead  to  some  machines.  The  necessitj'  for  such  mechan- 
ism has  been  avoided  by  making  the  wheel  axle  also  the 
treadle  axle  ;  but  great  instability  is  the  result. 

Machines  in  which  the  arms  instead  of  the  legs  supply  the  power 
are  made,  and  are  of  immense  service  to  those  who  have  lost  the 
use  of  their  legs. 

Owing  to  the  inconvenience  caused" by  doorways  being  often  too 
narrow  to  allow  a  tricycle  to  pass  through,  many  machines  are  made 
to  fold  up  into  a  narrower  space  or  to  shut  up  like  a  telescope. 

It  is  important  that  the  rider  should  be  so  placed  that  he  can, 
without  leaning  forward,  put  most  of  his  weiglit  on  the  treadles, 
and  this  is  more  than  ever  needed  as  the  steepness  of  an  ascent  in- 
creases, because  the  slope  of  the  machine  has  a  contrary  effect.  Slid- 
ing seats  were  arranged  for  this  purpose  ;  biit  Mr  Warner  Jones  has 
made  use  of  a  swinging  frame  which  the  rider  can  lock  in  any  posi- 
tion he  pleases.  It  is  this  same  swinging  frame  which  gives  such 
comfort  to  the  rider  of  the  Otto  bicycle,  placing  him  at  all  times 
in  the  position  most  suitable  for  the  occasion.  • 

Carrier  tricycles,  in  which  due  provision  is  made  for  the  proper 
distribution  of  the  load,  are  largely  used  by  the  post-office  and  by 
tradesmen  in  their  business.  The  "Coventry  chair  "  is  a  kind  of 
bath  chair  driven  as  a  tricycle  by  a  rider  behind.  When  invalids 
have  overcome  a  certain  prejudice  as  to  the  danger  of  this  kind  of 
vehicle,  it  will  no  doubt  be  more  generally  used. 

In  machines  for  two  riders  the  riders  sit  side  by  side  (soeiahles) 
or  one  is  placed  before  the  other  (tandems).  Sociable  machines  are 
both  front-steering  and  rear-steering.  Rear-stcerers  with  each  rider 
driving  the  wheel  on  his  side  only  are  nearly  as  objectionable  as 
the  single-driving  rear-stcerer.  Front-steering  sociables  with  dif- 
ferential gear  are  safe  and  comfortable  ;  but  all  sociables  are  slow 
machines.  For  nearly  every  make  of  single  tricycle  there  is  a 
corresponding  tandem.  The  Coventry  rotary  in  the  tandem  form 
suffers  more  from  the  single-side  driving  than  in  tV.O  dngle  form, 
the  rear-steering  machines  not  so  much,  owing  to  the  greater  weight 
which  the  steering  wheel  has  to  bear.  Tlie  Humlier  is  less  sen- 
sitive in  the  steering,  owing  to  the  greater  moment  of  inertia  of  the 
frame  and  the  front  rider.  The  front-steercr  cannot  be  made  safer, 
but  an  excellent  tandem  is  formed  by  placing  the  rear-ri<ler  on  a 
trailing  tail  as  in  the  Humbcr.  Tandems  h.ave  an  advantage  over 
sociables  and  perhaps  over  single  tricycles  in  the  matter  of  speed  ; 
they  are,  however,  not  quico  so  safe,  and  their  appearance  alone 
prevents  many  from  riding  them.  Many  sociables  and  tandems  are 
convertible  into  single  machines  with  but  little  trouble. 

The  followit^c  tables  of  quickest  times  wliicli  have  heen  accnmplislied  up  to 
the  end  of  1886  (certified  by  the  National  CyclisU'  Union)  will  show  the  com- 
parative value  of  the  bicycle  and  tricycle  as  racing  machines. 

On  a  pn-paffd'TOci-ng  path. 


Distance. 

Time,  tricycle. 

Time,  bicycle.          | 

1  mile       .... 
5  miles.     .... 
29     „ 
100     „     

2  min.  46'8seo. 

I*    „     27-6    „ 

69    ,.     10-6    ,. 

6  hrs.  43  min.  325  sec 

2  min.  32-4  sec. 

14     „     18       „ 

59     „       0-6    „ 

5  hrs.  50  min.  54  sec 

Greatest  distance  tn  one  hour  {  ^  '";;"  ^  >*■•  ^JjJ^ 

On  a  puhUc  road. 
Land's  End  to  John  o'  Groats  i  I  5  days  10  hrs.,  tricycle, 
(about  870  miles)  '  5     ,,      1    ,,     45  min.,  bicycle. 

Greatest  distance  in  =4  hours  {  ^  -;•-■  tj-y^f  (C.  V.  B.) 
TRIESTE  (Germ.  Tiiesl,  Slav.  Trst,  Lat.  Tergesie),  the 
principal  seaport  of  the  Austrian-Hungarian  empire,  is 
picturesquely  situated  at  the  north-east  angle  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  in  the  Gulf  of  Trieste  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
barren  Karst  Hills.  The  old  town,  nestling  round  the  hill 
on  which  the  castle  stands,  consists  of  narrow,  steep,  and 
irregular  streets.  It  is  connected  by  the  broad  and  hand- 
some Corso  with  the  well-built  new  town,  which  lies  on 
the  flat  expanse  adjoining  the  crescent-sliapcd  bay,  partly 
on  ground  that  has  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea.  .  The 
prevailing  air  of  the  town  is  Italian  rather  than  German. 
The  castle,  built  in  1680,  is  believed  to  occupy  the  site  of 

*  These  two  by  the  same  rider. 


the  Koman  capitol  (see  below).  Near  it  is  the  cathedral 
of  S.  Giusto,  an  unimposing  but  interesting  building, 
mainly  of  the  14th  century,  and  incorporating  fragments 
of  a  Roman  temple  and  early  Christian  churches.  Don 
Carlos  of  Spain  (d.  1855)  is  interred  in  the  south  aisle,  and 
Fouch^,  Napoleon's  minister  of  police,  in  front  of  the 
church,  while  the  churchyard  contains  the  grave  and 
monument  of  Winckelmann,  the  archxologist,  who  was 
murdered  at  Trieste  in  1768.  The  Arco  di  Riccardo,  also 
in  the  old  town,  derives  its  name  from  a  popular  delusion 
that  it  was  connected  with  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion,  but  is 
probably  an  arch  of  a  Roman  aqueduct.  A  collection  of 
Roman  antiquities  found  in  or  near  the  town  has  been 
formed  near  the  castle.  The  most  prominent  building  in 
the  new  town  is  the  Tergesteo,  a  huge  edifice  containing 
the  exchange  and  numerous  shops  and  offices.  Tlie  new 
municipal  buildings,  with  the  handsome  hall  of  the  pro- 
vincial diet,  the  Palazzo  Revoltella,  the  offices  of  the 
Austrian  Lloyd's,  and  the  handsome  old  exchange  are 
also  noteworthy.      The  church  of  S.  Jlaria  Maggiore  is 


Plan  of  Trieste. 

a  characteristic  specimen  of  Jesuit  architecture,  and  the 
new  Greek  church  is  one  of  the  handsomest  Byzantine 
structures  in  the  empire.  The  city  hospital  has  accom- 
modation for  2000  patients.  The  huge  Politeama  is  the 
largest  theatre.  In  front  of  the  Palazzo  Revoltella  is  a 
monument  to  the  emperor  Maximilian  of  Mexico,  who  had 
been  an  admiral  in  the  Austrian  service.  His  sumptuous 
chateau  of  Miramar  is  one  of  the  lions  of  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  capacious  harbour,  consisting  of  two  parts,  the 
old  and  the  new,  is  protected  by  extensive  moles  and 
breakwaters,  and  has  been  greatly  improved  within  the 
last  ten  or  fifteen  years.  From  the  harbour  the  Canal 
Grande  extends  into  the  town,  allowing  large  vessels  to 
unload  at  the  warehouses.  At  the  end  of  the  Molo  Sta 
Teresa  is  a  lighthouse  upwards  of  100  feet  high.  The 
population  ofthe  town  (6424  in  1758)  and  district  of 
Trieste  in  1880  was  144,844,  of  whom  74,544  belonged 
to  the  town  proper  and  133,019  to  the  town  and  suburbs. 
The  town  population  is  very  heterogeneous,  but  the  Italian 
element  far  exceeds  all  the  rest.     There  are  about  5000 


T  R  I  — T  R  I 


561' 


Onnaus  and  also  numerous  Greeks,  English,  and  French. 
The  population  includes  26,000  Slavs,  most  of  whom  live 
in  the  country  districts  and  are  engaged  in  agriculture. 

Trieote  Las  been  a  fre«  imperial  port  since  1719.  It  may  be  said 
to  nearly  monopolize  the  trade  of  the  Adriatic,  and  has  long 
eclipsed  its  ancient  ri>-al  Venice.  The  annual  value  of  ita  exports 
•nd  importa  is  about  30  millions  sterling.  Among  the  chief  im- 
ports are  coffee,  vrine,  fruit,  grain,  tobacco,  petroleum,  cotton,  coals, 
and  manufactured  goods  of  variotts  kinds  ;  the  exports  include 
spirits,  h-^ueurs,  sugar,  meal,  timber,  glass,  and  machinery.  Large 
quantities  of  fidi  are  eent  to  Vienna.  In  15S5  the  port  was  entered 
by  69T1  vessels  with  an  aggregate  burden  of  1,267,946  tons.  The 
'trading  fleet  of  Trieste  numbers  about  500  ships  of  100,000  tons 
burden.  The  chi^  shipping  company  is  the  Austrian  Lloyd's, 
founded  in  1S36.  the  steamers  of  which  ply  to  the  Mediterranean 
ports,  Alexandria,  Constantinople,  the  Black  Sea,  &c  The  exten- 
sive wharfs  and  dockyards  of  the  company  lie  to  the  south  of  the 
town  The  chief  b.-anches  of  industry  practised  at  Trieste  are 
shipbuilding,  soap- boiluTg,  machine -making  (especially  marine 
engines),  tanning,  brewing,  rope-making,  and  the  manufacture  of 
liqueurs  (rosoglio).     Trieste  is  tiie  seat  of  government  for  the  so- 


called  Eiistenland  or  Coast  distlict,  and  is  ma  scat  of  naval  anJ 
military  commanders  and  other  oliicials.  The  town  council,  pre- 
sided over  by  the  podesta,  is  also  the  diet  of  the  crownland  of 
Trieste  (35  square  miles).  Trieste  is  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of 
Capo  d'Istria. 

History. — ,4t  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  Aquilcia  by  th« 
Romans,  the  district  which  now  includes  Trieste  was  occupied  by 
Celtic  aud  lUyrian  tribes  ;  and  the  Roman  colony  of  Tergeste  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  established  till  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  After 
the  break-up  of  the  Roman  dominion  Trieste  shared  the  general  for- 
tunes of  Istria  and  passed  through  various  hands.  From  the  em- 
peror Lothaire  it  received  an  independent  existence  under  its  count- 
bishops,  and  it  maintained  this  position  down  to  its  capture  by 
Venice  in  1203.  For  the  next  180  years  its  history  consists  chiefly 
of  a  series  of  conflicts  with  this  city,  which  were  finally  put  an 
end  to  by  Trieste  placing  itself  in  1382  under  the  protection  of 
Leopold  III.  of  Austria.  The  overlordship  thus  established  in- 
sensibly developed  into  actual  possession  ;  and  except  in  the 
Napoleonic  period  (1797-1805  and  1809-1813)  Trieste  has  sine* 
remained  an  integral  part  of  the  Austrian  dominions. 

TRIGGER-FISH.    See  File-Fish. 


TRIGONOMETRY 


TRIGONOMETRY  is  primarily  the  science  which  is 
concerned  with  the  measurement  of  plane  and 
spherical  triangles,  that  is,  with  the  determination  of  three 
of  the  parts  of  such  triangles  when  the  numerical  values 
of  the  other  three  parts  are  given.  Since  any  plane  tri- 
angle can  be  divided  into  right-angled  triangles,  the  solu- 
tion of  all  plane  triangles  can  be  reduced  to  that  of  right- 
angled  triangles ;  moreover,  according  to  the  theory  of 
similar  triangles,  the  ratios  between  pairs  of  sides  of  a 
right-angled  triangle  depend  only  upon  the  magnitude  of 
the  acute  angles  of  the  triangle,  and  may  therefore  be 
regarded  as  functions  of  either  of  these  angles.  The 
primary  object  of  trigonometry,  therefore,  requires  a  classi- 
fication and  numerical  tabulation  of  these  fimctions  of  an 
angular  magnitude ;  the  science  is,  however,  now  under- 
stood to  include  the  complete  investigation  not  only  of 
such  of  the  properties  of  these  fimctions  as  are  necessary 
for  the  theoretical  and  practical  solution  of  triangles  but 
also  of  all  their  analytical  properties.  It  appears  that  the 
solution  of  spherical  triangles  is  effected  by  means  of  the 
same  functions  as  are  required  in  the  case  of  plane  triangles. 
The  trigonometrical  functions  are  employed  in  many 
branches  of  mathematical  and  physical  science  not  directly 
concerned  with  the  measurement  of  angles,  and  hence 
arises  the  importance  of  analytical  trigonometry.  The 
solution  of  triangles  of  which  the  sides  are  geodesic  lines 
on  a  spheroidal  surface  requires  the  introduction  of  other 
functions  than  those  required  for  the  solution  of  triangles 
on  a  plane  or  spherical  surface,  and  therefore  gives  rise  to 
a  new  branch  of  science,  which  is  from  analogy  frequently 
called  spheroidal  trigonometry.  Every  new  class  of  surfaces 
which  may  be  considered  would  have  in  this  extended 
sense  a  trigonometry  of  its  own,  which  would  consist  in 
an  investigation  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  the 
fimctions  necessary  for  the  measurement  of  the  sides  and 
angles  of  triangles  bounded  by  geodesies  drawn  on  such 
furfacea 

HISTOBT. 

Oreek.  An  account  of  Greek  trigonometry  is  given  under 
Ptolemy  (j.f.). 

Ibdiaa.  The  Indians,  who  were  much  more  apt  calculators  than 
the  Greeks,  availed  themselves  of  the  Greek  geometry 
which  came  from  Alexandria,  and  made  it  the  basis  of 
trigonometrical  calculations.  The  principal  improvement 
which  they  introduced  consists  in  the  formation  of  tables 
of  half<hord3  or  sines  instead  of  chords.  Like  the  Greek*, 
they  divided  the  circumference  of  the  circle  into  360 
degrees  or  21,600  minutes,  and  they  found  the  length  in 
minutes  of  the  arc  which  can  be  straightened  'out  into 

23^21 


the  radius  to  be  3438'.  The  value  of  the  ratio  of  the  ' 
circumference  of  the  circle  to  the  diameter  used  to  make  > 
this  determination  is  62832  :  20000,  ot -  =  3-1416,  which 
value  was  given  by  the  astronomer  Aryabhata  (476-550  i 
see  Sanskrit,  voL  xxi.  p.  294)  in  a  work  called  Art/a- 
bliatiya,  written  in  verse,  which  was  republished '  in  Sanskrit 
by  Dr  Kern  at  Leyden  in  1874.  The  relations  between  the 
sines  and  cosines  of  the  same  and  of  complementary  arc* 
were  known,  and  the  formula  sin  ia=  v/17 19(3438  -cos  a) 
was  applied  to  the  determination  of  the  sine  of  a  half 
angle  when  the  sine  and  cosine  of  the  whole  angle  were 
known.  In  the  Surya-Siddhdnta,  an  astronomical  treatise 
which  has  been  translated  by  Ebenezer  Bourgess  in  voL 
vi.  of  the  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society  (New 
Haven,  1860),  the  sines  of  angles  at  an  interval  of  3°  45' 
up  to  90°  are  given;  these  were  probably  obtained  from  tha 
sines  of  60°  and  45°  by  continual  application  of  the  dinjidi- 
ary  formula  given  above  aud  by  the  use  of  the  complement- 
ary angle.  The  values  sin  15' =  890',  sin  7°  30' =  449', 
sin  3°  45'  =  225',  were  thus  obtained.  Now  the  an^e  3°  45' 
is  itself  225' ;  thus  the  arc  and  the  sine  of  j^th  of  the  cir- 
cumference were  found  to  be  the  same,  and  consequently 
special  importance  was  attached  to  this  arc,  which  was 
called  the  right  sine.  From  the  tables  of  sines  of  angle 
at  intervals  of  3°  45'  the  law  expressed  by  the  equation 

sin  (nTi .  225")  -  sin  (a.  225')=sin  (n.  225')  -  sin  (n^  i  .  225') 
.    (n.?25') 
-^--225- 
was  discovered  empirically,  and  used  for  the  purpose  of 
recalculatioru     Bhaskara  (fl.  11-50)  used  the  method,  to 
which  we  have  now  returned,  of  expressing  sines  and  cosines 
as  fractions  of  the  radius ;  he  obtained  the  more  correct 
values  sin  3°  45'=  100/1529,  cos  3°  45'  =  466/467,  and 
showed  how  to  form  a  table,  according  to  degrees,  from  the 
values  sin  1°  =  10/573,  cos  1°  =  6568/6569,  which  are  much 
more  accurate  than  Ptolemy's  values.     The  Indians  did 
not  apply  their  trigonometrical  knowledge  to  the  solution 
of  triangles ;  for  astronomical  purposes  they  solved  right- 
angled  plane  and  spherical  triangles  by  geometry. 

The  Arabs  were  acquainted  with  Ptolemy's  Almagest,  Arabian 
and  they  probably  learned  from  the  Indians  the  use  of  the 
sine,  "rhe  celebrated  astronomer  of  Batnae,  Abii  'Abdallah 
Mohammed  b.  Jabir  al-Battdnl  (Bategnius),  who  died  in 
929/930  A.D.,  and  whose  Tables  were  trjiiislated  in  the 
12th  century  by  Plato  of  Tivoli  into  Latin,  under  the  title 
De  scientia  stellarum,  employed  the  sine  regularly,  and  was 
fully  conscious  of  the  advantage  of  the  sine  over  the  chord ; 
indeed,  he  remarks  that  the  continual  doubling  is  saved 

'  See  also  voL  iL  of  the  Asiatie  Rttearcha  (Calcatta). 
XXIIL  —  71 


562 


TRIGONOMETRY 


[histort. 


by  the  use  of  the  former.     He  was  the  first  to  calculate 
sin<^  from  the  equation  sin</>/cosi#i  =  ^',  and  he  also  made  a 
table  of  the  lengths  of  shadows  of  a  vertical  object  of  height 
12  for  altitudes  1°,  2°, .  . .  of  the  sun ;  this  is  a  sort  of 
cotangent  tabie.     He  was  acquainted,  not  only  with  the 
triangle   formute    in    the    Almagest,    but  also    with    the 
formula  cos  a  =  cos  b  cos  c  +  sin  b  sin  r  cos  A  for  a  spherical 
triangle  ABC.    Abu  '1-WafA  of  Baghdad  (b.  940)  was  the 
first  to  introduce  the  tangent  as  an  independent  function  : 
his  "  umbra  "  is  the  half  of  the  tangent  of  the  double  arc, 
and  the  secant  he  defines  as  the  "diameter  umbraj."     He 
employed  the  umbra  to  find  the  angle  from  a  table  and  not 
merely  as  an  abbreviation  for  sin/cos;  this  improvement 
was,  however,  afterwards  forgotten,  and  the  tangent  was 
re-invented  in  the  15th  century.     Ibn  Yunosof  Cairo,  who 
died  in  1008,  showed  even  more  skill  than  Al-BattAn(  in 
the  solution  of  problems  in  spherical  trigonometry  and  gave 
improved  approximate  formula:  for  the  calculation  of  sines. 
Among  the  West  Arabs,  Abii  Mohammed  Jabir  b.  Aflali, 
known  as  Geber  b.  Aflah,  who  lived  at  Seville  in  the  11th 
icentury,  wrote  an  astronomy  in   nine  books,  which  was 
translated  into  Latin  in  the  12tli  century  by  Gerard  of 
ICremona  and  was  published  in  1534.     The  first  book  con- 
tains a  trigonometry  which  is  a  considerable  improvement 
;on  that  in  the  Almagest.     He  gave  proofs  of  the  formuLns 
for  right-angled  spherical  triangles,  depending  on  a  rule  of 
jfour  quantities,  instead  of  Ptolemy's  rule  of  six  quantities. 
|The  formulae  cos/?  =  cos6  sin  A,  cosc  =  cot  j1  cot  B,  in  a 
triangle  of  which  C  is  a  right  angle  had  escaped  the  notice 
of  Ptolemy  and  were  given  for  the  first  time  by  Geber. 
Strangely  enough,  he  made  no  progress  in  plane  trigono- 
metry.    Arrachel,  a  Spanish  Arab  who  lived  in  the  12th 
century,  wrote  a  work  of  which  we  have  an  analysis  by 
I  Purbach,  in  which,  like  the  Indians,  he  made  the  sine  and 
the  arc  for  the  value  3°  45'  coincide. 
MoJcm.       Purbc^h  (1 423-1 4C1),  professor  of  mathematics  at  Vienna, 
wrote  a  work  entitled  Tractatus  super  propositiones  Ptole- 
mxi  de  sinubus  et  chordis  (Nuremberg,  1541). .  This  treatise 
consists  of  a  development  of  Arrachel's  method  of  inter- 
polation for  the  calculation  of  tables  of  sines,  and  was  pub- 
i  iished  by  Regiomontanus  at  the  end  of  one  of  his  works. 
'Johannes  Miiller  (1436-1476),  known  as  Regiomontanus 
(j.w.),  was  a  pupil  of  Purbach  and  taught  astronomy  at 
I  Padua ;  he  wrote  an  exposition  of  the  Almagest  and  a  more 
important  work,  De  triaTigulis  plants  et  spkericis  cum  tabulis 
'siniium,  which  was  published  in  1533,  a  later  edition  ap- 
'pearing  in  1561.     He  re-invented  the  tangent  and  calcu- 
lated a  table  of  tangents  for  each  degree,  but  did  not  make 
'any  practical  applications  of  this  table,  and  did  not  use 
.formuhe  involving  the  tangent.     His  work  was  the  first 
complete  European  treatise  on  trigonometry,  and  contains 
a  number  of  interesting  problems ;  but  his  methods  were 
'in  some  respects  behind  those  of  the  Arabs.     Copernicus 
(1473-1543)  gave  the  first  simple  demonstration  of  the 
fundamental  formula  of  spherical  trigonometry;  the  Trigo- 
nometria  Copemici  was   published  by  Rheticus  in  1542. 
iGeorge  .loachim  (1514-1576),  known  as  Rheticus  (q.v.), 
wrote  Opus   Palatinum  de  triangulis  (see  Tables,  p.  9 
above),  which  contains  tables  of  sines,  tangents,  and  secants 
of  arcs  at  intervals  of  10"  from  0°  to  90°.     His  method  of 
calculation  depends  upon  the  formulae  which  give  sin  na 
and  cosna  in  terms  of  the  sines  and  cosines  of  (n-  I)a 
and  (n  -  2)o  ;  thus  these  formulae  may  be  regarded  as  due 
to  him.     Rheticus  found  the  formulae  for  the  sines  of  the 
half  and  third  of  an  angle  in  terms  of  the  sine  of  the  whole 
angle.     In  1599  there  appeared  an  important  work  by 
Pitiscus  (1561-1613),  entitled  TrigoTiometrix  sen  de  dimen- 
tione  Iriangulorum  ;  this  contained  several  important  theo- 
rems on  the  trigonometrical  functions  of  two  angles,  some 
of   which  had  been  given  before  by  Finck,  Landsberg, 


and  Adriaan  van  Rooraen.  Francois  Viete  or  Vieta  {q.v.)' 
( 1 540-1 003)  employed  the  equation  (2  cos  i<^)3  -  3(2  cos  J<^) 
=  2  cos  f/>  to  solve  the  cubic  ifi  -  Za-x  =  a-b{a  >  W) ;  he  "ob- 
tained, however,  only  one  root  of  the  cubic.  In  1593  Van 
Roomen  proposed,  as  a  problem  for  all  mathematicians,  to 
solve  the  equation 

iO<j-  3rD5y  +  95G34i/» -...  +  945y>  -  iStj"  J. »/«  =  C 

Viute  gave  y  =  2  sin  ^'j<^,  where  C  =  2  sin  <!>,  as  a  solution,' 
and  also  twenty-two  of  the-  other  solutions,  but  he  failed 
to  obtain  the  negative  roots.  In  his  work  Ad  migulares 
sectiones  Victe  gave  formulae  for  the  chords  of  multiples  of 
a  given  arc  in  terms  of  the  chord  of  the  simple  arc. 

A  new  stage  in  the  development  of  the  science  was 
commenced  after  Napier's  invention  of  logarithms  in  1C14. 
Napier  also  simplified  the  solution  of  spherical  triangles  by 
his  well-known  analogies  and  by  his  rules  for  the  solutiou 
of  right-angled  triangles.  The  first  tables  of  logarithmic 
sines  and  tangents  were  constructed  by  Edmund  Guuter 
(15S1-1026),  professor  of  astronomy  at  Grcsham  College,' 
London  ;  he  was  also  the  first  to  employ  the  expressions 
cosine,  cotangent,  and  cosecant  for  the  sine,  tangent,  and 
secant  of  the  complement  of  an  arc.  A  treatise  by  Albert 
Girard  (1590-1634),  published  at  The  Hague  in  1620,  con- 
tains  the  theorems  which  give  areas  of  spherical  triangles 
and  polygons,  and  applications  of  the  properties  of  the 
supplementary  triangles  to  the  reduction  of  the  number 
of  different  cases  in  the  solution  of  spherical  triangles.  He 
used  the  notation  sin,  tan,  sec  for  the  sine,  tangent,  and 
secant  of  an  arc.  In  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century 
the  theory  of  infinite  series  was  developed  by  Wallis, 
Gregory,  Mercator,  and  afterwards  by  Newton  and  Leibnitz. 
In  the  Anahjsis per squalionesnumero  terminorum  infinitas, 
which  was  written  before  1669,  Newton  gave  the  series  for 
the  arc  in  powers  of  its  sine ;  from  this  he  obtained  the 
series  for  the  sine  and  cosine  in  powers  of  the  arc;  but 
these  series  were  given  in  such  a  form  that  the  law  of  the 
formation  of  the  coefficients  was  hidden.  James  Gregory 
discovered  in  1670  the  series  for  the  arc  in  powers  of  the 
tangent  and  for  the  tangent  and  secant  in  powers  of  the 
arc.  The  first  of  these  series  was  also  discovered  inde- 
pendently by  Leibnitz  in  1673,  and  published  without 
proof  in  the  Ada  enidiiqrum  for  1682.  The  series  for  the 
sine  in  powers  of  the  arc  he  pubUshed  in  1693;  this  he 
obtained  by  differentiation  of  a  series  with  undetermined 
coefficients. 

In  the  1 8th  century  the  science  began  to  take  a  more 
analytical  form  ;  evidence  of  this  is  given  in  the  works  of 
Kresa  in  1720  and  Mayer  in  1727.  Oppel's  Analysis 
triangulorum  (1746)  was  the  first  complete  work  on  ana- 
lytical trigonometry.  None  of  these  mathematicians  used 
the  notation  sin,  cos,  tan,  which  is  the  more  surprising  in 
the  case  of  Oppel,  since  Euler  had  in  1744  employed  it  in 
a  memoir  in  the  Acta  ei~uditorum.'  John  Bernoulli  was 
the  first  to  obtain  real  results  by  the  use  of  the  symbol 
n'  -  1 ;  he  published  in  1 7 1 2  the  general  formula  for  tan  n<t> 
in  terms  of  tan  <^,  which  he  obtained  by  means  of  trans- 
formation of  the  arc  into  imaginary  logarithms.  The 
greatest  advance  was,  however,  made  by  Euler,  wTio 
brought  the  science  in  all  essential  respects  into  the  state 
in  which  it  is  at  present.  He  introduced  the  present  nota- 
tion into  general  use,  whereas  until  his  time  the  trigono- 
metrical functions  had  been,  except  by  Girard,  indicated 
by  special  letters,  and  had  been  regarded  as  certain  straight 
lines  the  absolute  lengths  of  which  depended  on  the  radius 
of  the  circle  in  which  they  were  drawn.  Euler's  great  im- 
provement consisted  in  his  regarding  the  sine,  cosine,  &c, 
as  functions  of  the  angle  only,  thereby  giving  to  equatiais 
connecting  these  functions  a  purely  analytical  interpret*, 
tion,  instead  of  a  geometrical  one  as  heretofore.     Th» 


Fig.  J. 


PL4NE.J 

r 
exponential  values  of  the  sine  and  cosine,  De  Moivre's 
theorem,  and  a  great  number  of  other  analytical  properties 
of  the  trigonometrical  functions  are  due  to  Euler,  most  of 
whose  writings  are  to  be  found  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  St 
Petersburg  Academy 

The  preceding  sketch  has  been  mainly  dra-vji  from  the  following 
sources:  — Cantor,  Gcsch.  d.  Math.,  Hankcl,  GescX  d.  Math., 
Marie.  Hist  dcs  sc  math  ;  Suter,  Gisch.  d.  Math.  ;  Klugel,  Math. 
^lyorUrbiuh. 

Platu  TrigonuymUry. 

Cencep-  Imagine  a  straight  line  terminated  at  a  fixed  point  0,  and  initially 
tion  of  coincident  « ill)  atiied  straight  line  OA,  to  revolve  round  0,  and 
•ngles  of  finally  to  t.nke  up  any  position  OB. 
any  mag- We  shall  suppose  that,  when  this  re- 
uitaJe.  Tolling  straight  line  is  turning  in  one 
direction,  say  that  opposite  to  that  in 
which  the  haii.'.s  of  a  clock  turn,  it  is 
describing  a  positive  angle,  and  when 
it  is  turning  in  tiie  otlier  direction  it 
is  describing  a  negative  angle.  Before 
finally  taking  up  the  position  OB  the 
straight  line  may  have  passed  any  num- 
ber of  times  through  the  position  OB, 
making  any  number  of  complete  revo- 
iutioiis  round  0  in  either  direction. 
Each  time  that  the  straight  line  makes 
a  complete  revolution  round  0  we  consider  it  to  have  described  four 
right  angles,  taken  with  the  positive  or  negative  sign  according  to 
tha  direction  in  which  it  has  revolved  ;  thus,  when  it  stops  in  the 
position  OB,  it  may  have  revolved  through  any  one  of  an  infinite 
number  of  positive  or  negative  angles  any  two  of  which  differ  from 
one  another  by  a  positive  or  negative  multiple  of  four  right  angles, 
and  all  of  wiiicli  have  the  same  bounding  lines  OA  and  OB.  If 
OB"  is  the  final  position  of  the  revolving  line,  the -smallest  positive 
angle  which  can  have  been  described  is  that  described  by  the  revolv- 
ing  line  making  more  than  one-half  and  less  than  the  whole  of  a 
complete  revolution,  so  that  in  this  case  we  have  a  positive  angle 
greater  than  two  and  less  than  four  right  angles.  \Ve  have  thus 
shown  how  we  may  conceive  an  angle  not  restricted  to  less  than  two 
right  .ingles,  but  of  any  positive  or  negative  magnitude,  to  be 
generateu. 
N'ameri-  Two  systems  of  numerical  measurement  of  .ingulir  magnitudes 
cal  meas-  are  in  ordinary  use.  For  practical  measurements  the  sexagesimal 
urement  system  is  the  one  employed  r  the  ninetieth  part  of  a  right  angle  is 
of  augu-  taken  as  the  unit  and  is  called  a  degree  ;  the  degree  is  divided  into 
l.ar  mag.  si^tty  equal  parts  called  minutes  ;  and  the  minute  into  sixty  equal 
oitudes.  parts  called  .^leconds  ;  angles  smaller  than  a  second  are  usually 
measuied  as  decimals  of  a  second,  the  "thirds,"  "fourths,"  tc,  not 
being  in  ordinary  use.  In  the  common  notation  an  angle,  for  ex- 
ample, of  120  degrees,  17  minutes,  and  14-36  seconds  is  written  120° 
17'  14'  36.  Tl'.e  decimal  system  measurement  of  angles  has  never 
come  into  ordinary  use.  In  analytical  trigonometry  the  circular 
measure  of  an  angle  is  employed.  In  this  system  the  unit  angle 
is  the  angle  subtended  at  the  centre  of  a  circle  by  an  arc  equal  iu 
length  to  the  radius.  The  constancy  of  this  angle  follows  from  the 
geometrical  propositions — (1)  the  circumferences  of  different  circles 
vaiy  as  their  radii ;  (2j  in  the  same  circle  angles  at  the  centre  are 
proportional  to  the  arcs  which  subtend  them.  It  thus  follows  that 
the  unit  mentioned  above  is  an  angle  independent  of  the  particular 
circle  tised  in  defining  it.  The  constant  ratio  of  the  circumference 
of  a  circle  to  its  diameter  is  a  quantity  incommensurable  with  unity, 
nsually  denoted  by  r.  We  shall  indicate  later  on  (p.  571  sy.)  some  of 
the  methods  which  have  been  employed  to  appro-ximate  to  the  value 
of  this  quantity.  Its  value  to  20  places  is  3  14159265358979323816  ; 
its  reciprocal  to  the  same  number  of  places  is -31830988618379067153. 
In  circular  measure  every  angle  is  measured  by  the  ratio  which  it 
bears  to  the  unit  angle.  Two  right  angles  are  measured  by  the 
quantity  r,  and,  since  the  same  angle  is  180°,  we  see  that  the  number 
of  degrees  in  an  angle  of  circular  measure  B  is  obtained  from  the 
fomjula  180  x  e/i-.  The  value  of  the  unit  of  circular  measure  has 
been  found  to  41  places  of  decimals  by  Glaisher  {Ptoc  London  Math. 

Soc.,  vol  17.) ;  the  value  of  -,  from  which  the  unit  can  be  easily 

calculated,  is  given  to  140  places  of  decimals  in  Grmiert's  Archiv, 
vol.  L,  1841.  To  10  decimal  places  the  value  of  the  unit  angle  is 
67°  17' 44"  "8062470964.  The  unit  of  circular  measure  is  too  large 
to  be  convenient  for  practical  purposes.'  but  its  use  introduces  a 
simplification  into  the  series  in  analytical  trigonometry,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  sine  of  an  angle  and  the  angle  itself  in  this 
measure,  when  the  magnitude  of  the  angle  is  indefinitely  diminished, 
are  ultimately  in  a  ratio  of  equality. 

If  a  point  moves  from  a  position  A  to  another  position  .S  on  a 
straight  line,  it  has  described  a  length  AB  of  the  straight  line.  It 
is  convenient  to  have  a  simple  mode  of  indicating  in  which  direction 
on  the  straight  line  the  length  AB  has  been  described  ;  this  may 


TRIGONOMETRY 


563 


A 


he  done  by  supposing  that  a  point  moving  in  one  specified  direction  Sign  of 
is  describing  a  positive  length,  and  when  moving  in  the-  opposite  portions 
direction  a  negative  length.     Thus,  if  a  point  moving  from  A  to  5  of  au  in 
is  moving  in  the  positive  direction,  we  consider  the  length  AB  as  finite 
positive  ;  and,  since  a  point  moving  from  B  ia  A  is  moving  in  the  straight 
negative  direction,  we  consider  the  length  BA  as  negative.     Hence  line, 
any  portion  of  an  infinite  straight  line  is  considered  to  be  positive 
or  negative  according  to  the  direction  in  which  we  suppose  this 
portion  to  be  described  by  a  moving  point ;  which  direction  is  the 
positive  one  is,  of  course,  a  matter  of  conventioTL 

If  perpendiculars  AL,  B.V  be  drawn  from  two  points  A,  B  on  ProjM- 
any  straight  line,  not  necessarily  in  the  same  plane  with  AB,  the  tions  of 
length  Lit,  taken  with  the  positive  or  negative  sign  according  tostraighl 
the  coivention  as  stated  above,  is  called  the  projection  of  AB  on  lines  on 
the  gi%'en  straight  line ;  the  projection  of  BA  being  ML  has  the  each 
opposite  sign  to  the  projection  oiAB.     If  two  points  A,  B  be  joined  other, 
by  a  number  of  lines  in  any  manner,  the  algebraical  sum  of  the 
projections  of  all  these  lines  is  LM, — that  is,  the  same  as  the  pro- 
jection of  AB.     Hence  the  sum  of  the  projections  of  all  the  sides 
of  any  closed  polygon,  not  necessarily  plame,  on  any  straight  line, 
is  zero.     This  principle  of  projections  we  shall  apply  below  to'ob- 
tain  some  of  the  most  important  propositions  in  trigonometry. 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  conception  of  the  generation  of  an  Defini 
angle  as  in  fig.  1.     Draw  BOS'  at  right  angles  to  and  equal  to  A  A',  tion  of 
We  shall  suppose  that  the  direction  from  A'  trigono- 
to  A  is  the  positive  one  for  the  straight  line  metrical 
J  AOA',  and  that  from  B'  to  £  for  fnuc- 
BOB".    Suppose  OP  of  fixed  length,  tiona. 
I,    ,   ■■ — .    equal  to  OA,  and  let  PM,  PA'  be 
//  drawn  perpendicular  to  A'A,  £"3 

.    '  respectively ;    then   OM  and   ON, 

taken  with  their  proper  signs,  are  the  projep- 
tions  of  OP  on  A'A  and  B^B.     The  ratio  of 
Pj.,°-  the  projection  of  OP  on  PB  to  the  absolute 

°  length  of  OP  is  dependent  only  on  the  magni- 

tude  of  the  angle  PDA,  and  is  called  the  sine  of  that  angle  ;  the 
ratio  of  the  projection  of  OP  on  A'A'to  the  length  OP  is  called  the 
cosine  of  the  angle  POA.  The  ratio  of  the  sine  of  an  angle  to  its 
cosine  is  called  the  tangent  of  the  angle,  and  that  of  the  cosine  to  the 
sine  the  cotangent  of  the  angle ;  the  reciprocal  of  the  cosine  is  called 
the  secant,  and  that  of  the  sine  the  cosecant  of  the  angle.  Thess 
functions  of  an  angle  of  magnitude  a  are  denoted  by  sin  o,  cos  a, 
tan  a,  cot  o,  sec  a,  cosec  o  respectively.  If  any  straight  line  E3. 
be  drawn  parallel  to  OP,  the  projection  of  RS  on  either  of  the! 
straight  lines  A'A,  BB  can  be  easily  seen  to  bear  to  .E5  the  same 
ratios  which  the  corresponding  projections  of  OP  bear  to  OP;  thus, 
if  a  be  the  angle  which  RS  makes  with  A'A,  the  projections  of 
RS  on  A'A,  B'B  are  RS  cos  a.  and  RS  sin  a  respectively,  where 
RS  denotes  the  absolute  length  RS.  It  must  be  obsened  that 
the  line  SR  is  to  be  considered  as  jjarallel  not  to  OP  hut  to  OP', 
and  therefore  makes  an  angle  T-(-a  with  A'A;  this  is  consistent 
with  the  fact  that  the  projections  of  SB,  ^re  of  opposite  sign  to 
those  of  RS.  By  observing  the  signs  of  the  projections  of  OP  for 
the  positions  P,  P,  P",  P"  of  P  we  see  that  the  sine  and  cosine  of 
the  angle  POA  are  both  positive  ;  the  siue  of  the  angle  P'OA  is  posi- 
tive and  its  cosine  is  negative  ;  both  the  sine  and  the  cosine  of  the 
angle  P'OA  are  negative  ;  and  the  sine  of  the  angle  'P"OA  is 
negative  and  its  cosine  positive.  If  a  be  the  numerical  value  of 
the  smallest  angle  of  which  OP  /ind  OA  are  boundaries,  we  see 
that,  since  these  straight  lines  also  bound  all  the  angles  2nT-ha, 
where  n  is  any  positive  or  negative  integer,  the  sines  and  cosines 
of  all  these  angles  are  the  same  as  the  sine  and  cosine  of  a.'  Hence 
the  sine  of  any  angle  2nir-fo  is  positive  if  o  is  between  0  and  » 
and  negative  if  a  is  between  t  and  2s-,  and  the  cosine  of  the  same 
angle  is  positive  if  o  is  between  0  and  Jir  or  |t  and  2t  and  negative 
if  a  is  between  ^r  and  Sir. 

In  fig.  2  if  the  angle  'POA  is  o,  the  angle  P"OA  is  -  o,  POA  is 


-a,  P^OA  iST-fo,  POBis  ^-a. 


By  observing  the  signs  of  the 


projections  we  see  that 

sin(- a)= -sina,    sin  (ir  -  a)  =  sin  a,    sin  (T-fo)=  -  sin  a, 

cos( -o)  =  coso,    cos(T-a)= -cosa,    cos(i-l-a)=  -  coso, 

sin(Jr-a)  =  coso,    cosCJi - o)  =  sin o. 

Also      6in(J»-  +  a)  =  siE(r- Ji- o)=     sin(|x-a)=     coso, 

cos(5r-l-a)  =  cosCi-  J»--a)=  -cos(4i-o)=  -  sin  o. 

From  these  equations  we  have  tant-o)=  -  tana,tan(ir-o)=  -tana, 

tan(i--Ha)=  -tana,  tanCJi-- o)  =  cota,    tan(jT  +  a)=  -coto,  with 

corresponding  equations  for  the  cotangent. 

The  only  angles,  for  which  the  projection  of  OP  on  B'B  is  the 
same  as  for  the  given  angle  POA  (  =  a)  are  the  two  sets  of  angles 
bounded  by  OP,  OA  and.  OP,  OA  ;  these  angles  are  2ni  -t-  o  and , 
2«T  -I-  X  -  a,  and  are- all  included  in  the  formula  nr-f( -Ij'a,  whereri 
is  any  integer  ;  this  therefore  is  the  formula  for  all  angles  having 
the  same  sine  as  a.  The  only  angles  which  have  the  same  cosine 
as  a  are  those  bounded  by  OA,  OP  and  OA,  OP",  and  these  are 
all  included  in  the  formula  2nr±a.     Similarly  it  can  be  bho*n 


564 


TRIGONOMETRY 


[plank. 


that  nx  +  a  includes  all  the  angles  which  have  the  same  tangent 

as  a. 

lUIa-  From  the  Pythagorean  theorem,  the.  snm  of  the  squares  of  the 

ttoa"*  be*  projertions  of  any  straight  line  upon  two  straight  lines  at  right 

tween       angles  to  one  another  ts  equal  to  the  square  on  the  projected  line, 

Irigono-    we  get  sin-a  +  co3-a  =  l,  and  from  this  by  the  help  of  the  definitions 

metrical  of  the  other  functions  we  deduce  the  relations  1  +  tau^a  =  sec^a, 

f<inc-        1 +cot-a  =  cosec-a.      We  have  now  six  relations  between  the  six 

tioQS.       functions  ;  these  enable  us  to  express  any  five  of  these  functions  in 

terras  of  the  sixth.     The  following  table  shows  the  values  of  the 

trigonometrical  functions  of  the  angles  0,  i^r,  v,  ^ir,  2x,  and  the 

signs  of  the  functions  of  angles  between  these  values  ;  /  denotes 

numerical  increase  and  D  numerical  decrease. 


.Angle      . 

0 

O.-K 

i' 

ir...r 

V 

»...}ir 

!"■ 

5i-...Sir 

ST 

,Sine 

0 

+  ; 

1 

+  D 

0 

-/ 

-  1 

-D 

0 

,  Cosine     ... 

1 

+  0 

0 

-; 

■-  1 

-D 

0 

+  / 

1  Tangent 

0 

+; 

±« 

-D 

0 

+  1 

±« 

-D 

0 

1  Cotangent 

±x 

+  D 

0 

-/ 

±« 

+  D 

0 

-/ 

±<o 

Secant  . 

1 

+  / 

±« 

-D 

-  1 

-I 

±« 

+D 

1 

1  Coseqant 

±« 

+  D 

1 

+  ; 

±« 

-D 

-  1 

-I 

±« 

Tlie  corrertiicss  of  the  table  may  be  verified  from  the  figure  by  con- 
sidering the  magnitudes  of  the  projections  of  OP  for  different 
positions. 

Values  of     The  following  table  shows  the  sine  and  cosine  of  some  angles  for 

trigono-    which  the  values  of  the  functions  may  he  obtained  geometrically ; — 

metrical 

functions 

for  some 

Angles. 


IS- 
IS* 

sine 

4 

,/r-i 

4 

cosine 
4 

75* 

72- 

I' 

4 

80- 
36* 

1 

2 

i 

v^+-I 
4    " 

60* 
M 

I' 
iV 

4 

45" 

cosine 

sine 

45' 

Ax 

4 

and  cos  ^  is 
5 


These  are  obtained  as  follo\ra.     (1)  j.     The  sine  and  cosine  of  this 

angle  are  equal  to  one  another,  since  sin  7  =co3  {  5  -  :  )  i  and  since 

the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  sine  and  cosine  is  unity  each  is  ~=- 

(2)  ^  and  ;.     Consider  an  equilateral  triangle  ;  the  projection  of 

one  side  on  another  is  obviously  half  a  side;  hence  the  cosine  of 

an  angle  of  the  triangle  is  ;  or  cos  ^  =  i,  and  from  this  the  sine  is 

ir    T    2ir    3t  o      Z 

found.     (3)  77;,  J,  -J-;  ri-     In  the  triangle  constracted  in  Euc.  iv. 

2ir  r 

10  each  angle  at  the  base  is  — ,  and  the  vertical  angle  is  ■ .     If  o 

be  a  side  and  S  the  base,  we  have  by  the  construction  a^a  -b)  =  b' ; 

hence  2!.  =  o(\/5-  1) ;  the  sine  of  ,^  U  ;^  or  N^~^ 

a      v5+l      ,,,    T     Sir      _      .,  .  ,  ,    ,      .       ,     , 

51=  — 7 — .     (4J  Tq,  r^.     Consider  a  nght-nngled  tnangle,  nav. 

iug  an  angle  Jir.  Bisect  this  angle,  then  the  opposite  side  is  cut 
by  the  bisector  in  the  ratio  of  ^3  to  2  ;  hence  the  length  of  the 
smaller  segment  is  to  that  of  the  whole  in  the  ratio  of  s/3"to  \/3  +  2, 

therefore  tan  ^x  =  -^ —  tan  Jir  or  tan  ,Vir  =  2  -  -JZ,  and  from  this 

\/3  +  2 
wa  can  obtain  sin  ^w  and  cos  ^ir. 
Pormuls      Draw  a  straight  line  OD  making  any  angle  A  witli  a  6xed  straight 
for  Bine  ■  line  OA,  and  draw  OF  making  an  angle  B  n-ith  o^ 
and  CO-     OD,  this  angle  being  measured  positively  in  the 
Bine  of     same  direction  as  A  ;  draw  FE.i  perjiendicnlar 
•am  and  on  DO  (produced  if  necessary).     The  projection 
differ-       ofO^on  OA  is  the  sum  of  the  projections  of 
ence  of     OE  and  EF  on  OA.     Now  OE  is  the  projection 
two  of  OP  on  00.  and  is  therefore  eqnal  to  0/" cos  £,    *       Rg- »• 

•aglea.      fcnd  EF  is  the  projection  of  OF  on  a  straight  line  making  an  angle' 
'^  '+ Jt  with  OD,  and  is  therefore  eqnal  to  OFsin  B  ;  hence 
OFcoalA*B)  =  OBmsA  +  EFcos(ir  +  A) 

=  OFicos  A  cosB-  sin  A  sin  B), 
•T'  cos(./4  +  B)=cos^  cos  S-sin  ^  sin  B. 

TTie  angles  A.  B  are  absolntely  unrestricted  in  magnitnde,  and  tbns 
(his  formula  is  perfectly  general     We  may  change  the  sign  o(£,  thus 

cos(/*-B)  =  coSy<co6(-5)-sin  Asm{  -  B), 
01  cos(.,4  -  .Bi  =  cos.^cosB  +  9in  ./4sin  B 

If  we  projectwl  the  sides  of  the  triangle  OFF  on  a  straight  line 
making  an  angle  -1-^^  with  OA  ws  should  obtain  the  formula 


sin  (^±S)=sin  A  cos  Bicos  A  sin  B, 

which  are  really  conuined  in  the  cosine  formula,  since  we  may  put 

^rr-B  tor  B.     The  formulae 

,..j_n>      tan^iUnB  .,..j.m    colAcotBrfl 

tan(.,4±.Bl  =  ^ : 7;,     coHA±B)  =  — — jj^ — rV 

are  immediately  deduciWe  from  the  above  formula.     The  equations 

sin  C+sinZ3  =  2sin4{C-)-Z>)cos5(C-Z)), 

sin  C-sinZ)  =  2sini{C-il)cosMC+/)), 

cos/)  +  co3  C  =  2cos.He+/J)cosj(C-i3), 

cos  £>  -  cos  C=2  sin  J  (C  +  /))  sin  j  {C-  D), 
may  be  obtained  directly  by  the  mcthoii  of  projections.      Take 
two  equal  straight  lines  OC,  OD,  making  angles  C,  D  with  OA, 
and  draw  OE  perpendicular  to  CD.     The  angle  which  OE  makes 
»nth  OA  is  J(C  +  /J)and  that  which  Z)C  makes 
is   J(ir  +  C+i));   the  angle  COE  k  K{C -  D). 
The  sum  of  the  projections  of  OD  and  DE  or, 
OA  is  equal  to  that  of  OE,  and  the  sum  of 
the  projections  of  OD  and  DE  is  equal  to  that 
of  OC  i  hence  the  sum  of  the  projections  of 
OC  and  OD  is  twice    that  of.OE,  or  cos  C 
+  1:03  D  =  2cos  iiC+D)  cosiiC-D).      The. 
difference  of  the  projections  of  OD  and  OC  ^'8-  4. 

on  OA  is  equal  to  that  of  ED,  hence  we  have  the  formula  cosD- 
cosC=2sin  4(C  +  /))sin  HC-D).  The  other  two  forinuls  will  be 
obtained  by  projecting  on  a  straight  line  inclined  at  an  angle  +  }t 
to  OA. 

As  another  example  of  the  use  of  projections,  we  will  find  the  sum  Sum  of 
of  the  series  cos  a  +  cos  (a  +  ^)  +  cos  (o  +  2/3)  +  . . .  +  cos  (a  +  71  -  1  ^).  series  of 
Suppose  an  unclosed  polygon  each  angle  of  which  is  r-^  to  be  in-  cosines 
scribed  in  a  circle,  and  let  A^,  A^,  A^  ...,  A„  be  n-f  1  consecutive  *"  anlh- 
angular  points  ;  let  Z*  be  the  diameter  of  the  circle  ;  and  suppose  a  metical 
straight  linj  drawn   making  an  angle  a  with  AAi,  then  a  +  /9,  progres- 
a  +  2ft . . .  are  the  angles  it  makes  with  .A^Aj,  A^A,, ...;  we  have  by  *'<">• 
projections    


AA„  cos 

also 


=.^.i4,(cMo-t-cosa  +  /3+  ...  ■^coso-^.l-  1^), 


^Ai—Dsin 


? 


AA„  =  Dsia 


"P. 


J 


hence  the  sum  of  the  series  of  cosines  is  c^s(  a  H — ^-^  Isin  -^  v«<.vw   . 

By  a  double  application  01  the  addition  formulae  we  may  obtain  the  Formula 
formulfe  for  sine 

sin  (^,  +  A,  +  Aj)  =  sin  A^  cos  A,  cos  A,  +  cos  .<^,  sin  .A,  cos  A,      ani^ 

+  C0S  ^1  cosy^jsin  y^j-sin  Ay  sin  .rfjSin  A^;  cosine  of 

c03(.^i^y4j  +  .^3)  =  cosy4,  cos  .^j  cos  .i^j  -  cos  Ai  sin  A^siaA,       ^'""  '' 
-  sin  y^i  cos  A,  sin  .,4j  -  sin  A^  sin  A^  cos  A,.  angles. 

"We  can  by  induction  extend  these  formulae  to  the  case  of  n  angles. 
Assume         sin  {Ay  +  A2+  ...  +  An)  =  5j  -  ^j  +  ^j-  ... 
cos{.4,  +  /)j+  ...  +  An)=Sa-  S,  +  Sf-  ... 
where  S,  denotes  the  sum  of  the  products  of  the  sines  of  r  of  the 
angles  and  the  cosines  of  the  remaining  n-r  angles  ;  then  we  have 
sia(.Aj-¥A,+  ...  +/i„  +  -4„,,)  =  cos  A„.,,{S,- S^  +  Sf  ...) 
+  sinA„,,(.Siy-Si  +  S,-  ...). 
The  right-hand  side  of  this  equation  may  be  written 

(5,  cos  /!„.,.,  -t-  5„ sin  ^„.,)  -  (5,  cos  A„.,t  +  S^  sin  A„^,,)+  . . ., 
or  S'y-S'3+  ... 

where  S*.  denotes  the  quantity  which  corresponds  for  n  +  1  angles 
to  Sr  for  n  angles  ;  similarly  we  may  proceed  with  the  cosine  for- 
mula.    The  theorems  are  true  for  n  =  2and  n  =  3;  thus  they  are 


true  generally.     The  formula 

cos  2A  =  cos' A  -  sin'^  =  2  cos'^  -  1  =  1  -  2  sin'/f , 

2  tan  A 
sin  2A  =2  sio  A  cos  A ,  tan2y<  = 


sin  3A  =  3siaA-i sia'A, 

n(n  ■ 


sin  n.^  =n  cos""'.^  sin  ><  -  - 


1  -  tnn'.^' 
cos  3^  =  4  cos^.4  -  S  cos  -<< 

— cos'-'A  sio'A  + 


Pormnlap 
for  mul- 
tiple and 
Bub-raul- 
tiple 
angles. 


13 


■^(  - 1) .  „       '  co8"-'^M,sm''^.<l, 


I  2r-H 
cosn.,4=cosn^ j-^—  cos"-'v4  sin'v4  +  ... 


+■(-!)' 


^(n-l)...(n-2r-l-l) 
|2r 


cos"*''^  sin''.^  + . 


may  all  be  dedoced  from  the  addition  formulae  by  making  ths 
angles  all  equal.  From  the  last  two  formulae  we  obtain  by  divisioi 
tan  njt 


IS 


t»n».H-...-t-(-I)" 


"'"?oJ."''"'tAnar-n^^... 


12r+l 


-lo  the  particular  case  of  n  =  3  we  have  tan  3  A 


't»n2'^-V... 
3tan^- tan*.^ 
l-3tan».4    ■ 


8FH£BICA1.] 


TRIGONOMETRY 


565 


The  values  of  sin  ^A,  cos  ^A,  tan  iA  arc  given  in  terms  of  cos  A 
by  the  foriuuls 

,/l-'^s^M         ,  ,     ,    ,,,/I+cos^\i 
rini-<  =  (-l)'('— fi^)'.cosi^  =  (-l)'( 2-—) 


-M=(-l)'G-i^)'. 


A  A      1 

where  pis  the  integral  part  of  ^,  q  the  integral  part  of  ^  +  2* 

«nd  r  the  integral  part  of  — 

Sin  ^A,  cos  \A  are  given  in  terms  of  sin  A  by  the  formnlie 

2sin  M  =  C  - 1)^(1 +sin /))'  +  (- 1)''(1  -  sin  ^)», 

2cos  M  =  (  -  ')' (l  +  sin  /()» -  (  -  !)''(!  -  sin  A)^, 

A     1 
mhen  ^  is  the  integral  part  of  g-  +  j  »"<1  /  the  integral  part  of 

A     I 

2r"4" 

■Proper-        In  any  plane  triangle  ABC  we  will  denote  the  lengths  of  the 

ties  of      sides  BC,  CA,  AB  hy  a,  b,  c  respectively,  an.^  the  angles  BAC, 

mangles.  ABC,  ACB  by  A,  B,  C  respectively.     The  fact  that  the  projections 

of  b  and  c  on  a  straight  line  perpendicular  to  the  side  a  are  equal 

to  one  another  is  expressed  by  the  equation  *sin  C=<:sin  B ;  this 

equation  and  the  one  obtained  by  projecting  e  and  a  on  a  straight 

line  perpendicular  to  a  may  be  written  -: — -■=  t=— ==  -^ — r,.    The 
'^  "^  '  sin  A     sin  B    sin  C 

equation  a=icos(7-t:'ecosB  expresses  the  fact  that  the  side  a  is 

equal  to  the  soTn  of  the  projections  of  the  sides  b  and  c  on  itself ; 

thus  we  obtain  the  equations 

a  =  6cos  C+e  cosS^ 

b  —  c  cos  A  +acosC  J- 

c=acos5  +  6cos^  J 
If  we  multiply  the  first  of  these  equations  by  -a,  the  second  by 
b,  and  the  third  by  c,  and  add  the  resulting  equations,  we  obtain 

the  formula  i*  +  c'  -  o'  =  26<;cos  A  or  cos  A  = ^j- — ,  which  gives 

the  cosine  of  an  angle  in  terms  of  the  sides.     From  this  expression 

forcos^thefonnulssinM=  {^'"■*^'"'}*.cosM=  j  '^^  \  *. 

tan  J^  =  }  ^"Zf-a^"'  i  *•*'''  ^  =  I  !^*  " "^^^  "  *^(' "  ''!  *■  "'^'"^  ' 
denotes  J(o  +  6  +  c),  can  be  deduced  by  means  of  thedimidiary  formula. 

From  any  general  relation  between  the  sides  and  angles  of  a 
triangle  other  relations  may  be  deduced  by  various  methods  of 
transformation,  of  which  we  give  two  examples. 

(o)  In  any  general  relation  between  the  sines  and  cosines  of  the 
angles  A,  B,  C  of  a  triangle  we  may  substitute  pA+qB'rrC, 
rA+pB'r  qC,  qA  +  rB  +pC  for  A,  B,  C  respectively,  where  ;>,  q,  t 
are  any  quantities  such  that  p-t-  q  i-r-i-l  is  a  positive  or  nega- 
tive multiple  of  6,  provided  that  we  change  the  signs  of  all  the 
sines.  Suppose  p  +  j+r  +  l=6n,  then  the  sum  of  the  three  angles 
2;ix  -  {pA  +qB  +  rC),  2nx  -  (tA  +pB  +  qCj,  2nr  -  {qA  +  rB  +  pC)  is 
r  ;  and,  since  the  given  relation  follows  frjni  the  condition  A  +  B 
+  C=r,  we  may  substitute  for  A,  B,  C  respectively  any  angles  of 
which  the  sum  is  r  ;  thus  the  transformation  is  admissible. 

(/S)  It  may  easily  be  shown  that  the  sides  and  angles  of  the 
Wangle  formed  by  joining  the  feet  of  the  perpendiculars  from  tlie 
angular  points  A,  B,  Con  the  opposite  sides  of  the  triangle  ABC 
are  respectivery  a  cos  A,  b  cos  B,  c  cos  C,w-'2A,  r  -  2B,  t  -iC ;  we 
may  therefore  substitute  these  expressions  for  a,  b,  c,  A,  B,  C  re 
spectively  in  any  general  formula.  By  drawing  the  perpendiculars 
of  this  second  triangle  and  joining  their  feet  as  before,  we  obtain  a 
triangle  of  which  the  sides  are  -a  cos  ./<  cos  2.^4,  -  icos£cos2.S, 
-ccosCcos2Cand  the  angles  Ate  iA  -  t,  AB  -  w,  iC -  r  ;  we  may 
therefore  substitute  these  expressions  for  the  sides  and  angles  of  the 
original  triangle  ;  for  example,  we-obtain  thus  the  formula 

,  .  _  g'  cos'  A  cos'  2A  -  b'  cos'  B  cos'  2B-c'  cos'  Ccos'  2g 
26<;  cos  £  cos  Ccos  2B  cos  2(7 
Eolation  This  transformation  obviously  admits  of  further  extension. 
•ftri-  (1)  The  three  sides  of  a  triangle  y4£(7  being  given,  the  angles 

angles,     can  be  determined  by  the  formula 

Ztan  ^  =10  +  J  log {s  -6)  +  J  log (s-c)-  4  logs-  Jlog(j-o) 

and  two  corresponding  fonnuljc  for  the  other  angles. 

(2)  The  two  sides  a,  b  and  the  included  angle  C  being  given,  the 
tngles  A,  B  can  be  determined  from  the  formulse 

A   rB=7r-C, 

£tanJ(^-B)=  log(a-i)- log(a  +  J)+  tcot  JC, 
vnd  the  side  c  is  then  obtained  from  the  formula 
log  c=  log  a  +  i  sin  C  -  i  sin  //. 

(3)  The  two  sides  o,  b  and  the  angle  A  ^)eing  given,  the  value  of 
'^£  may  be  found  by  mean,  of  the  formula 

£  sin  £  =  £  sin  ^  +  log  6  -  log  n  ; 


this  gives  two  supplementary  values  of  the  angle  B,  if  J  sin  A<a.: 
If  6sin.<4>a  there  is  no  solution,  and  if  A  sin  .4  =  a  there  is  one 
solution.  In  the  case  6  sin  A<a,  both  values  of  B  give  solutions 
provided  b>a,  but  the  acute  value  only  of  B  is  admissible  if  i<a. 

The  other  side  c  can  then  be  determined  as  in  rase  (2). 

(4)  If  two  .ingles  A,  B  and  a  side  a  are  given,  the  angle  C  is  de- 
termined from  tlie  formula  C  —  r-  A-  B  and  the  side  6  from  th» 
formula  log 6=  loga  +  Zsin  B-  LivnA. 

The  area  of  a  triangle  is  half  the  product  of  a  side  into  the  per-  Areas 
pendicular  from  the  opposite  angle  on  that  side  ;   thus  we  obtain  of  tri- 
the  expressions  JJcsin/*,  {.<s -o)(s- J)(s  -  c)|  J  for  the  area  of  a  angles 
triangle.     A  large  collection  of  formula  for  the  area  of  a  triangle  «"d 
are  given  in  the  A^i-nals  of  Maihemalic3  for  1885  by  M.  Baker.         quadri- 

Let  a,  b,  c,  d  denote  the  lengths  of  the  sides  AB,  BC.  CD,  DA  laterals, 
respectively  of  any  plane  quadrilateral  and  .,4  4-C  =  2o;   we  may 
obtain  an  expression  for  the  area  S  of  the  quadrilateral  in  terms  of 
the  sides  and  the  angle  o. 

We  have  25'=arfsin  A  -f  Scsin  (2a  -  A) 

and  J(a'-K?-i'-c')  =adcoaA  -bcco3{ia-  A); 

hence        4S»  <-i(a'-Kp- M  -  c^)=  =  a'd'  +  t'(^- 2a6M(cos2a. 
If2s=o  +  i•^c■^rf,  the  value  of  5 may  be  wTitten  in  the  form 
.  S=  {s(s  -  a){s  -  6)(s  -  c){s  -  d)  -  aied  cos^  a)  *. 

Let  R  denote  the  radius  of  the  circumscribed  circle,  r  of  the  in  Radii  of 
scribed,  and  r,,  r,,  r,  of  the  escribed  circles  of  a  triangle  ABC;  the  circum- 
values  of  these  radii  are  given  by  the  following  formulae. 

4S     '^siliA' 
o 
r=-=(s-a)  tanj  y4  =  4/JsinJv4  sinJ^sinJC, 


r,  = =stanj  /f  =  47Isini  A  cos!)  S cosi  C. 


scribed, 
in- 
scribed, 
and 

escribed 
circles 
of  a  tri> 
angle. 


Spherical  Trijonometry. 

We  shall  throughout  assume  such  elementary  propositions  in 
spherical  geometry  as  are  required  for  the  purpose  ol  the  investign. 
tion  of  formula!  given  below. 

A  spherical  triangle  is  the  portion  of  the  surface  of  a  sphere  Defini.' 
bounded  by  three  arcs  of  great  circles  of  the  sphere.     If  BC,  CA,  tion  of 
AB  denote  these  arcs,  the  circular  measure  of  the  angles  subtended  spherical 
by  these  arcs  respectively  at  the  centre  of  the  sphere  are  the  sides  triangle. 
a.  *,  c  of  the  spherical  triangle  ABC  ;  and,  if  the  portious  of  planes 
pa-ssing  through  these  arcs  and  the  centre  of  the  sphere  be  drawn, 
the  angles  between  the  portions  of  planes  intersecting  at  A,  B,  C 
respectively  .are  the  angles  A,  B,  C  of  the  spherical  triangle.     It  is 
not  necessary  to  consider  triangles  in  which  a  side  is  greater  than  r, 
since  we  may  replace  such  a  side  by  the  remaining  arc  of  the  great 
circle  to  which  it  belongs.     Since  two  great  circles  intersect  each  Assc 
other  in  two  points,  there  are  eight  triangles  of  which  the  sides  are  ciated 
arcs  of  the  same  three  gieat  circles.     If  we  consider  one  of  these  triaugle* 
triangles  ABC  as  the  fundamental  one,  then  one  of  the  others 
is  equal  in  all  respects  to  ABC,  and  the  remaining  six  have  each 
one  side  equal  to,  or  common  with,  a  side  of  the  triangle  ABC,  the 
opposite  angle  equal  to  the  corresponding  angle  of  ABC,  and  the 
other  sides  and  angles  supplementary  to  the  corresponding  sides 
and  angles  of  ABC.     These  triangles  may  be  called  the  associated  Transfo^ 
triangles  of  the  fundamental  one  ABC.     It  follows  that  from  any  matioo. 
general   foTnula  containing  the  .sides  and  angles  of  a  spherical 
triangle  we  may  obtain  other  formula  by  replacing  two  sides  and 
the  two  angles  opposite  to  them  by  their  supplements,  the  remain- 
ing side  and  the  remaining  angle  being  unaltered,  for  such  formulse 
are  obtained  by  applying  the  given    formulae   to   the   associated 
triangles. 

If  A',B,C  are  those  poles  of  the  arcs  BC,  CA,  AB  respectively 
which  lie  upon  the  same  sides  of  them  as  the  opposite  angles  A,  B,  C, 
then  the  triangle  A'B'C  is  called  the  polar  triangle  of  the  triangle 
ABC.  The  sides  of  the  polar  triangle  are  ir-  A,  ir  -  B,  ir  -  C,  and 
the  angles  ir  -  a,  ir  -  A,  ir  -  c.  Hence  from  any  general  formula 
connecting  the  sides  and  angles  of  a  spherical  triangle  we  may  , 
obtain  another  formula  by  changing  each  side 
into  the  supplement  of  the  opposite  angle  and 
each  angle  into  the  supplement  of  the  op- 
posite side. 

Let  0  be  the  centre  of  the  sphere  on  which 
is  the  spherical  triangle  ABC.  Draw  AL  per- 
pendicular to  OC  and  AM  perpendicular  too^ 
the  plane  OBC.  Then  the  projection  of  OA 
on  OB  is  the  sum  of  the  projections  of  OL, 
LM,  MA  on  the  same  straight  line.  Since  Aif 
has  no  projection  on  any  straight  line  in  the  plane  OBC^  this  gives  ancles. 

OA  cos  c  =  OL  cos  a  +  LM  sin  a. 
Now         OL  =  OA  cos  6,  LM=  A L  cos  C=OA  sin  J  cos  C ; 
therefore  cose  =  cosa  cosA  +  sina  sinA  cosC. 

We  may  obtain  similar  formulae  by  interchanging  the  letters  a,  h,  e, 
thus  cos  a  =  cos  A  COSC -f  sin  A  sine  cos  .^  ^ 

cos  A  =  COSC  cos  a  4- sine  sin  a  cos  £  I  (1> 

cosc=cosa  cos  A -f  sin  a  sin  A  cosC 


666 


TRIGONOMETRY 


[spherical. 


These  fonnuliE  (1)  may  be  re^rded  as  the  fundamental  equations 
connecting  the  sides  and  angles  oi  a  spherical  triangle  ;  all  the  other 
relations  which  we  shall  give  below  may  be  deduced  analyticallY 
from  them  ;  we  shall,  however,  in  most  cases  give  indepenaent  proois. 
By  using  the  polar  triangle  transformation  we  have  the  formula 
cos^  =  -cos 5  cos  C+sin  B  sin  C  cosa^j 

cosB=  -cosCcoS/4  +sin  C  sin  A  cost  j-  (2). 

co3C=  -cos^  cos ^  + sin  ^  sin  B  cose  J 
In  the  figure  wo  have  ^^  =  j4i  sin  C=r  sin i  sinC,  where  r  denotes 
the  radius  of  tho  sphere.     By  drawing  a  perpendicular  fronl  A  on 
OB,  we  may  in  a  similar  manner  show  that  AM~r  sine  sin  B, 
therefore  sin  i?  sin  c  =  sin  C  sin  6. 

By  interchanging  the  sides  we  have  the  equation 

sin  yi  _sin  5_sin  (7_,  ,„, 

sina     sin6~sinc 
we  shall  find  below  a  symmetrical  form  for  k. 
If  we  eliminate  cos  6  between  the  first  two  fonnulte  of  (1)  we  have 
cos  a  sin-c  =  sin  &  sin  c  cos  A  -l-  sin  c  cos  c  sin  a  cos  i? ; 

therefore    cot  a  sin  c=^ — cos^  +  cos*  cosB 
sin  a 
= sin  B  cot  ^  +  cos  c  cos  B, 
We  thus  have  the  six  equations 

cot  a  sin  6  =  cot  .^  sin  C+cos  6  cos  C 

cot  6  sin  a  =  cot  B  sin  C+ cos  o  cos  C 

cotisin  (:=cot  Bsin/4  +  cos  ccosyi  1  .  . 

cot  c  sin  6  =  cot  C  sin  ^  +  cos  6  cos  ..-i  I    '   '* 

cot  c  sin'a  =  cot  C  sin  B  +  cos  a  cos  B 

cot  a  sin  0=  cot  .<4  sin  .5  +  cos  c  cos  B . 


When  C=  ^  formula  (1)  gives 
and  (3)  gives 


from  (4)  we  get 

The  formulas 
and 


..(7). 


cos  c=co3  acosJ (o), 

sin  6  =  sin  i?  sin  c 

sin  rt  =  sin.^  sin  c 

tan  a  =  tan  A  sin  b  =  tan  c  cos  B 

tan  6  =  tani?sino  =  tan  ccosA 

cos  c  =  cot.^cotB U) 

cosy4=cos  asin£  j  ,^, 

cos  B  =  cos  6sin^  i      ^' 

follow  at  once  from  (a),  {;3),  {y).  These  are  the  formula  which  are 
used  for  the  solution  of  right-angled  triangles.  Napier  gave 
mnemouical  rules  for  remembering  them. 

The  following  proposition  follows  easily  from  tho  theorem  in 
equation  (3) : — If  AD,  BE,  CFslk  three  arcs  drawn  through  A,  B,C 
to  meet  the  opposite  sides  in  D,  E,  F  respectively,  and  if  these  arcs 
pass  through  a  point,  the  segments  of  the  sides  satisfy  the  relation 
Bin  £Z)  sin  CEsin4F=sin  CD  sin  A  E  sin  BF;  and  conversely  if  this 
relation  is  satisfied  the  arcs  pass  through  a  point.  From  this 
theorem  it  follows  that  the  tliree  perpendiculars  from  the  angles  on 
the  'opposite  sides,  the  three  bisectors  of  the 
angles,  and  the  three  arc^  from  the  angles  to 
the  middle  points  of  the  opposite  sides,  each 
pass  through  a  poibt. 
Formulae  KB  be  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  three 
for  sine    bisectors  of  the  angles  y4,  B,  C,  and  if  DE  bo  " 

drawn  perpendicular  to  BC,  it  may  be  shown  „.*  ^ 

that    BE=Ha  +  c-b)    and    CE=i{a  +  b-c),  ^    ' 

and  that  the  angles  BBE,  ADC  are  supplementary      We  have 
sine      sin  ADB        sin  i      sin  ADC  ,       ,  .  .A 

therefore  sin^^ 


and  co- 
sine of 
half 
aagles; 


also 


sinBD' 


sin- 


sin  CD  ~ 


sin  BD  sin  CD  sin  CDE  sin  BDE 


A 

sin  — 
2 


sin  b  sin  c 
i        1~    ,  and  sin  CD  sin  CDE=  siu  CE=sin 


But  sin  2Z)  sin  BDE =aia  BE 
a+b-c 


1  there- 


fore 


.    A 

sin-  = 


i  +  b-c 


sin  6 sine 


(5). 


Apply  tills  formula  to  the  associated  triangle  of  which  t-  A, 
r-  B,  C  ^re  tho  angles  and  w~n,  tt  -  6,  c  are  the  sides  ;  we  obtain 


b-t-c 


the  Tormuia         cos  - 
By  division  we  have 


-sin  • 


a  +  b-fc  , 


tan-^  = 


sin  b  sin  c 


'  b    .    a  +  b-e] 

-^  sin  — ^ — 


..(6). 


b  +  c-a 


and  by  multiplication 


sin  b  sin  c 

1 

~aob  sine 


.    n-yb  +  c  .    b  +  c- 
s,n_^_sin-y- 


a+b+c I 


I  .   e  +  a-b  .  o+J- 
■sin— 2— sin-   ^ 


..(7), 


1' 


1  -  cos'  a  -  cos'  6  -  cos'  c  -)-  2  cos  o  cos  6  cos  c}  i- 


Hence  the  quantity  k  in  (3)  is 

^ : — r — : —  {1  -cos' a -cos'  &.-cos'c-i-2  cos  a  cos  6  cosd'  (8). 

sinf5  sin  c  smr, ' 

Apply  the  polar  triangle  transformation  to  the  formulse  (5),  (6),  Of  half- 
(7),  (8)  and  we  obtain  sides. 

A+C-B        A+B-C\i 

2—   "^—2— I 


(3); 


sin  B  sin  C 

B+C-A        A+B+C 
-  cos    -7 cos  — 


sin  B  sin  C 


:}' 


(10), 


B  +  C- 


A         A+B+C 
■-  cos = 


A+C-B        A+B- 
cos g- 


(U). 


11  -cos'/}-cos'.S-cos'C-2eos.4cos£cosCli, 


fcf  =  l. 


.(12). 


sin.<^siii£smC 
we  have 

Let  E  be  the  middle  point  of  AB  ;  draw  ED  at  light  angles  to  De- 
.4  B  to  meet  ./4  C  in  D;  then  DE  bisects 
the  angle  ..^ZlB.   Let  Ci^  bisect  the  angle 
DCB  and  draw  FO  perpendicular  to  BC, 
then 

CO='^,^FBE  =  ^. 

-^/'CO  =  90''-?. 

From  the  triangle  CFO  we  have  cos  CFO  ' 

=  cos  CO  sin  FCG,  and  from  the  triangle 

FEB  cos  EFB -cos  EB  sin  FBE.     Now 

the  angles  CFO,  EFB  are  each  supplementary  to  the  angle  DFB, 

therefore 

a-b         C     .    A  +  B        c  -,, 

•  cos  "2— cos  2= sin  —^  cos  ^    (13), 

Also     sin  C{3=sin  Cf  sin  CFO  and  siu  EB  =  sv!\  Bf  sin  EFB  ; 
a-b 


therefore 


A-B 


(14). 


2  2  2 

Apply  the  formula  (13),  (14)  to  the  associated  triangle  of  which 
,  IT  -  6,  ir  -  c,  v4,  IT  -  £,  T  -  C  are  the  sides  and  angles,  we  tJien  hai-e 
.    n  +  b     _   C  A  - B  _ 


i  +  b  .     C 
-2-^'"T^ 


.(15), 
.(16). 


therefore 


cot  ^  sin  ■ 


The  four  formula  (13),  (14),  (15),  (16)  were  first  given  by  Delambre 
in  the  Ctmnaissance  dcs  Temps  for  1808.  Formulae  equivalent  to 
these  were  given  by  Mollweide  in  Zach's  Monatliche  Corrcspmide-nz 
for  Noveinber  1808.  They  were  also  given  by  Gauss  {Theoria  motus, 
1809),  and  are  usually  called  after  hira. 
From  the  same  figure  we  have 

tan  FO  =  Un  FCO  sin  Cff  =  tan  FBG  sin  BO  ;  Napier's 

C  .    n-b  A-B    .     a  +  b  analogies 

.    0^6 
.     A-B    ""     2  C  •      ,,,, 

Apply  this  formula  to  the  associated  triangle  (,ir  -  a,  b,  -r  - 1,  v  -  A, 
B,  v-O,  and  we  have 

a  +  b 

A+s  '"'-r ,   c 

•col-^-  =  — ^jtau^. 
cos  —^ 


A  +  B 


.  C 

-b'^'f 


MS). 


If  we  apply  these  formulse  (17),  (18)  to  the  polar  triangle,  we  have 
.    A-B 


A  +  B 


.(19); 


-A  +  b'^''2 


,.(20). 


The  formulae  (17),  (18),  (19),  (20)  are  called  Napier's  "Analogiei'' 
they  were  given  in  the  Mirif.  logar.  caTionis  descriptio. 


•PBEBICAL.] 


TRIGONOMETRY 


5G7 


ScllID«i9- 


If  we  use  the  values  of  sin  j, 


cos  -  given 


formolB.  ^^  ''''  ^*''  *°''  *''®  analogous  formulffl  obtained  by  interchanging 
til*  Ittteis,  we  obtain  by  multiplication 


b   .    „      .    c       B  +  C- 

SIU  ;  cos  :  Sin  C=Sin  1  COS  - 


coSiCos- siuC=c( 
2       2  2 

.   a  .    6   .    -,  c    •  ^ 

sin. 3  sin  =  sin  C=cos  -  cos  - 


2 
A  +  B- 


2         J 

These  foiroalse  were  given  by  Schmeisser  in  CrclU's  Joum.,  vol.  x. 
Ca^oU*a  The  relation  sin  6sinc  +  cos6cosccos-4  =  sini?sin  C-  cos^cos  Ccoso 
fonoulae.  was  given  by  Cagnoli  in  his  Trigonometry  (1786),  and  was  redis- 
covered by  Cayley  (Phil.  Mag.,  ISoS^  It  follows  from  (1),  (2), 
and  (3)  thus  :  the  right-hand  side  of  the  equation  equals  sin  5  sin  C 
+  coso(cos^-sin£sinCcosn)  =  siiLSsinCsin'o  +  cosacos/J,  and  this 
is  equal  to  sin  6sinc-f  cos^  (cos  a  -  sin  6  sine  cos  ^)  or  sinfc  sinc  + 
cos  b  cos  c  cos  A. 

The  formulae  we  have  given  are  su65cient  to  determine  three  parts 
of  a  triangle  when  the  other  three  parts  are  given  ;  moreover  such 
formula  may  always  be  chosen  as  are  adapted  to  logarithmic  calcu- 
lation. The  solutions  will  be  unique  except  in  the  two  cases  (1) 
where  two  sides  and  the  angle  opposite  one  of  them  are  the  given 
parts,  and  (2)  where  two  angles  and  the  side  opposite  one  of  them 
are  given. 
Suppose  a,  b,  A  are  the  given  parts.     We  determine  B  from  the 

formula  sin  5=^    sin./<;  this  gives  two  supplementary  values  of 

sino  °  "^ 

B,  one  acute  and  the  other  obtuse.   Then  Cand  c  are  determined  from 


SoIatioQ 
of  tri- 
ingles ; 


Ambigu* 
oos  cases. 


( 

the  equations  tan  -  - 


a-b 


A  +  B 


i  cot 


A-B 


tan|  =  - 


A-B 


tan  - 


2 


I 


2  2 

C         c 

Now  tan  - ,  tan  -  must  both  be  positive ;  hence  A-B  and  a~b  must 

have  the  same  sign.  We  shall  distinguish  three  cases.  First, 
suppose  sin  6  <  sin  a  ;  then  we  have  sin  .^<  sin  A.  Hence  A  lies  be- 
tween the  two  values  of  B,  and  therefore  only  one  of  these  values 
is  admissible,  the  acute  or  the  obtuse  value  according  as  a  is  greater 
or  less  than  b  ;  there  is  therefore  in  this  case  allvays  one  solution. 
Secondly,  if  sin  b  >  sin  a,  there  is  no  solution  when  sin  bsiu  A>  sin  a  ; 
but  if  sin  i  sin  ^<  sin  a  there  are  two  values  of  B  both  greater  or 
both  less  than  A.  If  a  is  acute,  0-6,  and  therefore  A  -  B,  is 
negative  ;  hence  there  are  two  solutions  if  ^  is  acute  and  cone  if  A 
is  obtuse.  These  two  solutions  fall  together  if  sin  6  sin  .^4  =  sin  a. 
If  a  is  obtuse  there  is  no  soIutioD  unless  A  is  obtuse,  and  in  that 
ca.se  there  are  two,  which  coincide  as  before  if  sin  6  sin  ..4  =  sin  ir. 

Hence  in  this  case  there  are  two  solutions  if  sin  bsin  A  ^sina  and 
the  two  parts  A,  a  are  both  acute  or  both  obtuse,  these  being  coinci- 
dent in  case  sin  6sin^  =  siu  a  ;  and  there  is  no  solution  if  one  of  the 
two  A,  a  is  acute  and  the  other  obtuse,  or  if  sin  6  sin  ^  >  sin  a. 
Thirdly,  if  sin  6  =  sin  a  then  B~A  or  v  -  A.  If  a  is  acute,  a-ft  is 
zero  or  negative,  hence  A  -  B  13  zero  or  negative  ;  thus  there  is  no 
Bolution  unless  A  is  acute,  and  then  there  is  one.  Similarly,  if  a 
is  obtuse,  A  must  '<>e  so  too  in  order  that  there  may  be  a  solution. 

If  a  =  &=  T,  there  is  no  solution  unless  A  =  ^,  and  then  there  are  an 

infinite  number  of  solutions,  since  the  values  of  C  and  c  become 
indeterminate. 

Theother  case  of  ambiguity  may  be  discussed  in  a  similar  manner. 
or  the  different  cases  may  be  deduced  from  the  above  by  the  use  of 
the  polar  triangle  transformation.     The  method  of  classification 

> 
according  to  the  three  cases  sin6=sina  was  given  by  Professor 

Lloyd  Tanner  (AMesseTiger  0/ Math.,  vol.  xiv. ). 
Radii  of       If  r  is  the  angular  radius  of  the  small  circle  inscribed  in  the 
d  n^  &%  A 

felated  to  ^"^''g'*  ^BC,   we  have  at  once   tan  r  =  tan -j-sin  (3-0),    where 

triangles.  23=a-¥b  +  c;  from  this  we  can  derive  the  formulse 

N      A  ^__B  __C       . ,_B_._C_A 


1-2  sec  2"  (21), 


tanr 

where  n,  A^ denote  the  expressions 

jsin  s  sin  (s  -  a)  sin  (s  -  {)  sin  (s  -  c)\  i, 
|-cosScos(5-^)cos{S-B)cos(5-C)l}. 

The  escribed  circles  are  the  small  circles  inscribed  in  three  of 
the  associated  triangles  ;  thus,  applying  the  above  formuls  to  the 
triangle  (a, »  -  A,  tt  -  c,  yl,  ir  -  5,  t  -  t7),  we  have  for  r„  the  radius  of 
the  escribed  circle  opposite  to  the  angle  A,  the  following  formulce 

,     A  .  ,      ,    y     A        s        c 

tan  r^  =  tan  .^  sin  5  =  n  cosec  (5  -  a)  =  ^-sec  —  cosec  -=■  cosec  ^ 

B       C       A 
=  sinocos  2  cos^sec  =  ' (22). 


The  pole  of  the  circle  circumscribing  a  triangle  is  that  of  the 
circle  inscribed  in  the  polar  triangle,  and  the  radii  of  the  two 
circles  are  complementary  ;  hence,  if  R  be  the  radius  of  the  circum- 
scribed circle  of  the  triangle,  and  iSj,  lU,  R^  the  radii  of  the  circlea 

circumscribing  the  associated  triangles,  we  have  by  writing  5  ~  ^ 

for  r,--Ri  for  T^,  n-  -  o  for  A,  &c.,  in  the  above  formolae 


<xiR=iioi^eo!i(S-  A)  =  ^ 


tt  b  V         ,.       „ 

cosec  =  cosec  t  cosec  ;;=  —  iVsec  3 


be          a  ,.., 

= sin .,4 cos ^ cos 5 cosec ,T    (23)^ 

cotiJi=  -cot -COS S=:  cosec  =  sec5sec2=A'soc(5-iJ) 

.    ■    i  ■    c          a 
i:s\nA  sin  5  sin  =  cosec  ^ (24). 

The  following  relations  follow  from  the  formulae  Just  given  :—  ■ 
2  tanij  =cotr, -hcotr3-l-cotr3-cotr, 
2  tan  iJj  =  cot  r.  -H  cot  Tj  -<-  cot  r,  -  cot  rj, 
tan  r  tan  rj  tan  r^  tan  r^  =  n*,  sin-  s  =  cot  r  tan  r,  tan  n  tan  rj, 
sin'-*  {s-a)  =  tan  r  cot  rj  tan  rg  tan  r^.        '•' 
11  E  =  A  +  B+C-v,  it  may  b6  shown  that  £  multiplied  by  the  Formula 
square  of  the  radius  is  the  area  of  the  triangle.     We  give  somf  of  for 
the  more  important  expressions  for  the  quantity  E,  which  is  ca.»e>i  spherical 
the  spherical  excess.  excess. 

A+B         a+b  .    A+B         a-b 

cos— 2—    cos -2--         sin— y-     cos-2- 

We  havo     7^ —  = and -; — = » 

.6  c  C  c 


='"(2-  2) 


-"■"2 
a-\-b 


•  and 


/G    E\  a-b 

~H2-2J     "^  — 


hence 


therefore 


Similarly 


C     .    /0-E\  c         n-t-6 

""2-"H~2~;    cos^-cos-g- 


.    f      .    (C-E\ 

.      E 
tan- 

cos  5  -k-  COS 

2'="' -2- 
s-a . 

a\h  ' 
2 

tan^tan^'^'^-^-ts 

s-b 
2    • 

,       -  E     {       s        s  —  a       s  —  b       s  —  e"]^         .*. 

therefore     tan  -  =  ■(  tan  -  tan  — ^  tan  — 5— tan -^  [■   (25) 

This  formula  was  .given  by  L'Huillier. 


Also 


.    C       E 
sin  ^  COS -2 


a-{-b 

C  .    E    ~^-2- 
-cos-|Sm^  = — s 


COS 


2 
a-b 


C       E     .    C  .    E 
cos2Cos-g-l-sin-sin2  = 


whence,  solving  for  COS —,  we  get 

E    1  -^  cos  a  -f  cos  6  -^  cos  c 

COS  ^= r 

2        ,       a        0        c 
4  cos  =  COS  ^  cos  5 

This  formula  was  given  by  Euler  (Nova  acta,  vol.  x.). 

E 
sin-5-  &om  this  formola,  we  obtain  after  reduction 


(26). 

If  we  find 


2     -      o        6         c 
2  coSg  cos  -  cos  - 


a  formula  given  by  Lescell  (Ada  Pelrop.,  1782). 

From  the  equations  (21),  (22),  (23),  (21)  we  obtain  the  foUowina 
formute  for  ihe  spherical  excess : — 

E 
sin'  ^  =  tan  /J  cot  iJi  oot  R^cotR^ 

4(cot  r,  -h  cot  r.  +  cot  r,) 

(cot  r  -  cot  T-j  +  cot  r2  -H  cot  r,)  (cot  1-  +  cot  r,  -  cot  r,  +  cot  rj) 
(cot  r  +  cot  r,  -H  cot  r,  -  cot  r,) 
The  formula  (26)  may  be  expressed  geometrically.     Let  AT,  A^ba 
the  middle  points  of  the  sides  AB,  AC.     Then  we  find  cos  Mlt 

1 -t- cos  a -^ cos  6 -1  cos  c    ,  E  „,,       i 

= T ;  hence  cos  -  =  cos  i/jV  sec  ^ 


4  cos  5  cos  ^ 


'2' 


A  geometrical 'Construction  has  been  given  for  E  by  (judermano 
(in  CrclU's  Joum.,  vi.  and  viii. ).  It  has  been  shown  by  Cornelius 
Keogh  that  the  volume  of  the  parallelepiped  of  which  the  radii  of 


568 


TJRIGONOMETRY 


Proper- 
ties of 
epfaerical 
quadri- 
lateral 
inscribed 
in  small 
circle. 


the  sphere  passing  through  the  middle  paints  of  the  sides  of  the 

triangle  are  edges  is  sin  -  . 

Let  ABCD  be  a  spherical  quadrilateral  inscribed  in  a  small  circle  ; 
let  a,  b,  c,  d  denote  the  sides  A£,  BC,  CD,  DA  respectively,  and 
X,  y  the  diagonals  AC,  BD.  It  can  easily  be  shown  by  joining  the 
angiUar  points  of  the  quadrilateral  to  the  pole  of  the  circle  that 
A  +  C=B  +  D.  If  we  use  the  last  expression  in  (23)  for  the  radii 
of^e  circles  circumscribing  the  triangles  BAD,  BCD,  we  have 


[ahalvtiCai. 


whence 


.      .ad  y 

sin  A  cos  2  cos  s  cosec  | 

sin^ 


=  sin  C  cos  5  cos  ^  cosee  ^  ; 

sin  C 

~        a       d' 
cos  2  cos  ^ 


This  is  the  proposition  corresponding  to  the  relation  A  +  C=ir  for  a 
plane  quadiilateraL   Also  we  obtain  in  a  similar  manner  the  theorem 


sin  B  cos  - 


Sin  A  cos  ^ 


'  analogous  to  the  theorem  for  a  plane  quadrilateral,  that  the  diagonals 
are  proportional  to  the  sines  of  the  angles  opposite  to  theuL    Also  the 

chords  AB,  BC,  CD,  DA  are  equal  to  2  sin  |.  2  sin  -,  2  sin  s.  2  sin  ^ 

'  respectively,  and  the  plane  quadrilateral  formed  by  these  chords  is 
'  inscribed  in  the  same  circle  as  the  spherical  quadrilateral ;  hence 

by  Ptolemy's   theorem  for  a  plane  quadrilateral  we  obtain   the 

analogous  theorem  for  a  spherical  one 


■    ^  ■    y 
sin  J  sm  1  = 


.    a    .     c      .    b    .    d 

am  2  sm  2  ■•-  sin  ^  sm  ^. 


Periodi- 
city of 
functions, 


Connex- 
ion with 
theory  of 
complex 
quanti- 
tiea. 


It  has  been  shown  by  Remy  (in  Crelle's  Joum.,  vol.  iii.)  that  for 
/  any  quadrilateral,  if  z  be  the  sphericai  distance  between  the  middle 
pomts  of  the  diagonals, 

cos  a  +  cos  6  +  COSC  +  cos  rf  =  4  cos  Ja:  C05  Jy  cos  ^z. 

This  theorem  is  analogous  to  the  theorem  for  any  plane  quadri- 
lateral, that  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  sides  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  squares  of  the  diagonals,  together  with  twice  the  square  on 
the  straight  line  joining  the  middle  points  of  the  diagonals. 

A  theorem  for  a  right-angled  spherical  triangle,  analogous  to  the 
Pythagorean  theorem,  has  been  given  by  Guaermann  (in  Crelle's 
Joum.t  vol.  xUi.). 

Analytical  Trigaruymelry. 

Analytical  trigonometry  is  that  branch  of  mathematical  analysis 
in  which  the-aoalytical  properties  of  the  trigonometrical  functions 
are  investigated.  These  functions  derive  their  importance  in  ana- 
lysis from  the  fact  that  they  are  the  simplest  singly  periodic 
functions,  and  are  therefore  adapted  to  the  representation  of  undu- 
lating magnitude.  The  sine,  cosine,  secant,  and  cosecant  have  the 
single  real  period  2ir  ;  i.e.,  each  is  unaltered  in  value  by  the  addi- 
tion of  2-ir  to  the  variable.  The  tangent  and  cotangent  have  the 
period  V.  The  sine,  tangent,  cosecant,  and  cotangent  belong  to 
the  class  of  odd  functions  ;  that  is,  they  change  sign  when  the  sign 
of  the  variable  is  changed.  The  cosine  and  secant  are  even  func- 
tions, since  they  remain  unaltered  when  the  sign  of  the  variable  is 
reversed. 

The  theory  of  the  trigonometrical,  functions  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  that  of  complex  quantities,— that  is,  of  quantities  of 
the  form  a:  +  iy  (»=  V  -  1).  Suppose  we  multiply  together,  by  the 
rules  of  ordinary  algebra,  two  such  quantities,  we  have 

We  observe  that  the  real  part  and  the  real  factor  of  the  imaginary 
part  of  the  expression  on  the  right  hand  side  of  this  equation  are 
similar  in  form  to  the  expressions  which  occur  in  the  addition 
formulce  for  the  cosine  and  sine  of  the  sum  of  two  angles  ;  in  fact, 
if  we  put  Xj  =  r,  cos^,,  y^  =  r^Q\nO^  x^  =  T,^coid^  y,  =  r,sind^  tho 
above  equatioD  becomes 
rjtcosfl, -n  sm^i)  x  rgtcos^j-t-t  sin  ^,)  =  r,rj(co8^,  -f  ^j  +  tsin  fl, -f  ^3). 

We  may  now,  in  accordance  with  the  usual  mode  of  representing 
complex  quantities,  give  a  geometrical  interpretation  of  the  meaning 
of  this  equation.  Let  /*,  be  the  point  whose  coordinates  referred 
to  rectangular  axes  (91,  Oy  a.Ttx^,y^;  then  the  point/*,  is  employed 
lo  represent  the  quantity  x,  +  »yi  In  this  mode  of  representation 
real  quimtities  are  measured  along  the  axis  of  x  ana  imaginary 
ones  along  the  axis  of  1/,  additions  being  performed  according  to  the 
parallelogram  law  The  points  ^,-4,  represent  the  magnitudes  il, 
the  points  a,ay  the  magnitudes  ±1.  Let  Pj  represent  the  expression 
X3  +  11/3  and  F  the  expression  (J^  +  •y|)(x3-*-(y2)-  The  quantities 
r|,^j,r,,tf,  are  the  polar  coordinates  of  /*,  and  P^  respectively  referred 


to  0  as  origin  and  Ox  as  initial  line;  the  above  equation  shoTi^ 
that  T.^^r^  and  tf,  +  ^3  are  the  polar  coordinates  of  P ;  nence  OA 
.OPi-.-.OP^-.OP  and  the  angle  POPy  is  equal  to  the  angle 
P^OA.     Thus  we  havo  the  following  geometrical  construc- 
tion for  the  determination  of  tho  point/*.     On  O/^  dnnv 
a  triangle  similar  to  the  triangle  OAP^  so  that  the  sides 
OP^  OP  are  homologous  to  the  aides  OA,  OP,  and  so 
that  the  angle  POP^  is  positive ;   theu  the  vertex  P 
represents  the  product  of  the  expressions  represented 
by  Pi.P^.      If  X2  +  ty2  were  to  be  divided  > 
by  3^1  +  1^1,  the  triangle  OFP^  would  be 
drawn  on  the  negative  side  of  P^  similar 
to  the  triangle  OAP^  and  having  the  sides 
OF,  OP^  homologous  to  OA,  OP,  and  P 
would  represent  the  quotient. 

If  we  extend  the  above  to  n  complex 
quantities  by  continual  repeti- 
tion of  a  similar  operation,  we  — ~f 

have — 

{cos  dy  -i- 1  sin  0^)  (cos  0,  -1-  *  sin  ^j) , . . 
(cosff„  +  tsintf„) 
=  cos(^j  -t-^j-f  ...  -t-^„)-*-tsin(^, -t-^3-1- ... 

If  ^,  =  ^2=...  =dn^&^,  this  equation  becomes  (cos  fl-i-isin  fl)'*=3 
cos  wfl  + 1  sin  71^  ;  this  shows  that  cos  5  -t- 1  siu  0  is  a  value  of  (cos  nO  + 

1  0  9  d 

isinn5)i  If  now  we  change  6  into  -,  we  see  that  cos  -  -)- 1  sin  -  is  a 
J*'  ?i  n  n 

value  of  (cosfl-(-tsinfl)"  ,  raising  each  of  these  quantities  to  any  1 
positive  integral  power  m,  cos  —  -t-tsin —  is  one  value  of  (cos  tf 


Fig.  8. 


+  »sinff)'*.     Also 

os(-^)«..sin(-'^*) 


-e 


hence    the 
1 


expression   of   the 


cos— ff-htsm  - 
n  n 

l^ft-haod    side  is  one    value  of 


(cos  ^  -f  t  sin  P)"^/"  or  of  (cos  5  +  t  sin  0) "  « .  We  have  thus  De  Moivre's 
theorem  that  cost^  +  ie,\nkd  is  always  one  value  of  (cos  ^  +  *  sin  C)*, 
where  k  is  any  real  quantity. 

The  principal  object  of  De  Moivre's  theorem  is  to  enable  ua  to  The  n 

.  -      v  roots  of  I 

find  all  the  values  of  an  expression  of  the  form  (a  +  ifi)".  where  "»  complex 
and  n  ^ire^  positive  integers  prime  to  each  other      If  a  =  rcos^,  qm^^jji^^ 

h  =  Ts\uO,  we  require  the  values  of  r"  (cos  fl  +  isinfl)".  One  value  ia 
immediately  furnished  by  the  theorem  ,  but  we  observe  that,  since 
the  expression  cosd  +  tsintf  is  unaltered  by  adding  any  multiple  of 


m  6  +  2siT 


m.6  +  2sir^ 


is  a  + 1&, 


2irto6,  the  -th  power  of  r"fc 

if  8  is  any  integer  ;  hence  this  expression  is  one  of  the  values  re- 


ny  I 
Su 


quired.     Suppose  that  for  two  values  s,  and  s^  of  s  the  values  of  this 


expression  are  the  same  ,  then  we  must  have 


m.e-^  23iir     m.0  +  2JaT 


a  multiple  of  2n-  or  s,  -  a^  must  be  a  multiple  of  n.  Therefore,  if  we 
give  s  the  values  0. 1,  2,  .  .  ,  n  -  1  successively,  we  shall  get  n  differ- 
ent values  of  (a  + 1&)" ,  and  these'  will  be  repeated  if  we  give  s  other 
values 
the  values  0, 


hence  all  the  values  of  (a-hti)"  are  obtained  by  giving  i 

-/       m.e  +  2sv 

r"  I  cos  — • — 

\  n 


1 ,  2,  ...  n  -  1  in  the  expression 


m.  0  +2sTr 


).  where  r=  (a^  +  6')i  and  6  =  &rc  tan 

We  now  return  to  the  genmetrical  representation  of  th« 
complex  quantities.     If  the  points  B^,  B^  B^,  - . .  B„  repre- 
sent the  expression  x-Hiy,  (x  +  ty)^  (x-»- ly)^,  .  .    (x-h  ty)" 
respectively,  the  triangles  OAB^,  OB^J.^,.     OB„_jB^ 
are  all  similar      Let  {x  +  iy)''  =  a  +  ib,  then  the  con 
verse  problem  of  finding  the  nth  root  of  a  +  *6  u 
equivalent  to  the  geometrical  problem  of  describ- 
ing such  a  series  of  triangles  tiat  OA  is  the  first  , 
side  of  the  first  triangle  and 
0B„  the  second  side  of  the 
«th.     Now  it  is  obvious  that 
this  geometrical  problem  has 
more    solutions     than    one. 
since    any   number   of  com- 
plete   revolutions    round    0 
may  be   made  in  travelling 
from   Bt  to  B„.      The    first 
solution  is  that  in  which  the 
vertical  angle  of  each  triangle 

is  -BOA  ;  the  second  is  that  in  which  each  is  -{^»0A'¥2T\m 
n  n  . 

<  this  case  one  complete  revolution  being  made  rouud  0;  the  tUld 


Fig  9. 


AHALVnCAL.] 


TRIGONOMETRY 


569 


1,, 


Fig.  10. 


haa  -i,SnO A +  ir)  for  the  vertical  aogle  of  each  triangle;  and  so 

n 
on.     There  are  n  sets  of  triangles  which  satisfy  the  required  condi- 
tions.    For  simplicity  we  will  take  the 
case  of  the  determinatiou  of  the  values 
of  (cos  fl  + 1  sin  *)i     Suppose  £  to  re-    '/' 
present   the   expression    cos  tf -n  sin  tf . />,, 
If  the  angle  AOP,  is  Jfl,  P,  represents   r 

ff  A 

the  ro<^t  cos  5  -hi sin  r ;  the  angle  .^ 05 

Is  filled  up  by  the  angles  of  the  three 
similar  tnangles  AOPi,  P^Op^,  p^OB. 
Also,  if  ij,  /j  ba«nch  that  the  angles 

PiOP^  PiOP,  are  j,  -^  respectively, 

the  two  sets  of  triangles  AOP^  P%Opp 
PfOB  and  AOP^    P^Op^  pfiB  satisfy   the  conditions  of  simi- 
larity and  of  having  OA,  OB  for  the  bounding  sides  ;  thus  P,, 

_  ,,  e+iw .    .  e+iT      e+4T     .  »-H4ir 

Pj  represent  the  roots  cos  — = V « sin  — ^ — ,  cos  —= h  i  sm  — r— 

respectively.     If  B  coincides  with  A,  the  problem  is  reduced  to 
that  of  finding  the  three  cube  roots  of  unity.     One  will  be  repre- 
sented by  A  and  the  others  by  the  two  angular  points  of  an  equi- 
lateral triangle,  with  A  as  one  angular  point,  inscribed  in  the  circle. 
The  nth       The  problem  of  determining  the  values  of  the  nth  roots  of  unity 
toots  of    is  equivalent  to  the  geometrical  problem  of  inscribing  a  regular 
unity.       polygon  of  n  sides  in  a  circle.     Gauss  has  shown  in  his  Disquisi- 
tiones  arithineticx  that  this  can  always  be  done  by  the  compass 
and  ruler  only  when  n  is  a  prime  of  the  form  2'  + 1.    The  determina- 
tion of  the  nth  root  of  any  complex  quantity  requires  in  addition, 
for  its  geometrical  solution,  the  division  of  an  angle  into  n  equal 
parts. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  factorize  an  eipression  of  the  form 
e"  -  (a  -^  i6).     Using  the  values  which  we  have  obtained  above  for 


Factorii' 
fttions- 


(o-hii)",  we  have- 

s=a-  If 

tf-{a+ib)  =  P 

If  &=0,  a=l,  this  becomes 


l.J{ 


S  +  2ST        .    S-(-2sr 
cos Htsin 


^)] 


..(1). 


_     1     °S"'^r  2sTr         .    2sTr-\ 

xf-\  =  P  a  -  cos 1  sm  — 

,=0      L  n  n  J 


=  (x-l){x  +  \)P         li-cos- — iisin- — 1 
s=i      V  1  n  J 

=:{x-l){,x  +  l)P^~  ('a:»-2xcos  — -^lVBeven)(2). 
«=l      \  n        / 


«"-l  =  (r-l)P     ^  (x'-2xms^  +  l\    (n  odd)     .. 
If  in  (1)  we  pnfro=  -  1,  6  =  0,  and  therefore  ^  =  ir,  we  have 
■r         S+it      .  2JTT>rT 

I  X  -  cos 1  sm I 

L  n  n     J 


(3). 


<=n-lr 
af.+  l=P 

1=0 


=  P 

»=0 


D 


^.2xcc,?i±^+l 


] 


(n  even) 


■m 


zr  +  l=(x+i)p'^^^  p--2a;cos?— -n]    (nodd)(5). 
Also  I*"  -  Sa^'  cos  ? 


9  +  y-' 


=  (x^-y"coanB  +  is\a.n9){X"-  y'  cos  Titf  - 1  sintig) 


(- 


y  cos iisin 


=  /""     r^-Za/cose+  —  +y'''\ 


-2^r\ 


-iei. 

Airy  and  Adams  have  given  proofs  of  this  theorem  which  do  not 
involve  the  use  of  the  symbol .  (see  Camb.  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  xl). 

A  large  number  of  interciting  theorems  may  be  derived  from  De 
Moivres  theorem  and  the  factorizations  which  we  have  deduced 
from  -.t  i  we  shall  notice  one  of  them. 

ciample      In  equation  (6)  put  y  =  i,  uke  logarithms,  and  then  differentiate 

of  JJe  V    ij       -  1 

Moivre's  *"°  "'"«  '"">  respect  to  r,  and  we  get 

theorem.  _2n(^«-'-r-S"-i)      ^="->  2(1 -r-») 


n(a'"  -  i'") 

(a-  -  b°)  {a'"  -  2a"4""cos'nfl"+^'") 
for  the  sum  of  the  series 

5=n-l  1 


«=»-2cosn«-i-ar2" 


»=n-l 
=  2 
«=0 


Potx'cj,  then  we  have  the  expression 


2sTr 
x'-2cosOi-  —  +ar« 


entiab. 


'^     a' -2ab  cos  e■^'—■^■b^ 
n 
We  shall  now  consider  what  meaning  can  be  assigned  to  the  Complex 

symbol  «'+'».     The  quantity  e  is  defined  as  the  limit  of  fl  •^  -Y  J""^"' 

wher^  n  is  a  positive  quantity,  and  is  increased  indefinitely  ;  then,  expon- 

foi  a  real  value  of  i,  e*  is  the  limit  of  (1 1-^""  or  o((\+  -\" ,' 

where  in  =  na;,  when  m  is  increased  indefinitely;     We  may  defin« 

c'+'!'  as  the  limit  of  ^1  -.-  -^  j    when  m  is  increased  indefinitely. 

To  determine  the  value  of  this  limit  put  l-t-  —  =  rcosg^=Tslntf• 
m  m  ' 
then  <*"•■'»  is  the  limit  of  r°'(cos  m» -n  sin  jn#),  and  r"  is  equal  to 

j  1  +  —  +  ^3-  j  2  or  ultimately  to  (l  -h  ^)  2 ,  which  has  e'  fbr 

its  limiting  value.     Also  6  is  arc  tan  — =^  or  — ^  in  the  limit  ■ 

x+m       x+m  ' 

hence  mS  is  ultimately  equal  to  y,  and  thus  the  equation 
«'+'!'  =  «'(cosy-i-i  sin  y)  follows  from  our  definition.  It  may  be 
shown  at  once  that  «''^'!'x(r'i-^'Vi  =  ei+^+'to+ji)^and,  if  we  suppose 
that  o^'"''''  denotes  eC'-^'^noga  ^.^  ^^y  ^jj^^  ^j^^  complex  expon- 
ents defined  thus  obey  the  same  laws  as  real  ones. 

When  the  exponent  is  entirely  imaginary  we  have,  in  accordance  Expon. 
with  the  above  definition,  ential 

e"' =  cos  1/ -K  sin  y  aud  « " '9  =  cos (  -y)  +  .sin(  -  y)  =  cosy- 1  sin  y  ;  values  of 

we  thus  obtain  the  exponential  values  of  the  sine  and  cosine sine  and 

1 ,  .1,       -,t,.  I'^i,  „.  cosine. 

ainy^^y^-e    '"), cosy  =  -.<•!'-(.<-■!'). 

If  we  give  imaginary- or  complex  values  to  the  variables  in  alge-  Expan- 
braical  expansions  we  obtain  analogous  trigonometrical  theorems  ;  sions  o' 
it  is,  however,  necessary  to  consider  the  convergency  of  the  series  sines 
so  obtained  in  order  to  determine  within  what  limits  the  values  of  and 
the  variables  must  lie.     If  we  expand  «■»  and  e''S  by  putting  ly  cosinea 

J         •     ».  .     ,  y'         y*  and  their 

and  -  .y  in  the  senes  1  +  y  +  j^  +  ^^^  *■■■  powers. 

weobtain  the  series  sin  y=y--^-Hr^ -r^ -,.. ..  ; 

i_   LL    LL 

These  series  are  convergent  for  all  finite  values  of  y.  They  may 
also  be  got  from  the  expressions  which  we  have  obtained  for  the 
cosine  and  sine  of  a  multiple  of  an  angle  in  terms  of  the  cosine  and 
sine  of  the  angle,  and  would  thus  be  made  to  rest  upon  a  basis ' 
independent  of  the  symbol  (. 
Consider  the  binomial  theorem  expan- 

sion of 
powers 
of  sines 
and  co- 
Putting  a = e'»,  6 =«-'»,  we  obtain  'j""  "', 
°            '              '             .  senes  of 

(2co3  9)"  =  2cosn9-Hn2cosn-2e-l-^i2-^'2coaK,-4»-(. ...    ^    sines  and 

nin-l) . .  .  (n-T+l) 
+  - —r^ -coa{n-2r)e+... 

When  n  is  odd  the  last  term  is  ^"("-l)- •  ■  4("  +  3)  ^^^  ^ 

|i("-  1) 

and  when  n  is  even  it  is  "(''-')---(4''+,l) 
IJn 

If  we  put  a=e'*,  i=  -e-"*,  we  obtain  the  formula 

n 

(-I)-(2sin«)"  =  2co3n9-2ncos(n-2)«-h'^"-^^2cos(n-4)9-  .. 

.(-l)"-^^"-^>-7'"-'-^'Wn-2r)<>....(-l)^;!<±M!L±lJ 
l_  I  in 

when  n  is  even,  and 
n-l 

(-1)   2  (2sin»)"=2sin7i»-n.2sin{n-2)«-H5^p^'2sinfn-4)»... 


(a-^6)»=o"+na"-'6■^^^^J-l'a»-^JJ^. ,  _ 


n(n-l).  .  .  (n-r-Hl) 

' rr 


afl-rjr^    ...    +J". 


ccsinesof 
ITttltiple 


+  (-1) 


-=sinff 


23—21* 


n-l 

J- n(njJj^^J{n+_3)^ 

liC"-!) 

when  n  is  odd.  These  formulae  enable  us  to  express  any  positive 
integral  power  of  the  sine  or  cosine  in  terms  of  sines  or  cosines  of 
multiples  of  the  argument.  There  are  corresponding  formulse  wheD 
n  is  not  a  positive  integer. 

xxm.  —  72 


570 


TRIGONOMETRY 


[AMALmCAU 


lExpan-  ConsiderthBidentitylog(l-px)  +  log(l-?3:)  =  log(l-p  +  ?i  +  p?x=). 
eion  of  Expand  both  sides  of  this  equation  in  powers  of  x,  and  equate  the 
'aId«s  and  coefficients  of  x",  we  then  get 

'"""■    ,  ,n(n-r-l)rn-r-2)...(a-2r+l),  ,„  ^  ,  , 

jcwereof  +(-1)    -^ j — —^ -'Qj  +  g)»-V«  +■•• 

;aies  and  'J-— 

■  «smas  of  If  we  write  this  series  in  the  reverse  order,  we  have 

,p"+«"=2(-l)2[_(p?)2--|-(;<})2      (^j  +-L-—'(j,q)-      (^-^  j 
\trhen  n  is  even,  and 

when  n  is  odd.     If  in  these  three  formula!  we  putp=c'*,  g  =  «"'', 
we  obtain  the  following  series  for  cosnS  : — 

2  cos  nfl  =  (2  cos  «)■■  -  »i(2  cos  9)"-* +  '-^^^7^2  cos  «)»-<  - . . . 

+  (-ir"'"-"-"'"-Y/'-'"~^'-^"(2cos9)->-.-.(7) 
when  n  is  any  positive  integer  ; 

(  -  1  )2  cos  n«  =  1  -  ,-s-  cos'fl  +  — ^-; '  COS'S  -  ~ ^i' '  "'^^ 

*        '  I  2  14  to 

n 

+  ...  +(-l)52'-'cos"9 (8) 

wlien  n  is  an  even  positive  integer  ; 

^  n(Ti«-12)  n(«' -  I2)(jt«  -  3=)      ., 

(-1)    *    C0Snfl  =  rtC0SKfl-  j-3— C0S'9+  Tg cosff- 

..+(-1)  '^  2«-'cos"9    (9) 

when  n  is  odd.     If  in  the  same  three  formula  we  put  p=e'',  7= 
-«*'*,  we  obtain  the  following  four  formula  : — 
n 

{-\)h cos nd  =  i2 sin  6)'* ~ n{2 sin  tf)"-^  +  "^""^^2  sin  ff)""^ -  . . . 

+(-!)'"<"-'- "■-'"-^'-')(2sinflj"--^+...(«even)(lQ); 

n-J 

(-1)  ^  2  sin n9  =  the  same  series  (ji  odd)  (U); 

co3Jifl  =  l  -rs-s"!  *+  -T^; -'sin** i -£■ 'em'a 

Li  l_i  1-1 

+  ...  +2"-'  sin"a  (n  even)  (12) ; 

(•inn9=nsinfl--V5 — 'sin'9+-i rr 'sin' 9-  ... 


n  -i 
+  (-1)   '    2"-' sin"  9(71  odd). 


..(13). 


Next  consider   the   identity  . 


P-Q 


l-px     l-qx     l-(j>  +  q)x+pqx' 
'  Expand  both  sides  of  this  equation  in  powers  of  x,  and  equate  the 
coefficients  of  x"~\  then  we  obtain  the  equation 

^•^"  =  (;>  +  ?)"-'-(n-2)tp+9)"-';.j  +  <i^^i^|:zl'(;,  +  j)n-»p=j».... 
If,  as  before,  we  write  this  in  the  reverse  order,  we  have  the  series 

(.:)^■[„(^^)(^)^^!f(!^(p±5)V)i-' 

when  n  is  even,  and. 

l^vbcn  n  is  odd. 

Uf  we  iiut^=c*^  g-£-^^^  wo  obtain  the  fonnula 


sm7itf  =  sin«  j  (2cos^)-'  -  {n- 2K2costf)'-'  +  ^-l-?^5^^'{2costf)— 


(n-r-l)(n-r-2)...(n-2.),,^^^,j..^..  ^      |  „,,_ 
n(n«-2=)(n'-4') 


where  n  is  any  positive  integer  . 


{-!)"      Ein!i9  =  sin9  ]  TWOS* r-5— cos'O*^^^^^ — ^^-^ — ^cos'9-.  . 

+  (-I)^     (2cos«)"-' j  (neven)   (15)  i. 

(  -  u'^'sin^O^sinO  j  1  -  iiliLJ'cos'g^'"'-  ''g^  '  ^\os'0-  . . 
n_. 
+  (-1)^     (2cose)»->}(iiodd) {16X 

If  we  put  in  the  same  three  formulaep=e'^  }=  -  e  "'*,  we  obtain  th» 

series  ." 

n-i 

(-1)   -  sinng=cos9rsin"-'9-(K-2)5in-3g  +  ^""Y^"^^sin»-»g-... 


h(-l}' 


(;i-r-l)(it-r-2)...(?l-2r)  , 


I-- 


-''-'e+  ...1(acven)(l7)| 


n-l 


cos  nd  =  cos  $ 


-'sin's  - 


(-1)       cos  n9=  the  same  series  ()i  odd)  (18)1 

■      „          „l       •    „    «(«^-2=)i„    n(R2-2^)(n2-4')  .  ,„ 
sin 7i9  =  cosfi  i  n sin 9 -  -i— 7-= — ^^sin'9  +  -^ pT -sin'*  + 

'  l-2_  '_ 

n 

...  +  (-1)^     (2  sine)"-' I  (n  even) (19)j 

{i-"-i^W..lii!^^^'=: 

+  (2 sine)"-*} (71  odd) -..(20).  ^ 

We  have  thus  obtained  forraulffi  for  co5  nO  and  sinnB  both  \ 
ascending  and  in  descending  powers  of  cos  6  and  sin  6.  Viete  ob- 
tained formula  for  chords  of  multiplo  arcs  in  powers  of  chords  of 
the  simple  or  complementary  arcs  equivalent  to  the  formulae  (13) 
and  (19)  above.  These  are  tontained  in  his  work  Theoreviata  ad 
angidarcs  scciioncs.  James  Bcinoulli  found  formula  equivalent  to 
(12)  and  (13)  {Mim.de  V Acadcmie  des  Sciences,  1702),  and  trans 
formed  these  series  into  a  form  equivalent  to  (10)  and  (11),  John 
Bernoulli  published  in  the  Acta  eruditorum  for  1701,  among  other 
formulae  already  found  by  Viete,  one  eouivalent  to  (17).  These 
formulae  have  been  extended  to  cases  m  which  n  is  fractional,  nega- 
tive, or  irrational  ;  see  a  paper  by  D.  F-  Gregory  in  Camh.  Math. 
Jaicni.^  vol.  iv. ,  in  which  the  series  for  cos  nB,  sin  nd  in  ascending 
powers  of  cos  6  and  sin  6  are  estendod  to  the  case  of  a  fractional 
vahie  of  Ti.  These  series  have  been  considered  by  EulcT  in  a 
memoir  in  the  A^ova  acta,  vol.  ix.,  by  Lagrange  in  his  Calcul  des 
fonclions  (1806),  and  by  Poinsot  in  Itccherchcs  sur  Vanalyse  des  sec- 
tions angidaircs  (1825). 

The  general  definition  of  Napierian  logarithms  is  that,  if  €^"*'*I' Theory 
=  a  f-ti,  theui  +  ty  =  log(a  +  (6).     Now  wc  know  that  e^'*"*^  =  c'cosy  °^  ^°6** 
+  te^siny;   hence  e^  cos  y  =  a,  c*  sin  y  =  b,  or   e^  =  (a^  +  tr^)K   V-  "^^'"*' 
arc  tan  -  ±mT,  where  m  is  an  integer.     If  6  =  0,  then  m  must  ho 
even  or  odd  according  as  a  is  positive  or  negative  ;  hence 
loge  (a  +  t&)  =  loge  (a2  +  6-)i+(  (arc  tan  -i:2n?r) 

or  loge  (o  +  (&)  =  log,  (a^  +  fc-)i  +  (  (arc  tan  -±2u  +  7r), 

according  as  a  is  positive  or  negative.  Thus  the  logarithm  of  any 
complex  or  real  quantity  is  a  multiple-valued  function,  the  differ- 
ence between,  successive  values  being  'lin  ,  in  particular,  the  most 
general  form  of  the  logarithm  of  a  real  positive  quantity  isiobtained 
by  adding  positive  or  negative  multiples  of  2jrt  to  the  arithmetical 
logarithm.  On  this  subject,  see  De  Morgan's  TriguJioinelry  arid 
Double  Algebra^  chap,  iv,,  and  a  paper  by  Prof.  Cayley  in  vol.  IL 
of  Proc.  London  Math,  Soc. 

Wo  may  suppose  the  exponential  values  of  the  sine  and  cosine  Hyper- 
extended   to   the   case  of  complex    arguments ;    thus   we  accept  bolic 

cHi+iy)  +  g  -  t(x+iy)  gt{z+ty)  _  g  -  t(i+ijl)  trigODO- 

2 ^"^ 9 ^  ^'*®  definitions  of  the  nietrv 

functions  cos  {x  +  ty\  sin  (x  +  iy)  respectively.     If  i  =  0,  we  bave, 

gV  +  e'V  t  c^  +  f"*" 

co8iy=  — - — and  sm  ty  =  ^{c^ - e ' '").     The  quantities  — —^^ 

— -^ —  ^ro  called  the  hyperbolic  cosmc  and    sine  of  t;  and  ar« 

written  coshVi  sinh  y  ;  thus  cosh  7/  =  cost?/,  sinh  y~  -  i  sin  ty.  Tho. 
functions  cosh  J/,  sinh  y  arc  connected  with  the  rectangular  hyperbola 
in  a  maimer  analogous  to  that  in  which  the  cosine  and  sine  art 


;'anal1['tical.] 


TRIGONOMETRY 


571 


Gipao- 

tiioDofan 
angle  in 
powers  of 
113  sine. 


tonnected  with  the  circle.    We  may  easily  show  from  the  definitions 
\lhal 

cos-(x+iy)  +  sin'(i  +  ly)  =  1 , 
cosIi^y-sinh-y  =  l  ; 

cos(r  +  ly)  =  cos  x  cosh  y  -  i  sin  x  sinh  y, 
sin(i  +  ty)  =  sm  i  cosh  y  + 1  cos  t  sinli  y, 
cosh{a  +  ^)=cosh  a  cosh|8  +  smh  o  sinh/3, 
sinh(a  +  /3)  =sinha  cosh  ^- cosh  o  s\nh(3. 
These  formula  are  ihe  basis  of  a  complete  hyperbolic  trigonometry. 
The  connexion  of  these  functions  with  the  hyperbola  was  first 
pointed  out  by  Lambert 

If  we  equate  the  coefficients  of  n  on  both  sides  of  equation  (13), 

"'S'^'  ,    1  Rin'«    l.Ssin'e    1   3.5sin'9 


2      3       2.4 


2   4   6 


6  must  lie  lietween  the  values  ±  x.     This  equatiolT  may  also  be 


written  in  the  form 


arc  sinx  =  a'  +  : 


]i»     1.3»»     l.S.'ii' 


23      2.4  5      2.4.6  7 
when  X  lies  between  ±1. 

By  equating  the  coefficients  of  n"^  on  both  sides  of  equation  (12) 


we  get 


,„     2sin'9     2.4sin«e    2  ,  4  .  6  sin«« 
=  ''"'<'*3— *3-5   -^^3T57f-l-  +  - 


.(22). 


which  may  also  be  written  in  the  form 

„      ,    2  a^    2 .  4  x« 
(arcsinx)=  =  i^  +  g  -  +—   - 


■Gregory's 
<eries. 


2.4.6  i» 

^3T0  7*-- 

when  z  is  between  ±1.     Differentiating  this  equation  with  regard 
to  X,  we  get 

^sinj_       2.     2.4        2.4.6^ 

Vl-^~'"^8'^'^3.5^"^3.5.7     ■*■■••' 
if  we  put  arc  sin  j:  =  arc  tan  y,  this  equation  becomes 

.rcUn»=,-^!l+?-A  +  H(Ay  +  -|     (23). 
1+yM        31+y^     3.6\l+y'/  j 

This  equation  was  given  with  two  proofs  by  Euler  in  the  Kova  acta 

for  1793.  ,       ,  J      ,      , 

,,,    ,  1,     l+i         I*    aH>    a;' 

We  have  -log  j_=z+ 3  + -4-^  +  . .. , 

put  <y  for  X,  the  left  side  then  becomes  }{Iog(l  +iy)-logy  -<y)l 
or  tarctany±tnir ,  j     j      7 

hence  arc  tany±7tir  =  y-^  +  ^-^  + 

"  "357 

Thcscriesisconvergent  if  y  lies  between  ±1;  if  we  suppose  arc  tan  y 

restricted  to  values  between  ±-    we  have 
4 


3      6"""" 


•f24), 


arc  tan  y  =  y 

which  is  Gregory*s  series. 

feriosfor      ^^^ious  series  derived  from  (24)  have  been  employed  to  calculate 

ealcnb.     "'^  ''^'"'^  °^  '      ^^  "'^  *"''  °^  ""^  '''*'  cfi>tury  ir  was  calculated 

'tkioofT   *"  ^2  places  of  decimals  by  Abraham  Sharp,  by  means  of  the 


6' 


y=-7=  in  (24)     The  cal- 
V3 


series  obtained  by  putting  arc  tan  y  = 

culation  is  to  be  found  in  Sherwin's  Mathematical  Tables  (1742). 
About  the  same  time  Jlachin  employed  the  series  obtained  from 

the  equation  4  arc  tan  ^  -arc  tan  ^05  =  ;  '"  calculate  tt  to  100  de- 
cimal places.  Long  afterwards  Euler  employed  the  scries  obtained 
from  -,=3.K  tan^  +  arctanT,  which,  however,  gives  less  rapidly  con- 
verging series  (Iiitrod.,  Anal,  infin.,  vol.  i. ).  Lagny  employed  the 
formula  arc  tan  —  =  ^  to  calculate  ir  to  127  places  ;  the  result  was 

communicated  to  the  Pans  Academy  in  1719.  Vega  calculated  ir 
to  140  decimal  places  by  means  of  the  series  obtained  from  the 

equation  J  =  5  arc  tan  =  -t-  2  arc  tan  — .     The  formula  7  =  arc  tan  J  -f 

\  ^         \    *  ly  4  2 

srctanr-i-arctang  was  used  by  Dase  to  calculate  ir  to  200  decimal 
places.     Rutherford  used  the  equation  »  =  4  arc  tan  =  -  arc  tan  ^  -(• 

•"='^"9-9-  ,         J 

If  in  (23)  we  put  1/=;  and  =,  we  have 

-=8.rctan^  +  4arcUnl  =  2-4!j+|.A  +  |-^±^...} 

a  rapidly  convergent  series  for  n  which  was  first  given  by  Button 
i»M  *''i?^i^'""'-  '^'*'  ^"''  afterwards  by  Eider  in  Nova  acta  for 
1793.     Euler  gives  an  equation  deduced  in  the  same  manner  from 


the  identitv  1 


1  3 

=  20  arc  tan  J  -H  8  arc  tan  ^.    The  calculation  of  x  has 

bew  carried  out  to  707  places  of  decimais  ,  see  Proc.  Hoy.  Soe.,  ixL 
»na  xxii  ;  also  Squabino  the  Cikcle  (vol.  xxii.  p.  435  sg.). 


We  shall  now  obtain  expressions  for  sin  a)  and  cos  a:  as  infinite  Ftctont 
products  of  rational  factors.     We  have  ation  of 

t,.x.x+jr,.x.x  +  ir         x*2ti         x■^3»        tine  rad 
sini  =  2sin  .^  sin  — jr-  =2' sin  ■;  sin  —r-  sm   ■     —  sin  — ; —  . 

2  2  4  4  4  4        ^  coiiDC 

proceeding  continually  in  this  way  with  each  factor,  we  ob'air. 

„     ,        X.     x  +  ir         x+2t         ,a*«-lir 

sinx  =  2     '  sm  -  sin  sin . . .  sin— . 

n  »l  Tl  n 

where  n  is  any  positive  integral  power  of  2.     Now 

.x4-nr.     x  +  «-nr              l  +  rir          rir-x           ,Mr  .« 

Sin  — ' —  sm  =sin  sin  =sin' sm*  -, 


and 


x  +  htir  3 

Sin  — - —  =  cos  - 


Hence  the  above  may  be  written 

<iinx=2      sin  -I  sin'  -  -sin'-  ||  sin' sii    -  J 

n\        n  n/\  n  uj 

I  .   .kir         ,x\        X 

I  sin' sin'  -  I  cos-, 

\  n  n  J        n 

where  k  =  \n-\.     Let  x  be  indefinitely  small,  then  "e  have 

2""     .   ,ir    .      27r  .   „tir 

1  = sin'  -  sin'  —  ...  sin'  —  , 

n  n  71  n 

hence 

.    X       xf,     6in-x/n\/,      sin'x/n  \       /,      sin'r/nN 
siDX  =  Jtsm  -  cos -I  1 T-y-    I  1  -      .,n         ■••('■•  — 5T-r  i 

We  may  write  this 

.    X 
sinx=)>sin-  cos- 


where  R  denotes  the  product 


ii\       sin-ir/u/      "\       6in-mjr;i/    ' 


1  -■ 


sin- 


1-- 


,711  -I- 2t 


1- 


.   „krr 
sin-  — 


and  rti  is  any  fi,xed  integer  independent  of  n.     It  is  necessary,  whCB 
we  make  n  infinite,  to  determiue  the  limiting  value  of  the  quantity 


R;   then,   since    the    limit  of  is ,    and    that   0/ 

■  T  y  T 

sin  rmrtn  . 

; —  IS  unity,  we  have 

mir/?i  •' 

^'=0-~')0-24)-0-.-^'>_ 

Now  R  is  less  than  unity,  since  sin  -  is  less  than  sin ,  sin 

n  n 

;  also  by  an  elementary  algebraical  proposition  R  is  greater 
sc'  —  1  and  cosec  6<^it 


«i-H2ir 


than  1  -  sin 


5(c 


fl  <  r  ;  iJ  is  therefore  greater  than 

IVto-HI'    m-H2"|'       ■       i-'/' 
orthan     1 -i?(  1- -L- .-_!_- -L.  ...  .J_  .U. 

or  than  1  -  — .   Hence  /J  =  1  -  — ,  where  5  is  some  proper  fraction  i 
whence 

— .0-^0(-24)-0-;;^00-:-|) 

When  m  is  indefinitely  increased  this  becomes 

sinx=x(l-^)(l-^,)...=xr^"(l.£),25,. 
The  expression  for  cos  x  in  factors  may  be  found  in  a  similar  manner 
by  means  of  the  equation  co3x=2sin'^~^cos  ^~     ,ormay  b* 

flRilnrpd  t.hiifl  '  * 


sin  2x 


i^-^) 


2sinx 


0-^)0 -1^)0 -a- 


■(26X 


"  =  +"/  2x     \ 

=  P         (l-t-  ) 

If  we  change  x  into  ix,  we  have  the  formuloe  for  sinh  x,  cosh  x  w 
infinite  products — 

n  =  a  ,  -3..  n  =  m  ,  i-S         , 

Binhx=xP      (l-h^^"),  coshx=P      (1+  -). 

n=0  V      ""W'  „=o  V      271-fllM/ 

In  the  formula  for  sin  x  as  an  infinite  product. put  x==,  we  then 


getl 


I    1.3.3.5.5... 


;  if  we  stop  after  27t  factors  in  the  numer- 


2"2.2.4.4. 

ator  and  denominator,  we  obtain  the  approximate  equation 
1'.3'.  6'...(2)i-l)' 


1  = 


%  t?:4?.^7 


(2n)' 


.(2»»-H) 


572 

<lT^'t'l"'2^Zi  =  '^'^'  "•>"«  "  •=  '  ^"^  integer.      This  ex- 
pression was'  obtained  in  a  quite  different  manner  by  Wallis  {^ri(A- 
metica  ivfihitorum,  voL  E  of  0pp.). 
Series  for     We  have  ,^+yip(i+'JJl) 

eotjCoseo,  sin(a;+y)_ \ ^""^  / 

Uo,and  sin^t  ^p(i  +  i\ 

or  C03  y  +  sin  y  cot  x 

Equating  the  coefficients  of  the  first  power  of  y  on  both  sides  we 
obtain  the  series 

..(27). 


TRIGONOMETRY 


[aNALYTICAIi 


1 


cots=- 


1 


1 


1 

I  From  this  we  may  deduce  a  corresponding  series  for  cosec  x,  for,  since 
-cotx,  W8  obtain 

1  11  1  1 


cosec  a = cot; 


1        1 

cosecz= - 

*    ar  +  ir 


1  1 

r*x+2-i    X-2ir' 


-3t 


+  ...(28). 


By  resolving 

'  "       cos  X 

manner  the  series 

2.  2      , 

tan2= \-^ — 

^^    -IT -22     ir  +  2a!     Sir 

and.  thence 


C03(a;+y)  ^^  factors  we  should  obtain  in  a  similar 


"3ir  +  2a;    6ir-2a;    6)r  +  2s 
2.2  2 


..(29), 


/w    x\     ,  2       ,      2  V. 

:CX  =  tan^|+2J-tans!  =  ^:;:^  +  ^;q:2i"3^-2x 


3jr  +  2a5 


..(30> 


These  fonr  formulae  may  also  be  derived  from  the  product  formula 
for  sin  a;  and  cose  by  takina  logarithms  and  then  differentiating. 

.  .  cosx 

Glaisher  has  proved  them  by  resolviDg  the  expressions  for  ^^ 

and       -  ...  as  products  into  partial  fractions  (see  Qtiart.  Joum. 

sinz  '  '  ,.,... 

Math,,  vol  zvii.).     The  series  for  cot  a:  may  also  be  obtained  by  a 

\f      X       ,3;  +  -" 
continued  use  of  the  equation  coti  =  .jl  <^°.'2  '*'  *^°  "2 

by  Dr  Schroter  in  Schlomilch's  Heitschri/t,  vol.  xiii. ). 
Series  for  Various  series  for  ir  may  be  derived  from  the  series  (27),  (28),  (29), 
rderived  (30),  and  from  the  series  obtained  by  differentiating  them  one  or  more 
torn         times.     Tor  example,   in  the  formulse  (27)  and  (28),  by  putting 

•^<«'"a:=Tweeet 
cot  and         n 


cot  ^  +  cot^-^  Usee  a  paper 


,=7itan-|l-^^j+^^j-2j^- 
ir  =  «sin  -  \  1 


,__        1 
l"re  +  l 
if  we  put  71  =  3,  these  become 

.=3V3(l-^ 

3n/3/,     111 


1 

2«  +  l' 
1 


}• 


1     1     1 


3V3/ 
'    2    V 

By  differentiating  (27)  we  get 


i+2-r5' 


1    1 

7  +  8- 


) 


1 


7?  •^  (s  -  ir)^  "^  (x -I  2)T-)-' "^  (X  -  2ir)»  "^  ■  ■  • ' 


i:nta:=;,  and  we  get  7r'=9|  1  +  ^-3+ jTj+ jjj+  ■■  J 

These  series,  among  others,  were  given  by  Glaisher  {Quart.  Joum. 
Math.,  vol.  xil). 

Bums  of       We  have  sinh  jrx  =  wxP(}  +  -A,  cosh  irx  =  p(  1  +  ,,„)  ;  if 

we  differentiate  these  formulae  after  taking  logarithms,  we  obtain 
\he  series 


certain 

series..  ^ 


2x 


tanh  rx= 


I 


1 


rhese  series  were  given  by  Eummer  (in  CrelU's  Joum.,  vol.  xviL). 

rhe  sum  of  the  more  general  series  -, 5-  +  ^5- — =-  +  „-„  ,    o- 

M- . . . ,  has  been  found  by  Glaisher  (Proc.  Land.  Math.  Soc,  vol.  vii.). 

Ceiftlo.       U  in  the  series  <12)  and  (13)  we  put  n  =  2x, »  =  j,  we  get 
•etles  for  ° 

tine  and  rx_         3?    x'(g'-l')    x°(x'- l')(x»-2')  ,     ' 

"-^■"12*""^^ 


sin 


3 

TX 


Vsja 


|_4  16 

x(x'-l)    x(x'-l'Xx'-2')       1 

■i3 — * — rs ■  /• 


These  series  were  given  by  Schellbach  (in  CrelU's  Joum., -vo].  xlviil) 
If  in  the  same  series  (12),  (13)  we  put  8  =  ^,  ; 


cosx=l 


2x 

— ,  we  get 


4x2(4x>  -  2V)(4x'  -  iVy  , 


ii?       4x''(4x°-2V) 
1.2ir'''"    1.2.3.4ir«  1.2.3.4.6. 

2x    2x(4x'  -  JT-)  ,  2x(4g'  -  ir')(4x'  -  3V) 
2.3.4.5jr» 


6ir« 


.111 

of  thesene3j;i+3^  +  j; 


Mu.c_--    1    2.3,r»  "        1. 

We  have  of  course  assumed  the  legitimacy  of  the  substitutions 
made.  These  last  series  have  been  discussed  by  fif.  David  {Bull 
Soc.  Math,  de  France,  vol.  xi. )  and  Glaisher  (Mess,  of  Math. ,  vol  vii.). 

If  C;„denotes  the  sum  of  the  series —  +  5-  +  5-  + ....  r„  that  SunSs  of 

i       ^       o  powers 

, ,  and  W™  that  of  the  series  i  -  ^  "^  '^,'" 
■  l"    a"  procals 

4  JL- JL  +  ..  ,  vce  obtain  by  taking  logarithms  in  the  formula "^"^^ 

(25)  and  (26)  >>ei& 

log  (X  cosec  x)=ir,(5y  +  |£;,(5)Vlc/,(?)'+  ..    . 

log  (sec  x)=  V,Q^)\\v.{^)\If,{^)\  ...; 

and  differentiating  these  series  we  get 
1,1 


&x-2V- 


iW- 


-tan  X- 


:  *l2  22x -H  li"  2  V  +  —  2«x»  + . 


In  (31)  X  must  lie  between  ±rr  and  in  (32)  between  ±iir. 

equation  (30)  in  the  form 

V,     nn      (2''  +  l)'r 
secx=2(-l)" 


(31), 

..(32). 
Writ* 


and  expand  each  term  of  this  series  in  powers  of  a?,  then  we  get 

^ecx=^  +  -^*-;^+    (33), 

where  x  must  lie  between  ±  Jir,    By  comparing  the  series  (31),  (32), 
(33)  with  the  expansions  of  cot  x,  tan  x,  sec  x  obtained  otherwise, 

we  can  calculate  the  values  of  J7j,  (/,...  Vi,  V,...  and  JF„  IV^ 

When  U„  has  been  found,  V„  may  be  obtained  from  the  formula 

2"r„=(2"-i)c;„. 

For  Lord  Brounker's  series  of  ir,  see  Squaring  the  Circle Tvol.  Con- 
xxiL   p.   435).      It  can   be  got  at   once  by.  putting  a  =  l,   6  =  3,  tinned 


._,,,,  ...  In'         V  factors' 

=  5.    .  .  in  Eulerstheorem  =- -  r  +  --  .     =— -  £—7-7  .""TT---  for  » 

a     0     o  a+o-a+c~o+  lor  x. 

Sylvester  gave  {PMl.  Mag.,  1869)  the  continued  fraction 


„  _         1     1.22.33.4 
2~ H-  I-^    1+   1+  "■• 
which  is  equivalent  to  Wallis's  formula  for  x.     This  fraction  was 
originally  given  by  Euler  {Comm.  Acad.   Petropol.,  vol.  xi.);  it 
is  also  given  by  Stern  (in  CrelU's  Joum.,  vol.  x.). 

It  may  be  shown  by  means  of  a  transformation  of  the  series  for  Con- 
,  siux   .    ,  .  X     x^    x"    x'  _,,  .  ,       ,      tioued 

cos  X  and  that  tan  x=  —  —  rz  jT ■ " "  "^^^  fractioiu 

easily  shown  as  follows.     Let  y  =  cos  v'.'^,  and  let  y',  y" . . .  denote  nometri- 
the  differential  coefficients  of  y  with  regard  to  x,  Uien  by  forming  ^•^  f^^. 
these  we  can  show  that  ixif +  2iJ  +  y  =  <S,  and  thence  by  Leibnitz's  (jong_ 
theorem  we  have 

4x)/''+2)  + ( 4n  +  2)j,(''+ "  +  y<")=  0. 

Therefore  |=-2-^„  ^^= -2(2n  +  l)-^„^,y^„^^; 

r.   n  /-        n        4x         4x  4x 

hence         -  2vx  cot  Vx  =  -  2  -  — g— — ^y-  — jj— . . . 

X     x*     7? 
Replacing  Vx  by  x  we  have  tan  x  =  —  5—  — 

Euler  gave  the  continued  fraction 

n  tan  X  (n' -  1 )  tan^x  (m' -  4)  tan%  (Ji' -  9)  tan^x 
tan7ix=-j- 3^: 5-3 jz ■•   . 

this  was  published  in  Mim.  de  FAcad.  de  St  Piicrsb.,  vol.  vLl 
Glaisher  has  remarked  (Mess,  of  Math,  vol.  iv.)  that  this  may  bi 
derived  by  forming  the  differential  equation 

(1  -  x=)t/('"+='  -  (2m  -^  Dxv'^+W-f  (n"-  m')!,<"''=0, 
where  )/  =  cos(i!  arc  cosx),  then  rcplacingxby  cos  x,and  proceeding 
as  in  the  former  case.     If  we  put  )i  =  0,  this  becomes 
tana;  tao°x  4  ten^  9 tan'x 


\+      3-H 

x^    ^  4^  ft^ 


nh? 


whence  we  have 

Brotanz=j-^  3^  ^  ^-■■-  -gn-Hl-f 
It  is  possible  to  make  the  investigation  of  the  properties  of  th»i 
simple  circular  functions  rest  on  a  purely  analytical  basis.    The  sin* 


T  R  I  — T  R  I 


57a 


T       dii 

Purely     of  X  would  b«  defined  as  a  runction  such  tnat,  if  z=  j     •.  ■'  -,  then 
analyti-  ,  J  »*'     "  tf' 

al  treat-  i/  =  sina:;  the  quantity  .j  would  be  defined  to  be  the  complete  integral 
ment  of     [^     d^^      ^^^  ^^^^,j  ^^^^  ^^^^  s-x=('  -4^=.  Now  change 

uaat.       the  variable  in  the  integral  to  z,  where  y^  +  r'=l,  we  then  have 
-  __  ,      ,  and  2  most  be  defined  as  the  cosine  of  x,  and  is 

+  cos'a;  =  l. 


du 


-r  [•     dz 

tnus  equal  to  sin  (5  -*)■  satisfying  the  equation  sin'* 


Vext  consider  the  differential  equation 


.=0. 


^Vl-y'    Vl-r" 

This  is  equivalent  to    "   

d(y  \/l  -  j" + s  Vr^) = 0  ; 

Jience  the  integral  is         -^ 

yN/l-r'+sN/l-!f'=a  constant.  . 
The  constant  will  be  equal  to  the  value  n  of  y  when  2=0 ; 
whence  yVl  -  «■'+  z  Vl  - 1/'= «. 


fhe  integral  may  also  be  obtained  in  the  fonn 

Let    .=f'-^^.  0=r-A=.  v=r-=. 

j,vi-r'        i,Vi-z'-        j„Vi-«"' 

we  have  ii  +  /S  =  7,  and  sin7  =  sina  cos^  +  cosa  sin/3, 
cos  7  =  (,os  a  cos /3  -  sin  a  sin  ^, 
the  addition  theorems.     By  means  of  the  addition  theorems  an4 

the  values  sin  2='.  cos  2  =  0wecan  prove  thatsin  (  =  +a:J  =  co3X, 

cosf  i+ij=  -sinx;  and  thence  by  another  use  of  the  additioij 

theorems  that  sin  fV  +  x)  =  -sinx cos  ()r  +  x)=  -cosx,  from  wbicb 
the  periodicity  of  the  functions  sinx,  cos X  follows.  , 

We  have  also      /        ^     =  - 1  log,  ( Vl  -  y^ + ly) ; 

l\/\-y'  .        .,.«^ 

whence    log,(\/l  -y'  +  iy)+\og,  (Vl-r'  +  i2)  =  a  constamt. 
Therefore       (Vl -t/--i-iy)(Vl -1^  +  12)  =  Vl-u'  +  iu, 
since  u  =  y  when  s=0  ;  whence  wo  have  the  equation 

(cosa  +  isina)(cos^  +  tsin^)  =  co3  (a  +  /3)  +  isin  (o  +  ;5),' 
from  which  De  Moivre'a  theorem  follows.  (E.  W.  H.) 


TRILOBITES.     See  Crustacea,"  vol.  vL  p.  659  57. 

TRIXCOMALEE,  a  town  and  naval  station  in  the 
island  of  Ceylon,  is  situated  on  the  north-east  coast — 
which  is  bold,  rocky,  and  picturesquely  wooded — by  road 
113  miles  north-north-east  of  Kandy,  in  8°  33'  30"  N.  lat. 
and  81*  13'  10"  E.  long.  It  is  built  on  the  north  side  of 
the  Bay  of  Trincomalee,  on  the  neck  .of  a  bold  penmsula 
separating  the  inner  from  the  outer  harbour.  There  is  a 
lighthouse  on  the  extremity  of  Foul  Point  at  the  southern 
side  of  the  bay,  and  another  on  the  summit  of  Round 
Island.  The  inner  harbour  is  landlocked,  with  a  safe 
anchorage  and  deep  water  close  to  the  principal  wharves ; 
the  outer  harbour  has  an  area  of  about  4  square  miles, 
■with  adepth  of  about  70  fathoms.  There  is  an  admiralty 
dockyard,  and  the  town  is  the  principal  naval  station  in 
the  Indian  seas.  The  breadth  of  the  streets  and  esplan- 
ades somewhat  atones  for  the  .mean  appearance  of  the 
houses,  but  the  town  generally  has  a  gloomy  and  im- 
poverished aspect.  Pearl  oysters  are  found  in  the  lagoon 
of  Tambalagam  to  the  west  of  the  bay.  The  Government 
buildings  include  the  barracks,  the  public  offices  and  re- 
sidences of  the  civil  and  naval  authorities,  and  the  official 
house  of  the  officer  commanding-in-chief  in  the  Indian  seas. 
There  is  an  hospital  and  outdoor  dispensary,  and  also  a 
friend-in-need  society.  The  population  of  Trincomalee  in 
1881  was  10,180. 

The  town  was  one  of  the  earliest  settlements  of  the  Malabar  race 
in  Ceylon,  who  at  a  very  early  period  erected  on  a  height  at  the 
■extremity  of  the  peninsula,  now  crowned  by  Fort  Frederick,  a  temple 
dedicated  to  Konatha,  or  Konasir,  named  the  *.*  temple  of  a  thousand 
columns."  The  building  was  desecrated  and  destroyed  in  1522, 
when  the  town  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese,  who  made  use  of  the 
materials  for  the  erection  of  the  fort.  The  town  was  successively 
held  by  the  Dutch  (1639),  the  French  (1673).  the  Dutch  (1674), 
the  French  (1782),  and  the  Dutch  (1783).  After  a  siege  of  three 
weeks  it  surrendered  to  the  British  fleet  in  1795,  and  with  other 
Dutch  possessions  in  Cejlon  was  formally  ceded  to  Gieat-  Britain 
by  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1801.  Its  fortifications  have  lately 
been  strengthened. 

TRINIDAD,  a  West  Indian-  island,  lying  north-east  of 
Venezuela,  between  JO'  3'  and  10°  50'  N.  lat.  and  61°  39' 
and  62°  W.  long.,  being  the  most  southern  of  the  chain  of 
islands  separating  the  Atlantic  from  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
Its  area  is  1754  square  miles,  or  nearly  1,123,000  acres. 
In  shape  the  island  is  almost  rectangular,  but  from  its 
•north-west  and  south-west  corners  project  two  long  horns 
towards  Venezuela,  enclosing  the  Gulf  of  Paria.  The 
north-west  horn  terminates  in  several  islands,  in  one  of 
the  channels  between  which  (the  Boca  Grande)  lies  the 
small  British  island  of  Patos.  The  general  aspect  of  Trini- 
dad is  level.  But  three  parallel  ranges,  varying  from  600 
to  3100  feet  in  height  and  clothed  with  forests,  run  from 


east  to  west.  The  plains  are  watered  by  numerous  streaJflSji 
and  the  mountains  are  deeply  furrowed  by  inntimerabla 
ravines.  The  rivers  falling  into  the  gulf  are  somewhat  ob* 
structed  by  shallows,  especially  the  Caroni  and  the  Couva. 
Geologically,  9,3  well  as  botanically  and  zoologically,  Trini- 
dad diflers  little  from  the  adjacent  mainland,  with  which 
at  one  time  it  probably  was  connected.    The  soil,  which  ia 


Cftupura  ^'..O* 

~/r\!3vS> 

Di-A— JV«liri  ff 

cu  1  f     or    ryHv  iA2u» 

'^^S 

Paris             K~^^    "*^ 

Sm  P.r«iu.dof  ^^iSS&^rf 

r^^ifl 

"*  '"*  ''t^^^Sirf'^iWii^ii^       / 

•^ 
/ 

Hayorat 

""'^c^   7^^  ^j\ 

trinttv      1 

^^^Q^Cru 

Map  of  Trinidad.  ^ 

fertile,  COTsists  of  clay,  loam,  and  alluvial  deposits.  The 
Moriche  palm  and  mountain  cabbage,  as  well  as  the  cedaf 
and  the  balata,  are  prominent  objects.  Poisonous  and 
medicinal  plants  grow  everywhere,  and  the  woods  contain 
an  inexhaustible  supply  of  timber.  ,  There  are  two  mineral 
springs.  The  most  curious  natural  feature  of  the  island 
is  the  pitch  lake '  iii  La  Brea,  90  acres  in  extent,  which 
furnishes  an  important  export.  The  climate  is  healthy, 
the  mean  temperature  being  in  January  76°  Fahr.  and  ia 
September  79° ;  it  occasionally  reaches  90°. 

'The  population,  which  numbered  109,638  in  1871,  was  returned 
in  1881  at  153,128  (83,716  males  and  69,412  females),  and  in  1885 
at  171, 9i4.  Of  these  about  100,000  are  natives  of  the  island,  prin- 
cipally of  African  race,  50,000  are  coolies  introduced  Trom  India 
(an  industrious  and  prosperous  element  of  the  population),  while 
the  remainder  includes  the  English  and  other  European  settlers. 
About  2000  coolies  are  introduced  annually.  Many  French  families 
from  other  parts  of  the  West  Indies  settled  in  Trinidad  inany  years 
ago,  and  traces  of  this  and  of  the  Spanish  occupation  are  obvious 
in  laws,  municipal  arrangements,  language,  and  popnlatioo.  The 
two  principal  towns  are  Port  of  Spain  and  San  Feruando.  The 
former  (34,000  inhabitants),  the  capiUl  of  the  island,  is  built  on  ft 
feently  inclined  plain  near  the  north-east  angle  of  the  Gulf  of  Pari«« 
^^-    '  This  is -vividly  described  by  Charles  Kingsley  in  At  LusL 


574 


T  R  I  — T  R  I 


and  Is  a  fine  ancl  safe  port.  In  the  town  there  are  two  cathedrals 
(the  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Anglican),  and  outside  it  a  botanical 
parden.  San  Fernando,  about  30  miles  southward,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  7000,  is  an  important  shipping  place. 

Of  the  total  area  about  300,000  acres  are  cultivated.  Tlie 
principal  productions  of  the  island  are  sugar  and  cocoa  ;  coffee 
IS  also  becoming  important.  Trinidad  hag  sulfered  much  from  the 
effect  of  foreign  state  bounties,  especially  the  export  premiums  of 
Germany  and  France.  The  sugar  production  in  1871  was  53,000 
tons,  in  1881  44,000  tons,  and  in  1885  64,000  tons.  •  Tlic  prin- 
cipal exports  in  1885  were — sugar,  64,000  tons  (value  £684,675); 
rnm,  72,525  galls  (£7878) ;  .molasses,  2,416,761  galls.  (£45,835); 
cocoa,  14,904,840  lbs  (£421,974);  coffee,  20,270  lbs  ;  asphalt, 
28,505  tons  raw  and  6731  tons  boiled;  cocoa  nuts,  9,645,700; 
bitters  (Angostura  and  others)  and  liquors,  32,240  galls.  ;  the  total 
value  was  £2,246,664,  including  £707,421  specie  and  bullion. 
The  imports  in  1885  (including  bullion  and  specie)  were  £2,241,478 
Among  the  principal  items  are  cottons,  linens,  woollens,  and  textiles 
generally  (largely  from  the  United  Kingdom),  £235,895  ,  fish,  flour, 
and  provisions  (principally  from  the  United  States),  £27'  OQO  ; 
Imnbcr  (from  Canada),  £43,075;  rice  (half  from  India),  £11;  .940, 
hardware  and  machinery  (principally  from  the  United  Kingdom), 
£116,894  ;  gold  (principally  from  Venezuela  in  tran.sit),  £651,398. 
The  sailing  vessels  entering  Trinidad  ports  in  1885  liad  a  burden  of 
150,219  tons,  the  steamers  a  burden  of  385,950  tons.  The  total 
public  revenue  in  188.i  was  £429,.307,  of  which  £240,444  \^»8  for 
customs  and  excise.  The  total  expenditure  was  £443,920.  There 
are  145  public  schools,  of  which  61  are  Government  and  61  assisted, 
with  a  total  attendance  of  13,282  scholars.  The  principal  towns 
are  connected  by  railway  lines. 

Trinidad  was  discovered  by  Columbus  on  31st  July  1495  It 
remained  in  Spanish  possession  (although  its  principal  town,  San 
Jose  de  Oruna,  was  burnt  by  Sir  ^Valter  Raleigh  in  1595)  until 
1797,  when  a  British  expedition  from  Martinique  caused  its  capitu- 
lation, and  it  was  finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1802  by  the 
treaty  of  Amiens  Its  real  starting-point  as  a  productive  country 
was  in  1781.  when  the  Madrid  Government  began  to  attract  foreign 
immigrants.  Trinidad  is  still  strictly  a  crown  colony  of  Great 
Britain  The  legislative  council  includes  the  governor  as  president, 
and  sis  official  and  eight  unofficial  members,  all  appointed  by  the 
crown.  During  the  labour  crisis  caused  by  emancipation  and  the 
subsequent  equalization  of  the  British  duties  on  free  and  slave- 
grown  sugar,  the  colony  was  greatly  assisted  by  the  skilful  ad- 
jninistralion  of  Lord  Harris,  governor  from  1846  to  1851. 

See  De  Verteuil.  Trinidad ;  Colonial  OJioe  List  ;  Guppy.  Trinidad  Atmanae ; 
■Dd  Governmi'nt  Ocohjgicnl  Survey. 

TRINITARIANS  (Ordo  Sancia  Tnnitatis  et  Captorum), 
a  religious  order  instituted  about  the  year  1197  by  Inno- 
cent III.,  at  the  instance  of  John  de  Matha  (1160-1213) 
and  Felix  de  Valois  (ob.  1212),  for  the  ransom  of  captives 
among  the  Moors  and  Saracens.  The  rule  was  the  Augus- 
tinian,  the  dress  white  with  a  red  and  blue  cross.  De 
Matha  was  the  first  general  and  De  Valois  the  first  abbot 
of  the  mother  house  at  Cerffroid  near  Meaux,  where  the 
idea  of  the  institution  had  originated  in  a  miraculous  ap- 
parition. By  1200  as  many  as  200  Christians  had  been 
redeemed  out  of  slavery  in  Morocco  by  the  order,  which 
accordingly  spread  rapidly  not  only  in  France  but  also  in 
Italy  and  Spain.  Further  favoured  by  Honorius  III.  and 
Clement  IV.,  the  Trinitarians  spread  into  Portugal,  the 
United  Kingdom,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Poland,  and  Hungary, 
and  even  into  America.  In  the  18th  century  they  had 
in  all  about  -300  bouses ;  but  the  order  is  now  almost 
extinct.  About  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  it  was 
stated  that  in  France  the  "  redemptions  "  up  to  that  time 
had  numbered  246,  the  number  of  prisoners  bought  off 
being  30,720,  for  Castile  and  Leon  the  corresponding 
figures  were  362  and  1 1,809  The  order  is  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  the  "  ordo  asinnrum  "  from  the  circumstance 
that  originally  its  members  were  not  permitted  to  use 
any  other  beast  of  burden.  In  France  they  were  known 
as  Mathurins  from  the  chapel  of  St  Mathurin  or  Mathelin 
in  Paris,  which  belonged  to  them. 

TRINITY  HOUSE,  Corporation  op  An  associatioti 
of  English  mariners,  which  originally  had  its  head-quarters 
at  Deptford  in  Kent.  In  its  first  charter,  received  from 
Benry  VIII.  in  1514,  it  was  described  as  the  "guild  or 
fraternity  of  the  most  glorious  and  undividable  Trinity  of 
&t  Clement,"  the  court  being  made  to  consist  of  master, 


wardens,  and  assistants,  numbering  thirteen  in  all  an<} 
elected  annually  by  the  brethren.  Deptford  having  been 
made  a  royal  dockyard  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  being  the 
station  where  outgoing  ships  were  .supplied  with  pilots, 
the  corporation  rapidly  developed  its  influence  and  useful- 
ness. By  Hcfiry  VIII.  it  was  entrusted  with  the  direction 
of  the  new  naval  dockyard.  From  Elizabeth,  who  con- 
ferred on  it  a  grant  of  arms  in  1-573,  it  received  authority 
to  erect  beacon.s  and  other  marks  for  the  guidance  of  navi- 
gators along  the  coasts  of  England.  It  was  also  recog- 
nized as  the  authority  in  the  construction  of  ve,ssels  for  the 
royal  navy.  In  1604  a  select  class  was  constituted  called 
elder  brethren,  the  other  members  being  called  younger 
brethren.  By  the  charter  of  1609  the  sole  management 
of  affairs  wa*  conferred  on  the  elder  brethren,  the  younger 
brethren,  however,  having  a  vote  in  the  election  of  master 
and  wardens.  The  practical  duties  of  the  fraternity  are 
discharged  by  the  acting  elder  brethren,  who  have  all  had 
experience  in  naval  affairs ;  but  as  a  mark  of  honour 
persons  of  rank  and  eminence  are  admitted  as  elder 
brethren  and  now  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  mem- 
bers. In  1647  the  corporation  was  dissolved  by  parlia- 
ment, but  it  was  reconstructed  in  1660,  and  the  charter 
was  renewed  by  James  II.  in  1685.  A  new  hall  and 
almshouses  were  erected  at  Deptford  in  1765,  but  for 
some  time  the  offices  of  the  corporation  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  London,  and  in  1798  their  headfjuarters  were 
removed  to  Trinity  House,  Tower  Hill,  built  from  the 
designs  of  Wyatt.  By  an  Act  of  1836  they  received 
powers  to  purchase  from  the  crown,  as  well  as  from 
private  piroprietors,  all  interests  in  coast  lights.  For 
the  maintenance  of  lights,  buoys,  ic,  they  had  power  to 
raise  money  by  tolls,  the  surplus  being  devoted  to  the  i 
relief  of  old  and  indigent  mariners  or  their  near  relatives. 
In  1853  the  control  of  the  funds  collected  by  the  corpora- 
tion was  transferred  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  the  money 
over  which  the  brethren  were  all6wed  independent  control 
was  ultimately  reduced  to  the  private  income  derived  from 
funded  and  trust  properfy.  Their  practical  duties  in  the 
erection  of  lighthouses,  buoys,  and  beacons  remain  as  im- 
portant as  ever,  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  their 
service  being  over  800.  They  also  examine  navignting 
lieutenants  in  the  royal  navj',  and  act  as  nautical  advisers 
in  the  High  Court  of  Admiralty 

TRINITY  SUNDAY,  which  immediately  follows  Whit- 
Sunday,  was  in  the  older  liturgies  regarded  merely  as  the 
"  Octave  "  of  Pentecost.  The  habit  of  keeping  it  as  a 
distinct  festival  seems  to  have  sprung  up  about  the  1 1th 
century  According  to  Gervase  of  Canterbury,  it  was 
Thomas  Becket  who  introduced  it  into  England  in  1162. 
The  universal  observance  of  it  was  established  by  Pope 
John  XXII    in  1334 

TRIPOLI  a  North  African  state,  bounded  by  the  Medi  Plat«  V 
terranean  on  the  north,  by  the  desert  of  Barca  (or  Libyan 
Desert),  which  separates  it  from  Egypt,  on  the  east,  by 
the  Sahara  and  Fezzan  on  the  south-east,  south,  and  south- 
west, and  by  Tunis  on  the  northwest.  The  country  is 
made  up  of  a  strip  of  fertile  .soil  adjacent  to  the  sea, 
with  vast  sandy  plains  and  parallel  chains  of  rocky  moun- 
tains, which  finally  join  the  Atlas  range  near  Kairwin  in 
Tunis  It  is  naturally  divided  into  five  parts,  viz., — Tripoli 
proper,  to  the  northeast  of  which  is  the  plateau  of  Barca 
and  Jebel  al-Akhdar,  to  the  south  the  oasis  of  Fezzan,  to 
the  south-east  that  of  Aujala,  and  to  the  south-west  that 
of  Ghadimes.'     It  is  very  badly  watered     the  rivers  are 

'  Concerning  the  Iast-nam»d  districts  full  information  can  t»e  found  in 
Sahara  und  Sudxm  (Berlin.  1879-81)  by  Dr  Nachtigal,  who  continued 
the  explorations  of  southcrD  Tripoli  commenced  by  R:irtli  and  Roblfs. 
Consult  also  /Narrative  of  Travfls  and  Discui^crij'.s  in  NorUicrn  and 
Central  A/riia,  by  Deuham,  Clapperton,  and  Oudney,  London,  1826, 


TRIPOLI 


575, 


ttnall  and  the  desert  wells  and  watering  places  are  often 
dry.  As  regards  the  coast,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  fix 
the  exact  border  between  Egypt  and  Tripoli.  The  sea- 
board of  the  Libyan  Desert  is  so  little  known  to  Europeans 
that  the  spacious  harbours  of  Tebruk  (Tabraca  and  Tabarlja) 
and  Bomba  (Bombaea)  have  almost  escaped  notice.  The 
land  bordering  the  sea  to  the  west  of  Cape  RAs  al-T(n  does 
not  partake  of  the  sterile  character  of  the  wastes  of  Barca. 
The  district  of  Jebel  al-Akhdar  ("the  Green  Mountain"), 
which  intervenes  between  Ris  alTln  and  Benghizi,  abounds 
ID  wood,  water,  and  other  resources  ,  but  its  ports  are 
scarcely  worthy  of  the  name,  except  Derna  (Darnis),  where 
Tessels  from  Alexandria  call  to  embark  honey,  wool,  and 
wax.  From  Mersi  Saza  (Apollonia,  later  Sozusa),  now  a 
mere  boat  cove,  but  once  a  powerful  city  of  Cyrenaica,  to 
Bengh4zi  the  coast  abounds  in  extensive  ruins.  Benghizi 
itself,  on  the  Bay  of  Sidra  (Syrtis  Major),  is  an  insignificant 
fortified  town  trading  in  cattle  and  other  produce.  The 
principal  products  of  the  country  are  corn,  barley,  olives, 
saffron,  figs,  and  dates, — these  last  being  perhaps  the  finest 
in  the  whole  of  North  Africa.  Fruit  also  is  abundant  in  cer- 
tain parts,  and  so  are  many  kinds  of  vegetables.  The  horses 
and  mules,  though  small  are  capable  of  much  hard  work. 
The  native  tissues  and  pottery  are  almost  as  good  as  those 
of  Tunis.  Great  quantities  of  castor  oil  come  from  Tad- 
jura.  In  consequence  of  recent- events  in  Tunis,  Tripoli 
has  become  the  last  surviving  centre  of  the  caravan  trade 
to  Northern  Africa.  It  is  at  least  250  miles  nearer  the 
great  marts  of  the  interior  than  either  Tunis  or  Algiers. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  commerce  of  Tripoli  is  in  the 
hands  of  British  merchants  or  dealers  in  British  goods,  who 
tend  cloth,  cutlery,  and  cotton  fabrics  southwards  and  re- 
ceive in  return  esparto  grass,  ivory,  and  ostrich  feathers. 
The  sirocco  blows  with  great  force  at  times  during  the 
autumn,  and  the  heat  is  as  a  rule  much  greater'  than  in 
Tunis.  The  climate  is  very  variable  ,  cold  nights  often 
succeed  warm  days ;  storms  are  of  frequent  occurrence  ; 
and  rain  is  at  times  wanting  for  many  months.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  capital  Tripoli  (see  below),  called  Tar^bulus 
al-Gharb  to  distinguish  it  from  the  town  of  the  same 
name  in  Syria,  the  only  important  places  are  Murzuk  and 
Ghadimes  in  the  interior  and  Benghazi  (Berenice)  on  the 
coast.  The  population  of  the  country  consists  of  Moors, 
Arabs,  Kabyles,  Kuluglis  (descendants  of  Turkish  fathers 
and  Moorish  mothers),  Turks,  Jews,  Europeans,  and 
Negroes.  Nothing  like  a  census  has  ever  been  attempted, 
and  the  number  of  inhabitants  is  purely  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture. In  the  interior  the  population  is  very  scattered, 
and  it  is  not  probable  that  the  total  exceeds  from  800,000 
to  a  million.  The  Europeans  (2500  or  3000)  on  the  coast 
are  nearly  all  Maltese.  There  is  a  Jewish  colony  of  about 
4000  in  the  capital,  and  the  trade  is  almost  entirely  in 
their  hands  and  in  those  of  the  Maltese.' 

Since  1835  Tripoli  has  lost  the  semi-independent  character  of  a 
regency  which  it  formerly  enjoyed  in  common  with  Tunis,  and  has 
become  a  vilayet  or  outlying  province  of  the  Turkish  einpire.  Foi 
sdmiiiistrative  purposes  it  is  divided  into  five  districts,  which 
are  again  subdivided  into  twenty-tive  cantons,  the  former  being 
governed  by  motajsarnfs  and  'he  latter  by  caimacams.  Each  vill. 
a^e  has  its  sheikh,  who  is  assisted  by  a  sort  of  municipal  council. 
Since  the  invasion  of  Tunis  by  the  French,  the  Turkish  garrison 
of  Tripoli  has  been  considerably  reinforced,  and  many  new  fortifi- 
cations err  pariKlIy  erected  on  the  coast.  The  chief  judge  or  cadi 
1.1  nominated  by  the  Porte,  the  ma/tu  are  subject  to  his  authority. 
There  are  also  a  criminal  court  and  a  commercial  tribunal.  Tlie 
taxe.*  are  collected  by  a  receiver -general,  also  nominated  from 
Constantinople,  and  they  press  very  heavily  on  all  classes  of  the 

I  '  The  bej.t  known  English  work  on  Tripoli  is  F  W.  and  H.  W. 
Beechey'i  Procetdings  of  the  Exp^ditum  to  Explore  the  NoHhem  Coast 
0/  Af-nra  from  Tripoh  KastuxLTds.  London,  1828.  Admiral  W.  H. 
Smytti'e  Mtdurrrmiean,  London,  1854,  contains  a  description  of  the 
eomt  See  aluo  Itie,  Country  0/  the  Moors.  London,  1877,  and  Broad- 
J»y,  Tunu  full  and  I'reaent,  Londou  and  Edinburgh,  1882.  ^ 


inhabitants.  The  principal  sources  of  revenue  are  the  usual  Mo- 
hammedan taxes.  The  constant  succession  of  Turkish  governors, 
each  of  whom  invariably  follows  a  different  policy  from  that  of  his 
predecessor,  has  been  fatal  to  the  material  progress  of  the  country. 
There  are  few  elementary  schools  in  the  capital,  and  instruction 
in  Ihj  interior  is  entirely  limited  to  the  Koran. 

History. — After  falling  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Phce- 
nicians,  Romans  (a  four-sided  triumphal  arch,  erected  in  honour 
of  Aurelius  Antoninus  and  Auielius  Pius,  still  stands  near  ths 
Marina  gate),  Vandals,  and  Greeks,  Tripoli  was  finally  conquered 
by  the  Arabs  twelve  centuries  ago,  and  has  remauied  a  Moslem 
state  ever  since.  In  1510  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  of  Spain  took 
it,  and  thirteen  years  later  it  was  given  to  the  Knights  of  St  John, 
who  were  expelled  in  1553  by  the  Turkish  corsairs  Dragut  and  Sinan. 
Dragut,  who  afterwards  fell  in  Malta,  lies  buried  in  a  much  vener- 
ated kubba  close  to  one  of  the  mosques.  After  his  decease  the  con-' 
nexion  between  Tripoli  and  Constantinople  seems  to  have  been 
considerably  weakened.  But  the  Tripolitan  pirates  soon  became  the 
terror  and  scourge  of  the  Mediterranean ;  half  the  states  of  Europe 
seem  at  some  time  or  other  to  have  sent  their  fleets  to  bombard  the 
capital.  In  1714,  when  Hosain  ibn  'All  founded  the  present  line 
of  the  beys  of  Tunis,'  Ahmed  Pasha  Caramanli  achieved  iudepend-i 
ence,  and  his  descendants  governed  Tripoli  until  1835.  In  that 
year  the  Turks  took  advantage  of  a  civil  war  to  reassert  their 
authority,  and  since  that  date  Tripoli  has  been  governed  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  sultan.  'i 

The  khouan  (ikhwdn)  or  semi-religious  semi. political  fraternities 
which  exercise  such  considerable  influence  in  Tunis,  Algeria,  andi 
Morocco  are  perhaps  still  more  powerful  in  Tripoli.      The  most' 
remarkable  is  that  of  the  Senusiya,  the  centre  of  whose  authority} 
IS  Jaghbub  or   Jerabub,  north-west  of  the  oasis  of  Siwa.      The) 
sectaries  of  Seniisiya  are  found  in  all  parts  of  North  Africa,  but' 
exist  in  unusual  force  iu  Tripoli,  and  particularly  in  Ghadaniesj 
and  Murzuk.      A  certain  halo  of  romance  surrounds  the  history  I 
of  this  powerful  sect  ;   but  its  chief  has,  up  to  the  present  time! 
(1887),  not  played  any  conspicuous  part  111  the  aflairs  of  the  Soudan 
or  in  those  of  the  J><urth  African  littoral.     Mohammed  el-Seniisi 
came  originally  in  1830  from  llostaghaneni  in  Algeria.     He  acquired 
a  high  reputation  for  sanctity  at  Fez  in  Morocco.     After  a  visit  to 
Mecca  and  the  holy  places  he  started  a  zdwiya  or  convent  college 
at  Alexandria,  but,  being  excommunicated  by  the  sheikh  al-Islani 
at  Cairo,  he  fled  across  the  Libyan  Desert  to  the  Jebel  al-Akhdar 
near  Benghazi.      He  afterwards  removed  to  Jaghbub,  whidi  has 
never  been  visited  by  any  European  traveller.     Here  he  est.iblished 
his  zawiya  in  the  midst  of  palm-groves  and  soon  gathered  nearly 
a   thousand   followers.      His  austere  doctrines  are  received  with 
enthusiasm  in  the  Moslem  states  of  Northern  and  Central  Africa, 
He  established  some  one  hundred  sanctuaries  in  every  considerable 

filace  between  Morocco  and  Mecca,  and  appointed  niukaddemin  or 
ieutenants  in  nearly  every  part  of  Islam.  Sentisi  the  elder  died 
in  1860  and  was  succeed&d  by  his  son,  who  bore  the  title  of  Al- 
Mahdi.  Under  bis  rule  the  prosperity  of  the  zawiya  at  Jerabub  is 
said  to  have  greatly  increased.  Pilgrims  to  Mecca  from  North 
Africa,  as  well  as  those  coming  from  Bornou  and  the  Saharan  pro* 
vinces,  flock  there  to  seek  his  blessing.  He  not  only  receives  caravans  • 
of  ivory  and  ostrich  feathers  from  the  ditferent  sultans  of  the  in- 
terior, but  cargoes  of  arms  and  ammunition  often  arrive  for  him  at 
the  almost  unknown  harbours  of  the  coast.  Rohlfs,  Nachtigal,  and 
Duveyrier  found  their  passage  barred  by  Scnusian  agents.  It  waa 
confidently  expected  Scniisi  would  make  some  denumstration  at  the 
beginning  of  the  14th  century  of  the  Hijra  (November  1882).  Hia 
followers  were,  however,  doomed  to  disappointment  _  Most  of  the 
Tripolitan  sheikhs  are  aflSliated  to  the  Seniisiya  confraternity. 

From  an  archieological  point  of  view  Tripoli  possesses  an  interest 
equal  to,  if  not  greater  than,  that  which  attaches  to  Tunis.  On 
this  subject  the  fullest  information  is  afforded  by  the  book  of  the 
Beecheys,  and  in  a  less  degree  by  that  of  Mr  Rae.  The  former  ia 
illustrated  by  .numerous  plans  and  engravings  and  still  aflbrds  the 
safest  guide  to  the  antiquities  of  Tripoli.  (A.  M.  B.)     I 

TRIPOLI,  the  capital  of  the  above  country,  is  situated 
in  32"  53' •40"  N.  lat.  and  13°  11'  32"  E.  long.,  on  a  pro-f 
montory  stretching  out  into  the  Mediterranean  and  forming 
a  small  bay.  Its  crenellated  enceinte  wall  has  the  form  of 
an  irregular  pentagon.  A  line  of  small  half-ruined  forts 
is  supposed  to  protect  one  side  of  the  harbour,  and  the. 
castle  of  the  governor  the  other.  The  desert  almost  touches 
the  western  side  of  the  city,  while  on  the  east  is  the  ver- 
dant oasis  of  Mesliiga,  where  are  still  to  be  seen  the  tomb* 
of  the  Caramanlian  sultanas  and  the  twelve-domed  7tiar- 
about  of  f^y  Hamonda.     In  the  town  itself  there  are  seven 


*  The  Letters  (London,  1819)  of  Richard  Tully,  who  wa-s  consul  at| 
Tripoli  from  1783  to  1793,  throw  n  straiifo  and  vivid  light  ou  Tsi^ 
politan  life  during  the  18tU  ceulury. 


576 


T  R  I  — T  R  I 


principal  mosques,  six  ot  them  possessing  lofty  minarets 
in  the  Turkish  style.  The  streets  are  narrow,  dirty,  and 
nnpaved ;  there  is  no  European  quarter  properly  so  called  : 
Tripoli  is  still  a  typical  Moorish  city.  Its  population  num- 
bers about  20,000. 

TRIPOLI  (Tardbulits),  a  town  of  Syria,  capital  of 
Liwa,  on  the  river  Kadlsha  or  Abu  'Ali,  in  34°  26'  N.  lat. 
and  35°  50'  E.  long.,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  maritime  plain 
covered  ^vith  orchards  and  dominated  by  a  castle  over- 
hanging a  gorge  of  the  river,  some  parts  of  which  are, 
perhaps,  the  work  of  the  crusaders.  The  port  (AJ-M(n4) 
is  about  two  miles  distant,  on  a  small  peninsula.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  17,000,  with  the  port  at  24,000 
or  a  little  more.  Nearly  half  of  these  are  Christians,  the 
Maronites  preponderating.  There  is  a  considerable  export 
of  silk  cocoons  and  a  native  silk  manufacture  ,  the  sponge 
fishery  is  a  large  industry  ;  to.bacco  is  exported  ,  and  soap 
is  made  from  the  olive  oil  of  the  district.  There  are 
eighteen  churches,  and  several  monasteries,  nunneries,  and 
large  kh^ns. 

1  The  ancient  Phoenician  city  which  we  know  only  by  its  Greek' 
name  of  Tripolis  was  the  seat  in  Persian  times  of  the  federal 
council  of  Sidon,  Tyre,  and  Aradus,  each  of  which  cities  had  its 
separate  quarter  in  the  "  triple  town"  (see  vol  xviii  p.  809).  In 
the  second  and  first  centuries  B.C.  it  struck  coins,  on  which  it  is 
designated  a  "  holy  and  autonomous"  city.  These  are  succeeded 
'by  imperial  coins  ranging  from  32  B.C.  to  221  a. D.  About  450, 
and  again  in  550,  it  was  destroyed  by  earthquake.  The  Arabs 
took  it  in  638  after  a  prolonged  siege,  the  inhabitants  withdrawing 
by  sea.  It  appears  from  Beladhorl  (p.  127)  thJt  at  this  time  the 
city  still  consisted  of  three  fortified  places.  Moawiya  recruited 
the  population  by  a  colony  of  Jews  and  gave  it  fortifications  and  a 
garrison  against  the  naval  attacks  of  the  Greeks,  who,  notwith- 
standing,  retook  it  for  a  brief  space  in  the  time  of  Abdalmalik 
(Beladh.,  ul  sup.).  It  was  again  taken  by  tlie  Greeks  in  the  war  of 
966-69  and  was  besieged  by  Basil  II.  in  995,  after  which  date  it 
was  held  by  a  garrison  in-  the  pay  of  the  Fatimite'  caliplis  of 
Egvpt,  who  treated  the  city  with  favour  and  maintained  in  it  a 
trading  fleet  At  this  time,  according  to  the  description  of  Nasiri 
Ehosrau  (ed.  Schefer,  p.  40  sqq.),  who  visited  it  in  1017,  it  lay  on 
the  peninsula  of  Al-Mina,  bathed  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  and 
had  about  20,000  inhabitants  and  important  industries  of  sugar 
anil-  paper-making.  Of  the  great  sea-walls  and  towers  there  are 
still  imposing  remains.  From  this  date  till  it  was  taken  by  the 
crusaders,  after  a  five  years'  siege,  in  1109,  the  ruling  family  was 
that  of  'Ammar,  who  founded  a  library  of  over  100,000  volumes. 
Under  the  crusaders  Tripoli  continued  to  flourish,  exported  glass 
to  Venice,  and  had  40.00  looms  (Quatrem^re,  Hist,  des  Sultans 
Mamlouks,  iL  103).  In  1289  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the 
Bultan  Kalaiin.  of  Egypt,  and  a  new  city  was  begun  on  the  present 
site,  which  rapidly  rose  to  ijnportance  (Ibn  Batiita,  i.  137).  Its 
mediaeval  prosperity  has  obliterated  most  relics  of  remoter  antiquity. 

See  Renan,  Mission  de  PMnicity  p.  129  sqfj. 

'  TRIPOLITZA,  officially  Tripolis,  a  town  of  Greece, 
capital  of  the  nomarchy  of  Arcadia,  is  situated  in  a  plain 
3000  feet  above  sea-level,  22  miles  south-west  of  Argos. 
The  name  has  reference  to  the  three  ancient  cities  of  Man- 
tinea,  Pallantium,  and  Tegea,  of  which  Tripolitza  is  the 
modern  representative.  Before  the  war  of  independence  it 
was  the  capital  of  the  Morea  and  the  seat  of  a  pasha,  with 
about  20^000  inhabitants;  but  in  1821  it  was  taken  and 
Backed  by  the  insurgents,  and  in  1825  its  ruin  was  com- 
pleted by  Ibrahim  Pasha.  The  town  has  since  been  re- 
built, and  now  (1887)  contains  about  10,000  inhabitants. 

TRISMEGISTUS.     See  Hermes  Teismegistus. 

TRISTAN.     See  Romance,  vol.  xx.  p.  644  sq. 

TRISTAN  DA  CUNHA,  a  group  of  three  small  vol- 
canic islands,  situated  in  the  South  Atlantic  nearly  midway 
between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  coast  of  South 
America,  the  summit  of -the  largest  being  in  37°  5'  50"  S. 
lat.  and  12°  16'  40"  W.  long.  They  rise  from  the  low 
submarine  elevation  which  runs  down  the  centre  of  the 
Atlantic  and  on  which  are  likewise  situated  Ascension,  St. 
Paul's  Rocks,  and  the  Azores  ;  the  average  depth  on  this 
ridge  is  from  IGOO  to  1700  fathoms,  while  depths  of  3000 
fathoms  are  found  on  fiach  side  of  it     The  depth  between 


the  islands  is  in  some  places  over  1000  fatnoms.  Trisfaa^ 
the  largest  and  northernmost  island,  is  nearly  circular  is 
form,  about  7  miles  in  diameter,  with  a  volcanic  cone  in 
the  centre  (7640  feet).  Precipitous  cliffs,  1000  to  2000 
feet  in  height,  rise  directly  from  the  ocean  on  all  sides, 
except  on  the  north-west,  where  there  is  an  irregular  plain, 
100  feet  above  the  sea,  and  2J  miles  in  length  and  J  mile 
in  breadth.  The  crater  of  the  central  cone  is  said  to  be 
filled  with  a  freshwater  lake  which  never  freezes.  Inac- 
cessible Island,  the  westernmost  of  the  group,  is  about  20 
miles  from  Tristan.  It  is  quadrilateral  in  form,  the  sides 
being  about  2  miles  long.  The  highest  point  (1840  feet) 
is  on  the  west  side ,  all  round  there  are  perpendicular  cliffs 
1000  feet  in  height.  At  the  base  of  these  are  in  some 
places  narrow  fringes  of  beach  a  few  feet  above  the  sea- 
leveL  Nightingale  Island,  the  smallest  and  most  southern 
of  the  group,  is  10  mUes  from  Inaccessible  Island.  Its 
coasts,  unlike  those  of  the  other  two  islands,  are  surrounded 
by  low  cliffs,  from  which  there  is  a  gentle  slope  up  to  two 
peaks,  the  one  1 100  feet,  the  other  960  feet  high.  There 
are  two  small  islets — Stoltenkoff  (325  feet)  and  Middle 
(150  feet) — and  several  rocks  adjacent  to  the- coast.  The 
rocks  are  feldspathic  basalt,  dolerite,  augite-andesite,  side- 
romelane,  and  palagonite ;  some  specimens  of  the  basalt 
have  porphyritic  augite.  The  caves  in  Nightingale  Island 
indicate  that  it  has  been  elevated  several  feet.  On  almost 
all  sides  the  islands  are  surrounded  by  a  broad  belt  of 
kelp,  the  gigantic  southern  sea-weed  (it/acrocysftspyT-i/era), 
through  which  a  boat  may  approach  the  rocky  shores  even 
in  stormy  weather.  There  is  no  good  or  safe  anchorage. 
The  beaches  and  lower  lands  are  covered  with  a  dense 
growth  of  tussock  grass  (Spartina  arun,dinaced),  8  to 
10  feet  in  height,  which  shelters  millions  of  penguins 
{Eudyptes  chrysocoma),  which  there  form  their  rookeries. 
There  is  one  small  tree  {Phylica  nitida),  which  grows  in 
detached  patches  on  the  lower  groimds.  Independently 
of  introduced  plants,  fifty-five  species  have  been  collected 
in  the  group,  twenty. nine  being  flowering  plants  and 
twenty-six  ferns  and  lycopods.  A  majority  of  the  species 
are  characteristic  of  the  present  general  flora  of  the  south 
temperate  zone  rather  than  any  particular  part  of  it : 
botanically  the  group  is  generally  classed  with  the  islands 
of  the  Southern  Ocean.  A  finch  {Nesospisa  acunkx),  a 
thrush  (Nesocichla  eremita),  and  a  water  hen  (GaMnula 
nesiotis)  are  the  only  land  birds — the  first  two .  being 
peculiar  to  the  islands.  In  addition  to  the  penguins 
numerous  other  sea  birds  nest  on  the  islands,  as  petrels, 
albatrosses,  terns,  skuas,  and  prions.  One  or  two  land 
shells,  a  few  spiders,  several  Coleoptera,  a  small  lepidopter, 
and  a  few  other  insects  are  recorded,  but  no  Orthoptera  or 
Hym'moptera.  The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly.  De- 
cember to  March  is  the  fine  season.  The  climate  is  mild 
and  on  the  whole  healthy,  the  temperature  averaging  68° 
Fahr.  in  summer,  55°  in  winter, — sometimes  falling  to  40° 
Rain  is  frequent ;  hail  and  snow  fall  occasionally  on  the 
lower  grounds.  The  sky  is  usually  cloudy.  The  islands 
have  a  cold  and  barren  appearance.  The  tjde  rises  and 
falls  about  four  feet. 

The  islands  were  discovered  and  named  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1506.  The  Dutch  described  them  in  1643.  D'Etchevem  landed 
on  them  in  the  year  1767,  when  he  gave  Nightingale  and  In- 
accessible Islands  their  names.  Their  exact  geographical  position 
was  determined  by  Captain  Denham  in  1852,  and  the  "Challenger" 
completed  the  exjiloration  of  the  group  in  1873.  When  first  dis- 
covered the  islands  were  uninhabitiSiJ.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
18th  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  several  sealers  resided 
on  them  for  longer  or  shorter  periods.  In  1816  the  islands  were 
taken  possession  of  by  Great  Britain.  In  1817  the  garrison  was 
withdrawn,  but  Corporal  William  Glass,  his  wife  and  I'amily,  and 
two  men  were  allowed  to  remain.  This  small  colony  received  addi- 
tions from  time  to  time  from  shipwrecks,  from  whalers,  and  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     In  1826  there  were  7  men  and  2  women 


VOL.  XXIII. 


TRIPOLI    J 


GULF     or 


=^"9^^^       "V^t^O/     Gtir^^ 

FaghAa^  (lega)  F* 

dune    s    /    o  f  E    d   e_y  en         ^i^  •'  "Jj^ii  v 


elldirtuy 


(^    «Gatr6ii(aoo) 


IGutta. 


I'age  514! 


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f^  JBenGnemi 


J.^D    TUJN'IS 


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-,  vJaraln;  b  0cu^hind 


iter,  ^luja^^  '''^*^' . 


•  Ghxri^^       (ipa^isofGarah.  / 

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T  R  I— T  R  0 


577 


besides  >.hildn;D.  In  1S73  there  were  84  inhabitants,  in  18S6  97. 
They  possess  cattle,  sheep,  and  geese.  There  are  usually  good 
potato  crops.  The  settlement  has  always  been  on  the  flat  stretch 
of  land  on  the  north-west  of  Tristan,  and  is  called  Edinburgh.  Two 
Germans  lived  for  several  years  on  Inaccessible  Island,  bnt  with 
this  exception  there  have  been  do  settlements  either  on  this  or  on 
Nightingale  Island. 

TRITON.  The  genus  Triton  was  constituted  by  Lau- 
renti,  in  his  Synopsis  Beplilium,  and  the  name  was  adopted 
by  nearly  all  writers  on  Amphibia.  In  Brii.  Mvs.  Cat.: 
Bairachia  Gradientia,  by  G.  A.  Boulenger,  the  genus  is 
expanded  and  called  by  the  name  Molge,  which  was  used 
by  Merrem  in  his  Teniamen  Syst.  Amphibia,  1820.  The 
genus  belongs  to  the  division  ilecodonta  .of  the  family 
Salamandrida  in  Strauch's  classification  (see  jVmphibia, 
vol.  i.  p.  77 1).  The  definition  of  Molge  given  by  Boulenger, 
which  closely  agrees  with  that  of  Triton  adopted  by  Strauch, 
is  as  follows.  Tongue  free  along  the  sides,  adherent  or 
somewhat  free  posteriorly.  Palatine  teeth  in  two  straight 
or  slightly  curved  series.  Fronto-squamosal  arch  present 
(except  in  M.  cristatus),  ligamentous  or  bony.  Toes  five. 
Tail  compressed.  In  Bell's  British  Eeptihs,  2d  ed.,  1849, 
fotir  species  were  described  as  occurring  in  Britain.  Ac- 
cording to  Boulenger,  there  are  only  three  British  species, 
Mdge  crislala,  Boul.  (Laurenti),  M.  vulgaris,  Boul.  (Linn.), 
and  J/,  palmata,  Boul.  (Schneider).  We  give  a  short  ac- 
count of  these  under  the  names  Triton  cristatits,  T.  iml- 
garis,  and  T.  patmatus  respectively. 

The  name  Triton  cristatus  for  the  first  species  has  been  used  by 
a  great  number  of  authoritative  writers  on  Amphibia,  including 
Laurenti,  Tschudi,  Bonaparte,  Dumeril  and  Bibron,  and  Strauch, 
and  also  by  Bell  and  Fleming  among  students  of  British  fauna.* 
The  diagnosis  of  T.  cristatus  is  as  follows : — The  males  have  a 
dorsal  crest  which  is  toothed  ;  the  fronto-squamosal  arch  is  absent ; 
the  colour  of  the  ventral  surface  is  orange  ivith  black  spots.  This 
species  is  commonly  known  as  the  great  water-newt.  The  average 
length  of  the  adult  is  6  inches.  The  colours  are  most  brilliant  in 
the  male,  and  more  developed  in  the  breeding  scasoiT— spring  and 
snmmer — than  in  winter.  The  back  is  blackish  or  yellowish  brown, 
with  round  black  spots ;  the  sides  of  the  tail  are  white.  The 
dorsal  crest  of  the  male  is  separated  entirely  from  the  tail  crest, 
and  both  disappear  in  winter.  The  skin  is  covered  with  warty 
tubercles.  There  are  no  parotids  ;  but  glandular  pores  are  present 
over  the  eyes  and  in  a.  longitudinal  series  along  each  side.  The 
species  is  pretty  common  in  ponds  and  ditches  in  most  parts  of 
Britain,  but  more  abundant  in  the  south  than  in  the  north  ;  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  London  it  is  found  in  great  numbers.  Its 
food  consists  of  aquatic  insects  and  other  small  animals ;  in  the 
spring  it  devours  the  young  tadpoles  of  the  frog  with  avidity,  and 
occasionally  it  feeds  on  the  smaller  species,  T.  vulgaris.  In  winter 
it  hibernates,  either  quitting  the  water  and  biding  under  stones  or 
remaining  torpid  at  the  bottom  of  the  water.  It  breeds  chiefly  in 
May  and  June.  As  in  all  Salavumdrida,  a  true  copulation  takes 
place  and  the  fertilization  of  the  ova  is  internal.  The  female 
deposits  each  egg  separately  in  the  fold  of  a  leaf,  which  she  bends 
by  means  of  her  hind  feet ;  the  adhesive  slime  surrounding  the 
vitellus  keeps  the  leaf  folded.  The  tadpole  when  first  hatched  is 
much  more  fish-like  in  form  than  that  of  thefrog,  the  body  dimin- 
ishing in  thickness  gradually  to  the  end  of  the  tail.  A  continuous 
median  fin  runs  along  the  back  from  the  head,  round  the  end  of  the 
tail,  along  the  ventral  median  line,  to  the  region  of  the  gills,  thus 
extending,  as  in  many  fish  larva,  in  front  of  the  anus.  The  larva 
possesses  three  pairs  of  branched  external  gills,  and  in  front  of 
these  a  pair  of  processes  by  which  it  can  adhere  to  fixed  objects  in 
the  water.  T.  cristatus  is  abundant  throughout  Europe,  ranging 
from  Sweden  and  Russia  southwards  to  Gr.ece,  and  from  Britain 
to  the  Caucasus. 

The  diagnosis  of  T.  vulgaris,  the  Lissolriion  punctatus  of  Bell, 
Is  :— Males  with  a  dorsal  crest  continuous  with  the  caudal,  and 
festooned  ;  belly  not  brilliantly  coloured  ;  back  spotted.  This 
species,  often  called  the  common  or  small  newt,  has  a  smooth  skin, 
no  glandular  pores  on  the  sides,  but  two  patches  on  the  head.  It 
is  as  abundant  in  Britain  as  the  former,  or  more  so,  but  difl'ers 
Bomewhat  in  habits,  in  autumn  and  winter  being  almost  entirely 
terrestrial,  and  only  living  in  water  during  the  breeding  season. 
Like  the  former  species  it  is  carnivorous.  It  is  found  in  most  parts 
of  Britain,  and  throughout  Europe,  except  in  the  south  of  France, 
Spain,  and  Portugal ;  it  also  extends  into  temperate  Asia. 

T.  palmaius  Tschudi  (Schneider),  the  iMsolriton  palmipes  of 
Bell,  IS  thus  distinguished  : — Male  with  dorsal  crest,  which  is  low 

*'  "J^e  species  of  Tritoo  »re  wiled  in  English  efts,  evets,  or  newts. 


with  an  even  margin  and  continuous  with  tne  caudal  ;  fronto- 
squamosal  arch  long  ;  toes  in  male  webbed.  Other  less  distinctive 
features  are  that  the  back  is  flattened,  with  a  raised  line  on  each 
side,  and  the  tail  in  the  male  truncate,  terminating  in  »  short 
slender  filament.  This  species  is  not  so  common  in  Britain  as  the 
other  two;  it  is  widely  distributed  throughout  Europe.  It  was 
first  discovered  in  Britain  in  1843. 

Boulenger  recognizes  nineteeti  species  of  Molge,  of  which  nine 
besides  those  found  in  Britain  are  European.  Only  two  species 
occur  in  America.     Strauch  gives  twenty  species. 

TRIUMPH,  an  honour  awarded  to  generals  in  ancient 
Rome  for  decisive  victories  over  foreign  enemies ;  for 
victories  in  civil  war  or  over  rebels  a  triumph  was  not 
allowed.  The  power  of  granting  a  triumph  rested  with 
the  senate ;  and  it  was  a  condition  of  granting  it  that 
the  victorious  general,  on  his  return  from  the  war,  should 
not  have  entered  the  city  until  he  entered  it  in  triumph. 
Lucullus  on  his  return  from  Asia  vaited  outside  of  Rome 
three  years  for  his  triumph.  The  triumph  consisted  of  a 
solemn  procession,  which,  starting  from  the  Campus  Martius 
outside  the  city  walls,  passed  through  the  city  to  the  Capitol. 
Rome  was  en  fete,  the  streets  gay  with  garlands,  the 
temples  open.  The  procession  was  headed  by  the  magis- 
trates and  senate,  who  were  followed  by  trumpeters  and 
then  by  the  spoils,  which  included  not  only  arms,  standards, 
statues,  <tc.,  but  also  representations  of  battles,  and  of  the 
towns,  rivers,  and  mountains  of  the  conquered  country, 
models  of  fortresses,  itc.  Nest  came  the  victims  destined 
for  sacrifice,  especially  white  oxen  with  gilded  horns. 
They  were  followed  by  the  prisoners  who  had  not  been 
sold  as  slaves  but  kept  to  grace  the  triumph ;  they  were 
put  to  death  when  the  procession  reached  the  Capitol.  The 
chariot  which  carried  the  victorious  genera!  (triumphator)  ~ 
was  crowned  with  laurel  and  drawn  by  four  horses.  The 
general  was  attired  like  the  Capitoline  Jupiter  in  robes  of 
purple  and  gold  borrowed  from  the  treasury  of  the  god ; 
in  his  right  hand  he  held  a  laurel  branch,  in  his  left  at 
ivorj'  sceptre  with  an  eagle  at  the  point.  Above  his  head 
the  golden  crown  of  Jupiter  was  held  by  a  slave  who  re- 
minded him  in  the  midst  of  his  glory  that  he  was  a 
mortal  man.  Last  came  the  soldiers  shouting  lo  triumphe 
and  singing  songs  both  of  a  laudatory  and  scurrilous  kiiid. 
On  reaching  the  temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitol,  the 
general  placed  the  laurel  branch  (in  later  times  a  palm 
branch)  on  the  lap  of  the  image  of  the  god,  and  then 
offered  the  thank-offerings.  A  feast  of  the  magistrates 
and  senate,  and  sometimes  of  the  soldiers  and  people,  con- 
cluded the  cereinony,  which  in  earlier  times  lasted  one 
day  but  in  later  times  occupied  several.  A  naval  or 
maritime  triumph  was  sometimes  celebrated  for  victories 
at  sea.  Generals  who  were  not  allowed  a  regular  triumph 
by  the  senate  had  a  right  to  triumph  at  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Latiaris  on  the  Alban  Mount. 

TRIVANDRUM,  a  town  of  India,  capital  of  the  native 
state  of  Travancore  {q.v.),  is  situated  in  8°  29'  3"  N.  lat. 
and  76°  59'  9"  E.  long.,  near  the  coast,  pot  far  from  Cape 
Comorin.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  maharajah,  and  con- 
tains an  observatory  and  a  museum,  besides  several  other 
fine  buildings.  Commercially  it  is  inferior  in  importance 
to  Aleppi,  the  trade  centre  of  the  state.  In  1881  it  had  a 
population  of  37,652. 

TROAD  AND  TROY.     The  Troad  (>)  Tpu^s),  or  land  of  Geogr*. 
Troy,  is  the  north-western  promontory  of   Asia   Minor.!'*''"' 
The  name  "Troad"  is  never  used  by  Homer,— who  calls f'^^'"' 
the  land,  like  the  city,  Ipolrj, — but  is  already  known  to 
Herodotus.     The  Troad  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the '' 
Hellespont  and  the  westernmost  part  of  the  Propontis, 
on  the  west  by  the  yEgean  Sea,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
Gulf  of  Adramyttium.     The  eastern  limit  was  variously 
defined  by  ancient  writers.     In  the  widest  acceptation,  the 
Troad  was  identified  with  the  whole  of  western  and  south- 
western Mysia,  from  the  .lEseptis,  which  flows  into  the 

XIIL  -  73 


678 


T  R  0  A  D 


Propontis  a  little  west  of  Cyzicus,  to  the  Caicus,  which 
flows  into  the  ^gean  south  of  Atarneus.  But  the  true 
eastern  boundary  is  undoubtedly  the  range  of  Ida,  which, 
starting  from  near  the  south-east  angle  of  the  Adramyttian 
Gulf,  sends  its  north-western  spurs  nearly  to  the  coast  of 
the  Propontis,  in  the  region  west  of  the  yEsepus  and  east 
of  the  Granicua.  Taking  Ida  for  the  eastern  limit,  we 
have  the  definition  which,  as  Strabo  says,  best  corresponds 
with  the  actual  usage  of  the  name  Troad.  Ida  is  the  key 
to  the  physical  geography  of  the  whole  region ;  and  it  is 
the  peculiar  character  which  this  mountain-system  imparts 
to  the  land  west  of  it  that  constitutes  the  real  distinctness 
of  the  Troad  from  the  rest  of  Mysia.  Nature  has  here 
provided  Asia  Minor  with  an  outwork  against  invaders 
from  the  north  west ;  and  as  in  the  dawn  of  Greek  legend 
the  Troad  is  the  scene  of  the  struggle  between  Agamem- 
non and  Priam,  so  it  was  in  the  Troad  that  Alexander 
won  the  battle  which  opened  a  path  for  his  further 
advance. 
Natural  The  length  of  the  Troad  from  north  to  south — taking  a 
dirisions.  straight  line,from  the  north-west  point.  Cape  Sigeum  (Yeni 
Shehr),  to  the  south-west  point.  Cape  Leotum  (Babi-Calossi) 
— may  be  roughly  given  as  forty  miles.  The  breadth,  from 
the  middle  point  of  the  west  coast  to  the  main  range  of  Ida, 
is  not  much  greater.  The  whole  central  portion  of  this 
area  is  drained  by  the  Mendere  (the  ancient  Scamander), 
which  rises  in  Ida  and  is  by  far  the  most  important  river 
of  the  Troad.  The  basin  of  the  Mendere  is  divided  by 
hills  into  two  distinct  parts,  a  southern  and  a  northern 
plain.  The  southern — anciently  called  the  Samonian  plain 
— is  the  great  central  plain  of  the  Troad,  and  takes  its 
modern  name  from  Bairamitch,  the  chief  Turkish  town, 
which  is  situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  it  near  Ida.  It 
is  of  an  elongated  form,  the  extent  from  north  to  south 
being  large  in  proportion  to  the  average  width,  and  is  en- 
closed by  hills  which,  especially  towards  the  south,  are  low 
and  undulating.  From  the  north  end  of  the  plain  of  Bair- 
amitch the  Mendere  winds  in  large  curves  through  deep 
gorges  in  metamorphic  rocks,  and  issues  into  the  northern 
plain,  stretching  to  the  Hellespont.  This  is  the  plain  of 
Troy,  which  has  an  average  length  of  seven  or  eight  miles 
from  north  to  south,  with  a  breadth  of  some  two  or  three 
from  east  to  west.  The  hills  which  enclose  it  on  the  south 
and  east  are  quite  low,  and  towards  the  east  the  acclivities 
are  in  places  so  gentle  as  to  leave  the  limits  of  the  plain 
somewhat  indefinite.  Next  to  the  basin  of  the  Mendere, 
with  its  two  plains,  the  best  marked  feature  in  the  river- 
system  of  the  Troad  is  the  valley  of  the  Touzla,  the  ancient 
Satniois.  The  Touzla  rises  in  the  western  part  of  Mount 
Ida,  south  of  the  plain  of  Bairamitch,  from  which  its 
valley  is  divided  by  hills;  and,  after  flowing  for  many 
miles  almost  parallel  with  the  south  coast  of  the  Troad, 
from  which,  at  Assus,  it  is  less  than  a  mile  distant,  it 
enters  the  Mgeaa  about  ten  miles  north  of  Cape  Lectum. 
Three  alluvial  plains  are  comprised  in  its  course.  The 
easternmost  of  these,  into  which  the  river  issues  from 
rugged  mountains  of  considerable  height,  is  long  and 
narrow  The  next  is  the  broad  plain,  which  is  overlooked 
by  the  lofty  site  of  Assus,  and  which  was  a  fertile  source 
of  supply  to  that  city.  The  third  is  the  plain  at  the 
embouchure  of  the  river  on  the  west  coast.  This  was 
anciently  called  the  Halesian  ('AAiJo-ioi')  plain,  partly  from 
the  maritime  salt-works  at  Tragasa;,  near  the  town  of 
Hamaxitus,  partly  also  from  the  hot  salt-springs  which 
exist  at  some  distance  from  the  sea,  on  the  north  side  of 
the  river,  where  large  formations  of  rock-salt  are  also 
found.  Maritime  salt-works  are  still  in  operation  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and  its  modern  name  (Touzla  .=  salt) 
Cout».  preserves  the  ancient  association.  A  striking  feature  of 
the  southern  Troad  is  the  high  and  narrow  plateau  which 


runs  parallel  with  the  Adramyttian  Gulf  from  east  to  west, 
forming  a  southern  barrier  to  the  valley  of  the  Touzla, 
and  walling  it  off  from  a  thin  strip  of  seaboard.  This 
plateau  seems  to  have  been  formed  by  a  volcanic  upheaval 
which  came  late  in  the  Tertiary  period,  and  covered  the 
limestone  of  the  south  coast  with  two  successive  flows  of 
trachyte.  The  lofty  crag  of  Assus,  washed  by  the  sea,  is 
like  a  tower  standing  detached  from  this  line  of  mountain'' 
wall.  The  western  coast  is  of  a  different  character.' 
North  of  the  Touzla  extends  an  undulating  plain,  narrow 
at  first,  but  gradually  widening.  Much  of  it  is  covered 
with  the  valonia  oak  {Quercus  jEgilops),  one  of  'the  most 
valuable  products  of  the  Troad.  Towards  the  middle  of 
the  west  coast  the  adjacent  ground  becomes  higher,  with 
steep  acclivities,  which  sometimes  rise  into  peaks ;  and 
north  of  these,  again,  the  seaboard  subsides  to  war  "Is  Cape 
Sigeum  into  rounded  hills,  mostly  low. 

The  timber  of  the  Troad  is  supplied  chiefly  by  the  pine-  NatuftJ 
forests  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Ida.  But  nearly  all  theP"^''^'' 
plains  and  hills  are  more  or  less  well  wooded.  Besides  the 
valonia  oak,  the  elm,  willow,  cypress,  and  tamarisk  shrub 
abound.  Lotus,  galingale,  and  reeds  are  still  plentiful, 
as  in  Homeric  days,  about  the  streams  in  the  Trojan  plain. 
The  vine,  too,  is  cultivated,  the  Turks  making  from  it  a 
kind  of  syrup  and  a  preserve.  In  summer  and  autumn 
water-melons  are  among  the  abundant  fruits.  Cotton, 
wheat,  and  Indian  com  are  also  grown.  The  Troad  is, 
indeed,  a  country  highly  favoured  by  nature — with  its, 
fertile  plains  and  valleys,  abundantly  and  continually  irri 
gated  from  Ida,  its  numerous  streams,  its  fine  west  sea- 
board,'and  the  beauty  of  its  scenery.  Under  a  good 
government,  it  could  not  fail  to  be  exceedingly  prosperous. 
Under  Turkish  rule,  the  natural  advantages  of  the  land 
suffice  to  mitigate  the  poverty  of  the  sparse  population, 
but  have  scarcely  any  positive  result. 

In  the  Homeric  legend,  with  which  the  story  of  the  Early 
Troad  begins,  the  people  called  the  Troes  are  ruled  by  a'"^'°''y  t' 
king  Priam,  whose  realm  includes  all  that  is  bounded  by  f'^'^jLL 
"Lesbos,  Phrygia,  and  the  Hellespont"  {li.,  xxiv.  544), 
i.e.,  the  whole  "  Troad,"  with  some  extension  of  it,  beyond 
Ida,  on  the  north-west.  According  to  Homer,  the  Achaians 
under  Agamemnon  utterly  and  finally  destroyed  Troy,  the 
capital  of  Priam,  and  overthrew  his  dynasty.  But  there  is 
an  Homeric  prophecy  that  the  rule  over  the  Troes  shall  be 
continued  by  iEneas  and  his  descendants.  From  the 
"  Homeric  "  Hymn  to  Aphrodite,  as  well  as  from  a  passage 
in  the  20th  book  of  the  Iliad  (75-353) — a  passage  un- 
doubtedly later  than  the  bulk  of  the  book — it  is  certain 
that  in  the  seventh  or  sixth  century  B.C.  a  dynasty  claim-; 
ing  descent  from  /Eneas  reigned  in  the  Troad,  though  the 
extent  of  their  sway  is  unknown.  The  Homeric  tale  of 
Troy  is  a  poetic  creation,  for  which  the  poet  is  the  sole 
witness.  The  analogy  of  the  French  legends  of  Charle- 
magne warrants  the  supposition  that  an  Acha;an  prince 
once  held  a  position  like  that  of  Agamemnon.  We  may 
suppose  that  some  memorable  capture  of  a  town  in  the 
Troad  had  been  made  by  Greek  warriors.  But  we  cannot 
regard  the  Iliad  in  any  closer  or  more  exact  sen.se  as  the 
historical  document  of  a  war.  The  geographical  compact- 
ness of  the  Troad  is  itself  an  argument  for  the  truth  of 
the  Homeric  statement  that  it  was  once  united  under  » 
strong  king.  How  that  kingdom  was  finally  broken  up  is 
unknown.  Thracian  hordes,  including  the  Treres,  swept 
into  Asia  Minor  from  the  north-west  about  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  century  B.a,  and  it  is  probable  that,  like 
the  Gauls  and  Goths  of  later  days,  these  fierce  invaders 
made  havoc  in  the  Troad.  The  Ionian  poet  Callinus  has 
recorded  the  terror  which  they  caused  further  south. 

A  new  period  in  the  history  of  the  Troad  begins  with 
the  foundation  of  the  Greek  settlements.     The  earliest- 


T  R  O  A  D 


579 


Greek 

tetUe- 
aieot& 


Bnek 
ll>nD. 


and  most  important  of  these  were  ^olic.  Lesbos  and 
Cyme  in  ^olis  seem  to  have  been  the  chief  points  from 
which  the  first  jEolic  colonists  worked  their  way  into  the 
Troad.  Commanding  positions  on  the  coast,  such  as 
Assus  and  Sigeum,  .would  naturally  be  those  first  occupied ; 
and  some  of  them  may  have  been  in  the  hands  of  ^olians 
as  early  as  the  10th  century  B.C.  It  appears  from  Hero- 
dotus (v.  95)  that  about  620  B.C.  Athenians  occupied 
Sigeum,  and  were  resisted  by  iEolic  colonists  from  Myti- 
lene  in  Lesbos,  who  had  already  established  themselves  in 
that  neighbourhood.  Struggles  of  this  kind  may  help  to 
account  for  the  fact  noticed  by  Strabo,  that  the  earlier 
colonies  had  often  migrated  from  one  site  in  the  Troad  to 
another  Such  changes  of  seat  have  been,  he  observes, 
frequent  causes  of  confusion  in  the  topography ;  and  the 
fact  has  an  important  bearing  on  attempted  identifications 
of  the  more  obscure  ancient  sites. 

Among  the  Greek  towns  in  the  Troad,  three  stand  out 
with  especial  prominence — Ilium  in  the  north,  Assus  in 
the  south,  and  Alexandria  Troas  in  the  west.  The  site  of 
the  Greek  Ilium  is  marked  by  the  low  mound  of  Hissarlik 
("place  cf  fortresses")  in  the  Trojan  plain,  about  three 
miles  from  the  Hellespont.  The  early  Greek  settlers  in 
the  Troad"  naturally  loved  to  take  Homeric  names  for 
their  towns.  The  fact  that  Homer  places  the  town  of 
Dardania  far  inland,  on  the  slopes  of  Ida,  did  not  hinder 
the  founders  of  the  yEolic  Dardanus  from  giving  that 
name  to  their  town  on  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont.  The 
site  of  the  historical  Thymbra,  again,  cannot  be  reconciled 
with  that  of  the  Homeric  Thymbra.  Similarly,  the  choice 
of  the  name  Ilion  in  no  way  justifies  the  assumption  that 
the  Greek  settlers  found  that  spot  identified  by  tradition 
with  the  site  of  the  town  which  Homer  calls  Ilios.  It 
does  not  even  warrant  the  hypothesis  that  they  found  a 
shrine  of  Athene  Bias  existing  there.  For  them,  it  would 
be  enough  that  the  sounding  name  could  be  safely  appro- 
priated,— the  true  site  of  Homeric  Ilias  being  forgotten  or 
disputed, — and  that  their  town  was  at  least  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Homeric  battlefields.  The  Greek  Ilium 
may  have  been  founded  about  700  B.C.  It  is  noticeable 
that  no  ancient  writer  suggests  a  later  date  than  the  time 
of  Croesus  (c.  550  bc.)  ;  and  Strabo  says  that  the 
establishment  of  the  colony  at  Hissarlik — after  previous 
occupation  of  a  different  site — took  place  "  in  the  time 
of  the  Lydians"  (eirj  AvSuiv).  It  would  be  reasonable  to 
infer  that  the  Greek  Ilium  preserved  some  well-marked 
traces  of  Lydian  influence,  perhaps  in  architecture  or  art, 
perhaps  in  manners  or  traditions.  The  traces  of  Lydian 
workmanship  found  in  the  excavations  at  Hissarlik  are 
thus  easily  explained,  without  recourse  to  the  shadowy 
hypothesis  of  a  distinct  Lydian  settlement  on  the  spot. 
When  Xerxes  visited  the  Trojan  plain,  he  "went  up  to 
the  Pergamon  of  Priam,"  and  afterwards  sacrificed  to  the 
Dian  Athene  (Herod.,  vii.  42).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
"  Pergamon  "  meant  was  at  the  Greek  Ilium,  or  at  another 
site  (to  be  mentioned  presently),  Bunirbashi ;  strong 
reasons  in  favour  of  the  latter  have  lately  been  adduced 
by  Mr  George  Nikolaides,  in  his  'lAidSo?  Sxparrj-yiK^ 
Atoo-xeinj.  In  the  4th  century  Ilion  is  mentioned  among 
the  towns  of  the  Troad  which  yielded  to  Dercyllidas  (399 
B.C.),  and  as  captured  by  Charideraus  (359  b  c).  It  pos- 
sessed walls,  but  was  a  petty  place,  of  little  strength  In 
344  B.o.  Alexander,  on  landing  in  the  Troad,  visited 
Ilium  In  their  temple  of  Athene  the  Ilians  showed  him 
arms  which  had  served  in  the  Trojan  war,  including  the 
shield  of  Achilles.  Either  then,  or  after  the  battle  of 
.Oranicus,  Alexander  directed  that  the  town  should  be 
enlarged,  and  should  have  the  rank  of  "  city,"  with  politi- 
cal independence,  and  exemption  from  tribute.  The  battle 
•of  Ipsus  (301  B.C.)  added  north-western  Asia  Minor  to  the 


dominions  of  Lysimachus,  who  executed  the  intentions 
of  Alexander.  He  gave  Ilium  a  wall  5  miles  in  circum- 
ference, incorporating  with  it  some  decayed  towns  of  the 
neighbourhood,  and  built  a  handsome  temple  of  Athene. 
In  the  3d  century  B.C.  Ilium  was  the  head  of  a  federal 
league  (koivoV)  of  free  Greek  to-wns,  which  probably  in- 
clude-! the  district  from  Lampsacus  on  the  Hellespont  to 
Gargara  on  the  Adramyttian  Gulf.  Twice  in  that 
century  Ilium  was  visited  by  Gauls.  On  the  first  occasion 
(278  B.C.)  the  Gauls,  under  Lutarius,  sought  to  establish 
a  stronghold  at  Ilium,  but  speedily  abandoned  it  as  being 
too  weak  for  their  purpose.  Forty  years  later  (218  B.C.) 
Gauls  were  brought  over  by  Attains  I.  to  help  him  in  his 
war  against  Achseus.  After  deserting  his  standard  they 
proceeded  to  pillage  the  towns  ,on  the  Hellespont,  and 
finally  besieged  Ilium,  from  which,  however,  they  were 
driven  off  by  thr  troops  of  Alexandria  Troas.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  2d  century  B.C.  Ilium  was  in  a  state  of 
decay.  As  Demetrius  of  Scepsis  tells  us,  the  houses  "had 
not  even  roofs  of  tiles,"  but  merely  of  thatch.  Such  a 
loss  of  prosperity  is  suflSciently  explained  by  the  incursions 
of  the  Gauls  and  the  insecure  state  of  the  Troad  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  3d  century.  The  temple  of  the  Ilian 
Athene,  however,  retained  its  prestige.  In  192  B.C. 
Antiochus  the  Great  visited  it  before  sailing  to  the  aid  of 
the  .^tolians.  In  190  B.C.,  shortly  before  the  battle  of 
Magnesia,  the  Roijians'  came  into,  the  Troad.  At  the 
moment  when  a  Roman  Army  was  entering  Asia,  it  was 
politic  to  recall  the  legend  of  Roman  descent  from  ./Eneas. 
Lucius  Scipio  and  the  Ilians  were  alike  eager  to  do  so. 
He  offered  sacrifice  to  the  Ilian  Athene  ;  and  after  the 
peace  with  Antiochus  (189  B.C.)  the  Romans  annexed 
Rhceteum  and  Gergis  to  Ilium,  "  not  so  much  in  reward 
of  recent  services,  as  in  memory  of  the  source  from  which 
their  nation  sprang."  The  later  history  of  Ilium  is  littk 
more  than  that  of  Roman  benefits.  A  disaster  befell  th< 
place  in  85  B.C.,  when  Fimbria  took  it,  and  left  it  in  ruins; 
bfit  Salla  presently  caused  it  to  be  rebuilt.  Augustus, 
while  confirming  its  ancient  privileges,  gave  it  new  terri- 
tory. Caracalla  (211-217  a.d.)  visited  Ilium,  and  like 
Alexander  paid  honours  to  the  tomb  of  Achilles.  The 
latest  coins  found  on  the  site  are  those  of  Constantius 
II.  (337-361).  In  the  4th  century,  as  some  rhetorical 
"  Letters  "  of  that  age  show,  the  Ilians  still  did  a  profit- 
able trade  in  attracting  touri.its  by  their  pseudo-Trojan 
memorials.  After  the  4th  century  the  place  is  lost  to 
view.  But  we  find  from  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus 
(911-959)  that  in  his  day  it  was  one  of  the  places  in  the 
Troad  which  gave  names  to  bishoprics. 

While  the  Greek  Ilium  at  Hi.'sarlik  owed  its  importance  Astna 
to  a  sham  pretension,  which  amused  sight-seers  and  occa- 
sionally served  politicians,  Assus,  on  the  south  coast,  has 
an  interest  of  a  more  genuine  kind,  and  is,  indeed,  a  better 
type  of  ancient  town-life  in  the  Troad.  Its  situation  is 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  in  all  the  Greek  lands.  The 
seaward  faces  of  the  isolated  and  sea -washed  rock  on 
which  Assus  stood  are  carved  to  south  and  south-west 
into  terraces.  The  natural  cleavage  of  the  trachyte  into 
joint  planes  had  already  scarped  out  shelves  which  it  was 
comparatively  easy  for  human  labour  to  shape  ;  and  so, 
high  up  on  this  cone  of  trachyte,  the  Greek  town  of  Assus 
was  built,  with  its  colonnades,  baths,  theatre,  its  public 
walks  and  its  monuments  of  the  dead,  mounting  tier  above 
tier,  till  the  summit  of  the  crag  was  crowned  with  a  Doric 
temple  of  Athene.  The  view  from  the  summit  is  not  , 
only  very  beautiful  but  also  of  great  historical  interest.  ) 
In  front  is  Lesbos,  one  of  whose  towns,  Methymna,  is  said 
to  have  sent  forth  the  founders  of  Assus,  as  early,  perhaps, 
as  1000  or  900  B.C.  The  whole  south  coast-line  of  thei 
Troad  is  seen,  and  in  the  south-east  the  ancient  territoryj 


580 


T  R  O  A  D 


of  Pergamum,  from  whose  masters  the  possession  of  Assus 
passed  to  Rome  by  the  bequest  of  Attalus  III.  (133  B.C.). 
The  great  heights  of  Ida  rise  in  the  east.  Northward  the 
Touzla  is  seen  winding  through  its  rich  valley  from  a 
rocky  defile  in  the  east  to  the  oak-forests  in  the  western 
hills.  This  valley  was  traversed  by  the  road  which  St 
Paul  must  have  followed  when  he  came  overland  from 
Alexandria  Troas  to  Assus,  leaving  his  fellow-travellers  to 
proceed  by  sea.  The  north-west  gateway  of  Assus,  to 
which  this  road  led,  is  still  flanked  by  two  massive  towers, 
of  Hellenic  work,  and  of  an  age  which  leaves-  no  doubt 
that  they  are  the  same  between  which  St  Paul  entered 
the  town.  On  the  shore  below,  the  ancient  mole  at  which 
he  embarked  for  Mytilene  with  his  companions  can  still 
be  traced  by  large  blocks  under  the  clear  water.  Assus 
affords  the  only  harbour  on  the  50  miles  of  coast  between 
Cape  Lectum  and  the  east  end  of  the  Adramyttian  Gulf ; 
hence  it  must  always  have  been  the  chief  shipping-place 
for  the  exports  of  the  southern  Troad.  Too  much  off  the 
highways  to  become  a  centre  of  import  trade,  it  was  thus 
destined  to  be  a  commercial  town,  content  with  a  modest 
provincial  prosperity.  The  great  natural  strength  of  the 
site  protected  it  against  petty  assailants ;  but,  like  other 
towns  in  that  region,  it  has  known  many  masters, — 
Lydians,  Persians,  the  kings  of  Pergamum,  Romans,  and 
Ottoman  Turks.  From  the  Persian  wars  to  about  350 
B.C.  Assus  enjoyed  at  least  partial  independence.  It  was 
about  348-345  B.C.  that  Aristotle  spent  three  years  at 
Assus  with  Hermeas,  an  ex-slave  who  had  succeeded  his 
former  master  Eubulus  as  despot  of  Assus  and  Atarneus. 
Aristotle  has  left  some  verses  from  an  invocation  to  Arete 
(Virtue),  commemorating  the  worth  of  Hermeas,  who  had 
been  seized  by  Persian  treachery  and  put  to  death. 
Under  its  Turkish  name  of  Beihram,  Assus '  is  still  the 
commercial  port  of  the  southern  Troad,  being  the  place  to 
which  loads  of  valonia  (acorn-cups  for  tanning)  are  con- 
veyed by  camels  from  ail  parts  of  the  country.  The 
recent  excavations  at  Assus,  conducted  by  explorers  repre- 
senting the  Archseological  Institute  of  America,  have 
yielded  results  far  more  valuable  for  the  history  of  Greek 
art  and  architecture  than  any  excavations  yet  undertaken 
in  the  Troad.  The  sculptures  form  one  of  the  most 
important  links  yet  discovered  between  Oriental  and 
early  Greek  art,  especially  in  respect  of  the  types  of 
animals.  The  later  Hellenic  town-walls  of  Assus  also  well 
repay  the  new  study  which  they  have  received.  With 
their  ramparts,  towers,  and  posterns  they  form  the  finest 
and  most  instructive  extant  specimen  of  Greek  military 
engineering.  The  director  of  the  exploration,  Mr  J.  T. 
Clarke,  published  in  1882  an  excellent  report  on  the  work 
so  far  as  it  had  then  been  carried. 

Alexandria  Troas  stood  on  the  west  coast  at  nearly  its 
middle  point,  a  little  south  of  Tenedos.  It  was  built  by 
Antigonus,  perhaps  about  310  B.C.,  and  was  called  by  him 
Antigonia  Troas.  Early  in  the  next  century  the  name 
was  changed  by  Lysimachus  to  Alexandria  Troas,  in 
honour  of  Alexander's  memory.  As  the  chief  port  of 
north-west  Asia  Minor,  the  place  prospered  greatly  in 
Roman  times,  and  the  existing  remains  sufficiently  attest 
its  former  importance.  The  site  is  now  covered  with 
valonia  oaks,  but  the  circuit  of  the  old  walls  can  be  traced, 
and  in  several  places  they  are  fairly  well  preserved.  They 
had  a  circumference  of  about  6  English  miles,  and  were 

*  The  name  Assus  probably  meaDS  "  dwelliog,"  '*town,"  beiug  con- 
Dected  with  the  Sanskrit  vas,  *' to  dwell,"  which  appears  in  the 
Greek  astu,  and  also  in  the  ending  of  such  names  as  Mylasa  and 
Larissa,  where  in  Greek  the  a  is  alternatively  single  or  double — an 
ending  which,  as  Fligier  has  shown,  is  found  in  old  town  names  from 
India  to  Dacia.  Homer  supplies  au  example  in  his  "steep  Pedasus  " 
on  the  Satniois,  and  it  h.as  been  suggested  by  Mr  J.  T.  Clarke  that 
Fedajus  may  have  been  identical  in  site  with  the  later  Assus. 


fortified  with  to.wers  at  regular  intervals.  Remains  of  some 
ancient  buildings,  including  a  bath  and  gymnasium,  can  be 
traced  within  this  area.  The  harbour  had  two  large  basins, 
now  almost  choked  with  sand.  A  Roman  colony  was  sent 
to  the  place,  as  Strabo  mentions,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 
The  abridged  name  "  Troas "  (Acts  xvi.  8)  was  probably 
the  current  one  in  later  Roman  times.  The  site  is  now 
called  Eski  Stambul.' 

Many  classical  sites  of  less  note  in  the  Troad  have  been 
identified  with  more  or  less  certainty.  Neandria  seems  to 
be  rightly  fixed  by  Mr  F.  Calvert  at  Mount  Chigri,  a  hill 
not  far  from  Alexandria  Troas,  remarkable  for  the  fine 
view  of  the  whole  Troad  which  it  commands.  Cebrene 
has  been  conjecturally  placed  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
plain  of  Bairamitch,  Palasscepsis  being  further  east  on 
the  slopes  of  Ida,  while  the  new  Scepsis  was  near  the  site 
of  Bairamitch  itself.  The  evidence  for  this,  however,  is 
ambiguous.  At  the  village  of  Kulaklee,  a  little  south  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Touzla,  some  Corinthian  columns  and 
other  fragments  mark  the  temple  of  Apollo  Smintheua 
and  (approximately)  the  site  of  the  Homeric  Chryse. 
Colonse  was  also  on  the  west  coast,  opposite  Tenedos. 
Scamandria  occupied  the  site  of  Eneh,  in  the  middle  of 
the  plain  of  Bairamitch,  and  Cenchrese  was  probably  some 
distance  north  of  it.  The  shrine  of  Palamedes,  mentioned 
by  ancient  writers  as  existing  at  a  town  called  Polymedium, 
has  been  discovered  by  Mr  J.  T.  Clarke  on  a  site  hitherto 
unvisited  by  any  modern  traveller,  between  Assus  and 
Cape  Lectum.  It  proves  to  have  been  a  sacred  enclosure 
(temenos)  on  the  acropolis  of  the  town  ;  the  statue  of 
Palamedes  stood  on  a  rock  at  the  middle  of  its  southern 
edge.  Another  interesting  discovery  has  been  made  by 
Mr  Clarke, — viz.,  the  existence  of  very  ancient  town  walls 
on  Gargarus,  the  highest  peak  of  Ida. 

The  modern  discussion  as  to  the  site  of  Homeric  Troy 
may  be  considered  as  dating  from  Lechevalier's  visits  to 
the  Troad  in  1785-86.  Homer  describes  Troy  as  "a  great 
ton-n,"  "  with  broad  streets,"  and  with  a  high  acropolis,  or 
"  Pergamus,"  rising  above  it,  from  which  precipitous  rocks 
descend  abruptly  to  the  plain  beneath.'  These  are  the 
precipices  over  which  the  Trojans  proposed  to  hurl  the 
wooden  horse,  "  when  they  had  dragged  it  to  the  summit." 
Homer  marks  the  character  of  the  acropolis  by  the  epithets 
"lofty,"  "windy,"  and  more  forcibly  still  by  "beetling.*' 
One  site  in  the  Trojan  plain,  and  one  only,  satisfies  thit 
most  essential  condition.  It  is  the  hill  at  its  southern 
edge  called  the  Bali  Dagh,  above  the  village  of  Bunir- 
bashi.  It  has  a  height  of  about  400  feet,  with  sheer 
precipices  descending  on  the  south  and  south-west  to  the 
valley  of  the  Scamander  (Mendere).  Remains  found  upon 
it — though  it  has  never  yet  been  thoroughly  explored — 
show  it  to  have  been  the  site  of  an  ancient"  city.  Homer 
describes  two  natural  springs  as  .ising  a  little  to  the 
north  west  of  Homeric  Troy.  A  little  to  the  north-west 
of  Bun4rbashi  these  springs  still  exist.  "  This  pair  of  rivu- 
lets are  the  immutable  mark  of  nature  by  which  the  height 
towering  above  is  recognized  as  the  citadel  of  Ilium  "  (E. 
Curtms). 

The  low  mound  of  Hissarlik — thff  site  of  the  Greek 
I  hum — stands  only  112  feet  abofe  the  level  of  the  open 
plain  in  which  it  is  situated.  To  call  it  "beetling" 
{64>pi>6i.a(To.)  would  have  been  a  travesty  of  poetical 
licence  on  which  no  poet  could  have  ventured,  and  to 
describe  it  as  "lofty"  or  "windy"  would  have  been  not 
less  strange.  There  are  no  natural  springs  near  it,  such 
as  Homer  mentions.  The  jEolic  settlers,  having  called 
the  place  Ilion,  naturally  persisted  in  maintaining  its 
identity  with  Troy.  Polemon,  a  native  of  the  Greek 
Ilium,  who  lived  about  200  B.C.,  declared  that  his  fellow-- 
townsmen  could  show  the  very  stone  on  whicli  Palaigedes 


Other 

ancient 

sites. 


Siteoi 

Homerie 

Troy. 


Eejec*  . 
lion  of 
I  Han 
clainu 


T  R  O  A  D 


581 


had  given  lessons  in  the  game  of  draughts.  The  only 
other  ancient  writer  who  is  known  to  have  admitted  the 
Ilian  claim  is  Hellanicus  of  Lesbos  (c.  482-397  B.C.),  who, 
as  Strabo  remarks,  wished  "  to  gratify  the  Ilians,  as  is  his 
wont."  Like  the  Ilians,  Hellanicus  was  of  ^olian  origin ; 
and  in  compiling  the  local  legends  of  various  places  he  is 
known  to  have  been  wholly  uncritical,  merely  repeating 
Bj  »o-  what  was  told  to  him  as  he  had  heard  it.  On  the  ol^er 
cient  hand,  the  claim  of  the  Greek  Ilium  to  stand  on  the  site  of 
cnticum ;  •jij.py  ^^g  decisively  rejected  by  the  general  consent  of 
those  ancient  writers  who  had  any  claiir  to  critical 
authority.  The  orator  Lycurgus  (c.  332  B.C.)  speaks  of 
the  site  of  Troy  as  desolate,  and  this  at  a  moment  when 
the  recent  visit  of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the  Greek  Ilium 
(334  B.C.)  had  drawn  attention  to  the  claim  made  by  its 
inhabitants.  Demetrius,  a  native  of  Scepsis  in  the  Troad, 
who  flourished  about  160  B.C.,  wrote  a  book  entitled 
Tpui'xos  AtaKoa-fj-oi  ("The  Marshalling  of  the  Trojans"), 
an  exhaustive  commentary  on  the  catalogue  of  the  Trojan 
forces  in  the  second  book  of  the  Iliad.  Demetrius  knew 
the  topography  of  the  Troad  as  thoroughly  as  he  knew  the 
text  of  Homer.  The  extant  notices  of  his  work,  which 
had  a  great  reputation  in  antiquity,  warrant  the  belief 
that  he  was  hot  only  learned  but  acute.  In  the  Diacosmus, 
which  was  the  chief  work  of  his  life,  he  must  have 
bestowed  much  thought  on  the  question  as  to  the  site  of 
Homeric  Troy, — the  central  point  of  his  subject.  He 
pronounced  decidedly,  as  we  know  from  Strabo,  against 
the  claim  of  the  Greek  Ilium.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  Demetrius  rejected  the  Ilian  claim  because,  as  a 
native  of  Scepsis,  he  was  jealous  of  ^lium, — a  suggestion 
which  is  not  only  absurd  in  itself,  since  it  assumes  that 
such  a  motive  would  have  induced  Demetrius  to  mar  his 
life's  work,  but  also  betrays  ignorance  of  Strabo's  text. 
Scepsis  was  not  a  possible  claimant  of  the  contested 
honour,  since  it  was  not  in  the  plain  of  Troy  but  in  the 
plain  of  Bairamitch ;  and  further,  Demetrius  had  already 
provided  in  another  manner  for  the  Homeric  dignity  of 
Scepsis  by  making  it  the  royal  seat  of  .^Eneas  on  the 
strength  of  its  position  relatively  to  Lyrnessus.  The 
verdict  of  Demetrius  against  the  Ilian  claim  was  also  the 
general  verdict  of  the  other  ancient  writers  consulted  by 
Strabo,  as  the  latter's  language  shows.  From  the  passage 
in  which  Strabo  notices  the  various  definitions  of  the  Troad 
(xiii.  §  4)  it  appears  that  among  such  writers  were  the 
following  historians  and  geographers  : — Charon  of  Lamp- 
sacus  (flor.  500  B.C.),  Damastes  of  Sigeum  (400  B.C.), 
Scylax  of.  Caryanda  (350  B.C.),  Ephorus  of  Cyme  (340 
B.C.),  Eudoxus  of  Cyzicus  (130  B.C.).  It  is  to  such  writers 
03  these  that  Strabo  refers  when  he  indicates  the  general 
consent  of  his  authorities.  In  favour  of  the  claim  of  the 
Greek  Ilium,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  only  two  literary 
witnesses,  and  these,  as  we  have  seen,  are  alike  worthless. 
Equally  valueless  from  a  critical  point  of  view  is  the  fact 
that  the  Ilian  claim  was  sometimes  allowed  by  soldiers 
or  statesmen  who  wished  to  utilize  Trojan  memories. 
They  required  an  official  Troy,  and  they  cared  not  where 
they  found  it.  Nothing  could  more  curiously  illustrate 
the  extreme  poverty  of  the  case  for  the  Greek  Ilium  than 
the  fact  that  some  of  its  advocates  have  been  reduced  to 
arguing  as  if  Alexander  and  Lucius  Scipio,  when  they 
led  their  armies  through  the  Troad,  had  been  conducting 
archaeological  excursions,  and  as  if  their  acqiuescence  in  a 
convenient  local  myth  had  the  weight  of  independent 
critical  testimonies. 
By  In  negativing  the  Eian  claim  the  conclusion  of  ancient 

toortem.  criticism  has  been  confirmed  by  a  great  preponderance  of 
modern  opiniou.  Since  Lechevalier  visited  the  Troad  in 
1785-86  an  overwhelming  majority  of  competent  judges 
have  favoured  his  belief  that  the  Bali  Dash  above  Bunir- 


Hissatlik. 


bashi  was  the  Pergamus  of  the  Homeric  poet's  conception. 
Before  Leake's  visit  this  opinion  had  been  expressed  by 
Choiseul-Gouffier,  Morritt,  Hawkins,  Gell,  and  Hamilton. 
Leake  spoke  with  a  decision  which  derives  additional 
weight  from  the  habitual  sobriety  of  his  acute  judgment, 
and  from  the  care  with  which,  in  this  case,  he  had  ex- 
amined the  alleged  objections  to  the  view  which  he  finally 
adopted.  He  remarks  tuat  no  one  accustomed  to  observe 
the  sites  of  ancient  Greek  towns  could  fail  to  fix  on  Bun4r- 
bashi  "  for  the  site  of  the  chief  place  of  the  surrounding 
country."  So  Mr  Tozer,  in  his  Highlands  of  Turkey,  says : 
"  A  person  accustomed  to  observe  the  situation  of  Helleni* 
cities  would  at  once  fix  on  this  as  far  more  likely  to  have 
recommended  itself  to  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  country 
than  any  other  in  the  neighbourhood."  Count  von  Moltke 
has  expressed  the  same  opinion,  that  "  he  knew  no  other 
site  in  the  Trojan  plain  for  a  chief  town  of  ancient  time." 
Another  supporter  of  BunArbashi  is  Forchhammer.  Another 
is  Kiepert.  The  opinion  of  Ernst  Curtius  has  been  already 
cited.  But  space  precludes  more  names ;  it  is  enough  to 
say  that  the  correspondence  of  the  Bali  Dagh  with  the 
Homeric  Pergamus — a  correspondence  absolutely  unique 
in  the  Trojan  plain — has  been  recognized  with  virtual  una- 
nimity by  modern  travellers  who  have  patiently  inspected 
the  scenery  of  the  Iliad,  having  competent  knowledge,  and 
being  free  from  bias  in  favour  of  a  theory  formed  before 
their  visit.  Partial  excavations  on  the  summit  of  the  Bali 
Dagh  have  been  more  than  once  undertaken,  with  the  result 
of  discovering  ancient  walls.  Pottery,  too,  has  been  found 
there,  part  of  which  is  allowed  on  all  hands  to  be  probably 
as  old,  at  least,  as  900  B.C.  But  the  Bali  Dagh  has  never 
yet  been  explored  with  any  approach  to  thoroughness. . 

The  result  of  the  excavations  conducted  by  Dr  Schlie-  The  re- 
mann  on  the  mound  of  Hissarlik  has  been  to  lay  bare  '"*i'^_,*.* 
the  remains  of  the  Greek  Ilium,  and  also,  below  these, 
some  prehistoric  remains  of  a  rude  and  poor  kind.  In 
Troy,  his  first  book  on  the  subject,  the  explorer  held  that 
the  remains  of  the  Greek  Ilium  ceased  at  a  depth  of  6  feet 
below  the  surface,  and  that  all  the  other  remains,  down  to 
52J  feet,  were  prehistoric.  He  distinguished  the  latter 
into  five  groups,  representing  five  prehistoric  "cities" 
which  had  succeeded  each  other  on  the  site ;  and  in  his 
second  work,  Ilioa,  he  added  to  these  a  sixth  prehistoric 
city,  on  the  strength  of  some  scanty  vestiges  of  supposed 
Lydian  workmanship,  found  at  a  depth  of  6i  feet.  In 
both  books,  Homeric  Troy  was  identified  with  the  third 
prehistoric  city  from  the  bottom,  which  was  supposed  to 
have  been  destroyed,  though  not  totally,  by  fire.  Professor 
Jebb  was  the  first  to  show  (1 )  that  the  lines  of  demarcation 
between  the  alleged  prehistoric  strata,  as  drawn  in  Ilios, 
could  not  be  accurate,  and  (2)  that,  if  any  part  of  the  pre- 
historic remains  could  be  supposed  to  represent  Homeric ' 
Troy,  it  must  be  that  part  which  Dr  Schliemann  had  called 
the  second  city  from  the  bottom,  and  the  destruction  of 
which  by  fire  appeared  to  have  been  total.  In  1882  the 
architects  employed  by  Dr  Schliemann  proved  that  the 
stratification  given  in  Ilios  had  in  fact  been  incorrect. 
The  errors,  too,  afi"ected  precisely  that  region  of  the  deposit 
which  was  most  important  to  the  Trojan  hypothesis,  viz., 
the  lower  strata.  In  Dr  SchLiemann's  third  volume,  Troja, 
these  errors  were  admitted ;  and  Troy  was  now  identified, 
no  longer  with  the  third  city,  but  with  the  second,  of  which 
the  supposed  area  was  now  enlarged.  Another  fact  to 
which  the  English  critic  had  drawn  attention  was  that  the 
remains  of  the  Greek  Ilium  must  extend  to  a  considerably 
greater  depth  than  6  feet  below  the  surface.  Further 
examination  confirmed  this  view  also.  It  showed  that  the 
remains  on  the  mound  at  Hissarlik  belong  to  the  follomng 
periods  or  groups.  (1)  At  the  top,  the  remains  of  the 
Greek  Iliun-  as  it  existed  in  the  Koman  age,  i.e.,  as  rebu''* 


582 


T  R  O  A  D 


After  its  destruction  by  Fimbria  in  85  B.C.  (2)  A  city 
which,  like  the  former,  extended  beyond  the  mound  of 
Hissarlik  (its  acropolis)  over  the  adjacent  plain.  Tliis 
corresponds  with  the  Greek  Ilium  of  the  Macedonian  age, 
as  embellished  and  enlarged  by  Lysimachus,  c.  300  b.c. 
(3)  A  smaller  city,  probably  confined  to  the  mound.  Here 
we  may  recognize  the  Greek  Ilium  as  it  existed  before  the 
Macedonian  age.  It  was  a  small  and  poor  place,  as  appears 
from  the  known  incidents  of  its  history  in  the  5th  and  4th 
centuries  b.c,  owing  its  chief  importance  to  the  shrine  of 
Athene  Ilias.  (4)  A  petty  town  or  village,  confined  to  the 
mound,  and  poorly  built.  The  evidence  of  architecture 
fails  to  decide  whether  it  was  Hellenic  or  not ;  if  Hellenic, 
it  might  represent  the  primitive  settlement  of  the  .lEolic 
colonists,  perhaps  c.  700  B.C.  It  was  a  small  house  in  this 
village  that  Dr  Schliemann  at  first  identified  with  Priam's 
palace.  The  ground-plan  shows  four  rooms,  of  which  the 
largest  measured  24  feet  4  inches  by  12  feet.  (5)  A  large 
town,  to  which  the  mound'  was  only  acropolis,  and  which 
extended  to  some  distance  south  and  south-east  over  the 
plain.  These  remains  are  unquestionably  prehistoric.  (6) 
A  few  remains  of  a  small  settlement  which,  if  indeed  distinct 
from  No.  5,  preceded  it.  The  reason  for  distinguishing 
6  from  5  is  that  some  of  the  acropolis  buildings  of  5  are 
above  those  of  6,  and  seem  to  have  been  built  on  carefully 
levelled  ground.  Apart  from  architectural  evidence,  objects 
found  in  the  excavations  prove  that  the  remains  of  the 
historical  age  extend  much  below  6  feet.  One  of  these 
was  a  terra-cotta  disk,  stamped  with  the  head  of  a  warrior, 
in  an  advanced  style  of  workmanship,  found  at  26  feet  3. 
inches  below  the  surface  (^T-oy,  p.  294).  Another  is  a  terra- 
cotta ball,  found  at  26  feet,  which  cannot  be  older  than  c. 
360  B.C.  Then,  at  20  feet,  was  found  another  terra-cotta, 
marked  with  the  Greek  letter  P.  A  piece  of  ivory,  belong- 
ing to  a  seven-stringed  lyre,  and  therefore  not  older  than 
c.  660  B.C.,  was  found  at  26  feet.  Thus  we  have  at  His- 
sarlik the  remains  of  the  Greek  Ilium  in  three  successive 
phases, — Roman,  Macedonian,  and  Mo\ic,  and  below  these 
the  remains  of  at  least  one  prehistoric  settlement,  the  age 
and  origin  of  which  are  unknown, 
rheir  re-  We  can  no  longer  either  prove  or  disprove  that  these 
ation  to  prehistoric  remains  are  those  of  a  town  which  was  once 
Homer,  t^jjgn  after  a  siege,  and  which  originally  gave  rise  to  the 
legend  of  Troy.  But  most  certainly  it  is  not  the  "  lofty  " 
Troy  of  which  the  Homeric  poet  was  thinking  when  he 
embodied  the  legend  in  the  Iliad.  The  conception  of 
Troy  which  dominates  the  Iliad  is  based  on  the  site  at 
Bunirbashi,  and  suits  no  other.  The  sole  phrase  in  the 
epic  which  favours  Hissarlik  occurs  in  book  xx.  (216  sq.), 
where  Dardania  is  said  to.  have  been  built  on  the  spurs  of 
Ida,  when  Ilios  "  had  not  yet  been  built  in  the  plain  ";  and 
this  phrase  occurs  in  a  passage  which,  as  the  best  recent 
critics  agree,  is  one  of  the  latest  interpolations  in  the  Iliad, 
having  been  composed  after  the  Greek  Ilium  had  actually 
arisen  "  in  the  plain."  Its  purpose  was  the  same  as  that 
which  appears  in  the  Hymn  to  Aphrodite,  viz.,  to  glorify 
reputed  descendants  of  .lEneas,  and  it  probably  belongs  to 
the  same  age,  the  7th  century  B.C.  The  tactical  data  of  the 
Iliad — those  derived  from  the  incidents  of  the  war — can- 
not be  treated  with  such  rigour  as  if  the  poem  were  a 
military  history.  But  Nikolaides  has  shown  that  they  can 
at  least  be  brought  into  general  agreement  with  the  site 
at  Bunirbashi,  while  they  are  hopelessly  incompatible  with 
Homeric  Hissarlik.  The  Iliad  makes  it  clear  that  the  general 
conccp-  description  of  the  Trojan  plain  was  founded  on  accurate 
Si°"  knowledge.  At  this  day  all  the  essential  Homeric  features 
can  be  recognized.  And  it  is  probable  that  the  poet  who 
created  the  Troy  of  the  Iliad  knew,  personally  or  by 
description,  a  strong,  town  on  the  Bali  Dagh  above  Bunir- 
bashi.    The  legend  of  the  siege  may  or  may  not  liave 


arisen  from  an  older  town  at  Hissarlik,  which  had  then 
disappeared.  The  poet  might  naturally  place  his  Troy 
in  a  position  like  that  of  the  existing  strong  city  on  the 
Bali  Dagh,  giving  it  a  "  beetling  "  acropolis  and  handsome 
buildings,  while  he  also  reproduced  the  general  course  of 
the  rivers  and  that  striking  feature, — an  indelible  mark  of 
the  locality, — the  natural  springs  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  just 
bejtQd  the  city  gates  on  the  north-west.  But,  while  he 
thus  iniagined  his  Troy  in  the  general  likeness  of  the  tojvn 
on  the  Bali  Dagh,  he  would  retain  the  privilege  of  a  poet 
who  was  adorning  an  ancient  legend,  and  whose  theme 
was  a  city  that  had  long  ago  vanished.  Instead  of  feeling 
bound  to  observe  a  rigorous  accuracy  of  local  detail,  he 
would  rather  feel  impelled  to  avoid  it ;  he  would  use  his 
liberty  to  introduce  some  traits  borrowed  from  other  scenes 
known  to  him,  or  even  fiom  imagination.  To  this  extent, 
and  in  this  sense,  his  topography  would  be  eclectic.  Such 
a  consideration  might  suffice  to  explain  the  fact,  well 
known  to  those  vho  have  studied  this  question  on  the 
spot,  that  neither  Bunirbashi  nor  any  other  one  site 'can 
be  harmonized  with  every  detail  of  the  poem.  The  re- 
commendations of  Bunirbashi  are,  first,  that  it  satisfies 
the  capital  and  essential  conditions,  while  no  other  site 
does  so,  and  secondly",  that  the  .particular  difficulties 
which  it  leaves  unsolved  aie  relatively  slight  and  few. 
This  character  of  Homeric  topography  becomes  still  easier 
to  understand,  if,  as  most  critics  would  now  concede,  our 
Iliad  contains  work  of  various  hands  and  ages.  Few 
questions,  perhaps,  of  equal  literary  interest  have  been  so 
much  confused  by  inattention  to  the  first  Conditions  of 
the  problem.  The  tale  of  Troy,  as  the  Iliad  gives  it,  is 
essentially  a  poetical  creation ;  and  we  have  no  evidence 
other  than  the  Iliad.  That  is,  our  sole  data  are  (1)  of  the 
mythical  class,  (2)  of  inadequate  precision,  and  (3)  of  un- 
certain origin.  But  they  show  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
ground ;  and  the  question  is  how  far  particular  features  of 
the  grourid  can  be  recognized  in  the  poem.  It  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  case  admits  of  any  solution  more 
definite  than  that  which  has  been  indicated  above. 

Bibliography. — 1.  Works  dealing*  with  the  Troad  generally,^ 
Strabo,  bk.  xiii.  ch.  1,  is  the  principal  source  for  the  ancient  Troad. 
Of  books  by  modern  travellers  \n  Asia  Minor  the  following  may  be 
mentioned  : — Pliilip  Barker  Webb,  in  the  Italian  Biblioteca  Accrbi, 
June  and  July,  1821,  whose  studies  are  better  known  through  the 
French  edition,  Topographic  (ic  la  Troade,  1844  ;  W.  M.  Leake, 
Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  London,  1824  j  P.  deTchihatchef, 
Asie  Mincurc,  kc,  Paris,  1853-69;  R.  Virchow,  "  Be  it  rage  zur 
Landeskunde  der  Troas,"  in  Traris.  of  Berlin  Acad.,  1879;  H.  F. 
Tozer,  Tht  Highlands  of  Turkey,  1869  ;  H.  Schliemann,  Bcise  der 
Troas  in  Mai,  1881  ;  Joseph  T.  Clarke,  Ecport  on  the  Investigations 
at  Assos,  Boston,  U.S.A.,  and  London,  1882,  including  "Notes  OQ 
the  Geology  and  Topography  of  the  Troad  "  by  J.  S.  Diller,  and  on 
"Bunirbashi,"  &c.,  by  W.  C.  Lawton  and  C.  H  Walker.  J.  T. 
Clarke's  "Notes  on  Greek  Shores,"  in  the  Heport  of  the  Archaeo- 
logical Institute  of  America  for  1880,  are'also  valuable. 

2.  For  the  question  as  to  the  site  of  Troy,  see — Lcchevalier, 
Voyage  dc  la  Troade,  Paris,  1802  ;  Gustavo  D'Eichthal,  Le  Site  dt 
Troie  scion  Lcchevalier,  kc,  Paris,  1875;  li.  Schliemann's  Troy 
(1875),  Ilios  (1880),  Troja  (1884),  which  contain  many  good  plans 
and  illustrations  ;  E.  Brentano,  Zur  Losung  der  iroianischen  Frage, 
Heilbroiui,  1881,  and  Troia  mid  Ncu-Hion,  ibid.,  1882  ;  R.  C.  Jebb, 
"Schliemann's  Ilios,"  in  Edinb.  Rev.,  No.  cccxiv.,  April,  1881  ;  Id., 
"  Homeric  and  Hellenic  Ilium,"  in  Journ.  of  Hellenic  Studies,  vol. 
ii.  pp.  7-43, 1881 ;  Id.,  "  The  Ruins  at  Hissarlik,"  ibid.,  iii.  185-217, 
1882  ;  Id.,  "Homeric  Troy,"  in  Fortnigh/ly  Review,  April,  1884  j 
G.  Nikolaides,  'IXidSos  ZTpimj-yiKT)  Aiatrufwi,  Athens,  1883  ;  P.  W. 
Forchhammcr,  Erkldrung  der  Hias,  auf  Qrund  der  in  der  leigege- 
bencn  Original- Karte  von  Spratt  and  Forchhammer  dargcstcllten 
topischen  und  physischen  Eigcnthumlichkeitcn  der  Troischcn  Ebene, 
Kiel,  1884 ;  and  W.  J.  Stillman,  "Les  Decouvertesde  Schliemann," 
in  the  journal  L' Homme,  Paris,  October,  1884.  (R.  0.  J.) 

Legend  of  Troy. 

According  to  Greek  legend,  the  oldest  town  in  the 
Troad  was  that  founded  by  Teucer,  who  was  a  son  of 
the  river  Scamander  and  the  nymph  Idaea.     Tzetzes  say» 


T  R  O  — T  R  O 


S83 


that  the  Scamander  in  question  was  the  Scaraander  in 
Crete,  and  that  Teucer  was  told  by  an  oracle  to  settle 
wherever  the  "  earth-born  ones  "  attacked  him.  So  when 
he  and  his  company  *.ere  attacked  in  the  Troad  by  mice, 
which  gnawed  their  bow-strings  and  the  handles  of  their 
shields,  he  settled  on  the  spot,  thinking  that  the  oracle 
was  fulfilled.  He  called  the  town  Srainthium  and  built 
a  temple  to  Apollo  Sminthius,  the  Cretan  word  for  a 
mouse  being  sminthius.  In  his  reign  Dardanus,  son  of 
Zius  and  the  njnnph  Electra,  daughter  of  Atlas,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  deluge,  drifted  from  the  island  of  Samo- 
thrace  on  a  raft  or  a  skin  bag  to  the  coast  of  the  Troad, 
where,  having  received  a  portion  of  land  from  Teucer 
and  married  his  daughter  Batea,  he  founded  the  city  of 
Dardania  or  Dardanus  on  high  ground  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Ida.  On  the  death  of  Teucer,  Dardanus  succeeded  to  the 
kingdom  and  called  the  whole  land  Dardania  after  himself. 
He  begat  Erichthonius,  who  begat  a  son  Tros  by  Astyoche, 
daughter  of  Siraois.  On  succeeding  to  the  throne,  Tros 
called  the  country  Troy  and  the  people  Trojans.  By 
Callirrhoe,  daughter  of  Scamander,  he  had  three  sons, — Ilus, 
Assaracus,  and  Ganymede.  From  Ilus  and  Assaracus 
sprang  two  separate  lines  of  the  royal  house, — the  one 
being  Ilus,  Laomedon,  Priam,  Hector;  the  other  Assaracus, 
Capys,  Anchises,  .^Eneas.  Ilus  went  to  Pbrygia,  where, 
being  victorious  in  wrestling,  he  received  as  a  prize  from 
the  king  of  Phrj'gia  a  spotted  cow,  with  an  injunction  to 
follow  her  and  found  a  city  wherever  she  lay  down.  The 
cow  lay  down  on  the  hill  of  the  Phrygian  At6 ;  and  here 
accordingly  Ilus  founded  the  city  of  Ilios.  It  is  stated 
that  Dardania,  Troy,  and  Ilios  became  one  city.  Desiring 
&  sign  at  the  foundation  of  Ilios,  Ilus  prayed  to  Zeus  and 
as  an  answer  he  found  lying  before  his  tent  the  Palladium, 
a  wooden  statue  of  Pallas,  three  cubits  high,  with  her  feet 
joined,  a  spear  in  her  right  hand,  and  a  distaff  and  spindle 
in  her  left.  Ilus  built  a  temple  for  the  image  and  wor- 
shipped it.  By  Eurydice,  daughter  of  Adrastus,  he  had  a 
son  Laomedon.  Laomedon  married  Strymo,  daughter  of 
Scamander,  or  Placia,  daughter  of  Atreus  or  of  Leucippus. 
It  was  in  his  reign  that  Poseidon  and  Apollo,  or  Poseidon 
alone,  built  the  walls  of  Troy.  In  his  reign  also  Hercules 
besieged  and  took  the  city,  slaying  Laomedon  and  his 
children,  except  one  daughter  Hesione  and  one  son  Pod- 
arces.  The  life  of  Podarces  was  granted  at  the  request 
of  Hesione ;  but  Hercules  stipulated  that  Podarces  must 
first  be  a  slave  and  then  be  redeemed  by  Hesione ;  she 
gave  her  veil  for  him  ;  hence  his  name  of  Priam  (from 
priasthai  to  buy).  Priam  married  first  Arisbe  and  after- 
wards Hecuba  and  had  fifty  sons  and  twelve  daughters. 
Among  the  sons  were  Hector  and  Paris,  and  among  the 
daughters  Polysena  and  Cassandra.  To  recover  Helen, 
whom  Paris  carried  off  from  Sparta,  the  Greeks  under 
Agamemnon  besieged  Troy  for  ten  years.  (See  Achilles, 
Agamemnon,  Ajax,  Hector,  Helen,  Pakis.)  At  last 
they  contrived  a  wooden  horse,  in  whose  hollow  belly 
many  of  the  Greek  heroes  hid  themselves.  Their  army 
and  fleet  then  withdrew  to  Tenedos,  feigning  to  have 
raised  the  siege.  The  Trojans  conveyed  the  wooden  horse 
into  Troy  ;  in  the  night  the  Greeks  stole  out,  opened  the 
gates  to  their  returning  friends,  and  Troy  was  taken. 

See  Homer,  /?.,  viL  452  sq.,  ix,  215  sq.,  ixi.  446  sq.  ;  Apollo- 
dorus,  iL  6,  4,  iii.  12  ;  Diodorus,  iv.  75,  v.  48  ;  Tzetzes,  Schol.  on. 
Lycophron,  29,  72,  1302  ;  Conou,  Narrat.,  21 ;  Dionysius  Halicarn., 
ArUiq.  Bonu,  i.  68  sq.  The  Iliiid  deals  with  a  period  of  fifty -one 
days  in  the  tenth  year  of  the  war.  For  the  wooden  horse,  see 
Homer.  Od.,  iv.  271  sq.  ;  Virgil,  ^n.,  iL  13  sq. 

TROGLODYTES  (-rpuiyXoSirai),  a  Greek  word  mean- 
ing "cave-dwellers."  Caves  have  been  widely  used  as 
human  habitations  both  in  prehistoric  and  in  historic  times 
(see  Cave),  and  ancient  writers  speak  of  Troglodytes  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  as  in  Moesia  near  the  lower  I 


Danube  (Strabo,  vii.  5,  p.  318),  in  the  Caucasus  (Id.,  xL  5, 
p.  506),  but  especially  in  various  parts  of  Africa  from 
Libya  (Id.,  xvii.  3,  p.  828)  to  the  Red  Sea.  Herodotus  (iv. 
183)  tells  of  a  rai;e  of  Troglodyte  Ethiopians  in  inner 
Africa,  very  swift  of  foot,  living  on  lizards  and  creeping 
things,  and  with  a  speech  like  the  screech  of  an  owL  The 
Gtramantes  hunted  them  for  slaves.  It  has  been  supposed 
that  these  Troglodytes  may  be  Tibbus,  who  still  in  part  are 
cave-dwellers.  Aristotle  also  {Hist.  An.,  vii.  12)  speaks  of 
a  dwarlish  race  of  Troglodytes  on  the  upper  course  of  the 
Nile,  who  possessed  horses  and  were  in  his  opinion  the  Pyg- 
mies of  fable.  But  the  best  known  of  these  African  cave- 
dwellers  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  "Troglodyte  country" 
on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  who  reached  as  far  north  as 
the  Greek  port  of  Berenice,  and  of  whose  strange  and  sav- 
age customs  an  interesting  account  has  been  preserved  by 
Diodorus  and  Photius  from  Agatharchides.'  They  were  a 
pastoral  people,  living  entirely  on  the  flesh  of  their  herds, 
or,  in  the  season  of  fresh  pasture,  on  mingled  milk  and 
blood.  But  they  killed  only  old  or  siok  cattle  (as  indeed 
they  killed  old  men  who  could  no  longer  follow  the  flock), 
and  the  butchers  were  called  "  unclean  " ;  nay,  they  gave 
the  name  of  parent  to  no  man,  but  only  to  the  cattle  of 
which  they  had  their  subsistence.  This  last  point  seems 
to  be  a  confused  indication  of  totemism.  They  went 
almost  naked ;  the  women  wore  necklaces  of  shells  as 
amulets.  Marriage  was  unknown,  except  among  the  chiefs, 
— a  fact  which  agrees  with  the  prevalence  of  female  kin- 
ship in  these  regions  in  much  later  tinjes.  They  practised 
circumcision  or  a  mutilation  of  a  more  serious  kind.  The 
whole  account,  much  of  which  must  be  here  passed  by,  ia 
one  of  the  most  curious  pictures  of  savage  life  in  ancient 
literature. 

The  Biblical  Horim,  who  inhabited  Mount  Seir  before  the  Edom- 
ites,  bore  a  name  which  meaus  cave-dwell^s,  and  may  probably 
have  been  a  kindred  people  to  the  Troglodytes  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Red  Sea.  Jerome,  on  Obadiah  5,  speaks  of  this  region  as  con- 
taining many  cave-divellings,  and  such  habitations  are  still  •some- 
times used  on  the  borders  of  t>  3  Syro- Arabian  desert. 

TROGON,  a  word  apparently  first  used  as  English  ^  by 
Shaw  {Mits.  Leverianum,  p.  177)  in  1792,  and  novs'  for 
many  years  accepted  as  the  general  name  of  certain  birds 
forming  the  Family  TrogonidiR  of  modern  ornithology,  the 
species  Trogon  curucui  of  Linnseus  being  its  type.  But, 
since  doubts  exist  as  to  whether  this  is  that  which  was 
subsequently  called  by  VieiUot  T.  collaris  or  the  T.  melan- 
urus  of  Swainson,  though  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the 
former  {cf.  Cabanis,  Mui.  Heineanum,  iv.  p.  177,  and  Finsch, 
Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1870,  p.  559),  several  recent  writers  have 
dropped  the  Linnaean  specific  term. 

The  Trogons  are  birds  of  moderate  size  :  the  smallest  is  hardly 
bigger  than  a  Thrush  and  the  largest  less  bulky  thaq  a  Crow.  In 
most  of  them  the  bill  is  very  wide  at  the  gape,  which  is  invariably 
beset  by  recurved  bristles.  They  seize  most  of  their  food,  whether 
caterpillars  or  fruits,  on  the  wing,  though  their  alar  power  is  not 
exceptionally  great,  their  flight  being  described  as  short,  rapid,  and 
spasmodic.  Their  feet  are  weak  and  of  a  unique  structure,  the 
second  toe,  which  in  most  birds  is  the  inner  anterior  one.  being  re- 
verted, and  thus  the  Trogons  stand  alone,  since  in  all  other  birds 
that  have  two  toes  before  and  two  behind  it  is  the  outer  toe  that 
is  turned  backward.  The  plumage  is  very  remarkable  and  charac- 
teristic. There  is  not  a  species  which  has  not  beauty  beyond  most 
birds,  and  the  glory  of  the  group  culminates  in  the  QuEZAL  (7. p.). 
Bnt  in  others  golden  green  and  steely  blue,  rich  crjmson '  and  tender 

^  See  also  Artemidorus  in  Strabo,  ivi.  17,  p.  785  sq. 

"  Trogoncm  (the  oblique  case)  occurs  In  Pliny  (B.  X'.,  x.  16)  as  the 
name  of  a  bird  of  which  he  knew  nothing,  save  that  it  was  mentioned  by 
Hylas,  an  augur,  whose  work  is  lost ;  but  some  would  read  Trygonirn 
(Turtle-Dove).  lu  1752  Mdhring  {Av.  Genera,  p.  85)  applied  the 
name  to  the  "Cunicui"  (pronounced  "Suruqua"  _/W«  Bate.?,  Nat, 
Amazons,  i.  p.  254)  of  Marcgrave  {Hist.  Nat.  Brasiliae,  p.  211),  who 
described  and  figured  it  in  1648  recognizably.  In  1760  Brisson 
(OrnithologU,  iv.  p.  164)  adopted  Trogon  as  a  generic  term,  and,  Lin- 
nseus having  followed  his  example,  it  has  since  been  universally 
accepted. 

'  M.  Anatole  Bogdanoff  determined  the  red  pigment  of  the  feathers 


684 


T  R  O  — T  R  O 


pink,  yellow  varying  from  primrose  to  amber,  vie  with  one  another 
ID  vivid  coloration,  or  contrasted,  as  happens  in  many  species,  with 
a  warm  tawny  or  a  sombre  slaty  grey — to  say  nothing  of  the  delicate 
freckling  of  black  and  white,  as  minute  as  the  markings  of  a  moth's 
wing — the  wliole  set  off  by  bands  of  white,  producing  an  effect 
hardly  equalled  in  any  group.  It  is  impossible  within  brief  space 
to  describe  its  glowing  tints  ;  but  the  plumage  is  further  remarkable 
for  the  large  size  of  its  contour-feathers,  which  are  extremely  soft 
and  so  loosely  seated  as  to  come  off  in  scores  at  a  touch,  and  there 
is  no  down.  The  tail  is  generally  a  very  cnaracteristic  featu/e,  the 
rectrices,  though  in  some  cases  pointed,  being  often  curiously  squared 
at  the  tip,  and  when  this  is  the  case  they  are  usually  barred  ladder- 
like  with  white  and  black.'  According  to  Gould,  they  are  larger 
and  more  pointed  in  the  young  than  in  the  old,  and  grow  squarer 
and  have  the  white  bands  narrower  at  each  succeeding  moult.  He 
also  asserts  that  in  the  species  which  have  the  wing-coverts  freckled, 
the  freckling  becomes  finer  with  age.  So  far  as  has  been  observed, 
the  nidification  of  these  birds  is  in' holes  of  trees,  wherein  are  laid 
without  any  bedding  two  roundish  eggs,  generally  white,  but  cer- 
tainly in  one  species  (Quezal)  tinted  with  bluish  green. 

The  Trogons  form  a  very  well-marked  Family,  belonging  to  the 
multifarious  group  treated  in  the  present  series  of  articles  as 
Ficarise;  but,  instead  of  being  {so  far  as  is  known)  like  all  the  rest  of 
them  and,  as  Prof.  Huxley  believed,  "  dcsmognathous,"  they  have 
been  shown  by  W.  A.  Forbes  {Proc.  Zool.  Society,  ISSl,  p.  836)  to 
be  "schizogna'hou's" — thus  demonstrating,  in  the  words  of  the 
tatter,  "that  the  structure  of  the  palate  has  not  that  unique  and 
peculiar  significance  that  has  been  claimed  for  it  in  the  classification 
of  birds."  Perhaps  the  explanation  of  this  anomaly  may  lie  in  the 
fact  that  the  Trogons  are  a  very  old  form.  The  remains  of  one,  T. 
gallicus,  have  been  recognized  by  Prof.  A.  Milne-Edwards  (Ots. 
foss.  de  la  France,  ii.  p.  395,  pi.  177,  figs.  18-22)  from  the  Miocene 
of  the  AUier,  and  it  may  not  be  too  much  to  suppose  that  the 
schizognathous  structure  was  more  ancient  than  the  desmognathous. 
Again  too  this  fortunate  discovery  of  that  eminent  paleontologist 
seems  to  account  for  the  remarkable  distribution  of  the  Trogons  at 
the  present  day.  \Vhile  they  chiefly  abound,  and  have  developed 
their  climax  of  magnificence,  in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  New  World, 
they  yet  occur  in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  Old.  The  species  now 
inhabiting  Africa,  forming  the  group  Hapaloderma,  can  hardly  be 
separated  generically  from  those  of  the  Neotropical  Trogmi,  and  the 
difference  between  the  Asiatic  forms,  if  somewhat  greater,  is  still 
comparatively  slight  It  is  plain  then  that  the  Trogons  are  an 
exceptionally  persistent  type  ;  indeed  in  the  whole  Class  few  similar 
instances  occur  and  perhaps  none  that  can  be  called  paralleL  The 
extreme  development  of  the  type  in  the  New  World  jnst  noticed 
also  furnishes  another  hint.  "While  in  some  of  the  American  Trogons 
{Pbaromacrus,  for  instance)  the  plumage  of  the  females  is  not  very 
much  less  beautiful  than  that  of  the  males,  there  are  others  in 
which  the  hen  birds  retain  what  may  be  fairly  deemed  a  more  ancient 
livery,  while  the  cocks  flaunt  in  brilliant  attire.  Now  the  plumage 
of  both  sexes  in  all  but  one  ^  of  the  Asiatic  Trogons,  EarpcuUs, 
resembles  rather  that  of  the  young  and  of  those  -females  of  the 
American  species  which  are  modestly  clothed  The  inference  from 
this  fact  would  seem  to  be  that  the  general  coloration  of  the  Trogons 
prior  to  the  establishment,  by  geographical  estrangement,  of  the 
two  types  was  a  russet  similar  to  that  now  worn  by  the  adults  of 
both  sexes  in  the  Indian  region,  and  by  a  portion  only  of  the 
females  in  the  Neotropical.  The  Ethiopian  type,  as  already  said, 
very  closely  agrees  with  the  American,  and  therefore  would  be 
likely  to  have  been  longer  in  conne.xion  therewith.  Again,  while 
the  adults  of  most  of  the  American  Trogons  {Pharomacru^  and 
EuptilotU  excepted)  have  the  edges  of  the  bill  serrated,  their  young 
have  them  smooth  or  only  with  a  single  notch  on  either  side  near 
the  tip,  and  this  is  observable  in  the  Asiatic  Trogons  at  all  ages. 
At  the  same  time  the  most  distinctive  features  of  the  whole  group, 
which  are  easily  taken  in  at  a  glance,  but  are  difficult  to  express 
briefly  in  words,  are  equally  possessed  by  both  branches  of  the 
Family,  showing  that  they  were  in  all  likelihood — for  the  possibility 
that  the  peculiarities  may  have  been  evolved  apart  is  not  to  he  over- 
looked— reached  before  the  geographical  sundering  of  these  branches 
(whereby  they  are  now  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  .the  globe)  was 
•fleeted. 

I  It  remains  to  say  that  about  sixty  species  o£  Trogons 
are  recognized,  which  Gould  in  the  second  edition  of  his 
Monograph  of  the  Family  (1875)  divides  into  seven  genera ; 
but  their  characters  are  hardly  laid  down,  Pkaromacrus, 
Euptilotis,  and  Trogon  inhabit  the  mainland  of  tropical 

of  PhaTomdcriis  aurictps  tp  be  a  substance  which  he  called  "zooxan- 
thine"  {CompUs  Rmdus,  2d  November  1857,  ilv.  p.  690). 

Id  the  Trogon  of  Cuba,  Pri&jtoUlu£,  Ibey  are  most  curiously 
■cooped  out,  aa  it  were,  at  the  extremity,  and  the  lateral  pointed 
cads  diverge  in  a  way  almost  unique  among  birds. 

'  Or  two  species  if  11.  vuuloli  be  r"Tre  than  a  local  form  of  B. 
n> — nardf*- 


America,  no  specito  passing  to  tne  northward  of  the  Rio 
Grande  nor  southward  of  the  forest  district  of  Brazil, 
while  none  occur  on  the  west  coast  of  Peru  or  Chili, 
Prionolelus  and  Tmetotrogon,  each  with  one  species,  ar© 
peculiar  respectively  to  Cuba  and  Hispaniola.  The  African 
form  I/apalodeTTna  is  two  species,  one  found  only  on  thd 
west  coast,  the  other  of  more  general  range.  The  Asiatio 
Trogons,  Harpactes  (with  eleven  species  according  to  tha 
same  authority),  occur  from  Nepal  to  Malacca,  in  Ceylon, 
and  in  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo,  while  one  species  is 
peculiar  to  some  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  -  (a.  n.)  i 
TROGUS,  Cn.  Postpeius,  a  Roman  historian,  nearly 
contemporary  with  Livy.  Although  the  epitome  of  his 
historical  writings  by  Justin,  and  a  few  fragments,  are  all 
that  have  come  down  to  us,  there  is  abundant  reason  to 
believe  that  he  deserves  a  place  in  the  history  of  Romaa 
litera  are  by  the  side  of  Sallust,  Livy,  and  Tacitus.  Of 
his  life  little  is  known.  He  was  almost  certainly  of  Greek 
descent.  His  grandfather  served  with  Pompey  in  the  war 
against  Sertorius,  and  received  through  the  influence  of 
that  general  Ihe  Roman  citizenship ;  hence  the  namo 
Pompeios,  which  was  adopted  as  a  token  of  gratitude  to 
the  benefactor.  The  lather  of  Trogus  was  an  ofEcer  of 
Caesar.  Trogus  himself  seems  to  have  bfeen  a  man  of 
encyclopaedic  knowledge.  He  wrote,  after  Aristotle  and 
Theophrastus,  books  on  the  natural  history  of  animals  and 
plants,  used  by  the  elder  Pliny,  who  calls  Trogus  "  one  of 
the  most  precise  among  authorities  "  (auctor  ipse  e  severis- 
simis).  But  the  principal  work  of  Trogus  consisted  of 
forty -four  Liitri  UUtoriarum  PhUippicarum.  This  was  a 
great  history  of  the  world,  or  rather  of  those  portions 
of  it  which  came  under  the  svray  of  Alexander  and  his 
successors.  The  tale  began  with  Ninus,  the  founder  of 
Nineveh,  and  ceased  at  about  the  same  point  as  Livy's 
great  work,  viz.,  9  a.d.  The  last  event  recorded  by  the 
epitomator  Justin  {q.v.)  is  the  recovery  of  the  Roman 
standards  captured  by  the  Parthians  (iO  B.C.).  The  history 
of  Rome  was  treated  as  merely  subsidiary  to  that  of  Greece 
and  the  East.  The  work  was  based  upon  the  writings  of 
Greek  historians,  such  as  Theopompus,  Ephorus,  Timaeus, 
Polybius.  It  has  been  contended  that  Trogus  did  not 
gather  together  the  information  from  the  leading  Greek 
historians  for  himself,  but  that  it  was  already  combined 
into  a  single  book  by  some  Greek,  whom  Trogus  followed 
closely  with  some  superficial  errors.  But  the  assumption 
appears  improbable  in  itself,  merely  on  a  review  of  the 
remains  of  the  historical  writings,  and  is  moreover  incon- 
sistent with  what  we  know  of  the  works  in  natural  history, 
for  which  Trogus  certainly  went  back  to  what  were  re- 
garded in  his  time  as  first-hand  authorities.  It  is  generally 
admitted  that  Trogus  had  genuine  qualifications  for  writing 
history,  though  he  could  not  rid  himself  entirely  ot  the 
faults  of  his  authorities.  His  idea  of  history  was  more 
severe  and  less  rhetorical  than  that  followed  by  Sallust  and 
Livy,  whom  he  blamed  for  putting  elaborate  speeches  in  the 
mouths  of  the  characters  of  whom  they  wrote.  Yet  his  own 
Latin  style  had  a  vivid  force  which  is  still  to  be  recognized 
in  the  extracts  made  by  Justin.  For  the  ancient  history  of 
the  East,  Trogus,  even  in  the  present  mutilated  state  of  his 
historical  work,  often  proves  to  be  an  authority  of  great 
importance. 

The  chief  modem  editions  are  those  of  Gronovius  (Leyden,  1719 
and  1760);  Frotscher(Leipsic,  1827-30);  and  Jeep  (Leipsic,  1859  and 
1862).  In  Engelmann's  BiblioOuca  Scriptorum  Classicorum,  ii, 
unfler  Justin  and  Trogus,  will  be  found  a  large  niunber  cf  references 
to  scattered  modern  articles.  Perhaps  the  most  important  is  tlut^ 
of  A.  V.  Gutschmid  on  the  sources  of  the  history  of  Trogus,  in  the 
second  supplementary  vol  of  the  JaJirbb.  f.  clasi.  Fhilol.  (Leipsic^ 
1857). 

TROITSK,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
-of  Orenburg,  situated  in  a  fe-*.ile  stenpe  392  miles  to  the 


T  R  0  — T  R  O 


585 


north-east  of  Orenburg,  on  the  Siberian  highway,  is  one 
of  those  towTis  which  have  grown  rapidly  of  late  in  the 
south-east  of  Russia.  The  Troitskiy  fort,  erected  in  1743, 
became  a  centre  for  the  exchange  trade  with  the  Kirghiz 
steppe  and  Turkestan,  and  in  that  trade  Troitsk  is  now 
second  only  to  Orenburg.  Cotton,  silk,  and  especially 
horses  and  cattle  are  imported,  while  leather,  cotton,  and 
woollen  and  metal  wares  are  exported.  An  active  trade 
in  corn  for  the  Ural  gold-mines  is  carried  on.  The  popu- 
lation in  1SS4  was  13,000. 

TROLLOPE,  Antho.vy  (1S15-18S2),  English  novelist, 
was  born  in  Keppel  Street,  Russell  Square,  London,  accord- 
ing to  most  authorities,  on  2-lth  April  1815;  in  his  own 
Auiohioyraphy  he  merely  gives  the  year.  His  father,  a 
barrister,  who  had  been  fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford, 
brought  himself  and  his  family  into  the  sorest  straits  by 
unbusiness-like  habits,  by  quarrelling  with  his  profession, 
or  at  least  with  the  attorneys,  and  by  injudicious  specu- 
lations, especially  in  farming.  TroUope's  mother,  Frances 
Milton,  according  to  her  son,  was  nearly  thirty  when  she 
married  in  1809.  By  her  husband's  wish  she  made  a 
strange  journey  to  America  in  1827,  for  the  purpose  of 
setting  up  a  kind  of  fancy  shop  in  Cincinnati,  which 
failed  utterly.  Her  visit,  however,  furnished  her  with  the 
means  of  writing  The  Domestic  Manners  of  the  Americans. 
This  at  once  brought  her  in  a  considerable  sum,  and  thence- 
forward she  continued  to  be  the  mainstay  of  her  family. 
Her  husband  being  obliged  at  last  actually  to  fly  the 
country  from  his  creditors,  his  wife  maintained  him  by 
her  pen,  at  Bruges,  tiU  his  death  there  in  1835.  For  sbme 
time  Mrs  TroUope  wrote  chiefly  travels ;  but  she  soon  be- 
came known  as  a  novelist,  and  was  very  industrioiis.  Her 
novels,  the  best  of  which  are  probably  The  Vicar  of  Wrex- 
hill  and  The  Widow  Bamaby,  are  now  rarely  read,  and 
indeed  were  never  at  their  best  above  good  circulating 
library  level :  they  are  written  with  cleverness  indeed,  and 
a  certain  amount  of  observation,  but  with  many  faults  of 
taste,  and  with  an  almost  total  want  of  artistic  complete- 
ness and  form.  Her  late  beginning,  her  industrious  career 
(for  she  WTOte  steadily  for  more  than  thirty  years,  till  her 
death  in  October  1863,  at  Florence),  and  the  entire  absence 
in  her  of  any  blue-stocking  or  femme-savarUe  weakness 
would  have  made  her  remarkable,  even  if  she  had  not 
transmitted,  as  she  undoubtedly  did  transmit,  her  talent, 
much  increased,  to  her  children. 

Anthony  TroUope  was  the  third  son.  By  his  own 
account  few  English  men  of  letters  have  had  an  unhappier 
childhood  and  youth.  He  puts  down  his  own  misfortunes, 
at  Harrow,  at  Winchester,  at  Harrow  again,  and  elsewhere, 
to  his  father's  pecuniary  circumstances,  which  made  his  own 
appearance  dirty  and  shabby,  and  subjected  him  to  various 
humiliations.  But  it  is  permissible  to  suspect  that  this 
was  not  quite  the  truth,  and  that  some  peculiarities  of 
temper,  of  which  in  after  life  he  had  many,  contributed  to 
his  unpopularity.  At  any  rate  he  seems  to  have  reached 
the  verge  of  manhood  as  ignorant  as  if  he  had  had  no  edu- 
cation at  all.  While  living  abroad  he  tried  ushership ;  but 
at  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  pitchforked  by  favour  (for 
he  could  not  pass  even  the  ridiculous  examination  then 
usual)  into  the  post-ofiSce.  Even  then  his  troubles  were 
not  over.  He  got  into  debt;  he  got  into  ridiculous 
entanglements  of  love  affairs,  which  he  has  very  candidly 
avowed ;  he  was  in  constant  hot  water  with  the  authori- 
ties ;  and  he  seems  to  have  kept  some  very  queer  company, 
which  long  afterwards  stood  him  in  stead  as  models  for 
some  of  his  novel  pictures.  At  last  in  August  1841  he 
obtained  the  appointment  of  clerk  to  one  of  the  post-office 
surveyors  in  a  remote  part  of  Ireland,  with  a  very  small 
nominal  salary.  This  salary,  however,  was  practically 
quadrupled  by  allowances ;  living  was  cheap ;  and  the  life 


suited  TroUope  exactly,  being  not  office  work,  which  he 
always  hated,  but  a  kind  of  tra  jlling  inspectorship.  And 
here  he  not  only  began  that  habit  of  hunting  which  (after 
a  manner  hardly  possible  in  the  stricter  conditions  of 
official  work  nowadays)  he  kept  up  for  many  years  even 
in  England,  but  within  three  years  of  his  appointment 
engaged  himself  to  Miss  Rose  Heseltine,  whom  he  had  met 
in  Ireland  but  who  was  of  English  birth.  They  were 
married  in  June  1844.  His  headquarters  had  previously 
been  at  Banagher ;  he  was  now  transferred  to  Clonmel. 

TroUope  had  always  dreamt  of  novel-writing,  and  his 
Irish  experiences  seemed  to  supply  him  with  promising 
subjects.  With  some  assistance  from  his  mother  he  got 
his  first  two  books,  The  Macdermoti  of  BcUlycloran  and  The 
Kellys  and  the  O'Kellys,  published,  the  one  in  1847,  the 
other  the  next  year.  But  neither  was  in  the  least  a 
success,  though  the  second  perhaps  deserved  to  be ; 
and  a  third.  La  Vendee,  which  followed  in  1850,  besides 
being  a  much  worse  book  than  either,  was  an  equal 
failure.  TroUope  made  various  other  literary  attempts, 
but  for  a  time  ill  fortune  attended  all  of  them.  MeanwhUe 
he  was  set  on  a  new  kind  of  post-office  work,  which  suited 
him  even  better  than  his  former  employment — a  sort  of 
roving  commission  to  inspect  rural  post  deUveries  and 
devise  their  extension,  first  in  Ireland,  then  throughout 
the  west  of  England  and  South  Wales.  That  he  did  good 
work  is  undeniable ;  but  his  curious  conception  of  official 
duty  (on  his  discharge  of  which  he  prided  himself  im- 
mensely) is  exhibited  by  his  confessions  that  he  "  got  his 
hunting  out  of  it,"  and  that  he  felt  "the  necessity  of 
travelling  miles  enough  [he  was  paid  by  mileage]  to  keep 
his  horses."  It  was  during  this  work  that  he  struck  the 
vein  which  gave  him  fortune  and  fame — which  might  per- 
haps have  given  him  more  fame  and  not  much  less  fortune 
if  he  had  not  worked  it  so  hard — by  conceiving  The 
Warden.  This  was  published  in  1855.  It  brought  him 
little  immediate  profit,  nor  was  even  Barchester  Towers, 
which  followed,  very  profitable,  though  it  contains  his  fresh- 
est, his  most  original,  and,  with  the  exception  of  The  Last 
Chronicle  of  Barset,  his  best  work.  The  two  made  him  a 
reputation,  however,  and  in  1858  he  was  able  for  the  first 
time  to  seU  a  novel.  The  Three  Clerks,  for  a  substantial 
sum,  £250.  A  journey  on  postoffice  business  to  the  West 
Indies  gave  him  material  for  a  book  of  travel,  The  West 
Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main,  which  he  frankly  and  quite 
truly  acknowledges  to  be  much  better  than  some  subse- 
quent work  of  his  in  the  same  kind.  From  this  time  his 
production  (mainly  of  novels)  was  incessant,  and  the  sums 
which  he  received  were  very  large,  amounting  in  one  case  to 
as  much  as  £3525  for  a  single  book,  and  to  nearly  £70,000 
in  the  twenty  years  between  1859  and  1879.  AH  these 
particulars  are  given  with  great  minuteness  by  himself, 
and  are  characteristic.  The  full  high  tide  of  his  fortunes 
began  when  the  Comhill  Magadne  was  established  in  the 
autumn  of  1859.  He  was  asked  at  short  notice  to  write  a 
novel,  and  wrote  Framley  Parsonage,  which  was  extremely 
popular ;  two  novels  immediately  preceding  it.  The  Ber- 
trams and  Castle  Richmond,  had  been  much  less  successful 

As  it  will  i)e  possible  to  notice  few  of  his  subsequent  works 
in  detail,  the  list  of  them,  a  sufficiently  astonishing  one,  may  be 
given  hen:— Tales  of  All  CountriesCi  series,  1S61-1370);  OrUyFarm, 
North  America  (1862) ;  Reuhael  Ray  (1S63) ;  The  Small  Souse  at 
Allington,  Can  Vou  Forgive  U-r!  (1864)  ;  ifiss  Madccnzie  (1865) ; 
The  Claverings,  Nina  BalaOca,  TheLasl  Chronicle  of  Barset  (1867); 
Linda  Tresscl  (1868);  Phineas  Finn,  He  Knew  He  Was  Right  (1369); 
Brovm,  Jones,  and  Robinson,  The  Vicar  of  Bulthampion,  An  Editor's 
Tales,  Caesar  (1870) ;  Sir  Earry  Botspur  of  Humblethwaite.  Ralph 
the  Ecir  {\S,1\) ;  The  Oolden  Lionof  Granpere{\S72) ;  The  Eustace 
Diamtmds,  Australiaand  New  Zealand{\873);  Phineas  Redux,  Earn/ 
Eeathcote  of  Cangoil,  Lady  Anna  (1874) ;  The  Way  We  Live  Now 
(1875);  The  PriTne  Minister  {ISl  6)-,  The  American  Senator  {1877); 
Is  Ee  Popenjoy  t  South  Africa  (1878) ;  John  Caldigaie,  An  Eye/or 

XXm.  —  Ti 


586 


T  R  O  — T  R  O 


an  Eye,  Cousin  Bcnry,  Thackeray  {\?,19) ;  The  Duke's  Children, 
Cicero  (1S80);  Ayata's  Angc!,  Dt  iVortle's  School  (18S1)  ;  Frau 
Frohmann,  Lord  Palmersttn,  The  Fixed  Period,  Kejil  in  the  Dark, 
Marion  Fay  (tS82) ;  ,1/r  Scarborough's  Family,  The  Land  Leayucrs 
(1S83)  I  and  An  Old  Man's  Love  (1884). 

1  How  this  enormous  total  was  achieved  in  spite  of  official 
work  (of  which,  lightly  as  he  took  it,  he  did  a  good  deal, 
and  which  he  did  not  give  up  for  many  years),  of  hunting 
three  times  a  week  in  the  season,  of  whist-playing,  of  not 
a  little  going  into  general  society,  he  has  explained  with  his 
usual  curious  minuteness.  He  reduced  novel-writing  to 
the  conditions  of  regular  mechanical  work — so  much  so 
that  latterly  he  turned  out  so  many  words  in  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  and  wrote  at  this  rate  so  many  hours  a  day.  He 
divided  every  book  beforehand  into  so  many  days'  work 
and  checked  otf  the  tallies  as  ho  wrote. 

A  life  thus  spent  could  not  be  very  eventful,  and  its 
events  may  be  summed  up  rapidly.  In  1858  he  went  to 
Egypt  also  on  post-office  business,  and  at  the  end  of  1859 
he  got  himself  transferred  from  Ireland  to  the  eastern  dis- 
trict of  Engla'nd.  Here  he  took  a  house  at  Waltham. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  establishment  of  The  Fort- 
nightly  Review  in  1865;  he  was  editor  of  St  Paul's  for 
some  time  after  1867;  and  at  the  end  of  that  year  he 
resigned  his  position  in  the  post-office.  He  stood  for 
Beverley  and  was  defeated ;  he  received  from  his  old 
department  special  missions  to  America  and  elsewhere 
(he  had  already  gone  to  America  in  the  midst  of  the 
Civil  War).  He  went  to  Australia  in  1871,  and  before 
going  broke  up  his  household  at  Waltham.  When  he 
returned  he  established  himself  in  London,  and  lived  there 
till  1880,  when  he  removed  to  Harting  on  the  confines  of 
Sussex  and  Hampshire.  He  had  visited  South  Africa  in 
1877  and  travelled  elsewhere.  On  3rd  November  1882  he 
was  seized  with  paralysis,  and  died  on  6  th  December. 

Of  Trollope's  personal  character  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  mucli. 
fitrango  as  his  conception  of  official  duty  may  seem,  it  was  evidently 
quite  honest  and  sincere,  and,  though  he  is  said  to  have  been  as  an 
ofVicial  popular  neither  with  superiors  nor  inferiors,  he  no  doubt 
did  much  good  work.  Privately  he  was  much  liked  and  much  dis- 
liked,— a  great  deal  of  real  kindness  being  accompanied  by  a  blus- 
tering and  overbearing  manner,  and  an  egotism,  not  perhaps  more 
deep  than  other  men's,  but  more  vociferous.  His  literary  work  needs 
more  notice.  Nothing  of  it  but  the  novels  is  remarkable  for  merit. 
His  Caisar  and  the  Cicero  are  curious  examples  of  a  man's  under- 
taking work  for  which  he  was  not  in  tho  least  fitted.  Thackeray 
exhibits  (though  TroUope  appears  to  have  both  admired  Thackeray 
as  an  artist  and  liked  him  as  a  man)  grave  faults  "of  taste  and  judg- 
ment and  a  complete  lack  of  real  criticism.  Tiie  books  of  travel  are 
not  good,  and  of  a  kind  not  good.  Nitia  Balatka  and  Lvida  Tressel, 
published  anonymously  and  as  experiments  in  the  romantic  style, 
have  been  better  thought  of  by  tho  author  and  by  some  competent 
judges  than  by  tho  public  or  the  publishers.  Brovm,  Jones,  and 
Robinson  was  still  moro  disliked,  and  is  certainly  very  bad  as  a 
whole,  but  has  touches  of  curious  originality  in  parts.  The  rest  of 
the  novels  have  becii  judged  very  differently  by  different  persons. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  their  enormous  volume  prejudiced  readers 
against  them  even  long  before  the  author  let  the  public  into  the 
secret  of  their  manufacture,  which  has  made  the  prejudice  deeper. 
There  is  also  no  doubt  that  Trollopc  seldom  or  never  creates  a 
character  of  tho  first  merit  (Mr  Crawley  in  tho  Last  Chronicle  of 
Barsct  is  the  one  possible  exception),  and  that  not  one  of  his  books 
can  be  called  a  work  of  genius.  At  the  same  time  no  one  probably 
has  produced  anything  like  such  a  volume  of  anything  like  such 
merit.  He  claims  for  himself  that  his  characters  are  always  more 
or  less  alive,  and  they  aio.  After  his  first  failures  he  never  pro- 
duced anything  that  was  not  a  faithful  and  sometimes  a  very 
amusing  transcript  of  the  sayings  and  doings  of  possible  men  and 
women.  His  characters  are  never  marionettes,  much  less  sticks. 
He  has  some  irritating  mannerisms,  notably  a  trick  of  repetition 
of  the  same  form  of  words.  He  is  sometimes  absolutely  vulgar, — 
that  is  to  say,  he  does  not  deal  with  low  life,  but  shows,  though 
always  robust  and  pure  in  morality,  a  certain  coarseness  of  taste. 
He  is  constantly  rather  trivial,  and  perhaps  nowhere  out  of  the 
Barset  series  (which,  however,  is  of  itself  no  inconsiderable  work) 
has  ho  produced  books  that  will  live.  The  very  faithfulness  of  his 
representation  of  a  certain  phase  of  thought,  of  cultivation,  of 
•ociety,  uninformed  as  it  is  by  any  higher  6j>irit,  in  the  long  run 
damaged,  as  it  had  first  helped,  the  popularity  of  his  work.     But, 


allowing  for  all  this,  it  may  and  must  still  be  said  that  he  held 
up  his  mirror  steadily  to  nature,  and  that  the  mirror  itself  was 
fashioned  with  no  inconsiderable  art.  (G.  SA.) 

TROMBONE,  a  musical  instrument  of  brass.  It  has  a 
cupped  mouthpiece,  and  is  formed  of  two  principal  parts 
— the  bell,  the  bore  of  which  gradually  widens,  and  the 
slide,  which  is  composed  of-  two  cylindrical  tubes  parallel 
to  each  other,  upon  which  two  other  tubes,  communicating 
at  their  lower  extremities  by  a  pipe  curved  in  a  half-circle, 
glide  without  loss  of  air.  The  mouthpiece  is  adapted  ta 
one  of  the  upper  ends  of  the  slide  and  the  bell  to  tho 
other  end.  When  the  slide,  which  is  moved  by  the  right 
band,  is  closed,  the  instrument  is  at  its  highest  pitch;  tho 
note  is  lowered  in  ■  proportion  as  the  column- of  air  i$ 
lengthened  by  drawing  out  the  slide.  j 

Formerly  the  trombone  was  known  as  the  sackbut ;  its 
modern  designation — great  trumpet — comes  from  tho 
Italian.  The  Germans  call  it  posaune.  It  is  difficult  to 
say  where  or  at  what  epoch  the  instrument  was  invented.! 
In  a  manuscript  of  the  9th  century,  preserved  at  Boulogne,- 
there  is  a  drawing  of  an  instrument  which  bears  a  great 
resemblance  to  a  trombone  deprived  of  its  bell.  Virdungi 
says  little  about  the  trombone,  but  he  gives  an  engraved 
representation  of  it,  under  the  name  of  busaun,  which 
shows  that  early  in  the  16th  century  it  was  almost  the 
same  as  that  employed  in  our  day.  By  that  time  the 
trombone  had  come  into  vogue  in  England  :  the  band  of 
musicians  in  the  service  of  Henry  VIII.  included  ten  sack- 
but  players,  and  imder  Elizabeth,  in  1587,  there  were  six. 
English  instrumentalists  then  enjoyed  a  certain  reputa- 
tion and  were  sought  for  by  foreign  courts;  thus  in  1604 
Charles  III.  of  Lorraine  sought  to  recruit  his  sackbut 
players  from  English  bands.  Praetorius  ^  classes  the  trom- 
bones in  a  complete  family,  the  relative  tonalities  of  which 
were  thus  composed  : — 1  ali-posaun,  4  gemeine  rechte  pos- 
aunen,  2  quarl-posaunen,  1  odav-posaun, — 8  in  all.  The  alt- 
posaun  was  in  D.  With  the  slide  closed  it  gave  the  first  of 
the  accompanying  harmonics: . 
The  gemeine  rechte  posaimen, 
or  ordinary  trombones,  were  in 
A.  Without  using  theTslide  they  gave  the  subjoined  sounds : 
.The  quart -posaun  was  made 
;  either  in  E,  the  fourth  below 
the  gemeine  rechte  posaun, 
or  in  D,  the  lower  fifth.  In  the  latter  case  it  was  exactly 
an  octave  below  the  alt-posaun.  The  octav-posaun  was 
in  A.  It  was  constructed  in  two  different  fashions  : 
either  it  had  a  length  double  that  of  the  ordinary  trom- 
bone, or  the  slide  was  shortened,  the  length  of  the 
column  of  air  being  still  maintained  by  the  adaptatioa 
of  a  crook.  The  first  system,  which  was  invented  by 
Hans  Schreiber  four  years  before  the  work  of  Praetorius 
appeared,  gave  the  instrumentalist  a  slide  by  which  he 
could  procure  in  the  lower  octave  all  the  sounds  of  the 
ordinary  trombone.  The  second  system,  which  Prffitorius 
had  known  for  years,  was  distinguished  from  the  first,  not 
only  by  modifications  affecting  the  form,  but  also  by  a 
larger  bore.  Mersenne  ^  calls  the  trombone  trompette  har- 
moniqae,  but  he  does  not  appear  to  have  made  himself 
acquainted  with  its  construction,  for  we  can  scarcely  find 
an  allusion  in  the  confused  text  of  his  work  to  the  tonality 
of  the  trombone  then  in  vogue.  He  established  this  fact, 
however,  that  it  was  customary  in  France  to  lower  the 
instrument  a  fourth  below  the  pitch  of  the  ordinary  trom- 
bone by  means  of  a  toriil,  a  kind  of  crook  with  a  double 
turn  that  was  fitted  between  the  bell  and  the  slide,  "io 
order,"  he  said,  "  to  make  the  bass  to  hautbois  concerts."   I 

The  compass  of  the  trombone  is  not  limited  to  the  mere  hann> I 
>   Afusica  yetutscht  nnd  ausy/czof/en,  CascI,  1511, 
-   Orgnnoyrophia,  Wnlfenbuttel,  1619. 
'  Uarmonie  Universelk,  Paris,  1627. 


T  R  O  — T  R  O 


nics  obtained  by  leaving  the  instniment  at  its  shortest  length — 
that  is,  with  the  slide  close  up  ;  it  in  fact  comprises  seven  positions, 
which  are  obtained  by  shifting  the  slide  as  many  lengths  and  in 
Bach  a  way  that  each  of  these  produces  a  series  of  harmonics  a 
semitone  lower  than  the  length  which  has  preceded.  This  system, 
so  simple  and  rational,  might  have  been  expected  always  to  serve 
for  the  basis  of  the  technique  of  the  instrument ;  but  from  the 
middle  of  the  ISth  century  the  art  of  playing  the  trombone  became 
the  object  of  purely  empiric  teaching.  Only  four  positions  were 
made  use  of.'  By  the  first — that  is,  with  the  slide  close  up — there  was 
obtained  from  the  ordinary  trombone,  then  called  the  tenor  trom- 
bone, the  first  series  of  the  subjoined  harmonics  (the  ^  ~ 
oumerals  indicating  the  order)  -.  . ,  —  ^  **'  U 
the  fundamental  or  first  note 
being  difficult  to  obtain  ;  the  '  ^ 
second  position  produced 

A   Jt        the    third 


position 


and  the  fourth 


=       produced 

=  In   thus  lowering  by  semitones,   the 
sounds  furnished  by  the  four  positions 


rave  the  tenor  trombone  a  diatonic  scale  from  . 

This  scale  was  farmed  with  notes  that  could  ! 

be  -perfectly  just,  but  the  result  would  have ' 

been  less  satisfactory  to  the  ear  if  the  player 

had  strictly  observed  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  teaching  of  that 

period  for  the  production  of  the  chromatic  intervals.     Thus  to  pass 

from  a  note  furnished  by  one  of  the  four  positions  to  another  a 

semitone  lower  it  was  necessaiy  to   lengthen  the  slide  by  two 

fingers ;  if  the  semitone  higher  was  required  the  slide  had  to  be 

shortened   to  the  same  extent.'     A   consideration   of    the   laws 

afiectin"  lengths  of  pipes  will  show  the  viciousness  of  that  rule. 

Of  all  wind  instruments  the  trombone  has  perhaps  been  least 
modified  in  form ;  changes  have  occasionally  been  attempted, 
but  for  the  most' part  with  only  trifling  success.  The  innovation 
which  has  had  the  most  vogue  dates  from  the  end  of  the  18th 
century  ;  it  consisted  in  bending  the  tube  of  the  bell  in  a  half 
circle  above  the  head  of  the  executant,  which  produced  a  very 
bizarre  effect.  It  also  gave  rise  to  very  serious  inconveniences : 
by  destroying  the  regularity  of  the  proportions  of  the  bell  it  pre- 
judicially affected  the  quality  of  toue  and  intonation  of  the  instru- 
ment For  a  long  time  the  curved  bell  with  its  serpent's  mask 
was  maintained  in  military  music,  and  it  is  only  about  twenty 
years  ago  that  it  was  completely  given  up.  By  giving  a  half  turn 
more  to  the  bell  tube  its  opening  was  directed  to  the  back  of  the 
executant ;  but  this  form,  in  fashion  for  a  little  while  about  1830, 
was  not  long  adhered  to,  and  the  trombone  reassumed  its  primitive 
form,  which  is  still  maintained.  As  appears  from  a  patent  de- 
posited by  Stolzel  and  Bliimel  at  Berlin  on  12th  April  1818,  the 
application  of  ventils  or  pistons  was  then  made  for  the  first  time.' 
The  ventils,  at  first  two  m  number,  effected  a  decided  lengthening 
of  the  instrument  The  first  augmented  the  length  of  the  tube  by 
a  tone,  lowering  by  as  much  the  natural  harmonics.  The  second 
produced  a  similar  effect  for  a  semitone,  and  the  simultaneous  em- 
ployment of  the  two  pistons  resulted  in  the  depression  of  a  tone 
and  a  half  The  principle,  therefore,  of  the  employment  of  ventils 
or  pistons  is  the  same  as  that  which  governs  the  use  of  slides. 
Kor  instance,  a  trombone  is  provided  with  three  pistons,  and  without 
their  help  it  produces  the  first  of  the  following  sets  of  harmonics 
(the  numbers  indicating  the  order). 
Then  by  pressing  down  the  second 
piston  we  obtain  a  lengthening  of  the 
column  of  air  that  lowers  the  in- 
strument by  a  semitone  and  makes 
it  produce  the  second  set  of  harmonics 
here  shown  ;  with  the  aid  of  the  first 
piston  we  relengthen  the  column,  so 
as  to  get  a  whole  tone  lower,  produc- 
ing the  third  set  of  sounds ;  the  third 
piston,  in  the  same  way,  lowers  the  a^ 
instrument  a  tone  and  a  half,  as  in  S 

_(4);  by  the  simultaneous  employ- 
:  ment  of  the  second  and  third  pis- 
-  tons  we  arrive  at  two  tones,  as  in  (5) ; 

t     b*  ^   ^^^    combination    of   the   first   and 

~  *     '      ^=  third  pistons  lowers  the  instrument 

:  two  tones  and  a  half,  as  shown  in  (6) ; 

*  DeT  sich  selbst  in/ormirende  MusicaSt  Augsburg,  1762,  by  Johann 
Jacob  Lotter. 

'  It  need  hardly  be  remarked  that  the  higher  semitone  cannot  be 
produced  in  the  first  position. 

*  This  was  mentioned  in  the  Leipsic  Allgemeim  musikaZisch^ 
Zeiiung  in  1815,  the  merit  of  the  invention  being  assigned  to  Heinricb 
Stolzel  of  Pless  in  Silesia. 


587 

finally.unitingthethree  pistons  lowers 
the  trombone  three  tones  and  a  half, 
^as  shown  in  (7). 

■ft  Notwithstanding  the  increased  facility 
obtained  by  the  use  of  pistons,  they 
are  very  far  from  having  gained  the 
suffrages  of  all  players  :  many  prefer 
the  slide,  believing  that  it  gives  a  facility  of  emission  that  they 
cannot  obtain  with  a  piston  trombone.  For  this  illustration 
of  the  use  of  pistons,  we  have  taken  a  tenor  trombone  in  B[) ;  the 
flat  tonalities  haviu"  been  preferred  for  military  music  since  the 
commencement  of  the  19th 'century,  the  pitch  of  each  variety 
of  trombones  has  been  raised  a  semitone.  At  present  six  trom- 
bones are  more  or  less  in  use,  viz.,  the  alto  trombone  in  F,  the 
alto  in  E|>  (formerly  in  D),  the  tenor  in  B|j  (formerly  in  A),  the 
bass  in  G,  the  bass  in  F  (formerly  in  E),  the  bass  in  E[)  (formerly 
in  D).  This  transposition  has  no  reference  to  the  number  of 
vibrations  that  may  be  officially  or  tacitly  adopted  as  the  standard 
pitch  of  any  country  or  locality.  A  trombone  an  octave  lower 
than  the  tenor  has  recently  been  reintroduced  into  the  orchestra, 
principally  by  Wagner.  The  different  varieties  just  cited  are  con- 
structed with  pistons  or  slides,  as  the  case  may  be.  (V.  IL) 

TROMP,  tlie  name  of  two  famous  Dutch  admirals. 

I.  Martin  Harpertzoon  Teomp  (1597-1653)  was  born 
at  Brielle,  South  Holland,  in  1597.  At  the  age  of  eight 
he  made  a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies  in  a  merchantman, 
but  was  made  prisoner  and  spent  several  years  on  board 
an  English  cruiser.  On  making  his  escape  to  Holland  he 
entered  the  navy  in  1624,  and  in  1637  was  made  lieutenant- 
admiral.  In  February  1639  he  surprised,  off  the  Flemish 
coast  near  Gravelines,  a  large  Spanish  fleet,  which  he  com- 
pletely destroyed,  and  in  the  following  September  he  de- 
feated the  combined  fleets  of  Spain  and  Portugal  off  the 
English  coast — achievements  which  placed  him  in  the  first 
rank  of  Dutch  naval  commanders.  On  the  outbreak  of  war 
with  England  Tromp  appeared  in  the  Downs  in  command 
of  a  large  fleet  and  anchored  off  Dover.  On  the  approach 
of  Blake  he  weighed  anchor  and  stood  over  towards  France, 
but  suddenly  altered  his  course  and  bore  down  on  the 
English  fleet,  which  was  much  inferior  to  his  in  numbers. 
In  the  engagement  which  followed  (19th  May  1652)  he  had 
rather  the  worst  of  it  and  drew  off  with  the  loss  of  two  ships. 
In  November  he  again  appeared  in  command  of  eighty 
ships  of  war,  and  a  convoy  of  300  merchantmen,  which  he 
had  undertaken  to  guard  past  the  English  coast.  Blake 
resolved  to  attack  him,  and,  the  two  fleets  coming  to  close 
quarters  near  Dungeness  on  the  30th  November,  the 
English,  after  severe  losses,  drew  off -in  the  darkness  and 
anchored  off  Dover,  retiring  next  day  to  the  Downs,  while 
Tromp  anchored  off  Boulogne  till  the  Dutch  merchantmen 
had  all  passed  beyond  danger.  The  statement  that  he 
sailed  up  the  Channel  with  a  broom  at  his  masthead  in 
token  of  his  ability  to  sweep  the  seas  is  probably  mythical. 
In  the  following  February  (1653),  while  in  charge  of  a  large 
convoy  of  merchantmen,  he  maintained  a  running  fight  with 
the  combined  English  fleets  under  Blake,  Penn,  and  Monk 
off  Portland  to  the  sands  of  Calais,  and,  though  bafBing  to 
some  extent  the  purposes  of  the  English,  had  the  worst  of 
the  encounter,  losing  nine  ships  of  war  and  thirty  or  forty 
merchantmen.  On  3d  June  he  fought  an  indecisive  battle 
with  the  English  fleet  under  Dean  in  the  Channel,  but 
the  arrival  of  reinforcements  under  Blake  on  the  following 
day  enabled  the  English  to  turn  the  scale  against  him  and 
he  retired  to  the  Texel  with  the  loss  of  seventeen  ships. 
Greatly  discouraged  by  the  results  of  the  battle,  the  Dutch 
sent  commissioners  to  Cromwell  to  treat  for  peace,  but 
the  proposal  was  so  coldly  received  that  war  was  imme- 
diately renewed,  Tromp  again  appearing  in  the  Channel 
towards  the  end  of  July  1653.  In  the  hotly-contested 
conflict  which  followed  with  the  English  under  Monk  on 
the  29th  Tromp  was  shot  by  a  musket  bullet  through  the 
heart.  He  was  buried  with  great  pomp  at  Delft,  where 
there  is  a  monument  to  his  memory  in  the  old  church. 


588 


T  R  O  — T  R  O 


'  n.  CoRJTEilos  Tkostp  ( 1 629-1 G91),  the  second  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  bora  at  Rotterdam  on  9th  September 
1629.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  ha  commanded  a  small 
squadron  charged  to  pursue  the  AJgerian  pirates.  In  1652 
and  1 653  he  served  in  Van  Galen's  fleet  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  after  the  action  with  the  English  fleet  off 
Leghorn,  13th  March  1653,  in  which  Van  Galen  was  killed, 
Trorap  was  promoted  to  be  rear-admiral.  On  13tli  July 
1665  his  squadron  was  by  a  hard  stroke  of  ill  fortune  de- 
feated by  the  English  under  the  duke  of  York.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  Tromp  served  under  De  Rujler,  and  on  acctunt 
of  De  Ruyter's  complaints  of  his  negligence  in  the  action 
of  5th  August  he  was  deprived  of  his  command.  He 
was,  however,  reinstated  in  1673  by  the  stadtholder  William, 
afterwards  king  of  England,  and  in  the  actions  jf  7th 
and  14th  June,  .'gainst  the  allied  fleets  of  England  and 
France,  manifested  a  skill  and  bravery  which  comp'etely 
justified  his  reappointment.  In  1675  he  visited  England, 
when  Charles  II.  created  him  a  baron.  In  the  followHng 
year  he  was  named  lieutenant-admiral  of  the  United  Pro- 
vinces. He  died  at  Amsterdam,  29th  May  1691,  shortly 
after  he  had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  fleet 
against  France.     Like  his  father  ho  was  buried  at  Delft. 

See  H.  de  .Tager,  Hct  Gcslacht  Troup,  18S3.  . 

TROMSO,  a  town  of  Norway,  capital  of  the  amt  of 
the  same  name  and  an  episcopal  see,  stands  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  a  low  fertile  islet  of  the  same  name  between  Ilvaloe 
and  the  mainland,  in  69°  38'  N.  lat.  and  18°  55'  E.  long.  It 
consists  principally  of  one  wide  street  of  wooffen  houses ; 
the  chief  public  buildings  are  the  town-hall,  the  national 
church,  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  the  museum, 
which  contains  a  good  zoological  collection.  The  town  has 
a  high  school  and  a  normal  seminary.  The  main  specialty 
of  the  place  is  bears'  skins  and  other  kinds  of  fur.  The 
herring  fishery  of  Tromsii  is  very  productive,  and  the 
activity  of  the  town  is  further  increased  by  the  circum- 
stance that  it  is  the  port  of  call  for  ships  making  for  the 
seal  fishing  and  walrus  hunting  on  Spitzbergen  and  Nova 
Zembla.  Tromso  w-as  founded  in  1794.  The  population, 
which  in  1816  did  not  exceed  300,  was  5409  in  1882. 

TRONDHJEM.     See  Throndhjem. 

TROPIC-BIRD,  so  called  of  sailors  from  early  times,' 
because,  as  Dampier  ( Voyages,  i.  p.  53)  among  many 
others  testifies,  it  is  "never  seen  far  without  either 
Tropick,"  and  hence,  indulging  a  pretty  fancy,  Linnaeus 
bestowed  on  it  the  generic  term,  continued  by  modern 
writers,  of  Phaethon,  in  allusion  to  its  attempt  to  follow 
the  path  of  the  sun.'^  There  are  certainly  three  well- 
marked  species  of  this  genus,  but  their  respective  geo- 
graphical ranges  have  not  yet  been  definitely  laid  down. 
All  of  them  can  be  easily  known  by  their  totipalmate 
condition,  in  which  the  four  toes  of  each  foot  are  united 
by  a  web,  and  by  the  great  length  of  the  two  middle 
tail-quills,  which  project  beyond  the  rest,  so  as  <o  have 
gained  for  the  birds  the  names  of  "  Rabijunco,"  'PaiUe- 
€n-queue,"  and  "Pijlstaart"  among  mariners  of  difl'erent 
nations.  These  birds  fly  to  a  great  distance  from  land 
and  seem  to  be  attracted  by  ships,  frequently  hovering 
round  or  even  settling  on  the  mastrhead. 

The  Yellow. billed  Tropicbird,  P.  fiaviTostris  or  candidus,  appears 
to  liave  habitually  the  most  northerly,  as  well,  perhaps,  as  tlie 

I     *  More  recently  sailors  have  taken  to  call  it  *'  Bo.itswain-bird  " — 
'•  name  probably  belonging  to  a  very  different  kind  {cf.  Seca). 

*  Occasionally,  perhaps  through  violent  storms,  Tropic-birds 
wander  very  far  from  their  proper  haunta.  In  1700  Leigh,  in  his  N. 
B.  Lancashire  (i.  pp.  164,  195,  Birds,  pi.  i. ,  fig.  3),  described  and 
figured  a  "Tropick  Bird"  found  dead  in  that  county.  Another  is 
saidliy  Mr  Lees  {Zooloipst,  ser.  2,  p.  2666)  to  have  been  found  dead 
AtCradley  near  Malvern — apparently  before  1856  {J,  H.  Gnmey,  jun., 
«p.  cit.,  p.  4766)— which,  like  the  last,  would  seem  (W.  H.  Heaton, 
<tp.  cil.,  p.  5086)  to  have  been  of  the  species  known  as  P.  a€there\ts. 
i^^umaon  was  told  (Rkca,  i.  p.  25)  of  its  supposed  occurrence  at 


widest  range,  visiting  Bermuda  ycirly  to  breed  there,  but  also 
occurring  numerously  in  the  southern  Atlantic,  the  Indian,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  some  islands  of  all  these  three 
it  breeds,  sometimes  on  trees,  which  the  other  species  are  not 
known  to  do.  However,  like  the  rest  of  its  congeners,  it  lays  but  a 
single  egg,  and  this  is  of  a  pinkish  white,  mottled,  spotted,  and 
smeared  with  brownish  purple,  often  so  closely  as  to  conceal  the 
ground  colour.  This  is  the  smallest  of  the  group,  and  hardly 
exceeds  in  size  a  large  Pigeon  ;  but  the  spread  of  its  wings  and  its 
long  tail  make  it  appear  more  bulky  than  it  really  is.  Except 
some  black  markings  on  the  face  {common  to  all  the  species 
known),  a  large  black  patch  partly  covering  the  scapulars  and 
wing-coverts,  and  the  black  suaf,.s  of  its  elongated  rectrices,  its 
ground  colour  is  white,  glossy  as  satin,  and  often  tinged  with 
roseate.  Its  yellow  bill  readily  distinguislies  it  from  its  larger  con- 
gener P.  aethercus,  but  that  has  nearly  all  the  upper  surface  of  the 
body  and  wings  closely  barred  with  black,  while  the  shafts  of  its 
elongated  rectrices  are  white.  Tliis  species  has  a  range  almost 
equally  wide  as  the  last;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  occur  in  the 
western  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  third  and  largest  species, 
the  Red  tailed  Tropic-bird,  P.  rubricauda  or  phxnicurus,  not  only 
has  a  red  bill,  but  the  elongated  and  very  attenuated  rectrices  are 
of  a  bright  crimson  red,  and  when  adult  the  whole  body  shows  a 
deep  roseate  tinge.  The  young  are  beautifully  barred  above  with 
black  arrow-headed  markings.  This  species  has  not  been  known 
to  occur  in  the  Atlantic,  but  is  perhaps  the  most  numerous  in  the 
Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans,  in  which  last  great  value  used  to  be 
attached  to  its  tail-feathers  to  be  worked  into  ornaments.^ 

That  the  Tropic-birds  form  a  distinct  family,  Phaethojif 
tidse,  of  the  Sleganopod(s  (the  Dysporomorphx  of  Prof.' 
Huxley),  was  originally  maintained  by  Brandt,  and  is  now 
generally  admitted,  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that  they 
differ  a  good  deal  from  the  Other  members  of  the  group*; 
indeed  Prof.  Mivart  in  the  Zoological  Transactions  (x.  p. 
364)  will  hardly  allow  Fregata  and  Phaethon  to  be  steg- 
anopodous  at  all ;  and  one  curious  difference  is  shown  by 
the  eggs  of  the  latter,  which  are  in  appearance  so  wholly 
unlike  those  of  the  rest.  The  osteology  of  two  species 
has  been  well  described  and  illustrated  by  Prof.  Alph. 
Milne-Edwards  in  M.  Grandidier's  fine  Oiseaux  de  Mada- 
gascar (pp.  701-704,  pis.  279-281a).  (a.  n.) 

TROPPAU  (Slavonic  Opava),  the  chief  town  of  Austrian 
Silesia,  is  a  busy  commercial  place  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Oppa,  close  to  the  Prussian  border.  A  well-built  town 
with  extensive  suburbs,  it  has  two  market-places  and  con- 
tains six  churches,  an  old  town-house  recently  restored  in 
the  Gothic  style,  and  numerous  educational,  benevolent,  and 
commercial  institutions.  The  site  of  the  former  fortifica- 
tions is  laid  out  in  pleasant  promenades.  Troppau  manu- 
factures large  quantities  of  cloth,  especially  for  the  army; 
and  its  industrial  establishments  include  a  large  sugar- 
refinery  and  manufactories  of  machines  and  stoves.  In 
1880  the  population  was  20,562.  German  is  spoken  in  the 
town  proper,  but  a  dialect  of  Polish  prevails  in  the  suburbs. 

Troppau  was  founded  in  the  13th  century  ;  but  almost  its  only 
claim  to  historical  mention  is  the  fact  that  in  1820  the  monarcba 
of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia  met  here  to  deliberate  on  the  tend- 
encies of  the  Neapolitan  revolution.  This  congress  of  Troppau, 
however,  left  nearly  the  whole  matter  to  be  considered  and  decided  I 
at  Laibach.  The  former  principality  of  Troppau  is  now  divided  be-  j 
tween  Austria  and  Prussia,  the  latter  holding  the  lion's  share.  I 

TROTZENDORFF,  or  Tkocedorfids,  Valentiu 
Friedland  (1490-1556),  calltd  Trotzendorff  from  his 
birthplace,  near  Gorlitz,  in  Prussian  Silesia,  was  born  on 
14lh  February  1490,  of  parents  so  poor  that  they  could 
not  keep  him  at  school.  The  boy  taught  himself  to  read 
and  write  while  herding  cattle;  he  made  paper  from  birch 
bark,  and  ink  from  soot.  WTien  diflSculties  were  overcome 
and  he  was  sent  for  education  to  Gorlitz,  his  mother's  last 

Heligoland,  and  Col.  Legge  {B.  Ceylon,  p.  1174)  mentions  one  taken 
in  India  170  miles  from  the  sea.  The  case  cited  by  MM.  Degland  and 
Gerbe  (Ornitk,  EuropSen-nt,  ii.  p.  363)  seems  to  be  that  of  an  Albatros. 

'  A  fourth  species,  P.  indkus,  has  been  described  froni  the  Gulf  of 
Oman,  but  doubt  is  expressed  as  to  its  vaUdity  (c/.  Legge,  ul  supra, 
pp.  1173,  1174). 

*  Sulids  (Gaknet),  Pdeainidee  (Pelican),  PMidx  (Snake-bibd). 
.PAaiaCT-octtracKte^CORMOBANT),  and  Fregatidm  (FaiOATS-BlBO). 


T  R  0  — T  R  0 


589 


words  were  "  stick  to  the  Sa};o<5L  dear  son."  The  words 
determined  his  carcar  :  I.e  oet'used  all  ecclesiastical  promo- 
tion, and  lived  and  died  a  schoolmaster.  He  be<kme  a 
distinguished  student,  learned  Ciceronian  Latin  from  Peter 
Mosellanus  and  Greek  from  Richard  Croke,  and  after 
graduation  was  appointed  assistant  master  in  the  school 
at  Gorlitz.  There  he  also  taught  the  rector  and  other 
teachers.  When  Luther  began  his  ar.ack  on  indulgences, 
Trotzendorff  resigned  his  position  and  went  to  study  under 
Lather  and  Melanchthon,  supporting  himself  by  private 
ttiition.  Thence  he  was  called  to  be  a  master  in  the 
school  at  Gioidberg  in  Silesia,  and  in  1 524  became  rector. 
There  he  remained  three  years,  when  he  was  sent  to  Lieg- 
oitz.  He  returned  to  Goldberg  in  1531  and  began  that 
career  which  has  made  him  the  typical  German  school- 
master of  the  Reformation  period.  His  system  of  educa- 
tion and  disc'oline  speedily  attracted  attention.  He  made 
his  best  elde.  icholajs  the  teachers  of  the  younger  classes, 
and  insisted  that  the  way  to  learn  was  to  teach.  He 
organized  the  school  in  such  a  way  that  the  whole  ordi- 
nary discipline  was  in  the  hands  of  the  boys  themselves. 
Every  month  a  "consul,"  twelve  "senators,"  and  two 
"  censors  "  were  chosen  from  the  pupils,  and  over  all  Trot- 
sendorff  ruled  as  "  dictator  perpetuus."  One  hour  a  day 
was  spent  in  going  over  the  lessons  of  the  previous  day. 
The  lessons  were  repeatedly  recalled  by  examinations, 
which  were  conducted  on  the  plan  of  academical  disputa- 
tions. Every  week  each  pupil  had  to  write  two  "  exercitia 
styli,"  one  in  prose  and  the  other  in  verse,  and  Trotzendorff 
took  pains  to  see  that  the  subject  of  each  exercise  was 
something  interesting.  The  fame  of  the  Goldberg  school 
extended  over  all  Protestant  Germany,  and  a  large  number 
of  the  more  famous  men  of  the  following  generation  were 
taught  by  Trotzendorff.     He  died  on  20th  April  1556. 

S«e  Hemnann,  Alcrkwurdige  LebcnsgeschichU  eines  berukmUs 
Sehulmans,  V.  F.  Trotzendorffs,  1727  ;  Frosch,  V.  F.  Trotzendorff, 
Bdctor  ru  Goldberg,  1818  ;  Pinzger,  V.  F.  Trotzendorff  (with  the 
Goldberg  portrait,  and  a  complete  list  of  his  writings),  1825  ; 
KoehJer,  V.  F.  Trotzendorff,  ein  biographischer  Versueh,  1848. 
These  biographies  appear  to  take  all  their  facts  from  a  funeral  or 
memorial  oration  delivered  by  Balthasar  Rhau  in  the  university  of 
Wittenberg  on  15th  August  1564,  and  published  in  an  edition  of 
Trotzendorff's  Rosarium,  1565. 

TROUBADOURS.  See  PEOvENgAi  Liteeatuee,  vol. 
xr.  p.  873,  and  Feajtce,  vol.  ix.  p.  646. 

TROUGHTON,  Edward  (1753-1835),  instrument 
maker,  was  born  in  the  parish  of  Comey  in  Cumberland 
in  October  1753.  He  joined  his  elder  brother  John  in 
carrying  on  the  business  of  mathematical  instrument  makers 
in  Fleet  Street,  London,  and  continued  it  alone  after  his 
brother's  death,  until  he  in  1826  took  W.  Simms  as  a 
partner.     He  died  in  London  on  12th  June  1835. 

Tronghton  was  very  successful  in  improving  the  mechanical  part 
of  mo3l  nautical,  geodetic,  and  astronomical  instruments.  He  was 
completely  colour-blind,  which  prevented  him  from  attempting  ex- 
periments in  optics.  The  first  modem  transit  circle  {see  Roemer) 
was  constructed  by  him  in  1806  for  Groombridge ;  but  Troughton 
was  dissatisfied  with  this  form  of  instrument,  which  a  few  years 
afterwards  was  brongbt  to  great  perfection  by  Reichenbacb  and 
Kepsold  iqg.v.),  and  designed  the  mural  circle  in  its  place.  The 
first  instrument  of  this  kind  was  erected  at  Greenwich  in  1812,  and 
ten  or  twelve  others  were  subsequently  constructed  for  other  obser- 
vatories ;  but  they  were  ultima tely^uperseded  by  Troughton 's  earlier 
design,  the  transit  circle,  by  which  the  two  coordinates  of  an  object 
can  M  determined  simultaneously.  He  also  made  transit  instm- 
menta,  equatorials,  &c. ;  but  his  failure  to  construct  an  equatorial 
mounting  of  large  dimensions,  and  the  consequent  lawsuit  with 
Sir  James  South,  embittered  the  last  years  of  his  life. 

TROUT.    See  Salmomd*;  also  Angling,  vol.  ii.  p.  41. 

TROU  VILLE,  a  fashionable  seaside  town  of  France, 
cief-lieu  of  the  department  of  Calvados,  and  a  port  of  the 
English  Channel,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Touques,  on  the  right  bank,  1 36  miles  west-north-west  of 
Paris  and  34  north-east  of  Caen  by  raO.  The  climate  is 
mild,  and  the  neighbourhood  well  wooded ;  there  are  villas 


in  all  styles  of  architecture,  a  casino,  and  vast  stretches  of 
sand  where  the  visitors  (15,000  in  1881)  bathe  and  walk. 
With  Havre,  which  lies  on  the  other  side  of  the  estuary  of 
the  Seine,  8  or  10  miles  off,  there  is  continual  steamer  com- 
munication. In  1886  the  population  was  5750  (commune 
6300).  Deauville,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Touques,  opposite 
Tronville,  is  remarkable  for  its  casino,  terrace,  and  fine 
mansions,  but,  except  during  the  race-week  in  August,  is 
comparatively  deserted.  In  1886  its  population  was  2100 
(commune  2220).  In  1866  a  dock,  985  feet  in  length 
by  262  in  breadth,  with  24  feet  of  depth  at  high  water, 
was  constructed  between  Trouville  and  Deauville ;  in 
1882  292  vessels  (54,391  tons)  entered  and  283  (53,510 
tons)  cleared. 

TROVER,  or  trover  and  conversion,  the  name  of  a  form 
of  action  in  English  law  no  longer  in  use,  corre.«ponding  to 
the  modem  action  of  conversion.  It  was  brought  for 
damages  for  the  detention  of  a  chattel,  and  differed  from 
detinue  in  that  the  latter  was  brought  for  the  return  of  the 
chattel  itself.  The  name  trover  is  due  to  the  action  having 
been  based  on  the  fictitious  averment  in  the  plaintiffs  de- 
claration that  he  had  lost  the  goods  and  that  the  defendant 
had  found  them.  The  necessity  for  this  fictitious  aver- 
ment was  taken  away  by  the  Common  Law  Procedure 
Act,  1852.  An  action  of  trover  lay  (as  an  action  of  con- 
version still  lies)  in  every  case  where  the  defendant  was  in 
possession  of  a  chattel  of  the  plaintiff  and  ref  ased  to  de- 
liver it  up  on  request,  such  refusal  being  prima  facie 
evidence  of  conversion.  The  damages  recoverable  are 
usually  the  value  of  the  chattel  converted.  In  an  action 
for  detention  of  a  chattel  (the  representative  of  the  old 
action  of  detinue),  the  plaintiff  may  have  judgment  and 
execution  by  writ  of  delivery  for  the  chattel  itself  or  for  its 
value  at  his  option.  An  action  for  conversion  or  detention 
must  be  brought  within  six  years.  The  corresponding 
action  in  Scotch  law  is  the  action  of  spuilzie.  It  must  be 
brought  within  three  years  in  order  to  entitle  the  pursuer 
to  violent  profits,  otherwise  it  prescribes  in  forty  years. 

TROWBRIDGE,  an  ancient  town  of  Wilts,  England, 
is  situated  on  the  river  Mere  or  Biss,  a  feeder  of  the  Avon, 
and  on  a  branch  of  the  Great  Western  Railway,  33  miles 
north-west  of  Salisbury  and  97^  west  of  London.  The 
parish  church  of  St  James  is  an  ancient  stone  structure  in 
the  Gothic  style,  with  a  west  square  tower,  surmounted  by 
a  spire  159  feet  in  height,  and  a  baptistery  (1885).  The 
site  of  the  ancient  castle  was  at  the  mound  called  Courthill, 
but  all  traces  of  it  have  long  disappeared,  it  having  been 
demolished  before  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Among  the 
charitable  institutions  are  the  Edward  and  Yerbury  alms- 
houses (1698),  the  old  men's  almshouses,  and  the  cottage 
hospital  (1886).  There  are  a  market  house  and  a  town 
haU.  Public  gardens  4  acres  in  extent  were  opened  in 
1884.  A  water  company  (incorporated  in  1873)  supplies 
the  town  with  water  from  the  chalk  hills  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Biss.  The  principal  industry  is  the  manu- 
facture of  kerseymere  and  of  broad  and  other  woollen 
cloths,  established  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
The  town  is  governed  by  a  local  board  of  health  of  twenty- 
one  members.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  dis- 
trict (area  2080  acres)  in  1871  was  11,508,  and  in  1881 
it  was  11,040. 

The  town  was  defended  in  behalf  of  Matilda  a^inst  Stephen  by 
Humphrey  de  Bohun.  By  Leland  it  is  called  Throughbridge  oi 
Thorough  bridge.  Anciently  it  was  a  royal  manor  forming  part  of 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  having  been  granted  by  the  crown  to  John 
of  Gaunt  Afterwards  it  reverted  to  the  crown  and  was  given  by 
Henry  VIII.  in  the  28th  year  of  his  reign  to  Sir  Edward  Seymour. 
It  again  lapsed  to  the  crown  under  Elizabeth,  and  in  the  24th  year 
of  her  reign  was  assigned  to  Edward,  earl  6f  Hertford.  By  mar- 
riage it  passed  to  the  Rutland  family,  who,  however,  eventually 
sold  it.  It  formerly  gave  the  title  of  baron  to  the  Seymonr  familj.' 
The  poet  Crabbe  was  rector  of  the  parish  from  1814  to  1832. 


690 


T  R  O  — T  R  U 


TROY.     See  Teoad. 

TROY,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  cotmty  seat  of 
Rensselaer  county,  New  York,  is  situated  in  42°  44'  N. 
lat.  and  73°  41'  W.  long.,  upon  the  east  bank  of  the 
Hudson  river,  at  the  head  of  tide  water.  It  is  nearly 
north  of  New  York  City  (147  miles)  and  somewhat  north 
of  west  from  Boston  (136  miles).  The  city,  which  has  a 
length  of  about  4  miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  1 
mile,  is  built  mainly  upon  a  level  terrace  slightly  elevated 
above  the  river,  but  of  late  years  the  residence  portion 
has  extended  up  the  hills  (rising  to  400  feet)  which  limit 
this  plain  on  the  east.  It  is  in  the  main  regularly  laid  out, 
and  ia  traversed  by  street  railways.  Troy  is  situated  at 
what  is  practically  the  terminus  of  the  Erie  Canal,  con- 
necting the  Hudson  river  (here  navigable  for  vessels  of  8 
to  10  feet  draught)  with  Lake  Erie,  and  of  the  Champlain 
Canal.  It  has  three  railroads,  by  which  it  is  connected 
with  New  York  on  the  south,  Buffalo  on  the  west,  and  also 
with  the  east  and  north.  The  principal  industries,  which 
in  1880  gave  employment  to  22,434  persoijs,  are  metal- 
working,  especially  in  iron  and  steel,  and  the  making  of 
stoves  and  linen  goods.  The  value  of  the  products  was 
826,497,163.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  the  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute,  which  was  for  many  years  the  lead- 
ing engineering  school  of  the  United  States,  and  still 
maintains  a  high  reputation.  The  population,  which  in 
1810  was  only  3895,  had  in  1830  risen  to  11,556,  and 
by  1880  to  66,747  (27,154  males  and  29,593  females,  the 
excess  of  the  latter  being  explained  by  the  large  number 
of  women  employed  as  factory  operatives).  The  propor- 
tion of  foreign  born  (16,938)  was  large. 

The  city  was  founded  in  1787  by  the  Dutch,  under  the  nam?  of 
Vanderheyden,  and  two  years  later  the  present  name  was  adopted. 
In  1794  it  was  incorporated  as  a  village,  and  in  1815  it  received  a 
city  charter.  The  opening  of  the  Erie  and  the  Champlain  Canals 
in  1823  insured  its  prosperity  and  rapid  growth. 

TROY,  JziH  FRA.VC0I3  DE  (1679-1752),  a  French 
painter,  highly  endowed  by  nature,  was  born  at  Paris  in 
1679  He  received  his  first  lessons  from  his  father,  him- 
self a  skilful  portrait-painter,  who  afterwards  sent  his  son 
to  Italy.  There  his  amusements  occui-ied  him  fully  as 
much  as  his  studies ;  but  his  ability  was  such  that  on  his 
return  he  was  at  once  made  an  official  of  the  Academy 
and  obtained  a  large  number  of  orders  for  the  decoration 
of  public  and  private  buildings,  executing  at  the  same 
time  a  quantity  of  easel  pictures  of  very  unequal  merit. 
Amongst  the  most  considerable  of  his  works  are  thirty- 
sis  compositions  painted  for  the  hotel  of  De  Live  (1729), 
and  a  series  of  the  story  of  Esther,  designed  for  the 
Gobelins  whilst  De  Troy  was  director  of  the  school  of 
France  at  Rome  (1738-51), — a  post  which  he  resigned  in 
a  fit  of  irritation  at  court  neglect.  He  did  not  expect 
to  be  taken  at  his  word,  but  found  himself  forced  to. 
return  to  France,  and  was  making  ready  to  leave  when 
he  died  suddenly  (24th  January  1752)  of  an  attack  on 
the  lungs. 

His  desire  to  make  a  figure  in  the  world  led  him  to  neglect  his 
more  serious  duties  and  injured  his  professional  reputation.  The 
life-size  painting  (Louvre)  of  the  First  Chapter  of  the  Order  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  held  by  Henry  IV.,  in  the  church  of  the  Grands 
Augustins,  is  one  of  his  most  complete  performances,  and  his 
dramatic  composition,  the  Plague  at  Marseilles,  is  widely  known 
through  the  excellent  engraving  of  Thomassia.  The  Cochins,  father 
BDd  son,  Fesaard,  Galimard,  Bauvarlet,  Heriaset,  and  the  painters 
Boucher  and  Parrocel  have  engraved  and  etched  the  works  of 
DeTroy. 

TROY,  West.    See  West  Teot. 

TROYES,  a  town  of  France,  formerly  the  capital  of 
Champagne,  and  now  chef-lieu  of  the  department  of  Aube, 
and  an  episcopal  see,  is  104  miles  south-east  of  Paris  by 
the  railvray  to  Belfort,  at  the  junction  of  the  line  from 
Orieans  to  ChAlons.    Several  arms  of  the  Seine  and  also  I 


the  Haute-Seine  Canal  run  through  the  town.  The  cathedral 
"  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul,  the  building  of  which  lasted  from 
1206  till  the  16th  century,  ctill  wants  the  south  tower. 
The  choir,  the  end  chapels,  and  the  sacristry  were  restored 
in  1849-1866.  The  16th-century  facade,  with  mutilated 
bas-reliefs  and  statues,  is  surmounted  by  the  tower  of  St 
Peter  (230  feet).  The  choir,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in 
France,  belongs  to  the  13th  century,  as  does  also  its  re- 
markable glass.  The  treasury  contains  gospels  of  the 
11th  and  12  th  centuries,  precious  stones  brought  from  the 
East  at  the  time  of  the  crusades,  and  ancient  and  beautiful 
lace;  The  unfinished  church  of  St  Urban,  begun  in  1262 
at  the  expense  of  Urban  IV.,  Is  a  charming  specimen  of 
the  best  period  of  Gothic  architecture,  the  side  portals 
being  remarkably  light  and  delicate.  The  church  of  St 
Madeleine,  built  at  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century, 
enlarged  in  the  1 6tli,  and  recently  restored,  contains  a  rich 
rood-screen  by  Jean  de  Gualde  (1508).  In  1420  the  treaty 
of  Troyes  was  signed  in  the  church  of  St  John,  where 
Henry  V.  of  England  and  Catherine  of  France  were  sub- 
sequently married.  The  church  of  St  -Remy,  with  a 
Romanesque  tower,  the  churches  of  St  Nizier  and  St 
Nicholas,  both  of  the  1 6th  century,  and  that  of  St  Pantaloon, 
of  the  16th  and  17th,  should  also  be  noticed.  There  are 
some  ctirious  fireplaces  in  the  town  hall  (17th  century), 
and  the  municipal  archives  contain  the  correspondence  of 
the  dukes  of  Lorraine  and  Guise.  The  old  abbey  of  St 
Loup  is  occupied  by  the  library  (80,000  volumes  and  2720 
manuscripts)  and  a  museum  containing  numerous  collec- 
tions ;  that  relating  to  natural  history  is  rich  in  ornithology 
and  entomology,  and  has  many  aerolites.  Most  of  the  old 
houses  of  Troyes  are  of  wood,  but  some  of  stone  of  th* 
16th  century  are  remarkable  for  their  beautiful  and 
original  architecture.  The  chief  industry  of  Troyes  and 
the  surrounding  district  is  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
woollen  hosiery,  which  is  woven  almost  entirely  by  hand, 
and  is  exported  to  America  and  Switzerland.  One-fourth 
of  the  population  live  by  subsidiary  industries.  There  are 
14  cotton  mills  with  10,000  spindles,  bleaching,  dressing, 
and  dye  works,  workshops  for  making  looms,  needle  factories, 
iron  and  copper  foundries,  8  flour  mills,  and  nursery  and 
market  gardens.  A  trade  is  carried  on  in  pork  and  cheese. 
A  few  mUes  from  the  town  stands  the  curious  church  of 
St  Andrew  (1  Cth  century),  with  a  remarkable  portal  The 
population  in  1886  was  46,972  (46,067  in  1881). 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  period  Troyes  (Augusfabmia) 
was  the  principal  settlement  of  the  Tricassi.  It  was  christianized 
in  the  3rd  century,  and  its  bishop  St  Loup  (426-479)  founded 
renowned  schools,  and  averted  the  fury  of  Attila.  In  48)  Troyes 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Clovis,  and  belonged  sometimes  to  Neustria, 
sometimes  to  Austrasia,  till  all  Gaul  was  united  under  Charles  MarteL 
la  878  Pope  John  VIII.  presided  at  a  council  in  Troyes.  The 
town  was  fired  and  sacked  by  the  Saracens  in  720,  and  by  the 
Normans  in  889  and  905.  In  1229  Theobald  IV  ,  besieged  in  his 
capital,  was  delivered  by  king  Louis  IX.,  and  in  1230  he  granted 
the  inhabitants  a  municipal  charter.  From  this  time  the  fairs  of 
Troyes  became  celebrated.  During  the  captivity  ol  King  John  in 
England,  Troyes  resisted  all  attacks,  and  after  Agincourt  took  the 
part  of  the  Burguudians.  In  1417  the  rule  of  Queen  Isabeau  of 
Bavaria  was  estcblished  in  Troyes,  where  in  1418  the  parlement  of 
Paris  met ;  and  on  21st  Jlay  1420  Henry  V.  of  England,  Charles 
VI.  of  France,  Isabeau,  and  Philip  of  Burgundy  signed  the  famous 
treaty  of  Trojes.  On  9th  July  J429  the  town  'capitulated  to  Joan 
of  Arc  In  the  1 6th  century  Protestantism  made  rapid  progress, 
but  in  1562  the  Huguenots  were  forced  to  retire  to  Bar-surSeine ; 
after  the  massacre  of  ,St  Bartholomew  in  Paris,  the  Calvinists  in  the 
prisons  of  Troyes  met  the  same  fate.  In  1677  the  inhabitants 
joined  the  League,  and  only  opened  their  gates  to  Henry  IV.  in 
1594  In  1787  the  parlement  of  Paris  again  met  here.  In  1814 
both  the  allied  and  the  imperial  armies  occupied  Troyes  ;  and  io  ' 
1870  the  town  was  occupied  by  the  Germans. 

TROYES,  CHEESTfEN  DB.    See  Cheestteji  db  Trotbs,  ] 
and  Romance,  vol.  xx.  p.  645. 

TRUCE   OF   GOD.      The   orderiy  administration   of 
justice  and  the  universal  peace,  which  the  Roman  empirft 


T  R  U  — T  R  U 


591 


established  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Atlantic,  did  not 
long  suryivo  the  inroads  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  who  in 
western  Europe  divided  the  inheritance  of  the  Latin  world. 
All  the  early  Teutonic  codes,  being  based,  however  remotely, 
on  the  right  of  private  war  and  private  vengeance,  might 
discourage,  but  were  powerless  to  abolish,  the  instinct 
which  impels  the  members  of  half-civilized  commimivies 
to  avenge  their  own  wrongs.  Hence  the  jinx  Romana 
died  with  the  empire ;  nor  could  the  splendid  organization 
of  Charlemagne  do  more  than  effect  a  very  partial  resusci- 
tation of  it.  Throughout  the  9th  "and  10th  centuries,  as 
the  life-beaeficc3  of  the  later  Carolingian  kings  became 
gradually  transformed  Into  hereditary  tiefs,  the  insecurity 
of  life  and  property  grew  greater ;  for  there  was  no  central 
power  to  curb  the  injustice  of  the  petty  dukes  and  counts 
who  warred  and  pillaged  at  their  will.  At  this  moment, 
when  western  Europe  threatened  to  sink  back  into  the 
chaos  from  which  it  had  been  won  by  Rome,  the  church 
came  forward  to  arrest  the  process  of  its  dissolution. 
Speaking  at  first  in  her  own  interest  and  in  that  of  the 
poor,  whose  great  protector  she  claimed  to  be,  she  decreed 
a  special  peace  for  the  unarmed  clerk  and  the  industrious 
husbandman.  The  council  of  Charroux  in  Poitou  led 
the  way  ia  989.  With  the  opening  of  the  next  century 
the  movement  spread  over  Aquitaine  and  the  rest  of 
France.  Everywhere  the  bishops  set  themselves  to  exact 
from  the  whole  diocese,  noble  and  simple  alike,  a  novel 
oatb  to  abstain  from  violence  and  to  respect  the  sanctity 
of  cliurches.  William  V.  of  Aquitaine,  the  most  powerful 
lord  of  southern  France,  lent  his  influence  to  the  cause  at 
the  councils  of  Limoges  (994)  and  Poitiers  (999).  The  latter 
council  prescribed  the  methods  by  which  all  who  violated 
their  solemn  engagement  should  be  punished.  The  times,, 
however,  were  hardly  ripe  for  the  inauguration  of  an  era 
of  peace.  Gerard  of  Soissons,  perhaps,  was  not  the  only 
bishop  who  eyed  this  dream  of  universal  harmony  askance, 
as  tending  to  encroach  on  the  king's  prerogative  (see 
Bouquet,  X.  201) ;  and,  on  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  "Peace  of  God"  was  at  best  but  a  somewhat  ineffectual 
protection  to  churches,  priests,  and  labourers.  If  there 
was  any  hope  of  restraining  the  mutual  feuds  of  the  barons 
it  must  be  by  other  means.  And  here  the  church  again,  re- 
cognizing the  impossibility  of  absolutely  stopping  all  feudal 
warfare,  endeavoured  to  limit  it.  This  limitation  of  the 
right  of  perpetual  warfare,  .reduced  to  writing,  sanctioned 
by  an  oath,  and  confirmed  by  the  decrees  of  councils, 
assumed  the  name  of  the  "  Truce  of  God  "  (freva  or  trtuga 
Dei).  The  truce  of  God  seems  to  have  been  first  estab- 
lished at  the  synod  of  Tuluges,  near  Perpignan  in  PtoussO- 
lon,  on  16th  May  1027.  In  accordance  with  its  decrees 
all  warfare  was  to  be  suspended  from  noon  on  Saturday 
till  prime  on  Monday ;  and  the  peace  of  God  was  perman- 
ently extended  to  all  monks,  clerks,  bishops,  and  churches. 
Like  the  pax  ecclesix,  this  laudable  example  w-as  soon  fol- 
lowed elsewhere.  About  1041  it  extended  itself  over 
Aquitaine  and  all  France;  in  1042  the  council  of  Caen, 
under  the  sanction  of  Duke  William,  established  it  in 
Normandy — a  country  in  which,  according  to  a  contempo- 
rary writer  (Rodolph  Glaber,  v.  1),  it  was  not  at  first 
accepted.  By  this  time  its  terms  had  been  much  enlarged  ; 
and  we  may  perhaps  take  the  provisions  of  a  second  synod 
at  Tuluges  (1041)  as  representing  its  normal  form.  Ac- 
cording to  this  synod  the  treuga  Dei  was  to  last  from  the 
Wednesday  evening  to  the  Monday  morning  in  every 
week,  from  the  beginning  of  Advent  to  the  octave  of  the 
Epiphany,  from  the  beginning  of  Lent  till  the  octave  of 
Pentecost,  for  the  feasts  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the  three  great 
feasts  of  the  Virgin,  and  those  of  the  twelve  apostles  and 
^ft  few  other  saints.  More  usually  the  interval  between 
itbe  Epiphany  octave  and  Lent  and  that  from  Easter  to 


Rogations  were  left  subject  to  the  weekly  truce  only. 
Thus  from  being  a  mere  local  institution  it  spread  rapidly 
over  all  France,  and  seems  to  have  crossed  into  Germany, 
Italy,  Spain,  and  England.  It  had  also  its  special  courts 
and  methods  of  procedure.  Excommunication  and  banish- 
ment for  seven  or  thirty  years  were  its  penalties.  Before 
long  both  the  pax  ecdesix  and  the  treuga  Dei  were  sanc- 
tioned by  the  holy  see.  Special  clauses  were  added  to 
protect  pilgrims,  women,  merchants,  monks,  and  clerks ; 
while  the  cattle  and  agricultural  implements  of  the  peasant 
— his  ox,  horse,  plough,  and  even  his  olive-trees — were 
covered  by  the  Kgis  of  the  church.  The  first  clause  of 
the  council  of  Clermont  (1095),  at  which  Urban  II.  preached 
the  first  crusade,  proclaimed  the  weekly  truce  for  all 
Christendom,  and  perhaps  enjoined  it  in  its  most  extended 
form,  adding  also  a  clause  by  which  the  oath  was  to  be 
renewed  every  three  y^rs  by  all  men  above  the  age  of 
twelve,  whether  noble,  burgess,  villain,  or  serf.^  The  same 
council  seems  to  have  accorded  safety  to  all  who  took  re- 
fuge at  a  wayside  cross  (cap.  29)  or  at  the  plough  (homines  ad 
carrucas  fugientes).  The  truce  of  God  was  most  powerful 
in  the  12th  century,  during  which  period  it  was  sanctioned 
both  by  local  and  papal  councils,  such  as  that  held  at 
Rheims  by  CalLxtus  II.  in  1 1 1 9,  and  the  Lateran  councils  of 
1139  and  1179.  "With  the  13th  century  its  influence  began 
to  decline,  as  the  power  of  the  king  gradually  led  to  the 
substitution  of  the  king's  peace  for  that  of  the  church. 

For  an  exhaustive  account  of  the  whole  question,  see  11.  Semi- 
chon's  book,  to  which  the  above  article  is  largely  indebted. 

TRUCK-  SYSTEM.  See  Laboue,  vol.  siv.  p.  .172,  and 
Wages. 

TRUFFLE,  the  name  of  several  different  species  of  sub- 
terranean fungi  which  are  used  as  food.  The  species  sold 
in  English  markets  is  Tuber  sesUvum ;  the  commonest 
species  of  French  markets  is  T.  melaiwsporum,  and  of 
Italian  the  garlic-scented  T.  magnatmn.  Of  the  three, 
the  English  species  is  the  least  excellent,  and  the  French 
is  possibly  the  best.  The  truffle  used  for  Perigord  pia 
{p&tc  de  foie  gras)  is  T.  melunosporum.  When,  however, 
the  stock  of  T.  melanospoirum  happens  to  be  deficient,  some 
manufacturers  use  inferior  species  of  Tuber,  such  as  the 
worthless  or  dangerous  Chosromyces  meandrifomiis.  Even 
the  rank  and  offensive  Scleroderma  vulgare  (one  of  the  puff- 
ball  series  of  fungi)  is  sometimes  used  for  stuffing  turkeys, 
sausages,  &c.  Indeed,  good  truffles,  and  then  only  T.  sati- 
vum, are  seldom  seen  in  English  markets.  The  taste  of  T. 
melanosporum  can  be  detected  in  Perigord  pie  of  good 
quality.  True  and  false  truffles  can  easily  be  distinguished 
under  the  microscope. 

Tuber  sestiimm,  the  English  tnilHe,  ia  roundish  in  shape,  covered 
srith  coarse  polygonal  warts,  black  in  colour  outside  and  brownish 
and  veined  with  white  within  ;  its  average  size  is  about  that  of  a 
small  apple.  It  grows  from  July  till  autumn  or  'v  iter,  and  pre- 
fers beech,  oak,  and  birch  woods  on  argillaceous  or  calcareous  soil, 
and  has  sometimes  been  observed  in  pine  woods.  It  grows  gregari- 
ously, often  in  company  with  T.  Irrumale  and  (in  France  and  Italy) 
T.  melanosporum,  and  sometimes  appears  in  French  markets  with 
these  two  species,  as  well  as  with  T.  meseniericum.  The  odour  of 
T.  sMlimim  is  very  strong  and  penetrating ;  it  is  generally  esteemed 
powerfully  fragrant,  and  its  taste  is  considered  agreeable.  Its  price 
in  England  is  two  or  three  shillings  a  pound.  The  common  French 
truffle,  T.  melanosporum,  is  a  winter  species.  The  tubers  are 
globose,  bright  brown  or  black  in  colour,  and  rough  with  polygonal 
warts  ;  the  mature  flesh  is  blackish  grey,  marbled  within  with  white 
veins.  It  is  gathered  in  autumn  and  winter  in  beech  and  oak 
woods,  and  is  frequently  seen  in  Italian  markets,  where  it  is  some- 
times sold  for  12s.  6d.  a  pound.  The  odour  of.  T.  melanosponim 
is  very  pleasant,  especially  when  the  tubers  are  young,  then  some- 
what resembling  that  of  the  strawberry  ;  with  age.  the  smell  gets 
very  potent,  bat  is  never  considered  really  unpleasant.  The  com- 
mon  Italian  truffle,  T.  mojpuUum,  is  pallid  ochreous  or  brownish 
bufl"  in  colour,  smooth  or  minutely  papillose,  irregularly  globose, 
and  lobed  ;  the  interior  is  a  very  pale  brownish  liver  colour  veined 

^  Labbe's  Concilia,  xx.  816  ;  with  which  c/.  Semicbon,  La  Paiz  el 
la  Trlvt  de  Dim,  Paris,  1869,  p.  125. 


592 


T  R  U  — T  RU 


with  white.  It  grows  towards  the  end  of  aatumn  in  plantations 
of  willows,  poplars,  and  oaks,  on  clayey  soil  Sometimes  it  occurs 
in  open  cultivated  fields.  The  odour  of  the  mature  fungus  is  very 
potent,  and  is  like  strong  garlic,  onion,  or  decaying  cbeese.  T. 
bntmaU,  referred  to  above,  grows  in  Britain.  It  is  a  winter  trufile, 
and  is  found  chiefly  under  oaks  and  abele  trees  from  October  to 
December.  It  ia  black  in  colour,  globose,  mora  or  less  regular 
in  shape,  and  is  covered  with  sharp  polygonal  warts ;  the  mature 
6esh  is  blackish  grey  marbled  with  white  veins.  The  odour  is  very 
stron"  and  lasts  a  long  time  ;  the  taste  is  generally  esteemed  agree- 
able. Ch/eromyas  meandrifonniSf  which  occurs  in  Britain,  is  some- 
times sold  for  T.  TnagTuUum,  the  colour  of  the  flesh  of  both  species 
being  somewhat  similar.  Scleroderma  vulgarc,  the  "false  truffle," 
is  extremely  common  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  woods,  and 
is  gathered  by  Italians  and  Frenchmen  in  Epping  Forest  for  the 
inferior  dining-rooms  of  London  where  Continental  dishes  are 
served.  It  is  a  worthless,  offensive,  and  possibly  dangerous  fungus. 
A  true  summer  truffle,  T.  tmsenUricum,  found  in  oak  and  birch 
woods  on  calcareous  clay  soU,  is  frequently  eaten  on  the  Continent 
It  is  esteemed  equal  to  T.  astivum.  It  probably  grows  in  Britain. 
Another  edible  species,  T.  ■macrosporuTri,  also  grows  in  Britain, 
in  clayey  places  under  young  beeches  and  oaks,  on  the  borders  of 
streams  and  roads,  and  sometimes  in  fields  ;  more  rarely  it  grows 
in  plantations  of  willow  and  poplar.  It  has  a  strong  scent  of 
onions  or  garlic  Tcrfezia  leonis,  a  famous  truffle  of  Italy,  Algeria, 
Sardinia,  &c.,  resembles  externally  a  potato.  It  grows  in  March, 
April,  and  May.  Some  persons  eat  it  in  a  raw  otate,  sliced,  and 
dipped  in  oil  or  ^gg.  It  is  not  scented,  and  its  taste  is  generally 
considered  insipid  or  soapy.  Sometimes  an  ally  of  the  puff-balls, 
and  therefore  {like  Scleroderma)  not  a  true  truffle,  MclanogasUr 
variegaiiiy,  is  eaten  in  England  and  France.  It  has  been,  and 
possibly  still  is,  occasionally  sold  in  England  under  the  name  of 
"red  truffle."  It  is  a  small  ochreous  brown  species  with  a  strong 
aromatic  and  pleasant  odour  of  bitter  almonds.  When  the  plant 
is  eaten  raw  the  taste  is  sweet  and  sugary,  but  when  cooked  it  is 
hardly  agreeable.  The  odour  belonging  to  many  traffles  is  so 
potent  that  their  places  of  growth  can  be  readily  detected  by  the 
odonr  exhaled  from  the  ground.  Squirrels,  hogs,  and  other  animals 
commonly  dig  up  truffles  and  devour  them,  and  pigs  and  dogs  have 
long  been  trained  to  point  out  the  places  where  they  grow.  Pigs 
will  always  eat  truffles  and  dogs  will  do  so  occasionally  ;  it  is  there- 
fore usual  to  give  the  trained  pig  or  dog  a  small  piece  of  cheese  or 
Bome  little  reward  each  time  it  is  successful  Truffles  are  repro- 
duced by  spores,  bodies  which  serve  the  same  purpose  as  seeds  in 
flowering  plants  ;  in  true  truffles  the  spores  are  borne  in  transparent 
asci  or  sacs,  from  four  to  eight  spores  in  each  ascus.     The  asci  are 


Spores  of  the  chief  European  truffles.  Enlarged  600  dlametera.  1,  Tuber 
aatimtm ;  2,  T.  brumalr ;  3,  T.  melanosporun ;  4,  T.  meseniericum',  6,  T.  mag- 
natum;  6,  CTurromycu  vuandriformit ;  7,  Sclerodervui  vulgare;  8,  Meianogas- 
ter  variegalUA. 

embedded  in  vast  numbers  in  the  flesh  of  the  truffle.  In  false 
truffles  the  spores  are  free  and  are  borne  on  minute  spicules  or 
•upports.  The  spores  of  the  chief  European  truffles,  true  and  false, 
enlarged  five  hundred  diameters,  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration.  Many  references  to  truffles  occur  in  classical  authors. 
The  truffle  Elaphomyces  variegalus  was  till  quite  recent  times  used, 
under  the  name  of  Hart's  nut  or  Lycoperdoo  nut,  oa  account  of  its 
supposed  aphrodisiac  qualities. 

j  TRUMBULL,  the  surname  of  more  than  one  individual 
of  note  in  the  literature,  art,  and  politics  of  America. 
I  1  Benjamin  Teumbull  was  born  at  Hebron,  Connecti- 
cut, on  19th  December  1735,  and  died  at  North  Hpven, 
Connecticut,  on  2d  February  1820.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1759,  and  entered  the  ministry.  His  literary  work  was 
considerable,  the  most  important  being  the  standard  His- 
tory of  Connecticut  to  1 764. 

2.  JoHH  TBUMBtTU.  was  born  at  Waterbury;  Connecti 
cnt,  on  24th  April  1750,  and  died  at  Detroit,  Michigan, 
oa  12th  May  1831  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1767,  and 
became  a  lawyer  and  author  of  high  reputation.     EQs  best  > 


work  is  iPFingal,  a  Hudibrastic  poein,  intended  to  8ery» 
the  WTiig  side  in  the  American  Revolution. 

3.  JoHJf  TBUMBtrLL,  son  of  the  following,  was  bom  at 
Lebanon,  Connecticut,  on  6th  June  1756,  and  died  at  New 
York  City,  on  10th  November  1843.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  ia  1773,  studied  painting  with  Benjamin  West  in 
London,  and  left  at  his  death  a  number  of  historical  works. 
The  earlier  of  these  are  the  better ,  the  later  and  larger 
were  painted  for  the  capitol  at  Washington. 

4.  Jonathan  Tritmbdli  was  born  at  Lebanon,  Con. 
necticut,  on  10th  June  1710,  and  died  at  the  same  place 
on  17th  August  1785.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1727, 
and  became  a  lawyer  and  colonial  politician.  Ilia  place 
in  American  history  was  gained  as  governor  of  Connecticut 
from  1769  until  1783,  through  the  whole  period  of  the 
American  Revolution.  He  was  a  trusted  supporter  and 
confidential  adviser  of  Washington,  who  was  accustomed 
to  speak  of  him  as  "  brother  Jonathan,"  and  the  term  has 
since  passed  into  popular  use  as  equivalent  to  the  people 
of  the  United  States. 

5.  Jonathan  Tedmbdll,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  on  26th  March  1740,  and  died 
at  the  same  place  on  7  th  August  1809.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1769,  and  served  as  member  of  congress, 
1 78^-95  (being  speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives  dur- 
ing the  last  two  years  of  his  terra),  as  United  States  senator, 
1795-96,  and  as  governor  of  Connecticut,  1798-1809. 

TRUMPET,  a  musical  instrument,  consisting  of  a  long, 
narrow  brass  tube,  cylindrical  for  the  greater  part  of  its 
length:  the  fusiform  development  which  terminates  in  the 
bell  or  opening  of  the  lower  end  only  begins  at  a  point 
that  varies  from  a  third  to  a  fourth  of  the  total  length 
from  that  extremity.  The  air  inside  is  set  in  vibration 
by  the  lips  (which  act  as  true  reeds)  applied  to  the  edges 
of  a  basin-like  mouthpiece  fitted  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
instrument.  The  material  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
production  of  that  brilliant  quality  of  tone  by  which  the 
trumpet  is  so  easily  distinguished  from  every  other  mouth- 
piece instnunent .  the  difference  b  partly  due  to  the  dis- 
tinct form  given  to  the  basin  of  the  mouthpiece,  but  prin- 
cipally to  the  proportions  of  the  column  of  air  determined 
by  the  conical  or  cylindrical  form  of  its  envelope. 

The  possibility  of  producing  sonorous  disturbance  of  a 
mass  of  air  through  a  mouthpiece,  or  more  simply  through 
the  orifice  of  the  tube,  has  been  known  from  a  very  early 
period, — a  shell  bored  at  its  extremity,  or  a  horn  with 
the  point  removed,  being  without  doabt  the  most  ancient 
instrument  for  producing  sound.  Nearly  all  the  nations 
of  antiquity  had  mouthpiece  instruments ;  but  the  greater 
number  of  these,  though  grouped  under  the  general  de- 
signation of  trumpets,  have  only  a  very  distant  relationship 
to  the  modem  instrument  The  Romans  had  four  such 
instmments, — the  ivha,  bucana,  comu,  ana  lituvs  The 
tuba,  represented  m  the  bas-reliefs  of  the  triumphal  arch  of 
Titus,  was  a  kind  of  straight  bronze  clarion,  with  a  conical 
column  of  air.  It  \a  ordinarily  designated  the  Roman  trum- 
pet, and  was  about  39  inches  long  ,  its  compass  should  not 
go  beyond  the  first  six  proper  notes  of  the  harmonic  scale. 
The  Roman  tuba  and  the  Greek  salpinx  are  "apposed  to  be 
one  and  the  same  instriunent  The  bu"-  ina  was  also  of 
bronze,  with  a  tube  measuring  fully  1 1  ftet  in  length  Tho 
tube  is  only  slightly  conical,  and  the  quality  of  tone  bears  a 
striking  resemblance  to  that  of  the  bass  trombone  in  G  , 
the  proper  tones  for  bar 
monies  were  those  sub- 
joined '  The  cornu  was  3  * 
often  made  of  a  bullock's  born,  but  bronze  was  also  employed, 

'  The  diflScnlty  of  producing  the  fundamental  or  first  proper  not* 
Increases  with  the  length  and  narrowness  of  the  tube.  "The  propor- 
tions of  the  bucclos  render  the  production  of  this  note  very  difflCTlL 


TRUMPET 


593 


as  in  a  specimen  ia  the  BritisTi  Museum.  This  instrument 
measured  4  feet  6  inches  in  length,  and  the  scale  was 
J^»^  that  herewith  shown.  The 
:  Koman  cornu  was  probably 
~t>     ■*  '  like  the  Greek  keras.     The 

three  preceding  instruments  were  used  in  giving  signals 
to  the  infantry.  The  cavalry  calls  were  given  with  the 
litnuB,  a  specimen  of  which  exists  in  the  museum  of  the 
Vatican,  found  in  1827  in  a  tomb  at  Cerveteri  (Caere). 
The  tube  is  cylindrical  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length,  its 
conical  development  beginning  only  at  the  lower  end, 
where  the  instrument  begins  to  curve.  The  lituus  easily 
produces  the  accompanying 
proper  notes ;  its  quality  of  S 
tone  is  like  that  of  a  trumpet  .-w 
in  G.  In  Ireland  and  Denmark  numerous  mouthpiece 
instruments  in  bronze  have  been  found,  sixteen  different 
specimens  being  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  Royal 
Iiish  Academy  at  Dublin,  and  six  (of  which  facsimiles 
exist  in  South  Kensington  Museum)  in  the  miiseum  at 
Copenhagen.  But  none  of  these  have  the  proportions  of 
a  triunpet ;  all,  by  the  conical  development  of  the  tube  as 
well  as  by  the  curved  form,  recall  their  first  model,  the 
horn,  successive  transformations  of  which  have  given  rise 
to  the  clarion  and  the  numerous  family  of  bugles. 

We  have  no  precise  information  as  to  the  form  which 
the  lituus,  the  ancestor  of  the  modern  trumpet,  assumed 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  A  miniature  in  the  Bible '  pre- 
sented in  850  to  Charles  the  Bald  places  the  lituus  in 
the  hands  of  one  of  the  companions  of  King  David,  but 
we  are  not  warranted  in  concluding  from  this  that  the 
Etruscan  instrument  was  in  use  in  the  9th  century.  The 
earliest  representation  of  the  trumpet  with  its  present 
proportions  of  tube  and  form  of  bell  seems  to  belong  to 
the  15th  century.  Fra  Angelico  (d.  1455)  has  painted 
angels  with  trumpets  having  either  straight  or  zigzag 
tubes,  the  shortest  being  about  5  feet  long.  The  perfect 
representation  of  the  details,  the  exactness  of  the  propor- 
tions, the  natural  pose  of  the  angel  players,  suggest  that 
the  artist  painted  the  instruments  from  real  models. 

The  credit  of  having  bent  the  tube  of  the  trumpet  in 
three  parallel  branches,  thus  creating  its  modern  form, 
has  usually  been  claimed  for  a  Frenchman  named  Maurin 
(1498-1515).  But  the  transformation  was  reaUy  made  in 
Italy  about  the  middle  of  the  1 5th  century,  as  is  proved 
by  the  bas-reliefs  of  Luca  della  Robbia  intended  to  orna- 
ment the  organ  chamber  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence  (see 
vol.  sx.  p.  588) ;  there  a  trumpet  having  the  tube  bent 
back  as  just  described  is  very  distinctly  figured.  From 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  we  have  numerous 
sources  of  information.  Virdung  ^  cites  three  kinds  of 
mouthpiece  instruments — the  felUntmei,  the  clareta,  and 
the  thumer  ham  ;  unfortunately  he  does  not  mention  their 
distinctive  characters,  and  it  is  impossible  to  make  them 
out  by  examination  of  his  engravings.  Probably  the 
felttrumet  and  the  olareta  closely  resembled  each  other ; 
but  the  compass  of  the  former,  destined  for  military  sig- 
nals, hardly  went  beyond  the  8th  proper  tone,  while  the 
latter,  reserved  for  high  parts;  was  like  the  clarino  (see 
below).  The  thumer  horn  was  probably  a  kind  of 
clarino  or  clarion  used  by  watchmen  on  the  towers.  The 
trummet  and  the  jdger  trommel  are  the  only  two  mouth- 
piece instruments  of  the  trumpet  kind  cited  by  Prcetorius.' 
The  first  was  tuned  in  D  at  the  chamber  pitch  or  "  kam- 
merton,"  but -with  the  help  of  a  shank  it  could  be  put 
in  C,  the  equivalent  of  the  "  chorton  "  D,  the  two  differ- 
ing about  a  tone.     Sometimes  the  trummet  was  lowered 

'  In  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  at  Paris. 

*  Musica  getiUschi  und  a-u^zgczogen,  Basel,  1511, 

•  Orgarwgraphia,  Wolfenbuttel,  1619. 


to  B  and  even  BS>.  The  jager  trommet,  or  "  trompette  de 
chasse,"  was  composed  of  a  tube  bent  several  times  in 
circles,  like  the  posthorn,  to  make  use  of  a  comparison 
employed  by  Pr«torius  himself.  His  drawing  does  not 
make  it  clear  whether  the  column  of  air  was  like  that  of 
the  trumpet ;  there  is  therefore  some  doubt  as  to  the  true 
character  of  the  instrument.  The  same  author  further 
cites  a  wooden  trumpet  [hblzem  trommet),  which  is  no 
other  than  the  Swiss  alpen-horn  or  Norwegian  luur. 
Merserme's  *  information  is  not  very  instructive  ;  but  he- 
gives  a  description  of  the  sourdine,  a  kind  of  mute  or 
damper  introduced  into  the  bell,  already  employed  in  his 
time,  and  still  made  use  of  to  weaken  the  sound.  The 
shape  of  the  trumpet,  as  seen  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  Luca 
della  Robbia,  was  retained  for  more  than  three  hundred 
years :  the  first  alterations  destined  to  revolutionize  the 
whole  technique  of  the  instrument  were  made  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century.  Notwithstanding  the  im- 
perfections of  the  trumpet  during  this  long  period,  the 
performers  upon  it  acquired  an  astonishing  dexterity. 
The  usual  scale  of  the  typicaT  trumpet,  that  in  D,  is 


PraBtorius  exceeds  the  limits  of  this  compass  in  the  higher  range, 
for  he  says  a  good  trumpeter  could  produce  the  subjoined  notes. 
j-s_  jjs.  -^  ^  This  opinion  is  shared  by  Bach,  who, 
T^  T~  -I —  •*—  in  a  trumpet  solo  which  ends  the 
cantata  "Der  Himmel  lacht,"  wrote  up 
to  the  twentieth  of  these  sounds.  So 
considerable  a  compass  could  not  be  reached  by  one  instrumentalist : 
the  tiTimpet  part  had  therefore  to  be  divided,  and  each  division 
was  designated  by  a  special  name."  The  fundamental  or  first 
proper  note  was  called  JlaUergroh,  the  second  grobsfimTne,  the 
third  faulstiTnme,  the  fourth  raitiehiimme.  The  part  that  wa» 
called  principal  went  from  the  fifth  to  the  tenth  of  these  tones. 
The  higher  region,  which  had  received  the  name  of  "  clarino,"  waa 
again  divided  into  two  parts  :  the  first  began  at  the  eighth  proper 
tone  and  mounted  up  towards'  the  extreme  high  limit  of  the  com- 
pass, according  to  the  skill  of  the  executant ;  the  second,  beginning 
at  the  sixth  proper  tojie,  rarely  went  beyond  the  twelfth.  Each  of 
these  parts  was  confided  to  a  special  trumpeter,  who  executed  it  by 
using  a  larger  or  a  smaller  mouthpiece. 

Playing  the  clarino  diflered  essentially  from  playing  the  military 
trumpet,  which  corresponded  in  compass  to  that  called  principal. 
Compelled  to  employ  very  small  mouthpieces  to  facilitate  the  emis- 
sion of  very  high  sounds,  clarino  players  could  not  fail  to  alter  the 
tone  of  the  instrument,  and  instead  of  getting  the  brilliant  and 
energetic  quality  of  tone  of  the  mean  register  they  were  only 
able  to  produce  more  or  less  doubtful  notes  without  power  and 
splendour.  Apart  from  this  inconvenience,  the  clarino  presented 
numerous  deviations  from  just  intonation.  Hence  the  players  of 
that  time  failed  to  obviate  the  bad  effects  inevitably  resulting  from 
the  natural  imperfection  of  the  harmonic  scale  of  the  trumpet 
in  that  extreme  part  of  its  compass;  in  the  execution,  for  instance, 
of  the  works  of  Bach,  where  the  trumpet  si  ould  give  sometime* 
h  m  -,  and  p  -  £• — ,  the  instrumentalist  could  only  com- 
■(S)  I  z:  some-  M)  i — Tmand  the  eleventh  proper  tone,  which 
*T  times  vT  is  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  of  these. 

Further,  the  thirteenth  proper  tone,  for  which  p  T*"  is  written, 
is  really  too  flat,  and  it  is  absolutely  im-  (n\  '  -  possible  to 
remedy  this  defect,  since  it  entirely  depends  \)'  upon     the 

laws  of  resonance  affecting  coluLins  of  air. 

Since  the  abandonment  of  the  clarino  (about  the  middle  of  the 
18th  centuiy)  our  orchestras  have  been  enriched  with  trumpets 
that  permit  the  execution  of  the  old  clarino  parts,  not  only  with 
perfect  justness  of  intonation,  but  with  a  quality  of  tone  that  is 
not  deficient  in  character  when  compared  with  the  mean  register 
of  the  old  principal  instrument.  The  introduction  of  the  clarinet 
or  little  clarino  is  one  of  the  causes  which  led  to  the  abandonment 
of  the  older  instrument  and  may  explain  the  preference  given  by 
the  composers  of  that  epoch  to  the  mean  register  of  the  trumpet. 
The  clarino  having  disappeared  before  Mozart's  day,  he  had  to 
change  the  trumpet  parts  of  Handel  and  Bach  to  allow  of  their 
execution  by  the  performers  of  his  own  time.  It  was  now  that 
crooks  began  to  be  frequently  used.  Trumpets  were  made  in  F 
instead  of  in  D,  furnished  with  a  series  of  shanks  of  increasing 
length  for  the  tonalities  of  E,  El>,  D,  Dl»,  C,  B,  Bj),  and  sometimes 
even  A. 

*  Harmonie  Universelle,  Paris,  1636. 

°  Der  «wA  seWst  informxTcnde  Musitus,  Augsburg,  1762,  by  Lotter. 


Zi — i^ 


594 


T  R  U  — T  R  U 


I  The  first  attempts  to  extend  the  limited  resources  of  the  instru- 
ment ill  its  new  employment  arose  out  of  Hampel's  idea  of  lowering 
the  harmonic  sounds  by  introducing  the  hand  into  the  bell.  But, 
instead  of  fimng  the  shanks  between  the  mouthpiece  and  the  upper 
extremity,  they  were  adapted  to  the  body  of  the  instrument  itself 
by  a  double  slide,  upon  the  two  branches  of  which  tubes  were  in- 
serted bent  in  the  form  of  a  ciccle  and  gradually  lengthened  as 
required.  This  modified  instrument  became  known  as  .the  "in- 
vention horn."  This  system  was  applied  to  the  trumpet  by 
lliclicl  Woegel  (born  at  Rastatt  in  1748),  whose  "iavention 
trumpet"  had  a  great  success,  notwithstanding  the  unavoidable 
imperfection  of  a  too  great  disparity  in  quality  of  tone  between  the 
open  and  the  closed  sounds.  The  idea  of  applying  the  trombone 
sfidc  to  the  trumpet  is  obvious.  The  slide  trumpet  is  mentioned 
by  T.  E.  Altenburg.'  who  compares  it,  and  with  reason,  to  the  alto 
trombone ;  and  there  are  grounds  for  identifying  it  with  the 
"tromba  da  tirarsi"  employed  by  J.  S.  Bach  in  some  of  his  com- 
positions. Tlie  slide  trumpet  is  still  used  in  England  in  a  some- 
what modiBcd  form.  About  1760,  Kolbel,  a  Russian  musician, 
applied  a  key  to  the  horn,  and  soon  afterwards  the  trumpet  re- 
ceived a  similar  addition.  By  opening  this  key,  which  is  placed 
iiear  the  bell,  the  instrument  was  raised  a  diatonic  semitone,  and 
by  correcting  errors  of  intonation  by  the  pressure  of  the  lips  in 
the  mouthpiece  the  following  diatonic  succession  was  obtained. 
4—  This  invention  was  improved 
_  in  ISOl  by  Weidinger,  trum- 
peter  to  the  imperial  court 
at  Vienna,  who  increased  the  number  of  keys  and  thus  made  the 
trumpet  chromatic  thoughout  its  scale.  The 
instrument  sliown  in  the  accompanying  figure 
is  in  G  ,  the  keys  are  five  in  number,  and  as 
they  open  one  after  another  or  in  combination 
it  is  possible  to  connect  the  second  proper  tone 
-with  the  third  by  chromatic  steps,  and  thus 
produce  the  following  succession.     The  number 

-^  of     keys 

^=—:^  was     ap- 

•^  filuiptho 


,ig  i  ^ 


gaps  between  the  extreme  sounds  of  the  interval 

of  a  fifth  ;  and  a  like  result  was  arrived  at  more 

«asily  for  the  intervals  of  the  fourth,  the  major 

th»rd,  &C-,  furnished  by  the  proper  tones  of  3,  4, 

5.  &c.     But,  though  tlie  keyed  trumpet  was  a 

notable  imjiroveraent  on  the  invention  trumpet, 

the  sounds  obtained  by  means  of  the  lateral  open- 
ings of  the  tube  did  not  possess  the  qualities 

vbich  distinguish  sounds  caused  by  the  reson- 

•nce  of  the  air-column  vibrating  in  its  entirety. 

But  in  1815  Stolzel  made  a  genuine  chromatic 

trumpet   by  the   invention  of   the   ventile   or 

piston  ;     for    this    ingenious    mechanism,    see 

TnoMiwNE.      The  simple  trumpet  is  now  no 

longer  employed  except  iu  cavalry  regiments.     Keyed  trumpet. 
It  IS  usually  in  E}).     The  bass  trumpet  in  Ei>,  which  is  ah  octave 

lower,  is  sometimes,  but  rarely,  used.    Trumpets  wilh  pistons  are 

generally  constructed  in  F,  with  cr^^oks  in  E  and  EJ>.  In  Ger- 
many trumpets  in  the  high  Bl?  with  a  crook  in  A  are  very  often 
used  in  the  orchestra.     They  are  easier  for  cornet  i  piston  players 

th.iii  the  trumpet  iu  F.  Tlie  present  writer  has  recently  constructed 
for  the  concerts  of  the  Conservatoire  at  Brussels  trumpets  in  the 
Iiigli  D,  an  octave  above  the  old  trumpet  in  the  same  key.  They 
jtermit  the  execution  of  the  high  trumpet  parts  of  Handel  and  J.  S. 
bacli.  T!ie  b.ass  trumpet  with  pistons  used  for  Wagner's  tetralogy 
IS  111  E|j.  in  unison  with  the  ordinary  trumpet  with  crooks  of  D 

and  C  ,  but,  when  constructed  so  as  to  allow  of  the  production  of 
the  second  proper  tone  as  written  by  this  master,  this  instrument 
belon^^s  rather  to  the  trombones  than  to  tlie  trumpets.      (V.  M.) 

TRUMPET,  Speaking  and  Hearing.  The  speaking 
trumpet,  though  some  instrumeni  of  the  kind  appears  to 
have  been  in  earlier  use  in  more  than  one  part  of  the 
world,  is  connected  in  its  modern  form  with  the  name  of 
Athanasius  Kircher  and  that  of  Sir  Samuel  Morland,  who 
in  1670  proposed  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London  the  ques- 
tion of  the  best  form  for  a  speaking  trumpet.  Lambert,  in 
the  Berlin  Memoirs  for  1763,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to 
give  a  theory  of  the  actjon  of  this  instrument,  based  on  an 
altogether  imaginary  analogy  with  the  behaviour  of  light. 
In  this  theory,  which  is  still  commonly  put  forward,  it  is 
assumed  that  sound,  like  light,  can  be  propagated  in  rays. 
This,  however,  is  possible  only  when  the  aperture  through 

*  Versuch  einer  AnUitung  zur  heroisch-musilcaliscken  Trompeter- 
und  Paliker-Kunst,  Halle,  1795. 


which  the  wave-disturbance  passes  into  free  air  is  largo 
compared  with  the  wave-ler.glh.  If  the  fusiform  mouth 
of  the  speaking  trumpet  were  half  a  mile  or  so  in  radius, 
Lambert's  theory  might  give  an  approximation  to  the 
truth.  But  with  trumpets  whose  aperture  is  only  a  foot 
in  diameter  at  most  the  problem  is  o..j  rf  diffraction ; 
and  it  has  not  yet  been  seriously  studied  from  this  point 
of  view. 

In  the  case  of  the  hearing  trumpet,  the  disturbance  is 
propagated  along  the  converging  tube  much  in  the  samo 
way  as  the  tide-wave  is  propagated  up  the  estuary  of  a 
tidal  river. 

Until  the  theory  has  been  rigorously  worked  out  tht 
only  safe  course  to  adopt  in  manufacturing  either  class  of 
instruments  is  to  be  guided  by  the  results  of  varied  trials. 

The  theoretical  foundations  of  the  subject  will  be  found 
in  Lord  Rayleigh's  Sound  and  in  Sir  G.  Airy's  Tides  and 
Waves,  respectively.  In  speaking  and  hearing  .trumpets 
alike  all  reverberation  of  the  instrument  should  be  avoided 
by  making  it  thick  and  of  the  least  elastic  materials,  -and 
by  covering  it  externally  with  cloth. 

TRUMPETER,  or  Trumpet-Bird,  the  literal  rendering 
in  1747,  by  the  anonymous  English  translator  of  D6 
la  Condamine's  travels  in  South  America  (p.  87),  of  that 
writer's  "  Oiseau  trompette  "  {Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Sciences,' 
1745,  p.  473),  which  he  says  was  called  "Trompetero" 
by  the  Spaniards  of  Maynas  on  the  upp'er  Amazons,  from 
the  peculiar  sound  it  utters.  He  added  that  it  was  the 
"  Agami "  of  the  inhabitants  of  Para  and  Cayenne,^  w:herein 
he  was  not  wholly  accurate,  since  those  birds  afe  specifically 
distinct,  though,  as  they  are  generically  united,  the  state- 
ment may  pass.  But  he  was  also  wrong,  as  had  been 
Barrere  (France  Equinoxiale,  p.  132)  in  1741,  in  identify- 
ing the  "  Agami "  with  the  "  Macucagua  "  of  Marcgrave, 


Wlite-winged  trumpeter  {Psopkia  leiicoplera).     After  MitchelL 

for  that  is  a  Tinamou  (q.v.) ;  and  both  still  more  wrongly 
accounted  for  the  origin  of  the  peculiar  sound  just  men- 
tioned, whereby  Barrere  was  soon  after  led  (Omith.  Spec 
Jfomim,  pp.  62,  63)  to  apply  to  the  bird  the  generic  and 
vulgar  names  of  Psophia  and  "Petteuse,"  the  former  of 
which,  being  unfortunately  adopted  by  Linnasus,  has  ever 
since  been  used,  though  in  1766  and  1767  Pallas  (Miscel- 
lanea, p.  67,  and  Spicilegia,  iv.  p.  6),  and  in  1768  Vosmaer 
(Descr.  du  Trompette  Americain,  p.  5),  showed  that  tbo 

'  Not  to  be   confounded  with   the"   "Heron   Agami"  sf  Buffon 
(Oiseaux,  viL  p.  382),  which  is  the  Ardea  agami  of  other  writers. 


T  R  U  — T  R  U 


595 


notion  it  conveys  is  erroneous.  Among  English  writers 
the  name  "Trumpeter"  was  carried  on  by  Latham  and 
others  so  as  to  be  generally  accepted,  though  an  author 
may  occasionally  be  found  mlling  to  resort  to  the  native 
"Agami,"  which  is  that  almost  always  used  by  the  French. 
'  Messrs  Sdater  and  Salvin  in  their  Nomenclator  (-p.  lil)  admit 
6  species  of  Trumpet -Birds — (1)  the  original  Pscrphia  crepitans  of 
Guiana  ;  (2)  P.  napcnsis  of  eastern  Ecuador  (which  is  very  likely 
the  original  "  Oiseau  trompette "  of  De  la  Condamine) ;  (3)  P. 
ochroptcra  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Negro  ;  (4)  P.  leucoptera 
liom  the  nght  bank  of  the  upper  Amazons  ;  (5)  P.  viridis  from  the 
.right  bank  of  the  Madeira  ;  and  (6)  P.  obscura  from  the  right  bank 
of  the  lower  Amazons  near  Para.  And  they  have  remarked  in  the 
Zoological  Proceedings  (\i6' ,  p.  592)  on  the  curious  fact  that  the 
range  of  the  several  species  appears  to  be  separated  by  rivers,  a 
statement  confirmed  by  Mr  Wallace  {Geogr.  Distr.  Animals,  ii.  p. 
358) ;  and  in  connexion  therewith  it  may  be  observed  that  these  birds 
have  short  wings  and  seldom  fly,  but  run,  though  with  a  peculiar 
gait,  very  quickly.  A  seventh  species,  P.  cantatrix,  from  Bolivia,  has 
since  been  indicated  by  Prof.  W.  Blasius  {Joum.f.  Omith.,  1884, 
pp.  203-210),  who  has  given  a  monographic  summary  of  the  whole 
group  very  worthy  of  attention.  The  chief  distinctions  between 
the  species  lie  in  colour  and  size,  and  it  will  be  here  enough  to 
describe  briefly  the  best  known  of  them,  P.  crepitans.  This  is 
about  the  size  of  a  large  barndoor  Fowl  ;  but  its  neck  and  legs  are 
lonter,  so  that  it  is  s  taller  bird.  The  head  and  neck  are  clothed 
with  short  velvety  feathers ;  the  whole  plumage  is  black,  except 
fhat  on  the  lower  front  of  the  neck  the  feathers  are  tipped  with 
golden  green,  changing  according  to  the  light  into  violet,  and  that 
a  patch  of  dull  rusty  brown  extends  across  the  middle  of  the  back 
and  wing-coverts,  passing  into  ash-colour  lower  down,  where  they 
liang  over  and  conceal  the  tail.  The  legs  are  bnght  pea-green. 
The  habits  of  this  bird  are  very  wonderful,  and  it  is  much  to  be 
wished  that  fuller  accounts  of  them  had  appeared.  The  curious 
sound  it  utters,  iloticed  by  the  earliest  observers,  has  been  already 
mentioned,  and  by  them  also  was  its  singularly  social  disposition 
towards  man  described  ;  but  the  information  supplied  to  Bufl'on 
(Oiseaux,  iv.  pp.  496-501-)  by  Manoncour  and  De  la  Borde,  wliich 
has  been  repeated  in  many  works,  is  still  the  best  we  have  of  the 
curious  way  in  which  it  becomes  semi-domesticated  by  the  Indians 
and  colonists  and  shows  strong  aSection  for  its  owners  as  well  as 
for  their  living  property — poultry  or  sheep  —  though  in  this  re- 
claimed condition  it  seems  never  to  breed.'  Indeed  nothing  can 
be  positively  asserted  as  to  its  mode  of  nidification  ;  but  its  eggs, 
according  to  Mr  E.  Bartlett,  are  of  a  creamy  white,  rather  round, 
and  about  the  size  of  Bantams'.  VTaterton .  in  his  iVariderings 
(Second  Journey,  chap.  iii. )  speaks  of  falling  in  with  flocks  of  200 
or  300  "  Waracabas,  as  he  called  them,  in  Demerara,  but  added 
nothing  to  our  knowledge  of  the  species ;  while  the  contributions 
of  Trail  (McTn.  Wem.  Society,  y.  pp.  523-532)  and  Dr  Hancock 
{Afag.  Nat.  History,  set.  1,  ii.  pp.  490-492)  as  regards  its  habits  only 
touch  upon  them  in  captivity. 

To  the  Trumpeters  must  undoubtedly  be  accorded  the 
rank  of  a  dbtinct  Family,  Psophiidae.;  but  like  so  many 
other  South-American  birds  they  seem  to  be  the  less 
specialized  descendants  of  an  ancient  generalized  group 
-^perhaps  the  common  ancestors  of  the  Sallidae  and 
Gruidse — and  they  are  therefore  rightly  placed  in  Prof. 
Huxley's  Gerariomorphse.^  The  structure  of  the  syrinx  is 
stated  by  Trail  (ut  supra)  to  be  quite  unique;  but  his 
description  of  it  is  unsatisfactory,  and  he  clearly  had  not 
an  adult  male  to  dissect  or  he  would  have  hardly  failed 
to  notice  -the  cdrious  arrangement  of  the  trachea  in  that 
sex  made  known  by  Hancock  (ut  supra).  This,  though 
different  from  that  described  in  any  Crane  (q.v.),  sug- 
gests an  early  form  of  the  structure  which  in  some  of  the 
Gruidx  is  so  marvellously  developed,  for  in  Psopkia  tl^e 
windpipe  runs  down  the  breast  and  belly  immediately 
under  the  skin  to  within  about  an  inch  of  the  anus,  whence 
it  returns  in  a  similar  way  to  tho  front  of  the  sternum,  and 
then  enters  the  thorax.  Analogous  instances  of  this  forma- 
tion occur  in  several  other  groups  of   birds  not  at  all 

*  In  connexioB  herewith  may  be  mentioned  the  singular  story  told 
by  Montagu  {Om.  Diet.,  Suppl.  Art.  "Grosbeak,  White-winged"),  on 
the  authority  of  the  then  Lord  Stanley,  afterwards  president  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  of  one  of  these  birds,  which,  having  apparently 
escaped  from  conGnement,  formed  the  habit  of  attending  a  poultry- 
yard.  On  the  occasion  of  a  pack  of  hounds  running  through  the  yard, 
the  Trumpeter  joined  and  kept  up  with  tbera  for  nearly  three  miles  ! 

»  Cf.  Parker,  Trans.  Zool.  .loc.,  x.  p.  502  sq. 


allied  to  the  Psophiidae..  The  skeleton  and  some  of  the 
detached  bones  are  figiured  in  Ey ton's  Osteol.  Avium  (pis. 
sxix.  and  5  k).  (a.  n.) 

TKUKO,  a  city,  municipal  borough,  and  port  of  Corn- 
wall, England,  is  situated  on  a  kind  of  peninsula  formed 
by  the  rivers  Allen  and  Kenw'yn,  which  below  the  town 
unite  with  a  branch  of  Falmouth  harbour  called  Truro 
creek  or  river.  Truro  is  300  miles  south-west  of  London 
by  the  Great  Western  Railway,  and  1 1  north  of  Falmouth, 
to  which  there  is  a  branch  line.  The  town  is  regularly 
built,  chiefly  of  granite,  with  spacious  streets,  through  the 
principal  of  which  there  flows  a^tream  of  water.  The  new 
cathedral  of  St  Mary  by  Mr  Pearson,  R.A.,  one  of  the  most 
important  modem  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  England,  is  a 
fine  example  of  Early  English  at  its  best  period.  The  old 
south  ai'ile  of  the  church  previously  existing  is  ingeniously 
incorporated  in  the  new  edifice.  The  secular  buildings 
include  the  town-hall  and  market-house  in  the  Italian  style 
(1846),  the  corn  exchange,  the  theatre,  the  public  room^ 
the  music-hall,  and  the  county  library  (1792).  There  is 
also  a  theological  library,  presented  by  Bishop  Phillpotts  in 
1856  and  largely  augmented  by  a  bequest  of  books  in  1883. 
Among  the  educational  and  benevolent  institutions  are  the 
grammar-school  (founded  by  a  member  of  the  Borlase 
family,  and  having  two  exhibitions  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford),  the  cathedral  divinity  schools,  the  Wesleyan 
middle  schools,  the  literary  institution,  the  royal  Cornwall 
infirmary,  the  dispensary,  and  a  hospital  for  ten  widows. 
There  is  sufficient  depth  of  water  in  the  channel  of  Truro 
creek  to  permit  vessels  of  70  tons  burden  to  come  up  to 
the  town  quay.  The  principal  imports  are  coal  from  Wales 
and  timber  from  Norway,  and  the  exports  consist  of  tin, 
iron  ores,  lead,  and  zinc,  from  the  mines  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  (area 
1171  acres)  in  1871  was  11,049,  and  10,619  in  1881. 

Trnro  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  England.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  stannary  and  other  courts  connected  with  the  duchy  of  Corn- 
wall (see  Cornwall,  vol.  vi.  p.  427).  It  was  one  of  the  ancient 
privilegod  tin  coinage  towns.  Anciently  it  was  called  Tueura, 
Treura,  and  Truruburgh.  It  was  a  borough  by  prescription,  bat 
was  incorporated  by  Reginald,  earl  of  Cornwall.  In  the  12th  cen- 
tury it  belonged  to  Richard  de  Lucy.  In  a  charter  of  Henry  VII. 
it  is  called  the  "ville  de  Teuro."  The  government  was  vested  in 
a  mayor  and  burgesses  by  Elizabeth,  who  gave  the  corporation  juris- 
diction over  the  port  of  Falmouth,  the  port  dues  of  that  town  being 
collected  by  them  until  its  incorporation  by  Charles  II.  Norden, 
writing  of  Truro  in  1574,  says,  "  there  is  not  a  towne  in  the  west 
part  of  the  shire  more  commendable  for  neatness  of  buyldinges,  nor 
more  discommendable  for  the  priHe  of  the  people."  In  1642  Sir 
Ralph  Hopton  levied  here  a  large  body  of  men  for  the  king.  By 
the  Municipal  Act  Truro  was  divided  into  two  wards,  and  is  governed 
by  a  mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  eighteen  councillors.  The  corpor- 
ation act  as  the  urban  sanitary  authority.  Truro  sent  t*o  represent- 
atives to  parliament  from  the  23d  year  of  Edward  I.,  but  ceased 
to  be  separately  represented  in  1885.  By  Act  39  and  40  Vict 
c.  54  it  was  constituted  the  bead  of  a  new  diocese  comprising  the 
archdeaconry  of  Cornwall. 

TRUST.  In  Roman  and  English  law  alike  that  legal 
relation  between  two  or  more  persons  implied  in  the  word 
trust  was  of  comparatively  late  growth.  The  trust  of 
English  law  is  probably  based  upon  a  combination  of  the 
Roman  conceptions  of  usns  and  fideicommissum.  To  usm 
is  perhaps  due  the  name  as  well  as  the  idea  of  that  right 
over  property,  coordinate  with  the  right  of  the  nominal 
owner,  possessed  by  the  person  having  the  use.  To  fidei- 
commissum  afipears  to  be  due  the  name  as  well  as  the  idea 
of  that  confidence  reposed  in  another  which  is  the  essence 
of  the  modem  trust.  Usus  was  in  Roman  law  a  personal 
servitude,  or  riglit  of  one  person  Ofer  the  land  of  another, 
confined  to  his  personal  wants  and  without  the  right  to  the 
produce  and  profits  which  ususfructus  carried.  It  has 
little  in  common  with  the  use  of  English  law  but  the  name 
and  the  conception  of  a  dual  ownership.  The  fideicom>- 
missum  is  more  important ;  see  Roman  Law,  voL  rx.  p. , 


596 


TRUST 


707.  By  the  legislation  of  Justinian  the  law  of  legata 
va3  practically  assimilated  to  that  of  -fideicommissa.  The 
only  thing  that  distinguished  the  one  from  the  other  was 
the  mode  in  which  the  gift  was  made :  if  by  words  of 
direct  bequest,  it  was  a  legatum^  if  by  precatory  words,  a 
fideicommissum.  It  may  be  noticed,  as  an  illustration  of 
the  course  afterwards  taken  by  the  law  in  England,  that 
fideicommissa  in  favour  of  the  church  were  so  far  favoured 
over  others  that  if  paid  over  by  mistake  they  could  not  be 
recovered.  In  addition  to  usus  and  fideicommissum^  the 
Roman  division  of  ownership  into  quiritary  and  bonitary 
(to  use  words  invented  at  a  later  time)  may  perhaps  to 
some  extent  have  suggested  the  English  division  into 
legal  and  equitable  estate.  The  two  kinds  of  ownership 
were  amalgamated  by  Justinian.  Legal  and  equitable 
estate  are  still  distinct  in  England,  though  attempts  have 
been  made  in  the  direction  of  amalgamation. .  The  gradual 
manner  in  which  the  beneficiary  became  subject  to  the 
burdens  attaching  to  the  property  of  which  be  enjoyed  the 
benefit  was  a  feature  common  to  both  the  Roman  and  the 
English  system. 

Wses  in  Early  Etiglish  Law. — The  use  or  trust*  is  said  to  have 
been  th«  invention  of  ecclesiastics  well  acquainted  with  Roman 
law,  the  object  being  to  escape  the  provisions  of  the  laws  against 
MORTMAIS  iq.v.)  by  obtaining  the  conveyance  of  an  estate  to  a 
friend  on  the  understanding  that  they  should  retain  the  use,  i.e., 
the  actual  profit  and  enjoyment  of  the  estate.  Uses  were  soon  ex- 
tended to  other  purposes.  They  were  found  valuable  for  the  defeat 
of  creditors,  the  avoiding  of  attainder,  and  the  charging  of  portions. 
A  use  had  also  the  advantage  of  being  free  from  the  incidents  of 
feudal  tenure:  it  could  be  alienated  inter  vivos  by  secret  conveyance, 
and  could  be  devised  by  will.  In  many  cases  the  feoflee^  to  uses, 
as  he  was  called,  or  the  person  seised  to  the  use  of  another,  seems 
to  have  been  specially  chosen  on  aci;ount  of  his  rank  and  station, 
which  would  enable  him  to  defy  the  common  laV  and  protect  the 
estate  of  his  cestui  que  ■Kise,  or  the  person  entitled  to  the  beneficial 
enjoyment  The  Act  of  1  Ric.  II.  c.  9  was  directed  against  the 
choice  of  such  persons.  This  alienation  of  land  in  Use  was  looked 
upon  with  great  disfavour  by  the  common  law  courts,  in  whose 
eyes  the  cestui  que  use  was  only  a  tenant  at  will.     Possibly  the 

f  round  of  their  refusal  to  recogniie  uses  was  that  the  assizes  of  the 
ing's  court  could  only  be  granted  to  persons  who  stood  m  a  feudal 
relation  to  the  king.  The  denial  of  the  right  followed  the  denial 
of  the  remedy.  The  use  was  on  the  other  hand  supported  by  the 
Court  of  Chancery,  and  execution  of  the  confidence  reposed  in  the 
feoffee  to  uses  >vas  enforced  by  the  court  in  virtue  of  the  general 
jurisdiction  which  as  a  court  of  conscience  it  claimed  to  exercise 
over  breach  of  faith.  Jurisdiction  was  no  doubt  the  more  readily 
assumed  by  ecclesiastical  judges  in  favour  of  a  system  by  which  the 
church  was  generally  the  gainer.  A-double  ownership  of  land  thus 
gradually  arose,  the  nominal  and  ostensible  ownership,— the  only 
one  acknowledged  in  the  courts  of  common  law. — and  the  beneficial 
ownership  protected  by  the  Court  of  Chancery.  The  reign  of 
Henry  V-  to  a  great  extent  corresponds  with  that  of  Augustus  at 
Rome,  as  the  point  of  time  at  which  legal  recognition  was  given  to 
■what  had  previously  been  binding  only  in  honour.  The  means  of. 
britiging  the  feoffee  to  uses  before  the  court  was  the  writ  of  suhpcenn, 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  John  de  Waltham,  bishop  of  Salis- 
bury and  master  of  the  rolls  m  the  reign  of  liichard  11.  By  means 
of  this  writ  the  feolTce  to  uses  could  be  compelled  to  answer  on  oath 
the  claim  of  hrs  cestui  que  use.  The  doctrine  of  the  Court  of 
Chancery  as  to  the  execution  of  a  use  varied  according  as  there 
w'as  transmutation  of  possession  or  not.  In  the  former  case  it  was 
unnecessary  to  prove  consideration  ;  in  the  latter,  generally  a  case 
of  bargain  and  sale,  the  court  would  not  enforce  the  use  unless  it 
was  executed  in  law, — that  is,  unless  there  was  a  valuable  considera- 
tion, even  of  the  smallest  amount.  Where  no  consideration  could 
be  proved  or  implied,  the  use  resulted  to  the  feoffor  This  theory 
led  to  the  insertion  up  to  a  recent  date  in  deeds  (especially  in  the 
le^e  of  the  lease  and  release  period  of  conveyancing)  of  a  nominal 
consideration,  generally  five  shillings.  Lands  either  in  possession, 
reversion,  or  remainder  could  be  granted  in  use.  Most  persons 
could  be  feoffees  to  uses.     The  king  and  corporations  aggregate 

'  Use  seems  to  be  an  older  word  tlian  trust.      Its  first  occurreuce  in 
statute  law  is  in  7  Ric.  II.  c.  12,  in  the  form  asps.     lu  Liitleton  **  con- 
fidence "  is  the  word  employed.    The  Statute  of  Uses  seems  to  regard 
use,  trust,  and  confidence  as  synonymous.      Acconljng  to  Bacon,  it  was* 
its  permanency  that  distinguished  the  use  from  the  tnist 

'  Feoffment,  though  the  usual,  was  not  the  only  mode  of  conveyance 
to  uses.     The  preamble  of  the  Statute  of  Uses  mentions  fines  and  re-  , 
coveries,  and  other  assnmnces. 


were,  however,  exceptions,  and  were  entitled  to  hold  the  land.i  dis- 
charged of  the  use.  On  the  accession  of  Richard  III.,  whit  fron> 
his  position  of  authority  had  been  a  favourite  feoffee,  it  was  o^t-essary 
to  pass  a  special  Act  (1  Ric.  III.  c.  5).  vesting  the  lands  of  which 
he  had  been  feoffet  either  in  his  co-feoffees  or.  m  th?  ahsence  of  co- 
feoffees,  in  the  cestui  que  use.  The  practiral  convenience  of  uses 
was  so  obvious  that  it  is  said  that  by  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  most 
of  the  land  iu  the  kingdom  was  held  in  use.  The  freedom  of  uses 
from  liability  to  forfeiture  for  treason  must  havp  led  to  their 
general  adoption  dunng  the  Wars  of  the  Rosea  *  The  secrecy  with 
which  a  use  could  be  tiansferred.  contrary  as  it  was  to  the  publicity 
required  for  livery  of  Seisin  {q.v.)  at  common  law.  led  to  the  inter- 
ference of  the  legislature  on  several  occasions  between  the  reigns  of 
Richard  II  and  Henry  VIII.,  the  general  tendencv  of  the  legislation 
being  to  make  thocestui  queusemoreand  more  subject  to  the  burdena 
incident  to  the  ownership  of  land.  One  of  vhe  most  important 
statutes  was  the  Statute  of  Mortmain  (15  Ric.  11-  c  5),  forbidding 
evasion  of  the  Statute  Dc  Rehgiosis  of  Edward  I  by  means  of  ieott- 
ments  to  uses.  Other  Acts  enabled  the  cestui  que  use  to  transfer  the 
use  without  the  concurrence  ofthe  feoffee  to  uses  (I  Ric.  III.  o.  1), 
made  a  writ  of formcdon  maintainable  against  him  (1  Hen.  VII.  c. 
1),  rendered  his  heir  liable  to  wardship  and  relief  (4  Hen.  VII.  c. 
17),  and  his  lands  liable  to  execution  (19  Hen.  VII  c.  15).  At 
length  in  1535  the  famous  Statute  of  Uses  (27  Hen.  VJII  c.  10)  waa 
passed.*  The  preamble  of  the  statute  enumerates  the  mischiefs  which 
it  was  cousidered  that  the  universal  prevalence  of  uses  had  occa- 
sioned, among  others  that  by  fraudulent  feoffments,  fines,  recoveries, 
and  other  like  assurances  to  uses,  confidences,  aud  trusts  lords  lost 
their  feidal  aids,  men  their  tenancies  by  the  curtesy,  women  then- 
dower,  manifest  perjuries  in  tnals  were  committed,  the  king  lost  the 
profits  ofthe  lands  of  persons  attainted  or  enfeolfed  to  the  use  of  aliens, 
and  the  king  and  lords  their  rights  of  year,  day.  and  waste,  and  of 
escheats  of  felons'  lands.  To  remedy  this  state  of  things  it  was 
enacted,  inter  alia,  that,  where  any  person  was  seised  of  any  here- 
ditaments to  the  use,  confidence,  or  trust  of  any  other  person  by 
any  means,  the  person  having  such  use,  confidence,  or  trust  should 
be  seised,  deemed,  and  adjudged  in  lawful  seisin,  estate,  and 
possession  of  such  hereditaments  Full  legal  remedies  were  given 
to  the  cestui  que  use  by  the  statute,  He  was  enabled  lo  distrain 
for  a  rent  charge,  to  have  action,  entry,  condition,  kc.  The  effect 
of  this  enactment  was  to  make  the  cestui  que  use  the.  owner  at  law 
as  well  as  in  equity  (as  had  been  done  once  before  under  the  ex- 
ceptional circumstances  which  led  to  1  Ric.  III.  c.  5),  provided 
that  the  use  was  one  which  before  the  statute  would  have  been  en- 
forced by  the  Court  of  Chancery.  For  some  time  after  the  passing 
of  the  statute  an  equitable  as  distinct  from  a  legal  estate  did  not 
exist.  But  the  somewhat  narrow  construction  of  the  statute  by 
the  common  law  courts  in  Tyrrel's  case*  (1557)  enabled  estates 
cognizable  only  in  equity  to  be  again  created.  In  that  casi^  ii  wa.<i 
held  that  a  use  upon  a  use  could  not  be  executed  :  therefore  id  a 
feoffment  to  A  and  his  heirs  to  the  use  of  B  and  his  heirs  to  the 
use  of  C  and  his  heirs  only  the  first  use  was  executed  by  the 
statute.  The  use  of  B  being  executed  iu  him,  that  of  C  was  not 
acknowledged  by  the  common  law  judges  ;  but  equity  regarded  C 
as  beneficially  entitled,  and  his  interest  as  an  equitable  estate  held 
for  him  in  trust,  corresponding  to  that  which  B  would  liave  had 
before  the  statute.  The  position  taken  by  the  Court  of  Chancery 
in  trusts  may  be  compared  with  that  taken  in  Mortoage  (q.v.). 
The  Judicature  Act,  1S73,  while  not  going  as  far  as  the  Sraiute  of 
Uses- and  combining  the  legal  and  eqintahle  estates,  makes  equit- 
able rights  cognizable  in  all  courts  From  the  decision  in  Tyrrel's 
case  dates  the  whole  modern  law  of  uses  and  trusts.  In  modern 
legal  language  use  is  restricted  to  the  crc.ition  of  legal  e.itate  under 
the  Statute  of  Uses,  tnrst  is  confined  to  the  equitable  estate  of  the 
cestui  que  trust  or  beneficiary. 

Uses  since  1335. — The  Statute  of  Uses  is  still  the  basis  of  con- 
veyancing. A  grant  in  a  deed  is  still,  after  the  alterations  iri  tha 
law  made  by  the  Conveyancing  Act.  1681,  made  "to  and  to  the 
use  of  A."  The  statute  does  Dot,'however.  apply  indi'S'^nminately 
to  all  cases,  as  only  certain  uses  are  executed  by  it.  It  does  not 
a]>ply  to  leaseholds  or  copyholds,  or  to  case"?  where  the  grautt-e  to 
uses  is  any  liinp  more  than  a  mere  passive  instrument,  a  q.,  where 
there  is  any  direction  to  him  to  sell  the  property.  Tlie  seisin, 
too,  to  bo  executed  by  the  statute,  must  be  m  another  than  him 
wlio  has  the  use,  for  where  A  is  seised  to  the  use  of  A  it  is  a 
common  law  grant.  The  difference  is  important  as  f^r  as  regards 
the  doctrine  of  Possession  (q.v.).  Constructive  possession  is  given 
by  a  deed  operating  under  the  statute  even  before  entry,  but  nut 
by  a  common  law  grant  (at  any  rate  sufficient  to  entitle  the  grantL-o 
to  be  registered  aa  a  voter),  until  actual  receipt  of  rent  by  tlio 


^  The  use,  as  in  later  times  the  trust,  was.  hnwevei.  forfeited  to  the 
crown  on  attainder  of  the  feoffee  or  trustee  for  treason. 

*  It  was  adopted  in  Ireland  exactly  a  ceniury  later  by  in  C.ir.  I. 
c  1  (Ir.).  The  law  of  uses  aud  trusts  in  Ireland  is  practically  the  same 
as  that  in  England,  the  main  tliffereiices  being  in  procoriure  rather  than 
in  substantive  law.  *  Dyei'^  Reports,  155a. 


TRUST 


597 


rrastee.  The  operation  of  the  Statute  of  Uses  was  supplemented 
ty  the  Statute  cf  Inrolmenti  and  that  of  Wills.  (See  Will.  )  The 
atatuts  of  Inrolments  (27  Hen.  VIII.  c  16)  enacted  that  no 
bargain  and  sale  should  pass  a  freehold  unless  by  deed  indented 
and  inrolled  within  six  months  after  its  date  in  one  of  the  courts 
at  Westminster  or  with  the  custas  rotuJorum  of  the  county.  As 
the  statute  referred  only  to  freeholds,  a  bargain  and  sale  of  a  lease- 
hold interest  passed  without  tnrolment.  Conveyancers  took  advan- 
tage of  this  omission  (whether  intentional  or  not)  in  the  Act,  and 
the  practical  effect  of  it  was  to  introduce  a  mode  of  secret  aliena- 
tion of  real  property,  the  lease  and  release,  which  was  the  general 
form  of  conveyance  up  to  1S45.  (See  Real  Estate,  Sale.)  Thus 
the  publicity'of  transfer,  which  it  was  the  special  object  of  the 
Statute  of  Uses  to  effect,  was  almost  at  once  defeated.  In  addition 
to  the  grant  to  uses  there  were  other  modes  of  conveyance  under 
the  statute  which  are  now  obsolete  in  practice,  viz.,  the  covenant 
to  stand  seised  and  the  bargain  and  sale.  Under  the  statute,  as 
before  it,  the  use  has  been  found  a  valuable  means  of  limiting  a 
remainder  to  the  person  creating  the  -Ase  and  of  making  an  estate 
take  effect  in  derogation  of  a  former  estate  by  means  of  a  shifting 
or  springing  use.  At  common  law  a  freehold  could  not  be  made 
to  commence  in  futuro  ;  but  this  end  may  be  attained  by  a  shifting 
use,  such  as  a  grant  (common  in  marriage  settlements)  to  A  to  the 
use  of  B  in  fee  simple  until  a  marriage,  and  after  the  celebration  of 
the  marriage  to  other  uses.  An  example  of  a  springing  use  would 
be  a  grant  to  A  to  such  uses  as  B  should  appoint  and  in  default 
of  and  until  appointment  to  C  in  fee  simple.  The  difficulty  of 
deciding  where  the  seisin  was  during  the  suspension  of  the  use  led 
to  the  invention  of  the  old  theory  of  sdntUia  juris^  or  continued 
possibility  of  seisin  in  the  grantee  to  uses.  This  theory  was 
abolished  by  23  and  24  Vict,  c  38,  which  enacted  that  all  uses 
should  take  effect  by  focce  of  the  estate  and  seisin  originally  vested 
in  the  person  seised  to  the  uses.  The  most  frequent  instances  of 
a  springing  use  are  powers  of  appointment,  usual  iu  wills  and 
settlements.  There  has  been  much  legislation  on  the  subject  of 
powers,  the  main  effect  of  which  has  been  to  give  greater  facilities 
for  their  execution,  release,  or  abandonment,  to  aid  their  defective 
execution,  and  to  abolish  the  old  doctrine  of  iUosory  appointments. 
Trusts. — A  tmst  in  English  law  is  defined  by  Mr  Lewin,  adopt- 
ing Coke's  definition  of  a  use,  as  "a  confidence  reposed  in  some 
other,  not  issuing  out  of  the  land,  but  as  a  thing  collateral,  annexed 
in  privity  to  the  estate  of  the  land,  and  to  the  person  touching  the 
land.  Tor  which  cestui  que  trust  has  no  remedy  but  by  sui^xxna  in 
Chancery."  The  term  trust  or  trust  estate  is  also  used  to  denote  the 
benencial  interest  of  the  cestui  que  trust.  The  term  truster  is  not 
used,  as  it  is  in  Scotland,  to  denote  the  creator  of  the  trust.  A 
tmst  has  some  features  in  common  with  Contract  {q.v.) ;  bat  the 
great  difference  between  them  is  that  a  contract  can  only  be  enforced 
by  a  party  or  one  in  the  position  of  a  party  to  it,  while  a  trust  can 
be,  and  generally  is,  enforced  by  one  not  a  party  to  its  creation. 
It  has  more  resemblance  to  fideiarmmissum.  But  the  latter  could 
only  be  created  by  a  testamentary  instrument,  while  a  tmst  can 
be  created  either  by  will  or  inUr  vivcs ;  nor  was  there  any  trace  in 
Roman  law  of  that  permanent  legal  relation  which  is  suggested  by 
the  position  of  trustee  and  cestui  que  trust.  The  heir,  too,  in 
Roman  law  was  entitled,  from  70  A.D.  to  the  reign  of  Justinian, 
to  one-fourth  of  a  heredilo-s  Jideicommissaria  as  against  the  bene- 
ficiary, while  the  very  essence  of  the  trust  is  its  gratuitous  charac- 
ter. Tmsts  may  be  divided  in  more  than  one  way,  according  to 
the  ground  taken  as  the  basis  of  division.  One  division,  and  p«r- 
hans  the  oldest,  as  it  rests  on  the  authority  of  Bacon,  is  into  simple 
and  special,  the  first  being  where  the  trust  is  simply  vested  in  a 
trustee  and  the  nature  of  the  trust  left  to  construction  of  law,  the 
second  where  there  is  an  act  to  be  performed  by  the  trustee. 
Another  division  is  into  latcful  and  unlaic/uly  and  corresponds  to 
Bacon's  division  into  intents  or  confidences  and  frauds,  covins,  or 
collusions.  A  third  division  is  into  public  ^nd  private,  the  former 
being  synonymous  with  charitable  tmsts.  A  division  often  adopted 
in  modem  text-books  and  recognized  by  parliament  in  the  Trustee 
Act,  1850,  is  into  express,  implied,  and  cOTistructive.  An  express 
tmst  is  derennined  by  the  person  creating  it.  It  may  be  -either 
executed  or  executory,  the  former  where  the  limitations  of  the  equit- 
able interest  are  complete  and  final,  the  latter  where  such  limita- 
tions are  intended  to  serve  merely  as  minutes  for  perfecting  the 
settlement  at  some  future  period,  as  in  the  case  of  marriage  articles 
drawn  up  as  a  basis  of  a  marriage  settlement  to  be  in  conformity 
■with  them.  An  implied  trust  is  founded  upon  the  intention  of  the 
person  creating  it ;  examples  of  it  are  a  resulting  trust,  a  precatory 
trust,  and  the  trust  held  by  the  vendor  on  behalf  of  the  purchaser 
of  an  estate  after  contract  and  before  conveyance.  In  this  case 
the  vendor  is  sometimes  called  a  trustee  sub  modo  and  the  purchaser 
a  cestui  que  tmst  sub  viodo.  A  constructive  tmst  is  judicially 
created  from  a  consideration  of  a  person's  conduct  in  order  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  justice,  without  reference  to  intention.  The  dis- 
tinction between  an  implied  and  a  constructive  tmst  is  not  always 
very  consistently  maintained.  Thus  the  position  of  a  vendor 
towards  a  purchaser  after  contract  is  sometimes  called  a  constrac- 


tive  tmst.  Thff  present  law  governing  trusts  rests  upon  the  doc- 
trines of  equity  as  altered  by  legislation.  Its  great  importance  has 
led  to  its  becoming  one  of  the  most  highly  developed  departments 
of  equity.  The  devolution  of  successive  interests  in  wills  and 
settlements  is- almost  wholly  attained  by  means  of  trusts. 

iilio  may  be  a  Trustee  or  Cestui  que  Trust — The  modem  tmst  is 
considerably  more  extensive  in  its  operation  than  the  ancient  use. 
Thus  the  crown  and  corporations  aggregate  can  be  trustees,  and 
personalty  can  be  held  in  trust.  Provision  is  made  by  the  Muni- 
cipal Corporations  Act,  1SS2,  for  the  administration  of  charitable 
and  special  tmsts  by  municipal  corporations.  The  crown  does  not 
appear  to  be  a  trustee  to  as  complete  a  degree  as  a  subject  may  be. 
Unsuccessful  attempts  have  recently  been  made  to  impress  tha 
crown,  or  a  secretary  of  state  as  agent  of  the  crown,  with  trusts  of 
funds  voted  by  parliament  for  the  public  service,  of  booty  of  war 
granted  by  royal  warrant,  and  of  money  paid  over  by  a  foreign 
state  in  pursuance  of  a  treaty.  There  are  certain  persons  who  for 
obvious  reasons,  even  if  not  legally  disqualified,  ought  not  to  be 
appointed  trustees.  Such  are  infants,  lunatics,  persons  domiciled 
abroad,  felons,  bankrupts,  and  ccstuis qtu  trusteni  The  appointment 
of  any  such  person,  or  the  falling  of  any  existing  trustee  into  such 
a  position,  is  generally  ground  for  application  to  the  cocSt  for  ap- 
pointment of  a  new  trustee  in  his  place.  Any  one  may  be  a  cesttd 
que  trust  except  a  corporation  aggregate,  which  cannot  be  a  cestui 
que  trust  of  r^  estate  without  a  licence  from  the  crown. 

Creation  and  Extinction  of  the  Trust. — A  trust  may  be  created 
either  by  act  of  a  party  or  by  operation  of  law.  AVhere  a  trust  is 
created  t^  act  of  a  party,  the  creation  at  common  law  need  not  be 
in  writing.  The  Statute  of  Frauds  (see  Fraud)  altered  the  common 
law  by  enacting  that  all  declarations  or  creations  of  trusts  or  con- 
fidences of  any  lands,  tenements,  or  hereditaments  shall  be  mani- 
fested and  proved  by  some  writing,  signed  by  the  party  who  is  by 
law  enabled  to  declare  such  trust,  or  by  his  last  will  in  writing,  or 
else  they  shall  be  utterly  void  and  of  none  effect.  Tmsts  arising 
or  resulting  by  implication  or  construction  of  law  are  excepted,  ana 
it  has  been  held  that  the  statute  applies  only  to  real  estate  and 
chattels  real,  so  that  a  trust  of  personal  chattels  may  still  be  declared 
by  parol.  The  declaration  of  a  trust  by  the  crown  must  be  by 
letters  patent.  Tmsts  created  by  will  must  conform  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  Wills  Act  (see  Will).  Except  in  the  case  of  charitable 
trusts,  the  cestui  que  tmst  must  be  a  definite  person.  A  trust,  for 
instance,  merely  for  keeping  up  family  tombs  is  void.  Alteration 
of  the  tmst  estate  by  appointment  of  a  new  tmstee  could  up  to 
I860  only  be  made  where  the  instrument  creating  the  trust  gave  a 
power  to  so  appoint,  or  by  order  of  the  Court  of  Chancery.  But 
now  by  the  Conveyancing  Act,  18S1  (superseding  Lord  St  Leonards'a 
Act  of  1860),  the  surviving  or  continuing  tmstee  or  trustees,  or  the 
personal  representative  of  the  last  surviving  or  continuing  trustee, 
may  nominate  in  writing  a  new  tmstee  or  new  tmstees.  On  such 
appointment  the  number  of  trustees  may  be  increased.  Existing 
trustees  may  by  deed  consent  to  the  discharge  of  a  trustee  wishing 
to  retire.  Trust  property  may  be  vested  in  new  or  continuing 
trustees  by  a  simple  declaration  to  that  effect.  By  the  (>3nveyancing 
Act,  1882,  a  separate  set  of  tmstees  may  be  appointed  for  any  p»Ji- 
of  the  property  held  on  distinct  trusts.  Trusts  created  by  opetA- 
tion  of  law  are  either  those  which  are  the  effect  of  the  application 
of  rules  of  equity  or  those  which  have  been  constituted  by  a  judicial 
authority.  They  include  resulting  and  constructive  trusts.  A 
resulting  tmst  is  a  species  of  implied  tmst,  and  consists  of  so  much 
of  the  equitable  interest  as  is  undisposed  of  by  the  instrument 
creatng  the  trust,  which  is  said  to  result  to  the  creator  and  his 
representatives.  An  example  is  the  purchase  of  an  estate  in  the 
name  of  the  purchaser  and  jDthers,  or  of  others  only.  Here  thi» 
beneficial  interest  is  the  purchaser's.  An  example  of  a  constractiTe 
trust  is  a  renewal  of  a  lease  by  a  tmstee  in  his  own  name,  whepe 
the  trustee  is  held  to  be  constructively  a  trustee  for  those  interested 
in  the  beneficial  term.  An  instance  of  a  cpnstructive  trust  upon 
which  the  courts  have  often  been  called  upon  to  decide  is  thft 
fiduciary  relarion  between  the  promoter  of  a  proposed  joint-stod; 
company  and  the  members  of  the  company  when  formed.  The 
other  trusts  falling  under  the  head  of  trusts  by  operation  of  la-* 
would  be  those  imposed  upon  a'  tmstee  by  order  of  a  court,  even 
though  they  are  imposed  in  pursuance  of  provisions  contained  in 
a  trust  created  by  a  party.  Such  would  be  the  tmsts  which  havs 
come  within  the  cognizance  of  the  court  by  virtue  of  the  TTwstee 
Act,  1850,  or  in  any  other  way.  The  powers  of  the  comi  over 
tmsts  have  been  much  extended  by  legislation.  The  Act  of  1850 
(13  and  14  Vict  c.  60)  enabled  the  Court  of  Chancery  to  appoint 
new  tmstees  where  expedient,  and  to  make  vesting  orders  in  many 
cases  where  such  orders  could  not  previously  have  been  made,  aa 
where  a  trustee  was  a  luuaric,  or  an  infant,  or  refused  to  convey. 
This  Act  was  extended  by  the  Tmstee  Extension  Act,  1852  (T5  and 
16  Vict  a  55).  By  the  Conveyancing  Act,  18S1,  a  trustee  ap- 
pointed by  the  Chancery  Division  is  to  have  the  same  powers  as 
if  he  had  been  originally  appointed  a  tmstee  by  the  instrument 
creating  the  trust  The  Bankmptcy  Act,  1SS3,  enables  the  court 
tA  appoint  a  new  trustee  in  the  place  of  a  bankrupt  trustee.     B^ 


598 


TRUST 


ddes  Twintf  duly  created,  it  is  necessity  for  ttc  valiUity  of  the  trust 
Sat  it  should  be  a  lawful  one.     An  unlawtul  trust  i|  OTie  which 
contravenes  the  poUcy  of  the  law  in  any  respect.    Examples  of 
euch  trusts  are  trusts  for  a  corporation  without  bcence,  for  a  per- 
cetuit*-,  and  for  purposes  subversiye  of  morality,  such  as  trusts  lor 
[lle-^timate  children  to  be  hereafter  born.     Superstitious  uses  (see 
EoSas  Catholic  Church,  voL  xx.  v-  632)  also  (all  under  this 
head.     There  are  also  certain  trusts  which  are  avoided  by  statute 
under  particular  circumstances,  such  as  settlements  in  fraud  ot 
credito^  (see  B.4.»reEtn>TCT,  Settlemest).     The  law  cannot  be 
evaded  by  attempting  to  constitute  a  secret  ftust  for  an  unlawful 
purpose.     If  an  «t:ite  be  devised  by  words  P^rmfa^  carrying 
the  beneficial  interest,  with  an  understanding  that  the  devisee  will 
hold  the  estate  in  trust  for  such  a  purpose,  he  may  be  compelled 
to  ansWer  as  to  the  secret  trust,  and  on  acknowledgment  or  proof 
of  it  there  will  be  a  resulting  trust  to  the  heir-at-law     In  the  c^ 
of  an  advowson  suspected  to  be  held  for  the  benefit  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  patron,  there  is  a  special  enachnent  to  the  same  effect 
(see  QUARE  Impedit).     The  rules  of  equity  m  chantable  trasts 
(which  include  all  those  mentioned  in  the  preamble  to  «  tliz-  c. 
4)'  are  less  strict  than  those  adopted  in  private  trusts-     Charitable 
trusts  must  be  lawful,  e.g.,  they  must  not  contravene  the  Statutes 
of  Mortmain;  but  a  wider  latitude  of  construction  i^  allowed  m 
order  to  carry  out  the  intentions  of  the  founder,  and  they  will  not 
be  allowed  to  fail  for  want  or  uncertainty  of  objects  to  be  benefited 
The  court,  applying  the  doctrine  oi  cy  pris,  will,  on  failure  of  the 
original  ground  l!  the  charity,  apply  the  funds  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  the  same  manner.    On  this  principle  gifts  originally  made  for 
purely  charitable  purposes  have  been  extended  to  educational  pur. 
^ses.     Further,  tVustees  of  a  charity  may  act  by  a  majontj,  but 
Srdinarv  trustees  cannot  by  the  act  of  a  majonty  (an'ess  specially 
empowered  so  to  do>ind  a  dissenHng  minority  or  the  trust  pro- 
perty.    A  trust  estate  is  subject  as  far  as  possible  to  the  rules  of 
faw  applicable  to  a  legal  estate  of  a  corresponding  nature   in  pur- 
suance of  the  maxim.  ' '  Equity  foUows  the  law."     Thus  trust  pro- 
perty is  assets  for  payment  of  debts,  may  be  toten  in  execution 
passes  to  creditor  in  bankruptcy,  and  is  subject  to  dower  and 
rartejiy,  to  the  rules  against  perpetuities,  and  to  t^e  Statutes  of 
Limitation.     This  assimilation  of  the  legal  and  equitable  estates 
has  been  produced  partly  by  judicial  decisions,  partly  by  legisla- 
tion.    A  trust  is  extinguished,  as  it  is  created,  either  by  act  of  a 
party  or  by  operation  of  law.     An  example  of  the  former  mode  of 
extinction  is  a  release  by  deed,  the  general  means  of  discharge  of  a 
trustee  when  the  purposes  of  the  trust  have  been  accomplished. 
Exrinction  by  operation  of  law  Ukes  place  when  there  is  a  failure 
of  the  objects  of  the  trust :  e.g.,  if  the  cestui  que  trust  die  intestete 
without  heirs  or  next  of  kin,  the  trustee  retains  the  property  dis- 
charged of  the  trust  if  it  he  real  estate,  if  it  be  personalty  it  falls 
to  the  c^o^vn.     Equitable  interests  in  real  esUte  abroad  are  as  a 
rule  subiect  to  the  la  loci  rei  sits,  and  an  English  court  has  no 
jurisdiction  to  enforce  a  trust  or  settle  a  scheme  for  the  administra- 
tion of  a  charity  in  a  foreign  countr>-.     An  English  court  has, 
however,  jurisdiction  to  administer  the  trusts  of  a  will  as  to  the 
whole  real  and  personal  estate  of  a  testator,  even  though  only  a  very 
small  part  of  the  estate,  and  that  wholly  personal,  is  in  England. 
This  was  decided  by  the  House  of  Lords  in  a  well-known  case  in 
1883.' 

Rights  and  Duties  of  the  Trustee.— The  principal  general  properties 
of  the  office  of  trustee,  as  given  by  Mr  Lewin    are  these  :— (1)  A 
trustee  having  once  accepted  the  trust  cannot  afterwards  renounce. 
(2)  He  cannot  delegate  it.     (3)  In  the  case  of  co-trustees  the  olhcff 
must  be  exercised  by  all  the  trustees  jointly.     (4)  On  the  death  of 
one  trustee  there  is  survivorship  :  that  is,  the  trust  will  pass  to  the 
survivors  or  survivor.     (5)  One  trustee  shall  not  be  liable  for  the 
acts  of  his  CO -trustee.     (6)   A  trustee  shall  denve  no  personal 
benefit  from  the  trusteeship.     The  office  cannot  be  renounced  or 
dele<^ted,  because  it  is  one  of  personal  confidence.     It  can,  however, 
be  resigned,  and  recent  legislation,  as  has  been  already  stated,  has 
given  a  retiring  trustee  large  powers  of  appointing  a  successor.     In 
the  case  of  the  death  of  a  single  or  last  surviving  trustee  of  real  estate, 
the  trust  estate  by  the  Conveyancing  Act,  1881,  now  devolves  upon 
his  personal  representative  instead  of  upon  his  heir  or  devisee.    The 
liability  of  one  trustee  for  the  acta  or  defaults  of  another  often  raises 
very  difficult  questions.     A  difference  is  made  between  trustees 
and  executors.     An  executor  is  liable  for  joining  in  a  receipt  pro 
forma,  as  it'is  not  necessary  for  him  to  do  so,  one  executor  having 
authority  to  act  without  his  co-executor  ;  a  trustee  can  show  that 
he   only  joined   for   conformity,  and  that  another  received   the 
money.     A  trustee's  receipt  in  writing  is,  under  the  Conveyancing 
Act,  1881  (superseding  Lord  St  Leonards's  Act  of  1860),  a  sufficient 
discharge,  and  exonerates  the  person  paying  from  seeing  that  the 
money  paid  is  duly  applied  according  to  the  trast.     If  one  trustee 
be  cognizant  of  a  breach  of  trust  committed  by  another,  aud  conceal 
it  or  do  not  take  active  measures  to  protect  the  cestui  que  tnists 
interests,  he  will  be  liable  for  the  breach  of  trust     An  indemnity 
'  See  Cn*niTiES.  where  the  preamble  of  the  statute  is  set  out  m  fuU. 
*  GwiDg  V.  Orr-Ewice.  Law  Reports,  9  Appeal  Cases,  34. 


clause  is  now  implied  by  statute  in  every  trust  deed,  bnt  this  does 
not  protect  a  tnlstee  against  liabUity  which  would  attach  at  law 
A  tnistee,  if  he  commit  a  breach  of  trust  at  the  request  of  his  cestui 
que  trust,  may  secure  himself  by  an  indemnity,  provided  that  the 
Si  que  tmst  has  been  fully  informed  of  the  facte  of  the  case  and 
Tnot  Snder  any  disability  to  consent,  such  as  infancy      The  rule 
That  a  trustee  is'  not  to  benefit  by  his  office  is  subject  to  some  ex- 
ceptions.    He  may  do  so  if  the  instrument  creating  him  trustee 
TpSy  allows  him  remuneration,  as  is  usual  y  the  case  «here  a 
solicitor  is  appointed.     ^Vhere  the  trust  entirely  fails,  as  has  been 
sdld  above,  the  trustee  is  indirectly  remunerated  by  his  nght  to 
Stain  the  trust  estete.    The  main  duties  of  trustees  ^e  to  place 
the  trust  property  in  a  proper  state  of  secunty  to  k«p  it  (if  per- 
sonalty) in  saS  custody,  and  to  properly  invest  and  distribute  it. 
A  trurt  e  must  be  careful  not  to  place  himself  m  a  position  where 
his  interest  might  clash  with  his  duty.     As  a  rule  he  cannot  safely 
purchase  from  his  cestui  que  trust  while  the  fiduciary  relation  exists 
between  them      In  aU  purchases  with  trust  money  he  is  bound  to 
obt^n  the  b?st  price,  unless  where  an  Act  of  Parliament,  like  the 
HouJin-  of  theVoTking  Classes  Act,  1885,  specaUy  authorizes 
sale  at°an  undervalue.  ^Investments  by  trustees  demand  special 
notice     The  general  rule  is  that  a  trustee  must  take  as  much  care 
of  the  trust  property  as  of  his  own.     He  is,  therefore  justified  in 
?ollowin^  the- usual  course  of  business  adopted  by  prudent  men  m 
mSg  investments,  e.g.,  by  employing  a  stock-broker  _.n  the 
OTdinafy  way.    At  the  sime  time  he  has  not  an  uncontrolled  power 
rf  inv^tment,  for  (unless  authorized  by  the  ^""riw  oHnvesf 
the  trust)  he  cannot  lend  trust  money  on  personal  secunty  or  invest 
n  shares  of  a  private  company.     A  trustee  of  sharss  may  be  liable 
Ls  a  beneficia*!   owner,    even   though    his  name  ,aP.P?^;-?   "^   ^» 
re.'istcr  of  the  company  is  a  trustee.     By  recent  legislation  trust- 
eel  where  not  exprVssly  forbidden  by  the  instrument  creating  the 
tmst  have  either  an  absolute  or  qualified  right  to  invest  in  certain 
securities.     They  have  an  absolute  right  to  invest  in  real.securit,« 
n  the  United  Kingdom  (but  not  on  a  second  mortgage)  in  charges 
or  mortgages  under  the  Improvement  of  Land  Act,  1864,  in  con- 
sols excli^uer  bills,  or  any  security  the  interest  whereon  is  guar- 
anteed  by  pariiament,  in  Bank  of  England,  Bank  of  Ireland,  East 
India;  a^  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  steck.    .They  have  a 
qua  Med  power  of  investment  (that  Ss,   an  extension  of  po  were 
abeady  gi^en  in  the  instrument)  in  debentiires  or  debenture  stock 
of  railwfy  and  other  companies,  and  of  corporations  and  local 
authorities  under  the  Local  Loans  Act,  1875,  m  mortgage  deben- 
?ues  under  the  Mortgage  Debenture  Acts  of  1865  and  1870  and  in 
securities  of  the  Isle  of  Man  Government.      Trustees  under  the 
Retried  Land  Act,  1S82,  have  somewhat  larger  powers  as  to  railn ay- 
stock     In  many  cases  there  are  restrictions  on  investment  in  stock 
cScates  payable  to  bearer,  although  in  authorized  securities 
Tpower  of  varying  investments  is  generaUy  implied,  though  not 
fxSy  given  by  stetiite,  as  in  Scotland.    The  duties  of  trustees 
in'^^he  distribution  of  trust  funds  have  been  ,i"a<ie  less  onerous  by 
the  Trustee  Relief  Acts  of  1847  and  1 849,  which  enabled  trustees  or  a 
maioriu  of  them  to  pay  into  the  Bank  of  England  to  the  account 
rfth"  particular  trust  any  moneys  belonging  to  the  trus  ,  thus 
bringing  the  property  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  from 
^^^■^  can  Llf  be  obtained  on  petition      Similar  powers  were 
conferred  upon  trustees  of  chanties  by  18  and  19^ 'Ct-  c   124. 
By  rno^  rec^ent  Acte  (22  and  23  Vict.  c.  35,  23  and  24  \  ic  .  c.  38) 
application  for  advice  may  be  made  by  a  t™stee  to  a  udge  of  the 
Chancery  Division  on  a  petition  or  summons      The  liability  ol  a 
tmstee  to  his  cestiii  que  tnist  on  any  claim  for  property  held  on 
a^exprc^  trust  or  inlespect  of  breach  of  such  trust  is  not  barred 
bv  any  statute  of  limitations,  36  and  37  Vict,  c    66,  s.  26  (2)^ 
The  powers  of  trustees  have  lately  been  considerably  extended  by 
the  Conveyancing  Act,  1881,  and  the  Settied  Land  Act,  1882,  m 
other  mluei^l^ides  those  that  have  been  already  noticed.     One 
of  the  most  important  of  the  new  powers  -tbato    compounding 
romnromisin"    or  abandoning  claims  relating  to  the  trust,      ror 
?hnrS"tee1iTbankniptcy,  see  Bankruptct.     The  trustee  to  pre- 
erve^on  in  "ent  remainders,  at  one  time  common  in  conveyancing 
hi  ceased  tS  be  necessary  (see  R™a,sder..Term)^   A  bare  trustee 
is  one  to  whose  office  no  duties  were  originally  atUched,  or  who 
thou4surh  duties  were  attached,  would  on  the  requisition  of  the 
festulque  trust  be  compellable  to  convey  the  -tate  to  hmi  or  by 
his  direction.     The  tenn  is  used  ,n  some  Ac^  of  Pariiament,  lor 
inotiiTirp  the  Vendor  and  Purchaser  Act,  10(4. 

has  a  general  right  to  the  due  "^"^g^T "'  "^  *^' '"Ho^ca^^  i 
to  nroMr  accounts,  and  to  enjoyment  of  the  prohts  Ho  can  as  a 
rule  oX  IcrwUh  the  concurrence  of  the  trustee,  unless  he  seeks  a 
rule  only  aci  y-"^  ,_„tpe  himself  Thus  the  trustee  must  be  a 
nlrt^  loTLion  bo^gh'in  ^s^lct  of  the  tmst  estete,  and  must 
P-i^>.._'°;.!!r„y  "petition  in'l^ankniptey  on  account  of  a  debt 
■  3  The  ph-^se  -l-are  tmsf  occur,  a,  long  .go  «  16S6,  Ne>-U  v.  Sauader,. 
1  Veman's  Rep.,  415. 


T  R  U  S  T 


59? 


due  to  the  esute,  bat  the  cestui  que  trust  on  giving  indemnity 
can  reqciiB  the  trustee  to  lend  his  name  as  a  party.  He  may  also 
require  the  tnistee  to  execute  conveyances  of  the  legal  estate 
According  to  his  directions.  Trust  property,  if  parted  with  by  the 
trustee  in  fraud  of  the  trcst  may  be  followed  by  the  cestui  que  trust, 
even  into  the  hands  of  a  purchaser  for  value  with  notice  of  the 
trust.  The  cestui  que  trust  may  lose  his  rights  by  fraud,  by  laches, 
and  by  concurrence  or  acquiescence  in  a  breach  of  trust.  Though 
no  lapse  of  time  bars  his  remedy  against  the  trustee  personally, 
he  cajicot,  by  the  terms  of  the  Real  Property  Limitation  Act, 
1874.  recover  land  or  rent  vested  in  a  trustee  upon  an  express  trust 
after  twelve  years  from  the  time  when  the  right  accrued  or  sis 
years  after  the  cesser  of  any  disability.  The  equitable  right  of  the 
cestui  que  trust  has  sometimes  been  recognized  by  statute  in  cases 
where  it  would  be  manifestly  unjust  that  he  should  suffer  dis- 
ability by  virtue  of  his  having  merely  an  equitable  interest.  The 
cestui  qo^trust  has  the  right  of  voting  for  members  of  parliament, 
and  is  qualified  to  serve  as  a  juror.  On  bantruptcy  of  tho  trustee 
the  trust  estate  is  not  affected.  Nor  was  it  affected  even  before 
the  Felony  Act,  1870,  by  the  conviction  and  attainder  of  the 
trustee  for  felony.  Attainder  of  the  trustee  for  treason  involved, 
however,  forfeiture  of  a  trust  estate  of  inheritance.  (See  Trea- 
son.) The  recognition  of  the  cestui  que  trust  as  owner  is  still 
not  complete.  Thus  no  notice  of  a  trust  is  recognized  in  certain 
public  documents,  as  the  books  of  the  Bank  of  England  and  the 
registers  kept  under  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  1854,  the  Com- 
panies Act,  1862,  the  Land  Transfer  Act,  1875,  and  the  Colonial 
Stock  Act,  1877. 

Procedure. — This  is  regulated  almost  entirely  by  legislation. 
Proceedings  relating  to  a  trust  may  be  brought  in  different  courts 
of  first  instance, — (1)  the  Chancery  Division  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  or  the  Chancery  Court  of  the  County  Palatine  of  Lancaster, 
(21  a  court  of  bankruptcy,  (3)  a  county  court,  (4)  a  criminal 
court.  (1)  By  the  Judicature  Act,  1873,  §  34,  the  execution  of 
trusts,  charitable  or  private,  is  assigned  to  the  Chancery  Division. 
The  rules  of  the  Supreme  Ourt,  1883,  provide  for  special  indorse- 
ment in  an  action  on  a  trust,  for  the  parties  to  the  action,  for 
interrogatories  and  pleading,  and  for  proceeding  by  originating 
summons.  (See  Summons.)  Forms  of  pleading  are  given  in  the 
appendix  to  the  rules.  An  injunction  rather  than  an  action  may 
sometimes  be  the  proper  remedy,  as  in  the  case  of  threatened  breach 
of  trust.  The  Trustee  Relief  Acts,  the  Trustee  Act,  and  Lord  St 
Leonards's  Act  of  1839  provide  for  proceeding  by  petitfon  or  sum- 
mons. Applications  under  the  Conveyancing  Act  must  be  in 
chambers  in  the  first  instance,  and  so  must  applications  under  the 
Trustee  Relief  Acts  where  the  money  or  securitios  in  coitrt  do  not 
exceed  £1000  or  £1000  nominal  value.  The  procedure  in  charit- 
able trusts  differs  to  some  extent  from  that  in  use  in  private  trusts. 
The  most  usual  course  of  proceeding  is  by  information  in  the  name 
of  the  attorney-generaL  Another  mode  is  by  petition  under  Sir 
6amuel  Eomilly's  Act,  52  Geo.  III.  c.  101,  superseding  the 
cumbrous  procedure  by  commission  which  had  been  previously  in 
use  tinder  43  Eliz.  c.  4.  A  third  mode  is  under  the  powers  of  the 
Charitable  Trusts  Acts,  the  first  of  which  was  passed  in  1 853.  No 
proceeding  tmder  these  Acts  can  be  taken  without  the  authority  of 
the  charity  commissioners.  (2)  The  equitable  debt  due  from  the 
trustee  to  the  cestui  que  trust  will  support  a  petition  in  bankruptcy, 
and  i^a  debt  provable  in  bankruptcy.  An  order  of  discharge  in 
bankraptcy  does  not  release  the  bankrupt  from  any  debt  or  liability 
incurred  by  means  of  fraudulent  breach  of  trust,  nor  does  it  release 
a  co-trustee  of  the  bankrupt.  (3)  The  County  Courts  Equitable 
Jurisdiction  Act,  1865,  confers  on  county  courts  the  authority  of 
the  High  Court  in  the  execution  of  trusts  and  proceedings  under 
the  Trustee  Acts  where  the  trust  estate  does  not  exceed  £500  in 
amount  or  value.  By  the  County  Courts  Act,  1867,  applications 
may  be  made  at  chambers  for  transfer  to  a  county  court  of  an 
action  pending  in  the  High  Court  where  the  property  does  not 
exceed  £500  in  amount  or  value.  The  same  Act  allows  trust  funds 
not  exceeding  that  limit  to  be  paid  into  the  post  office  savings 
bank  in  a  county  court  town  in  the  name  of  the  registrar.  A 
county  court  has  jurisdiction  in  charitable  trusts  where  the  income 
of  a  charity  does  not  exceed  £50.  The  cotmty  court  rules,  1886, 
contain  orders  regulating  the  practice  with  respect  to  both  private 
an4  c^iaritable  trusts.  Powers  similar  to  those  given  to  county 
court.5  Hn  England  have  been  conferred  upon  the  civil  bill  courts  in 
Ireland.  (4)  At  coAnon  law  trustees  committing  a  fraudulent 
breach  of  trust  could  not  be  punished  criminally.  This  was 
altered  by  the  Fraudulent  Trustees  Act  of  1857,  now  superseded 
by  the  Larceny  Act,  1861,  under  which  a  trustee  on  an  express 
trust,  whether  public  or  private,  created  by  deed,  will,  or  instru- 
ment in  writing,  who  with  intent  to  defraud  converts  to  his  own 
use  or  benefit  or  the  use  or  benefit  of  any  other  person  than  the 
cestui  que  trust,  or  for  any  purpose  other  than  the  public  or  charit- 
able purpose,  or  otherwise  disposes  of  or  destroys  such  property  or 
any  part  thereof,  is  guilty  of  misdemeanour  and  punishable  with 
penal  servitude  for  a  term  not  exceeding  seven  years.  No  prosecu- 
tion is  to  be  commenced  without  the  sanction  of  the  attorney- 


general  or — where  civil  proceedings  have  been  already  taken  against 
the  trustee — without  the  sanction  of  the  civU  court  The  offence 
cannot  be  prosecuted  at  quarter  sessions.* 

Scotland.  —The  history  of  the  law  differs  considerably  from  that, 
of  England,  though  perhaps  the  position  of  the  Scotch  trustee  i» 
now  nut  very  different  from  that  of  the  trustee  in  England.  TLe 
Statute  of  Uses  did  not  apply  to  Scotland,  since  neither  that  nor 
any  similar  legislation  was  necessary  in  a  system  in  which  law  and- 
equity  were  aoministered  by  the  same  tribunals.  Trusts  seem  to. 
have  existed  from  time  immemorial,  and  have  been  frequently- 
regulated  by  statute.  The  policy  of  the  English  Statute  of  Frauds 
was  no  doubt  intentionally  imitated  in  the  Act  1696,  c.  25,  enacting 
that  no  action  of  declarator  of  trust  should  be  sustained  as  to  any 
deed  of  trust  made  for  thereafter,  except  upon  a  declaration  or  back- 
bond of  tnist  lawfully  subscribed  by  the  person  alleged  to  be  trustee 
and  against  whom  or  his  heirs  or  assignees  the  declarator  should 
be  intended,  or  unless  the  same  were  referred  to  the  oath  of  tho: 
party  simpliciUr.  The  Act  does  not  apply  to  all  cases,  but  only  tc 
those  in  which  by  the  act  of  parties  documents  of  title  are  in  the 
name  of  a  trustee,  but  the  beneficial  interest  in  another.  The 
person  creating  the  trust  is  called  the  truster,  a  term  unknown  in. 
England.  On  the  other  hand  the  term  cestui  que  trust  is  unknown 
in  Scotland.  The  ofiice  of  trustee  is  prima  facie  gratuitous,  as  la 
England,  it  being  considered  to  fall  under  the  contract  of  mandate. 
Some  of  the  main  differences  between  English  and  Scotch  law  are 
these.  There  is  no  presumption  in  Scotland  of  a  resulting  trust  in. 
favour  of  a  purchaser.  A  trust  which  lapses  by  the  failure  of  a. 
beneficiary  goes  to  £he  crown  as  ultimus  heres,  not  to  the  trustee. 
The  office  of  trustee  is  not  a  joint  office,  therefore  there  is  no  right 
of  survivorship,  and  on  the  death  of  a  trustee  the  survivors  are  in- 
competent to  act  unless  a  certain  number  be  declared  or  presumed 
to  be  a  quorum,  or  the  office  be  conferred  on  trustees  and  the 
accedors  and  survivors  of  them.  Sometimes  the  concurrence  of  one 
trustee  is  rendered  absolutely  necessary  by  his  being  named  sine 
quo  nan.  The  Court  of  Session  may  appoint  new  trustees,  but 
generally  appoints  a  judicial  factor.  There  has  been  a  considerable 
amount  of  recent  legislation,  chiefly  in  the  direction  of  extending 
the  powers  of  trustees  and  of  the  court,  in  trust  matters.  By  24 
and  25  Vict  c  84  (amended  by  26  and  27  Vict  c.  115)  aa 
appointment  of  grattiitotis  trustees  by  deed  or  local  act  was  to  be- 
held to  include  certain  provisions  usually  included  in  deeds  of 
appointment,  i.e.,  powers  of  resignation  and  of  assumption  of  new- 
trustees,  and  provisions  that  the  majority  of  trustees  accepting  and 
surviving  should  be  a  quorum,  and  that  each  trustee  should  only  be 
liable  for  his  own  acts  and  intromissions  and  should  not  be  liable  for 
omissions.  The  Trusts  Act  1867  (30  and  31  Vict  c.  97),  added 
to  the  common  law  powere  of  trustees  by  giving  them  authority  to 
appoint  factors  and  law  agents,  to  discharge  trustees  who  have 
resigned,  to  grant  leases  for  a  limited  period,  to  uplift,  discharge, 
or  assign  debts,  to  compromise  claims,  to  grant  all  necessary  deeds, 
and  to  pay  debts  due  by  the  truster  or  the  trust  estate.  It  also- 
gave  the  Court  of  Session  power  (exercisable  by  the  lord  ordinary 
in  the  firet  instance)  beyond  what  it  possessed  by  its  nobile  officitnn^ 
in  cases  of  expediency,  of  selling  the  trust  estate,  of  granting  feus 
or  long  leases,  and  of  borrowing  and  excambion.  Power  was  given 
to  trustees  to  appoint  additional  trustees  by  deed  of  assumption^ 
and  where  such  assumption  could  not  be  made  the  court  might 
appoint.  Authority  was  conferred  upon  the  beneficiary  of  a  lapsed 
trust  to  complete  title  on  petition.  The  powers  of  investment 
given  to  trustees  have  since  been  largely  increased  by  the  Trust* 
Amendment  Act,  1334.  They  are  now  much  the  same  as  those 
allowed  in  England.  The  principal  differences  are  that  in  Scotland 
there  is  a  statutory  power  to  vary  securities,  and  that  statutory- 
investment  by  a  Scotch  trustee  is  not  allowed  in  Bank  of  Ireland 
stock  or  on  real  security  in  Ireland.  The  Titles  to  Land  Consolida- 
tion Act  1868  (31  and  32  Vict  c.  101),  contained  provisions  as. 
to  the  mode  of  corapleting  title  by  a  judicial  factor  on  a  trust 
estate  and  by  trustees  in  sequestration  and  as  to  the  vesting  \a 
trustees  -^f  heritable  property  conveyed  for  religious  or  educational 
purposes.  The  Conveyancing  Act,  1874  (37  and  38  Vict  c.  94), 
dealt  with  compositions  payable  by  trustees  on  the  death  of  & 
vassal,  and  with  completion  of  title  by  tke  heir  of  a  sole  or  last  sur- 
viving trustee,  by  a  successor  of  an  ex  o^icio  trustee,  and  by  trustees 
where  words  of  conveyance  are  not  expressed  to  be  in  favour  of  such 
trustees.  Forms  of  documents  relating  to  trust  property  will  ba 
found  in  Juridical  Styles  and  in  the  schedules  to  the  Acts  of  1867^ 
1868,  and  1874.  A  conveyance  in  trust  may  be  either  absolute 
with  a  back-bond  or  in  form  a  conveyance  in  trust  A  trustee  is 
responsible  for  the  due  execution  of  the  trust  subject  to  the 
limitarions  contained  in  24  and  25  Vict  c.  84.  The  provision  of 
the  Companies  Act,  1862,  that  no  trust  is  to  be  entered  on  the 

I  The  principal  authority  ia  Lewiu's  Law  of  TrtLsts  (Sth  ed..  1S&5X  The- 
po-wers  of  trustees  under  the  Conve>'ancing  and  Settled  Land  Acta  will  be  found 
summarized  in  the  treatises  on  these  acts  by  Wolstenholme  and  Tlimer.  The 
principal  authorities  on  charitable  trusts  are  Shelford  and  Tudor  (ISti-;;).  For 
the  history  may  be  consolt«l  Bacon,  Lc.vr  Tmcts  ;  Reading,  On  Oie  Statute  of 
Uses ;  Gilbert,  On  Uses ;  Sanders,  On  Uses  awf  TrusU ;  Spence.  Equitable  Jurtg. 
dictum,  vol.  L  p.  435  ;  Digby,  Bist.  cifthe  law  (if  Seal  Property,  chaps,  n.  Tii 


eoo 


r  s  A  — T  s  c 


register,  does  not  apply  to  Scotland.  A  trustee,  a  member  of  a 
joint-stock  company,  though  entered  on  the  register  as  a  trust 
disponee,  may  incur  personal  liability  as  a  partner,  unless  the  con- 
trary be  expressed.  Liability  under  such  circumstances  was 
established  in  the  litigation  which  followed  the  suspension  of  the 
City  of  Glasgow  Bank  in  1378.'  A  sheriff  court  has  jurisdiction 
over  actions  of  declarator,  relating  to  questions  of  heritable 
right  or  title,  where  the  value  of  the  subject  in  dispute  does  not 
exceed  £50  by  the  year  or  £1000  in  value  (40  and  41  Vict.  c.  50). 
A  judicial  factor  may  be  appointed  by  the  sheriff  court  where  the 
yearly  value  of  the  estate  does  not  exceed  £100  (43  and  44  Vict, 
c.  4).  Fraudulent  trustees  are  criminally  liable  at  common  law, 
not  by  statutory  enactment,  as  in  England.  Adjudication  on  a 
trust  bond  is  a  mode  of  obtaining  the  decision  of  the  Court  of 
Session  on  a  bond  by  a  fictitious  creditor,  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
title  to  the  heir,  by  preventing  his  liability  to  possible  passive 
representation.     It  is  regulated  by  1695,  c.  24.^ 

United  States. — In  New  York  and  some  other  States  uses  and 
trusts  have  been  abolished  (with  certain  exceptions),  and  every 
estate,  subject  to  those  exceptions,  is  deemed  a  legal  riglit  cogniz- 
able in  courts  of  law.  The  exceptions  are  in  New  York  implied 
trusts  and  express  trusts  to  sell  land  for  the  benetit  of  creditors,  to 
sell,  mortgage,  or  lease  lands  for  the  benefit  of  legatees,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  satisfying  any  charge  thereon,  to  receive  the  rents  and 
profits  of  lands  and  apply  them  to  the  use  of  any  person  during 
the  life  of  such  person  or  any  shorter  term,  or  to  receive  such 
rents  and  profits,  and  accumulate  the  same  within  the  limits 
alIoT«t^d  by  the  law.  Trusts  of  personalty  for  public  purposes  are 
very  generally  allowed  in  States  where  private  tnists  do  not  exist. 
-  Provisions  similar  to  those  of  the  English  Statute  of  Frauds  have 
been  generally  adopted  by  the  States  which  recognize  private  trusts. 
Some  States  go  further  than  the  statute  and  allow  the  creation  of 
trusts  (other  than  those  arising  by  implication  or  operation  of  law) 
only  by  means  of  will  or  deed.  Where  the  trust  is  of  real  estate, 
the  deed  must  generally  be  registered  (see  Registkation).  Forms 
of  deeds  of  trust  are  given  in  the  Statutes  of  Virginia  and  other 
States.  The  English  doctrine  of  qj  prts  seems  to  have  been  adopted 
only  in  Pennsylvania.  Conveyances  in  trust  for  the  settlor  are 
generally  void  against  creditors  by  the  policy  of  the  Acts  of  Eliza- 
beth. By  the  legislation  of  some  States  a  freehold  may  commence 
in  futuTO  without  the  operation  of  the  Statute  of  Uses.  Societies 
of  professional  trustees,  receiving  a  percentage  of  the  income  of  the 
property  as  payment  for  tlieir  trouble  and  liability,  are  frequently 
recognized  by  law.  Such  societies  are  generally  under  an  obliga- 
tion to  make  periodical  returns  of  their  receipts  and  expenditure. 
A^ublic  trustee  as  a  corporation  sole  exists  in  some  Sta  ics.  Trustee 
process  in  the  New  England  States  is  what  is  generally  known  as 
garnishee  process  in  England,  that  is,  a  means  of  reaching  pro- 
perty and  credits  of  a  debtor  in  the  hands  of  third  persons  for  the 
benefit  of  an  attaching  creditor.'  (J.  Wt.) 

TSARITSYN,  a  district  town  of  the  government  of 
SaratoflF,  Russia,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  lower 
Volga  where  it  suddenly  turns  towards  the  south-east,  only 
40  miles  distant  from  the  Don.  It  is  the  terminus  of 
a  railway  line  which  begins  at  Riga  and,  running  south- 
eastwards,  crosses  all  the  main  lines  which  radiate  from 
Moscow  to  the  south.  It  is- also  connected  by  rail  with 
Katatch  on  the  Don,  where  merchandise  from  the  Sea  of 
Azo£F  is  disembarked  and  transported  by  rail  to  Tsaritsyn, 
to  be  sent  thence  by  rail  or  steamer  to  different  parts  of 
Russia.  Corn  from  Middle  Russia  for  Astrakhan  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  railway  to  boats  at  Tsaritsyn  ;  timber  and 
wooden  wares  from  the  upper  Volga  are  unloaded  here 
and  sent  by  rail  to  Katatch.;  and  fish,  salt,  and  fruits  sent 
from  Astrakhan  by  boat  up  the  Volga  are  here  unloaded 
and  despatched  by  rail  to  the  interior  of  Russia.  The 
town  has  grown  rapidly  since  the  completion  of  the  rail- 
way system,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  naphtha  from  Baku, 
which  is  shipped  up  the  Volga  to  Tsaritsyn  and  sent  thence 
by  rail  to  the  interior  of  Russia.  The  railway  between 
the  Baskunchak  salt  lakes  of  Astrakhan  and  the  Volga 
has  made  Tsaritsyn  also  a  depot  for  the  salt  trade.  In 
1882  10,000,000  cwts.  of  merchandise,  valued  at  one  mil- 
lion sterling,  were  landed  at  Tsaritsyn,  and  since  then  the 

'  The  principal  case  was  Moir  v.  City  of  Glasgow  Bank,  Law  Re- 
purls,  4  Appeal  Cases,  337. 

'  See  G.  J.  Bell,  Principles,  §§  1991-2001 ;  R.  Bell,  Law  Did.,  s.v. 
"Trust"  and  "Tnistee." 

'  See  Washburn,  Real  Properly,  vol.  ji.,  bk.  ii.,  chaps,  ii.,  iii.  ; 
StiujsoD.  Amtrican  Statute  Law,  §§  1700-1?? < 


figures  have  notably  increased.  In  addition  Tsaritsyn 
is  the  centre  of  the  trade  connected  with  the  mustard 
plantations  of  Sarepta,  Dubovka,  and  the  neighbourhood  •- 
170,000  cwts.  of  mustard  seed  are  either  ground  or  con- 
verted into  oi!  annually,  the  exports  being  70,000  cwts. 
of  mustard  and  half  the  corresponding  quantity  of  oil 
(valued  at  £250,000).  The  fisheries  of  the  place  are  also 
important.  The  population  (6750  in  1861)  numbered 
31,220  in  1882.  It  is  still  larger  in  summer,  Tsaritsyn 
having  become  the  gathering-place  of  poor  people  in 
search  of  work,  and  the  misery  and  filth  in  its  poorer 
quarters  are  very  great.  The  buildings  of  the  town  do 
not  improve  proportionately  with  the  increase  of  wealth. 
They  include  a  (wooden)  theatre,  a  public  library,  and 
two  gymnasia  for  boys  and  girls.  The  old  church  of  St 
John  (end  of  1 6th  century)  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  its  period. 

Tsaritsyn  was  founded  in  the  16th  century,  when  a  fort  was 
erected  to  prevent  the  incursions  of  the  free  Cossacks  and  runaway 
serfs  who  gathered  on  the  lower  Volga,  as  also  those  of  the  Kalmucks 
and  Circassians-.  In  1606  Tsaritsyn  took  part  in  thej-ising  in 
favour  of  the  false  Demetrius,  and  Razin  took  the  town  in  1G70. 
The  Kalmucks  and  Circassians  of  the  Kuban  attacked  it  repeatedly 
in  the  17th  century,  so  that  it  had  to  be  fortified  by  a  strong  earthen 
and  palisaded  wall,  traces  of  which  are  still  visible. 

TSABSKOYE  SELO,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  St  Petersburg,  and  an  imperial  residence,  18 
miles  to  the  south  of  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  Duderhot 
HiUs  and  consists  of  the  town  proper,  surrounded  by  several 
villages  and  a  German  colony,  which  are  summer  resorts  for 
the  inhabitants  of  St  Petersburg,  and  the  imperial  parks 
and  palaces.  The  town  is  built  according  to  a  regular  pi;  n, 
and  its  houses,  a  great  number  of  which  have  been  erected 
by  the  crown,  are  nearly  all  surrounded  by  gardens.  The 
cathedral  of  St  Sophia  is  a  miniature  copy  of  that  at 
Constantinople.  The  town  has  two  gymnasia  for  boys  and 
girls.  The  imperial  parks  and  gardens  cover  1680  acres; 
the  chief  of  them  is  the  "old  "garden  containing  the  "old 
palace,"  built  by  Rastrelli,  the  gallery  of  Cameron  adorned 
with  fine  statues,  and  numerous  pavilions  and  kiosks.  The 
population  numbered  15,000  in  1885. 

When  Peter  I.  took  possession  of  the  mouth  of  the  Neva  a  Finnish 
village,  Saari-mois,  stood  on  the  site  now  occupied  bylhe  town, 
and  its  Russified  name  Sarskaya  was  changed  intoTsarskoye  when 
Peter  I.  presented  it  to  his  wife  Catherine.  It  was  especially  em- 
bellished by  Elizabeth.  Under  Catherine  II.,  a  town,  Sophia,  was 
built  close  by,  but  its  inhabitants  v.'ere  transferred  toTsarskoye  Selo 
under  Alexander  I.  The  railway  connecting  the  town  with  St 
Petersburg  (1S3S)  was  the  first  to  be  constructed  in  Russia. 

TSCHUDI,  or  Schody,  the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest 
and  most  distinguished  families  of  the  land  of  Glarus, 
Switzerland.  From  1029  to  1253  a  member  of  the  clan 
held  the  office  of  steward  of  the  abbess  of  Siickingen  on 
the  Rhine,  the  lady  of  the  manor;  and  after  Glarus  joined 
the  Swiss  Confederation  in  1352  various  members  of  the 
family  held  high  political  offices  at  home,  and  were  dis- 
tinguished abroad  as  soldiers  and  in  other  ways.  In  litera- 
ture, its  most  eminent  member  was  Giles  or  jEgidius 
TscHUDi  (1505-1572),  who,  after  having  served  his  native 
land  in  various  offices,  in  1558  became  the  chief  magistrate 
or  "  land  mann."  Originally  inclined  to  moderation,  he 
became  later  in  life  more  and  more  devoted  to  the  cause 
of  the  counter-Reformation.  It  is,  however:  as  the  his- 
torian of  the  Swiss  Confederation  that  he  is  best  known ; 
by  incessant  wanderings  and  unwearied  researches  amongst 
original  documents  he  collected  material  for  three  great 
works,  which  therefore  caj  never  wholly  lose  their  value, 
though  his  researches  have" been  largely  supplemented  and 
corrected  by  those  of  more  lecent  students.  In  1 538  his 
book  on  Rhstia,  written  in  1528,  was  published  in  Latin 
and  in  German — Ve  prisca  ac  vera  Alpina  Rhectia,  or  DU 
uralt  wahrkajf'ig  Alpisch  lihatia. 

His  other  worKs  were  not  published  until  long  after  his  detith. 


T  S  E  — T  U  A 


601 


The  Seschrcibung  Galliee  Comalm  appeared  under  Gallati's  editorship 
ill  1758,  and  is  mainly  devoted  to  a  topographical,  historical,  ana 
sctiquaran  description  of  ancient  Helvetia  and  Rhstia,  the  latter 
p^iit  being  his  early  work  on  Rhxtia  revised  and  greatly  enlarged 
This  book  was  designed  practically  as  an  introduction  to  his  rtuxtj- 
niim  opus,  the  Chronuon  Helveticum,  part  of  which  (frora  1100  to 
1470)  was  published  by  J.  R.  Iselin  in  two  stately  folios  (173-1-36)  ; 
the  rest  (to  1564)  consists  only  of  rough  materials.  The  >-alue  of 
the  work  rests  very  largely  on  the  constant  use  of  original  docu- 
ments, no  fewer  than  750  being  printed  in  Iselin's  edition,  though 
the  transcripts  do  not  always  in  point  of  accuracy  come  up  to  the 
standard  demanded  by  the  modern  critical  historian  Many  ballads 
are  incorporated  and  also  many  oral  traditions,  both  being  employed 
to  give  life  and  picturcsqueness  to  his  story,  though  often  at  the 
expense  of  historical  truth,  the  stock  instance  of  which  is  the  manner 
111  which  he  completed  and  elaborated  the  Tell  legend  {see  Tell) 
[q  many  ways  his  book,  save  in  its  flowing  and  quaint  German, 
IS  rather  like  the  work  of  a  14th-centiwy  chronicler  than  a  critical 
historv ;  but  it  has  been  the  source  from  which  all  later  Swiss  writers 
have  drawn  their  information,  and  in  many  cases  preserves  the  evi- 
dence of  original  documents  which  have  since  disappeared  It  is  io 
short  a  history  rather  resembling  that  of  Livy  than  that  of  Hallani 
or  Stubbs. 

Subjoined  is  a  list  of  other  prominent  members  of  the  family. 
Dominic  (15961654)  was  a  Benedictine  monk  at  Muri  and  wrote 
a  painstaking  work,  Origo  cl  genealogia  gloriosissimorunt  coymlum 
de  Habsburg  (1651).  Joseph,  a  Benedictine  monk  at  Einsiedeln, 
wrote  a  useful  history  of  his  abbey  (1823).  The  family,  which  be- 
came divided  in  religious  matters  at  the  Reformation,  also  includes 
several  Protestant  ministers, — John  Henry  (16701729),  who  wrote 
Bcschreibung  dcs  Lands  Glartu  (1714) ;  John  Thomas  (1714  1786), 
who  left  behind  him  several  elaborate  MSS.  on  the  local  history  of 
Glarus  ,  and  John  James  (1722-17S4).  who  compiled  an  elaborate 
family  history  from  900  to  1500,  and  an  account  of  other  Glarus 
families.  John  Louis  (d  1784),  who  settled  in  Metz  and  contri- 
buted to  the  Encyclopidie,  and  Friedrich  (1820-1886),  the  author 
of  Das  Thurlcben  der  Alpenwelt,  were  distinguished  naturalists. 
Among  the  soldiers  may  be  mentioned  CHniSTOpUER  (1571-1629),  a 
knight  of  Malta  and  an  excellent  linguist,  who  served  in  the  French 
and  Spanish  armies,  while  the  brothers  Locis  Leonard  (1700- 
1779)  and  JOSEPH  Anthony  (1703-1770)  were  in  the  Neapolitan 
service  Valentine  (1499  1555),  the  cousin  of  Giles,  was.  like  the 
latter,  a  pupil  of  Zwingli.  whom  he  afterwards  succeeded  as  pastor 
of  Glarus,  and  by  his  moderation  gained  so  much  influence  that 
during  the  thirty  years  of  his  ministry  his  sei  vices  were  attended 
alike  by  Catholics  and  Protestants 

TSE-NAN  FOO,  the  capital  city  of  the  province  of  Shan- 
tung in  China,  stands  in  36°  40'  N  lat.  and  117°  1' E. 
long.  It  IS  situated  in  one  of  the  earliest  settled  districts 
of  the  empire,  and  figures  repeatedly  in  the  records  of  the 
wars  which  troubled  Ihe  country  during  the  six  centuries 
that  preceded  the  Christian  era.  On  the  establishment  of 
the  Han  djTiasty  (B.C.  206)  it  had  the  name  which  it  now 
bears,  but  during  the  next  200  years  it  was  known  at 
different  periods  as  P'ingyuen,  Ts'ien-sh'ing,  and  Pohai. 
In  the  4th  century  its  name  wa-s  changed  to  Tse ;  and 
by  the  founder  of  the  T'ang  dynasty  (618-907)  it  was 
christened  Lin-tsze,  by  which  name  it  was  known  until  the 
ovei throw  of  the  Mongol  dynasty  in  the  14th  century, 
wnen  tiie  name  of  Tsenan  was  restored  to  it.  The  city, 
which  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  present  channel  of  the 
Yellow  river  (Hoang-Ho),  and  at  a  short  distance  from  its 
banks,  is  surrounded  by  a  triple  line  of  defence.  First  is 
the  city  wall,  strongly  built  and  carefully  guarded,  outside 
this  a  granite  wall,  and  beyond  this  again  a  mud  rampart. 
The  streets  are  full  of  good  shops,  among  which  book, 
picture,  and  flower  shops  are  conspicuous.  There  are  two 
fine  e.xamination  halls,  one  for  bachelors  of  arts  and  the 
other  for  doctors  of  law,  several  handsome  temples,  and 
a  metropolitan  "drum"  tower  The  most  noticeable 
feature  about  the  city  is  three  springs  outside  the  west 
gate,  which  throw  up  as  many  streams  of  tepid  water  to 
a  height  of  about  2  feet.  This  water,  which  is  pleasant 
to  the  taste,  and  is  highly  prized  for  its  healing  qualities, 
flows  in  such  abundant  quantities  that  it  fills  the  moat  and 
forms  a  fine  lake  in  the  northern  quarter  of  the  city. 
Wiih  the  taste  which  Chinamen  always  show  in  such 
matters,  the  lake  is  divided  into  a  uumber  of  water  avenues 
by  floating  banks,  on  which  flowers  and  trees  are  skilfully 


arranged,  and  is  further  adorned  with  several  picturesque 
summer  houses,  which  form  points  of  attraction  to  picnic 
parties  and  pleasure-seekers  during  the  warmer  months. 
Its  waters  abound  with  many  species  of  edible  fish.  The 
population  of  the  town  is  reckoned  at  about  100,000, 
among  whom  are  2000  Mohammedan  families.  The  city 
is  the  centre  of  a  Roman  Catholic  see,  and  has  opened 
its  gates  to  several  Protestant  missionary  bodies. 

See  Williamson,  Journeys  m  North  Ckina,  London,  1870. 

TSETSE  FLY  (Glosstiui  morsttans).  The  tsetse  fly,  so 
much  dreaded  by  the  traveller  in  South  Africa,  belongs  to 
the  sub-family  Muscinx  a  d  is  closely  allied  to  Stomoxt/s. 
It  13  scarcely  larger  than  the  common  house  fly,  which  it 
resembles  in  its  general  shape.  It  can,  however,  be  easily 
distinguished  by  its  colour  and  the  position  of  its  wings. 
These  are  longer  than  the  abdomen,  and  when  at  rest  they 
project  behind  it,  overlapping  one  another  at  their  tips. 
This  gives  the  fly  a  longer  and  narrower  outline  than  that 
of  the  bouse  fly.  The  colour  is  somewhat  like  that  of  the 
honey  bee ;  the  thora.x  is  chestnut  brown 
with  four  longitudinal  black  stripes,  the  , 
abdomen  light  yellow  with  transverse 
ba-^  of  dark  brown  on  its  dorsal  surface. 
The  proboscis,  with  which  the  fly  inflicts 
its  sting,  is  grooved  and  contains  two 
long  styles ,  and  it  is  guarded  by  a 
pair  of  setose  palps.  At  the  base  of 
the  proboscis  is  a  dilated  horny  bulb, 
and  in  this  swelling  it  is  supposed  that 
the  poison  is  secreted.  The  bite  of  the  Tsetse  fly  [O!osi^na 
tsetse  is  innocuous  to  man  and  is  not  morsiiaiis). 

more  painful  than  that  of  a  gnat.  Large  game,  goats, 
and  apparently  all  animals  whilst  suckling,  are  also  un- 
afl"ected  by  it.  But  to  the  horse,  ox,  and  dog  it  is  fatal. 
The  poison  may  take  effect  after  a  few  days,  or  the 
animal  may  remain  apparently  unaffected  for  some 
months ;  but  e%'eatuaLly  symptoms  of  poisoning  appear. 
These  symptoms  seem  to  be  rather  variable ;  as  a  rula 
swellings  arise  under  the  jaws  and  around  the  navel,  the 
eyes  and  nose  begin  to  run,  and,  although  the  animal  con- 
tinues to  graze,  it  becomes  more  and  more  emaciated, 
suffers  violently  from  purging,  and  at  length  succumbs 
to  extreme  exhaustion.  Post-mortem  examination  shows 
that  the  muscles,  and  especially  the  heart,  are  in  a  very 
soft  and  flabby  condition.  The  lungs  and  liver  are  affected, 
the  gall  bladder  distended  with  bile.  The  fat  is  of  a 
greenish  yellow  colour  and  oily  consistency,  the  blood 
small  in  quantity  and  very  thin,  with  hardly  any  power  of 
staining.  At  present  no  cure  is  known  for  the  bite,  nor 
does  inoculation  seem  to  afford  any  protection.  The  fly 
is  said  to  avoid  animal  excreta,  and  in  some  parts  a  paste 
composed  of  milk  and  manure  is  smeared  on  cattle  which 
are  about  to  pass  through  the  "  fly-belts."  This  affords  a 
certain  amount  of  protection.  Lion's  fat  is  used  in  the 
samp  way,  and  is  said  to  be  efficacious. 

The  fly  is  found  as  a  rule  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  and  its 
habitat  is  usually  sharply  dehued.  Often  it  occurs  on  one  side  of 
a  stream  but  not  on  the  other.  The  limits  of  the  "  fly-belts"  are 
well  known  to  the  natives,  and  travellers  can  ensure  comparatfve 
safety  to  their  cattle  by  passing  through  these  districts  after  sun- 
down. The  northern  limits  of  the  area  inhabited  by  the  tsetse 
are  not  known  It  is  found  throughout  the  valley  of  the  Limpopo 
river,  but  does  not  come  much  south  of  this,  except  in  the  eastern 
borders  of  the  Transvaal.  Here  it  extends  far  south  of  Delagoi 
Bay,  and  infests  the  Lobombu  Mountains  and  the  Amatonga 
country,  reaching  to  the  confines  of  Santa  Lucia   Bay.     It  appears 


to  be  gradually  retreating  northwards,  following  the  big  game. 

The  ay  is  figured  in  Pnc.  ZxL  Soc,  ISiO,  and  by  Frauk  Oates,  ilatahelt 
Laiui  a-nd  thi  Victoria  Falls,  ISSl. 


TUAM,  a  market  town  and  episcopal  city  of  Galway, 
Ireland,  is  the  terminus  of  the  Athenry  and  Tuam  Railway, 
and  lies  20  miles  north-east  of  Galway  and  129  west  of 
Dublin.    An  abbey  was  founded  here  towards  the  end  of  the 


2a— 22» 


602 


T  U  A  — T  U  B 


5th  century,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  an  episcopal 
8ee  by  St  Jarlath.  The  new  Protestant  cathedral  of  St 
Mary  occupies  the  site  of  the  original  cathedral,  built  in 
1 1 30,  and  includes  the  chancel  arch  of  the  ancient  building, 
now  forming  the  great  doorway, — a  very  fine  specimen  of 
the  old  Romanesque.  The  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  in 
the  later  Early  English  style  is  one  of  the  finest  modern 
Catholic  churches  in  Ireland.  Adjoining  it  is  the  Roman 
Catholic  college  of  St  Jarlath,  usually  called  the  "New 
College,"  founded  in  1814  for  the  education  of  candidates 
for  the  priesthood.  To  the  west  are  the  archbishop's 
palace  and  a  convent  of  Presentation  nuns.  The  other 
public  buildings  are  the  workhouse,  the  dispensary,  and 
the  market-house.  The  town  has  a  considerable  retail 
trade,  and  is  a  centre  for  the  disposal  of  agricultural  pro- 
duce. From  4223  in  1871  the  population  decreased  to 
3567  in  1881. 

The  see  of  Tuam  wa3  raised  to  an  archbishopric  about  1152. 
Under  the  Church  Temporalities  Act  of  1839  it  was  reduced  to  a 
bishopric,  but  is  still  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop.  It 
recMved  its  first  charter  in  the  11th  year  of  James  I.  It  formerly 
returned  two  members  to  parliament,  but  was  disfi*anchised  at  the 
^Jnion. 

TUAMOTU  ARCHIPELAGO,'  a  broad  belt  of  seventy 
coral  islands  lying  between  14'  5'  and  23°  22'  S.  lat.  and 
134°  25'  and  148°  40'  W.  long.,  and  now  under  the  pro- 
tection of  France.  They  trend  in  irregular  lines  in  a  north- 
west and  south-east  direction,  and  cover  1500  miles  of  the 
Pacific,  the  easternmost  Tuamotus  being  3600  miles  from 
Peru.^  With  the  exception  of  a  few  insignificant  islands 
the  archipelago  consists  of  atolls  (see  Cokals  and  Pacific 
Ocean),  mostly  chains  of  low  islets  that  crown  the  reefs 
and  sometimes  also  obstruct  the  deep  lagoons  which  they 
encircle.  The  largest  island,  >fairsa  (Dean's  Island),  with  a 
lagoon  45  miles  long  by  15  wide,  is  made  up  of  twenty 
islets.  Fakarava,  the  next  in  size,  consists  oi  fifteen  islets, 
and  its  oblong  lagoon  affords  the  best  anchorage  in  the 
group.  Hao  has  fifty  islets,  and  its  lagoon  is  dangerously 
studded  with  coral.  The  symmetrically  placed  eleven 
islets  of  Anao  suggested  to  Captain  Cook  the  name  of 
Chain  Island.  Matahiva,  Niao,  and  Mururoa  are  good 
specimens  of  the  horse -shoe-shaped  atolL  Nengonen- 
gone,  Fangataufa,  and  Marutea,  true  lagoon  islands,  form 
unbroken  rings  round  their  lake-like  lagoons.  In  a  few 
of  the  smaller  atolls  the  lagoons  have  been  completely 
silted  up.  To  the  south-east  lie  the  Gambler  Islands,  a 
•cluster  of  four  larger  and  many  smaller  volcanic  islets, 
enclosed  in  one  wide  reef.  The  wooded  crags  of  Mangareva, 
the  largest  islet,  5  miles  in  length,  rise  to  a  height  of  1 300 
feet  and  are  covered  with  a  rich  vegetation,  quite  Tahitian 
,  in  character ;  but,  as  in  the  other  Tuamotus,  there  is  a 
dearth  of  animal  life.  This  group  was  discovered  by 
Captain  Wilson  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1797. 
Tahitian  teachers  were  sent  thither  in  1 834  ,  but  Catholic 
missionaries  followed  in  1836,  and  converted  the  entire 
population.  The  natives,  once  very  numerous,  now  number 
less  than  a  thousand,  and  are  still  decreasing.  Cannibal- 
ism was  formerly  prevalent.  In  physique,  language,  re- 
ligion, and  custom  the  Gambler  Islanders  closely  resemble 
the  Rarotongans.  Beechey  surveyed  the  group  in  1826, 
and  D'Urville  in  1838.  Pitcairn  Island  and  a  few  unin- 
Siabited  rocks  lie  still  farther  to  the  south-east.  The 
Tuamotus  are  healthy  and  as  a  rule  have  a  lower  mean 


'  TTiere  ia  no  collective  name  for  the  archipelago  among  the 
ToamotuaDs  themselves,  but  the  Tahitiaos  call  it  Paumotu  (i.c., 
Cload  of  Islaods).  The  group  is  Bougainville's  Dangerous  Archipelago, 
Flearieu's  Bad  Sea,  Krusenstem's  Low  Islands,  and  the  Pearl  Islands 
<tt  traders. 

*  Distinct  names  have  been  given  to  eight  clusters  of  the  archi- 
pelago,—  Disappointment  Islands,  King  George's  Islands,  Palliser 
lAlands,  Raeffsky  Islands,  Two  Groups,  Duke  of  Gloucester  Islands, 
Action  or  Ampbi  trite  group,  and  Gambier  Islands. 


temperature  than  Tahiti.  The  easterly  trade  winds  prevail' 
Rain  and  fogs  occur  even  diaring  the  dry  season.  The 
stormy  season  lasts  froo  November  to  March,  when  de- 
vastating hurricanes  are  not  uncommon  and  a  south- 
westerly swell  renders  the  western  shores  dangerous. 
Plants  and  animals  are  very  meagrely  represented,  even 
more  so  than  in  the  atolls  of  Micronesia.  Cocoa-palms 
and  the  pandanus  thrive  on  many  of  the  islets,  and  the 
bread-fruit,  banana,  pine-applft,  and  arum  have  been  intro- 
duced from  Tahiti  into  the  western  islands.  Mammals 
are  represented  by  a  rat ,  among  land-birds  a  parakeet,  a 
thrush,  and  a  dove  are  noticeable  ;  and  of  reptiles  there  is 
only  one  lizard.  Insects  are  scarce.  But  the  sea  and 
lagoons  teem  with  turtle,  fish,  moUusks,  crustaceans,  and 
zoophytes.  Coral  grows  luxuriantly  everywhere.  From 
the  abundance  of  pearl-oysters  the  archipelago  gets  its 
name  of  Pearl  Islands ;  pearl-fishing  indeed  is  the  only 
remunerative  industry.  Under  French  control  the  newest 
appliances  for  obtaining  shells  have  now  mostly  superseded 
the  laborious  diving  of  the  natii-es.  The  Tuamotus  are 
very  thinly  inhabited  by  a  fine  strong  Polynesian  race, 
more  muscular  and  mostly  darker-skinned  than  that  inhabit- 
ing Tahiti.  In  the  west  considerable  intermLsture  with 
other  races  has  taken  place.  Of  the  habits  of  the  people 
little  is  known,  and  many  of  the  islands  are  still  marked 
"hostile  inhabitants"  on  the  English  Admiralty  charts. 
In  the  eastern  islands  cannibalism  existed.  Tattooing  is 
not  universal.  Clothing  and  ornaments  are  very  scanty 
The  huts  are  mean  square  buildings,  often  mere  shelters 
of  leaves.  Good  outrigger  and  single  and  double  canoes 
are  buUt,  the  larger  ingeniously  stitched  together  of  small 
pieces  of  drift  wood.  Fishing  with  net  and  hook  is  much 
practised.  Food  besides  fish  consists  almost  exclusively  of 
cocoa-nuts  and  pandanus  fruit.     Water  is  scarce. 

Magellan's  first  discovery  of  land  after  reaching  the  Pacific  in 
1 520  was  one  of  the  Tuamotus.  Various  portions  of  the  archipelago 
were  in  turn  crossed  by  Queiros  (1605),  Lemaire  and  Schouten 
(1616),  Roggeween  (1722),  Byron  (1765),  Wallis  (1767),  Bougain- 
ville (1768),  Cook  (1769),  the  "Duff"  (1797),  Krusenstem  (1803), 
Kotzebue  (1816),  Fitzroy  (1835),  D'Urville  (1838),  and  Belcher 
(1840).  The  first  systematic  survey  was  instituted  in  1818  by 
Bellinghausen,  and  was  continued  in  1823  by  Duperry,  in  1826  by 
Beechey,  and  in  1839  by  Wilkes.  Thanks  to  these-  many  explorers, 
the  islands  have  been  christened  and  rechristened  with  a  chaos  of 
Spanish,  Dutch,  English,  French,  German,  and  Russian  names. 

Seethe  narratives  of  the  vanons  explorera  cited  above,  and  Meinicke.  Jnseln 
'des  sliUen  Octans  (Leipsic,  1876) :  for  general  statistics  and  an  account  of  the 
pearl. fistienes.  see  I^otices  ColontaUs,  Paris,  1S86. 

TUBERCLE.  See  Pathology,  vol.  xviii.  p.  405,  and 
Phthisis. 

TUBEROSE.  The  cultivated  tuberose  (Polianthes  tuber, 
osa)  is  allied  to  the  Mexican  agaves  and  is  a  native  of 
the  same  country.  The  tuberous  root-stock  sends  up  a 
stem  3  feet  in  height,  with  numerous  lanceolate  leaves  and 
terminal  racemes  of  white  funnel-shaped,  very  fragrant 
flowers.  Each  flower  is  about  1  i  inches  long,  with  a  long 
tube  and  a  six  parted  limb.  The  stamens  are  six  in 
number,  emerging  from  the  upper  part  of  the  tube,  and 
bear  linear  anthers.  The  ovary  is  three-celled ;  but  the 
mature  fruit  ^.nd  seed  are  not  botanicaliy  known.  The 
plant  is  largely  grown  in  the  United  States  and  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  for  export  to  England,  as  it  is  found 
that  imported  bulbs  succeed  better  than  those  grown  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  The  cultivated  plants  have  double 
flowers  and  require  a  rich  soil,  considerable  heat,  and,  at 
first,  abundance  of  water. 

TUBINGEN,  the  university  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  is 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  hilly  and  well-wooded  banks 
of  the  Neckar,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ammer  and  Stein- 
lach,  18  miles  south  of  Stuttgart,  and  on  the  S.E.  border 
of  the  Black  Forest.  The  older  town  is  irregularly  built 
and  unattractive,  but  the  newer  suburbs,  the  chief  of 
which  is  the  Wilhelmsstrasse,  are  handsome.     The  most 


T  U  C  -T  U  C 


conspicuous  building   is  the  old  ducal  castle  of   Hohen- 
tiibmgen,  built  in   1507-1540  on  a  hill  overlooking  the 
town,  ajid  now  containing  the  university  library,  observa- 
tory, chemical  laboratory,  ic.     Among  the  other  chief 
buildings  are  the- quaint  old  Stiftskirche  (1469-83),  and 
^f    "';'',  ""^^  ^'^'^  numerous  institutes  of  the  university,  all 
of  which  are  modern.     A  monument  was  erected  in  1873 
to  the  poet  Uhland  (1787-1862),  who  was  born  and  is 
buried  here.     Tiibingen's  chief  claim  to  attention  lies  in 
Us  famous  university,  founded  in  1477  by  Duke  Eberhard. 
Ihe  university  adopted  the  Reformed  faith  in   1534,  and 
in  lo36  a  Protestant  theological  seminary— the  so-called 
btift— wa^   incorporated    with    it.      In    1817   a   Roman 
■l^thoUc  theological  faculty  (the  "  Convict ")  and  a  faculty 
of  poUtics  and  economics  were  added,  and  in   1863  a 
faculty  of  science.     The  leading  faculty  has  long  been  that 
of  theolog)',  and  an  advanced  school  of  theological  criticism, 
the  founder  and  chief  light  of  which  was  F.  C.  Ba[jr  Ig  v  ) 
is  known  as  the  Tubingen  school     Melanchthon  was  lec- 
turer at  Tubingen  before  he  wa.s  summoned  to  Wittenberg 
The  university  is  attended  by  about  1400  students,  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  whom  are  foreigners,  and   has  a 
teaching  staff  of  53  professors,  17  extraordinary  professors, 
and   10  lecturers.     The   commercial   and  manufacturing 
Judustries  of  the  town  are  slight.     Printing,  book-sellinf 
the  manuiacture  of  surgicd  and  philosophical  instruments, 
anci  the  cultivation  of  hop.?,  fruit,  and  vines  are  amcmg  the 
leading  occupations  of  the  inhabitants.     The  population 
tn  1885  was  12,660  (11,708  in  1880).     The  country  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Tubingen  is  very  attractive;  one  of 
the  most  interesting  points  is  the  former  Cistercian  monas- 
tery of  Bebenhaiisen,  founded  in  1185,  and  now  a  royal 
bunting-chateau. 

Tubiugen  is  mentioned  as  a  strong  fortress  in  1078  In  1342  it 
«-as  purchased  by  the  count  of  Wurtemberg,  whose  descendants 
afterwards  acquu-ed  the  title  of  duke.      The  treaty  of  TUbiiK^eo  is 

?^?/hi?'  ^"n  ,'°  9^'^l°  ^''^"'y  »°  ^^  arrangement  n.ade  in 
1514  between  Duke  Ulnch  and  his  subjects,  by  which  the  latter 
acquired  vanonsnghts  and  privUeges  on  condition  of  relieving  the 
i^^^'o"  u  ^^^''^-  ^''^  ^^^  "^  raptured  by  the  Swabian  League 
?h„!i  %^  ^"^"c  '°  ^"''  ^°^  ^g^'"  1°  16S8  by  the  French, 
.-vho  destroyad  the  fortifications.     Tubingen  was  made  a  garrison 

TUCKER,  ABRAHAii  (1705-1774),  holds  a  place  of  his 
own  among  the  English  moraUsts  of  the  18th  century 
He  was  bom  in  London,  of  a  Somerset  family,  on  2d 
September  1705.  Hie  father,  a  wealthy  city  merchant, 
died  in  his  son's  infancy,  leaving  him  to  the  guardianship 
of  his  uncle.  Sir  I.-^aac  TiUard,  a  man  of  a  rare  integrity 
of  character,  to  whom  Tucker  never  failed  to  acknowledge 
a  deep  debt  of  gratitude.  In  1721  Tucker  entered  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  as  a  gentleman  commoner.  Here  he 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  philosophical  and  mathematical 
studies,  but  also  found  hisure  to  master  French  and  Italian 
and  to  acquire  considerable  proficiency  in  music.  He  after- 
wards studied  law  at  the  Inner  Temple,  but  as  ^is  fortune 
made  him  independent  of  a  profession  he  was  never  called 
to  the  bar.  In  1727  ho  bought  Betchworth  Castle,  near 
IJorking,  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life,  occu- 
pied, in  addition  to  his  favourite  studies,  with  the  usual 
pursuits  of  a  weU-to-do  country  gentleman.  He  took  no 
part  m  politics,  however,  and  even  wrote  a  pamphlet.  The 
Country  Genlleman's  Advice  to  his  Son  on  the  Subject  of 
Party  Clubs  (1755),  cautioning  young  men  against  the 
dangers  of  rashly  pledging  themselves  to  political  principles 
and  measures  of  which  their  riper  judgment  may  disapprove. 
In  1  /  36  Tucker  married  Dorothy  Barker,  the  daughter  of 
a  neighbouring  landed  proprietor.  His  wife,  to  whom  he 
was  fondly  attached,  died  in  1754,  leaving  him  with  two 
<laughteis.  "As  soon  as  the  first  excess  of  his  grief  was 
somewhat  mitigated,"  we  are  told,  "he  occupied  himself 
lo  collecting  together  all  the  letters  that  had  passed  between 


603 


them  at  periods  when  they   were  accidentally  separated 
from  each  other,  which  he  transcribed  twice  over,  under  the 
title  of' 'The  Picture  of  Artless  Love.      One  copy  he  gave 
to  Mr  Barker,  his  father-in-law,  and  the  other  he  kept,  and 
frequently  read  over  to  his  daughters."    He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  education  of  his  daughters,  and  from  this  time 
onward  began  to  occupy  himself  with  the  composition  of 
the  work  by  which  he  is  known— T/ie  Liy/it  of  Nature 
Purxu(d.     He  made  seven.1  sketches  of  the  plan  of  his 
work,  one  of  which— in  dialogue— he  went  the  length  of 
printing  before  finally  deciding  on  the  method  he  should 
pursue.     He  also  sought  to  qualify  himself  for  authorship 
by  the  study  of  the  most  elegant  Greek  and  Latin  classics 
and  by  translating  the  most  admired  passages  of  Cicero, 
Demosthenes,  and  Pliny  several  times  over.     Moreover! 
after  his  work  was  written,  he  twice  transcribed  it  with 
his  own  hand.     In  1763  he  published  a  .specimen  under 
the  title  of  "  Free  Will."    The  strictures  of  a  critic  in  the 
Monthly  Revieio  of  July  1763  drew  from  him  a  pamphlet 
called  Afan  in  Quest  of  Hinaelf  by  Cuthberl  Comvient. 
This,  as  its  sub-title  states,  is  "a  defence  of  the  individu- 
ality of  the  human  mind  or  self";  it  has  been  reprinted 
in  Parr's  Metaphysical  Tracts  (1837).     In  1765  the  first 
four  volumes  of  his  work  were  published  under  the  pseudo- 
nym of  Edward   Search.      The  remaining  three  volumes 
did  not  appear  till  after  his  death.     His  eyesight  failed 
him  completely  in  1771,  but  his  cheerfulness  did  not  leave 
him.     He  contrived  an  ingenious  apparatus  which  enabled 
him  to  write  so  legibly  that  the  result  could  easily  be  tran- 
scribed by  his  daughter    In  this  way  he  completed  the  later 
volumes,  which  were  ready  for  publication  when  he  was 
seized  by  his  last  illness.    He  died  on  20th  November  1774. 
A  second  edition  of  The  Light  of  Nature  appeared  in  1805    with 
a  short  life  of  the  author  by  his  grandson,  Sir  H    P  St  John'jlild- 
luay,   which  forms  the  sole  biographical  source.      The  work  has 
siuoe  been  repeatedly  re-published  in   two  large  closely  printed 
volumes.     A  useful  abridgment  was  published  (anonymously)  by 
Ua^litt  in  1807;  for,  as  he  truly  says,  it  is  "swelled  out   with 
endless  repetitions  of  itself     The  author  was  a  private  gentleman, 
who  wrote  at  his  ease,  and  for  his  own  amusement      When  a 
subject  presented  itself  to  him,  he  exhausted  all  he  had  to  say  upon 
it,  and  then  dismissed  it  for  another.     If  the  same  subject  recurred 
again  in  a  different  connexion,  he  turned  it  over  in  his  thoughts 
afresh  ;  as  his  ideas  arose  in  his  mind,  he  committed  them  to  paper  ; 
he  repeated  the  same  things  over  again  or  inserted  any  new  observa- 
tion or  example  that  suggested  itself  to  him  in  confirmation  of  his 
argument;  and  thus  by  the  help  of  a  new  title,  and  by  giving  a 
dilfereut  application  to  the  whole,  a  new  chapter  was  completed. 
By  this  means,  as  he  himself  remarks,  his  writings  are  rather  a 
tissue  of  loose  essays  than  a  regular  work."     In  spite  of  Tucker's 
elaborate  care  in  composition,  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  fairly 
characterizes  the  rambling  prolL^ity  of  his  book  ;  'but  it  may  bo 
questioned  whether  an  epitome  can  convey  the  real  merits  of  such 
a  style  and  treatment— qualities  which  have  earned  for  Tucker 
from  Sir  James  Mackintosh  the  designation  of  a  "metaphysical 
Montaigne. "     These  are  his  sound  hearty  common  sense,  the  origin- 
ality of  a  man  who  looks  at  everything  for  himself  completely 
untrammelled  by  system,  a  remarkable  aptness  in  illustration,  and 
occasional  gleams  of  a  mild  humour.     Though  the  The  light  of 
Kalure  embraces  in  its  scope  many  psychological  and  more  strictly 
metaphysical  discussions,  it  is  chiefly  in  connection  with  ethics 
that  Tucker's  speculations  are  remembered.     This  is  the  subject 
which   the  author  puts   into  the  foreground  himself;    from  his 
earliest  youth,   he  tells  us,  his  thoughts  took  a  turn   "toward 
searching  into  the  foundations  and  measures  of  right  and  wrong  " 
In  some  important  points  Tucker  anticipates  the  utilitarianism 
shortly  afterwards  systematized  by  Paley,  and  Paley,  it  ni.ay  bo 
noted,  expresses  in  the  amplest  terms  his  obligations  to  his  prede- 
cessor.    •■  Every  man's  own  satisfaction  "  Tucker  holds  to  be  the 
ultimate  end  of  action  ;  and  satisfaction  or  pleasure  is  one  and  the 
same  in  kind,  however  much  it  may  vary  in  degree.    This  universal 
motive  is  further  connected,  as  by  Paley,  through  the  will  ofGod     ' 
with  the  "  general  good,  the  root  where  out  all  our  rules  of  conduct 
and  sentiments  of  honour  are  to  branch."     Tucker  adopts  from 
Hartley  the  prmciple  of  association,  or,  as  he  calls  it,  "translation," 
to  explain  the  formation  of  the  moral  sentiments  and  the  phenomena 
of  disinterested  action  gcncr.illy.     In  his  general  analysis  of  the 
mind  he  professes  to  follow  Locke,  though  with  great  latitude  in 
details,  and  even  in  much  that  is  not  matter  of  detail 


604 


T  U  C  — T  U  L 


TUCKER,  JosiAH  (171 1-1799),  dean  of  Gloucester  from 
1758,  a  sagacious  and  candid  writer  on  politics  and  political 
economy.     See  Political  Economy  (vol.  xix.  p.  365). 

TUCSON,  a  city  in  Pima  county,  Arizona  Territory, 
United  States,  is  situated  in  32°  13'  N.  lat.  and  110°  53' 
W.  long,  at  an  elevation  of  2403  feet  above  the  sea,  upon 
the  Santa  Cruz  river  and  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad, 
about  70  miles  from  the  Mexican  frontier.  The  surround- 
ing country  is  arid  and  barren,  except  where  it  has  been 
fertilized  by  irrigation.  The  climat«  is  exceedingly  hot 
and  dry.  The  principal  industries  of  Tucson,  besides  stock- 
rearing,  are  connected  with  mining,  as  it  is  a  supply  point 
for  mining  districts  in  the  neighbouring  mountains-and  has 
several  smelting  works.  The  population,  which  in  1860 
was  91.5,  in  1870  3224,  had  grown  by  1880  to  7007,  and 
in  18S7  was  estimated  to  number  nearly  10,000.  About 
one-lialf  are  of  foreign  birth,  a  large  proportion  being 
Mexicans.  Tucson  is  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  in  the 
United  States,  having  been  founded  as  a  Jesuit  mission  by 
the  Spaniards  in  the  17th  century. 

TUCUMAN,  or,  more  fully,  San  Migdel  de  Toctjman, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Tucuman,  in  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, is  astraggling  town,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tala 
(a  subtributary  of  the  Rio  Salado),  at  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Sierra  de  Aconquija,  in  26°  50'  S.  lat.  and  64°  35'  W. 
long.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Cordova  and  Rosario. 
The  surrounding  district  is  fertile,  and  also  produces  excel- 
lent timber.  Leather  and  sugar  are  the  principal  objects 
of  industry.  The  population  was  recently  estimated  at 
17,000. 

TUDELA,  a  city  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Navarre, 
is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ebro  where  it  is  joined 
by  the  Queyles,  and  on  the  railway  from  Zaragoza  to 
Pamplona,  about  50  miles  to  the  north-west  of  the  former 
city.  The  Ebro  is  here  crossed  by  a  fine  old  bridge,  400 
yards  in  length,  consisting  of  seventeen  arches.  The  only 
building  within  the  town  of  any  mterest  is  the  fine  church 
of  Santa  Maria,  founded  in  1135  and  consecrated  in  1188, 
the  doorivays  and  cloisters  being  specially  rich  in  sculptural 
ornamentation.  The  manufactures  of  the  place  (cloth, 
silk,  pottery)  are  unimportant.  There  is  some  trade  in 
wine  and  oil.  The  population  within  the  municipal 
boundaries  in  1877  was  10,086. 

Tudela,  anciently  TaUla,  was  t[ie  birthplace  of  the  celebrated 
roedifeval  traveller  Be.vjamin  {?. u. )  of  Tndela.  It  was  made  an 
episcopal  see  in  1783,  which  was  suppressed  in  1S51. 

TUDOR,  HoosE  OF.  See  Heney  VII.  and  Lancastek, 
House  of,  vol.  xiv.  p.  257. 

TUKE,  Samuel  (1784-1857),  English  philanthropist, 
gon  of  Henry  Tuke,  bom  at  York  in  1784,  greatly  advanced 
the  cause  of  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  in- 
sane, and  devoted  himself  largely  to  the  York  Retreat,  the 
methods  of  treatment  pursued  in  which  he  made  more 
widely  known  by  his  Description  of  the  Retreat  near  York, 
kc  (York,  1813).  His  writings  on  the  construction  of 
asylums  and  on  other  subjects  connected  with  the  insane 
are  well  known.      He  died  in  1857. 

TUKE,  William  (1732-1822),  English  philanthropist, 
was  born  at  York  m  1732.  He  devoted  himself  to  many 
philanthropic  objects,  but  Lis  name  is  more  especially 
known  in  connexion  with  the  humane  treatment  of  the 
insane,  for  whose  care  he  projected  in  1792  the  Retreat  at 
York,  which  became  famous  both  abroad  and  in  Great 
Britain  as  an  institution  in  which  8-  bold  attempt  was 
made  to  manage  lunatics  without  thi  excessl-«  restraints 
then  regarded  as-  essential.  Not  less  remarkable  was  the 
departure  from  the  beaten  track  of  treatment  in  regard 
«o  copious  bleedings  and  the  frequent  administration  of 
emetics  and  depressing  remedies.  The  asylum  was  entirely 
under  the   management  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and 


remains  so  at  the  present  time,  but  there  are  a  large 
number  of  inmates  not  connected  in  any  way  with  this 
body.  The  original  character  of  the  methods  pursued  at 
the  Retreat  attracted  much  attention,  and  its  marked  suc- 
cess led  to  comparisons  being  made  between  it  and  other 
establishments,  the  abuses  in  some  of  which  became  so 
notorious  as  to  be  brought  under  the  notice  of  parliament, 
and  led  to  more  stringent  legislation  in  the  interests  of 
the  insane.  The  condition  of  this  unfortunate  class  became 
greatly  improved  in  consequence.  William  Tuke  did  not 
Uve  to  see  the  most  important  of  the  Acts  passed,  but. 
when  he  died,  in  1822,  the  superiority  of  the  treatment 
adopted  at  the  Retreat  was  fully  acknowledged. 

See  Report  of  the  Select  Committee  of  the  Hoxisc  of  Commons,  1815- 
1816  ;  Dr  Conolh  ,  Treatment  of  the  Insane  without  Mc-chanical 
Restraints,  1856  ;  Dr  Hack  Tuke,  Chapters  in  the  Hisiory  of  the 
Insane  in  the  British  Isles,  1882. 

Hesbt  Tuke  (1756-1814),  son  of  the  preceding  and  father  of 
Samuel  Tuke,  co-operated  with  his  father  in  the  reform  at  the  York 
Retreat.  He  was  tho  author  of  several  moral  and  theological 
treatises,  which  have  been  translated  into  German  and  French. 

TULA,  a  government  of  central  Russia,  boimded  by 
Moscow  on  the  N.,  Ryazan  on  the  E.,  TamboJf  and  Orel 
on  the  S.,  and  Kaluga  on  the  W.,  has  an  area  of  11,950 
square  miles.  It  is  intersected  from  south-west  to  north- 
east by  a  gently  undulating  plateau,  from  950  to  1020 
feet  in  height,  which  separates  the  drainage  area  of  the 
Oka  from  that  of  the  Don.  The  average  elevation  of 
Tula  is  about  800  feet,  and  its  surface  is  an  undulating 
plain  ;  but  the  rivers  flow  in  valleys  so  deeply  cut  and  so 
scored  with  ravines  that  in  their  neighbourhood  the  country 
assumes  the  aspect  of  :•  hilly  region.  Devonian  limestones, 
dolomites,  and  sandstones  appear  chiefly  in  the  south-west  ; 
Lower  and  Middle  Carboniferous  limestones  and  clays 
occupy  the  remainder  of  the  area.  The  former  contain 
deposits  of  coal,  which  are  now  worked  (chiefly  at  Malevka 
and  Novoselsk)  to  the  extent  of  nearly  one  and  a  half 
million  cwts.  annually.  Jurassic  clays  are  found  in  patches 
here  and  there.  Glacial  boulder  clay  covers  most  of  the 
region,  while  Lacustrine  deposits  are  widely  spread  in  the 
valleys  and  depressions.  Iron -ore  is  found  all  over  the 
government ;  limestone,  fire-clay,  and  pottery  clay  are  also 
obtained.  The  soil  is  black  earth  in  the  south  and  east 
and  clay  or  sandy  clay  in  the  north-west.  Tula  is  watered 
chiefly  by  the  Oka  and  its  tributaries  (Upa,  Zusha,  Osetr, 
and  Pronya).  The  Don  rises  in  Lake  Ivan-Ozero  (which 
feeds  also  a  tributary  of  the  Oka),  and  has  a  course  of 
35  miles  within  Tula.  It  is  not  navigable,  and  Peter  I.'s 
attempt  to  connect  it  with  the  Oka  by  means  of  a  canal 
was  never  carried  out.  Lakes  and  marshes  (chiefly  in  the 
north-west)  are  few.  Forests  (8  per  cent,  of  the  area)  are 
rapidly  disappearing.  The  climate  is  less  rigorous  than 
that  of  Moscow,  the  average  yearly  temperature  being  40°'2 
Fahr.  (January,  13°-8;  July,  67°'5). 

The  flora  of  Tula  deserves  some  attention  as  marking  the  trans- 
ition from  that  of  the  south-east  steppes  to  that  of  north-west 
Russia.  A  line  drawn  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  water-parting 
already  mentioned  (a  few  miles  to  the  south  of  the  city  of  Tula) 
divides  the  province  into  two  parts,  of  which  the  southern  is  a 
black  earth  region  and  the  other  is  chietly  covered  with  boulder 
clay.  The  boundary  is  marked  by  a  series  of  crown  forests — 
formerly  a  me^ns  of  defence  against  the  nomad  tribes,  whence  their 
name  Zasyeka — which  at  the  same  time  constitute  a  line  that  is 
not  pasi^^d  by  several  species  characteristic  of  the  steppe  region, 
such  as  tho  Lilia  of  the  steppes,  Lilium  Martagon,  Linum  Jlaviim, 
Lathyrus  pisi/ormis,  Qeramum  sanguineum,  Pyrethrttm  corym- 
busum,  and  Serratula  heterophylla.  On  the  other  hand,  several 
northern  species,  which  are  quite  common  in  the  marshes  of  Mos- 
cow, do  not  penetrate  into  Tula,  and  several  others,  such  as  Linnma 
borealis,  Viola  pahistris,  Cirsium  palustre,  Pedicularispalustris,  do 
not  cross'tho  Zasyeka.  The  same  forests  shelter  several  northern 
species  which  do  not  appear  eitK^  in  northern  or  southern  Tula, 
as  also  several  southern  herbaceous  plants  which  are  now  only 
occasionally  met  with  in'  the  black  earth  steppes,  of  south  Rnssia. 
Several  West-European  plants  (Sanicula.europaea,  Carez  remoto. 


T  U  L  — T  U  L 


605 


Cephalanlhera  ensifolia.  Allium  uTsinum)  find  tlieir  eastern  limits 
«D  Tula.  Another  interesting  feature  is  the  extension  down  the 
v-illcy  of  the  Oka,  not  only  of  pine-forests,  which  are  not  found 
elsewhere  within  the  province,  but  also  of  many  herbaceous  plants 
•originally  from  the  south  or  south-west.  The  steppe  flora  dl  Tula 
is  £;ing  rapidly  impoverished  in  consequence  of  the  spread  of  agri- 
culture :  many  steppe  plants  are  now  found  only  in  their  last 
retreats  on  the  dry  uncultivated  limestone  crags. 

The  population  of  the  government  (750,000  in  1777)  in  1SS3 
was  1,360,000,  of  whom  115,770  were  urban.  They  are  all  Great 
Russians,  and  either  Orthodox  Greeks  or  Raskolniks.  Their  chief 
occupation  is  agriculture,  70  per  cent  of  the  area  being  arable. 
Nearly  one-half  of  the  soil  belongs  to  landlords  and  merchants,  and 
the  other  half  to  the  peasant  communities  (53  per  cent,  of  the  area, 
«nd  5S  per  cent,  of  the  land  under  culture).  The  crops  for  18S3-85 
averaged  7,574,200  quarters  of  grain  and  10, 1 72, 000_  bushels  of 
potatoes,  largely  used  for  distilleries.  Beet-root  culture  is  increasing 
(8520  acres  in  1SS5,  yielding  59,800  cwts.  of  sugar).  The  growth 
of  tobacco  is  also  spreading  (10,000  cwts.  in  1SS5).  There  were  in 
1883  380,620  horses,  203,500  cattle,  and  786,000  sheep.  Manu- 
factures are  rapidly  developing ;  "their  aggregate  production  was 
valued  at  £1,649,720  in  1883  (distilleries  £293,956,  sugar-works 
£601,827,  tanneries  £148,356,  iron  works,  brass  works,  ic,  about 
£150,000).  Petty  trades,  especially  the  manufacture  of  tea-urns, 
small  brass  ware,  and  harmoniums,  and  also  weaving,  are  extensively 
carried  on  and  support  a  lively  export  trade  ;  timber,  raw  metals, 
and  various  manufactured  wares  are  imported.  The  government  is 
traversed  by  the  Moscow  and  Sebastopol  and  the  Ryazhsk  and 
Vyazemsb  Railways,  as  well  as  by  the  Oka.  The  government 
is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which,  with 
their  population  in  1882,  are  Tula  (sec  below).  Alexin  (4960), 
Bogoroditsk  (8030),  Byeleff  (9300),  Epifaii  (3820),  Efremoff  (7770), 
Kashira  (4610),  Krapivna  (1560),  Novosil  (4660),  Odoeff(5140),  and 
Tchera  (2675).  Byeleff,  Alexin,  and  Kashira  are  important  loading 
places  pu  the  Oka.  The  villages  Malevka  (coal-mines)  and  Niki- 
tino  have  more  than  5000  inhabitants  each. 

History. — Before  the  Slavonic  immigration,  the  territory  of  Tula 
was  inhabited  by  the  Mordves  on  the  north  and  the  Mestchers  in 
the  south.  The  Slavs  who  occupied  the  Oka  belonged  to  the  branch 
of  the  Vyatichis,  who  were  soon  compelled  to  pay  a  tribute  to  the 
Khazars.  Subsequently  the  territory  on  the  Oka  belonged  to  the 
principality  of  Tchernigoff,  thus  maintaining  its  connexion  with 
south-west  Russia.  In  the  14th  century  part  of  it  fell  under  the 
rule  of  Ryazan  and  Moscow,  while  the  remainder  was  under  Lithu- 
anian dominion  till  the  15th  century.  Several  of  the  towns  of 
Tula  were  founded  in  the  12th  centurj-,  but  the  colonization  of  this 
fertile  region  went  on  slowly  on  account  of  the  raids  of  the  Tatars. 
TULA,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  on 
the  Upa,  120  miles  by  rail  to  the  south  of  Moscow.  Other 
railway  lines  connect  it  with  Ryazaii  and  Orel.  It  is  built 
in  the  broad  but  low,  marshy,  and  unhealthy  valley  of  the 
Upa  and  is  divided  into  three  parts,— the  Posad  on  the 
left  bank,  the  Zaryetskaya  or  Oruzbeinaya  on  the  right 
bank,  and  TchuUcova  between  the  Upa  and  the  Tulitsa. 
It  is  an  old  town  of  Old  Russia,  but  its  growth  began  only 
towards  the  end  of  the  18th  century  after  the  manufacture 
of  arms  had  commenced,  and  now  (1887)  its  population  has 
reached  65,100  (63,500  in  1882).  They  are  employed 
chiefly  either  at  the  imperial  gun  factory  or  at  numerous 
private  factories  (about  130,  with  4350  men)  and  small 
workshops.  The  main  branch  of  the  industry  is  the  making 
of  rifles  (from  20,000  to  30,000  annually)  Next  in  im- 
portance comes  the  manufacture  of  samovars  (tea-urns), 
in  which  more  than  5000  persons  are  engaged  All  sorts 
ot  cutlery  and  ironmongery  are  manufactured  in  the  small 
workshops  of  Tula,  which  have  a  high  repute  in  Russia. 
N'o  fewer  than  240,000 harmoniums  are  turned  out  annually; 
nearly  150,000  cwts.  of  steel,  iron,  and  brass  are  imported 
every  year  for  this  industry  alone. 

The  town  of  Tulf  is  first  mentioned  in  1147  ;  but  its  former  site 
seems  to  hava  been  higher  up  the  Tulitsa.  Its  wooden  fort  was 
replaced  in  1514  1521  by  a  stone  "  kreml,"  which  still  exists. 
Boris  Godunoff  founded  a  gun  factory  at  Tula  in  1595,  and  in  1632 
a  Dutchman,  Winius,  established  an  iron  foundry.  Michael  Alexis 
and  Peter  1.,  especially  the  last-named,  took  great  interest  in  the 
gun  factories,  and  large  establishments  were  built  in  1705  and  1714, 
«hich  soon  turned  out  15,000  rifles  in  a  year.  Catherine  II.  and 
Paul  I.  further  improved  the  manufactures,  which  during  the  wai-s 
with  France  supplied  more  than  half  a  million  rifles. 

TULIP  (Tulipa),  a  genus  of  bulbous  herbs  belonging 
to  the  Liliacex.     The  species  are  found  wild  along  the 


northern  shores   of   the    Jfediterranean,   in  the   Levant 
Armenia,  Caucasus;  Persia,  Central  Asia,  and  Afghanistaa 
The  cup-shaped  flowers  have  six  regular  segments  in  Wra, 
rows,  as  many  free  stamens,  and  a  three-celled  ovary  with  a 
sessile  stigma,  which  ripens  into  a  leathery  many-seeded 
capsule.     The  species  are  numerous,  and  are  distinguished 
one  from  another  by  the  scales  of  the  bulb  being  woolly  or 
smooth  on  the  inner  surface,  by  the  character  of  the  flower- 
stalks,  by  the  filaments  being  hairy  or  otherwise,  and  by 
other  characters.     Owing  to  the  great  beauty  of  the  flowers 
they  have  been  favourites  in  European  gardens  for  two  or 
three  centuries,  and  have  been  crossed  and  recrossed  till  it 
has  become  almost  impossible  to  refer  the  plants  to  their 
original- types.     The  early  flowering  "Van  Thol"  tulips, 
Ihe  segments  of  which  are  mostly.scarlet  with  yellow  edges, 
are  derived  from  T.  suaveolens,  a  native  of  the  Caspian 
region.     T.  Gestienana,  a  native  of  Armenia  and  central 
Russia,  is  the  origin  of  some  of  the  later  flowering  varieties. 
T.  pubescens,  thought  by  Mr  Baker  to  be  a  hybrid  between 
the  two  species  just  named,  is  the  source  of  some  of  the 
early  flowering  kinds  known  as  "  pottebakker,"  &c.     T. 
ocutus  soils  and  T.  Clusiana  are  lovely  species,  natives  of 
southern  France,  and   T.  silvesiris,  with  elegant  yellow 
pendulous    flowers,    is    a    doubtful    native   of    England. 
During  the  last  few  years,  owing  to  the   exertions   of 
Russian  naturalists,  a  large  number  ef  new  species  have 
been  discovered- in  Turkestan,  and  introduced  into  Europe. 
Some  of  these  are  veiy  beautiful,  and  render  it  probable 
that  by  intercrossing  with  the  older  species  still  further' 
difi3ci,dties  will  be  presented  in  the  way  of  identification. 
These  difliculties  are  further  enhanced  by  the  fact  that, 
quite  apart  from   any  cross-breeding,   the  plants,   when 
subjected  to  cultivation,  vary  so  greatly  in  the  course  of 
two  or  three  years  from  the  original  species  from  which 
they  are  directly  descended  that  their  parentage  is  scarcely 
recognizable.     This  innate  power  of  variation  has  enabled 
the  florist  to  obtain,  and  ultimately  to  "  fix,"  so  many  re- 
markable varieties.     At  the  present  day  tulips  are  less 
fashionable  than  they  once  were,  and  consequently  the 
enormous  prices  given  for  new  or  improved  varieties  no 
longer  obtain,  though,  even  now,  two  and  three  guineas  are 
asked  for  special  bulbs.    It  must,  however,  be  remembered 
that  the  "tulipomania"  of  the  17th  century  was  really  a 
form  of  gambling,  in  which  admiration  of  the  flower  and 
interest  in  its  culture  were  very  secondary  matters.     Tulips 
were  introduced  into  the  Low  Countries  in  the  16th  century 
from  Constantinople  and  the  Levant  by  way  of  Vienna  and 
Venice.    There  is  a  legend  that  an  Antwerp  merchant,  to 
whom  bulbs  were  sent,  cooked  them  for  onions ;  and  to 
this  day  the  natives  of  some  parts  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan 
use  the  bulbs  of  Tu/ipa  ckrysantha  for  food.     The  mode 
of  growth  of  a  tulip  bulb  is  worthy  of  attention.    In  spring, 
at  the  flowering  period,  each  bulb  is  a  composite  structure. 
It  consists,  first,  of  the  bulb  of  the  year,  which  produces 
the  flowers  and  the  leaves.    From  the  axil  of  one  (or  more) 
of  the  scales  of  the  flowering  bulb  emerges  a  secondary 
bulb,  destined  to  form   leaves  and  flowers  for  the  nest 
season's  growth.     In  like  manner  from  the  side  of  the 
second  generation  are  produced  tertiary  bulbs,  which  flower 
in  the  third  year  after  their  formation.     Each  bulb,  there- 
fore, has  an  existence  of  three  years,  flowering  In  the  third 
year,  and  dying  afterwards,  so  that  the  bulb  plafited  in 
the  autumn  is  not  the  same  one  that  flowered  in  the 
spring,  but  a  second  generation.     For  the  cultivation  of 
tulips,  see  HoRTictrLTtrRE,  vol  xii.  p.  259. 

TULLE,  a  toivn  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the  department 
of  Corrfeze  and  a  bishop's  see,  is  61  miles  east-north-east 
of  Perigueus  by  the  railway  from  Bordeaux  to  Clermond- 
Ferrand.  The  to^vn  rises  picturesquely  on  both  hanks  of 
the  Corrfeze,  a  sub-tributary  of  the  Dordogne.   The  Corrize, 


COG 


T  U  L  — T  U  N 


crossed  by  four  bridges,  flows  between  embankments,  and 
the  narrow  streets  on  the  steep  left  bank  are  connected  by 
stairs.  Of  the  12th-ceatury  cathedral  only  the  porch  and 
the  nave  of  six  bays  remain,  the  choir  and  transept  having 
been  destroyed  in  1793  ;  but  there  is  a  Hth-century  tower, 
with  a  fine  stone  steeple.  The  neighbouring  cloister  (13th 
century)  is  being  restored.  The  abbot's  house  ( 1 5th  centurj') 
has  a  carved  doorway  and  well-preserved  windows;  and 
some  curious  houses  of  the  12th,  13th,  and  14th  centuries 
still  exist.  Tulle  possesses  normal  schools  for  male  and 
female  teachers,  and  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Historical 
Society  of  Lower  Limousin.  The  principal  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  firearms.  The  Government  establishments 
employ  from  1500  to  3000  workmen,  and  can  turn  out 
70,000  gdns  annually.  Manufactories  for  the  variety  of 
lace  called  "  tulle  "  were  first  established  here.  There  is 
a  collection  of  the  firearms  of  all  nations.  The  population 
in  1886  was  10,635  (commune  16,275). 

Tulle  {Tutela  Lemomcum]  owed  its  importance'in  the  Middle 
Ages  to  an  abbey  founded  by  St  Martin,  or,  according  to  another 
authority,  in  the  7th  century,  which  was  raised  to  a  bishopric  in 
1317.  Mascaron  was  bishop  in  the  17th  century.  The  town  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1346,  and  was  subsequently  ravaged  by  the 
Black  Death.  It  was  again  conquered  by  the  English  in  1369  ; 
but,  when  the  inhabitants  succeeded  in  freeing  themselves,  they 
were  exempted  from  all  Imposts  by  Charles  V.  The  viscount  of 
Turenne,  leader  of  the  Protestants,  tried  in  vain  to  seize  Tulle  in 
1577,  but  was  successful  in  15S5. 

TULLE,  a  term  restricted  in  England  to  a  fine  bobbin- 
net  of  silk,  used  for  veils,  scarves,  millinery  purposes,  and 
trimmings  of  ladies'  dresses,  &c.  The  French  used  the 
word  to  mean  all  machine-made  lace  the  basis  of  which 
is  the  intertwisted  net-work  made  on  the  bobbin-net 
machine.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  town  of  Tulle  in 
France  (see  above). 

TULLOCH,  JoHK  (1823-1886),  Scottish  theologian, 
was  born  at  Bridge  of  Earn,  Perthshire,  in  1823,  went  to 
school  at  Perth,  and  received  his  university  education  at 
St  Andrews  and  Edinburgh.  In  1845  he  became  minister 
of  St  Paul's,  Dundee,  and  in  1849  of  Kettins,  in  Strath- 
more,  where  he  remained  for  six  years.  His  literary  gifts, 
shown  in  hia  contributions  to  various  reviews,  as  well  as 
his  talent  for  society  drew  attention  to  him,  and  in  1854 
he  was  appointed  to  the  principalship  of  St  Mary's  College, 
St  Andrews.  The  appointment  was  immediately  followed 
by  the  appearance  of  his  Burnet  prize  essay  on  Theism. 
At  St  Andrews,  where  he  held  along  with  the  principal- 
ship  the  post  of  professor  of  systematic  theology  and 
apologetics,  his  work  as  a  teacher  was  distinguished  by 
several  features  which  at  that  time  were  new.  He  lectured 
on  comparative  theology  and  treated  doctrine  historically, 
as  being  not  a  fixed  product  but  a  growth.  From  the 
first  he  secured  the  attachment  and  admiration  of  his 
students.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  clerks  of 
the  General  Assembly,  and  from  that  time  forward  be  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  councils  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 
In  1878  he  was  chosen  moderator  of  the  Assembly.  No 
one,  except  perhaps  Dr  Robert  Lee,  has  done  more  during 
the  last  generation  to  widen  the  national  church.  Two 
positions  on  which  he  repeatedly  insisted  in  the  Assembly 
have  taken  a  firm  hold  of  the  mind  of  that  church, — first, 
that  it  is  of  the  essence  of  a  church  to  be  comprehensive 
of  various  views  and  tendencies,  and  that  a  national  church 
especially  should  seek  to  represent  all  the  elements  of  the 
life  of  the  nation  ;  secondly,  that  subscription  to  a  creed 
can  bind  no  one  to  all  its  details,  but  only  to  the  sum  and 
substance,  or  the  spirit,  of  the  symbol.  For  three  years 
before  his  death  he  was  convener  of  the  church  interests 
committee  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  which  had  to  deal 
with  a  great  agitation  for  disestablishment.  He  was  also 
deeply  interested  in  the  reorganization  of  education  in 
Scotland,  both  in  school  and  university,  and  acted  as  one 


of  the  temporary  board  which  settled  the  primary  school 
system  under  the  Education  Act  of  1872.  His  death  took 
place  at  Torquay  on  13th  February  1886. 

Tulloch's  best  known  works  are  collections  of  biograpMcat 
sketches  of  the  leaders  of  ^reat  movements  in  church  history,  such 
as  the  Reformation  and  Puritanism.  His  most  important  book. 
Rational  Theology  and  Christian  Philosophy  {Mil),  is  one  in  which 
the  Cambridge  Platonists  and  other  leaders  of  dispassionate  thought 
in  the  17th  century  are  similarly  treated.  He  delivered  the  second. 
series  of  the  Croall  lectures,  on  the  Doctrine  of  Sin,  which  wers 
afterivards  published.  He  also  published  a  small  work.  The  Christ 
of  Ihi  Gospels  and  the  Christ  of  History,  in  which  the  views  of  Kenan 
on  the  gospel  history  were  dealt  with  ;  a  monograph  on  Pascal  for 
Blackwood's  Foreign  Classics  series  ;  and  a  little  work,  Beginning 
Life,  addressed  to  young  men,  written  at  an  earlier  period.  A  Life 
of  TuUoch  by  Mrs  OUphajjt  is  in  preparation. 

"TULLUS  HOSTILIUS,  third  legendary  king  of  Rome^ 
is  represented  as  having  reigned  for  thirty-two  years 
(670-638  B.C.).  His  successful  wars  with  Alba,  Fidense, 
and  Veil  shadow  forth  the  earlier  conquests  of  Latiaa 
territory  and  the  first  extension  of  the  Roman  domain 
beyond  the  walls  of  Rome.     See  Rome,  voL  xx.  p.  733. 

TUMKUR,  or  Toomkoor,  a  district  of  India,  in  the  west 
of  the  Nandidriig  division  of  Mysore,  situated  between  12° 
43'  and  14°  10'  N.  lat.  and  76°  10'  and  77°  30'  E.  long., 
with  an  area  of  3420  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Bellary  district,  on  the  east  by  Kolar  and 
Bangalore,  on  the  south  by  Mysore,  and  on  the  west  by 
Chitaldriig  and  Hassan.  Tumkur  consists  chiefly  of  elevated 
land  intersected  by  river  valleys.  A  range  of  hills  rising 
to  nearly  4000  feet  crosses  it  from  north  to  south,  and 
forms  the  water-parting  between  the  systems  of  the  Krishna 
and  the  Kdveri.  The  principal  streams  are  the  Jayamangala 
and  the  Shimsha.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Tumkur  is  con- 
siderable ;  iron  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  from  the 
hill  sides ;  and  excellent  building  stone  is  quarried.  The 
slopes  of  the  Devariy-durga  Hills,  a  tract  of  18  square  miles, 
are  clothed  with  forests,  in  which  large  game  are  numerous, 
including  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  and  wild  hogs.  The 
climate  of  Tumkur  is  generally  considered  as  equable  and 
healthy  ;  the  average  annual  rainfall  amounts  to  nearly  33 
inches.  The  Mysore  State  Railway  enters  the  district  at 
the  south-east  corner  and  traverses  it  to  the  west. 

In  18S1  the  population  of  Tumkur  numbered  413,183  (males 
203,253,  females  209,930),  embracing  395,443  Hindus,  17,130 
Mohammedans,  and  603  Christians.  Tumkur  town,  situated  at  tho 
base  of  the  Devaiiy-durga  Hills,  43  miles  north-west  of  Bangalore, 
with  a  population  of  9909,  is  the  administi  ative  headquarters.  Tho 
cultivated  products  consist  chiefly  of  rngi,  miUet,  wheat,  sugar- 
cane, various  pulses,  and  oil  seeds.  Of  the  total  area  745  square 
miles  are  cultivated  and  1544  cultivable.  The  chief  industries  are 
the  making  of  coarse  cotton"  cloths,  woollen  blankets,  and  ropes. 
The  exports  comprise  rdgi,  unhusked  rice,  cocoa-nuts,  areca-nuts, 
earth  salt,  pulses,  and  vegetables  ;  the  imports  include  European 
piece  goods,  rice,  spices,  cotton,  &c. 

The  history  of  Tumkur  is  common  to  the  rest  of  Jlysore.  After 
the  assumption  of  the  administration  of  Mysore  by  the  British  in 
1832  the  district  received  its  present  name  and  limits. 

TUMOUR.  See  Pathology,  vol.  xviii.  p.  367,  and 
Surgery,  vol.  xxii.  p.  687. 

TUMULUS.  See  Ajjchitectdke,  vol.  ii.  p.  384,  and 
Barrows,  vol.  iii.  397. 

TUNBRIDGE,  or  Tonbridge,  a  town  of  Kent,  England, 
is  situated  on  rising  ground  above  the  Medway,  and  on 
the  South-Eastern  Railway,  41  miles  (by  rail)  south-east 
of  London  and  33  north-west  of  Hastings.  The  Medway 
is  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge,  erected  in  1775.  The  town 
consists  chiefly  of  one  long  main  street  and  a  large  number 
of  suburban  villas.  The  church  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul 
chiefly  Decorated  and  Perpendicular  with  some  'i 

an  earlier  date,  has  lately  been  restored.  The  grammar 
school,  founded  by  Sir  Andrew  Judd,  an  alderman  of 
London,  in  the  1st  year  of  Edward  VI.,  was  rebuilt  in  1865, 
remodelled  in  1880,  aiid  extended  in  1887.  Among  other 
public  buildings  are  the  town  hall  and  market  house,  the 


T  U  N  — T  U  N 


607 


public  ball,  and  the  free  library.  Some  traffic  is  carried 
on  by  the  Medway,  which  has  been  made  navigable  for 
barges.  Tunbridge  ware,  chiefly  sold  at  Tunbridge  Wells, 
b  largely  manufactured.  There  are  gunpowder  mills  on 
the  banks  of  the  Medway;  and  wool -stapling,  brewing, 
and  tanning  are  carried  on.  The  population  of  the  urban 
sanitary  district  (area  1200  acres)  in  1871  was  8209  and 
in  1881  it  was  9317 

Tunbridge  owed  its  early  importanceto  the  castle  built  by  Richard, 
earl  of  Clare,  in  the  reisn  of  Henry  I.  The  castle  was  besieged  by 
William  Rnfus,  was  taKen  by  John  in  the  wars  with  the  barons, 
«Bd  again  by  Prince  Edward,  son  of  Henry  III.  Subsequently  it 
became  the  property  of  the  Staflbrds,  and  on  the  attainder  of  the 
duke  of  Buckingham  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  was  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  crowu.  It  was  dismantled  during  the  Civil  War. 
The  remains  now  consist  chiefly  of  a  finely  preserved  gateway  flanked 
by  two  round  towers.  Formerly  it  was  defended  by  three  moats, 
one  of  them  formed  by  the  Medway.  The  lords  of  the  castle  had 
the  right  of  attending  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  on  state 
occasions  as  chief  bntlers. 

TU^TBErDGE  W^LLS,  an  inland  watering -place  of 
England,  chiefly  in  Kent  but  partly  in  Sussex,  is  situated 
in  the  midst  of  charming  and  picturesque  scenery,  on  .the 
South-Eastern  Railway  and  at  the  terminus  of  a  branch 
line  of  the  London,  Brighton,  and  South  Coast  Railway, 
46  miles  (by  rail)  south-east  of  London  and  5  south  of 
Tunbridge.  It  owes  its  popularity  to  its  chalybeate  spring 
and  its  romantic  situation.  The  wells  are  situated  near 
the  Parade  (or  Pantiles),  a  walk  associated  with  fashion 
since  the  time  of  their  discoverj'.  The  houses  and  shops 
in  the  Parade  somewhat  resemble  the  Rows  at  Chester.  It 
was  paved  with  pantiles  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  The 
town  is  built  in  a  picturesquely  irregular  manner,  and  a 
large  part  of  it  consists  of  districts  called  "  parks,"  occupied 
by  villas  and  mansions.  On  Rusthall  common,  about  a 
mile  from  the  town,  is  the  curiously  shaped  Toad  Rock, 
and  about  a  mile  south-west  the  striking  group  called  High 
Rocks.  The  principal  public  b'lildings  are  the  pump-room, 
the  town -hall,  the  corn  exchange,  the  public  hall,  the 
mechanics'  institute,  the  friendly  society's  hall,  the  dis- 
pensary and  infirmary,  and  the  provident  dispensary.  The 
Tunbridge  Wells  sanatorium  is  situated  in  grounds  sixty 
acres  id  extent,  and  is  capable  of  receiving  150  visiters. 
There  is  a  large  trade  in  Tunbridge  ware,  which  is  made 
chiefly  at  Tunbridge,  and  includes  work  tables,  boxes,  toys, 
&c.,  made  of  hard  woods,  such  as  beech,  sycamore,  holly, 
and  cherry,  and  inlaid  with  mosaic.  The  to\fti  is  governed 
by  a  local  board  of  twenty-four  members.  The  population 
of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  3351  acres)  in  1871 
was  19,410  and  in  1881  24,308. 

The  town  owes  its  rise  to  the  discovery  of  the  medicinal  springs 
by  Dudley,  Lord  North,  in  1606.  Henrietta  Maria,  wife  of  Charles 
1.,  retired  to  drink  the  waters  at  Tunbridge  after  the  birth  of  her 
eldest  son  Charles.  Soon  after  the  Restoration  it  wa.s  visited  by 
Charles  II.  and  Catherine  of  Braganza,  It  was  a  favomite  residence 
of  Anne  previous  to  her  accession,  and  fi-om  that  time  became  one 
of  the  special  resorts  of  London  fashion.  It  reached  the  height  of 
its  comparative  popularity  in  the  latter  half  of  the  18th  century, 
and  is  specially  associated  with  Colley  Cibber,  Samuel  Johnson, 
Cumberland  the  dramatist,  Garrick,  Richardson,  Reynolds,  Beau 
Nash,  Miss  Chudleigh,  and  Mrs  Thrale.  The  Tunbridge  of  that 
period  is  sketched  with  much  graphic  humour  in  Thackeray's  Vir- 
ginians.  Though  it  still  attracts  an  increasing  munber  of  visiters, 
its  importance  in  reference  to  London  society  has  considerably 
declined. 

rilNG-CHOW,  a  subprefectural  city  in  Chih-li,  the 
metropolitan  province  of  China,  is  situated  on  the  banks 
of  the  Peiho  in  39'  54'  N.  lat.  and  1 16°  41'  E.  long.,  about 
12  miles  south-east  of  Peking.  Like  most  Chinese  cities, 
T'nng-Chow  has  appeared  in  history  under  various  names. 
By  the  founder  of  the  Han  dynasty  (206  B.C.)  it  was  called 
Lu-Hien;  with  the  rise  of  the  T'ang  dynasty  (G18  a.d.) 
its  name  was  changed  to  Heuen-Chow ;  and  at  the  begin- 
jing  of  the  12th  century,  with  the  advent  of  the  Kin 
■^nasty  te  power,  Heuen-Chow  became  T'ung-Chow.    The 


city  marks  the  highest  point  at  which  the  Peiho  is  navi- 
gable,  and  here  merchandise  for  the  capital  is  transferred 
to  a  canal,  by  which  it  reaches  Peking.  The  city,  which 
is  faced  on  its  eastern  side  by  the  river,  aad  on  its  other 
three  sides  is  surrounded  by  populous  suburbs,  is  upwards 
of  3  miles  in  circumference.  The  walls  are  about  45  feet 
in  height  and  about  24  feet  wide  at  the  top.  They  are 
being  allowed  to  fall  into  decay.  Two  main  thoroughfares 
run  through  the  city,  one  connecting  the  north  and  south 
gates,  and  the  other  the  east  and  west  gates.  The  place 
derives  its  importance  from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  port  of 
Peking.  Its  population  was  estimated  at  about  50,000  in 
1S87 

It  was  at  T'ung-Chow  that  Sir  Harry  Parkcs,  Sir  Henry  Loch,  and 
their  escort  were  treacherously  taken  prisoners  by  the  Chinese  when 
they  were  sent  forward  by  Lord  Elgin  to  negonate  terms  of  peace 
after  the  troubles  of  1860. 

TUNGSTEN  (Germ,  wolfram,  or,  antiquated,  scheel), 
one  of  the  metallic  elements  of  chemistry.  The  mineral 
tungsten  (meaning  in  Swedish  "  heavy  stone ")  used  to 
be  taken  for  a  tin  ore  until  this  was  disproved  by  Cronsted. 
Scheele  showed  in  1781  that  it  is  a  compoimd  of  lime  with 
a  peculiar  acid,  the  metallifv  nature  of  which  was  recog- 
nized in  the  same  year  by  Bergmann.  It  occurs  only  as  a 
component  of  a  number  of  relatively  rare  minerals,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  wolfram  or  wolframite, 
(Fe,  Mn)0 .WO3,  and  scheelite  (tungsten),  CaOWOj  (see 
Minekalogy).  The  metal  is  prepared  from  the  pure  oxide 
WO3  by  reduction  with  hydrogen  in  a  platinum  tube  at; 
a  high  temperature.  It  forms  resplendent  tin-white  or  grey- 
plates,  or  a  dull  black  powder  similar  to  hydrogen-reduced 
iron.  Sp.  gr  =  19129,  water  of  4°  C.  =  1  (Roscoe).  It  is 
more  difficult  to  fuse  than  even  MaKgajnese  (q.v.).  It  is 
unalterable  in  ordinary  air  ;  oxygen  and  even  chlorine  act 
upon  it  only  at  a  high  temperature.  Hydrochloric  and 
sulphuric  acid  do  not  attack  it.  Nitric  acid  attacks  it  slowly, 
aqua  regia  readily,  with  formation  of  the  trioxide  WO3. 
Impure  tungsten  is  now  being  prepared  industrially  for 
the  production  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  steel  (see  Ikon,  voL 
xiii.  p,  352). 

ddoT-utes.— Tungsten  forms  four  chlorides,— WCL,  WClj,  'WCT,, 
WCIb.  The  liighest,  WCls,  is  obtained  by  heating  the  pure  powdery 
metal  in  a  current  of  absolutely  pure  chlorine.  In  the  presence 
of  moisture  or  air  oxy-chlorides  are  produced.  It  sublimes  off  as  t 
dark  red  liquid,  freezing  into  crystals.  These  fuse  at  275°  C.  and 
re-solidify  at  270°  j  the  liquid  boils  at  346°-7.  The  sp.  gr.  of  the- 
vapour  is  in  accordance  with  the  formnlaat  350°  ;  at  higher  tempera- 
tures it  dissociates  into  WCI5  and  free  Clo(Roscoe).  When  the  vapour 
of  WClj  is  p.assed  over  heated  trioxide,  the  two  bodies  unite,  WO^ 
mth  2WCI5  into  3WOCI4,  forming  magnificent  red  needles,  which 
fuse  at  210°-4  and  boU  at  227°-5  C.  (Wohler).  Both  compounds, 
WCls  and  WOClj,  are  decomposed  by  water,  the  o.'sy-chloridc  more 
readily,  with  formation  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  trioxide.  For 
other  chlorides  and  osy-chlorides,  see  the  ordinary  hand-books  of 
chemistry. 

Oxides,  WOn  a-nd  WO,,  and  Compounds  of  Viese  with  Each  Olhcr^ 
—The  trioxide,  popularly  known  as  tungstic  acid,  is  tlie  more- 
important.  Impure  trioxide  is  producible  by  treating  scheelite 
{W03CaO)  with  hot  hydrochloric  acid.  Wolframite  is  not  so  readily 
decomposed  ;  but  when  fused  with  tmce  its  weight  of  chloride  of 
calcium  it  passes  into  lime  salt,  obtainable  as  an  insoluble  residue  by 
lixiviation  of  the  fuse  with  water.  The  oxide  obtained  forms  a  yel- 
low powder  insoluble  in  water  and  in  hydrochloric  acid.  To  purify 
it,  it  is  washed,  dissolved  in  aqueous  ammonia,  and  the  filtered 
solution  evaporated,  when  an  acid  tungstate  of  ammonia  separates 
out  in  scales  of  great  purity.  These,  when  heated  in  air,  leave 
behind  them  a  pseudo-morphose  of  pure  yellow  oxide.  Trioxide  of 
tungsten  combines  with  basic  oxides  into  tungstates  ;  but  the  pro- 
portion in  which  it  unites  with  a  given  base  is  subject  to  great 
variation  :  for  instance,  the  quantity  Na-O  of  soda  unites  into  so 
many  definite  tungstates  with  1,  ]i,  2,  2},  2s,  2>,  4  times  WO3 
and  in  each  case  more  or  less  of  water.  To  each  of  these  sod.-i 
salts  corresponds  theoretically  a  certain  tungstic  acid, — to  the  salt 
Na^OWjOj,  for  instance,  the  acid  HjOWjOj  or  H^WjO,.  But  few 
of  these  hydrates  actually  exist,  and  they  are  not  individual  acids 
in  the  sense  in  which  the  three  phosphoric  acid^  are,  except  per- 
haps  that   remarkable   substance  known   as   metatungstic  add. 


60S 


T  U  N  — T  U  N 


HjW^Ojj  +  ZHaO.  This  acid  forma  crystals  of  the  stated  composi 
tion  ,  it  dissolves  in  water  and  the  solution  unites  with  bases  into 
meta  t-ungstates.  >Iost  meta-tungstates  are  soluble  in  water;  of  the 
tungstates  proper  only  the  alkali  salts  are  so  soluble.  The  soda 
tuugstate,  5Na20  12W03  +  3:H-0,  known  as  para- tungstate  of  soda, 
is  made  industrially  by  fusing  wolframite  with  carbonate  of  soda 
and  Uiciviating  the  fuse  with  water.  The  insoluble  oxides  of  iron 
and  manganese  are  filtered  off ,  the  filtrate,  while  still  hot,  is  nearly 
neutralized  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  allowed  to  crystallize.  It 
forms  large  crystals  containing  twenty -one,  twenty  five,  or  twenty- 
eight  times  HjO  according  to  the  temperature  at  which  they  are 
formed.  The  salt  has  been  recommended  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing 
and  calico  printing,  but  has  not  taken  root  in  these  industries. 
Oppenheim  and  Versmann  recommended  it  before  1862  as  the  best 
means  for  rendering  te.ictile  fabrics  uninflammable.  If  a  solution 
of  the  para-tungstate  is  boiled  with  Lydrated  tungstic  acid  (as  ob- 
tained by  precipitating  any  ordinary  alkaline  tungstate  solution 
M-ith  hydrochloric  acid  in  the  heat),  or  is  simply  mixed  with  excess 
of  acetic  acid,  the  meta-tungstate  is  formed  ;  in  the  lattei  case  it 
separates  out  as  a  heavy  oil  Meta-tungstate  of  soda  forms  octa- 
hedral crystals  of  the  composition  Na^O  .  4WO3  +  lOH^O.  If  con- 
centrated warm  solutions  of  this  salt  and  the  equivalent  quantity 
of  chloride  of  barium  are  mixed  and  allowed  to  cool  after  addition 
of  a  little  hydrochloric  acid,  meta-tungstate -of  barium  crystallizes 
out  as  Ba0.4W03  +  9H20,  in  large  quadratic  pyramids  which  are 
very  easily  soluble  in  water.  From  this  salt  the  free  acid  is  easily 
produced  by  addition  of  the  exact  quantity  x>f  sulphuric  acid  re- 
quired to  precipitate  the  baryta,  and  from  it  any  other  meta- 
tungstate  is  easily  produced.  Meta  -  tungstic  acid  solution  is  a 
sensitive  and  characteristic  precipitant  for  almost  all  alkaloids 
(strychnine,  quinine,  &c.)-  The  allcaloid,  whatever  its  name,  goes 
down  as  a  fiocculent  insoluble  meta-tungstate.  Tungstic  acid  com- 
bines with  phosphoric  acid  and  with  silicic  acids  into  highly  com- 
plex phospho-tungstic  acids  and  silico-tungstic  acids.  Of  the  for- 
mer there  is  quite  a  series,  each  consisting  of  one  PgOa  united  with 
respectively  fourteen,  sixteen,  eighteen,  twenty,  twenty-two,  twenty- 
four  times  \VO:j  and  six  HjO  of  basic  water.  Of  silico-tungstic 
acids  three  are  known,  namely,  one  4H2O  .  SiOj  lOWOg  +  3Aq  and 
two  SiOo.  12WO3JH.JO  All  these  complex  acids  (both  kinds)  are 
easdy  soluble  in  water  The  phospho-acids  are  delicate  precipitants 
for  all  alkaloids. 

Tho  binoxide,  WO^,  is  obtained  when  the  trioxide  is  reduced  by 
hydrogen  at  a  dull  red  heat  This  oxide  is  very  prone  to  pass  into 
trioxide  or  tungstate.  Aji  interesting  and  beautiful  class  of  com- 
pounds of  WO3,  WO2,  and  bases  are  known  as  tungsten  bronzes.  The 
first  of  these  lyas  discovered  by  Wohler.  Normal  tungstate  of  soda, 
NaoOWOa,  is  fused,  and  trioxide  addyd  to  it  as  long  as  it  dissolves. 
The  product  is  then  heated  in  hydrogen  as  long  as  water  goes  away, 
and  the  substance  thus  reduced  is  exhausted  successively  with  water, 
hydrochloric  acid,  caustic  potash  ley,  and  a^in  with  water.  A 
residue  of  the  composition  ^f a^O  .  ■W20g-t-.W0;i  remains  in  the  shape 
of  magnificent  gold-like  lustrous  cubes,  of  specific  gravity  6617, 
which  conduct  electricity  like  a  metal.  Only  hydroftuoric  acid 
dissolves  this  soda  tungsten  bronze.  There  are  aTiumber  of  other 
tungsten  bronzes,  all  distinguished  by  metallic  lustre  and  magni- 
ficent purple,  red,  yellow,  or  blue  colours. 

Analysis  — O.xides  of  tungsten  dissolve  in  fused  microcosmic  salt, 
Na^OPjOs  ;  the  bead  becomes  blue  in  the  reducing  flame,  in  the 
presence  of  iron  blood -red,  and  in  the  oxidizing  flame  colourless. 
When  heated  on  charcoal  with  (not  too  much)  carbonate  of  soda  or 
cyanide  of  potassium  in  the  reducing  flame,  they  yield  a  grey  heavy 
powder  of  metal,  obtainable  by  elutriation.  The  process  fails  in  the 
presence  of  too  much  alkali  Insoluble  tungstates  (e.g.,  the  ordi- 
nary tungsten  minerals)  are  disintegrable  by  fusion  with  alkaline 
carbonate  ;  the  fuse,  when  treated  with  water,  yields  a  solution  of 
alkaline  tungstate.  This  solution,  when  mixed  with  excess  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  gives  a  white  precipitate  of  hydrated  trioxide^  which 
on  boiling  becomes  yellow  by  partial  dehydration.  The  yellow 
unignited  precipitate  is  soluble  in  aqueous  ammonia.  If  tungstate 
of  alkali  solutions  are  mixed  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  then  treated 
with  metallic  zinc,  they  become  blue  through  the  formation  of 
a  compound  of  WO3  and  WQj  or  rather  the  respective  chloride  ; 
this  reaction  gains  in  definiteness  through  the  presence  of  phosphoric 
acid.  (WD) 

TUNGUSES,  a  wide-spread  Asiatic  people,  forming  a 
main  branch  of  the  Mongol  division  of  the  Mongol-Tatar 
family.  They  are  the  Tung-ku  of  the  Chinese,  probably  a 
corrupt  form  of  tonki  or  donk%  that  is,  "men"  or  "people." 
The  Russian  form  Tungiis^  wrongly  supposed  to  mean  "lake 
people,"  appears  to  occur  first  in  the  Dutch  writer  Massa 
(1612);  but  the  race  has  been-  known  to  the  Russians  ever 
since  they  reached  the  Yenisei.  The  Tungus  domain, 
covering  many  hundred  thousand  square  miles  in  central 
and  east  Siberia  and  in  the  Amur  basin,  stretches  from 


the  Yenisei  eastwards  to  the  Pacific,  where  it  occupies 
most  of  the  seaboard  between  Corea  and  Kamchatka.  It 
also  reaches  the  Arctic  Ocean  at. two  points,  in  the  Nisovaya 
tundra,  west  of  the  IChatanga  river,  and  in.a  comparatively 
small  enclosure  in  the  Yana  basin  over  agamst  the  Liakhoflf 
(New  Siberia)  Archipelago.  But  the  Tunguses  proper  are 
chiefly  centred  in  the  region  watered  by  the  three  large 
eastern  tributaries  of  the  Yenisei,  which  from  them  take 
their  namea  of  the  Upper,  Middle  or  Stony,  and  Lower 
Tunguska.  Here  the  Tunguses  are  known  to  the  Samoyedea 
by  the  name  of  Aiya  or  "younger  brothers,"  implying  a 
comparatively  recent  immigration  (confirmed  by  other  in- 
dications) from  the  Amur  basin,  which  appears  to  be  the 
original  home  both  of  the  Tunguses  and  of  the  closely- 
allied  Manchus.  The  Amur  is  still  mainly  a  Tungus  river 
almost  from  its  source  to  its  mouth,  the  Oroches  (Orochus), 
Daurians,  Birars,  Golds,  Manegrs,  Sanagirs,  Ngatkons, 
Nigidals,  and  some  other  aboriginal  tribes  scattered  aiong 
the  main  stream  and  its  affluents, — the  Shilka,  Sungari,  and 
Usuri, — are  all  of  Tungus  stock  and  speech.  On  the  Pacific 
the  chief  subdivisions  of  the  race  are  the  Lamuts,  or  "  sea 
people,"  grouped  in  small  isolated  hunting  communities 
round  the  west  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  and  further 
south  the  Yu-pi-tartze  ("  fish  clad "),  the  Tazi  of  the 
Russians,  between  the  Amur  delta  and  Corea,  The  whole 
race,  exclusive  of  Manchus,  numbers  probably  about 
80,000,  of  whom  15,000  are  in  the  Amur  basin,  the  rest 
in  Siberia. 

The  Tuugua  type  is  essentially  Mongolic,  being  characterized  by 
broad  flat  features,  small  nose,  wide  mouth,  tliin  lips,  small  black 
and  somewhat  oblique  eyes,  black  lank  hair,  dark  olive  or  bronze 
complexion,  low  stature,  averaging  not  more  than  five  feet  four 
inches  ;  they  are  distinguished  from  other  MongoUc  peoples  by  the 
square  shape  of  the  skull  and  the  sUm,  wiry,  well-proportioned  figure; 
This -description  applies  more  especially  to  the  Tunguska  tribes, 
who  may  be  regarded  as  typical  Tunguses,  and  who,  unlike  most 
other  Mongols,  betray  no  tendency  to  obesity.     They  are  classed 
by  the  Russians,  according  to  their  various  pursuits,  as  Reindeer, 
Horse,  Cattle,  Dog,  Steppe,  and  Forest  Tunguses.      A  few  have 
become  settled  agriculturists  ^  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  race  are 
still  essentially  forest  hunters,  using  the  reindeer  both  as  mounta 
and  as  pack  animals.     Nearly  all  lead  nomad  lives,  in  pursuit  of 
fur-bearing  animals,  whose  skis  they  supply  to  Russian  and  Yakut 
traders,  in  exchange  for  provisions,  clothing,  and  other  necessaries 
of  life.     Th^  picturesque  and  evpn  elegant  national  costume  shows 
in  its  ornamentation  and  general  style  decided  Japanese  influence^ 
due  no  doubt  to  long- continued  intercourse  with  that  nation  at 
some  period  previous  to  the  spread  of  the  race   from  the  Amut 
valley  to  Siberia.      Many  of  the  Tungus  tribes  have  been  baptized, 
and  are,  therefore,  reckoned  as  "Greek  Christians";  but  Russian 
orthodoxy  has  not  penetrated  far  below  the  surface,  and  most  ol 
them  are  still  at  heart  Shamanists  and  nature- worshippers,  secretly 
keeping  the  teeth  and  claws  of  wild  animals  as  idols  or  amulets, 
and  observing  Christian  rites  only  under  copipnlsion.     But,  whether 
Christians  or  pagans.all  alike  are  distinguished  above  other  Asiatics, 
perhaps  above  all  other  peoples,  for  their  truly  noble  moral  qualities. 
All  observers  describe  them  as  *'  cheerful  under  the  most  depressing 
circumstances,  perserertng,  open-hearted,  trustworthy,  modest  yet 
self-reliant,  a  fearkss  race  of  hunters,  born  amidst  the  gloom  of 
their  dense  pine-forests,  exposed  from  the  cradle  to  every  danger 
from  wild  beasts,  cold,  and  hunger.     "Want  and  hardships  of  every 
kind  they  endure  with  surprising  fortitude,  and  nothing  can  induce 
them  t»  take  service  under  the  Russians  or  quit  their  solitary  wood- 
lands" (Keanc's  Asia^  p.  479).      Their  numbers  are  steadily  de. 
creasing  owing  to  "the  ravages  of  small-pox,   scarlet   fever,  and 
especially  famine,  their  most  dreaded  enemy.    Their  domain  is  also 
being  continually  encroached  upon  by  the  aggressive  Yakuts  from 
the  north  and  east,  and  from  the  south  by  the  Slavs,  now  settled 
in  compact  bodies  in  the  province  of  Irkutsk  about  the  upper  course 
of  the  Yenisei    It  is  remarkable  that,  while  the  Russians  often  show 
a  tendency  to  become  assimilated  to  the  Yakuts,  the  most  vigorous 
and  expansive  of  all  the  Siberian  peoples,  the  Tunguses  every  whei-e 
yield  before  the  advance  of  their  more  civilized   neighbours,  or 
become  absorbed  in  the  surrounding  Slav  communities.     In  the 
Amur  valley  the  same  fate  is  overtaking  the  kindred  tribes,  who 
are  disappearing  before  the  great  waves  of  Chinese  migration  from 
the  soutli  and  Ryssian  encroachments  both  from  the  east  and  west. 
In  1880  the  Oroches  were  already  reduced  to  about  260,  and  the 
Tazi  to  a  little  over  200.     For  the  philological  relations  of  tb* 
Tunguses,  see  vol.  xviii,  p.  779. 


6Q9 


TU  N IC AT  A 


Aicid- 

UZ3.   ■ 


Co  a- 
{icand 
Adcid- 
uns. 


CuTier 

Aod 
dftTigify. 


L&marck. 


)  .0  and 

l:on  of 

tfans. 
Circula 

tioo. 


Kdv.arda. 


Carl 
Schmidt 


THIS  group  of  animals  was  formerly  regarded  as  con- 
stituting along  ^-ith  the  Polyzoa  and  the  Brackio- 
poda  the  invertebrate  class  Molluscoidea.  It  is  now  known 
to  be  a  degenerate  branch  of  the  Chordata,  and  to  be  more 
nearly  related  to  the  Vertebraia  than  to  any  group  of  the 
hvertebrata 

History.' 

More  than  two  thousand  years  ago  Aristotle  gave  a 
short  account  of  a  Simple  Ascidian  under  the  name  of 
T^thyum.  He  described  the  appearance  and  some  6f  the 
n-.ore  important  points  in  the  anatomy  of  the  animal. 
From  that  time  onwards  to  little  more  than  a  century  ago, 
although  various  forn-S  of  Ascidians  had  been  briefly  de- 
scribed by  writers  on  marine  zoology,  comparatively  little 
advance  was  made  upon  th«  knowledge  of  Aristotle. 
Schlosser  and  Ellis,  in  a  paper  containing  a  description  of 
Botryllus,  published  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Society  for  1756,  first  brought  the  Compound 
Ascidians  into  notice ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  commence-- 
meet  of  the  19th  century,  as  a  result  of  the  careful  ana- 
tomical investigations  of  Cuvier  (/)  upon  the  Simple 
Ascidians  and  of  Savigny  (s)  upon  the  Compound,  that 
the  close  relationship  between  these  two  group's  of  the 
Tunicata  was  conclusively  demonstrated.  Up  to  1816, 
tha  date  of  publication  of  Savigny's  great  wcrfk  {s),  the 
few  Compound  Ascidians  then  known  had  been  generally 
regarded  as  AUyonaria  or  as  Sponges ;  and,  although 
many  new  Simple  Ascidians  had  been  described  by  O.  F. 
Miiller  {4)  and  others,  their  internal  structure  had  not 
been  investigated.  Lamarck  (j)  in  1816,  chiefly  as  the 
result  of  the  anatomical  discoveries  of  Savigny  and  Cuvier, 
instituted  the  class  Tunicata,  which  he  placed  between  the 
Radiata  and  the  Vermes  in  his  system  of  classification. 
The  Tunicata  included  at  that  time,  besides  the  Simple 
and  the  Compound  Ascidians,  the  pelagic  forms  Pyrosoma, 
which  had  been  fir^t  made  known  by  P^ron  in  1804,  and 
Salpa,  described  by  Forskil  in  1775. 

Chamisso  in  1820  made  the  important  discovery  that 
Salpa  in  its  life-history  passes  through  the  series  of  changes 
which  were  afterwards  more  fully  described  by  Steenstrup 
in  1842  as  "alternation  of  generations";  and  a  few  years 
later  Kuhl  and  Van  Hasselt's  investigations  upon  the  same 
animal  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  alternation  in  the 
directions  in  which  the  wave  of  contraction  passes  along 
the  heart  and  in  which  the  blood  circulates  through  the 
body.  It  has  since  been  found  that  this  observation  holds 
good  for  all  groups  of  the  Tunicata.  In  1826  H.  Milne- 
Edwards  and  Audouin  made  a  series  of  observations  on 
living  Compound  Ascidians,  and  amongst  other  discoveries 
they  found  the  free-swimming  tailed  larva,  and  traced  its 
development  into  the  young  Ascidian.  Milne -Edwards 
(s)  also  founded  the  group  of  "Social"  Ascidians,  now 
known  as  the  Clavelinids,  and  gave  a  classification  of  the 
Compound  Ascidians  which  was  universally  accepted  for 
many  years.  From  the  year  1826  onwards  a  number  of 
new  and  remarkable  forms  were  discovered,.as,  for  instance, 
some  of  the  Bolteninx  (Macleay),  Chelyosoma  (Broderip  and 
Sowerby,  and  afterwards  Eschricht),  Oikopleura  (Mertens), 
Perophora  (Lister),  Pelonaia  (Forbesand  Goodsir),  Chondra- 
iachys  and  Biplosoma  (Denis  Macdonald),  Biazona  (Forbes 
and  Goodsir),  and  Rhodosoma,  (Ehrenberg,  and  afterwards 
Lacaze-Duthiers). 

In  1845  Carl  Schmidt  {6)  first  announced  the  presence 

Only  the  more  important  works  can  be  mentioned  here.  For  a 
mora  detailed  account  of  the  history  of  the  group  and  a  full  biblio- 
yapjiy,  see  (/y)  iu  the  list  of  works  at  the  end  of  this  article. 


in  the  test  of  some  Ascidians  of  "  tunicine,"  a  substance 
very  similar  to  cellulose,  and  in  the  following  year  Lowig 
and  KoUiker  (7)  confirmed  the  discovery  and  made  some 
additional  observations  upon  this  substance  and  upon  the 
structure  of  the  test  in  general.  Huxley  (<?),  in  an  im- 
portant series  of  papers  published  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  and  Linneau  Societies  of  London  from  1851  on- 
wards, discussed  the  structure,  embryology,  and  affinities 
of  the  pelagic  Tunicates  Pyrosoma,  Salpa,  Doliolum,  and 
Appendimdaria.  These  important  forms  were  also  investi- 
gated about  the  same  time  by  Gegenbaur,  Vogt,  H.  Miiller, 
Krohn,  and  Leuckart.  The  most  important  epoch  in  the 
history  of  the  Tunicata  is  the  date  of  the  publication  of 
■Kowalevsky's  celebrated  me'moir  upon  the  development  of 
a  Simple  Ascidian  (9).  The  tailed  larva  had  been  previously 
discovered  and  investigated  by  several  naturalists — notably 
H.  Milne-Edwards  (j),  J.  P.  van  Beneden  (10),  and  Krohn 
(//) ;  but  its  minute  structure  had  not  been  sulBciently 
examined,  and  the  meaning  of  what  was  known  of  it  had 
not  been  understood.  It  was  reserved  for  Kowalevsky  in 
1866  to  demonstrate  the  striking  similarity  in  structure 
and  in  development  between  the  larval  Ascidian  and  the 
vertebrate  emljryo.  He  showed  that  the  relations  between 
the  nervous  system,  the  notochord,  and  the  alimentary 
canal  are  inuch  the  same  in  the  two  forms,  and  have  been 
brought  about  by  a  very  similar  course  of  embryonic  de- 
velopment. This  discovery  clearly  indicated  that  the 
Tunicata  are  closely  allied  to  Ampkioxus  and  the  Verte- 
braia, and  that  the  tailed  larva  represents  the  primitive 
or  ancestral  form  from  which  the  adult  Ascidian  has  been 
evolved  by  degeneration,  and  this  led  naturally  to  the  view 
usually  accepted  at  the  present  day,  that  the  group  is  a 
degenerate  side-branch  from  the  lower  end  of  the  phylum 
Chordata,  which  includes  the  Tunicata  (  Urochorda),  A  mphi- 
oxus  (C ephalochorda),  and  the  Vertebrata.  Kowalevsky's 
great  discovery  has  since  been  confirmed  and  extended  to 
all  other  groups  of  the  Tunicata  by  Kupffer  {12),  Giard 
(/J  and  /j),  and  others.  Important  observations  upon 
the  process  of  gemmation  and  the  formation  of  colonies  in 
various  forms  of  Compound  Ascidians  have  been  made  by 
Krohn,  Metschnikofl^,  Kowalevsky,  Ganin,  Giard,  Delia 
Valle,  and  others,  and  have  gradually  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  general  principle,  that  all  the  more  important 
layers  of  the  bud  are  derived  more  or  less  directly  froii> 
the  corresponding  regions  in  the  body  of  the  parent. 

In  1872  Fol  {14)  added  largely  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
Appendiculariidse,  and  Giard  (/j)  to  that  of  the  Compound 
Ascidians.  The  latter  author  described  a  number  of  new 
forms  and  remodelled  the  classification  of  the  group.  The 
most  important  additions  which  have  been  made  to  the 
Compound  Ascidians  since  Giard's  work  have  been  those 
described  by  Von  Drasche  (16)  from  the  Adriatic  and 
those  discovered  by  the  "Challenger"  expedition  {17). 
The  structure  and  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  Simple 
Ascidians  have  been  mainly  discussed  of  recent  years  by 
Alder  and  Hancock  {18),  Heller  (/p),  Lacaze-Duthiera 
(20),  Traustedt  (.?/),  and  Herdman  (//,  22).  In  1874 
Usso2'(.?j)  investigated  the  minute  structure  of  the  nervous 
system  and  of  the  underlying  gland,  which  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Hancock,  and  showed  that  the  gland  has  a 
duct  which  communicates  -with  the  front  of  the  branchial 
sac  or  pharynx  by  an  aperture  in  the  dorsal  (or  "olfactory") 
tubercle.  In  an  important  paper  |)ublished  in  1880  Julin 
(24)  drew  attention  to  the  similarity  in  structure  and  rela- 
tions between  this  gland  and  the  hypophysis  cerebri  of  tire 
vertebrate  brain,  and  insisted  upon  their  homologj".  He 
suggests  that  they  perform  a  renal  function.   The  Thaliacea 


Huxley. 


Kowa- 
levsky 
Tailed 
larva 


RelatiOD* 
ship  to 
Vert«- 
bratei 


Kupffer. 
Giard,  6:0. 

Gemma- 
tion. 


Fol,  to. 


Sub- 
neural 

gland 
and 
dorsal 
luberci,^ 


610 


TUNICATA 


Thali- 


Beueden 

and 

Julix 


A  scidia 
uientuta. 

ExtL-ma' 

charao. 

tera. 


have  of  late  years  been  the  suhject  of  several  very  import- 
ant memoirs.  The  researches  of  Todaro,  Brooks  (-^s), 
Salensky  (.?<i),  and  others  have  elucidated  the  embryology, 
the  gemmation,  and  the  life-history  of  the  Salpidse ;  and 
Grobben,  Barrois  {^7),  and  more  especially  Dljanin  (^S) 
have  elaborately  worked  out  the  structure  and  the  details 
of  the  complicated  life-history  of  the  Doliolidse.  Finally, 
in  an  important  work  published  in  1886  on  the  morpho- 
logy of  the  Timicala,  E.  van  Beneden  and  Julin  (jo)  have, 
mainly  as  the  result  of  a  close  comparison  of  the  embryo- 
logy of  Ascidians  with  that  of  Amphioxvs  and  other 
Chordata,  added  considerably  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
position  and  affinities  of  the  Tunicata,  and  of  the  exact 
relations  of  their  organs  to  the  corresponding  parts  of  the 
body  in  the  Vertebraia. 

Anatomy. 
As  a  type  of  the  Tunicata,  Ascidia  mentula,  one  of  the 
larger  species  of  the  Simple  Ascidians,  may  be  taken.  This 
species  is  found  in  most  of  the.  European  seas,  generally  in 
-shallow  water  on  a  muddy  bottom.  It  has  an  irregularly 
ovate  form,  and  is  of  a  dull  grey  colour.  It  is  attached  to 
some  foreign  object  by  one  end  (fig.  1).  The  opposite  end 
of  the  body  is  usually  nar-  br 

row,  and  it  has  a  terminal 
opening  surrounded  by  eight 
rounded  lobes.  This  is  the 
mouth  or  branchial  aperture, 
and  it  always  indicates  the 
anterior  end  '  of  the  animal. 
About  half-way  back  from 
the  anterior  end,  and  on  a 
rounded  projection,  is  the 
atrial  or  cloacal  aperture — 
an  opening  surrounded  by 
siz  lobes — which  is  always 
placed  upon  the  dorsal  re- 
gion. AVhen  the  Ascidian 
is  living  and  undisturbed, 
water  is  being  constantly 
drawn  in  through  the 
branchial  aperture  and 
passed  out  through  the 
atrial.  If  coloured  par- 
ticles be  placed  in  the 
water  near  the  apertures, 
they  are  seen  to  be  sucked 
into  the  body  through  the 
branchial  aperture,  and  after 
a  short  time  some  of  them 
are  ejected  with  consider- 
able force  through  the  atrial 
aperture.  The  current  of  p^^  ^ 
water  passing  in  is  for  re-  side, 
spiratory  purposes,  and  it 
also  conveys  food  into  the  animal.  The  atrial  current  is 
mainly  the  water  which  has  been  used  in  respiration,  but 
It  also  contains  all  excretions  from  the  body,  and  at  times 
the  ova  and  spermatozoa  or  the  embryos. 
Tbe  »!t  The  outer  grey  fiart  of  the  body,  which  is  attached  at 
or  near  its  posterior  end  and  penetrated  by  the  two  aper- 
tures, is  the  "  test."  This  is  a  firm  gelatinous  cuticular 
secretion  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  ectoderm,  which  is 
d  layer  of  flat  cells  lining  its  inner  surface.  Although  at 
first  produced  as  a  cuticle,  the  test  soon  becomes  organized 
by  the  migration  into  it  of  cells  derived  from  the  ectoderm 
(see  fig.  2).  These  tost  cells  may  remain-  as  rounded  or 
fusiform  or  stellate  cells  imbedded  in  the  gelatinous  matrix, 
to  which  they  are  constantly  adding  by  secretions  on  their 

*  Some  writers  use  a  different  uonienclature  of  regions  ;  see  (77). 


Ascidki  mtntula  from  tlie  right 
at,  atrial  aperture  ;  br,  biaochiaL 
aperture  ;  (,  test.    (Ongin-il.) 


bloi. 


t-rn 


Flc.  2. —  BiagTammatic  section  of  part  of  mantle  and  tesft 
of  an  Ascidian,  showing  the  formation  of  a  vessel  and 
the  structuFe  of  the  test,  m,  mantle  ;  c,  ectoderm ;  (e 
lest  cell  ;  £771,  matrix;  Wc,  bladder  cell ;  SiS*.  blood  smu* 
in  mantle  being  drawn  out  into  test;  me,  mantle  cells; 
y,  septum  of  vesseL    (From  Herdman,  Challenger  Report. 


surfaces ;  or  they  may  develop  vacuoles  in  their  proto. 
plasm,  which  become  larger  and  fuse  to  form  a  huge  ovata 
clear  cavity 
(a  "  bladder 
cell  "),  sur- 
rounded by  a 
delicate  film 
of  protoplasm 
and  having 
the  nucleus 
still  visible  at 
one  point ;  or 
theymayform 
pigment  gran- 
ules in  the  pro- 
toplasm ;  or, 
lastly,  they 
may  deposit 
carbonate  of 
lime,  so  that 
one  or  several 

of  them  together  produce  a  calcareous  spicule  in  the  test. 
Only  the  unmodified  test  cells  and  the  bladder  cells  are 
found  in  Ascidia  vientula.  Calcareous  spicules  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  Didemnidce,  amongst  Compound  Ascidians ; 
but  pi.gmented  cells  may  occur  in  the  test  of  almost  all 
groups  of  Tunicata.  The  matrix  in  which  these  structures 
are  imbedded  is  usually  clear  and  apparently  homogeneous; 
but  in  some  cases  it  becomes  finely  fibrillated,  especially 
in  the  family  Cynthiidx.  It  is  this  matrix  which  containr 
tunicine.  At  one  point  on  the  left  side  near  the  posteriol 
end  a  tube  enters  the  test,  and  then  splits  up  into  a  num- 
ber of  branches,  which  extend  in  all  directions  and  finally 
terminate  in  rounded  enlargements  or  bulbs,  situated  chiefl; 
in  the  outer  layer  of  the 
test.  These  tubes  are 
known  as  the  "vessels"  of 
the  test,  and  they  contain 
blood.  Each  vessel  is 
bounded  by  a  layer  of  ec- 
toderm cells  lined  by  con- 
nective tis.sue  (fig.  3,  B), 
and  is  divided  into  two 
tubes  by  a  septum  of  con- 
nective tissue.  The  septum  p,o_  3  _^^  ,  vessel'trom  the  test.  B,  dia 
does  not  extend  into  the  grammatie  transverse  section  of  a  ves- 
,    .     ,,  J  sel.  ec, ectoderm;  cf, connective  tissue, 

terminal    bulb,    and    COnse-     j,  s',  the  two  tubes ;»,  septum  ;  tt,  ter- 

queutly  the  two  tubes  com-  minai  bulb.  (Ongmai.) 
nnmicate'at  their  ends  (fig.  3,  A).  The  vessels  are  formed 
by  an  outgrowth  of  a  blood  sinus  (derived  originally  from 
the  blastoca^le  of  the  embryo)  from  the  body  wall  (mantle) 
into  the  test,  the  wall  of  the  sinus  being  formed  by  con- 
nective tissue  and  pushing  out  a  covering  of  ectoderm  in 
front  of  it  (fig.  2,  s).  The  test  is  turned  inwards  at  the 
■branchial  and  atrial  apertures  to  line  two  funnel-like  tubes. 
— the  bmnchial  siphon  leading  to  the  b.anchial  sac  and  the 
atrial  siphon  leading  to  the  atrial  or  peribranchial  cavity. 

The  body  wall,  inside  the  test  and  the  ectoderm,  is  formed  MaOil* 
of  a  layer  (the  somatic  layer  of  mesoderm)  of  connective 
tissue,  inclosing  muscle  fibres,  blood  sinuses,  and  nerves. 
This  layer  (the  mantle)  has  very  much  the  shape  of  the  test 
outside  it,  but  at  the  two  apertures  it  is  dravm  out  to  form 
the  branchial  and  atrial  siphons  (fig.  4).  In  the  walls  of 
these  si^jhons  the  muscle  fibres  form  powerful  circular 
bands,  the  sphincter  muscles.  Throughout  the  rest  of  the 
mantle  the  bands  of  muscle  fibres  form  a  rude  irregular 
network.  They  are  numerous  on  the  right  side  of  the  body, 
and  almost  totally  absent  on  the  left.  The  muscles  are  all 
formed  of  very  long  fusiform  non-striped  fibres.  The  con- 
nective tissue  of  the  mantle  is  chiefly  a  clear  gelatinous 


TUNIC  ATA 


611 


,^  end 


matrix,  containing  cells  of  various  shapes ;  it  is  frequently 
pigmented  and  is  penetrated  by  numerous  lacunte,  in  which 
the  blood  Hows.  In- 
side the  mantle,  in 
all  parts  of  the  body, 
except  along  the  ven- 
tral edge,  there  is  a 
cavity, — the  atrial  or 
peribranchial  cavity, 
— which  opens  to  the 
exterior  by  the  atrial 
aperture.  This  cavity 
is  lined  by  a  layer  of 
cells  derived  origin- 
ally from  the  ecto- 
derm '  and  directly 
continuous  with  that 
layer  through  the 
atrial  aperture  (fig. 
5) ;  consequently  the 
mantleiscovered  both 
externally  and  inter- 
nally by  ectodermal 
cells. 
Bran-  The  branchial  aper- 

cbial  sac  ture  (mouth)  leads  in 
and 
neigh- 
bouring 


cavity  Flo-  4. — Diagrammatic  dissection  of  ^.Tnentula  to 
show  the  anatomy,  at,  atnal  apermre ;  6r, 
branchial  aperture ;  a,  anus ;  brs,  branchial 
sac :  dt,  dorsal  lamina  ;  dt,  dorsA)  tubercle ; 
end,  endostyle ;  ft,  heart ;  i,  intestine ;  m, 
mantle  ;  717,  nerre  ganglion  ;  ce,  tesopbagus  ; 
ceo,  (esophageal  aperture;  or,  ovary;  pbr, 
peribranchial  cavity  ;  r,  rectum  ;  st,  stomach  ; 
(.  test ;  tn,  tentacles ;  vd,  vas  deferens ;  ngl, 
gubneural  gland.    (Original.) 


to  the  branchial  si- 
phon (buccal 
organs,  or  stomodjeum),  and 
this  opens  into  the 
anterior  end  of  a  very 
large  cavity  (the  bran- 
chial sac)  which  ex- 
tends nearly  to  the 
posterior  end  of  the  body  (see  figs.  4  and  5).  This  branchial 
sac  is  an  enlarged  and  modified  pharjmx,  and  is  therefore 
properly  a  part  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal.  The  oeso- 
phagus opens  from  it  far 
back  on  the  dorsal  edge  (see 
below,  p.  612).  The  wall  of 
the  branchial  sac  is  pierced 
by  a  large  number  of  ver- 
tical slits,  —  the  stigmata, 
— placed  in  numerous  trans- 
verse rows.  These  slits 
place  the  branchial  sac  in 
communication    with     the 


..-end 


Fig.  5.— Diagrainmalic  longitudinal  (A)  and  transverse  (11)  sections  through 
Ascidia  to  show  the  position  of  the  ectodT;u  and  the  relations  of  the  bnvit. 
chial  and  peribranchial  cavities.  The  lettering  la  the  same  as  for  fig.  4.  B 
represents  a  section  taken  along  the  dotted  line  A-B  in  A.    (Original.) 

peribranchial  or  atrial  cavity,  which  lies  outside  it  (fig.  5, 
B).  Between  the  stigmata  the  wall  of  the  branchial  sac 
is  traversed  by  blood-vessels,  which  are  arranged  in  three 
regular  series  (fig.  6), — (1)  the  transverse  vessel.s,  which 
run  horizontally  round  the  wall  and  open  at  their  dorsal 
and  ventral  ends  into  large  longitudinal  vessels,  the  dorsal 
and  ventral  sinuses ;  (2)  the  fine  longitudinal  vessels,  which 
run  vertically  between  adjacent  transverse  vessels  and  open 
into  them,  and  which  bound  the  stigmata;  and  (3)  the 
internal  longitudinal  bars,  which  run  vertically  in  a  plane 

'  According  to  E.  van  Beneden  and  JuUn's  recent  investigations  (jo) 
only  the  outer  wall  of  the  atrium  is  lined  with  epibKist,  the  inner  wall 
being  derived  from  the  hypoblast  of  the  primitive  branchial  sac. 


internal  to  that  of  the  transvoi  se  and  fins  longitudinal 
vessels.  These  bars  communicate  with  the  transverse 
vessels  by  short  side  .''  H 

branches  where  they 
cross,    and    at    these  ^.- 
points  are  prolonged 
into  the  lumen  of  the 
sac   in    the   form   of 
hollow  papillae.    The 
edges  of  the  stigmata 
are    richly   set   with 
cilia,  which  drive  the 
water  from  the  bran- 
chial    sac    into    the 
peribranchial  ca- 
vity, and  so  cause 
the  currents  that  ^. 
How  in  through 
the        branchial 
aperture        and 
out  through  the 
atrial. 

Along  its  vent- 
ral edge  the  wall 
of  the  branchial 
sac   is    continu- 


'^iih-:^fS^y^^^^.,, 


Trough 

Fio.  G—A.  Part  of  branchial  sac  Of  jlscMftaftOm  inside- 
B.  Transverse  section  of  same,  tr,  transverse  vessel ; 
cd,  connecting  duct ;  hm,  horizontal  membrane  ;  \i, 
internal  longitudinal  bar  ;  Iv,  fine  longitudinal  vessels; 
j>,  p",  papillae .  sj,  stigmata.  A  and  Bare  drawn  iA 
different  scales.    (From  Herdman,  Challenger  Beport.) 


0U3  pxternally  with  the  mantle  (fig.  5,  £),  while  internally 
it  is  thickened  to  form  two  parallel  longitudinal  folds 
bounding  a  groove,  the  "endostyle,"hypobranchial  groove, 
or  ventral  furrow  (figs.  4,  5,  end).  The  endoderm  cells 
which  line  the  endostyle  are  greatly  enlarged  at  the 
bottom  and  on  parts  of  the  sides  of  the  furrow  so  as  to 
form  projecting  pads,  which  bear  very  long  cilia.  It  is 
generally  supposed  that  this  organ  is  a  gland  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  mucous  secretion  which  is  spread  round  the 
edges  of  the  branchial  sac  and  catches  the  food  particles  in 
the  passing  current  of  water ;  but  it  has  recently  been 
pointed  out  that  there  are  comparatively  few  gland  cells  in 
the  epithelium  of  the  endostyle,  and  that  it  is  more  prob- 
able  that  this  furrow  is  merely  a  ciliated  path  along  which 
the  mucous  secretion  (produced  possibly  by  the  subneural 
gland)  is  conveyed  posteriorly  along  the  ventral  edge  of 
the  branchial  sac.  At  its  anterior  end  the  edges  of  the 
endostyle  become  continuous  with  the  right  and  left  halves 
of  the  posterior  of  two  circular  ciliated  ridges, — the  peri- 
])haryngeal  bands, — which  run  parallel  to  one  another 
round  the  front  of  the  branchial  sac.  The  dorsal  ends  of 
the  posterior  peripharyngeal  band  bend  posteriorly  (en- 
closing the  epibranchial  groove),  and  then  join  to  form 
the  anterior  end  of  a  fold  which  runs  along  the  dorsal  edge 
of  the  branchial  sac  as  far  as  the  (Esophageal  aperture. 
This  fold  is  the  dorsal  lamina  (figs.  4,  5,  dl)..  It  probably 
serves  to  direct  the  stream  of  food  particles  entangled  in 
a  string  of  mucus  from  the  anterior  part  o£  the  dorsal 
lamina  to  the  oesophagus.  In  many  Ascidians  this  organ, 
instead  of  btiug  a  continuous  membranous  fold  as  in  A. 
mentula,  is  represented  by  a  scries  of  elongated  triangular 
processes — the  dorsal  laiigucts, — one  attached  in  the  dorsal 
median  line  opposite  to  each  transverse  vessel  of  the 
branchial  sac.  The  anterior  peripharyngeal  band  is  a 
complete  circular  ridge,  having  no  conne.xion  with  either 
the  endostyle  or  the  dorsal  lamina.  In  front  of  it  lies  the 
prebranchial  zone,  which  separates  the  branchial  sac  behind 
from  the  branchial  siphon  in  front.  The"'prebranchial 
zone  is  bounded  anteriorly  by  a  muscular  band — the  pos- 
terior edge  of  the  sphincter  muscle, — which  bears  a  circle 
of  long  delicate  processes,  the  tentacles  (figs.  4,  7,  8,  («)• 
These  project  inwards  at  right  angles  so  as  to  form  a  net- 
work across  the  entrance  to  the  branchial  sac.  Each 
tentacle  consists  of  connective  tissue  covered  with  epithe- 


Endo- 

stylf 


Peri. 
pharjT* 
geal 
bands. 


I/orsal 
lamina. 


Dorsal 
langwei^ 


Ten- 
tacles 


612 


T  U  N  I  C  A  T  A 


Hum  (endodcrm),  and  contains  two  or  more  cavities  which 
are  continuous  with  blood  sinuses  in  the  mantle.     In  the 

Subnern  dorsal  median  line  near  the  anterior  end  of  the  body,  and 

al  glani  imbedded  in  the  mantle  on  the  ventral  surface  of  the  nerve 
ganglion,  there  lies  a  small  glandular  mass — the  subneural 
gland — which,  as  Julin  has  shown  {■14).,  there  is  reason  to 
regard  as  the  homologue  of  the  hypo- 
physis cerebri  of  the  vertebrate  brain. 
Julin  and  E.  van  Beneden  have  sug- 
gested that  the  function  of  this  organ 
may  possibly  be  renal.'  The  sub- 
neural  gland,  which  was  first  noticed 
by  Hancock,  communicates  anteriorly, 
as  Ussofif  (.?j)  pointed  out,  by  means 
of  a  narrow  duct  with  the  front  of 
the  branchial  sac  (pharynx).  The 
opening  of  the  duct  is  enlarged  to 
latm  a  funnel-shaped  cavity,  which 
may  be  folded  upon  itself,  convoluted,  , 
or  even  broken  up  into  a  number  of  A 

Dorsal     smaller  openings,   so  as   to   form  a  ff 

tubercle,  complicated    projection,    called    the  I,;' 
dorsal  tubercle,  situated  in  the  dorsal  tji 
p^rt  of  the  prebranchial  zone  (fig.  7).  m 
The  dorsal,  tubercle  in  A.  mentula  is 
somewhat  horse-shoe-shaped  (fig.  8)  ; 
it  varies  in  form  in  most  Ascidians 
according  to  the  genus  and  species, 
and  in.  some  cases  in  the  individual 
also.      Possibly,    besides   being    the  fio, 
opening  of  the  duct  from  the  sub- 
neural  gland,  it  may  be  a  sense-organ 
for  testing  the  quality  of  the  water 
entering  the  branchial  sac. 

Nervous.      The  single  elongated  ganglion  in 

system.    tJjg  median  dorsal  line  of  the  mantle 
between  the  branchial  and  atrial  si- 
phons is  the  only  nerve-centre  in  A.  ■mentula  and  most  other 
Tunicaia.     It  is  the  degenerate  remains  of  the  anterior 


7. —  Diagrammatic  sec- 
tion through  auterior  dor. 
sal  part  of  A.  mentula, 
showing  the  relations  of 
the  nerve  ganglion,  -sob- 
neural  glantl,  &c.  Letter- 
ing as  for  fig.  4 ;  n,  nerve  ; 
n\  myelon  ;  ppt  peripha. 
ryngeal  band ;  egl,  gub^ 
neural  gland ;  sgd,  its 
djict ;  C,  test  lining  branch- 
Ul  siphon.    (Original.) 


Fio.  8.— Dorsal  tuberrle  aji'l   neighbouring  organs  of  A.  merUuIa.    Lettering 
&3  before-;  egr,  epibranchial  groove ",  z,  prsbranchial  zone.    (Original.) 

part  of  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system  of  the  tailed 
larval  Ascidian  (see  below,  p.  G14).  The  posterior  or 
spinal  part  has  entirely  disappeared  in  most  Tunicata. 
It  pprsists,  however,  in  the  Appendicutariidse,  and  traces  of 
it  are  found  in  some  Ascidians  (e.g.,  Clavelina  ;  see  Julin). 
The  ganglion  gives  off  distributory  nerves  at  both  ends, 

albo  Herdman,  Nature:  vol.  xxviii.  p.  284. 


which  run  through  the  mantle  to  the  neighbourh'  I'^d  of  the  Sense 
apertures,  where  they  divide  and  subdivide.  The  only  organs, 
sense-organs  are  the  pigment  spots  between  the  branchial 
and  atrial  lobes,  the  tentacles  at  the  base  of  the  branchial 
siphon,  and  possibly  the  dorsal  tubercle  and  the  languets 
or  dorsal  lamina.  These  are  all  in  a  lowly  developed  con- 
dition. The  larval  Ascidians  on  the  other  hand  have  well- 
developed  intra-cerebral  optic  and  auditory  sense-organs ; 
and  in  some  of  the  pelagic  Tunicata  otocysts  and  pigment 
spots  are  found  in  connexion  with  the  ganglion. 

The  mouth  and  the  pharynx  (branchial  sac)  have  already  AiimeBt 
been  described.  The  remainder  of  the  alimentary  canal  "'y 
is  a  bent  tube  which  in  A.  mentula  and  most  other  Ascid-'^'"' 
ians  lies  imbedded  in  the  mantle  on  the  left  side  of  the 
body,  and  projects  into  the  peribranchial  cavity.  The 
oesophagus  leaves  the  branchial  .sac  in  the  dorsal  middle 
line  near  the  posterior  end  of  the  dorsal  lamina  (see  fig. 
4,  oea).  It  is  a  short  curved  tube  which  leads  ventrally 
to  the  large  fusiform  thick-walled  stomach.  The  intestine 
emerges  from  the  ventral  end  of  the  stomach,  and  soon 
turns  anteriorly,  then  dorsally,  and  then  posteriorly  so  as 
to  form  a  curve — the  intestinal  loop — open  posteriorly. 
The  intestine  now  curves  anteriorly  again,  and  from  this 
point  runs  nearly  straight  forward  as  the  rectum,  thus  com- 
pleting a  second  curve — the  .rectal  loop — open  anteriorly 
(see  fig.  4).  The  wall  of  the  intestine  is  thickened  inter- 
nally, to  form  the  typhlosole,  a  pad  which  runs  along  its 
entire  length.  The  anus  opens  into  the  dorsal  part  of  the 
peribranchial  cavity  near  to  the  atrial  aperture.  The  walls 
of  the  stomach  are  glandular ;  and  a  system  of  delicate 
tubules  with  dilated  ends,  which  ramifies  over  the  outer  wall 
of  the  intestine  and  communicates  with  the  cavity  of  the 
stomach  by  means  of  a  duct,  is  probably  a  digestive  glan(L 

A  mass  of  large  clear  vesicles  which  occupies  the  rectal  kicre- 
loop,  and  may  .extend  over  the  adjacent  walls  of  the  in-'"'? 
testine,  is  a  renal  organ-  without  a  duct.  Each  vesicle  is  "^E""* 
the  modified  remains  of  a  part  of  the  primitive  ccelom  or 
body-cavity,  and  is  formed  of  cells  which  eliminate  nitro- 
genous waste  matters  from  the  blood  circulating  in  the 
neighbouring  blood-lacunae  and  deposit  them  in  the  cavity 
of  the  vesicle,  where  they  form  a  concentrically  laminated 
concretion  of  a  yellowish  or  brown  colour.  These  concre- 
tions contain  uric  acid,  and  in  a  large  Ascidian  are  very 
numerous.  The  nitrogenous  waste  products  are  thus  de- 
posited and  stored  tip  in  the  renal  vesicles  in  place  of 
being  excreted  from  the  body.  In  other  Ascidians  the 
renal  organ  may  differ  from  the  above  in  its  position  and 
structure ;  but  in  no  case  has  it  an  excretory  duct,  unless 
the  subneural  gland  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  renal  organ. 

The  heart  is  an  elongated  fusiform  tube  placed  on  the  Blood- 
ventral  and  posterior  edge  of  the  stomach,  in  a  space  (the  vasculu 
pericardium)  which  is  part  of  the  original  coelom  or  body-  ^y""™ 
cavity,  the  rest  of  which  exists  merr'y  in  the  form  of  lacuna;  (^on^. 
and  of  the  cavities  of  the  reproductive  organs  and  renal 
vesicles  in  the  adult  Ascidian.     The  wall  of  the  heart  ia 
formed  of  a  layer  of  epithelio-muscular  cells,  the  inner 
ends  of  which  are  cross-striated  ;  and  waves  of  contraction 
pass  along  it  from  end  to  end,  first  for  a  certain  number  of 
beats  in  one  direction  and  then  ia  the  other,  so  as  to  reverse 
the  course  of  circulation  periodically.     At  each  end  the 
heart  is  continued  into  a  vessel  (see  fig.  9),  a  large  sinua 
or  lacuna  lined  with  a  delicate  endothelial  layer.     The 
sinus  leaving  the  ventral  end  of  the  heart  is  called  the 
branchio-cardiac  vessel,''  and  the  heart  itself  is  merely  the 
differentiated  posterior  part  of  this  sinus  and  is  therefore 
a  ventral  vessel.     The  branchio-cardiac  vessel,  after  giving 
off  a  branch  which,  along  with  a  corresponding  branch  from 
the  cardio-visceral  vessel,  goes  to  the  test,  runs  along  the 

•'  On  account  of  the  periodic  reversal  of  the  circulation  dodc  of  the 
vessels  caD  be  called  arteries  or  veins. 


T  U  N  I  C  A  T  A 


613 


circula- 
tioo. 


*>■  —i 


ventral  edge  of  the  branchial  sac  externally  to  the  endostyle, 
and  comrjunioAtes  laterally  with  the  ventral  ends  of  all  the 
transverse  vessels  of  the  branchial  sac.  The  sinus  leaving 
the  dorsal  end  of  the  heart  is  called  the  ciwdio-visceral 
vessel,  and  this,  aft-er  giving  off  to  the  test  the  braBch- 
above  mentioned,  breaks  up  into  a  number  of  smuses, 
which  ramify  over  the  alimentary  canal  and  the  other 
viscera.  These  visceral  lacunce  finally  communicate  with 
a  third  great  sinus,  the  viscero-branchial  vessel,  which  runs 
forward  along  the  dorsal  edge  of  the  branchial  sac  exter- 
nally to  the  dorsal  lamina  and  joins  the  dorsal  ends  of  all 
the  transverse  vessels  of  the  branchial  sac.  Besides  these 
three  chief  systems  there  are  numerous  lacunae  in  all  parts 
of  the  body,  by  means  of  which  anastomoses  are  estabUshed 
between  the  different  currents  of  blood.  All  these  blood 
spaces  and  lacunas  are  to  be  regarded  as  derived  from  the 
blastocoele  of  the  embryo,  and  not,  as  has  been  usually 
CoDre  rffeupposed,  from  the  coelom  (jo).  When  the  heart  contracts 
ventro-dorsally,  the  course  of  the  circulation  is  as  follows  : 
the  blood  which  is  flowing  through  the  vessels  of  the 
branchial  sac  is  collected  in  an  oxygenated  condition  in 
the  branchio-cardiac  vessel,  and,  after  receiving  a  stream 
of  blood  from  , "      »  i 

the  test,  en- 
ters the 
heart.  It  is 
then  pro- 
pelled from 
the       dorsal 

end     of      the  Fio.  9.— Diagram  of  circulation  in  Ascidia.    Lettering  as  be- 
VipQrf  infr»     f^re ;   be,  branchio-cardiac  or  ventral  vessel;   cw,  carciio- 

aearv         into     visceral  vessels;   v&,  viscero-branchial  or  dorsal  vessel; 
the       cardio-     "'■  vessels  to  test    (Original.) 

visceral  vessels,  and  so  reaches  the  test  and  digestive  and 
other  organs ;  then,  after  circulating  in  the  visceral  lacunae, 
it  passes  into  the  viscero-branchial  vessel  in  ati  impure 
condition,  and  is  distributed  to  the  branchial  vessels  to  be 
purified  again.  When  the  heart  on  the  other  hand  contracts 
dorso-ventrally,  this  course  of  circulation  is  reversed.  As 
the  test  receives  a  branch  from  each  end  of  the  heart,  it 
follows  that  it  has  afferent  and  efferent  vessels  which- 
ever way  the  blood  is  flowing.  In  some  Ascidians  the 
vessels  in  the  test  become  very  numerous  and  their  end 
branches  terminate  in  swollen  btdbs  close  under  the  outer 
surface  of  the  test.  In  this  way  an  accessory  respiratory 
organ '  is  probably  formed  ia  the  superficial  layer  of  the 
test.  The  blood  corpuscles  are  chiefly  colourless  and 
•amoetoid ;  but  in  most  if  not  all  Ascidians  there  are  also 
soipe  pigmented  corpuscles  in  the  blood.  These  are  gener- 
ally of  an  Grange  or  reddish  brown  tint,  but  may  be  opaque 
white,  dark  indigo-blue,  or  of  intermediate  colours.  Pre- 
cisely similarly  pigmented  cells  are  found  throughout  the 
connective  tissue  of  the  mantle  and  other  parts  of  the  body. 
A.  mentula  is  hermaphrodite,  and  the  reproductive  organs 
lie,  with  the  alimentary  canal,  on  the  left  side  of  the  body. 
The  ovary  is  a  ramified  gland  whioh  occupies  the  greater 
part  of  the  intestinal  loop  (see  fig.  4).  It  contains  a  cavity 
which,  along  with  the  cavities  of  the  testis,  is  derived  from 
a  part  of  the  original  coelom,  and  the  ova  are  formed  from 
its  walls  and  faU  when  mature  into  the  cavity.  The 
oviduct  is  continuous  with  the  cavity  of  the  ovary  and 
leads  forwards  alongside  the  rectum,  finally  opening  near 
the  anus  into  the  peribranchial  cavity.  The  testis  is  com- 
posed of  a  great  number  of  delicate  branched  tubules, 
which  ramify  over  the  ovary  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  the 
intestinal  wall.  Those  tubules  terminate  in  ovate  swell- 
ings. Near  the  commencement  of  the  rectum  the  larger 
tubules  unite  to  form  the  vas  deferens,  a  tube  of  consider- 
able size,  which  runs  forwards  alongside  the  rectum,  and, 
like  the  oviduct,  terminates  by  opening  into  the  peri- 
'  See  Herdman,  Nature,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  2-17. 


Repro- 
ductive 
organs. 


branchial  cavity  close  to  the  anus.  The  lumen  of  the 
tubules  of  the  testis,  like  the  cavity  of  the  ovary,  is  a  part 
of  the  original  coelom,  and  the  spermatozoa  are  formed 
from  the  cells  Uning  the  wall.  In  some  Ascidians  repro- 
ductive organs  axe  present  on  both  sides  of  the  body,  and 
in  others  (Polycarpa)  there  are  many  complete  sets  of  both 
male  and  female  systems,  attached  to  the  inner  surface  of 
the  mantle  on  both  sides  of  the  body  and  projecting  intO' 
the  peribranchial  cavity. - 

Embryology'  and  Life  Histoky. 

In  most  Ascidians  the  eggs  are  fertilized  in  the  peribranchial  Embryo 
cavity,  and  undergo  most  of  their  development  before  leaving  the  logy, 
parent ;  in  some  cases,  however,  the  eggs  are  laid,  and  fertilization 
takes  place  in  the  surrounding  water.  The  segmentation  is  com- 
plete and  regular  (fig.  10,  A)  and  results  in  the  foimation  of  a 
spherical  blastula,  which  then  undergoes  invagination  (fig.  10,  R). 
The  embryo  elongates,  and  the  blastopore  or  invagination  opening 
comes  to  be  placed  on  the  dorsal  edge  near  the  posterior  end  (fig. 
10,  C).  The  hypoblast  cells  lining  the  archenteron  aro  columnar 
in  form,  while  the  epiblast  cells  are  more  cubical  (fig.  10,  B,  C,  D). 
The  dorsal  surface  of  the  embryo  now  becomes  flattened  and  then 
depressed  to  form  a  longitudinal  groove,  extending  forwards  from 
the  blastopore  to  near  the  front  of  the  body.  This  "medullary 
groove "  now  becomes  converted  into  a  closed  canal  by  its  side 
walls  growing  up,  arching  over,  and  coalescing  in  the  median  dorsal 


Fio.  10.— Stages  in  the  embryology  of  a  Simple  Ascidian  (after  Kowalevsky). 
A  to  F.  Longitndinal  vertical  sections  of  embryos,  all  placed  with  the  doi*sal 
surface  uppermost  and  the  anterior  end  at  the  right-  A.  Early  blastula 
sUge,  during  segmentation.  B.  Early  gastrula  sUge.  C.  Stage  after  gas- 
trula,  showingcommencementof  notochord.  D.  Later  stage,  show; ig  forma- 
tion of  notochord  and  of  neural  canaL  E.  Embryo  blimving  body  and  tail 
and  completely  formed  neural  canal.  F.  Larva  just  hatched;  end  of  tail 
cut  oir.     G.  Transverse  section  of  tail  of  larva, 

adp,  adhering  papillie  of  larva ;  at,  epiblastic  (atrial)  involution ;  au,  auditory  ' 
organ  of  lar\'a ;  at,  arclienteron  ;  be,  blastocoele ;  bp,  blastopore ;  cA,  noto- 
chord ;  ep,  epiblast  ;  hy,  hypobuist ;  71c,  neural  canal ;  ncc,  neurer.terio 
canal ;  oc,  ocular  organ  of  larva ;  g,  gelatinous  investment  of  embryo ;  m, 
muscle  cells  of  tail ;  mes,  niesenteron  ;  mc,  mesodenn  cells ;  nt»,  cerebl-al 
vesicle  at  anterior  end  of  neural  caual. 

line  (fig.  10,  D).  This  union  of  the  laminas  ctersales  to  fonn  the 
neural  canal  commences  at  the  posterior  end  bearjid  the  blastopore 
and  gradually  extends  forwards.  Consequently  the  blastopore 
comes  to  open  into  the  posterior  end  of  the  neural  canal  (fig.  10, 
D),  while  the  anterior  end  of  that  cavity  remains  open  to  th* 
exterior.  In  this  way  the  archenteron  communicates  indirectly 
with  the  exterior.  The  short  canal  leading  from  the  neural  canal 
to  the  archenteron  is  kno^vn  as  the  neurenteric  canal   (fig.  10, 


^  For  structure  of  other  forms,  see  p.  614  sq,  below. 
'  For  reproduction  by  gemmation,  see  under  "Classification," 
614  sq,  below. 


€14 


TUNICATA 


D,  na).    Prerions  to  this  stage  BOme  of  the  hypoblast  cdls  at  the 
front  edge  of  the  blastopore  and  forming  part  of  the  dorsal  wall  of 
the  archenteron  {fig.  1(3,  C,  ch)  have  become  separated  off,  and  then 
arranged  to  form  an  elongated  band,  two  cells  wide,  underlying 
the  posterior  half  of  the  neural  canal  (fig.  10,  D,  E,  ch. ).      This 
is  the  ori<nn  of  the  notocho«L     Outgrowths  from  the  sides  of  the 
archenteron  give  rise  to  laterally  placed  masses  of  cells,  which  are 
the  origin  of  the  mesoblast  .  These  masses  show  no  trace  of  meta- 
meric  segmentation.    The  ca'vities  (reproductive  and  renal  vesicles) 
which  are  formed  later  in  the  mesoblast  represent  the  ccelom. 
Consequently  the  body-cavity  of  the  Tunieata  is  a  modified  form 
of  enterocoele.     The  anterior  part  of  the  embryo,  in  front  of  the 
notochord,  now  becomes  enlarged  to  form  the  trunk,  whUe  the 
posterior  part  elongates  to  form  the  tail  (fig.  10,  E).     In  the  trunk 
the  anterior  part  of  the  archenteron  dilates  to  form  the  mesenteron, 
the  greater  part  of  which  becomes  the  branchial  sac  ;  at  the  same 
time  the  anterior  part  of  the  neural  canal  enlarges  to  form  the 
cerebral  vesicle,  and  the  opening  to  the  exterior  at  the  front  end  of 
the  canal  now  closes.     In  the  tail  part  of  the  embryo  the  neural 
canal  remains  as  a  narrow  tube,  while  the  remains  of  the  wall  of  the 
archenteron — the  dorsal  part  of  which  becomes  the  notochord — are 
converted  into  lateral  muscle  bands  (fig.  10,  G)  and  a  ventral  cord 
of  cells,  which  eventually  breaks  up  to  form  blood  corpuscles.     As 
the  tail  grows  longer,  it  becomes  ^nt  round  the  trunk  of  the  embryo 
inside  the  egg-membrane.      About  this  period  the  epiblast  cells 
begin  to  form  the  test  as  a  cnticular  deposit  upon  their  outer  surface. 
The  test  is  at  first  devoid  of  cells  and  forms  a  delicate  gelatinous 
investment,    but  it  shortly  afterwards   becomes   cellular  by  the 
'  migration  into  it  of  test  cells  formed  by  proliferation  from  the  epi- 
blast' 
T.ar<w         The  embryo  is  hatched  about  two  or  three  days  after  fertilization, 
«ra^        in  the  form  of  a  tadpole-like  larva,  which  swims  actively  through- 
the  sea  by  vibrating  its  long  tail.     The  anterior  end  of  the  body 
is  provided  with  three  adhering  papilla  (fig.  10,  F,  adp)  in  the 
form  of  epiblastic  thickenings.     In  the  free-swimming  tailed  larva 
the  nervous  system,  formed  from  the  walls  of  the  nenral  canal, 
becomes  considerably  differentiated.      The   anterior   part   of  the 
cerebral  vesicle  remains  thin-walled  (fig.  10,  F),  and  two  unpaired 
sense  organs  develop  from  its  wall  and  project  into  the  cavity. 
These  are  a  dorsally  and  posteriorly  placed  optic  organ,  provided 
with  retina,  pigment  layer,  lens,  and  cornea,  and  a  vcntrally  placed 
auditory  organ,  consisting  of  a  large  spherical  parriaily  pigmented 
otolith,  attached  by  delicate  hair-like  processes  to  the  summit  of  a 
hollow  erisla  aamstica  (fig.  10,  F,  au).     The  posterior  part  of  the 
cerebral  vesicle  thickens  to  form  a  solid  ganglionic  mass  traversed 
by  a  narrow  central  canaL     The  wall  of  the  neural  canal  behind  the 
cerebral   vesicle   becomes  differentiated   into   an  anterior  thicker 
region,  placed  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  trunk  and  having  a 
Superficial  layer  of  nerve  fibres,  and  a  posterior  narrower  part  which 
traverses  the  tail,  lying  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  notochord,  and 
gives  off  several  pairs  of  nerves  to  the  muscles  of  the  tail.     Just  in 
front  of  the  anterior  end  of  the  nervous  system  a  dorsal  involution 
of  the  epiblast  breaks  through  into  the  upturned  anterior  end  of 
the  mesenteron  and  thus  forms  the  mouth  opening.      Along  the 
ventral  edge  of  the  mesenteron,  which  becomes  the  branchial  sac, 
the  endost)-le  is  formed  as  a  narrow  groove  with  thickened  side 
walls.    It  probably  corresponds  to  the  median  portion  of  the  thyroid 
body  of  VerUhrata.     A  curved  outgrowth  from  the  posterior  end 
of  the  mesenteron  forms  the  alimentary  canal  (cesophagus,  stomach, 
and  intestine),,  which  at  first  ends  blindly.     An  anus  is  formed 
later  by  the  intestine  opening  into  the  left  of  two  lateral  epiblastic 
involutions  (the  atria),  which  rapidly  become  larger  and  fuse  dorsally 
to  form  the  peribcanchial  cavity.     Outgrowths  from  the  wall  of  the 
branchial  sac  meet  these  epiblastic  involutions  and  fuse  with  them 
to  give  rise  to  the  first  formed  pair  of  stigmata,  which  thus  come 
to  open  into  the  peribranchial  cavity  ;  and  these  alone  correspond 
to  tlie  gill  clefts  of  Amphiaats  and  the  Verteirata. 
"Sleti.iwor      After  a  shoft  free-swimming  existence  the  fully  developed  tailed 
phoku       larva  fixes  itself  by  its  antenor  adhering  papillae  to  some  foreign 
to  adoU    object,  and  then  undergoes  a  remarkable  series  of  retrogressive 
:foru.         changes,  which  convert  it  into  the  adult  Ascidian.     The  tail  atro-- 
phies,  until  nothing  is  left  but  some  fatty  cells  in  the  posterior 
part  of  the  trunk.    The  adhering  papillfe  disappear  and  are  replaced 
functionally  by  a  growth  of  the  test  over  neighbouring  objects. 
The  nervous  system  with  its  sense  organs  atrophies  until  it  is  re- 
duced to  the  single  small  ganglion,  placed  on  the  dorsal  edge  of  the 
pharynx,  and  a  slight  nerve  cord  running  for  some  distance  pos- 
teriorly (Van  Beneden  and  Julin).     Slight  changes  in  the  shape 
of  the  body  and  a  further  growth  and  differentiation  of  the  branchial 
sac,  peribranchial  Tcavity,  and  other  organs  now  produce  gradually 
the  structure  found  in  the  adult  Ascidian. 

The  most  important  points  in  connexion  with  this  process  of 
development  ana  metamorphosis  are  the  following.  (1)  In  the 
Ascidian  embryo  all  the  more  important  organs  {e.g.,  notochord, 
neural  canal,  archenteron)  are  formed  in  essentially  the  saine 
'  Some  of  the  first  test  cells  are  also  probably  derived  from  the  epithelium 
.01  the  egg  follicle. 


manner  as  they  are  in  Amphioxus  and  other  Chordata.     (2)  Th» 

free-swimming  tailed  larva  possesses  the  essential  characters  of  the 
Chordata,  inasmuch  as  it  has  a  longitudinal  skeletal  axis  (the  noto- 
chord) sepai-ating  a  dorsally  placed  nervous  system  (the  neural 
canal)  from  a  ventral  alimentary  canal  (the  archenteron) ;  and 
therefore  during  this  period  of  its  life-history  the  animal  belongs 
to  the  Chordata.  (3)  The  Chordate  larva  is  more  highly  organized 
than  the  adult  Ascidian,  and  therefore  the  changes  by  which  the 
latter  is  produced  from  the  former  may  be  regarded  as  a  process  of 
degeneration  (j/).  The  important  conclusion  drawn  from  all  this 
is  that  the  Tunicaia  are  the  degenerate  descendants  of  a  group  of 
the  primitive  Chordata  (see  below  p.  618). 

Classification  and  Chaeactzbs  of  Gbotjps. 
Order  1.— LARVACEA. 
Free-swimming  pelagic  forms  provided  with  a  large  locomotory  CluiT- 
appendage  (the  tail),  in  which  there  is  a  skeletal  axis  (the  tirochord).  acters  of 
A  relatively  large  test  (the  "  Haus  ")  is  formed  with  Larcacfa 
great  rapidity  as  a  secretion  from  the  ectoderm  ;  it  is 
merely  a  temporary  structure,  which  is  cast  off  and 
replaced  by  another.     The  branchial  sac  is  simply  aa 
enlarged  phamyx  with  two  ventral  ciliated  openings 
(stigmata)  leading  to  the  exterior.      There  is  no  ^.• 

/parate  peribranchial  cavity.  The  ner^UHs 
system  consists  of  a  large  dorsally  placed 
ganglion  and  a  long  nerve  cordj  which 
stretches  backwards  over  the  alimentary 
canal  to  reach  the  taU,  along  which  it 
runs  on  the  left  side  of  the 
urochord.  The  anus  opens 
ventrally  on  the  surface  of 
the  body  in  front  of  the  stig- 
mata. No  reproduction  by 
gemmation  or  metamorphosis 
is  known  in  the  life-history. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting groups  of  the  Tuni- 
cala,  as  it  shows  more  com- 
pletely than  any  of  the  rest 
the  characters  of  the  original 
ancestral  forms.  It  has  un- 
dergone little  or  no  degen- 
eration, and  consequently 
corresponds  more  nearly  to 
the  tailed -larval  condition 
than  to  the  adult  forms  of 
the  other  groups.  The  order 
iT,_...  includes  a  single  family,  the 
(after  FolX  seen  from  light  side,  magnified  APPEKDICTJLARIID.E,  all  the 
six  times.  The  arrows  indicate  the  course  members  of  which  are  minute 
of  the  water ;  x,  lateral  reticulated  parts  of  ^^  j  f ^^^ .  shimming.  They 
"Haus.  occur  on  the  surface  of  the 

sea  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  They  possess  the  power  to  form  Stmc- 
with  great  rapidity  an  enormously  large  investing  gelatinous  layer  ture  of 
(fi".  11),  which  cortesponds  to  the  test  of  other  groups.     This  was  Appm- 


Fio.  11.— OiJropIcura  tophocerta  m 


Fto.  12.— Semi-diagrammatic  view  of  Apptndicularia  from  the  right,  a,  anas^ 
(U,  one  of  the  atrial  apertures ;  app,  tail ;  br,  brapchial  aperture ;  hrs,  branchiai 
sac ;  t/(,  dorsal  tubercle ;  end,  eDdostjie  ;  A,  heart ;  t,  intestine ;  m,  muscle 
band  of  tail ;  n,  nerve  cord  in  body ;  n'.  nerve  cord  in  the  tail ;  cc,  cesophagus ; 
m,  otocyst ;  cw,  o\-ary ;  j)p,  peripharyngeal  band ;  ng,  cerebral  ganglion  ;  n/, 
caudal  ganglion ;  ti^,  enlargement  of  nerve  cord  in  tail ;  so,  sense  organ 
(tactile)  on  lower  hp ;  sg,  ciliated  aperture  in  pharynx ;  Bt,  stomach ;  to,  testis ; 
u,  urochord  ;  tt',  Its  cat  end,    (Original.) 

first  described  by  Von  Mertens  aod  by  him  named  "Haus."  It 
is  only  loosely  attached  to  the  boay  and  is  frequently  thrown  off 
soon  after  its  formation.  The  tail  in  the  Appendiculariidx  is  at- 
tached to  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body  (fig.  12),  and  usually 


T  U  N  I  C  A  T  A 


615 


TJuui- 
wxa. 


Charac- 
ters of 
Cyelo- 
■myaria. 


tare  of 
ium. 


points  more  ,or  less  anteriorly.  It  shows  distinct  traces  of  ioeta- 
meric  segmentation,  bavins  its  moscle  bands  brokea  up  into  myo- 
tomes, wnile  the  nerve  cord  presents  a  series  of  enlargements  from 
which  distribut»ry  nerves  are  given  off  (fig.  12,  n^).  Near 
the  base  of  the  tail  there  is  a  distinct  elongated  ganglion 
{fig.  12,  ncf).  The  anterior  (cerebral)  ganglion  has  connected 
with  "it  an  otocyst,  a  pigment  spot,  and  a  tubular  process 
opening  into  the  branchial  sac  and  represeuting  the"  dorsal 
tubercle  and  associated  parts  of  au  ordinary  Ascldian.  The, 
branchial  aperture  or  mouth  leads  into  the  brancliial  sac  of  *C^ 
pharynx.  There  are  no  tentacles.  The  endostyle  is  short. 
There  is  no  dorsal  lamina,  and  the  peripharyngeal  bands  run 
dorsally  and  posteriorly.  The  wall  of  the  branchial  sac  has  *»■ '' 
only  two  ciliated  apertures.  They  are  homologous  with  th« 
primary  stigmata  of  the  ^pic^  Ascidians  and  the  gill 
clefts  of  Vertebrates.  They  are  placed  far  back  on  the  ven- 
tral enrface,  one  en  each  side  of  the  middle  line,  and  lead 
into  short  ftmnel-shnped  tubes  which  open  on  the  surface  of  s  o' 
the  body  behind  the  anus  (fig.  12,  al).  These  tubes  corre- 
spond to  the  right  and  left  atrial  involutions  which,  in  an 
ordinary  Ascidian,  fuse  to  form  the  peribranchial  cavity.  The 
heart,  according  to  Lankester,  is  formed  of  two  cells,  which 
are  placed  at  the  opposite  ends  and  connected  by  delicate  con-  ' 
tractUo  protoplasmic  fibrils.  The  large  ovary  and  testis  are  placed 
at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body.  The  remainder  of  the  structural 
details  can  be  made  out  from  fig.  12. 

The  family  Appmdiculariidse  comprises  the  genera, — OikapUura 
(Mertens),  and  Appsndicularia  (Cham.),  in  both  which  the  body  is 
short  and  compact  and  the  tail  relatively  long,  while  the  endostyle 
is  straight ;  Frilillaria  (Q.  and  G.),  in  which  the  body  is  long  and 
composed  of  anterior  and  posterior  regions,  the  tail  relatively  short, 
the  endostyle  recurved,  and  an  ectodermal  hood  is  formed  over  tlie 
front  of  the  body  ;  and  Koioalevskia  (Fol),  a  remarkable  form  de- 
scribed by  Fol  (,t4\  in  which  the  heart,  endostyle,  and  intestine 
are  said  to  be  absent,  whUe  the  branchial  sac  is  provided  with  four 
rows  of  ciliated  tooth-like  processes. 

Order  II.— THALIACEA. 
Free-swimming  pel^^c  forms  which  may  be  either  simple  or 
compound,  and  the  adult  of  which  is  never  provided  with  a  tail  or  a 
notochord.  The  test  is  permanent  and  may  be  either  well  developed 
or  very  slight  The  musculature  of  the  mantle  is  m  the  form  of 
more  or  less  complete  circular  bands,  by  the  contraction  of  which 
locomotion  is  efifected.  The  brancKial  sac  has  either  two  large  or- 
many  small  aperttires,  leading  to  a  single  peribranchial  cavity,  into 
which  the  anus  opens.  Alternation  of  generafcons  occurs  in  the  life- 
history,  and  may  be  complicated  by  polymorphism.  The  Thaliacea 
comprises  two  groups,  Cyclomyana  and  HemiTnyana. 

S  ab-order  1. — Cyclomyaria. 
Free-swimmmg  pelagic  forms  which  exhibit  alternation  oi  genera- 
tions in  their  life-history  but  never  form  permanent  colonies.  The 
body  is  cask-shaped,  with  the  itranchial  and  atrial  apertures  at  the 
opposite  ends.  The  test  is  more  or  less  well  developed.  The 
mantlerhas  its  musculature  in  the  form  of  circular  bands  surrounding 
the  body.  The  branchial  sac  ia  fairly  large,  occupying  the  anterior 
half  or  more  of  the  body.  Stigmata  are  usually  present  in  its 
posterior  part  only.  The  peribranchial  cavity  is  "mainly  postenor 
to  the  branchial  sac.  The  alimentary  canal  is  placed  ventrally 
close  to  the  posterior  end  of  the  branchial  sac.  Hermaphrodite 
reproductive  organs  are  placed,  ventrally  near  the  intestine. 

This  group  forms  one  family,  the  DoLIOLiDfi,  including  two 
genera,  Doliolum  (Quoy  and  Gaimard)  and  Anthinia  (C.  Vogt). 

Doliolumt  of  which  several  species  ^e  known  from  vanous 
seas,  has  a  cask-shaped  body,  usually  from  1  to  2  cm./in  length. 
The  terminal. branchial  and  tttrial  apertures  (fig.  13)  are  lobed, 
and  the  lobes  are  provided  with  sense  organs.  The  test  is  very 
slightly  developed  and  contains  no  ceUs.  The  mantle  has  eight  or 
nine  circular  muscle  bands  surrounding  the  body.  The  /most 
anterior  and  posterior-  of  these  form  the  branchial  and  atrial 
sphincters.  The  wide  branchial  and  atrial  apertures  lead  into 
large  branchial  and  peribranchial  cav-ities,  separated  by  the  pos- 
terior wall  of  the  branchial  sac,  which  is  pierced  by  stigmata  ;  con- 
seqncntly  there  is  a  free-passage  for  the  water  through  the  body 
along  iu  long  axis,  and  the  animal  swims  by  contracting  its  ring- 
lie  muscle-bands,  so  as  to  force  out  the  contained  water  posteriorly. 
Stigmata  may  also  be  found  on  the  lateral  walls  of  the  branchial 
sac,  and  in  that  case  there  are  corresponding  anteriorly  directed 
diverticula  of  the  peribranchial  cavity.  There  is  a  distinct  endo- 
style on  the  ventral  edge  of  the  branchial  sac  and  a  peripharyngeal 
band  surrounding  its  anterior  end,  but  there  is  no  representative 
of  the  dorsal  lamina  on  its  dorsal  edge.  The  cesopnagus  com- 
mences rather  on  the  ventral  edge  of  the  posterior  end  of  the 
branchial  sac,  and  nms  backwards  to  open  into  the  stomach,  which 
is  followed  by  a  curved  intestine  opening  into  the  peribranchial 
cavity.  The  alimentary  canal  as  a  whole  is  to  the  right  of  the 
middlo  line.  The  hermaphrodite  reproductive  organs  are  to  the 
left  of  the  middle  line  alongside  the  alimentary  canal.     They  open 


into  the  peribranchial  cavity.  The  ovary  is  nearly  spherical,  while 
the  testis  is  elongated,  and  may  be  continued  anteriorly  for  a  long 
distance.     The  heart  is  placed  in  the  middle  line  ventrally,  be- 


Fio^  IS. — D6lU)lwn  dentictdatum,  sexuAl  gecemtlon,  ftrom  tbe  left  side.  Xjetter- 
ing  as  for  fig.  1?  ;  ml — mS,  muscle  handa  ,  ng.  nerve  ganglion ;  sg,  edgmata ; 
tgl,  aubneuml  gland  .  pbr,  peribninclual  cavity  ;  all,  atnal  lobes  ;  so,  sense 
organs  ;  hrl,  bmnclual  lobes.    (Original.) 

twoen  the  posterior  end  of  the  endostyle  and  the  otsophageal  aperture. 
The  nerve  ganglion  lies  about  the  middle  of  the  dorsal  edge  of  the 
body,  and- gives  off  many  nerves.  Under  it  is  placed  the  subncural 
gland,  the  duct  of  which  runs  forward  and  opens  into  the  anterior 
end  of  the  branchial  sac  by  a  simple  aperture,  surrounded  by  the 
spirally -twisted  dorsal  end  of  the  peripharyngeal  band  (fig.  13,  dt). 

The. ova  of  the  sexual  generation  produce  tailed  larvaa  ;  these  Deveiop- 
develop  into  forms  known  as  "nurses"  (blastozooids),  which  are  ment  of 
asexual,  and  are  characteriaed  by  the  possession  of  nine  muscle  Dolio 
bands,  an  auditory  sac  on  the  left  side  of  the  body,  a  ventrally-  Ivm. 
placed  stolon  near  the  heart,  upon  which  buds  are  produced,  and 
a  dorsal  outgrowth  near  the  posterior  end  of  the  body.  The  buds 
give  rise  eventually  to  the  sexual  generabon,  which  is  polymor- 
phous, having  three  distinct  forms,  in  two  of  which  the  reproduc- 
rive  organs  remain  undeveloped.  The  buds  while  still  very  young 
migrate  from  their  place  of  origin  on  the  stolon,  divide  by  ijssion, 
and  become  attached  to  the  dorsal  outgrowth  of  the  body  of  the 
nurse,  where  they  develop.  The  three  forms  produced  are  as  follows. 
(1)  Nutritive  forms  (trophozooids),  which  remain  permanently  at- 
tached to  the  nurse  and  serve  to  provide  it  with  food  ;  they  have 
the  body  elongated  dorso- ventrally,  and  the  musculature  is  very 
slightly  developed.  (2)  Foster  forms  (phorozooids),  which,"  like  tho 
preceding,  do  not  become  sexually  mature,  but,  unlike  them,  are 
set  free  as  cask-shaped  bodies  with  eight  muscle  bands  and  a  ventral 
outgrowth,  which  is  formed  of  the  stalk  by  which  the  body  was 
formerly  united  to  the  nurse.  On  this  outgrowth  the  (3)  forms 
(gonozooids)  which  become  sexually  mature  are  attached  while  still 
young  buds,  and  after  the  foster  forma  are  set  free  these  reproductive 
forms  gradually  attain  their  complete  development,  and  are  event- 
ually set  free  and  lose  all  trace  of  their  connexion  with  the  foster 
forms.  They  resemble  the  foster  forms  in  having  a  cask-shaped 
body  with  eight  muscle  bands,  but  differ  in  having  no  -outgrowth 
or  process,  and  m  having  the  reproductive  organs  fully  developed.* 

Anchinin,  of  which  only  one  species  is  known,  A.  nibra,  from  Anchiaia, 
the  Mediterranean,  has  the  sexual  forms  permaneutly  attached 
to  portions  of  the  dorsal  outgrowth"  from  the  body  of  the  unknown 
nurse.  The  body  is  elongated  dorso-ventrally.  The  test  is  well 
developed  and  contains  branched  cells.  The  musculature  is  not 
so  well  developed  as  in  Doliolum.  There  are  two  circular  bands 
at  the  anterior  end  and  two  at  the  posterior,  and  two  on  the 
middle  of  the  body.  The  stigmata  are  confined  to  the  obliquely 
placed  posterior  end  of  the  branchial  sac.  The  alimentary  canal 
forms  a  U-shaped  curve.  The  reproductive  organs  are  placed  on 
the  right  side  of  the  body.  The  life-history  is  still  imperfectly 
known.  As  in  the  case  of  VolMum  the  sexual  generation  is 
polymorphous,  and  has  three  forms,  two  of  which  remain  in  a 
rudimentary  condition  so  far  S3  the  reproductive  organs  are  con- 
cerned. In  Anchinia.  however,  the  three  forms  do  not  occur  to- 
gether on  one  stolon  or  outgrowth,  but  are  produced  successively, 
the  reproductive  forms  of  the  sexual  generation  being  independent 
of  the  "  foster  forms  "  (see  Barrois,  ^ 

Sub-order  2.  — Hemimyaria. 
I'Vee-swimming  pelagic  forms  which  exhibit  alternation  of  genera-  dm* 
tions  in  their  life-history  and  in  the  sexual  condition  form  colonies,  tere  of 
The  body  is  more  or  less  fusiform,  with  the  long  axis  antero-posterior,  Beva- 
and  the  branchial  and  atrial  apertures  nearly  terminal.     The  test  myorto. 
13  well  developed.     The  musculatuTe  of  the  mantle  is  in  the  form 
of  a  series  of  transversely -running  bands,  which  do  not  form  com- 
plete independent  rings  as  in  the  Oydomyaria.     The  branchial  and 
1  For  further  details  see  Uljanin(^iy). 


616 


T  U  N  I  C  A  T'  A 


pcribrancliial  cavities  form  a  contijiupus  space  in  the  interior  of  the 
Dody,  opening  externally  by  the  branchial  and  atrial  apertures,  and 
traversed  obliquely  from  the  dorsal  and  anterior  end  to  the  ventral 
and  posterior  by  a  long  narrow  vascular  band,  which  represents  the 
dorsal  lamina,  the  dorsal  b'.ood-vessel,  and  the  neighbouring  part 
of  the  dorsal  edge  of  the  branchial  sac  of  an  ordinary  Ascidian. 
The  alimentary  canal  is  placed  ventrally.  Itmay  either  be  stretched 
oat  so  as  to  extend  for  some  distance  anteriorly,  or — as  is  more 
neual — be  concentrated  to  form  along  with  the  reproductive  organs 
a  rounded  opaque  mass  near  the  posterior  end  of  the  body,  known 
as  the  visceral  mass  or  "nucleus."  The  embryonic  development 
is  direct,  no  tailed  larva  being  formed. 

This  sub-order  contains  two  very  distinct  families,  the  SALPiDa:, 
which  are  the  typical  members,  and  theOcTACNEMiD*;,  inclnding  a 
single  very  remarkable  form  {Octacnemus  byihius),  which  in  some 
«spects  does  not  conform  with  the  characters  given  above, 
Salpida.  The  Salpidm  includes  the  single  genus  Salpa  (Forskif),  which, 
however,  may  be  divided  in  to  two  well-marked  groups  of  species, — (1) 
those,  such  as  S.  pinnala,  in  which  the  alimentary  canal  is  stretched 
out  along  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body,  and  (2)  those,  such  as 
S.fusiformis  (fig.  14,  A),  in  which  the  aliment- 
ary canal  forms  a  compact  globular  mass,  the 
**  nucleus,"  near  the  posterior  end  of  the  body. 
About  fifteen  species  altogether  are  known ; 
they  are  all  pelagic  forms  and  are  found  in 
nearly  all  seas.  Each  species  occurs  in  two 
forms — fh»  solitary  asex- 
^^^^'^^  nal  {proles  solilarvx)  and 
^^f^\  dt  ^^^  aggregated  sexual 
(^oles  gregarUi) — which 
are  usually  quite  unlike 
one  apother.  The  soli- 
tary form  (fig.  14,  B) 
gives  rise  by  internal 
||:;"*^  '^gemmation  to  a  complex 
■vise  tubular  stolon,  which 
contains  processes  from 
all  the  more  important 
organs  of  the  parent  body 
and  which  becomes  seg- 
mented into  a  series  of 

Fio.  \i.-Salpa  ninanala-fiisifo"^'^-  A-  ^^to-  ^uda  or  embryos.  As 
gated  form.  B.  Solitary  form.  Lettering  as  the  stolon  elongates,  the 
before  ;  1-9,  muscle  bands ;  em,  embryo ;  gem,  embryos    near    the    free 

«T»?VS."^,rm,AjLS°?"''°'''"''"  «°d  which  have  become 

mass  (nncleua).    (Onginal.  j  .      .  t  - .      . 

advanced  in  their  deve- 
lopment are  set  free  in  groups,  which  reinain  attached  together  by 
processes  of  the  test,  each  enclosing  a  diverticulum  from  the  mantle 
BO  as  to  form  "chains"  (fig.  15).    k  \    j       w  ,i  _ 

EachmemberofthechainisaSaipa    E  L^       H  v'w/f'   ' 

of  the  sexual  or  aggregated  form, 

and.wheifmature  may— either  still  /_.  i'>?viv\llllil////W/   \ — *■"" 
attached  to  its  neighbours  or  se- 
parated from  them  (fig.  .14,  A)  — 
produce  one  or  several   embryos, 
which  develop   into   the   solitary 
Salpa.    Thus  the  two  forms  alter- 
Btnic-      nate  regularly.    The  more  import- 
tore  of     ant  points  in  the  structure  of  a 
Salpa.      typical  Salpa  are  shown  in  fig.  16. 
The  branchial  and  atrial  apertures 
are  at  opposite  ends  of  the  body, 
and  each  leads  into  a  large  cavity, 
the  branchial    and    pcribranchial  Fio.  15. -Posterior  pan  of  solitary 
r .  \"         .     t         „„™„ni„,       form ol Sulfa dmuia-atica-mucrtmala, 
sacs,  which  are  in  free  communica-     g^(,^„g  a  chain  of  embryos  nearly 
tion  at  the  sides  of  the  obliquely-     ready  to  be  set  ftee.    gevi,  young 
ruining  dorsal  lamina  or  "gill."     aggregated  Sa(;i/c  forming  the  chain ; 

The   telt  is   weU    developed   and     1=^^  iongiSI^T"  '""' °' 

adheres  closely  to  the  surface  of 

the  mantle.     The  muscle  bands  of  the  mantle  do  not  completely 


B 


f       ;  /    1.2  :  J  : 


encircle        the 
body.   They  are 
present  dorsally 
and      laterally, 
but  the  major- 
ity  do  not  reach 
the  ventral  sur- 
face.    In  jnany 
cases        neigh- 
bouring   banils 
join  in  the  med- 
ian dorsal  line,  p,g_  is.— Beral^iiagrammatle  reprSsenlatlon  of  SaJpo  from 
(fig.    14).      The     left  aide,     Lettenng  as  before;  cmb.  embryo  ;  m.  mantle  ; 
anterior  end  of     ',  Innguct;   syif,  duct  ot  subneunil  gland;   l.ll    muscle 
«!,«    ,lnn,o1     lo       bands  of  mantle  ;  f,  thiekenlng  of  test  over  nucleus ;  dl. 
tnc    aorsal     la-        .|.  ^^  bnnchla,    (Original.) 
mina    is     pro- 
longed to  form  a  prominent  tentacular  organ,  the  languet,  pro- 


jecting into  the  branchial  sac.  The  nerve  ganglion,  snbneutal 
gland,  dorsal  lamina,  peripharyngeal  bands,  and  endostylo  are 
placed  in  the  usual  positions.  A  pigment  spot  and  an  otocyst 
are  found  in  connection  ivith  the  ganglion.  The  large  spaces  at 
the  sides  of  the  dorsal  lamina  (often  called  the  gill  or  branchia 
of  Salpa),  by  means  of  which  the  cavity  of  the  branchial  sac  is 
placed  in  free  communication  with  the  peribranchial  cavity,  are  to 
be  regarded  as  gigantic  stigmata  formed  by  the  suppression  of  the 
lateral  walls  of  the  branchial  sac.  Fig.  16  represents  an  aggre- 
gated or  sexual  Salpa  which  was  once  a  member  of  a  chain,  since 
it  shows  a  testis  and  a  developing  embryo.  The  ova  (always  few 
in  number,  usually  only  one)  appear  at  a  very  early  period  in  the 
developing,  chain  Salpa,  while  it  is  still  a  part  of  the  gemmiparous 
stolon  in  the  body  of  the  solitary  Salpa.  This  gave  rise  to  the 
view  put  forward  by  Brooks  {zj},  that  the  ovary  really  belongs  to 
the  solitary  Salpa,  which  is  therefore  a  female  producing  a  series 
of  males  by  asexual  gemmation,  and  depositing  in  each  of  these  an 
ovum,  which  will  afterwards,  when  fertilized,  develop  in  the  body 
of  the  male  into  a  solitary  or  female  Salpa.  This  idea  would  of 
course  entirely  destroy  the  view  that  Salpa  is  an  example  of  altema- 
iion  of  generations.  The  sexual  or  chain  Salpa,  although  really 
hermaphrodite,  is  always  protogynous  ;  i.e, ,  the  female  elements  or 
ova  are  produced  at  an  earlier  period  than  the  male  organ  or  testis. 
This  prevents  self-fertilization.  The  ovum  is  fertilized  by  theDevelop- 
spermatozoa  of  an  older  Salpa  belonging  to  another  chain,  and  ment  't 
the  embryo  is  far  advanced  in  its  development  before  the  testis  is  Saipu 
formed.  At  an  early  period  in  its  development  a  part  of  the  embryo 
becomes  separated  ofl;  along  with  a  part  of  the  wall  of  the  cavity 
in  which  it  lies,  to  form  the  "  placenta,"  in  which  the  embryonic  and 
the  maternal  blood  streams  circulate  in  close  proximity  (or  actually 
coalesce  during  one  period)  and  so  allow  of  the  passage  of  nutriment 
to  the  developing  embryo.  At  a  somewhat  later  stage  a  number  of 
oells  placed  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  alongside  the  future 
nucleus  become  filled  up  with  oil -globules  to  form  a  mass  of  nutrient 
material — the  elaeoblast — which  is  used  up  later  on  in  the  develop- 
ment. Many  suggestions  have  been  made  as  to  the  homology  of 
the  elaeoblast.  The  most  probable  is  that  it  is  the  disappearing 
rudiment  of  the  tail  found  in  the  larval  condition  of  most  Ascidians. 

The  famOy  Oclacnemidse  includes  the  single  remarkable  form  Octa- 
OdacTiemus bythius,  found  during  the  "  Challenger  "  expedition,  UDd-cTumidm. 
first  described  by 
Moseley(^9).  It  is 
apparently  a  deep- 
sea  representative 
of  the  pelagic  Sal- 
pjdae,  and  may  pos- 
sibly be  fixed.  The 
body  is  somewhat 
discoid,    with    its 

margin    prolonged  „  „.  ^.    ,  ,       .  j     , 

»»- r.^U^  ..:T.l.^  fo^ar  Fio.  17. — Diagrammatic  vertical  longitudinal  section 
to  lorm  elgDt  taper-  ^^  Octamemus  bvatui  (after  Moseley).  br.  branchial 
mg  processes,  on  to  aperture ;  m,  opening  of  cEsophagus ;  r,  rectum  ;  at, 
which  the  muscle  atrial  aperture ;  rm.rm,  radiating  muscles ;  n,  nucleus; 
VianHo  nf  tha  mk,  muscles  of  nucleus;  g,  respiratory  membrane: 
oanus  ui  luo  ^  ih,ckeai:i  margin  of  base  of  test;  pa,  pedicle  of 
mantle  are  con-  attachment, 
tinned.  The  ali- 
mentary canal  forms  a  compact  nucleus  (fig.  17) ;  the  endostyle  is 
very  short ;  and  the  dorsal  lamina  is  apparently  absent.  The  re- 
production and  life-liistory  are  entirely  unknown. 

Order  III.— ASCIDIACEA. 

Fixed  or  free-swimming  Simple  or  Compound  Ascidians  which  in  Aaddi 
the  adult  are  never  provided  with  a  tail  and  have  no  trace  of  a  iaca. 
notochord.  The  freeswithming  forms  are  colonies,  the  Simple 
Ascidians  being  always  fixed.  The  test  is  permanent  and  well 
developed  ;  as  a  rule  it  increases  with  the  age  of  the  individual. 
The  branchial  sac  is  large  and  well  developed.  Its  walls  are  per- 
forated by  numerous  slits  (stigmata)  opening  into  the  peribranchial 
cavity,  which  communicates  with  the  exterior  by  the  atrial  aperture. 
Slany  of  the  forms  reproduce  by  gemmation,  and  in  most  of  them 
the  sexually -produced  embryo  develops  into  a  tailed  larva. 

The  Ascidiacea  includes  three  groups,  — the  Simple  Ascidians, 
the  Compound  Ascidians,  and  the  free-swimming  colonial  Pyrosoma, 

Suborder  1.— Ascidia  Simplioes. 

Fixed  Ascidians  which  are  solitary  and  very  rarely  reproduce  by  Slcnp''.; 
gemmation  :  if  colonies  are  formed,  the  members  are  not  buried  in  Astr.'- 
a.common  investing  mass,  but  each  has  a  distinct  test  of  its  own.  ians 
No  strict  line  of  demarcation  can  be  drawn  between  the  Simple  and 
the  Compound  Ascidians,  and  one  of  the  families  of  the  former 
group,  the  Clavelinidm  (the  Social  Ascidians),  forms  a  transition 
from  the  typical  Simple  forms,  which  never  reproduce  by  gemmation, 
to  the  Compound  forms,  which  always  do  (see  p.  618  below).     The 
Ascidim  Simpliccs  may  be  divided  into  the  following  families;— 

Family  I. — Clavelinidj;.  Simple  Ascidians  which  rcp.-odace  by 
gemmation  to  form  small  colonies  in  wliich  each  ascidiozooid  has 
a  distinct  test,  but  all  are  connected  by  a  common  blood-system. 


( 


T  U  N  I  C  A  T  A 


617 


Buds  formed  on  stolons  which  are  vascular  outgrowths  from  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  body  canijining  prolongations  from  the  ectoderm, 
mesoderm,  and  endodertii  of  tho  ascidiozooid.  Branchial  sac  not 
folded ;  interiKil  lontritudinal  bars  usually  absent;  stigmata  straight; 
tentacles  simple.  This  family  contains  three  genera :  Ectei}ia.^cidia 
(Herdman),  with  internal  longitudinal  bars  in  branchial  sac  ;  Clavel- 
ina  (Savigny),  with  intestine  extending  behind  branchial  sac ; 
and  Perophora  (AViegmann),  with  intestine  alongside  branchial  sac. 

Family  II. — Ascidiidje.  Solitary  fixed  Ascidians  with  gelatinous 
test ;  branchial  aperture  usually  eight-lobed,  atrial  aperture  usually 
six-lobed.  Branchial  sac  not  folded;  internal  longitudinal  bars 
usually  present ;  stigmata  straight  or  curved  ;  tentacles  simple. 
This  family  is  divided  into  three  sections  : — 

Sub-family  1. — Hypob'^'thinje.  Branchial  sac  with  no  internal 
longitudinal  bars.     One  genus,  Hypohytkiics  (Moseley). 

Sub-family  2. — Ascidinj:.  Stigmata  straight.  Many  genera,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  more  important: — Ciona  (Fleming), 
dorsal  languets  present;  Ascidia  (L\r\n?e\i5,  ==  Phallusia,  Savigny), 
dorsal  lamina  present  (see  6gs.  1  to  10) ;  Rhodosoma  (Ehrenberg), 
anterior  part  of  test  modified  to  form  operculum  ;  Abyssascidia 
(Herdman),  intestine  on  right  side  of  branchial  sac. 

Sub-family  3. — Corellinje.  Stigmata  curved.  Three  genera  : — 
Corella  (Alder  and  Hancock),  test  gelatinous,  body  sessile  ;  Coryn- 
ascidia  (Herdman),  test  gelatinous,  body  pedunculated;  Cfulyo- 
Simla  (Brod.  and  Sow.),  test  modified  into  homy  plates. 
•  Family  III. — CYNTHiiD-fL  Solitary  fixed  Ascidians,  usually  with 
leathery  test ;  branchial  and  atrial  apertures  usually  both  four-lobed. 
Branchial  sac  longitudinally  folded  ;  stigmata  straight ;  tentacles 
simple  or  compound.     This  family  is  divided  inta  three  sections  : — 

Sub-family  1. — Stvelinje,  not  more  than  four  folds  on  each  side 
of  branchial  sac  ;  tentacles  simple.  The  more  important  genera  are 
— Slyela  (Maclcay),  stigmata  normal,  and  Bathyoncus  (Herdman), 
stigmata  absent  or  modified. 

Sub-family  2.— Cynthin-e,  more  than  eight  folds  in  branchial 
sac;  tentacles  compound; 

P. 


body  sessile.     The  chief 
genus    is    Cijuth  ia    (Sa 
^'igny),    with     a 
number  of  species. 

Sub-family  3.  —  BoL- 
teninj:,  more  than  eight 
folds  in  branchial  sac  ; 
tentacles  compound  ; 
body  pedunculated  (fig. 
18,  A).  The  chief  genera 
are — Boltenia  (Savigny), 
branchial  aperture  four- 
lobed,  stigmata  normal ; 
and  CiUeohis  (Herd-  Fio. 
man),  branchial  aper- 
ture with  less  than  four 
lobes,  stigmata  absent  or 
modified  (fig.  18.  B). 
This  last  is  a  deep-sea 
genus  discovered  by  the 


IS. — Culeolus  wiUemctsi.  A.  Entire  body, 
natural  size.  B.  Part  of  branchial  sac  niag- 
nifted.  at,  atrial  aperture  ;  6r,  branchial  aper- 
ture;  ped,  peduncle;  br/,  slight  fold  of  branch- 
ial sac  ;  i  I,  internal  longitudinal  bar ;  mh,  mesh ; 
$p,  calcareous  spicules  in  vessels  ;  tr,  transverse 
vessels.    (After  Herduian,  Challenger  Rtport.) 


Challenger"  expedition  (see  77). 
Family  IV. — MoLGtJLiD-t;.  Solitary  Ascidians,  sometimes  not 
fixed  ;  branchial  apertxn*  six-lobed,  atrial  four-lobed.  Test  usually 
incnisted  with  sand.  Branchial  sac  longitudinally  folded ;  stigmata 
more  or  less  curved,  usually  arranged  in  spirals;  tentacles  compound. 
The  chief  genera  are — ^folgula  (Forbes),  with  distinct  folds  in  the 
branchial  sac,  and  Eugyra  (Aid.  and  Hanc),  with  no  distinct  folds, 
but  merely  broad  internal  longitudinal  bars  in  the  branchial  sac. 
In  some  of  the  Molgididse  (genus  Anurella,  Lacaze-Duthiers,  20) 
the  embryo  does  not  become  converted  into  a  tailed  larva,  the 
development  being  direct,  without  metamorphosis.  The  embryo 
when  hatched  assumes  gradually  the  adult  structure,  and  never 
shows  the  features  characteristic  of  larval  Ascidians,  such  as  the 
urochord  and  the  inedian  sense-organs. 

Sub-order  2. — ^AscidisQ  Compositae. 

Com-  ^  --?■    Fixed  Ascidians  which  reproduce  by  gemmation,  so  as  to  form 

pound       colonies  in  which  the  ascidiozooids  are  buried  in  a  common  invest- 

Ascid-      ing  mass  and  have  no  separate  tests.     This  is  probably  a  somewhat 

iaas.         artificial  assemblage  formed  of  two  or  three  groups  of  Ascidians 

which  produce  colonies  in  which  the  ascidiozooids  are  so  intimately 

united  that  they  possess  a  common  test  or  investing  mass.     This 

is  the  only  character  which  distinguishes  them  from  the  ClavcUnidset 

but  the  property  of  reproducing  by  gemmation  separates  them 

from  the  rest  of  the  Ascidise  Simplices.     The  Ascidias  Compositse 

may  be  divided  into  the  following  families  : — 

Family  I. — Distomid^.  Ascidiozooids  divided  into  two  regions, 
thorax  and  abdomen  ;  testes  numerous  ;  vas  deferens  not  spirally 
coiled.  The  chief  genera  are — Distoma  (Ga,ertneT) ;  Dislaplia- (DeWa. 
Valle) ;  Colella  (Herdman),  forming  a  pedunculated  colony  (see  fig. 
19,  A)  in  which  the  ascidiozooids  develop  incubatory  pouches, 
connected  with  the  peribranchial  cavity,  in  which  the  embryos 
undergo  their  development  (77) ;  and  Ch&ndrostachys  (Macdonald). 


Family  11. — Jcelocormid-i:.  Colony  not  fixed,  having  a  large  axial 
civity  with  a  terminal  aperture.  Branchial  apertures  five-lobed. 
This  includes  one  species,  Cix:locormus  huxhyi  (Herdman),  which  is  a 
transition  form  between  the  ordinary  Compound  Ascidians  {e.g., 
Distomidse)  and  the  Ascidim  Salpi/onnt:s  {Pyrosoma). 

Family  III. — Didemnid^     Colony  usually  thin  and  incrusting 
Test  containing  stel- 
late  calcareous  spi-    /■Y'-'i''*' 
cules.    Testis  single,  (rji*i|ij^jj 
large  ;   vas  deferens    '^■"'-'^^ 
spirally  coiled.    The 
cniefgeneraare — Di- 
demnuni   (Savigivy), 
in  which  the  colony 
is   thick  and  fleshy 

and  there  are  only  f,o.  i9._Colonies  of  ^scirfiar  ComposiVs  (natural  size), 
three  rows  of  Stlg-  A.  CoUllaquoyi.  h.  Leptoclinuvi  neglecium.  C.  Pha- 
mata  on  each  side  of  ryngodiclyon  mirabUe.  D.  Botryllus,  showing  ar- 
thtx  Kranpliiil  ■MP  •  rangenient  of  apcidiozooids  in  circular  systems  each 
rne  orancniai  sac  ,  of  which  has  a  central  common  cloaca,  (After  Herd- 
and  Lcptochnum  man,  Challenger  ii<f2»rf.) 
(Milne-Edwards),  in  - 

which  the  colony  is  thin  and  incrusting  (fig.  19,  B)  and  there  are 
four  rows  of  stigmata  on  each  side  of  the  branchial  sac. 

Family  IV. — DiPLOsoMiD^.  Test  reduced  in  amount,  rarely  con* 
taining  spicules.  Vas  deferens  not  spirally  coiled.  In  Diplosorna 
(Macdonald),  the  most  important  genus,  the  iarva  is  gemmiparous, 

Fajrily  V.  —  Polyclinidj:.  Ascidiozooids  divided  into  three 
j»egions, — thorax,  abdomen,  and  post-abdomen.  Testes  numerous  ; 
vas  deferens  not  spirally  coiled.  The  chief  genera  are — PharyngO' 
dictyen  (Herdman),  with  stigmata  absent  or  modified,  containing 
one  species,  PK.  mirahile  (fi.g.  l9,  C),  the  only  Compound  Ascidian 
known  from  a  depth  of  1000  fathoms  ;  Polyclinum  (Savigny),  with 
a  smooth-walled  stomach  ;  ApUdium  (Savigny),  with  the  stomach 
wall  longitudinally  folded  ;  and  Aviaroucium  (Milne-Edwards),  in 
which  tho  ascidiozooid  has  a  long  post-abdomen  and  a  largo  atrial 
languet. 

Family  VI. — Botryllid^.  Ascidiozooids  having  the  intestine 
and  reproductive  organs  alongside  the  branchial  sac.  Dorsal  lamina 
present  ;■  internal  longitudinal  bars  present  in  branchial  sac.  The 
chief  genera  are — Botryllus  (Gaertn.  and  Pall. ),  with  simple  stellate 
systems  (fig.  19,  D),  and  Botryltoidcs  (Milne- Edwards),  with 
elongated  or  ramified  systems.    " 

Family  VII. — PolystyeliD;!:.  '    Ascidiozooids  not  grouped  in 
systems.     Branchial  and  atrial  apertures  four-lobed.     Branchial 
sac  may  be  folded  ;  internal  longitudinal  bars  present.     The  chief 
genera  are — ThylaciuTn  {CoxMi).  with  ascidiozooids  projecting  above 
general  surface  of  colony ;  Gooasiria  (Cun- 
ningham), with  ascidiozooids  completely 
imbedded  in  investing  mass;  and  Chorizo- 
connxis    (Herdman),    with    ascidiozooids 
united  in  little  groups  which  are  connected 
by  stolons.     The  last  genus  contains  one 
species,  Ch.  reticulatus,  a  transition  form 
between  the  other  Polystydidm  and  the 
Siyclinm  amongst  Simple  Ascidians. 

The  methods  of  reproduction  by  gemma- 
tion differ  in  their  details  in  the  various 
groups  of  Compound  Ascidians  ;  but  in  all 
cases  the  process  is.  essentially  a  giving  off 
from  the  parent  body  of  groups  of  cells  re- 
presenting the  ectoderm,  the  mesoderm, 
and  the  endoderm,  which  develop  into  the 
corresponding  layers  of  the  bud.  The  first 
ascidiozooid  of  the  colony  produced  by  the 
tailed  larva  does  not  form  sexual  repro- 
ductive organs,  but  reproduces  by  gemma- 
tion so  as  to  make  a  colony.  Thus  there 
is  alternation  of  generations  in  the  life- 
history.  In  the  most  completely  formed 
colonies  (eg'.,  Botryllus)  the  ascidiozooids 
are  arranged  in  groups  (systems  or  coeno- 
bii),  and  in  each  system  are  placed  with 
their  atrial  apertures  towards  one  another, 
and  all  communicating  with  a  common 
cloacal  cavity  which  opens  to  the  exterior 
in  the  centre  of  the  system  (fig.  19  Di). 

Sub-order  3. — Ascidise  Salpifonnea. 

Free-swimming  pelagic  colonies  having     ■^'^2^(^M^f^^  ^  Ascidim 

the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder  closed  at  one  ^     ^  v  Salpi- 

end.  The  ascidiozooids  forming  the  colony  f.jo_   aO—Pj/rosoma   ehgansj<^'^- 
are  imbedded  m  the  common  test  in  such  a    natural  size.    A.  Side  view 
manner  that  the  branchial  apertures  open     of  entire  colony.     U.  End 
on  the  outer  surface  and  theatrial  apertures     (OrTRinal  ^"^^^   extremity, 
on  the  inner  surface  next  to  the  central 

cavity  of  the  colony.    The  ascidiozooids  are  produced  by  gemmation 
from  a  rudimentary  larva  (tho  cyathozooid)  developed  sexually. 

XXIIL  —  78 


618 


T  U  N  I  C  A  T  A 


Etnic-  This  snb-order  includes  a  single  family,  the  Pyrosomidj:,  con- 

tare  o'  taining  one  well -marked  genus,  Pyrosoma  (Peron),  with  several 
Pyro-  species.  They  are  found  swimming  near  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
soma.  chiefly  in  tropical  latitudes,  and  are  brilliantly  phosphorescent 
A  fully  developed  Ptjrosoma  colony  may  be  from  an  inch  or  two  to 
upwards  of  four  feet  in  length.  The  shape  of  the  colony  is  seen  in 
6r.  20.  It  tapers  slightly  towards  the  closed  end,  which  is  rounded. 
The  opening  at  the  opposite  f  nd  is  reduced  in  size  by  the  presence 
of  a  membranous  prolongation  of  the  common  test  (fig.  20,  B). 
The  branchial  apertures  of  the  ascidiozooids  arc  placed  upon  short 
papills  projecting  from  the  general  surface,  and  most  of  the  ascidio- 
zooids have  long  conical  processes  of  the  test  projecting  outwards 
beyond  their  branchial  ajiertures  (figs.  20,  21,  and  22).  There  is 
only  a  single  layer  of  ascidiozooids  in  the  Pyrosoma  colony,  as  all 
the  fully  developed  ascidiozooids  are  placed  with  their  antero- 
posterior a-xcs  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  and  communicate  by 
their  atrial  apertures  with  the  central  cavity  of  the  colony  (fig.  21 ). 


cm        em  ai-  ~asc 

Fio.  21.— Part  of  a  longitudinal  section  through  wall  of  Pyrosoma,  showing 
arrangement  of  Ascidiozooids,  magnified  (partly  after  Savigny).  at,  atrial 
apertures ;  K  branchial  apertures :  asc,  young  ascLdiozooid  of  a  futxu-e  colony 
prtMluced  by  budding  from  cy,  cyathozooid :  cm,  embrj-os  in  various  stages ; 
I,  test ;  tp,  processes  of  test;  brs,  branchial  sac;  yas,  young  ascidiozooid. 

Their  dorsal  surfaces  are  turned  towards  the  open  end  of  the  colony. 
The  more  important  points  in  the  structure  of  the  ascidiozooid  of 
Pyrosoma  are  shown 
in  fig.  22.  A  circle  of 
tentacles,  of  which 
one,  placed  Tentrally 
(fig.  22,  tn),  is  larger 
than  the  rest,  is 
found  just  inside  the 
branchial  aperture. 
Trom  this  point  a 
wide  cavity,  with  a 
few  circularly-placed 
muscle  bands  run- 
ning round  its  walls, 
leads  back  to  the 
large  brand. ial  sac, 
which  occupies  the 
greater  part  of  the 
body.  The  stigmata 
are  elongated  trans- 
versely and  crossed 
by  internal  longitu- 
dinal bars.  "The  dor- 
sal lamina  is  repre- 
sented by  a  series  of 
eight  languets  (I). 
The  nerve  ganglion 
(on  which  is  placed 
a  small  pigmented  ^  * 
sense  organ),  the-sub- 
neura!  glaud,  the  dor- 
sal tubercle,  th-;  peri- 
pharyngeal bands, 
and  the  endostyle  are 
placed  in  the  usual 
positions.  On  each 
side  of  the  anterior 
end  of  the  branchial 
sac,  close  to  the  peri- 
pharyngeal bands,  is 


Fic.  52.— M.itnrc  .nscidiozooid  of  PyrxnOTnn,  from  left 
side  (partly  after  Kefi.rstcin).  Lettering  as  before; 
em,  celluK-ir  mass,  tlie  seat  of  i>liospliorcscence ; 
C<n',  posterior  cellular  mass;  ys.  geiiimiparous 
stolon  ;  jiitj,  muscle  band ;  nijt,  subneuntl  gland  ; 
P'3,  pigment  spot  on  ganglion ;  tj),  process  of  lest 


a  mass  of  rounded  gland  cells  whicli  arc  the  source  of  the  phosphores- 
cence. The  alimentary  canal  is  placed  posteriorly  to  tlic  branchial 
$ac,  and  the  anus  opens  into  a  large  peribranchial  (or  atrial)  cavity, 
of  wluch  only  the  median  posterior  i>art  is  shown  (pbr)  in  fig.  22. 
TJ>c  j-eproductivc  organs  arc  developed  in  a  dircrticuluti  of  the  jicri- 


branchial  cavity,  and  consist  of  a  lobed  testis  and  a  s'ngle  ovum  at 
a  time.  The  development  takes  place  in  a  part  of  the  peribranchial  Dcvelop- 
cavity  (fig.  21,  em).  The  segmentation  is  meroblastic,  and  an  ment  ol 
elongated  embryo  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  a  mass  of  yolk.  The  Pym- 
embryo,  after  the  formation  of  an  alimentary  cavity,  a  tubularamia. 
nervous  system,  and  a  pair  of  laterally  placed  atrial  tubes,  divides 
into  an  aiiterior  and  a  posterior  part.  The  anterior  part  then 
segments  into  four  pieces,  which  afterwards  develop  into  the  first 
asadiozooids  of  .the  colony,  while  the  posterior  part  remains  in  a 
rudimentary  condition,  and  was  called  by  Huxley  the  "cyatho- 
zooid "  ;  it  eventually  atrophies.  As  the  four  ascidiozooids  increase 
in  size,  they  grow  round  the  cyathozooid  and  soon  encircle  it  (fig.  21, 
asc  and  cy).  The  cyathozooid  absorbs  the  nourishing  yolk  u)>on 
which  it  lies,  and  distributes  it  to  the  a.scidiozooids  by  means  of  a 
heart  and  system  of  vessels  which  have  been  meanwhile  formed. 
When  the  cyathozooid  atrophies  and  is  absorbed,  its  original  atrial 
aperture  remains  and  deepens  to  become  the  central  cavity  of  the 
young  colony,  which  now  consists  of  four  ascidiozooids  placed  in  a 
ring,  around  where  the  cyathozooid  was,  and  enveloped  in  a  common 
test.  The.  colony  gradually  increases  by  the  formation  of  buds  from 
these  four  original  ascidiozooids. 

Phylooent. 
The    accompanying  diagram    shows    graphically   the    probable  Phylo- 
origin  and  course  of  evolution  of  the  various  groups  of  Tu7Licaia,  geuy. 
and  therefore  exhibits  their  relations  to  one  another  much  more< 
correctly  than  any  system  of  linear  classification  can   do.     Tlie 
ancestral  Proto-  Tuniaita  are  here  regarded  *  as  an  olfshoot  from 
iha  Proio-Cftcrdata — the  common  ancestors  of  the  7\initxUa  {Uro- 
chorda),  Amphioxus  {CcphalocUorda),  and  the   Vcrte- 
Irata.      The  ancestral   Tutticala  were  probably  free- 
swimming   forms,  not   very   unlike 
'■*.o     the  existing  ApiKndiculariidx,  and 
%   are  rejiresented  in   the  life -history 


of   nearly   all 
sections  of  the 
Timicala     by 
the  tailed  lar- 
val stage.  The 
Larvttcca     arc  1 
the    first    off-  \ 
shoot        from  ■*; 
the    ancestral 
forms     which  ^^   .  ^. 

gave     rise    to  *"  "      "■"■ 

the  two  lines  of  descendants,  the  Proto- Thaliacca  and  the  Proton 
Ascidiacea.  The  Proto- Thaliacca  then  split  into  the  ancestors  of 
the  existing  Cyclomyaria  and  Ncmiviyaria.  The  Proto-Ascidiacca. 
gave  up  their  pelagic  mode  of  life  and  became  fixed.  This  ancestral 
process  is  repeated  at  tlic  present  day  when  the  irec;Swimming  larva 
of  the  Simple  and  Compound  Ascidians  becomes  attached.  The 
Proto- Ascidiacca,  after  the  change,  are  probably  most  nearly  repre- 
sented by  the  existing  genus  Clavcltna.  They  have  given  rise 
directly  or  indirectly  to  the  various  groups  of  Simple  and  Com- 
pound Ascidians  and  the  Pyroso/n%dst.  These  groups  form  two 
lines,  which  ajipear  to  have  diverged  close  to  the  position  of  the 
family  Clavclinidx.  The  one  line  leads  to  the  more  typical 
Com|Tound  Ascidians,  and  includes  the  Polyclinidx,  Distomidx, 
Dtdcmnidx,  Diptosornidx,  CulocormidSE,  and  finally  the  Ascidies 
Salpi/ormcs.  The  second  line  gave  rise  to  the  Simple  Ascidians. 
and  to  the  BotryUidas  and  Polyslyclidx.  w  Inch  are,  therefore,  not 
closely  allied  to  the  other  Compound  Ascidians  The  later  Prolo- 
Ascidiacca  were  probably  colonial  forms,  and  gemmation  was  re 
tained  by  the  Ciaoclintdx  and  by  the  typical  Coni]iound  Ascidians 
{Dislomidx,  &c.)  derived  from  them  The  power  of  forming 
colomes  by  budding  was  lost,  however,  by  the  pnmitivc  Simple 
Ascidians,  and  mifst,  thcrelore,  have  been  regained  independently 
by  the  ancestral  forms  of  the  BolnjUidse  and  the  Pohjstyclidm 
If  this  IS  a  correct  interpretation  of  the  course  of  evolution  of  the 
Tunicata,  we  an'ive  at  the  following  important  conclusions  (1; 
The  Tunicala,  as  a  whole,  form  a  degenerate  branch  ol  the  Proio 
Chordata  ;  2)  the  Ascidtx  Sal/ji/ormcs  (Ptjrosoma)  are  much  more 
closely  related  to  the  lyi)ical  Coni[iouJid  Ascidians  than  to  the  othci 
pelagic  Tvmaita,  viz.,  the  Larvucca  and  the  Tluiliacca  ,  and  (3)  the 
Ascidix  CompoMX  form  a  iKilyphylctit  pou)).  the  sections  of 
which  have  arisen  at  several  distinct  points  from  the  ancestral 
Simple  Ascidians. 

Ihbhogmjhy. — (/)  Cu\*ier,  "Mfem.  s.  les  Ascidles,"  4c.,  m  Hevi.  rf.  N\t£.,  vol 
il.  p.  10.  raris,  1813;  {^)  Savigny,  MtmciTCi  sur  Ics  Anivmvz  sir/ij  i-'crUbra,  pt- 
ii.  fasc.  i.,  Paris.  ISlC;  ifi  I^arnarck, //«(.  iVa/.  d.  Anim.  muls  Veriehr^s.  1st  cd.. 
Pans,  1815  ;3;  U)  O.  F  M.iUer,  ZmI  Danica.  vol.  iv.,  1S06 ;  (;)  Miliie-Ed- 
\vanls.  "Obscrv.  s.  Ics  Ascidies  Compnsces,"  Ac,  iu  A/rm.  Acad  .Sci.,  Paris, 
VOL  y.v\\\.,  \b\2',  (0)  SeliiTinlt.  Zur  vergl.  rhysiol.  rf.  KirUlloi.   Thiere.  Biins- 

l  By  Dohm  and  others  their  point  of  origin  is  placed  considerably  further 
up  on  tlie  -sttMii  of  the  O.t/rilain,  thus  Causing  Uic  Tuiiicata  to  be  regarded  a» 
\try  degeueiate  Kcrtt^miti  (sec  J^). 


I 


T  U  N  — T  U  N 


619 


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Mui.  Comp.  ZooL.  Harvard,  vol.  iii.  p.  291  ;  (^6>Salensky,  ZUchr.  /.  vnss.  Zool., 

1877;  (^7)  Barrois,   Journ.  d.  tAnoL  el  Phys.,    voL  xxi.,  1885;  {sSi  Uljanin, 

fauna,  &c  d.  Golfts  von  tieapd,  voL  I.,  1884;  (2ci)  Moseley.  "On  Deep-Sea 

A.scid.."  in  Trana.  Linn.  Soc,  ser.  ii.,  voL  i..  1876.  (jo)  E.  van  Beneden  and 

Juhn,  "  Morph.  d.  Tuntciers,"  in  jlrcA.  d.  Biol.,  vol.  vi  .  1&S6 .  (j/)  Lankestei. 

DegenKT^iutu  (Nature  senes),  London,  1880;  IJ2}  Dohm.  "Stud.  z.   Urgesch! 

I  d.  Wirbclti.. '  in  ifiJIA.  ZooL  Slat.  NcapeL  (W  a.  HE.) 


TUNTXG  FORK,  a  small  bar  of  cast  tool  steel  with 
tolerably  defined  edges,  bent  into  a  fork  with  two  prongs. 
A  handle  of  the  same  metal  extending  from  the  bend  of 
the  fork  serves  as  a  sound-post  to  transmit  the  vibrations 
of  the  fork  to  any  resonance  board  or  body  convenient  for 
reinforcing  the  sound  The  fork  is  set  in  vibration  by 
striking  one  of  the  prongs  against  any  hard  substance,  by 
pressing  the  prongs  together  if  the  fork  is  a  light  one,  or, 
if  It  IS  large,  by  drawing  a  double  bass  bow  across  one  of 
^he  prongs.  The  larger  forks  are  sometimes  made  with  a 
worm  upon  the  handle  in  order  that  they  may  be  screwed 
into  a  resonance  box,  the  dimensions  of  w  hich  should  agree 
wnth  the  pilch  of  the  fork.  The  ordinary  use  of  a  tuning 
fork  IS  to  serve  as  a  pilch  carrier  or  standard,  for  which  it 
IS  particularly  suited  owing  to  the  permanence  with  which 
It  maintains  the  pitch  to  which  it  may  be  tuned.  It  is 
flattened  by  heat  and  sharpened  by  cold  about  I  vibration 
in  20,000  for  every  degree  Fahr.,  so  that  the  exact  pitch 
always  depends  upon  the  temperature.  A  tuning  fork  is 
tuned  by  filing  the  ends  of  the  prongs  or  between  them 
near  the  ends  to  make  it  sharper,  or  by  filing  between 
them  near  or  at  the  bend  to  make  it  flatter.  Less  filing 
IS  required  to  flatten  than  to  sharpen.  It  should  be  allowed 
to  rest  after  tuning,  on  account  of  the  disturbance  of  the 
molecular  structure  by  the  filing,  and  after  a  few  days 
should  be  compared  again  with  the  pitch  required,  and 
corrected.  The  tuning  fork  is  also  of  value  in  certain 
physical  investigations,  from  the  constancy  of  its  rate  of 
vibration.  In  England  it  is  generally  tuned  to  C  in  the 
treble  clef,  because  organ-builders  start  their  tuning  from 
that  note ;  in  France  it  is  tuned  to  A  in  the  treble  clef, 
which  IS  the  note  of  the  third  open  string  of  the  violin. 
The  French  diapason  normal  is  tuned  to  A  at  15°  C.  (  =  59° 
Fahr.)  and  is  fixed  at  435  double  vibrations  in  a  second. 
The  inventor  of  the  tunmg  fork  was  John  Shore,  royal 
trumpeter  in  1711,  sergeant  trumpeter  at  the  entry  of 
George  I.  in  1714,  and  lutanist  to  the  chapel  royal  in  1715. 

According  to  Chladni,  whose  analysis  of  the  tuning  fork  has  been 
generally  accepted,  it  has  two  nodes  or  points  of  least  vibration  at 
the  bend,  with  a  ventral  or  vibrating  loop  between,  by  which  its  i 
vibrations  are  transmitted  to  the  handle.    That  this  is  not  the  case  r 
has  been  shown  by  Mr  W.  F.  Stanley.'     The  fundamental  note  i 
appears  to  be  an  octave  below  the  note  which  tlie  ear  recognizes  as  ' 
the  pitch  of  the  fork.     Helmholtz,  Tjiidall,  and  others  accept  the  | 
latter  as  the  fundamental,  and  Helmholtz  expressly  says  that  each 
jirong  may  be  regarded  as  an  elastic  rod  fi.xed  at  one  end.*     The  fork 
Ls  really  a  bent  .elastic  rod  vibrating  at  both  ends,  with  a  node  at 
the  bend,  through  which,  and  in  the  same  way  as  with  the  bridge 
of  any  stringed  instrumeiil,  the  vibrations  are  conducted.     As  well 
as  ths  second  partial,  tke  third  and  fourth  are  m  large  forks  fre- 
quently distinguishable,  but  such  partials  above  the  octave  are  very 
>veak.      In  adilition  to  the  lower  harmonic  partials  it  is  generally 
easy  to   produce  with  a  blow  a  very  high  inharmonic   tinkle  or 
ringing  metallic  note,  that  will  continue  to  sound  for  some  time 
without  blending  with  the  true  note-  of  the   fork.     The  precise 
interval  vanes,  but  is  usually  two  octaves  and  between  a  flat  6fth 
and  a  major  sixth  above  the  recognized  pitch  of  the  fork.     With 
ordinary  tuning  forks  this  tinkling  note  is  to  be  found  amongst 
the  highest  treble  notes  of  the  pianoforte     Theorists  give  other 
inharmonic  proper  tones  in  due  ascending  order  ;  they  are  derived 
from  c.Mculation  on  the  assumption"  that  thc^  proceed  as  the  squares 
of  the  odd  numbers,  but  are  beyond  practical  verification  owing  to 

'  AatuTc,  vol.  xxvi.  pp.  1G6,  243. 

'  Scasalivns  of  Tone  ;  Eng.  transl.  by  A.  J.  Ellis,  2d  ed.,  1885.  p.  70.  i 


their  extreme  position  in  the  scale  of  musical  sounds  and  th::  vana- 
tioD  of  power  in  different  ears  to  distinguish  them. 

The  tuning  fork  was  used  by  Scheibler  (1777-1837)  as  the  easiest 
means  for  correctly  determining  the  pitch  numbers  of  vibrations. 
To  make  a  Scheibler  tonometer,  take  a  fork  in  which  the  octave 
can  be  easily  heard  and  intercalate  as  many  forks  as,  giving  count- 
able beats  with  each  other,  will  fill  up  the  octave.  The  addition 
of  the  whole  number  of  beats  and  their  fractions  id  the  octave  w»ll 
be  the  vibrating  number,  in  double  vibrations  per  second,  of  the 
lower  fork.  In  order  to  measure  the  fractions  of  vibi-ations  accu- 
rately forks  should  be  chosen  that  are  audible  for  40.  or  at  least 
20  seconds  For  instance,  60  beats  counted  in  20  seconds  wouJd 
be  3  a  second,  and  65  in  the  same  time  3"25.  The  forks  should 
remain  for  three  months  after  filing  before  their  differences  are  finally 
determined,  and  the  whole  eitamination  should  be  conducted  in  a 
known,  uniform  temperature.  Scheibler  considered  four  beats  a 
second  between  two  forks  a  good  number  for  counting  ;  but  Mr  A. 
J.  Ellis,  who  has  used  Scheibler's  invention  as  a  basis  for  an  exhaust- 
ive histoncal  s*-^ement  of  musical  pitch^  and  as  the  novel  and 
exact  means  fo;  determining  the  non-harmonic  musical  scales  of 
various  nations,  especially  Eastern  nations,*  considers _three  beats  a 
second  the  best  counting  number.  This  would  increase  the  number 
of  intermediate  forks. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  use  tuning  forks  instead  of  strings 
for  key-board  instruments,  the  object  being  to  obtain  permanence 
of  tuning  with  the  soft,  unexciting  quality  of  tone  furnished  by  the 
fork.  The  inventions  of  Clagget,  London,  1788,  of  Riffelsen  (the 
melodikon),  Copenhagen,  1803,  and  of  Schuster  (the  adiaphonou), 
Vienna,  1819,  were  of  this  nature.  The  latest  adap'ation  of  a  key- 
board to  tuning  forks  has  beeu  effected  by  llr  JIachell  of  Glasgow  ; 
It  was  shown  at  the  Inventions  Exhibition,  South  Kensington, 
London,  1885. 

TUNIS,  Regency  of,  formerly  one  of  the  Barbary  states  Plate  V- 
of  north  Africa,  but  since  1881  a  dependency  of  France, 
whose  resident-general  exercises  all  real  authority  in  the 
nominal  dominions  of  the  bey.  Is  bounded  on  the  west  by 
Algeria,  on  the  north  by  the  western  basin  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, on  the  east  from  Cape  Bon  to  the  Gulf  of  Gabes 
(Kiibis)  by  the  eastern  basm  of  the  same  sea,  and  on  the 
south-east  by  the  province  of  Tripoli.  On  the  south  the 
boundary  is  the  Sahara  and  the  frontier  line  is  indefinite. 
The  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  is  about  150  miles, 
the  length  from  north  to  south  about  300  miles.  The 
pojmlation  does  not  exceed  a  million  and  a  half. 

Physical  Features. — Tunis  is  formed  by  the  prolongation 
towards  the  east  of  the  two  great  mountain  chains  of 
Algekia  (J.f. ),  and  closely  resembles  that  country  in  its 
physical  features,  products,  and  climate ;  see  \rEiCA,  voh 
i.  p.  265.  The  northern  Algerian  chain  (the  Little  Atlas) 
is  prolonged  through  Tunis  to  Ras  Sldi  'All  al-Makkl,  thft 
highest  summits  never  attaining  an  altitude  of  4000  feet. 
It  forms  a  picturesque,  fertile,  and  well-watered  region^ 
with  extensive  cork  woods  in  its  western  parts,  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  southern  mountains  by  the  valley  (the  ancient 
Zeugitana)  of  the  Mejerda  (the  ancient  Bagradas),  the  most 
important  river  of  north  Africa,  which  after  a  tortuous- 
course  of  nearly  300  miles  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Tunis  at 
Porto  Farina.  The  basin  of  the  Mejerda,  which  is  now  tra- 
versed by  the  railway  from  Algiers  to  Tunis,  is  very  fertile, 
and  many  important  ruins  testify  to  its  prosperity  in  Romai» 
times.  The  rich  lacustrine  deposits  in  the  Dikhila,  or  plain 
of  Bulla  Regia,  show  that  it  was  only  in  relatively  recent 
times  that  its  upper  waters  found  a  passage  to  the  sea  by 

•^  "  On  tlie  H'story  of  Musical  Pitch,"  m  Journ.  Hoc.  of  AtIs,  5lU 
March  and  2d  April  ISSO  ;  see  also  7th  January  1881^ 

■•  "On  Musical  Scales,"  liirf.,  27lli  March  ami  30th  October  1SS5. 


€20 


TUNIS 


cutting  a  deep  gorge  through  tne  cretaceous  barrier  tnat 
ihuts  in  this  upland  plain  upon  the  east.  The  southern 
wall  of  the  Mejerda  valley  and  of  the  Gulf  of  Tunis  is 
formed  by  a  branch  of  the  southern  Algerian  chain,  con- 
nected with  Jebel  AurAs  (Mount  Aurte)  by  the  plateau  of 
Tebessa  (Theveste)  and  running  north-east  to  Cape  Bon. 
Its  highest  summits  (Zilk  and  Zaghwin)  rise  above  5000 
feet.  Another  branch  of  the  southern  chain  runs  from  the 
Sahara  side  of  Mount  Aures  south-east  towards  the  head 
of  the  Lesser  Syrtis  or  Gulf  of  Gabes.  Between  these  two 
branches  lies  a  mountainous  plateau,  whose  waters  descend 
■eastward  but  do  not  reach  the  sea.  Arrested  by  a  line  of 
hills  running  parallel  to  the  coast,  they  form  a  chain  of 
lakes  and  marshes,  which  for  the  most  part  dry  up  in 
summer.  It  is  to  this  region  of  inland  drainage  (the 
ancient  Byzacene)  that  the  plain  of  Kairwan  belongs. 
Its  southern  part  from  Sbeitla  (Sobaitala)  to  the  Syrtis  is 
relatively  sterile,  and  even  in  antiquity  appears  to  have 
formed  an  exception  to  the  general  fertility  of  the  country, 
which  was  one  of  the  granaries  of  Rome.  The  upland 
district  from  Tebessa  southward  sinks  into  the  desert  by 
A  step-like  series  of  great  plateaus,  separated  by  rugged 
walls  of  variegated  marls,  sands,  and  alluvium,  torn  into 
fantastic  shapes,  and  scored  with  deep  ravines  by  streams 
which  at  some  remote  period  of  copious  rainfall  poured 
down  into  the  Sahara.  Farther  east  the  plateaus  disappear 
and  the  mountains  rise  like  a  rampart  from  the  SibAkh 
(sing.  Sebkka),  or  Sahainn  marshes  and  salt-flats.  The 
depression  to  which  the  SibAkh  belong  terminates  to  the 
■east  in  the  Shott  (Shalt)  al-Jerid,  which  is  separated  from 
the  Lesser  Syrtis  only  by  a  narrow  isthmus ;  see  S.^har.\, 
vol.  XXI.  p.  151.  Even  the  Sahara  of  Tunis  abounds  in 
fertile  oases. 

Climate. — The  mean  annual  temperature  at  Siisa  is  75°  Fahr., 
the  mean  of  the  winter  or  rainy  season  60°  and  of  the  hot  season 
57°.  At  Tunis  the  temperature  rarely  exceeds  90°,  except  with  a 
\rind  from  the  Sahara.  The  prevailing  winds  from  May  to  Sep- 
tember are  east  and  north-east  and  diirin*  the  rest  of  the  year  north- 
west and  east  A  rainy  season  of  about  two  months  usually  begins 
■in  January  ;  the  spring  season  of  verdure  is  over  in  May  ;  summer 
-ends  in  October  with  the  firit  rains.  Violent  winds  are  common 
at  both  equinoxes- 

Flora  and  Fauna. — Both  are  generally  the  same  as  those  of 
Algeria  iq.v.).  The  lion  and  panther  are  almost  extinct,  but  tlie 
sportsman  finds  in  abundance  the  wild  boar,  partridge,  Carthage 
fowl,  quail,  and  snipe.  The  African  moufflon  still  exists  in  the 
southern  mountains.  Herds  of  buffaloes  are  found  in  the  district 
-of  Mater.  The  stag  occurs  in  the  eastern  districts,  ffhe  camel, 
now  so  important,  was  hardly  known  here  before  the  Roman 
sovereignty.  Red  muUet,  tunny,  and  other  fish  aboui^  around 
the  coast ;  and  fishing  stations  are  numerous.  The  town  of  Rizerta 
-and  the  Kerkenna  Islands  are  mainly  dependent  on  their  fisheries. 
The  coral  and  sponge  fisheries,  of  which  Sfax  and  the  island  of  Jerba 
(Djerba)  are  centres,  are  also  considerable.  Of  noxious  creatures 
may  be  named  the  scorpion,  much  more  formidable  than  that  of 
Algiers,  a  venomous  tree  snake  {Echis  car^nata),  in  the  sandy  lands 
between  Kafsa  and  Sfax,  and  a  species  of 'python  called  iajucrga, 
which  infests  some  parts  of  the  southern  mountains. 

Cork  and  "  zen  "  trees  cover  about  360,000  acres  towards  the 
Algerian  frontier,  and  the  pine  and  deciduous  oak  almost  as  large 
-an  area  south  of  the  Jlejerda  ;  but  the  country  is  much  less  wooded 
than  in  antiquity.  The  richness  of  the  grain  crcps  is  still  remark- 
able, in  spite  of  imperfect  cultivation.  Olives  and  many  excellent 
fruits  are  largely  produced,  and  vineyards  have  been  much  extended 
since  the  French  occupation.  Esparto  grasd  abounds  in  the  uplands. 
The  oases  of  the  Jcrid  are  devoted  to  the  date  palm  and  produce  the 
best  dates  known  in  the  European  market. 

Minerals. — The  mineral  wealth  of  Tunis,  like  that  of  Algeria, 
is  considerable,  but  it  has  been  imperfectly  explored.  Tho  iron 
mines  of  the  northern  mountains  and  the  argentiferous  lead  mines 
of  Al-Resas  near  Tunis  were  worked  in  antiquity,  as  were  also  the 
marble  quarries  of  Simittu  (Chemtou),  on  the  upper  Mejerda,  which 
•are  now  in  the  hands  of  a  Belgian  company.  The  thermal  springs 
of  Hamm4m  al-Anf  on  the  Bay  of  Tunis  are  supposed  to  have  heal- 
ing virtues  ;  they  are  now  connected  with  the  capital  by  rail. ' 

InJiaiilanta. — Tho  industrious  Berbers  (Kabyles),  the  oldest  stock 
in  the  country,  are  less  sharply  marked  off  from  the  Arabs  than  in 
Algoria,  but  are  distinguishable  by  their  lighter  complexion  and 
■often  fair  hair.     They  form  a  large  part  of  the  population  in  the 


nortnern  ana  eastern  mountains,  ana  m  tne  island  of  Jerba 
(Jirba).  They  are  organized  in  tribes  with  purely  democratic  self- 
government,  and  laws  of  their  own,  which  are  not  those  of  the 
Koran.  The  pastoral  Arab  nomads  are  descended  from  the  second 
Arab  invasion,  which  began  in  the  11th  century  (see  below).  They 
have  little  agriculture  and  are  still  as  indolent  and  unruly  as  their 
ancestors.  The  Arabs  of  the  towns  are  usually  known  as  Moors; 
among  them  the  Spanish  Moors,  descendants  of  the  Andalusian 
refugees,  form  an  exclusive  and  aristocratic  class.  The  pure  Turks 
and  tlie  Kuluglis  (sons  of  Turkish  fathers  by  Moorish  women  or 
slave  girls)  are  no  longer  numerous.  Of  Europeans  there  are  some 
10,000  Italians.  SOOO  Maltese,  and  4000  French  (exclusive  of  tho 
army).  The  Jews  luimber  some  50,000,  of  whom  perhaps  half  are  in 
the  capital.     The  trade  of  the  country  is  largely  in  their  hands.^ 

Towns. — For  the  capital  Tunis,  see  below.  Of  the  coast  towns 
Sf.vx  and  Susa  have  separate  notices  ;  Bizerta  (Benzert),  the  ancient 
Hippo  Zarytus,  is  tlie  chief  place  on  the  north  coast,  with  5000  in- 
habitants. It  stands  on  a  canal  connecting  the  sea  with  a  lake 
wliicli  might  easily  be  converted  into  a  magnificent  land-locked 
Viarbour.  On  the  east  coast  are  Hammamet  (Hamamat),  with  3700 
inhabitants ;  Monastir,  with  5600  .  .habitants  and  a  trade  in  cereals 
and  oils  ;  Mahdiya  (.Mehcdia),  with  6300  inhabitants,  the  fallen 
city  of  the  Fatiinites,  wliicli  since  the  French  occupation  has  begun 
to  rise  again,  and  has  a  new  harbour  ;  and  Gabes  (Kabis)  on  the 
SjTtis,  a  group  of  small  villages,  with  an  aggregate  population  of 
14,000,  the  port  of  the  shott  country  and  a  depot  of  the  esparto 
trade.  Of  the  inland  towns  the  holy  city  of  Kairwan  {q.v.)  is  the 
n'lost  remarkable.  Its  fine  mosques  are  now  open  to  visiters. 
Sbeitla  (Lat.  Sufetula),  in  the  mountains  south-west  of  Kairwan, 
is  remarkable  for  its  magnificent  Roman  remains,  the  triumphal 
arch  of  Constantine,  and  the  three  temples  which  form  the  hkron. 
The  principal  towns  of  the  Jlejerda  basin  arc  Bedj^  (Baja),  the 
ancient  Vaga,  an  important  corn  market,  and  higher  up,  near  the 
border,  the  fortress  of  Kef  (Sicca  Veneria),  with  4000  inhabitants, 
boldly  perched  on  the  steep  slope  of  a  volcanic  mountain. 

Commerce, — The  total  imports  of  the  regency  in  1885  were  valued 
at  £1,093,047,  of  which  about  27  per  cent  were  British  goods,  chiefly 
cotton  fabrics.  In  1>SS4  the  imports  were  valued  at  £1,157,18^ 
The  most  important  export  is  olive  oil,  and  after  it  come  wheat, 
esparto  grass,  barley,  sponges.  The  value  of  the  total  exports  in 
1SS4  was  £745,554,"  and  in  1885  £882,946.  In  1885  1,035  vessels 
(71,133  tons)  entered  the  port  of  Goletta,  and  tlie  entries  at  other 
ports  were  3033  (55,050  tons).  \ 

History.— The  history  of  Tunis  begins  for  ns  with  the  establish- 
meut  of  the  Phcenician  colonies  ;  see  vol.  xviii.  p.  806,  Phcfnicia 
and  Cakthage.  The  Punic  settlers  Semitized  the  coast,  but  left 
the  Bcrbersof  the  interior  almost  untouched.  The  Romans  entered 
into  the  heritage  of  the  Carthaginians  and  of  the  vassal  kings  of 
Nuraidia,  and  Punic  speech  and  civilization  gave  way  to  Latin,  a 
change  which  from  the  time  of  Cresar  was  helped  on  by  Italian 
colonization.  ,Rich  in  corn,  in  herds,  and  in  later  times  also  in 
oil,  and  possessing  valuable  fisheries,  mines,  and  quarries,  the 
province  of  Africa,  of  which  Tunis  was  the  most  important  part, 
attained  under  the  empire  a  prosperity  to  which  Roman  remains  in 
all  parts  of  the  country  still  bear  witness.  Carthage  was  the  second 
city  of  the  Latin  part  of  the  empire,  "after  Rome  the  busiest  .ind 
pciha]is  the  most  corrupt  city  of  the  West,  and  the  chief  centre  of 
Latin  (ultire  and  letters."  In  the  early  history  of  Latin  Christ- 
iaiuiy  Afiica  holds  a  more  important  place  than  Italy.  It  was 
heie  that  Christian  Latin  literature  took  its  rise,  and  to  this  pronnce 
belong  the  names  of  TertuUian  and  Cj-prian,  of  Arnobius  and 
Lactantius,  above  all  of  Augustine.  Lost  to  Rum3  by  the  invasion 
of  the  Vandals,  who  took  Carthage  in  439,  the  province  was  re- 
covered by  Belisarius  a  century  later  (533-4),  and  remained  Romaa 
till  the~Aiab  invasion,  for  which  see  vol.  xvi.  p.  567.  The  cob, 
queror  'Okba  founded  the  city  of  Kairwan  (c.  670),  which  was  the 
residence  of  the  governors  of  Africa  under  the  Omayyads  and  there- 
after the  capital  of  the  Aghlabitc  princes,  the  conquerors  of  Sicily, 
who  ruled  in  merely  nominal  dependence  on  the  'Abbasids  (see  voL 
xvi.  p.  579). 

The  Latin  clement  in  Africa  and  the  Christian  faith  disappeared 
in  a  single  generation  ;  the  Berbers  of  the  mountains,  who  had 
never  been  Latinized  and  never  really  Christianized,  accepted  Islam 
without  difficulty,  but  showed  their  stubborn  nationality,  not  only 
in  the  character  of  their  Mohammedanism,  which  has  always  been 
mixed  up  with  the  worship  of  living  as  well  as  dead  saints  (mara- 
bouts) and  other  peculiarities,  but  also  in  political  movements. 
The  empire  of  the  Fatimites  (see  vol.  xvi.  p.  587)  rested  on  Berber 
support,  and  from  that  time  forth  till  the  advent  of  the  Turks  the 
dynasties  of  north  .\fricawere  really  native,  even  when  they  claimed 
descent  from  some  illustrious  Arab  stock.  When  the  seat  of  the 
Fatimite  empire  was  removed  to  Egypt,  the  Zirites,  a  house  of  the 
Sanhaja  Berbers,  ruled  as  their  lieutenants  at  Mahdiya,  and  about 
lO.'iO  Mo'izz  the  Zirite,  in  connexion  with  a  religious  movemea* 
against  the  Slii'ites.  transferred  his  very  nominal  allegiance  to  the 
Abbasid  caliphs.  The  Fatimites  in  revenge  let  loose  upon  Afrka 
a  vast  horde  of  Bedouins  from  Upper  Egypt  (B.  Hjlal  and  Solaim), 


TUNIS 


621 


the  ancestois  of  the  modern  nomads  ofBarbary.  All  Africa  s-as 
ravaged  by  the  invaders,  who,  though  unable  to  found  an  empire  or 
overthrow  the  settled  government  in  the  towns,  forced  the  agricul- 
tural Berbers  into  the  mountains,  and,  retaining  from  generation 
to  generation  their  lawless  and  predatory  habits,  have  ever  since 
made  order  and  prosperity  almost  impossible  in  the  open  parts  of 
the  country.  The  Zirite  dynasty  was  finally  extinguished  by 
Roger  1.  of  Sicily,  who  took  Mahdiya  in  1148  and  established  his 
authority  over  all  the  Tunisian  coast  Even  Moslem  historians 
speak  favourably  of  the  Norman  rule  in  Africa  ;  but  it  was  brought 
to  an  early  end  Dy  the  Almohade  caliph  'Abd  al-Mu'min,  who  took 
Slahdiya  in  1 160.  The  Almohade  empire  soon  began  to  decay,  and 
in  1336  Abu  Zakariya,  prince  of  Tunis,  was  able  to  proclaim  himself 
independent  and  found  a  dynasty,  which  subsisted  till  the  advent 
of  the  Turks.  The  Hafsites  (so  called  from  Abii  Hafs,  the  ancestor 
of  Abii  Zakariya,  a  Berber  chieftain  who  had  been  one  of  the  intimate 
disciples  of  the  Almohade  mahdi)  assumed  the  title  of  Prince  of  the 
Faithful,  a  dignity  which  was  acknowledged  even  at  Mecca,  when 
in  the  daj-s  of  Mostansir,  the  second  Halsite,  the  fall  of  Baghdad  left 
Islam  without  a  titular  head.  In  its  best  days  the  empire  of  the 
Hafsites  extended  from  Tlemcen  to  Tripoli  and  they  received  homage 
from  the  ilerinids  of  Fez ;  they  held  their  own  against  repeated 
Frankish  invasions,  of  which  the  most  notable  were  that  which  cost 
St  Louis  of  France  his  life  (1270)  and  that  of  the  duke  of  Bourbon 
(1390),  when  English  troops  took  part  in  the  unsuccessful  siege  of 
Mahdiya.  They  adorned  Tunis  with  mosques,  schools,  and  other 
institutions,  favoured  letters,  and  in  general  appear  to  have  risen 
above  the  usual  level  of  Moslem  sovereigns.  But  their  rule  was 
troubled  by  continual  wars  and  insurrections  ;  the  support  of  the 
Bedouin  Arabs  was  imperfectly  secured  by  pensions,  which  formed 
a  heavy  burden  on  the  finances  of  the  state  ;'  and  in  later  times  the 
dynasty  was  weakened  by  family  dissensions.  Leo  Africanus, 
writing  early  in  the  16th  century,  gives  a  favourable  picture  of  the 
"great  city  "  of  Tunis,  which  had  a  flourishing  manufacture  of  fine 
cloth,  a  prosperous  colony  of  Christian  traders,  and,  including  the 
suburbs,  nine  or  ten  thousand  hearths  ;  but  lie  speaks  also  of  the 
decay  of  once  flourishing  provincial  towns,  and  especially  of  agri- 
culture, the  greater  part  of  the  open  country  lying  waste  for  fear 
of  the  Arab  marauders.  Taxation  was  heavy,  and  tlie  revenue  very 
considerable  :  Don  John  of  Austria  in  a  report  to  Philip  II.  states 
that  the  land  revenue  alone  under  the  last  Hafsite  was  375,935 
ducats,  but  of  this  a  great  part  went  in  pensions  to  the  Arabs. 

The  conquest  of  Algiers  by  the  Turks  gave  a  dangerous 
neighbour  to  Tunis,  and  after  the  death  of  Mohammed  the 
Hafsite  in  1525  a  disputed  succession  supplied  Khair  al-Din 
Barbarossa  with  a  pretext  for  occupying  the  city  in  the  name  of 
the  sultan  of  Constantinople.  Al-Hasan,  the  son  of  Mohammed, 
sought  help  from  the  emperor,  and  was  restored  in  1535  as  a 
Spanish  vassal,  by  a  force  which  Charles  V.  commanded  in  person, 
while  Andrea  Doria  was  admiral  of  the  fleet  But  the  conquest 
was  far  from  complete,  and  was  never  consolidated.  The  Spaniards 
reinained  at  Goletta  and  made'  it  a  strong  fortress  ;  but  the  in. 
terior  was  a  prey  to  anarchy  and  civil  war,  until  in  1570  'AH 
Pasha  of  Algiers  utterly  defeated  H.imid,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Hasan,  and  occupied  Tunis.  In  1573  the  Turks  again  retreated 
on  the  approach  of  Don  John,  who  had  dreams  of  making  himself 
king  of  Tunis  ;  but  this  success  was  not  followed  up,  and  in  the 
next  year  Sultan  Selira  II.  sent  a  strong  expedition,  which  drove 
the  Spaniards  from  Tunis  and  Goletta,  and  reduced  the  country  to 
t  Turkish  province.  The  civil  administration  was  now  placed 
under  a  pasha  ;  but  in  a  few  years  a  military  revolution  transferred 
the  supreme  power  to  a  dey  elected  by  the  janissaries,  who  formed 
the  army  of  occupation.  The  government  of  the  deys  lasted  till 
1705,  but  was  soon  "narrowed  or  overshadowed  by  the  authority  of 
the  beys,  whose  proper  function  was  to  manage  the  tribes  and 
collect  tribute.  From  1631  to  1702  the  office  of  bey  was  hereditary 
In  the  descendants  of  .Murad,  a  Corsican  renegade,  and  their  rivalry 
with  the  deys  and  internal  dissensions  kept  the  country  in  con- 
stant disorder.  Ibraln'm,  the  last  of  the  deys  (1702-1705), 
destroyed  the  house  of  Murid  and  absorbed  the  bevship  in  his  own 
oflSce  ;  but,  when  he  fell  in  battle  with  the  Algerians,  Hosain  b. 
'All,  the  son  of  a  Greek  renegade,  was  proclaimed  sovereign  by  the 
troops  under  the  title  of  "bey,"  and,  being  a  priuce  of  energy  and 
ibaity,  was  able  to  establish  the  hereditary  sovereignty,  "which 
has  lasted  without  change  of  dynasty  to  the  present  time. 

Frequent  wars  mth  Algiers,  which  need  not  detain  us,  form  the 
jhief  incidents  in  the  internal  history  of  Tunis  under  the  beys. 
Under  deys  and  beys  alike  Tunis  was  essentially  a  pirate  state. 
Occasional  acts  of  chastisement,  of  which  the  bombaidment  of 
Porto  Farina  by  Blake  in  1655  was  the  most  notable,  and  repeated 
treaties,  extorted  by  European  powers,  checked  from  time  to  time, 
""t  n^^'cr  put  an  end  to,  the  habitual  piracies,  on  which  indeed  the 
public  revenue  of  Tunis  w,as  mainly  dependent.     The  powers  were 

,.  '..^  ^^^  ■'2"'  ^il  H'h  centuries  the  Hafsites  also  paid  tribute  to 
oicily  for  the  freedom  of  the  sea  and  the  right  to  import  Sic-Uian  com, 
—a  clear  proof  of  the  decline  of  Tunisian  agriculture. 


generally  less  concerned  for  the  captives  than  for  the  aconisition. 
of  trading  privileges,  and  the  beys  took  advantage  of  th':  coyi- 
mercial  rivalry  of  England  and  France  to  play  off  the  one  [Kjwer 
against  the  other.  The  release  of  all  Christian  slaves  was  not 
effected  till  after  the  bombardment  of  Algiers  ;  and  the  definite 
abandonment  of  piracy  may  be  dated  from  the  presentati  a  to  the 
bey  in  1819  of  a  collective  note  of  the  powers  assembled  at  Aie-la- 
Chap^lle.  The  Government  had  not  elasticity  enough  to  adapt 
itself  to  so  profound  a  change  in  its  ancient  traditions  ;  the  fiLaiices 
became  more  and  more  hopelessly  embarrassed,  in  spite  of  ruinous 
taxation  ;  and  attempts  at  European  innovations  iu  the  court  and 
army  made  matters  only  worse,  so  long  as  no  attempt  was  made  to 
improve  the  internal  condition  of  the  country.  In  the  third 
quarter  of  the  19th  century  not  more  than  a  tenth  part  of  the 
fertile  land  was  under  cultivation,  and  the  yearly  charge  on  the 
public  debt  exceeded  the  whole  annual  revenue.  In  these  circum- 
stances only  the  rivalry  of  the  European  powers  that  had  interests 
in  Tunis  protracted  from  year  to  year  the  inevitable  revolution. 
The  French  had  long  regarded  the  dominions  of  the  bey  as  their 
natural  inheritance,  and  in  1881,  having  got  a  grievance  against 
the  bey  in  a  commercial  transaction  of  the  French  African  Society, 
with  the  execution  of  which  he  had  interfered  (the  aHair  of  the 
Enfida  estate),  a  -French  force  crossed  the  Algerian  frontier  under 
pretext  of  chastising  the  independent  Kroumir  or  Khomair  tribes 
in  the  north-east  of  the  regency,  and,  "quickly  dropping  the  mask, 
advanced  on  the  capital  and  compelled  the  bey  to  accept  the  French 
protectoiate*.  The  actual  conquest  of  the  country  was  not  efiected 
without  a  serious  struggle  with  Moslem  fanaticism  ;  but  all  Tunis 
was  brought  completely  under  French  jurisdiction  and  administra- 
tion, supported  by  military  posts  at  every  important  point.  The 
power  of  the  bey  is  null  arid  his  dignity  merely  nominal, — a  fact 
acknowledged  by  Great  Britain  by  the  surrender  in  1883  of  Her 
Majesty's  consular  jurisdiction  in  the  regency. 

LittratUTt. — Of  Arabic  sources  accessible  in  translations  the  geographical 
works  of  Ya'kubi  (Descripfio  a^  Magribi,  by  De  G<jeje,  Leyden,  1860),  Al-Bakil 
(Descr.  de  I'Afriqitz  septentr.^  by  De  Slane,  Paris,  1859 ;  Arabic  text,  ibid.,  18o7), 
and  Edrisi  (Descr.  de  VJfrique,  &c.,  by  Dozy  and  De  Goeje,  Leyden,  1866)  belong 
to  the  10th,  11th,  and  12th  centuries  respectively ;  the  history  of  Ibn  KJialdiin 
(Hist.  d£s- Bcrhires,  by  De  Slane,  4  vols,,  Algiers,  1852-56)  includes  the  earlier 
Hafsites.  that  of  Al-Kairawani  {Hist,  de  VAfrique,  by  Pellissier  and  R^musat, 
Paris,  1S45,  tn  Expl.  Scient.  de  VAlgerie,  vol.  vii.;  Arabic  text,  Tunis,  12S6  a. 3.) 
deals  especially  with  Tunis,  and  goes  dow-n  to  16S1.  The  geography  of  Tunis 
is  treated  by  E.  Pellissier  t£jJ>for.  Scient.  de  VAlgerie,  vol.  xvi.,  Paris,  1853), 
C.  Tissot  (Geog.  Comparee  de  la  Province  Romaine  d'Afrique,  vol.  i.,  Paris,  1SS4I, 
and  Piesse  {lUnh-aire  de  VAlgerie,  &c.,  newed.,  Paris,  1887),  and  in  Murray^ 
lland'mk,  by  Sir  R.  Playfair  (1887),  who  has  also  published  Travels  in  the  Foot- 
steps of  Bruce  in  Alg.  ajid  TunisCLondon,  1SS7).  A  French  survey  i.-?  in  progress; 
and  some  of  the  maps  are  published.  For  the  modem  history,  see  Eousseau, 
Annales  Tunisienn^s  (Algiers,  1864),  and  Broadley,  Tunis  Past  and  Present 
(Edinburgh,  1882) ;  for  the  archaeology,  Davis,  Carthage  and  her  Remains  (Lon- 
don, 1860),  Gueriu,  royage  ArcMologique  (1862),  and  D'Herisson,  Mission  ArchM. 
en  Tunisie  (Paris,  1881).  The  excellent  description  of  Africa  by  Leo  Africanus 
is  in  Ramusio  and  Purchas.  Shaw's  Travels  (1738)  may  still  be  consulted.  Of 
other  books  of  travels  Maltzan's  Reise  (Leipsic,  1870)  deserves  mention. 

TUNIS,  capital  of  the  regency  of  the  same  name,  in 
36°  50'  N.  lat.  and  10°  12'  E.  long.,  is  situated  on  an 
isthmus  between  two  salt  lakes,  a  marshy  sebkha  to  the 
south-west  and  the  shallow  Boheira  to  the  north-east. 
The  latter  is  twelve  miles  in  circumference,  and  on  the 
side  opposite  Tunis  is  connected  with  the  Bay  of  Tunis  at 
the  port  of  Goletta  (Halt  al-Wad)  by  a  short  canal.  The 
old  town,  of  which  the  walls  have  in  great  part  disap- 
peared, lies  between  two  suburbs,  the  Ribdt  al-Soweika  on 
the  north  and  the  Ribit  Bab  al-Jezlra  on  the  south.  These 
suburbs  were  surrounded  by  a  wall  in  the  beginning  of  the 
19  th  century.  Between  the  old  town  and  the  Marine  Gate 
on  the  Boheira  a  European  quarter,  containing  the  palace 
of  the  resident,  public  offices,  the  provisional  cathedral,  and 
huge  blocks  of  new  houses  in  the  French  style,  has  sprung 
up.  At  the  extreme  west  of  the  old  town  is  the  citadel, 
now  used  as  barracks,  whose  kfty  circuit  includes  the 
mosque  built  by  Abii  Zakarlyi  the  Hafsite  in  1232.  To 
the  same  century  belongs  the  great  mosque  of  the  Olive 
Tree  (Jdmi'  al-Zeitiina)  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  with  its 
many  domes  and  spacious  cloister,  which  possesses  a  library 
and  serves  as  a  college  for  soIn^  450  students  of  Moslem 
learning.  To  the  north  near  the  walls  of  the  old  town  rises 
the  dome  of  the  mosque  named  after  S(dl  Mahrez,  a  re- 
nowned saint  of  the  5th  century  of  the  Flight,  whose 
tomb  gives  it  a  right  of  sanctuary  for  debtors.  There  are 
many  other  mosques  and  chapels,  but  all  are  closed  against 
Christians.  The  palace  of  the  bey,  between  the  citadel  and 
the  mosque  of  the  Olive  Tree,  is  partly  in  bad  French  taste, 
but  contains  some  rooms  of  the  18th  century  with  admir< 


62-2 


T  U  N  —  T  U  N 


able  Moorish  decoration  in  the  delicate  stucco  arabesque 
work  for  which  Tunis  was  formerly  famous-  The  chief 
attraction  of  the  old  town  lies  in  its  bazaars,  which  retain 
their  Oriental  character  unimpaired.  Water  is  supplied 
to  numerous  fountains  by  an  ancient  aqueduct  from  Jebel 
Z^hwftn,  repaired  at  a  cost  of  half  a  million  sterling  by  the 
late  Bey  Mohammed  al-SAdik  The  principal  educational 
establishments  besides  that  of  the  great  mosque  are  the 
Sidikiya  college,  founded  in  1875  for  gratuitous  instruction 
in  Arabic  and  European  subjects,  the  college  of  St  Charles, 
conducted  by  priests  and  open  to  Christians  and  Moslems 
alike,  and  the  normal  school,  founded  in  1884  by  the  bey  ta 
train  teachers  in  the  French  language  and  European  ideas. 
The  population  of  Tunis  is  about  125,000,  of  whom  one- 
fifth  are  Jews  and  one-fifth  Europeans,  chiefly  Maltese  and 
Italians 

The  environs  of  Tunis  are  admirable  from  the  beautiful  views 
Ihey  present ;  the  finest  prospects  are  from  the  hill  on  the  south- 
east, which  is  crowned  by  a  French  fort,  and  from  the  Belveder  on 
the  north  of  the  town  (Jebel  al-Tiiba),  on  which  stands  a  very  ancient 
fortress.  Half-an-hour's  drive  west  of  the  town  is  the  decaying 
palace  called  the  Bardo,  a  little  town  in  itself,  remarkable  for  the 
"  Hon  court "  and  some  apartments  in  the  Bloorish  style.  The  port  of 
Goletta,  with  4000  inhabitants,  is  connected  with  Tunis  by  arailway 
10  miles  long.  The  older  or  southern  part  of  the  town  next  the 
caual  has  a  fortress,  now  used  as  barracks,  built  by  the  Turks  on 
the  site  of  the  Spanish  fortress  destroyed  in  1574.  The  ruins  of 
Carthage  lie  a  few  miles  north  of  Golettn.  Tho  chief  manufactures 
of  Tunis  are  still  textiles,  as  in  the  time  of  Leo  .ifricanus.  The 
manufacture  of  silk  dates  from  the  settlement  of  Moorish  refugees 
from  Spain  about  1600.  There  are  also  tanneries,  a  tobacco  factory, 
and  some  minor  industries.  The  annual  exports  of  grain,  oil,  stuffs, 
hides,  and  essences  are  valued  at  £720,000,  and  the  imports,  chiefly 
of  cotton  goods,  at  £560,000  There  are  two  French  steamers 
weekly  between  Marseilles  and  Goletta,  and  the  coast  towns  are 
served  and  connected  with  Malta  both  by  French  and  Italian 
packets. 

History.  — Tunis  was  a  Carthaginian  city  and  is  repeatedly  men- 
tioned in  the  history  of  the  Punic  wars.  Strabo  speaks  of  its  hot 
baths  and  quarries.  Under  the  Arabs  it  rose  to  importance,  be- 
came the  usual  port  for  those  going  from  Kairwan  to  Spain,  and 
was  one  of  the  residences  of  the  Aghlabites.  In  the  10th  century 
It  suffered  severely,  and  was  repeatedly  pillaged  in  the  wars  of  the 
Fdtimites  with  Abu  Yazid  and  the  Zendta  Berbers^  For  its  later 
fortunes  see  above  in  the  history  of  the  country,  of  which  since  the 
accession  of  the  Hafsites  it  has  been  the  capital. 

TUNNELLING.  The  process  of  making  a  more  or 
less  horizontal  underground  passage,  or  tunnel,  without 
removing  the  top  soil  is  known  as  tunnelling.  In  former 
times  any  long  tube-like  passage,  however  constructed,  was 
called  a  tunnel.  At  the  present  day  the  word  is  sometimes 
popularly  applied  to  an  underground  passage  constructed 
by  trenching  down  from  the  surface  to  build  the  arching 
and  then  refilling  with  the  top  soil ;  but  a  passage  so  con- 
structed, although  indistinguishable  from  a  tunnel  when 
completed,  is  more  correctly  termed  a  "  Covered  way,"  and 
the  operations  "cutting  and  covering,"  instead  of  tunnel- 
ling. Making  a  small  tunnel,  afterwards  to  be  converted 
into  a  larger  one,  is  called  "  driving  a  heading,"  and  in 
mining  operations  small  tunnels  are  termed  "galleries," 
"  driftways,"  and  "  adits."  If  the  underground  passage  is 
vertical  it  is  a  shaft ;  if  the  shaft  is  commenced  at  the 
surface  the  operations  are  known  as  "  sinking,"  and  it 
is  called  a  "  rising  "  if  worked  upwards  from  a  previously 
constructed  heading  or  gallery 

Tunnelling  has  been  effected  by  natural  forces  to  a 
far  greater  extent  than  by  man.  In  limestone  districts 
innumerable  swallow-holes,  or  shafts,  have  been  sunk  by  the 
rain  water  following  joints  and  dissolving  the  rock,  and 
from  the  bottom  of  these  shafts  tunnels  have  been  excavated 
to  the  sides  of  hills  in  a  manner  strictly  analogous  to  the 
ordinary  method  of  executing  a  tunnel  by  sinking  shafts 
at  intervals  and  driving  headings  therefrom.  Many  rivers 
find  thus  a  course  underground.  In  Asia  Minor  one  of  the 
rivers  on  the  route  of  the  Mersina  Railway  extension  oierces 


a  hill  by  means  of  a  natural  tunnel,  whilst  a  little  south  at 
Seleucia  another  river  flows  through  a  tunnel,  20  feet  wide 
and  23  feet  high,  cut  1600  years  ago  through  rock  so 
hard  that  the  chisel  marks  are  still  discernible.  The 
Mammoth  cave  of  Kentucky  and  the  Peak  caves  of 
Derbyshire  are  examples  of  natural  tunnelling.  Mineral 
springs  bring  up  vast  quantities  of  matter  in  solution.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  the  Old  Well  Spring  at  Bath  has 
discharged  since  the  commencement  of  the  19th  century 
solids  equivalent  to  the  excavation  of  a  6  feet  by  3  feet 
heading  7  miles  long ,  and  yet  the  water  is  perfectly  clear 
and  the  daily  flow  is  only  the  1 50th  part  of  that  pumped 
out  of  the  great  railway  tunnel  under  the  Severn.  Tunnel- 
ling is  also  carried  on  to  an  enormous  extent  by  the  action 
of  the  sea.  Where  the  Atlantic  rollers  break  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ireland,  on  the  seaboard  of  the  western  Highlands 
of  Scotland,  and  elsewhere,  numberless  caves  and  tunnels 
have  been  formed  in  the  cliffs,  beside  which  artificial 
tuPT'elling  operations  appear  insignificant.  The  most 
gigantic  subaqueous  demolition  hitherto  carried  out  by  man 
was  the  blowing  up  in  1885  of  Flood  Rock,  a  mass  about 
9  acres  in  extent,  near  Long  Island  Sound,  New  York 
To  effect  this  gigantic  work  by  a  single  instantaneous  blast 
a  shaft  was  sunk  64  feet  below  sea  level,  from  the  bottom 
of  which  four  miles  of  tunnels  or  galleries  were  driven  so 
as  to  completely  honeycomb  the  rock.  The  roof  rock 
ranged  from  10  feet  to  24  feet  in  thickness,  and  was 
supported  by  467  pillars  15  feet  square;  13,286  holes, 
averaging  9  feet  in  length  and  3  inches  in  diameter,  were 
drilled  in  the  pillars  and  roof.  Abou";  80,000  cubic  yards 
of  rock  were  excavated  in  the  galleries  and  275,000  re- 
mained to  be  blasted  away.  The  holes  were  charged  with 
1 1 0  tons  of  "  rackarock,"  a  more  powerful  explosive  than 
gunpowder,  which  was  fired  by  electricity,  when  the  sea  was 
lifted  100  feet  over  the  whole  area  of  the  rock.  Where 
natural  forces  effect  analogous  results,  the  holes  are  bored 
and  the  headings  driven  by  the  chemical  and  mechanical 
action  of  the  rain  and  sea,  and  the  explosive  force  is  ob- 
tained by  the  expansive  action  of  air  locked  up  in  the 
fissares  of  the  rock  and  compressed  to  many  tons  per  square 
foot  by  impact  from  the  waves.  Artificial  breakwaters 
have  often  been  thus  tunnelled  into  by  the  sea,  the  com- 
pressed air  blowing  out  the  blocks  and  the  waves  carrying 
away  the  debris. 

With  so  many  examples  of  natural  caves  and  tunnels  in 
existence  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  tunnelling  was 
one  of  the  earliest  works  undertaken  by  man,  first  for 
-dwellings  and  tombs,  then  for  quarrjdng  and  mining,  and 
finally  for  water  supply,  drainage,  and  other  requirements 
of  civilization  A  Theban  king  on  ascending  .the  throne 
began  at  once  to  drive  the  tunnel  which  was  to  form  his 
final  resting  place,  and  persevered  with  the  work  until 
death.  The  tomb  of  Menptah  at  Thebes  was  driven  at 
a  slope  for  a  distance  of  350  feet  into  the  hill,  when  a 
shaft  was  sunk  and  the  tunnel  projected  a  further  length 
of  about  300  feet,  and  enlarged  into  a  chamber  for  the 
sarcophagus  Tunnelling  on  a  large  scale  was  also  carried 
on  at  the  rock  temples  of  Nubia  and  of  India,  and  the 
architectural  features  of  the  entrances  to  some  of  these 
temples  might  be  studied  with  advantage  by  the  designers 
of  modern  tunnel  fronts  Petrie  has  traced  the  method  of 
underground  quarrying  followed  by  the  Egyptians  opposite 
the  Pyramids.  Parallel  galleries  about  20  feet  square 
were  driven  into  the  rock  and  cross  galleries  cut,  so  that  a 
hall  300  to  400  feet  wide  was  formed,  with  a  roof  supported 
by  rows  of  pillars  20  feet  square  and  20  feet  apart.  Blocks 
of  stone  were  removed  by  the  workmen  cutting  grooves  all 
round  them,  and.  where  the  stone  was  not  required  for  use, 
but  merely  had  to  be  removed  to  form  a  gallery,  the 
grooves  were   wide  enough   for  a  man  to  stand  up   in. 


TUNNELLING 


623 


Where  granite,  diorite,  and  other  hard  stone  had  to  be 
cut,  the  work  was  done  by  tube  drills  and  by  saws  supplied 
with  corundum,  or  other  hard  gritty  material,  and  water, 
— the  drills  leaving  a  core  of  rock  exactly  like  tnat  of  the 
modern  diamond  drill  As  instances  of  ancient  tunnels 
through  soft  ground  and  requiring  masonry  arching,  re- 
ference may  be  made  to  the  vaulted  drain  under  the  south- 
east palace  of  Nimrud  and  to  the  brick  arched  tunnel,  12 
feet  high  and  15  feet  wide,  under  the  Euphrates.  In 
Algeria,  Switzerland,  and  wherever  the  Romans  went,  re- 
mains of  tunnels  for  roads,  drains,  and  water-supply  are 
found.  Pliny  refers  to  the  tunnel  constructed  for  the 
drainage  of  Lake  Fucino  as  the  greatest  public  work  of 
the  time.  It  was  by  far  the  longest  tunnel  in  the  world, 
being  more  than  3i  miles  in  length,  and  was  driven  under 
Monte  Salviano,  which  necessitated  shafts  no  less  than  400 
feet  in  depth.  Forty  shafts  and  a  number  of  "cunicixli" 
or  inclined  galleries  were  sunk,  and  the  excavated  material 
was  drawn  up  in  copper  pails,  of  about  ten  gallons  capacity, 
by  windlasses.  The  tunnel  was  designed  to  be  10  feefr  high 
by  6  feet  wide,  but  its  actual  cross  section  varied-  It  is 
stated  that  30,000  labourers  were  occupied  eleven  years  in 
its  construction.  With  modern  appliances  such  a  tunnel 
could  be  driven  from  the  two  ends  without  intermediate 
shafts  in  eleven  months. 

No  practical  advance  was  made  on  the  tunnelling  methods 
of  the  Romans  until  gunpowder  came  into  use.  Old  en- 
gravings of  mining  operations  early  in  the  17th  century 
show  that  excavation  was  still  accomplished  by  pickaxes 
orhammer  and  chisel,-  and  that  wood  fires  were  lighted  at 
the  ends  of  the  headings  to  split  and  soften  the  rock  in 
advance  (see  fig.   1).     Crude  methods  of  ventilation  by 


Tig.  1  —Method  of  mining,  1621.  {,FTom  De  ReMetaUica,Biise\,l621.} 
shaking  cloths  in  the  headings  and  by  placing  inclined 
boards  at  the  top  of  the  shafts  are  also  on  record.  In 
1766  a  timnel  9  feet  wide,  12  feet  high,  and  2880  yards 
long  was  commenced  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  England, 
and  completed  eleven  years  later ;  and  this  was  followed 
by  many  others.  On  the  introduction  of  railways  tunnel- 
ling became  one  of  the  ordinary  incidents  of  a  contractor's 
work  ;  probably  upwards  of  4000  railway  tunnels  have 
been  executed. 

Subaqueous  Tumielling.  —  In  1825  Brunei  commenced  and  in 
1843  completed  the  Thames  tunnel,  which  was  driven  at  points 
through  liquid  mud  by  the  aid  of  a  "shield"  at  a  cost  of  about 
£1300  per  lineal  yard.  It  is  now  used  by  the  East  London  Railway. 
In  1872  Chesborough  began  tunnelling  under  the  Detroit  river, 
between  Canada  and  Michigan,  U.S.,  but  the  work  was  abandoned 
owing  to  continued  imiptiona  of  water  after  some  600  yards  of 
headings  had  been  driren. 


The  most  important  subaqueous  work  yet  accomplished — the 
Severn  ainnel,  4^  miles  in  length — was  commenced  in  1873  and 
finished  in  1886,  Messrs  Hawksbaw,  Son,  Hayter,  and  Richardsoi. 
being  the  engineers  and  Mr  T.  A.  Walker  the  contractor.  The  bed 
of  the  Severn  is  formed  principally  of  marls,  sandstones,  and  con- 
glomerates in  nearly  horizontal  strata,  overlying  highly  inclined 
coal  measures,  shales,  and  sandstones,  which  are  also  exposed  in 
the  bed  of  the  river.  The  tunnel  is  made  almost  wholly  in  the 
Trias  and  Coal  Measure  formations,  but  for  a  short  distance  at  its 
eastern  end  it  passes  through  gravel  The  lowest  part  of  the  line  ia 
below  the  "Shoots,"  where  the  depth  is  60  feet  at  low  water  and  100 
feet  at  high  water,  and  the  thickness  of  Pennant  sandstone  over  the 
brickwork  of  the  tunnel  is  45  feet  Under  the  Salmon  Pool,  a  de- 
pression in  the  bed  of  the  river  on  the  English  side,  there  is  a  cover 
of  only  30  feet  of  Trias  marl  Much  water  was  met  with  through- 
out. In  1879  the  works  were  flooded  for  some  months  by  a  large 
land  spring  on  the  Welsh  side  of  the  river.  The  water  which  sup- 
plied the  spring  came  from  fissures  in  the  carboniferous  limestone, 
which  was  met  with  only  at  this- place,  and  it  is  now  conveyed  by 
a  side  heading  parallel  to  the  tunnel  to  a  shaft  29  feet  in  diameter, 
in  which  are  fixed  pumps  of  adequate  power.  On  another  occasion 
the  works  were  flooded  by  water  which  burst  through  a  hole  in 
the  river  bed  at  the  Salmon  Pool.  This  hole,  which  was  in  the 
Trias  marl  and  had  an  area  of  16  feet  by  10  feet,  was  subsequently 
filled  with  clay  and  the  works  were  completed  beneath  it.  The 
tunnel  is  for  a  double  line  of  railway  and  ia  lined  throughout  with 
vitrified  bricks  set  in  Portland  cement  mortar.  A  heading  was 
first  driven  entir^y  across  the  river  to  test  the  ground  and  sub- 
sequently another  heading  at  a  lower  level.  "IJreakups"  were 
made  at  intervals  of  two  to  five  chains  and  the  arching  was  carried 
on  at  each  of  these  points.  All  parts  of  the  excavation  were 
timbered,  and  the  greatest  amount  excavated  in  any  one  week  waa 
6000  cubic  yards.  Owing  to  the  inrush  of  water  it  was  frequently 
necessary  to  completely  roof  the  timbering  with  felt  or  corrugated 
iron  before  the  bricklayers  could  commence  the  arching.  The  total 
amount  of  water  raised  at  all  the  pumping  stations  is  about 
27,000,000  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours  ;  but  the  total  pumping 
power  provided  is  equal  to  66,000,000  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours. 
The  ventilation  is  effected  by  a  fan  of  the  Guibal  pattern,  40  feet 
in  diameter  and  12  feet  wide,  making  forty-three  revolutions  and 
drawing  447,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  from  the  tunnel  through 
an  18-feet  shaft  at  Sudbrooke  (Monmouth). 

Another  example  of  subaqueous  tunnelling,  second  only  in  Im- 
portance to  the  foregoing,  is  the  Mersey  tunnel,  the  length  of  which 
between  the  pumping  shafts  on  each  side  of  the  river  is  1  mile. 
From  each  shaft  a  drainage  heading  was  driven  through  the  red 
sandstone  with  a  rising  gradient  towards  the  centre  of  the  river. 
This  heading  was  partly  bored  out  by  a  Beaumont  machine  to  a 
diameter  of  7  feet  4  inches,  and  at  a  rate  attaining  occasionally  65 
lineal  yards  per  week.  AJl  of  the  tunnel  excavation,  amounting 
to  320,000  cubic  yards,  was  got  out  by  hand  labour,  since  heavy  blast- 
ing would  have  shaken  the  rock-  The  minimum  cover  between  the 
top  of  the  arch  and  the  bed  of  the  river  is  30  feet.  Pumping 
machinery  is  provided  for  27,000,000  gallons  per  day,  which  is 
more  than  double  the  usual  quantity  of  water  ;  and  ample  ventila- 
tion is  secured  by  two  30  -  feet  diameter  and  two  40  -  feet  diameter 
Guibal  fans.  Messrs  Brunlees  and  Fox  were  the  engineers,  and 
Messrs  Waddell  the  contractors  for  the  works,  which  were  opened 
in  1886,  about  6  years  after  the  commencement  of  operations. 

Proposals  for  the  construction  of  a  tuimel  about  30  miles  in 
length  to  connect  England  and  France  have  been  brought  forward 
periodically  from  the  commencement  of  the  19th  century,  but 
nothing  was  done  Until  1881,  when  preliminary  works  of  some  im- 
portance were  commenced  by  Sir  Edward  Watkin  and  the  South- 
Eastern  Railway  Company.  At  the  proposed  point  of  crossing  the 
deepest  part  of  the  channel  is  210  feet,  and,  as  the  beds  on  the 
English  side  and  those  on  the  French  side-,  so  far  as  relates  to 
the  grey  chalk  and  chalk  marl,  are  each  225  feet  thick,  it  is  assumed 
that  those  strata  are  continuous  and  that  the  tunnel  would  be 
driven  through  a  water-tight  material  Shafts  have  been  sunk  near 
Folkestone,  and  experimental  headings  have  been  driven  2000  yards 
under  the  sea,  on  the  line  of  the  tunnel  The  heading,  7  feet  in 
diameter,  was  cut  by  a  Beaumont  boring  machine,  having  two  arms 
with  steel  teeth,  and  driven  by  compressed  air  ;  the  usual  rate  of 
progress  was  15  lineal  yards  per  day. 

A  partially  constructed  subaqueous  tunnel  now  Ues  drowned  under 
the  Hudson  river  at  New  York.  An  attempt  was  made  to  drive 
a  double  tunnel  through  the  mud  and  silt  forming  the  river  bed. 
In  1880,  when  about  a  hundred  yards  had  been  completed,  the 
water  burst  in,  and  twenty  men  were  drowned.  Work  was  sub- 
sequently resumed  on  the  following  plan  (see  fig.  2).  A  pilot  tunnel, 
consisting  of  an  iron  tube  of  6  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  was 
advanced  from  30  to  40  feet  ahead  of  the  main  tunnel,  to  form  a  firm 
support  for  the  iron  plates  of  the  latter  by  means  of  radial  screws. 
Compressed  air,  pumped  into  the  tunnel  at  a  pressure  of  about  20 
lb  per  square  inch,  prevented  the  weight  of  silt  and  water  from 
crushing  the  plating  and  flowing  into  the  tunnel     The  excavated 


624 


TUNNELLING 


Btit  was  mixed  viith  water  and  ejected  by  compressed  air.     Between 
the  shafts  the  length  of  the  proposed  tunnel  is  1  niiFe,  and  about 


Hudson  river  tuimel — method  of  work. 


one-eighth  of  the  distance  had  been  Accomplished  when  the  works 
were  stopped  for  financial  reasons. 

Small  subaqueous  tunnels  have  been  driven  through  clay  without 
diflficulty  under  Lakes  Michigan  and  Erie,  and  elsewhere  in  America. 
In  England  a  heading  was  driven  nearly  across  the  Thames  in  1807, 
and  eighty  years  later  two  10  feet  6  inch  iron-lined  tunnels  were 
constructed  under  the  river  close  to  the  foundation  of  London 
Bridge  by  Mr  Grcathead,  with  the  aid  of  a  simple  annular  shield 
advanced  by  six  hydraulic  presses.  Where  open  gravel  or  water 
has  to  be  tunnelled  through  a  diaphragm  must  be  fitted  to  the 
shield.  Mallet  proposed  in  1858  to  carry  in  this  way  a  tubular 
tunnel  across  the  English  Channel.  Various  plans  have  been 
suggested  for  the  removal  of  the  soU  in  advance  of  the  shield,  Mr 
Greathead  would  effect  it  by  the  circulation  of  a  closed  current  of 
water,  carrying  the  stuff  through  the  shield  from  front  to  back  ; 
and  an  American  plan  provides  for  forcing  it  bodily  out  of  the 
way  by  a  plough-shaped  shield,  aided  by  jets  of  water  at  a  very 
high  pressure. 

Tunnelling  through  McnnUaiTis.  — Where  a  great  thickness  of  rock 
overlies  a  ttinncl,  it  is  necessary  to  do  the  work  wholly  from  the 
two  ends,  without  intermediate  shafts.  The  problem  resolves  itself 
into  devising  the  most  expeditious  way  of  excavating  and  removing 
the  rock,  and  there  are  none  of  the  uncertainties  and  difficulties 
which  make  subaqueous  tunnelling  of  so  high  an  interest.  Ex- 
perience has  led  to  great  advances  in  speed  and  economy,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  particulai^s  of  the  three  tunnels  thi'ough 
the  Alps,  the  longest  yet  constructed. 


TynneL 

Length, 

Progress  per  Day. 

Cost 

Mont  Cenis 

St  Gottlmrd    

Miles. 

n 
n 

Lineal  Tanis. 
2-57 
6-01 
0-07 

Per  Lineal  Yard. 

£226 

143 

103 

In  1857  the  first  blast  was  fired  in  connexion  witb  the  Mont 
Cenis  works  ;  in  1861  machine  drilling  was  introduced  ;  and  in 
1871  the  tunnel  was  opened  for  traffic.  With  the  exception  of 
about  300  yaids  the  tunnel  is  lined  throughout  with  brick  or  stone. 
Little  interest  now  attaches  to  the  method  of  tunnelling  adopted 
at  Mont  Cenis,  as  it  is  in  several  respects  obsolete.  During  the 
first  four  yeai:3  of  hand  labour  the  average  progress  was  not  more 
than  9  inches  per  day  on  each  side  of  the  Alps  ;  but  with  compressed- 
ail*  rock-drills  the  rate  towards  the  end  was  five  times  greater. 

In  1872  the  St  Gotthard  tunnel  was  commenced  and  in  1881  the 
first  locomotive  ran  through  it.  Mechanical  drills  were  used  from 
the  commencement  Tunnelling  was  carried  on  by  driving  in 
advance  a  top  heading  about  8  feet  square,  then  enlarging  this 
sideways,  and  finally  sinking  the  excavation  to  invert  level  (see 
figs.  3  and  4).  Air  for  working  the  rock-drills  was  compressed  to 
seven  atmospheres  by  turbines  of  about  2000  horse-power.  Six  to 
to  eight  Ferroux  drills,  making  about  180  blows  a  minute,  were 
mounted  on  a  carriage  and  pushed  up  to  the  point  of  attack.  From 
thirteen  to  eighteen  holes  were  drilled  by  the  machine  and  its 
sixteen  attendants  to  depths  of  from  2'  7*  to  4'  3"  in  three, to  five 
hours,  and  the  work  of  charging  with  dynamite,  firing,  and  clearing 
away  was  then  done  by  twenty-two  men  in  three  to  four  hours. 
The  charge  per  hole  averaged  1 J  lb,  and  after  firing  a  strong  current 


of  compressed  air  was  directed  over  the  face  of  the  excavation- 
Four  sets  of  holes  were  under  favourable  circumstances  drilled  la 


Figs.  3  and  4. — Method  of  excavation  ia  St  Gotthard  tunnel, 

twenty-four  hours,  wliich  rendered  a  progress  of  13  feet  per  day  in 
such  rock  as  gneiss  attainable  in  each  heading. 

The  driving  of  the  Arlberg  tunnel  was  commenced  in  1880  and 
the  work  was  completed  in  little  more  than  three  years.  The  main 
heading  was  driven  along  the  bottom  of  the  tunnel  and  shafts  were 
opened  up  25  to  70  yards  apart,  from  which  smaller  headings  were 
driven  right  and  left.  The  tunnel  was  enlarged  to  its  full  section 
at  different  points  simultaneously  in  lengths  of  8  yards,  the  excava- 
tion of  each  occupying  about  twenty  days,  and  the  masonry  14 
days.  Ferroux  percussion  air  drills  and  Brandt  rotary  hydraulic 
drills  were  used,  and  the  performance  of  the  latter  was  especially 
satisfactory.  After  each  blast  a  fine  spray  of  water  was  injected, 
which  assisted  the  ventilation  materially.  In  the  St  Gotthard 
tunnel  the  discharge  of  the  air  drills  was  relied  on  for  ventilation. 
In  the  Arlberg  tunnel  over  8000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  were 
thrown  in  by  ventilators.  In  a  long  tunnel  the  quick  transport  of 
materials  is  of  equal  importance  with  rapid  drilling  and  blasting. 
In  the  Arlberg,  to  keep  pace  with  the  miners,  900  tons  of  excavated 
material  had  to  bo  removed,  and  350  tons  of  masonry  to  be  in- 
troduced, daily  at  each  end  of  the  tunnel,  which  necessitated  the 
transit  of  450  wagons.  This  traffic  was  carried  on  over  a  length  of 
3J  miles  on  a  single  track  of  27-inch  gauge  with  two  sidings.  When 
the  locomotives  ran  into  the  tunnel  the  fires  were  damped  down, 
.and,  as  the  pressure  in  the  boiler  was  fifteen  atmospheres,  the  stored- 
up  heat  in  the  water  furnished  the  necessarji-'pow-er.  The  cost  per 
lineal  yard  varied  according  to  the  thickness  of  masonry  lining  and 
the  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel.  For  the  first  1000 
yards  from  the  entrance  the  prices  per  lineal  yard  were  £11,  Ss. 
for  the  lower  heading;  £7,  123.  for  the  upper  one  ;  £30,  10s.  for 
the  unlined  tunnel ;  £45  for  the  tunnel  with  a  thin  lining  of 
masonry ;  and  £124,  os.  with  a  lining  3  feet  thick  at  the  arch, 
4  feet  at  the  sides,  and  2  feet  8  inches  at  the  invert. 

Lang  Tun-nels. — The  new  Croton  aqueduct  tunnel  from  Croton 
dam  to  the  reservoir  in  New  York  is  worthy  of  note  both  for  its 
great  length  and  the  rapid  progress  made  with  it.  The  distance 
is  33J  miles  and  practically  the  whole  is  tunnelled  through  rock. 
Shafts  were  sunk  about  IJ  miles  apart  and  headings  driven  each 
way.  IngersoU  drills  were  chiefly  used,  and  the  rate  of  advance 
with  the  headings  was  in  1886  IJ  miles  per  month.  The  old 
Croton  aqueduct  was  7  feet  8  inches  wide  by  8  feet  5  inches  high  ; 
the  new  one  is  13  feet  7  inches  in  width  and  height. 

Tunnelling  in  Towns. — Where  tunnels  have  to  be  carried  through 
soft  soil  and  in  proximity  to  valuable  buildings  special  precautions 


Flos.  5  and  0. — Giv.it  Noitlicni  Railway  tunnel.     Method  of  tunnel- 
ling under  the  Metropolitan  cattle  market,  London. 

have  to  be  taken  to  avoid  settlement.  The  important  Metropolitan 
tunnels  constructed  by  Sir  John  Fowler  have  already  been  de- 
scribed under  Railway  (vol.  xx.  p.  239).     Another  successful  ex- 


I 


T  U  N  — T  U  R 


625 


tmple  nf  such  work  is  the  tunnel  driven  in  18S6  by  Mr  Johnson, 
the  Gnat  Northeni  Company's  engineer,  under  the  Metropolitan 
cattle  market.  WTiere  clear  of  boildin^  the  tunnel  was  executed 
in  12-feet  lengths  measured  from  the  hnished  brickvork,  the  ex- 
caTation  extending  another  5  feet  The  Tace  of  the  excavation  was 
carried  out  in  four  sections,  the  6rst  between  the  head  trees  and 
the  first  sill  was  formed  with  a  rake  of  1  in  iji,  the  second  and 
third  with  a  rake  of  1  in  6,  and  the  fourth  nas  vertical,  the  whole 
face  being  close  boarded  (see  figs.  5  and  6).  The  arch  and  side 
walls  were  eight  rings  and  the  invert  six  rings  thick.  A  12-feet 
length  was  completed  in  12  to  H  days,  and  the  subsidence  in  the 
ground  was  about  3^  inches.  Under  buildings  and  roads  the 
tannel  wa.s  executed  in  6-feet  lengths.  The  crown  bars,  15  inches 
in  diameter,  alternating  six  and  seven  in  number,  were  built  in  with 
solid  brickwork  in  cement  and  hard  wood  wedging.  The  skeleton 
centres  for  the  arching  were  supported  by  props  notched  into  the 
ribs  and  provided  with  wedges  for  tightening  up.  A  6feet  length 
was  built  in  six  daj-s.  and  the  surface  subsidence,  consequent  upon 
the  impossibility  of  exactly  fitting  the  polin"  boards  to  the  clay, 
was  only  from  1  inch  to  1|  inches.  Several  heavy  buildings  were 
tunnelled  under  without  any  structural  damage  arising. 

Where  open  ballast  and  running  sand  heavily  charged  with  water 
an  met  with  a  tun- 
nel cannot  be  driven 


To  meet  snch  cas^ 
and  also  to  provide 
a  safe  means  of  tun- 
nelling under  dock 
basins,  canals,  and 
rivers,  the  pneu- 
matic shield  (se< 
fig-  7)  was  designed 
by  Mr  Benjamin 
Baker.  The  shield 
is  supported  against 
external  pressui« 
by  vertical  girders 
about  6  feet  apart. 
Horizontal  shelves 
of  steel  plates  with 
cutting  edges  are 
spaced  about  4  feet 
apart,  and  the  face 
of  the  shield  is 
d.Tsed  by  vertical 
plat°>s  sod  slides  -, 
the  a.Taogement  is 
such  tba*.  any  slide  can  be  opened  to  admit  of  the  ballast  or  sand 
being  excavated,  whilst  the  compressed  air  filling  the  tunnel  pre- 
rents  the  influx  of  water  during  the  process.  Where  hard  water, 
tight  clay  is  encountered,  sections  of  the  shield  plates  are  unbolted 
Co  admit  miners.  When  suthcient  materiL.1  has  been  excavated  the 
thield  is  advanced  by  hydraulic  pressure  and  the  brick  arching  built 
See  Aqdedcct  ftDd  Railwav;  also  Drinker's  TvnnttliTuj,  New  York,  1873 
0  most  important  work) ;  and  Proe,  JjisL  Cio.  Eng.,  art.  "Tanocla"     (R  B  ) 

TUNNY  {Thynruii  Oiynnm),  one  of  the  largest  fishes  of 
the  family  of  Mackerels,  belongs  to  the  genus  of  which  the 
B.'inito  (Th.  pelamys)  and  the  Albacores  {Th.  albacora,  Th. 
alaltmga,  <tc  )  are  equally  well-known  members.  From 
the  latter  the  tunny  is  distinguished  by  its  much  shorter 
pectoral  fins,  which  reach  backwards  only  to,  or  nearly  to, 
the  end  of  the  first  dorsal  fin.  It  possesses  nine  short  fin- 
lets  behind  the  dorsal,  and  eight  behind  the  anal  fin.  Its 
colour  is  dark  bluish  above,  and  greyish,  tinged  and  spotted 
with  silvery,  below.  The  tunny  is  a  pelagic  fish,  but 
periodically  approaches  the  shore,  wandering  in  large 
shoals,  at  least  in  the  Mediterranean,  within  well -ascer- 
tained areas  along  the  coast.  The  causes  by  which  its 
wanderings  are  regulated  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  are  much 
less  understood ;  it  not  unfrequently  appears  in  small  com- 
panies or  singly  in  the  English  Channel  and  in  the  German 
Ocean,  probably  in  pursuit  of  the  shoals  of  pilchards  and 
herrings  on  which  it  feeds.  The  regularity  of  its  appcar- 
,ance  on  certain  parts  of  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
has  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  systematic  fishery,  which 
has  been  carried  on  from  the  time  of  the  Phoenicians  to 
the  present  day.  Immense  numbers  of  tunnies  were  caught 
23—23 


on  the  Spanish  coast  and  in  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  where, 
however,  this  industry  has  much  declined  The  Sardinian 
tunnies  were  considered  to  be  of  superior  excellence.     The 


Fia  7  —Mr  B.  Baker's  pneumatic  shield. 


Tunny  {Thynniu  (Aynniu). 

greatest  number  is  now  caught  on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily, 
the  fisheries  of  this  island  supplying  most  of  the  preserved 
tunny  which  is  exported  to  other  parts  of  the  world.  In 
ancient  times  the  fish  were  preserved  in  salt,  and  that 
coming  from  Sardinia,  which  was  specially  esteemed  by  the 
Romans,  was  known  as  SaUamentum  sardicum.  At  pre- 
sent preference  is  given  to  tunny  preserved  in  oil.  Many 
of  the  fishes,  especially  the  smaller  ones,  are  consumed 
fresh.  The  tunny  occurs  also  in  the  South  Pacific ;  but 
several  other  species  seera  to  take  its  place  in  the  Indo- 
Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  one  of  the  la?-gest  fishes,  attaining; 
to  a  length  of  ten  feet  and  to  a  weight  of  more  than  a 
thousand  pounds. 

On  the  tunny  fisheries  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  see  Cuvier 
and  Valenciennes,  Hist.  Nat.  dcs  Poissms  (vo\.  viii.  pp   71-82). 

TUNSTALL,  a  market  town  of  Staffordshire,  England, 
is  situated  on  a  branch  line  of  the  London  and  North- 
western Railway  and  on  the  Trent  and  Mersey  Canal, 
4  miles  north-west  of  Stoke  and  168  north-west  of  London. 
Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  market  (1858),  town 
hall  (1884),  old  court-house  (now  used  as  a  free  library 
and  reading  room),  and  board  schools  (1880).  The  chief 
manufactures  are  those  peculiar  to  the  Potteries  district; 
there  are  also  large  iron-works  (coal  and  iron  being  obtained 
in  the  neighbourhood),  and  brick  and  tile  works.  The 
town  is  chiefly  the  growth  of  the  19th  century,  and  in 
1811  numbered  only  1677  inhabitants.  In  1885  it  was 
included  for  parliamentary  purposes  in  the  borough  of 
Newcastle-nnder-Lyme.  It  is  governed  by  a  local  board 
of  twenty-four  members.  The  population  of  the  urban 
sanitary  district  (area  690  acres)  was  13,540  in  1871,  and 
14,244  in  1881. 

TURANIAN.  This  word  means  etymologically  no 
more  than  "  not  Iranian,"  and  in  this  sense  the  word  Turan 
was  used  by  Sasanian  monarchs  to  cover  those  parts  of  their 
realm  that  did  not  belong  to  Iran.  The  application  of  the 
word-  to  denote  the  Ural-Altaic  family  of  languages  is 
extremely  unfortunate  and  seems  to  be  falling  out  of  use. 
See  Philology,  vol.  xviii  p.  779. 

TURBINE.     See  HYDROMEcnANics,  vol.  xii.  p.  524 

TURBOT,'  the  largest  and  best  known  of  a  genus  of 
flat  fishes,  Jihombun,  which  bears  the  appropriate  systematic 
name  of  Hk.  matrimus.  The  turbot  has  great  uidth  of 
body,  and  is  scalelcss,  but  is  covered  with  conical  bonj 
tubercles.  The  eyes  are  on  the  left  side  of  the  body,  the 
lower  being  slightly  in  advance  of  the  upper ;  the  mouth 
is  large  and  armed  with  teeth  of  uniformly  minute  size. 
The  turbot  is  found  all  round  the  coasts  of  Europe  (except 
in  the  extreme  north),  preferring  a  flat  sandy  bottom  with 
from  10  to  50  fathoms  of  water.  The  broaJ  banks  off  the 
Dutch  coast  are  a  favourite  resort.  It  is  a  voracious  fish, 
and   feeds  on  other  fish,  crustaceans,  and   mollusks.     It 


'  The  word  "turbot"  is  of  great  antiquity,  perb.aps  of  Celtic  origin  ; 
it  is  preserved  in  French  in  the  same  form  as  in  English,  and  is  com- 
posed of  two  words,  of  which  the  second  is  identical  with  the  "  but " 
in  holibut  and  with  the  German  "Butte,"  which  signifies  flat  fish. 
The  German  name  for  the  turbot  is  "  Steinbntte. " 

XXIIL  —  79 


626 


T  U  R  — T  U  R 


seems  to  constantly  change  its  abode,  wandering  northward 
during  the  summer,  and  going  into  deeper  water  in  the 
cold  season.  Some  thirty  years  ago  it  was  estimated  that 
the  Dutch  supplied  turbot  to  the  London  market  to  the 
value  of  £80,000  a  year.  At  present  (1887)  the  value  of 
turbot  annually  «)ld  in  London  cannot  bo  ascertained  ; 
but  it-must  be  several  times  that  amount,  and  is  principally 
earned  by  English  line-fishermen  and  trawlers.  Although 
the  turbot  abounds  off  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  the 
fishing  is  not  carried  on  with  the  same  energy  and  s\icccss 
as  in  the  English  Channel  and  German  Ocean.  The  turbot 
is  also  common,  though  not  abundant,  in  the  Mediterranean, 
.and  is  replaced  in  the  Black  .Sea  by  an  allied  species  with 
much  larger  bony  tubercles  {Rh.  nuxo/icits).  Bolli  species 
grow  to  a  large  size,  being  usually  sold  at  from  5  to  10  lb  ; 
but  the  common  turbot  is  stated  to  attain  to  a  weight  of  30 
lb.  Both  from  its  size  and  the  excellent  flavour  of  its  flesh 
it  ranks  next  after  the  codfish  among  Briti-sh  sea-fishes. 

TURENNE,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d'  Advkrcne,  Vico.mte 
CE  (1611-1075),  a  famous  French  general  of  the  17th 
century,  was  the  second  son  of  Uenri,  Due  de  Bouillon,  by 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  William  L,  prince  of  Orange,  and 
■was  born  at  Sedan  on  lltb  September  IGll.  He  was 
carefully  educated  in  the  strictest  doctrines  of  the  Reformed 
religion,  and  at  tlic  age  of  thirteen  was  sent  to  learn  war 
from  his  uncles  Maurice  and  Henry  of  Nassau  in  the 
campaigns  of  these  princes  against  the  Spaniards.  In 
1G2G  he  received  a  commission  as  captain  of  infantry 
in  the  service  of  Holl.and,  and  by  1G30  had  shown  such 
military  capacity  that  Richelieu  invited  him  back  to  France 
and  appointed  him  colonel  of  a  regiment.  He  was  present 
at  the  relief  of  Casale,  and  on  2Ist  June  1035  was  made 
a  marfelml  de  camp  for  his  services  at  the  siege  of  La  Motto 
in  Lorraine  under  De  la  Force.  In  that  year  he  took  com- 
mand of  a  division  in  the  army  under  Cardinal  La  Valettc 
in  the  defence  of  Mainz,  and,  when  the  cardinal's  army 
bad  to  fall  back  on  Metz  from  want  of  provisions,  Turenne 
commanded  the  rear-guard,  covering  the  retreat  with 
adniir.ablc  skill.  In  1G3G  he  was  present  under  La  Valette 
at  the  siege  of  Saverne,  where  ho  was  wounded,  and  in  the 
campaign  in  Franche  Comte;  in  1G37  ho  served  under 
the  same  conmiander  in  Flanders,  took  Landrecics,  and 
drove  back  the  cardinal  infant  from  Maubeuge.  In  1038 
he  served  under  Bcrnhard  of  Saxo- Weimar  at  the  siege  of 
Breisach,  and  in  the  following  year  was  transferred  to  the 
army  of  D'Harcourt  in  Italy.  It  was  at  this  epoch  that 
he  cslablishetl  his  fame  as  a  general.  In  November  1G39 
be  covered  the  retreat  of  the  army,  and  fought  a  famous 
engagement,  known  as  the  battle  of  the  "route  de  Quicrs"  ; 
in  1610  he  .saved  Casale,  and  insisted  u])on  not  abandoning 
the  siege  of  Turin,  which  town  surrendered  on  2ttl(  Sep- 
tember ;  in  104 1  he  took  Coni,  Ceva,  and  Mondovi  ;  and 
on  11th  March  1042  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general.  After  he  had  .served  for  a  short  time 
in  Koussillon,  he  was  ajipointed  by  Richelieu  in  1G4  3  to 
the  command  of  the  army  in  Italy,  under  Thom.as  of 
Savoy,  although  his  brother,  the  Due  de  Bouillon,  had  ju.st 
before  been  arrested  as  an  accomplice  in  the  conspiracy  of 
Cinq  Mars.  Mazarin  did  not  exhibit  quite  so-much  confi- 
dence in  Turenne,  and  in  December  1043  removed  him 
from  Italy,  sending  him  to  collect  the  remainsof  Bernhard 
of  Saxc- Weimar's  army  and  form  them  once  more  into  an 
organized  force;  but  he  .softened  the  transference  by  creat- 
ing Turenne  a  marshal  of  France  on  IGlh  May  1044. 

Turennc's  four  campaigns  in  Ccrniaiiy,  -which  largely 
ciitributed  to  t!ie  peace  of  Westphalia,  have  always  been 
regarded,  as  models  in  the  art  of  war.  In  June  1G44  he 
crossed  the  Rhine  at.  I'reisach,  and  was  marching  against 
the  Comte  de  Mercy,  the  Imperialist  general,  who  was  at 
Freiburg,  when  he  was  superseded  by  tlie  Due  d'Enghicn, 


better  known  by  his  later  title  of  the  Prince  dfe  Condi. 
D'Enghien,  after  fighting  thu  three  days'  battle  of  Freiburg, 
left  the  army  again  to  Turenne,  who  took  Philippsburg  and 
Mainz,  and  then  went  into  winter  quarters.  In  May  1645 
Turenne  was  surprised  by  Jtercy  at  Maricnthal  and  de- 
feated ;  but  he  skilfully  concentrated  the  remains  of  his 
army  and  retreated  into  Hesse,  where  ho  was  soon  joined 
by  D'Eiighien.  The  two  marshals,  having  reorganized  their 
army,  marched  against  Mercy  and  totally  defeated  him  at 
Nordlingon  on  3d  August  1045,  when  Mercy  was  killed 
D'Enghien  again  left  the  army  to  Turenne,  who  in  con 
junction  with  the  Swedish  army  under  Wraiigel  overran 
Franconia  and  Swabia,  taking  all  the  fortresses  there  in 
1046.  In  1647  he  conducted  a  still  more  masterly  cam- 
paign, and  after  beating  the  Bavarians  and  Imperialists  in 
two  engagements  he  and  the  Swedes  occupied  Bavaria, 
and  drove  tlie  old  duke  out  of  his  dominions. 

When  the  trcul  les  of  the  Fronde  (see  France,  vol.  iz 
p.  572,  and  MazarIn)  broke  out,  Turenne,  who  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  veteran  troops  of  Bernliard  of  Saxe-Weimar 
in  Alsace,  hesitated  which  side  to  take,  till  the  Duchesse 
de  LoKcUEViLiyE  (7.".),  with  whom  he  fell  yjelently  in  lov«, 
persuaded  him  to  side  with  the  parlement.  Bnt  his  troopa 
refused  to  follow  him,  and  he  had  to  fly  with  her  to 
Flanders.  He  there  took  a  command  in  the  Spanish  array 
under  Don  Estevan  Gomar,  and,  when  trying  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Rcthel,  was  utterly  defeated  by  Du  Plessis-Praslia. 
Bnt  in  1052  he  defeated  Coiide  at  Gien,  and  nearly  an- 
nihilated his  army  in  the  battle  of  the  Faubourg  St. 
Antoine.  When  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde  were  over, 
Turenne  marched  upon  the  frontier,  and  in  several  cam- 
paigns defeated  the  Spaniards  over  and  over  again,  by  thesa 
victories  paving  the  way  for  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees 
(1059),  the  natural  complement  of  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia. In  these  campaigns  he  had  once  more  to  fight 
against  Conde,  gencral-in-chicf  of  the  armies  of  Spain,  anil 
in  1651  ho  showed  his  superiority  by  raising  the  siege  of 
Arras  and  driving  the  Sjianiards  from  their  lines.  In 
1050  Conde,  assisted  by  Don  John  of  Austria,  won  an 
exactly  similar  victory  and  relieved  Valenciennes,  which 
Turenne  was  besieging.  The  prolonged  contest  between 
the  two  was  decided  in  1G58  by  Turennc's  victory  of  the 
Dunes,  in  which  Cromwell's  contingent  of  6000  soldiers 
took  part. 

Louis  XIV.  now  began  to  rule  in  reality,  and  one  of  his 
first  acts  -was  to  create  Turenne  in  I  GOO  marshal-general 
of  the  armies  of  France.  Seven  years  later  Turenne 
occupied  French  Flanders  and  took  all  the  fortresses  in 
that  province,  though  the  king  was  nominally  in  com- 
mand of  tlic  army, — an  exploit  equalled  in  the  following 
year  by  Conde's  rapid  occupation  of  Franche  Comti. 
It  was  in  1008  that  Turenne  made  his  notorious  change 
of  faith.  Born  of  Calvirist  parents  and  educated  a 
Protestant,  he  had  in  compliance  with  the  tenets  of  his 
religion  refu-scd  to  marry  one  of  Richelieu's  nieces  in  1030, 
and  had  eventually  married  a  daughter  of  the  Protestant 
Marshal  de  la  Force.  But  it  can  hardly  be  believed  that 
he  was  converted  at  the  ago  of  fifty-seven  from  rebgious 
convictions.  In  1672  the  second  great  European  war 
broke  out,  brought  about  by  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV. 
Turenne  once  more  took  command  of  the  army,  which  the 
king  accompanied,  and  speedily  occupied  the  greater  part 
of  Holland,  which,  however,  they  were  forced  to  ev.acuaie 
owing  to  the  Dutch  cutting  their  dykes.  In  the  following 
year  Turenne  marched  into  Westphalia  to  ojipose  the 
imi)erialist  forces,  and,  though  his  army  was  small  com- 
jiared  to  tlial  of  Montccuculi,  the  imperialist  general,  ho 
man.aged  to  make  head  against  both  liim  and  the  elector 
of  Brandenburg.  In  1C7.'5  he  w'as  compelled  to  act  on  the 
defensive;  but  in  1074  in  spite  of  bis  inferiority  of  nurabrr* 


T  U  R  — T  U  R 


627 


he  boldly  resumed  the  aggressive.  Crossing  the  Rhine  at 
Philippsburg  In  June,  and  marching  rapidly  to  Sinsheim, 
he  defeated  the  im[>erialist  general  Caprara  and  the  duke 
of  Lorraine.  IJc  then  retired  for  a  lime,  but  in  December 
of  the  same  year  he  made  a  sudden  rush  into  the  enemy's 
winter  quarters  and  utterly  routed  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, who  was  then  general  of  the  imperialists,  at  Colniar. 
Between  the  battle  of  Sinsheim  and  the  dash  at  Colmar, 
Turenne,  under  orders  from  Louvois,  committed  the  acts 
which  are  the  greatest  blot  ujwn  his  fame  by  devastat- 
ing the  Palatinate.  After  the  rout  of  Colmar,  and  the 
defeat  of  Tiirkheim  which  followed  it,  he  laid  waste  the 
greater  part  of  Alsace,  as  a  defensive  measure  against 
another  advance  of  the  imperialists.  He  then  advanced 
into  the  heart  of  Germany,  and  again  met  Montceuculi, 
who  had  succeeded  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  as  general- 
in-chief.  The  two  generals  manoeuvred  for  four  months  In 
much  the  same  way  as  Wellington  and  Marmont  marched 
and  counter  inarched  before  the  battle  of  Salamanca;  at 
last,  on  27th  July  1075,  their  field  of  battle  was  cho.ien, 
and,  as  Turetine  was  directing  the  position  of  a  battery,  he 
was  struck  by  a  cannon  ball  and  killed  on  the  spot.  The 
opws  of  his  death  was  received  with  universal  sorrow, 
Flochior,  Mascaron,  Saint  f.vremond,  and  Lamoignon  wrcte 
iluffis  of  him ;  and  Madame  de  Sevigni  describes  the 
consternation  cau.<ed  by  his  sudden  lo.<s.  Bis  body  was 
taken  to  St  Denis,  and  buried  with  the  kings  of  I'rance. 
Even  the  extreme  revolutionists  of  1793  respected  it,  and, 
when  the  bones  of  the  sovereigns  were  thrown  to  the 
winds,  the  remains  of  Turenne  were  prcscrvcil  at  the 
Biuseum  of  natural  history  until  23rd  September  1800, 
when  they  were  removed  by  order  of  Bonaparte  to  the 
church  of  the  Invalides  at  I'arls,  where  they  still  rest. 

Txircnnc'f  fame  ri^sts  on  his  niilitjry  adiirvcmont.s  ;  as  a  m.in  he 
was  not  nioie  ui^liii^iiishcj  for  liis  vitlucs  than  llic  'Juke  ol'  Marl- 
horongli,  vliom  in  ninny  re^^pccts  hr  resetriblej.  IIo  liad  iiiJceJ 
ibc  calnmc.-is  of  all  |>liilo;:ophic,  cold-ioinilcd  tcnipcrntufuls,  but 
few  olhcr  praisiworlliy  qualities  As  a  jKilitieiaa  lie  liolJs  no  high 
rlarc.  (11    M.  S  ) 

TURG.M,  a  P.ussian  province  in  Central  Asia,  formerly 
a  part  of  the  Kirghiz  steiipe,  and  now  embodied  in  the 
governor  general.-hip  of  the  Steppes,  is  bounded  by  Uralsk 
and  Orenburg  on  the  \V.  and  X.,  by  Akmolinsk  on  the 
E.,  and  by  Syr-Daria  and  the  Sea' of  Aral  on  the  S.  This 
extensive  and  irregularly-sha[icd  territory,  which  has  an 
area  (176,800  square  miles)  as  large  as  that  of  Caucasia 
and  Transcaucasia  taken  together,  belongs  to  the  Aral- 
Caspian  depression.  It  has,  however,  the  Mugojar  I  fills 
on  Its  western  border  and  includes  a  part  of  the  southern 
Urals  ,  and  from  Akmolinsk  it  is  separated  by  a  range  of 
lulls  which  runs  between  the  two  chief  rivers  of  the 
Kirghiz  steppe — the  Turgai  and  the  Sary-su.  In  the  north 
il  includes  the  low  belt  of  undulating  land  which  stretches 
from  the  Mugojar  LIllls  towards  the  north-east  and  sepa- 
rates the  rivers  belonging  to  the  Aral  basin  from  those 
which  How  towards  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  beyond  this 
range  it  embraces  the  upper  TolMjt  The  remainder  is 
steppe  lanil,  sloping  gently  towards  the  Sea.  of  Aral.  The 
Mugojar  Uills  consist  of  an  undulating  plateau  nearly 
lOOO  feet  in  height,  built  up  of  Permian  and  Cretaceous 
deposits,  and  deeply  grooved  by  rivers.  They  are  not  the 
independent  chain  which  our  maps  make  them  out  to  be': 
they  merely  continue  the  Urals  towards  the  south,  and  arc 
connected  with  the  Ust  Urt  plateau  by  a  range  of  hills 
which  was  foimerly  an  island  of  the  Aral-Cas[iian  Sea. 
Their  northern  extremity  joins  the  undulating  plateau 
(400  to  GOO  lect),  built  up  of  sandstones  and  marls,  which 
separates  the  tributaries  of  the  Tobot  from  those  of  the 
Ural,  and  falls  by  a  range  of  steep  crags — probably  an  old 

'  S<-e  P.  S.  Nazaroff,  in  "  Uechtrehes  Zoulo^-iques  dans  Ics  Steppes 
les  Kirghizes,"  in  DiUl  Six.  d<s  Nutur.  lU  Moscow,  18SC,  No.  4. 


shore-line  of  the  Aral  basin — towards  the  steppes.  The 
steppe  land  of  Turgai  is  only  some  300  feet  above  the 
sealevel,  and  is  doited  with  lakes,  of  which  the  Tcholgar- 
denghiz,  which  receives  the  Turgai  and  its  tributary  tho 
Irghiz,  is  the  largest.  The  Turgai  was,  at  a  recent  epoch, 
a  large  river  llowing  into  the  Sea  of  Aral  and  receiving  an 
extensive  system  of  tributaries,  which  are  now  lost  in  the 
sands  before  joining  it.  Remains  of  aquacie  plants  buried  in 
the  soil  of  the  steppe,  and  shells  of  M yldus  and  Cardium, 
both  still  found  in  the  Sea  o'  Aral,  show  that  during  the 
Glacial  period  this  region  was  covered  by  the  waters  of 
the  Aral-Caspian  Sea. 

The  climate  of  Turgai  is  exceedingly  dry  and  eontlnental.  Orsbi 
a  town  of  Orcnlmrg,  on  its  nortli-western  border,  has  a  January 
as  cold  as  that  of  the  west  coast  of  Nova  Zembla  (  -  4"  Fahr.),  while 
in  July  it  is  as  hot  as  July  in  Moroi.i  {'Vi ;  the  corresponding 
figures  for  Irgliiz,  in  the  centre  of  tb--  ,»rovirice,  arc  7°  and  77% 
Al  liglii?.  anil  Orsk  the  annual  rainfall  is  somewhat  under  10  anq 
12  inclies  respectively  {3  inches  in  .sumraer).  The  west  winds 
art  desiccated  bclore  they  reach  tbe  Turgai  steppes,  and  the  north- 
east  winds,  which  in  winter  bring  cold,  dry  snows  from  Siberia, 
raise  in  suniiiier  formidable  clouds  of  sand-  A  climate  so  dry  is  01 
course  iucoinpatibie  witb  a  vigorous  forest  growth.  There  is  seme 
tiinl>er  on  tbe  southern  Urals,  the  Mugojar  Hills,  and  the  water- 
parling  of  the  Tobot  ;  elsewberc  trees  arc  rare, — only  shrubs,  such 
as  the  wild  cherry  {Ci.roffii.-i  Chnvia:ccras\is)  and  the  dwarf  almond 
{AmyijdaUisnnna)  growing  on  the  liiliy  slojies,  wiiilc  the  rich  black- 
earth  sod  of  the  strp|v  is  eliielly  covered  with  feather  grass  {Stipa 
ix'niutta),  the  well-known  oriurnent  of  the  south  Russian  steppes. 
In  spring  the  grass  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and  gce.se  and  craned 
arc  attracted  in  vast  uuinbers  by  the  fields  of  the  Kirghiz  from 
the  depth  of  the  steppe  The  jeiboa  {bipn^  jaculiis)  and  the  raar- 
mot  {iSpcnnoyhil Hi  ni/csrens)  are  characteristic  of  the  fauna  of  the 
region  ;  another  species  of  marmot  {Antonit/i  btttiac)  and  the  CaniS 
co/-,v«c  are  common  ;  and  the  saiga  antelope  of  Central  Asia  is  occa- 
sionally niet  with,  rurtber  south  the  black  earth  di^appeat-s  and 
with  it  tbe  feather  grass,  its  place  being  taken  by  its  congener,  Siijia 
otpillatu.  Trees  disappear,  and  among  the  bushes  along  the  banks 
of  the  livers  willows  and  the  pseiulo-aeacia  or  Siberian  pea  tree 
(Cara'j'iiia  micruphjla)  are  most  prevalent.  In  the  iiiidille  parts 
of  tbe  province  the  ilayeysoil  is  corupletcly  clothed  with  worm- 
wood {Artanu-na  fraiyatis  and  A.  moiio^fyiin),  with  a  few  grass> 
plants  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  lakes  (Lusimjrostis  .'^ilentktis, 
Alhagi  c<i)n(loruin  and  A.  kinjhuurum,  Obione  juiTtidacuiiUs,  Uali- 
mixlcndfiLin  anji-ntcvin) ;  w  bile  large  areas  consist  of  shifting  sands, 
salt  clays  clothed  with  a  rich  carpet  of  various  Snl.sotncae,  and 
dried  beds  of  old  lakes.  Such  lakes  as  still  e.\isl,  notwithstanding 
tbe  rapid  desieeatiou  now  going  on.  are  sui  lonmled  by  rush  thickets, 
— the  retre.it  of  wild  boars.  I'mgai  is  thus  the  borderlaud  between 
the  fiora  of  Enroim  and  that  of  Cenlral  Asia. 

In  1S82  Ihe  population  of  Turgai  was  estim.^tcd  at  323,110,  all 
nomad  Kirghiz,  with  the  exeeplion  of  some  3tju0,  who  are  settled 
in  four  villages  ollii-iallv  descril>cd  as  towns.  Agriculture  is  in  ita 
earliest  stage  of  development  ;  but  sonic  lOO.QCU  ijnarters  of  corn 
are  raised  in  tbe  south-west  by  the  Kirghiz,  who  sell  some  of  it  in 
Orenburg.  Cattle-breeding  is  Ihe  chief  occupation,  and  within 
tbe  province  there  arc  some  800,000  horses,  3:jri,000  cattle,  about 
•20n,000  camels,  and  mole  than  two  million  sheep.  liut  the  want 
of  fodder  in  sjiring  occasions  violent  murrains,  which  sometimes 
result  in  actual  famine  among  the  Kirghiz.  Endeavours  have 
recently  I-ieeii  made  to  induce  the  fieople  to  make  communal  stores 
of  hay,  but  the  300.000  cwls.  yeaily  collected  in  this  way  are  in- 
sullieieiit.  The  Kirghiz  of  tbe  southern  parts  go  in  wintei  to  the 
better  sheltered  parts  of  Syr-Daiia,  while  iu  the  summer  some 
30,000  iibitkds  (felt  tents)  of  nomads  come  from  the  neighlKniring 
provinces  to  graze  their  cattle  on  the  grassy  steppes  of  Turgai. 
Some  30,(100  cwls.  of  salt  are  animally  got  from  the  lakes.  The 
four  settlements  of  the  province  are  Turgai,  thuf  town  and  seat  of 
the  proviiitl.tt  adriiinistratiun.  with  less  than  -100  inhabitants,  and 
the  "district  towns"  of  Irgbiz  ('.'2o),  Ak-liibe  (400),  and  Kara- 
•butak  (300),  the  last  two  being  more  or  less  fortifred.  Several 
merchants  in  tbe.se  carry  on  trade  with  the  Kirghiz,  exchanging 
manufactured  goods  for  wool  and  skins,  which  are  sent  to  the 
frontier  settlements  of  Orenburg.  There  is  a  brisk  caravan  trallic 
through  Turgai. 

TURCOT.  Anxe  Kobicrt  Jacques  Turcot,  Marquis 
DE  l'Adlnt;  (1727-1781),  French  .statesman  and  economist, 
was  born  at  Paris,  10th  May  1727.  Uc  was  tho  third  son 
of  Michel  ^ticiino  Turgot  and  of  Mailoleine  Franijoise 
Martineau.  His  family,  which  was  ancient  and  noble,  is 
said  to  have  been  originally  Scottish,  but  had  long  been 
settled  in  Normandy.     His  ancestors  early  abandoned  tbe 


628 


TURCOT 


ffword  for  the  robe.  Both  his  father  and  grandfather  had 
been  in  the  civil  service  of  the  state  :  his  father  was 
"  prevot  des  marchands  "  at  Paris,  and  won  a  high  rep  ata- 
tion  as  a  magistrate  and  administrator.  Turgot  in  his 
childhood  was  timid,  and  showed  in  company  an  absent 
and  embarrassed  air,  from  which  he  never  afterwards 
entirely  freed  himself,  and  which  in  later  life  was  some- 
times unjustly  attributed  to  hauteur.  His  mother,  through 
excessive  or  injudi  ,ious  efforts  to  correct  these  faults,  ap- 
pears to  have  aggravated  them.  He  obtained  his  early 
education  at  the  College  Louis- le-Grand,  and  was  after- 
wards a  student  of  the  College  du  Plessis.  He  then  entered 
the  seminary  of  St  Sulpice,  and  thence  passed  to  the  Sor- 
bonne  with  the  view  of  taking  his  licence  in  theology. 
But  he  decided  finally  in  1751  not  to  follow  the  ecclesi- 
astical profession.  His  opinions  were  inconsistent  with 
that  calling,  and  he  said  "  he  could  not  consent  to  wear  a 
mask  all  his  life."  He  showed  at  this  time  an  enthusiastic 
love  of  literature  and  powers  of  memory  which  are  de- 
scribed as  "  prodigious,"  as  well  as  a  penetrating  intellect 
and  a  sound  judgment.  We  have  the  testimony  of  the 
Abbd  Morellet,  who  was  then  his  intimate  acquaintance  and 
constant  companion,  to  the  singular  purity,  the  simplicity, 
modesty,  and  frank  gaiety  which  characterized  him. 

As  prior  of  the  Sorbonne  (an  honorary  office  conferred 
annually  on  some  distinguished  student)  he  wrote  and 
delivered  publicly  in  1750  two  remarkable  pieces, — one 
On  the  Benefits  which  the  Christian  Religion  lias  conferred 
on  MankiTid,  the  other  On  the  Historical  Progress  of  the 
Human  Mind.  Having  chosen  the  law  as  his  profession, 
ho  was  appointed  in  1752  "conseiUer  substitut  du  pro- 
cureur  g^n6ral,"  and  afterwards  "  conseiller  au  parlement." 
The  controversy  arising  from  the  refusal  of  the  sacraments 
to  the  Jansenists  by  the  archbishop  of  Paris  being  then 
agitated  between  the  parlement  and  the  clergy,  Turgot 
wrote  (1753)  Letters  to  a  Vicar-General  on  Toleration  and 
^  pamphlet  entitled  Le  Cow.iliateur,  in  favour  of  religious 
liberty  and  against  the  interference  of  the  temporal  power 
In  theological  disputes.  In  1753  he  became  "maltre  des 
requetes."  He  discharged  his  professional  duties  with 
ScrupiUous  purity  and  conscientious  industry.  He  con- 
tinued at  the  same  time  his  studies  in  ancient  and  modern 
literature  (including  En^isb  and  German},  mathematics, 
astronomy,  chemistry,  and  natural  history,  and  frequented 
the  salons  of  Madame  de  Graffigny  (authoress  of  Lcs  Lcltrcs 
Peruviennes),  JIadame  Gooffrin,  and  Madame  du  Deffand. 
Whilst  he  enjoyed  the  acquaintance  and  society  of  D'Alcm- 
bert.  Baron  d'Holbach,  Raynal,  Marmontel,  Morellet, 
Galiani,  Helvdtius,  and  other  notabilities  of  the  time,  he 
maintained  his  intellectual  independence  and  refused  to 
connect  himself  with  any  party  or  political  group.  About 
this  time  he  also  entered  into  relations  with  Quesnay  and 
pournay — the  principal  members  of  the  physiocrats.  He 
was  attracted  to  them  by  the  similarity  of  their  sentiments 
on  social  questions  and  their  opinions  on  economic  policy 
to  those  which  he  himself  entertained.  Turgot  accompanied 
Gournay  in  1755  and  1756  in  his  official  tours  of  inspec- 
tion as  intendant  of  commerce,  and  on  Gournay's  death  in 
1759  he  wrote  his  £loge.  He  then  made  a  short  visit  to 
eastern  France  and  a  part  of  Switzerland.  When  he  arrived 
at  Geneva  he  went  to  see  Voltaire  at  Los  Dcliccs,  and 
formed  with  him  what  proved  to  bo  a  lasting  friendship. 
He  contributed  about  this  period  several  articles  to  the 
Encyclnpcdie.  In  17G1  the  controller-general  Bertin  ap- 
pointed him  intendant  of  the  gcncralite  of  Limoges.  In 
that  district  the  mass  of  the  people  were  sunk  in  jioverty 
and  barbarism ;  the  corv6es  for  the  construction  of  roads 
and  the  transport  of  military  equipages  were  oppressive ; 
the  country  was  depopulated  by  the  requisitions  for  the 
militia;  the  t.-ixation  was  excessive  and  unfairly  distri- 


buted ;  the  state  of  the  roads  was  wretched ;  and  tlio 
general  condition  of  agriculture  was  deplorable.  Turgot's 
administration  of  the  district  lasted  for  thirteen  years,  and 
was  marked  by  a  steady  pursuit  of  the  public  good,  and  a 
firm  resistance  to  inertia,  prejudice,  and  corruption.  In 
particular  he  strongly  jnaintaincd  the  cause  of  the  in- 
dustrious poor,  and  insisted  on  a  more  equitable  assess- 
ment of  the  public  charges  which  pressed  unduly  upon 
them.  With  nobly  disinterested  spirit  he  refused  to  be 
transferred  to  other  gencraliics  in  which  the  salary  was 
higher  and  the  administration  easier.  Hising  above  the 
common  prejudices  of  the  jihilosophes,  he  sought  the  co- 
operation of  the  clergy,  both  to  inform  him  of  everything 
relating  to  the  circumstances  of  the  people  which  it  wai 
desirable  for  him  to  know,  and  to  e.xplain  to  their  flocka 
the  nature  and  objects  of  the  measures  he  proposed  to  put 
in  operation  ;  and  he  acknowledges  that  he  found  in  them 
earnest  and  active  auxiliaries.  But  he  was  not  seconded 
as  he  ought  to  have  been  by  the  central  Government,  and 
had  often  to  remonstrate  with  the  Abb6  Terray,  minister 
of  finance.  During  the  scarcity  of  1770  and  1771,  which 
was  particularly  severe  in  Limousin,  he  devoted  himself 
with  untiring  assiduity  to  the  relief  of  the  distressed,  and, 
when  he  had  exhausted  such  public  funds  as  were  avail- 
able, incurred  for  the  same  object  a  personal  debt  of  more 
than  20,000  livres.  Shortly  after  the  accession  of  Louis 
XVI.  Turgot  was  appointed  by  Maurepas  (19th  July  1774) 
minister  of  marine,  and  in  that  capacity  began  at  once  to 
initiate  important  reforms  and  to  conceive  far-reaching 
projects.  IJut  he  filled  the  post  only  for  five  weeks,  being 
then  (21st  August)  promoted  to  the  ministry  of  finance. 
In  his  new  ofiice  he  addressed  to  the  young  king  a  declara- 
tion of  the  principles  by  which  he  intended  to  be  guided  : 
"  No  bankruptcy,  no  increase  of  taxation,  and  no  borrow- 
ing." Economy  and  wise  management  were  to  be  his  only 
resources.  Fearing  the  opposition  he  must  encounter,  ha 
appealed  to  Louis  to  support  him.  By  a  decree  of  the 
13th  September  1774,  here-established  free  trade  iu  grain 
within  the  kingdom,  which  had  been  suspended  by  Torray, 
and  authorized  the  importation  of  supplies  from  abroad ; 
the  traflic  in  other  alimentary  substances  was  also  relieved 
of  many  impediments,  and  various  monopolies  and  exclu- 
sive privileges  were  abolished;  the  octroi  taxation  was 
reformed,  public  works  promoted,  and  improvements  io 
agriculture  encouraged.  Some  of  these  measures  werq 
made  the  pretext  for  disturbances,  known  as  la  guerre  dei 
fariiies,  which  Turgot  always  suspected  the  Prince  do  Conti 
of  having  fomented.  The  riots  had  to  be  sujiprcssed  by 
armed  force,  and  the  energetic  action  of  the  minister 
against  them  was  made  a  ground  of  attack  by  his  enemies. 
Tlie  parlement  had  been  weakly  recalled  by  Louis  from 
the  exile  to  which  in  the  preceding  reign  Maupeou  had 
condemned  it.  It  now  conbtitutcd  itsqlf  the  organ  of  the 
resistance  of  menaced  interests  to  the  measures  of  Turgot, 
who  would  gladly  have  abolished  it,  providing  in  its  place 
better  political  securities  and  courts  of  justice  on  a  new 
plan.  In  January  177G  he  presented  to  the  king  a  memoir 
proposing,  amongst  other  things,  the  abolition  of  the  corvee, 
to  be  replaced  by  a  territorial  tax,  from  which  the  privileged 
classes  were  not  to  be  exempt,  and  the  suppression  of  the 
jvrandes  (exclusive  trade  corporations).  The  edicts  for 
these  purposes  were  submitted  to  Miromesnil,  keejjer  of 
the  seals,  a  secret  enemy  of  Turgot,  who,  spurred  on  by 
Maurepas,  wrote  a  memoir  against  them,  and  opjjoscd  them 
in  the  king's  council.  The  urticrs,  the  nobility,  the 
clergy,  and  the  leading  members  of  the  industrial  ror;)Ora- 
tions  now  combined  against  the  minister,  and  were  joined 
by  a  large  )iart  of  the  common  iicojilc,  who  did  not  under- 
stand his  policy.  The  Count  dc  Provence,  afterwards  Louis 
XVIII.,  wrote  a  pamphlet,  entitled  The  Dream  of  if  d' 


TURCOT 


629 


^faurepas,  against  Turgot.  The  parlement  refused  to 
register  the  decrees ;  but  the  king  held  a  lit  de  justice,  which 
Voltaire  proposed  to  call  a  lit  de  (nen/aisatice,  and  compelled 
the  registration.  This  forced  submission  only  aggravated 
the  rancour  of  Turgot's  enemies,  and  the  king  had  not  the 
firmness  to  sustain  his  minister  against  the  coalition.  A 
\Tle  conspiracy  having  poisoned  Louis's  mind  against  him, 
he  addressed  to  the  king  an  eloquent  letter  in  which  he 
pointed  out  the  grave  perils  impending  over  the  throne 
and  the  state,  and  warned  Louis  that  princes  who  are 
tempted  to  give  themselves  up  to  the  direction  of  courtiers 
should  remember  the  fate  of  Charles  L  The  minister 
received  his  dismissal  on  the  12th  of  May  1776.  He  had 
been  in  office  only  twenty  months,  of  which  he  had  lost  six 
in  repressing  sedition,  and  for  seven  more  had  been  con- 
fined to  his  bed  by  the  gout ;  but  he  had  done  during  his 
tenure  an  extraordinary  amount  of  work.  Voltaire,  how- 
ever, nobly  avenged  Turgot  on  his  enemies  in  his  Epttre 
d  -un  Homme.  The  fallen  minister  devoted  his  remaining 
years  to  his  favourite  studies,  especially  to  physical  science 
and  the  ancient  poets ;  he  enjoyed  the  society  of  Lavoisier, 
D'Alembert,  Coudorcet,  Bossut,  Rochon,  and  Rouelle,  and 
attended  the  meetings  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  of 
which  he  was  elected  vice-director  in  1777  He  also  cor- 
responded with  Price  and  Franklin,  and,  if  we  may  believe 
Condorcet,  with  Adam  Smith,  whose  acquaintance  he  had 
made  at  Paris  iq  1766.*  Turgot  died  at  Paris  on  18th 
March  1781. 

Turgot's  official  career  is  for  ever  memorable  in  the  history  of 
social  iwlitics.  Never  did  a  public  man  ":ive  himself  to  the  service 
of  the  eonimunity  with  more  earnest  and  unselfish  devotion.  He 
made  it  his  object  to  conviucc  before  commanding,  in  order  that 
his  aims  mi;;ht  be  better  understood!  ami  his  directions  more  surely 
obeyed  ;  and,  in  issuing  any  instruction,  making  any  decision,  or 
adWsing  any  legislative  act,  he  stated  fully,  by  way  of  preamble, 
the  gruunds  on  which  he  proceeded.  In  the  documents  *-hich  he 
prepared  on  these  occasions  we  have  a  body  of  valuable  materials 
on  administrative  and  economic  questions  ;  some  of  them  contain 
the  substance  of  eliapters  in  the  ll^caltk  of  A'alions.  When  he 
became  minister,  the  finances  were  in  what  seemed  a  desperate 
coniiition,  and  the  general  state  of  affairs  justified  the  prediction  of 
Louis  X\'. — " apres  moi  le  deluge."  Turgot  framed  a  v.ist  plan  of 
reform,  at  once  administrative  and  economic,  as  the  only  hope  for 
the  salvation  of  the  state.  He  speaks  of  his  system  of  measures  as 
intended  for  "  the  regulation  of  the  kingdom,"  thus  showing  that 
he  contemplated  nothing  less  than  a  pacific  revolution.  But  the 
first  condition  of  success  in  such  an  effort  was  wanting,  namely,  the 
tntire  confidence  and  uul'altering  support  of  the  king,  and  the 
energetic  exercise  of  the  royal  power  in  carrying  out  a  policy  of 
thorough  reform  against  all  adverse  influences.^  iSirgot's  straggle, 
though  it  failed  from  causes  independent  of  himself,  cannot  be  re- 
gardcil  without  profound  sympathy  and  admiration.  Nor  was  it 
without  a  large  measure  of  immediate  success.  Whilst  he  scrupu- 
lously observed  all  the  pecuniary  obligations  of  the  state,  he  greatly 
diminished  the  crashing  deficit  which  he  found  on  his  accession  to 
office,  and  re-established  the  public  credit  in  such  a  degree  that 
the  Dutch  bankers  olfered  him  a  loan  of  sixty  millions  of  livres  at 
less  than  5  per  cent.  His  financial  ana  other  plans,  of  course,  fell 
with  him,  and  his  most  important  measures  were  annulled  ;  but 
his  policy  and  his  writings  exercised  a  lasting  influence,  and  many 
of  hi."  projicts  were  realized  by  the  Revolution.  Turgot  is  alto- 
gether one  of  the  most  massive  and  imposing  figures  of  the  18th 
century.  His  whole  character  and  public  action  are  marked  by  an 
air  of  austere  grandeur.  Singic-raindedness  and  veracity  were  of 
the  very  essence  of  his  nature.  Absolutely  unbiased  by  selfish 
ends,  he  lived  only  for  France,  for  truth,  and  for  his  duty.  Be- 
lieving intensely  in  a  definite  system  of  social  and  economic  princi- 
les,  which  he  had  early  formed  by  independent  study  and  reflexion, 
e  was  prepared  to  carry  them  out  with  dauntless  determination, 

*  Dugald  Stewart,  however,  cannot  find  any  evidence  of  a  corre- 
spondence between  Turgot  and  Smith.  It  has  also  been  said  that 
during  this  period  Turgot  corresponded  with  Hume.  But  little  more 
than  three  months  intervened  between  hfs  dismissal  and  the  death  of 
Hume  (2oth  August  1776)  and  there  appears  to  be  no  trace  of  letters 
having  passed  between  them  in  this  interval.  They  had  corresponded, 
but  at  a  much  earlier  date  ;  see  Burton's  Life  of  Hume,  ii.  352,  331. 

^  Some  have  thought  that  the  cardinal  error  in  Turgot's  policy  lay 
In  bis  not  having  convoked  the  states -general  ;  that  would,  however, 
have  been  simply  to  opeu  the  flood-gates. 


i;: 


and  with  a  lofty  contempt  for  the  interested  or  prejudiced  opposi- 
tion they  were  sure  to  encounter.  He  haa  been  accused  of  a  doc* 
trinaire  rigrdity,  and  it  is  possible  that,  as  a  practical  man.  he 
wanted  flexibility  ,  yet  he  was  oft^n  willing,  not  indeed  to  disguise 
his  convictions,  but  to  postpone  the  realization  of  his  plans,  Iq 
his  public  acts  he  always  showed  a  lively  concern  for  the  poor  and 
the  sutTering ;  in  private  life  he  was  humane  and  benevolent ;  in 
his  relations  with  his  friends,  amiable  and  affectionate.  Malesherbe^ 
the  only  other  minister  of  his  time  who  was  worthy  to  be  his  col« 
league,  said  of  him  that  "  he  had  the  head  of  Bacon  and'the  heart 
of  L'Hopital,"  and,  on  the  moral  side  at  least,  this  was  no  exagger* 
ated  estimate. 

Possessed  of  a  many-sided  culture,  Turgot  wrote  on  a  great  variety 
of  subjects — philo&ophic,  scientific,  and  literary — though  pohtical 
economy  is  the  branch  of  knowledge  with  which  his  name  musi 
always  be  most  closely  associated.  Already  iu  1749,  whilst  ft 
student  at  St  Sulpice,  he  addressed  to  his  friend,  Abbe  de  Cicc, 
aftei-wards  bishop  of  Auxcrre,  a  Letter  wi  Paper  M(mcy,  in  which 
he  asserted,  in  opposition  to  the  views  of  Law  and  his  followers, 
doctrines  similar  to  tliose  now  accepted  by  .nil  competent  autliorities. 
In  oue  of  Ills  discourses  at  the  Soibonne  in  1750,  moving  into  tlie 
higher  regions  of  the  philosophy  of  society,  he  makes  a  remarkable 
attempt  to  work  out  the  pregnant  conception,  already  enunciated 
by  Pascal,  of  the  continuity  of  the  intellectual  movement  ot  our 
race,  thus  preparing  the  way  for  Coudorcefs  Esqiiisse^  and  ulti- 
mately for  the  sociology  of  Comtc.  In  1753  he  translated  under 
the  title  oi'QucstUms  Importantcs  SJir  Ic  Commerce,  a  tract  of  Di 
Josiah  Tucker  on  the  expediency  of  naturalizing  foreigners,  Hfl 
coutributed  to  the  Encyclopidie  the  articles  ^bjiaotogie,  Existerict^ 
£x]xuisibilitey  Fondatioiis^  and  Foires  el  Marches.  The  first  of  these 
contains  much  that  is  just  as  well  as  interesting,  though  in  the 
time  of  Turgot  the  subject  could  not  yet  be  treated  on  genuinely 
scientific  bases.  In  the  second  he  undertakes  a  refutation  of  the 
Bcrkclcian  theory.  The  third  contains  some  ingenious  suggestions 
in  practical  physics.  The  article  on  foundations  maintains  the 
right  of  the  Government  to  dispose  of  them  for  the  public  good, 
suppressing^  them  if  hurtful,  and  directing  the  funds  to  more  useful 
objects;  tlie  policy  advocated  in  it  was  afterwards  carried  into 
cfl'ect  by  the  constituent  assembly.  In  the  paper  on  fairs  and 
markets  he  argues  that  these  are  institutions  adapted  only  for  an 
immature  state  of  commercial  relations,  and  that  more  good  would 
be  doue  by  liberating  trade  from  the  legislative  fetters  which  every- 
where impeded  it  than  by  bestowing  special  privileges  or  other 
encouragements  on  particular  localities  as  centres  of  exchange.  lo 
the  £loge  of  Goumay  he  combines  with  his  tribute  to  the  memory 
of  his  friend  a  vindication  of  tlie  principle  of  industrial  freedom, 
which  that  friend  had  condensed  in  the  oft -repeated  maxim, 
"Lai^sez  faire,  laissez  passer."  To  the  period  of  Turgot's  in  tend- 
ance belong  his  unfinished  Valcurs  cl  Afonnaics,  intended  to  form 
an  article  in  the  Dictionnaire  dc  Coinmcrec  of  Morellet ;  his  Letters 
(to  the  Abbe  Terray)  on  the  Frccd&m  of  the  Coni-Trade  ;  his  memoir 
Sur  Ics  PrUsd'ArgeTii^  in  which  he  insists  on  the  necessity  of  leaving 
free  the  interest  ou  loans ;  and  that  on  the  principles  which  should 
direct  legislation  respecting  mines  and  quarries,  as  well  as  the  work 
on  which  his  reputation  as  a  systematic  economist  mainly  rests, 
namely,  his  lUjlcxi&ns  sur  la  Formation  et  la  DistribiUion  de9 
Richcsscs.  This  treatise  was  written  for  two  Chinese  youths  who 
had  been  sent  over  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  to  study  in  France 
The  work  was  first  published  in  1766  in  the  £ph6m£rides  du  Citoj/en^ 
edited  by  Dupont  de  Nemours,  and  speedily  passed  through  fouf 
editions.  It  gives  in  brief  compass  a  luminous  statement  of  some 
of  the  most  important  principles  relating  to  the  economic  con- 
stitution of  societies— the  division  of  labour,  the  origin  and  use  of 
money,  the  nature  of  capital  and  the  different  modes  of  its  employ- 
ment, the  necessary  rise  of  capitalist  chiefs  of  industry,  the  legiti- 
macy of  interest  on  loans,  and  the  impossibilitj'  of  arbitmrily  fixing 
the  rate  of  that  interest.  It  unfortunately  contains,  along  with 
many  truths,  the  erroneous  doctrines  of  the  physiocrats  on  the 
exclusive  productiveness  of  agriculture  and  on  the  consequent  pro* 
priety  of  imposing  taxes  only  on  the  land  of  a  country.  This 
bfiofc  was  erroneously  represented  by  Condorcet  as  "the  Mrm  of 
the  IVealtk  of  Natityns,  and  has  been  spoken  of  by  others  u 
"anticipating  some  of  the  leading  principles"  of  Smith.  The  truth 
is,  most  of  what  it  contains  had  either  been  fully  set  forth  by  the 
earlier  economists  or  was  familiar  to  Qucsnay  and  his  group.  It 
is,  in  fact,  not  a  work  of  research  hut  of  expositioh,  and,  regarded 
in  this  light,  has  real  originality  and  may  justly  be  pronounced  a 
masterpiece. 

Fuller  information  on  the  life,  administrative  labours,  and  writinfrs  of  Tui-go* 
will  be  found  in  the  foUowing  works  :— Dupont  de  Nemours,  ^'ous  et  A.'fmoircl 
s^ir  la  Vie,  V Administralion,  et  les  Ovvrages  de  Turgot,  >«•§,  and  enlarged  in  his 
edition  of  Turgofs  works  mentioned  below;  Condorcet.  Vie  de  Turgot,  17S6I 
A.  Balhie,  Turgot,  PkUosophe,  Economiste,  Administrateur,\o6\:  J.  Tissot,  Turgot^ 
sa  Vu.\son  AdministrrUion.ses Outrages (irnemoirccouronne),  lSt>2  ;  A.  Ne\inarck, 
Turgot  et  sfs  Doctrines,  1SS5.  The  last-named  contains  the  most  complete  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.  See  also  an  ^loge  by  Dupuy  (1781)  in  the  Memoires  d4 
I'Acadimie  des  Inscriptions  et  Mles-leitrfs,  vol.  xlv.  ;  L.  de  Lavergne.  l£a 
l\aynomistts  Fran^isau  Dix-Huiti^me  Slide,  1S70.  and  Mr.  John  Morle/s  articto 
iu  hia  Critical  iJiscttlanics,  2d  scries,  1877.      A  collected  edit:oD  of  Tuj|[oft 


630 


T  U  R  — T  U  R 


wrningswM  piililistieil  for  tlic  first  time  by  Dupont  in  d  vola.  (Parid  IS0S-11)< 
llir  iiinst  c-nnj'lcte  and  in  pvcry  respect  best  eiiition  is  tliat  rniitaincil  in  the 
Ciiil^lio't  rfes  /'riiif  t/ianj  ^Miionistrs  uf  Ci-qiu-bii  aiitl  Ouillnuuiin,  2  ^ols.,  lS^4. 
with  a  bui^mpliical  notice  liy  Eui;cne  Dairc.  An  Enclish  translation  of  The 
t'ormttlinti  finti  liisIrititUtoft  n/  H'tatlh  was  published  in  Lon-lon  in  1  tii:l.  aii'l  was 
■vprnitetl  in  IS-Sy  in  Lopl  Over>loiif"s  ^Ittt  Cotlnltun  of  Scurc£  awl  I'^thnd^te 
fconnmif"' rr.icla.  eililed  by  J.  It   MCullodi.  (J    K.I) 

TUIvIN',  a  city  of  iiortlicrii  Italy,  formerly  tlie  cnpital 
of  I'lciliiioiit  ami  the  Sardinian  stales  and  now  tlie  cliief 
town  of  a  [iiovincc  in  llie  coniparlimento  of  I'icdinont,  is 
sitiiatcil  iir^O*  4'  8"  N  lat.  ami  7°  48'  22"  E.  long,  in  the 
filliiviul  valley  of  tlio  Po,  just  above  tlic  conducncc  of  the 
Dora  Kiparia.  By  rail  it  is  54  miles  from  the  Monnt  Cenis 
tunnel  The  communal  palace  stands  7SS  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  Monto  dei  Cappuccini  in  the  neighbourhood 
reaches  922  and  Li  Supcrga  2405  feet.  As  viewed  from 
the  cast  the  city  stands  out  boldly  against  the  Alps.  Taken 
as  a  whole  Turin  may  be  described  as  a  very  modern  city, 
with  broad  and  regular  streets,  and  large  .squares  and  public 
gardens.  The  cathedral  of  St  John  the  lia[)tisl  is  a  cruci- 
form Itenaissancc  building  dating  from  the  close  of  tLe  l")ih 
century.  The  site  was  first  occupied  by  a  church  erected, 
it  is  said,  by  the  Lombard  duke  Agilulf  (7lh  century).  Be- 
hind the  high  altar  of  the  cathedral  (from  which^  it  is 
separated  by  a  glass  screen)  is  the  cha[)el  of  the  Sudario 
or  Sidone,  built  (IC571G94)  by  Guariiii  as  a  royal  burial- 
place.  The  "sudario"  from  which  it  takes  its  name  is 
asserted  to  be  the  shroud  in  wUiclj  Joseph  of  Arimathea 
wrapped  the  body  of  Jesus.  La  lleata  Vergiiic  della  Con- 
solata,  another  of  Guarini's  works,  has  a  tower  which 
originally  belonged  to  the  church  of  St  Andrew,  founded  by 
the  monk  Bruning  in  1014,  and  attracts  attention  by  Vin- 


aaD[ -^^^ 

□  DDnDimc::::?,^,^ 

cc-so  tec--  "*fL»t:p-''*_'jcaKt 

m    " 


mwQ 


i 


7. 


J  □c:2..szzi'cDa!;- 


I  Ma.lanta  palace. 

t.  [tovat  palace. 

3.  CalliLslral. 

i.  Uiiiveraity 


5,  Cariirtiano  palace.  S    Aca.Icniy  of  art 

G    |)i  CiMa  p.tl:i(-c.  ti.   Mns<-<iiii. 

".   Acailetny  of  science.         10    Arseual. 


ccnzo  Vela's  beautiful  kneeling  statues  of  Queen  Maria 
Teresa  and  Queen  Maria  Adelaide,  as  well  as  by  the  i;nage 
of  the  Madonna,  which  has  the  credit  of  having  warded 
off  tlic  cholera  in  1S35.  Other  churches  of  some  note  arc 
San  I'elippo  Neri  (1G72-1772),  the  dome  of  which  fell  in 
just  as  it  was  approaching  completiuji  under  the  hands  of 
Guarini,  and  La  Gran  Madre  de  Dio,  erected  to  commemor- 
ate the  return  of  the  royal  family  in  1814.  Of  the  secular 
buildings  the  more  interesting  are  the  Madama  palace,  6r.-.t 
creeled  by  William  of  Monlferrat  in  the  close  of  the  13lh 
century,  and  the  extensive  royal  palace  begun  in  the  17th 
century.  The  university,  founded  in  1400  by  Lodovico  di 
Acaja,  lias  faculties  of  jurisprudence,  medicine  and  surgery, 
literature  and  philosophy,  and  the  mathematical,  physical. 


and  natural  sciences.  The  number  of  students  enrollod 
was  2132  in  18SG.  About  1876  the  old  university  build- 
ings erected  in  1713  by  the  Genoese  architect  Ilicca  began 
to  prove  too  small  for  their  purpose,  and  at  the  presiirt 
time  (ISS7)  new  buildings,  filled  imiro  c.->iiecially  for  Che 
medical  and  scientific  departments,  are  being  erected.  The 
area  of  the  botanical  gardens  has  al.so  been  extended  and 
the  oUscrvatory  enlarged.  The  medical  sihool  derives 
advanUtge  from  ihe  number  of  important  ho.spitals  in  the 
city.  The  royal  lunatic  asylum  can  accomnioilalc  980 
patients.  Turin  has  a  prison  on  the  cell  .■system  ((172  cclU) 
and  a  female  penitentiary  for  300,  besides  two  houses  of 
correction.  The  academy  of  sciences  was  founded  in  1757. 
It  occupies  a  building  erected  in  1GS7  by  Guarini  as  a 
Jesuit  college.  The  museum  of  anli(|uitics  ami  the  picture 
gallery,  of  which  it  has  the  custody,  are  both  i^f  high  in- 
terest— the  former  for  the. local  antiauilies  of  Picdiuoiit 
and  Sardinia  (notably  from  Tndustria)  and  for  the  h'gyp- 
tian  treasures  collected  by  Donali  and  Drovelt  ,  and-  the 
latter  for  its  Van  Dycks.  There  is  a  museum  of  zoology 
and  mineralogy  in  the  royal  palace  (another  of  Guarini's 
buildings),  and  the  Caslello  palace  contains  the  royal 
armoury  (a  collection  made  by  Charles  Albert  in  1833)  and 
the  royal  library  with  its  rich  nianu.script  collection  and 
its  20,000  drawings,  among  which  are  sketches  by  Uaphrel, 
Mjchelangelo,  and  Da  Vinci.  The  civic  museum  has  a 
great  variety  of  artistic  and  literary  curiosities,  among 
them  a  remarkable  collection  of  autographs  aiul  the  Lom- 
bard missal  ( I  190).  The  Jewish  synagogue,  a  striking  and 
cons[iicuous  biiililing,  erected  in  18G3  by  Alessaiulro  Anto- 
nclli,  was  iiurchased  by  the  municipality  in  1879  for  a 
Iicnaissancc  mu.scuui.  Other  public  in_stilutions  are  the 
Alberlinc  academy  of  the  fiiie  arts,  the  geographical  society, 
and  the  Alpine  club. 

Tlic  jtnliislries  ot  Turin  anil  its  siilnirbs  give  empli»yment  to 
17,930  persons  ( 13.30.'*  incii,  403!  women).  Spinniiixniill-s,  we;**- 
ing-racloiics.  "  vcata "  lactories  (Uu  Mctjici),  bicwciies,  ami  irort- 
woiks  arc  .among  llic  moi-c  c.sleiisivc  oslablisliiuenls.  The  coin- 
mcicial  rcl.itions  u(  llic  cily  .aie  \cry  extensive.  It  is  llic  scat  of 
the  central  olliees  of  llic  North  luliaii  K'ailway  ,  aiiJ  ihc  central 
station  is  one  of  I'lC  most  imposing  buiUIings  of  its  el.iss  in  the 
coiinliy.  TIic  mean  animal  lempcrature  al  Ttii  in  (ISOG-S  I)  is  511* 
Falir.  (Jan.  30^  July  7-1'"),  uitli  a  ma^iinum  ol  OC.niiJ  a  minimviin 
of  4^1.  Mista  .tic  lic'iiienl  in  llie  winter  iiioniiDgs,  ami  to  a  les« 
ilc;;rce  in  autumn.  Snow  selilom  fails  in  any  gicat  ipiantity,  anJ 
on  an  average  only  on  7  days  per  annum.  The  rain!all.  JistiihiileJ 
over  100  il.iys,  readies  32  inches— Decciribcr  being  10  ati-l  April 
43.  \\'aler  of  good  quality  is  brought  to  Itic  city  fioin  a  'listance 
of  15  miles.  Tiie  i")pulatioii  of  Turin  wasonlyabuut  4200  in  1377 
ami  yOuOin  15S0  ;  but  by  ITOiitwas  returne.l  as  43, SOU.  In  1S4S 
it  h.id  risen  to  130,849,"aml  in  1S61  to  201,715.  In  spite  of  the 
changes  caused  by  the  icmoval  of  the  capital,  first  to  Florence  and 
then  to  Kume,  Ihc  census  of  ISSl  showed  233,124  inliabilanls 
(commune  2.">2.S32). 

Tunn,  Augusta  Tnitrinonini^  took  Its  name  from  tlic  Tauiiui  oe 
Taurisci,  an  ancient  Ligiirian  people.  The  i.»wn  is  tiist  alluded  to 
[but  not  distinctly  by  name)  in  the  year  2IS  n.c,  when  it  uas  cap- 
tured by  lianiiibal  alter  a  three  days'  siege,  being  at  that  time  a 
place  of  great  sticngllt.  A  colony  of  Koman  veterans  was  intro- 
duced into  the  city,  possibly  after  the  battle  of  riiilijipi.  or  at  any 
rate  aflcr  the  batlle  of  Arlium.  It  was  assigned  to  the  Stellaline 
tribe  Of  Koman  archilccliire  scarcely  any  ti-ace  remains  even  in 
the  oldest  parts  ol  Turin,  but  the  arrangciucnt  of  the  slVccIs  of  tli« 
ol.i  lown  recalls  llic  alignmcnls  of  the  Koman  military  selllcmciit 
Tlie  l'alaz;o  dclle  due  Torri,  often  designated  the  I'oila  ralatina, 
is  probably  part  of  a  building  of  llic  Stii  century.  Turin  eontiiiueJ 
to  be  a  [ilace  o(  importance  and  mililary  strength  under  minicious 
vicissitudes,  lill  at  length  it  was  inidc  liie  chief  Iomti  of  I'icdmont 
by  Aniadeus,  first  duke  of  Savoy.  Under  Kmmanuel  ITiilibcrt  it 
became  tlie  usual  residence  of  the  ducal  family,  and  in  1515  the 
bishopric  was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank  by  Leo  X.  Between 
153G  and  1562  Turin  was  occupied  by  the  French,  ami  in  1C30  it 
lost  8000  of  its  citizens  by  the  plague.  The  French  were  mastcn 
once  more  from  1G40  to  170C,  and  again  from  1798  till  1S14.  when 
the  Sardinian  states  were  restored  to  the  house  of  Savoy.  Ketwccn 
1359  and  1S65  Turin  was  the  eapiul  of  united  Italy  Among  the 
many  men  of  mark  born  in  Tin  in  it  is  enough  to  mention  Lagrange, 
Gioberti,  Cosare  lialbo,  Cavour,  .Marochctii  the  sculptor,  D'Azegli«^ 
auU  Somnicllicr. 


631 


TURKESTAN 


Memirg  rpHE  terms  "Turkestan"  and  "Central  ^Vsia"  are  often 
of  term  J_  used  indiscriminately  to  describe  the  whole  of  the 
^^  immense  territory  to  the  east  of  the  Caspian,  comprised 
between  Siberia  on  the  north  and  Khorasan  (Persia), 
Afghanistan,  and  Tibet  on  the  south,  or  to  designate 
separate,  sometimes  arbitrarily  determined,  parts  of  the 
same  region.  In  the  beginning  of  the  19lh  century  the 
whole  of  the  territory  just  named,  with  its  great  variety 
of  altitudes,  climate,  inhabitants — these  last  dilTcring  as 
much  in  their  history  as  in  their  present  characteristics — • 
was  comprised  under  tho  vague  denomination  of  High 
Tartary,  or  High  or  Interior  Asix  After  the  appearance 
of  Humboldts  first  draft  oi  Asie  Cfritiale  in  1831,  the  term 
"Central  Asia  "came  into  favour.  But  Humlioldl's  limits 
of  Central  Asia  were  too  mathematical  (from  391°  to 491° 
N.  lat.),  and  were  further  unsatisfactory  because  inBuenced 
by  his  erroneous  conception  of  the  mountains  of  Central 
Asia,  which  he  supposed  to  run  either  along  parallels  or 
along  meridians.  Richlhofen  made  an  attcm['t  to  limit 
the  sense  of  the  term,  proix)sing  to  apply  it  only  to  that 
region — embracing  the  Tarim  drainage  area  and  the  Gobi 
— which  has  no  outlet  either  towards  the  ocean  or  to 
the  Sea  of  ^Vral  and  Lake  Balkash  (Balkhash),  and  which 
constitutes  the  Hang-hai  of  the  Chinese  and  the  supposed 
bed  of  the  Tertiary  Asiatic  Mediterranean.  But  this  ter- 
minology, besides  the  drawback  of  including  within  Cmtral 
Asia  the  steppes  of  the  Gobi  as  far  east  as  Transbaikalia 
and  the  Great  Khingan,  notwithstanding  the  broad  difTer- 
ences  by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  the  drainage 
area  of  the  Tarim,  was  open  to  another  objection,  which 
has  been  pointed  out  in  M.  MusliketofTs  TurkcMan.  It 
excluded  from  Central  Asia  Turkestan  ]iropcr,  which  never- 
theless has  had  the  same  recent  geological  history  as  the 
Tarim  region,  and  therefore  Las  so  many  features  in  com- 
mon with  it  as  regards  soil,  climate,  flora,  fauna,  popula- 
tion, and  even  civil  history.  On  the  other  hand,  if  Central 
or  Interior  Asia  were  to  include  West  Turkestan,  and  its 
limits  to  be  determined  by  those  of  the  drainage-areas 
which  have  no  outlet  to  the  oce«n.  the  basins  of  the  Volga 
and  UraL — that  is,  territories  purely  European  in  charac- 
ter,— would  have  to  be  comjiriscd  under  the  same  denomi- 
nation. The  fact  is  that  in  Asia,  as  so- often  elsewhere, 
hydrographical  considerations  alone  furnish  no  sound  basis 
for  geographical  delimitations,  and  that  these  last  must 
result  from  a  complicated  variety  of  considerations,  chiefly 
orographieal,  inasmuch  as  orographical  are  indicative  of 
other  physical  characters,  such  as  geology,  climate,  flora, 
-  fauna,  and  so  on.  Such  were  the  views  of  liittcr  and  Hum- 
boldt, and  we  are  now  brought  back  to  their  conceptions, 
but  corrected  into  accordance  with  imjirovcd  knowledge  of 
the  Asiatic  continent.  The  name  Central  Asia  can  still  be 
used  with  great  advantage  to  designate  that  immense  por- 
tion of  the  continent  to  the  east  of  the  Casjjian  and  the 
Ust-Urt  plateau  which  is  limited  on  the  north  by  the  im- 
portant climatic  and  geo-botanic  boundary  of  the  Irtish 
and  Aral  water-parting  and  the  Great  or  Ektagh  Altai,  on 
the  east  by  the  eastern  Gfibi,  ar.d  on  the  south  by  the 
northern  border  of  the  Khor  plateau  (.Attyn-Tagh  and 
Kuen-Lun),  the  Hindu- Ku.-^h,  and  the  Kopet-Dagh.  Ex- 
tensive as  it  is,  this  territory  hx^  its  own  climatic  and  gco- 
botanic  features  ;  it  forms  a  distinct  part  of  the  continent, 
when  the  orography  of  Asia  is  broadly  viewed  ;  and  its 
inhabitant-s  have  a  number  of  common  characteristics  re- 
sulting directly  from  the  physical  features  of  the  territory. 
But  this  immense  area  must  be  subdivided  ;  and  its  sub- 
divisions become  apparent  as  soon  as  the  orographical 
features  are  grasped. 


Two  great  plateaus  constitute  the  two  backbones,  as  itCreai 
were,  of  the  orographical  structure  of  Asia, — that  of  east-  Asmtk 
ern  Asia,  an  immense  triangle  stretching  n9rth-castwards,  l''^'^"* 
having  the  Himalayas  for  its  base  and  'he  j-"->insula  of 
the  Tchuktchis  for  its  apex;  and  that  of  wcotorn  Asia, 
which  extends  at  right  angles  to  the  above,  from  the  lower 
Indus  to  the  Black  Sea.     The  Hindu-Kush  connects  these 
two  massive  swellings,  both  continents  of  the  oldest  forma- 
tion in  Asia.     Both  are  fringed  on  their  northern  edges 
by  lofty  chains  of  mountains.     The  Tian-Shan,  the  Altai 
tho  Sayan,  and  the  Vitim  Mountains  rise  in  a  long  succes 
sion  on  the  borders  of  the  former,  while  a  series  of  chains, 
which   might  be  described   under   the  general   name  oi 
Kopet-Dagh,  continued  into  the  Traijscaucasian  chains, 
rise  on  the  north-eastern  edge  of  the  western  plateau. 

An  immense  trapezoidal  depression  occupies  the  angle  West 
on  the  west  where  the  great  plateaus  meet,  and  this  de-  Turb- 
pression  is  West  Turkestan.  Its  south-eastern  limits  are^'*"' 
the  Ilindu-Kush  and  the  Tian-Shan;  on  its  south-western 
edge  it  has  the  Irania^i  plateau ;  and  its  north-west  and 
north-east  boundaries  correspond  with  the  edge  of  the  Ust 
Urtand  the  Irtish  and  Aral  water-parting,  which  separates 
it  from  Siberia.  The  trapezium  is  1100  miles  long  from 
south-west  to  north-<aist,  and  900  miles  wide  from  south- 
cast  to  north-west.  It  thus  includes,  not  only  the  depres- 
sion at  the  junction  of  the  two  plateaus,  but  also  the  girdle 
of  alpine  tracts  which  fringes  them,  and  in  whose  deep 
and  sheltered  valleys  the  Turkish  and  partly  Iranian  popu- 
lation of  Turkestan  find  a  fertile  soil  and  plenty  of  water 
for  their  fields,  while  their  herds  graze  on  the  rich  alpine 
meadows  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Tian-Shan.  Not  oro- 
graphically  only  but  also  in  respect  of  its  recent  geological 
past,  its  climate,  flora,  fauna,  and  inhabitants,  this  region 
forms  a" geographical  domain  by  itself,  quite  distinct  from 
the  ste[)i)es  of  south-eastern  Russia,  the  prairies  of  Siberia, 
and  the  two  great  plateaus  by  which  it  is  inclosed ;  and, 
although  it  is  easily  subdivided  into  two  parts — tho  dry 
lowlands  of  the  Transcaspian  depression  and  the  plains 
and  highlands  of  Turkestan  proper — it  presents  one  geo- 
graphical whole  when  contrasted  with  the  surrounding 
regions.  Some  doubt  may  arise  as  to  the  propriety  of 
including  in  it. the  plateau  of  Pamir;  but  its  flora  and 
fauna  are  so  closely  connected  with  those  of  the  Tian-Shan 
that,  although  better  treated  as  a  sejarate  sub-region,  like 
the  Transcaspian  Turcoman  steppes,  it  cannot  be  separated 
from  the  above.  For  the  orographer,  the  "  Roof  of  the 
World  "  is  merely  a  succession  of  the  wide  si/rls  or  alpine 
])latcaus  that  are  characteristic  of  the  Tian-Shan.  Most 
of  this  territory  has  within  recent  years  been  annexed  to 
the  Russian  empire.  Bokhara,  with  its  vassal  khanates  in 
the  gorges  of  the  Pamir  slopes,  and  Khiva,  although  they 
are  still  described  as  independent,  are  in  reality  rapidly 
becoming  dependencies  of  Russia,  and  the  railway  from 
the  Caspian,  which  is  about  to  connect  Merv  with  Samar- 
kand, will  complete  the  annexation  of  Bokhara.  West 
Turkestan,  therefore,  is  often  called  Russian  Turkestan,  as 
distinguished  from  Chinese  or  East  Turkestan. 

This  second  great  region  of  Central  .^sia  also  has  well-  East 
defined  limits.  A  glance  at  any  recent  map  shows  that  T"^ 
there  is  in  the  great  eastern  plateau  a  depression  bordered 
by  the  deep  slopes  of  the  Pamir  (Humboldt's  Bolor)  ou 
the  W.,  the  border-ridges  of  Tibet  (Kucn-Lun  <«d  .\ttyD- 
Tagh)  on  the  S.,  the  eastern  Tian-.?han  on  the  N..  and  the 
we-^tern  Gobi  on  the  E  '     Although  we  call  it  a  <^epression, 

*  In  the  map  (u^sued  October  18S7)  etiibodyiog  the  rtsulLs  of  lYje- 
valiky's  fourtli  journey,  East  Turkestan  is  pL-unly  demarcateil  from  Uie  ' 
Gobi.     Tliis  last  falls  by  a  steep  slope  towards  the  Tarim  depressiop 


632 


TURKESTAN 


(west 


betause  it  Is  much  lower  than  the  surrounding  plateaus, 
it  is  itself  a  ))latcau,  ranging  from  3C00  to  4000  feet  above 
tea-level.  This  depression — tlie  Hang-hai  of  the  Chinese, 
which,  during  the  later  Tertiary  and  earlier  Quaternary 
period,  was  covered  by  a  sea,  of  which  a  very  small  sur- 
vival still  exists  in  Lob-Nor — is  now  drained  by  the  Tarim. 
Its  deserts,  in  which  human  settlements  are  now  very  rare, 
though  formerly  the  population  was  much  denser,  have 
been  described  under  a  variety  of  names  (Little  Bokhara, 
AJty-shar  or  Jity-shar,  Kashgaria,  and  so  on);  but  the  name 
•Ct  East  Turkestan  has  prevailed,  and  there  is  no  reason  for 
Abandoning  it,  proWded  it  is  not  confounded  with  DzuN 
Oaria  (i-v.)  in  the  north  and  the  great  Desert  of  Gobi  in 
the  east.  Dzungaria  is  a  deep  trencU  leading  from  the 
lowlands  to  the  central  plateau,  and  has  special  pliysical 


Oeneral 

Physical 
catures, 


features  and  a  history  of  its  own.  The  Mongolian  Gobi, 
on  the  other  han,d,  owing  to  its  position  on  the  lowci 
terrace  of  the  plateau  of  eastern  Asia,  must  be  regarded 
as  a  separate  unity.  In  fact,  it  appears  to  be  more  closet^ 
connected  with  the  plateau  of  the  Selenga  on  the  north 
and  that  of  Ordos  on  the  south  than  with  East  Turkestan ; 
and  it,  too,  has  its  own  physical  features,  its  own  inhabit- 
ants, and  its  own  history. 

The  expression  Central  Asia  thus  includes  the  following 
countries.  (A)  West  Turkestan,  comprising  the  Tian-Slian 
highlands,  the  Balkash  plains,  and  the  Aral-Caspian  low- 
lands, politically  divided  into  Russian  Turkestan  (the 
general-governorship  of  Turkestan  and  the  Aral-Caspian 
slope  of  Turgai  and  Akmolinsk),  the  Chinese  oasis  of  Kulja 
(Kuldja),  the  Transcaspian  region,  Khiva,  Bokhara  and 


Map  of  t^t  auJ 

its  va-ssal  khanates,  and  parts  of  Afghan  Turkestan.  (B) 
East  Turkestan,  comprising  the  Tarim  region  as  far  cast 
as  Lob-Nor.  (C)  Dzungaria,  limited  on  the  north-east  by 
the  Tarbagatai,  Altai-Nauru,  Irdyn-ula,  and  Artsa-bogdo 
Mountains. 

West  Tctrkestan 

As  comprised  within  the  above  limits.  West  Turkestan 

has   an   area  of   nearly   1,080,000  square   miles,   and   a 

population  of  nearly  8,500,000.^     It  presents  a  very  great 

variety  of  aspects,  including  the  lonely  [ilateau  of  Pamir, 

ftrliich  iiritTows  to  Ihe  ea-st  of  Lob-Nor  auj  terniiualci  alx)ut  Aii-si. 
60lnc  4S00  feel  above  sca-lcvcl. 

•  See  also  Ibe  following  maps  :— IIimalaTa,  vol.  xL  PI.  XVI.; 
SiSFRiA,  vol.  »xii.  PI.  I.;  an.l  Tiurr,  HI.  IV.  above. 

*  Separate  porlioiis  of  it  are  dcv;nbcd  umkr  AreHiNISTAN,  BoK- 
I1*BA,  KlIIV.l,  OSIS,  Svtl-DiRlA,  Semipalatinsk,  Semiryetchbksk, 
tTBANscAsriAN  Reuiox,  ZeRaKSUA!). 


West  Turkestan.' 


in  height  second  only  to  that  of  Tibet ,  the  immense  com- 
plex of  alpine  tracts  described  under  the  general  name  of 
Tian-Shan  (three  times  as  long  as  the  Alps  of  Europe),  which 
lift  their  snow-clad  peaks  four  and  nearly  five  miles  above 
the  sea,  and  feed  huge  glaciers,  while  their  deep  valleys 
and  gorges  partake  of  almost  every  variety  of  climate  and 
vegetation  ;  rich  prairies  and  s^ill  wider  lowlands  descend- 
ing below  the  level  of  the  ocean ;  and  deserts  where  the 
winds,  burning  hot  or  icy,  but  always  dry,  have  free  scope 
to  modify  the  surface,  which  is  bare  of  vegetation. 

Nevertheless  West  Turkestan  is  sharply  divided  into  two  Iligblan.! 
p^rts, — the  highlands  in  the  south-east  and  the  plains  and  f**"" 
deserts  in  the  north-west.  The  former  cover  an  area  nearly 
1000  miles  long  by  270  broad,  of  which  the  northern  parts 
are  described  under  the  general  name  of  Tian-Shan  (pro- 
perly, T'ban-Shaii).  Their  distinctive  feature  is  that,  like 
the  highlands  of  Siberia,  they  constitute  a  high  border- 


W«ST.] 


TURKESTAN 


633 


ridge,  running  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E.  on  the  edge  of  the  great 
plateau  of  eastern  Asia.  This  plateau  is  fringed  on  its 
outer  side  by  a  complex  of  shorter  ranges,  which  mostly 
run  parallel  to  the  border-ridges  and  send  off  a  series  of 
isolated  chains,  due  to  a  later  system  of  upheaval,  through 
the  plains  and  steppes  in  a  north-western  direction.  Down 
to  the  middle  of  the  1 9th  century  these  highlands  were 
almost  absolutely  unknown,  and  the  orography  of  Central 
Asia  as  shown  on  our  maps  was  quite  hj-pothetical.  Numer- 
ous surveys  by  Russian  and  British  ejiplorers  have,  how- 
ever,  recently  disclosed  the  real  structure  of  those  regions ; 
and  it  has  now  become  possible  to  discriminate  the  leading 
features  of  the  orographical  conformation  of  the  country. 
The  Hindu-Kush,  with  its  snow-clad  summits  of  18,000 
and  20,000  feet,  limits  the  highlands  of  Turkestan  to  the 
south-east.  It  appears  now  to  be  settled  that  this  ridge 
runs  from  north-east  to  south-west,  as  far  at  least  as  the 
latitude  of  Cabul,  and  possibly  still  farther  south ;  and 
the  last  Russian  surveys  of  the  Pamir  show  that  it  extends 
north-east  as  far  as  Tash-Kurgan  (37°  45'  N.  lat.,  75°  E. 
long.).  At  the  foot  of  its  northwestern  slope  it  has  the 
Pimir  plateau  of  Pamir — the  "Roof  of  the  World," — with  an  area 
pUteitt  of  about  37,000  square  miles.  A  series  of  chains,  gently 
sloping  and  dome-shaped,  rising  4000  or  5000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  plateau,  traverse  it  from  south-west  to 
north-east,  with  a  remarkable  parallelism,  dividing  it  into 
a  series  of  broad  parallel  flat-bottomed  grooves  or  valleys, 
which  do  not  sink  below  10,000,  and  sometimes  14,000, 
feet  above  sea-level.  Thus  the  features  of  the  lower  plateaus 
of  north-eastern  Asia  reappear  here  on  a  greater  scale,  hav- 
ing the  same  characters  and  the  same  direction  in  the 
plaitings  of  the  earth's  crust. 

Nearly  150  miles  to  the  north-west  of  the  Hindu-Kush 
lies  the  north-western  border  of  the  Pamir,  fringed  by  the 
lofty  Trans-Atai  Mountains.  Their  crest,  covered  with 
snow,  rises  nearly  4  miles  above  the  sea  (Kaufmann  Peak 
23,000  feet) ;  but  the  traveller  approaching  them  from 
the  south  would  hardly  guess  their  height,  because  their 
southern  slope  towards  the  wildernesses  of  the  plateau, 
themselves  13,000  feet  high,  is  very  gentle.  The  great 
elevation  of  the  border-chain  is  only  realized  when  it  is 
seen  from  the  Atai  valley  on  the  north,  where  its  steep  and 
deeply  furrowed  sides  tower  up  like  a  dark  wall,  from 
11,000  to  14,000  feet  high,  above  the  high  and  broad  valley 
of  the  Kizil-su.  The  geological  structure  of  the  Atai 
ralley  must  not  be  inferred  from  its  orographical  features, 
otherwise  we  should  describe  it  as  longitudinal.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Kizil-su,  which  flows  towards  the  west- 
south-west  and  joins  the  Amu-Daria  under  the  name  of 
Vaksh  (or  Wakhsh).  On  the  north  it  has  the  lofty  Atai- 
.  Tagb  range,  also  partially  snow-clad.  On  our  best  maps 
the  Trans-Afai  Mountains  are  figured  as  an  isolated  range, 
some  120  miles  in  length;  and  it  cannot  yet  be  affirmed 
with  certainty  which  chains  of  the  Tian-Shan,  possessing 
the  same  border-ridge  characters,  ought  to  be  considered  as 
its continiations.  Further  research  is  needed  to  determine 
whether  it  is  continued  south-west  by  the  Darvaz,  or  Lahor, 
Mountains,  where  the  group  of  lofty  Seltau  peaks  feed  the 
extensive  Fedtchenko  glacier,  or  by  the  Hoja-Mahomet 
chain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Amu-Daria.i  Thus  the  real 
north-western  limits  of  the  Pamir  are  still  unsettled. 
As  for  the  north-eastern  continuations  of  the  Trans-Atai, 
the  present  writer  is  inclined  to  trace  them,  not  ia  the 
Kokshat-tau,  but  in  the  Terskei  Ala-tau  and  the  high 
mountains  of  Sary-yassy,  where  the  Khan-Tengri  lifts  its 
snow-clad  granitic  cap  24,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is 
surrounded  By  numerous  vast  glaciers  (SemenoS's  and 
Mushketoffs  Muz-art).  It  would  thus  separate,  broadly 
speaking,  the  drainage  area  of  the  Tarim  from  those  of 
SeeO.  Grum-Grzimailo,  in  Imeslia  of  Russ.  Geog.  Soc,  TOl.nii.,1886. 
23-  -ii* 


Lake  Balkash  and  the  Sea  of  Aral.     Thus  the  border-ridge  * 

of  the  Central  Asian  plateau  would  have  a  length  of  more 
than  1000  miles  from  the  Amu  to  Kulja,  and  the  valleys  of 
the  upper  Naryn  and  Tekkes  would  therefore  be  homologous 
with  that  of  the  Atai. 

A  girdle  of  alpine  tracts,  from  150  to  ISO  miles  in  Alpine 
width,  which  fringes  the  outer  edge  of  the  Pamir  plateau,  'rao** 
consists  of  shorter  chains  running  parallel  to  the  border 
ridge  and  ranging  from  11,000  to  17,000  and  20,000  feet 
in  altitude.  They  are  separated  by  deep  valleys,  mostly 
with  three  separate  foldings  of  Azoic  rocks.  Some  of  these 
ranges  are  covered  with  perennial  snow  and  feed  great 
glaciers,  among  which  Schurovsky  and  Fedtchenko  glaciers 
around  the  lofty  Kok-su  group  are  especially  worthy  of 
mention.  These  subsidiary  chains  all  belong  to  the  oldest 
system  of  upheavals,  which  have  had  a  north-east  direction, 
and  which  at  four  different  places  are  modified  by  more 
modern  ones  having  a  north-western  direction.  In  lat.  47' 
N.  the  orographical  structure  becomes  more  complicated, 
the  alpine  region  being  pierced  by  the  broad  Dzungarian 
trench,  which  leads  from  the  lowlands  of  the  Irtish  to  the 
heights  of  the  Central  Asian  plateau.  A  high  ridge — the 
Tarbagatai — continued  in  the  Tchinghiz  (Jinghiz)  and 
Karkaraliosk  Mountains,  branches  off  north-westwards, 
separating  Turkestan  from  Siberia.  Further  east  the  Tian^ 
Shan  is  continued  on  our  maps  in  an  eastern  direction ;  but 
our  knowledge  of  it  still  remains  very  imperfect.- 

A  series  of  deep  depressions, — Balkh,  Ferghana,  Issyk-  Lacus. 
kul,  and  Kulja, — sinking  to  low  levels  amidst  the  Tian-Shan  t"°^ 
highlands  follow  one  another  in  a  north-east  direction.    That  -^^ 
of  Issyk-kul  is  occupied  by  the  lake  of  the  same  name  shan 
(5000  feet  above  the  sea),  while  the  second  and  fourth,  now 
desiccated,  are  lacustrine   basins.      A  great   number   of 
smaller  lacustrine  basins,  mostly  filled  with  Tertiary  con- 
glomerates, occur  higher  up  in  the  mountains.     For  tht 
orographer  and  the  geologist  they  are  homologous  with  those 
of  the  Altai  and  east  Siberia  (Bukhtarma,  Us,  Irkut,  Bar- 
guzin,  and  others).     The  rivers  that  issued  from  the  high 
alps  had  to  pierce  many  parallel  ridges  in  order  to  reach 
the  plains,  and  they- frequently  expanded  into  wide  lakes 
before  cleaving  through  the  chains  of  mountains  the  narrow 
and  deep  transverse  gorges  by  which  they  descended  to  the 
lower  terraces. 

Like  the  highlands  of  Siberia,  those  of  Turkestan  are  Lowland 
fringed  by  a  girdle  of  plains,  having  an  altitude  of  from  plaiaa 
1000  to  1500  feet,  and  these  again  are  skirted  by  an  im- 
mense lowland  area  reaching  only  400,  300,  and  150  feet, 
or  even  sinking  below  the  level  of  the  ocean.  These  plains 
and  lowlands  cover  nearly  650,000  square  miles.  Some 
geographers  divide  them  into  two  portions, — the  higher 
plains  of  the  Balkash  (the  AJa-kul  and  Balkash  drainage 
areas)  and  the  Aral-Caspian  depression,  which  occupies 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  whole  and  has  been  ably  described 
by  M.  Mushketoff  under  the  appropriate  name  of  Turanian 
basin, — the  Kara^tau  Mountains  being  considered  as  the 
dividing  line  between  the  two.  The  Balkash  plains,  more 
than  1000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  covered  %vith  clay,  with 
a  girdle  of  loess  at  their  foot,  are  well  watered  by  the  Hi 
and  other  feeders  of  Lake  Balkash  (see  Semirvetchensk) 
and  on  their  rich  prairies  are  the  homes  of  numerous 
Kirghiz.  In  the  south-west  the  clayey  soil  becomes 
saline.  There  is  the  Famine  steppe  (Bek-pak-data),  while 
in  the  Ak-kum  steppe,  which  surrounds  Lake  Kara-kul, 
large  areas  are  covered  with  sands,  partly  shifting.  A 
gulf  of  clayey  plains  penetrates  up  the  111  into  the'in- 


^  The  present  writer  is  inclined  to  consider  the  "  Eastern  Tian-Shan  " 
of  our  maps,  which  runs  east-south-east  to  Bagratch-kul,  as  a  separat* 
chain  belonging  to  the  more  modem  system  of  north-western  upheavala^ 
meeting  at  its  eastern  extremity  a  chain  which  trends  towards  the 
north-east. 

XXIII.  —  So 


634 


TURKESTAN 


[WBST. 


tion  of 

West 

Turk- 


terior  of  the  mountains,  and  iU  thick  layers  of  loess  form 
the  Kuija  oasis.  Another  gulf,  penetrating  much  more 
deeply  into  the  highlands  up  the  trench  occupied  by  Lakes 
Ebi-Nor  and  Ayar,  and  joining  the  trench  of  the  upper 
Irtish,  leads  by  an  imperceptible  gradient  up  to  the  plateau 
of  Central  Asia.  It  is  known  as  the  "  Dzungarian  Gate," 
and  a  gate  it  has  been  since  the  dawn  of  history  for  whole 
nations  of  nomads  who  have  migrated  from  the  rapidly 
desiccating  plateau  down  to  the  grassy  prairies  of  Siberia 
and  Russia.  The  plains  and  lowlands  of  the  Turanian 
basin  are  subdivided  by  a  line  drawn  from  north-east  to 
Bouth-west  along  a  slight  range  of  hills  running  from  the 
sources  of  the  Ishim  towards  the  south-east  corner  of  the 
Caspian  (Bujnurd  and  Elburz  edge  of  Khorasan).  This 
low  range,  which  most  probably  separated  the  lowlands  of 
the  Aral-Caspian  region  (submerged  during  the  Post-Plio- 
cene period)  from  the  higher  plains  which  had  emerged  by 
the  end  of  the  Tertiary  period,  now  divides  the  Transcas- 
pian  steppes  from  the  somewhat  different  higher  plains 
(see  Transcaspian  Region).  In  the  Turanian  basin  the 
contrast  between  desert  and  oasis  is  much  stronger  than 
in  the  Balkash  region.  Fertile 'soil,  or  rather  soil  which 
can  be  rendered  fertile  by  irrigation,  is  limited  to  a  narrow 
terrace  of  loess  along  the  foot  of  the  mountains  (see  Syr- 
Dabia),  and  is  surrounded  by  barren  deserts.  Even  where 
the  loess  spreads  over  terraces  at  some  distance  from  the 
mountains,  as  in  the  south-east  Transcsrpian  region,  it  can 
le  cultivated  only  when  irrigated.  The  dryness  of  the 
climate  is  excessive  :  rain  falls  only  where  the  hills  cause 
the  clouds  to  condense,  the  soil  elsewhere  being  moistened 
only  occasionally  by  a  fny  showers.  Two  rivers  only — 
the  Syr  and  the  Amu — succeed  in  crossing  the  desert  and 
reaching  the  Sea  of  Aral.  But  their  former  tributaries  no 
longer  run  their  full  course:  the  glacier-fed  Zerafshan  dries 
up  amidst  the  gardens  of  Bokhara  soon  after  emerging 
from  the  highlands ;  and  the  Tejen,  the  Murghab,  and  the 
Andkho  lose  themselves  amidst  the  fields  of  the  Turcomans. 
The  o;ily  tributaries  which  the  Amu  retains  are  those  which 
have  the  whole  of  their  course  in  the  highlands.  In  the 
north  such  formerly  important  tributaries  of  the  Syr-Daria 
as  the  Tchu,  with  its  subti*utary  the  Sary-su,  now  dry 
up  some  hundreds  of  miles  distant  from  the  main  stream. 
The  arid  desert  absorbsevery  drop  of  running  water  which 
reaches  its  borders. 

The  whole  area  is  now  undergoing  geological  changes  on 
a  vast  scale.  Rivers  have  changed  their  courses,  and  lakes 
their  outlines.  Far  away  from  their  present  shores  the 
geologist  finds  indubitable  traces  of  the  recent  presence 
of  the  lakes  in  the  shells  they  have  left  amidst  the  sands. 
Traces  of  former  rivers  and  channels,  which  were  the  main 
arteries  of  prosperous  regions  within  the  period  of  written 
history,  have  now  disappeared.  Of  the  highly  developed 
civilizations  which  grew  up  and  flourished  in  Bactriana, 
Bokhara,  and  Samarkand  the  last  traces  are  now  under- 
going rapid  obliteration  with  the  desiccation  of  the  rivets 
and  lakes.  The  great  "  Blue  Sea  "  of  CentraLAsia,  the  Sea 
of  "Aral,  which  at  a  recent  epoch  (Post-Glacial)  extended 
south-west  to  Sary-kamysh,  and  the  shells  of  which  are 
found  north  and  east  of  its  present  shores  from  50  to  200 
feet  above  its  present  level  (1G2  feet  above  the  ocean,  and 
24.')  above  the  Caspian),  now  occupies  but  a  small  portion 
of  its  former  extent.  It  covers  a  shallow  depression,  some 
23,000  sijuare  miles  in  area,  which  is  drying  up  with  as- 
tonishing rapidity,  so  that  the  process  of  desiccation  can 
be  shown  on  surveys  separated  only  by  intervals  of  ten 
years;  large  parts  of  it,  like  Gulf  Aibughir,  have' dried  up 
since  the  Russians  took  possession  of  its  shores.  Steamers 
regularly  ply  on  its  waters  and  ascend  both  its  tributaries. 
The  whole  country  is  dotted  with  lakes,  which  are  rapidly 
disappearing  under  the  hot  winds  of  the  deserts  j  and  the 


clayey  takyrs  of  the  steppes  give  evidence  of  thousands  of 
lakes  which  have  quite  recently  ceased  to  exist,  leaving 
beds  of  clay  kept  wet  by  the  condensed  moisture  of  winter 
and  the  few  rain-showers  of  early  spring. 

Like  the  highlands  of  eastern  Asia,  those  of  Turkestan  arc  mostly  GwlOgJ 
built  up  of  Azoic  gneisses  and  nictaniorphic  slates,  resting  upon 
granites,  syenites,  old^orthoclase  porphyries,  and  the  like.  Theso 
upheavals  date  from  the  remotest  geological  ages  ;  and  sin^e  tho 
Primary  epoch  a  triangular  continent  having  its  apex  turned  to- 
wards the  north-east,  as  Africa  and  America  have  theirs  [Ktinting 
southward,  rose  in  the  middle  of  what  now  constitutes  Asia.  It  is 
only  in  the  outer  foldings  of  the  highlands  that  Primary  fossiliferous 
deifoslts  arc  found, — Devonian,  Carboniferous,  and  Permo-Carbonic. 
Within  tliat  period  the  principal  valleys  were  excavated,  and  their 
lower  parts  liavc  been  filled  up  subsctiuently  with  .Furassic,  Creta 
ceous,  and  Tertiary  deposits.  One  of  the  most  striking  instances  of 
this  is  the  very  thick  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  deposits  which  cover 
the  bottom  of  tho  valley  of  the  Vaksh  (right  tribi-tary  of  the  Amu) 
and  are  continued  for  about  300  miles  to  the  north-east,  as  far  as 
the  Atai  valley, — probably  along  the  edge  of  the  Pamir  plateau. 
The  deposits  of  the  Secondary  perioU  have  not  maintained  their  hori- 
zontal position.  While  upheavals  having  a  north-eastern  strike 
continued  to  take  place  after  the  Carboniferous  epoch,*  another  series 
of  upheavals,  having  a  north-western  strike,  and  occasioned  by  the 
expansion  of  diabases,  dolerit«s,  melaphyres,  and  andcsites.  occurred 
later,  subsequently  at  least  to  the  close  of  the  Tertiary  period,  if  not 
also  before  it,  dislocating  fonner  chains  and  raising  rocks  to  the 
highest  levels  by  the  addition  of  new  upheavals  to  the  older  ones. 
Throughout  the  Triassic  and  Jurassic  periods  nearly  111  Turkestan 
remained  a  continent  indented  by  gulfs  and  lagoons  of  the  south 
European  Triassic  and  Jurassic  sea.  loimense  fresh-water  lakes, 
in  which  were  deposited  layers  of  plants  {now  yielding  coal),  filled 
up  the  de|>rcs3ions  of  the  country.  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  deposits 
occur  extensively  along  the  edge  of  the  highlands.  Upi»er  and 
Middle  Cretaceous,  containing  phosphates,  gyi>snm,  naphtha,  sul- ' 
phur,  and  alum,  attain  thicknesses  of  2000  and  5000  feet  in  Hissar. 
Representatives  of  all  the  Tertiary  .  /rmations  are  met  with  in  Turk* 
estau  ;  but,  whiJe  in  the  highlands  the  strata  are  coast -deposits, 
they  assume  an  open  sea  character  in  the  lowlands,  and  their  rich 
fossil  fauna  furnishes  evidence  of  the  grailual  shallowing  of  that  sea, 
until  at  last,  after  the  Sarmathian  period,  it  became  a  closed  Medi*  ^ 
ternincan.  During  the  Post-Pliocene  period  this  sea  broke  up  into 
several  jwirts,  united  by  narrow  straits.  The  connexion  of  Lake 
Balkash  with  the  Sea  of  Aral  can  hardly  be  doubteil  ;  but  this  por- 
tion of  the  great  sea  was  the  first  to  l>e  divided.  While  the  Sea  of 
Aral  remained  in  connexion  with  the  Caspian,  the  desiccation  of 
the  L.3ke  tJalka.sh  ba^in,  and  its  break-up  into  smaller  separate 
basins,  were  already  going  on.  The  Quaternary  epoch  is  repre* 
.seuted  by  vast  morainic  de[H>sits  in  the  valleys  of  the  Tian-Shan. 
About  Khan-Tengri  glaciers  descended  to  a  level  of  €800  feet  above 
the  sea,'  and  discliargcd  into  the  wide  open  valleys  or  syrts.  It  \a- 
most  probable  that,  when  allowance  has  been  made  for  the  oblitera- 
tion of  glacial  markings,  aud  the  region  has  been  bettor  explored,  it 
will  appear  that  the  glaciatiou  of  Turkestan  was  on  a  scale  at  Ic.ist  as 
vast  as  that  of  the  Himalayas.  In  the  lowlands  the  Aral-Caspian  de- 
posits, which  it  is  difficult  to  separate  sharply  from  the  later  Tertiary, 
cover  the  whole  of  the  area.  They  contain  shells  of  molluscs  now 
inhabiting  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  in  their  petrographical  features  are 
exactly  like  those  of  the  lower  Volga.  Tlie  limits  of  the  Post- Pliocene 
Aral-Caspian  sea  have  not  yet  been  fully  traced.  It  extended  some 
200  miles  north  and  more  than  90  miles  east  of  the  present  Aral 
shores.  A  narrow  strait  connected  it  with  Lake  Balkash.  Tlie  Ust- ; 
Urt  plateau  and  the  Mugojar  Mountains  (sec  ToitoAi)  prevented  j 
it  from  s)'reading  north-westward,  and  a  narrow  chaimel  connected' 
it  along  the  Uzboi  (sec  p.  512  ^ijn-a)  with  the  Caspian,  which  sent 
a  broad  gulf  to  the  east,  spread  up  to  Volga,  and  was  connected  by 
the  Manytch  with  the  ISIack  Sea  basin.  (.Ireat  interest,  geological 
and  historical,  thus  attaches  to  the  recent  changes  undergone  by 
this  basin  ;  but  much  still  remains  to  be  done  before  the  numerous 
ouestions  arising  in  connexion  with  it  can  be  seltled.  Since  the 
tneory  of  geological  cataclysms  was  abandoned,  and  that  of  slow 
modifications  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  accepted,  new  data  have  been 
obtained  in  the  Aral-Caspian  region  to  show  that  the  rate  of  tTiodi- 
fication  after  the  close  of  the  Glacial  period,  although  stilt  very 
slow,  was  faster  than  had  been  supimscd  frnni  the  evidence  of  similar 
changes  now  going  on  in  Europe  and  America.  The  ellerts  ]iroiluccd 
by  desiccating  agencies  are  beyond  all  comparison  more  powerful 
than  those  which  result  from  the  earthquakes  that  are  so  frecpient  in 
Turkestan.  All  along  the  base  of  the  liighhinds,  from  Khojend  to 
Vycriiyi,  earthquakes  are  frequent  ;*  hut,  however  destructive  of 
life,  their  elTecLs  lie  beyond  the  scope  of  our  olisei  vntional  methods. 

'  Mushketoll's  Turkestan  (pp.35,  6817  seems  to  justify  this  cob. 
olusioD. 

'  See  I.  Ignatieff,  in  Izvatia  of  Russ.  Ceogr.  Soc.,  vol.  xxiii.,  1S87. 

'  For  a  list  of  them,  see  Izvcsltaoi  Riiss.  Gcogr.  Soc.,  vol.  xxiii.,  1887  J 
also  Orloff,  in  Mem.  of  Kazan  A'dturulists,  1873,  iii. 


WIST.] 


TURKESTAN 


635 


The  climate  of  West  Turkestan  is  exceedingly  dry  and  con* 
tineutal.  Although  the  country  is  comprised  within  the  lati- 
tudes of  Sicily  and  I^ODS,  it  has  a  south  Norwegian  January  and 
I  Persian  aiunmer.  Temperatures  of  more  than  100*"  Fahr.  in  the 
ihade  are  common,  and  the  heat  is  rendered  still  more  unbearable 
by  the  reflexion  from  a  soil  destitute  of  vegetation.  Thti  winter  is 
for  the  most  part  so  cold  that  the  average  t2mperature  of  January 
is  below  the  freezing  point,  and  even  reaches  0  Fahr.  Snow  falls 
lor  several  months  on  the  lower  Syr-Daria,  and,  wero  it  not  blown 
away  by  the  winds,  sledge-coramnnication  would  be  possible.  This 
river  is  frozen  for  an  average  of  123  days  every  year  in  its  lower 
p&rts,  and  nearly  100  days  at  Perovsk.  AtTashkend  there  is  snow 
during  two  months  ana  temperatures  of  -  10*  Fahr.  have  been 
measured.  In  1876,  on  24th  October,  almond-trees,  vines,  and 
cotton  crops  were  burieU  under  a  hea\'y  snowfall.  To  the  south  of 
Khojend  the  winter  becomes  more  clement.  Absence  of  rain  is 
the  distinctive  feature  of  the  climate.  Although  it  rains  and  snows 
heanly  on  the  ruountains,  only  11  inches  of  rain  and  snow  fall 
throughout  the  year  at  Tashkend,  at  the  base  of  the  highlands; 
ftnd  the  steppes  of  the  lower  Aniu  have  le^s  than  3  inches.  A  few 
•howers  are  all  that  fall  from  the  almotit  invariably  cloudless  sky 
tbove  the  Transc&spian  steppes.  The  following  table  will  illus- 
trate the  climate  of  Turkestan  :— - 


LaH- 
lude. 

Height 
in  fi-t'L 

Average  tcniperBture. 

BaiD  in 

inches. 

Ye»r. 

JaDuary 

July. 

AJtmclinsk     

SeiuipaUtliuk     

Ir^hiz        

IS-  37- 

45-  ty 

W  33' 
43'  61' 
4-2"  2T 

ii-sy 
41*  ly 

40-00' 
34-21' 

lOM 
6110 
300 
ICO 

-30 

2100 
215 
3i5 

HSO 
-70 

4120 

28- -8 
2T-0 
21- S 
45-5 
51-2 
43-7 
53-0 
65- -0 
5S-3 
59--8 
54-2 

0-0 
-0-7 

3-4 
10- (3 
25-0 
14-4 
19-4 

29-'0 
36-3 
21" -2 

69-2 

72- -5 
76-2 
78-0 
78-0 
76--5 
79-^ 

77-5 

83--2 
81-7 

92 
-■7 
61 

79 

2-9 
24 
11-3 

AleUDdrOTsk    

KuUa  

Nukus  

Petro  AJex:iDdrovst 

Tishkeod      

Ensnovolsk 

yarkana(EastTur.). . 

tSUi.  The  fauna  of  Turkestan  belongs  to  the  great  zoo-geographical 
doroain  of  northern  Asia,  ami  is  only  dilTcrentiateJ  by  the  presence 
of  species  which  have  ilisap(»carcJ  from  the  perii>lieric  parts  of  the 
Old  World  and  now  find  a  refuge  in  the  remotest  regions  of  th'e 
uninhabited  plateau.  From  tho  great  Palieoarctic  region  it  is 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  Himalayan  species.  The  distinct- 
ive animal  of  the  Pamir  plateau  is  the  magnificent  Ovis  poli  {con* 
jectuiod  to  be  the  ancestor  of  our  coramoa  shcci*).  mentioned  by 
Marco  Polo  and  rediscovered  by  Syevertsolf.  It  brccils  by  thousands 
M  the  Pamir,  climbing  the  highest  riilgcs,  which  it  prefers  to  the 
ralleys.  Tlie  region  to  which  it  is  coiitincd  has  the  shujic  of  an 
ellipse,  with  its  longer  a.vis  running  south-west  to  north-east  The 
auimal  is  rare  on  the  upjier  Xaryn,  and  never  penetrates  to  -the 
west  of  Sel-su.  In  the  alpine  tracts  of  the  Tian-Shan,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Pamir,  their  horns  and  skulls  are  frequently  met 
irith,  but  there  the  place  of  the  species  is  now  taken  by  Ovis  karelini. 
The  wild  horse,  which  occurred  in  Poland  a  few  centuries  ago,  has 
been  discovered  by  Prejevalsky  in  the  highlands  of  D^uiigaria  and 
described  as  Eqiius  prjrvalskii  by  PoIyakolT.  The  wild  camel  in- 
habits the  lonely  plateaus  south  of  the  Ala-Shan  ;  but  no  descrip- 
tion of  it  has  been  pvibhshed.  The  other  mammals  of  Turkestan 
are  mostly  those  which  are  met  with  elsewhere  in  north  Asia.  The 
large  light. coloured  Himalayan  bear  {Uryiis  isabcUinns)  has  its 
home  on  the  Pamir,  and  the  smaller,  strong,  wlutc-clawed  Lcnconyx 
up  to  the  highest  levels  on  the  Tian-SIian.  Antelopes,  Lcpiis 
lehmanni,  Lngomys  rutilus,  various  sjiecies  of  ArvUola^,  and  the 
Himalayan  long-tailed  marmot  [Arctcnnys  caudalic^),  the  most  char- 
acteristic inhabitant  of  the  alpine  mea»-lows,  are  the  only  mammals 
•f  the  Pamir  proper.  In  the  alpine  region  are  found  the  ba<lger 
\^flis  Inxtis),  the  ermine  {Fattorius  erminciis)  and  six  other  ^fus■ 
ielidx,  the  wild  dog  {Cani3  alpinus\  the  common  and  the  black- 
eared  fox  [C.  in^lanotis),  while  the  corsac  fox  {C.  corsac)  is  met  with 
only  on  the  plains.  Two  species  of  lynx,  the  cheetah  {Felis  jubata), 
Fdis  TTianut,  and  Felis  irbis,  this  last  extending  westwards  as  far 
■s  the  Pereian  Gulf  and  eastwards  as  far  as  the  river  Amur,  must 
be  added  to  the  above.  The  tiger  is  met  with  pnly  on  the 
lower  Amu-Daria,  except  w-hen  it  wanders  to  the  alpine  region  in 
pursuit  of  the  maral  deer  [Cervjts  vtaral).  The  jackal  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  steppes  ;  it  banishes  the  wolves  and  foxes.  Hares 
are  represented  by  several  species,  Lcyus  It:h>n/nini  being  the  most 
eharacteristia  lioth  the  common  and  the  long-tailed  marmot  (A. 
haibacini/s  and  A.  caudntns)  are  found  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
as  also  four  s[iecies  of  Spcrmophiliis,  three  of  voles,  two  of  the 
mouse,  and  three  of  the  hamster.  The  Akriones  (four  species)  and 
the  jerboa  (five  si>ecies)  arc  only  met  with  in  the  steppe  region. 
Of  ruminants,  besides  the  sheep  {0.  poli,  0.  karelini,  O  jiigrimoittana, 
O.  hiinsii),  we  find  one  mufTIon  (j^fusivton  vignci),  formerly  known 
only  in  the  Himalayas,  the  Chinese  antelope  (.-(WiVci^xi  suhgulturosa) 
and  the  saiga  anteloi>e  in  the  stepjies,  the  Siberian  ibex  ami  another 
goat,  the  yak,  the  zebu  or  Indian  ox,  the  common  ox,  the  camel, 


and  the  dromedary.  The  wild  boar  is  common  in  the  reed  thicket* 
along  tho  rivers  and  lakes,  where  it  sUys  during  the  winter, 
migrating  to  tho  highlands  in  summer.  The  hedgehog  and  porcu- 
pine are  common  in  the  plains. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  describe  in  a  few  words  the  avifauna. 
No  fewer  than  385  species  are  recorded,  most  of  them  being  middle- 
European  and  Mediterranean.  A  large  niimberwere  formerly  known 
only  in  the  Himalayas,  or  in  Persia,  while  others  have  their  origin 
in  cast  Asia.  The  commonest  are  mostly  European  acquaintances. 
As  for  the  very  rich  insect  fauna,  of  which  full  descriptions  are 
now  accessible,  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  among  the  Ltpidoptcra  of 
the  Pamir  there  is  an  interesting  mixture  of  Tian  Shan  with 
Himalayan  species.  M.  Crum-Griiraailo  found  on  the  Pamir  the 
Culias  luistis,  a  species  characteristic  of  Labrador  and  Lapland  ; 
like  the  alpine  plants  nluch  bear  witness  to  a  Glacial  period 
flora  in  the  Himalayas,  this  butterfly  is  a  survival  of  the  Glacial 
period  fauna  of  the  Pamir.' 

As  a  whole  the  flora  of  Turkestan  belongs  to  that  of  Central  Asia,  Flor* 
which  WAS  formerly  continued  by  geo  botanists  as  far  west- as  the 
steppes  of  Russia,  but  which  must  now  be  considered  as  a  sencrato 
region  subdivided  into  two,— the  Central  Asian  proper  and  that  of 
the  Gobi.  It  has  its  own  habitus,  notwithstanding  the  number 
of  species  it  has  in  common  with  Siberia  and  south-east  Rus.sia  on 
the  one  hand  and  with  the  Himalayas  on  the  other,  and  this  Imbitut 
is  due  to  the  <lryness  of  the  climate  and  the  consequent  change* 
undergone  by  the  soil  Towards  the  end  of  the  Glacial  period  the 
Tian-Shan  Mountains  had  a  flora  very  like  thatof  northern  Cauca.iiis, 
combining  the  characters  of  the  floras  of  the  European  Alps  and  the 
Altai,  while  the  prairies  had  a  flora  very  much  like  that  of  the 
south  Russian  steppes.  During  the  Stone  Age  the  human  inhabit- 
ants lived  in  forests  of  maple,  white  beech,  and  ajiple  trees.  Dut 
the  gradual  desiccation  of  the  country  resulted  in  the  immigration 
from  the  Central  Asian  plateau  of  such  species  as  could  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  dry  climate  and  sod,  in  the  disapi«arance  of  European 
and  Altaic  species  from  all  drier  parts  of  the  region,  in  the  survival 
of  steppe  species,  and  in  the  adaptation  of  many  of  the  existing 
species  to  the  needs  of  an  arid  and  extreme  climate  and  a  saline  soil!* 
At  present  the  flora  of  Turkestan  has  a  variety  of  characters,  depend- 
ing on  the  various  physical  aspects  of  the  separate  regions,  the 
Pamir  vegetation  and  that  of  the  Aral-Caspian  steppes  constituting 
two  types  with  numberless  intermediate  gradations. 

There  is  no  arboreal  vegetation  on  the  Pamir,  except  a  few 
willows  and  tamarisks  along  the  rivers.  Mountain  and  valley 
alike  are  covered  with  soft  carpets  of  grats,  various  species  of 
Fcsluca  predominating  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  In 
the  imme-iiate  vicinity  of  water  the  ryang  {Carex  physoidcs)  grows, 
and  a  few  patches  are  covered  with  Allium.  To  these  may  be 
added  a  few  Ranunculacese,  .some  Myosotis,  low  Scabiosx,  the  commob 
Taraxacum,  one  species  of  Cham&milla,  and  a  few  Lcguminosx.  In 
the  north  and  west  the  Stipa  of  the  Russian  steppes  supersedes 
Fesluca  and  afl'ords  splendid  pasture  for  the  herds  of  the  Kara- 
Kirghiz.  In  the  gorges  and  on  the  better-watered  slopes  of  the 
mountains  the  herbaceous  vegetation  becomes  decidedly  rich.  Be- 
sides the  above-named  there  are  many  other  Gramincei,  such  as 
the  beautiful  Lasiagroslis  spUndens,  and  whole  seas  of  Scabiosm. 
Eremurus,  of  a  variety  of  colours  and  6  to  7  feet  in  height,  forms 
thickets  along  with  the  tall  Seorodosma  falida.  The  northern 
slofies  of  the  Atai  chain  are  richer  in  trees.  Up  to  12,000  feet  full- 
grown  specimens  occur  of  the  arkha  (Junipcrus  psnuio- Sahina), 
characteristic  of  the  whole  northern  slopes  of  the  Turkestan  high- 
lands, the  poplar,  a  very  few  birches  (B.  Sogdiana).  and  a  rich 
ufidcrwood  of  shrubs  familiar  in  European  gardens,  such  as  Hhodo- 
denilron  chrysanthum,  Sortnis  auciiparia  {Tov:!in),  Berberis  hcteropoda 
(berberry),  Lvnicera  Tatarica  (honeysuckle),  and  Craleegns  (haw- 
thorn). Farther  cast  and  north  comes  the  Turkestan  pine  {Picea 
•^ic/ircnkiana),  while  at  lower  levels  there  grow  numerous  willows, 
black  and  white  poplars,  tamarisk,  large  Ccltis,  as  well  as  shrubs  of 
Elsagniis  (wild  olive),  Hippophng  rhan^ruyidcs  (sallow  thorn),  Bubui 
fnicticosus  (blackberry),  Pi-unus  spinosa  (blackthorn),  and  P,  Ar. 
mcniaca  (apricot).  The  characteristic  poplar,  popidiis  diversi/olia, 
which  does  not  scera  to  have  found  yet  the  shape  of  leaves  best 
suited  to  the  climate,  and  therefore  produces  thera  in  most  striking 
variety,  and  the  dwarf  Acer  Lobclii  —  very  different,  however,  from 
the  European  maple — also  occur. 

The  above  apidies  to  most  of  the  highlands  of  the  Tian-Shan. 
The  drier  soutliern  slopes  are  quite  devoid  of  arboreal  vegetation. 


1  For  ampler  infomution,  see  SycvertsofTs  "  Vertical  and  Horizontal  Distri- 
bvitioo  111  Turkestan  Animals."  in  ttvestta  of  the  Moscow  Soc.  of  Amateurs  o^ 
Nat.  Science.  1873;  Fedtchenko's  "Travels  t/i  Turkestan."  extending  over  18 
parts  of  vols,  xi.,  xix..  xxi.,  xiiv..and  xxvi.  of  the  same  Izvtstia,  and  forming  a 
series  I'f  monographs  Uy  specialists  which  ileal  with  seiiarate  divisions  of  tne 
jinim.il  and  vegeUiblc  kingdom  (the  flora  by  RegeH :  Oslianin's  ZooCeograi^iail 
PrnUenis  in  TnrkesMn,  Ta.shkend.  ISSO;  Grum-Grzimailo's  "  Flora  and  Fauna 
of  Pamir,"  in  hitstia  of  Russ.  Geogr.  Soc,  1SS6;  Works  o/  Iht  AralCaspian 
Exf^ttilion',  DutlerolT's  "Ornith.  of  Nukus,"  in  Mtm.  St  Petersh.  StK.  Sat.,  voL 
T.,  1879;  and  the  journeya  of  norschofT,  Selnenoff,  SyevertsofT,  Osten  Sacken 
(Scrfum  TUin-Shaiiiciim).  Kegel,  Frjevalsky.  ^nd  many  others.  C/.  also  for  tlie 
southern  parta  of  the  region  tieporct  of  the  Afghan  lioundary  Commission. 

3  See  M.  KrasQolTs  researches  in  Isotsiiaot  Russ.  Geogr.  Soc,  vol.  xxiii.,I8S7. 


636 


TURKESTAN 


[west. 


On  the  northern  slopes,  at  the  higher  levels,  only  the  Jumperu3 
imudoSabina  grows  on  the  mountains,  and  nch  meadow  grasses 
'«>^ertha  syrtj  Lower  do^-n,  at  about  7500  to  5000  feet  the  conifer 
lone  begins;  characterized  by  the  Piua  SchrenJdana,  which  famishes 
the  inhabiUnts  with  timber  and  fuel  Of  course  the  artcha  and  a 
few  other  deciduous  trees  also  occur.  The  ndiest  zone  is  that 
which  comes  next,  extending  downwards  to  5000  and  4500  feet. 
There  woods  of  birch,  several  species  of  poplar,  the  maple  [Arer 
StrTunoirii).  and  a  rich  underwood  spread  over  the  mountain  slopes. 
Orchards  of  apple  and  apricot  surround  the  villages.  The  meadows 
•re  covered  with  a  rich  vegeUtion,-numberless  bright  Paoma, 
Tariegated  Scabioss,  large  CmvolmUaaa,  aU  kinds  of  Campari u to, 
iark  coloured  ffrroiuru..,  splendid  PrTiiii/i/fra.yeUow-flowered  Gai- 
Uum.  a  mass  of  Rottuts,  Allhta,  Olycyrrhizs.  high  stemmed  Scororf. 
tsmnMida,  and  tall  arami7<^m.  But,  as  soon  as  the  soU  loses  its 
'*rtile  humus,  it  produces  only  a  few  of  Phlomis.  AUuifi  camelorum, 
fsammj!,  Salsolacea,  Artemisia.  Peganvm,  and  some  poppies  and 
Ikamomtllx,  but  only  in  the  spring.  The  invading  steppe  plants 
»ppear  everywhere  in  patches  in  the  TurkesUn  meaJows.  \  ery 
9ften  — almost  invariably  on  the  drier  southern  slopes  ot  tie 
aouiitains— the  steppe  vegetation  climbs  up  to  the  level  of  the 
ilpine  Nowhere,  perhaps,  is  the  effect  of  various  soils  — loess, 
oUy,  salt  clay,  and  sand— upon  vegetation  better  observable  than 
in  tho  recenlly-einerged  and  arid  regions  of  TurkesUn.        ... 

The  "culture"  or  "apricot"  zone  is  followed  by  the  prairie  belt, 
in  which  black  earth  plants  {Slijxi  and  the  like)  struggle  for  exist- 
ence against  iuvailing  Central  Asian  forms.  And  then  come  the 
lowlands  and  deserts  with  their  moving  sandy  barkkaits,  shors, 
and  latyrs  (see  TnANSCAsriAN  Reoios).  Two  species  of  poi.lar  (/". 
pruimsa  and  P.  divemifolia),  Elacnjnus  angusH/olia,  the  ash,  and 
a  few  willows  grow  along  the  rivers.  Large  areas  are  wholly 
destitute  of  vegetation,  and  after  crossing  100  miles  of  such  a 
desert  the  traveller  will  occasionally  come  upon  a  forest  of  saksaul 
[/Inabasis  Ammodcndron).  Contorted  stems,  sometimes  of  consider. 
able  thickness,  very  hard,  and  covered  with  a  grey  cracked  bark, 
rise  out  of  the  sand,  bearing  preen  plumes  of  thin  branches,  with 
small  gre)nsh  leaves  and  pink  fruit  Sometimes  the  tree  is  a  mere 
knot  peeping  above  the  sand  with  a  crown  of  tliiu  branches.  liut 
even  these  fantastic  growths  are  rapidly  being  destroyed  by  llic 
Kirghiz  herdsmen,  who  use  them  for  fuel.'  In  spring,  however, 
.  the  stf  ppe  assumes  quite  another  aspect,  being  covered,  except 
where  the  sands  are  shifting,  with  a  rich  vcgeUtion.  Persian 
species  penetrate  into  Bokhara  and  the  region  of  the  upper  Amu. 
Vege-  As  already  stated  (p.  635),  the  climate  of  TurkesUn  vanes  con- 

Ublcpro-sideraWy  from  north  to  sonth.  In  Akmoliiisk  and  Seraiiyctcheusk 
dncls  most  of  the  kinds  of  corn  which  characterize  Middle  Russia 
are  grown  South  of  the  Tchu  and  the  Syr  Dana  gardening  is  a 
considerable  industry  ;  an.l,  although  rje  and  wheat  continue  to 
be  the  chief  crops,  the  culture  of  the  apple,  and  esiiccially  of  the 
apricot  (urijiik),  acipiires  imporUncc.  AttempU  arc  also  made  to 
cultivate  the  line.  The  inhabiUnts  of  the  neighbouihood  of  Tash- 
kend  and  Samarkand,  as  well  as  those  of  the  niiicli  more  northern 
but  better  sheltered  Kulja  oasis,  add  the  cultivation  of  the  almond, 
pomegranate,  ami  fig.  Vines  are  grown  and  cotton  planted  in 
those°distncts.  Finally,  about  Khojend  and  in  Ferghana,  where 
the  climate  is  milder  still,  the  vine  and  the  pisUchio  tree  cover  the 
hills,  while  agriculture  and  horticulture  have  reached  a  high  degree 
of  perfection.  Successful  attempts  are  now  being  made  to  grow 
the  tea  plant  in  the  Transcaspian  region. 
ign  The  arable  land,  being  limited  to  the  irrigated  terraces  of  loess 

culture,    already  spoken  of,  occupies  less  than  a  fiftieth  of  the  whole  area  of 
West  Turkestan,  even  when  the  Transcaspian  deserts  are  left  out 
of  account       The  remainder  is  nearly  equally  divided    between 
pasture   land   and  desert  (sandy  steppe   and    barren    mountain). 
Owing  to  a  very  equitable  distribution  of  irrigation  water  in  accoid- 
»ncc  with  Moslem  law,  agriculture  and  gardening  have  reached  a 
high  stage  of  development  in  the  oases.    Two  crops  are  usually 
taken  every  year'      Wheat,   barley,    millet,  pease,  lentils,   rice. 
Borghum.  lucerne,  and  cotton  are  tiic  chief  agricultural  products. 
Carrots,   melons,  vegetable  marrows,  and  onions  are  extensively 
grown.      Rye  and  oats  arc  cultivated   in   Kazalinsk  and   Koiat. 
Corn  is  exported      Owing  to  the  irrigation,  total  failure  of  crops 
and  consequent  famines  are  unknown,  unless  among  the  Kirghiz 
ihepherds      The  kitchen  gardens  of  the  Mohammedans  are.  as  a 
nile.  admirably  kept       I'oUtoes  are  grown  only  by  the  Russians. 
The  cultivation   of  cotton  is  rapiilly  extending  (32,000  acres  in 
1886),    as    also   is  sericulture,    which    is    chiefly    canicd    on   in 
Ferghana,  whence  silk  cocoons  aie  an  important  item  of  export. 
Cattle  breeding  is  extensively  pursued,  and  in  Russian  Turkestan 
alone   recent  estimates  show  400.000  camels.    1.600.000   horses, 
1.200,000  catlle,  and  11,000.000  sheep.     This  last  figure,  however, 
is  but  a  very  rough  estimate.- the  flocks  on  the  Kirghiz  steppe 
being  so  large  that  the  proprietors  themselves  do  not  know  their 

1  Sf«01s«  F«.llrliniko  .nd  Tror.  Sor.ikines  drawings  ot  saksaulforcsls  ia 
,llti.ni  of  Vu<et  ft  R"u    Turktilnn  :  «lso  Bull.  Sk.  Hal   Afosc.  1834.  No.  1. 

>  S«t  MiJdendorrTs  very  valual.le  sketches  of  agncullur*  in  Fergbana  lo 
tltK.  Aad.  Sc.  o/£l  Ptlir,b„rfi,  ISSI. 


exact  numbers,  llunains  are  of  freTiUsnt  occnrrence  ;  a  recent  one 
resulted  in  a  terrible  famine  among  the  Kirghiz.  Live  cattle, 
hides,  wool,  camel-hair,  UUow,  felt,  and  leather  are  eiporUd  to  a 

considerable  extent.  .,      .,         _,  - ... _. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Turkestan  is  considerable.      Traces  of  MmeraU. 


Iadustl7 

and 

trade. 


The  mineral  weaiin  oi  iuniL'iL<iu  is  ..uua.vA^.ou.^-.  ••- —  -- 
a-uriferous  sands  have  been  discovered  at  many  places,  but  the  per- 
centage of  gold  is  too  poor  to  make  the  working  remunerative. 
Silver  lead,  and  iron  ores  occur  at  several  places  ;  but  the  want 
of  fuel  is  an  obstacle  to  their  exploitation.  The  vast  coal-beds  of 
Kulia  and  several  inferior  ones  in  Turkestan  are  not  yet  serionsly 
woiked,  the  total  yearly  output  being  only  some  120,000  cwls. 
The  naphtha  wells  of  Ferghana  and  the  layers  of  graphite  about 
Sairam-Nor  are  also  neglected.  There  are  abundant  deijosits  of 
CT-psum  alum,  kaolin,  marble,  and  similar  materials,  ^otwlth- 
ttauding  the  salt  springs  of  Ferghana  and  Syr-Dana,  the  salt  lakes 
of  the  regiou,  and  the  rock-salt  straU  of  the  Alciandrovsk 
MounUins,  salt  is  imjiorted-  ... 

TurkesUn  has  no  manufacturing  industry  carried  on  by  means 
of  machinery,  except  a  few  distilleries  and  two  establishments  for 
dressin"  raw  cotton.  But  there  is  a  gieal  variety  of  artisan  work, 
which  however,  has  been  for  some  time  declining  and  now  stands 
at  a  rather  low  level. =  Trade  is  very  actively  earned  on.  Its 
importance  may  be  judged  by  the  fact  that  in  1S76  27,900  camels 
were  used  for  the  transport  of  wares  to  Tashkend.  This  town  and 
Bokhara  are  the  chief  commercial  centres,  the  principal  articles  of 
export  to  "Russia,  via  Orenburg  and  Semipalatiusk.  being  raw  cottaii 
and  oilk*  cattle  and  their  producU.  while  manufactured  wares  arc 
imported  in  return.  There  is  also  an  import  and  export  hade  to 
and  from  Urumtchi  and  China,  via  Kulja  and  Ak-su. 

TurkesUn  has  been  the  theatre  of  so  many  migrations  and  con- 
quests that  its  present  (lopulation  could  not  fail  to  be  veiy  mixed, 
lloth  Aryans  and  Mongols  (especially  the  Ural  AlUic  branch)  have 
their  represenUtives  there,  the  former  settled  for  the  most  i>art, 
the  latter  chiefly  nomad.     The  Ural-Altaians,  or  Turanians,  are 
numerically  the  predominant  element,  and  consist  of  Turcomans, 
Kirghiz   Uzbegs,  and  Sarts.     The  Turcomans  inhabit  chiefly  that 
part  of'  TurkesUn  which  is  now  known   as  the  Thasscasnan 
Region  (<;.!'.).     They  number  less  than  one  million.     The  Kar<i- 
Kalpaks  ("  Black  Bouuets")  may  inimber  about  SC.OOO  in  Turke- 
sUn, and  some  300.000  in  tlio  Russian  empire  allogclhcr     Very 
little  is  known  of  their  history.      They  are  supjwscd  to  be  but 
recent  immigrants  to  Syr-Daria,  having  come  from   the  former 
Bulgarian   empire  on    the  middle    Volga.      Their  language  and 
habfts  are  the  same  as  those  of  tho  Kirghiz;  but  for  the  last 
century  and  a  half  they  have  had  some  acquaintance  with  agncul- 
tore      Their  pacific  temper  exposed    them    to   tho   raids  of  the 
Kirghiz,  who  compelled  tliera  first  to  settle  in  Dzungaria,  then  to 
chance  their  dwellings  several  times,  and  ultimately  (in  1742)  to 
recognize  the  sovereignty  ol  Russia.     Even  since  that  time  they 
have   been  driven  by   the   persecutions  of  their  old  enemies  to 
cross  the  Aral  Caspian  stcpiws  and  seek  refuge  near  Astrakhan. 
The  real  masters  of  the  steppes  and  highlands  of  TurkesUn  ar« 
the  Kirghiz,  of  whom  there  are  IwO  branches,— the  kazak  tossack) 
Kirghiz  and  the  Kara  (Black)  Kirghiz  or  Burut  (see  KiBcniz). 
The  Uzher^   who  played  a  predominant  political  i«rt  in  TurkesUn 
b"fore  the°ltussiau  conquest,  are  of  Turco  Tartar  ongin  and  speak 
a  pure  Jagatai  dialect ;  but  they  are  mixed  to  a  great  extent  with 
Persians,  Kirghiz,  and  Mongols.    They  are  subdivided  into  clans  and 
lead  a  semi  nomadic  life,  preserving  most  of  the  attractive  features 
of  their  Turkish  congeners-csiiccially  their  honesty  and  mdepend- 
ence      When  settled  they  are  mostly  designated  as  SarU-a  name 
which  has  reference  more  to  manner  of  life  than  to  anthropological 
classification,  although  a  much  stronger  admixture  of  Iranian  blood 
is  evident  in  the  Sails,  who  also  speak  rersian  at  Khojend  and 
Samaikand.     Tarantchi  or  Taranji  ("labourer   ,"■  ^f Ij'""*^'.'' 'u' 
name  given  to  those  Saris  who  were  settled  in  Ihe  kuija  region  by 
the  Clnnese  Government  after  the  ri^.ing  of  1758^     They  eonstituo 
about  two-fiftl.s  of  the  population  of  kulja.     After  dcfeatinp  the 
Dzungaus  in  the  year  1805.  they  to,.k  the  political  power  in  Ku  ia 
into  Their  own  bauds,  olfering  shelter  to  the  '^ "K'-J^  «''°  7f^« 
inroads  on  the  Russian  dominions.     This  was  made  a  F'^K^J't  f" 
the  annexation  of  Kulja  by  Russia  in  1871  ;    mt  it  l'»^  ^^n  ^  "/^ 
restored  lo  China.     The  o,  igin  of  the  P'""K-^"^'V°,'"r   f  valU  v 
Icmntical.      They  nnmhcr  nearly  20,000    =■."'''"''='•"  '.'.^"^J' 
of  the  111  in  Kulja  and  lartly  are  settled  in  Russian  TurkesUn. 
Thy  arc  Mohammedans,  'but  have  adopted  Chinese  ■">""-"  °-fe. 
Thi^longolian  branch  is  represented  in  Turkestan  Ip'!^'' "■''•''» 
and  Torgtutes  (Torgod)  in  the  noitli -east  and  m  kul  a    where 
Ihcy  are  mixed  with   Solons,  SiIkis,  and   Chinese.      Tl.c  Ar)aii 
Tajak  (see  Tajak),  the  aborigines  of  the   crl.le  ,«rts  "f  T"'W='n. 
were  subdued  by  the  Turco-Mongolian  invaders  and  I'-^'Hy  ^"^ 
pelled  to  emigra'te  to  the  mountains,  where  they  are  now  known 
is   Caltchas.      Th.y   constitute    the   intellectual   element   of   to 
country  and  are  the  principal  owner.-  of  the  irriga  ed  land, -tho 
Uzbeg.' being  their  hibourers.-nieichants.  and  inollahs  or  priesU 
They  are  Sunnite  V  ...,Mn^rM;^Tlie  olher  representatives  of  Aryan 
■    .  ■...  y.  Maycll  a  TurktUut  t-tAiWion  o/ im.  TislikcnJ.  1636. 


Ethno- 
graphy. 


XAST.] 


TURKESTAN 


637 


ncf  in  Turkestan  are  a  few  Persians,  mostly  liberated  slaree ; 
Indians,  who  carry  on  trade  and  usury  in  the  cities ;  a  few 
Gipsies';  and  the  Russians.  Among  these  last  two  distinct 
elements  must  be  noticed, — the  Cossacks,  who  are  settled  on  the 
borders  of  the  Kirghiz  steppe  and  have  assumed  many  Kirghiz 
features,'  arid  the  peasant-settlers  who  are  beginning  to  colonize 
the  valley  of  the  Hi  and  to  spread  farther  sonlh.  Exclusive  of  the 
military,  the  Russians  number  about  75.000,  nearly  two-thirds 
being  in  Semiryetchensk  (Cossacks  and  peasants). 
Cj-.u^  Turkestan  has  no  lack  of  populous  cities,  which,  notwithstanding 

recent  vicissitudes,  continue  to  be  important  for  their  trade,  while 
several  others  are  widely  famous  for  the  part  they  have  played  in 
history.      Khoka.nd,'  Makghilas,   Namangan,  and  Andijan  in 
Ferghana ;  Tasbke.sd  and  Khojend  in  Syr-Daria ;  Samarkand 
in  Zeraishan;  Bokraiu  and  Khiva  in  the  independent  khanates 
have  each  from  30,000  to  100,000  inhabitants. 
Gtounl        Populous  cities  adorned  with  fine  monuments  of  Arabian  archi- 
•ondi-       tecture,  numerous  ruins  of  cities  decayed,  grand  irrigation  canals 
tioa  of      now  l>-ing  dry,  and  written  monuments  of  A^rabian  literature  testify 
tba  to  a  time  when  civiliza  on  in  Turkestan  stood  at  a  much  higher 

csostry.  level  than  at  present.  This  period  was  during  the  first  centuries 
after  its  conversion  to  Islam.  Now  all  is  in  decay.  The  beautiful 
mosques  and  madrasas  are  dilapidated  ;  no  astronomers  watch  the 
sky  from  the  tops  of  their  minarets  ;  and  the  scholars  of  the 
madrasas  waste  their  time  on  the  most  deplorably  puerile  scholas- 
ticism. The  inspiration  of  early  belief  has  disappeared  ;  the  ruling 
motive  of  the  moll-ihs  (pries*s)  is  the  thirst  for  personal  enrichment, 
and  the  people  no  lonccr  follow  the  khojas  (see  p.  639  below).  The 
agricultural  labourer  has  preserved  the  uprightness,  diligence,  and 
sobriety  which  characterize  the  Turkish  peasant  in  Asia  as  well  as 
in  Europe ;  but  the  richer  inhabitants  of  the  cities  are  grossly 
sensual.  Centuries  of  wars,  followed  by  massacres  and  cruel 
vengeance,  ap  unceasing  civil  strife  between  parties  disputing  for 
supremacy  in  the  name  of  religion,  conspiracies,  appeals  to 
foreigner.,  and  endless  intrigues  have  hastened  the  decay  of 
Mohammedan  civilization  in  the  khanates  of  Turkestan  and  paved 
the  way  for  Russian  conquest. 
SIbcta  of  It  remains,  however,  an  open  question  whether  the  Russians  will 
Rnasian  be  able  to  bring  new  vigour  to  the  country  and  awaken  intellectual 
influence,  life.  They  have  failed  to  do  so  in  eastern  Russia,  at  Kazan,  and 
elsewhere,  where  both  civilizations — the  European  and  the  Asiatic 
— remain  as  thoroughly  estranged  from  one  another  as  they  were 
three  centuries  ago.  This  estrangement  is  not  merely  religious, 
but  social  and  economical.  The  followers  of  Islam,  whose  common 
law  and  religion  know  oaly  of  a  temporary  posses-sion  of  the  land, 
which  belongs  wholly  to  the  Prophet,  cannot  accept  the  principles 
of  unlimited  property  in  land  which  European  civilization  has 
borrowed  from  Roman  law  ;  to  'do  so  would  put  an  end  to  all 
public  irrigation  wc^ks,  and  to  the  system  by  which  water  is  used 
according  to  each  fa.nily's  needs,  anj  so  would  be  fatal  to  agricul- 
ture. "Nvhen  taking  possession  of  Turkestan,  the  Russians  began 
to  grant  deeds  establishing  property  rights  over  land  in  accordance 
with  Roman  law.  But  a  study  of  the  Mohammedan  system  soon 
put  an  end  to  so  erroneous  a  policy,  and  Mussulman  law  is  still 
respected.  The  Russians  have  abolished  slavery  in  Turkestan  ; 
ana  their  rule  has  put  an  end  to  the  interminable  intestine  struggles, 
which  had  weakened  and  desolated  the  wholi:  region.  The  barbar. 
ous  tortures  and  executions  which  rendered  Khiva  notorious  in  the 
East  are  no  longer  heard  of;  and  the  continual  appeals  of  the 
khojas  "for  "  holy"  war  against  their  rivals  find  no  response.  But 
the  Russian  rule  has  imposed  many  new  taxes,  in  return  for  which 
Turkestan  only  gets  troops  of  Russian  merchants  and  officials,  who, 
instead  of  becoming  the  exponents  of  what  is  best  in  European 
ci»-ilization,  too  often  accept  the  worst  features  of  the  depraved 
Mussulman  civilization  of  the  higher  classes  of  the  country.  New 
trib'inals  and  new  justices  of  the  peace  are  about  to  be  introduced 
(1887) ;  schools  are  being  diligently  spread  ;  but  the  wants  of  the 
natives  are  set  behind  those  of  the  children  of  the  Russian  officials 
and  merchants  and  the  supposed  necessities  of  Russification.  A 
consulting  hospital  for  Mohammedan  women  lias  recently  been 
opened  by  women  graduates  in  medicine  at  Tashkend. 

East  Txthkistan. 

Ai  already  stated,  by  this  name  we  designate  that  vast 
depression  in  the  great  plateau  of  eastern  Asia  which  lies 
between  the  Tian-Shan  Mountains  in  the  north-west ;  the 
steep  slopes  of  the  Pamir  and  of  the  Tibet  plateau, 
bordered  by  the  Kuen-Lun,  in  the  south-west  and  south  ; 
the  Attyn-Tagh  in  the  south-cast  as  far  as  Lake  Ix)b-Nor ; 
and  in  the  north-east  the  still  imperfectly  known  mountains 

'  See  CotUaim  of  Paptra  an  Turkutati,  St  Petersburg,  1876,  by 
MM.  Syevertsoff  and  Khoroshkin. 

'  Each  of  these  towns  is  small  capitals  is  described  is  a  sepr.nte 
utid^ 


Boimd' 
aries. 


which  run  east-south-east  from  the  Tian-Shan,  having  th« 
Bagratch-kul  on  their  northern  slope.^  Farther  east  tho 
Kuruk-Tagh  and  the  steep  slope  of  the  Gashuii  Gobi 
separate  East  Turkestan  from  the  higher  terrace  of  the 
plateau,  so  that  about  Lob-Nor  the  Tarim  depression  is 
narrowed  to  a  width  of  about  100  miles  ;  and  on  the  9Stb 
meridian,  at  Lake  TchLn-shen-ho,  the  steep  edge  of  the 
Gobi  meets  the  spurs  of  the  Nan-Shaii  Mountains.*  This 
region  has  been  and  still  is  designated  by  a  variety  ol 
names,  such  as  the  Tangut  Plain,  West  Gobi  (a  most  in- 
appropriate name,  as  already  pointed  out  by  Ritter),  Ally- 
shar  or  Jity-shar  (the  land  of  six  or  seven  cities),  Little 
Bokharia,  Kashgaria,  and  so  on.  In  its  physical  features 
it  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  Chinese  territories 
and  the  Aral-Caspian  depres.sion.  It  covers  about  465,000 
square  miles,  but  has  hardly  more  than  1,000,000  inhabit- 
ants. 

Although  lying  at  a  high  altitude  (Kashgar  4000  feet  Physic*) 
and  Yarkand  4120  feet),  it  has  the  character  of  a  depres-  f"'""* 
sion  in  comparison,  not  only  with  the  mountains,  but  also 
with  the  lofty  p'ateaus  which  surround  it, — Tibet,  Pamir, 
and  the  Tian-Shan  syrts.  It  has  a  general  slope  towards 
the  east,  and  its  lowest  portions  (formerly  occupied  by  » 
great  lacustrine  basin)  are  only  2600  feet  abone  the  sea.' 
At  its  north-east  edge,  i.e.,  at  the  foot  of  the  remotest 
offshoots  of  the  Tian-Shan,  M.  Prjevalsky  measured  an 
altitude  of  only  2600  feet.  Its  average  altitude  ranges 
from  3100  to  3700  feet,  increasing  to  4200  at  its  outer 
rim.  No  movintains  or  hills  diversify  its  surface,  which  is 
that  of  a  high  plain.  All  the  mountains  which  enclose  it 
rise  to  considerable  heights,  far  above  the  snow  line.  The 
steep  slopes  of  the  Pamir  culminate  in  Tagharma  Peak 
(25,360  feet).  In  the  north  the  snowclad  Kokshat-tau 
and  Kirghiznyn  Ala-tau  form  a  series  of  uninterrupted 
chains,  which  reach  a  height  of  24,000  feet  in  the  Khan- 
Tengri  and  have  at  their  southern  base  the  broad  and  high 
alpine  plateaus,  or  syris,  of  which  the  Yulduz,  dotted 
with  lakes,  has  acquired  historical  fame  as  the  meeting- 
place  of  the  armies  of  Timur  before  his  Dzungarian  marcL 
On  the  southern  borders  of  East  Turkestan,  in  the  Kuen- 
Lun  and  Karakorum  Mountains,  is  the  Dapsang — one  o/ 
the  highest  peaks  of  the  globe  ;  ^d  farther  east  the  Attyn- 
Tagh  and  the  Nan-Shaii  (with  Humboldt  and  Rittei 
ranges),  which  are  among  the  highest  moimtains  of  Asia, 
separate  it  from  the  lofty  Chaidam  or  Tsaidam  plateau.* 
East  Turkestan  is  thus  secluded  by  high  mountains  and 
plateaus  from  the  rest  of  the  continent  Even  the  few  Passes, 
passes  which  lead  to  it  climb  to  altitudes  of  14,000  feet. 
It  is  open  only  towards  the  east,  where  it  is  connected 
with  the  Gobi  depression.  Its  position  as  the  highway 
from  China  to  West  Turkestan  and  the  Dzungarian  empire 
has  made  it  known,  though  only  very  imperfectly  until 
lately,  through  Chinese  documents,  the  narratives  of  the 
journeys  of  Buddhist  missionaries,  and  the  travels  of 
Marco  Polo,  Bubruquis,  and  a  few  Jesuits.  From  a  remote 
antiquity  it  was  crossed  by  caravans  going  from  China  to 
Lake  Balkash,  Ferghana,  and  the  Oxus.  The  route,  after 
crossing  the  Gobi,  proceeded  either  to  the  Dzungarian 
Gate,  or,  via  Kashgar,  to  the  high  passes  of  Terek-Davan 
and  Muz-art,  which  led  to  Ferghana  and  Issyk-kul.  Both 
passes  have  a  wide  renown  in  Central  Asia,  the  latter 
especially,  on  account  of  its  difficulties,  one  of  which  is  a 

'  See  the  map  of  Asia,  by  A.  Petermann.  in  Stieler's  Uand- Allot, 
No,  58,  where  the  orography  of  Asia  is  represented,  in  the  present 
writer's  opinion,  in  a  more  trustworthy  manner  than  on  other  mops  of 
Asia. 

*  See  map  fb  Pijevalsky's  fourth  journey  is  Ttxstia  of  Russ.  (:«ogr 
Soc..  1887. 

°  Barometrically  observed,  the  possible  en  or  being  about  300  feet 

'  Prjevalsky,  Reisen  in  Tibtt  tind  am  obercn  Lau/t  da  Qdbak 
Flutsts,  Jena,  1884. 


638 


TURKESTAN 


[basx. 


huge  glacier,  which  has  to  be  ascended  with  the  help  of 
the  ice  axe. 
iver         One  river  only,  the  Tarim — now  lost  in  the  marshes  of 
•larim.    Lob-Nor — and  its  tributaries,  water  this  region.     It  is 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  several  rivers  flowing  from 
the  semicircle  of  mountains  which  fence  in  East  Turkestan 
on  the  south,  west,  and  north.     The  Kashgar-Daria  rises 
under  the  name  of  Kizil-su  on  the  Atai.     The  Yarkand- 
Daria  has  its  origin  in  a  high  valley  between  the  Kuen- 
Lun  and  Karakorum  Mountains,  at  the  base  of  Dapsang, 
from  several  streams,  such  as  the  auriferous  Zerafshan, 
which  is  fed  by  the  glaciers  of  the  Karakorum  pass ;  after 
piercing  the  Kuen-Lun,  it  enters  the  plain,  where  its  waters 
Ire  soon  diverted  to  the  fields  and  gardens  of  the  Yarkand 
oasis.     The  Khotan-Daria  rises  farther  east  in  the  same 
Talley,  and  also  pierces  the  Kuen-Lun,  its  two  branches — 
Ihe  Kara-kash  and  Urung-kash — being  renowned  for  their 
'"black"  and  "  white  "  jade.     This  river  only  reaches  the 
Tarim  during  the  summer.     The  Tian-Shan   Mountains 
jontain  the  sources  of  several  feeders  of  the  Tarim;  but 
jome  of  them  no  longer  reach  the  main  stream.      The 
Kizil-Kunghei  disappears  after  having  watered  Utch-Turfan 
(Uj-Turfan);   the  Ak-su  meets  the  Khotan-Daria  at  its 
junction   with   the  Tarim ;   but  the    Baidu-gol   and   the 
Kutcha  are  lost  in   Lakes  Baba-kul  and  Sary-kamysh. 
From  the  Yutduz  plateau  comes  the  Haidu-gol,  which 
flows  past  Kara-Shar  and  enters  the  Bagratch-kul  Lake, 
whence  it  issues  under  the  name  of  Kontcha-Daria,  and, 
crossing  the  east  of  East  Turkestan  from  north  to  south, 
joins  the  marshes  of  Lob-Nor ;  thus  the  long-doubted  con- 
nexion between  these  two  lakes  —  the  northern  and  the 
southern — really   exists.      The  Tarim   is   navigable    for 
Steamers  from  the  confluence  of  the  Yarkand  and  Kiotan 
Deserts,    fivers  all  the  way  to  Lob-Nor.'     These  rivers,  however, 
do  not  bring  life  to  the  immense  deserts,  the  aspect  of 
which  recalls  partly  the  Aral-Caspian  depression  and  partly 
the  Mongolian  Gobi.     Their  undulating  surface  is  covered 
with  a  gravelly  soil,  out  of  which  all  the  finer  particles  have 
been  winnowed  by  the  wind,  and  it  resounds  under  the 
hoofs  of  the  passing  hordes ;  grass  covers  it  only  in  the 
beginning  of  spring.     Here  and  there  occur  clayey  deposits 
with  an  efflorescence  of  saft,  which  is  hard  in  summer  but 
impassable  after  rains.    Then  come  immense  areas  of  loose 
sand,  which  is  raised  in  clouds  by  storms  of  wind,  and  the 
hills  of  which,  moving  on  like  waves,  invade  the  cultivated 
fields  that  have  been  conquered  by  laborious  efifort  from 
the  desert.     The  features  with  which  the  traveller  in  the 
Sahara,  or  on  the  plateau  of  eastern  Iran  about  Lake  Zareh 
(Hamun)  is  familiar,  are  here  reproduced  on   the  same 
large  scale.     The  Takla-makan  desert  north  of  Khotan 
covers  93,000  square  miles — an  area  nearly  equal  to  that 
of  Great  Britain.     As  one  approaches  Lob-Nor,  and  thus 
touches  upon  territory  that  has  emerged  at  a  still  more 
recent  epoch,  the  desert  becomes  still  drearier  and  still 
less  passable  on  account  of  the  shifting  sands.     Lob-Nor 
ftow  consists  of  two   basins  ;    but  the  largest  of  them, 
although  it  has  an  area  four  times  as  large  as  that  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  can  hardly  be  called  a  lake,  since  its 
greatest  depth  is  less  than  20  feet,  while  reeds  rise  20  feet 
above  the  thin  film  of  water  and  extend  far  beyond  its 
shores.     In  fact  the  whole  of  the  region,  notwithstanding 
its  considerable  altitude  above  the  ocean,  has  but  recently 
emerged  from  under  water.     During  the  later  portion  of 
the  Tertiary   period   it  was   covered   with   an   immense 
Mediterranean   sea,  and  even  during   the   Post-Pliocene 
period  was  occupied  by  a  lake.      But,  as  we  see  on  a 
smaller  scale  in  Finland  and  Sweden,  where  the  higher 

*  At  the  aftifiuence  the  Tarim  has  at  low  water  a  depth  of  3  to  5 
feet  and  a  width  of  190  yards  ;  towards  Lob-Nor  the  depth  uicreases 
to  11  feet  (PrjevaUky,  ia  Izvcttia  of  Rusa.  Geog.  Soc,  1887). 


lacustrine  depressions  are  more  advanced  in  the  process  of 
desiccation  than  those  situated  at  lower  levels,  so  in  Central 
Asia  the  more  elevated  Tarim  region  is  more  advanced  in 
its  desiccation  than  the  Balkash  basin,  and  this  latter 
again  is  in  a  more  advanced  s'age  of  the  same  process  than 
the  Aral-Caspian  depression.  The  desiccation  of  East 
Turkestan  must  have  gone  on,  however,  within  historical 
times  at  a  much  more  rapid  rate  than  geologists  seem  pre- 
pared to  admit.  East  Turkestan  has  not  always  been  the 
desert  it  now  is.  Many  cities,  in  which  Greek  and  Byzan- 
tine /^ins  have  been  found,  lie  buried  beneath  the  sands, 
and  in  one  of  these  Buddhist  statues  have  been  discovered. 
Indeed  it  is  very  probable  that  the  great  migration  of  the 
first  centuries  of  our  era  resulted  from  the  necessity  of 
abandoning  East  Turkestan. 

The  climate  Is  severe  :  a  colj  winter  follows  a  burning  summer.  C>is>a*B 
A  few  showers  slightly  moisten  the  surface  in  spring  ;  but  the  summer 
and  autumn  are  rainless.    The  air  is  continually  charged  with  dust, 
and  often  with  sand. 

The  vegetation  of  the  interior  of  East  Turkestan  is  very  poor,  F1af% 
being  the  same  as  that  of  the  steppes  of  West  Turkestan.  Oh  the 
sandy  hills  are  some  tamarisks  and  £lwajnus,  rapidly  being  used 
up  as  fuel  ;  along  the  livers  are  copses  of  poplars,  which  have  diflfi- 
culty  in  maintaining  tliemselves,  because  no  liumus  gathers  in  their 
shade,  the  dry  leaves  being  blown  away  by  the  storms  and  scattered 
as  dust  over  the  desert ;  and,  Anally,  along  the  old  beds  of  rivcra 
and  lakes  grow  dense  and  rank  beds  of  reeds,  wliere  the  wild  boar 
has  his  habitat.  Immense  areas  are  covered  with  Satsolaccx,  and 
the  gravelly  ground  is  clothed  in  spring  with  a  rich  carpet  of  grass. 
The  oases  possess  all  the  plants  which  are  cultivated  in  West 
Turkestan, — the  mulberry,  walnut,  pear,  apple,  apricot,  olive,  and  I 

vine.  Cotton,  rice,  maize,  millet,  and  wheat  are  grown  ;  and 
iMiddendorlTs'  remark,  that  on  tlie  edge  of  the  desert  we  6nd  the 
best  cultivated  fields  and  tlie  richest  gardens,  is  still  more  appli- 
cable to  the  oases  of  East  than  to  those  of  West  Turkestan.  But 
outside  the  oases  desolation  reigns.  *Wind  freely  modifies  the  sur- 
face, carrying  away  the  finest  particles  of  the  gravelly  soil,  breaking 
down  the  harkhans  as  soon  as  man  has  destroyed  the  vegetation 
which  grew  on  them,  and  lifting  the  sand  into  the  air  and  wliirling 
it  along  in  columns  of  the  most  fantastic  shapes. 

As  a  rule,  the  mammals  are  not  numerous,  and  the  fauna  closely  Pvub 
resembles  tliat  of  the  Tian  Shan.  It  seems  to  be  owing  to  the 
loneliness  of  its  deserts  that  East  Turkestan  lias  preserved  the  wild 
ancestors  of  our  domestic  animals.  Besiiles  the  w-ild  ass  {Equ.Ht 
honiontLs),  Prjevalsky  discovered  in  the  Dzungarian  steppes  the  wild 
horse — the  real  ancestor  of  our  domestic  hoisc — and  on  the  plateau 
of  Tsaidam  the  wild  camel  and  the  w-ild  yak.' 

Raw  cotton  and  silk  are  exported  to  a  considerable  amount ;  but  tttSatv 
of  manufactured  cottons  only  a  rough  maf/i  is  sent  to  Semiryetchensk  tries  a^ 
for  the  Kirghiz.     Some  silk  wares,  carpets,  and  silk  "grain"  arenxiiienb 
exported  from  Khotan,  leather ware  from  Yarkand,  polished  and 
copper  ware  from  Ak-su,  and  small  iron  ware  from  Kutcha.     Stock- 
breeding  is  of  p.iramount  importance,  and  cattle,  asses,  camels,  and 
sheep  are  reared  in  considerable  numbers.     Jlineral  resources  ar« 
not  wanting,  but  the  mining  industry  is  in  a  primitive  condition. 
Gold  is  obtained  from  alluvial  deposits  at  Kiri-,  coal  at  Kaiihgar, 
jade  in  Khot.in,  and  sulphur  and  saltpetre  at  Utch-Tuifaii. 

It  is  only  along  the  base  of  the  mountains,  where  there  is  a  fringe  Oun 
of  loess,  and  where  streams  bring  the  necessary  moisture,  that 
human  settlements  have  sprung  up,  or  rather  maintained  them- 
selves until  now.  The  scries  of  oases  skirts  the  base  of  the  Tian- 
Shan  and  the  Kuen-Lun.  Kashgar  stands  at  the  apex  of  the  angls 
made  by  those  two  ranges,  while  Yanghihissar,  Yarkand,  Khotan, 
and  Kiria  lie  along  the  Kuen-Lun,  and  Utch-Turfan,  Ak  su,  Bai, 
Kutcha,  Kurta,  Karashar,  and  Turfan  along  the  Tian-Shan.  Jlany 
miles  of  desert  separate  these  oases  from  each  other  ;  and  their 
population  could  be,  and  has  been,  much  greater  than  it  is,  for 
there  is  no  lack  of  water  in  the  streams  which  rise  beneath  th« 
snow  covering  of  the  mountains.  The  various  oases,  which  ai-« 
named  afte,r  their  chief  towns,  have  always  been  nearly  independent 
of  each  oth'cr.  Still,  in  the  course  of  their  much  disturbed  history, 
Khotan,  Yarkand,  Kashgar,  and  Ak-su,  one  after  another  acmiircd 
a  kind  of  supremacy  over  the  rest.  At  present  Yarkand  and  Kash- 
gar are  the  most  important.  The  city  of  Yarkand  has  nearly  60.009 
inh.abitant3  ;  it  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  has  a  separate  fort, 
Y'anghi-hi.ssar ;  ruins  of  old  settlements  are  scattered  around.  Its  ^ 
Chinese  merchants  carry  on  an  active  trade,  and  th«  Turkish  popu- 
lation are  breeders  of  cattle  on  an  extensive  scale.  Wheat,  barley, 
rice,  beans,  sorghum,  mulberries,  and  a  variety  of  fruit  trees  ac» 


2  Op.  ciL 

»  Prjevalsky,  J!/i.vn  in  Tibet,  tc.  ;  and  Wilkins  (naturalist  of  m 
Kuropatkin's  expedition)  in  the  Russian  periodical  Prinda,  1837,  Sa  & 


KAST.] 


TURKESTAN 


639 


grown  in  the  gardens.  Kasbcak  (}.f.),  snrronnded  by  a  scries  of 
(wpulous  villages,  is  the  chief  commercial  centre,  owing  to  its  posi- 
tion on  the  highway  to  Lake  Issykkul.  It  is  surrounded  by  forts, 
one  standing  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kashgar  and  Yarkand  rivers. 
Khotas  (j.r.)  or  Iltchi  (also  Yu-thian),  a  very  populous  city  under 
the  Han  dynasty  of  China  (206  B.0.-1  A.D.),  has  much  declined  of 
late.  It  is  renowned  for  its  gold  mines,  and  especially  for  its  jade 
and  its  musk.  Copper  kettles,  carpets,  some  silk,  and  felt  ware 
are  manufactured.  Sanju  (7000  houses),  Kilian,  Pialma,  Guma, 
Kargatj'k,  and  Posgan,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Kuen-Lun  between 
Yarkand  and  Khotan,  are  the  richest  parts  of  the  region.  Naya, 
Kiria,  Tchira,  all  on  small  rivers  flowing  from  the  Kuen-Lun,  con- 
tinue the  line  of  oases  towards  the  east,  terminatir  in  TchertcheB, 
which  now  consists  of  but  a  few  score  of  houses.  The  oases  at  the 
base  of  the  Tian-Shan  arc  Utch-Turfan  (Ust-Turfan),  Ak-su  (formerly 
the  capital  of  Sairam),  Bai,  Kutcha  with  Shah  yar,  Bugur,  Kurta, 
Earashar,  and  Tarfan.  Their  inhabitants  grow  com  to  a  consider- 
able amount,  and  keep  numerous  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep. 
The  chief  e-tports  are  wool,  fowls,  and  the  horns  of  the  maral  deer. 
On  the.  lower  Tarim,  where  a  few  settlements,  supported  chiefly  by 
fishing,  continue  to  struggle  against  the  encroacning  desert,  the 
ruins  of  formerly  populous  towns  testify  that  the  r^ou  was  not 
always  the  dreary  waste  it  now  is. 
l^paJa.  The  population  is  mixed,  Aryans  and  Turanians  being  thoroughly 
•ton.  intermmgled.  On  the  slopes  of  the  Pamir,  about  Sary-kol,  there 
is  a  purely  Aryan  population  of  Persian  Galtchas.  Kirghiz  and 
Kara  Kirghiz  inhabit  the  slopes  of  the  Tian  Shan.  Kalmucks  occur 
in  the  north-east ;  and  in  the  central  parts  the  population  consists 
of  Turkish  Sarts  and  Uzbcgs  and  of  Persian  Tajak, — the  Mongolian 
clement  increasing  towanis  the  north-east.  The  language  is 
Turkish,  like  that  spoken  in  West  Turkestan,  with  several  varieties 
of  patois  and  a  considerable  addition  of  Chinese  words.  As  a  rule, 
the  inhabitants  of  East  Turkestan  have  an  air  of  poverty.  There 
are  no  rich  mosques  in  their  towns,  such  as  those  of  Samarkand 
and  Bokhara  ;  the  houses  are  of  unbaked  brick  and  poorly  furnished. 
The  dress  is  that  customary  in  West  Turkestan.  But  the  habits 
of  the  people  differ  to  some  extent  and  the  women  enjoy  greater 
liberty  than  in  other  Mohammedan  countries:  they  go  in  the  streets 
unveiled  ;  free  marriages,  contracted  for  short  terras,  are  not  un- 
Irequent  As  a  rule,  the  position  of  women  is  more  independent 
— a  feature  noticed  even  by  the  earliest  travellers  in  the  country. 

The  aggregate  population  of  East  Turkestan,  estimated  between 
575,000  and  1,500,000  in  1825,  is  nov;  (18S7)  hardly  more  than 
1,000,000.  Kuropatkin  estimates  it  at  1,200,000,  Forsyth  at  600,000. 
The  population  of  the  chief  towns  may  be  stated  approximately  as 
follows— Yarkand,  60,000  ;  Kashgar,  50,000  ;  Khotan,  40,000  ; 
Sanju,  35,000  ;  Ak-su,  20,000  ,  Kiria,  15,000 ;  Vanghi-his.sar,  10,000 ; 
Kargatyk,  10,000  ;  Kurta,  6000. 
History.  It  appears  very  probable  that  at  the  dawn  of  history  East  Turke- 
stan was  inhabited  by  an  Aryan  population,  the  ancestors  of  the 
present  Slavonic  and  Teutonic  races,  and  that  a  civilization  not 
inferior  to  that  of  Bactriana  had  already  developed  at  that  time  in 
the  region  of  the  Tarim.*  Our  knowledge,  however,  of  the  history 
of  the  region  is  very  fragmontarj'  until  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  When  the  Huns  (Hiongnu)  occupied  west  and  east 
Mongolia  in  177  ac,  they  drove  before  them  the  Yue-chi  (Yutes, 
Yetes,  or  Ghetes),  who  divided  into  two  hordes,  one  of  which  in- 
vaded the  valley  of  the  Indus,  while  the  other  met  the  Sacse  in 
East  Turkestan  and  drove  them  over  the  Tian-Shan  into  the  valley 
of  the  III  Thus  by  the  beginning  of  our  era  the  Tarim  region  had 
a  mixed  population  of  Aryans  and  Ural- Altaians,  some  being  settled 
agriculturists  and  others  nomada  There  were  also  several  inde- 
pendent cities,  of  which  Khotan  was  the  most  important.  One 
portion  of  the  Aryans  emigrated  and  settled  in  what  is  now 
Wakhan  (on  the  Pamir  plateau),  the  present  language  of  whicn 
seems  vpry  old,  dating  anterior  to  the  separation  of  the  Vedic  and 
Zend  languages.  In  the  1st  century  the  Chinese  extended  theii 
rule  westivards  over  East  Turkestan  as  far  as  Kashgar.  But  their 
dominion  seems  to  have  been  merely  nominal,  for  it  was  soon  shaken 
off.  By  the  end  of  the  5th  century  the  western  parts  fell  under 
the  sway  of  the  "  White  Huns"  or  Ephthalites,  while  the  eastern 
parts  were  under  Tangut  (Thygun)  dominion.  The  Chinese,  how- 
ever, still  retained  the  region  about  Lob- Nor.  Buddhism  penetrated 
into  the  country  at  an  early  date  ;  but  in  East  Turkestan  there 
were  also  followers  of  Zoroastrianism,  of  Nestorian  Christianity, 
and  even  of  Manichaeism.    An  acrive  trade  was  carried  on  by  means 

1  Such  13  the  conclusion  reached  by  Lassen  (Indischs  AtCerthumskundf),  and 
supported  by  M.  Grigoricff  (Ritter's  Asien  in  Russ.  transl.  ;  Addenda  to  "  East 
Turkestan,"  in  Russian).  In  connexion  with  the  objection  based  upon  the 
sub-boreal  character  of  the  regions  which  were  the  cradle  of  the  Aryans,  as 
proved  by  the  so-called  palaontology  of  the  Ar>-an  languages,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  by  the  ct,d  of  the  Glacial',  and  during  the  earlier  Lacustrine  (Post- 
Glacial)  period,  the  vegetation  of  Turkestan  and  of  Central  Asia  was  quite 
tUfferent  from  what  it  is  now.  It  was  Siberian  or  nonh  European.  The 
researches  by  M.  Krasnoff  (see  above,  p.  63o)  as  to  the  characters  of  the  former 
flora  of  the  Tian-Shan,  and  the  changes  it  has  undergone  in  consequence  of  the 
extremely  rapid  desiccation  of  Central  Asia,  must  be  carefully  borne  in  mind 
tn  all  speculations  foonded  apoa  the  testunooy  of  language  aa  to  the  .original 
home  of  the  Aryans. 


of  numerous  caravans.  The  civilization  and  political  organization 
of  the  country  were  dominated  by  the  Chinese,  but  were  also  in' 
fluenced  to  some  extent  by  Grseco-Bactriau  civilization.  Buddhism 
spread  rapidly  in  the  south-west,  and  the  study  of  Pali  became 
widely  dilfused.  Our  information  as  to  the  state  of  the  country 
from  the  2d  century  to  the  first  half  of  the  7th  is  slight,  and  is 
chiefly  derived  from  the  Journeys  of  the  Buddhist  pilgrim  Fa-hieu 
in  399,  Song-\-un  in  513,  and  Hwen-fsang  in  629.  By  this  time 
Buddhism  had  reached  its  culminating  point :  in  Khotan  there  wero 
100  monasteries  and  5000  monks,  and  the'  Indian  sacred  literature 
was  widely  diffused  ;  but  already  there  were  tokens  of  its  decay. 
Even  theu  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Tarim  basin  seem  to  have  been 
growing  less  and  less  populous.  To  the  east  of  Khotan  cities  which 
were  prosperous  when  visited  by  Song-yun  had  a  century  later 
fallen  into  ruins,  while  their  inhabitants  had  migrated  westwards. 
Legend  has  it  that  all  the  inhabitants  of  Go-lao-lo-tsia  were  buried 
in  a  sandstorm,  and  this  seems  to  be  but  a  poetical  way  of  represent* 
ing  a  phenomenon  which  was  steadily  going  on  in  East  Turkestan, 

Little  is  known  about  these  regions  during  the  7th,  8th,  and  9tb 
centuries.  In  the  7th  century  the  Tibetan  king,  Srong-btsan,  with 
the  help  of  the  western  Turks,  subjugated  the  western  part  of  the 
Tarim  basin.  During  the  foUoning  century  the  Mohammedans 
under  Kotaiba,  after  several  excursions  into  West  Turkestan,  took 
Samarkand,  Ferghana,  Tashkend,  and  Khokand  (712-713),  and 
invaded  Eait  Turkestan,  penetrating  as  far  as  Turfan  and  China. 
The  Chinese  supremacy  was  not  shaken  by  these  invasions.  But, 
on  the  outbreak  of  internal  disturbances  in  China,  the  Tibetan.? 
took  possession  of  the  western  j)rovinces  of  China,  and  intercepted 
the  communications  of  the  Chinese  with  Kashgaria,  so  that  thejr 
had  to  send  their  troops  through  the  lands  of  the  Hui-khe  (Hoei-ke,. 
or  Hoei-hu).  In  790  the  Tibetans  were  m,isters  of  East  Turkestan  p 
but  their  rule  was  never  strong,  and  towards  the  9th  century  wo- 
find  the  country  under  the  Hoi-he.  Who  these  people  were  ist 
somewhat  uncertain.  According  to  Chinese  documents,  they  came- 
from  the  Selenga  ;  but  most  Orientalists  identify  them  with  the 
Uigurs.  In  the  opinion  of  M.  Grigorieff,  whom  we  follow  in  this 
sketch,'  the  Turks  who  succeeded  the  Chinese  in  the  western  parts 
of  East  Turkestan  were  the  Karluk  Turks,  who  extended  farther 
south-west  up  to  Kashmir,  while  the  north-eastern  parts  of  the 
Tarim  region  were  subdued  by  the  Uigurs.  Soon  Mongolian  hordes* 
the  Kara-Kitais,  entered  East  Turkestan  (11th  century),  and  thett 
penetrated  into  West  Turkestan,  Khiva  fallingunder  their  dominion* 
During  the  following  century  Jenghiz  Khan  overran  China,  Turke* 
Stan,  India,  Persia,  Russia,  and  Hungary;  Kashgaria  fell  under  his- 
rule  in  1220,  though  not  ivithout  strenuous  resistance  followed  by 
massacres.  The  Mongolian  rule  was,  however,  not  very  heavy,  the  ' 
Mongols  merely  exacting  tribute.  In  fact,  Kashgaria  flourished 
under  them,  and  the  fanaticism  of  Islam  was  considerably  abated. 
Women  again  acquired  greater  independence,  and  the  religious 
toleration  then  established  permitted  Christianity  and  Buddhism 
to  spread  freely.  This  state  of  affairs  lasted  until  the  14th  century, 
when  Tughlak  Timur,  who  extended  his  dominions  to  the  Kuen- 
Lun,  accepted  Islam.  He  transferred  his  capital  from  Ak-su  ta 
Kashgar,  and  had  a  summer  residence  on  the  hanks  of  Issyk-kuL 
His  son  reigned  at  Samarkand,  but  was  overthrown  by  Timur-lang 
(see  TiMtiB),  end  the  reign  of  the  great  conqueror  was  a  fertile 
source  of  suffering  to  the  region.  To  put  an  end  to  the  attacks  of 
the  wild  Tian-Shan  tribes,  he  ondertook  in  1389  his  renowned 
march  to  Dzungaria,  which  was  devastated  ;  East  Turkestan  also 
suffered  severely. 

The  re-introduction  of  Islam  was  of  no  benefit  to  the  Tarim  region. 
In  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  Bokhara  and  Samarkand  became 
centres  of  Moslem  scholarship,  and  sent  great  numbers  of  their 
learned  doctors  to  Kashgaria.  Rubruquis,  who  visited  East 
Turkestan  in  1254,  Marco  Polo  between  1271  and  1275,  and  Hoi» 
in  1680,  all  bore  mtness  to  great  religious  tolerance ;  but  this 
entirely  disappeared  with  the  invasion  of  the  Bokharian  mollahs. 
They  created  in  East  Turkestan  the  power  of  the  k-hcjas,  whi> 
afterwards  fomented  the  many  intestine  wars  waged  between  the 
rival  factions  of  the  White  and  the  Black  Mountaineers.  In  the 
17th  century  k  powerful  Kalmuck  confederation  arose  in  Dzungaria, 
and  extended  its  sway  over  the  Hi  and  Issykkul  basins,  having  its 
capital  on  the  IlL  To  th'is  power  or  to  the  Kirghiz  the  "  AVhites" 
and  "Blacks"  alternately  appealed  in  their  struggles,  in  which 
Yarkand  supported  the  latter  and  Kashgar  the  former.  These 
struggles  paved  the  way  for  a  Chinese  invasion,  which  was  supported 
by  the  White  khojas  Of  Kashgar.  The  Chinese  entered  Dzungaria 
in  1753,  and  there  perpetrated  a  terrible  massacre,  the  victims  feing 
estimated  at  one  million.  The  Kalmucks  fled  and  Dzungaria  be- 
came a  Chinese  province,  with  a  military  colonization  of  Sibos, 
Solons,  Dahurs,  Chinese  criminals,  and  Moslem  Dzungars.  Thft 
Chinese  next  re-conquered  East  Turkest.-n,  marking  their  progress 
by  massacres  and  transporting  12,500  partisans  of  independence  to 
the  Hi  valley.  Hereupon  the  dissentient  khojas  fled  to  Khokand 
and  there  gathered  armies  of  malcontents  and  fanatic  followers  of 

3  See  Ritter's.4stcn,  "  East  Turkestan  "  (Russ.  trus.),  iL  !83 ;  also  Kam]}*^ 
kin's  Kashgaria. 


640 


T  U  R  — T  U  R 


Islam.  Sclera!  times  they  succeeded  in  oTcrthrowing  the  Chinese 
rulc-*in  1825,  in  1830,  and  in  1847 — but  tlielr  successes  were  never 
permanent.  After  tlie  "rebellion  of  the  seven  khojas"  in  1847 
neatly  20,000  families  from  Kashgar,  Yarkand,  and  Ak-su  fled  to 
West  Turkestan  throu^'h  the  Teiek-Davan  pass,  many  of  them 
perishing  on  the  way.  In  1857  another  insurrection  broke  out ;  but 
ft  few  months  later  the  Chinese  again  took  Kashgar  (for  the  details 
«ee  Kasiigau).  In  the  course  of  the  D^ungaiian  outbreak  of  1864 
the  Chinese  were  again  expelled  ;  and  Yakub  Bog  became  master 
of  Kashgar  in  1872.  But  five  years  later  he  had  again  to  sustain 
•war  with  China,  in  which  he  was  defeated,  and  East  Turkestan 
once  more  became  a  Chinese  province. 

Bibliography.  ~'n\e  literature  on  Turkestan  hag  of  late  years  become  very 
vohitninoug.  esneeinlly  in  tlie  form  of  papers  scattered  tlirough  the  periodicals 

fii'jlislied  by  tlie  Europeau  Gc'^crapliical  Societies  atiJ  oilier  scientific  iKwlies. 
he  reader  is  referred  to  Ihe  foiiowing  works  as  lilted  to  facilitate  research. 
Vo!3,  vi.  and  vii,  of  Elis^c  Hecluss  Giographie  Univcrsede  eontaii)  iiiatia  sliowing 
the  routes  of  the  chief  explorers.  Prof.  Miishkctoll's  Turkestan  (in  Un-Jsian. 
vol.  i.  1586)  contains  an  excellent  critical  analysis  of  all  explorations  of  T'jrke- 
stan  and  works  thereupon,  and  the  infoniution  they  contain  with  regard  to 
the  physical  geopraphy  and  geology  of  West  Turkestan.  Prof.  GrigorielFs 
A'ideada  to  Bitter's  AsUn  embody  the  whole  of  the  older  and  mote  modem 


rcscarclic"!  into  the  geography  and  history  of  Ea<st  Turkestan  do«o  to  ^3f^ 
Anv  and  Usboi  (Saratotf,  187!»,  by  the  chief  of  the  Amu-l)aria  expedition^ 
and  Bogdauoirs  Hevuw  of  Eii-tilitions  and  Explorations  in  the  Arat-OtspwA 
Keg  ion  from  I7S0  to  1871,  (St  Petersburg.  187^)  are  most  'Jscful  works.  Vcof. 
Lcnz'3  paper  "  Ueber  den  fruheien  Lauf  des  Amu^Daria,  in  Mem.  Amd.  Sc.  .11 
Pftersburg,  diw"usse^  valuable  information  borrouetj  from  anrient  sources 
Me?ho(r9  rwrlf^sfuni^iy  .StmrHifc  is  a  cfltalngne  of  the  Central-Asian  library  at 
Ta^ihkend,  and  his  annual  "Index"  contains  full  classihed  li^  s  of  itiissian 
geographical  iilerature,  Of  *ork>i  of  a  general  characlcr,  wtth  escriiitu.n'i  of 
both  rei^ions  (apart  from  iravels).  the  following,  arranged  in  r.hw.imli.gical 
order,  are  worthy  of  mention  ,— beoienotrs  "lian-bhan,"  bemj;  vol.  i.  of  Ititlcr'a 
Aiicn  (Rush,  trans.,  1856).  GrigonefTa  "  East  TurkfSlan,"  foruiiiig  two  vuls.  of 
Ritters  Asi'.n  (Russ.  transi  .  I8*i9  and  1373)  ;  SyevertsotTs  "Verlical  and  Horl* 
zonLil  Diitnhittinn  of  Mav^.nalia  in  Turkestan,'  in  /z'tiffu  Lvb.  Est.  of  Mosrow, 
1S73;  WenjukofTs  I>ie  Riunisch-Aiiatiscfffn  Cremlande  (trtiTiH.  from  Russian  by 
Krahmer,  Leipsic.  1871);  Uellwald's  Centrotaiien,  I87!i;  Pclzholdfs  Um.vhu)t 
im  Russ.  Turk.,  1877  ;  Kuropatkin  s  Kushgana,  IS79  (partially  translated  int* 
French);  Kostcnko's  Turkcstansfciy  /Cnii,  3  voN.,  ISSO,  very  cnpioii-.  translation  J 
from  which  are  emho<lied  in  Lansdell'a  Centrut  <4s(«,  but  unhappily  too  ioti» 
matcty  cotnhined  with  less  useful  inforniatioD.  Schlacintwcit  s  Utntn  in  Indien 
uml  llochas'en,  vol.  iii..  East  Tuikestan  ;  Prjeval«ky's  thrt-e  journcya  to 
Central  Asia  (the  Qrst  two  transtaU-d  into  English  .  all  tliiee  in  German);  Olg» 
Fcdtcheiiko's  Alburn,  of  ftcu-s  of  Russ  Turk.,  15S5;  Nalivlcinn  //tsfory  o/ (/n 
Khanatf  of  Kokand  (iii  Russ.),  Kazan,  I88S.  Vambery's  Dns  Tvrkenvolt,\  18851 
lio?,\ios(:hi\y'B  A f'jhanistami.  angrem  i/tndfr  (for  Afghau  Xurk.);  and  Mushk> 
toITs  TuTkesUiii,  vol.  1.  (lO  Russiao),  1660.  (P.  A.  K.) 


TURKEY 


Part  L— Histort. 

SOMEWHERE  about  the  second  decade  of  the  13th 
century  the  little  Turkish  tribe  which  in  due  course 
was  to  found  the  Ottoman  empire  fled  before  the  Mongols 
from  its  original  home  in  Central  Asia,  and,  passing  through 
Persia,  entered  Armenia,  under  the  leadership  of  SuleymAn 
Er  1  •ijb-Shih,  its  hereditary  chief.       His  son,  Er-Toghrul,  who 
*"'  succeeded  him  as  head  of  the  tribe,  when  wandering  about 

the  country  with  his  warriors  came  one  day  upon  two 
armies  engaged  in  a  furious  battle.  Er-Toghrul  at  once 
rode  to  the  assistance  of  the  weaker  party,  who  were  on 
the  point  of  giving  way,  but  who  through  the  timely  aid 
thus  rendered  not  only  regained  what  they  had  lost  but 
totally  defeated  their  enemies.  The  army  thus  saved  from 
destruction  proved  to  be  that  of  'A14-ud-Dln,  the  Scljuk 
Bultan  of  Asia  Minor,  and  their  adversaries  to  be  a  horde 
of  marauding  Mongols.  By  way  of  recompense  for  this 
service  'Al.Vud-D(n  granted  to  Er-Toghrul  a  tract  of  land 
on  the  Byzantine  frontier,  including  the  towns  of  Sugut 
X)sm5ii.  and  Eski  Shehr.  'Osmin,  the  son  of  Er-Toghrul  and  the 
prince  from  whom  the  race  derives  its  name  of  'Osm.^nli  (see 
Tdrks,  p.  661  below),  corrupted  by  Europeans  into  Otto- 
man, was  born  in  Sugut  in  1258  (a.h.  656).  While  still 
young  'Osin,ln  won  from  the  Greeks  Karaja  Hisir  (Kara- 
hissar)  and  some  other  towns,  on  which  account  he  received 
from  his  suzerain,  the  Scljuk  sultan  of  Konya  (Konieh),  the 
title  of  beg  or  prince,  along  with  the  drum  and  the  horse- 
tail standard,  the  symbols  of  princely  rank. 
Early  In  1300  (699)  the  Seljuk  empire  (see  SeOTJKs)  fell  to 

Turkish  pieces  under  the  onslaught  of  the  Mongols,  who  were,  how- 
paliUea.  ^^'^''>  powerless  to  replace  it  by  any  governmcitt  of  their 
Own.  Thereupon  ten  separate  Turkish  dynasties  arose  from 
its  ruins :  that  of  Karasi  sprang  up  in  ancient  Mysia,  the 
houses  of  Saru  Khan  and  Aydin  in  Lydia,  of  Mentesha  in 
Caria,  of  Tekka  in  Lycia  and  Pamphylia,  of  Hamfd  in 
Pisidia  and  Isauria,  of  Karaman  in  Lycaonia,  of  Kermiyan 
in  Phrygia,  of  Krzil  Ahmedli  in  Paphlagonia,  aid  of 
'OsmAn  in  Phrygia  Epictetus.  These  principalities  .were 
ftU  eventually  merged  in  that  of  the  'Osniinlis,  once  the 
least  among  them,  and  the  inhabitants  assumed  the  name  of 
Ottoman.  Hence  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  people 
Called  Ottomans  owe  their  name  to  a  .-ieries  of  political 
events.  On  the  collap.so  of  the  Seljuk  power  the  Greeks 
detained  hardly  any  possessions  in  Asia  except  Bithynia  and 
Trebizond.  Armenia  was  abandoned  for  a  time  to  roving 
Tatar  or  Turkman  tribes,  till  some  sixty  or  seventy  years 
later  one  or  two  petty  local  dynasties  sprang  up  and 
founded  short-lived  states. 

The  year  1301  (700),  in  which  'Osm4n,  who  Ihorily 


before  had  succeeded  his  father,  first  coined  money  and  Pountt. 
caused  the  khutba,  or  public  prayer  for  the  reigning '"g »' 
monarch,  to  be  read  in  his  name-^tbe  two  prerogatives  of  *^'''"'"** 
an  independent  sovereign  in  the  East — may  be  regarded  as'"""' 
the  birth-year  of  the  Ottoman  empire ;  and  it  was  about 
this  time  that  his  followers  and  subjects  began  to  call 
themselves 'Osniinlis,  or,  as  we  might  render  it,  'Osmanites. 
Having  thoroughly,  established  his  authority  in  his  capital 
of  Yeni  Shehr,  'Osmin  began  to  wrest  from  the  Greeks 
many  of  the  neighbouring  towns  and  strongholds,  among 
others  Ayina  Gol  and  Koyun  Hisiri,  routing  before  the 
last  named  a  large  Byzantine  army.  He  then  turned  his 
attention  to  the  administration  of  his  state,  and  such  was 
the  feeling  of  security  he  succeeded,  in  establishing  that 
large  numbers  of  peo]i!e  from  the  surrounding  districts 
flocked  into  his  dominions  and  became  his  subjects.  After 
six  y^ars  of  peace  several  of  the  Byzantine  castellans  ol 
the  neighbourhood,  instigated  by  the  governor  of  Brusa 
(Broussa),  made  a  simultaneous  attack  upon  the  Ottomans, 
but  'OsniAn  totally  defeated  them  and-sent  in  pursuit  Kart 
"All  Alp,  who  took  possession  of  all  their  domains.  GhAzdn. 
the  khan  of  the  Mongols,  who  had  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  the  emperor  of  Constantinople,  sent  to  all  the  Turkish 
princes  an  arrogantly  worded  message  forbidding  them  to 
do  any  hurt  to  the  Byzantine  territories.  To  show  how 
light  he  held  this  menace,  'Osmin  assembled  an  army 
forthwith,  marched  to  Nicaeaand  thence  to  the  Bosphorus, 
laying  waste  the  country  as  he  went  and  taking  po.ssession 
of  a  number  of  towns  and  villages.  Michael,  called  by 
the  TurkisTi  historians  Kosa  Mikhil  or  Michael  Scant- 
beard,  the  governor  of  one  of  these,  embraced  Islim  and 
became  one  of  the  most  trusted  officers  of  'Osmin  and 
of  his  son  and  successor  Orkhan.  The  descendants  of 
this  Michael  were  the  hereditary  commanders  of  the 
akinjis,  a  corps  of  light  cavalry  who  played  a  great  part 
in  the  early  Ottoman  wars.  The  first  service  on  which 
Michael  was  employed  was  to  destroy,  along  with  Orkhan, 
a  Mongol  horde  that  had  taken  and  pillaged  the  Ottoman 
town  of  Karaja  Hisdr.  Meanwhile  "Abd-ur-Rahmdn  and 
Akcha  Koja,  two  of  'Osmin's  generals,  were  adding  to 
the  Ottoman  dominions  in  the  north,  capturing  several 
towns  and  laying  siege  to  the  city  of  Nicroa.  The  Ottoman 
chiefs  next  resolved  to  acquire  Brusa,  the  natural  capital 
of  these  parts.  So  they  built  round  it  a  series  of  towers,  in 
which  they  placed  garrisons,  with  the  view  of  intercepting 
communications  and  eventually  starving  the  city  into  sul> 
mission.  At  length,  in  1  326  (726),  after  a  desultory  siege 
of  eight  years,  the  keys  were,  through  the  ntervention  of 
Mlkhil,  handed  over  to  OrkUan,  who  was  iri  command  of 
the  Ottomans,  and  the  townspeople  were  allowed  to  ransom 


[■HKTOBY.] 


TURKEY 


641 


themselve:  for  30,000  sequins.  Very  soon  after  this  'Osmdn 
died,  aged  seventy,  at  Sugut,  whence  his  remains  were 
carried  for  burial  to  Brusa.  'Osm&a  was  distinguished  for 
piety  and  generosity  as  well  aa  for  equity  and  courage; 
He  cared  nothing  for  amassing  wealth,  and  on  his  death 
his  personal  effects  were  found  to  consist  of  two  or  three 
suits  of  clothes,  a  few  weapons,  some  horses,  and  a  tlock 
of  sheep.  And  so  high  was  his  reputation  for  justice 
that,  we  are  told,  many  of  the  Asiatic  subjects  of  the 
Csesars  fled  to  him  for  that  protection  which  their  own 
rulers  would  not  or  could  not  give  them. 

Orkbts  Orkhan,  who  succeeded  bis  father  'Osmdn,  continued 
the  war  against  the  Greeks,  taking  from  them  Nicomedia, 
Nicjea,  and  many  of  the  towns  which  they  still  retained 
in  Asia.  Hitherto  the  Ottomans  had  not  interfered  with 
the  other  Turkish  states ,  bat  now  Orkhan,  granting  a 
short  respite  to  the  Byzantines,  took  advantage  of  a  dis- 
pute regarding  the  succession  to  the  throne  of  Karasi, 
entered  that  principality,  and  annexed  it  to  his  own  domin- 
ions. To  his  son  SuleymAn  the  Ottomans  owe  their  first 
establishment  in  Europe  ;  one  night  that  prince,  accom- 
panied by  a  few  companions,  crossed  the  Hellespont  on 
a  raft  and  surprised  the  town  of  Galipoli  (Gallipoli).  The 
next  day  he  brought  over  a  number  of  Turkish  troops, 
with  whose  assistance  he  possessed  himself  of  many  of 
the  neighbouring  towns  and  villages,  but  his  career  was 
,  cut  short  by  a  fatal  fall  from  his  horse  when  out  hunting. 

Orkhan  did  not  long  survive  his  son,  grief  at  whose  un- 
timely end  is  said  to  have  hastened  his  own  death,  in 
1359  ("01).  This  monarch  is  celebrated  for  the  number 
of  mosques,  colleges,  and  other  public  institutions  Miat 
he  founded.  During  his  reign  the  Ottoman  army  was 
thoroughly  organized,  and  a  body  of  regular  paid  soldiers 
was  raised,  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  military  power 
of  the  state,  though  the  old  irregular  militia  was  still  called 
out  whenever  a  campaign  was  to  be  undertaken.  The 
famous  corps  of  the  janissaries  (Turkish  yeret  ckeri,  i.e., 
"  new  troop  ")  was  instituted  at  this  time.  It  consisted 
of  the  children  of  Christian  subjects,  who  were  educated 
as  Mussulmans  and  brought  up  to  a  military  life. 

Murid  I  Having  taken  the  city  of  Angora  from  certain  territorial 
lords  who,,  incited  by  the  prince  of  Karaman,  had  attacked 
the  Ottoman  dominions,  Mur4d  I.,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Orkhan,  found  himself  free  to  extend  his  possessions 
across  the  Hellespont.  He  forthwith  passed  over  into 
Europe,  where  he  and  his  generals  soon  reduced  almost  all 
Roumelia,  capturing  Adrianople,  Philippopolis,  and  many 
other  places  of  importance.  These  successes  alarmed  the 
Christian  princes,  who  determined  to  make  a  vigorous  effort 
to  drive  the  Turks  back  into  Asia.  The  kings  of  Bosnia, 
Hungary,  and  Servia  accordingly  marched  with  a  large 
army  upon  Adrianople,  but  were  surprised  during  the  night 
and  completely  defeated  by  an  inferior  Turkish  force 
Some  time  after  this.victory  Murdd  leturned  to  Asia,  where 
he  celebrated  the  wedding  of  his  son  Biyezld  with  the 
daughter  of  the  prince  of  Kerraiyin,  a  large  portion  of 
whose  territory  was  made  over  to  the  "Osrainli  monarch 
as  the  dower  of  the  bride.  Next  year,  when  Murdd  set 
out  to  inspect  his  new  possessions,  he  met  the  prince  of 
Hamfd,  whom  he  constrained  to  sell  all  his  dominions 
The  Karaman  prince,  ever  the  jealous  rival  of  the  Ottoman, 
now  stirred  up  some  of  the  Turkman  tribes  to  ravage  his 
enemy's  land,  but  Murid  was  beforehand  with  him,  and, 
entering  his  country,  defeated  him  and  annexed  the  district 
of  Alf  Shehr  to  his  own  kingdom.  The  Bosnian  and 
Bulgarian  princes  having  allied  themselves  against  the 
sultan,  the  Turkish  commander  in  Europe  invaded  Bulgaria, 

Battle  oi  which  was  speedily  rubdued  and  added  to  the  Ottoman 

Kosovo,  possessions.  MurAd  next  entered  Servia  and  advanced  to 
the  plain  of  Kosovo,  where  he  found  awaiting  him  the 


levies  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  Hungary,  Albania,  and  Walachijw 
The  Turks,  though  far  inferior  in  number  to  their  adveiV 
saries,  gained  a  complete  victory,  1389  (791),  but  it  was 
purchased  with  their  sovereign's  life.  After  the  battle 
Murid  was  riding  over  the  field  with  some  of  his  people, 
when  a  wounded  Servian,  who  was  lying  among  the  slain, 
sprang  up  and  stabbed  him  so  that  he  died  almost  im- 
mediately afterwards.  In  consequence  of  this  battle  Servia 
became  subject  to  the  Turk. 

Biyezld  I., surnamedYildirim,"Thunderbolt,"on  account  BiyaU 
of  the  fury  of  his  attack  and  the  rapidity  of  his  movements,  !• 
received  the  oath  of  fealty  on  the  battlefield  of  Kosovo. 
He  did  much  to  secure  the  position  of  the  Ottomans,  in 
Europe,  taking  many  of  the  towns  which  still  remained  to 
the  Christians  in  Roumelia.  In  Asia  he  annexed  tha 
remaining  Turkish  principalities,  and  pushed  his  conqueata 
as  far  as  Caesarea  and  Sivis.  The  Christians  made  another 
great  effort  to  free  themselves  from  their  Eastern  foes : 
whilst  Biyezld  was  absent  in  Asia,  the  king  of  Hungary 
led  a  powerful  army,  in  the  ranks  of  which  were  many 
knights  of  France  and  Germany,  into  the  Ottoman  domin- 
ions and  laid  siege  to  Nicopolis.  Biyezld  sped  to  the 
rescue,  and  inflicted  an  overwhelming  defeat  on  the  Chris- 
tians. He  next  turned  his  attention  to  Constantinople, 
the  reduction  and  annexation  of  which  he  had  long  medi- 
tated, when  he  was  summoned  to  meet  Tlmiir,  the  Tatar 
conqueror,  who  had  invaded  his  Asiatic  dominions  and 
taken  SIvis.  The  Ottoman  and  Tatar  hosts  encountered 
each  other  outside  Angora,  and  there  the  former  sustained 
their  first  disastroift  overthrow,  Biyezid  being  taken 
prisoner  ind  his  army  practically  annihilated.  Next  year, 
1403  (S05),  he  died  in  captivity,  the  story  of  his  having 
been  imprisoned  in  an  iron  cage  is  not  confirmed  by  the 
Turkish  historians,  and  is  most  probably  fictitious.  After 
this  victory  Tlmiir  overran  the  Ottoman  territories  in  Asia, 
tal-ing  and  sacking  Brusa,  Nicsea,  and  many  other  cities. 
With  a  view  to  the  coiriplete  annihilation  of  the  'Osminli 
power,  he  restored  the  independence  of  the  Turkish  princi- 
palities which  Biyezld  had  annexed,  and  placed  them 
under  the  rule  of  their  former  emirs. 

On  the  withdrawal  of  Timur  from  Asia  Minor  the  four 
surviving  sons  of  Biyezid  fought  for  what  was  left  of  their 
father's  kingdom ,  after  ten  years  of  civil  war  success 
finally  rested  with  Muhammed,  who  alone  of  the  four  is  Muham- 
reckoned  among  the  Ottoman  sovereigns.  The  attention  '^'^  L 
of  the  new  sultan,  whom  his  people  called  Chelebi  Muham- 
med or  Muhammed  the  Debonair,  was  turned  rather  to 
the  restoration  of  his  father's  empire  than  to  the  conquest 
of  neighbouring  countries.  In  Europe  he  lived  on  amicable 
terms  with  the  Byzantine  emperor,  and  the  Christian  kings 
further  north  did  not  venture  to  make  any  serious  attack 
upon  him.  But  in  Asia  he  had  to  contend  with  many 
enemies,  the  most  formidable  of  whom  was  the  emir  of 
Karaman,  who,  having  been  defeated  and  made  prisoner, 
was  generously  pardoned  and  restored  to  liberty.  Another 
difficulty  with  which  Muhammed  had  to  deal  was  a  strange 
religious  outbreak  ;  a  vast  number  of  fanatic  dervishes, 
headed  by  an  apostate  Jew  and  a  Turkish  adventurer  of 
low  birth,  rose  in  revolt,  and  were  only  dispersed  after 
several  bloody  battles.  This  sultan,  who  was  mui^h  b; 
loved  by  his  subjects  and  is  spoken  of  with  praise  by  the 
Byzantine  historians,  was  stricken  with  apoplexy  while 
riding  in  Adrianople,  and  died  almost  immediately  in  the 
thirty-third  year  of  his  age,  U21  (824). 

The  first  care  of  his  son  and  successor  Murid  U.  was  Moiid 
to  rid  himself  of  a  pretender  to  the  throne  who,  aided  by  I' 
the  Greek  emperor,  had  made  a  descent  upon  the  Asiatic 
shore  of  t-he  Dardanelles.     This  adventurer  was  soon  de- 
feated and  pursued  to  Adrianople,  where  he  was  taken 
and  hanged.     In  revenge  for  the  assistancg  rendered  to 


642 


TURKEY 


[history. 


his  enemy,  the  sultan  invested  Constantinople,  but  he  was 
compelled  to  relinquish  the  siege  in  order  to  subdue  a 
revolt  beaded  by  his  brother,  which  had  broken  out  in 
Asia.     Murid  again  annexed  all  the  Turkish  prmcipali- 
ties  which  had  been  restored  by  Tdnur,  except  those  of 
Kjzil  Ahraedli  and  Karaman,  which  did  not  finally  become 
incorporated  with  the  empire  till  the  time  of  Muliainmed 
II.     The  Turks  were  now  called  upon  to  face  '.iie  most 
formidable  Christian  enemy  they  had  yet  encountered, 
namely  Hunyady,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Sigismund,  king 
of  Hungary.     This  famous  general,  after  having  inflicted 
several  severe  though  not  very  important  defeats  upon  his 
adversaries,  invaded  European  Turkey  with  a  large  army 
of   Hungarians,    Poles,   Servians,    Bosnians,    Walachians, 
and  Prankish  crusaders,  the  last-named  being  under  the 
command  of  Cardinal  Julian.     The  Ottoman  army  was 
utterly  routed,  Sophia  taken,  and  the  chain  of  the  Balkans 
forced  ;  and  MurAd  was  compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  for  ten 
years,  by  which  he  resigned  all  claims  to  Servia  and  gave 
over  Walachia  to  Hungary.     Weary  of  the  cares  of  state, 
and  thinking  that  peace  was,  for  a  time  at  least,  secured, 
MurAd  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  yor.ng  son  Muhammed 
and  sought  a  quiet  retreat  in  the  town  of  Magnesia.     But 
be  was  not  allowed  to  enjoy  repose  for  long  -.  the  Chris- 
tian  princes,   incited   by  Cardinal  Julian   and    in  direct 
violation  of  the  treaty,  assembled  their  forces,  and,  under 
Hunyady  as  commander-in-chief,  without  declaring  war, 
entered  the  Turkish  dominions  and  took   many  of   the 
Ottoman  strongholds  in  Bulgaria.     When  the  news  reached 
MurAd  he  resumed  the  imperial  powcT,  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  his  troops,  and'  advanced  to  meet  the  mvadcrs, 
who  had  just  captured  Varna.     Outside  that  town  a  great 
battle  was  fought,  in  which  a  copy  of  the  violated  treaty, 
raised  high  upon  a  lance,  formed  one  of  the  standards  of 
the  Ottomans.     The  conflict,  which  was  long  and  bloody, 
resulted   in   the  total   overthrow  of   the   Christians,   the 
Polish  king,  Ladislaus,  and  Cardinal  Julian  being  among 
the  slain,  1444  (848).     MurAd  again  abdicated  and  sought 
the  retirement  of  Magnesia ;  but  once  again  he  had  to  take 
up  the  reins  of  government.     This  time  the  janissaries  and 
sipAhis,  accustomed  to  the  firm  rule  of  the  victor  of  Varna, 
had  refus-  i  obedience  to  the   young  Muhammed.     The 
sultan  ren.  lined  at  the  head  of  the  state  until  bis  death, 
which  occurred  in  1451  (855). 
Moham-      Muhammed  II.,  who  now  ascended  the  throne  for  the 
med  II.    third  time,  determined  to  accomplish   the  long-cherished 
design  of  his  liouse,  and  make  Constantinople  the  capital 
of  the  "OsmAnli  empire.     He  easily  found  a  pretext  for 
declaring  war  against  Constantine  Paheologus  and  in  the 
spring  of  1453  (857)  led  an  immense  army  to  beleaguer 
Fall  of    the  city.     His  troops  covered  the  ground  before  the  land- 
Conatan-  ward  walls  between  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Golden 
tiiiople.    j^y^„  .  ^jut  }jg  found  that  even  his  monster  cannon  could 
do  but  little  against  the  massive. fortifications.     At  length 
he  resolved  to  assail  the  city  from  its  weakest  side,  that 
facing  the  Golden  Horn.    But  the  Greeks,  having  foreseen 
the  likelihood  of  an  attack  from  this  quarter,  had  thrown 
a  great  chain  across  the  entrance  to  the  harbour,  thereby 
blocking   the   passage   against    the   hostile   ships.      The 
Ottomans,  however,  construeted  a  road  of  planks,  five  miles 
long,  across  the  piece  of  ground  between  the  Bosphorus, 
where  their  own  fleet  lay,  s,m\  the  upper  part  of  the  Golden 
Horn.     Along  this  road   they  hauled  a  number  of  their 
galleys,  with  sails  set  to  receive  the  aid  of  the  favouring 
wind,  and  launched  them  safely  in  the  harbour,  whence 
they  cannonaded  with  more  efi'ect  the  weaker  defences  of 
the  city.     This  compelled  the  Greek  emperor  to  withdraw 
a  portion  of  his  little  garrison  from  the  point  where  the 
more  serious  attack  was  being  made,  to  repair  the  destruc- 
tion wrought  in  this  new  quarter.     At  dawn  on  May  29th 


the  Ottomans  advanced  to  storm  the  city.  The  Christians 
offered  a  desperate  resistance,  but  in  vain.  The  emperor 
died  fighting  in  the  forefront  of  the  battle,  and  at  noon 
Muhammed  rode  in  triumph  into  his,  new  capital  and 
went  straight  to  the  cathedral  of  St  Sophia ;  there,  before 
the  high  altar,  where  the  preceding  night  Constantine  had 
received  the  Holy  Sacrament,  he  prostrated  Jiimself  in  the 
Moslem  act  of  worship.  The  capture  of  Constantinople 
is  not  the  only  exploit  to  which  Muhammed  owes  his  sur- 
name of  FAtih,  or  the  Conqueror  :  he  also  reduced  Servia 
and  Bosnia,  overthrew  and  annexed  the  Greek  empire  of 
Trebizond  and  the  Turkish  principality  of  Karaman, 
acquired  the  suzerainty  of  the  Crimea,  and  won  many  of 
the  islands  of  the  Greek  Archipelago  from  the  Venetians 
and  Genoese.  But  before  Belgrade,  which  he  had  besieged 
as  the  first  step  to  an  attack  upon  the  northern  kingdoms, 
he  sufi'ered  a  serious  defeat,  being  driven  wounded  from 
the  field  by  Hunyady  and  John  Capistran,  with  the  loss 
of  300  cannon  and  25,000  men.  Rhodes,  whither  an 
Ottoman  force  was  despatched,  was  the  scene  of  another 
failure:  here  the  Knights  of  St  John  gallantly  and  suc- 
cessfully withstood  their  Mohammedan  foes,  and  compelled 
them  to  retire  from  the  island.  In  Albania  a  long  and. 
for  a  time,  successful  resistance  was  offered  to  the  Turkish 
arms  by  the  famous  George  Castriot,  the  Iskender  Beg 
of  the  Turks.  This  chieftain  had  been  in  his  youth.in  the 
service  of  MurAd  II.,  and  was  by  him  appointed  governor 
of  his  native  Albania,  whereupon  he  revolted  and  tried 
to  restore  the  independence  of  his  country.  Among  the 
favourite  designs  of  Muhammed  were  the  subjugation  of 
Italy  and  the  establishment  of  the  Mussulman  dominion 
in  the  capital  of  Western  Christendom.  A  Turkish  army 
crossed  the  Adriatic  and  stormed  the  city  of  Otranto  ;  but 
its  further  progress  was  slopped,  and  for  ever,  by  the  death 
of  the  Conqueror,  which  occurred  a  few  months  later, 
in  1481  (8SG).  The  Muharamedan  soldiers  besieged  in 
Otranto,  being  unsupported  from  Turkey,  were,  _flcr  a 
long  and  brave  defence,  forced  to  surrender. 

BAyezfd  II.  was  hardly  seated  on  the  throne  before  he  Bdyerid 
was  called  upon  to  face  a  formidable  revolt  raised  by  his  •!• 
younger  brother  Jem.  This  youthful  pretender,  who  was 
both  talented  and  high-spirited,  was,  after  a  number  of 
adventures,  finally  compelled  to  fly  the  country.  He  sought 
the  protection  of  the  Knights  of  St  John  at  Rhodes,  who, 
however,  retained  him  a  prisoner,  and  made  an  arrangement 
with  BAyezld  whereby  they  received  from  that  monarch  a 
yearly  sum  of  45,000  ducats  as  the  price  of  the  compulsory 
detention  of  his  brother.  After  thirteen  years  of  captivity 
the  unfortunate  prince  was  murdered  by  Pope  Alexander  VI. 
(Borgia),  who,  it  is  .said,  received  300,000  ducats  from  the 
sultan  a?  the  reward  of  his  crime.  Though  frequently 
compelled  to  engage  in  defensive  wars,  BAyezld  was  of  a 
peace-loving  and  unambitious  disposition,  and  a  few  towns 
in  the  Morea  were  all  the  additions  made  to  the  empire 
while  he  was  on  the  throne.  It  was  during  his  reign, 
however,  that  the  Ottoman  fleet  began  to  be  formidable  to 
Christendom,  the  desperate  battle  off  Sapienza,  won  by 
KemAI  Be'ls  against  the  Venetians,  being  the  first  of  the 
Turkish  naval  victories  over  the  Mediterranean  powers. 
BAyezld,  whose  pacific  habits  had  alienated  the  sympathies 
of  the  janissaries,  was  in  1512  (918)  forced  by  these  dreaded 
guards  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  Sellm,  the  youngest  of  his 
three  sons.  This  prince  had  already  been  in  open  revolt 
against  his  father ;  but  his  determined  and  warlike  char- 
acter had  won  for  him  the  esteem  of  Uie  Turkish  pra;lorians. 
BAyezid's  health,  which  had  long  been  failing,  gave  way 
under  this  blow  ;  and  the  old  sultan  died  three  days  after 
his  deposition,  at  a  little  village  on  the  way  to  Deinitoki», 
whither  he  was  going  to  end  his  life  in  retirement. 

Sellin  I.  was  personally  the  greatest  of  the  Ottoman 


1421-1566.] 


TURKEY 


643 


Selim  I.  monarchs  :  bis  unflinching  courage  and  tireless  vigour  were 
not  more  remarkable  ♦han  his  political  sagacity  and  his 
literary  and  poetic  talents ,  but  so  merciless  was  he  that 
he  has  always  been  known  in  Turkish  history  as  Yawuz 
Selira  or  Selim  the  Grim.     Happily  for  Europe  he  turned 
his  attention  to  the  neighbouring  Muhammedan  states  and 
left  the  Christian  powers  in  peace.     Having  caused  both 
his  brothers  to  be  put  to  death,  he  marched  against  Persia, 
the  king  of  which  country  had  given  refuge  to  the  family 
of  one  of  the  hapless  Turkish  princes.    The  quarrel  between 
them  was  further  embittered  by  religious  hatred  :  the  shih 
of  Persia  was  the  pillar  of  the  Shi'ites,  as  the  Ottoman 
sultan  was  of  the  Sunnites.     Selim  in  his  fanatical  zeal 
had  ordered  a  massacre  of  his  Shl'ite  subjects,  in  which 
forty-6ve  thousand  persons  suffered  death.     The  sh4h  was 
eager  to  avenge  the  slaughter  of  his  co-religronists.     The 
janissaries  showed  signs  of  insubordination  upon  the  march, 
but  Seltm  resoluteiy  maintained  order  and  reduced  them 
to  submission.    'At  length  they  came  upon  the  Persian 
host  drawn  out  on  the  plain  of  Chaldiran,  where  a  great 
battle  was  fought,  which  ended  in  the  rout  of  the  Persians 
and  left  the  way  to  Tabriz,  the  residence  of  the  Persian 
king,  open  to  the  sultan.     Thither  Selim  proceeded ;  but 
eight  days  later  he  set  out  on  his  homeward  march.     The 
battle  of  ChaHiran  brought  no  addition  of  importance  to 
the  empire;  but  the  districts  of  Diyir-Bekr  (Diarbekr) 
and  Kurdistin,  through  which  the  army  had  passed  on  the 
way  to  Persia,  were  completely  subdued  and  annexed  to  the 
OdD-        Ottoman  dominions.     Selim's  next  important  campaign 
ijnesi  of  yyas  against  the  Memliiks  of  Egypt.    This  body  of  Eastern 
S^'     chivalry  offered  a  most  gallant  resistance  to  the  'Osmanlis ; 
jcd  the    but,  possessing  no  artillery,  which  they  disdained  as  un- 
Hejii.     becoming  men  of  valour,  they  were  defeated  in  a  series 
of  engagements,  and  Selim  and  his  army  entered  Cairo  as 
conquerors  in   1517  (923).     The  results  of  this  war  were 
momentous  and  far-reaching :    the  Ottoman  empire  was 
greatly  increased  by  the  addition  of  Egypt,  Syria,  and  the 
Hejiz,  of  all  of  which  the  Memluks  had  been  lords ;  the 
caliphate  of  Islim  was  won  for  the  house  of  'Osmin,  Selfra 
constraining  the  representative  of  the  old  'Abbdsid  family, 
who  resided,  a  purely  spiritual  prince,  at  Cairo,  to  make 
over  to  him  and  his  heirs  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
successors  of  the  Prophet.     The  sultan  at  the  same  time 
acquired  from  him  the  sacred  banner  and  other  relics  of 
the  founder  of  Islam,  which  had  been  handed  down  to  the 
Arabian  prince  from  his  fathers,  and  which  are  now  pre- 
served in  the  seraglio  at  Constantinople.     On  his  return 
Selim   set  himself  to  strengthen  and  improve  his  fleet, 
doubtless  with  a  view  to  the  conquest  of   Rhodes.     He 
died,  however,  in  1520  (928),  before  his  extensive  prepara- 
tions were  completed.      This  sultan  reigned  only   eight 
years,  but  in  that  short  time  he  almost  doubled  the  extent 
of  the  Ottoman  empire. 
suJey-         Suleymin  1  ,  who  succeeded  his  father  Selim  as  sultan, 
■*°  '■     had  not  been  long  on  the  throne  before  he  found  himself 
involved  in  a  war  with  the  king  of  Hungary.     He  marched 
northwards  with  a  powerful  army  and  wrested  from  the 
enomy  several  places  of  importance,  including  the  strongly 
fortifled  city  of  Belgrade.     Having  left  a  large  garrison 
in  this  city,  which  was  regarded  as  the  key  to  the  Chris- 
tian lands  north  of  the  Danube,  the  sultan  returned  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  continued  his  father's  work  of 
Con-        creating  a  strong  and  eSicient  Ottoman  fleet.     When  all 
quest  of  was  ready  SuleymAn  set  out  for  Rhodes,  determined  to 
Rhodes,   wipe  away  the  disgrace  of  his  ancestor's  second  failure,  as 
be  had  done  that  of  his  first.    The  conquest  of  Egypt  had, 
moreover,  rendered  the  possession  of  Rhodes  necessary  to 
'.be  Turks,  as  the    passage  between   Constantinople  and 
their  new  acquisition  could  never  be  safe  so  long  as  that 
island  remained  in  hostile   hands.     The   Knights  of   St 


John  met  the  attack  in  a  manner  worthy  of  their  illustri- 
ous order ;  but  the  overwhelming  force  of  the  Ottomans  and 
the  hopelessness  of  any  relief  compelled  them  to  accept  the 
sultan's  terms.  These  were  highly  honourable  to  the  de- 
fenders, who  were  permitted  to  retire  unmolested,  while 
Suleymin  pledged  himself  to  respect  the  Christian  religion 
in  the  island,  which  now,  1522  (929),  became  his.  Four 
years  after  the  conquest  of  Rhodes  the  sultan  again 
invaded  Hungary,  where  in  the  renowned  battle  of  Mohacz 
he  annihilated  the  army  of  the  Magyars  and  slew  their 
king.  Thence  he  marched  along  the  Danube  to  Buda- 
Pesth,  which  opened  its  gates  to  him,  and  there  he  rested 
a  little  while  before  starting  on  his  homeward  way  The 
disturbed  state  of  Asia  Minor  hastened  Suleymiln's  depart- 
ure ,  but  in  three  years  (1529)  he  was  back  at  Buda,  osten 
sibly  as  the  ally  of  Zapolya,  an  Hungarian  who  claimed 
the  throne  left  vacant  by  Louis,  who  fell  at  Mohacz. 
Ferdinand  of  Austria  had  opposed  the  claim  of  Zapolya, 
who  thereon  had  applied  to  the  sultan  for  aid,  which  that 
monarch  was  most  willing  to  accord  The  troops  ol 
Ferdinand  being  driven  from  Buda,  Suleymin,  accom- 
panied by  bis  prot^g^,  advanced  upon  Vienna.  On  27th 
September  1529  the  vast  Turkish  host,  under  the  personal 
command  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  family  of  'Osmdn, 
laid  siege  to  the  capital  of  the  German  empire,  and  on  tba 
l4th  of  the  following  month,  after  a  most  desperate  assault 
carried  on  for  four  days,  the  invaders  were  compelled  to 
retire,  leaving  the  city  in  the  possession  of  its  heroic 
defenders.  The  torrent  of  Turkish  military  might  had 
now  reached  its  northern  limit .  once  again  it  vainly  swept 
round  the  walls  of  Vienna,  but  further  it  never  went 
Suleymin  next  directed  his  arms  against  Persia,  from 
which  country  he  won  a  large  portion  of  Armenia  and  'Irak  ' 
as  well  as  BaghdAd,  the  old  capital  of  the  'Abb4sid  caliphs. 
In  1542  he  was  again  in  Hungary,  having  been  appealed 
to  by  the  widow  of  Zapolya  on  behalf  of  her  infant  son 
against  the  pretensions  of  Ferdinand.  Suleymin  promised 
to  place  the  child  upon  the  throne  when  he  should  be  of  a 
proper  age ;  in  the  meantime  he  treated  Hungary  as  ar 
Ottoman  province,  dividing  it  into  sanjaks  or  military  dis 
tricts,  and  garrisoning  Buda  and  other  important  cities 
with  Turkish  troops.  Six  years  later  a  truce  for  five  year* 
was  concluded  between  the  sultan  and  Ferdinand,  whereby 
almost  all  Hungary  and  Transylvania  were  made  over  to 
the  former,  who  was  also  to  receive  a  yearly  present,  or 
more  correctly  tribute,  of  thirty  thousand  ducats.  The 
Turks,  now  at  the  zenith  of  their  power,  were  the  terror  of 
all  around  them.  The  achievements  of  the  Ottoman  navy 
during  the  reign  of  Suleymin  were  hardly,  if  at  all,  less  Anncj* 
remarkable  than  those  of  the  army.  Kbayr-ud-Din,  tbe'">oof 
Barbarossa  of  the  Europeans,  won  Algiers  for  Turkey,  and^l"'" 
held  the  Mediterranean  against  the  fleets  of  Spain  and  Tripoli 
Italy  ,  Torghud  added  Tripoli  to  the  empire ,  and  Piyila 
routed  the  galleys  of  Genoa,  Florence,  Naples,  and  Malta 
off  the  isle  of  Jerba.  But  fortune  did  not  always  smile 
upon  the  crescent.  In  1565  (973)  Suleymin  sustained 
the  second  great  check  be  was  destined  to  encounter.  The 
Turks  once  more  measured  swords  with  the  Knights  of  St 
John  and  drove  them  from  Malta,  which  had  been  given 
to  the  order  by  Charles  V  on  its  expulsion  from  Rhodes. 
A  powerful  Turkish  army  and  fleet,  commanded  by  oSicers 
of  renown,  were  accordingly  despatched  to  win  Malta  for 
the  Ottoman  crown  ;  but  so  valiantly  was  it  defended  that 
the  Turks  were  forced  to  withdraw  with  a  loss  of  twenty- 
five  thousand  men.  Suleymin  died  in  harness.  In  1566 
(974),  when  seventy-six  years  of  age,  he  entered  Hungary 
for  the  last  time,  summoned  thither  to  aid  bis  vassal,  young 
Sigismund  Zapolya.  Sziget,  a  place  which  had  foiled  the 
Turks  on  previous  occasions,  was  the  first  object  of  attack. 
Count  Zrinyi,  the  governor,  determined  to  resist  to  the  last, 


644 


TURKEY 


[distory. 


(O  the  OttoiTiana  found  themselves  compelled  to  undertake 
the  siege  of  this  comparatively  unimportant  town.  There 
on  the  night  of  4th  September  the  great  sultan  died,  and 
a  few  Lours  later  Count  Zrinyi  and  bis  brave  companions 
perished  amid  the  smoking  ruins  of  the  fortress  they  had 
most  nobly  held.  Under  SuleymAn  I.,  whom  Eurojican 
historians  call  the  Magnificent,  but  whom  his  own  people 
style  KAniinI  or  the  Lawgiver,  the  Turkish  empire  attained 
the  summit  of  its  power  and  glory.  The  two  great  dis- 
asters, at  Vienna  and  Malta,  were  eclipsed  by  the  number 
and  brilliancy  of  the  sultan's  victories,  by  which  large  and 
important  additions  were  made  to  the  empire  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa. 
Sclioi  Selim  II.,  the  unworthy  son  and  successor  of  the  Magni- 

"•  ficent  SuleymAn,   was  the   first   Ottoman    monarch  who 

shrank  from  leading  his  army  in  person.     Ue  was  a  man 
of  mean  and  ignoble  character,  whose  sole  pleasure  seems 
to  have  consisted  in  the  indulgence  of  his  degraded  tastes 
ind  vicious  appetites.     The  first  conflict  between  the  Turks 
and  the  Russians  occurred  in   his  reign.     In  view  of  a 
threatened  war  with  Persia,  the  grand  vizier  ^okolli  con- 
ceived tlie  idea  of  uniting  the  rivers  Don  and  Volga  by  a 
canal,  by  means  of  which  an  Ottoman  fleet  could  be  sent 
into  the  Caspian.     Buf  in  order  to  carry  out  this  scheme 
it  was  necessary  that  the  town  of  Astrakhan  should  be  in 
the  hands  of  the  Turks.     A  considerable  force  was  accord- 
ingly despatched  from  Constantinople  to  take  possession 
of    that   city;   but   the    Russian    army  which    Ivan   the 
Terrible  sent  to  its  relief  drove  back  the  Turks  and  their 
Tatar  allies  from  before  the  walls,  15G9  (977).     Cyprus 
was  the  next  object  of  attack.    This  island,  which  belonged 
to  Venice,  was  assailed  and  taken,  though  not  without 
heavy  loss,  at  a  time  of  peace  between  the  republic  and 
the  Porte,  1J70-7I  (978).     The  Christian  powers  of  the 
Mediterranean  were  roused  and  alarmed   by  this  act  of 
treachery,  and  a  maritime  league  was  formed  through  the 
Eti'orts  of  Pope  Pius  V.,  with  Spain,  Venice,  and  Malta  for 
its  most  important  members.     On  7th  October  1571  the 
Christian  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Don  John  of  Austria, 
encountered  the  Ottoman  ships,  led  by  the  galley  of  the 
feapudan  pasha,  Mu'czzin-zida  'All,  just  outside  the  Gulf 
of  Lepanto.     A  furious  conflict  ensued,  which  resulted  in 
the  utter  defeat  of  the  Turks,  their  admiral  being  killed 
and  their  fleet  almost  anndjilated.      This  famous   fight, 
although  it  brought  little  immediate  material  advantage 
to  the  victors,  was  of  the  highest  moral  value  to  them  ;  for 
it  broke  the  spell  of  Barbarossa,  and  showed   that  the 
Ottoman  was  no  longer  invincible  on  the  seas.     The  only 
other  event  of  imjiortance  during  this  reign  was  the  final 
conquest  of  Tunis  for  Turkey  by  Kilij  'All,  who  won  it 
from  the  Spaniards  in  1574  (982).     Selim  II.  died  miser- 
ably the  same  year. 
Murid         Mur.ld  III.,  who  now  succeeded  to  the  Ottoman  throne, 
'"■         was  no  improvement  upon  his  father ;  he  ruled  in  name 
only,  all  real  power  being  in  the  hands  of  worthless  favour- 
ites.    As  a  natural  consequence  the  empire  began  rapidly 
to  decay  ;  corruption  infected  all  ranks  of  official  society, 
the  sultan  himself  selling  his  favours  for  bribes;  while 
the  other  great  curse  of  old  Turkey,  military  insubordiua- 
tion,  showed  itself  in  a  more  threatening  aspect  than  ever. 
The  janissaries  mutinied  on  several  occasions,  and  each 
lime  compelled  the  weak  Murid  to  accede  to  their  demand. 
Notwithstanding  this  wretched  state  of  afl"airs,  some  exten- 
sive and  important,  though  not  permanent,  additions  were 
made  to  the  empire.     These;  consisting  of  Azerbijan  and 
Georgia — the  latter  had  been  in  alliance  with  Persia — were 
the  result  of  a  campaign  against  the  last-named  country, 
the  internal  condition  of  which  was  then  even  worse  than 
that  of  Turkey.     Transylvania,  Moldavia,  and   VValachia 
rose  in  revolt,  encouraged  by  the  war  which  broke  out  in 


1593  between  Turkey  and  Austria,  In  1594  hostilities 
with  Persia  were  resumed ;  and  early  in  the  following 
year  MurAd  died,  leaving  the  empire  to  his  eldest  son 
Muliamnied  III. 

Things  had  been  going  very  badly  in  tin-  war  with  Muharo- 
Austria,  when  in  June  1596  the  grand  vizier  and  the  mufti,  •""I  m- 
joining  their  voices  with  that  of  Sa'dud-DIn  the  historian, 
prevailed  upon  the  new  sultan,  whose  character  resembled 
only  too  closely  that  of  his  father,  to  place  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Ottoman  army  which  was  about  to  march  into 
Hungary.  Four  months  later  Muhammed  met  the  imperi- 
alists under  the  archduke  Maximilian,  and  the  TransyN 
vanians  led  by  Prince  Sigismund,  on  the  marshy  plain  ol 
Keresztes,  where  a  battle  lasting  three  days  took  place. 
Although  at  one  time  things  looked  so  hopeless  for  the 
Turks  that  the  sultan  would  have  fled  but  for  the  entreatiea 
and  remonstrances  of  Sa'd-ud-DIn,  the  'Osroinlis  gained 
a  complete  and  decisive  victory.  But  nothing  came  of 
it;  for  Muhammed,  instead  of  following  up  his  success, 
hastened  back  to  Constantinople  to  receive  the  congratu- 
lations of  his  courtiers  and  to  resume  his  indolent  and 
voluptuous  life.  Nothing  else  worthy  of  note  occurred 
during  his  inglorious  reign.     He  died  in  1603  (1012). 

Muhammed  III.  was  the  last  heir  to  the  Ottoman 
throne  who  was  entrusted  with  the  government  of  a  pro- 
vince during  his  father's  lifetime  ;  henceforth  all  the  sons 
of  the  sultan  were  kept  secluded  in  a  pavilion  called  the 
Kafes  or  cage  ia  the  seraglio  gardens.  This  new  system, 
which  was  necessarily  very  prejudicial  to  the  character  of 
the  future  rulers,  had  its  origin  in  the  same  dread  of  rivals 
that  caused  a  sultan  in  those  times  to  put  all  his  brothers 
to  death  immediately  on  his  accession. 

The  reign  of  Alimed  I.  is  not  marked  by  any  event  of  Ahnie.i' 
importance.  The  peace  of  Sitavorok  (Zsitvatorot)  between 
Turkey  and  Austria,  1606  (1015),  made  no  change  of  any 
moment  in  the  territorial  possessions  of  either  power,  but 
is  interesting  as  being  the  first  treaty  in  which  an  Ottoman 
sultan  condescended  to  meet  a  Christian  prince  on  a  footing 
of  equality.  Hitherto  the  Turkish  monarchs  had  aflected  ■ 
to  grant  merely  short  truces  to  their  European  enemies. 
But  this  peace  was  to  be  permanent ;  the  annual  |)ayment 
or  tribute  of  thirty  thousand  ducats  by  Austria  was  to  be 
discontinued  ;  and  the  ambassadors  sent  from  the  Porto 
were  now  to  be  olEcials  of  rank,  and  not,  as  formerly, 
menials  of  the  palace  or  camp. 

Ahmed  died  in  1617  (1026)  and  was  succeeded  by  his  Musla/* 
brother  Mustafa  I.  Up  till  this  time  the  succession  bad  J- 
been  regularly  from  father  to  son  ;  but,  as  Mustafa's  life 
had  been  spared  by  his  brother  on  his  accession,  that  prince 
now  ascended  the  throne  in  preference  to  'OsmAn,  the 
eldest  son  of  Ahmed  I.  This  arose  from  the  peculiar  nature 
of  the  Turkish  law  of  succession,  which  gives  the  throne 
to  the  eldest  male  relative  of  the  deceased  sovereign. 
Mustafa  was,  however,  imbecile;  so  after  a  reign  of  three 
months  he  was  deposed,  and  his  nephew  'OsmAn,  though 
only  fourteen  years  of  age,  seated  on  the  throne  in  his 
stead. 

An  unsuccessful  war  with  Persia,  which  had  been  going  'Osmii 
on  for  some  time,  was  now  brought  to  an  end  by  a  treaty  "• 
which  restored  to  the  shAh  all  the  territories  conquered 
since  the  days  of  Selim  11.  In  1621  the  sultan  led  his 
troops  against  Poland,  partially  with  the  view  of  weaken- 
ing the  janissaries,  whom  he  justly  regarded  as  the  most 
deadly  enemies  of  his  empire.  This  expedition  was  not 
attended  by  any  important  results,  neitlicr  Turks  nor  Poles 
gaining  a  decisive  advantage.  On  his  return  'OsmAn 
formed  another  plan  for  freeing  himself  from  his  tyranni- 
cal soldiery:  he  gave  out  that  he  was  going  to  make  the 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  but  his  real  intention  was  to  proceed 
only  as  far  as  Damascus,  there  place  himself  at  the  bead 


1566  1687] 


TURKEY 


645 


of  an  Asiatic  army,  and  march  against  the  janissaries  and 
si])4hl3  in  Constantinople.  But  the  janissaries  heard  of 
this  design  and  rose  in  revolt.  Incited  by  a  vizier  whom 
'OsmAn  had-  deposed,  they  seized  their  sovereign  and 
dragged  him  to  the  state  prison  of  the  Seven  Towers, 
where  shortly  afterwards  he  was  foully  murdered  by  the 
traitor  minister,  1622  (1031). 

The  wretched  Mustafa  was  again  raised  to  the  throne, 
only  to  bo  deposed  fifteen  months  afterwards  in  favour  of 
MurAd,  the  eldest  surviving  brother  of  'OsniAn. 
ISarii  In  MurAd  IV.,  who  succeeded  to  the  supreme  power  in 
^-  1623  (1032),  when  a  child  of  eleven  years,  Turkey  had 
once  more  a  sultan  of  the  old  'OsmAnli  type.  Since  the. 
death  of  Suleymin  the  empire  had  been  cursed  with  a  suc- 
cession of  rois  faineants,  under  whom  it  had  rapidly  fallen 
to  decay.  The  vigour  and  courage  of  the  new  sultan 
stayed  it  for  a  "while  upon  its  downward  course,  and  re- 
stored to  it  something  of  its  bygone  glory.  While  still 
quite  young,  MurAd  had  been  compelled  by  the  mutinous 
janissaries  to  deliver  into  their  cruel  hands  his  favourite 
vizier,  HAfiz  Pasha.  This  embittered  him  against  that 
corps,  and,  when  soon  afterwards  the  soldiers  began  openly 
to  discuss  his  deposition,  MurAd  swiftly  and  suddenly  cut 
off  the  ringleaders  and  all  others  whom  he  suspected  of 
disloyally;  this  struck  fear  into  the  hearts  of  the  dis- 
affected soldiers,  who,  finding  themselves  without  any  to 
organize  or  direct  them,  returned  to  their  allegiance. 
MurAd  next  turned  his  attention  to  checking  the  intoler- 
able corruption  and  abuses  which  pervaded  every  depart- 
ment of  the  state.  He  had  but  one  simple  though  terribly 
drastic  method  of  refcrm, — the  execution  of  every  official 
whom  he  even  suspected  of  any  malpractice.  Having  re- 
stored some  sort  of  order  in  his  capital,  MurAd  marched 
agamst  Persia  and  recaptured  the  city  and  district  of 
Erivan.  In  163S  (lOIS)  he  undertook  a  second  and  more 
imiMjrtant  campaign  against  the  same  power.  His  object 
was  the  recovery  of  Baghdid,  "which  had  been -taken  by 
the  shAli's  troops  some  si.xteen  years  before.  The  Persians 
resisted  long  and  gallantly,  but  at  length  the  Turks  carried 
the  city  by  storm,  when  MurAd  disgraced  himself  by  the 
slaughter  of  a  vast  number  of  the  inhabitants.  '  By  the 
peace  which  followed  Turkey  restored  Erivan  to  Persia, 
but  retained  Baghd.Ad,  which  has  been  in  its  Lands  ever 
since.  Mur.Ad  on  his  return  entered  Constantinople  in 
triumph.  Tbis  sultan  died  in  1040(1040);  his  death  is 
said  to  have  been  hastened  by  habits  of  intemperance, 
which  he  had  contracted  towards  the  close  of  his  life, 
fbrililm.  IbrAhiin,  the  brother  of  the  late  sultan,  now  mounted 
the  Ottoman  throne.  He  was  another  of  those  wretched 
princes  who  gave  themselves  up  to  the  indulgence  of  their 
0".vn  follies  and  vices  without  bestowing  a  thought  n|ion 
the  welfare  of  their  people  or  the  prosperity  of  their 
country.  All  the  evils  that  had  been  curbed  for  a  time 
by  the  stern  hand  of  MurAd  broke  out  afresh  and  in  wor.'ic 
form  than  before.  The  sultan  himself  was  the  most  venal 
of  the  venal.  Shut  up  in  the  seraglio,  he  tliouglit  of 
nothing  but  the  gratification  of  his  own  and  his  favourites' 
caprices,  gem-encrusted  coaches  and  ])lcasurc- boats,  and 
carpets  and  hangings  of  richest  sable  for  his  rooms,  were 
among  the  objects  for  which  he  plundered  his  people  and 
Bold  every  office  to  the  highest  bidder.  This  went  on  for 
eight  years,  till  at  length  his  subjcct.s,  weary  of  his  ex- 
actions and  tyranny,  deposed  Iiim,  and  made  his  son  Mu- 
liammcd,  then  only  seven  years  of  age,  sultan  in  his  room. 
The  only  events  of  note  that  occurred  during  IbrAhlm's 
tenure  of  power  are  the  capture  of  Azoff  from  the  Cossacks 
imd  the  occupation  of  Crete.  This  island,  which  was  then 
in  the  hands  of  Venice,  was  soon  overrun,  but  it  was  not 
till  Weil  on  in  the  next  reign,  after  a  siege  of  twenty  years, 
that  the  Ottomans  succeeded  in  taking  Candia  the  capital. 


The  minority  of  Muhammed  IV.,  -who  became  sultan  in  Muliam- 
164S  (1058),  was  marked  by  all  the  troubles  and  evils  that  med  'V. 
might  have  been  anticipated,  until  the  grand  vizierate  was 
conferred  on  Koprili  Muhammed  in  1G56  (1067).  This 
statesman,  who  was  seventy  years  old  when  he  entered 
upon  the  duties  of  prime  minister  of  Turkey,  was  the 
founder  of  an  illustrious  family  of  viziers,  whose  integrity 
and  strength  of  character  did  much  to  counteract  the  per- 
nicious inOuence  of  degenerate  sultans  and  to  prop  up  for 
a  season  the  declining  empire.  Old  Kciprili  accepted  the 
office  of  grand  vizier  only  upon  condition  of  receiving  abso- 
lute power;  this  he  employed  much  in  the  same  way  as 
MurAd  IV.  had  done  when  he  set  about  the  work. of  reform: 
he  executed  every  one  who  fell  under  his  suspicion.  He 
died  in  1G6!  (1072),  leaving  the  vizierate  to  his  son  FAzil 
Ahmed.  Alimed  was,  like  his  father,  a  man  of  great 
ability,  and  happily  for  Turkey  he  enjoyed  the  complete 
confidence  of  the  young  sultan,  who  cared  for  notbing  but 
the  chase,  whence  he  is  called  in  the  Ottoman  histories 
Avji  Muhammed  or  Muhammed  the  Huntsman.  Before 
long  Alimed  was  called  on  to  lead  the  Turkish  army 
against  Austria.  He  took  Neuhiiusel  and  several  places 
of  little  importance  ;  but  near  the  convent  of  St  Ootthard 
(on  the  Raab)  he  was  completely  defeated  in  1G64  (1075) 
by  a  smaller  Christian  force  under  Montccuculi.  A  truce 
for  twenty  years  on  the  basis  of  the  treaty  of  Sitavorok 
was  the  result  of  this  battle ;  the  Ottomans,  however,  re- 
tained Neuhiiusel.  Ahmed  next  appeared  in  arms  in  Crete, 
for  the  purpose  of  bringing  to  a  close  the  siege  of  Candia, 
which  had  been  going  on  ever  since  1648 ;  but  it  was  not 
till  other  three  years  had  passed  that  the  brave  garrison 
opened  the  gates  to  the  grand  vizier,  in  1669  (1079).  The 
sultart  himself  was  induced  to  head  the  next  campaign, 
which  was  undertaken  on  behalf  of  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Ukraine,  who  had  craved  the  protection  of  tlie  Porte 
against  Poland.  The  Turks  took  the  cities  of  Kamenetz 
and  Lcmberg,  whereupon  King  Michael  sued  for  peace, 
1672  (1083),  and  promised  to  make  over  Podolia  and  tlie 
Ukraine  to  Turkey  and  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  of  220,000 
ducats.  The  sultan  accepted  these  terms  and  returned 
home  in  triumph  ;  but  the  Poles  refused  to  be  bound  by 
them,  and  under  the  command  of  Sobieski  they  attacked 
and  defeated  the  troops  of  Ahmed  Pasha.  Tbe  war  lasted 
till  1676,  when  it  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  treaty  of 
Zurawno,  which  left  the  sultan  in  possession  of  Podolia  and 
almost  all  the  Ukraine.  Three  days  after  this  peace  was 
signed  Ahmed  Pasha  died.  Few  men  have  done  more  to 
ruin  their  country  than  Kara  Mustafa,  who  succeeded 
Ahmed  in  the  grand  vizierate.  His  pet  scheme  was  the 
conquest  of  Germany  and  the  establishment  of  a  great 
Turkish  province  between  the  Danube  and  the  Pliine,  wilh 
himself  as  nominal  viceroy  but  virtual  sovereign.  He 
accordingly  marched  with  an  enormous  army,  probably  not  Siege  of 
far  off  half  a  million  strong,  against  Vienna.  In  the  Vienna, 
summer  of  1683  (1094)  this  mighty  host  appeared  before 
the  walls  of  the  Austrian  capital.  For  an  account  of  the 
siege,  see  vol.  xix.  p.  296.  A  few  weeks  after  his  discom- 
fiture Kara  Mustafa  was  executed  at  Belgrade  by  the 
sultan's  order.s.  Venice  and  Russia  now  declared  war 
against  Turkey ;  misfortune  followed  misfortune  ;  city  after 
city  was  rent  away  from  the  empire  ;  the  Auslrians  were 
in  possession  of  almost  the  whole  of  Hungary,  the  Italians 
of  almost  all  the  Morea.  At  length  a  severe  defeat  at 
Mohacz,  where  SuleymAn  had  triumphed  years  before, 
exhausted  the  patience  of  tbe  soldiery,  and  JIuhammed 
IV.  was  deposed  in  IGS'/  (1099). 

The  first  year  of  the  reign  cf  SuleymAn  II.,  who  sue-  Snl«y- 
cecded  his  brother,  was  marked  by  a  serious  mutiny  of  the  '^^o  I^ 
janissaries  of   the  capital,  who,  aided  by  the  dregs  of  the 
population,  created  a  reign  of  terror  in  Constantinople, 


646 


TURKEY 


[histobt. 


during  wliich  they  pillaged  the  palaces  of  the  principal 
oflBcers  of  the  government  and  murdered  the  grand  vizier, 
along  with  many  of  the  members  of  his  household.  The 
Austrians,  under  Charles  of  Lorraine,  Louis  of  Baden,  and 
Prince  Eugene,  were  carrying  all  before  them  in  the  north  : 
Eriau,  Belgrade,  and  Stuhlweissenburg  fell  into  their  hands; 
and  by  the  end  of  1689  the  Ottomans  had  lost  almost  all 
their  former  possessions  beyond  the  Danube.  Meanwhile 
the  Venetian  leader,  Morosini,  was  equally  successful  in  the 
Morea,  completing  the  conquest  of  that  province,  which  he 
added  to  the  dominions  of  St  Mark.  When  matters  had 
come  to  this  pass,  the  sultan  summoned  an  extraordinary 
meeting  of  the  divan  to  consult  on  the  measures  to  be 
taken  to  meet  the  danger  threatening  on  every  hand.  By 
the  unanimous  advice  of  his  ministers,  Suleymin  appointed 
to  the  grand  vizierate  Koprilizida  Mustafa,  another  son  of 
old  Koprili  Muhammed.  This  statesman,  who  had  beer 
trained  in  the  duties  of  office  under  his  father  and  brother, 
worthily  upheld  the  high  name  of  his  house.  He  gave  up 
the  whole  of  his  gold  and  silver  plate  to  be  coined  into 
monev  wherewith  to  pay  the  troops  ;  he  sought  out  the 
best  men  to  fill  positions  of  trust  and  responsibility  in  the 
army  and  navy  ;  '.nd  he  exercised  and  encouraged  a  wise 
and  just  policy  of  toleration  towards  the  Christian  subjects 
of  tiie  sultan.  Such  was  the  confidence  which  his  high 
character  ar.d  illustrious  connexion  inspired  that  large 
numbers  of  volunteers  hastened  to  join  the  Turkish  hosts  ; 
and  in  a  very  few  weeks  from  the  time  when  he  took  com- 
mand of  the  army  Mustafa  had  driven  the  Austrians  out 
of  Servia,  and  Belgrade  once  more  received  a  garrison  of 
Ottoman  troops.  Mustafa  returned  in  triumph  to  Con- 
stantinople, where,  early  in  the  summer  of  1691  ^1102), 
SuleymAn  II.  died,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by 
his  brother  Ahmed  II. 
Ahmed  The  most  important  event  which  occurred  during  the 
"  brief  and  disastrous  reign  of  this  monarch  was  the  defeat 

and  death  at  Slankamen  (Szlankament)  of   Koprili-zida 
Mustafa,  who  in  .August  1691  advanced  from  Belgrade  to 
attack  the  .\ustrians  under  Louis  of  Baden.     The  un- 
fortunate rtsult  of  the  battle  was  in  great  measure  owing 
to  the  rashness  of  the  vizier,  who,  in  opposition  to  the 
advice  of  the  oldest  and  most  experienced  of  his  officers, 
refused  to  await  behind  the  lines  the  attack  of  the  enemy. 
The  Ottomans  fought  with  despsrate  courage  ;  but  the  day 
was  decided  against  them  by  the  death  of  Mustafa,  who 
was  shot  while  cutting  his  way  through  the  Christian  ranks. 
Ahmed  11,  reigned  for  four  years,  during  which  the  hapless 
empire,  besides  continuing  to  suffer  defeat  at  the  hands  of 
foreign  foes,  was  visited  with  the  eurses  of  pestilence  and 
"domestic  insurrection 
Mosufa       On  the  death  of  Ahmed  II.  in  the  year  1695  (1106) 
■  31  "        Mustafa  II.,  son  of   >iuliammed  IV.,  was  girt  with  the 
sword  of  'Osmiln      The  new  sultan,  aware  of  the  pitiful 
condition   to  which    the   empire   had   sunk,   in   part,   at 
least,  through  the  negligence  and  indifference  of  his  pre- 
decessors, resohed  to  restore  the  old  Ottoman  usages,  and 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  armies.     His  first  cam- 
paign  was  altogether  successful  .   he   recaptured  several 
important  fortresses  and  totally  defeated  a  great  Austrian 
army      During  the  following  winter  he  worked  hard  to 
repair  the  finances  and  bring  the  forces  of  the  empire 
into  a  higher  state  of  efficiency  ;  and,  when  he  set  out  in 
the  spring  against  the  Austrians,  fortune  continued  to 
smile  upon  his  banners.     He  defeated  the  duke  of  Saxe, 
raised  the  siege  of  Temesvar,  and  strengthened  the  garri- 
sons   of    those   fortresses    which    Turkey    still    held    in 
Hungary.     But  in  the  next  year,  1697,  all  was  changed  : 
Prince  Eugene  was  at  the  head  of  the  Austrians,  and  on 
the  banks  of  the  Theiss,  near  Zenta,  the  Turks  sustained 
an  overwhelming  defeat,  which  compelled  the  sultan  to 


retreat  to  Temesvar.  Thence  he  returned  to  Constanfr 
nople,  and  never  again  led  an  army  against  the  enemy. 
Recourse  was  onco  more  had  to  the  house  of  Koprili,  and 
Amuja-zdda  Huseyn,  a  nephew  of  old  Koprili  Muiiammed, 
was  promoted  to  the  grand  vizierate.  Huseyn  raised  ftesh 
troops  ;  but  he  saw  that  what  was  really  needful  was  peace, 
and  this  he  succeeded  in  bringing  about  At  Carlowitz  Peac'  ■ ' 
on  26th  January  1699  a  peace  was  arranged,  through  the^^'' 
intervention  of  England  and  Holland,  between  Turkey 
on  the  one  hand  apj  Austria,  Venice,  Russia,  and  Poland 
on  the  other.  The  basis  of  the  treaty,  agreed  to  with 
certain  modifications,  was  that  each  power  should  retain 
the  territories  in  its  possessic'n  at  the  time  of  opening 
negotiations.  This  arrangement  left  Austria  in  possession 
of  Transylvania  and  almost  all  Hungary  and  Slavonia ; 
Venice  remained  mistress  of  its  conquests  in  Dalmatia 
and  the  Morea ;  Poland  received  Podolia ;  and  Russia, 
which  under  Peter  the  Great  was  only  now  becoming  con- 
scious'of  its  strength,  retained  AzoSi  which  it  had  wrested 
from  Turkey  three  years  before.  Huseyn  Pasha  took 
advantage  of  the  restoration  of  peace  to  check  the  disorders 
which  had  sprung  up  in  various  parts  of  the  empire,  and 
to  endeavour  to  effect  much- needed  reforms  in  many  de- 
partments of  the  state.  But  unfortunately  his  efforts  were 
thwarted  by  others  less  disinterested  than  himself ;  and, 
broken-hearted  by  the  calamities  of  his  country,  he  retired 
from  office  three  years  after  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  and 
very  shortly  afterwards  died.  Mustafa  II.  very  soon 
followed  the  example"  of  his  minister,  and  abdicated  in 
1703  (1115)  in  favour  of  his  brother  Ahmed  III. 

Although  the  peace  of  the  empire  was  often  broker  Aimed 
during  his  reign,  Ahmed  III.  was  uot  of  a  warlike  disposi- 
tion, and  all  the  representations  and  entreaties  of  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden,  who  after  the  disaster  of  Pultowa  had 
taken  refuge  in  Turkey,  failed  to  induce  him  to  re-open 
hostilities  with  the  czar.  In  1710  Nu'min  Pasha,  son  of 
Amuja-zAda  Huseyn,  and  the  last  of  the  Koprili  family,  was 
appointed  grand  vizier.  Though  able  and  tolerant,  he  was 
so  much  addicted  to  interfering  in  the  business  of  his  sub- 
ordinates that  he  became  the  object  of  general  dislike, 
and  w-as  dismissed  from  his  office  after  holding  it  for  four- 
teen months.  The  menacing  preparations  of  Russia  in  the 
south  had  more  influence  with  the  Porte  than  the  prayers 
of  the  Swedish  king,  and  in  1711  the  new  grand  vizier, 
Baltaji  Muhammed,  marched  into  Moldavia  to  meet  the 
forces  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  had  formed  an  entrenched 
camp  near  the  village  of  Hush,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Pruth.  Here  the  vizier  blockaded  him,  and  after  two  days' 
severe  fighting  compelled  him  to  .'•urrender  with  all  his 
army.  By  the  treaty  which'  followed  the  czar  pledged 
himself,  among  other  things,  to  restore  the  fortress  of  ."^zofl 
and  its  dependencies  to  the  sultan,  and  to  <:rant  the  king 
of  Sweden  a  free  and  safe  passage  to  his  own  country 
through  the  Muscovite  dominions.  The  lenity  of  Baltaji 
Muhammed  in  not  destroying  the  czar  and  his  army  when 
they  were  within  his  grasp  caused  such  discontent  at  Con- 
stantinople that  he  was  dismissed  from  the  vizierate,  which 
was  conferred  on  'All  Pasha,  known  as  Dim4d  'All  or  'All 
the  Son-in-Law,  from  the  circumstance  of  bis  having 
married  a  daughter  of  the  sultan.  This  vizier  distinguished 
himself  by  winning  back  from  Venice  the  whole  of  the 
Morea  in  a  single  campaign  (1715).  His  next  venture, 
a  war  against  Aus»  a,  undertaken  in  the  following  year, 
had  a  very  different  issue,  he  himself  being  slain  and  his 
army  routed  in  a  great  battle  at  Peterwardcin.  Next  year 
Prince  Eugene,  the  conqueror  of  DAm4d  'Ali,  laid  siege  to 
Belgrade,  which  he  forced  to  capitulate  after  driving  off  a 
large  army  sent  by  the  Turks  to  its  relief.  These  cvente  Treaty  of 
led  to  the  peace  oi  rassarowiU  .  i  !71S,  by  which  Austria ^^• 
acquired  that  portion  of  Hiing..iy  which  had  remained  in 


1687-1791. 


TURKEY 


647 


MAluaid 
t 


Wan 
nth 


Msstals 
Ut" 


Coaqnest 
ofCrimea 
by 
Sassga, 


the  possession  of  Turkey,  as  ^ell  as  extensive  territories  in 
Servia  and  VTalachia.  The  grand  vizier  Ibrihim,  another 
son-m-law  of  the  sultan,  who  was  at  the  head  of  affairs  from 
17 IS  to  1730,  contrived  to  secure  for  the  empire  an  un- 
usually long  respite  from  internal  disorders ;  but  the  sultan's 
love  of  costly  pomp  and  splendour  and  the  luxurious  magni- 
ficence of  his  court  rendered  him  so  unpopular  that,  in 
consequence  of  a  riot  in  the  autumn  of  1730  (1143),  he 
voluntarily  abdicated  the  throne,  and  his  nephew  MahmUd 
L  became  pidishdh  in  his  stead.  (e.  j.  w.  g.) 

Hiitory  from  1718 

With  the  treaty  of  Passarowitz  the  Venetian  republic 
disappears  from  the  scene  of  Turkish  warfare.  Russia 
gradually  becomes  a  more  formidable  enemy  than  Austria ; 
and  the  subject  Christian  races  imperceptibly  enter  on  the 
fii«t  stages  of  national  consolidation  and  revivaL  After 
the  long  and  resultless  war  with  Persia  hostilities  again 
broke  out  with  Russia  in  1736  Marshal  Munnich  stormed 
the  lines  of  Perekop  and  devastated  the  Crimea ;  but  he 
was  unable  to  mamtaiii  his  army  there  and  retreated  ^-ith 
greatly  diminished  forces.  Azoff  was  taken  by  General 
lAscy  ,  and  in  the  following  year  Otchakoff  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Mimnich,  while  the  Crimea  was  again  invaded 
and  ravaged  Austria  now  joined  Russia,  and  the  Porte 
had  to  sustain  a  war  in  Servia  and  Bosnia  as  well  as  on 
the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  double  combat  was 
earned  on  with  very  different  results.  While  the  Russians 
won  victory  after  victory,  and  finally  penetrated  into  the 
heart  of  Moldavia,  the  Austrians  were  defeated  and  driven 
across  the  Danube.  On  their  advancing  from  Belgrade 
in  the  summer  of  1739  they  were  defeated  with  great  loss 
at  Krotzka,  and  compelled  to  sue  for  peace.  The  treaty 
of  Belgrade,  which  was  signed  on  1st  September  1739, 
restored  to  the  Porte  Belgrade  and  Orsova,  with  the 
portions  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Walachia  which  it  had 
ceded  to  Austria  at  the  peace  of  Passarowitz.  Russia, 
unable  to  continue  the  war  with  a  victorious  Turkish  army 
ready  to  fall  upon  its  flank,  had  to  conclude  peace  on  very 
moderate  terms.  It  received  Azoff,  but  under  a  stipulation 
that  the  fortifications  should  be  razed,  and  that  no  Russian 
vessels  of  war  should  be  kept  either  on  the  Black  Sea  or 
on  the  Sea  of  Azoff  The  peace  was  the  last  advantageous 
one  made  by  the  Porte  without  allies ,  and  the  succeeding 
thirty  years  were  on  the  whole  a  period  of  respite  from 
misfortune. 

After  this  followed  the  wars  with  the  empress  Catherine, 
before  whose  genius  and  resources  it  seemed  as  if  Turkey 
must  inevitably  sink  mto  nothingness.  The  first  contest 
was  provoked  by  the  armed  intervention  of  the  empress  in 
Polish  affairs  and  her  well-known  intrigues  with  rebellious 
subjects  of  the  Porte.  War  was  rashly  declared  by  Mustafa 
m.  in  October  1768.  In  1769  the  Russians  entered 
Moldavia  and  captured  the  fortress  of  Choczin  (Chotim) ; 
in  the  following  year  their  armies  made  good  the  conquest 
of  Moldavia  and  Walachia,  while  a  fleet  from  the  Baltic 
entered  the  Greek  Archipelago  and  landed  troops  in  the 
Morea.  The  Greeks  of  the  Morea  rose  in  insurrection  ; 
they  were,  however,  overpowered,  and  the  small  Russian 
force  withdrew,  leaving  the  Greeks  to  the  vengeance  of 
their  conquerors.  At  sea  the  Turks  suffered  a  severe  defeat 
near  Chios,  and  their  fleet  was  subsequently  blockaded  and 
set  on  fire  in  the  Bay  of  Tchesme,  the  principal  officers  in 
the  Russian  navy  being  Englishmen.  Assistance  was, 
moreover,  given  by  the  Russians  to  All  Bey,  a  Mameluke 
chieftain  who  was  in  rebellion  against  the  Porte  in  Egypt, 
and  to  Tahir,  a  sheikh  who  had  made  himself  independent 
at  Acre.  In  1771  the  Russians  invaded  and  conquered 
the  Crimea.  Austria  now  took  alarm,  and  signed  a  con- 
vention with  the  Porte  preparatory  to  armed  intervention. 


But  the  partition  of  Poland  reunited  the  three  neighbour- 
ing Christian  powers  and  prevented  a  general  war.  An 
armistice  was  agreed  upon  between  Russia  and  the  Porte^ 
and  negotiations  followed.  These  were  broken  off  in  1773. 
The  Russians  crossed  the  Danube,  and,  though  unsuccess- 
ful in  their  attempts  upon  Silistria  and  Varna,  so  com- 
pletely defeated  the  Turkish  forces  in  the  field  that  on 
21st  July  1774  the  Porte  concluded  peace  at  Kutchuk- 
Kainardji  under  conditions  more  unfavourable  than  those 
which  it  had  rejected  in  the  previous  year.  The  Tartar 
territory  of  the  Crimea,  with  Kuban  and  the  adjoining 
districts,  was  made  into  an  independent  state,  Russia 
retaining  Azofii  Kertch,  and  KinburiL  Moldavia  and 
Walachia  were  restored,  but  on  the  condition  that,  as 
occasion  might  require,  the  Russian  minister  at  Constan- 
tinople might  remonstrate  in  their  favour.  Russia,  in  fact, 
was  given  a  species  of  protectorate  over  these  provinces. 
Permission  was  given  to  Russia  to  erect  a  church  in  Con- 
stantinople, and  the  following  engagement  was  made . 
"  The  Porte  promises  to  protect  the  Christian  religion  and 
its  churches ;  and  it  also  allows  the  court  of  Russia  to 
make  nf>on  all  occasions  representations  as  well  in  favour 
of  the  new  church  at  Constantinople  as  on  behalf  of  its 
ministers,  promising  to  take  such  representations  into  con- 
sideration." Out' of  this  clause  arose  the  claim  of  Russia 
to  the  right  of  protection  over  all  the  Christian  subjects 
of  the  Porte,  though  the  specific  right  of  intervention  was 
clearly  attached  only  to  a  smgle  church  and  its  ministers. 
By  other  clauses  in  the  treaty  the  obligations  restraining 
Russia  from  making  fortifications  and  placing  ships  of  war 
on  the  Black  Sea  were  annulled.  It  received  the  right 
of  free  navigation  for  its  merchant  ships  on  all  Turkish 
waters,  and  the  right  of  placing  consuls  at  all  Turkish 
ports.  These  last  two  conditions  were  of  great  historical 
importance  through  their  effect  upon  Greece.  The  consuls 
appointed  were  usually  Greek  traders,  and  permission  to 
carry  the  Russian  flag  was  indiscriminately  given  to  Greek 
vessels.  Hence  there  followed  that  great  development  of 
Greek  commerce,  and  of  the  Greek  merchant  navy,  which 
in  half  a  century  made  the  insurgent  Greeks  more  than  a 
match  for  the  Turks  at  sea. 

The  stipulation  that  the  Crimea  and  adjoining  districts 
should  be  made  into  an  independent  state  was  of  course 
not  mtended  by  Russia  to  be  anything  more  than  a  veil  for 
annexation  ,  and  in  1783  Catherine  united  this  territory  to 
her  dominions.  She  had  now  definitely  formed  the  plan 
of  extinguishing  Turkish  sovereignty  in  Europe  and  placing 
her  younger  grandson  on  the  throne  of  a  .restored  Greek 
kingdom.  The  boy  was  named  Constantine;  his  whole 
education  was  Greek  and  such  as  to  fit  him  for  the  throne 
of  Constantinople.  Joseph  n.  of  Austria  threw  himself  W«r«itk 
eagerly  into  the  plan  for  a  partition  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  Rc^si* 
and  in  1788  followed  Russia  into  war.  While  the  Russians  ^'^^^ 
besieged  Otchakoff,  Joseph  invaded  Bosnia  ,  but  he  was 
unsuccessful  and  retired  ingloriously  into  Hungary.  Otcha. 
koff  was  stormed  by  Suwaroff  on  16th  December  1788. 
In  the  following  year  the  Turkish  armies  were  overthrown 
by  Suwaroff  in  Moldavia  and  by  the  Austrian  Laudon 
on  the  south  of  the  Danube.  The  fate  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  seemed  to  tremble  in  the  balance;  it  was,  how- 
ever, saved  by  the  convulsions  into  which  Joseph's  re^iless 
autocracy  had  thrown  his  own  dominions,  and  by  the  triple 
alliance  of  England,  Prussia,  and  Holland,  now  formed  bj 
Pitt  for  the  preservation  of  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe. 
Joseph  died  in  1790;  his  successor  Leopold  EL  entered 
into  negotiations,  and  concluded  peace  at  Sistova  in  August 
1791,  relinquishing  all  his  conquests  except  a  small  district 
in  Croatia.  Catherine  continued  the  war  alone.  Ismail 
was  captured  by  Suwaroff  with  fearful  slaughter,  and  the 
Russian  armies  pushed  on  south  of  the  Danube.    Pitt,  with 


648 


TURKEY 


[histoev. 


the  triple  alliance,  attempted  to  impose  his  mediation  on 
the  empress  Catherine,  and  to  induce  her  to  restore  all 
her  conquests.  She  refused,  and  both  Prussia  and  Eng- 
land armed  for  war ;  but  public  opinion  declared  so  strongly 
against  the  minister  in  England  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  pursue  his  plan.  Catherine  nevertheless  found  it 
in  her  interest  to  terminate  the  war  with  the  Porte.  Poland 
claimed  her  immediate  attention ,  and,  adjourning  to  a 
more  convenient  season  her  designs  upon  Constantinople, 
she  concluded  the  treaty  of  Jassy  in  January  1792,  by 
which  she  added  to  her  empire  Otchakoff,  with  the  sea- 
board as  far  as  the  Dniester.  The  protectorate  of  Russia 
over  Tiflis  and  Kartalinia  was  recognized. 

Catherine's   successor  Paul  (1796-1801)  made   it  his 
business  to  reverse  his  mother's  policy  by  abandoning  the 
Affaire     attack  on  Turkey.     Bonaparte's  inva.'-ion  of  Egypt  and 
in  Egypt  the  destruction  of  the  French  fleet  by  Nelson  at  the  battle 
»"<'         of  the  Nile  led  the  Porte  to  join  the  second  coalition 
*''^'"      against  France.     Bonaparte,  invading  Syria,  was  checked 
and  turned  back  at  Acre,  where  Jezzar  Pasha  was  assisted 
in  his  strenuous  defence  by  an  English  squadron  under 
Sir  Sidney  Smith.    A  Turkish  army  was  meanwhile  trans- 
ported from  Rhodes  to  the  Egyptian  coast.    This  army  was 
destroyed  by  Bonaparte  on  his  return  to  Egypt  at  the 
battle  of  Aboukir  on  25th  July  1799,  after  which  Bona- 
parte set  sail  for  France,  leaving  the  Egyptian  command 
to  K16ber.     Kl^ber,  cut  off  from  all  communication  with 
France  and  threatened  by  superior  Turkish  forces,  entered 
into  a  convention  at  El  Arish  for  the  evacuation  of  Egypt. 
This  convention,  however,  was  annulled  by  Lord  Keith, 
the  English  admiral,  and  Kl^ber  replied  by  giving  battle 
to  the  Turks  and  defeating  them  at  Heliopolis  on  20th 
March  1800     Egypt  was  finally  wrested  from  the  French  by 
the  English  expedition  under  Abercromby,  and  restored  to 
the  sultan.     The  Ionian  Islands,  which  France  had  taken 
from  Venice  at  the  time  of  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio, 
were  conquered  by  a  combined  Russian  and  Turkish  force, 
and  were  established  as  a  republic,  at  fii-st  under  the  joint 
protectorate  of  Russia  and  the  Porte,  afterwards  under 
the  sole  protectorate  of  Russia.     The  former  Venetian 
ports  on  the  mainland  of  Epirus  and  Albania  were  given  up 
to  Turkey.    Somewhat  later,  under  pressure  from  St  Peters- 
burg, the  sultan  undertook  not  to  remove  the  hospodars, 
or  governors,  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia  without  consult- 
ing Russia,  and  to  allow  no  Turks  except  merchants  and 
traders  to  enter  those  territories. 
Internal       On  the  restoration  of  peace  France  reassumed  its  ancient 
condi-     position  as  the  friend  and  ally  of  the  Porte.     The  sultan 
"o"."'     now  on  the  throne,  was  Selim  III.  (1789-1807).     Though 
empire,    ^j^^  results  of  the  war  of  the  second  coalition  had  been 
favourable  to  Turkey,  the  Ottoman  empire  was  in  a  most 
perilous  condition.     Everywhere  the  provincial  governors 
were  making  themselves  independent  of  the  sultan's  author- 
ity ;  a  new  fanatical  sect,  the  Wahhabees,  had  arisen  in 
AJabia  and  seized  upon  the  holy  places ;  the  janissaries 
were  rebellious  and  more  formidable  to  their  sovereign 
than  to  a  foreign  enemy ;  and  the  Christian  races  were 
beginning  to  aspire   to  independence.      It  had   seemed 
for  a   while   as   if   the   first   to   rise  against  the   Porte 
would  be  the   Greeks,  among   whom   the   revolutionary 
influences  of  1789  and  the  songs  of  the  poet  Rhegas,  put 
to  death  by  the  Turks  in  1798,  stirred  deep  feelings  of 
hatred  against  their  oppressors     Circumstances,  however, 
postponed  the  Greek  revolt  and  accelerated  that  of  the 
Servians.    In  the  country  immediately  south  of  the  DanucMj 
the  sultan's  authority  was  defied  by  the  janissaries  settled 
about  Belgrade  and   by  Passwan  Oglu,  ruler  of  Widdin 
in  Bulgaria.     The  pasha  of  Servia,  hard  pressed  by  these 
rebels,  called  upon  the  rayas  to  take  up  arms  in  defence 
of  the  sultan      They  did  so,  and  in  1804  the  janissaries 


answered  by  a  series  of  massacres  in  the  Servian  vQlagcs. 
The  Servians  now  rose  as  a  nation  against  the  janissaries.  Serviia 
Kara  George  became  their  chief,  and  in  combination  with  «'<>''• 
the  pasha  of  Bosnia,  acting  under  the  sultan's  orders,  ex- 
terminated the  janissaries  or  drove  them  out  of  the 
country.  Victorious  over  one  oppressor,  the  Servians  re- 
fused to  submit  to  another.  "They  carried  on  the  war 
against  the  sulta.i  himself,  and  at  the  suggestion  of  Russia 
sent  envoys  to  Constantinople  demanding  that  for  the 
future  the  fortresses  of  Servia  should  be  garrisoned  only 
by  Servian  troops. 

When  the  third  European  coalition  against  France  was  DiEcuV 
in  course  of  formation  Russian  and  French  influences  were  'ies  «f 
in  rivalry  at  Constantinople.  The  victories  of  Napoleon  j|^'" 
in  1805  gave  him  the  ascendency,  and  his  envoy  prevailed  reign, 
upon  the  sultan  to  dismiss,  without  consulting  Russia,  the 
hospodars  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia,  who  were  considered 
to  be  agents  of  the  court  of  St  Petersburg.  This  was  a 
brea  of  the  engagement  made  by  the  sultan  in  1802, 
and  it  was  followed  by  the  entry  of  Russian  troops  .kilo 
the  principalities.  England,  as  the  ally  of  Russia,  sent  a 
fleet  under  Admiral  Duckworth  through  the  Dardanelles 
to  threaten  Constantinople.  While  the  admiral  wasted 
time  in  negotiations,  the  French  ambassador,  General 
Sebastiani,  taught  the  Turks  how  to  fortify  their  capital. 
The  English  admiral  found  that  he  could  do  nothing,  and 
repassed  the  Dardanelles,  sufiering  some  loss  on  the  passage. 
The  war  on  the  Danube  was  not  carried  on  with  mud 
vigour  on  either  side.  Alexander  was  occupied  with  thi 
struggle  against  Napoleon  on  the  Vistula;  Selim  III.  was. 
face  to  face  with  mutiny  in  Constantinople,  having  brought 
upon  .himself  the  bitter  hatred  of  the  janissaries  by  attempt- 
ing to  form  them  into  a,  body  of  troops  drilled  and  discip- 
lined after  the  methods  of  modern  armies.  While  the 
military  art  in  Europe  had  been  progressing  for  centuries, 
Turkey  had  made  no  other  changes  in  its  military  system 
than  those  which  be!  tnged  to  general  decay.  Its  troops 
were  a  mere  horde,  capable  indeed  of  a  vigorous  assault 
and  of  a  stubborn  defence,  but  utterly  untrained  in  exer- 
cises and  manoeuvres,  and  almost  ignorant  of  the  meaning 
of  discipline.  Selim  was  a  reformer  in  government  and 
administration  as  well  as  in  military  afiairs  He  broke 
from  the  t.aditions  of  his  palace,  and  began  a  new  epoch 
in  Turkish  history ;  but  the  influences  opposed  to  bim 
were  too  strong,  and  a  mutiny  of  the  janissaries  in  Con 
stantinople  deprived  him  of  his  crown.  He  was  allowed 
to  live,  but  as  a  prisoner,  while  the  puppet  of  the  janit 
saries,  Mustafa  IV.,  was  placed  on  the  throne  (May  1807). 

A  few  weeks  after  this  event  the  treaty  of  'Tilsit  ended 
the  war  between  France  and  Russia,  and  provided  for  thi 
nominal  mediation  of  Napoleon  between  Russia  and  thi 
Porte.  A  truce  followed  between  the  armies  on  the  Danube. 
Among  the  Turkish  generals  who  had  understood  the  neces- 
sity of  Selim's  reforms,  and  who  were  prepared  to  support 
him  against  the  janissaries,  was  Bairaktar,  commander  at  Balr«i. 
Rustchuk  As  soon  as  the  truce  gave  bim  freedom  of  fr- 
action, Bairaktar  marched  upon  Constantinople  Leading 
his  troops  against  the  palace,  he  demanded  the  restoration 
of  Selim.  As  the  palace  gates  were  closed,  Bairaktc.r 
ordered  an  assault ,  but  at  the  moment  when  his  troop.-j 
were  entering  Selim  was  put  to  death.  Besides  Mustafa 
there  was  only  one  member  of  the  house  of  Osman  remain- 
ing, his  brother  Mahmiid,  who  concealed  himself  in  the 
furnace  of  a  bath  until  the  palace  was  in  the  hands  of 
Bairaktar's  soldiers.  He  was  then  placed  on  the  throne  MabmVid 
(July  1808).  For  a  while  Bairaktar  governed  as  grand '• 
vizier.  He  was  rash  enough,  however,  to  dismiss  part  of 
his  own  soldiers  from  Constantinople.  The  janissaries 
attacked  him  in  his  palace.  A  tower  in  which  he  defended 
himself  was  blown  up,  and  after  a  battle  in  the  streets  of 


I 


1791-1827.] 


TURKEY 


649 


Constantinople  between  the  janissaries  and  the  remainder 
of  Bairaktar's  troops,  during  which  the  dethroned  sultan 
Mustafa  was  put  to  death,  the  janissaries  remained  con- 
querors, and  ^fahmdd  was  forced  to  submit  to  their  de- 
mands. The  innovations  of  the  late  reign  were  abolished, 
and  for  a  while  Mahmiid  seemed  content  to  reign  as  ser- 
vant of  the  reaction. 

It  is  well  known  that  plans  for  the  partition  of  the  Otto- 
man empire  occupied  Napoleon  and  Alexander  at  Tilsit. 
Austria,  though  unwilling  to  see  Russia  aggrandized,  was 
prepared  in  the  last  resort  to  combine  with  the  dismember- 
ing powers,  if  all  attempts  to  prevent  the  execution  of  the 
plan  by  diplomatic  means  should  fail.  But  after  a  few 
years  the  alliance  declined  and  a  war  between  France  and 
Russia  was  seen  to  be  inevitable.  Meanwhile  the  conflict 
on  the  Danube  had  been  resumed,  and  the  Servians  were 
still  in  arms.  The  Russians  had  advanced  into  Bulgaria 
and  captured  Silistria.  England,  which  had  made  peace 
with  Turkey  in  1809,  sought  to  reconcile  the  belligerents, 
in  order  that  the  czar  might  be  free  to  employ  his  whole 
Peace  of  force  against  Napoleon.  In  May  1812a  treaty  was  signed 
Bacha-  at  Bucharest,'  by  which  Bessarabia  was  ceded  to  Russia, 
""^  the  river  Pruth  becoming  the  boundary  of  the  two  empires. 
The  Porte  in  this  treaty  promised  to  grant  an  amnesty  to 
the  Servians,  to  leave  to  them  the  management  of  their 
internal  affairs,  and  to  impose  upon  them  only  moderate 
taxes.  These  promises,  however,  were  neither  accepted 
by  the  Servians  as  a  sufficient  concession,  nor  were  they 
observed  by  the  Porte.  The  Servians  continued  to  fight, 
and  ultimately  secured  their  autonomy  about  1817  without 
help  from  Russia, 
tfahmiid's  Mahmiid  II.  (1808-1839)  was  the  only  sultan  of  modern 
"•'••  times  who  possessed  the  qualities  of  a  great  ruler.  Brought 
up  in  the  seclusion  of  the  seraglio  till  the  age  of  twenty- 
three,  when  he  was  suddenly  placed  on"  the  throne,  it  is 
surprising  that  he  should  have  shown  the  power,  the  re- 
solution, and  the  intelligence  which  marked  his  govern- 
ment. The  difficulties  of  his  reign  were  enormous.  He 
belonged  to  an  epoch  when  the  Ottoman  empire  might 
fairly  be  considered  as  in  actual  dissolution.  This  he  to 
some  extent  arrested,  and  the  reforms  which  he  effected, 
partial  and  imperfect  as  they  were,  have  prolonged  the 
existence  of  the  lurkish  state  to  our  own  day.  The  first 
and  most  obvious  internal  danger  to  be  met  was  the  insub- 
ordination of  the  provincial  pashas.  Against  these  rebelli- 
ous servants  Mahmiid  waged  a  persistent  and  unwearying 
war,  now  employing  them  against  one  another,  now  crush- 
ing them  by  his  own  armed  force.  One  of  the  most  for- 
AliPasba  midable  was  AJi  Pasha  of  Janina,  who  had  made  himself 
ofJanina.  master  of  Albania  and  part  of  Greece.  When  Mahmiid 
in  1820  threw  his  armies  upon  this  chieftain,  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities  in  Epirus  was  the  signal  for  the  insurrection 
of  Greece.  While  Hypsilanti,  grandson  of  a  hospodar  of 
Moldavia  who  had  been  put  to  death  by  the  Porte,  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt  in  Moldavia,  asserting  that  Russia 
had  promised  the  Christians  its  support,  the  Greeks  of 
Oreek  re  the  Morea  rose  and  exterminated  the  Turkish  population 
among  them.  Hypsilanti  was  soon  crushed  ,  and  the  ris- 
ing in  the  Morea  was  answered  by  massacres  of  the  Greeks 
in  the  principal  cities  of  the  empire,  and  by  the  execution 
of  Gregory,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  the  head  of  the 
Greek  Church.  These  deeds  of  violence  excited  the  utmost 
indignation  in  Russia.  A  despatch  was  sent  to  'Constanti- 
nople, calling  upon  the  Porte  to  restore  the  churches  which 
had  been  destroyed,  to  guarantee  the  inviolability  of 
Christian  worship  in  the  future,  and  to  discriminate  in  its 
•punishments  between  the  innocent  and  the  guilty.  These 
demands  were  presented  as  an  ultimatum  by  the  Russian 
ambassador,  who,  not  receiving  an  answer  within  the  time 
allowed,  quitted  Constantinople  (27th  July  1821).     The 


toIl 


influence  of  Austria  and  England,  however,  restrained  the 
emperor  Alexander  from  declaring  war,  and  the  Greeks 
were  left  to  sustain  their  combat  by  themselves.  As  long 
as  Ali  Pasha  was  unsubdued,  the  only  forces  which  the 
sultan  could  employ  against  the  Greeks  were  irregular 
bands  of  volunteers.  It  was  by  one  of  these  hordes  that 
the  fearful  massacres  of  Chios,  in  the  spring  of  1822,  were 
perpetrated.  In  that  same  spring,  however,  the  overthrow 
and  death  of  Ali  set  free  the  regular  troops.  Two  armiea 
of  considerable  strength  now  moved  southwards  from 
Thessaly,  with  the  object  of  reducing  the  country  north 
of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  and  then  uniting  to  conquer  the 
Morea.  The  western  army,  commanded  by  Omer  Brionis, 
was  checked  by  the  Suliotes,  and  subsequently  beaten  back 
by  the  defenders  of  Missolonghi.  The  eastern  army,  after 
advancing  under  the  command  of  Dramali  into  the  Morea, 
was  compelled  to  retreat.  But  the  passes  ib  its  rear  had 
been  seized  by  the  Greeks  ,  on  all  sides  the  enemy  closed 
in  upon  it ;  and  it  was  only  through  the  disorders  of  the 
Greeks  themselves  that  Dramaii's  force  escaped  annihila- 
tion. Of  those  who  survived  the  encounter  most  perished 
by  sickness  and  famine  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Corinth. 
Nor  was  the  fortune  of  the  Ottomans  better  at  sea.  The 
destruction  of  their  admiral's  vessel  with  all  its  crew  by 
the  fire-ship  of  the  Greek  captain,  Kanaris,  caused  such 
terror  that  all  further  attempts  to  reduce  the  islands  were 
abandoned,  and  the  fleet  returned  to  the  Dardanelles. 

After  an  interval  of  ineffective  land  warfare,  the  sultao 
determined  to  call  upon  Meheraet  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt,  for 
assistance.  Mehemet  had  risen  to  power  in  the  disturbed 
period  that  followed  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from 
Egypt.  He  had  a  more  powerful  fleet  than  that  of  his 
sovereign,  and  an  army  disciplined  after  the  European 
system.  In  calling  upon  his  powerful  vassal  for  help  the 
sultan  must  have  been  aware  of  the  dangers  which  his  ag- 
grandizement would  involve.  Mehemet  eagerly  responded  Meheaiet 
to  Mahmiid's  call ;  and  his  son  Ibrihlm,  in  command  of  a  fli''  3*- 
powerful  armament,  set  sail  in  the  spring  of  1824  fromf^'^'** 
Alexandria  against  Crete.  This  island  was  rapidly  con-  xurftey. 
quered,  and  IbrAhlm,  after  failing  in  some  combined  opera- 
tions against  Samos,  crossed  ovec  to  the  Morea.  Here  he 
marched  across  the  peninsula,  carrying  all  before  him. 
Nauplia  alone  maintained  its  defence,  while  the  Egyptian 
sent  out  his  harrying  columns,  slaughtering  and  devastat- 
ing in  every  direction.  From  the  Morea  IbrAhlm  was 
summoned  to  assist  the  Turks,  who  had  been  for  nine 
months  unsuccessfully  engaged  in  a  second  siege  of  Mis- 
solonghi. IbrAhIm  began  his  siege-  operations  in  the 
beginning  of  1826  ;  but  it  was  not  for  three  months  more 
that  Missolonghi  fell.  The  tide  of  Ottoman  conquest 
moved  on  eastwards,  and  the  acropolis  of  Athens  capitu- 
lated in  the  following  year.  But  the  defence  of  Misso- 
longhi had  lasted  long  enough  to  bring  the  powers  of 
Europe  into  the  field.  On  the  death  of  the  emperor 
Alexander  at  the -end  of  1825,  Canning  sent  the  duke 
of  Wellington  to  St  Petersburg  to  negotiate  conditions 
of  joint  diplomatic  action  on  the  part  of  England  and 
Russia.  A  protocol  signed  at  St  Petersburg  on  4th  April 
1826  fixed  the  conditions  on  which  the  mediation  of  Great 
Britain  was  to  be  tendered  to  the  Porte.  Greece  was  to 
remain  tributary  to  the  sultan,  but  to  be  governed  by  its 
own  elected  authorities  and  to  be  independent  in  its  com- 
mercial relations.  The  surviving  Turkish  population  was 
to  be  removed  from  Greece  ;  all  property  belonging  to 
Turks,  whether  On  the  continent  or  the  islands,  was  to  bo 
purchased  by  the  Greeks.  This  protocol  was  developed 
into  the  treaty  of  London  between  England,  Russia,  and 
France,  signed  in  July  1827,  by  which  the  three  power* 
bound  themselves  to  put  an  end  to  the  conflict  in  the 
East.     In  pursuance  of  this  treaty  the  mediation  of  tb» 

\XIII.  —  8j 


650 


TURKEY 


[history. 


jaDis- 
aanea. 


War 
Rnssia, 


powers  was  offered  to  the  Porte,  and  an  armistice  demanded. 
It  was  contemptuously  refused.  The  united  fleets  of  the 
powers  consequently  appeared  before  Navarino,  where  Ibrir 
him  was  assembling  his  forces  for  an  expedition  against 
Hydra.  After  a  vain  attempt  at  negotiation,  they  entered 
the  harbour  and  fought  the  battle  of  Navarino,  on  20th 
October  1 827,  in  which  the  Turco-Egj^jtian  fleet  was  totally 
destroyed.  Caaning  had  just  died  ;  his  successors  could 
only  speak  of  Navarino  as  an  "  untoward  event "  and  with- 
draw from  further  interference,  leaving  Russia  and  the  Porte 
(ace  to  face.  After  a  proclamation  by  the  sultan  calling 
the  Mohammedans  to  arms,  war  was  declared  by  Russia 
in  April  1828.  The  moment  was  singularly  favourable  for 
Russia,  for  Mahmiid  had,  little  more  than  a  year  before, 
goppres-  ezterminated  the  janissaries.  After  bringing  over  soldiers 
•ion  of  from  Asia  to  make  him  secure  of  victory  in  the  event  of 
a  conflict,  he  had  called  upon  the  janissaries  to  contribute 
a  certain  number  of  men  to  the  regiments  about  to  be 
formed  on  the  European  pattern.  The  janissaries  refused 
and  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion.  Mahmud  opened 
fire  on  them  with  cannon,  and  the  slaughter  did  not  cease 
until  the  last  of  them  had  perished.  The  great  difiiculty 
in  the  way  of  a  military  reorganization  was  thus  removed, 
and  the  newly-modelled  regiments  were  raised  to  about 
40,000  mjen.  Small  as  the  army  was  with  which  he  had 
to  meet  the  Russian  invasion  in  1828,  the  campaign  of  that 
year  was  honourable  to  the  Turkish  arms.  Though  Varna 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians,  Silistria  and  Shumla 
were  successfully  defended,  and  the  Russians,  after  suffering 
great  losses,  were  compelled  to  withdraw  to  winter  quarters 
on  the  Danube.  In  the  following  year  they  advanced 
through  Bulgaria,  defeated  the  Turks  at  Kulevtcha,  and, 
after  the  surrender  of  Silistria,  crossed  the  Balkans  under 
the  command  of  Diebitsch.  They  reached  Adrianople, 
which  immediately  capitulated.  Diebitsch,  concealing  the 
real  weakness  of  his  force,  sent  out  detachments  towards 
the  Euxine  and  the  .(Egean,  while  the  centre  of  his  army 
marched  on  Constantinople.  Had  the  sultan  known  the 
insignificant  number  of  his  enemy,  he  might  safely  have 
defied  him.  But  the  wildest  exaggerations  were  current 
in  the  capital  ;  Kars  and  Erzeroum  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  Paskiewitch,  commander  of  the  czar's  forces  in 
Asia  ;  and  in  Constantinople  the  friends  of  the  slaughtered 
janissaries  threatened  revolt.  Mahmiid  listened  to  the 
advocates  of  peace,  and  on  1 4th  September  hostilities  were 
Treaty  of  brought  to  a  close  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople.  This  treaty 
Adrian-  gave  Russia  the  ports  of  Anapa  and  Poti  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea ;  but  its  most  important  clauses 
were  those  which  confirmed  and  extended  the  protectorate 
of  the  czar  over  the  Danubian  principalities.  The  ofiice 
of  hospodar,  hitherto  tenable  for  seven  years,  was  now 
made  an  appointment  for  life,  and  the  sultan  undertook  to 
permit  no  interference  on  the  part  of  neighbouring  pashas 
with  these  provinces.  No  fortified  point  was  to  be  re- 
tained by  the  Turks  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube ;  no 
Mussulman  was  to  reside  or  hold  property  within  the 
principalities.  The  Bosphorus  and  the  Dardanelles  were 
declared  free  and  open  to  the  merchant  ships  of  all  nations. 
The  Porte  further  gave  its  adherence  to  the  treaty  of 
London  relating  to  Greece,  and  accepted  the  act  entered 
into  by  the  allied  powers  for  regulating  the  Greek  frontier. 
An  indemnity  in  money  was  declared  to  be  owing  to  Russia; 
and  by  leaving  the  amount  to  be  fixed  by  subsequent 
agreement  Russia  retained  in  its  own  hands  the  most 
powerful  means  of  enforcing  its  influence  at  Constantinople. 
The  suzerainty  over  Greece,  which  the  powers  had  at 
first  agreed  to  leave  to  the  sultan,  was  by  common  consent 
abandoned,  and  Greece  became  an  independent  kingdom. 

At  the  close  of  eight  years  of  warfare  Mahmiid's  south- 
womost  provinces  were  even  more  completely  severed  from 


ople. 


the  empire  than  Servia  and  the  Danubian  principalities. 
It  was  in  vain  that  he  had  borne  the  humiliation  of  calling 
upon  his  vassal,  Mehemet  Ali,  for  help,  and  Mehemet's 
reward  had  now  to  be  paid.  Crete  was  off'ered  to  him ; 
this,  however,  was  far  from  satisfying  his  ambition,  and 
in  November  1831  he  threw  an  army  under  Ibrihlm  into 
Palestine  and  began  the  conquest  of  Syria.  The  sultan 
now  declared  Mehemet  and  his  son  to  be  rebels,  and  de- 
spatched an  army  against  them.  The  first  encounter  took 
place  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes.  The.  Turks  were  put 
to  the  rout,  and  retired  into  Cilicia.  Ibrdhlm  following 
gained  a  second  victory  at  the  pass  of  Beylan,  and,  after 
crossing  ilount  Taurus,  destroyed  the  last  army  of  the 
sultan  at  Konieh,  on  21st  December  1832.  In  this  ex- 
tremity Mahmiid  looked  for  help  to  the  European  powers, 
and  Russia  at  once  tendered  its  aid.  At  the  request  of 
the  sultan  a  Russian  fleet  appeared  before  Constantinople. 
The  French  ambassador  thereupon  threatened  to  quit  the 
capital ,  and  finally,  under  French  mediation,  terms  of 
peace  were  signed  with  Ibrihlm  at  Kutaya  (April  1833), 
the  sultan  making  over  to  his  vassal,  not  only  the  whole 
of  Syria,  but  also  the  province  of  Adana  between  Mount 
Taurus  and  the  Mediterranean. 

Scarcely  had  this  treaty  been  concluded  when  Russian 
influence  again  won  the  ascendency  at  Constantinople,  and 
a  treaty  of  alliance  between  Turkey  and  Russia  was  signed 
at  the  palace  of  Unkiar  Skelessi,  which  in  fact  reduced 
Turkey  to  the  condition  of  a  vassal  state.  The  form  of 
the  treaty  was  skilfully  framed  to  disguise  the  relation  of 
dependence  which  it  created  and  the  right  of  intervention 
in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Ottoman  empire  which  it  gave 
to  Russia.  Each  power  pledged  itself  to  render  assistanc* 
to  the  other  not  only  against  the  attack  of  an  external 
enemy  but  wherever  its  peace  and  security  might  be  en- 
dangered. Another  article  declared  that,  in  order  tc 
diminish  the  burdens  of  the  Porte,  the  czar  would  not 
demand  .the  material  help  to  which  the  treaty  entitled 
him,  but  that  in  lieu  thereof  the  Porte  undertook,  when- 
ever Russia  should  be  at  war,  to  close  the  Dardanelles  to  the 
war-ships  of  afl  nations.  The  control  of  the  Dardanelles 
was  thus  transferred  from  Turkey  to  Russia,  and  the  en- 
trance to  the  Black  Sea  converted  into  a  Russian  fortified 
outpost.  In  this  treaty,  brilliant  as  it  appeared,  Russia 
had  gone. too  far.  The  Western  powers  declared  that  they 
would  not  recognize  it,  and  the  most  strenuous  and  system- 
atic efi'orts  were  henceforth  made  both  by  France  and 
England  to  diminish  Russian  influence  in  the  East.  France, 
anxious  to  gain  in  Egj'pt  a  counterpoise  to  England's  naval 
power  in  the  Mediterranean,  made  itself  the  patron  and 
ally  of  Mehemet  Ali.  England  adhered  to  the  cause  of 
the  sultan,  and  on  many  occasions  showed  its  hostility  to 
Mehemet.  Thus  the  two  Western  powers,  though  both  in 
antagonism  to  Russia,  were  directly  in  conflict  with  one 
another  in  their  Eastern  policy.  Mahmud  in  the  mean- 
time was  steadily  preparing  to  renew  the  war  with  his  rival. 
He  obtained  the  services  of  Moltke  and  other  Prussian 
ofificers  in  organizing  his  army,  and,  after  a  successful 
campaign  against  the  rebellious  tribes  of  Kurdistan,  as- 
sembled his  troops  in  the  spring  of  1839  on  the  upper 
Euphrates,  and  marched  against  IbrAhlm.  In  the  opera- 
tions which  followed  the  advice  of  the  European  officers 
was  persistently  disregarded  by  the  pasha  in  command; 
and  on  24th  June  the  Turkish  army  was  annihilated  by 
Ibrdhim  at  Nisib.  To  complete  the  ruin  of  the  empire, 
the  Turkish  admiral,  Achmet  Fewzi,  sailed  into  the  port 
of  Alex.indria  and  handed  over  his  fleet  to  Mehemet  AIL 
The  sultao  did  not  live  to  hear  of  the  overthrow  of  his 
hopes.  He  died  in  the  same  week  in  which  the  battle  of 
Nisib  was  fought,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  'Abd-ttl- 
Mejid  (1839-1861). 


Conflict 
with 

Meheiii«i 
AU. 


Allianet 

with 
Russia 


Renewal 
of  wtr 
Witt 
Mehe- 
met 


1827-1876.] 


TURKEY 


651 


Actkin  The  very  suddennfss  of  these  disasters  contributed  ulti- 
•'  ^S  ti^itely  to  the  preservation  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  inas- 
^l!~  much  as  it  compelled  the  powers  of  Europe  to  take  action. 
The  French  and  English  fleets  appeared  in  the  Dardan- 
elles. The  czar  saw  that  it  was  impossible  to  maintain 
the  treaty  of  Unkiar  Skelessi,  and  this  treaty  was  tacitly 
abandoned.  Russia  now  addressed  itself  to  the  task  of 
widening  the  existing  differences  between  France  and 
England.  France  insisted  on  far  more  favourable  condi- 
tions for  Mehemet  A!i  than  England  would  allow,  demand- 
ing that  Egypt  and  all  Syria  should  be  given  to  him  in 
hereditary  dominion,  with  no  further  obligation  towards 
the  sultan  than  the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute.  Russia 
and  the  other  powers  took  part  with  England,  and  ulti- 
mately, without  asking  the  sanction  of  France,  the  four 
powers  signed  a  treaty  pledging  themselves  to  enforce 
npon  Mehemet  the  terms  proposed  by  England,  which 
practically  reduced  him  to  the  position  of  an  ordin^iry 
pasha  in  Palestine,  while  leaving  him  the  hereditary  govei  n- 
ment  of  Egypt  On  the  publication  of  this  treaty  Thiers, 
the  French  minister,  prepared  for  war  He  was,  however, 
dismissed  by  Louis  PhUippe,  and  his  successor,  Guizot, 
accepted  the  situation.  As  Mehemet  Ali  refused  to  give 
up  his  conquests,  an  Anglo-Austrian  naval  squadron  was 
sent  to  co-operate  with  a  Turkish  force  in  attacking  the 
coast-towns  of  Syria.  Acre  w-as  captured,  and  IbrAhlm, 
assailed  by  the  mountain  tribes  of  the  interior,  was  forced 
to  retire  to  Egypt.  A  convention  made  between  Mehemet 
and  Sir  Charles  Napier,  who  had  appeared  at  Alc^randria 
wi  1  part  of  the  fleet,  formed  the  basis  of  the  ultimate 
settlement,  by  which  Mehemet,  after  formal  submission 
to  the  sultan,  was  recognized  as  hereditary  governor  of 
Egypt.  Russia  now  united  with  the  other  powers  in  a 
declaration  that  the  ancient  rule  of  the  Ottoman  empire, 
forbidding  the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles  to  the  war  ships 
of  all  nations,  except  when  the  Porte  should  itself  be  at 
war,  was  accepted  by  Europe  at  large. 
Keforms  The  young  sultan  entered  on  his  reign  nominally  as  an 
°i  v^A  '"dependent  sovereign,  but  really  under  the  protection  of 
'''  the  European  powers.  His  minister,  Reshid  Pasha,  who 
had  gained  in  an  unusual  degree  the  confidence  of  Western 
statesmen,  understood  the  necessity  of  bringing  the  Turkish 
system  of  government  more  into  harmony  with  the  ideas 
of  the  civilized  world.  An  edict,  kno\vn  as  the  Haiti- 
then/  of  Gulhane,  announced  the  speedy  establishment  of 
institutions  "  which  should  insure  to  all  subjects  of  the 
eultan  perfect  .security  for  their  lives,  their  honour,  and 
their  property,  a  regular  method  of  collecting  the  taxes, 
and  an  equally  regular  method  of  recruiting  the  army  and 
fixing  duration  of  service."  Scarcely  had  tins  edict  been 
published  when  Reshid  was  driven  from  power  by  a  palace 
intrigue.  His  reforming  efforts,  like  those  of  MahmOd, 
were  not  wholly  inefi'ective  ,  yet  little  was  realized  in  com 
parison  with  what  was  promised  and  what  was  needed 
The  Turkish  Government  was  soon  discredited,  and  the 
intervention  of  Europe  required,  by  conflicts  between  the 
Christian  and  Mohammedan  tribes  in  the  Lebanon,  result- 
ing in  massacres  of  the  former  After  the  convulsions  of 
1 848  the  sultan  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  autocratic  courts 
by  refusing  to  give  up  Kossuth  and  other  e.xiles  who  h<id 
taken  refuge  within  his  dominions.  The  suppression  of 
the  national  Hungarian  Government  by  Russia  in  1849  had 
heightened  in  the  emperor  Nicholas  the  sense  of  his  own 
power.  He  now  looked  forward  to  the  speedy  extinction 
of  Turkey,  and  in  1853  proposed  to  the  British  ambassador. 
Sir  H.  Seymour,  a  plan  for  the  division  of  "  the  sick  man's" 
inheritance  as  soon  uS  he  should  expire.  Disputes  between 
France  and  Russia  relating  to  the  rights  of  the  Latin  and 
Greek  Churches  in  certain  sacred  places  were  made  the 
occasion  for  the  assertion  of  a  formal  claim  on  the  part  of 


the  czar  to  a  protectorate  over  all  Christians  in  Turkey 
belonging  to  the  Greek  Church.  This  claim  not  being 
acknowledged  by  the  Porte,  a  Russian  army  entered  the 
Danubian  principalities.  After  inefi'ective  negotiations 
war  was  declared  by  the  sultan  on  4th  October  18.53. 
Hostilities  commenced  in  Walachia,  and  the  Turkish  fleet 
was  attacked  and  destroyed  at  Sinope.  England  and  France 
allied  themselves  with  the  Porte,  and  landed  an  army  at 
Varna  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year.  Silistria  was 
successfully  defended  by  the  Turks;  and,  on  the  occupation 
of  the  Danubian  principalities  by  Austria,  the  allies  took 
up  the  offensive  and  transferred  their  forces  to  the  Crimea  I 
The  siege  of  Sebastopol  followed,  ending  in  its  capture  in ' 
September  1855.  Meanwhile  Russian  and  Turkish  forces 
were  opposed  in  Asia.  Kars  maintained  a  gallant  defence, 
but  succumbed  to  famine  two  months  after  the  fall  of 
Sebastopol.  The  peace  of  Paris  followed,  in  which  Russia 
ceded  to  Turkey  the  portion  of  Bessarabia  adjacent  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube  The  Black  Sea  was  neutralized, 
Russia  and  the  Porte  alike  engaging  to  keep  no  war-ships 
and  to  maintain  no  arson.als  there.  The  exclusive  pro- 
tectorate of  Russia  o^er  the  Danubian  principalities  was 
abolished,  and  the  autonomy  of  these  provinces,  as  well  as 
of  Servia,  placed  under  the  guarantee  of  all  the  powers 
Tkf  Porte  published  a  firman,  the  Haiti- Humaiun,  profess- 
ing to  abolish  "  every  distinction  making  any  class  of  the 
subjects  of  the  empire  inferior  to  any  other  class  on  account 
of  their  religion,  language,  and  race,"  and  establishing 
complete  equality  between  Christians  and  Mahommedans  . 
the  powers  in  return  declared  the  Porte  admitted  to  the 
advantages  of  the  public  law  and  concert  of  Europe.  The 
absurd  stipulation  was  added  that  no  right  should  thereby 
accrue  to  the  powers  to  interfere  either  collectively  or 
separately  in  the  relations  of  the  sultan  with  his  subjects. 

The  Crimean  War  gave  to  part  of  the  Balkan  population  InternU 
twenty  years  more  of  national  development  under  the  '''^' 
slackened  grasp  of  the  Porte  ;  and  by  extinguishing  the  "  °" 
friendship  of  Austria  and  Russia  it  rendered  the  liberation 
of  Italy  possible.  But  each  direct  proviso  of  the  treaty 
of  Paris  seemed  made  only  to  be  mocked  by  events. 
Scarcely  a  year  passed  without  some  disturbance  amopj 
the  Christian  subjects  of  the  sultan,  in  which  the  mterfer 
ence  of  the  powers  invariably  followed  in  one  form  or 
another.  A  new  series  of  massacres  in  the  Lebanon  in 
1860  caused  France  to  land  a  force  in  Syria  Walachia 
and  Moldavia  formed  themselves  into  a  single  state  under 
the  name  of  Roumania,  to  which  the  house  of  Hohenzollern 
soon  afterwards  gave  a  sovereign  Bosnia  and  Montenegro 
took  up  arms.  Servia  got  rid  of  its  Turkish  garrisons. 
Crete  fought  long  for  its  independence,  and  seemed  for  a 
moment  likely  to  be  united  to  Greece  under  the  auspices  of 
the  powers,  but  it  was  ultimately  abandoned  to  its  Turkish 
masters.  The  overthrow  of  France  in  the  war  of  1870  and 
the  consequent  isolation  of  England  led  Russia  to  declare 
the  provision  of  the  treaty  of  Pans  which  excluded  its  ships 
of  war  and  its  arsenals  from  the  Black  Sea  to  be  no  longer 
in  force.  To  save  appearances,  the  British  Government 
demanded  that  the  matter  should  be  referred  to  a  European 
conference,  where  Russia's  will  was  duly  ratified. 

A  few  years  later  the  horizon  of  eastern  Europe  visibly 
darkened    with    the   coming    storm.      Russian    influences 
were  no  doubt  at  work  ,  but  the  development  of  national 
feeling  which  had  so  powerfully  affected  every  other  part 
of   Europe  during   the    19th   century    could    not    remain 
without  effect  among  the  Christian  races  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula.     In    1875   Bosnia  and    Herzegovina   revolted 
In  the  meantime  the  government  of  'Abd-ul-'Aziz  (1861 
1876)  had  become  worse  and  worse.     The  state  was  bank 
rupt.     Ignatieff,  the  Russian  ambas.'ador,  gained  complete 
ascendency  in  the  pa'ace.  and  frustrated  every  attempt  on 


652 


TURKEY 


[histobt. 


the  part  of  the  better  Turkish  statesmen  to  check  the 
torrent  of  misrule.  His  creature,  Mahmiid  Pasha,  main- 
tained his  place,  in  spite  of  universal  contempt,  until  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  at  Constantinople,  which  cost  the 
sultan  his  throne  (30th  May  1876)  and  a  few  days  later 
his  life.  His  imbecile  successor,  MurAd  V,  gave  place 
after  a  reign  of  three  months  to  'Abd-ul-Hamld  II.  The 
Bosnia.i  insurrection  had  already  extended  to  Bulgaria, 
and  the  slaughter  of  the  Turkish  inhabitants  in  certain 
villages  had  been  avenged  by  massacres  of  the  most  fearful 
character.  Servia  and  Montenegro  took  up  arms.  The 
resources  of  European  diplomacy  were  exhausted  in  fruit- 
less attempts  to  gain  from  the  Porte  some  real  securities 
Warwith  for  better  government,  and  in  April  1877  Russia  declared 
fo^*-  war.  The  neutrality  of  Austria  had  been  secured  by 
a  secret  agreement  permitting  thaf  country  to  occupy 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  ii  Russia  should  extend  its  influ- 
ence beyond  the  Balkans.  The  Bulgarian  massacres  had 
excited  such  horror  and  indignation  in  England  that  Lord 
Beaconsfield  was  forced  to  remain  neutral.  The  ministry 
contented  itself  with  stating  that  England  would  not  per- 
mit Egypt  to  be  the  scene  of  hostilities,  nor  acquiesce  in 
iny  prolonged  occupation  of  -Constantinople  by  Russian 
troops.  Turkey  was  thus  left  without  an  ally.  The  Russians 
entered  Bulgaria  in  June;  and,  while  Rustchuk  was  besieged, 
their  advanced  guard  under  Gourko  hurried  across  the 
Balkans.  Meanwhile  Osman  Pasha,  coming  from  Widdin, 
occupied  and  fortified  Plevna  on  the  Russian  line  of  march. 
Against  his  redoubts  the  Russians,  ill  commanded,  threw 
themselves  in  vain,  and  Gourko  was  compelled  to  fall  back' 
on  the  Shipka  Pass.  But  in  December  the  capture  of 
Plevna,  in  which  Roumanian  troops  cooperated,  set  free 
the  invading  army,  and  the  march  on  Constantinople 
was  resumed.  The  Balkans  were  passed  in  mid-winter ; 
Adrianople  was  occupied  ;  and  the  Turkish  armies  were 
captured  or  annihilated.  The  Russians  now  pressed  forward 
to  the  very  suburbs  of  Constantinople,  and  on  3d  March 
1878  peace  was  concluded  at  San  Stefano.  In  Asia  the 
Russians  had  captured  Kars  and  were  besieging  Erzeroum. 
The  treaty  of  San  Stefano  ceded  to  Russia  the  portion  of 
Bessarabia  taken  from  "it  in  1856,  together  with  the 
Dobrudja,  and  also  Kars,  Batoum,  and  the  adjoining 
territory  in  Asia.  It  recognized  the  independence  of 
Servia,  Montenegro,  and  Roumania,  and  largely  extended 
the  territory  of  the  first  two.  Bulgaria  was  constituted 
an  autonomous  state,  though  tributary  to  the  Porte,  and 
was  defined  so  as  to  extend  to  the  jEgean  Sea  and  to 
include  the  greater  part  of  the  country  between  the  Balkans 
and  the  coast.  Crete,  Tbessaly,  and  Epirus  were  to  receive 
the  necessary  reforms  at  the  hands  of  a  European  com- 
mission. To  this  treaty  Great  Britain  refused  to  give  its 
assent,  and  vigorous  preparations  were  made  for  war.  The 
fleet  was  at  the  Dardanelles,  and  Indian  troops  were 
brouglit  to  Malta.  Russia  could  no  longer  count  on  the 
neutrality  of  Austria.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
court  of  St  Petersburg  consented  to  submit  the  treaty  to 
a  European  congress,  which,  after  a  secret  agreement  had 
been  made  between  Russia  and  England  on  the  principal 
points  of  difference,  assembled  at  Berlin.  The  treaty  of 
San  Stefano  received  various  modifications,  the  principal 
being  a  reduction  of  the  territory  included  in  Bulgaria 
and  the  division  of  that  state  into  two  parts.  Bulgaria 
north  of  the  Balkans  was  constituted  an  autonomous  prin- 
cipality ;  Bulgaria  south  of  the  Balkans  was  made  into  a 
province,  with  the  title  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  subject  to 
the  authority  of  the  sultan,  but  with  a  Christian  governor 
and  an  autonomous  administration.  Austria  received 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  The  territory  ceded  to  Servia 
and  Montenegro  by  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  as  well  as 
that  ceded  to  Russia  in  Asia,  was  somewhat  diminished. 


Treaties 
of  San 
Stefano 
and 
Berlin. 


The  Porte  was  advised  to  make  some  cession  of  territory 
to  Greece,  and  the  line  of  frontier  subsequently  recom- 
mended gave  to  Greece  Janina  as  well  as  Thessaly.     The 
usual  promises  of  organic  reform  were  made  by  Turkey. 
By  a  separate  convention  England  undertook  the  defence 
of  Asiatic  Turkey  and  received  Cyprus.    The  organization 
of  Eastern  Roumelia  was  duly  taken  in  hand  by  a  Euro- 
pean commission  and  brought  to  a  favourable  corclusion ; 
but  it  was  not  until  a  naval  demonstration  had  been  made 
by  England  that  the  final  cession  of  Dulcigno  to  the  Monte- 
negrins was  effected,  and  that  Thessaly,  without  Epirus,  was  v_ 
given  up  to  Greece.  Alexander  of  Battenberg  became  prince  Bol- 
of  Bulgaraa.     By  a  popular  movement  in  1885  Bulgaria  S*"*"? 
and  Eastern   Roumelia  were  united  into  a  single  state.  I""'""' 
This  revolution  occasioned  the  utmost  displeasure  at  St 
Petersburg;  and  under  Russian  influence  Prince  Alexander, 
was  kidnapped  and  forced  to  abdicate.     The  Porte  offered 
no  armed  resistance  to  the  union.  (c.  a.  f.) 

Literalure.— The  best  work  on  Ottomao  history  la  VoD  Hammer's  GescKuJiU 
des  Osmantscken  /2eicA«(3uda-Pesth,  1634-3o),  which  covers  the  period  between 
1300  and  1774  The  author  availed  himself  of  the  writings  of  the  Turkish 
annalists  as  well  as  of  those  of  his  European  predecessors  ;  and  aU  latef 
Western  historian."  of  the  empire  have  borrowed  directly  or  indirectly  from  hi9 
volumes  This  valuable  work  has  been  translated  into  French  by  Belter^ 
HistotredelEmptn  Ottoman  (Pans,  1636-11).  The  best  English  work  isCrtasy't 
History  0/  the  utlomiin  Turks  (London,  1854-56) ,  it  is  compiled  for  the  most 
part  from  Von  Hammer-  Pnnce  Cantemir  of  Moldavia's  HUlory  o/the  Grmffth 
and  Decay  of  the  OtJinuxn  Empire  (London,  1734)  contains  many  interesting 
particulars,  but  is  not  always  trustworthy.  The  best  Turkish  authontiea  tor 
the  period  1300-1730  are— Sad-ud-DIn,  TdJ--ul-Tevdrikh  (1300-1520);  Pechevi, 
Tdnkh,  I.e.,  "  Uistory  (15201631),  Na'i'ma,  TuriU(1591-lii50);  Rashid,  Tarikh 
(1661-1722) :  and  Chelebi-zada,  Tdrikh  (1722-28).  For  the  later  period,  see 
Zinkeisen,  Geschichte  ties  OsmaniscAe-.t  fU\ches,  7  vols.  (DamburR  and  Got'nat 
1840-63);  Finlay,  Cruet  under  othoman  Domination  (Edinburgh,  IS5CJ;  KaniU. 
Donau- Btilfiarten  (Leipsic,  1875-79);  Prokesch-Osten,  Geschichte  des  Ab/alU 
tier  Griechen  (Stnttgarl,  1867);  Finlay,  Greek  Reiolvtion.  (Edinburgh,  I86I); 
Bourchier's  Codnnpton  ;  H.  von  Moltke.  Rnssisch-Turkiscfu  Fthlnig  (182S-29i 
(2d  ed,,  Berlin.  1877) ;  H  von  Moltke,  Brieje  uberZuslande  in  itr  Turkei  (1835-39) 
(3(1  ed  ,  Berlin,  1877).  Prokesch-Osten,  Mehmed  AH  (\'ipnna,  1877);  Rosen,  GC' 
schichte  dcT  Turkei  (lS26-56)(2  vols..  Leipsic,  1866-67);  Kinglake,  Invasion  of  t}i4 
Crimea  (6  vols,,  new  ed,,  Edinburgh,  1875-60),  Eicbmann,  Heform^n des  Osmani- 
s,;/ifn  flciches  (Berlin.  185S) ;  V.  Baker.  H'nr  in  Bulgaria  (2  vols.,  London,  1S79J; 
W.  Muller,  Rv.^isch.Tiiri-ifcher  Krien  (Stuttgart,  1878).  For  the  diplomatic  his 
tory,  ^i  Aus  Mettcrnich's  Papiereii  (Vienna,  1880-84);  Welliagton,  /)e5f<i(cA«s(nev 
ser,,  London,  1867-71) ;  Gentz.  Depeehes  Intdilcs  (3  vols,,  Paris,  1876-77) ;  Sir  B. 
Bulwer,  i'almcrston  (2  vols.,  London,  1871);  Guizot,  Mrmoircs  (Paris,  1S5S.67); 
Sir  F.  Hcrtslet,  British  and  Foreign  State  Papers  (London,  1819,  and  still  in 
progress),  and  Map  of  Europe  by  Treaty  (1875);  Parliamentary  Bistoryi  And 
Papers  Presented  to  ParliamenL 

Sultans  of  the  House  op  'OsmAn. 
The  dates  are  those  of  the  sultan's  accession,  according 
Moslem  and  Christian  eras.  a.h. 

1.  'Osman  I.    son  of  Er-Toghrul 700 

2.  Orkhan    .  non  of 'Osman  1 726 

3.  Murad  I son  of  Orkhan 761 

4.  Biyezid  I son  of  Murad  1 791 

Interregnum   804 

5.  Muhammed  I-.    son  of  Bdyezid  I ...816 

6.  Murad  U son  of  Muhammed  1 824 

7.  Muhammed  II son  of  Murad  II 855 

8.  Bdyezid  II son  of  Muhammed  IL      ....886 

9.  Sehm  I son  of  Bdyezid  II 918 

lO.'Suleyman  I son  of  Selim  I 926 

11.  Selim  II son  of  Suleyman  1 974 

12.  Murad  III son  of  Selim  II 982 

13.  Muliammed  III son  of  Murad  III 1003 

14.  Ahmed  I son  of  Muliammed  III 10J2 

15.  Mustafa  I son  of  Muhammed  III 1026 

16.  'Osnidn  II son  of  Ahmed  1 1027 

Mustafa  I (restored) ...1031 

17.  Murad  IV son  of  Ahmed  I 1032 

IS.  Ibrahim  son  of  Ahracd  1 1049 

19.  Muhammed  IV son  of  Ibr.-lhim    1058 

20  Suleyman  II son  of  Ibrahim    1099 

21.  Ahmed  II son  of  Ibrahim 1102 

22.  Mustafa  II son  of  Muhammed  IV 1106 

23.  Ahmed  III sou  of  Muliammed  IV 1115 

24.  Mahmiid  I son  of  Mustafa  II ....1143 

2.i,  'Osm.-ln  III son  of  Mustafa  II 1168 

Mustafa  III smi  of  Ahnied  III 1171 

'Ahd-ul-Hamid  1 son  of  Ahmed  III 1187 

.Selim  III son  of  JIuslafa  III 1203 

Mustafa  IV son  of 'Abd-ul-HamiM  I.    ...1222 

Mahmiid  II.    ,... son  of 'Abd-ul-IIamid  I     ..1223 


'Abd-ul-Mejid    son  of  Mahmiid  II 1255 

'Abil-ul-'Azij son  of  Mahmiid  II 1277 

Muidd  V son  of 'Abd-ul-Mejid 1293 

'Abd-ul-Hamid  II.   ..son  of  'Abd-ul-Mejid 1293 


totba 

A.T). 

1301 
1326 
1359 
1389 
1402 
1413 
1421 
1451 
1481 
1512 
1520 
1563 
1574 
1595 
1603 

i6ir 

1618 
1622 
1623 
164C 
1648 
1687 
1691 
1695 
1703 
1/59 
1754 
1757 
1773 
1789 
1807 
1808 
1839 
1861 
187« 
187< 


VOL  xxni. 


Tu: 


j]EY 


FI^4TSV1 


OIOORAPUY.] 


TURKEY 


653 


BoDnd 


P.vRT  II. — Geography  and  Statistics. 

Plitc  VL  Turkey,  or  the  Ottoraan  empire  {Osnuinli  Vilaicti\  embraces 
extensive  territories  in  south-eastern  Europe,  western  Asia,  and 
northern  Africa,  grouped  mainly  round  the  eastern  waters  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  alon^  both  sides  of  the  Red  Se.i,  the  west  coast 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  ana  the  southern  and  western  shores  of  tlio 
Black  Sea,  These  territories  form  an  aggregate  of  provinces  and 
states,  some  under  the  direct  control  of  the  sultau,  some  enjoying 
a  large  share  of  political  autonomy,  some  practically  independ- 
ent, either  administered  by  foreign  powers  or  ruled  by  hereditary 
vassals  or  tributary  princes.  The  present  (18S7)  extent  of  the 
Ottoman  empire  is  about  1,692,150  square  miles,  and  it3  popula- 
tion 42,316,000. 

EuROPKAN  Turkey. 

Since  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1878  (see  above),  the  extremely 
irregular  frontiers  of  European  Turkey  are  conterminous  with  Greece 
in  the  south,  and  in  the  north  with  Montenegro,  Austria,  Servia,  and 
Roumania,  being  separated  from  the  last  country  partly  by  the 
Danube,  partly  by  a  conventional  line  drawn  from  Siiistria  on  that 
river  to  Mangalia  on  the  Black  Sea.  By  the  Berlin  congress 
Roumania  and  Servia,  hitherto  vassal  states,  were  made  absolutely 
independoBt  kingdoms,  Roumania  at  the  same  time  receiving 
the  district  of  Doorudja  between  the  lower  Danube  and  the  Black 
Sea,  and  Servia  those  of  Nish  and  Leskovatz  about  the  upper 
Mora%-a  river.  Montenegro  was  also  recognized  as  an  independ- 
ent principality,  with  an  increase  of  territory,  which  gave  it  a  sea 
frontier  limited  southwards  by  the  river  Boyana,  and  including 
the  Albanian  porta  of  Dulcigno  and  Antivari  on  the  Adriatic.  The 
Greco-Turkish  frontier  was  also  shifted  north,  Greece  obtaining 
most  of  Thessaly  and  a  strip  of  Epirus  (south  Albania],  so  that 
iince  1881  the  border  line  runs  from  near  Mount  Olympus  on  the 
Gulf  of  Saloniki  (40°  N.  lat)  west  to  the  Pindus  ran^e,  then  south- 
west to  the  Gulf  of  Arta  ou  the  Ionian  Sea.  A  still  raoro  serious 
step  was  taken  towards  disintegration  by  the  withdrawal  of  Bulgaria 
and  Eastern  Roumelia  from  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Sub- 
lime Porte.  The  former  was  constituted  a  tributary  principality,  with 
representative  institutions,  and  Eastern  Roumelia  was  erected  into 
an  autonomous  province,  both  under  the  guarantee  of  the  European 
powers.  But  in  1885  the  latter  province  declared  for  union  with 
nulgaria,and  since  then  these  two  territories  have  practically  formed 
one  state  administered  from  Sophia,  Europe  assenting  and  Turkey 
consenting  (imperial  6rman  of  6th  April  1886)  on  the  retrocession 
to  Turkey  of  the  Moslem  districts  of  Kirjali  and  the  Rhodope.  In 
the  year  1878  Austria  occupied  and  assumed  the  civil  administration 
of  the  north-western  provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  besides 
taking  military  possession  of  the  contiguous  strategical  district  of 
Arta  and  Novi-Bazar.  The  direct  possessions  of  the  sultan  have  thus  been 
popola-  r«dnced  in  Europe  to  a  strip  of  territory  stretching  continuously 
across  the  Balkan  Peninsula  from  the  Bosphorus  to  the  Adriatic 
(29°  10'  to  19°  20'  E.  long.),  and  lying  in  the  castmarnly  between 
iV  and  42°  and  in  the  west  between  39°  and  43°  N.  lat.  It  corre- 
Bponds  roughly  to  ancient  Thrace,  Macedonia  with  Chalcidice,  Epirus, 
and  a  large  part  of  Illyria,  constituting  the  present  administrative 
divisions  of  Stambul  (Constantinople,  including  a  small  strip  of  tho 
opposite  Asiatic  coast),  Edirneh  (Adrianople),  Saloniki  with  Kosovo 
(Macedonia),  Janina  (parts  of  Epirus  and  Thessaly),  Shkodra  (Scutari 
or  upper  Albania).  'To  these  must  be  added  the  Turkish  islands  in 
the  jEgean  usually  reckoned  to  Europe,  that  is,Thasos,  Samothrace, 
Imbros,  and,  in  the  extreme  south,  Crete  or  Caudia,  with  estimated 
.  (1887)  areas  and  populations  as  under  : — 


tioQ. 


Proviiiceii. 


CODStantinopIe. ,. .     

Adriannplo    

Saloniki  an'l  Kosovo 

Janina    

Scutari    

Candia  and  other  islands  . . 


Immediate  possessions. 


Bulgaria,  tributary  principality 

East  Roumelia.  autonomous  pro\ince  

Bosnia.  Herzegovina,  and  Novi-Bazar,  occupied 
by  Austria 


Total  European  Turkey  since  1S78  . . 

Dobrodja.  ceded  to  Roumania 

Njsh  and  Leskovatz.  ceded  to  Servia 

2>ulcigno,  &c.,  ceded  to  Montenegro . 

Parts  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  ceded  to  Greece 

Total  Eiiropean  Turkey  before  1873. . 


Area  in 
Square  Miles. 


24.300 
14,000 


23.570 


4,200 
4,250 
2,000 
2,000 


Population. 


1,200.000 

560.000 

1 ,900,000 

1.440,000 

390,000 

230.000 

5,720,000 

2,008,000 
975,000 


150.000 
St)7.000 
116,000 
100,000  (?) 

10,940,000 


Physical       For  detailed  accounts  of  the  physical  features,  climate,  fauna,  and 

geo-  flora  of  these  regions,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  Albania, 

gmphy.    Bosnia,   Bulgaru,    Constantinople,    Epirus,    Herzegovina, 

Macedonia,  and  Thrace.     Here  it  will  suffice  to  remark  in  a 

general  way  that  the  territory  still  directly  administered  ftom 


Stambul  comprises  one  of  the  most  favoured  regions  of  tho  tcmperato 
zone.  The  extensive  igneous  and  metamorphic  system  of  the  Great 
Balkans  and  Rhodope  (Despoto-Dagh),  culminating  in  the  Rilo 
Dagh  (9000  feet),  interspersed  in  the  Pindus  range  farther  west  by 
Permian  formations  of  unknow-n  age,  and  succeeded  in  the  extreme 
east  (both  sides  of  the  Bosphorus)  by  Lower  Devonian  sandstones 
and  some  more  recent  volcanic  rocks,  is  pierced  .by  the  four  rich 
alluvial  valleys  of  the  Maritza,  Kara-su  or  "  Blackwatcr,"  Strum* 
(Strj-mon),  and  Vardar.  These  rivers,  (lowing  in  nearly  parallel 
south-easterly  courses  to  tho  iEgean,  collect  most  of  the  drainage 
of  Roumelia,  as  Thrace  and  Macedonia  are  commonly  called  by  the 
Turks.  The  whole  region  thus  enjoys  a  somewhat  southerly  aspect, 
sheltered  from  the  north  by  the  lofty  crests  of  the  Rilo  llagh  and 
northern  Pindus,  and  in  every  way  admir.-bly  suited  for  tlie  culti- 
vation of  most  cereals,  as  wcU  as  of  cotton,  tobacco,  madder,  the 
mulberry,  the  vine,  and  fruits.  Here  maize  yields  such  a  bountiful 
harvest  that,  although  originally  introduced  from  America,  it  has 
long  been  regarded  as  indigenous,  and  for  the  Italians  is  simply  the 
Turkish  corn  ("gran  turco")  in  a  preeminent  sense.  The  inhabit-' 
auts  also,  Greeks  intermingled  with  Turks  in  the  cast,  with  Bui- 
garians  in  the  west,  are  intelligent  and  industrious,  noted  for  their 
skill  in  the  manufactureof  carjiets  and  other  woven  goods,  of  saddlery, 
arms,  and  jewellery. 

Asiatic  Turkey. 

The  mainstay  of  the  Ottoman  dynasty  is  the  Asiatic  portion  of  the  Bonnu 
empire,  where  the  Mohammedan  religion  is  absolutely  predominant,  ariea. 
ana  where  the  naturally  vigorous  and  robust  Turki  race  forms  in 
Asia  Minor  a  compact  mass  of  many  millions,  far  outnumbering 
any  other  single  ethnical  element  and  probably  equalling  all  taken 
collectively.  Here  also,  with  the  unimportant  exception  of  the 
islands  of  Samos  and  Cyprus  and  the  somewhat  privileged  district 
of  Lebanon,  all  the  Turkish  possessions  constitute  vilayets  directly 
controlled  by  the  Porte.  Tbey  comprise  the  geographically  distinct 
regions  of  the  Anatolian  plateau  (Asia  Minor),  the  Armenian  and 
Kurdish  highlands,  'ho  Mesopotamian  lowlands,  the  hilly  and 
partly  mountainous  territory  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  the  coast- 
lands  of  west  and  north-east  Arabia.  The  changes  caused  by  the 
Russo-Turkish  War  of  1878  were  the  cession  to  Persia  of  the  little 
district  of  Kotur  on  the  eastern  frontier  and  to  Russia  of  the 
districts  of  Kars  and  Batoum  on  the  north-east  frontier,  while  to 
Englaud  were  conceded  the  military  occupation  and  administration 
of  Cyprus.  Asiatic  Turkey  is  conterminous  on  the  east  with  Russia 
and  Persia ;  in  the  south-west  it  encloses  on  the  west,  north,  and 
north-east  the  independent  part  of  Arabia.  Towards  Egypt  the 
frontier  is  a  conventional  line  drawn  from  Akabah  at  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Akabah  north-westwards  to  the  little  port  of  El  Arish 
on  the  Mediterranean.  Elsewhere  Asiatic  Turkey  enjoys  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  sea  frontage,  being  washed  in  the  north-west  and  west 
by  the  Euxine,  j^igean,  and  Mediterranean,  in  the  south-west  by 
the  Red  Sea,  aud  in  the  southeast  by  the  Persian  Gulf 

The  above  enumerated  five  natural  divisions  of  Asiatic  Turkey 
are  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  about  twenty  vilayets, 
which,  however,  have  been   and  still  are  subject  to  considerable 
fluctuations.    The  subjoined  grouping,  with  areas  nnd  populations,  Areaaod 
is  based  mainly  on  data  lately  communicated  cunlidcntiully  to  the  popula- 
British  Government  by  Mr  Rcdhouse.      His  cstinialcs  of  population  tion. 
have  been  strikingly  confirmed  by  the  official  returns  that  nave  for 
the  first  time  just  been  made  for  certain  provinces  in  Asia  Minor  and 
the  Armenian  higlilands.      Thus  the  census  of  the  Trcbizond  vila- 
yet, completed  in  1886,  gave  a  total  of  1,010,000,  which  differs 
only  by  7000  from  Mr  Rcdhousc's  estimate  for  1878  (1,017,000). 
So  also  the  just  completed  (1887)  census  for  the  Erzeroum  vilayet 
gives  583,000,  or  998,000  including  the  territory  ceded  to  Russia  in 
1873,  which  is  45,000  higher  than  Mr  Rcdhousc's  estimate. 


Natural 
Divisions. 

Provinces. 

Area  in 
Square  Miles. 

Population. 

Asia  Minor 

Armenia  ant* 
Kurdibtan 

Mesopotamia 

Syria  and 
Valestine 

Arabia 

TJroiwsamthBigaandlsmid 
Aidin  (SinjTtia)    

32.000 
23.000 
21.000 
27,000 
S9.000 
16.000 
21-..000 
12.000 
40.000 
3,<!.000 
lOO.OOO   • 
31.000 
4li,000 

S5.000 

200,000  (^ 

1,700 

210 

3.070 

891,580 

1. 900.000 
1.010.000 
1.2C0.000 

sco.ooo 

1,280,000 

470.000 

1.770.0<>0      : 

I.OlO.OOO      1 

1     5S:t.0u0      ' 

U.ooo.ooo    1 

560.000      1 
4.7iO.O00      1 
1.0S5.CO0     1 
1,«0.000 

i,5i;o,ooo     ' 

450,000     "1 

(     390,000     ., 

J  720.000      1 

1 830.0(10      1 

525.000      , 

41,l.vO      1 

235,0^      1 

24,339.000      1 

Angora 

Konieh    . 

Adana     

Sivas  with  Jaoik. 

.Trebizond 

Erzeroum  and  Van    

Diarbekr  with  Aziz 

1  Baclulad     

\  Basra  with  El-IIa.<;a    

f  Aleppo             

J  Dainascn.H  \ 

1  Lebanou      \  

(.Jerusalem  ) 

j?"-""  \  ..     . 

Archipelago 

Cyprus 

Total  Asiatic  Turkey  ... 

654 


TURKEY 


[GEOGEAPHt, 


t'hysical  Detailed  descriptions  of  Asiatic  Turkey  will  be  found  under  the 
features,  separate  articles  Arabia,  Armenia,  Asia  Minor,  Kurdistan, 
Mesopotamia.  Palestine,  and  Syria.  Of  these  natural  divisions 
Asia  Minor  or  Anatolia  is  by  far  the  most  important  for  extent, 
population,  and  natural  resources.  It  constitutes  an  elevated  and 
fertile  plateau  enclosed  by  irregular  mountain  ranges,  which  in  the 
Taurus  and  Antitaurus  on  the  south  and  east  rise  to  from  7000 
Id  10,000  feet,  culminating  in  the  volcanic  Erjish-Dagh,  or  Argieus, 
nearly  12,000  feet  high.  The  plateau,  which  has  a  mean  altitude 
of  some  3000  feet,  is  depressed  in  the  centre,  where  the  Tu2'gol 
(Tatta  Palus)  and  several  other  lacustrine  basins  have  at  present  no 
outflow,  but  wiiich  appear  to  have  formerly  drained  through  the 
Sakaria  (Sanganus)  northwards  to  the  Euxine.  In  the  same  di- 
rection, and  in  curiously  parallel  curves,  flow  the  more  easterly 
Kizil-Irmak  (Halys)  and  Yeshil-Irmak  (Iris),  which  carry  off  most 
of  the  surface  waters  of  the  plateau.  The  western  rivers — Granicus, 
Xanthus  (Scainander),  Hermus,  Simois,  Meander — although  re- 
nowned in  sonc;  and  history,  are  comparatively  insignificant  coast- 
etreams,  rushiu^  from  the  escarpment  of  the  plateau  down  to  their 
^ord-hke  estuaries  in  the  jEgean  None  of  the  rivers  are  navigable 
to  any  distance  from  their  mouths,  and  in  the  absence  of  good 
means  of  communication  the  very  rich  resources  of  the  plateau  in 
minerals  and  agricultural  produce  have  hitherto  been  little  deve* 
lopod  Owing  to  the  ditferent  elevations  and  varied  aspects  of  the 
land  towards  the  Euxine,  ^gean,  and  Mediterranean,  the  climate 
is  extremely  diversified,  presenting  all  the  transitions  from  intense 
eummer  heat  along  most  of  the  seaboard  to  severe  winters  on  the 
lofty  tablelands  of  the  interior,  which  are  exposed  to  biting  winds 
from  the  Russian  steppes.  Anatolia  has  an  endless  variety  of 
natural  products,  from  the  hardy  boxwood  of  Laziatan  (Trebizond 
vilayet)  to  tho  subtropical  figs  and  grapes  of  the  western  coast- 
lands.  On  the  plateau  thrives  the  famous  breed  of  Angora  goats, 
whose  soft,  silky  fleece  (mohair)  forms  a  staple  export. 

Of  far  less  economic  importance  are  the  Armenian  uplands,  form- 
ing a  rugged  plateau  of  limited  extent,  above  which  rise  many 
lofty  peaks,  culminating  in  the  tower-crested  Ararat  (16,916  feet), 
the  converging  point  of  three  empires.  The  long  and  terribly  severe 
winters,  intolerably  hot  short  summers,  and  generally  poor  soil  of 
Armenia  present  a  marked  contrast  to  the  far  more  temperate 
climate,  rich  upland  valleys,  and  densely  wooded  slopes  of  the  more 
southern  Kurdistan  highlands.  But  these  advantages  are  counter- 
balauced  by  the  generally  inaccessible  nature  of  the  country,  the 
want  of  good  highways,  and  especially  the  lawless  character  of  its 
inhabitants,  who  have  undergone  little  social  change  since  tho  days 
of  their  wild  Karduchi  forefathers.  In  the  heart  of  this  savage 
region  lies  the  magnificent  basin  of  Lake  Van,  which,  like  Tuz-gol 
and  the  nlore  easterly  Urmiya,  baa  no  present  outflow,  but  formerly, 
00  doubt,  discharged  to  the  Tigris  valley. 

In  the  Van  district  lie  the  sources  of  most  of  the  head  streams 
of  the  Tigris  (y-u.)  and  Euphraies  (g.v.\  which  have  created  the 
vast  and  fertile  alluvial  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  Thie  latter  region, 
the  seat  of  the  ancient  Accadian  and  Assyrian  and  the  more  recent 
Moslem  cultures,  forms  a  continuous  plain  from  the  escarpments  of 
the  Kurdistan  highlands  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  broken  only  in  the 
north  by  the  Sinjar  Hills,  and  capable  of  yielding  magnificent 
crops  wherever  water  is  available.  But  under  Osmanli  rule  the 
eplendid  system  of  irrigation  works,  dating  from  tho  dawn  of  his- 
tory, has  fallen  into  decay:  the  lower  Euphrates  now  overflows 
its  banks  and  converts  much  of  the  region  above  and  below 
Kurnah,  at  the  confluence  of  the  two  great  arteries,  into  malarious 
marshlands  Hence  the  populoiis  cities  and  innumerable  villages 
formerly  dotted  over  the  Babylonian  plains  have  been  succeeded 
by  the  jscattered  hamlets  of  the  Monteflk  and  other  amphibious 
Arab  tribes. 

This  lowland  region  is  separated  by  thp  more  elevated  Syrian 
desert  or  steppe  from  the  much  smaller  and  less  productive  pro- 
vinces of  Syria  and  Palestine.  Here  the  main  physical  features 
are  at  once  simple  and  yet  striking.  The  narrow,  hUly  region  dis- 
posed north  and  south  between  tne  Mediterranean  and  the  desert, 
and  stretching  for  over  400  miles  between  Anatolia  and  the  Sinai 
Peninsula,  culminates  towards  the  centre  in  the  parallel  Libanus 
and  Antilibanus  (10,000  to  11,000  feet),  enclosing  between  them 
the  fertile  depression  of  the  Beka'  (Ccele-Syria).  The  stupt-ndous 
ruins  of  Baalbek,  standing  at  the  highest  point  of  this  depression 
in  30'*  N.  lat,  mark  the  parting  line  between  the  northern  and 
southern  watersheds  of  the  region.  Northwards  flows  the  El-'Asi 
(Oronles),  southwards  the  Gtani  (Leontes),  both  through  the 
Bekd'  in  moderately  sloping  beds  to  the  Mediterranean,  For 
further  particulars,  see  tho  articles  Ledanon,  Jordan,  Palestine. 
In  the  Lebanon  the  Christian  Maronite  communities  enjoy  a  mea- 
sure of  self-government  under  the  guarantee  of  France,  while  their 
pagan  neighbours  and  hereditary  foes,  the  Drases,  are  gradually 
withdrawing  to  the  hilly  Hauran  district  beyond  Jordan. 

Turkey's  Arabian  possessions  comprise,  besides  El-Hasa  on  the 
Persian  Gulf,  the  low-lying,  hot,  and  insalubrious  Tehama  and  the 
south-western  highlands  (vilayets  of  Hejaz  and  Yemen)  stretching 
continuously  along  the  east  side  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  includiog  the 


two  holy  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina.  These  are  held  by  militr.ry 
occupation,  probably  at  a  loss  to  the  imperiad  exchequer,  and  cer» 
Uinly  against  the  wishes  of  the  inhabitants.  But  these  drawbacks 
are  supposed  to  be  more  than  compensated  by  the  politica?  presti^o 
derived  from  the  possession  of  the  Holy  Land  of  Islaip. 

African  Territories. 
Since  the  abandonment  of  eastern  or  Egyptian  Soudan  u»  1884,  Area  and 
consequent  on  the  revolt  of  the  Mahdi,    and  the  occupation  ofpopula. 
Tunis  by  the  French  in  1881,  Turkey  in  Africa  has  been  reduced  Uou. 
to  the  two  territories  of  Egypt  and  Tripolitana  with   Barca  and 
Fezzan,  jointly  occup3ring  tne  north-east  comer  of  the  continent. 
Of  these  Tripolitana  aloue  is  directly  administered,  constituting 
the  pashalik  or  vilayet  of  Tripoli.     Egypt,  whose  sonthem  frontier 
was  temporarily  fi^ed  in  January  1887  at  the  station  of  Akasho 
above  Wady  Haifa,  near  the  second  cataract  in  Lower  Nubia  (22* 
N.  lat.),  has  formed  a  practically  independent  principality  under 
the  dynasty  of  Mehemet  Ali  since  1841,  subject  only  to  an  annua) 
tribute  of  £695,000  to  the  Porte.     The  areas  and  populations  of 
Turkey  in  Africa  were  estimated  as  follows  in  1887; — 


Tripoli,  with  Barea  and  Pezzan,  a  vilayet   

Area  iu 
Bq.  Mile& 

Population. 

4S6.000 
S;4.CKX) 

l.OOO.OOO 
6.800.000 

Total  Turkey  iQ  Africa     

802.000 

7,800.000 

The  Empire: 

Turkey  is  essentially  a  theocratic  absolute  monarchy,  being  sub-  AdmlntS' 
ject  in  principle  to  the  direct  personal  control  of  the  sultan,  who  tntioD. 
is  himself  at  once  (t  temporal  autocrat  and  the  recognized  caliph, 
that  IS,  "  successor  "  of  the  Prophet,  and  consequently  the  spiritual 
head  of  the  Moslem  world  (see  Mohammedanism).  But,  although 
the  attempt  made  in  1876  to  introduce  representative  institutions 
proved  abortive,  this  theoretical  absolutism  is  nevertheless  tem- 
pered not  only  by  traditional  usage,  local  privilege,  the  juridical 
and  spiritual  precepts  of  the  Koran  and  its  'ulernd  interpreters,  and 
the  privy  council,  but  also  by  the  growing  force  of  public  opinion 
and  the  direct  or  indirect  pressure  of  the  European  powers.  The 
"ulemA*  form  a  powerful  corporation,  whose  head,  the  sheikku  'U 
Islam,  ranks  as  a  state  functionary  scarcely  second  to  the  grand 
vizier,  or  prime  minister.  O'^ing  to  their  intensely  conservative 
and  fanatical  spirit,  the  'ulemd  have  always  been  determined  oppo- 
nents of  progress,  and  are  at  present  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to 
reform  in  a  political  system  where  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
functions  are  inextricably  interwoven.  Besides  these  erponndera 
of  Koranic  doctrine^  the  sovereign  is  to  some  extent  bound  also  by 
the  Mullcka,  a  legal  code  based  on  the  traditional  sayings  o( 
Mohammed  and  the  recorded  decis:ons  of  his  successors,  having 
the  force  of  precedents. 

The  grand  vizier  {scdr-azam\  who  is  nommated  by  the  sultan, 
presides  ex-officio  over  the  privy  council  {Tnejliss-i-khass),  which, 
besides  the  sheikhu  '1-Islam,  comprises  the  ministers  of  home  and 
foreign  afTairs,  war,  finance,  marine,  trade,  public  works,  justice, 
public  instruction,  and  worship,  with  the  president  of  the  council 
of  state  and  the  grand  master  of  artillery.  For  administrativo 
purposes  the  immediate  possessions  of  the  sultan  are  divided  into 
vilayets  (provinces),  which  are  again  subdivided  into  sanjaks  ot 
mutessariks  (arrondisAoments),  these  into  kazas  (cantons),  and  tho 
kazas  into  nahies  (parishes  or  communes).  A  vali  or  governor- 
general,  nominated  by  the  sultan,  stands  at  the  head  of  the  vilayeti  ' 
and  on  hira  are  directly  dependent  the  pashas,  eirendis,  beys,  and 
other  administrators  of  the  minor  divisions.  All  these  officiali 
unite  in  their  own  persons  the  judicial  and  executive  functions, 
and  all  alike  are  as  a  rule  thoroughly  corrupt,  venal  in  the  dispen* 
sation  of  justice,  oppressors  of  the  subject,  embezzlers  of  the  publio 
revenues,  altogether  absorbed  in  amassing  wealth  during  their 
mostly  brief  and  precarious  tenure  of  office.^  Foreigners  settled  in 
the  country  are  specially  protected  from  exactions  by  the  so-calle4 
"capitulations,"  in  virtue  of  which  they  are  exempt  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  local  courts  and  amenable  for  trial  to  tribunals  pre* 


J  Sec  SuyNiTM,  vol.  ixii    p.  660. 

'  Major-Oeoeral  F.  T.  Haig.  who  travelled  through  the  heart  cf  TemeQ  la 
the  winter  of  1386-87.  thoa  sptaks  of  tlie  adrainistratioci  in  that  almost  exclu. 
sively  Moslem  province;  "Tfci  fiscal  Mystein  of  the  Turka,  if  it  were  really 
earned  into  effect,  would  be  by  no  rni-ans  l>ad  ;  but  like  every  oUif:r  depart- 
inent  of  the  government  it  is  ruined  by  the  utter  comiplion  thai  prevails  in 
every  branch  of  the  fulministratuMi  from  top  to  bottom.  No  more  t:l<x(ueDt 
exiioundera  of  the  evila  and  hopelessne-sa  of  their  whole  system  are  Ut  be  found 
than  the  Turks  •hemsclves.  a^  I  found  from  conversation  with  two  or  three  of 
tl.etr  own  ufllcials"  (Proc.  K.  Geog  .Sor.,  Aufenist  1887.  p.  487).  Mr  0.  P  Dcvcy 
also,  consul  at  Krzeroum,  reports  that  in  a  part  of  that  province  the  3hetip-t«j 
for  1K85  waa  collertod  throe  time--*  over  :  "  On  the  fl-^t  occ&sion  the  real  nombet 
had  l)eeo  utidereatimated,  and  the  collector  therefore  caine  again,  and.  tudiog 
that  BQch  was  the  cast,  made  the  villagers  pay  the  whole  aum  of  H, 000  piastres 
(9000  had  been  levied  on  the  previona  occaaionX  inetiAd  of  the  airTcrccct,  oa 
the  pTOiiBd  tliat  thev  bad  cheated  the  Government  tn  not  dec'ariuK  thc.r  wliol« 
oto<;lt.  A  third  time  a  collector  visited  the  caza.  and.  when  the  villagers  could 
pn>dcce  no  receipt  that  the  tAX  had  been  paid  (for  none  hod  boon  gtven),  a  tUld 
tiiue-L^  fuUflom  was  taken  "(Oiu,  Hep.,  July  1887,  p.  S). 


crocr.ApnY.] 


TURKEY 


655 


Coa- 


tare. 


tided  over  by  their  rwpective  consuls.  Ca^cs  betweea  foreimiers 
of  different  nationalities  are  heard  in  the  court  of  the  dcfcnaant, 
and  between  foreigners  and  Turkish  subjects  in  the  local  courts,  at 
whiLh  a  consular  dragoman  attends  to  !>ee  that  the  trial  iscouductcd 
iccordiug  to  law. 

The  trade  rc:urns  for  the  last  few  years  show  that  the  country  is 
slowly  recovering  from  the  disa.strous  consequences  of  the  Russo- 
Turkish  W.nr.  For  the  four  years  1SS2-86  tho  exports  from  and 
ini[K>rts  to  Turkey  were  valued  as  ilndcr : — 


ISS3-3 


E\i>i>rts.' 


*10.<>00.000 
9.5M,000 


Imjiorts. 


£17.000,000 
17.350.000 


1SS4  5 
1SS5-6 


Exports.l 


£11.326.000 
10,690.000 


Imports. 


£18.563.000 
17,702,000 


The  share  of  the  chief  foreign  states  in  these  exchanges  is  showu 
ID  the  subjoined  table'  for  the  years  1S84-S5  and  18S5-86  : — 


Imports  from 

Exports  to 

Qre«t  BritaiD    

Frmaee , 

Au$Ui4    _ 

Kussia. 

Italy      

16845. 

1SS5* 

ISS4-5. 

1SS5-6. 

£S.3(».000 

S.225.000 

3.600.000 

1.2O4.000 

563.000 

395.000 

275.000 

553.l«0 

22S.0OO 

254.000 

£7.755.000 

2.050.000 

3,406.000 

1,556.000 

530.000 

318,000 

166.000 

482,000 

565.000 

261.000 

£3.923.000 

4.0S3.000 

1,113.000 

366.000 

339.000 

iOO.OOO 

63,000 

7,990 

8S.000 

2,525 

£1.031.000 

3.296,000 

1,001,000 

341.000 

S-27.000 

437.000 

107.000 

7.450 

96.000 

9,4S6 

United  StAtea  

Oelgiuui 

The  chief  staples  of  the  export  trade  arc  raisins  (£1,370,000  in 
18S1-85),  wheat  (£900,000),  cotton  (£700,000),  opium  (£500,000), 
olive  oil  (£450,000).  valonia  (£450,000),  barley  (£332,000),  6gs 
(£200,0001,  sesame  (£196.000),  maize  (£194,000),  pulse  (£185,000), 
nuts  (£184,000),  mohair  (£145,000),  wool  (£140,000),  dates 
(£115,000);  and  of  the  import  trade  cotton  and  cotton  stuffs 
!(£4,350,000,  iu  1883-84),  cereals  and  flour  (£1,350,000),  sugar 
,(£1,150,000),  draperies,  hosiery,  ic.  (£735,000),  woollen  stuffs 
(£650,000),  colfec  (£535,000),  metals  (£516,000),  ironmongery 
(£475,000),  dves  (£450,000),  silk  and  silk  stuffs  (£400,000), 
ptroleum  (£375,000),  hides  and  skins  (£255,000),  live  stock 
(£236,000),  chemicals  (£167,000),  coal  (£135,000). 

In  the  nest  table  are  given  the  principal  seaports  of  the  empire 
with  their  imports,  exports,  and  shipping  for  18S6  : — 


Alexandria  

CoDStaDtioopIe  

Sm>Tn8    

Saloniki    

Iskaoderfwn  and  Trj|»oIi     

SamsuD.  with  OrUii  anil  Uoieh 

Trebizonil  and  Kirasun        

Bcyrut.  with  Akka  and  Baib 

Kavata   ..  .\ 

Crete  (six  ports) a 

Dedeajjatch 

Tripoli  (Africa)   

Durj;33  

Gsllipoli  aod  Rodosto 

Suez    

Benghazi  

Jaffa   

JeJdah 


£11.710,000  £9.417.000 


Exports.      Imports.    ^,^/Jl    ToDnage. 


4.331.000 
1.362.000 
1,022.000 
806.000 
715,000 
602.000 
457.000 
S35.000 
298.000 
231.000 
222  WW 
212.000 
172.000 
121.000 
I20.0CO 
119.000 


2.706.000 

1.660.000 

1,670.000 

7S7.00O 

1.9OI.000 

995.000 

201.000 

633,000 

169.004 

310.000 

281.000 

185.000 

709.000 

111.000 

240.000 

? 


1249 
9072 
1645 
5440 
626 
473 
6063 
4009 
778 
3760 

501 
1371 

712 
261 
lOOU 
1040 


1,020.000 

s.ias.ooo 

1,363.000 
574.(JtX) 
351.000 
455.000 
47S.OOO 
618.U00 
145.000 
491,000 

272.000 
ILi.OOO 

1,109.000 
54.000 
459.000 
317.000 


Exclusive  of  coasting  craft,  the  mercantile  fleet  of  Turkey  in  1885 
consisted  of  14  steamers  of  11,000  tons  aud  400  sailiug  vessels  of 
65,000  tons. 

All  branches  of  the  foreign  trade,  together  with  most  of  the  local 
trafllc  and  the  banking  business,  are  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands 
of  Greeks,  Armenians,  Jews,  and  foreigners.  The  Turks  and  other 
Mohammedans  are  engaged  nearly  altogether  in  agricultural  and 
pastoral  pursuits.  But  the  land,  especially  in  Anatolia,  is  gradu- 
ally passing  from  its  Moslem  owners  iuto  the  jwssession  of  Christian 
mortgagees.  Scarcely  any  accurate  agricultural  returns  are  avail- 
able, except  for  one  or  two  districts.  In  the  Erzerouro  vilayet  in 
1886'  the  live-stock  stiSod  as  under,— sheep  l,9c5.000,  goats  645,000, 
oxen  470,000,  buffaloes  48,000,  horses  61.000,  asses  42,000,  mules 
6000;  beehives  numbered  80,000.  The  chief  agricultural  produce 
for  the  same  year  was— wheat  16.690,000  busheh,  barley  13,297,000 
bushels,  beans  46,250  cwts.,  melons  17,000  cwts.,  mulberries  10.000 
cwts.,  other  fruits  40,000  cwts.  In  the  same  year  of  the  12.000  square 
ID'les  constituting  the  Trebizond  vilayet  2100  were  under  cultiva- 
tion, 1860  uncultivated,  2520  woodland,  and  5520  highland  pastur- 
ags,  the  annual  yield  being  about  2,300,000  cwts.  of  cereals,  1,000,000 
cwts.  of  nuu,  fruits,  vegetables,  &c,  and  500,000  cwts.  of  fodder; 

*  Exclusive  of  tobacco,  which  for  fiscal  reasoDS  is  not  included  in  the  general 
trade  returns,  but  the  export  of  which  amounted  to  £11,500,000  in  value  for 
1884-5.  sr.d  nearly  £11.000.000  for  1885-6. 

>  Consul-General  Fawcelt  a  Snort  for  July  1887,  p.  SL 

'  Com.  £q-.  for  July  1837. 


whilst  of  live-stock  there  were  300,UOO  sheep  and  goats,  150,000 
horses,  25,000  mules  and  asses,  60.000  oxen.* 

Previous  to  ISSO  Turkey  was  commonly  regarded  as  practically  Fiaaaae, 
bankrupt.  But  since  then  a  considerable  improvement  has  been 
effected.  Trustworthy  data  are  still  wanting;  but  a  careful  estimate 
gave  the  gross  revenue  and  cxpendituie  of  1SS4  at  £T16,313,000 
and  £T16,223,lbo  respectively,  the  expenditure  including  over 
£T4,000,000  available  for  st.at'e  creditors.  The  public  debt  stood 
at  £106,437,000  in  18S2.  The  sultan  is  reported  to  draw  a  sum  of 
from  £1,000,000  to  £2,000,000  annually  from  the  public  revenues 
for  the  support  of  the  seraglio  or  imperial  household  of  over  five 
thousand  [lersons. 

Until  1SS6  the  military  servic^  compulsory  on  all  Moslems  over  Arini. 
18  years  of  age,  was  kept  up  by  45,000  annual  recruits  drawn  by 
ballot  ;  but  iu  November  of  that  year  universal  conscription  of  the 
whole  able-bodied  male  population  was  decreed.  B.v  this  measure 
the  army,  hitherto  reckoned  at  about  160,000  men,  with  a  war 
strength  of  from  450,000  to  500,000,  will  be  probably  raised  to  a 
permanent  footing  of  1,000,000  effectives  under  the  Oag  and  in  the 
reserves.  These  will  continue  to  be  grouped  iu  the  three  categories 
of  the  nizam  or  regulars  in  active  service,  the  redif  or  first  re5er\-e, 
and  the  mustahfiz  or  second  reserve.  There  is  to  be  a  considerable 
increase  of  cavalry,  all  conscripts  being  allow-cd.to  join  that  branch 
of  the  service  who  have  the  means  of  providing  themselves  with 
mounts  and  cquipmenL  For  military  purposes  the  empire  is 
divided  into  seven  divisions,  with  headquarters  at  Constantinople, 
Adriauople,  Monastir,  Erzingian,  Baghdad,  Damascus,  and  Sanaa, 
all  except  Sanaa  (for  Yemen)  hitherto  fuiuishing  an  army  corpr 
for  the  nizam  and  two  for  the  redif. 

The  navy  at  the  beginning  of  1887  comprised  15  large  and  Kavy 
sevei-al  smaller  ironclads  (monitors,  gunboats,  &c.),  a  number  of 
mostly  old-fashioned  steamers,  and  14  torpedo  boats,  and  was  manned 
by  30,000  sailors  and  10,000  marines  (nominal  strength),  raised  by 
conscription  or  voluntary  enlistment  and  seiniig  for  12  years  in 
the  active  and  reserve  classes. 

Public  instruction  is  much  more  widely  diffused  throughout  the  Edcc^ 
empire  than  is  commonly  supposed.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  tion. 
Christian  communities,  notably  the  Maronites  and  others  in  Syria, 
tiie  Anatolian  and  Roumelian  Greeks,  and  the  Armenians  of  the 
eastern  provinces  and  of  Constantinople.  Education  is  practically 
limited  amongst  the  Mohammedans  to  reading  and  writing  and  the 
study  of  the  Koran.  But  amongst  the  Christians,  especially  the 
Armenians,  the  Greeks  of  Smyrna,  and  the  Syrians  of  Beyrut,  it 
embraces  a  considerable  range  of  subjects,  such  as  (Classical  Hellenic, 
Armenian,  and  Syriac,  as  well  as  modem  French,  Italian,  and 
English,  modern-history,  geography,  and  medicine.  Large  sums  are 
freely  contributed  for  the  establishment  and  support  of  good  schools, 
and  the  cause  of  national  education  is  seldom  forgotten  in  the 
legacies  of  patriotic  Anatolian  Greeks.  Even  the  Turks  are  be. 
stirring  themselves  in  this  respect,  and  great  progress  has  been 
made  during  the  last  twenty  years  in  the  Erzeroum  viJayet.'  In 
1886  that  province  contained  1216  schools  and  163  madrasas 
(colleges),  with  a  total  attendance  of  25,680,  including  1504  girls. 
Elsewhere  few  official  statistics  are  available. 

Besides  administrative  ai^d  financial  reforms,  one  of  the  roost  Connni* 
pressing  needs  is  improved  means  of  communication.  In  Trebizond  iucatio& 
the  route  from  the  coast  at  Unieh  through  Kiksar  to  Sivas  has 
recently  been  completed  to  the  limits  of  the  vilayet.  But  the  works 
on  the  more  important  road  from  Kirasun  to  Eara-hissal  for  the 
silver  and  lead  mines  at  Lijessy  are  still  suspended,  owing  to  di» 
putes  between  the  contiguous  proviucU  administrations.  Ma"y 
of  the  great  historic  highways  are  also  much  out  of  repair.  At  the 
end  of  1S85  only  1250  miles  of  railway  were  completed  in  the  em- 
pire, of  which  903  were  in  Europe  and  347  in  Asia.  The  chief  lines 
a/e  those  connecting  the  capital  with  Adriauople  (210  miles), 
Adriauople  with  Saremby  (152),  Saloniki  with  Uskub  (150\  Zenica 
with  Bred  (118),  Uskub  with  Mitrovitza  (75),  and  Kulleli  with 
Degeagatch  (70)  in  Europe,  and,  in  Asia,  Scutari  with  Ismid  (40), 
Smyrna  with  AlaShchr  (130),  and  Smyrna  with  Denizli  (170).  By 
imperial  decree  (August  1887)  a  contract  was  granted  to  an  English 
syndicate  for  the  extension  of  the  Ismid  line  and  the  construction 
of  a  system  of  Asiatic  railways  to  extend  to  Baghdad  within  the 
space  of  ten  years.  I 

The  telegraph  system  is  much  moro  developed,  comprisiiig(1885). 
14,620  miles,  with  26,100  miles  of  wire  and  470  sUtions.  The 
yearly  average  of  letters  and  packa{,C3  of  all  sorts  sent  through  the 
710  post-ofBces  scarcely  exceeds  2,600,000.  Most  of  tho  foreign 
postal  service  is  conducted  through  the  British,  Austrian,  German, 
French,  and  Russian  privileged  post-ofiices. 

For  tho  ethnography  of  the  Turks,  sec  Turks.         (A.  H.  K) 

Part  ITI. — LrrEKATTTRB. 

In  all  literary  matters  the  Ottoman  Turks  have  shown  themselret 
a  singularly  uninventive  people,  the  two  great  schools,  the  old  and 
the  new,  into  which  we  may  divide  their  literature,  being  closely 


«  ami.  Btf.,  May  18ST. 


*  Cm.  Sep.,  July  1887,  f.  4. 


656 


TURKEY 


[UTBRATTntE. 


Old 
schooL 


aian 

Utera- 

tnxe. 


modelled,  the  one  after  the  classics  of  Perma.  t^eo'her  after  those 
of  modem  Europe,  and  more  especially  of  France,     ine  oia  or 
Perei^™hMl  flourished  from  the  foundation  of  the  empire  down 
toXut  18M  and  still  continues  to  drag  on  a  feeble  ex^tence, 
SouX  t  i3  <^"  »«'  of  ''^l'*°°  '^^  cultivated  by  none  of  the  lead- 
ng  men  of  lette,^     These  belong  to  the  new  or  E«ropeao  schoo 
which  sprang  up  some  6fty  or  sixty  years  ago.  fna^tich  in  spite 
Tf  the  biUe?tpposition  of  the  partisans  of  the  old  Oriental  system 
hL  succeeded,  partly  througfi  its  own  inherent  superiority  and 
SStly  throul  t^Te  tZlents  and  courage  of  its  supporters^  in  e.pe  - 
fi^ff  Its  rival  from  the  position  of  undisputed  authority  ..hich  it 
n  occur]  foHpwarls  of  five  hundred  year^     ,^°S'?'^P^Jf "' 
WnoseTvrill  be  convenient  to  divide  the  o  d  schoo    '"t"  tl>«^ 
E^S  which  may  be  termed  respectively  the  pre-classical,  the 
KS   and  the  LtclassicaL    OY these  the  first  extends  from 
?Kriv  days  of  tfie  empire  to  the-accession  of  Suleyman  I.,  1301  _ 
1520  (700  926) ;  the  second  from  that  event  to  the  accession  of 
Mahm^Id  I  :i529-n30  (926-1143) ;  and  the  third  from  that  date 
ty.  the  accession  of  "Abd-ul-  Aziz,  1730-1861  (lU3-li77).  . 

of  Otto     ana  tne  ^  j^    ^        ^  elegance  and  conventional  grace, 

IX  of  thoSt  and  of  expression,  so  characteristic  of  Pereian 
c  Ssica  uSure,  pervade  tL  works  of  the  best  Ottoman  wite.^ 
anT  hey  are  like^rise  imbued,  though  u,  a  l^ss  degree  <nththat 
mirit  of  mysticism  which  runs  through  so  much  of  the  poe^  of 
ISS     But  the  Ottomans  did  not  stop  here:  in  ''''F  ;o"»°''= 
0^3  they  chose  as  subjects  the  favourite  themes  of  their  Persian 
KrI  such  MlTvli  aid  Mejniin,  Khusrev  and  Shirin,  Yusuf  and 
Tu^e^SrM."^  on  ;  they  ionstently  allude  to  Persian  heroes 
rtose  M  oc^ur  in'  iJshdh.N<irri  and  other  storehouses  of 
TKulln  iWndwy  lore;  and  they  wrote  their  poems  m  Pers  an 
m^te^-Md  ^^rsian  forms.     The  mesnevf,  the  kasida,  and  the 
eWet'^  of  them,  so  far  at  least  as  the  Ottomans  are  concerned 
iS^e"  the  favourite  verse-forms  of  the  old  poets.  A  mesnevi 
taT^^m  vHtten  in  rhyming  couplets,  and  is  usually  narrative  m 
«,biMt     The  kasida  and  the  gha^el  are  both  monorhythmic  ;  the 
£S  «  a  rule  cekbrates  the  praises  of  some  gr^at  man,  while  the 
S^iS  di^^  of  the  joys  and  woes  of  1«"-    Why  Persian  rather 
^n^raLn  or  an;  oth^er  literature  became  tie  mode  o  Ottoman 
inters  is  explained  by  the  early  history  of  the  race  (see  .Turks). 
W  two-SturiesbeWe  the  arrival  of^he  Tuf  m  A™»  Mmor 
flie  Seliiiks,  then  a  mere  horde  of  savages,  had  overrun  Pers^ 
where  thTsettled  and  adopted  the  civilization  of  the  people  they 
had"uMued     Thus  Persiin  became  the  language  of  their  court 
Ti  Government  and  when  by  and  by  they  F^^re  oTS  the^ 

;^^e^dtir.'s5irp^^iarcX»^^ 

be^raUy  the  descendants  of  Seljuks  or  Seljukian  subiecte,  who- 
had  derived  from  Persia  whatever  thev  possessed  of  ""^-f^"""  "J 
of  Uterarv  taste.  An  extraordinary  love  of  precedent,  tl"  "su't 
annarentW  ^conscious   want  of  original   power,  was  sufficient 

HS^rarw&'disXtTtzr^^.:!^ 
SB1^="of=vrar=^e^=^^ 

Sable  ^de^  the  resuft. being  '^at ■  the  numfcr  of  th  ^ 
writere  both  in  prose  and  verse  is  enormous.  Of  course  on'/  ^^^ew 
Tthrmost  prominent,  either  through  t^' l".*^^. J^n' "L^ng 
"ork  or  through  the  influence  they  have  had  ^.ey>'l'"5  ^'/°^PJ^^ 

territSry  under  the  role  of  that  pnnce.  Another  "nyshc  poet  ot 
S^^y  time  was  'Ashik  Pasha,  who  left  a  >ong  poem  in  rhyming 
inm,lets  which  is  called,  inappropriately  enough,  his  DM.n.  Ihe 
.«&'xpedition  icross  th^He^^pont  by  which  Sule,^^^^^^ 
JS"- Orkhan.  won  Galipoli  and  thejewit'i  a  foothold  m  Europe 
foT  Ss  -»ce  was  shared  in  and  celebrated  m  verse  by  a  Turkish 
^bk^;  c^eft^in  «r-l  Gti^  Faai.    Stieykfe'  of  Eenniyan,  a 


issical 
■riod. 


contemporary  of  Muhammed  I.  and  MuraTl  II.,  wrote  a  lengthy  and 
stm  eTtSa  mesnevi  on  the  ancient  Persian  romance  of  Khusrev 
and  ShWn  i  and  about  the  sam«  time  Yaziji-ogh lu  gave  to  the 
world  a  ong  versified  history  of  the  Prophet,  the  Mufu^mmedlya. 
The  writers  mentioned  above  are  the  most  important  previous  to 
the  (Jpture  of  ConsUntinople  ;  but  there  is  little  literature  of  real 
merit  prior  te  that  event     The  most  notable  prose  work  of  this 
periodTs  an  o?d  collection  of  stories,  the  ffi^^o^  of  Che  ffy^'^^t 
Lid  to  have  been  compiled  by  a  certain  Sheykh-zada  and  d^^ieate* 
to  Murad  II.     A  few.years  after  Constantiuonlo  passed  into  th. 
hands  of  the  Ottemans,  some  ghazels,  the  wort  of  'he  contempo 
rary  Tatar  prince,  Mir 'Ali  Sh&.  who  under  the  rum  d«  pZu»«o( 
Nevayi  wrote  much  that  shows  true  talent  and  poetic  feehng,  found 
Their  way  to  the  Ottoman  capital,  where  they  were  seen  and  copi^ 
bv  Ahmed  Pasha,  one  of  the  viziers  of  Muhammed  II.     The  poemi 
„?tMssUt«man  though  POfessing'ittle  merit  of  their  own,  being 
for  the  most  part  mere  translations  from  Nevayi,  fo™  one  of  the 
Kndmarks  in  the  history  of  Ottoman  literature.    They  set  the 
f^hl  of  ghsSl-writinJ;  and  their  appearance  was  the  sipial 
fS  a  more  rigular  cultivation  of  poetty  and  a  g^^ter  attenhon  te 
iterarv  stvle  and  to  refinement  of  language.     In  Sm4n   Puha 
aS  n^nister  of  Muhammed  the  .Conqueror.  Ottoman  pros, 
found  its  first  exponent  of  ability  ;  he  left  a  religious  treatise 
entHled  roSrru'^  (Supplications),  which,  notwithstanding  a  too 
lavish  employment  of  t^e  resources  of  Persian  jhetericu  as  re- 
m™^brfor  iS  clear  and  lucid  style  as  for  the  beauty  of  many  ol 
Sie  thouVh^  it  contains.      The  most  noteworthy  writers,  of  the 
Conauerofs  reign  are,  after  Ahmed  and  Sinan   the  two  lync  poet. 
NeZ  and  ZiC  whose  verses  show  a  considerable  improvement 
u^n  those  of  Ahmed  Pasha,  the  romantic  poete  Jemili  and  Hamdi. 
3  the  poetes^  Zeyneh  and  MihrL     Like  most  of  h^  hous^ 
M^iammld  II.  was  foid  of  poetry  and  P*t"°l^''f.  ":"  ?    !''^« 
Ho  himself  tried  versification,  and  some  of  his  hues  which  ha. . 
come  down  to  us  appear  quite  equal  to  the  avenge  work  of  hu 
Tontemprarrl     Tw%-Jne  out  of  the  thirty-  our  so™-e.^ 
who  have  occupied  the  throne  of  Osm!in)^ye\eftvete^.^a 
among  these  Sefim  I.  stands  out.  not  merely  "the  greatest  rule^ 
w3fr    and  statesman,   but  also  as  the  most  gifted  a^d.  "o* 
r^^nll  ™eL     HU  work  U  unhappily  for  the  greater  part  in  the 
pXn  iTg^age ;  the  ^ceUence'^of  what  he  has  done  in  T.irkjsh 
mS  us  re^et  that  he  di4  lO  Uttle.     The  most  prominent  mu^ 
rf  lettera  uSder  Selim  1.  was  the  legist  Kemal  Pasha-zAda,  bo- 

qu  n  fycai^d  Ihn-KemAl, who  ^^^in^-^^i^Zt' of  Y^uQ 
and  verse  He  left  a  romantic  poem  on  the  loves  ol  /"»"'«"? 
7alevkhl  and  a  work  entitled  l^dristdn.  which  is  modelled  both 
Se  and  matter  on  the  OuliZn  of  Sadi.  Hia  oontemporary. 
Sesii  whose  beautiful  verses  on  spnng  are  perhaps  bett« 
"'  irEurope  than  any  other  Turkish  poem,  deserves  a  pass- 

%fth^he' accession  of  Selim's  son,  SiUeyman  L,  the  classical  ClarfoJ 
neriod  beri^s^   HUherto  all  Ottoman  writing,  even  the  most  highly  per»d 
Sedffbefn  somewhat  rude  and  uncouth  -,  but  now  a  marked 
improvement  becomes  visible  alike  in  the  manner  and  the  matter. 
LnS  authors  of  greater  abUity  begin  to^^^f.^'iJ^^  PP'^^*^ 
TTiijiilL  one'  of  the  four  gieat  poets  of  the  old  school,  seems  w 

nf  Tnrkish.  and  was  most  probably  that  of  the  l^ersian  'ur""  "' 
thosT^vs  Tuzuli  showeS  far  more  originality  than  any  of  hu 
nredeceS.r8  :  foTalthough  his  work  is  naturally  Persian  in  form 

LT  ce?iKfluential  personages  who  came  under  "^tS 
duced  Murid  IV.  to  permit  his  execution     Nefi.  who,  1.  He  i;  uzu« 


Classical 

;irose 
"TiUrs 


Shak  r  a  conteraporarv.  was  the  most  successful      X.v.l.    Jtv-; 

Ibml.iai  and  Jluhammed  I\  .,  calls  for  a  little  more  attention 
,T"'  ""^i'^'  author  copied,  and  so  imported  into  Otto:„a"  mer". 
ture    a  didactic    style  of  gha^.l- writing  which   was  then   wlncr 

"i  w  inl;-  vr'/ '''  'i-V'"'  ^-^  ■■  ""tsociosei/did  the  ^u  ;^ 

kni?  ,1  T  ■''"^''''•■P'  «f  ^'^  "'«'"  that  It  is  not  always  easy  to 
kDo«  t  ut  hi,  Unes  »re  intended  to  be  Turkish.  A  uumlie;  of 
^el^nliM  q"'  ^^i>'J/^»'b'.  ^S^'''^  P.sha,  Rahnii  of  the  C  ime^ 
heliui,  and  Sami  are  the  most  notable,  took  Nabi  for  their  mod? 

hu  eh";.h  ""/  """'"L'"^  ""  ">%"•  »""  "■''->'  he  coTstmctcd 
his  gha^cU      Among  the  writers  of  this  time  who  di.l  not  conv 

with  110  grj:at  success,  to  open  i,;,  a  new  path  for  himself      \VV 
now  reach  the  rci^n  of  Ahmed  111  .'du.ing  which  floun  hid  Ned^ 
the  greatest  of  .l!  the  poets  of  the  old  Ichool      Li  tie  appea^To 
be  known  about  his  life  further  than  that  he  resided  at  Cons?an 
linople  and  was  alive  in  the  veir  ir'7  (a  ii    1 1401      K.  In   ..     j 
guite  alone     he.co,.>d  nooni.  .r'i  -ilo^t:^  l^^^^^l^^T^:^^; 
hin,      There  is  in  his  poetry  a  joyousness  and  spnf;l,tmess  w  nch 
HT.'uJT"^ru  "  '"""  "'"  ^°'^  °f  »"y  o'h"  Tu.klsh  author 
"m  maTvirc^'r' 1  ^^""".^" ,-'•»  great  elegance  and  finish,  con. 
^f  are  aZfvf  1      "'"'  <",'K'"«'."i«'^.  sn-l  H'e  words  he  mak«  use 
or  are  al«a>s  chosen  wiil,  a  v,ew  to  harmony  and  caj.nce      His 

of  Nentrh'n"''  "^"'u  ">■'"'  e'.^-^^l^;  for.  ,v1„|e  ,hey  r  ai  those 
n«  nL       ^"l^'rSy-  they  surpass  then,  in  beauty  of  diction    a"d 

conceit!  T^ecfl^ii'i'*  '^"■^a"'^''"  "'  '^"^-''^  ""^  f-f'^ch  '1 
S  J    ,    .Jhecli^sical  period  cames  to  an  end  with  Nedini  ■  its 

jiili  nf  V  .'  "  "■"'  "•'"'=''  f^"^  ''^'"«"  "«-  'i^e  of  Nefia  d'the 
Z.  „?  AK*'''T',°''  '"""  """'''y'  that  extending  from  the  acccs- 
?730  au'r'"  '■■  '""  ""^2^'  '"  "-  -i^-po^ition^f  Ahmed  lU. 

thJn.!^"'  "^e'ance  at  the  prose  writeis  of  this  period.  Under 
the  name  of  Bumdyun  .Vdrm.  (Imperial  Book) 'Alf  Chelebi  r^ade 
Antl^^T^A  ''^"^'^"0"  of  the  well-known  Pei.tn  cS 
Aitrar-i  Sithajl,,  dedicating  it  to  Su  evm.in  I      Sad.nrt  n.n  7k« 

IZ'T  °^*'"^^  '"•■  "'°'^  »  valu^Me  hiltory  of  tt    "mpi^ 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  death  of  Selim  I.      This  work   Oie 
Taj-iU-Teiarikh  (Cromi  of  Chronicles),  is  reckoned  on  account  of 
.«  ornate  yet  clear  style,  one  of  the  niasterpi  ces  ^f  the  old  sc  lool 
"t^Xth:  IT  °^'"  "''\°^'"  "' '"  °f  ^""^'^  which  are  >ni„e,: 
OfS^y  u^I  n  'l      *""'""  *^"",;  ^'!''  8^'*'  '"inuteness  and  detail 

&^rrt'?Xuelnrr;'p::^^r;™nr^'^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

tha?of  t'i'"'"  'f^'  1'^"°)  '°''^«  10-o\\'omrasU  t^'i/wltl 
that  of  the  earlier  historian,  being  written  with  great  dkeaness 
and  lucidity  combined  with  much  vigour  and  pict,  resnueness 
EWiya,  who  died  during  the  reign  of  Muhammed  I V  s  nXd  for 
ALTtllTimeVltl'r  ''''i  "-'--Is  in  d.fTere'nt  co"nr,i  " 
a   ce lebrated^t J     V''"''7  'u''*  .'"S.in  and  ■AL-i-llih  cont.nued 

HourishSiinderZ  ?•;?'  "^  "'^  ''fil^'*  ^'"^  ^^^i''''^  "ho  had 
nounsned  under  the  Ottoman  moimchs.     Hdji  Khalifa  (see  vol  vi 

men  o  'tewii^in  T^k  "T  ^'"'i^^''  ""^  ""^  "^ "'-""'  '"-ous 

avini  wrtn»n  r        .^  ^  ''^u  P™J"oed.     He  died  in  165!!  (106S>. 

,W,°r,l,       1        ^  ^'^'   """'*'"   of  learned    woiks   on   h  stoiv 

.'^Z  f  ^-  "^''""Jlo^.  g^graphy.  and  other  subjects     Th.  Pc,  si  n" 

■zing  tendency  of  this  school  reached  its  highest  point    n    he  mo 

oS  MnTanv'lf  ,h  ^""'  ='"''  -^"^^  S"^''  '^  "^  i"'-  on  1 
OMcuutj  in  many  of  the  compositions  of  these  two  authors  lh-.t 
every  sentence  becomes  a  p.uzle  ov.i  which  even  a  scho  a  1  Oin; 
nan  niust  pause  before  he%an  be  s,„e  he  has  found  1,1"^°"°: 

ilLJi^       T  P".""''S  P'^  '"  '^"'^'=y  "^s  established  by   "„ 
Hunganan  who  had  assumed  the  name  of  Ibrahim,  and  in  1728 


T  U  K  K  E  Y 


657 


i  '' '/.' ',, \'PP^."'=d  *he  first  book  printed  in  that  country- ;  it  was  Van- 
kuh  s  Inrkish  translation  of  Jevhcri's  Arabic  dictionary 

wo?t°h"v  H  TJ  ,'"  "'n  Pof  ■  x?'"'"^'  P"'""''  "■''  fi"'i  "fnong  poets  Post- 
Vehb/ea  h  ,f  >'h"    Bel.gh,  >"■■'=-<.   H'shmet.  and  Sunbu1i.zadaclas.icaJ 
\  ehbi.  eaih  of  «hom  wrote  in  a  style  peculiai  to  himself.     Three  neriod 

ZZsllTu7^"4r\^"^"'''   ■?".<'   ^^'y^^'    Ghahb-flourshed"^™"- 
u      iT  ,','      ^''^  last  named  is  the  fourth  great  poet  of  the 

old  school.     ^,.™  «  -AM  (Beauty  and  Love),  as  his  great  poem  is 

now':^;  GMI  hT^^'  """'""  f""  ?'  '"^"''^""^  and  imagSve 
power     Ghalibs  style  is  as  original  as  that  of  Fuziili    l?en    or 

tl    \    1  he  most  distinguished  of  the  prose  writers  of  this  period 

pj^l  »  T^urkish  t«o  great  lexicons,  the  Arabic  A'dmw  and  the 
Persian  Burhan-i  Knt,\  and  K.ini.  the  only  humirous  writer  of 
luei It  belonging  to  the  old  school  uuiorous  writer  ol 

When  we  reach  the  reign  of  Mahmiid  IF  .  the  great  transition  Transi 
^Ve'sl  hl^?T"  ^f^'y-  ''"'"S  '^l-'^h  the  cullization  0      he  uTn 
\\  est  began  to  struggle  in  earnest  with  that  of  the  East    we  find  nS^od 
the  change  which  was  coming  over  all  things  Turkish  affecting 
literature  along  with  the  rest,  and  preparing^  the  way  for  the  an? 

fTz'iI  b"v  ^^'^Trru"]  J'"  ^'-'  I'o^'^  of  the  t^ansi.io  a?e 
i-azil  liey.  \\as.l.  notable  for  his  not  altogether  unhappy  attempt 

fn     b  ■    f    M  ^f^\''-  ""''   ""^  poetesses   Fitnet  and  Levla. 

fn  the  woiks  of  all  of  these.  althoug\i  we  occasionally  discern  a 
hin    of  the  new  style,  the  old  Pe,^ian=n„n„er  is  still  supreme 

More  intimate  rel.itions  with  western  Europe  and  a  pre?ty  general  Modem 
sudy  of  the   French   language  and   literature,   tngcthevfth,      School 
M/i'^fir'^"'   the  reloinm,.    tendency    fairly  started  under 
Mahnuid  II  ,  have  lesulted  in   tTie  birth  of  the  new  or  modern 
school,  whose  objects  are  truth  and  simplicity.      In  the  p^lufca^ 
writings  of  Reshid  and  Akif  Pasha,  we  have  the  fir  t  cleaiw.ot    0 
change:  but  the  man  to  whom  more  than  to  any  oth  r    he  new 
departure  owes  its  success  is  Shinisi  Efendi,  «ho  employed  it  foT 
poetry  as  well  as  for  prose.     The  European  style,  o"fts   mroduc 
t.on,  encountered  the  most   violent  opposition,  but  notv       alo„e 
IS  used  by  living  authors  of  repute.     If'  any  of  these  doM  wil  e  a 
pamphlet  in  the  old  manner,  it  is  merely  as  a  (ourd^ftJi, 

t  la    It  is  not,  as  he  supposes,  lack   of  ability  which  causes  the 

the  Wesr  Th.'°b'',°P,'  ""'  "'"'''^^  ^'■^'  ■"<>''  """ral  fa  h  on  of 
he  \\  est.  The  «hole  tone,  sentiment,  and  foim  of  Ottoman  litera- 
ure  have  been  revo  iitiomzed  by  the  new  school :  variet"eTo?p„etrv 
hitherto  unknown  have  been  adopted  from  Europe  ;  an  altogether 
new  branch  .of  iterature.  the  diania,  h.,s  arisen  ,  whle°he  sciences 
are  now  treated  and  seriously  studied  aftei  the  system  of  the  West 

Pa^ha^jrvdefp"""'?,'^''™'  "'"'  ''^'"  -on  di^tlmio  1  a  e  Z  yi 
lasha.Jevdet  Pasha,  the  statesman  and  historian    Ekrem  Bev  th^ 

author  of  a  beautiful  series  of  n.iscellaiKons  poems  >f;„-.TaHdmid 

K:i;;aT^cv   thele";  ""r'  f-"'  T""^  OtToman  diraStf  and 
llna.i      ^'  r  '^'■■'  °'  ""'  '""•'•=^"  ^fhool  and  one  of  the  most 

llustnous  men  of  letters  whom  his  country  has  modure,>       H» 
has  written  with  consjucuons  success  in  almo  t  e?  ry  bianch  of 

Fo'r  the  T  'I'kn'i  """'"''■  *"""'  f""">'-  ""•"  'he  d,4ma      ^  "^ 
Ti,^  .       Tu,ki,.h  hinguagc,  see  p.  601  below 

-niter  ul  ihe  l„„e  of  Sutey  ,;,•,„  M  Turkth\^1  / '    '■"■•";  "'J""'  '  "^""'-cre 
U,  C:-,^,U  ,1c  K,.bi   K>„;     Lv  Av.".    1    ?•       .'  '';"",""■  ''.'■  H.-iiiimerdVslI,); 

..(  OIto,„.v,  |,...tn-  i'  cixn  i:v  K,  .?,'J  i!  *■    *"  """"'■■'■K  ""i  v.iluaOie  AHcb 


TURKEY.an  abbreviation  for  Tdhkey  Cock  or  Tcrkev- 
Hen-  as  the  case  may  be.  a  well-knowi,  large  domestic 
gallinaceous  btrd.  How  it  came  by  tbis  name  hrion' 
l>«cn  a  matter  of  discussion,  for  it  is  certain  that  t),i.s  vah^ 
able  Snmial  was  introduced  to  Europe  from  the  New 
World,  and  in   its  introduction  had  noiliing  to  do  with 

in"[  h  Y'.^""'  '^"'''''  ^''"'  •"  "^^  "''^  ""^  ^■""^"ded  sense 
in  which  that  term  was  applied  to  all  Mahometans  But 
U  IS  almost  as  unquei=tionab!o  that  the  name  wai:  oii^rin- 
al.y  applied  to  the  bird  which  ,ve  know  as  the  Guin°ea- 

ihrM"-^'  f  ^IV*""^  '"  "°  '^'-'"'^'  t'^^t  some  authors  in 
l^e  loth  and  l.th  centuries  curiously  confounded  these 
t«o  spec.es.  As  both  birds  became  more  common  and 
Detter  known,  tne  distinction  was  gradually  perceived  and 
^e  name  "Turkey"  clave  to  thatlrom  th^e  New  Wor'ld- 
PQssibly  be^cause  of  its  repeated  cail-notc-to  be  syllabled 


turk,  turk,  turk,  whereby  it  may  be  almost  said  to  hav^ 
named  itself  (,,  Kot..„ad  Quer...,  ser  G.  iii  pp.  2.3  369; 
But  e^en  Linnieus  could  not  dear  himself  of  the  con  uXn 
a..d  unhappily  misapplied  the  name  ihleagns  uncWbi; 
belonging  to  the  Guinea-Fowl,  as  the  gencrfc  tc  iT  o  vha^ 
TjrJ'^'Y'  ^"«  Turkey,  adding  U,.-reto  a.  its  specS 

t.?     Tl  "''^\  "'""-'^  """^  '^''""^  f^^e  f^om  error,  wal 
!uTc""ors.."      '"  '""""'  ''"  contemporaries  and 'eve,! 

One  of  the  earliest  German  nCsfJuiebi^'Avltr,  :7  1?^ 

XXIII.  —  53 


653 


T  U  R  -T  U  R 


The  Turkey,  so  far  as  we  know,  was  first  described  by  Oviedo  in 
his  Sumaru)  At  la  Natural  Historia  ck  las  Indias'  (cap.  xxxvi.), 
said  to  have  been  published  in  1527.  He,  not  unnaturally,  includes 
both  Curassowa  and  Turkeys  in  one  category,  calling  both  "  Pavos  " 
(Peafowls) ;  but  he  carefully  distinguishes  between  them,  pointing 
out  amojig  other  things  that  the  latter  make  a  wheel  {haan  la  rueda) 
of  their  tail,  though  this  was  not  so  grand  or  so  beautiful  as  that 
of  the  Spanish  "Pavo,"  and  he  gives  a  faithful  though  shor'. 
description  of  the  Turkey,  The  chief  point  of  interest  in  his 
account  is  that  he  speaks  of  the  species  havine  been  already  taken 
from  New  Spaiu  (Mexico)  to  the  islands  and  to  Castilla  del  Oro 
(Darien),  where  it  bred  In  a  domestic  state  among  the  Christians. 
Much  labour  has  been  given  by  various  naturalists  to  ascertain  the 
date  of  its.  introduction  to  Europe,  to  which  we  can  at  present  only 
make  an  approximate  attempt ;"  but  after  all  that  has  been  written 
It  is  plain  that  evidence  concurs  to  show  that  the  bird  was  established 
in  Eurono  by  1530 — a  very  short  time  to  have  elapsed  since  it 
became  known  to  the  Spaniards,  which  could  hardly  have  been 
before  151S,  when  Mexico  was  discovered.  The  possibility  that  it 
had  been  brought  to  England  by  Cabot  or  some  of  his  successors 
earlier  in  the  century  is  not  to  be  overlooked,  and  reasons  will 
presently  be  assigned  for  supposing  that  one  of  the  breeds  of 
English  Turkeys  may  have  had  a  northern  origin  j'  but  the  often 
quoted  distich  first  given  in  Baker's  Chronicle  (p.  298),  asserting 
that  Turkeys  came  into  Englandjn  the  same  year — and  that  year 
by  reputation  1524 — as  carps,  pickerels,  and  other  commodities,  is 
wholly  untrustworthy,  for  we  "know  that  both  these  fishes  lived  in 
the  country  long  before,  if  indeed  they  were  not  indigenous  to  it. 
The  earliest  documentary  evidence  of  its  existence  in  England  is  a 
"constitution"  set  forth  by  Cranmer  in  1541,  which  Hearne  first 
printed  ( Leland's  Collectanea,  ed.  2,  vi.  p.  38).  This  names  "Turkey- 
cocke"  as  one  of  **  the  greater  fowles"  of  which  an  ecclesiastic 
was  to  have  "  but  one  in  a  dishe,"  and  its  association  with  the 
Crane  and  Swan  precludes  the  likelihood  of  any  confusion  with  the 
Guinea-Fowl.  Moreover  the  comparatively  low  price  of  the  two 
Turkeys  and  four  Turkey. chicks  served  at  a  feast  of  the  serjeants- 
at-law  in  1555  (Dugdale,  Origincs,  p.  135)  points  to  their  having 
become  by  that  time  abundant,  and  indeed  by  1573  Tusser  bears 
witness  to  the  part  they  hid  already  begun  to  play  in  "Christmas 
husbandlie  fare."  In  1555  both  sexes  were  characteristically 
figured  by  belon  {Oyseaux,  p.  249),  as  was  the  cock  by  Gesner  in 
the  same  year,  and  these  are  the  earliest  representations  of  the  bird 
known  to  exist. 

There  is  no  need  to  describe  here  a  bird  so  familiar  and  in  these 
days  so  widely  distributed.  As  a  denizen  of  our  poultry  -  yards 
(see  Poultry,  vol.  xix.  p.  646)  there  are  at  least  two  distinct 
breeds,  though  crosses  between  them  are  much  commoner  than 
purely -bred  examples  of  either.  That  known  as  the  Norfolk 
breed  is  the  taller  of  the  two,  and  is  said  to  be  the  more  hatdy. 
Its  plumage  is  almost  entirely  black,  with  very  little  lustre,  but 
the  feathers  of  the  tail  and  some  of  those  of  the  back  have  a  brown- 
ish tip.  The  chicks  also  are  black,  with  occasionally  white  patches 
on  the  head.  The  other  breed,  called  the  Cambridgeshire,  is  much 
more  variegated  in  colour,  and  some  parts  of  the  plumage  have  a 
bright  metallic  gloss,  while  the  chicks  are  generally  mottled 
with  brownish  grey.  White,  pied,  and  buff  Turkeys  are  also  often 
seen,  and  if  care  be  taken  they  arc  commonly  found  to  *' breed 
true."  Occasionally  Turkeys,  the  cocks  especially,  occur  with  a 
top-knot  of  feathers,  and  one  of  them  was  figured  by  Albin  in  1738. 
It  has  been  suggeeted  with  some  appearance  of  probability  that  the 
Norfolk  breed  may  be  descended  from  the  northern  form,  AfeUagris 
gallopavo  or  americana,  while  the  Cambridgeshire  breed  may  spring 
from  the  southern  form,  the  if.  mexicaTia  of  Gould  (Proc.  Zool. 
SocUly,  1856,  p.  61),  which  indeed  it  very  much  resembles,  especi- 


'  Purchas  {Pilgrimes,  ill.  p.  995)  in  1625  quoted  both  from  this 
and  from  the  same  author's  Bysloria  Oentrai,  said  to  have  been  pub- 
lished a  few  years  later.  Oviedo's  earlier  work  is  only  known  to  the 
present  wTiter  by  the  reprint  of  1852. 

'  The  bibliography  of  the  Turkey  is  so  large  that  there  is  here  no 
room  to  name'  the  various  works  that  might  be  cited.  Recent  research 
has  failed  to  add  anything  of  importance  to  what  has  been  said  on 
this  point  by  BufTon  (Oweoiu;,  ii  pp.  132-162),  Pennant  {Arclie 
Zoology,  pp.  291-300), — in  admirable  summary, — and  Broderip  {Zoo- 
logical RecTealioru,  pp.  120-137) — not  that  all  their  statements  can 
be  wholly  accepted.  Barrington's  essay  (Miacdlanies,  pp.  127-151), 
to  prove  that  the  bird  was  known  before  the  discovery  of  America 
and  was  transported  thither,  is  an  ingenious  piece  of  special  pleading 
which  his  friend  Pennaut'did  him  £he  real  kindness  of  ignoring. 

•  In  1672  Josselin  {New  EnglaruTs  Rarities,  p.  9)  speaks  of  the 
eettlers  bringing  up  "  great  store  of  the  wild  kind  "  of  Turkeys,  "  which 
remain  about  their  houses  as  tame  as  ours  in  England."  The  bird 
was  evidently  plentiful  down  to  the  very  seaboard  of  Massachusetts, 
and  it  is  not  likely  to  have  been  domesticated  by  the  Indian  tribes  there, 
A3,  according  to  Hernandez,  it  seems  to  have  been  by  the  Mexicans. 
It  was  probably  easy  to  take  alive,  and,  as  we  know,  capable  of  endur- 
ing the  voyage  to  England, 


ally  in  having  its  tail-coverts  and  qnills  tipped  with  white  or  light 
ochreous, — points  that  recent  North-American  ornithologists  rely 
upon  as  distinctive  of  this  form.  If  this  supposition  be  true,  there 
would  be  reason  to  believe  in  the  double  introduction  of  the  bird 
into  England  at  least,  as  already  hinted,  but  positive  information 
is  almost  wholly  wanting.*  The  northern  form  of  wild  Turkey, 
whose  habits  have  been  described  in  much  detail  by  all  the  chief 
writers  on  North-American  birds,  is  now  extinct  in  the  settled  parts 
of  Canada  and  the  eastern  States  of  the  Union,  where  it  was  once 
so  numerous  ;  and  in  Mexico  the  southern  form,  which  would  seem 
to  have  been  never  abundant  since  the  conquest,  has  been  for  many 
years  rare.  Further  to  the  south,  on  the  borders  of  Guatemala  and 
British  Honduras,  there  exists  a  perfectly  distinct  species,  M.ouUata^ 
whose  plumage  almost  vies  with  that  of  a  Peacock  in  splendour, 
while  the  bare  skin  which  covers  the  head  is  of  a  deep  blue  studded 
with  orange  caruncles  (Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1861,  pi.  xl.). 

The  genus  MeUagris  is  considered  to  enter  into  thd 
Family  Phasianidai,  in  which  it  forms  a  Subfamily  Mel6- 
agrirue,  peculiar  to  North  and  Central  America.  The  fossil 
remains  of  three  species  have  been  described  by  Prof 
Marsh — one  from  the  Miocene  of  Colorado,  and  two,  one 
much  taller  and  the  other  smaller  than  the  existing  speciea, 
from  the  Post-Pliocene  of  New  Jersey.  Both  the  last  had 
proportionally  long  and  slender  legs.  (a.  n.) 

TURKS.  The  use  of  the  name  "Turks"  has  never 
been  limited  in  a  clear  and  definite  way  from  the  time  of 
the  Byzantine  authors  to  the  present  day.  To  the  former, 
as  also  to  the  Arabs,  it  has  a  collective  sense  like  Scythians 
or  Huns ;  *  at  the  present  day  we  are  wont  to  restrict  the 
name  to  the  Osmanli  Turks,  though  they  themselves  refuse 
to  be  called  Turks,  having,  as  they  hold,  ceased  to  be  such 
in  becoming  imbued  with  Arabo-Persian  culture.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  we  speak  of  Uigurs  and  Tatars,  we  mean 
tribes  who  style  themselves  Turks  and  really  are  such.  It 
is  only  by  the  aid  of  historical  and  linguistical  evidence  that 
we  can  determine  the  true  limits  of  the  Turkish  name. 

The  national  Turkish  traditions,  preserved  by  theOrigii. 
Persian  historians  Rashid  ed-Din  and  Jowaini  from 
Uigurian  books  which  are  now  lost,  point  to  the  region 
watered  by  the  river  Selenga  and  its  affluents,  the  Orkion 
and  the  Tugila,  as  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Turtish  peopla 
RashId  ed-Din  combines  this  tradition  with  that  of  the 
Mohammedan  descendants  of  Oghuz,  who,  in  accordance 
with  Moslem  traditions,  derive  the  whole  Turkish  stock 
from  JapKet,  the  son  of  Noah,  or  more  accurately  from 
Turk,  the  son  of  the  former  (Yafiz-oglan),  and  pretend 
that  he  pitched  his  tents  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Issyk-kn] 
(in  Semiryetchensk).  But,  though  Tiu-kish  tribes  did  Ethno-* 
wander  so  far  to  the  west,  and  even  farther,  in  remote '"'S'<t*! 
antiquity,  it  seems  pretty  certain  that  the  Uigurian  tradi-  *"'""'*• 
tion  has  preserved  the  memory  of  the  true  origin  of  the 
race,  that  Turks  and  Mongols  were  originally  difiterent 
stems  of  a  single  people,  and  that  these  two  members  of  the 
UbaI/- Altaic  (?.v.)  family  were  more  closely  related  to  each 
other  than  to  any  other  member  of  the  saine  family  {Finno- 
Ugrians,  Samoyedes,  Tungus-Manchus).  The  evidence  for 
this  rests,  not  on  the  ethnological  system  of  Rashid  ed-Din, 
though  it  affords  a  secondary  argument,  but  on  the  in- 
dubitable affinity  of  the  Mongolian  and  Turkish  languages 
and  the  similarity  of  the  ethnological  characters  of  the  two 
races.  Here,  of  course,  we  do  not  argue  from  the  Osmanlisi, 
who  have  lost  all  their  original  race-characters  and.  have 
become  "  Caucasians  "  of  the  best  type,  but  rather,  for  in- 
stance, from  the  Kirghiz,  who  are  considered  as  the  typical 
Tiu-ks  of  the  present  day,  and  are  described  by  Ujfalvy  as 
being  midway  between  the  Mongol  and  the  Caucasian. 
We  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  wanderings  of  the 
Turks  and  their  subsequent  fate, — a  rather  difficult  task. 


*  The  results  of  a  comparison  of  the  skulls  of  wild  and  domesticated 
Turkeys  are  given  by  Dr  Shufeldt  in  Journ.  of  Comp.  Mediciite  and 
Surgery,  July  1887. 

*  CoQstantine  Porphyrogenitus  calls  the  Magyars  Turks,  even  ii^ 
contradistinction  to  the  truly  Turkish  Petchenegs. 


TURKS 


Go9 


owing  to  the  want  of  accurate  information.  The  only 
truly  historical  records  are  to  be  found  in  the  Chinese 
chronicles  and  encyclopaedias,'  where,  however,  the  Turkish 
proper  names  appear  in  such  distorted  forms  as  to  be  un- 
recogni^iable  ;  yet,  till  the  6th  century  of  our  era,  no  other 
accounts  are  available. 
Tlie  It  is  generally  admitt-ed  tb.'it  the  first  Turkish  people 

Hiing-     mentioned  by  the  Chinese  are  the  Hiong-nu,  who,  wander- 
""  ing  to  the  west,  occupied  the  country  south  of  the  Altai 

Mountains  and  expelled  (about  177  B.C.)  the  former 
occupants  of  those  regions,  the  Yue-chi,^  Kangoi,  and  Usun 
(U-ssun), — tribes  of  unknown  nationality,  but  possibly 
also  Turks.'  The  Hiongnu  were  identified  by  Deguignes 
with  the  Huns,  this  denomination  being  used  in  a  political 
or  collective  sense,  and  including,  besides  the  'luns  proper, 
the  Ephthalites  or  White  Huns,  Avars,  Bulgars,  Magyars, 
Kbazars,  and  Petchenegs,  who  are  styled  by  several  scholars 
Hunnic  or  Scythian  peoples, — a  term  of  no  scientific  value 
whatever,  as  the  main  body  of  these  peoples  consisted 
really  if  Mongol-Turks  or  FinnoUgrians.  As,  however, 
separate  articles  have  been  devoted  to  most  of  these 
ethnical  names,  we  abstain  from  further  details,  as  alse 
from  discussion  of  the  question  of  the  Turkish  origin  of 
the  Magjars  and  the  Kbazars,  though  that  of  the  former 
seems  to  us  as  improbable  as  that  of  the  latter  is  certain.' 
Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Hiongnu  are,  so  to  Speak,  proto- 
Turks,  and  the  history  of  the  Turks  proper  begins  with 
TbeTu-  the  Tu-kiu,  the  Chinese  equivalent  of  the  word  Turk 
'''•'■  Originally  a  division  of  the  Hiongnu,  almost  ertirpated 
by  wars,  but  miraculously  saved  from  complete  destruction, 
the  Tu-kiu  settled  south  of  the  Kin-Shan  (Altai?)  Moun- 
tains, and  were  miners  and  iron-smelters  in  the  service  of 
the  Juen-Juen  '  ("les  Tartares  Geou-gen  "  of  Deguignes). 
About  552  A  D  ,  however,  they  conquered  their  former 
masters  and  founded  a  mighty  empire  under  princes  who 
took  the  title  of  Hi  khan  In  these  Tu-kiu  Deguignes  re- 
cognized the  Turks  who  entered  into  friendly  relations  with 
Byzantium,  and  to  whom  Justin  II  sent  two  ambassadors, 
— Zemarchlis  (568)  and  Valentinus  (575).  The  narratives 
of  these  ambassadors  are  preserved  in  the  fragments  of 
Meoander  Protector,  and  (comparing  the  variations  of  the 
corrupt  text  with  the  record  of  Tabari)  from  him  we  learn 
that  at  the  first  date  the  reigning  prince  was  Sinjibulus 
(Arabic  Sinjibu)  '  From  the  Greek  and  the  Arabo-Persian 
accounts  it  seems  that  Sinjibu  put  an  end  to  the  empire  of 

'  TrBualated  id  Itie  *ell  kno^vn  works  of  DeguigDes,  Visdelou,  &c  ; 
for  a  Freoch  Iranslation  by  Stanisl  Julieo  of  the  accounts  of  the 
Pien  i  lien,  referring  to  the  Tu-kiu,  see /ourn  Asiat ,  1864,  p  325  sq 
'  Comp  Persia,  vol  iviii  pp  692  4,  600,  603 
'  Radloff,  for  instance,  thinks  that  the  nan-.e  U  ssun,  and  perhaps 
remnants  of  the  people  denoted  by  It,  survive  in  the  present  Uisuns, 
t  division  of  the  Great  Horde  of  the  Kirghiz.  At  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great's  exjieditions  against  the  Scythians  beyond  the 
Jazartes,  we  find  in  that  region  certain  traces  of  the  Turkish  language 
Id  Dames  of  places  and  persons  (cp  vol  iviii  p  5S2,  note  4).  It 
[s  therefore  certain  that  long  before  the  age  of  the  Hiong.nn  Tnrki,^h 
tribes  had  spread  to  the  borders  of  the  Jaxarte-*.  and  even  along  the 
aorthem  coast  of  the  Caspian  to  the  rivers  Ural  and  Volga.  But  the 
ithnical  denominations  of  antiquity — Scythians,  Parthians,  Massageta^. 
Sacs,  &c. — do  not  convey  to  our  mind  clear  ethnical  distinction*:,  -^o 
that  the  true  nationality  of  these  peoples  has  l)een  much  debated. 
Neither  are  the  pre-Semitic  culture  of  Babylonia  and  the  supposed 
•*  Turanian  *■  origin  of  the  Accads  facts  of  such  character  that  from 
them  we  can  infer  the  presence  o1  Tiirks  in  these  reeions  in  remote 
cntiquity. 

*  On  the  Petchenegs  see  below. 

*  From  their  Chinese  name  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  Juen.Juen 
were  a  Mongolian  people,  in  which  case  the  Avars,  who  are  supposed 
lo  have  been  a  division  of  them,  were  also  Mongols. 

"  See  Noldeke,  Geschichte  der  Perser  and  Araler,  p.  158.  The  first 
part  of  Ibis  name  is  without  doubt  the  Turkish  ninjii,  sun^,  which 
means  "lance,"  a  Turkish  proper  name  of  the  same  kind  as  Kilij  = 
"sword,"  which  in  its  Persian  form,  Nizek.  was  afterwards  borne  by  a 
prince^f  .Transoxiana,  ofteo  mentioned  in  the  accounts  of  the  Arabic 
conquest. 


the  Ephthalites  or  Haitals  in  those  regions.  He  shared 
the  conquered  country  with  Khosrau  I  the  Oxus  becoming 
the  frontier  between  Iran  and  Turan.  The  memory  of  the 
empire  of  Sinjibu  and  of  its  political  strength  has  been 
preserved  by  the  Arabic  authors  Ibn  Khordadbeh  and 
Mas'udi,  who  inform  us  that  the  Turkish  tribe  of  the 
Karluks,  settled  in  the  provinces  of  Ferghana  and  Shash 
(Tashkend),  were  of  old  the  mightiest  of  all  the  Turks,  and 
that  their  sovereign,  the  khakan  of  khakans,  was  obeyed 
by  all  the  neighbouring  princes.  To  them  they  reckon  the 
mythical  Afrasiab  and  the  historical  Shawa  "  It  is  un- 
certain at  what  epoch  the  empire  of  the  Karluks  came  to 
an  end,  but  the  Chinese  assert  that  about  650  they  i educed 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Hi  and  Jaxartes  territory,  though 
they  were  unable  to  protect  them  aftetwards  against  the 
inroads  of  the  Arabs  under  Kotaiba  b  Moslim  (706-714) 
The  latter  defeated  the  armies  sent  to  their  aid  under 
Kurbogha  Noyon,  a  sister's  son  of  the  Chinese  emperor ' 
It  is  also  doubtful  if  the  so-called  Afrasiab  kings  or  Ilek-: 
khans,  who  reigned  in  the  10th  century  at  Kashgar  and  i 
Balasaghun  and  conquered  (999)  the  dominions  of  the  ' 
Samanids  in  Transoxiana,  belonged  to  the  Karluks,  as  is 
supposed  by  GrigoriefT  and  Lercb,  or  to  the  Uigurs,  as  i 
others  think,  * 

The  name  Uigurs  is  very  common  during  the  Mongolian  Th» 
period,  and  Rashid  ed-Din  and  others  use  it  (by  an  ana-  Uiguri 
chronism)  in  speaking  of  remote  antiquity,  though  it  is 
wholly  unknown  to  the  Arabic  geographers,  and,asVamb6ry 
has  shown,  to  the  Uigurs  themselves,  — nay,  even  impossible 
in  the  old  Turkish  language,  in  which  the  form  would  be 
Utkur.  The  name  Ugur,  Ogur,  or  Ogor  of  Byzantin( 
authors  is  really  different ;  but  Grigorieff  has  recognized 
the  name  in  the  corrupt  Arabic  form  of  Tagazgaz,  which 
must  be  read  Toguz-Ugur,^  the  "Nine  Ugurs,"  to  dis 
tinguish  them  from  another  division  of  the  same  tribe, 
the  On-Ugur  or  "Ten  Ugurs."  In  the  time  of  Ibn  Khor- 
dadbeh and  Mas'udi  these  Turks  had  gained  the  supremacy 
amongst  their  brethren,  and  had  their  residence  at  Kushan, 
which  has  been  identified  with  the  Kiao  chang  of  the 
Chinese.  According  to  their  accounts,  the  Kiao-chang 
form  the  southern  division  of  the  Hui-khe  (Hoei-ke  of 
Deguignes),  and  were  settled  before  the  Christian  era  south 
and  east  of  the  Tian-Shan  up  to  the  Pamir  plateau  and 
the  Kuen-Lun,  The  Arabic  authors  make  them  adherents 
of  Manichseism  ;  but,  as  the  original  Turkish  Shamanism 
has  developed  into  a  dualistic  system,  this  statement  may 
rest  on  a  partial  misapprehension  It  seems,  however, 
certain  that  Buddhism  reached  these  Turks  on  its  way 
towards  China,  for  we  know  that  this  religion  spread  in 
the  2d  century  B  c  throughout  the  adjacent  kingdom  of 
Bactria,  atid  was  still  flourishing  when  Hwen-T'sang  visited 
(7th  century)  those  regions.  Thus  we  can  understand  why 
the  old  Ural-Altaic  religion  bears  a  Sanskrit  name  The 
northern  division  of  the  Hui  khe,  which  remained  unknown 
to  the  Arabs,  wandered  from  the  Selenga  region  to  the 
sources  of  the  Yenisei,  vanquished  the  Tu-kiu  (745),  and 
fo'  nded  an  empire  from  the  Selenga  to  Lake  Balkash, 
till  they  were  overthrown  (84  1)  by  the  Ha  kas  (identified 
with  the  Kirghiz).  These  northern  Uigurs  are  called  by 
the  Chinese  Kao-che,  Chi  le,  Dili,  and  Tele  The  history 
of  the  southern  branch  is  unknown,  for  the  chronological 
data  of  Rashid  ed-Din  and  Abu  '1  Ghazi  are  contradictory; 
and  useless,  though  their  statements  that  the  prince  bore 
the  title  of  Idi-kut  and  submitted  to  the  Mongols  have 
full  historical  weight      That  the  Uigurs  rose  during  the 

'  Cp.  Mas'udi,  ed    Paris,  i    2S8  ,  Noldeke.  ul  siip  ,  p    269.  n    J 
^  The  title  Noyon,  if  the  present  writer's  conjecture  on  the  test  of, 

TatiarT,  ii.  1195,  is  right,  proves  that  Kurlwsba  was  a  Mongolian  prince.  ■ 
'  Before  this  Rein..nd  had  conjectured  that  the  Tagazgaz  were  lh», 

same  as  the  Uigurs,  but  failed  to  correct  the  Arabic  corruption. 


660 


TURKS 


Tat 

eoegs. 


The 


Mongolian  epoch  to  a  certain  auprcmacy  "by  higher  culture 
is  attested  by  Rashid  ed-Din  and  Jowaini,  who  often  men- 
tion Uigurian  books. 

The  Petchenegs  (Gr.  iraT^iraKai,  TlaT^.yaKirui.;  Mag- 
yar Beseny'6;  Lat.  Bisseni)  were  of  old,  as  Constantine 
Porphyrogenitus  tells  us,  settled  about  the  lower  Ural  and 
Volga,  but  were  driven  thence  (894-899)  by  the  Olmzz 
(Ouzoi).  A  part  of  them  returned  afterwards  to  their 
ancient  abode,  but  the  great  majority  wandered  westward 
and  settled  on  both  sides  of  the  Dnieper,  driving  the 
Hungarians  before  them  to  the  Carpathians.  Here  they 
annoyed  the  neighbouring  peoples  by  their  raids,  and  en- 
gaged readily  in  the  Russian  expeditions  against  the  Greek 
empire,  till  the  policy  of  the  Byzantine  court  incorporated 
large  numbers  of  them  with  its  own  armies,  sometimes 
with  fatal  result,  as  was  experienced  by  Romanus  Diogenes, 
when  these  auxiliaries  passed  to  the  camp  of  his  antagonist 
Alp  Arslan.  At  the  period  of  the  first  crusad  j  the  Christian 
armies  met  with  them  on  their  march  through  Servia  and 
Bulgaria ;  but  the  Petchenegs  are  not  mentioned  after  the 
loth  century.  The  learning  of  Orientalists  has  discovered 
faint  traces  of  the  language  once  spoken  by  them  in  the 
Turkish  dialect  of  the  Bosnians.' 

Comans  or  Cumani  (Russ.  Polowtze,  Magyar  Palocz  and 
Civ.an8.  Kun)  is  a  term  chiefly  used  by  Europeans  for  the  Turkish 
tribes  that  occupied  Moldavia  and  the  adjacent  regions  of 
south  Russia.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain  ;  but 
it  seems  to  be  Turkish,  though  it  rarely  occurs  in  Oriental 
records.  The  most  probable  conjecture  regarding  .the 
people  denoted  by  it  is  that  they  were  a  mixture  of  Ghuzz 
and  Petchenegs.  Oriental  authors  know  much  more  of 
their  neighbours  to  the  east,  the  Kipchaks,  a  very  common 
name  of  Turkish  clans  down  to  the  present-day.  Some- 
times both  names  are  combined  :  Rubruquis  speaks  of  the 
Coman  Kipchaks.  Anna  Comnena  informs  us  that  the 
Comans  spoke  the  same  dialect  as  the  Petchenegs,  a  dialect 
well  known  to  European  scholars  from  the  so-called  Codex 
Cumanicus.2  On  the  arrival  of  the  Mongols  in  these 
regions,  the  Kipchaks  suflfere'd  great  hardships,  and  large 
numbers  of  them  were  sold  as  slaves  throughout  the 
Mohammedan  world.  From  them  sprang  the  Bahrite 
Mameluke  sultans  of  Egypt  (1250-1380).  The  Comans 
sought  refuge  amongst  the  Hungarians  and  became  Chris- 
tians ;  but  their  arrival,  causing  internal  dissensions  in 
Hungary,  greatly  favoured  the  advance  of  the  Mongolian 
arms.  The  remnants  of  the  Comans,  Kipchaks,  and  other 
Turkish  tribes  continued  to  dwell  in  southern  Russia  under 
Mongolian  rule  (see  Mongols),  whilst  others  became  merged 
with  the  Hungarians. 

The  Ghuzz  dwelt  originally  in  the  far  East  amongst  the 
Toguz-Ugur,  but  migrated  in  the  reign  of  the  caliph  Al- 
Mahdl  (775-785)  to  Transoxiana,  where  they  adhered  to 
the  cause  of  the  famous  Al-Mokanna',  not  from  religious 
predilection,  but  to  satisfy  their  love  of  war  and  plundef. 
In  the  same  manner  they  afterwards  served  every  warlike 
prince  in  their  neighbourhood,  and  entered  like  other 
Turks  into  the  service  of  the  caliphs.  The  main  body  of 
the  life-guard  of  the  'AbbasiJs  consisted  of  Turks,  and 
some  individuals  rose  very  soon  to  high  commands.  En- 
trusted with  the  administration  of  distant  provinces,  they 
founded  independent  princely  houses,  such  as  those  of  the 
Tulunids  and  Ikhshids  in  Egypt  (vol.  vii.  p.  750)  and  the 
'Ghaznavids  (see  Gh.4ZNi).  In  the  meantime  fresh  bands 
of  the  Ghuzz  poured  from  the  east  and  the  north  into 
Turkestan,  the  region  becoming  overstocked  with  a  nomadic 
population.  Some  of  them  sought  and  found  an  outlet  to 
the  west  by  occupying  the  territory  of  the  Petchenegs  and 
joining  the  Turkish  population  of  southern  Russia;  but 

'  Comp.  Blau,  Bosnisch-Turkische  Spr.Khdcnkm/iler  (Luipsic,  18G8), 
P-  315.  •  Edited  by  Geza  Kuun,  Buiia  Pesih,  1380-83. 


The 
Ghuzz. 


the  great  majority,  seeing  the  ruined  state  of  the  empire 
of  the  caliphs,  crossed  the  Ox  us  and  overran  the  northern 
and  eastern  provinces  of  Per  sia.  How  these  loose  desul- 
tory bands  were  guided  lo  subsequent  victories,  and 
moulded  with  the  peoples  amongst  whom  they  settled  into 
regular  political  bouies,  has  been  already  narrated  under 
Seljdks  {q.v.). 

Meanwhile  they  underwent  a  great  change  in  their  out-  TiA- 
ward  appearance,  habits,  i-c,  as  Rashid  ed-Din  relates,  "^''* 
owing  to'the  influence  of  the  air  and  the  water,  and,  we 
may  add,  to  frequent  intermarriage  with  the  inhabitants 
of  the  countries  invaded  by  them.  After  some  generations 
the  change  was  great  enough  to  strike  their  Iranian  neigh- 
bours, who  called  them  Turkmans  (Turcomans),'  a  term 
implying  resemblance  to  Turks.  It  is  therefore  quite 
natural  that  the  modern  Osmanlis  should  have  become 
Caucasians;  for,  if  Rashid  ed-Din  in  the  13th  century 
noticed  the  difference  between  a  Turkman  and  a  genuine 
Turk,  the  six  centrries  which  have  elapsed  since  amply 
suSice  to  have  obliterated  all  original  Ural-Altaic  charac- 
teristics. The 'old  name  Ghuzz,  originally,  as  it  seems, 
the  Turkish  Oghuz  (an  eponymous  hero  of  whom  Turkish 
chronicles  tell  many  fables)  was  wholly  superseded  by  the 
new  name  Turkmau  and  by  other  political  names. 

During  the  Seljukian  period  there  arose  in  Transoxiana  Empire 
th"  empire  of  the  Kharizm  shahs,  founded  by  Mohammed  °f  Kh5r- 
b.  Anushtcgin,  upon  whom  the  government  of  Kharizm  "^^ 
(Khiva), — which  down  to  995  had  belonged  to  princes  of 
Iranian  descent  —  was  conferred  (1097)  by  the  Seljuk 
prince  Barkiyarolf.  His  son  Atsiz  became  independent 
(1138),  but  his  empire  seemed  destined  to  early  ruin  by 
the  arrival  of  the  Kara-Chitai,  who  defeated  the  Seljuk 
prince  Sinjar  (1141)  and  became  for  a  time  supreme 
masters  of  Turkestan.  Nevertheless '  the  Kharizmian 
dynasty  held  its  place  as  a  tributary  sovereignty,  and 
developed  great  power  under  the  princes  Takash  and 
Mohammed  his  son.  The  former  defeated  and  killed 
(1194)  the  last  Seljuk  prince  of  'Irak,  and  the  latter  ex- 
tended his  dominion  from  the'  Caspian  to  the  Indus  and 
from  the  Jaxartes  to  the  coast  of  'Oman.  His  cunning 
antagonist,  the  'Abbasid  caliph  An-Nasir,  invoked  the  aid 
of  Jeughiz  Khan,  who  scarcely  required  this  invitation  to 
attack  Mohammed.  The  sack  of  Bokhara  was  followed 
in  the  same  year  (1220)  by  that  of  the  other  principal 
cities  of  Transoxiana  and  by  the  persecution  of  the  un- 
happy prince,  who  died  in  a  forgotten  island  of  the  Cas- 
pian. His  son  Jelal-ed-Din  was  driven  towards  India,  but 
by  a  change  of  fortune  ascended  once  more  the  throne  of 
his  fathers,  till  the  new  Mongol  khan,  Ogdai,  sent  fresh 
armies  against  him  and  forced  him  to  seek  refuge  in  the 
Kurdish  Mountains,  where  he- was  murdered  (1231).  The 
fate  of  the  Turks  of  Transoxiana  was  shared  by  their 
brethren  in  Asia  and  Europe,  and  new  MongoI-'Turkish 
empires  arose,  of  which  an  outline  has  been  given  under 
Mongols.  As  the  Mongol  rule  grew  weaker,  there  arose 
in  Persia  and  on  the  frontiers  of  Asia  Minor  the  Turkman 
dynasties  of  the  Ak  Koyun-lu,  the  Kara  Koyun-lu,  the 
Zu'1-kadria,  and  the  Ramazan  Oglu,  whose  history  is  closely 
connected  either  with  that  of  the  rise  of  the  Ottoman 
power  (see  below)  or  with  the  history  of  Persia  (see  vol. 
xviii.  p.  632  sq.). 

At  t!i"  present  day  the  Turkish  people  occupy  a  very  extensive  Modem 
area,  the"  centre  of  whicli  lies  in  Kuiva,  Bokhara,  and  Khokand,  tribes, 
and  which  stretches  from  the  lower  Lena  in  Siberia  to  the  Danube 
and  from  the  Crimea  to  Kerman  and  India.     Politically  thuy  be- 

'  The  term  "Turkman" occurs  in  Arabic  chronicles  of  the  Seljukian 
period,  and  evtn  in  Mokaddasf,  p.  .274.  Rashid  ed-DIn  therefore 
exaggerates  in  stfiting  that  it  only  came  into  use  in  his  lifetime.  But 
Vamb^ry's  statement  that  it  was  api)lied  of  old  to  the  descendants  of 
Oghuz  is  contradicted  by  the  genuine  Persian  text  of  Rashid  ed-DTn 
and  the  unanimous  testimony  of  history.  His  objections  against  the 
popular  etymology  mentioned  above  arc,  however,  not  quite  unfoundelL 


TURK  S 


661 


long  to  Rus'^li,  Turkey.  Persia,  China,  and  Afghanistan,  lii  religion 
the  great  raajority  are  Mohammedana  ;  a  few  tribes  in  Russia  are 
baptized  Christians  ;  and  somo  others  adhere  to  the  original  Sha- 
manism, which  has  also  influenced  the  religious  conceptions  of  the 
Christian  and  Mohammedan  Turks.  The  principal  Turkish  peoples 
are  the  following.     (I.)  By  a  popular  distinction  the  Turks  of 

Xlltars.  Siberia  and  Russia,  with  some  colonies  in  Turkey,  are  styled  Tatars 
(see  Tartars),  though  the  Yakuts  of  northern  Sioeria  are  not  usu- 
ally included  in  this  term.  The  Yakuts,  who  are  perhaps  a  mixture 
of  Turkish  and  Tungus  tribes,  deviatiog  from  the  ordinary  course 
of  Turkish  wanderings,  are  settled  about  the  lower  Lena,  and  number 
probably  200,000  (Rittig,  80.000 ;  Lansdell,  210,000).'    They  are 

Kirghix.  nominally  Christians.  (11.)  On  the  Kirghiz  (kara- Kirghiz  and 
Kaziiks)  and  Kara-Kalpaks  see  Kirghiz;  but  note  that  the  Kip- 
chaks.  named  there  ns  a  sep.orate  tril>e,  really  form  a  subdivision  of 
the  Kazak-Kirghiz,  and  are  perhaps  akin  to  the  Kitai-Kipchaks, 

■I  jbegs  who  lire  reckoned  to  the  Uzbegs.  (III.)  Uzbeg  is  a  political,  not 
an  ethnological  denomination,  originating  from  Uzbeg  Khan  o*"  the 
Golden  Horde(13I2-1.340).  It  was  used  to  distinguish  the  followers 
of  Shaib&ni  Khan  (I6th  century)  from  bis  antagonists,  and  became 
finally  the  name  of  the  ruling  Turks  in  the  khanates  as  opposed  to 
the  Sarts,  Tajiks,  and  such  Turks  as  entered  those  regions  at  a 
later  date  and  are  koown  to  be  Kirghiz,  Kara-Kalpaks,  or  Taranjis. 
The  Uzbegs  are  therefore  a  mijted  race  of  different  Turkish  tribes. 
According  to  Kostenko,'  they  number  201,972  in  the  Russian  pro- 
vinces of  Sir -Dana,  Ferghana,  Zerafshan,  and  Amu -Dana,  and 
Vambery  conjectures  that  there  are  1,000,000  more  iu  Bokhara, 
700,000  in  Khiva,  and  200,000  under  Afghan  supremacy,  giving  a 
total  number  of  about  2,000,000.    They  are  agriculturists  or  inhabit 

Eastern     the  cities;  a  few  are  semi-nomads.     (IV. )  The  eastern  Turks  on  the 

Turks.  southern  slopes  of  the  Tian-Shan  Mountains  at  Kashgar,  Ust- 
tnrfan,  Ak-su,  Sairara,  Kutcha,  Yarkand,  Khotan,  &c. ,  are  the  rem- 
nants of  the  ancient  Uigurs ;  and  of  the  same  origin  are  the  Taranjis 
(  =  agriculturists),  settled  in  the  111  valley  and  elsewhere.  The 
numoer  of  the  latter  is  given  as  about  50,000  ;  that  of  the  former 
may  be  estimated  from  the  statements  of  Forsylh^and  Kuropatkin* 
at  about  1,000,000  for  the  whole  district,  the  great  majority  being 

Turk-        Turks  and  the  rest  Mohammedan  Chinese  (Sungans).     (V.)  The 

cuaDs.  .  Turcomans  (properly  Turkmans)  inhabit  the  steppe  east  of  the  Cas- 
pian and  south  of  the  Oxus  from  Astrabad  to  the  Paropamisus. 
The  term  is  sometimes  taken  to  include  their  brethren  in  Persia 
and  Asia  Minor,  who  will  be  treited  separately.  The  following  are 
the  principal  tribes: — (1)  theTchaudors  and  Imrailis,  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  Ust-Urt  to  the  Gulf  of  Karaboghaz  ;  (2)  the 
Yomuts,  extending  from  Khiva  across  the  Ust-Urt  to  the  Caspian, 
and  along  the  sea-board  to  Persia  ;  (3)  the  Goklen,  on  Persian  ter- 
ritory,  between  the  upper  Gbrgen  and  Atrek  ;  (4)  the  Tekkes,  the 
most  numerous  tribe  at  tho  present  day,  divided  into  the  Akhal 
Tekkes  and  the  Merv  Tekkes,  so  named  after  the  centres  where 
their  greatest  numbers  are  found  ;  (5)  the  Sakars,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Oxus,  to  tho  east  of  Tcharjui,  considered  by  Vambery  as  a 
division  of  the  Tekkes  ;  (6)  the  Sariks,  at  Penjdeh  and  Yul-utan 
on  the  north-western  slopes  of  the  Paropamisus;  (7)  the  Salors, 
one  of  the  oldest  Turkman  tribes,  who  suffered  greatly  from  the 
Tekkes,  till  they  finally  migrated  (1857)  to  Zurabad  in  Persia,  and 
left  their  former  districts  to  ths  Tekkes  and  Sariks;  (8)  the  Ersaris, 
on  the  Oxus  dbout  Khoja  Salih  ;  and  (9)  the  Ali-elis,  about  Andkhui. 
Their  total  number,  inclusive  of  some  Turkmans  who  do  not  belong 
to  any  of  these  tribes,  and  are  scattered  throughout  the  provinces 
of  Syr-Daria,  Amu-Daria,  Zerafshan,  and  Astrakhan  (about  16,000), 
is  estimated  by  Vambery  at  about  1,000,000,  and  by  Grodekoflfat 
1,170,000.  The  Turkmans  are,  with  few  exceptions,  nomads,  and 
were  formerly  tho  terror  of  their  neighbours,  who  feared  them  as 
the  "man-stealing  Turks"  ;  but  since  Merv  has  been  annexed  to 
Russia  (1384)  they  have  been  compelled  to  abandon  their  predatory 
habits.^  (VI  )  The  Turkish  nomads  scattered  throughout  Persia 
are  partly  the  descendants  of  the  Ghuzz  tribes  that  invaded  the 
country  at  the  Seljukian  period  ;  others  have  migrated  thither  in 

Ilivat.  the  following  centuries.  They  are  known  by  the  name  of  Hat  or 
Jliyat  (meaning  tribes  or  peoples)  and  consist  of  several  tribes, 
having  each  its  own  chieftain,  the  Ilkhani,  appointed  by  the  shah. 
An  accurate  Ust  of  tho  names  of  these  tribes  does  not  exist ;  but 
the  most  powerful  and  most  numerous  are  the  following.  (1)  The 
Kajars,  who  dwelt  in  Transcaucasia  down  to  the  time  of  Abbas  the 
Great,  by  whom  one  division  of  them  was  compelled  to  settle  at 
the  south-east  comer  of  the  Caspian  near  Astrabad.  To  this  division 
belongs  the  present  dynasty  of  Persia.  (2)  The  Afshars  or  Aushars, 
a  very  numerous  tribe,  in  the  province  of  Adarbaijan  (Azerbijan). 
A  division  is  also  settled  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  Anti- 
taurus  ;  its  members  are  nominally  subjects  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
hut  really  independent     (3)  The  Shekakis  and  Shah-sewen.     The 

1  Cp.  E-  Petri,  "Neuerea  ut)er  die  Jakuten,"  in  Peierm.  Mitth.,  1837,  voL 
Jtxiiti   p.  102  tq.  i  TurkatajisHi  Krai,  St  Petersburg,  1880,  p.  S2tJ. 

*  Report  of  a  Mistion  to  Yarkand. 

*  Eoihqaria,  translated  by  W.  E.  Gowan.  Calcutta,  1S82. 

*  Cp.  N.  PetruMvitch.  The  Turamuns,  translated  by  R.  MicheU  ;  O'DonovsD, 
r^  Merr  OaaU,  London,  1882  ;  and  the  Jouxnals  of  travellers  In  these  regions, 
</amb6rj,  Sctanyler,  Leasar.  Ac- 


latter  is  not  a  tribal,  but  a  political  name,  meaning  thuse  who  lore 
the  shah,  i.e.,  partisans  of  the  Safari  dynasty  (1499-1736)  and  the 
Shi'ite  faith.     (4)  The  Kara  Koyun-lu,  near  the  town  of  Khoi,  th« 
remnants  of  the  onco  powerful  tribe  named  above.     Besides  these, 
many  other  names  are  recorded  of  tribes  wandering  in  the  Trana- 
caucasian  regions  and  in  tha  provinces  of  Adarbaijan  and  Mazen- 
deran,  but  many  of  them  are  very  uncertain.     All  these  Turks  are  Turks  of 
comprehended   under   the    general   denomination   of  Adarbaijani  scuthera 
Turks;  they  are  nomads  or  aemi-nomads  and  speak  a  peculiar  Persia. 
Turkish  dialect,  the  Turk  Azeri  or  Adarbaijani  Turkish.     Some 
specimens  of  it  have  been  published  by  Chodzko,  BergcS,  Melgunoff, 
and  B^rbier  do  Meynard.     In  the  southern  provinces  of  Persia  aie 
settled   the  (5)  Kashkais,  (6)  Abul-werdis,  (7)   Kara-Gozlus,   (8) 
Bahar-lu,  and  (9)  Inan-lu.    To  tho  first  named  are  reckoned  by  somo 
the  Khalaches,'  an  old  Turkish  tribe  which  was  already  settled  near 
Herat  before  the  Seljukian  period  and  has  given  rise  to  some  Indian 
dynasties.      Vamb(5ry   thinks   that   the  total  number  of  Iranian 
Turks  may  amount  to  about  two  millions,  or,  if  wo  add  the  Caucasian 
Turks   under   Russian   supremacy,    three    millions.'      (VII),    The  Osman- 
Osmanlis,  under  which  term  are  comprehended  all  the  Turkish  sub-  lis. 
jecta  of  the  sultan  of  Turkey,  consist  chiefly  of  the  following  elements. 

(1)  Turkmanian  tribes  and  Turks  of  every  description,  who  poured 
into  Asia  Minor  after  the  defeat  of  Romanus  Diogenes  (1071) ;  to 
these  we  may  also  reckon  the  Ottomans  proper,  though  they  did  not 
enter  the  country  till  after  the  downfall  of  the  Kharizniiau  empire. 
The  Mongolian  invasion  drove  the  obscure  ancestors  of  this  the 
most  illustrious  Turkish  dynasty  to  Asia  Minor,  whence  they 
gradually  spread  to  the  province  of  Khodawendikyar  (Bithynia). 

(2)  Tatars  scattered  amongst  the  rest  of  the  population,  but  forming 
a  large  colony  in  the  Dobrudja.  In  part  they  occupied  their  present 
settlements  before  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  ;  but  others  haie 
immigrated  into  Asia  Minor  during  the  last  two  centuries  from  the 
Crimea  and  Caucasus,  since  the  Russian  conquests  of  those  region''. 
They  have  fared  very  badly  under  Turkish  rule,  as  is  attested  by 
Captain  \Vi'  on.  That  tribes  of  Turkisli  origin  were  settled  in 
Europe  long  before  the  rise  of  .the  Ottoman  poiver  in  known  from 
the  Byzantine  authors,  who  mention  a  colony  of  them  (about  30,000) 
as  early  as  the  10th  century  in  the  Vardar  valley  in  Macedonia.' 

(3)  The  so-called  Kizil-bashis  or  "Red  Heads,"  a  nickname  of  the 
Shi'itic  Turkish  immigiants  from  Persia,  who  are  found  chiefly  in 
the  plains  from  Kara-hissar  along  Tokat  and  Amasia  to  Angora. 
During  the  wars  with  Persia  the  Turkish  sultans  forced  them  to 
settle  here.  They  are  agriculturists  and  highly  praised  by  several 
travellers  for  their  honesty  and  laborious  habits.  (4)  Turkmenian 
tribes  —  Yuruks  and  Gotchebes  (words  meaning  "nomads"  a:id 
characteristic  of  their  most  distinctive  quality), — who  occupy  tho 
mountains  in  summer  and  descend  into  the  plains  in  winter,  though 
some  are  settled  iu  the  plains  of  Cilicia  near  Tarsus  and  Adana,  the 
rest  being  semi-nomads.  Reclus  estimates  the  total  number  of 
Turks  in  Europe  at  1(500,000  and  35,000  Tatars.  For  Asia  Minor 
statistics  are  wanting  ;  but  P.  de  Tchihatchef,  the  chief  authority 
for  matters  relating  to  this  peninsula,  thinks  that  6,000,000  is  a  fair 
estimate  for  tho  total  population,  including  Greeks,  Armenians. 
Kurds,  &c.,  but  excluding  the  islands.  It  appears  therefore  neces 
sary  to  reduce  the  already  moderate  number  of  Osmanlis  given  bv 
Vambery  (10,000,000)  to  about  6,000,000. 

Lanouage. 
The  Turkish,  or,  as  some  prefer  to  say,  the  Turco-Tatar  language  Ui.iletii 
is  a  member  of  the  Ural  Altaic  family  (see  Ural-Altaic)  ami  cal  van. 
comprehends  many  dialects,  which  difl'er  considerably  in  their  tie*. 
vocabulary  and  in  a  less  degree  also  in  their  grammar.  The  study 
of  these  dialects  has  made  great  advances  during  the  IPth  cen- 
tury. Abel  Remusat  in  1820  knew  only  of  four,  viz.,  the  bigurian, 
Jagatai,Tatar.  and  Osmanli.  Biresine  in  1848  distinguished  nine- 
teen, grouped  round  three  types,  vizi,  (1)  Jagatai  dialects  (Uigur, 
Coman,  Jagatai,  Uzbegian,  Turkmani,  Kazani  literary  language);  (2) 
Tatar  dialects  (Kirghizian,  3ashkiri,  Nogai,  Kumi,  Karatchai,  Kara' 
Kalpaki,  Meshtcheryaki, and  Siberian);  (3)  Turki  dialects (Derbendi, 
Adarbaijani.  Krimmi,  Anadoli,and  Kumili).  Bbbtlingk  (1?51)  added 
the  Yaknti,  and  Shaw  (1877)  the  Eastern  TurkL  RadlofI  (18S2) 
subdivided  the  one  Siberian  dialect  of  Beresino  into  more  than  a 
dozen  different  dialects  On  phonetic  principles  the  last-named 
proposes  the  following  classification,  which  seems,  however,  not 
quite  satisfactory :  (1)  Oriental  dialects(Altai,  Baraba,  Lebed,  Tuba, 
Abakan,  Kuarik,  Soyon,  Karagass  dialects,  and  Uigur) ;  (2)  Occi- 
dental (Kirghizi,  Irtish,  Bashkir,  and  Volga  dialects,  with  numerous 
subdivisions);  (5)  Central-Asiatic  (Taranji,  Jagatai,  &o.)  ;  and  (4) 
southern  (Turkmani,  Adarbaijiini,  Caucasian,  Anadoli,  Krimmi,  and 
Osmanli).  It  would  bo  premature  to  criticise  this  system  till  the 
author  publishes  the  second  part  of  his  grammar,  which  will  treat 
of  the  real  etymological  phenomena  of  the  north  Turkish  dialects 

«  Cp.  the  Tabakdt  i^Sdsiri,  by  Major  Raveity,  p.  653  tq.,  where  the  name'iH 
incorrectly  written  Khat). 

'  Cp.  Lady  Shell.  GlimpscB  of  Life  and  Mannrri  in  Persia  (London.  1&56),  aa<l 
various  articles  by  Von  Scldlitz  in  the  Rutsi^e  Revue,  &c 

a  Cp-  U^ean,  "  Etlmograpbie  dcr  EuropaJschCD  TUlkel,"  la  fetermk.  Sradrv  - 
Beft  4  (isai),  p.  SS. 


662 


T  U  R  — T  U  R 


On  the  phonetioal  characteristics  of  each  of  these  dialects  ample 
information  is  given  in  his  PhoncUk  der  nordlichcn  Turk.  Spracheth 
,  These  great  dialectical  varieties  are  easily  accounted  for  by  the 
want  of  a  common  Turkish  literary  langua^'e  understood  every- 
where. The  most  developed  and  refined  Turkish  tongue,  that  of 
the  Osmanlis,  which  's  very  rich  in  literary  monuments,  has 
admitted  too  many  Arabic  and  Persian  words,  grammatical  forms, 
and  even  whole  sentences,  and  has  been  too  much  spoiled  by  the 
precepts  of  Persian  rhetoric,  to  produce  a  popular  literature.  With 
the  exception  of  some  tales  and  novels,  this  literature  has  remained 
an  exotic  production,  unintelligible  even  to  the  people  who  are  snp- 

Jiused  to  speak  the  same  language  (see  Tutikev,  p.  656  above).  The 
lagatal  and  Uzbegian  dialects  would  have  answered  the  purpose 
better,  and  present  the  best  type  of  a  (hypothetical)  general 
Turkish  language,  of  which  the  most  prominent  features  may 
be  here  given. 
AJj'Iia-  The  Arabic  alphabet  is  in  general  use,  though  some  tribes  in 
bet  Russia,  make  use  of  Russian  and  others  in  Asia  Minor  of  Armenian 

and  Greek  characters.  But  the  oldest  Turkish  alphabet,  the 
Uigurian,  is  a  direct  triinsformation  of  the  Syriac,  and  has  fourteen 
characters.  When  and  by  whom  it  was  invented  is  uncertain  ; 
the  Arabic  author  of  the  Fihrist  does  not  mention  it,  and  the 
Uigurian  MSS.  which  we  possess  date  for  the  most  part  from  the 
15th  century.  It  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  Nestorian 
missionaries,  who  may  have  preached  the  Gospel  amongst  the  Turks 
as  early  as  the  6th  or  7th  century.'  In  the  age  of  Sinjibu  the  Turks 
seem  to  have  used  the  Bogilian  characters  ia  thtir  politicnl  inter- 
course with  Byzantium  ;  but  as  a  rule  they  remained  illiterate  till 
their  conversion  to  Islam.  As  the  Semitic  languages  are  charac* 
teiizcd  by  the  tliree-radical  system  and  the  constancy  of  the  con- 
sonants, all  Ural-Altaic  languages  are  dominated  by  the  law  of  vowel 
harmony  and  agglutination.  We  have  therefore  in  Turkish  a  double 
mnge  of  vowel^i-  commonly  eight  in  number,  of  which  a,  7,  o,  u 
denote  the  har^  or  guttural  and  ft,  i,  o,  ii  the  soft  or  palatal  vowels, 
the  vowels  in  every  separate  word  being  of  the  same  r;inge.  The 
i  only  is  in  most  dialects  indifferent.  The  law  of  agglutination  is 
derived  from  the  same  principle,  but  h:is  regard,  noc  only  to  the 
vowels,  but  also  to  the  consonants  and  the  syllables  ;  it  is  an  abuse 
of  the  term  if  it  is  taken  to  mean  that  in  Turkish  no  real  etymology 
exists,  but  only  an  agglutination  of  themes  and  roots. 
Et}--  As  regards  the  etymology  we  observe  the  absoiice  of  gender,  of 

raology.  a  separate  form  for  the  dual,  and  of  the  nominative  in  tne  nouns. 
There  are  commonly  five  oblique  cases— genitive,  dative,  accusa- 
tive, commorative,  and  ablative — thoU£,'h  Bohtlingk  has  shown  that 
in  the  Yakut  dialect,  which  distinguislies  ten  cases,  the  genitive  is 
wanting.  The  adjective,  unless  used  as  substantive,  is  uninilected 
both  as  attribute  and  as  predicate  ;  the  comparative  is  formed  by 
the  suffix -raA:(-rei),  and  takes  the  compared  noun  in  the  ablative  ; 
tiie  superlative  has  no  specific  form,  though  a  peculiar  intensive 
is  formed  by  prefixing  to  the  adjective  (though  in  writing  always 
as  two  words)  a  syllable  beginning  with  the  same  consonant,  and 
ending  in  a  labial /j  or  m:  for  instance,  ^a^Arara,  "intensely  black"  ; 
kip  kizil,  "intensely  red."  The  decimal  system  has  prevailed  over 
an  original  septimal  system.  The  article  does  not  exist.  The 
relative  pronoun  has  been  borrowed  from  the  Persian  in  many 
dialects  ;  it  is  absent  in  the  original  Turkish.  The  theme  of  the 
verb  is  seen  in  the  imperative,  from  which  are  derived  various 
particii>les  and  gerunds,  used  either  separately  or  combined  with 
pronominal  suffixes.  These  combina,tions  supply  the  forms  of  the 
simple  tenses  and  moods,  thongh  different  dialects  use  different  forms 
of  participle  and  geruud  for  this  purpose.  CJompound  tenses  aod 
moods  are  expressed  by  means  of  auxiliary  verbs.  The  theme  of 
the  imperative  triay,  by  the  addition  of  a  simple  consonant,  vowel, 
or  syllable,  be  modified  into  a  negative,  passive,  reflexive,  reciprocal, 
impossible,  causative,  or  doubly  causative  form,  which  are  con- 
jugated in  the  same  manner  as  the  original  form.  The  causative 
forms  again  admit  of  a  passive  negative,  &c.,  so  that  in  fact  the 
number  of  possible  verbal  forms  derived  from  a  single  theme  has 
been  calculated  by  Shaw  at  29,000.  There  are  no  prepositions,  only 
postpositions. 
Sjntas.  In  syntax  the  order  of  the  words  and  clauses  of  a  period  is 
almost  the  inverse  of  what  seems  natural  to  us,  the  subject  and 
ita  predicate  being  placed  at  the  end,  while  all  hypothetical,  causal, 
pronibitive, — in  short  all  subordinate — clauses  come  first.  In  the 
simple  style  of  illiterate  peasants,  and  in  popular  romances  and 
tales,  this  method  presents  no  inconvenience  as  regards  easy  under- 
•tanding,  but  in  the  artificial,  often  excessively  long  periods  of  an 
Osmanli  stylist,  it  presents  serious  difficulties  to  a  European  reader. 

BMiographji.—{a)  General  works  on  the  history  and  ethnopraphy  of  the 
Turka:  Deguignes,  Histoire  des  Huns;  Vambery,  Das  Tiirkenvolk  (Leipsic, 
1886),  Urspning  dcr  Magya  re  n  (heipsic,  1882).  and  several  other  publications; 
lUdloff,  AiiS  Sihirien  (Leipsic,  1884);  W.  Griporieff,  Zemlcii'je(fjenie  K.  HiUcra 
Wostotsckni  Hi  K-itaiski  Tnrlestan;  Neumann,  Die  Volker  da  siidlichen  RussUxnd 
(Ulpaic.  1847).  We  may  add  the  historians  of  the  Mongols— D'Ohsson, 
Uoworth,  and  others— the  numerous  journals  of  travcllors  amonpst  Turkish 
|>eoples.  and  several  articles  in  the  liussische  licime,  Journal  o/ the  Royal  Asialic 

*  For  details  about  the  spread  of  Christianity  amongst  the  Turks, 
•ee  Yule,  Cathay  and  the  Way  thUher,  i.  90-100. 


Soc,  &c.  A  full  biblingrapliy  of  woil;';  relr.tms  to  Central  Asia  may  be  fotind 
in  V.  J.  Mejoff,  Kecueil  'i/u,  Turkestan  (6t  Petersburg,  1S78-S4),  and  a  usefi-1  ex- 
cerpt at  the  end  of  vol.  ii.  of  Lansdell's  Russian  Central  Asia,  Other  works 
liave  already  been  cited  in  the  course  of  this  article. 

(6)  For  ttte  study  of  Turkish  dialects  the  -subjoined  books  may  be  nsrJ.  (1) 
Osm/in'-i :  the  grammars  and  dictionarks  of  iledhouse,  Mallouf,  Zenker,  iiirbier 
dc  Meynard,  &:c.  {2)  Uigur:  the  works  cf  Klaproth  ;  Abel  Remusat  R£'-'ier<Ae» 
sur  la  Lawjues  Tartares  (Paris,  1S20) ;  and  Vambery.  Uigurische  Sprad  :cnU' 
menfc  und  du3  KvdfUku  BiUk  (Innsbruck,  1870).  (3)  Jagatai :  the  dictic  iry  of 
Pavet  de  Courteille,  and  Varaltery,  Jagataischt  Sprachstudien  (Leipsic,  "■  -  .7).  (4) 
Eastern  Turki :  Shaw's  grammar  and  vocabulary  (Jour.  Roy.  As.  Soc.  jj  Bengal, 
1S77).  (5)  Tatar  dialects:  the  grammars  of  Kasimbeg-Zenker  (Lc^iisic,  1848), 
Ilminski  (Kazan,  1869),  and  Radloff  (Leipsic,  ISS'-');  Dictionary  of  Trojanslci 
(Kazan,  1633);  tbe  cbrestomathies  of  Bertsine  (Kazan,  1857),  lerenticlT,  and 
specially  RadlolT",  Probcn  der  Volkslit^ratur  der  tiLrkischen  Stavizte  SUd'SibirienB 
(St  Petersburg,  1872).  And  (6)  Ya^zvti :  Bohtlingk,  Die  Sprache  der  Jakutcn  (St 
Petersburg,  1851).  (IL  T.  H.) 

TURMERIC,  the  tuberous  root  of  Curcuma  longa,  L., 
an  herbaceous  perennial  plant  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Zinglberacese.  It  is  a  native  of  southern  Asia,  being 
cultivated  on  a  large  scale  both  on  the  mainland  and 
in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Turmeric  has  been 
used  from  a  remote  period  both  as  a  condiment  and  as  a 
dye  stuff,  and  to  a  more  limited  extent  as  a  medicine.  In 
Europe  it  is  employed  chiefly  as  a  dye,  also  as  an  ingre- 
dient in  curry  powder  and  as  a  chemical  test  for  alkalies. 
The  root  is  prepared  by  cleaning  it  and  drying  it  in  an  oven 
There  are  several  varieties  (Madras,  Bengal,  Gopalpur, 
Java,  China,  and  Cochin  turmeric),  differing  chiefly  in  size 
and  colour  and  to  a  slight  degree  in  flavour.  Some  of 
these  consist  exclusively  of  the  ovate  central  tubers,  tech- 
nically known  as  "bulbs,"  and  others  of  the  somewhat 
cylindrical  lateral  tubers,  which  are  distinguished  in  trade 
as  "  fingers."  Both  are  hard  and  tough,  but  break  with  a 
short  resinous  or  waxy  fracture,  which  varies  in  tint  from 
an  orange  brown  to  a  deep  reddish  brown. 

Turmeric  has  a  characteristic  odour  and  an  aromatic  taste.  The 
aroraa  it  owes  to  a  complex  essential  oil,  which  consists  princi- 
pally of  an  alcohol  called  iurmerol  (formula  CjaHjsO),  which  differs 
from  carvol  in  being  unable  to  combine  \vith  nydrogen  sulphide  ; 
the  other  constituents  of  the  oil  have  not  been  determined.  The 
colour  ia  due  to  curcumin,  Cj4Hi40^  of  which  the  drug  contains 
aboat  0"3  per  cent.  If  possesses  the  properties  of  an  acid,  forming 
red-brown  salts  with  alkalies  and  being  precipitated  from  alkaline 
solutions  by  acids.  When  pure  it  forms  yelJow  crystals  having  a 
vauilla  odour  and  exhibiting  a  fine  blue  colour  in  reflected  lignt. 
It  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  in  chloroform,  and  in  alkaline  solutions, 
but  only  sparingly  in  water.  Paper  tinged  with  a  tincture  of  tur- 
meric exhibits  on  the  addition  of  an  alkali  a  reddish  brown  tint, 
which  becomes  violet  on  drying.  This  peculiarity  was  pointed  out 
by  Vogel  in  1815,  and  since  that  date  turmeric  has  been  utilized 
as  a  chemical  test  for  detecting  alkalinity.  In  India  the  drug  is 
considered  to  possess  cordial  and  stomachic  properties  :  a  decoction 
made  with  milk  and  sweetened  is  used  as  a  remedy  for  colds. 
Externally  it  is  employed  in  skin  diseases  and  in  the  form  of  a 
cooling  lotion  for  relieving  the  pain  of  conjunctivitis ;  the  fumes 
of  the  burning  tubers  directed  into  the  nostrils  relieve  congestion 
in  cases  of  coryza.  The  cultivation  of  turmerio  is  carried  on  most 
successfuDy  in  light  rich  soil  in  well-watered  districts.  The  plant 
is  easily  propagated  by  offsets.  An  acre  yields  about  20()0  ft. 
Turmeric  is  said  to  grow  in  large  quantities  on  the  slopes  of  bills 
bordering  the  plains  of  the  Beni  in  Bolivia  and  also  in  Panama. 
Several  species  of  Ciitcuina  and  cf  allied  genera  yield  yellowish 
aromatic  roots.  In  Sierra  Leone  a  kind  of  turmeric  is  obtained 
from  a  species  of  Canna. 

TURNER,  Charles  (1773-1857),  an  English  engraver, 
was  bom  at  Woodstock  in  1773.  He  entered  the  schools 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1795 ;  and,  engraving  in  stipple 
in  the  manner  of  Bartolozzi,  he  was  employed  by  Alderman 
Boydell.  His  finest  plates,  however,  are  in  mezzotint,  a 
method  in  which  he  engraved  J.  M.  W.  Turner's  Wreck 
and  twenty-four  subjects  of  his  Liher  StudioT^m,  Reynolds's 
Marlborough  Family,  and  many  of  Raeburn's  best  portraits, 
including  those  of  "Sir  Walter  Scott,  Lord  Newton,  Dr 
Hamilton,  Profs.  Dugald  Stewart  and  John  Robison,  and 
Dr  Adam.  He  also  worked  after  Lawrence,  Shee,  and 
Owen.  He  was  an  admirable  engraver,  large,  broad,  and 
masterly  in  touch ;  and  he  reproduced  with  great  fidelity 
the  characteristics  of  the  various  painters  whose  works  he 
translated  into  black  and  white.  In  1828  he  was  elected 
an  associate  engraver  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  diedin 
London  on  1st  August  1857. 


TURNER 


663 


TURNER,  Joseph  Ma'.lord  William  (1775-1S51), 
one  of  the  greatest  painters  of  the  English  school,  was  born 
in  London  on  23d  April  1775  His  father,  William  Turner, 
a  native  of  Devonshire,  kept  a  barber's  shop  at  26  Maiden 
Lane,  in  the  parish  of  St  Paul's,  Covent  Garden  ;  he  was 
"a  cheerful,  talkative  little  man,  with  small  blue  eyes, 
a  parrot  nose,  projecting  chin,  and  a  fresh  complexion 
indicative  of  health."  Of  the  painter's  mother,  Mary 
>!arshall  or  Turner,  little  is  known  ;  she  is  said  to  have 
been  a  person  of  ungovernable  temper  and  towards  the  end 
of  her  life  became  insane.  Apparently  the  home  in  which 
Turner  spent  his  childhood  was  not  a  happy  one,  and  this 
may  account  for  much  that  was  unsociable  and  eccentric  in 
his  character.  The  earliest  known  drawing  by  Turner,  a 
view  of  Margate  Church,  dates  from  his  ninth  year.  It 
was  also  about  this  time  that  he  was  sent  to  his  first  school 
ai  X^w  Brentford.  Of  education,  as  the  term  is  generally 
undersfcod,  he  received  but  little.  His  father  taught  him 
to  read,  and  this  and  a  few  months  at  New  Brentford  and 
afterwards  at  Margate  were  all  the  schooling  he  ever  had ; 
he  never  mastered  his  native  tongue,  nor  was  he  able  in  after 
life  to  learn  any  foreign  language.  Notwithstanding  this 
lack  of  scholarship,  one  of  his  strongest  characteristics  was 
a  taste  for  associating  his  works  with  personages  and  places 
of  legendary  and  historical  interest,  and  certain  stories  of 
antiquity  seem  to  have  taken  root  in  his  mind  very  strongly. 
By  the  time  Tutner  had  completed  his  thirteenth  year  his 
school  days  were  over  and  his  choice  of  an  artbt's  career 
settled.  In  1788-89  he  was  receiving  lessons  from  Palice, 
"a  floral  drawing  master,"  from  T.  Malton,  a  perspective 
draughtsman,  and  from  Hardwick,  an  architect.  He  also 
attended  Paul  Saodby's  drawing  school  in  St  Martin's 
Lane.  Part  of  his  time  was  employed  in  making  drawings 
at  home,  which  he  exhibited  for  sale  in  his  father's  shop 
window,  two  or  three  shillings  being  the  usual  price.  He 
coloured  prints  for  engravers,  washed  in  backgrounds  for 
architects,  went  out  sketching  with  Girtin,  and  made  draw- 
ings in  the  evenings  for  Dr  Munro  "  for  half  a  crown  and 
his  supper ''  When  pitied  in  after  life  for  the  miscellaneous 
character  of  his  early  work,  his  reply  was  "Well !  and  what 
could  be  better  practice! "  In  1789  Turner  became  a 
student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  also  worked  for  a  short 
time  in  the  house  cf  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  with  the  idea, 
apparently,  of  becoming  a  portrait  painter ;  but,  the  death 
of  Reynolds  occurring  shortly  afterwards,  this  intention 
was  abandoned.  In  1790  Turner's  name  appears  for  the 
first  time  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Royal  Academy,  the  title 
■of  his  solitary  contribution  being  "  View  of  the  Arch- 
bishop's Palace,  Lambeth."  About  1792  he  received  a 
commission  from  Walker,  the  engraver,  to  make  drawings 
for  his  Copper-Plate  Magazine,  and  this  topographical  work 
took  him  to  many  interesting  places.  The  natural  vigour 
of  his  constitution  enabled  him  to  cover  much  of  the  ground 
on  foot.  He  could  walk  from  20  to  25  miles  a  day  with 
ease,  his  baggage  at  the  end  r.f  a  stick,  making  notes  and 
memoranda  as  he  went.  He  rose  early,  worked  hard  all 
day,  wasted  no  tuae  over  his  simple  meals,  and  his  homely 
way  of  living  made  him  easily  contented  with  such  rude 
accommodation  as  Le  chanced  to  find  on  the  road.  A  year 
or  two  after  he  accepted  a  similar  commission  to  make 
drawings  for  the  Pocket  Magazine,  and  before  his  twentieth 
year  he  had  travelled  over  many  parts  of  England  and 
Wales.  None  of  these  magazine  drawings  are  remarkable 
for  originality  of  treatment  or  for  artistic  feeling. 

Up  to  this  time  Turner  had  worked  in  the  back  room 
above  his  father's  shop.  His  love  of  secretiveness  and 
solitude  had  already  begun  to  show  itself.  Aji  architect 
who  often  employed  him  to  put  in  backgrouiids  to  his 
drawings  says,  "he  would  never  suffer  me  to  see  him 
draw,   but  concealed  all  that  he  did   in  his  bed-room." 


On  another  occasion,  a  visitor  entering  unannounced. 
Turner  instantly  covered  up  his  drawings,  and,  in  reply  to 

the  intimation,  "  I've  come  to  see  the  drawings  for ," 

the  answer  was,  "  You  shan't  see  'em,  and  mind  that  next 
time  you  come  through  the  shop,  and  not  up  the  back 
way."  Probably  the  increase  in  the  number  of  his  engage- 
ments induced  Turner  about  this  time  to  set  up  a  studio 
for  himself  in  Hand  Court,  not  far  from  his  father's  shop, 
and  there  he  continued  to  work  till  he  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  (1799). 

Until  1792  Turner's  practice  had  been  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  water  colours,  and  his  early  works  show  how 
much  he  was  indebted  to  some  of  his  contemporaries. 
There  are  few  of  any  note  whose  style  he  did  not  copy 
or  adopt.  His  first  exhibited  oil  picture  appeared  in  the 
Academy  in  1793.  In  1794-95  Canterbury  Cathedral, 
Malvern  Abbey,  Tintem  Abbey,  Lincoln  and  Peterborough 
Cathedrals,  Shrewsbury,  and  King's  College  Chapel,  Cam- 
bridge, were  among  the  subjects  exhibited,  and  during  the 
nest  four  years  he  contributed  no  less  than  thirty -nine 
works  to  the  Academy.  In  the  catalogue  of  1798  he  first 
began  to  add  poetic  quotations  to  the  titles  of  his  pictures ; 
one  of  the  very  first  of  these — a  passage  from  Milton's 
Paradise  Lost — is  in  some  respects  curiously  prophetic  of 
one  of  the  future  characteristics  of  his  art. 

"  Ve  raista  aod  exhalatioca  that  now  rise 
From  hill  or  steaming  lake,  dusky  or  grey 
Till  the  8un  paiuts  your  fleecy  skirts  with  gold, 
In  honour  of  the  world's  great  author  rise. 

This  and  several  other  quotations  in  the  following 
years  show  that  Turner's  mind  was  now  occupied  with 
something  more  than  the  merely  topographical  element  of 
landscape,  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  and  Thomson's  Seasons 
being  laid  under  frequent  contribution  for  descriptions  of 
sunrise,  sunset,  twilight,  or  thunderstorm.  Turner's  first 
visit  to  Yorkshire  took  place  in  1797  It  seemS  to  have 
braced  his  powers  and  possibly  helped  to  change  the  student 
into  the  painter.  Until  then  his  work  had  shown  very 
little  of  the  artist  in  the  higher  sense  of  the  term  :  he 
was  little  more  than  a  painstaking  and  tolerably  accurate 
topographer,  but  even  under  these  conditions  he  had  begun 
to  attract  the  notice  of  his  brother  artists  and  of  the  critics. 
England  was,  at  the  time,  at  a  low  point  both  in  literature 
and  art.  Among  the  artists  De  Loutherbourg  and  Morland 
were  almost  the  only  men  of  note  left.  Hogarth,  Wilson, 
Gainsborough,  and  Reynolds  had  passed  away.  Beechey, 
Bourgeois,  Garvey,  Farington — names  well-nigh  forgotten 
now — were  the  Academicians  who  painted  landscape.  The 
only  formidable  rivals  Turner  had  to  contend  with  were 
De  Loutherbourg  and  Girtin,  and  after  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  1802  he  was  left  undisputed  master  of  the  field. 

It  is  not  therefore  surprising  that  the  exhibition  of  his 
works  in  1798  was  followed  by  his  election  to  the  associ 
ateship  of  the  Royal  Academy.  That  he  should  have 
attained  to  this  position  before  completing  his  twenty- 
fourth  year  says  much  for  the  wisdom  and  discernment  of 
that  body,  which  further  showed  its  recognition  of  his 
talent  by  electing  him  an  Academician  four  years  later. 
Turner  owed  much  to  the  Academy.  Mr  Ruskm  says,  "  It 
taught  him  nothing."  Possibly  it  had  little  to  teach  that 
he  had  not  already  been  able  to  learn  for  himself ;  at  all 
events  it  was  quick  to  see  his  genius  and  to  confer  its 
honours,  and  'Turner,  naturally  generous  and  grateful, 
never  forgot  this.  He  enjoyed  the  dignity  of  Academician 
for  nearly  half  a  century,  and  during  nearly  the  whole  of 
that  period  he  took  an  active  share  in  the  direction  of  the 
Academy's  aflPairs.  His  speeches  are  described  as  "con- 
fused, tedious,  obscure,  and  jxtremely  difficult  to  follow"; 
but  at  council  meetings  he  was  ever  anxious  to  allay  anger 
aud  bitter  controversy.     His  opinions  on  art  were  always 


664 


TURNER 


listened  to  with  respect ;  but  on  matters  of  business  it  was 
often  difficult  to  know  what  he  meant.  His  friend 
Chantrey  used  to  say,  " He  has  g-.eat  thoughts,  if  only  he 
could  express  them."  When  appointed  professor  of  per- 
spective to  the  Royal  Academy  in  1808,  this  painful  lack 
of  expression  stood  greatly  in  the  way  of  his  usefulness  : 
he  -vas  often  at  a  loss  for  words  to  express  his  ideas,  and 
when  he  had  recourse  to  his  notes  he  found  difficulty  in 
reading  them.  Mr  Ruskin  says,  "  The  zealous  care  with 
which  Turner  endeavoured  to  do  his  duty  is  proved  by 
a  series  of  large  drawings,  exquisitely  tinted,  and  often 
completely  coloured,  all  by  his  own  hand,  of  the  most 
difficult  perspective  subjects,  illustrating  not  only  directions 
of  line,  but  effects  of  light,  with  a  care  and  completion 
which  would  put  the  work  of  any  ordinary  teacher  to  utter 
shame."  In  teaching  he  would  neither  waste  time  nor 
spare  it.  "  If  a  student  would  take  a  hint,  Turner  was 
delighted  and  would  go  on  with  him  giving  hint  after 
hint ;  it  he  could  not  follow,  he  left  him.  Explanations 
are  wasted  time ;  a  man  who  can  see  understands  a  touch  ; 
a  man  who  cannot  misunderstands  an  oration."  With  his 
election  to  the  associateship  of  the  Academy  in  1799, 
Turner's  early  struggles  may  be  considered  to  have  ended. 
He  had  emancipated  himself  from  hack  work,  had  given 
up  making  topographical  dravrings  of  castles  and  abbeys 
for  the  engravers — drawings  in  which  mere  local  fidelity 
was  the  principal  object — and  had  taken  to  composing  as 
he  drew.  Local  facts  had  become  of  secondary  importance 
compared  with  effects  of  light  and  colour.  He  had  reached 
manhood,  and  with  it  he  abandoned  topographical  fidelity 
and  began  to  paint  his  dreams,  the  visionary  faculty — 
the  true  foundation  of  his  art — asserting  itself,  nature 
being  used  to  supply  suggestions  and  materials. 

His  pictures  of  1797-99  had  shown  that  he  was  a  painter 
of  no  ordinary  power,  one  having  much  of  the  poet  in  Lim, 
and  able  to  give  expression  to  the  mystery,  beauty,  and 
inexhaustible  fulness  of  nature.  His  work  at  this  period 
is  described  by  Mr  Ruskin  as  "stern  in  manner,  reserved, 
quiet,  grave  in  colour,  forceful  in  hand." 

Turner's  visit  to  Yorkshire  in  1797  was  followed  a  year 
or  two  later  by  a  second,  and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that 
he  made  the  acquaintance,  which  afterwards  ripened  into 
a  long  and  staunch  friendship,  of  Fawkes  of  Farnley  Hall. 
From  1803  till  1820  Turner  was  a  frequent  visitor  at 
Farnley.  The  large  number  of  his  drawings  still  preserved 
there — English,  Swiss,  German,  and  Italian,  the  studies 
of  rooms,  outhouses,  porches,  gateways,  of  birds  shot 
while  he  was  there,  and  of  old  places  in  the  neighbour- 
hood— prove  the  frequency  of  his  visits  and  his  affection 
for  the  place  and  fo;  its  hospitable  master.  A  caricature, 
made  by  Fawkes,  and  "  thought  by  old  fr'  ids  to  be  very 
like,"  shows  Turner  as  "a  little  Jewish -nosed  man,  in  an 
ill -cut  brown  tail-coat,  striped  waistcoat,  and  enormous 
frilled  shirt,  with  feet  and  hands  notably  small,  sketching 
on  a  small  piece  of  paper,  held  down  almost  level  with  his 
waist."  It  is  evident  from  all  the  accounts  given  that 
Turner's  personal  appearance  was  not  of  a  kind  to  com- 
mand much  attention  or  respect.  This  may  have  pained 
his  sensitive  nature,  and  led  him  to  seek  refuge  in  the 
solitude  of  his  painting  room  Had  he  been  inclined  he 
had  abundant  opportunity  for  social  and  friendly  intercourse 
with  his  fellow-men,  but  hf  "gradually  came  to  live  more 
and  more  in  a  state  of  mental  isolation,  keeping  himself  to 
himself,  entirely  absorbed  in  his  art.  "This  man  must 
be  loved  for  hi?  vorks,  for  his  person  is  not  striking  nor 
his  conversation  brilliant,"  is  the  testimony  of  Dayes,  the 
water-colour  painter  (a-.d  Girtin's  master),  in  1804.  Turner 
could  never  ni^ke  up  his  mind  to  visit  Farnley  again  after 
his  old  friend  ■<  death,  and  his  voice  would  falter  when  he 
spoke  of  the  shores  of  the  Wharfe. 


Turner  visited  Scotland  in  1800,  and  in  1801  or  1802  he 
made  his  first  tour  on  the  Continent.  In  the  following 
year,  of  the  seven  pictures  he  exhibited  six  were  of  foreign 
subjects,  among  them  Bonneville,  the  Festival  upon  the 
Opening  of  the  Vintage  of  Macon,  and  the  well-known 
Calais  Pier  in  the  National  Gallery.  The  last-named 
picture,  although  heavily  painted  and  somewhat  opaque 
in  colour,  is  magnificently  composed  and  full  of  energy. 
A  better  idea  of  its  masterly  composition  can  be  formed 
from  Mr  Seymotu:  Haden'a  vigorous  etching  than  from 
the  picture  itself,  which  is  now  greatly  darkened  by  time. 

In  1802,  the  year  in  which  Turner  became  a  Royal 
Academician,  he  took  his  old  father,  who  still  carried  on 
the  barber  business  in  Maiden  Lane,  to  live  with  him. 
The  powder  tax,  imposed  in  1795,  drove  out  wigs  and 
spoiled  the  old  man's  trade.  "  It  is  precisely,"  says  Mr 
Hamerton,  "when  the  painter  wins  the  full  honours- of  the 
Academy — honours  which  give  a  recognized  and  envied 
position  in  London  society — that  he  takes  his  father  home ; 
a  meaner  nature  would  have  tried  to  keep  the  old  man  at 
a  safe  distance."  Turner's  relations  with  his  father  were 
of  the  most  dutiful  and  filial  kind  to  the  last.' 

In  1804  Turner  made  a  second  tour  on  the  Continent, 
and  in  the  following  year  painted  the  Shipwreck  and 
Fishing  Boats  in  a  Squall  (in  the  Ellesmere  collection), 
seemingly  in  direct  rivalry  of  Vandervelde,  in  1806  the 
Goddess  of  Discord  in  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides  (in 
rivalry  of  Poussin),  and  in  1807  the  Sun  rising  through 
Vapour  (in  rivalry  of  Claude).^  The  last  two  are  notable 
works,  especially  the  Sun.  In  after  years  it  was  one  of 
the  works  he  left  to  the  nation,  on  the  special  condition  of 
its  being  hung  beside  the  Claudes  in  the  National  Gallery. 
In  this  same  year  (1807)  Turner  commenced  his  most 
serious  rivalry.  Possibly  it  arose  out  of  a  desire  to  break 
down  Claude  worship,  the  then  prevailing  fashion,  and 
to  show  the  public  that  there  was  a  living  artist  not  un- 
worthy of  taking  rank  beside  him.  That  the  Liber  Studi- 
orum  was  suggested  by  the  Liber  Veritatis  of  Claude,  and 
was  intended  as  a  direct  challenge  to  that  master,  is  be- 
yond doubt.  There  is,  however,  a  certain  degree  of  un- 
fairness to  Claude  in  the  way  in  which  the  challenge  was 
given.  Claude  made  drawings  in  brown  of  his  pictures  aa 
they  left  the  easel,  not  for  publication,  but  merely  to  serve 
as  private  memoranda.  Turner's  Liber  drawings  had  no 
such  purpose,  but  were  intended  as  a  direct  appeal  to  the 
public  to  judge  between  the  two  artists.  The  first  of  the 
Liber  drawings  were  made  in  the  autumn  of  1806,  the 
others  at  intervals  till  about  1815.  They  are  of  the  same 
size  as  the  plates  and  carefully  finished  in  sepia.  About 
fifty  of  them  are  now  to  be  seen  in  the  Turner  rooms  of 
the  National  Gallery.  The  issue  of  the  Liber  began  in 
1807  and  continued  at  irregular  intervals  til!  1819,  when 
it  stopped  at  the  fourteenth  number.  Turner  had  resolved 
to  manage  the  publishing  business  himself,  but  in  this  he 

*  Turner's  father  died  io  1830,  and  the  loss  of  "  poor  old  Dad,"  as  he 
used  to  call  him,  left  a  terrible  void  He  had  lived  in  his  son's  hoase 
for  nearly  thirty  years,  looking  after  the  frugal  affairs  of  his  household, 
and  making  himself  useful  in  various  ways.  It  is  said  that  he  used  t« 
prepare  and  strain  his  son's  canvases  and  varnish  them  when  finished, 
which  may  explain  a  saying  of  Turner's  that  "his  father  used  to 
begin  and  finish  his  pictures  for  him."  He  also  attended  to  the 
gallery  in  Queen  Anne  Street,  showed  in  visiters,  and  took  care  of  the 
dinner,  if  he  did  not  himself  cook  it.  Turner  was  never  the  same 
maj  after  his  father's  death,  living  a  life  of  almost  complete  isolation. 

^"This  spirit  of  rivalry  showed  itself  early  in  his  career.  He  began 
by  pitting  himself  against  his  contemporaries,  and  afterwards,  when 
his  powers  were  more  fully  developed,  against  some  of  the  old  masters, 
notably  Vandervelde  and  Claude.  During  these  years,  while  he  kept 
up  a  constant  rivalry  with  artists  living  and  dead,  he  was  continuing 
his  unresting  and  untiring  study  of  nature,  and,  while  seemingly  a 
mere  follower  of  the  ancients,  was  accumulating  that  immense  store  of 
knowledge  which  in  after  years,  when  his  true  genius  asserted  itself, 
he  was  to  use  to  sach  purpose. 


TURNER 


665 


was  not  very  snccessfuL  He  soon  quarrelled  witli  his 
engraver,  F.  C.  Lewis,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  raised 
his  charges  from  five  guineas  b,  plate  to  eight.  He  then 
employed  Charles  Turner,  who  agreed  to  do  fifty  plates  at 
the  latter  sum,  but,  after  finishing  twenty,  he  too  wished 
to  raise  his  price,  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  this  led  to 
another  quarrel.  Reynolds,  Dunkarton,  Lupton,  Say, 
Dawe,  and  other  engravers  were  afterwards  employed — 
Turner  himself  etching  and  mezzotinting  some  of  the 
plates.  Each  part  of  the  Liber  contained  five  plates,  the 
subjects,  divided  into  "  historical,"  "  pastoral,"  "  marine," 
4c.,  embracing  the  whole  range  of  landscape  art.  Seventy- 
one  plates  in  all  were  published  (including  one  as  a  gift  of 
the  artist  to  his  subscribers) ;  ten  other  plates — more  or 
less  completed — intended  for  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
numbers  were  never  published,  the  work  being  stopped  for 
want  of  encouragement.  Absence  of  method  and  business 
habits  may  account  for  this.  Turner  is  said  to  have 
got  up  the  numbers  in  his  own  house  with  the  help  of  a 
female  servant.  The  plates,  which  cost  the  subscribers 
only  five  shillings  apiece,  were  so  little  esteemed  that  in 
the  early  quarter  of  the  19th  century  they  were  sometimes 
used  for  lighting  fires.  So  much  has  fashion,  or  public 
taste,  changed  since  then  that  a  fine  proof  of  a  single 
plate  has  soldfor  £210.  The  merit  of  the  plates  is.  un- 
equal ;  some — for  example,  Solway  Moss,  -Inverary  Ker, 
Hind  Head  HiU,  Ben  Arthur,  Rizpah,  Junction  of  the 
Severn  and  Wye,  and  Peat  Bog — are  of  great  beauty, 
while  a  few  are  comparatively  tame  and  uninteresting. 
Among  the  unpublished  plates  Stonehenge  at  Daybreak 
and  Sheep  Washing,  Windsor  Castle  take  a  high  place. 
The  Liber  shows  strong  traces  of  the  influence  of  Cozens 
and  Girtin,  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  of  Claude.  In  most 
of  the  designs  the  predominant  feeling  is  serious;  in  not  a 
few,  gloomy,  or  even  tragic.  A  good  deal  has  been  written 
about  Turner's  intention,  and  the  "  lessons  "  of  the  Liter 
Siudiorum.  Probably  his  only  intention  in  the  beginning 
was  to  show  what  he  could  do,  to  display  his  art,  to  rival 
Claude,  perhaps  to  educate  public  taste,  and  at  the  same 
time  make  money.  If  lessons  were  intended  they  might 
have  been  better  conveyed  by  words.  "  Silent  always  with 
a  bitter  silence,  disdaining  to  tell  his  meaning," — such  is 
Mr  Ruskin's  explanation ;  but  surely  Turner  had  little 
reason  for  either  silence  or  contempt  because  the  public 
failed  to  see  in  landscape  art  the  means  of  teaching  it  great 
moral  lessons.  The  seventy  plates  of  the  Liber  contain  an 
almost  complete  epitome  of  Turner's  art.  Already  in  this 
work  are  seen  strong  indications  of  one  of  his  most  remark- 
able characteristics — a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  struc- 
turein  natural  objects:  mountains  and  rocks  are  drawn,  not 
with  topographical  accuracy,  but  with  what  appears  like  an 
intuitive  feeling  for  geological  formation ;  and  trees  have 
also  the  same  expression  of  life  and  growth  in  the  drawing 
of  stems  and  branches.  This  instinctive  feeling  in  Turner 
for  the  priifciples  of  organic  structure  is  treated  of  at  con- 
siderable length  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Modem  Painters, 
and  Turner  is  there  contrasted  with  Claude,  Poussin,  and 
some  of  the  Dutch  masters,  greatly  to  their  disadvantage. 
After  1797  Turner  was  little  concerned  with  mere  topo- 
graphical facts  :  his  pictures  might  be  like  the  places  re- 
presented or  not;  much  depended  on  the  mental  impression 
produced  by  the  scene.  He  preferred  to  deal  with  the 
spirit,  rather  than  with  the  local  details  of  places.  A  curi- 
ous example  of  the  reasonableness  accompanying  his  exer- 
cise of  the  imaginative  faculty  is  to  be  found  in  iis  crea- 
tions of  creatures  he  had  never  seen,  as,  for  example,  the 
dragon''  in  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides  and  the  python 

^  "The  strange  unity  of  vertebrated  action  and  of  a  true  bony  con- 
tour, infinitely  varied  in  every  vertebra,  with  this  glacial  outline, 
together  with  the  adootion  of  the  head  of  the  Ganges  crocodile,  the 

23—24* 


in  the  Apollo,  exhibited  in  1811.  Both  these  monsters 
are  imagined  with  such  vividness  and  reality,  and  the 
sense  of  power  and  movement  is  so  completely  expressed, 
that  the  spectator  never  once  thinks  of  them  as  otherwise 
than  representations  of  actual  facts  in  natural  history.  It 
needs  but  a  little  comparison  to  discover  how  far  "Turner 
surpassed  all  his  contemporaries,  as  well  as  all  who  pre- 
ceded him,  in  these  respects.  The  imaginative  faculty  he 
possessed  was  of  the  highest  order,  and  it  was  further 
aided  by  a  memory  of  the  most  retentive  and  unerring 
kind.  A  good  illustration  of  this  may  be  seen  at  Farnley 
Hall  in  a  drawing  of  a  Man-of-War  taking  in  Stores. 
Some  one,  who  had  never  seen  a  first-rate,  expressed  a  wish 
to  know  what  it  looked  like.  Turner  took  a  blank  sheet 
of  paper  one  morning  after  breakfast,  outlined  the  ship, 
and  finished  the  drawing  in  three  hours,  Fawkes  sitting 
beside  him  from  the  first  stroke  to  the  last.  The  size  of 
this  drawing  is  about  16  in.  by  11  in.  Mr  Ruskin  thus 
describes  it  i 

"  The  hull  of  a  first-rate  occupies  nearly  one  half  of  the  picture 
to  the  right,  her  bows  toward  the  spectator,  seen  in  sharp  per- 
spective frorn  stem  to  stern,  with  all  her  port-holes,  guns,  anchors, 
and  lower  rigging  elaborately  detailed,  two  other  ships  of  the  line 
in  the  middle  distance  drawn  with  equal  precision,  a  noble  breezy 
sea,  full  of  delicate  drawing  in  its  waves,  a  store  ship  beneath  the 
hull  of  the  larger  vessel  and  several  other  boats,  and  a  complicated 
cloudy  sky,  all  drawn  from  memory,  down  to  the  smallest  rope,  in 
a  drawing-room  of  a  mansion  in  the  middle  of  Yorkshire." 

About  the  year  1811  Turner  paid  his  first  visit  to 
Devonshire,  the  county  to  which  his  family  belonged, 
and  a  curious  glimpse  of  his  simple  manner  of  life  is  given 
by  Redding,  who  accompanied  him  on  some  of  his  ex- 
cursions. On  one  occasion  they  spent  a  night  together 
in  a  small  road-side  inn.  Turner  having  a  great  desire  to 
see  the  country  around  at  sunrise. 

' '  Turner  was  content  with  bread  and  cheese  and  beer,  tolerably 
good,  for  dinner  and  supper  in  one.  In  the  little  sanded  room  wo 
conversed  by  the  light  of  an  attenuated  candle  and  some  aid  from 
the  moon  until  nearly  midnight,  when  Turner  laid  his  head  upon 
the  table  and  was  soon  fast  asleep.  Three  or  four  hours  rest  was 
thus  obtained,  and  we  went  out  as  soon  as  the  sun  was  up  to  ex- 
plore the  surrounding  neighbourhood.  It  was  in  that  early  morning 
Turner  made  a  sketch  of  the  picture  Crossing  the  Brook."  lu 
another  excursion  to  Borough  Island,  "the  morning  was  squally 
and  the  sea  rolled  boisterously  into  the  Sound.  Off  Stakes  Point 
it  became  stormy  ;  our  Dutch  boat  rode  bravely  over  the  furrows. 
Two  of  the  party  were  ill.  Turner  was  all  the  while  quiet,  watch- 
ing the  troubled  scene.  Bolt  Head,  to  seaward,  against  which  the 
waves  broke  with  fury,  seemed  to  absorb  his  entire  notice,  and  he 
scarcely  spoke  a  syllable.  While  the  fish  were  getting  ready  Turner 
mounted  nearly  to  the  highest  poijit  of  the  island  rock,  and  seemed 
■writing  rather  than  drawuig.  The  wind  was  almost  too  violent 
for  either  purpose. " 

This  and  similar  incidents  show  how  careless  of  comfort 
Turner  was,  and  how  devoted  to  his  art.  The  tumult  and 
discomfort  by  which  he  was  surrounded  could  not  distract 
his  powers  of  observation ,  and  some  thirty  years  later 
there  is  still  evidence  of  the  same  kind.  In  the  catalogue 
of  the  exhibition  of  1842  one  of  his  pictures  bears  the 
following  title,  "Snow-Storm:  steamboat  oflf  a  harbour's 
mouth  making  signals  in  shallow  water,  and  going  by  the 
lead.  The  author  was  in  that  storm  the  night  the  'Ariel ' 
left  Harwich." 

From  1813  till  1826,  in  addition  to  his  Harley  Street 
residence,  Turner  had  a  country  house  at  Twickenham. 
He  kept  a  boat  on  the  river,  also  a  pony  and  gig,  in  which 
he  uFed  to  drive  about  the  neighbouring  country  on  sketch- 
ing expeditions.  The  pony,  for  which  Turner  had  a  great 
love,  appt  .rs  in  his  well-known  Frosty  Morning  in  the 
National  Gallery.     He  appe-ii's  t<>  have  had  a  great  affec- 

fish -eater,  to  show  his  sea  descent  (and  this  in  the  year  1806,  whe» 
h.irdly  a  single  fossil  saurian  skeleton  existed  within  Turner's  reach), 
renders  the  whole  conception  one  of  the  most  curious  exertions  of  tba^ 
imaginative  intellect  with  which  I  am  acqu.iin'.ed  iu  the  arts  "  (Ruskin,^ 
Mo  '     ^-I'^rs,  voL  V.  p.  313). 


666 


TURNER 


tion  for  animaU,  and  one  instance  of  his  tenderness  of 
heart  is  given  by  one  who  often  joined  him  in  the  amuse- 
ment of  fishing,  of  which  Turner  was  very  fond.  "  I  was 
often  with  him  when  fishing  at  Petworth,  and  also  on  the 
banks  of  the  Thames.  His  success  as  an  angler  was  great, 
although  with  the  worst  tackle  in  the  world.  Every  fish 
he  caught  he  showed  to  me,  and  appealed  to  me  to  decide 
whether  the  size  justified  him  to  keep  it  for  the  table  or 
to  return  it  to  the  river ;  his  hesitation  was  often  almost 
touching,  and  he  always  gave  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  the 
benefit  of  the  doubt." 

In  1813  Turner  commenced  the  series  of  drawings,  forty 
in  number,  for  Choke's  Southern  Coast.  This  work  was 
not  completed  till  1826  The  price  he  at  first  received 
for  these  drawings  was  £7,  10s.  each,  afterwards  raised 
to  £13,  2s.  6d. 

Crossing  the  Brook  appeared  in  the  Academy  of  1815. 
It  may  be  regarded  as  a  t3fpical  example  of  Turner's  art 
at  this  period,  and  marks  the  transition  from  his  earlier 
style  to  that  of  his  maturity  It  represents  a  piece  of 
Devonshire  scenery,  a  view  on  the  river  Tamar.  On  the 
left  is  a  group  of  tall  pine-trees,  beautifully  designed  and 
drawn  with  great  skill  and  knowledge  of  structure,  in  the 
foreground  a  couple  of  children,  with  a  dog  carrying  a 
bundle  in  its  mouth  across  the  brook,  and  beyond,  a  vast 
expanse  of  richly  ■  wooded  country,  with  glimpses  of  a 
winding  river,  an  old  bridge,  a  mill,  and  other  buildings, 
and,  in  the  far  distance,  the  sea.  Both  in  design  and  exe- 
cution this  work  is  founded  upon  Claude  Some  critics 
consider  it  one  of  Turner's  greatest  works  ,  but  this  is 
open  to  question.'  It  can  hardly  be  called  a  work  in  full 
colour  .  it  is  limited  to  greys  and  quiet  greens  for  the 
earth  and  pale  blues  for  the  sky  It  is  a  sober  but  very 
admirable  picture,  full  of  diffused  daylight,  and  in  the 
painting  of  its  distance  better  than  any  master  who  had 
preceded  him.  The  fascination  of  the  remote,  afterwards 
so  distinctive  an  element  in  Turner's  pictures,  shows  itself 
here.  Perhaps  nothing  tests  the  powers  or  tries  the  skill 
of  the  landscape-painter  more  severely  than  the  representa- 
tion of  distant  effects.  They  come  and  go  so  rapidly,  are 
often  in  a  high  key  of  light  and  colour,  and  so  full  of 
mystery  and  delicacy,  that  anything  approaching  to  real 
imitation  is  impossible.  Only  the  most  retentive  memory 
and  the  most  sensitive  and  tender  feehng  will  avail 
These  qualities  Turner  possessed  to  a  remarkable  degree, 
and  as  his  powers  matured  there  was  an  ever-increasing 
tendency  in  his  art  to  desert  the  foreground,  where  things 
were  definite  and  clear,- iti  order  to  dream  in  the  infinite 
suggestiveness  and  space  of  distances.  Dido  Building 
Carthage  also  belongs  to  this  period.  It  hangs  beside  the 
Claudes  in  the  National  Gallery.  It  pertains  to  the  old 
erroneous  school  of  historical  painting.  Towering  masses 
of  Claudesque  architecture  piled  up  on  either  side,  porticoes, 
vestibules,  and  stone  pines,  with  the  sun  in  a  yellow  sky, 
represent  the  Carthage  of  Turner's  imagination.  With 
all  its  faults  it  is  still  the  finest  work  of  the  class  he  ever 
painted.  Carthage  and  its  fate  had  a  strange  fascination 
for  him.  It  is  said  that  he  regarded  it  as  a  moral  example 
to  England  in  its  agricultural  decline,  its  increase  of  luxury, 
and  its  blindness  to  the  insatiable  ambition  of  a  powerful 
rival.  He  returned  again  to  this  theme  in  1817,  when  he 
exhibited  his  Decline  of  the  Carthaginian  Empire  Hostr 
ages  Leaving  Carthage  for  Rome, — a  picture  which  Mr 
Piuskin  describes  as  "  little  more  than  an  accumulation  of 
academy  student's  outlines  coloured  brown." 

In  1818  Turner  was  in  Scotland  making  drawings  for 

*  Crossing  the  Brook  was  a  great  favourite  with  Tuiiier.  It  was 
painted  for  a  patron,  who,  dissatisfied  with  it,  left  it  on  the  painter's 
iiinda.  The  price  asked  (£500)  seems  to  have  been  part  of  the  objec 
tiou.     Turoer  sabsequeatly  refused  an  offer  of  £1600  for  it. 


the  Provincial  Antiquities  for  which  Sir  Walter  Scott 
supplied  the  letterpress,  and  in  1819  he  visited  Italy  fo« 
the  first  time.  One  of  the  restilts  of  this  visit  was  a  great 
change  in  his  style,  and  from  this  time  his  works  becama 
remarkable  for  their  colour.  Hitherto  he  had  painted  in 
browns,  greys,  and  blues,  using  red  'and  yellow  sparingly. 
He  had  gradually  been  advancing  from  the ,  sober  grey 
colouring  of  Vandervelde  and  Ruysdael  to  the  mellow  and 
richer  tones  of  Claude.  His  works  now  begin  to  show  a 
heightened  scale  of  colour,  gradually  increasing  in  richness 
and  splendour  anJ  leaebing  its  culminating  point  in  such 
works  as  the  Ulysses,  Childe  Harold's  PilgTimage,  the 
Golden  Bough,  and  the  Fighting  Tem6raire.  All  these 
works  belong  to  the  middle  period  of  Turner's  art  ( 1 829- 
39),  when  his  powers  were  entirely  developed  and  entirely 
unabated.  Much  of  his  most  beautiftd  work  at  this  period 
is  to  be  found  in  his  water-colour  drawings :  those  exe- 
cuted for  Whitaker's  Hittory  of  Rickmondskire  (1819-21), 
for  Cooke's  Southern  Coast  (1814-26),  for  The  Rivers  o) 
England  (1824),  for  England  and  Wales  (1829-38),  Pro- 
vinnal  Antiquities  (1826),  Rogers's  Italy  (1830),  Scott's 
Worh  (1834),  and  The  Rivers  of  France  (1833-35)  are  in 
many  instances  of  the  greatest  beauty.  Of  the  Richmond- 
shire  drawings  Mr  Ruskin  says,  "  The  foliage  is  rich  and 
marvellous  in  composition,  the  rock  and  hill  drawing  in- 
superable, the  skies  exquisite  in  complex  form." 

But  perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  services  Turner  rendered 
to  the  art  of  England  was  the  education  of  a  whole  school 
of  engravers.  His  best  qualities  as  a  teacher  came  from 
the  union  of  strength  and  delicacy  in  his  work  ;  subtle 
and  delicate  tonality  was  almost  a  new  element  for  the 
engraver  to  deal  with,  but  with  Turner's  teaching  and 
careful  supervision  his  engravers  by  degrees  mastered  it 
more  or  less  successfully,  and  something  like  a  new  de- 
velopment of  the  art  of  engraving  was  the  result.  No 
better  proof  can  be  found  of  the  immense  advance  made 
than  by  comparing  the  work  of  the  landscape  engravers  of 
the  pre-Turnerian  period  with  the  work  of  Miller,  Goodall, 
Willmore,  Cooke,  Wallis,  Lupton,  C.  Turner,  Brandard, 
Cousen,  and  others  who  worked  under  his  guidance.  The 
art  of  steel  engraving  reached  its  highest  development  in 
England  at  this  time.  Rogers's  /te/y  (1830)  and  his  Poem» 
(1834)  contain  perhaps  the  most  beiutiftil  and  delicate 
of  the  many  engravings  executed  after  Turner's  drawings. 
They  are  vignettes,'  a  form  of  art  which  Turner  tinderstood 
better  than  any  artist  ever  did  before, — perhaps,  we  might 
add,  since.  The  Alps  at  Daybreak,  Columbus  Discovering 
Land,  and  Datur  Hora  Quieti  may  be  given  as  examples 
of  the  finest 

In  1828  Ttu-ner  paid  a  second  visit  to  Italy,  this  time 
of  considerable  duration,  on  the  way  visiting  Nimes, 
Avignon,  Marseilles,  Genoa,  Spezzia,  and  Siena,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  exhibited  the  Ulysses  Deriding  Polyphe- 
mus, now  in  the  National  Gallery  It  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  central  and  best  period  of  Turner's  power.  This 
work  is  so  well  known  that  description  is  hardly  needed. 
The  galley  of  Ulysses  occupies  the  centre  of  the  picture ; 
the  oars  are  being  thrust  out  and  the  sailors  flocking  up 
the  masts  to  unfurl  sail,  while  Ulysses  waves  the  blazing 
ohve  tree  in  defiance  of  the  giant,  whose  huge  form  is 
seen  high  on  the  cliffs  above ,  and  the  shadowy  horses  of 
Phoebus  are  traced  in  the  slanting  rays  of  the  rising  sim. 
The  impression  this  picture  leaves  is  one  of  great  power 
and  splendoiu-.  The  painting  throughout  is  magnificent, 
especially  in  the  sky.     Leslie  speaks  of  it  as  "  a  poem  of 

*  "  Of  all  the  artists  whoever  lived  I  tbmk  it  is  Turner  who  treated 
the  vignette  most  exquisitely,  and,  if  it  were  necessary  to  6nd  some  par- 
ticular reason  for  this,  I  should  say  that  it  may  have  been  because  there 
was  nothing  harsh  or  rigid  in  his  genius,  that  forms  and  colours  melted 
into  each  other  tenderly  in  his  dream-world,  aud  th:it  his  sense  of 
^adatioQ  was  the  uiost  delicate  ever  possessed  by  mMi  "  tUamertou). 


TURNER 


667 


matchless  splendour  and  beauty."  From  this  period  on- 
irard  till  about  1840  Turner's  life  was  one  of  unceasing 
activity.  Nothing  is  more  astonishing  than  his  prodigious 
fertility ,  he  rose  early,  worked  from  morning  till  night, 
entirely  absorbed  in  his  art,  and  gradually  became  more 
and  more  solitary  and  isolated.  Between  1829  and  1839 
he  sent  fifty-five  pictures  to  the  Royal  Academy,  painted 
many  others  on  private  commission,  made  over  four 
hundred  drawings  for  engravers,  .besides  thousands  of 
studies  and  sketches  from  nature.  His  industry  accounts 
for  the  immense  quantity  of  work  he  left  behind  him. 
jThere  is  not  the  slightest  evidence  to  show  that  it  arose  from 
4  desire  to  make  money,  which  he  never  cared  for  in  com- 
iparison  with  his  art.  He  has  been  accused,  perhaps  not 
i  without  some  cause,  of  avarice  and  meanness  in  his  busi- 
ness dealings,  and  many  stories  are  told  to  his  discredit. 
But  in  private  he  often  did  generous  things,  although 
owing  to  his  reserved  disposition  his  virtues  were  known 
only  to  a  few.  His  faults  on  the  other  hand — thanks  to 
the  malice,  or  jealousy,  of  one  or  two  individuals — were 
freely  talked  about  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  greatly  e.x- 
aggerated.  "  Keep  it,  and  send  your  children  to  school 
and  to  church,"  were  the  words  with  which  he  declined 
repayment  of  a  considerable  loan  to  a  poor  drawing-master's 
widow.  On  another  occasion,  when  interrupted  in  his 
work,  he  roughly  chid  and  dismissed  the  applicant,  a  poor 
woman;  but  she  had  hardly  left  his  door  before  he  followed 
her  and  slipped  a  £5  note  into  her  hand.  His  tenants  in 
Harley  Street  were  in  arrears  for  years,  but  he  would  never 
.  allow  his  lawyer  to  distrain ,  and  if  further  proof  of  his 
generosity  were  needed  his  great  scheme  for  bettering  the 
condition  of  the  unfortunate  in  his  own  profession  should 
suffice.  On  one  occasion  he  is  known  to  have  taken  down 
a  picture  of  his  own  from  the  walls  of  the  Academy  to 
make  room  for  that  of  an  unknown  artist. 

The  first  of  Tiirner's  Venetian  pictures  (Bridge  of 
Sighs,  Ducal  Palace  and  Custom  House,  Venice,  Canaletti 
Painting)  appeared  in  the  Academy  in  183.3.  Compared 
with  the  sober,  prosaic  work  of  Canaletti,  Turner's  pictures 
of  Venice  appear  like  poetic  dreams.  Splendour  of  colour 
and  carelessness  of  form  generally  characterize  them. 
Venice  appeared  to  him  "  a  city  of  rose  and  white,  rising 
out  of  an  emerald  sea  against  a  sky  of  sapphire  blue." 
Many  of  these  Venetian  pictures  belong  to  his  later  manner, 
and  some  of  them,  the  Sun  of  Venice  Going  to  Sea  (.1843), 
Approach  to  Venice  (r844),  and  Venice,  Evening,  Going  to 
the  Ball  (1845),  to  his  latest.  As  Turner  grew  older  his 
love  of  brilliant  colour  and  light  became  more  and  more 
a  characteristic.  -  -In  trying  to  obtain  these  qualities  he 
gradually  fell  in^  an  unsound  method  of  work,  treating 
oil  as  if  it  had  oeen  water-colour,  using  both  indiscrimi- 
nately on  the  same  canvas,  utterly  regardless  of  the  result. 
Many  of  his  finest  pictures  are  already  in  a  ruined  state, 
mere  wrecks  of  what  they  once  were. 

The  Fighting  Tem^raire  Tugged  to  her  Last  Berth  to 
be  Broken  up  (see  vol.  xxi.p.  441,  fig.  43)  was  exhibited  in 
the  Academy  of  1839.  By  many  it  is  considered  one  of 
his  finest  works.  Turner  had  all  his  life  been  half  a  sailor 
at  heart :  he  loved  the  sea,  and  shipping,  and  sailors  and 
their  ways ,  many  of  his  best  pictures  are  sea  pieces ;  and 
the  old  ships  of  CoUingwood  and  Nelson  were  dear  to  him. 
Hence  the  pathetic  feeling  he  throws  around  the  fighting 
Tem^raire.  The  old  three-decker,  looking  ghostly  and 
wan  in  the  evening  light,  is  slowly  towed  along  by  a 
black,  fiery  littlo  steam  tu^, — a  contrast  suggesting  the 
passing  away  of  the  old  order  of  things  and  the  advent  of 
the  new;  and  bohind  the  sun  sets  red  in  a  thick  Ijiuk 
of  smoke  or  mkt.'  The  Slave  Ship,  another  important  sea" 
picture,  was  esJiibited  in  the  foMo-i;^^  "'*">  «'"''  ">"  1842 


Peace 


.x  ,,  a 


jt.LKraa'-j  of  V.'iikie 


Turner  had  now  reached  his  sixty-seventh  year,  but  no 
very  marked  traces  of  declining  power  are  to  be  seen  io 
his  work.  Many  of  the  water-colour  drawings  belon^g 
to  this  period  are  of  great  beauty,  and,  although  a  year  or 
two  later  his  other  powers  began  to  fail,  his  faculty  for 
colour  remained  unimpaired  almost  to  the  end.  He  paid 
his  last  visit  to  the  Continent  in  1843,  wandering  about 
from  one  place  to  another,  and  avoiding  his  own  country- 
men, an  old  and  solitary  man.  At  his  house  in  Queeu 
Anne  Street  they  were  often  ignorant  of  his  whereabouts 
for  months,  as  he  seldom  took  the  trouble  to  «Tite  to  any 
one.  Two  years  later  (1845)  his  health  gave  way  and 
with  it  both  mind  and  sight  began  to  fail.  The  works 
of  his  declining  period  exercised  the  wit  of  the  critics. 
Turner  felt  these  attacks  keenly.  He  was  naturally  kind- 
hearted  and  acutely  sensitive  to  censure.  "  A  man  may 
be  weak  in  his  age," he  once  remarked,  "but  you  should 
not  tell  him  so." 

After  1845  all  the  pictures  shown  by  Turner  belong  to 
the  period  of  decay, — mere  ghosts  and  shadows  of  what 
once  had  been.  In  1850  he  exhibited  for  the  last  time. 
He  had  given  up  attending  the  meetings  of  the  Academi- 
cians ,  none  of  his  friends  had  seen  him  for  months ;  and 
even  his  old  housekeeper  had  no  idea  of  his  whereabouts. 
Turner's  mind  had  evidently  given  way  for  some  time,  and 
with  that  love  of  secrecy  which  in  later  years  had  grown 
into  a  passion  he  had  gone  away  to  hide  himself  in  a 
corner  of  London.  He  had  settled  as  a  lodger  in  a  small 
house  in  Chelsea,  overlooking  the  river,  kept  by  his  old 
Margate  landlady,  Mrs  Booth.  To .  the  children  in  tha 
neighbourhood  he  was  known  as  "Admiral  Booth."  Hia 
short,  sailor  like  figure  may  account  for  the  idea  that  he 
was  an  impoverished  old  naval  officer.  He  had  been  ill 
for  some  weeks,  and  when  his  Queen  Anne  Street  house- 
keeper at  last  discovered  his  hiding-place  she  found  him 
sinking,  and  on  the  following  day,  the  19th  December  1851, 
he  died.  He  was  buried  in  St  Paul's  cathedral,  in  deference 
to  a  wish  Tie  had  himself  expressed. 

He  left  the  large  fortune  he  had  amassed  (about  £140,000)  to 
found  a  charity  for  the  "  raaintenance  and  support  of  male  decayed 
artists,  being  born  in  England,  and  of  English  parents  only,  and 
of  lawful  issue."  His  pictures  he  bequeathed  to  the  nation,  on  con- 
dition that  they  were  to  be  exhibited  in  rooms  of  their  own,  and 
that  these  rooms  were  to  be  called  "Turner's  Gallery."  The  will 
and  its  codicils  were  so  confused  that  after  years  of  litigation,  during 
which  a  large  part  of  the  money  was  wasted  in  legal  expenses,  it 
was  found  impossible  to  decide  what  Turner  really  wanted.  A 
compromise  was  effected  in  which  the  wishes  of  everybody,  save 
those  of  the  testator,  were  consulted,  his  next-of-kin,  whom  he  did 
not  mean  to  get  a  single  farthiug,  inheriting  the  bulk  of  his  pro- 
perty. The  nation  got  all  the  pictures  and  drawings,  and  the  Royal 
Academy  £20,000. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  do  mc  e  than  allude  to  the  charges 
which  have  been  brought  against  Turner's  moral  character.  Like 
most  men  of  note  he  bad  his  enemies  and  detractors,  and  it  is  to 
ba  regretted  that  so  many  of  the  stories  they  set  in  circulation 
should  have  been  repeated  by  one  of  his  biographers,  who  candidly 
admits  having  'spared  none  of  his  faults,"  and  excuses  himself  for 
so  doing  by  "  what  he  hopes"  is  his  "undeviating  love  of  truth." 
The  immense  quantity  of  work  accomplished  by  Turner  during  Ms 
lifetime,  work  full  of  the  utmo.st  delicacy  and  refinement,  proves 
the  singularly  fine  condition  of  his  nervous  system,  and  is  perhaps 
the  best  answer  that  can  be  given  to  the  charge  of  being  excessively 
addicted  to  sensual  gratification.  In  his  declining  years  he  possibly 
had  recourse  to  stimulants  to  help  his  failing  powers,  but  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  he  went  habitually  to  excess  in  their  use.  He 
never  lost  an  opportunity  of  doing  a  kindness,  and  under  a  rough 
and  cold  exterior  there  was  more  good  and  worth  hidden  than  tno 
world  imagined.  "  During  the  ten  years  I  knew  him,"  says  Mr 
Ruskin,  "y-^ars  in  which  he  was  suffering  most  from  the  evil- 
speaking  of  the  world,  I  never  heard  him  say  one  depreciating 
word  of  any  living  man  or  man's  work  ;  I  never  saw  him  look  an 
r.ii'siud  or  blameftd  look  ;  I  never  knew  him  let  pass,  ^vithout 
sorrowful  remonstrance,  or  endeavour  at  mitigatioa,  a  blameful 
word  spoken  by  another.  Cf  no  man  but  Turner,  wboui  I  have 
ever  known,  could  I  sav  tliis."  Twice  during  his  earlier  days  there 
ire  ci'.CU" -tjncCL  !.'u_:  .  :  to  '.av  Iciic.'  tbut  he  l.:i<i  ti-.crjV.ts  of 


668 


T  U  R  — T  U  R 


marriage,  tat  on  both  occasions  it  ended  in  disappointment  and 
hH^e  ^ter  his  father  died  was  cheerless  and  8ohtarj-,  without 
Bftlarp  or  comfort  of  any  kind.  , ,  . 

If  Turner  had  died  early  his  repntation  as  an  artist  would  l,a ye 
been  very  different  from  what  it  ultimately  became  He  wou.d 
nTt  have  been  recognized  as  a  colourist^  It  was  only  after  the  year 
1820  that  colour  began  to  assert  itself  strongly  in  his  work.  He 
Mfntcd  for  many  a°year  in  greys  and  greens  and  browns,  went 
Sly  hrough  ■■  the  subdued  golden  chord,"  and  painted  ye  low 
mkUand  sun"s  rising  through  vapour;  but  as  t.me  went  on  that 
wS  no  longer  enough,  and  he  tried  to  paint  the  sun  in  his  strength 
Inl  the  full  gloriel  oC  sunshine.  The  means  at  the  pamter  s  dis- 
til are.  howfver.  lim.Ud,  and  Turner,  in  his  efforts  after  bnUiancy, 
Kgan  to  indulge  in  reckless  experiments  m  colour.  He  co"ld  ?»' 
eufure  even  the  slightest  restraints  which  techmca  l™f  t'™^  r:" 
,K«e,  but  went  on/trying  to  paint  the  unpainUble.  A  f  waiter. 
ioloir  painter  Turner  stands  pre-eminent  ;  he  is  unquestionably 
IL  greatest  master  in  that  branch  of  art  that  ever  I'ved  I  his 
work  is  compared  with  that  of  Barrett,  or  \  ariey,  or  Cozens,  or 
Sa"dby.  or  aE^  of  the  earlier  n.aste,^,  so  g^^fV^jT "  ,V"S  a 
ity  that  the  art  in  his  hands  seems  to  be  Ufted  altogether  into  a 

''1n"84?a"champion,  in  the  person  of  Mr  Ruskin  arose  to  defend 
Turner  against  the  unjust  and  ignorant  attacks  of  the  press  and 
what  at  first  was  intended  as  a  "short  pamphlet,  reprobating  the 
manner  and  style  of  these  critics,"  grew  into  the  hve  volumes 
known  as  ModJn  Painters.  The  writer  employs  all  h,s  eloquence 
and  his  great  critical  faculty  to  prove  how  immeasurably  superior 
Turner  xSs  to  all  who  had  ever  gone  before,  hardly  restrict  ng  his 
supremacy  to  landscape  art,  and  placin"  him  among  the  seven 
.upreme  colourists  of  the  world."  Two  lives  o  Turner  ha^.e  been 
,rntten,  one  by  Mr  Thombury,  the  other  by  Jlr  Hamerton.  The 
work  of  the  latter  deserves  the  highest  commendation  ;  it  gives  a 
clear  and  consistent  history  of  the  great  artist,  and  is  c  .aractenzed 
bv  refined  thought  and  critical  insight.  An  e.^cellent  Utt  e  book  by 
Jir  W.  C    Monkhouse  should  also  be  noticed.  lt»-.  Kc.) 

TUKNHOUT,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  ot 
Antwerp,  25  miles  east-north-east  from  Antwerp  and  6 
from  the  Dutch  frontier,  stands  in  the  middle  of  a  wide 
plain  It  is  a  prosperous  manufacturing  and  commercial 
centre,  the  chief  industries  being  the  weaving  of  cottons 
and  linens  (especially  ticking),  lace-making,  paper-making, 
brick-making,  dyeing,  bleaching ;  there  is  also  an  establish- 
ment for  the  rearing  of  leeches.  The  population  of  the 
commune  in  1876  was  15,743 
TURNING.     See  Lathe. 

TURNIP.     See  Agriciiltdre,  vol  i  pp  .Jfao-iDb,  ana 
HoRTicoLTiTRE,  vol.  xii.  p.  2S8. 

TURNIP-FLY,  Turnip-Flea,  or  Earth  Flea-Beetle, 
the  name  applied  to  several  species  of  Haltica  which  infest 
turnip  fields  and  do  considerable  damage  to  crops.     Ihe 
genus  belongs  to  the  family  Chrysomdidx,  and  includes 
about  100  species.     The  turnip-fly  most  usually  met  with, 
Hahka  nemorum,  is  scarcely  2ram.   in  length  and  ol  a 
shining  black  colour,  with  two   och- 
reous  yellow  longitudinal  bands  run- 
ning along  each  wing-case;  the  bands 
are  slightly  sinuous  and  bend  inwards 
at  the  hinder  end.     Of  the  eleven- 
antennse  the  first   three  seg- 


Tamip  fly  (Haltica 
nemorum). 

The   coxae  and 


jointed  -  _ 

ments  are  yellow  and  the  remainder 

black.     The  coxae  are  black,  the  rest 

of   the   legs   having    a   yellowish  hue.      __- 

tibis  are  stout  and  formed  for  leaping,  especially  in  the 

posterior  pair  of  legs.     The  remarkable  power  of  jumping 

has  given  rise  to  the  name  turnip-flea.     The  females  are 

Blightly  longer  and  decidedly  stouter  than  the  males. 

Another  species,  H.  concinna,  has  a  greenish  yeUow  or 
brassy  appearance,  and  the  tibioe  of  the  two  posterior  le^ 
are  armed  ^vith  a  thorn-like  hook.  A  third  species,  //. 
consobrina,  is  of  a  dark  blue  colour  above,  whilst  another 
Bpecies,  H.  ohscurella,  often  very  abundant,  is  of  a  lighter 
blue  colour,  and  larger  than  those  mentioned  above.         ^ 

The  life-history  of  Haltica  nemorum  may  be  Uken  as  an  example 
of  that  of  the  genus.     Tlie  beetles  begin  pairing  dunng  AprU,  ana 
tontinuo  all  through  the  summer.     The  female  lays  but  fe^eggs 
usually  one  a  day.^  The  eg^s  are  deposited  on  the  under  surface  of 
.  leaf,  close  under  one  of  the  pro.iecling  veins ;  they  possess  a  pio- 


tccrive  colouring.  The  development  within  the  egg  lasts  ten  days, 
at  the  end  of  which  a  small  larva  creeps  out,  and  at  once  eats  its 
wav  through  the  lower  epidermis  of  the  leaf  into  the  mesophyll  aud 
there  foms  long  winding  burrows.  The  larva  or  maggot  is  of  a 
yellowish  colour  and  somewhat  cylindncal  m  form.  It  has  three 
pairs  of  legs  anteriorly  and  a  pair  of  pro-legs  at  its  binder  end.  The 
most  anterior  and  the  most  posterior  segment  bear  a  black  spot. 
The  mouth  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  mandibles,  by  means  of 
which  the  larva  eats  its  way  through  the  soft  tissue  of  the  leaf. 
This  larval  condition  lasts  about  six  days  ;  the  maggot  then  leaves 
the  leaf  and  buries  itself  some  one  or  two  inches  beneath  the  surfaca 
of  the  earth  ;  here  it  turns  into  a  chrysalis.  From  this  the  fuU- 
OTOwn  beetle  emerges  after  an  interval  of  fourteen  days,  and  it  is  in 
this  stage  of  its  life-history  that  it  proves  most  destructive  to  the 
turnip  crop.  Several  broods  may  be  produced  each  season  ;  the 
beetle  lives  through  the  winter  sheltered  under  fallen  leaves,  pieces 
of  wood,  clods  of  earth,  &.C.,  until  the  warmth  of  spring  awakens  it, 
when  it  soon  begins  to  lay  eggs.  .     ,       ,    ^,  c   t  i,»„ti» 

Since  the  chief  damage  to  the  crop  is  due  to  the  perfect  beeUe 
devouring  the  young  leaves  of  the  tnmip  plant,  one  of  the  most 
important  methods  of  dealing  with  the  pest  is  to  ensur.  a  strong 
and  healthy  growth  of  the  plant,  by  means  of  manuring,  watenng, 
&c  Another  preventative  is  the  removal  of  such  weeds  as  the 
shepherds  purse  and  charlock,  which  harbour  the  insect  m  great 
numbers,  and  the  removal  of  any  stubble  in  which  it  nj'gW  P»f| 
the  winter.  When  a  crop  is  badly  attacked  dressings  of  soot  and 
gas. lime  mixed  wuh  sulphur  and Jime,  or  of  soot  or  hme  alone, 
prove  efficacious,  but  these  must  be  applied  whilst  the  dew  is  on 
the  leaves  or  the  "  fiy  "  will  escape. 

TURNSTONE,  the  name  long  given »  to  a  shore-bird, 
from  its  habit  of  turning  over  with  its  bill  such  stones  as 
it  can  to  seek  its  food  in  the  smaU  crustaceans  or  oth^r 
animals  lurking  beneath  them.     It  is  the  Tringa  interpres^ 
of  Linnaeus  and  Slrepsilas  inlerpres  of  most  later  writers, 
and  is  remarkable  as  being  perhaps  the  most  cosmopolitan 
of  birds;  for,  though  properly  belonging  to  the  northern 
hemisphere,   there  is   scarcely  a  sea-coast  in  the  world 
on  which  it  may  not  occur :  it  has  been  obtamed  from 
Spitzbergen  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan  and  from  Point 
Barrow  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  New  Zealand- 
examples  from  the  southern  hemisphere  being,  however, 
almost  invariably  in  a  state  of  plumage  that  shows  if  not 
immaturity,  yet  an  ineptitude  for  reproduction.     It  also, 
though  much  less  commonly,  resorts  to  the  margins  of 
inland  rivers  and  lakes ;  but  it  is  very  rarely  seen  except 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  and  salt  water  for  preference. 
The  Turnstone  is  about  as  big  as  an  ordinary  Snipe  ;  but,  com- 
pared with  most  of  its  allies  of  the  gronpLimiccl^,  to  ^^1"* '«  f'f; 
ongs,  its  form  is  somewhat  heavy,  and  its  legs  are  short     Still  it 
s  br  sk  in  its  movements,  and  its  vanegated  plumage  makes  it  a 
pleading  bird.     Seen  in  front,  its  white  face,  stnped  with  black,  and 
b^d  black  gorget  attract  attention  as  it  sits,  often  motionl^s  on 
the  rocks  ;  while  in  flight  the  white  of  the  lower  part  of  the  back 
and  white  band  across  "the  wings  are  no  less  ~"^F;'f  ^X""^*  ^ 
distance.    A  nearer  view  will  reveal  the  nch  chestnut  of  the  mantle 
and  upper  wing-eoverts,  and  the  combination  cf  »  oui^  thus  ex- 
hibited  suggest!  the  term  "tortoise-shell"  often  appUed  to  it-the 
quillfeathf^  being  mostly  of  a  dark  brown  ^^  'ts  lower  part^^  pure 
white      The  deeper  tints  are,  however,  peculiar  to  the  nuptial 
plumage,  or  are  only  to  be  faintly  traced  at  other  times,  so  that .» 
Printer  the  adults-end  the  young  always-have  a  much  plamer 
a^-arance,  ashy-grey  and  white  being  almost  the  °°ly  tues  obsen-- 
abl^    From  the  fact  that  Turnstones  rnay  be  met  wi  h  at  almost  any 
season  in  various  parts  of  the  world,=  and  especially  on  islands  as 
^h^Canaries,  Azor^.s  and  many  of  those  in  the  Bnt^h  seas  .t  ha, 
been  inferred  that  these  birds  may  breed  in  such  places     In  some 
cases  this  may  prove  to  be  true,  but  in  most  evidence  to  that  effect 
U  wanting     In  America  the  breeding-range  of  this  species  has  not 
been  defined.     In  Europe  there  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  it- 


1  The  name  seems  to  appear  6rst  in  WUlughbys  OrnMMcgviJp 
231)  in  1676 ;  but  he  gave  as  an  alia,  that  of  Sea-Dottrel,  ""der  'hicb 
name  a  drawing,  figm-ed  by  him  (pL  58),  was  sent  to  him  by  Bir 
Tliomas  Browne.  ,     c-^  „-♦  wjtii 

=  Linnaeus  (OS!,  och  OothlSndsIca  Resa,  p.  217),  who  first  met  vnth 
this  bird  on  the  island  of  GottUnd,  Isi  July  1/41,  was  >^d"  'he  mis- 
taken  belief  that  it  was  there  called  Tolk  (^  ^nlcrprc,).  But  that  name 
properly  belongs  to  the  Redshank  (?.r.),  from  the  cry  of  warning  to- 
other  animals  that  it  utters  on  the  approach  of  danger.  ,„,,.„ 

»  Tlie  authors  of  The  Iln/cr  Birds  of  Xorlh  Aw^a  (i.  p.  123)  itt 
ref.-rence  to  this  fact  raise  the  ingenious  question,  "  Do  bmls,  after  they 
have  become  old,  effete,  or  banen,  prefer  to  stay  in  a  warm  climat«  (. 


T  U  R  — T  U  R 


C69 


•Jnclades  Shetland  ;  but  it  is  on  the  north  •  western  coast  of  the 
continent,  from  Jutland  to  the  extreme  north  of  Norway,  that  the 
greatest  number  are  reared.  The  nest,  contrary  to  the  habits  of 
most  Limicols,  is  generally  placed  under  a  ledge  of  rock  which 
shelters  the  bird  from  observation,'  and  therein  are  laid  four  eggs, 
of  a  light  oKve-grsen,  closely  blotched  with  brown,  and  hardly  to 
be  mistaken  for  those  of  any  other  bird.  A  second  species  of  Turn- 
stone is  admitted  by  some  authors  and  denied  by  otliers.  This  is 
the  S.  melanocephalus  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America,  which 
is  said  to  be  on  the  average  larger  than  S.  inierpres,  and  it  never 
«zhibits  any  of  the  chestnut  colouring. 

Though  the  genus  Strepsilas  seems  to  be  rightly  placed 
among  the  Charadnidx  (cf.  Plover),  it  occupies  a  some- 
what abnormal  position  among  them,  and  in  the  form  of 
its  pointed  beak  and  its  variegated  coloration  has  hardly 
any  very  near  relative.  (a.  n.) 

TURPENTINE  consists  of  the  oleo-resins  which  exude 
from  certain  trees,  especially  from  some  conifers  and  from 
the  terebinth  tree,  Pistacia  Terel/inthus,  L.  It  was  to  the 
product  of  the  latter,  now  known  as  Chian  turpentine,  that 
the  term  was  first  applied.  The  terebinth  tree  (t«/)^ii'^o9 
of  Tbeophrastus)  and  its  resin  (p-qrivr^  Ttpfi-lvdivri)  were 
well  known  and  highly  prized  from  the  earliest  times. 
The  tree  is  a  native  of  the  islands  and  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, passing  eastward  into  Central  Asia ;  but  the 
resinous  exudation  found  in  commerce  is  collected  in  the 
island  of  Scio.  Chian  turpentine  is  a  tenacious  semi-fluid 
f  ransparcnt  body,  yellow  to  dull  brown  in  colour,  with  an 
agreeable  resinous  odour  and  little  taste.  On  exposure 
to  the  air  it  becomes  dry,  hard,  and  brittle.  In  their 
general  characters,  turpentines  are  soft  solids  or  semi-fluid 
bodies,  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  one  or  more  resins  with 
essential  oils,  which,  although  differing  in  physical  pro- 
perties, have  a  composition  corresponding  to  the  formula 
C)(|H,j.  They  also  contain  minute  quantities  of  oxygenated 
oils.  Formerly  they  had  considerable  reputation  in  medi- 
cine, and  they  still  continue  to  be  employed  in  plasters 
and  ointments ;  but  their  great  use  is  in  the  arts,  for  which 
they  are  separated  by  distillation  into  rosin  or  colophony 
(see  PvOSiN,  vol.  XX.  p.  852)  and  oil  or  spirit  of  turpentine. 

Cnulc  0'  common  tuTjxtUine  is  the  commercial  name  which 
embraces  the  oleo-resiu  yielded  by  several  coniferous  trees,  both 
European  and  American.  The  principal  European  product,  some- 
times  distinguished  as  Bordeaux'  turpentine,  is  obtained  from  the 
sea  pine,  Pima  marilima,  in  the  Landes  department  of  France. 
Onide  turpentine  is  further  yielded  by  the  Scotch  iir,  P.  sylvestris, 
througliout  northern  Europe,  and  by  the  Corsican  pine,  P.  Laricio, 
in  Austria  and  Corsica.  In  the  United  States  the  turpentine- 
yielding  pines  are  the  swamp  pine,  P.  palustrU,  and  the  loblolly. 
P.  Tteda,  both  inhabiting  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Alabama.  Venice  lurpentiiie  is  yielded  by  the  larch  tree,  Lurtx 
tuTopsa,  from  which  it  is  collected  principally  in  Tyrol  Slna- 
lurg  turpenline  i>  obtained  from  the  bark  of  the  silver  fir  ;  but 
it  is  collected  only  in  small  (quantities.  Less  known  tiirjientines 
are  obtained  from  the  mountain  pine,  P.  Pumilio,  the  stone  pine, 
P.  Canbra,  the  Aleppo  pine,  P.  haleimisis,  itc.  The  so-called 
Canada  iMbam,  from  Abies  baUamea  (see  Bal-sam,  vol.  iii.  p.  293), 
fa  also  a  true  turpentine. 

Oil  of  lurpaiiiiu  as  a  commercial  product  is  obtained  from  all 
or  any  of  those  oleo-resins,  but  on  a  large  scale  only  from  crude 
or  common  turpentine.  The  essential  oil  is  rectified  by  redistilla- 
tion with  water  and  alkaline  carbonates,  and  the  water  which  the 
oil  carries  over  with  it  is  removed  by  a  further  distillation  over 
calcium  chloride.  Oil  of  turpentine  is  a  colourless  liquid  of  oily 
consistence,  with  a  strong  characteristic  odour  and  a  hot  disagree- 
able taste.  Its  boiling  point  ranges  from  152°  to  1 72°  C.  at  ordinary 
temperatire;  its  sp.  gr.  is  between  0856  and  0'870  ;  and  in  optical 
properties  i^  rotates  the  plane  of  polarized  light  both  to  ri"ht  and 
left  in  varying  degrees  aciJording  to  its  sources.  It  is  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether,  benzol,  other  essential  oils,  and  the  fixed  oils,  and 
itself  is  a  solvent  of  resins  and  caoutchouc.  On  exposure  to  tlie  air  it 
dries  to  a  solid  resin,  and  when  oxidized  in  the  presence  of  water 
pves  off  peroxide  of  hydrogen — a  reaction  utilized  in  the  preparation 
of  a  disinfectant  called  "sanitaa.  Oil  of  turpentine  is  largely 
lued  in  the  preparation  of  varnishes,  and  as  a  medium  by  painters 
in  their  ' '  flat "  colours. 


'  There  is  little  external  difference  between   the  sexes,   and  the 
taigbUy-contrasted  coloara  of  the  hen-hirU  seem  to  require  some  kind 
ncealment. 


TURPIN,  archbishop  of  Rheims  and  the  supposititious 
author  of  Hutoria  Karoli  Magni  et  Rolholandi,  is  probably 
to  be  identified  with  Tilpin,  who  was  archbishop  of  Eheims 
towards  the  end  of  the  8th  century.  This  Tilpin  is  alluded 
to  by  Hincmar  (845-882),  his  third  successor  in  the  see. 
According  to  Flodoard  (ob.  969),  Charles  Martel  drove 
Ragobert,  bishop  of  Rheims,  from  his  office,  putting  in 
his  place  a  warrior-clerk,  Milo.  The  same  writer  repre- 
sents Milo  as  discharging  a  mission  among  the  Vascones  or 
Basques,  the  very  people  to  whom  authentic  history  lias 
ascribed  the  great  Carolingian  disaster  at  Roncesvalles.  It 
is  possible  that  we  owe  the  warlike  legends  that  have 
accumulated  round  the  name  of  Turpin  to  some  confusion 
of  his  identity  with  that  of  his  martial  predecessor. 
Flodoard  says  that  Tilpin  was  originally  a  monk  of  St 
Denis ;  and  we  know  from  Hincmar  that,  after  his  appoint- 
ment to  Rheims,  he  occupied  hiniself  in  securing  the  re-' 
storation  of  the  metropolitan  rights  and  landed  property 
of  his  church,  whose  revenue  and  prestige  had  Leen  im- 
paired under  Miio's  rule.  He  was,  according  to  the  latter 
authority,  elected  in  the  days  of  Pippin,  tliason  of  Cliarles 
Martel,  i.e.,  between  752  and  7CS.  He  died,  if  we  may 
trust  the  evidence  of  a  diploma  alluded  to  by  Mabillon,  in 
79-1.  Hincmar,  who  composed  his  epitaph,  makes  him 
bishop  for  forty  years  and  more,  from  which  it  is  evident 
that  he  was  elected  somewhere  about  754.  Flodoard, 
however,  states  that  he  died  in  the  forty-seventh  year  of 
his  bishopric.  Tilpin  was  present  at  the  synod  of  Roma 
in  769  ;  and  Pope  Hadrian,  at  the  request  of  Charlemagne, 
sent  him  a  paUium  and  confirmed  the  rights  of  his  church 
(Gallia  Cliristiana,  ix.  28-30).  According  to  Flodoard, 
he  substituted  monks  for  canons  in  the  monastery  of  St 
Remigius;  and  17th-century  tradition  ascribed  to  hinv 
an  ancient  pontificaU,  still  extant  in  Marlot's  days  (17tU 
century). 

The  above  is  a  summary  of  all  th.it  authentic  history  and  tmst- 
worthy  tradition  teach  about  the  author  to  whom  the  common  voic« 
of  the  Middle  Ages  ascribed  the  Hisioria  Caroli  Magiii.  A  short 
account  of  the  work  has  been  given  elsewhere  (Roland,  Legesd 
OF).  But,  popular  as  this  production  was  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
it  was  rather  the  crystallization  of  earlier  Roland  legends  than  tlie 
source  of  later  ones.  Potthast  has  enumerated  about  fifty  codices 
without  by  any  means,  according  to  M.  Gaston  Paris,  exhausting 
the  list.  The  latter  writer  has  made  the  Hisioria  Karoli  the 
subject  of  a  special  study  (De  Pstudo-Turpino,  Paris,  1865),  which 
may  be  recommended  as  a  model  of  brilliant  though  cautious 
.scholarship.  The  great  popularity  of  the  pseudo-Turpin  seems  to 
date  from  the  latter  half  of  the  12th  century  ;  and  M.  Paris  enumer- 
ates at  least  five  French  translations  belonging  to  the  13th,  and 
one  into  Latin  verse  of  about  the  same  age.  Mr  Ward  {Cat.  of 
Pomances,  549)  has  recently  expressed  a  doubt  as  to  whether  the 
Turpin  chronicle  was  completed  at  Vienne. 

TURQUOISE,  a  blue  or  bluish  green  mineral,  valued, 
when  cut  and  polished,  as  an  ornamental  stone.  The 
finest  variety  occurs  in  Persia,  whence  it  originally  reached 
western  Europe  by  way  of  Turkey,  and  thus  came  to  be 
called  by  the  Venetians,  who  imported  it,  iurchesci,  and 
by  the  French  turquoise.  It  is  chemically  a  liydrated 
phosphate  of  aluminium,  associated  with  a  variable  pro- 
portion of  hydrated  phosphate  of  copper,  to  wliich  it  owes 
much  of  its  colour.  The  green  tints  of  certain  varieties 
appear  to  be  due  to  admixture  with  salts  of  iron.  A  fine 
blue  Persian  turquoise,  analysed  by  Prof.  A.  H.  Church, 
yielded — alumina  40'19,  phosphorus  pentoxide  32'86, water 
19'34,  cupric  oxide  5'27,  ferrous  oxide  2-21,  and  manganous 
oxide  0'36.  The  most  valued  tint  of  the  turquoise  is  a 
delicate  blue,  inclining  slightly  to  green ;  in  many  speci- 
mens the  green  becomes  more  pronounced  with  age. 
Although  the  turquoise  is  practically  opaque,  sections  may 
be  ground  so  thin  as  to  admit  of  examination  by  trans- 
mitted light.  Its  microscopic  structure  ^^-as  first  studied 
by  Prof.  Fischer  of  Freiburg  (Baden),  afterwards  by  H. 
Biicking  of  Strasburg,  and  recently  by  Clarke  and  Diller. 


670 


T  U  R  — T  U  S 


I 


Thin  sections  are  almost  colourless.  Between  crossed 
Nicols  they  show  either  a  fibrous  texture  or  a  finely-granular 
aggregate  of  doubly -refracting  particles  without  definite 
crystalline  outlines.  The  mineral  has  never  been  found 
crystallized,  but  occurs  as  veins,  nodules,  stalactitic  masses, 
and  incrustations.  Large  pieces  are  exceedingly  rare.  The 
specific  gravity  of  turquoise  is  about  2'75,  and  its  hardness 
below  6  ;  it  takes  a  fair  pohsh  and  exhibits  a  feeble  lustre. 
It  is  usually  cut  en  cabochon  or  with  a  low  convex  surface, 
and  in  the  East  is  frequently  engraved  with  Persian  and 
Arabic  inscriptions,  generally  passages  from  the  Koran, — 
the  incised  characters  being  in  many  cases  gilt.  Such 
objects  are  worn  as  amulets.  The  turquoise  has  always 
been  associated  with  curious  superstitions,  the  most  com- 
mon being  the  notion  that  it  changes  colour  with  variations 
in  the  state  of  its  owner's  health,  or  even  in  sympathy 
with  his  afiections. 

Persia  is  the  chief  centre  of  the  turquoise  trade,  where  the  same 
mines  have  been  worked  for  at  least  eight  centuries.  The  finest 
stones  are  found  near  Nishapir  in  Khorasan  (see  Persia,  vol.  rviii. 
I.  622).  Tavernier,  writing  in  the  17th  century,  states  that  the 
est  turquoise,  reserved  for  the  sole  use  of  the  shah,  was  obtained 
from  the  mine  which  he  describes  as  the  Vieillc  Roche,  while  inferior 
stones  were  got  from  the  Nouvclle  Roche  These  terms  still  survive, 
all  turquoise  of  fine  colour  being  said  in  trade  to  be  from  the  "  old 
rock,"  and  that  which  is  pale,  or  changes  tint  on  exposure,  is  from 
the  "  new  rock."  According  to  a  recent  report  by  Consul  Benjamin 
at  Teherau  the  best  turquoise  is  found  at  Abu  Riah,  and  all  the 
Khorasan  mines  are  farmed  by  a  few  prominent  officials,  who  pay 
to  the  shah  an  annual  rent  of  about  £6500.  Dr  Tietze  has  lately 
described  specimens  of  the  matri.x  of  the  mineral  brought  to  Vienna 
from  Persia  by  General  Schindler.  These  show  that  the  turquoise 
occurs,  not  in  clay-slate,  as  is  often  stated,  but  in  a  porphyritic 
trachyte  or  trachytic  breccia,  and  in  loose  fragments  in  the  neigh- 
bouring alluvium.  The  mineral  is  also  found  in  Eerman  in 
soutliern  Persia,  but  the  stone  is  of  pale  colour,  tending  to  fade,  and 
the  mines  which  yield  it  are  now  nearly  abandoned.  In  1849  Major 
C.  llacdonald  found  turquoise  in  Wady  Mnghara  and  Wady  Sidreh, 
near  Sinai  (q.v. ),  where,  according  to  Mr  H.  Bauerman,  it  lines  the 
open  joints  of  a  ferruginous  sandstone,  and  is  also  embedded  in 
small  ochreous  nodules  in  the  rock  itself.  The  redder  the  rock  the 
finer  the  colour  of  the  associated  turquoise.  As  the  colour  is  liable 
to  fade,  the  Arabian  turquoise  has  not  a  good  name  among  jewellers, 
and  the  workings  were  abandoned  by  Macdonald  in  1865.  In 
Wady  Maghara  there  are  relics  of  extensive  mining  operations,  pre- 
Bumably  for  turquoise,  of  so  early  a  date  that  the  rock  «as  wrought 
by  flint  implements.  The  early  inhabitants  of  Meidco  made  much 
Qse  of  this  mineral  for  inlaying  obsidian  ornaments,  and  for  mosaic 
work  with  iron-pyrites.  It  was  probably  one  of  the  stones  known 
as  chalchihuitl.  In  1853  Prof  W.  P  Elake  called  attention 
to  the  occurrence  of  turquoise  at  Cerillos,  about  22  miles  south- 
west of  Santa  Fe,  in  New  Mexico,  where  mining  operations  for  this 
mineral  were  carried  on  two  centuries  ago.  The  turquoise  varies 
in  colour  from  sky-blue  to  apple-green,  and  is  found  as  nodules  and 
small  veins  in  a  felspathic  rock  of  microgranitic  texture,  probably 
of  eruptive  origin.  The  mines  of  Cerillos  are  no  longer  worked. 
A  similar  green  mineral  is  found  at  Turquoise  Mountain  in  Cochise 
county  and  at  Mineral  Park,  Mohave  county,  Arizona-  It  also 
occurs  to  a  small  extent  in  southern  Nevada,  where  it  is  found  as 
blue  grains  disseminated  through  a  sandstone.  In  Europe,  the 
turquoise  is  found  at  Oelsnitz  in  Saxony  and  near  Jordansmiihl  in 
Silesia,  occurring  at  the  latter  locality  in  clay-slate.  Under  the 
names  of  eallais  and  callaina  Pliny  described  a  green  mineral  which. 
If  not  our  turquoise,  seems  to  have  been  very  closely  related  to  it. 
A  bright  green  mineral,  wrought  into  beads,  and  found  with  stone 
hatchets  in  ancient  graves  at  ilen-er  Hroeck  (Rock  of  the  Fairy)  in 
Brittany,  was  described  in  lo'j!  by  M.  Damour,  who,  seeking  to 
identify  it  with  Pliny's  caUai',  revived  this  name.  Dana  afterwards 
brought  the  word  into  harmony  with  our  mineralogical  nomenclature 
by  writing  it  callainite.  The  mineral  in  question  is  a  hydrated 
pnospliate  of  aluminium,  apparently  identical  with  Breithaupt's 
variscil-.  By  many  mineralogists  the  true  torquoise  is  called 
calaite  (see  vol.  xvi.  p.  405). 

Turquoise  is  commonly  imitated  by  enamels,  but  of  late  some 
Ingenious  counterfeits  have  been  made  with  the  same  chemical 
composition  as  tlio  natural  stone.  To  increase  the  deception, 
pieces  of  ochreous  matter  are  inserted  at  the  back  of  the  artilicial 
turquoise,  to  imitate  the  natural  matrix.  In  order  to  distinguish 
between  the  genuine  stone  and  its  imitations,  Pohl  recommends  that 
a  splinter  should  be  strongly  heated  in  a  platinum  capsule,  when 
the  true  turquoise  is  reduced  to  a  brownish  black  powder  or  a  friable 
mass  witii  a  decrepitating  sound  ;  the  false  turquoise  does  not  de- 
crepitate, but  cither  fuses  to  a  glasc  o?  ia  reduced  to  a  frit. 


For  recent  mformation  on  the  turquoise,  see  "  Das  Vorkommen  der  TiirkiM 
bei  Nischapur  in  Persien,"  by  Dr  E.  Tietze,  in  VcrTtandL  d  k.  k.  gedtog.  Heichsan. 
stalt,  No.  6,1884,  p.  93;  "Mikroskopische  Untersuchung  des  TUrkis,"  by  H. 
BiiciLing,  in  Zcitsch.  /.  Krystallog.,  vol.  ii.,  1878,  p.  163  ;  "Eine  ciniache  and 
sichere  Unt^i-scheidungsweise  der  echten  Tiirkise  von  deren  Narhahmungen,' 
in  N.  Jahrb. /.  Miruratogie,  ISTS,  p.  354  ;  "  Turqois  from  New  Mexico,"  by  F. 
W.  Clarke  and  J.  S.  D  lier,  in  Americ.  Joum.  Scienct,  Sept,  1886,  p.  211  ;  "Re- 
vision of  Mineral  Phosptiates,  No.  iv.,  Calaite,"  by  A.  H.  Church,  in  CA«m. 
News,  X.  p.  290 ;  and  note  in  Journ.  Soc.  Arts,  xxxii.,  1884,  p.  1084. 

TUERETIN,  or  Turretini.  Three  theologians  of  this 
name  figure  in  the  history  of  Genevan  theology. 

1.  Benoit  TtTRRETiN  (1588-1631),  the  son  of  Francesco 
Turretini,  a  native  of  Lucca,  who  settled  in  Geneva  in 
1579,  was  born  in  that  town  on  9th  November  1588.  He 
was  ordained  a  pastor  in  Geneva  in  1612,  and  became 
professor  of  theology  in  1618.  In  1620  he  represented 
the  Genevan  Church  at  the  national  synod  of  Alais,  when 
the  decrees  of  the  synod  of  Dort  were  introduced  into 
France;  and  in  1621  he  was  sent  on  a  successful  mission 
to  the  states  general  of  Holland,  and  to  the  authorities 
of  the  Hanseatic  towns,  with  reference  to  the  defence  of 
Geneva  against  the  threatened  attacks  of  the  duke  of 
Savoy.  He  published  in  1618-20  a  defence  of  the  Genevan 
translation  of  the  Bible.  Benoit  Turretin  died  at  Geneva 
on  4th  March  1631. 

2.  FEANgois  Turretin  (1623-87),  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Geneva  on  17th  October  1623.  After  study- 
ing theology  in  Geneva,  Holland,  and  France,  he  became 
a  pastor  in  Geneva  in  1647;  after  a  brief  pastorate  at 
Leyden,  he   again   returned   to  Geneva  as  professor  of 

'theology  in  1653.  He  was  one  of  the  most  influential 
supporters  of  the  Formula  Consensus  Helvetica,  drawn  up 
chiefly  by  Heidegger,  in  1675,  and  of  the  particular  tj-pe 
of  Calvinistic  theology  which  that  symbol  embodied.  His 
Institutio  Theologxs.  Elencticx  (3  vols.  4to,  Geneva,  1680-83) 
has  passed  through  frequent  editions,  the  last  reprint 
having  been  made  in  Edinburgh  in  1847.  F.  Turretin 
died  at  Geneva  on  28th  September  1687.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  volumes  entitled  De  Satisfactions  Ckristi 
Disputationes  (Geneva,  1666)  and  De  Necessaria  Secessione 
Nostra  ab  Ecclesia  Romana  (Geneva,  1687). 

3.  Jean  Alphonse  Turretin  (1671-1737),  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Geneva  on  13th  August  1671. 
He  was  educated  at  Geneva  and  in  Holland,  and  after 
travelling  in  England  and  in  France  was  received  into 
the  "  V^n^rable  Compagnie  des  Pasteurs "  of  Geneva  in 
1693.  In  1697  he  became  professor  of  church  history. 
During  the  next  forty  years  of  his  life  he  enjoyed  great 
influence  in  Geneva  as  the  advocate  of  a  more  liberal 
theology  than  had  prevailed  under  the  preceding  genera- 
tion, and  it  was  largely  through  his  instrumentality  that 
the  use  of  the  Formula  Consetisus  Helvetica  as  a  symbol 
was  discontinued  in  1725.  He  also  wrote  and  laboured 
for  the  promotion  of  union  between  the  Reformed  and 
Lutheran  Churches,  his  most  important  work  in  this  con- 
nexion being  Nubes  Testium  pro  Moderato  et  Pacifico  de 
Rebus  Theologicis  Judicio,  et  Instituenda  inter  Protestantea 
Concordia  (Geneva,  1719).  Besides  this  he  wrote  Co^i'ta- 
tiones  et  Dissertationes  Theologicse,  on  the  principles  of 
natural  and  revealed  religion  (Geneva,  1737);  and  com- 
mentaries on  Thessalonians  and  Romans  were  published 
posthumously.     He  died  at  Geneva  on  1st  May  1737. 

TURTLE.     See  Tortoise. 

TUSCANY  (Ital.  Toscana),  one  of  the  sixteen  comparti- 
menti  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  contains  eight  provinces — 
Arezzo,  Florence,  Gro.seto,  Leghorn,  Lucca  Massa-Carrara, 
Pisa,  and  Siena — and  has  an  area  of  9287'  square  mile^ 
with  a  population  of  2,208,869  in  1881.  In  1859,  im- 
mediately before  it  united  with  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia, 
the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany,  e.xclusive  of  Massa-Carrara, 
which  then  belonged  to  Modena,  but  including  the  islands 
of  Gorgona,  Elba,  Pianosa,  Formica,  Montec  isto,  Giglio, 
and  Gianutra,  as  well  as  the  duchy  of  Lucca  (united  to  it 


T  U  S  —  T  U  S 


671 


in  ISi"),  had  an  area  of  8625  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  1,S0G,940.     See  Itaxt,  voL  xiii.  pp.  489-490. 

Eteckia  iq.v.)  was  finally  annexed  to  Rome  in  351  B.C.  (see 
Bome),  and  constitnted  the  seventh  of  the  eleven  regions  into 
vhicb  Italy  was,  for  administrative  purposes,  divided  by  Augustus. 
Under  Constaatine  it  was  united  into  one  province  with  Umbria, 
an  arrangement  which  subsisted  until  at  least  400,  as  the  Nolitia 
speaks  of  a  *'  consularis  Tusciee  et  Umbrise."  In  Ammianus  Mar. 
ceUinns  there  is  implied  a  distinction  between  "Tuseia  suburbicaria" 
and  "Toscia  auDonaria,"  the  latter  being  that  portion  which  lies 
to  the  north  of  the  Amo.  After  the  fsdl  of  the  Western  empire 
Tuseia,  with  other  provinces  of  Italy,  came  successively  under  the 
sway  of  Herulians,  Ostrogoths,  and  Greek  and  I.ombard  dukes. 
Dnder  the  last-named,  "Tuseia  Langobardorum, "  comprising  the 
districts  of  Viterbo,  Cometo,  and  Bolsena,  was  distinguished  from 
"  Tuseia  Regni;" -which  lay  more  to  the  north.  Under  Charlemagne 
the  name  of  Tuseia  orToscana  bec.ime  restricted  to  the  latter  only. 
One  of  the  earliest  of  the  Frankish  marquises  was  Boniface,  either 
first  or  second  of  that  name,- who  about  828  fought  with  success 
against  the  Saracens  in  Africa.  Adalbert  I.,  who  succeeded  him, 
in  873  espoused  the  cause  of  Carloman  as  against  his  brother  Louis 
HI.  of  France,  and  suffered  excommonication  and  imprisonment 
in  consequence.  Adalbert  II.  (the  Rich),  who  married  the  ambitious 
Bertha,  daughter  of  Lothair,  king  of  Lorraine,  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  politics  of  his  day.  A  subsequent  marquis,  Hugo  (the  Great), 
became  also  duke  of  Spoleto  in  989.  The  male  Une  of  marquises 
ended  with  Boniface  II.  (or  HI.  ),who  was  mnrdered  in  1052.  His 
widow,  Beatrice,  in  1055  marri«l  Godfrey,  duke  "of  Lorraine,  and 
governed  the  country  tUl  hex  death  in  1076,  when  she  was  succeeded 
by  Matilda  {q.v.  \  her  only  child  by  her  first  husband.  Matilda 
died  in  1114  without  issue,  bequeathing  all  her  extensive  possessions 
to  the  cbq^t^  The  consequent  struggle  between  the  popes,  who 
claimed  tiie  inheritance,  and  the  emperors,  who  maintained  that  the 
countess- had  tro  right  to  dispose  of  imperial  fiefs,  enabled  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  Tuscany  gradually  to  assert  their  independence  and 
govern  fliemselves  under  consuls  and  elders  of  their  own  selection. 
The  most  important  of  these  Tuscan  republics  or  self-governed  com- 
mones  were  Florence,  Pisa,  Siena,  Arezzo,  Pistoia,  and  Lucca. 
Some  account  of  the  manner  in  which  they  were  all  gradually 
absorbed  by  Florence  will  be  found  under  Florence  ana  Medici. 
The  title  of  grand-duke  of  Tuscany  was  conferred  on  Cosmo  de' 
Medici  by  Pius  V  in  1567,  and  the  emperor  (MaximiHsai  II.),  after 
■withholding  his  consent  for  some  years,  ultimately  confirmed  it 
to  Cosmo's  successor  in  157^.  In  1735,  in  view  of  the  childlessness 
of  Giovan  Gastone,  the  last  of  the  Medici,  the  succession  of  Francis, 
duke  of  Lorraine,  afterwards  emperor  Francis  I. ,  was  arranged  for 
by  treaty.  In  1765  he  was  succeeded  as  grand-duke  by  his  second 
son  Leopqld  (see  Leopold  IL),  who,  on  becoming  emperor  in  1790, 
hjnded  Tuscany  over  to  his  second  son  Ferdinand,  third  grand-duke 
of  the  name.  The  duchy  was  occupied  by  the  French  in  1 799,  ceded 
to  Louis,  prince  of  Parma,  by  the  convention  of  Madrid  in  1801,  and 
annexed  to'the  French  empire  in  1808.  Ferdinand,  however,  »va3 
reinstated  in  1814,  and  on  his  death  in  1824  was  succSeded  by  his 
ton  LeoJ)old,  second  grand-duke  of  the  name,  who  was  deposed  by 
the  constituent  assembly  on  16tb  August  1860     See  Italt 

TUSCULUM,  an  ancient  Latin  city,  situated  in  a  com- 
manding position  on  one  of  the  eastern  ridges  of  the  Aiban 
Hills,  near  the  site  of  the  modern  Frascati  (?.«).  It  has 
a  very  beautiful  and  extensive  view  of  the  Campagna, 
with  Rome  lying  fifteen  miles '  dist-ant  to  the  north-west, 
on  the  west  the  sea  near  Ostia,  and  the  long  range  of  the 
Sabine  Hills  on  the  north  east.  According  to  tradition, 
the  city  was  founded  by  Telegonus,  the  sot)  of  Ulysses  and 
CSree;  hence  Horace  (Epod.,  i  30)  speaks  of  it  as  "Circ^a 
moenia"  and  Ovid  (Fast,  iii.  91)  as  "Telegoni  mania" 
(see  also  Prop.,  iii  30,  4,  and  Sil.  Ital ,  xii  535).  The 
legendary  descent  of  one  of  the  chief  Tuscxdan  families, 
the  gens  Mamilia,  from  Ulysses  through  Telegonus  is  com- 
memorated on  some  denarii  struck  by  the  Mamilian  gens 
in  the  later  years  of  the  Roman  republic ,  these  have  on 
the  reverse  a  figure  of  Ulysses  recognized  by  his  dog  Argo. 
When  Tarquinius  Superbus  was  expelled  from  Rome  his 
cause  was  espoused  by  the  chief  of  Tusculum,  Octavius 
Mamilius,  who  took  a  leading  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
]^tia  League,  composed  of  the  thirty  principal  cities  of 
Latium,  banded  together  against  Rome.  Mamilius  com- 
manded the  Latin  army  at  the  battle  of  Lake  Regillus,  a 

'  Dionysius  (i.  20)  state?  that  Tusculum  was  only  100  stadia  (about 
12i  miles)  from  Rome  ;  but  the  Bfteentb  ailestone  on  the  Via  Lstina 
was  close  to  the  walls  of  T>iscBlum. 


piece  of  water  which  then  lay  immediately  below  the  Colles 
Xusculaii,  but  is  now  dried  up.  At  this  battle  (497  B.C.) 
Mamilius  was  killed,  and  the  predominance  of  Rome  among 
the  Latin  cities  was  practically  established.  From  that 
time  Tuscultim  became  an  ally  of  Rome,  and  on  that  account 
frequently  incurred  the  hostility  of  the  other  Latin  cities. 
In  378  B.C.,  after  an  expression  of  complete  submission  to 
Rome,  the  people  of  Tusculum  received  the  Roman  fran- 
chise, and  thenceforth  the  city  continued  to  hold  the  rank 
of  a  manicipium.  Several  of  the  chief  Roman  families  were 
of  Tusculan  origin,  e.^.,  the  genles  Mamilia,  Fulvia,  Fonteia, 
Juventia,  and  Porcia;  to  the  last-named  the  celebrated 
Catos  belonged.  During  the  imperial  period  little  is  re- 
corded about  Tusctilum ;  but  soon  after  the  transference 
of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Constantinople  it  became  a  very 
important  stronghold,  and  for  some  centuries  its  counts 
occupied  a  leading  position  in  Rome  and  were  specially 
influential  in  the  selection  of  the  popes.  During  the  12th 
century  there  were  constant  struggles  between  Rome  and 
Tusculum,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  century  the 
Romans,  supported  by  the  tjerman  emperor,  gained  the 
upper  hand,  and  the  walls  of  Tusculum,  together  with  the 
greater  part  of  the  city,  were  destroyed. 

Extensive  remains  still  exist  of  the  massive  walls,  which  sur- 
rounded the  city,  and  of  its  arx — a  separate  citadel — which  stood  on 
an  abrupt  rock,  approached  only  on  one  side,  that  towards  the  city, 
with  which  it  was  connected  by  long  walla  The  walls  are  built  of 
large  blocks  of  the  native  *'  lapis  Albanus  "  or  pepeiino,  some  of 
them  as  much  as  5  feet  long  by  3  feet  thick.  They  probably  belong 
to  the  early  republican  period  ;  restorations  in  concrete  faced  with 
"opus  reticulatnm"  of  the  1st  century  &c.  can  be  traced  in  many 
places. 

During  the  latter  yeare  of  the  republic  and  under  the  empire 
Tusculum  was  a  favourite  site  for  the  country  villas  of  wealthy 
Romans  That  of  Lucullus  was  very  large  and  magnificent ;  other 
handsome  houses  were  built  there  by  Julius  Caesar,  L.  Crassus, 
Q.  Metellns,  Marcus  Brutus,  and  others.  A  palace  was  erected 
by  Tiberius  near  Tusculum  on  the  way  to  Rome,  close  to  the  Via 
Latina. 

The  most  interestifig  associations  of  the  city  are  those  connected 
with  Cicero,  whose  favourite  residenct  ..nd  retreat  for  study  and 
literary  work  was  "at  Tusculum.  It  was  here  that  he  composed  his 
celebrated  Tusculan  Disputations  and  other  philosophical  works. 
Much  has  bten  written  on  the  position  of  his  villa,  but  its  true  site 
still  remains  doubtful.  Its  grounds  are  known  to  have  adjoined 
the  more  splendid  >-illas  of  Lucullus  and  the  consul  Gabinius  (sea 
Cic,  i)<!  Fin.,  iii.  2,  and  Pro  Dom.,  24).  The  most  probable  site  is 
that  now  marked  by  the  Villa  RiifineUa  to  the  west  of  Tusculum, 
where  the  hill  is  divided  into  two  ridges.  The  scholiast  on  Horace, 
Epod.,  i.  30,  states  that  Cicero's  villa  was  "ad  latera  superiora," 
the  plural  probably  being  used  in  allusion  to  the  double  ridge. 
The  other  theory,  which  places  the  site  at  Grotta  Ferrata,  s«me 
distance  farther  to  the  west,  has  little  evidence  to  support  it 
Although  Cicero  {Pro  Seslio,  43)  speaks  of  bis  own  house  as  being 
insignificant  in  size  compared  to  that  of  his  neighbour  Gabinius, 
yet  we  gather  from  other  notices  in  various  parts  of  his  works 
that  it  was  a  building  of  no  mean  size  and  pretension.  It  comprised 
two  gymnasia  (Dm,  i.  5),  with  covered  porliois  for  exercise 
and  philosophical  discussion  [Txtsc  Disp.,  ii  3).  One  of  these, 
which  stood  on  higher  ground,  was  called  "the  Lyceum,"  and 
contained  a  library  {Div.,  ii.  3) ;  the  other,  on  a  lower  site,  shaded 
by  rows  of  trees,  was  called  "  the  Academy  "  The  main  building 
contained  a  covered  porticus  or  cloister,  with  apsidal  recesses 
(exedrs)  containing  seats  (see  Jd  Fam.,  vii.  23).  It  also  had 
bath-rooms  {Ad  Fam.,  xiv  20),  and  contained  a  number  of  works 
of  art,  both  pictures  and  statues  in  bronze  and  marble  {Ep.  ad 
Alt ,  L  I,  8,  9, 10).  The  central  atrium  appears  to  have  been  small, 
as  Cicero  speaks  of  it  as  an  alriolum  {Ad  Quint.  Fr.,  iii.  1).  The 
cost  of  this  and  the  other  house  which  he  built  at  Pompeii  led 
to  his  being  burdened  with  debt  {Ep.  ad  Alt.,  ii.  1).  Nothing 
DOW  exists  which  can  be  asserted  to  be  part  of  Cicero's  villa  with 
any  degree  of  certainty.  The  so-called  "  scuola  di  Cicerone,"  near 
the  line  of  the  ancient  wall  of  Tusculum,  is  the  substructure 
of  some  building  formed  in  the  usual  Roman  way  by  a  series  of 
vaulted  chambers,  and  is  clearly  later  in  date  than  the  time  of 
Cicero.  Other  remains  of  houses  exist  in  and  near  the  city,  but 
nothing  is  known  as  to  their  history  or  ownership. 

Ruins  of  two  theatres  still  exist.  One  of  them,  which  is  not 
earlier  than  the  beginning  of  the  1st  century,  between  tiie  city  and 
the  arx,  is  fairly  perfect,  and  still  possesses  most  of  its  ancient  seats, 
divided  into  four  cunci  by  three  flights  of  steps.    Only  traces  remaia 


672 


T  U  S  — T  V  E 


of  the  other  theatre,  which  abutted  against  the  long  walls  that 
defended  the  road  from  the  city  to  the  arx.  Remains  of  an  amphi- 
theatre of  no  great  size  can  be  traced,  dating  probably  from  the  3d 
century.  There  is  also  a  large  pisciTia,  near  the  first-mentioned 
theatre.  In  the  vicinity  of  Tusculum  a  number  of  interesting  tombs 
have  been  discovered  at  various  times  ;  some,  as  for  example  that 
of  the  Furii,  contained  valuable  inscrip.tions  of  the  4th  and  3d 
centuries  B.c, 

The  city  was  supplied  with  water  by  the  Aqua  Crabra,  and  near 
it  were  the  springs  which  fed  two  of  the  Roman  aqueducts — the 
Aqua  Tepula  and  Aqua  Virgo  (Front.,  De  Aq.^  8). 

For  further  information  the  reader  Is  referred  to  Compagni,  Jl/cmorie  Siorichx 
ddV  Anlico  Ttisculo ;  Canina,  Descr.  dell'  Antico  Tusculo  ;  Gell,  Topogr.  o/Rojw 
and  its  Vicinity  ;  and  Nibby,  Dintorni  di  Roma,  voL  iii 

TUSSER,  Thomas  (c.  1527-1580),  poet,  was  the  son  of 
William  Tusser  by  IsabeHa,  daughter  of  Thomas  Smith  of 
Riveiihall,  Essex,  where  he  was  born  about  1527.  Not- 
withstanding strong  reluctance  on  his  part  he  was  sent  in 
his  early  years  to  a  music  school,  and  became  chorister  in 
the  collegiate  chapel  of  the  castle  of  Wallingford.  He  was 
afterwards  admitted  into  the  choir  of  St  Paul's,  and  went 
thence  to  Eton,  where  he  was  under  the  tuition  of  Nicholas 
UdalL  In  1543  he  was  elected  to  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  soon  afterwards  exchanged  to  Trinity  HalL 
On  leaving  the  university  he  was  for  about  ten  years  at 
court,  probably  in  some  musical  capacity.  He  then 
settled  as  a  farmer  in  Suffolk,  near  the  river  Stour,  an 
employment  which  he  seems  to  have  regarded  as  combin- 
ing the  chief  essentials  of  human  felicity.  Subsequently 
fae  lived  successively  at  Ipswich,  West  Dereham,  Norwich, 
and  London.  There  he  died  in  April  1580,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  St  Mildred  in  the  Poultry.  His 
monument  was  destroyed  in  the  fire,  but  the  quaint  epitaph 
is  preserved  in  Stow's  Survey  of  London.  A  marble  tablet, 
on  which  the  epitaph  is  inscribed,  has  been  erected  to 
him  in  the  church  of  Manningtree,  Essex. 

Tusaer's  poems  on  husbandry  have  the  charm  of  simplicity  and 
directness,  and  their  practical  saws  were  apparently  relished,  for 
in  his  lifetime  they  went  through  a  number  of  editions.  'They 
axe  A  ffundrelh  0»gd  Poititcs  of  Easbaiidyie,  1557,  1561,  1562,  1564, 
and  1570;  A  Dialogue  Wyuy7igcandThrt/uynge,  15G2;  AHundrethe 
Good  Pointcs  of  Husba'iidric  lately  married  unto  a  Huiuircihe  Good 
Pointes  of  Uuswifry,  1570  ;  Five  Uundreth  Pointcs  of  Good  Bus- 
baiidrie  united  to  as  many  of  Good  IViferie,  1573,  1576,  1577,  1585, 
1586,  1590,  1593,  reprinted  with  memoir  by  William  Mavor,  1812, 
by  Auber,  1873,  and  by  the  English  Dialect  Society,  1879.  His 
metrical  autobiography,  printed  in  the  Appendix  to  Five  Bundrelh 
Pointes,  1573,  was  republished  in  1846  along  with  his  will,  which 
would  seem  to  refute  the  sarcasms  which  became  current,  that  he 
had  not  been  successful  in  practising  his  own  maxims.  One  of 
these  references  is  contained  in  a  volume  of  epigrams  by  H.  P.,  The 
More  the  Merrier,  1608.  One  of  thoepigrama  entitled.<ld  Tusscruvi, 
begins  thus  :— 

"  Tusser,  they  tell  me,  when  thou  wert  alive. 
Thou,  teaching  thrift,  tbyselfe  could'st  never  thrive- 
Possibly  Tusser  obtained  the  reputation  of  being  poor  from  his 
practice  of  thrift ;  but  in  any  case,  if  his  will  represents  his  worldly 
condition  at  the  time  of  his  death,  he  was  not  in  poverty  in  his 
later  years. 

TVER,  a  government  of  central  Russia,  on  the  upper 
Volga,  bounded  by  Pskoff  and  Novgorod  on  the  W.  and  N., 
Varosiavl  and  Vladimir  oft  the  E.,  and  Moscow  and  Smo- 
lensk on  the  S. ;  it  has  an  area  of  25,225  square  miles. 
Lying  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Valdai  plateau,  and 
intersected  by  deep  valleys,  it  has  the  aspect  of  a  hilly 
region,  but  is  in  reality  a  plateau  ranging  from  800  to 
1000  feet  in  height.  Its  highest  parts  are  in  the  north- 
west, where  the  Volga,  Western  Dwina,  and  Msta  rise  in 
marshes  and  lakes.  The  plateau  is  chiefly  built  up  of 
Carboniferous  limestones.  Lower  and  Upper,  underlain  by 
Devonian  and  Silurian  deposits,  which  appear  only  in  the 
denudations  of  the  lower  valleys.  The  whole  is  covered 
by  a  thick  sheet  of  boulder-clay  (the  bottom-moraine  of  the 
Scandinavo- Russian  ice-sheet)  and  subsequent  lacustrine 
deposits.  A  number  of  asar  (see  vol.  x.  p.  368)  occur  on 
tiie  slopes  of  .the  plateau.  Ochre,  brick,  aud  pottery  clays, 
M  also  limestone  for  building,  are  obtained,  and  there  are 


chalybeate  springs.     The  soil,  which  is  clayey  for  the  most 
part,  is  not  fertile  as  a  rule. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  Tver  is  watered  by  the  upper  Volga  (350 
miles)  and  its  tributaries,  several  of  which  (Vazuza,  Dubna,  Sestra, 
Tvertsa,  and  the  tributaries  of  the  Mologa)  are  navigable.  The 
Vyshnevototsk  system  of  canals  connects  the  Volga  (navigable 
some  60  miles  from  its  source)  with  the  Baltic,  and  the  Tikhvin 
system  connects  the  Mologa -with  Lake  tadoga.  The  Msta,  which 
flows  into  Lake  Ilmen,  and  its  tributary  the  Tsna,  water  Tver  in 
the  north-west,  and  the  Western  Dwina  rises  in  Ostasb!xoff.  This 
network  of  riverj  highly  favours  navigation  :  as  many  as  3000  boats 
yearly  pass  through  the  Vyshnevototsk  system,  and  corn,  linseed, 
spirits,  flax,  hemp,  timber,  metals,  and  manufactm-ed  waie  to  the 
annual  value  of  £1,500,000  are  shipped  from,  or  brought  to,  tho 
river  ports  of  the  government.  Lakes,  ponds,  and  marshes  are 
numerous  in  the  west  and  north-west,  Lake  Seliger — the  souice  of 
the  Volga — and  Lake  Mstino  being  the  most  important.  Tho 
forests — coniferous  in  the  north  and  deciduous  in  the  south — are 
rapidly  disappearing,  but  still  cover  890,000  acres.  The  climate  is 
continental ;  the  average  yearly  temperature  at  Tver  (41°'5  Fahr.) 
is  the  same  as  that  of  Orel  and  Tamboff  (January  11°,  July  67°). 
The  population  (1,646,683  in  1883,  as  against  1,567,300  in  1872)  is 
uneijually  distributed,  and  in  the  districts  of  Kalyazin  and  Kashin 
attains  a  density  not  much  less  than  that  of  the  more  highly 
favoured  black-earth  provinces  of  south  east  Russia  (16  and  17  per 
square  mile).  Apart  from  some  100,000  Karelians  and  a  few  Poles 
and  foreigners,  the  people  are  all  Great  Russians.  Some  traces  oC 
Finnish  Ves  and  of  Litnuanians  are  found  in  the  north-east  and 
south.  The  othcial  returns  give  the  number  of  Raskolniks  as  25,000. 
Only  157,110  are  urban  ;  out  agriculture  is  not  the  chief  occupa- 
tion. While  barley  and  oats  are  exported,  rye  is  imported.  The 
crops  for  1883-1S85  averaged  2,889,400  quarters  of  corn  and  4, 078,400 
bushels  of  potatoes.  Cattle-rearing  does  not  prosper,  and  the  in- 
crease shown  by  the  returns  /or  1883  (351,630  horses,  583,670 
cattle,  and  373.780  sheep)  as  against  those  of  1872  is  simply  due  to 
better  registration.  Cheese-making  has  recently  been  introduced  on 
the  co-operative  principle  (2168  cwts.  of  cheddar  exported  to  Britain 
in  1881).  The  fisheries  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  are  productive.  Tho 
peasants  are  principally  engaged  in  various  manufactures.  The 
total  production  of  the  larger  manufactures  in  1883  was  valued  at 
£2,237,250  (tanneries  £244,460,  cottons  £803,270,  distilleries 
£320,010,  flour-mills  £263,500),  and  that  of  the  petty  trades  carried 
on  in  combination  with  agriculture  (preparation  of  pitch,  tar,  and 
turpentine,  boat-building,  construction  of  cars,  sledges,  wheels, 
boxes,  tubes,  and  wooden  vessels,  and  cabinet-making)  was  estimated 
in  1884at£3,000,000,givingoccupationtol01,400persons.  Certain 
branches  of  the  leather  industry  are  important,  Kimry  and  Ostash. 
kolf  sending  to  the  market  £650,000  worth  of  boots  annually.  Tho 
small  workshops  of  Tver  and  the  surrounding  district  work  some 
4500  cwts.  of  iron  into  nails  every  year,  and  the  Ostashkoff  smiths 
use  some  7000  cwts.  of  iron  annually  in  the  manufacture  of  hatchets, 
scythes,  sickles,  and  dillerent  agricultural  implements.  Weaving, 
lace-raaking,  leather  embroidery,  stocking-making,  felting,  aud  the 
like  are  also  important  petty  trades,  several  of  these  being  organized 
on  co-operative  principles  by  the  zcmstvos.  The  railway  from  St 
Petersburg  to  Moscow  crosses  Tver,  and  sends  off  two  branches  to 
Rzheff  and  to  Rybinsk,  all  three  lines  being  among  the  busiest  in 
Russia.  The  river  traffic  also  is  considerable.  The  chief  centres 
of  trade,  besides  the  city  of  Tver,  are  Byezhetsk,  Rzheff,  Kashin, 
Ostashkoff,  Torshok,  Krasnyi  Kholm,  and  Vcsiegonsk  during  its 
fair.  The  provincial  assembly  of  Tver  is  one  of  tue  most  prominent 
in  Russia  for  its  efforts  in  the  cause  of  education  ami  sanitary 
improvement.  In  1883  there  were  997  primary  schools  with  47,680 
scholars  (8500  girls),  17  gymnasia  and  progyranasia  (1697  boys  and 
1263  girls),  and  two  normal  schools  for  teachers.  The  government 
is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which,  with  their 
populations  in  1884,  are — Tver  (see  below),  Byezhetsk  (5890), 
kalyazin  (5200),  Kashin  (5730),  Kortcheva  (2275), Ostashkoff  (9900), 
Ilzheff(26,480),Staritsa(2700),  Torshok  (12,910),  Vesiegonsk  (3370), 
Vyshuiy  Vototchok  (11,590),  and  Zubtsoff  (3160). 

TVER,  capital  of  the  above  government,  lies  102  miles 
by  rail  to  the  north-west  of  Moscow,  on  both  banks  of  the 
Volga  (here  crossed  by  a  floating  bridge)  at  its  junction 
with  the  Tvertsa.  The  low  right  bank  is  protected  from 
inundations  by  a  dam.  As  a  whole  the  town  is  but  poorly 
built.  The  oldest  church  dates  from  1 56  4,  and  the  cathedral 
from  1689.  An  imperial  palace,  the  courts,  and  the  post- 
ofiice  rank  among  its  best  buildings.  A  public  garden 
occupies  the  site  of  the  former  fortress.  The  population 
was  39,100  in  1884.  The  manufactures,  chiefly  of  cotton, 
employ  5900  workmen  (5710  at  the  cotton  mills),  and  ft 
Rumber  of  nail-making  workshops  employ  some  800  men,, 
while  more  than  1000  women  are  engaged  iu  the  domeatio, 


T  W  E  — T  W  I 


673 


manufactory  of  hosiery  for  export  to  Moscow  and  St 
Petersburg.  The  trafSc  of  the  town  is  considerable,  Tver 
being  ac  intermediate  place  for  the  trade  of  both  capitals 
with  the  provinces  of  the  upper  Volga. 

Tver  dates  its  origin  from  1180,  when  a  fort  was  erected  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tvertsa  to  protect  the  Suzdal  principality  against 
Novgorod.  In  the  13th  century  it  became  the  capital  of  an  in- 
dependent principality,  and  remained  so  until  the  end  of  the  15th 
century.  Mikhail  Yaroslavovitch, prince  of  Tver,  was  killed  fighting 
against  the  Tatars,  as  also  was  Alexander  Mikhailovitch,  who  Doldly 
fonght  for  the  independence  of  Tver  against  Moscow  It  long  re- 
mained an  open  question  whether  Moscow  or  Tver  would  ultimately 
gain  the  supremacy  in  Great  Russia,  and  it  was  only  with  the  help 
of  the  Tatars  that  the  princes  of  the  former  eventually  succeeded 
in  breaking  down  the  independence  of  Tver.  In  1486,  when  the 
city  w-as  almost  entirely  burned  down  by  the  Muscovites,  the  son  of 
Ivan  III.  became  prince  of  Tver  ;  the  final  annexation  to  Moscow 
followed  four  years  later.  In  1570  Tver  had  to  endure,  for  some 
reason  now  difficult  to  understand,  the  vengeance  of  Ivan  the 
Terrible,  who  ordered  the  massacre  of  90,000  inhabitants  of  the 
principality.  In  1609-12  it  was  plundered  both  by  the  followers  of 
the  second  false  Demetrius  and  by  the  Poles. 

TWEED,  a  river  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  has  its  rise 
in  the  south-west  corner  of  Peeblesshire,  not  far  from  the 
Devil-s  Beef  Tub  in  Dumfriesshire.  The  stream  flowing 
from  Tweed's  Well,  about  1500  feet  above  sea-level,  is 
generally  regarded  as  its  source,  although  the  honour  is 
also  claimed  for  other  streams  issuing  from  a  higher  eleva- 
tion. For  the  first  36  miles  of  its  course  it  intersects  the 
county  of  Peebles — frequently  on  this  account  called 
Tweeddale — in  a  north-easterly  direction,  passing  between 
verdant  hills  separated  by  valleys  watered  by  its  numerous 
affluents.  Having  passed  several  picturesque  keeps  and 
castles,  it  reaches  the  town  of  Peebles,  shortly  before  which 
it  receives  the  Lyne  Water  from  the  north  and  the  Manor 
Water  from  the  south.  The  valley  now  widens ,  the 
scenery  becomes  softer  and  richer  ;  and  the  river,  bending 
in  a  more  easterly  direction,  passes  Innerleithen,  where  it 
receives  the  Leithen  from  the  north  and  the  Quair  from 
the  south.  It  then  crosses  Selkirkshire  in  a  south-easterly 
direction,  and,  having  received  the  Ettrick  from  the  south 
on  the  borders  of  Roxburghshire,  flows  northward  past 
Abbotsford,  forming  for  about  2  miles  the  boundary 
between  the  counties  of  Selkirk  and  Roxburgh.  After 
receiving  the  Gala,  the  Tweed  crosses  the  north-western 
corner  of  Roxburghshire  past  Melrose  and  its  abbey,  -and, 
after  being  joined  by  the  Leader  from  the  north,  winds 
past  Dryburgh  abbey  round  the  south-western  corner  of 
Berwickshire.  The  remainder  of  its  course  is  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  through  Roxbtwghshire  past  Kelso,  where 
it  receives  the  Teviot  from  the  south,  and  then  between 
the  counties  of  Berwick  and  Northimiberland,  past  Cold- 
stream and  Norham  castle  to  the  town  of  Berwick,  where 
it  reaches  the  North '  Sea.  It  receives  the  Eden  Water 
from  the  north  at  Edenmouth,  the  Leet  Water  from  the 
north  at  Coldstream,  and  the  Till  from  Northumberland 
between  Coldstream  and  Norham  castle.  The  lasf2  miles 
of  its  course  before  reaching  Berwick  are  in  England. 
Though  the  latter  part  of  its  course  is  through  a  compara- 
tively level  country,  the  scenery  along  the  river  is  full  of 
charm,  ow-ing  to  the  picturesque  variety  of  its  finely  wooded 
banks.  The  associations  connected  with  the  keeps  and 
castles  of  the  Tweed  have  supplied  materials  for  several 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  poems  and  romances  ;  and  its  varied 
beautie.''  have  been  sung  by  Hogg,  Leyden,  Thomson,  and 
many  others.  The  bed  of  the  river  is  pebbly  and  sandy, 
and,  notwithstanding  discolorations  from  manufactures,  the 
stream,  from  its  clear  and  sparkhng  appearance,  is  still  well 
entitled  to  the  name  of  the  "sQver  Tweed."  The  total 
area  drainod  by  it  is  about  1870  square  miles,  and  its  total 
length  is  97  miles.  Next  to  the  Tay  it  is  the  largest  river 
ID  Scotlalnd..  The  Tweed  has,  however,  no  estuary,  and  its 
traffic  is  chiefly  confined  to  Berwick.     But  for  a  short  dis- 


tance up  the  river  some  navigation  is  carried  on  by  barges. 
The  river  is  one  of  the  best  in  Scotland  for  trout  and  salmon 
fishing. 

See  Sir  Thomas  Dick  Lauder's  ScoUish  Rivers  and  Prof.  Veitch's 
River  Tuxid,  1884. 

TWEEDS.  See  Woollen  and  Woksted  Manufac- 
tures. 

TWELVE  TABLES.  See  Roman  Law,  vol.  xx.  p. 
679  s^.,  and  Ro.me,  vol.  xx.  p.  737. 

TWENTY-FOUR  PARGANAS,  the  metropolitan  dis- 
trict of  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal,  India,  takes 
its  name  from  the  territory  originally  ceded  to  the  East 
India  Company,  which  contained  twenty-four  parg4nas  or 
sub-districts.  The  district  lies  between  21°  55'  20"  and  22° 
57'  32"  N.  lat.  and  88°  6'  45"  and  88°  20'  51"  E.  long.  It 
has  an  area  of  2124  square  miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Nadiyi,  on  the  north-east  by  Jessore,  on  the  south 
and  south-east  by  the  Sundarbans,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
river  Hvigli  (Hooghly).  The  country  consists  for  the 
most  part  of  a  vast  alluvial  plain  within  the  delta  of  the 
Ganges,  and  is  everywhere  watered  by  numerous  rivers, 
all  branches  of  the  Hiigli.  In  the  northern  portion  the 
soil  is  very  rich,  but  the  southern  or  seaboard  part  con- 
sists of  the  network  of  swamps  and  inland  channels  known 
as  the  Sundarbans.  The  Hiigli  and  six  other  streams  are 
navigable  by  the  largest  boats  throughout  the  year  The 
district  is  well  supplied  with  canals,  the  most  miportant 
bemg  Tolly's  Nala  (10  miles  long),  which  connects  the 
Hiigli  with  the  BidyAdhdn.  The  Twenty-Four  Parginas 
was  once  famous  for  its  sport,  but  owing  to  the  extensiort 
of  cultivation  ^ame  is  now  scarce.  Tigers  are  seldom  met 
with  ;  leopards  are  more  numerous ;  there  are  several 
varieties  of  deer.  The  district  has  many  roads,  and  is 
traversed  by  the  Eastern  Bengal  Railway  and  the  Calcutta 
and  South-Eastern  State  Railway. 

In  1881  the  population  of  the  district,  exclusive  of  Calcutta, 
numbered  1,869,559  (males  975,430,  female^  894,429),  embracing 
1,153,040  Hindus,  701,306  Mohammedans,  and  13,978  Christians. 
The  ten  following  municipalities  had  each  a  population  of  upwards 
of  10,000— South  Suburban,  51,658  ;  Agarpara,  30,317  ,  Barangar, 
29,982;  Naihati,  21,533;  Nawabganj,  17,702;  Basurhat,  14,843; 
South  Dura  Dum,  14,108  ;  Baduria,  12,981  ;  Rajpore,  10,576  ;  and 
Barasat,  10,533.  The  administrative  headquarters  of  the  district 
are  at  Alipur,  a  southern  suburb  of  Calcutta.  Rice  forms  the  staple 
crop  of  the  district ;  other  crops  are  pulses,  oil  seeds,  sugar-cane, 
tobacco,  &C.  Its  principal  exports  are  rice,  sugar,  pan  leaf,  fish, 
pottery,  kc.  ;  the  imports  comprise  pulses  of  all  kinds,  oil-seeds, 
spices,  turmeric,  chillies,  cloth,  cotton,  kc.  The  objects  of  the  rural 
iiianutactures  are  sugar,  cotton  curtains,  brass  and  iron  work,  horn 
sticks,  and  cotton  and  tosar  silk  cloth.  The  gross  revenue  of  the 
district  in  1885-86  amounted  to  £338,895,  of  which  the  land-tax 
contiibuted  £155,181.  The  district  was  ceded  to  the  East  India 
Company  by  treaty  by  the  nawab  naziui  of  Bengal  in  1757.  Since 
then  several  changes  have  been  made  in  its  boundaries,  the  latest 
in  1863. 

TWICKENHAM,  a  town  of  Middlesex,  England,  is 
sitviated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames  and  on  the 
London  and  South-Western  Railway,  11 J  miles  south-west 
of  London  by  rail.  It  is  a  straggling  and  irregular  town, 
but  has  many  fine  suburban  villas,  and  the  district  is  noted 
for  its  sylvan  beauty.  Opposite  the  tow-n  there  is  an  eyot 
in  the  rive'  about  8  acres  in  extent,  called  Eel  Pie  Island, 
much  resorted  to  by  boating  parties.  The  parish  church 
of  St  Mary  was  rebuilt  in  red  brick  in  very  plain  style 
after  the  fall  of  the  old  one  in  1713,  but  the  picturesque 
western  tower  of  the  14th  century  still  remains.  It  con- 
tains many  interesting  monuments,  including  one  to  Pope, 
who  was  buried  in  the  nave.  The  principal  public  build- 
ings are  the  town-hall  and  assembly  rooms  (built  in  1876, 
and  containing  the  free  library  established  in  1882),  the 
economic  museum,  the  royal  naval  female  school  for  the 
daughters  of  naval  and  marine  officers,  the  Montpellier 
lecture  hall,  the  metropolitan  and  City  of  London  police 
orphanage,  the  almshouses  of  the  London  Carpenters'  Com- 

XXIIL  —  S5 


674 


T  W  I  —  T  Y  L 


pany,  and  a  branch  of  the  national  refuge  for  the  homeless 
and  destitute.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  dis- 
trict (area  2415  acres)  in  1871  was  10,533,  and  in  1881 
it  was  12,479. 

Twickenham  at  Domesday  was  included  in  Islewovtli.  Anciently 
it  was  called  Twittenham  or  Twicanham.  The  manor  was  given 
in  941  by  King  Edmund  to  the  monks  of  Christ  Church,  Canter- 
bury, from  whom  it  had  been  previously  taken,  but  it  was  again 
iilicnateJ,  for  it  was  restored  to  the  same  monks  by  Edred  in  94S. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
crown,  and  by  Charles  I.  was  assigned  to  Henrietta  Maria  as  part 
of  her  jointure.  It  was  sold  during  the  Protectorate,  but  after 
the  Restoration  the  queen  mother  resumed  possession  of  it  In 
1670  it  was  settled  for  life  on  Catherine  of^  Braganzd,  queen  of 
Charles  II.  It  still  remains  in  possession  of  the  crown,  but  since 
the  death  of  Catherine  has  beeu  let  on  leases.  In  the  neighbour- 
liood  are  many  residences  of  literary  or  historical  interest.  Pope's 
villa,  where  he  lived  from  1717  till  his  death  in  1744,  has  been 
removed.  Among  old  mansions  of  interest  still  remaining  are 
Strawberry  Hill,  the  residence  of  Horace  Walpole,  now  much 
altered ;  Marble  Hill,  built  by  George  III.  for  the  countess  of 
Suflbllt,  and  subsequently  resided  in  by  the  marquis  of  Wellesley  ; 
Orleans  House,  buUt  in  the  reien  of  Queen  Anne  by  Johnstone, 
occupied  for  some  time  by  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  from  1879  to 
1883  as  a  club  house  ;  York  House,  said  to  have  been  the  residence 
of  James  II.  when  duke  of  York,  bestowed  by  Charles  II.  on  Lord 
Clarendon  when  he  married  the  duke  of  York's  daughter,  and, in 
modern  times  resided  in  by  the  Comte  de  Paris  ;  and  Twickenham 
House,  formerly  the  residence  of  Sir  John  Hawkins,  author  of 
the  Uistorij  of  Music,  and  the  meeting  place  of  the  "Literary  Club." 
Of  the  old  manor  house  of  Twickenham,  to  which  Catherine  of 
Aragon  is  said  to  have  retired  after  her  divorce  from  Henry  VIII., 
and  which  was  subsequently  the  residence  of  Catherine  of  Braganza, 
queen  of  Charles  II.,  the  only  remains  are  a  ruin  called  the  Aragon 
tower.  Twickenham  Park  House,  for  some  time  the  residence  of 
Loril  Chancellor  Bacon,  has  been  demolished. 

TWILIGHT.  The  light  of  what  is  called  the  "sky" 
depends  upon  the  scattering  or  reflexion  of  direct  sunlight 
in  the  earth'?  atmosphere,  mainly  if  not  entirely  due  to 
those  fine  dust  particles  which  (as  we  have  recently  learned) 
form  the  necessary  nuclei  for  condensation  of  aqueous 
■vapour.  Were  it  not  for  these  particles  the  sky  would 
appear  by  day  as  it  does  in  a  clear  winter  night,  and  the 
stars  would  be  always  visible.  Alpine  climbers  and 
aeronauts,  when  they  have  left  the  grosser  strata  of  the 
atmosphere  below  them,  find  this  state  of  things  approxi- 
mated to ;  and  even  at  the  sea-level  the  blue  of  the  sky 
is  darker  when  the  air  contains  but  few  motes.  After  the 
Bun  has  set,  its  rays  continue  for  a  time  to  pass  through 
parts  of  the'  atmosphere  above  the  spectator's  horizon,  and 
the  scattered  light  from  these  is  called  twilight:  It  is,  of 
course,  most  brilliant  in  the  quarter  where  the  sun  has  set. 
Before  sunrise  we  have  essentially  the  same  phenomenon, 
but  it  goes  by  the  name  of  "da"Wn."  The  brilliancy  of 
either  depends  upon  several  conditions,  of  which  the  chief 
is,  of  course,  the  degree  by  which  the  sun  has  sunk  below 
the  horizon.  But  the  amounlrof  dust  in  the  air  affects  the 
phenomenon  in  two  antagonistic  ways:  it  diminishes  the 
amount  of  sunlight  which  reaches  the  upper  air  after  pass- 
ing close  to  the  earth  and  it  increases  the  fraction  of  this 
light  which  i|  scattered  to  form  twilight.  Hence  no  general 
law  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  duration  of  twilight ;  but  it 
is  usual  to  state  (roughly)  that  it  lasts  until  the  sun  is  about 
18"  under  the  horizon.  If  we  make  this  assumption,  it  is 
a  simple  matter  of  calculation  to  solve  questions  as  to  the 
duration  of  twilight  at  a  given  place  at  a  given  time  of 
year,  the  maximum  duration  of  twilight  at  a  given  place, 
(fee.  In  the  older  works  on  astronomy  such  questions  wCTe 
common  enough,  but  they  have  now  little  beyond  anti- 
qtiarian  interest.  The  more  complex  phenomena  of  twi- 
light, such  as  the  "  after-glow,"'  ifec,  prob.ably  depend  upon 
the  precipitation  of  moisture  on  the  dust  particles  as  the 
air  becomes  gradually  colder.  This  will  of  course  alter  the 
amount  of  scattering ;  but  it  may  also  lead  (by  reflexion 
from  strata  of  such  particles)  to  an  increa.'^e  in  the  amount 
of  light  to  be  scatte"ai 


TYCHO  BRAHE.     See  Bhahe. 

TYLDESLEY  with  SHAKERLEY,  a  town  of  Lan- 
cashire, England,  is  situated  on  a  considerable  eminence, 
11  miles  west-north-west  of  Manchester  and  199  north-west 
of  London  (by  the  London  and  North-Western  Railway). 
The  church  of  St  George,  a  handsome  building  in  the  Early 
Pointed  style,  erected  in  1827,  has  lately  undergone 
restoration.  Public  baths  were  built  in  187G.  A  public 
cemetery  was  formed  in  1878.  The  town  is  the  growth 
of  the  19th  century  and  depends  upon  its  cotton-mills 
and  the  large  collieries  in  the  neighbourhood.  It  is 
governed  by  a  local  board  of  health  of  sixteen  members. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  2490 
acres)  in  1'871  was  6408  and  in  1881  it  was  9954. 

At  Domesday  Tyldesley  formed  part  of  the  manor  of  Warrington. 
One  of  its  proprietors,  Sir  Thomas  Tyldesley,  was  a  distinguished 
Royalist.  His  son  Edward  in  1672  sold  the  manor  to  Ralph  Astley, 
and  from  the  Astleys  it  passed  in  1728  to  Thomas  Johnson  of 
Bolton.  In  1823  it  became  the  property  of  George  Orinerod, 
author  of  the  History  of  Cheshire. 

TYLER,  John  (1790-1862),  tenth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  accustomed  with  pride,  but  with  the 
support  of  conjecture  rather  than  evidence,  to  claim  re- 
lationship with  Wat  Tyler  of  the  reign  of  Richard  II. 
The  earliest  of  his  American  ancestors  was  Henry  Tyler, 
a  reputed  native  of  Shropshire,  England,  who  in  1652 
settled  at  Middle  Plantation,  Va.,  on  the  outskirts  of 
what  is  now  the  city  of  Williamsburg.  John  Tyler  was 
the  son  of  Judge  John  Tyler,  some  time  governor  of 
Virginia,  and  was  born  at  Greenway  in  that  State,  29th 
March  1790.  In  1802  he  entered  the  grammar  school  of 
William  and  Mary,  where,  though  fond  of  fun  and  frolic 
and  cultivating  an  inherited  taste  for  the  violin  the  made 
good  progress  in  his  studies.  After  graduating  in  1806 
he  entered  on  the  study  of  law,  and  in  1809  was  called  to 
the  bar,  where  his  progress  from  the  first  was  rapid.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  State  legislature  in  December 
1811.  In  1813  he  raised  a  company  in  defence  of  Rich- 
mond, in  command  of  which  he  subsequently  served  with 
the  fifty-second  regiment  at  Williamsburg  and  Providence 
Forge.  In  December  1816  he  was  elected  to  the  house 
of  representatives  at  Washington,  where  he  displayed 
much  readiness  and  skill  in  debate  as  an  uncompromising 
advocate  of  popular  rights.  In  1825  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Virginia  by  a  large  majority,  and  (he  follow- 
ing year  was  re-elect'ed  unanimously.  In  1827  he  was 
chosen  a  senator.  He  opposed  Clay  on  the  tariff"  question 
in  1832,  delivering  a  speech  against  the  protective  duties 
which  lasted  three  days ;  but  he  voted  for  Clay's  Com- 
promise Bill  of  1833.  He  was.tlje  only  senator  who  voted 
against  the  Force  Bill  on  20th  February  of  this  year,  a 
singularity  of  conduct  which  somewhat  damaged  his  repu- 
tation in  Virginia.  Although  opposed  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  United  States  Bank,  he  supported  the  resolu- 
tions in  1835  censuring  President  Jackson  for  the  removal 
of  the  deposits,  on  the  ground  that  the  procedure  was  un- 
constitutional. In  consequence  of  a  vote  of  the  Virginia 
legislature  instructing  him  to  vote  for  the  expurgation  of 
these  resolutions  from  the  senate  journal  he  resigned,  21st 
February  1836.  His  action  led  the  Whigs  to  bring  him 
forward  as  a  candidate  for  the  vice-presidency,  but  he 
only  received  forty-seven  votes.  For  some  time  after 
this  he  ceased  to  take  an  active  part  in  politics ;  removing 
in  the  end  of  the  year  from  Gloucester  to  Williamsburg, 
where  he  had  better  opportunities  for  legal  practice,  he 
devoted  his  chief  attention  to  his  professional  duties,  kt 
the  Whig  convention  which  met  at  Hanishurg,  Penn- 
sylvania, 4th  December  1839,  he  was  nominated  again  for 
the  vice-presidency  on  the  Harrison  ticket,  and  elected  in 
November  1840.  On  the  death  of  Harrison,  soon  after 
hi3  inauguration   in  1841,  Tyler  succeeded  him.     His  ele- 


T  Y  N  —  T  Y  N 


675 


vatioD  to  the  presidency  was  thus  accidental  in  a  double 
sense,  for  he  had  been  nominated  for  the  vice-presidency 
to  reconcile  the  extreme  faction.  His  policy  in  office  (see 
Umted  States)  was  opposed  to  the  party  who  nominated 
him  and  was  on  Democratic  lines.  In  1845  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Polk,  and  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
retirement  from  active  duties.  He  was  nominated  in  1861 
for  the  lower  house  of  the  permanent  congress,  but  died 
at  Richmond  on  the  18th  of  the  foUowmg  January. 

See  L.  G.  Tyler,  Lifi.  and  Times  of  the  TyUrs,  2  vols.,  1884. 

TYNDALE,  WnxiAM  (c.  H84-1536),  translator  of  the 
New  Testament  and  Pentateuch  (see  English  Bible,  vol. 
vTii.  pp.  384,  385),  was  born  in  Gloucestershire,  possibly 
in  the  parish  of  Slimbridge,  about  the  year  1484.  •  Of  his 
early  education  nothing  is  known  ,  about  his  twentieth, 
year  he  went  to  Oxford,  where  tradition  has  it  that  he 
was  entered  of  Magdalen  Hall.  He  afterwards  resided 
at  Cambridge.  Ordained  to  the  priesthood,  probably 
towards  the  close  of  1521,  he  entered  the  hoasehold  of 
Sir  John  Walsh,  Little  Sodbury,  Gloucestershire,  in  the 
capacity  of  chaplain  and  domestic  tutor.  Here  he  spent 
two  years,  and  In  the  course  of  his  private  studies  began 
to  contemplate  seriously  the  work  of  translating  the  New 
Testament  into  English.  His  sympathy  with  the  "  new 
learning,"  which  he  had  not  concealed  in  conversation 
with  the  higher  clergy  of  the  neighbourhood  at  Sir  John's 
table,  led  to  his  being  summoned  before  the  chancellor  of 
Worcester  as  a  suspected  heretic  ;  and  "  with  the  goodwill 
of  his  master"  he  left  for  London  in  the  summer  of  1523. 
There  he  preached  a  little  at  St  Dunstan-in-the-West, 
and  worked  at  his  translationj  living  for  some  months  in 
the  house  of  Humphrey  Monmouth,  an  alderman  ;  but 
finding  publication  impossible  in  England  he  sailed  for 
Hamburg  in  May  1524.  After  visiting  Luther  at  Witten- 
berg, he  settled  in  Cologne,  where  he  made  some  progress 
with  a  quarto  edition  of  his  New  Testament,  when  the 
interference  of  the  authorities  of  the  to^vn  compelled  his 
flight  to  Worms.  The  octavo  edition  (see  vol.  viii.  p.  . 
384)  was  here  completed  in  1526.  Where  TyndSle  resided 
in  the  interval  between  1526  and  1530 — the  year  of  publica- 
tion of  his  translation  of  the  Pentateuch — is  not  kno\vn  ; 
his  Parable  of  the  Wicked  Mammon  (1527),  Obedience  of  a 
Christian  Man  (1528),  and  Practice  of  Prelates  (1530),  all 
bear  to  have  been  printed  at  "  Marlborowe  in  the  land  of 
Hesse  "  or  "  Marborch."  From  1530  onwards  he^ppears 
to  have  lived  chiefly  in  Antwerp,  but  of  his  life  there 
hardly,  anything  is  recorded,  except  that  as  a  marked  man 
he  was  continually  the  subject  of  plots  and  intrigues,  and 
that  at  last  he  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison  in  the 
castle  of  Vilvorde,  some  six  miles  from  Brussels,  in  1535. 
Having  been  found  guilty  of  heresy,  he  was  put  to  Icath 
by  strangling,  and  his  body  afterwards  burnt  at  the  stake 
on  October  6,  1536.  i 

The  IVorks  of  Tyndale  were  first  published  along  with  those  of 
Fkith  (j.u)  and  Barnes,  "three  worthy  Slartyrs  and  principal 
Te.-ichers  of  the  Church  of  England,"  by  John  Daye,  in  1573  (folio). 
His  Doctrinal  Treatises  and  {niroductions  to  Different  Portions  of 
Ihe  Holy  Scripture  were  published  by  the  Parker  Society  in  1848. 
For  biography,  see  Demans,  William,  Tyndale  (London,  •1871) ; 
also  the  Introduction  to  Mombert's  critical  reprint  of  Tyndale's 
Pentateuch  (New  York,  1884),  where  a  full  bibliography  is  given. 
There  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  translation  of  Joshua, 
Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles  in^Matthew's  Bible  is  sub- 
stantially the  work  of  Tyndale. 

TYNE,  a  river  in  the  north-east  of  England,  is  formed 
of  two  branches,  the  North  Tyne,  rising  in  the  Cheviots 
on  the  borders  of  Roxburgh,  and  the  South  Tyne,  rising 
at  Tynehead  Fell,  at  the  south-esistern  extremity  of  Cumber- 
land. The  North  Tyne  flows  south-eastwards  by  Belling- 
ham,  a  short  distance  below  which  it  receives  the  Rede 
irom  the  north,  and  2  miles  above  Hexham  it  is  joined  by 
[the  South  Tyne,  which  before  the  jimction  flows  north- 


ward to  Haltwhistle,  and  then  eastward,  receiving  the 
Allen  from  the  right  a  short  distance  above  Haydon 
Bridge.  The  united  streams  then  have  a  course  of  about 
30  miles  eastwards  to  the  sea  at  Tynemouth.  For  a  con- 
siderable part  of  its  course  the  Tyne  flows  through  a 
pleasant  and  richly  cultivated  country,  but  in  its  lower 
reaches  the  presence  of  coal  pits  has  almost  completely 
robbed  the  scenery  of  its  natural  charms,  and  the  former 
sylvan  retreats  of  monks  and  abbots  are  now  occupied  by 
blast  furnaces  and  shipbuilding  yards,  and  similar  scenes 
of  busy  industry,  which  line  both  banks  of  the  river  from 
Newcastle  to  the  sea.  The  river  is  navigable  to  Blaydou 
for  small  craft,  and  to  Newcastle,  8  miles  frogi  its  mouth, 
for  large  vessels. 

The  coal  trade  of  the  Tyne  is  the  most  important  in  England, 
and  for  its  general  shipping  trade  the  river  ranks  next  in  impoit- 
ance  to  the  Thames  and  the  Mersey.  The  piincipal  ports  are 
Newcastle  and  North  and  South  Shields,  but  below  Newcastle  the 
river  is  everywhere  studded  vdih  piers  and  jetties.  About  a 
seventh  of  the  whole  tonnage  of  vessels  built  in  England  is  biiilt 
on  the  Tyne,  the  most  important  works  being. those  of  Jairow. 
For  boat-racing  the  Tyne  vies  in  celebrity  with  the  Thames. 

TYNEMOUTH,  a  municiparand  parliamentary  borough 
of  England,  in  Northumberland,  includes  the  townships  of 
Chirton,  CuUercoates,  North  ShiSlds,  Preston,  and  Tyne- 
•mouth."  This  last,  the  principal  watering-place  on  this 
part  of  the  coast,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  promontory 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Tyne  at  its  mouth.  It  is  connected 
with  Newcastle,  8  miles  to  the  west-south-west,  by  a  branch 
of  the  North-Eastern  Railway  ;  its  distance  from  London 
is  273|  miles  by  rail.  The  town  has  rapidly  increased 
within  recent  years,  and  contains  many  weU-built  streets, 
squares,  and  villas.  On  the  point  of  the  promontory  there 
is  a  small  battery  called  the  Spanish  battery,  and  near  it  a 
monument  has  been  erected  to  Lord  Collingwood.  Within 
the  grounds  to  which  the  gateway  of  the  old  castle  gives 
entrance  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  priory  of  St  Mary 
and  St  Oswin — the  principal  remains  being  those  of  the, 
church.  A  pier,  half  a  mile  long,  serves  as  a  breakwater 
to  the  harbour.  Among  the  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  assembly  rooms  and  the  aquarium  (1872).  The  muni- 
cipal buildings  of  the  borough  of  Tynemouth  are  situated 
ia  North  Shields,  where  are  also  the  custom  house,  a 
master  mariners'  home,  a  seamen's  institute,  and  a  sailors'' 
home  founded  by  the  late  duke  of  Northumberland. 
Shipbuilding  is  carried  on,  and  there  are  rope  and  sail 
works.  The  fish  trade  is  of  considerable  importance  and 
employs  several  steam  and  sailing  boats.  The  population 
of  the  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  of  Tynemouth 
(incorporated  in  1849  ;  area  4303  acres),  divided- into  the 
three  wards  of  North  SWeld's,  Percy,  and  Tynemouth,  was 
38,941  in  1871,  and  44;ri8  in  1881. 

Tynemouth  was  a  fortress  of  the  Saxons,  and  was  anciently  known 
as  Penbal  Crag,  "the  head  of  the  rampart  on  the  rock."  From 
remains  found  in  1783  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Roman  station. 
The  first  church  was  built  of  wood  by  Edwin,  king  of  Nort  limbria, 
about  625,  and  was  rebuilt  in  stone  by  his  successor  Oswald  in  634. 
TJie  body  of  Oswin,  king  of  Deira,  was  brought  hither  for  burial 
in  651,  and  on  this  account  Tynemouth  came  to  be  in  great  repute 
as  a  place  of  burial  both  fur  royal  .and  ecclesiastical  persons.  The 
monastery  was  repeatedly  plundered  and  burnt  by  the  Danes, 
especially  during  the  9th  century.  After  its  destruction-  by 
Healfdeane  in  876  it  was  rebuilt  by  'Tostig,  earl  of  Northumberland, 
who  endowed  it  with  considerable  revenue ;  but,  having  been 
granted  in  1074  to  the  monks  of  Jarrow,  it  becaine  a  ceil  of  Durham. 
Malcolm  III.,  king  of  the  Scots,  and  his  son  Edward,  who  were 
slain  in  battle  .it  Alnwick  on  13th  November  1093,  were  both  in- 
terred in  the  monastery.  In  1095  Earl  Mowbray,  having  entered 
into  a  conspiracy  against  'William  Rufus,  converted  the  monastery 
into  a  castle,  which  he  strongly  fortified.  By  Wilfiam  Rufus  the 
priory  was  conferred  on  St  Albans  abbey,  Hertfordshire.  It  naa 
surrendered  to  Henry  VIII.  on  12th  Jannary  1539,  and  the  site 
and  remains  were  granted  by  Edward  VI.  "in  1550  to  the  earl  of 
Warwick,  aftenvirds  duke  of  Northumberland.  In  1644  the 
castle  was  taken  by  the  Scots  under  the  earl  of  Leven.  The  town 
enjoyed  various  immunities  at  a  very  early  period,  which  were 


676 


T  Y  P  — T  Y  P 


[tvphcs 


ITcais- 
posing 
and  ex- 
citing 

■i-aiises. 


•ftcnvards  the  subject  of  some  dispute.  Edward  I.  restored  to  it 
several  free  customs  of  which  it  had  been  deprived.  Afterwards  it 
received  a  confirmation  of  its  various  former  charters  by  Edward 
II.  and  Richard  II. 

TVPE-FOUNDING.     See  Typography. 

TYPEWRITING.     See  Writing  Machines. 

TYPHON.orTYPHOEOS,  son, according  to  iies,iod(Theoff., 
820  sq.),  of  the  Earth  and  Tartarus,  is  described  as  a  grisly 
monster  with  a  hundred  dragons'  heads  who  was  conquered 
and  cast  into  Tartarus  by  Zeus.  According  to  Iliad  ii.  282, 
be  lies  in  the  land  of  the  Arimi  (Cilicia).  Other  legends 
place  his  prison  under  ^tna  or  in  other  volcanic  regions 
and  make  him  the  cause  of  eruptions.  The  myth,  there- 
fore, as  we  have  it,  rests  on  a  personification  of  volcanic 
forces.  He  is  the  father  of  dangerous  winds  (typhoons), 
and  by  later  writers  is  identified  with  the  Egyptian  Set 
(see  vol.  vii.  p.  717). 

TYPHUS,  TYPHOID,  and  RELAPSING  FEVERS. 
These  are  conveniently  considered  together,  as  they  con- 
stitute the  important  class  of  continued  fevers,  having 
certain  characters  in  common,  although  each  is  clearly  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  others.  The  following  is  a  general 
account  of  the  more  salient  features  of  each. 

TYPH0S  Fever. 

Typhus*  is  a  continued  fever  of  highly  contagious  nature, 
lasting  for  about  fourteen  days  and  characterized  mainly  by 
great  prostration  of  strength,  severe  nervous  symptoms,  and 
a  peculiar  eruption  on  the  skin.  It  has  received  numerous 
other  names,  such  as  spotted,  pestilential,  putrid,  jail, 
hospital  fever,  &c.  It  appears  to  have  been  known  for  many 
centuries  as  a  destructive  malady,  frequently  appearing  in 
epidemic  form,  in  all  countries  in  Europe,  under  the  con- 
ditions to  be  afterwards  referred  to.  The  best  accounts 
of  the  disease  are  those  given  by  English  writers,  who 
narrate  its  ravages  in  towns  and  describe  many  "  black 
assizes,"  in  which  it  was  communicated  by  prisoners 
brought  into  court  to  the  judges,  jurymen,  court-ofEcials, 
<tc.,  with  fatal  effect, .  pi oducing  oftentimes  a  widespread 
consternation.  Typhus  fever  would  seem  to  have  been 
observed  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world ;  but,  although 
not  unknown  in  warm  countries,  it  has  most  frequently 
prevailed  in  temperate  or  cold  climates. 

The  causes  concerned  in  its  production  include  both  the 
predisposing  and  the  exciting.  Of  the  former  the  most 
powerful  of  all  are  those  influences  which  lower  the  health 
of  a  community,  especially  overcrowding  and  poverty. 
Hence  this  fever  is  most  frequently  found  to  affect  the 
poor  of  large  cities  and  towns,  or  to  appear  where  large 
numbers  of  persons  are  living  crowded  together  in  unfavour- 
able hygienic  conditions,  as  has  often  been  seen  in  prisons, 
workhouses,  &c.  Armies  in  the  field  arc  also  liable  to  suffer 
from  this  disease ;  for  instance,  during  the  Crimean  War 
it  caused  an  enormous  mortality  among  the  French  troops. 
Some  high  authorities,  including  Dr  Murchison,  have 
held  that  such  conditions  as  those  referred  to  are  capable 
of  generating  typhus  fever  by  themselves,  and  the  apparent 
occasional  de  novo  origin  of  this  disease  has  doubtless  the 
support  of  many  striking  facts  which  would  appear  to 
favour  this  view  (see  Pathology,  vol.  xviii.  p.  803).  In 
the  light,  however,  of  recent  researches  into  the  relation 
of  specific  disease  germs  to  the  production  of  fevers  and 
other  infectious  maladies,  there  Is  increasing  difficulty  in 
maintaining  this  position  ;  and  the  direction  of  opinion 
is  decidedly  towards  the  view  that,  however  much  insani- 
tary conditions  and  overcrowding  act  as  causes  predispos- 
ing to  the  reception  of  the  disease,  the  introduction  into 
the  system  of  a  living  organism  or  germ  is  necessary  to 
the  manifestation  of  the  phenomena  of  the  fever.  Never- 
theles.?  no  specific  organism  has  yet  been  clearly  identified 
'  From  rutpoi,  smoke  or  niist,  iu  allusioii  to  the  stupor  of  the  disease. 


in  the  case  of  typhus  fever.  This  disease  is  now  much  less 
frequently  encountered  in  medical  practice  than  fonncily, 
— a  fact  which  must  mainly  be  ascribed  to  the  groat 
attention  which  in  recent  times  has  been  directed  to 
improvement  in  the  sanitation  of  towns,  especially  to  the 
opening  up  of  crowded  localities  so  as  to  allow  the  free 
circulation  through  them  of  fresh  air.  In  most  large 
cities,  however,  limited  epidemic  outbursts  of  the  disease 
occur  from  time  to  time,  under  the  conditions  of  over- 
crowding and  poverty,  although  the  increased  facilities 
possessed  by  local  authorities  for  recognizing  such  out- 
breaks, and  for  the  prompt  isolation  or  removal  of  infected 
persons  to  hospitals,  operate  in  general  effectually  to 
prevent  any  extensive  spread  of  the  fever.  All  ages  are 
liable  to  typhus,  but  the  young  suffer  less  severely  than  the 
old.  The  disease  appears  to  be  communicated  by  the  ex- 
halations given  off  from  the  bodies  of  those  suffering  from 
the  fever,  and  those  most  closely  in  contact  with  the  sick 
are  most  apt  to  suffer.  This  is  shown  by  the  frequency 
with  which  nurses  and  physicians  take  typhus  from  cases 
under  their  care.  As  in  all  infectious  maladies,  there  is 
often  observed  in  typhus  a  marked  proclivity  to  si.iffer  in 
the  case  of  individuals,  and  in  -.such  instances  very  slight 
exposure  to  the  contagion  may  convey  the  disease.  Typhus 
is  highly  contagious  throughout  its  whole  course  and  even 
in  the  early  period  of  convalescence.  The  contagion,  how- 
ever, is  rendered  less  active  by  the  access  of  fresh  air;  hence 
this  fever  rarely  spreads  in  well-aired  rooms  or  houses 
where  cases  of  the  disease  are  under  treatment.  As  a  rule 
one  attack  of  typhus  confers  immunity  from  risk  of  others, 
but  numerous  exceptions  have  been  recorded. 

The  course  of  typhus  fever  is  characterized  by  certain  Course 
well-marked  stages.  (1)  The  stage  of  incubation,  or  theoftli* 
period  elapsing  between  the  reception  of  the  fever  poison  ^^^^' 
into  the  system  and  the  'manifestation  of  the  special 
evidence  of  the  disease,  is  believed  to  vary  from  a  week  to 
ten  days.  During  this  time,  beyond  feelings  of  languor, 
no  particular  symptoms  are  exhibited.  (2)  The  invasion 
of  the  fever  is  in  general-well  marked  and  severe,  in  the 
form  of  a  distinct  rigor,  or  of  feelings  of  chilliness  lasting 
for  hours,  and  a  sense  of  illness  and  prostration,  together 
with  headache  of  a  distressing  character  and  sleeplessness. 
Feverish  symptoms  soon  appear  and  the  temperature  of 
the  body  rises  to  a  considerable  height  (103°-105°  Fahr.), 
at  which  it  continues  with  but  little  daily  variation  until 
about  the  period  of  the  crisis.  It  is,  however,  of  import- 
ance to  observe  certain  points  connected  with  the  tem- 
perature during  the  progress  of  this  fever.  Thus  about 
the  "seventh  day  the  acme  of  the  fever  heat  has  been 
reached,  and  a  slight  subsidence  (1°  or  less)  of  the  tem- 


il        lylT^y^nW                 .1 

=  ■"      ^                   "     -/              ^i 

\r  7                                        = 

'^IT                      ^         "" 

'<  d.                   ^^       \ 

=  -                             7        ' 

■rv.    . jOZ '  " •  ■•  "  -is±. 

Temperature  cliart  of  tjphus  fever, 
perature  takes  place  in  favourable  cases,  and  no  further 
subsequent  rise  beyond  this  lowered  level  occurs.  WTien 
it  is  otherwise,  the  case  often  proves  a  severe  one.  Again, 
when  the  fever  has  advanced  towards  the  end  of  the  second 
week,  slight  falls  of  temperature  are  often  observed,  prior 
to  the  extensive  descent  which  marks  the  attainment  of 
the  crisis.     The  pulse  in  typhus  fever  is  rapid  (100-120 


I 


revEK.] 


T  Y  P  — T  Y  P 


677 


or  more)  and  at  Srst  fml,  but  later  on  feeble.  Its  condi- 
tion as  indicating  the  strength  of  tbe  heart's  action  is 
watched  with  anxiety.  The  tongue,  at  first  coated  with  a 
white  fur,  soon  becomes  bro\vn  and  dry,  while  sordes  (dried 
mucus,  ic.)  accumulate  upon  the  teeth  ;  the  appetite  is 
gone  and  intense  thirst  prevails.  The  bowels  are  as  a  rule 
constipated,  and  the  urine  is  diminished  in  amount  and 
high-coloured.  The  physician  on  examination  may  make 
»ut  distinct  enlargement  of  the  spleen.  (3)  The  third 
itage  is  characterized  by  the  appearance  of  the  eruption 
which  generally  shows  itself  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  day 
or  later,  and  consists  of  dark  red  (miilberry  coloured)  spots 
or  blotches  varying  in  size  from  mere  points  to  three  or 
four  lines  in  diameter,  very  slightly  elevated  above  the 
skin,  at  first  disappearing  on  pressure,  but'  tending  to 
become  both  darker  in  hue  and  more  permanent.  They 
appear  chiefly  on  the  abdomen,  sides,  back,  and  limbs, 
and  occasionally  on  the  face.  Besides  this,  the  character- 
istic typhus  rash,  there  is  usually  observed  a  general  faint 
mottling  all  over  the  surface.  The  typhus  rash  is  rarely 
absent  and  is  a  very  important  diagnostic  of  the  disease. 
In  the  more  severe  and  fatal  forms  of  the  fever,  the  rash 
has  all  through  a  very  dark  colour,  and  slight  subcutaneous 
hsemorrhages  (peUchise)  are  to  be  seen  in  abundance.  After 
the  appearance  of  the  eruption  the  patient's  condition 
seems  to  be  easier,  so  far  as  regards  the  headache  and 
discomfort  which  marked  the  outset  of  the  symptoms ; 
but  this  is  also  to  be  ascribed  to  the  tendency  to  pass  into 
the  typhous  stupor  which  supervenes  about  this  time,  and 
becomes  more  marked  throughout  the  course  of  the  second 
week.  The  patient  now  lies  on  his  back,  with  a  dull  dusky 
countenance,  an  apathetic  or  stupid  expression,  and  con- 
tracted pupils.  All  tbe  febrile  symptoms  already  mentioned 
are  fully  developed,  and  delirium,  usually  of  a  low  muttering 
kind,  but  sometimes  wild  and  maniacal  {delirium  ferox)  is 
present  both  by  night  and  day.  The  peculiar  condition  to 
which  the  term  "  coma  vigil  "  is  applied,  m  which  the 
patient,  though  quite  unconscious,  lies  with  eye*  widely 
open,  is  regarded,  especially  if  persisting  for  any  length  of 
time,  as  an  unfavourable  omen.  Throughout  the  second 
week  of  the  attack  the  symptoms  continue  unabated  ;  but 
there  is  in  addition  great  prostration  of  strength,  the  pulse 
becoming  very  feeble,  the  breathing  shallow  and  rapid, 
and  often  accompanied  with  bronchial  sounds.  (4)  A 
criiis  or  favourable  change  takes  place  about  the  end  of 
the  second  or  beginning  of  the  third  week  (on  an  average 
tbe  1-lth  day),  and  is  marked  by  a  more  or  less  abrupt 
fall  of  the  temperature  (vide  chart)  and  of  the  pulse, 
together  with  slight  perspiration,  a  discharge  of  loaded 
urine,  the  refum  of  moisture  to  the  tongue,  and  by  a 
change  in  the  patient's  look,  which  clears  up  and  shows 
signs  of  returning  intelligence.  Although  the  sense  of 
weakness  is  extreme,  convalescence  is  in  general  steady 
and  comparatively  rapid. 

Typhus  fever  may,  licivever,  prove  fatal  daring  any  stage  of  its 
prOCTess  and  in  the  early  convalescence,  either  from  sudden  failure 
of  ^le  heart's  action — a  condition  which  i5  specially  apt  to  arise — 
from  the  supervention  of  some  nervous  symptoms,  such  as  meningitis 
or  of  deepening  coma,  or  from  some  other  complication,  such  as 
bronchitis.  Further,  a  fatal  result  sometimes  takes  place  before 
the  crisis  frota  sheer  exhaustion,  particularly  in  the  case  of  those 
whose  physical  or  nervous  energies  liave  been  lowered  by  hard 
work,  inadequate  nourishment  and  sleep,  or  intemperance,  in  all 
which  conditions  tjphos  fever  is  apt  to  assume  an  uuusually 
Eerions  form. 

Occasionally  troublesome  sequels  remain  behind  for  a  greater  or 
less  length  of  time  as  the  effects  of  the  fever.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  mental  weakness  or  irritability,  occasionally  some  form 
of  paralysis,  an  inflamed  condition  of  the  Ivmphatic  vessels  of  one  leg 
(the  swelled  leg  of  fever),  prolonged  weakness  and  ill  health,  &c. 
Gradual  improvement,  however,  may  be  confidently  anticipated 
and  even  ultimate  recovery. 
Mor-  The  mortality  from  typhus  fever  is  estimated  bv  Slorchison  and 

tality.      others  as  averaging  about  13  per  cent,  of  the  cases,  but  it  varies 


much  according  to  the  severity  of  type  {particularly  in  epidemics), 
the  previous  health  and  habits  of  the  individual,  and  very  specially 
the  age,— the  proportion  of  deaths  being  in  striking  relation  to 
the  advance  of  life.  Thus,  while  in  children  under  fifteen  the 
death-rate  is  only  5  per  cent.,  ui  pei-sous  over  fifty  it  is  about  46 
per  cent. 

The  treatment  of  typhus  fever  includes  the  prophvlactic  measures  Treat- 
of  attention  to  the  sanitation  of  the  more  densely  populated  por-  ment. 
tions  of  towns.  The  opening  up  of  cross  streets  int«rB«ctin<T  those 
which  are  close -built  and  narrow,  whereby  fresh  air  is"  freely 
admitted,  has  done  much  to  banish  typhus  fever  from  districts  ■ 
where  previously  it  was  endemic.  Further,  the  enforcement  of 
the  law  regulating  the  number  of  persons  accommodated  in  common 
lodging-houses,  and  the  application  of  the  powers  now  vested  in 
local  authorities  for  dealing  with  cases  of  overcrowding  everywhere, 
and  for  isolation  and  treatment  of  the  infected,  have  had  a  lie 
salutary  effect.  Where  typhus  has  broken  out  in  a  crowded  dis- 
trict the  prompt  removal  of  the  patients  to  a  fever  hospital  and  the 
thorough  disinfection  and  cleansing  of  the  infected  houses  are  to  be 
recommended.  Where,  on  the  o'.licr  hand,  a  single  case  of  acci- 
dentally caught  typhus  occurs  in  a  member  of  a  family  inhabiting 
a  well-aired  house,  the  chance  of  it  being  communicated  to  other* 
in  the  dwelling  is  but  small ;  nevertheless  every  precaution  in  tb» 
way  of  isolation  and  disinfection  should  be  taken. 

The  treatment  of  a  typhus  patient  is  conducted  upon  the  same 
general  principles  as  have  been  illustrated  in  other  fevers  (see 
SCAKLET  Fever,  Smallpox).  Complete  isolation  should  be  main- 
tained throughout  the  illness,  and  the  services  of  a  day  and  a  night 
nurse  procured,  who  should  keep  a  strict  watch  and  preserve  a  record 
of  the  temperature  and  other  observations,  the  times  of  feeding  and 
the  form  of  nourishment  administered,  as  well  as  every  other  fact 
noticed,  for  the  physician's  information.  Due  attention  should  be 
given  to  tbe  ventilation  and  cleansing  of  the  sick  chamber.  The 
main  clement  in  the  treatment  of  this  fever  is  good  nursing,  and 
especially  the  regular  administration  of  nutriment,  of  which  the  best 
form  is  milk,  although  light  plain  soup  may  also  be  given.  The 
food  should  be  administered  at  stated  intervals,  not,  as  a  rule, 
oftener  than  once  in  one  and  a  half  or  two  hours,  and  it  will  fre- 
quently be  necessary  to  rouse  the  patient  from  his  stupor  for  this 
purpose.  Sometimes  it  is  impossible  to  administer  food  by  the 
mouth,  in  which  case  recourse  must  be  had  to  nutrient  enemata. 
Alcoholic  stimulants  are  not  often  required,  except  in  the  case  of 
elderly  and  weakly  persons  who  have  become  greatly  exhausted  by 
the  attack  and  are  threatening  to  collapse.  The  best  indication  for 
theu  use  is  that  furnished  by  the  condition  of  the  circulation :  when 
the  pulse  shows  unsteadiness  and  undue  rapidity,  and  the  first 
sound  of  the  heart  is  but  indistinctly  heard  by  the  stethoscope, 
the  prompt  ad-Timistration  of  stimulants  (of  which  the  best  form 
is  pure  spirit)  \rill  often  succeed  in  averting  danger.  Should  their 
use  appear  to  increase  the  restlessness  or  delirium  they  should  be 
discontinued  and  the  diUusible  (ammoniacal  or  ethereal)  forms 
tried  instead. 

Many  other  symptoms  demand  special  treatment.  The  headache^ 
which  |H;rsists  for  days  at  the  commencement  and  is  with  many  a 
very  distressing  symptom,  may  be  mitigated  by  removing  the  hair 
and  applying  cold  tu  the  heaiL  The  sleeplessness,  with  or  without 
delirium,  may  be  combate^l  by  quietness,  Dy  a  moderately  darkened 
room  (although  a  distinclion  between  day  and  night  should  be  made 
as  regards  the  amount  of  admitted  light),  and  by  soothing  and 
gentle  dealing  on  the  part  uf  the  nurse.  Opiate  and  sedative 
mtdicines  in  any  form,  although  recommended  by  many  high 
authorities,  must  be  given  with  great  caution,  as  their  use  is  often 
attended  with  danger  in  this  fever,  where  coma  is  apt  to  supervene. 
^\^len  resorted  to.  probably  the  safest  form  is  a  combination  of  the 
bromide  of  potassium  or  ammonium  with  a  guarded  amount  of 
chloral.  The  writer  has  seen  alarming  effects  follow  the  administra- 
tion of  opiup-  Occasionally  the  deep  stupor  calls  for  remedies  to 
rouse  the  patient,  and  these  may  be  employed  lu  the  form  of  mustard 
or  cahtharides  to  the  surface  icalves  of  legs,  najie  of  neck,  over 
region  of  heart,  ic ),  of  the  cold  alfusion.  or  of  enemata  containin"^ 
tu:(ientine.  The  height  of  the  temperature  may  be  a  serious 
syiiptoni,  and  antipyretic  remedies  appear  to  have  but  a  slight  influ- 
ence over  it  as  compaied  to  that  which  they  possess  in  tvphoid  fever, 
acute  rheumatism,  4:c.  The  cold  bath  treatment,  which  has  been 
recommended,  cannot  be  carried  out  without  serious  risk  to  hfe  in 
the  necessary  movement  of  the  patient.  It  is  a  well-rccognizcJ 
rule  that  persons  suffering  from  typhiu,  fever  ought  not  tc  bs  moved 
up  in  bed  for  any  purpose  after  the  first  few  days.  Cold  sponging 
of  the  hands  and  feet  and  exposed  parts,  or  cold  to  the  head,  may 
often  considerably  lower  the  temperature.  Throughout  the  whole 
progress  of  a  case  the  condition  of  the  bladder  requires  special 
attention,  owin"  to  the  patient's  drowsiness,  and  the  regular  use 
of  the  catheter  Decomcs,  as  a  rule,  necessary  with  the  advanoe  of 
the  symptoms. 

The  complications  and  results  of  this  fever  fall  to  be  dealt  with 
according  to  the  methods  of  treatment  applicable  to  their  character 
and  extent. 


678 


T  Y  P  —  T  Y  P 


[typhoid 


Typhoid  ok  Esteric  Fever. 


Typlioid  or  enteric  fever  ((I'Tcpov,  the  intestine)  is  a  con- 
tinued fever  characterized  mainly  by  its  insidious  onset,  by 
a  peculiar  course  of  the  temperature,  by  marked  abdominal 
symptoms  occurring  in  connexion  with  a  specific  lesion  of 
the  bowels,  by  an  eruption  upon  the  skin,  by  its  uncertain 
duration,  and  by  a  liability  to  relapses. 

This  fever  has  received  various  names,  such  as  gastric 
fever,  abdominal  typhus,  infantile  remittent,  fever,  slow 
fever,  nervous  fever,  &c.     Dr  Murchison,  in  reference  to  its 
supposed  origin  in  putridity,  uses  the  term  "pythogenic 
fever,"  but  this  designation  has  not  been  generally  adopted. 
Up  till  a  comparatively  recent  period  typhoid  was  not  dis- 
tinguished from  typhus  fever      For,  although  it  had  been 
noticed  that  the  course  of  the  disease  and  its  morbid  ana- 
tomy were  different  from  those  of  ordinary  cases  of  typhus, 
it  was  believed  I  hat  they  merely  represented  a  variety  of 
that  malady.     The  distinction  between  the  two  diseases 
appears  to  have  been  first  accurately  made  in  1836  by 
Messrs  Gerhard  and  Pennock  of  Philadelphia,  and  still 
more  fully  demonstrated  by  Dr  A.  P  Stewart  of  Glasgow 
(afterwards  of  London).     Subsequently  all  doubt  upon  the 
subject  was  removed  by  the  careful  clinical  and  pathological 
observations  made  by  Sir  William  .Jenner  at  the  London 
Natnre    fever  hospital  (1849-51).     A  clear  distinction  has  been 
"f     .     established  between  the  two  fevers,  not  only  as  regards  their 
typhoid  piignomena  or  morbid  features,  but  equally  as  regards  their 
origin.     While  typhus  fever  is  a  disease  of  overcrowding 
and  poverty,  typhoid  may  occur  where  such  conditions  are 
entirely  excluded ;  and  the  connexion  of  this  malady  with 
specific  emanations  given  off  from  decomposing  organic  or 
faeculent  matters,  or  with  contamination  of  food  or  water 
by  the  products  of  the  disease,  is  now  almost  universally 
admitted.   Alike  in  sporadic  cases  and  in  extensive  epidemic 
outbreaks  the  existence  of  insanitary  conditions  in  house 
drainage,  water  supply,  &c.,  can  in  the  majority  of  instances 
be  made  out.     The  question  whether  such  conditions  alone 
will  suffice  to  beget  this  fever — or,  in  other  words,  its  de 
novo  origin — has,  as  in  the  case  of  typhus,  been  much  dis- 
cussed, and  an  affirmative  opinion  expressed  by  some  high 
authorities.     But  the  same  remark  must  again  be  made  as 
to  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  maintaining  such  a  position 
in  view  of  the  evidence  of  the  oart  played  by  microbes  in 
infective  processes. 
Caastj  nf     That  all  insanitary  conditions  in  respect  of  drainage  of 
it"  oat-    bouses  and  localities  furnish  the  most  ready  means  for  the 
''"~'''-     introduction  of  the  contagion  of  typhoid  there  is  a  general 
agreement,  as  there  is  equally  that  the  most  certain  means 
of  preventing  its  appearance  or  spread  are  those  which 
provide  a  thoroughly  trustworthy  and  secure  drainage,  a 
eafe  method  of  disposal  of  sewage,  and  a  pure  and  abundant 
water  supply.     Typhoid  fever  is  much  less  directly  com- 
municable from  the  sick  to  the  healthy  than  typhus.     The 
infective  agent  appears  to  reside  in  the  discharges  from  the 
bowels,  in  which,  particularly  when  exposed  and  under- 
going decomposition,  the  contagium  seems  to  multiply  and 
to  acquire  increased  potency.    Thus  in  sewers,  drains,  &c., 
in  association  with  putrefying  matter,  it  may  increase  in- 
definitely, and  by  the  emanations  given  off  from'  such  de- 
composing material  accidentally  escaping  into  houses,  or 
by  the  contamination  of  drinking  water  in  places  where 
wells  or  cisterns  are  exposed  to  faecal  or  sewage  pollution, 
the  contagion  is  conveyed.     Of  the  precise  nature  of  the 
contagious  principle  we  have  as  yet  no  full  information,' 
but  there  appears  to  be  strong  reason  for  believing  that^a 
specific  microbe  or  organism  plays  a  part  in  the  propagation 
of  tbc  disease.     Still  it  is  obvious  that  for  its  successful 


*  A  bacillus  frequently  noUced  in  cert,iiu  tissues  iu  cases  of  typlioiil 
fever  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  proved  to  be  an  organism  ch.aracter- 
istic  of  that  disease,  nor  even  lo  be  ron.^tantly  present. 


implantation  in  and  effect  upon  the  System  a  peculiar  con- 
dition of  preparedness  or  receptivity  to  the  morbific  agent 
must  be  presupposed  to  exist  in  the  individual,  regarding 
which  also  our  knowledge  is  of  the  vaguest.  There  is 
abundant  evidence  that  one  of  the  vehicles  for  the  con- 
veyance of  the  contagion  is  food,  especially  milk,  wiiicb  may 
readily  become  contaminated  with  the  products  of  the  disease 
where  an  outbreak  of  the  fever  has  occurred  in  a  dairy. 

Typhoid  fever  is  most  common  among  the  young,  the  majority 
of  the  cases  occurring  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  twenty-five 
(Murchison).  But  children  of  any  age  may  suffer,  as  may  also, 
though  mort  rarely,  peminsu  or  Iwyond  middle  life.  It  is  of  as 
frequent  occurrence  among  tTie  well-to-do  as  among  the  poor.  Th9 
greater  number  of  cases  appear  to  occur  in  autumn.  In  all  countries 
this  fever  seems  liable  to  prevail ;  and,  while  some  of  its  features 
may  be.  modified  by  climate  and  locality,  its  main  characters  and 
its  results  are  essentially  the  same  everywhere.  ( 

The  more  important  phenomena  of  typhoid  fever  will  be  better  {"atho- 
understood  by  a  brief  reference  to  the  principal  pathological  changes  logical 
which  take  place  during  the  disease.  These  relate  for  the  most  part  changes 
to  the  intestines,  in  which  the  morbid  processes  are  highly  character-  of 
istic,  both  as  to  their  nature  and  their  locality.  The  changes  (to  typhoid- 
be  presently  specified)  are  evidently  the  result  of  the  action  of  the 
contagium  on  the  sj'stem,  and  they  begin  to  show  themselves  from 
the  very  commencement  of  the  fever,  passing  through  various  stages 
during  its  continuance.  The  portion  of  the  bowels  in  which  they 
occur  most  abundantly  is  the  lower  part  of  the  small  intestine 
(ileum),  where  the  "solitary  glands  "  and  '*  Peyer's  patches  "  on  the 
mucous  surface  of  the  canal  become  affected  by  diseased  action  of  a 
definite  and  piogressive  character,  which  stands  in  distinct  relation 
to  the  symptoms  exhibited  by  the  patient  in  the  course  of  the  fever. 
(1)  These  glands,  which  in  health  are  comparatively  indistinct, 
Ijecome  in  the  commencement  of  the  fever  enlarged  and  prominent 
by  infiltration  due  to  inflammatory  action  in  their  substance,  and 
consequent  cell  proliferation.  This  change  usually  affects  a  large 
exte'nt  of  the  ileum,  .but  is  more  marked  in  the  lower  portion  near 
tbe  ileo-c«cal  valve  (see  Anatomy).  It  is  generally  held  that  this  is 
the  condition  of  the  parts  during  the  first  eight  or  ten  days  of  the 
fever.  (2)  These  enlarged  glands  next  umJergo  a  process  of  slough- 
ing, tbe  inflammatory  products  being  cast  off  either  in  fragments  or 
en  masse.  This  usually  takes  place  in  the  second  week  of  the  fever. 
(3)  Ulcers  are  thus  formed  varying  in  size  according  to  the  glatid 
masses  which  have  sloughed  away.  They  may  be  few  or  many  in 
number,  and  they  exhibit  certain  characteristic  appearances.  Thus 
they  are  frequently,  but  not  always,  oblong  in  shape,  mth  their  lone 
axis  in  that  of  the  bowel,  and  they  have  somewhat  thin"  and  raggen 
edges.  They  may  extend  through  the  thickness  of  the  intestine  to 
the  peritoneal  coat  and  in  their  progress  erode  blood-vessels  or  per- 
forate the  bowel.  This  stage  of  ulceration  exists  from  the  second 
week  onwards  during  the  remaining  period  of  the  fever,  and  even 
into  the  stage  of  convalescence.  (4)  In  most  instances  these  ulcers 
heal  by  cicatrization,  leaving,  however,  no  contraction  of  the  calibre 
of  the  bowel.  This  stage  of  healing  evidently  occupies  a  consider- 
able time,  since  the  process  does  not  advance  at  an  equal  rate  in 
the  case  of  all  the  ulcers,  some  of  which  have  been  later  in  forming 
than  others.  Even  when  convalescence  has  been  apparently  com- 
pleted, some  unhealed  ulcers  may  yet  remain  and  prove,  particularly 
in  connexion  with  errors  in  diet,  a  cause  of  relapse  of  some  of  the 
symptoms,  and  even  of  still  more  serious  or  fatal  consequences. 
The  mesenteric  glands  external  to,  but  in  functional  relation  with,  , 
the  intestine,  become  enlarged  during  the  progress  of  the  fever,  but  ■ 
usually  subside  after  recovery. 

Besides  these  changes,  which  are  well  recognized,  others  more  or 
less  important  are  often  present.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
one  which  the  present  writer  has  repeatedly  observed  in  the  severs 
and- protracted  forms  of  this  fever,  namely,  marked  atrophy,  thin- 
iiing,  and  softness  of  the  coats  of  the  intestines,  even  after  the 
ulcers  have  healed,— a  condition  which  may  not  improbably  be  the 
cause  .of  that  long- continued  impairment  of  the  function  of  the 
bowels  so  often  complained  of  by  persons  who  have  passed  through 
an  attack  of  typhoid  fev.er.  Other  changes  common  to  biost  fevers 
are  also  to  be  observed,  such  as  softening  of  the  muscular  tissues 
generally,  and  particularly  of  tire  heart,  and  evidences  of  complica- 
tions affecting  chest  or  other  organs,  which  not  unfreqiiently  arise. 
The  swelleil  leg  of  fever  sometimes  follows  typhoid,  as  does  also 
periosteal  inflammation. 

The  symptoms  characterizing  the  onset  of  typhoid  fever  are  very  Progress 
much  less  marked  than  those  of  most  other  fevers,  and  the  disease  of  the 
in  the  majority  of  instances  sets  in  somewhat  insidiously.     Indeed,  disease, 
it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  patients  with  this  fever  to  go  about 
for  a  considerable  time  after  its  action  has  begun.    The  most  marked 
of  the  early  symptoms  are  headache,  lassitn.h',  and  discomfort,  to- 
gcth.>r  with  sh'cplessness  and  feverishness,  particularly  at  night ; 
this  last  symi.loiii  is  that  bv  which  the  disease  is  most  readily  de- 
tected in  its  ciilv  stages.     The  peculiar  course  of  the  tcmpciature 


FEVEB.J 


T  Y  P  —  T  Y  F 


679 


is  aho  one  of  tlic  most  important  Jiagnostic  evidences  of  this  fever. 
During  the  first  week  it  luis  a  morning  range  of  moderate  febrile 
rise,  but  in  the  evening  there  is  a  marked  ascent,  with  a  fall  again 
towards  morning,  each  morning  and  evening,  however,  showing 
respectively  a  higher  point  than  that  of  the  previous  day,  until 
about  the  eighth  day,  when  in  an  average  case  the  liighest  point 
is  attained.     This  varies  according  to  the  severity  of  the  atuck ; 


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Temperature  chart  of  typhoid  fever. 


but 


;  it  is  no  unusual  thing  to  register  104°  or  105°  Fahr.  in  the  even- 
ing and  103°  or  104°  in  the  morning.  During  the  second  week  the 
daily  range  of  temporatnie  is  comparatively  small,  a  slight  moining. 
reraission  being  all  that  is  observed.  In  the  third  week  the  same 
«oiiditioii  continues  more  or  less  ;  but  frequently  a  slight  tendency 
to  lowering  may  be  iliscerneil,  particularly  in  the  morning  tempera- 
ture, and  the  febrile  action  gi-adnally  di,js  down  ns  a  rule  between 
the  twenty-first  and  twenty-eighth  days,  although  it  is  liable  to 
recur  iii  the  fonn  of  a  relapse.  Althoiigh  the  patient  may,  dtirin" 
the  earlier  days  of  the  fever,  be  able  to  move  about,  he  feels  l.inguiS 
and  u.iojsy  ;  and  usually  before  the  first  weeV.is  over  he  has  to  take 
to  bed,  and  soon  the  eflects  of  the  attack  hccoine  more  apparent. 
He  is  restless,  hot,  and  uncomfortable,  particularly  as  the  day  ad- 
vances, and  his  checks  show  a  ted  (lush,  especially  in  the  evening 
or  after  taking  food.  The  aspect,  however,  is  different  from  the 
.oppressed  stupid  look  which  is  present  in  typhus,  and  more  resem- 
bles the  appearance  of  hoctic.  The  pulse  in  an  ordinary  ca.se,  al- 
though more  rapid  than  normal,  is  not  accelerated  to  an  extent 
corresponding  to  the  height  of  the  temperature,  and  is,at  least 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  fever,  i-aiely  above  100°.  In  sevcie  and 
rrotracte<l  ca.ses,  where  there  is  evid'ence  of  extensive  intestinal 
iileeration,  tlje  pulse  bec^jines  rapid  and  weak,  with  a  dicrotic  char- 
acter indicative  of  cardiac  feebleness.  The  tongue  has  at  first  a 
thin  whitish  fur  and  is  red  at  the  tip  and  edges.  It  tends,  however, 
to  become  dry,  brown  or  glazed  looking,  and  fissured  transversely, 
wh:ie  sonics  may  be  present  about  the  lips  and  teeth.  There  is  much 
thirst  and  in  some  cases  vomiting.  Splenic  and  hepatic  enlarge- 
ment maj  be  made  out.  From  an  early  period  in  the  disease  abdo- 
minal symptoms  show  themselves  with  gi-eater  or  less  distinctness 
.ind  are  frequently  of  highly  ilia^nostic  significance.  The  abdomen 
is  somewhat  distended  or  tumid,  and  pain  accompanying  some 
gurgling  sounds  may  be  elicited  on  light  pressure  about  the  lower 
part  of  the  right  side  close  to  the  groin,— the  region  corresponding 
to  that  portion  of  the  intestine  in  which  the  morbid  changes  already 
i-efen-ed  to  are  progressing.  Diarrhcea  is  a  frequent  b"nt  by.no  means 
constant  symptom.  When  present  it  may  be  slight  in  amount,  or, 
on  the  other  hand,  extremely  profuse,  and  it  conesponSs  as  a  rule 
to  the  severity  ol  the  intestinal  ulceration.  The  discharges  are 
highly  characteristic,  being  of  light  yellow  colour  reseinblin"  pea 
soup  in  appearance.  Should  intestinal  h;emonh.age  occur,  asTs  not 
iinfrequently  the  case  during  some  stage  of  the  fcvei ,  they  may  be 
dark  brown,  or  composed  entirely  of  blood.  The  mine  is  scanty 
and  high-colouied.  About  the  beginning,  or  duiing  the  course  of 
the  second  week  of  the  fever,  an  eruption  frequently  makes  its 
appearance  on  the  skin.  Jt  consists  of  isolated  spots,  oval  or  round 
«n  shape,  ol  a  pale  jiink  or  ro.se  colour,  and  of  about  one  to  one  and 
a  naif  lines  in  diameter.  They  are  seen  chiefly  upon  the  abdomen 
chest,  and  hack,  and  they  come  out  in  crops,  which  continue  for 
four  or  five  days  and  then  fade  away.  At  first  they  are  slightly 
«Icvatcd,  and  disappear  on  pressure.  In  some  cases  th.y  are  very 
few  in  number,  and  their  i.re,sencc  is  made  out  with  difficulty  ;  but 
in  others  they  are  numerous  and  sometimes  show  themselves  upon 
tHe  liiiibs  as  well  as  upon  the  body.  They  do  not  appear  to  have 
any  relation  to  the  severity  of  the  attack,  and  in  a  very  consider- 
able proportion  of  cases  (particularly  in  children)  they  are  entirely 
absent.  Besides  this  eruption  there  are  not  iinfrequently  numer- 
ons  very  faint  bluish  patches  or  blotches  abuit  half  an  inch  in 
diameter,  chiefly  upon  the  body  and  thighs.  \Ylien  present  the 
rose-coloured  spots  continue  to  come  out  in  crops  till  nearly  the 
end  of  ths  fever,  and  they  may  reappear  should  a  relapse  subse- 
quently occur.  These  various  symptoms  persbt  throughout  the 
trura  week,  usually,  however,  increasing  in  intensity.  The  patient 
becomes  prostrate  and  emaciated  ;  the  tongue  is  dry  and  brown  the 
pulse  quickened  and  feeble,  and  the  abdominal  symptoms  more 
Boarked  ;  wlule  nenous  disturbance  is  e-xhibited  in  dcUrium,  in 


tremors  and  jerkings  of  iTie  muscles  {subsullus  kndinum),  in  drowsi- 
ness, and  occasionally  in  "coma  vigil."  In  severe  cases  the  ex- 
haustion reaches  an  extreme  degree,  although  even  in  such  instances 
the  condition  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  hopeless.  In  favourable  cases 
a  change  for  the  better  may  be  anticipated  between  the  twenty-first 
and  twenty-eighth  days,  more  usually  the  latter.  It  does.not,  how- 
ever,  take  place  as  in  typhus  by  a  well-inarkcd  crisis,  but  rather 
by  what  is  termed  a  "lysis"  or  gradual  subsidence  of  the  febrile 
symptoms,  especially  noticeable  in  the  daily  decline  of  both 
morning  and  evening  temperature,  the  lessening  of  dianhcea,  and  im- 
provement in  pulse,  tongue,  Lc.  Convalescence  proceeds  slowly  and 
is  apt  to  be  interrupted  by  relapses  (duo  not  unliequently  to  errors 
in  diet),  which  are  sometimes  as  severe  and  prolonged  as  the  original 
attack,  and  are  attended  with  equal  or  even  greater  risks.  Should 
such  relapses  repeat  themselves,  the  case  may  be  protracted  for  two 
or  three  months,  but  tliis  is  comparatively  rare. 

Death  in  typhoid  fever  usually  takes  place  from  one  or  other  X)f  Can.ses  .if 
the  following  causes.  (1)  Exhaustion,  in  the  second  or  third  weeks,  death  m 
or  later.  The  attending  symptoms  are  increasing  emaciation,  weak-  typhoi  1 
iicss  of  the  pulse,  and  cadaveric  aspect.  Sometimes  sinking  is 
sudden,  partaking  of  some  of  the  characters  of  a  collapse.  (2) 
Hx'inori  hage  from  the  intestines.  The  evidence  of  this  is  exhibited, 
not  only  in  the  evacuations,  but  in  the  sudden  fall  of  temperature 
and  rise  in  pulse-rate,  together  with  great  pallor,  faintness,  and  rapid 
sinking.  Sometimes  hfemorrhage,  to  a  dangerous  and  even  fatal 
cttent,  takes  place  from  the  nose.  (3)  Perforation  of  an  intestinal 
nicer.  This  gives  rise,  as  a  ruli  to  sudden  and  intense  abdominal 
pain,  together  with  vomiting  and  signs  of  collapse,  viz.,  a  rapid 
flickering  pulse,  cold  clammy  skin,  and  the  marked  fall  of  tempera- 
ture. Symptoms  of  peritonitis  (sec  Peritonitis)  quickly  supervene 
and  add  to  the  patient's  distress.  Death  usually  takes  place  within 
24  hours.  Occasionally  peritonitis,  apart  from  perforation,  is  the 
cause  of  death.  (4)  Occasionally,  but  rarely,  hyperpyrexia  (excessive 
fever).  (5)  Complications,  such  as  pulmonary  or  cerebral  inflamma- 
tion, bedsores,  &c 

Certain  sequelae  are  sometimes  obser^■ed,  the  most  important 
being  the  swelled  leg,  periostitis  affecting  long  bones,  general  ill- 
health,  and  anaemia,  with  digestive  difficulties,  often  lasting  for  a 
long  time,  and  sometimes  issuing  in  phthisis.  Occasionally,  after 
severe  ■cases,  mental  weakness  is  noticed,  but  it  is  usually  of  com- 
paratively short  duration. 

The  mortality  in  typhoid  fever  varies  with  the  character  of  the  Mor- 
outbreak,  the  general  health  and  surroundings  of  the  individuals  tality. 
attacked,  an4  other  conditions.  At  one  time  it  was  regarded  as, 
on  an  average,  about  the  same  as  that  of  typhus ;  but  ullder  modern 
methods  of  treatment  the  chances  of  recovery  are  much  greater,  and 
the  dea'th-rate  may  be  stated  as  about  12  per  cent,  or  perhaps  some- 
what less. 

The  treatment  embraces  those  prophylactic  measures  which  aim  Treat- 
at  preventing  the  escape  of  sewer  gases  into  dwelling-houses  by  ment. 
careful  attention  to  the  drainage  and  plumber-work,  and  also  secure 
an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water  for  domestic  use  (see  Hygiene, 
Sewerage,  and  Ventilation).  When  an  outbreak  of  the  fever 
occurs  in  a  family,  all  such  matters  should  be  specially  inquired 
into,  ,and  the  sources  of  milk  supply  carefully  scrutinized.  The 
discharges  from  the  bowels  of  the  typhoid  patient  should  be  at  once 
disinfected  with  carbolic  acid  or  other  similar  agent,  and  the  gieatest 
care  taken  as  to  their  disposal,  witli  the  view  of  obviating  any  risk 
of  contamination  of  drinking-water,  &e.  The  general  management 
is  conducted  upon  the  same  principles  as  are  observed  in  the  case 
of  typhus,  except  that  in  typhoid  fever  very  special  care  is  neces- 
sary in  regard  to  diet,  llilk,  the  gieat  value  of  which  as  a  fever- 
food  was  first  clearly  set  forth  by  Pi  of.  Gairdner,  is  of  eminent 
service  in  typhoid,  but  it  must  be  administered  with  due  regard  to 
time  and  to  the  digestive  powers  of  the  patient.  When  given  too 
frequently  or  in  too  great  quantity  it  may,  by  its  imperfect  digestion, 
prove  a  source  of  irritation  to  the  bowels.  Even  when  given  with 
every  care  it  may  fail  to  agree,  as  is  proved  by  the  presence  of  im- 
digested  curd  in  the  evacuations.  In  such  a  case  its  admixture 
with  lime  water  or  with  peptonizing  agents  may  render  its  digestion 
less  difficult,  but  sometimes  its  use  must  for  a  time  be  suspended. 
It  is,  however,  rare  that  milk  cannot  be  borne  when  carefully  ad- 
ministered. Barley  water  or  simple  soaps,  such  as  chicken  broth, 
beef-tea,  kc,  are  occasionally  useful  either  as  substitutes  for  or 
adjuvants  to  milk.  All  through  the  fever  the  patient  should  be 
fed  at  regular  periods — not,  as  a  rule,  oftener  than  once  in  one  and 
a  half  or  two  hours — although  in  the  intervals  water  or  other  fever- 
drink  may  be  given  from  time  to  time.  In  convalescence  the  diet 
should  still  be  largely  milk  and  soft  matters,  such  as  custards,  light 
puddings,  meat  jellies,  boiled  bread  and  milk,  &c.,  but  other  solid 
foods,  w  ith  the  exception  of  fish,  should  be  for  a  long  time  avoided. 
In  changing  the  diet  it  is  of  importance  to  note  its  effect  upon 
the  temperature,  which  may  sometimes  be  considerably  disturbed 
from  this  cause,  even  after  the  apparent  subsidence  of  all  febrile 
action.  Stimulants,  although  unnecessary  in  a  large  proportion 
of  cases,  are  occasionally  called  for  when  there  is  great  exhaustion, 
and  in  prolonged  attacks.     Their  effect,  however,  should  be  care- 


680 


T  Y  P  — T  Y  P 


fully  watched.    They  are  usually  best  administered  in  the  form  of 
pure  spirit. 

The  more  prominent  symptoms  which  marlc  the  course  of  typhoid 
fever  frequently  call  for  special  treatment.  Tl.as,  when  the  levei 
continues  long,  with  little  break  in  its  course,  the  employment  of 
remedies  to  control  its  action  (antipyretics)  may  often  be  resorted 
to  with  benefit  SiTch  drugs  aa  quinine,  salicin,  salicylic  acid,  and 
salicylate  of  soda,  kairin,  antipyrin,  antifebrin,  &c.  (in  ten  to  thirty 
grain  doses  of  one  or  other),  may  frequent  y  break  in  upon  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  fever,  and  by  markedly  lowering  the  temperature 
relieve  for  a  time  the  body  from  a  source  of  waste,  and  aid  in 
tranquillizing  the  excited  nervous  system.  The  times  for  their 
administration  arc  either  one  or  two  hours  before  the  usual  maximum 
temperature  or  during  the  period  of  remission.  These  remedies 
may,  however,  lau,  or  by  inducing  sickness  or  great  prostration  and 
depression  of  the  circulation  require  to  be  discontinued.  For  a 
similar  purpose  the  cold  bath  is  recommended  by  many  high 
authorities  and  is  regularly  employed  in  Germany.  The  method 
recommended  by  Liebermeister  is  thi»:  "When  the  temperature 
rises  above  104°  Fahr.,  the  patient  should  be  placed  in  a  bath  pf 
about  94°,  which  is  gradually  cooled  down  by  the  addition  of  cold 
water  to  68°  Fahr.,  and  remain  immersed  for  twenty  or  thirty 
minutes,  the  limbs  being  all  the  whUe  gently  rubbed.  He  should 
then  be  put  back  into  bed."  Another  method  is  that  of  Dr  Brand 
of  Stettin:  "When  the  patient's  temperature  attains  102°  Fahr., 
he  should  be  placed  in  a  tepid  bath  of  70°  and  allowed  to  remain 
till  a  sense  of  coldness  or  shivering  is  produced,  wliich  usually 
occurs  in  from  five  to  twenty  minutes."  By  such  means  no  doubt 
the  temperature  can  often  be  reduced  2°  or  S°  Fahr,  but  it  is  very 
apt  to  rise  again  and  the  bath  must  then  be  repeated.  It  is  claimed 
by  the  advocates  of  this  method  of  treatment  that  it  has  been  suc- 
cessful in  diminishing  greatly  the  mortality  of  typhoid  fever,  but 
they  hold  at  the  same  time  that  its  success  in  large  measure  depends 
iipoD  its  employment  irora  an  early  stage  in  the  disease.  British 
physicians  are  much  divided  upon  the  point,  many  high  authorities 
agreeing  in  its  marked  utility,  while  others  no  less  eminent  regard 
it  as  fraught  with  danger  from  the  frequent  movement  of  the 
patient  from  bed,  tlie  shock  to  the  system,  and  the  risk  of  hsemor- 
rhage,  pneumonia,  or  other  complications,  and  as  a  plan  of  treat- 
ment drtScult  of  being  carried  out  in  ordinary  practice.  Although 
employed  in  some  fever  hospitals  and  with  apparent  success,  it  has 
not  yet  commended  itself  for  general  adoption.  Other  methods  of 
appl)'ing  cold,  while  probably  less  etrcctual  than  the  bath,  are  much 
more  available,  as,  for  example,  the  tepid  or  cold  pack,  the  frequent 
sponging  of  portions  of  the  body  with  cold  water,  or  the  applica- 
tion of  icebags  to  the  head.  The  present  writer  has  resorted  to 
these  methods  in  many  cases  of  typhoid  fever,  with  the  effect  of 
markedly  lowering  a  high  temperature.  When  diarrhcea  is  ex- 
cessive it  may  be  restrained  by  such  remedies  as  chalk,  bismuth, 
Dover's  powder,  &c.'  Hemorrhage  is  dealt  with  by  preparations  of 
ergot,  or  by  acetate  of  lead,  gallic  acid,  or  other  styptics.  In  the 
event  of  perforation  of  the  bowel  opium  is  the  only  means  avail- 
able to  lessen  the  distress  attending  that  fatal  occurrence. 

In  the  convalescent  stage,  and  even  after  apparently  complete 
recovery,  the  utmost  care  should  be  observed  by  the  patient  as  to 
diet,  all  hard  and  indigestible  substances  being  dangerous  from 
their  tendency  to  irritate  or  reopen  unhealed  ulcers,  and  bring  on 
^.relapse  of  the  fever  or  cause  a  sudden  perforation:  Lastly,  the 
general  health  demands  careful  attention  for  a  length  of  time, 
in  view  of  the  remoter  risks  of  chest  and  other  diseases  already 
alluded  to. 

Relapsing  Fever. 

This  IS  a  continued  fever  occasionally  appearing  as  an 
epidemic  in  communities  suffering  from  scarcity  or  famine. 
It  is  characterized  mainly  by  its  sudden  invasion,  with 
violent  febrile  symptoms,  which  continue  for  about  a  week 
and  end  in  a  crisis,  but  are  followed,  after  another  week, 
by  a  return  of  the  fever. 

This  disease  has  received  many  other  names,  the  best 
known  of  which  are  famine  fever,  short  fever,  synocha, 
bilious  relapsing  fever,  recurrent  typhus,  and  spirillum 
fever.  As  in  the  case  of  typhoid,  relapsit-g  fever  was  long 
believed  to  be  simply  a  form  of  typhus.  The  distinction 
between  them  appears  to  have  been  first  clearly  established 
in  1826,  in  connexion  with  an  epidemic  in  Ireland.  Out- 
breaks of  relapsing  fever  have  occurred  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  at  times  and  in  places  where  famine  has  arisen  ;  but 
the  disease  has  been  most  closely  observed  and  studied  in 
epidemics  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Ge.many,  Poland, 
Russia.  America,  and  India.  It  has  frequently  been  found 
to  prevail  along  with  an  onirloniii;  of  typhus  fever. 


Relapsing  fever  is  highly  contagious,  and  appears^like  typBi]^  tSaiwes  o 
to  be  readily  communicated  by  the  exhalations  from  the  body.  With,  orif  ini- 
rcspcct  to  tlie  nature  of  the  contagion,  certain  important  and  intejv  Goi.. 
esting  observations  have  been  made.  In  1873  Obermeier  discovered 
in  the  blood  of  persons  suffering  from  relapsing  fever  minute 
organisms  in  the  form  of  spiral  filaments  of  tlie  genus  SpirochsUS 
(see  vol.  xxi.  p.  399,  fig.  1,  n),  measuring  in  length  rJjr  to  ir^irs 
inch  and  in  breadth  ttJui  to  ctSfs  inch,  and  possessed  of  rotatory 
or  twisting  movements.  This  organism  has  received  the  name  6t 
SpirilluiTi  obermeieri.  It  appears  to  be  present  in  abundance  dur« 
ing  the  height  of  the  febrile  symptoms,  and  is  not  seen  during  thd 
interval  until  the  relapse  is  impending,  when  it  is  again  present  as 
before.  This  observation  has  been  confirmed  by  numerous  investi-. 
gatore,  and  it  has  been  found  that  inoculation  with  the  blood 
containing  these  Spirilla  produced  the  symptoms  of  relapsing  fever 
in  both  men  and  animals.  Comparatively  little  is  as  yet  known  of 
the  life-history  of  these  organisms,  and  the  question  whether  they 
are  to  be  regarded  as  the  prime  source  of  the  disease  or  as  mem 
accompaniments  affords  ground  for  difference  of  opinion  (see  Path- 
OLOOY,  vol.  xviii.  p.  403) ;  nevertheless  their  discovery  and  the  con- 
ditions of  their  presence  already  mentioned  are  noteworthy  facta  in 
reference  not  only  to  the  pathology  of  this  fever  but  also  to  the 
general  doctrine  of  infectiveness  in  disease-processes.  The  most  con- 
stantly recoguized'factor  in  the  origin  and  spread  of  relapsing  fever 
is  destitution  ;  but  this  cannot  be  regarded  as  more  than  a  predis- 
posing causefavouring  the  reception  and  propagation  of  the  morbific 
agent,  since  in  many  lands  widespread  and  destructive  famines  have 
prevailed  without  any  outbreak  of  this  fever.  Instances,  too,  have 
been  recorded  where  epidemics  were  distinctly  associated  with  over- 
crowding rather  than  with  privation.  Jlelapsing  fever  is  most 
commonly  met  with  in  the  young.  One  attack  does  not  appear  to 
protect  from  others,  but  rather,  according  to  some  authorities,  en- 
genders liability. 

The  extreme  contagiousness  of  relapsing  fever  has  occasionally  III  con 
been  shown  by  its  spreading  widely  when  introduced  into  a  district,  tagions- 
even  among  those  who  had  not  become  predisposed  by  destitution  neas. 
or  other  depressing  conditions.     The  contagion,  like  that  of  typhu^ 
appears  to  be  most  active  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  patient 
and  to  be  greatly  lessened  by  the  access  of  fresh  air.     It  is  capable 
of  being  conveyed  by  clothing.    The  incubation  of  the  disease  is 
about  one  week.     The  symptoms  of  the  fever  then  show  themselves 
with  great  abruptness  and  violence  by  a  rigor,  accompanied  with 
pains  ifc  the  limos  and  severe  headache.     The  febrile  phenomena 
are  very  marked,  and  the  temperature  quickly  rises  to  a  high  point 


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ortt^X 

Temperature  chart  of  relapsing  fever. 
(105°-107°  Fahr.),  at  which  it  continues  with  little  variation,  whil. 
the  pulse  is  rapid  (100-140),  full,  and  strong.  There  is  intense 
thirst,  a  dry  brown  tongue,  bilious  vomiting,  tenderness  over  the 
liver  and  spleen,  and  occasionally  jaundice.  Sometimes  a  peculiar 
bronzy  appearance  of  the  skin  is  noticed,  but  there  is  no  character- 
istic rash  as  in  typhus.  There  is  much  prostration  of  strength. 
After  the  continuance  of  these  symptoms  for  a  period  of  from  five 
to  seven  days,  the  temperature  suddenly  falls  to  the  normal  point 
or  below  it,  the  pulse  becomes  correspondingly  slow,  and  a  profuse 
perspiration  occurs,  while  the  severe  headache  disappears  and  the 
appetite  returns.  Except  for  a  sense  of  weakness,  the  patient  feels 
well  and  may  even  return  to  work,  but  in  some  cases  there  remains 
a  condition  of  great  debility,  accompanied  with  rheumatic  pains  in 
the  limbs.  This  state  of  freedom  from  fever  continues  for  about  a 
week,  when  there  occurs  a  well-marked  relapse  with  scarcely  less 
abruptness  and  severity  than  in  the  first  attack,  and  tlie  whole 
symptoms  are  of  the  same  character,  but  they  do  not,  as  a  rule, 
continue  so  long,  and  they  terminate  in  a  crisis  in  three  or  four 
davs,  after  which  convalescence  proceeds  satisfactorily.  Second, 
tliird,  and  even  fourth  relapses,  however,  may  occur  in  exceptional 

The  mortality  in  relapsing  fever  is  ffomparatively  small,  about  5  Ifor- 
per  cent,  being  the  average  death-rate  in  epidemics  (Murchison).  tality. 
The  fatal  cases  occur  mostly  from  the  complications  common  to  feft 
continued  fevers.     The  treatment  is  essentially  tlie  same  as  that 
for  typhus  fever  (see  above).  '■'-  ^   *-^ 


fiSl 


TYPOGRAPHY 


Part  I. — Historical. 

TYPOGRAPHY  (writing  by  types)  ia  the  art  of  print- 
ing (cast-meta!)  movable  types  on  paper,  vellum,  ic. 
It  is  quite  distinct,  not  only  from  writing,  but  from  xylo- 
graphy or  wood-engraving,  i.e.,  the  art  of  cutting  figures, 
letters,  or  words  on  blocks  of  wood  and  taking  impressions 
from  such  blocks,  by  means  of  ink  or  any  other  fluid 
coloured  substance,  on  paper  or  vellum. 
Eirlitst        Possibly  the  earliest  attempt  to  describe  the  art  of  typography 
(ienni-      is  that  ia  the  Dunahis  issued  by  Peter  Schoeffer,  perhaps  before 
tioos.        1456,  the  colophon  of  which  says  that  it  was  finished  "Arte  nova 
imprimendi  seu  caracteiizaudi  [from  character  =  letter]  .  .  .  absque 
calami  exaratione."     Fust  and  Schoeffer  in  the  Mainz  psalter  of 
1457  said  that  it  was  formed  by  an    'adiuventio  artificiosa  impri. 
mendi  ac  caracterizandi  absque  calami  iiUa  exaratione."    The  colo- 

£hon  of  the  Catholicon  of  1460  is  more  precise,  and  says  that  the 
ook  was  printed  "  non  calami,  stili,  aut  penna  suffragio,  sed  mira 
patronarum  formarumque  Concordia,  pi-oporcione,  ac  modulo,"  In 
1462  Albrecht  Pfister  had  "  gedrucket  "  the  Four  Histories.  In  the 
Liber  Sextiis_  Deeretalium,  published  in  1465,  Fust  and  Schoeffer 
say  that  it  was  completed  "non  atramento  ["atraraento  comrauni," 
in  the  Justinianus  of  1468  and  1472],  plumali  canna  neque  serea, 
sed  artificiosa  quadam  adinventione  iniprimeprii  scu  caracterizandi," 
a  phrase  which  they  slightly  varied  in  Cicero's  Oj/icia,  issued  in 
the  same  year:  "non  atramento,  plumali  canna  neque  asrea,  sed 
arte  quadam  perpulcra. "  The  edition  of  St  Jerome  s  Epistles  of 
1470  is  said  to  have  been  completed  by  an  "ars  impressoria,"  the 
Deeretum  Gratiani  of  1472  by  an  "ars  qua;dam  ingeniosa  impri- 
mendi," the  Dyalogiis  of  1478  by  an  "ars  magistra."  We  find 
further — "ars  sancta"  or  "divina,"  "nova  ars  scribendi,"  "novum 
exscribendi  genus  prope  divinum,"  "sculptoria  archetyporum  ars," 
"ars  mirifica  formandi,"  "ars  excusoria,"  "nova  imprimendi  ratio," 
"ars  pressure,"  "  chalcotypa  ars,"  " chalcographia "  (1472  and 
later),  "chalcographia  excusoria  impressoriaque,"  "libraria  im- 
pressio,"  "  empryntynge  "  (Caxton,  1482),  "prenterei"  (Schoeffer, 
1492),  "truckery"  (1505),  "impression  des  livres"  (1498),  and 
"prcntcn." 
»*niitcrs.  The  early  printers  called  themselves,  or  were  called  by  others, 
"librorum  prothocaragmatici "  {Gramm.  Rhythm.,  1468),  "impres- 
sores  librorum,"  "exsculptor  librorum"  (Jenson,  1471),  "chal- 
cographus"  (1473;  Hain,  13036),  "  magister  artis  impressorise, " 
"  boeckprinter  "  ;  and  during  the  16th  century  we  find  them  still 
frequently  called  "  chalcotypus  "  and  "  chalcographus. " 
T>i)cs.  The  types  were  at  first  designated  more  by  negative  than  positive 
expressions.  In  1468  they  were  called  "caragma,"  later  on  "car- 
acter"  or  "character,"  "arclretipK  notffi"  (1473;  Hain,  13036), 
" sculptoria  archetyporum  ars,"  "chalcotypa  ars,"  "formae,"  "ar- 
tificiosissiraie  impriraendorura  librorum  formse."  We  soon  hear 
also  of  the  process  and  material  by  which  they  were  produced. 
The  GrammxUica  of  1468,  published  by  Schoeffer,  says  that  it  was 
"cast"(sum  fusus  libellus).  In  1471  "aeneie  formulte"  are  spoken 
of  :  and  Bemardus  Cenninus  and  his  son  say  that  they  had  printed 
the  Virgil  "expressis  ante  calibe  caracteribus  et  deinde  fusis  literis" 
(with  letters  first  cut  into  steel  and  then  cast).  In  1473  Friedrich 
Creusner  at  Nuremberg  says  that  he  had  "  cut "  (sculpsit)  the  work 
of  Diogenes  (Hain,  6192).  Johan  Zciner  of  Ulm  says  in  1474  that, 
he  had  perfected  a  book,  not  with  the  pen,  but  with  letters  of  metal 
(stagneis  caracteribus).  In  1474  Job.  Ph.  de  Lignamine  speaks  of 
"metallic^  formre."  In  1476  Husner  of  Strasburg  represents  the 
Kider  as  being  printed  with  "  letters  cut  of  metal  (litteris  sculptis 
artifici.nli  certe  conatu  ex  are)."  Nicolas  Jem-jon  printed  in  1480 
with  letters  "cut  and  cast"  (sculptis  ae  condalis). 
WorrJ  The  word  typographus  does  not  seem  to  occur  before  1488,  when 

"typo-  _  it  was  used  in  the  preface  of  P.  Stephanus  Dulcinius  Scal.x-  to  the 
P^pliy-"  /Istrorunnicon  of  Manilius,  pri;:ted  in  that  year  at  Iililan  by  Antonius 
Zarotns  ;'  in  1498  Erasmus  uses  it  in  a  letter  (dated  13th  Feb.)  to 
Christi.mus,  a  Lubeck  mcrcl.ant;-  and  in  1517  Johan  Schoeffer 
applies  the  word  to  himself  in  the  colophon  of  the  iEneas  Sylvius 
published  by  him.  But  of  the  use  of  the  word  typographia  no 
enrlier  instance  is  known  than  1520,  in  which  year  Cerardus  Novio- 
inagu^  (  =  Guldenhaurius)  in  his  Lueubrniiuncida  de  Batavorum 
bisiUa  (]>rei.  to  Nicol.  Buscoducciisis,  dated  1520)s.iys;  "inventa 
Gemianorum  .  .  .  bombarda  videlicet,  typographia',  pyxis  char- 
taque  nautica;"  and  Johan  Schott,  a  printer  of  Strasburg,  in  the 
Ocogr.  Ptolem.  published  by  him,  describes  his  grandfather,  Johan 
Mentelin,  as  "priinus  typographiie  inventor."  Gerardus,  it  may 
be  added,  borrowed  the  whole  passage  from  Pet.  Montanns  (li.  1 
Adag.,  published  a.  1504),  who  has  chalcographia  instead  of  typo- 

^  Maittaire,  Amuiles-Typogr.,  i.  50S,  note  1. 
'  0pp.,  iii.  C01.-24. 


graphia.  Jleerman  indeed'  speaks  of  a  use  of  the  word  typographia 
(or  at  least  of  typographus)  earlier  than  1520,  and  refers  to  the  preface 
of  Bernardinus  Veroncnsis  in  the  edition  of  TibuUus,  Catullus,  and 
Propcrtius  published  at  Venice  in  1493  by  Symon  Bevilaqua,  "at 
least,"  .Meerman  adds,  "as  it 'the  preface)  is  read  in  the  Annal. 
Typogr.  of  JIaittairc,  i.  560,  2ded."  But  on  page  560  Maittairo 
quotes  the  first  two  lines  of  Bcrnardinus's  preface  (till  dicit)  and 
then  adds  :  "  Grwcis  charactcribus  destitutus,  typo^.iphus  necesse 
habuit  hiatus  in  commentario  hie  illic  relinqucre,"  which  is  evi. 
dently  Maittaire's  own  remark,  not  that  of  Bernardinus.  The  pre- 
sent writer  at  least  has  been  unable  to  find  such  a  nassaae  in  tho 
Tibullus.  ° 

Although  the  art  of  writing  and  that  of  block-printing 
both  differ  widely  from  printing  with  movable  metal  types, 
yet  this  last  reocess  seems  to  have  been  such  a  gradual 
transition  from  block-printing,  and  block-printing  in  its 
turn  to  have  been  such  a  natural  outcome  of  the  many 
trials  that  were  probably  made  to  produce  books  in  some 
more  expeditious  manner  than  could  be  done  with  hand- 
writing, that  a  cursory  glance  at  these  two  processes  will 
not  seem  out  of  place,  all  the  less  as  a  discussion  on  the 
origin  and  progress  of  typography  could  hardly  b.  jder- 
stood  without  knowing  the  state  of  the  literary  a  /elop- 
ment  at  the  time  that  printing  appeared. 

The  art  of  printing,  i.e.,  of  impressing  (by  means  of  First 
certain  forms  and  colours)  figures,  pictures,  letters,  words,  attempts 
lines,  whole  pages,  &c.,  on  other  objects,  as  also  the  art  of?'  ?"■""■ 
engraving,  which  is  inseparably  connected  with  printing,  '°^' 
existed  long  before  the  15th  century.     Not  to  go  back  to 
remoter  essays,  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  mediaeval 
kings  and  princes  (among  others  William  the  Conqueror) 
had  their  monograms  cut  on  blocks  of  wood  or  metal  in 
order  to  impress  them  on  their  charters.     Such  impressions 
from  stamps  are  found  instead  of  seals  on  charters  of  the 
15th  century.      Manuscripts  of  the   12th   century  show 
initials  which,  on  account  of  their  uniformity,  are  believed 
to  have  been  impressed  by  means  of  stamps  or  dies.*     But 
the  idea  of  multiplying  representations  from  one  engraved 
plate  or  block  or  other  form  was  unknown  to  the  ancients, 
whereas  it  is  predominant  in  what  we  call  the  art  of  block- 
printing,  and  especially  in  tha^  of  typography,  in  which 
the  same  types  can  be  used  again  and  again. 

Block-printing  and  printing  with  movable  types  seem  to  have  Eas» 
been  practised  in  China  and  Japan  long  before  they  were  known  in  Asiatre 
Europe.  It  is  said  that  in  the  year  175  the  text  of  the  Chinese  printmg. 
classics  was  cut  upon  tablets,  which  were  erected  outside  the  uni- 
versity, and  that  impressions  were  taken  of  them,  some  of  which 
are  said  to  be  still  in  existence.  Printing  from  wooden  blocks  can 
be  traced  as  far  back  as  the  6th  century,  when  the  founder  of  the 
Suy  dynasty  is  said  to  have  had  the  remains  of  the  classical  books 
engraved  on  wood,  though  it  was  not  until  the  10th  century  that 
printed  books  became  common.  In  Japan  the  earliest  example  of 
block-printing  dates  from  the  period  764-770,  when  the  empress 
Shiyau-toku,  in  pursuance  of  a  vow,  had  a  million  small  wooden 
toy  pagodas  made  for  distribution  among  the  Buddhist  temples  and 
monasteries,  each  of  which  was  to  contain  a  dharani  out  of  the 
Buddhist  Scriptures  entitled  "  Vimala  nirbhasa  Sutra,"  printed  on 
a  slip  of  paper  about  18  inches  in  length  and  2  in  width,  which  was 
rolled  up  and  deposited  in  the  body  of  the  pagoda  under  the  spire. 
In  a  journal  of  the  period,  under  the  year  9S7,  the  expression 
"printed"  book  "  l^suri-hoh)  is  found  applied  to  a  copy  of  tlie  Bud- 
dhist canon  brought  back  from  China  by  a  Buddhist  priest  This, 
of  course,  must  have  been  a  Chinese  edition  ;  but  the  use  of  the 
term  implies  that  printed  books  were  already  known  in  Japan.  It 
is  said  that  the  Chinese  printed  with  movable  types  (of  clay)  from 
the  middle  of  the  11th  century.  The  authorities  of  the  "British 
Museum  exhibit  as  the  earliest  instance  of  Corcan  books  printed 
with  movable  types  a  work  printed  in  1337.  To  the  Corcans  is 
attriEuted  the  invention  of  copper  types  in  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century  ;  and  an  inspection  of  books  bearing  d.ites  of  that 


'  Orig.  Typogr.,  i.  p.  32,  note  ex. 

*  Passavant,  Le  Peinlre-Graveiir,  i.  18,  Leipsic,  1860.64  ;  John 
Jackson,  M'ood-Engrafing,  London,  1839  ;  Bucher,  Gescli.  der  tecAiu 
Kii'iste,  p.  362  sg. 

XXIII.  —  86 


682 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[historical. 


period  seems  to  sliow  tliat  they  used  such  types,  even  if  they  did 
not  invent  thcm.^ 

From  such  evidence  as  we  have  it  would  seem   that 
Europe  is  not  indebted  to  the  Chinese  or  Japanese  for  the 
art  of  block-printing,  nor  for  that  of  printing  with  movable 
types. 
MS.  In  Europe,  as  late  as  the  second  half  of  the  14th  cen- 

period,  tury,  every  book  (including  school  and  prayer  books),  and 
every  public  and  private  document,  proclamation,  bull, 
letter,  ikc,  was  written  by  hand  ;  all  figures  and  pictures, 
even  playing-cards  and  images  of  saints,  were  drawn  with 
the  pen  or  painted  with  a  brush.  lu  the  13th  century 
there  already  existed  a  kind  of  book  trade.  The  organi- 
zation of  universities  as  well  as  that  of  large  ecclesiastical 
establishments  was  at  that  time  incomplete,  especially  in 
Italy,  France,  and  Germany,  without  a  staff  of  scribes  and 
transcribers  {scriptores),  illuminators,  lenders,  sellers,  and 
custodians  of  books  (slationarii  librorum,  librarii),  and  per- 
gamenarii,  i.e.,  person3  who  prepared  and  sold  the  vellum 
or  parchment  required  for  books  and  documents.  The 
books  supplied  were  for  the  most  part  legal,  theological, 
and  educational,  and  are  calculated  to  have  amounted  to 
above  one  hundred  different  works.  As  no  book  or  docu- 
ment was  approved  unless  it  had  some  ornamented  and 
illuminated  initials  or  capital  letters,  there  was  no  want 
of  illuminators.  The  workmen  scribes  and  transcribers 
were,  perhaps  without  exception,  caligraphers,  and  the 
illuminators  for  the  most  part  artists.  Beautifully  written 
and  richly  illuminated  manuscripts  on  vellum  became 
objects  of  luxury  which  were  eagerly  bought  and  treasured 
up  by  princes  and  people  of  distinction.  Burgundy  of 
the  15th  century,  with  its  rich  literature,  its  wealthy 
towns,  its  love  for  art,  and  its  school  of  painting,  was  in 
this  respect  the  .centre  of  Europe,  and  the  libraries  of  its 
dukes  at  Brussels,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  ic,  contained 
more  than  three  thousand  beautifully  illuminated  MSS. 
Classes  In  speaking  of  the  writing  of  the  manuscripts  of  the 
of  writ-  15th  and  two  preceding  centuries,  it  is  essentia!  to  dis- 
"'^'  tinguish,  in  each  country,  between  at  least  four  different 
classes  of  writing,  and  two  of  these  must  be  again  sub- 
divided each  into  two  classes.  All  these  different  kinds  of 
writing  were,  in  the  fir*  instance,  taken  as  models  for 
cutting  such  portions  of  text  as  were  intended  to  illustrate 
and  explain  the  figures  in  block-books,  and  afterwards  as 
models  for  the  types  used  in  the  printing  of  books  and 
documents. 

(I)  The  book  hand,  that  is,  the  ordinary  wTitinf;  of  legal,  theo- 
logical, and  devotional  books,  was  used  by  tlie  otticial  transciibers 
of  tlie  universities  and  churches.  These  men  had  received  a  more 
or  less  learned  education,  and  conse<iiiently  wrote  or  transcribed 
books  with  a  certain  pretence  of  understanding  them  and  of  being 
able  to  write  with  greater  rapi<iity  than  tlie  ordinary  caligrapher. 
Hence  tlicir  writing  may  be  called  {n)  the  cuTrenl  or  cursive  hook 
hand,  of  whicl)  a  good  many  illustrations  may  be  found  in  Wilh. 
Schum,  Excmpla  Codicum  Amplon.  Erfurlensium.  Quite  distinct 
from  this  current  writing,  and  much  clearer  and  more  distinct,  is 
[b)  the  upright  or  set  book  haiul,  wliich  was  employed  by  some 
writers  who  worked  for  universities  and  churches,  and  also  by  a  good 
many  wlio  may  be  presumed  to  have  worked  in  large  cities  and  com- 
jmercial  towns  for  schools  and  the  people  in  general  without  uni- 
versity connexion.  (2)  In  the  church  hand  (Gothic  or  black  letter) 
were  produced  transcripts  of  the  Bible,  missals,  psalters,  and  other 
woiks  intended  for  use  in  churches  and  private  places  of  worship. 
This  writing  we  may  again  subdivide  into  two  classes, — in)  the  ofna- 
mc:i(al  or  califjraphic  writing,  found  exclusively  in  books  intended 
for  use  in  churches  or  for  the  private  use  of  wealthy  and  distin- 
guished persons,  and  (/')  the  ordinary  uprif/ht  or  set  church  hand, 
tmployed  for  less  ornamental  and  less  expensive  books.  (3)  The 
httcr  hand  may  be  Said  to  be  intermediate  between  the  set  Ikerary 
Ijook  hand  and  the  set  literary  church  hand,  and  to  differ  but  little 
from  either.  It  was  employed  in  all  public  documents  of  the 
rature  of  a  letter.  (4)  The  court  or  c^iarCcr  haml  was  used  for 
charters,  title-deeds,  jt-pal  bulls,  kf. 

'  See  Ern  Satow,  ''On  the  Karly  Hist,  of  I'l-iiitini;  in  Japan,"  in 
Trans.  Asiat.  Soc  of  .In pan,  x.  48  sq.;  and  Stan.  Julieo,  "  Doeuniei.ts 
BUJ-  VAjt  d'lmjiriniei,"  he-    in  Juurn.  Asiat.,  4""  ser  ,  ix.  .^0^l. 


Dypold  Laber  (Lauber),  a  teacher  and  transcriber  at  Hagenau  in  15th- 
Geimany,  is  known  to  have  carried  on  a  busy  trade  in  nianusciipls  century 
just  about  the  time  of  the  invention  of  printing.  His  prospectuses,  book.-i, 
in  handwTiting  of  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  centuiy,  announce  ujilleu. 
that  whatever  books  people  wish  to  have,  large  or  small,  "geistlich 
oder  weltlicli,  hubsch  gemolt,"  are  all  to  be  found  at  Dypold  Lauber's 
the  scribe.  He  had  in  stock  Gcsta  Romannrnm,  viit  den  Viguren 
gcnolt ;  poetical  works  (Parcival,  Tristan,  Frcidank) ;  romances  of 
chivalry  (Der  IVitfarn  Hitter  ;  Von  cime  Gctruu-en  Rittcr  dcr  sin 
cifjen  Hcrtze  gab  umb  eincr  schojicn  Frowcn  willcn  ;  Der  Hitter  untcr 
dcm  -Zubcr) ;  Biblical  and  legendary  works  {A  Rimed  Bible  ;  A 
Psalter,  Latin  and  German  ,  Epistcln  mid  Evangelien  durch  das 
Jor ;  Vita  Christy  ;  Das  gantze  Passional,  wintcrteil  und  sionmcrteil ; 
devotional  books  {Bcllial  ;  Drr  Selen  Trost ;  Der  Rosenkrantz  ;  Die 
zchn  Gebot  mit  Glosen  ;  Small  Bette-Buchcr) ;  and  books  for  the 
people  (GiUe'Ttewehrlc  Artznien-Bucher  ;  Gcmolte  Loss- Biicher,  i.e., 
fortune-telling  books  ;  Schachtzabel  gemolt).  The  lower  educational 
books  consisted  for  the  most  part  of  the  Abecedaria,  containing  tlie 
alphabet,  the  Lord's  prayer,  the  creed,  and  one  or  two  prayers  ;  ihe 
Dontxtus,  a  short  Latin  grammar  extracted  from  the  work  of  .-^Clius 
Donatus,  a  Roman  grammarian  of  the  4th  century,  and  distinctly 
mentioned  in  a  school  ordinance  of  Bautzen  of  1418  ;  l\\e  Doctrinotc, 
a  Latin  grammar  in  leonine  verse,  compiled  by  Alexander  Callus 
(or  De  Villa  Dei),  a  minorite  of  Brittany  of  the  13th  century  ;  the 
Summula  Logica  of  Petrus  Hisjianus  (afterwards  Pope  John  X.XI.), 
used  in  the  leaching  of  logic  and  dialectics  ;  and  Dionysius  Cato's 
Disticha  de  Moribus,  and  its  supplement  called  Facetus,  with  the 
Floretus  of  St  Bernard,  used  in  the  teaching  of  morals.  As  heljis  to 
the  clergy  in  their  attempts  to  educate  the  lower  classes,  and  as -a 
means  of  assisting  and  promoting  private  devotion,  there  were 
picture  books  accompanied  with  an  easy  explanatory  test,  for  the 
most  part  representations  of  the  mystic  relation  between  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  (typology).  Among  these  books  the  Btblia 
Pauperuvi'^  stands  first.  It  represents  pictorially  the  life  and 
passion  of  Christ,  and  there  exist  jfSS.  of  it  as  early  as  the  13th 
century,  in  some  cases  beautifully  illuminated.^  A  richly  illumi- 
nated MS.  of  it,  executed  in  the  Netherlands  e.  1400,  is  in  the 
British  Museum  (press-mark,  King's,  5),  and  also  fragments  of  one  of 
the  14th  century  (press-mark,  31,303).  A  remodelling  and  develop- 
ment of  this  work  is  the  Speculum  Bumanx  Salmtionis,  a  work  itt 
rhyme  of  the  I4th  century,  which  in  forty-five  chapters  repre.sLUts 
the  Bible  history  interwoven  with  Mariolatry  and  legend.  Of  this 
work  the  Paris  national  library  and  arsenal  library  each  posscjscs  a 
MS.  composed  in  13'24,  whereas  the  British  Museum  has  nine  tlSS. 
(six  being  illuminated)  of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  written  iu 
the  Netherlands,  Germany,  France,  and  England,  one  (press-ni.irk, 
16,578)  bearing  the  distinct  date  1379  and  another  (press-mark, 
Egerton,  878)  that  of  1436.  A  work  of  a  similar  nature  is  the 
Apocalypsis,  of  which  at  least  two  recensions  with  illustrations  may 
be  pointed  out.  One  gives  the  text  as  we  know  it,  with  or  without 
commentary,  for  which  cf.  Brit.  Mus.,  17,333  (French),  18,633 
(French,  but  written  in  England),  Reg.  2  D.  xiii.,  and  22.493 
(French), — all  four  early  14th  century.  -  Another  is  more  a  short 
history  or  biography  of  St  John,  but  the  illustrations  follow  those 
of  the  former  work  very  closely  ;  c/.  Brit.  &Ius.,  19, 896  (15th  century, 
German).  It  is  this  last  recension  which  agrees  with  the  block- 
book  to  be  mentioned  hereafter.  Other  devotional  works  are  the 
Ars  Moricndi,  the  Antichrist,  and  other  works  which  will  be  foumi 
mentioned  among  the  block-books. 

Block-Printing  or  Aylograpliy. 

When  all  this  writing,  transcribing,  illuminating,  <tc.,  Ui<„.^ 
had  reached  their  period  of  greatest  development,  the  artprir- 
of  printing  from  wooden  blocks  (block-printing,  xylography) 
on  silk,  cloth,  itc,  vellum,  and  paper  made  its  appearance 
in  Europe.  It  seems  to  have  been  practised,  so  far  as  we 
liave  evidence,  on  cloth,  &.C.,  and  vellum  as  early  as  the  1 2th 
century,*  and  on  paper  as  far  back  as  the  second  half  of 
the  14th  century,  while  it  was  largely  employed  in  the 
early  part  of  the  15th  in  the  production  of  (1)  separate 
leaves  (called  briefs,  from  breve,  scriptuni),  containing  either 
a  picture  (print,  prent,  shortened  from  the  Fr.  emprint, 
empreinle,  and  already  used  by  Chaucer,  C.  T.,  6186,  six- 
text,  D.  604,  printe,  prenle,  preente,  and  in  other  early 
English  documents  ;  also  called  in  colloquial  German  I/e/ge, 
Hetglein,  or  Halgc)  or  a  piece  of  text,  or  both   together; 

*  We  find  this  title  applied  to  at  least  three  works, — (1)  the  well- 
known  block-book,  of  wliicli  we  speak  below,  (2)  a  treatise  "  in  ijua  da 
viliis  et  virtutibus  agitur,"  and  (3)  a  work  in  rhyme  by  AluJauJei 
Gallus. 

'  See  Laib  and  Schwarz,  Biblia  Paapcrum,  Zurich,  1867. 

'   Weigel,  Anfati'jc,  i.   10. 


filSTORlCAI,.] 


TYPOGRAPHY 


683 


and  of  (2)  whole  block-books,  sometimes  consisting  of  half 
picture  and  half  text,  or  wholly  of  text,  or  altogether  of 
picture.'  It  is,  however,  certain  that  about  ^1400  xylo- 
graphy ■^.  as  known  all  over  Germany,  Flanders,  and  Holland, 
la  thise  blocks,  as  in  wood-engraving  now,  the  lines  to  be  printed 
were  in  relief.  The  block,  after  the  picture  or  tha  text  had  been 
engraved  upon  it,  was  first  thoroughly  wetted  with  a  thin,  watery, 
pale  brown  material,  much  resembling  distemper  ;  then  a  sheet  of 
damp  paper  was  laid  upon  it,  and  the  back  of  the  paper  was  care-  ■ 
fully  rnbbed  with  some  kind  of  dabber  or  burnisher,  usually  called 
»/roUon,  till  an  impression  from  the  ridges  of  the  carved  block  had 
been  transferred  to  the  paper.  In  this  fashion  a  sheet  could  only 
be  printed  on  one  side  (anopisthographic) ;  and  in  some  copies  of 
block-books  we  find  the  sides  on  w^ich  there  is  no  printing  pasted 
t'>;;ether  so  as  to  give  the  work  the  appearance  of  an  ordinary  hook. 
There  arc  only  a  few  block-books  which  do  not  possess  this  char- 
n.teristic,  .as  the  Legend  of  SI  Servaluis  in  the  royal  library  of 
lirusscls.  Das  Zeitglockhin  in  the  Baml^erg  library  (c/.  Falkcnstein, 
p.  49),  Ikis  geistlich  iind  tndtlich  Rom  at  Althorp  and  Gotlia  (cf. 
F-ilkcnstein,  p.  46) ;  but  these  belong  to  the  end  of  the  15th  century, 
and  therefore  to  a  later  period  than  the  ordinary  block-books.  Con- 
sequently, if  a  man  wanted  to  set  up  as  a  printer  of  briefs  or  books, 
he  needed  no  apparatus  but  a  set  of  wood-blocks  and  a  rubber. 

Formerly  it  was  the  general  opinion  that  playing-cards  had 
been  the  first  products  of  xylography  ;  but  the  earliest  that  have 
been  preserved  to  us  are  done  by  hand,  while  the  printed  ones  date 
from  the  15th  century,  therefore  from  a  period  in  which  woodcuts 
were  already  used  for  other  purposes.  It  is  believed  that  some  of 
tlie  wood  engravings  and  block-books  were  printed  in  monasteries. 
Block'  In  a  necrology  of  the  Franciscan  monastery  at  Nbrdlingcn,  which 
printers,  comes  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  loth  ceuturj',  this  entry  occurs  : 
"VII.  Id.  Augusti,  obiit  Frater  h.  Lugcr,  laycus,  optimus  incisor 
Jignorum  " ;  and  on  some  of  the  engravings  we  find  the  arms  of 
certain  monasteries,  which  may,  however,  merely  mean  that  they 
were  printed  for,  not  in,  those  monasteries.  The  registers  of  Ulm 
mentiou  several  wood-engravers  {/ormschiindcr), — in  1398  a  certain 
Ulrich  ;  in  1441  Heiiirich  Peter  von  Erolzheim,  Joerg,  and  another 
Heinrich  ;  In  1442  Ulrich  and  Lienhort;  in  1447  Claus  (Nicolas), 
Stoffel  (Christopher),  and  Johann  ;  in  1155  Wilhelm  ;  in  1461 
Meister  Ulrich,  tc.  In  a  register  of  taxes  of  Nbrdlingcn  we  find 
from  142S  to  1452  a  certain  wilhelm  Kegeler  mentioned  as  bruf- 
Iriicker;  in  1453  his  widow  is  ciUed  alt  brief triickcrin ;  and  in 
1461  his  brother  Wilhelm  is  registered  for  the  same  craft.  At  Mainz 
there  was  a  printer,  Henne  Cruse,  in  1440.  At  Nuremberg  wc  find 
in  1449  Hans,  a.  forvischneidcr,  while  his  son  Junghans  exercised 
the  same  industry  from  1472  to  1490.  Hans  von  Pfedershcim  printed 
at  Frankfort  in  1459,  and  Peter  Schott  at  Strasburg  in  1464.  A 
certain  George  Glockendon  exercised  the  same  trade  at  Nuremberg 
t'U  1474,  when  he  died,  being  succeeded  by  a  son  and  afterwards 
by  a  grandson.  In  Flanders  a  Jan  de  Printere  was  established  at 
Antwerp  in  M17  ;  and  printers  and  wood  engravers  {houtc  bild- 
snyiers)  worked  there  in  1442  (.Privileges  of  the  Corporation  of  St 
\ukc  at  Antwerp).  At  Bruges  priritcrs  and  heeldemnkers  (makers, 
engravers  of  images)  were  cnumprated  in  1454  among  the  members 
of  the  fraternity  of  St  John  the  Evangelist.  The  printers  of  playing 
cards  seem  to  have  constituted  a  separate  class.  These  entries  show 
that  about  the  middle  of  the  15th.  century  there  were  men  who 
exercised  the  art  of  wood-engraving  and  printing  as  a  trade  or  craft. 
It  seems  also  certain  that  wealthy  persons  and  religious  institutions 
were  wont  to  possess  sets  of  blocks,  and,  when  occasion  arose,  they 
printed  a  set  of  sheets  for  presentation  to  a  friend,  or  in  the  case  of 
monasteries  for  sale  to  the  passing  pilgrim.  A  printer  of  briefs  or 
block-books  had  no  need  to  serve  an  apprenticeship;  any  neat- 
handed  man  could  print  for  himself.  Wc  learn  from  the  inventory 
of  the  possessions  of  Jean  de  Hinsberg,  Hshopof  Liege  (1419-1455), 
and  his  sister,  a  nun  in  the  convent  of  Bethany,  near  Mechlin,  that 
they  possessed  "unura  instrumentum  ad  imprimcndas  scriptnras  et 
ymagines,"  and  "  novcm  printe  lignce  ad  impriniendas  ymagincs 
cum  quatuordecim  aliis  lapideis  printis."  These  entries  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  people  purchased  engraved  blocks  of  wood 
or  of  stone  from  the  woodcutter  rather  than  books  from  a  printer. 
Vi'riy  The  earliest  dated  woodcut  that  we  know  of  is  the  St  Christopher 

■l.nted  of  1423,  preserved  in  the  library  of  Lord  Spencer  at  Althorp.  The 
"ood-en>  llfary  engraving,  which  is  preserved  at  IJrusscls  and  apparently 
(T-avings.  bears  the  date  mccccxviii.,  is  now  declared  to  be  of  1469,  the  date 
having  been  falsified.  The  next  date  after  that  of  the  St  Christopher 
is  1437,  found  on  a  woodcut  preserved  in  the  imperial  library  at 
Vienna.  It  was  discovered  in  1779  in  the  monastery  of  St  Blaise  in 
the  Black  Forest,  and  represents  the  martyrdom  of  St  Sebastian, 
with  fourteen  lines  of  text.  The  date,  however,  is  said  by  others 
to  refer  to  a  concession  of  indulgences.  A  woodcut,  preserved  in 
the  library  at  Vienna,  which  rcpreseiits  St  Nicolas  do  Tolentino, 
has  thedatcl440.  but  written  in  by  hand  ;  as  the  saint  w-as  canonized 

Vw>  have  also  cviilcncc  that  soinctimes  the  picture  nr  limircs  were  printed 
rr«!i:  l.iocks,  space  bein^  rosprved  for  the  text,  to  be  addeil  afterwanis  by  hand 
{s, ,.  r-  manl,  Oriffirw,  i.  10'-/. 


ii.  that  year,  it  may  refer  to  thaf  event.  Another  in  the  Weigel 
collection  representing  the  bearing  of  the  cross,  St  Dorothea  and 
St  Alexis,  has  the  date  1443,  also  written  in  by  hand,  though  the 
woodcut  is  considered  to  belong  to  that  period.  These  are  the  only 
known  woodengrarings  with  dates  anterior  to  the  second  half  of 
the  15lh  century.  But  there  exist  a  good  many  woodcuts  which, 
from  the  style  of  the  engra-\-ing,  are  presumed  to  be  of  an  earlier 
date,  and  to  have  been  printeil  partly  in  the  fourteenth  and  partly 
in  the  first  half  of  the  lolh  century.  J.  D.  Passavant^  enumerates 
twenty-seven,  all  of  German  origin  and  preserved  in  various  libraries 
in  Germany,  while  in  the  Colleetio  l^eigeliana  (vol.  i. )  no  fewer 
than  154  are  recorded,  some  of  w-hich  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
Netherlands.  We  know  of  the  existence  o"f  at  least  five  engravings 
which  m.iy  be  ascribed  to  the  Netherlands  :—(l)  representing  the 
Virgin  Mary,  with  Dutch  inscriptions,  in  tlie  museum  at  Berlin  ; 
(2)  representing  the  Virgin  Mary  spoken  of  above,  in  the  library  at 
Brussels  ;  (3)  representing  St  Anthony  and  St  Sebastian,  in  the 
Wcigel  collection  ;  (4)  a  St  Hubert  and  St  Eustatius,  in  the  royal 
library  at  Brussels  ;  (5)  representing  the  Child  Jesus,  in  the  library 
at  Berlin  ;  (C)  the  Mass  of  St  Gregory,  with  indulgence,  in  the 
Weigcl  collection  (ef.  i.  195). 

Of  block-books  of  probable  German  origin  the  following  areBlo'Jc 
known  : —  books  of 

(1)  The  Apoealypsis^  or  HistoriaS.  Johannis  Evangelists  cjusqne  Ger:ii.ir» 
Visiones  Apocalypticx  (Germ.  Das  Buck  der  kaymhckcJi  Offcnba-  oriiria 
rui\qen  Sand  Johmix).    Of  this  work  six  or  seven  editions  are  said  to 

exist,  each  containing  forty-eight  (the  2d  and  3d  edition  fifty)  illus- 
trations, 5n  as  many  anopisthographic  leaves,  which  seem  to  have 
been  divided,  into  three  quires  of  eight  sheets  each.  The  first 
edition  alone  is  without  signatures. 

(2)  Ars  Morietidi.  Of  this  work  some  authors  think  that  there 
are  caily  German  editions,  among  others  that  spoken  of  below  as  the 
2d  Dutch  edition.  Certainly  German  is  the  edition  of  Hans  Sporer 
of  Nuremberg,  1473,  in  the  public  library  at  Zwickau,  of  another  by 
Ludwigzu  Ulm,  iu  the  Paris  national  library,  and  of  that  described 
in  Colleetio  Weigel,  (ii.  16),  where  also  other,  but  opisthogiaphic, 
editions  arc  described. 

(3)  Ars  Memorandi ;  thitty  leaves,  folio,  printed  on  one  side,  fifteen 
leaves  being  letter-press  and  fifteen  plates. 

(4)  Sahe  Regina,  bears  the  name  of  its  engraver,  Lienhart 
czu  Regenspurck.  It  is  composed  of  sixteen  leaves  ;  two  leaves 
(signature  a)  are  wanting  in  thc_only  copy  known  of  it,  which  was 
in  the  Weigel  collection  (ii.  103T. 

(5)  Vila  Christi ;  thirty-two  leaves,  sm.  8vo.  Two  copies  in  Ihe 
Paris  library  (Sotheby,  ii.  143). 

(6)  The  Ten  Commandments  for  Unlearned  People  [Die  tehn  Bole 
fur  die  ungeler)ile  Lent).  Ten  leaves  are  preserved  in  the  library 
at  Heidelberg  bound  up  with  a  manuscript  (No.  438).-* 

(7)  The  Passion  of  Our  Lord ;  sixteen  leaves,  in  the  Weigcl 
collection  (Sotheby,  ii-  141). 

(8)  The  Antichrist  (Dcr  Enndchrist)  ;  twenty -six  leaves,  small 
folio  (Sotheby,  il  3?  ,  Wcigel,  ii.  111).  Copies,  Lord  Spencer  and 
coll.  Wcig. 

(9)  Tlie  Fifteen  Sispis  of  the  Last  Judgment ;  twelve  engravings, 
usually  bound  up  with  the  engravings  of  The  Antichrist  (Sotheby, 
ii.  42).  Copy,  Lord  Spencer.  There  is  also  an  edition  published 
at  Nuremberg  in  1472  by  Junghaniiss,PrilVmaler. 

(10)  Symbobnn  Aposlolicum  ;  small  quarto,  seven  leaves  printed 
on  one  side  only,  and  containing  twelve  woodcuts  with  German 
inscriptions.  The  only  copy  of  it  known  is  preserved  in  the  library 
of  Munich  (Sotheby,  ii.  148). 

(11)  The  Legend  of  St  Mcinrad ;  forty-eight  leaves.  The  only  copy 
known  is  preserved  in  the  Munich  library  (Sotheby,  ii.  150). 

(12)  The  AcH  Sehttlkheiten,  of  which  eight  leaves  were  in  the 
Weigcl  collection  (i.  112  ;  Sotheby,  ii.  154). 

.  (13)  The  Fable  of  the  Sick  Lion ;  twelve  leaves,  preserved  in  the 
litrary  at  Heidelberg  (No.  438  ;  see  Sotheby,  ii.  159,  pi.  Ixxxvi.). 
{\i)  Dcfcnsoriumjnviolalx  Virginilalis  b.  Marix  Virginis  ;  six- 
teen leaves  fol.  The  unique  copy  is  in  the  British  Museum.  On 
the  first  leaf  are  the  initials  of  the  printer  F[riedrich]  W[altheren] 
and  the  date  1 470  (Sothebv,  ii.  p.  63). 

(15)  The  s»ine  work,  twenty-seven  leaves,  large  folio,  with  the 
Imprint  "Johannes  eysenhut  impressor  Anno  ab  incarnacois  dnice 
M°  quadringentcsimo  septuagesimo  j°"  (t/.  Sotheby,  ii.  72).  Cop/ 
in  the  British  Museum. 

(16)  Tilt  Dance  of  Death  (Dance  Macabre,  Der  Doten  Danlz) , 
twenty-seven  leaves  (Sotheby,  ii.  156). 

(17)  Z)!C  A'KTis^CiVomandaof  Dr  Johan  Hartlieb  (Sotheby,  ii.  84). 
(IS)  Der  Beichtspiegd ov  Confcssionale  :  eight  engravings(Sothcby, 

ii.  145).     Copy  in  the  royal  library  at  The  Hague. 

(19)  The  Apostles'  Creed ;  seven  leaves,  folio.  Copy  at  Wol- 
fenbiittcl. 

(20)  The  Credo,  in  German  ,  twelve  leaves,  quarto.  Copy  in  the 
royal  library  at  Munich^ 

2  U  F'lntre-Gna-euT,  i.  27  SQ. 

3  See  Jf>h.  GofTckcn,  Der Bitdercntcchismus  der  IC-Jahrk.,  Leipsic,  1S66.  quarto^ 
Sotlicby,  ij.  100. 


684 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[historical 


Proiyugmuula.  scu  Turris  Snpic^Uix ;  one  sheet,  piano,  Brit.  Mus. 

(Sotlieb-,  iL  164).  .  . 

nr  Block-books  of  Netherlandish  ongiu  are  :— 

Nether-        d )  J^Mia  Pauperum  ;  forty  leaves  (each  bearing  a  s.gnatu  e     o 
Wish     to  V.   ato .«.).     Asmanyasseyen  editions  have  been  drst-.g-ished 
;^,in       bv  SothebY  (i.  43  ;  see  also  Holtrop,  Monum.  Typ.,  p.  3). 
^ngm.      "y  .^XVorimii ;  >  twenty-four  leaves,  small  folio,  thirteen  con- 

taining  text,  eleven  plates  (see  Sotheby,  L  69  ;  .Ho'lfT.  P-.  ?'-^ .    . 
(3)  Ck^nlUum  Canticorum.  Histona  seu  Promdcniia  £.   Vxrgtms 

UaAx  ex  Cantko  Caiilicorum;  sixteen  leaves,  in  fol.  (Sotheby,  i. 

'''' (i)^LiU^'R'-'gum,  seu  Bisloria  Davidis ;  twenty  leaves,   folio 
(Sotheby,  i.  120b).     Some  consider  this  to  be  a  German  work. 

(5)  Eiireitium  super  Pater  Xosler,  by  Henricus  dc  Pomeno  ;  ten 
leaves,  small  folio  (Sotheby.  ii.  137  ;  Holtrop,  p.  lO)-" 

(6)  TempleUioncs  Demmis  Temptanlis  Homincni  deSepUm  /  Malis 
MorLlihJ;  a  single  large  folio  leaf  printed  on  one  side  Two  eop.es, 
one  in  British  MSseumr  the  other  in  the  library  at  Wolfenbuttel. 

(7)  Vita  Ckristi,  or  the  Li/eand  Passim  of  Chnsl ;  tbirtysiic  cuts, 
oti-nnally  printed  in  a  press  en  six  anopisthographic  leaves,  8vo. 
In  the  library  at  Erlangen  (see  Campbell,  Anriaes  ji^). 

IS)  Bistoria  Sancls  Crucis-.a.  fragment  of  one  leaf  (with  signature 
,),  preserved  in  the  Weigel  collection  (ii.  92),  which  seems  to  b«  a 
proof-sheet  only.  o  .u  u..   ;  loos  s 

(9)  Alphabet  in  figures  (Holtrop,  p.  11  ;  Sotheby,  1. 122). 
10)  Amerium  Spirituale.M  Henncus  de  Pomeno  or  Henry 
Bogaert ;  twelve  leaves," having  twelve  woodcuts  accompanied  by 
MS  text,  in  the  library  at  Brussels  (Holtrop,  Hon.  Typ,  P- 9)-  " 
bears  the  date  1440  in  two  places  ;  but  some  contend  that  this 
refers  to  the  date  when  the  book  was  written/. not  wbep  the  engrav- 

'"fesid^Th?  worVs  of  Sotheby,  Holtrop,  and  Weigel  already 
quoted,  consult  W.  M.  Conway,  The  Woodcutkrs  of  Ih^J^ctlurlands 
iK  the  15th  Century.  Cambridge,  1S84  ;  Heineken,  7de^  ffe-u^afe, 
Leipsic  1771  ■  J.  Ph.  Berjeau,  FacsimxUs  cf  the  Biblw.  Paupenm, 
Caiiicilm  Canticorum,  Speculum,  London,  1859-1861;  and  Id., 
Catal  niiislrides  Livres  Xylogr.,  London,  1865. 


Earli/  Printing  ot  ifainz 
When  we    for   the  moment,  -leave  out  of   sight   the 
question  as  'to  when,   where,   and  by  whom  the  art  of 
printing  with  movable  metal  types  was  invented,  and  take 
our  stand  on  well -authenticated  dates  in  such   printed 
documents  as  have  been  preserved  to  us,  we  find  that  the 
first  printed  date,  1454,  occurs  in  two  different  editions  ot 
the  same  letters  of  indulgence  issued  in  that  year  by  1  ope 
Nicholas  V.  in  behalf  of  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus. 
tJicholas      These  two  editions  are  distinguished  respectively  as  the  31  line 
%tT  and  the  30-line  indulgence.     The  former,  of  -'■''^l'  '  I™ ^^i.;'  ^  , 
dul-ence  issues  with  the  printed  date  mcccclnu..  and  a   f"""*"  ^^'V'"'' 
,f  1454:  printed  date  mcccclv.,  are  known  to  exist,  clai.r.s  ,.,ipiuy'  fiom 
a  chronological  point  of  view  over  the  latter,  of  which  one  issue 
"vith  the  printerdate  mccccliiu.,  and  two  issues  wuh  the  prmted 
date  mcccclquinto,  are  known  to  exist,  because  one  of  the  sold 
copieXt  h\s  been  preserved  was  issued  at  Evurton  15th  l^oveni- 
l^?  1454,  whereas  of  the  36-line  indulgence  the  earliest  sold  copy 
that  has  as  yet  come  down  to  us  was  issued  at  Cologne  on  27  h 
February  1455,  though  it  distinctly  has  the  printed  date  mcccclm,. 
but  altS^d  wiih  the  pen  to  mccccliiii  .     In  t he  31-l.ne  indu  gence 
occur  (1)  a  large  church  type  usually  regarded  as  identical  with 
that  of  the  36-Une  Bible,  and  used  for  the  rubrics  of  the  absolutions, 
for  the  word  with  which  the  document  commences,  and  for  the 
Christian  name  of  the  pope's  legate  ;  (2)  a  smaller  text  or  brief  type 
which  was  afterwards  very  closely  imiUted.  if  not  actually  used,  at 
EltvUle,  in  printing  the  1472  edition  of  the  Voea^ulartus  ex  quo 
and  an  edition  of  the  Summa  dt  Arliculi^  Fidei  of  Thomas  Aquinas; 
(3)  a  large  initial  V  and  two  large  initials  M,  winch  differ  froin 
each  other.     In  the  30-line  indulgence  occur  (1)  a  large  churcli 
type   which  is  used  as  in  the  31  lino  indulgence,  and  is  usually  re- 
carded  as  identical  with  that  of  the  42  line  Bible  ;  (2)  a  smalh-r  text 
or  brief  type,  of  which  as  yet  no  further  trace  has  been  found  ;  (i) 
%  large  initial  U.  and  two  large  initials  M.  which  differ  from  each 
other,  the  first  being  identical  with  the  initial  M  of  the  second 
absolution  of  a  33-line  indulgence  printed  by  Peter  SchoeHer  in 
1489    for    "Raymundus    Peyraudi,    archidiaconus    Alnisiensis   in 
1  Hcineken  enumerates  s.x  editions,  of  ^.l..chpnel.as  mschpl.ons  inGerraan 
«M  .Uoan  article  by  Guicbard,  in  BM.  rfu  B.!...op».,(e.  Pans   IS41. 

?  See  also  W.  M   Conway.  Sola  m  U^  Ewatium  ^p,r  ral'Tho^rW^. 
>  There  is  one  cni.y  In  the  Britisli  Museum  and  another  in  ll.e  hbrarv  at  Ba^el. 
this  last  having  the  dale  H64  cn:n3ved  on  ihe  letter  A.  which  is  mutilated  in  the 
foniier      A  jimUar  alphabet  [.r^s^ived  at  Dresden  seems  to  U-  a  copy  made  id 

^V'mV'w.  M.  Conway  la  of  a  dilTerent  opinion ;  see  ScUi  ,»'"„^"7;''"'";^ 
Dumorticrtcslirics  to  having  seen  another  copy  unaccompanied  by  MS.  I    I^oles 

*ur  rimprimeric,"  in  B<'U .  Aaxd.  /Joy.  rff  Mg..  vol.  viii.    1811). 

»  No  inferences  can  be  drawn  from  this  prionty.  "  it  merely  resU  on  Ihe 
.date  oft  sold  copy  that  has  come  to  li^ht. 


erclesia  Xanton."  who  issued  it  it  the  order  of  Pope  Innocent 
VIII  ,  "  pro  tuicione  orthodoxe  fidei  contra  Turchos.       lliese  two 
different  editions  are  usually  regarded  as  having  been  printed  at  NUint 
Mainz  ;  and,  so  long  as  there  is  no  evidence  to  the  contrary,  we  may  i^nntiiit 
ass-ume  that  such  wts  really  the  fact.    But  we  must  at  the  same  time 
conclude  that  about  November  1454  there  were  at  least  two  nval 
printers  at  work  there, -(1)  the  printer  of  the  31_line  indulgence 
whose  name  has  not  yet  transpired,  but  who  may  have  been  Johan 
Gutenberg,  perhaps  subsidizedly  Johan  Fust ;  (2)  the  printer  of  the 
30-line  indulgence,  who  was  no  doubt  Peter  (Schoeffer)  de  Gernss- 
heym,  on  account  of  the  connexion  of  this  indulgence  with  that 
of  1489   which  was  unquestionably  printed  by  him.     Latterly  four 
written  conies  of  the  same  indulgence  have  been  found   which  re- 
^    t  vely'bear  the  dates.-Frank'fort,  10th  AprU  1454  (m  the  pos^ 
session   of  Herr  Lais,   Wiesbaden) ;    Frankfort,  llth  Ap/J  "5* 
(Frankfort  archives) ;  llth  July  1454  (place  unknown  i  Darmstadt 
archives) ;  Lubeck.  6th  October  1454.     As  their  dates  precede  by 
a  few  weeks  only  the  earliest  known  printed  date  (15  h  Noyembe 
1454).  they  mark,  perhaps,  the  exact  time  when  pnnting  made  its 
appearance  at  Mainz  in  an  already  advanced  state  of  peri^ection. 
'^In  foUo^nc  up  the  basis  afforded  by  the  above  indulgences  we  Eaily 
may  give Tslfort'^chronological  view  of  the  early  printing  at  Mainz,  m^^i 

known  printer,  H54.  ^^^ 

(i  t  31-IiDe  indulgence;  three  different  Types  3  Oarge  church  type)  and  4 
issues  (A,  B.  C),  with  the  printed  (smaller  brief  type),  "^d.^y^P?"' 
year  mccccliiii..  and  one  issne  (D)  fechoeffer  de  Oemssheym,  1454-14M. 
with  the  printed  year  mcccclv.  All  yj  j  so-line  indolgence  ;  one' issue  (A) 
prinUsl  on  vellum.  Of  issue?  A  *  '  ^t],  y,j  printed  year  roccscliiii  , 
and  B  no  sold  copies  have  yelcome  ^^j   t„o  issues  (B.  C)  with  the 

to  ligtit    Three  unsold  copies  of  piinted  year  mcccclquinto.     All 

each  are  preserved  at  (1)  Bruus-  printed  on  vellum.      Of  issue  A 

wick.  (2)  Wolfenbultel,    and  (3)  only  one  copy  has  been  discovered. 

Hanover  (Culemann).    Of  issue  C  jkjw  in  Lord  Spencer's  library.    It 

eightsoldcopiesareknowntoextst  ^^3  s^jd   at  Cologne  on  Feb.  27 

invariouslibranes.withdatesfrom  j^^g^  fj,e  printed  date  mccccliiiL 

Nov.  15  1454  to  Apr.  30  1455.  Also  having  been  altered  with  the  pen 

four  unused  copies  have  been  dis-  ^^  incccclii.ij.      Of  issue   B  two 

covered.  Of  issue  D  ten  sold  copies  sold  oopies.  with  dates  Apr.  11  aud 

with  dates  from  Mar.  7 1455  to  Apr.  29J455,  are  in  the  Berlin  library 

SO  1435  and  four  unused  copies  are  j„j  the  Bnt   Uus.     Of  issue  C 

known.  two  sold  copies,  with  ilates  Feb. 

22  and  Apr  24  U55, are  at  Hanover 
(Culemann)  and  Wolfenbultel.  An 
unsold  copy  is  at  Hanover  (Cule- 
mann). 


TvPE  1.  conftnufd  ;  for  type  2 

see  below. 

(n  )  Mar.ung  yMder  die  Durkc.     An  al- 

r"^"^"    Si'  .•I,d°'o,'''f,nevrn  Tnes*  TvPE  3.  confi.W  (till  about  1457); 
JpT'only  co°py  'llnoT; -aa'd".  ,.  of  typ^'4  no  further  trace  is  found, 

covered  at  Augsburg,  and  is  now  (il.)  Donalus  of  24,  25   or  26  lines.  24 

in  the  Munich  library.  (7)  haves  ;   one  leaf  (the  8th  or 

(iii  )  Coniuncluraw  «  (tppositiimes  Solis  9th "I  in  the  Mainz  library. 

^      ct   binx.      A  calendar  for   1457,  (,ii.)  Uoyuxlus  of  32  lines,  14  (?)  leaves, 

a  broadside  sheet,  printed  on  one  ihe  lOth  (?)  lU  the  Mainz  library, 

side.    The  upper  half  of  the  only  (iv.)  i>una(us  of  33  lines,  two  leaves 

copy    known    was    discovered   at  in  the  Paris  library. 

Mainz   ami  Is   now  in   Uie  Paris  (v.)  Oonntns  of  35  lines,  folio;  printed, 

m„jry  according  to  the  colophon,     per 

(iv  )  Der  Cisianus  (not  Cislanus)  ru  Tctrum  dc  Gcmssheym,  in   urbe 

DuU'che.  A  broadside  sheet,  printed  Moguntiiia  cum  suis  capit^libus. 

on    one    side,    36    lines,    besides  (vi.)  42.|inc  Bible  (also  called  Mazannt 

separate   head-line       The   Tross  Bible),    printed    before    Aug     IS 

copy.    menli..ned    in    Suppl.    to  1456.  as  the  binder  of  the  lapet 

Bni,  efs  Wn-xd  (1S7S.  s.v.  "Cis-  copy  in   the  Paris  library  state, 

lanus").  was  bought  in  1S70  for  the  that  he   finished    its  rubrication 

(^iiihridge  university  library.  ohthatday.   2  vols,  fol.,  641  leaves 

(V  )  and  (vi  )  IWnalus     Two  dilferent  of  2  columns  of  42  lines  each.  ex. 

*  ■'ed.t.on80fI4(^l.aveseach.2-|ine3  cej.t    that    in   ,^°™   .'"P'!?    "'« 

(B  Mus    C   18e  1.  No3.  2and  5).  columns  of  pp.  1-9  contam  40  hnej 

(vii  )  iWii  of  30  lines,  12  fO  leaves ;  only,  while  the  10th  Page  h"  » 

'a  fragment  of  the  Sth  O  in   the  columns  of  41  lines  each,  though 

vVrni  lihrarv  <lie  dilTercnce  m  the  number  ol 

(viil  )  36  line  B?ble.     2  vols.  fol..  852  lines  makes  no  difference  in  tbl 

leav-es   with  2  columns  ol  36  hoes  space  which  they  occupy 7 

M^h    OL    a    page       Some    biblio-  Cvn.)42.1ine   Canlial    od    Mal„hruis. 

^pherac^lUlYthe  Pfister  Bible.  The  first  and  rmly  lea    kno«o^ 

issiming  that  I'lister  printed  iL  in  the  Pans  library.    It  is  ptmt«d 

^eTanl  library  poss-sses  a, .apcr  on    vellum.    »'"' ,  ,«'',^l^"|y» 

copv.  and  also  a  separate  copy  of  every  respect  to  I  '«  Inline  B  ble. 

thi'list  leaf,  winch  bears  the  MS.  baving  double  columns,  42  bnes. 

dat«  1461.     Other  copies  exist  in  &C.                              .          ,.      .j 

The  above  four  types  and  the  books  printed  with  them  (besides 
a  few  others  printed  by  Albrecht  Pfister  at  Bamberg)  are  the  only 
ones  that  stand  in  close  connexion  with  the  question  regarding  the 
introduction,  or  the  possible  invention,  of  printing  at  M.inz.  It  has 
been  pointed  out  above  that  one  of  the  initial  M  s  of  the  30-1  nc 
indulgence  of  1454  occors  again  in  an  indulgence  «f  lj89.  printoi 
by  Schocffer  ;  hence  types  3  and  4  and  the  books  printed  with  t^ 
must  be  ascribed  to  this  printer.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  captUl 
P  found  in  the  indulgence  does  not  seem  to  occur  agaiii  in  the  4Z- 
line  Bible  No  further  trace  of  the  brief  type  4  has  yet  been  found, 
and  perhaps  Schocffer  melted  it  down  for  his  other  types.  As 
SchoelTer.  in  the  colophon  of  the  Donalus  (v.)  which  bears  his 

6  See  Hessels  Culenbers.  p  160;  and  Bernard.  Origint.  ii.  31 

7  For  other  copies,  see  Bernard,  Origins.  <■  104. 177-192  ;  and  Hessels,  Col«. 

'<r(i.  170. 


ITOTORICAL.] 


TYPOGRAPHY 


685 


tune  alone,  says  that  it  was  printed  "cnm  suis  capitalibus,"  and 
IS  these  capitals  gradually  disappear  after  H59  and  the  type  of  the 
12-UQe  Bible  is  no  longer  found  after  1456,  we  must  presume  that 
the  seren  incunabula  mentioned  above  were  printed  by  Peter 
5choeffer  alone  before  he  entered  (in  1457)  into  partnerehip  with 
Fohan  Fust' 

There  is  no  such  certainty  as  regards  types  1  and  2  and  the  books 
printed  with  them.  If  the  31-line  indulgence  may  be  assumed  to 
nave  been  printed  at  Mainz,  its  printer  was  in  all  probability  Johan 
Gutenberg,  though  it  would  seem  from  a  lawsuit  of  1455  (see  p.  690 
kelow)  between  him  and  Fust  that  in  that  year  Gutenberg  had  not 
fet  printed  anything,  and  in  1454  (1455)  Fust  evidently  called  him 
to  account  for  not  naving  produced  anything.  Certain'circum- 
itances  point  to  Albrecht  Pfister  as  the  printer  of  the  eight  incuna- 
kula  in  the  left-hand  column.  First,  he  undoubtedly  printed  with 
;ype  1  in  that  city  as  early  as  1461,  for  on  14th  February  of  that 
fear  he  issued  in  that  type  an  edition  of  Boner's  EdelsUin  (88 
leaves,  fol.,  with  wood  engravings),  and  printed  with  the  same  tyjw 
It  least  eight  other  works,-  one  of  which  was  issued  in  1462,  the 
(even  others  without  a  date.  Secondly,  most  of  the  copies  of  the 
16-Iine  Bible  were  at  one  time  or  another  preserved  in  the  libraries 
•f  Bavaria,  and  a  great  number  of  fragments  have  been  discovered 
U)  monasteries  in  that  country,  even  in  a  re^ster  of  the  abbey  of 
St  Michael  at  Bamberg  of  the  year  1460.  Thirdly,  a  transfer  of 
type  from  Gutenberg  to  Pfister  is  contrary  to  all  analogy  in  the 
infancy  of  printing,  when  every  printer  started  with  a  type  of  his 
own  making.  But,  as  there  is  no  direct  evidence  as  to  who  really 
possessed  types  1  and  2  before  1460,  we  have  not  felt  justified  in 
assigning  the  31-Iine  indulgence  and  the  other  seven  incunabula 
(including  the  36-line  Bible)  to  Pfister. 
The  It   is   alleged    that,   in   consequence  of  the   lawsuit  between 

CtttAdi-  Gutenberg  and  Fust,  the  former  was  deprived  of  all  tools,  kf. ,  which 
am  type,  he  had  made,  or  is  supposed  to  have  made,  with  the  money  which 
the  latter  had  advanced  to  him,>aBd  that  afterwards  a  certain  Dr 
'Honiery  or  Humery,  a  syndic  oflilainz,  lent  him  fresh  money  to 
enable  him  to  establish  another  printing  office.  This  allegation  is 
made  on  the  strength  of  a  letter  of  obligation  (of  26th  February 
1468),  given  by  Dr  Homery  to  Adolph,  the  archbishop  of  Mainz, 
by  which  he  acknowledges  to  have  received  from  the  said  arch- 
bishop "several  forms,  letters,  instruments,  implements,  and  other 
things  belonging  to  the  work  of  printing,  which  Johan  Gutenberg 
had  left  after  his  death,  and  which  had  belonged  and  still  did  be- 
long to  him  (Dr  Homery)."  It  is  presumed  that  with  these  types, 
which  we  may  call  the  Mainz  type  No.  5,  Gutenberg  printed  (i. ) 
Joannes  de  Balbis,  Calholiam,  1460,  373  leaves,  folio,  2  columns  of 
66  lines  each,  copies  of  which  exist  in  the  Cambridge  university 
library,  three  in  the  British  Museum,  two  in  the  Pans  library,  in 
Lord  Spencer's  library,  in  the  Wolfenbiittel  and  Mainz  librar'es, 
&c.  ;  (ii.)  Matthseus  de  Cracovia,  Tradatus  Rationis,  22  leaves, 
4to,  30  lines,  three  copies  of  which  arc  in  the  British  Museum,  one 
at  Althorp,  one  in  the  Cambridge  library,  two  in  the  Paris  library, 
ic.  ;  (iii.  and  iv.)  Thomas  Aquinas,  Summa  de  AHiculis  Fidei, 
two  editions  in  4to,  the  first  of  13  leaves  and  34  lines, — two  copies 
of  which  are  in  the  British  Museum,  one  in  Lord  Spencer's,  the 
Cambridge  library,  &c. — and  the  second  of  12  leaves  and  36  lines, 
— fopies  in  the  British  Sluseum  and  the  Paris  library  ;  and  (v.)  in- 
dulgence of  1461  of  15  lines. 

On  ISth  January  1465  Adolph  II.,  archbishop  of  Mainz,  ap- 
pointed "Johan  Gudenberg,  on  account  of  his  grateful  and  willing 
service,  his  servant  and  courtier  Idhiencr  uiid  hoffgesind)  for  life, 
promising  to  supply  him  with  clothing  and  each  year  20  'malter' 
of  corn  and  2  '  fuder'  of  v>ine."  It  has  always  been  inferred  from 
this  that  Gutenberg  had  quitted  Mainz  and  gone  to  EltviUe  (Elfeld) 
to  reside  at  the  archbishop's  court,  and  that,  his  dignity  as  courtier 
preventing  him  from  printing  himself,  he  )>assed  the  Cnlholicon 
types  on  to  Henry  Bechtermuneze  at  Eltville.  But  recent  re- 
searches have  shoivn  that  Gutenberg  remained  at  Mainz  till  his 
death  in  1 468.  We  certainly  find  in  1467  the  Cnlholicon  type  with 
some  additions  (already  found  In  the  indulgence  of  1461)  at  Eltville 
near  Mainz,  in  the  hands  of  Henry  and  Nicholas  Bechtermnnrzc 
and  WIgandns  Spyesde  Orthcnberg.  who  finished  on  4th  November 
of  that  year  (vi.)  Vocabularius  ex  j«o(a  Latin-German  vocabulary) 
in  4to,  166  leaves,  35  lines,  the  only  known  copy  of  which  is  in 
the  Paris  library,  and  (vii.)  Vocabularivs  ex  q^io,  second  edition, 
with  colophon  dated  5th  June  1469,  4to,  165  leaves,  35  lines,  copies 
of  which  exist  in  Lord  Spencer's  library,  at  Blenheim,  and  in  the 
Paris  library.  Now  it  is  asked  how  the  Bechtemiunczes  could 
have  been  using  the  Catholkon  type  in  1467,  if  we  assume  that  it 
was  this  type  to  which  Homery  refers  in  his  letter  of  obligation  as 
being  in  his  possession.  Some,  therefore,  conclude  that  the  Catholi- 
eon  and  the  four  other  works  in  the  same  type  were  printed  at 
Mainz  by  Henry  Bechtermuneze,  \vho  may  afterwards  have  trans- 
ferred liis  printing  office  to  Eltville.  In  that  case  it  is  difficult  to 
see  what  type  Homery  could  refer  to,  unless  it  were  type  2,  a  close 
imitation  of  which,  if  not  the  actual  type,  was  used  by  Nicholas 


1  See  forilctaiU.  Ilessels,  GuUnherg,  p.  166 aj. 
See  Hessels,  UuUnberQ,  p.  161  sq. 


Bechtermuneze  at  Eltville  in  printing  {12th  March  1472)  a  third 
edition  of  the  Vocabuianiis  ex  quo,  166  leaves,  35  lines,  copies  of 
which  are  preserved  in  the  Paris  and  Hamburg  libraries,  and  an 
edition  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  Summa  de  Ariiculia  Fidei,  12  leaves, 
35,  lines  (Munich  library).' 

It  is  necessary  to  point  out  that  for  nearly  seventy  years  eight 
books — (1)  Prognostication  or  Calendar;  (2)  Hermann  de  Saldis, 
Speculum  Sacerdotum  ;  {3)  Traclatus  de  Celcbratione  Missarum ;  (4) 
a  work  in  German  treating  of  the  necessity  of  councils ;  (5)  Dialogus 
inter  Hugorum  Cathmumet  Olivcrium  super  Libcrtate  Ecclesiastical 
(6)  Sifridus  de  Arena,  Determtnatio  Duarum  Quasstionum  ;  (7) 
Id.,  Bespohsio  ad  Quatuor  Qusestiones;  (8)  Klagspiegel,  or  New 
g:-tevtsc/U  Meehtbuch — have  been  ascribed  to  Gutenberg  on  the 
strength  (a)  of  the  date  1460,  which  was  said  to  be  found  in  the 
Prognostication  in  the  Darmstadt  library,  and  (J)  of  a  so-called 
rubrication  alleged  to  be  in  a  copy  of  the  Tractatus  de  Celebratione 
Missaram,  in  which  "Johannes  dictus  a  bono  monte"  and  Joliaiines 
Numeister  are  represented  as  offering  this  work  on  19th  June  1463 
to  the  Carthusians  at  Mainz.  But  the  date  in  the  Prognostication 
has  been  falsified  from  1482  into  1460,  and  the  rubrication  in  the 
Tractatus  is  a  forgery.'  The  eight  books  are  now  considered  to 
have  been  printed  by  Erhard  Reuwich. 

When  we  set  aside  the  above  works,  there  is  iio  further  difficulty 
asregaids  the  history  of  Mainz  printing.  Fust  and  SchoeiTer  worked 
together  from  1457  to  1466,  starting  in  August  1457  with  an 
edition  of  the  Psallerium,  printed  in  Targe  missal  types,  which,  as 
far  as  we  know,  is  the  first  printed  book  which  bears  a  date,  besides 
the  place  where  it  was  printed  and  the  name  of  the  printers.  It 
was  reprinted  with  the  same  types  in  1459  (the  second  printed  book 
with  date,  place,  and  name  of  printer),  in  1490,  and  in  1502  (the 
last  work  of  Schoeffer,  wlio  had  manufactured  its  types).  In  1459 
Fust  and  Schoeffer  also  published  Gul.  Durantus,  llationale  Divin- 
orum  OficioTtim,  with  the  small  type  (usually  called  Durandus 
type)  with  which  they  continued  to  print  long  afterwards.  In 
1460  they  published  the  ConMilniioTies  of  Pope  Clement  V.,  the 
text  printed  in  a  type  (Clement  type)  about  a  third  larger  than  the 
Durandus.  This  type  was,  however,  in  existence  in  1459,  as  the 
colophon  of  the  Durandus  is  printed  with  it,* 

Spread  of  Typography. 

Having  explained  the  early  printing  of  Mainz,  in  so  far  as  it  Spread 
bears  upon  the  controversy  (see  below)  as  to  where  and  by  whom  of  typo- 
the  art  of  printing  was  invented,  we  can  follow  its  spread  to  other  grapby. 
countries.  After  Mainz  it  was  first  established  in  1460  at  Stras- 
buig,  where  the  first  printers  were, — 1.  Johann  Mentelin,  who  com- 
pleted a  Latin  Bible  in  that  year,  according  to  a  rubrication  in  a  copy 
at  Freiburg  in  the  Breisgau  ;  2.  Adolph  Kusch  de  Inguilen,  who  is 
presumed  to  be  the  printer  of  the  undated  books  with  a  singularly- 
shaped  R,'  e.  1464  ;  3.  Henricus  Eggestein,  1471  ;  4.  George 
Kusner;  5.  Martin  Flach,  ic.  In  1461  at  Bamberg,  where  the  first 
printer  was  Albrecht  I'fistcr,  who  in  that  year  published  Boner's 
Edchiein,  though  it  is  still  doubtful  whether  he  did  not  print 
earlier  (see  above);  2.  Joh.  Sensenschniidt,  e.  1480.  1465  at 
Subiaco  ;  first  and  only  printers  Conrad  Sweynheym  and  Arnold 
Pannarts,  who  completed  in  that  year  an  edition  of  Cicero,  De 
Oratorc,  zni  Lactantius,  and  removed  to  Rome  in  1467.  1466  at 
Cologne,  the  printers  being — 1.  Ulrich  Zell,  who  published  in  that 
year  Chrysostom,  Super Psalmo  Quinguagcsimo  Liber Privuis,  though 
it  is  presumed  that  he  printed  in  1463  ;  2.  Arnold  Ther  Hoernen, 
1470;  3.  Johannes  Koelhoff  of  Liibeck,  1470,  who  punted  the 
Cologne  Chronicle  in  1499  ;  4.  Nicolaus  Gotz,  1474  ;  5.  Goiswinus 
Gops,  1475;  6.  Petrus  de  Olpe,  1476  (not  1470);  7.  Conradus 
Winter  of  Honiburg,  1476;  8.  Joh.  Guldenschaaf,  1477  ;  9.  Henricu."! 
Quentel,  1479,  ic."  1467  at  Eltville;  first  printers  Nicolas  and 
Henry  Bechtermuneze  and  Wygandus  Spyes  de  Orthcnberg,  who 
completed  in  that  year  a  Vocabularius  ex  quo.  1467  at  Rome  ;  first 
printers  Conrad  Sweynheym  and  Arnold  Pannarts  from  Subiaco, 
who  published  an  edition  of  Cicero's  Epislolse  ad  Familiares,  and 
Ulrich  Hahn  or  Udalricus  Callus,'  who  issued  on  31st  December 
1467  Turrecreraata'sil/crfita/i'Wi«.  1468  at  Augsburg;  first  printer 
Giinther  Zainer  or  Zeyncr.  Same  year  at  Basel ;  first  pnntei  Bert- 
hold  Rot  of  Hanau.  Same  year  at  Marienthal ;  Brothere  of  the 
Common  Life.  1469  at  Venice  ;  printei-s,  —  1.  Johannes  of  Spires ; 
2.  his  brother  Vindelinus  of  Spires  ;  3.  Christopher  Valdarfer  ;  4. 
Nicolas  Jenson,  &c.  The  fnrtlicr  spread  of  typography  is  indicated 
by  the  following  data: — 1470  at  Nuremberg  (Johan  Senseiischinidt, 
Friedr.  Creusner,  Anton  Kobergcr,  ic.),  Berona  or  Beromiinster  in 
Switzerland  (Helyas  Helye  alias  De  LloulTen),  Foligno  (Emiliauus  de 
Orfinisand  Johannes  Numeistcr),Trevi  (Johann  Reynard ),Savigliano 

3  See  Hpssels,  Gutenberg,   pp.  107-114. 

*  See  further  Bernard,  OriQine  dc  t Imprimerie,  i.  216  sq. 

t^  M.  Phili;  pe,  Origine  de  Vtmprimirie  a  hiris,  p.  219,  (nentions  two  boolia 
printed  in  this  type,  whicti  conuin  manuiKript  notes  to  the  effect  that  they 
wvre  purchased  in  1464  and  1467,  so  that  Inguilen  should  be  placed  beroi» 
Ei;^,•e9rL-in. 

6  J'llian  Veldcner,  who  is  said  to  have  printed  at  Cologne,  was  never  estalK 
lished  there,  but  at  Louvain  (1473.77),  Utrecht  (147S  SI),  and  Culenborg  at 
Kuilenburg(MS3S4);  see  Uollrop,  J/on.  Tjip  ,  pp.  42,  47.  109. 


686 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[historical. 


(Hans  Glim),  Paris  (first  printers  the  three  partners  Ubich  Genng, 
Michael  Friburger,  Martin  Krantz) ;  1471  at  Sp^es,  Bologoa 
Ferrara,  Florenfe,   Milan,  Naples,   Pavia,  Treviso   Savigliano  (?) ; 

1472  at  Esslingen,  Cremona,  Mantua,  Padua,  Brescia,  Parma, 
Monreae  (Sonlovi).    Fiv.zzano,   Verona,  Icsi  (1)     St  Ursmo  (J   ; 

1473  at  Lauingen,  Ulm  (perhaps  a.  early  as  1469),  Mei^eburs,  Alost, 
Utrecht,  Lyons,  Messina,   Buda  ;  1474  at  Louvain,  Genoa   Como, 
Savona,  Tilrin,   Viccnza,  Valencia  (?) ;  1475  at  Lubeck,  Breslau, 
Biaubeuren,    Burgdorf,    Trent,    Cracow  (?),    Modena,  Regpo   (in 
Calabria),  Cagli,  t'aseUe  or  Casale,  Pieve  (Piove)  di  Sacco,  1  urugia. 
Piacenza    Sa^agosea  ;  1476  at  Rostock,  Bruges,  Brussels   Angers. 
Toulouse    PolUano  (Pogliano)  ;  1477   at  Eeichenstem,  Deventej 
Gouda,  Delft,  Westminster,  Lucca,  Ascoli,  Palermo,  Seville  ;  14,5 
at  Oxford,  St  Maartensdyk,  CoUe,  Schussenned  (m  Wurtemberg), 
Eichstadt  Geneva,  Vienna.  Trogen  (?)    Chablis.  Cosenza,  Fragile. 
Barcelona  ;  1479  at  Erfurt,  Wurzburg,  Nimeguen   Zw-olle,  Poitiers, 
Toscolano,  Pinerolo,  Novi,  Lerida,  Segorbe  ;  1480  at  London,  .St 
Albans  (or  in  1479),   Oudenarde,    Hasselt,  Reggio  (in  Modena), 
^lamanca,  Toledo,  Nonantola,  Friuli  (?)    Caen;  1481  at  Passau. 
Leipsic,  Magdeburg.  Treves.  Urach,  Casale  di  San  Vaso   Saluzzo, 
Albi  RoufeSiont  (?) ;  1482  at  Reutlingen,  Memmingen  Metz.  Pisa, 
Aquila,  Htwerp,  Promentour,  Zamora,  Odense  ;  1483  at  Leyden 
Kuilenburg  (Culenbors;),  Ghent,  Chartres,  Chalons-siu-.Marne  (?), 
Troyes,  cfrona,  Stockholm  ;  1484  at  Bois-le-Duc,  Siena,  Udine 
Soncino,  Winterberg,  Klosterneuburg,  Rennes,  Loudeac  ;  1485  at 
Heidelberg,   Ratisbon,    Pescia,    Vercelli,  Treguier  or  Lantreguet, 
Salins,  Burgos.  Palma.  Xeres  ;  1486  at  Munstcr,  Stuttgart  Chia- 
vasco.   Voghera,   Casal   Maggiore,    Abbeville,   Brunn,   Schleswig ; 
1487  at  Ingolstadt,  Gacta,  Rouen,  Murcia  ;  1488  at  Stendal.  ^iterbo 
Gradisca.  Besan(;on.  Constantinople  ;  1489  at  Hagenau  San  Cuoufat 
(near  Barcelona).  Coria.  Pamplona.  Tolosa.  Lisbon  ;  1490  at  Orleans, 
Grenoble.  Dole  ;  1491  at  Hamburg,  Nozzano   Goupillieres,  Angou- 
leme.  Dijon.  Lantenac  ;  1492  at  Zinna,  Valladolid    Leina ;  1493 
at   Limeburg.   Cagliari,    Freiburg  (in  Breisgau),   IJrbmo    Acqm ; 
1494  at  Oppfnheim,  Monterey,  Braga  ;  1495  at  Freisingen,  Freiberg. 
Soandiano,  Forli,  Limoges,  Schoonhoven  (monastery  Den  Hem) 
Wadstena,  Cettinje  ;  1136  at  Otfenburg,  Provins,  Granada ;  1497 
at   Munich,   Barco,    Carmagnola,   Avignon;    1498  at  Tubingen, 
Peri<nieux.  Schiedam.   Tarragona;   1499  at  Montserrat.  Madnd ; 
ISOO'at  OlmuU!.  Pforzheim,  Sursee.  Perpignan,  Valenciennes,  J aen. 
Printing  was  introduced  into  Scotland  in  1505  by  the  establishment 
of  Andrew  MUlar  at  Edinburgh.'  and  into  Ireland,  at  Dublin,  in  1551. 
As  for  non-European  countries  and  towns,  pnntuig  was  estabiishea 
in  Mexico  in  1544.  at  Goa  about  1550    at  Tranquebar  m  1569, 
Terceira  in  the  Azores  1583,  Lima  1585,  Manila  and  Macao  (China) 
1590,  in  Hayti  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  at  Puebla  in 
1612   Cambnage(Mas3.)  1638,  Batavia  1668,  Tiflis  1701   German- 
town  1735,  Ceylon  1737,  Halifax  (Nova  Scotia)  1766.  Madras  1772 
Calcutta  1778,  Buenos  Ayres  1789.  Bombay  1792.  "■  Egypt  (at 
Alexandria,  Cairo,  and  Gizeh)  in  1798,  at  Sydney  1802  Cape  Town 
1806,  Montevideo  1807,  Sarepta  1808.  Valparaiso  1810,  Astrakhan 
1315.  in  Sumatra  and  at  Hobart  Town  and  Santiago  (in  Chili)  in 
ISIS,  in  Persia  (at  Teheran)  in  1820.  and  at  Chios  about  1821. 

Customs       Till  the  moment  (say  1477)  that  printing  spr«d  to  almost  all  tne 
of  early    cliief  towns  of  Germany,  Italy.  Switzerland,  France,  the  Nether- 
i.rinters.  lands,  Spain,  England,  not  a  single  printer  earned  away  with  hun 
a  set  of  types  or  a  set  of  punches  or  moulds  from  the  master  who 
liad  taught  liim,  but,  in  setting  up  his  printing  office,  each  man 
cast  a  sef  of  types  for  his  own  use,  always  imitating  as  closely  as 
possible  the  handwriting  of  some  particular  manuscript  which  he 
or  his  patron  desired  to  publish.     When  we  compare  Schoelfer  s 
30-line  indulgence  of  1454  with  a  manuscript  copy  of  the  same 
indulgence  dated  10th  April  1454,  now  in  the  bands  of  a  private 
coUector  at  Wiesbaden,  we  see  that  the  types  used  in  prm ring  that 
document  were  specially  cast  for  the  purpose  after  the  model  of  the 
handwriting  employed  for  the  written  copies.     We  know  also  that 
the  types  of  the  36-line  and  42-line  Bibles  and  those  of  the  psalter 
of  1457  are  the  closest  possible  imitations  of  the  ornamental  churcb 
handwriting  customary  at  the  time  of  their  prodnction.    Also,  when 
we  compare  the  31-line  indulgence  of  1454  with  the  German  block- 
book  called  the  EnndUhrisi,  and  both  in  their  turn  with  the  German 
MSS    of  that  period  (especially  the  manuscnpt  portions  in  the 
printed  copies  of  the  indulgences),  we  see  that  the  cutter  of  the 
text  type  of  the  indulgence,  asweU  as  the  engraver  of  the  block- 
book  formed  bis  characters  according  to  some  German  handwriting 
(book  hand)  of  the  period.     This  imitation  extended,  not  only  to 
the  shape  of  the  letters,  but  likewise  to  all  those  combinations  ol 
letters  (double  p,  double  /.  double  s.  st,  ti,  tu,  re,  cu   ct,  si,  de,  co, 
ci  te,  «.  or,  vc,  po,  fa,  he,  br-,  &c.)  and  contractions  (for  pro,  -urn, 
■em  -en,  the-,  uer,  -btis,  -bis,  sa!,  am,  tur,  qui,  qux,  quod,  seaindum, 
liC  )  which  were  then,  and  had  been  for  many  centunes,  m  use  by 
scribes.     In  most,  if  not  all  cases,  the  MSS.  which  the  pnnters 


1  See  liob.  Dickson.  ItUrod.  of  Art  of  Print,  into  Hcotl.,  Aberdeen,  ISSJ, 

S  On  the  Introduction  of  printing  in  various  towns,  consult  Henry  Cotton, 

A  Tvpyg.  Ga^-,  8vo,  Oxtori,  1831  and  (second  ser.ee.  8vo  Oxford)  ISOo    (F. 

r.aschamp3)  Dik.  <lc  Glogr.  4  tViagc  du  Libraire.  8vo    Pans  jS.O:  R.  a 

Jllikii.sfTitlM o/U.(  First  BMks/rom  Ike F.arlieil  Presses EslaUishrd  t.i  Di^rcnt 

Cilici  >n  Europe,  4to,  Ne"  York,  1884. 


imitated  were  indigenous  to  the  pl.ice  wlrerc  they  settled.  Thua 
the  first  printers  of  Subiaco,  though  they  were  Germans  and  had 
most  probably  learned  the  art  of  casting  types  and  printing  rt 
Mainz,  clearly  cut  their  types  after  the  model  of  some  Italian  MS. 
which  was  free  from  any  Gothic  influence,  but  written  in  a  pure 
Caroline  minuscle  hand,  differing  but  slightly,  from  the  Carolina 
minuscles  which  the  same  printers  adopted  two  years  afterwards 
at  Rome.  The  first  Paris  printers  sUrted  in  1470  with  a  type  cast 
in  tlie  most  exact  manner,  on  the  model  of  the  Caroline  minuscla 
handOTiting  then  in  vogue  at  Paris.  John  de  Westphalia,  who 
introduced  printing  into  Belgium,  use  1  from  the  beginmng  a  typo 
which  he  calls  Venetian.  Where  therefore  there  is  a  great  simi- 
larity hut  no  absolute  identity,  between  the  types  of  two  printers 
(eg  Schoeffer  and  Ulr.  Zell),  it  should  be  attributed  to  the  simi- 
larity of  the  handwritings  which  the  printers  followed  rather  than 
to  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  imitate  each  other's  types.  To  this 
universal  system  (clearly  discernible  in  the  first  twenty-five  years 
of  printing)  of  each  printer  setting  up  business  with  a  new  type 
cast  by  himself,  there  arc,  according  to  the  conjectur»s  of  a  good 
manv  bibliographers,  only  two  exceptions.  One  is  Albrecht  PBster 
(see  above) ;  the  other  is  the  Bechtermunczes  of  Eltville  (see  above). 

Another  most  important  feature  in  the  earliest  books  is  that  the  UncTen- 
printers  imitated,  not  only  the  handwriting,  with  all  its  contrac-  ness  of  . 
tions,  combined  letters,  fcc.  but  all  the  other  peculiarities  of  the  lines. 
MSS  they  copied.  There  ij  m  the  first  place  the  unevenness  of  the 
lines  which  very  often  serves  as  a  guide  to  the  approximate  date 
of  a  book,  especiallv  when  we  deal  with  the  works  of  the  same 
printer,  since  each  "commenced  with  uneven  lines,  and  gradually 
made  them  less  uneven,  and  linally  even.  This  unevenness  was 
unavoidable  in  manuscripts  as  wcU  as  in  block-books  ;  but  m  the 
eariiest  printed  books  it  is  regarded  as  evidence  of  the  mabililj 
of  the  pnnters  to  space  oat  their  lines.  If  this  theory  be  correct, 
this  inability  was  perhaps  owing  to  the  types  being  perforated  and 
connected  with  each  other  by  a  thread,  or  to  some  other  cause  ^ 
which  has  not  yet  been  clearly  ascertained.  But  it  is  not  impos- 
sible that  the  unevenness  was  simply  part  and  parcel  of  the  system 
of  imiUting  MSS.,  and  that  only  gradually  (about  1473  or  1474. 
but  in  some  cases  later)  printers  began  to  see  that  even  lines 
looked  better  than  uneven.  Tbis  seems  clear  when  we  obser%'e  that 
the  imitation  of  MSS.  was  carried  so  far  that  sometimes  things 
which  deviated  from  the  work  of  the  scribe,  but  had  accidentally 
been  printed  in.  were  afterwards  erased  and  altered  in  conformity 
with  the  MS.  The  Paris  library,  for  instance,  possesses  two  copies 
of  the  Liier  Epistolamm  of  Gasparinus  Pergamcnsis  (printed  at 
Paris  in  1470)  m  both  of  which  the  initial  G  of  the  first  line  and 
the  initial  M  of  th"e  fourth  line  were  printed  m,  and,  whilst  tbey 
have  been  allowed  to  remain  in  one  of  the  copies,  in  the  other  tuey 
were  regarded  as  a  fault  and  replaced  by  a  rubricated  L  and  M. 

In  the  second  place  the  initials  of  books  or  the  chapters  of  books  Inftiala. 

in  MSS    and  again  in  block-books  and  the  earliest  products  ot 

prinring,  were  always,  or  at  least  in  most  cases  (they  are  prmted 

m  the  indulgences  of  1454),  omitted  by  the  scribe  and  tlie  printer, 

and  afterwards  filled  in  by  the  rubricator.     As  the  latter  artists 

were  sometimes  iUiterate  and  very  often  fiUed  up  the  gap  by  a 

wrong  initial,  we  find  in  a  good  many  MSS.  as  weU  as  early  printed 

books  smaU  letters  written  either  in  the  margin  or  m  the  blank  lei t 

for  the  initial,  to  guide  the  rubricator.     In  most  cases  where  thise 

letters  (which  are  now  called  initial  directors)  were  written  in  the 

margin,  they  were  placed  as  much  as  possible  on  the  edges  of  the 

pages  in  orfer  that  they  might  bo  cut  away  by  the  binder  as 

u^ightly  ;  but  in  a  van  number  of  incunabula  they  have  remained 

tUl  the  present  day.'     After  a  few  years  these  initial  director 

were  in  a  good  n>any  books  printed  in  (in  lower-case  type)  with 

the  text     In  all  cases,  whether  wntten  or  printed,  they  were  meant 

to  be  covered  by  the  Uluminated  initial-;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 

the  latter  very  seldom  covers  the  initial  director  so  completely  as 

to  make  it  invisible,  and  in  a  good  many  cases  the  intended  lUu- 

mination  was  never  carried  into  effect.  *i.o  liKi  Hrrhct* 

With  respect  to  the  hyphens,  which  were  used  in  the  1454  Hnbeii. 

indulgences  and  the  36-Iine  and  42-line  Bibles,  always  outside  the 

printed  margin,  some  of  the  earliest  pnnters  didnot  «mploy  them 

at  the  moment  that  they  started  their  presses^and  in  the  case  of  some 

printers  the  non-use  or  use  of  hyphens,  and  t.h'='^  P»f '<>°  °^„'^''i' 

or  inside  the  printed  margin,  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  dating  of 

?hei?  products^   After  about  1472  they  become  more  uniform  ic 

'''^CZ^\^Zl^TSllZt^  in  MSS  mostly  to  mark  theSi^a- 
quires,  and  in  block-books  to  mark  each  sheet  or  page  ;  they  do  tares, 
not  occur  in  printed  books  before  1472  (at  least  in  no  earlier  book 
with  a  dite)!  when   they  appear  in  Joh    Nider'e  Pr^tor^u:^ 
Divinx  LeqU,  published  by  Johan  Koelhoff  at  Cologne. 

CatThwSds  Imslodes)  were  used  for  the  first  time  abont  1469  by  Catch 
Joha^neTof  Sp^s,  at  Venice,  in  thejgt^dition  of  Tacitus.  words 


open- 


HISTOriCAL.  I 


TYPOGRAPHY 


687 


Pa<inm-        Pagination  or  rather  foliation  was  first  used  by  Am.  Tlier  Hoernen, 
'Ko.  »t  Cologne  in  1471,  in  Adrianus's  Liher  de  Rcmcdiis  FortuitOTum 

Casuum,  having  each  leal'  (not  page)  numbered  by  figures  placed  iu 
the  end  of  the  line  on  the  middle  of  each  right-hand  page. 
?!nwn«gs  The  practice  among  early  printers  of  imitating  and  reproducing 
o;  pro-  MSS.  was  not  abandoned  till  many  years  after  the  first  printed 
^Tuss  St  book  (1454)  made  its  appearance  ;  and,  looking  at  the  books  printed, 
lirst.  say  from  1454  to  1477,  from  our  present  standpoint  of  daily  im- 
provement and  alteration,  the  printing  of  that  period  may  be  said 
to  have  been  almost  wholly  stagnant,  without  any  improvement 
or  modification.  If  sonie  printers  (for  instance,  Sweynlieyra  and 
Pannarts  at  Subiaco  and  Rome,  and  Nicolas  Jenson  at  Venice)  pro- 
duced handsomer  books  than  others,  this  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
beauty  of  tlie  MSS.  imitated  and  the  paper  used  rather  than  to 
any  superior  skill.  Generally  speaking,  therefore,  we  shall  not  be 
very  far  wrong  in  saying  that  the  workmanship  of  Ketelaer  and 
De  Leempt's  first  book,  published  at  Utrecht  c.  1473,  and  that  of 
Caxton's  first  book  issued  at  Westminster  in  1477,  exhibit  the 
very  same  stage  of  the  art  of  printing  as  the  1454  indulgences. 
If  therefore  any  evid^ce  were  found  that  Ketelaer  and  De  Leempt 
and  Ca.xtoD  had  really  printed  their  first  books  in  1454,  there  would 
be  nothing  in  the  workmanship  of  these  books  to  prevent  us  from 
placing  them  in  that  year.  And  conversely,  if  the  indulgences  of 
1454  had  been  issued  without  a  date  or  without  any  names  to  in- 
dicate their  approximate  date,  their  workmanship  would  invariably 
induce  bibliographers  to  ascribe  them  to  circa  1470,  if  not  somewhat 
later.  Even  after  1477  the  alterations  in  the  mode  of  printing  books 
proceeded  very  slowly  and  almost  imperceptibly.  It  came  to  be 
no  longer  a  universal  system  for  printers  to  begin  business  by  cast- 
ing a  type  for  themselves,  but  some  received  their  types  from  one 
of  their  colleagues.  And,  though  there  were  still  many  varieties 
of  types,  one  sort  began  to  make  its  appearance  in  two  or  three 
different  places.  The  combinations  of  letters  were  the  first  to  dis- 
appear ;  but  tlie  contractions  remain  in  a  good  many  books  even 
of  the  17th  century. 

Some  theories  =have  been  based  on,  and  others  have  been  con- 
sidered to  be  uj^et  by,  the  supposition  that  the  early  printers 
always  required  as  much  type  as  printers  of  the  present  day,  or 
at  any  rate  so  much  as  would  crable  them  to  set  up,  not  only  a 
whole  quire  of  4  or  5  sheets  (  =  S  or  10  leaves  =  16  or  20  pages), 
but  even  two  quires  (  =  40  pages).  Consequently  calculations  have 
been  made  that,  for  instance,  the  printer  of  the  42-line  Bible  required 
a  fount  of  at  least  120,000  characters. '  But,  though  the  Speculum 
HtimaniB  Salvationis  seems  to  have  been  printed  by  whole  sheets 
(2  pages),  there  are  numberless  proofs  that  many  early  books  were 
printed  page  by  page,  even  when  in  small  4to.  For  instance,  in 
some  books  it  has  been  observed  that  portions  of  the  types  with 
which  the  text  of  the  firet,  second,  or  third  pages  of  a  quire  had 
been  printed  were  used  to  "lock  up"  the  types  employed  for  the 
later  pages  of  the  same  quire,  as  is  evident  from  the  blank  impres- 
sions of  such  portions  being  found  on  these  4ater  pages.  Again,  in 
some  books  two,*  three,  or  four  blank  leaves  are  found  at  tne  end, 
showing  a  miscalculation  of  the  printer.  Moreover,  the  numerous 
itinerant  printers  of  the  loth  century,  who  established  a  press  for 
a  short  time  wherever  they  went,  prove  that  the  furniture  of  the 
earliest  printing  offices  must  have  been  of  no  great  extent. 

T/ie  Invention  Controversy. 
Now  that  we  have  traced  the  art  of  printing  from  the 
moment  (1454)  that  it  made  its  appearance  in  a  perfect 
state  at  Mainz,  and  have  followed  its  spread  to  all  the  chief 
places  of  Europe  till  1500,  we  must  take  notice  of  the 
controversy  which  has  been  carried  on  for  nearly  four 
hundred  years  as  to  when,  where,  and  by  whom  the  art 
was  invented.  For  this  purpose  we  will  gather  up  into 
a  chronological  sequence  (a)  a  few  of  the  most  important 
expressions  used  by  the  earliest  printers  in  their  colophons, 
(6)  whatever  documentary  evidence  there  may  be  on  the 
subject,  and  (c)  some  accounts  of  the  earliest  authors  on 
the  subject.  (The  letters  A,  B,  ic,  are  for  the  sake  of 
convenient  reference.) 

The  earliest  testimony  (A)  to  which  we  may  refer  is  tTie  notarial 
instrument,  dated  6th  November  1455,  of  tlic  lawsuit  between  Fust 
and  Gutenberg,  whereby  the  former  sought  to  recover  2026  guilders 
from  the  latter  iiv  repayment  of  1600  guilders  (800  advanced  in 
1450  or  \iV.)  and  another  800  in  1452),  witli  liic  interest  thereon. 
Fust  sixraks  here-  of  "  the  work  "  (line  24),  and  of  "our  common 
work"  (line  60);  Gutenberg  speaks  of  "tools"  in  preparation, 
"wovkmeii's  wages,  house-rent,  vellum,  paper,  ink,  &c."  (lines  37- 
40),  of  "such  woik"  (41),  and  of  "the  work  of  the  books"  (42)  ; 

I  Sec  Bernard,  Orijine  dc  f /7n;»i . ,  i  164,  who  was  a  printer  himseiratnl  s]m.m1<s 
very  stroogly  on  tins  point. 

■  We  quote  from  th«  text  of  the  instrument  .15  publishrU  by  J.  D.  Kocliler, 
Ehnn-Rtttung  Jokann  (JutUnberQ's,  Leipsic,  1741. 


whereas  the  judges  speak  of  "the  work  to  the  profit  of  both  "  (49), 
and  "their  common  use"  (60).  (B)  In  the  earliest'  book  pub- From 
lished  with  a  date  (the  Mainz  psalter,  issued  14th  August  1457  by  book 
Fust  and  Peter  Schoeffer)  it  is  said  that  it  was  perfected  at  Mainz  colo- 
by  an  "adinventio  artificiosa  imprimendi  ac  caracterizandi  absque  phoo^ 
calami  uUa  exaratione  "  (repeated  and  varied  later ;  see  p.  681  above).  &c. ; 
(C)  In  1460  the  Calholicon  was  published  at  Mainz,  without  the 
name  of  the  prmter  ;  but  the  colophon,  after  stating  that  the  book 
was  printed  at  Mainz,  which  town  God's  mercy  had  deigned  to 
prefer  above  other  nations  of  the  earth,  adds  (D)  that  the  book  was 
printed  and  completed  "  nou  calami,  stili,  aut  pennse  suffragio,  sed 
mira  patronarum  formarumque  Concordia,  proporcione,  et  modulo." 
This  work  is  considered  to  have  been  printed  by  Gutenberg,  and 
the  mention  of  God's  mercy  is  regarded  as  an  allusion  to  the  in- 
vention of  printing.  The  phrase  is,  however,  also  found  in  the 
Liber  Sexius  Dccrctalium,  in  the  Summa  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  and 
in  the  Clcmcnlinee,  published  respectively  on  17th  December  1465, 
6th  March,  and  8th  October  1467,  by  Fust  and  Schoeffer.  (E)  Oa. 
17th  January  1465  Adolph  II..  archbishop  of  Mainz,  by  a  publio 
decree,  appointed  Gutenberg  as  his  servant  in  reward  for  "his 
services,"  but  he  does  not  speak  of  him  as  the  inventor  of  printing, 
nor  even  as  a  prmter.  (F)  In  the  Grammatica  Rhythmica,  published 
in  1466  by  Fust  and  Schoeffer,  the  third  line  of  the  colophon  runs : 
"Hinc  Nazareni  sonet  oda  per  era  Johannis,"  which  was  formerly 
regarded  as  an  allusion  to  Johann  Fust  or  Johann  Gutenberg,  but 
which  more  probably  refers  to  Joliann  Brunnen  or  Pons,  the  author 
of  the  grammar.  (G)  On  26th  Febriiary  1468  Dr  Homery  wrote  to 
the  archbishop  of  Mainz  the  letter  quoted  above,  from  which  it 
may  be  inferred  that  Gutenberg  had  been  a  printer,  though  not  a 
word  is  said  as  to  his  being  the  inventor  of  printing.  (H)  In  1468 
Schoeffer  reprinted  Fons's  Grammatica,  and  in  the  colophon  it  is 
said  :  "  At  Moguntina  sum  fusus  m  urbe  libellus  mequc  (the  book) 
domus  genuit  unde  caragma  veiiit."  (I)  Schoeffer  published  on 
24th  May  1468  the  first  edition  o^  Justin iani  Im-pcr.  Jnstitulionum 
Juris  Libri  VI.,  cum  Glossa.  To  this  were  added  by  way  orcolojihon 
some  verses  commencing  :  "Scema  tabernaculi,  ic,"  in  which  it  is 
said  that  (the  ornament  of  the  church)  Jesus  "hosdedit  eximios 
sculpendi  in  arte  magistros .  .  .  Quos  genuit  ambos  urbs  Moguntina 
Johannes,  librorum  insignes prothocaragmaticos,"  which  is  regarded 
as  an  allusion  to  Johann  Gutenberg  and  Johann  Fust  as  first 
printers.  (K)  In  the  same  year  (1463)  Johannes  Andreas,  bishop 
of  Aleria,  says,  in  the  dedication  of  his  edition  of  St  jeronw's 
Epistles,  published  in  that  year  (I3th  December)  at  Rome,  lo  Pope 
Paul  II.,  that  "Germany  is  to  be  honoured  for  ever  as  having  been 
the  inventre^s  of  the  greatest  utilities.  Cardinal  Cusa  wished  that 
the  sacred  art  of  printing,  which  then  (under  Cardinal  Cusa,  who 
died  llth  August  1464)  seemed  to' have  arisen  in  Germany,  were 
brought  to  Rome."  (L)  In  1470  Guil.  Fichet,  in  an  octastichon 
inserted  in  the  Paris  edition  of  1470  of  the  Letters  of  Gasparinus 
of  Bergamo,  exhorts  Paris  to  take  up  the  almost  divine  art  of  w  riling 
(printing)  which  Germany  is  acquainted  with.  In  the  same  year 
Erhard  Windsberg  writes  to  the  same  effect  in  an  epigram  inserted 
in  the  Epistolx  Phnlaridis  published  at  Paris  about  1470.  (M) 
In  1471  Ludov.  Carbo  speaks,  in  the  dedication  of  the  Letters  of 
Pliny  to  Borso,  duke  of  Modena,  of  the  Germans  having  invented 
printing.  Nicolaus  Gupalatinus  speaks  CVenice,  1471)  of  a  German 
being  ttie  inventor  of  printing,  and  Nicolaus  Perottus  of  the  art 
which  had  lately  come  from  Germany.  (N)  On  21st  May  1471 
Nicolas  Jenson  published  an  edition  of  Quintilian,  edited  and 
revised  by  Ognibene  de  Lonigo  (Omuibonus  Leonicenns),  who  iu  the 
preface  speaks  of  its  printer  as  "librariae  artis  mirabilis  inventor, 
non  ut  scribantur  calamo  libri,  sed  veluti  gemma  impriniantur,  ac 
prope  sigillo,  primus  omnium  ingeiiiose  dcmonstravit."  (0)  About 
1472  the  first  three  printers  of  Paris  published  Gasparinus  Perga- 
niensis's  Orthographise  Liber,  to  which  is  prefixed  (in  the  copy 
of  the  university  of  Basel)  a  letter,  dated  1st  January,  from  Cuil- 
laume  Fichet,  prior  of  the  Sorbonnc,  to  Robert  Gaguin,  in  which  he 
.says  that  "it  is  rumoured  in  Gci  many  that  not  far  from  the  city  of 
Mainz  a  certaiu  Johann  Cuteiibeig  (Johannes,  cui  cognomen  Bone- 
montaiio)  first  of  all  invented  the  art  of  printing  (impressoriam 
artem),  by  means  of  which  books  arc  made  with  letters  of  metal,  not 
with  a  reed  (as  the  ancients  did),  nor  witli  the  pen  (as  is  done  at 
present)."  (P)  On  14th  July  1474  Joh.  Philippusde  Lignamine  puh- 
iished  at  Rome  CKronica  Summorum  roiitijicum  Imperniorumijuc, 
in  which  we  find,  between  two  entiles,  relating  one  to  14th  July 
1459  and  the  other  to  1st  October  1459,  an  undated  paragraph  in 
which  it  is  s.Tid  that  Jacobus  with  the  surname  of  Gutenbeig  o( 
Strasburg  and  a  certain  other  one  named  Fuslus,  "inipiimeiidaruni 
litterarum  in  membranis  cum  mctallicis  formis  pciili,  tieceiitas 
c.nrtas  quisque  eoruin  per  diem  faceie  innotcscunt  apud  Moguntiani 
Germanic  civitatem."  The  same  is  said  of  Mentclin,  and  (under 
1464)  of  Conrad  Swcvnheym,Aruold  Pannarts,  and  Udaliicus  Galliis. 
(Q)  On  23d  May  1476  Peter  Schoeffer  issued  the  tliinl  edition  of  tho 
IiisliliitioHcs  of  Justinian,  with  the  same  imprint  as  in  (he  edition 


3  The  earliest  is  perhaps  the  Donalui  issued  by  Tcter  Sili(vni;r.  possibly 
liefore  1456,  the  colophon  of  which  says  that  it  was  lini^hctl:  "Arte  nova 
impriinendi  scu  caracterizandi  .  .  .  absque  calami  CNai.itioiie.** 


688 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[histoeical. 


of  1468  (see  testimony  I),  but  with  the  addition  that  Maiuz  is  the 
"impressoriae  artis  inventrix  elimatrixque  pntna.     ,(K)  In  1478  an 
edition  of  the  Fasdculvs  Temporum  was  issued  at  Cologne,  m  wbicn 
it  is  stated  under  the  year  1457  that  the  printers  of  books  were 
multiplied  on  earth,  deriving  the  origin  of  their  art  from  Mainz. 
The  earUer  editions  merely  stated  that  the  pnnters  of  books  were 
multiplied  on  earth.    (S)  In  1483  Matthias  Palmerius  of  Pisa  pub- 
lished at  Vfnice  the  Chrm.  Euseb.,  in  which  under  the  year  1457 
it  is  stated  that  students  owe  a  great  debt  t»  Germany,  where 
Johannes  Guttenberg  zum  JuDgen,  knight  of  Mainz,  invented  the 
art  of  printing  in  1440.     (T)  In  the  same  year  Jac.  PhJ.  Foresta  of 
Bergamo  pubUshed  Supplementum  Chronicorum,  in  which  he  says 
under  the  year  1458  that  the  art  of  printing  books  was  first  dis- 
covered in  Germany,  according  to  some  by  Guthimberg  of  Strasburg, 
according  to  others  by  Faust  (see  P),  according  to  others  by  Nicolas 
Jenson  (fee  N).     (V)  On  6th  March  1492  Peter  Schoeffer  publ>shed 
the  Niedersdchsische  Chronik  of  Conrad  Botho,  saying  m  the  colo- 
.  phon  that  it  was  "geprent  .  .  .  in  .  .  .  Mentz  dieeyn  anefangk 
Prom       Sderprentery."    (X)  At  the  end  of  1494  two  Heidelberg  professors, 
docn.       AdamVemher  and  J  oh.  Herbst,  composed  some  Latin  verses  in 
mentary  honour  of  Johannes  Gensfleisch  (a  famUy  name  by  which  Gutenberg 
evidence,  was  known,  and  which  was  turned  into  the  Latin  Ansicarus),  whom 
thev  called  "primus  librorum  impressor"  and  " impressoriEO  artis 
inventor  primus."'     (Y)  In   1499  Jacobns  Wimphehng  (born  at 
SchlettstaSt  1450,  died  1528)  pubUshed  (at  Uainz  by  P.  Friedberg) 
»n  Oratio  in  Memoriam  Marsilii  ai  Inghm  (d.  1396),  in  which  be, 
on  leaf  22a,  praises  Joannes  Ansicarus  in  verse  on  account  of  His 
invention  at  Mainz.     (Z)  These  verses  are  preceded  by  an  epitaph 
on  Johann  Gensfleisch,"  artis  impressoriiemventor   and    repertor, 
written  in  Latin  by  Adam  Gelthus,  a  relative  of  Gutenberg.     (AA) 
In  the  same  year  Polydore  VergU  (De  InvenUrrOusB^m.Vemm, 
1499  lib.  iL  cap.  7)  says  that  a  certain  Peter  [Schoeffer  ?],  a  German, 
invented  in  1442  the  art  of  printing  at  Mainz  in  Germany,  as  he 
had  heard  from  the  latter's  countryman  ;  this  statement  was  re- 
peated in  a  Venice  edition  of  1503.    In  later  editions  •  Peter     was 
Stered  to  "Joh.  Gutenberg."    (BB)  In  the  same  year  Koelhoff, 
Drinter  at  Cologne,  pubUsbed  Cromira  van  der  hilhger  &UU  wn 
boellen,  in  which  on  fol.  312b  it  is  said  :  (1)  The  art  of  printing  was 
found  first  of  all  in  Germany  at  Mainz  about  the  year  1440  ;  (2) 
from  that  time  till  1450  the  art  and  what  belonged  to  it  were  investi- 
eated  ;  (3)  and  in  1450,  when  it  was  a  golden  year  (jubilee),  they 
Began  to  print,  and  the  first  book  that  they  printed  was  the  Bible 
in  Latin,  in  a  large  letter,  resembling  that  wnth  which  at  present 
missals  are  printed.     (4)  Although  the  art  was  found  at  Mainz  m 
the  manner  m  which  it  is  generally  employed  now,  yet  the  first  pre- 
figuration  was  found  in  Holland  from  out  the  Donatuses  which  were 
pnnted  there  before  that  time,  and  from  and  out  of  them  was  taken 
the  beginning  of  the  aforesaid  art,  and  it  was  found  much  more 
masterly  and  exact  {suitilis)  than  that  other  manner  was,  and  has 
become  more  and  more  artistic.     (5)  Omnibonus  wrote  in  a  preface 
to  QuintUian,  and  in  some  other  books  too,  that  a  Walloon  Irom 
France,  named  Nicol.  Jenson  (see  N),  discovered  this  art ;  but  that 
■fl  untrue,  for  there  are  those  stiU  alive  who  testify  that  books  were 
nrinted  at  Venice  before  Nicol.  Jenson  came  there,  and  began  to 
Jut  and  make  letters.     (6)  Bnt  the  first  inventor  of  pnntmg  was  a 
^tizen  of  Mainz,  named  Junker  Johan  Gudenburch.      (7)  Jrom 
aainz  the  ari;  was  introduced  first  of  all  into  Cologne,  then  into 
Itrasburg,  and  afterwards  into  Venice.    (8)  The  origin  and  progress 
df  the  art  were  told  to  the  writer  verbaUy  by  Ulnch  Zell of  Hanau 
BtUl  printer  at  Cologne  {anno  1499),  through  whom  the  said  art 
came  to  Cologne.     (CC)  In  1501  Jacob  Wimpheling  (see  Y),  who 
stated  in  his  Oratio  Quendom  contra  Invasorca  Saardotum,  /tarn- 
innm,  &c.,  published  at  Delft  e.  1495,  that  chalcography  had  been 
invented  at  Mainz,  published  a  work  {Oermama   Strasburg,  Joli. 
Priiss,  1501)  in  which  he  says  (on  p.  43)  that  the  invention  was 
made  at  Strasburg  by  Johann  GutenVrg  of  Strasburg,  and  that  it 
was  perfected  at  Mainz.     (DD)  In  1503  Johann  Schoeffer  (th.i  son 
of  Peter  Schoeffer  and  the  grandson  of  Johann  Fust)  published  an 
edition  of  Hermes  Trisraegistus,  in  which  he  represents  himself  as 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens  of  Mainz,  descended  from  the 
most  fortunate  race  who  invented  the  art  of  pnnUng.     (t-t)  in 
1504  Ivo  Wittig,  who  was  a  relative  of  Gutenberg,  and  a  canon 
and  the  keeper  of  the  seal  of  the  St  Victor  cathedral  near  Mainz 
(of  which  Gutenberg  had  been  a  lay  member),  erected  in  the  house 
"  Zum  Gutenberg  "  a  memorial  stone  and  an  epitaph  to  Joh.  Uuten. 
b-rc  of  Mainz,   "qui  primus  omnium  litteras  xre  impnmendas 
invenit  "    (FF)  In  1505,  in  the  German  translation  of  Livy  pub- 
lished by  Johann  Schoefler  (see  KK),  the  dedication  to  the  emperor 
ilaximilian,  which  was  probably  written  by  Ivo  Wittig    see  EE). 
speaks  of  Johann  Giittenbergk  as  inventor  of  printing  (1450)  ard 
Johann  Faust  and  Peter  Schoeffer  as  improvers  of  the  art.    This 
work  was  reprinted  six  times  (1514,  1523,  1533,  1551,  1553)  with 
the  same  dedication ;  but  in  1509  the  Brcviarium  ifogunlinum 
Bays  that  it  was  printed  at  the  expense  and  trouble  of  Johann 


Schoeffer,  whose  grandfather  {i.e.,  Johann  Fust)  was  tlie  lirst  in- 
ventor and  author  of  the  art  of  printing  (see  DD).  (GG)  In  1505 
Jacob  Wimpheling,  in  his  Epilhoma  Germanorum  (Strasburg,  1505), 
asserts  (on  leaf  xxxviii  b.  andxxxixa.)  that  in  1440  Johann  Guten- 
berg of  Strasburg  invented  there  the  art  of  printing.  And  in  1507, 
in  his  Catal.  Episcoporum  Argent.  (Strasburg,  1507),  he  says  that 
the  art  was  invented,  though  in  an  imperfect  manner,  by  a  certain 
Strasburger,  who  afterwards  went  to  Mainz  and  joined  others  work- 
ing and  trying  the  same  art,  where  it  was,  Under  the  guidanoe  ol 
Johann  Gensfleisch,  perfected  in  the  house  "boni  montis"  (Guten- 
berg). This  ho  repeated  in  1515.  (HH)  About  1506  Johannes 
Trithemius  wrote  his  Chronicon  of  Spanheim,  published  at  Frank- 

r-_t    ;_    mm      ;«    -.Tl.;nli    Vn    onTTo   /rt  ?.flft^   tliof    t^o    art  r»f  TirintlTlc 


»  These  verac«  were  not  published  at  the  time,  but  in  the  mh  century  by  R 
3  li0M.Q>ulhnmmml.  de^  bad.  Landr,gti>ch. .  ill.  163,  from  the  cont«mporery 
MB.  of  Adam  Wemher,  preserved  in  the  archives  of  Carlsruhe. 


fort  in  1601,  in  which  he  says  (p.  266)  that  the  art  of  printing 
books  was  discovered  afresh  at  Mainz  by  Johan  Gutenberg,  who, 
after  having  spent  all  his  property  in  accomplishing  the  new  in- 
vention, perfected  it  by  the  advice  and  assistance  of  Johann  Fust. 
The  first  propagator  of  the  new  art  was,  after  the  inventor.  Petal 
Schoeffer.      (II)  In  1515  Johann  Schoeffer  published  Joh.  Tri- 
themius's  Compendium  sive  Breviarium  Sistorim  Francorum,  and 
said  in  the  colophon  that  the  book  was  published  at  Mainz,  the 
first  inventress  of  the  art  of  printing,  by  Johann  Schoeffer,  grand- 
son of  the  late  Johann  Fust,  the  first  author  of  the  said  art,  who 
finally  from  his  own  genius  commenced  to  excogitate  and  to  investi- 
gate  the  art  in  1450,  and  in  1452  perfected  it  and  commenced 
printing,  assisted  by  many  necessary  inventions  of  Peter  Schoeffer 
von  Gernsheim,  his  servant  and  adopted  son.     Johann  Fust  and 
Peter  Schoeffer  kept  this  art  secret,  binding  all  their  servants  and 
domestics-by  oath  never  to  reveal  it ;  hut  in  1462  it  was  mread  by 
the  same  domestics  into  divers  countries.    (KK)  On  9th  December 
1518  the  emperor  Maximilian  accorded  to  Johann  Schoeffer  the 
privilege  of  printing  Livy  (1518-1519),  and  says  in  it  that  "  be  has 
learned  and  been  advised  on  the  faith  of  worthy  testimonies  that 
the  ingenious  invention  of  chalcography  was  effected  by  the  printer's 
grandfather."   (LL)  In  1519  Joh.  Thunnayer Aventinus  (1474-1534) 
wrote  that  "in  1450  Joannes Faustus,  a German.-a citizen  of  Mamz, 
invented  a  new  kind  of  writing,  called  chalcograpl(y,  and  completed 
it  in  two  years ;  it  was  kept  secret  by  him  and  Peter  Schoeffer,  his 
son-in-law,  but  divulged  in  Germany  ten  years  afteiVards  by  Faust  s 
servant,  Johannes  Guttenberger,  a  Strasburger."    (MM)  In  a  pedi. 
greo  of  Lourens  Janszoon  Coster  of  Haarlem  and  his  descendants, 
drawn  up  not  later  than  1520,  it  is  asserted  that  in  1446  '  he 
brought  the  first  print  into  the  worid."    This  document,  of  which 
the  date  1446  seems  to  have  been  altered  into  1440,  is  preservei. 
in  the  Haariem  town  library.      (NN)  In  1520  Johan  Schott.  a 
printer  at  Strasburg  and  grandson  of  Johan  Uentehn,  the  trst 
printer  of  that  town,  published  an  edition  of  Ptolemy,  at  the  end 
of  which  he  printed  the  arms  of  his  grandfather  with  the  foUowing 
legend  •  "  Insigne  Schottorum  FamUiae  ab  Fridenco  Rom.  Imp.  Hi. 
Joan.  Mentelio  primo  Typographic  Inventori  ac  suis  concessum ; 
Anno  Christi  1466."    Apart  from  the  assert^ion  that  Mentelin  was 
the  inventor  of  printing,  we  may  remark  that  the  emperor  Frederick 
III  raised  Mentelin  to  the  rank  of  a  nobleman  in  M66  and  granted 
him  new  arms.      (00)  About   1533  the   Neapolitan  Mariangelo 
Accorso,  who  had  resided  at  the  court  of  Charies  V.,  wrote  on  an 
edition  of  Dcmatu3  (in  the  possession  of  Aldus  Manutius,  jun. )  that 
"Joh.  Faust  of  Mainz  first  discovered  the  art  of  printing  with 
metal  types,  which  afterwards  he  made  of  lead  j  his  son  Peter 
Schoeffer'^added  afterwards  much  to  polish  the  said  art.      Ihis 
Dmatiis  and  Con/esnonalia  were  printed  first  of  all  in  1460.     *ausi 
derived  the  suggestion  from  a  Doiiaius  ■pnntei  before  m  Holland 
from  an  engrav^  block."    This  paragrapli  is  found  on  p.  411  of  the 
Bibliolh  Apost.   ra<i«ino  of  Angelo  Roccha  (Rome,  1591).     Some 
consider  its  latter  part  to  have  been  denved  from  the  (^ologne 
C%nmi<:;«  (BB),  and  it  seems  probable  that  it  was  a  mixture  of  some 
of  the  above  testimonies.     (PP)  In  1536  Johan  Scliott  (see  NN) 
published  Historien  Handl-Buchlein  (Strasburg,  1536),  in  which 
(on  leaf  b'  and  b=)  he  says  that  "Hans  Mentlin  of  Strasburg  in. 
vented  the  art,  which,  through  infidelity,  was  brought  *»  Mainz. 
On  the  strength   of  this  and  other   statements  (CC,   GG,  NN) 
the  bicentenary  of  the  Strasburg  invention  was  celebrated  there 
in  1640      (QQ)   In  1541  Joh.   Arnold  (Bergel  or)   Bergellanus, 
who  had  settled  as  press- reader  at  Mainz  »«»  f "' r^''°"=!y' 
pubUshed  his  Encomium.  Chalcographtie  (Mainz  Fr.  Behem,  154  , 
4to)    in  which  the  lawsuit  between  Fust  and  Gutenberg  (A)  is 
alluded  to  for  the  first  tUne.     Bergel  had  read  Tr.theim  s  books 
(HH).  in  which  the  invention  is  ascribed  to  Johann  Gutenberg  with 
two  coadjutors,  Johann  Faust  and  Peter  Schoefl^er,  which  he  (Bergel) 
had  heard  confirmed  in  conversations  with  Mamz  citizens  ;  he  had 
also  seen  some  old  tools  prepared  for  '^° -<>.*  1^^  "j^"^'""'^ 
which  were  still  in  existence.     Gutenberg  invented  it  in  1450 
RR)  About  1561  Jan  Van  Zuren  (bora  at  Haarlem  in  151,)  and 
Dirk  Volkerts  Coornhert  (born  at  Amsterdam  ml  522)  established 
a  printing  office  at  Haarlem.     Of  the  former  it  is  alleged  that  he 
ha'd  compiled  a  work  on  the  invention  of  printing,  which 's  prcs..™d 
to  have  been  lost  during  the  siege  of  Haarlem  m  1573.     It  j\a.s  not 
publicly  sMen  0?  till  ^1628,  wlen  Peter  Scriverius  pubUshed  his 
^urcla^voor  Lauren,  Coster.    Scnvenus  had  oiiy  found  .ho 


'bistoricai.J 


TYPOGRAPHY 


title,  preface,  andiDtroduction,  in  which  Van  Zuicn  contended  that 
the  first  foundations  of  the  an  were  laid  at  Haailcm,  and  that  it 
afterwards  accompanied  a  foreigner  to  Mainz.  In  this  introduction 
he  does  not  mention  the  name  of  the  inventor,  nor  n  date,  but  points 
in  indefinite  terms  to  the  house  of  the  inventor  as  still  existing. 
(SS)  In  the  same  year  (1561)  Van  Zuren  and  Coonihert  published 
an  edition  of  the  Oficia  Ciceronis,  in  which  the  lattci,  in  a  de- 
dication to  the  magistracy  of  Haarlem,  refers  to  the  rumour  that 
the  art  of  printing  books  was  invented  first  of  all  at  Haarlem,  and 
was  brought  to  .Mainz  by  an  unfaithful  servant  and  much  improved 
there.  He  adds  that  very  old  and  dignified  persons  Um\  often  told 
him,  not  only  the  family  of  the  inventor,  but  also  his  name  and  sur- 
name, and  had  explained  the  first  crude  way  of  printing,  and  pointed 
out  to  him  the  house  of  the  first  printer.  (TT)  In  1566  Luigi  Guicciar- 
dini.  a  Florentine  nobleman  who  had  visited  the  Neihe'riands  and 
had  resided  many  years  at  Antwerp,  finished  a  description  of  the 
Netherlands  (published  in  1567),  in  which,  alluding  to  Haarlem 
he  spc.iks  of  the  invention  there  according  to  the  assertions  of  the 
inhabitants,  the  evidence  of  some  authors,  and  other  remembrances  • 
the  inventor  died  before  the  perfection  of  his  art ;  his  servant  went 
to  Jlaiuz,  where  he  porfecte<l  the  art,  and  hence  the  report  that  it 
was  invented  there.  (VV)  About  156S  (it  is  calculated)  Hadrianus 
Junius  wrote  his  Batavia.  published  at  Leyden  in  1583,  with  two 
prefaces,  dated,  the  one  frcm-Leyden,  6tli  January  1575,  the  other 
from  Delft  adnnnum  saluUs  1575.     On  p.  253  he  says  that  the 


689 


..... .    — ...........  .„.,.. ,o  w,^.     yju  p.  iao  ne  says  tnat  tne 

opinion  that  the  forms  of  the  letters  whereby  books  aie  punted 
were  first  discovered  at  .Mainz  is  very  inveterate,  but  old  and 
eminent  inhabitants  of  Haarlem  had  assured  him  that  they  had 
heard  from  their  ancestors  that  there  lived  at  Haailem   more  th.-in 
128  years  before,  m  a  decent  house  then  existing,  near  tlie  niaikct- 
place,  opposite  the  royal  palace,  Lourens  (son  of)  Jan,  sui named 
Coster    who.  while  walking  in  the  wood  near  Haarlem,  be^an  to 
shape  beechcn  bark  first  into  figures  of  letters,  by  which,  rewiscly 
impressed  one  by  one  on  paper,  ho  composed  one  or  two  lines  to 
serve  as  an  example  for  the  children  of  his  son  inlaw.     When  this 
•succeeded,  he  beran  to  .ontemplate  greater  things,  and  first  of  all 
invented   assisted  by  his  son-in-law  Thomas  (son  of)  Peter,  a  more 
gluey  and  substantial  kind  of  ink  (as  the  ordinary  ink  was  found 
to  blot),  with  w-hich  he  piinted  whole  tablets  with  pictures,  with 
the  letters  added.     Junius  had  seen  books  of  this  kind  printed  by 
Coster  (the  beginnings  of  his  labours)  on  the  rectos  of  the  leaves 
only,  not  on  both  sides;  the  book  was  written  (in  Dutch)  by  an 
anonymous  author,  and  entitled  Speculiun  Xoslrx  Salutis  in  wiiich 
care  w-as  taken  that  the  blank  versos  could  be  pasted  together  so 
that  the  blank  pages  should  not  present  any  unsightliness      After- 
wards (Coster)  changed  the  beechen  characters  into  leaden  and  the 
Utter  again  into  tin  ones.     Very  ancient  wine-pots  cast  of  the 
remains  of  these  types  were  still  to  be  seen  in  the  house  of  Lourens 
which  was  afterwards  inhabited  by  his  great  gnndson  Gerard  (son 
of)  Ihomas,  who  had  died  an  old  man  a  few  years  before      When 
the  new  rnerchandise  attracted  purchasers  everywhere,   workmen 
were  added  to  (Lourens's)  household,  among  whom  was  a  certain 
John  (whether   as  was  suspected.  Faust,  or  another  of  the  same 
name,  Junius  dul  not  inquire),  who  was  bound  to  the  work  of  print- 
ing by  oath.     But,  when  he  thought  he  knew  the  art  of  joinine 
the  letters  and  of  casting  the  types,  &c..  he  stole  away,  when  every 
bo<ly  had  gone  to  church,  the  whole  apparatus  of  the  types  and  the 
tools  prepared  by  his  master,  and  hastened  to  Amsterdam,  thence 
to  Cologne   until  he  arrived  at  Mainz,  where  he  could  remain  in 
safety,  and,  having  opened  a  work-office,  issued  within  the  snace 
of  one  year    about  1442,  the  DoclHnaU  of  Alexander  Callus  and 
the  Tracti  of  Petrus  Hispanus,  printed  with  the  same  types  which 
Lourens  had  used  at  Haarlem.    Junius  recollects  that  Nicolaus 
oaie   nis  tutor,  a  man  of  firm  memory  and  venerable  old  a"e   had 
told  him  that  as  a  boy  he  had  often  heard  a  certain   bookbinder 
Cornells  (a  man  of  more  than  eighty  years  of  age,  who  ha.l  been 
an  undei-workman  in  the  same  office)  narrating  the  stoiy  of  the 
invention  (as  he  had  heard  it  from  his  n,aster),°the  polish,,,"  and 
increase  of  the  crude  art.  ic  ,  and  cuising  those  nights  which  he 
had  passed,  dming  some  months,  with  the  culprit  in  one  bed      The 

Wndl  ^  rxx1l";',«p^«'i"'  ''"'^  ^""".'^^  """"'h  of  the  same  book 
Sedate  '??'''" '«f  Scnvenus  m  h,s  i«»r«m>u(see  RR)  placed 
^^neH  !      ,        Haarlem  invention  as  far  back  as  1428.  and  men 

M,  !fjy  '  "i  "!  P""""S  appeared,  "not  in  the  manner  as 
cu  leaf  IrTIf  "  "^  ^T\f^'^  °'^'"''  """^  '■"•  b'-'  a  book  was 
1428  11„  i  H  K^  -^^x^"  Gutenberg      Scriverius  based  the  date 

96  n  ?5^li  ,T/*  m'1.''/°'"P"''^  ''y  •'°'«P>'  >«"  M'i^  (born 
Adelirfn/'  t  '■  A  P"''i'^'>ed  ID  1554  at  Sabionetta  by  Cornelius 
^he  iri,'  "^'"^■."nd^f  the  year  of  the  Jewish  era  5183  (  =  1428) 
the  author  mentions  a  book  (without  giving  the  title)  pVin  ed  at 
Venice  and  seen  by  h.ni  Scriverius,  bein|  con,  nce/tl  a  this 
could  only  refer  to  a  book  printed  at  Haa.fem.  appMed  the  e„t,y 
L  A^'''^.E''"=  ^"^'^  P^^Pcrum.  of  which  he  gavTa  des  , 'r  ,o  ,^ 
together  witli  several  other  block-books  and  eaTly  printed  booU 

23—26 


JIM  ,  .oo   ^?''^<»n.  pushed  the  date  of  the  Haailcm  invention 
back  to  1420  iefe,r.ng,  as  his  authority,  to  the  san.c  Chrmiclc  of 
Rabbi  Joseph      Since  that  time  the  date  of  the  Haarlem  invention    ■ 
has  been  variously  placed  between  1420  and  1430 

Laier  testimonies  are  mere  repetitions  of  earlier  state-  Other 
meats.'     We  need  not  say  muchabout  the  story  of  Antonio  claim, 
tambruzzi,  who  asserted  that  Pamfilo  Castaldi  invented  ^"'^ 
printing  at  Feltre,  in  Italy,  in  1456,  and  that  Faiisto  Comes- 
burgo,  who  lived  in  his  house  in  order  to  learn  the  Italian 
language,   learned   the  art  from  him  and  brought  it  to 
Mainz ;  this  story,  however,  has  found  so  much  credence 
that  in  1868  a  statue  was  erected  at  Feltre  in  honour  of 
Castaldi.     Nor  need  we  speak  of  Kuttenberg  in  Bohemia 
where  John  Gutenberg  is  asserted  to  have  been  born  and 
to  have  tound  the  art  of  printing.     We  may  also  pass  over 
Johann  Fust,  later  on  called  Faust  (testimonies  P,  T,  DD, 
FF,  II,  KK,  LL,  00),  as  we  know  from  the  Mainz  law- 
suit of  1455  (A)  that  he  had  simply  assisted  Gutenbero- 
with  loans  of  money.     We  may  also  pass  over  Johann 

MentelinofStrasburg(testimoniesNN,PP),on!yremarking 
here  that  he  had  already  printed  a  Bible  in  1460,  and  that 
he  IS  mentioned  in  Strasburg  registers  as  a  chrysographer 
or  gold-writer  from  1447  to  1450  ;  but  of  his  whereabouts 
between  1450  and  1460  there  is  no  record.  That  he  had 
gone  or  had  been  called,  after  1 450  by  Gutenberg  to  Mainz 
has  been  asserted  but  not  proved,  and  there  is  no  reason 
why  he  should  not  be  one  of  the  two  Johannes  alluded  to 
as  the  prothocaragmahci  of  Mainz  in  the  Justinian  of  1468 
(testimony  I  ).  That  Nicolas  Jenson  came  to  be  regarded 
in  certain  circles  and  for  a  time  as  the  inventor  of  printing 
IS  owing  to  testimony  N  being  misunderstood.  There  re- 
main, therefore,  to  be  considered  the  testimonies  which  beai 
on  the  rival  claims  of  Haarlem  and  Mainz.  The  contro- 
versy  between  Germany  and  Holland  was  publicly  started 
as  early  as  1499  by  the  Cologne  Chronicle  (testimony  BB), 
that  between  the  two  towns  mentioned  not  publicly  before 
lo61  (testimony  RR) ,  while  no  rival  inventor  to  Guten- 
berg  was  mentioned  publicly  and  in  print  earlier  than 
loS8  (testimony  VV).  ,         a 

in  Vh?«rson' o"f' o'/nne'r'''!?'  "^ ^'T^"^  ^"^  ""'"^  ^  centred  Claims o< 
r„tenJrH  r^  Henne  ( =  Hans  or  Johann)  Gensfleisch.  called  Guteu- 
Gutenberg  or  Gudenberg,  the  latter  name  derived  from  his  mother  W 
whose  maiden  name  was  Elsa  Wyrich,  who  live '  in  the  "H^f  ^'      ^' 
Gutenberg    at  Mainz      He  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  tTt 

i3  ,1°i,"'t  '""•   ,^!J'  f"'  mentioned  in  a  Mainz  document, 
dated  16th  January  1430.     In  a  document  of  28th  March  1430  he  b 

1^34^1  S?h  q"",°  "I^'ILY""'''.  Documents  from  14th  March' 
dnnnL  ,h,f ,  P'*°'S^'^""  P'°™  ^'"^  ">  ^^^^  ^^^'^  »t  Strasburg 
fi  «  ^«t^  1^  'V*"'i  documents  dated  respectively  17th  Octobef 
Ihth  November  1455,  21st  June  1457.  10th  AprU  1461,  shmv 
that  he  was  in  or  near  Mamz  on  those  days.  By  a  decree  of  17th 
January  1465  the  archbishop  of  that  town  rewarded  him  for  .'hu 
fr^rt  '"^  ',"  '''^'"'"^  "i  ^'  "°""y.  dated  26th  Februar^ 
1468,  he  IS  spoken  of  as  dead  There  are,  moreover,  six  forged 
documents  (including  some  relics  of  an  ancient  press  bearin"  the 
M  h  I  1  \''!'.?'','o''k'?'^^'"^  -"''  ""'^'^  "24,  1437.  3d  July  f453. 
.^  V  v,^  V"^'  19";.''""'  "^3>  ^"'1  ">  <'°t>v  i"  an  anniveisarium 
which  has  been  applied  to  Gutenberg,  but  does  not  concern  him 
(see  Hesseis,  Gutenberg). 

in  'l'/?r,Y  ^'""'  ",''^"  printing  'ras  believed  to  have  been  invented 
ni  14  0,  the  recoids  of  the  Strasburg  lawsuit  of  1439,  between 
Gutenbcg  and  some  Stiasburg  artisans  about  certain  industrial 
nudei takings  (as  the  art  of  polishing  stones,  the  manufacture  of 
looking-glas.'ies;,  were  considered  to  prove  the  invention  of  printin? 
at  Strasburg,  "Ot,  however,  by  Mentelin,  as  had  been  thoSght  b? 
some  (t«t.mon,c_s  NN.  PP)  but  by  Gutenberg.  The  record!  cams 
to  ight  about  1,40.  just  when  Schoepflin,  the  principal  discoverer 
had  been  commissioned  to  search  for  documents  of  this  kind' 
Doubts  may  be  suggested  as  to  their  genuineness,  but  they  have 
all  perished  partly  during  the  revolution  of  1 793  and  partly  durine 
the  siege  of  Strasburg  in  1870.  However,  nobody  would  now 
assert  that  pnnting  was  invented  in  1439  or  at  Strasburg;  and 
those  who  still  believe  that  Gutenberg  was  the  inventor  of  printing 
I*;l^  jT  °"'y  ^s  showing  that  he  was  a  mechanic  as  early  ai 
1439,  and  that  he  understood  the  art  of  pressing.' 


T^V^^u  p"^^  "'  "■""  ■""  *""■  «»"«*«'  ^y  G"-  Meermu,,  Origtta 
"  Set  Hesseis,  Gulnbtrg,  pp.  2S,  ISS,  4e.    % 

~    ""  xxni  —  87 


690 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[nlSTOEICAt. 


Tlic  first  Qoeument  that  connects  Gutenberg  with  the  art  of  print- 
in.  s  the  notarial  instrument  of  6th  November  "5.  (test.mony 
A  f  R,  t  it  savs  nothin"  of  an  invention  or  a  new  mode  of  prmt- 
fnl  And  yctYhe  o°casio°n  was  such  as  to  make  it  almost  .mnerat.ve 
in"Gutenber"  to  mention  it,  for  ho  had  spent  600  guilders  of 
^■.t-s  money  apparently  without  printing  anything.'  and  was  on 
Ihe  po^t  oT'befng  robted  by  the' latter  and  having  taken  away 
)rom  h  m  al  thatlie  had  made  and  done  to  give  effect  to  h.s  idea 
or Tnlrtion  In  the  next  testimony  (B),  i.e.,  the  earliest  Ma  nj 
tooksw^th  printed  dates  (1457  to  14G7),  there  .3  evidence  tha  he 
„r  of  printing  is  not  only  not  kept  secret  bvt  ff  X  W-^  '^'f 
nt  Main"  and  its  importance  fully  realized  and  advertised  ,  but 
^mullthev  speak  of  a  "nova  ars  imprimendi"  and  an   'adinventio 

mmmmm 

vhkhtirv  published.      Those  who  believe  that  Gutenberg  was 

r.h"c  bol'  Johann  Fo^s,^was  Peter  SchoefTer's  press-corrector. 

I  V  to  I)  of  the  lirst  fourteen  years  of  printing     454  to  1468^at 
]^Z.L  see  that  they  all  come    rom      -^  lUe  f.^^Every^bo^^ 

^rriSHSSA^^--=r^'-^ 

^^^    M  f'nf  ,11  thk  mibl  city  the  art  whicli  Mainz  and  Germany  pos- 
the  midst  ol  all  this  puuiiLiLj(,  un.  11  -  \\.,\„,      The  supposed 

services,  but  docs  not  ^1^"=^%  "'"'"'  Unmerv   in  his  ioUer  to  the 
-S:^^^y  ^\^'^^i^^^P;^  Outenbcrg-s  print- 

^-dh-^r^n:^:X:\:'^^^^  of  the  mventio. 
F«n  if  we  reject  testimony  'l  as  being  merely  local,  testimony  K 
meSl    l^aks  of  the  art  of  printing  as  having  arisen  in  Germany^ 
Tl  fs  tcsUmonj'  however,  dies  not  come  from  Germany   nor  from 
M  fnJ  •mrfLom  Italy  and  is  supposed  to^we  Us  inspiration  to  the. 
"rccrman  pi  nt  rs  who  had  CsUblishcd  a  printins  office  at  Subiaco 
lri4C5   and  in  1407  at  Rome,  and  who  most  likely  learned  their 
craft  at  Main".      But,  as  the  two  printers  are  mentioned  in  the 
iest  mony  and  as  it  docs  not  speak  of  Gutenberg,  nor  of  Mainz   it 
Ltf  more  likely  that  it  was  merely  derived  from  the  colophons  of 
Fust  aTd  SclioefTcr    or  from  something  that  Cardinal  Cusa  had 
S" 'ring  h^s  embassies  in  Gcr,nan>^   To  the  M^ij-olorjo- 
\v,.  mnit  also  ascribe  M  the  two  testimonies  of  14/0  (L)  aim  ^o) 
ihc  Uiree  0147       1)1  al   five  of  which  come  from  France  and  Italy^ 
At  last   in  1472.  we  find  in  testimony  0  tlic  invention  of  printing 
air  bed  to  Gutenberg  of  Mainz,  but  it  is  mentioned  as  a  rumour 
Sm    comes  from  Fiance.      Guil.  Fichet  of  Paris,  who  gives  ,t    is 
I',';!'  ^°'.'.rf  Jrj,1  L,.,l  ,1,.  rumour  from  the  three  German  printers 

^    '  ~!     1   ..  •  .  I 1  ii.^*  Un  itic  iinilpr 


lad  as  yet  not  pnnlcU  anything-  ,  ,  ,,. 

t  Vcmt  U  the  prcacDt  not  the  perfect  tense. 


who  commenced  printing  at  Pans  in  1470.     But,  as  two  of  thea 
had  resided,  immediately  before  they  came  to  Paris  in  the  univer. 
sitv  of  Basel,  and  are  supposed  to  have  learned  their  art  there, 
the  rumour  is  ascribed  to  '■  Bertolff  von  Hanauwe  '  who  appears 
in  the  lawsuit  of  1455  as  Gutenbergs  servant,  and  .W'ho  was  printing 
at  Basel  in  146S.     Perhaps  it  came  rather  from  information  which 
Fichet  obtained  from  the  St  Victor  cathedial   near  Mainz  as  he 
sneaks  of  the  art  having  been  invented  not  far  from  thatto\yn. 
Testimony  P  (1474)  again  comes  from  Italy,  from  Rome  and  wa» 
perl  a%  derived  from  one  of  the  German  printers  settled  there  at 
that  time      It  merely  speaks  of  Gutenberg,  Fust,  and  Mentehn  as 
printers,  but  says  not  a  word  which  even  touches  u^on  the  invention 
of  the  art.     In  testimony  Q  (1476)  we  have  dehnite  mention  of 
Mainz  as  the  inventress  of  the  art ;  it  is  given  as  an  addition  to  tho 
Mainz  colophon  of  1463  (see  I).    In  1478  Mainz  is  again  mentioned 
in  a  Cologne  testimony  (R),  which  gives  evidence  of  research,  as  it 
is  an  amplification  of  an  earlier  one  in  which  Mamz  was  not  men- 
tioned.     Germany,  Gutenberg,  and  Mainz  are  again  mentioned  in 
the  Venetian  testimony  S  (1483),  which  gives  for  the  &rst  t^e 
1440  as  the  date  of  the  invention.    In  the  same  year  we  have  t^^o 
earlie?  tes  imonies  (P  and  N)  worked  into  one  (T),  to  the  elTect  that 
printing  was  invented  either  by  Gutenberg  or  by  Fust  or  by 
Jenson.^    Testimony  V  (1492^    which  state*  that  PJ-ting  »- 
mcnced  at  Mainz,  is  Ptac^caUy  equivalent  to  Q.     In  1494  and 
1499  we  have  three  German  testimonies  (X,  Y,  Z)  as  to  Gutenberg 
b  "nVthe  inventor  of  printing;  these,  however   come    not  from 
Mainz,  but  from  Heidelberg.     Z  is  given  by  a  "'^Jvfof  fJntenberg, 
Adam  Gclthus  ;  and,  as  the  latter  resided  at  He  delberg,  it  is  clear 
hat"  e  was  the  real  source  of  the.other  two  Heidelberg  testimonies 
•i  and  Y)      Two  years  later,  when  Wimpheling,  the  author,  of 
[iZony  Y,  had  left  Heidelberg,  he  ascribed  (CC)  the  invention 
of  prnitin-  to  Strasburg,  though  stating  that  Gutenberg  was  the 
?nven?or  °  Testimony  AA  is  recorded  above  to  show  the  great  con- 
fulfon  that  reigned  In  people's  minds  about  tbe  jor^n  ion      We 
must  add  to  these  testimonies  those  of  J.^O*  (EEJVnd  150S  ((!') 
which  are  owing  to  Ivo  Wittig,  a  relative  of  Gutenberg    and  a 
ranon  and  the  "keeper  of  the  seals  of  the  St  Victor  cathedral 
ne^rVainz,  of  which  Gutenberg  had  "een  a  lay  member  according 
to  its  liber  fralcrnilalis.    Thus  in  the  period  from  1468  to  1505  we 
havr(l)  seieral  vague  statements  made  in  lUly  and  F^nce  a3  to 
ihTart  of  printing  being  known  or  practised  or  invented  m  Ger- 
many  statements  which  arose  from  the  books  and  colophons  pub^ 
Ushed  at  Mainz  ;  (2)  one  item  of  rumour  in  1472  that  J""enberg 
Evented  it  near  that  town  ;  (3)  two  Mainz  statements,  of  1476  and 
1492  and  one  Cologne  statement,  of  1478,  that 't  'ivas  mvented  *J 
Mairlz     (4rthree  clrman  statements,  of  1492,  1494,  and  H99.  that 
GuU^be  g  had  invented  it ;  and  (5)  two  Mainz  statements,  of  1504 
and  1505   to  the  same  cEfect.     It  is  to  be  particularly  noticed  that 
the  statements  (2   4,  5)  which  speak  distinctly  of  Gutenberg  being 
the  WO?  <ln  be  clearly  traced  to  Gutenberg  himself  and  two  of 

^'lee'i^f  Sen  how  slender  the  basis  is  for  the   tradition   ttat  Contra- 

tradiction  was  made  in  1499  (testimony  BB)  in  ^Chromele  pub- 
Lhcd  at  Colosne.    To  facilitate  the  understanding  o  this  testimony 

^ell  s  testimony  various  attempts  have  been  made  to  ex- 

having  perfected  the  art   ^"'ou^  aiie    i  ,,,i,ally  printed 

(..  1533,  tl.at  block-pnn ting^had  gi  n  ^^^^^^^^^  >-,„„,,„  ., 
also  been  asset  cd  tliat  ''o  f»  '>'"'=  ,  ■  „co"iaphical  matters. 
but  the  CAroiuricis  »^;'-\'ly/"-^."^,?''"'.'  iiTelf  Icanied  his  lit  in 

^^tionofGu.nbergw.,o..a..^ccnth^^^^ 


HISTORICAL.] 


TYPOGRAPHY 


691 


tions  failing  to  weaken  Zcll's  testimony,  vi-e  must  see  how  far  it  can 
be  brought  into  harmony  with  other  circumstances  and  the  testi- 
monies MM,  KR,  SS,  TT,  VV,  XX,  YY,  which  claim  the  honour  of 
I.ouren3  the  invention  for  Haarlem  in  Holland.  Testimonies  RR  and  SS 
•Coster's  do  not  mention  the  name  of  the  inventor.  But  the  former  is  a 
«laims.  mere  introduction  destined  for  a  complete  book  that  was  lost  during 
the  siege  of  Haarlem  in  1573  before  it  was  printed  ;  we  are,  there- 
fore, not  entitled  to  s^y  that  Van  Zuren  did  not  know  the  name. 
SS  may  have  omitted  the  name,  because  the  publication  of  Van 
Zuren's  work  was  in  contemplation  at  the  time  that  it  was  written. 
That  Guicciardini  (testimony  TT)  inl5C6did  not  mention  the  name 
of  the  reputed  Haarlem  inventor  cannot  be  considered  as  an  in- 
dication that  it  was  not  known  or  had  not  yet  been  "mvented" 
when  he  wrote,  as  his  accounts  of  the  cUies  of  the  northern 
Netherlands  are  all  very  meagre  and  were  for  the  most  part 
derived  from  correspondence.  In  Junius's  account  (VV),  however, 
we  find  every  particular  that  could  be  desired.  He  begins  by  re- 
ferring to  the  diCBculty  of  vindicating  the  honour  of  the  invention 
for  Haarlem  on  account  of  the  deep-rooted  and  general  opinion  that 
it  took  place  at  Mainz.  Ho  then  mentions  that  Lourens  (son  of  Jan) 
surnamed  Coster  resided  at  Haarlem  "more  than  128  years  ago"  and 
gives  us  to  understand  that  in  the  year  indicated  by  that  phrase 
he  invented  the  art  of  printing.  As  Junius's  book  was  not  pub- 
lished till  after  his  death,  in  1588,  and  the  two  prefaces  in  it  are 
dated  1575  (he  died  16th  June  1575),  the  number  128  is  supposed  to 
go  hack  from  Ihe  date  when  he  actually  wrote  his  account,  which  he 
13  calculated  to  have  done  about  1568.  Thus  we  get  the  year  1440 
as  the  supposed  date  of  the  Haarlem  invention,  though,  if  we  based 
cur  calculation  upon  the  date  of  the  preface,  the  year  1446  or  1447 
would  have  to  be  assumed.  But,  as  Junius  adds  that  Coster's  types 
were  stolen  by  one  of  his  servants,  who  fled  with  them  to  Mainz, 
and  establishing  there  a  printing  office  printed  within  a  year's  time, 
in  1442,  two  books,  he  must,  if  this  latter  date  is  correct,  have 
meant  1440.  By  testimonies  XX  and  YY  we  see  that  in  the  17th 
century  the  date  of  the  Haajjem  invention  was  first  put  back  as 
far  as  1428,  then  to  1423  ;  and  since  then  it  has  usually  been  re- 
garded as  1423,  especially  after  it  was  discovered  that  the  Haarlem 
wood  where  Coster  is  said  to  have  cut  his  wooden  letters  was  destroyed 
during  a  siege  in  1426. 

The  researches  as  regards  the  reputed  Haarlem  inventor  have 
hitherto  not  been  made  in  a  manner  adequate  for  scientific  purposes. 
It  would  appear  that  by  the  pushing  back  of  the  date  of  the  inven- 
tion, in  spite  of  Junius,  to  1420-1428,  two  inhabitants  of  Haarlem 
have  been  mixed  up  by  the  Dutch  authors  on  the  subject.  (1) 
Lourens  Janszoon,  who  never  bore  the  surname  Coster,  and  whose 
existence  seems  to  be  authenticated  by  documents  from  1404  to 
1439,  was  sheriff,  and  a  wine  merchant  and  innkeeper,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  in  1439.  About  1870,  however,  researches 
brought  to  light  that  there  had  been  (2)  a  Lourens  Janszoon  Coster 
at  Haarlem,  duly  authenticated  by  genuine  official  documents  as  a 
chandler  and  innkeeper,  from  1436  to  1483,  who  went  away  from 
Haarlem  in  the  latter  year.  The  name  of  this  man  and  some  genea- 
logical particulars  known  of  him  fit  into  the  story  of  Junius, 
though  there  are  certain  particulars  in  Junius's  account  which 
cannot  yet  be  properly  explained. 

Junius  bases  his  account  of  the  Haarlem  invention  on  three 
oooks,  a  Dutch  edition  of  the  Speculum  Eumanee  Salvationis, 
the  DoctrinaU,  and  the  Tracla  of  Petrus  Hispanus  (Pope  John  XXI.). 
The  first  work,  he  said,  was  printed  by  Coster  himself  as  a  first 
specimen  of  his  art,  and  it  would  seem  from  his  words  that  he  con- 
sidered the  work  to  be  printed  with  wooden  types.  The  two  Dutch 
editions  of  the  Speculum,  however,  were  printed,  '.ike  the  two  Latin 
editions  of  the  same  work,  with  movable  metal  type,  though  in  one 
of  the  Latin  editions  there  are  twenty  leaves  the  text  of  which  is 
printed  apparently  from  wooden  blocks.  The  Doclrinale  and  the 
Trncts  of  Hispanus  were  printed,  Junius  says,  at  Mainz  by  Coster's 
workman  with  the  types  which  he  had  stolen  from  Coster.  Of  the 
Hispanus  Tracl3  do  edition  has  yet  come  to  light  that  would  answer 
Karly  to  Junius's  description.  But  of  the  Doctrinale  we  have  four  edi. 
DutcL  tions,  all  printed  in  the  same  type  (i.)  as  the  four  editions  of  the 
tj-^its  Speculum,  With  these  same  types  are  printed  no  less  than  six 
cditionsof  the  short  Latin  grammar  of  ^lius  Donatus;  and  editions 
of  this  school-book  printed  in  Holland  were,  according  to  Zell  in 
the  Cologne  Chronicle,  the  models  for  the  printing  at  llainz,  which 
commenced  about  1450.  As  there  are  no  other  editions  of  Donatus 
printed  in  Holland  that  could  be  placed  before  the  year  1 450,  the 
claims  of  Haarlem  and  Holland  are  based  on  them  ;  and  we  will, 
therefore,  briefly  describe  the  types  and  books  which  must  be  con- 
nected with  the  Specula,  Doclrijialia, and  Dmaluscs  jast  mentioned. 
In  one  of  the  editions  of  the  Speculum  in  Dutch  occur  two  leaves 
printed  in  a  different  type  (ii. )  from  the  rest  of  the  work.  This 
type  is  in  its  turn  so  very  much  like  another  typo  with  which  a 
^vo^k  of  Laur.  Valla  {Facetix  Morales)  is  printed  that  we  link  it 
(iii. )  on  to  the  two  just  mentioned  Then  again  type  iii  is,  in 
some  of  its  capitals,  identical  with  a  type  (iv.)  used  for  a  work  of 
Ludovicus  de  Eoma,  Singularia  Juris,  at  the  end  of  which,  on  the 
last  leaf,  co^umences  another  work,  printed  in  a  different  type  (v.). 


Type  vi.  is  identical  with  type  v.,  except  in  its  capital  P,  which  is 
larger  We  have  also  works  printed  in  two  difl'erent  types  (vii.. 
viii.)  which  both  show  such  a  great  family  likeness  to  each  other 
and  to  types  i.  to  vi.  that  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  separate 
them  without  evidence  that  they  do  not  belong  to  the  same  office. 
With  these  eight  types,  which  we  cannot  at  present  separate,  forty- 
seven  different  books  were  printed,  so  far  as  we  know  at  present. 
In  type  i.  — four  editions  (two  in  Latin,'  two  in  Dutch)  of  the 
Specuhim  Humante  Salvationis,  a  work  which  consists  of  woodcuts 
with  explanatory  text  underneath  ;  a  Dutch  version  of  The  Seven 
Peiiitential  Psalms ;  one  Donatus  of  27  lines  ;  two  editions  o( 
Donatus  of  28  lines  ;  a  Liturgical  Book  in  16mo  ;  three  editions 
of  Donatus  of  30  lines  ,  one  Donatus,  in  French,  of  29  and  30  lines 
on  a  page  ;  four  editions  of  Doctrinale  of  32  lines  ;  one  Catonis 
Disticha  of  21  lines.  In  type  ii.- — two  leaves  only  (49  and  60)  of 
one  of  the  Dutch  editions  of  the  Speculum,  In  type  iii. — Lauren- 
tius  Valla,  Facctix  Morales,  &c  In  type  iv  : — lour  editions  of 
Donatus  of  24  lines  ;  Lud  (Pontanus)  de  Roma,  Singularia  Juris  ; 
Lud.  (Pontanus)  de  Roma  ('),  Treatise  on  Canonical  Law  {I).  In 
type  v.: — Pius  II.,  Tractatus  ct  Epitaphia  (printed  at  the  end  of 
the  Singularia  Juris)  ,  Guil.  de  Saliceto,  De  Salute  Corporis  ,  one 
Donatus  of  26  lines  ;  five  editions  of  Donatus  of  27  lines  ;  one  Doc- 
trinale of  26  lines  ;  one  Doctrinale  of  28  lines  ;  one  Doctrinale  of 
29  lines  ,  one  Doclrinale  of  32  lines  ,  Catonis  Disticha  ;  Guil.  da 
Saliceto,  De  Salute  Corporis,  together  with  Turrecremata,  De  Salute 
Animx;  PiusII.,  Tractatus  de  Amore,  kc;  Pindar  of  Thebes, /^loWoj 
HomcncBC  Epitome,  cum  Prasfatione  Pit  II. ;  another  edition  of  the 
same  work.  In  type  vi  — one  Donaties  of  26  lines;  one  Donatus 
of  27  lines.  In  type  vii  — one  Donatus  oi  27  lines.  In  type  viii: 
— an  Abcccdarium  of  two  leaves  and  a  Donatus  of  31  lines. ^ 

Type  V  must  have  been  in  existence  before  13th  September  1474, 
as  there  is  evidence  that  a  copy  of  the  Saliceto,  printed  in  that 
type,  was  bought  for  the  monastery  of  St  James  at  Lille  by  its 
abbot  Conrad  an  Moulin,  who  filled  that  oflice  from  the  end  of  1471 
to  13th  September  1474  As  a  work  in  this  type  (the  Tracts  and 
Epitaphs  of  Pius  II.)  is  printed  at  the  end  of  the  Singularia  Juris 
in  type  iv. ,  we  may  assume -that  this  type  existed  a  considerable 
time  before  type  v  As  the  books  printed  in  types  iv  and  v.  show 
greater  progress  in  style  and  workmanship  than  the  books  printed 
in  types  i  to  iii  ,  we  must  assign  the  latter  to  an  earlier  period 
than  the  former  There  is  indeed  positive  evidence  that  type  L 
must  have  existed  a  considerable  time  before  the  end  of  1473,  as 
fragments  of  a  Donatus  printed  in  that  type  were  used  by  a  book- 
binder at  Haarlem  to  strengthen  the  binding  of  an  account-book  of 
the  cathedral  church  in  that  town  for  the  year  1474  From  these 
facts  alone  we  may  safely  assume  that  none  of  the  forty  seven  books 
can  be  dated  after  1474,  or,  if  any,  only  a  few  in  types  v  and  vii. 
On  the  other  hand,  four  of  the  works  in  type  v  cannot  be  dated 
before  1458,  as  they  bear  the  name  of  Pius  II.,  who  was  not  elected 
pope  till  that  year.  When  we  consider  that  there  are  twenty  differ- 
ent editions  of  the  Donatus  printed  in  these  types,  and  place  an 
interval  of  about  eighteen  months  between  the  successive  editions, 
we  get  a  period  of  some  thirty  years  from  about  1445  to  1474  for 
the  issue  of  the  twenty  editions.  That  we  reach  the  year  1445  by 
such  a  calculation  is  purely  accidental  ;  but  there  is  evidence  that 
in  1446  and  1451  printed^  Doctrinalia  were  bought  at  Bruges  and 
Valenciennes  by  Jean  Le  Robert,  the  abbot  of  Cambray,  according 
to  two  entries  in  his  diary,  preserved  in  the  archives  at  Lille. 
And,  as  we  know  positively  that  there  was  no  printing  done  at  Mainz 
before  1454,  nor  anywhere  else  so  early,  we  can  only  apply  these 
entries  to  the  Doctrinalia  printed  in  Holland  in  the  same  types  as 
the  four  editions  of  the  Speculum  (on  which  Junius  based  the  tra- 
dition of  the  Haarlem  invention),  and  six  editions  of  the  Donatus, 
which  we  may  fit  into  Zell's  account  That  the  editions  of  the 
Speculum,  of  the  Donatus,  and  of  the  Doctrinale  in  type  i.  may  be 
dated  as  early  as  1445  1454  is  clear  when  we  compare  them  with 
the  earliest  products  of  Mainz  printing,  for  which  the  Donaiuses, 
according  to  the  Cologne  Chronicle,  served  as  models.  For  instance, 
no  difference  in  workmanship  can  be  detected  between  the  Doncituses 
printed  in  Holland  and  the  three  editions  of /)o!ia<iiS  in  the  36-line 
Bible  type  and  the  four  editions  of  the  same  in  the  42-line  Bible 
type,  all  seven  presumably  printed  at  Mainz  and  before  1456.  Nor 
is  the  workmanship  of  the  Spcmla  (in  type  i.)  or  of  the  FacetuB 
Morales  (in  type  iii. )  different  from  or  later  than  that  of  the  Mainz 
Cathnlicon  of  1460 

It  has  been  pointed  out  above  that  the  first  products  of  the  art 
of  printing  were  not  meant  to  be  anything  but  faithful  imitations 
of  manuscript  books,  and  that  no  niateri.ll  deviations  from  the 
general  plan  become  observable  till  about  1473-1477  Nowhere  is 
the  plan  of  the  MS   period  more  strictly  adhered  to  than  in  the 

1  Twenty  leaves  of  one  of  the  Latin  editions  a'-e  apparently  printed  from 
wooden  blockii,  the  text  as  well  as  the  engravings 

3  For  a  detailed  list  of  these  books,  and  further  paiticulirs  regarding  them, 
see  J,  n.  Hessels,  Haarlem,  the  Btrlhplare  oj Printing,  London,  1SS7.  p.  25  sq. 

»  The  abbot  speaks  of  Doclrimi^itt  "gette"or  "jettezen  moIIe,"and  the  phrase 
is.  as  Bernard  {Origine,  i.  97  £(/.)  shows  by  eiglit  examples  from  1474 — the  year 
when  pvinting  is  first  officially  spoken  of  in  France — to  1693,  and  down  to  tho^ 
present  day,  applied  to  typographically.printed  booka  only 


692 


T  Y  p  o  G  r;  a  p  H  y 


[hlSTORICAU 


forty-seven  books  of  wliicl.  wc  arc  spcakins.  They  arc  all  «i  lout 
Stures,  without  initial  directors,  ^vithcut  hyphens,  withont 
^tcluvords,  that  is  to  say,  without  any  of  those  characteristics 
^hich  we  see  gradually,  one  after  the  other,  come  into  almost 
general  use  from  1473  (if  not  earlier)  to  1480.  The  four  editions 
If  the  Spccvlum  are  all  entirely  printed  anopisthograpliically,  tlie 
^•oodcuti  at  the  top  of  the  pages  as  well  as  the  '^Pl='"^t°7 '"' 
(in  type  i.)  underneath,  whi.-li  would  hardly  be  the  case  if  the 
books  had  been  printed  after  1471.  when  the  printing  "f  ^oO'if '=• 
together  with  text  in  inovable  types,  had  already  been  k.io^rn  for 
eleven  years.  Their  tvpes  have  nothing  m  common  with  any  of 
those  us.d  in  the  Neth^rlan.ls  after  1473  but  remind  U3  m. every 
respect  of  the  earlier  peiiod  of  th..  Dutch  block-books  and  MSS. 
Thev  are  all,  so  far  as  we  know,  without  any  col&phon  (except  such 
i  word  as  explirU).  which  yould,  for  a  collection  of  ffty.-f  ^'f" 
compatible  with  a  periud  aft.T  1471,  but  not  with  tho 


Moreover,  out  of  the 


books,  bu ri  ,.         ,   ,,,, 

•arlier  rciiod  of  the  block-books  aiid  Mbb.     __ 
forty-seven  books'no  less  than  thirtj--five  are  pnnted  on  vellum, 
ivhich  is  incompatible  with  a  period  after  1471,  when  pnntm-  on 
paper  had  become  universal,  but  not  with  the  earlier  period  of  the 

There  is,  therefore,  uo  reason  whatever  to  discredit  ZeU'sstate^. 


ment  in  the  Cologixe' ChronicU  of  1499,  that  the  Z)o,ia(«.«-»  printed 
in  Holland  were  thn  models,  the-"  beginning '  of  the  art  of  print- 


Inven- 
tion at 

Haarlem  m  noiiaiiu  «t:ic  m"  iiiuvi.j..3,  ^^-^      — o-----;-o  ,  -  .  -  ^,  ■  l 

by  in-   at  Main/,  nor  that  of  Hadrianus  Junius  in  his  Batavui,  that 

loster.  prTnting  was  invented  at  Haarlem  by  Loureus  Janszuon  Coster.. 
The  two  statements  were  made  independently  of  each  other.  1  hat 
of  ZcU  must  be  regarded  as  a  direct  contradiction  of  the  vague 
rumours  and  statements  about  an  invention  of  printing  at  Mainz 
in  Germany  by  Gutenberg,  which  gradually  crept  into  print  m  and 
aftor  146S  in'ltaly  and  France,  and  which  found  their  way  into 
Germany  ab,.ut  1476,  after  Mainz  and  G.-rnuny  had  given  the 
CTcatest  publicity  to  tlie  existence  of  the  art  in  their  midst  for  more 
than  tweuty-twi  years,  but  had  been  silent  about  an  invention 
and  an  inventor.  And,  though  "Zell  accords  to  Mainz  the  honour 
of  havin"  improved  the  art  and  having  made  it  more  artistic  he 
denies  it  the  hon.mr  of  havirg  invented  or  begun  it,  and  this  latter 
honour  was  never  claimed  by  that  towu  bclorc  14/6.  Junius  s 
account-is  the  embodiment  of  a  local  tradition  at  Haarlem,  the  lirst 
written  traces  of  which  w»  have  in  a  pedigree  (testimony  SIM)  ot 
the  famUy  of  the  reputed  Haarlem  inventor,  which  must  have  ex- 
ited at  least  as  early  as  1520.  His  account  has  been  indirectly 
confirmed  by  the  finding  of  several  fragm.-nts  at  Haarlem,  all  belong- 
ma  to  the  groupa  of  books  mentioned  above,  but  still  more  by  the 
discovery  of  several  fragments  of  the  Donatuses  printed  in  the 
SiKCutum  type,  all  used  as  binder's  waste  by  Cornells,  the  book- 
binder, the  very  man  whom  Junius  alleges  to  have  been  the  servant 
of  Coster.  As  the  ca^e  stands  at  present,  tlierefore,  we  have  no 
choice  but  to  say  that  the  invention  of  printing  with  movable 
metal  types  took  place  at  Haarlem  about  the  year  1445  by  Lourens 
Jaaszoon  Coster. 


Early  Types  and  their  Fabrication. 
We  mnst  now  take  notice  of  two  theories  or  traflitions 
which  have  been  curreut  for  a  long  time  as  to  some  in- 
tervening stage  brcween  the  art  of  block-printing  and  the 
art  of  printing  with  movable  cast  types.  •     One  theory  or 
tradition  would  have  it  that  the  inventor  of  printing,  after 
the  idea  of  single,  individual,  movable  types  had  arisen  in 
his  mind,  practised  his  new  invention  for  some  consider- 
able time  with  wooden   types,  and  that  he  came  only 
gradually  to  the  idea  of  movable  types  cast  of  metal. 
Wooden       Junius  gives  us  to  understand  that  in  his  opinion  the  Dutch 
types.       SpKulum  was  printed  with  such  wooden  types.     Of  Johaiin  Guten- 
berg it  was  asserted  that  he  printed  his  hrst  Bible  with  wooden 
types.     The  Mainz  psalter,  printed  in  1457  by  Joh.  Fust  and  Peter 
Schoeffer,  was  alleged  to  have  bcea  printed  with  wooden  types,  m 
which  case  the  4th  edition,  published  in  15u2,  and  even  the  5th 
Edition  of  1516,  would  be  printed  with  wooden   types,  the  same 
being  used  for  them  as  for  the  editions  of  1457  and  1459.     Thcod. 
Bibliandet  was  the  first  to  speak  (in  1548)  of  such  types  and  to  de- 
scribe thein  :  first  they  cut  their  letters,  he  says,  on  wood-blocks 
the  size  of  an  entire  page ;  but,  because  the  labour  and  cost  of  that 
vay  was  so  great,  they  devised  movable  wooden  types,  perforated 
and  joined  one  tu  the  other  by  a  thread.'     Bibliander  does  not  say 
that  he  had  ever  seen  such  types  himself,  but  Dan.  Speckle  or 
Specklin  (died  1589),  who  ascribed  the  invention  to  Mentelu,  asserts 
that  be  saw  some  of  these  wooden  types  at  Strasburg.'    Angelo 
1  We  do  not  iillude  to  Tritheim'3  assertion  th»t  the  Catholicm  of  1460  was 
prinloi  from  wooden,  blocks;  for  this  Btory.  vthich  he  declares  he  had  heard 
from  Peter  Schoeffer,  if  it  were  troe,  would  l)e1ong  to  the  historjr  ?>  blocl:- 
printing.    Nor  need  we  «p«ik  of  BergelUnuss  verees  (1541),  In  which  he  dis- 
tisetly  alludes  to  carved  blocks.  n     •  y. 

«  Cimnmiatio  it  Baliont  Commidii  Omiiiim  Itnyuaram  tl  liHraViim,  ^oncD, 
U48,  p.  Sa 
"  'iron.  Anent.,  MS.,  ed.  Jo.  Schilterua,  p.  442. 


Eoccha  asserted  in  1591  that  he  had  seen  at  Venice  types  perforated 
and  joined  one  to  the  other  by  a  thread,  but  he  does  not  say 
wliethcr  they  were  of  wbod  or  of  metal."  In  1710  ?aulus  Pater 
ffssertcdthat  he  hSd  seen  wooden  types  made  of  tlie  trunk  of  a 
box-tree,  and  perforated  in  the  centre  to  enable  them  to  be  joined 
together  by  a  thread,  originating  from  the  office  of  Fust  at  Mainz. 
Bodmafl,  as  late  as  1781,  saw  the  same  types  in  a  worm-eaten  con- 
dition at  Mainz;  and  Fischer  stated  in  1802  that  these  relic* 
Were  used  as  a  sort  of  token  of  honour  to  be  bestowed  on  worthy 
apprentices  on  the  occasion  of  their  finishing  their  term. 

Besides  those  who  believed  in  these  wooden  types  from  the  fact 
that  the  letters  (especially  in  the  Speculum)  vary  among  themselves 
in  a  manner  which  would  not  be  the  case  had  they  been  cast  from 
a  matrix  in  a  mould,  there  were  authors  and  practical  pnnters  who 
attempted  to  cut  themselves  or  to  have  cut  for  them  some  such 
wooden  types .  as  were  alleged  to  have  been  used  by  the  early 
printers.  Some  of  them  came  to  the  conclusion  that  such  a  process 
would  be  quite  practicable  ,  others  found  by  experiment  that  it 
would,  in  the  case  of  small  types,  bo  wholly  impossible.  Up  to 
the  present  time  no  book  or  document  has  come  to  lignt  which  can 
be  asserted  to  have  been  printed  with  such  single,  movable,  woodeii 
types.  But  nearly  all  the  experiments  to  which  we  have  alluded 
vvers  made  with  the  idea  that  the  inventor  of  printing,  or  the  earliest 
printers,  started,  or  had  to  start,  with  as  large  a  supply  of  type  as 
a  modern  printer.  This  idea  is  erroneous,  as  it  is  hardly  any  longer 
denied  that,  for  a  good  many  years  after  the  first  appearance  of  the 
art,  printers  printed  their  books  (large  or  small)  not  by  quires  (qua- 
ternions or  quinternions)  but  page  by  page.6  Therefore,  all  con- 
siderations  of  the  experimenters  as  to  the  impracticability  of  such 
wooden  types,  on  account  of  the  trouble  and  length  of  time  required 
for  the  cutting  of  thousands  of  types,  faU  to  the  ground  in  face  of 
the  fact  that  the  earliest  printers  required  only  a  very  small  quantity 
of  tj-pe,  in  spite  of  the  peculiar  forms  (combined  letters,  letters 
with  contractions,  S:c.)  which  were  then  in  vogue. 

The  other  theory  would  have  it  that  between  block- Scnlpto 
printing  and  printing  with  movable  cast  tj-pes  there  was  (^^ 
an  intermediate  stage  of  printing  with  " sculpto-fusi  "types,  'V^' 
that  is,  types  of  which  the  shanks  had  been  cast  in  a  quadri- 
lateral mould,  and  the  "  faces,"  i.e.,  the  characters  or  letters, 
engraved  by  hand  afterwards.     This  theory  was  suggested 
by°sorae  who  could  not  believe  in  wooden  types  and  yet 
wished  to  account  for  the  marked  irregularities  in  the  types 
of  the  earliest  printed  books.  . 

Gerardus  Meerman,  the  chief  champion  of  this  theoryj  based  it, 
not  only  on  the  words  of  Celtes  [Amores,  in.  3),  who  in  1502  de- 
scribed Mainz  as  the  city  "quaj  prima  sculpsit  solidos  are  char- 
actercs,"  but  on  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the  word  sculptuS  m  tho 
colophons  of  the  early  printers  (for  Jenson  and  Husner  of  Strasburg, 
see  p.  681  above).  Seiisenschmid  in  1475  said  that  the  Codex  Jits- 
tiniamis  was  "cut"  {iusculptus),  and  that  he  had  "cut"  {sculpnl) 
the  work  of  Lonibardus,  In  Psalta-ium.  Meerman  also  explained 
the  account  of  the  invention  of  printing  .by  Tdthemius'asmean- 
iu»  that,  after  the  rejection  of  the  first  wooden  tjTes,  the  inventors 
discovered  a  method  of  casting  the  bodies  only  of  all  the  letters  of 
the  Latin  alphabet  from  what  tliey  called  matrices,  on  which  they 
cut  the  face  of  each  letter  ;  and  from  the  same  kind  of  matrices  a 
method  was  in  time  discovered  of  casting  tho  complete  letters  of 
sufficient  hardness  for  the  pressure  they  had  to  bear,  which  Iette« 
they  were  before— that  is,  when  the  bodies  only  were  cast— obliged 
to  cut.'  In  this  way  Meerman  explained  that  the.Speeuhanvraa 
printed  in  sculpto-fusi  types,  although  iii.the  one  page  of  which  ho 
gives  a  facsimile  there  are  nearly  1700  separate  tj-pes,  of  which  259 
alone  are  e's.  Schocptliii  claimed  the  same  invention.Jor  Stras- 
bur"  and  believed  that  all  the  earliest  books  printed  there  were 
pioSiiced  by  this  means.  Both  Meerman  B  d  Schoepflin  agreed 
that  encraved  metal  types  (tiUrx  in  tere  fCiUptee)  were  m  use  for 


many  ycare  after  the  invention  of  the  punch  and  matris,  mention- 
ing among  others  so  printed  the  Mainz  psalter,  tlic  Catholicon  of 
1460  the  Egoestein  Bible  o!  1463,  and  even  the  Pneccjitonum  oi 
Nider,  printed  at  Strasburg  in  1476.  But  the  gicat  dificulty  con- 
nected with  the  process  of  fii-st  casting.the  shanks  and  afterwams 
engraving  the  faces  of  the  tJTJOS  has  become  apparent  to  those  who 
have  made  experiments  ;  and  it  seems  more  proboble  that  the  terais 
scu!i>crc,  exsculpm,  insailpcrc  are  only  a  figurative  lluaon  to  the 
first  process  twards  producing  the  tjTpes,  namely  the  catting  ot  tne 
punch,  which  is  artistically  more  important  to  the  fabrication  of 
types  than  tho  mechanical  .casting. -aU  the  more  as  SchoelTer  m 
H6S  makes  his  GranmaCica  Vctus  Ehylhrnjcy.  say.      1  am  cast  at 

4  Vc  Bihliothem  Vaticnna,  Rome,  1591,  p.  412. 

5  Cc  COT)i(ini«  Jfirora'o.  I.«ipsic.  1710,  p.  10. 

6  See.  for  instance,  W.  Blades.  I.i/t  ofCailiit,  I.  SO. 

'  Jnnalesnirsaiigitiisc'  ii.  421  :  "  Post  hiEC  inventis  SUCCCTSenmtsoMiIiort; 
Inveneiuntque  liioduTii  fiiiidondi  fonnas  omnium  Utini  alphaboti  hterarum, 
quas  ipsi  matiices  noininabant,  ex  quibus  nirsum  aencos  siye  s'^mneos  cha^' 
teres  fuudebant,  ad  omutm  iiressunni  sufficientes.  quos  pnlis  manlbus  sculp* 
bj^t"  "  OnjiuM  Ti/P"3™i'''''*'T'"  Hague.  UC^  Api»im^  p.  4..        , 


H3ST0E1CAL.1 


TYPOGRAPHY 


693 


trr«» 

3^  is 


Mainz,"ian  expi'cssion  which  could  hardly  be  anythiDg  but  a  figura- 
tiT9  alliwion  to  the  casting  of  the  types. 

-  Granting  that  all  the  earlier  works  of  typography  pre- 
served to  U3  are  impressions  of  cast-metal  types,  there  are 
still  differences  of  opinion,  especially  among  practical 
printers,  as  to  the  probable  methods  employed- to  cast  them. 
It  is  considered  unlikely  that  the  inventor  of  printing 
passed  all  at  once  to  the  perfect  typography  of  the  punch, 
the  matrix,  and  the  mould.  Bernard '  considered  that  the 
types  of  the  Speculum  were  cast  in  sand,  as  that  art  was 
certainly  known  to  tho  silversmiths  and  trinket-makers  of 
the  15th  century ;  and  he  accounts  for  the  varieties  observ- 
able in  the  shapes  of  various  letters  on  the  ground  that 
several  models  would  probably  be  made  cf  each  letter,  and 
th^the  types,  when  cast  by  this  .imperfect  mode,  would 
require  some  touching  up  or  finishing  by  hand.  He  ex- 
hibits a  specimen  of  a  word  cast  for  him  by  this  process 
■which  not  only  proves  the  possibility  of  casting  types  in 
this  manner  but  also  shows  the  same  kind  of  irregularities 
as  those  observable  in  the  types  of  the  Speculum. 

But  here  again  it  is  argued  that  in  types  cast  by  this  or  any  other 
primitive  method  there  would  be  an  absence  of  unifonaiity  in  what 
founders  term  "height  to  paper."  Some  types  would  stand  higher 
than  others,  and  the  low  ones,  unless  raised,  would  miss  the  ink  and 
cot  appear  in  the  impression.  The  comparative  rarity  of  faults  of 
this  kind  in  the  Spmtlum  leads  one  to  suppose  that,  ii  a  process  of 
sand-casting  had  been  adopted,  the  difficulty  of  uneven  heights  had 
been  surmounted  either  by  locking  up  the  forme  face  downwards, 
or  by  perforating  the  types  either  at  the  time  of  casting  or  after- 
wards, and  holding  them  in  their  places  by  means  of  a  thread  or 
wire.  To  this  cause  Ottley  attiibuted  the  numerous  misprints  in 
the  Speculum,  to  correct  which  would  have  involved  the  unthread- 
ing of  every  line  in  which  an  error  occurred.  And,  as  a  still  more 
striking  proof  that  the  lines  were  put  into  the  forme  one  by  one, 
in  a  piece,  he  shows  a  curious  printer's  blunder  at  the  end  o/  one 
page,  where  the  whole  of  the  last  reference-line  fs  put  in  upside 
down,  thus: — 

J3oe  tuas  itifct  gUpenOe  mse  nict  buctcnor. 

A  "hun"  of  this  magnitude  could  hardly  have  occurred  U  the 
letters  had  been  set  in  the  forme  type  by  type. 

Another  suggested  mode  is  that  of  casting  in  clay  motilds, 
by  a  method  very  similar  to  that  used  in  the  sand  process, 
Eouldi  ^^^  resulting  in  similar  peculiarities  and  variations  in  the 
types. 

Ottley,  who  was  the  chief  exponent  of  this  theory,  suggested 
that  the  types  were  made  by  pouring  melted  lead  or  other  soft 
metal  into  moulds  of  earth  or  plaster,  after  the  ordinary  manner 
used  from  time  immemorial-in  casting  statues  of  bronze  and  other 
articles  of  metal.  But  tlie  mould  thus  formed  could  hardly  avail 
for  a  second  casting,  as  it  would  be  scarcely  possible  to  extract  the 
type  after  casting  without  breaking  the  clay,  aud,  even  if  that  could 
be  done,  the  shrinking  of  the  metal  in  cooling  would  be  apt  to 
warp  the  mould  beyond  the  possibility  of  further  use,  Ottley  there- 
fore suggests  that  the  constant  renewal  of  the  moulds  could  be 
effected  by  using  old  types  cast  out  of  them,  after  being  touched 
up  by  the  graver,  as  n\odels, — a  process  which  he  tlji^nks  will 
account  for  the  varieties  observable  in  the  different  letters,  but 
which  would  really  cause  such  a  gradual  deterioration  and  attenua- 
tion in  the  type,  as  the  work  of  casting  progressed,  that  in  the  end 
it  would  leave  the  face  of  the  letter  unrecognizable  as  that  with 
which  it  began.  .  It  would  therefore  be  more  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  one  set  of  models  would  be  used  for  the  preparation  of  all  the 
moulds  necessary  for  the  casting  of  a  sufficient  number  of  types  to 
compose  a  page,  and  for  tho  periodical  renewal  of  the  moulds  all 
through  the  work,  and  that  the  variations  in  the  types  would  be 
due,  not  to  the  gradual  paring  of  the  faces  of  the  models,  but  to 
the  different  skill  and  exactness  with  which  the  successive  moulds 
would  b^  taken.  It  is  evident  that  the  sand  and  cUy  methods  of 
casting  types  above  described  must  be  slow  The  time  occupied 
after  the  first  engraving  of  the  models  in  forming,  drying,  and  clear- 
ing the  moulds,  in  casting,  extracting,  touching  up,  and  possibly 
perforating  the  types  required  for  one  page,  would  exceed  the  time 
required  by  a  practised  xylogr.ipher  for  the  cutttn;;  of  a  page  of 
text  upon  a  block.  But  he  that  Ims  gone  through  the  trouble  of 
casting  separate  inov.ible  ty].cs  has  a  clear  gain  over  the  wood- 
block printer  In  having  a  fount  of  movable  types,  which,  even  if 
the  metal  in  wliiili  ihcy  were  cast  were  only  soft  lead  or  pewter, 
might  be  used  again  niid  again  in  the  production  of  any  other  page 
<)f  te;:t,  while  the  wood-block  can  only  produce  thf  one  page  wliich 


•Types 
cast  in 

ciay 


it  contains.  Moreover,  only  one  hand  could  labour  on  the  xylo- 
graphic  block  ;  but  many  hands  could  be  employed  in  the  mould- 
ing and  casting  of  types,  however  rude  they  might  be.  ■  Bernard 
states  that  the  artist  who  produced  for  him  the  few  sand-cast  types 
shown  in  his  work  assured  him  that  a  workman  could  easily  pro- 
duce a  thousand  such  leticse  a  Oay.  He  also  states  that,  though 
each  letter  required  squaring  after  casting,  there  was  no  need  to 
touch  up  the  faces. 

There  remains  yet  another  suggestion  as  to  the  method 
in  which  the  types  of  the  rude  school  may  have  been 
produced.  This  may  be  described  as  a  system  of  what 
the  founders  of  sixty  years  ago  called  polytype,  which  is  a 
cast  or  facsimile  copy  of  an  engraved  block,  matter  in 
type,  &c. 

Lambinet,'  who  is  responsible  for  the  suggestion,  based  upon  a  new 
translation  of  Trithemius's  narrative,  explains  that  this  process 
really  means  an  early  adoption  of  stereotype.  He  thinks  that  the 
first  printers  may  have  discovered  a  way  of  moulding  a  page  of  some 
work — an  Abecedarium — in  cooling  metal,  so-  as  to  get  a  matrix- 
plate  impression  of  the  whole  page.  Upon  this  matrix  they  would 
pour  a  liquid  metal,  and  by  the  aid  of  a  roller  or  cylinder  press  the 
fused  matter  evenly,  so  as  to  make  it  penetrate  into  all  the  hollows 
and  corners  of  the  letters.  This  tablet  of  tin  or  lead,  being  easily 
lifted  and  detached  from  the  matrix,  would  then  appear  as  a  surface 
of  metal  in  which  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  stood  out  reversed  and 
in  relief  These  letters  could  easily  be  detached  and  rendered  mobile 
by  a  knife  or  other  sharp  instrument,  and  the  operation  could  he 
repeated  a  hundred  times  a  day.  The  metal  faces  so  produced  would 
be  fixed  on  wooden  shanks,  type  high,  and  the  fount  would  then 
be  complete.  Lambinet's  hypothesis  was  endorsed  by  Firmin- 
Didot,  the  renowned  type-founder  and  printer  of  Lambinet's  day. 
But  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  the  Mainz  p.salter  of  1457,  which 
these  writers  point  to  as  a  specimen  of  this  mode  of  execulioii,  is 
tho  impression,  not  of  type  at  all,  but  of  a  collection  of  "casts" 
mounted  on  wood. 

Whatever  value  there  may  be  in  the  above  theories  with 
regard  to  the  movable  types  of  the  first  printer,  certain  it 
is  that  the  shape  and  manufacture  of  the  types  used 
as  early  as  c,  1470  do  not  seem  to  have  difi'ered  materially 
from  those  of  the  present  types. 

This  is  evident  (1)  from  the  shape  of  the  old  types  which  were 
discovered  in  1878  in  the  bed  of  the  river  Saone,  near  Lyons, 
opposite  the  site  of  one  of  the  15th-century  printing  houses  of  that 
city,  and  which  there  is  reason  to  believe  belonged  once  to  one  of 
those  presses,  and  were  used  by  the  early  printers  of  Lyons ;  (2) 
from  a  page  in  Joh.  Nider's  Lepra  Moralis,  printed  by  Conrad 
Homburch  at  Cologne  in  1476,  which  shows  the  accidental  impres- 
sion of  a  type,  pulled  up  from  its  place  in  the  course  of  printing 
by  the  ink-ball,  and  laid  at  length  tipon  the  face  of  the  forme,  thus 
leaving  its  exact  profile  indented  upon  the  page  ;  (3)  from  an 
entirely  similar  page  (fol.  4'>)  in  Liber  dc  Laudibus  ac  Fcstis  Gloriosm 
Virginis,  Cologne,  c.  1463-  From  the  small  circle  appearing  in. the 
two  last-mentioned  types,  it  is  presumed  that  the  letters  were  pierced 
laterally  by  a  circular  hole,  which  did  not  penetrate  the  whole 
thickness  of  the  letter,  and  served,  like  tiie  nick  of  modern  types, 
to  enable  the  compositor  to  tell  by  touch  which  way  to  set  the  letter 
in  his  stick.  The  fact  that  in  these  two  cases  the  letter  was  pulled 
up  from  the  forme  seems  to  show  that  the  line  could  not  have  been 
threaded. 

Vino.  Fineschi,  Nolizie  Storiche  sopra  la  Siampcrin  di  BipoK 
(Florence,  17S1,  p.  49).  gives  an  extract  from  the  cost-book  of  the 
Ripoli  press,  about  14S0,  by  which  it  appears  that  steel,  brass, 
copper,  tin,  lead,  and  iron  wire  were  all  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
types  at  that  period-* 

The  history  and  nomenclature  of  the  earliest  types  are 
practically  a  continuation  of  the  history  and  nomenclature 
of  the  characters  figured  in  the  earliest  block-books,  wood- 
engravings,  and  MSS.  For  instance,  Gothic  type  was  first 
seen  about  the  year  1445  ;  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  Gothic  \vriting,  of  which  that  type  was  an  imita- 
tion, was  already  known  and  used  about  the  second  half 
of  the  12th  century.  Again,  the  pure  Roman  type,  which 
appeared  about  1464,  is  nothing  but  an  imitation  of  what 
in  paleography  is  called  the  Caroline  minuscule,  a  hand- 
writing which  was  already  fully  developed  towards  the  end 
of  the  8th  century.  Consequently,  details  as  to  the  history 
and  development  of  the  various  types  properly  belong  to 
the  study  of  PAL-€00R.\rHY  (7.!'.). 

2  Origini  dt  f'/mprinienV,  Paris,  ISIO,  2  vols.  8vo,  i.  07.  , 

a  On  the  above  theoriea  and  types  censult  T.  B.  ReeJ,  0\-J  English  Leller 
Foundries,  pp.  3-26. 


Poly, 
tvna. 


Shape  of 

earliest 

type. 


History 
of  the 
earliest 
types. 


694 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[historicau 


The  broad  outlines  of  tKe  history  of  the  earliest  types 
are  as  follows : — 
Oothic.  Gothic  type,  of  the  angiilar  or  pointed  kind,  was  first  used  by  the 
Haarlem  printer  of  the  Speculum,  DoncUus,  ic.  (see  specimen  No.  1 , 
taken  from  the  British  Jluseum  copy  of  the  Speculum  Hmnanm 
Salvalionis,  mixed  Latin  edition],  presumably  c.  1445.  An  entirely 
similar  but-larger  type  (No.  2,  taken  from  the  British  Museum  copy 
of  Ludovicus  [Pontanus]  de  Roma,  Singularia)  was  used,  presumably 
by  the  same  printer,  c.  1465-1470.  Gothic  type  appeared  in 
Germany  as  a  church  type  in  1454,  in  the  31-line  indulgence,  pre- 
sumably printed  byjohan  Gutenberg  at  Mainz  (No.  3,  from  the 
Gbttingen  copy),  and  in  the  30-line  indulgence  (No.  4,  taken  from 
the  British  Museum  copy),  printed  by  Peter  Schoeffer  at  Mainz. 
Type  No.  3  was  also  used  about  the  same  time  for  the  36-line  Bible 
and  type  No.  4  for  the  42-linc  Bible.  Two  much  larger  Gothic 
types  appeared  in  the  psalter  of  1457,  published  by  Fust  and 
Schoeffer  (see  Bernard,  Origine,  pi.  Vii ).  In  Italy  Gothic  type 
appears  in  1468  (No.  5,  taken  from  the  British  Museum  copy  of 
Cicero,  De  Oratore  published  at  Rome  by  Ulr.  Hahn,  15th  December 

1468,  in  small  Roman  type,  with  imprint  in  Gothic),  but  in  a  more 
rounded  form  ;  it  is  practically  the  ordinary  Italian  writing  influ- 
enced by  the  Gothic.  In.Franoe  Gothic  began  to  be  used  in  1473  ; 
in  England  it  appears  first  in  Caxton's  type  about  the  year  1480.' 
It  was  employed  extensively  in  a  great  many  of  the  earliest  presses 
all  over  Europe,  and  continued  to  be  used  largely  at  aU  times, 
especially  for  Bibles,  law  books,  royal  proclamations,  &c  ,  and  even 
to  this  day  it  is  the  national  character  of  Germany  It  is  now 
usually  called  letlrr  de  formt,  black  lelUr  or  English  in  English- 
speaking  countries,  leUre  fiamand  in  Holland,  and  fractur  in 
Germany. 

Bastsrd        Bastard  Italian  or  bastard  Roman  was  introduced  in  1454  at 

Italian     -Mainz  in  the  31  line  (No.  6)  and  30-line  (No.  7)  indulgence.     It  is 

or  also  called  UWre  de  somtm^  some  think  from  the  Sumiaa  of  Thomas 

Roman-    Aquinas,  printed  in  the  type  of  the  Bible  of  1462  by  Fust  and 

Schoeffer.     Varieties  of  this  kind  of  type  were,  like  the  Gothic, 

much  used  by  the  earliest  printers,  05,  for  instauce,  the  printer  of 

the  1460  Catholicon,  i.e.,  by  MenteHn  of  Strasbure,  c.  1460,  and 

by  Ulrich  Zell  at  Cologne,  c.  1466,  &c     In  England  it  appeared  in 

the  first  three  books  printed  (1478,  1479)  at  Oxford  (No.  8,  taken 

from  the  British  Museum  copy  of  Jerome's  ExposUio  in  Sitribolum 

Apostolorum,  wrongly  dated  1468  for  1478). 

Roman.        Roman  type,  the  Caroline  minuscule  of  palaeography,  was  first 

used  in  Germany  about  1464,  at  Strasburg,  by  the  printer  whose 

fount  of  type  is  known  by  a  peculiarly  shaped  R,  and  who  on  that 

account  is  usually  called  "the  R  printer"  (No.  9,- taken  from  the 

.  British  Museurf  copy  of  Durandus,  Raiimale,  of  which  the  Basel 

library  possesses  a  copy  which  was  bought  in  1464).'     In  Italy  it 

appears  in  1465  at  Subiaco  (see  Bernard,  pi.  xii. ,  No.  19),  at  Rome 

in  1467  [op.  cit.,  pi.  xii..  No.  20),  but  in  all  its  purity  at  Venicc.in 

1469,  used  by  Johannes  of  Spires  (op.  cit..  pi.  xii.,  No.  23)j  arid  at 
Paris  in  1470  (op.  cit.,  pi.  xiii.,  No.  25).  In  England,it  was  not 
used  before  1518,  when  Richard  Pynson  printed^.  Pace's  Oralio  in 
Pace  Kujxrriina  (see  facsimile  in  Reed'.5  Type  Foundries,  p.  92). 

Burgun-  Burgundian  type,  or  gros  batarde  or  sccret"-n/,  was  first  used  about 
dian.  1470-72  by  Colard  Mansion  at  Bruges  ^No.  10,  taken  from,  the 
British  Museum  copy  of  La  Controversie  de  A'oblcssc,  c.  1471-72). 
With  a  somewhat  similar  type  (No.  11,  taken  from  the  British 
Museum  copy  of  the  Eccuyell)  William  Caxton  is  presumed  to  have 
printed,  likewise  at  Bruges,  a  set  of  five  books,  of  which  the  ReeuyeU 
of  the  History  of  Troye,  a  translation  of  a  work  by  Raoul  le  Fevre, 
is  the  best  known  and  was  probably  printed  c.  1471.'  To  this  same 
class  belong  the  first  tj-pe  (No.  12,  from  the  British  Museum  copy 
of'the  Dicks)  used  in  England  by  William  Caxton  for  the  printing 
of  Dicles  and  Sayings  of  tM  Philosopliers  (18th  November  1477), 
and  that  used  by  the  printer  of  St  Albans  (No.  13,  taken  from  the 
Cambridge  university  library  copy  of  Aug.  Dactus,  Elegancie).     It 


3t$  ttmna  mpTo 


Ko  I  —SpecvXxim  type,  c  1445  (7)  No.  2  —Pontanus  type.  c.  1470(7). 


iftteamr 

Sptoi;  ci?  rtc  ^ucte  ^^^ 
bPcjccefltbjcriniib; 

Kos.  3  and  6.— Mainz  31-liDe 
tndalgence,  1454. 


Jftreatur  (4) 

cxcc/T'l'?  criminib) 

Vos.  4  and  7.— Mftinz  30-line 
indulgence,  1454. 


1  See  Blades,  Life  of  Caxton,  pi.  xvii. 

•  See  Julc9  Philippe,  L' Jmprimerie  a  Paris,  p.  219. 

»  Ct  Blades,  Life  of  Caxton. 


ttlibrl.O  mSC^Ci<it^ 

No.  5.— Cicero,  tk  Oratore.  1463.       No  \Q.  ••f^ontrnversu' de  Wobifisse,  c  1471-7?= 


fill's  eft  qui 
meftiiig  fe  ^if 
bat  aliFectiim 

No  8.  -Jerome's  Ezpositic  0468),  I47a 


KemirimuscJc 
clinibD.Nucd 
antonomafice 

No.  9.  — Purandua,  c  1464 


;^«Hcmnoi)  anb2     <fSd^  font  (t 


No   1 1  —Recuydl  0/  Of  Hist  oj  Tr^yt. 
C.  1471 


No  12  . 


■Dictes  ind  Sayin 
1477 


was  an  imitation  of  the  manuscript  hand  J^<,,i.  <_(?,u./i  f.f^t:^.. 
of  the  English  and  Burgundian  scribes  "'™f*'»^""<'H>*'>'8' 
of  the  15th  century,  and,  after  having  CO  ^toi  rtsfllBtHlBrtlOtt 
figured  for  a  long  time  in  several  of  the  jmt  O.P'^  "  • 
early  London  and  provincial  presses,  was  I^O  WOfltUKtLe  }38J)u  f 
about  1534  entirely  su|>erseded  by  the  No  13  —Aug.  Dactus.  Ete 
English  black  letter       To  this  class  of  !^""«- 1-"^- 

type  belong  also  the  later  lettre  de  civiliu  (c.  1570),  the  script  (letlrs 
couUe,  lettre  de  fiiuj.^ice,  Dutch  geschreven  schrift),  set  court,  hose  ^ecre' 
tary,  and  running  secretary  types. 

On  the  types  before  1500,  consult  also  the  facsimiles  in  Holtrop's  ^fon■  Typ. 
dcs  Pays-Bus,  The  Hague,  186S  ;  R.  C.  Hawkins,  First  Books  and  Printers  0/  Ihf 
Fifteenih  Century,  New  York,  18S4  ;  William  Blades,  The  Life  oJ  CajUon,  Loniion, 
1S61-63  ;  Bernard,  Origiiie  de  V Imprinterie,  Paris,  1853,  vol.  i.,  plates  iii.-xiii.  ; 
Pticidus  Braun,  Sotitia  d^  Libris  ab  Arfis  Typogr  ]7iventione  vsqne  ad  Annum 
11,79  tm-pressis,  Augsburg,  1788j  H.  Noel  Humphreys,  Hist,  of  the  Art  of  Print- 
ing, fol.,  London.  1867.  The  types  after  150O  can  best  be  learned  from  the 
catalogues  of  tj-pe-founders,  among  which  those  of  Messrs  Enschede  of  Haarlem 
occupy  n  fon'niost  place.  Of  others  we  may  mention — Indice  dei  Caratteri  nella 
Slampa  Vo^ticnua,  4to,  Rome,  IG28  :  Itpreuves  des  Caractcres  QTti  se  trouient  chez 
Claude  Lameste,  4to.  Paris,  1742;  tpre^tves  des  Car.  de  la  fondcrie  de  Claude 
Mozet,  8vo,  Nantes,  1754  ;  Les  Car.  de  1' Imprimerie  par  Foumier  le  Jeuuje,  8vo. 
Paris,  1704  •  Proefvan  Leiteren,  Bloemen,  &c.,  ran  Ptoos  van  Amstet,  8vo,  Amster- 
dam, 1767 ;  ^preuve  de  Car.  de  Jacques  Franrois  Kosart,  8vo,  Brussels,  1771 ; 
Schriften  .  bey  J.  H  Prentzler,  4to,  Frankfort-on-Main,  1774 ;  £preuves  dcs 
Car.  de  la  Fond,  de  J.  L.  Joannis,  8vo,  Paris,  1776 :  Fpreuves  des  Car.  de  la  Fovd. 
dej  L  de  Bonbers,  Svo,  BTUssc]s,}'n7  ;  Procve  van  Letterenuelki  gegoolen  warden 
door  J  de  Groat,  Svo,  The  Hague.  1787 ;  Pantographie,  by  Edmund  Fry.  Svo. 
LondoD.  1790 .  and  Manuale  Typographico,  by  0  Bodoni,  4to,  Fanna.  1818 

SvhsiC[uenl  to  1500. 

Though  the  Cologne  Chronkle  of  1499  denies  to  Mainz  Priotera 
the  honour  of  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing,  it  was  "-f" 
right  in  asserting  that,  after  it  had  been  brought  there '^ 
from  Holland,  it  became  much  more  masterly  and  exact, 
and  more  and  more  artistic.  During  the  first  half  century 
of  printing  a  good  many  printers  distinguished  themselves 
by  the  beauty,  excellence,  and  literary  value  of  their  pro- 
ductions. We  may  mention  as  such  : — Johan  Fust  and 
Peter  Schoeffer  at  Main* ;  Johan  Mentelin  and  Heinricb 
Eggestein  at  Strasburg  ,  Ulrich  Zell  at  Cologne ,  Sweyn- 
heyra  and  Pannarts  at  Subiaco  and  at  Rome ;  Nicolas 
Jenson  at  Venice  ;  Anton  Koberger  at  Nuremberg;  Kete- 
iaer  and  De  Leempt  at  Utrecht ,  Johan  Veldenor  at 
Lonvain,  Utrecht,  and  Kuilenburg;  Gerard  Leeu  at  Gouda; 
Johan  of  Westphalia  at  Louvain  ;  and  William  Caxton 
{q.v.)  at  Westminster. 

Very  soon  the  demand  for  books  increased,  and  with  it 
came  a  reduction  in  their  prices.  This  caused  a  decline 
in  the  execution  of  printing,  which  begins  to  be  appreciable 
about  1480  in  some  localities,  and  may  be  said  to  have 
become  general  towards  the  end  of  the  15th  century.  At 
all  times,  however,  we  find  some  printers  raise  their  art  to 
a  great  height  by  the  beauty  of  their  types  and  the  literary 
excellence  of  their  productions.  Among  the  later  printers 
we  may  mention  the  Aldi  of  Venice  (1490  to  159'';  see 


BIST0RICAL.1 


TYPOGRAPHY 


€9f 


MAMJi'ius,  vol.  XV.  p.  SI'S)  j  G.  B.  Bodoni  of  Panna  (176S- 
1813  ;  see  voL  iii.  p.  849) ;  John  Amerbach  at  Ba^el  (U92- 
1516) ;  John  Froben  at  Basel  (1496-1527  ;  see  vol.  is.  p. 
791);  John  Baskerville  at  Birmingham  (1750-1775;  see 
■voL  iii  p.  421);  the  house  of  Wechel,  first  at  Paris  (c. 
1530-1572),  afterwards  at  Frankfort;  Christopher  Plantin 
Bt  Antwerp  (1554-1589),  but  continued  long  after  under 
the  firm  OMcina  Plantiniana  (see  voL  six.  p.  176);  the 
Elzevirs,  first  at  Leyden,  afterwards  at  Amsterdam  (1580- 
1680;  see  vol.  viii.  p.  156);  Antoine  Verard  at  Paris 
(1485-1513) ;  JosseBade  at  Paris(14951535  ;  see  Badius, 
vol.  iii.  p.  228);  and  the  Estiennes  at  Paris  (1502-1598; 
see  Stephens,  voL  xxiL  p.  534). 

History  of  Modem  Types. 

lUlic  The  Italic  type '  is  said  to  be  an  imitation  of  tlie  handwriting  of 

Petrarch,  and  was  introduced  by  Aldas  Manatias  of  Venice  for 
the  purpose  of  printing  his  projected  small  editions  of  the  classics. 
The  cutting  of  it  was  entrusted  to  Francesco  da  Bologna,  an  artist 
who  is  presumed  to  be  identical  with  the  painter  Francesco  Francia 
or  Eaibolini.  The  fount  is  a  "  lower  case  "  only,  the  capitals  being 
Eoman  in  form.  It  contains  a  large  number  of  tied  letters,  to 
imitate  handwriting,  but  is  quite  free  &om.  contractions  and  liga. 
tores.  It  was  first  used  in  the  Firgil  of  1500.  Aldus  produced 
six  different  sizes  between  1501  and  1558.  It  was  counterfeited 
almost  immediately  in  Italy,  at  Lyons,  and  elsewhere.  Originally 
it  was  called  Venetian  or  Aldine,  but  subsequently  Italic  type, 
except  in  Germany  and  Holland,  where  it  is  called  "cursive." 
The  Italians  also  adopted  the  Latin  name  "  charactercs  cnisivi  sen 
cancellariL"  In  England  it  was  first  used  by  VTynkyn  de  Worde 
in  Wakefield's  Oraiio  in  1524.  The  character  was  at  first  intended 
and  used  for  the  entire  test  of  classical  works.  When  it  became 
more  general,  it  was  employed  to  distinguish  portions  of  a  book  not 
properly  belonging  to  the  wtjrk,  such  as  introductions,  prefaces, 
indexes,  notes,  the  text  itself  being  in  Roman.  Later  it  was  used 
in  the  text  for  quotations,  and  finally  served  the  double  part  of 
emphasiring  certain  words  in  some  works,  and  in  others,  chiefly 
translations  of  the  Bible,  of  marking  words  not  rightly  forming  a 
fiart  of  the  text. 

Oicelt  Greek  type  {minuscules)  first  ocotus  in  Ciceri<,  De  OJiciis  printed 

at  Mainz  in  1 465  by  Fust  and  Schoeffer.  The  fount  used  is  rude 
and  imperfect,  many  of  the  letters  being  ordinary  Latin.  In  the 
same  year  Sweynheym  and  Pannarts  used  a  good  Greek  lettei  for 
some  of  the  quotations  in  their  edition  of  Laclantius  (see,  for  in'- 
Btance,  leaves  11a,  19a,  36a,  139, 140) ;  but  the  supply  was  evidently 
short  at  first,  as  some  of  the  larger  quotations  in  the  first  part 
of  the  book  were  left  blank  to  be  filled  in  by  hand.  The  first 
book  wholly  printed  in  Greek  minuscules  was  the  Grammar  of 
Lascaris,  by  Paravisinus,  at  MUan  in  1476,  in  types  stated  to  have 
been  cot  and  cast  by  Demetrius  of  Crete.  The  fount  contains 
breathings,  accents,  and  some  ligatures.  The  headings  to  the 
chapters  are  whoUy  in  capitals.  The  AnthoJogia  Grmca  of  Las- 
saris  was  printed  at  Florence  in  1494  wholly  in  Greek  capitals 
{IxUtra  majuscuisi),  and  it  is  stated  in  the  preface  that  they  were 
designed  after  the  genuine  models  of  antiquity  to  be  found  in  the 
inscriptions  on  medals,  marbles,  kc.  But  as  late  as  1493  Greek 
type  was  not  common,  for  in  that  year  the  Venice  printer  Symon 
Bevilaqua  issued  TibuJlus,  Calullits,  and  Propertius  with  blanks 
left  in  the  commentary  for  the  Greek  quotations.  In  England 
Greek  letters  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  1519  in  W.  de  Worde's 
edition  of  Whiteuton's  Grammatical  where  a  few  words  are  in- 
troduced cut  in  wood.  Cast  types  were  used  at  Cambridge  in 
Galen's  De  Temperamentis,  translated  by  Linacre,  and  printed 
by  Sibereh  in  1521,  who  styles  himself  the  first  Greek  printer 
in  England ;  but  the  quotations  in  the  Galen  are  very  sparse, 
and  Sibereh  is  not  known  to  have  printed  any  entire  book  in 
Greek.  The  first  printer  who  possessed  Greek  types  in  any  quantity 
was  Reginald  Wolfe,  who  held  a  royal  patent  as  printer  in  Greek, 
Latin,  and  He'orew",  and  printed  in  1543  two  Hmnilics  of  Chryso- 
stom,  edited  by  Sir  John  Cheke,  the  first  Greek  lecturer  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  Edinburgh,  in  1563,  and  as  late  as  1579,  the. space 
for  Greek  words  was  left  blank  in  printing,  to  be  filled  in  by  hand. 
In  1632  Cambridge  appliedto  Oxford  for  the  loan  of  a  Greek  fount 
to  print  a  Greek  Testament,  and  the  same  university  made  an 
offer  in  1700  for  the  purchase  of  a  fount  of  the  king's  Greek  at 
Paris,  but  withdrew  on  the  French  Academy  insisting  as  a  con- 
dition that  every  work  printed  should  bear  the  imprint  "charac- 
teribus  Gifficis  e  typographeo  regio  ParisiensL "  It  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  large  number  of  ligatures  in  the  Greek  of  that 
4ay  made  the  production  of  a  fount  a  serious  business,  "rhe 
Onord  Augnstin  Greek  comprised  no  fewer  than  354  matrices,  the 

^  These  paragraphs  on  the  varions  types  are  for  the  most  part  taken  from 
V  B.  Heed's  Hisbrry  of  the  Old  Enolisii  Letter  Foundries,  London,  18S7,  p.  50  sg. 


great  primer  456,  and  even  one  fount  showed  776  different  sorts-. 
The  Dutch  founders  effected  a  gradual  reduction  of  the  Greet 
typographical  ligatures.  Early  in  the  19th  century  a  new  fashion 
of  Greek,  for  which  Person  was  sponsor  and  furnished  the  drawings, 
was  introduced,  and  has  remained  the  prevailing  form  to  this  day. 

The  first  Hebrew  tj-pes  are  generally  supposed  tc  have  appearei]  He'areV' 
in  1475  in  Petrus  Niger's  Tractatus  contra  Ferfidos  Judieos  (leaf  10\ 
printed  by  Conrad  Fyner  at  Esslingen.  De  Rossi  states  that  a 
Hebrew  work  in  four  folio  volumes  entitled  Arba  Turim  of  Rabbi 
Jacob  ben  Asher,  was  printed  in  1475  at  Pieve  di  Sacco  in  Austrian 
Italy,  while  in  the  same  year,  a  few  months  earlier,  Salomon  Jarchi's 
Comment,  on  the  PerUalcueh  appeared  at  Keggio  in  Italy,  printed 
in  the  Rabbinical  character.  Numerous  other  Hebrew  works 
followed  before  1488,  in  which  year  the  first  entire  Hebrew  Bible 
was  printed,  with  points,  at  Soncino,  by  a  family  of  German  Jews. 
The  first  English  book  in  which  any  quantity  of  Hebrew  type  was 
used  was  Dr  Rhys's  Cambro-Brytannicx  Cymrmcssve  Liiigua  Inslitu- 
tiorus,  printed  by  Thomas  Orwin  in  1592,  though  already  in  1524 
Greek  characters,  but  cut  in  wood,  were  used  by  W.  de  Worde  in 
Wakefield's  Orotic.  But  tlie  Hebrew  fount  made  use  of  in  Walton's 
PolygloU  in  1657  was  probably  the  first  important  foimt  cut  and 
cast  in  England,  though  there  were  as  yet  no  matrices  there  for 
Rabbinical  Hebrew  In  the  beginning  of  the  ISth  century  Amster- 
dam was  the  centre  of  the  best  Hebrew  printing  in  Europe. 

The  first  book  printed  in  Arabic  types  is  said  to  be  a  Diumalt  Aish>'> 
Greecorum  Arabum,  printed  at  Fano  in  Italy  in  1514.-  Two  years 
later  P.  P.  Porrus's  PolygloU  Psalter,  comprising  the  Arabic  version, 
was  printed  at  Genoa  ;  and  two  years  later  a  Koran  in  Arabic  is  saii 
to  have  been  printed  at  Venice.  In  1505  an  Arabic  Vocabulary  ai 
Granada  had  the  words  printed  in  Gothic  letters  with  the  Arabic 
points  placed  over  them  ;  and  in  other  presses  where  there  were 
no  Arabic  types  the  language  was  expressed  in  Hebrew  letters  or 
cut  in  wood.  De  Guignes  and  others  mention  a  fount  of  Arabic 
used  by  Gromors  in  Paris  in  1539-40  to  print  Postel's  Gramnuir. 
In  England  some  Arabic  words  were  introduced  in  Wakefield's  Oro/fc 
of  1524,  but  apparently  cut  in  wood.  In  ilinsheu's  Duclor  in 
Linguas,  1617,  the  Arabic  words  are  printed  in  Italic  characters. 
Laud's  gift  of  Oriental  MSS.  to  Oxford  in  1635,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  an  Arabic  lecturer,  were  the  first  real  incentives  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  language  by  English  scholars.  Previous  to  this 
it  is  stated  that  the  Raphelengius  Arabic  press  at  Leyden  had  been 
purchased  by  the  English  Orientalist,  William  Bedwe'J  ;  but,  if 
it  was  brought  to  England,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  im. 
mediately  made  use  of.  TTie  Arabic  woms  in  Thomas  Grcave's 
Oraiio  de  Lingua  Arabicsc  Utilitaie,  printed  at  Oxford  in  1639, 
were  written  in  by  hand. 

Syriac  type,  probably  cut  in  wood,  first  appeared  in  Postel's  Syriai. 
Zinguarum  XII.  Alphabcta,  printed  in  Paris  in  1538  ;.bnt  the 
characters  are  so  rude  in  form  and  execution  as  to  be  scarcely  legible. 
In  1555,  however,  Postel  assisted  in  cutting  the  pimches  for  the 
Syriac  Peshito  New  Testament,  printed  at  Vienna  in  4to,  the  first 
portion  of  the  Scriptures,  and  apparently  the  first  book,  printed  ir 
that  language.  In  1569-72  Plantin  at  Antwerp  included  the  Syria,- 
New  Testament  in  his  Polyglott,  and  reissued  it  in  a  separate  form  in 
1574.  In  England  Syriac  was  usually  expressed  in  the  earlier  works 
in  Hebrew  characters.  But  in  1652,  when  the  prospectus  and  pre- 
liminary specimen  of  Walton's  PolygloU  were  issued,  we  find  Syriao 
type  in  use.  ^ 

Of  the  Armenian  charactei  the  press  of  the  Vatican  possessed  a  Armea-  ■: 
good  fount  in  1591,  when  Angelo  Roccha  showed  a  specimen  in  iatt- 
his  Bibiiotheca  Apostolica  Vaticana,  A  psalter  is  said  to  have  been 
printed  at  Rome  in  1565,  and  Eowe  Stores  mentions  doubtfully  a 
liturgy  printed  at  Cracow  in  1549.  Armenian  printing  was  practised 
in  Paris  in  1633  ;  but  the  Armenian  bishops,  on  applying  to  France 
for  assistance  in  printing  an  Armenian  Bible  in  1662,  were  refused, 
and  went  to  Rome,  where,  as  early  as  1636,  the  press  of  the  Propa- 
ganda had  published  a  specimen  of  its  Armenian  matrices.  The 
patriarch,  after  fifteen  months'  residence  in  Rome,  removed  to 
Amsterdam,  where  he  established  an  Armenian  press,  and  printed 
the  Bible  in  1666,  which  was  followed  in  1668  by  a  separate  edition 
of  the  New  Testament.  In  1669  the  press  was  set  up  at  Marseilles, 
where  it  continued  foi  a  time,  and  was  ultimately  removed  to  Con- 
stantinople. In  England  the  first  Armenian  type  was  that  presented 
by  Dr  Fe'd  to  Oxford  in  1667.  The  alphabet  given  in  the  pro- 
legomena of  Walton's  PolygloU  was  cut  in  wood. 

Of  Ethiopic  the  earliest  type  appeared  in  Potken's  Psalter  and  Etiuopib 
Song  of  Solomon,  printed  at  Rome  in  1513..  The  work  was  reprinted 
at  Cologne  in  1518  in  Potken's  PolygloU  Psalter.  In  1548  t  ne  New 
Testament  was  printed  at  Rome  by  some  Abyssinian  priests.  IBe 
press  of  the  Propaganda  issued  a  specimen  of  its  fount  in  1631,  and 
agair  in  Kircher's  Prodromus  Coptus  in  1636.  Erpenius  at  Leyden 
had  an  Ethiopic  fount,  which  in  1626  was  acquired  by  the  EIze\-irs. 
Usher  attempted  to  procure  the4bunt  for  England ;  but,  his  attempt 
failing,  pvmches  were  cut  and  matrices  prepared  by  the  London 
founders  for  the   London  PolygloU,  which  showed'  the  Psilms, 

Canticles,  and  New  Testament  in  the  Ethiopic  version. 

*  See  Panzer.  >ii  2" 


696 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[histobicai. 


Coptic  Of  Coptic  the  press  of  the  Propaganda  possessed  a  fount,  and  a 
specimen  was  issued  in  1636,  in  wliich  year  also  Kircher's  ProdTomus 
Coptus  appeared  from  the  same  press.  In  England  David  Wilkins's 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  printed  in  1716  from  Coptic 
types  cast  \nth  matrices  which  Dr  Fell  had  presented  to  Oxford  in 
1667.  The  alphabets  shown  in  the  introduction  and  prolegomena 
to  the  London  Polyglotl  of  1655  and  1657  were  cut  in  wood. 

.Samari-       Of  Samaritan  the  press  of  the  Propaganda  had  a  fount  in  J636, 

tan.  and  the  Paris  Pobjglott,  completed  in  1645,  contained  the  entire 

Pentateuch  in.  type  the  punches  and  matrices  of  which  had  been 
specially  prepared  under  Le  Jay's  direction.  The  fount  used  for 
the  London  Polyglotl  in  1657  is  admitted  to  have  been  an  English 
production,  and  was  probably  cut  under  the  supervision  of  Usher. 

Slavonic  With  Slavonic  type  a  psalter  was  printed  at  Cracow  as  early  as 
1491,  and  reprinted  in  Montenegro  in  1195.  The  only  Slavonic 
fount  in  England  was  that  given  by  Dr  Fell  to  O.^ford,  and  this. 
Mores  states,  was  replaced  in  1695  by  a  fount  of  the  more  modern 
Russian  character,  purchased  probably  at  Amsterdam.  The  Oralio 
OominvM  of  1700  gives  a  specimen  of  this  fount,  but  renders  the 

Bassian.  Hieron3Tuian  version  in  copper-plate.  Modern  Slavonic,  better 
known  as  Russian,  is  said  to  have  appeared  fii-st  in  portions  of  the 
Old  Testament  printed  at  Prague  in  1517-19.  Ten  years  later  there 
was  Russian  type  in  Venice.  A  Russian  press  was  established  at 
Stockholm  in  1625,  and  in  1596  there  were  matrices  in  Amsterdam, 
from  which  came  the  types  used  in  Ludolph's  Gramniatica  Kussica, 
printed  at  O.itford  in  that  year,  and  whence  also,  it  is  said,  the  tj-pes 
were  procured  which  furnished  the  first  St  Petersburg  press,  estab- 
lished in  1711  ty  Peter  the  Great  Mores  notes  that  in  177S  there 
was  no  Russian  type  in  England,  but  that  Cottrell  was  at  that  time 
engaged  in  preparing  a  fount.  It  does  not  appear  that  this  project 
was  carried  out,  and  the  earliest  Russian  in  England  was  cut  by 
Dr  Fry  from  alphabets  in  the  Vocabutaria,  collected  and  published 
for  the  empress  of  Russia  in  17SC-S9.  This  fount  appeared  in  the 
Pantogrdpkia  in  1799. 

Etruscan.  A  fount  of  the  Etruscan  character  cut  by  William  Caslon  about 
1733  for  Swinton  of  Oxford  was  apparently  the  first  produced. 
Fournier  in  1766  showed  an  alphabet  engraveil  in  metal  or  wood. 
In  1771  the  Propaganda  published  a  s|>ecimen  of  their  fount,  and 
Bodoni  of  Parma  in  1S06  e.'ihibited  a  third  in  his  Oratio  Dominica. 

Runic.  Runic  types  were  first  used  at  Stockholm  in  a  Runic  and  Swedish 

Atpkuiclariam,  printed  in  1611.  The  fount,  which  was  cast  at 
the  expense  of  the  king,  was  afterwards  acquired  by  the  univer. 
sity.  About  the  same  time  Runic  type  was  used  at  Upsala  and 
at  Copenhagen.  Voskens.  of  Amsterdam  h.ad  matrices  about  the 
end  of  that  century,  and  it  was  from  Holland  that  Francis  Junius 
is  supposed  to  have  procured  the  matrices  which  in  1677  he  pre- 
sentcd  to  Oxford.  This  fount  appears  in  the  Oratio  Dominica  of 
1700,  and  in  Hickes's  Thesaurus,  1703-5,  and  it  remained  the  only 
one  in  England. 

Sothic.  Matrfces  of  Gothic  type  were  presented  to  Oxford  by  Francis 
Junius  in  1677,  and  a  fount  of  them  was  used  for  the  Oratio  Dominica 
of  1700  and  in  Hickes's  Thesaurus.  A  different  fount  was  used  for 
Chamberlayne's  Oralio  Dominica,  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1715. 
Caslon  cut  a  fount  which  appeared  in  his  first  specimen  in  1734. 
This  and  the  Oxford  fount  were  the  on^y  two  in  England  in  1820. 

Scandi-        Founts  of  Icelandic,    Swedish,  and   Danish   were  included   in 

navian.  Junius's  gift  to  Oxford  in  1677,  and  were,  prhaps,  specially  pre- 
pared in  Holland.  The  first-named  is  shown  in  the  Oratio  Dcrminica 
of  1700  and  in  Hickes's  Thesaurus.  Printing  had  been  practised 
in  Iceland  since  1531,  when  a  Breviary  was  printed  at  Hoolum,  in 
types  rudely  cut,  it  is  alleged,  in  wood.  In  1574,  however,  metal 
types  were  provided,  and  several  works  produced.  After  a  period 
of  decline,  printing  was  re\nved  in  1773,  and  in  1810  Sir  GeOrge 
Jl'Kenzie  reported  that  the  Hoolura  press  possessed  eight  founts  of 
type,  of  which  two  were  Roman,  and  the  remainder  of  the  common 
Icelandic  character,  which,  like  the  Danish  and  Swedish,  bears  a 
close  resemblance  to  the  German. 

Anglo-         For  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  the  first  type  was  cut  by  John 

Saxon.  Day  in  1567,  under  the  direction  of  Archbishop  Parker,  and  appeared 
in  iElfric's  Paschal  Homily  in  that  year  and  in  the  jSlfrcdi  Res 
C'M^ffi  of  Asser  Menevcnsis  in  1574.  Anglo-Saxon  tj-])e  was  used 
by  Browne  in  1617,  in  .^^nsheu's  Ductor  in  Linguas  ;  and  HaWland, 
who  printed  the  second  edition  of  that  work  in  1626,  had  in  1623 
made  use  of  the  character  in  Lisle's  edition  of  .^Ifric's  ITomily. 

IrUb.  The  first  fount  of  Irish  character  was  that  presented  by  Queen 

'Oli^abcth  to  O'Kcarney  in  1571,  and  used  to  print  the  Catechism 
which  appeared  in  that  year  in  Dublin,  from  the  press  of  Franckton. 
But  the  fount  is  only  .partially  Irish,  many  of  the  fetters  being 
Dulinary  Ronwn  or  Italic.  It  was  used  in  several  works  during  the 
early  years  of  the  17th  century,  and  as  late  as  1652  in  Godfrey 
D.iniel's  Christian  Doctrine,  printed  in  Dublin.  The  Irish  semin- 
aries .abroad  were  belter  supplied  with  Irish  type.  A  new  type 
»n5  cut  by  Mflnun,  and  appeared  in  16S1  in  Boyle's  New  Testament, 
,  )Tintcd  by  ROflStt  Everingbam. 

■Mssic.  The  earliest  specimen  of  music  type  occurs  in  Higden's  Poly- 
chronicon,  juinted  by  De  Worde  at  Westminster  in  1495.  ^  The 
S'luait  notes  apjwar  to  have  been  formed  of  ordinary  quadrats,  and 


the  staff-lines  of  metal  rules  imperfectly  joined.  In  Caston*S'edi- 
tion  of  the  same  work  in  14S2  the  space  had  been  left  to  be  filled 
up  by  hand.  The  plain  chant  in  the  Mainz  psalter  of  1490,  printed 
in  .two  colours,  was  probably  cut  in  wood.  Hans  Froschauer  of 
Augsburg  printed  music  from  wooden  blocks  in  14  73,  and  the  notes 
in  Burtius's  Opusculum  Miisiccs,  printed  at  Bologna  in  1487,  appear 
to  have  been  produced  in  the  same  manner  ;  while  at  Lyons  the 
missal  printed  by  Matthi.as  Hus  in  1485  had  the  staff  only  printed, 
the  notes  being  intended  to  be  filled  in  by  hand.  About  1500  & 
musical  press  was  established  at  Venice  by  Ottavio  Petrucci,  at 
which  were  produced  a  series  of  mass-books  \vith  lozenge-shaped 
notes,  each  being  cast  complete  with  a  staff-line."  In  1513  he  re- 
moved to  Fossombroue,  and  obtained  a  patent  from  Leo  X.  for  his 
invention  of  types  for  the  sole  printing  of  figurative  song  {can/us 
ffjuratus).  Before  1550  several  European  presses  followed  Petrucci's 
example,  and  music  type  was  used,  among  other  places,  at  Augs- 
burg in  1506  and  1511,  Parma  in  1526,  Lyons  in  1532,  and  Nurem- 
berg in  1549.  In  1525  Pierre  Hautin  cut  punches  of  ]ozenge-sha[>ed 
music  at  Paris.  Round  notes  were  used  at  Avignon  in  1532.  In 
England,  after  its  first  use,  music-printing  did  not  become  general 
till  1550,  when  Grafton  printed  Marbecke's  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
*' noted"  in  movable  tj'pc,  the  four  staff- lines  being  printed  in 
red  and  the  notes  iu  black.  There  are  only  four  different  sorts  of 
notes  used, — three  square  and  one  lozenge.  About  1660  the  de- 
tached notes  hitherto  employed  began  to  give  place  to  the  '*neT^ 
tyed  note,"  by  which  the  heads  of  sets  of  quavers  could  be  joined. 
But  at  the  close  of  the  17th  century  music-printing  from  tJ^le  be- 
came less  common,  on  account  of  the  introduction  of  stamping  and 
engraving  plates  for  the  purpose. 

Printing  for  the  blind  (compare  vol.  iH.  p.  826)  was  first  intro- Prialin' 
duced  in  17S4  by  Valentin  Haiiy,  the  founder  of  the  asylum  forforths 
blind  children  in  Paris.  He  made  use  of  a  large  script  character,  blind. 
from  which  impressions  were  taken  on  a  prepared  paper,  the  im- 
pressions being  so  deeply  sunk  as  to  leave  their  marks  in  strong 
relief  and  legible  to  the  touch.  liaiiy's  pupils  not  only  read  in  this 
way,  but  executed  their  own  ty^iography,  and  in  1786  printed  an 
account  of  thei-*  institution  and  labours  as  a  specimen  of  their  press. 
The  fiist  school  for  the  blind  in  England  was  opened  in  Liverpool 
in  1791,  but  printing  in  raised  characters  was  not  successfully  ac- 
complished till  1S27,  when  Gall  of  the  Edinburgh  asylum  printed 
the  Gospel  of  St  John  fiom  angular  tyjies.  Alston,  the  treasurer  of 
the  Glasgow  asylum,  introduced  the  ordinary  Roman  capitals  in 
relief,  and  this  system  was  subsequently  improved  upon  by  the 
addition  of  the  lower-case  letters  by  Dr  Fry,  the  type-founder, 
whose  specimen  gained  the  prize  of  the  Edinburgh  Society  of  Arts 
in  1837.  Several  rival  systems  have  competed  in  England  for 
adoption,  of  which  the  most  important  are  those  of  Lucas,  Frere, 
Moon,  Braille,  Carton,  and  Alston  ;  the  last-named,  as  perfected 
by  Dr  Fry,  seems  likely  to  become  the' recognized  method  of  print- 
ing for  the  blind  in  all  European  countries. 

As  regards  initials  in  the  earliest  printed  books,  see  above,  p.  686.  Initial* 
The  trouble  and  cost  involved  in  the  use  of  the  initial  director  early 
suggested  the  use  of  wood -cut  initials,  and  Erhard  Batdolt  of  Venice, 
about  1475,  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  printer  to 
introduce  the  liters  fiorentes,  called  also  Icttres  toumeures,  or  typi 
lomalissimi,  which  eventually  superseded  the  hand-painted  inirials. 
Caxton  introduced  one  or  two  kinds  in  1484.  Among  the  earliest 
to  be  used  are  the  so-called  Lombardic  initials  or  capitals.  The 
more  elaborate  initials,  such  as  those  used  in  the  Mainz  indulgences 
and  psalter,  by  Aldus 'at  Venice,  by  Johann  Schoeffer  at  Mainz  in 
1518,  by  Tory  and  the  Estiennes  at  Paris,  by  Froben  at  Basel,  and 
by  the  other  great  printers  of  their  day,  were  known  as  lettres  grises. 
Besides  these,  the  ordinary  "two-line  letters"  or  large  plain  capitals 
came  into  use  ;  and  these  were  generally  cast,  whilst  the  ornamental 
letters  were  for  the  most  part  engraved  on  wood  or  metal. 

Type  ornaments  and  flowers  began,  like  the  initials,  jvith  the  Oma- 
illuminators,  and  were  afterwards  cut  on  wood  or  metal.     The  first  ments 
printed  ornament  or  vignette  is  supposed  to  be  the  scutum  or  arms  and 
of  Fust  and  Schoeffer  in  their  edition  of  the  Bible  of  1462.     There  flower* 
is  no  vignette  in  the  Subiaco  Zaclantius  of  1465  (as  stated  by  Mr 
Reed,  Letter  Foundries,  p.  82).     In  HoUrop's  Monum.  Typogr.  da 
Pa'is-Bas  may  be  seen  borders  used  by  some  of  the  earliest  printers 
of  Holland  (1475-1490)  which  would  not  look  bad  even  in  the  present 
time.     Caxton  in  1490  used  ornamental  pieces  to  form  the  border 
for  \d%  Fifteen  O's.     At  the  same  time  the  Paris  printers  engraved 
still  more  elaborate  border  pieces.     At  Venice  entire  framea  were 
engraved  in  one  piece,  while  Aldus  as  early  as  1495  nsed  tasteful 
head-pieces  cut  in  artistic  harmony  with  his  leltres  grises.     Early 
in  the  16th  century  we  observe  detached  ornaments  and  flourishes 
which  have  evidently  been  cast  from  a  matrix. 

titemJurf.— Besides  the  works  of  Berjrau.  Bernard,  Blades.  Hawkins,  Hcseelj, 
Hollrop,  Noel  Humrlireys,  Koehler,  Jules  ThiUppc,  T.  B.  Reed,  Snllieby, 
Weigel.  Ac.  already  mentioned,  consult  also  Bigmorc  and  Wjnnan,  A  BilAio* 
ffra^of/'n'iMi?.  London.  ISSO;  Geo.  Wolfe.  Panzer,  j<n>uil:.s  7vr<^..  Nurem- 
berg. 1793,  &c. :  Lud.  Ham,  Rtftrtoriun  BMiog.,  Stuttgart,  IS30-3S;  Hollrop. 
Cat.  L}bToru\n  i^c  A'f*  Imprtssonm  in  Bibi.  Ii€^in  Havana.  The  Hai;ue.  1S56; 
M.  F.  A.  G.  Campl)cll.  Ann.  dt  laTvpog.  Nurtaffiaise ou  Xl''Sie<-Ie.  ThwUa^ue, 
1874  :  Rob.  SiDker,  A  Col.  q/  the  Xy.  Ccntiiry  frinkd  D'JOks  in  the  Library  qf 


I 


PRACriCAL.] 


TYPOGRAPHY 


697 


Trinily  CcUege,  Cambridgi.  Cambridge,  1876 ;  W.  Th.  Lowndes,  Bibtiographtr  s 
Uaxual  ed  by  Henr.  G.  BoUn,  Loudon,  1S53.  ic. ;  J.  C.  Brunei,  ,Vuiiufi  rfii 
tibrairt,  rins,lS«)(four  earlier  editions);  Th.  F.  Dibdln,  UMiolheca  Sixncenann, 
London  1?14,  4c,  and  his  other  works ;  Ennen,  Katalog  tier  Incunabiln  in  der 
S)iuit-Sit>hi>U.d; 2H Kaln;  SchoepBin,  Vindtci/eT^pog.,  17vO;  Meerman,  Origincs 
Tyvoo.  The  Hague,  ITW ;  Dupoat,  Hist,  tie  Clmpr.,  Paris,  1869  ;  Firinin-Didot, 
JiiM.  de  la  Typjg.y  Pads,  1SS2 ;  E.  Duverger,  //u>f.  de  rinvention  de  llmpr., 
Paris    1840 ;  P.  Lambinet,  Origine  rfe  t'lmpr.,  Paris,  ISIO :  Ch.  Ruelens,  La 


I 


Tke  Hague,  1843 ;  Jos.  Ames,  Tupogr.  AiUigniUa  (augmented  by  W.  Herbert), 
London,  1785-90  :  T.  C.  Hansard,  Typogmpliia,  Loudon,  1S25 ;  Thomas,  Hisl. 
<J  Printino  i1  Arwrica,  Albany,  1S74;  Th.  L.  Devinne,  n«  Im.  ij  Print., 
London,  1S77;  W.  Skeen,  Early  Typography,  Colombo,  1S72 ;  Sam.  Palmer,  A 
Gatrat  Hisl.  o/  fri«(.,  London,  1732 ;  W.  Young  Ottley,  tngitiry  amaming 
tkt  Inv.  of  Print.,  London,  1863  ;  Henry  Bradshaw,  A  Classijiid  Indiz  of  the 
tStk  Cintury  Bools  in  tfie  ColUaion  of  the  lott  M.  J.  de  Msycr,  London,  1870; 
Id.,  Hist,  of  the  Founts  of  Type  and  h^oodcut  Devices  used  by  Printers  in  Holland 
in  the  fifieenlh  Century.  London,  1S71 ;  Id.,  The  Printer  of  the  Huloria  S. 
Albani,  Cambridge,  ISdS;  A.  Von  der  Linde,  Haarlem  Legend,  London,  1870; 
Id.,  Gutenberg,  Stuttgart,  1S81  ;  Id.,  Gesch.  der  Erfind.  dtr  Bnehdruckerkunst, 
Berlin,  ISS6:  Schaab,  Gcsch.  der  Erfind.  der  Buchdruckert.,  Mamj,  1330;  K. 
■  Falkenstein,  Gesch.  der  Buehdruckerk.,  Leipsic,  1856  ;  Lorck,  Handb.  der  Gesch'. 
der  Buchdruckerk.,  Leipsic,  1832  ;  K.  Fauloiann,  lllustr.  CescA.  der  BucWnict- 
erk.,  Vienna,  1832  ;  M.  Denis,  Witns  Btichdnickergesch.  bis  JS60,  Vienna,  1782; 
C  R-Hildeburn,  A  Centnry  of  Printing—The  Issues  of  the  Press  inPennsylvania, 
'  i65i-i75"i,  Philadelphia,  1887  ;  and  J.  Garcia  Icazbalceta,  Bibliog.  Mezieana  del 
'Siglo  XVI.,  Mexico,  1837.  The  titles  of  other  works  on  the  invention,  progress, 
and  process  of  printing,  &c.,  may  be  learned  from  the  lists  of  books  on  such 
subjects  in  the  works  already  quoted.  f  J.  H.  H.) 

Paet  II. — Peactical. 

Degiil,         Printing,  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  practice  of  iin- 
tjoa,         pressing  letters,  characters,  or  figures  'Dn  paper,  cloth,  or  other- 
material,  the  definition  being  based  on  the  etymology  (Old  fr. 
empreindre,  from  Lat.  imprimctc).    Technically  the  same  definition 
might  be  applied  to  such  arts  as  those  of  calico  and  oilcloth  print- 
ing, and  even  of  moulding,  embossing,  coining,  and  stamping ; 
but  in  point  of  fact  these  are  never  understood  when  the  word 
"printing"  is  employed.     There  is  also  printing  without  pressure, 
such  as  pnotograpiuc  printing.     The  use  of  a  pigment  or  ink  must 
be  regarded  as  an  indispensable  element.     The  application  of  the 
term  is  therefore  confined  to  the  use  of  pressure  and  a  pigment  for 
literary  and  pictorial  purposes.     As  thus  defined,  printing  includes 
three  entirely  different  processes — not  inaptly  called  the  polygraphia 
Typo-       arts — viz.,  chalcography  or  copperplate  printing  (compare  Encrav- 
graphy,     ING,  vol.  viii.  p.  439  sq.).  Lithography  (j.i'.)  or  chemical  stone- 
chaico-     printing,  and  typography  or  letterpress  printing.     The  last-named 
graphy,     is  that  to  which  the  present  article  is  confined, 
and  The  difference  between  the  three  methods  lies  essentially  in  the 

Gtho-  nature  or  conformation  of  the  surface  that  is  inked,  and  which 
graphy.  afterwards  gives  a  reproduction  or  image  in  reverse  on  the  material 
to  be  impressed.  In  copperplate  printing  the  whole  of  a  fiat  sur- 
face is  inked,  and  a  portion  of  the  ink  sinks  into  an  incision  or 
trench,  in  which  it  still  remains  after  the  surface  is  cleansed. 
When  pressure  is  brought  to  bear,  this  ink  is  transferred  to  the 
paper,  giving  an  impression  of  a  line.  In  litbogiaphic  printing 
the  flat  surface  is  protected  excopt  at  certain  places,  where  it  is 
slightly  coated  with  tlie  ink,  which  practically  leaves  the  stone 
quite  level,  but  also  marks  a  line  when  pressure  is  brought  to  bear. 
In  typography  the  printing  surface  is  in  relief.  It  alone  receives 
ink,  the  remainder  being  protected  by  its  lower  level.  Any  kind 
of  printing  done  from  a  relief  surface  belongs  to  letterpress  print- 
ing, such  as  a  woodcut,  a  casting  in  metal,  india-rubber,  celluloid, 
xylonite,  &c.  (or  "stereotype"),  or  a  deposition  by  electricity  (or 
"electrotype").  The  typographic  method  requires  a  surface  that 
is  more  dilficult  to  form  than  either  of  the  other  two.  In  litho- 
graphy the  surface  may  be  obtained  by  merely  writing  or  drawing 
on  the  stone  ;  in  copperplate  printing  the  line  may  be  immediately 
incised  into  or  scratched  on  the  plate  ;  but  for  letterpress  printing 
the  surface  between  the  lines  in  relief  has  to  be  cut  away.  Hence 
the  tediousness  of  wood-engraving,  in  which  all  the  surface  of  the 
block  has  to  be  removed  e-xcept  those  parts  that  are  to  be  printed 
from  and  which  form  the  black  lines  in  the  impression  ;  and  the 
conformation  of  a  type  surface  is  similar. 

Typography,  however,  has  many  compensating  advantages.  Im- 
pressions aie  taken  with  much  greater  facility.  The  inking  appli- 
ance glides  over  the  relief  lines  to  be  printed  from,  whereas  it  would 
cling  to  the  entire  surface  of  the  stone  or  the  metal ;  hence  much 
greater  pressure  would  be  required  in  these  cases.  The  unprintable 
part  of  the  stone  in  lithography  has  to  be  damped,  so  as  to  repel 
tlie  ink  ;  the  same  portion  has  to  be  inked  and  then  cleaned  off  in 
copperplate  printing  ;  but  in  letterpress  printing  the  ink  only  that 
has  to  be  transferred  to  the  paper  needs  to  be  applied  to  the  type. 
"When  the  design  has  been  drawn  on  the  stone  or  scratched  into 
the  copper,  the  result  does  not  admit  of  any  further  application 
beyond  that  at  first  contemplated.  But  in  letterpress  printing  the 
surface  may  be  of  a  composite  character.  It  may  be  formed  of 
single  pieces  representing  the  several  letters,  and  these,  when  once 
formed,  may  be  employed  in  endless  combinations.  Only  by  such 
means  are  cheap  newspapers  and  books  possible.  Before  the  in- 
vention of  typography  (as  in  the  East  to  the  present  day),  the  dif- 


fercut  pages  of  a  book  were  printed  from  wooden  blocks,  out  aflf  c 
the  manner  of  a  wood-engraving.  Blocks  of  this  kind  are  of  no 
use  for  printing  after  their  first  purpose  has  been  fulfilled.  They 
must  necessarily  be  made  very  slowly  and  with  much  labour  la» 
forming  a  page  of  a  book,  on  the  other  hand,  by  the  typographio 
method  there  need  (excluding  necessary  wear  and  tear)  only  be  thef 
cost  of  "composing"  the  types  and  of  "distributing"  theui  iutct 
their  proper  receptacles,  from  which  they  may  be  le.takeli  man/ 
times  to  form  other  compositions. 

Types :  their  ifaterial  Characteristics. 
Exclusive  of  such  printing  surfaces  as  wood-blocks  and  casts,  the  Book*' 
letters,  marks,  and  signs  with  which  letterpress  prinring  is  executed  worit 
are  called  types,  a  proportioned  quantity  of  each  of  the  letters  of  fount.' 
the  alphabet  in  any  one  body  or  face  forming  a  fount.     A  book- 
work  fount  contains  single  letters,  diphthongs,  ligatures  (such  as 
ff,  fl),  accented  letters,  figures,  fractions,  points,  reference  marks, 

dashes  or  metal  rules  (as ),  leaders  (as ),  braces  (, — ' — .), 

and  signs  (as  &,  £).  It  also  includes  quadrats, — pieces  of  metal  of 
various  widths,  which  do  not  print,  but  are  used  to  compensate  for 
the  shortness  of  occasional  lines,  as  at  the  close  of  a  paragraph — 
and  spaces,  which  separate  words  and  letters.  There  arc  thus  about 
226  separate  characters  in  every  ordinary  English  book-work  foui.t. 
The  table  used  by  type-founders  to  regulate  the  number  of  ea  li  3iU  ot 
of  the  several  sorts  in  a  fount  is  called  a  bill  of  type.  The  sorts  ai  c  type.  ' 
supplied  by  English  type-founders  in  certain  definite  proportion;, 
depending  upon  the  number  of  lower-case  m's.  A  bill  of  3000  nt's 
usually  contains  the  following  : — 


Lower-case. 

Figures,  kc. 

Capitals. 

SmaJl  Cars. 

m     .. 

3,000 

,       ...     4,500 

A      ... 

700 

A       ...       450 

a 

9,000 

;      ...        800 

B     ... 

450 

B       ...       270 

b      .. 

2,000 

:      ...        600 

C     ... 

500 

c       ...       350 

c 

4,000 

.       ...     3,000 

D     ... 

550 

D       ...       350 

d     .. 

5,000 

-      ...     1,000 

E     ... 

750 

E       ...       450 

e 

14,000 

?      ...        300 

F     ... 

450 

F       ...       300 

f      .. 

3,000 

!      ...         200 

G     ... 

450 

O       ...       2Z0 

g      -• 

2,000 

•      ...         800 

H     ... 

450 

H       ...       300 

H     .. 

6,000 

(      ...        400 

I 

900 

I        ...       450 

i 

9,000 

[      ...        200 

J       .. 

300 

J       ...       2O0 

j 

500 

•      ...        250 

K      .. 

300 

K       ...'      200 

k       . 

800 

t      ..          100 

L      .. 

550 

L       ...       300 

1 

5,000 

J     ...         100 

M     .. 

650 

M       ...       300 

n 

8,000 

§      ...         100 

N     ... 

550 

N       ...       350 

0 

8,000 

II      ...        100 

0      .. 

550 

0       ...      650 

P 

2,400 

II     ...          70 

P     ... 

500 

p       ...      270 

1 

600 

Q     - 

200 

Q       ...       120 

r 

7,000 

1       ..'      700 

R     ... 

500 

R       ...       330 

s 

8,000 

2     ...        600 

S     ... 

600 

S        ...       350 

t      .. 

.  10,000 

3     ...        600 

T     ... 

800 

T       ...       420 

u 

4,500 

i     ..-        500 

U     ... 

350 

U        ..       240 

V 

1,500 

5     ...        600 

V     ... 

350 

V       ...       200 

w 

2,500 

6      ...        500 

\y  ... 

550 

w      ...       270 

X 

500 

7      ...        500 

X    ... 

200 

X       ...       120 

y 

2,S0O 

8       ..        500 

Y     ... 

350 

Y       ...       200 

z 

300 

9       .          500 

Z      ... 

150 

z       ...       120 

&    .. 

300 

0      ...        700 

JE    .. 

100 

s:      ...        60 

ff     . 

400 

£     ...        200 

(E     ... 

100 

(E      ...         60 

fi    „ 

500 

fl    .. 

300 

e      ...        200 

i      ... 

150 

SPACES. 

ffl    . 

200 

i      ...        200 

i^      ;.-. 

150 

Thick    20,000 

ffi    . 

300 

a     ...        100 

i     ... 

150 

Jliddle   8,000 

EB 

200 

e      ...        100 

Thin        8,000 

« 

100 

5' 

50 

Hail'        3,000 

500 

Another  100 

i;        - 

50 

Em  qds.  3.000 

150 

accents 

i      ■■ 

50 

En  qds.  6,000 

inn 

each 

&,  @,  ^,  lb,  50 

s 

50 

, ' ,  ca.    20 

'»« 

S 

50 

100 

each 

1 

50 

^—' — .        25    ; 

100 

^r  ...         30 

i     - 

50 

/ ' .     25    ; 

Large  quads,  o 

ne-tenth  of  fount.     Italic, 

one-t( 

nth  of  Roman. 

Such  a  fount  would  weigh  about  750  lb  if  of  pica  size,  4S0  ft  if 
long  primer,  400  lb  if  bourgeois,  330  lb  brevier,  280  lb  minion,  220  tt> 
nonpareil.  The  numbers  of  the  respective  letters  are  based  on  the 
requirements  of  the  English  language  ;'  other  languages  of  coursa 
require  dilTerent  proportions.  In  Latin  and  French,  for  instance, 
q  and  u  would  be  deficient,  h  in  excess,  and  w  needless.  Th». 
number  of  the  respective  letters  mayjje,  and  sometimes  is,  appor»| 
tioned  by  weight ;  for  example,  in  one  of  the  "  schemes  "  of  founts; 

1  There  is  a  tradition  in  one  of  the  oldest  English  foundries  that  tliis  scala  I 
originated  in  a  laborious  calculation  of  the  comparative  number  of  ditVerent 
letters  used  in  setting  up  a  lengthy  debate  in  the  House  of  Commons,  it  being 
supposed  then  that  the  purest  English  was  spoken  there.   The  scale  is,  however, 
frequently  found  defective  in  practice.    It  is  a  curious  fact,  for  instance,  that 
the  matter  of  Charles  Dickens's  works  will  empty  the  vowel  boxes  long  before  \ 
those  of  the  consonants,  and  that  Lord  Macaulay's  statelier  style  will  run  vrita  j 
like  persistency  on  consonants. 

XXIII.  —  88 


69S 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[PRACTICAI,. 


^ 

K^. 

« 

\  / 

r 

•\ 

1.— Finished 
type. 


used  by  type-fouiKlers  a  fount  of  123  Iti  Romaii  with,  as  its  comple- 
ment, 10  lb  Italic,  includes  8  oz.  of  E,  M,  C  ;  9  oz.  of  T  ;  8  lb  of  e  ; 
5  lb  each  of  a,  h,  n,  o,  t ;  and  so  on,  down  to  3  oz.  of  z.  To  estimate 
the  qnantity  of  type  required  for  a  p-ige,  the  number  of  square 
.  inches  it  contaitis  is  measured  and  divided  by  4,  the  quotient  being 
the  approximate  weight  of  the  matter  in  pounds.  In  small  founts, 
however,  50  per  cent,  is  added,  and  in  large  ones  30  to  40  per  cent., 
to  allow  for  the  letters  generally  left  in  the  cases,  not  being  required 
in  the  job,  and  for  sorts,  &c.  These  figures,  although  useful,  are 
only  approximative,  the  proportion  of  the  several  ingredients  of 
type-metal  used  by  different  founders  for  the  various  sizes  of  type 
greatly  varying  the  calculation, 
t'arta  of  Each  of  the  parts  of  a  type  has  a  technical  name.  In  the  an- 
s  typs.  nexed  diagram  (fig.  1)  of  the  capital  letter  II  the  darkest  space  a,  a, 
a,  a,  is  called  the/ace  ;  and  only  that  part  of  the  type  touches  the 
paper  in  printing.  The  face  is  divided  into  tli^stoii,  marked  1,  which 
comprises  the  whole  outline  of  the  type  M  ;  the  serifs,  ov  the  hori- 
zontal lines  marked  2,  which  cohiplete  the  outline  i 
of  the  letter  ;  the  beard,  consisting  of  the  bevel  or 
slopiwgfpaii  marked  b,  b,  and  the  shoulder  or  flat  por- 
tion below  b.  The  shank  is  the  entire  body  of  the 
letter,  d,  the  front  part  (that  shown)  being  known 
ar,  the  belly  and  the  corresponding  part  behind  as 
the  back.  The  spaces  at  h  and  h  are  the  counters, 
which  regulate  the  distances  apart  of  the  stems  in 
a  line  of  type.  The  hollow  groove  extending  across 
the  shank  at  e,  e  is  the  7iich,  wdiich  enables  the  work- 
man to  recognize  the  direction  of  the  type  and  to 
distinguish  different  founts  of  the  same  body.  The 
absence  of  this  simple  expedient  would  retard  the 
operation  of  composing  types  by  fully  one-half.  The 
earliest  type-founders  did  not  know  the  use  of  the 
nick.  In  some  letters,  such  as  j  and  f,  a  part  of 
the  face  overhangs  the  shank  ;  this  is  called  the 
kern.  The  groove  g  diviclcs  the  bottom  of  the  type  into  two  parts 
called  the  feel.  An  impression  from  that  part  of  a  type  on  which 
it  stands  would  be  as  ^.  Types  must  be  perfectly  rectangular, 
the  minutest  deviatioir-  rendei-ing  them  useless.  Any  roughness  at 
the  sides  is  called  burr,  and  any  injury  to  their  faces  a  baiter. 
Smoothness,  sharpness  of  angle,  and  perfection  of  finish  are  also 
prime  requirements.  A  line  of  types,  when  viewed  along  the  back, 
presents  the  appearance  uf  a  solid  bar  of  metal. 
Species  Types  which  have  the  face  cast  in  the  middle  of  the  shank,  as  a, 
cf  letter,  c,  e,  m,  kc.,  and  thus  leave  an  open  space  above  them  corresponding 
to  that  below,  caused  by  the  beard,  are  known  as  short  letters. 
Those  whose  stem  extends  to  the  top  of  the  shank,  as  b,  d,  f,  &c., 
are  called  ascending  letters.  Those  that  have  a  stem  extending 
over  the  shoulder,  as  g,  p,  kc. ,  are  called  descending  letters.  Those 
that  are  both  ascending  and  descending,  and  extend  over  the  whole 
of  the  shank,  as  Q  and  j,  are  long  letters.  Small  letters  and  figures 
cast  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  shank,  as  1",  are  called  superiors  ; 
those  very  low  down  on  the  shank  are  inferiors,  as  H,.  Types  that 
are  very  heavy  and  massive  in  appearance  are  called  falfaced  ; 
those  that  are  fine  and  delicate,  leanfaced.  A  type  whose  face  is 
not  in  proportion  to  the  depth  of  the  shank  {e.g.,  a  small  pica  cast 
on  a  pica  body)  is  a  bastard  type. 
Speci'  Types  are  of  various  sizes,  ranging  from  those  used  in  printing 

mens  of    pocket  Bibles  to  those  for  large  placards.     The  variation  is  con- 
principal  lined  to  the  superficial  dimensions  of  their  ends,  or  bodies,'^s  they 
bodies,     are  called.     Each  body  has  a  distinctive  name.     The  following 
are  specimens  of  the  principal  bodies  of  ordinary  types,  and  show 
the  relation  of  the  various  bodies  one  to  another — 

Printing  h 

Canon— ITJ  lines  to  the  foot- 

Printing  has  b 

Double  great  primer— 25g  lines  to  the  Toot. 

Printing  has  been 

Double  EDgtiih— 32  Ifnca  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to 

t)ouble  Plca^lJ  lines  tathe  foot. 


Printing  has  been  defined  to  be 

Great  primer— 51j  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  ac 

English— 64  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or 

Pica— 71J  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  prac 

Small  pica— 83  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  practice  ot 

■    Long  primer— S9  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  practice  of  i* 

Bourgeois— 102J  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  practice  of  impress 
Brevier— lU  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  practice  of  impressing 
Minion— 122  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  practice  of  irapressins  lett 
Emerald— 13S  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  practice  of  impressing  letters, 
Nonpareil- 143  lines  to  the  foot 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  practice  of  impressing  letters,  charaet 
Ruby— 16C  lines  to  the  foot. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act.  Rrt.  or  practice  of  imprcsslii;  letters,  choxocters,  or  flg 
Pearl— 178  lines  to  the  foot. 

FnollDg  bas  bteo  dcSaed  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  practice  of  ImpreiiiDf  Ictttri,  chuacteri.ot  6pisc»  on  r*p«r,  cloth. 

Diamond— 207  lines  to  the  foot. 

PrisllDi  hit  b«D  dtliDtJ  lo  b«  tlic  acl,  wl.  or  pricilfc  of  iBpmtlDl  Itllrn.  ehuscttn,  or  llpirci  oo  r*r">  cl'»>^.  »  **^* 

Gem— 222  lines  to  the  foot. 

PriElUf  hu  b«D  de&scd  (o  U  lb(  act.  >n,  er  pratiir<  of  ln>iini>lo|  Ifdrn.  ehiinclen,  or  Gram  us  p^ptr.  clslb.  «i  oibn 

Brilliant— 239  lines  to  the  foot. 

It  is  a  confusing  and  inconvenient  anomaly  that  the  types  made  Size  of 
by  diflTerent  English  founders  vary  in  size,  although  they  bear  the  types, 
same  name.  The  above  figures  refer  to  the  types  of  Messrs  Miller 
and  Richard,  the  royal  type-founders  for  Scotland;  but  other 
eminent  makers  supply,  for  instance,  long  primer  which  is  89.J, 
90,  or  92  lines  to  the  foot.  This  has  been  remedied  in  America 
by  an  agreement  on  the  part  of  the  founders  to  adopt  one  standard 
pica,  to  divide  that  pica  into  a  certain  number  of  equal  parts,  and 
to  cast  all  their  types  as  multiples  of  one  of  these  parts.  They 
diyide  the  pica  into  twelve  points,  and  the  point  is  the  unit  upon 
'which  the  system  is  based.  There  is  also  another  practical  advan- 
tage in  this  multiple  system  :  each  type  bears  a  simple  proportion 
to  the  others,  and  therefore  can  be  used  in  exact  combination.  Thus 
pearl  is  5,  nonpareil  6,  minion  7,  brevier  8,  bourgeois  9,  long  primer 
10,  small  pica  11,  and  pica  12  points.  In  Germany,  France,  and 
other  countries  of  the  Continent  a  uniform  system  of  points  has 
been  adopted,  based  on  a  scale  of  133  *'  Ciceros"  (corpus  12)  to  60 
centimetres.  The  types  which  most  nearly  correspond  to  those 
already  mentioned  are  : — 


Point 

Size  in 

Point 

Size  iD 

Ems  to 

Centi- 

Ems to 

Centi- 

Foot. 

metre. 

Foot. 

metre. 

Perl  5    ..  .   . 

.lC2-]5 

•1679 

Borgis  9     . .     . 

0008 

■3383 

Nonparcille  G 

..135-12 

■2-25G 

Carnionrt  10  . . . 

Sl-07 

•3759 

Colonel  7 

..  115-S3 

•2C32 

Cicero  12    .     . . 

67-50 

-4511 

Petit  8 

..101-34 

•300S 

Tlie  number  of  lines  given  to  the  foot  in  the  above  specimens  of 
bodies  is  the  theoretic  and  practically  the  only  approximative 
standard.  The  height  of  types  varies  slightly  with  different 
founders,  the  mean  being  ^S  in.  The  old  Scotch  height  is  about 
t-Jt)  in.  higher.  Types  lower  than  tlie  ordinary  dimension  are  said 
to  be  low  to  paper,  and  if  surrounded  by  higher  types  will  not  give 
a  perfect  impressiOTi.  Spaces  and  quadrats  were  formerly  only  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  height ;  but,  since  electrotyping  has  become 
so  common,  they  are  almost  invariably  cut  high,  i.e.,  up  to  tho 
shoulder  of  the  type.  Si.t  lines  of  pica  and  twelve  lines  of  nonpareil 
each  cover  an  inch  in  depth.  It  is,  however,  not  possible  to  know 
the  size  of  a  type  in  a  printed  page  by  placing  a  rule  measure  upon 
it,  as  many  books  are  not  set  solid  :  the  lines  are  not  close  together, 
but  leaded  out  with  pieces  of  lead,  to  make  them  cover  a  largci 
space.  A  communication  of  great  importance  contributed  to  a 
newspaper  may  be  set  up  in  the  same  type  as  the  leading  article  ; 
but  if  not  leaiied  it  will  appear  to  the  noa -technical  reader  to  be . 
in  a  smaller  character. 

The  -.vidth  of  pages  or  columns,  in  the  technical  language  of  tha 
printing  office,  is  expressed  according  to  the  number  of  "cm"  "— i 


PRACTICAI-J 


TYPOGRAPHY 


699 


;hat  is,  of  a  pica  m, — the  square  of  the  depth  of  pica.  As  the  latter 
is  one-sixth  of  an  inch,  the  era  is  the  same  width,  and  a  page  of 
twenty-four  ems  wide  is  equal  to  one  4  inches  wide.  The  columns 
of  this  Etiq/clopxdia  are  19  ems  wide. 
Varieties  According  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  used,  types  are 
«f  face,  divided  into  two  classes— book  type,  including  Roman  and  Italic, 
and  job  type,  including  a  multitude  of  fanciful  forms  of  letter?, 
chiefly  founded  on  the  sh.ipe  of  the  Roman  and  Italic  letters,  and 
intended  to  be  more  prominent,  delicate,  elegant,  &c.  It  is  im- 
possible to  enumerate  all  the  varieties  of  the  latter  class,  as  addi- 
tions are  being  constantly  made  and  once  popular  styles  always 
going  out  of  fashion.  The  leading  varieties  are  the  antiques,  which 
are  Roman  letters  with  strokes  of  nearly  uniform  thickness,  as  M ; 
sanserifs  or  grotesques,  which  have  no  serifs,  as  M  ;  blacks,  as  fH  ; 
and  scripts,  which  represent  the  modern  cursive  or  Italian  hand- 
writing, as  ^^.  Black  letter  is  now  only  a  jobbing  type  in  English- 
spcafcing  countries,  although,  as  stated  in  the  historical  section  of 
thk  article,  it  was  the  first  character  used  in  printing.  It  is  still 
used  in  Germany,  with  certain  modifications,  as  the  principal  te.\t- 
letter  for  books  and  newspapers.  A  comparison  of  the  numerous 
reproductions  that  have  been  issued  of  Caxton's  works  with  any 
modern  line  of  black  letter  will  show  how  greatly  the  form  and 
style  have  been  altered  within  a  period  of  four  centuries.  The  present 
style  of  Roman  type  dates  only  from  aboiit  the  first  quarter  of  the 
ISth  century.     Previously  the  approved  shape  was  as  follows : — 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or 

The  use  of  this  type  was  revived  by  Whittingham  of  the  Chiswick 
Press  about  1843,  and  it  has  since  become  a  favourite  form,  under 
the  name  of  old  style.  Some  of  the  punches  cut  by  the  first  notable 
English  type-founder,  William  Caslon  (1692-1766),  have  been  pre- 
served and  types  are  being  constantly  cast  from  them.  Nearly  all 
foimdei-s  now  produce  modernized  old  style.  For  the  recent  revival 
of  old  style  printing,  see  p.  710  be-low. 

Large  letters,  sucli  as  are  employed  for  large  bills  and  posters, 
are  made  of  wood,  chiefly  rock  maple,  sycamore,  pine,  and  lime. 
These  are  cut  up,  planed  to  the  required  size,  and  then  engraved, 
generally  by  special  machinery,  this  being  a  business  quite  dis- 
tinct from  that  of  letter-founding.  The  larger  letters  are  designated 
as  two  line,  three  line,  four  line,  kc, — meaning  twice,  thrice,  or  four 
times  the  depth  of  face  of  pica  or  great  primer,  kc. 

T>-pe  Type  metal  is  an  alloy,  of  which  lead  is  the  ])rincinal  ingredient ; 

oietsl.  but,  owing  to  its  softness,  antimony  and  tin  are  added  (see  vol.  ii. 
p.  129  and  vol.  xiv.  p.  378).  A  pateut  type  metal  (Besley's)  was 
invented  in  1355  in  which  the  mi.\t«re  consisted  of  lead,  regulus  of 
antimony,  tin,  nickel,  copper,  and  bismuth.  Nearly  all  tyiie  is 
now  made  with  some  of  these  metals  superadded.  Ductility,  hard- 
ness, and  toughness  are  the  prime  requisites  of  a  type  metal. 

Making       The  earliest  printers  made  their  own  types,  and  the  books  printed 

of  tj-pes.  from  them  can  now  be  distinguished  with  almost  as  much  certainty 
as  handwriting  can  be  identified.  The  modern  printer  has  recoui'se 
to  the  type-founder.  The  first  step  in  the  making  of  type  is  cutting 
the  letter  on  the  end  of  a  piece  of  "fiue  steel,  forming  the  punch  (see 
fig.  2),  which  is  after-  ^^ 

wards  hardened.    This         4^^ 
is  an  operation  requir-         .-  J  I 
ing    great    care    and        / 
nicety     (there     being 
■comparatively         few        f""-,!/ 
iidepts  at  it),  in  order 
I  hat  the  various  sorts 
in  a  fount  may  be  e.x- 
,-<ctly  uniform  in  width, 
height,    and     general 
.proportions    to     each 

-other  A  separate  p,g  2  Jp„„^^  Fio.  3.-Drive. 
punch  IS  required  lor 
^-ach  character  in  every  fount  of  type,  and  the  making  of  them 
is  the  most  expensive  branch  of  type-fouuding.  During  the  pro- 
cess of  its  manufacture  the  punch  is  frequently  tested  or  measured 
by  delicate  gauges  to  insure  its  accuracy.  When  finished  it 
is  held  over  a  light,  the  flame  of  which  blackens  the  letter,  and 
thus  enables,  an  impression,  called  a  sniok'e  yroof,  to  be  stamped 
«n  paper.  When  the  letter  is  jwrfect,  it  is  driven  into  a  piece  of 
jiolished  copper,  called  the  drive  or  strik-e  (fi".  3).  This  passes 
to  the  justifier,  who  makes  the  width  and  depth  of  the  faces 
>miform  throughout  the  fount.  They  must  then  be  made  to  line 
f.^actly  with  each  other.  When  completed,  the  strike  becomes  the 
matri.K  (fig.  4),  wherein  the  face  of  the  type  is  m.^de.  This  method 
of  making  a  matrix  has  until  now  been  in  almost  uuivei-sal  use  in 
■Great  Britain.  It  is,  however,  a  very  slow  and  costly  process. 
In  America  the  great  majority  of  matrices  are  made  otherwise. 
If  the  design  of  the  fount  to  be  produced  is  original,  it  is  often 
■cut  by  hand  or  by  an  engi-aving-machine  on  the  piece  of  metal 
which  is  to  form  the  nratrix.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  an  existing 
fount  has  to  be  copied,  the  matrix  is  made  by  electro-deposition. 


Matrix. 


^^r 


Fio.  ,5.— MoulJ. 


A  perfectly  good  type  is  selected,  and  inserted  in  a  mould  specially 
made,  called  a  fusible  mould  (fig.  5).  Sufficient  metal  of  a  more 
fusible  nature  than  the 
type  is  cast  round  it,  and 
forms  a  s^pe  similar  to 
that  of  the  ordinary  mat- 
rix. This  fusible  cast  is 
then  placed  in  a  box  pro- 
tectee! by  glass  and  gutta- 
percha, in  order  that  the 
copper  deposit  may  be 
kept  square  and  to  the 
proper  dimensions.  This 
arrangement  also  limits 
the  deposition  to  the  face. 
The  box  is  immersed  in 
the  copper  electrotyping 
solution,  in  wliich  it  may 
be  left  until  the  deposit 
of  metal  has  increased  to 
a  thickness  at  which  it 

may  be  backed  up  with  copper,  or  it  is  left  until  it  reaches  the 
full  thickness,  which  is  about  ,^  of  an  m6h.  It  is  then  fitted 
in  line,  set,  position,  and  height.  The  minutest  imperfection  or 
blemish  is  reproduced  by  the  deposition,  and  the  type  cast  from 
such  a  matrix  is  a  perfect  counterpart  of  the  original.  A  school  of 
type-engravers  has  recently  sprung  up  in  the  United  States,  cutting 
exclusively  on  metal  and  producing  ornamentation  and  finish  which 
the  punch-cutters  cannot  rival.  It  is  expected  that  in  the  course  of 
time  the  electrotype  matrix  will  nearly  supersede  that  made  in  the 

old-fashioned  way  with  the  punch In  the  ordinary  method  the 

mould  in  which  the  body  of  the  type  is  formed  is  made  of  hardened 
steel  in  two  parts ;  one  part  is  fastened  to  the  machine  and  is  station- 
ary, while  the  other  is  movable  so  that  it  may  be  adjusted  for  the 
proper  width  of  the  letters,  as  one  is  wider  than  another.    The  com- 
bined matrix  and  mould  are  then  adjusted  to  the  type-easting 
machine,  which  manufactures  types  at  the  rate  of  from  25  to  about 
120  per  minute,  according  to  the  body.     The  metal  is  kept  fluid  by 
a  little  furnace  underneath  and  is  injected  into  the  mould  by  a 
pump,  the  spout  of  which  is  in  front  of  the  metal  pot.     The  mould 
is  movable,  and  at  every  revolution  of  the  wheel  it  comes  up  to  the 
spout,  receives  a  charge  of  metal,  aud  flies  back  with  a  fully  formed 
type  in  its  bosom ;  when  the  upper  half  of  the  mould  is  lifted,  a  type 
is  ejected.     The  spring  in  front  holds  the  copper  matrix  in  close 
proximity  to  the  mould.     The  letter  a,  for  instance,  stamped  in  the 
matrix  is  directly  opposite  the  aperture  in  the  mould  which  meets 
the  spout  of  the  pump.     When  a  due  proportion  of  a's  are  cast, 
another  matrix  with  b  stamped  on  it  takes  its  place,  and  so  on 
throughout  the  whole  fount.     The  types,  however,  are  not  finished 
when  they  leave  the  machine.     There  will  be  found  attached  to 
each  a  wedge-shaped  Jet  (fig.  6),  somewhat  similar  to  that 
on  a  bullet  cast  in  a  hand-mould.     These  are  picked  off  by 
boys  at  the  rate  of  from  2000  to  6000  per  hour.     A  burr 
which  still  adheres  to  the  shoulder  of  the  type  is  taken  ofl 
by  the  rubbers,  who  rub  the  sides  on  circular  stones  or  on 
files.     The  types  afterwards  go  to  the  setters,  who  arrange 
them  in  long  lines  ready  for  the  dresser,  and  he  slips  them 
into  a  long  stick,  turns  them  on  their  face,  aud,  after  duly 
fastening  them,  cuts  with  a  plane  a  gioove  in  the  bottom, 
which  forms  the  feet.     (These  processes  are  now  tVequently 
performed  by  a  machiue,  w  hich  produces  types  that  do  not 
require  rubbing  or  dressing.)     The  types  are  then  dressed 
and  the  picker  takes  them  in  hand,  in  order  to  pick  out  Fio.  0. 
each  defective  letter  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass.    "^YV^ 
They  are  finally  made  up  into  parcels  of  a  convenient  size, 
called  type-foiLndeTS  pages,  weighing  about  8  lb  each. 

Subjoined  is  a  description  of  a  machine  for  performing  automa-  Auto- 
tically  the  various  operations  of  casting  and  fiuisliing  type  which  matic 
was  invented  about  twenty  yeai-s  ago  by  Messrs  J.  R.  Johnson  and  typecast- 
J.  S.  Atkinson.     In  this  apparatus  the  metal  is  fused,  injected  into  ing  .m.l 
the  mould,  the  cast  letter  turned  out,  rubbed  or  planed,  first  on  finialihg 
one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  the  feet  cut  out  and  smoothed,  the  macUiue. 
dressed  sides  planed  alternately,  and  the  finished  letter  set  up  on  a 
stick  ready  for  use  by  the  printer.     The  casting  machine  and  the 
dressing  machine  are  in  reality  distinct,  though  mounted  on  a  com- 
mon fianie.    The  whole  is  driven  by  a  steam-engine  or  other  prime 
mover.     The  casting  machine  consists  of  a  furnace  covered  by  a 
shallow  pot  holding  the  fused  metal.     In  this  is  a  pump,  and  the 
mould  is  placed  opposite  its  nozzle.     The  mould  being  adjusted 
and  the  matrix  in  its  place,  the  molten  metal  is  injected  and  then 
solidifies,  forming  a  perfect  type,  but  with  jet  attached.      This 
letter  is  then  thrust  out,  and  the  mould  closes  again  for  another 
jet  of  molten  metal.     All  this  is  cfl"ected  by  one  revolution  of  the 
axle  of  the  machine.     The  letters  pass  through  a  ch.mnel  one  by 
one  into  the  dressing  machine.     On  arriving  there  liicy  have  each- 
of  their  sides  planed  in  succession  by  being  held  against  ciitters.  ' 
When  one  side  is  made  true  with  respect  to  the  set  of  tire  letter  on 


with 
jet. 


TYPOGRAPHY 


700 

its/ace,  it  is  passed  over  ^-Og^^cut^er  which  planes^th^  second 

?:L'iV°y's;erbf  tho'XuIat'c.^  -d  there  i,  considerable  re- 
ductioQ  in  its  cost 

Type-Selling  or  Composing. 

below  tlieyoitcroKe.  -The 
former  contains  ninety-, 
eight  equal-sized  boxeS: 
appropriated     princi' 
pally  to  the  capital 
and   small    capital 
letters;  the  latter 
has      fifty -three 
boxes 
ous 

appropri 
ated 


[PKACTICAI. 


Fio.  7.— Type-case. 
fn  the  lower-case  Sorts.     The  difference  in  the  size  of  the  boses 

rto':c"oVr;^o'd"a"eTaV^^ng''kngU>tof  lines,  .in  the  compos.ng 
Voom  theTames  are  ar.Ufed  ufrows.  supporting  the  eases.     Th 
!,!,nvr,n«itnr  fixes  the  "copy,     or  document  which  he  is  to  repeal 
nTp     in  a  convenient  pkce  before  his  eye,  and  on  son^e  part  of 
the  case  that  is  seldom  used.     In  his  left  hand  '>'= '\°'<1=.  ^^f  f""^ 
Dosina  stick!  and  with  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  right  hand 
Ift^fhe  letters  from  the  boxes,  and  arranges    hem   in  the  com- 
po^ng  stick  every  letter,  point,  or  sign  being  picked  out  separat  ly. 
^nthfs  operation  he  is  much  assisted  by  the  use  of  a  setUng-rulc, 
ithn  brass  or  steel  plate  which,  being  removed  as  successive  lines 
are  coniple  ed'  keeps  the  type  in  place.     When  so  many  words  and 
tarts  of  words  as  ^11  nearly  fill  tlie  line  have  been  composed    it 
?s  made    he  exact  length  required  by  inserting  or  diminishing  the 
space  between  the  several  wSids.     This  is  called  j.sn^ng  the  hne 
and  is  effected  by  means  of  the  spaces  already  mentioned.     It  the 
work  is  not  "solid  "-that  is.  if  the  lines  are  not  close  toge  her- 
The  strips  of  ni  Ul  called  leads  are  used.     They  vary  in  thickness 
hut  a  wivsfoim  aliquot  parts  of  pica  body.     A  good  compositor 
must  po    ess  intelligence  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  general  know- 
Ud'e^he  mis    be  able  to  read  his  copy  with  readiness,  and  to 
unX  tand  its  meaning,  in  order  to  P"°^'"^'%''  P^P^y^h" 
should  be  able  to  spell  correctly,  as  some  copy  is  almost  undecipher 
IbleUi  regard  to  separate  letters,  while  other  copy  is  incorrect  y 
Bpelt      Wfien  the  composing  stick  is  filled   the  type  is  lifted  on  to 
Tmllcu   a  shallow  triy  of  wood  or  metal,  two  or  three  sides  of 
whkh  a  e  flanged,  for  the  purpose  of  supportmg  the  type,  when  the 


galley  is  slightly  inclined      Stic^i^^^-tickMof^is^^^ 

required  length  lV""^^j  ,IA  ;"  the  caces  are  arranged  in  such 
slip).     It  is  then  imposed,  that  is   the  pages  are  s  ^^^j 

?,  liJet  arHaFled  the  outer  and  inner  formes  respectively.  A. 
let  of  octavri    folded  three  times,  making  8  leaves  or  1.6  pages- 

The  size  of  a  book  depends,  not  onlv  "P°«  t^^  f"""^"  ""Hlmi 
sheet  has  been  folded,  and  described  accordingly  as  4to,  8vo,  12mo 
l!     but  upon"the  size  of  the  sheets.     The  dunensions  of  the  paper. 

~"o^,"lS.'x%r*  .'r^oXlotirS^i;  ?9xI2  raemy; 
m  X  22i  douWe  crown  20  X  30  ;  double  foolscap,  17  x  27.-,  post, 
isl  X  m '  Hence  to  sa}  that  a  book  is  a  quarto  mere  y  gives  no 
precise  indication  of  its  dimensions,  as  a  quarto  of  one  size  of  paper 
Sarbe  smaller"  than  an  octavo  of  another  ;  it  is  also  necessary  to 

'^"fc!;v;^nntKisVpS:i't':srfrd'-th^^ 

of  cer4"n  Lges  there  is  usu^ally  a  letter  and  at  the  foot  of  ano  her  ture^ 
a  letter  and  a  figure,  as  B.  B  2 ;  further  on  another  letter  and  ano  her 
ktter  and  figurl.  On  gouig  through  the  book  it  will  be  seen  that 
fJie  letters  are  in  regular  alphabetical  order,  and  occur  at  regular 
Sterva  s  of  e  gilt,  tN?elve,  sixteen.  &c.,  pages  These  designate  the 
leverll  sheets  of  which  the  book  is  composed  and  are  called  «r^a- 
?rr«  so  that  a  sheet  may  be  designated  B,  and  the  pages  of  which 
t  con's.^  are%hei-eby  suVcientlf  indicated  (Oceas.onal  y,  as  in 
the  nresent  work,  numbers  are  used  instead  of  letters.)  ineso 
si^atures  assist  he  binder  in  folding,  as  they  occupy  a  certain 
srcified  place  in  each  sheet ;  hence  to  ascertain  if  the  sl.eet  has 
specinea  piace  necessary  to  examine  the  position  of 

tresgnatur^e^The  binder  Ilso  is  th^s  assisted  in  gatkerinao, 
collatrg  "ether  the  sheets  of  a  volume  in  t-roper  order  S.gna- 
ui«  A  if  omitted,  because  it  would  be  on  the  title  or  first  page  .nd 
would  be  bo  I  unnecessary  and  unsightly.  By  old  custom  .J.  V, 
rd  w'/re  diLrded,  I  an(j.U  and  V  being  orignally  used  nid.s^ 

1  'Vhe^p^ageriftpe's  "e'fr^ang^d'in  proper  orde.r  on  a  flat  tabK  Fortne. 

'  cove  ed'^vith  stone  or  metal,  called  the  ii,<pcsing  »  »"J.  f^d  are  then 
ready  to  be  made  into  a  /orm.  that.is  m  such  a  state  that  they 
can  be  securely  fastened  up  and  moved  about.     Ihe  lorme  is  en 

interest  to  the  workman.  ,     j     construct  TVP** 

composing  machines  that  na\e  uecu  '"."''^=    _,        ,         v  q^. 

hav    stooS  the  test  of  Practical  exp^rien.     The     l-e^been^con^ 


PRACTICAL.] 


TYPOGRAPHY 


701 


Flo.  0. — Fraser  composing  machine. 


ground  of  economy  with  any  possible  mechanical  arrangement    On 
the  other  hand,  employers  and  makers  of  machines  allege  that 
■owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  men  machine  type-setting  has 
not  had  fair  play.     However  that  may  be,  it  is  undeniable  that 
a  composing  machine  is  still  rare  in  priiiting  offices,  and  wlicre 
■employed  it  is  only  as  an  auxiliarj*  to  the  ordinary  labour  of  the 
men.     It  deserves  to  be  mentioned  that  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
Ti'iies,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  advertisements,  has  for 
jearc  past  been  set  up  by  machinerj',  and  that  more  than  10,000 
pages  of  the  present  edition  of  tlie  Encyclopedia  Britannka  have 
also  been  so  set  up.     We  have  not  space  to  describe  witlj  any 
minuteness  the  construction  of 
composing  machines.     In  tlic 
Traser  machine  (fig.  8),  one  of 
the  simplest  of  its  class,  whicfi 
has  been  made  use  of  to  the 
extent  already  mentioned  in 
the  present  work,   the  types 
are  contained   in  a  series  of 
grooved  trays  A,  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  machine,  the  trays 
laving  preWously  been  filled 
by  complementary  apparatus 
■called    the    distrilmlor.      In 
these  trays  the  types  are  kept 
in  position,   and   pressed   to- 
wards the  front  part  of  each 
tray,   by  slips    of   metal   at- 
tached by  cords  to  the  box- 
wheels  B  ;  each  of  these  con- 
tains   a   spring   of   sufficient 
■strength  to  press  the  line  of 
types  steadily  forward  against  the  separators  C,  which  are  formed 
■with  an  inverted  shoulder,  under  which  the  front  type  in  each 
line  passes.     The  keys  are  connected  by  levers  to  the  separators, 
and  the  depression  of  any  key  causes  the  corresponding  separ- 
ator to  descend,  carrying  with   it  the  front   type  of   the  line 
into  the  grooved  face  ■plate,  down  which  it  slides  into  the  com- 
posing stick  G.     Immediately  the  finger  is  lifted  from  the  key  the 
spiral  spring  D  raises  the  separator  to  its  original  position,  and  the 
next  type  in  the  line  takes  the  place  of  the  one  just  released,  and 
so  in  succession  as  fast  as  the  keys  can  be  pressed.     Under  the  keys 
runs  a  rod  connected  by  a  crank  motion  with  the  pusher  G,  which, 
■with  every  depression  of  a  key,  pushes  forward  the  line  of  type  in 
the  composing  stick,  thus  making  room  for  tlie  next  letter.     The 
matter  is  thus  set  in  one  continuous  line,  ready  to  be  divided  into 
lines  of  the  required  length  either  by  the  operator  at  the  macliine  or 
by  another  hand  working  in  conjunction.    The  speed  of  the  machine 
varies  from  6000  to  12,000  types  per  hour,  but  is  regulated  solely 
by  the  skill  of  the  operator,  as  the  machine  will  work  as  fast  as 
the  keys  can  be  pressed.     The  composing  machines  now  employed 
at  the  Times  office  are  an  improved  form  of  ah  apparatus  invented 
by  Charles  Kastenbein,  and  introduced  there  in  1872.     The  oper- 
ator sits  in  front  of  four  rows  of  keys  one  above  the  other,  something 
like  the  manuals  ■of  an  organ,  but  only  about  3  feet  wide.     Each 
■of  the  keys  corresponds  to  a  type  or  character.    The  types  are  kept 
in  tin  tubes  placed  vertically  at  the  top  of  the  machine.     The  de- 
pression of  a  key  works  a  series  of  levers,  and  an  iron  finger  pushes 
the  undermost  type  from  its  tube,  when  it  falls  into  a  groove  formed 
in  a  conducting  plate,  narrowing  at  the  bottom  to  its  apex.     Imme- 
diately below  is  a  receptacle,  and  by  the  action  of  a  treadle  the  type 
is  pushed  along  a  channel      Other  letters  follow,  the  matter  being 
thus  set  up  in  a  long  line,  on  a  groove  of  the  width  of  an  em  quad, 
and  running  from  left  to  right     The  type  when  it  first  comes  into 
the  groove  is  in  an  upright  position,  but  in  passing  along  it  becomes 
twisted,  so  that  the  letters  stand  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  when 
they  reach  the  point  at  which  they  are  justified.     This  groove  co£n- 
iDunicates  at  its  de.xter  extremity  with  the  justifying  galley, — a 
simple  apparatus,  something  of  the  nature  of  a  composing  stick  and 
galley  combined.     Then  the  type  is  divided  into  portions  or  lines 
of  the  required  length  and  justified  in  the  galley,  which  is  adjustable 
to  the  width  of  the  required  length.     As  the  long  line  approaclies 
him,  the  justifier  with  a  small  bodkin  accelerates  a  portion  large 
■enough  in  his  judgment  to  fill  the  width  of  his  column.     When 
this  is  done  he  presses  his  foot  on  the  treadle  under  him,  and 
thereby  causes  the  line  to  be  pushed  into  the  galley.     The  line  is 
justified  by  spaces  and  quads,  and  enough  type  is  then  taken  for 
another  line.     The  speed  depends  on-the  opecator,  and  varies  from 
6000  to  13,000  types  per  hour,  the  average  being  about  8000,  with 
two  operators, — a  justifier  and  a  compositor  being  also  necessary. 
These  machines  are  worked  in  the  Tinus  office  at  the  rate  of  a 
column  of  solid  .minion  an  hour.     The  machine  occupies'a  floor! 
space  of  only  about  4  feet  wide  by  2  deep. 

Another  machine  at  present  in  use  is  that  of  Mr  Robert  Ilattersley 
of  Jlanchester.  It  probably  furnished  the  general  scheme  of  others 
in  use.  One  of  the  most  ingenious  machines  of  the  kind  is  that  of 
Mr  Alexander  Mackie  of  Warrington,  its  general  principle  being  I 


the  adoption  t*setting  np  types  of  the  Jacquar<l  card  of  the  powet 
loom,  which  weaves  automatically  the  most  intricate  patterns  ol 
cloth.  The  apparatus  consists  of  three  parts, — two  used  for  pre- 
paring the  "card  "  or  ribbon,  which  directs  the  thiixl  in  the  opera- 
tion of  typo  composing.  The  perforator  is  like  a  small  cottage 
pianoforte.  When  the  keys  are  struck  they  produce  a  perfoi-ation, 
and  the  ribbon  is  tnade  to  move  aside  a  little,  so  tliat  a  new  surface 
may  be  presented  for  puncturing.  The  composer  is  a  circular  iron 
table,  4  feet  in  diameter,  baring  round  its  periphery  a  number  of 
bo.xes  divided  into  sections,  each  of  which  holds  one  kind  of  typo. 
On  a  slightly  lower  plane  is  a  wheel  carrying  little  brass  tables, 
hinged  at  one  end.  When  the  niacliiuo  is  in  motion,  the  types 
are  pushed  out  on  to  the  table,  which  passes  with  its  freight  round 
its  course  until  it  tomes  to  the  point  of  delivery,  when  the  types 
are  swept  ofif.  The  rising  of  the  table,  and  the  drawing  out  of  the 
types,  are  guided  by  the  perforated  paper.  Hence  the  machine 
sets  types  without  a  huni.-in  compositor.  When  once  the  ribbon  is 
perforated,  it  may  be  used  over  again  for  subsequent  editions  of 
the  sany;  work,  which  may  be  in  a  difltrcnt  size  of  type.  These 
machines  are  only  in  use  i.u  the  office  of  the  inventor. 

As  has  been  already  described  under  RcronTIKG  (vol.  XX.  p.  406), 
the  parliamentary  reports  of  some  newspapers  are  set  up  entirely 
without  copy,— by  the  oar,  not  by  the  eye.  It  has  been  found  that 
by  the  aid  of  the  machine  the  matter  can  be  set  up  half  as  fast  i 
again  as  it  could  be  written  out :  the  average  speed  of  the  compos-  i 
ing  machine  is  230  lines  per  hour  when  the  copy  is  dictated  to  the 
operator,  whereas  the  most  skilful  workman  setting  at  ease  in  the 
usual  way  can  do  but  50  lines  per  hour. 

For  many  years  it  was  a  fivourite  idea  with  inventors,  especially  EpRO- 
those  who  were  not  practic.il  printers,  that  great  economy  might  be  tjpcf^ 
gained  in  composition  by  the  u.^^e  of  word-cliaracters  or  "logotypes," 
instead  of  single  letters.  The  constant  repetition  of  many  words 
seemed  to  suggest  that  tbiy  might  be  cast  in  one  piece.  Combina- 
tions suitable  foraffi.^csand  suffixes,  as  ad-,  ac-,  in-,  -ing,  -ment,  &c.i 
it  was  also  suggested,  should  be  u.sed  iustead  of  the  single  component 
letters.  The  suggestion  has,  however,  not  been  carried  out,  at  least 
to  any  considerable  extent.  The  chief  practical  objection  to  it  is 
that  it  involves  the  use  of  cases  with  an  inconveniently  large  num< 
ber  of  boxes.  The  more  the  variety  of  characters  is  multiplied  thft 
moi'e^'  travel  "  of  the  compositor's  hand  over  the  cases  is  necessary 
for  pickiiig  them  up,  and  by  so  much  is  the  speed  of  his  work  re- 
tarded. Logotypes,  too,  are  more  liable  to  accident  i  when  one 
letter  is  damaged  the  combination,  is  rendered  useless. 

The  correction  of  the  type  is  a  subject  that  should  be  understood  CBrrccV 
by  all  who  have  to  do  with  printing,  as  many  mistakes  are  made  iog  tjlft 
on  the  part  of  authors  which  a  little  technical  knowledge  would 
prevent.  In  the  course  of  setting  any  copy  or  JIS.  which  may  be 
given  him  the  compositor  unavoidably  picks,  up  some  wrong  letters, 
oamistakes  the  words  in  the-copy  l/efore  hiui,  or  fails  to  follow  the 
style  prescribed  for  the  work.  These  are  called  printer's  errors. 
When  the  composit9r  has  finislwd  his  task,  a  first  proof  of  the 
matter  is  taken.  This  proof  is  read  through  and  compared  witb 
the  copy  by  the  proof  reader  or  corrector  of  the  press  and  an  assist- 
ant, the  copy-holder  or  reading  boy.  The  proof  is  then  sent  hack 
to  the-compositor  and  the  latter  is  required  to  coriect  all  the  inac- 
curacies-indicated therein-.-in  fact,  to  attend  to  .ill  the  direction' 
given  by  the  reader — and-this  has  to  be  done  at  his  own  cost  if  he 
is  working  on  piece — ^that  is,  paid  by  results  according  to  work  done 
— or  by  the  employer  if  he  is  working  *'  on  establishnient  wages  *'  or 
paid  by  time.  Another  proaf  called  a  revise  is  now  taken  ;  this  is 
carefully  compared  with  the  previous  proof.  If  the  corrections 
have  not  all  been  made,  the  reviseis  markiid  accordingly,  and  sent 
back  to  the  compositor,  who  is  required  to  remedy  the  imperfec- 
tions. When  the  proof  is  deemed  accurate,  or  *'  clean,"  it  is  sent, 
generally  along  with  the  copy,  to  the  author, — being  now  termed 
an  author's  proof.  Finally,  in  the  printing  office  the  matter  is 
carefully  re-rtad  and  compared  with  the  last  author's  proof  by  the 
press  reader,  who  signs  it  and  on  his  responsibility  the  type  is 
printed  off. 

The  operation  pf  distributing  the  types  is  the  converse  of  that  Disttl. 
of  composing ;   it  is  de-composing  the  forme  and  returning  the  buting 
several  letters  to  their  proper  boxes  in  the  case.     It  is  done,  as  already  type, 
mentioned,  with  remarkable  rapidity.^    The'  forme  is  first  washed 
over  with  an  alkaline  or  other  detergent  to  remove  the  ink  from 
its  surface,  and  then  laid  down  on  the  imposing  surface,  unlocked, 
and  damped  ;  this  assists  the  cohesion  of  the  type,  after  the  chase, 
furniture,  side  sticks,  &c.,  are  removed.     The  compositor  then  takes 
in  his  left  hand,  suppoi-ted  by  a  setting  rule,  a  portion  of  type  in 
linBs,  and  with  the  right  hand  takes  a  word  or  so  between  the  finger 
and  thumb,  letting  each  letter  drop  separately  into  its  proper  box. 
There  is  hardly  any  operation  which  so  strikes  a  spectator  as  dis- 
tributing, for  a  competent  distributor  literally  showers  the  typea 
into  their  receptacles.     The  types  are  held  upside  down,  that  is, 
with  the  nicks  uppermost ;  hence  the  letters  of  each  word  are  read 
from  left  to  right  like  ordinary  matter  when  printed,  but  the  words 
are  of  co\irse  dealt  with  in  the  inverse  order. 
Distributing -machines  of  many  different  kinds  liave  beeaijiVfUied. 


702 


TYPOGRAPHY 


fpRAC-rlCAU 


m_  a;  tv.^  r„,v  >,<.  divided  into  two  classes,— those  worked  entirely  by 

L^?The  t^^^e^Qires  to  &e  specially  prepared,  each  character 
ha^n- a  distinctive  Dick  or  nicks  upon  it,  which  correspond  with 
the  mrticular  channel  of  the  machine  it  is  intended  to  occupy,  and 
bv  which  It  is  gnided  to  its  special  compartment^    Ka^tenbe.n  has 
produced  a  difTribntor  which  may  be  described  as  ^^  composing 
machine  revelled.    The  matter  to  he  decomposed  is  plac^.\t  '•>« 
top  iTits  appropriate  tray  or  fixed  galley,  the  sides  <>/ ^^h'^b  are 
SdfnstoWe  to'fit  any  measure,  the  back  being  so  constructed  tha 
it  mav  be  advanced  to  keep  the  matter  always  up  to  the  front.     As 
th?mat  ter  is  pr^ed  towar'ds  the  front,  the  first  letter  of  it  is  brought 
00"  wi^n  steel  pusher,  behind  it  being  ^^  ^F/^re  com 
municating  with  the  channel  of  the  guide  plate.     The  matter  is 
^ihy  the  operator  ;  and  he  touches  the  key  corresponding  to  the 
letter  that  comes  first.     Thus  the  types  are  conveyed  one  by  one 
to  the  -^de  plate  or  conductor.     It  has  grooves  furnished  with 
Uttle  ktS  or  switches,  like  the  points  of  a  railway,  and  these  direct 
the  tip  s  into  their  proper  channels     The  tubes  into  '^li'chthe 
tvWare  deposited  are  placed  at  the  foot  of  each  groove.     Thus 
e^  toe  Xv  is  depressed  the  switches  move  the  PJ>*er  sends 
the^T^to  be  distributed  out  of  the  line    it  falls  through  the 
ap^rSFe,  and,  passing  down  the  channels  in  the  guide  plate,  reaches 
the  proper  tube.     The  speed  — = — -  - 

is  to  a  certain  extent  depend- 
ent upon  the  skill  of  the 
operator,  but  averages  be- 
tween 3500  and  4000  per  hour. 
A  good  compositor  can  by 
hand  alone  disti-ibute  as 
many  letters  as  this.  Bnt  for 
the  purposes  of  the  composing 
machine,  hand  distributed 
types  would  have  to  be  set 
op  again,  as  the  composing 
machine  is  supplied  not  from 
ordinary  cases  but  from  tubes 

of  type.      In  the  Fraser  dis- , 

tributing  machine  (fig.  9)  the     pj^  9._praser  distributing  macliine. 

the  comoosins  machine 

Stereotyping,  EUctfOtyping,  Ac  _ 

The  method  of  reproducing  and  multiplpng  fetter-press  prmting 
t"""^',  suS^sbv  taking  Lts  of  them,  or  stereotypes,  has  greatly  con- 
tages  of    5^^,„°.L  nropress  of  tvpo-'raphy.— much  more  so,  mdeed,  than 


machine  are  increased  in  proportion  '''."'f  ."7^' f.^'?^  ren™- 

This  in  turn  may  likewise  become  an  onginal.  and  casts  may  M 
r^e     Then  came  the  era  of  typography,  in  which  these  pages 


wpre  composed,  mosaiclike.  of  movable  types.     N  mv  has  succeeded 
the  period  of  stereotj-ping,  in  which  pages  formed  of  single  block» 
but  of  metal,  not  of  wood— are  used.     The  two  essential  parts  are, 
therefore,  the  making  of  the  matrix  and  of  the  cast,  which  is  com- 
posed of  an  alloy  something  like  that  for  type  metal      The  moulj 
may  be  of  plaster  <rf  Paris  or  papier-mache  ,  the  latter  being  tha 
simplest  material,  and  that  almost  universally  used,  need  alone  be 
here  referred  to.    The  follomng  account  of  the  process,  when  carriec 
out  on  the  smallest  possible  scale,  is  su£ficient_ perhaps  to  show  th( 
general  prmciples  of  the  art     The  papier-mache  for  the  mould, 
tailed /OOT,  is  made  by  uniting  several  sheets  of  paper  with  a  paste 
made  of  wheaten  flour,  starch,  and  alum,  to  Kliich  whiting  is  added. 
These  ingredients  are  often  varied  ,  the  general  obiect  in  usin^  them 
is  to  obtain  a  paste  which  will  stand  a  high  temperature  mthout 
burnin"      A  sheet  of  brown  paper  is  laid  down  on  a  smooth  surlace 
and  palted  over  ;  blotting  paper  is  laid  on  that  and  pressed  do^vn. 
then  pasted  over,  and  a  sheet  of  tissue  paper  added,  which  is  also 
pasted,  and  another  sheet  of  tissue  paper  placed  on  the  top.     ihis 
is  well  smoothed  and  pressed   to  give  the  incorporated  matenal 
CTCater  firmness  and  cohesion      Next,  to  prepare  the  forme  for  bem» 
moulded,  it  is  surrounded  with  metal  ■'clumps     of  the  height  of 
the  type,  placed  close  to  the  matter,  and  then  oiled  to  prevent  the 
flon-  stickling  to  it.     The  latter  is  then  thoroughly  damped,  Ic 
render  it  quite  plastic      The  forme  being  on  a  level  surface,  the 
flong  is  laid  upon  it.  and  on  that  a  piece  of  linen.     The  surface 
s  nest  weU  biaten  all  over  with  a  fong-handled  brush,  till  the 
flong  sinks  into  all  the  declivities  of  the  forme  and  receives  a  deep 
impiession  of  it.     This  is  a  process  requiring  expenence  and  practice^ 
The  linen  being  removed,  a  piece  of  very  stout  paper  is  laid  on  th» 
top,  and  also  btaten  down,  so  as  to  strengthen  the  flong  and  the 
moulding  is  finished.     The  next  point  is  to  dry  the  mouli 

In  the  most  rudimentary  method  a  combined  drjnng  and  (»stin| 
press  is  used.     It  consists  of  a  fiat  iron  surface,  with  a  lid  attached 
to  one  end  by  hinges.    Over  the  surface  is  a  cross-head  fitted  with  a 
screw:  pressure  maybe  exerted  on  anything  placed  between,  the 
arrangement  being  like  that  of  a  screw  letter-copying  pr/ss.     The 
cross-lead  can  be' moved  to  one  side  when  it  is  necessary  for  the  lid 
to  be  lifted  up.    Underneath  the  press  is  a  series  of  gas  jets,  by 
means  of  which  the  bed  plate  is  Seated.     The  press  stands  on 
supports,  but  is  attached  to  them  only  by  an  ax  e,  and  it  can  be 
reldily  changed  from  the  horizontal  to  the  vertical  position.     The 
lid  of  the  box  is  raised  and  the  forme  with  the  (long  upon  it  placed 
on  the  centre  of  the  iron  siu-face.     After  being  covered  with  a 
blanket,  the  lid  is  screwed  down  upon  the  whole,  and.  the  gas  being 
liXted,  the  forme  and  mould  are  heated  for  a  few  minutes,  after 
wliich  the  lid  is  raised,  the  steam  evaporates,  and  the  flong,  which 
ha^  now  become  the  matrix,  is  thoroughly  dry.     In  large  stereo^p- 
ng  foundries,  after  the  flong  has  been  well  beaten  upon  the  fonne 
until  the  impression  of  the  types  is  plainly  seen  on  the  back     t  is 
baked  and  dried  (the  forme  still  underneath)  on  a  long  thick  iron 
Bkb  called  a  hot  chamUr.  because  it  is  heated  from  within  by  steanr. 
The  matrix  is  then  removed  from  the  forme,  and  any  superfluous 
niar^n  cut  away  or  trimmed  ;  after  this  the  matrix  ,s  dusted  wih 
powdered  French  chalk  and  is  ready  for  being  cast  rom_  •    A  method 
hariately  come  into  use  for  obviating  the  necessity  of  keeping  the 
matrix  on  the  type  while  it  is  being  hardened  by  drying  by  lieat, 
whereby  the  U-pe  is  injured.     The  matrix  is  dried  separately,  being 
removerwhea  moist  from  the  forme  a^  soon  as    he  .mpression  is 
obuined      It  is  then  placed  on  a  bed  of  sand  heated  by  gas     The 
?ome  is  never  heated,  and  there  is  a  great  saving  of  ^e,  because 
th™  r^'ng  can  be  done  in  two  minutes      The  matrix  is  l^"!  on  th/ 
l«d  o7the  casting  box  face  upwards,  with  gauges  around  it  to  de- 
^rm^ne  the  height  or  thickness  of  the  cast     The  lid  >s  P«  down 
and  screwed  tightly,  and  the  position  of  the  press  altered  from  the 
horizontTrto  the  upright     The  metal  is  then  poured  m  and  the 
D?e™  restored  to  its  fomer  position.     The  matrix  .s  carefully  raised 
Khe  plate  exposed.     It'has  only  to  be  '■  trimmed,''  the  su^r- 
fluous  metal  cutaway,  and  the  back  planed  to  be  ready  for  mount- 
incr  on  a  block  of  wood  to  make  it  type  high.  (..,„» 

!n  "tereotvpins  for  the  Walter  and  similar  presses  the  pr««s3  Stereo- 
is  as    ollows'^    !he  forme  is  laid  on  the  table  of  the  moulding  t>THng 
machine  and  the  flong  placed  on  it  and  thoroughly  beaten  in  by  for  a 
hauH?  paLd  through  a  moulding  machine,  which  performs  the  \^aUe• 
LmooiveFarion     The'forme  is  next  placed  on  -J-^^IX^^^  "-''' 

and  when  nearly  dried  the  matrix  is  removed  from  it  <">Q  aga'" 
and  When  nca    y  ._^  ^^^  ^         ^^^  ^^    ^^  j^  j^, 

S^umference  of  L  cylinder  of  the  press.  The  box,  being  on  a 
sw"  eT  is  set  upnght.  The  metal  is  now  poured  in  from  a 
ladle  and  the  platctast.  It  is  allowed  to  stand  a  minute  and  then 
token  out  still  hot,  and  placed  upon  a  "finishmg  saddle  of  the 
^me  chcular  form  L  the  back  of  t'hej.late.  and  secured  by  clamps 
and  screws  An  angular-shaped  kniVe  or  chisel,  fixed  in  a  cam- 
a°e  »  moved  by  a  handle  in  a  semicircular  direction  across  the 
suriace^f  the  plate,  in  order  to  remove  superfluous  portions  of 
I"  ,    .nd   .0  form  a  bevel  whereby  the  plate  can  be  su'bsequently 


1  These  matricM  can  be  r-reservedtor  several  years,  and  the  stereotyping  pn>- 
1  cess  postponed  until  octually  required. 


PRACTICAI-J 


TYPOGRAPHY 


703 


Cellaloid 
and 
ijidia- 
rubber 

«t€I«03. 


clamped  on  the  machine.  If  necessary  the  plate  may  be  smoothed 
at  the  back  by  a  specially-contrived  planing  machine.  The  plate 
i3  now  ready  for  oeing  placed  on  the  printing  machine.  Each 
single  operation  can  be  performed  with  the  utmost  possible  despatch. 
If  the  organization  is  sufficiently  perfect,  the  time  for  making  a 
plate,  from  the  moment  when  the  forme  comes  down  fr«m  the 
machine- room  to  that  wherein  the  perfect  plate  is  set  on  the 
machine,  need  only  be  about  eight  minutes. 
For  In  newspaper  establishments  whore  stereotyping  is  thus  adopted 

news-  the  pages  are  not  all  made  up  simultaneously  :  some  are  kept  open 
pasers. ,  till  the  last  for  the  latest  telegrams.  The  moment  a  page  is  com- 
pleted and  locked  up  in  its  chase  it  is  sent  down  to  the  foundry, 
and  as  many  casts  taken  as  there  are  printing  machines  to  be  set 
going.  One  (>age  follows  another  with  rapidity,  the  first  being 
placed  in  position  on  the  machine,  while  the  later  ones  are  in  the 
foundry.  When  all  the  plates  a're  finished  and  fi-ied  in  their 
places,  sis,  eight,  or  ten  machines  may  be  simultaneously  printing 
it  the  rate  of  nearly  12,000  per  hour  each.  The  enormous  increase 
in  the  circulation  of  the  great  daily  newspapers  wnuld  have  been 
impossible  but  for  the  extraordinary  facilities  for  rapid  production 
provided  by  stereotyping  This  process  is  also  of  special  atility  to 
the  newspaper  printer  in  the  case  of  telegrams  arriving  late.  In 
machines  wliich  printed  from  the  type,  late  telegrams  could  only 
be  inserted  by  a  "stop-press"  ,  that  is.  the  printing  was  inter- 
rupted while  the  alteration  was  being  made.  But,  when  the 
papier-mache  casts  of  the  pages  have  been  taken,  the  type  itself  is 
liberated  and  sent  back  to  the  composing  room,  so  that,  if  later 
news  arrives  while  the  machines  are  running,  the  foreman  printer 
alters  the  page,  a  fresh  cast  of  it  is  taken,  and  a  machine  started 
without  interrupting  the  production  for  a  moment.  The  London 
evening  papers  nave  usually  five  editions,  and  for  every  edition 
fresh  casts  are  made  of  one  or  more  of  the  nage-s. 

Quite  recently  the  substance  called  celluloid  has  been  Introduced 
instead  of  the  metal  referred  to  previously.  A  mould  is  made  of 
yellow  oxide  of  lead  and  glycerin  formed  into  a  semi-fluid  paste, 
which  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  type.  The  matrix  is  placed 
on  a  powerful  press  and  a  heated  sheet  of  celluloid  about  fy  of  an 
inch  thick  is  laid  on  it.  When  pressure  is  applied,  a  perfect  facsimile 
is  obtained,  and  it  is  ready  to  be  printed  from  when  mounted  in  the 
usual  way  Whereas  a  good  electrotype  from  a  wood  block  averages 
six  hours  in  its  production,  a  cast  in  celluloid  can  be  got  in  less  than 
an  hour.  These  blocks  are  very  tough  and  many  thousands  more 
of  impressions  can  be  printed  from  them  than  from  stereotypes  with- 
out their  showing  signs  of  wear.  For  small  stamps  india-rubber  is 
used  as  a  stereotyping  material,  and  after^'ards  vulcanized.  These 
stamps,  being  flexible,  print  on  rough  surfaces  which  would  not 
take  an  impression  from  ordinary  stereotypes.  With  a  flexible 
surface,  too,  much  less  pressure  is  required. 
Printing  Machines  have  been  invented  to  do  away  with  the  use  of  types 
by  means  altogether.  The  principle  is  to  punch  the  characters  successively 
*f*  on  some  substance  which  wHl  act  like  the  flong  and  become  a 

punches,  monld  from  which  stereo  plates  may  be  cast. .  In  an  apparatus 
recently  introduced  the  flong  is  a  prepared  piece  of  millboard, 
which  is  placed  in  front  of  the  steel  punches.  The  latter  are  driven 
into  the  flong  with  lightning  speed  and  great  accuracy.  By  turn- 
ing a  handle  all  the  Roman  punches  are  changed  to  Italic  ;  by 
another  a  set  of  sanserif  or  other  founts  comes  into  play.  For  set- 
ting time-tables  and  logarithms  the  apparatus  is  said  to  save  ninety 
per  cent,  over  the  ordinary  system  of  hand-setting.  The  obstacle 
to  the  more  general  use  of  it  is  the  difficulty  of  correcting  errors. 
In  another  machine  the  punches  are  driven  into  a  block  of  teak 
wood.  They  are  cast  to  thicknesses  which  are  the  multiple  of  a 
"point"  ;  hence  by  a  simple  calculation  they  may  be  spaced  out 
to  the  exact  number  of  points  chosen  for  the  length  of  the  line,  and 
every  line  leaves  the  machine  justified.  The  block  when  com- 
plete is  removed  and  a  stereotype  taken,  which  can  be  printed  as  in 
the  ordinary  method  of  typography 
Electro-  For  the  reproduction  of  wood  engravings  electrotyping  has 
typing  nearly  superseded  stereotyping,  as  it  produces  much  better  copies. 
For  obtaining  plates  of  type  matter  it  is  also  better  than  stereo- 
typing, as  many  thousands  of  impressions  may  be  taken  without 
reducing  the  sharpness  of  an  electro,  while  ordinary  stereotype 
would  be  almost  worn  out  by  printing  a  much  smaller  number. 
This  arises  from  the  superior  hardness  and  toughness  of  copper,  of 
which  the  surface  of  the  electro  is  formed.  Electrotyping,  however, 
is  costlier  and  slower. 

The  forme  to  be  electrotyped'  is  placed  upon  a  level  plate,  and 
snrronnded  with  type-high  clumps  or  inetal  furniture,  and  then 
floated  with  plaster  of  Paris,  which  prevents  the  mould  of  was 
(to  be  afterwards  made)  from  penetrating  too  far  into  the  interstices 
of  the  spaces.  The  forme  is  next  bnished  with  finely  powdered 
blacklead  or  plumbago.  The  moulding  composition  is  made  of 
melted  wax,  with  the  addition  of  a  littleWacklead.  This  is  poured 
into  a  shallow  metal  moulding  tray,  to  which  two  pieces  of  stout 
wire  are  soldered,  in  order  that  it  may  be  afterwards  suspended  in 
the  depositing  trough.  After  the  composition  is  cooled  and  set  its 
•arlace  is  brushed  with  blacklead,  And  it  is  then  t«ady  for  moulding. 


The  moulding  press  may  be  something  like  a  letter-copving  press, 
or,  in  a  large  establishment,  may  consist  of  a  powerful  hydraulio 
or  other  press  capable  of  exercising  a  pressure  of  many  tons.  The 
forme  is  placed  exactly  under  the  centre  of  the  platen,  with  the 
moulding  tray  containing  the  wax,  slightly  warm,  upon  it  .An 
impression  is  then  taken,  and  the  mould  afterwards  separated  fi-om 
the  forme.  The  mould  has  next  to  go  through  the  process  of 
biLilding,  that  is,  heated  wax  is  dropped  upon  such  portions  as  should 
be  more  deeply  sunk  in  the  finished  electrotype  plate,  namely,  Iha 
places  where  "whites"  are  to  appear  in  the  print.  The  tnotUd, 
having  been  finished,  has  to  be  blackleaded,  plumbago  being  a  con- 
ductor of  electricity,  while  wax  is  a  non-conductor.  The  material 
is  well  brushed  in,  filling  all  the  interstices  of  the  forme  ;  and  tha; 
entire  surface  of  tie  mould  must  be  properly  covered,  to  ensure 
a  perfect  deposit  of  the  copper.  To  facilitate  this  operation,  a 
blackleading  machine  is  used  in  large  establishments.  The  forme 
is  placed  upon  a  carriage  formed  of  transverse  bars  and  is  moved 
backwards  and  forwards  by  a  handle  and  rounce  to  bring  it  under 
the  blacklead  brush  After  the  mould  is  blackleaded,  the  backof 
the  moulding  pan  is  coated  with  wax,  to  prevent  the  copper  from 
being  deposited  upon  it.  The  mould  is  now  quickly  immersed  in 
one  of  the  compartments  of  the  battery.  The  process  of  depositing 
a  copper  solution  upon  the  blackleaded  surface  of  the  mould  is 
continued  until  a  solid  plate  is  formed,  which,  though  it  is  scarcely 
thicker  than  a  finger  nail,  being  about  -f^  inch,  forms,  when  pro- 
perly backed,  the  best  and  most  enduring  surface  for  letterpress 
printing  that  has  been  discovered.  ^  ••' 

The  moulding  tray  containing  the  mould  is  hung  on  the  brass 
rod  of  the  depositing  trough  facing  a  plate  of  copper,  and  the  con- 
nexion of  the  battery  made  .  that  is,  the  mould  is  attached  to  one 
pole  of  the  batteiy  and  the  plate  of  copper  to  the  other.  The 
copper,  so  to  speak,  is  decomposed  on  the  one  hand  and  recomposed 
on  the  other :  in  other  words,  the  current  of  electricity  being  com- 
plete, and  the  mould  submerged  in  the  sulphate  of  copper  solution, 
the  deposition  of  copper  on  the  mould  at  once  commences.  Here 
it  remains  until  the  deposit  is  sufficient,  the  time  usually  occupied 
being  from  8  to  12  houi-s,  according  to  the  state  of  the  solutio* 
and  the  strength  of  the  battenes.  The  dynamo. electro  machine, 
w-hich  is  now  employed  in  large  bouses,  very  materially  reduces 
this  period  ^  otherwise  Smee's  battenes  are  generally  used.  When 
the  deposit,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  shell,  formed  on  the  wax  mould 
is  of  proper  thickness,  it  is  disengaged  from  the  wax, —  the  mould 
being  placed  with  its  back  on  an  inclined  board,  and  boiling  water 
poured  over  the  shell,  which  melts  the  surface  of  the  wax,  except 
a  thin  coating,  the  removal  of  which  is  effected  by  placing  tha 
mould  and  shell  on  a  steam  heating  table.  Thus  the  wax  mouli^' 
is  destroyed,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  more  than  one  shell 
from  a  mould,  whereas  the  stereotype  process  enables  almost  any 
number  of  casts  to  be  taten  from  the  same  matrix.  The  shell, 
being  too  thin  and  fragile  to  be  printed  from,  is  next  backed, 
or  filled  up  with  metal  o7  a  somewhat  softer  kind  than  stereo  metaL 
The  shell,  after  being  further  cleaned,  is  lowered  on  to  the  top 
of  a  vessel  of  molten  type  metal ;  and,  when  the  solder  previously 
used  to  unite  the  copper  and  the  metal  has  fused,  the  latter  is  poured 
over  it  in  a  molten  state  until  it  is  covered.  The  plate  is  washed, 
dried,  and  polished,  the  back  roughly  planed  to  a  surface  parallel 
to  the  front,  the  edges  squared,  and  all  imperfections  made  good. 
The  thickness  of  a  plate  is  usuallya  pica  or  ^th  inch.  It  is  mounted 
as.an  ordinary  stereotype  plate.  Within  the  last  few  yeare  the  pro- 
cess has  been  greatly  facilitated  by  the  emplojTnent  of  specially 
contrived  apparatus,  and  illustrations  can  be  producad  in  three 
hours  from  the  time  the  mould  is  made.  Curved  electros  are  pro- 
duced, as  well  as  curved  stereos,  for  use  in  rotary  printing.  Facin(»  • 
with  nickel  by  the  electroplating  process  is  now  largely  adoptea 
for  hardening  stereotypes  and  electrotypes  and  rendering  them  more  • 
durable.  This  process  also  prevents  the  deterioration  of  such  plates 
by  the  action  of  the  acids  or  other  chemical  reagents  often  present 
in  printing  inks,  such  as  cyanide  of  potassium  in  red  ink  ana  nitric 
acid  in  some  blue  inks  ^ 

Folytyping  is  a  method  invented  in  France  about  the  end  of  the  Poly- 
18th  century,  but  now  seldom  practised  in  the  United  Kingdom,  typing- 
The  apparatus  somewhat  resembles  a  pile-driver.  It  has  two  upright 
guides  about  six  feet  high,  and  a  pulley  at  the  top,  which  elevates 
by  means  of  a  rope  a  heavy  plate,  on  which  the  matrix  is  placed  in 
an  inverted  position.  At  the  foot  of  the  machine  there  is  a  sub- 
stantial iron  bed,  upon  which  the  operator  places  some  molten 
metal  He  then  polls  the  rope  until  the  matrix,  with  its  weight 
attached,  is  elevated  to  the  top  of  the  machine,  when  it  is  suddenly 
allowed  to  fall.  The  result  is  similar  to  that  made  on  a  medal  by 
means  of  a  die, — a  perfect  reproduction  of  the  matrix  in  relief, 
which  is  mounted  on  a  metal  stand  to  type  height.  The  results 
are  excellent,  as  the  plastic  metal  is  forced  into  the  finest  lines  of 
the  matrix.  Duplicates  of  a  block  can  be  thus  produced  more 
rapidly  than  by  the  ordinary  stereotype  process  ;  and  another  ad- 
vantage is  that  the  intaglio  parts  are  much  deeper, — a  point  of 
some  importance  in  printing.  The  matrix  may  be  made  from  the 
block  by  the  electrotyping  process. 


;o4 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[pKACTICAt. 


Substitutes/or  fFood-Eiigraving. 
Process        FontKrly  the  only  available  method  of  obtaining  illustrations 
ilocks.      which  could  be  printed  on  the  letterpress  in  conjunction-with  type 
was  that  of  wood -engraving.     At  the  present  time  a  number  of 
comparatively  new  processes  are  in  operation,  in  which  the  engraT 
ing  as  done  almost  automatically  by  the  adoption  of  chemical  pro- 
cesses and  the  well-known  principles  of  photography.     Engravings 
of  this  kind  are  called  iii  the  trade  process  blocks,  or  sometimes  ziiwo- 
lypcs,  owing  to  the  metal  of  which  they  are  formoi     There  is  space 
iiere  for  only  the  barest  possible  account  nf  the  processes, 
rypo-    1      In  the  first  method,  which  is  sometimes  Called  ty-po^ctchiiig,  the 
tcliinj     ilrawing  is  made  with  ordinary  lithographic  ink  on  stone,  or  on 
paper  and  transferred  to  stone.     It  is  then  re-transferred  to  a  plate 
of  polished  zinc  by  the  ordinary  lithographic  process.     Ziiio  is 
employed  on  account  of  its  cheapness  and  its  ready  solubility  in 
the  acids  used  for  etching.     It  has  properties  similar  to  those  of 
the  lithographic  stone  in  taking  up  the  ink  and  the  water.     The 
transfer  is  made  to  adhere  to  the  plate  by  being  passed  through  a 
lithographic  press  ;  the  paper  is  then  sti-ippcd  on;  and  the  whole 
of  the  ink  is  left  on  the  plate,  which  is  inked  up  as  a  Htho  stone 
with  a  view  to  render  the  lines  as  solid  and  strong  as  possible  to 
resist  the  acid.     The  covering  of  the  lines  is  strengthened  by  dust- 
ing powdered  asphalt  or  some  other  suitable  material  over  the  plate, 
t      which  is  warmed  just  sufficiently  to  incorporate  the  asphalt  with 
the  ink.     The  plate  is  next  placed  in  a  bath  of  acid  (its  back  and 
■other  parts,  where  the  acid  is  not  required  to  act,  being  protected 
by  varnish),  in  order  that  the  unprotected  parts,  or  those  which 
arc  to  form  the  whites  of  the  finished  picture,  may  be  dissolved 
away.     In  order  to  prevent  the  acid  eating  not  only  straight  down 
into  the  plate  but  on  the  sides  of  the  furrows  it  forms,  and  thus 
undermining  them,  an  ingenious  device  has  been  adopted.    As  soon 
as  the  etching  has  proceeded  to  a  very  slight  depth,  the  plate  is 
removed  from  the  bath,  washed,  and  heated.     The  ink  and  other 
protective  medium  are  thus  melted  and  run  down  the  sides  of  the 
little  furrows  formed  by  the  acids  and  thereby  protect  them  from 
further  action.     Inking  and  dusting  with  resinous  material  are 
repeated,  and  etching  resumed,  until  the  depressions  of  the  block 
have  been  brought  to  the  proper  depth.     The  etching  is  carried  on 
in  troughs  to  which  a  rocking  motion  is  given,  so  that  the  acid 
flows  to  and  fro  in  waves  over  the  surface,  and  little  bubbles  of  gas, 
&c.,  are  carried  away.    Where  large  spaces  of  white  occur,  the  metal 
is  cleared  away  by  a  drill ;  after  the  block  has  been  mounted  type 
high,  it  is  ready  for  the  printer. 
ToEO    ' ,      This  process  is  only  available  for  the  productioaof  "  line  blocks," 
block.:.  '  ;■  e. ,  those  in  which  the  original  drawing  is  done  in  lines  or  dots, 
■    '.'5  for  an  ordinary  woodcut.     The  highest  achievement  of  process 
I  locks .  has  been   the  production  of  tcyiie  blocks,  which  may  be 
made  direct  from  oU-paintiugs,  water-colours,  photographs,  draw- 
ings in  chalk,  wash,  pencil,  &c.,  or  indeed  from  anytning  from 
which  a  photographic  negative  -can  be  taken.     The  exact  nature 
of  the  processes  is  a  trade  secret,  but  the  rationale  is  given  in 
Mr  Truman  Wood's  Modern  Methods  of  Ilhistraling  £ooks  (honion, 
1887),  to  which  wo  are  indebted  for  the  following  details.     The 
problem  is  to  translate,  as  it  were,  the  light  and  shade  of  the 
negative  into  solid  outlines  of  black  and  white.     The  shades  must 
be  lines  of  various  breadths  or  of  various  distances  apart,  or  spots 
or  grain  of  various  degrees  of  fineness  or  closeness.     In  a  surface- 
block  any  part  that  touches  the  paper  prints,  and  any  part  that 
does  not  touch,  the  paper  does  not  leave  any  mark  at  all._   The 
photographic  image  is  continuous ;  there  are  no  outlines  in  it,  the 
picture  being  formed  of  graduated  tints  or  shades,  ranging  from 
the  white  of  the  paper  up  to  the  darkest  colour  that  the  process 
employed  can  give.    To  make  a  block  for  letter-press  printing  the 
graduated  tints  of  the  photograph  have  to  be  broken  up  into  stipple 
T  grain,  and  it  must  be  a  stipple  closest  in  the  .shadows,  gradually 
occoraing  more  open  through  the  range  of  the  intermediate  tones, 
and  vanishing  altogether  in  the  highest  lights.     To  describe  the 
ingenious  methods  adopted  to  secure  this  end  would  involve  an 
account  of  several  photographic  operations  which  would  be  out  of 
place  here.     In  one  process,  perfected  by  Meisenbach  of  Munich  in 
1882,  grained  negatives  are  produced  by  placing  a  transparent 
screen,  on  which  a  suitable  grain  is  imprinted,  in  contact  with  the 
negative  or  the  positive  to  be  copied,  and  then  photographing  the 
two  together.     The  negative  is  transferred  to  a  plate  of  suitable 
material,  which  is  graved  or  etched  in  the  usual  manner,  to  form 
a  typogiapTiic  block.     Another  device  is  to  print  from  the  original 
negative  upon  a  piece  of  silk,  the  threads  of  which  break  up  the 
picture  into  a  regular  grain.     The  positive  on   the  silk  is  then 
pholoTraphed  and  a  printing  block  made.     These  blocks  require 
from  their  very  low  relief  delicate  and  careful  printing,  but  are 
made  to  give  excellent  results. 
Vypo-   *■      A  process  of  typographic  etching  has  been  invented  by  Messrs 
graphic     Dawson,  in  which  the  design  is  drawn  with  an  etching  needle  on  a 
etchiog.    brass  plate  covered  with  a  wax  etching  ground,  in  the  same  manner 
as  for  an  ordinary  etching.   The  metal  is  therefor*  bared  at  the  lines, 
which  are  separated  by  ridges  and  spaces  of  wax.     These  spaces  are 


strengthened  by  the  addition  of  melted  wax,  which  nms  no  to 
the  edges  of  the  lines,  but  docs  not  run  over  on  to  them  as  might 
be  expected,  filling  tliem  up.  Tlie  supply  is  continued  until  the 
spaces  between  the  lines,  roiirescnting  the  whites  of  the  finished 
print,  have  been  raised  to  a  height  sulficieiit  to  give  the  necessary 
relief,  when  an  electrotyiie  is  taken.  This  electrotype  forms  ttc 
fuinting  surface. 

Shanks's  process  is  a  device  for  producing  pictures  simply  by  the  Shanks'* 
use  of  mechanism,  and  is  an  application  of  the  eidograph.  The  procett. 
plate  to  be  drawn  upon  is  moved  under  the  drawing  implement, 
which  is  a  rapidly  revolving  cutter,  and  the  plate  on  its  carrier  ia 
mounted  on  the  end  of  a  series  of  levers  in  the  same  Avay  as  the 
slide  rest  of  a  latne,  so  as  to  h.ive  motion  in  two  directions,  one  at 
right  angles  to  tho  other,  and  consequently  by  a  combination  of 
the  two  to  have  motion  in  any  direction  in  the  same  plane.  If  a 
plate  of  a  suitable  substance,  such  as  hardened  plaster  of  Paris,  bo 
mounted  on  the  carrier,  and  the  bracing  point  at  the  other  end  of 
the  lever  be  moved  over  the  lines  of  a  drawing,  the  cutter  will 
plough  a  little  furrow,  which  will  follow  these  lines.  When  the 
plate  is  finished,  a  stereotype  is  taken  from  it  and  forms  the  print- 
ing surface.  The  lines  of  the  casts  are  remarkably  strong  owing 
to  the  conformation  of  the  furrow  of  the  mould,  and  they  can  be 
printed  on  fast  rotary  machines,  Tho  weather  charts  given  in 
some  newspapers  are  produced  by  this  process.  A  block  « ith  tho 
recurring  outlines  being  made,  plates  are  moulded  from  it,  so  that 
the  details  alone  have  to  be  separately  cut  upon  future  plates.  Mr 
Shanks's  method  is  remarkably  simple  and  expeditious,  and  the 
results  are  economical  and  trustworthy. 

Press  Work  aiwl  Presses. 
The  characteristic  of  printing,  as  already  pointed  out,  is  that 
the  pigment — the  ink — with  which  the  printing  surface  of  the  type        . 
is  coated  is  transferred  to  the  paper  or  other  material  by  pressure. 
The  manner  in  which  this  pressure  is  exerted  gives  rise  to  two 
classes  of  machinery, — those  in  wliich  the  platen  and  the  cylinder 
respectively  are  employed.     After  the  paper  is  placed  on  the  type, , 
ill  the  one  case  a  flat  plate  of  iron  moves  parallel  to  the  forme  and 
comes  in  contact  with  it,  causing  the  impression  on  the  paper, 
while  in  the  other  case  a  cylinder  revolves  over  the  surface,  wnicU 
travels  in  gearing  with  the  cylinder. 

Space  does  not  permit  of  any  sketch,  however  slight,  of  the 
origin  and  progress  of  type-printing  machinery.  We  can  only 
refer  to  what  may  be  regarded  as  representative  applian'ces  in 
present  use.  In  America  all  kinds  of  apparatus  for  printing  are 
called  "presses";  in  England,  however,  an  appliance  of  a  more 
automatic  character  than  the  hand-press  is  usually  called  "a 
machine."  As  the  hand -press  is  now  almost  obsolete,  this  dis- 
tinction will  probably  be  abandoned,  and  the  shorter  and  more 
expressive  word  "press^'  be*  applied  to  all.  Venturing  to  adopt 
this  suggestion,  we  may  say  that  of  platen  presses  there  are  the 
hand-press,  the  treadle  platen  press,  and  the  steam  or  other  power- 
driven  press. 

Fig.  10  is  a  view  of  the  Albion  press.  It  is  wholly  of  iron  and  Hand- 
steel.  Although  this  press  is  nearly  superseded,  it  is  desirable  ] 
to  point  out  its  component  parts,  as  they  indicate  the  general 
principles  on  which  all  typographic  machinery  is  based.  "The  flat 
plane  on  which  the  type  is  laid  is  called  the  bed  of  the  press  ; 
the  other  fiat  plane  which  moves  vertically  and  presses  the  paper 
on  the  type  is  the  platen.  These  are  the  two  essential  parts  of 
the  press.  The  platen  is  perfectly  smooth  and  level  on  its  under 
surface,  in  order  to  give  the  whole  of  the  type  forme  an  equable 
pressure.  It  is  mounted  in  a  strong  iron  frame,  with  a  cross- 
piece  or  head.  The  platen  is  propelled  by  a  piston,  which  moves 
up  and  down.  The  power  is  gained  by  bringing  an  inclined  bar 
of  steel  perpendicular  to  the  direct  line  of  pressure,  and  in  doin» 
so  the  piston  is  forced  down.  This  steel  bar  is  the  chill,  shaped 
like  an  elbow.  At  one  end  is  a  bar  or  handle  which,  on  being 
pulled  towards  the  operator,  straightens  the  chill  or  brings  it  into 
the  vertical  position.  At  the  sides  are  guide-plates  fixed  into  the 
frame,  to  preserve  the  parallelism  of  the  platen,  for  the  slightest 
vibration  or  lateral  movement  would  prevent  a  clear  sharp  im- 
pression being  t.aken.  There  arc  appropriate  appliances,  such  as  a 
hclic.ll  spring,  fixed  on  the  head  of  the  press,  whereby  the  platen 
raises  itself  when  the  pressure  is  not  required.  In  order  to  bring 
the  forme  readily  under  the  platen,  and  to  withdraw  it  so  that  it 
may  be  inked  and  the  sheet  to  be  printed  placed  in  position,  the 
table  is  mounted  on  a  carriage,  that  runs  on  two  rails  by  turning 
a  handle  connected  with  two  endless  bands.  The  paper  is  fixed  to 
certain  marks  on  the  tympan,  a  kind  of  mctil  frame  hinged  on  to 
the  carriage,  when  it  is  in  a  sloping  position.  This  ensures  tho 
paper  being  printed  in  the  exact  place  reijuired.  The  tympan, 
over  which  calico  or  parchment  is  stretched,  is  double,  and  contains 
within  it  e  pad  of  paper  or  a  piece  of  blanket,  to  moderate  the  force 
of  the  impression  of  the  platen.  To  it  is  hinged  another  metal  j 
frame,  the  frisket,  which  is  covered  with  paper,  cut  to  correspond 
with  the  shape  of  the  type  forme  on  the  press.  The  ink  is  applied 
with  a  cylinder  or  roller,  which  revolves  in  an  iron  frame ,  and  is  , 


PRACTICAL.] 


TYPOGRAPHY 


705 


covered  abont  an  inch  thick  with  a  composition  of  glue  and  treacle 
«r  t>f  glycerin  or  otiier  substance.  The  ink  is  spread  out  with  a 
palette  knife  or  similar  appliauce  ou  a  table 
adjoiuiug  the  press,  and  by  repeatedly  re- 
volving the  roller  over  it,  it  becomes  coated 
with  an  extremely  tliin  film  of  ink. 
The  roller  is  then  moved  over  the 
surface  of  the  forme  on  the  press, 
until  sufficient  ink  has  been  trans- 
ferred to  it.  This  is  called  rolluu;, 
and  is  a  very  important  part  of 
■  press-work,  for  if  inefficiently  per- 
lormed  there  will  be 
too  much  ink  on 


Treadl. 

jiUteu 

press- 


— AlUiou  pr 


,  the     impres. 

I     sion,    or    even 

blotches,  which 

_^  aie  called  monks,  or  the 

■ ■    print  will  be  too  pale  or 

^^'  grey  in  places,  such  im- 
^^    perfections  being  caUed 
-~- friars.      The    sheet    of 
'^_  paper    to  be  printed   is 
y-_  next  laid   on   the  tym- 
pan,  to  pins  serving  as 
,(■11  J  J        -        ,  guides.      The   frisket   is 

folded  down  on  the  tyinpan,  which  is  in  turn  folded  down  on  the 
forme  with  the  right  hand.ivhile  with  the  left  the  handle  is  turned 
and  the  pr^  carnage  brought  under  the  platen.  The  bar  is  nulled 
by  the  right  hand,  the  handle  turned  the  reverse  way  with  the 
left  hand,  the  carriage  brought  out  again,  the  tvmpan  raised,  the 
fnsket  opened,  and  the  pnnted  sheet  removed,  the  tympan  beius 
ready  to  receive  another  white  sheet.  The  frisket  serves,  amon^ 
other  thinp  to  keep  the  edges  and  parts  of  the  sheet  not  required 
to  be  pnnted  from  being  discoloured  by  contact  with  the  ink  or 
the  sides  of  the  fonne,  and  to  aid  in  steadying  the  sheet  when  the 
tympan  is  depressed  and  in  the  removal  of  the  sheet  when  it  is 
raised.  Such  is  a  bare  outline  of  the  method  of  printing  at  a 
hand-press, -one  necessarily  imperfect  from  a  technical  point  of 
■view,  but  sufficient  to  indicate  the  essentials  of  the  operatioa 

Another  press  which  has  been  much  used  is  the  Columbian  —a 
name  given  to  it  by  its  inventor,  Clvmer,  an  American  The 
power  IS  gained  by  an  ingenious  combination  of  levers.  Two  of 
1  Wr"  ^^""^^'^  ^y  "■-  "t^T''^  the  bar  handle,  which  is  in  itself 
a  lever  The  platen  is  attached  to  the  head  by  a  stron"  iron  bolt 
the  descent  being  made  steady  and  regular  by  vertical  euides  It 
IS  counterbalanced  by  a  po«-erful  lever  or  be^m,  having  an  adius  - 
able  weight  shaped  like  an  eagle,  which  raises  it  aufomatVcilTy 
In  the  bar  handle  is  a  screw  stop  by  means  of  which  the  length  of 

toly'reguIaLl"  -"""^  '"''  "'  ^'^''^''-  "'  *''^  ""«"  I«^ 

fn'^rin'f*!,''"''^  ^"S'^^'T  ""^^  ">"'  *"  ^^  g""''  "-rough  in  order 
to  pnntfine  side  of  a  sheet  of  paper  at  a  hanJ-press  :-(l)  i„Ii,r,e 
the  roller,  (2)  mking  the  fonne,  (3)  laying  the  sheet  on  the  ympa^^ 
nlLen  rfif  t  r°  ^,^'  --'"P'";  (5)  running  in  the  forme  underT 
imL.%iV.u\T,^  the  impression  by  depressing  the  platen,  and  then 
immeJiately  afterwards  allowing  if  to  raise  itself  by  means  of  the 
counterpoise  or  spnng,  (7)  running  out  the  forme,  (8)  liftin»  the 
tympan  and  fnsket.  and  (9)  removing  the  sheet  The  oMect  of 
successive  improvers  of  tlie  printing  press  has  been  to  render  the 
apparatus  more  automatic,  or  to  substitute  for  it  a  "machine" 
that  will  reduce  these  nine  operations  to  the  minimum  In  modern 
machines  this  has  been  effected  to  the  extent  of  rendering  necesslr^ 
only  three  of  them-(l)  laying  on  or  "feeding"  thefheets^? 
applying  the  motive  power,  (3)  taking  off  or  delivering  the  sheets  ■ 

ZLT"^  ^''^'"'^^  ^?\f'''^  ^nd  deliver  theinfelves  auto: 
TOatically.  Nearly  all  cylinder  machines  have  a  delivery  apparatus 
«nd  quite  recently  an  appliance  for  the  automatic  feedUig  to  them 
of  single  sheets  of  paper  has  been  invented 

^„^KI. /f  f,P^^'  ^•*'"  f'^*""  P'''^^  "■«  "<>'''=«  first  that  which  is 
^tf  Aw'°?  "^"o™"  ^y  »  "'^""g  «''^f^ '"  "Iieel  It  should  be 
<hf  JI"^,  ""^^  t^e  adoption  of  the  rotatory  principle  was  e^en  Va!  to 
the  acceleration  of  speed.  This  was  reco^ized  fey  the  proiector  of 
the  machine'  press,  William  Nicholson,  and  by  FrederfckToeni" 
who  first  brought  the  invention  into  use  and  constructed  a  p7act"cri 
-Wiii''?i  "S?',*"*^""^  °'  ■*'  Invention  is  coatiioed  in  a  serifs  of  artirV=  hv  m, 

*■  FroK  J/teanijw  (PirinsSo)  Schmidt,  F.  K<xnig  e(  VJr.vcnIion  dr 


press.  The  essential  arrangements  of  every  machine  are  four,  their 
respective  objects  being  (1)  to  feed  in  the  paper,  (2)  to  ink  tile 
forme,  (3)  to  pnnt  the  sheet,  and  (4)  to  deliver  or  take  it  off. 

I  he  treadle  platen  press  is  the  simplest  of  machine  presses  capable 
of  being  worked  by  a  wheel.  M'hcn  other  motive  power  iinot 
available  it  is  dnven  by  a  treadle,  like  that  of  a  lathe.  The  t^■pe 
forme  IS  usually  secured  by  clamps  on  an  almost  vertical  bed  (fig  11) 
and  the  platen  rocks  backwards  and  forwards,  being  thus  brousht 

m  contact  with  the  type  —     ^ 

on  the  bed.     .Just  before 

the  impression  is  taken, 

the  two  surfaces  are  mo 

mentarily  parallel      The 

inking  is  effected  by  small 

composition    rollers,   ad 

justed  in  a  roller  carrier 

swinging  on  a  pivot.   The 

rollers  receive  ink   from 

a  "fountain"  or  duct  of 

ink   at    the    top    of    the 

machine,  below-  which  is 

an  arrangement,  such  as     _  _^^,^_ 

a  revolving  disk,  for  dis- ,' "s^Ss^-iii 

tributing  the  ink       The  ^^^^^SSl^tI^  _    

constant   motion   of  the  H'=  ii -.ifiiierv.i  press 

rollers  and  of  the  revolving  ink  disk  is  equivalent  to  the  manual 
movements  of  tlie  operator  who  "rolls "at  the  hand-press.     The      • 
rollers  are  earned   by  self-acting  appliances  over  the  face  of  the 
fonne,  and  return  to  the  ink  table  to  be  replenished  with  ink, 
after  which  the  impression  takes  place.     The  sheet  to  be  printed 
IS  placed   in   proper   position   on    the   platen,  which    is  covered 
with  paper  or  parchment,  and  is  secured  there  during  the  move 
ment   of   the   platen   by  movable   fingers    called   grippcrs.     The 
platen  on  advancing  brings  the  paper  in  contact  with  the  type 
lorme,    after    the   printing    it    returns    to    its   original    position 
when  the  sheet  is  removed  and  another  sheet  adjusted  ready  for 
being    pnnted        The   treadle   platen    press   is   only  adapted    for 
«-ork  on  paper  of  small  size,  up  to  half  sheet  demy,  but  within 
this  limit  It  IS  greatly  superior  to  the  hand-press,     if  sufficiently 
strong  and  well  built,  it  gives  a  far  more  powerful  impression   and 
it  occupies  about  a  sixth  of  the  space.     Its  great  merit,  however 
is  Its  supenor  speed      The  hand-piess,  when  worked   by  two  men 
one  rolling  the  types  and  one  pulling  the  handle  of  the  press! 
produces  only  about  250  impressions  per  hour      The  treadle  press 
13  worked  by  a  boy,  who  has  only  to  depress  the  treadle  with  his 
foot,  and  lay  on  and  take  off  the  sheets  with  his  hands,  and  he 
can  work  at  the  late  of  more  than  1000  per  hour.     The  treadle 
press  13  also  superior  to  the  hand-press  in  the  uniformity  of  its 
results,  since  the  automatic  inking  ensures  a  greater  regularity  in 
the  colour  of  the  impressions  than  m  ith  the  old  hand-inking  process. 

The  ordinary  or  "double"  platen  press  was,  in  principle,  very  DonbU 
similar  to  the  hand-press.  It  was  aboutlS  feet  long.  The  platen  platco 
m  the  centre,  was  massive,  as  the  machine  printed  sheets  as  large  press 
as  double  demy,  and  it  had  a  perpendicular  motion,  being  guided 
in  grooves  and  worked  by  a  connecting  rod  fixed  to  a  cross  beam 
and  crank,  which  acquired  its  motion  from  the  main  shaft  In  other 
respects  the  machine  differed  from  the  hand-press  in  having  two 
type  beds  or  coffins  an.l  two  inking  tables  arranged  at  the  ends  of 
the  carnage,  winch  travelled  backw.iids  and  forwards,  being  worked 
by  a  drum  underneath  The  paper  to  be  pnnted  was  laid  to  marks 
on  the  frisket,  and  this  was  hinged  on  the  tympan,  which  in  turn 
was  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  coffin  by  hinges'or  joints  The  frisket 
and  tympan  were  opened  by  ninning  up  bars  at  suitable  positions. 
After  a  newly  printed  sheet  was  removed,  another  was  placed  on 
the  frisket,  which  as  the  carriage  moved  ran  down  the  bars  and 
closed  on  the  slieet.  wliich  then  received  its  impression  This 
arrangement  was  dangerous  to  the  boys  who  had  to  lay  on  the 
sheets. 

Formerly  it  was  thought  that  the  very  finest  printing  could  not 
be  done  by  a  cylinder  impressing  a  forme  in  the  progress  of  its  re- 
ciprocating motion,  for  that  was  liable  to  slur  or  blur  the  im- 
pre-ssion.  Hence  platen  presses  were  employed  for  the  best  work 
or  recent  years  engineers  have  brought  the  cylindei  press  to  such 
perfection  that  there  is  not  the  slightest  danger,  under  the  super- 
intendence of  a  capable  man,  of  any  slur  Working  quite  as  well 
as  the  platen  press,  the  cylinder  press  is  enormously  qui,:kei  and 
more  productive  ;  it  requires  less  driving  power  ;  and  much  better 
inking  IS  obtained,  which  is  all-import.int  for  fine  woodcut  print- 
ing. Accordingly,  for  even  the  best  illustrated  book-work,  tho 
platen  power-press  is  now  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the 
cylinder.  ^ 

Cylinder  machines  are  of  two  kinds,— (1)  presses  in  which  the 
type  IS  on  a  flat  plane  and  (2)  those  in  which  the  type,  or  mors 
correctly  the  impressing  surface,  is  cylindrical.  Tlie  fir^t  are  called 
ajlmdcr  presses,  the  second— a  development  of  the  first— the  rotaru 
web  .presses  ' 

The  simplest   kind  of  mechanical   press  is  called,  the  single- 

\XIII.  —  8g 


706 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[PBACTICAL, 


Sincle-  cylinder  or  one-sided  machine,  which  has  been  recently  hroiight 
cylindei  to  the  highest  state  of  perfection  by  Mr  Samuel  Bremncr.  It  is 
DMsa.       eenerally   used  for  commercial  and  fine  book -work  on  one  side 

of  the  paper.     There  are  dilferent  varieties  of  cylinder  machines, 

distinguished  by  trade-marks  or  the  names  of  their  makers  ;   but 

the  general  principles,  apart  from  details,  are  practically  identical. 

There  is  a  strong  cast-iron  frame,  with  bearings  to  carry  the  cylinder, 

which  runs  across  the  machine  transversely,  nearly  in  the  centre 

The  cylinder  revolves  by  • '' 

gearing   connecled   with  a 

main    shaft,    which    also 

works    the    other   moving 

parts    This  shaft  is  turned 

by  a  wheel  for  hand 

or  steam  power. 

The  table 

for 


upon  the  tympan  and  folding  it  down  on  the  fonpa  are  supersede-X 
by  the  presentation  of  the  paper  to  the  grippers  ;  and  the  taking-otT 
of  the  sheet  after  raising  the  tympan  is  superseded  by  removing  it 
when  released  by  the  grippers  and  laying  it  on  the  adjacent  table, — 
both  immeasurably  easier  operations  and  done  much  more  rapidly. 
Indeed  both  laying-on  and  takingoff  may  be  done  automatically, 
as  is  explained  below.  The  result  is  that,  while  two  men  are  rc- 
Quired  to  print  a  sheet  of  book- work  on  one  side  of  the  paper  at 
'  '  the  speed  of  2M 

an  hour  at  the 
hand-press,  ma- 
chines of  this 
class  worked  by- 
one  operator 
print about  1200 
per  hour.    Even 


Fig  12  -Extra  colour  BreuiDer  marlniie.  with  sheet-flyers. 


carrMDg  the  type  is  also  provided  with  a  flat  inking  board  of  «oo.l 
or  iron,  used  for  distributing  the  ink.  It  travels  backwards  and 
forwards,  that  is,  with  a  reciprocating  motion.  At  one  end  ol  the 
machine  is  thefecding-'ioard,  on  which  the  pile  of  paper  to  be  printed 
is  placed.  The  layer-on  places  each  sheet  against  metal  marks,  con 
sisting  of  rectangular  pii-ces  of  steel  or  brass  mounted  on  a  bar  under 
neath  which  rises  and  falls  according  as  the  sheet  is  being  laid  to 
and  taken  away  from  them.  When  placed  against  these  marks,  en_ 
suring  correct  "  lay,"  the  sheet  is  seized  by  grippers  or  light  meUl 
claws  fixed  on  a  bar  inside  the  cylinder  These  clutch  the  sheet 
and  carry  it  forward  round  the  cylinder,  which  m  its  revolution 
brings  it  forcibly  in  contact  with  the  type  forme  moving  forward 
underneath,  when  the  impression  is  effected  Immediately  after 
the  grippers  release  their  hold,  and  the  sheets  are  remofed  singly 
by  an  attendant  called  a  taker  of,  or  by  a  mechanical  automatic 
arrangement  called  a  pjer,  and  deposited  on  the  taking  olT  board 
At  the  end  of  the  machine  farthest  from  the  laymgon  boac*  is 
fixed  a  trough,  which  conUins  the  ink  ;  it  is  fitted  with  the  dMl 
Tuller  of  cast-iron,  which  revolves  by  means  of  a  band  ot  ratchet- 
wheel  and  pawl  A  flat  bar  or  knife  with  a  lliiu  edge  is  set  up 
against  the  metal  roller  lengthways  by  adjusting  screws,  whuh 
regulate  the  passage  of  the  ink,  and  permit  a  thiu  film  to  pass  the 
knife  A  composition  roller,  called  a  vibrator,  is  fixed  underneath, 
which  takes  off  the  ink  that  has  already  been  deposited  on  the  duct 
roller  and  leaves  a  ridge  or  strip  of  it  on  the  inking  slab.  As  the 
carriage  retuins,  this  strip  of  ink  is  distributed  on  the  inking 
table  bv  rollers  placed  diagonally  across  the  machine.  The  diagonal 
position  gives  them  a  waving  motion  ;  hence  they  are  called  wavers 
The  inking  of  the  for")e  is  done  by  another  set  of  rollers  called 
inkcia,  placed  near  the  impression  cylinder  The  inking  rollers 
receive  their  ink  from  whnt  is  distributed  on  (h-)  table  and  coat  the 
type  while  it  is  passing  underneath  fhem. 

Thus  the  nine  operations  of  the  hand  press  requisite  to  print  one 
impression  are  greatly  reduced  The  bed  carrying  the  type  to  and 
fio  from  the  point  of  impression  moves  mechanically,  superseding 
•vrin<ler  the  running  in  and  out  of  the  carriage  by  (he  ronnce  and  handle 
mnchiue  of  the  hand-press.  The  inking  Uble,  although  independent,  forms 
part  of  the  type  table,  and  some  of  the  roUers  aistribute  and  others 
ink,  this  again  being  done  mechanically  and  without  a  second 
operator  Tlie  platen  and  the  tympan,  as  well  as  the  levers  by 
which  the  impression  is  given,  are  in  effect  combined  in  the 
cylinder,  which  rotates  by  gearing,  the  pressure  being  applied 
during  the  motion  of  the  table  itself     The  laying-on  of  thS  sheet 


convey  a  com- 
plete     idea     of 
the  enonnously  in- 
creased productive- 
ness of  the  cylin- 
der machine 
,  ,;  ,    over  that  of 
Iff^'      the  press.  By 
'^i.J  ^   the   latter,   the 
,/  j,^ '     largest  sheet  pr»c- 
jfly    tically  that  could  b» 
''r  /     printed     was      double 
demy,  23  x  35  inches,  the 
'     superficies  of  which  is  805 
square  inches,  single  cylinder 
njacbines  are  now  made  to  print 
eight    sheet    double     crown,    the 
^■i^     superficies  of  which  is  4S00  square 
inches.     These  sheets  being  afterwards 
cut  up  into  double  crown  sheets,  the  pro- 


Advaii 
Inpes  of 
iingli 


5ver 

haud. 

presses 


ductiveness  of  the  machine  to  the  press  would  be,  per  hour,  about 
6000  to  250. 

As  already  mentioned,  a  self-acting  feeding  apparatus  has  been 
invented  for  supplying  single  sheets  to  cylinder  machines.  The 
pile  of  paper  is  laid  on  a  feeding  board  or  table,  between  gauges. 
A  pneumatic  tube  takes  up  one  sheet  at  a  time  ;  it  is  then  run 
down  tapes  to  a  point  at  which  india-rubber  fingers  bring  it  to  the 
side  lay  of  the  machine,  and  it  is  printed  with  perfect  accuracy  of 
register.  Once  started,  the  machine  works  automatically,  and  the 
services  of  both  layer-on  and  taker-ofi  are  dispensed  with. 

We  may  now  describe  that  class  of  machines  by  which  the  paper  perfect- 
is  printed  on  both  sides,  or  perfected,  during  one  passage  through  mg 
the  machine.  The  Applegath  and  Cowper  or  ordinary  machine  presses. 
has  two  impression  cylinders,  having  a  continuous  rotary  motion 
towards  each  other.  The  frame  is  necessarily  long,  usually  about 
15  feet,  and  the  width  of  the  machine  about  5  feet,  these  dimension* 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  sheet  to  be  printed.  The  table  oi 
carriage  is  double,  containing  two  beds  fo:  the  two  formes  of  type, 
to  impress  the  two  sides  of  the  paper,  and  two  distributing  tables 
for  the  ink.  At  each  end  is  a  complete  roller  apparatus,  consisting 
of  duct,  duct  roller,  vibrator,  and  wavers.  Close  to  the  large 
cylinders  on  each  side  are  the  inkiug  rollers  The  table  has  a 
reciprocating  motion,  as  in  a  single-cylinder  machine.  The  dis. 
tinctive  feature  is  the  ingenious  manner  in  which  the  sheets  are 
printed  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other  This  is  effected 
by  carrying  them  over  cylinders  and  drums  by  means  of  tapes. 
The  pile  of  sheets  stands  on  a  high  table  placed  at  one  end. 
The  sheet  is  fed  into  the  apparatus  and  led  round  an  entry  drum  ; 
thence  it  is  carried  round  the  large  right-hand  impressing  cylinder, 
and  underneath  this,  on  the  table,  which  is  moving  at  the  samo 
speed  as  the  cylinder,  is  the  inner  forme  properly  inked.  Ihe 
paper  thus  receives  an  im[.ression  on  one  side.  It  is  next  led  up 
to  the  right  hand  drum,  which  it  passes  over,  the  printed  side  of 
the  sheet  being  then  downwards.  Continuing,  it  is  brought  under 
the  second  or  left.hand  drum  and  on  to  the  left-hand  impression 
cylinder,  which  it  passes  with  the  printed  side  stiU  downwards,  or 
next  to  the  cylinder,  exposing  the  other  side  to  the  type  ot  the 
outer  forme  on  the  table  underneath.  The  drums  have  thus  re- 
versed the  position  of  the  paper :  the  side  which  was  outside  when 
passing  the  first  forme  is  inside  when  passing  the  second  forme, 
which  accordingly  prints  the  sheet  on  tlie  opposite  or  blank  side. 
The  sheet  is  finally  run  out  by  the  tapes  and  delivered  in  the  space 
between  the  large  cylinders,  seized  bv  a  taking-off  boy,  anH  deposited 


i 


PRACTICAL.] 


TYPOGRAPHY 


707 


Hour; 
press. 


on  a  table  or  laking-oflT  boanl.  This  press  is  known  as  the  drop- 
bar  pcr/tcting  nxachitu,  owing  to  a  peculiarity  of  the  arrangement 
by  which  the  paper  is  conveyed  into  the  tapes.  In  front  of  the 
feeding  table  is  a  rod  or  bar  of  steel,  along  which  are  fitted  several 
metal  disks  or  bosses  .ibout  half  an  inch  thicker  than  the  bar  itself. 
These  can  be  sliifted,  by  means  of  small  screws,  to  any  position 
along  the  rod  to  suit  the  size  of  the  sheet  to  be  printed. 
To  this  bar  is  fixed  a  short  arm,  with  a  pulley  at 
,  the  enJ,  which  works  round  a  wheel  attached 
-^'  to  a  cam  with  a  dip.  Every  time  the 
-SS--.,  pulley  drops  into  the  dip,  the  bar  de- 

^    scends  upon  the  paper,  which  is  laid 
ir£i=»_J*  marks  at  the  front ;  and  the 
possessing  a  rotary  mo- 
1    from    the    tapes,    runs 
sheet  between  a  roller 


and  a  small  diiim  on  to  the  inner  forme  cylinder,  as  aiready  stated. 
Other  kinds  of  machines  are  distinguished  as  the  web,  having  a 
web  or  a  series  of  broad  tapes  which  lie  on  the  laying-on  board  and 
are  fastened  to  a  small  drum  underneath  it.  The  drum  has  a  series 
of  small  cogs,  and  when  it  is  forced  forward  it  moves  the  web  or 
tapes  in  the  same  direction.  The  sheet,  having  been  laid  to  a 
back  mark  on  the  tapes,  is  propelled  between 
two  revolving  rollers  and  thus  taken  into  tlie 
machine.  ^^P^'^v^\^Bt' 

There  are  several  distinct  types  of  per- 
fecting presses  in  use,  but  we  can  only  ^^assigifi! 
notice  one  or  two.      In  the  Ai.;Ij-       ' ^^iw^^i 


Fic.  13.— MariDOnl  combined  perfecting;  and  duplex  aingle-cylir.der  niaeliiae. 


the  intermediate  drums  for  conveying  the  sheet  from  one  cylinder 
to  the  other.  The  cylinders  are  on  a  level,  but  alternately  rise  and 
■all,  allowing  the  sheet  to  clear  the  forme.  Quite  recently  a  single- 
Jylinder  perfecting  press  has  been  invented.  The  cylinder  is  double 
'.he  usual  size  and  has  two  printing  surfaces  and  a  double  set  of 
jrippers.  Two  sheets  are  printed  at  each  revolution,  the  first  being 
the  white  paper  and  the  second  the  partly  printed  sheet  which  hag 
immediately  preceded  it.  The  sheet  is  fed  in  as  to  an  ordinary  single 
side  press,  printed  on  one  side,  taken  off,  reversed,  again  gripped, 
and  perfected,  when  it  is  automatically  delivered  on  the  table. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that 
250  sheets  or  a  token  per  hour, 
printed  on  one. side  only,  re- 
present the  work  of  two  men  at 
the  hand-press.      Two   youths 
at  a  perfecting  machine  will 
complete    from    1200    to 
2000  copies  per  hour,        ,.-'** 
equal  to  4000  im- 
pressions on 


one  side  only, — an  increase  of  about  sixteenfold.  This,  however, 
does  not  represent  the  whole  of  the  superiority  of  these  machines. 
Sheets  mnch  larger  than  double  crown  (20  x  30  inches)  can  hardly 
be  worked  at  a  pre-ss  ;  the  machine  perfects  a  sheet  nearly  double 
this  size — 50  x  40  or  four  royal,  so  that  the  proportionate  product 
of  the  machine  to  the  press  is  about  as  32  to  1. 

Perfecting  machines  are  not  so  much  used  for  book-work  as 
formerly.  The  single-cylinder  machine  has  been  brought  to  such 
perfection,  and  is  so  superior  in  its  inking  arrangements,  that 
printers  prefer  it  In  America  nearly  all  machines  are  one-sided. 
For  newspapers  of  limited  circulation,  however,  the  perfectin^^ 
machine  is  well  adapted.  Complete  copies  of  a  journal  are  produced 
as  soon  as  the  machine  is  started  ;  extra 
copies  can  be  worked  off  while  news- 
agents are  waiting  ;  and  a  number  of 
sheets  need  not  be  printed  off  on 
one  side  to  be  completed  when 
a  sudden  demand  arises. 

Fi".  13  shows  a  new  form 
of     French     perfecting 
machine  for  printing 
book  -  work,     the 
Marinoni 


Fio.  14. — Walter  machine. 


bined  perfecting  and  duplex  single-cylinder  machine.  The  improve- 
ment in  this  machine  over  the  perfecting  two-cylinder  machine  de- 
scribed above  conisists  in  the  alteration  of  some  mechanical  parts,  so 
that  the  same  machine  can  be  used  for  printing  sheets  either  on 
both  sides  or  on  one  side  only.  It  therefore  serves  the  purpose  of 
two  single  -  cylinder  machines  or  of  one  perfecting  machine,  the 
change  from  one  to  the  other  being  very  simple. 

The  rotary  press  differs  essentially  from  the  cylinder  machine. 
Ill  the  former  the  printing  surface  and  the"  impressing  surface  both 
rotate  continuously,  and  the  paper, — not  cut  up  into  single  sheets, 
but  carried  between  the  two  cylinders  in  a  roll  or  web,  like  a  ribbon, 


— receives  successively  an  impression  on  eactl  side,  after  which  it  is 
cut  up  into  sheets  of  the  proper  size  and  folded  as  it  is  run  out,  the 
sheets  being  deposited  on  a  table  ready  for  removal. 

As  representative  of  this  cl.iss  of  machines  we  may  take  the  W«lt*r 
Walter  press,  whose  mechanical  aminge»ent  is  shown  in  fig.  | 
14.  The  paper  to  be  printed  from,  a  continuous  web  about  SOOO 
yards  in  length,  is  wound  on  a  small  roller  at  P.  It  is  passed  over 
a  tension  roller,  and  then  over  the  damping  cylinders  W,  W, 
and  thoroughly  wetted  on  both  sides.  The  damping  cylinders  are 
hollow,  and  contain  sponses  from  which  the  water  is  distributed  by 
centrifugal  force,  the  outside  of  the  cyliuder  being  covered  with 


708 


TYPOGRAPHY 


[PKACTICAI- 


Printing 
from 
webs  of 
.paper 


SJoUer 

composi 

•tiofk. 


Wankcts      The  paper  next  passes  on  to  the  printing  cylinders 

r   r  on  wl'ich  the  printing  surface-not  composed  of  movab  e 

i'  i  w  of Stereo  tilate»-is  fixed,  and  to  the  impression  cylmders 

T?    The  printing  cyl^ers  contain  each  the  plat,  in  curnlinear 

shape  constFtuting  the  forme  for  one  side  of  the  paper.     The  web 

Is  kd  between  the  printing  and  the  impression  cylinders   as  shown 

liv  the  dotted  line       After  being  printed  on  one  side  by   T,  it 

l^aveh  round  /and  receives  an  impression  on  tlie  other  side  from 

r    thus  being  "  perfected."      It  then   passes  on  to  the  cutting 

cylinders  K  K  one  of  which  has  a  serrated  knife    which  enters 

1^e  caper    and  oa  the  application  of  tension  divides  the  web 

causi^ng^the  peculiar  saw  lite  edge  seen  in  ™pies.of  journals  pnncd 

on  rota°,7  mrchines.     The  paper  is  ""t  earned  .n  "'^  ^P^^j^^'^J 

„„;„»  vri^fTp  the  como  ete  severance  takes  place,      boon  alter  iney 

.LTountr"a  peUuZs  frame,   which,  <leu'vers  them  in  two  piles 

on  to  the  tables  x    x,  whence  they  are  removed.    There  is  an    nK 

supply  troi^ih  a   wMh  is  connected  with  the  distributing  rollers 

bv  a  revofencr  metal   roller  b.     The  distributing  rallers  of  metal 

ar'^^  marked  f.l  h.  i,  and  the  rollers  which  ink  the  forme,  made  of 

•Ihe  ordinary  composition,  are  marked  *,  A".  .„„„„         t 

The  averLe  rate  of  speed  of  the  Walter  press  is  12,000  per  hour, 
•tl-c  sheels  being  printeLn  both  sides.  In  this  apparatus  every- 
h  ng  au  mftfc:  there  is  self-feeding  and  selfdelivery  the  web 
of  pfper  at  one  end  being  transformed  into  properly  pnu-  d  single 
sheeti  at  the  other.  The  machine  requires  only  one  man  to  super- 
tntend  its  general  working,  including  the  replaon"  of  the  web 
when  printed  and  the  removal  of  the  successive  piles  of  sheets, 
rnresp'^t  of  speed,  if  the  nerfecting  machine  is  to  the  hand  pres 
as  3"  to  1  the  rotary  will  be  to  the  hand  press  as  96  to  1  The 
Walter  press  requiring  a  space  of  only  about  U  feet  by  .5,  is  not 
more  remarkable'for  itl  speed  and  economy  than  for  its  s>mpl'c  'y 
.of  construction  and  its  compactness.  And  the  same  remark  app  les 
?o  several  other  machines,  such  as  the  Victory  the  Hoe,  and  th» 
Prestonian,  which  have  since  come  into  use.  Their  g^n"^'  H'^ar 
Ince  is  that  of  a  collection  of  small  cylinders  or  rollers  through 
which  the  paper  seems  to  fly  at  railway  spce-d  >=f">"g  f"^'^ '° '"^ 
<iescendine  torrents  of  sheets  accurately  cut  into  lengths.  W  ithout 
such  machinery  the  prodigious  issues  of  some  of  the  morning 
journals  would  not  be  possible.  One  daily  P^per  averages  a  cir^u 
ation  of  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mUUon  This  enormous  Dumbe 
of  sheets  are  printed  in  about  four  hours,  owing  to  the  type  matter 
being  stereotyped  and  placed  on  several  presses.  „„v„n„ 

Printing  from  webs  of  paper  instead  of  single  sheets  will  probably 
he  adopted  in  the  future  for  all  newsnapers  and  even  bcoVs  of  large 
circulation      Hand-feeding  is  limitei  by  the  ah.hty  of  the  operator 
to  lay  the  sheets  on  the  feeding  board  with  the  ne.  essarj'  accuracy 
One  chief  obstacle  to  the  more  general  adopnon  of  roUrv  pnntiog 
is  the   expense  of  stereotyping   the  tj-pe   formes.      Although    a 
Machine  has  been  constructed  m  whuh    "'"'''"}'  ^P^'^Jn, 
placed  ronnd  the  periphery  of  an  impressing  cylinder    it    ennot 
compete  with  the  Walter  and  other  presses  using  st<.reo  pUtes.     1  he 
problem  of  printing  directly  from  flat  formes  of  ordinary  types,  as 
Ull  as  from  stereotypes,  with  paper  supplied  in  the  mil,  is  one 
■that  may  be  commended  to  engineers.     The  saving  in  sterfcijping 
in  many  cases  would  be  very  considerable     but.  ^"7  "';'''; '^f,,'! 
not  an  object,  the  readiness  and  ease  with  whi.h  the  type  could 
be  manipulated  would  ensure  for  such  an  apparatus  admission  into 
offices  wWre  the  large  rotaries  of  the  present  day  are  inadmissible. 
It  would  also  enable  illustrated  journals  to  be  printed  from  the 
web      The  pictures  introduced  into  some  of  our  daily  journals  are 
vcrv  rude  when  compared  with  those  in  periodicals  printed  on  Bat- 
hed machines      This  is  owing  partly  to  the  distortion  that  arises 
when  the  cast  from  a  flat  block  is  accommodated  to  a  curved  sur 
face,  partly  to  the  fact  that  stereotyping  docs  not  give  the  fine  and 
delicate  reproduction  that  elcctrotyping  supplies,  and  partly  to  the 
imperfect  inking  powers  of  the  machines.     Quite  recently  a  plan 
has  been   patented   whereby  curved  electrotypes  of  pictures  can 
be  fastened  to  blank  or  depressed  portions  of  an  ordinary  curved 
stereo  plate  ,  but  the  method  is  not  always  practicable.      With  a 
flat-bed  machine  the  forme  to  be  printed  from  might  be  ol  a  com- 
posite kind.-partly  movable  types,  partly  stereotype,  nnd  partly 
electrotype.     One  difficulty  of  constructing  a  web  printing  machine 
with  a  flat  bed  is  that  of  tm-ning  the  sheet  so  that  it  may  be  printed 
almost  simultaneously  on  hoth  sides.    It  would  have  to  be  reversed 
by  the  continued  rotary  movement  of  the  cylinder.    This,  however, 
i.s  quite  mthin  the  limits  of  practicability,  and  experiments  are 
DOW  being  made  to  devise  a  machine  with  this  feature. 

For  about  three  centuries  after  the  invention  of  printing  the 
formes  were  inked  by  leather  balls.  When  machine  presses  were 
introduced,  their  eariiest  inventor  tried  to  use  cylinders  covered 
with  leather  ;  but  the  plan  was  most  unsatisfactory,  until  a  subse- 
qncnt  inventor  adopted  a  composition  of  glue  and  treacle,  which 
was  cast  into  cylinders  having  an  inner  "stock  "  of  metal  or  wood. 
For  about  half  a  century  this  composition  was  used  exclusively  lor 
both  hand  and  machine  presses  Since  then  glyccnn  has  been  in- 
troduced for  roller  making.  Hansard's  recipe,  in  use  when  the 
Sth  edition  of  the  present  work  was  issued,  was— glue  4   parts. 


treaclo  12  parts,  Paris  white  1  part.  But  a  much  better  composi- 
ton  snow^ormed  of  glue  10  I'.arts,  sugar  10  paits,  and  glycenn 
19  parts  The  glycerin  has  the  property  of  always  keeping  the 
roller  moist  and  soft,  while  the  tendency  of  glue  and  treacle  is  to 
dry  and  harden.     A  glycerin  roller  lasts  much  longer  than  one  of 

^' Prfntin^ rk  has  peculiar quJities.     It  is  required  to  change  from  QvaliUes 
the    of   adhesive  st^tc  in  wllich  it  is  applied  to  the  type  to  tha    ofol  pmt- 
a  perfectly  tard  and  dry  substance  after  being  transferred  to  the  ing  mk. 
naiier      This  change  of  condition  must  be  under  control,  and  when 
Lis  excluded  the  ink  .hould  keep  in  good  order  any  length  of 
time      During  its  application  to  the  type  its  solidification  should 
be  as  slow  as  possible,  and  unaccompanied  by  the  emission  of  any 
unpwLt  or^leleterious  odour.     It  ought  not  to  atTcct  the  roUers 


unp  easant  or  aeieterious  ouo.u.     il  uug..,.  ..;..    ",      .jVr^Aiw, 
an5,  having  been  applied  to  the  paper  its  action  should  be  confined 
to  a  very  slight  penetration,  just  sufficient  to  prevent  it^  detach 
mcnt  «i^thou°t  injVin^  the  si/rface  of  the  paper.  ,  I' ™"^' d'-y,'°'° 
a  hard,  inodorous.  anS  unalterable  solid      The  ingredients  of  ink 
are  burnt  linseed  or  other  oil.  resin    and  occasionally  soaf.  rath  ^ 
various  colouring  matters  ;  that  for  black  ink  is  usually  lauop  black,  , 
but  charcoal  and  other  cheaper  materials  are  occasionally  ntroduced_ 
Ink  is  removed  from  types  ind  blocks  by  detergents,  such  as  potash 
and  pearl  ash  .  ben ? me  is  also  well  adapted  for  the  purpose. 

Colour  Prirding 
The  apparatus  previously  described  is  intended  for  monochrome  Pruning 
prin    n'^^h"  evef  be  the  shade  of  the  ink.     When  two  colours  or  lu  two 
lor,  h^ave   to  be   prir.ted  in  one  composition,   there  must  be  a  •  olo.ir^ 
Separate  type  forme  or  separate  engraving,  and  a  separate  prin  ing, 
?or  each    "  kany  attempts  have  been  made  to  print  several  co  ours 
simuUanecuslv  by  dividing  the  trough  or  manipulating  the  rollei^ 
AU  these  have-been  more  or  less  unsuccessful,  « ith  the  exception  of  a 
press  invented  by  Mr  W    Conisbee,  which  prints  f,om  type   orrnes 
fn    wo  colours.      In  construction   it  .s  somewhat  ^'t'"  "    «  '^J 
ordinary  single  cylinder  machine,  but  is  provided  »i  h  two  .e^  o 
°nk  D-  appaVatus,  including  duclor,  wavers    and  inkers,  each  o 
which" acts  totally  independent  of  the  rest.     The  cy  linder  is  placed 
Tn  the  cen  re  of  the  machine  and  makes  two  continuous  revolutions, 
riring  an  impression  for  each  colour      There  are  two  type  forme^ 
fach  ?ontaii.ing  only  the  lines  to  be  woiked  in  one  of  the  colours, 
These  are  in  two  beds  adjoining  one  another   and.  the  -Mrcumference 
of  the  cylinder  being  equal  to  the  length  of  one  bed.  one  colour  is 
nrinted  by  the  first  revolution  and  the  other  by  the  second      The 
she"    U«  th^u   printed  twice  without  being  released  from  the  grippers 
Aereby  perf^ect  register  is  ensured      The  speed  is  slow,  averaguig 
<inn  tn  400  conjrltte  impressions  per  hour 

^°The  mV.hod^l^y  whicf  the  beau'tiful  coloured  f  PPl^'^;"'« '^^"'.^  f^ 
occasionally  w„h  illustrated  newspapers  are  printed  ^y  be  ^''8"'>  'I^. 
referred  to      A  copy  of  the  artist's  painting  is  first  of  »"  'I'ade.  on  graphy 
a    cale  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  reproduction.     This  being  sup. 
pi    do  Me  engraver,  an  outline  or  key  block  is  ■"ad.  and  proofs 
pulled      It  is  now  necessary  to  determine  the  'on^^ "f /■»>«" ''^ 
Ce  used  -a  process  demanding  great  experience      The  key  block 
will   If  printe^d  first,  alTord  a  guide  for  the  registration  «' the  subse 
nuent  printings  ;  sometimes,  however,  that  is  reserved  for  a  lat*. 
s^e      The  colours  on  which  the  subsequerit  printings  are  done 
m^?  be  of  a  transparent  nature.     The  Mocks  are  sometimes  pro 
duced  by  the  tvpographic  etching  process,  which  gives  a  softness, 
deU    cy     nd  Variety  unattainabfe  by  th.  graver      The  blending 
0    the  colours  is  thi  most  delicate  task  the  printer  b-s  to  under 
take      A  large  pii-ture  is  often  printed  in  ten  or  more  workings, 
orae  of  them   in   their   turn   intensifying  and   bringing  previous 
co"ou.  workings  into  stronger  relief,  others  giving  shape  and  form 
othe  picture^    Almost  to  the  end  of  the  process    however,  th 
picture  will  want  vitality  .  its  outlines  will  be  hard  and  bare   or 
^ague  and  undefined,  according   to  the   sequence  "^e  colours^ 
Another  working  may  give  grey   tones  where  wan  ed    and   may 
increase  the  depth  and   transparency  of  various  parts      A  deep 
S  workmg  Jay  have  a  marked  etfect  on  the  de.eloptnent     and 
near  the  rioje  of  the  series,  if  the  entire  colouring  is  found  to  K 
too  warm,  it  may  be  corrected  by  oyer  printing  very  nearly  th 
whole  subject.     Chromo-typography  b^s  undoubedyude  great 
strides  durina  the  past  twenty  years,  its  best  results  bong  shown 
in  the  colourfd  prints  for  illustJated  journals.     For  the  production 
of  pk'u?s  for  commercial  and  artistic  purposes  chromo-lithography    .liremo 
?=  Generally  resorted  to  on  account  of  its  relative  economy-     In  hlho- 
mKrphy  for  typographic  purposes  the  line  has  to  be  cut  ai.d  the  ,^aphy 
pace'Tboth  sides^eioved  s^'  as  to  leave  '^^  line  alone  to  b 
charged  with  the  ink,  or  the  white  space  has  to  be  ■^'fl'^d  a«av  with 
an  acid      The  printing  of  isolated  points  too  is  easily  effected  from 
a  stone  wiere£  most  minute  labour  is  "ocessary  to  engi^   them 
TvnoOTanhic  etching  has  here,  however,  been  of  great  aS!.istanoc^ 
^IdTKces  of  printing  surface  caused  by  the  colours  are  me^ 
and  overcome  by  the  lithogranhic  s  one  with  f/^t  facility   even 
when  the  spaces  are  largest  an&  most  ""'=;'•"  ■'♦,'^,'1"'  I 'J^^.Z 
trarv  in  regard  to  typography,  wherein  the  work  has  to  lie  cnargea 
w-UlUnktS  a  greater  extent 'according  to  its  size,  and  tho  ijaantitv 


PRACTICAL. 


TYPOGRAPHY 


709 


Progress 
in  print- 


Improre- 
meats  in 
news- 
paper 
prmting; 


.  type. 


of  ink  requisite  varies  with  the  fineness  of  the  strokes  and  of  their 
distance  apart.  Owing  to  this  we  see  in  most  letter-press  poly- 
cliromatic  prints  a  deficiency  of  transparency,  of  half-tints,  of  depth 
of  ground,  and  of  general  harmony.  Even  if  it  were  possible  to 
make  chromo- typography  as  easy  as  chromo . lithography,  there 
would  still  be  the  obstacle  of  its  very  much  greater  cost,  owing  to 
the  expense  of  the  engraving  and  of  the  casts  from  the  key  block. 
In  chrorao-lithography  the  designer  can  repeat  the  designs  for  the 
different  stones  by  a  process  that  costs  almost  nothing.  Also  in  the 
process  of  multiplying  the  blocks  the  deviation  in  the  register  of 
the  successive  colours  is  practically  unavoidable.  In  lithography 
the  surface  to  he  printed  is  nearly  level ;  hence  the  sheet  is  not 
shifted  and  twisted  or  stretched  in  places,  as  it  is  in  typography, 
owing  to  the  alternate  closeness  and  absence  of  contact  between  the 
sheets  and  the  raised  and  depressed  surface  of  the  block.  Whatever 
success  the  letter-press  method  has  attained  of  late  is  owing  to  the 
invention  of  electrotyping  and  process  blocks,  and  to  the  improve- 
ment of  machinery.  Kor  to  print  these  pictures  enormous  strength 
md  rigidity,  and  the  most  i)erfect  arrangements  for  securing  register. 
«re  absolutely  essential 

Reecnl  C/ianja 

We  will  now  give  a  cursory  glance  at  the  changes  that  have 
been  effected  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  in  the  processes  and 
the  products  of  the  art  of  printing.  That  these  have  been  of  a 
most  drastic  kind  may  be  gathered  from  a  comparison  of  the 
appliances  figured  and  described  in  the  Sth  or  the  previous  edi- 
tions of  the  Enajclopxdia  Britannica  with  those  referred  to  above. 
The  hand  press  has  been  almost  completely  superseded  by  the 
machine  press.  Cylindrical  impression  has  displaced  platen  impres- 
sion, and  the  finest  book  work  and  *oodcut  work  are  done  on  a 
cylinder  press  In  book-work,  indeed,  other  significant  changes  have 
taken  place.  Whereas  formerly  it  was  deemed  csseutial  that  the 
papei  should  be  damped  before  printing,  in  order  to  get  a  delicate 
and  perfect  impression,  some  of  the  finest  books  and  periodicals  are 
uow  printed  on  dry  paper,  highly  calendered,  even  the  illustrated 
journals  and  some  of  tlie  evening  papeis  being  so  worked.  Then, 
it  was  thought  necessary  for  the  saftity  of  the  type  to  interpose  a 
thick  soft  blanket  between  it  and  the  pressing  surface,  whether 
cylinder  or  platen  ;  now,  it  is  found  equally  safe,  and  far  more 
conducive  to  a  good  impression,  to  make  the  packing  as  thin  and 
hard  as  possible.  Then,  fine  woodcuts  were  "bronght  up"  by  the 
use  of  many  "overlays"  and  "underlays"  to  correct  inequalities  in 
the  5Ui  faca  of  the  blocks  and  emphasize  some  of  the  parts  ;  now, 
although  the  art  of  "making  ready"  has  been  brought  to  great 
perfection,  the  fewer  and  thinner  the  overlays  employed  the  better. 
And  It  may  not  be  irrelevant  to  point  out  that  the  printing  of  wood- 
cuts has  improved  in  the  same  degree  as  the  engraving  of  them. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  most  remarkable  change  is  that  made  in 
newspaper  printing.  The  highest  achievement  mentioned  in  the 
article  "Printing"  in  the  Sth  edition  of  this  work  was  the  six- 
cylinder  Hoe  machine.  The  makere  of  that  apparatus  subsequently 
contrived  machines  of  eight  and  ten  cylinders.  But  they  have  now 
been  wholly  superseded  by  the  rotary  presses  on  the  Walter  principle. 
The  hand  feeding-in  of  single  sheets  is  entirely  done  away  with,  and 
all  newspapers  of  considerable  circulation  are  printed  from  long  reels 
of  paper,uncut,  as  originally  made  at  the  paper-milL  The  maxi- 
mum number  of  copies  which  a  machine  of  this  class  would  print 
with  ten  feeding  attendants  and  four  taking  a-.vay  attendants  would 
be  8000  an  hour.  For  folding  the  8000  printed  copies  five  folding' 
machines  and  at  least  two  attendants  wonld  be  required  to  keep 
pace  with  the  printing  machines.  Thus  nineteen  men  were  required 
to  print  and  fold  6000  copies  per  hour  with  the  best  machines  as 
late  as  1870.  AV'ith  a  rotary  machine  doing  the  same  or  a  larger 
quantity  of  work  only  two  men  are  required.  The  cost  for  print- 
ing and  folding  1000  copies  by  (he  Hoe  machine  was  estimated  at 
Is.  4d.,  while  with  the  rotary  it  is  only  about  2d.  Hence  the  savin" 
it  wages  to  a  newspaper  issuing  200,000  copies  a  day  on  313  working 
iays  would  be  nearly  £3700  in  a  year.  This,  in  connexion  with  im° 
nrovements  in  paper,  or  rather  the  discovery  of  cheaper  materials, 
bringing  the  price  of  "  news  "  down  to  about  2d.  per  tb — one  quarter 
of  its  price  a  very  few  years  ago — accounts  for  much  of  the  enter- 
prise of  modem  journalism.  For  some  time  after  the  abolition  of 
the  paper  duty  there  was  a  loss  on  the  circulation  of  a  large-sized 
penny  journal ,  now  there  is  a  considerable  gain.     Lately  rotary 

firesscs  for  small  jobbing  work  have  been  constructed ;  and  before 
ong  the  rotary  principle  will  probably  be  rendered  available  for 
illustrated  periodicals  and  fine  book-work,  printed  from  webs  or 
reels  of  ijaiier  instead  of  single  sheets.  Great  improvements  have 
.  also  been  made  in  type-founding,  and  the  Roman  and  Italic  founts 
row  used  by  English  printers  are  equal  to  those  of  any  country 
In  the  worW.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  English  editions  dt  luxe 
are  not  equal  to  those  of  the  French,  and  that  this  is  owing 
to  the  iuferiority  of  the  founders.  This  is,  however,  not  quite 
true :  some  of  the  best  French  books  are  printed  from  English 
types  or  from  types  cut  in  the  English  manner.  It  is  also  the 
fashion  to  compare  modem  printed  books  with  those  of  the  Elzei  irs 


and  Baskerville.  Yet  as  a  matter  of  fact  their  best  faces  have  beett 
reproduced  with  perfect  success  by  modern  founders.  From  a- 
mechanical  point  of  view  the  impression  given  by  the  best  machine 
presses  to-day  is  undoubtedly  superior  to  that  of  the  hand-presses 
ofthe  17th  and  18th  centuries.  If  modem  books  suffer  in  any  respect 
on  comparison  with  those  of  former  times,  which  are  so  highly 
prized  by  bibliophiles,  it  is  owing  to  their  want  of  general  artistic 
ensemble,  and  not  to  any  deficiency  in  mechanical  execution.  The 
artistic  taste  of  English  printei-s  has,  however,  been  greatly  raised 
during  the  last  few  years,  and  a  very  interesting  movement  is  going 
on  which  must  produce  important  results  in  the  future.  In  1880 
Mr  Andrew  W  Tuer  of  Loudon  organized  the  Printers'  Specimen  rrislere' 
E.xchange,  a  schenie  intended  to  promote  the  technical  education  Speci- 
of  the  working  printer.  Each  contrib.itor  to  the  exchange  furnishes  men  Ei- 
peiiodieally  a  certain  fixeu  number  of  tjrpographic.il  specimens,  all  charge, 
alike,  which  are  collated  iuto  sets,  and  again  distributed  to  the 
members,  each  of  whom  gets  a  volume,  consisting  of  one  copy  of 
the  work  of  each  of  his  fellow-contributors.  By  this  plan  they 
become  acquainted  with  the  progress  made  by  their  brethren,  and 
good  taste  and  good  work  are  fostered  and  mutually  encouraged. 
The  eighth  quarto  volume,  issued  in  1887,  contains  nearly  40o'fine 
specimens  of  typography  by  as  many  ditferent  hands.  It  forms 
also  the  best  criterion  of  the  character  of  the  jobbing  work  done  at 
the  present  day,  not  only  in  England  but  abroad,  for  the  scheme 
is  of  an  international  character.  The  results  of  the  revival  in  Artistic 
artistic  printing  during  the  last  decade  are  especially  noticeable  in  printing 
jobbing  work.  Much  of  this  improvement  is  due  to  the  superior 
material  with  which  the  printer  is  furnished,  and  especially  to  the 
great  variety  of  ornamental  types  which  have  been  inti'oduced. 
The  specimen  books  of  the  principal  type-founders  are  splendid 
volumes,  containing  several  thousand  different  faces.  The  best 
work  of  German  printers  is  noteworthy/or  its  studied  neatness  and 
attractiveness,  tasteful  and  harmonious  arrangement  of  colour  and 
tint,  a  characteristic  and,conscientious  attention  to  details  of  finish, 
exact  register,  and  beauty  of  impression.  Anaerican  work  excels 
in  originality  of  design,  brilliancy  of  colour,  and  perfect  finish. 
English  printers  are  closely  following  the  best  points  of  each  ol 
these  schools  of  t\q.ogTaphy.  There  i3.a  distinct  leaning  at  present 
to  the  German  style,  but  with  httle  slavish  imitation.  The  dis- 
tinctness of  English  typography  is  maintained,  while  the  beautiful 
German  combination  borders,  produced  with  such  profusion  of  late, 
are  judiciously  utilized,  often  in  conjunction  with  American  type. 
In  the  arrangement  of  colours  English  printers  prefer  the  quiet 
harmonious  tints  of  the  Germans  to  the  bold  striking  contrasts  of 
the  Americans. 

The  vast  extent  of  the  operations  of  the  printing  fraternity  Division 
at  the  present  day  is  in  remarkable  contrast  to  those  of  the  loth  of 
century,  when  the  making  of  books  was  an  art  like  the  sculpture  labour, 
o/ statues  or  the  designing  of  buildings.     Now,  printing  is  a  manu- 
facture in  which  large  capital  and  the  greatest  division  of  labour  are 
essential.     The  old  printers  were  almost  entirely  independent  of 
other  craftsmen.     From  the  casting  of  the  type  to  the  mixing  of 
the  ink  they  did  nearly  everything  for  themselves.     Gradually  the 
different  departments  of  the  art  were  constituted  separate  and  re- 
cognized trades.    The  type-founder  was  probably  the  first  to  sec^e 
from  the  concern  ;  then  printers  delegated  to  others  the  making 
of  presses  ;  afterwards  the  ink  and  the  rollers  found  separate  and 
distinct  manufacturers  ;  and  there  arose  a  class  of  persons  who, 
though  belonging  to  other  trades,   made  printing  appliances  a 
specialty,  such  as  printers'  smiths,  printers'  joiners,  and  printers' 
engineers.      Subdivision  again  has  taken  place  in  regard  to  th& 
operations  which  chiefly  appertain  to  printing.     The  same  mau 
was  formerly  able  to  set  up  and  print  off  the  types,  to  fold  the 
sheets  perhaps,  and  even  to  make  them  up  into  books.     The  opera- 
tive printer  has  now  become  either  a  pressman  or  a  compositor. 
If  he  is  of  the  first  denomination,  he  may  be  clawed  according  as- 
he  works  at  press  or  machine.     If  he  is  a  machinist,  he  may  super- 
intend or  be  a  "minder,"  or  he  may  be  a  layer-on  or  a  takerotf  of 
the  sheets.    If  he  is  a  minder,  he  may  understand  only  book  machines 
or  only  news  machines ;  he  may  know  all  about  platens  and  littla 
about  cylinders ;  or  of  cylinders  he  may  know  only  one  kind.     En- 
tirely novel  machines  create  a  new  class  of  artisans.    There  are  men 
perfectly  competent  to  manage  a  Walter  press  who  are  ignorant  how 
to  work  two-colour  or  fine  book-work  machines.    In  the  compositor's 
department  di\ision  of  labour  is  carried  out  to  a  still  minuter  degree. 
An  old-fashioned  printer  would  set  up  indifferently  a  placard,  a 
title-page,  or  a  book.     At  the  present  day  we  have  jobbing  hands, 
book  hands;  and  news  hands,  the  word  "hand"  su^estlng  tho 
factory-like  nature  of  the  business.     There  are  jobbing  hands  who 
confine  themselves  to  posters,  and  know  little  about  general  work 
even  in  this  department     Book  hands  comprise  those  who  set  up 
the  titles  and  those  wno  set  up  the  body  of  the  work.     Of  thcs» 
latter  again,  while  one  man  composes,  another,  the  "maker-up," 
arranges  the  pa"es.     Even  the  art  of  fitting  up  the  furniture  or 
"dressing  the  chase"  is  given  to  the  "quoin-drawer  overseer." 
Kews  hands  include  advertisement  hands  and  general  hands.     Some 
men  work  by  day,  others  altogether  by  night  j  some  do  general. 


710 


T  Y  R  — T  Y  R 


book-work  comrosition  ;  others  set  up  heaJ  liues  ,  others  make  up 

the  galleya ;  others  "prove''  them. 

Old  Style  Priniing. 
Old  stvle      Within  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  aa  interesting  revival 
o  int  BE   of  the  old  stvle  of  book  printing.     It  owes  its  or.jj.n  to  Mr  Wha- 

hi  acrropriate  type  a  work  of  fiction  the  diction  of  which  «as 
orpose7to  be  that  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.     As  the  oiigina 
"old  face"  matrices  of  the  first  Uaslon  had  been  preserved,  a  fount 
was  cast  from  them,  and  on  getting  a  proof  w,th  good  ink  on  good 
paper,  from  a  modern  press  the  impression  was  found  to  be  tar 
Superior  to  specimens  printed  from,  the  origina   fount.     Since  then 
the  der   .irt  for  old-faced  characters  has  steadily  increased,  and  all 
founders  now  supply  imitations  of  the  old  types.     Comparing  the 
Did  face  and  the  miiern  characters,  the  latter  are  more  regula.  in 
size   lining,  setting,  and  colour, -using  these  words  in  the  technical 
en^e  of  the  founde°r  .  they  have  finer  strokes  and  serifs  and  proa„ce 
in  the  page  a  more  regular  and  sparkling  general  effect     At  tlie 
ame  ti^mf  it  may  be  conceded  that  legibility  has  been    o  a  certain 
extent  sacrificed   to  beauty  and  general  effect.      About   1882  an 
minent  French  printer  made  a  number  of  experiments  to  ^scerUm 
what  it  is  that  constitutes  legibility  in  type,  and  found  Ih^t  P''<'I  » 
read  with  less  fatigue  according  as  the  lettere-<a)  are  rounde  ,    6) 
Le  more  equal  in  thickness,  (c)  have  shorter  upstrokes    W  are 
"issimUar  to  each  other,  and  (.)  are  well  proportioned  to  their  own 
body      Drawings  of  letters  from  old  books  were  visible  and  legible 
at  a  distance  at'which  modern  letters  could  not  be  dist.n^.shed 
The  revival  has  also  brought  about  the  '■^-\°^'-°f"^f' °°  "//"K 
headpieci^s  and  tailpieces,   vignettes,   and  initial  letters,   which 
have  been  reproduced  from  old  books  by  photography  and  typo- 
kching      For  this  kind  of  printing  white  paper  has  given  place  to 
toned,  of  a  straw  tint,  which  is  often  more  agreeable  to  the jy" 
.        than   he  excessively  bleached  paper  which  was  hitherto  the  fashion^ 
AIs    hand  made  instead  of  machine  made  papfr  has  to  a  la  ge  exten 
come  into  vogue      lUs  characteristic  is  tho  "deckle  edge    ,  whicli 
distin-uishes  it  from  the  clean  cut  edge  of  machine  papers,  and 
is  highly  prized  by  some  bibliophiles.     When  extreme  verisim.h. 
t  .dels  r^lired,  this  kind  of  printing  is  done  on  the  blank  leaves 
of  real  old  books,  some  of  which  have  been  ruthlessly  destroyed  f^or 
this  modern  craze.     On  the  whole,  however,  the  reviva  of  old  s tj  le 
printing  has  been  beneficial,  it  has  encouraged  P"°ter3  to  study 
he  more  artistic  attributes  of  the  productions  of  the  great  pri«ers 
of  the  past,  and  has  educated  the  public  taste  by  presenting  them 
with  examples  of  the  best  kind  of  book  making. 
Printing  Eslablishintnl 
Deurrt         A  l»rge  book  printing  estabhshment  contains  mnny  distinct  de- 
meSTol  paitments,  some  of  whiA  have  not  been  previously  re  erred  to  and 
Tprint     may  here  be  summarily  mentioned     The  reading  department,  sonie. 
ingeslab-  limes  called  the  closet,  consists  of  a  """l^er  of  small  apartments 
Jishment  »ach  furnished  with  a  desk,  a  couple  of  stools,  and  a  shelf  for 
Looks  of  reference,  and  having  for  its  occupants  the  reader  and  us 
leadrng-boy.     There  is  also  the  warehouse,  where  a     the  printed 
nd  u^piinU  sheets  (or  '•white  paper  "as  >'/'  ?^i't',  "it'^hoi 
its  colour)  are  stored.     Adjacent  to  this  are  folding,  cutting,  hot 
^d  cold  pressing,  drying,  and  other  branches,   each  employing 
^parate  efasses  o^f  artLns      Another  department  ,s  the  machine, 
rolm,  where,  arranged  in  long  rows  with  an  avenue  between   are 
the  various  printing  machines.     The  men  in  this  P^^' "f   ''^^^^'^^^ 
lishment  wear  cotton  vestments,  coverin"  all  their  othe    oppaiel. 
nnd  caps,  invariably  made  of  paper,  something  like  rf-^ncal  birettas^ 
The  machine  overseer  has  his  box  and  keeps  an  account  of  the 
produce  of  each  machine.    Under  him  are  the  persons  whos   busine  s 
t  is  10  cut  out  overlays  for  the  cut  or  illustrated  formes.     These 
men  are  in  their  way  artists,  for  to  them  is  attributable  >""eh  of  he 
beauty  and  perfection  of  working  of  each  block  that  goes  through 
tluir  hands      They  have  by  them  three  or  four  prints  or      pulls 
of  the  block,  and  their  tools  consist  of  scissors,  paste,  a  sharp  knite 
or  two,  and  perhaps  a  razor- like  blade  set  in  a  wooden  handle 
Their  work  is  to  deepen  the  shadows  raise  the    ights,  lower    he 
ed-es  and  perform  a  Tiundred  other  offices  for  a  block.     Standing 
Mntri  over  each  machine  is  the  machine  minder     under  him  are 
the  t-akers-off  and  layers-on.    The  engine  room  and  boiler-house  are 
close  by,  and  higher  up  may  be  the  hand  press  room  -provided 
the..e  appliances  are  usecT.     Here  are  the  pressmen  and  their  appren 
tices.    'fhcre  is  the  storekeeper's  department,  fitted  up  with  shelves, 
racks,  and  drawers,  for  the  orderly  storage  of  type  and  tnatcnals^ 
The  plato-safe  or  plate-room  is  the  repository  of  the  stereo  and  electro 
plates,  each  plate  being  kept  wrapped  up  in  paper,  with  a  distinctn  e 
index  number  marked  thereon.     There  are  also  rooms  for  casting 
rollers,  stereotyping  rooms,  drying  rooms  for  paper,  hydraulic  press- 
ing rooms,  sinks  for  washing  formes,  and  lifts  for  conveying  them 


from  one  department  to  another.     There  will  possibly  be  several 
composing-rooms,  such  as  the  'stab,  where  all  the  men  are  paid  on 
esUblished  weekly  wages,  the  piece  room,  where  they  are  paid  by 
results,  and  the  apprentices'  room.     There  may  be  rooms  where 
particular  jobs  are  done,  especially  if  weekly  periodicals  are  turned 
out   and  the  names  of  these  designate  the  rooms.     At  the  end  of 
each  room  is  the  overseer.     It  is  also  a  common   practice  for  a  Corriposi 
number  of  men  to  form  themselves  into  a  kind  of  business  partner-  tor^ 
shin  called  a  companionship  or  'ship.     All  the  transactions  of  the  partner 
compositor  may  be  with  his  own  cHckcr,-t.hs  workman  who  is  ships, 
selected  to  keep  tho  accounts  of  the  partnership.     From  him  tho 
compositor  receives  his  portion  of  copy  and  the  necessary  direc- 
tions   and  to  him  he  gives  the  matter  when  it  is  composed.     At 
the  end  of  the  week  he  "writes  his  bill,"  deUvers  it  to  the  clicker, 
and  from  the  latter  receives  at  pay  time  the  wages  he  has  earned. 
The  clicker  gets  the  matter   proved  or  "  pulled     by  the  p roof- 
puller,  who  usually  does  nothing  else  but  pull  proofs      He  will 
then  send  the  proof  with  the  copy  to  the  oveiseer,  and  the  overseer 
sends  it  to  the  reading  department  to  be  corrected      The  proof, 
when  corrected,  is  returned  through  the  overseer  (who  retains  th6 
copy)  to  the  clicker,  and  he  gives  it  to  the  compositor  who  set  it 
up      When   the  type  is  corrected  a  revise  is  pulled,  which  goes 
through  the  same  hands  to  the  overseer  again  ;  and  then  it  is  de- 
spatched to  the  author,  editor,  or  publisher.     In  a  weU-ordered 
composing.room    strict    silence   is   enjoined    upon   the   workmen 
Amon-T  the  industrial  pursuits  there  is  none  more  monotonous  and 
more  e°xacting,  none  demanding  more  patience,  sustained  industry, 
and  power  of  endurance  than  the  compositors  art.     In  a  large 
newspaper  office  the  quantity  of  types  picked  up  in  a  fe»   'ours  is 
marvellous.     No  beUer  illustration  of  this  could  be  given  than  the 
fact  that  several  recent  issues  of  the  Tirru^  have  consisted  of  three 
sheets  or  twenty  four  pages,  each  page  comprising  six  columns. 
In  one  of  the.se  issues  84?  of  the  144  columns  were  filled  with  ad 
vertisements,  2559  in  number,  set  in  extremely  sma  1  type;  the 
remaining  594  columns  contained  articles,  reviews,  letters,  reports, 
and  paragraphs.     The  total  length  of  the  co  umn  aggrega  e  was 
264  feet  (62  more  than  the  height  of  the  London  Monument).     U 
the  matter  comprised  in  the  paper,  instead  of  being  broken  up  into 
columns,  had  been  set  in  one  continuous  line  it  would  have  reached 
one  mile  950  yarda     The  number  of  separate  types  used  in  printing 
this  issue  was  calculated  at  over  two  millions,  and  the  quantity  of 
printed  matter  was  reckoned  to  be  equivalent  to  that  contained  m 
two  octavo  volumes  of  480  pages  each.    The  Uterary  and  mechanical 
staff  of  a  first-rate  London  daily  newspaper,  excluding  casual  re- 
porters and  unattached  writers  on  various  subjects,  aggregates  about 
I  300  persons. 

££HS.^;/:^tS}?^^.:3iiii'^^=^Kr;^^;^:^ 

office  ^ou1'a'sit«cn>rcss/'H>r(ir  (-id  e<l  .  MiJdlesborough,  1880  12.no)  has  a 
short  inrrod.ctionb7soutl.ward,  giving  a  »Uetch  of  the  »- e"',^"'^  I;"^^i°f 
thednrcrenttypograph.cal  processes  and  appliances  from  the  beginning.     See 

Id  London  1833  6TO)Tii'  0/  Tecluacul  T,r„,B  reluling  lo  rnnto,g!ll<ich,n,pi 
(Lonton  1882  Svo);  NVble,Jte*.n,  PrM,<i.j  (London,  ISS^^^^^ 
a^d  fradiceof  Cooxa  Prinlinn  (London,  1881,  8vo);  and  Wilson,  SKreoljpi^ 
and  S™?W.".3  (London,  1880,  Svo).  This  last  conUins  a  history  of  stereo- 
?;piog  and  ieclrotyping  by  Southward  The  best  works  '"J'^^fJ'.^- 
Lefevre  Guide  Pratu,it  du  ComposiUurel  d,l  Impr.mtu,  (?""■ '.8",y,-; ^J"; '"» 
parts    includes  mac  line  work, slereolyping,andelcctrotyp.ng):Claye«»au*l 

^,T/vp"cnn  Cov,p«Alcur  (3d  cd  ,  12,no,  Paris,  1SS3);  and  M""',';,'^  ""<*"^ 
Tt  Aimrf'l,  TyrogmpkiiiuK,  mM  da  Praccdts  d  Impression  (Pans.  18.9.  S"* 
The  best  Ccrm'ao  work,  and  one  which  from  its  completeness  supersedes  all 
0  he.;  is  Waldows  Illustrierte  EncsUopadic  der  grapKxsAtn  KunsU  Le'ps.c, 
JssHir  Svo).  containing  2798  articles  and  581  Ulustratious,  w,th  a  list  of  Ger- 

■"ftrl2Sl^»r-W:d''e''lvtntcrcst  In  the  world  has,  perhaps,  so  many  repr^ 
senS°ve7in  the  press  as  printing.  The  .ioumals  >v)..ch  record  its  progress 
and  describe  its  products  iie  iinnvalled  in  their  excellent  mechanical  attrl- 
Wes  some  emialUng  the  highest  class  of  book.work  printing  and  using  paper 
of  the  moTt  luxuriouf  description  Their  literary  character  is  usually  worthy  of 
?Lir  S,an"cal  excellence,  and  they  comprise  an  ,i"'">f,"^^'=<'''<i«'''"  "f  "^j! 
and  s^culations  on  the  sub.,ects  Involved  They  also  attrac.  a  class  o  "ii  ers 
who  ni  time  become  specialists  and  do  the  ,nost  valuable  work  "n  hibtorical 
,"  vesication.  The  Pri.Kers'  fi.jislcr  (monthly),  begun  in  '""■'>'«  °''^f,f„°' 
the  English  nrintin-  traile  journals,  contains  several  valuable  contribi.tioiiil 
bv  hfr  W  lliain  B  ad'es  the  biographer  ofCaxton,  such  as  "  Numis.iiata  Tsto- 
c?,rhlca''  "Bibliotheca  Typographica,-  "Gonks  and  their  Enemies,  The 
?  ,'S tor  of  the  Steam  Printing  f  ress,;  and  "  Eji'  y  Type  ff,'^'™^"  B'^'.s^j 
The  Paper  and  Prml.tig  Trades  Journal  (quarterly),  begun  in  'f'- ''  P''""'} 
in  old  stvle  fashion  and  reproduces  in  tone  as  well  as  .n  manner  some  ot 
Ihe  best  examXo  the  French  and  Italian  schools  in  head  and  U.l  p.eces. 

There  is  also  an  extended  list,  with  historical  annoUt.ons,  .D  Biginore  and 
Wyiuan's  BiWiojrap/ii/o/Prinliiij.  ' 


TYR.     Sec  JEsm,  vol.  i.  p.  211. 

TYUE.  the  ancient  is,  Greek  TOpos,  th*,  mt.st  famous 


I  of  rbocnician  cities,  is  now  representea  oy  the  petty  town 
I  of  §ur,  with  about  5000  inhabitants,  built  round  the  liar- 


T  Y  R  — T  Y  R 


711 


^ur  at  the  north  end  of  a  peninsula,  which  till  the  time  of 
Alexander's  siege  was  an  island.  The  mole  which  he  con- 
structed to  reach  the  island  city  has  been  widened  by  de- 
posits of  sand,  so  that  the  ancient  island  is  now  connected 
■with  the  mainland  by  a  tongue  of  land  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
broad.  The  greatest  length  of  the  former  island,  from 
north  to  south,  is  about  |  of  a  mile  and  its  area  about  142 
acres,  a  small  surface  for  so  important  a  town.  The  re- 
searches of  Eenan  seem  to  have  completely  refuted  the 
once  popular  idea  that  a  great  part  of  the  original  island 
has  disappeared  by  natural  convulsions,  though  he  believes 
that  the  remains  of  a  line  of  submerged  wall  at  the  south 
•end  inlicate  that  about  15  acres  more  were  once  reclaimed 
from  the  sea  and  have  been  again  lost  Confined  to  this 
narrow  site — on  which,  moreover,  place  was  found  for  the 
great  temple  of  Melkarth  with  its  courts  and  for  all  the 
necessities  of  a  va.st  trade^  for  docks  and  warehouses,  and 
for  the  great  purple  factories  whicl\  in  the  Roman  time 
were  the  chief  source  of  wealth  and  made  the  town  an 
•unpleasant  place  of  residence  (Strabo,  xvi.  2,  23  ;  Pliny,  v. 
76) — Tyre  was  very  closely  built ;  Strabo  tells  us  that  the 
many-storied  houses  were  loftier  than  those  of  Rome.  In 
the  Roman  period  the  population  overflowed  its  bounds 
and  occupied  a  strip  of  the  opposite  mainland,  including 
the  ancient  Palsetyrus.  Pliny  gives  to  the  wbole  city,  con- 
tinental and  insular,  a  compass  of  19  Roman  miles;  but 
this  account  must  be  received  with  caution.  In  Strabo's 
time  the  island  was  still  the  city,  and  Palaetyrus  on  the 
mainland  was  30  stadia  off,  while  modern  research  indicates 
an  extensive  line  of  suburbs  rather  than  one  mainland  city 
that  can  be  definitely  identified  with  Palsetyrus.  The 
ancient  history  of  Tyre  has  been  dealt  with  in  the  article 
Ph(enici.\  ;  the  topography  is  still  obscure  owing  to  the 
paucity  of  Phoenician  remains  The  present  harbour  is 
certainly  the  Sidonian  port,  though  it  is  not  so  large  as  it 
once  was ;  the  other  ancient  harbour  (the  Egyptian  port) 
has  disappeared,  and  is  supposed  by  Renan  to  have  lain 
on  the  other  side  of  the  island,  and  to  be  now  absorbed  in 
the  isthmus.  The  most  important  ruins  are  those  of  the 
cathedral,  with  its  magnificent  monolith  columns  of  rose- 
coloured  granite,  now  prostrate.  The  present  building  is 
assigned,  by  De  Vogui  to  the  second  half  of  the  12th 
century,  bul'the  columns  must  be  older  and  may  have  be- 
longed to  the  4th-century  church  of  Paulinus  (Euseb  ,  // 
E.,  X.  4).  The  water  supply  of  ancient  Tyre  came  from 
the  powerful  springs  of  Ris  al-'Ain  on  the  mainland,  one 
liovu'  south  of  the  city,  where  there  are  still  remarkable 
reservoirs,  in  connexion  with  which  curious  revivals  of 
Adonis  worship  have  been  observed  by  Volney  and  other 
travellers.  Tyre  was  still  an  important  city  and  almost 
impregnable  fortress  under  the  Arab  empire.  From  1124 
to  1291  it  was  a  stronghold  of  the  crusaders,  and  Saladin 
himself  besieged  it  in  vain.  After  the  fall  of  Acre  the 
Christians  deserted  the  place,  which  was  then  destroyed 
by  the  Moslems.  The  present  town  has  arisen  since  the 
Metawila  occupied  the  district  in  1766. 

TYROL, a  province  of  Austria,  with  the  title  of  "county," 
lies  between  10°  10'  and  13°  E.  long,  and  45°  40'  and  47° 
45'  N.  lat.,  and  is  conterminous  on  the  north-west  with  the 
Austrian  province  of  Vorarlberg,  on  the  north  with  Bavaria, 
on  the  east  with  Salzburg  and  Carinthia,  on  the  south-east 
and  south-west  with  Italy,  and  on  the  west  with  Switzer- 
land. The  last-named  country  forms  in  the  lower  Engadine 
an  angle  penetrating  deeply  into  Tyrol.  The  country  is 
entirely  mountainous,  being  traversed  by  the  main  chain  of 
the  Alps.  It  may  be  roughly  divided  into  the  valley 
systems  of  the  Lech  and  the  Inn  to  the  north  of  the  chain 
and  of  the  Etsch  or  Adige  (Vintschgau)  and  the  upper 
Drave  (Puster  valley)  to  the  south  (see  Alps).  Its  area  is 
10,316  square  miles  ;  its  population  in  1880  wa"  805,176, 


inclusive  of  military,  showing  an  increase  of  nearly  4 
per  cent,  since  1S69.  Of  these  432,062  spoke  German, 
360,975  Italian  or  some  Romance  dialect,  and  the  re- 
mainder some  form  of  Slavonic  ;  565,468  persons  were 
able  to  read  and  write,  56,728  to  read  only,  leaving  about 
225  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  including  children, 
wholly  illiterate.  Education  is  strictly  compulsory ,  but 
the  schools  are  for  the  most  part  closed  during  the  summer 
months,  when  all  available  hands  are  required  in  the  fields 
and  on  the  mountain  pastures  Agriculture  and  forestry 
occupy  about  two-thirds  of  the  entire  population.  Every 
householder  owns  a  piece  of  cultivable  land  in  the  valley, 
while  his  goats,  sheep,  or  cattle  are  driven  with  those  of 
his  neighbours  to  the  mountain  pastures  (Alpen,  Aimen) 
which  belong  to  the  commune.  Each  commune  has  a 
president  chosen  by  an  elected  committee  of  householders. 
The  man  selected  cannot  declme,  but  is  bound  to  serve  his 
term  of  ofiice.  The  tenure  of  property  is  for  the  most 
part  of  the  nature  of  absolute  ownership  In  I8S0  100,393 
persons  of  both  sexos  were  returned  as  proprietors,  10,283 
as  tenants.  The  chief  products  are  milk,  butter,  and 
cheese.  Of  grain-crops  maize,  which  is  largely  grown  in 
the  Inn  valley  and  Vintschgau,  holds  the  first  place. 
V\Tieat  is  grown  m  the  lower  valleys,  barley  and  rye  in  the 
higher,  the  latter  in  favourable  spots  to  a  height  of  over 
5000  feet.  Potatoes  are  found  above  6000  feet.  In  the 
Etsch  valley,  or  district  about  Meran  and  Botzen,  red  and 
white  wine  of  excellent  quality  is  produced  (in  1884  about 
6,500,000  gallons).  Of  late  years  the  cultivation  of  fruit 
has  much  developed,  especially  in  south  Tyrol.  Silk  is 
also  produced  (in  1885  1268  tons  of  cocoons).  Game  is 
still  plentiftil  in  the  remoter  valleys.  In  every  district 
there  are  a  certain  number  of  licensed  hunters,  the  prin- 
cipal game  being  red  deer,  chamois,  hares,  blackcock, 
ptarmigan,  ic.  Mining  occupies  about  one-fifth  of  the 
population.  At  Hall  near  Innsbruck  are  important  salt 
works,  and  at  BrLtlegg  in  the  same  valley  copper  and  lead 
are  smelted.  Iron  is  worked  at  Fulpmes  in  the  Stubai 
valley  and  at  Prad  in  the  Vintschgau.  Zinc  is  found  at 
the  head  of  the  Passeir  valley.  In  the  Middle  Ages  gold 
and  silver  were  found  in  sutBcient  quantities  to  make  it 
worth  while  to  extract  them.  About  4340  square  miles  of 
the  country  are  covered  with  forest,  chiefly  pine,  fir,  and 
larch,  which,  however,  is  felled  in  a  recklessly  wasteful 
way.     The  capital  of  the  county  is  Lmnsbrdck  (7.!'.). 

The  general  average  of  comfort  in  Tyrol  is  high,  and  the  cost  of 
living  is  veiy  moderate.  The  peasant  and  his  family  are  clothed 
in  stuffs  spun  and  woven  at  home,  from  the  wool  and  fla.x  produced 
in  their  own  neighbourhood.  The  people  are  for  the  most  part 
somewhat  reserved  in  manner,  but  courteous  and  hospitable.  Tho 
savage  fights  which  used  to  be  a  favourite  pa.stime  among  the 
younger  men  are  now  almost,  or  quite,  a  thing  of  the  past  In 
some  valleys  there  is  a  good  deal  of  musical  talent  ;  and  companies 
of  Tyrolese  singers,  particularly  from  the  Ziller  valley,  travel  about 
all  over  Germany.  The  zither  is  a  favourite  instrument,  especially 
in  the  southern  valleys  ;  in  the  northern  the  guitar  is  more  fru- 
quent.  The  religion  is  almost  exclusively  Roman  Catholic  ;  but 
in  Innsbruck  there  are  some  hundreds  of  Protestants  The  priests 
belong  chiefly  to  the  peasant  class,  and  receive  their  education  a  J 
Brixen  and  the  university  of  Innsbruck.  This  contains  about  600 
students  in  the  various  faculties  and  possesses  a  library  of  some 
60,000  volumes.  There  is  a  diet,  or  landtag,  with  its  seat  at  Inns- 
bruck, consisting  of  thirty  four  representatives  of  the  peasants, 
thirteen  of  the  citi2ens,  four  of  the  prelates,  ten  of  the  nobles,  three 
of  the  chambers  of  commerce  at  Innsbruck,  Botzen,  and  Roveredo, 
and  one  of  the  university  of  Innsbruck.  To  the  imperial  reichs- 
rath  Tyrol  sends  eighteen  members.  Tyrol  is  garrisoned  by  troops 
recruited  exclusively  in  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  and  never,  except 
in  time  of  war,  employed  outside  these  provinces.  Besides  this 
there  are  the  landwehr  and  the  landsturm  or  militia. 

History. — The  country  corresponding  to  modern  Tyrol  first  ap- 
pears in  history  when  the  Rhietians  were  subdued  by  Drusus  and 
Tiberius.  This  nation,  by  some  held  to  have  been  cognate  with 
the  Etruscans,  occupied  the  valleys  from  the  source  of  the  Rhine 
tc  that  of  the  Drave.  To  the  north  of  them  were  the  Vindelici, 
and  to  the  east  the  Norici ,  the  former  were  apparently  separated 


712 


T  Y  R  — T  Y  R 


from  thein  by  the  riilgcs  north  of  tlic  Inn,  the  Utter  by  the  «at«r- 
shej  between  tlie  Etsch  and  the  Drave.  Pliny  (A^.  11.,  lii.  24) 
gives  the  names  of  all  the  tribes.  After  their  subjection  by  Rome 
these  races  became  Romanized  and  shared  the  fortunes  of  the  empire. 
Their  position  on  and  about  the  roads  by  which  the  central  Alps 
nve  most  easily  crossed  laid  tlicin  especially  open  to  inroads,  and 
liefoi  Ibe  end  of  the  3d  century  the  Alemanni  had  traversed  the 
country  In  the  course  of  the  next  three  centuries  this  people 
settled  in  the  noitli  western  valleys.  But  the  peopling  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  province  liy  Tenlons  was  effected  by  the  Baiu 
varii,  who  were  by  the  year  600  Obtablished  throughout  nearly  the 
entire  remainder  of  German  TjToI,  some  of  the  Romanized  Rhoetians 
probably  being  left,  mi.Ked  with  a  few  Alemannic  stragglers,  in 
the  upper  Vintsch^au,  while  the  Lombards  pressed  up  from  the 
southward  arid  took  possession  of  the  district  around  Trent  The 
Alemanni  and  Baiuvarii,  governed  immediately  by  their  own  dukf^s, 
owned  a  kind  of  allegiance  to  the  kings  of  the  Franks,  and  uUi 
raately  became  in  the  time  of  Pippin  and  Charles  incorporated  in 
the  prankish  monarchy.  The  country  was  then  divided  for  ad- 
ministrative purposes  into  counties  {covntatiis,  Gra/scha/lcn},  unJei 
counts,  whose  rank,  at  first  merely  official,  in  course  of  time  became, 
with  their  office,  hereditary.  The  most  powerful  among  them 
appear  to  have  been  those  of  the  Vintschgau,  where  a  fertile'  soil 
and  a  climate  less  rigorous  than  that  of  the  northern  valleys  allowed 
more  development  of  wealth.  In  the  12th  centijiy  the  counts  of 
Tirol  begin  to  be  conspicuous.  This  was  a  small  district  near 
Meran,  taking  its  name  from  the  ancient  castle  of  Tirol,  know  n  in 
the  later  Roman  time  as  Teriolis.  These,  in  the  course  of  the 
nest  century,  acquired  the  lordship  over  nearly  all  the  territory 
now  contained  in  the  province  of  Tyrol  south  of  the  main  chain  of 
the  Alps,  besides  the  advocacy  {Schirntvo(ilci)  of  the  wealthy  sees 
of  Brixen  and  Trent.  Meantime  the  valley  of  the  Inn  and  those 
adjoining  it  had  come  under  the  dominion  of  the  counts  of  Andechs, 
a  Bavarian  family,  who  were  also  titular  counts  of  Meran.  The 
last  of  these  died  without  issue  in  1248.  His  wife's  sister,  Adelaide, 
married  to  Meinhard,  count  of  Gorz,  was  left  in  sole  possession 
of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  province.  Their  son  Meinhard  II 
(1257-1295)  was  connected  with  some  of  the  most  powerful  houses 
in  Germany  ;  and,  being  a  man  of  great  ability  and  equal  un 
scrupulousness,  he  succeeded  in  acquiring  the  few  outl)  ing  portions 
of  territory  and  castles  still  belonging  to  the  smaller  nobles,  and 
thus  consolidated  Tyrol  within  the  limits  by  which  it  has  ever 
since  been  bounded.  Carinthia  and  Styria  also  formed  paft  of 
his  domains  ;  but  their  connexion  with  Tyrol  has  never  been  other 
than  a  personal  one.  Meinhard  II.  was  succeeded  in  turn  by  his 
sons  Otho  and  Henry.  The  latter  (1310-1335),  a  weak  and  ex- 
travagant prince,  seems  to  have  done  much  towards  organizing 
the  government  of  the  country.  His  elder  daughter  Margaret, 
known  in  Tyrolese  history  and  legend  as  Die  MauUasche,  "the 
Pocket- mouth,"  the  heiress  of  his  territories,  took  as  her  second 
husband  (in  1312)  Louis  of  Brandenburg.  Their  son  Bleinbard  III., 
who  succeeded  to  the  county  on  his  father's  death  in  1361,  died  in 
1363.  Margaret  thereupon  made  over  all  her  possessions  to  the 
house  of  Hapsburg,  and  since  that  time  Tyrol  has  formed  part  of 
the'hereditary  dominions  of  the  archdukes  of  Austria  (see  Austria). 
The  fidelity  of  the  Tyrolese  to  their  counts  has  for  many  centuries 
been  ptoveibial.  The  Brenner  has  more  than  once  ofTered  them  a 
secure  line  of  retreat  and  the  mountains  a  rampart  of  defence. 
Maximilian  I  (1493-1519)  had  an  especial  affertion  for  Tyrol  He 
conferied  on  the  province  its  present  title  of  Die  gcfursteU  Graf- 
scJutft ;  he  profited  on  more  than  one  occasion  by  tlie  refuge  it 
afforded  ,  he  spent  much  of  iiis  time  within  it ,  and  at  his  death 
he  directed  tliat  a  sumptuous  monument  to  himself  should  be  erected 
in  the  Franciscans'  church  at  Innsbruck  Tyrol  has  thore  than 
once  been  the  scene  of  sharp  fighting.  In  1499  the  men  of  Ciau- 
biinden  or  the  Grisons  (see  fawnzEBLAND)  invaded  the  countiy  and 
defeated  the  Tyrolese  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mols.  In  1703  Max 
Emmanuel,  elector  of  Bavaria,  penetrated  the  upper  Inn  valley, 
but  was  driven  back  During  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution 
French  and  Austiian  armies  met  more  than  once  within  the  Kmits 
of  the  province.  By  the  treaty  of  Pressburg,  1805,  the  province 
was  transferred  to  Bavaria  Oii  the  renewal  of  war  between  Bona- 
parte and  Austria  in  1809  the  people  rose  .ind  expelled  the  Bavari 
ans,  and  afterwards,  under  the  leadership  of  Andrew  Hofi-r,  an 
innkeeper  of  the  Passeir  valley,  repeatedly  defeated  the  French, 
Bavarian,  and  Saxon  forces.  Innsbruck  was  more  tliaii  once  taken 
and  retaken;  and  on  12th  August  Hofer,  after  defeating  Marshal 
Lefcbvre,  w-as  installed  in  the  capital  as  commandant.  But  the  ill 
success  of  the  Austrian  arms  elsewhere  prevented  any  support  from 
being  sent,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Schbnbrunn  in  October  the  Tyrolese 
were  again  given  up  to  their  new  rulers.  Hofer,  being  captured 
through  treachery,  was  shot  at  JIantua,  20th  February  1810. 
On  the  fall  of  Bonaparte,  Tyrol  reverted  to  the  house  of  Hapshurg. 
See  A.  JSRCr,  Die  I^pr/if^siinfl  TWols,  Iiinsbnick,  ISSl-.'^S;  Ejrper.  Die  Tiivlei 
mifl  ^orarlUrgcr.  Innsbruck.  1S72-79;  St«ub.  Dni  St»""ief  in  Tirol.  Slult-'.-irt. 
1871  (2(1  eU.l.  (.\  J   B.) 

TYRONE,  an  inland  county  of  Ireland,  in  tlie  province 


of  Ulster,  is  bounded  N.  and  \V.  by  Donegal,  N.E.  by 
Londonderry,  E.  by  Lotigh  Neagh  and  Armagh,  and  S. 
by  Monaghan  and  Fermanagh  Its  greatest  length  from 
north  to  south  is  46  miles  and  from  east  to  west  60:  The 
total  area  in  1881  was  806,638  acres  or  about  1260  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  hilly,  rising  into 
mountains  towards  the  north  and  south,  but  eastwards 
towards  Lough  Neagh  it  declines  into  a  level  plain.  Run- 
ning along  the  northeastern  boundary  with  Londonderry 
are  the  ridges  of  the  Sperrin  Mountains  (Sawell  2236  feet 
an>l  Meenard  2064  feet).  Farther  south  there  are  a  range 
of  lower  hillb  and  MuUaghearn  to  the  nojth  of  Omagh  (1890 
feet)  South  of  Clogher  a  range  of  hills  (1265  feet)  forms 
the  boundary  between  Tyrone  and  Monaghan.  On  each 
side  of  the  Mourne  river  near  Omagh  rise  the  two  pictur- 
e.^que  hills  Bes.?y  Bell  and  Mary  Gray  The  Foyle  forms 
a  iiicall  portion  of  the  western  boundary  of  the  county, 
and  receives  the  Mourne,  which  flows  northward  by  Omagb 
and  Newtown  Stewart  The  principal  tributaries  of  the 
Mourne  are  the  Derg,  from  Lough  Derg,  and  the  Oweii- 
killew,  flowing  westward  from  Fir  Mountain.  The  Black- 
water,  whioh  is  navigable  by  boats  to  Moy,  rises  near  Five- 
Mile  Town,  and  forms  part  of  the  south-eastern  boundary 
of  the  county  with  Monaghan  and  Armagh.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Lough  Neagh,  bounding  the  county  on  the  east, 
the  lakes  are  small,  also  few  in  number.  Lough  Fea  i» 
picturesquely  situated  in  the  north-west,  and  there  are 
several  small  lakes  near  Newtown  Stewart.  The  Ulster 
Canal  runs  along  the  southern  boundary  of  the  county  from 
Lough  Neagh  to  Caledon  The  substratum  of  the  northern 
mountains  is  mica  slate  interspersed  with  primary  lime- 
stone. Yellow  sandstone  appears  in  the  north-west,  in  the 
centre  towards  Omagh,  and  in  the  south-west,  where  it 
plunges  into  Fermanagh  The  greater  portion  of  the 
central  area  of  the  county  is  occupied  by  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone. The  Tyrone  coal  field  (6  miles  long  by  1  to  2  broad) 
e.xtends  between  Lough  Neagh  and  Dungannon,  all  the 
measures  being  represented  The  coal  field  is  much  broken 
by  faults  and  has  been  worked  chiefly  near  the  surface, 
and  generally  in  an  unskdful  manner ;  the  principal  pits 
are  near  Dungannon  and  at  Coal  Island  The  coal  is 
bituminous.  There  are  also  indications  of  copper,  iron, 
and  lead 

Agriculture. — The  hilly  portions  of  the  county  are  unsuitable- 
for  tillage  ,  but  in  the  lower  districts  the  soil  is  remarkably  fertile, 
and  agriculture  is  generally  practised  at'tcr  improved  methods,  the- 
county  in  this  respect  being  in  advance  of  most  parts  of  Ireland. 
The  excellent  pasturage  of  the  hilly  districts  affords  sustenance  to. 
a  large  number  of  young  cattle  The  total  number  of  holdings  in 
1885  was  27,953,  of  which  16,469  or  nearly  two-thirds  were  each, 
between  5  and  30  acres  in  extent  (8365  between  5  and  15  and  8104 
between  15  and  30>  Only  43  were  above  500  acres;  642  were  be- 
tween 100  and  500  acres,  2373  between  50  and  100,  3937  betweett 
30  and  50,  2573  between  1  and  5,  and  1921  did  not  exceed  1  acre. 
There  were  237,528  acres  under  crops',  mcluding  meadow  and  clover 
(253,281  acres  in  1876),  318,550  acres  under  grass,  1765  fallow, 
9378  woods,  72,071  bog  and  marsh,  109,539  barren  mountain  land, 
and  30,112  water,  roads,  fences,  &c.  The  area  under  corn  crops 
decreased  between  1876  and  1885  from  115,738  acrei  to  105,343, — 
oats  from  114,223  acres  to  104,040,  and  wheat  from  1166  to  1013. 
The  areas  under  the  othei  corn  crops  are  very  small  and  fluctuate- 
considerably.  The  area  under  green  crops  between  1876  and  1885 
decreased  from  64,971  to  5.9,387  acres,  — potatoes  from  44,001  to 
40,649,  turnips  from  17,157  to  15,581,  mangel  wiirzel  from  750  to 
487,  and  other  green  crops  from  3063  to  2670.  Flax  (23,901  acres 
in  1876)  covered  16,364  acres  in  1885  The  area  under  meadow 
and  clover  in  1876  was  50.671,  and  in  1885  56,434,  but  there  has 
been  no  increase  since  1878.  'flic  number  of  horses  decreased  be- 
tween 1S76  .and  1SS5  from  25,038  to  23,185,  of  mules  from  71  to 
49,  of  asses  from  1124  to  921,  of  cattle  from  176,841  to  168,072, 
of  sheep  from  45,274  to  44,434,  and  of  pigs  from  49,012  to  39,530. 
On  the  other  hand,  tlie  number  of  eo.ats  increased  from  7950  to  8984, 
and  of  poultry  from  674,826  to  737,859. 

According  to  the  latest  landowner's  Return  (1876),  the  county  was 
divided  among  27S7  proprietors  omiing  773,285  acres  at  a  total 
annual  value  of  £426,224,  the  average  value  per  acre  being  nearly 


T  Y  R  — T  Y  T 


713 


tls.  Of  the  proprietors  1070  owned  less  than  1  acre  each,  the  total 
distributed  amongst  them  bein"  272  acres.  The  estimated  extent 
of  waste  land  was  4000  acres.  The  following  possessed  over  10,000 
acres  each — duke  of  Abercorn  47,615  acres,  earl  of  Castlestuart 
32,615,  e.irl  of  Caledon  29,236,  commissioners  of  cliurch  tempor- 
alities 28,002,  Sir  John  M.  Stewart  27,906,  Arthur  W.  Cole  Hamilton 
16,6S3,  representatives  of  Sir  William  M'Mahou  16,326,  Sir  William 
Vemer  16.043,  earl  of  Belmore  14,359,  Thomas  Arthur  Hope  13,996, 
Lord  Dorchester  12,603,  Michael  Smith  10,963,  Louisa  Elizabeth 
De  Bille  10,455.  and  Thomas  R  Browne  10,125. 

CvmmuniccUioit.  —  Besides  Lou"h  Neagh  and  the  Ulster  Canal, 
TjTone  has  the  river  Foyle,  which  is  navigable  for  small  craft  to  a 

foint  opposite  St  Johnstone,  and  theuce  by  artiQcial  cutting  to 
trabane,  and  the  Blacknater,  which  is  navigable  for  boats  to  Moy. 
The  Great  Northern  Railway  intersects  the  county  by  Dunganuon, 
Pomeroy,  Oraagh,  Newtown  Stewart,  and  Stiabane. 

Manufactures. — The  manufacture  of  linens  and  coarse  woollens 
(including  blankets)  is  carried  on.  Brown  earthenware,  chemicals, 
tvhisky,  soap,  and  candles  are  also  made.  There  are  a  few  breweries 
and  distilleries,  and  several  flour  and  meal  mills.  But  for  the  lack 
of  enterprise  the  coal  and  ii*on  might  aid  in  the  development  of  a 
tomulerable  manufacturing  industry 

Ail'innistralion  and  Popnlattun- — The  county  comprises  3  baro* 
oics,  46  parishes,  and  2164  townlauds.  Formerly  it  returned  two 
members  to  parliament,  the  borough  of  Dungannon  also  returning 
■one ;  but  in  1885  Dungannon  was  disfranchised  and  the  county 
aiTanged  in  four  divisions — east,  mid,  north,  and  south  —  each 
feturiiing  one  member.  It  is  in  the  north-western  circuit,  and  as- 
si2es  are  held  at  Om.igh  and  quarter-sessions  at  Clogher,  Dungan- 
non, Omagh,  and  Strabane.  There  are  fourteen  petty  sessions 
districts  within  the  county  and  portions  of  four  others.  The  county 
is  in  the  Belfast  military  district. 

From  312,956  in  1841  the  population  had  decreased  by  1661  to 
238,500,  by  1S71  to  215,766,  and  by  1881  to  197,719  (96,466  males 
and  101,253  females).  In  1S81  there  were  109,793  Roman  Catliolics 
<119,937  in  1871).  44,256  Protestant  Episcoialians  (49,201  in  1871), 
■38,564  Presbyterians  (42,156  in  1871),  3597  Methodists  (3115  in 
1871),  and  1509.  of  other  denominations  (1357  in  1871).  The 
number  of  persons  in  the  county  who  could  read  and  write  in  1S81 
was  98,764,  who  could  read  only  38.783,  the  remainder  (60,172) 
being  wholly  illiterate.  Twenty-two  persons  could  speak  Irish  only 
and  9796  Irish  and  English.  For  the  seven  years  ending  1885  the 
average  number  of  emigrauts  aanually  was  3085.  The  population 
of  the  principal  towns  in  1831  was — Strabane  4196,  Omagh  (the 
county  town)  4138.  Dungannon  4084.  and  Cookstown  3870. 

Uisiorif  and  AiUiquitiiS. — Aucieutly  Tyrone  was  included  in  the 
portion  of  Ulster  made  "sword-land"  by  the  Scots.  It  became  a 
principality  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Ni.iU  of  the  Nine  Hostages,  and 
from  his  name — Eogain — was  called  Tir  Eogain,  gradually  altered 
to  T\Tone.  From  Eogain  were  descended  the  O'Xeals  or  O'Neills 
and  their  numerous  septs.  The  family  had  their  cliief  seat  at  Dun- 
gannon until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when  it  was  burned  by  Hugh 
O'Neill  to  prevent  it  falling  into  the  hands  of  Lord  Monntjoy. 
The  earldom  of  Tyrone  had  been  conferred  on  Con  Bacagh  O'Neill 
by  Henry  VIII.,  but  he  was  driven  into  the  Pale  by  one  of  his  sons 
Shan,  who  with  the  gcnei^al  consent  of  the  people  was  then  pro. 
claimed  chief  From  this  time  he  maintained  a  contest  with 
English  authority,  but  his  last  remaining  forces  were  completely 
■defeated  near  the  river  Foyle  iu  May  1567.  During  the  insurrection 
»f  1641  Charlemont  Fort  and  Duiigaunon  were  captured  by  Sir 
Phelim  O'Neill,  and  in  1645  the  Parliamentary  forces  under  General 
Munro  were  signally  defeated  by  Owen  Roe  O'Xcill  at  Benburb. 
At  the  Revolution  the  county  was  for  a  long  time  in  the  possession 
of  the  forces  of  James  II.  Dungannon  was  the  scene  of  the  famous 
volunteer  convention  in  1782.  Raths  are  scattered  over  every  dis- 
trict of  the  county.  There  is  a  large  cromlech  near  Newtown 
Stewart,  another  at  Tanilaglit  near  Coagh,  and  another  a  mile 
iibove  Castlederg.  At  Kilmeillie  near  Dungannon  are  two  circles 
of  stones.  The  monastic  remains  are  of  comparatively  little  interest. 
There  are  still  some  ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  the  O'Neills,  near 
Benburb,  and  among  other  ruined  old  castles  mention  may  be 
made  of  those  of  Newtown  Stewart,  Dunganuon,  Strabane,  and 
Ballygawley. 

TYRTiEUS,  Greek  elegiac  poet,  lived  at  Sparta  about 
the  middle  of  the  7th  century  B.C.  According  to  the 
legend  current  in  later  times,  he  was  a  native  of  the 
Attic  deme  of  Aphidnae,  and  was  invited  to  Sparta,  on 
the  suggestion  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  to  assist  the  Spartans 
in  the  Second  Messenian  War.  It  is  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  determine  the  element  of  truth  in  this  story. 
Herodotus  at  least  either  did  not  know,  or  disbelieved, 
the  tradition,  which  meets  us  first  in  Plato  (Laws,  i.  629A), 
to  the  effect  that,  although  Tyrtaius  was  by  birth  an 
Athenian,  he  had  the  Spartan  citizenship  conferred  upon 


mm  (see  Herod.,  is.  3o).  From  Plato  down  to  Pausanias 
we  can  trace  the  gradual  growth  and  e.xpansion  of  the 
legend.  Ephorus  is  the  first  to  call  TyrtiBus  a  lame  poet-; 
by  later  generations  he  is  represented  as  a,  lame  schooU 
master.  Basing  his  inference  on  the  ground  that  Tyrta>UH 
speaks  of  himself  as  a  citizen  of  Spaita  (/•>.  2  v.  3), 
Strabo  (viii.  4,  10)  was  inclined  to  reject  the  .stnry  of  his 
Athenian  oriijiii,  regarding  the  elegies  in  quastion  as 
spurious.  Oi!  cLO  w  hole,  perhaps,  the  conjecture  I'f  Busolt 
(Gr.  Gesr/i.,  p.  IGG)  coines  nearest  to  the  truth  :  the  entire 
legend  may  well  have  been  concocted  during  the  5th  century 
in  connexion  with  the  expedition  sent  to  the  assistance  of 
Sparta  in  her  struggle  with  the  revolted  Helots  at  Ithome. 
It  is  possible,  as  Busolt  suggests,  that  Tyrtitiis  was  in 
reality  a  native  of  Aphidna  in  Laconia.  However  this 
may  be,  it  is  certain  from  the  fragments  of  his  poems  that 
he  flourished  during  the  Second  Messenian  War  {vuc.  650 
B.C.) — a  period  of  remarkable  musical  and  poetical  activity 
at  Sparta  (see  Terp.\ndee) — that  he  not  only  wrote  poetry 
but  took  part  in  the  actual  service  of  the  field,  and  that 
he  endeavoured  to  compose  the  internal  di-ssensions  of 
Sparta  by  inspiring  the  citizens  w-ith  a  patriotic  love 
for  their  fatherland  and  its  institutions. 

We  possess  in  all  about  twelve  fragments  of  Tyrtjeus's 
poetry,  varying  in  length  from  one  to  forty-four  hues. 
They  are  preserved  by  Strabo,  Lycurgus,  StobMus,  and 
others.  We  may  divide  them  into  two  varieties,  accord- 
ing to  the  metre  and  dialect  in  which  they  are  composed. 
The  first  class  consists  of  elegies  in  the  Ionic  dialect> 
written  partly  in  praise  of  the  Spartan  constitution  and 
King  Theopompus  (Evvofiia),  partly  to  stimulate  the 
Spartan  soldiers  to  deeds  of  heroism  in  the  field  {'YiroOiJKai 
— the  title  is,  however,  later  than  Tyi-ta;us).  The  interest 
of  the  fragments  preserved  from  the  EiJi'oy^i'a  is  mainly 
historical :  they  form  our  only  trustworthy  authority  for 
the  events  of  the  First  Jlessenian  War  {Fi:  5,  6,  7).  The 
'Y-o6']Kai  possess  considerable  poetic  merit,  in  spite  of  the 
occasionaLmonotony  of  their  versification.  Addressed  to  a 
nation  of  warriors,  they  paint  in  vivid  colours  the  beauty 
of  bravery  and  the  shame  of  cowardice;  there  are  also 
lines  in  them  which  reveal  the  so'idier  as  well  as  the  poet, 
f.g..  Ft.  10,  31-32.  One  striking  feature  is  the  genuinely 
Greek  feeling  for  plastic  beauty,  sho'jving  itself  in  the 
beautiful  picture  of  the  youthful  form  lying  dead  u])oi> 
the  battle-field  {Fr.  10,  27-30,  and  12,  23-31;  see  also 
Symonds's  Greek  Poets,  i.  p.  '■1).  The  popularity  of  these 
elegies  in  the  Spartan  army  was  such  that,  according  to 
Athenajus  (xiv.  630  F),  it  became  the  custom  for  the  soldiera 
to  sing  them  round  the  camp  fires  at  night,  the  polemarch 
rewarding  the  best  singer  with  a  piece  of  flesh.  Of  the 
second  class  of  Tyrtjeus's  poems,  marching  songs,  written 
in  the  ar.apfestic  measure  and  the  Dorian  dialect,  the  re- 
mains are  too  scanty  to  allow  of  oiu-  pronouncing  a  judg. 
meut  on  their  poetic  merit. 

See  Bcrgk,  Pods  Lyrid  GrsKi,  vol  u.  pp.  8-22,  Leipsic,  1882. 
Fragment  10  (reSj/d/iffoi  ydp  A;aX6i>,  &c,)  has  been  translated  IBto 
English  vei-se  by  CampbelL 

TYTLER  The  surname  of  three  Scottish  writers 
principally  ai  historical  subiects. 

1.  Alexander  Feaser  Tytler  (I747-1S'.?),  Lnrd 
Woodhouselee,  Scottish  judge,  was  the  eldest  son  of  William 
Tytler  (see  below),  and  was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  15tli 
October  1747.  After  passing  through  the  High  School, 
he  was  sent  in  1763  to  a  school  at  Kensington  taught  by 
Dr  Elphinston,  the  translator  of  Martial's  Epigrams.  Ho 
returned  to  Edinburgh  in  1765,  skilled  in  Latin  versifica- 
tion, and  with  a  competent  knowledge  of  Italian,  and  a 
taste  for  drawing  and  natural  history.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1770.  His  first  work,  a  supplement  to  the 
Dictionary  of  Decisions,  undertaken  on  the  suggestion  of 

XXIII.  —  go 


714 


T  Y  U  — T  Z  E 


Lord  Karnes,  was  published  in  1778,  and  a  continuation 
appeared  in  1796.  In  17S0  Tytler  was  appointed  con- 
joint professor  of  universal  history  in  the  ""'versity  of 
Edinburgh,  becoming  solo  professor  in  1786.  In  17b:i  lie 
published  Ouahies  of  his  course  of  lectures,  afterwards 
extended  and  republished  under  the  title  of  Elemerits  of 
General  HUiory.  The  Elements  has  passed  through  many 
editions,  and  has  been  translated  into  several  European 
Lantrua'^es  as  well  as  into  Hindustani.  The  lectures  them- 
selves were  published  in  1831  in  Murray's  Family  Library 
In  1790  Tytler  was  appointed  judge-advocate  of  Scotland, 
and  while  holding  this  office  he  wrote  a  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Courts-Martial.  In  1801  he  was  raised  to  the  bench, 
taking  his  seat  (1802)  in  the  court  of  session  as  Lord  \\  ood- 
houselee.     He  died  at  Edinburgh  on  5th  January  IbU. 

BesiJes  the  wo.ks  alreaJy  mentioi.cJ,  he  was  the  autliovof  severe 
papers  in  the  Mirror,  the  Lounger,  and  the  Transactions  of  the  Koijal 
&y  of  Edinburgh  ;  he  also  wrot  Life  and  lyrUings  of  Dr  John 
Gregory;  Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Translalion,\,9() ;  a  disserta- 
tion on  h^i  Causes,  rie6Ned  to  his  edition  of  Derham  s /■/iy«m- 
Theology,  1799;  a  political  pamphlet  entitled  Iceland  profiting  l,y 
Example,  1799  ;  an  Essay  on  Uuia  and  Petrarch  ;  and  T)ie  Life 
tnd  Writings  of  Henry  Home,  Lord  Karnes,  1807. 

2.  P.^TRicK  Eraser  Tytler  (1791-1849),  as  tne  son 
of  Lord  Woodhouselee  and  grandson  of  William  Tytler, 
mav  be  said  to  have  inherited  a  taste  for  literary  and  his- 
torical pursuits.      He  was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  30th 
A.ufu«t  1-791,  and  was  educated  chiefly  at  the  High  School 
and°  university,  being  called  to  the  bar  in  1813.     His 
earliest  literary  efifort  appears  to  have  boen  a  chapter  or 
two  contributed  to  Alison's  Travels  in  France  (181o) ;  and 
his  first  independent  essays  were  papers  in  Blackwoods 
VeiggLzine.     Inheriting  the  family  talent  for  music,  and 
with  a  facility  in  throwing  off  humorous  little  poems  and 
sonc^  he  made  several  contributions  to  Thomson  s  Select 
Melodies  of  Scotland,  1824.     In   1819  he  published  the 
Life  of  James  Crichton.  of  Clnny,   commonly  called  the 
Admirable  Crichton,  a  SLCond  editior.  appearing  in  1823 
This  was  followed  by  a  Memoir  of  Sir  ThMias  Craig  of 
Riccarton,  1823  ;  an  Essay  on  the  Revival  of  Greek  Litera- 
ture in   Italy,   and  a  i//V  o/  John    WiMif,   published 
anonymously,  in  1826.     the  /lisfory  of  Scotland  was  un- 
dertaken  at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  occupied 
Tytler  for  nearly  twenty  years,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
removed  to  London  for  convenience  of  research.    The  first 
volume  appeared  in  1828,  and  the  ninth  and  last  in  1843 
The  original  investigations  on  which  the  work  was  founded 
gave  it  an  authority  which  no  previous  history  of  Scotland 
possessed,  and  the  clear  and  graphic  style  made  it  inter- 
esting and  popular.      The  last  few  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  in  physical  prostration  and  mental  depression,  and 
he  died  at  Great  Malvern  on  24th  December  1849. 

Durino  the  progress  of  his  History  a  large  amount  of  other  wovK 
came  from  his  pen,  as  the  following  list  ihows  •.-iu'«  o/  feoUish 
Worthies,  for  lluriay-s  Family  Library,  3  vols.,  1831-33  ;  Hiftori- 
cal  View  of  the  Progress  of  Discovery  in  America  1832,  and  iyco/ 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  1833,  for  the  Edinburgh  Cabinet  Library; 
Life  of  Henry  VUI.,  1837  ;  England  under  the  Reigns  of  Edu-ard 
VL  and  Mary,  from  original  letters, 2  vols.,  1S39  ;  article  -Scotland 
in  the  sev.enth  edition  of  the  Encyclopmdia  Britannicamnv:iu\s, 
published  separately  as  a  school  history)  ;  Notes  on  The  Dariihy 
Jeicel  1843  ;  on  the  Portraits  of  Mary  (?i«cn  of  Scots,  lS4o 
(privately  printed) ;  and  Memoirs  of  the  War  carried  on  in  Sco.land 
and  Ireland.  16S9-91,  by  General  Maekay,  edited  in  conjunction 
with  Hog  and  Urquhart,  and  presented  to  the  Bannatyne  apU 
Maitland  Clubs  in  1833. 

3.  William  Tytler  (1711^792),  of  Woodhouselee, 
writer  on  historical  and  antiquarian  subjects,  was  the  son 
of  Alexander  Tytler,  writer  in  Edinburgh,  and  was  born  in 
that  city  on  12th  October  1711.  He  was  educated  at  the 
High  School  and  the  university,  and,  having  adopted  his 
father's  profession,  was  in  1744  admitted  into  the  society 
"of  Writers  to  the  Signet.  While  successfully  jiractising 
as  a  lawyer,  he  found  time  to  devote  attention  to  liistorical 


investigation.  In  1759  he  published  an  Inquiry,  fTiston- 
cal  and  Cntical,  into  the  Evidence  agavist  M<iry  Queen  of 
.Scots,  and  an  Examination  of  the  Histories  of  Dr  R..ici-lso>f 
and  Mr  Hume  with  respect  to  that  Evidence.  This  woik» 
which  warmly  defended  the  character  of  the  queen,  met 
with  great  success.  Four  editions,  the  later  ones  con- 
siderably enlarged,  were  publibhed  in  the  author's  lifetime;, 
and  it  was  translated  into  French.  In  1783  he  published 
the  Poetjcal  Remains  of  James  the  Fir.-^l,  king  of  Scotland, 
to  which  he  added  a"  dissertation  cm -the  life  and  writings, 
of  the  royal  author.  He  wrote  an  essay  on  "Scottisli 
Music,"  which  was  appended  to  Aniot's  History  of  Edin- 
burgh His  "  Dissertation  on  the  Marriage  of  Queen  Marj- 
to  the  Earl  of  Bothweli  "  and  "  Observations  on  the  Visioi>,_ 
a  Poem  "  appeared  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Sonety  ot 
Antiquaries  of  S'.otland{\7':)\-':)2).  A  paper  in  the  Lounger, 
on  "  Defects  of  Modern  Female  Education,"  and  an  Account 
of  Fashionable  Amusements  inr Edinburgh  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century  complete  the  list  of  his  works.  He  died  at  Edin- 
burgh on  12th  September  17D2. 

TYUJIEN,   a  district  town  of  West  Siberia,   in    the 
government  of  Tobolsk,  is  situated  at  a  point  where  the 
chief  hi-'hway  from  Russia  across  the  Urals"  touches  the- 
first  navigable  river  (the  Tura)  of  Siberia.      A   railway 
passint'   through   Ekaterinburg   ajid    the    principal    iron- 
works on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Aiddle  Urals  connects. 
Tyumen  with  Perm,  the  terminus  of  steamboat  traffic  on 
the  Kama  and  Volga.     The  Tura  being  a  ti  ibutary  of  tlie 
Tobol,   which  joins  the   Irtish,  a  tributary  of   the  Ob. 
Tyumen  has  regular  steam  communication  with  Omsk 
and  Semipalatinsk  by  the  Irtish  (steamers-penetrating  as 
■far  as  Lake  Zaisan  in  Dzungaria) ;  with  Tomsk,  Barnaut, 
and  Biysk,  in  the  Altai,  by  the  Ob  and  the  Tom  ;  witlt, 
Irbit— the  seat  of  the  great  Siberian  fair  — by  the  Tura 
and  the  Nitsa ;   and  by  the  Tobol,  the  Irtish,  and  th& 
Ob  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  fisheries  of  the  lower 
Ob.     Tyumen  stands  also  at  the  western  extremity  of 
the  Siberian  highway  which  goes  via  Omsk,  Tomsk,  and 
Krasnoyarsk  to  Irkutsk.     In  summer  the  Tura  sometimes, 
falls  so  low  that  steamers  have  to  stop  90  miles  off,  pass- 
engers and  goods  being  taken  thence  toTyumeii  in  lighter 
vessels.    The  town  is  well  built,  and  stands  on  both  banks 
of  the  Tura,  which  is  here  spanned  by  a  bridge.     The 
portion  on  the  low  left  bank  is  inhabited  by  the  poorest 
class  and  is  often  inundated  ;  the  best  houses  are  on  the 
hich  richt  bank.    The  streets  are  unpaved,  hut  the  houses 
(principally  wooden)  are  for  the  most  part  inclosed  by 
gardens.     The  people,  who  are  famed  throughout  Siberia 
for   their   good  looks,   have  always  Been   renowned   for 
their  industrial  skill.      Woollen,  doth,  linen,  belts,  and 
especially  boots  and  gloves,  are  manufactured  to  a  large- 
amount  (70,000  pairs  of  boots  and  300,000  pairs  of  gloves, 
annually).    Tyumen  carpets,  although  made  in  the  simplest 
way  and  with  the  plainest  tools,  have  a  wide  renown  m 
Russia  and  Siberia,  and  recently  have  appeared  in  the 
markets  of  western  Europe  as  of  Oriental  origin.   All  kinds, 
of  metal  wares  are  made  in  Imall  workshops.    Sheepskins, 
and  various  kinds  of  cloth  are  extensively  manufactured,, 
and  the  leather  prepared  at  the  tanneries  (100  in  number) 
is  extensively  sold  all  over  Siberia,  the  Kirghiz  steppe  and 
Bokhara.     An  establishment  has  recently  been  opened  for 
the  construction  of  barges,  and  a  paper-mill,  the  first  m 
Siberia,  was  opened  in  1886.    The  trade  of  Tyumen  is  ex- 
ceeded only  by  that  of  Irkutsk  and  of  Tomsk.    In  additwn 
to  its  primary  schools  Tyumen  has  a  "  real "  school.     The 
population,  which  is  of  a  fluctuating  character  in  summer, 
is  differently  estimated  at  13,000,  14,500,  and  18,000. 
TZARSKOYE  SELO.     See  Tsarskoye  Selo. 
TZETZES,  Joannes,  a  voluminous  Byzantine  writer  of 
the  12lli  century.     See  GREECE,  vol.  xi.  p.  145  sq. 


715 


U 


U  holds  Ui©  t woutj-first  place  in  our  alphabet  The 
corresiicnJiiig  place  in  the  Greek  alphabets  was 
occupied  by  Y  (viitU  jomc  sliijlit  variations  of  form).  The 
form  in  tho  Italian  nl|.liabt;t3  was  generally  V  These 
three  are  only  modifications  of  one  original ;  but  they  are 
independent  symbols  with  us,  though  Y  does  not  represent 
any  sound  otherwise  unrepresented.  It  will  be  most  con- 
venient to  describe  the  three  forms  once  for  all. 

With  T  we  reach  the  end  of  the  original  Phoenician 
alphabet.  The  remaining  symbols — no  fewer  than  six  with 
as,  four  in  the  completed  Latin  alphabet — are  accretions, 
either  modifications  of  old  symbols  for  greater  exactness  or 
old  symbols  thcmseUes  which  had  fallen  outof  their  proper 
place  and  were  addctl  again.  The  first  new  symbol  was 
nee<led  to  represent  the  important  vowel  sound  u.  \Ve 
have  already  seen  that  the  Greeks  employed  the  PhtEnician 
synilxiU  for  the  breaths  winch  they  did  not  want  as  symbols 
for  the  vowels  which  they  did  want.  Thus  we  should  have 
expt'Cled  that  the  Pha;iiician  vau  would  have  been  used 
for  i<  Cut  vau  was  already  employed  for  to,  which  was 
a  living  sound  in  early  Greek  ,  the  form  used  was  F  (the 
so-called  digamma),  the  oiigin  of  our  F.  What  then  was 
the  origin  of  the  symbol  for  a  1  In  the  earliest  Greek  we 
find  the  two  forms  Y  and  V,  e.g ,  in  inscriptions  of  Thera. 
Now  the  Moabite  form  of  vau  is  Y,  which  resembles  the 

Y  more  than  F.  It  is  difficult  to  see  why  the  presumably 
oldest  Phoenician  form  should  appear,  not  in  the  sixth  place 
of  the  Greek  alphabet,  but  at  the  end,  where  it  must  have 
been  an  arbitrary  addition  ;  and,  although  the  Y  form 
could  be  derived  from  F  (middle  steps  are  found),  it  is  not 
easy  to  get  F  from  Y.  We  may  suppose  that  the  two 
symbols,  F  and  Y,  were  obtained  by  the  Greeks  from 
independent  Phoenician  alphabets,  the  first  being  kept  by 
those  Greeks  who  required  a  symbol  for  w,  and  did  not  at 
first  need  any  special  sign  to  distinguish  u  (which  in  the 
eailiest  Greek  times  known  to  us  had  the  value  of  German 
<•)  from  0  ;  while  the  others  took  the  form  Y  to  express  the 
modified  u,  and  probably  never  really  adopted  the  F, 
except  as  a  numeral ;  it  does  not  appear  even  in  the  very 
old  Abu  Simbel  inscription  written  by  the  Ionian  mercen- 
aries of  Psammitichu.s.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  that  in- 
scription both  the  forms  Y  and  V  appear,  whereas  in  those 
of  Thera  and  Melos  we  have  sometimes  the  one  sometimes 
the  other,  but  not  both  in  the  same  inscription,  and  a 
study  of  the  writing  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Y 
was  felt  to  be  the  true  (i.e.,  the  older)  form,  but  that  V 
was  used  more  frequently  for  the  sake  of  simplicity.    - 

At  Piome  the  single  form  V  denoted  both  the  vowel  v 
and  also  the  consonantal  lo.  F  retained  its  place  as  sixth 
in  the  alphabet,  but  with  the  value  of/,  which  was  un- 
known to  the  Greeks,  a  peculiar  form,  C,  in  which  the 
middle  stroke  has  gone  to  the  bottom,  seems  to  have  been 
affected  by  its  neighbour  E  ,  this  is  found  in  Etruscan, 
Umbrian,  and  Samnite  inscriptions ,  it  has,  however,  the 
value  of  to ,  while  a  curious  symbol  8  appears  at  the  end 
of  the  Etruscan  alphabet,  and  is  also  used  in  the  Eugubine 
tables,  with  the  value  of/;  the  origin  of  this  is  uncertain. 
It  may  be  a  rounded  form  of  the  second  symbol  in  the 
digraph  FB  {i.e.,  FH)  by  which  the  sound  F  is  indicated 
in  a  very  old  inscription  (see  Rhein.  J/us.,  slii.  317),  if 
this  is  so,  the  Latin  alphabet  has  the  first  member  of  the 
digraph,  the  Etruscan  has  the  second.     Next,  the  symbol 

Y  was  added  (together  with  Z)  in  the  1st  century  b.c  to 
represent  more  e.xactly,  in  borrowed  words,  the  sound  of 
Greek  ppsiloa 


Lastly,  the  form  U  was  dilferentiated  from  V,  It  is  thft 
uncial  form,  and  so  belongs  to  the  general  transition  from 
the  pointed  to  the  rounded  character  which  conduced  to- 
greater  convenience  of  wTiting.  E.xamples  of  it  may  be 
seen  in  the  article  on  Pal.eography  ;  see  the  specimen  of 
Latin  uncial  of  the  5th  or  6th  century  (vol.  xviii.  p.  153), 
and  the  half-uncial  of  the  Lindisfarne  Gospels,  about  706 
A.D.  (i6i</ ,  p.  159).  It  was  clearly  a  matter  of  convenience 
to  have  separate  symbols  to  represent  sounds  so  distinct  aa 
u  and  V ;  but  the  application  of  the  two  symbols  seems  to 
have  been  due  to  chance  rather  than  design.  The  form 
V  remained  in  use  at  the  be.sjinning  of  words,  whereas  u, 
which  was  the  uncial  and  cursive  form,  naturally  was  used 
rather  in  the  middle ;  by  degrees  the  initial  form  was  a[>- 
jiropriated  to  consonants, — perhaps,  as  Dr  Taylor  suggests 
{Alp/iabet,  ii.  189),  because  the  consonant  is  commoner  at 
the  beginning  of  words,  or  for  some  other  reason,  while  the 
medial  form  was  connected  with  vowels. 

The  sound  which  U  denotes  is  produced  by  "  rounding  " 
the  lips  to  the  furthest  extent  consistent  with  a  clear 
vowel-sound,  and  by  raising  the  back  of  the  tongue  higher 
than  for  any  other  rounded  sound.  It  has  two  varieties 
(like  all  other  vowels)  according  as  the  position  of  the 
tongue  is  more  or  less  tense,  producing  thereby  a  narrower 
or  a  wider  aperture  for  the  voice  to  pass  through  ;  whence 
the  sounds  are  technically  called  "narrow "and  "wide" 
respectively.  The  narrow  sound  is  heard  in  English  only 
when  the  vowel  is  long,  as  in  "  book,"  "  rule,"  but  in 
northern  English  (Scotch)  "  book "  may  be  heard  short. 
The  wide  sound  is  heard  in  "  full,"  "good."  The  digraph 
00  is  commonly  used  for  the  u  sound,  and  attests  the  fact 
that  the  original  sound  of  5has  frequently  passed  into  u, 
as  in  "good,"  "food,"  ic,  written_  "  gode,"  "fode"  ia 
Middle  English  ;  sometimes,  however,  the  oo  has  come  by 
analogy  into  words  where  u  is  the  original  sound,  as  in. 
"  room,"  M.E.  "  roura,"  O.K.  "  rum."  Original  u  has  com- 
monly passed  into  the  au  sound,  spelt  in  English  qu  or  oiPy 
as  in  "how,"  "house,"  "mouse,"  "bower,"  for  O.E.  "Im," 
"hus,"  "mus,"  "bur,"  According  to  Mr  A.  J.  Ellis,-, 
words  derived  from  the  French  had  in  Chaucer's  time  the 
sound  of  French  w  ,  and  Sir  John  Chcke's statement  "cum 
duie,  title,  htte,  reixtke,  Svk,  tux,  \vt,  pt/SiK  dicimus, 
Grsecum  v  sonaremus,"  seems  strong  for  the  same  practice 
in  the  16th  century.  In  the  17th  century  the  modern  pro- 
nunciation of  K  as  iu  in  "  muse,"  "duke,"  "  mute,"  "  pure"^ 
had  come  in  Hence  also  we  may  explain  the  substitutioo 
of  u  for  y  in  some  genuine  Englibh  words,  as  "  busy  "  (orig- 
bysig)  At  the  same  time  begins  the  corruption  of  a  to 
the  (so-called)  u  sound  in  "  but,"  "shut,"  ic.  ,  this  is  not 
a  a  sound  at  all,  but  the  neutral  vowel  as  heard  indifier- 
ently  in  "but,"  "sun,"  "son,"  "blood"  ,  it  is  often  con- 
founded by  writers  with  the  true  a  heard  in  "  pull "  and 
in  the  northern  pronunciation  of  "but,"  "shiit"  For  the 
history  of  the  German  "  modified"  u  (spelt  it,  but  origin- 
ally ue)  see  under  Y. 

UBEDA,  a  town  of  Spain,  head  of  an  administrative 
subdivision  in  the  province  of  Jaen,  stands  on  a  gentle 
slope  about  5  miles  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir, and  about  22  miles-  to  the  east  of  the  Menjibar 
station  on  the  railway  from  Madrid  to  Cordova.  Undet 
the  Moorish  rule  it  was  a  place  of  considerable  conse- 
quence, its  population  being  said  to  have  at  one  tim& 
numbered  70,000.  Some  portions  of  the  old  walls,  with 
towers  and  gates,  still  remain,  but  none  of  the  publia 
buildings  are  of  great  age,  the  oldest  church,  that  of  Sao 


716 


U  D  A  —  U  E  B 


fialvador,  dating  from   1540-50.     The  population  within 
the  municipal  boundaries  in  1S77  was  18,149. 

UDAIPUR  [OoDEvronE],  or  Me«'ar,  a  native  state  in 
Rajputana,  India,  with  an  area  of  12,670  square  miles.  It 
extends  from  23°  49'  to  25°  58'  N.  lat,  and  from  73°  7'  to 
75°  52'  E.  long.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  British 
territory  of  Ajmere;  on  the  E.  by  the  native  states  of 
I'undi,  Gwalior,  Tonk,  and  PaitAbgarh ;  on  the  S.  by 
lianswira,  Dungarpur,  and  Mahi  Kintha ;  and  on  the  W. 
by  the  Aravalli  Mountains,  separating  it  from  Marwar  and 
Sirohi.  The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  level  plain.  A 
section  of  the  Aravalli  Mountains  extends  over  the  south- 
western and  southern  portions,  and  is  rich  in  minerals,  but 
the  mines  have  been  long  closed.  The  general  inclination 
•of  the  country  is  from  south-west  to  north-east,  the  Banas 
and  its  numerous  feeders  flowing  from  the  base  of  the 
.\ravalli  range.  There  are  many  lakes  and  tanks  in  the 
ttate,  the  finest  qC  which  is  the  Dbebar  or  Jaisamand,  with, 
an  area  of  nearly  21  square  miles;  it  is  considered  to  be 
the  largest  sheet  of  artificial  water  in  the  world.  There 
iire  only  two  metal  roads  in  the  state ;  the  Nimach  State 
Kaihvay  passes  through  the  north-eastern  part. 

In  ISSl  the  )iopulation,  e.'scliisive  of  51,076  Bliils,  was  1,443,144 
(males  772, G35,  females,  070,459);  Hiiuliis  numbered  1,321,521, 
Mohammedans  43,322,  Jains  78,171,  and  Christians  130.  The  only 
town  with  over  10,000  inliabitants  is  Udaipur,  the  capital  (38,214). 
Tliis  city  is  pietmesfiuely  sitiiated  on  a  lake  2000  feet  .-ibove  sea- 
level,  and  faecs  wooded  lulls.  It  contains  the  royal  palace,  which 
is  a  noble  pile  of  gianite  and  marble,  built  on  the  crest  of*a  rocky 
iid«e  overlooking  the  lake,' city,  and  valley.  There  are  no  niann- 
factures  of  any  importance  in  the  state,  and  the  crops  as  a  rule 
unly  suffice  foilocal  wants.  The  pvincipa!  iujports  are  salt,  piece 
j/oods.  groccrie's,  metals,  medicines,  sugar,  ivory,  and  tobacco  ;  and 
ihe  exports  are  mostly  conHned  to  turmeric,  giir,  cotton,  iudigo,  til, 
opium,  and  cattle.  The  total  income  of  Udaipur  in  1SS5-S6  was 
£259,624.  The  state  was  taken  under  the  protection  of  the  British 
Government  in  1817,  and  it  pays  an  annual  tribute  of  £20,000. 
The  family  of  the  raja  of  Udaipiir  ranks  highest  in  dignity  among 
the  Rajput  chiefs  of  India. 

UDAL  (Danish  Oihl)  is  a  kind  of  right  still  existing  in 
Orkney  and  Shetland,  and  supposed  to  be  a  relic  of  the  old 
allodial  mode  of  landholding  existing  antecedently  to  the 
^Tow  th  of  feudalism  in  Scotland.  The  udal  tenant  holds 
without  charter  by  uninterrupted  possession  on  payment 
to  tbe  crown,  the  kirk,  or  a  grantee  from  the  crown  of  a 
tribute  called  scat  (Danish  shut),  or  without  such  payment, 
tlte  latter  right  being  more  strictly  the  udal  right.  Udal 
lands  descend  to  all  the  children  equally.  They  are  con- 
\ertible  into  feus  at  the  option  of  the  udallers. 

UDALL,  Nicholas  (b.  1505-d.  1556'),  author  of  the 
•earliest  extant  regular  English  comedy.  IJdall  was  a  typ- 
ical man  of  the  Renaissance  in  England,  a  schoolmaster  by 
profession,  a  classical  scholar,  a  translator  of  Terence  and 
•Erasmus,  and  a  writer  of  pageants  and  interludes.  He 
was  high  in  favour  at  court,  wrote  verses  for  the  city 
pageant  exhibited  at  Anne  Boleyn's  coronation  in  1533, 
4ind  was  honoured  by  Mary  in  1554  as  one  that  had 
"  heretofore  showed  ar.d  mindeth  hereafter  to  show  his 
diligence  in  setting  forth  of  dialogues  and  interludes  before 
us  for  our  regal  disport  and  recreation."  The  severity  of 
his  discipline  at  Eton,  where  he  was  headmaster,  has  been 
immortalized  by  the  quaint  lines  of  one  of  his  pupils, 
Thomas  Tusser.  The  exact  history  of  the  production  of  his 
comedy  Ralph  Roysfer  Doyster  is  not  known.  A  printed 
copy  wanting  the  title-page  came  to  light  in  1818,  and  we 
know  that  it  was  licensed  to  be  [irinted  in  156G.  It  is  a 
-distinct  advance  in  construction  on  the  Merry  Interludes 
of  John  Heywood,  but  it  is  not  a  comedy  in  the  strict 
English  sense,  being,  like  the  interludes,  essentially  farcical 


'  The  date  of  Ud.ill's  death  is  sometimes  erroneously  given  asl564, 
ill  which  year  his  play  of  Ezddas  was  performed  at  Cambridge  before 
•Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was  buried  at  St  Margaret's,  Westminster,  on  23d 
l>eceiDber  1556  (see  memoir  in  Coopci-'s  edition  of  Royster  Doyster). 


in  motive,  character,  and  incident.  Although  an  imitatioQ 
of  the  Latin  comedy,  it  is  far  from  being  a  servile  imita- 
tion,  and  abounds  in  fresh  fun  and  cleverness.  It  has 
been  twice  reprinted, — by  the  Shakespeare  Society  (with  a 
memoir  by  Mr  Cooper)  and  in  Arber's  Reprints. 

UDINE,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Udine,  in  a 
wide  plain  near  the  foot  of  the  Carnic  Alps,  on  the  Roja,  84 
miles  by  rail  north-east  from  Venice  and  49  miles  north-west 
from  Trieste.  It  is  enclosed  by  an  imposing  wall  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  some  4  or  5  miles  in  circumference, 
and  fortified  with  towers.  In  the  centre,  on  an  eminence, 
stands  the  old  castle,  at  one  time  the  residence  of  the 
patriarchs  of  Aquileia,  and  now  used  as  a  prison.  Grouped 
around  this  is  the  old  part  of  the  town,  with  narrow- 
crooked  streets,  some  of  which  are  lined  with  arcades. 
The  cathedral,  which  is  a  Romanesque  building  with  fine 
pillars,  and  an  hexagonal  tower  bearing  14tli-century  sculp- 
tures, contains  some  interesting  e.xamples  of  native  art  (by 
Giovanni  Martini  da  Udine  and.  pthers).  The  church  .of 
S.  Maria  della  Purit.a  has  frescos  by  Tiepolo  On  the 
principal  square  stands  the  town  hall,  built  in  1457  in  the 
Venetian-Gothic  style,  and  skilfully  restored  since  a  fire  in 
1876  ;  opposite  is  a  clock  tower  resembling  that  of  the 
Piazza  di  San  Marco  at  Venice.  The  archiepiscopal  palace 
and  Museo  Civico,  as  well  as  the  municipal  buildings,  have 
some  valuable  paintings.  Several  of  the  palaces  of  the 
nobility  have  striking  architectural  features,  and  the  town 
is  adorned  by  many  beautiful  public  walks.  The  leading 
industry  of  Udine  is  silk-spinning,  but.  it  also  possesses 
manufactures  of  linen,  cotton,  hats,  and  paper,  tanneries, 
and  sugar  refineries,  and  has  a  considerable  trade.  The 
population  in  1881  was  23,254. 

Udine  is  the  Fedinum  of  Pliny  ;  it  was  then  a  municipinm,  but 
quite  an  inconsiderable  place  compared  with  Forum  Julii  (Cividale) 
11  miles  to  the  east,  or  Aquileia  22  miles  to  southsouth-east.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  it  became  a  flourishing  and  populous  city  ;  in 
1238  the  patriarch  Berthold  made  it  the  capital  of  Friuli  (j.v.), 
and  in  1420  it  became  Venetian. 

UEBERWEG,  Friedrich  (1826-I57I),  best  known  by 
his  History  of  Philosophy,  was  born  on  the  22d  January 
1826  at  Leichlingen,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  where  his  father 
was  Lutheran  pastor.  His  mother,  left  early  a  widow, 
devoted  her  scanty  means  to  the  education  of  her  only 
son.  Ueberweg  passed  through  the  gymnasium  at  Elber- 
feld,  and  studied  at  the  universities  of  Gottingen  and 
Berlin.  In  1852  he  qualified  himself  at  Bonn  as  privat- 
docent  in  philosophy.  His  System  of  Logic,  published  in 
I85_7  (English  translation  1871),  and  bis  essay  On  the 
Authenticity  cinii  the  0>fltr  nfihe  Platonic  Writings,  crowned 
by  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Vienna  (published  1861),  con- 
tributed to  draw  attention  to  him  as  at  once  a  scholar  and 
a  thinker.  In  1862  he  was  called  to  Konigsberg  as  extra- 
ordinary professor,  and  in  1867  he  was  advanced  to  the 
ordinary  grade.  He  married  in  1863.  and  on  the  9tb  June 
1871  he  died  prematurely. 

The  chief  woik  of  his  later  years  was  his  compendious  History  of 
Philosop/ty,  which  is  unmatched  for  fulness  of  information  coni- 
bined  with  conciseness,  accuracy,  and  impaitiality  of  treatment. 
The  first  part  appealed  in  1862.  An  English  translation,  in  two 
volumes,  was  ]iublished  in  1872,  and  has  gone  through  sc^'eral 
editions.  Ueberweg  translated,  in  1869,  Berkeley's  Princijites  of 
Hiiptan  Knoii'lcdgc,  with  notes,  for  Kirehmann's  PhilosophiSfJte 
Biblioihcl:  In  iihilosophy  Ueberweg  was  strongly  opposed  to  the 
subjectivistie  tendency  of  the  Kantian  system,  maintaining  in 
particular  the  objectivity  of  space  and  time,  which  involved  him  in 
a  somewhat  violent  controversy  with  several  opponents.  His  own 
mode  of  thought  he  preferred  to  describe  as  an  ideal  realism,  which 
refused  to  reduce  reality  to  thought,  but  asserted  a  p:irallelism  be- 
tween the  forms  of  existence  and  the  forms  of  knowledge.  Beneke 
and  Schleiermacher  seem  to  have  exercised  most  influence  upon 
the  development  of  his  thought.  A  short  memoir,  by  his  friend 
F.  A.  Lauge  (authc  of  the  History  of  Material isin),  gives  some 
account  of  what  may  be  called  personal  opinions  in  philosophy  and 
theology,  which  did  not  find  expression  in  Ueberweg's  published 
writinjre. 


U  F  A  — U  G  A 


717 


UFA,  a  government  of  south-eastern  Russia,  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Urals,  has  Vyatka  and  Perm  on  the 
N'.,  Orenburg  on  the  E.  and  S.,  Samara  and  Kazan  on'  the 
W.,  and  comprises  an  area  of  47,112  square  miles.  In 
virtue  alike  of  its  physical  characters  and  of  its  population, 
which  belongs  chiefly  to  the  Ural-Altaic  stock,  it  forms 
an  intermediate  link  between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  it  was 
only  recently  separated  from  the  government  of  Orenburg, 
which  is  now  limited' to  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Urals. 
Several  craggy  and  densely  wooded  ridges,  running  from 
<;olith-west  to  north-east  parallel  to  the  main  chain  <if  the 
southern  Urals,  occupy  its  eastern  part.  They  are  separ- 
ated by  broad  and  long  longitudinal  valleys,  and  rise  to 
altitudes  of  from  2500  to  3500  feet  above  the  sea  ;  their 
highest  peaks — Iremel  (5040  feet),  Nurgush,  Urenga,  and 
Taganai  (3950  feet) — are  above  the  limits  of  tree-vegeta- 
tion, but  in  no  case  reach  those  of  perpetual  snow.  The 
high  longitudinal  valleys  of  the  Urals  are  the  seat  of  an 
important  mining  industry.  Southward  Ufa  extends  over 
the  slopes  of  the  Obshchiy  Syrt  plateau,  the  angular  space 
between  the  latter  and  the  Urals  being  occupied  by  elevated 
plains  (from  1000  to  1500  feet),  deeply  grooved  by  the  river 
valleys  and  sometimes  described  as  the  "  Ufa  plateau."  It 
slopes  gently  towards  the  depression  of  the  Kama ;  and  its 
undulating  surface,  especially  its  broad  valleys  (500  to  600 
feet  above  the  sea),  covered  as  they  are  with  a  fertile  soil, 
nre  being  rapidly  colonized  by  Russian  settlers.  Towards 
the  Kama  the  fertility  of  the  soil  increases,  and  the  black- 
earth  regions  of  Menzelinsk  and  Birsk  may  be  described 
as  granaries  for  that  part  of  Russia. 

The  geological  stractnre  of  Ufa  is  very  varied. .  The  main  ridge 
of  the  Urals  consists  of  gneisses  and  various  cnrstalline  slates  rest- 
ing upon  granites  and  syenites  ;  next  comes  a  broad  strip  of  lime- 
stones and  sandstones,  the  fossil  fauna  of  which  is  intermediate 
in  Its  lowest  parts  between  the  Upper  SUurian  and  the  Lower 
Devonian.  These  form  the  highest  ridges  of  Ufa.  Farther  west 
the  Devonian  deposits  are  followed  by  Lower  and  Ui.per  Carbon- 
.  iferous  and  "Artinsk  schists,"  which,  together  with  Ferraiau  de- 
posite,  cover  western  Ufa.  Quaternary  deposits  are  extensively 
developed  in  all  the  valleys,  most  of  which  were  occnpied  by  lafees 
dunng  the  Lacustrine  period.  Ufa  has  not  the  mineral  resources 
of  Ferm ;  only  traces  of  gold  have  been  found  in  its  valleys,  and 
silver  ores  an;  absent ;  but  its  wealth  in  iron  (Devonian)  and  copper 
(I  emiian)  seems  likely  to  have  great  mining  importance  in  the 
future.  The  district  of  Ztatoust  is  celebrated  for  its  granite,  epldote 
nephrite,  and  a  variety  of  decorative  stones  and  minerals.  Coal  is 
spread  over  a  wide  area,  but  only  in  layers  too  thin  to  make  work- 
ing  remunerative  Fire-clay,  kaolin,  and  sandstone  for  making 
grindstones  are  obtained  to  some  extent ;  naphtha,  sulphur,  and 
saltpetre  have  been  observed  in  several  places. 

Ufa  belongs  almost  entirely  to  the  drainage  area  of  the  Bvetaya 
a  CTeat  tnbutary  of  the  Kama,  which  rises  in  Orenburg,  flows  sonth 
and  west  till  it  pierces  a  mountain  chain  at  Bugutchan,  and  then 
runs  north  and  north-west,  watering  the  high  plains  and  receivin-^ 
a  number  of  import-int  tributaries,  among  which  the  Sim,  thl 
lanyp,  and  the  Ufa  are  also  navigable.  The  banks  of  the  Byetaya 
«re  thickly  peopled,  and  it  is  an  important  channel  for  trade  ;  but 
It  sometimes  reaches  so  low  an  ebb  in  summer  that  steamei-s  cannot 
proceed  beyond  Birek.  The  Kama  .flows  for  120  miles  alon.-  the 
western  border  of  the  government.  Marshes  lie  along  its  couile,  so 
that  Its  banks  are  but  thinly  inhabited.  Forests  cover  nearly  half 
the  area,  but  the  plains  on  the  left  of  the  Byetaya  are  comparatively 
thinly  wooded.  The  climate  of  Ufa  is  very  continental.  The  average 
temperature  at  Ufa  is  37°  F.,  and  the  winter  is  extremely  cold  (Janu- 
ary a  -5  F.,  July  68  F.) ;  at  the  Ztatoust  observatory  (1340  feet)  the 
nvcmge  temperature  is  only  32'-2  {January  2=;  July  61°-8).  Even 
in  the  hilly  tracts  of  Ztatoust  the  annual  rainfall  is  only  19  inches 
1  he  rivers  are  frozen  158  days  at  Ufa,  4fad  202  about  Ztatoust 
,J„  population  of  Ufa  is  now  rapidly  increasing  (1.793,260  in 
1882,  as  against  1,291  020  in  1865).  Only  one-thi?d  of  tU  whole 
IS  Russian  the  remainder  being  chiefly  Bashkirs  (50  per  cent,  in- 
cluding Meschcnaks  and  Tepters),  Tartars  (8-4  per  cent),  Tchere- 
misses,  Tchuvashes,  Slordvinians,  and  Votiaks.  In  the  south  the 
Bashkirs,  Tartars,  and  other  Ural-Altaians  constitute  two-thirds  of 
the  population.  Among  the  Russians  two  distinct  elements  must  be 
distinguished. -some.  100.000  peasants,  who  formerly  were  mining 
serfs,  and  now  support  themselves  chiefly  by  work  in  or  for  the 
mines,  and  neariy  620,000  agriculturists,  for  the  most  part  jnore 
recent  immigrants.    The  latter  carry  on  agriculture  on  an  extensive 


scale,  and  export  large  quantities  of  com.  The  Bashkirs  are  chiefly 
cattle-breeders,  but  of  late  they  have  been  driven  more  "and  mora 
to  tillage,  owing  to  the  appropriation  by  speculators  of  their  exten- 
sive pasture-lands.  Bee-keeping  is  largely  carried  on,  and  huntiog 
is  still  an  important  source  of  income  to  the  Bashkirs.  In  the 
north-east  the  trade  in  timber  and  the  manufacture  of  various 
wooden  wares  are  largely  engaged  in  by  the  peasantry.  The  mining 
industry  is  advancing,  notwithstanding  many  obstacles  (see  vol. 
xxi.  p.  85);  the  iron-works  of  Ztatoust  especially  have  a  wide 
reputation.  Flour-mills,  distilleries,  and  tanneries  come  next  in 
importance.  The  exports  of  corn,  linseed,  timber,  wooden  wares, 
metals,  tallow,  hides,  and  cattle  are  considerable,  and  trade  is 
active,  especially  at  the  fans  of  Menzelinsk,  Ufa,  and  Zlatoust. 

There  are  six  administrative  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which 
(with  populations  in  IS84)  are— Ufa  (25.660),  Bclebei  (1200).  Birsk 
(8000).  Menzelinsk  (6100),  Steriitamak  (8940).  and  Ztatoust  (18,990). 
The  loading  places  Tchetny  and  Berozovka  on  the  Kama,  and  several 
iron  and  copper  works  (Satkinsk.  Yurezafi.  Katav-Ivanovsk,  about 
6000  inhabitants  each)  ought  also  to  be  mentioned. 

UFA,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Ufa  with  the  Byetaya,  on  high  crab's 
intersected  by  ravines,  which  are  covered  with  gardens  and 
orchards.  The  better  part  of  the  town  contains  a  few  stone 
buildings  connected  with  the  administration,  two  cathe- 
drals, and  a  few  churches ;  the  remainder  is  a  scattered 
aggregation  of  small  wooden  houses.  There  are  two  class- 
ical gyhjnasiums  for  boys  and  girls,  a  theological  seminary,- 
and  sftteral  lower  schools.  The  town  has  a  few  good  hospi- 
tals. The  manufactures  are  insignificant  in  Ufa  itself,  but 
there  are  several  iron  and  copper  works  of  importance 
within  the  district  Owing  to  the  fertility  of  the  neigh- 
bouring regions,  and  the  position  of  the  town  at  the  junc- 
tion of  two  important  rivers,  the  Ufa  merchants  carry  on  a 
brisk  export  trade.  The  population  has  rapidly  iiicreased 
of  late,  reaching  25,660  in  1884. 

Ufa  was  founded  in  1574,  when  a  fort  was  bnilt  on  the  Byetaya, 
three  other  forts  being  erected  about  the  same  time  at  Birsk, 
Menzelinsk,  and  Berezovka,  to  connect  Ufa  with  the  Russian  settle- 
ments on  the  Kama,  The  wooden  kreml  of  Ufa,  protected  by 
wooden  towers  and  an  outer  earthen  wall,  had  to  sustain  the  attacks 
of  the  revolted  Bashkirs  and  Russian  serfs  in  1662  and  at  later 
dates;  and  in  1773  Tchika.  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  PugatchefT 
revolt,  besieged  it  for  four  months. 

UGANDA,  a  country  of  eastern  Central  Atnca,  to  the 
north-west  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
34,000  square  miles,  extending  from  1°  N.  lat.  to  the 
Kitangule  river,  and  from  31°  E.  long,  to  the  Nile.  The 
country  bordering  the  lake  and  to  the  north-west  is  moun- 
tainous, the  mountains  being  arranged  in  low  parallel 
chains.  The  bills,  covered  with  splendid  timber  and  abun- 
dant underwood,  rise  to  a  height  of  400  feet  above  their 
valleys,  through  which  sluggish  streams  flow  to  the  lake. 
Farther  north  the  country  becomes  a  plain,  and  the  eastern 
portion  of  Uganda,  between  Rubaga  and  the  Nile,  consists 
of  undulating  country,  varied  by  deep  narrow  valleys.  The 
geological  formation  of  the  country  is  volcanic  or  metamor- 
phic ;  two  or  three  feet  of  rich  black  alluvial  soil  form  the 
upper  strata,  covering  a  bed  of  red  sandy  clay,  often  30 
feet  thick.  In  some  places  porcelain  earth  is  foimd,  as 
vrell  as  large  masses  of  mica.  Ironstone  is  present  in  con- 
siderable quantities,  but  as  yet  no  other  metals  have  been 
discovered.  The  climate  is  mild,  and  the  temperature  re- 
markably uniform  throughout  the  year  ;  the  thermometric 
range  is  from  50°  to  90°  F. ;  but  the  mean  annual  variation 
IS  only  20°.  The  annual  rainfall  is  50  inches,  the  greatest 
amount  of  rain  occurring  in  March,  April,  Jlav,  and  Sep. 
tember,  October,  and  November,  when  rain  falls  nearly 
every  day,  thunderstorms  being  frequent. 

The  population  of  Uganda  is  about  five  millions.  The  men  are  tall 
and  well-built,  and  have  good  features  and  dark  chocolate-coloured 
skin,  with  woolly  hair.  The  women  in  their  youth  are  geod- 
lookmg.  The  country  is  divided  into  three  provinces— Uddu  in  the 
south  Singo  in  the  west,  and  Changwe  in  tlic  east,  to  which  must 
be  added  about  400  islands  in  the  lake.  The  government  of  the 
country  is  feudal,  the  king  being  nominally  supreme.  Succession 
to  the  throne  is  hcredituy.  but  the  successor  is  usually  a  minor 


718 


U  G  L  — U  H  L 


cftoset!  by  iliree  haredif  ary  cTiiers,  who  witli  the  young  king  s  mother 
carry  on  the  govcrnmerit- until  he  is  of  age.  The  reigning  family 
in  Uganda  is  descended  from  th«  Wahuma  tribe  ;  the  late  king 
Mtesa  professed  to  trace  back  his  descent  to  Kintu  (or  Ham),  the 
founder  of  tiie  dynasty.  The  country  is  ruled  by  the  king  three 
bcrcdifary  cTuefs,  and  a  council  of  minor  chiefs,— two  hereditary 
chiefs  aiid  a  certain  proportion  of  the  others  being  continually  in 
residence  at  Rubaga,  the  capital  of  the  country.  The  laws  are 
strict,  and  the  administi-ation  of  justice  is  conducted  in  an  orderly 
manner.  There  is  no  real  taxation,  but  the  people  are  compelled 
^  render  feudal  service  to  all  their  superiors.  The  W  aganda  may 
be  divided  into  four  classes,  the  lowest  class  being  the  slave  popu- 
lation, consisting  of  prisoners  taken  io  war  and  their  descendants ; 
next  come  the  "  bachopi"  or  peasants,  who  form  the  mass  of  the 
population ;  the  third  class  are  the  "  batongoli."  or  chiefs,  who  are 
recruited  from  the  bachopi,  but  whose  honours  are  not  hereditary; 
they  receive  theirraiik  for  distinguished  bravery  in  the  field  or  for 
services  rendered  to  the  state,  and  they  are  the  governros  of  the 
villages.  The  highest  class  is  that  of  the  "bakungu,"  a  superior 
gradeof  chiefs,  all  belonging  to  the  "luchiko"  or  state  council,  and 
being  govemore  of  large  districtsof  land.  The  three  great  hereditary 
chiefs  belong  to  this  class,  and  they  are  supreme  governors  of  the 
three  great  districts  into  which  Uganda  is.divided.    The  N\  aganda 


are  very  warlike ;  all  adult  males  are  compelled  to  serve  m  the  army 
when  required,  and  the  military  organi2ation,  having  its  head- 
ouarters  at  the  capital,  ramifies  throughout  the  whole  land.    Oa^-.e 
is  very  plentiful :  elephants,  buffaloes,  zebras,  rhinoceroses  wild 
boars,  tweke  species  of  antelopes,'  lions,  leopards,  jackals,  foxes, 
Iiyanas,  hares,  chimpanzees,  and  several  species  of  monkeys  inhabit 
the  forest.     Snakes  are  numerous;  hippopotami,  crocodiles,  and 
otters  abound  in  the  lake  and  in  the  Nile,  as  also  many  water-rats. 
The  principal  birds  are  parrots,  guinea-fowl,  owls,  vultures,  adju- 
tants, goatsuckei-s,  kites,  eagles,  ducks,  geese, storks,  cranes,  herons, 
"ulls,  scariet  flamingos,  darters,  the  sacred  and  glossy  ibis,  and 
Srilliantly  coloured  honey-birds.     The  principal  insects  are  mos- 
quitos,  fleas,  locusts,  white  and  driver  ants,  and  butterflies  of  many 
species.     The  domestic  animals  are  cows,  goats,  and  a  few  sheep 
and  do's.    The  .Waganda  live  chiefly  upon  a  vegetable  diet,  the 
banana  forming  the  staple  food;  it  grows  everywhere,  and  requires 
little  or  no  cultivation.     The  sweet  poUto  is  the  chief  vegetable 
cultivated,  but  coffee,  sugar-cane,  cassava,  maize,  sesame,  millet, 
tullabone,  several  species  of  beans,  and  two  or  three  kinds  of  pump- 
kins are  grown  to  a  small  extent    The-principal  fruits  are  the  mpafu 
and  a.spccies  of  amomum.     Strangers  have  introduced  wheat,  rice, 
guavas,   papaws,   pomegranates,   tomatoes,   onions,  and  radishes. 
Wine  is  made  from  the  banana  tree,  and  is  a  staple  drink.     Butter 
and  cheese  arealso  made.     A  good  deal  of  manufacture  is  carried 
on,  for  the  people  are  ingenious  and  clever  workmen,  and  their 
work  is  tasteful,  neat,  and  exact.    Two  kinds  of  pottery,  a  coarse, 
and  a  fine  yariety,  are  manufactured  in  contiderable  quantities. 
The  basket  work  is  extremely  good,  and  the  metal  work  far  superior 
to  any  seen  among  the  neighbouring  tribes.    The  manufacture  of 
bark-cloths,  in  which  most  of  the  people  are  clothed,  is  very  ex- 
tensively carried  on;  and  their  wood-work  and  boat-building  are  of 
'very  superior  quality.    Tanning,  dyeing,  and  bead-work  employ 
numbers  of  the  people.    There  is  not  very  wnch  home  Uado  in 
Uganda;.it  is  limited  to  the  barter  of  native  mannfactures.    Several 
limes  a  yi-ar  "caravans  arrive  from  Zanzibar,  bringing  calico,  guns, 
powder,  files,. knives,&c.    The  standard  value  of  any  article  is 
reckoned  by  100  cowries  or  an  arm's  length  of  caEco  and  beads  ; 
hoes,  salt,  and  fish  are  also  employed  as  mediums  of  excuange. 
The  language  spoken  in  Uganda  belongs  to  the  great  Bantu  family, 
and  is  very  rich  in  words.     It  has  ten  classes  of  nouns,  the  noun 
being  the  most  important  part  of  speech.     Gnmmatical  inflexions 
are  formed  by  prefixes ;   the  inflexions  of  verbs,  adjectives,  and 
prouonns   vary   according  to   the  class  of  the  governing  noun. 
Adjectives  agree  with  the  substantive  in  number  and  case,  and 
always  follow  the  npun.  ,  There  are  personal,  possessive,  relative, 
demonstrative,  and  interrogative   pronouns,  and  several  forms  of 
verbs.    The  Waganda  are  vvy  good  arithmeticians:    The  root  of 
all  multiples  is  ten  ;  tallies  are  used  as  aids  to  the  memory.    The 
people-  are  very  musical ;  their  voices  are  clear  and  melodious,  and 
of  considerable  range.     They  have  a  great  variety  of  tunes,— 
lOrchestral,  dance,  and  vocal  music  having  distinct  characteristics. 
Th^mnsical  instruments  consist  of  harmonicons,  rattles,  drums, 
horns,  whistles',  flutes,  and  harps.     The  Waganda  have  no  images 
or  outward  symbols  of  their  gods  ;  and  they  think  that  the  world 
is  ruled  by  spirits  or  demons,  to  whom  Katonga,  the  great  creator, 
has  deputed  his  power.    They  worship  llukasa,  the  god  of  the  lake  ; 
Naduala,  the  god  of  siiiall-pox ;  Chiwuka  and  Nenda,  the  gods  of 
war;  and  several  of  the  former  jnonarchs  of  Uganda,  who  are  be- 
lieved to  bo  demi-gods.    A  thunder  spirit  is  also  invoked.    The  gods 
of  war  are  supposed  to  inhabit  certain  frees,  and  oflcrings  are  made 
oto  them  before  entering  the  war-path  ;  like  ofl'erings  are  also  made 
lo  the  god  of  the  lake  before  commencing  a  voyage  upon  its  waters. 
The  Waganda  are  courteous,  cleanly,  given  to  hospitality,  but 
Sunken,  and  to  a  certain   extent  iod^lent      Their  standard  of 


morality,  even  judged  by  that  of  the  surrounding  tribes,  is  not 
hifli.  Human  life  is  little  respected  ;  they  are  untruthful  and  in- 
decent. Unless  moved  by  passion,  they  are  not  cruel;  passionate, 
they  are  not  revengeful.  Children  are  well  treated,  as  are  the  aged 
men.  On  account  of  the  extei.sive  prevalence  of  polygamj,  women 
occupy  a  somewhat  low  social  grade.  _ 

Uganda  was  first  visited  by  Spcke  and  Grant  m  18B0.  and  flie 
country  has  since  been  visitwl  by  numerous  Europeans,  chiefly 
missionaries.  The.  Church  Missionary  Society  and  the  Roman 
Catholics  have  mission  stations  in  the  countiy.  In  1886  ?ome 
forty  of  their  converts  were  burnt  at  the  stake,  and  in  the  same 
year  Bishop  Hannington  was  murdered  on  the  borders  of  the 
country  by  the  orders  of  King  Mwanga. 

See  Speke'5 /oumo'.  Grant's  Vali  across  Afrita,  Stanley"*  TTinusri  the  Dari 
Conlinenl  anil  Wilson  and  Fclkln's  Uganda  and  the  Egyptian  Soudan.  Also  » 
monograp'li  "  On  the  Waganda  Tribe,"  by  R.  W.  Felkin.  in  rrcc.Rot.Soc.  Ed, 
vol.  liii.,  and  an  Oullittc  Orammar  of  the  Luganda  Language^  by  C.  T-  Milson. 

•  UGLITCH,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Yaroslavl,  is  situated  on  the  upper  Volga,  principally  on 
its  right  bank,  67  miles  to  the  west  of  the  capital  of  the 
province.  Its  historical  remains  are  mostly  associated  with 
the  prinee  Dmitri  (see  vol.  xxi.  p.  93).  The  wooden  house 
he  occupied,  a  church  of  St  Demetrius  "on  the  Blood" 
erected  at  the  spot  where  he  was  killed,  and  a  kiost  on  the 
site  of  the  convent  where  his  mother  was  forcibly  conse- 
crated a  nun,— all  commemorate  this  chapter  in  the  history 
of  the  rule  of  the  boiars  at  Moscow  at  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century.  An  old  cathedral,  erected  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury but  subsequently  restored,  and  containing  the  grave 
of  Prince  Roman,  recalls-a  still  earlier  period  of  municipal 
independence.  Uglitch  has  now  become  a  commercial  and 
industrial  city  with  11,930  inhabitants  (1883),  and  has  an 
important  trade,  being  one  of  the  chief  loading  places  on 
the  upper  Volga.  lU  industries  comprise  the  sewing  of 
sacks  for  corn  and  flour  (about  one  million  every  year)  and 
the  knitting  of  woollen  socks  j  and  it  has  a  paper-mill, 
distilleries,  copper  works,  and  linen  factories.  Corn,  paper, 
sausages  (with  which  the  name  of  Uglitch  has  long  been 
associated),  candles,  4c.,  are  shipped  at  the  town. 

UWitch  is  one  of  the  oldest  toft-ns  of  Russia ;  its  local  annils  go 
as  fa°r  as  back  as  the  9th  century.  Until  the  14th  century  it  mMn- 
.  tained  its  independence  as  a  separate  principality^  which  extended 
oVer  eastern  Tver,  and  elected  its  own  princes.  In  1329  the  sons 
of  Prince  Roman  the  Saint  renouncSd  their  independence  in  favour 
of  Moscow,  and  fifty  years  later  the  Uglitch  princes  finally  sold  their 
rights  tp  the  great  prince  of  Moscow.  The  Tartars  plundered  the 
town  during  their  invasions  of  1237, 1293,  and  1408.  as  also  did 
.the  Lithuanians  at  a  later  date. 

UGOLINO.    See  GiTERARDESCA  and  Pisa. 
UGRIANS.     See  Finland,  vol.  ix.  \i  219. 
UHLAND,  JoHANN  LuDwiG(1787-18tj2),  German  poet, 
was  born  at  Tiibingen,  on  April  26,  1787.     He  studiedat 
the  universiiy  of  his  native  place,  taking  jurisprudence  as 
his  special  subject,  but  also  devoting  touch  time  to  litera- 
ture.    Having  graduated  as  a  doctor  of  laws  in  IblO,  he 
went  for  some  months  to  Paris  ;  and  from  1812  to  18U 
he  worked  at  his  profession  in  Stuttgart,  in  the  bureau  of 
the  minister  of  justice.     He  had  begun  his  career  as  a  poet 
in  1807  and  1808  by  contributing  ballads  and  lyrics  to 
Seckcndorf's  Musenalmanach-  3.nA  in  1812  and  1813  he 
wrote   poems  for   the  Poeiiscier  Almanack   and  for   the 
Deuischer  Dichterwald.     In  1815  he  collected  his  poems 
in  a  volume  entitled  Gedkhte,  which  almost  immediately 
secured  a  wide  circle  of  readers,  and  givts  him  his  place  in 
German  literature.     To  every  new  edition  he  added  some 
fresh  poems  J  and  the  sixtieth  edition,  published  in  18(5, 
included  a  number  of  pieces  found  among  his  papers.     He 
wrote  two  dramatic  works— i'nu?,  Herzog  mn.  Sdiwaben 
and  Ludwig  der  £a{er— the  former  published  in  1817,  the 
latter  in  1819.     These,  however,  are  unimportant  in  com- 
parison with  his  Gedichle.     In  some  respects  Uhland  must 
be  classed  with  the  writers  of  the  romantic  school,  for^ 
like  them,  he  found  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  subjects  which 
appealed  most  strongly  to  his  imagination.     But  his  style 
has  a  precision,  suppleness,  and  grace  which  sharply  dis- 


U  J  I  — U  L  F 


719 


tinguish  his  most  characteristic  BTitings  trom  those  of  the 
romantic  poets.  His  best  lyrics  have  the  charm  which, 
belongs  to  the  unaffected  expression  of  delicate  senti- 
ment; and  in  almost  all  his  ballads  he  displays  a  remark- 
.able  power  of  giving  picturesque  form  to  his  conceptions  of 
-character.  He  was  a  man  of  pure  and  noble  impulse,  and 
it  was  in  presenting  scenes  which  awaken  love,  or  admira- 
tion, or  pity  that  he  did  the  fullest  justice  to  his  powers. 
Uhland's  poetic  sympathy  with  some  characteristics  of  the 
age  of  chivalry  did  not  prevent  bim  from  sharing  the  best 
aspirations  of  his  own  time.  He  wrote  manly  poems  in 
defence  of  freedom,  and  in  the  slates  assembly  of  Wiirtem- 
berg  he  played  a  distinguished  part  as  one  of  the  most 
vigorous  and  consistent  of  the  liberal  members.  In  1829 
he  was  made  a  professor,  at  Tubingen  university,  of  German 
literature  and  the  German  language,  but  he  resigned  this 
appointment  in  16.33,  when  it  was  found  to  be  incom- 
{latible  with  bis  political  duties.  In  1848  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Frankfort  parliament,  in  which  he  sat  as 
one  of  the  most  respected  members  of  the  liberal  party. 

Uhland  was  not  only  a  poet  and  politician  ;  he  was  also 
an  ardent  student  of  the  history  of  literature.  In  1812  he 
published  an  interesting  essay  on  Das  ollfraTizbsische  Epos; 
and  ten  years  afterwards  this  was  followed  by  an  admirable 
work  on  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  an  elaborate  study  of  Der  Mytkiis  von  Thor  nach 
nordischen  Quellen  (1836),  and  he  formed  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  Alte  hoch-  und  niederdeuUcke  Volkslied&r,  which 
appeared  in  1844-45.  He  died  on  November  13,  1862. 
After  his  death  his  prose  works  were  reprinted,  with  some 
additions,  under  the  general  title  Uhland's  Schriften  zur 
Geschichte  der  Dichtung  UTid  Sage  (1865-73),  and  an 
edition  of  his  poems  and  dramas^  in  three  volumes,  was 
issued  in  1863. 

See  Liebert,  Ludxcig  UUand,  eme  Skiae (\&6i)\  Mayer,  Litdxoig 
Uhland,  seine  Frcufide  und  Zeilgcnossai  (1867);  and  Licdung 
Uhland's  Leben,  aus  dcssen  i^aehUiss  und  aus  eigener  Eifahrung 
zusamtnengesUlU  wm  seiner  IVilvx  (1874). 

UJIJI,.a  town  in  eastern  Central  Africa,  of  considerable 
importance,  also  known  by  the  name  of  Kavele,  is  situated 
on  the  eastern  chores  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  in  4°  55'  S.  fat. 
and  30°  5'  E.  long.  It  is  the  chief  town  on  that  lake,  and 
is  the  centre  of  a  brisk  trade  in  ivory.  Formerly  it  was  a 
great  slave-market.  The  town  is  of  a  straggling  character, 
Arab  houses  of  sun-dried  bricks  being  mingled  with  native 
huts.  The  population,  which  fluctuates  considerably,  is 
very  mixed,  being  composed  of  Arabs  and  the  representa- 
tives of  numerous  Central  African  tribes.  Ujiji  has  been 
visited  by  various  European  travellers,  who  have  made  it 
their  headquarters,  and  it  was  here  that  Stanley  found 
Livingstone,  on  October  28,  1871.  Opinions  vary  as  to 
the  salubrity  of  its  climate,  but  the  balance  of  testimony 
appears  to  prove  that  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
it  is  very  unhealthy. 

UJJAIN,  or  OojEur,  a  town  in  the  native  state  of 
Gwalior,  central  India,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Sipra,  in  23°  11'  10"  N.  lat.  and  75°  51'  45"  E.  long.,  1698 
feet  above  sea-leveL  In  ancient  times  Ujjain  was  the 
great  and  famous  capital  of  MAlwA,  one  of  the  seven  sacred 
cities  of  the  Hindus,  and  the  spot  which  marked  the  first 
meridian  of  Hindu  geographers.  Though  much  decayed, 
it  is  still  a  large  and  populous  city,  with  considerable 
•commerce.  The  modem  city  is  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  an  almost  uninterrupted  belt  of  groves  and  gardens. 
In  1881  the  population  of  the  town  numbered  32,932. 
Its  trade  consists  chiefly  in  the  export  of  opium  and  the 
import  of  European  goods,  especially  cotton  fabrics. 

UKRAINE  ("frontier  "),  the  name  formerly  giyen  to  a 
district  of  European  Russia,  now  comprising  the  govern- 
ments of  Keabkoff,  Kieff,  Podoua,  and  Poltava  {q.v.). 


ULCER.     See  Soegery,  vol.  xxii.  p.  683. 

ULFILAS  (31 1-381),  the  apostle  of  Christianity  to  the 
Gothic  race,  and,  through  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
into  Gothic,  the  father  of  Teutonic  literature,  was  born 
among  the  Goths  of  the  trans-Danubian  provinces  in  the 
year  311.'  There  is  a  tradition  that  his  ancestors  were 
Christian  captives  from  Sadagolthina  in  Cappadocia,  who 
had  been  carried  off  to  the  lands  beyond  the  Danube  in 
the  Gothic  raid  of  267  ,  but  the  evidence  on  wliich  this 
rests  is  inadequate.  An  authoritative  record  of  the  outlines 
of  his  life  has  only  been  discovered  within  the  last  fifty 
years,  in  a  writing  of  Auxentius,  his  pupil  and  companion. 

At  an  early  age  Ulfilas  was  sent,  either  as  an  envoy 
or  as  a  hostage  for  his  tribe,  to  Constantinople,  pro- 
bably on  the  occasion  of  the  treaty  arranged  in  332. 
During  the  preceding  century  Christianity  had  been 
planted  sporadically  among  the  Goths  beyond  the  Danube, 
through  the  agency  in  part  of  Christian  captives,  many  of 
whom  belonged  to  the  order  of  clergy,  and  in  part  of 
merchants  and  traders.  Ulfilas  may  therefore  have  been 
a  convert  to  Christianity  when  he  reached  Constantinoj^le. 
But  it  was  here  probably  that  he  came  into  contact  with  thd 
Arian  doctrines  which  gave  the  form  to.  his  later  teaching, 
and  here  that  he  acquired  that  command  over  the  Greek 
and  Latin  tongues  which  equipped  him  for  his  labours 
as  a  translator.  For  some  time  before  341  he  worked  as 
a  "  lector "  or  reader  of  the  Scriptures,  probably  among 
his  own  countrymen  in  Constantinople,  or  among  those 
attached  &sfcederati  to  the  imperial  armies  in  Asia  Minor. 
From  this  work  he  was  called  to  return  as  missionary 
bishop  to  his  own  country,  being  ordained  by  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia  and  "the  bishops  who  were  with  him"  in  341. 
This  ordination  of  Ulfilas  as  missionary  bishop  by  the 
chiefs  of  the  semi- Arian  party  is  at  once  an  indication  of 
their  determination  to  extend  their  influence  by  active 
missionary  enterprise  and  evidence  that  Ulfilas  was  now, 
if  he  had  not  been  before,  a  declared  adherent  of  the  Arian 
or  semi- Arian  party.  He  was  now  thirty  years  of  age,  and 
his  work  as  "  bishop  among  the  Goths  "  covered  the  re- 
maining forty  years  of  his  life.  For  seven  of  these  years 
he  wrought  among  the  Visigoths  beyond  the  Danube,  till 
the  success  which  attended  his  labours,  and  the  growing 
numbers  of  his  flock,  drew  down  the  persecution  of  the  still 
pagan  chief  of  the  tribe.  This  "sacrilegus  judex  "has 
been  identified  with  Athanaric,  a  later  persecutor,  probably 
•without  sufficient  ground.  The  persecution  was  so  severe 
that,  to  save  his  flock  from  extinction  or  dispersion,  Ulfilas 
decided  to  withdraw  both  himself  and  his  people  from  its 
range.  With  the  consent  of  the  emperor  Constantius,  he 
led  them  across  the  Danube,  "  a  great  body  of  the  faith- 
ful," and  settled  In  Moesia  at  the  foot  of  the  range  of 
Hcemus,  and  near  the  site  of  the  modern  Tirnova  (348). 
Here  they  developed  into  a  peace-loving  pastoral  people. 

The  life  of  Ulfilas  during  the  following  thirty-three 
years  is  marked  only  by  one  recorded  incident,  his  visit  to 
Constantinople  in  360,  to  attend  the  council  convened  by 
the  Arian  or  Homoian  party.  His  work  and  influence  were 
not,  however,  confined  to  his  own  immediate  flock,  but 
radiated  by  means  of  his  writings  (homilies  and  treatises), 
and  through  the  disciples  he  despatched  as  missionaries, 
among  all  the  tribes  of  the  Gothic  stock  beyond  the 
Danube.  By  this  time  probably  he  had  made  some  pro- 
gress with  his  version  of  the  Scriptures,  and  copies  of 
parts  of  it  would  begin  to  circulate.  Thus  the  church 
beyond  the  Dan.ube,  which  had  not  been  extinguished  on 
Ulfilas's  withdrawal,  began  to  grow  once  more  in  numbers 
and  importance,  and  once  more  had  to  undergo  the  fires  oi 
persecution.  Catholic  missionaries  had  not  been  wanting 
in  the  meanwhile,  and  in  the  indiscriminate  persecution  by 


>  Ki-aift  fi>"«  S13  as  the  date,  Waitz  318. 


720 


U  L  M  — U  L  M 


Athanaric  betweeu  370  and  375  Catholics  and  Arians 
stood  and  fell  side  by  side.  The  religious  quanel  either 
accentuated,  or  was  accentuated  by,  political  differences, 
and  the  riral  chiefs,  Athanaric  and  Frithigern,  appeared 
as  champions  of  Paganism  and  Christianity  respectively. 
Then  followed  the  negotiations  with  the  emperor  Valens, 
the  general  adhesion  of  the  Visigoths  under  Frithigern  to 
Ariau  Christianity,  the  crossing  of  the  Danube  by  himself 
and  a  host  of  his  followers,  and  the  troubles  which  cul- 
minated in  the  battle  of  Adrianople  and  the  death  of 
Valens  (378).  The  part  played  by  Ulfilas  in  these  troub- 
lous times  cannot  be  ascertained  with  certainty.  It  may 
have  been  he  who,  as  a  "  presbyter  Christian!  ritus  "  con- 
ducted negotiations  with  Valens  before  the  battle  of  Adri- 
anople ;  but  that  he  headed  a  previous  embassy  asking  for 
leave  for  the  Visigoths  to  settle  on  Koman  soil,  and  that  he 
then,  for  political  motives,  professed  himself  a  convert  to  the 
Arian  creed,  favoured  by  the  emperor,  and  drew  with  him 
the  whole  body  of  his  countrymen, — these  and  other  similar 
stories  of  the  orthodox  church  historians  appear  to  be 
without  foundation.  The  death  of  Valens,  followed  by 
the  succession  and  the  early  conversion  to  Catholicism  of 
Theodosius,  dealt  a  fatal  blow  to  the  Arian  party  within 
the  empire.  Ulfilas  lived  long  enough  to  see  what  the 
end  must  be.  Hardships  as  well  as  years  must  have  com- 
bined to  make  him  an  old  man,  when  in  381  he  was  sent 
for  to  Constantinople.  The  emperor  had  summoned  hira, 
for  what  purpose  cannot  be  clearly  ascertained.  A  split 
seems  to  have  taken  place  among  the  Arians  at  Constan- 
tinople. Party  riots  were  too  familiar  there,  and  a  fierce 
dispute  over  a  theological  dogma,  however  abstruse,  placed 
the  peace  of  the  city,  if  not  the  security  of  the  palace,  in 
jeopardy.  Ulfilas  was  summoned  to  meet  the  innovatm's, 
and  either  by  argument  or  by  influence  to  induce  them 
to  surrender  the  opinion  which  caused  the  dispute.  His 
pupil  Auxentius  describes  how,  "  in  the  name  of  God,"  he 
set  out  upon  his  way,  hoping  to  prevent  the  teaching  of 
these  new  heretics  from  reaching  "  the  churches  of  Christ 
by  Christ  committed  to  his  charge."  No  sooner  had  he 
reached  Constantinople  than  he  fell  sick,  "having  pondered 
much  about  the  council,"  and  before  he  had  put  his  hand 
to  the  task  which  had  brought  him  he  died,  probably  in 
January  381.  A  few  days  later  there  died,  also  in  Con- 
stantinople, his  old  enemy  and  persecutor,  Athanaric. 

The  Arianism  of  Ulfilas  was  a  fact  of  pregnant  consequence  for 
his  people,  and  indirectly  for  the  empire.  It  had  been  l)is  Urdong 
faith,  as  we  learn  from  the  opening  words  of  his  own  testament — 
*'Ego  Ulfilas  semper  sic  credidL"  If,  as  seems  probable  from  the 
circumstances  of  his  ordination,  he  was  a  Semi-Arian  and  a  follower 
of  Eusebius  in  341,  at  a  later  period  of  his  life  be  departed  from 
this  position,  and  vigorously  opposed  the  teaching  of  his  former 
leader.  He  appeai-s  to  have  joined  the  Homoian  party,  which  took 
shape  and  actjuired  influence  before  the  council  of  Constantinople 
in  360,  where  he  adhered  with  the  rest  of  the  council  to  the  creed 
of-Ariminum,  with  the  addendum  that  in  future  the  terms  inriffraais 
and  ovffia  should  be  excluded  from  Christological  definitions. 
Thus  we  learn  from  Auxentius  that  he  condemned  Homoousians 
and  HoiBoioiisians  alike,  adoptingforliimself  the  Homoian  formula, 
"filium  similem  esse  patri  suo."  This  Arian  form  of  Christianity 
was  impaHanby  Ulfilas  and  his  disci[des  to  most  of  the  tribes  of 
the  Gothic  stock,  and  persisted  among  them,  in  spite  of  the  perse- 
cution, hatred,  and  political  disasters  it  involved,  for  two  centuries. 

The  other  legacy  bcipieathed  by  Ulfilas  was  of  less  questionable 
value.  His  version  of  the  Scriptures  (see  GoTIIIC  Language,  vol. 
X.  p.  8o2)  is  his  greatest  monument  as  a  way-brcakcr  and  a  scholar. 
By  it  he  became  the  fiist  to  raise  a  barbarian  tongue  to  the  dignity 
of  a  literary  language;  and  the  skill,  knowledge,  and  adaptive 
'.■ability  it  displays  make  it  the  crowning  testimony  of  his  powers 
ii3  well  as  of  his  devotion  to  his  work. 

■  The  personal  qualities  of  the  man  may  be  inferred  from  his  pupil's 
description  of  him  as  "of  most  upright  conversation,  truly  a  con- 
fessor of  Christ,  a  teacher  ot  piety,  and  a  preacher  of  truth, — a  man 
whom  I  am  wi;  competent  to  praise  according  to  his  merit,  yet 
Utogetlier  keep  silent  I  dare  not." 

Literature.— \Vallz.  Das  Ltbm  dti  VtfiJat,  ISIO;  Kraflt,  KirckenyescMchte  der 
PtutK/un  VolkerfAbih.  L,  1834;  lJ.,arUcle  "Ulftlns,"  in  Heizog'a  Rcctenci/lto- 


padie  vol  xvf.,  1885;  Id.,  De  Foulibus  CtfUx  Arinnismii  DessvII.  Dtis  Lt^en  tfc* 
i'lfilas,  1360;  C.  A.  S'.ott.  Ulfilas,  ApoUl'e  of  the  Colin,  ISM.  See  also  ••  Gothi* 
Lanpuige"  under  Goths,  (C.  A.  S.) 

ULM,  an  ancient  and  important  commercial  town  ia 
Wiirtemberg,  and  an  imperial  fortress  of  the  first  class,  is 
situated  cu  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  in  a  fertile  plaii» 
at  the  foot  of  the  Swabian  Alps,  45  miles  to  the  south-east 
oi  Stuttgart  and  63  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Munich. 
The  town,  quaintly  built  with  narrow  and  confined  streets, 
still  preserves  the  dignified  and  old-fashioned  appearance 
of  an  ancient  imperial  town,  and  contains  many  mediaeval 
buildings,  both  of  historic  and  of  artistic  interest.  Auioolj 
these,  besides  numerous  handsome  private  houses,  are  the 
town-house,  of  the  16th  century,  in  the  Transition  stylu 
from  late  Gothic  to  Renaissance ;  the  Kornhaus  and 
market-buildings ;  the  Ehingerhaus  or  Neubronnerhaus, 
now  containing  the  industrial  museum ;  the  "  new  build- 
ing," erected  in  1603  on  the  site  of  a  palace  of  Charle- 
magne;  and  the  commandery  of  the  Teutonic  order,  built 
in  1712-18  on  the  site  of  a  habitation  of  the  order  dating- 
from  the  13th  century.  By  far  the  most  important  anil 
conspicuous  building  in  Ulm,  however,  is  the  magni.iceiit 
early  Gothic  cathedral,  next  to  the  cathedral  of  Cologne 
the  largest  church  in  Germany,  and  capable  of  containing 
30,000  people.  Begun  in  1377,  and  carried  on  at  inter- 
vals till  the  16th  century,  the  building  was  long  left  un- 
finished;  but  in  184-1  the  work  of  restoration  and  com- 
pletion was  undertaken,  and  has  steadily  progressed  ever 
since.  Ulm  cathedra!  has  double  aisles  and  a  pentagonal 
apsidal  choir,  but  no  transepts.  Its  length  (outside 
measurement)  is  464  feet,  its  breadth  159  feet;  the  nave 
is  136  feet  high  and  47i  wide;  the  aisles,  which  are 
covered  with  rich  net-vaulting,  are  68  feet  in  height.  The 
m.assive  and  richly  decorated  square  tower  in  the  centre  of 
the  west  facade,  for  centuries  terminated  by  a  temporary 
spire,  is  now  being  completed  according  to  the  original 
plans,  by  the  addition  of  an  octagonal  story  and  a  tall 
open  spire,  which  is  to  be  carried  up  to  the  height  of  534 
feet.  The  towers  of  the  choir  have  also  been  rebuilt  in 
thfe  course  of  the  present  restoration  ;  they  are  282  feet 
high.  The  interior,  which  is  unusually  well  lighted,  pro- 
duces an  impression  of  much  dignity  from  the  great  height 
of  the  nave,  the  absence  of  obtrusive  decoration,  and  the 
massive  manner  in  which  the  walls  and  piers  are  treated. 
It  contains  some  fine  stained  glass,  the  largest  organ  ii> 
Germany  (1856),  and  a  number  of  interesting  old  paint- 
ings and  carvings  by  Syrlin,  Engelberger,  and  other  masters 
of  the  Swabian  school.  The  cathedral  belongs  to  the  Prc>- 
testant  Church.  Trinity  Church  dates  from  1017-21  ;  and 
there  are  also  a  Roman  Catholic  church  and  a  modern 
synagogue  in  the  towu.  The  Danube,  joined  by  the  Iller 
just  above  the  town  and  by  the  Blau  just  below,  becomes 
navigable  at  this  point,  so  that  Ulm  occupies  the  import- 
ant commercial  position  of  a  terminal  river-port.  The 
trade,  especially  in  wood  and  grain,  has  an  upward  tend- 
ency ;  and  the  Ulm  market  for  leather  and  cloth  is  also 
rising  in  importance.  Ulm  is  famous  for  its  vegetables 
(especially  asparagus),  barley,  beer,  pipe-bowls,  and  sweet 
cakes  (UlmerZiickerbrot).  Bleaching,  brewing,  and  brass- 
founding  are  carried  on,  as  well  as  a  large  nii.'scellany  of 
manufactures,  including  hats,  metal  goods,  agricultural 
implements,  tobacco  and  cigars,  cement,  paper,  and  chem- 
icals.    The  population  in  1886  was  33,611. 

The  various  routes  which  converge  at  Ulm  have  made  it  at  all 
times  a  strategic  point  of  great  importauce,  and  it  has  long  ficeii  .i 
fortress  of  the  first  rank.  In  1844-59  the  German  Confederation 
carefully  fortified  it  with  walls,  ramparts,  and  ditches,  and  in  1876 
the  new  German  empire  added  a  very  comprehensive  outer  girdle 
of  detached  forts,  culminatiug  in  the  powerful  citadel  of  Wilhclms- 
burg.  The  defensive  works  embrace  also  the  B.ivarian  towu  of 
NeuUlm  (7S23  inhabitants),  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Danube, 
united  with  tho  older  city  by  two  stone  bridges.  Ulm  is  thus  the 
basis  of  operations  for  the  German  army  behind  the  Black  Forest, 


r  L  P  —  U  L  T 


»nd  can  easilv  shelter  a  force  of  100,000  men  :  its  peace  garrison 
is  5600. 

Ulm  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  year  Si*.  It  subsequently 
became  a  free  imperial  city,  and  the  leading  town  in  Swabia.  In 
the  15th  century  it  attained  the  summit  of  its  prosperity,  and 
roled  over  a  district  of  many  square  miles,  with  a  population,  rural 
and  urban,  of  about  60,000.  Towards  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages 
it  frecjuently  appears  at  the  head  of  various  Swabian  leagues.  In 
1530  It  adopted  the  Augsburg  Confession.  In  1803  it  passed  to 
Bavaria,  and  in  1810  to  Wurtemberg.  In  1805  General  Mack, 
with  33,000  Austrians,  capitulated  to  Napoleon  at  Ulm.  Ultn  is 
remarkable  in  the  history  of  German  literature  as  the  spot  wljere 
the  "  meistersanger "  lingered  Ipngest,  preserving,  without  text 
and  without  notes,  the  traditional  lore  of  their  craft.  In  1830 
there  were  twelve  "  meistersanger"  alive  at  I'lra;  but  in  JS39  the 
foai  survivors  formally  made  over  their  insignia  and  guild  property 
to  a  modem  singing  society,  and  closed  the  record  of  "ileister- 
gesang  "  in  Germany.  The  last  formal  meeting  of  the  Nuremberg 
"  meister  "  took  place  in  1770. 

ULPL^JfUS,  Do.MiTius,  Roman  jurist,  was  of  Tyrian 
ancestry,  bat  the  time  and  place  of  his  birth  are  unknown. 
He  made  his  first  appearance  in  public  life  as  assessor  in 
the  auditorium  of  Papinian  and  member  of  the  council  of 
Septimius  Severus  ;  under  Caracalla  he  was  master  of  the 
requests.  Ellagabalus  deprived  him  of  his  functions  and 
banished  him  from  Rome,  but  on  the  accession  of  Alex- 
ander (222)  he  was  at  once  recalled  and  reinstated,  and 
finally  became  the  emperor's  chief  adviser  and  prsefectus 
prffitoria  His  curtailment  of  the  privileges  granted  to  the 
pratorian  guard  by  Elagabalus  provoked  their  enmity,  and 
several  times  he  only  narrowly  escaped  their  vengeance  ; 
ultimately,  in  228,  he  was  murdered  in  the  palace,  in  the 
cotu^e  of  a  riot  between  the  soldiers  and  the  mob. 

Ulpian'8  period  of  literary  activity  extended  from  about  211  to 
222  A.p.  His  works  include  Ad  Saiinum,  a  commentary  on  the 
juaciviU  in  over  fifty  books;  Ad  Edictum,  a  commentary  on  the 
E<Mc^in  eighty-three  books;  collections  of  Opinions,  Responses, 
and  Disputations  ;  books  of  Rules  and  Institutions ;  treatises  on 
the  functions  of  the  different  magistrate.<i,— one  of  them,  the  De 
C^ieio  Procmrulis  Libri  X.,  being  a  comprehensive  exposition  of 
the  criminal  law;  monographs  on  various  statutes,  on  testamentary 
trusts,  and  a  variety  of  other  works.  His  writings  altogether 
have  supplied  to  Justinian's  Digest  about  a  third  of  its  contents 
and  his  commentary  on  the  Edict  alone  about  a  fifth.  As  an 
author  he  is  characterized  by  doctrinal  exposition  of  a  high  order, 
ludinousness  of  criticism,  and  lucidity  of  arrangement,  style,  and 
language.  Ihmitii  Ulpiani  Fragmenia,  consisting  of  twenty-nine 
titles,  were  first  edited  by  Tilius  (Paris,  1549).  There  are  niodem 
editions  by  Hugo  (Berlin,  1834)  and  Booking  (Bonn,  1836)  the 
latter  containing  fragments  of  the  first  book  of  the  InstUutiones 
discovered  by  Endlicher  at  Vienna  in  1835. 

ULRICI,  Heejia>.--j  (1S06-1884),  one  of  the  most 
active  philosophical  writers  in  Germany  since  Hegel's 
death,  was  born  at  Pforten,  Prussia,  on  March  23,  1806. 
Educated  for  the  law,  he  gave  up  his  profession  upon  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1829,  and  after  four  yeai3  of  further 
Btjidy,  devoted  to  literature,  philosophy,  and  science, 
qualified  as  a  university  lecturer.  In  1834  he  was  called 
to  a  professorship  at  Halle,  where  he  remained  till  his 
^tb  on  the  11th  January  1884  His  first  works  were 
in  the  domain  of  literary  criticism.  His  treatise  On  Shake- 
tpeare's  Dramatic  Art  (1839)  has  been  translated  into 
EnglisL  In  1841  he  published  a  work  Ueber  Princip  u. 
Met}iode  der  HegeUdten  Philoiopkie,  in  which  he  subjected 
Hegel's  system  to  a  severe  criticism.  The  critical  attack 
was  continued  in  the  Grundprincip  der  PhUoiophie 
(1845-6),  which  at  the  same  time  expounds  his  own 
speculative  position  ;  to  this  must  be  added  as  comple- 
mentary his  System  der  Logik  (1852).  His  later  works, 
dealing  with  perennial  problems  of  philosophy,  have  found 
a  more  extended  circle  of  readers.  Such  are  Glavhen  und 
Wtssen  (1858),  GoU  und  die  Nalur  (1862,  3d  ed  1875) 
Gott  und  der  ifev^h  (2  vols.,  1866-73,  2d  ed.  1874)! 
«om  1847  onward  Ulrici  was  associated  with  the  younger 
Fichte  in  the  editorship  of  the  ZeUsrJirift  fur  PhUosophif 

His  philosophical  standpoint  may  be  characterized  as  a  reaction 
from  the  pantheutic  tendency  of  Hegel's  idealistic  rationalism 


r2i 


towards  a  more  pronouncedly  theistic  position.  The  H^elian 
identity  of  being  and  thought'  is  also  abandoned  and  the  truth  of 
realism  acknowledged,  an  attempt  being  made  to  exhibit  idealism 
and  realism  as  respectively  incomplete  but  mutually  complementary 
systems.  Ulrici's  later  works,  while  expi-essing  the  same  views, 
ore  largely  occupied  in  proving  the  existence  of  God  and  the  soul 
from  the  basis  of  scientific  conceptions,  and  in  opposition  to  th» 
materialistic  current  of  thought  then  popular  in  Germany 
ULSTER     See  Irela-vd. 

ULTRAMARINT;,  a  magnificent  blue  pigment,  which 
occurs  in  nature  as  a  proximate  component  of  Lapis  La- 
ZCLI  (qv.).  Lapis  lazuli  has  long  been  known  as  a  precious 
stone,  and  highly  valued  as  such,  and  as  early  at  least  aa 
the  1  Itb  century  the  art  of  extracting  a  blue  pigment  from 
it  was  practised.  From  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century 
this  pigment  began  to  be  imported  into  Europe  from  "  over 
the  sea,"  as  acurrum  vltramarinum.  To  extract  it,  the 
stone,  after  having  been  powdered  coarsely,  is  heated  to 
redness  and  thrown  into  cold  water  to  facilitate  its  con- 
version into  a  very  fine  powder,  which  is  next  treated  with 
dilute  acetic  acid  to  remove  the  carbonate  of  lime  which 
is  present  in  almost  all  specimens.  The  insoluble  blue 
residue  is  mixed  up  into  a  "dough  "  with  a  compositioo  of 
resin,  pitch,  and  linseed  oil,  and  this  dough  is  then  kneaded 
uoder  water,  which  is  renewed  as  long  as  it  runs  off  with 
a  blue  colour.  The  blue  liquor,  when  allowed  to  stand, 
deposits  a  fine  precipitate,  which  is  collected,  washed,  dried] 
and  sold  as  ultramarine.  As  the  yield  amounts  to  only  2 
to  3  per  cent,  of  the  mineral  used,  it  is  not  surprising  to 
learn  that  the  pigment  used  to  be  weighed  up  with  gold. 
It  was  valued  chiefly  on  account  of  its  brilliancy  of  "tone 
and  its  inertness  in  opposition  to  sunlight,  oil,  and  slaked 
lime  (in  fresco-painting). 

Lapis  lazuli  has  the  composition  of  a  double  silicate  of  lime  and 
soda  combined  with  sulphates  and  sulphides  of  the  metals  named. 
Of  the  many  analyses  made  (compare  Lahs  Lazlli)  we  quote  the 
following,  carried  out  by  Schultz  in  Rammelsberg's  lalwratoiy  — 
combined  sulphur  (not  SO3),  3  16;  combined  sulphuric  acid,  SOs 
5-67;  silica,  4326  ;  alumina,  20  22  ,  oxide  of  iron,  calculated  as 
FcjOj,  4-20  ;  lime,  14  73  ;  soda,  876. 

In  1814  Tassaer  observed  the  spontaneous  formation  of  a  blue 
compound,  very  similar  to  ultramarine,  if  not  identical  with  it,  in  a 
soda-furnace  at  St  Gobain,  which  caused  the  "Sociite  pour  1  En- 
eonragement  dindustrie"  to  offer  a  prize  for  the  artificial  production 
of  the  precious  colour.  The  problem  was  solved  almost  simultane- 
ously by  Guimet  and  by  Chrisrian  Gmclin,  then  professor  of  chem  ' 
istry  in  Tubingen  ;  but  while  Guimet  kept  his  process  a  secret  (it 
has  indeed  never  become  known)  Gmelin  published  his,  and  thus 
became  the  onginator  of  an  industry  which  flourishes  to  this  day 
chiefly  in  Germany.  There  are  very  few  ultramarine  works  in  other 
countries,  and  none,  as  far  as  we  know,  in  Great  Britain.  'The  raw 
materials  used  in  the  manufacture  are— (1)  iron.free  kaolin,  or  some 
other  kind  of  pure  clay,  which  should  contain  its  silic-i  and  alumina 
as  neariy  as  possible  in  the  proportion  of  2SiOj .  AI.O,  demanded 
by  the  formula  assigned  to  ideal  kaolin  (a  deficit  of  silica,  how 
ever,  it  appears  can  be  made  up  for  by  addition  of  the  calculated 
weight  of  finely  divided  silica),  (2)  anhydrous  sul].hate  of  soda  . 
(3)  anhydrous  carbonate  of  soda  ;  (4)  sulphur  (in  the  state  of 
powder)  ;  and  (5)  powdered  charcoal  or  relatively  ashfrec  coal,  or 
colophony  in  lumps.  The  numerous  modes  of  manufacture  may 
be  viewed  as  modifications  or  combinations  of  three  processes. 

(1)  In  the  /t'uremierg  process  the  soda  is  used  as  sulphate,  or 
partly  as  such  and  partly  as  carbonate.  The  following  recipe  gives  | 
an  idea  of  the  proportions  in  which  the  materiak  are  used  —kaolin  I 
(calculated  as  anhydrous  matter)  100  parts;  calciped  sulphate  of  I 
soda  83  to  100  (or  41  or  sulphate  and  41  of  carbonate) ;  charcoal  17; 
powdered  sulphur  13.  These  ingredients  arc  mixed  most  inti- 
mately ;  they  are  then  rammed  tight  into  fire-clay  crucibles  and 
kept  at  a  nearly  white  heat  for  7  to  10  hours,  access  of  air  being 
prevented  as  far  as  possible.  The  product  obtained  is  a  greyish  or 
yellowish  green  mass,  which  is  soaked  in  and  washed  with  water ; 
the  porous  residue  is  ground  very  fine  in  mills,  again  washed,  dried,' 
and  again  ground  in  the  dry  state  and  passed  through  sieves.  Tlie 
product  at  this  stage  has  a  green  colour,  and  is  sometimes  sold  as 
' '  green  ultramarine, "  although  it  has  not  a  high  sunding  amongst 
green  pigments.  For  its  conversion  into  blue  ultramarine  it  is 
heated  with  sulphur  in  the  presence  of  air  to  a  relatively  low  tem- 
perature. Of  the  various  apparatus  used  for  this  important  stage 
of  the  manufacture,  the  e-isiest  to  describe  i?  a  large  mufBe,  heated 
trom  the  outside.  On  its  floor  the  green  ultramarine  is  spread  out 
to  a  depth  of  2'  to  3  inches,  and  heated  (with  closed  doois)  to  a 


722 


U  L  U  — U  M  B 


tcraperatme  nt  which  sulphur  powder  when  thrown  in  catches  fire 
spontaneously.  This  temperature  heing  maintained,  a  sliovelful  of 
sulphur  is  thrown  in  and  allowed  to  burn  off  while  the  mass  is 
being  constantly  agitated  with  iron  rakei-s.  Another  dose  of  sul- 
phur is  then  added,  and  so  on  until  a  sample  taken  out  is  found  to 
have  come  up  to  the  hifjhest  attainable  biilliancy  and  depth  of  blue. 
The  product  is  then  lixiviated  with  water,  which  removes  a  deal  of 
sulphate  of  soda  formed  in  the  process  ;  it  is  then  ground  up  very 
fine,  and  finally  subjected  to  clutriation  to  produce  a  graduated  .series 
of  ultramarines  of  ditferent  degrees  of  fineness.  In  some  works  the 
process  of  sulphuration  is  divided  into  two  or  more  periods,  after 
each  of  which  the  product  is  washed,  dried,  and  ground  before  being 
returned  to  the  muffle  to  produce  a  higher  degree  of  homogeneity. 

(2)  In  the  carbonate  of  soda  process  the  soda  is  used  solely,  or  at 
least  principally,  in  the  carbonate  form.  The  following  is  one  of 
many  recipes  :— kaolin  (calculated  as  anhydrous  matter)  100  ;  car- 
bonate of  soda  100;  charcoal  12;  sulphur  60.  The  mixture  is 
beated  in  a  reverbei-atory  furnace  to  form  in  the  first  instance  a 
■white  mass,  which  is  so  porous  that  it  readily  passes,  by  oxidation, 
into  green  and  partly  even  into  blue  ultramarine.  Green  ultra- 
marine, saleable  as  such,  cannot  be  produced  in  this  manner.  The 
balf-blue  product  is  finished  by  sulphuration  pretty  much  as  ex- 
plained aWove  for  the  Nuremberg  process.  Well-made  soda-ash 
ultramarine  has  a  richer  colour  than  the  Nuremberg  vaiiety. 

(3)  Silica  ultrajnariiie  is  soda-ash  ultramarine  in  whose  prepara- 
tion a  quantity  of  finely  divided  silica,  equal  to  5  to  10  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  kaolin,  has  been  added.  It  is  distingnislicd 
by  a  reddish  tinge,  which  is  the  more  fully  developed  the  greater 
the  proportion  of  added  silica  It  is  more  highly  proof  against 
the  action  of  alum  solution  than  non-siliceons  ultramarine  is. 

Sinc«  1873  the  Nuremberg  works  have  been  producing  four 
varieties  of  magnificently  violet  ultramarine.  The  mode  of-raanu- 
facture  has  not  transpired.  At  the  Paris  Exhibition  in  1867  a  mag- 
nificent block  of  ultramarine  exhibited  by  the  Kaiserslautern  works 
attracted  attention.  In  its  manufacture  the  roasting  (blueing)  pro- 
of^ is  said  to  have  been  continued  for  three  weeks. 

Artificial,  like  natural,  ultramarine  has  a  magnificently  blue 
colour,  which  is  not  affected  by  light  nor  by  contact  with  oil  or 
lime  as  used  in  painting.  Hydrochloric  acid  at  once  bleaches  it 
with  liberation  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  and  milk  of  sulphur. 
The  natural  pigment  is  proof  against  dilute  acetic  acid  and  solution 
o!  alura  ;  the  artificial  pigment  is  even  alumproot  only  in  a  higher 
or  lower  relative  sense.  Hence  there  is  room  for  progress  in  one 
direction  at  least.  The  composition  of  the  pigment  is  quite  similar 
to  that  of  lapis  lazuli ;  but  tiie  constitution  of  both  is  still  a  chem- 
ical enigma.  It  is  remarkable  that  even  a  small  addition  of  zinc- 
white  (oxide  of  zinc)  to  the  reddish  varieties  especially  causes  a 
considerable  diminution  in  the  intensity  of  the  colour,  .while  dilu- 
tion with  artificial  precipitated  sulphate  of  lime  ("  annalin  ")  or 
sulphate  of  baryta  ( 'blanc  fix")  acts  pretty  much  as  one  would 
€xpect  Ultramarine  being  very  cheap  (it  sells  at  7d.  to  lOd.  per  lb), 
it  is  largely  used  for  wall  painting,  the  printing  of  paper  hangings 
and  calico,  Jtc,  and  also  as  a  corrective  for  the  yellowish  tinge 
often  present  in  things  meant  to  be  white,  such  as  linen,  paper, 
&c  Large  quantities  are  used  in  the  manufacture  af  ytaper,  and 
especially  for  producing  that  kind  of  pale  blue  writing  paper  which 
is  80  popular  in  Great  Britain.  Only  the  very  finest  uUramarine 
can  be  used  for  paper  tinging,  because  the  least  admixture  of  coarse 
particles  becomes  visible  in  the  paper  as  dark  spots  or  stains. 

ULUGH  BEG,  Mirza  Mohammed  ben  Shah  Rok 
{1394-1449),  astronomer,  grandson  of  Timur  ('/.!■.),  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  prince  of  Samarkand  in  1147,  after 
having  for  years  taken  part  in  the  government,  and  was 
murdered  in  1449  by  liis  eldest  .son.  He  occupied  himself 
with  astronomical  pursuits,  and  erected  an  observatory  at 
Samarkand,  from  which  were  issued  tables  of  the  sun, 
oioon,  and  planets,  with  an  interesting  introduction,  which 
throws  much  light  on  the  trigonometry  and  astronomical 
methods  then  in  use  (Prolcc/omenes  des  Tables  Aslronomi- 
quts  rVO-uloug  Beg,  ed.  by  Sedillot, "Paris,  1847,  and  trans- 
lated by  the  same,  1853).  The  serious  errors  which  he 
found  in  the  Arabian  star  catalogues  (which  were  simply 
copied  from  Ptolemy,  adding  the  effect  of  precession  to  t!ie 
longitudes)  induced  him  to  redetermine  the  positions  of 
992  fixed  stars,  to  which  he  added  27  stars  from  Al  Silfi's 
catalogue,  which  were  too  far  south  to  be  observed  at 
Samarkand.  This  catalogue,  the  first  original  one  since 
Ptolemy,  was  edited  by  Th.  Hyde  at  Oxford  in  ?665 
(Tahulx  Longitudinis  el  Latitudinis  Slellarum  Fixai-um  ex 
Observatione  Ulugheigld),  and  in  1843  by  Baily  in  vol.  xiii. 
of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Aat-onrimlerl  -Society. 


ULVERSTON,  a  market-town  in  the  north-west  of  Lan-' 
cashire,  England,  is  picturesquely  situated  near  Morecambo 
Bay,  on  the  borders  of  the  Lake  district,  9  miles  north- 
east of  Barrow-in-Furness,  and  256  north-west  of  Loudon. 
The  town  bears  small  evidence  of  its  great  antiquity.  The 
principal  streets  branch  from  the  market-place,  ^and  the 
houses  built  of  stone  are  generally  rough-cast  and  whitened. 
A  rivulet  flows  through  the  town.  The  church  of  St  Mary, 
founded  in  1 1 1 1,  retains  the  south  door  of  the  original  build- 
ing in  the  Transition  style,  but  the  greater  portion  of  the 
structure  is  Perpendicular,  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  It 
consists  of  chancel,  nave,  aisles,  south  porch,  and  embattled 
western  tower,  and  contains  an  altar-tomb  with  recum- 
bent figure  oL  Walter  Sandys  of  Conishead,  dated  1588. 
After  the  destruction  of  Furness  Abbey,  Ulverston  suc- 
ceeded Dalton  as  the  most  important  town  in  Furness,  but 
the  rapid  rise  of  Barrow  within  recent  years  has  relegated 
it  to  quite  a  secondary  place.  Formerly  it  had  a  consider'- 
able  trade  in  linens,  checks,  and  ginghams,  but  this  has 
greatly  fallen  off.  It  possesses,  however,  large  iron'  aod 
steel  works  (North  Lonsdale  Iron  and  Steel  Company),  a 
large  chemical  work,  an  extensive  paper  manufactory,  a 
bolt  manufactory,  breweries,  tanyards,  and  wooden  hoop 
manufactories.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  dis- 
trict (area  3120"acres)  in  1871  was  7607,  and  in  1881  it 
was  10,008. 

Early  iii  the  12th  century  the  lordship  of  Ulverston  came  into 
the  possession  of  Stephen,  earl  of  Boulogne,  afterwards  -king  of 
England,  by  whom  it  was  presented  to  the  monks  of  Furnes* 
Abbey  as  part  of  the  endowment  In  1W6  the  ville  of  Ulverston 
was  giunted  by  the  abbot  of  Furness  to  William  de  Lancaster,  first 
bai-on  of_Kendal.  In  1280  it  obtained  the  charter  of  a  market 
The  town  became  escheated  to  the  abbot  of  Furness  as  thief  lord 
in  1342,  but  this  escheatraent  was  suspended  by  Edward  II.  ia 
favour  of  John  de  Coupland,  who  captured  David  II.  of  Scotland  at 
the  battle  of  Dufham.  After  his  death  it  reverted  to  the  abbey. 
It  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  family  of  Buccleuch. 

ULWAR,  an  alternative  form  of  Ai.wae  (?.».). 

ULYSSES.     See  Odysse0s. 

UMA^ff,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  m  the  south  of  th« 
government  of  Kieff,  is  now  a  small  industrial  and  trading 
town,  with  15,400  inhabitants,  many  of  whom  are  Jews, 
who  carry  on  an  active  trade  in. the  export  of  corn,  spirits, 
(fee.  It  has  a  remarkable  park  (290  acres),  planted  in  1796 
by  the  orders  of  Count  Potocki,  in  connexion  with  which  a 
gardening  school  is  maintained. 

Umaa  was  founded  towards  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century 
as  a  fort  against  the  raids  of  the  Tartars,  The  Cossacks  of  the 
Ukraine,  who  kept  it,  revolted  against  their  Polish  rulers  abont 
1665,  and  had  to  sustain  a  fierce  siege.  In  1674  it  was  plundered 
and  most  of  its  inhabitants  murdered  by  the  Ukrainians  and  Turks, 
during  the  wars  for  the  hetmanship.  In  1712  its  last  inhabitanta 
were  transferred  by  Peter  I.  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Dnieper.  But 
by  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  when'  it  again  became  the  property 
of  the  Potockis,  it  was  repeopled  and  became  one  of  the  busiest 
trading  towns  of  Little  Russia.  In  1788,  when  the  Coasaicks  re- 
volted anew  against  their  Polish  serf  proprietors,  they  took  Umaa 
and  murdered  most  of  its  inhabitants. 

UMBALLA,  an  alternative  form  of  AmbIlA  (j.w.). 

UMBER.     See  Pigments. 

UMBRELLA  now  means  a  portable  protector  from 
rain,  while  the  name  parasol  is  given  to  the  generally 
smaller,  lighter,  and  more  fanciful  article  carried  by  ladies 
as  a  sun-shade.  But  primarily  the  umbrella  (pmbrelta,  Ital. 
dim.  from  Lat.  umbra,  shade)  was  a  sun-shade  alone, — its 
original  home  having  been  in  hot  brilliant  climates.  In 
Eastern  countries  from  the  earliest  times  the  umbrella  was 
one  of  the  insignia  of  royalty  and  power.  On  the 
sculptured  remains  of  ancient  Nineveh  and  Egypt  there 
are  representations  of  kings  and  sometimes  of  le-sser 
potentates  going  in  procession  with  an  umbrella  carried 
over  their  heads  ;  and  throughout  Asia  the  umbrella  had, 
and  still  has,  something  of  the  same  significance.  The 
Mahralt.a  princes  of  India  had  among  their  titles  "  lord  cf 


/ 


U  M  B  — U  M  B 


723 


the  umbrella."  In  1S55  the  king  of  Burmah  in  addressing 
thegoveroor-general  of  India  termed  himself  "  the  monarch 
who  reigns  over  tlie  great  umbrella-wearing  chiefs  of  the 
Eastern  countries."  The  baldachins  erected  over  ecclesi- 
astical chairs,  altars,  and  portals,  and'  the  canopies  of 
thrones  and  pulpits,  itc,  are  in  their  origin  closely  related 
to  umbrellas,  and  have  the  same  symbolic  significance.  In 
-each  of  the  basilicao  churches  of  Rome  there  still  bangs  a 
-large  umbrella. 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  the  umbrella  (o-Kias, 
VKidSdov,  umbraculum,  tutiMla)  was  used  by  ladies,  while 
the  carrying  of  it  by  men  was  regarded  as  a  sign  of 
■effeminacy.  Probably  in  these  southern  climes  it  never 
went  out  of  use,  and  we  find  from  allusions  by  Montaigne 
that  in  his  day  its  employment  as  a  sunshade  was  quite 
common  in  Italy.  The  umbrella  was  not  unknown  in 
England  in  the  17th  century,  and  was  already  used  as  a 
raia  protector.  Michael  Drayton,  writing  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  1 7  th  century,  says,  speaking  of  doves  : — 
"  And,  like  umbrellas,  with  their  feathers 
Shield  you  in  all  sons  of  weathers." 

Although  it  was  the  practice  to  keep  an  umbrella  in  the 
■coffeehouses  early  in  the  IStli  century,  its  use  cannot  have 
been  very  familiar,  for  in  1752  Colonel  Wolfe,  writing 
from  Paris,  mentions  the  carrying  of  them  there  as  a 
•defence  against  both  rain  and  sun,  and  wonders  that  they 
are  not  introduced  into  England.  The  traveller  Jonas 
Hanway,  who  died  in  1786,  is  credited  with  having  been 
the  first  Englishman  who  habitually  carried  an  umbrella. 
That  practice  he  began  thirty  years  before  bis  death ;  at 
first  be  was  singular,  and  his  habit  was  derided,  but  he 
iived  to  see  bis  example  commonly  followed. 

The  umbrella  as  at  first  used,  basej  on  its  Kastern  prototype, 
was  a  heavy  ungainly  article  wliiijli  diJ  not  lioUl  well  to;;(;fIicv,  anj 
no  little  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  to  bring  it  into  the  elegant, 
compact,  and  strong  form  which  is  now  i)uite  common.  The  early 
umbrella  had  a  long  handle,  with  libs  of  wli.ilebone  or  cane,  very 
rarely  of  metal,  an.d  stretchers  of  cone.  The  joiutingof  the  ribs 
and  s'retchers  to  the  stick  and  to  each  other  wnsvciy  rough  and 
imperfect.  The  covering  material  consisted  of  oiled  silk  or  cotton, 
heavy  in  sub.^tance,  and  liable  to  stick  together  in  the  folds. 
Cinghara  soon  came  to  be  substiluti'd  for  the  oiled  cloth,  and  in 
1848  ^S'illiam  Sangster  patented  the  use  of  alpac.ias  an  umbrella 
toveriog  material.  One  of  the  mo^t  notable  inventions  for  com- 
1>iDiDg  lightness,  strength,  and  elasticity  in  the  ribs  of  umbrellas 
-«aa  the  "Paragon  "rib  patented  ly  Sanu'.el  Fox  in  1S52.  It  is 
formed  of  a  thin  strip  of  steel  roUeil  into  a  U  or  trough  section,  a 
form  which  gives  great  strength  for  the  weight  of  metal.  Tlie  use 
■of  such  ribs,  combined  with  the  notched  rings  and  runners  which 
give  a  separate  hinge  and  joint  to  e.icU  rib  aiul  stretcher,  an  1  with 
the  thin  but  tough  covering  materials  now  in  use,  h.is  iMinL-ipiilly 
contributed  to  the  Strength,  lightness,  .Tud  elegance  which  ordiu.ivv 
umbrellas  new  present.  Umbrella  silk  is  principally  lu.ide  at 
Lyons  and  Cicfcld  ;  but  much  of  it  is  so  loaded  in  dyeing  that  it 
cuts  readily  at  llic  folds.  Te.Ttures  of  pure  silk  or  of  silk  aud 
alpaca  mixed  have  better  wear-resisting  properties. 

UMURIA  COfxISptK^,  'O/iySp.Koi',  OiV/3/)oi,  Tmbri).  The 
«arly  Greeks  applied  the  name  '0/j/3/riK>;  to  all  central  and 
northern  Italy.  Herodotus  (iv.  49)  speaks  of  it  somewhat 
vaguely,  as  if  it  extended  up  to  the  Alps.  The  Umbrians 
probably  extended  across  central  Italy  from  sea  to  sea 
Jtown  as  far  as  Latium.  Plioy  (iii.  13,  19)  tells  us  that  the 
Uiiibri  were  considered  the  most  anci^^nt  nation  of  Italy 
(.■intiquissiina  gens  ItalL-e),  by  which  he  probably  means, 
r.f  the  Italian  stock.  The  Greek  writers  included  under 
the  name  of  Umbria  the  district  known  in  later  times 
as  I'icenum.  Pseudo^Scylax  makes  Umbria  march  with 
Sanininm,  and  describes  Ancona  as  a  city  of  Umbria.  The 
Umbrians  seem  to  have  found  the  Siculi  and  Liburni 
in  occupation  of  the  land  into  which  thej-  advanced,  the 
former  holding  the  jiarts  lying  towards  the  interior,  the 
latter  people  the  district  along  the  .Adriatic.  The  Unilirians 
%vere  one  of  the  chiof  [icoplos  oi  that  branch  of  the  Indo- 
European  family  which  had  entered   Italy  from  the  north 


and  driven  out  and  absorbed  the  older  inhabitants.  1'-  ey 
were  more  closely  connected  with  the  Samnites  and  Oscans 
than  with  the  Latin  stock,  as  is  shown  by  their  language. 
Their  possession  of  the  fertile  regions  of  upper  Italy  exposed 
them  to  the  constant  assaults  of  fresh  bodies  of  invaders, 
pressing  on  over  the  Alps,  and  perhaps  likewise  from  the 
seaboard.  Their  force  was  extended  over  a  w^ide  area,  and 
thus  too  weak  to  withstand  the  attacks  from  various  sides 
to  which  they  were  exposed.  Thus  their  extensive  terri- 
tory was  gradually  reduced  by  the  successive  encroachments 
of  other  peoples.  First  came  the  Etruscans,  who  according 
to  Herodotus  (i.  9i)  were  Lydians,  who  established  them- 
selves in  the  land  of  the  Umbrians.  -From  which  side  of 
Italy  they  madethtir  invasion,  whether  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Po  or  from  the  western  coast  of  what  later  became 
Etruria,  or  whether  from  both,  we  have  no  means  of  de- 
termining. That  the  Umbrians  did  not  yield  without,  a, 
struggle  we  cannot  doubt.  It  was  only  after  three  hun- 
dred of  their  towns  had  been  captured  by  the  Etruscans 
that  they  succumbed.  Nevertheless  they  still  -retained 
considerable  influence  in  upper  Italy,  which,  according  to 
Strabo  (v.  216),  continued  down  to  the  time  of  ihe  Roman 
conquest.  For  he  says  that  there  was  a  large  Umbrian 
element  in  the  Roman  colonies  in  the  region  of  the  Po,  a.! 
also  some  Etruscan.  For,  according  to  him,  the  Umbrians 
and  Etru.<cans  lived  in  a  continual  rivalry  for  the  pre* 
eminence,  -w  that  if  the  one  people  made  an  expedition 
northwards,  the  other  determined  not  to  be  outdone.  So 
when  the  Etruscans  had  marched  against  the  barbarians 
who  dwelt  near  the  Po,  and  had  soon  again  been  expelled 
owing  to  their  effeminacy,  the  Umbrians  in  turn  marched 
against  the  conquerors  of  the  Etruscans.  In  consequence  of 
this  alternating  struggle  for.  these  regions  they  planted 
many  colonies,  some  Etruscan,  others  Umbrian.  Most  Oi 
the  colonies  were  Umbrian  because  the  Umbrians  lay  closer 
to  the  disputed  territory.  Thus,  even  though  they  lost 
the  sovereignty,  the  Umbrian  race  probably  continued  to 
form  a  considerable  portion  of  the  population  of  a  wide 
extent  of  country.  At  all  events,  at  the  time  of  the  Gaulish 
inroad  the  Etruscans  seem  to  be  in  jiossession  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Po.  At  this  time,  therefore,  Umbria  as  a  state  con- 
sisted of  the  region  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Tiber,  on 
the  S.  by  the  Sabines,  on  the,  E.  by  Picenum  and  the 
Adriatic,  while  on  the  N.  it  extended  close  up  to  the  south.- 
em  or  Spinetic  mouth  of  the  Po.  Scylax  describes  the 
Etruscans  as  extending  from  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  to  the 
Adriatic,  and  represents  them  as  in  possession  of  the  ancient 
Greek  town  of  Spina.-  How  much  farther  south  the 
Etruscan  sway  had  once  reached  we  cannot  determine, 
but  that  they  had  once  held  this  region,  as  far  as  Ravenna 
at  least,  is  rendered  probable  by  the  tradition  Ihat  Ravenna 
had  been  founded  by  a  colony  of  Thessalians  who,  not 
brooking  the  insulting  treatment  which  they  received 
from  the  Etruscans,  gladly  admitted  some  Umbrians,  who 
thus  became  the  possessors  of  the  city.  When  the  great 
Gaulish  inroad  took  place  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury B.C.  Etruscans  and  Umbrians  alike  suffered  severely. 
Some  of  the  Celtic  tribes  crossed  the  Po  and  formed 
permanent  settlements.  Tbe  Ananes  settled  in  the 
Apennines,  the  lioii  between  the  former  and  the  Adriatic; 
next  came  the  Lingones;  and  finally  the  Senones  occupied 
the  seaboard  of  the  Adriatic  as  far  as  the  Rubicon.  This 
region  in  Roman  times  was  known  as  the  Ager  Gallicus 
(Polybius,  ii.  16).  Rut  it  was  not  only  in  the  north  and 
west  that  the  Umbrians  had  been  driven  back.  The  early 
Greeks  had  included  under  the  name  of  Umbria  the  dis- 
trict along  the  Adriatic,  afterwards  known  as  Picenum. 
This  consisted  of  a  fertile  region,  extending  from  beyond 
Ancona  to  the  ri>cr  Matrino.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
I  Piceates  issued  from  the  Sabine  region.     Tradition  alleged 


T.n 


U  M  M  —  U  N  G 


that  tie  ?i.centcs,  \Bd  by  the  woodpecker  (jmus)  of  Mars, 
marched  forth  to  occopy  what  is  aow  the  March  of  Ancona. 
But  it  was  probibly  only  after  a  long  struggle  that  this 
conquest  was  effected,  for  from  another  tradition  we 
learn  that  the  Sabiaes,  alter  carrying  on  war  against  the 
Umbrians  for  a  long  time,  at  length  vowed  a  sacred  spring, 
and  dedicated  all  the  produce  of  the  year  to  the  gods. 
Then  at  length  they  became  victorious  (Strabo,  v.  250). 
Thus,  by  the  advance  of  the  Gauls  from  the  north  and  the 
Picentes  from  the  south,  the  Umbrians  wore  shut  oS  from 
the  seaboard,  and  confined  to  the  district  known  as  Umbria 
in  historical  times."  When  Rome  began  the  consolidating 
of  Italy,  Umbria  consisted  of  the  region  bounded  by  the 
Ager  Gallicus  on  the  N.,  by  Etruria  (the  Tiber)  on  the 
W.,  by  Picenum  on  the  E.,  and  by  the  Sabines  on  the 
S.  The  Umbrians  kept  a  desperate  hold  of  this  district, 
which  lies  between  the  two  arms  of  the  Apennines.  This 
position  indicates  of  itself  that  tl,:y  had  been  driven  before 
stronger  foes.  Henceforward  they  play  but  an  insignificant 
part  in  Italian  history.  This  is  explained  by  the  physical 
formation  of  their  country.  It  is  an  extremely  mountain- 
ous region,  with  a  few  small  plains  between,  which  were 
noted  for  their  fertility.  Hence  arose  a  number  of  small 
but  thriving  communities,  none  of  which  had  the  capacity 
of  developing  into  a  leading  state  such  as  Home  became  for 
the  Latins.  Their  want  of  seaports  likewise  excluded  them 
from  trade,  the  mouths  of  all  the  rivers  which  flowed  from 
their  country  Laing  in  the  hands  of  their  enemies. 

Of  the  Umbrians'  political  and  municipal  organization  little  is 
known.  In  addition  to  the  city  {Ma)  they  seem  to  have  had  a 
larger  territorial  division  in  the  tribus  (trifu,  ace.)  as  we  gather 
from  Livy  (xxxi.  2,  per  Umbriain  qnam  tribum  Sapiuiam  vocant ; 
cf.  xxxiit.  37)  and  from  the  Eugubine  Tables  (trifor  Tarsinates,  vi. 
8.  54).  From  the  fertility  of  their  land  their  communities  were 
very  prosperous.  The  olive  and  vine  flourished  in  their  valleys  ; 
they  grow  spelt  abundantly;  and  the  boars  of  Umbria  were  famous. 
Ancient  authors  describe  the  Umbrians  as  leading  effeminate  lives, 
and  as  closely  resembling  their  Etruscan  enemies  in  their  habits 
(Theopompus,  fiagm.  142;  Pseudo-Scymnus,  366-8).  It  is  almost 
certain  that  each  raco  influenced  and  modified  the  other  to  a  large 
extent.  Mommsen  has  pointed  out  that  the  names  of  many  towns 
in  Etruria  are  Urabrian,  a  fact  which  shows  liow  persistent  even 
after  conquest  was  their  influence  in  that  region.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  have  conclusive  proof  of  strong  Etruscan  influences  in 
Umbria.  For  instance,  they  undoubtedly  borrowed  their  alphabet 
and  the  art  of  writing  Oom  the  Etruscans.  Their  writing  runs 
from  right  to  left.  The  alphabet  consists  of  nineteen  letters.  It 
has  no  separate  symbols  for  0,  G,-Q;  the  aspirates  0  and  x  ^re 
■Wanting ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  possesses  forms  for  Z  and  V,  and 
has  likewise  the  Etruscan/ (8).  It  also  has  a  symbol  d  peculiar 
to  itself  for  expressing  the  sound  of  palatal  k  when  followed  by 
either  e  or  i.  It  is  also  very  probable  that  they  borrowed  the  art 
of  coining  money  from  Etruria.  Two  towns  are  known  to  have 
issued  corns,  which  consist  entirely  of  bronze,  and  belong  almost 
entirely  to  the  series  of  ses  grave.  The  most  important  is  that  of 
Tudcr  (Todi),  which  must  have  been  a  place  of  some  note.  It  was 
a  strong  fortress  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber  on  the  confiaes  of 
Etruria.  Iguvium  (Gubbio),  which  struck  coins  after  the  standard 
of  Tuder,  was  a  strong  place  likewise  on  the  western  or  Etruscan 
side  of  the  Apennines.  The  fact  that  it  is  only  in  towns  on  the 
side  next  Etruria  that  a  coinage  is  found  indicates  that  it  was 
from  the  Etruscans  they  borrowed  the  art.  The  Umbrians  counted 
their  day  from  noon  to  noon.  But  whether  they  borrowed  this 
likewise  from  the  Etruscans  we  do  not  know  (Pliny,  ii.  77).  In 
their  measuring  of  land  they  employed  the  vorsus,  &  measure 
common  to  them  and  the  Oscans  (Frontinus,  De  Limit.,  p.  30),  3  J  of 
which  went  to  the  Rom%n  jugerum.  When  the  Romans  undertook 
the  conquest  of  Italy,  the  most  feeble  resistance  of  all  was  offered 
to  them  by  tho  Umbrians.  In  the  great  struggle  between  the 
Samnite  confederacy  and  Rome  Umbria  pl.iyed  an  insignificant 
part.  It  is  probable  that  all  through  the  Second  Samnite  War 
their  sympathies  were  altogether  on  the  side  of  their  Samnite 
kinsmen,  and  that  some  assistance  was  afi"orded  by  individual 
communities.  It  is  not  unlikely  therefore  that  it  was  with  a  view 
to  keep  the  Umbrians  in  check  that  the  Romans  planted  a  colony 
at  Nequinum  en  the  Nar,  whose  inhabitants  w^re  known  as  Nartes 
Interamnates,  and  who  aro_  included  with  the  Etruscans,  lapydes, 
and  Tadinates  in  the  list  of  persons  who  were  forbidden  to  be 
present  at  the  sacred  ritts  of  .Iguvium.  At  length  in  308  B.C.  the 
Umbrians  made  a  vigorous  effort  to  aid  the  Samnitcs,  which,  had 


it  taken  place  earlier  in  the  war,  might  have  had  the  most  import- 
ant influence  on  the  issue  of  the  struggle.  As  it  was,  it  came  tO(i> 
late;  the  Etruscans  hail  already  laid  down  their  arms.  Th& 
Umbrians,  who  threatened  to  march  on  Rome,  were  intercepted  by 
Rulliauus  with  tlie  Roman  army  from  Samnium  on  tho  upper 
Tiber,  a  step  which  the  S.amnitcs  nov;  broken  could  not  prevent;, 
and  tills  was  sufficient  to  disperee  the  Umbrian  levies.  When  thfe 
Third  Samnite  War  broke  out,  the  Umbrians  took  no  active  part 
in  its  operations  j  but  how  their  sympathies  lay  is  evident  froirk 
their  affording  awady  passage  to  the  Samnita  army  under  Gellius. 
Egnatius  on  its  march  to  Etruria,  296  B.C.  When  the  battle  of 
Sentinum  (295)  finally  crushed  the  Snninites  and  Etruscans,  Um- 
bria remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans.  Henceforward  the: 
process  of  Latinizing  went  on  steadily,  for  by  the  1st  century  B.C. 
we  find  them  employing  the  Latin  alphabet  iu  copies  of  the  ancient 
sacerdotal  ritual  of  Iguvium  (see  Eugubine  Tables).  We  know- 
that  the  Osoan  language  only  fin.illy  expired  in  the  1st  century- 
of  our  era,  and  there  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the  Umbriait 
had  disappeared  much  earlier.  When  the  Romans  conquered  the 
Senones,  280  B.C.,  the  Aeer  Gallicus  was  restored  to  Umbria,  and 
both  togetlier  formed  under  the  empire  the  sixth  region  of  Italy. 

Strabo  (v.  227)  regards  Ravenna  as  the  boundary  of  Umbria. 
The  Via  Flaminia  passed  up  through  it  from  Ocriculum  to  Arim- 
inum,  along  which  lay  the  important  towns  of  Narnia  (Nami) 
Carsulas  (Carsigliano),  Mevaoia  (Bevagna),  Forum  Flaminii,  Nu- 
ceria,  and  Forum  SemproniL  To  the  east  lay  Interamna  (Terni), 
the  probable  birthplace  of  Tacitus,  Spoletium  (Spoleto),  and  the: 
most  important  town  of  Camerinum  on  the  side  of  the  Apennines; 
towards  Picenum.  On  the  side  towards  Etruria  lay  Tuder  (Todi), 
Iguvium,  which  occupied  a  very  advantageous  position  close  to  the- 
main  pass  through  the  Apennines,  Ameria  (Amelia),  and-  Hispellum 
(Spello);  on  the  ClitumnnS"(Clitunno)  was  Assisium  (Assisi).  the. 
iiirthplace  of  Propertius.  whilst  far  to  the  north  lay  Sarsina,  th» 
birthplace  of  Plautus.  For  the  position  of  the  countjy-iD  the  timo. 
of  Augustus,  see  vol.  xiii.  Plate  V. 

See  Br^al,  Les  Tables  Eugubines,  1875;  BQcheler,  Umbrica.  1883;  KIrchhoff.. 
GriecK  Alphabet,  4lli  cd..  1887  ;  Head,  Hulona  Numorum,  1887.  (W.  RI.) 

UMMERAPOORA,  another  form  of  Amaeapuea  {q.v.)^ 
UNAO,  a  British  district  in  the  Lucknow  division  of 
Oudh,  India,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  North-Western  Provinces.  The  area  of 
the  district  is  1768  square  miles,  and  it  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  Hardoi,  E.  by  Lucknow,  S.  by  Rai  Bareli,  and-. 
W.  by  the  Ganges.  Unao  is  very  flat,  and  has  no  features 
of  particular  interest.  Rich  and  fertile  tracts,  studded 
with  groves,  alternate  with  stretches  of  waste  land  and 
plains  of  barren  usar,  the  whole  being  intersected  with 
small  streams,  the  water  from  which  is  extensively  used 
for  irrigation.  The  Ganges  is  the  only  navigable  river  irk 
the  district.  The  temperature  varies  from  about  75°  to 
103°  in  the  hot  weather,  and  from  46°  to  79°  in  the  cold 
season.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is  about  34  inches."  i 
In  1881  the  population  was  899,069  (males  461,167,  females 
437,902);  of  these  830,342  -ivcre  Hindus,  68,677  Mohammedans, 
and  49  Christians.  Unao,  the  capital  and  administrative  head- 
quarters, 9  miles  north-east  of  Cawnpore,  had  9509  inhabitants. 
The  cultivated  area  of  Unao  amounted  in  1885-86  to  598,131  acres, 
and  289,356  acres  were  returned  as  cultivable.  The  principal  cropa 
are  rice,  wheat,  andvOther  food  grains,  cotton,  sngar-cane,  and  in- 
digo. The  cultivation  is  mainly,  dependent  on  irrigation.  Thc- 
principal  exports  are  grain  of  all  kinds,  gur,  ghi,  tobacco,  and  a. 
little  indigo  and  saltpetre;  and  the  chief  imports  are  piece  goods, 
salt,  iron,  cotton,  spices,  &c.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  district 
iu  1885-86  amounted  to  £183,083,  the  land  yielding  £144,914. 
During  the  mutiny  of  1857-58  Unao  was  the  scene  of  several  sever* 
engagements  between  General  Havelock's  little  army  and  the  rebels. 
On  the  death  of  Raja  Jasa  Sinh,  one  of  the  leading  rebels,  and  th^ 
capture  of  his  two  sons,  the  whole  family  estates  were  confiscated, 
and  the  villages  either  restored  to  their  former  owners  or  given  to. 
other  landholders  for  their  loyalty. 

UNDULATORY  THEORY.  See  Optics-  and  Wave 
Theory. 

UNGVAR,  chief  town  of  the  county  Ung,  in  the  tiurth- 
east  of  Hungary,  stands  on  the  river  Ung.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  bishop  of  Munkdcs,  and  has  a  fine  Greek  cathedral, 
an  episcopal  seminary,  a  lyceum,  a  gymnasium,  and  also 
a  teachers'  college,  a  county  hall,  and  an  interesting 
ancient  castle.  The  town  and  district  produce  good  wine 
in  large  quantity,  and  abound  iu  mineral  springs.  There 
is  a  good  trade  in  timber  and  china  clay.  The  populatioa 
in  1886  was  13,460. 


U  N  I  —  U  N  I 


725 


UNICORN,  an  animal  with  one  horn.  The  name  is 
applicable  and  has  sometimes  been  applied  to  the  rhinoceros, 
"which  is,  for  example,  the  Sumatran  uniecra  of  Marco 
Polo.  Bat  the  fijjure  usually  associated  with  the  name  is 
the  well-known  heraldic  one  of  an  animal  with  the  form 
of  a  horse  or  ass,  save  that  a  long  straight  horn  with  spiral 
twistings,  like  the  tusk  of  the  narwhal,  projects  from  its 
forehead.  The  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  one-horned 
^niual  of  this  kind  goes  back  to  Aristotle  {Part.  An.,  in. 
p.  663),  who  names  as  one-horned  "  the  ory.x  and  the 
Indian  ass."  Later  descriptions  of  the  Indian  unicorn, 
■r.g.,  that  of  ./Elian  (N^al.  An.,  xvi.  20),  are  plainly  influenced 
?o  some  extent  by  accounts  of  the  rhinoceros,  but  the 
-authority  of  Aristotle  determined  the  general  form  ascribed 
to  the  animaL  The  twisted  horn,  of  which  iElian  already 
:-3peaks,  seems  to  have  been  got  by  referring  to  Aristotle's 
wnicorn  actual  specimens  taken  from  the  narwhal ;  see 
Yule's  Marco  Pa'o,  ii.  273.  The  ancient  and  mediaeval 
lore  of  the  subject  may  be  seen  in  Bochart,  Hierozoicon, 
ML  26.  The  familiar  legend  that  the  unicorn  could  be 
taken  only  by  the  aid  of  a  virgin  obtained  currency 
through  the  Physiologus  (see  vol  xix.  p.  7).  The  English 
Bible,  following  the  Septuagint  (/xocdKfpus),  renders  the 
Hebrew  reevi  {p^"^)  by  "  unicorn."  But  two  horns  are 
-ascribed  to  the  reem  in  Deut.  .\xxiii.  17,  and  the  Hebrew 
Word  reappears  in  Arabic  as  the  name  of  the  larger  ante- 
lopes, probably  the  Antihpe  leucoryx,  while  in  Assyrian  the 
Hinu  appears  to  be  the  wild  ox.  There  are  recent  fossil 
remains  in  the  Lebanon  both  of  Bos  primiym,iiis  and  Bison 
urws,  thougli  both  have  been  long  extinct  in  Palestine. 

UNITARIANLSM.  The  term  Unitarianism  in  its  widest 
^ease  includes  certain  lines  of  the  great  religious  andtheo- 
sogical  movement  or  revolution  of  the  Reformation  in  the 
16th  century,  when  this  is  regarded  as  the  commencement 
^f  the  process  of  the  humanization  of  theology  and  ethics  on 
the  basis  of  the  autonomy  of  the  human  mind.  In  another 
■^ense  the  term  stands  for  a  set  of  theological  opinions, 
TOore  or  less  variable,  and  yet  in  their  general  drift  con- 
nected, some  of  them  as  old  as  Christianity,  and  one 
section  of  which  only  is  indicated  by  the  term  when  used 
OS  synonymous  with  Antitrinitarianism.  But  there  is 
•another  meaning  of  the  term,  a  still  narrower  one,  and  to 
Unitarianism  in  this  sense  this  article  must  be  confined. 
We  must  limit  ourselves  to  a  brief  account  of  Unitarianism 
as  it  appears  in  ecclesiastical  organizations  in  separation 
^roni  the  orthodox  churches.  This  treatment  of  the  sub- 
.ject  is  of  course  incomplete,  and  would  be  misleading  were 
the  incompleteness  not  expressly  announced.  For  a 
marked  feature  of  the  late  history  of  the  Unitarian 
-churches  is  the  growing  tendency  they  exhibit  of  working 
out  to  their  logical  results,  some  of  the  wider  principles  of 
the  Reformation  to  which  they  ultimately  owe  their  origin, 
rather  tlian  the  design  of  formulating  and  propagating 
systems  of  theology.  To  not  a  few  modern  Unitarian 
teaders  the  bond  which  connects  them  with  a  specifically 
Unitarian  organization  is  the  spirit  and  tendency  of  the 
iarger  movement  for  which  it  happens  to  provide  freer  play 
than  the  orthodox  churches,  while  they  repudiate  the  im 
putation  of  belonging  to  a  dogmatic  sect.  Modern  Uni- 
tarians have  also,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  emphati- 
cally and  successfully  resisted  the  inclination  of  some  of 
their  number  to  lay  down,  though  in  the  most  general 
terms,  a  creed  of  Unitarianism.  Indeed,  in  opposing  this 
'tnchnation,  it  might  sometimes  seem  as  if  the  only  essen- 
tial article  of  LTnitarianism  were  the  maintenance  of  free 
inquiry  in  religion, — an  impression,  however,  which  a  care- 
tul  study  of  the  history  of  Unitarian  thought  would  remove. 
In  the  same  way  such  a  study  would  show  that  Unitarian 
churches  are  in  agreement  on  many  points  of  doctrine  with 
*ariy  and  recent  theologians  of  all  churches  and  sects. 


This  brief  sketch  of  Unitarianism,  as  it  has  appeared 
in  organized  religious  societies,  takes  us  into  but  a  few 
countries,  and  covers  but  a  limited  space  of  time.  Poland, 
Transylvania,  England,  and  America  are  the  only  countries 
in  which  Unitarian  congregations  have  existed  in  any 
numbers  or  lor  any  length  of  time.  Elsewhere,  either  the 
law  of  the  land  has  rendered  their  existence  impossible,  or 
they  have  been  unnecessary  in  consequence  of  the  substan- 
tial adoption  by  the  existing  churches  of  their  principles 
and  doctrines.  The  former  was  the  case  in  Italy,  Switzer- 
land, Germany,  and  England  in  the  1 6th  and  1 7th  centuries, 
the  latter  to  a  certain  extent  in  England  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury, still  more  in  Germany  in  the  18th  and  19th  centuries, 
and  in  Holland  in  the  present  century,  as  also  to  a  lArge 
extent  in  France  in  the  Reformed  Church. 

Poland  [\565~165S). — The  Unitarians,  undei  the  names  of  Arians, 
Samosatenians,  Pinczowians,  were  formcJ  into  a  separate  church  in 
1565  by  their  exchision  as  Aotitrmilarians  from  the  synods  of  the 
Trinitaiian  Protebtants.  Very  early  in  the  progress  of  the  R  'forma- 
tion in  Poland  individuals  had  arrived  at  heterodox  opinions  on 
baptism  and  the  Trinity,  very  much  under  the  influence  of  the 
heterodo.i  Italian  refugees  in  Switzerland,  some  of  whom  visited 
Poland  (Lelio  Suzzini,  1551  and  1558  ;  Paul  Alciati,  1561  ;  G.  V. 
Gentile,  1561  ;  BianJrata,  1555).  Gonesias  and  Gregory  Pauli 
were  the  first  to  openly  preach  Antitrinitarian  doctrine.  After  their 
separation  from  the  orthodox,  the  Polish  Unitarians  developed 
divergent  views  as  to  the  nature  of  Christ,  as  to  the  lawfulness  of 
paying  divine  worship  to  Him,  as  to  the  subjects  of  baptism  (infanta 
or  adults),  and  as  to  the  relation  of  Christians  to  the  state.  On  the 
first  point  some  were  Arians  and  others  Humanitarians,  while  those 
who  claimed  divine  worship  for  Christ  were  called  AdoranUs  and 
those  of  the  opposite  view  Nmiad^attles.  An  epoch  in  the  history 
of  the  party  was  made  by  the  arrival  of  Fausto  Sozzini  at  Cracow  in 
1579  (see  SociNUs).  He  succeeded  in  converting  the  great  majority 
of  the  churches  to  his  views  and  in  filencing  the  dissentients. 
Henceforth  the  Polish  Unitarians  adopted  the  Socician  practice  of 
paying  worship  to  Christ,  the  Socinian  view  of  the  necessity  of 
baptism  and  of  the  Christian's  duty  towards  the  state.  They 
rapidly  became  a  numerous  and  powerful  body  iu  Poland,  distiil- 
guished  by  the  rank  of  tlieir  adherents,  the  ability  and  learning  of 
their  scholars,  the  excellence  of  their  schools,  and  the  superiority 
and  wide  circulation  of  their  theological  literature.  Kacow,  the 
theological  centre  of  the  Soctnians,  with  its  school  and  printing 
presses,  obtained  a  world-wide  fame.  It  was  there  that  the 
Raccmian  Catechism  was  published  (1605  in  the  Polish  language, 
1603  in  German,  and  1609  in  Latin).  But  before  the  death  of 
Fausto  Sozzini  (1604)  the  situation  of  the  Unitarians  became  more 
difficult,  and  in  1611  the  Jesuits  obtained  their  first  open  triumph 
over  them.  Iu  the  rapid  course  of  the  Catholic  reaction,  which 
was  not  resisted  by  the  orthodox  Protestants  as  long  as  the 
Scciniau  heretics  only  suffered,  tha  church  and  schocl  at  Li:l  Hn, 
the  most  important  place  next  to  Racow,  were  first  put  down  (lC-27), 
and  Racow,  with  its  church,  school,  and  printing-press  suffered 
the  same  fate  in  1638.  The  final  blow  to  the  whole  body  followed 
in  1653,  wlien  all  adherents  of  "the  Arian  and  Anabaptist  sect" 
were  commanded  to  quit  the  kingdom  within  two  years.  A  few 
renounced  their  faith,  but  the  large  majority  fled  into  Transylvania, 
Prussia,  Silesia,  Holland,  and  England. 

7'rat«yJraiiia(  1563-1 387). — Next  to  Poland  Transylvania  was  the 
most  important  seat  of  Uuitariaijism.  It  was  there  the  narue  was 
first  used  by  the  sect  as  its  own  designation,  and  it  is  there  only 
that  the  sect  has  had  a  continuous  existence  down  to  our  own  time. 
It  is  generally  cousidered  that  the  Italian  refugee  Biandrota  was 
the  founder  of  Transylvanian  Unitariauism,  but  the  present  repre- 
sentatives of  the  body  claim  for  it  a  nobler  and  domestic  origim 
Biaudrata  attended  John  Sigismund  as  a  physician  in  156o  ami 
under  his  influence  Unitarianism  made  rapid  progress.  Iu  1568 
its  profes-sors,  favoured  by  the  king  and  many  magnates,  after 
separating  from  the  orthodox  cliurch,  constituted  themselves  a 
distinct  body  under  the  distinguished  man  Francis  David,  who  is 
now  regarded  as  the  apostle  of  true  Transylvariiau  Unitarianism. 
Their  principal  centre  was  Klausenburg  (Kolozsvav),  where  they 
had  a  large  church,  a  college,  and  a  printuig-press.  But  the  same 
conflict  between  a  more  radical  and  a  more  conser\'ative  tendency 
which  appeared  amongst  the  Unitarians  of  Poland  greatly  distr.rbed 
tl-.o  churches  of  Ti-ansylvania,  particularly  with  regajrl  to  the 
worship  of  Clirist.  Ou  the  side  of  the  Adoraidcs  was  Biandxati-.^  &nd 
on  that  of  the  XoyiadoraiUcs  David.  The  party  of  David  succumbed 
to  fwi'ce  and  fraud,  and  he  himself  died  in  prisou  amaitj-r  to  his 
convictions.  Gradually  the  Socinian  view  prevailed,  though  in 
1618  an  old  order  to  wqrshij^ Christ  required  reinforcement-^  In 
the  latter  half  of  the  ISth  centnr}'  the  more  logical  view  of  David 
entirely  disapijoared.     Under  the  Austrian  dyuasly  the  Unitarians 


726 


U  N  I  — U  N  I 


wero  often  exposed  to  great  trials,  until  Joseph  II.  seciired  to  them 
their  rifihta  and  privileges.  An  official  confession  of  faith  of  the 
year  1787  remains,  with  some  modifications,  essentially  Socmian. 
But  of  late  years  the  Transylv.-iiiian  Unitirians  have  been  in  close 
relation  with  their  co-rcHgionists  in  England  and  America,  some 
of  the  ministers  having  been  educated  at  Manchester  New  College, 
and  in  coiisequence  their  theology  is  becoming  essentially  modern. 
The  number  of  members  was  32.000  in  17S9,  in  1847  40,000,  dis- 
tributed in  104  parisiics  with  120  pastors.  Their  present  number 
is  53,539  in  106  parisho;.  Tlieir  chief  centres  are  Kolozsvar,  Thorda, 
Brd  Keresztur,  where  tliey  have  excellent  schools. 

England  (1773-1887).— For  two  and  a  half  centuries  previous  to 
the  rise  of  oro-anized  (Jnitarianism  in  England,  opinions  commonly 

•  1      «    .         .1    ■  e    ....,1 ...... .^  ir.  .4i  ..>.!  iin)   o/lif  .^r■o^■i>.;   Mnil   KflTTlft 


the  rise  ot  oro-anizea  unicananism  in  jz^ugianu,  opinions  commonly 
e&lled  by  this'name  found  nuni.-rous  individual  advocates  and  some 
martyrs     John  Bidle  (1615-62)  published  catechisms  of  Unitarian 
doctrine,  translated   Sociuian  works,  and  publicly  discussed  and 
preached  an  English  form  ot  Socinianism.     But  the  seventy  of  the 
law  against  AntitriniUrians,  coupled  with  the  gradual  growtuo! 
free  pinion  in  the  Established  Church  and  amongst  the  Presby- 
terian congregations,  mode  the  fomation   of  separate  Unitarian 
churches  impossible,  and,  as  was  felt,  less  necessary  for  another 
hundred  years.     The  adoption  of  a  completely  Humanitanan  view 
of  Christ's  person   by  a   few  solitary  muividuals  (Lardnar  1/iU, 
Priestley  1767,  Lindsey  1773),  assisted  by  tho  awakened  earnest- 
ness of  the  time,  led  to  their  formation.     Lindsey  resigned  a  valu- 
able living  in  Yorkshire,  and  gathered  the  first  professedly  uni- 
tarian church  in  Londcn.     Other  clergymen  followed  bis  example, 
and   amongst  the    Presbyterians   several  ministers,    like  Joscpli 
Priestley,  exchanged  their  Arian  for  Humanitarian  views.     ..nis 
process  went  on  ivith  deep  permanent  efiects  m  some  of  the  Uisfect- 
fng  acadomies.     In  the  year  1791  was  formed  the  Unitarian  Booi 
Society  ^or  the  distribution  of  literature,  and  several  provincial  asso- 
ciations originated  about  the  same  time.    In  1806  the  Unitonan  Fund 
Society  was  e,sta!)lished,  with  the  object  of  promoting  Unitarian 
Christianity  by  direct  mission  work.    In  1818  arose  another  society 
for    protecting    the    civil   rights  of    Unitarians.     These  various 
societies  were  consolidated  in  1825  under  the  name  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Unitarian  Association,  which  has  now  its  headquarters 
in  the  buSding  formerly  used  as  Lindsey's  chipel  and  residence  iu 
Essex  Street,  London.     Early  in  this  century  nearly  the  who.t  ot 
the  old  Preabyt^irian  congregations,  which,   unlikp  those  oi    the 
Baptists  and  Independents,  had   ujidogmatlc   trust-deeds,  passed 
thiouoh  the  stages  of  Anninianism  ani  various  forms  of  Ananism 
into  Socinianism  in  its   peculiar  English  i^nJ  inair.ly  Pnestleian 
form      The  penal  laws  against  Antitri-itariamsm,  -.vbicb  ha.,  long 
been  obsolete,  were  repealed  in  1813,  and  in  1844  the  right  o.  Uni- 
tarians to  the  chapels  which  they  Tield  in  succession  nom  their 
Presbyterian  forefathers  was  legally  secured  to  them  by  the  L.is- 
santers'  Chapels  Act  without  altering  their  undogmatic  ; ;  i'.rt-deeds. 
Though  these   congregations,  popularly  known  as  Unuarian,  on 
princmk  declined  to  restrict  the  progress  of  thought  by  imposing 
on  either  their  ministers  or  members  any  doguatic  statcraanta  ot 
belief,  th%  generality  of  them  adopted  with  somo  moducations^the 
theological  system  of  Priestley,  which  was  a  combination  o.  Lo«e  s 
philosophy  with  the  crudest  rationalistic  superDatur&lism.     V,  ith 
the  rise  of  a  more  spiritual  philosophy  in  Germany,  which  bore 
fruit  in  England  and  America  before  the  close  of  the  second  decade 
of  the  century,  the  theology  of  English  Unitarianism  underwent  a 
radical  change,  very  much  in  the  first  instance  under  the  mtluence 
of  Dr  Channing's  writings.     Without  at  all  sacrificing  its  critical 
and  rational  bent,  a  deeper  emotional  and  .-ipintuil  clement  was 
introduced  into  it,  which  gradually,  at  tho  cost  of  some  years  of 
internal    conflict,    disposss.sscd   the    purely   external    and  super- 
naturalistic   Socinian  and  Priestl?i,';n  legccy.     English  Unitarian 
theology  was  thereby  brought  into  close  .sympathy  with  modern 
scientific  theology  in   Germany  and   elsewhere.     This  great  and 
eavinff  transformation  v.  as  mainly  due  directly  to  James  Majtineau, 
J   J    Tayler   and  J.  H.  Thom,  aided  by  the  writings  of  Channing 
and  then  of  Theodore  Parker.    One  consequence  of  tho  greater  sub- 
stantial agreement  of  the  present  theology  of  the  larger  number  ot 
the  Unitarian  churcheswilli  tho  scientific  theology  of  the  century  is 
■that  cot  a  few  representatives  of  these  churchesidisclairn  the  name 
Unitarian  as  one  tending  to  perpetuate  divisions  which  have  really 
no  rigiit  to  continued  existence.     The  main  reason  for  continued 
separation  from  the  larger  liberal  churches,  wTiether  Estabhshed  or 
Dissenting,  earnestly  urged  by  many  Unitarians  of  this  class,  is  the 
use  in  those  churches  of  theological  formularies  which  modern  theo- 
logy regards  as  of  historic  interest  only.     The  number  of  congrega- 
tions in  England  and  Wales  generally  described  as  Unitarian  ^ 
about  300,  nearly  half  of  which  dato  from  bet«-een  1662  and  1750, 
and  neariy  all  of  which  have  undogmatic  trust-deeds     Their  consti- 
tution is  pure!  V  congregational.    For  the  education  of  their  ministers 
they  have  Manchester  New  College,  London  (strictly  unQeuomin- 
ational),  the  Unitarian  Homo  Missionary  Board,  Manchester,  and 
Cai-marthen  College,  supported  and  managed  by  the  Presbytenan 
Board  in  London,  but  practically  Independent  and  Unitarian.     1  no 
organs  o:  the  bv^dy  :uo  T.V  /;:.(ia>sr,  JM  C:.ri^Uc.:^  Z /•,  Thi  Urn- 


tarian  Herald  (weeklies),  and  The  Christian  Jle/ormer  (mOiittty!'. 
In  Scotland  there  are  7  Unitarian  congregations  and  2  UniversaUsf,, 
the  latter  being,  as  in  America,  Unitarian  in  doctrine.  In  Ireland; 
the  number  is  about  40,  being  neariy  all  Presbytenan  lu  constitu- 
tion They  are  much  stronger  in  the  north  than  m  the  south  or 
Ireland.  In  the  north  Antitrinitarian  views  began  to  spread  about. 
1750 ;  but  the  first  congregation  at  Dublin  traces  its  Unitariauiam 
back  to  Thomas  Emlyn,  who  was  imprisoned  for  his  Arian  opinions . 
iu  1702  at  the  instigation  of  orthodoK  Dissenters. 

Uniied  Slates  (1315-1887).— In  the  United  States  Umtanar. ism  •. 
had  no  organized  existence  previous  to  1815,  and  as  in  England  at 
the  present  time  the  name  has  always  covered  great  differences  of 
opinion  within  a  co.nmon  outline  of  belief  or  common   drift  of 
religious  thought     Historical  American   Unitananism  represents . 
"  the  liberal  wmg  of  the  Congregational  body."   Of  the  existing  370 
churches  120  or  more  were  originally  the  parish  churches  fonnlled 
by  the  Puritan  Congrcgationalists,  which,  like   the  Presbytenan 
congregations  in  England,  passed  gradually  from  Calvinism  through , 
AnSinianism  to  Unitariauism,  of  which  Harvard  College  became 
the  spiritual  centre.     In  1812  there  vjas  but  one  church  in  America., 
professedly  Unitarian  (that  of  King's  Chapel.,  Boston),  though  the 
ministers  of   Boston   generally    held   Unitarian   views^     In   1815. 
Belsham'a  account  of   the  "State  of  the  Unitarian  Churches  m 
An  .rica"  (in  his  Life  of  lindsey,  London,  1812)  led  to  a  controveray, 
th«  issue  of  which  was  tho  distinct  avowal  of  Unitarian  principles 
on  the  part  ot  the  liberal  clergy  of  New  England.     Dr  Channing: 
came  forward  as  the  prophet  and  champion  of  Aaerijan  Uuit.ir- 
ianism,  though  the  older  he  grew  the  more  emphatically  he  re- 
pudiated  sectarianism  in  evei?  form.     The  Congregational  body 
was  thereby  split  iirto  two  sections,  one  of  which  styled  thev«Belyos.. 
Unitarian   Congregationalists.     In  1825  the  Ameiican  Unitariao 
Association  w^  formed,  mainly  for  the  diffusion   of  yt"taJ-.'^a 
literature  and  the  support  of  poor  congregations.     At  that  time 
the  Unitarian  churches  numbered  about  122-    J"=°tJ  l^f  l^*'; 
they  were  some  280,  while  now  they  are  about  370.     The  theological 
colleges  of  the  body  are  the  Divinity  School  of  Harvard  Univeraty,, 
whici  is,  Uke  Manchester  New  College,  undenominational,  and  the 
Theological  School  of  MeadviUe.     As  in  England  so  m  America, 
the  thlology  of  Unitarians  has  passed   through  marked  changes,, 
which  have  been  attended  by  conflicts  more  or  less  acute.  _  I'rom, 
1815   to  about    1835    a    BibUcal,   semi-rationahstic    semi-super- 
naturalistic  theology  prevailed,  iu  the  heart  of  which  Channing  a 
Elevated  ethical  ideas  were  fermenting  and  slowly  preparing  a  new 
birth      From  1836  forces  such  as  BibUcal  cntic-.sm,  Urivle  anJ 
Emerson's  "tianscendentalism,"  and  Theodore  Parkers     aosuiute 
religion"  opened  the  era  of  modern  theology,  bringmg  \nicricaii. 
Unitarianism  into  living  tonch  with  the  piulosophy  auu  theology 
of  GermaTy.     An  efforfin  1S65  to  bring  the  right  and  left  wmg? 
of  tho  body  into  a  closer  confederation  with  a  more  pronoane  =  i 
profession  of  Christianity  led  to  the  formation  of  a  Free  Rehgioc* 
Association  on  the  broad  basis  of  the  love  of  truth  ana  Rooda^B. 
In  the  Western  States  the  same  controversy  as  to  the  basis  of  reh- 
gious  association  has  been  raging  for  more  than  ten  years      In  May 
1886  a  resolution  was  passed  by  th=  Western  Unitarian  Conferenea 
by  a  majority  of  more  than  three-fourths  adoptmg  a  purely  ethical 
and  non-th"ological,  basis.     This  led  to  a  spht  in  the  bo.ly   and 
the  formation  of  a  new  Western  Association  on  a  distinctly  Christian 
platform.     The  left  wing  of  Anrerican  Unitarians  show  greater  sym- 
mthy  with  recent  scientific  speculation  and  less  fear  of  pantheisb.^ 
Seories  than  is  the  case  w.tfi  English  Unitarians.     T^ie  organs  or 
the  body  are  The  yn,toria«  ifcW™.  (Boston),  The  Christy,.,:  RcpsUr- 
(Boston),  and  The  Unitarian  'Chicago). 

mwmmmsA 

preface   by  Rev,  -J;    "^''^^ij.J'-'o;;,  uk^aiMo^r.t?n  Tluclon.  3<i  ed., 
Tlaught  i.l  England,  America,  an''  ludta,  tnghsh  irann.,  18»s.  (.->•  '      ' 


UNITAS  FEATRUM.     See  Moravian  Beethben. 

UNITED  BRETHKEN  IN  CHRIST,  a  body  of  Pio-. 
testaBt  Christians  m  the  United  States  of  Aroenca,  ■which, 
iD  1886  included  4332  organized  churches  4078  '^  1877), 
185,103  members  (U3,SS1  in  18"),  1»78  itinerant 
ministers,  890  local  preachers,  3169  Sunday  school  Tnlh, 
28,.5i7  teachers  and  179,729  scholars.  The  total  vame  of 
church  property  held  by  the  denomination  was  $3,34-5,064  j 
♦ho  «^om  raised  for  sakries,  ehnrch -building  expenses,  col- 


U  N  I  — U  N  I 


727 


leges,  missions,  and  the  like  made  a  total  of  $Si2,700.  The 
organizatioa  of .  the  church  is  Episcopal  (six  bishops,  two 
of  them  missionary),  hut  its  polity  combines  features  of 
the  Methodist,  Congregatioaal,  and  Presbyterian  systems. 
The  creed  may  be  described  as  Arminian.  The  members 
are  pr<jhibited  from  joining  secret  societies,  and  from  using 
alcohol  or  engaging  in  its  manufacture  or  sale.  In  con- 
nexion with  the  denomination  are  a  theological  institution 
(39  students),  ten  colleges,  and  nine  academies  or  semin- 
aries of  a  higher  grade,  with  62  professors,  64  other  teachers, 
and  2486  students.  There  are  49  annual  conferences,  46  of 
them  in  the  United  States.  Two  missions  in  the  Sherbro 
country  in  West  Africa  have  6  American  missionaries,  9 
churches,  and  2631  members;  in  Germany  there  are  10 
German  missionaries,  with  20  churches  and  615  members. 
The  denomination  originated  in  the  labours  of  P.  W.  Otterbein 
(1726-1813),  a  native  of  Germany,  who  came  as  a  missionary  to 
Lancaster,  Pa.,  in  1752,  and  settled  at  Baltimore  in  1774.  He 
became  associated  with  Martin  Boehm,  a  Mennonite  preacher,  ao'l 
also  co-operated  with  the  Methodist  preachers  when  they  "came  to 
Pennsylvania.     The  first  annual  conference  was  held  in  1800. 

UNITED  KINGDOM,  The,  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  is  the  official  title,  adopted  in  1801,  now  applied 
to  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  (see  Geeat  Britain). 
The  total  area  is  returned  as  77,657,065  acres,  or  121,339 


Population  M.P.s 
in  ISSl.     1884. 


Ekglahd. 


Btdtord 

Berks _ 

Bucj£iiiKh;ini 

Cambridge 

Chester. 

Colli  wall 

Culn^erland..... 

Derby _ _.. 

Devon 

Dorset 

]>arhain._ 

Essex.. „ 

(Gloucester ... 

Hants ... 

Hereford „— .. 

Hertford 

Huntingdon. ......... 

Kent..„ 

Lancaster _ 

Leicester 

Lir. 


Middlesex 

Monmouth 

Norfolk- 

Northampton 

N<  rthumtverland  . 

Notiingliam 

Oxford. 

Rutland 

Shropshire 

Somerset 

SuSord 

Soirolk.._ 

Sorrey 

Sussex 

Warwicic 

Westmoreland 

Wilts„ 

Worcester. , 

Totk _ 


\VAtT3. 


Ariclesey 

Brecon 

Cardigan 

Carmnrthen... 

Camanron 

Der.ttigh 

Hint 

Glamorgan 

Merioneth..   .. 
Monlgomerj"... 

Pembroke 

Badnor. 


Eni^Iand  and  Wales... 

SCOTLA.\D. 


Aberdeen.. 

Argyll 

Aj- -.. 

Banff 


149,473 
218.3C3 
l-6,:)23 

1&5,.'.94 
644,037 
3-30,686 
250.617 
461,914 
603,595 
191,023 
867,258 
576,434 
572,433 
593,470 
121,062 
203,069 
59,491 
977,703 

,454,441 
321,235 
469,919 

,920,485 
211.267 
414.749 
272,555 
4:!4,0S6 
391,815 
179,559 
:i,4M 
24.S.014 
469,109 
981.013 
3-v6,89.3 
,436,899 
490..',05 
737,339 
64.191 
258,965 
■380,28.3 

^S86,.'l64 


51,416 
57.746 
70,270 
124,864 
119,349 
111.7)0 
80,587 
511.433 
52,938 
65,718 
91.824 
23,528 


2f7,'OII  4 

7(i.46S  1 

217,519  4 

62,736  1  1 


CouiiUes. 


Population  Ji.P.s 
in  1881.      ISS5. 


Berwick 

Bu:e 

Caithness 

Clackmani>;iii 

Dumbarton....... 

Dumfries 

Edinburgh. 

El^n 

File 

Forfar 

Haddington 

Inverness..  .„ 

Kincardine 

Kinross 

Kirkcudbriglit_ _. 

Lanark 

Linlithgow  

Nairn 

Orkney  and  Shetland. 

Peebles „ 

Penh 

Renfrew 

Ross  and  Cromarty ... 

Roxburgh .T... 

Selkirk 

Stirling. 

Sutherland 

Wigtown — 


Ireland. 

Antrim „... 

Arraajih 

Carloiv.....: 

Cavan 

Clare 

Cork  

Donegal 

Down. 

Dublin 

Fermanagli 

Galway „. 

Kcixy 

Kildare 

Kilkenny 

King's „ 

Leitrim 

Limericic 

LondondeiTv 

Longford-..' 

Louth 

Mavn 

Meith 

.Monaghan 

Queen's 

Roscommon 

Sligo 

Tipperai^y 

Tyrone  

Wateiford 

Westmcath 

Wexford 

Wicklow  ..  


Umted  Kingdom.. 


35,392 
17,657 
3S,86.', 
25.680 
75,333 
•76.140 

389,164 
43,788 

171,931 

266,360 
38, .502 
90,451 
34,464 
6,697 
42,127 

901,412 

4-;.6iu 

19,455 

61,749 

13,8-22 

129,007 

263,374 

78,-547 

63,44> 

25.564 

112,443 

23,370 

3S,611 


3,735,573 


421,943 
163,177 
46,568 
129.476 
141,457 
495,607 
206,035 
272,107 
413,910 
84.879 
242,005 
201,039 
75,804 
99,.531 
72.852 
90,372 
180,632 
164  991 
61,009 
77,684 
245,2r> 
87,169 
102,748 
73.124 
13;,49li 
111,578 
199.617 
197,719 
112.76S 
71,798 
123.851 
70,386 


34.884,848  C61 


square  miles, — England  and  Wales  embracing  .37,^70,041 
acres  (whereof -Wales  4,721,633),  Scotland  19,467,077, 
and  Ireland  20,819,947.  The  accompanying  table  give^i 
the  population  of  the  counties  according  to  the  census  of 
18S1,  and  their  parliamentary  representation  as  determined 
by  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885.  In  the  enumeration  of 
the  Scottish  members  of  parliament,  groups  of  burghs  are 
included  in  the  counties  containing  the  burghs  whence 
they  are  respectively  named,  while  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
Kinross  county  is  united  with  Clackmannan,  Nairn  with 
Elgin,  and  Selkirk  with  Peebles.  The  addition  of  the 
nine  university  representatives  (England,  5;  Scotland,  2; 
Ireland,  2)  brings  the  total  membership  of  the  House  of 
Commons  to  670. 

For  the  Islands  in  the  British  Seas  the  figures  are  as 
follows  : — Isle  of  Man — 141,263  acres,  population  53,558; 
Channel  Islands — 48,322  acres,  population  87,702. 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  The,  in  point 
of  numbers  the  tiiird  of  the  Presbyterian  organizations  of 
Scotland,  was. formed  in  1847  by  the  union  of  the  United 
Secession  and  Relief  Churches  (see  below).  The  doctrinal 
standards  are  those  of  the  other  Presbyterian  churches  of 
Scotland,  and  the  formula  employed  at  the  ordination  of 
ministers  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Established  and  Free 
Churches ;  but  adherence  to  the  doctrinal  standards  is 
profe.ssed  in  view  of  the  Declaratory  Act  of  1879,  accord- 
ing to  which  signatories  "  are  not  required  to  approve  of 
anything  in  the  standards  of  the  church  which  teaches  or 
is  supposed  to  teach  compulsory  or  persecuting  and  intol- 
erant principles  in  religion,"  and  are  allowed  freedom  of 
opinion  on  all  points  which,  in  the  judgment  of  the  church, 
do  not  enter  into  the  substance  of  the  faith.  The  denomina- 
tion in  1887  consisted  of  32  presbyteries  and  564  congrega- 
tions (518  in  1847),  with  a  total  membership  of  182,063 
(175,066  in  1878;  178,195  in  1883),  thus  representing 
about  14  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  Scotland.  The 
number  of  baptisms  in  1886  was  9894;  there  were  887 
Sunday  schools,  with  11,994  teachers  and  97,535  scholars, 
besides  788  advanced  Bible  classes,  with  30,535  scholars. 
The  total  income  of  the  church  in  1886  was  £373,54.5 
(average  for  ten  years  from  1877  to  1886,  £375,660) ;  of 
this  total  £237,300  was  ordinary  congregational  income, 
and  £136,245  missionary  and  benevolent  income.  The 
average  stipend  paid  to  each  minister  was  £259,  16s.  lOd. 
There  is  a  divinity  hall  in  Edinburgh  with  4  professors  anj 
(session  1887-88)  114  students.  The  term  of  study  is 
three  years.  The  United  Presbyterian  Church  has  missions 
in  Jamaica  (a  synod  with  four  presbyteries),  Trinidad, 
Kaffraria,  Old  Calabar,  India,  China,  Japan,  and  Spain. 
The  mission  staff  consists  of  60  ordained  European!!,  22 
ordained  natives,  8  medical  missionaries,  3  European  evan- 
gelists, and  19  female  missionaries.  Under  these  are  502 
native  evangelists,  teachers,  and  other  helpers.  In  ISSG 
the  membership  of  the  native  congregations  was  13,214 
(10,215  in  188i).  In  Jamaica  there  is  a  theological  in- 
stitution. At  the  end  of  1875  the  denomination  had  620 
congregations,  with  190,242  members,  but  in  June  1876 
98  of  its  congregations  in  England,  with  20,207  members 
were  incorporated  with  the  English  Presbyterian  Church. 

History. — (1)  United  Secession  C/iurch. — The  genn.il 
causes  which  led  to  the  first  great  secession  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland  as  by  law  established  in  1688  have 
already  been  briefly  indicated  under  Pre-sbyterianism 
(see  vol.  xix.  p.  685  ;  compare  also  Scotland,  Church 
OF,  vol.  xxi.  p.  536  sq.).  Its  itnmcdiate  occasion  rose  out 
of  an  Act  of  Assembly  of  1732  which  abolished  the  last 
remnant  of  popular  election  by  enacting  that,  in  cases 
where  patrons  might  neglect  or  decline  to  exercise  their 
right  of  presentation,  the  minister  was  to  be  chosen,  not 
by  the  congregation,  but  only  by  the  elders  and  Protestant 


72S 


U  N  1  — U  N  I 


heritors.  The  Act,  itself  had  been  passed  by  the  Assembly, 
although  the  presbyteries  to  which  it  had  been  previously 
submitted  as  an  overture  had  disapproved  of  it  by  a 
larga  majority  ;  and  in  accordance  with  a  previous  Act 
(1730),  which  had  taken  away  even  the  right  of  complaint, 
the  protests  of  the  dissentient  mr.jority  were  refused.  In 
the  following  October  Ebenezer  Eeskine  (q.v.),  minister 
of  Stirling,  who  happened  to  be  moderator  of  the  synod 
of  Perth  and  Stirling,  preached  a  synod  sermon,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  took  occasion  to  refer  to  the  Act  in 
question  as  in  his  opinion  unscripturaland  unconstitutional.^ 
Some  of  his  expressions  were  objected  to  by  members  of 
synod  because  "  tending  to  disquiet  the  peace  of  the  "hurch 
and  impugning  several  Acts  of  Assembly  and  proceedings 
of  church  judicatories,"  and  after  long  and  keen  debate  it 
was  resolved  that  he  should  be  censured  for  them.  This 
judgment,  on  appeal,  was  affirmed  by  the  Assembly  in 
May  1733,  whereupon  Erskine  protested  to  the  effect  that 
he  held  himself  still  at  liberty  to  teach  the  same  truths 
and  to  testify  against  the  same  or  similar  evils  on  every 
proper  occasion.  This  protest,  in  which  he  was  joined  by 
WilUam  Wilson,  Alexander  Moncrieff,  and  .lames  Fisher, 
rjinisters  at  Perth,  Abernethy,  and  Kinclaveu  respectively, 
was  regarded  by  the  Assembly  as  contumacious,  and  the 
commission  of  Assembly  was  ordered  to  procure  its  re- 
tractation or  to  proceed  to  higher  censures.  In  November 
accordingly  the  protesting  ministers  were  severed  from 
their  charges,  their  churches  declared  vacant,  and  all  min- 
isters of  the  church  prohibited  from  employing  thera  in 
iiny  ministerial  function.  They  replied  by  protesting  that 
they  stUl  adhered  to  the  principles  of  the  church,  though 
C3W  obliged  to  "  make  a  .secession  from  the  prevailing 
party  in  ecclesiastical  courts,"  maintaining  their  continued 
rijht  to  discharge  all  the  duties  of  the  ministerial  and 
pastoral  office  "  according  to  the  word  of  God,  the  Con- 
frssion  of  Faith,  and  the  constitution  of  the  church," 
s:.d  appealing  to  the  "first  free,  faithful,  and  reforming 
Coneral  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland."  In  De- 
cember 1733  they  formally  constituted  themselves  into  a 
j,;esbytery,  but  for  some  time  their  meetings  were  devoted 
almost  entirely  tc  prayer  and  religious  conference.  In 
1734  they  published  their  first  "  testimony,"  with  a  state- 
ment of  the  grounds  of  their  secession,  which  made  pro- 
minent reference  to  the  doctrinal  laxity  of  previous  General 
Assemblies.  In  1738  they  proceeded  to  exercise  "judicial 
powers"  as  a  church  court,  published  a  "judicial  testi- 
mony," and  began  to  organize  churches  in  various  parts 
of  the  country.  Having  been  joined  by  four  other  min- 
isters, including  the  well-known  Ralph  Erskine,  they 
appointed  Mr  Wilson  professor  of  divinity. .  For  these 
acte  proceedings  were  again  instituted  against  them  in 
the  Assembly,  with  the  result  that,  having  disowned  the 
authority  of  that  body  in  an  "act  of  declinature,"  they 
were  in  17iO  all  deposed  and  ordered  to  be  ejected  from 
their  churches.  Meanwhile  the  members  of  the  "Associate 
'Presbytery  "  and  its  adherents  steadily  increased,  until  in 
1745  there  were  forty -five  congregations  under  its  jurisdic- 
tion, and  it  was  reconstituted  into  an  "  Associate  Synod." 
A  violent  controversy  arose  the  same  year  respecting  the 
religious  clause  of  the  oath  taken  by  burgesses  in  Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow,  and  Perth  ("  I  profess  and  allow  with 
my  heart  the  true  religion  presently  professed  within  this 
realm  and  authorized  by  the  laws  thereof  "),  and  resulted 
i>  April  1747  in  a  "breach,"  when  two  bodies  were 
formed;  each  claiming  to  be  the  "Associate  Synod"; 
those  who  coridemned  the  swearing  of  the  burgess  oath  as 
sinful  came  to  be  popularly  known  as  "  Antiburghers," 
while  the  other  party,  who  contended  that  abstinence  from 

'  The  passing  of  tbe  Act  w^s  certainly  unconstitutional  ;   it  waa 
r^Efiiuded  in  1734,  "  tacanse  not  uiaJc  according  Id  fiji.ncv  Acih." 


it  should  not  be  made  a  term  of  communion,  were  dedg- 
nated  "  Burghers."  The  Antiburghers  not  only  refused 
to  hold  further  friendly  conference  vrith  the  others,,  but 
ultimately  went  so  far  as  to  pass  sentences  of  depoaitioD 
and  the  greater  excommunication  on  the  Erskines  and 
other  ministers  who  held  the  opposing  view. 

The  Associate  (Antiburgher)  Synod  held  its  first  meeting 
in  Edinburgh  in  the  house  of  Adam  Gib  {q-v.)  on  April 
10,  1747.  It  grew  with  considerable  rapidity,  and  in 
1788  had  ninety-four  settled  charges  in  Great  Britain  and 
nineteen  in  Ireland,  besides  a  presbytery  in  America.  For 
purposes  of  organization  it  was  formed  in  that  year  into 
four  provincial  synods,  and  took  the  name  of  "The 
General  Associate  Synod."  The  "  new  light "  controversies 
as  to  the  province  of  the  civil  magistrate  in  matters  of 
religion  led  to  the  publication ,  of  a  revised  testimony 
in  the  "voluntary"  sense  in  1804,  and  in  consequence 
M'Crie,  the  historian  of  Knox,  with  three  other  brethren, 
withdrew  to  form  the  Constitutional  Associate  Presbytery. 

The  Associate  (Burgher)  Synod  held  its  first  meeting 
at  Stirling  on  .June  16,  1747  The  number  of  congrega- 
tions under  its  charge  rapidly  increased,  and  within  thirty 
years  there  were  presbyteries  in  connexion  with  it  in  Ireland 
and  North  America,  as  well  as  throughout  Scotland.  In 
1782  the  American  presbyteries  took  the.  designation  of 
the  Associate  Reformed  Church  in  America.  About  the 
year  179.5  the  "voluntary"  controversy  respecting  the 
power  of  the  civil  magistrate  in  matters  of  religion  arose 
within  this  synod  also,  and  a  large  majority  was  found  to 
have  adopted  "new  light "  views.  This  led  in  1799  to 
the  secession  of  the  "  Associate  Presbytery,"  which  in 
1805  took  the  designation  of  the  Associate  Synod  or 
Original  Burgher  Synod.^ 

In  1820  the  General  Associate  or  Antiburgher  Synod 
(to  the  number  of  129  congregations^)  united  with  the  154 
congregations  of  the  Associate  or  Burgher  Synod.  The 
body  thus  constituted,  "The  United  Secession  Church," 
had  increased  by  1847  to  400  congregations,  the  whole  of 
which  united  in  that  year  with  the  Relief  Synod  to  form 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church. 

(2)  Relief  Church. — The  Presbytery  of  Relief  was  con- 
stituted in  1761  by  three  ministers  of  the  Church  of 
Scotlandj  one  of  whom  was  Thomas  Gillespib  (q.v.),  who 
had  been  deposed  by  the  Assembly  in  17iJ  for  refusing, 
to  take  part  in  the  intrusion  of  unacceptable  ministers. 
The  number  of  congregations  under  its  charge  increased 
with  considerable  rapidity,  and  a  Relief  Synod  was 
formed  in  1773,  which  in  1847  had  under  its  jurisdiction 
136  congregations;  of  these  US  united  with  the  United 
Secession  Church  in  that  year.  The  T  lief  Church  issued 
no  distinctive  "  testimonies,"  and  a  c:-.  .lin  breadth  of  view 
was  shown  in  the  formal  declaration  of  their  terms  of 
communion,  first  made  in  1773,  which  allowed  occasional 
communion  with  those  of  the  Episcopal  and  Independent 
persuasion  who  are  "  visible  saints."  A  Relief  theological 
hall  was  instituted  in  1824. 

See  M'Kerrow,  RisUyn)  of  the  United  Secession  Chunk,  1841  ; 
Struthers,  Bistory  of  ihe'Relief  Church,  1843  ;  Mackelvie,  Aniiab 
aiul  &latislics  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  1873. 

UNITED  PROVINCES.    See  Holland. 


'  The  majority  of  this  synod  joined  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1839. 
The  small  minority  which  still  retained  the  name  joined  the  Original 
Seceders  (see  next  note)  in  1842,  the  resultant  body  assuming  the 
designation  of  United  Original  Seceders.  A  small  majority  (twenty- 
seven  ministers  in  all)  of  the  Synod  of  United  Original  Seceders  joined 
the  Free  Church  in  18B2.  A  synod  of  this  name  still  exists,  having 
under  its  jurisdiction  four  presbyteries,  with  twenty-nine  charges  (of 
which  two  are  in  Ireland). 

*  A  dissentient  remnant  (eight  congregations)  of  the  Geiicral  Asso- 
ciate Synod  imited  with  the  Constitntional  Associate  Presbj'tery  in 
1827,  the  resultant  body  being  called  the  Associate  Synod  of  Origin»l 
Seceders. 


729 

[Copyright  1890  bjrR.  S.  Peale.  J 

EXITED     STATFP. 

PART  I— HISTORY  AND    COLONIZATION. 


kffort!i 
to  fooiid 


I.      DISCXJVERY  AKD  SETTLEMENT  OF  AMERICA. 

tMt]j  %oy-  1.  fT^HE  date  on  which  America  was  first  discovered 
5SS»T"rie9  \.  ^y  Europeans  is  a  matter  of  uncertainty.  The 
legends  respecting  the  early  voyages  hither 
are  numerous,  but  the  most  ancient  of  them  are  doubt- 
less fictions.  No  account  of  the  discoveries,  previous 
to  the  time  of  Columbus,  can  be  relied  upon,  excepting 
those  made  by  the  Icelanders,  who,  about  the  year 
1000,  attempted  to  colonize  the  countrj',  but  without 
any  permanent  success.  It  was  not  until  the  coming 
of  Columbus,  in  1492,  that  any  benefit  was  derived  by 
the  old  world  from  the  discovery  of  the  great  continent 
of  America. 

The  success  of  Columbus  aroused  the  spirit  of  enter- 
prise, and  other  voyages  were  made,  notably  those  of 
the  Cabots  in  1497  98.  Ponce  de  Leon  in  1513,  and  Ver- 
razzano  in  1523.  under  the  auspices  of  the  English, 
Spanish  and  French  governments,  respectively.  The 
Spaniards  gave  the  name  of  "Florida"  to  North  Amer- 
ica, while  the  French  called  it  "Canada  or  New  France," 
and  these  two  nations  in  some  way  conceived  the  idea 
that  the  whole  country  belonged  to  them. 

2.  But  the  English  had  not  forgotten  that  the  Cabots, 
with  English  ships,  had  first  reached  the  mainland  of 
North  America,  and  from  this  fact  they  laid  claim  to 
the  northern  part  of  that  continent.  Many  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  were  made  by  Englishmen  to  found  colo- 
nies. The  first  of  these  was  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  who 
made  two  efforts,  one  in  1578,  and  the  other  in  1583, 
without  success,  and  lost  his  life  in  a  storm  while  re- 
turning home.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Gilbert's  half- 
brother,  obtained  a  patent  from  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
in  1584  sent  out  two  ships,  commanded  by  Amidas  and 
Barlow,  to  fix  upon  a  place  for  a  settlement.  They  ex- 
plored the  coast  of  what  is  now  North  Carolina.  Struck 
with  the  beauty  and  fertUily  of  the  country,  they  gave 
a  most  flattering  account  of  it  on  their  return  home, 
and  Raleigh  named  it  Virginia,  in  honor  of  the  "virgin 
queen"  Elizabeth.  In  the  spring  of  1585  he  sent  out  a 
colony  which  settled  on  Roanoke  Island,  but  it  was 
starved  out  in  the  same  year.  Again,  in  1587,  Raleigh 
sent  out  another  colony  under  White  to  the  same  place, 
but  it  entirely  disappeared,  and  no  trace  of  it  could  be 
found  when  White  came  back  three  years  later.  In 
1602,  Gosnola,  with  twenty  colonists,  took  a  short  and 
direct  route,  and  came  upon  the  coast  of  Massachusetts. 
He  wintered  upon  an  island  in  the  vicinity  and  then 
went  back,  taking  the  colonists,  who  refused  to  stay 
any  longer,  with  him. 

3.  In  1605,  James.  I  granted  a  charter  to  two  com- 
panies formed  in  England.  This  charter  gave  them 
the  whole  continent  of  North  America,  from  the  thirty- 
fourth  to  the  forty -fifth  parallel  of  latitude.  The  one 
called  the  Plymouth  Company  was  to  take  the  nor»aern 
half,  and  the  other,  the  London  company,  the  southern 
half,  and  their  nearest  settlements  must  be  a  hundred 
miles  apart.  Moreover,  each  colony  was  to  be  governed 
by  a  resident  council  appointed  by  the  king,  with  power 
to  choose  one  of  their  own  number  for  president. 

J*""  4.  The  earliest  attempts  at  colonization  under  the 

ooiouy.*"™^^^  English  patent  were  made  by  the  Plymouth  com- 
pany, but  the  expeditions  which  they  sent  out  in  1606, 
1607  and  1608,  were  unsuccessful,  and  it  was  left  for 
the  London  company-  to  found  the  first  permanent  Eng- 
lish settlement  in  the  new  world.  In  1606  this  com 
pany  sent  out  about  a  hundred  men,  mostly  adventur- 
ers, inafleetof  three  vessels  commanded  by  Christopher 
Newport.  Being  driven  by  a  storm  into  Chesapeake 
Bay,  he  found  there  a  fine  river  which  he  named  the 

23--2fi* 


TtePIym- 
•ath  aad 
London 

oampaDles. 


colony. 


James  river,  after  the  king,  and  choosing  a  low  pe- 
ninsula, he  there  planted  the  colony  of  Jamestown 
on  May  13,  1607.  But  very  soon  the  colonists  be- 
came dissatisfied.  Dissensions  arose  and  Wingfield, 
president  of  the  council,  was  deposed.  They  suf- 
fered from  starvation,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the 
indefatigable  exertions  of  Captain  John  Smith,  the 
settlement  would  have  entirely  broken  up.  The 
colonists  experienced  many  vicissitudes,  but  after  a 
few  years  they  became  prosperous  and  the  perma- 
nent settlement  of  Virginia  was  established.  In  the 
meantime,  the  policy  of  the  London  company 
toward  the  settlers  became  more  liberal,  and  a  rep- 
resentative government  was  granted  them  in  1619, 
which  was  the  beginning  in  America  of  government 
by  the  people.  In  1619  a  Dutch  vessel  brought  in 
some  negroes  purchased  hy  the  planters,  and  thus 
slavery  was  introduced  into  the  English  colonies. 

5.  The  first  settlers  of  Massachusetts  were  a  band  of 
Puritans,  or  Separatists,  as  they  were  called,  because 
they  had  separated  from  the  Church  of  England.  Being 
driven  from  England,  they  sought  refuge  in  Holland; 
hut  wishing  to  find  a  home  in  the  new  world  for  them- 
selves and  their  children,  they  returned  to  England 
again,  and  from  thence  a  band  of  102  set  sail  in  the 
Mayflower,  and  landed  at  Plymouth,  in  America,  De- 
cember 21,  1620.  The  little  colony  survived  the  rigors 
of  a  northern  winter,  the  burden  of  poverty,  and  the 
lack  of  food,  and  became  permanently  established. 

6.  In  1628  John  Endicolt,  with  a  company,  made  a 
settlement  at  Salem;  other  towns,  also,  sprang  up 
around  it,  and  these  were  all  united  under  a  charier 
obtained  from  Charles  I,  with  the  name  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  colony.  These  two  colonies,  Plymouth 
and  Massachusetts  Bay,  were  for  many  years  independ- 
ent of  one  another;  but  were  at  last  united  in  1693, 
under  the  name  of  Massachusetts. 

7.  In  1624,  the  London  company  surrendered  its 
charter  to  the  king,  who  made  a  disposition  of  the  ter- 
ritory which  they  had  controlled,  as  he  thought  fit.  A 
part  of  it  was  granted  to  Lord  Baltimore  in  1633,  and 
received  the  name  of  Maryland.  All  the  country  be- 
tween the  English  settlements  of  Virginia  and  the 
Spanish  posts  in  Florida  was  called  Carolina.  This  ter- 
ritory comprised  the  present  states  of  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama  and  part  of  Florida. 
In  1729  North  and  South  Carolina  were  organized,  and 
in  1733  Georgia  was  colonized  by  James  Oglethorpe, 
and  Savannah  founded.  Thus,  out  of  the  territory, 
originally  granted  to  the  London  company,  five  colo- 
nies had  been  formed. 

8.  To  the  territory  granted  to  the  Plymou  th  com- 
pany, the  name  New  England  had  been  given  by  Cap- 
tain John  Smith  in  1614.  The  founding  of  the  Ply- 
mouth and  Massachusetts  Bay  colonies  has  already 
been  mentioned.  The  greater  number  of  the  people 
who  came  from  England  in  the  great  Puritan  migra- 
tion, settled  in  the  latter  colony.  At  the  same  time 
many  found  it  expedient  to  seek  other  parts  of  Nuw 
England.  Now  only  did  new-comers  thus  try  new 
places,  but  the  older  settlements  began  to  send  out  com- 
panies. In  1623  New  Hampshire  was  first  colonized 
under  a  grant  to  Captain  John  Mason  and  Sir  Ferdi- 
nand Gorges.  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  also  be- 
cam3  colonies,  and  were  afterward  chartered  by  the 
crown  in  1663  and  1663.  Thus,  out  of  that  part  of  the 
country  originally  granted  to  the  Plymouth  company, 
were  formed  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Connecti- 
cut, New  Hampshire  and  Rhode  Island.  Maine  was  con- 
sidered a  part  of  Massachusetts  and  was  not  counted  p.s 


PlymoaUi 
colony. 


Majisatht* 
[^etls  Bay 
colony. 


Maryland 


Carolina 


Georgia, 


The  olhvt 
New 
England 
colonies. 


Uampsbli 

Connecti- 
cut and 
Rhodt 
lalano. 


r.so 


UJSriTED      STATES 


a  separate  colonj'  among  those  that  finally  combined  to 
form  the  original  thirteen  states.  The  territory  now 
occupied  by  Vermont  was  claimed  in  part  by  New 
York,  in  part  by  New  Hampshire,  and  she  did  not  be- 
come a  separate  state  until  after  the  revolutionary  war. 
y.  As  has  been  said,  the  charter  granted  to  the  Lon- 
don and  Plymouth  companies  provided  that  theirnear- 
est  settlements  should  be  one  hundred  miles  apart, 
thus  leaving  a  strip  of  territory  between  the  two  main 
grants  which  was  really  neutral  ground,  and  was  never 
appropriated  by  either  company.  The  Spaniards  had 
confined  their  explorations  to  the  south  and  made  set- 
tlements there,  but  they  claimed  ithe  whole  continent 
north  of  them.  The  French  had  established  themselves 
in  the  north,  and  held  Canada  and  part  of  the  northern 
stales;  they  claimed  everything  south  of  them  and 
called  the  whole  New  France.  The  English  settle- 
ments were  midway  between  the  French  and  Spanish, 
and  the  English  claimed  everything  from  New  England 
and  Carolina  westward  to  the  Pacific,  naming  it  all 
Virginia.  Thus,  so  far.  North  America  was  divided 
between  the  three  European  powers,  England,  France 
and  Spain. 
b"^Dm  h'  10.  A  fourth  power  now  appeared.  In  1609,  the 
owe"  "  Dntch  East  India  company  sent  out  Henry  Hudson,  an 
En.nlishman  in  their  employ,  in  the  ship  named  the 
"Half  Moon"  to  make  discoveries  in  America.  He 
reached  the  continent  and  explored  the  coast  as  far 
south  as  Virginia,  then  turning  to  the  north  he  entered 
the  mouth  of  the  river  which  bears  his  name,  and  sailed 
\ip  the  stream  as  far  as  the  present  city  of  Albany. 
Having  completed  his  discovery  he  returned  home. 
I'[  on  the  strength  of  Hudson's  explorations,  Holland 
laid  claim  to  all  the  land  along  the  great  river,  and 
c-il'ed  the  whole  territory  New  Netherlands.  In  1621, 
the  Dutch  West  India  company  was  formed,  and  im- 
mediately received  large  grants  of  land  on  both  sides 
of  the  Hudson  extending  from  the  Connecticut  river  on 
the  north  to  the  Delaware  river  on  the  south.  Previous 
to  this,  however,  a  Dutch  settlement  had  been  founded 
in  1614,  on  Manhattan  Island,  the  present  site  of  New 
Y.Ji'k  City,  which  was  afterwards  called  New  Amster- 
dam. 

The  Dutch  now  began  to  establish  settlements  and 
trading  posts  in  their  possessions,  which  included  that 
neutral  territory  lying  between  the  original  grants  to 
the  London  and  Plymouth  companies.  In  1638,  Dela- 
''ed  h  w*i"6  ^^s  colonized  by  the  Swedes,  who  founded  a  set- 
olnny.  tlement  on  Delaware  Bay,  which  was  called  New  Swe- 
den. But  disputes  about  a  territory  arose  between  the 
Swedish  and  Dutch  colonists,  which  led  to  a  war  be- 
tween them,  ending  in  the  final  surrender  of  New  Swe- 
den to  the  New  Netherlands  in  1655. 
>'uch'''"'  ^^'  But  New  Netherlands  was  soon  destined  to  change 
iowcr.  hands.  The  introduction  of  a  foreign  element  between 
the  northern  and  southern  portions  of  the  English  colo- 
nies had  always  been  recognized  as  a  source  of  trouble 
and  danger,  and  in  fact  the  Dutch  settlers,  occupying 
territory  claimed  by  the  English  on  both  sides  of  them, 
Were  continually  Involved  in  disputes  with  their  neigh- 
bors, especially  with  those  of  Connecticut.  War  hav- 
ing arisen  between  England  &  Holland,  the  English 
king,  Charles  II,  determined  to  seize  the  Dutch  posses- 
sions in  North  America;  so  in  1664  he  granted  the  whole 
of  their  territory  to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York.  In 
the  same  year  the  duke  sent  out  three  vessels  under  the 
command  of  Colonel  Nichols,  who,  upon  arriving  in  the 
hp.rbor  of  New  Amsterdam,  demanded  a  surrender  of 
the  territory  to  his  English  majesty.  Governor  Stuyve- 
sant,  being  unprepared  for  defense,  complied  with  the 
demand,  and  the  whole  country  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  English.  In  honor  of  the  duke,  the  name  New 
Sew  York  Amsterdam  was  changed  to  New  York,  and  the  whole 
territory  received  the  same  name. 

1?.  After  the  Duke  of  York  had  gained  possession  of 
the  Dutch  territory,  he  in  turn  sold  the  southern  part  of 


ciinsyi* 


■IT-      ■    .      tliirteen 
\  irgmia,  (.oionieei 


it  to  two  English  noblemen.  Lord  Berkely  and  Sir 
Oeorge  Carteret.  This  tract,  in  compliment  to  Sir 
George,  who  had  been  governor  of  the  island  of  Jersey, 
was  called  New  Jersey.  A  libera!  constitution  was 
formed  by  the  proprietors,  and  Philip  Carteret  ap- 
pointed governor.  The  Dutch  had  several  small  trad- 
ing stations  in  this  territory  at  an  earlier  date,  and  the 
Quakers,  having  bought  the  rights  of  Lord  Berkely, 
came  soon  afterwards.  In  1676  a  division  was  made, 
the  Quakers  taking  West  Jersey  and  Carteret  retaining 
East  Jersey,  which  became  Puritan.  In  1703  the  colony 
was  given  up  by  the  proprietors  to  Queen  Anne  in  order 
that  a  royal  governor  might  be  appointed,  and  the  two 
provinces  were  then  made  into  one. 

13.  The  territory  comprised  within  the  limits  of  the  1 
state  of  Pennsylvania  was  granted  in  1681,  by  Charles  ^■'°'''- 
II  to  William  Penn.  sou  of  Admiral  Penn,  in  payment 
of  an  old  debt  due  from  the  crown  to  the  Penn  family. 

In  1682,  the  present  state  of  Delaware,  then  known  as  Delaware, 
the  "Territories,"  was  added  to  his  domain,  and  re- 
garded a3  a  part  of  Pennsylvania,  but  in  1703  it  became 
a  separate  colony.  Thus,  the  formation  of  the  original  The 
thirteen  colonies  has  been  described.  The  London  ?,'1?.'''*J 
Company's  territory  furnished  five,  viz: 
Maryland,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 
The  Plymouth  Company's  grant,  comprising  New  Eng- 
land, gave  four,  viz:  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode 
Island  and  New  Hampshire.  The  neutral  territory  in- 
cluded between  the  original  grants  to  the  two  companies 
furnished  four,  viz:  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Delaware. 

14.  It  is  in  vain  to  look  for  well  balanced  constitutions  1'''?  fonsti- 
in  the  earlier  periods  of  colonial  history.     England ',[J"°°io^ef 
herself  can  scarcely  boastof  having  a  fixed  constitution 
previous  to  the  revolution  in  the  year  1688,  a  period  sub- 
sequent to  the   settlement  of  the  colonies.     The  legal 

and  constitutional  history  of  the  colonies,  therefore,  af- 
fords but  little  instruction.  .As  has  been  shown,  in  less 
than  eighty  years  from  the  first  permanent  English  set- 
tlement in  North  America,  the  two  original  patents 
granted  to  the  Plymouth  and  London  companies  were  di- 
vided and  subdivided  into  twelve  distinct  and  uncon- 
nected provinces,  and  in  fifty  years  more  a  thirteenth, 
Georgia,  was  added  to  the  southern  extreme  of  the 
previous  establishments.  To  each  of  these,  after  vari- 
ous changes,  there  was  ultimately  granted  a  form  of 
government  resembling  in  its  most  essential  parts,  as 
far  as  local  circumstances  would  permit,  that  which  was 
established  in  the  parent  state.  Without  entering  into 
details,  it  may  be  observed,  in  general,  that  agreeably 
to  the  spirit  of  the  British  constitution,  ample  provision 
was  made  for  the  liberty  of  the  colonists.  The  colonial 
forms  of  government  were,  in  the  main,  unhampered 
by  the  royal  prerogatives.  In  some  of  the  provinces 
the  inhabitants  chose  their  own  governors  and  all  other 
public  ofiicers,  and  their  legislators  were  under  little  or 
no  outside  control.  In  others,  the  crown  delegated  most 
of  its  powers  to  particular  persons,  who  were  also  in 
vested  with  the  property  of  the  soil.  To  those  colonies 
which  were  most  immediately  dependent  upon  the  king 
were  granted  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  their 
fellow  subjects  in  the  mother  country. 

15.  During  the  period  of  colonization,  three  forms  of  Forms  ot 
government  were  observable — proprietary,  charter  and  If^gn™" 
royal.     The  proprietors  of  land  grants  offered  liberal 
governmental  privileges  to  those  who  were  willing  to 

settle  on  their  lands,  and  thus  several  of  the  colonies 
became  proprietary.  These  were  Maryland,  Carolina, 
Georgia,  New  York,  New  Hampshire,  Pennsylvania 
(also  including  Delaware)  and  New  Jersey.  Some  of 
the  proprietors  becoming  tired  of  their  grants,  surren- 
dered them  to  the  crown,  and  the  colonies,  established 
in  such  territory,  became  royal  provinces,  over  which 
the  king  appointed  governors  with  the  power  of  abso- 
lute veto  on  legislation.  The  colonies  thus  coming  un- 
der  the  royal   authority  were.  North  Carolina,  South 


U  ^"  I  T  L  1 )      S  T  A  T  E  S 


731 


udcr  a 
barter 


English 
policy 
toward  the 
coloiUi^Ie.J 


Growth 
wid  pro«- 
peri:y  of 
the  colo- 
Aiee. 


CaoEPs  of 
increafie 
In  popala- 


Social  life 
aod  cne- 
toms  Oi' 
New 
Voglasd. 


Carolina,  Georgia,  New  York,  New  Hampshire  and 
New  Jersey.  Virginia  became  a  royal  province  about 
1620.  Three  colonies,  only,  remained  proprietary 
down  to  the  Revolution;  these  were  Pennsylvania,  Del- 
aware <now  a  separate  colony)  and  New  Jersey.  The 
colonies  organized  under  a  charter  government  were 
jilassachusetts,  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island.  These 
charters  were  granted  by  royal  authority,  and  gave  the 
colonists  the  right  of  choosing  their  own  officers,  and 
making  and  enforcing  their  own  laws  as  they  thought 
best.  Upon  the  accession  of  James  II  to  the  throne,  he 
held  that  all  the  colonial  lands  in  New  England  be- 
longed to  the  crown.  Accordingly  he  sent  over  Sir  Ed- 
mund Andros,  who  was  to  revoke  all  the  charters,  and 
assume  the  governorship  of  the  province  of  New  Eng- 
land and  New  York.  The  charter  of  Jlassachusetts  was 
annulled  in  1684,  but  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  re- 
tained theirs  in  spite  of  the  royal  authority.  In  1693.  a 
new  charter  was  granted  to  Massachusetts,  but  under  its 
conditions  she  partly  became  a  royal  province. 

16.  For  the  first  ceutuiy  and  a  half  after  the  settle- 
ment of  the  colonies,  England,  in  the  main,  exercised 
a  wise  and  liberal  policy  toward  them.  She  allowed 
them  to  govern  themselves  by  such  laws  as  their  local 
legislatures  thought  necess;jy,  and  left  their  trade  open 
to  every  individual  in  her  dominions.  She  also  gave 
them  full  permission  to  pursue  their  respective  interests 
in  such  a  manner  as  they  thought  proper,  and  reserved 
little  for  herself  but  the  benefit  of  their  trade,  and  that 
of  a  political  union  under  the  same  head.  This  indul- 
sence  had  a  very  marked  effect  upon  the  growth  and 
prosperity  of  the  colonies.  They  increased  in  wealth, 
numbers  and  resources  with  a  rapidity  never  before 
'^quailed  in  ancient  or  modern  history.  They  extended 
their  settlements  1,500  miles  along  the  sea  coast,  and 
SOD  miles  to  the  westward.  In  the  short  space  of  150 
years  their  numbers  increased  to  three  millions,  and 
iheir  commerce  to  sucfi  a  degree  as  to  b3  more  than  a 
third  of  that  of  Great  Britain,  although  much  restricted 
by  the  navigation  laws  imposed  upon  them  by  the 
mother  country.  The  rapid  increase  in  the  population 
of  the  colonies  was  principallj' owing  to  internal  causes. 
Though  somewhat  accelerated  by  the  intiux  of  stran- 
gers previous  to  1630,  yet,  after  that  time,  immigration 
formed  but  a  small  feature  in  peopling  the  country. 
The  hardships  of  colonial  life,  which  came  to  be  better 
understood,  and  the  constant  struggles  between  the  peo- 
ple and  the  home  government  respecting  rights  and 
privileges,  served  as  a  check  to  the  advent  of  new 
comers.  Hence  the  population  of  the  colonies  arose 
mainly  from  natural  increase.  In  eonsequence  of  the 
equality  of  fortune  and  simplicity  of  manners  which 
prevailed  among  them,  their  inhabitants  multiplied  far 
beyond  the  proportion  of  old  nations,  corrupted  and 
weakened  by  the  vices  of  wealth,  above  all,  of  vanit}-, 
than  which,  perhaps,  there  is  no  greater  enemy  to  the 
increase  of  the  human  species. 

17.  In  the  settlement  of  a  new  country,  many  hard- 
ships and  privations  must  of  necessity  be  endured,  and 
the  American  colonists  experienced  their  share  of  them, 
more  especially  those  of  New  England.  In  that  section 
the  climate  was  more  rigorous  than  in  the  other  parts 
of  the  country,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  more  dif- 
ficult. The  habitations  outside  of  the  regular  settle- 
ments were  often  far  apart,  so  that  intercommunication 
was  infrequent.  The  dwellings  of  the  settlers  were  of 
the  ruder  sort,  being  composed  of  logs,  and  so  imper- 
fectly constructed  that  they  afforded  a  poor  protection 
against  the  cold  of  a  New  Englanr'.  winter.  While  the 
colonists  were  poor  there  was  necessarily  great  plainness 
of  living  among  them.  Luxuries  were  unknown  to 
them,  but  there  was  an  abundance  of  the  coarser  kinds 
of  food.  Pork  and  beans,  boiled  corn  meal  and  milk, 
or  pork  and  peas,  formed  the  staple  articles  of  diet. 
Bread  was  commonly  made  of  "rye  and  Indian,"  and 
seldom  of  flour.  Tea  and  coffee  were  not  yet  introduced. 


but  home-made  beer  and  cider  were  largely  used.  Be- 
ing principally  of  Puritan  stock,  there  were  but  few 
secular  amusements  among  them.  Dancing,  and  the 
theater,  or  anything  approaching  it,  were  forbidden; 
musical  instruments  were  rare,  and  no  one  was  allowed 
to  own  a  set  of  dice  or  a  pack  of  cards.  In  their  de- 
sire to  promote  virtue,  the  Puritans,  no  doubt,  were  too 
austere  in  their  mode  of  living,  yet  the  standard  of 
morality  among  them  was  certainly  very  high.  In  the 
southern  colonies  life  was  more  easy,  as  a  general  thing. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  settlers  there  were  men  of 
good  family,  attracted  to  the  new  world  by  a  desire  to 
make  money  and  to  enjoy  personal  freedom.  Many  of 
them  secured  patents  for  plantations  of  their  own,  in- 
stead of  attempting  to  improve  the  lands  in  common, 
and  brought  out  laborers  to  work  them  at  their  private 
expense.  The  soil  was  very  productive,  and  the  growth 
of  tobacco,  rice  and  indigo  formed  a  great  source  of 
wealth,  so  that  luxury  abounded  in  that  part  of  the 
country  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  any  other. 
The  existence  of  slavery  among  them  caused  a  great 
deal  of  ignorance  and  idleness,  as  the  wisest  of  them 
admitted;  bu I  there  grew  up  an  aristocratic  class,among 
whom  there  were  many  men  of  high  character  and  en- 
ergy. The  settlers  in  the  region  which  now  forms  the 
middle  states  principally  followed  the  occupation  of 
farming,  the  soil  and  climate  being  well  adapted  for  the 
growth  of  cereals. 

18.  The  religion  of  the  colonists  was  chiefly  Protest- 
ant. A  majority  of  them,  especially  in  the  north,  were 
of  that  class  of  men  who.  in  England,  were  called  dis- 
senters. In  New  England  they  were  largely  Congrega- 
tional. All  the  other  leading  denominations  also  had 
their  representatives  in  different  parts  of  the  coimtrj-. 
In  the  royal  colonies  there  was  a  strong  tendency 
towards  the  Church  of  England,  which  became  the  pre- 
vailing religion  among  them.  In  Virginia  it  was  estab- 
lished by  law.  In  fact  nearly  every  colony  at  the  out- 
set attempted  to  establish  some  form  of  religious  belief 
on  a  governmental  foundation,  and  on  account  of  this, 
as  is  well  known,  persecutions  at  the  first  arose.  But 
the  spirit  of  religious  freedom  predomiualed,  and  in 
general,  men  were  left  at  liberty  to  worship  God  ac- 
cording to  the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences. 

19.  The  English  colonists  were,  from  their  first  set- 
tlement in  America,  devoted  to  liberty,  according  to 
English  ideas  and  English  principles.  After  a  long 
struggle  between  the  king  and  his  parliament  culminat- 
ing in  the  English  revolution,  the  following  fundament- 
al principles  were  settled:  "That  it  was  the  undoubted 
right  of  English  subjects,  being  freemen  or  freeholders, 
to  give  their  property  only  by  their  own  consent.  That 
the  House  of  Commons  exercised  the  sole  right  of  grant- 
ing the  money  of  the  people  of  England,  because  that 
house  alone  represented  them.  That  taxes  were  the 
free  gifts  of  the  people  to  their  rulers.  That  the  au- 
thority of  sovereigns  was  to  be  exercised  only  for  the 
good  of  their  subjects.  That  it  was  the  right  of  the 
people  to  meet  together,  and  peaceably  to  consider  their 
grievances,  to  petition  for  a  redress  of  them,  and  finally, 
when  intolerable  grievances  were  unredressed,  to  seek 
relief,  on  the  failure  of  petitions  and  remonstrances,  by 
forcible  means."  Upon  these  fundamental  principles 
thus  established,  the  colonists  took  their  stand,  and  all 
encroachments  on  their  rights  were  met  with  a  more 
determined  spirit  of  opposition  than  would  have  been 
possible,  had  they  emigrated  from  the  mother  country 
in  the  preceding  century,  when  the  doctrines  of  the 
divine  right  of  kings  and  passive  obedience  to  their  will 
were  generally  accepted. 

20.  There  were  many  causes  favorable  to  liberly 
among  the  colonists.  Their  removal  to  so  great  a  dis- 
tance from  the  parent  government  greatlj-  weakened 
their  attachment  to  their  sovereign,  and  with  each  suc- 
ceeding generation  that  affection  became  still  less 
marked,  and  at  length  was  almost  entiivly  lost.     Their 


The 

religions 

coDdition, 


ReliffioQS 
freedom. 


The  spirit 
of  liberty. 


Rights  of 

English 

eubiects. 


Cansos 
favorabl- 
to  libect 


•732 


U  i^[  i  T  E  D      !^  IVA  T  E  S 


leligion  also  fostered  a  love  of  liberty.  They  were  chiefly 
Protestants,  and  all  Protestantism  is  founded  on  a  strong 
claim  to  natural  liberty  and  the  right  of  private  judg- 
ment. Ths  state  of  society  in  the  colonies  was  favora- 
ble to  a  spirit  of  liberty  and  independence.  Their  inha- 
bitants, unaccustomed  to  the  distinctions  of  rank  which 
characterized  European  nations,  were  imbued  with  the 
idea  that  all  men  are  by  nature  equal.  All  their  im- 
pressions were  calculated  to  inspire  them  with  a  belief 
that  democratic  forms  of  government  were  by  for  the 
best.  With  rank  and  titles  they  had  nothing  in  com- 
mon; kings,  nobles  and  bishops  were  unknown  to  them. 
They  could  not  easily  be  persuaded  that  their  grants  of 
land  or  their  civil  rights  were  the  gifts  of  princes. 
Many  of  them  had  never  heard  of  Magna  Charta,  and 
those  who  knew  the  circumstances  of  the  remarkable 
period  of  English  history  when  that  great  charter  was 
obtained,  did  not  rest  their  claims  to  liberty  and  prop- 
erty on  the  transactions  of  that  important  day.  They 
looked  to  the  Parent  of  the  universe  as  the  source  of  all 
their  rights.  Their  political  creed  was  short  but  sound. 
They  believed  that  God  made  all  mankind  originally 
equal;  that  he  endowed  them  with  the  rights  of  life, 
property  and  as  much  liberty  as  was  consistent  with 
the  rights  of  others.  That  all  government  was  a  poli- 
tical institution  between  men  naturally  equal,  not  for 
the  aggrandizement  of  one  or  a  few,  but  for  the  general 
happiness  of  the  whole  community.  Impressed  with 
sentiments  of  this  nature,  they  grew  up,  from  the  earli- 
est infancy,  with  that  confidence  which  is  well  cal- 
culated to  inspire  a  love  for  freedom  and  a  preposses- 
sion in  favor  of  independence. 

n. — THE  CONTEST  BETWEEN  ENGLAND  AND  »RANCE. 

france  in  21.  While  the  English  were  establishing  their  colo- 
Lmerica.  njgg  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  gradually  working 
their  way  into  the  interior,  the  French  were  penetrat- 
ing the  continent  by  the  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  tak- 
ing advantage  of  the  discoveries  made  by  Cartier. 
Champlain  and  others.  The  two  great  pioneers  of 
French  occupation  were  the  fur  trader  and  the  mission- 
ary. It  was  about  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  Mass- 
achusetts Bay  that  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  who  had  already 
been  laboring  for  many  years  among  the  Algonquins 
and  Hurnns  of  Canada  and  New  York,  began  to  push 
their  e.\plf)rations  westward  with  renewed  zeal  and  en- 
terprise, accompanying,  and  often  leading  the  Canadian 
fur  traders  on  their  long  journeys.  Among  the  soldiers, 
also,  who  came  to  New  France,  as  the  French  posses- 
sions in  America  were  called,  were  men  who  were  in- 
tent upon  enlarging  their  king's  domains.  Several  of 
the  Jesuits  were  martyred.  Allouez  made  known  the 
copper  mines  of  Lake  Superior.  Dablou  and  Marquette 
founded  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  the  first  white  settlement  in 
the  northwestern  states.  Marquette,  accompanied  by 
the  trader  Jol'et.  first  reached  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Mississippi  in  1673. 
lobertde  23.  One  of  the  greatest  of  French  explorers  was 
>  Salic.  Robert  de  la  Salle,  who  came  out  to  Canada  to  seek  his 
fortune.  A  tract  of  land  was  granted  him  a  few  miles 
beyond  Montreal,  but  he  was  bent  upon  new  discoveries. 
He  secured  the  aid  of  some  rich  men  and  of  Count 
Prontenac,  governor  of  Canada,  and  having  built  some 
vessels,  he  explored  the  upper  lakes,  made  his  way  to 
the  Illinois  river,  and  erected  a  fort  on  the  present  site 
of  Peoria.  At  last  he  made  the  great  journey  which  he 
had  for  some  time  been  planning.  He  set  out  from 
Fort  Uiami,  on  Lake  Michigan,  with  a  part}'  of  French- 
men and  Indians.  He  dragged  his  canoes  from  stream 
to  stream  until,  after  innumerable  hardships  and  dan- 
gers, from  which  he  never  flinched,  he  launched  them 
upon  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi  and  floated  down  its 
current.  He  explored  the  great  river  to  its  mouih,  and 
in  168i,  took  possession  of  the  vast  territory  drained  by 
it  and  its  tributaries  in  the  name  of  Louis  XIV.  king 
of  France,  and  named  it  Louisiana  after  him.     He  then 


retfaced  his  course  And  hastened  back  to  France.  The 
king  fitted  out  an  expedition  for  La  Salle  that  he  might 
establish  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
naval  commander,  Beaujeu,  lauded  La  Salle  and  his 
company  at  Matagorda  bay,  in  Texas,  which  La  Salle 
supposed  at  first  was  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 
Then  Beaujeu  sailed  back  and  left  the  colonists  to  their 
fate.  They  built  a  fort,  and  La  Salle  set  out  to  find  the 
Mississippi,  but  utterly  failed.  Dividing  his  men,  he 
left  one  party  in  possession  of  the  fort,  and  with  the 
other  endeavored  to  force  his  way  to  Canada,  there  toi 
obtain  relief.  He  never  reached  the  end  of  his  journey. 
After  suffering  terrible  hardships,  he  was  treacherously- 
murdered  (1687)  by  some  of  his  own  party  when  on  hia-. 
way.  France  sent  out  another  expedition  under  D' Iber- 
ville, who  (1702)  founded  Mobile.  In  1718  the  city  of  ■ 
New  Orleans  was  founded  by  the  French  Mississip()ii 
Company. 

23.  The  French  planted  military  posts  at  intervuls  French 
along  the  great  river,  and  settlements  rose  up  about  ™'i,t5^ 
them.  The  French  colonies  and  outposts  also  extended 
from  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  up  the  valley 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  through  the  region  of  the 
great  lakes.  Thus  the  English  settlements  became  en- 
closed by  a  cordon  of  military  posts,  and  at  that  time  it 
seemed  as  though  the  whole  continent  were  destined  to 
become  French  rather  than  English.  The  French  also 
had  an  advantage  from  the  fact  that  they  had  secured, 
the  good  will  of  most  of  the  Indian  tribes  through  their 
own  prudent  policy  and  the  influence  of  their  mission- 
aries. The  English  settlers  looked  upon  their  French 
neighbors  with  jealousy  and  alarm,  for  they  interfered 
with  the  extension  of  their  settlements,  especially  m 
the  north.  In  the  southern  colonies  the  inconvenience 
of  the  French  occupancy  was  comparatively  but  little- 
felt.  Their  social  characteristics  and  the  nature  of  their 
industry  were  not  favorable  to  western  migration,  so,  as. 
there  was  nothing  to  tempt  them  away  from  their  plan- 
tations into  the  wild  interior  they  kept  close  to  the  sea- 
coast.  But  in  the  north  it  was  different.  There  the 
constant  increase  of  commerce  was  followed  by  the  in- 
creased wealth  of  the  towns,  and  consequently  the- 
lands  about  them  became  more  valuable.  The  great 
bulk  of  the  emigrants  who  came  over  landed  at  the 
northern  ports  since  trade  was  more  active  in  the  north- 
ern colonies.  Many  of  these,  being  unable  to  purchase 
homes  near  the  great  centers  of  trade  and  the  many 
flourishing  settlements,  or  being  impelled  by  a  spirit  of 
enterprise,  went  in  search  of  new  lands  farther  from 
the  coast.  Thus  the  northward  and  westward  growth 
of  New  England  and  the  English  conquest  of  New 
Netherlands  brought  the  two  great  rivals  face  to  face. 

34.  The  great  struggle  between  France  and  England  Kin^ 
began  in   1690.     King  James  II  had  been  dethroned  JJ.'l''*""* 
(1688),  and  William  of  Orange  placed  upon  the  English 
throne.     The  French  king,  Louis  XIV,  espoused  the 
cause  of  James,  and  a  war  followed,  known  as  King 
William's  War,  in  which  the  colonies  became  involved^ 
Both  the  French  and  English  colonists  made  use  of  In-, 
dian  allies,  and  the  warfare  was  marked  by  the  most 
barbarous  excesses.     The  Indians  of  Maine  and  New 
Hampshire  were  incited  by  French  traders  to  attack  the 
English  towns.     In  1689  Dover  was  burned.     Cascowas. 
attacked,  but  the  timely  arrival  of  reinforcementt  from 
Msssachusetts  saved  it.  All  the  settlements  further  east. 
were  broken  up.     In  1690  the  war  became  more  earnest. 
Three  war  parties  of  French  and  Indians  were  sent  out. 
by  Count  Frontenac  from  Montreal.  Three  Rivers  and 
Quebec.     The  first  surroimded  the  settlement  of  Schen- 
ectady in  the  night,  and  put  it  to  the  sword.     The  sec- 
ond destroyed  Salmon  Falls,  New  Hampshire,  and  thea.. 
in  conjunction  with  the  third  party,  captured  Casco. 

The  English  colonies  became  aroused  and  determined! 
to  punish  the  invaders.  An  expedition  fitted  out  under 
the  united  efforts  of  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Connec- 
ticut and  New  York  was  sent  out  under    Fitz  John 


UNITED      STATES 


783 


I 


Wiuibrop,  against  Montreal.  An  attack  made  on  the 
town  was  repulsed  by  Frontenac.  In  the  meantime  Sir 
William  Phipps,  with  a  fleet,  sent  out  from  Massachu- 
setts, plundered  Port  Royal  and  other  French  settle- 
ments. Then,  sailing  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  he  at- 
tempted to  surprise  Quebec.  But  Frontenac,  having 
defeated  the  attack  on  Montreal,  reached  Quebec  before 
him,  and  the  enterprise  failed.  The  war  continued  un- 
til 1697,  when  a  treaty  of  peace  was  made  between 
France  and  England.  Both  parties  had  suffered  severe- 
ly, and  neither  had  gained  any  real  advantage. 
^^"  25.  The  truce  between  the  two  great  rivals  lasted 

■war.  about  five  j'Curs,  when  war  again  broke  out  between 

them  (1702).  At  once  the  French  and  English  in  Amer- 
ica fell  to  fighting,  and  the  war  that  followed  is  called 
Queen  Anne's  War.  During  the  five  years  of  peace 
the  French  had  continued  to  make  settlements  in  the 
west.  They  never  lost  sight  of  the  great  idea  which  in- 
flamed their  ambition,  which  was  to  establish  a  great 
French- American  empire.  They  had  founded  Detroit, 
Mobile  and  numerous  villages  on  the  Mississippi.  In 
the  east  they  had  recovered  all  the  places  taken  from 
them  by  the  English  in  the  last  war,  inaugurated  new 
missions,  and  increased  their  influence  over  the  Indians. 
At  this  time  Spain  was  in  alliance  with  France,  and  the 
English  settlers  foimd  themselves  opposed  not  only  by 
the  French  in  the  north  and  west,  but  by  the  Spaniards 
of  Florida  in  the  south.  The  English  colonistsdirected 
their  first  operations  against  the  Spaniards.  St.  Augus- 
tine was  captured  (1702),  but  had  to  be  abandoned. 
Three  years  later  the  Christian  Indian  settlements  of 
middle  Florida  were  destroyed  by  the  English,  and  the 
The  wa.    I  missions  entirely  broken  up. 

the  nor,  I  26.  New  England  suffered  greatly  in  this  war.  There 
was  an  atrocious  massacre  at  Deerfield  in  1704.  Haver- 
hill, which  had  not  fuUy  recovered  from  the  massacre 
of  1697,  was  plundered  and  burned  a  second  time,  and 
many  of  the  colonists  killed  (1708),  and  the  whole  of 
that  part  of  the  country  was  harassed  by  barbarous 
foes.  Receiving  but  little  help  from  England,  the 
colonists  for  several  years  were  unable  to  undertake 
any  important  expeditions.  An  attack  on  Charleston, 
S.  C.  (1706).  by  the  French  and  Spaniards,  was  repulsed. 
Port  Royal  was  again  taken  from  the  French  (1710), 
and  with  it  the  most  of  Acadia,  which  now  became 
known  as  Nova  Scotia. 
Expedition  In  nn  an  English  fleet  arrived  in  Boston  to  co- 
clnwia.  operate  with  the  colonists  in  an  attempt  to  conquer 
Canada,  but  all  operations  in  that  quarter  proved  a 
failure.  In  1718  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at 
Utrecht,  by  which  the  English  acquired  Newfound- 
land and  Acadia.  The  eastern  Indians  were  also  in- 
duced to  make  peace  about  this  time. 

27.  Many  years  of  peace  now  followed,  during 
which  the  colonies  increased  rapidly  in  population 
and  advanced  in  material  prosperity.  The  French 
stiU  pursued  their  scheme  of  building  up  a  great 
empire  in  the  west.  They  controlled  the  valuable 
fur  trade  of  the  whole  Mississippi  valley.  After 
their  expulsion  from  Acadia  they  had  crossed  to  the 
island  of  Cape  Breton,  and  erected  the  strong  fortress 
of  Louisburg.  At  Niagara  they  had  a  fort  command- 
ing the  communication  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 
Natchez  was  founded  in  1716.  In  1710  New  Orleans 
was  built,  and  soon  became  the  capital  of  Louisiana. 
The  French  missionaries  also  continued  their  conquests 
in  the  wilderness  of  the  Mississippi.  After  several 
years  of  peace,  France  again  declared  war  against 
England  (1744),  and  immediately  began  hostilities 
against  the    settlements.      The  campaign  which   fol- 

Georre's     'o^cd  is  known  as  King  George's  war,  because  it  oc- 
fiu.  curred  in  the  reign  of  George  II. 

28.  The  colonists  determined  to  carry  on  the  war  by 
their  own  means  without  waiting  the  uncertain  aid 
from  England.  An  expedition  was  planned  against 
Louisburg  which  was  successful,  and  that  strong  fort- 


ress fell  into  the  bauds  of  the  Americans  (17-1.5).  This 
achievement  of  untrained  soldiers  was  received  with 
enthusiasm  bj'  the  colonies,  and  with  astor'chment  in 
Europe.  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chappelle  (1748)  put  an 
end  to  the  war;  and  greatly  to  the  disgust  of  New 
England,  Louisburg  was  restored  to  the  French  in 
exchange  for  Madras,  in  Hindustan,  which  France 
had  taken  from  England. 

29.  The  colonists  had  but  a  short  time  to  reap  the 
benefits  of  peace,  after  the  treaty  already  referred  to, 
when  the  sound  of  approaching  war  tilled  the  land 
with  anxiety  and  gloom.     After  an  interval  of  about 

eight  years.  Great  Britain  formally  declared  war  against  DeclaraUoe 
France.     The  causes  leading  to  this  war,  which  was"'""* 
called  the  French  and  Indian  war,  were  the  alleged 
encroachments  of  the  French  on  the  frontiers  of  the 
colonies  in  America  belonging  to  England.   The  French 
determined  to  connect  their  northern  and  southern  pos- 
sessions  by  a  line  of  posts  extending  along  the  frontiers 
of  the  English  possessions,  from  Lake  Ontario  to  the 
Ohio,  and  down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  to  New  Or- 
leans.   Up  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the  English 
had  not  attempted  to  explore  or  settle  the  regions  lying 
beyond  the  Blue  Ridge  and  Alleghany  mountains,  but 
in  1749  a  company  of  traders  from  London  and  Vir- 
ginia, called  the  Ohio  company,  obtained  a  grant  from  Th^  Ohio 
the  crown  of  600,000  acres  of  land  on  the  east  bank  of  <^'''™P»''y 
the  Ohio  river,  in  what  is  now  West  Virginia  and  Penn- 
sylvania.     In    the  years  immediately  following  they 
made  surveys  and  established  a  few  settlements.     One 
of  the  surveyors  was  Geoige  Washington. 

30.  The  French,  regarding  these  operations  of  the 
Ohio  Company  as  an  encroachment  upon  their  ter- 
ritory, strengthened  the  fort  at  Niagara,  built  another 
at  Presque  Isle  (1753),  now  Erie,  established  Posts  at 
La  Bffiuf  and  Venango  (now  Waterford  and  Franklin, 
in  the  oil  region  of  northwestern  Pennsylvania),  seized 
the  English  traders,  and  confiscated  their  goods.  When 
rumors  came  of  what  the  French  had  done.  Governor 
Dmwiddie  of  Virginia  sent  Washington,  then  not  yet  ■Washing- 
twenty-two  years  of  age,  to  look  into  the  matter,  andeTon!""*" 
expostulate  with  the  French  regarding  their  encroach- 
menis.     After  an  arduous  and  perilous  winter   journey 
Washington  brought  back  such  a  report  of  the  deter- 
mination and  activity  of  the  French,  that  the  Virginia  ■ 
Assembly  at  once  took-  measures  to  build  a  fort  (1754) 

at  the  junction  of  the  Monongahela  and  Alleghany 
rivers;  but  while  the  fort  was  being  erected  the  French 
suddenly  appeared,  drove  the  English  away,  and 
finished  for  themselves  the  fort,  which  they"  called 
Fort  Du  Quesne. 

31.  In  the  meantime,  a  body  of  400  men  had  been 
raised  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  sent  out 
under  Washington  into  the  disputed  territory.  Meet- 
ing at  Grand  Meadows  a  French  force  which  "had  been  'Waehinp 
sent  out  to  intercept  him,  he  attacked  and  defeated  *t°TOfe!? 
them  (1754).  Learning  of  the  approach  of  a  greatly 
superior  force  of  the  enemy,  he  erected  Fort  Necessity. 

Here  he  was  attacked  by  the  French,  and  compelled  to 
surrender,  but  on  honorable  terms.  During  this  time, 
both  the  rival  governments  of  France  and  England 
were  making  preparations  for  the  coming  struggle, 
though  there  was  no  formal  declaration  of  war  until 
1756. 

33.  In  17.55  General  Braddock,  with  a  force  off^^^*"* 
English  and  American  troops,  marched  against  Fort 
Du  Quesne,  but  was  defeated  with  great  slaughter, 
and  but  for  the  skill  displayed  by  Washington  the 
whole  army  would  have  been  annihilated.  Braddock 
himself  was  mortally  wounded,  and  died  shortly  after- 
wards. After  his  death.  General  Shirley  took  com- 
mand, and  made  an  attempt  to  reduce  Fort  Niagarsi, 
but  accomplished  nothing.  General  William  Johnson 
was  appointed  to  attack  Crown  Point.  He  defeated 
the  French  General  Dieskau  in  the  battle  of  Lakei 
George  (Sept.  5,  1755),  but  was  unable  to  reach  Crowik 


734 


UNITED      S  T  A  T  E  rs 


Point.  Id  the  same  year  all  the  French  inhabitants  of 
Acadia  were  banished. 
FrcBch  and  33.  In  May,  1756,  war  was  formally  declared  by 
iadianWar.Great  Britain,  and  by  France  in  the  following  month. 
Lord  Loudon  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  all 
the  forces  in  America,  but  owing  to  necessary  delay, 
General  Abercrombie  preceded  him  and  took  the  com- 
mand. The  Marquis  of  Montcalm  became  the  French 
commander.  Abercrombie  awaited  the  arrival  of  Loudon 
before  attempting  anything.  Both  officers  proved  in- 
efficient, and  by  their  delays  allowed  the  French  not 
only  time  to  strengthen  their  posts,  but  also  to  attack 
those  of  the  English. 
t'amnaiuTi?  34.  In  August,  1756,  Montcalm  captured  Fort  Ontario 
"'d'rs'-  ^'''^  *  large  number  of  military  stores,  guns,  prisoners 
™  '  '■  ami  vessels.  In  June,  1757,  Lord  Loudon  organized  an 
expedition  against  Louisburg.  but  abandoned  the  at- 
tempt on  learning  that  the  garrison  at  that  place  had 
been  strongly  reinforced  by  a  French  fleet.  In  the 
meantime,  Montcalm,  collecting  his  forces  at  Ticon- 
deroga,  marched  against  Fort  William  Henry,  and 
compelled  it  to  surrender.  After  the  surrender,  many 
of  the  garrison  were  massacred  by  the  French  Indian 
allies.  Thus  after  four  years'  hostilities,  the  incom- 
petency of  the  British  commanders  still  gave  the  French 
the  advantage.  But  a  change  in  the  British  home 
policy  changed  the  aspect  of  the  war.  The  celebrated 
WiUiam  Pitt  was  called  to  the  ministry,  and  immediately 
began  to  act  with  vigor.  Abler  officers  were  appointed 
to  command,  and  expeditions  organized  against  dif- 
ferent points.  Louisburg  was  captured  July  27,  1758. 
Fort  Du  Quesne  also  was  taken,  and  its  name  changed 
to  Fort  Pitt.  General  Abercrombie's  attack  on  Ticon- 
deroga  (July,  1758, )  met  with  a  bloody  repulse,  but  Fort 
Frontenac  was  taken,  with  a  large  quantity  of  stores 
and  goods. 
The  35.  Pitt  now  determined  to  dispossess  the  French  of 

Conquest  ofthe  whole  of  their  American  territory.     Their  armies 
Canada,      ^gre  directed  at  the  same  time  against  three  of  their 
strongest  posts,   Quebec,  Ticonderoga   and  Montreal. 
General  Amherst   captured   Ticonderoga    July,    1759. 
Fort  Niagara  surrendered  to  Sir  William  Johnson  July 
25,  1759.     But  the  most  important  feature  of  the  cam- 
paign was  the  taking  of  the  almost  impregnable  fort- 
ress of  Quebec  by  the  gallant  Wolfe,  who  lost  his  life 
in  the  action.     Soon  after  Montreal  surrendered  to  Am- 
herst.    In  this  campaign  the  French  were  driven  from 
all  the  important  posts  in  Canada,  and  their  power  in 
America  was  broken  forever.     The  war  was  virtually 
at  an   end,  though  peace  was  not  restored  until  the 
The  Treatysigning  of  the  Treaty   of  Paris,  February,  1763.     By 
of  Pans,     tiiis  agreement,  to  which  Spain  and  Portugal  were  also 
parties,  France  surrendered  everything  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, except  New   Orleans,  to  England.     New  Or- 
leans and  that  part  of  Louisiana  beyond  the  Mississippi 
were  ceded  to  Spain  bj  the  French.     In  excliange  for 
Havana,    which  had  been  captured   by  the  British, 
Spain  yielded  Florida  to  England.     In  1800  Spain  re- 
stored Louisiana  to  France,  and  Napoleon  sold  it  to  the 
United  states  in  1803. 
Pouiiace        36.  When  the   treaty   of  peace  was   signed,  it  was 
^"-  trusted  that  there  would  be  an  end  to  those  horrid  rav- 

ages which  had  desolated  the  interior  of  the  country. 
But  the  month  of  May.  1763,  proved  the  fallacy  of 
such  hopes.  The  Indians  did  not  wish  to  see  the  coun- 
try transferred  by  the  French  to  the  English.  It  was 
one  thing  to  have  the  French  trading  among  them, 
another  to  have  the  hated  English  occupying  their 
lands.  It  was  about  this  time  that  the  famous  insur- 
rection of  the  Indian  tribes  broke  out.  The  Delawares 
and  Shawnees  and  other  of  the  tribes  of  the  Ohio  were 
foremost  in  this  conspiracy.  Pontiac,  an  Ottawa  chief, 
was  the  prime  mover  and  master  spirit  in  this  affair, 
and  hence  it  is  called  Pontiac's  war.  Pontiac  ex- 
pected the  French  to  ,ioin  him,  for  they  were  secretly 
encouraging  him.     Mosit  of  the  western  tribes  were 


drawn  by  him  into  the  plot,  but  Sir  William  Johnson' 
prevented  a  greater  part  of  the  Iroquois  from  joining 
him.  Pontiac's  plans  were  deeply  laid,  and  conducted 
with  Indian  craft  and  secrecy.  At  a  concerted  time  an 
attack  was  made  upon  aU  the  posts  from  Detroit  to- 
Fort  Pitt  (formerly  Fort  Du  Quesne).  The  Indians 
captured  and  destroyed  eight  of  the  twelve  forts,  but 
were  unable  to  take  the  important  posts  of  Detroit  and 
Fort  Pitt,  though  Pontiac  besieged  the  former  place 
for  five  months.  The  frontiers  of  Marj'land,  Virginia, 
and  Pennsylvania  were  laid  waste,  and  terrible  havoc 
wrought  in  the  frontier  settlements.  The  English, 
surprised  by  the  first  attack,  soon  roused  themselvea 
and  met  the  danger  promptly.  The  power  of  the  tribe* 
became  broken,  and  most  of  them  sued  for  peace. 
Pontiac  retired  to  the  Illinois  country,  and  made  a 
stand  there  for  som-,  time  longer,  finallv  submitting 
in  1766. 

III.      CAUSES    OF   THE   AMEKICAU   BEVOLUTIOX. 

37.  The  addition  to  the  British  empire  of  new  prov- 
inces, equal  in  extent  to  old  kingdoms,  not  only  ex- 
cited the  jealousy  of  European  powers,  but  occasioned 
doubts  in  the  minds  of  enlightened  British  politician* 
whether  or  not  such  immense  acquisitions  of  territory 
would  conduce  to  the  I^nefit  of  the  parent  state- 
They  saw,  or  thought  they  saw,  the  seeds  of  disunion 
planted  in  the  too  widely  extended  empire.  To  com- 
bine in  one  uniform  system  of  government  the  exten- 
sive territory  then  under  British  sway.appeared  to  men 
of  reflection  a  work  of  doubtful  practicability;  nor 
were  their  conjectures  at  fault.  The  seeds  of  discord 
wore  soon  planted,  and  speedily  grew  up  to  the  rend- 
ing of  the  empire.  Tbe  high  notions  of  liberty  and  in- 
dependence which  were  nurtured  in  the  colonies  by 
their  local  situation,  and  the  state  of  society  in  the 
new  world,  were  increased  by  the  removal  of  hostile 
neighbors.  The  events  of  the  war  had  also  given  them 
some  experience  in  military  operations,  and  confidence 
in  their  own  ability.  Foreseeing  their  future  impor- 
tance from  the  rapid  increase  of  their  numbers  and 
extension  of  their  community,  and  being  extremely 
jealous  of  their  rights,  they  readily  admitted  and  in- 
dulged in  sentiments  and  ideas  which  were  favorable 
to  independence.  While  combustible  materials  were 
daily  collecting  in  the  new  world,  a  spark  to  kindle 
the  whole  was  produced  in  the  old. 

38.  In  the  first  period  of  the  settlement  of  English  PiJ^e^'"."' 
America,  the  mother  country  regarded  the  provinces  as  pntes. 
instruments  of  commerce.     She  contented  herself  with 

a  monopoly  of  their  trade  without  taking  upon  herself 
the  care  of  their  internal  policy,  or  seeking  a  revenue 
from  them.  Previous  to  the  close  of  the  war  in  1755, 
the  catalogue  of  grievances  she  imposed  upon  the 
colonists  was  undoubtedly  small.  The  following  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  chief:  An  act  of  the  British  par- 
liament forbidding  the  cutting  down  of  pitch  and  tar 
trees,  not  being  within  a  fence  or  enclosure,  and  sundry 
acts  which  operated  against  colonial  manufactures. 
By  one  of  these,  it  was  made  illegal  after  the  24th  of 
June,  1750,  to  erect  in  the  colonies  any  mill  or  other 
engine  for  slitting  or  rolling  iron,  or  any  plating  forge, 
to  work  with  a  tilt  hammer,  or  any  fnmace  for  mak- 
ing steel.  By  another,  hatters  were  restrained  from 
taking  more  than  two  apprentices  at  a  time,  or  any 
for  less  than  seven  years.  The  colonists  were  also 
prohibited  from  transporting  hats  and  home  manu- 
factured woolens  from  one  province  to  another.  These 
regulations  were,  for  the  most  part,  evaded;  but  if  car- 
ried into  execution,  would  have  been  hut  slightly  in- 
convenient, and  that  only  to  a  few.  These  restrictions, 
though  seemingly  a  species  of  affront,  and  calculated 
to  keep  the  colonists  in  a  constant  state  of  inferiority 
and  subjection,  would  have  been  overlooked  and  for- 
gotten had  not  other  grievances  been  superadded. 

39.  The  sad  story  of  colonial  oppression  began  in  the 


U  Is^  I  T  E  D     .STATES 


r.io 


I 


I 


Colonial  vear  1764.  Great  Britain  then  ailopteil  new  regulations 
"PP'**'- -^respecting  her  colonists,  which,  after  disturbing  the 
ancient  harmony  of  the  two  countries  for  about  twelve 
years,  terminated  in  the  dismemberment  of  the  em- 
pires. These  consisted  in  restricting  their  former  com- 
merce, but  more  especially  in  subjecting  them  to  taxa- 
tion by  the  British  parliament.  The  imposition  of 
duties,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  revenue  in  America, 
was  considered  as  a  dangerous  innovation,  but  the 
methods  adopted  for  securing  their  collection  were  re- 
sented as  arbitraty  and  unconstitutional.  It  was  enacted 
by  parliament,  that  whoever  was  caught  violating  the 
acts,  should  be  tried  in  the  courts  of  admiralty.  Thus 
the  defendant  in  such  a  case  was  deprived  of  the  right 
of  trial  by  jurj^,  and  subjected  to  the  necessity  of  hav- 
ing his  case  decided  upon  by  a  single  man,  a  creature 
of  the  crown,  whose  salary  was  to  be  paid  out  of  for- 
feitures adjudged  by  himself.  Moreover,  the  prose- 
cutor was  not  called  upon  to  prove  his  accusation,  so 
the  defendant  was  obliged,  either  to  evince  his  inno- 
cence or  to  suffer.  Thus  the  guards  which  the  British 
constitution  had  placed  around  property  and  the  bar- 
riers which  the  ancestors  of  both  countries  had  erected 
against  arbitrary  power,  were  thrown  down,  as  far  as 
they  concerned  the  colonists  thus  charged  with  violat- 
ing the  laws  for  raising  a  revenue  in  America. 

40.  After  the  peace  of  Paris,  1763.  the  national  debt 
of  Great  Britain  amojnted  to  nearly  150,000.000  ster- 
ling. To  aid  in  diminishing  this  heavy  debt,  the  British 
minister  conceived  the  idea  of  raising  a  substantial  rev- 
enue in  the  British  colonies,  from  taxes  imposed  by  the 
parliament  of  the  mother  country.  On  the  one  hand  it 
was  urged  that  the  late  war  had  originated  on  account 
of  the  colonies — that  it  was  reasonable,  since  it  had 
terminated  in  a  manner  so  favorable  to  their  interests, 
that  they  should  help  to  defray  the  expenses  arising 
from  it.     Thus  far  both  parties  were  agreed;  but  Eng- 

Kngii-h  ^i^d  contended  that  her  parliament,  as  the  supreme 
Theory  power,  had  the  constitutional  right  to  impose  them  on 
of  Colonial  every  part  of  the  empire.  This  theory,  plausible  in 
laxaiion.  jtgg]f_  ^jjj  j^  accordance  with  the  letter  of  the  British 
constitution,  when  all  the  dominions  were  represented 
TheCoi-  in  one  assembly,  was  denied  by  the  colonies  as  con- 
Thfory  of  'rary  to  the  spirit  of  the  same  government,  when,  on 
Taxation-  account  of  the  extension  of  the  empire,it  was  necessary 
to  have  many  distinct  representative  assemblies.  The 
colonists  believed  that  the  chief  exceUence  of  the 
British  constitution  consisted  in  the  right  of  the  subject 
to  grant  or  withhold  taxes,  and  in  their  having  a  share 
in  enacting  the  laws  by  which  they  were  to  be  bound. 
They  conceived  that  the  superiority  of  the  British  con- 
stitution to  other  forms  of  government  was.  not  be- 
cause of  the  parliament's  forming  the  supreme  council 
of  the  nation,  but  because  the  people  had  a  share  in  it 
by  appointing  members  who  constituted  one  of  its 
constituent  branches,  and  without  whose  concurrence  i 
no  law.  binding  on  them,  could  be  enacted.  In  the  | 
parent  state  it  was  asserted  to  be  essential  to  the  unity  1 
of  the  empire,  that  the  British  parliament  should  have 
the  right  of  taxation  over  every  part  of  the  royal 
dominions.  In  the  colonies  it  was  believed  that  taxa- 
tion and  representation  were  inseparable,  and  that 
they,  as  colonies,  could  neither  be  free  nor  happy  if 
their  property  could  be  taken  from  them  without  their 
consent.  The  American  people  reasoned  thus:  That  if 
the  British  parliament,  in  which  they  had  no  repre- 
sentation, were  able  to  take  any  part  of  their  property 
from  them  by  direct  taxation,  then  they  might  take 
as  much  as  they  pleased,  and  there  would  be  no 
sectirity  for  anything  that  remained  from  further 
spoliation. 

41.  The  colonists  claimed  that  they  had  the  exclusive 
right  of  laying  taxes  on  themselves,  free  from  ex- 
traneous influences,  just  as  much  as  the  British  Par- 
liament claimed  the  peculiar  privilege  of  raising  money 
independent  of  the  crown.      The  parent  state  appeareil 


to  the  colonists  to  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  ihtir 
local  legislators  as  the  monarch  of  Great  Britain  to  the 
British  Parliament.  His  perogative  is  limited  by  that 
palladium  of  the  people's  liberty,  the  exclusive  privi- 
lege of  p-ranting  their  own  money.  In  fact,  they 
claimed  that  though  subjects  of  the  King,  they  were 
not  under  the  control  of  the  British  Parliament ;  that 
if  the  King  required  money  of  the  colonies,  he  must 
obtain  it  through  colonial  legislation,  just  as  in  Eng- 
land he  would  obtain  it  through  the  British 
Parliament. 

43.  The  charters,  which  were  supposed  to  contain  the  Thedispuu 
principles  on  which  the  colonies  were  founded,  became  ahoat  the 
the  subject  of  serious  investigation  on  both  sides.  One  Charters. 
clause  was  found  to  run  through  the  whole  of  them, 
except  that  which  had  been  granted  to  William  Penn. 
This  was  a  declaration,  ' '  that  the  emigrants  to'  America 
should  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  if  they  had  re- 
mained, or  had  been  born,  within  the  realm  ; '  but  such 
was  the  subtilty  of  disputants  that  both  parties  con- 
strued this  general  principle  so  as  to  favor  their  respec- 
tive opinions.  The  American  people  contended,  that  as 
English  freeholders  could  not  be  taxed  but  by  repres- 
entatives, in  choosing  whom  they  had  a  vote,  neither 
could  the  colonists  ;  but  it  was  answered  that  if  the 
colonists  had  remained  in  England  they  must  have 
been  bound  to  pay  the  tax,is  imposed  by  Parliament. 
It  was  therefore  inferred  that,  though  taxed  by 
that  authority,  they  lost  none  of  the  rights  of  native 
Englishmen  residing  at  home.  The  advocates  of  the 
British  policy  could  see  nothing  in  charters  but  security 
against  taxes  by  royal  authority.  The  colonists,  ad- 
hering to  the  spirit  more  than  to  the  letter,  looked 
upon  their  charters  as  a  protection  against  all  taxes 
not  imposed  by  representatives  of  their  own  choice. 
The  nature  and  extent  of  the  connection  between 
Great  Britain  and  America  was  a  great  constitutional  nc/tfonba- 
question,  involving  many  interests  and  the  general  twcen 
principles  of  civil  liberty.  It  was  a  vain  attempt  to  l;^^-;\ 
decide  this  by  any  other  recourse  to  parchment  authori-  Amerka*" 
ties,  made  at  a  time  long  past,  when  neither  the  grantor 
nor  grantees  forsaw  anything  like  the  present  state 
of  the  two  countries.  It  needed  great  skill  and  tact  to 
so  manage  affairs,  that  everything  might  redound  to  the 
satisfaction  and  good  of  all  concerned  ;  to  strike  the 
middle  line  which  would  have  secured  as  much  liberty 
to  the  colonies,  and  as  great  a  degree  of  supremacy  to 
the  mother  country  as  their  common  good  required. 
But  this  skill  was  lacking  in  British  statesmanship. 
On  the  one  hand,  the  spirit  of  the  British  constitution 
was  opposed  to  the  idea  that  the  British  Parliament 
should  exercise  the  same  unlimited  authority  over  the 
unrepresented  colonies  which  it  exercised  over  the  in- 
habitants of  Great  Britain.  The  colonists,  on  the  other 
hand,  did  not  claim  a  total  exemption  from  its  authority, 
but  allowed  the  mother  country  a  certain  undefined 
prerogative  over  them ;  and  accepted  the  idea  that 
Parliament  had  a  right  to  make  any  acts  binding  them 
in  many  subjects  of  internal  policy  and  regulating  theii 
trade.  That  nice  point,  which  marked  the  end  of  par- 
liamentary authority  and  the  beginning  of  the  colonial 
independence,  was  not  ascertained.  Had  the  question 
never  been  agitated,  or  had  a  satisfactory  compromise 
been  effected,  the  American  Revolution,  undoubtedly, 
would  never  have  become  a  part  of  our  history. 

43.  ThegreatFrenchandlndianwar,  though  crowned 
with  success,  had  aroused  a  spirit  of  discontent  in  the . 
colonies.     From  the  beginning,  as  has  been  shown,  the  st?k-Uve 
commercial  policy  of  England  toward  the  colonies  had  Policy  of 
been  wholly  restricted.    "It  was  a  system  of  monopoly. "  £"=!»"<*• 
Her  navigation  laws  had  closed  their  ports  against 
foreign  vessels ;  obliged  them  to  export  their  produc- 
tions only  to  countries  belonging  to  the  British  cro-wn  ; 
to  import  European  goods  solely  from  England,  and  in 
English  ships  ;  and  hid  subjected  the  trade  between 
the  colonies  to  duties.    All  manufactures,  too,  in  the 


730 


UNITED     STATES 


The  At- 
tempt to 

CDllect 
Duties. 


The  Stamp 
Act, 


Thp  Pro- 
viHionn  of 
111'-  Stamp 

Art. 


The  oicite- 
nu-nt  prO' 
diicc'd  by 
the  jiaeHu;;*' 
•f  tlie  Act 


colonies,  that  might  interfere  with  those  of  the  mother 
country  had  been  either  totally  prohibited,  or  subjected 
to  intolerable  restraints.  The  acts  of  Parliament,  im- 
posing these  restrictions  and  prohibitions,  had  at 
various  times  caused  great  discontent  and  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  colonists,  especially  among  those  of 
New  England.  But  nothing  so  aroused  the  jealous 
sensibilities  of  the  colonists  as  any  attempts  on  the 
part  of  the  parent  state  to  raise  a  revenue  from  them 
by  taxation.  They  had  ever  maintained,  from  the 
earliest  period  of  their  establishment,  that  they  could 
only  be  taxed  by  a  legislature  in  which  they  were 
represented. 

44.  While  the  French  war  was  in  progress,  many 
projects  were  hatched  in  England  with  regard  to  the 
colonies  which  were  to  be  put  in  force  when  peace 
was  declared.  In  17G0,  an  attempt  was  made  in  Boston 
to  collect  duties  on  foreign  sugar  and  molasses  im- 
ported into  the  colonies.  Writs  of  assistance  were 
applied  for  by  customhouse  officers,  empowering  them 
to  break  open  stores,  ships  and  private  dwellings  in 
search  of  goods  that  had  paid  no  duty,  and  to  compel 
others  to  assist  them  in  carrying  out  their  odious 
measures.  The  merchants  opposed  the  writ  on  con- 
stitutional grounds.  The  question  was  brought  into 
the  courts,  where  James  Otis  argued  so  eloquently  in 
favor  of  American  rights,  that  all  who  heard  him  were 
ready  to  oppose  all  writs  of  assistance.  John  Adams, 
who  was  present,  said,  "Then  and  there  was  the  first 
scene  of  opposition  to  the  arbitrary  claims  of  Great 
Britain.  Then  and  there  American  Independence  was 
born."  la  his  speech,  Otis  used  the  words,  "Taxation 
without  representation  is  tyranny."  This  sentence 
became  a  watchword  in  America  during  the  exciting 
times  which  followed. 

45.  In  1765  Lord  Grenville,  having  previously  given 
notice  of  his  intentions  to  the  American  agents  in 
London,  introduced  into  Parliament  a  long  cherished 
scheme  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  revenue  from  the 
American  colonies  by  means  of  a  stamp  duty.  Peti- 
tions poured  in  against  it  from  the  Americans,  and  at 
first  it  met  with  strong  opposition  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  But  the  remonstrances  of  the  colonies 
could  not  change  the  avaricious  feelings  of  Parliament, 
and  the  bill  passed  by  a  large  majority.  Those  short- 
sighted legislators  did  not  foresee  that  in  the  passage 
of  an  act  so  odious  to  the  colonics,  they  were  awaken- 
ing an  opposition  and  spirit  of  independence  among 
them  which  would  materially  weaken  their  own 
power.  The  night  after  the  bill  passed  Benjamin 
Franklin,  who  was  then  in  London,  wrote  to  Mr. 
Charles  Thomson,  "The  sun  of  liberty  is  set;  you 
must  light  up  the  candles  of  industry  and  economy." 
Mr.  Thomson  answered,  "I  was  apprehensive  that 
other  lights  would  be  the  consequence,  and  I  foresee 
the  opposition  that  will  be  made." 

46.  I3y  this  act,  no  written  instrument,  such  as  com- 
mercial transactions,  marriage  licenses,  deeds,  suits  at 
law,  and  the  like,  could  be  legal,  unless  stamped  paper 
was  used,  which  the  colonists  were  compelled  to  pur- 
chase at  an  exorbitant  price  of  the  British  agents. 
Moreover,  it  contained  another  startling  provision,  and 
that  was,  that  the  colonial  legislatures  were  commanded 
to  grant  permission  to  billet  the  royal  troops  in 
America  in  inns,  alehouses,  barns,  and  vacant  houses, 
and  to  furnish  them  with  bedding,  potables,  candles, 
cooking  utensils,  etc.  As  soon  as  it  became  known 
that  the  Stamp  Act  was  passed,  the  colonies,  from  one 
end  of  the  land  to  the  other,  were  full  of  indignation. 
•Parliament  had  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  their  petitions,  and 
showed  by  the  passage  of  the  Act  a  determination  to 
treat  them,  not  as  English  citizens,  but  as  servants  and 
slaves.  Parliament,  they  said,  might  make  laws  to 
regulate  the  commerce  of  the  empire,  and  so  draw  a 
revenue  from  America,  but  it  had  no  right  to  levy  a 
direct  tax  like  this.     Only  the  coloniel  government. 


elected  by  the  people,  could  do  such  a  thing.  They 
must  either  surrender  without  a  struggle  their  liberty, 
or  oppose  strongly  and  firmly  the  grasping  avarice  of  a 
nation,  the  most  powerful  in  the  world, 

47.  They  were  not  long  in  making  up  their  decision 
and  proclaiming  it  to  the  world.  The  legislature  of 
Virginia  was  in  session  when  the  news  arrived.  Patrick  patricv 
Henry,  then  a  young  man,  but  possessed  of  brilliant  Henry. 
talents,  opposed  it  with  all  the  energy  of  his  great 
mind.  He  brought  before  the  house  five  resolutions 
which  were  adopted,  and  which  closed  by  declaring, 
"That  any  person,  who,  by  speaking  or  acting,  should 
assert  or  maintain  that  any  class  of  men  except  the 
general  assembly  of  the  province,  had  a  right  to  im- 
pose taxation,  he  should  be  considered  an  enemy  to  his 
majesty's  colony."    In   advocating  these  resolutions, 

he  boldly  denounced  the  policy  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, and  declared  that  the  king  had  acted  the  part  of 
the  tyrant.  Warming  up  with  his  subject,  and  >illud- 
ing  to  the  fate  of  other  tyrants,  he  exclaimed  with 
flashing  eyes  and  in  thunder  tones.  "Ccesar  haA  bis 
Brutus,  Charles  I  his  Cromwell,  and  George  III " — 
"Treason!  treason!"  arose  from  every  part  of  the 
house.  Pausing  a  raoment  until  the  tumult  had  sub- 
sided, he  added,  "may  profit  by  their  example.  If 
this  is  treason  make  the  most  of  it."  Similar  senti- 
ments flew  like  lightning  through  the  other  colonies. 
The  tongues  and  pens  of  the  citizens  labored  to  kindle 
the  latent  sparks  of  patriotism.  The  press  strongly 
Opposed  the  innovation  and  called  upon  the  citizens  to 
resist  it. 

48.  The  expediency  of  calling  a  continental  congress.  The  Contt- 
to  be  composed  of  deputies  from  each  of  the  provinces,  nentaj  Con* 
had  early  occurred  to  Massachusetts.     So  the  assembly  ^^^''• 

of  that  province  fixed  on  New  York  as  the  place,  and 
the  second  Tuesday  of  October,  1765,  as  the  time  for 
holding  the  congress,  and  invited  all  the  other  colonies 
to  send  delegates  to  the  same.  Nine'colonies  took  part 
in  it,  and  sent  their  most  distinguished  men.  For  the 
first  time  the  whole  country  had  a  common  cause,  and 
there  was  need  that  the  people  should  consult  together. 
This  congress  drew  up  a  declaration  of  their  rights  and 
a  statement  of  their  grievances.  They  asserted  in 
strong  terms  their  exemption  from  all  taxes  not  im- 
posed by  their  own  representatives.  They  also  con- 
curred in  a  petition  to  the  king,  a  memorial  to  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  a  petition  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. The  colonies  that  were  prevented  from  sending 
their  delegates,  forwarded  petitions,  similar  to  those 
which  were  adopted  by  the  deputies  who  attended. 

49.  On  the  Ist  of  November,  the  day  on  which  the 
Stamp  Act  was  to  go  into  operation,  the  bells  were 
tolled,  and  the  flags  hung  at  half  mast,  as  if  for  the 
"funeral  of  liberty."  The  courts  were  closed;  busi- 
ness was  suspended.  The  houses  of  the  British  oflicials 
were  attacked  by  mobs,  and  the  effigies  of  the  planners 
of  the  Act  were  carried  about  the  streets  in  public 
derision  and  then  burned,  or  torn  in  pieces  by  the 
enraged  populace.  In  different  parts  of  the  country 
the  stamp- masters  were  compelled  to  resign  their 
offices  to  prevent  being  mobbed.  The  Stamp  Act  was 
so  formed  that  the  penalty  of  disobedience  would  be 
no  less  than  the  suspension  of  the  whole  machinery  of 
the  political  and  social  order,  and  the  creation  of  a 
state  of  anarchy.  Neither  trade  nor  navigation  could 
proceed,  no  contract  could  be  legally  made,  no  process 
against  an  offender  could  be  instituted,  no  student 
could  receive  a  diploma,  nor  even  could  the  estates  of 
the  dead  be  legally  settled,  or  the  marriage  ceremony 
performed,  until  the  stamp  duty  was  paid.  By  degrees, 
however,  things  began  to  assume  their  usual  course, 
and  all  kinds  of  business  was  transacted  in  open 
defiance  of  the  Act. 

50.  Associations,  under  the  title  of  the  "Sons  ofSoneof 
Liberty,"  were  formed  in  every  part  of  the  country.  Liberty. 
They  denounced  the  Stamp  Act  "as  being  an  outrage  on 


r  X  I  T  E  ])     STATES 


isi 


Tbe  Effect 
in  England 


Repeal  of 
the  Stamp 
Act 


How  the 
Newg  was 
Received. 


I 


A  new 
Scheme  of 
Tasfltion. 


Tbe  Seiz- 
ore  of  Han 
cwk's 
Sloop 


the  British  constitution,  and  resolved  that  they  would 
defend  those  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  British  tyr- 
anny, on  account  of  their  clinging  to  their  rights  as 
freemen.  Merchants  resolved  to  import  no  more  goods 
from  Great  Britain  until  the  act  was  repealed,  and  the 
people  generally  denied  themselves  the  use  of  foreign 
luxuries.  No  one  would  venture  to  carry  the  Stamp 
Act  in*o  execution;  in  fact,  no  stamped  paper  was  to 
be  seen;  all  had  been  either  destroyed  or  concealed. 

51.  The  information  of  tbe  violent  proceedings  of  the 
colonies  was  received  in  England  with  consternation. 
A  small  party  in  Parliament  upheld  the  colonies.  In 
the  House  of  Commons  William  Pitt  uttered  the  mem- 
orable words:  ■■'We  are  told  that  America  is  obstinate 
— America  is  in  open  rebellion.  Sir,  I  rejoice  that 
Amr-rica  has  resetted .'  Three  millions  of  people  so  dead 
to  all  the  feelings  of  liberty  as  voluntarily  to  submit  to 
be  slaves  would  have  been  fit  instruments  to  make 
slaves  of  all  the  rest."  In  the  meantime  Lord  Gren- 
ville  had  been  dismissed,  and  the  Marquis  of  Rocking- 
h  tro.  a  friend  of  the  Americans,  appointed  in  his  place. 
Under  his  administration  the  obnoxious  Stamp  Act  was 
lepealed  March  18,  1766,  for  the  English  government 
8\w  that  it  was  impossible  to  enforce  it.  At  the  same 
time.  Parliament  took  care  to  say  that  it  "had  a  right 
to  bind  the  colonies  in  ell  cistS  whateter." 

52.  The  news  of  the  repeal  was  received  with  the 
liveliest  expressions  of  joy  and  gratitude.  Public 
thanksgivings  were  held,  English  goods  imported  and 
a  general  calm  succeeded  the  storm  which  had  raged 
so  violently.  By  the  people  of  New  England  and  New 
York  less  joy  was  felt.  They  feared,  from  the  passage 
of  the  declaratory  act,  that  this  was  only  a  truce  in  the 
war  against  American  rights.  In  the  mirror  of  the 
past  they  saw  reflected  the  future,  and  trembled  at  the 
picture.  Nor  were  their  suspicions  unfounded. 
Scarcely  had  the  excitement  over  the  Stamp  Act  died 
out,  when  other  causes  of  complaint  arose.  In  June, 
1767,  Charles  Townsend,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
brought  into  Parliament  a  bill  imposing  duties  in  the 
British  colonies  on  glass,  paper,  painters'  colors  and 
tea,  which  became  a  law.  Another  law  was  also  en- 
acted, appointing  oflScers  of  the  navy  as  custom-house 
ofiBcers,  to  enforce  the  act  of  trade  and  navigation. 
Previous  to  this  new  act  of  tyranny,  the  legislative 
power  of  New  York  had  been  suspended,  until  it 
Bhould  furnish  the  king's  troops  with  certain  supplies 
»t  the  expense  of  the  colony. 

53.  Early  in  1768  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts 
sent  a  petition  to  the  king,  and  addressed  circular  let- 
ters to  the  colonial  assemblies,  asking  their  co-opera- 
tion in  obtaining  the  redress  of  their  grievances.  The 
British  ministry  were  alarmed  and  demanded  of  the 
court  that  they  should  rescind  the  vote  directing  circu- 
lars to  be  sent.  The  assembly  refused,  and  the  gov- 
ernor dissolved  it.  This  attempt  to  intimidate  only 
served  to  strengthen  the  opposition.  Shortly  after 
this  Mr.  Hancock's  sloop  Liberty  was  seized  for  not 
having  entered  all  the  wines  brought  from  Madeira. 
This  act  of  the  custom-house  officers  was  resented  by 
the  people.  The  houses  of  the  officials  were  attacked, 
and  they  were  compelled  to  seek  safety  in  flight.  The 
refractory  spirit  of  the  citizens  of  Boston  had  been  dis- 
played on  so  many  occasions  that  General  Gage  was 
directed  to  station  one  or  more  regiments  there  to  over- 
awe the  citizens  and  protect  the  officers  in  the  dis- 
charge of  their  duties.  Two  regiments  were  accord- 
ingly ordered  from  Halifax,  who  took  possession  of  the 
state  house,  and  planted  two  pieces  of  cannon  at  the 
principal  entrance.  All  this  only  tended  to  increase 
the  general  indignation. 

54.  Early  in  the  year  1769  Parliament  passed  resolu- 
tions censuring  the  conduct  of  the  citizens  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  directing  the  governor  to  make  strict  in- 
quiries as  to  all  treasons  committed  in  that  province 
since  the  year  1767,  that  the  offenders  might  Kj  sent  to 


England  for  trial.  The  legislature  of  Virginia,  on  the 
receipt  of  that  order,  passed  resolutions  denying  the 
right  of  the  king  to  remove  an  offender  out  of  the  col- 
ony— away  from  his  home  and  friends — for  trial.  The 
governor,  on  hearing  of  the  resolutions,  immediately 
dismissed  the  assembly.  The  members  met  at  a  private 
house,  and  entered  into  a  written  agreement  not  to  im- 
port any  of  the  taxed  articles.  Their  example  was  ex- 
tensively followed.  The  assemby  of  Massachusetts 
convened,  but  refused  to  proceed  to  business  while 
armed  troops  surrounded  the  stat«  house.  The  gov- 
ernor refused  to  remove  them,  and  the  assembly  ad- 
journed to  Cambridge.  Toward  the  close  of  the  sea- 
son the  governor  requested  them  to  provide  funds  to 
pay  for  the  quartering  of  the  troops,  but  they  refused, 
declaring  that  they  would  never  make  any  provisions 
to  support  a  standing  army  among  them  in  times  of 
peace.  The  governor,  therefore,  prorogued  the  assem- 
bly. 

55.  The  presence   of  the  soldiers   in   Boston  was  a  '"'"'  Boston 
constant  cause  of  irritation,  and  the  citizens  had  many  '  ^^^"^"^ 
quarrels  with  them.      At  length   on   March  5,  1770,  a 
serious   collision  occurred  between   the  troops  and  a 

mob,  and  the  soldiers  fired,  killing  five  of  the  crowd, 
and  mortally  wounding  two  others.  The  reports  of 
..his  Boston  massacre,  as  it  was  called,  were  greatly 
exaggerated,  and  filled  the  country  with  excitement. 
The  citizens  assembled  in  crowds,  and  could  only  be 
dispersed  by  the  governor  promising  them  that  justice 
should  be  done.  The  troops  were  removed  from  the 
city,  and  Captain  Preston,  who  ordered  the  firing,  and 
his  men  tried  for  murder.  Although  the  excitement 
was  intense,  yet  such  was  the  love  of  justice  that  the 
soldiers,  who  were  defended  by  John  Adams  and  Josiah 
Quincy,  were  all  acquitted  except  two,  who  were  con- 
victed of  manslaughter. 

56.  In  England,  on  the  very  day  of  the  outrage  in 
Boston,  Lord  North  was  called  to  the  British  Ministry. 

He  introduced  a  bill  into  Parliament  which  passed  Lord 
on  April  13,  removing  the  duties  that  had  been  '•!idg°["''' 
in  1767,  excepting  that  on  tea,  but  still  declaring  their 
right  of  taxing  the  colonies.  For  a  long  time  no  tea 
had  been  imported,  and  the  effect  had  begun  to  be 
severely  felt  by  the  British  merchants.  By  an  act  of 
Parliament,  therefore,  the  East  India  company  were 
allowed  to  import  their  teas  into  America  free  of  duty 
in  England.  The  naked  question  of  the  principle 
regarding  taxation  was  thus  presented.  The  scheme 
was  an  insidious  one,  but  it  failed  most  completely. 
Lord  North  supposed  that  by  reducing  the  tax  on  tea 
to  three  pence  a  pound,  the  Americans  would  buy 
largely,  thus  relieving  the  East  India  company,  who 
had  large  quantities  of  tea  stored  up  in  its  English 
warehouses.  Tea  was  accordingly  shipped  from  Eng- 
land in  great  quantities  to  various  parts  of  the  colonies. 
This  brought  matters  to  a  crisis.  One  sentiment  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  whole  continent.  Taxation  was 
to  receive  its  final  blow.  Whoever  submitted  to  it  was 
an  enemy  to  his  country.  From  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia the  ships  were  sent  back,  with  their  cargoes,  to 
London.  In  Charleston  the  tea  was  landed,  but  not 
permitted  to  be  sold,  and  being  stored  in  damp  cellars, 
finally  perished.  Still  more  decisive  action  was  taken 
in  Boston.  The  ships  anchored  in  the  harbor.  Some 
small  parcels  of  tea  were  brought  on  shore,  but  the  sale 
of  them  was  prohibited.  The  captains  of  the  vessels 
would  have  made  sail  back  to  England,  but  they  could 
not  obtain  the  consent  of  the  consignees,  a  clearance  at 
the  custom  house,  or  a  passport  from  the  Governor  to 
clear  the  port.  To  settle  the  matter  completely,  a  com- 
pany of  men  disguised  as  Indians  went  on  board  the  Destmc- 
ships  during  the  night  and  threw  the  cargoes  into  the  ","2^tM^ 
water.  Three  hundred  and  forty-two  chests  were  thus^ 
broken  open  and  the  contents  thrown  into  the  harbor 
(December  16.  1773). 

57.  When  the  news  of  this  affair  reached  England, 


738 


UNITED      STATES 


The  EostoD Parliament,  in  order  to  punisii  the  inhabitants  of  Bos- 
Port  Uiu.    jjjjj   passed  the  Boston  Port  Bill  in  1774,  which  pre- 
vented the  lading  and  unlading  of  goods,  wares  and 
merchandise  in  that  town  and  harbor  on  and  after  June 
1. 1774,  and  the  seat  of  government  was  to  be  transferred 
to  Salem.     But  the  people  of  Salem  refused  to  build 
their  fortunes  on  the  ruins  of  their  countrymen,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  Marblehead  generously  offered  the 
Boston  people  the  use  of  their  warehouses  and  harbor, 
otiicr  Ty-    In  the  following  March,  two  other  bills,  equally  tyran- 
Bi'n"'  "'      nical,  passed  both  houses  of  Parliament.    One  subverted 
the  whole  constitution  and  charter  of  Massachusetts, 
taking  all  power  out  of  the  hands  of  the  people  and 
vesting  it  in  the  crown.     The  other  authorized  the  gov- 
ernor to  send  any  person  indicted  for  murder  or  other 
capital  offence  committed  in  aiding  the  magistracy,  to 
England  or  some  other  colony  for  trial. 
Popular  58,  These  laws,  which  were  gross  violations  of  the 

A2itai,.in.  ^;g)j(_g  ^nd  charters  of  the  colonies,  excited  the  deepest 
indignation  everywhere  in  America.  The  people  of 
Boston, reduced  to  distress  bj'  the  stoppage  of  their  trade, 
were  regarded  as  martyrs  of  liberty,  and  contributions 
were  made  for  their  relief,  not  only  in  the  thirteen  col- 
onies, but  even  in  London  and  Quebec.  In  Boston 
itself,  although  patriotic  meetings  were  held  almost 
daily  in  Faneuil  Hall  and  the  Old  South  Church,  all 
disorderly  and  unconstitutional  proceedings  were 
avoided,  so  that  nothing  was  done  for  which  the  British 
authorities  could  punish  the  people.  The  friends  of 
the  crown  about  this  time  became  known  as  Tories, 
and  the  popular  party  as  Whigs.  The  Quebec  Act, 
which  was  passed  among  the  other  acts  just  mentioned, 
extended  the  boundaries  of  Canada  over  the  whole  ter- 
ritory situated  north  of  the  Ohio,  and  east  of  the 
Mississippi.  This  was  done  to  prevent  Canada  from 
joining  the  rebellious  colonies.  The  colonies  warmly 
protested  against  this  concession  to  liberty  of  con- 
science, for  the  Act  sanctioned  throughout  the  province 
the  free  exercise  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and 
confirmed  to  the  clergy  of  that  profession  their  accus- 
tumed  dues  and  rights,  thus  practically  establishing  the 
Roman  Catholic  system  in  the  new  territory.  To  such 
freedom  the  colonists  were  on  principle  opposed  at  the 
time,  though  somewhat  later  they  found  it  expedient  to 
adopt  nearly  the  same  policy,  and  to  promote  a  closer 
union  among  themselves  by  juster  treatment  of  their 
Roman  Catholic  brethren. 

59.  Committees  of  correspondence  had  already  been 
formed  at  the  suggestion  of  Patrick  Henry,  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Richard  Henry  Lee  and  other  Virginians,  and 
by  this  means  the  colonies  took  counsel  together  for 
the  common  defense.  In  May,  1774,  proposals  were 
made  by  the  assemblies  of  several  of  the  provinces  for 
a  general  congress  of  delegates.  The  scheme  was 
taken  up  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  on  September  5, 
1774,  an  assembly  of  fifty-five  delegates,  representing 
all  the  colonies  except  Georgia,  met  in  Philadelphia, 
,  under  the  presidency  of  Peyton  Randolph,  of  Virginia. 
The  old  This  was  the  first  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  "old" 
ConiiiMiitalcontiuental  congress.  The  action  of  this  body  was  still 
CoDEn  ^a.  mainly  deliberative.  They  passed  a  resolution  highly 
commending  the  conduct  of  Massachusetts  in  the  con- 
flict with  the  wicked  ministers,  and  exhorted  all  to  press 
on  in  the  cause  of  liberty.  They  drew  up  a  bill  of 
rights,  entered  into  an  agreement  for  themselves  and 
for  all  their  constituents  to  cease  all  importations  from 
Great  Britain,  and  adopted  measures  for  organizing 
committees  in  every  town  and  city  to  see  that  this 
agreement  was  enforced  by  every  species  of  popular 
nflucnce.  They  also  voted  an  address  to  the  king,  one 
to  the  people  of  Great  Britain  and  another  to  Canada. 
Their  petition  to  the  king  entreated  him,  in  eloquence 
the  most  affectionate  and  respectful,  to  restore  to  them 
their  violated  rights — their  rights  as  English  freemen. 
Provision  was  then  made  for  another  congress  to  meet 
in  the  following  May,  unless  the  grievances  should 


meanwhile  be  redressed.  When  the  proceedings  of 
Congress  were  published  in  England,  Pit'  (now  Lord 
Chatham)  said;  "For  solidity  of  reason,  force  of  saga-  Pitfs 
city  and  wisdom  of  conclusion  under  a  complication  of  opinion, 
difficult  circumstances  no  nation  or  body  of  men  can 
stand  in  preference  to  the  general  congress  at  Phila- 
delphia. The  histories  of  Greece  and  Rome  give  us 
nothing  equal  to  it,  and  all  attempts  to  impose  servitude 
upon  such  a  mighty  continental  nation  must  be  in 
vain." 

60.  These  resolutions  of  the  Continental  Congress 
aroused  the  indignation  of  the  British  government. 
America,  they  said,  had  long  wished  to  become  inde- 
pendent, and  to  prevent  this  was  the  duty  of  every 
Englishman,  and  that  it  must  be  done  at  every  hazard. 

In  the  meantime,  the  situation  of  affairs  in  Massachu-The  Peopte 
.setts  became  alarming.  The  people  collected  arms,  en-  Tak^-  Arms 
rolled  themselves  into  companies  and  prepared  to  *.urE 
out  at  a  moment's  notice,  from  which  circumstance  they 
were  called  "minute  men.''  Public  speakeis  and  writ- 
ers boldly  defended  the  right  of  th-;  people  to  with- 
stand oppression.  Royal  officers  were  forced  to  resign. 
General  Gage  began  to  fortify  Boston  Neck,  and  the 
powder  and  other  military  stores  in  Cambridge  and 
Charleston  were,  by  his  order,  removed  to  Boston.  He 
had  about  4,000  troops  under  him,  and  sent  home  a  re- 
quest for  20,000  more.  An  assembly  was  called  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, but  dissolved  by  the  governor.  The  mem- 
bers then  met  in  Salem,  appointed  a  committee  of 
safety  and  sent  messengers  to  New  Hampshire,  Rhode 
Island  and  Connecticut,  asking  for  their  assistance  in 
raising  an  army  of  30,000  men  to  act  in  any  emergency. 
England,  although  she  could  distinctly  see  the  upheav- 
ing of  the  violence  of  colonial  indignation,  shut  her 
eyes  to  the  sight.  Chatham,  Burke,  Fox,  Barri  and 
other  enlightened  statesmen  in  Parliament  urged  the 
government  to  recede  from  its  untenable  position,  but 
the  obstinacy  of  the  King  prevented  any  conciliation; 
it  was  resolved  that  America  was  in  rebellion  and  must 
be  subdued;  and  so  the  revolution  began. 

61.  It  was  a  fortunate  circumstance  for  the  colonies 
that  the  royal-  army  was  posted  in  New  England. 
The  people  of  that  northerncountry  have  their  passious 
more  under  the  command  of  reason  and  interest  than 
in  a  southern  climate.  One  rash,  offensive  action 
against  the  royal  forces  at  this  early  period,  though 
successful,  might  have  worked  great  mischief  to  the 
American  cause.  It  would  have  lost  them  European 
friends  and  weakened  the  disposition  of  the  other  col- 
onies to  assist  them.  The  patient  and  the  politic  New  Ccmduct  <rf 
England  men.  fully  sensible  of  their  situation,  submit-  the  People, 
ted  to  many  insults  and  restrained  their  feelings  of  re- 
sentment.    In  civil  wars  or  revolutions  it  is  a  matter  of 

much  consequence  who  strikes  the  first  blow.  The 
compassion  of  the  world  is  nearly  always  in  favor  of 
the  attacked.  For  the  space  of  nine  months  after  the 
arrival  of  General  Gage  the  behavior  of  the  people  of 
Boston  is  particularly  worthy  of  imitation  by  those  who 
wish  to  overturn  established  governments.  They  con- 
ducted their  opposition  with  exquisite  address.  They 
avoided  every  kind  of  outrage  and  violence,  preserved 
peace  and  good  order  among  themselves,  successfully 
engaged  the  other  colonies  to  make  common  cause  with 
them  and  counteracted  General  Gage  so  effectually  as 
to  prevent  his  doing  anything  for  his  royal  master, 
while  by  patience  and  moderation  they  protected  them- 
selves from  just  censure.  Though  resolved  to  bear  as 
long  as  prudence  and  policy  dictated,  they  were  all  the 
time  preparing  for  the  last  extremity  by  furnishing 
themselves  with  arms  and  training  their  militia. 

63.  Provisions  had  also  been  collected  and  stored  in  The  Begin- 
different  places,  particularly  at  Concord,  about  twenty  5Jns^o"i'e 
miles  from  Boston.     General  Gage  sent  out  a  detach-  ^  "^^^  *' 
ment  of  800    men,   under    the  command  of  Colonel 
Smith  and    Major  Pitcairn,    to  destroy   these  stores. 
Notwithstanding  the  precautions  taken  to  prevent  the 


{ 


UNITED     STATES 


TbO 


I 


spread  of  the  intelligence,  the  march  of  the  troops  had 
been  well  made  known  by  expresses  and  signal  guns. 
Thus,  when  the  British  troops,  early  in  the  morning  of 
the  1-ith  of  April,  1775,  reached  Lexington,  two-thirds 
of  the  way  to  Concord,  they  found  a  small  body  of 
Americans,  under  Captain  Parker,  drawn  up  on  the 
common  to  dispute  the  way.  Captain  Parker  had 
given  orders  not  to  fire  unless  fired  upon.  The  British 
troops  rushed  upon  them,  firing  and  calling  upon  them 
Leiinstor.  to  disperse.  Eight  of  the  Americans  were  killed  and 
coni^°°  and  several  more  wounded.  The  little  band  of  patriots 
slowly  retreated,  returning  the  fire  as  they  went,  and 
the  British  kept  on  to  Concord,  where  they  destroyed 
a  few  stores.  At  a  bridge  near  the  village  they  encoun- 
tered 400  Americans,  hastily  collected  from  the  neigh- 
boring towns,  and  were  so  warmly  received  that  they 
began  a  hasty  retreat.  The  militia  pressed  them  on  all 
sides;  the  retreat  became  a  rout,  and  when  the  British 
were  at  last  rescued  by  the  arrival  of  Lord  Percy  with 
reinforcements,  they  had  lost  273  men.  They  continued 
their  retreat  under  Percy,  bearing  their  dead  and 
wounded  with  them.  All  the  way,  from  behind  stone 
walls,  fences  and  farmhouses,  the  angry  farmers  galled 
them  with  shot.  They  did  not  desist  until  the  troops 
had  crossed  Charlestown  Neck  and  were  safe  under  the 
guns  of  the  British  vessels. 

63.  As  arms  were  to  decide  the  controversy,  it  was 
another  fortunate  circumstance  fur  the  Americans  that 
the  first  blood  was  drawn  in  Kew  England.  The  inhab- 
itants of  that  country  were  so  connected  with  each 
other  by  descent,  manners,  religion,  politics  and  a  gen- 
eral equality,  that  the  killing  of  a  single  individual  in- 
terested the  whole  people  and  made  them  consider  it  a 
common  cause.  The  blood  of  those  who  were  killed  at 
Lexington  and  Concord  proved  to  be  the  firm  cement 
of  an  extensive  union.  Intelligence  of  these  events 
spread  like  wild  fire  throughout  the  couutrj';  the  torch 
of  war  had  been  lighted,  blood  had  been  offered  on  the 
altar  of  liberty,  fearfully  was  the  death  of  those  patri- 
ots slain  at  Lexington  and  Concord  to  be  avenged. 
Couriers  galloped  in  every  direction,  beating  a  drum, 
and  shouting  in  tones  that  thrilled  every  listening  ear, 
"To  arms,  to  arms!  liberty  or  death."  The  streets  of 
Lexington  and  Concord  had  been  soaked  in  blood,  and 
the  whole  country  was  in  a  blaze  of  wrath.  But  amidst 
the  intense  excitement  which  prevailed,  the  still  thor- 
oughly English  characteristics  of  the  people  mani- 
fested themselves.  The  provmcial  congress  of  Massa- 
chussetls,  which  was  in  session  at  the  time  of  the  fight, 
dispatched  an  account  of  it  to  Great  Britain,  accom- 
panied with  many  depositions  to  prove  that  the  British 
were  the  aggressors.  They  also  made  an  address  to  the 
people  of  Great  Britain,  in  which,  after  complaining 
of  their  sufferings,  they  said:  "  These  have  not  yet  de- 
tached us  from  our  royal  sovereign;  we  profess  to  be 
dutiful  and  loyal  subjects,  and  though  hardly  dealt 
with  as  we  have  been,  are  still  ready  wiih  our  lives 
and  fortunes  to  defend  his  person,  crown  and  dignity. 
Nevertheless,  to  the  persecution  and  tyranny  of  his 
evil  ministry,  we  will  not  tamely  submit."  From  this 
commencement  of  hostilities,  the  dispute  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  colonists  took  a  new  direction. 

64.  Up  to  this  time  no  party  in  America  had  thought 
of  a  separation  from  the  mother  country,  but  now  the 
colonists  were  aflame  with  the  spirit  of  independence. 

Thj! Gather-Mechanics  left  their  shops,  and  farmers  the  plow,  and 
hurried  to  the  scene  of  conflict.  In  the  course  of  one 
or  two  days  the  king's  army  found  itself  besieged  in 
Boston  by  an  irregular  and  ill-furnished,  but  large  and 
determined  body  of  men  who  matched  to  the  scene  of 
action  from  all  parts  of  New  England.  The  provincial 
congress  of  Massachussetts  came  together  under  the 
presidency  of  Dr.  Joseph  Warren,  voted  to  raise  18,000 
men,  and  invited  the  other  New  England  colonists  to 
make  up  the  army  to  30,000.  In  a  few  days  a  line  of 
encampment  stretched  from  Roxbury  to  the  river  Mys- 


Troops, 


tic,  and  the  British  forces  in  Boston  were  environed  by 
an  army  of  20,000  soldiers.  Benedict  Arnold  gath- 
ered about  him  a  band  of  voLmteers.  and  rushed  to 
Boston.  Here  he  formed  the  bold  plan  of  seizing 
the  important  fortresses  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point. 

65.  Having  received  instructions  from  the  committee 
of  safety  to  raise  a  sutticient  number  of  men  for  the 
purpose,  he  marched  to  Bennington,  where  he  found 
that  Colonel  Ethan  Allen  had  collected  a  large  band 
for  the  same  object.  They  marched  on  together  at  t'je 
head  of  three  hundred  men,  and  reached  Ticonderoga 
on  the  10th  of  May,  1775.  Advancing  to  the  gateway. 
Arnold  and  Allen  entering  side  by  side,  Allen  rushed  captarc  of 
to  the  governor's  room  and  demanded  his  surrender.  Ticonder- 
"In  whose  name?"  stammered   the  terrified  governor  rf^J,^!)'* 

"  In  the  name,"  said  Allen,  "of  the  Great  Jehovah  find  point. 
the  Continental  Congress."  This  was  high  authority. 
and  the  governor  immediately  surrendered.  They  were 
equally  successful  in  obtaining  Crown  Point.  By  this 
fortunate  expedition  they  gained  possession  of  two 
important  fortresses,  and  gave  the  American  troops 
about  Boston  a  much-needed  supply  of  arms  and  am- 
munition. 

66.  The  second   Continental  Congress  met  at  Phila- 'The  Second 
delphia.  May  10.  the  day  of  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga.  Con^iaentai 
Peyton  Randolph  was  at  first  the   president,  but  John 
Hancock  soon  succeeded  him  in  that  position.     Wash- 
ington, Jefferson, Franklin, the  Adamses, Patrick  Henry 

and  R.  H.  Lee,  vpere  members.  The  Congress  was 
moderate,  and  asked  only  for  a  redress  of  grievances, 
not  for  independence;  but  it  took  active  measures  for 
carrying  on  the  war.  It  formed  a  federal  union,  as- 
sumed the  general  authority  of  government,  issued 
bills  of  credit  to  the  amount  of  three  millions  of  dollars 
for  defraying  the  military  expenses,  and  pledged  the 
faith  of  the  United  Colonies  for  their  redemption. 

TV. — THE   W.\R   FOR  INDEPENDENCE,  1775-83. 

67.  In  May,  1775,  the  British  army  in  Boston  re- 
ceived reinforcements  from  England,  under  Generals 
Howe,  Clinton  and  Burgoyne,  which,  together  with 
the  garrison,  formed  an  army  of  more  than  twelve 
thousand  men.  The  Americans  comprised  a  number 
of  independent  commands  under  Generals  Artemus 
Ward,  of  Massachussetts;  Israel  Putnam,  of  Connecti- 
cut; Nathanael  Green,  of  Rhode  Island,  and  other 
states,  General  Ward  being  recognized  as  chief.  The 
whole  number  of  men  was  about  sixteen  thousand. 
Upon  the  arrival  of  the  English  reinforcements,  Gen- 
eral Gage  now  proclaimed  martial  law  throughout  the 
state,  offering  pardon,  however,  to  all  rebels  who 
would  return  to  their  allegiances,  excepting  Samuel 
Adams  and  John  Hancock.  The  Americans,  learning 
that  General  Gage  was  determined  to  penetrate  into  the 
country  bj'  the  way  of  Charlestown  Neck,  issued  orders 
to  Colonel  Prescott,  on  the  evening  of  the  l6th  of  .June, 
to  take  one  thousand  men  and  form  an  intrenchment 
on  Bunkers  Hill,  an  eminence  which  commanded  the 
neck  of  the  Charlestown  peninsula.  By  some  mistake 
they  went  further  on,  and  occupied  Breed's  Hill.  Al 
midnight  those  stern  hearted  men  stood  on  the  top 
while  Putnam  marked  out  the  line  of  entrenchments 
By  daylight  they  had  thrown  up  a  redoubt  eight  rods 
square,  in  which  they  could  shelter  themselves.  In  the 
morning  the  English  otBcers  and  the  people  of  Boston 
could  hardly  believe  their  eyes  as  they  saw  this  ledoubt 
almost  over  their  heads.  The  patriots  on  the  hill  were 
first  seen  from  the  ships,  which  immediately  opened 
fire.  All  the  artillery  of  the  city  and  the  floating  bat- 
tery were  pointed  against  that  single,  silent  structure. 
Still  those  hardy  heroes  toiled  on  amid  the  storm  of 
shot  and  shell  which  fell  among  them,  until  by  noon 
they  had  run  a  trench  nearly  down  to  the  Mystic  river 
on  the  north;  then  laying  down  their  picks  and  shovels 


740 


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they  took  up  their  muskets,  and  prepared  themselves 
for  the  coming  attack. 
Battle  of  68.  The  cannonading  having  failed  to  dislodge  the 
»»D«k(-rHnl  Americans,  about  noon  Gage  sent  abody  of  about  three 
thousand  men,  under  Howe  and  Pigot  to  carry  the 
height  by  assault.  Having  crossed  the  Charles  river 
from  Boston  in  boats,  they  advanced  up  the  hill  under 
cover  of  fire  from  the  ships  and  batteries.  The  pro- 
vincials stood  firm.  "Don't  one  of  you  fire,"  was  the 
command  of  Putnam,  "till  you  see  the  whites  of  their 
eyes."  The  English  advanced,  stopping  every  few 
yards,  to  deliver  their  deep  and  regular  volleys  against 
the  intrenchment;  but  not  a  shot  replied.  That  silence 
was  more  awful  than  the  thunder  of  cannon.  When 
the  hostile  columns  had  almost  reached  the  works,  the 
stern  order  '•Fire!"  rang  with  starling  clearness  on  the 
air.  Suddenly  a  sheet  of  flame  burst  from  that  low, 
dark  wall,  and  down  went  the  enemy  rank  b}'  rank. 
Their  lines  wavired,  then  broke,  and  the  troops  fell 
l)ack  in  disordev  to  the  landing  place.  There  they 
Tallied,  and  soon  moved  forward  again  to  the  charge, 
and  again  were  driven  back  by  the  steady  fire  of  the 
•colonists.  At  this  critical  moment  General  Clinton 
arrived  with  reinforcements.  By  his  exertions  the 
troops  were  again  rallied,  and  a  third  time  advanced  to 
the  charge.  Throwing  aside  their  knapsacks  and 
reserving  their  fire,  the  soldiers,  with  fixed  bayonets, 
inarched  swiftly  and  steadily  over  the  heaps  of  their 
fallen  comrades,  up  to  the  intrenchments.  Only  one 
volley  struck  them,  for  the  Americans  had  fired  their 
last  rounds  of  ammunition,  and  were  without  bayonets. 
Clubbing  their  muskets,  they  still  beat  back  the  enemy, 
until  the  order  was  given  to  retreat,  when  they  retired 
slowly  and  made  good  their  way  over  Charlestown 
Neck.  At  the  beginning  of  the  retreat  the  brave  Gen- 
eral Warren  was  killed.  The  Am(;ricans  lost  449  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  while  the  British  loss 
was  nearly  L.'JOO.  The  result  of  the  battle  was  encour- 
aging to  the  provincials.  It  give  them  confidence  in 
tiiemselves,  and  consequence  in  the  eyes  of  their 
enemies.  They  had  proved  to  themselves  and  others 
that  they  could  measure  weapons  vith  the  disciplined 
troops  of  Europe,  and  inflict  the  most  harm  in  the  con- 
flict. This  dear  bought  victory,  won  only  through  the 
exhaustion  of  the  American's  powder,  was  so  little  sat- 
isfactory to  the  British  Government  that  General  Gage 
was  supeiseded  by  General  Howe.  This  engagement, 
known  as  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  was  the  first  real 
battle  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 
Waehlii"-  69.  In  the  meantime.  Congress  on  the  15th  of  June, 
ton  ap- "  at  Philadelphia,  elected  George  Washington,  by  a 
Eomraand  unanimous  vote,  to  the  high  ofllce  of  commander-in- 
«r-in"h?e{.  chief  of  the  united  colonies.  Washington,  who  was 
present,  accepted  the  appointment,  expressing  a  sense 
of  the  high  honor  which  he  had  received,  and  the  vast 
responsibity  of  the  station.  He  refused  to  accept  any 
compensation  for  his  services,  merely  asking  Congress 
to  defray  his  expenses.  Congress  also  adopted  the 
unorganized  force  before  Boston,  naming  it  the  Con- 
tinental Army.  In  subordination  to  the  commander- 
in-chief,  Messrs.  Ward,  Charles  Lee,  Schuyler,  and 
Putnam  were  appointed  major-generals;  Horatio  Gates, 
adjutant-general,  and  Messrs.  Pomeroy,  Montgomery 
and  ;Wooster,  Heath,  Thomas,  Spencer,  Sullivan  and 
Greene,  brigadier-generals.  Soon  after  his  election, 
General  Washington,  accompanied  by  Lee,  proceeded 
to  Cambridge  to  take  command  of  the  army,  which 
amounted  to  about  14,000  men.  He  found  them  a 
crowd  of  brave,  undisciplined  soldiers,  unprovided 
with  arms,  ammunition,  and  provisions.  His  first  busi- 
ness was  to  organize  them  into  an  army,  while  he  kept 
watch  over  the  British  in  Boston. 
Atinokon  70.  Meanwhile  an  expedition  was  organized  for  an 
Canada,  attack  on  Canada,  under  the  command  of  General 
Schuyler;  but  Schuyler,  falling  sick  by  the  way,  the 
command    devolved    on   Richard  Montgomery.     This 


officer  captured  St.  John's  and  Chambly,  both  on  the 
Sorel  river,  and  then  made  himself  master  of  Montreal; 
but  in  making  an  assault  on  Quebec,  December31,1775, 
he  was  repulsed,  losing  his  own  life,  while  Benedict 
Arnold,  another  leader,  was  wounded.  Sometime 
afterward  the  British  army  in  Canada  was  reinforced, 
and  the  Americans  were  obliged  to  abandon  all  designs 
in  that  quarter.  While  these  events  were  taking  place 
on  the  northern  frontiers,  English  ships  were  laying 
waste  towns  and  cities  upon  the  Atlantic  coast  Bris- 
tol in  Rhode  Island,  and  Falmouth  in  Massachusetts, 
were  burned  because  they  had  taken  part  in  the  rebel- 
lion. Congress  thought  it  time  to  turn  its  attention  to 
the  construction  of  armed  vessels.  Thirteen  were  ac- 
cordingly fitted  out,  a  navy  established,  and  a  large 
number  of  privateers  licensed,  which  scoured  the  seas  «'*'*'??' 
and  did  great  injury  to  the  English  commerce.  Gen-  '^®''^®"- 
eral  Washington  employed  in  the  service  several 
cruisers  to  intercept  the  store  ships  of  the  enemy. 
Regular  courts  of  admiralty  were  established  for  the 
adjudication  of  prizes,  and  by  these  timely  measures 
much  good  was  accomplished. 

71.  In  the  summer  of  1775,  Dunmore,  the  royal  in  um 
Governor  of  Virginia,  was  driven  out  of  Williamsburg,  Sonft. 
then  the  capital  of  the  colony,  and  obliged  to  seek 
safety  on  board  a  British  man-of-war.  Collecting  some 
ships  and  a  considerable  number  of  men,  partly  slaves 
and  indented  servants,  to  whom  he  promised  freedom, 
he  burned  Norfolk  (January,1776), which  was  the  largest 
and  richest  town  in  Virginia,  and  made  descents  upon 
various  parts  of  the  coast.  In  North  Carolina  there 
was  some  sharp  fighting  between  the  Tory  settlers  and 
the  patriotic  militia,  in  which  the  Tories  were  worsted. 
In  South  Carolina,  the  gallant  defense  of  Charleston 
(.lune,  1776.)  where  a  British  fleet,  under  Sir  Peter 
Parker,  aided  by  a  large  land  force,  under  General 
Clinton,  was  beaten  ofE  with  great  loss  by  a  small  body 
of  men  commanded  by  Colonel  Moultrie,  filled  the 
colonists  with  encouragement. 

73.  During  the  year  1775  the  royal  government  was 
generally  terminated  throughout  the  country,  the 
King's  governors  abdicating  their  posts  and  taking 
refuge  on  board  the  English  shipping.  An  act  was 
passed  by  the  English  Government  prohibiting  all  trade 
and  commerce  with  the  rebellious  provinces,  and 
authorizing  the  capture  of  all  American  and  other 
vessels  found  trading  with  the  colonies,  and  the  crews 
of  the  captured  vessels  were  to  be  treated,  not  aa 
prisoners,  but  as  slaves.  The  colonists  had  sent  over 
their  last  petition,  styled  the  Olive  Branch,  to  the  King, 
but  both  houses  of  Parliament  refused  to  hear  it, 
alleging  that  they  could  not  receive  any  proposition 
coming  from  an  unlawful  assembly.  Until  now  they 
hoped  for  reconciliation  with  the  mother  country,  but 
the  rejection  of  this  last  petition  determined  the  com- 
plete separation  of  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies. 

73,  At  the  beginning  of    1776  Washington,  by  thejsveiua 
help  of  Congress,  had  succeeded  in  getting  into  mili-  of  Ittr. 
tary  order  the  army,  which  now  ceased  to  be  a  col- 
lection of  little  colonial  militia  organizations.     On  the 
2d  of  January  he  hoisted  the  Union  flag  in  compliment 
of  .the.Uniled  Colonies.   This  flag  bore  the  stripswhich 
are  found  in  the  flag  of  today,  but  the  crosses  of  St. 
George  and  St.  Andrew  were  retained  on  a  blue  ground 
in  the  corner,  blending  the  ideas  of  a  new  nationality 
and  English  supremacy.   The  present  flag  was  adopted 
June,   14,    1777.      Early  in  March,  Washington   was 
ready  to  drive  the  British    out  of  Boston.      On   the 
night     of     the     4th     he     occupied     and     fortified 
Dorchester  Heights,  oveHooking  the  harbor.     General 
Howe,  who  succeeded  George,  saw  that   he  must  fight 
at  a  great  disadvantage,  or  abandon  the  town.     Think-  Evacnation  | 
ing  "discretion, the  better  part  of  valor,"  he  gathered  of  Boetoo. 
together  his  forces,  took  to  the  fleet  and  sailed  away. 
With  him  went  those  families  which    had    remained 
loyal  to  the  king.    Thus  Boston  was  relieved  of  the 


u:nited   states 


741 


I 


I 


presence  of  the  British,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. There  was  now  open  war  between  the  two 
countries.  But  after  this  Kew  England  scarcely  knew 
the  presence  of  soldiers,  as  it  became  the  policy  of  Eng- 
land to  strike  at  the  heart  of  the  colonies.  Putting 
Boston  in  a  state  of  defense,  Washington  now  hastened 
to  New  York,  where  he  was  certain  the  next  blow 
would  be  struck,  and  Lee  was  ordered  to  take  command 
of  the  troops  in  the  South.  The  fortifications  which 
Lee  had  begun  were  hastily  completed.  Greene  was 
placed  in  command  of  a  division  on  Long  Island. 
Measures  were  taken  to  disarm  the  Tory  inhabitants, 
and  the  royal  governor,  Tryon,  was  driven  to  seek 
refuge  on  board  a  British  man  of -war  in  the  lower  bay. 
Tb«/>\  ject  74.  Even  after  the  war  had  fairly  begun,  the  colonies 
•r  s«re>>-  gtill  looked  forward  to  a  reconciliation  with  the  mother 
"'  country  and  the  first  proposals  of  a  separation  were 

received  with  general  disapproval.  But  the  conflict  of 
arms,  and  the  obstinate  refusals  of  all  overtures  on  the 
part  of  Parliament,  gave  impulse  to  a  bolder  policv.  All 
this  time  the  Second  Continental  Congress  was  in 
session  at  Philadelphia,  and  it  agreed  to  consider 
definitely  the  question  of  independence.  Then  it  took 
a  recess  of  four  weeks,  to  give  the  delegates  an  oppor- 
tunity to  go  back  to  the  people  and  learn  what  was  the 
general  judgment.  When  the  members  returned  to 
their  seats  there  was  no  longer  any  doubt  what  course 
should  be  pursued.  A  committee  had  been  appointed 
to  propose  a  full  declaration.  The  committee  was  elected 
by  ballot,  and  consisted  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  John 
Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Roger  Sherman,  and 
Robert  R.  Livingston.  Mr.  Jefferson  and  Mr.  Adams 
acted  as  a  sub-committee  to  prepare  the  draft,  and  Mr. 
The  Declir-Jefferson  drew  up  the  paper.  The  chief  merit  of  the 
Tndepeu-  document  is  his.  Some  changes  were  made  in  it,  on 
4ence.  the  suggestion  of  other  members  of  the  committee,  and 
by  others  in  Congiess  while  it  was  under  discussion. 
On  July  3,  1776.  Congress  adopted  the  resolu- 
tion, "That  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right 
ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states  ;  that  they  are 
absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and 
that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the 
State  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dis- 
solved." Two  days  latter  Congress  adopted  the  declar- 
ation written  by  Jefferson.  It  declared  what  were  the 
natural  rights  of  all  men  ;  it  recited  the  acts  of  George 
III,  King  of  Great  Britain,  by  which  he  had  abused 
his  authority  over  the  colonies,  and  deprived  them  of 
their  rights  and  liberties.  It  reminded  the  world  how 
patiently  the  colonies  had  born  their  injuries  ;  of  the 
petitions  tney  had  addressed  to  the  King,  which  had 
been  disregarded  ;  how  the  colonies  had  appealed,  not 
to  the  King  only,  but  to  their  brethren,  the  people  of 
England,  but  that  all  had  been  in  vain.  Therefore,  as 
the  representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in 
general  Congress  assembled,  the  delegates  published 
this  declaration  of  the  independence  of  the  States.  The 
declaration  was  received  by  the  people  with  demon- 
The  Effect  strations  of  joy.  Washington  caused  it  to  be  read  to 
tl^ltioD  ^'8  solciers  in  New  Yoik  on  the  9th  of  July.  On  the 
•same  evening  the  excited  inhabitants  pulled  down  a 
leaden  statue  of  George  III  on  horseback,  which  stood 
on  the  Bowling  Green,  and  it  was  melted  into  bullets 
for  the  use  of  the  patriot  army.  In  all  the  other  parts 
of  the  country  the  joy  was  intense. 
The  Effect  75.  The  British  ministry  were  confounded  at  what  they 
"'^''='*' ''called  the  daringenormity  of  the  colonists,  in  spurning  the 
royal  power  and  authority.  They  were  surprised  that 
rebels  dared  to  show  such  temper  and  spirit.  Forth> 
with  they  determined  by  augmented  forces  to  crush 
them  at  a  blow,  and  to  coerce  them  into  a  sense  of 
duty  and  submission  to  their  king.  Doubting  the  com- 
petency of  their  own  power  to  subjugate  the  colonies, 
the  English  Parliament,  at  an  immense  expense,  re- 
sorted to  the  aid  of  foreign  mercenaries  to  carry  on 
their  bioody  work.     17.000  troops,   hired  from     the 


German  States,  were  conveyed  hither  to  »id  in  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  colonies. 

76.  When  the  British  had  failed  to  get  possession  of  The^ Attack 
South  Carolina  in  the  early  summer  of   1776,    they  y^rt" 
turned  their  attention  to  New  York.     The  American 

army  was  intrenched  on  Long  Inland  and  'he  heights 
overlooking  New  York  when  the  British  fleet  entered 
the  harbor  and  landed  some  of  their  troops  on  Sta'en 
Island.  General  Howe  and  bis  bro'her.  Admiral  Howe, 
had  been  appointed  commissioners  tc  receive  the  sub- 
mission of  any  rebels  who  might  throw  themselves  on 
the  king's  mercy.  They  had  been  instructed  to  pro- 
pose conditions  of  peace,  but  they  had  no  authority  to 
grant  independence,  and  Washington  refused  any  other 
terms.  On  the  23d  of  August  th<i  British  forces  under 
Generals  Clinton,  Cornwallis,  Porter  and  Grant,  landed 
on  the  southern  shore  of  Long  Island.  The  larger  part  of 
the  American  army  was  posted  in  what  is  now  the  heart 
of  Brooklyn.  General  Putnam  was  in  command  of 
Long  Island,  but  his  army  was  greatly  inferior  in  num- 
bers and  equipments  to  the  enemy.  On  the  morning  on 
August  27,  Putnam  was  attacked  by  the  British  and 
compelled  to  retreat  to  Brooklyn.  Had  the  British  gen- 
eral followed  up  his  advantage,  he  might  have  slain  or 
captured  all  of  Putnam's  force.  But  »t  nightfall,  under 
cover  of  the  fog.  Washington  skillfully  withdrew  all 
the  forces  on  the  Brooklyn  side  and  united  them  with 
the  rest  of  his  army  in  New  Y''ork.  He  had  completely 
foiled  the  enemy. 

77.  It  was  impossible  to  hold  New  York,  because  it  Evataatioii. 
could  be  shelled  from  Brooklyn  Heights  and  attacked  "^  ^^^ 

on  both  sides  bj-  the  English  fleet,  so  Washington  with-    °'  ' 
drew  his  forces  to  Harlem  Heights,  and  fortified  him- 
self there.     The  British  then  entered  New  York,  and  it 
remained  in  their  hands  until  the  close  of  the  war. 

The  condition  of  the  patriots  was  now  deplorable. 
The  £rmy,  greatly  reduced  by  tosses  in  battle,  was  still 
further  weakened  by  desertions  and  insubordination. 
Thousands  of  disheartened  soldiers  went  hom^,.  But 
Washington  succeeded  in  partly  establishing  discipline, 
and  opposed  so  bold  a  front  to  the  enemy  that  Howe 
aid  not  venture  to  attack  him  directly.  Lord  Corn- 
wallis, however,  succeeded  in  gaining  a  position  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Hudson.  Washington  was  com 
pelled  to  withdraw  across  the  river,  knowing  that  the 
enemy  would  aim  for  Philadelphia.  The  two  armies 
crossed  New  Jersey  in  hot  haste,  Washington  maneu-  operatioos 
vering  so  as  to  defeat  the  British  design  of  cutting  him  in  New 
ofl  from  that  city.  The  armies,  while  in  motion,  were^''^''^'^^- 
often  in  sight  of  each  other.  Washington  continued 
his  retreat  slowly,  followed  by  the  enemy,  until  early 
in  December  he  crossed  the  Delaware  river  near  Tren- 
ton. Howe  now  thought  the  campaign  over,  and  went 
into  winter  quarters. 

78.  The  succession  of  disasters,  beginning  with  th: 
battle  of  Long  Island,  greatly  discouraged  the  Ameri- 
cans. The  legislatures  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsyl- 
vania adjourned  and  left  the  states  almost  without  &  - 
government.  Congress,  fearing  for  its  safety  in  Phila- 
delphia, removed  to  Baltimore,  leaving  Washington 
with  almost  dictatorial  powers.  Apathy  and  disorder 
prevailed  among  the  troops,  many  of  whom  had  to 
march  with  bare,  bleeding  feet  along  the  frozen  roads. 

A  great  number  of  prominent  persons,  believing  that 
the  cause  of  independence  was  lost,  hastened  to  make 
their  peace  with  the  British  authorities.  It  was  truly  a 
time  which  "tried  men's  souls."  Amidst  the  prevail- 
ing gloom,  Washington  stood  firm.  Strengthened  by 
the  arrival  of  Lee's  division,  now  under  command  of 
Sullivan,  since  the  capture  of  Lee  by  the  British, 
Washington  determined  to  strike  a  blow  that  would  re- 
vive the  drooping  courage  of  the  people.  He  resolved 
to  fall  upon  a  detachment  of  Hessian  troops,  stationed 
at  Trenton  under  Rhal,  and  chose  Christmas  night  for 
the  attack.  Recrossing  the  Delaware  with  2.-t00  men.  Rgtuo. 
he  attacked  the  town  while  the  Hessians  weie  carou,"^  ofTrentoi. 


U  X  I T  E  D      STATES 


©f  PriDce- 

tOD 


to  France. 


ing,  and  completely  routed  thorn,  taking  one  thousand 
prisoners. 

79.  This  brilliant  exploit  had  a  wonderful  efEect 
upon  the  people.  The  soldiers  who  were  about  to  re- 
turn home  consented  to  serve  six  months  longer;  Con- 
gress, which  had  exhibited  great  firmness  during  these 
times  of  trial,  put  forth  fresh  efforts  to  strengthen  the 
army,  and  Washington,  invested  for  six  months  with 
the  authority  of  a  dictator,  crossed  the  Delaware  again 
and  occupied  Trenton.  Cornwallis  now  advanced  to- 
ward that  place  with  all  his  available  forces,  and  Wash- 
ington's danger  was  greater  than  before.  But  again 
his  masterly  genius  prevailed.  Leaving  his  camp  fires 
burning,  he  abandoned  his  position,  passed  silently 
around   the  enemy,  and   at  sunrise  (January   3,  1T7T), 

The  Bs'Uefell  upon  the  British  reserves  at  Princeton,  just  as  they 
■jyere  starting  out  to  take  part  in  the  expected  battle  at 
Trenton,  and  routed  them.  Thus  Howe,  instead  of  oc- 
cupying all  New  Jersey,  was  cooped  up  at  Brunswick 
and  Amboy,  and  Philadelphia  was  relieved  of  further 
danger  from  Cornwallis.  After  these  splendid  suc- 
cesses Washington  retired  with  his  army  toward  Mor- 
ristown,  which  he  made  his  headquarters,  and  arranged 
his  troops  in  safe  positions  between  that  place  and  the 
highlands  of  the  Hudson.  Here  he  passed  the  winter, 
frequently  making  sudden  and  daring  exploits,  without 
risking  a  general  engagement.  By  this  means  the  en- 
emy was  compelled  to  abandon  every  post  in  New  Jer- 
sey, except  New  Brunswick  and  Perth  Amboy.  Phila- 
delphia being  now  in  no  danger  from  the  British,  Con- 
gress returned  to  that  place. 

80.  Aware  of  the  importance  of  inducing  the  French 
to  espouse  the  American  cause,  and  relying  on  the  en- 
mity of  France   against  Great  Britain,  Congress  ap- 

cominii-  pointed  as  commissioners  to  the  court  of  France,  Ben- 
«ioiier8sentjainin  Franklin,  Silas  Deane  and  Arthur  Lee.  They 
were  instructed  to  procure  arms  and  ammunition,  and 
to  obtain  permission  to  fit  out  American  vessels  in  the 
French  ports,  to  annoy  the  commerce  of  England.  They 
also  directed  them  to  solicit  a  loan  of  10.000,000  francs, 
and  to  endeavor,  by  every  means  in  their  power  to  pre- 
vail on  the  French  government  to  recognize  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States.  The  commissioners 
were  kindly  received  and  obtained  the  aid  they  re- 
quested, although  the  French  government  was  not  "will- 
ing, as  yet,  to  recognize  the  United  States  as  an  inde- 
pendent nation. 

81.  Commissions  were  offered  to  French  and  other 
foreign  officers  who  wished  to  serve  in  the  American 
army,  and  a  large  number  of  ambitious  soldiers  conse- 
quently embarked  for  America.  Washington  was  em- 
barassed  by  the  arrival  of  such  a  large  number,  not  all 
of  whom  were  men  of  merit.  Among  the  foreigners, 
however,  who  thus  gave  their  services  to  the  American 
cause  were  several  distinguished  ofiicers;  Baron  de 
Kalb,  an  Alsatian;  Kosciusko  and  Pulaski,  the  famous 
Polish  patriots;  Baron  Steuben,  an  experienced  and 
accomplished  Prussian  soldier,  and  the  young  French 
Marquis  de  La  Faj'ette,  who  purchased  a  ship  with 
his  own  means  and  sailed  for  America  to  offer  his 
sword,  without  pay,  to  the  cause  of  independence. 

82.  Near  the  end  of  May,  1777,  the  American  army, 
numbering  about  18,000  men,  moved  from  its  winter 
quarters  at  Morristown  and  took  a  position  at  Middle- 
brook,  on  which  the  British  left  theirencampment,  and 
General  Howe  endeavored  to  induce  General  Washing- 
ton to  meet  him  on  equal  ground.  But  Washington 
chose  to  continue  his  defensive  warfare,  and  not  to 
risk  an  open  battle.  Finding  various  feints  and  at- 
tempts ineffectual,  Howe  ordered  a  hasty  retreat  to 
Staten  Island.  He  then  embarked  16,000  troops,  and 
leaving  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  command  at  New  York, 
put  to  sea,  keeping  his  destination  secret.  On  the  20th 
of  August,  the  fleet  entered  Chesapeake  Bay,  intending 
an  attack  on  Philadelphia,  Washington  hurried  to 
Philadelphia  by  forced  marches,  and  on  September  11, 


Forf-iirn 


Csmp.iien 
»J  1777. 


engaged  Howe  at  Brandy  wine  creek.  After  a  hard 
fought  battle  the  Americans  were  forced  to  retreat. 
After  some  days  occupied  in  maneuvering  and  skir- 
mishing, on  the  morning  of  October4  Washington  made 
a  sudden  attack  on  Howe's  position  at  Germantown. 
For  a  while  the  victory  seemed  in  favor  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, but,  owing  to  a  heavy  fog,  they  became  confused, 
and  the  British  troops  rallied  and  drove  them  back  with 
heavy  loss.  After  these  battles  th3  British  became 
masters  of  Philadelphia,  and  Washington  took  up  his 
winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  about  twenty  miles 
distant  from  that  city. 

83.  While  these  events  were  occurring  in  the  middle 
states,  in  Jul}',  1777,  Burgoyne,  with  an  army  of  Brit- 
ish, Hessians  and  Indians,  entered  the  states  from  Can- 
ada, intending  to  seize  the  whole  line  of  the  Hudson 
river.  While  on  his  route  he  sent  out  detachmen  ts  on  both 
sides,  one  under  St.  Leger  against  Fort  Schuyler,  and 
another  under  Colonel  Baum,  to  seize  the  American 
stores  collected  at  Bennington.  St.  Leger's  enterprise 
failed,  and  Baum  was  completely  routed  by  the  Green 
Mountain  boys  at  Bennington  (August  16).  October 
7,  Burgoyne  was  defeated  by  the  Americans  under 
Gates,  at  Bemis  Heights,  and  October  17  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  at  Saratoga.  The  surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne proved  to  be  the  turning  point  of  the  war.  It 
gave  artillery  and  arms  to  the  American  army,  it  en- 
couraged the  soldiers,  and  made  a  great  impression  in 
Europe. 

84.  In  the  meantime  the  winter  was  passing  and 
bringing  with  it  severe  trials  to  the  American  army  at 
Valley  Forge.  The  men  were  without  shoes,  and  the 
snow  was  stained  with  the  marks  of  their  bleeding 
feet.  There  was  no  money  to  pay  them.  The  bills 
issued  by  Congress  had  become  so  depreciated  as  to  be 
almo.^^t  worthless.  Food  was  so  scarce  that  Washing- 
ton was  authorized  to  seize  provisions  wherever  he 
could  find  them.  About  this  time  there  was  a  plot  to 
compel  Washington  to  resign,  and  to  have  Lee  or 
Gates  put  in  his  place.  But  the  scheme  failed,  and 
Washington  became  more  popular  than  ever.  In  the 
spring  of  1778  the  condition  of  affairs  improved. 
Robert  Morris,  of  Philadelphia,  afforded  relief  to  the 
treasury  by  raising  large  sums  of  money  for  the  gov- 
ernment, on  his  personal  credit,  and  continued  to  serve 
the  country  in  this  way  until  the  end  of  the  war. 
When  the  news  of  Burgoyne's  capture  reached  France, 
she  instantly  made  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  America 
(February  6,  1778),  and  sent  out  a  fleet  under  Count 
d'Estaing  to  aid  the  colonies.  The  news  of  the  treaty 
was  received  by  the  Americans  with  great  joy.  The 
British  Government  now  sent  over  commissioners  to 
offer  terms  of  peace,  giving  the  Americans  all  thej' 
asked  for,  except  independence,  but  all  propositions 
short  of  that  were  refused. 

85.  General  Howe  was  now  instructed  to  concentrate 
all  his  forces  in  New  York  Consequently  the  British 
suddenly  left  Philadelphia,  and  set  out  on  their  march. 
Washington  instantly  left  Valley  Forge,  and  pursued 
the  enemy  with  13,000  men.  He  came  up  with  them 
at  Monmouth  where  a  hotly  contested,  but  indecisive, 
battle  was  fought.  The  enemy  continued  their  retreat, 
and  were  enabled  to  gain  New  York.  H.iving  failed 
in  their  designs  against  New  England  and  the  Middle 
States,  the  British  now  transferred  their  operations  to 
the  South.  An  expedition  was  sent  by  sea  and  Savan- 
nah, Georgia,  was  taken  at  the  end  of  the  year  1778. 
Augusta  was  then  occupied,  and  Georgia  was  prac- 
tically in  the  hands  of  the  British.  Thus  ended  the 
campaign  of  1778.  General  Lincoln  received  orders 
from  Congress  to  take  command  of  the  southern  forces, 
and  the  army  under  Washington  retired  to  winter 
quarters  near  Middle  Brook,  New  Jersey. 

86.  There  were  no  great  movements  during  1779. 
Washington  resolved  to  make  the  campaign  a  defensive 
one.     General  Clinton,  who  commanded  at  New  York, 


Tbe  BattI 
of  the 
B  randy- 
wine. 


The  Battli 
of  Germai 
town. 


B  nrgoyne'. 
luvae'- 


Surreu- 
of  Bnr 
goyne. 


Operat 

of  I77S 


Tlie  Proi>- 
pcct  Fight- 


Tr.-aly 
.\iiianc 
with 
France 


Battli-  ot 
Moumoulh. 


Tlie  War  in 
the  South. 


Canipnig* 

of  ITtS. 


I 


U2sITE])     STATES 


743 


sent  out  an  expedition  which  captured  the  half  finished 
fort  at  Stony  Point,  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Hudson  river.    Washington  determined  upon  its  re- 
I»d  An-     capture,  and  upon  the  night  of  July  16,  it  was  carried 
r""-^  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  by  the  troops  under  the 

gallant  General  Wayne,  or  "Mad  Anthony  Wayne"  as 
he  was  called.  In  October,  the  Americans,  aided  by 
the  French,  made  an  attack  on  Savannah  in  order  to 
wrest  it  from  the  British.  At  the  end  of  five  hours' 
hard  fighting,  in  which  the  brave  Pulaski  was  mortally 
wounded,  the  French  refused  to  continue  the  attack 
.onger.  and  sailed  for  the  West  Indies,  whereupon  the 
Americans  retired  to  Charleston.  This  brought  the 
southern  campaign  of  1779  to  an  end.  This  year  was 
signalized  by  the  victories  achieved  by  the  infant  navy 
of  America,  under  the  command  of  the  intrepid  Paill 
Jones,  who  fought  with  the  "Serapis"  one  of  the 
most  desperate  naval  battles  on  record  (September  23). 
Operations  87.  The  seat  of  the  war  was  now  mainly  in  the 
P""'"  South.  The  people  there  were  nearly  equally  divided 
in  allegiance.  Savannah,  the  chief  town  of  Georgia, 
was  already  in  possession  of  the  British,  and  in  May 
Charleston  was  captured  by  them.  The  enemy  bad 
now  a  large  army  in  the  field  in  that  quarter.  At  first 
it  was  opposed  by  no  united  American  army.  The 
patriotic  planters  gathered  in  companies,  and  rode 
here  and  there  under  the  leadership  of  daring  men  like 
Marion  and  Sumter.  They  harassed  the  British  wher- 
ever they  could  find  convenient  points  of  attack. 
Clinton,  having  gained  possession  of  South  Carolina, 
returned  to  New  York,  leaving  Comwallis  in  command. 
Meantime  an  American  force  under  Baron  De  Kalb, 
had  been  sent  by  Washington  to  the  South;  but  Con- 
gress interfered  and  put  Gates  in  De  Kalb's  place. 
Gates,  whose  military  capacity  was  much  overrated, 
collected  together  about  six  thousand  men,  and 
marched  hastily  toward  Camden,  in  the  interior  of 
Battle  of  South  Carolina.  Here  he  was  met  by  the  British  under 
GundeD.  Cornwallis,  who  inflicted  a  disgraceful  and  disastrous 
defeat  upon  him  (August  16, 1780).  Duringthe  fight  the 
heroic  De  Kalb  lost  his  life.  Gates  fled  to  North 
Carolina,  leaving  his  fugitive  soldiers  to  take  care  of 
themselves.  Soon  afterward  he  was  removed  from 
command,  and  Greene  appointed  in  his  place.  In 
September,  1780,  Arnold's  treachery  against  the  gov- 
ernment was  discovered,  and  he  was  compelled  to  flee 
to  the  British  lines.  Major  Andre,  who  had  been 
arranging  terms  with  Arnold,  was  captured  on  his 
return,  tried  as  a  spy,  condemned,  and  executed 
October  2,  1780.  Greene  being  now  in  command  of 
the  American  troops  in  the  South,  showed  at  once  the 
qualities  of  a  good  general.  He  secured  additions  to 
the  weakened  southern  army,  and  began  operations 
against  Comwallis.  In  December,  1780,  Greene  was 
Bt  Charlotte.  North  Carolina,  and  Cornwallis  was  in 
South  Carolina,  moving  northward.  Greene  divided 
tiis  forces  in  two  bodies.  His  plan  was  to  get  on  each 
side  of  the  British  army,  and  while  avoiding  a  general 
battle,  to  annoy  the  enemy  continually.  Although 
General  Greene's  men  were  scantily  clad,  half  starved, 
and  dispirited,  destitute  of  arms  and  ammunition,  the 
officers  under  his  command  were  as  brave  men  as  ever 
followed  a  leader.  Morgan,  Lee,  Marion,  Sumter  and 
Colonel  Washington  formed  a  group  to  which  the 
British  army  could  furnish  no  parallel.  In  the  course 
of  his  movements,  Cornwallis  dispatched  Tarleton 
against  Morgan,  who  commanded  one  of  the  divisions 
Thi-  Battle  Of  Greene's  army.  They  met  at  Cowpens  (January  17), 
ofCoMpens.and  after  one  of  the  severest  conflicts  of  the  war, 
Tarleton  was  completely  defeated,  with  the  loss  of 
the  greater  part  of  his  force,  and  all  his  artillery  and 
baggage. 

88.  Morgan  now  hastened  his  march  eastward  to 
join  Greene,  and  Cornwallis  followed  in  hot  pursuit. 
In  order  to  move  faster  the  British  burned  their  stores 
and  superfluous  baggage,    but   Morgan   succeeded  in 


effecting  a  junction  with  Greene.  Now  followed  a 
series  of  masterly  movements  by  Greene,  lasting 
through  the  winter,  the  spring,  and  the  following 
summer.  The  hostile  forces  met  at  Guilford  Court  Guilford 
House  (March  15.  1781).  The  battle  was  fought  des-  ^^'' 
perately  for  two  hours,  and  all  the  advantages  of  a  °°''^" 
victory  were  on  the  side  of  the  Americans.  Notwith- 
standing Cornwallis  claimed  the  victory,  he  retreated, 
closely  pursued  by  Greene.  Cornwallis  avoided  a 
battle  and  retreated  to  Wilmington,  and  from  there 
proceeded  to  Petersburg,  Virginia.  Greene  moved  to 
South  Carolina,  where  he  had  a  flght  at  Hobkirk's 
Hill  (April  25),  with  a  force  under  Lord  Rawdon, 
whom  Cornwallis  had  left  in  command.  Here  Greene 
was  compelled  to  retreat,  but  Rawdou's  loss  was  so 
great  that  he  soon  after  evacuated  his  main  position  at 
Camden.  During  April  and  May  Greene  swept 
through  the  country,  carrying  the  British  posts  in  suc- 
cession, until  the  enemy  were  confined  to  three  points, 
Ninety-six.  Eutaw  Springs  and  Charleston. 

89.  Having  rested  his  army,  Greene  marched  against 
Eutaw  Springs,  where  he  found  the  British  forces  un- 
der Colonel  Stuart  (Rawdon  having  resigned  and  sailed 
for  England)  drawn  up  to  receive  him.  A  severe  en- 
gagement took  place  (September  8,  1781),  both  sides 
claiming  the  victory.  "This  was  the  last  general  action 
in  South  Carolina;  the  British,  abandoning  the  open 
country,  retired  to  Charleston.  Cornwallis  arrived  in 
Virginia  in  May,  1781.  Having  received  reinforcements, 
he  fortified  himself  at  Yorktown,  on  the  south  side  of 
York  river.  Tarleton  occupied  Glouster  Point,  opposite 
Yorktown.  The  British  force  in  Virginia  at  tlus  time 
was  about  8,000  men. 

90.  Meanwhile  Washington,  having  been  reinforced 
by  a  lately  arrived  body  of  6,000  French  troops,  under 
Rochambeau,  was  threatening  New  York.  About  this 
time  the  French  admiral,  De  Grasse,  who  had  been  en- 
gaged against  the  English  in  the  West  Indies,  came 
north  to  cooperate  a  little  whOe  with  Washington,  and 
it  was  resolved,  instead  of  carrying  out  on  an  attack 
upon  New  York,  which  had  been  planned,  to  strike  a 
hard  blow  at  Cornwallis  in  Virginia.  The  army  of 
Rochambeau  marched  from  Newport  to  meet  Washing- 
ton in  the  highlands.  Their  destination  was  kept 
secret,  and  the  movements  of  both  so  artfully  contrived 
that  Clinton  supposed  they  were  going  to  attack  New 
York.  He  did  not  discover  their  object  until  they  had 
reached  the  Delaware.  Sir  Henry  then  sent  out  an  ex- 
pedition under  Benedict  Arnold  to  ravage  Connecticut, 
hoping  thereby  to  cause  Washington  to  return,  but  this 
maneuver  did  not  efliect  its  object.  Washington  and 
Rochambeau  pressed  forward  with  the  utmost  alacrity. 
They  received  the  gratifying  intelligencethat  De  Grasse 
had  already  arrived  with  his  fleet  and  had  blockaded 
the  Chesapeake,  thus  cutting  off  the  escape  of  the  Brit- 
ish by  water.  On  September  30,  1781,  the  allies  in- 
vested Yorktown  and  Glouster.  After  a  siege  of  nearly  v>jese  of 
three  weeks,  Cornwallis,  finding  it  no  longer  possible  to  '^^oft'own. 
hold  Yorktown,  surrendered  his  whole  army  of  nearly 

8,000  men  to  Washington  (October  19,  1781).  On  that 
day  Clinton  left  New  York  to  join  Cornwallis.  A  week 
later,  when  oif  the  Virginia  capes,  he  heard  of  the  news 
of  the  surrender.  It  was  too  late  for  him  to  be  of  any 
service,  and  he  returned  to  New  York. 

91.  The  surrender  of  Cornwallis  sent  a  thrill  of  joy 
through  the  country,  and  was  the  most  decisive  event 
of  the  war.  The  territory  of  the  thirteen  states  was 
now  restored  to  the  jurisdiction  of  Congress,  and  the 
contest  decided  in  favor  of  America.  The  surrender  of 
Comwallis  was  accepted  both  by  the  Americans  and 
the  English  in  Amer'ca  as  the  end  of  the  war.  Con- 
gress recommended  the  states  to  observe  a  day  of 
thanksgiving  to  God  for  the  signal  success  of  the  Amer- 
idan  arms.  The  people  waited  impatiently  for  the  two 
governments  to  agree  upon  terms  of  peace.  There  were 
after  this  a  few  encmintcrs  between  the  two  armies,  but 


r44 


UNITED      STATES 


there  was  no  general  battle.  The  British  still  had  posses- 
sion of  New  York  harbor  and  the  surrounding  country. 
General  Washington  went  into  camp  with  his  army  at 
Newburgh,  on  the  Hudson.  There  he  could  keep  open 
communication  betweeen  New  England  and  the  rest  of 
the  country.  The  French  allies  remained  in  Virginia. 
Generals  Wayne  and  Greene  drove  such  portions  of  the 
British  forces  as  remained  in  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia 
down  to  the  sea-coast,  and  shut  them  up  in  Savannah 
and  Charleston.  There  they  were  protected  by  their 
vessels.  The  people  of  Great  Britain  became  clamor- 
ous for  peace.  The  obstinate  king  was  still  resolved 
"never  to  consent  to  a  peace  at  the  expense  of  a  separa- 
tion from  America,  but  a  resolution  in  favor  of  peace, 
supported  by  the  leading  members,  passed  the  House  of 
Commons  February  27,  1783.  The  king  was  compelled 
to  dismiss  Lord  North  and  accept  a  ministry  headed  by 
the  Marquis  of  Rockingham,  who  was  committed  to  the 
policy  of  peace,  and  commissioners  were  appointed  on 
both  sides  to  negotiate  a  treaty,  hostilities  being  stopped 
in  the  interval. 

The  Treaty     92.  Much  firmness  and  wisdom  were  shown  by  Messrs. 

•f  Peace.  Jay,  Franklin,  Adams  and  Laurens,  the  American  com- 
missioners. Many  questions  were  raised,  an  important 
one  of  which  was  that  of  boundary,  England  wishing 
to  keep  the  Ohio  valley  and  part  of  Maine.  The  prop- 
erty of  the  Tories  had  been  confiscated;  the  English 
wished  it  restored.  England  tried  to  exclude  New  En- 
gland from  the  right  to  fish  off  the  banks  of  Newfound- 
land. These  and  other  questions  caused  delay.  The 
delay  was  increased  by  the  efforts  of  Prance  and  Spain 
to  postpone  the  final  settlement  until  they  should  get 
all  which  they  demanded  as  nations  from  Great  Britain. 
The  preliminary  articles  of  peace  were  settled  at  Paris 
on  the  30th  of  November,  1782,  and  in  September,  1783, 
a  formal  treaty  was  signed.  By  this  treaty  Great  Brit- 
ain acknowledged  the  independence  and  sovereignty  of 
the  United  States,  and  a  new  nation  took  its  place 
among  the  governments  of  the  earth. 

Tbe  Army      93.  The  American  army  was  now  disbanded.    During 

disbanded,  (jjg  progress  of  negotiations  the  temper  of  the  officers 
and  soldiers  was  far  from  satisfactory.  They  had 
received  but  a  small  portion  of  their  pay,  had  often 
suffered  from  absolute  hunger,  and  were  becoming 
restless  under  their  wrongs  and  neglect.  Some  of  them 
so  far  forgot  themselves  as  to  desire  the  establishment 
of  a  military  despotism,  and  Washington  received  a 
letter  in  which  he  was  advised  to  declare  himself  king 
— a  proposition  which  he  indignantly  refused  to  enter- 
tain for  a  single  moment.  Then  anonymous  letters 
were  circulated  among  the  troops  in  March,  1783,  tend- 
ing to  inflame  their  minds  and  advising  them  to  organ- 
ize for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  Congress  to  grant  their 
demands.  To  counteract  this  movement  Washington 
called  all  the  officers  together,  and  in  his  subse<iuent 
farewell  address  soothed  them  by  kind  words  and 
promises,  and  appealed  to  the  nobler  sentiments  of  the 
heart.  Thus  the  danger  was  dispelled,  and  on  Novem- 
ber 3,  still  glowing  with  patriotism,  the  soldiers  separ- 
ated, resolved  to  endure  all  necessary  privations.  The 
army  certainly  had  been  treated  badly  by  both  Con- 
gress and  the  States,  but  there  was  some  excuse  for  their 
conduct  in  that  the  country  was  very  poor,  and  that, 
after  spending  nearly  $100,000,000  during  the  war,  the 
treasury  found  itself  at  the  end  about  $40,000,000  in 
debt.  This  was  exclusive  of  the  outlay  of  the  separate 
states,  which  amounted  to  $60,000,000  or  $70,000,000 
more. 

ii,>  ;.-u»tioD  On  November  25  the  British  evacuated  New  York, 
and  Washington's  troops  marched  in  by  the  way  of 
King's  Bridge.  On  November  2  Washington  issued  his 
farewell  address  to  the  army  ;  on  December  4,  with  a 
heart  full  of  love  and  gratitude,  lie  bade  his  officers 
adieu.  It  was  a  deeply  affecting  scene,  and  men,  who 
had  braved  the  horrors  of  many  a  battle,  now,  as  they 
approached  their  beloved   commander-in-chief,   were 


of  N'<'W 

York 


melted  to  tears  and  incapable  of  utterance.     Washing- 
ton then  proceeded  to  Annapolis,  at  that  time  the  seat 
of  Congress,  and  tendered  his  resignation  as  command-  Washing- 
er-in-chief  of  the   armies  of  the  United  States,   and  '0°'^  Resig- 
immediately  retired  as  a  private  citizen  to  his  home  at  °*  ""*' 
Mount  Vernon,  on  the  Potomac,  in  Virginia. 

V. — THB   FORMATION  OF  THE    FEDERAL    CONSTITtrnON. 

94.  The  States  were  governed  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  war  by  "Articles  of  Confederation,"  proposed 
by  Congress  at  the  time  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, but  not  adopted  until  several  years  later.  Nearly 
all  power  was  vested  in  the  separate  states ;  Congress 
had  but  little  authority  ;  there  was  no  president  or  other 
executive  chief.  During  the  war  for  independence  the 
army,  which  was  called  the  Continental  army,  was 
under  the  authority  of  the  Continental  Congress,  and  it 
received  its  pay,  when  paid  at  all,  in  Continental  cur- 
rency. These  two  words  "Continental  Currency," 
were  placed  at  the  head  of  the  paper  money  which 
Congress  began  to  issue  at  the  beginning  of  the  war. 
No  other  way  of  raising  money  to  meet  the  military 
expenses  seemed  clear  to  Congress  than  to  issue  this 
currency,  since  there  wou!d  be  no  revenue  from  duties, 
as  lesolutions  had  been  passed  to  have  no  trade  with 
Great  Britain.  All  the  colonies  represented  in  Con- 
gress agreed  to  redeem  the  bills  which  should  be 
issued,  just  as  each  colony  had  been  accustomed  to 
redeem  its  own  bills.  At  first  the  money  was  found  to 
be  very  useful,  and  its  value  was  not  questioned,  as 
nearly  everyone  thought  that  the  war  would  soon  be 
over.  But  the  war  dragged  along  ;  Congress  had  been 
obliged  to  issue  bills  to  the  amount  of  $20,000,000; 
whether  or  not  the  colonies  would  be  able  to  win  inde- 
pendence was  a  matter  of  doubt  ;  the  country  was  poor, 
and  it  was  not  certain  that  the  Confederation  would 
last.  Under  these  circumstances  people  began  to 
refuse  to  take  the  money  at  the  value  printed  upon  it. 

95.  Under  the  "Articles  of  Confederation,"  adopted  ^''^''"^o'' 
in  1777,  the  powers  of  Congress  were  but  small.     The    °°S"=»a. 
colonies  were  jealous  of  each  other,  and  especially  the 
smaller  of  the  larger,  and  so  they  all  wished  to  give  the 

"  Confederation,"  as  it  was  called,  just  as  little  power 
as  they  could.  The  new  government  was  to  be  raerely 
a  "firm  league  of  friendship"  between  so-vereign  states, 
which  were  to  retain  every  power  not  "expressly" 
delegated  to  Congress.  At  this  time  Congress  consisted 
of  but  one  house,  in  which  each  state  had  an  equal 
vote.  There  was  no  national  executive  head.  Congress 
retained  the  power  to  borrow  money,  but  was  not 
authorized  to  raise  money  by  taxes,  or  to  fix  the  rate  of 
duties  on  foreign  goods  imported,  or  compel  obedience 
to  any  law.  In  fact,  the  provincial  spirit  which  mani- 
fested itself  in  the  several  colonies,  so  prevailed  over 
the  spirit  of  nationality,  as  to  completely  take  from  it 
all  power  of  action,  even  in  the  most  violent  emergen- 
cies, without  the  express  consent  of  the  several  prov- 
inces. This  was  done  by  the  celebrated  "Articles  of 
Confederation,"  by  which  Congress  was  reduced  from 
a  prompt  and  energetic  exercise  of  power,  assumed 
and  used  for  the  general  good,  to  a  mere  advisory 
body,  which,  strictly  speaking,  had  no  authority  at 
all;  for  the  very  first  article,  after  that  giving  title  to 
the  instrument,  made  the  following  declaration:  "Each 
state  retains  its  sovereignty,  freedom  and  Indepen- 
dance,  and  every  power,  jurisdiction,  and  right  which 
is  not  by  this  confederation  expressli/  delegated  to  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled."  Thus  Congress 
was  bound,  hand  and  foot,  by  the  narrow-minded 
jealousy  of  the  several  states.  Important  measures 
required  the  votes  of  nine  of  the  13  states,  and  amend- 
ments the  votes  of  all.  Congress  alone  could  decide 
upon  the  needed  amount  of  money,  but  the  power 
of  collecting  the  taxes  was  vested  in  the  states,  only. 
Congress  could  decide  disputes  between  the  states,  but 
it  had  no  power  to  compel  respect  or  obedience  to  its* 


UNITED 


S  T  ^i  T  E  S 


745 


decisions.  It  alone  could  make  treaties  with  foreign 
nations,  but  no  individual  state  was  bound  to  respect 
those  treaties,  so  far  as  Congress  was  concerned.  Every 
state  had  the  power  of  regulating  its  own  commerce, 
both  foreign  and  domestic.  In  truth,  all  the  acts  of 
Congress  were  simply  recommendations  to  the  state 
assemblies;  and  these  recommendations  were  always 
largely  debated,  oftentimes  rejected,  and  never  assented 
to  in  season  to  have  their  best  effect.  Washington 
and  the  army  and  the  Revolutionary  cause  were  thus 
nearly  sacrificed  by  a  states-right  prejudice,  as  bad  in 
principle  as  it  was  slow  and  injurious  in  fact. 

96.  When  Congress  tried  to  borrow  money  in  Europe, 
it  succeded  in  getting  some  at  high  rates  of  interest. 
But  in  the  present  state  of  the  country  foreigners  were 
slow  to  lend;  they  were  not  sure  of  getting  their  money 
ba^k  again.     They  knew  they  would  not  if  the  states 
failed  in  establishing  their  independence.     And  even  if 
they  did,  the  question  was.  would  they  pay  if  peace 
came?    Under  the  then  existing  form  of  government  it 
seemed  doubtful.    The  several  str.(es  could  raise  money 
to  meet  their  obligations  by  taxing  their  citizens;  they 
could  also  impose  duties  on  articles  of  trade.      The 
government,  as  vested  in  Congress,  could  do  neither  of 
these  things;  it  could  only  apportion  to  the  several 
states  their  share  of  the  public  expenses.    If  the  states 
refused  to  pay.  Congress  had  no  power  to  compel  them. 
Foreign  countries,   also,  did  not  like  to  make  treaties 
with  such  a  loose  and  feeble  government.    Washington 
said:  "We  are   one  nation  to-day,  and  13  to-morrow: 
who  will  treat  with  us  on  these  terms?"    Thus,  both 
Congress  and  the   states  struggled  on,  making  more 
paper  money  and  borrowing  at  high  rates  of  interest. 
Laws  were  passed   requiring   the  people  to  take  the 
paper  money  in  payment  of  debts.     But  the  currency 
became  more  and  more  worthless,  so  that  about  the 
middle  of  the  war,  16  hundred  dollars  of  it  was  asked 
for  a  suit  of  clothes.     After  the  alliance  with  Prance, 
the  prospect  brightened.     People  had  more  confidence 
in  the  success  of  the  United  States,  and  it  became  easier 
Robort        *°  borrow  money  in  Europe.     About  this  time,   also, 
Morris.       Robert  Morris,  of  Philadelphia,  who  thoroughly  under- 
stood the  mistakes  which  had  been  made,  was  offered 
the  position  of  superintendent  of  finance.    He  accepted 
the  office  only  on  condition  that  Congress  should  aban- 
don the  attempt  to  compel  the  people  by  law  to  take 
the  paper  money  in  payment  of  debts.      In  1781  Con- 
gress passed  a  resolution  that  it  would  pay  all  its  debts 
in  solid  coin,  and  recommended  the  si  ales  to  do  the 
same.     It  chartered  the  Bank  of  North  America,  and 
this  bank  lent  money  both  to  the  government  and  to 
the  people.     At  the  close  of  the  war  the  government 
found  itself  deeply  in  debt.     Part  of  this  money  was 
due  to  foreigners,  and  part  to  the  people  of  the  country, 
How  this  debt  was  to  be  paid,  was  the  question  to  be 
Th    ,ale  of  ^^"i*'^  ^^  *^^  Confederation. 

UiKjicnpied  ^~-  ^De  way  was  through  the  sale  of  unoccupied  lands, 
lande.  When  the  Confederation  was  forming  there  was  much 
dispute  and  uncertainty  about  the  western  boundaries 
of  the  different  colonies.  Virginia,  for  example,  claimed 
the  country  now  occupied  by  Kentucky,  Indiana,  Ohio 
and  Illinois.  It  was  proposed  that  the  states  should 
give  up  their  western  lands  to  the  United  States.  Vir- 
ginia was  the  first  to  do  this,  and  other  states  followed 
her  example  (1784).  Congress  used  this  property  to  pay 
the  debts  of  the  government.  It  eave  lands  to  officers 
and  soldiers  in  payment  of  their  claims.  Many  of 
these  moved  out  on  their  lands,  and  companies  were 
formed  for  colonizing,  especially  in  the  Ohio  valley. 
Congress  could  not  go  much  farther.  It  oould  say 
what  taxes  ought  to  be  laid,  and  could  recommend  a 
uniform  rate  of  duties  throughout  the  country;  but  it 
was  obliged  to  ask  the  state  to  lay  the  taxes,  to  levy  the 
duties,  and  then  to  pay  the  money  raised  into  the 
treasury  of  Congress. 

98.  It  perceived  that   this  would  never  do — that  a 


Ctoontry. 


Stronger  form  of  government  was  necessary  for  the 
welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  country.  Disorders 
arose  within  the  separate  states,  and  a  state  of  anarchy 
m  general  prevailed.  The  western  counties  of  North 
Carolina  undertook  to  form  a  state  of  their  own,  called 
Frankland.  The  part  of  Virginia  which  afterward  be- 
came Kentucky,  made  asimilar  attempt.  An  extensive 
rebellion  in  Massachussetts,  led  by  an  ex-captain  in  the 
Continental  army,  named  Daniel  Shays  (December,  Shays' 
1*86),  and  directed  against  the  collection  of  taxes,  etc.,  Rebellion, 
for  six  months  resisted  the  authority  of  the  state.  It 
was  finally  put  down  by  a  military  force  under  General 
Lincoln.  The  one  act  of  authority  which  Congress 
could  exercise  was  in  providing  for  the  government  of 
the  country  which  had  been  ceded  to  it  by  the  states. 
7?.,'„®  ^^^*°'^®  passage  of  the  important  ordinance  in  Ordinance 
libi.  By  this  ordinance  all  the  district  northwest  of  <>' '"'*" 
the  Ohio  was  formed  into  one  territory.  Congress  ap- 
pointed a  governor,  a  council  and  judges.  The  people 
of  the  territory  were  allowed  to  choose  their  own  a.s- 
sembly  and  make  their  own  laws.  The  most  important 
provision  of  the  ordinance  was  that  by  which  slavery 
was  forever  excluded  from  the  northwest  territory. 

99.  It  was  impossible  for  the  country  to  go  on  as  it 
was.  The  states  were  separating  from  one  another,  Difficuitie* 
and  from  Congress.  Congress  could  with  difflcutly "''  "'•■ 
bring  enough  members  together  to  form  a  quorum. ' 
Scarcely  any  one  outside  paid  attention  to  what  it  did. 
Least  of  all  was  it  respected  by  foreign  governments. 
John  Adams,who  had  been  sent  as  minister  to  England, 
could  hardly  get  a  hearing  there.  Many  of  the  states 
refused  or  neglected  to  pay  even  their  allotted  shares 
of  interest  on  the  public  debt,  and  Congress  had  not 
the  power  to  compel  payment.  The  national  credit  be- 
came worthless.  Foreign  nations  refused  to  make 
commercial  treaties  with  the  United  States,  pre- 
ferring rather  to  take  advantage  of  the  impotency 
of  Congress,  and  lay  any  burden  upon  American 
commerce  that  they  thought  fit.  In  1785,  Algeria  de- 
clared war  against  the  United  States.  Having  no  effi- 
cient navy.  Congress  recommended  the  building  of  five 
ships  of  war.  but  as  it  had  the  power  to  recommend 
only,  the  ships  were  not  built,  and  American  commerce 
was  left  a  i.r^y  to  the  Algeriue  pirates.  Great  Britain 
still  refu.-td  to  carry  out  the  treaty  of  1783,  or  send  a 
minister  to  the  United  States.  The  federal  government 
was  despised  abroad,  and  disobeyed  at  home. 

100.  Amidst  this  discouraging  and  confused  state  of 
affairs,  the  more  thoughtful  of  the  people  saw  that 
some  change  in  the  form  of  government  was  necessary 
and  so  a  convention  of  delegates  was  called  to  meet  in 
Independence  hall,  Philadelphia,  May  14, 17S7,  in  order  "^P".™""** 
to  decide  upon  a  new  constitution,  and  make,  if  possi-  ' 
ble,  a  stronger  government,  without  doing  harm  to  the 
liberties  of  the  people.     The  states  sent  their  ablest 

men  to  represent  them.  Many  of  the  delegates  hac 
been  members  of  the  first  Congress.  Among  others, 
Virginia  sent  Washington,  Edmund  Randolph,  George 
Mason,  Madison  and  George  Wythe;  New  York,  Ham- 
ilton; Massachusetts,  Rufus  King,  Strong  and  Gerry; 
Pennsylvania,  Franklin,  Robert  Morris,  Gouverneur 
Morris  and  James  Wilson;  New  Jersey,  Paterson;  Con- 
necticut, Sherman,  William  S.  Johnson  and  Ellsworth; 
and  South  Carolina,  Rutledge  and  the  two  Pinckneys. 
Washington  was  appointed  president  of  the  convention. 

101.  There  was  great  difference  of  opinion  among  the 
delegates  regarding  the  question  at  issue,  but  all  agreed 
that  it  was  necessary  to  give  the  government  greater 
authority.  After  a  long  discussion,  lasting  many 
weeks,  the  convention  drew  up  a  constitution  of  the  The  Con- 
United  States  (September  17,  1787)  which  was  to  take  >'"""'" 
the  place  of  the  articles  of  confederation.  The  con- 
vention reported  its  work  to  Congress,  and  Congress 
submitted  it  to  the  several  states.  By  the  terms  of  the 
constitution,  it  must  be  ratified  by  nine  states  before  it 
could  become  the  law  of  the  land.     Much  opposition 


I  etitGtion. 


74 1) 


U  X  I  T  E  D     S  T  iV  T  E  S 


was  manifested  toward  its  adoption.  It  was  discussed 
everywhere,  and  its  every  article  was  earnestly  debated. 
Hamilton,  Madison  and  John  Jay  of  New  York  pub- 
lished a  celebrated  series  of  papers  called  The  Feder- 
alist, in  which  thej'  went  over  all  its  features  with  great 
thoroughness,  showing  the  reasons  for  the  action  of 
the  convention.  By  this  means  they  did  much  to  con- 
vince the  people  of  the  importance  of  the  work  done. 
Delaware  was  the  first  to  ratify  the  constitution,  which 
it  did  unanimously.  Pennsylvania  followed,  ten  days 
afterward,  with  a  two-thirds  vote  in  favor.  Eight 
other  states  also  ratified  it,  so  that  it  went  into  effect  in 
17S8.  Of  the  three  states  which  remained,  New  York 
accepted  the  constitution  in  time  to  take  part  in  the 
first  pres'dential  election  that  same  year.  North  Car- 
olina accepted  it  during  the  year  following;  and  Rhode 
Island,  last  of  all,  in  the  year  after  that  (1790).  Thus 
the  old  "  Confederation  "  came  to  an  end  and  the  new 
The  tniou.  "  Union  "  began. 

102.  The  opening  words  of  the  constitution  are  as 
follows:  "We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order 
to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  established  justice,  insure 
domestic  tranquility,  provide  for  the  common  defense, 
promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings 
of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  constitution  for  the  United  States  of 
The  Pream- America."  This  first  sentence  of  the  constitution  is 
^^-  often  called  the  preamble,  but  no  such  term  was  applied 

to  it  by  the  framers  of  the  constitution,  neither  is  it 
found  in  the  original  manuscript.  It  is  not  a  preamble 
in  any  sense,  but  is  the  enacting  clause — an  integral 
part  of  the  constitution,  stating  that  it  was  the  people 
of  the  whole  United  States  who  established  it.  A  pre- 
amble gives  reasons  why  a  resolution  should  be  adopted 
or  enacted,  but  it  is  no  part  of  the  resolution  or  enact- 
ment. The  enacting  clause,  on  the  contrary,  is  man- 
datory. No  other  part  of  a  statute  is  more  important. 
Thus,  this  introductory  sentence  gives  the  authority 
and  the  ends  for  which  the  constitution  was  made.  It 
was  ordained  by  the  people  of  the  United  States  as  a 
nation,  and  for  the  purposes  so  admirably  set  forth  in 
its  opening  clause;  and  wherever  in  the  constitution  the 
words  "  United  States  "  occur  they  signify  the  nation 
as  a  whole;  wherever  the  word  "States"  occurs,  it 
denotes  the  states  considered  separately,  or  as  distin- 
guished from  tbg  nation. 
Articles  103.  The  constitution  contains  seven  articles,  which 

•"".^7.,'''"'"  are  subdivided  into  sections.  Besides  these  seven  ar- 
'  '"■  tides,  fifteen  amendments  have  been  made  to  the  con-  i 
stitution,  which  are  as  binding  as  the  original  articles,  j 
By  the  first  article  all  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  consists  of  a  senate 
and  house  of  representatives.  Under  the  confederation 
the  whole  governmental  authority  was  vested  in  Con- 
gress. There  was  no  executive  department  and  no  judi- 
cial. The  first  resolution  adopted  in  the  constitutional 
convention  stated  that  a  national  government  ought  to 
be  formed,  consisting  of  supreme  legislative,  executive 
and  judicial  departments.  Most  legislative  bodies  have 
two  houses.  This  is  true  of  all  the  existing  state  gov- 
ernments, and  was  true  of  all  the  states  at  the  time  the 
constitution  was  framed,  except  Pennsylvania  and 
Georgia,  which  had  but  one  each.  The  Continental 
Congress  had  but  one  house.  While  there  is  a  general 
distribution  of  powers  among  the  three  great  depart- 
ments of  government,  the  exercise  of  these  powers  is 
net  absolutely  exclusive. 

104.  The  federal  house  of  representatives  is  descend- 
ed, through  the  state  houses  of  representatives,  from 
tlie  colonial  assemblies.     It  is  an   assembly  represent- 
ing the  whole  population  of  the  countrj^  as  if  the  peo- 
Thc  House  pie  were  all  in  one  great  state.     It  is  composed  of  raem- 
of  Rf-prc-    bers  chosen  every  year  by  the  people  of  the  states.     A 
semativee.  candidate  for  election  to  the  house  must  be  at  least 
twenty-five  years  old.  must  have   been  seven  years  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  must  be  an  inhabitant 


of  the  state  in  which  he  is  chosen.      As  the  federal 
Congress  is  a  taxing  bod}',  representatives  and  taxes  are 
apportioned  among  the  several  states  according  to  the 
same  rule,  that  is,  according  to  population.     At  this 
point  a  dithculty  arose  in  the  convention  as  to  whether 
slaves  should  be  counted  as  population.     If  they  were 
to  be  counted,  the  power  of  the  slave  states  in  all  mat- 
ters of  national  legislation  would  be  greatly  increased. 
The  difficulty  was  adjusted  by  a  compromise  measure  tij^,  Ti,re* 
according  to  which  five  slaves  were  to  be  reckoned  as  Fifiits 
three  persons.     Since  the  abolition  of  slavery  this  pro-  <.'orapro- 
vision  has  become  obsolete,  but  until  1860  it  was  avery  "^"'^' 
important  factor  in  American  history. 

10.5.  In  the  federal  house  of  representatires  the  great 
states,  of  course,  have  much  more  weight  than  the  small- 
er ones.  In  1790  the  four  largest  states  had  33  repre- 
sentatives, while  the  other  nine  had  only  33.  The  larg- 
est state,  Virginia,  had  ten  representatives,  to  one  fror 
Delaware.  These  disparities  have  increased.  In  1880, 
out  of  thirty-eight  states,  the  nine  largest  had  a  majority 
of  the  house,  and  the  largest  state,  New  York,  had  34 
representatives  to  one  from  Delaware.  This  feature  in 
the  house  of  representatives  caused  the  smaller  statea 
in  the  convention  to  oppose  the  whole  scheme  of  con- 
structing a  new  government.  They  were  determined 
that  all  the  states,  both  great  and  small,  should  have 
equal  representation  in  Congress.  Their  prolonged  op- 
position threatened  to  ruin  the  whole  plan,  when  a 
method  of  compromise  was  fortunately  discovered.  It 
was  intended  that  the  national  legislature,  in  imitation 
of  the  state  legislatures,  should  have  an  upper  house  or 
senate,  and  at  first  the  advocates  of  a  strong  national 
government  proposed  that  the  senate  also  should  repre- 
sent population.  But  it  happened  that  in  the  state  of  Con- 1  ue  lou- 
necticut  a  unique  governmental  method  had  been  adopt- 5,'^'^*""'^ 
ed.  There  it  had  always  been  the  custom  to  elect  the  gov-  na™!"^ 
ernor  and  upper  house  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  whole 
people,  while  for  each  township  there  was  an  equality 
of  representation  in  the  lower  house.  The  Connecticut 
delegates  in  the  convention,  therefore,  being  familiar 
with  a  legislature  in  which  the  two  houses  were  elected 
on  different  principles,  suggested  a  compromise.  Let 
the  house  of  representatives,  they  said,  represent  the 
people,  and  let  the  senate  represent  the  states;  let  all 
the  states,  great  and  small,  be  equally  represented  in 
the  senate.  Such  was  the  famous  "Connecticut  Com- 
promise." Had  this  not  been  adopted  the  convention 
would  doubtless  have  broken  up  without  accomplish 
ing  its  purpose.  After  it  was  accepted,  and  the  jealous 
fears  of  the  smaller  states  allayed,  the  work,  yet  to  be 
accomplished,  was  comparatively  ea.sy. 

106.  Thus  it  came  about  that  the  upper  house  of  the  TiieScnawi|j 
national  legislature  is  composed  of  two  senators  from 
each  state.  As  they  represent  the  state,  they  are 
chosen  by  its  legislature  and  not  by  the  people.  They 
are  chosen  for  a  term  of  six  years,  and  one-third  of  the 
number  of  terms  expire  every  second  year,  so  that, 
while  the  whole  senate  may  be  renewed  by  the  lapse  of 
six  years,  there  is  never  a  "new  senate."  The  senate 
has  thus  a  continuous  existence  and  a  permanent  or- 
ganization, whereas  each  house  of  representatives  ex- 
pires at  the  end  of  a  two-years'  term,  which  is  usuaUy 

known  as  a  "congress,"  and  is  succeeded  by  a  "new 
house."  A  candidate  for  the  senatorship  must  be  at 
least  thirty  years  of  age,  must  have  been  nine  years  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  and  must  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  state  which  he  represents. 

107.  Congress  must  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  Time  of 
year,  and  the  constitution  appoints  the  first  Monday  in  .^ssembiinp 
December  for  the  time  of  meeting;  but  Congress  can, 

if  necessary,  enact  a  law  changing  the  time.  The  es- 
tablished custom  is  to  hold  the  election  for  representa- 
tives upon  the  same  day  as  the  election  for  president  - 
the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November.  As 
the  period  of  the  new  administration  does  not  begin 
until  the  fourth  day  of  the  following  March,  the  new 


UIs'ITEI)     STATES 


<4( 


I 


house  of  representatives  docs  not  assemble  until  the 
December  following  that  date,  unless  the  new  president 
should  think  it  necessary  to  call  aa  extra  session  of 
Congress  at  an  earlier  date.  Each  house  is  judge  of 
the  elections,  qualifications  and  returns  of  its  own 
members,  determines  its  own  rules  of  procedure  and 
may  punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  or  by 
a  two-thirds  vote  expel  a  member.  Absent  members 
may  be  compelled  under  penalties  to  attend.  Each 
house  is  required  to  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings, 
and  at  proper  intervals  to  publish  it,  except  such  parts 
as  for  reasons  of  public  policy  should  be  kept  secret. 

108.  Senators  and  representatives  receive  a  fixed  sal- 
arj-  by  law,  which  is  paid  out  of  the  public  treasury. 
In  all  cases,  except  treason  or  felony  or  breach  of  the 
PriTile<^3   peace,  they  are  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  at- 
oT  mem-      tendance  in  Congress,  as  also  while  on  their  way  to  it 
l**"^-  and  while  returning  home:  "  and  for  any  speech  or  de- 

bate in  either  house  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any 
other  place.' '  During  the  session  of  Congress  neither 
house  may,  without  the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn 
for  more  than  three  days,  or  to  any  other  place  than 
that  in  which  Congress  is  sittinjr.  No  person  can  at 
the  same  time  hold  any  civil  office  under  the  United 
States  government  and  be  a  member  of  either  house  of 
Congress, 
residing  ■  J09.  The  vice-president  is  the  presiding  officer  in  the 
'^'^'^'''  senate,  with  power  to  vote  only  in  case  of  a  tie.  The 
house  of  representatives  elects  its  presiding  officer, 
who  is  called  the  Speaker.  In  the  early  histoiy  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  in  England,  its  presiding  officer 
was  naturally  enough  its  spo/Ltiima}i.  He  could  speak 
for  it  in  addressing  the  crown.  Instances  of  this  kind 
occurred  during  the  fourteenth  century,  until  in  13T6 
the  title  of  Speaker  was  definitely  given  to  Sir  Thomas 
Hungerford,  and  from  that  date  the  title  has  always 
held.  The  same  title  was  given  to  the  presiding  officers 
of  the  American  colonial  assemblies,  and  thence  it 
passed  on  to  the  state  and  federal  legislatures.  The 
Speaker  presides  over  the  debates,  puts  the  questions 
and  decides  points  of  order.  He  also  appoints  the 
committees  of  the  house  of  representatives. 
Power  of  110.  The  house  of  representatives  has  the  sole 
■mpeacb-  power  of  impeachment,  and  the  senate  has  the  sole 
weot.  power  to  try  all  impeachments.     When  the  president 

of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  chief  justice  of  the 
supreme  court  must  preside.  A.<'  j  precaution  against 
the  use  of  impeachment  for  party  purposes,  a  two- 
thirds  vote  is  required  for  conviction.  In  case  of  con- 
viction the  judgment  cannot  extend  further  than  "to 
removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  or 
enjoy  any  office  of  "honor,  trust  or  profit  under  the 
United  States;"  but  the  person  convicted  is  liable  af- 
terward to  be  tried  and  punished  by  the  ordinary  pro- 
cess of  law. 

111.  The  constitutional  provisions  for  legislation  are 
admirably  simple.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  must 
originate  iu  the  lower  house,  but  the  upper  house  may 
propose  or  concur  with  amendments  as  in  the  case  of 
other  bills.  After  a  bill  has  passed  both  houses,  it  must 
go  to  the  president  for  his  approval.  If  he  approves 
.  it,  he  signs  it,  and  it  becomes  a  law.  If  he  disapproves 
dmt'^'veto  '^'  ^®  returns  it  to  the  house  in  which  it  originated, 
power.  with  a  written  statement  of  bis  objections,  which  must 
be  entered  in  full  upon  the  journal  of  the  house.  The 
bill  is  then  reconsidered,  and  if  it  obtains  a  two-thirds 
vote  it  is  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other 
house.  If  it  passes  there  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  it 
becomes  a  law.  Otherwise  it  fails.  If  the  president 
keeps  a  bill  longer  than  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted) 
without  signing  it,  it  becomes  a  law  without  his  signa- 
ture, unless  Congress  adjourns  before  the  expiration 
of  the  ten  days,  in  which  case  it  fails  to  become  a  law, 
just  as  if  it  had  been  vetoed.  This  method  of  vetoing 
bills  just  before  the  expiration  of  Congress,  by  keeping 
'in  one's  pocket,  so  to  speak,  was  styled  a  "pocket 


veto,"  and  was  first  employed  by  President  Jackson  iu 
1829. 

112.  By  the  constitution,    Congress  has  the  power  P°*'"' 

"  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts  and  excises.  f.onJ'reasT 
to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defense 
and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States,"  but  all 
duties,  etc.,  were  to  be  uniform  throughout  the  United 
States.  Other  powers  are  naturally  attached  to  this — 
such  as  the  power  to  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of 
the  United  States  ;  to  regulate  foreign  and  domestic 
commerce ;  to  coin  money  and  fix  the  standard  of 
weights  and  measures  ;  to  provide  for  the  punishment 
of  counterfeiters  ;  to  establish  post-offices  and  post- 
roads  ;  to  issue  copyrights  and  patents  ;  to  establish 
courts  inferior  to  the  supreme  court ;  to  punish 
offenses  committed  on  the  high  seas,  or  against  the  law 
of  nations  ;  todeclare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land 
and  water ;  to  raise  and  support  an  army  and  navy  (no 
appropriation  to  be  for  more  than  two  years),  and  to 
make  rules  for  the  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces  ;  to  provide  for  calling  out  the  militia  to  suppress 
insurrections  and  repel  invasions,  and  to  command  the 
militia  while  actually  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States.  The  several  states,  however,  were  to 
train  their  own  militia  and  appoint  the  officers.  Con- 
gress may  also  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturaliza- 
tion, and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies, 
but  it  has  not  5'et  done  so.  It  was  also  empowered  to 
establish  a  national  capital  or  feder.il  district  (which  is 
the  District  of  Columbia,  containing  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington), to  exercise  exclusive  control  over  it,  and  over 
forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dockyards  and  other  need- 
ful buildings,  which  it  erects  within  the  several  states 
upon  lands  purchased  for  such  purposoB  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  state  legislature  ;  and  finally,  "  to  make  all 
laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  execution  the  foregoing  powers  and  all  other 
powers  vested  by  this  constitution  in  the  government  _. 
of  the  United  States,  cr  in  any  department  or  office  "Elastic, 
thereof.''  This  last  clause  maybe  called  the  elastic  CLsase."' 
clause  of  the  constitution.  It  has  been  the  subject  of 
continued  debate,  and  has  undergone  a  great  deal  of 
stretching  for  one  purpose  and  another.  It  was  a  pro- 
found disagreement  in  the  interpretation  of  this  clause 
which,  after  1789,  divided  the  American  people  into  two 
great  political  parties. 

113.  The  national  authority  of  Congress  is  further 
sharply  defined  by  the  express  denial  of  sundry  powers  I'oH-ers 
to  the  several  states.     The  states  are  expressly  forbid-  denied  to 
den  to  impose  any  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  ""^  Statefc 
for  inspection  charges,  which  must  be  passed  over  to 

the  treasury  of  the  United  States  ;  to  make  treaties  of 
any  kind  ;  to  lay  any  duty  on  tonnage  ;  to  keep  troops 
or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace  ;  to  engage  in  war 
unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  aa 
will  admit  of  no  delay  ;  to  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal ;  to  coin  money  ;  to  emit  bills  of  credit ;  to 
make  anything  but  silver  a  legal  tender  ;  to  pass  any 
bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  f ado  law,  or  law  impairing  the 
obligation  of  contracts,  or  to  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

114.  Some  express  prohibitions  were  laid  upon  theProl'hi; 
National  Government.     Duties  may  be  laid  upon  im-  ,j°°*  '*''^ 
ports,  but  not  upon  exports.     Duties  and  excises  must  Con^resa 
be  uniform  throughout  the  country,  and  no  commercial 
preference  can  be  shown  one  state  over  another.  The  pri- 
vilege of  the  writ  of  hah,'<is  corpus  cannot  be  suspended 
except  "when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public 
safety  may  require  it."     A  census  must  be  taken  every 

10  years  in  order  to  adjust  representation,  and  no  direct 
tax  can  be  imposed  except  according  to  the  census. 
No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  law  can  be  passed. 
A  bill  of  attainder  is  a  special  legislative  act  by  which 
a  person  may  be  condemned  to  death,  or  to  outlawry 
and  banishment,  without  the  opportunity  of  defending 
himself,  to  which  he  is  entitled  in   a  court  of  law,,. 


(48 


UNITED      STATES 


Congress  can  grant  no  title  of  nobility,  and  no  federal 
officer  can  accept  a  present,  office,  or  title  from  a 
foreign  state  without  the  consent  of  Congress.  "No 
religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to 
any  office  or  public  trust  uuder  the  United  Slates." 
Money  is  to  be  taken  from  the  treasury  only  in  con- 
sequence of  appropriations  made  by  law. 
Qnalifica-  115.  ffo  one  is  eligible  to  the  otfice  of  president  un- 
tbTprSi^  '^s*  ^®  '^  *  native  born  citizen.  The  candidate  must 
■deDcy.  be  at  least  35  years  old,  and  must  have  been  14  years  a 
resident  of  the  United  States.  The  president's  term  of 
office  is  four  years.  The  constitution  says  nothing 
about  his  re-election,  and  there  is  no  written  law  for- 
bidding his  being  re-elected  many  times.  Some  of  the 
presidents  have  served  two  consecutive  terms,  and  it 
seems  to  have  become  the  established  custom  not  to  go 
beyond  that.  The  president  is  solemnly  sworn  to 
execute  his  office  faithfully,  and  "to  preserve,  protect, 
and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  "  to 
the  best  of  his  ability.  In  case  of  his  death,  resigna- 
tion, or  inability  to  perform  the  duties  of  his  office,  the 
vice-president  takes  his  place;  and,  in  the  case  of  the 
inability  of  both,  the  members  of  the  cabinet  succeed 
in  the  order  prescribed  in  the  Presidential  Succession 
and'dn'ues  Act  of  1886.  The  president  is  commander  in-chief  of 
of  the  the  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States,  and 
president,  gf  the  mUitia  in  the  several  states  actually  engaged  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States:  and  he  has  the  pre- 
rogative of  granting  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offences 
against  the  Uniti  d  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeach- 
ment. He  can  make  treaties  with  foreign  powers;  but 
no  treaty  is  valid  unless  contirmed  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  the  senate.  He  appoints  ministers  to  foreign 
countries,  consuls,  and  the  greater  officers,  such  as  the 
heads  of  executive  departments  and  judges  of  the 
supreme  court,  and  all  other  officers  whose  appoint- 
ment Congress  has  not  vested  in  other  officers;  but 
all  presidental  appointments  are  to  be  confirmed  by 
the  senate.  When  vacancies  occur  during  the  recess 
of  the  senate,  be  may  fill  them  by  granting  commis- 
sions to  expire  at  the  end  of  the  next  session.  He 
commissions  all  federal  officers.  He  receives  all 
foreign  ministers.  He  may  summon  either  or  both 
houses  of  Congress  to  an  extra  session,  and  if  the  two 
houses  disagree  in  regard  to  the  time  of  adjournment, 
he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  a  time  as  he  thinks  best, 
but  of  course,  not  beyond  the  time  fixed  for  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nest  regular  session.  The  president  must 
from  time  to  time  make  a  report  to  Congress  on  the 
The  State  of  affairs  in  the  country,  and  suggest  such  a  line 

Pr.bideui'SQj-  policy  or  such  special  measures  as  may  seem  proper 
message  ^^  j^.^  rpj^.^  report  has  taken  the  form  of  an  annual 
written  message.  He  may  also  call  upon  the  heads  of 
departments  for  an  opinion,  in  writing,  on  any  subject 
relating  to  such  department.  The  president  is  paid  by 
the  United  States,  and  his  salary  is  not  to  be  increased 
or  diminished  by  Congress  during  his  term  of  office. 
The  act  authorizing  any  increase  must  apply  only  to 
the  successors  of  the  president  who  signs  the  act. 
116.  The  constitution  made  no  express  provision  for 
iopiri'^"  the  creation  of  executive  departments,  but  left  the 
montp.  matter  to  Congress.  At  the  beginning  of  Washington's 
administration  three  departments  were  created — those 
of  state,  treasury  and  war,  and  an  attorney  general  was 
appointed.  Since  then  the  number  of  departments  has 
been  increased,  until  now  (1890)  there  are  eight:  those 
of  state,  of  the  treasury,  of  war,  of  the  navy,  of  the 
post-office,  of  the  interior,  of  justice,  and  of  agriculture. 
The  chief  officer  of  each  department  is  called  its  secretary. 
The  secretaries  of  these  departments  are  the  president's 
advisers,  and  constitute  his  cabinet.  They  are  selected 
by  the  president  and  are  confirmed  by  tbe  senate,  but 
are  responsible  to  no  one  but  the  president. 

IIT.  The  secretary  of  state  ranks  first  among  the 
cabinet  officers.  He  is  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  is  the  only  officer  who  is  authorized  to  communicate 


with  other  governments  In  the  name  of  the  prertdent. 
He  is  at  the  head  of  the  diplomatic  and  consular  service, 
issuing  instructions  to  the  United  States  ministers 
abroad,  and  taking  a  leading  part  in  the  negotiation  of 
treaties.  He  keeps  the  national  archives,  and  superin- 
tends the  publication  of  laws,  treaties  and  proclama- 
tions, and  he  is  the  keeper  of  the  great  seal  of  the 
United  States.  The  cabinet  officer  next  in  rank  is  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury.  He  conducts  the  financial  Secretary 
business  of  the  country,  superintends  the  collection  of  Treesnrr. 
revenue,  and  gives  warrants  for  the  payment  of  moneys 
out  of  the  treasury.  He  also  superintends  the  coinage, 
the  national  banks,  the  custom-houses,  the  coast-survey 
and  lighthouse  system,  the  marine  hospitals,  and  life- 
saving  service.  He  sends  reports  to  Congress,  and  sug- 
gests such  measures  as  seem  good  to  him.  He  is  aided 
by  two  assistant  secretaries,  six  auditors,  a  register,  a 
comptroller,  a  solicitor,  a  director  of  the  mint,  com- 
missioner of  internal  revenue,  chiefs  of  the  bureau  of 
statistics  and  bureau  of  printing  and  engraving,  etc. 

118.  The  war  and  navy  departments  need  no  special  W'"'  *""^ 
description  here.     The  war  department  is  divided  into°*^^' 
ten  bureaus,  among  which  is  the  weather  bureau,  pre- 
sided over  by  the  chiof  signal  officer.      The  navy  de- 
partment consists  of  eight  bureaus,  and  among  its  many 
duties  it  has  charge  of  the  nav.al  observatory  at  Wash- 
ington, and  publishes  the  nautical  almanac.     The  de-  _ 
partment  of  the  interior  is  divided  into  eight  bureaus.  nien"oif 

It  deals  with  public  lands,   pensions,   patents,  Indian  thelnterior 
affairs,   education,   public  documents,  and  the  census. 
The  postmaster  generals  department  has  to  do  with  Postmaster 
the   po.'ital  affairs  of  the  couutry.     The  attorney-gen- General  and 
eral's  departraent  was  organized  in  1870  into  the  depart-  Attomej- 
ment  of  justice.  The  attorney-general  is  the  president's 
legal  adviser,  and  represents  the  United  States  in  all 
law  suits  to  which  the  United  States  is  a  party.     The 
agricultural  department,  which  was  created  in   1889.  Agricnlt- 
superintends  the  agricultural  interests  of  the  country,     ural  De- 

119.  The  best  method  of  electing  the  president  was  P^u'™*"'- 
a  question  which  perplexed  the  constitutional  conven- 
tion as  much  as  any  other.     To  submit  the  election  of 

an  officer  so  exalted  to  the  popular  vote,  was  regarded 
with  general  distrust.  At  one  time  the  convention  de- 
cided to  have  the  president  elected  by  Congress,  but 
there  was  a  grave  objection  to  this;  it  would  be  likely 
to  destroy  his  independence  and  make  him  the  mere 
creature  of  Congress.  At  last  the  plan  of  an  electoral  'The 
college  was  devised.  Each  state  is  entitled  to  a  num- S']^'"*' 
ber  of  electors  equal  to  the  number  of  its  representa- 
tives and  senators  together;  and  the  electors  choose  the 
president  and  vice-president,  meeting  at  their  state  cap- 
itals for  that  purpose,  and  sending  separate  certificates 
of  their  choice  of  president  and  vice-president  to  the 
presiding  officer  of  the  Senate  at  Washington.  No  fed- 
eral senator  or  representative,  or  any  person  holding 
civil  office  under  the  United  States,  can  serve  as  an 
elector.  Each  state  may  appoint  or  choose  its  electors 
in  such  a  manner  as  it  sees  fit;  at  first,  they  were  more 
often  than  otherwise  chosen  by  the  legislatures;  now 
they  are  always  elected  by  the  people.  The  day  of 
election  must  be  the  same  in  all  the  states.  By  act  of 
Congress  the  electors  are  to  be  chosen  on  the  Tuesday 
after  the  first  Monday  in  November. 

120.  It  was  the  original  intention  that  the  electors  powen  of 
should  be  left  free  to  make  their  own  choice,  and  there  electors, 
are  instances  in  early  years  of  electors  of  one  party 
voting  for  personal  friends  of  the  opposite  party.     At 

first  the  electoral  votes  did  not  state  whether  the  candi- 
dates named  in  them  were  candidates  for  the  presi- 
dency or  vice  presidency.  Each  elector  simply  wrote 
down  two  names,  only  one  of  which  could  be  the  name 
of  a  citizen  of  his  own  state.  In  the  official  count,  the 
candidate  who  had  the  highest  number  of  votes,  pro- 
vided they  were  a  majority  of  the  whole  number,  was 
declared  president,  and  the  next  highest  became  vice- 
president.     The  natural  result  of  this  was  seen  in  the 


U  K  I  T  E  I)     STATES 


r+p 


The 
twelfth 
Amend- 
ment. 


The 

electoral 
comnufi- 
noD. 


Keed  for  a 

federal 

JBdiciary. 


Ooorts. 


first  contested  election  in  1796.  which  gave  thfi  presi- 
dency to  John  Adams,  -while  his  tantagonist,  Thomas 
Jefferson,  became  vice-president.  In  1800.  Jefferson 
and  his  colleague  Burr  received  exactly  the  same  num- 
ber of  electoral  votes.  This  threw  the  election  into  the 
house  of  representatives,  and  such  intrigues  followed 
for  the  purpose  of  defeating  Jefferson  that  the  country 
was  threatened  with  civil  war.  This  uecessitated  a 
change  in  the  method  of  election.  In  1804,  the  twelfth 
amendment  was  adopted.  The  method  by  this  amend- 
ment was  changed  so  that  the  electors  make  sepa- 
rate ballots  for  president  and  vice-president.  In  the 
official  count  the  votes  for  the  president  are  first  counted. 
If  no  candidate  has  a  majority  then  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives must  immediately  choose  the  president 
from  the  three  names  highest  on  the  list.  In  this  choice 
the  house  votes  by  states,  each  state  having  one  vote; 
a  quorum  for  this  purpose  must  consist  of  at  least  one 
member  from  two-thirds  of  the  states,  and  a  majority 
of  all  the  states  is  necessary  for  a  choice.  Then  if  no 
candidate  for  the  vice-presiaency  has  a  majority,  the 
senate  makes  its  choice  from  the  two  names  highest  on 
the  list.  A  quorum  for  the  purpose  consists  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  senators,  and  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  is  necessary  to  a  choice. 

121.  In  1877  an  unforeseen  difficulty  arose,  and  one 
for  which  no  provision  had  been  made.  During  the 
presidential  contest  between  Tilden  and  Hayes.  South 
Carolina,  Florida  and  Louisiana  had  each  set  up  rival 
governments.  Ballots  for  Tilden  and  ballots  for  Hayes 
were  sent  in  at  the  same  time  by  the  two  hostile  sets  of 
electors  in  each  of  ttiese  states,  each  list  being  certified 
by  one  of  the  two  rival  governors  in  the  same  state.  In 
the  absence  of  any  recognized  means  of  deciding  which 
ballots  to  count,  the  two  parlies  in  Congress  submitted 
the  result  to  arbitration.  An  "electoral  commission" 
was  created  for  the  occasion,  consisting  of  five  sena- 
tors, five  representatives  and  five  judges  of  the  suprenie 
court.  By  this  expedient,  a  clumsy  one  perhaps,  the 
difficulty  was  tided  over.  The  question  of  confliciinij 
returns  has  at  length  been  set  at  rest  by  the  act  of  1887, 
which  provides  that  no  electoral  votes  can  be  rejected 
in  counting,  except  by  the  joint  action  of  both  houses 
of  Congress. 

122.  The  judiciary  is  the  third  of  the  three  great  de- 
partmems  of  the  general  government.  The  constitu- 
tion itself  provides  for  one  supreme  court,  but  leaves  to 
Congress  to  determine  how  many  Inferior  courts  should 
be  established.  The  organization  of  the  supreme  court 
is  also  left  to  Congress.  Tue  chief  reason  why  a  na- 
tional judiciary  is  necessary  in  addition  to  the  stale  sys- 
tems is  that  the  state  judges  might  be  biased  in  favor 
of  their  own  state.  Laws  of  Congress  often  bear  with 
greater  hardship  on  some  stales  than  others,  and  pub- 
lic opinion  in  those  states  upon  whom  the  burden  lay, 
might  be  so  strong  in  opposition,  that  no  judge  elected 
and  supported  by  those  people  would  sustain  it.  But 
if  the  judge  belonged  to  a  national  system,  and  thus 
represented  and  was  supported  by  the  whole  nation,  he 
would  have  nothing  to  fear,  and  thus  his  decision  would 
be  more  impartial.  The  experience  of  the  confedera- 
tion taught  this.  The  national  judiciary  consists  of 
three  grades  of  courts:  The  supreme  court,  the  circuit 
courts  and  the  district  courts.  The  supreme  court  is 
the  highest  in  the  land,  ar:d  was  established  by  the 
constitution  itself.  The  others  were  established  by 
Oangress.  The  supreme  court  consists  at  present  of  a 
chief  justice  and  eight  associate  jaslices,  and  its  juris- 
diction is  almost  wholly  appellate;  that  is,  cases  are  not 
tried  in  it,  but  it  only  hears  appeals  from  other  courts, 
and  that  9nly  in  the  most  important  cases.  It  has  orig- 
inal jurisdiction  in  a  few  cases.  Of  the  circuit  courts 
there  are  nine  in  the  country.  Each  of  the  nine  judges 
of  the  supreme  court  is  also  presiding  judge  of  a  cir- 
cuit court.  The  area  of  the  United  States,  not  includ- 
ing the  territories,  is  divided  into  nine  circuits,  and  in 


each  circuit  the  presiding  judge  is  assisted  by  special 
circuit  judges.  The  circuits  are  divided  into  fifty  six 
districts  and  in  each  of  these  there  is  a  special  district 
iudge.  The  districts  never  cross  state  lines.  They 
cover  each  a  state  or  a  part  of  i  otate. 

123.  By  the  constitution,  the  judges  hold  office  dur- 
ing good  behavior.  In  no  other  depsrtment  of  the  gen- 
eral government  are  offices  held  for  so  long  a  term. 
The  purpose  is  to  insure  a  correct  and  impartial  admin- 
istration of  justice  by  making  the  judges  independent 
of  conflicting  parties.  The  object  of  the  ffamers  of  the 
constitution  was  to  remove  them  as  far  as  possible  from 
undue  political  influences.  As  with  the  president,  so 
in  this  case.  Congress,  though  it  fixes  the  salaries  of 
the  judges,  cannot  diminish  them  while  in  office.  The 
jurisdiction  of  the  federal  courts  does  not  extend  to  all 
kinds  of  cases,  but  only  to  si'.ch  as  the  constitution 
specifies.  The  cases  enumerated  in  the  constitution  in 
which  the  national  courts  have  jurisdiction  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  general  classes,  (1)  those  arising  under 
the  coDslitution,  the  laws  of  Congress  and  treaties,  (2) 
those  affecting  foreigners,  and  (3)  those  between  differ- 
ent states  or  the  citizens  of  different  states.  Cases 
which  arise  under  the  constitution,  laws  or  treaties  of 
the  United  Stales  may  be  those  where  a  person  ;s  given 
a  right  by  the  constitution,  etc.,  which  he  does  not  have 
by  the  laws  of  his  state,  as  for  Instance  a  right  to  sue 
an  infringer  of  a  patent  granted  to  him,  or  where  he 
violates  a  law  of  Congress  or  treaty,  as  counterfeiting 
coin,  or  doing  anything  forbidden  by  a  treaty,  or  where 
any  question  arises  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  constitu- 
tion, laws  or  treaties  of  the  United  States,  dt  as  to 
whether  a  law  of  Congress  is  constitutional  or  not.  la 
these  cases  it  makes  no  difference  whether  the  parties 
are  citizens  of  the  came  slate  or  not.  The  jurisdiction  is 
given  to  the  national  judiciary  for  two  reasons:  First, 
in  order  that  in  the  interpretation  and  enforcement  of 
its  own  laws,  it  may  not  be  dependent  on  the  states; 
and  second,  in  order  that  the  interpretation  may  be 
uniform  throughout  the  country. 

124.  In  cases  affecting  foreigners,  the  decision  prop- 
erly belongs  lo  the  federal  courts,  for  the  reason  that  if 
a  foreigner  is  injured  here,  the  nation,  and  not  the 
state,  is  responsible  to  the  foreigner's  government; 
therefore  the  nation,  and  not  the  state,  should  make 
redress  for  the  injury  And  where  the  foreigner  is  an 
ambassador,  Dr  other  minister,  the  supreme  court  has 
original  jurisdiction  in  the  case.  Admiralty  jurisdic- 
tion is  also  given  to  the  federal  courts,  for  the  reason 
that  many  admiralty  cases  affect  foreigners.  Another 
reason  is,  that  admiralty  is  a  part  of  the  regulation  of 
commerce  which  is  a  subject  taken  away  from  the 
states  and  given  entirely  to  the  United  States. 

125.  The  third  class  of  cases  in  which  the  federal 
courts  have  jurisdiction,  is  where  the  parties  on  the 
two  sides,  plaintiff  and  defendant.  Are  either  two  dif- 
ferent states,  or  citizens  of  different  states.  The  federal 
courts  are  to  decide  controver;  ies  between  two  or  more 
states;  because,  domestic  tranquility  requires  that  the 
contention  of  states  should  be  peacefully  terminated  by 
a  common  judicatory  and  because,  in  a  free  country, 
justice  ought  not  to  depend  on  thewi'.lof  either  of  the  lit- 
igants. They  are  to  decide  controversies  between  a  state 
and  the  citizens  of  another  state;  because.in  case  a  slate 
(which  comprehends  all  its  citizens)  has  demands 
against  some  citizens  of  another  state,  it  is  better  that 
she  should  prosecute  their  demands  in  a  federal  court 
than  in  a  court  of  the  state  to  which  those  citizens  be- 
long, the  danger  of  irritation  and  criminations  arising 
from  apprehensions  and  suspicions  of  partiality  being 
thereby  obviated.  They  are  to  decide  controversies 
between  citizens  of  the  same  state  claiming  lands  under 
grants  of  different  states;  because,  as  the  rights  of  the 
two  states  to  grant  the  land  are  drawn  into  question, 
neither  of  the  two  states  ought  to  decide  the  contro- 
versy. 


Ten  n  re  of 
office. 


Salary. 

Fe<leral 

jnrigdie- 

tion. 


Cases  an4er 
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States  laws. 


i_  a*e9 

attecting 

foreigirer^ 


Ca«.!3 

affecting 

different 

States  OP 

toeir 

citizens. 


loO 


UNITED      STATES 


Dovtor 
■.tates. 


126.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  extends 
to  all  cases  of  law  and  equity  arising  under  the  consti- 
tution and  laws  thereof,  and  to  treaties  made  under 
their  authoritj'.  But  there  are  two  kinds  of  jurisdic- 
tion, original  and  appellate.  Original  jurisdiction  is 
jurisdiction  of  a  cause  from  its  beginning.  If  a  party 
can  biffin  his  suit  in  the  circuit  court,  for  instance, 
then  that  court  has  original  jurisdiction  in  the  case. 
If  he  cannot  bring  his  case  into  the  circuit  court  until 
it  has  been  tried  in  some  lower  court,  then  the  circuit 
court  is  said  to  have  appellate  jurisdiction.  Appeal 
lies  from  the  district  court  to  the  circuit  court  when 
the  matter  involved  is  of  a  value  greater  than  $500,  and 
from  the  circuit  court  to  the  supreme  court  when  $5,000 
or  more  is  involved. 

127.  No  direct  suit  can  be  brought  against  the  United 
States  either  by  a  citizen  or  a  state,  without  the  author- 
ity of  an  act  of  Congress.  But  in  1855  Congress  estab- 
lished a  court,  called  the  court  of  claims,  in  which 
tho^e  having  claims  against  the  United  States,  may 
br  jg  a  suit  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  demand  is  pre- 
sented to  the  court  by  petition,setting  forth  specifically 
its  origin  and  nature,  and  the  party  is  allowed  to  prove 
it  by  the  same  rules  of  evidence  which  are  usually 
adopted  in  a  court  of  justice.  If  a  claim  is  established 
Congress  makes  provision  for  its  payment.  An  attor- 
ney, called  the  solicitor  of  the  United  States,  appears 
before  this  court  in  behalf  of  the  government. 

128.  In  the  constitution,  treason  is  made  to  consist 
only  in  levying  war  against  the  nation,  or  in  adhering 
to  its  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  The 
purpose  was  to  make  the  meaning  as  definite  as  possi 
ble,  so  that  all  opportunity  for  constructive  treason 
might  be  removed.  It  has  been  decided  by  the  court 
that  there  must  be  an  actual  levying  of  war;  that  a  con- 
spiracy to  subvert  the  government  by  force  is  not  trea- 
son. But  if  war  be  actually  levied,  that  is,  if  a  body  of 
men  be  actually  assembled  for  the  purpose  of  effecting 
by  force  a  treasonable  purpose,  all  those  who  perform 
any  part,  however  minute,  or  however  remote  from  the 
scene  of  action,  and  who  are  actually  leagued  in  the 
general  conspiracy,  are  to  be  considered  as  traitors. 
Conviction  of  treason  requires  the  testimony  of  two 
witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act  of  treason,  or  a  confes- 
sion in  open  court.  A  private  confession  passes  for 
nothing.  To  Congress  is  given  the  power  to  declare 
the  punishment  of  treason,  "but  no  attainder  of  trea- 
son is  to  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  ex- 
cept during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted."  The 
attainder  spoken  of  in  this  clause  must  be  that  con- 
nected with  the  judgment  pronounced  by  a  court,  and 
not  a  legislative  attainder,  for  we  have  already  seen 
that  Congress  is  forbidden,  as  also  the  states,  from 
passing  any  bill  of  attainder.  Congress  might  provide 
for  a  judicial  attainder  in  the  case  of  treason,  but  the 
the  effects  of  this  attainder  must  be  limited  to  the  life 
of  the  offender. 

As  treason  is  a  crime  against  sovereignty,  a  violation 
of  one's  allegiance,  there  can  be  no  treason  against  a 
particular  state.  The  states,  however,  have  always  as- 
serted their  power  to  punish  for  treason  against  them 
individually.  It  has  never  been  fully  maiutained  in 
practice;  but  the  theory  had  its  effect  in  the  secession 
period.  If  a  state,  by  its  courts,  punishes  treason,  it 
must  not  be  as  treason  against  itself,  but  as  treason 
against  the  union;  and  in  this  view,  the  propriety  of 
that  state  legislation  which  atHxes  to  it  particular  pen- 
alties, is  doubtful.    . 

129.  Article  IV  of  the  constitution  contains  a  number 
of  important  provisions,  most  of  which  affect  the  rela- 
tions of  the  states  to  each  other,  and  to  the  general 
government.  The  first  one  is  in  regard  to  the  effect 
which  the  laws,  records  and  judgments  of  our  state 
shall  have  in  another,  and  the  provision  is  that  they 
shall  have  full  effect  everywhere.     No  state  can  grant 

orcVtiztiiiB.  privileges  to  its  own  citizens, from  which  the  citizens  of 


RclntioDB 

of  SttttCB. 


Pcjvitesea 


Other  states  are  esciuded.  There  must  be  an  equality 
of  citizenship  everywhere.  Without  such  a  provision, 
any  state  might  deny  to  citizens  of  other  states  the 
right  to  buy  and  hold  real  estate,  or  to  become  voters 
after  living  in  the  slate  the  prescribed  time,  or  to  enjoy 
equal  privileges  in  trade  or  business.  The  subject  of 
delivering  up  fugitives  from  justice,  is  one  which 
among  different  nations,  has  involved  some  doubts. 
The  constitution  of  the  United  States,  however,  pro- 
vides that  they  shall  always  be  given  up  to  those  who, 
in  the  states,  have  a  right  to  require  it.  By  the  com- 
mon law,  a  slave  escaping  into  a  non-slaveholding  state 
became  free.  But  the  constitution  provided  that  fugi- 
tive slaves  were  to  be  surrendered  to  their  owners. 
Escaped  slaves  were,  under  this  provision,  returned  to 
the  south  up  to  1861.  The  clause  is  of  course  obsolete 
now. 

130.  The  constitution  provides  for  the  admission  of 
new  states  to  the  union,  but  it  does  not  allow  a  state 
to  be  formed  within  another  state.  A  state  cannot  "be 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  states,  or  parts 
of  states,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures  of  the 
states  concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Congress."  Shortly 
before  the  making  of  the  constitution,  the  United 
States  had  been  endowed  for  the  first  time  with  a  pub- 
lic domain.  The  territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio  river 
had  been  claimed,  on  the  strength  of  old  grants  and 
charters,  by  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  York 
and  Virginia.  In  1777  Maryland  refused  to  sign  the 
iVrticles  of  Confederation  until  these  states  should 
agree  to  cede  their  claims  to  the  United  States,  ani 
thus,  m  1784,  the  Federal  government  came  into  pos- 
session of  a  magnificent  territory,  out  of  which  fivf 
great  states — Ohio,  Indiana,  lUinr-'s,  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin — have  since  been  made.  While  the  Federal 
convention  was  sitting  at  Philadelphia  the  Continental 
Congress  at  New  York  was  doing  almost  its  last,  and 
one  of  its  greatest  pieces  of,  work  in  framing  the  ordi 
nance  of  1787  for  the  organization  and  government  ol 
this  newly  acquired  territory. 

131.  In  1803  the  vast  territory  of  Louisiana,  compris 
ing  everything  (except  Texas)  between  the  Mississipp 
river  and  the  crest  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  was  pur- 
chased from  France.  A  claim  upon  the  Oregon  terri- 
tory was  soon  afterward  made  by  discovery  and  ex- 
ploration, and  finally  settled  in  1846  by  treaty  with 
Great  Britain.  In  1848  by  conquest,  and  in  1853  by 
purchase,  the  remaining  Pacific  lands  were  acquired 
from  Mexico.  All  of  this  vast  region  has  been  at  some 
time  under  territorial  government.  As  for  Texas,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  has  never  been  a  territory.  Texas 
revolted  from  Mexico  in  1836  and  remained  an  inde- 
pendent state  until  1845  when  she  was  admitted  to  the 
union.  Territorial  government  has  generally  passed 
through  three  stages:  First,  there  are  governors  and 
judges  appointed  by  the  president;  then,  as  population 
increases,  there  is  added  a  legislature  chosen  by  the 
people,  and  empowered  to  make  laws  subject  to  con- 
firmation by  Congress;  finally,  entire  legislative  inde- 
pendence is  granted.  The  state  is  then  ripe  for  admis- 
sion to  the  union  as  a  state. 

133.  The  national  government  was  to  guarantee  to 
each  of  the  states  a  republican  form  of  government, 
and  to  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion  or,  on  ap- 
plication of  the  legislature  or  governor,  against  domes- 
tic violence.  This  clause  makes  a  republican  govern- 
ment necessary  in  every  state.  It  is  equivalent  to 
saying  that  no  other  shall  be  permitted  to  be  estab- 
lished. This  is  the  only  instance  in  the  constitution 
where  the  government  has  a  duty  enjoined  upon  it, 
while  the  particular  department  is  not  mentioned. 
Here  the  obligation  is  from  the  United  States  to  the 
states;  but  whether  to  be  exercised  by  the  president  or 
by  Congress  is  one  of  the  questions  that  has  grown  out 
of  the  reconstruction  measures.  In  the  case  of  Rhode 
Island    the    supreme  court  held  "It  rests  with  Con- 


Fu2itive 
criminuts 


Fugitive 

aiaves. 


Kew 

States. 


The 

Northwe© 

Territory. 


Other  lem 
toriee  and 
their  iioy- 
f-rnmente. 


(inaractce 
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UNITED     STATED 


i.jj 


goTeni 
■neat. 


»»»l»goi- 


eress  to  decide  what  govprnment  is  the  established  one 
ju  a  state.  For,  as  the  Unued  Stales  guarantee  to  each 
Btate  a  republican  government.  Congress  must  necessar- 
ily decide  what  government  is  established  before  it 
can  determine  whether  it  is  republican  or  not.  And 
when  the  senators  and  representatives  of  a  state  are 
admitted  to  the  councils  of  the  union,  the  authority  of 
the  government  under  which  they  are  appointed,  as 
well  as  its  republican  character,  is  recognized  by  the 
proper  authority." 
Bepnblic.tn  133.  The  constitution  does  not  define  a  republican 
government.  The  national  government  may  be  as- 
sumed to  be  republican  in  form,  and  thus  a  model  for 
the  states,  Mr.  Madison  says:  "We  may  define  a  re- 
public to  be  a  government  which  derives  all  its  powers 
directly  or  indirectly  from  the  great  body  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  is  administered  by  persons  holding  their  offices 
during  pleasure,  for  a  limited  period,  or  during  good 
behavior."  Farrar  says:  "The  principle  of  republi- 
canism is  the  equal  right  of  the  people,  the  citizens,  all 
the  members  of  the  body  politic.  In  theory  it  is  the 
government  of  public  opinion.  The  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  right  and  justice  for  the  government,  the 
representative  character  of  the  governors,  and  their 
practical  responsibility  to  the  governed,  are  the  essen- 
tials of  republicanism." 

134.  The  constitution  indirectly  requires  various 
provisions  in  the  state  governments  by  enjoining  duties. 
The  senators  of  the  United  States  are  to  be  elected  by 
the  state  legislatures.  Members  of  the  house  of 
representatives  are  to  be  elected  by  the  same  electors 
as  vote  for  the  members  of  the  most  numerous  branches 
of  the  state  legislature.  The  executive  of  the  states  is 
often  referred  to.  The  judges  are  to  take  oath  to  obey 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  Thus  the  states 
must  have  three  great  departments,  the  legislative, 
executive  and  judicial.  The  legislature  must  be  in  two 
branches,  and  the  most  numerous  branch  must  be 
elected  by  the  people.  The  states  are  supposed  to  have 
written  constitutions. 

135.  One  of  the  strongest  objections  urged  by  its 
opponents  agamst  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  as 
it  came  from  the  hands  of  the  convention,  was  the 
want  of  a  recognition  of  certain  rights  of  citizens.  To 
meet  this  objection,  in  September,  1789,  the  first  ten 

u^a'aitend-  amendments  were  proposed  by  Congress,  and  in  De- 
mesu.  cember,  1791,  they  were  declared  in  force.  These  ten 
amendments,  which  are  called  a  "Bill  of  Rights," 
because  they  contain  a  list  of  the  rights  deemed  most 
important  to  the  liberty  of  the  people,  do  not  change 
any  original  provision  of  the  constitution.  They  act 
merely  as  restrictions  and  limitations  upon  the  powers 
of  Congress,  and  were  deemed  unnecessary  by  those 
who  framed  the  constitution  for  the  reason  that  these 
rights  were  sr>  generally  acknowledged,  and  that  the 
powers  of  Congress  were  limited  to  those  expressly 
granted  to  it.  But  as  several  of  the  state  conventions 
had,  at  the  time  of  adopting  the  constitution,  expressed 
a  desire  that  declarations  and  guarantees  of  certain 
rights  should  be  added  in  order  to  prevent  miscon- 
struction and  abuse,  the  first  Congress,  at  its  first 
session,  proposed  twelve  amendments,  ten  of  which 
were  ratified  by  the  requisite  number  of  states.  These 
amendments  forbade  the  establishment  of  any  religion 
by  Congress,  or  any  abridgment  of  freedom  of  worship, 
of  speech,  or  of  the  press,  or  of  the  popular  right  to 
assemble  and  petitition  the  government  for  redress  of 
grievances,  the  billeting  of  soldiers,  unreasonable 
searches  or  seizures,  or  general  warrants,  trials  for 
infamous  critoes  except  through  the  action  of  a  grand 
jury,  subjecting  a  person  for  the  same  offence  to  be 
twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb,  compelling  him 
lo  witness  against  himself  in  criminal  cases,  the  taking 
of  life,  liberty,  or  property  without  due  process  of  law 
or  without  compensation  for  property,  and  the  demand 
of  excessive  bail,  or  the  imposition  of  excessive  or  of 


cruel  or  unusual  punishments.  They  confirmed  the 
right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms,  to  a  jury 
trial  from  the  vicinage  in  criminal  csises  or  in  cases 
involving  more  than  twenty  dollars,  to  a  copy  of  the 
indictment,  to  the  testimony  against  the  prisoner,  to 
compulsory  process  in  his  half,  and  to  counsel  for  him. 
Finally,  it  is  declared  that  "  the  enumeration  of  certain 
rights  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage 
others  retained  by  the  people,"  and  that  "the  powers 
not  granted  to  the  United  States  by  the  constitution, 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  states,  are  reserved  to  the 
states  respectively,  or  to  the  people." 

136.  All  the  debts  of  the  federation,  and  its  engage- 
ments, were  made  binding  on  the  new  government; 
and  the  constitution,  and  the  laws  and  treaties  to  be 
made  under  it  were  declared  to  be  "  the  supreme  law 
of  the  land;"  the  judges  in  every  state  were  to  be  bound  j"  *^° 
thereby,  "  anything  in  the  constitution  or  laws  of  any 
state  to  the  contrary  notwithst.anding."  The  language 
of  this  clause  is  clear  and  explicit.  The  people  of  the 
United  States  established  this  constitution  for  the 
United  States.  It  was  the  work  of  the  nation  itself, 
and  was  binding  in  every  part  of  the  republic.  This 
clause  was  intended  to  affirm  the  supremacy  of  the 
national  government  over  the  state  governments.  If 
the  constitution  was  not  the  supreme  law  of  the  land 
ic  would  not  be  a  consitution,  it  would  be  a  nullity. 
Its  supremacy  is  necessarily  involved  in  the  instrument 
itself,  yet  it  was  necessary  to  declare  it,  in  order  that 
all  might  understand  it  and  no  room  be  left  for 
controversy. 

VI.    TEE  GOVKBNMENT  UNDER  THE    CONSTITUTION. 

137.  As  soon  as  the  constitution  had  been  ratified  by 
the  requisite  number  of  states.  Congress  named  the 
first  Wednesday  in  January,  1789,  as  the  day  for  the 
choice  of  electors,  the  first  Wednesday  in  February  for 
the  choice  of  president  and  vice-president,  and  the 
first  Wednesday  in  March  for  the  inauguration  of  the 
new  government  at  New  York  city.  The  last  date  fell 
on  the  4th  of  March,  and  this  has  been  the  limit  of  each 
president's  term  since  that  time.  The  election  took 
place  at  the  appointed  time,  and  when  the  votes  of  the 
electors  were  counted  before  Congress  it  was  found 
that  George  Washington  had  been  unanimously  elected 
president,  and  that  John  Adams,  standing  next  on  the 
list,  was  vice-president.  Before  the  inauguration,  the 
old  Confederate  Congress  had  "  given  up  the  ghost." 
On  October,  1788,  its  record  ceased,  and  for  nearly  six 
months  the  United  States  were  without  any  national 
government.  The  contest  for  nationality  had  been  suc- 
cessful, and  the  old  order  of  things  passed  away  for 
ever. 

138.  The  nation  over  which  George  Washington  was 
called  to  preside  in  1789  was  a  third-rate  power,  inferior 
in  population  and  wealth  to  Holland,  for  example,  and 
about  on  alevel  with  Portugal  or  Denmark.  The  first  cen- 
sus was  taken  in  1790,  and  the  population  was  then  four 
millions.  The  people  were  thinly  scattered  through  the 
thirteen  states  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  beyond  which  mountainous  barrier  a  few  hardy 
pioneers  were  making  the  beginnings  of  Tennessee, 
Kentucky,  and  Ohio.  Roads  were  few  and  bad,  none 
of  the  great  rivers  were  bridged,  mails  were  irregular. 
There  were  few  manufactures.  Th"re  were  many 
traders  and  merchant  seamen  in  the  coast  towns  of  the 
north,  but  the  great  majority  of  the  people  were 
farmers,  who  lived  on  the  produce  of  their  own  lands, 
and  seldom  undertook  long  journeys.  Hence  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  knew  very  little  about  each 
other,  and  entertained  absurd  prejudices,  and  the 
sentiment  of  union  between  the  states  was  extremely 
weak.  East  of  the  AUeghanies  the  red  man  had  ceased 
to  be  dangerous,  but  tales  of  Indian  massacre  still  came 
from  regions  no  more  remote  than  Ohio  and  Georgia, 
Spain  still  held  vast  possessions  west  of  the  Mississippi. 


prpme 
a  V  of  the 


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tioi   of 


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ton  the  nrrt 
prcFidcDl. 


rhe  condl 
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country. 

The  Bret 

ceivw. 


752 


tr  I^  I  T  E  1)     STATES 


The  only  other  power  which  had  possessions  in  North 
Amprica  was  England.  The  feeling  entertained  toward 
She  states  in  England  was  one  of  mortification  and 
:hagrin,  accompanied  by  the  hope  that  the  half-formed 
mion  would  fall  to  pieces,  and  its  separate  states  be 
Iriven  by  disaster  to  beg  to  be  taken  back  into  the 
British  empire.  The  rest  of  Europe  knew  little  about 
the  United  States,  and  cared  less. 
The  bo^m-  139.  It  was  under  these  circumstances  that  the  young 
°'".?"f  ""^  government  began  its  career,  and  it  was  fortunate  for 
I^Jn"'  it  that  it  began  under  the  auspices  of  such  an  ad- 
ministration as  Washington's.  Congress  met  in  New 
York,  March  4,  1789.  It  adopted  twelve  amendments 
to  the  constitution,  ter  of  which,  as  has  been  shown, 
were  ratified  by  the  states.  But  the  most  pressing 
business  before  Congress  was  to  obtain  money  to  pay 
the  debt  of  the  confederation.  This  difiicult  work  was 
so  successfully  accomplished  that  little  change  has  been 
found  necessary  in  financial  methods  from  that  day  to 
this.  Washington's  cabinet  consisted  of  Thomas 
JefEerson,  as  secretary  of  state;  Alexander  Hamilton, 
as  secretary  of  the  treasury  ;  and  Henry  Knox,  as 
secretary  of  war.  John  Jay  was  appointed  chief 
justice,  and  Edmund  Randolph  attorney  general. 
The  financial  success  of  the  government  was  mainly 
due  to  the  organizing  genius  of  Hamilton,  assisted  by 
the  skill  and  tact  of  Madison,  as  leading  member  of  the 
house  of  representatives.  Hamilton  saw  in  the  pay- 
ment of  the  national  debt  an  opportunity  to  give 
strength  to  the  United  States  in  the  eyes  of  foreign 
nations.  He  saw  also  that  it  gave  an  opportunity  to 
bind  the  states  in  a  more  perfect  union.  He  proposed 
Hftniiiton'B  three  measures:  First,  that  the  government  shoald 
menfurcB.  assume  the  foreign  debt  of  the  Confederation,  and  pay 
it  in  full  ■  secondly,  that  the  domestic  debt,  which 
seemed  to  have  been  virtually  repudiated,  should  like- 
wise be  assumed  and  paid;  thirdly,  that  the  dehls  of 
the  separate  slates  should  also  be  assumed  and  paid  by 
the  federal  government.  The  first  proposition  w.is 
adopted  unanimously.  The  second  was  opposed  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  only  benefit  speculators,  who  had 
bought  up  United  States  securities  at  a  discount  .j  but 
by  dint  of  forcible  reasoning  the  measure  was  carried. 
The  third  measure  caused  great  debale,  and  met  with 
violent  opposition.  There  was  a  fierce  and  bitter 
fight  over  it,  which  at  last  was  only  settled  by  great 
political  manipulation, 
rederaiists  140.  There  were  already  two  parties  in  the  country, 
indanti-  tjjg  Federalists,  who  desired  a  strong  general  govern- 
e  er.i  ib  j^^j^^^  ^j,j  ^Jjq  jj^j  urged  the  people  to  accept  the  con- 
stitution, and  the  anti-Federalists,  who  wished  to  give 
more  power  to  the  state  government,  and  less  to  the 
general  government.  Hamilton  was  the  leader  of  the 
I^ederal  party,  and  the  anti-Federalists  united  to  defeat 
his  last  measure.  At  this  time  the  site  of  a  Federal 
capital  was  to  be  selected.  The  northern  people  gen- 
erally wished  to  have  it  not  further  south  than  the  Del- 
aware river,  while  the  southerners  were  determined  to 
have  it  no  further  north  than  the  Potomac.  Hamilton 
was  bent  on  carrying  his  point,  and  took  advantage  of 
this  dispute.  He  persuaded  two  Virginia  congressmen 
to  change  their  votes  and  support  his  measure.  In  re- 
turn he  promised  to  use  his  influence  to  have  the  capital 
located  upon  the  banks  of  the  Potomac,  instead  of  at 
some  northern  point.  This  change  of  votes  gave  him 
the  requisite  majority.  The  assumption  of  state  debts 
was  a  master  stroke  of  policy.  All  those  persons  to 
whom  any  state  owed  money  were  at  once  won  over  to 
the  support  of  the  Federal  government.  Many  of  these 
persons  were  powerful  and  wealthy;  and  all  now  felt  a 
common  interest  in  upholding  the  national  credit, 
which,  through  these  wise  and  vigorous  measures  of 
Hamilton,  was  soon  completely  restored. 
Revenae.  l^l.  The  next  step  was  to  raise  a  revenue  for  the 
carrying  on  of  the  government,  and  this  must  be  raised 
by  Federal  taxation.     There  were  two  ways  in  which 


this  could  be  done — by  imposing  duties  on  goods  im- 
ported into  the  country,  or  by  levying  internal  taxes. 
By  the  first  method,  the  United  States  would  declare  ita 
right  to  tax  foreigners;  by  the  second,  to  tax  its  owa 
citizens.  The  former  method  was  mainly  resorted  to, 
because  it  was  more  indirect,  and  because  the  people, 
as  yet,  did  not  like  the  idea  of  being  directly  taxed  to 
support  the  general  government,  even  though  it  had 
been  established  by  themselves.  However,  a  tax  was 
laid  upon  the  manufacture  of  spirituous  liquors  in  1794, 
and  this  caused  serious  trouble.  The  settlers  in  the 
mountains  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  had  long  since 
found  out  that  it  cost  more  to  carry  their  corn  and 
wheat  to  market  than  they  could  sell  it  for,  and  accord- 
ingly they  distilled  it  into  whisky.  When  Congress 
laid  a  tax  on  whisky,  they  bitterly  opposed  it,  and  when  WTiisky  io- 
the  revenue  officers  came  to  collect  the  tax,  the  settlers  correction, 
refused  to  pay  it,  and  threatened  to  take  up  arms.  But 
Washington  instantly  sent  an  army  of  sixteen  thousand 
men  into  the  disaffected  region,  and  the  insurrection 
was  summarily  suppressed. 

143.  The  Indian   tribes  on  the   Ohio  became  very  Indian  wac 
troublesome  to  the  settlers  who  now  began  to  pour  into 

the  west.  General  Harmer,  who  was  sent  against  the 
savages  in  1790,  was  defeated  near  the  present  site  of 
Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  and  General  St.  Clair  met  with  a 
similar  di-iaster  the  next  year.  General  Wayne  ("Mad 
Anthony")  was  then  despatched  to  the  Indian  country. 
He  devastated  their  villages,  sweeping  everything  be- 
fore him  till  he  reached  the  Maumee  river,  in  the  north-  ~ 
west  corner  of  Ohio.  There  he  won  agreat  victory  near 
the  site  of  Maumee  City,  August  20,  1794,  and  obliged 
the  Indians  to  sue  for  terms.  By  a  treaty  concluded  in 
the  following  year,  the  United  States  acquired  from  the 
sava^'es  a  large  tract  for  settlement  in  the  present  states 
of  Ohio  and  Indiana. 

I'lS  About  this  time  the  divisions  between  political  Origin  of 
parties  become  strongly  marked.  The  occasional  irrita-  P"i'Uc»i 
tioQ  shown  in  the  debates  in  Congress  is  an  evidence '""^ '''" 
that  the  first  ill  defined  estimate  of  the  new  scheme  of 
government  was  giving  way  to  positive  and  settled 
opinions  of  its  powers,  and  of  the  policy  which  should 
be  followed  in  managing  it.  As  we  have  seen,  people 
were  first  divided  into  two  great  national  parties  in  the 
autumn  of  1787.  when  the  question  at  issue  was  whether 
the  Federal  con-stitution  should  be  ratified  by  the  states. 
It  is  probable  that  a  majority  of  the  American  people 
were  anti-Federaliits  in  1789,  although  the  Federalists, 
by  the  active  assistance  of  many  of  their  natural  op- 
ponents, had  gained  the  executive,  the  house,  the  ju- 
diciary and  mo-it  of  the  state  legislatures,  and  were  able 
to  defeat  the  disagreeing  factions  known  collectively  as 
anti  Federalists.  Hamilton's  measures  as  secretary  of 
the  treasury  embodied  an  entire  system  of  public  policy, 
and  the  opposition  to  them  made  the  differences  be- 
tween the  two  parties  still  more  prominent.  Hamil- 
ton's opponents,  led  by  Jefferson,  made  the  objection 
to  his  principal  measures  that  they  assumed  powers  in 
the  national  government  which  were  not  granted  to  it 
by  the  conslitution.  Hamilton  then  fell  back  upon  the 
elastic  clause  of  the  constitution,  and  maintained  that 
these  powers  were  implied  in  it.  Jefferson  held  that  this 
docirine  of  "implied  powers' '  stretched  theelastic  clause* 
too  far.  He  claimed  that  this  clause  ought  to  be  construed 
strictly  and  narrowly.  Hamilton  contended  that  it 
ought  to  be  construed  loosely  and  liberally.  Hence  the 
names  "slrict-constructionist"  and  "loose-construction- 
ist,"  which  mark,  perhaps,  the  most  profound  and  abid- 
ing antagonism  in  the  history  of  American  politics. 

144.  During  the  year  1792,  the  various  anti-Federalist 
factions  had  become  cemented  into  one  party  through 
their  efforts  in  resisting  the  Federalists,  but  the  party 
still  lacked  a  name.  That  of  anti-Federalist  was  no 
longer  applicable,   for  its  opposition   to  the  Federal 

*  Article  I.,  Section  'Vin.,  Clause  18. 


UNITED     STATES 


753 


vmion  bad  entirely  ceased,  and  the  parties  had  become 
divided  in  the  only  sound  and  healthy  way  possible  in 
a  free  country,  namely,  into  those  who  wished  to  ex- 
tend, and  those  who  wished  to  limit,  the  powers  of  gov- 
ernment. Neither  party  had  been  consistent  in  apply- 
ing its  principles,  but  in  the  main,  Hamilton  can  be 
called  the  founder  of  the  Federalist  party,  which  had 
for  its  successors  the  National  Republicans  of  1828,  the 
Whigs  of  1833  to  1852,  and  the  Republicans  of  1854  to 
the  present  time;  while  Jefferson  may  be  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  party  which,  after  discarding  the  old 
name  of  an ti- Federalist,  adopted  that  of  Democratic- 
Republican.  This  always  was  the  official  party  title. 
They  preferred  to  be  called  Republicans,  while  their 
enemies  tried  to  call  them  Democrats,  an  epithet  which 
was  then  supposed  to  convey  a  stigma.  However,  the 
correct  name  for  this  party  was  Republican  from  about 
1792  to  about  1828,  and  since  then  it  has  been  known  aa 
the  Democratic  party. 

145.  At  the  request  of  both  Federalists  and  Republi- 
cans, Washington  consented  to  serve  as  president  a 
second  time,  so  that  the  party  contest  was  narrowed 
down  to  the  vice-presidency.  For  this  office  the  anti- 
Federalists,  or  Republicans,  as  they  were  now  called, 
supported  George  Clinton,  of  New  York,  while  the 
Federalists  presented  the  name  of  John  Adams.  Jef- 
ferson would  doubtless  have  been  put  forward,  but  that 
would  have  cost  Virginia  her  vote,  for  her  electors 
could  not  have  voted  for  Washington  and  Jefferson, 
both  being  from  Virginia.  The  presidential  election 
took  place  November  6,  1792,  and  resulted  in  a  Fed- 
eralist success  and  the  re-election  of  John  Adams. 
During  Washington's  first  term,  Vermont,  by  consent 
of  Congress,  was  admitted  into  the  Union  (February 
18,  1791.)  and  Kentucky  became  a  state  on  the  1st  of 
June,  1792.  In  the  year  1791  a  bill  for  the  establish- 
Nmioual  ment  of  a  national  bank  was  introduced  into  Congress, 
bank.  which  passed  after  a  strong  debate. 
Washiug-  146.  During  the  first  years  of  the  American  Republic, 
the  terrible  scenes  of  the  French  Revolution  were  en- 
acted. Jefferson  and  the  anti-Federalists  sympathized 
strongly  with  the  French  Revolutionists,  and  wished  to 
aid  them  in  their  struggle  against  the  European  powers. 
This  party  specially  affected  the  leveling  principles 
avowed  by  the  French  Republicans,  and  the  opposite 
party  did  not  object  to  these  principles  to  a  limited  de- 
gree. Early  in  April,  1793,  news  was  received  that  the 
French  Republic  had  declared  war  against  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Holland.  It  excited  the  sympathies  of  the 
American  people  for  their  sister  republic,  even  though 
that  republic  was  the  aggressor;  and  it  needed  a  firm 
band  and  indomitable  will  like  Washington's  at  this 
time  to  control  public  affairs,  for  the  country  was  in  a 
position  to  drift  easOy  into  war  as  an  ally  of  France. 
Washington  consulted  his  cabinet,  and  by  their  unani- 
mous advice  determined  to  regard  the  former  treaty  as 
P  ocjama-  nullified  by  the  change  of  government  in  France,  and  to 
t-on  of  issue  his  proclamation  of  neutrality  between  the  French 
•'(•ntrality.  Republic  and  her  enemies.  The  proclamation  at  once 
called  down  a  storm  of  rage  and  invective  against  the 
president.  He  was  assailed  by  the  press  and  extreme 
republicans,  and  accused  of  being  an  enemy  to  France 
and  republican  institutions,  of  disregarding  a  solemn 
treaty,  and  of  usurping  the  functions  of  Congress  in  re- 
gard to  the  announcement  of  peace  or  war. 

147.  The  French  expected  the  Americans  to  help 
them  in  their  war  with  England;  and  in  1793  they  sent 
over  a  minister  to  the  United  States  to  induce  them  to 
Citizen  do  so.  This  man  was  called  Citizen  Genet.  He  arrived 
<3«iie<  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  April,  and  was  re- 
ceived with  the  most  extravagant  marks  of  public 
attachment.  Misled  by  the  warmth  of  his  reception, 
he  entered  on  and  persisted  in  a  course  which  would 
only  have  been  pardonable  if  he  had  been  still  on 
French  soil.  He  fitted  out  privateers  from  American 
ports  to  cruise  against  the  enemies  of  France,   and 

2.S— 27 


lon'e  eec- 
oud  term. 


sought  to  embark  the  American  people  in  the  cause  of 
his  country  whatever  might  be  the  determination  of 
the  government.  Many  Republicans  were  disposed  to 
uphold  him  in  all  his  acts,  but  his  insolence  presently 
disgusted  his  own  supporters.  He  violently  assailed 
President  Washington  and  the  government,  and  other- 
wise misbehaved  himself,  until  Washington  sternly 
checked  his  proceedings,  and  at  length  complained  of 
him  to  the  French  government,  which  thought  best  to 
recall  him. 

148.  About  this  time  war  was  apprehended  between  ThiHueiie'' 
the  United   Stales  and  England.     England  haa  never  """^''^ 
accredited  a  minister  resident  to  the  United  States,  and      '  "" 
had  refused  to  carry  out  those  articles  of  the  Treaty  of 

1783,  which  bound  her  to  surrender  her  military  posts 
on  United  States  soil,  and  to  pay  for  the  slaves  carried 
away  by  her  armies.  She  had  also  issued  orders  which 
bore  hard  upon  American  merchants  and  sailors.  She 
claimed  the  right  to  lay  hold  of  any  provision  for  the 
enemy  which  she  might  find  in  a  neutral  vessel,  to  seize 
the  product  of  French  colonies  wherever  found;  and  to 
board  any  vessel  to  make  search  for  seamen  of  British 
birth,  and  carry  them  off  for  her  own  service.  It 
was  also  believed  that  her  agents  had  interfered  to 
prevent  treaties  of  peace  with  the  savages  of  the  north- 
west, and  had  incited  them  to  renewed  attacks  upon 
the  frontier  settlements.  Her  refusal  to  evacuate  the 
western  posts  was  grounded  on  the  alleged  unjustifiable 
neglect  of  the  United  States  to  enforce  that  article  of 
the  treaty  of  1783  which  provided  for  the  payment  of 
debts  due  to  British  subjects.  For  her  further  offensive 
measures  no  justification  was  offered,  except  her  sover- 
eign will.  Out  of  these  circumstances  war  might 
easily  have  grown,  and  it  required  all  the  wisdom  of 
Washington  and  his  advisers  to  prevent  it.  So  bitter 
was  the  feeling  against  England  held  by  men  of  both 
parties,  that  Congress  began  at  once  to  take  measures 
to  raise  an- army,  equip  a  navy  and  to  stop  all  commerce 
with  her.  War  was  imminent,  and  Washington  deter- 
mined to  avert  it. 

149.  He  appointed  John  Jay,  who  was  then  chief  Jay's 
justice,  to  be  envoy  extraordinary  to  England,  for  the  "''^'"y- 
purpose  of  preserving  peace  by  a  new  treaty,  in  which 

the  points  in  dispute  between  the  two  countries  should 
be  settled.  .  Jay  concluded  a  treaty  with  England 
which  did  not  satisfy  him,  but  which  was  the  best  he 
could  secure.  It  reached  America  March  7,  1795,  and 
was  sent  to  the  senate  in  special  session.  June  8.  The 
treaty  provided  that  the  western  posts  be  surrendered 
to  the  United  States,  that  compensation  be  made  for 
illegal  captures  of  American  property,  and  British 
creditors  be  secured  the  means  of  collecting  debts,  con- 
tracted prior  to  the  Revolution.  But  England  still 
retained  the  right  of  impressing  American  seamen  of 
English  birth,  and  of  shutting  off  American  commerce 
from  the  West  Indian  trade.  When  the  conditions  of 
the  treaty  became  known  there  was  great  excitement 
in  all  portions  of  the  country,  and  the  wrath  of  the 
Republicans  rose  to  fever  heat.  Hamilton  was  stoned 
on  the  street,  and  scurrilous  newspapers  railed  against 
Washington,  calling  him  the  "  step-father  of  his 
country."  But  the  senate  ratified  the  treaty,  and 
Washington  signed  it,  because,  imperfect  though  it 
was,  it  was  better  than  none,  and  would  avert  war. 
It  was  the  first  substantial  recognition  which  England 
had  made  of  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  result  proved  Washington's  wisdom,  for  peace 
prevailed,  commerce  revived,  and  many  who  had  at 
first  denounced  the  treaty,  became  its  friends. 

150.  During  Washington's  second  term,  party  con- P*''!*' 
tests  had  become  numerous  in  the  sessions  of  Congress.  ^"^  "^^ 
After  much  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Republicans, 

the  Federalists  succeeded  in  passing  a  system  of  in- 
direct taxation  to  provide  for  the  increased  expenses  of 
the  government.  A  Federalist  bill  to  prevent  such 
practices  as  Genet's  was  opposed  by  the  Republicans, 


loi 


UNITED     STATES 


but  was  passed  with  some  moditications.  An  attempt 
was  made  by  some  of  the  Republicans  to  secure  the 
passage  of  resolutions  censuring  Hamilton's  manage- 
ment of  the  treasury,  but  it  met  with  no  success.  The 
supreme  court  had  decided  that  an  action  brought  by  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  would  lie  against  a  state, 
just  as  against  any  other  corporation.  This  alarmed 
the  Republicans.  An  amendment  to  the  constitution 
was  therefore  adopted  by  Congress,  securing  states 
against  suits  in  the  United  States  courts.  It  was  after- 
ward ratified  by  the  required  number  of  states,  and 
T^";^'""  became  the  Xlth  Amendment,  which  has  enabled  so 
f,,,'.™.  many  states  to  repudiate  debt  with  impunity.  In  June, 
1796,  Tennessee,  formerly  a  part  of  North  Carolina, 
became  a  state  of  the  union. 

151.  The  time  for  a  new  election  of  president  was 
now  at  hand.  Washington  was  importuned  to  accept 
a  third  term  of  office.  Electors  nominated  by  both 
parties  were  called  upon  to  promise  that,  if  elected, 
they  would  give  their  first  votes  to  Washington,  but  he 
refused  to  accept.     When  he  retired  from  the  presi- 

V.  ashing-  dency  he  made  a  farewell  address  to  the  people  of  the 
V  "I'lVd"'^"  United  States.  In  that  address,  which  is  weighty  with 
«i.-isf.  words  of  wisdom,  he  urged  the  people  to  prize  the 
Union  which  they  had  formed  ;  to  remember  that  each 
part  of  the  country  had  free  intercourse  with  all  other 
parts,  and  that  each  could  help  the  other.  He  begged 
them  to  suffer  no  parties  to  gain  ascendancy  in  the 
Union  which  should  weaken  its  strength,  and  bade 
them  to  glory  in  the  name  of  America.  He  reminded 
them  that  Europe  had  interests  in  which  America  had 
little  concern,  warned  them  against  the  admission  of 
any  European  or  other  foreign  influence  into  American 
councils,  and  urged  them  to  make  religion,  education 
and  public  good  faith  the  basis  of  government. 

152.  As  Washington  refused  to  be  a  candidate  for  a 
third  term,  the  election  of  1796  was  warmly  contested 
by  the  two  parties.  No  formal  nominations  were 
made  but  it  was  understood  that  the  Republican 
electors  would  cast  their  votes  for  Thomas  Jefferson, 
Df  Virginia,  and  Aaron  Burr,  of  New  York,  and  the 
Federalist  electors  for  John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts, 
ind  Thomas  Pinckney,  of  Maryland.  Hamilton,  hav- 
ing made  so  many  enemies  by  his  political  zeal,  was 

Tlie  princi-  not  considered  a  suitable  candidate.  The  principles  of 
pi.-si)fthe  tjjg  two  parties  were  distinctly  understood.  The 
""P"""'*  Republicans  claimed  to  be  the  friends  of  liberty  and 
the  rights  of  man,  the  advocates  of  economy  and  of 
the  rights  of  the  states.  The  Federalists  claimed  sup 
port  as  the  authors  of  the  Government,  the  friends  of 
neutrality,  peace  and  prosperity,  and  the  direct  in- 
heritors of  Washington's  policy.  In  February,  1797, 
the  electrical  votes  were  counted,  and  John  Adams, 
the  Federalist  candidate,  was  found  to  be  elected 
president,  and  Jefferson,  according  to  the  rule  at  the 
time,  as  second  on  the  list,  became  vice-president. 
This  was  an  unwise  rule,  since  under  it  the  death  of 
the  president  might  reverse  the  result  of  the  election. 

153.  On  March  4,  1797,  Adams  and  Jefferson  were 
sworn  into  office.  Shortly  after  the  commencement  of 
President  Adams'  administration  the  French  Directory, 
displeased  with  the  strict  neutrality  which  the  United 
States  had  observed  during  its  war  with  England,  and 
also  on  account  of  the  treaty  of  peace  which  had 
been  recently  entered  into  between  England  and  the 
United  States,  adopted  resolutions  highly  injurious  to 

r  ^'^"^''"'^  American  commerce,  and  refused  to  receive  Mr. 
Pinckney,  the  American  minister,  until  the  United 
States  had  complied  with  their  demands.  The  first 
act  of  Mr.  Adams  was  to  call  an  extra  session  of  Con- 
gress, to  determine  how  a  war  with  France  was  to  be 
avoided.  A  special  commission  of  three  envoys  was 
sent  to  France,  John  Marshall,  afterward  chief  justice, 
Charles  Pickney  and  Elbridge  Gerry,  but  the  French 
government  refused  to  receive  them.  Prince  Talley- 
rand had  the  impudence  to  send  secret  agents  to  deal 


f  ;.-.ncc. 


with  the  envoys.  The.se  agents  demanded  that  a  large 
sum  of  money  be  paid  the  government  before  the 
envoys  could  be  received  at  all.  After  that  the  United 
States  must  lend  money  to  France  to  enable  her  to 
carry  on  her  war.  When  this  was  done  Prance  would 
repeal  some  of  the  acts  which  injured  American  com- 
merce. 

154.  The  envoys  indignantly  refused  to  accept  such 
terms  and  sent  home  to  America  an  account  of  this 
infamous  proposal,  and  Mr.  Adams  laid  the  dispatches 
before  Congress,  substituting  the  letters  X.  Y.  Z.  for  x.  Y.  Z. 
Talleyrand's    emissaries.     Hence,   these    papers   have  dispatches, 
ever  since  been  known  as  the  "X.  Y.  Z.  dispatches." 

April  8  the  senate  voted  to  publish  the  X.  Y.  Z.  letters 
and  the  dispatches  of  the  envoys.  To  England  they 
seemed  of  such  importance  that  they  were  sent  to  every 
part  of  Europe  to  excite  feeling  against  France.  One 
burst  of  indignation  arose  in  America,  and  for  the 
moment  the  Republican  party  seemed  overwhelmed. 
Pinckney  had  declared,  "  Millions  for  defence,  but  not 
one  cent  for  tribute,"  and  the  words  were  taken  up  as 
a  popular  cry.  The  United  States  prepared  for  war. 
A  few  excellent  frigates  were  built,  an  army  was 
raised,  and  Washington  was  placed  in  command  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  It  was  during  this 
excitement  that  the  song  of  "Hail  Columbia"  was 
published.  American  men-of-war  were  ordered  to 
seize  any  French  vessels  which  should  commit  depreda- 
tions on  American  commerce,  and  some  naval  engage- 
ments took  place  with  success  on  the  American  side. 
Intercourse  with  France  was  suspended.  The  treaties 
with  France  were  no  longer  binding  upon  the  United 
States,  and  authority  was  given  to  the  president  to 
issue  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal. 

155.  The  country  was  now  on  the  side  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  Federalists,  who  had  been  losing  ground, 
were  now  stronger  than  before.  They  attempted  to 
strengthen  the  government  still  further  by  passing  in 
Congress  two  acts  caHed  the  alien  and  sedition  laws.  Alien  and 
The  first  of  these  acts,  passed  June  25,  1798,  author-  f*^^''°° 
ized  the  president  to  order  out  of  the  country  any  alien 
whom  he  might  regard  as  dangerous  to  the  peace  and 
liberty  of  America,  and  made  provisions  for  the  fining 

and  imprisonment  of  such  aliens  as  refused  to  obey  the 
president's  order.  July  14  the  sedition  law  was  passed. 
By  this  act  a  heavy  fine  and  imprisonment  were  im- 
posed upon  such  as  should  combine  or  conspire  to- 
gether to  oppose  any  measure  of  the  government,  and 
upon  such  as  should  utter  any  false,  scandalous  or  ma- 
licious writing  against  the  government,  Congress  or 
president  of  the  United  States.  This  act  was  to  re- 
main in  force  until  March  3,  1801.  These  lawj  placed 
a  power  in  the  hands  of  the  government  which  alarmed 
the  Republicans.  They  claimed  that  the  laws  were 
aimed  against  them.  They  opposed  the  action  of  Con- 
gress, not  as  friends  of  France  but  as  Americans.  They 
believed  that  less  power  should  be  given  to  the  federal 
government,  and  more  to  the  separate  states.  This  be- 
lief, which  BO  nearly  prevented  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution,  had  never  disappeared.  It  showed  itself 
on  every  occasion,  and  helped  to  shape  the  course  of 
the  Democratic-Republican  party.  This  party  came  to 
be  called  the  Statesright  party,  because  it  was  jealous 
lest  the  states  should  not  have  all  their  rights  under  the 
constitution. 

156.  Thus,  when  the  Federalists  forced  through  Con- 
gress the  alien  and  sedition  laws,  they  called  forth  a 
vigorous  remonstrance  from  the  southern  Republicans. 
A  series  of  resolutions,  drawn  up  by  Jefferson,  was 
adopted  by  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  (1798),  and  a 
similar  series,  drawn  up  by  Madison,  was  adopted  in 

the  same  year  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia.     These  ^^J'^f''-^ 
are  known  as  the  Kentucky  and  the  Virginia  Resolu-  gjnja  ^esiv 
tions  of  1798.     The  Virginia  Resolutions  asserted  that  fntions  ot 
in  adopting  the  constitution  the  states  had  surrendered  l^*^- 
only  a  limited  portion  of  their  powers;  that  whenever 


UNITED     STATES 


755 


i 


t'je  Federo.i  goverDment  should  exceed  its  delega'ed 
•aulhority.  it  was  the  right  and  duty  of  the  states  to  in- 
terpose and  pronounce  such  acts  unconstitutional.  Ac- 
cordingly, by  these  resolutions.  Virginia  declared  the 
alien  and  sedition  laws  to  be  a  usurpation  by  the  Fed- 
eral government  of  powers  not  granted  to  it,  and  were 
thereby  unconstitutional,  and  she  appealed  to  the  other 
states  to  join  in  that  declaration.  The  response  from 
other  states  being  unfavorable.  Virginia  repealed  those 
resolutions  the  next  year.  1799. 

157  The  attitude  assumed  by  Virginia  in  these  reso- 
lutions was  certainly  uncalled  for,  either  on  her  part 
or  that  of  any  other  state,  inasmuch  as  the  constitu- 
tionality of  the  acts  of  Congress  could  be  decided  by 
a  competent  tribunal  only — the  federal  supreme  court. 

kentuctT  The  Kentucky  Resolutions  were  to  the  same  general 
r?=Hjiui.ons  eggct  as  those  of  Virginia,  but  with  the  additional  dec- 
laration that  the  federal  constitution  was  merely  a  com- 
pact, to  which  the  several  states  were  the  one  party 
and  the  federal  government  the  other,  and  that  each 
party  must  decide  for  itself  as  to  the  infractions  of  the 
compact,  and  as  to  the  proper  remedy  to  be  adopted. 
These  resolutions  received  as  little  attention  as  those  of 
Virginia.  In  the  following  year  (1799)  Kentucky  re- 
pealed the  resolutions,  but  with  the  additional  clause 
that  a  state  might  rightfully  nullify  and  declare  void 
any  act  of  Congress  which  it  might  consider  unconsti- 
tutional This  was  a  dangerous  assumption,  for  it 
verged  upon  the  right  of  secession,  and  these  resolu 
tions  were  used  by  the  south  as  a  partial  precedent  for 
nullification  in  1832.  and  for  sscession  in  I860 

158  Meanwhile,  though  there  was  open  hostility  be- 
tween France  and  the  United  States,  war  was  not  act- 
ually declared  The  French,  seeing  the  warlike  alti- 
tude of  the  United  Slates,  became  more  aivil.  Talley- 
rand tried  to  disavow  the  X  Y  Z.  affair,  and  made 
conciliatory  proposals  to  Vans  Murray,  the  American 
minister  at  the  Hague.  The  president  had  expressed 
his  determination  to  send  no  more  ministers  to  France 
until  assured  of  a  friendly  reception,  but  he  suddenly 
appointed  three  envoys  to  that  country  against  the  pro- 
test of  two  of  his  cabinet.  Their  protest  was  sus- 
tained by  the  leading  Federalists  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  by  this  act  the  president  lost,  in  some  degree, 
the  support  of  his  party  For  some  time  also  there  bad 
been  intense  jealousy  and  dislike  between  Adams  and 
Hamilton,  the  other  great  Federalist  leader,  and  th>e 
increased  the  difficulties  of  the  Federalist  party  When 
the  new  embassy  reached  Paris,  they  found  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  hands  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who 
gave  them  a  cordial  welcome,  and  they  soon  succeeded 
in  settling  the  matters  in  dispute  in  an  amicable  man- 
ner The  policy  of  John  Adams  in  making  peace  with 
France,  contrary  to  the  popular  sentiment,  demands 
the  highest  commendation,  but  it  lost  him  the  presi- 
dency for  a  second  term. 

169.  On  the  14th  of  December.  1799.  George  Wash 
ington  died  at  Mount  Vernon  after  only  one  day's  ill 
ness.  The  event  was  mourned  all  over  the  United 
States  with  sincere  sorrow,  and  was  appropriately  ob- 
served by  Congress  and  other  public  bodies.  Bonaparte 
ordered  the  standards  of  the  French  army  to  be  shrouded 
in  crape  for  ten  days,  and  in  England  a  fleet  of  sixty 
British  men-of  war  lowered  their  flags  to  half  mast.   In 

_    (the  following  year  the  national  capital  was  removed 

tue  capital  from  Philadelphia  to  the  site  chosen  on  the  banksof  the 
Potomac.  The  city  there  laid  out  received  the  name  of 
of  Washington 

160.  By  the  spring  of  1800  it  became  manifest  that 
the  Federalist  party  was  losing  ground.  In  April  the 
New  York  state  election  went  against  them.  Soon 
after  this,  the  dismissal  by  the  president  of  some  of  the 
the  cabinet  officers  who  were  too  friendly  with  Hamil- 
ton, caused  an  irreparable  break  in  the  party.  Hamil- 
ton printed  a  severe  attack  on  the  president,  and  en- 
deavored to  make  arrang-ements  for  giving  Pinckney  a 


D-sibor 

WaaDlOg 


R?a>o»ai ' 


Tbefonrtb 
pr«9iden 
t:»l  elec- 

tlOD 


majority  of  Federalist  electors  that  he  might  br  chosen 
president  and  Adams  vice-president,  as  these  two  were 
the  nominees  of  the  Federalist  party  The  Republican 
candidates  were  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia,  and 
Aaron  Burr,  of  New  York  Th6  fourth  presidential 
election  took  place  in  November,  1800  The  election 
was  very  close.  In  February.  1801,  the  electoral  votes 
were  counted,  of  which  73  were  for  Jefferson,  73  for 
Burr.  65  for  Adams,  64  for  Pinckney,  and  I  for  Jay 
There  was  no  highest  name  on  the  list,  and  it  was  left 
for  the  house  of  representatives  to  choose  between  the 
two  highest  candidates.  The  house  was  Federalist,  but 
was  restricted  to  a  choice  between  two  Republicans. 
Some  of  the  Federalists  wished  to  elect  Burr  instead  of 
their  great  opponent,  Jefferson,  but  Hamilton  used  all 
his  influence  against  such  a  scheme,  and  at  last,  on 
February  17.  1801,  Jefferson  was  elected  by  the  house 
and  Burr  became  vice  president 

161  The  inauguration  of  Jefferson  was  the  first  that  Foanh 
took  place  in  the  city  of  Washington.     The  new  presi-  ^Jj,™'""'"' 
dent's  first  inaugural   message  announced  the  future 

policy  of  the  Republican  party  to  be  careful  fostering 
of  the  state  governments,  the  restriction  of  the  powers 
of  the  Federal  government  to  their  lowest  constitutional 
limit,  the  immediate  payment  of  the  national  debt  and 
the  reduction  of  the  army,  the  navy,  the  taxes,  and  the 
duties  on  imports,  to  the  lowest  available  point.  Many 
of  the  Federalists  believed  that  speedy  ruin  to  thecoun 
try  would  follow  the  advent  of  Jefferson  to  the  presi- 
dency. He  was  "an  atheist  in  religion  and  a  fanatic  in 
politics,"  and  the  vice-president  was  only  more  tolerable 
because  less  known.  The  parly  which  supported  them. 
It  was  claimed,  was  composed  of  revolutionists,  disot 
ganizers  and  Jacobins.  The  Federalist  party,  which 
contained  the  larger  portion  of  the  intellect,  wealth  and 
culture  of  the  country,  honestly  believed,  no  doubt, 
that  the  government  had  fallen  into  bad  hands  But 
their  fears  were  groundless  The  president's  first  ad 
ministration  was  marked  by  national  prosperity  The 
principal  offices  of  government  were  transferred  to  the 
Republican  party,  and  execuiive  pardons  were  issued 
to  those  persons  who  had  been  imprisoned  under  the 
alien  and  sedition  laws.  The  supreme  court,  under  the 
lead  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  remained  Federalist  in 
complexion,  and  did  a  grand  work  for  several  years  in 
interpreting  and  strengthening  the  constitution.  Presi- 
dent Jefferson  instituted  the  custom  of  sending  a  writ- 
ten message  to  both  houses  of  Congress  as  more  befit 
ting  Republican  simplicity,  instead  of  giving  the  ad 
dress  m  person,  which  had  hitherto  been  the  rule 

162  The  population  of  the  United  States  was  rapidly  Voe 
increasing,  and  was  beginning  to  press  fcrrwardinto  the  t-^tn-'i-o 
Mississippi  valley.     In  1802  Ohio  was  admitted  into  the  P'"''-'^"' 
union.  Mississippi  and  Indiana  were  already  organized 

as  territories,  and  a  growing  interest  was  felt  in  the 
western  country.  By  a  secret  treaty  with  Spain  in 
1800,  France  had  recovered  the  territory  of  Louisiana, 
the  Spanish  civil  officers,  however,  were  left  in  com 
mand,  and  in  1802  the  Spanish  inlendanl  at  New  Or- 
leans issued  a  proclamation  closing  the  Mississippi  to 
Am^fiQan  commerce.  This  action  threatened  to  result 
in  war.  Jefferson  had  opened  negotiations  with  Napo- 
leon for  the  purchase  of  the  territory  The  French  em 
peror  had  at  first  refused  to  treat  on  theeubject  He 
bad  acquired  this  territory  with  the  vague  intention  of 
regaining  the  French  ascendancy  in  America,  which 
had  been  lost  in  the  seven  years'  war.  Knowing  thai 
whoever  controlled  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi-must 
become  master  of  the  whole  valley,  Jefferson  proposed 
to  buy  New  Orleans.  Napoleon  had  refused  this.  also, 
but  in  1803  the  prospect  of  a  renewed  war  with  Great 
Britain  made  him  change  his  mind  He  knew  that  in 
case  of  war  an  English  fleet  would  be  sent  to  take  pos 
session  of  Louisiana,  and  that  it  would  be  impossible 
for  the  French  to  hold  the  port  of  New  Orleans  He 
was  d<!termined  that  the  place  should  not  fall  into  the 


756 


UNITED     STATES 


hands  of  his  powerful  enemy,  so  he  offered  to  sell  it  to 
the  United  States  for  fifteen  million  dollars.  The  presi- 
dent at  once  agreed  to  the  proposition,  though  he  be- 
lieved that  the  constitution  gave  the  Federal  govern- 
ment no  power  to  purchase  foreign  territory  and  make 
it  a  part  of  the  union.  In  this  instance,  an  article  for 
the  ratification  of  the  purchase  was  prepared  as  an 
amendment  to  the  constitution,  but  was  never  offered, 
as  the  president's  action  met  with  a  general  acquiescence 
and  has  since  been  imitated  in  similar  instances  with- 
out question.  The  Louisiana  purchase  included  every- 
thing west  of  the  Mississippi  not  already  occupied  by 
Spain,  and  comprised  the  whole  or  part  of  the  present 
states  of  Arkansas,  Colorado.  Iowa,  Kansas,  Louisiana, 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Oregon,  the  two  Dako- 
tas,  Montana,  Washington,  Wyoming,  Idaho,  and 
the  Indian  territory.  The  eflfect  of  this  great  acqui- 
sition of  territory,  by  such  an  active  and  prosper- 
ous people  as  the  Americans,  was  to  Insure  them  the 
ultimate  control  of  the  continent  without  incurring  any 
foreigm  warfare  worth  historic  mention.  It  set  the  na- 
tion free  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time  from  European 
complications,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  the  means 
of  creating  some  new  and  formidable  features  in  the 
rivalry  between  the  free  states  and  slave  states. 
The  163.  The  Barbary  states  on  the  southern  shores  of 

Tnpoliian  jj^^  Mediterranean  were  in  the  habit  of  sending  out 
piratical  vessels  to  prey  upon  the  commerce  of  other 
nations  and  reduce  their  sailors  to  slavery.  All  the 
great  powers  of  Europe,  as  well  as  the  United  States, 
had  adopted  the  custom  of  paying  tribute  to  these  petty 
governments,  in  order  to  secure  immunity  for  their 
trade.  But  these  pirates  grew  increasingly  insolent,  so 
that  the  patience  of  the  American  government  became 
entirely  exhausted.  A  small  fleet  was  sent  out  to  the 
Mediterranean,  which  bombarded  Tripoli.  After  a 
desultory  warfare  extending  over  two  years,  the  Tri- 
politans  sued  for  peace.  The  English  government 
then  followed  the  example  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
a  few  years  more  this  aboniinable  nuisance  was  sup- 
pressed. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1803,  during  the  first  session  of 

the    VIII  Congress,   the  manner  of  the    presidential 

election  was  amended  to  the  form  which  it  has  at 

present.     The  amendment  having  been  ratified  hy  the 

The  xilth  necessary    number  of    states,   this    became    the    XII 

amend-       amendment  to  the  constitution.     Articles  of  impeach- 

™'^°''         ment  were    voted  by    the  house  against  a  federalist 

judge.  Chase  of  Maryland,  for  arbitrary  and  oppressive 

conduct  in  trying  cases  under  the  alien  and  sedition 

laws.     At  the  next  session  of  Congress  in  1804,  Chase 

was  tried  and  acquitted. 

164.  In  1804  Jefferson  was  re-elected  president,  with 
George  Clinton  for  vice-president,  in  place  of  Aaron 
Burr,  who  had  separated  from  his  party.  The  feder- 
alists then  made  Burr  a  candidate  for  the  governorship 
of  New  York,  but  here,  as  in  1801,  Hamilton  used  his 
influence  against  him,  and  Burr  was  defeated.  Resent- 
ing this  opposition,  Burr  contrived  to  force  Hamilton 
into  the  acceptance  of  a  challenge.  They  met  on  July 
11,  1804,  and  Hamilton  was  killed.  The  mourning  of 
the  country  over  the  loss  of  this  distinguished  man 
was  intense,  and  the  wretched  Burr  found  that  his 
public  career  was  at  an  end.  Bankrupt  in  fortune,  and 
a  fugitive  from  home,  he  visited  New  Orleans  and 
other  parts  of  the  south  and  west  (1805)  for  the  pur- 
^rr's  COD- pose  of  arranging  an  enterprise  whose  exact  object  has 
'^^'  never  been  positively  discovered.  He  planned  either 
the  seizure  of  Mexico,  or  the  establishment  of  a  mon- 
archy west  of  the  Alleghanies.  He  was  arrested  by 
the  federal  government  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and 
was  tried  before  Chief  Justice  Marshall  in  September, 
1807,  but  after  a  long  investigation  he  was  acquitted 
m  consequence  of  a  defect  in  the  chain  of  evidence. 
Afterward  he  became  an  outcast  from  society  and  died 
in  obscurity. 


Hamilton 
and  Borr. 


165.  On  the  4th  of  March,  1805,  Jefferson  and  Clin-  Jefferson's 
ton  were  sworn  into  oflSce.     Jefferson's  second  admin- !j';°f„i,,,„ 
istration  was  the  beginning  of  a  stormy  period  which  tion. 
ended  in  war.     The  wars  of  Napoleon  still  continued, 

and  France  and  Great  Britain  were  using  every  expedi- 
ent to  cripple  each  other  without  regard  to  the  rights 
of  neutral  nations.  In  the  beginning  of  these  wars 
the  United  States,  being  a  neutral  power,  had  acquired 
a  valuable  foreign  commerce,  but  this  was  speedily 
destroyed  by  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  belligerents. 
With  his  famous  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees.  Napoleon 
sought  to  prevent  neutral  vessels  from  entering  British 
harbors,  and  claimed  the  right  to  seize  all  vessels  trad- 
ing with  England  or  her  colonies  (1806).  England 
replied  with  her  orders  of  council  issued  by  the  king, 
which  forbade  all  commerce  with  the  ports  of  Europe 
that  were  within  the  French  dominion  or  in  countries 
allied  with  France.  If  an  American  vessel  touched  at 
almost  any  port  of  continental  Europe,  the  first  British 
cruiser  that  came  along  deemed  her  its  lawful  prey;  if 
she  touched  at  a  British  port,  she  was  liable  to  capture 
by  the  first  French  craft  that  she  should  meet.  Jeffer- 
son had  abandoned  the  policy  which  Adams  had 
adopted  of  building  a  strong  navy.  He  imagined  it 
possible  to  defend  American  harbors  by  means  of  gun- 
boats carrying  each  one  gun,  and  had  recommended 
this  plan,  which  Congress  adopted.  This  "Gunboat 
System"  was  always  hateful  to  the  navy,  and  was  a 
constant  object  of  federalist  ridicule  and  attack. 

166.  While  the  offensive  measures  of  England  and 
France  made  American  merchantmen  a  prey  to  both 
parties,  England,  in  another  respect,  possessed  a  pecu- 
liar power  of  annoying  the  United  States.     She  still  The  righi 
claimed  and  exercised  the  right  of  stopping  American  °'  ^s»''^i> 
vessels  and  seizing  all  sailors,  even  naturalized  citizens, 

who  were  supposed  to  be  British  subjects.     In  June. 

1807,  the  insolence  of  this  claim  was  carried  so  far  that 
the  British  man-of-war.  Leopard,  stopped  the  United 
States  frigate,  Chesapeake,  off  the  entrance  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  fired  into  her,  killing  or  wounding  twenty- 
one  of  the  crew,  and  took  off  four  men,  three  of  whom 
were  Americans.  President  Jefferson  demanded  repar- 
ation for  this  outrage,  and  issued  a  proclamation  order- 
ing all  British  war  vessels  out  of  American  waters. 
The  British  government  was  ready  to  disavow  the  act 
of  the  Leopard,  but  there  was  no  willingness  shown  to 
make  reparation.  Feeling  unprepared  for  war,  the 
United  States  government  had  recourse  to  an  exceed- 
ingly stupid  and  dangerous  measure.  The  president 
recommended  a  bill  by  which  American  vessels  should 
be  prohibited  from  leaving  foreign  ports,  and  foreign 
vessels  from  taking  cargoes  from  the  United  States,  Embargo 
and  all  coasting  vessels  should  be  required  to  give  '  ■ 
bonds  to  land  their  cargoes  in  the  United  States.    'This 

was  the  celebrated  Embargo  Bill,  which  did  more 
harm  to  American  commerce  than  all  the  cruisers  of 
France  and  England  were  able  to  do.  It  also  intensi- 
fied party  feeling  and  even  threatened  the  existence  of 
the  union. 

167.  As  time  went  on  the  Embargo  Act  became  so 
unpopular  that  before  the  close  of  Jefferson's  second 
term  many  of  his  friends  forsook  him.  A  great  pres- 
sure was  brought  to  bear  upon  Congress  to  repeal  the 

act.     It  passed  in  its  place  the  Non-intercourse  Act.  ><'on-inte>- 
This  act  prohibited  trade  with  England  and  France  so™'"''"' "''■ 
long  as  their  obnoxious  measures  should  be  kept  in 
force,  but  it  allowed  free  trade  with  other  countries. 
Among  the  other  important  events  of  Mr.  Jefferson's  Other 
administration  were  the  passing  of  an  act  of  Congress  e^™"- 
prohibiting  the  slave  trade  after  January  1,  1808;  the 
beginning  of  the  United  States  coast  survey,  a  valuable 
work  which  is  still  continued  to  the  great  credit  of 
American  science,   and  the  application   of   steam  to 
navigation  by  Robert  Fulton.    Jefferson  refused  to  be 
a  candidate  for  a  third  term,  and  at  the  election  in 

1808,  James  Madison,  of  Virginia,  was  chosen  president 


i 


I 


UNITED     STATES 


101 


by  the  Republican,  or.  as  it  now  began  to  be  called, 
the  Democratic  party.  Clinton  was  re  elected  vice- 
president.  The  candidates  of  the  Federalists  were 
C.  C.  Pinckney  and  Rufus  King. 
M»d:sim's  168.  The  Non-intercourse  Act  went  into  force  March 
uot'""*'"  ■*'  1809.  when  Mr.  Madison  succeeded  to  the  presidency. 
He  belonged  to  Jefferson's  party  and  continued  his 
policy.  Party  feeling  had  grown  very  bitter.  New 
England,  which  suffered  the  greatest  from  the  break- 
ing up  of  trade,  was  the  stronghold  of  the  Federalists. 
They  complained  loudly  that  if  it  were  not  for  the 
Embargo  and  Non  intercourse  Acts  there  would  be  no 
trouble.  The  southern  and  western  people,  who  were 
principally  Democratic  Republicans,  retorted  that  they 
had  evidence  of  negotiations  between  fhe  New  England 
Federalists  and  England;  that  the  Federalists  were 
planning  for  a  separation  of  New  England  from  the 
union.  This  charge  was  indignantly  denied,  but  it 
helped  increase  political  hostilities.  In  1810  Congress 
repealed  the  Non-intercourse  Act,  which  had  accom- 
plished nothing  in  the  way  of  intimidation.  Congress 
then  informed  England  and  France  that  if  either 
nation  would  repeal  its  obnoxious  measures  the  Non- 
intercourse  Act  would  be  revived  against  the  other. 
Napoleon  was  studying  how  he  might  get  the  advan- 
tage of  England,  and  he  withilrew,  or  pretended  to 
withdraw,  his  decrees  prohibiting  commerce  with 
England  so  far  as  the  United  States  were  concerned, 
but  at  the  same  time  gave  secret  orders  by  which  the 
decrees  were  to  be  practically  enforced  as  harshly  as 
ever.  Congress  at  once  revived  the  Non-intercourse 
Act  against  Great  Britain  alone. 
rfe^;uiiing  169.  England  and  the  United  States  grew  more 
',j.J'"*"  "  irritated  with  each  other,  and  in  1811  hostilities  actually 
began  on  sea  and  land.  In  May  the  United  States 
frigate  Pre^dent  hailed  the  British  man-of-wr,r  Little 
Belt  and  was  answered  by  a  shot.  The  President  then 
replied  with  a  shot  in  turn,  and  a  sharp  action  ensued 
in  which  the  Little  Belt  was  badly  crippled,  and  lost 
thirty-oue  killed  and  wounded.  Tecumseh,  the  famous 
Shawnee  chief,  had  gathered  a  large  number  of  war- 
riors, and  at  the  instigation  of  the  British  they  were 
'  attacking  the  northwestern  settlements.     General  Har- 

rison marched  against  them,  and  on  November  7  he 
defeated  them  at  Tippecanoe.  The  English  continued 
to  seize  vessels  and  men.  More  than  nine  hundred 
American  vessels  had  been  seized  since  1803.  and 
several  thousand  American  seamen  had  been  impressed 
into  the  British  service.  The  people  of  the  United 
States  were  exasperated  at  their  losses  and  their  in- 
ability to  protect  themselves.  Madison  wished  to 
continue  the  general  peace  policy  of  Jefferson,  but  new 
leaders  had  sprung  up  in  the  Republican  party  who 
'were  in  favor  of  war.  Chief  among  these  were  Henry 
Clay,  of  Kentucky,  speaker  of  the  house,  William  H. 
Crawford,  in  the  senate,  and  John  C.  Calhoun,  of 
South  Carolina,  in  the  house.  These  became  the 
recognized  congressional  leaders  of  the  party.  The 
economical  and  retrenching  policy  of  Jefferson  was 
abandoned,  and  preparations  were  begun  for  hostilities. 
Bills  were  passed  to  enlist  men,  to  organize  the  militia 
and  to  enlarge  and  equip  the  army. 

170.  President  Madison  was  given  to  understand  that 
his  nomination  for  a  second  term  of  olBce  depended 
upon  his  adoption  of  the  war  policy,  otherwise  DeWitt 
Clinton,  of  New  York,  would  be  nominated  in  his 
stead.  The  president  accepted  the  conditions  and  on 
i>.  jara-  ^  jmjg  18,  1813,  war  against  Great  Britain  was  formally 
declared.  It  was  soon  learned  that  the  British  gov- 
ernment had  revoked  the  orders  in  council  live  days 
after  the  declaration  of  war,  but  this  concession  came 
too  late.  Even  if  it  had  come  in  time  probably  nothing 
short  of  an  abandoment  of  the  right  of  search  and 
impressment  on  Great  Britain's  part  would  have  proved 
satisfactory.  The  war  feeling  was  by  no  means  unan- 
imous.    The  New  England    Federalists  bitterly  op- 


tA<s  of  war 


posed  it.  The  chief  support  came  from  „ne  south  and 
west,  which  felt  less  keenly  the  effect  upon  their 
prosperity,  caused  by  the  breaking  up  of  commerce. 
Immediately  after  the  declaration  of  war  the  Federalist 
members  of  Congress  had  published  their  protest 
against  it  in  an  address  to  their  constituents.  When 
requisitions  were  made  by  the  president  upon  the 
governors  of  the  different  states  for  their  respective 
quotas  of  troops,  according  to  the  act  passed  by  Con- 
gress to  embody  the  militia,  the  governors  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  Connecticut  refused  to  allow  their  militia 
to  leave  their  states  on  the  ground  that  it  was  uncon- 
stitutional for  the  Federal  government  to  call  out  the 
militia  except  in  case  of  an  invasion  or  resistance  to 
the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  neither  of  these  had 
taken  place.  April  ^0,  1812,  Louisiana  was  admitted 
into  the  union  of  states. 

171.  The  war  opened  by  the  invasion  of  Canada  by  '^/'*„^" 
General  Hull,  who  was  ordered  to  cross  at  Detroit  and 
attack  Fort  Maiden  a  few  miles  distant,  but  he  was 
compelled  to  fall  back  again  to  Detroit.     Here  he  was 
attacked  by  a  large  force  of  British  and  Indians  under 
General  Brock  and  Tecumseh.     Believing  he  was  not 
strong  enough  to  defend  the    place    he  surrendered  Surrpndtr 
(August  16,  1812),  not  only  Detroit,  with  its  garrison  "'  'J'-"''"' 
and  stores,  but  the  whole  territory  of  Michigan.    Being 
exchanged,  after  some  time  he  was  tried  by  a  court- 
martial  on  charges  of  treason  and  cowardice.     He  was 
acquited  of  treason  and  was  sentenced  to  be  shot  for 
cowardice,   but  was   pardoned    by  the    president    on 
account  of  his  past  good  services.     In  October  another 
attempt  was  made  upon   Canada    near   Niagara.     A 

small  force  crossed  the  river  and  attacked  the  Britisb 
in  a  strong  position  on  Queenstown  Heights.     At  first  Queens- 
the  Americans  were  successful  but  were  at  last  defeated  't'"' 
with  heavy  loss.  Heights. 

172.  To  compensate  for  these  disasters  on  land  the  s^vrx 
little  American  navy  won  imperishable  glory  on  the  esplt-ite. 
ocean.     The    United    States    frigate    Essex,    Captain 
Porter,  captured  the  British  sloop-of-war  Alert  after  a 

tight  of  eight  minutes,  without  losing  a  man.  The 
Constitution,  Captain  Hull  commanding,  fought  a 
famous  action  with  the  British  frigate  Ouerriere  near 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  (August  19),  and  in  less  than 
an  hour  completely  destroyed  her.  This  victory  dis- 
pelled the  belief  that  the  British  navy  was  invincible, 
and  the  whole  country  w.as  filled  with  transports  of 
delight.  On  the  18th  of  October  the  sloop-ofwar 
Wasp,  commanded  by  Captain  Jones,  captured  the 
British  brig-of-war  Frolic  off  the  coast  of  Norih 
Carolina,  but  the  same  day  the  British  ship  Poictiers 
took  both  the  captor  and  her  prize.  On  October  25 
the  frigate  United  States,  under  Commodore  Deca- 
tur, fought  a  memorable  action  with  the  British 
ship  Macedonian,  which  surrendered  to  Decatur  after 
being  nearly  cut  to  pieces.  This  engagement  took 
place  oS  the  Island  of  Madeira,  but  Decatur  succeeded 
in  carrying  his  prize  to  America.  The  Constitution. 
commanded  by  Captain  Bambridge,  in  a  two  hours' 
fight  off  the  coast  of  Brazil,  knocked  to  pieces  the 
British  frigate  Java  (December  29),  which  lost  230  men 
and  had  to  be  burned,  while  the  Constitution  lost  but 
twelve  men  and  not  a  single  spar. 

173.  During  the  first  six  months  of  the  war  the  de- 
spised American  navy,  of  which  even  the  Americans 
expected  but  little,  became  the  admiration  of  the  world. 
Privateers  also  were  very  active,  and  before  the  end  of 
the  year  the  captures  from  the  British  numbered  about 
fifty  vessels  of  war,  two  hundred  and  fifty  merchant 
vessels,  and  three  thousand  men.  Under  the  impulse 
of  these  successes  the  Federalists,  who  had  been  op- 
posed to  the  war,  were  beaten  in  the  autumn  elections, 

and  Madison   was  re-elected   president,  with   Eldridge  The  re-elec 
Gerry  for  vice-president.     The  American  disasters  on  timi  of 
land  had  led  the  government  to  collect  a  large  army,  Madison 
which  was  placed  under  the  command  of  General  Har- 


758 


UNITED     STATES 


The  war  in  rison.  He  first  made  an  attempt  (January,  1813,)  to  re- 
th^^north-  g^ygj.  Detroit  and  the  territory  of  Michigan,  but  was 
driven  back  to  Fort  Meigs  by  Proctor,  who  besieged 
him  there,  but  unsuccessfully.  So  much  of  the  frontier 
was  occupied  by  the  great  lakes  that  it  was  of  the  great- 
est importance  to  get  control  of  these,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose, both  British  and  Americans  were  basily  engaged 
during  the  summer  of  1813  in  building  fleets.  Captain 
Oliver  H.  Perry  directed  the  building  of  the  fleet  on 
Lake  Erie,  and  sailors  were  sent  forward  from  the  sea- 
coast.  He  had  just  completed  nine  vessels,  which  were 
...lie  of  &t  anchor  in  Put-In-Bay,  when  he  saw  the  British  ap- 
Liike  Erip,  proaching.  He  at  once  moved  out  to  meet  the  enemy 
(September  10)  and  in  a  little  more  than  two  hours  was 
able  to  send  this  dispatch  to  General  Harrison,  who  was 
in  command  on  the  Sandusky:  "We  have  met  the 
ci.emy  and  they  are  ours;  two  ships,  two  brigs,  one 
schooner,  and  one  sloop."  This  victory  turned  the 
scale  of  war  In  the  northwest.  Harrison  shipped  his 
army  across  the  lake  in  Perry's  tieet,  and  attacking 
t-roctor  at  the  River  Thames  (October  5).  inflicted  a 
cr"ishing  defeat  upon  him.  This  was  a  severe  blow  to 
the  Indians  also,  for  their  great  leader,  Tecumseh,  was 
killed.  The  American  success  restored  the  northwest- 
er-  territory  to  the  country. 
The  Creek  Vji  In  the  spring  of  1813  Tecumseh  had  visited  and 
*'"■■  rou-iea  the  Creek  Indians  of  the  southwest,   and  in 

August  iney  took  occasion  to  attack  the  frontier  settle- 
ments, 'beginnmg  with  the  terrible  massacre  at  Fort 
Mimms,  nea:  Mobile.  General  Andrew  Jackson,  with 
the  formidable  Tennessee  militia,  marched  into  the 
Creek  country,  and  won  a  series  of  telling  victories,  by 
which  they  were  entirely  subdued,  and  purchased  peace 
by  the  surrenderof  two- thirds  of  their  hunting  grounds. 
In  the  meantime  the  British,  after  the  defeat  which 
they  had  suffered  from  the  American  navy  in  1812, 
strengthened  their  Atlantic  squadron.  During  the  sum- 
mer of  1813  they  attempted  to  blockade  the  coast  from 
Maine  to  Georgia.  Congress,  in  turn,  hastened  to  build 
new  ships;  and  the  courageous  privateers  continued  to 
fight  pluckily,  and  to  bring  prizes  into  the  United  States 
Events  on  ports.  In  February,  1813,  the  American  sloop  Hornet, 
the  eea.  Captain  Lawrence  commanding,  destroyed  the  British 
brig  Peacock,  which  sank  before  all  of  her  crew  could 
be  removed.  On  his  return  to  the  TJnited  States,  Law- 
rence was  promoted  to  the  frigate  Chesapeake,  with 
which,  on  June  1,  he  had  a  severe  engagement  with  the 
British  frigate  Shannon  near  Boston.  Lawrence  was 
mortally  wounded  at  the  beginning  of  the  action.  As 
he  was  carried  below,  he  exclaimed:  "  Don't  give  up 
the  ship!"  The  Chesapeake,  however,  was  captured  by 
boarding,  after  she  had  lost  a  large  proportion  of  her 
cflicers  and  men.  The  Argvs,  Captain  Allen,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British  man-of-war  Pelican  (August  14), 
after  a  gallant  fight  in  which  Captain  Allen  received  his 
death  wound.  Lieutenant  Burrows,  in  the  brig  Enter- 
prise, captured  the  British  brig  Boxer  (September  5), 
after  a  short  action.  The  frigate  Essex,  Captain  Porter, 
made  a  brilliant  and  successful  cruice  during  the  year 
1813,  and  did  great  damage  to  the  British  commerce. 
At  length,  however,  she  was  attacked  in  March,  1814, 
by  the  British  ships  Phoebe  and  Cherub,  and  after  the 
bloodiest  fight  of  the  war,  the  Essex  was  compelled  to 
Burrender.  The  sloop  Peacock  captured  the  British 
brig  Epervier  off  the  coast  of  Florida  (April,  1814). 
The  Wasp  made  a  brilliant  cruise,  taking  a  number  of 
British  vessels.  The  old  Constitution,  Captain  Stewart, 
engaged  singly  the  British  sloops-of-war  Cyatie  and 
jljevant  off  the  coast  of  Portugal,  and  captured  both  in 
a  remarkable  night  engagement,  February  20.  Th6 
Hornet  captured  the  British  brig  Penguin  in  March,  off 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  June,  the  Peacock  closed 
the  long  record  of  victories  by  taking  the  British  ship 
NatitUus.  These  last  three  actions  took  place  after 
n"  "a'a  peace  had  been  concluded, 
fn'il^icr.  1'''5.   In  the  sumraci' of   1814.  the   Americans  m.ide  a 


fresh  attempt  to  invade  Canada  under  General  Brown, 
with  whom  served  Brigadier- General  Winfield  Scott. 
They  crossed  the  Niagara  river  and  in  four  hard-fought 
battles  defeated  the  British  at  Chippewa  (July  5),  Lun- 
dy's  Lane  (July  25),  and  Fort  Erie  (August  15  and  Sep- 
tember 17),  but  in  spite  of  these  successes,  they  could 
not  establish  themselves  in  Canada,  and  retired  across 
the  line  before  cold  weather  came.  In  March,  1814, 
Napoleon  was  dethroned  and  sent  to  Elba,  and  the 
European  war  being  over,  England  was  enabled  to  spare 
more  men  for  the  war  in  America.  Her  policy  was  to 
march  two  armies  into  the  United  States.  One  was  to 
descend  from  Canada  by  the  route  which  Carleton  and 
Burgoyne  had  followed,  and  the  other  was  to  land  at 
New  Orleans  and  move  northward.  To  divert  atten- 
tion a  fleet  under  Admiral  Cockburn  sailed  up  the  Poto- 
mac and  attacked  the  capital.  There  was  scarcely  any  Capture  or 
resistance,  and  the  British  wantonly  destroyed  public  J^^^'^^^S" 
buildings,  books  and  papers  (August,  1814).  Nothing  °'^' 
was  spared  except  the  patent  office  and  the  jail.  The 
British  them  moved  upon  Baltimore.  General  Ross  and 
his  troops  were  landed  a  few  miles  below  the  town,  but 
the  Americans  gallantly  repulsed  them.  Then  the  fleets 
bombarded  the  forts  which  protected  Baltimore  (Sep- 
tember 12  and  13).  Fort  McHenry  received  the  hottest 
fire  from  the  fleet.  It  was  upon  seeing  the  flag  still  fly- 
ing from  the  fort,  when  the  smoke  cleared  away,  that 
Francis  S.  Key  wrote  the  national  song,  "The  Star- 
Spangled  Banner."  The  fleet  finally  abandoned  the  at- 
tempt and  sailed  away. 

176.  The  British  in  Canada,  having  been  reinforced 
by  the  arrival  of  fresh  troops  from  England,  advanced 
with  an  army  of  fourteen  thousand  men  under  Prevost, 
to  attack  Plattsburg,  on  Lake  Champlain,  while  a  Brit- 
ish squadron,  under  Captain  Downie,  sailed  up  the  lake 
to  co-operate  with  him.  The  Americans,  under  General 
Macomb,  being  only  fifteen  hundred  strong,  fell  back 
behind  the  Saranac,  and  there  made  a  vigorous  defense. 
They  had  also  a  squadron  of  small  vessels  under  Com- 
modore Macdonough,  and  this  was  stationed  at  the  en- 
trance of  Plattsburg  bay.  Captain  Downie  attacked 
Macdonough  (September  11,  1814),  at  the  same  time 
that  General  Prevost  attempted  to  force  the  passage  of 

the  Saranac,  but  the  British  fleet  was  annihilated  by  Battle  o. 
Macdonough  and  Prevost,  beaten  at  every  point  by  Ma-  Pla'tebnrg. 
comb,  retreated  in  disaster  to  Canada.  But  while  this 
attempt  on  New  York  proved  a  failure,  the  British  suc- 
ceeded in  seizing  the  unoccupied  wilds  of  Maine  east  of 
the  Penobscot  river,  and  thus  created  a  panic  in  New 
England. 

177.  The  expedition    against   Washington  was  de- The  war  in 
signed  chiefly  as  an  insult;  the  expedition  against  New  thceouth. 
Orleans  was  for  conquest.     If  the  British  could  gain 

this  important  position  they  would  control  the  Missis- 
sippi and  the  western  country.  In  December,  a  British 
army  of  12,000  men  under  General  Parkenham,  landed 
below  New  Orleans.  General  Jackson  hastened  to  that 
city  with  6,000  militia  to  oppose  him,  and  fortifled  the 
town  as  best  he  could.  After  a  fortnight's  siege  the 
British  determined  to  assault  the  American  works. 
Early  on  the  morning  of  January  8,  1815,  they  made 
the  attack.  Jackson's  men,  trained  to  rifle  shooting 
and  aided  by  artillery,  met  them  with  great  coolness, 
and  in  less  than  half  an  hour  the  British  were  in  full 
retreat,  leaving  Pakenham  and  2,600  men  behind 
them,  killed  or  wounded,  while  the  American  loss  wa» 
but  8  killed  and  13  wounded.  This  battle  also  occured 
after  peace  was  declared. 

178.  Negotiations  for  peace  had  been  begun  in  Au- 
gust, 1814.  The  American  government  was  anxious 
for  almost  any  honorable  peace  in  preference  to  con- 
tinuing the  war  with  England.  The  latter  country  had 
revoked  the  orders  in  council  long  before,  but  still 
England's  demands  were  such  that  they  could  not  be 
accepted  with  honor  by  the  Federal  government.  The. 
war  feeling  was  thus  continued  among  the  republicans. 


UNITED     ST  .V  T  E  S 


759 


and  some  of  their  leaders  began  to  meditate  measures 
which  the  strict  constructionist  principles  of  the  party 
would  not  justify.  Propositions  were  made  to  intro-_ 
duce  the  English  system  of  impressment  of  seamen, 
and  of  allowing  officers  of  the  army  to  enlist  minors 
over  eighteen  years  of  age  without  the  consent  of  their 
parents  or  guardians.  The  Connecticut  legislature 
ordered  the  governor  to  resist  the  execution  of  these 
and  similar  measures  if  they  should  become  laws.  In 
view  of  these  things,  and  provoked  by  the  British  in- 
vasion of  Maine,  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  had 
invited  the  other  New  England  states  to  send  delegates 
to  Hartford,  Connecticut,  "to  confer  upon  the  subject 
of  their  public  grievances.''  Delegates  from  Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  and  from 
Tbc  parts  of  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  met  at  Hart- 

liartford  {q^^  in  December,  1814,  to  discuss  the  situation  of  af- 
fairs and  decide  upon  the  proper  course  to  be  pursued. 
Among  other  measures  they  recommended  the  adoption 
of  several  amendments  to  the  constitution,  chiefly  w:th 
intent  to  restrict  the  powers  of  Congress  over  com- 
merce, and  to  prevent  naturaliied  citizens  from  hold- 
ing office.  As  there  was  much  secrecy  in  its  proceed- 
ings a  popular  suspicion  was  aroused  that  a  dissolution 
of  the  union  had  been  proposed,  perhaps  resolved 
upon,  in  its  meetings.  This  suspicion  completed  the 
ruin  of  the  Federalist  party.  Some  years  afterward 
the  journal  of  the  convention  was  published  in  order 
to  justify  its  members,  and  to  show  that  no  treasonable 
designs  were  officially  proposed.  It  was  then,  how- 
ever, too  late  to  be  of  benefit  to  the  party,  for  the  pop- 
ular opinion  had  become  fixed. 
Tre^'y  of  179.  The  final  negotiations  for  peace  took  place  at 
'"  Ghent,  in  Belgium,  the  commissioners  on  the  part  of 
the  United  States  being  John  Quincy  Adams,  James 
A.  Bayard,  Henry  Clay,  Jonathan  Russell  and  Albert 
Gallatin.  The  treaty  was  signed  December  24,  1814, 
and  promptly  ratified  by  both  governments.  It  was 
welcome  to  the  administration,  whose  want  of  ex- 
perience in  the  conduct  of  the  war  had  involved  the 
country  in  great  financial  straits.  The  treaty  left  things 
apparently  just  as  they  had  been  before  the  war. 
Nothing  was  said  about  the  right  of  search  and  im- 
pressment of  seamen,  out  of  which  the  war  arose,  but 
the  United  States  had  shown  to  the  European  nations 
that  she  would  not  be  insulted  with  impunity.  The 
British  ceased  to  enforce  their  claims,  and  hence  the 
United  States  may  be  said  to  have  succeeded  in  the 
object  of  the  contest.  England  withdrew  her  claims 
to  sovereignty.  The  nation  was  not  only  established 
in  its  own  domain,  but  it  had  equal  rights  with  Eu- 
rope on  the  broad  seas.  The  last  vestige  of  subjection 
to  the  Old  World  disappeared  when  Decatur  sailed 
Al-'prine  '°*°  "^®  harbor  of  Algiers  in  June,  1815.  That  country 
wJr.  had  again  declared  war  on  the  United  States.     Decatur 

compelled  the  Dey  to  come  on  board  his  flag  ship  and 
sign  a  treaty  renouncing  forever  all  demands  against 
Americans.  The  other  Barbary  States  signed  similar 
treaties,  and  from  that  time  on  American  coDunerce 
became  completely  free. 
Itowufail  180.  The  close  of  the  war  marks  the  final  downfall 
Federal  "^  ^he  federal  party.  From  this  period  the  few  remain- 
pariy.  Ing  Federalists  ceased  from  any  united  party  action. 
There  was  but  one  party,  whose  principles  consisted  of 
a  combination  of  those  which  had  characterized  the 
original  Federal  and  Republican  parties.  The  leading 
principle  of  the  Federal  party,  the  establishment  and 
continuance  of  the  Federal  government,  had  been  quietly 
adopted  by  the  Republicans,  while  the  Republican  prin- 
ciple of  limiting  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  govern- 
ment had  been  as  quietly  accepted  by  the  Federalists 
after  the  Republican  party  had  come  into  power.  In 
the  presidential  election  of  1816,  the  Federalist  can- 
didate, Rufus  King,  received  only  34  electoral  votes 
against  1S7  for  the  Republican  candidate.  James  Mon- 
roe.    His  administration  lasted  from  1817  to  1825,  for 


in  1820  the  Federalists  put  no  candidate  in  the  field, 
and  Monroe,  being  nominated  for  a  second  term,  his 
election  was  practically  unanimous.  His  administra- 
tion has  been  called  the  "Era  of  good  feeling."  Peo-  Tliceni  of 
pie  forgot  the  old  quarrels  in  their  joy  at  the  end  of  r''"''  '"'" 
the  war  and  the  revival  of  business.  For  a  time  the  " 
violent  party  feeling,  which  had  flamed  so  high  during 
the  European  strife,  had  quieted  down.  New  occasions 
for  political  contest  had  not  yet  come.  Congress  oc- 
cupied itself  chiefly  in  the  regulation  of  internal  affairs. 
Taxes  were  reduced,  and  a  slight  increase  was  made  in 
the  tariff.  The  feeling  was  growing  among  the  Re- 
publicans that  the  tariff  ought  to  be  so  arranged  as  to 
afford  protection  to  those  manufactures  which  had 
been  developed  in  the  United  States  during  the  war, 
but  were  now  suffering  from  a  competition  with  the 
cheaper  goods  which  were  imported  from  England. 
But  no  action  was  taken  on  the  subject. 

181.  As  has  been  stated,  the  charter  of  the  national  Thenmion. 
bank  which  had  been  granted  during  Washington's  first  ^  'J'''''^- 
administration,  had  exp-red  in  1811,  and  the  Repub- 
licans, then  in  power,  had  refused  tore-charter  it.    The 
attempt  to  carry  on  the  war  by  loans  had  resulted  in 

almost  a  state  of  bankruptcy.  In  April,  1816,  a  bUl 
was  passed,  granting  a  charter  for  a  national  bank  to 
expire  in  1836.  It  was  modeled  upon  the  one  which 
the  Republicans  had  formerly  opposed.  The  Repub- 
lican newspapers  warmly  advocated  the  scheme,  and 
republished  Hamilton's  argument  in  favor  of  such  a 
bank,  thus  showing  how  far  loose  constructionist  ideas 
had  spread  in  the  Republican  party.  The  bank  was 
organized  with  a  capital  of  $35,000,000.  four-fifths  of 
which  might  be  in  government  stock.  It  was  to  have 
custody  of  the  government  revenues,  but  the  secretary 
of  the  treasury  was  empowered  to  divert  the  revenues 
to  other  custodians,  giving  his  reasons  for  such  actions 
to  Congress. 

182.  In  1817  hostilities  broke  out  with  the  Seminole  Tronhii-  ia 
and  Creek   Indians  of  Spanish  Florida,   Georgia,  and  ^'oridu. 
Alabama;  General  Jackson,  being  sent  to  the  scene  of 
disturbance,  chastised  the  savages  and  destroj'ed  their 
villages.   Jackson,  with  all  his  admirable  qualities,  was 

not  a  cautious  man.  Satisfied  that  the  Spaniards  had 
incited  the  Indians  to  make  war,  he  invaded  Florida 
(April,  1818),  and  took  possession  of  Spanish  forts  and 
built  a  fort  of  his  own.  Then  he  seized  Pensacola  and 
sent  the  Spanish  troops  and  civil  authorities  to  Havana. 
Though  Jackson's  high-handed  measures  wjre  not  fully 
sustained  by  Congress,  yet,  so  popular  was  he,  that 
instead  of  being  reproved  by  Congress,  he  was  regarded 
as  a  great  hero  worthy  of  warmest  praise.  Spain  vigor- 
ously protested  against  these  proceedings  as  a  gross 
violation  of  neutrality,  but  she  was  too  weak  to  offer 
any  effectual  resistance.  The  matter  was  finally  ar- 
ranged by  the  purchase  of  Florida  by  the  United  States 
for  $5,000,000  (1819). 

183.  The  growth  of  the  nation  was  so  rapid  tha'  for  Growili  nt 
six  years  after  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812  a  new  state  ''"'  nauon. 
was  added  each  year.      Indiana  was  added  in  1816. 
Mississippi  in   1817,  Illinois  in  1818,  Alabama  in  1819, 

Maine  in  1820,  and  Missouri  in  1821.  The  population 
now  numbered  nearly  ten  millions  ;  the  public  revenue 
had  increased  from  five  million  dollars  durin.^  the  time 
of  Washington  to  twenty-five  million  dollars.  Since 
1790  the  government  had  granted  patents  to  its  inven- 
tors. A  few  had  been  granted  prior  to  1812.  but  after 
that  the  number  increased  rapidly.  In  1836  the  patent 
office  was  made  a  distinct  bureau  under  the  secretary 
of  state,  and  a  commissioner  of  patents  was  appointed 
at  its  head.  The  great  coal  and  iron  regions  lying  ia 
the  Appalachian  range  were  now  yielding  their  riches. 
Charcoal  was  formerly  used  in  smelting  iron,  but  in 
1820  the  ironworkers  of  Pennsylvania  began  to  make 
experiments  in  mixing  anvhracite  coal  with  charcoal. 
Wher  it  was  found  that  anthracite  coal  could  be  used 
alons  the  manufacture  of  iron  received  a  new  in  peu:^ 


7U0 


UNITED     STATES 


and  increased  rapidly.  With  a  country  so  large,  and 
with  a  population  spreading  in  «very  direction,  the 
urgent  demand  of  western  settlers  for  some  quicker  and 
easier  mode  of  inter-communication  and  transportation 
led  to  a  variety  of  plans  to  accomplish  the  end.  Private 
companies  and  sometimes  the  state  built  roads  and 
canals.  The  greatest  of  these  public  works  was  the 
Kric  canal.  Erie  canal,  which  owed  its  execution  chiefly  to  the 
energetic  governor  of  New  York,  De  Witt  Clinton.  It 
was  begun  in  1817,  and  opened  for  tralBc  in  1825.  It 
extended  across  the  state  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hud- 
son, and  was  the  largest  canal  in  the  world.  When  the 
enterprise  was  first  undertaken,  and  until  its  com- 
pletion, it  was  called  "Clinton's  big  ditch,"  but  it  was 
one  of  the  principal  means  by  which  the  city  of  New 
York  became  the  chief  commercial  city  of  the  new 
world.  This  was  before  the  locomotive  had  been  per- 
fected, so  that  steam  railroads  were  not  yet  in 
operation, 
gleam-  184.  In  1807,  Robert  Fulton  had  invented  the  steam- 

hi-ats.  boat.  In  1811  a  steamboat  was  launched  on  the  Ohio 
river  at  Pittsburg,  and  presently  many  like  craft  were 
travelmg  the  western  rivers,  thus  opening  an  easy 
means  of  communication  between  distant  points.  Just 
after  the  Erie  canal  was  begun,  a  steamboat  was  built, 
which  was  the  first  to  navigate  Lake  Erie.  The  next 
year  the  steamer  Sacaiinah  crossed  the  Atlantic,  went 
as  far  sls  St.  Petersburg  snd  returned.  Six  years  later, 
when  the  Erie  canal  was  finished,  the  steamer  Enter- 
prise went  from  America  to  India  by  way  of  the  Cape 
Baiiroads.  of  Good  Hope.  In  1826  the  first  railroad  in  the  United 
States  was  opened  from  Milton  to  Quincy,  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. It  was  only  two  miles  long,  and  was  used 
for  hauling  granite,  the  cars  being  drawn  by  horses.  In 
1830  the  first  passenger  railroad  in  America  was  opened, 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  which  was  fifteen 
miles  in  length.  The  cars  were  at  first  drawn  by  horses, 
but  with  next  year  a  locomotive  was  used.  The  con- 
struction of  railroads  now  began  in  all  directions,  and 
during  the  next  twenty  years  nearly  ten  thousand  of 
miles  were  built.  By  the  spplication  of  steam  to  in- 
dustry, the  discovery  of  large  tracts  of  coal  and  iron 
ore,  the  invention  of  labor-saving  machines,  the  com- 
.  munication  by  steam  and  railroad,  the  means  were 
given  to  an  energetic  people  for  transforming  the 
wilderness  of  the  southern  half  of  North  America  into 
a  rich  and  prosperous  country. 

185.  In  its  international  relations  the  action  of  the 
government  had  become  strong,  quiet,  and  self- 
respecting.  Mexico  and  the  Spanish  qolcnies  of  South 
America  had  revolted  against  Spain  and  established 
republics,  and  in  1822  President  Monroe  acknowledged 
them  as  independent  nations.  During  the  revolt  it 
seemed  likelv  that  the  "  Holy  Alliance"  of  Austria, 
Prussia,  and  Russia  meant  to  assist  Spain  in  bringing 
her  revolted  colonies  to  obedience.  Great  Britain  had 
been  gradually  withdrawing  her  support  from  the 
alliance,  and  Canning,  the  new  British  secretary, 
determined  to  impress  a  check  upon  it  by  calling  in 
the  weight  of  the  American  government.  A  hint  was 
given  to  the  American  minister,  and  in  his  annual 
message  to  Congress,  in  1823,  Mr.  Monroe  declared 
Monroe  that  "We  could  not  view  an  interposition  for  op- 
diicirine.  pressing  them  (the  South  American  states),  or  in  con- 
trolling in  any  other  manner  their  destiny  by  any 
European  power,  in  any  other  light  than  as  a  mani- 
festation of  an  unfriendly  disposition  towards  the 
United  States."  This  statement  announced  the  great 
fact  that  "  the  American  continents  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any 
European  power."  This  principle,  so  boldly  declared, 
became  known  as  the  "  Monroe  doctrine,"  and.  having 
the  full  sympathy  of  England,  it  proved  effectual. 
The  attitude  of  the  national  mind  implied  in  such  a 
declaration  showed  that  our  period  of  national  weak- 
ness had  come  to  an  end. 


186.  Before  the  Revolution  all  the  colonies  held  negro  Tiie  slavery 
slaves,  but  north  of  Maryland  these  slaves  were  few  in  ^y^'""' 
number,  and  were  soon  emancipated  in  all  the  northern 

•states  except  Delaware.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
Republic  many  of  the  wisest  men  in  the  south  were 
desirous  of  getting  rid  of  slavery.  All  but  three  of  the 
United  States  which  made  the  confederation  forbade 
the  importation  of  slaves.  These  three  were  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia;  and  they  insisted, 
when  the  consitution  was  formed,  that  the  right  to 
import  slaves  should  continue  until  1808.  At  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  a  strong  anti-slavery 
feeling  even  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  the 
supposition  generally  prevailed  that  the  slavery  system 
would  gradually  die  out  without  causing  any  serious 
political  trouble.  In  two  states  only.  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia,  was  slavery  looked  upon  with  any  marked 
degree  of  favor,  and  this  was  owing  to  the  fact  that 
these  two  states  were  mostly  given  to  the  cultivation  of 
rice  and  indigo,  which  seemed  to  make  slave  labor 
indispensable.  In  1783,  the  famous  cotton-gin  was  The 
invented  by  Eli  Whitney,  a  Connecticut  schoolmaster  cottoD-iria, 
living  in  Georgia.  The  construction  of  this  machine 
was  so  simple  that  the  slaves  could  use  it,  and  cotton 
could  be  cleaned  and  prepared  for  market  with  great 
rapidity.  Hitherto  very  little  cotton  had  been  raised  in 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  but  with  the  advent  of  the 
cotton-gin,  cotton-growing  became  a  profitable  industry, 
and  in  consequence  there  was  an  increasing  demand  for 
slaves.  As  the  importation  of  slaves  had  been  prohib- 
ited by  the  constitution  after  1808,  the  cotton-planters 
could  henceforth  obtain  slaves  only  by  purchasing  them 
in  such  border  states  as  Kentucky  and  Virginia.  To 
the  tobacco- planters  of  these  states,  this  seemed  to 
promise  a  source  of  great  profit,  and  many  of  them 
gave  their  attention  to  the  raising  of  slaves  for  the 
southern  markets.  Hence  anti  slavery  sentiments  were 
soon  extinguished  among  them.  There  was  no  likeli- 
hood now  that  slavery  would  die  a  natural  death.  The 
interests  of  the  south  seemed  to  be  bound  up  in  the 
slavery  system,  and  the  way  was  prepared  for  uniting 
all  the  slave  states  into  a  solid  south,  as  opposed  to 
a  solid  north.  The  greatest  danger  to  slavery  had  been 
the  growing  conviction  that  it  was  wrong  in  principle 
and  that  the  nation  ought  not  to  permit  it.  But  slavery 
existed  under  the  laws,  and  the  states  where  it  did  not 
exist  were  not  at  first  disposed  to  interfere.  They  held 
that  slavery  was  purely  an  affair  of  the  states  in  which 
it  was  found.  Besides,  the  northern  States  were  now 
engaged  in  a  variety  of  enterprises,  while  the  southern 
States  were  still  chiefly  employed  in  the  few  agricultural 
industries  of  tobacco,  cotton,  rice,  and  sugar.  The 
south  thus  looked  to  the  north  for  clothing,  tools, 
much  of  their  food,  and  all  the  luxuries  of  life.  The 
merchants  of  the  north  found  a  great  market  for  their 
goods  in  the  south;  their  manufacturers,  also,  needed 
cotton  to  keep  their  mills  in  motion.  For  these  reasons, 
chiefly,  the  relations  between  the  two  great  sections  in 
regard  to  slavery  had  not  been  disturbed;  but  the  time 
was  at  hand  when  this  question  of  slavery  was  to  be 
the  paramount  one  in  the  whole  republic. 

187.  In  the   northwest  territory  slavery  was  prohib-  The  8l3v,.->; 
ited  by  law;  in  all  territories  south  of  that  domain  it  *'''''SS'>- 
was  permitted.     There  soon  grew  up  a  contest  between 

the  free  and  the  slave  states  for  control  of  the  govern- 
ment, the  south  wishing  to  extend  the  area  of  slavery 
by  the  admission  of  new  .slave  states,  the  north  seeking 
to  confine  the  institution  to  the  localitie  v  here  it 
already  existed,  while  the  abolitionists  of  the  North 
wished  to  put  a  stop  to  it  altogether.  Thus  began  the 
"irrepressible  conflict"  between  free  and  slave  labor 
which  ended,  after  more  than  forty  years,  in  the  great 
civil  war.  It  was  not  until  the  Mississippi  was 
crossed,  and  settlements  began  to  be  made  in  the  great 
territory  originally  called  Louisiana,  which  Jefferson 
had  added  to  the  national  domain,   that  the  question 


UNITED     STATES 


761 


promise. 


I 


arose  whether  the  states  made  from  it  were  to  be  slave 
states  or  free.  The  first  discussion  was  over  the  admis- 
sion of  the  territory  of  Missouri  as  a  state.  A  kind  of 
compromise  had  been  kept  up  from  the  beginning  by 
admitting  a  slave  state  and  a  free  state  by  turns,  so  as 
to  counterbalance  each  other  in  Congress.  Thus  Ver- 
mont had  been  counterbalanced  by  Kentucky,  Tennes- 
see by  Ohio,  Louisiana  by  Indiana.  Mississippi  by 
Dlinois.  In  the  same  manner,  the  admission  of  Ala- 
bama, in  1819,  should  have  counterbalanced  the  admis- 
sion of  Maine  in  the  following  year;  but,  as  Missouri 
was  also  knocking  at  the  door  of  Congress,  the 
southern  members  refused  to  admit  Maine  until  it 
should  be  agreed  to  admit  Missouri  as  a  slave  state. 
The  Mis-  188.  When  Missouri  applied  for  permission  to  enter 
soon  com-  the  sisterhood  of  states,  and  a  bill  was  brought  before 
Droniise.  Cougjegg  (q  (hat  effect  (1819).  an  amendment  was 
offered  to  the  bill,  forbidding  slavery  or  involuntary 
servitude  in  Missouii,  except  as  a  punishment  for  crime. 
At  once  party  lines  were  broken.  The  members  from 
the  free  states  voted  for  the  amendment,  and  the  mem- 
bers from  the  slave  states  against  it.  It  was  carried  in 
the  house,  but  rejected  by  the  senate,  and  the  bill  was 
lost.  At  the  next  session  of  Congress,  Missouri  again 
presented  her  plea  for  admission  as  a  state,  and  Maine 
made  her  first  application  for  the  same  privilege.  The 
Maine  bill  passed  without  opposition  in  the  house,  but 
by  a  sectional  vote  of  that  body  slavery  was  again  pro- 
hibited in  Missouri.  In  the  senate,  the  Maine  bill  and 
a  Missouri  bill  permitting  slavery  were  united,  and  then 
passed  by  a  sectional  vote.  As  the  case  now  stood, 
both  bills  were  compelled  to  stand  or  fall  together, 
and  the  responsibility  of  their  acceptance  or  rejection 
was  thrown  upon  the  house.  The  house  held  to  its 
first  action,  and  rejected  the  combined  bills  as  passed 
by  the  senate.  The  difficulty  was  at  length  settled  by 
the  famous  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820,  in  which 
each  section  gave  up  some  of  its  demands,  the  house 
by  permitting  slavery  in  Missouri,  and  the  senate  by 
permitting  Maine  and  Missouri  to  be  voted  upon  separ- 
ately. Thus  Maine  and  Missouri  were  admitted  into  the 
union,  the  latter  as  a  slave  state  ;  but  it  was  agreed  by 
both  branches  of  Congress  that  slavery  should  be  pro- 
hibited forever  in  all  other  territories  north  of  the  par- 
allel of  36°  30\  which  was  the  southern  boundary  of 
Missouri. 
Visit  of  189.     In  1824,  Congress  requested  President  Monroe 

Ls  Fayette,  to  invite  La  Fayette  to  visit  the  Ignited  States  as  a  guest 
of  the  nation.  The  marquis,  then  sixty-seven  years  of 
age,  spent  eleven  months  in  a  tour  of  the  states,  re- 
ceiving everywhere  the  highes  honors.  His  great  for- 
tune had  been  lost  during  the  French  Revolution,  and 
Congress  voted  him  a  present  of  a  township  of  land  and 
two  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  money.  On  the  17th 
of  June,  182.5.  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  General  La  Fayette  laid  the  corner-stone  of 
the  Bunker  Hill  monument.  There  were  present  on 
the  occasion  about  forty  of  the  survivors  of  the  battle 
and  two  hundred  soldiers  of  the  Revolution.  A  mem- 
orable oration  was  delivered  by  Daniel  Webster. 

190.  In  the  presidential  election  of  1824,  there  were  no 
recognized  parties,  and  political  issues  were  so  obscure 
that  the  contest  turned  chiefly  upon  the  personal  merits 
of  the  candidates.  The  leading  candidates  were  John 
Quincy  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  secretary  of  state, 
William  H.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  speaker  of  the 
house,  and  Andrew  Jackson,  a  private  citizen  of  Tenn- 
essee. On  account  of  the  number  of  the  candidates 
and  the  character  of  the  contest,  the  presidenta!  cam- 
Th^f.ruii  paign  of  1824  has  been  humorously  styled  the  "Scrub 
^jjp'^'^''^  race  for  the  Presidency".  All  the  candidates  claimed 
■  to  be  Republicans.  Crawford  and  Jackson  were  repre- 
sentatives of  the  strict  constructionist  principles,  but 
JacRson  was  not  in  favor  with  the  Crawford  faction  on 
account  of  his  leaning  toward  a  protective  tariff.  i,.t!am8 


and  Clay  were  loose  constructionists,  The  personal 
nature  of  the  canvass  is  shown  in  the  tendency  of  the 
supporters  of  the  different  contestants  to  designate 
themselves  as  "Jackson  men"  or  "Adams  men" 
rather  than  by  any  real  party  title.  John  B.  Calhoun, 
of  South  Carolina,  was  generally  supported  for  the 
vice-presidency  by  the  friends  of  all  the  other  candi- 
dates. In  February,  1825,  the  electoral  votes  were 
counted,  and  were  found  to  be,  for  president,  99  for 
Andrew  Jackson,  84  for  John  Quincy  Adams,  41  for 
William  H.  Crawford,  and  37  for  Henry  Clay,  and  for 
vice-president,  182  for  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  78  for 
various  other  persons.  Calhoun  was  therefore  declared 
elected  vice-president.  Jackson  had  received  the 
greatest  number  of  electoral  votes  for  president,  but  no 
one  had  a  majority;  and  so  the  election  went  to  the 
house  of  representatives.  As  Clay  stood  fourth  on  the 
list  he  was  not  eligible,  and  only  three  names  were 
open  to  choice  in  the  house.  The  friends  of  Clay 
therefore — unable  to  vote  for  him — united  with  the 
friends  of  Adams  and  thus  secured  the  election  of  the 
latter.  The  feeling  excited  by  this  result  liad  a  ten- 
dency to  widen  the  breach  between  the  two  divisions  of 
the  Republican  party,  and  before  long  they  became 
openly  opposing  parties. 

191.  From  the  beginning  of  Mr.  Adam's  administra- ''be.-^dams 
tion,  both  factions  of  the  defeated  party  united  in  an  tio™""""*' 
opposition  to  the  president,  which  continued  through 

his  whole  term  of  office.  Adams  appointed  Clay  to  the 
leading  position  in  his  cabinet,  and  at  once  the  charge 
was  made  that  Adams  and  Clay  had  formed  a  corrupt 
bargain,  in  which  the  latter  had  agreed  to  cast  his  in- 
fluence in  favor  of  Adams,  in  return  for  which  Clay 
should  receive  the  position  of  secretary  of  state,  which 
was  then  usually  considered  as  the  stepping-stone  to 
the  presidency.  This  imputation  was  indignantly  de- 
nied by  Clay,  but  the  cry  of  "bargain  and  intrigue" 
was  kept  up  until  Adams  retired  from  the  presidency 
at  the  end  of  his  four  years  of  office.  In  the  first  year 
of  his  administration,  the  South  American  states, 
which  had  now  become  independent,  proposed  to  hold  The 
a  congress  at  Pauama,  to  consult  upon  matters  of  in-  ^onKr^lj 
terest  common  to  the  whole  of  America.  They  invited 
the  United  States  to  send  delegates.  President  Adams 
accepted  the  invitation  in  behalf  of  the  union.  Con- 
gress, however,  after  a  stormy  debate,  refused  to  send 
delegates.  It  was  claimed  that  these  South  American 
states  had  abolished  slavery,  that  they  were  near 
neighbors  to  the  south,  that  they  might  include  Cuba, 
which  was  still  a  part  of  Spain,  make  the  island  inde- 
pendent, and  free  the  slaves  there.  The  whole  scheme 
was  fraught  therefore  with  danger  to  the  slave  states. 
and  was  rejected.  The  slave  states  were  strong  sup- 
porters of  the  doctrine  of  state  sovereignty.  They 
held  that  the  states  were  independent  of  one  another 
and  of  the  federal  government,  a  doctrine  which  had 
been  held  from  the  beginning  of  the  union.  The  inde- 
pendent power  of  the  state  was  a  safeguard  against  too 
great  a  power  in  the  central  eovernment. 

192.  The  first  tariff  act  of  1789  involved  the  idea  of  P'-'^'i'^'ve 
protection  to  home  manufactures.    The  duties,  however.  '"""'• 
ranged  only  from  71  to  10  per  cent.,  averaging  about  8| 

per  cent.  The  system,  too.  which  was  introduced  by 
Hamilton,  seemed  to  be  rather  for  political  than 
economic  purposes.  Up  to  the  passage  of  the  tariff 
act,  the  laying  of  duties  had  been  controlled  by  the 
states.  The  possibility  of  secession  among  the  statts 
in  which  the  state-rights  feeling  was  strong,  was  a 
feature  that  every  statesman  had  to  take  into  account. 
Hamilton  wished  to  establish  the  new  Federal  govern- 
ment as  firmly  as  possible,  and  his  object  in  the  tanlT 
system  seems  to  have  been  to  create  a  class  of  manu- 
facturers, running  through  all  the  states,  but  dependent 
for  prosperity  on  the  Federal  government  and  its  tariff. 
This  would  be  a  strong  factor  in  support  of  the  govcrn- 
mei-t  against  any  attempt  at  secession,  or  any  tender.cy 


7G'J 


U1^^ITED     STATES 


to  return  to  the  old  system  of  control  by  State  legisla- 
ture. The  ■war  of  1813  had  made  it  difficult  to  obtain 
manufactured  goods  from  abroad,  and  many  needed 
articles  had  begun  to  be  made  in  the  United  States. 
After  the  war  was  over,  American  manufacturers  wished 
to  continue  their  business,  but  as  they  could  not  com- 
pete successfully  with  English  manufactured  goods,  a 
higher  protective  tariff  was  thought  necessary.  In 
•Msm  ^^^^  ^  tariff  was  instituted  which  imposed  a  duty  of 
about  twenty-five  per  cent,  on  imported  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  and  specific  duties  on  iron  imports.  The 
English  manufacturers  made  far  more  cloth  than  could 
could  be  used  in  England  alone,  and  they  sold  it  to 
other  countries.  They  could  make  the  cloth  better  and 
more  cheaply  than  it  could  be  made  in  the  United  States. 
The  people  of  the  United  States,  therefore,  would 
prefer  to  buy  it  of  England  rather  than  of  the  American 
manufacturers.  Now  England  had  established  herself 
in  India,  and  received  at  first  most  of  her  cotton  from 
that  country.  She  wished  to  favor  her  own  merchants, 
■who  broijght  the  cotton  from  India,  and  therefore  she 
laid  a  tax  upon  the  cotton  from  the  southern  states. 
Then  the  south  began  to  send  her  cotton  to  the  north, 
■where  they  oould  sell  it  without  paying  duties,  and 
favored  a  heavy  duty  on  all  cotton  goods  brought  from 
England.  By  this  means  they  thought,  that  Northern 
manufacturers  could  make  up  their  cotton  into  goods 
■which  would  cost  the  buyers  less  than  English  goods  of 
the  same  kind.  They  reasoned  thus;  If  the  cotton  has 
to  travel  across  the  Atlantic,  pay  a  tax  there,  be  made 
into  cloth,  cross  the  Atlantic  again,  and  then  pay  a 
heavy  duty  at  the  custom-house,  it  will  cost  the  mer- 
chant who  buys  it  so  much  that  he  when  he  sells  it  he 
must  ask  a  higher  price  than  for  the  cloth  made  perhaps 
in  the  next  town  to  him.  So  the  customer  will  buy  the 
native  cloth.  This  tariff  on  European  goods,  therefore, 
was  called  a  protective  tariff,  because  it  was  intended 
to  protect  the  American  planter  and  manufacturer.  At 
first  the  northern  people  did  not  favor  it.  Their 
business  was  much  more  in  ships  than  in  mills; 
and  if  the  tariff  prevented  the  importation  of  Euro- 
pean goods,  their  vessels  wotild  Bot  be  of  much 
use. 

193.  There  was  nothing  new  in  the  principle  of  the 
protective  tariff.  As  has  been  shown,  Hamilton  had 
urged  it  at  the  beginning  of  the  government,  and  it 
was  the  method  used  by  many  countries  for  the  protec- 
tion of  their  own  industries.  But  the  tariff  of  1816  in 
the  United  States  came  at  a  time  when  it  had  a  marked 
effect  in  the  history  of  the  people.  If  the  United  States 
could  manufacture  its  own  goods  from  its  own  products, 
and  sell  them  to  its  own  citizens,  then  one  part  of  the 
country  would  help  another,  and  the  whole  union 
would  prosper  together.  Thus  the  tariff  fell  into  its 
place  as  one  of  the  plans  adopted  by  the  country  when 
it  settled  down  to  the  work  of  possessing  the  land  and 
improving  it.  But  as  time  went  on,  the  south,  which 
had  at  first  favored  a  protected  tarill  to  ensure  the  sale 
of  her  cotton,  now  began  to  oppose  any  further  increase 
of  duties  on  foreign  goods.  Thus  in  1822,  a  proposition 
for  making  the  tariff  more  protective  was  defeated  by 
T«riff  the  southern  section  in  Congress.  The  tariff  of  1824 
of  is»4.  ^as  adopted  by  very  small  majorities.  It  was  an 
advance  on  all  preceding  tariffs  in  its  consistent  design 
of  excluding  foreign  competing  goods  from  American 
markets.  It  was  passed  by  the  northern  members, 
except  those  from  the  northeast,  against  the  almost 
unanimous  vote  of  the  southern  members,  who  consid- 
ered it  unconstitutional,  sectional,  and  unjust.  In 
1828,  the  Protectionists,  as  those  who  favored  a  high 
protective  tariff  were  now  called,  succeeded,  after  a 
debate  of  six  weeks,  in  passing  another  tariff  bill 
which  was  so  protective  as  to  be  satisfactory  to  manu- 
facturers but  very  objectional  to  the  southern  states, 
whers  it  was  pronounced  a  legalized  robbery.  From 
this  lime,  the  nullification  doctrines  of  the  Kentucky 


resolutions  of  1T99  began  to  gain  strength  rapidly  in 
the  south. 

194.  In  the  presidential  canvass  of  1828,  the  two  fac-  w>igs  and 
tions  of  the  great  Republican  party  now  assumed  the  i'*™'^'"'*- 
character  of  two  distinct  and  opposite  parties.  The 
supporters  of  Jackson  assumed  the  name  of  Democrats, 
while  the  opposition,  which  favored  the  re-election  of 
Adams,  were  known  at  first  as  National  Republicans. 
But  in  the  course  of  Jackson's  administration,  as  they 
saw  fit  to  represent  him  as  a  kind  of  a  tyrant  like 
George  III,  they  assumed  the  name  of  Whigs;  and 
henceforth,  until  1854,  Whig  and  Democrat  were  the 
names  of  the  two  great  political  parties  in  the  United 
States.  Without  entering  into  a  detailed  history  of 
these  parties  and  their  principles,  it  may  be  said  in 
general  that  the  questions  which  have  divided  them 
have  been  concerned  with  the  powers  of  the  national 
government.  The  Whigs  wished  to  give  the  Federal 
government  the  power  to  use  the  public  money  in  the 
making  of  roads,  improving  rivers  and  harbors,  etc., 
under  the  general  head  of  Internal  Improvements;  the 
Democrats  claimed  that  these  things  ought  to  be  done 
by  the  states  or  by  private  enterprise.  The  Whigs  es-  Tbe 
poused  the  policy  of  laying  duties  on  imports  as  hiffh  "-^mericAr 
as  revenue  results  would  approve;  within  this  limit  the  *'y^'*'^- 
duties  were  to  be  defined  for  purposes  of  protection; 
and  the  superabundant  revenues  were  to  be  expended 
on  internal  improvements.  This  was  known  as  the 
"American  system."  This  policy  was  oppoied  by  the 
Democrats,  but  not  always  intelligently.  The  Whigs 
also  favored  the  continuance  of  the  national  bank 
which  had  been  chartered  in  1816.  The  Democrats 
strongly  opposed  it,  and  on  the  question  they  achieved 
a  complete  and  decisive  victory  under  President  Tyler. 
On  the  question  of  internal  improvements,  however, 
the  opposite  still  holds  the  ground,  but  most  of  its  de- 
tails have  been  settled  by  the  great  development  of  the 
powers  of  private  enterprise  during  the  past  si.tty 
years,  and  it  is  not  at  present  a  leading  question.  The 
question  of  the  tariff,  however,  remains  to-day  as  a 
"burning  question,"  but  it  is  no  longer  argued  on 
grounds  of  constitutional  law,  but  on  grounds  of  polit- 
ical economy. 

195.  In  the  presidential  canvass  of  1828  Jackson  was  Andrew 
elected  president,  with  John  C.  Calhoun  as  vice-presi-  Jackson 
dent,   and  on  March  4  they  were  sworn  into  office.  P''**'"!^"'- 
The  eight  following  years  have  been  called  "the  reign 
of  Andrew  Jackson,"  from  the  arbitrary  methods  which 
he  seemed  to  assume  in  regard  to  money  affairs  in  his 
administration.     One  of  the  greatest  mistakes  of  the 
president  was  the  use  of  government  offices  as  rewards 
for  his  friends  and-  adherents.     As  early  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century  a   vicious    system  was  Origin  of 
growing  up  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.     In  those  ths  'epoile 
states  the  appointive  offices  came  to  be  used  as  bribes  '^*  ^''^' 
or  as  rewards  for  partisan  services.     By  securing  votes 
for  a  successful  candidate,  a  man  with  little  in  his 
pocket  and  nothing  particular  to  do,  could  obtain  some 
office  with  a  comfortable  salary.     It  would  be  given 
him  as  a  reward  for  political  services,  and  some  other 
man,  more  competent  than  himself,  would  have  to  be 
turned  out  in  order  to  make  room  for  him.    A  more 
effective  method  of  driving  "good  citizens"  out  of 
politics  could  hardly  have  been  devised.     The  result 
was  that  the  civil  service  of  those  states  was  seriously 
damaged  in  qualitj',  politics  degenerated  into  a  wild 
scramble  for  office,  salaries  were  paid  to  men  who  did 
little  or  no  public  service  in  return,  and  thus  the  line 
which  separates    taxation    from    robbery   was    often 
crossed.     About  the  same  time  the  idea  obtained  that 
there  is  something  especially  democratic,  and  therefore 
meritorious,  about  "rotation  in  office."    Government  I'Roution 
offices    were    regarded   as  plums  at  which  everyone '°  "^'c'?-" 
ought  to  be  allowed  a  chance  to  bite.     The  way  was 
prepared  in  1820  by  W.  H.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  who 
succeeded  in  getting  the  law  enacted  which  limits  the 


UNITED     STATES 


r63 


Baok. 


terms  of  office  for  postmasters,  revenue  collectors  aad 
other  servants  of  the  Federsil  government  to  four 
years.  The  importance  of  this  measure  was  not  under- 
stood, -ind  it  excited  very  little  discussion  at  the  time. 
After  Jackson  obtained  the  presidency  the  methods  of 
K ew  York  and  Pennsylvania  were  applied  on  a  national 
scale.  Jackson  cherished  the  absurd  belief  that  the 
administration  of  his  predecessor  Adams  had  been 
corrupt,  and  he  accordingly  turned  men  out  of  office 
with  a  keen  zest.  During  the  forty  years  between 
Washington's  first  inauguration  and  Jackson's  the  total 
number  of  removals  from  office  was  seventy  four,  and 
out  of  this  number  five  were  defaulters.  During  the 
first  year  of  Jackson's  administration  the  number  of 
changes  made  in  the  civil  service  was  said  to  be  2.000. 
■***  .  Such  was  the  abrupt  inauguration  upon  the  broadest 

i^'^^-^'^^g scale  of  the  so-called  "spoils  system."  Tne  phrase 
ti:i  onal.  originated  with  W.  L.  Marcy,  of  New  York,  who  in  a 
speech  in  the  senate  in  1831  declared  that  "to  the 
victors  belong  the  spoils."  The  author  of  the  phrase 
did  not  of  course  realize  that  he  was  making  one  of 
the  most  infamous  remarks  recorded  in  history,  and 
Jackson  doubtless  would  have  been  greatly  surprised 
could  he  have  foreseen  that  he  was  introducing  a 
gigantic  system  of  political  knavery  and  corruption, 
which  would  help  sustain  all  manner  of  abominations, 
from  grasping  monopolies  and  civic  jobbery  down  to 
political  rum  shops. 
The  United  196.  Jaokson  made  another  mistake  which,  however, 
was  trivial  compared  with  the  adoption  of  the  spoils 
system.  He  was  bitterly  opposed  to  the  United  States 
bank  because  he  believed  that  it  was  unauthorized  by 
the  constitution  and  a  means  of  political  corruption. 
As  the  charter  was  about  to  expire  in  1836  he  urged 
Congress  not  to  renew  it.  An  angry  controversy  fol- 
lowed. A  bill  renewing  the  charter  passed  in  1882,  but 
Jackson  vetoed  it.  Subsequently  he  recommended 
that  the  public  money  should  be  removed  from  the 
bank,  and  when  Congress  refused  to  consent  to  this 
measure  he  took  the  responsibility  of  ordering  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury  to  remove  it  (1833),  a  measure 
which,  at  first,  was  followed  by  great  distress  among 
merchants.  It  was  in  this  quarrel  that  the  supporters 
of  the  bank  became  known  as  Whigs,  while  the 
partisans  of  the  president  kept  the  old  name  of  Demo- 
crats. The  bank  was  finally  closed  in  1836  when  its 
charter  expired. 
inJtan  197.  In  1832  hostilities  with  the  Sac  and  Fox  tribes 

troiioles.  of  Indians  broke  out  in  what  is  now  Wisconsin.  Their 
c'.iief.  Black  Hawk,  was  captured,  and  the  Indians  were 
rf;moved  bej'ond  the  Mississippi.  Georgia  wished  to 
get  rid  of  the  Creeks  and  Cherokees  remaining  within 
the  state;  but  they  refused  to  go.  The  United  States 
had  made  treaties  with  them  and  these  treaties  ac- 
knowledged the  right  of  the  Indians  to  the  land  which 
they  held.  They  were  more  civilized  than  the  Indians 
in  general  and  had  farms  which  they  cultivated.  A  few 
of  their  chiefs  were  persuaded  to  sign  a  new  treaty 
with  Georgia,  giving  up  their  lands.  The  other  In- 
dians at  once  put  them  to  death;  they  declared  that 
these  chiefs  had  no  authority  to  sign  for  the  tribes,  and 
that  in  consequence  there  was  no  treaty.  Georgia 
wuuld  not  wait  for  the  Indians  to  yield  but  ordered  a 
S'lrvey  of  their  lands  to  be  made  for  settlement  by  the 
whites.  It  must  be  remembered  that  although  the  ter- 
TJiiiry  was  within  the  boundaries  of  Georgia  it  was  yet 
di-^iinctly  under  the  control  of  the  Indians  by  agree- 
TiM-nt  with  the  United  States.  The  federal  government 
was  very  desirous  of  getting  the  Indians  out  of  Georgia, 
and  tried  every  means  to  persuade  them  to  leave,  and 
accordingly  in  a  tacit  manner  suffered  the  state  to 
crowd  the  Indians  out.  It  was  no  less  true  that  the 
state  was  taking  to  itself  a  power  which  belonged  to 
ftie  union.  The  wrangle  over  the  Indians  began  in  the 
Administration  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  and  continued 
^tc-  Andrew  Jackson  was  chosen  president.     Jackson 


had  no  love  for  the  Indians,  having  fought  them  all  his 
life,  and  he  did  not  now  interfere.  Georgia  had  her  own 
way,  and  the  doctrine  of  state  sovereignty  was  more 
firmly  held  than  ever. 

198.  At  this  time  the  southern  people  felt  themselves  >'iii'ac» 
to  be  Virginians,   Carolinians,  Georgians,  rather  than  "'"'■ 
American  citizens.     They  were  brought  up   through 

this  feeling  of  undue  loyalty  to  their  native  states  to 
have  a  secondary  regard  for  the  national  union,  and  be- 
cause possessed  of  an  institution  which  they  were  anx- 
ious to  maintain,  they  were  necessarily  fearful  of  the  in- 
fluence of  an  entirely  free  government.  Since  slavery 
could  be  sustained  only  by  state  law,  in  opposition  to 
the  spirit  of  the  age.  the  state  must  be  made  so  sover- 
eign as  to  be  able  to  withstand  all  national  interference. 
To  make  sure  of  this  result  at  the  time  now  before  us, 
some  of  the  prominent  southerners  met  on  a  certain  oc- 
casion to  try  the  temper  of  President  Jackson  by  an 
attempted  defiance  of  ihe  national  authority.  But  the 
indignant  and  determined  response  of  the  president 
checked  for  a  moment  their  designs,  few  men  daring 
any  longer  to  follow  to  their  ultimate  conclusions  the 
teachings  of  the  great  southern  leader,  John  C.  Cal- 
houn; and  so,  for  nearly  two  years,  but  little  opposition 
was -openly  undertaken.  Calhoun,  however,  never 
ceased  his  plotting;  and  in  1832,  such  had  been  the 
progress  of  his  plans,  that  he  deemed  himself  strong 
enough  to  cariy  his  state-rights  doctrine  triumphantly 
through,  in  spite  of  the  known  hostility  of  the  patriotic 
Jackson.  Congress,  as  will  be  remembered,  had  en- 
acted a  tariff  of  a  mixed  character,  mainly  for  revenue, 
but  incident-.'ly  protecting  some  of  the  manufacturing 
interests  of  the  northern  states;  and  among  the  articles 
thus  proteci"ed  were  coarse  woolen  goods,  which  were 
used  in  the  south  as  clothing  for  its  slaves.  The  price 
of  those  articles  was  thus  made  a  trifle  higher  than  it 
would  have  been  without  this  protection;  and  the  slave 
holders,  always  a  unit  for  the  state-rights  doctrine,  had 
to  pay  this  higher  price.  The  north  was  all  the  while 
under  the  same  tariff,  paying  an  increased  price  for  cot- 
ton on  every  yard  of  imported  cloth.  This  was  not 
considered  by  the  south,  and  so  in  1832,  a  state  conven- 
tion in  South  Carolina  declared  the  tariff  acts  unconsti- 
tutional, and  therefore  null  and  void,  and  resolved  that 
any  attempt  to  collect  the  duties  at  any  port  in  that 
state  should  be  resisted  by  force  of  arms.  Preparations 
were  also  made  to  t  ake  South  Carolina  out  of  the  union. 
"Nullification"  was  the  name  given  to  this  act  by  which 
the  state  declared  certain  laws  of  the  general  govern- 
ment to  have  no  force  in  her  territory 

199.  The  1st  of  February,  1833,  in  case  Congress  did 
not  repeal  its  protective  system  prior  to  that  date,  was 
fixed  upon  as  the  limit  of  the  state's  forbearance;  for 
after  that  day.  South  Carolina,  in  the  event  of  the  non- 
compliance of  the  United  States  with  her  sovereign 
pleasure,  was  to  consider  herself  as  forming  no  part  of 
the  Federal  union.  All  she  desired,  she  said,  if  her 
demands  were  refused,  was  "to  be  let  alone,"  when 
she  would  proceed  to  govern  herself,  according  to  the 
alleged  Jeffersonian  doctrine,  as  an  independent  state. 
The  excitement  was  intense  all  over  the  union.  Web- 
ster was  in  the  senate  and  General  Jackson  in  the  presi- 
dential chair,  and  they  worked  together,  though  op- 
posite in  their  party  connections,  like  twin  brothers,  for 
the  salvation  of  their  common  eountry.  Webster 
pleaded  for  the  union,  claiming  that  the  constitution 
was  not  a  "compactof  states,"  but  a  "nation,"  created 
by  the  whole  people  for  their  collective  government 

and  benefit.  In  the  course  of  controversy  in  the  sen- web?ter 
ate,  he  held  his  famous  debate  with  Mr.  Hayne,  lasting  and  Bajne. 
for  several  days,  and  presented  the  arguments  against 
the  right  of  secession  with  an  eloquence  and  force 
never  equalled  in  any  discussion  on  that  question. 
President  Jackson  tirmly  believed  that  the  states  should 
manage  their  own  affairs  but  he  also  held  that  when 
Itws  were  passed  in  Congress  for  the  whole  country. 


764 


UNITED     STATES 


cjpecie 
circnlar. 


no  one  state  had  a  right  to  refuse  obedience  to  such 
laws.  He  declared  that  "the  Federal  union  must  and 
shall  he  preserved,"  and  sent  an  armed  fleet  to  Charles- 
ton harbor,  warning  South  Carolina  at  once  that,  if  she 
resisted,  the  whole  force  of  the  union  would  be  used 
against  her.  For  a  while  it  looked  as  if  there  would 
be  a  resort  to  arms,  but  Clay,  who  was  the  leader  of 
the  Protectionists,  came  forward  and  proposed  a  com- 
promise by  which  the  tariff  was  modified.  South 
Carolina  had  won  her  point.  The  doctrine  of  nullifica- 
tion had  not  been  put  to  the  test  of  arms;  but  the  doc- 
trine of  state  sovereignty  had  established  itself  more 
firmly  at  the  south. 

200.  After  the  fall  of  the  United  States  bank  many 
state  banks  had  been  formed,  often  with  little  capital, 
to  supply  the  expected  need  of  paper  money.  These 
banks  issued  notes  which  were  largely  used  in  the  pur- 
chase of  public  lands  from  the  United  States,  and  the 
treasury  was  accumulating  paper  currency  of  doubtful 
value.  Soon  after  Congress  had  adjourned,  the  presi- 
dent directed  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  issue  the 
so-called  specie  circular,  ordering  the  United  States 
agents  to  receive  in  future  only  gold  and  silver  in  pay- 
ment for  lands.  The  demand  for  specie  at  once  became 
pressing,  and  could  only  be  met  by  the  banks  in  which 
the  revenue  was  deposited.  Other  banks  fell  into  dif- 
ficulties which  culminated  in  the  great  "panic  of  1837.'' 
which  took  place  under  Martin  Van  Buren's  admin- 
istration.    General  .Jackson  having  served  two  terms, 

Mariin  Was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Van  Buren,  who  became  presi- 
VanBnren  dent  on  March  4,  1837.  The  administration  of  Mr. 
president,  y^n  Buren  (1837-41)  was  occupied  chiefly  with  efforts 
to  remedy  the  commercial  disasters  of  the  nation.  The 
new  president  had  taken  Jackson's  cabinet,  and  had 
declared  his  purpose  "to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  his 
illustrious  predecessor."  He,  therefore,  caught  the 
first  full  effects  of  the  storm  produced  by  Jackson's 
financial  policy,  from  which  even  Jackson's  popularity 
and  admitted  honesty  would  hardly  have  saved  him. 
A  spirit  of  reckless  speculation  had  been  excited  by 
the  excessive  amount  of  paper  money  in  circulation, 
and  property  had  acquired  a  fictitious  value.  Most  of 
the  banks  which  were  not  lucky  enough  to  have  gov- 
ernment deposits  at  command  went  down  under  the 
specie  circular  of  1836.  The  "pet  banks"  which  had 
received  the  deposits  of  the  public  money,  had  used 
them  as  loans  to  business  men,  and  now,  when  a 
sudden  demand  for  those  deposits  was  made,  many  of 
these  banks  also  were  involved  in  the  general  ruin. 
The  panic  The  sudden  calling  in  of  these  loans  was  the  beginning 
..  ,oo-  ^^  ^1^.^  famous  panic  of  1837,  the  counterpart  of  which 
had  never  before  been  seen  in  the  United  States.  Early 
in  May  the  banks  of  New  York  city  refused  to  pay 
gold  or  silver  for  their  notes,  and  the  New  York  legisla- 
ture authorized  a  suspension  of  specie  payments 
throughout  the  state  for  one  year.  This  was  followed 
at  once  by  the  suspension  of  banks  in  other  cities. 
The  president  by  proclamation  (May  15)  called  an  extra 
session  of  Congress,  to  met  September  4,  and  consider 
and  secure  the  financial  interests  of  the  government. 
Meanwhile  the  panic  continued  during  the  summer  of 
1837,  causing  widespread  ruin  among  banks,  corpora- 
tions and  business  men,  and  violently  reducing  nominal 
fortunes  to  far  less  than  their  real  value. 

201.  Finally,  after  some  vicissitudes,  the  financial 
difiiculties  of  the  nation  were  satisfactorily  adjusted  by 
the  adoption  of  one  phase  of  the  National  Bank  ques- 

Thrsuh-  tion,  that  of  the  so-called  sub-treasury  system  which 
(rea?ory  .^^  ultimately  established  in  1846,  ana  has  been  in  force 
ever  since.  By  this  system  the  public  revenus  are  not 
deposited  in  any  bank,  but  are  paid  over  on  demand  to 
the  treasury  department  by  the  collectors,  who  are  re- 
quired to  give  bonds  for  the  proper  discharge  of  their 
duty.  The  establishment  of  this  system  was  creditable 
to  Van  Buren's  administration,  but  the  country  was 
not  prosperous  during  his  term  of  office,  and  he  was 


of  1837, 


syetem. 


defeated  as  a  candidate  for  re-eiection  (1840)  after  a  re- 
markably exciting  canvas.  The  Whigs  relying  upon 
the  same  kind  of  popular  feeling  which  had  elected 
Jackson,  again  put  in  nomination  the  plain  soldier, 
Harrison,  who  had  been  Van  Buren's  opponent  in  the 
preceding  canvas,  and  who  had  lived  in  a  log  cabin  and 
had  hard  cider  on  bistable.  In  the  famous  "hard  The 'hard 
cider  campaign"  of  1840,  Harrison  won  a  sweeping  "^1^  ^"'^ 
victory,  obtaining  234  electoral  votes  to  Van  Buren's 
60.  John  Tyler,  of  Virginia,  a  Democrat  in  politics, 
was  elected  vice-president.  The  election  of  Tyler  was 
a  political  mistake  on  the  part  of  the  Whigs,  for  in  one 
month  after  his  inauguration,  President  Harrison  died, 
and  Tyler  succeded  to  the  presidency.  Thus  the 
government  had  a  Democratic  head,  and  the  Whigs 
lost,  in  the  main,  the  fruits  of  their  victory. 

202.  Mr  Tyler  retained  Harrison's  cabinet,  and  prom-  Tyln-s 
ised  to  carry  out  his  policy.     In  an  extra  session  of  tjo"""""*^ 
Congress  beginning  May  31,  a  bill  to  abolish  the  sub- 
treasury  of  the  previous   administration  was  passed  by 

both  houses,  which  now  had  a  Whig  majority,  and 
was  signed  by  the  president.  Both  houses  then  passed 
a  bill  to  incorporate  the  fiscal  bank  of  the  United 
States.  Many  of  the  objectionable  features  of  the  old 
United  States  bank  had  been  discarded;  but  the  measure 
still  met  with  great  disfavor  among  the  Democrats. 
The  bill  was  vetoed  by  the  president.  He  stated  as  his 
objection,  that  the  powers  given  to  the  bank  were  such 
as  he  and  the  majority  of  the  people  believed  to  be  un- 
wise and  unconstitutional  to  grant.  An  effort  was 
made  to  pass  the  bill  over  the  veto  by  a  two-thirds 
vote,  but  it  failed.  The  Whig  leaders  then  requested 
the  president  to  present  them  with  an  outline  of  a  bill 
which  he  would  be  willing  to  sign.  After  consultation 
with  the  cabinet  it  was  given,  and  passed  by  both 
houses.  The  president  vetoed  this  bill  also.  A  two- 
thirds  vote  could  not  be  obtained  to  p  iss  it  over  the 
veto.  This  action  of  the  president  in  vetoing  a  bill 
which  had  been  drawn  according  to  his  own  sugges- 
tions, roused  the  indignation  of  of  the  Whigs  who  had 
elected  him,  and  all  his  cabinet  resigned.  Daniel 
Webster,  however,  the  secretary  of  state,  retained 
office  long  enough  to  finish  a  negotiation  with  Great 
Britain  for  the  settlement  of  a  dispute  regarding  the 
northwestern  boundary. 

203.  The  northwestern  corner  of  North  America  down  Oregoa. 
to  the  parallel  of  54°  40',  now  known  as  the  territory  of 
Alaska,  then  belonged  to  Russia.      The  region  known 

as  Oregon,  which  lay  between  Russian  America  and 
California,  was  claimed  by  the  United  States  on  the 
ground  of  the  discoveries  of  Lewis  and  Clarke.  After 
the  second  war  with  England,  when  both  countries 
claimed  this  region,  it  was  agreed  in  1818  that  they 
should  hold  it  jointly  for  ten  years.  The  Hudson  Bay 
Company,  which  was  fully  equipped  for  the  fur  trade, 
increased  its  stations.  At  the  end  of  ten  years  it  seemed 
to  have  almost  entire  possession.  In  1828  it  was  agreed 
to  continue  the  joint  occupation  until  notice  of  its 
termination  should  be  given  by  one  nation  or  the  other. 
When  this  agreement  was  renewed  St.  Louis  was  the 
great  center  of  the  fur  trade  of  the  west.  Expeditions 
from  that  point  into  the  disputed  territory  soon 
became  common.  The  hunters  brought  back  word  of 
the  fine  farming  and  grazing  lands  which  they  had 
seen,  and  parties  of  emigrants  began  to  make  settle- 
ments in  that  direction.  The  Hudson  Bay  Company- 
put  every  possible  obstacle  in  the  way  of  immigration, 
as  they  had  wished  to  keep  the  country  for  hunting  and 
trapping.  They  managed  to  create  the  impression  io 
the  tlnited  States  that  the  Rocky  Mountains  could  not 
be  crossed  by  wagons,  and  that  the  country  on  the  other 
side  was  a  barren  wilderness.  In  1836,  Dr.  Marcus 
Whitman  was  sent  out  with  a  company  of  mission aries. 
to  the  Oregon  Indians.  He  was  a  man  of  energy  and  fore- 
sight. He  saw  that  it  was  practicable  for  emigrant 
trains  to  cross  the  mountains  by  good  passes,  ard  he 


i 


UNITED     STATES 


knew  that  if  he  could  make  this  generally  known  the 
people  of  the  United  States  would  soon  occupy  the 
country. 

2tU.  When  Lord  Ashburton  came  in  1842  to  settle 
with  Mr.  Webster  the  boundry  line  between  the  British 
possessions  and  the  United  States,  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  had  succeeded  in  keeping  out  almost  all 
American  emigrants.  They  had  laid  their  plans  also 
to  bring  in  English  settlers  from  the  Red  river  country, 
8o  as  to  strengthen  the  British  claim  to  all  Oregon.  As 
soon  as  Dr.  Whitman  learned  this,  he  set  out  in  October 
of  that  year,  and  made  his  way  across  the  entire  con- 
tinent to  Washington.  There  he  found  that  a  treaty 
had  been  signed,  but  that  Oregon  had  been  left  out  of 
consideration  altogether.  Dr.  Whitman's  errand  was 
to  make  known  to  the  administration  at  Washington 
the  value  of  Oregon,  and  then  to  organize  companies 
of  emigrants  to  settle  within  its  bounds.  He  did  both. 
In  the  following  summer  he  had  a  great  body  of  set- 
tlers over  the  mountains,  and  at  the  close  of  1844  there 
were  three  thousand  Americans  in  Oregon.  The 
people  were  fast  deciding  the  question  of  ownership. 
Congress  now  took  up  the  matter  in  earnest.  The 
American  people  claimed  the  whole  western  territory, 
and  the  Democrats  went  into  the  nest  presidential  cam- 
-FifiT-fonrpaign  with  the  alternative  war-crv  "  Fifty-four,  forty, 
fi"h*  °'  °^  fieht,"  meaning  that  the  parallel  of  54°  40'  must  be 
■    ■  made  the  northern  boundary.     But  the  wiser  men  were 

ready   to  compromise,   and   a  treaty  was   made  with 
Great  Britain  in  1846,  by  which  the  forty-ninth  parallel 
was    made    the    dividing    line    west    of    the    Rocky 
Mountains. 
t>orr-s  205.  In  1843  an  affair  known  as  "Dorr's  Rebellion" 

rebellion,  occurred  in  Rhode  Island.  The  state  was  still  governed 
under  the  old  colonial  charter,  and  a  party  led  by 
Thomas  Dorr  was  anxious  to  exchange  it  for  anew 
constitution  giving  greater  power  to  the  people.  Dorr 
assumed  to  be  governor  by  the  votes  of  his  partisans; 
the  lawful  governor,  under  the  charter,  called  for  the 
assistance  of  the  United  States,  and  civil  war  was  im- 
minent, when  President  Tyler  sent  troops  into  the 
state  to  uphold  the  old  government.  Dorr  was  con- 
victed of  treason  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
life,  but  he  was  soon  pardoned,  and  a  more  liberal  con- 
stitution was  afterward  adopted. 

206.  Calhoun  was  steadily  teaching  the  southern 
states  that  their  safety  lay  in  the  doctrine  of  state  sov- 
ereignty, and  the  slaveholders  were  beginning  to  think 
that  the  union  was  not  worth  much  to  them  unless  it 
protected  the  slave  sj'stem.  Meanwhile,  a  very  differ- 
ent belief  was  becoming  common  in  the  north,  which 
Opposition  was  largely  due  to  the  influence  of  William  Lloyd  Car- 
lo slavery,  jison,  of  Massachusetts.  He  had  established  a  weekly 
paper  in  1831,  called  The  Liberator,  which  was  devoted 
to  the  entire  and  immediate  abolition  of  African  slavery 
in  America.  Many  others,  men  and  women,  came  for- 
ward to  support  him,  and  in  1833  the  National  Anti- 
Slavery  Society  had  been  formed,  and  its  branches  had 
multiplied  rapidly.  The  renewal  of  the  slavery  ques- 
tion alarmed  the  southern  people  and  also  many  of  the 
northern  people,  who  considered  any  attack  upon  slav- 
ery dangerous  to  the  peace  of  the  union.  From  this 
time  dates  the  existence  of  the  party  opposed  to  slavery 
The  aboli-  in  the  United  States,  at  first  known  as  abolitionists. 
tionists.  They  did  not,  however,  constitute  a  political  party,  but 
as  individuals  kept  up  an  incessant  attack  upon  the 
evil  of  slavery.  'They  were  persecuted  in  every  way 
possible,  but  every  attempt  to  intimidate  them  only 
gave  a  new  opportunity  for  the  discussion  of  the  rights 
and  wrongs  of  the  slave.  The  slaveholders  and  their 
friends  at  the  north  declared  that  the  abolitionists  were 
destroying  the  peace  of  the  country,  and  charged  them 
with  inciting  the  slaves  to  insurrection.  Hence  they 
called  upon  all  friends  of  the  union  to  put  them  down. 
»'ob  Finally  mob  violence  was  resorted  to  in   Boston   and 

\.olence.     other    northern  cities    to    destroy  abolition    -rinting 


presses,  break  up  abolition  meetings  and  silence  aboli- 
tion orators. 

207.  These  lawless  outrages  only  served  to  fire  the  Petitions  t. 
zeal  of  the  abolitionists,  and  they  began  to  offer  peli-  ^""Sres». 
tions  to  Congress  to  abolish  slavery  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  while  the  dissemination  of  abolitionist  books 

and  papers  was  greatly  increased  in  every  part  of  the 
country.  Congress  in  1835  had  resolved  to  lay  all  ftit- 
ure  petitions  on  the  subject  of  slavery  upon  the  table. 
In  1836  the  president's  message  to  Congress  made  indig- 
nant reference  to  the  practice  of  sending  abolition  doc- 
uments through  the  United  States  mail.  He  recom- 
mended a  bill  to  prohibit  the  practice  in  future.  Ac- 
cordingly, a  bOl  was  introduced  in  Congress,  prohibit- 
ing any  postmaster  from  knowingly  putting  any  aboli- 
tion documents  or  newspapers  into  the  mails.  The  bill 
was  rejected.  The  right  of  petition  has  been  a  right 
always  held  sacred  by  the  people,  and  a  champion  for 
this  right  appeared  in  John  Quincy  Adams,  who  had 
been  sent  back  to  Washington  as  a  representative  from 
his  district  in  Massachusetts.  He  presented  these  peti- 
tions again  and  again.  The  slavery  party  refused  to 
admit  them,  and  in  consequence  multitudes  of  people 
at  the  north  were  gained  over  to  the  anti-slavery  side. 

208.  The  political  parties  had  not  yet  openly  divided 
on  the  question  of  slavery,  but  the  opposition  to  the 
Democratic  party  had  become  firmer,  which  resulted, 
as  has  been  shown,  in  the  formation  of  the  Whig  party 
(1836).  Since  Missouri  had  been  admitted  into  the 
union  two  other  states  had  been  formed,  Arkansas  in  -■\rkaiija8 
1836  and  Michigan  in  1837.  Half  of  the  states  were  g"n  ""^'" 
now  free  states  and  half  slave.     But  in  population  the  ° 

free  states  were  rapidly  gaining  on  the  slave  states. 
In  1830  they  exceeded  them  by  over  a  million;  in  1840 
the  excess  was  nearly  two  and  a  half  millions.  More- 
over, after  the  admission  of  Arkansas,  Florida  was  the 
only  territory  which  could  be  admitted  as  a  slave  state, 
whereas  the  north  had  still  a  vast  space  westward  at 
its  command.  To  southern  statesmen  it  seemed  likely 
that  the  north  would  presently  far  exceed  the  south  in 
territory,  population,  wealth  and  political  power  and 
would  steadily  gain  a  majority  in  the  senate  and  the 
house.  It  was,  therefore,  probable  that  before  long  the 
north  would  come  to  control  the  action  of  Congress, 
and  might  then  try  to  abolish  slavery.  This  the  south 
naturally  dreaded,  and  this  feeling  of  dread  was  inten- 
sified and  exasperated  by  the  abolitionist  agitation. 
The  only  safeguard  for  the  south  seemed  to  be  the  ac- 
quisition of  fresh  territory,  and  southern  statesmen 
looked  for  this  to  the  great  country  of  Texas,  which 
lay  south  of  36°  30',  was  suited  to  the  institution  of 
slavery  and  was  already  occupied  by  many  southerners. 

309.  Texas  was  originally  a  part  of  the  Spanish  .-^nnfxiitioii 
province  of  Mexico.  In  1821  Mexico  revolted  from  °'  Texas. 
Spain,  and  formed  a  republic  moulded  after  the  United 
States.  Like  other  Spanish  states  in  America  it  abol- 
ished slavery.  The  south  thus  had  for  its  neighbor  a 
free  country  hemming  it  in  on  the  south  and  south- 
west. Presidents  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Jackson 
each  had  made  the  attempt  to  buy  Texas  from  Mexico, 
but  she  had  refused  to  sell.  Meanwhile  emigration 
had  set  in  from  the  southwestern  states,  and  many 
Americans  had  made  their  home  in  Texas.  The  most 
noted  of  these  was  General  Sam  Houston,  the  leader 
of  an  adventurous  set  of  men.  At  his  instigation 
Texas  rebelled  against  Mexican  nile,  and,  in  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  San  Jacinto  (1836).  won  her  independ- 
ence and  set  up  a  government  of  her  own  with  Hous- 
ton at  the  head.  Texas  then  applied  for  admission  to 
the  union.  The  importance  of  such  an  addition  was 
seen  at  once.  Out  of  this  vast  territory  five  states 
could  be  formed.  If  slave  states  they  would  greatly 
strenghen  the  slavery  party.  The  whigs,  under  Web- 
ster and  Clay,  opposed  annexation  on  the  ground  that 
it  would  bring  on  a  war  with  Mexico,  which  had  not 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  Texas.    The  ques- 


7fi6 


UNITED     STATES 


tion  of  annexation  was  hotly  discussed  in  the  presiden- 
tial election  of  1844.  Van  Buren,  who  had  opposed 
annexation,  was  rejected  by  the  democratic  party,  and 
James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee,  who  favored  annexation, 
was  nominated.  The  whig  candidate  was  Henry  Clay; 
and  there  was  a  third  candidate,  which  decided  the  re- 
sult of  the  election.  The  abolitionists  had  put  forward 
James  Bimey  as  a  presidential  candidate  in  1840,  who 
had  received  very  few  votes.  They  now  nominated 
him  again.  A  close  and  bitter  contest  followed.  The 
democratic  party  was  committed  to  the  annexation  of 
Texas,  although  the  demand  for  the  tariff  of  1842,  and 
for  "the  whole  of  Oregon  or  none,  with  or  without 
war  with  England"  helped  to  gain  votes.  Xevertheless 
the  success  of  the  Whigs  seemed  probable,  until  the 
weakness  of  Clay's  moral  fibre  ruined  it.  He  wrote  a 
letter  in  which  he  tried  to  conciliate  southern  Demo 
crats  by  saying  that  he  would  be  "glad  to  see"  the  an- 
nexation take  place  at  some  future  time.  By  this 
device  he  won  no  democratic  votes,  for  Polk  was  a 
warm  advocate  of  annexation,  but  angered  a  great 
many  anti-slavery  Whigs,  who  purposely  threw  away 
on  Bimey  their  votes,  by  which  means  New  York  was 
carried  for  Polk,  and  he  was  elected  president.  It  was 
the  most  closely  contested  election  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States,  except  those  of  1800, 1876  and  1884.  The 
result  in  fourteen  of  the  twenty-six  states  was  doubtful 
for  some  days,  and  most  of  these  chose  Polk  electors 
by  very  slender  majorities.  In  several  of  them  the 
small  abolition  vote  would  have  turned  the  scale  and 
chosen  Clay  electors.  Thus  Polk  was  elected,  and.  in 
December,  1845,  Texas  was  annexed  by  resolution  of 
Congress,  and  admitted  into  the  union  (December, 
18451  with  the  understanding  that  it  might  be  hereafter 
divided,  so  as  to  make  several  slave  states.  Florida 
had  already  been  admitted  as  a  state  in  March  of  the 
same  year.  In  spite  of  the  strong  opposition  to  the 
annexation  by  the  anti-slavery  party  there  was  a  gen- 
eral feeling  of  pride  that  the  country  had  acquired  so 
large  an  addition  to  its  domain.  Politicians  in  favor 
of  annexation  did  their  best  to  draw  the  popular  mind 
away  from  the  question  of  slaverj-,  and  to  hold  out 
splendid  prospects  of  the  rapidly  increasing  United 
States.  They  began  to  aver  that  it  was  the  "manifest 
destiny"  of  the  nation  to  possess  the  whole  continent. 
But  the  slavery  question  could  not  be  held  in  abey- 
ance. With  the  election  of  Polk  the  north  and  south 
were  finally  arrayed  in  opposition  to  each  other.  The 
policy  of  the  Democratic  party  now  began  to  be  shaped 
chiefly  by  the  adherents  of  Calhoun,  the  representa- 
tives of  slavery  and  nullification,  though  the  latter 
political  heresy  was  not  likely  to  be  pushed  to  the 
front  so  long  as  the  control  of  the  federal  government 
was  in  their  hands;  but  the  slaverj-  question  became 
the  "burning  question"  from  that  time  on  untU  it  was 
decided  by  the  civil  war. 
The  Ml  si-  210.  When  Texas  was  annexed  to  the  United  States, 
can  war.  Mexico  was  so  occupied  with  intestine  dissensions  and 
revolution  that  her  exhibition  of  resentment  was  at  first 
confined  to  a  formal  protest,  and  the  withdrawal  of  her 
minister  from  Washington.  No  aggressive  movement 
was  made  by  her  even  when  the  United  States  troops 
under  General  Taylor  occupied  the  east  bank  of  the 
Nueces  river,  a  part  of  the  state  which  Mexico  insisted 
had  never  belonged  to  Texas.  In  the  meantime,  in  an- 
ticipation of  trouble,  a  naval  expedition  had  been  sent 
by  the  American  government  to  the  gulf,  December  31, 

1845,  and  an  act  passed  extending  the  United  States 
revenue  system  over  the  doubtful  territory  beyond  the 
Nueces  river,  to  carrj'  out  which  a  revenue  officer  was 
appointed  to  reside  in  the  new  district.  Even  then 
Mexico  did  not  institute  hostilities,  but  expressed  her 
willingness  to  negotiate  concerning  the  disputed  terri- 
tory between  the  Nueces  and  the  Rio  Grande.  In  March, 

1846,  General  Taylor  was  ordered  by  the  president  to 
advance  from  the  S''"«oes  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  oc- 


cupy the  debatable  district.  These  measures,  adopted 
by  the  president,  by  which  our  troops  crossed  the 
boundary  claimed  by  Mexico,  were  considered  by  a 
large  portion  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  as  im- 
politic, if  not  unjust,  and  the  occupation  of  a  territory 
by  our  troops,  which  at  least  was  a  subject  of  dispute, 
was  deemed  by  many  a  belligerent  act.  General 
Ampudia  so  considered  it,  and  notified  the  American 
general  to  retire  beyond  the  Nueces  within  twenty-four 
hours.  In  April  General  Arista  superseded  Ampudia  in 
command,  and  communicated  to  Taylor  that  he  con- 
sidered hostilities  commenced.  Early  iu  May  Arista, 
with  6.000  Mexicans,  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  attacked 
General  Taylor  with  his  force  of  2,300  at  Palo  Alto,  and 
was  badly  defeated.  The  next  day  Taylor  assumed  the 
offensive,  attacked  Arista  at  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and 
compelled  him  to  retreat  in  haste  across  the  Rio  Giande. 

211.  The  United  States  government,  before  it  could 'War 
hear  of  these  actions,    declared  war  againft  Mexico  *  clared. 
(May  13,  1846),  and  called  for  50,000  volunteers.     Mex- 
ico likewise  declared  war  against  the  United  States  for 
interfering  in  her  affairs  with  Texas.     Soon  after  the 
declaration  of  war.  Colonel  Stephen  W.  Kearney  was 
ordered  to' lead  an  expedition  into  New  Mexico  for  the  Espi^itioi 
purpose  of   separating    that    province  from  Mexico.  Mexico" 
Leaving  Bents  Fort,   he  followed  what  was  known  as 

the  Santa  Fe  trail,  along  the  Arkansas  river,  across  the 
Colorado  mountains  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  down  that 
river  to  Santa  Fe.  Here  he  took  possession  of  the  coun- 
try in  the  name  of  the  United  States,  declaring  New 
Mexico  a  territory  of  the  Union,  and  left  a  governor 
and  some  troops.  Then  he  set  off  for  California,  to 
carry  out  the  same  design  of  separating  a  Mexican 
province  from  tne  Republic  of  Mexico  and  attaching  it 
to  the  United  States.  Before  war  was  declared  Captain 
John  C.  Fremont  was  sent  on  an  exploring  expedition  ^^^[fj^™'.!'" 
to  California.  Some  vessels  of  the  navy  also  were  sent 
to  the  Pacific  coast  to  be  in  readiness.  The  United 
States  had  reason  to  think  that  England  would  make  an 
excuse  of  the  Mexican  troubles  to  set  up  a  claim  to 
California.  Fremont  and  his  men,  aided  by  ofllcers  of 
the  navy  with  marines,  made  no  delay  when  they 
learned  that  war  was  in  progress.  They  easily  took 
possession  of  one  village  after  another.  They  expelled 
the  Mexican  soldiers,  and  finally  seized  Monterey,  the 
capital  of  the  province.  There  were  a  number  of 
American  settlers  there,  who  proceeded  to  declare  the 
independence  of  California  and  organize  a  government. 

212.  When  Colonel  Kearney  left  Santa  Fe,  he  ordered  ^^'JinoV' 
Colonel  Doniphan,  with  about  a  thousand  volunteers, 

to  chastise  the  Navajo  Indians.  Having  performed 
this  duty  and  compelled  the  savages  to  make  a  treaty 
of  peace,  Doniphan  marched  a  thousand  miles  to  join 
the  army  in  Mexico.  At  Bracito,  December  25,  1846, 
he  defeated  a  large  force  of  Mexicans,  and  nearChihua- 
hua,  Feburary  28,  gained  a  decided  victory  over  an 
army  four  times  as  large  as  his  own.  Finally  he  reached 
General  Wool,  at  Saltillo,  May  22,  after  a  march  which 
is  considered  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  exploits  of  the 
war. 

213.  In  the  meantime  Taylor  had  conquered  the 
northern  portion  of  Mexico;  while  Scott,  landing  at 
Vera  Cruz,  advanced  and  captured  the  City  of  Mexico. 
The  United  States  soldiers  were  victorious  over  the 
Mexicans  wherever  they  came  into  conflict,  and  what- 
soever the  disparity  of  numbers,  as  instanced  in 
Doniphan's  victorv;  while  at  Buena  Vista,  February 
22.  1847,  Tavlor  routed  a  Mexican  army  more  than  four 
times  greater  than  his  own.  To  the  student  of  history 
the  Mexican  war  will  have  great  interest,  as  having 
been  the  school  in  which  most  of  our  great  generals, 
who  made  their  mark  in  the  civil  war,  received  their 
practical  training.  The  capture  of  the  City  of  Mexico 
(September  14,  1847),  put  an  end  to  the  war.  A  treaty 
was  entered  into  with  Mexico,  by  which  the  Rio  Grande 
was  made  the  southwestern  boundary   of  the  United 


UJ^ITED    STATES 


767 


fhe 

Gadsdrn 
purchase. 


1 .11-  Big- 
low  Papcf^ 


Tbe 
Wilmot 
Pro  Vigo, 


The 

Free  Soil 
party. 


Conven- 
tions. 


States,  and  Ihc  Gila  river  the  northern  boundary  of 
Mexico.  The  United  States  paid  Mexico  $15,000,000 
for  the  territory  which  was  thus  added  to  its  domain, 
exclusive  of  Texas.  Five  years  later,  the  United  States 
bought  the  Mesilla  valley,  south  of  the  Gila  river,  for 
$10,000,000.  General  James  Gadsden  was  the  agent  in 
this  purchase.  By  these  two  cessions  Mexico  trans- 
ferred to  the  United  States  the  country  now  comprised 
in  California,  Arizona,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  parts  of 
Wyoming,  Colorado,  Kansas,  and  New  Mexico. 

314.  This  immense  acquisiition  of  territory,  though 
a  fortunate  one  in  many  respects,  had  an  immediate  ef- 
fect upon  American  politics  far  more  disturbing  than 
anything  which  had  occurred  since  1820.  The  general 
sentiments  of  the  anti-slavery  party  had  been  opposed 
to  the  war,  and  these  sentiments  had  been  fully  set 
forth  in  a  series  of  remarkable  political  poems  entitled, 
"The  Biglow  Papers,"  by  James  Russell  Lowell.  The 
sectional  strife  which  had  been  allayed  for  the  time 
being  by  the  Missouri  Compromise,  now  began  to  be 
renewed.  In  the  new  territory  acquired  from  Mexico, 
slavery  had  been  forbidden  by  the  Mexican  law,  and 
the  north  desired  this  prohibition  kept  in  force,  but  the 
south  opposed  the  idea.  It  was  proposed  by  some,  as 
the  simplest  solution  or  the  difficulty,  to  prolong  the 
Jlissouri  Compromise  line  from  the  Rocky  mountains  to 
the  Pacific,  bu*  neither  party  was  willing  to  give  up  so 
much  to  the  other.  The  increased  opposition  to  slavery 
in  the  north  had  created  an  increased  obstinacy  in  the 
south,  so  it  was  rapidly  becoming  a  difficult  thing  to 
effect  compromises  between  the  two  sections.  In  1846, 
David  Wilmot,  a  Democratic  member  of  the  house, 
from  Pennsylvania,  offered  an  addition  to  a  bill,  making 
appropriations  for  the  purchase  of  the  Mexican  terri- 
tory. This  addition  was  the  celebrated  "Wilmot  Pro- 
viso," applying  to  any  newly  acquired  tenitory  the 
provision  of  the  ordinance  of  1787,  ' '  that  neither  sla- 
very nor  involuntary  servitude  shall  ever  exist  in  any 
part  of  said  territory,  except  for  crime,  whereof  the 
party  shall  be  first  duly  convicted."  The  Whigs  and 
northern  Democrats  united  in  favor  of  the  proviso,  and 
it  passed  the  house,  but  was  sent  to  the  senate  too  late  to 
be  acted  upon. 

215.  In  the  same  year  that  peace  was  made  with 
Mexico  (1848)  came  the  presidential  election.  Several 
efforts  had  been  made  to  pass  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  but 
without  success,  but  it  called  into  existence  the  Free 
Soil  party,  formed  by  the  union  of  anti-slavery  Dem- 
ocrats and  Whigs  with  the  Abolitionists.  As  a  com- 
promise between  the  advocates  and  opponents  of  the 
extension  of  slavery,  a  bill  had  been  passed  by  the 
senate  establishing  territorial  governmentc  in  Cregon, 
New  Mexico  and  California,  with  a  provision  that 
all  questions  concerning  slavery  in  those  territories 
should  be  referred  to  the  United  States  supreme  court 
for  decision.  It  was  voted  for  by  members  from  the 
slave  states,  but  lost  in  the  house.  A  bill  was  then 
passed  in  the  house,  by  a  sectional  vote,  to  organize 
the  territory  of  Oregon,  without  slavery.  This  was 
passed  by  the  senate  with  an  amendment  declaring  that 
the  Missouri  Compromise  Line  extended  to  the  Pacific 
ocean.  The  amendment  was  rejected  by  the  house, 
again  by  a  sectional  vote,  and,  the  senate  withdrawing, 
the  biU  passed. 

216.  The  Whig  National  Convention  met  at  Phila- 
delphia, June  7,  1848,  and  nominated  Zachary  Taylor, 
of  Louisiana,  and  Millard  Fillmore,  of  New  York.  No 
platform  was  adopted,  and  resolutions  affirming  the 
Wilmot  Proviso  as  a  party  principle  were  repeatedly 
voted  down.  The  Democratic  National  Convention 
met  at  Baltimore,  May  22.  It  revived  the  stric*  con- 
structionist platform  of  1840  and  1844,  and  nominated 
Lewis  Cass,  of  Michigan,  and  William  O.  Butler,  of 
Kentucky.  The  National  Convention  of  Free  Soilers 
met  at  Buffalo,  August  9.  It  adopted  a  platform  de- 
claring that  Congress  had  no  more  power  to  make  a 


slave  than  to  make  a  king,  and  that  there  should  be  no 
more  slave  states  and  no  more  slave  territories.  It 
nominated  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York,  and 
Charles  Francis  Adams,  of  Massachusetts.  The  Free 
Soilers  decided  the  election  by  drawing  the  Democratic 
vote  from  New  York,  and  so  Taylor  became  president. 
He  was  brave,  honest  and  shrewd,  and  by  far  the  ablest 
president  between  Jackson  and  Lincoln.  Though  a 
Louisiana  slaveholder,  he  was  unflinching  in  his  devo- 
tion to  the  union. 

217.  The  leading  political  struggle  during  Taylor's  CAjifom,» 
administration  related  chiefly  to  the  admission  of  Cal- 
ifornia as  a  state  in  the   union.     Texas  was  the  last 

slave  state.  The  tide  of  emigration  was  moving 
steadily  westward  and  northwestward.  In  1846  Iowa 
was  admitted  into  the  union,  and  in  1848  Wisconsin. 
While  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  Congress 
were  struggling  with  the  question  of  free  or  slave  ter-  • 
ritory,  the  people  themselves  were  rapidly  increasing 
the  influence  of  the  free  states.  In  the  year  that  Cal- 
ifornia became  the  property  of  the  United  States  (1848) 
gold  was  discovered  in  the  valley  of  the  Sicramento, 
and  a  very  hasty  exploration  showed  that  there  was  aa 
immense  deposit  of  the  precious  metal  in  the  newly 
acquired  territory.  The  news  spread  all  over  the 
world  and  immediately  there  followed  a  great  rush  to 
the  gold  region.  In  a  little  over  a  year  the  population 
had  become  large  enough  to  entitle  it  to  admission  to 
the  union,  and  there  was  need  of  a  strong  government 
to  keep  in  check  the  numerous  hordes  of  ruffians  who 
had  flocked  in  along  with  honest  people.  President 
Taylor  was  eager  to  bring  California  into  the  union 
before  the  question  of  slavery  in  that  territory  should 
be  discussed  in  Congress.  He  urged  the  people  to  call 
a  convention  and  organize  a  state.  They  did  this 
(1849),  and  since  they  were  almost  wholly  from  the 
north,  they  framed  a  constitution  prohibiting  slavery, 
and  applied  for  admission.  The  south  earnestly  opposed 
the  admission  of  California  as  a  free  state,  and  the 
extreme  southern  party  even  took  some  steps  toward 
secession.  The  debates  were  conducted  on  both  sides 
with  great  bitterness. 

218.  The  controversy  went  on  for  a  year,  until  it  was 
settled  by  a  group  of  compromise  measures  devised  by 
Clay,  who  thirty  years  before  had  succeeded  so  well 

with  his    Missouri   Compromise.     He    proposed    that  ciay-s  roi*.| 

California  should  be  admitted  as  a  free  state ;  that  any  promista. 

new  states  jKoperly  formed  from  Texas  should  also  be 

admitted;  that  the  territories  of  New  Mexico  and  Utah 

should  be  organized  without  the  Wilmot  Proviso  (i.  e., 

with   squatter   sovereignty,    by  which  the   people  of 

each  tei  ritory  were  left  free  to  settle  the  question  of 

the  existence  of  slavery  for  themselves);  that  the  slave 

trade  should  be  abolished  In  the  District  of  Columbia. 

and    especially  that  a  more  rigid  fugitive  slave  law  The 

should  be  enacted.     The  constitution  expressly  gave  to  fugitive 

slave-holders  the  right  to  recover  their  slaves  if  they  ^'*'''* '"™ 

escaped  into  another  state,  but  the  increasing  hostOity 

of  the  people  in  the  free  states  to  the  slavery  system 

made  it  extremely  difficult  for  slave-holders  to  find  and      , 

recover  runaway  slaves  when  they  had  escaped  into 

the  northern   states.     This  matter  was  one  of  great 

irritation  to  the  southerners.   They  complained  that  they 

were  deprived  of  their  rights  in  direct  opposition  to 

the   constitution.     The    new  fugitive    slave  law  wag 

therefore  so  drawn  as  to  require  the  arrest,  by  United 

States  officers,  of  fugitive  slaves  in  the  northern  states, 

and  it  also  gave  the  officers  the  right  to  call  upon  any 

citizen  to  help  them  in  their  search  and  capture.     The 

law  also  impossed  penalties  on  all  rescuers  and  denied 

them  a  jury  trial. 

219.  Webster  gave  his  support  to  the  Compromise  of  ECfect?  of 
1850.     Like  many  others,   he  viewed  with  alarm  the  ''i*\£,'i?i' 
growmg  dissensions  between  the  two  sections  of  the 
country.     He  worked  with  all  his  might  to  preserve 

the  Union   against  the  attacks  of  th«i^  extreme  pr 


768 


U^^ITED     STATES 


Personal 

liberty 

laws. 


Fillmore 
president. 


Duvelop- 
nientof  the 
country. 


The 
telegraph. 


Gnvem- 
ment  ex- 
peditions. 


slavery  men  on  the  one  hand  and  of  the  Abolitionists 
on  the  other.  California  was  admitted  to  the  union, 
and  the  fugitive  slave  law  was  passed.  Instead  of 
bringing  quiet,  as  the  Missouri  Compromise  had  done, 
the  Compromise  of  i850  was  the  beginning  of  a  more 
bitter  and  deadly  strife.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
feature  of  the  Compromise,  in  its  bearing  upon  future 
events,  was  the  fugitive  slave  law.  The  cruelties 
altendmg  its  execution  aroused  'the  fierce  indignation 
of  the  north.  The  disgust  and  horror  felt  toward  it 
caused  the  passage,  by  some  northern  legislatures,  of 
"personal  liberty  laws,"  intended  to  protect  free 
negroes  falsely  alleged  to  be  fugitive  slaves.  During 
the  discussion  of  Clay's  Compromise  Bill  of  1850, 
President  Taylor  died  after  a  very  short  illness  (July  9, 
1850),  and  Vice-President  Fillmore  succeeded  to  the 
vacant  office.  He  enforced  the  Compromise  Act  im- 
partially, but  the  fugitive  slave  law  was  often  evaded 
and  sometimes  forcibly  resisted.  It  strengthened 
the  anti-slavery  party  in  the  free  states,  while  the 
agitation  of  the  question  of  the  morality  and  wisdom 
of  slavery  was  hotly  resented  at  the  south. 

220.  It  was  now  the  middle  of  the  century,  and  the 
union  seemed  full  of  prosperity.  So  various  had  the 
interests  of  the  people  become  that  a  new  department 
in  the  administration  had  been  created  (1849)  called  the 
department  of  the  interior,  and  comprised  a  number  of 
offices  like  the  census  office,  patent  office,  land  office, 
and  bureau  of  Indian  affairs,  all  of  which  had  for- 
merly been  scattered  among  the  other  departments.  The 
secretary  of  this  department  was  made  a  member  of 
the  cabinet.  During  Mr.  Fillmore's  administration 
postage  was  reduced,  so  that  an  ordinary  letter  could 
be  sent  to  any  place  in  the  country  for  three  cents. 
Before  that  it  had  cost  ten  cents  to  send  a  letter  from 
Philadelphia  to  Boston.  At  once  the  number  of  letters 
transmitted  through  the  mails  was  wonderfully  in- 
creased. The  extinction  of  Indian  titles  in  northern 
Michigan  brought  about  the  discovery  of  the  great 
copper  mines  of  that  region,  whose  existence  had  long 
been  suspected  before  it  could  be  proved.  Railroads 
in  the  east  were  beginning  to  show  something  of  a 
connected  system,  and  the  increase  of  railways  in  the 
west  made  it  possible  for  the  great  farms  to  send  grain 
and  other  provisions  to  the  city  very  cheaply.  Rail- 
roads in  the  south  had  hardly  changed  since  1840.  In 
1840  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  an  American  artist,  had  re- 
ceived a  patent  for  an  electric  telegraph  apparatus,  and 
four  years  later  he  sent  his  first  dispatch  over  the  wires 
from  Baltimore  to  Washington.  This  practical  proof 
of  the  power  of  the  telegra^jh  was  followed  by  a  rapid 
extension  of  lines  in  every  direction. 

221.  Several  expeditions  were  ordered  by  government 
to  gain  a  better  knowledge  of  the  national  domain.  In 
1848,  and  again  in  1852  and  1853,  Captain  John  C. 
Fremont  was  sent  out  with  exploring  parties  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  The  discoveries  which  he  made, 
and  the  new  importance  of  California  since  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  there,  induced  the  government  to  make 
more  careful  surveys.  The  war  department  undertook 
one  to  determine  the  most  practicable  and  economical 
route  for  a  railroad  from  the  Mississippi  ri'^er  to  the 
Pacific  ocean.  Captain  Wilkes  was  sent  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  where  he  explored  the  Antarctic  continent;  an 
expedition  under  Lieutenant  Lynch  explored  the  valley 
of 'the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea;  and  Commodore  Perry 
was  sent  with  a  fleet  to  Japan,  a  country  which  had 
heretofore  been  almost  unknown  to  Europe  and  to 
America. 

222.  Between  the  east  and  the  west  railroads  were 
growing  busier.  Towns  and  cities  sprang  up  along  their 
routes,  and  where  a  new  and  fertile  district  was  found 
the  settlers  did  not  rest  until  they  had  a  railway  for  the 
transportation  of  their  produce;  and  very  often  the 
railroad  itself  was  the  pioneer  of  a  new  territory, 
being  followed  by  the  people  who  made  claims  along 


its  route.  Ships  and  steamers  were  constantly  crossing 
the  Atlantic.  Improvements  were  made  by  American 
shipbuilders  in  the  construction  of  sailing  vessels  and 
the  clippers,  as  they  were  called,  were  built,  which  were 
able  to  sail  with  a  good  wind  almost  as  swiftly  as 
steamers.  The  increased  development  of  wealth  in  the 
country  gave  a  fresh  impetus  to  the  spirit  of  invention.  Inventions. 
McCormick  invented  his  reaping  machine,  and  obtained 
a  patent  for  it  in  1834.  Its  results  have  been  hardly 
less  in  importance  to  the  United  States  than  the  inven- 
tion of  the  locomotive.  Since  then  agricultural  machines 
and  implements  have  rapidly  increased.  It  was  agri- 
cultural machines  that  made  the  western  farms  profit- 
able, and  enabled  the  railroads  to  fill  the  west  so 
rapidly  with  popuL. ion.  Friction  matches  had  come 
into  use,  and  anthracite  coal  was  now  extensively  used 
both  in  manufactures  and  locomotion.  In  1839  Good- 
year had  devised  his  method  of  vulcanizing  india- 
rubber.  In  1846  came  the  sewing  machine,  the  power- 
loom,  and  the  use  of  ansesthetics  in  surgical  practice. 
The  rotary  printing  press  was  invented  in  1847. 

323.  During  this  rapid  change  in  all  the  conditions  of 
life,  it  was  not  strange  that  there  should  be  a  cor- 
responding change  in  the  minds  of  men,  and  that  their 
ideas  should  become  somewhat  unsettled.  Hence 
transcendentalism  in  religion,  literature  and  politics 
began  to  flourish;  visionary  proposals  of  every  kind 
were  made;  new  communities  were  established,  and 
new  sects  sprang  up.  In  1830  Joseph  Smith  had 
declared  that  he  had  received  a  revelation  from  God 
which  was  contained  in  a  book  called  The  Book  of  jj^^^ong 
Mormon.  He  formed  a  society  of  men  and  women 
who  were  his  disciples,  and  called  themselves  Mormons, 
and  they  made  a  settlement  in  Missouri.  In  1838, 
Smith,  with  his  followers,  was  driven  away  to  Nauvoo, 
in  Illinois.  Ten  years  later.  Smith  was  killed,  and  the 
Mormons,  under  Brigham  Young,  removed  beyond  the 
western  frontier,  and  settled  on  the  broad  plain  about 
Great  Salt  Lake,  in  the  new  Territory  of  Utah.  Their 
missionaries  traveled  in  the  older  states  and  in  Europe, 
making  converts,  and  bringing  them  to  the  new  Mor- 
mon home.  They  offered  to  people  who  were  dison- 
tented,  and  to  the  hard-worked  poor,  a  land  of  promise 
and  plenty.  They  appealed  to  religious  people,  and 
declared  that  God  was  with  them,  as  He  had  been  with 
the  Jews  of  old.  Salt  Lake  City  was  founded,  and 
became  their  capital.  Since  then,  havingrapidly  increased 
in  wealth  and  population,  they  have  now  become  a  dan- 
gerous factor  in  the  American  system.  Their  peculiar 
tenets,  which  consist  mainly  in  their  polygamy  and 
submission  to  their  sacred  hierarchy,  have  rendered  it 
impossible  to  admit  them  as  a  State  into  the  Union, 
while  their  numbers  are  so  great  that  it  is  contrary  to 
American  instincts  to  deprive  them  of  the  right  of  self- 
government,  and  keep  them  under  the  power  of  Con- 
gress. A  solution  of  the  vexing  question  may  soon  be 
reached  by  the  increasing  enforcement  of  the  United 
States  laws  against  polygamy. 

224.  About  the  middle  of  the  century,  the  American  Education 
methods  of    education  were    greatly  improved,   and  f^pjature 
American  literature  began  to  attract  the  world's  atten- 
tion.    There  were  publication  societies  formed  by  the 
churches,  which  multiplied  books,  papers  and  tracts 
without  number,  and  these  found  their  way  to  remote 
villages    and    homes.       Educational    societies    helped 
establish  schools  and    colleges  in   the  thinly  settled 
parts  of  the  country.  There  was  a  Colonization  Society, 
which  tried  to  answer  some  of  the  difficult  questions  of 
slavery  by  sending  free  blacks  to  Liberia,  in  Africa. 
This  was  the  time  when  the  lyceum  system  became 
popular.     In  the  cities  and  towns  courses  of  lectures 
were  instituted,  and  the  latest  thoughts  in  science,  art, 
literature,  politics  and  philosophy,  were  given  to  the 
people.     The  newspaper  had  become  a  national  Insti-  Ncwe- 
tution,  and  was  a  familiar  visitor  to  the  great  majority  P 'P^"- 
of  families  of  the  republic.     There  were  daily  papers 


UNITED     STATES 


r69 


aathors.  . 


I 


rncle 
Tom"? 


CoDTen- 
tion?  of 


in  all  the  cities  and  towns,  and  in  many  papers  the  con- 
tents of  books  were  published,  aside  from  the  general 
news  and  topics  which  interested  the  country.  Amer- 
ican authors  were  taking  their  place  among  the  great 
men  of  the  ages  in  the  realm  of  letters.  Before  1830, 
Bryant,  Irving  and  Cooper,  had  become  distinguished. 
In  1&47,  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  the  most  imaginative  of  Amer- 
ican poets,  had  died.  In  1850,  Washington  Irving  had 
written  all  his  works  except  his  Life  of  Washington. 
The  poems  by  which  William  Cullen  Bryant  is  best 
known  had  been  written  and  given  to  the  world. 
James  Fenimore  Cooper  died  the  next  year,  leaving 
behind  him  a  long  list  of  novels,  the  best  of  which 
were  descriptive  of  American  life.  Then  came  Long- 
fellow, Whittier.  Hawthorne,  Holmes,  Bancroft,  Pres- 
cott  and  Emerson.  The  Scarlet  Letter  had  been  given 
to  the  public,  which  made  Hawthorne  famous.  Long- 
fellow had  published  Evangeline,  and  many  of  his 
most  popular  poems.  Whittier  had  become  celebrated 
as  a  poet;  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  as  a  poet  and  wit, 
William  Gilmore  Simms,  as  a  novelist:  Ralph  Waldo 
Emerson  had  become  known  by  his  essays  as  one  of 
the  great  masters  of  English  prose;  James  Russell 
Lowell,  poet  and  satirist,  had  issued  his  Biglow  Papers, 
which  helped  people  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the 
Mexican  war,  while  they  laughed  over  the  verses. 
And  besides  these,  there  were  many  others  who 
assisted  in  raising  the  standard  of  American  literature, 
and  making  it  a  distinct  voice  of  the  nation. 

235.  All  these  things — churches,  lyceums,  public 
meetings,  societies,  newspapers  and  books,  had  their 
influence  in  shaping  public  opinion ;  and  as  they 
increased,  more  earnest  grew  the  discussion  of  the 
slavery  question.  About  this  time,  when  the  adminis- 
tration of  Fillmore  was  coming  to  an  end.  a  book  was 
brought  out  which  had  an  enormous  sale,  and  was 
translated  into  aU  the  literary  languages  of  the  world. 
This  book  was  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  written  by  Mrs. 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  and  it  was  for  the  time  more 
widely  read  throughout  the  world  than  any  other  book. 
It  was  a  story  claiming  to  show  what  negro  slavery 
really  was,  and  what  it  meant  in  the  lives  of 
men  and  women,  white  and  black,  in  the  Southern 
States  of  the  Union.  The  book  was  candidly  written, 
and  in  a  wonderful  spiiit  of  fairness,  rather  understat- 
ing than  exaggerating  the  evils  of  slavery,  and  its  truths 
were  all  the  more  convincing  for  that  reason.  Its 
influence  was  doubtless  verj-  great  in  strengthening  the 
anti-slavery  feeling  at  the  north,  and  in  finally  extin- 
guishing the  disturbing  evil  of  the  country. 

VIL — THE  APPROACHING   CONTLICT. 

226.  Jnne  1,  18-52.  the  Democratic  National  Conven- 
tional met  at  Baltimore.  Its  platform  included  the 
strict  constructionist  platforms  of  former  conventions, 
endorsed  the  Virginia  and  Kentucky  resolutions  of 
1798,  and  pledged  the  Democratic  party  to  a  faithful 
observance  of  the  compromise  of  1850,  including  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  denounced  all  agitatation  of 
the  slavery  question.  It  nominated  Franklin  Pierce,  of 
New  Hampshire,  and  William  R.  King,  of  Alabama. 
The  Whig  National  Convention  met  June  16  at  Balti- 
more. In  its  platform  it  adopted  its  usual  loose  con- 
structionist principles,  though  somewhat  more  cau- 
tiously worded  than  formerly,  and  endorsed  the 
compromise  of  1850  and  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  It 
nominated  Winfield  Scott,  of  Virginia,  and  William  A. 
Graham,  of  North  Carolina.  The  Free  Soil  Democratic 
Convention  convened  at  Pittsburgh  August  11.  In  its 
platform  it  declared  slavery  to  be  a  sm  against  God  and 
a  crime  against  man,  and  denounced  the  compromise  of 
1850,  and  the  two  parties  who  supported  it.  It  nomin- 
ated John  P.  Hale,  of  New  Hampshire,  and  George  W. 
Julian,  of  Indiana.  Some  of  the  Whigs,  dissatisfied 
with  General  Scott,  wished  to  bring  forward  Daniel 
Webster  as  an  independent  candidate,  but  Mr.  Websiei 


died  in  October  of  that  year.  Henry  Clay  had  also 
died  in  June  of  the  same  year.  These  two  great 
leaders  of  the  Whig  party  were  succeeded  by  such  men 
as  Sumner,  Seward  and  Chase,  avowed  enemies  of 
slavery.  John  C.  Calhoun  was  also  dead,  and  Jefferson 
Davis,  afterwards  to  play  such  an  important  part  in 
the  nation's  history,  acquired  the  leadership  of  the 
slave-holders  of  the  south. 

227.  The  slavery  question  was  the  principal  issue  in 
the  presidential  election  in  November,  1852,  and  in  the 
contest  the  Whigs  met  with  a  crushing  defeat,  which 
put  an  end  to  their  party.     When  the  electoral  votes 
were  counted  in   February,  185.3,   it  was  found  that 
Pierce  and  King  had  received  254,  and  Scott  and  Gra- 
ham only  42.     Mr.  Pierce's  administration  (1853-57)  was  Kerce"? 
chiefly  occupied  with  the  slavery  dispute,  in  which  he  adniini^tra- 
represented  the  policy  of  the  southern  party.     He  chose  "°"' 
William  L.  Marcy  for  secretary  of  state,  James  Guthrie 
for  secretary  of  the  treasury,  Jefferson  Davis  for  secre- 
tary of  war,  and  Caleb  Gushing  for  attorney -general. 

:S8.  The  slave  power  was  now  at  a  loss  what  to  do  The  slave 
for  new  territory  in  which  to  extend  itself.  The  north  power, 
had  already  a  preponderance  in  the  senate,  consequent 
upon  the  admission  of  California,  and,  from  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  northwestern  states,  in  which  New  Eng- 
land ideas  and  sentiments  were  becoming  predominant, 
the  southern  leaders  recognized  the  fact  that  ere  long 
the  north  would  hold  the  power  in  the  house.  Web- 
ster had  shown,  in  his  memorable  speech  of  March  7, 
1850,  that  there  was  no  more  territory  for  slavery  within 
the  limits  of  the  union.  What,  then,  were  the  south- 
ern states  to  do?  It  seemed  absolutely  necessary  at 
once  to  get  a  new  slave  state  to  balance  California,  but 
the  available  land  south  of  36°  30^  was  already  occu- 
pied. New  Mexico  and  the  Indian  Territory  south  of  Ar- 
kansas presented  themselves,  but  the  westward  move- 
ment of  population  along  these  lines  would  be  far  too 
slow  for  their  purpose. 

229.  Seeing  no  legitimate  method  to  acquire  terri- 
tory, their  former  plan  was  repeated,  if  not  by  the 
southern  states  themselves,  certainly  under  the  instiga- 
tion of  many  of  their  citizens,  and  by  members  of  the 
state  rights  party  of  the  south,  and  for  their  advantage; 
for  it  was  precisely  at  this  period  that  William  Walker, 

of  Tennessee,  the  notorious  filibuster,  undertook  to  Filibuster- 
snatch  Sonora  for  the  south  from  Mexico,  exactly  as  '"-• 
his  predecessors  had  done  with  Texas.  But  he  failed. 
In  1855,  he  and  his  band  made  the  same  experiment  in 
Nicaragua.  Here,  for  a  time,  he  was  successful.  He 
overturned  the  lawful  government,  made  himself  pres- 
ident, and  almost  made  the  state  in  readiness  for  slav- 
ery and  annexation  to  the  federal  government.  But  he 
was  subsequently  driven  out,  after  which  he  returned 
home  greatly  disappointed  and  mortified.  After  two 
more  unsuccessful  attempts  on  Nicaragua,  he  planned 
his  fifth  and  last  expedition  against  Honduras.  He 
was  encouraged  and  assisted  by  his  southern  friends; 
mass  meetings  of  his  supporters  were  held  even  in  New 
York,  and  in  many  other  northern  cities;  and  the  state 
sovereignty  party  everywhere  applauded  his  efforts  to 
revolutionize  and  wrong  a  state.  But  Walker  failed 
more  fatally  this  time.  He  was  defeated,  captured  and 
shot. 

230.  Having  been  foiled  in  the  attempt  to  gain  a  Cuba, 
foothold  in   Central  America,  the  slave  power  now 
turned  to  another  state  as  offering  a  solution  of  their 
difliculties.   The  southern  states  wished  to  annex  Cuba. 

Mr.  Pierce  proposed  to  buy  it,  and  at  his  suggestion  a 
conference  was  held  at  Ostend,  in  Belgium  (1854)  be- 
tween the  American  ministers  to  Spain.  England  and 
France,  Messrs.  Pierre  Soule,  James  Buchanan  and 
John  y.  Mason  to  consider  the  question.  A  memoran- 
dum drawn  up  by  these  gentlemen  and  submitted  to 
the  president,  is  known  as  the  Ostend  Manifesto.  It  o*tend 
declared  that  Cuba  was  necessary  to  the  United  States:  "»°'f"^t"- 
th»»   it  was  the  duty  of  this  countryjo  prevent  the 


770 


U  X  I  T  E  D     S  T  A  T  E  i6 


emancipation  of  slaves  in  the  island;  and  tbat  if  Spain 
refused  to  sell  Cuba,  the  United  States  would  be  justi- 
fied in  taking  it  from  her  by  force.  This  declaration 
caused  great  indignation  in  the  north.  Nothing,  how- 
ever, came  of  it. 
''"'^li",,'"'"^'''*  231.  Meanwhile,  the  tendencies  to  disunion  were  be- 
lo  isunion  gQjjjjQg  stronger.  Texas,  the  last  slave  State  ever  ad- 
mitted, had  refused  to  be  divided,  hence  the  South 
could  hope  for  no  further  increase  of  numbers.  After 
1850,  the  political  power  had  passed  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  south.  The  free  states  now,  by  uniting,  could 
control  both  houses  of  Congress,  elect  the  president 
and  vice-president,  dictate  the  appointment  of  judges 
and  other  federal  officers,  and  make  what  laws  they 
pleased.  Thus  the  interests  of  the  south  depended 
upon  the  one  question  whether  the  frte  states  would 
thus  unite  or  not.  Under  circumstances  so  critical  it 
were  better  for  the  slave  power  that  all  questions  call- 
ing public  attention  to  the  question  of  slavery  should 
be  avoided  ;  this,  however,  was  simply  impossible.  The 
numbers  interested  in  its  solution  had  become  too  great 
to  be  silenced.  It  was  the  question  of  the  hour,  dis- 
cussed in  all  ranks  of  society,  breaking  up  party  lines, 
and  even  disorganizing  ecclesiastical  institutions.  The 
Protestant  church  organizations  of  the  United  States 
had  been  greatly  agitated  by  the  irrepressible  question, 
and  some  of  them  became  divided.  In  1845,  the  Bap- 
tist church  separated  into  a  northern  and  southern 
branch,  and  the  Methodist  church  shared  the  same  fate 
the  following  year.  The  Presbyterian  church  man- 
aged to  maintain  its  integrity  until  1861,  when  it  also 
yielded  to  the  pressure  ;  and  the  only  churches  retain- 
ing their  national  character  were  the  Episcopal  and 
Roman  Catholic. 
Kflnpas-  233.  The    southern    leaders,    strongly    desirous    of 

^jbraska  acquiring  more  territory  in  which  to  extend  slavery, 
now  concocted  a  seemingly  practicable  scheme  to  get 
control  of  that  part  of  the  country  lying  west  of  Mis- 
souri and  Iowa.  This  land  lay  to  the  north  of  36°  30\ 
and  according  to  the  terms  of  the  Missouri  compromise, 
was  forever  to  be  free  soil.  A  plan  was  devised  to 
obtain  if  possible,  the  repeal  of  that  celebrated  com- 
pact. With  the  aid  of  some  of  the  northern  members 
of  Congress  this  might  be  done.  The  scheme  proved 
successful  so  far  as  legislation  could  go.  In  December, 
1853,  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  senate  to  organize 
the  territory  of  Nebraska.  A  southern  senator  at  once 
arose  and  demanded  that  the  Missouri  compromise 
should  not  be  so  construed  as  to  prohibit  slavery  within 
the  new  territory.  The  bill  was  at  once  dropped.  But 
a  sufficient  number  of  free  state  Democrats  soon  ac- 
quiesced in  the  southern  demand  to  make  it  a  success. 
One  week  later  a  new  bill  was  brought  in,  known  as 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  biU.  It  divided  the  region 
covered  by  the  previous  Nebraska  bill  into  two  terri- 
tories, one  directly  west  of  Missouri,  and  between  the 
parallels  of  37°  and  40°,  to  be  called  Kansas,  and  the 
other  north  of  this  and  between  the  parallels  40°  and 
43°,  to  be  called  Nebraska.  Thus  two  states  were 
opened  to  the  southern  institution,  instead  of  one,  for 
this  new  bill  distinctly  declared  that  the  Missouri 
Compromise  had  been  swept  away  by  the  later  com- 
promise of  1850.  President  Pierce  had  pledged  him- 
self to  the  south,  in  his  letter  accepting  his  nomination, 
to  acknowledge  and  execute  this  latest  bargain  with 
slavery,  in  case  he  should  be  elected. 
Squatiir  233.  The  bill  was  enacted,  but  the  position  was  now 
cover-  assumed,  that  Congress  had  no  authority  to  vote  slavery 
*  '  ^'  in,  or  to  vote  it  out  of  either  of  these  territories,  since  it 
belonged  of  natural  right  to  their  respective  populations 
to  decide  for  themselves  the  character  of  their  own  in- 
stitutions. This  idea  was  known  as  that  of  squatter 
sovereignty,  and  it  was  proclaimed  in  order  to  open 
Kansas  to  an  immediate  slave  immigration  from  Mis- 
souri, while  Nebraska  might  afterward  be  captured  in 
the  same  way  from  slaveholdiug  Kansas.     It  was  a 


plausible  doctrine,  because  it  appealed  to  that  strong 
love  of  local  self-government  which  has  always  been 
one  of  the  soundest  political  instincts  of  the  American: 
people.  The  plan  was  an  astute  one.  It  originated 
with  Stephen  A.  Douglass,  a  northern  Democrat,  and 
laid  bare  the  finest  region  of  country  which  opened  up  for 
settlement,  as  a  battle-irround  between  the  slave-labor 
and  the  free-labor  systems. 

234.  This  act  was  the  most  palpable  blunder  ever 
known  in  the  history  of  American  politics.  Its  practi- 
cal result  was  to  create  a  furious  rivalry  between  north. 
and  south,  as  to  which  should  first  get  settlers  enougli 
in  Kansas  to  secure  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote.  The; 
issue,  thus  clearly  defined,  wrought  a  new  division  be- 
tween political  parlies.  The  southern  Democrats  and 
southern  Whigs  united  in  favor  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill,  while  the  northern  Whigs  and  Free-Soilers  united 
against  it.  The  division  between  the  northern  and 
southern  Whigs  was  final.  The  northern  section  at  once 
repudiated  their  old  party  name,  and  combining  with  all 
the  northern  men  who  were  opposed  to  the  extension  of 
slavery  took  the  name  of  anti-Nebraska  men,  and  sue-  ^"'t^'" 
ceeded  in  electing  a  majority  of  the  house  of  represen-  "™ 
tatives.     A  new  party  had  arisen  in  1852,  which  was 

now  an  important  factor  in  American  politics.  It  as- 
sumed the  form  of  a  secret  oath-bound  organization,  of 
whose  name,  nature  and  objects,  nothing  was  told,  even 
to  its  members  until  they  had  reached  its  higher  de- 
grees. Their  consequent  declaration  that  they  knew 
nothing  about  it  gave  the  society  its  popular  name  of 
"Know-Nothings,"  but  it  assumed  the  name  of  the 
"American  party."  Its  design  was  to  oppose  the  influ- '•"'■^^I"^"' 
ence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  easy  naturali-  '^""  ' ' 
zation  of  foreigners,  and  to  aid  the  election  of  native- 
born  citizens  to  office.  Its  nominations  were  made  by 
secret  conventions  of  delegates  from  the  various  lodges, 
and  its  nominees  were  to  be  voted  for  by  all  its  members 
under  penalty  of  expulsion  in  case  of  refusal.  For  a 
time  it  was  quite  successful  in  state  elections,  and  was. 
now  aiming  at  a  greater  extension  of  its  influence.  At 
first  it  had  intended  to  ignore  the  slavery  question,  but 
after  a  few  years  of  existence  the  complications  arising 
from  the  discussion  of  this  subject  affected  its  organi- 
zation and  resulted  in  its  division. 

235.  The  old  Whig  party  disappeared  about  this 
time.  Some  of  its  members  joined  the  American 
party,  and  the  majority,  including  the  old  anti- 
slaveiy    men    and  Free   Boilers,    with   many  others, 

united  under  the  name  of  the  Republican  party.  The  Kepnb- 
The  name  was  at  once  recognized  by  the  Democrats,  ^*^''"  v^J- 
who,  in  contempt,  called  them  "  Black  Republicans," 
because  of  their  alleged  fondness  for  negroes.  The 
Democratic  party,  which  had  been  practically  the  only 
party  since  1852,  had  now  to  contend  with  a  political 
organization  which  adopted  broad  constructionist  prin- 
ciples, declared  itself  in  favor  of  protective  tariil,  in- 
ternal improvements  and  a  national  system  of  bank  cur- 
rency, and  added  to  them  the  further  principle  that  the 
Federal  government  has  the  power  to  control  slavery  in 
the  territories.  It  affirmed,  at  first,  that  it  had  no  de- 
sign to  interfere  with  the  institution  of  slaverj'  in  the 
states  where  it  belonged,  but  simplj' intended  to  exclude 
it  from  the  territories.  But  with  the  enunciation  of  its 
fundamental  principles  it  was  at  once  recognized  as  an 
anti-slavery  party,  and  the  only  one  towhich  the  south- 
ern slave  could  look  with  the  faintest  hope  of  aid  in 
throwing  off  the  chains  of  bondage.  The  Democratic 
party  had  quite  thrown  aside  its  original  title — that  of 
Republican — but  the  name  was  still  popular,  and  the 
new  party,  by  a  skillful  stroke  of  policy,  took  advantage 
of  this  feeling  and  assumed  the  old  name.  Thus,  in 
1856,  the  two  great  parties,  which  were  to  figure  so 
largely  for  the  next  thirty  years  in  the  history  of  the 
country,  were  arrayed  against  each  other. 

236.  The  attention  of  the  whole  country  bad  now  j,"'^,*'™*. 
been   turned  to  the  struggle  provoked  by  Uie  Kansas-  KanM. 


UNITED    STATES 


( i. 


Nebraska  bill,  and  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise. Kansas  had  been  offered  as  a  prize  to  be 
contended  for  by  free  and  slave  states,  and  both  had 
accepted  the  contest.  As  in  the  case  of  California,  it 
was  found  a  slow  work  to  colonize  the  new  territory, 
even  from  Mi>soiiri,  by  permanent  settlers,  for  the 
people  of  that  state  had  land  enough  of  their  own, 
still  unoccupied,  to  absorb  for  years  their  surplus 
population.  The  only  recourse,  therefore,  was  to  send 
their  worst  inhabitants  across  the  border,  not  to  settle, 
but  to  vote  and  fight  for  slavery.  Consequently  gangs 
of  "border  ruffians"  poured  into  Kansas  from  Slissouri 
and  Arkansas.  But  the  free  states  were  not  behind  in 
a  struggle.  Anti-slavery  societies  subscribed  money  to 
hasten  immigration  into  the  contested  territory,  and 
people  from  the  free  states  migrated  thither  in  such 
numbers  that  in  a  few  months  they  constituted  a  de- 
cided and  lawful  majority  of  the  actual  settlers.  The 
administration  took  alarm  at  the  ill  success  of  its  own 
plans.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Missouri  undertook 
to  impede  the  passage  of  northern  emigrants  through 
their  state,  but  the  immigrants  circumvented  them  by 
winding  their  way  around  through  the  free  state  of 
Iowa.  In  the  meantime  the  government  sent  an  army 
to  Kansas,  professedly  to  keep  the  peace,  but  it  would 
seem  in  reality  to  compel  the  acceptance  and  establish- 
ment of  slavery.  The  first  election  of  a  delegate  to 
Congress  took  place  November  29, 1854,  and  was  carried 
by  organized  bands  from  Missouri,  who  crossed  the 
border  on  election  day,  voted,  and  returned  at  once. 
In  the  spring  of  1855,  the  ruffians  in  this  way  voted  to 
organize  a  territorial  legislature,  and  this  measure  was 
carried  in  the  same  lawless  manner.  In  July,  1855, 
this  legislature,  all  pro-slavery,  met  at  Pawnee,  and 
adopted  a  state  constitution.  To  save  trouble,  as  well 
as  to  secure  at  once  the  establishment  of  slavery,  they 
took  a  summary  vote,  adopting  in  their  entirety  the 
laws  of  slaveholding  Missouri.  At  the  same  time  they 
enacted  a  set  of  original  statutes,  which  denounced 
the  penalty  of  death  for  nearly  50  different  offences 
against  the  institution  of  human  bondage. 
Frce-siate  237.  To  defend  themselves  against  these  illegal  pro- 
ceedings, the  actual  settlers  held  a  free-state  conven- 
tion at  Topeka,  September  5,  1855,  repudiating  the 
work  of  the , pro-slavery  party;  and  on  January  15,  1856, 
they  elected  state  officers  under  the  lawful  constitution. 
Nine  days  afterwards,  the  state-rights  president,  in  a 
special  message  to  Congress,  endorsed  the  pro-slavery 
legislature,  and  pronounced  the  attempt  to  form  a  free- 
state  government,  without  the  approval  of  the  Federal 
authorities  in  the  territory,  to  be  an  act  of  rebellion. 
He  then  issued  a  proclamation  warning  all  persons 
against  such  acts  of  resistance  to  the  lawful  govern- 
ment, and  despatched  another  body  of  troops  to  enforce 
the  constitution  of  the  border  ruffians.  The  struggle 
continued  unabated.  In  the  senate-chamber  Charles 
snranei  Sumner  had  been  stricken  to  the  floor  with  a  bludgeon 
and  Brooks  and  nearly  murdered  by  Brooks,  in  the  presence  of 
several  southern  and  unresisting  senators,  for  daring  to 
criticise  these  unjust  and  one-sided  proceedings.  Brooks 
was  expelled  by  northern  votes,  but  /as  immediately 
returned  by  his  southern  constituents.  In  Kansas,  the 
free-state  settlers  refuse  to  recognize  the  territorial 
government  of  the  slave  party,  and  as  the  pro-slavery 
settlers  and  their  allies  would  not  render  obedience  to 
the  other  government,  the  contest  passed  into  a  real 
civil  war,  the  two  sides  mustering  considerable  armies, 
fighting  battles,  capturing  towns,  and  paroling  prison- 
ers. Two  free-state  towns,  Lawrence  and  Ossawat- 
tomie,  were  sacked.  The  free-state  legislature  peace- 
ably assembled  at  Topeka,  and  was  dispersed  by  order 
of  the  president.  Many  of  its  members  were  arrested 
and  imprisoned.  Every  free-state  citizen's  dwelling 
had  to  be  guarded  and  defended  by  armed  force,  and 
no  free-state  man  could  plow  or  plant  or  gather  in  his 
crops  without  fighting  for  his  life. 


irovern- 
ment. 


238.  The  free  settlers  still  continued  to  maintain  their 
position,  in  spite  of  the  persistence  of  slave  party,  with 
the  whole  force  of  the  administration  at  its  back.  Sev- 
eral pro-slavery  governors  —  Shannon,  Geary  and 
Walker — were  sent  to  represent  the  southern  party, 
and  subdue   the  citizens  to  its  purpose  and  control.     A 

second  slave  constitution,  made  at  Lecompton,  was  of-  Lecomptcj. 
fered  to  the  people  in  a  tricky  and  nefarious  manner,  fj^lf"'" 
It  was  to  be  voted  for  "with"  or  "without "  slavery,  but 
in  either  case  there  would  be  an  affirmation  of  the  doc- 
trine of  states-rights.  The  free  settlers  accordingly  re- 
fused to  vole.  The  constitution  of  necessity  was  adopted 
and  the  new  document  sent  to  Washington,  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  president  and  State-rights  party.  But 
the  measure  failed  to  carry  through  the  house.  Another 
territorial  legislature  was  elected,  and  this  body  sent  the 
Lecompton  constitution  to  the  polls  to  be  voted  for,  or 
against,  as  a  whole.  It  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  six 
thousand.  In  spite  of  this,  however,  the  president,  in  a 
special  message,  urgedupon  Congress  the  Lecompton  con- 
stitution with  its  slavery  features,declaringthat  the  new 
legislature  had  no  right  to  submit  it  to  a  second  vote.  But 
he  was  not  sustained.  In  July,  1859,  the  citizens  of 
Kansas  met  again  in  convention  at  Wyandotte,  and 
adopted  a  resolution  forever  excluding  slavery.  It  re- 
ceived a  majority  of  four  thousand  at  the  polls. 

239.  In  the  heat  of  the  Kansas  struggle  came  the  Preeidenriaj 
presidential  election  of  1856.     The  Democrats  nomi-  ^J"',^'™ 
nated    James  Buchanan  and  John  C.    Breckenridge. 
adopted  the  strict  constructionist  platform  of  former 
conventions,  and  added  to  it  an  endorsement  of  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  bill   and  the  principle  of  squatter 
sovereignty.     The  Republicans  nominated  the  western  . 
explorer,  John  C.  Fremont,  and  declared  the  right  and 

duty  of  Congress  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories, 
thus  planting  themselves  upon  the  ground  of  the  Wil- 
mot  Proviso.  The  small  remnant  of  Whigs,  including 
the  Know-Kothings  of  the  north  and  those  southern 
men  who  wished  no  further  discussion  of  slavery,  nomi- 
nated Fillmore,  and  tried  to  turn  attention  away  from 
the  great  question  at  issue  by  protesting  against  the  too 
hasty  naturalization  of  foreign-born  citizens.  Buchanan 
received  174  electoral  votes,  Fremont  114  and  Fillmore 
8.  The  large  Republican  vote  showed  that  the  northern 
people  were  at  length  'awakened  to  the  situation,  and 
the  south  in  consequence  was  both  astonished  and 
alarmed.  For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  coun- 
try a  distinctively  anti-slavery  candidate  had  obtained 
an  electoral  vole,  and  had  nearly  gained  the  presidency." 
Though  the  Democratic  party  had  been  successful  in 
this  election, its  triumph  was  seen  to  be  far  less  complete 
than  when  it  come  out  of  the  election  of  18.52.  It  no- 
longer  controlled  twenty-seven  of  the  thirty-one  states; 
all  the  free  states  but  five  had  cast  their  votes  against 
it,  and  its  candidate  no  longer  had  a  majority  of  the 
popular  vote,  but  was  simply  chosen  by  a  majority  of 
the  electoral  vote. 

The  strongest  section  of  the  Union  was  in  the  hands 
of  its  political  opponent,  through  whose  ranks  a  spirit 
of  earnest  enthusiasm  was  being  increasingly  diffused. 

240.  The  strength  of  the  opposition  manifested  against 
the  Democratic  party  in  this  election,  more  than  ever 
convinced  the  south  that  the  time  was  fast  approach- 
ing when  political  power  would  pass  from  those  who 
defended  slavery  to  those  who  opposed  it.  Hence  the 
slave  power  gathered  up  its  forces  for  the  great  struggle 
which  must  inevitably  ensue.  It  became  more  aggress- 
ive than  ever.  It  demanded  a  renewal  of  the  African  .\rric:m 
slave  trade,  which  had  been  forbidden  since  1808,  and  eia^e-t'ac— 
without  waiting  for  the  question  to  be  settled,  the  ne- 
farious traffic  was  opened  on  an  extensive  scale,  with 

but  little  attempt  at  concealment.  During  the  year 
1857.  twenty-two  vessels  engaged  in  this  business  were 
captured  by  the  British  fleet  watching  the  African  coast 
and  every  vessel  but  one  of  these  was  American.  By 
1860  the  trade  had  assumed  large  proportions,  and  was 


772 


U  is  I  T  E  D     STATES 


openly  advertised  in  the  southern  newspapers.  But 
this  was  not  deemed  sufficient.  To  insure  the  perpetua- 
tion of  the  "peculiar  institution,"  it  was  necessary  to 
enlist  the  active  protection  of  the  Federal  government 
in  its  favor.  Squatter  sovereignty  had  not  served  the 
purpose,  for  in  the  Kansas  struggle,  despite  all  the  ef- 
forts made,  slavery  had  been  worsted.  Squatter  sover- 
eignty was  accordingly  thrown  aside,  and  a  demand 
made  that  the  Federal  government  should  protect  slav- 
ery ia  all  the  territories.  * 
ScotiJe'^  241.  Up  to  this  time  the  constitutionality  of  the 
CIS  on.  Missouri  Compromise  had  never  been  considered  in  the 
supreme  court.  The  question  was  brought  to  test  in 
a  case  which  was  decided  in  1857,  two  days  after  i 
Buchanan's  inauguration.  One  Dred  Scott,  a  slave  ! 
who  had  been  taken  by  his  owner  from  Missouri  into 
free  territory,  and  had  therefore  sued  for  his  freedom, 
was  sold  to  a  citizen  of  another  state.  Scott  then 
transferred  his  suit  to  the  Federal  courts,  under  the 
power  given  them  to  try  suits  between  citizens  of  dif- 
ferent states,  and  the  case  came  by  appeal  to  the 
supreme  court.  The  decision  was  startling  to  the 
north.  It  declared,  in  substance,  that  according  to  the 
constitution,  no  slave,  or  the  descendant  of  slaves, 
could  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States;  that  slaves  were 
not  persons,  but  property,  and  that  slave-owners  could 
migrate  from  one  part  of  the  union  to  another  and  take 
their  negroes  with  them,  just  as  they  could  take  their 
horses  or  an>  other  property.  It,  moreover,  pro- 
nounced the  Missouri  Compromise  Act  unconstitutional 
and  void,  slaves  being  private  property,  with  which 
Congress  had  no  right  to  interfere.  And  it  further 
declared  that  it  was  the  duty  of  Congress,  not  to  pro- 
hibit, but  to  protect,  slavery  in  the  territories.  The 
mass  of  the  northern  people  held  the  opposite  of 
Chief  Justice  Taney's  decision.  They  claimed  that 
slaves  were  regarded  by  the  constitution,  not  as  prop- 
erty, but  as  "persons  held  to  service  or  labor''  by 
-State  laws;  that  Congress  was  constitutionally  bound 
to  protect  liberty  as  well  as  property;  and  that  its  duty 
was  to  prohibit,  not  to  protect,  slavery  in  the  terri- 
tories. It  was  plain  that  the  decision  of  the  supreme 
court  would  never  be  received  as  the  law  by  the  free 
states.  A  storm  of  angry  dissent  arose,  of  which  the 
slave-holders  hastened  to  take  advantage.  They  main- 
tained that  the  duty  of  Congress  to  protect  slavery  in 
the  territories  had  been  confirmed  by  the  highest 
judicial  authority  in  the  land,  and  that  the  Republicans 
had  refused  to  accept  its  rulings;  therefore,  whatever 
the  result  might  be,  the  Republican  party  must  accept 
the  responsibility.  At  this  time,  as  will  be  seen,  the 
northern,  or  Douglass  Democrats  as  they  were  called, 
who  had  heretofore  supported  the  south,  now  refused 
to  follow  the  southern  lead  any  further,  but  chose 
rather  to  divide  the  party. 
Slave  states  242.  In  1860  the  slave  states  were  fifteen  in  number, 
and  free  namely,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
states.  Qouth  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Kentucky,  Tennes- 
see, Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Arkansas  (admitted  1836), 
Florida  (184.5),  and  Texas  (1845).  The  free  states 
were  eighteen,  namely,  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio.  Indiana,  Illi- 
nois, Michigan  (admitted  1837),  Iowa  (1846),  Wisconsin 
(1848),  California,  Minnesota  (1858),  and  Oregon  (1859). 
Kansas  had  adopted  a  free  state  constitution,  but  was 
not  admitted  until  1861.  At  this  period  the  population 
of  the  United  States  was  more  than  31,()00,000,  an 
increase  of  over 8,000,000  in  ten  years.  The  population 
of  the  slave  states  was  12,000,000,  including  4,000,000 
slaves  and  2.50,000  free  blacks;  but  the  colored  element 
in  the  southern  population  could  hardly  be  regarded  as 
a  factor  of  strength,  but  rather  as  a  possible  source  of 
danger.  No  serious  slave  uprising  had  ever  threatened 
B^own'8  '^'^  south,  but  John  Brown's  raid  and  the  alarm  which 
raid.            it  proluced  in  the  southern  states  betokened  a  danger 


which  added  a  new  terror  to  the  chances  of  a  civil  war. 
Brown,  a  Connecticut  man  of  the  old  Puritan  type, 
had  been  an  anti-slaver3'  leader  in  the  Kansas  fights, 
His  plan  was  to  raise  an  insurrection  among  the  slaves 
of  Virginia,  and  arm  them  to  liberate  their  people  by 
force.  In  October,  1859.  he  and  his  men  surprised  and 
seized  Harper's  Ferry,  where  there  was  a  large  store  of 
muskets  and  ammunition;  but  the  negroes  did  not  rise, 
and  Brown  was  overpowered  by  national  and  state 
troops,  and  hanged  (December  2)  by  the  authorities  of 
Virginia. 

243.  The  next  election  for  the  presidency  was  looked 
forward  to  as  a  critical  time.  Many  persons  of  in- 
fluence in  the  south  declared  that  if  the  election  should 
strengthen  the  preponderance  of  the  north,  the  slave 
states  would  break  up  the  union  and  form  a  confeder- 
acy of  their  own.  'The  Democratic  national  conven- 
tion, which  met  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  April  23,  1860, 
was  characterized  by  its  stormy  session.  The  demands 
of  the  southern  extremists  produced  a  political  schism, 

and  the  convention  with  the  party  was  split  into  two  The  split  in 
distinct  portions.  The  Douglas  Democrats  refused  to  "'y  Uenio- 
yield  to  the  wishes  of  the  slave  power,  and  still  main-  ""^"^  P"  ^ 
tained  the  principle  that  the  question  of  slavery  in 
each  territory  should  bedecided  by  its  settlers;  but  they 
made  a  concession  by  offering  a  resolution  that  the  party 
would  abide  by  the  decisions  of  the  supreme  court. 
The  southern  delegates  offered  resolutions  affirming  the 
doctrine  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision,  that  neither  con- 
gress nor  the  temtorial  legislatures  had  a  right  to  pro- 
hibit slavery  in  the  territories.  The  convention  adopted 
the  Douglas  platform,  whereupon  the  delegates  from 
many  southern  states,  successively  protested  and  with- 
drew, and  at  once  organized  a  new  convention  in 
Charleston,  adopted  their  platform,  and  adjourned  to 
meet  again  in  Richmond.  June  11.  The  original  con- 
vention, after  balloting  fifty-seven  times  for  candidates 
without  a  choice,  adjourned  to  meet  again  at  Baltimore, 
June  18.  Upon  reassembling  at  the  appointed  time,  it 
seated  some  new  delegates  friendly  to  Douglas,  where- 
upon the  remaining  southern  delegates,  who  chiefly  be- 
longed to  the  border  states,  also  withdrew,  and  joined 
their  brethren  at  Richmond.  Here  they  nominated 
John  C.  Breckenridge  and  Joseph  Lane  for  president 
and  vice-president.  The  remainder  of  the  Baltimore 
convention  nominated  Stephen  A.  Douglas  and  Herschel 
V.  Johnson.  The  Republican  convention  assembled  at  The  Repui)- 
Chicago,  May  16.  It  adopted  a  somewhat  broad  con-  lican  con- 
structionist platform;  advocated  the  exclusion  of  slav- ™'^"'"' 
ery  from  the  territories  by  congressional  measure;  de- 
clared in  favor  of  a  protective  tariff,  the  homestead 
bill,  internal  improvements,  and  a  Pacific  railway.  It 
nominated  Abraham  Lincoln  and  Hannibal  Hamlin. 
There  was  a  fourth  organization  called  "The  Constituj  Consii- 
tional  Union  Party,"  composed  of  the  fragments  of  unjo^partv- 
the  old  Whig  and  Know-Nothing  parties.  It  declared 
as  its  political  principles,  "The  constitution  of  the 
country,  the  union  of  the  states,  and  the  enforcement 
of  the  laws."  Its  candidates  were  John  Bell  and  Ed- 
ward Everett.  Four  parties  were  now  in  the  field,  and 
only  two  had  the  courage  of  their  convictions,  the 
southern  Democrats  and  Republicans.  The  Bell  party 
had  adopted  a  "take  it  as  you  please"  platform;  it  sim- 
ply evaded  the  slavery  question  altogether;  while  the 
Douglas  platform  sought  to  throw  the  responsibility  of 
a  decision  concerning  the  question  upon  any  shoulders 
except  those  of  the  Douglas  Democrats. 

244.  An  exciting  canvass  now  followed.  The  Re-  Elertim, 
publican  party  had  been  gaining  confidence  and  en-  of  isei). 
thusiasm,  and  the  discordant  efforts  of  the  three  par- 
ties opposed  to  it,  only  made  Lincoln's  election  more 
certain.  In  the  electoral  college  Lincoln  obtained  180 
votes,  Breckinridge  72,  Bell  39,  and  Douglas  12.  No 
candidate  received  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote,  Lin- 
coln standing  first  and  Douglas  second.     The  popular 

vote  for  Douglas,  though  large,  was  not  so  distributed 


UITITED     STATES 


77^ 


Sece»a5on. 


as  to  gain  a  majority  in  any  state  except  Missouri;  be- 
side the  nine  electoral  votes  in  that  state,  he  obtained 
three  in  New  Jersey.  Thus  the  election  resulted  in  a 
decisive  victory  for  the  Republicans.  Its  significance 
was  far  reaching.  The  interests  of  the  south  and  even 
of  slavery  there  would  be  safe  enough  under  Lincoln, 
but  the  overthrow  of  the  Dred  Scott  and  squatter  sov- 
ereignty doctrines  was  certain,  and  an  immediate  stop 
would  be  put  to  the  extension  of  slavery  in  the  terri- 
tories. In  such  circumstances  the  course  of  events  was 
evident.  Nullification  was  no  longer  feared  by  the  na- 
tion. Secession  on  the  part  of  a  single  state  even,  was 
now  almost  out  of  the  question.  No  one  of  the  south- 
em  states  would  agree  to  secede  unless  assured  of  sup- 
port by  the  others;  a  combined  action  was  necessary  to 
assure  the  success  of  any  secession  plans. 

245.  During  the  discussion  which  preceded  the  elec- 
tion, the  north  heard  repeated  threats  from  the  south, 
that  if  the  Republican  party  were  successful,  the  slave- 
holding  states  would  leave  the  union;  but  these  threats 
werelooked  upon  as  merely  the  angry  declarations  of  a  few 
heated  politicians.  Yet  these  disunion  expressions  were 
sincere.  The  southern  people  had  learned  to  look  upon 
the  north 'as  thoroughly  hostile  to  the  south.  They 
made  little  distinction  between  the  Republican  party 
and  the  Abolitionists,  and  they  felt  instinctively  that  a 
government  elected  in  a  spirit  of  opposition  to  slavery 
would  find  many  ways  to  injure  it.  The  political  hab- 
its, and  the  way  of  life  at  the  south,  made  it  easy  for 
southern  voters  to  believe  in  disunion  as  a  cure  for  the 
evils  with  which  they  felt  they  were  threatened.  The 
doctrine  of  state  independence  had  become  familiar  to 
them;  it  had  been  laid  down  in  the  Kentucky  and  Vir- 
ginia resolutions  of  1798,  and  had  been  maintained  by 
Georgia  in  the  difficulty  with  the  Indians,  and  by  South 
Carolina  in  her  Nullification  Act.  They  had  remained 
"Planting States;"  they  still  had  their  own  social  life: 
the  same  families  lived  upon  the  same  estates.  There 
was  no  such  constant  movement  from  one  state  to  an- 
other as  at  the  north,  nor  any  such  introduction  of  im- 
migrants from  Europe.  They  were,  as  they  have  al- 
ways had  been.  Carolinians  or  Virginians,  rather  than 
Amerltans.  South  Carolina  took  the  lead  in  fulfilling 
the  promise  of  secession.  As  soon  as  it  was  announced 
that  Mr.  Lincoln  was  elected,  her  legislature  ordered 
(November  10,  1860.)  the  assembling  of  a  convention  in 
December  following.  The  senators  from  the  state,  and 
all  office  holders  in  South  Carolina  under  the  Federal 
government  at  once  resigned.  The  convention  met  at 
the  appointed  time,  and  on  December  20,  unanimously 
passed  an  ordinance  of  secession  declaring  "  that  the 
union  now  subsistingbetween  South  Carolina  and  the  oth- 
er states  under  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  America 
is  hereby  dissolved."  As  reasons  for  this  course,  tlie 
convention  referred  to  the  nullification  of  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law  by  the  personal-liberty  bOls,  and  the  election 
of  a  president,  "whose  opinions  and  purposes  were 
hostile  to  slavery."  The  convention  then  took  all  the 
necessary  steps  to  put  the  state  in  readiness  for  war, 
and  adjourned.  A  copy  of  the  ordinance  was  sent  to 
each  of  the  slave  states,  and  several  of  them  now  rap- 
idly followed  this  bold  lead.  Similar  ordinances  were 
passed  by  Mississippi.  January  9.  1861 ;  Florida,  Janu- 
ary 10;  Alabama,  January  11;  Georgia,  January  19; 
Louisiana.  January  26,  and  T<xas,  February  1.  Ten- 
nessee, North  Carolina,  Arkansas  and  the  border  states 
still  refused  to  join  their  more  southern  neighbors.  One 
force,  however,  might  be  exerted  which  would  compel 
them  to  a  decision.  Should  the  Federal  government 
attempt  to  coerce  the  seceding  states,  a  state  which  did 
not  wish  to  secede,  but  maintained  the  doctrine  of  state 
sovereignty  and  the  right  of  secession,  would  be  inclined 
to  take  up  arms  in  its  defence.  Thus,  in  the  following 
spring.four  more  of  the  slave  states  reinforced  the  origi- 
nal seven  seceding  states,  making  their  final  number 
eleven. 


246.  The  act  of  secession, at  first,  met  with  opposition 
in  the  south,  not  from  any  sentiment  that  the  act  was 
wrong,  but  from  the  expediency  of  its  exercise.  Dele- 
gates had  been  elected  to  the  state  conventions  who 
were  to  vote  against  secession,  but  they  were  defeated 
through  the  idea  which  had  obtained  that  the  state 
"could  make  better  terms  out  of  the  union  than  in  it." 
It  was  held  that  it  would  be  more  advantageous  to  their 
rights  and  interests  to  withdraw  temporarily  from  the 
Federal  government  until  proper  guaranties  for  the  ob- 
servance of  these  should  be  given;  and  if  all  conditions 
were  satisfactory,  then  they  might  deem  it  best  to  re- 
turn. In  planning  secession,  the  southern  leaders  rec- 
ognized many  things  in  favor  of  independence  on  wliich  Kao^of "« 
they  supposed  they  might  reasonably  count.  South. 

To  gain  success,  it  was  not  necessary  for  them  to  con- 
quer the  north,  or  any  part  of  it ,  but  only  to  hold  their  own 
frontier;  whereas,  should  the  north  attempt  coercion,  it 
would  necessitate  the  military  occupation, by  its  armies, 
of  the  wholt  vast  area  of  the  southern  country,  which 
would  be  a  tremenduous  undertaking  never  attempted 
before  on  a  corresponding  scale  by  anj'  civilized  govern- 
ment. They  did  not  believe  the  United  States  authori- 
ties would  really  attempt  such  a  measure.  In  this  they 
fatally  erred.  They  believed  that  all  the  slave  states 
would  join  in  the  secession  movement.  This,  however, 
was  not  done.  Then  they  hoped  that  the  action  of  the 
Republican  administration  would  be  so.paralj'zed  by 
Democratic  opposition  in  the  north,  that  its  eflforts  at 
coercion  would  be  rendered  futile.  In  this  they  were 
doomed  to  disappointment;  for  when  war  came,  the 
great  majority  of  the  northern  Democrats  loyally  sup- 
ported the  government;  while  those,  nicknamed  "Cop- 
perheads," who  endeavored  to  impede  its  efforts,  were 
too  small  in  number  to  do  any  serious  harm.  Finally, 
they  thought  they  might  look  for  aid  from  England  and 
France.  "Cotton  isking,"  was  the  cry,  and  while  the 
English  manufacturers  were  dependent  for  their  cotton 
from  the  south,  it  would  scarcely  be  possible  that  the^ 
English  government  would  allow  the  southern  coasts  to> 
be  blockaded.  But  the  sentiment  of  the  great  majority 
of  England's  working  people  was  found  to  be  in  favor 
of  the  north.  The  great  mass  of  the  English  people,  io 
spite  of  many  aristocratic  sympathizers  with  the  south, 
felt  that  the  action  of  Great  Britain  in  the  African  slave 
trade  question,  would  not  permit  her,  without  the  most . 
glaring  inconsistency,  to  give  support  to  the  principal 
slave  power  in  the  world.  With  respect  to  France  the 
case  was  just  as  hopeless.  Napoleon  III,  it  is  true,  was 
desirous  of  recognizing  the  independence  of  the  south, 
for  he  had  designs  upon  Mexico  incompatible  with  the 
Monroe  doctrine,  but  he  was  unwilling  to  make  the 
move  without  the  concurrence  of  England,  and  this  he 
could  not  obtain.  Thus  the  southern  leaders  failed  in 
their  expectations,  and  were  thrown  upon  their  own 
resources. 

247.  In   February,   1861,   a  convention   of  delegates  Orsai  .zi- 
from  the  seceding  states  met  at  Montgomery,  thecap-  tion  ci  tis* 
ital  of  Alabama,  and  formed  a  government  under  the  '^°'>''^'-" 
name  of  the  Confederate  States  of  America.    The  title  ^'^'^^" 
thus  declared  that  the  states  formed  a  confederacy  and 

not  a  union  The  government  was  a  provisional  one 
for  a  year,  since  only  seven  of  the  southern  states  were 
represented.  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  was 
chosen  president  and  Alexander  H.  Stevens,  of  Georgia, 
vice-president.  A  provisional  constitution  was  formed, 
and  an  army,  treasury,  and  other  executive  departments 
estiblished.  The  pe'Tnanent  constitution,  adopted  in 
March,  was  copied  from  that  of  the  United  States,  ex- 
cept that  it  made  careful  provision  for  slavery,  and  fir- 
bade  a  protective  tariff  or  the  maintenance  of  intern^, 
improvements  at  general  expense.  The  seceding  sts-.tf 
at  once  took  measures  to  take  possession  of  the  arsenais, 
forts  and  other  property  of  the  United  States  within 
their  borders.  Mr.  Buchanan's  secretary  of  war  was- 
John  B.  Floyd,  of  Virginia,  a  zealous  secessionist,  and 


774 


UNITED     t^  T  A  T  E  b 


"by  his  orders  an  immense  quantity  of  muskets,  cannon, 
ammunition,  and  other  warlike  stores  had  been  trans- 
ferred from  northern  to  southera  arsenals.  All  this  fell 
intd  the  hands  of  the  secession  party.  The  army  was 
scattered  at  remote  posts  where  it  could  be  of  no  use, 
and  most  of  the  navy  was  at  foreign  stations.  General 
Scott  urged  President  Buchanan  to  strengthen  the  gar- 
risons of  the  southern  forts,  but  Mr.  Floyd  protested, 
and  nothing  in  that  direction  was  done. 

248.  The  forts  throughout  the  south  were  mainly  in 
the  hands  of  southern  men,  who  delivered  them  to  the 
new  authorities.  The  commanders  of  Fort  Pickens,  at 
Pensacola,  and  of  the  forts  at  Key  West  and  Tortugas 
Tefused  to  give  them  up.  The  greatest  interest,  how- 
ever, attacht'd  to  the  forts  within  the  borders  of  South 
Carolina.  The  harbor  of  Charleston  was  commanded 
by  Forts  Sumter  and  Moultrie  and  Castle  Pinckne}'. 
Fort  Sumter  was  not  yet  tinished.  and  the  garrison, 
under  Major  Anderson,  was  occupying  Fort  Moultrie,  a 
"weaker  work.  This  officer  secretly  transferred  his  men 
and  supplies  to  Fort  Sumter  during  the  night  of  De- 
cember 26,  1860.  South  Carolina  demanded  the  evacu- 
ation of  the  fort.  President  Buchanan  refused  the  de- 
idiiToithe  mand,  and  sent  the  steamer  Star  of  the  TTcs^  with  sup- 
V'"st.  plies  and  reinforcements  for  the  fort.  He  intended  the 
expedition  to  be  a  secret  one,  but  it  was  known  at  once 
in  Charleston,  and  when  the  steamer  appeared  it  was 
fired  upon  ahd  driven  back  (Januaiy  9,  1861).  The 
South  Carolinians  had  taken  possession  of  the  other 
forts  in  Charleston  harbor,  and  now  erected  additional 
works.  General  P.  G.  T.  Beauregard  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  harbor  defences.  President  Buchanan 
was  tilled  with  perplexity.  In  his  message  to  Congress 
he  stated  his  inability  to  execute  the  laws  in  the  seced- 
ing states,  but  Congress  gave  him  no  help.  He  con- 
demned the  doctrine  of  secession,  and  denied  the  right 
of  the  states  to  secede;  he  also  denied  the  right  of  the 
government  to  coerce  them  when  they  did  secede.  His 
cabinet  was  divided.  The  southern  members  dropped 
out  as  their  states  seceded,  and  General  Cass,  of  Michi- 
gan, secretary  of  state,  resigned  in  displeasure  at  Mr. 
Buchanan's  inaction. 

349.  The  resignation  of  the  southern  senators  and 
representatives  gave  the  Republicans  a  majority  in 
Congress.  That  body  now  proceeded  to  admit  Kansas 
as  a  state,  and  passed  a  protective  tariff  designed  to 
encourage  manufactures.  Otherwise  Congress  did 
nothing  but  pass  resolutions  intended  to  pacify  the 
south.  Time  which  should  have  been  spent  in  concen- 
trating the  energies  of  the  Federal  government,  and  pre- 
paring it  to  assert  its  supremacy,  was  frittered  away  in 
vain  discussions  about  measures  proposed  to  avert  the 
disaster.  Mr.  Seward,  senator  from  New  York,  and 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  Republicans,  was 
willing  to  give  up  congressional  prohibition  of  slavery 
in  the  territories,  to  enforce  the  fugitive  slave  law, 
and  to  perpetuate  slavery  by  a  constitutional  amend- 
Tbe  popu-  ment.  The  people  throughout  the  country  were  in  a 
."ijkr  feeiiug.  state  of  bewilderment.  The  government  authorities 
seemed  to  have  no  power  to  diiect  affairs.  Great 
meetings  were  held  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  north 
denouncing  abolitionism  and  urging  extreme  conces- 
sions. Prominent  journals  of  both  parties  declared 
that  armed  coercion  was  madness  and  never  would  be 
permitted.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  Virginia  legisla- 
ture, a  peace  congress,  composed  of  delegates  from 
thirteen  free  states  and  seven  border  states,  met  at 
Washington  (February  4,  1861),  and  tried  to  bring 
about  harmony  between  the  sections,  by  proposing  a 
number  of  amendments  to  the  constitution.  Nothing 
came,  however,  of  any  of  these  schemes.  Disunion 
was  now  an  assured  fact,  and  was  soon  to  pass  into 
open  hostility.  It  was  during  this  state  of  affairs  that 
the  new  administration  of  Abraham  Lincoln  entered 
jipon  its  perplexing  duties. 


culniitled. 


'jPeace 
C  onjjrcss. 


Vni. — THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

350.  Mr.  Lincoln  was  inaugurated  March  4,  1861.  In 
his  address  he  declared  that  he  had  neither  the  righi 
nor  the  desire  to  interfere  with  slavery  where  it  already 
existed;  that  no  state  could  lawfully  go  out  of  the  union; 
and  that  he  should  maintain  the  laws  and  constitution 
of  the  United  States  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  The  new 
administration  was  beset  with  ditHculties  on  every 
side,  and  the  condition  of  affairs  seemed  almost  des- 
perate. Many  of  those  who  for  years  had  guided  the 
"ship  of  state,"  and  who  understood  its  workings, 
were  now  foremost  in  advocating  secession.  Mr.  Lin- 
coln's officers  were  new  to  the  business  of  the  Federal 
government.  The  treasury,  by  defalcation,  was  nearly 
banknipt.  Few  troops  were  within  call;  and  the  army 
had  been  almost  broken  up  by  the  surrender  of 
detached  forces  in  the  Confederate  states,  and  the  cap- 
ture of  munitions  of  war.  The  vessels  of  the  navy  were 
sailing  or  at  anchor  in  distant  waters,  and  numerous 
officers  of  both  the  army  end  the  navy  were  resigning 
their  commissions  on  the  ground  that  they  owed 
allegiance  first  to  the  states  from  which  they  came. 
Seven  states  had  already  revolted,  and  otliers  were 
ready  to  swell  the  number  upon  the  first  attempt  to 
enforce  the  Federal  authority.  The  public  officers 
were  largely  occupied  by  persons  in  sympathy  with 
the  secession  movement,  and  every  step  taken  by  the 
new  government  was  known  at  once  to  the  leaders  of 
the  Confederacy,  und  to  crown  all,  Mr.  Lincoln  was 
beset  by  a  vast  horde  of  office-seekers  eager  to  take 
advantage  of  the  change  of  administration. 

251.  The  president  waited  a  month  and  then  notified 
Governor  Pickens,  of  South  Carolina,  that  he  should 
send  supplies  to  Fort  Sumter  at  all  hazards.  This 
announcement  precipitated  an  attack  upon  the  fort. 
Major  Anderson  was  first  summoned  to  surrender,  but 
he  refused.  At  daybreak  on  the  morning  of  April  13, 
1861,  the  Confederacy  began  its  open  conflict  with  the 
United  States.  All  the  batteries  around  the  fort  opened 
fire  upon  it;  the  fo^l  replied,  and  the  bombardment 
continued  for  thirty- six  hours  without  loss  of  life  on 
either  side.  The  ammunition  in  the  fort  was  then 
exhausted,  and  the  works  inside  were  on  fire.  There- 
upon the  United  States  flag,  for  the  first  time  in  its 
history,  was  lowered  to  insurgent  citizens,  and  the 
garrison  capitulated.  This  event  aroused  the  north  as 
if  from  a  trance.  Uitil  now,  the  mass  of  the  people 
had  refused  to  believe  in  real  danger;  but  the  first 
shock  of  arms  thoroughly  convinced  them  that  the 
south  was  ready  to  fight,  and  could  not  be  curbed 
without  war.  It  did  more  than  this.  In  the  northern 
states  party  distinctions  were  for  a  time  swept  aside; 
there  was  but  one  party  worth  the  name — the  party  for 
the  union.  The  southern  states  were  no  longer 
"erring  sisters  "to  be  coaxed  by  concessions.  The 
whole  north  called  loudly  for  the  full  exercise  of  the 
Federal  power  to  compel  the  south  to  obedience  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet. 

353.  The  day  after  the  evacuation  of  Fort  Sumter 
President  Lincoln  called  for  75,000  volunteers  for  three 
months  (April  15).  The  response  was  so  promptly 
made  that  the  first  Massachusetts  troops  began  their 
march  on  the  same  day,  and  in  a  surprisingly  short 
time  the  quota  was  full;  nay,  It  could  have  been  filled 
three  or  four  times  over,  and  the  many  who  were 
refused  felt  a  keen  disappointment  at  not  being  allowed 
to  bear  arms  in  defense  of  the  union.  In  the  south, 
also,  the  effect  of  the  first  conflict  was  correspondingly 
great.  To  the  ignorant  masses  it  did  not  seem  possible 
that  any  other  power  could  be  superior  to  that  of 
their  own  state;  while  the  more  intelligent  classes  had, 
from  their  childhood,  imbibed  the  doctrine  that  state 
sovereignty  was  the  foundation  of  civil  liberty.  Hence 
all  felt  bound  to  follow  the  leadof  theirstate;  and  when 


Lincoln's 
ii;auL'u:a- 


Fort 
Smuter 


Effect  in 
the  north. 


First  call 
for  volun- 
teers. 


The  feeling 
in  Ihf 
sontn. 


U KITED     STATES 


the  president  of  the  new  Confederacy  issued  his  call 
for  men,  it  was  answered,  as  in  the  north,  by  overflow- 
ing numbers. 
^^|^^<^*'  .  253.  Those  southern  states  which  had  wavered  were 
now  compelled  to  make  their  choice.  When  Mr.  Lincoln 
called  for  troops  the  Governors  of  Arkansas,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  refused  to  obey.  North 
Carolina  and  Arkansas  then  seceded,  and  joined  the 
Confederacy.  In  Tennessee  and  Virginia  "military 
leagues"  were  formed  with  the  Confederate  states,  by 
■which  Confederate  troops  were  allowed  to  take  pos- 
session of  their  territory,  and  by  their  aid  the  ques- 
tion of  secession  was  submitted  to  popular  vote. 
Thus  the  secession  of  these  two  states  was  accom- 
plished in  part,  but  not  wholly.  The  people  of  the 
Alleghany  mountains  were  loyal  to  the  union;  in  east- 
«m  Tennessee  they  aided  the  Federals  as  much  as 
possible;  the  opposition  to  secession  was  so  stiong  in 
the  western  counties  of  Virginia  that  the  inhabitants 
refused  to  obey  the  convention  which  passed  the  ordi- 
nance; they  chose  a  legislature  which  claimed  to  be  the 
true  government,  and  at  last  formed  a  new  state  which 
was  admitted  into  the  union  in  1863  under  the  name  of 
West  Virginia.  Even  thus  curtailed,  Virginia  was  a 
most  important  accession  to  the  confederacy:  it  in- 
creased its  military  strength  greatly,  and  at  once 
became  the  chief  battle-ground  of  the  war.  The  con- 
:federate  government  was  moved  from  Montgomery  to 
Uichmond;  and  since  Washington  was  separated  only 
by  the  Potomac  from  the  confederacy,  it  was  clear  that 
the  great  contest  would  be  fought  in  the  country  which 
lay  between  the  two  capitals.  Moreover,  Virginia  was 
the  richest  and  greatest  of  the  slave  states,  and  fur- 
nished the  southern  army  with  its  ablest  leaders,  many 
■of  whom — such  as  Lee,  Jackson,  Johnston,  and  Ewell — 
"were  opposed  to  secession,  but  thought  it  right  to  shape 
their  own  course  by  that  of  their  state. 

254.  There  was  a  strong  anti-union  element  in  Mis- 
souri, Kentucky,  Maryland,  and  Delaware,  and  the 
most  momentous  results^involving,  doubtless,  the  suc- 
cess of  the  union  cause — were  involved  in  the  action 
they  would  now  take.  Aside  from  Virginia,  Missouri 
■was  the  most  powerful  slave  state,  and  her  geograph- 
ical position,  with  that  of  Kentucky  and  Maryland,  was 
of  incalculable  military  importance.  Had  these  three 
states  united  with  the  confederacy  it  might  have  won 
-the  prize  for  which  it  was  contending — independence. 
3Iissouri,  however,  did  not  break  away,  though  the 
issue  was  for  some  time  doubtful  with  her.  Delaware 
cast  her  lot  with  the  union.  In  Maryland  and  Ken- 
tucky efforts  were  made  to  maintain  neutrality,  but 
they  were  soon  induced  to  declare  in  favor  of  the 
Federal  government.  Kentucky,  however,  had  some 
rfif  her  sons  in  the  southern  ranks,  among  whom  was 
John  C.  Breckinridge,  a  former  vice-president  of  the 
United  states,  who  became  an  officer  in  the  confeder- 
ate army. 
Mfii'-irr  255.  The  Federal  government  was  in  no  want  of 
oflh*'""  men,  but  the  alction  of  Secretary  Floyd  h»d  almost 
'^rth.  stripped  it  of  arms  to  equip  them.  Agents  were  sent 
abroad  to  purchase  guns,  private  manufactories  were 
•worked  day  and  night  to  produce  them,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  administration  was  able  to  call  more  men  into 
the  field.  The  northern  people  were  unmilitary  in 
their  habite  and  thoughts.  They  had  a  militia,  but  it 
^pas  poorly  organized.  The  Mexican  war  had  drawn 
few  volunteers  from  this  section,  and  the  United  States 
army  was  very  small  and  imperfectly  equipped.  The 
«arly  action  of  the  Confederates  also  had  weakened  it. 
There  was,  however,  a  greater  population  to  draw  from 
than  at  the  south.  There  was  also  a  wider  range  of 
industry  to  supply  the  necessary  funds  to  carry  on  the 
-war.  The  agricultural  products  of  the  United  States 
•far  exceeded  in  volume  those  of  any  other  country,  and 
in  merchant  shippin?  it  was  only  second  to  Great 
iJrit:iiu.     Between  1830  and  1860  American  civilization 


had  shown  a  wonderful  growth  in  all  directions — in 
facilities  of  travel  and  exchange,  in  home  comforts,  in 
manufactures,  in  literature  and  art,  and  especially  in 
the  development  and  building  up  of  that  moral  sense 
which  enabled  the  country  to  pass  so  successfully 
through  the  trying  times  of  the  next  four  years. 

256.  But  this  material  and  moral  progress  was  mostly  Of  the 
confined  to  the  north.     The  south  was  far  from  possess-  *<""•>• 
ing  an  equal  share  in  it.     Her  case  was  one  of  arrested 
developement,  not  from  any  natural  inferiority  in  the        • 
people,  but  simply  because  their  moral  sense  and  spirit 

of  enterprise  had  been  blighted  by  the  curse  of  slavery. 
Labor  was  held  to  be  degrading,  and  those  who  carried 
on  the  few  branches  of  industry  were  considered  an 
inferior  caste;  railroads,  commerce  and  manufactures 
could  not  thrive,  and  hence  there  was  but  little  immigra- 
tion; the  progressive  ideas  from  the  modem  world 
outside  were  opposed  from  the  fear  that  they  might 
prove  injurious  to  the  pet  institution  of  slavery.  Thus 
the  advance  of  civilization  was  checked,  and  whatever 
might  have  conduced  to  the  material  welfare  of  the 
south  was  kept  away  as  far  as  possible.  In  the  north 
the  rising  man  was  marked  by  the  extent  of  his  business 
relations;  in  the  south  by  his  ability  to  buy  slaves, 
which  assured  him  nearly  always  an  "entrance"  into  the 
the  ranks  of  the  dominant  class.  This  class  furnished 
the  representatives  and  senators  in  Congress,  the 
governors,  and  all  the  otHceliolders  over  which  the  slave 
power  had  control.  Thus  its  ablest  and  best  men  com- 
bined to  defend  certain  tendencies  which  were  foreign 
and  hostile  to  those  of  the  rest  of  the  country,  and  of  the 
world  in  general.  With  such  odds  against  it,"  the  struggle 
of  the  south  during  the  four  years  of  war  showed  of 
what  heroic  stuff  its  people  were  made. 

257.  The  first  blood  of  the  war  was  shed  in  the  streets  First  blood 
of  Baltimore.     Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania  troops  °'  ""^  ""- 
on  their  way  to  Washington  were  attacked  by  a  Balti- 
more mob   (April  19.  1861,)  and  some  of  the  soldiers 

killed.  The  populace,  which  sympathized  with  the 
south,  declared  that  no  northern  troops  should  pass 
through  the  city.  The  railroad  was  blocked  up,  bridges 
were  burned,  telegraph  wires  were  cut,  and  all  direct 
communication  with  the  north  was  stopped,  until  the 
president  sent  a  military  force  from  Annapolis  to  occupy 
Baltimore  and  keep  the  road  open.  In  a  short  time  the 
active  hostility  of  the  people  was  overcome,  and  the 
national  capitol  made  secure.  By  July  4  the  confeder- 
ates had  pushed  their  forces  as  far  as  Manassas  Junction, 
about  thirty  miles  from  Washington.  Their  line  of 
defence  was  already  marked  out.  and  its  length  has 
been  estimated  at  eleven  thotisand  miles,  including  the 
Atlantic  and  gulf  coasts.  It  comprised  the  left  bank  of 
the  Potomac  from  Fortress  Monroe  nearly  to  Washing- 
ington;  from  thence  it  extended  to  Harper's  Ferry,  on 
through  the  mountains  of  western  Virginia  and  the 
southern  part  of  Kentucky,  crossing  the  Mississippi  a 
short  distance  below  Cairo.  From  this  point  its  direc- 
tion was  through  southern  Missouri  to  the  eastern 
border  of  Kansas;  then  southwest,  through  the  Indian 
territory,  and  along  the  northern  boundary  of  Texas 
to  the  Rio  Grande.  The  area  contained  •within  this 
interior  line  and  the  sea-coast  was  about  800,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  over  9.000.000.  It  com- 
prised, also,  theterritory  devoted  to  the  raising  of  cotton, 
an  article  necessary  to  the  manufacturing  interests  .of 
the  world.  It  was  upon  this  production  that  the  south 
relied  largely  for  aid:  all  the  munitions  of  war  could  be 
procured  in  exchange  for  it;  and  she  believed  it  would 
be  a  powerful  factor  in  preventing  the  blockading  of 
her  ports. 

258.  In  consideration  of  this  fact,  and  also  that  the  The 
confederate  line  of  sea-coast  was  over  three  thousand  bloctade. 
miles  in  length,  with  but  one  port  of  refuge  for  a 
blockading  fleet  about  the  middle  of  the  line,  it  scarcely 
seemed  possible  tha*  r  blockade  could  be  maintained 

w:th  any   marked  decree  of  success.     Nevertheless 


776 


UNITED     STATES 


Congress. 


Battle  of 
Ball  Ran. 


Effect  of 
the  defeat. 


McC'iellan 
in  com- 
mand. 


Confed- 
erate army. 


Ball's 
BInfr. 


the  president  issued  a  proclamation  (April  19,  1S61) 
declaring  a  blockade  of  all  the  southern  ports,  and  the 
Federal  government  proceeded  to  purchase  and  arm  a 
large  number  of  merchant  vessels.  But  it  could  not  at 
once  bring  together  a  navy  powerful  enough  to  keep 
vessels  from  entering  or  leaving  the  blockaded  ports. 
The  south  not  only  sent  out  vessels  laden  with  cotton 
to  the  West  Indies  and  to  Europe,  but  received  in 
return  military  supplies  of  all  kinds.  Upon  the  appear- 
ance of  Mr.  Lincoln's  blockade  proclamation,  Mr. 
Davis  issued  one  also,  granting  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal  to  private  vessels,  against  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States.  The  governments  of  Great  Britain  and 
France  now  issued  proclamations  of  neutrality,  thus 
making  the  contest  between  the  north  and  the  south  a 
civil  war,  according  to  subseqent  decisions  of  the 
supreme  court. 

259.  At  the  meeting  of  Congress  (July  4,  1861)  the 
Republicans  had  a  majority  in  both  branches,  the  free 
states  and  border  states  only,  being  represented.  The 
house  voted  to  devote  its  time  solely  to  the  business 
connected  with  the  war.  It  supported  the  president's 
proclamation  closing  the  southern  ports  against  com- 
merce. Bills  were  passed  to  define  and  punish  con- 
spiracy against  the  United  States,  and  to  confiscate 
all  private  property,  including  slaves,  employed  against 
the  Federal  government;  to  authorize  a  loan;  to  call  out 
500,000  volunteers,  and  to  appropriate  money  for  the 
army  and  navv.  During  Ihis  session  occurred  the  first 
battle  of  BuHRun  (.July  21,  1861).  General  Scott  had 
been  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  union  forces. 
The  first  military  movements  were  in  the  mountains  of 
western  Virginia,  and  the  success  of  the  union  army 
there  led  many  people  to  suppose  that  in  a  short  time 
the  rebellious  states  would  be  compelled  to  obedience. 
Mr.  Seward,  who  was  secretary  of  state,  was  especially 
cheerful,  and  promised  that  the  war  should  be  over  in 
ninety  days.  The  newspapers  and  people  generally 
urged  an  immediate  movement  upon  Richmond.  Very 
few  had  any  knowledge  of  the  difliculties  before 
them,  and  General  Scott,  pressed  by  public  opinion, 
gave  the  order  to  advance.  This  resulted  in  the  first 
serious  battle  of  the  war.  The  union  forces  were 
defeated,  and  retreated  in  a  panic  upon  Washington. 
Both  armies  were  yet  so  new  in  military  training  that 
the  confederates  gained  nothing  from  their  success. 

260.  This  disaster  opened  the  eyes  of  the  north,  and 
the  country  settled  down  into  a  more  serious  temper. 
Congress  was,  more  than  ever,  stimulated  to  increased 
energy,  and  pledged  itself  to  vote  any  amount  of  money 
and  any  number  of  men  necessary  to  maintain  the 
union.  Propositions  to  consider  negotiations  for  peace 
were  constantly  offered  by  extreme  Democrats,  and  as 
constantly  rejected  by  large  majorities,  on  the  ground 
that  negotiation  with  armed  rebellion  was  unconstitu- 
tional. General  Scott,  having  resigned  the  command 
of  the  northern  armies  on  account  of  his  age  and  infir- 
mity, was  succeeded  by  General  George  B.  McClellan, 
whose  successful  campaign  in  western  Virginia  had 
given  him  a  high  reputation  throughout  the  army. 
He  had  a  genius  for  organization,  and  possessed  the 
unbounded  confidence  of  the  people.  He  immediately 
set  about  forming  the  first  great  army  of  the  war — 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac — at  Alexandria,  in  prepara- 
tion for  a  second  advance.  But  the  advance  was 
delayed  much  too  long  to  suit  the  impatience  of  the 
people  and  the  administration;  and  as  the  winter  of 
1861  62  passed  away  without  any  forward  movement. 
the  expressions  of  dissatisfaction  became  louder  and 
more  general.  The  confederacy  also  spent  the  summer 
and  autumn  of  1861  in  organizing  its  northern  Army 
of  Virginia,  under  General  Beauregard. 

261.  In  the  autumn  of  1861  a  portion  of  General 
Stone's  command  on  the  Upper  Potomac  was  sent  on  a 
reconnoissance  into  Virginia,  under  Colonel  Baker, 
and,  being  attacked  by  the  confederate  general,  Evans, 


at  Ball's  Bluff,  was  disastrously  defeated.  Colonel 
Baker  was  among  the  killed.  Although  Missouri  had 
not  seceded,  a  strong  party,  with  which  the  governor  The  neotral 
was  acting,  wished  to  carry  it  over  to  the  confederacy.  ^""**- 
A  confederate  camp  near  St.  Louis  was  broken  up 
by  Captain  Lyon,  of  the  regulars,  and  the  St.  Louis 
arsenal  was  saved  to  the  government.  The  state  was 
afterward  invaded  by  confederates  from  Arkansas, 
who  were  defeated  by  Lyon  (now  a  general)  at  Boone- 
ville,  June  17,  and  by  Sigel  at  Carthage,  July  5.  A 
large  force  of  confederates  under  McCuUough  and 
Price  attacked  Lyon  at  Wilson's  Creek  (August  10).  Wiison-s 
Lyon  was  killed,  and  his  command  fell  back  toward  "  ' 
the  center  of  the  state.  Price  with  20,000  men  then 
attacked  Lexington,  which  was  garrisoned  by  2.000  Lexington, 
federal  troops  under  Colonel  Mulligan.  After  an  heroic 
defense  of  three  days  the  little  garrison  was  compelled 
to  surrender  (September  20)  after  their  water  supply 
had  been  cut  oil  for  forty-eight  hours.  General  Fre- 
mont was  now  appointed  to  \he  command  of  the 
western  department.  He  drove  Price  into  the  south- 
west comer  of  the  state,  and  was  about  to  give  battle 
when  he  was  superseded  by  General  Hunter  (Novem- 
ber 2).  Hunter  retreated  to  St.  Louis,  with  Price  in 
pursuit;  but  in  a  fortnight  Himter  was  replaced  by 
Halleck,  and  Price  was  driven  into  Arkansas.  Ken-  Kentn<  kj. 
tucky,  like  Missouri,  was  distracted  by  dissensions 
among  its  own  people,  and  by  armies  on  both  sides. 
General  Polk  of  the  confederate  armj'  occupied  Hick- 
man and  Columbus,  towns  on  the  Mississippi.  There 
was  also  a  confederate  force  at  Belmont,  Missouri, 
opposite  Columbus.  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  recently 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  now  first 
came  into  notice.  He  drove  the  confederates  out  of 
Belmont  (November  T),  but  was  unable  to  hold  the 
town  because  it  was  commanded  by  the  fortifications 
of  Columbus. 

262.  From  the  beginning    of  the  war,  the  federal  Fugitive 
government  was  embarrassed  by  the  question  of  fugi-  slaves, 
tive  slaves.     Congress  had  passed  the  act  confiscating 
slaves  employed  in  service  hostile  to  the  L^nited  States. 
While  General  Fremont  was  in  command  of  the  forces 

of  the  west,  he  had  issued  a  proclamation  declaring 
the  slaves  of  Missouri  confederates  free  men,  but  this 
was  countermanded  by  President  Lincoln,  who  did  not 
wish  to  estrange  those  slaveholders,  especially  in 
Kentucky,  who  were  stUl  loyal  to  the  union.  In  Vir- 
ginia, General  Benjamin  F.  Butler  had  declared  that 
slaves  were  "  contraband  of  war,"  and  therefore  liable 
to  confiscation  by  military  law.  But  as  yet  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  north  was  to  subdue  the  south  without 
interfering  with  slavery;  and  some  union  commanders 
restored  to  their  masters  the  slaves  who  had  escaped 
into  the  federal  lines. 

263.  Formidable     expeditions    were    fitted    out    to  Optratione 
recapture  southern    harbors.     A  combined  land   and  ""^Vt" 
naval   force,    under  General   Butler  and   Commodore 
Stringham  reduced  and  occupied  two  forts  at  Hatteras 

Inletl  North  Carolina,  at  the  entrance  to  Albemarle  and 
Pamlico  Sounds  (August  29),  and  Port  Royal  harbor, 
near  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  was  secured  through 
the  reduction  of  Forts  Walker  and  Beauregard  by  the 
fleet  under  Commodore  Dupont  (November  71,  and  a 
land  force  under  General  Thuiuas  W.  Sherman.  These 
successes  were  of  great  value  to  the  Federal  govern- 
ment. They  not  only  closed  important  southern  port«, 
but  they  furnished  convenient  stations  for  the 
blockading  fleet.  The  "paper  blockade."  as  it  had 
been  called,  was  soon  made  a  very  effective  one  along 
the  whole  length  of  the  southern  coast  from  the  Poto- 
mac to  the  Rio  Grande,  an  achievement  which  by 
many  had  been  deemed  impossible.  Still,  in  spite  of 
the  watchfulness  of  the  federal  navy,  several  confed- 
erate men-of-war  and  privateers  sailed  out  of  port,  and 
did  much  damage  to  merchant  ships.  The  practice  of  g,^^^^ 
"running    the    blockade"    bi'came   a  very    profitable  running. 


U  2s'  1  T  E  D     S  T  A  T  E  S 


relatioDs. 


t 


Swonu 


Thew;>rui 
the  we»L 


business:  and  notwithstanding  the  danger  of  capture, 
■which  was  the  case  in  many  instances,  the  profits  on  a 
single  successful  voyage  were  so  great  that  adventurers 
found  they  could  afford  to  take  the  risk. 

264.  As  has  been  stated,  the  south  depended  largely 
upon  assistance  from  abroad,  and  the  southern  leaders 
still  clung  to  the  hope  that  they  could  prevail  upon 
Great  Britain  and  France  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  the  confederacy.  Two  commissioners,  therefore, 
Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell.  were  sent  by  the  confeder- 
ate government  to  London  and  Paris.  They  ran  the 
blockade,  made  their  way  to  Havana,  and  then  em- 
barked for  England  in  the  British  mail-steamer  Trent. 
Some  distance  out,  the  Trent  was  overhauled  by  an 
American  manof-war  under  Captain  Wilkes,  the  two 
commissioners  were  taken  off  (November.  1861),  and 
carried  to  Boston  harbor,  where  they  were  imprisoned 
in  Fort  Warren.  This  action,  which  was  illegal  and 
unauthorized,  catised  great  excitement  in  England,  and 
came  very  near  causing  a  collision  between  the  two 
coimtries.  Lord  Palmerstou  made  a  perempto-y  de- 
mand for  the  surrender  of  the  prisoners.  The  American 
government  had  already  disavowed  the  act  of  Captain 
Wilkes,  which,  though  it  was  justified  by  the  British 
claim  of  the  "right  of  search,"  was  contrary  to  Ameri- 
can principles.  The  confederate  envoys  were  there- 
fore promptly  released  and  sent  to  England.  Just 
before  this  occurrence  President  Lincoln  requested  two 
confidential  agents  to  visit  France  and  England  in 
order  to  help  the  federal  cause  and  avert  the  danger 
of  foreign  war  by  their  influence  with  the  governments 
and  with  persons  of  distinction.  The  persons  selected 
for  this  delicate  and  important  trust  were  Archbishop 
Hughes,  of  New  York,  and  Mr.  Thurlow  Weed.  They 
sailed  in  November  and  rendered  very  valuable  service, 
Mr.  Weed  in  England,  and  the  archbishop  in  France. 

265.  At  the  beginning  of  1863  the  war  had  assumed 
>f  ihe  yg^i  proportions.     The  number  of  men  under  arms  on 

both  sides  was  nearly  a  million.  The  confederates 
held  possession  of  the  Mississippi  river  from  the  gulf 
o.-  Mexico  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Kentucky,  and 
occupied  a  chain  of  strong  positions  extending  thence 
through  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  to  the  southwestern 
comer  of  Virginia.  Between  the  AUeghanies  and  the 
Blue  Ridge  was  the  fertile  Shenandoah  valley,  often  dis- 
puted by  both  armies.  At  the  east  the  confederates 
were  posted  in  great  force  between  the  Potomac  and 
the  Rappahannock.  Now  that  Delaware.  Maryland, 
Kentucky  and  Missouri  had  been  saved  to  the  union, 
it  was  certain  that  the  battle  would  be  fought  out  in 
the  territory  to  the  south  of  tYSem.  The  plan  of  the 
Federal  authorities  was  to  open  the  Mississippi  and 
penetrate  the  confederate  line  at  the  west,  while  at  the 
same  time  McClellan  attacked  Richmond,  and  a  land 
and  naval  force  continued  the  process  of  capturing  the 
southern  ports  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Simon  Cameron, 
who  had  been  secretary  of  war,  resigned  January  20, 
1863,  and  was  succeeded  by  Edwin  M.  Stanton.  All 
the  Federal  armies  were  to  move  simultaneously  on 
the  22d  of  February,  Washington's  birthday,  but  this 
order  could  not  be  strictl}'  carried  out. 

266.  The  first  advance  was  made  in  the  west.  Gen- 
eral Grant  had  entered  Kentucky  from  Illinois,  and 
succeeded  in  securing  the  mouths  of  the  Tennessee  and 
Cumberland  rivers,  two  streams  which  were  to  serve 
aa  military  highways  by  which  the  Federal  armies 
were  to  penetrate  into  the  heart  of  the  confederacy. 
The  chief  confederate  positions  between  the  Mississippi 
river  and  the  Alleghany  mountains  were  Fort  Henry 
on  the  Tennessee,  Fort  Donelson  on  the  Cumberland 
<both  in  Tennessee),  and  Bowling  Green  and  Mill  Spring 
in  southern  Kentucky.  This  line  of  defense  was  in 
command  of  General  Sidney  Johnston,  with  headquar- 
ters at  Bowling  Green.  Here  he  was  confronted  by 
General  Buell's  army,  the  middle  one  of  the  three  great 
Fedejal  armies,  which  came  to  be  known  as  the  Army 


of  the  Cumberland.  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  formed 
the  center  of  the  confederate  line,  and  was  confronted 
by  Grant,  whose  troops  afterwards  formed  the  army  of 
the  Tennessee.  In  January,  1862,  General  Thomas 
with  the  left  of  Buell's  force  thoroughly  defeated  the 
confederate  right  at  Mill  Spring.  General  Grant, 
aided  by  the  river  fleet  under  Commodore  Foote,  now 
assailed  the  center.  Fort  Henry  was  first  attacked 
and  reduced  by  the  gunboats  before  Grant  had  time  to 
invest  it.  The  combined  forces  then  assaulted  Fort 
Donelson,  which  after  a  brave  resistance  was  captured 
(February  16)  with  15,000  prisoners.  The  center  of  the 
confederate  line  was  now  pierced,  and  Johnston  and 
Polk  were  compelled  to  retreat  for  fear  of  being  cut  off. 
Columbus,  Bowling  Green  and  Nasi  ville  were  evacu- 
ated, and  the  whole  of  Kentucky  and  most  of  Tennes- 
see was  in  the  hands  of  the  Federals.  General  Buell 
occupied  Nashville;  a  strong  union  party  showed  itself 
in  Tennessee,  and  Senator  Andrew  Johnson  was  ap- 
pointed military  governor  of  the  state. 

267.  The  confederates  formed  their  second  line  of 
defense  along  the  railroad  from  Memphis  to  Chatta- 
nooga, and  began  massing  their  forces  at  Corinth.  The 
armies  of  Grant  and  Buell  were  to  unite  and  attack  the 
enemy  in  his  new  position.  Grant  moved  up  the  Ten- 
nessee river  and  halted  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  orShiloh. 
about  twenty  miles  from  Corinth,  there  to  await  the 
arrival  of  Buell.  Here  Johnston  made  a  brilliant  attack 
upon  him  with  the  intention  of  crushing  him  before 
Buell  could  come  up.  A  terrible  battle  was  fought 
(April  6  and  7,)  in  which  the  confederate  leader,  who 
was  one  of  the  slain,  came  very  near  effecting  his  pur- 
pose. But  the  federal  forces,  though  driven  back  at 
nearly  every  point,  stubbornly  resisted,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  first  day,  Buell's  advance  guard  came  upon  the 
scene.  The  next  morning.  Grant,  now  reinforced,  as- 
sumed the  offensive;  and  after  a  fight  of  several  hours, 
the  confederates  were  driven  back  to  Corinth. 

268.  While  these  operations  were  taking  place  in 
Tennessee,  Commodore  Foote  with  his  gun-boats 
entered  the  Mississippi  with  a  small  army  under  Pope, 
and  captured  Island  Number  Ten  on  the  day  of  Grant's 
victory  at  Shiloh.  Two  months  later  Fort  Pillow  was 
abandoned  by  the  confederates,  and  Memphis  at  once 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  union  army.  The  victory  at 
Shiloh  decided  the  fate  of  Corinth,  an  important  rail- 
road center,  though  it  was  not  captured  for  several 
weeks  afterward  on  account  of  the  slow  advances  of 
General  Halleck,  who  had  assumed  command  of  the 
federal  forces  at  that  point.  Meanwhile  a  fleet  under 
Farragut  and  Porter,  with  a  land  force  under  Butler, 
had  been  sent  to  attack  New  Orleans.  Farragut  ran  past 
the  batteries  and  forts  at  the  entrance  of  the  river, 
attacked  and  destroyed  the  ironclads  which  met  him, 
and  captured  New  Orleans,  which  was  occupied  by  the 
army  under  Butler.  Farragut  with  a  part  of  his  fleet 
then  pushed  up  the  river,  clearing  away  all  obstacles, 
passed  the  batteries  at  Vicksburg,  and  met  the  federal 
gunboats  under  Captain  Davis,  above.  Thus  the  war 
in  the  west  had  been,  so  far.  marked  by  an  almost 
unbroken  series  of  victories  for  the  federal  armies.  At 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  state  of  Mississippi  the 
union  advarre  stopped  for  a  time,  but  all  was  held  that 
had  been  won.  Tr  q'ain  control  of  the  great  river,  it 
was  necessrry  to  iaKe  Vicksburg,  with  its  outpost,  Port 
Hudson,  which,  between  them,  commanded  the  entran'"e 
to  the  Red  river,  and  thus  kept  open  the  communica- 
tions of  the  eastern  part  of  the  confederacy  with  its 
states  of  Texas,  Louisiana  and  Arkansas.  To  capture 
Vicksburg  wouldcut  off  these  states,  and  greatly  cripple 
the  fighting  power  of  the  confederate  government. 
The  occupation  of  Chattanooga  was  also  necessary  to 
the  success  of  the  union  arms.  It  would  open  the  way 
into  Georgia,  and  prevent  the  confederates  from  recov- 
ering any  of  the  lost  ground  in  Tennessee. 

269.  While  the  south  had  met  wiih  defeat  in  the  west. 


Forts  II 
aud  Dot 
fecn. 


Pittsburg 
Landiu!: 


On  the  M  • 
sissippi 


New  Or 

leans  nik.j. 


The  Mon: 
tor  aud  ;be 
Merrimac. 


77d 


UNITED     STATES 


it  was  encouraged  by  a  success  in  Hampton  Roads. 
The  confederates  had  taken  the  Merrimac,  a  former 
frigate  of  the  United  States  navy,  and  transformed  her 
into  an  ironclad  ram,  with  sloping  sides  and  huge  iron 
beak.  On  March  8,  1863,  this  strange-looking  craft 
entered  Hampton  Roads  and  attacked  the  federal 
fleet  lying  there,  which  consisted  of  five  wooden  ships 
of  war.  The  Merrimac  destroyed  the  Cumberland,  and 
also  compelled  the  frigate  Congress  to  surrender.  At 
night  she  went  back  to  Norfolk.  The  next  morning  she 
was  seen  coming  out  again  to  complete  the  work  of 
destruction.  Suddenly  the  Monitor,  a  turreted  ironclad 
vessel,  advanced  to  meet  her,  and  after  an  obstinate 
engagement  of  several  hours  the  Merrimac  was  com- 
pelled to  retire.  These  encounters  were  remarkable  as 
the  first  engagements  between  ironclads  and  wooden 
vessels  and  between  two  ironclads.  The  result  caused  a 
revolution  in  the  navies  of  the  world;  the  day  of  wooden 
war-vessels  was  seen  to  be  over,  and  all  the  great  pow- 
ers began  at  once  the  construction  of  iron  and  steel 
vessels, 
.'irginia  270.  The  mOitary  operations  in  Virginia  during  the 
campaign,  yg^j.  ^jggg  ofEered  a  strong  contrast  to  the  course  of 
events  in  the  west.  This  was  owing  partly,  no  doubt, 
to  the  superior  ability  of  the  confederate  commanders, 
as  compared  with  their  antagonists,  partly  because  on 
the  union  s>de  military  affairs  were  too  much  inter- 
mingled with  politics.  While  General  McClellan  was 
organizing  a  splendid  army  of  200,000  men  near  Wash- 
ington, General  Banks  was  ordered  to  occupy  the 
sndoah™  Shenandoah  valley.  He  began  his  advance  in  Feb- 
vaiiey.  ruary,  and  having,  as  he  supposed,  cleared  the  valley 
of  the  enemy,  set  out  with  his  own  corps  proper  to 
join  McClellan.  As  soon  as  he  was  gone.  General 
Jackson,  popularly  known  as  "Stonewall  Jackson," 
hastened  to  attack  the  division  of  Shields  which  re- 
mained in  the  valley.  After  a  desperate  battle  at 
Kearnstown  (March  23),  Jackson  was  compelled  to 
retire.  Banks  returned  to  the  valley  and  Shields  was 
sent  to  join  McDowell  at  Fredericksburg.  General 
Fremont  now  approached  from  the  west,  in  order  to 
unite  with  Banks  near  Stanton.  To  prevent  this  Jack- 
son formed  the  plan  of  attacking  the  Federal  forces  in 
detail.  He  nearly  succeeded  in  gettiag  into  the  rear  of 
the  main  body  with  a  much  larger  army  than  Banks 
could  muster.  By  a  hurried  retreat  Banks  reached  and 
crossed  the  Potomac,  with  the  confederate  cavalry  in 
close  pursuit.  Shields  hastened  back  to  the  valley,  but 
his  advance  guard  was  defeated  at  Port  Republic 
(June  8)  by  Jackson,  who.  the  same  day,  had  checked 
Fremont  at  Cross  Keys.  Having  thus  saved  the  valley 
to  the  confederates,  and  obliged  the  government  at 
Washington  to  detain  for  the  defense  of  the  capital  a 
large  body  of  troops  which  McClellan  greatly  needed 
for  other  duty,  Jackson  joined  the  confederate  army  in 
front  of  Richmond, 
•r^  Army  271.  General  McClellan  concentrated  the  Army  of  the 
Fcitumiir  Potomac  between  Washington  and  Manasses,  as  if 
intending  to  advance  against  Richmond  by  that  route. 
He  then  withdrew  his  forces  and  went  by  water  to 
Fortress  Monroe  in  order  to  advance  up  the  peninsula 
between  the  James  and  York  rivers.  Here  he  was  held 
in  check  for  a  month  by  Johnston  at  Yorktown,  and 
when  McClellan  was  ready  to  take  the  place,  the  con- 
fede.-ates  retreated  toward  Richmond.  The  union 
forcto  followed,  and  both  armies  concentrated  around 
Richmond.  McClellan  gained  the  battles  of  Williams- 
burg (May  5),  and  West  Point  (May  9),  and  advanced 
within  seven  miles  of  the  city.  A  panic  broke  out  in 
the  southern  capital,  and  the  confederate  Congress  ad- 
journed in  haste.  It  was  just  at  this  time  that  Stone- 
wall Jackson,  by  his  brilliant  and  daring  exploits  in  the 
Shenandoah  valley,  obliged  the  federal  government  to 
keep  in  front  of  Washington  a  corps  under  McDowell 
which  was  about  to  co-operate  with  McClellan  by  way 
of  Fredericksburg.     The  movements  of  McClellan  "n- 


volved  the  separation  of  the  two  wings  of  his  army  by 
the  little  river  Chickahominy,  which  by  a  sudden  rise 
was  changed  into  a  wide  stream.  The  confederates 
under  Johnston  at  once  attacked  the  union  left  wing  at 
Fair  Oaks  and  Seven  Pines.  A  fierce  battle  ensued,  FairOaks 
lasting  two  days;  the  result,  however,  was  a  union  vie-  p^n^f'^*^" 
tory.  Johnston  was  wounded,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Robert  E.  Lee,  who  retained  command  of  the  army  of 
Virgmia  during  the  rest  of  the  war. 

272.  The  absence  of  McDowell,  who  was  expected  to 
support  McCleUan's  right,  compelled  a  change  in  the 
whole  plan  of  operations.  Although  Lee  had  been 
repulsed  in  an  attack  on  the  Federal  lines  at  Mechanics- 
ville  (June  26),  he  fell  upon  them  again  at  Gaines  MiH. 
the  day  following,  in  overwhelming  force,  and  drove 
them  across  the  Cliickahominy  with  severe  loss.  Jack- 
son had  now  reinforced  Lee,  and  McClellan  was  cut  off 
from  his  base  of  supplies  on  York  river.  Unable  to 
reunite  his  wings  and  regain  his  base,  the  union  general 
decided  upon  the  diSicult  maneuver  of  establishing 
another  base  on  the  James  river.  While  effecting  this 
change,  the  union  troops  were  hard  pressed  by  Lee  and 
and  Jackson,  who,  during  the  period  from  June  26  to 

July  1,  attacked  them  at  Golding's  Farm,  Savage's  The  'iScvcn 
Station,  White  Oak  Swamp,  Glendale,  etc.,  and  finally  Bafu,,B  ■• 
at  Malvern  Hill,  where  the  confederates  were  signally 
repulsed.  This  was  the  last  of  a  series  of  engagements 
known  as  the  "Seven  Days' Battles,"  in  the  course  of 
which  McClellan  lost  over  15,000  men.  Lee  suffered 
almost  as  much.  The  union  army  had  now  reached 
the  James  river,  and  established  itseif  in  a  position 
from  which  it  could  not  be  driven. 

273.  Lee  and  Jackson  then  turned  their  attention 
toward  Washington,  which  was  defended  by  an  army 
under  General  Pope.  Pope's  forces  stretched  along 
the  Rappahannock  and  Rapidan  to  the  Shenandoah 
valley.  General  Banks  held  a  position  at  the  western 
end  of  the  line,  and  was  attacked  by  Jackson  at  Cedar 
Mountain.  Lee  followed  close  behind,  and  the  two 
generals  forced  Banks  back  and  then  attacked  Pope. 
McClellan  received  orders  from  Washington  to  join 
Pope,  and  a  portion  of  his  forces  came  up  in  time  to 

take  part  iu  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August  29.  The  socouts 
Pope's  army  was  put  to  rout,  Washington  was  threat-  Bn'i'ijn', 
ened  and  the  whole  country  was  wild  with  excitement. 
Lee  now  led  his  victorious  army  across  the  upper 
Potomac  and  entered  Maryland.  McClellan,  gathering 
up  the  remants  of  the  two  defeated  armies,  followed 
and  confronted  the  confederates  at  Antietam  creek.  A 
desperate  struggle  took  place  (September  17).  It  left  ^ntielam, 
each  army  exhausted:  but  the  victoiy  remained  with ' 
the  union  forces.  The  confederates  recrossed  the 
Potomac  and  retired  up  the  Shenandoah  valley.  The 
administration  was  dissatisfied  with  McClellan 's  course, 
and  his  command  was  given  to  General  Burnside.  The 
new  commander  at  once  moved  toward  Richmond, 
proposing  to  cross  the  Rappahannock  at  Fredericks- 
burg. Here  he  found  Lee  posted  upon  the  hills  behind 
the  town.  Burnside  crossed  the  river,  and,  formings 
his  army  in  three  divisions,  attempted  to  storm  the 
heights  (December  13).  It  was  a  day  of  terrible 
slaughter  for  the  federal  troops.  They  were  repulsed  Fredeiicke 
with  the  loss  of  twelve  thousand  men,  the  army  was  ^^' 
demoralized  and  retreated  to  the  north  side  of  the 
river.  Burnside  was  then  superseded  by  General 
Hooker.  The  close  of  1802  thus  found  the  opposing 
armies  iu  nearlj'  the  same  positions  as  at  the  beginning; 
of  the  war.  At  the  north  gloom  and  discouragement 
prevailed.  At  the  state  elections  held  ia  the  autumn 
there  was  a  majority  against  the  administration  in 
several  of  the  northern  states,  and  the  result  of  the 
campaigns  on  the  Potomac  gave  great  strength  to  the 
peace  party,  which  believed  that  the  attempt  to  sub- 
jugate the  south  ought  to  be  abandoned. 

274.  In  June  1862  the  great  union  force  at  Corinth  Campnigy..- 
was  divided.  Bucll's  armv  marching  eastward  to  seize  ""       '*"'"" 


UXITED    STATES 


119 


I 


I 


Chattanooga,  while  Grant's  remained  at  Corinth  till  it 
should  be  ready  to  start  for  Vicksburg.  The  campaign 
was  so  badly  managed  by  Halleck  that  the  confed- 
erates, under  Bragg,  seized  Chattanooga  before  Buell's 
arrival.  They  were  thus  enabled  to  press  him  so 
vigorously  that  he  had  to  be  largely  reinforced  from 
Grant's  army.  Thus  weakened.  Grant  was  unable  to 
advance  for  several  months.  During  the  sunmier  of 
1863  the  confederates  made  a  great  effort  to  repair  the 
disasters  they  had  suffered  on  the  Tennessee  and  Mis- 
Operations  sissippl  rivers  by  an  invasion  of  Kentucky.  An  army 
tuckv"  under  Kirby  Smith  moved  from  Knoxville,  East  Ten- 
nessee, while  another,  under  Bragg,  marched  from 
Chattanooga.  The  confederate  general.  Smith,  de- 
feated General  Nelson  near  Richmond,  Kentucky, 
August  30,  and  advanced  toward  the  Ohio,  threatening 
Cincinnati.  General  Lew  Wallace,  however,  com^ 
pelled  him  to  fall  back  to  Frankfort.  Bragg  in  the 
meantime  hastened  toward  the  city  of  Louisville. 
Buell,  leaving  Nashville,  by  forced  marches  reached 
the  place  one  day  ahead  of  Bragg.  Being  reinforced 
he  slowly  pushed  the  confederates  back.  Bragg 
formed  a  junction  with  Smith  at  Frankfort,  and  four 
days  later  a  severe  but  indecisive  battle  svas  fought  at 
Perryville  (October  8).  The  confederates  then  re- 
treated through  Cumberland  Gap. 

27.5.  During  Bragg's  campaign,  the  confederate  army 
in  Mississippi  under  General  Van  Dom  made  an  attempt 
to  turn  Grant's  left  wing  at  Corinth,  and  thus  force  him 
back  down  the  Tennessee  river.  This  wing  was  com- 
maded  by  General  Rosecrans,  who  defeated  Price  at 
luka  and  luka,  a  few  miles  from  Corinth,  September  19.  On 
Connth.  October  4,  Van  Dorn  and  Price  together  attacked  Cor- 
inth, but  were  repulsed  by  Rosecrans  with  a  loss  of 
live  thousand  men,  and  pursued  forty  miles.  Soon  after 
this  Rosecrans  superseded  Buell  in  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Cumberland.  Bragg  had  advanced  to 
Murfreesborough,  in  central  Tennessee.  There  Rose- 
crans attacked  him  (December  31),  and  a  bloody  battle 
was  fought,  in  which  40,000  men  were  engaged  on  each 
side,  and  each  lost  more  than  10,000.  This  engagement 
sionc  river,  is  generally  known  as  the  battle  of  Stone  river.  It  was 
Indecisive.  On  .January  2,  1863  Bragg  renewed  the 
attack  with  great  vigor,  but  this  time  he  was  signally 
defeated  and  compelled  to  retire  to  Chattanooga. 

276.  While  these  battles  were  being  fought.  Grant 
had  begun  his  tirst  movement  againsi  the  strong  and 
important  post  of  Vicksburg,  on  the  Mississippi.  His 
plan  was  to  march  from  Jackson,  Mississippi,  while 
Sherman,  with  his  40,000  men,  and  Porter  with  a  fleet 
of  gunboats,  descended  the  river  from  Memphis.  The 
movements  were  made  according  to  this  arrangement, 
but  Van  Dorns  cavalry  succeeded  in  getting  in  Grant's 
rear  and  cutting  off  his  supplies.  This  compelled 
Grant  to  abandon  his  march  to  Jackson.  Sherman 
and  Porter  attacked  the  bluffs  north  of  Vicksburg,  but 
were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss  (December  29).  Hearing 
of  Grant's  misfortune  they  returned  to  Memphis. 
.Affair-  on  277.  After  Hatteras  Inlet  to  Pamlico  Sound  had  been 
the  coast,  captured,  it  was  next  resolved  to  attack  the  confederate 
position  on  Roanoake  Island,  which  commands  the 
passage  between  Pamlico  and  Albemarle  Sounds.  A 
.and  and  naval  expedition  under  General  Burnside 
and  Commodore  Goldsborough  took  the  forts  and  bat- 
teries of  the  island  (February  8,  1862),  captured  a  con- 
federate flotilla,  occupied  Newbern,  North  Carolina 
(March  14),  and  reduced  Fort  Macon,  at  Beaufort,  April 
25.  Expeditions  from  Port  Royal  imder  Commodore 
Dupont  took  possession  of  Darien  and  Brunswick, 
Georgia,  and  of  Jacksonville,  Fernandina,  and  Saint 
Augustine,  Florida.  April  11,  1862,  General  Gilmore 
captured  Fort  Pulaski  on  the  Savannah  river.  Thus 
'.he  port  of  Savannah  was  completely  closed,  although 
no  effort  was  made  for  some  time  to  occupy  the  city. 
Congress.  278.  During  the  movements  of  the  \rmies  in  1862, 
Congress  bad  not  been  idle.     It  v  as  chiefly  orcu|iic-il  ii; 


measures  connected  with  the  prosecution  of  the  war- 
Its  most  far-reaching  action  was  in  the  provision  for  a 
uniform  national  currency.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  the  government  had  borrowed  large  sums  of  money- 
to  defray  expenses,  and  it  continued  to  borrow,  as  new 
demands  arose.  The  result  was  similar  to  that  which 
occurred  in  the  Revolutionary  war.  The  promises  to 
pay  became  less  valuable  as  compared  with  gold,  which 
was  the  standard  of  value  throughout  the  civilized 
world.  The  banks  in  the  several  states  could  no 
longer  obtain  gold  without  paying  a  high  price  for  It; 
and  at  the  end  of  1861  they  suspended  specie  payments. 
In  order  to  provide  a  currency  for  the  people,  a  bill  1  aper 
was  passed  by  congress,  early  in  1863,  authorizing  the  '^"""•cncy. 
issue  of  notes  by  the  United  States  treasury.  These 
notes  received  the  popular  name  of  "greenbacks,"  from 
the  color  of  the  paper  on  which  they  were  printed;  and 
to  insure  their  success  they  were  declared  by  Congress 
to  be"  "legal  tender"  (February  25,  1862).  Early  in 
1863,  Congresspassed  an  act  establishing  national  banks,  ^'atiou»v= 
Heretofore  the  states  had  incorporated  all  banks,  and  tianks. 
the  bills  of  each  bank  were  seldom  current  except  in 
its  own  neighborhood.  By  the  national  banking  system, 
the  banks  were  to  be  organized,  and  United  States 
bonds  deposited  at  Washington.  The  banks  were  then 
permitted  to  issue  notes  up  to  ninety  per  cent,  of  the 
value  of  the  bonds  deposited,  and  the  notes,  being  thus 
secured,  became  current  in  every  part  of  the  country. 
The  national  banks  are  still  in  operation.  A  homestead 
bill  was  passed,  which  assigned  public  lands  to  actual 
settlers  at  reduced  rates.  Congress  also  prohibited 
slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia;  slaves  of  insurgent 
were  ordered  to  be  confiscated;  and  the  army  was  for- 
bidden to  surrender  fugitive  slaves  to  their  masters.  It 
provided  for  the  construction  of  a  Pacific  railroad  and 
telegraph,  and  began  a  further  development  of  the 
system  of  granting  public  lands  to  railway  corporations. 

279.  Since  the  south  had  brought  on  the  war  in  de-  Emancipa- 
fense  of  slavery,  the  abolition  sentiment  had  spread  '*°°- 
very  rapidly  in  the  north,  and  it  had  now  become  sup- 
ported by  the  military  needs  of  the  hour.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  conflict  the  union  leaders  and  people 
generally  had  not  favored  any  interference  with  slavery, 
but  circumstances  had  proved  their  position  to  be  unten- 
able. President  Lincoln,  who  watched  anxiously  every 
movement,  was  convinced  that  the  time  had  come  when 
the  federal  government  could  no  longer  attempt  to  carry 
on  the  war  successfully  and  spare  the  system  of  slavery, 
which  was  perceived  by  every  discerning  man  to  be  at 
the  foundation  of  the  confederacy.  He  therefore 
announced  (September,  1862,)  that  unless  the  revolting 
states  should  return  to  their  allegiance  by  January  1, 
1863,  he  should  declare  the  slaves  in  these  states  to  be 
free.  It  was  a  formal  notice  given  out  of  respect  to 
law;  no  one  seriously  expected  that  it  would  be  regarded 
by  the  confederate  states.  And  it  was  not.  They  only 
grew  more  firm  in  consequence  of  the  action  taken. 
On  the  first  day  of  January,  1863,  in  accordance  with 
his  notice,  the  president  issued  his  celebrated  Proclama-  Procla-ai-- 
tion  of  Emancipation.  This  act  caused  much  discussion.'  "°°- 
Mr.  Lincoln  could  not,  legally,  issue  such  a  declaration, 
for  the  constitution  gave  him  no  authority  to  abolish 
slavery.  But  he  acted  on  the  principle  of  military 
necessity,  advocated  by  John  Quincy  Adams  in  his 
speech  of  April  14,  1842,  in  which  he  said:  "Whether 
the  war  be  civil,  servile,  or  foreign,  I  lay  this  down  as 
the  law  of  nations:  I  say  that  the  military  authority 
takes  for  the  time  the  place  of  all  municipal  institutions, 
slavery  among  the  rest.  Under  that  state  of  things,  so 
far  from  its  being  true  that  the  states  where  slavery 
exists  have  the  exclusive  management  of  the  subject, 
not  only  the  president  of  the  United  States,  but  the 
commander  of  the  army,  has  power  to  order  the  univer- 
sal emancipation  of  slaves."  However  the  case  may 
be,  the  presiilent's  course  was  dictated  by  clear  common 
sense  raid  wise  statesmiusliip.     Tbe  events  of  the  pre- 


TSO 


U  Is"  I  T  E  I)     STATES 


I'Lrd  year 
li  [he  war. 


Biitlleof 
<'brtncel- 


Suvasionof 
-vHnia. 


Battle  of 
t^ttySbarg 


Vickshurg 


ceding  summer  had  shown  that  the  war  was  far  from 
being  at  an  end.  The  cutting  off  of  the  cotton  supply 
had  been  a  general  calamity,  and  the  distress  produced 
in  consequence  created  a  fear  lest  England  and  France 
should  unite  in  an  attempt  to  put  an  end  to  the  contest. 
But  the  proclamation  changed  all  this.  By  it  the  strug- 
gle was  converted  into  a  crusade  against  slavery,  and 
in  this  light  foreign  intervention  was  now  simply  im- 
possible, owing  to  Great  Britain's  attitude  toward 
slavery.  Moreover,  should  the  federal  government 
be  successful,  the  question  of  slavery  would  practically 
be  settled  forever,  for  its  abolition  would  be  certain 
when  the  union  was  re  established.  One  of  the  first 
results  of  the  act  was  the  formation  of  regiments  of 
negro  soldiers.  An  attack  made  by  one  of  these  regi- 
ments, under  Colonel  Shaw,  upon  Fort  Wagner,  in 
Charleston  harbor,  though  unsuccessful,  show€d  so 
much  bravery  that  the  prejudice  against  negro  soldiers 
disappeared,  and  great  numbers  were  euroUed. 

380.  General  Hooker  spent  three  months  in  reorganiz- 
ing and  strengthening  the  Armj'  of  the  Potomac.  At 
the  end  of  April,  1863,  he  began  his  march  toward 
Richmond  with  130,000  men.  Sending  the  sixth  corps, 
under  Sedgwick,  to  cross  the  Rappahannock  below 
Fredericksburg,  he  threw  his  main  body  across  the 
fiver  a  few  miles  higher  up,  and  before  Lee  understood 
his  purpose  he  had  advanced  to  Chancellorsville.  Here 
I.,ee  won  one  of  the  most  marked  of  his  victories  (May 
1  to  4),  with  only  one-half  as  many  men  as  Hooker  com- 
manded. Jackson  made  a  magnificent  attack  upon  the 
union  right,  taking  it  by  surprise,  and  drove  it  back  in 
confusion.  Sedgwick,  on  the  left,  had  carried  the 
heights  of  Fredericksburg  and  was  pushing  on  toward 
Chancellorsville,  when  the  disaster  on  the  right  enabled 
Lee  to  face  him  with  the  main  confederate  force.  Sedg- 
wick was  compelled  to  retire  during  the  night  which 
followed  the  4th  of  May,  and  Hooker  recrossed  the 
Rappahannock  the  next  night.  Hooker's  loss  was 
16.000;  Lee's  was  13,000;  but  the  confederates  fur- 
ther sustained  a  severe  disaster  in  the  death  of  Stone- 
wall Jackson. 

281.  Lee  now  repeated  the  maneuver  he  had  prac- 
ticed after  defeating  General  Pope.  Turning  Hooker's 
riirht  Bank,  he  pushed  on  through  the  western  part  of 
Maryland  into  Pennsylvania,  so  as  to  threaten  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore,  and  Washington.  There  was 
intense  alarm  at  the  north,  and  reinforcements  were 
Lurried  into  Pennsylvania  from  all  quarters.  In  con- 
sequence of  a  disagreement  with  General  Halleck, 
Hooker  resigned  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  it  was  given  to  General  George  G. 
Meade.  The  two  hostile  armies,  each  100,000  strong, 
were  now  moving  in  parallel  lines,  with  the  Blue  Ridge 
and  South  Mountain  range  between  them.  On  the  1st 
of  July  they  came  into  collision  at  Gettysburg.  A  tre- 
snendous  battle  was  fought,  lasting  until  the  close  of 
July  3.  It  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  Lee,  with  a  loss  of 
nearly  40,000  men;  Meade's  loss  was  24,000.  This 
battle  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern  times,  the  loss 
on  both  sides  being  more  than  one-third  of  the  whole 
number  engaged.  It  was  also  the  turning  point  of  the 
civil  war.  The  south  was  never  able  to  collect  so  fine 
an  army  again,  and  never  recovered  from  the  exhaus- 
tion of  the  Gettysburg  campaign.  Lee  moved  slowly 
back  to  his  old  position  on  the  Rapidan,  where  he  and 
Meade  held  each  other  in  check  until  the  following 
spring.  Many  in  the  north  were  inclined  to  believe 
that  Lee's  former  successes  had  been  due  to  Stonewall 
Jackson's  ability,  and  that  he  had  lost  his  prestige  upon 
the  death  of  that  brave  commander.  But  the  campaigu 
of  1804  was  to  prove  the  contrary. 

283.  On  the  next  day  after  the  battle  of  Gettysburg, 
General  Grant  gained  a  decisive  victory  ou  the  Missis- 
sippi. Having  failed  in  several  attempts  to  take 
Vicksburg  from  the  north,  he  now  determined  to 
transfer  his  army  to  the  south  side  of  this  strongly 


fortified  place.  To  do  this  it  was  necessary  to  cross 
the  river,  march  down  its  west  bank,  cross  again  below 
Vicksburg,  and  march  up  the  east  bank,  while  the  fleet, 
which  had  run  past  the  batteries  of  Vicksburg  after 
the  capture  of  New  Orleans,  would  have  to  pass  them 
again  in  order  to  transport  the  army  over  the  river  and 
protect  the  crossing.  This  plan  was  carried  out  in 
April.  Commodore  Porter  performed  his  task  success- 
fully under  a  heavy  fire,  and  on  the  29th  of  April 
opened  a  cannonade  upon  Grand  Gulf,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Big  Black  river,  where  it  had  been  determined 
to  attempt  a  crossing.  The  confederate  batteries  here 
proving  too  strong,  the  fleet  ran  past  them,  also,  and 
the  crossing  was  made  at  Bruinsburg,  a  few  miles 
below.  Grant  now  pushed  rapidly  forward.  The  con- 
federates were  beaten  at  Port  Gibson,  and  compelled 
to  evacuate  Grand  Gulf.  McPherson  and  Sherman 
captured  Jackson,  the  capital  of  Misissippi,  and  a  place 
of  great  military  importance  on  account  oif  its  railway 
connections.  The  union  army  then  turned,  fell  upon 
the  confederate  general,  Pemberton,  who  had  marched 
out  of  Vicksburg  to  unite  with  Johnston,  defeated  him 
at  Champion  Hills  (May  16).  and  at  the  crossing  of  the 
Black  river  (May  IT),  and  at  last  shut  him  up  in  Vicks- 
burg. After  a  siege  of  forty-five  days  Pemberton  sur- 
rendered, and  the  great  confederate  stronghold  of  the 
west,  with  27,000  prisoners,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
victorious  Federals.  Port  Hudson,  under  siege  at  the 
same  time,  could  no  longer  hold  out,  and  the  Misissippi. 
as  President  Lincoln  said,  "lan  unvexed  to  the  sea." 
This  was  the  heaviest  blow  that  the  confederacy  had 
as  yet  received;  its  whole  western  zone  was  now 
virtually  conquered,  and  it  became  possible  to  concen- 
trate greater  union  forces  against  its  middle  and  eastern 
zones.  The  news  of  Gettysburg  and  Vicksburg  made 
the  Fourth  of  July,  1863,  a  day  of  rejoicing  in  the 
north,  and  of  mourning  in  thousands  of  bereaved 
homes. 

383.  The  Vicksburg  campaign  marked  the  decline  of 
the  confederate  fortunes  in  the  west,  as  the  Gettysbuig 
campaign  did  in  the  east.  In  the  meantime  the  people 
had  learned  to  give  a  more  careful  attention  to  the 
welfare  of  the  soldiers  who  were  bearing  the  brunt  of 
the  conflict.  The  Sanitary  Commission,  the  Christian 
Commission,  and  other  voluntary  associations,  had  been 
organized,  and  were  doing  a  grand  work  for  the  moral 
and  physical  needs  of  the  men  in  the  field;  and  this 
care  was  not  confined  solely  to  northern  troops,  but 
was  often  extended  to  the  confederates  as  well.  The 
expenses  of  the  National  government  for  prosecuting 
the  war  now  amounted  to  $2,000,000  per  day  on  an 
average,  and  notwithstanding  the  heavy  taxation 
imposed  upon  the  country  the  debt  had  increased  to 
$500,000,000  by  June,  1863;  during  1863  it  was  double 
that  amount;  by  June,  1864,  it  had  grown  to  $1,700.000, - 
000;  and  at  the  end  of  August,  1865,  it  attained  its 
maximum,  $2,845,907,626.  But  the  best  of  care  and 
judgment  was  exercised  in  the  use  of  these  vast 
expenditures.  The  army  was  constantly  supplied  with 
improved  weapons  and  munitions  of  war;  the  block- 
ading fleets  were  kept  in  perfect  order,  and  everything 
was  done  to  insure  the  success  of  the  union  arms. 

284.  As  early  as  April,  1863,  the  confederate  Con- 
gress had  passed  a  conscription  act,  enrolling  in  the 
army  all  adult  white  males  below  a  certain  age,  but  as 
the  war  went  on  the  demand  for  men  became  con- 
tinually greater  and  the  conscription  was  made  more 
sweeping.  Toward  the  end  of  the  war  every  white 
man  between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and  fifty  five  was 
held  liable  to  military  service,  and  in  practice  the  only 
limit  was  physical  incapacity.  The  federal  govern- 
ment also  was  compelled  to  take  almost  a  similar 
course.  In  March,  1863,  Congress  passed  au  act  for 
the  enrollment  of  all  able-bodied  male  citizens  between 
the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five,  and  the  president 
was  authorized  to  make  draSts  for  military  service. 


J:ick^o:i. 


Cli;irap.nn 
Hills  iirid 
Blaektiiver 

Capture  or 
Vkksliurg 


The  Siini- 
tary  and 
Christiau 
Coinniii*- 
eions. 


Goveru- 
meut  ex- 
penses. 


Con- 
acription. 


I 


UNITED     STATES 


7Sr. 


Chai 


I 


those  between  twenty  and  thirty-five  to  be  first  called 
upon.  Under  this  law  a  call  for  300,000  troops  was 
made  in  May.  As  the  full  number  was  not  made  up 
by  volunteering  a  draft  was  ordered  to  supply  the 
deficiency.  The  first  attempts  to  carry  it  out  resulted 
in  forcible  resistance  in  many  places,  the  most  notable 
Draft  riofs. being  the  "draft  riots"  in  New  York  city  in  July,  just 
after  the  battle  of  Gettysburg.  These  riots  lasted  four 
days  in  that  city.  During  this  time  New  York  was  in 
the  hands  of  a  lawless  mob,  many  shocking  murders 
were  committed  and  $2,000,000  worth  of  property  was 
destroyed.  All  opposition  was  at  leugth  put  down, 
but  exemptions  and  substitute  purchases  were  freely 
permitted,  and  the  states  endeavored  to  fill  their  re- 
spective quotas  as  far  as  possible  by  offering  bounties 
as  a  stimulus  to  volunteering. 

285.  After  his  renowned  victory  near  Murfreesboro, 
Rosecrans  remained  quiet  for  a  period,  preparing  for  a 
new  catnpaign.  Late  in  June  he  began  a  series  of 
skillful  movements  against  Bragg  which  compelled  the 
confederate  general  to  fall  back  upon  Chattanooga. 
Early  in  September  Rosecrans  forced  him  to  evacuate 
the  place  by  threatening  his  communications.  The 
union  general  followed  him  across  the  Tennessee 
river  and  was  thus  beyond  the  strong  position  of 
Chattanooga.  General  Bragg,  having  been  heavily 
reinforced  from  Virginia,  turned  at  Chickamauga 
creek  to  give  battle.  A  severe  engagement  was  fought 
(September  17-20,  1863)  in  which  Loogstreet  routed  the 
right  of  the  union  forces,  but  the  wonderful  skill  and 
bravery  of  General  Thomas,  who  commanded  the  left 
wing,  saved  the  federal  army  and  secured  its  retreat  to 
Chattanooga.  Bragg  having  gained  possession  of  the 
mountains  around  the  place  cut  off  almost  all  avenues 
of  further  retreat  and  laid  siege  to  Chattanooga.  The 
government  at  Washington  had  committed  the  mistake 
of  dividing  the  union  forces,  for  while  Rosecrans  was 
left  to  face  an  army  greatly  superior  in  numbers,  under 
General  Bragg,  General  Burnside  was  sent  into  east 
Tennessee  with  an  independent  command.  Bragg  was 
now  so  sure  of  Rosecrans'  defeat  that  he  dispatched 
Longstreet  with  a  part  of  his  army  to  attack  Eurnside 
at  Knoxville.  In  October  Rosecrans  was  superseded 
by  Thomas,  and  Grant  was  put  in  command  of  all  the 
western  armies.  He  was  joined  at  Chattanooga  by  two 
corps  under  Hooker  from  the  Potomac.  General 
Sherman  came  up  from  Vicksburg  with  a  greater  part 
of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee.  Bragij's  positions  on 
Lookout  MoLmtain  and  Missionary  Ridge  were  now 
assaulted.  T'le  former  was  successfully  stormed  by 
Hooker  (Not  ember  34),  part  of  the  fighting  taking 
place  amidst  a  thick  mist  which  covered  the  summit, 
hence  this  has  been  called  the  "battle  above  the 
clouds."  On  the  next  day  Missionary  Ridge  was  car- 
ried by  the  main  army.  Hooker  on  the  right,  Thomas 
in  the  center  and  Sherman  on  the  left.  Bragg  was 
driven  from  all  his  positions  back  to  Dalton  and  was 
soon  afterward  superseded  by  General  J.  E.  Johnston. 
Longstreet  raised  the  siege  of  Knoxville  and  retreated 
across  the  mountains  into  Virginia  to  join  Lee. 

286.  Many  attempts  had  been  made  to  reduce  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  the  strongest,  as  well  as  the  most 
important  of  the  southern  seaports,  but  without  suc- 
cess. At  length  Fort  Wagner  was  taken  (September  7) 
after  a  tremendous  bombardment  by  the  Federal  fleet 
and  Gillmore's  batteries;  Fort  Sumter,  also,  was  reduced 
to  ruins.  The  blockading  vessels  were  thus  enabled  to 
enter  the  harbor,  and  the  port  of  Charleston  was 
entirely  closed.  Taking  advantage  of  every  loophole 
in  the  British  foreign  enlistment  act,  the  confederate 
authorities  had  succeeded  in  fitting  out  several  formida- 
ble cruisers,  wkich,  in  the  course  of  the  year  1863,  did 
immense  damage  to  American  commerce.  Whenever 
they  were  closely  pursued  by  United  States  vessels  they 
took  refuge  in  neutral  ports,  and  then  put  out  to  sea 
again  upon  the  first  favorable  opportunity.     The  most 


Lookout 
'MoQntain 
led  Mis- 
f'onary 

'.idge. 


Charleston. 


Confeder- 
ate cmieers 


active  ones  were  the  Florida,  the  Alabama  and  the- 
Georgia.  The  Florida,  built  at  Liverpool,  after  having 
captured  twenty-one  vessels,  was  seized  in  the  harbor 
of  Bohia,  Brazil  (October,  1864).  The  Georgia,  built 
at  Glasgow,  put  to  sea  in  April,  but  was  captured  after 
a  short  cruise  by  the  United  States  frigate  Niagara. 
The  most  important  of  the  confederate  cruisers  was 
the  Alabama.  She  was  built  at  Liverpool  for  the  con- 
federate captain,  Semmes.  The  British  government 
was ,  urged  by  the  American  minister,  Mr.  Adams,  to 
enforce  its  own  laws,  and  prevent  her  going  to  sea;  yet 
she  was  allowed  to  set  sail  in  July.  After  destroying 
more  than  sixty  vessels,  she  was  met  by  the  United 
States  steamer  Kearsage,  commanded  by  Captain  Win-  The  Kear- 
slow,  off  Cherbourg  (June  19,  1864),  and  after  an  hour's  \^i|baml 
action  the  Alabama  was  sunk. 

287.  At  the  beginning  of  1864,  several  detached  oper-  Minor 
ations  were  carried  on  which,  though  attracting  much  oP'=''^t'°'>-- 
attention  at  the  time,  had  but  little  direct  bearing  upon 

the  closing  campaigns  of  the  war.  General  Sherman  made 
his  raid  nearly  across  the  state  of  Mississippi,  destroy- 
ing railroads,  bridges  and  supplies.  General  Seymour, 
leading  a  union  expedition  into  Florida,  was  defeated. 
General  Banks  was  sent  up  the  Red  river  to  attack 
Shreveport,  and  bring  away  cotton.  The  expedition 
ended  in  failure  and  disaster.  General  Rosecrans  was 
appointed  to  command  in  Missouri.  He  succeeded  in 
repelling  an  invasion  by  Price,  who  was  finally  driven 
from  the  state.  General  Forrest,  with  a  confederate 
force  made  a  raid  into  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and 
captured  Fort  Pillow  (April  12),  where  a  number  of 
negro  troops  were  massacred. 

288.  The  success  of  Grant  in  the  west  had  made  him  Grant 

the  chief  figure  in  the  war.  In  March,  1864,  he  super-  i'l  '''s  ^'■-- 
seded  Halleck  as  couiinander-in-chief,  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general.  He  at  once  took  personal  direction 
of  the  campaign  against  Richmond,  whiie  retaining 
Meade  in  immediate  command.  The  army  of  the 
Potomac  was  re-organized  in  three  crops,  under  Han- 
cock, Warren  and  Sedgwick,  to  which  was  soon  added 
another  under  Burnside,  while  General  Philip  Sheridan 
was  called  from  the  west,  and  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  all  the  cavalry  in  the  eastern  army.  Lee's 
forces,  which  comprised  the  flower  of  the  southern 
troops,  had  otherwise  been  divided  into  three  corps, 
under  Generals  A.  P.  Hill,  Ewell  and  Longstreet. 
Sherman  had  been  left  in  command  of  the  three  western  Shermaii. 
armies  of  the  Ohio,  the  Cumberland,  and  the  Tennes- 
see, and  he  was  to  oppose  Johnston  at  Dalton.  Accord- 
ing to  arrangement,  a  simultaneous  advance  was  made 
in  Georgia  and  Virginia,  early  in  May.  The  army  of 
the  Potomac,  numbering  about  125,000  men  (nearly 
twice  as  many  as  Lee's),  crossed  the  Rapidan  and 
entered  the  "Wilderness"  on  the  other  side.  It  was  The 
Grant's  object  to  push  through  this  diflicult  country  as  ^ildemese 
rapidly  as  possible  and  get  between  Lee's  armj'  and 
Richmond.  In  pursuing  the  direct  route  through 
Fredericksburg  to  Richmond,  the  union  army  encount- 
ered a  series  of  strong  defensive  positions,  of  which  Lee 
availed  himself  with  consummate  skill.  The  battles 
began  on  the  5th.  and  continued  until  the  12th  without 
interruption,  both  sides  fighting  with  the  utmost 
bravery  and  suffering  severely.  Lee  was  steadily 
forced  back,  and  on  the  9th  Grant  was  clear  of  the 
Wilderness  with  his  forces  concentrated  near  Spott- 
sylvania  court-house.  Here  there  was  furious  and  ob- 
stinate fighting  for  ten  days,  with  scarcely  any  inter- 
mission. Then  followed  the  battles  of  North  Anna 
and  Cold  Harbor  in  which  the  union  losses  were  ter- 
rible. Having  now  reached  the  Chickahominy,  and 
finding  it  impossible  to  break  through  Lee's  lines  of 
defense,  Grant  crossed  the  river,  and  moving  far  to  the 
right  of  his  adversary,  transferred  his  army  beyond 
the  James  to  assail  Richmond  from  the  south.  This 
involved  the  reduction  of  the  strongly-fortified  town  of 
Petersburg,  on  the  Appomattox,  p:  actically  a  part  of  PetersbniB;. 


782 


U  X  I  T  E  1)     S  T  A  T  E  S 


Oedar 
Creek. 


the  defenses  of  Richmoud,  from  which  it  was  twenty 
miles  distant.  It  aliO  brought  the  Federal  lines  into 
dangerous  proximity  to  Lee's  railroad  communications 
with  the  south.  At  this  point,  therefore,  the  confeder- 
ate commander  stationed  the  best  part  of  his  troops, 
and  stubbornly  resisted  all  Grant's  efforts  to  extend  his 
lines  further  to  the  southwest  or  to  reach  the  railroads. 
289  A  long  siege  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg  was 
now  begun  early  in  June,  but  neither  army  remained  in- 
active. In  July,  Lee  sent  Early  into  the  Shenandoah 
valley,  with  a  corps  strong  enough  to  menace  Washing- 
ington,  hoping  that  Grant  might  be  induced  to  call  off 
troops  from  Petersburg.  The  chief  result  of  Early's 
movement  was  the  burning  of  Chambersburg,  and  the 
capture  of  a  quantity  of  supplies.  Grant  put  Sheridan 
in  command  of  the  valley,  who  defeated  Gen,  Early  at 
Winchester  (September  19),  and  at  Fisher's  Hill  two 
days  later,  after  which  he  destroyed  all  the  rich  crops 
in  the  valley  and  carried  off  the  cattle,  so  that  the  con- 
federates might  not  be  tempted  to  repeat  the  raid.  But 
Early,  having  obtained  fresh  troops,  suddenly  fell  upon 
the  federals  at  Cedar  Creek  (October  19),  driving  them 
back  in  great  confusion.  Sheridan  was  absent  when 
the  battle  was  fought,  but,  getting  intelligence  of.it,  he 
rode  rapidly  up  the  valley,  rallied  his  men,  who  were, 
however,  being  enheartened  by  their  respective  com- 
manders, and  scattered  Early's  forces,  which  never  met 
Sheridan  again  as  a  compact  army  during  the  remainder 
of  the  war. 

Meanwhile,  Grant  had  succeeded  in  getting  possession 
of  a  few  miles  of  the  Weldon  railroad,  upon  which  Lee 
depended  for  transportation,  but  the  confederate  gen- 
eral brought  his  supplies  in  wagons  round  that  portion 
held  by  the  federals.  The  two  armies  now  remained 
in  comparatively  the  same  posftioa  until  the  following 
spring. 

290.  The  western  campaign  in  1864  began  at  the  same 
time  as  Grant's  movement  in  Virginia  Sherman  ad- 
vanced from  Chattanooga  with  100,000  men  under 
Thomas,  McPherson,  and  Schofield,  against  Johnston's 
force  of  75,000.  The  objective  point  of  the  campaign 
was  the  capture  of  Atlanta,  Georgia,  a  very  strongly 
fortified  place  about  one  hundred  miles  south  of  Chat- 
tanooga, and  the  chief  manufactory  of  the  confederate 
military  supplies.  Johnston,  wilh  his  weaker  force, 
dared  not  risk  a  regular  battle,  but  he  made  the  best  use 
of  the  various  defensive  positions  which  the  rough  and 
mountainous  country  afforded.  By  a  series  of  masterly 
flank  movements  Sherman  compelled  him  to  evacuate 
one  position  after  another.  Severe  battles  were  fought 
at  Resaca  (May  15),  Dallas  (May  25),  Lost  Mountain 
(June  14),  and  Kenesaw  Mountain  (June  37).  By  the 
lOlh  of  July  Johnston  was  intrenched  behind  the  de- 
fenses of  Atlanta,  and  the  two  armies  were  facing  each 
each  other  with  the  Chattahoochee  river  between  them. 
Johnston's  retreat  had  been  conducted  with  great  skill, 
but  he  was  now  superseded  by  Hood  (July  17),who  was 
Operations  known  as  a  "fightinggeneral."  Hood  at  once  proceeded 
at  Atlauia.  j^  carry  out  the  active  policy  of  the  confederate  gov- 
ernment, and  assumed  the  offensive.  Before  the  end 
of  the  month  he  had  made  three  furious  assaults  on  the 
union  lines  and  was  repulsed  in  every  one  of  them. 
The  federals,  however,  sustained  a  heavy  loss  in  the 
death  of  General  McPherson.  At  length,  by  fine  man 
euvering,  Sherman  succeeded  in  gaining  the  rear  of 
Atlanta,  and  cutting  the  supply  railroads.  This  obliged 
the  confederates  to  retreat  in  all  haste,  and  on  the  2d 
of  September,  Sherman  was  able  to  telegraph  to  Wash- 
ington that  Atlanta  was  won. 
ihKidin  291.  Hood,  by  the  direct  command  of  Davis,  now 
Tennessee,  made  a  fatal  mistake,  which  materially  hastened  the 
downfall  of  the  confederacy.  He  moved  northwest- 
ward by  Tuscumbia  and  Florence  into  middle  Tennes- 
see, thinking  that  Sherman  would  follow  him  in  order 
to  defend  that  state.  But  Sherman  was  no  more  to  be 
controlled  by  this  device  than  Grant  had  been  by  Early's 


The 

.\llanta 

campaign. 


raid  into  the  Shenandoah.  He  divided  his  army,  send- 
ing back  part  of  it  under  Thomas  to  take  care  of  Hood, 
while  he  himself  prepared  to  continue  his  advance 
through  Georgia.  Hood,  moving  northward  toward 
Nashville,  was  met  and  defeated  at  Franklin  (Novem- 
ber 30),  with  heavy  loss,  by  Schofield.  The  confeder- 
ate general  arrived  at  Nashville  with  about  44,000  men 
The  union  forces  awaited  him  there  behind  the  forti 
fications.  Thomas,  having  completed  his  preparations, 
suddenly  moved  out  of  his  works  and  fell  upon  the 
confederate  lines  (December  15).  The  battle  lasted  two 
days  and  ended  in  the  utter  rout  and  demoralization 
of  Hood's  forces.  Thus  one  of  the  two  great  armies  of 
the  confederacy  was  scattered,  never  again  to  be  united. 
Of  all  the  battles  fought  in  the  course  of  the  war,  this 
was  the  most  complete  victory.   ■ 

292.  While  these  things  were  going  on,  the  presi- 
dential election  of  1864  took  place.  Some  of  the  more 
radical  men,  dissatisfied  with  what  they  called  Mr. 
Lincoln's  timid  and  irresolute  policy,  met  in  convention 
(May  31)  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  nominated  John  C.Fre- 
mont for  the  presidency.  Mr.Lmcoln  and  Andrew  John- 
son were  nominated  (June  7)  for  president  and  vice-pres' 
sident  by  the  Republican  National  Convention  at  Balti- 
more. The  Democratic  National  Convention  declared  in 
its  platform  that  the  inability  of  the  federal  government  to 
restore  the  union  by  w  ar  was  demonstrated  by  four 
years  of  failure;  that  the  constitution  had  been  violated 
in  all  its  parts  under  the  plea  of  military  necessity;  and 
that  a  cessation  of  hostilities  ought  to  be  obtained  It 
nominated  George  B.  McClellan  and  George  H.  Pendle- 
ton as  president  and  vice-president.  Thisdeclaration  of 
the  peace  Democracy  that  the  war  was  a  failure,  when 
all  things  were  now  pointing  toward  the  final  success 
of  the  north,  caused  many  doubtful  voles  to  be  cast  for 
the  Republican  candidates,  and  asssured  their  election. 
When  the  electoral  votes  were  counted,  Lincoln  and 
Johnson  had  received  212,  McClellan  and  Pendleton  21. 

293.  Sherman  had  burned  Atlanta,  destroyed  the 
railroads  and  telegraphs  in  his  rear,  sent  back  the  sick 
and  wounded,  and  much  of  the  baggage,  and  set  out 
(November  14)  on  his  "  famous  march  through  Geor- 
gia." His  army,  65,000  strong,  was  spread  out  over  a 
breadth  of  forty  miles,  subsisting  mainly  on  the  prod- 
uce of  the  country.  For  a  month  scarcely  anything 
was  heard  of  him  at  the  north,  when  he  suddenly 
turned  up  at  Savannah,  Ga.  He  had  met  with  but 
little  opposition  on  his  route.  The  confederates  had 
numerous  bodies  of  troops  which  might  have  been  con- 
centrated to  oppose  his  march,  but  he  had  threatened 
so  many  points  and  kept  the  enemy  in  so  much  doubt 
as  to  hia  objects  that  they  could  not  tell  for  which 
point  he  was  making.  On  December  13  Fort  McAllis- 
ter was  taken  by  assault,  and  on  the  20th  Savannah 
was  evacuated  by  the  confederates,  Sherman  sending 
the  news  of  the  capture  to  president  Lincoln  as  a 
"Christmas  gift."  He  also  sent  word  that  the  confed- 
eracy was  nothing  but  a  shell,  and  that  he  was  ready 
with  his  victorious  army  to  march  northward. 

294.  The  only  important  ports,  except  Galveston, 
which  remained  open  to  the  confederacy  in  the  summer 
of  1864,  were  Mobile  in  Alabama,  and  Wilmington,  in 
North  Carolina.  The  fort?  commanding  the  entrance 
to  Mobile  Bay  were  captured  (August  5)  and  the  port 
was  closed.  On  January  16,  1865,  Wilmington,  North 
Carolina,  was  taken  by  a  combined  land  and  naval 
force,  under  General  Terry  and  Commodore  Porter. 
On  the  day  before  this  event,  Sherman  had  begun  his 
northward  march,  passing  through  Columbia,  to  Fay- 
etteville,  North  Carolina.  This  movement  had  forced 
the  evacuation  of  Charleston  and  other  coast  cities,  and 
their  garrisons  had  been  concentrated  under  Johnston 
as  a  last  hope.  The  military  support  of  the  confed- 
eracy now  rested  on  the  army  which  Lee  commanded 
within  the  intrenchments  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg, 
and  on  the  remnant  of  the  western  forces   with  which 


Nashville. 


Pr-'sidenthil 
elec;ion 
ol  ISM. 


Sherman's 
march  »o 
the  sea. 


Savannah. 


Mobile  and 
Wilming- 
ton. 


Sherman's 
mur'^h  to 
the  north. 


U  X  I  T  E  D     S  T  A  T  L  S 


7S;j 


Fall  of  the 
confed- 
eracy. 


i 


Johnston  was  trying  to  check  Shermans  advance.  > 
Some  sharp  lighting  took  place  north  of  Fayetteville,  i 
but  Goldsborough  was  reached  March  21,  and  Johnston 
retreated  to  Raleigh.  Sherman  pushed  on  after  him. 
but  events  in  Virginia  were  fast  rendering  a  contest  in 
North  Carolina  unnecessary.  While  the  union  army 
occupied  Goldsborough.  Sherman  took  a  steamer  on  I 
the  coast  and  hurriedly  visited  the  James  river,  where 
he  met  the  president.  General  Grant  and  General  Meade, 
and  arranged  with  them  the  plan  of  operations  for  the 
future.  During  Sherman's  march  through  North  Car- 
olina, Sheridan  had  led  a  column  of  cavalry  up  the 
Shenandoah  valley  to  destroy  Lee's  communications  in 
the  rear  of  Richmond.  He  passed  along  the  James 
river,  doing  great  damage  to  the  canal  and  railroads, 
and  joined  the  main  army  in  front  of  Petersburg  just 
as  Sherman  arrived  there  for  his  conference  with  the 
president  and  Grant. 

295.  The  situation  of  Lee  was  now  becoming  des-  ' 
perate.     He  determined   to  abandon   Petersburg  and 
Richmond,   move  by  way 'of  Danville,    and  effect  a 
junction  with  Johnston.     With  this  purpose  he  made 
one  desperate  attempt  to  break  the  center  of  the  union 
lines  at  Fort  Steadman.  intending  under  cover  of  the 
attack  to  withdraw  his  force.     The  effort  failed,  and 
Lee  was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.     Grant  resumed  his  i 
attempts  to  push  his  lines  further  round  to  the  south  of 
Petersburg.     Sheridan  was  put  in   command   of  the  j 
extreme  left.     Here  he  attacked  Lee's  right  at  Five 

*""*""*  Forks  ( April! ),  destroyed  the  Southside  railroad,  and  ! 
maintained  his  position.  To  avoid  being  outflanked 
Lee  was  compelled  to  lengthen  out  his  line,  alreadj'  too  ' 
thin.  The  next  morning  (April  2)  Grant  made  a  general 
assault,  and  carried  his  army  within  the  lines  of  the 
Petersburg  defences.  Lee  retreated,  with  the  intention 
of  bringing  his  forces  and  Johnston's  together  for  a  final 
stand,  while   the   advance  guard  of  the  union   army 

Bicbmood.  entered     Richmond.       The    confederate      authorities 
hastened  to  escape  to  Danville,  having  first  set  fire  to  I 
the  shipping,  tobacco  warehouses,  etc.,  at  Richmond.-  i 
No  time  was  lost  in  celebrations  of  the  victory.     Grant 
pressed  on  in  the   pursuit  of  Lee  with   all  vigor.     He 
had  80  disposed  the  federal   army  that  the  es^cape  of 

Surrender  the  Confederates  was  almcfet  impossible.     The  confed- 

of  L#e.  erate  forces  were  headed  off  at  Appomattox  Court 
House,  where  Lee  surrendered  (April  9,  1865).  The 
terms  of  surrender  offered  by  Grant  were  very  generous; 
all  private  property  belonging  to  officers  and  soldiers 
was  to  be  retained,  the  men  were  even  allowed  to  keep 
their  horses,  "  because,"  Grant  said,  "  they  would  need 
them  for  the  work  on  their  farms."  Officers  and  men 
were  at  once  set  free  on  parole,  with  the  understanding 
that  so  long  as  they  did  not  violate  their  parole,  nor 
break  the  laws,  they  would  not  be  disturbed  by  the 
federal  government. 

296.  Sherman  had  begun  his  final  operations  against 
Johnston  when  the  news  arrived  of  the  surrender  of 
Lee.  Johnston  thereupon  capitulated  (April  20)  on 
much  the  same  terms  that  had  been  accorded  to  the 
confederate  army  in  Virginia,  after  an  unsuccessful 
effort  at  a  more  favorable  settlement.  All  the  other 
confederate  forces  in  the  field  also  surrendered,  and  the 
great  civil  war  came  to  an  end.  The  news  was  received 
with  an  outburst  of  joy  at  the  north.  Mr.  Lincoln  had 
begun  his  second  term  on  March  4,  1865.  At  that  time 
the  end  of  the  struggle  was  plainly  near,  and  the  presi- 
<3entiQ  his  inaugural  address  had  already  expressed  the 
hope  that  there  would  be  a  reconciliation  between  the 
two  sections.  He  said:  "With  malice  toward  none, 
•with  charity  for  all,  with  firmness  in  the  right  as  God 
gives  us  to  see  the  right,  let  us  strive  to  finish  the  work 
we  are  in,  to  bind  up  the  nation's  wounds,  to  care  for 
him  who  shall  have  borne  the  battle,  and  for  his  widow 
and  for  his  orphans;  to  do  all  which  may  achieve  and 
cherish  a  just  and  a  lasting  peace  among  ourselves  and 
■with  all  nations." 


Surrender 
of  John- 
eton. 


297.  The  public  rejoicings  over  the  capture  of  Rich-  .'i---asBiu» 
mond  were  clouded  by  the  death  of  the  wise  and  noble  i'"",  °L 
Lincoln.     He  had  gone  to  Ford  s  theater  on  the  evening 

of  April  14.  and  was  sitting  in  his  box,  when  an  actor 
named  J.  Wilkes  Booth  entered  unperceived  and  shot 
the  president  through  the  head,  crying:  "The  south  is 
avenged.  Sic  semper  tyrannis."  Almost  at  the  same 
time  one  of  Booth's  accomplicesnamed  Payne  attempted 
to  assassinate  Secretary  Seward,  who  was  ill  at  home,  Seward 
and  wounded  him  seriously  but  not  fatally.  There  had 
been  a  plot  on  the  part  of  some  desperate  characters 
when  the  confederacy  fell,  to  destroy  the  leaders  of  the 
federal  government,  but  their  plans  were  accomplished 
in  part  only.  The  chief  parties  implicated  perished 
miserably.  Booth  and  Payne  escaped  for  a  time,  but 
were  soon  caught.  Booth  was  killed  while  resisting 
arrest.  Payne  and  three  others  were  hanged,  and 
several  persons  concerned  in  the  plot  ware  sentenced  to 
imprisonment.  The  president  lingered  a  few  hours, 
and  died  without  giving  any  sign  of  consciousness.  His 
death  caused  the  deepest  sorrow,  not  only  in  the  north, 
but  in  the  south  as  well,  and  throughout  all  the  civil- 
ized world.  He  had  won  the  abiding  love  and  trust  of 
the  people,  and  his  name  will  forever  be  linked  with 
that  of  Washington;  for  he  was  in  many  ways  the 
second  founder  of  his  country. 

298.  .Jefferson   Davis,   while  trying  to  escape,  was  jeffersoe 
captured  by  a  detachment  of  General  J.  H.  Wilson's  Dsrts. 
cavalry  at  Irwinsville,  Georgia,  and  was  sent  to  For- 
tress Monroe.     Here  he  was  confined  a  close  prisoner 

for  a  long  time  on  charge  of  treason.  He  was  at  last 
liberated  on  bail  furnished  by  Horace  Greeley  and 
others,  and  all  proceedings  against  him  were  finally 
abandoned.  In  fact,  the  glorious  triumph  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States  was  in  no  wise  sullied 
by  any  dismal  executions  for  treason.  The  assassina- 
tion of  Lincoln  checked  for  a  time  the  movement  which 
had  already  begun  for  the  restoration  of  the  seceding 
states.  People  who  had  been  ready  in  their  joy  to  make 
peace  with  those  who  had  been  leaders  in  the  con- 
federacy now  were  ready  to  believe  that  the  spirit 
which  had  brought  on  the  war  was  unchanged.  There 
was  a  demand  that  the  laws  against  treason,  passed  by 
Congress  during  the  heat  of  the  war,  in  1862,  should  be 
rigidly  enforced.  These  laws  prescribed  that  the 
punishment  of  treason  and  rebellion  should  be  death, 
or  fine  and  imprisonment.  But  a  wiser  judgment  pre- 
vailed. There  was  no  hanging  for  treason.  The  leaders 
of  the  confederacy  were  never  brought  to  trial.  The 
president  of  the  confederate  states  was  suffered  to  go 
free;  and  the  vice-president,  before  his  death,  became 
an  efficient  and  respected  member  'n  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States.  For  a  long  time._  however,  all 
persons  who  had  previously  taken  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  federal  government,  and  then  had  broken  it  by 
joining  the  confederacy,  were  debarred  from  holding 
any  office  under  the  government  of  the  United  States. 

299.  At  the  close  of  the  war  the  federal  armies  num-  Nmnher 
bered  about  1,000.000  men,  of  whom  nearly  600,000"^ luer.  in 
were  present  in  the  field.     The  number  of  confederate"^™'*'- 
soldiers  surrendered  and  paroled  was,  174.000.  besides 

whom  there  were  63.000  prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the 
Federals.  The  whole  number  of  men  who  served  on 
the  union  side  during  the  war  was  about  1,500.000.  Of 
these,  96,000  were  killed,  184.000  died  of  disease  while 
in  the  service;  many  thousands  more  died  of  wounds  or 
sickness  after  being  discharged.  ThS  armies  of  the 
confederacy  are  supposed  to  have  reached  their  strongest 
point  at  the  beginning  of  1863,  when  they  numbered 
about  TOO, 000.  There  was  great  dissatisfaction  among 
the  southern  people  at  the  manner  in  which  Jefferson 
Davis  conducted  the  war;  and  the  arbitrary  attempts  of 
the  confederate  government  to  force  men  into  the  ranks, 
aroused,  at  last,  a  spirit  of  opposition.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  war  desertions  had  become  very  fre- 
quent; and  this  fact,  taken  in  connection  with  the  losses 


ISi 


U  X I T  E  D     STATES 


confed- 
erate 

dances. 


The  13t6 

amend 

ment. 


in  battle,  and  from  disease,  caused  a  great  reduction  in 
the  numerical  force,  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  struggle, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  confederate  armies  contained 
more  than  200,000  men.  As  soon  as  possible  after 
organized  resistance  had  ceased,  the  Federal  armies 
began  to  be  disbanded.  The  men  were  discharged  at 
the  rate  of  about  300.000  a  month,  50.000  being  retained 
in  service  as  a  standing  army. 

300.  The  expenses^  of  the  Federal  government 
amounted  at  one  time  to  three  andahalf  million  dollars 
a  day.  By  August  81 .  1865,  the  whole  debt  had  reached 
its  maximum,  amounting  to  about  $'.2,845,907,626.  Some 
$800,000,000  of  revenue  had  also  been  spent  mainly  on 
the  war.  Beside  the  regular  outlay  by  the  govern- 
ment enormous  sums  were  spent  by  states,  cities, 
counties  and  towns,  in  bounties  to  volunteers,  and  by 
the  sanitary  commissions  and  other  societies  for  the 
comfoit  of  sick  and  wounded  soldiers,  and  for  the 
whole  army  in  general.  The  expenses  of  the  confeder- 
ate government  can  never  be  known.  Its  debt  was 
estimated  at  about  $2,000,000,000,  but  this  was  wiped 
out  by  the  failure  of  the  confederacy,  all  its  bonds  and 
notes  becoming  worthless.  The  amount  of  property 
destroyed  by  the  union  and  confederate  armies  can 
scarcely  be  estimated,  and  the  money  value  ($2,000,- 
000,000,)  of  the  slaves  in  the  south  fell  a  sacrifice  to 
the  war.  In  the  United  States  funds  were  raised  by 
the  sale  of  bonds,  the  issue  of  paper  money,  of  "green- 
backs,'' and  the  imposition  of  heavy  taxes,  including 
for  some  years  a  tax  on  incomes.  The  notes  became 
grea>ly  depreciated,  so  that  in  July.  1864,  the  price  of 
gold  in  paper  currency  was  nearly  three  dollars.  Gold 
and  silver  almost  disappeared  from  circulation. 

301.  The  finances  of  the  confederacy  were  in  a  ruin- 
ous condition  long  before  the  end  of  the  war.  It  could 
make  no  drafts  on  the  future,  by  bond  issues,  and  it 
was  a  very  diflicult  matter  to  find  purchasers  for  south- 
em  bonds.  As  expenses  increased,  they  had  to  be  met 
by  paper  issues,  and  each  issue  was  accompanied  by  a 
corresponding  decline  in  value,  until  a  dollar  in  coin 
was  worth  fifty  dollars  in  paper.  Large  sums  were 
required  to  buy  even  the  most  necessary  articles. 
Boots  were  worth  two  hundred  dollars;  shoes,  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars;  coats,  three  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars;  pantaloons,  more  than  one  hundred 
dollars;  flour,  two  hundred  and  seventy  dollars  per 
barrel;  potatoes,  twenty  to  twenty-five  dollars  per 
bushel;  bacon,  ten  dollars  per  pound;  meal,  sixty-five 
to  seventy-five  dollars  per  bushel;  butter,  sixteen  dol- 
lars per  pound.  Other  things  were  proportionately 
high  in  price;  luxuries  of  all  kinds  had  disappeared, 
and  almost  the  entire  population  was  reduced  to  ex- 
treme poverty, 

VIII. — THE  KESTORATIOX   OF   THE   UXION. 

302.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  greater  part  of 
the  northern  people  was  opposed  to  any  interference 
with  slavery,  and  the  federal  government  announced 
its  determination  not  to  meddle  with  the  question.  But 
the  progress  of  the  war  compelled  it  to  a  different 
course.  Hence,  firs*,  came  the  Proclamation  of  Eman- 
cipation; then  in  February,  1865,  congress  passed  the 
thirteenth  amendment  to  the  constitution,  abolishing 
slavery  in  the  United  States  forever.  After  the  war 
was  over  the  first  wish  of  those  who  had  been  most 
prominent  in  patting  down  the  confederacy  was  that 
the  union  should  be  restored  as  quickly  as  possible  to 
its  former  state,  with  the  exception  of  slavery.  It  was 
to  be  many  jears.  however,  before  the  warring  sections 
of  the  union  could  be  transformed  into  a  harmonious 
nation.  The  war  had  devastated  the  country  in  which 
it  had  been  engaged.  The  people  on  each  side  had 
suffered  in  the  loss  of  friends,  home  and  property,  and 
could  not  at  once  be  reconciled.  The  great  change 
which  had  taken  place  in  the  abolition  of  sla 'ery 


reachea  to  the  verj'  foundations  of  southern  society  and 
industry. 

303.  Upon  the  death  of  Mr.  Lincoln,  Vice-President 
Johnson  succeeded  to  the  office  of  president,  and  to  the 
difficult  task  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  rebellious 
states.  He  had  been  selected  by  the  republican  party 
as  representing  the  union  men  of  the  south.  He  was 
not,  however,  in  full  sympathy  with  the  Republicans, 
and  it  soon  became  evident  that  there  was  a  breach 
between  the  president  and  Congress,  which  constantly 
widened.  The  first  business  engaging  the  attention  of 
the  government  after  the  restoration  of  peace  was  the 
establishments  of  regular  governments  in  the  southern 
states.  The  president  issued  various  proclamations,  in 
which  he  declared  all  southern  ports  open  to  commerce 
except  four  in  Texas,  and  granted  amnesty  and  pardon 
to  all  persons  engaged  in  the  rebellion,  except  fourteen 
specific  classes  of  leaders,  who  were  to  make  special 
applications  for  pardon.  About  the  manner  of  restor- 
ing the  state  governments,  however,  a  serious  quarrel 
arose  between  the  president  and  Congress.  The  con- 
stitution made  no  provision  for  the  readmission  of  a 
state  which  had  withdrawn  from  the  union,  and  Mr. 
Johnson,  as  a  former  states -right  Democrat,  held  tha; 
the  southern  states  had  never  been  out  of  the  union; 
that  the  leaders  were  solely  responsible;  that  as  soon  as 
the  seceded  states  applied  for  readmission  uilder  such  a 
form  of  government  as  the  constitution  required,  the 
federal  government  was  bound  to  admit  them  withou' 
imposing  conditions  upon  subjects  over  which  the  con 
stitution  had  not  expressly  given  Congress  jurisdiction. 
The  Republican  leaders  held  that  the  action  of  the 
seceded  states  had  deprived  them  of  their  rights  as 
members  of  the  union;  that  in  the  relation  they  now 
occupied  they  were  in  the  category  of  territories  seek- 
ing admission  to  the  union,  in  which  case  Congress 
could  admit  or  reject  them  at  will.  The  particular 
question  which  brought  on  the  controversy  was  the 
civil  status  of  the  negro.  The  Republicans  held  that 
slavery  had  been  the  cause  of  the  war;  that  it  was  now 
abolished;  and  that  only  by  giving  the  freedman  the 
right  to  vote  could  he  be  protected,  and  the  results  of 
the  war  secured.  They  also  claimed  that  no  state 
should  be  admitted  until  it  tad  granted  the  right  of 
suffrage  to  the  negroes  within  its  borders.  Johnson 
held  this  to  be  a  matter  of  internal  regulation  beyond 
the  control  of  Congress. 

304.  When  Johnson  succeeded  to  the  presidency  in 
April,  1865,  he  had  a  clear  field  before  him.  for  con- 
gress was  not  to  meet  until  December.  From  May  9 
to  Julj'  13  he  appointed  provisional  governors  for  seven 
states,  whose  duties  were  to  reorganize  the  govern- 
ments. The  state  governments  were  organized,  but 
passed  such  stringent  laws  in  reference  to  the  negroes 
that  the  Republicans  declared  it  was  a  worse  form  of 
slavery  than  the  old.  When  Congress  met  in  Decem- 
ber, 1865,  it  was  very  largely  Republican  and  firmly 
determined  to  protect  the  negro  against  outrage  and 
oppression.  The  first  breach  between  the  president 
and  the  party  in  power  was  the  veto  of  the  first  Freed- 
men's  Bureau  bill  in  February,  1866,  which  was 
designed  for  the  welfare  of  the  colored  people.  President 
Johnson  objected  that  it  had  been  passed  by  a  congress 
in  which  the  southern  states  had  no  representatives. 
The  bill  failed  to  pass  by  a  two-thirds  vote.  Congress 
then  passed  acivil  right's  bill  in  March,  1866,  by  which 
freedmen  were  made  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and 
United  States  officers  were  instructed  to  protect  these 
rights  in  the  courts.  The  president  vetoed  this  bill 
also,  thr  objection  being  that  it  interfered  with  the 
rights  of  the  states.  This  bill  was  passed  over  the 
veto.  To  make  the  bill  stronger,  Congress  adopted  the 
Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  constitution  (June  16). 
and  submitted  it  to  the  states,  the  necessary  majority 
of  which  ratified  it.  Both  houses  then  passed  a  joint 
resolution  that  no  delegation  from  any  of  the  states 


,T»ibn?or  ae 
prepidoDi. 


v^narrei 
benveei.  *hv 

prepidei  1 
and  Cot, 


Freedmen  e 
Bnrenobill. 


Civilright" » 
bill. 


The  Fonr- 
teerth 
amend- 
ment. 


UNITED     STATES 


785 


cT  Ne- 
braska 


Tenuit  of 
OiiicebllL 


Impeach- 
ment of  the 
jKeidenu 


Ala°ka. 


Kerada 
and  Ne- 
braska. 

•^Tant's 
Ble^tioD 


lately  in  rebellion  ghould  be  received  by  either  the 
senate  or  the  house  until  both  united  in  declaring  said 
state  a  member  of  the  union. 

305.  The  president  disapproved  of  these  measures, 
and  there  was  now  open  hostility  between  the  execu- 
tive and  congress.  In  February,  1867,  a  bill  was  passed 
admitting  Nebraska  as  a  state,  with  the  provision  that 
it  should  never  enact  any  law  denying  the  right  of 
suffrage  to  any  person  becai'se  of  his  color  or  race.  This 
was  vetoed,  and  passed  over  the  veto.  On  March  2, 
1867,  the  "  bill  to  provide  efficient  governments  for  the 
insurrectionary  states,"  which  embodied  the  congres- 
lional  plan  of  reconstruction,  was  passed  over  the 
president's  veto.  This  bill  divided  the  southern  states 
into  military  districts,  each  under  a  brigadier  general, 
who  was  to  preserve  order  and  exercise  all  the  func- 
tions of  government  until  the  citizens  had  formed  a 
state  government,  ratified  the  amendments,  and  been 
admitted  to  the  union.  On  the  same  day  the  Tenure 
of  Office  bill  was  passed  over  the  veto.  This  provided 
that  civil  officers  should  remain  in  office  until  the  con- 
firmation of  their  successors  ;  that  the  members  of  Ibe 
cabinet  should  be  removed  only  with  the  consentof  the 
senate;  that,  while  Congress  was  not  in  session  the 
president  might  suspend  (not  remove)  anj'  official ;  and 
in  case  the  senate  at  the  next  session  should  not  ratify 
the  suspension,  the  suspended  official  should  resume 
his  office. 

306.  On  August  5,  1867,  the  president  had  requested 
Edwin  M.  Stanton  to  resign  bis  office  as  secretary  of 
war.  Mr.  Stanton  refused,  was  suspended,  and  General 
Grant  was  appointed  to  his  place.  When  congress  met, 
the  senate  refused  to  agree  to  Stanton's  removal. 
General  Grant  then  resigned  the  office,  and  Stanton 
%gain  took  possession.  The  president  removed  him  a 
second  time,  and  appointed  General  Lorenzo  Thomas 
to  the  place.  Stanton  held  to  his  office,  and  sent  notice 
'.othe  speaker  of  the  house  ;  thereupon  the  house  passed 
4  resolution  (February  24,  1868),  for  the  impeachment 
of  the  president.  The  articles  of  impeachment  accused 
hum  of  disobeying  the  tenure  of  office  law,  and  of  various 
other  offences.  The  trial  took  place  according  to  the 
constitution,  members  of  the  house  appearing  as 
accusers,  and  the  senate  acting  as  judges,  with  Chief 
Justice  Chase,  of  the  supreme  court,  in  the  chair.  After 
the  trial  began  the  president  made  a  tour  of  the  north 
and  west,  and  delivered  many  violent  and  passionate 
speeches  to  the  crowds  which  assembled  to  meet  him, 
and  denounced  the  congress  then  sitting  as  "nocon- 
•rress."  because  of  its  refusal  to  admit  delegations  from 
the  southern  states.  On  these  speeches  the  house 
based  additional  articles  of  impeachment.  The  excit- 
ing trial  lasted  two  months,  and  ended  in  May  with  a 
(rote  of  thirty-five  for  conviction,  and  nineteen  for 
acquittal.  Thus  there  was  not  a  two-thirds  majority 
for  conviction.  The  senate  adjourned  tine  die,  and  a 
verdict  of  acquittal  was  entered. 

307.  The  Russian  possessions  in  North  America,  com- 
prising a  large  and  thinly  populated  territory  at  the 
northwest  corner  of  the  continent,  were  purchased  of 
the  Russian  government  by  the  United  States  in  1867 
for  the  sum  of  $7,200,000.  This  territory  is  known  as 
Alaska.  Nevada,  the  thir'y-siith  state,  was  admitted 
during  Mr.  Lincoln's  administration  (1864);  Nebraska, 
the  thirty-seventh,  was  admitted  in  1867.  In  1868  Gen- 
eral Grant  was  elected  president,  as  the  candidate  of 
the  Republican  part}',  thus  sealing  the  process  of  the 
reconstruction;  Schuyler  Colfax  became  vice-president. 
The  Democratic  candidates  were  Horatio  Seymour,  of 
New  York,  and  Frank  P.  Blair,  of  Missouri.  Virginia, 
Mississippi  and  Texas  were  the  only  states  of  the  late 
confederacy  which  were  excluded  from  this  election; 
all  the  rest  had  been  reconstructed  and  admitted  by 
Congress  in  June,  1868.  The  Republican  candidates 
carried  twenty-six  of  the  thirty-four  voting  states.  In 
his  inaugural  address.  General  Grant  declared  that  the 

2^—28 


government  bonds  ought  to  be  paid  in  gold,  advocated 
a  speedy  return  to  specie  payments,  and  made  many 
important  recommendations  in  reference  to  public  af- 
fairs. Regarding  the  good  faith  of  the  nation,  he  said: 
"To  protect  the  national  honor,  every  dollar  of  the 
government's  indebtedness  should  be  paid  in  gold,  un- 
less otherwise  expressly  stipulated  in  the  contract." 
Congress  acted  promptly  upon  his  recommendation,  and 
on  Slarch  18.  1869.  an  act  was  passed,  entitled  "An 
Act  tostrengthen  the  public  credit."  Its  language  gave 
a  pledge  to  the  world  that  the  debts  of  the  country 
would  be  paid  in  coiu,  unless  there  were  in  the  obliga- 
tions express  stipulations  to  the  contrarv. 

308.  On  February  26,  1869,  the  Fifteenth  Amendment 
to  the  constitution  was  passed  by  Congress.  Its  adop- 
tion had  been  previously  recommended  by  Grant.  It 
guaranteed  the  right  of  suiirage  without  regard  to  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude.  It  was  rati- 
fied by  the  requisite  three-fourths  of  the  states,  and  de- 
clared in  force  March  30,  1870.  In  the  meantime  the 
foreign  affairs  of  the  country  had  been  favorably  estab- 
lished. Its  promptness  in  disarming  at  the  end  of  the 
war  had  put  it  under  no  disadvantage  in  dealing  with 
other  nations.  The  successful  completion  of  the  At- 
lantic cable  (1866)  gave  a  promptness  and  dispatch  to 
diplomacy  which  was  well  suited  to  American  methods. 
The  most  important  measure  of  foreign  policy  during 
President  Grant's  administration  was  the  treaty  with 
Great  Britain  (May  8. 1871).  known  as  the  Treaty  of'Wash- 
ingion.  Soon  after  entering  upon  his  office,  the  presi- 
dent had  begun  negotiations,  looking  to  a  settlement  of 
the  claims  made  by  the  United  States  against  Great  Bri- 
tain, arising  from  the  depredations  upon  American  com- 
merce by  confederate  cruisers  fitted  out  in  British  ports, 
the  questions  growing  out  of  the  Canadian  fishery  dis- 
putes, and  the  location  of  our  northern  boundary  line 
at  its  junction  with  the  Pacific  ocean,  which  the  juris- 
diction of  the  island  of  San  Juan  in  controversy. 

309.  A  high  joint  commission  had  assembled  at 
Washington,  composed  of  American  and  English 
statesmen,  which  formulated  the  Treaty  of  Washington, 
and  by  its  terms  the  claims  against  Great  Britain,  com- 
monly known  as  the  "Alabama  claims,"  were  referred 
to  a  court  of  arbitration,  which  held  its  session  at 
Geneva,  Switzerland.  In  September.  1872,  it  awarded 
the  United  States  the  sum  of  $15,500,000,  which  was 
subsequently  paid  by  the  British  government.  The 
fishery  question  was  referred  to  arbitration  by  three 
commissioners,  one  to  be  chosen  by  the  United  States, 
one  by  Great  Britain,  and  the  third  by  the  other  two, 
provided  they  should  m;ike  a  choice  within  a  stated 
time,  otherwise  the  selection  to  be  made  by  the 
Emperor  of  Austria.  The  two  commissioners  having 
failed  to  agree,  the  third  was  named  by  the  Emperor  of 
Austria.  The  award  was  unsatisfactory  to  the  United 
States.  The  decision  of  the  commission  was  severely 
criticised  by  the  people  and  the  press,  and  the  dispute 
has  been  reopened  since  from  time  to  time,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  both  countries.  The  San  Juan  question  was 
referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany  as  arbitrator  with 
sole  power.  His  award  fully  sustained  the  claim  of  the 
United  States. 

310.  President  Grant's  first  administration  had  been 
vigorous  and  progressive,  but  a  number  of  Republicans 
had  become  estranged,  feeling  that  they  were  being 
ignored  by  the  executive.  These  persons  formed  them- 
selves into  an  organization  under  the  name  of  Liberal 
Republicans.  This  opposition  resulted  in  the  nomination 
of  Horace  Greeley  for  president,  and  B.  Gratz  Brown 
for  vice-president,  by  the  Liberal  party  (1872).  These 
nominations  were  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Demo- 
cratic party.  The  republican  convention  renominated 
President  Grant,  with  Henry  Wilson  as  nominee  foi 
vice-president.  When  the  election  took  place  Grant 
carried  thirty-one  states  with  a  popular  vote  of 
3,597,070,  the  largest  that  had  ever  been  given  for  any 


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president.  He  received  286  electoral  votes,  against  66 
which  would  have  been  cast  for  Mr.  Greeley  had  he 
lived.  The  noted  journalist,  however,  died  soon  after 
the  ejection.  The  canvass  had  been  one  of  the  most 
exciting  and  aggressive  in  the  history  of  the  country, 
and  abounded  in  personal  attacks  on  the  candidates. 
During  i-resident  Grant's  first  term  of  ofiice  the  work 
of  reconstruction  according  to  the  plan  settled  by 
Congress  had  been  steadily  carried  out.  and  by  July, 
1870,  the  work  had  been  accomplished,  and  all  the 
states  were  again  members  of  the  union,  although  the 
votes  of  Arkansas  and  Loui.>ianawere  not  received  by 
Congress  in  1872,  because  of  fraud  and  illegality  in  the 
elec'ion. 

311  The  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
Spain  were  frequently  disturbed  by  incidents  growing 
out  of  an  insurrection  in  Cuba,  which  had  lasted  for  a 
number  of  years.  Several  American  citizens  had  been 
arrested  by  the  Spanish  authorities,  under  the  pretense 
that  they  had  been  furnishing  aid  to  the  insurgents, 
and  American  vessels  plying  in  Cuban  waters  had  been 
subjected  to  much  inconvenience.  Matters  at  length 
culminated  in  the  seizure  by  Spain  (October,  1873), 
without  justification. of  the  American  steamer  Virgirdua. 
This  outrage  created  intense  excitement  in  the  United 
States,  and  many  statesmen  were  clamorous  for  war; 
but  the  president  took  more  pacific  measures,  and,  by 
acting  with  promptness  and  firmness,  soon  wrung  from 
Spain  ample  apology  and  full  separation.  Political 
troubles  were  stili  rife  in  certain  states  of  the  south. 
In  March,  1871,  the  disorders  in  the  southern  states, 
growing  out  of  the  conflicts  between  the  whites  and 
the  negroes,  hail  assumed  such  proportions  that  the 
president  sent  a  .•■pecial  message  to  Congress  requesting 
"such  legislation  as  shall  effectually  secure  life,  liberty 
and  properly,  aud  the  enforcement  of  law  in  all  parts 
of  the  United  States."  On  April  20  Congress  passed 
an  act  which  authorized  the  president  to  suspend,  under 
defined  circumstances,  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in  any 
district,  and  to  ure  the  army  and  navy  in  suppressing 
insurrections.  He  issued  a  proclamation  (May  4).  order- 
ing all  unlawful  armed  bands  to  disperse,  and  after 
expressing  his  reluctance  to  use  theextraordinary  power 
conferred  upon  him,  said  he  would  "not  hesitate  to  use 
that  power  to  its  full  extent,  whenever  and  wherever  it 
should  be  neces^  ary  to  do  so  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
to  all  citizens  the  peaceful  enjoyment  of  the  rights 
guaranteed  to  them  by  the  constitution  and  the  laws  of 
the  United  States. "  As  this  did  not  produce  the  desired 
effect,  he  issued  a  proclamation  of  warning  (Octobei 
12),  and  on  October  17  suspended  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  in  parts  of  North  and  South  Carolina.  He 
followed  thia  by  vigorous  prosecutions,  which  resulted 
in  fending  a  number  of  prominent  offenders  to  prison, 
and  the  outrages  soon  ceased. 

312.  Soon  after  President  Grant  entered  upon  his 
second  term  of  office,  the  disputes  in  Louisiana  con- 
jerDing  the  result  of  the  election  in  1872  became  more 
oilier,  and  armed  violence  was  threatened  in  that  state. 
Early  in  l5i73  the  president  called  the  attention  of  Con- 
gress to  the  inadequacy  of  the  laws  applying  to  such 
cases,  saying  i  hat  he  had  recognized  the  officers  installed 
by  the  decinion  nf  the  retuming-board  as  representing 
the  de  facto  government,  and  if  he  had  exercised  undue 
interference  by  fuch  a  course  he  urged  Congress  to  an 
immediate  decision  in  regard  to  the  matter.  Congress, 
however,  took  no  action,  and  left  with  the  president 
the  sole  responsibility  of  dealing  with  this  delicate 
question.  The  next  year  the  difSculty  was  reneved 
and  a  fierce  contest  arose  between  the  Republicans 
tinder  Kellogg,  and  the  Democrats  under  JIcEaery, 
the  respective  candidates  of  the  two  jjarties  Tor  the 
goveniorship,  which  resulted  in  armea  hostilities.  Kel- 
fogg,  'ie  de  facto  governor,  called  upon  the  federal 
government  for  protection,  which  it  immediately 
granted  by  sending  troops  thither,  and  the  outbreak 


was  for  a  time  suppressed.  But  troubles  again  arose, 
and  General  Sheridan  was  sent  to  report  upon  the  situa- 
tion of  affairs,  and  if  ntoessary,  to  take  command  of 
the  troops  and  adopt  vigorous  measures  to  preserve  the 
peace.  Sheridan  became  convinced  that  his  duty  was 
to  sustain  the  government  of  Kellogg,  and  on  the  de- 
mand of  the  governor  he  ejected  some  of  McEnery's 
adherents  from  the  state  capitol.  As  Congresf  still 
omitted  to  tahe  any  action  in  the  case,  the  president 
continued  his  recognition  of  the  government,  of  which 
Kellogg  was  the  head,  until  the  election  of  a  new  gov- 
ernor. After  this  there  was  no  serious  trouble.  Dif- 
ficulties of  the  same  nature  arose  in  Arkansas  and 
Texas,  which  were  almost  as  perplexing  to  the  execu- 
tive as  those  in  Louisiana;  but  these  attracted  less  at- 
tention from  ihe  people. 

313.  In  April,  1874,  Congress  passed  a  bill  known  as 
the  "Inflation  bill,"  which  increased  the  paper  cur- 
rency of  the  country,  and  was  contrary  to  the  financial 
policy  which  the  president  had  maintained  and  ad- 
vocated in  his  state  papers.  Strenuous  efforts  were 
made  by  his  warmest  political  supporters  to  convince 
him  that  the  measure  was  financially  wise  and  poll 
tically  expedient.  President  Grant  gave  much  thought 
and  study  to  the  question,  and  at  length  fully  decided 
that  the  measure  would  in  the  end  prove  injurious  to 
the  true  business  interests  of  the  country,  and  delay 
the  resumption  of  specie  paj-ment.  He.  therefore,  re- 
turned the  bill  to  Congress  with  his  veto  (April  22). 
The  arguments  contained  in  his  message  were  unan- 
swerable, the  bill  was  not  passed  over  his  veto,  and  his 
course  was  sustained  by  the  whole  country.  The  presi- 
dent now  earnestly  advocated  the  resumption  of  specie 
payment.  In  a  letter  addressed  to  Senator  Jones,  of 
Xevada,  he  gave  a  full  statement  of  his  views  on  the 
question.  Thi«  letter  was  made  public,  and  attracted 
muca  attention;  and  in  January,  1875.  the  resumption 
act  Tvas  passed,  which  to  a  large  extent  embodied  the 
views  that  had  been  suggested  by  the  president.  There 
were  doubts  in  the  minds  of  many  as  to  the  ability  of 
the  government  to  carry  it  into  effect:  but  it  proved 
entirely  successful,  and  the  country  was  finally  relieved 
from  the  stigma  of  circulating  an  irredeemable  paper 
currency. 

314  Great  trouble  was  caused  soon  after  the  close  of 
the  war  by  the  depredations  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  the 
west  and  southwest.  The  Sioux  and  Cheyennes  having 
begun  hostilities.an  expedition  was  sent  out  against  them 
under  the  direction  of  General  Hancock  in  1867,  and 
another,  in  1868,  beyond  the  Arkansas  river,  where 
General  Custer  gained  an  important  victory.  In  an 
expedition  against  the  Modocs  of  Oregon,  in  1873,  Gen- 
eral Canby  was  treacherously  murdered  during  a  parley 
with  the  Indian  chiefs.  The  Sioux  had  ceded  to  the 
United  States  a  large  tract  of  country  in  what  was  then 
Dakota  territorj-,  reserving  to  themselves  the  district 
known  as  the  Black  Hills.  When  it  was  rumored  thai 
gold  had  been  found  on  their  reservation,  the  whites 
began  to  push  into  this  region,  regardless  of  the  rights 
of  the  Indians.  The  Sioux  were  a  warlike  tribe,  and 
they  retaliated  by  attacking  the  frontier  settlements  in 
Montana  and  Wyoming.  United  States  troops  were 
sent  out  against  them,  but  met  at  first  with  a  terrible 
disaster.  In  June,  1876.  General  Custer,  with  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  soldiers,  was  surprised  and  the 
entire  force  massacred.  The  war  lasted  into  the  wintei 
of  187' when  the  Sioux,  with  their  chiefs,  Sitting  BuU 
and  Crazy  Horse,  went  across  the  border  into  Britis) 
territory. 

315.  During  1875.  the  president  had  reason  to  suspect 
that  frauds  were  being  practiced  b>  government  officials 
in  certain  states,  in  collecting  the  revenue  derived  from 
the  manufacture  of  whiskey.  He  at  once  took  active 
measures  for  their  detection,  and  the  vigorous  pursuit 
and  punishment  of  the  offenders.  He  issued  a  stringeo' 
order  for  their  prosecution,  closing  with  the  famott 


The 
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words,  "  Let  no  gui.ty  man  escape."  Many  indictments 
goon  followed;  the  ringleaders  wt- re  sent  to  the  iieoiten- 
tiary,  and  an  honest  collection  of  the  revenue  was  secured. 
The  year  for  nominating  a  president  was  at  hand,  and 
the  excitement  ran  high.  Friends  of  the  convicted, 
political  enemies  and  rivals  for  succession  in  his  own 
party,  resorted  to  the  most  des-(ierate  means  to  break 
the  president's  power  and  diminish  his  pooularity. 
The  grossest  misrepresentations  were  practiced,  first  in 
trying  to  bring  into  question  the  honesty  of  his  purpose 
in  the  prosecution  of  offenders,  and  afterward  in 
endeavoring  to  rob  him  of  the  credit  of  his  labors, 
which  had  resulted  in  the  purifying  of  the  revenue 
service.  But  these  efforts  signallj'  failed.  In  18T6  the 
United  States  celebrated  the  one  hundredth  anniver- 
sary of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  There  were 
great  rejoicings  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
various  battles  of  the  revolution,  as  well  as  the  signing 
of  the  Declaration,  were  commemorated  by  appropriate 
exercises.  The  centennial  year  was  chosen  for  holding 
a  great  international  exhibition  at  Philadelphia,  to 
which  all  the  nations  of  the  world  were  invited  to  con- 
tribute. It  was  opened  in  May  and  closed  in  November, 
having  been  visited  by  about  ten  millions  of  people. 

316.  The  changes  at  the  south,  and  the  dissatisfac- 
tion of  many  at  the  north  with  the  rule  of  the  Repub- 
lican managers,  were  seen  in  the  election  of  1876.  The 
Democrats  nominated  Samuel  J.  Tilden  and  Thomas 
A.  Hendricks  for  president  and  vice-president;  and  the 
Republicans,  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  and  William  A. 
Wheeler.  A  national  Greenback  convention  was  also 
held.  May  17,  composed  of  men  who  desired  national  pa- 
per money  instead  of  national  bank  notes,  and  who 
opposed  resumption  of  specie  payments.  It  nominated 
Peter  Cooper  and  Samuel  F.  Gary.  The  contest  was  very 
close,  and  a  dispute  arose  as  to  the  counting  of  the 
votes  of  certain  southern  states,  both  sides  claiming 
them.  The  controversy  was  finally  settled  by  the 
appointment  of  an  electoral  commission  of  fifteen, 
eight  of  which  deciJed  in  favor  of  Mr.  Hayes.  In  this 
year,  Colorado,  the  thirty-eighth  state  (and  the  last  up 
to  1887)  was  admitted  in  time  to  take  part  in  the 
election. 
s  317.  The  administration  of  President  Hayes,  although 
much  attacked  by  the  politicians  of  both  parties,  was 
on  the  whole,  very  satisfactory  to  the  people  at  large. 
By  withdrawing  the  federal  troops  from  southern 
state  houses,  and  restoring  to  the  people  of  those  states 
practical  self-government,  it  prepared  the  way  for  that 
patriotism  among  those  lately  estranged  from  the  union, 
that  fraternal  feeling  between  the  two  sections  of  the 
country,  and  the  wonderful  material  advancement  of 
the  south  wbich  we  now  witness.  It  conducted  with 
wisdom  and  firmness  the  preparation  for  the  resump- 
tion of  specie  payments,  as  well  as  the  funding  of  the 
public  debt  at  lower  rates  of  interest,  and  thus  facil- 
itated the  development  of  the  remarkable  business 
prosperity  which  continued  to  its  close.  While  in  its 
endeavors  to  effect  a  thorough  and  permanent  reform 
of  the  civil  service,  there  were  conspicuous  lapses  and 
inconsistencies,  it  accomplished  important  and  lasting 
results.  Not  only  without  any  appropriations  of 
money,  and  without  encouragement  of  any  kind  from 
Congress,  but  in  the  face  of  the  decided  hostility  of  a 
large  majority  of  its  members,  the  system  of  competi- 
tive examinations  was  employed  in  some  of  the  execu- 
tive departments  at  Washington,  and  in  some  of  the 
great  government  offices  in  New  York,  thus  proving 
its  practicability  and  usefulness.  The  removal  by 
President  Hayes  of  some  of  the  most  powerful  partv 
managers  from  their  offices,  avoweilly  on  the  ground 
that  the  oflBces  had  been  used  as  part  of  the  political 
machinery,  was  an  act  of  high  courage,  and  during  his 
administration  there  was  far  less  meddling  with  party 
politics  on  the  part  of  the  government  officials  than  at 
any  period  i^nce  Andrew  Jackson's  time. 


318.  The  financial  condition  of  the  United  States  had 
been  steadily  improving  since  the  war.  A  few  months 
after  the  onclu-iou  of  peace  the  public  debt  had 
reached  its  highest  amount,  $2,800,000,000,  and  by  the 
close  of  President  Hayes'  administration  no  less  than 
one  thousand  million  dollars  of  that  amount  had  been 
paid  off.  The  credit  of  the  government  rose,  and  the 
paper  money,  once  worth  only  a  third  of  its  denomina- 
tion iq  gold,  increased  in  value.  The  operation  of 
refunding  the  debt  had  been  begun  July  14,  1870.  At 
that  time  Congress  pass  -d  au  act  authorizing  the  issue 
of  five,  four  and  a  half,  and  four  per  cent  bonds  to 
take  the  place  of  those  at  higher  interest.  $.500,000,000 
were  issued  in  five  per  cent  bonds,  $185,000,000  in  four 
and  one  half  per  cent,  and  $710,345,950  at  four  per 
cent,  thus  reducing  the  annual  interest  charge  from 
$81,639,684  to  $61,738,838.  This  first  refunding  opera- 
tion was  completed  in  the  year  1879,  at  the  time  when 
specie  payments  were  resumed.  In  1881  about  $200,- 
000,000  of  six  per  cent  bonds  fell  due.  Mr.  Windom, 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  took  the  responsibility  of 
allowing  the  holders  of  the  bonds  to  exchange  them 
for  three  and  one  half  per  cent  bonds,  reilet-mable  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  government.  Holders  of  other 
bonds  to  the  amount  of  $300,000,000  also  avail<-d  them- 
selves of  this  privilege,  thus  saving  $10,000,000  inter- 
est. In  1875  Congress  passed  a  law  providing  that  the 
paper  "fractional  currency"  used  for  small  cLange 
should  be  redeemed  at  once  in  silver,  and  that  after  the 
1st  of  January,  1879,  the  "greenbacks"  should  be  paid 
on  demand  in  coin. 

319.  At  the  elections  of  1880  the  Republican  candi- 
dates were  General  James  A,  Garfield  for  president, 
and  General  Chester  A.  Arthur  for  vice-president; 
while  the  Democrats  nominated  General  Winfield  S. 
Hancock  and  William  E.  English.  The  Republican 
ticket  was  successful,  receiving  the  electoral  votes  (214 
in  number)  of  all  the  northern  states  except  California 
— whic'i  was  divided — Nevada  and  New  Jersey.  The 
Democratic  electoral  vote  was  155  including  11  from 
Georgia,  which,  not  having  been  cast  on  the  day 
appointed  by  law,  were  objected  to  when  the  returns 
were  opened.  As  they  could  not  effect  the  result  the 
question  whether  they  should  be  counted  or  not  was 
never  decided.  The  new  administration  was  inau.sur- 
ated  March  4,  1881,  and  the  scramble  for  office  which 
had  marked  each  advent  to  the  presidency  since  1829, 
followed.  There  was  bitter  dissension  in  the  party  in 
New  York  over  the  distribution  of  offices.  The  New 
York  senators,  feeling  aggrieved  at  certain  appoint- 
ments in  their  stale,  resigned,  and  then  made  efforts  to 
be  re-elected  by  their  stale  legislature,  in  which  they 
failed.  In  the  midst  of  it  all  President  Garfield  was 
shot  (July  3.  1881)  by  a  crazy  disappointed  office-seeker. 
The  avowed  object  was  to  promote  to  the  presidential 
chair  Vice-President  Arthur,  who  represented  the 
Grant  or  "stalwart"  wing  of  the  party.  The  president 
was  not  instantly  killed.  For  three  months  he  lay 
helpless,  while  the  nation  watched  anxiously  every 
turn  in  his  condition.  The  sympathy  shown  by  all 
parts  of  the  country  did  much  to  draw  the  nation 
together  and  to  lessen  the  old  distrust,  Garfield  died 
September  19,  1881,  and  was  succeeded  by  Vice-Presi- 
dent Arthur. 

320.  The  prominent  events  of  President  Arthur's 
administration  may  be  here  summarized.  Shortly  after 
his  accession  to  the  presidency  he  participated  in  the 
dedication  of  the  monument  erected  at  Yorktown,  Va., 
to  commemorate  the  surrender  of  Lord  Coruwallis  at 
that  place,  Oct.  19.  1781.  A  convention  was  made 
with  Mexico  (July  29,  1"82)  for  re-locating  the  boundary 
between  that  country  and  the  United  States  from  the 
Rio  Grande  to  the  Pacific,  and  on  the  same  day  an 
agreement  was  also  effected  permitting  the  armed  forces 
of  either  country  to  cross  the  frontier  in  pursuit  of  hos- 
tile Indians.     The  death  of  President  Garfield  called 


Financial 
condition. 


Refnridine 
the  a*.- til. 


Electlaa 
of  issa 


Oarfleid'B 
u-^ar  «in^ 


Arthnr* 

bdmixiit 
trat   ■« 


T88 


UNITED     STATES 


Chmege 
immigra- 
tion bill. 


Convict 
law. 


Repeal  of 
of  etamp 
taxef. 


National 
banks. 


Uerchant 
Ziarine  bill 
and  bureau 
of  naviga- 
tion 

U«dnction 
of  letter 
poetage. 


French 

spoliation 

claims. 


Election 
of  !(«M. 


general  attention  to  that  reprehensible  system  under 
which  each  party,  while  in  office,  had  paid  its  party 
expenses  by  the  use  of  minor  offices  for  its  adherents. 
The  president's  power  of  appuintraent  could  not  be 
controlled;  but  the  Pendleton  Act  (1883)  permitted  the 
president  to  mike  appointments  to  designated  classes 
of  offices  on  the  recommendation  of  a  board  of  civil 
service  commissioners.  From  the  British  government 
a  full  recogniticin  of  the  rights  and  immunities  of  nat- 
uralizf'd  American  citizens  of  Irish  oritiin  was  obtained, 
and  all  such  who  were  under  arrest  in  England  or  Ire- 
land as  suspects  were  liberated.  A  bill  passed  by  Con- 
gress prohibiting  the  immigration  of  Chinese  laborers 
for  a  term  of  twenty  years  was  vetoed  (April  4.  1882), 
as  being  a  violation  of  the  treaty  of  1880  with  China, 
which  permiUcd  the  limitation  or  suspension  of  immi- 
gra'ion,  but  forbade  its  absolute  prohibition.  The 
veto  .was  sustained,  and  a  modified  bill,  suspending 
immigration  for  ten  years,  was  passed.  May  6,  1882, 
which  received  the  executive  approval.  A  law  was 
passed  (August  3,  1882)  for  returning  convicts  to 
Europe,  and  on  February  26,  1885,  importation  of  con- 
tract laborers  was  forbidden. 

321.  The  suspension  of  the  coinage  of  standard  silver 
dollars  and  the  redemption  of  the  trade  dollars  were 
repeatedly  recommended;  also,  the  repeal  of  the  stamp 
taxes  on  matches,  proprietary  articles,  playing  cards, 
bank  checks,  drafts,  and  of  the  tax  on  surplus  bank 
capital  and  deposits.  These  taxes  were  repealed  by 
act  of  congress  (March  3,  1883);  and  by  executive  order 
of  June  2.'5,  1883,  the  number  of  internal  revenue  col- 
lection districts  was  reduced  from  126  to  83.  The  tax 
on  tobacco  was  reduced  by  the  same  act  of  congress. 
On  July  12.  1882,  an  act  became  law  enabling  the 
national  bauk.'^,  which  were  then  completing  their 
twenty  year  terms,  to  extend  their  corporate  existence. 
The  attention  of  Congress  was  frequently  called  to  the 
decline  of  the  American  merchant  marine,  and  legisla- 
tion was  recommended  for  its  restoration,  and  the  con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  ocean  steamships  under 
the  United  States  flag.  In  compliance  with  these 
recommendations,  the  following  laws  were  enacted  : 
June  26,  1884,  an  act  to  remove  certain  burdens  from 
American  shipping;  July  5,  1884,  an  act  creating  a 
bureau  of  navigation,  under  charge  of  acommission,  in 
the  treasury  department;  and  Marrh3,  1885,  an  amend- 
ment to  the  postal  appropriation  bill  granting  $800,000 
for  contracting  with  American  steamship  lines  for  the 
transportation  of  foreign  mails. 

322.  The  reduction  of  letter  postage  from  three  to  two 
cents  was  recommended,  and  was  effected  by  the  act  of 
March  3,  1883;  the  unit  of  weight  was  made  (March  3, 
1885)  one  ounce  instead  of  a  half  ounce;  the  rate  on 
transient  newspapers  and  periodicals  was  reduced  (June 
9,  1884.)  to  one  cent  for  four  ounces,  and  the  rate  on 
similar  matter,  when  sent  by  the  publisher  to  actual 
subscribers,  was  reduced  to  one  cent  a  pound  (March 
3,  1885).  The  fast  mail  and  free  delivery  systems  were 
largely  extended.  Special  letter  deliveries  were  estao- 
li^hed  March  3,  1885.  The  star  service  at  the  west  was 
increased  at  reduced  cost;  the  foreign  mail  service 
improved;  and  various  postal  conventions  were 
negotiated.  A  law  for  the  adjudication  of  the  French 
spoliation  claims  was  passed  (January  20,  1885),  and 
preparations  made  for  carrying  it  into  effect.  On 
Miiren  3,  1885,  a  bill  was  passed  retiring  General 
Grant  with  lh«  rank  of  general  of  the  army,  and  with 
full  pay. 

323.  In  1884  the  Republicans  nominated  James  Q. 
Blaiiie  and  General  John  A.  Logan,  and  the  Democrats 
Cleveland  and  Hendricks.  The  greenback  an<l  anti- 
monopolist  parties  put  forward  the  name  of  Benjamin 
F.  Builer.  The  prohibitionists,  also,  had  organized 
themselves  into  a  party,  and  presented  as  their  candi- 
iate  Governor  St,  John.  A  small  majority  of  the 
lemocratic  candidates  in  the  state  of  New  York  gave 


*^hip.' 


them  its  electoral  votes,  and  decided  the  election  in  eheir 
favor.     They  were  inaugurated   March  4,  1885.     The 
president  announced  in  regard  to  official  changes  that,  ClevelandV 
with   the  exceptions  of  heads  of  departments,  foreign  fr'l,'",^""' 
ministers,  and  other  officcH  charged  with  the  execution 
of  the  policy  of  the  administration,  no  removals  would 
take  place  except  for  cause.     He   therefore  came  into 
conflict  with   many  influential  members  of  his  party 
who  advocated  the  speedy  removal  of  Republican  office- 
holders ana  the  appointment  of  Democrats,  in  order  to 
strengthen  the  party  as  a  political  organization.     While 
that  class  of     politicians    objected    to    the    slowness 
with  which  removals  were  made,  and  to   the  appoint- 
ment of  independents,  and  in  a  few  instances  Republi- 
cans, the  Republicans  and  some  of  the  civil  service 
reformers  complained  of  other  appointments  as  not 
being  in  accord  with  the  professions  of  the  president. 
He  declared  "offensive  partisanships"  to  be  a  ground  "OflenslTe 
for     removal;     and    numerous  Republican    function- f"''?-""' 
aries   were  displaced  under  that  rule,   while   the  term  ' 
itself  became  a  by-word.  On  March  13,  1885,  the  presi- 
dent issued  a  proclamation  announcing  the  intention  of 
the  government  to  remove  from  the  C'iklahoma  country,  oiilahocia 
in  Indian  territory,  the  while  intruders  who  sought  to ':°'"it''y- 
settle  there,  which  was  done  shortly   afterwards  by  a 
detachment  of  soldiers. 

324.  In  his  message  at  the  opening  of  the  XLIXth  Con- 
gress, December  8,  1885.  President  Cleveland  recom- 
mended the  abolition  of  duties  on  works  of  art,  the 
reduction  of  the  tariff  on  necessaries  of  life,  the  sus- 
pension of  compulsory  silver  coinage,  more  stringent 
laws  for  the  suppression  of  polygamy  in  Utah,  an  act 
to  prohibit  the  immigration  of  Mormons,  and  the  ex- 
tension of  the  civil  service  reform.  In  January.  1886. 
Congress  passed  the  bill  regulating  the  presidential  sue-  Presidential 
cession  in  the  event  of  a  vacancy.  Mr.  ClevelanrI  'fcceasiou. 
exercised  the  veto  power  beyond  all  precedent.    Of  987 

bills  pasted  by  both  houses  in  the  session  ending 
Augusts,  1886,  115  were  vetoed.  Of  these  102  were 
private  pension  bills,  and  six  were  bills  for  the  erection 
of  public  buildings.  Of  the  general  measures  which 
failed  to  receive  his  signature,  the  most  important  was 
the  Morrison  resolution  requiring  the  secretary  of  the 
treasury  to  apply  to  the  redemption  of  bonds  any  sur 
plus  to  the  treasury  exceeding  $100,000,000.  The  river 
and  harbor  bill,  containing  appropriations,  deemed  by 
many  useless  and  extravagant,  and  the  bill  taxing  oleo- 
margarine two  cents  a  pound,  which  was  considered  an 
unjust  discrimination  against  one  class  of  producers 
for  the  benefit,  of  another,  were  not  vetoed.  On  signing 
the  latter,  the  president  sent  a  message  to  Congress,  in 
which  he  gave  as  his  reason  that  the  stamps  required 
by  the  act  would  mark  the  character  of  the  substance 
and  prevent  it  being  fraudulently  sold. 

325.  The  presidential  campaign  of  1888  was  noted  Election 
for  the  number  of  candidates  in  the  field,  who  were  as  °f  ''^^ 
follows:  Republican,  Benjamin  Harrison  and  Levi  P. 
Morton;  Democratic,  Grover  Cleveland  (renominated) 

and  Allen  G.  Thurman;  prohibition,  Clinton  B.  Fisk 
and  John  A.  Brooks;  union  labor,  A.  J.  Streeter  and 
Charles  E.  Cunningham;  industrial  reform,  Albert  E. 
Redstone  and  John  Colvin;  united  labor,  Robert  E. 
Cowdry  and  W.  B..  T.  Wakefield ;  woman  suf- 
frai'ists,  Belva  A.  Lockwood  and  Albert  H.  Love. 
The  main  i.ssue  between  the  twoleading parties.  Repub- 
lican and  Democratic,  was  on  the  tariff  question;  the 
former  favoring  a  modified  protected  tariff,  while  the 
latterdemanded  a  tariff  chiefly  for  revenue.  The  prin- 
ciples of  the  other  parties  related  to  labor,  national 
currency,  prohibition  and  woman's  suffrage.  The  Re- 
publican party  was  succeseful,  and  Harrison  as  presi- 
dent, with  Morton  as  vice-president,  was  inaugurated 
March  4,  1889.  The  administration  of  Mr.  Harrison,  Harrison's 
thus  far,  has  been  characterized  by  the  passage  of^^nunis- 
the  MiKinley  tariff  bill,  which  both  increases  and  "■''"°°- 
diminishes    the    duties    on    many    necessary    articles 


UNITED     STATES 


789 


The  cenfios 


Hie 

preeei't 
nation . 


I 


■allwsys. 


Telegraph 
and  tiie- 
pboue  lines 

Atlantic 
tele^aph. 


and  adds  to  the  duties  on  luxuries,  ami  by  the 
regulation  of  pension  matters.  The  invalid  pension 
bill  has  been  passed,  granting  pensions  to  all  disabled 
soldiers  without  reference  to  the  time  when  the  disa- 
bility was  contracted.  On  the  beginning  of  June,  1890. 
the  enumeration  of  the  general  census  for  the  last 
decade  was  begun,  under  the  control  of  Superintendent 
Porter,  and  the  returns  of  the  census  enumerators  give 
the  population  of  the  United  States  at  63,250,000,  which 
is  less  than  was  anticipated.  Many  consider  the  returns 
as  imperfectly  made. 

32t).  In  the  meanwhile  the  prosperity  of  the  United 
States  has  known  no  cessation.  During  the  civil  war 
of  1861-1865,  the  emperor  of  France,  Napoleon  III., 
attempted  to  establish  in  Jlesico  a  foreign  government 
under  Maximilian,  an  Austrian  archdulse,  aided  by  a 
French  army.  The  remonstrance  of  the  United  States 
and  the  resolution  of  the  Mexicans  compelled  Napoleon 
to  abandon  the  attempt.  Maximilian  was  siezed  by  the 
Mexicans  and  executed  (1867).  A  new  invasion  of  Mexico 
from  the  United  States  was  begun,  but  it  was  the  peaceful 
invasion  of  commerce.  Railways  were  pushed  down 
along  the  great  plateau  whi  :h  reaches  from  the  United 
States  into  the  heart  of  the  country,  making  thus  a 
closer  connection  between  th  two  peoples.  In  1869 
the  first  of  the  great  railroads,  the  Central  Pacific,  was 
finished,  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
and  opening  the  country  to  settlement  and  travel. 
Since  then  other  railroads  have  stretched  their  iron 
bands  across  the  continent.  Of  the  2'J0,000  miles  of 
railroad  in  the  world,  there  are,  probably,  about  135,- 
UOO  miles  in  the  United  States.  This  country  possesses, 
also,  more  than  150,000  miles  of  telegraph  lines;  and 
the  American  telephone  lines  are  still  longer  in  the 
aggregate.  In  1866,  a  previous  attempt  in  1857  having 
failed,  a  telegraphic  cable  was  laid  upon  the  bed  of  the 
Atlantic  between  America  and  Europe.  This  cable  wa.", 
followed  by  others,  so  that  now  the  citizen  of  the 
United  States  may  know  each  day  the  principal  events 
which  occur  in  the  civilized  world.  The  stimulus  given 
to  new  territory  possessing  the  requisites  for  settlement 
by  the  introduction  of  a  new  railway  has  been  wonder- 
ful beyond  description.  Most  of  the  western  railways 
haveSad  to  build  up  their  own  traffic.  The  railway  has 
been  mainly  constructed  under  land  grants  from  the 
government,  and  the  sales  of  these  lands  have  brought 
into  existence  the  towns  and  even  the  states  which 
support  it. 

327.  In  the  government  reports  of  1854  Nebraska 
was  described  as  a  desert  country  totally  unsuited  for 
agriculture,  and  in  the  maps  of  the  time  it  was  put 
down  as  a  part  of  the  Great  American  Desert.  It  is 
now  one  of  the  leading  agricultural  ttates  of  the  union 
New  states  with  a  population  of  over  a  million.  Since  the  admis- 
sion of  Colorado  in  1876  six  other  states  have  been 
admitted  to  the  union,  namely.  North  and  South 
Dakota,  Washington,  Montana,  Wyoming  and  Idaho. 
There  are  yet  five  territories,  including  Alaska,  not  yet 
organized  into  states,  and  the  District  of  Columbia. 
The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  has  become  greatly 
developed.  A  few  years  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
California  the  precious  metal  was  found  also  at 
Pike's  Peak,  Colorado  (1858).  Since  then  it  has  been 
discovered  in  most  of  the  Pacific  states  and  territories. 
In  1858  silver  was  discovered  iu  Nevada,  and  this  metal 
has  been  found  widely  distributed  in  the  country 
bordering  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  extent  of  the  vast 
coal  fields  of  the  country  has  been  pretty  clearly  ascer- 
•tained.  In  1883  it  was  estimated  at  over  200,000  square 
PetrolentD  miles.  Petroleum  was  discovered  in  18.59  in  north- 
western Pennsylvania,  nume:us  wells  were  sunk  and 
vast  quantities  of  the  oil   have  been  taken  from  the 

arth,  but  the  reservoir  seems  to  be  unfailing.  Manu- 
facturing establishments  of  every  variety  have  rapidly 
increased  in  every  part  of  the  country.  The  absolute 
free  trade  which  exists  between  the  states  has  resulted 


Mineral 
'vealtb. 


Coal. 


ttana- 
>ctaies. 


in  a  constant  shifting  of  centers  of  production  and  an 
increasing  development.  Among  the  nations  of  the 
wCild,  Great  Britain,  in  1870,  stood  first  in  wealth, 
France  the  second  and  the  United  States  the  third. 
In  1880  the  United  States  had  left  France  behind  in 
the  race  and  stood  at  least  second.  When  all  the 
census  returns  of  1890  shall  be  given  they  will  doubtless 
show  that  this  country  ranks  with  the  first.  The 
United  States,  whose  population  has  been  developed 
within  less  than  three  centuries, does  already  more  than 
one-third  of  the  world's  mining  and  one-fourth  of  its 
manufacturing.  It  embraces  also  one-fifth  of  its  agri- 
culture. 

328.  In  this  wonderful  progress  and  development  the  Tlieac  ■!«» 
soutn,  since  the  close  of  the  war,  has  borne  her  share. 

Being  relieved  of  the  incubus  of  slavery  she  has  come 
up  "through  great  tribulation"  to  assume  her  rightful 
place  as  a  most  important  factor  in  advancing  the 
prosperity  of  an  undivided  nation.  Under  the  stimulus 
of  free  labor  her  growth  has  been  extraordinary.  New 
railroads  have  been  built  and  new  territory  opened  up. 
Southern  railways  occupy  a  leading  position  in  the 
railway  systems  of  the  country.  Southern  manufact- 
ures began  to  effect  northern  markets.  Cotton  mills 
have  been  successfully  established,  which  have  the 
advantage  of  an  immediate  contiguity  to  the  cotton- 
raising  states.  The  great  mineral  fields,  over  which 
contending  armies  fought  fierce  ba'tles  during  the  late 
war,  have  been  brought  to  light  a^id  are  being  rapidly 
developed.  Pennsylvania  iron-masters  have  a  new 
rival  to  contend  with  in  the  iron  production  of  the 
south.  The  former  slave  is  now  a  free  laborer,  and  the 
white  man  is  no  longer  ashamed  to  work.  White 
labor  produced  t»n  per  cent  of  the  cotton  crop  of  1860 
and  fifty-five  per  cent  of  that  of  1886.  Under  slavery, 
cotton-seeds  were  waste  material;  in  1886  600,000  tons 
of  them  were  crushed,  yielding  a  new  production  In 
the  form  of  cottonseed  oil  valued  at  $12,000,000  per 
annum. 

329.  Among   the  political   and  economic  questions  Ciw: 
demanding  the  attention  of  the  government,  no  one  of  serviot 
them  is  more  important  than  the  question  of  the  reform  ■'''''"^ 
of  th    civil  service,  but  it  is  not  avowedly  made  a  party 
question.     Twenty  years  ago  both  parties  Ipughed  at 

the  idea  of  civil  cervice  reform,  now  each  one  makes  a 
show  at  least  of  treating  it  with  respect,  and  the  con- 
trol of  the  immediate  political  future,  probably  lies 
with  the  party  which  will  treat  it  in  the  most  serious  and 
practical  manner.  It  is  a  question  that  was  not  dis- 
tinctly foreseen  in  the  days  of  Hamilton  and  Jeffer- 
son, when  the  constitution  was  made  and  adopted, 
otherwise  the  founders  of  the  constitution  might  have 
had  something  to  say  concerning  it.  The  question  as 
to  the  civil  service  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  presi- 
dent has  the  power  of  appointing  a  very  large  numbei 
of  petty  officials,  chiefly  postmasters  and  officers  con- 
cerned with  the  collection  of  the  goyernment  revenue. 
Such  officials  have  properly  nothing  to  do  with  politics; 
they  are  simply  the  agents  or  clerks  or  servants  of  the 
national  government  in  conducting  its  business,  and  ii 
this  business  is  to  be  managed  on  the  ordinary  princi- 
ples of  prudence  which  prevail  in  the  management  ol 
private  business,  such  servants  ought  to  be  selected  for 
personal  merit  and  retained  for  life  or  during  good 
behavior.  In  1883  Congress  passed  the  civil  service  The  civii 
act  allowing  the  president  to  select  a  board  of  examin-  ^""^  ""• 
ers  and  make  appointments  upon  their  recommenda- °" 
tion.  Candidates  for  office  are  subjected  to  an  easy 
competitive  examination.  The  system  lias  worked  well 
■n  other  countries,  and  under  Presidents  Arthur  and 
Cleveland  it  was  applied  successfully  to  a  considerable 
part  of  the  civil  service.  It  has  also  been  adopted  in 
some  of  the  states  and  principal  cities  of  the  union. 
It  is  objected  to  by  the  opponents  of  reform,  on  the  Objecttoiu 
ground  that  its  examinations  are  not  always  intimately 
connected  with  the  work  of  the  office;  but,   even  if 


790 


UNITED     STATES 


this  were  so,  it  removes  the  offices  from  the  category  of 
things  known  as  "patronage,"  and  this  alone  endows 
the  system  with  great  merit.  Then  again,  it  relieves 
the  president  of  much  needless  work  and  wearisome 
importunity.  The  executive  and  heads  of  departments 
appoint  (in  many  cases  through  subordinates)  about 
115,000  officials.  It  is  therefore  impossible  for  the 
principals  to  know  much  about  the  character  or  com- 
petency of  those  appointed.  It  becomes  necessary  to 
act  by  advice,  and  the  advice  of  an  examining  board  is 
sure  to  be  much  better  than  that  of  political  schemers 
intent  upon  getting  a  salaried  office  for  their  needy 
friends.  The  examination  system  has  made  a  fair 
beginning  and  will  doubtless  be  gradually  improved 
and  made  more  stringent.  Something  has  been  also 
done  toward  stopping  two  old  abuses  attendant  upon 
political  canvasses,  namely,  that  of  forcing  government 
clerks,  under  penalty  of  losing  their  places,  to  con- 
tribute part  of  their  salaries  for  election  purposes,  and 
that  of  allowing  them  to  neglect  their  work  in  order  to 
take  an  active  part  in  the  canvass. 
, ,.  330.  Another  political  reform  promising  excellent  re- 

AoBtralian  suits  is,  the  adoption  by  many  states  of  some  form  of 
ballot  the  Australian  ballot-system,  for  the  purpose  of  check 
Byetem.  j^g  intimidation  and  bribery  at  elections.  The  ballots 
are  printed  by  the  state,  and  contain  the  names  of  all 
the  candidates  of  all  the  parties.  Against  the  name  of 
each  candidate  the  party  to  which  he  belongs  is  de- 
signated, and  agains  ;  each  name  there  is  a  small  vacant 
Bpace  to  be  filled  with  a  cross.  At  the  polling  place 
the  ballots  are  kept  in  an  enclosure  behind  a  railing  and 
no  ballot  can  be  brought  outside  under  penalty  of  fine 
or  imprisonment.  One  ballot  is  nailed  against  the  wall 
outside  the  railing,  so  that  it  may  be  read  at  pleasure. 
The  space  behind  the  railing  is  divided  into  separate 
booths  quite  screened  from  each  other,  each  booth  is 
provided  with  a  pencil  and  a  convenient  shelf  on  which 
to  write.  The  voter  goes  behind  the  railing,  takes  the 
ballot  which  is  handed  to  him,  carries  it  to  one  of  the 
booths,  and  marks  a  cross  against  the  names  of  the 
candidates  for  whom  he  votes.  He  then  puts  his  ballot 
into  the  box,  and  his  name  is  checked  ofE  on  the  register 
of  voters  of  the  precinct.  This  system  is  very  simple; 
and  it  enables  a  vote  to  be  given  in  absolute  secrecy. 
It  is  favorable  to  independence  in  voting,  and  is  unfavor- 
able to  bribery,  because,  unless  the  briber  can  follow 
his  man  to  the  polls  and  see  how  he  votes,  he  cannot 
be  sure  that  his  bribe  is  effective.  During  the  past  few 
years,  complaints  of  bribery  and  corruption  have  at- 
tracted especial  attention  in  the  United  States,  and  it  is 
highly  creditable  to  the  good  sense  of  the  people  that 
preventive  measures  have  been  so  promptly  adopted  by 
many  of  the  states.  With  an  independent  and  uncor- 
rupted  ballot,  and  the  civil  service  taken  "out  of  poli- 
tics," all  other  reforms  will  become  far  more  easily  ac- 
complished. 

But  a  very  few  of  the  works  treating  of  the  History  of  the  United 
States  in  ItH  manifold  phases  can  be  here  given,  as  they  are  so  nu- 
merous. Tht  Histories  of  the  Vnilni  Stales,  by  George  Bancroft, 
David  Ramsay,  Richard  Hildrelh,  Bryant  lligginson.  Lossjng,  Les- 
ter, Frost,  Schouler,  Von  Hoist,  Kidpath,  Ilamllton,  Hassard,  Gray, 
Leeds  ;  American  History,  edited  by  Edward  L.  Knapp  ;  Gilman, 
History  of  the  American  People  ;  U.  H.  Bancroft,  Hmtory  of  the 
Pacific  Coast  ;  Willson,  American  History ;  Hazard,  Historical 
Collections  ;  aicphen  n.  Newman. /iMfnVa ;  Oilman,  History  of 
the  American  People;  Winsor,  A'arratiee  and  Critical  History; 
Grah:im,  History  of  the  United  Slates ;  Parkman's  n'orks ; 
Ludinw.  War  o/'  American  Independence;  Gordon,  History  of 
the  Jiid.iii iiden'ce  nf  the  United  States;  Edward  D.  Neill,  Mac- 
AUlslir,  College  Contributions  to  American  History;  Gordon, 
History  of  the  American  Revolution,  lienisler  of  Debates  in  Con- 
gress. Conqrissional  Globe,  Annals  of  Congress;  Coles,  History 
of  the  Ordinance  of  1787  ;  Adams,  New  England  Federalism. 
1800-1.5;  Greene,  Historical  View  of  the  American  Recoliition; 
The  American  Commonwealth  Series  :  Lodge,  English  Colonies 
in  America ;  Carrlngton,  Patties  of  the  American  Revolution  ; 
Neill,  Eni/lish  Colonization  of  America;  Duyckinck.  National 
Portrait  (';,illi  ni ;  Holmes.  Annuls  of  America  ;  Marshall,  History 
oftheColunits';  VMtqs.  History  of  Nen<  England ;  Story,  Com- 
menlarirs;  Story,  On  t/ie  Constitulion  :  Frnihint;liam,  Rise  of  the 
Bepublic ;  .Harpers'  Cyclnpudia  of  Amcricmi  History;  Apple- 
ton's  CycloplTdia  of  Am/rican  Biography;  John  Kobort  Ireland, 
The  Re/mbtic  ;  Hcotl.  Coiislilnlional  Liberty  in  t/ie  Colnniis  ;  Bon- 
ton,  Thirty  Years  in  the  S-nnlc  ;  Irving,  Life  of  Washington  ; 
9«nt  Coimnentaries  on  Ariwrican  Law ;  Johnston,  History  of 
A>MThan  Politics ;  Johnston,  History  of  the  United  States ; 
fieke,  American  Political  Ideas  ;  Fiske,  Civil  Government  in  the 


United  States,  Johns  Hopkin's  University^  Studies  in  History  afut 
Politics  ;  Howard,  Local  Constitutional  History  of  the  Unittd 
States  ;  A.  O.  Wright,  Constitution  of  the  United  States  ;  Brown- 
son,  American  Republic  ;  Lamphere,  American  Government ;  Wil- 
son. Congressional  Government ;  Mansfield.  The  Political  Manual; 
Curtis,  History  of  the  Constitution  ;  J.  D.  Whitney.  United  States; 
Tribune  Almanac.  McPherson.  Political  Manuals;  Spofford, 
American  Almanac  ;  Fallows,  The  American  Manual ;  Congress- 
ional Records  ;  Reports  of  theOfflcers  of  the  Various  States  ;  His- 
tories of  the  Various  States  :  Compendium  of  the  Census  from 
18.50-1890  ;  Cooper,  Naval  History  ;  Preble,  History  of  the  Navy  ; 
Porter,  Constitutional  History;  McKnigbt.  Electoral  System; 
McCrary.  EUction  Laws;  Cooley,  Constitutional  Limitations, 
Taxation  and  Constitutional  Law  ;  Alden,  Science  of  Government; 
Austin,  Constitutional  Republicanism  :  Bradford.  History  of  the 
Federal  Gorernment.  178!I-1,S39  ;  Coles,  History  of  the  Ordinanceo/ 
1787  ;  Dwight.  History  of  the  Hartford  Conrenlinn  ;  Draper,  Civil 
Policy  of  America  ;  Handlin,  American  Politics ;  Sneider,  Tfie 
American  State  :  Spaulding,  Administrations  of  the  United  States; 
Sumner,  WorK's;  Thompson,  Church  and  Statein  the  U.  S.;  Thomp- 
son, 7?fro/?;/iO?i  j4(7rti7i6'/  Free  Government;  Townsend. --l/ta^y^t* 
of  Civil  Government ;  Elliot's  Debates  :  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion :  Young,  American  Statesmen  ;  Bancroft.  Formation  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  U.  S. ;  Blaine,  Twenty  Years  in  Congress ; 
Porter,  Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States;  Vreh\e,  His- 
tory of  the  Flag  of  the  United  States;  Sumner,  Prophetic  Voices 
Concerning  Ajiierica  ;  Wilson,  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power; 
Woolscy  and  others.  First  Century  of  the  Republic;  Rusfell,  His- 
tory of  the  }yar  of  \H\2  ;  Ingersoll.  History  of  the  War  of  1S12; 
Abbott's  History  of  the  Civil  War;  Compte  Oe  Paris,  History  of  the 
Civil  War  in  America  ;  Borcke,  Memoirs  of  tlie  Confederate  War; 
Brownlow,  Rise  and  Progress  of  Secession  ;  Campaigns  of  the 
Civil  War  :  Drew,  .Joltn  Brown's  Invasion  ;  Greeley,  American 
Conflict  ;  Harpers'  History  of  the  Rebellion ;  Pollard,  Lost 
Cause  :  Pollard,  Lost  Cause  Regained ;  Memoirs  of  Grant  and 
Shertn:in— Life  of  Sheridan  ;  Pollard.  General  Lee  and  His  Lieu- 
tenants:  Pollard,  Military  Life  of  Jefferson  Davis;  Stephens, 
Constitutional  View  of  Late  War.  with  Sujyplement ;  Blodgett, 
Conimercitd  strength  of  the  United  States  ;  Bolles,  Financial  His- 
tory of  the  United  .States  ;  Sumner,  History  of  American  Cur- 
rency ';  Taylor,  -American  Currency ;  Knox,  Fifth  Report  of 
American  'Banners'  Association ;  Law.  National  Circulating 
Medium  in  United  States;  Phillips,  History  of  American  Paper 
Cur/ency  and  Continental  Money;  Wells.  Robinson  Crusoe's 
Money  ;  Spauldingj  One  Hundred  Years  of  Banking ;  Ely,  Labor 
Movement  in  America  ;  Gibbons.  Public  Debt  of  the  UnitedStates; 
Mason,  The  Tariff ;  Young,  Tariff  Legislation  of  the  United 
States  ;  Hudson,  Railways  and  the  jRepublic  ;  fladley,  Railroad 
Transportation  ;  Poor,  Manual  of  U.  S.  Railroads ;  Porcher,  Re- 
sources of  the  South  ;  Dresser,  UnitedStates  Tariff;  Official  Sta- 
tistics of  the  United  States,  and  the  Several  States. 

PRESIDENTS  AND  VICE-PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Terms. 


1789-93 
1793-97 
1797-1801 
1801-03 
1805-09 
1809-13 

1813-17 

1817-ai 

1831-25 
1825-39 

1829-33 

1833-37 

1837^1 

lMl-45 

1845^9 
1849-53 

18,53-,57 

18,57-ai 

186I-G5 
186,5-69 

1869-73 
1873-71 

1877-81 

1881-85 

1885-89 


Presidents. 


1.  George  Washington,  Va. 
George  Washington. 

2.  John  Adams,  Mass. 

3.  Thomas  Jefferson,  Va. 
Thomas  Jefferson. 

4.  .lames  Madison,  Va. 

James  Madison. 

5.  .lames  Monroe,  Va. 

.Tames  Monroe. 
G.  John  Quiucy  Adams,  Mass. 

7.  Andrew  Jackson,  Tenn. 
Andrew  Jackson. 

8.  Martin  Van  Buren,  N.  Y. 

9.  William  Henry  Harrison,  O. 

id.  1841). 
10.  John  Tyler. 
U.  James  Knox  Polk,  Tenn. 

13.  Zachary     Taylor,     La.     (rf. 
1850. 

13.  Millard  Fillmore. 

14.  Franklin  Pierce,  N.  II. 

15.  James  Buchanan,  Pa. 

16.  Abraham  Lincoln,  111. 
Abraham  Lincoln  (rf.  1865). 

17.  Andrew  Johnson. 

18.  Ulysses  Simpson  Grant,  III. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant. 

19.  Rutherford  Birchard  Hayes, 

O. 

30.  James  Abram  Garfield,   O. 

(d.  18811. 
21.  Chester  Allan  Arthur. 
32.  Grover  Cleveland,  N.  Y. 

23.  Benjamin  Harrison,  Ind. 


Vice-Presidents. 


1.  John  Adams,  Mass. 

John  .\dams. 
3.  Thomas  Jefferson, Va. 

3.  Aaron  Burr,  N.  Y. 

4.  George  Clinton,  N,  Y. 
George    Clinton      (d. 

1812). 

5.  Elbridge  Gerry,  Mass, 

(d.  1814). 

6.  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,. 

N.  Y. 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins. 

7.  John    Caldwell     Cal- 

houn, S.  C. 
John  C.  Calhoun  (res. 
18,32. 

8.  Martin    Van     Buren, 

N.  Y. 

9.  Richard  Mentor  John- 

son. Ky. 
10.  John  Tyler,  Va. 


11.  George  Mifflin  Dallas, 

Pa. 

12.  Millard  Fillmore.N.T. 


13.  William  Rufus  King, 

Ala.  {d.  1853). 

14.  John  Cabell  Breckin- 

ridge, Ky. 

15.  Hannibal  Hamlin,  Me. 

16.  Andrew  Johnson, Tenn 

17.  Schnyler  Colfax.  Ind.  . 

18.  Henry  Wilson,   Mass. 

[d.  1875). 

19.  Win.  Almon  Wheeler, 

N.  Y. 

20.  Chester  Allan  .Arthur, 

N.  Y. 

21.  ThomasAndrewsHen- 

dricks,  Ind.  (d.  1885.> 
2*?.  Levi  Parsons  Morton^ 
N.  Y. 


S.  F. 


I 


I 


?«;i«<0»rkii      95 


□  aBbio^toQ  18 


PHYSICAL    KfiTl-KES. 


UNITED      STATES 


791 


PART  ll.-PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY    AND    STATISTICS. 


•opodarief 
nd  Area. 


ea«ra|>h- 
sl  ]toei- 
an. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY   AND  STATISTICS. 

North  America  is  very  unequally  di\-ided  between  races  speak- 
ing English  and  those  whose  uffieial  language  is  Spanish.  From 
the  parallel  of  dtj^  south  the  cuutinent  uarrxiws  very  rapidly,  and 
Bearly  all  the  country  to  the  north  of  this  parallel  is  under  the 
•ontrol  of  English-speaking  people.  It  is  true  that  many  emi- 
grants from  various  portions  of  Europe,  and  some  from  .\sia, 
a«  well  as  the  descendiiufs  of  .\fricans.  are  mingled  with  the  de- 
•eenJ.ints  of  the  English;  but  this  does  not  materially  affect  the 
truth  ot  the  statement,  that  north  of  3U°  the  Euglish  laugu.ige  is 
Bot  only  dominant,  but  almost  universal.  This  vast  region,  embnic- 
ing  an  area  of  more  than  seven  millions  of  square  miles,  is  pretty 
equally  divided,  so  far  a>  area  is  concerned,  betwetn  colonial 
possessions  of  Great  Britain  and  a  country  of  which  the  nucleus 
was  once  colonial  and  English,  but  which  for  a  little  more  than  a 
kundred  years  has  been  independent  of  the  mother  country,  and 
which  has  greatly  increased  in  area  since  that  change  took  place, 
by  the  absorption,  as  exphiineil  elsewhere,  of  land  formerly  to  a 
•ertain  extent  controlled  by.  or  in  nominal  possession  of.  people 
speaking  French  and  Spanish.  The  Spanish-spaking  inhabi- 
tants of  North  America  are  known  as  Mexicans  and  Centr.al 
Americans,  the  colonial  English  as  Canadians:  and  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  making  a  convenient  and  euphonious  adjective- 
appellative  out  of  the  name  United  States,  the  citizens  of  "the 
States"  are  being  more  and  more  generally  designated  by  the 
term  ".Americans." 

The  British  possessions  in  North  America,  although  about 
equal  lu  area  to  the  United  States,  are  much  less  dens.-Iy  popu- 
lated than  this  country,  and  will  in  all  probabilit.v  ever  remain  so, 
^ince  in  regard  to  climate,  soil,  and  mineral  productions,  the 
northern  portion  of  the  continent  stands  in  a  position  greatly  in- 
ferior to  chat  of  the  more^ southern  region  To  the  United  States 
belongs  that  portion  of  North  .America  which  by  its  position  in 
latitude  is.  in  large  part,  capjble  of  supporting  a  dense  popula- 
tion, and  where  the  climatic  conditions  are  highly  favorable  to 
intellectnal  and  physical  development. 

The  area  embraced  under  the  designation  of  '*the  United 
States"  (of  North  .\mericai  extends  from  the  .\tlantic  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Its  boundaries,  other  than  these  oceans,  are  in 
part  natural  and  in  part  artificial.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico  forms  the 
■outhern  boundary  of  the  United  States  between  the  meridians  of 
S3°  and  97°.  Between  .Mexico  and  the  United  States,  the  bound- 
ary U  in  part  natural  and  in  part  arbitrary.  The  most  essential 
feature  of  this  boundary  is  the  Rio  Grande,  from  the  mouth  of 
which  the  division  line  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States 
follows  this  river  to  the  point  where  the  parallel  of  .31°  47'  inter- 
.lects  it. 

i  The  boundary  line  between  the  United  State?  and  Canada  fol- 
lows the  middle  of  the  St,  Lawrence  River  and  the  Great  Lakes, 
from  the  point  where  the  45th  parallel  cuts  that  river  to  a  point 
on  Lake  Snperio/ where  the  Rainy  Lake  River  enters  that  lake, 
thence  up  that  river  to  a  point  on  the  west  side  of  the  Lake  of 
the  Woods,  and  thence  along  the  49th  parallel  to  Puget  Sound. 

The  triangular  area  between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie  on  one 
side  and  Lake  Huron  on  the  other  extends  far  to  the  south  of  the 
remaining  portion  of  Cana<la.  and  this  southerly  aj-ea  constitutes 
the  most  valuable  and  thickly  inhabited  portion  of  the  Dominion, 
The  United  States,  as  thus  limited,  leaving  out  of  consideratioii 
the  remote  territory  ot  .\laska,  comprises  an  area  of  3,02.5.600 
square  miles.  This  includes  oo.iiOO  square  miles  of  water  surface, 
embracing  the  following  items  :— 

Coast  waters,  bays,  gulfs,  sounds,  etc. 17  200 

Rivers  and  smaller  streams 14  jOO 

Lakes  and  ponds 23,900 

Leaving  the  total  land  surface 2,970,0<X) 

Total 3.025,600 

Under  the  head  of  "lakes  and  ponds,"  as  given  above,  no  portion 
of  the  Great  Lakes  is  included  The  area  of  Alaska  is  given  in 
the  Census  Report  of  laso  as  being  .531,409  square  miles,  which 
flgnres.  however,  can  be  only  a  rough  approximation,  and  which 
differ  greatly  from  those  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  the  General  Land  Office  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1886. 
.The  total  of  the  possessions  of  the  United  States  is  therefore, 
'approximately,  3„5o7,009  square  miles.  The  area  of  the  British 
Possessions  in  North  .America,  including  Newfoundland,  but  not 
(the  Arctic  .Archipelago,  is  given  by  Behm  and  Wagner  at  3.24S,077, 
and  by  Mr.  Selwyn,  Government  Geologist  of  Canada,  at  3,.530,630 
square  miles.— the  latter  estimate  including  Newfoundland,  and 
also  the  islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Hudson's  Bav,  The  area 
of  Mexico  is  given  by  Behm  and  Wagner  as  751.177  square  miles, 
and  that  of  Central  .America  211,320  square  miles.  The  total 
•reaof  North  America,  including  the  .Arctic  Archipelago  and  Cen- 
tral America,  may  therefore  be  approximately  stated  as  follows  :— 

British  Possessions 3„530,6,30 

United  States 3,5.57,t»i9 

Mexico 7,51,177 

Central  America 211,320 

Total 8,050,136 

The  area  of  the  United  States  lies  between  the  67th  and  125th 
degrees  of  longitude,  rjid  the  25th  and  47th  degrees  of  latitude. 


The  form  and  character  of  the  coast  lines  of  the  United  States  voast. 
may  properly  first  claim  our  attention  in  a  topographic  sketch  of 
the  area  under  consideration.  The  tacilities  for  good  harbors  are 
lacking  on  both  c  asis  The  deficiency  in  this  respect  on  the 
Pacific  side  is  striking,  th  re  being  only  one  important  bay  on  this 
coast  between  San  Diego  and  Paget  Sound;  namely,  that  of  San 
i  niiicisco.  Thb.  as  compared  with  the  mass  of  the  land,  is  of  insig- 
nificant size,  but  as  furnishing  a  large,  safe,  and  easily  accessible 
harbor,  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  The  indentation  at  San 
Diego  is  much  smaller  than  that  of  San  Franci.-co,  but  that  also 
furnishes  a  cuminodious  harbor.  With  th«s-'  exceptions  there  aro 
within  the  limits  of  the  United  States  no  satisfactory  harbors  on 
the  Pacificcoast  except  those  of  Puget  Sound  and  Columbia  River 
in  the  extreme  north. 

The  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  is  provided  with  several  Ports  and 
good  harbors  and  some  large  hays.  On  the  Maine  coast  there  is  the  harbors 
harbor  of  Portland,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  a  number 
of  safe  and  commodious  ports  along  the  coast.  In  Massachusetts, 
Cape  Cod  incloses  a  large  and  safe  bay.  at  the  lower  end  of  which 
IS  situated  the  h  irbor  of  Boston.  In  New  York,  the  situation  of 
the  city  by  the  same  name  makes  that  port  the  most  important 
center  of  commerce  in  the  United  States. 

The  superiority  and  eommodiuusness  of  the  harbor  ot  New  York 
depends  in  part  on  the  breadth  of  the  Hudson  near  its  mouth— 
this  river  being  in  fact  almost  an  arm  ot  the  sea— and  also  on  the 
position  of  Long  Isl md.  the  western  end  of  which  is  so  placed 
with  reference  to  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  and  a  closelv  con- 
tiguous small  island  (Staten  Island)  as  to  inclose  a  large'  land- 
locked area  called  the  Upper  Bay, 

Long  Island,  off  the  coast  of  Connecticut,  has  a  length  of  120 
miles.  It  is  the  only  island  of  any  importance  on  the  .Atlantic 
coast.  There  are  a  i  umber  of  smallerones,  such  as  Block  Island, 
Nantucket  and  Martha's  Vineyard. 

South  of  New  Y'ork  are  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Bays  Bays, 
ihe  latter  receives  the  water  of  the  Delaware  River,  and  the 
Chesapeake  tiiat  of  the  Potomac    and   the    Susquehanna     The 
largest  indentation  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States  is  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

It  is  into  this  great  reservoir  that  the  superfluous  waters  otthe 
larger  portion  of  the  United  States  are  carried,  chiefly  by  the 
Mississippi  and  .Missouri,  but  also  by  dirtet  drainage"  into  ths 
Gulf  from  the  a,;ljacent  States.  The  peninsula  ot  Florida,  project- 
ing from  and  extending  five  degrees  south  of  the  mainland,  and 
forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Gulf,  is  of  more  importance 
in  Its  relations  to  the  currents  entering  into  the  Gulf  than  it  is  as 
an  addition  to  the  inhabitable  territory  of  the  country. 

A  large  portion  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States 
IS  of  a  peculiar  kind.  It  is  neither  land,  river,  nor  ocean,  but 
fresh  water;  it  being  a  Km  drawn  through  the  central  portion  of 
four  of  the  so  called  "Great  Lakes"— Ontario,  Erie,  Huron  and 
Superior.  Lake  .Michigan,  on  the  other  hand,  is  wholly  within 
the  limits  of  the  Initerl  States. 

The  Great  Lakes,  which  are  five  in  number,  constitute  a  most  The  Great 
important  feature  in  the  topography  of  the  country.  They  are  Lakes 
remarkable  for  their  size, and  for  the  near  approach  to  equality  of 
altitnde  above  the  sea-level  of  the  surface  ot  the  four  largest  ones. 
Navigation  is  entirely  uninterrupted  between  Erie.  Huron  and 
.Michigan,  and  these  have  the  following  elevations:  Erie  573  feet; 
Huron.. 5^2:  .Michigan,  .~82.  Lake  Superior  is  twenty  feet  higher 
than  Lake  Michigan,  but  this  obstruction  has  been  overcome  by  the 
building  of  a  canal  around  the  Falis  of  St.  MaryfSaut  Ste,  Marie), 
with  a  single  lock  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  accommodate  vessels 
and  steamers  of  the  largest  size.  Lake  Ontario  is  326  feet  lower 
than  Erie  and  these  two  lakes  are  connected  by  a  canal  on  the 
Canada  side ;  while  Erie  is  also  thus  connected,  on  the  American 
side,  with  the  Hudson  River,  and  through  this  with  the  Atlantic 
As  before  remarked,  the  chief  drainage  of  the  United  States  is  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  through  the  system  of  the  Mississippi-Missouri 
and  their  tributaries,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  table,  show- 
ing the  extent  of  the  various  important  dirisions  of  the  drainaee 
area  of  the  country,  as  given  by  the  U,  S,  Census  of  ISSO:— 

Atlantic  and  Gnlf 2.178.210 

Great  Basin  iiSilSO 

Pacific  Slope 619','240 

The  drainage    area  of  the  MLssissippi-Missonri  River  is  esti- 
mated at  1.240,039  square  miles,  or  somewhat  over  one-third  of  the  Drainas* 
entire  area  of  the  country.    The  drainage  into  the  .Atlantic  and  areas 
(lulf.  as  stated  above  at  2,178.210  square  miles,  is  divided  as 
follows: — 

New  England  coast 61,830 

.Middle  .Atlantic  coast 83.C20 

South -Atlantic  coast 132,040 

Groat  Lakes 175.340 

Gu  1 E  of  Mexico I,7"25.;i80 

Total. 2.178,210 

The  drainage  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  thus  divided:— 

Into  the  Gnlf  direct ■ 4S5.94I 

Through  the  Mississippi  River 1.24o]o39 

1,725,960 


792 


UNITiiD^STATES 


[general  topography. 


This  indication  of  the  overwhelming  preponderance  of  the 
drainage  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  naturally  opens  the  way  to  a  recognition  of  the  most  iin- 
poitant  fact  in  the  topogrnphy  of  the  country  —  namely,  the 
existence  of  such  an  orographic  structure  as  compels  the  waters 
to  concentrate  them-^elves  into  one  trreat  system  of  tributaries 
coming  in  from  the  east  and  the  west,  and  uniting  in  a  main 
uorth-and-south  channel.  The  cause  of  thi;'  state  of  things  be- 
come-i  evident  when  we  notice  the  general  relief  of  the  country, 
aad  the  pusitions  of  the  varinus  water  sheds.  To  acquire  the  best 
general  idea  of  the  r>'lief  of  the  surface  of  the  United  States,  we  may 
begin  by  supposing  the  land  to  be  depressed,  or  the  level  of  the 
ocean  raised,  to  an  amount  equ.il  to  one  thousand  feet.  By  dung 
this  we  should  flond  a  great  strip  uf  country  across  the  continent. 
Mexico  would  remain  on^the  w.'St  a  great  mass  of  land,  while  to 
the  north  of  fhe  United  States  the  land  would  rapidly  diminish  as 
higher  latitudes  were  reached. 

GENERA7,  TOPOGRAPHY. 

In  describing  the  physical  features  of  a  country,  it  is  necessary 
tti  consider  its  general  plan,  the  skeleton  or  framework  of  moun- 
tains, to  which  its  plains,  valleys,  and  river  systems  are  subordi- 
nate, and  on  the  directi,ou  and  elevation  of  whose  parts  its  climate 
ii.  in  a  very  large  degree,  dei-ei  dent. 

The  skeleton  of  the  United  States  is  represented  by  two  great 
system^  of  mountain  ranges,  or  combinations  of  ranges,  one 
forming  tlie  eastern,  the  nth-  r  the  western  side  of  the  framework 
by  which  the  central  portion  of  our  continent  is  embraced.  Tliese 
two  .-ystems  are  the  Appalachian  ranges  and  the  Cordilleras  of 
North  America.  These  systeius  are  of  very  different  magnitude 
and  extent.  Between  them  stretches  a  great  interior  vaM-w,  oceu 
pied  by  tiie  Mississippi  and  the  ereat  lakes 
Mountain  The  centnil  portion  of  th-;  United  Slates  is  nearly  a  level  area. 
regloLs,  embracing  a  tract  of  country  about  l'J5U  miles  east  and  wesr,  and 
about  12i.iti  miles  noith  and  south.  It  slopes  gently  downward  t  » 
the  center  from  iheea?tand  »  est,  and  towards  the  Gulf  nf  Mex 
ico,  from  its  northern  limits.  The  moantain  regions,  both  on  ihe 
east  and  west  coasts,  are  not  embnu'i  d  under  one  continuous 
range,  but  are  complicated  in  their  orographic  structure. 

The  eastern  and  westeri  elevated  region^  being  nuide  up  of  a 
great  numb  r  of  topographically  more  or  less  dttjichod  portions. 
It  was  not  until  a  corriparatively  recent  period  ilisit  these  regions 
receivt  d  such  general  distinctive  appellaiion-  h>  w-uld  evidently 
be  required  in  any  discussion  or  de-c- iption  of  th' country  as  a 
wh'de.  At  the  present  time,  by  gi-n'rai  eo  se:it  of  gei^graph'TS 
and  geologists,  the  eastern  elevated  siile  of  the  contin'  nt  is  cal'ed 
the  Appalachian  Region;  the  western  the  Oordilleran.  «hile 
the  comparatively  level  country  between  these  ranges  is  known 
as  the  Mississippi  Vai.i.kt 

The  Great  Basin  of  the  Mis/iiasippi  is  bisected  tbrouiih  its  cen- 
ter by  a  supreme  artery,  which,  above  ."^t  .l^ouis.  has  received  the 
name  of  the  Misiouri.  and  below  the  Misnissippi  Kiver. 

This  is  5.UUU  miles  in  lengih.  and  it-  surface  is  a  continuous  in- 
clined plane,  descending  seven  inches  in  the  mile.  Inl"  this  cen- 
tral artery,  a-  into  a  common  trough  (bscend  innumerabie  rivers 
comiutr  trom  the  great  mountain  chiins  of  the  continent. 

All  III  the  immense  urea  thus  drained  fnnus  a  single  basin,  of 
which  th-'circumfere  .t  mouniains  form  rbe  rim.  It  may  be  also 
called  an  a7HpAiVAe«?re,  embracing  1,500,000  square  miles  of  surface. 
This  has  b'Mm.  during  the  anteiiiluvian  a;;es,  the  bed  uf  a  great 
ocL'an,  such  as  is  now  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  ihe  Me.literranean, 
above  the  surface  of  which  the  inouinains  protruded  themselves 
as  islands.  (Gradually  tilled  up  by  ihi*  liitration  of  the  waters 
during  countless  ages,  it  has  reached  its  pres  'iitaltiiude  above  the 
other  Imsins,  over  which  the  oceans  now  still  roll,  and  into  which 
the  wat'-rs  have  retired. 
?i  s  ssippi  Thr  fiasin  of  the  Missiaaippi  is,  then,  a  paveoient  oi  calcareous 
t-as...  rock,  many  thousand   feet,  in  depth,  formed   by  the  sedimentof 

the  superincumijent  water,  deposited  stratnm  upon  stratum,  com- 
pressed ijy  its  weight  and  crystallized  into  roek  by  its  chemieal 
fermentation  and  pressure.  It  is  in  exact  imitation  of  this  sub- 
lime process  of  the  natural  world  that  every  housewife  com- 
presses the  milk  of  her  dairy  into  solid  cheese  and  butter.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  homogeneous,  undulating  plain  of  the  secondary  ov 
sedimentary  formation,  surmounted  by  a  covering  of  soil  from 
which  springs  the  vegetation,  as  hair  from  the  external  skin  of 
i  I  animal.  Through  this  coating  of  soil,  and  into  the  soft  surface 
Urata  of  rock,  the  desecnding  fre^h  waters  bnrrow  their  channels, 
converging  everywhere,  from  the  cireumferent  rim  to  the  lowest 
.evel,  and  pass  out  to  the  sea.  . 

The  most  noticeable  facts  in  regard  to  this  vast  area  are  its 
fi -ht  elevation  above  sea-level  and  the  general  plain-like  cbar- 
ictei  of  its  surface.  These  conditions  are  well  illustrated  bv  the 
nat'-ns-it  that  at  Cairo,  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Missis- 
I'ppi,  TO  a**?  1,100  miles  from  the  tiulf,  and  yet  only  about  3<i0 
(•eet  abo/9  ':he  sea-level.  At  Pittsburgh,  the  head  of  the  Ohio 
i'er  iiroper,  we  have  attiiued  an  elevation  of  only  699  feet. 
G-dng  in  the  opposite  direi-tion.  or  following  up  the  tributaries  of 
the  M.ssissippi  and  of  the  Missouri,  which  come  in  from  the  west, 
we  have  a  similar  condition  of  things.  One  may  travel  up  the 
Plat[e  ()r  the  Kansas  for  hundreds  of  miles,  rising  so  grathially 
and  so  imperceptibly  that  the  country  seems  all  the  time  a  level 
plain.  From  Council  Bluffs  to  the  source  of  Lodtre  Pole  creek, 
alnng  the  line  of  the  Union  Pacific  railroad,  the  asrent  averages 
only  5  feet  o  the  mile.  From  St.  Paul,  which  is  only  700  feet 
above  th--  sea.  we  tra-el  for  670  miles  westerly  before  tho  month 
of  the  Yellowstone  is  reached,  and  here  we  have  attained  an  alti- 
tude of  only  2.010  ft-ct,  with  an  avera^iO  rise  of  onlv  2  feet  to  the 

Area  of  The  great  lakes,  those  vast  expansions  of  th^.  upper  waters  of 

Great  the  St.   Lawrence,  are  among  the  grandest  of  the  geographieal 

liakes  features  of  the  North  American  continent.    They  are  remarkable 


for  their  immense  area,  and  for  their  uniformity  of  elevation 
above  sea-level,  and  the  consequent  facilities  which  they  aflford 
for  commercial  intercourse. 

Their  combined  area  is  a  little  more  than  90,000  square  miles. 
Lake  Superior  having  over  30,000,  and  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron 
each  over  So.'OO  square  miles  of  surface.  Erie.  Huron,  and 
Michigan  are  nearly  on  the  same  level,  the  extreme  difference  be- 
tween the  first  and  the  hist-named  being  only  about  16  feet  while 
Superior  is  only  20  feet  hiij'hei  than  Michigan,  or  36  above  Erie. 
The  divide  between  the  threat  lakes  and  the  waters  flowiug  into 
the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  is  also  everywhere  low,  and  at 
the  lower  end  of  Lake  Michigan  it  is  si)  trifling  that  only  a  small 
amount  of  excavation  has  been  required  to  cause  waters  w'uich 
formerly  flowed  into  that  lake  to  run  toward  the  (Julf  of  Mex- 
ico. Lak.!  Ontario  is,  indeed,  323  feet  lower  thin  Lake  Krie, 
about  half  the  descent  from  one  to  the  other  being  made  in  one 
single  plung*  of  the  vast  body  of  water,  forming  a  caiaract  which 
has,  in  all  prubability,  no  rival  in  the  world. 

The  level  and  fertile  region  of  the  Mississippi  valley  is  pro- 
longed toward  the  far  southwest,  around  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
far  into  the  interior  of  T -xas,  where  it  finally  passes  into  the  ele- 
vated, barren  plateau  ot  the  Llano  Estacado. 

All  that  portion  of  the  Mississippi  basin  lying  between  the  Timbe?, 
Mississippi  River  and  the  Atlantic,  is  densely  timbered,  excepting 
only  a  portion  of  Indiana.  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin;  so  also  are  the 
States  of  Louisian  I,  Arkansas,  and  South  Missouri  An  irregular 
line  from  the  head  of  Lake  Erie,  running  toward  the  south  and 
\vest  into  Tex:is,  defines  the  cessation  of  the  timber.  Betweem 
this  line  and  the  sea  exists  a  continuous  forest  region,  perpetually 
moistened  bv  showers  from  the  ocean.  Beyond  this  line,  and 
deeperinto  the  continent,  the  upland  ceases  to  nourish  timber, 
which  is  replaced  by  luxuriant  annual  grasses,  though  narrow 
lines  of  forest  continue  upon  the  saturated  bottoms  of  the  riven 
and  in  the  islands.  This  is  the  Prairie  region  of  luxuriant  annual 
grasses  and  soft  arable  soil,  over  which  the  flres  annually  sweep 
alter  the  d'C  ly  0*  vegetation. 

The.  termination  of  this  belt  is  marked  by  an  irregular  line  par- 
allel to  the  first,  where  the  rain  ceases,  and  the  timber  entirely 
di-appears.  It  is  about  4  0  miles  in  width,  and  within  it  arti- 
ficial irrigation  is  not  practiced  nor  necessary,  it  being  tvery- 
where  soft,  arable  and  fertile. 

To  this  succeeds  the  immentje  rainleaa  region  onward  to  tho 
mountains,  exclusivfly  pastoral,  of  a  compact  soil,  coated  with 
the  dwarf  buffalo  grass,  without  trees,  and  the  abode  of  thi;  ab- 
criginal  cattle  That  no  desert  does  or  can  exist  within  thii 
basin,  is  manifest  from  the  abundance  and  magnitude  of  th« 
rivers;  the  uniform  calcareous tormation;  the  absence  of  a  tropi- 
cal sun;  its  longitudinal  position  across  the  temperate  zone;  and 
the  greatness  and  altitude  nf  the  mountains  on  its  western  rim. 
The  river  sy-^tem  of  the  Mississippi  Basin  resembles  a  fan  of  Rjvaj 
palm-leaf.  Th-  stem  in  the  State  of  Louisiana  rests  in  the  (lulf;  gyvpov 
above,  the  iifflu-  nt  rivers  converge  to  it  from  all  parts  of  the 
compass.  From  the  east  come  in  the  Homoehitto.  the  Yazoo,  the 
Oliin,  the  Illinois,  and  the  Upper  Mississippi  Fnim  the  xceat, 
the  Red  River,  the  Washita,  the  Ark'insa<,  the  White,  St  Francis 
and  Osage  Rivers,  the  Kansas,  the  Triple  Platte,  the  L'Kau  qui 
Cours,  and  the  Yellowst<me.  all  naviga  le  rivers  of  great  length 
and  importance.  These  rivers  present  a  continuous  navigable 
channel  of  22.500  miles,  having  4-5,0110  miles  of  shore — an  amount 
of  navigation  and  coast  equal  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  areaof 
the  Mississippi  Basin  classifies  itself  into  onc-and-a  baU-fiftbs  of 
the  compactly  growing  forest,  the  same  of  prairie,  and  two  fifths 
of  great  plains.  Through  all  of  these  the  river  system  is  ramified 
a?  minutely  complex  as  are  tho  veins  and  arteries  of  the  human 
system 

Beyond  this  great  main  river  stretch  out  the  vast  prairies  of  the  P^in*. 
west.  These  plains  are  not  deserta:  they  are  calcareous. and  form 
the  Pantoral  Garden  of  the  world.  Their  position  and  aiea  may 
be  easily  understood.  The  meridian  line  which  terminates  the 
States  of  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Missouri  and  Iowa  on  the  west, 
forms  their  eastern  limit,  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  crest  their 
irestern  limit.  Between  these  two  limits  they  occupy  a  longitudi- 
nal parallelogram  of  less  than  1,000  miles  in  width,  extending 
from  the  Texan  to  the  Arctic  coasts.  There  is  no  timber  upon 
them,  and  single  trees  arc  scarce.  They  have  n  gentle  slope  from 
the  tcest  to  the  east,  and  abtmnd  in  rivers.  Tbey  are  clad  thick 
with  nutritious  grasses,  and  swnrm  with  animal  life.  The  soil  if 
not  silicious  or  sandy,  but  is  a  fine  ca^careou*  mould.  They  run 
smoothly  out  to  the  navigable  rivers,  the  Missouri.  Mississippi, 
and  St.  Lawrenre.  and  to  the  Texan  coast.  The  mountain  masset 
toward  the  Pacific  form  no  serious  barrier  between  tbem  and  that 
ocean.  No  portion  of  their  whole  sweep  of  surface  is  more  than 
l.OiiO  miles  from  tho  most  facile  navigation.  The  prospect  is 
evervwhere  gently  undulating  and  graceful,  being  bounded,  u 
on  tho  ocean,  by  the  horizon.  Storms  are  rare,  except  during  the 
melting  of  the  snows  uponthccrest  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  climate  is  comparatively  rainless:  the  rivers  serve,  like  the  fllinia'*' 
Nile,  to  irrigate  rather  than  drain  th.^  neighboring  surface,  and 
have  few  affluents.  They  all  run  from  west  to  ?n«^  having  beds  shal- 
low and  broad,  and  the  basins  through  whieh  tbey  flow  are  flat,  long 
and  narrow.  Thearraof  the  Great  Plains  is  equivalent  to  tht 
surface  of  the  twenty-four  States  iK'tween  the  Mississippi  and  th< 
Atlantic  Sea.  They  are  one  homogeneous  formation,  smooth 
uniform,  and  continuous,  without  a  single  abrupt  mountain,  tim 
bered  space,  desert,  or  Inke.  From  their  ample  dimensions  an< 
position  they  define  themselves  to  be  the  pastvrc-fields  of  th 
world . 

The  Pastor.al  Region  is  hnpitndinaL  The  bulk  of  it  is  unde 
the  Temperate  Zone,  out  of  which  it  rur.3  into  the  Arctic  Zone  ff 
tho  north,  and  into  the  Tropical  Zone  on  the  south.  The  parallt 
Atlantic  ara6^e  and  v\aritime  region  flanks  it  on  the  east;  thi 
of  the  Pacific  on  the  west. 


THE    eORDILLERAN    REGION.]  UNITED  S'T'ATFS 


793 


Tertiary 
md  Ci-eta- 


Seoloirical 
tonnatiOD. 


:„!?^'"'®'  "^^  t^^swliole.  so  nearly  a  plain,  this  vast  area.  eomnrU- 
ing  over  a  million  and  a  half  square  miles,  has  considereble 
^mT^F  V  'h  ■^*^'*;  "  being  not  altogether  denitute  of  moSns 
some  of  which  rise  to  a  consi  krable  altitude.  To  descriti  even 
withainoderateaaiouut  of  detail,  the  ba.iu  of  the  r«5e^t  rivt? 
Fvstem  but  one  m  the  world  wotUd  nquire  many  vohfme'  All 
that  can  be  done  is  to  indicate  the  salient  features  of  its^logy 
as  supplementary  to  that  which  has  been  said  in  regard  wSe 
ttrnctore  of  the  great  mountain  systems  by  which  gxi^g^olog^ 
cally  comparatively  undisturbed  region  is  framed  in  ^ 

»ni  ,f/,l''"'tP  '^°'^-  ^■"■".eta'^eous  ro<ks,  extending  along  the  Gulf 

^J^r^?%is^Pn^J^^^— «^^-^S^^,|| 
formation  follows  the  general  trend  of  the  Rockv  MouST  ra 
^1  of  vth'^-t"^\^°'^K'""^f '.''•'  the  western  half  if  Kansas^^ri? 
tte  west'e'rp^rVof°Mln'n"elr  *  ^''^'"''' ''  ''"'"»°  "^  I"-'  ^^ 
Tnassic  rocks  stretch  over  a  large  area  of  Teias;  they  aI«o  ei- 
tei^d  into  the  Indian  Territory  and  the  sonthern^m  of  Kans" 
^ni^l,*  ""*y  ?""-""'  »f  the  Xorthern  Central  gr«up  of  Im^s 
andportions  of  the  southern  Central  group  of  States,  are  of  the 
PaJeozoio  rook  formation,  covered  by  post-Tertiar^  ^d  recent 
Donan^/.Tm »n'°°'-  '"  '■"''l^'^tem.  Mi^ouri.  the  AiTicTea S 
SSc^r  i^  P,Mf  RnTT''H?'*°'^P?'°'- 1™\ O'-e^  of  immense  value 
2u,?fo^nH  ^^  .?  1  •  ^'°?  ■^louitaia  «nd  other  localities.  Iron  is 
s,lti?"?i-'?''"'  :*z">c  formations  about  Lake  Superior,  in  the 
ir^nrt^,  ■'"',r*'°^'"*S''"^*"^'<^™  Minnesoti.  Xorti  of  thil 
O^er^S^^v  t^e  copper-bearing  rock  of  the  lower  SUuriau  age 
S^on  thTrr/H-  rr'''«.™/^°?^5->™"ia-  and  the  count^  boril?- 
in^on  the  Creat  Lakes  is  found  a  large  amount  of  "drift  "  How 
-hH?K*"f"*  1""  was  distributed  Sver  this  area  la  questix,n 
which  has  long  been  a  subject  of  discussion  among  geoIogiirsB? 
S^HhS  '^="  number  of  those  who  have  investfe^  th^  .ubi«.^ 

t^^  iti- bXveH^.J'i^  '^^'-  "^'"i'^^  ™^rial  to  gS 
lenses.  It  ij  believed  that  at  one  time  the  northern  oart  of  the 
continent  was  covered  with  ice,  and  that  which  we  ?l^  on  th^ 
pr,  ;ent  stjrface  of  the  region  th^t  was  thus  Covered  fs  t^e  re4lt 

sl2kTc°thiy";^i!tir^'^^^- "  "^'"^  «-^  -"^'^^  -«  P- 

THE   COBDILLKRiN   BKGIOV 

»J?|ta^f J&V^Ie^r  plot  So?!^^t^  S!.^  :f 

^^J.&^?-Sp!rg\^^?Je°.^  ^-'-  -^"»-  *- 
JdZfJt^:i°  t^^.^y^'.*'™  of  'he  Cordilleras  enters  our  territory. 

to  an  e  evation  of  over  JOW)  feet.    The  country  along  thMinT  si 

^^.!ua^C:^i?:^t?5;';^^^^-^£  ^^ 

H„^,h     •  '     '^"I*  Laramie,  or  between  latitudes  ;ft°  and  49° 
1%  a^^tlo— dllJ^ra-d-tf  lEe^  fcl,rrn%^n.^^^^^^^^ 

be,  in  Its  maximum,  over  I.IUO  miles.    Ih-  whole  area  em  hrJeH 

To  roughly  indicate  the  shape  of  the  ma=s  of  the  Por,l,-ii„ 
wencrnedJ^?!  ,!,„(;'''' ''•^^'^ ''^P''°^'™''tely  60.1  miles.    The 

iiSlpstiiiriis 

by^the°Ca-^,u'"'"^^^'5  *';■''"  '-"^ifated,  framed  in.  as  it  were 
Rocky  Mon'^li..™"^''./.'"'^  ^"""^  ^«™da  on  the  w^st  and  the 
ttro„^hUs?^°,e^.t«„'d  we-;  l-"'"'"--',''  hi?h  plateau,  which! 
10.000  feet  above  set  Lr  ,  V,-  ^^  "i'  •^'^'•at'on  of  from  4.nO0  to 
th-:f^u\11romiUce^l?al'iiie'.'''"°  °^  toward  both  the  north  and 


ine  Cor- 

iiUe.'s*. 


Let  us  consider  U  in  its  great  general  featurea.    It  ma>  o« 
divided  into — 
1st-    .f  he  siction  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
2d.      Ihai  oi  ihe  plateaus, 
3d.     That  of  the  Great  Ba^ in,  and 
4th.    That  of  the  Pacific 

The  country  lying  ea.-t  of  the  first  section  is  a  ereat  plain,  ex- 
tending to  an  undcfinable  eastern  limit,  which  mav  be  set.  how- 
ever,  roughly  at  the  KOth  meridian.  This  plain  L  not  stric.ly 
level,  but  undulatii-g.  like  the  swell  of  thesea.  Mostof  the  streai 
valleys  are  shallow  depressions,  atd  the  divides  between  them 
are  but  slightly  marked.  These  plains  riseslowlv  westward,  with 
an  even  gradient,  to  a  height  of  4,0tio  to  tj,i  Ui  feet  at  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Kocky  Mountains,  being  the  highest  in  Colorado,  de- 
creasing thence  northward  and  southward.  They  are  covered  with 
grasses  almost  throughout,  and  form  a  grajing-ground  of  almost 
incalculable  capacu>'. 

With  the  txoeptio'nof  the  Missouri  and  the  Yellowstone,  none  of 
taestreamsareof  any  importance  to  navigation,  and  ihev  are  of 
use  only  tor  irrigation.  The  capacity  of  this  region  for  supporting 
Mfe  is  largely  dependent  upon  its  rainfall,  which  wUI  be  discussed 
rnrther  on. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  form  the  eastern  member  of  the  Cor-  Rocr.y 
auieran  system,— a  member  made  up  cf  many  subordinate  ranges  Mountaii 
eacn  range  or  sub-group  of  ranges  baring  a  distinctive  name,  recog- 
nized by  those  living  near,  nhile  the  name  "Kocky  Mountains"  is 
m  genera]  use  as  the  proper  appellction  when  a  nnmber  of  these 
sub  groups  of  ranges  are  intended  to  be  included  under  one  com- 
mon name. 

.■jI"^™  '*"' '""".''  border  of  the  United  States  to  about  latitude 
4,s^  their  general  course  is  nearly  north  and  south,  and  from  thij 
pint  northward  to  the  British  line  it  is  nearly  northwest,  thus 


t"..ui.iioriu«aru  tome  critisn  line  it  is  nearly  northwest,  thus 
tormmg  the  two  eastern  sides  of  the  lozenge  above  spoken  of 
Ihey  consist  of  a  number  of  rangts,  nearly  ill  of  which  trend 
paraJlel  to  one  another— a  few  degrees  east  of  south  and  west  of 
north,  or  roughly  paralk  1  to  the  northeasttrn  side  of  thL-  region 
.  In  the  southern  portion  the  ranges  run  out  one  after  another 
into  the  plains,  forming  an  echelon  arrangement,  thus  giving  to 
the  system  a  nearly  north  and  south  face. 

In  Colorado  the  underlying  platiau  attains  a  greater  elevation 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  Cordilleran  system,  reaching  an 
estreme  height  in  the  South  Park  of  lO.OCCi  feet.  Here,  too  the 
ranges  reach  a  greater  altitude  than  in  any  other  part  of  ihe 
,,°-'XL™''"?'*'°  •'-''^"^ni.  ^umberless.  peaks  rise  from  14,fXiO  to 
14.o()0  feet  above  searlevel.  There  are  few  passes  in  the  rai  ge' at 
a  height  much  below  timber-line,  which  is  from  11,000  t^  12,000 
•I.  .^orthward  and  southward  the  plateau  decreases  gradually 
in  height,  carrying  downward  the  ranges  which  stan'i  upon  it. 
Southward  through  New  Mexico  the  ranges  not  only  decrease  in 
height,  but  become  broken  and  scattering,  while  tie  extent  of 
level  plateau  country  becomes  much  greater.  Toward  the  north, 
in  southern  flyoming,  all  the  ranges  step  abruptly,  leaving  to 
represent  the  Rocky  mountain  system  onlv  a  line  of  plateaus  of  an 
elevation  of  ti.OOO  to  7,0C0  feet  stretching  from  Bridger  pass,  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  territory,  northweftward  to  the  South 
pass,  at  the  south  end  of  the  Wind  River  chain.  In  this  latitude 
a  nnmber  of  ranges  rise  abruptly  from  the  plateau,  beginning 
with  the  Big  Horn  on  the  east,  then  the  Wind  River  range,  some 
of  w-hose  peaks  are  more  than  13,000  feet  in  altitude,  and  the  mul- 
titudinous ranges  which  border  the  headwaters  of  the  Snake 
Tj"u'  j°i?  ""*  point,  as  the  system  continues  onward  into 
Idaho  and  Montana,  the  underlying  plateau  and  the  ranges  al«o 
greatly  decrease  in  height,  but  not  in  complexity.  In  the  north- 
western part  of  Montana  and  northern  Idaho,  indeed,  the  whole 
JojJiV'"  „^l-»  ">^s  of  mountain  ranges,  whose  elevation  is  from 
s.uuu  to  y.lM  feet,  separated  in  most  cases,  bv  very  narrow  val- 
leys, the  wnole  area  being  densely  covered  with  forests. 

THE  PLATE.it;  PEO^TKCE. 

The  region  of  which  the  principal  or  more  striking,  topographi- 
cal and  geological  features  are  next  to  be  indicated,  is  that  lying 
south  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  which  is  drained  bv  the  Colorado 
and  its  tributaries.  It  is  included  chiefly  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  Territories  of  Ltah  and  Arizona;  but.  to  a  certain  extent 
similar  ch|iracteristic  features  are  found  in  the  adjacent  portion  of 
Colurido, New  Mexico,  and  Nevada. 

For  CMUvenience  of  geological  discussion,  that  belt  of  country  ProTJnnM!. 
which  hes  between  the  meridian  of  Denver,  Colorado,  and  the     '""""* 
I'acific,  and  between  the  34fh  and  43d  parallels,  is  divided  into 
provinces,  each  of  which  possesses  topographical  features  whicht 
distinguish  It  from  the  others.  The  easternmost  is  named  the  Park 
Province.    It  is  situated  in  the  central  and  western  parts  of  Col- 
orado, and  extends  north  of  that  State  into  Wyoming,  and  south 
of  It  into  New  Mexico,    It  is  pre-eminently  a  mountain  region, 
having  several  long  ranges  of  the  second  order  of  magnitude 
Tne  structure  and  forms  of  these  mountains  are  not  exactly  simiT 
lar  to  tnose  of  any  other  region  now  well  known,  but  posse«s  «ome 
resemblance  to  the  Alps,  though  not  a  verj  close  one. 

To  the  westward  of  these  ranges  in  Colorado,  there  are,  near  the  Platformi 
western  boundary  of  that  State,  regions  having  a  verv  different  and 
topography     The    mountains    disappear   almost  wholly,  and  in  terraces 
their   stead    there  ar,i  platforms    and    terraces  nearly  or  quite 
ho.izontal  on  their  summits  or  floors,  and  abruptiv  terminated  by 
long  lines  or  cliffs.    They  lie  at  greatly  varying  altitudes,  some  as 
highaslUOiOfeet  above  the  sea,  others  no  higher  than  5.000,  and 
with  still  others  occupying  intermediate  levels.    Seldom  does  the 
surfaceof  the  land  rise  into  conical  peaks,  or  into  Ion';,  narrow, 
crested  ridges;  but  the  profiles  are  long,  horizontal  lines,  suddenly 
dropping  down  many  hundred  orev^n  two  thousand  feet,  upoa 
another  flat  plain  below.    This  region  has  been  verv  appropriately 
named,  by  Professor  Powell,  the  Plateau  Province!    It  occupies  a, 
narrow  strip  m  the  extreme  western  part  of  Colorado,  a  similar 


794 


UNITED      STATES 


[the  great  BASor. 


strip  of  western  New  Mexico,  a  large  part  of  soutliern  Wyoming, 
and  lather  more  than  hjilf  i>r  Utah  and  Arizona. 

Drainage  This    region    may    be  rou^-hly  defined  a^  comprising  the  lirain- 

6asin  of  the  age  basin  of  the  Colorado   river  and  its  tributaries.    The  upper 

Colorado,  portions  of  its  tributiiries  llov,-,  however,  in  the  Kocky  Mountains 
and  the  Wuhsatch  range,  and  enter  the  plateuu  regioi:  lower  in 
their  ciiurses.  This  rogiun  lies  west  of  the  southern  seotii-n  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  east  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  cuusti- 
tuus  a  threat  depression  or  valKy  in  the  Cordilleran  region  or  a 
Tuughly  triangular  shape,  its  apex  being  in  western  \\  yumiug. 
near  the  \:<sid  of  the  tireen  river,  one  of  the  forks  of  the  ( 'olorado 
It  is  a  region  ut  table  lands  ani.l  canons ;  of  table  lands  huiizontu! 
or  nearlv  >o.  jiTretchiijg  for  m  my  miles  with  .--carcely  an  undul::- 
tion  in  the  uniform  surface,  but  .-uddenly  ending  abruptly  in  a 
line  of  cliffs,  perhaps  thousanils  of  foet  in  height,  and  extending 
in  an  unbroken  lino  for  huri'lr^ids  of  miles.  In  tliia  region  every 
stream  is  in  a  girge,  cut,  liundreds.  or  even  thousands  of  feet 
below  the  surface  by  the  action  of  water  on  the  soft,  stratified 
sandstones  and  limestones.  Most  of  this  region  is  uninhabited 
and  uninhabitable,  not  only  by  r  asou  of  the  climate,  which  for- 
bids igric'iltural  pursuits,  but  fn-m  its  almost  hopeless  impassa- 
bleuess. 

Separating  this  r(gion  from  the  (irear  Basil  is  the  M'ahsatch 
range,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  spur  from  ih-  Kocky  Moun- 
tains. It  is  a  range  of  consid  rable  breadth  and  altituile.  extend- 
ing from  north 'rn  Utah  nearly  to  ine  miildle  latitude  of  thj  State, 
and  descending  to  ihe  general  level  of  the  eountn  on  the  south 
anil  ej  tbyaseriesof  plateaus,  forming  a  veritable  Kiant's  stair- 
■wa\.  The  elevation  of  this  range  in  its  highest  portion  is  from 
lO.OfiO  :o  ll.lKJO  feet,  one  or  two  peaks  only  reaching  an  altitude  of 
12.000  feet.  .Joining  this  rangn  in  the  northern  part  of  Utah  is 
that  of  the  Uinta,  which  differs  from  nearly  all  the  ranges  of 
the  Cordilleran  region  by  having  an  east  and  west  trend.  Itforms 
the  southern  limit  of  the  Green  River  basin,  ih?  region  upon 
which  the  fugitive  name  "  Great  American  Desert"  has  been  latest 
bestoweil.  and  where  it  is  probable  it  has  at  last  found  a  final 
resting-place. 

This  ran^'e  far  exceeds  the  Wahsatch  in  elevation,  a  number  of 
its  pi-a^s  extending  skyward  nearly  14,000  feet,  and  its  broad, 
plateau  like  summit  being  for  a  considerable  extent  at  an  eleva^ 
tio!i  of  I2,0nufeet. 

riaDOns.  The  (irand  Canon  District  is  a  part  of  the  Plateau  Province, 

As  already  indicated,  it  lies  between  the  Park  and  Basin  Prov- 
inces, and  its  topography  differs  in  the  extreme  from  those  divi- 
sions found  on  either  side  of  it.  It  is  the  land  of  tables  and  ter- 
races, of  buttes  and  mesas,  of  cliffs  and  canons.  Standing  upon 
anv  elevated  spot  where  the  radius  of  vision  reaches  out  50  or  100 
miles,  the  observer  beholds  a  strange  spectacle.  The  most  con- 
spicuous objects  are  the  lofty  and  brilliantly  colored  cliffs.  They 
stretch  their  tortuous  courses  across  the  land  in  all  directions,  yet 
not  without  system ;  here  throwing  out  a  great  promontory,  there 
receding  in  a  deep  b:iy,  and  continuing  on  and  un  until  they  sink 
below  the  horizon  or  swing  behind  some  loftier  mass  or  fade  out 
in  the  distant  haze.  Each  cliff  marks  the  boundary  of  a  geo- 
graphical terrace,  and  marks  also  the  termination  of  some  geo- 
logical series  of  strata,  the  edges  of  which  are  exposed  like  courses 
of  masonry  in  the  scarp-walls  of  the  palisades.   Very  wonderful  at 

Cliffs.  times  i.**  the  sculpture  of  th'se  majestic  walls.    Each  geological 

formation  exhibits  in  its  cliffs  a  distinct  style  of  architecture 
which  is  not  reproduced  among  the  cliffs  of  other  formations,  and 
these  several  styles  diff'T  as  much  as  those  which  are  cultivated 
by  different   races  of  men.    The  chiiracter  which  appeals  most 

Coloring  strongly  to  the  eye  is  the  colorir.g.  The  gentle  lints  of  an  east- 
©rt  landscape,  the  pale  blue  of  distant  mountains,  the  green  of 
Vttma.1  or  summer  vegetation,  the  subdued  colors  of  hill  and 
Rieadow.  are  wholly  wanting  here,  and  in  their  place  is  the  bril- 
iiant  r-^d.  yellow  and  white,  which  arc  intensified  rather  than  aile- 
fiated  by  alternating  belts  of  gray.  Like  the  architecture,  the 
5©lor3  are  characteristic  of  the  geological  formations,  each  series 
having  its  cwn  group  and  range  of  colors.  They  culminate  in  in- 
i,etsity  in  the  Permian  and  Lower  Trias,  where  dark,  brownish  reds 
alternate  with  bands  of  chocolate,  puri>Ie,  and  lavender,  so  deep, 
'ri:.h,  and  resplendent,  that  a  painter  would  need  to  be  bold  to 
Venture  to  portray  them  as  they  are. 

The  Plateau  country  is  also  the  land  of  canons,  in  the  strictest 
meaning  of  that  terra.  Gorges,  ravines,  ca7(arfas  are  found,  and 
are  more  cr  less  impressive  in  every  high  region ;  and  in  the  ver- 
nacular of  the  west,  all  such  features  are  termed  canons  indiscrim- 
inately. But  these  long,  narrow,  profound  trenches  in  the  rocks, 
witii  inaccessible  walls,  are  seldom  found  outside  the  plateaus. 
There  they  are  innumerable,  and  are  the  almost  universal  form  of 
drainage  channels.  Nearly  everywhere  the  drainage  channels  are 
cut  from  500  to  3,000  feet  below  the  general  platform  of  the 
imm'^diate  country.  They  are  abundantly  ramified,  and  every 
branch  is  a  canon.  All  these  drainage  channels  lead  down  to  one 
great  trunk  channel  cleft  through  the  heart  of  the  Plateau  Prov- 
ince for  eight  hundred  miles — the  chanm  of  the  Colorado,  and  the 
canon  of  its  principal  fork,  the  (ireen  Iliver. 

The  region  is  for  the  most  part  a  desert  of  the  barrenest  kind.  At 
levels  below  7,"00  feet  the  heat  is  intense,  and  the  air  is  dry  in  the 
extreme.  The  vegetation  is  very  scantv,  and  even  the  ubiquitous 
8age  is  sparse  and  stunted.  Here  and  there  the  cedar  is  seen,  the 
iardiest  nf  arborescent  iilants.  but  it  is  dwarfed  1  sickly,  aud 
;eeks  .he  >!mdit:st  nook<.   At  higher  levels  the  ve  tion  becomes 

Dore  abundant  and  varied.     Above  S.Oim  feet  the  ^aus  are  for- 

st  clad,  and  the  --'ntund  is  carpeted  with  rank  gm  nd  an  exu- 

erant  growth  of  hcnntirul  summer  flowers.    The  iruers  there 

.re  30oI  and  moist:  tlie  winters  sr^vere  and  attenc  v^itb  heavy 

.Dow-fall.    The  IM.iteiiu    Province  is  naturally  di  d  into  two 

Mountains,  portions,  a  norrnmi  and  a  southern.    Th"  dividing  ""ipr  '"^  ^^^ 

Uinta    rang-.    This  fine  mountain  |)latform  is,  in  o  spect.  an 

anon?:.ly  j.moQg  the  western  ranges.    It  is  the  on.         nportant 


(Wrges  ana 
ravines. 


Drainage. 
Cb&imels. 


Vogetv 
Uon. 


one  which  trends  east  and  west.  Starting  from  the  eastern  flanh 
of  the  Wasatch,  the  Uintas  project  eastward  more  than  15C 
miles,  and  nearly  join  porpendicuhifly  the  Park  ranges  of  Colo- 
rado, Of  the  two  portions  into  which  the  Plateau  Province i| 
thus  divided,  the  souih'-rn  is  much  the  laiger.  Both  have  in  conv 
m>ai  the  plai  au  features;  their  topuyraphiea.  climates,  and  phyg» 
ical  h  atures  in  geneial.  are  ot  similar  types,  and  their  geologicaj 
teaturts  and  history  appear  to  be  elusely  related.  But  each  had 
b.\A"  ir^  pi-culiaiities.  The  northern  portion  is  an  interesting  and 
aire;idy  celebrated  field  for  the  study  ot  the  cretaceous  strata, 
and  the  Tertiaiv  lacustrine  beds.  The  southern  part  of  the  Pla- 
teau Province  ma.\  be  regarded  as  a  vast  basin,  everywhere 
bounded  by  highland.-,  except  at  the  southwest,  ^here  it  opens 
wide  and  passes  suddenly  into  a  region  having  all  the  charneter- 
istics  of  the  Great  Basin  of  Nevada  The  northern  half  of  its 
eastern  rim  consists  of  the  Park  ranges  o^  Colorado.  Its  north- 
ern rim  lies  upon  the  slopes  of  the  Uinias  At  the  point  where 
the  Uintas  join  the  Wahsatch,  the  boundary  turns  sharply  to  the 
south,  and  for  2iiO  niilvs  the  High  Plateaus  of  Utah  constitute 
the  elevated  western  margin  of  the  Province.  A  crude  conception 
of  this  region  may  b.  gained  by  imagining  three  lines,  each  200 
miles  long,  placed  in  the  positions  of  three  sides  of  a  square;  the 
fourth  side  being  for  the  moment  neglected.  Upon  the  eastern  Utah 
side,  conceive  the  Park  Ranges  of  Colorado;  upon  the  northern,  plateau* 
the  Uintas:  and  upon  the  western  side,  the  southern  por'ion  of  the 
AVahsatch  and  the  High  Plateaus  of  Utah;  and  all  these  highlands 
having  altitudes  ranging  from  9,000  to  ]2,0f:0  feet  above  sea-level, 
while  the  included  aiea  varies  fromS.OtO  toT.OOnfeet  in  heif^ht.  The 
space  thus  partially  bounded  may  represent  the  northern  part  of 
the  southern  Plateau  Province.  Along  the  line  required  for  the 
fourth  and  south  side  of  thecomplete  square  there  is  no  boundary. 
The  topography  continues  on  beyond  it  to  the  southward,  and  also 
widens  out  both  W'  st  and  east  and  overspreads  an  additional  area 
more  than  twice  as  great  as  that  already  defined.  From  the  east- 
ern coast  of  the  High  Plateaus  maybe  obtained  an  instructive 
overlook  of  the  nortliern  portion  of  the  southern  Plateau  country. 

Throughout  the  great  curbuniferous  age  the  entire  area  of  the  Carb«Bii- 
Plateau  Province  wa>  sul)merged  beneath  the  ocean.  Deposition  eroui  ftge 
of  strata  went  on  continuously,  leaving  at  the  close  of  this  age  a 
subaqueous  surface,  which  was  exceedingly  flat.  and.  except 
around  the  borders  of  the  Province,  quite  free  from  any  apprecia- 
ble inequalities.  The  thickness  of  the  carboniferous  system  ia 
from4.5U0  feet  to  5.00ft  feet  in  the  interior  of  the  Province,  but. 
around  its  borders,  and  in  the  Uinta  mountains,  it  ii  sometimes 
found  in  far  greater  volume.  Aft^Tthe  Carboniferous  came  the 
Permian  age,  in  which  were  laid  down  from  8' 0  to  1.500  feet  of 
sandy  shales.  The  same  state  of  affairs  continued  thntugh  the 
Trias,  during  which  period  sandstone  beds  were  deposited. 
Directly  upon  the  Trias  rests  the  Jurassic— a  wonderlul  bed  of 
sandstone  800  to  l,20ii  feet  thick,  and  very  white  and  sugary.  Next  Sandstone 
comes  the  Cretaceous  systim,— a  mass  of  yellow  sandstones  with 
clayey  and  marly  shales,  aggregating  from  4.0011  to  5,000  feet 
thick.  At  the  close  of  the  Cretaceous  period  there  are  evidences 
that  extensive  disturbances  tork  place,  resulring  at  some  places 
in  the  dislocation  and  flexing  of  the  strata 

The  last  period  of  deposition  was  marked  by  the  accumulation  of 
the  Eocene  beds.  Around  the  southern  flanks  of  ^he  Uintas  their 
aggregate  thickness  exceeds  .'>.0UO  feet,  but  southward  the  upper 
members  disappear,  and  80  miles  north  of  the  Grand  Canon  only 
about  l.Oi  0  to  1,21  0  feet  make  their  appearance.  In  the  course  of  Geologioai 
geologic;!!  history,  this  area,  which  had  been  a  region  of  deposi- history, 
tion  and  subsidence,  became  one  of  elevation  and  denudation. 
Since  ihiit  change  took  place,  the  havoc  wrought  by  erosion  has 
been  stupendous,  the  thickness  of  strata  removed  exceeding 
10,(00  feet  in  seme  considerable  areas,  and  averaging  probably 
5,500  to  6,000  feet  over  the  entire  Province. 

THK  GREAT  BASIN. 

West  of  the  Plateau  Province  is  the  Great  Basin,  so  named  by 
Fremont,  because  it  has  no  drainage  to  the  ocean. 

The  first  general  idea  of  the  drainat-'e  and  principal  topographi- 
cal f.  atures  of  the  Great  Basin  is  due  to  Bonneville,  who  fitted  out 
a  party  which  started  from  Green  River  with  the  intention  of 
making  the  entire  circuit  of  Great  Salt  Lake.  This,  as  Irving  BonnevilW' 
states,  was  a  favorite  idea  of  Bonneville's;  and  in  preparing  forandhitj 
this  expedition  all  the  resources  at  his  command  were  taxed.  The  part/, 
party,  consisting  of  forty  men.  did  not,  however,  succeed  in  carry- 
ing out  Bonneville's  plans,  but  were  driven,  by  the  difficult  to- 
pografthy  and  utter  barrenness  of  the  country  on  the  south  side  of 
the  lake,  toward  the  west,  traveling  in  which  direction  they  soon 
came  upon  the  head  waters  of  the  river  called  upon  Bonneville's 
maps  "Mary  or  Ogden's,"  but  whjch  is  now  known  as  the  Hum- 
boldt. This  river  they  followed  until  they  found  that  **it  lost 
itself  in  a  great  swampy  lake  (the  sink  of  the  Humboldt),  to  which 
there  was  no  opparent  discharge."  From  here  the  party  crossed 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  made  their  way  to  Monterey.  Bonneville"'' 
party  was  thus  the  first  to  explore  and  map  the  route  afterwarC 
generallv  followed  by  emigrants,  and  along  which  the  Central  Pa- 
cifio— the  first  trans-continental  railroad— was  built.  The  pecuhai 
course  of  Bear  River,  here  already  noticed,  was  shown  on  this 
map.  and  the  general  character  of  the  drainage  of  the  Paeifi 
coast  was,  for  the  first  time,  correctly  indicated  by  Bonneville 
The  first  working  out  of  anv  of  the  details  of  the  topography  ot 
the  Great  Basin  is  due  to  Butler  Ives,  a  topographer  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad,  the  directors  of  this  work 
having  been  desirous  of  ascertaining  whethe"  there  was  any  prao- 
ticable  route  across  the  Bas.n  other  than  that  through  the  vallej 
of  the  Humboldt;  ■;vhich,  however,  was  the  one  ultimatelj 
adoi'ted.  all  other  routes  having  been  found  too  difiicult.  Stili 
further  and  more  detaileil  explorations  and  surveys  were  made 
on  thr  western  aide  of  the  Basin,  fir^t  by  the  California  GeologiotU 
I  Survey,  and  later  by  rhe  United  States  Engineers;  and  a  belt  1 


THE   AI>P/-I^CHIA.N'    REGION.]  UNITE3J  STATES 


(95 


faandred  iriles  in  width  was  also  surveyed  across  this  region,  start- 
ing from  the  crest  of  the  Sien  a  Nevada  and  going  *■  ust  to  the 
easiL-rn  i)H--e  i.t  the  Rocky  Mouulains.  Tlii>  bvlt  was  the  tield 
occupied  by  the  Fortieth  Parallel  Survey  under  the  direction  uf 
Clareuce  King 
toposraphy  The  top.  graphy  of  the  Great  Basin  is  wholly  peculiar,  and 
of  the  bear>  iiu  re>emblauce  to  either  of  the  two  just  mentioned.    It  oon- 

4reat  tai  is  a  large  number  of  ranges,  all  of  whicu  are  very  narrow  and 

''~ein,  short,  separated  from  each  other  by  wide  intervals  of  smooth. 

^  barren  plains.  Ih-  mounlaias  are  of  a  low  itrder  of  magnitude 
for  the  most  pan  though  some  of  the  ninges  and  peaks  attain 
considerable  dimeusion.-i.  Their  appearance  is  strikingly  differ- 
snt  from  the  noble  -ml  picturesque  outlines  displa>ed  in  Colo- 
rid  j.  They  are  jigg  d.  wild  and  ungracetui  in  thtir  aspect,  and, 
whether  viewed  from  far  or  near,  repel  rather  than  invite  the  im- 
■i;:i!iutioD. 

The  ^Vahsatch.  however,  is  an  exception.  This  noble  range  is 
properly  a  part  of  the  B  isin  Province,  and  is  one  of  the  fine-t  and 
jjost  picturesque  of  the  West,  but  so  complett  ly  does  it  contrast 
»ith  (he  otb' r  ba-in  ^-an^es  that  it  m  ly  be  regarded  as  an  auom- 
Uy  amtiug  them  ih,*  topographic.il  features  of  this  region  are 
riso  fount  outside  of  the  limits  which  Fremont  asriigned  to  the 
ireat  Basin,  and  reach  >outhward  towards  Arizona,  and  north- 
rard  towards  Idaho  and  Oregon. 

This  Great  Ba-in  is  ot  enormous  extent,  compri-ing  nearly  all  of 
STevada  and  large  part»  of  (_'tah,  Wyoming,  iddho»  Oregon,  and 
California.  Inst'-ad  of  being  one  great  basin  as  its  name  implies. 
It  cotisists  in  reality  of  a  number  of  smaller  basins.  It  is  trav- 
sraed  by  a  series  or  narrow  ranges,  which  are  in  general  highly 
sontiiiuous.  extending -iometiraes  for  hundred-:  of  miles,  having  a 
general  north  and  south  trend.  Between  these  rang-s  lie  narrow, 
flat  valleys  floored  with  detritus  from  the  innnntain-i.  The  rain- 
fall over  this  region  is  so  light,  and  the  atmosphere  so  dry,  that 
there  are  few  living  .streams  within  its  whole  expanse.  The  little 
rivulets  which  trickle  down  the  mountain  side  in  th'^  spring  are 
absorbed  in  the  valleys  at  their  bases,  so  that  each  vail  y  in  very 
many  cases  is  a  sink  for  its  own  waters.  On  the  east  and  the  west 
sides,  however,  at  the  bases  respectively  of  the  Wahsatch  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  is  a  lake,  or  a  series  of  lakes,  into  which  flow  con- 
siderable bodies  of  water  fiom  these  ranges. 
buRonnd-  On  the  east  is  Great  -alt  Lake,  having  an  extent  of  2,310  square 
ings  of  miles,  and  receiving  drainage  from  an  area  of  32  400  square  miles. 
Oreat  the  larger  p-irt  of  which  consists  of  high  mountains-    The  rapidity 

Basin.  of  evaporation  in  this  dry  climate  is  so  great  that  the  lake  is  kept 

at  approximately  the  same  level  despite  the  liberal  contributions 
made  to  it  by  its  tributary  streams. 

The  midtllt"  portion  of  the  basin,  along  a  line  running  down 
3astern  Nevada,  ts  more  elevated  than  that  of  the  oast  or  the  west 
side,  forming  ii  sort  of  division,  or  water  partitig,  between  the  two 
portions.  Such  of  tlie  w-iters  as  do  not  immediately  sink  flow  off 
toward  the  (irear  Salt  T..ake  on  the  one  side  and  the  sinks  at  the 
base  of  the  Sierra-^  on  th  ^  other.  The  latter  are  known  as  the 
Cars>n  f,.akeund  sink.  Humboldt  Lake,  Mud  and  Pyramid  Lakes. 
forming  a  line  nltng  the  western  part  of  Nevada. 

Into  thi- sysT.-m  uf  sinks  flow   it.»t  only  the  streams  from   the 
east  ^lope  of    the    Sierras,  but  ihi  Humboldt    River— a   stream 
which  rises  in  northwestern  Utah,  and,  flowing  directly  across  the 
trends  of  number!--ss  ranges,  receiving  more  or  less  water   from 
them  all,  reaches  the  Carson  sink  scarcely  larger  than  at  its  head. 
A  third  system  of  sink«  may  he  mentioned,  viz..  that  lying  in 
central  Oregon,  of  which  Harney's  Lake  is  the  principal  one. 
The  Pacific      It  remains  to  give  a  slight  sketch  of  the  ranL'es  of  the   Pacific 
Division.      divt?ion.    They  co-isist  of  the  >^ierra   Nevada  of  California,  the 
Casf~ade  range  of  Oregon  and  Wa'^hington  Territory,  au"!  the  sys- 
tem of  Coa-t  ranges  which  border  the  Pacific.    These  ranges  have 
one  very  marked  feature  iu  common:    they  are  almost  precisely 
parallel  throughout  to  The  line  of  the  Pacific  coist.    Trending  in 
the  southern  half  considerably  t-ast  of  south,  they  turn  at  about 
the  parallel  of  42°  to  fl  course  almost  directly  north. 
Cascade  The  great  mass  of  the  Cascade  range  has  the  form  of  a  volcanic 

range.  plateau  of  an  eleviiti  »n  very  Utile  above  the  country  on  its  east- 

ern bord'  r.  At  inrervals  along  its  crest,  however,  are  stationed 
high  volcanic  neaks,  ranging  from  SjMiO  to  more  than  H.'ifiO  feet 
above  sea-level.  .Among  the^e  may  be  mentioned  Mount  Rainier, 
in  Wjts^ington  territory,  14.444  feet  high;  Mount  Shasta.  14.442 
fe?t  liigh.  in  I'alifomia:  and  Mount  Hood,  in  Oregon,  11.22"^  feet 
in  height.  In  ni>rth'?rn  California,  jist  south  of  Mount  Sha«ta. 
the  range  is  very  much  broken  down,  and  at  this  point  the  Pitt 
Riv^r,  the  head  stream  of  the  Sacramento,  has  cut  its  wiy 
through  the  range  into  California.  Beyond  this  gorge  aaain  the 
range  cmtinues.  with  but  slight  change  in  its  charact'Tistic:!.  until 
we  have  passed  the  head  of  the  Feather  River,  where  its  char- 
acter changes  from  that  of  a  vidcanic  range  to  one  of  granite  and 
gneissic  rocks.  With  this  changs  comes  an  increase  in  elevation, 
at  first  gradual,  hut  ultimately  attaining  enormous  proportions 
about  latitude  36°  30'.  Here  the  range  has  a  great  breadth,  while 
most  of  the  p'-aks  reach  elevations  of  more  than  U.Ono  f-'ct.  and 
the  passes  hive  an  elevation  of  about  12.00'^  feet.  In  this  region 
is  the  highest  peak  of  the  Sierras,  Mount  Whitney,  which  falls  but 
little  short  of  15,000  feet,  and  is  the  culminating  point  of  this 

KTOUP. 

West  of  the  Sierras^and  the  Cascades  lies  the  great  valley  ex- 
tending from  Puget  Sound  southward  into  the  lower  part  of 
California.  It  is  walled  in  from  the  Pacific  on  the  west  by  the 
Ooaat  ranges.  In  Washington  territory  it  is  drained  by  numerous 
minor  streams  flowing  through  the  Cascade  and  the  Coast 
rangesinto  the  Columbia  River  and  Puget  Sound.  In  Oregon  it 
comprises  the  valley  uf  the  Willamette  and  the  upper  valleys  of 
.  Itie  Rogue  and  the  Umpqua  Rivers.  In  California  it  comprises  the 
\  Valley  of  the  Sacramento  and  th*^  San  Joaquin.  These  valleys  are 
Separa'ted  from  one  another  by  cross  ranges  of  mountains,  which 
T-iave  the  character  of  spurs  sent  down  by  the  Cascade  range,  join- 


ing the  Coast  ranges  on  the  west.  The  great  valley  is  terminated 
by  the  westward  trend  of  the  Coast  ranges  and  :heir  Junction  with 
the  Sierra  Nevada  in  southern  Calitoinui. 

Of  the  Coast  raiiges  litih-  need  be  said.  e.\cc['t  ihat  they  are  of  Coa^t 
minor  elevation  compared  witli  ihc  eastern  part  ot  tb.  s.\ --[cm,  rangea. 
ranging  from  3.i.ill)  to  4,t  W  feet  south  of  ilie  bay  of  fcan  Frauei^co 
to.5.nunorti,()(y0  feet  in   the  northern    part  of  the  btaie.     1  hey 
have,  howevt-r,  a  very  iinportai.t  <  ffect  in   inodifj  ing  the  climated 
of  the  great  valey— an  «  ff^ct  quite  as  important  as  tliOt  ot  the> 
Sierra  Nevada  and   the  Casc;d>-   ranges  upon  the  elininteol  tho 
region  lying  to   the  east  of   them      Want  of  navigability  is  the 
characteristic  of  all  the  s-ti earns  which  diain  th     t  oidillems.    In- 
stead of  va--t  stretches  open  to  sttam    niiv  t,ution,  as  ^\iih  the 
Mls^issippi  and  iis  tributaries,  allowing  aeee>>  to  areas  2,1-10  and 
S.ljOO  miles  away  trom  its  mouth  \\v  ha\  e  the  Colorado,  which  i>  uf  « 

little  account  for  the  purposes  of  n:ivigation.  the  Columlua.  with 
two  portages  before  the  Ca>ca*le  ranye  is  crossed,  and  the  Sacra- 
mento and  the  San  Joaquin,  navigalde  for  modi  rate  sized  boats 
for  only  a  few  score  ot  mdes.  Wiih  these  exc(  piions  there  is  no 
stream  ot  any  importance  op-  nmg  ate  vs  to  the  inteiior  along  the 
whide  Pacific  coast.  On  ihe  uiher  hand,  the  amount  ci  water- lUvert. 
power  stored  in  the  strt  ams  of  the  west  is  tabulous.  All  the 
streams  fall  rapidly  through  nearly  iheir  entire  courses,  and  in 
and  near  the  mountains  there  is  an  abundance  of  water. 

THE   APPALACHIAN    RKGION. 

Leaving  now  the  Cordilleras,  we  have  next  to  consider  the  east- 
ern border  of  our  tenitory — the  northeast  and  Bouthwesl  Irend- 
iijg  mass  of  ranges— known  a>  the  Appalachian  region.  In  this 
portion  of  our  brief  resume  of  the  physical  features  oi  the  United 
States  we  shall  have  to  rely  mainly  on  the  labors  of  oih  rs.  and 
especially  on  ihose  of  Prof.  (Juyot  and  of  Prof  J.  P.  Leslie,  ot  tho 
Pennsylvania  Geological  Survty.  who  have  labored  with  grcni 
zeal  and  ability  in  milking  the  topography  of  our  eastern  border 
intelligible  f 

A  ghince  at  the  map  shows  that  the  central  portion  of  Norili' 
America,  tnm  the  Gull  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic  ocean,  is  a  rcgio:  ' 
of  great  rivers  and  lakes,  and  not  of  mountains.  A  sinking  f  J 
the  land  of  le.'S  than  1,(1110  feet  would  open  a  water-way  tlnougiil 
from  north  to  souih ;  2.0*  0  feet  of  such  a  sinking,  or  an  equivalent' 
rise  of  the  ocean,  would  divide  our  territory  into  two  distinct  ami 
remote  portions.  On  the  east  we  should  have  a  cumparativelyj 
narrow  belt  of  land,  extending  in  a  northeast  and  southwest, 
direction  from  Pennsylvania  to  Georgia,  with  groups  of  lutlying 
islands  on  the  north,  especially  in  about  latitude  44°,  ~?here  tho 
tops  of  the  Green,  the  White,  and  the  Adirondack  mountains 
would  rise  in  the  form  of  lofty  and  precipitous  islands  above  th© 
waste  of  waters.  On  the  west  the  mass  of  land  remaining  uncov- 
ered W'  uld  be  of  grand,  almost  continental  dimensions,  for  its 
breadth  would  be  lully  equal  to  1,500  miles,  narrowing  as  we  fol- 
lowed itnorthrtard.  while  in  length,  north  and  south,  it  would 
extend  entinly  across  our  present  territory.  The  breadth  of 
the  ocean  separating  these  masses  of  land  would  be  not  far  from 
a  thousand  mill's. 

The  Appalachian  chain  extends  from  the  promontory  of  Gaspe,  Appala- 
in  a  general  S"uthwesterly  direction,  for  a  distance  of  about  1.300  chian  chain, 
miles,  into  Alabama,  where  it  dies  out.  and  is  buried  under  the 
horizontal  strata  of  more  recent  geological  formations,  which 
cover  nearly  the  whole  surface  of  that  state.  The  base  from 
which  this  chain  rises  on  the  eastern  side  is  the  Atlantic  seaboard, 
wh'ch,  in  the  early  history  of  the  United  States,  seemed  to  be  the 
whole  country,  and  which  is  still  commercially  the  must  impor- 
tant, and  is  the  seat  of  our  largest  cities.  The  plain  is  slightly 
inclined  toward  the  Atlantic,  and  its  elevation  aljove  the  sea  ia 
inconsidenible.  In  New  England  it  hardly  exceeds  3'A)  to4i  0  feet; 
but  toward  the  south,  after  passing  the  bay  of  Js'  w  York,  where 
it  is  nearly  at  the  sea  level,  it  gains  in  altitude,  andalso  in  width, 
finally  attaining  a  height  of  a  thousand  feet  at  the  base  of  the 
mountains  and  a  breadth  of  some  2' 0  miles.  The  western  base  of 
the  Appalachian  range  is  a  plateau  reeion,  which  descends  grad- 
ually toward  the  gn  at  lakes  and  the  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  hav- 
ing a  general  elevation  of  a  thousand  feet  or  more,  but  deeply 
gashed  by  the  streams  \^hich  traverse  it  and  run  in  valleys 
depressed  from  300  to  500  feet  below  the  general  level  of  the 
country. 

The  Appalachian  chain  presents,  in  many  of  its  features,  a  most 
marked  contrast  to  the  Cordilleras  just  described.  Prof.  Guyot 
calls- attention  to  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  most  folded  portion 
of  the  Appalachians,  characterizing  the  chain  through  its  entire 
length;  that  is,  the  existence  of  a  great  central  valhv.  running 
through  the  system  from  northeast  t'^  southwest,  which  can  bo 
traced  without  difficulty,  although  not  perfectly  uniform  in  its 
development.  Itjs  the  Lake  Champlain  and  Hudson  River  vulley  ia 
New  York,  the  Kitta tinny  vitlhy  of  Pennsylvania,  the  gnrat  vniley- 
of  Virginia,  andfinally  still  farther  south,  the  valley  of  East  Ten- 
nessee. The  chain,  or  the  system  of  chains,  bordering  this  central 
depression  on  the  southeast  is  also  a  persistent  feature  of  the  Appa- 
lachian system;  for  it  extends,  with  but  few  interruptions,  from 
Vermont  to  Alabama,  being  known  by  a  variety  of  names  .is  it 
passe.s  from  one  state  into  another.  It  is  the  Green  Mountain  rnngo 
of  Vermont,  the  Highlands  of  New  York,  the  South  Mountains  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  Blue  Ridge,  of  Virginia,  and,  finally,  the  Iron, 
Smoky,  and  Unaka  mountains  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennesste. 

Possessing  these  f*^aturcs  in  common  as  a  whole,  the  Appa- 
lachian chain  presents  three  subd.visions.  each  exhibiting  its  own 
well-marked  peculiarity  of  structure.  These  are  the  northern, 
extending  from  Gaspe  to  the  Hudson;  the  middle,  from  New  York 
to  the  Kanawha,  or  New  river,  in  Virginia:  the  southern  from 
New  river  to  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  system.  Each  of 
these  subdivisions  has  its  peculiar  curvature  aid  general  direction. 
The  northern  trends  to  the  north  from  the  Hudson  river  to  near 
the  Canada  line,  there  bends  to  the  eastward,  sweeping  a  sreat 


<y(j 


UNITED        STATES       [the  Appalachian  region. 


•urve  so  m  to  present  on  the  whole  its  concaTi  y  to  the  fouth^t , 
Srm  ddirsubdivision  also  carvis  quite  regularly,  the  ridgis  trend- 
Sl  Som  e^t  and  west  around  to  southwest,  so  -bat  the  concavity 
We"thittlantic  shore;  while  the  most  southern  portion  of  the 
S^ge  from  New  river  southward,  bends  to  the  west  agam,  so  as 
Tform  a  gentle  curve  ooncare  toward  the  northwest, 

T°e  mon  northern  division  of  the  three  is  quite  distinct  f  roin  the 
men  "tsomh.  both  geographically  and  geologically  It  includes 
»U  the  mJunnin  groups  £nd  ranges  north  and  east  of  the  valk-5S 
If  the  Mohawk  aSd  the  Hudson  rivers,  which  make  a  coin,. lete 
,reak  through  the  system,  both  veitically  and  longitudinall> . 
forming  the  great  natunil  highway  between  the  east  and  the  wc.t 
Ir  between  lh»  great  lakes  and  the  Atl.tntic  seaboard  Ihis  was 
ttefirTtroVte  across  the  country  which  wa^  traversed  by  canul 
Sid  bv  railroad  So  complete  is  the  physical  break  here  that  a  ru-e 
Sf  the  ocean  of  4(.^1  feet  only  would  separate  all  the  extensive  region 
included  between  the  Jl.  Lawrence,  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  the 
Hudson  and  Mohawk  valleys  into  a  great  island  entirely  detached 
from IheTest  of  the  continent.  A  rise  of  only  110  feet  onl.v  would 
dtetech  all  that  country  which  lies  east  of  the  Hudson  and   Lake 

^eoeraph-  *^'fn°'any''geographical  tre.tment  of  this  eastera  group  of  the 
Si  tr-S?-  Appaffilns  the  subdivisions  .taken  wil  necessarily  be  rather 
^n  t  artlSl.  for  the  mass  of  elevation  is  verj  irregular  in  its  dev  elop- 

ment     The  most  continuous  ranges  are  the  White  mountains,  the 
Green   tnou^tains,   and   the  Adirondacks     Of    the    first  namea 
erouo  Mount  Washington  is  the  culuunating  point,   6.^  tcet 
high?of  the  last  mentioned.  Tahaw:is.  or.Mount  Marcy.  with  an 
a  titude  of    5.37ii  feet,  is    the    dominating  peak,    (rreylock,  in 
Ma-achusetts  I3..i05  feet),  and   Mount   Mansfield,  in  Vermont, 
i  rx  \  feet   are  the  highest  points  in  ihose  states. 
-Thi  line  of  summits  e.'.t'ending  through  Massachusetts  and^ew 
Hamp-hire.  beginning  with  Wachusett.  on  the  south,  and  extend- 
WigTiP  ti  the  White  mountains    through  Monadnock.  Sunapee 
Kear'ar-e.  and  other  peaks,  is  broken  and  irregular.     Both  the 
White  mountains  and  the  Adirondacks  are  rather  iso  ated  miu-ses 
whUe  the  Hr.en  Mountains  proper  arc  in  more  intimate  connection 
with  t tie  Canadian  range,  which  terminates  m  (jaspe. 
''The  Cennal  division' of.  the    ^ppala.ehian  chain  ex  ends  from 
the  Hudson  river  to  the  lianawha,  which  makes  an  almost  com- 
plete "ut  across  the  chain,  heading  ,n  the  Blue  Ridge    and  mark- 
fng  an  important  change  in   the  character  of  the  topography 
This  central  division  is  ab  .ut  Wi  miles  in  length.    It  i--  very 
narrow  toward  its  northern  end.  but  widens  out  in   Pennsylvania, 
decreeing  again  in  Virginia.    It  is  composed  of  a   considerable 
Sumbtr  of  subordinate  chains,  much  curved  toward  the  Vest,  and 
?eiSirkable  for  their  regularity,  their    parallelism,  their  abrupt 
deSivities.  and  their  moderate  elevation,  both  relative  and  abso- 
Inte  which  rarely  rises  to  2.5''0  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
'°Wcrt  of  this  division  of  the  APP-'lachiancham  is  thereat  p  ^ 
teau     which  occupies  all    that  part  of    New    \ork  which  lies 
Tomh  of  the  Mohawk,  and  also  the  northwestern  ^art  of  Pennsy  - 
vania.  and  reaches  an  elevation  near    Lake  Erie  ot  A''"'(. jeet. 
From  this  table-land  the  drainage  descends  by  the  great  laj^e.  to 
the  St  Lawrence  to  the  Gulf  of  Me.xico  by  the  Ohio    and  to  the 
Atlantic  by  the   Susquehanna,  which  breaks  across  the  wbole 
ehai.°,  findfng  its  wav^  in  the  most  unexpected  manner  through 

^"ILrtopo-g^if  hy  of*  .^h\"i1palachians  in  .Pennsylvania  h^  been 
earefullv  worked  out  by  the  State  Geological  survey,  and  t  u  so 
remarkable  in  its  character  that  some  additional  details  may 
wiTh  propriety  be  given  in  regard  to  that  portion.of  the  chain 

Areording  to  Prof.  H.  D.  Rogers,  the  mountain-zone  of  Penn- 
sylvania may  be  divided  into  five  welUmarked  parallel  belts, 
which  are  a/  follows,  when  enumerated  in  order  from  the.  east 
"owird  the  west:  1st.  The  South  mountains,  already  mentioned 
as  being  the  continuatioT,  of  the  Highlands  0  New  York,  and  the 
Iquivalent  of  the  Blue  Ridge  ot  VirgWia  2d,  The.  great  Appa- 
bchian  vallev.  3d.  The  central  Appalachian  ridges,  or  the 
Appalachian  chain  proper.  4th.  The  sub-Al  egha.y  valley  5th^ 
The    Alleghany  .Mountain,  or  the    southeast  escarpment  of  the 

^Thf  South  Mountains  have  already  been  alluded  to  as  part  of 
thesystem  of  ranges  bordering  the  great  central,  depression  of  the 
AppalachTans  on  the  east.  In  Pennsylyani.a  this  belt  consists  of 
^o  detached  ranges  of  hills,  one  of  which  is  the  prolongationof 
ihe  New  York  Highlands,  the  other  the  northeastern  termination 
of  the  Blue  Ridge  Both  of  these  groups  of  hills  have  a  uioderate 
elevation  in  Pennsylvania,  hardly  exceeding  600  or  ,00  fft-    - 

The  Appakchian  valley,  or  Kittatinny  valley,  as  it  is  usually 
called  in  Pennsylvania,  stretches  from  the  Delaware  to  Maryland, 
forming  a  part  of  the  great  central  valley  previously  mentioned. 
It  has  an  ekvation  of  from  .2CM1  to  .btiO  feet.,  and  forms  a  bro^d, 
moderately  undulating  plain  having  a  ^idth  of  from  10  to  18 
miles.  This  valley  is.  beyond  doubt,  one  of  the  most  favored 
parts  of  our  country-climate,  soil,  mmera  resources,  and  scenery 
all  combining  to  make  it  attractive  to  settlers.  , 

The  third  division,  or  the  Appalachi.an  chain  proper,  may  De 
thus  de-cribed.  using  nearly  the  language  of  Professor  M.  u. 
Kogers:  It  is  a  complex  chain  of  long,  narrow  very  evel  moun- 
tain ridges,  separated  bv  long,  narrow,  paral  el  valleys,  l.hese 
ridges  sometimes  end  abmptly  in  sivolling  knobs,  and  sometimes 
tape'  off  in  long,  slender  points.  Their  slopes  are  singularly  uni- 
form', being  in  many  cases  unvaried  by  ravine  or  gully  for  many 
miles:  in  other  instances,  they  are  trenched  at  equal  intervals 
with  great  rezularitv.  Their  crests  are,  tor  the  most  part,  snarp, 
and  they  preserve  an  extremely  equable  elevation,  being  only 
here  and  there  interrupted  by  notches  or  gaps,  which.sometimes 
descend  to  the  water-level,  so  as  to  give  passage  .to  the  nvejf  •  Jhe 
whole  range  is  the  combined  result  of  .an  elevation  of  the  strata  in 
.one.  slender,  parallel  ridges,  wave-like  in  form,  and  of  excessive 
aosion of  them  by  water;  and  the  present  configuration  ot  tne 


Lrode™tra"a  are  variously  arranged  in  gj-o»f'f''>'™|  "ar- 
row cre-t«  s..me  of  which  preserve  remarkable  straightnes  tor 
Br"at  dis  iuce"  while  others  bend  with  a  prolonged  and  re^-u  ar 
fweep     In    many  instances   .two    narrow.    ;;on">;uo«s    parallel 

SS;^SS7SsSiiSS5SHs^;^ 

"^Nor'^th  of  ?he  great  lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  howe.ver.  there  U 
cut    tTe  ehJ'n?  and  4?««3    eet  is'^^ven  as  the  approximate  eUv  a. 

no,°ed  T/T°m"\C  over  alhtsand  lake"  have  already,  been  laid 

iliflislpllips 

of  "Tide  Marshes":  -   ' 


tween  high-water  m.ark  on  the  .f^re  and  the  be.Kme   or  „  , 

Farther  southward  the  "reaatn  oi  uui.  ^,       .'     ,  ,u       jg  insijo 
coast  increases.    On  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland  there  .   ^^^ 
of  the  line  ot  reefs  a^^ectionseveralmile^^nte  ^^^^^^_ 

"YnT/rrOapi-nl  t^he^^es  inclose    ^^^^^%,!^l 

DV  Professor  W.  C.  Werr  {Geology  of  .\orin  ^ '■[^."'.'".t^rt  Banks." 
"We  chain  of  long,  l'°ear  sand  is  and^  caM  The  Bank.^.^ 
which  fringe  the  en"re  coast.  con^tUutes  a  vey-  r^^^  ^^^ 

ture  of  theregion  ;j^^ough  composed  oiar  s_^_^^.^  They  are, 
an  impregnable  harrier  to  the  wa^.e-;0; '  j  f^„  fee,  „bove 

in  fact,  sand  dunes  "f  va/'ouy^^^fe^bv  stoni-  tides)  to  2.5  or  3f 
tide  level  (in  m.»''J/«f'''  L°  in  KilHevil  hills,  along  Corrimoi 
^rund:"ThrbrdUi°f"thes;  viands  varies  from  a  few  rod.jj 


.'HE   POLITICAL  SCBDIVISlOXS.i        UNITED  STATES 


797 


nore  than  2  mile;-.  The  largest  of  tfaeio,  and  the  wiaest.  is  known 
AS  Uattela^  Ulaud.  th^;  easteriitiio>t  point  of  which  ia  thi  well- 
knowu  cape  uatieras.  Thest.-  mlauds  are  composed  partlj  ot  flat 
m:u-?ties  and  partly  of  swell.-  and  ridges  of  beach-sand,  which  the 
wind  has  heaped  \u  ridges,  orten  lar  beyond  the  reach  ot  the 
highest  wave>. 

As  the  sand  and  conui.inuted  shells  are  lulled  back  in  wares 
fi-om  the  beach,  t>y  the  winds,  they  are  m  tart  caught  and  fixed  by 
•traggling  tufts  of  coarse  gras;^.  which  has  the  puwer  ot  continuous 
stowth  upward  wuh  the  rise  of  the  knobs  and  ridges  of  saud.  and 
Uiey  :ire  in  part  carried  uver  into  the  flats  and  murshes  and  the 
LhalioK  sounds  beyond,  which  are  thus  gradutilly  silting  up.  The 
^nk^  are  generally  covered  with  low,  scrubby  thickets  of  cedur, 
live-oak,  pine,  yaupon,  ujyrtle,  and  a  number  of  smaller  shiubby 
pj.vths. 

•  ^ampe,  pocosinsf  and  <acanna«— There  is  a  large  aggregate 
C*  tciiitory  ^between  S.'AV  and  4.t.«.U  square  miles),  mostly  iu  the 
ttC'^nties  bordering  on  the  sea  and  the  sounds,  known  as  swamp 
toi'd.-.  They  are  locally  designated  "dismals,"  or  "pocosins."  of 
•9t±v-ti  the  Great  l>isuial  Swamp,  on  tht-  bo'-ders  of  North  Carolina 
jad  Virginia,  is  a  g<:)od  type.  They  d.ffer  essentially  in  their 
tfiaracteristic  features  from  an  ordinary  swamp.  They  are  not 
ij.'iuvjal  tracts,  or  subject  to  overflow.  On  the  contrary*  they 
v»  -IT  on  the  divides  or  water-sheds  between  the  rivers  and  sounds, 
ftna  ire  frequently  elevated  many  feet  above  the  adjaceut  streams. 
Cf  "hich  they  are  the  sources.  Some  of  tiiem  are  in  large  part 
idre  peat  swamps  or  b..gs.  being  chamcteriztd  by  the  occurrence 
Di  an  accumulation  of  decjii  e  1  and  de:aymg  vegetation,  from  1  or 
J  to  lu  feet  deep  and  even  more,  which,  with  the  growing  plants, 
acts  as  a  sponge,  arresting  or  retarding  the  escape  of  the  rain- 
water, whetQcr  by  evaporation  or  sfflux.  The  prominent  ingrcdi- 
euis  are  peat  and  fine  sand,  in  various  proportions,  and,  when  of 
iuy  agricultural  value  at  alt.  there  arc  also  small  proportions  of 
clay,  iron,  lime,  and  alkalies.  The  vegetation  varies  with  the 
character  of  the  .-oil.  and  server,  therefore,  as  an  index  of  its  fer- 
tility. The  prevalent  growth  of  the  best  swamp  soils  is  blackgum, 
popiar*  cypress,  ash.  aud  maple.  As  the  sjil  becomes  more  peaty, 
the  proportion  of  cyprtss  increases.  AVhere  juniper  abounds 
peat  is  in  excess,  aud  the  soil  of  little  value  or  none.  On  the  best 
lauds  there  is  often  besides  a  rank  growth  of  canes:  but  such  a 
growth  ix  also  often  found  on  soils  too  peaty  to  be  of  any  value. 
iluch  of  the  poorest  and  most  worthless  tracts  of  swamp,  which 
are  covered  with  several  feet  of  half-decayed  wood  and  other 
Fvg_'table  matter  saturated  with  water,  is  occupied  by  a  stunted 
and  scattered  growth  of  bay,  swamp  pine,  and  other  scrubby  vege- 
tation; or,  if  the  drainage  be  a  little  better,  with  a  thickety growth 
of  bays,  gallb,rries,  and  a  f-^w  oth-  r  shrubs,  with  an  occasional 
piue  and  mapie.  .Most  of  the  large  bodies  of  swamp  contain  lands 
ttelonging  to  ali  these  descriptions,  and  inclo>e.  besides,  within 
their  ooundaries,  knolU,  bnmmocks.  belts,  and  ridges,  like  islands, 
of  firm  land,  and  some  of  them  larg-  areas  of  barren,  sandy  soil. 
■covered  wiili  a  tangle  of  brambles  and  tufts  of  sedge,  aiid  in  the 
middle  of  sjTeral  uf  ihem  uccur  fresh-water  lakes  of  considerable 
extent. 

These  sw;.mi'8  are,  laken  as  a  whole,  quite  well  settled,  a  large 
oroportion  of  the  inhabitants  being  colored-  This  is  particularly  the 
:ase  in  South  Carolina,  in  which  state  much  of  the  swampy  lower 
ooast  region  i=  utilized  fur  rice  plantations.  The  Okeefenokee 
rwamp.  of  Gv-orgia  and  Florida,  is  rather  an  inland  swamp,  and  is 
c  scribed  elsewhere.  Tue  Everglades  of  Florida,  which  appear  to 
alfer  great  difficulties  to  sjttlement,  are  also  sketched  in  another 
part  of  this  n-port.  Tde  iswampy  region  along  the  coast  extends.- 
Tvith  but  few  minor  interruptions,  all  the  way  down  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  around  the  Gulf.  It  is  not.  however.  >o  markedly 
.•characteristic  along  the  Gulf  coast  in  Alabama  and  Missi«>ipiti  as 
jarther  west,  in  Loui.-iana  it  has  a  great  breadth,  and  is  almost 
uninhabitable,  in  Texas,  alih  lOgh  the  character  of  the  coast 
^ontijiues  to  be  ihe  same  s<»  far  as  relates  to  the  line  of  low.  sandy, 
>utlyiijg  islands,  yet  the  area  of  the  coast  swamp  becomes  very 
much  1--SS,  being  confined  to  a  small  patch  about  the  Sabine  lake 
ind  narrow  strips  along  a  number  of  the  streams.  Whether  it  is 
iue  to  geological  c;tuset.  or  to  the  lighter  rainfall  upon  this  sec- 
ii.m  «f  the  coast,  is  a  question  which  there  is  not  space  to  discuss 
Tiere. 

The  broken,  irregular  course  of  the  whole  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
riast  affords  many  excellent  harbors,  particularly  on  the  New 
iJ!sland  coast,  where  the  harbors  are  laree.  deep,  and  well  .'hel- 
!  ed;  farther  southward  the  entrances  are  narrow  and  shelving. 
*  i  are  liable  to  be  choked  up  by  sand  drifts  d  in  by  storms.  The 
»  .-earns  in  nearly  all  ca-;es  form  bars  across  their  months,  formed 
\  •  thedetritu^  brought  down  from  the  upper  waters. 

The  Pacific  coast,  as  compared  to  the  Atlantic,  is  extremely  fira- 
^9.  It  contains  few  harbors  of  any  value  to  navigation.  Th'^se 
■Cl  S'Mi  Diego  and  San  Francisco  are  the  principal  and  almost  the 
:.:ly  one^.  The  coast  is.  in  geneial,  bluff  and  rocky,  and  the  water 
]S  leep  immediately  off  .-hore. 

THE  POLITICAL  AND  NATTRAL  SrSDI VISIONS. 

'  HaTiDg  given  a  description  of  the  physical  character  of  the 
^ea  covered  by  the  United  States,  without  reference  to  political 
divisions,  it  become?  necessary  to  ttate  how  this  region  is  divided 
politically,  and  how  these  divisions  can  be  grouped,  in  a  manner 
Bf  nattiral  :is  possible. 

(SotQ©  difficullieii  are  thrown  in  the  way  of  such  a  subdivision 
't  thecountry  as  shall  meet  with  general  acceptance  by  the  fact 
dMt  some  of  the  State.*  and  Territories  are  so  large  that  they 
H^lude  areas  of  very  different  physical  character;  and  also 
lecansea  nomenclature  was  introduced,  and  extensively  made 
as©cf,  when  one  hni"  the  present  area  of  the  country  was  so  little 
f^cvQ  or  considered  that  a  name  for  it  was  not  thought  of  as 
4ei£S  necessary. 

*r»:' ->.-o«,/*ft|j9  United  State."!  is  at  present  divided  into  for»v- 


niue  subdivisions,  excluding  Alaska.  There  are  forty-four  Statea- 
three  Territories,  and  t«o  other  subdivisions,  neither  States  n(^ 
Territories— the  District  of  Columbia  and  the  Indian  Territory. 

Any  Territory  is  likely,  at  any  time,  to  be  received  into  the 
Union  a>  :i  State;  and  this  may  be  done  by  subdividing  the  Ter« 
riiory.  making  a  State  of  one  portion  and  allowing  the  remain- 
der to  remain  in  a  Territorial  condition,  or  by  admitting  the 
whole  as  one  State,  or  by  Jividing  it  into  two  oi  ^j..  re  States.  Oiiiv 
once  has  a  State  been  divided  alter  having  been  received  intotb? 
Union— namely,  Virginia— and  this  was  the  result  of  the  civil 
War;  and  it  is  not  possible  to  say  under  what  circumstances  such 
a  thing  is  likely  to  happen  again.  Nor  has  any  State  been 
remanded  back  to  the  Territorial  condition  after  having  been 
received  into  the  Union;  although  one  State— Xevada—ha:sles9 
than  half  the  population  required  for  the  election  of  one  repre- 
sentative to  Cong^e^s.  accordiirgto  the  last  apportionment,  basecf 
on  the  census  ot  1880.  There  is,  in  fact.no  provision  in  the  Con 
stitutiun  for  this  exigency. 

The  desirability  of  grouping  these  forty-nine  political  divi-ion: 
(Alaska  being  oniitted  as  not  continuous  with  the  re.^t  of  the 
Uniied  States'  according  to  thir  geographical  situation  ana 
topographical  ^nd  clirnuiic  conditions, so  that  diflterent  regions 
may  be  spoken  of  by  sonic  collective  name,  will  be  evident  to  all. 

The  plan  suggested  for  the  subdivision  of  the  area  included 
within  the  United  States  by  Mr.  Gannett,  geographer  of  the  census 
of  18&0,  was  '"to  divide  the  country  into  three  great  divisions,  cor- 
responding to  the  three  primary  topographical  divisions  of  the 
country:  ih*  Atinniic  region,  the  region  of  the  Great  Valley,  and 
the  Western  or  Cordilleran  region.*'  The  physical  character  of  these 
different  regions  has  already  been  indicated  at  some  length  in  Pfiy-«.-il 
the  preceding  pages.  The  region  of  the  Great  Valley  is  called  by  Chunictei.. 
Mr.  Gannett  tht'  Central  Region,  which  is  again  subdivided  into 
two  parts— the  Northern  Central  and  the  Southern  Central— the 
Ohio  River  and  the  southern  boundary  of  Missouri  and  Kansas 
being  the  dividing  line.  The  Atlflntie  iJJvision  is  also  divideJ  by 
him  into  two  subdivisions  by  a  line  following  the  south  boundary 
of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey — these  two  subdivisions  biii:e 
called,  respectively,  the  North  Atlantic  and  South  Atlantic 
divisions.  On  the  east,  ihe  Western  or  Cordilleran  division  is 
marked  by  the  eastern  boundaries  of  New  Mexico,  Colorado, 
Wyoming  and  Montana. 

The  following  table  shows  the  area  of  each  of  these  divlsioni  in  poli  ical 
square  miles  and  in  percentage  of  the  entire  area  of  the  United  ■iivisioua. 
States:— 

Area.       Percentage  of  total  area. 

North  Atlantic IGS.Tio  5.6 

South  Atlantic  (includ- 
ing Delaware  Bay)...  2S3.155  9.4 

Northern  Central 765.8n5  25.3 

Southern  Central 6U.550  20.3 

Weitem 1.193.275  39.4 

Total 3.025.600  100.0 

[In  the  Western  Division,  as  here  limited,  Mr.  Gannett  includes 
an  area  of  5,740  square  miles  of  "unorganized  territory,"  lying 
north  of  Texas  and  west  of  the  Indian  Territory.] 

The  adoption  of  this  scheme  of  subdivision  of  the  country  doe« 
not  the  lets  render  desirable  and  convenient  for  various  purpose* 
a  different  n"menclature  for  certain  regions,  based  more  exclu" 
sivth'on  geographical  position.  Thus  the  States  bordering  on 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  will  naturally  often  be  spoken  of  as  the  Gulf 
States:  the  region  of  the  (xreat  Lakes  will  be  so  designated,  and 
this  again  subdivided  into  the  Upper  and  Lower  Lake  Regions; 
while  each  great  river  will  give  a  nam©  to  its  own  adjacent  region, 
as  theOhio  Valley,  the  Upper  and  Lower  Mississippi  Valley,  the 
Upper  Missouri,  etc. 

Appended  is  a  statement  of  the  names  of  the  political  divi- 
sions included  in  each  subdivision  of  the  United  States,  as  sug- 
gested by  Mr.  Gannett: 

Division.  Subdivision.  States  Within  Subdivision. 


Atlantic. 


Central. 


Western. 


North  Atlantic. 


South  Atlantic. 


Northern  Central. 


Southern  Central. 


Maine.  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  Connecticut, 
New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania. 

Delaware,  Maryland.  Vir- 
ginia, West  Viginia.  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina 
Georgia,  Florida. 

Ohio.  Indiana,  Illlooia 
Michig;in.  Wisconsin  Minne 
sota.  North  Dakota.  South 
Dakota,  Iowa.  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  Missouri. 

Kentucky,  Tennessee.  .Ala- 
bama, Mississippi.  Arkansas, 
Indian  Territory,  Louisiana, 
Texas. 

Montana.  Idaho,  W^yoming, 
Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Utah. 
Nevada,  Arizona.  Washings 
ton.  Oregon.  California, 


7bo 


11  N  1  T  E  E      STATES 


[climate. 


The  tabular  statement  following  elves  for  the  States  and  Tern-' 
tories  a  rtsumeot  their  areiiy.  population  in  1 8^0  and  Ibyu,  pop- 
ulation per  square  mile  at  the  latter  date,  and  the  increase  per 
cent,  during  tne  decade  1881-90.  The  Territories  are  given  in 
italics  in  the  table. 

POLITICAL  AND  NATURAL  DIVISIONS. 

Areas  and  Population— Census  op  1890. 


d  Sac 


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*  This  includes  "Unorganized  Territory."       t  Estimate. 

CLIMATE. 

In  endeavoring  to  set  forth  the  principal  fi'ittures  of  the  climate 
of  the  United  St«t*'R.  it  will  br  a-sura'  d  that  the  reader  hii^  made 
bim^elt  Mcquainted  with  the  topography  of  the  country,  a^  briefly 
mdifated  in  the  preceding  pages.  The  great  infltiemy  which 
certiiin  uf  th^se  features  have  on  the  distribution  of  the  wmds,  the 
rainfall,  imd  the  temperature  will  bo  sufficiently  appan-nt  from 
that  whirh  follows. 

The  I'nited  State?  extends  from  the  tropics  north  across  the 
temperate  zone,  and  from  sen-level  to  an  eU^vation  of  over  H-^ 
feet— an  elevation  which  carries  with  it  an  arctic  climntt'.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  ranges  over  more  than  40"^  F..  while 
the  extremes  ot  recorded  temperature  run  from  65°  below  zero 


UP  to  a  maximum  above  115°.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  hottest 
month  of  the  yi';ir,  July,  ranges  from  below  6u°  to  above  90°, 
while  the  mean  iciupcratur?  of  the  coldest  mouth  ranges  fromj 
zero  to  ni  -ro  thin  66°.  Were  the  country  a  plain,  the  mean 
tempiT.iture  uf  ihe  year  would  be  almost  purely  a  Ciue^tion  of 
latitude;  aditfercnce  of  elevation,  howeve^.  especially  when  it 
takes  the  form  of  a  inountaiu  range,  causes  a  deflection  southward 
of  the  isothermiils,  an  abrupt  rise  of  about  SOU  feet  of  elevation 
iiiipl>ins  a  deerease  of  annual  temperature  of  one  degree. 
Tinis  v,e  fi  id  thiit  the  Appalachian  system  causesa  very  marked 
deflection  to  the  ^outh*'  aid  of  th.'  i?;uthermals.  On  the  plains,  how- 
ever.where  iheiip.vardslopeis  verygradual.itistobenoied  thatthe 
elevntion  causes  little  or  no  dcflectinn  southward  of  the  lines  of 
temperLituie,  the  plains  and  plateaus  generally  having  a  mean 
annual  t'mpeiature  nearly  or  quite  as  high  as  puiots  in  the  snme 
latitude  in  the  Mississippi  valley  or  on  the  Atlantic  coa>t.  The 
temp  ratnro  of  tin?  greiit  we>tern  plains  and  plateaus  is,  however, 
modified  locally  to  a  marked  extent  by  the  exposure  to  west  and 
northwest  winds,  ■which  have  an  unbroken  sweep  in  some  pinces  ' 
for  hundreds  of  miles,  acquiring  tremendous  force.  Attention 
should  he  called  h  re  to  the  well-known  fact  that  the  climate  of 
central  Montuni,  including  mo^t  of  the  settlements  on  the  upper 
Missouri,  is  abnormally  warm.  It  lies  at  a  couipnnitively  low 
elevation,  being  only  S.UOl.t  to  4.00(J  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is 
sheltered  from  the  fierce  westerly  winds  by  the  Missouri  range, 
while  the  northerly  winds,  to  which  it  is  exposed,  come  from  the 
moisture  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan. 

The  two  maps  showing  the  m' an  temperature  of  the  warmest 
month.  July,  and  the  mean  t-mperature  of  the  coldest  month, 
January,  as  given  in  the  Uniti  d  States  Census  for  ]88u,V(d.  1— il- 
lustrate, though  only  to  a  limited  extent,  the  range  of  temperar 
ture  in  different  sectioiis  of  thn  country.  Ihe  former  ehows  a 
comparativelyliniitednumber  of  grades,  running  from  60°  to  90°, 
the  lines  following  approximately  the  parallels  of  latitude,  except 
where  d  fleeted  by  mountain  masses.  The  influence  of  the  coast 
in  averaging  tho  climate  is  distinctlv  perceptible  on  this  map. 
There  is  apparently  a  northward  movement  of  the  temperature 
lines  in  the  Cordilleran  region,  showing  that  in  the  summer  the 
temperature  is  abnormally  high  in  this  arid  section.  These 
characteristics  are  iUustrnted  conversely  by  the  January  map, 
which  also  shows  the  influence  of  the  sea  and  other  larce  bodies 
of  water,  while  iw  the  Cordilleran  regien  the  temperature  lines  are 
borne  southward  by  the  aridity  and  consequently  extreme  char- 
acter of  the  climate.  The  fourth_  of  these  temperature  maps, 
showing  a  generalization  from  the  highest  recorded  readings  of  the 
thermometer,  coupled  with  the  fifth  map,  which  shows  a  similar 
generalization  with  regard  to  tho  minimum  temperature,  illus- 
trates the  extreme  range  of  the  thermometer  in  different  parts  of 
thecmntry.  In  the  former  wese-eabelt  running  along  the  sear 
coasf  from  Maine  to  Texas,  where  the  thermotneter  never  rises 
abive  inH°.  while  within  it  is  a  region,  stretching  from  New  York 
southward  along  the  Atlantic  plain  and  the  lower  Mississippi 
valley,  where  the  maximum  reaches  106°.  thus  illustrating  in  the 
clearest  manner  th  i  effect  of  the  sea  in  averaging  the  i-  mpera- 
ture.  Thes^me  thing  is  illustrated,  though  not  so  markedly,  upon 
the  map  of  min'mum  temperatures. 

Tlie  fourth  map  shows  also  another  peculiar  characteristic,  viz, 
the  fact  that  as  we  pass  up  the  slope  of  the  plains  the  maximum 
temperature  increases,  not  on  a  paiallel.  as  in  the  case  of  the 
mean  annual  temperature,  but  approximately  on  a  contour  or  on 
a  meridian,  being  apparently  proportional  to  the  aridity  of  the 
atmosphere  and  the  amount  of  rainfall.  This  characteristic  is.  to 
a  certain  extent,  disguised  in  the  heart  of  the^  Cordilleran  region 
by  reason  of  the  great  diver-ity  of  surface  which  is  encountered 
there,  but  in  g'-ncral  it  holds  good  throughout. 

The  map  showing  minimum  temperatures  is  not  so  clear  on 
these  points.  Its  lines  follow  parallels  more  nearly ;  but  there  is 
a  marked  deflection  ti^ward  th'  southwest  as  we  pass  westward 
from  the  Mississippi  vdlley.  The  characteristics  of  this  map  are 
still  further  concealed  by  the  effect  of  the  details  of  topogrftphy 
in  the  Cordilleran  region.  A  marked  change  in  temperature,  ae 
well  ns  in  rainfall,  takes  place  at  the  crest  line  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  the  Cascade  range.  This  change  is  not  particu- 
larly apparent  in  the  mean  annual  temperature,  but  on  the  map 
showing  the  temperature  of  July  and  January  it  is  quite  apparent, 
being  shown  by  the  slight  difference  between  these  maps  At  the 
bay  of  San  Francisco  the  difference  between  the  mean  t-uipera- 
ture  of  July  and  that  of  January  is  but  10°.  This  effect  is  still 
more  marked  in  the  last  two  maps,  where,  ic  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley, the  range  between  maximum  and  minimum  averwges  110°, 
and  in  the  Cordilleran  region  12.i°.  On  the  Pacific  coast  it  do- 
creases  to  only  tSO°.  showing  that  this  section  of  the  country  enjoys 
by  far  the  most  uniformclimateas  regards  temperature. 

"The  material  for  these  temperature  and  rainfall  n^aps  was 
drawn  mainy  fnnn  "Temperature  Tables"  and  "Rainfall  Tables" 
prepared  bv  Professor  Charles  A-  Schott,  and  published  hy  the 
SuiithsotLiiin  Institution.  The  map  of  mean  annual  temperature 
was  compiled,  verv  largely,  directly  from  Mr  Schott's  admirable 
chart  in  the  first  of  the  above-mentioned  volumes.  The  rainfall 
maps  we.e  prepar<'d  previous  to  the  publication  of  the  last  edition 
of  the  Smithsonian  "Rainfall  Tables."  and.  as  much  new  ma'ertal 
had  been  collected  in  addition  to  that  published  in  the  first 
edtion,  the  mops  were  plotted  from  original  sources. 

No  le-s  thnni'S  per  cent  of  the  total  population  hve-^  between 
40°ftnd7'°  F.  of  mean  annual  temperature.  leaving  a  v  ry  «mal! 
proportion  to  be  distributed  among  the  other  sections  Of  tliese 
groups,  those  having  a  temperature  above  55°  contain  'he  •  nfire 
cotton  region;  those  above  7n°.  the  sugar  and  rice  retrions;  while 
between  50°  and  0"°  i-  c^-mp-is'  d  most  of  the  tobacco  retrion.  The 
prnirip  region  of  the  Mississippi  valley  lies  almost  entirely  belo« 
55°,  while  the  great  wheat  region  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota  ii 
mainly  below  4*^°  of  mean  annual  temperature. 


<»L,T5k  V  t£.  \ 


UNITED      3Ti^TES 


m 


ITiehx^es^  r*rtof  the  country  is.  naiuraHy.  lue  southern  end 
oi  Ploiidi.  iui'9  southern  T"  xa:>  aud  soulhwestcru  Arizona  come 
Ucit  ia  i  give  "I  Icmper.iLurc. 

A  rough  c<.'Ujputation  shows  that  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
tare  of  the  couniry  is  about  5.>°  F..  to  wiii.ii  th  ■  loc^itiun  of  the 
ptpu!  :liju  almost  v^Mjisely  corresponds,  uificiiug  from  it  by  only 
A  f  r>tctio:i  of  a  doj?  ee. 

U' I- give  beii*w  a  tt?ble  prepared  by  selection  fn-m  the  volumi- 
nau*  le.'ord?  of  the  lev-ent  work  oii  American  lemp..iature,  show- 
ing 'h.'  ineau  annual  tvmpe.-murc  of  the  atm*  sphere  at  a  given 
point  m  each  of  the  5o."iv  nine  t^tates  and  Terri.orics  of  the  Union, 
rh  ■  pi  ice  iis  seleeitd  li  oi^her  ibe  eapitnl  or  >omc  leading  city  or 
town  where  obserxatias  ba\e  b,en  mo^l  continuously  kept: 


.  -  =  a-:  p  •<  :  :  ?•.  .  •  .  ;  1^=  •  g  ■"  = .«  ;  •  F 
^;  i  ;  :  }  :  I-  ;  :  i  ;  = :  :  -:  i  1  :  :  : 

o 

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Mean 

annual 
temper- 
ature. 

c  ii  tf  i  li  i  lis  1  i-M  t  s  i  i  III  i: 
l.5<i-i.i-  'i-~^5.  i^<2^=5-?  =  =  i 

5H|fS::i?i:<:;|-s..:.ii.rs?f 

:  :  5;5;i  ::  :  -|5.i  :  £1  g-l.!  :  i  :  - 
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c 

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cooooooooooooooooooooooo 

Moan 
annu  a  1 
temper- 
ature. 

The  position  of  the  isothermal  lines  in  the  United  States  may 
now  be  noticed ;  and  in  this  connection  the  influence  of  the  topog- 
raphy of  the  country  becomes  at  once  extremely  apparent.    The 
isothermal  line?  of  the  mean  annual  temperature  have  quite  a 
marked  regularity  from  the  Atlantic  coast  we>t  to  the  foot  of  the 
Rocky  Moantains.  being  in  general  only  slightU  modified  in  their 
i  direction,  which  i:s  nearly  east  and  west.    This  indication  of  a 
'change  of  temperature,  es-entially  d-pendent  on  that  of  latitude, 
*  is  in  striking  contrast  with  the  condition  of  things  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  as  will  be  seen  farther  on.    But  as  soon  as  the  Cordilleran 
region  is  reached,  the  isothermal  lines  are  bent  away  from  their 
east  and  west  course,  and  become  irregular  and  otten  concentric 
in  their  passage  across  the  various  mountain  ranges. 

By  the  character  of  these  iso'hermal  lines,  three  climatic  divi- 
•ions  of  the  United  States  are  suggested:  1.  The  Eastern  Region, 
including  all  the  territory  lying  east  of  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  2.  The  Plat^-au  and  Mountain  Region  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras; 3.  The  Harrow  belt  on  the  Pacific  coast,  west  of  the 
Caseadf*  and  Sierra  Nevada  Ranges. 

The  Eastern  division  is,  of  course,  by  far  the  most  important 
and  best  known  in  its  details,  since  it  is  that  region  where  the 
etati.=tic3  go  back  the  farthest,  and  where  the  population  nnd 
wealth  are  concentrated.  Its  climatic  conditions  will,  therefore,  first 
be  considered.  As  the  topngniphicul  features  of  this  divit^ion  are 
simple,  and  do  not  anywhere  interpose  any  very  decided  or  not 
*  easily  orercome  barrier  to  the  movement  of  the  people,  so  the 

climate  partakes  of  asimilar  character,  the  passnge  from  one  type 
to  another  beinjr  frradual  and  decidedly  uniform,  although  rapid. 
Iv- iiermal  .  The  isothermal  lines  of  mean  annual  temperature  of  44°  and  72°, 
"^i^^  include  neirly  the  entire  area  of  the  United  States.    The  corre- 

sponding d'-grees  of  latitude  are  about  4o°  and  29°,  so  that  the 
average  change  of  temperature  with  the  latitude  is  a  trifle  over 
1°  rt  for  each  degree  of  latitude.  The  importance  of  this  rapid 
change  of  temperature  with  the  latitude,  with  reference  to  the 
Intellectual  and  commercial  d«TeIopment  of  the  country  is  ob- 
viouij.  and  has  been  already  pointed  out  by  eminent  clima- 
■:logi.sts. 

The  isothermal  of  72°  passes  through  the  center  of  Florida ;  then, 
iitering  Texas,  is  suddenly  deflected  southward,  running  parallel 
.4th  the  isothennals  of  68°  and  54°  to  the  boundary  line  of 
tfrlezico.    The  isothermal  of  76°  crosses  the  extreme  south  end  of 


Florida,  almost  on  the  parallel  of  25°.  The  isothermal  of  68^ 
enters  Florida  just  below  the  parallel  of  ol°.  unii  crossing  th© 
state  in  an  aimutt  direct  ea^t  and  ^\est  line,  passes  ihiougu  th© 
&.>uthvrn  part  ot  Alabama.  Mi.--sissippi,  and  Louitiaiia.  and  into 
Texas,  to  the  meridiun  of  102^.  where  it  is  j-uduenly  di  fleeted  ^outh- 
ward  to  the  boundary  line  of  iMexico.  Theisuiheimal  (»!  »)4^  enters 
th.;  UuitedSlates  on  the  South  Carolina  cua.--t  It  passi.-  in  a  west- 
erly direction  very  neaily  on  the  parallel  vi  i^^°  as  far  we.-t  as  the 
meridian  of  UMj".  when  it  is  deflected  souihwurd,  like  the  other 
isothtrmals.  by  the  gradually  inei-easing  tlevalicn  ol  the  Plateau 
Region.  The  isotticimal  of  GO'*  is.  in  iisgeneni!  course,  parallel 
with  that  of  64°  except  that  the  detiectu.n  tothesontli  between 
the  meridians  of  ^i"^  and  87^  is  greater,  ow  ii  g  to  iht-ii  fluence  of 
the  lofty  southern  extremity  of  the  Appalachians.  It  traverses- 
North  Carolina.  Gtmth  Carolina.  Alabania  ;  passit-  into  the  >outhem 
part  of  Tennessee;  is  deflected  into  AHssi?sipi.i.  then  enters  Ten- 
nesseee  again,  passing  across  Aikansa;;  and  the  Indian  Territory 
into  New  Mexico,  when  it  is  deflected  townid  the  south,  niaking 
two  loops  a.s  it  runs  nearly  coincident  with  tht  mendiiin  of  101* 
to  the  parallel  of  31®  in  Texas,  when  it  again  Vjends  to  f he  west, 
and.afterasouthwegtcour.-e.isdefl  ctedtLwuidihi  n<>rtli  ^est  Thai 
isothermal  of  5o°  enters  the  Unit"  d  .""tates  on  the  Maryaud  coast. 
Its  general  diiection  to  th--  meridian  ((f  ^7°  is  ?cuthwi  >t.  Here, 
in  central  Alabama,  it  is  defl'  ct»d  to  the  r  oriheast  ft-llowing  this 
general  direction  to  the  parallel  of  3b°  in  Kentur-ky,  whtn  it  bends 
again  to  the  west  and  runs  in  an  almost  direct  westerly  ccmrse  to 
the  meridian  ot  lid'^,  where  it  is  defletieil  to  the  scuth.  paj^sing 
through  New  Mexico  into  Texas,  whtre  it  ^udden!y  beids  back  to 
the  north,  ai.d,  after  making  a  long  loop  in  New  Mexico,  passes  itt 
a  northwesterly  cour.-e  across  Arizona.  The  i-'OtheiniJil  of  52°» 
west  ot  the  Appalachians  runs  almost  coircidently  with  the  Ohio 
ri\er  as  far  as  Cincinnati,  then  in  an  undulating  couisc  passes  in 
a  nearly  westerly  direction  through  Indiana,  Illinois.  Northenj 
Missouri,  and  near  the  northern  boundary  of  Kansas  to  the 
eastern  border  of  Colorado,  where  it  is  deflected  to  the  south,  and 
runs  in  a  direction  nearly  south  by  west  for  a  distance  of  fully  fiv» 
hundred  miles  along  the  ea^t<.'m  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
A  large  art-a  is  includ'-d  between  the  isothi  rmals  of  44^^  and  52* 
It  comprises:  New  England,  except  the  largt  r  part  of  Maine,  New 
Uamp?hire  and  Vermont;  the  southern  and  central  portions  of 
New  York;  Penn.'-ylvania;  nearly  all  Ohio;  the  northern  two- 
thirds  of  Indiana  and  Illinois;  the  southern  half  of  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin;  nearly  all  of  Iowa;  th--  southeastern  corner  of  Min- 
nesota; nearly  ih-  whole  of  Nebraska:  and  the  southern  third  of 
Dakota.  The  isothermal  of  40°  ent«is  the  United  States  on  th© 
eastern  border  of  Maine,  and.  pa.-sirg  through  the  c  nter  of  th* 
state,  traverses  the  northern  end  of  New  Ilampshire  and  Ver- 
mont It  then  passes  out  of  the  United  States,  but  enters  the 
country  again  at  the  western  end  of  Lake  Superior,  crossing  the 
central  part  of  Minnesota,  bending  to  the  south  on  the  meridiaa 
of  y7°.  and  making  a  large  loop  in  Eastern  Uakota.  then  turning 
to  the  northwe?t.  and  again  passing  out  of  the  United  States  at 
the  meridian  of  lu7°. 

West  of  the  meridian  of  105°,  within  the  second  climatic  division^ 
or  the  Cordilleran  region,  the  course  of  the  isothermal  is  largely 
determined  by  the  position  of  the  several  mountain  ranges 
embraced  in  that  area  of  complicated  tcpoyraphy  to  which  thd 
name  of  Cordilleras  is  given.  These  ranges,  unlike  the  Appala^ 
chians  are  lofty  enough  to  produce  a  decided  influence  upon  th© 
climate,  although  jiowhere  reaching  what  niJi,.y  be  called  th*'  region 
of  per[)etual  snow.  This  deficiency  of  lasting  accumulations  of 
snow,  however,  is  in  very  con>iderable  p^rt  due  to  the  >mnllnes» 
of  the  precipitatinn.  If  this  were  as  great  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains a.^  it  is  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  former  ranges  would,  no 
doubt,  be  covered  to_  a  large  e.\tent  with  permanent  snow-tieldfi 
and  glaciers  descending  from  them.  Observations  of  mean  tem- 
perature, however,  on  the  higher  ranges  are  extremely  deficient, 
so  that  only  a  tew  generalizations  can  be  given  with  regard  to  the 
position  of  the  isothennals  in  that  portion  of  the  territory  of  the 
United  States. 

The  isothermal  of  44°  follows  a  course  in  the  Cordilleran  region 
which  embraces  wiihin  a  great  loop  to  the  south,  the  entire  highei 
portion  of  the  Rock>Mountains.  as  far  south  as  parallel  S4°.  The 
tops  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  Blue  Mountains,  and  Cascade  Ranges 
are  also  included  within  the  loop  of  the  44°.  The  Central  portion, 
of  the  Cascade  Range,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  south- 
western corner  of  i.olorHdo.  have  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
4U°.  The  highest  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  indicjited  as 
having  a  mean  temperature  of  less  than  36°.  Accurate  and  h-ngr 
continued  observations  in  this  region  would,  however,  furnish  an 
extremely  complicated  systim  of  isothermal  curves,  since  tho 
ranges  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them  hiyh. 

As  the  land  assumes  a  mote  decidedly  plateau  character  In 
Arizona.  Utah  and  Nevada,  ihe  mean  annual  temperature  risesitt 
this  portion  of  thf^  country.  In  Nevada,  the  isothermal  ot  72°ex- 
teiidsasfar  north  as  the  parallel  of  36°,  and  the  isothermal ol 
52°  reaches  to  the  Trinity  Mountains  in  parallel  4U°.  In  tWf 
Cordilleran  region,  we  find  that  a  great  change  may  be  made  in 
the  latitude  with  but  a  very  moderate  one  in  the  mean  annual 
temperature,  as  shown  by  the  parallelism  of  the  isothennals  with 
the  coa.-^t  line.  The  tempeniiure  is  higher  and  more  uniform  along 
the  Pacific  coast  than  it  is  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States.  The  isothermal  of  60^  runs  nearly  parallel  with  the  coast, 
and  not  far  from  it  from  the  35th  parallel  nearly  to  the  3sth.  The 
isothermal  of  .^2°  follows  the  coast  from  San  Francisco  as  far  north 
as  the  parallel  of  46° 

The  isothermals  for    the   summer   months— June,   July,   and  «; 
August— show  greater  irregularity    on  Mr.  Schott's  chart    than  u,,Ji,    I..f,\. 
those  of  the  year.    This  holds  true  especiallv  in  the  eastern  region  ''""*'  "*"*** 
of  the  country.    The  summer  isothermals  all  bend  to  the  north  in  a 
**ory  characterirtic  manner,  owing  in  great  measure  to  the  southerly 
wiaUs.  whidh  art  beated  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     l?bc  summer 


soo 


UNITED      STATES 


[CL,lMATE. 


isothermal  of  80-  nounas  on  the  north  an  irregular  area,  includ- 
ing Florida,  the  sou  h:rii  part  of  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi; 
Louisiana,  the  southeasti-m  corner  of  Arkansas;  the  southeastern 
half  of  Texas;  and  a  tongue  of  land  in  New  Mexico.  «  itnin 
this  area  the  mean  summer  temperature  ranges  from  81)  to  58  . 
The  southwestern  halt  of  Arizon.i,  and  patches  in  southern  and 
c  -ntral  California  have  a  like  summer  temperature  of  froni  80  to 
t-  ,'.  A  strip  including  the  greater  part  of  North  and  .South  Caro- 
li  la,  portions  of  Georgia.  Alalxima.  Jlississippi.  Tennessee.  Ken- 
tick.,  Missouri,  Arkansas.  Kansas,  the  Indian  Territory,  lexas. 
New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Utah.  Arizona,  and  Califorma.  lies  be- 
t.vecn  the  mnan  summer  isothermals  of  76°  and  80°.  The  belt  near 
the  Ohi.i,  oxtendiig  north  as  far  as  the  Great  Lakes,  and  south 
slong  the  Appalachian  table  land  into  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Ala- 
bama, and  Georgia,  and  w.'st  through  Indiana,  Illinois.  Iowa, 
portion^  of  Wisconsin.  .Minnesota,  Dakota,  and  Montana. 
Nebraska,  and  northern  Kansas,  lies  between  the  summer  isother- 
niili  of '>S°  and  76°.  On  tho  I'aoilic  coast  the  summer  i.sothermals 
niiproich  more  nearly  to  tho.  mean  annual  isothermals  in  their 
cha  a.'t  -r  and  position  than  do  those  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  .States.  The  ngion  of  the  United  States  l.ving  north  of 
i  the  States  named  above  has  a  mean  summer  temperature  ranging 

Winter  ^^^^  isothermals  for  the  winter  months— December,  January  and 

isother-  j-,  bruavy— in  the  eastern  region  of  the  United  States,  are  more 

mals.  regu\  ir  tlian  the  summer  curves,  thus  appioachins  in  tliis  respect 

the  chiracter  of  the  mean  annual  isothermals.  The  winter 
isotherm  il  of -=12°  coincides  almost  exactly  with  the  mean  annual 
i.i!othoriii  il  of  68°.  It  runs  parallel  with,  and  at  a  little  distonce 
from,  ih  •  Gulf  of  Mexi.jo.  The  winter  curve  of  48°  corresponds 
very  clo  elv  with  that  of  64°  for  "the  year  and  the  winter  curve 
of  44'  with  the  mean  annual  isothermal  of  60°.  The  winter 
Isothormal  of  32°  enters  tne  United  .States  at  the  southern  end  ot 
M  issachusetts.  and  pas-es  in  a  souihwcsterlv  course  across  Long 
Island,  iust  s  .uth  of  New  York  City,  through  New  Jersey  and 
across  til'  northern  end  of  Maryland,  where  it  is  deflected  to  the 
south,  and  makes  a  long  loop  around  the  Appdachians;  then  near 
the  Ohio,  through  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Kansas,  into 
New  .M»\ieo,  where  at  the  meridian  of  lO.".".  it  is  deflected  to  the 
«nuthwest  atid  passes  around  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  through 
th- center  of  the  Great  B-isin.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  the. winter 
isothermals  also  closelv  coincides  with  the  mean  annual  isolher- 
mils.  For  example,  the  winter  isothermal  of  52°  corresponds  in 
chiraj'ter  and  poition  with  the  annual  curve  of  60  , 
Winds  The  p -culiarities  of  the  North-American  cliuiate  which  most, 

strongly  impress  themselves  on  newly  arrivid  vi.=itors,  and  whicu 
are  iiot'soappiirent  in  general  statistical  statements  as  they  are 
in  Nature,  may  bo  best  set  forth  and  discussed  after  the  more 
essential  facts  regarding  the  other  principnl  climatic  elements 
have  been  presented.  ,  ^     ,i.         ■     ■     i 

And  it  wouM  S"eni  to  be  next  in  order  to  state  tho  principal 
fa.-ts  regarding  the  di-  t.ibution  of  the  winds  in  the  Unit,  d  States, 
Bin.'o:iknowledgeotth"Je  will  be  essential  to  an  understanding 
of  th-  important  suliject  of  tile  amount  and  distribution  of  the 
f.r  eipitation  „  *    ,i  ^  - 

The  prevailing  winds  of  the  United  States,  as  of  all  countries 
lying  in  th<  middl  ■  latitudes,  are  westerly.  At  the  4ath  parallel 
as  an  average  position,  and  en  the  mean  annual  isothermal  ot  50  , 
th"  evidence-  of  this  prevalence  and  constancy  are  overwhelming. 
Dr.  Gibbons  his  noticed,  with  great  care  at  San  Francisco  the 
B  nr.se  of  the  hisrher  strata  of  clouds— the  cirrus,  and  the  very  high 
gtr:itus— wh'Ti'  they  were  visible,  and  has  found  them  to  come 
o'l't  irmly  from  some  westerly  point.  During  three  years  of  very 
camful  reeistry  directed  to  this  particular  point  in  western  New 
York,  but  thr.-e  instances  ot  a  contrary  direction  were  observe^. 
During  storms  the  lower  clouds  are  from  various  points,  and  the 
wind  is  tiuite  variable  during  the  greater  storms;  two  strata  of 
different  movement  often  lyinf  boueath  that  from  the  west,  yet 
the  stratum  from  a  westerly  point  usually  deposits  the  rain,  and 
wh 'n  it  ceases  the  rainfall  ceases,  though  the  Iiwer  strata  may 
continue  to  run  on  the  wind  twenty-four  hours,  or  even  longer. 

Below  the  a.'ith  parallel  and  on  the  Gulf  coast  only,  do  the 
showers  of  summer  take  a  different  movement,  showing  that  the 
stratum  occupied  by  tho  cumulus  of  average  height  does  not  there 
move  from  the  west,  but  from  the  east  or  southeast— »n  inflection 
of  the  trade-wind  mingling  with  a  local  coast  wind. 

The  following  table,  arranged  from  data  furnished  by  the  Signal 
Berviee  Bureau,  gives  an  idea  of  the  direction  of  the  wind  in 
various  p.arts  of  the  country: 

STATEMENT  shnwino  how  many  timet  the  wind  was  obtervrd 
hintoino  from  the  eiphi  principal  poivtn  of  the  compass  during 
each  season  of  the  year  enrfini;  ./iiac  30.  188  1.  Compareri  frorn 
observations  taken  at  the  sereral  stations  of  observations  at  7 
a.  m.,  2  p.  m.  and  9  p.  m.  [local  time). 


Station. 


Wind. 


Bismarck    DaV. 


N. 

.SS 

.S2 

31) 

N.W. 

.■^6 

.".I 

70 

W. 

;'4 

27 

34 

s.  w. 

18 

12 

17 

s. 

iii 

■M 

22 

S.  E. 

:iii 

m 

37 

E. 

82 

M 

LS 

N.  E. 

Z'i 

17 

18 

Calm. 

11 

o 

2V 

1 

Blank. 

0 

1, 

0 

Station. 


l)Lnver,  Colo. 


Los  Aiigties.  Cal. 


Saint  Louis,  Mo- 


New  York.  X.  Y  , 


Boston,  MiLM.. 


Augu:Ua,  Oa 


Chicago.  III. 


Charleston,  S.  C. 


New  Orlf^fiTiR  Tin 


u 

Win  . 

.S 

a 
a 

1 

C 

3 

cc 

r/J 

f       N. 

35 

.■^0 

40 

N.  W. 

36 

42 

37 

W. 

m 

IS 

6 

S  W. 

24 

14 

12 

s 

64 

6(1 

111 

S.  E. 

33 

34 

26 

E. 

m 

29 

12 

N.  E. 

2i 

28 

2U 

Calm. 

1 

4 

3 

I    Blank. 

0 

U 

U 

N. 

,31 

.■> 

32 

N.W. 

22 

r> 

12 

W. 

04 

M 

W 

s.  w. 

81 

74 

40 

s. 

18 

10 

9 

S.E. 

10 

19 

8 

E. 

16 

11 

17 

N.  E. 

31 

12 

48 

Calm. 

3 

37 

42 

1 

Blank. 

0 

0 

0 

N. 

47 

,36 

44 

N.W. 

27 

10 

31 

W. 

2.T 

17 

20 

s.  w. 

9 

37 

In 

■1 

S. 

90 

90 

!3 

S.E. 

,39 

33 

33 

E. 

26 

19 

11 

N,  E. 

13 

20 

22 

Calm. 

0 

2 

0 

Blank. 

0 

0 

0 

(        N. 

14 

13 

14 

N.W. 

(19 

.Ml 

(2 

W. 

36 

33 

'.» 

S.  w. 

4.^ 

71 

60 

S. 

17 

37 

18 

S.  B. 

.36 

m 

27 

E. 

17 

n 

16 

N.  E. 

36 

;tt 

2o 

Calm. 

6 

3 

3 

I   Blank. 

0 

U 

U 

N. 
N.W. 

W. 
S.  W. 

S. 
S.E. 

E. 
N.  E. 
Calm. 
Blank. 


f       N- 

14 

8 

3 

N.  W. 

16 

22 

21 

W. 

14 

16 

i< 

6.  W. 

23 

4t 

2) 

S 

29 

27 

12 

S.E. 

31 

fi2 

32 

E. 

14 

16 

31 

N.  E. 

27 

4,T 

lU 

Calm. 

108 

46 

80 

L   Blank. 

0 

0 

0 

N. 

N.W. 

W. 

s.  w. 
s. 

S.   E. 

E. 
N.  E. 
Calm. 
Blank. 


f      N. 

14 

6 

24 

N.W. 

19 

11 

12 

W. 

21 

22 

12 

S.  W. 

92 

91 

3" 

S. 

27 

27 

7 

S.   E. 

2-5 

30 

•2h 

E. 

:fi 

4.'. 

63 

N.  E. 

32 

40 

92 

Calm. 

11 

4 

6 

I   Blank. 

0 

0 

0 

f        N. 

:w 

18 

,"^3 

N  W. 

13 

16 

24 

W. 

.■s 

3,8 

7 

S.  W. 

21 

M 

8 

s 

.59 

29 

il 

S  E. 

.")•. 

46 

48 

E. 

S.5 

48 

66 

N.  E. 

28 

2'S 

49 

(.'aim. 

."i 

2 

il 

Blank. 

0 

0 

0 

26 
35 
2S 
30 
93 
13 
15 
23 

0 

0 

64 
17 
42 
21 
10 
16 
29 
59 
12 
0 

31 
44 
30 
18 
91 
27 
14 
15 

3 

0 

18 
54 
46 
43 
16 
13 
13 
53 
17 
0 

» 

62 
,58 
5,5 
12 
14 
15 
11 
27 
0 

13 
28 
26 
17 
24 
16 
4 

24 
121 

n 

17 
31 
61 
60 
37 
20 
15 
16 
16 
0 

34 

20 
25 
67 
IC 
16 
41 
,55 
5 
0 

35 
17 
11 
22 
30 
65 
48 
39 
6 


XMATE.] 


UNITED      STATES 


801 


Bdiufall 


The  winds  along  the  whole  cxttnt  of  tlie  Atlantic  Coast  region 

Ave  a  markeil  resemblancL-  in  ilieir  important  features,  notwith- 

tandiag  the  great  ditfeienc?  in  latitude.    SVesterly  wind^i  pre- 

4  ouQiuace  during  the  eiiii'f  year;  but  they  are  chiefly  i-outhwest- 

I  'lyin  summer,  arid  no^Ihlve^terly  in  winter. 

la  the  district  b_iwe  n  the  Appalachians  and  the  Missis^r^ippi, 
I  esterly  and  southwesct-rly  wi:ids  are  prevalent  both  in  winter  and 
-  I'umer.  Un  the  other  hind,  over  a  largo  territory  in  the  ^outh- 
Re^ttrn  portion  of  the  United  States,  cov.-riiig  an  area  uf  about 
■^iie  third  of  the  country,  and  including  Xebraska,  Kansas,  east- 
rn  Wyoming  and  Colorado.  Arknnsa>i,  TfXiis.  Utah,  New  Mexico 
iD-l  Arizona,  the  summer  winds  are  from  the  south,  while  the 
s"iDds  of  winter  are  north  and  i;orthwest.  In  northern  iMirhigan, 
iViseonsin,  and  Miunesota.  this  reversal  of  the  wiuter  winds  is 
'ess  marked  In  New  Mexico  and  among  the  Rocky  Mountains 
cener  illy,  the  winds  ire  ■>!  th;  most  extremely  irregular  chanic- 
■,or.  .At  the  passes  of  ih  *  Sierra  Nevada,  and  at  all  entrances 
from  the  coast  of  the  Pacitic  to  the  interior,  arid  districts  and 
d  -serts,  there  are  vi  -lent  and  cimtinuius  westerly  winds.  On  the 
roast  of  California,  the  inward  draft  of  air  produCL'd  hv  inti  rior 
rarefaction  is  decidedly  developed.  Capt.  Wilkes  has  dpsigriMted 
this  as  the  locality  of  the  "Mexican  Monsoon."' blowing  alternately 
O' and  down  thiscoast.or  northwest  and  southeast.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  northern  Mioyisrt  >n  is  from  Decemb  t  to  .May;  the  cur- 
rents of  air  are  froiu  the  northwest,  and  nearly  parallel  with  the 
co:ist.  During  its  i>revali'nce  fine  weather  is  exporienced.  From 
May  to  September  the  curronis  uf  air  are  from  the  south  and 
So  ilhwest.  These  are  the  stormy  months,  attended  with  great 
t*.\plu-ions  of  electricity,  and  »vith  copious  and  constant  precipitji- 
tiiin.  This  interior  rarefacton,  above  mentioned,  is  sufficient  to 
brin^r  a  nort  iwest  wind  on  the  c^ast:  from  the  42jid  to  thf -ioth 
pirtllel.  and  a  sou:h  nr  so.Uliwest  wind  for  a  longdistance  below 
tue  entranc- to  the  ijulf  of  Califurnia— lines  which,  if  projected 
to  the  interior,  would  cross  aearly  at  right  angles  over  the  central 
areas  of  the  dry  interi'T.  On  the  other  sid  ■  of  the  continent  the 
eoufheast  nionsoon  of  Texas  blow-  dir-^ctly  toward  the  northwf-et 
wind  of  California— all  proving  how  grsat  and  important  this 
agency  ot  interior  rarefaction  is  in  producing  th*-  surfac  ■  winds 
of  thi--  latitudes  b?low  the  well-determined  belt  of  westerly  winds. 
1-1  sum  up  whaf  has  b.'cr.  said  in  regard  to  the  wind-  of  the 
United  States,  the  f 'Howing  may  be  added: 

1.  The  infliience  d  the  trades  is  but  very  slightly  felt  in  the 
extreme  southeasle-  'y  nortion  of  the  country. 

2.  The  pievaili  .j;  .vinds  elsewhere  are,  in  general,  westerly. 

'6.  On  th<»  Atlantie  ,'oast.  east  of  the  Appalachians,  northwest- 
erly win  is p -evail  in  winter:  southweniterly  in  •summer. 

4.  In  the  region  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Afpal^ichians, 
aouthwest  and  west  wind-  prevail  both  in  winter  and  -summer. 

5  Over  a  wid^  area,  extending  from  -loutheastern  California 
to  Mi-jsouri,  and  along  the  base  nf  the  Rocky  Mountains  from 
New  Mexico  to  southern  Dakota,  the  winds  of  summer  are  nearly 
the  reverse  of  those  of  winter,  being  south,  southeasterly  or 
sou'hwesteriy.  with  a  great  predominance  of  southerly;  but  north 
and  northwest  in  winter. 

b.  On  the  Pacific  coast*  the  prevailing  and  normal  westerly 
direction  is  maintained  through  the  year»  intensified  in  summer 
by  the  sur-era  'ded  monsoon  influence  of  the  heated  plateau  region 
to  th**  ea-t, 

7.  Through  the  Plateau  or  interior  Cordilleran  region,  the  snr- 
lace  winds  are  variable  and  irregular  in  character,  but  the  high?r 
curr-nts  are  in  rhe  normal  westerly  direction. 

s.  The  region  of  the  Lower  Colorado  i^  one  in  which  southerly 
winds  greatly  predominate  in  cummer,  but  where  in  winter  there 
is  not  so  complete  a  reversal  of  the  summer  wind  as  there  is  in  the 
area  specified  under  5. 

The  prosperity  of  a  country  d 'penis  largely  upon  its  rainfall, 
as.  to  a  very  great  extent,  the  primary  industry,  that  upon  which 
all  others  depend  directly,  viz..  agriculture,  may  be  said  to  flour- 
ish in  a  degree  directly  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  moisture. 
Of  rainfall,  this  country  receives  in  its  diCE  -rent  parts  a  very  dif- 
ferent supplv  Throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States, 
the  rainfall  is  ample  for  all  purposes  of  agriculture,  while  in  the 
western  half,  with  the  exception  of  a  narrow  strip  along  the 
Pacific  coast,  the  supplv  is  very  deficient.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Cordilleran  region,  the  rainfall  is  nearly  all  derived  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  au'l  the  Atlanticocean.  Of  the  two.  the  principal 
source  is  the  <Tiilf.  Th' warm,  moist  currents  which  accompany 
the  Gulf  Stream  from  the  Caribbean  sea  are  not  deflected  toward 
the  eastward  in  the  *4ulf  of  Mexico,  as  the  great  oceanic  river  is, 
but  pass  northward  and  eastward  over  the  land  in  a  broad  belt 
extending  from  the  coa>t  of  Texas  to  the  peninsula  of  Florida. 
Jndging  from  its  effects  in  the  form  of  rainfall,  the  central  por- 
tion of  this  current  passes  over  eastern  Louisiana  and  Missis.-ippi 
and  western  Alabama.  The  natural  result  of  leaving  the  warm 
<h-ein  surface  and  entering  the  continent  is  to  cool  th^se  air  cur- 
rents, and  make  th  -m  d'po-^it  th-'ir  vapor.  The  heaviest  deposit  is 
along  the  iiorthern  *hnre  of  the  Gulf,  in  the  States  of  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  and  Alabama,  and  the  western  part  of  Florida,  where 
!  the  rainfall  reaches  till  inches  per  annum.  Were  there  no  moun- 
!  tiin3  or  other  irregular  topographical  features  to  modify  the  rain- 
fall, this  wave  would  move  inland  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  the 
prcit-itation  decreasing  eastward,  northward,  and  westward,  the 
lines  of  equal  rainfall  tiking  the  form  of  great  concentric  ellipses, 
This  form  we  see  roughly  oiitlined  in  the  western  pai"t  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Talley,  th*'  ritinfall  drcreasing  regularly  to  the  northward 
and  westward.  To  the  northeastward,  however,  these  moisture- 
lad^n  currents  encounter  the  southern  end  of  the  Appalachian 
chain,  and  are  driv-^n  fit  once  up  to  high  altitude-;,  where  they  are 
forced  to  disgorge  thpir  vapor,  giving  to  this  end  of  the  mountain 
system  a  heavy  rainfall:  while  farther  along  the  chain,  toward 
the  northeast,  the  rainfall  diminishes,  hpcoming  fven  less  than 
that  of  the  lower  country  on  the  east  and  west.    The  portion  of 


the  nioi.'ture-lad>n  current  which  passes  to  the  eastward  of  the 
Appal. ichian  ilinin  uneis  and  mingles  with  uioi.st  air  currents 
comiiig  directly  tioui  the  Atlantic,  and  produces,  in  the  central 
parts  1. J  Xnrth  and  frouth  Carolina,  an  area  ut  abnormally  heavy 
rainf.ll.  .\  second  source  ut  moisture  is  the  Atlantic  ocean. 
Here  the  moist  aircu^rent^  from  the  Gull  Stream  produce  a  lire 
of  heavy  rainfall  alone  the  Atlantic  coast,  reaching  from  Fh.r  da 
to  the  neighborhood  oi  the  bay  of  New  York.  'I'hi^  strip  is  q  iite 
narrow,  being  confined  to  the  L'oa>tand  its  immediate  neiyhbjr- 
hood.  B.n  k  of  that  and  over  the  greater  portion  of  ihs  Atlantic 
plain,  the  precipitation  is  notably  less-  The  conditions  of  the 
coa.<t  as  regards  rainfall  are  somewhat  changed  north  of  the  Iiiti- 
lude  last  inention*d;  that  is  near  the  bay  ol  New  York.  The 
Gulf  Stfeani.  which  h&A  been  gradually  trcndinii  ofl  shore,  is  here 
nt  a  considerable  distance  from  ihecoast.  Between  the  coast  and 
the  Gult  ^tr'.ani  has  appeared  a  polar  current  flowing  southwest- 
erly. The  cuDtact  between  the  warm  air  currents  of  the  Gulf 
>trtaiu  and  the  cold  winds  accompanying  this  pjlar  current  un- 
doubtedly c;iuses  the  heavy  fogs  which  prevail  on  the  banks  of 
Newf.  undland  »nd  8t.  <ieorge's  Banks  extending,  in  a  greater  or 
less  d  gfce.  lo  the  New  England  const.  Although  there  is  a  de- 
crease ill  ii-e  niinta!!  of  this  part  of  th'*  co.im  from  that  farther 
south,  yit  It  is  n.it  particularly  marked.  The  precipitation  is, 
however,  greatest  on  the  coast,  and  decreases inhmd. 

Leaving  now  the  eastern  half  of  the  counirv.  n  t  us  trace  the 
rainfall  westward.  The  lines  indicating  a  sn  aller  degree  of  rain- 
fall succeed  one  another  at  intervals  more  ut  Lss  n  gular  as  we 
go  west,  out  of  the  cours  •  of  th'-  great  continental  wave  of  moist- 
ure, and  up  the  slope  of  the  plains.  The  country  here  is  uniform 
and  generally  level,  and  there  i-  nothing  to  int-  i  rupt  the  regular 
decrease  in  the  amount  of  preciptation  until  we  r^ach  the  base 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  From  this  line  westward  to  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  we  find  the  conditions  of  rainfall  which  are  incident  to  a 
mountain  C'Mintrj  accomp-tnied  by  a  dry  atmo.-phere.  Taking 
the  Cordilleran  region  a-  a  whi.le.  with  the  e.xci-ption  I'f  that  part 
lying  west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Ca:^cades,  the  rainfall  proba- 
bly does  not  average  more  than  1(1  or  15  inches  annually.  Thi.-*, 
however,  is  not  deposited  unilormly  over  the  country :  there  are 
certain  conditions  under  which  the  rainfall  in  some  parrs  of  this 
region  is  much  greater  than  in  others.  Other  th'ni:f  being  equal,  the 
higher  the  latitude  and  the  greater  the  altitude,  the  greater  will  be 
the  rainfall.  Under  this  rule  the  more  northern  parts  of  the  Cor- 
dilleran region  enj^y  a  greater  rainfall  than  the  southern  parts. 
The  mountains  and  high  plateaus  are  better  watered  than  the 
lowlands.  The  best  watered  i>arts  of  thi.'-  region  are  the  north- 
ern parts  of  Washington  and  Idaho,  th^^  we-tern  part  of  Mon- 
tana, northwestern  \\'yoming,  which  includes  the  elevated  region 
known  as  the  Y^'ellowstone  National  Park,  and  the  high  plateau.-* 
and  ranges  ot  central  Colnrado.  The  most  arid  portions,  and 
those  which  receive  the  least  rainfall,  are  western  Arizona,  south- 
ern Nevada,  and  southeastern  California.  Although  thnaigliout 
this  region  we  have  but  few  and  scattered  ob-^ervations  of  rainfall, 
the  relative  amount  can  be  predicted  with  a  considemble  degree  of 
certainty  by  the  character  of  the  vegetation.  Everywhere  arbo- 
rescent vegetation  implies  a  considerable  amount  of  rainfall,  and 
accordingly  we  find  the  higher  plateaus,  the  mountains,  and  the 
regions  in  the  higher  latitudes  covered  with  forests.  A  second 
zone  of  rainfall  is  indicated  by  the  bunch  and  gama  grasses  which 
co/er  the  plains  and  most  of  the  mountain  valleys.  They  indi- 
cate a  rainfall  not  in  general  sufficient  for  thp  needs  of  agriculture, 
A  third  zont*  is  indicated  by  Artemisia,  or  "fi'&e*^  bm:*h,"  as  this 
characteri-^tic  western  shrub  is  popularly  called:  while  a  fourth 
zone  is  indicated  by  the  cactus,  the  yucca,  or  by  an  absence  of  all 
vegetat'on  whatever. 

As  ha*;  been  suggested  heretofore,  the  rainfall  in  th'  Cordil- 
leran region  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  in  general  insufficient 
for  the  needs  of  ag'icuUure,  excepting  in  a  f'w  iso  ated  ureas 
where  locnl  topi^'grat  hy  induces  a  rainfall  greater  than  the  norm^ 
one.  In  that  section,  irrigation  is  everywhere  necessary  for  the 
production  of  cereal  crops.  Generally  it  may  he  stated  that  a 
less  annual  rainfall  than  20  inches,  or  a  less  rainfall  than  12H 
inches  during  the  growing  season  of  crops— that  is,  during  the 
spring  and  summer — is  insufficient  for  their  successful  cultiva- 
tion ;  and  where  this  supply  is  not  furnished  naturally,  an  equiva- 
lent must  be  supplied  by  means  of  irrigation.  This  limit  is 
reached  along  a  line  running  approximately  on  a  meridian,  and 
passing  through  the  middle  of  Dakota,  western  Nebraska,  west- 
ern Kansas,  andcentral  Texas.  In  the  neighborhood  of  this  line, 
aud  extending  perhaps  a  degree  on  each^  side  of  it,  U  a  debatable 
ground,  where,  in  some  seasons,  the_  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  all 
crops,  while  in  others  it  is  insufficient.  This  is  Powell's  sub- 
humid  region.  As  a  rule,  wherever  irrigation  is  necessary,  the 
possible  extent  of  agriculture,  and  in  consequence  th-  possible 
densitv  of  settlement,  are  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  water 
carried  in  the  streams.  In  most  parts  of  the  Cordilleran  region, 
there  is  apparently  a  far  greater  amount  of  land  suitable  for  cul- 
tivation than  can  ever  be  irrigated,  even  under  the  most  econom- 
ical distribution  of  water.  Concerning  this  point,  however,  we 
are  at  present  much  in  the  dark,  the  capacity  of  few  streams  hav- 
ing been  measured,  even  approximately.  Under  the  wa.sfefu' 
system  of  irrigation  at  present  practiced  throughout  the  West 
(except  in  some  portions  of  southern  California),  the  limit  of  set- 
tlement will  very  soon  be  reached,  so  far  as  the  population  is  de- 
pendent upon  agriculture. 

A  question  which  has  assumed  practical  importance  of  an  almost 
national  character  is  the  effect  of  the  planting  of  tre-^s  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  upon  climate,  many  high  authorities  main- 
taining that  these  causes  produce  an  increase  in  rainfall,  and  con- 
sequently that  it  is  possible  to  redeem  the  whole  Cordilleran 
region  by  a  judicious  system  of  cultivation  and  tree-plan'ing.  par- 
ticularly of  the  latter.  It  is  doubtful  whether  that  effect  c*n  be 
produced  by  this  or  by  anj-  other  means  within  tke  power  of  maik. 


802 


UNITED      'S  T  A 


i 


R  S 


[climate. 


Such  facts  as  we  have  within  the  form  of  iHinfall  records  in  theCor- 
dillenin  ref,'ion  do  not  substantiate  the  thenry,  the  reeords  sh'iwiug 
that  (he  niinfall  has  not  increased  in  the  regions  C"Vfred  by  our  bor- 
der Sitileni'-nts  sinc^^  their  earliest  formation.  At  th  ■  ^ame  rime, 
it  seems  hi^lily  probable  that  a  change  has  been  prnduced.  which, 
while  not  affecting  the  climate,  has  modified  decidedly  tlie  con- 
didou-^  of  moisture.  The  effects  of  cultivmion  upon  the  soil  iu 
covering  it  with  vegetation,  and  especially  witli  trees,  has  in  g*  n- 
eral  iiei^n  to  retain  the  m-iisture  upon  nnd  in  ihj  soil,  instead  of 
allowing  it  to  run  directly  off  into  the  str^'ams.  or  to  be  taken  up 
at  one-  hy  evaporation  In  uiher  Wiirds,  a  much  larger  proportion 
of  the  niinfall  is  rendered  eff  ctiv^-  for  agricuUu.al  purposes. 
Tfai-  effect  is  already  ve:y  marked  through  Mit  Dakota,  Kansas, 
An  1  Xeiraska.  and  even  t »  s  nne  extent  in  I'rah  and  Colorado. 

It  remdiis  to  sKetch  the  rainfall  of  the  Paeitie  coast  1 1  is  in 
ail  respects  peeuliar.  and  different  from  tliat  of  the  re>t  of  the 
CO  m  try.  i'h?i"alongth:;  whole  coast,  and  ex  ten'ling  eastward  as  far 
n-i  tne  Sierr  i  Nevada  and  the  Oascidi^  rang*,  well  d  fined  Wft  and 
dry  seas  tns— ihe  fo-mor  eorriespondlng  to  the  eastern  winter,  the 
hitter  to  I  he  -asrern  summer.  Taking  th*  year  thrnugh.  the  rain- 
fall is  Very  niueh  h  'avi_^r  in  th"?  north.-rn  part  of  thi<  stclion  than 
in  tlie  3  lUthern.  in  we-lern  Washm^iton  lerritory.  it  rams  almost 
CO  istaiitiy  tor  sl.x  month'  of  tlie  year,  while  ev«n  in  thj  wet  sea- 
Bon.  tlie  sui»ply  of  rain  in  s  m  h  rn  C  liFornia  is  scanty. 

An  e.'^planarion  of  this  peeu'iar  elimafe  is  to  be  found  in  tho 
ocean  curreits  and  ihe  prevailing  wind".  Th<'  wind-  on  the 
w.'st'irn  coast  are,  as  a  rule,  the  "'anti  trades."  blowiiig  from  the 
west  a  id  -omhw  -.st  These  winds  pas.-<,  on  nearing  the  c-ast.  over 
the  gr.?at  .Japanese  current,  which  north  of  Ong-ni.  is  relatively  to 
the  land,  a  w:»rm  current,  while  south  of  Oregon  it  is.  relatively, 
a  CO  d  cnrrent.  In  passing  ov  -r  this  portion  of  th  ■  sea,  the  atmos 
phere  beeom-s  surcliargerl  with  moisture.  In  reaching  the  coa^st 
the  amount  of  precipitation  from  this  moisture-lad -n  atmosphere 
depends  u()  m  the  chang'  of  temperature  which  it  encounters. 
North  of  Oregon,  thj  land  being,  as  stated  above,  eolder  than  the 
8. -a.  there  is  great  precipitation,  while  south  of  that  state  the  land 
being  the  wa'ine>t,  the  precipitation  decreases,  till  in  southern 
California,  wh-re  the  difference  between  the  S' a  and  land  tem- 
perature is  the  greatest,  it  is  almost  nothing  The  line  of  demark- 
atiun  between  the  different  temperatures  varies  with  the  season, 
ranging  northward  in  the  summer  and  southward  in  the  winter, 
thus  giving  the  alternations  between  the  wet  and  dry  Season?*  so 
peeuliar  to  this  coast.  The  influence  of  the  mountnins  of  the 
Pacific  coa^t,  althouu;h  not  sufficient  to  account  for  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  tfiis  climate,  still  plays  a  very  important  part  in  it  The 
ascent  of  the  warm  currents  up  the  mountain  sides  of  course  oouls 
them  very  gieatly,  and  causes  them  to  deposit  whatever  remaining 
moisture  they  may  contain.  To  illustrate  the  extent  of  the  action 
of  mountain  ranges,  it  may  be  stated  that,  although  in  the  valley 
of  the  San  Joaquin  the  raintall  is  very  light,  yet  upon  the  high 
Sierras  it  h  is  been  fnund  to  reachHfi  inches  in  a  sinele  vear. 

The  colder  months  in  the  United  States,  including  May  and  Sep- 
tember of  the  warmer  months,  precipitate  most  ot  the  rain  and 
mow  which  falls  in  what  are  called  gmeral  storms.  Most  of  the 
rain  falling  before  the  middle  of  June  in  the  latitude  of  Wash- 
ington is  in  storm.^  of  two  or  three  days' <lui'ation.  A  south  or 
southeast  wind,  with  hifrh  temperature  and  a  palpable  sense  of 
preparation,  usually  begins  th^  change;  east  and  northeast  winds 
follow  next  for  a  day  or  m  're,  during  which  most  <>f  the  rain  falls, 
and  west  or  northwest  winds  blow  with  unusual  strength  for  two 
days  following,  restoring  the  equable  and  average  weather  for  the 
month.  In  the  Northern  States,  a  greater  number  of  months  is 
included  in  those  of  general  rains,  which  may  occur  in  every 
month  of  summer,  though  they  rarely  do  so.  In  the  Hulf  States 
the  period  of  summer  showers  is  more  extended  generally,  though 
where  the  hurricanes  of  August  a  id  September  occur,  as  they  do 
in  all  the  Southern  States  bordering  theiiulf  and  the  Atlantic,  the 
number  of  extended  ratns  in  the  summer  is  more  nearly  equal  to 
that  in  New  York  and  New  England.  In  the  southwest,  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  coasts,  they  are  rare  from  the  clo.se  of  April  to  the 
middle  of  October:  in  the  interior  farther  west  they  are  equally 
rare,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  they  belong  only  to  the  rainy 
months.  But  on  the  Pacifie  the  rain.s  have  little,  if  any,  corre- 
spondence at  any  season  with  those  eist  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Some  general  distinctions  -should  be  made  at  the  outset  of  the 
Bxamination  of  storms  in  'h^  temperate  latitudes  The  hurri- 
canes, typhoons  and  tornadoes,  each  of  which  more  generally  be- 
long to  the  troi)ics.  frequently  enter  these  latitud's  in  their  origi- 
nal forms,  and  .>ubseq<iently  become  blended  with  the  forms  wliich 
originate  here,  either  by  encountering  one  of  these,  or  by  putting 
on  such  forms  by  a  gradual  process  of  change  The  West  India 
hurricanes  impress  their  character  on  a  series  of  successive  or 
continuous  storms  along  the  (lulf  Stream  in  nearly  every  case  of 
their  apjiroach  to  tempi  rate  latitudes,  and  the  tracks  of  these  in 
th-3  western  Atlantic  and  'ilong  the  coast  present  the  most  fre- 
quent instanC'S  of  the  ming'ing  of  storms  which  were  originally 
whollv  different,  with  the  widely  extended  rains  above  the  35th 
parallel. 
The  general  The  ob-^ervations  with  respect  to  the  g'*noral  winter  storms  of 
viuter  the  United  States  m;iy  be  stated  as  follows: 

tfLvrms.  5'    The  general  winter  storms  of  the  United  States  often 'H)ver 

an  area  of  from  three  to  five  hundred  miles  in  diameter,  which 
area  is  usually  oblong  or  oval,  with  its  greatest  lengh  from  south- 
west to  northeast. 

2.  They  nil  move  eastward  with  the  westerly  winds  of  the  belt 
where  they  are  formed,  and  in  a  line  with  the  isothermals  of  the 
month  in  which  they  occur — coming  from  a  point  north  of  west 
at  the  Mississippi  river,  and  leaving  the  Atlantic  coast  in  a  direc- 
tion north  of  east.  This  course  conforms  in  both  cases  to  the 
course  of  the  is-dhermals;  or,  in  oth^r  words,  they  do  not  leave 
the  measure  of  heat  where  they  originate  to  go  into  colder  or 
warmer  climates. 


3.  Their  movement  i^  gi.ci  ally  at  the  rate  of  movement  of  thfl 
air  in  these  latitudes,  or  nearly  twenty  miles  i  er  hour;  but  it  may 
be  much  greater,  or  very  li  tie 

4  They  may  be  initiated  at  all  points  of  this  bell,  and  at  anj 
liieridian,  and  iliev  have  equally  no  i  oint  at  Vibicli  tliej  are  more 
likely  to  la. come  uAhAUSt^d  and  to  d.s;ippear  th.iu  nnj  other. 

5.  They  me  more  viok  nt  at  the  Atl  Lutiu  c  .ast  and  ai  the  Gulf 
Stream  than  elseuhere,  because  the  contrast  ol  land  ni.d  ;-ea  air  ia 
there  very  trreat  in  the  c.>ld-  r  S-asons.  and  becj^se  the  di.ect  line 
of  their  pngiess  earties  ihem  into  a  belt  of  high  temperature. 
AV hen  the  contrast  is  not  great,  asin  the  warmei  mon  hs,  there  is 
no  decided  increi.-e  ol  severity  there. 

6.  Th' y  are  more  generally  attended  hy  nortl  east  winds  than  Northeast 
any  others  during  the  first  half:  or,  in  other  wtrds,  the  rarefied  winds, 
area  almo.-t  always  induces  a  draft  from  that  quarter  first,  and  it 
continues  over  most  of  the  district  iu  which  a  d  "aft  contrary  to 

the  general  nioveuient  is  created. 

7.  None  of  the  wind?;  from  other  than  westerly  p  lints  are  winds 
of  propulsion,  or  pr<M>ngated  from  their  apparent  [loinl  ot  origin; 
they  are  all,  including  a  portion  from  ihe  west,  winds  ot  aspi- 
ration, induced  by  the  agitation,  or  by  the  distui  bance  of  equi- 
librium its*  If. 

8.  All  the  movements  and  processes  are  usually  carried  past 
the  mean  by  the  forces  set  in  motion  iu  these  stoiuis;  the  mini- 
mum of  heat,  moi?ture,  clouds  and  winds,  following  the  removal 
ol  the  excess  <d  the  first  two;  and  this  minimum,  tbough  a  calm 
and  quit  scent  state,  is  itself  an  extreme  and  not  an  avei  age  con- 
dition in  these  latiiudes.  , 

Tornado*  s  have  1fs>  connection  with  general  storms  than  hurri- 
canes, though  ihey  oltm  exist  as  the  nucleus  of  a  general  rain 
inland,  and,  though  belonging  to  the  summer  mainly,  they  are 
sometimes  found  in  stoiuis  of  midwinter.  The  term /onmrfo  ia 
one  properly  limited  to  local  storms  of  excessive  violence,  bfflictinf 
but  a  narrow  strip  of  surface  a  few  miles  iu  length,  and  usually 
while  no  storms  of  consequence  exists  anywhere  in  the  vicinity,  but 
sometimes  as  the  nueleus  of  un  extendtd  rain.  The  leading 
characteristic  is  intense  electrical  aeiion,  and  several  lines  or 
threads  ..-f  tornado  force  are  sometimes  developed  iu  a  wide 
stratum  of  air  of  high  temperature  with  clouds  and  rain,  particu- 
larly if  in  a  cool  month,  itr  when  the  general  storm  is  of  much 
more  than  the  usual  exc^s8  of  temperature  These  may  be  ex- 
hausted after  tra\ » i  sing  a  short  path,  and  may  reappear,  without 
disturbing  the  general  condition  and  without  producing  any  con- 
formity to  their  peculiar  violence  in  the  wtiole  area  covered  by 
the  rain,  as  th    hurricanes  of  the  Atlantic  do. 

These  hurricanes  evidently  control  the  movements  of  any  storm  Hurricatiei. 
or  condition  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  superadding  to  it 
the  charactei i>t  cs  id  hurricane  violence,  until  this  violence  be- 
comes exhauMCil  Ijy  rlistance,  while  tornadoes  have  no  general 
influence  whatever.  The  following  extract  is  taken  from  the 
report  on  tornadoes  for  1880.  by  Mr.  John  P.  Finley: 

"A  map  prepared  to  show  the  entire  topography  of  that  portion 
of  the  United  State>  included  within  the  meridians  of  89°  and  101*^ 
would  plainly  illustrate  an  important  truth  in  the  frnado  prob- 
lem— viz..  that  th(  re  is  not  another  section  of  our  vast  domaia 
wherein  theie  exists  opportunities  so  unlimited  for  the  unob- 
structed mingling  and  opposition  of  wurm  and  cold  currents  and 
currents  highly  contrasted  in  humidity.  As  an  area  of  low 
barometer  (not  necessarily  a  fto.TD  area)  advances  to  the  Lowei 
Missouri  valley  warm  and  cold  ol  Tents  set  in  toward  it  from  the 
north  and  south  respectirely,  whici*.  if  the  low  pressure  con- 
tinues about  stationary  for  some  time,  ultimately  emanate  from 
the  warm  and  moist  regions  of  the  Gulf  and  the  cold  and  compara- 
tively dry  regions  of  the  British  Possessions.  Here  lies  the  key  to 
the  marked  contrasts  of  temperature  and  moisture,  invariably 
foretelling  an  atmospheric  disturbance  of  unusual  violence,  foj 
which  this  region  is  peculiarly  fitted  by  Nature,  and  in  appareu* 
recognition  of  whieh  it  has  received  the  euphonious  titie  of  tha 
"battle-ground  of  tornadoes."  It  cannot  be  disputed  that,  so  faT 
as  the  history  of  tornadoes  is  concerned,  the  majority  havi' 
occurred  over  this  region,  because  of  its  peculiar  topography, 
From  the  Gulf  northward  to  the  central  portion  of  the  Lowei 
Missouri  valley,  and  from  the  British  Possessions  southward  t<i 
the  same  locality,  there  is  permitted  an  entirely  free  movement  oi 
the  air;  nothing  in  the  shitpe  of  earth  or  water  exists  to  modify 
its  character,  except,  perhaps,  to  intensify  the  contrast  of  attrib- 
utes. Over  Texas,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  Indian  Territory 
occurs  a  broad  expanse  of  rolling  surface — sometimes  abruptly 
hilly,  but  on  the  whole  presenting  a  sameness  of  outline  to  &■ 
marked  degree.  Similarly  conditioned  are  the  States  of  Min- 
nesota. Iowa.  Nebraska,  and  the  eastern  half  of  Dakota  Territory. 
West  of  the  H'lst  meridian  we  find  a  rugged  and  abrupt  country, 
traversed  by  great  mountain  chains,  whieh  deflect  the  c(»urse  and 
modify  the  temperature  and  moisture  of  passing  currents.  Ob 
the  east  side  of  the  89th  miridian,  the  (Jrcat  Lakes  introduce 
an  equally  important  factor  into  the  modification  of  passing- 
currents."  , .      ,  ,— - 

As  to  the  duration  of  the  tornadoes  observed  in  the  year  1871^. 
he  writes:  ,  .  » , 

"The  lime  of  passing  any  point  was  variously  estimated  from 
five  seconds  to  two  minutes.  "Quicker  than  thought."  was  an 
expression  often  used  as  conveying  the  observer^  idea  of  the 
rapidity  of  destruction.  Estimating  the  average  diameter  of  tho 
cloud  ai  15U  feet,  and  its  average  velocity  at  a  mile  in  two  min- 
utes, we  have  its  mei.n  duration  at  any  one  point,  about  ten  and 
a  half  seconds.  There  were  times  in  the  pas-age  of  the  cloud  when 
it  appeared  to  remain  almost  stationary,  whirling  upon  its  narrow 
ba-e  like  a  top;  again  it  was  reported  as  moving  no  faster  than  a. 
horse  gently  galloping,  but  only  for  half  a  mile  or  so,  when  it. 
would  make  up  for  lost  time  by  dashing  forward  at  a  rate  of  50  oi 
60  miles  per  hour,  and  then  gradually  working  down  lo  its  acoa' 
tomed  velocity  of  about  30  miles  per  hoar." 


U  N  1  T  E  Jj       a  T  A 


Storms  of 
March. 

":5S. 


FORESTS.] 

nJiion-Tn'r  lut^"'^  "T"'  ^^- ^^^^^^  "  notice  in  this  con- 
nection-for.  althuugh  not  a  tornado,  u  cause<l  much  si  ff  rm" 

ff„7  7^"''  fv"-..'""*  "*  '■>'«  f""  took  place  N,  ih  •  mo-l  ,ie"-e  T 
^^l^^T  T"  "l  'i^^  cou,  to,  and  cased  a  co  ..pler.^l,.  .pf«^  tor 
Hh!!^V,  "^-^  °'  *"  '■""<^""?«  between  Xew  York  .n.d  tl"-  aditcem 
citie*.  It  wa*.  prvibably.  of  all  the  storms  which  havi  ««u?r.  H 
ei..oe  this  country  w»,  settled-the  one  which  -aver14toThe 
Iarg...t  amount  uf  wmment.  The  average  sno>ffa1l  n  centnl 
Connecticut  and  over  a  large  part  of  ea-^t  m  X-  w  York  excelled 
fif2^n"'f'''r  "'"^,"'  P'»  «1  ""i-^  '^"-^  Piled  "P  in  drifts  of  from 
reined ?5  7l'iW/fw"'  N!?5V,  ^''^  ■"■-'^in^um  "SSipita to" 
eto^  wa^  Ihe  re  nlr  /  "  Middletown.  Conn.  This  remarkable 
liSf^.K  t  '^t~°''/'t''  confl'ct  between  a  cvo  one  advancing 

U^A  l^%  '""'h  ''"'  deflected  to  the  west  on  reaohSig  Sew  fiLg 
land,  and  a  cold  wave  coming  from  the  west.*    ^^^^^  ' "^  '^"^ 


I  r^  C5 


3vo 


5enera] 

.'iemark^ 


I 


The  .Arlan 
tic  region. 


••  ■  7  belt 


TBK    FORESTS    OF    XORTH    AMERICA. 

of'Me][^''wWh"«'M  T""^?'-  °'  *^^  f"""'  "f  it  sitnated  north 
Sir,;     .1    J      j"^?  "''1  *'""«  *>«  coDMdered  here,  may  be  con- 
venieutly  divjdcd^wuh  reference  to  its  forest  g. ,.  -  aph/  into  ?he 
of^°'Ko?kv  Vi^'fi".^^""^:  by  a  Une  followinl,  tSe  i^ t'ern  bLsl 
ot  tie  Kocky  .MouniaiuS  and  its  oat  ving  eastern  ran"es  from  the 
^J^'hI^'"'^  •"f'^v."  ^">  ■^'""de.    the  forest^™  hfch^v^h^l 
two  diVL-ioDs  of  the  continent  difi-r  as  widely    in  na'arel  fea 
n^bi^lT,':^^-  """^  distribution   a^  the  cNmate  and™lpo|: 
3^he  P^^fi^    I  •^■"^"'=' differ  from  the  climate  a„d  topography 
Sm;i!.         *°  "i?"^-    7^?  '"•'"8e»  i^hich  have  produc  d  the  dis- 
rH^,„,;.     °'r'-'""°<:<'^  ""',"'  t'^o  forests  m«v  be   "ought  in  the 
the  a«u»l  ,oi.o<:°:  "u-  *  P^l'Sic*'  era  earlier  than  onr  own  aSd  l^ 
no'  be"dit'cu'rs''.d'h||;e^'^'  ^°™'"""'  "*  "">  <=<«'"■'-'":  "-^^  need 
Ttie  forests  of  the  .\tlantic  and  Pacific  regions,  dissimilar  in 
wmposition  in  the  central  part  of  the  ContiSlnt  are"united  M 
the  north  by  a  broad  belt  of  subarctic  forest"    ex^udU.°acrot- 
,  the  continent  north  of  the  fiftieth  degree  of  lAtlSdeOne^Q 
Vrnt   .T'T,"^  ^^"^  this  northern  for.st  is  com^'sed  extends 
thT,h     ^4"'^°*"'  '"  ""^  ^f'"^'='  ^''d  its  general  iVatarcs    al- 
though    differing     ej,st    and    west    of    the    contlMental    divide 
1„^  .°h'''[,°"?  "'.■>  'be  --limatic  conditions  peculiar  to  the  At  Mtfo 
{°Lht  '^  The'f^'rl.-^',  "f«h"  continent,  still  possess  co!  s/der,b le^nU 

r.-5^ed\^ftt^t|th^j^vvi-^^^ 

he  L-nitTd'^tat"^"^';?!,-'"'^-  b"e. extending  northw^rf  Tn  o 

B^^'^^W^  "^s'ii^Cci^nfr^L^uraSS 

?„mrL    ?'"''^-3°'^  "'.''T  n'ouDtains  of  west-rn  TciV-    the  ev 
tjr  -T-nth  rn  Mantm  e  Pine  Belt,  the  Deciduous  ¥nT,"t  r.fVh:. 

^^S3^SR:'?^J?-T'^'^sere?f 

the    Arc    c  c"rcle     TH,  VVVAf*^  ""r"  """^westward  to  within 
Hp^,2>?*-  °/  latitude  upon  the  .Atlantic  sea^board  and  neaj??  2D 

ero^s^i  th«  P.„  fi     '"'^''!'  i\~'nP?S'^.  to  eight.   Of  these,  four 

Vtl\,     cl  Appalachian  .Mountain  system  it  extends  sonth.?!; 
0  a  nine ^o^",-^•''*"^■^'"5"'='''^  '''  'be  region  of  the  g°latTak"s' 
■  Bee  Winslow  Upton,  in  Am.  Met.  Jour.,  May,  1888. 


white '^ne'?p/„:^»i' "?"''■=  ^O"^'  "?'•  be  characterized  by  the 
wniie  pine  (/'inu*  ^robuti.  its  most    mportant  it  not  its  mnsf 

fh.-T,^^ '*>''"''"/''*  ■f"'^''-*-  East  of  the  A?paach  an  'v"em 
this  tree  of, en  forms  extensive  forests  upon  tile  gravellvdrifj 
f  "i'°  r//'!'^  ^*-  Laurence  ba.Mn.  or  farther  s^a°hand^w"aWe"» 
L  5  ^'^"^  ^''°'/''  "f'en  "t  considerable  extent,  scattered  thrME^ 
ant  featurof^?hi''re Jo""-*'"  "'•  W"'^  ^Pmcea^ Vtufan  mpir 

g"uU^a?rthi'fe^,ro?rtin^^^^^^^^ 

black  and  the  «hite  ash.  the  sngarmaple  and  scverUspec^es  o? 
birch  and  elm  find  their  northern  limns,  and  the  c!iner'^r!fb„?r 
most  important  distribution.  The  hickories  and  the  oaks  charai! 
of   ;'i%^f?'"."*  "'""^  deciduous  foresus  of  all  Oie  cen?ral'Dort"on 

?rib5,ion  a^sTTrcK^'^^r''  ^"l  "^^  '"'7'="°  lin>it-°of  theh^  dS 
moution.  a^  do  the  chestnut,  the  sass.afras.  the  tulin  tre^  tiio 
magnolia  (here  represented  bv  a  single  speci,  s- the  re  cedfr'  tha 
tnpelo.  the  sycainnre.  the  beech,  and  other  important  gnera 

v.ape    tiaiaoar  and    lampa   bav;   it  streteht-s  nrrnse  th«  Fi/^.^.ri. 

aXV';-:?'d%;":*it?'o"f°^hi'\r'^='- »'•''"  "«"'f'^f"'« 

we^.  .,f  .K  "^  '  •  '?*  Mississippi  are  enconntcrrd:  it  r, appears 
TnH  K  '"'"  '■i''^r,'°  Lo"'-'^'ana. '  oith  and  .=o„ih  of  the  Ked  nver 
"f^n^sinnrS;  TJ'L'";"!''*  "i'b  -he  deciduous  fot^sts  of  Ta 
well  ^K.  "^  ba.-in  in  Arkansas  and  eastern  Texas  This  belt  is 
,hVV  ?  '^'u*  *•■■  'be  almost  continuous  growth  out^rte  if 
coLt^r"  thl'o'n''^' f""'  r%  "-t  ','"■"'  <J'*'^'  neighb^Cd  of 'he 

.  .«;„       IV    d  ffrent   gams,    water  oaks,  hickories  .-.nd  a-h"i 

pSil  .Kcu^eH  irrt'^'o''^n**  Mi.,u„ippi  Ba,ir,  and  the  Atlanti,:  Decidn.^ 
m.x.d  wiih  oaks  and  other  broad  lea^'ed  trees!  SrTneciallT 

^=t  ^^5*1  -  i^- - ;]?  w^f  S 

composed.  Oaks,  hickories,  walnuf.  magnolias,  and  a'hesff™ 
vanety  and  value  to  this  forest;  and  here,  with  the  exception ?f  2 
treVoTthe  i'tu'i','''  '°  *  niore  northern  latitude.'he  de  iduou? 

ani'-Ac^yo^lttc-Zo^s^/ctro^thfc"^ 

patorw  and  m,M  here  rench  their  best  deveCment      fnlt  „^ 

?h,™'to1hr.'oa^°^^^'ft^JJ  ^'"-''  "-'"■-  "d  give  a  ^c^ 
differercn^"  ,'■''''"'*  'J-  ^^^  '^"snlic  region  is  subjected  to  rery 

iC?s''&as'^L'^G;e\Tfe'%'l^rg^J^^^^^^^^^^ 

s  iVT^^-if^n-s^siSHS^ 

growth  of  herbage  but  not  sufficient  to  support  outride  theTai 
ThTc  ^'V"'  "/  '^''  infrequent  streams,  "he.can  es,  forestT 
Inrfh  r«  w^'^'''"'??  ,"'ends  north  to  the  fiftv-second  de  °^e  of 
Mointifr;"^^-  .'•  Z;'"'?^"  southward  the  trend  of  ,ne  R^cl^ 
Monntains.far  into  Xfexico.  extending  eastward  at  the  point  of  i^ 
greatest  widh,  m  about  latitude  4i.°  N..  nearlv  to  tie  nini^ 
f^^Tt""  Thr"*""'-  P'*  '^bole  region  is  general  y  d7sti?u?e'?f 
forest  The  narrow  bottoms  of  the  large  streams  are  lined  ho= 
frfl;„TI'K  ■"'  "'"■'•  PJ"''"^-  «'■»-'•  a-'d  ?ackbe?nVs-^?.'^'^dap?Id 
to  flounsh  under  such  unfavcrBble  conditions.  These  dTniinNhiS 
frotn  tl^  k"""i^''  r""  'be  "infali-  and  often  disappear  en  ire  5 
tlZ"^.  '^  ...'"'''^  °*  even  the  largest  streams  toward  the  weste™ 
hmits  of  the  plate-iu.  south  of  the  fortv-fif  h  d"CT^°     f  irHf^!i? 


^04 


UNITED      S  T  A  T  E  S 


[foriosts. 


Texas.  The  average  width  east  and  west  of  this  prairie  region, 
through  much  of  its  extent,  is  not  far  from  lr>li  miles.  Its  ea?t'in 
extension,  between  the  fortieth  imd  furty-firth  degrees  of  laiitude, 
is  much  greater,  however,  liere  reaching  the  western  shores  of  liike 
Michigan,  and  forming  a,  great  recess  in  the  western  line  of  the 
aeavy  forest  of  the  Atlantic  region  with  :i  depth  of  nearly  (AKJ 
miles.  Th.-'  transition  from  the  heavy  forest  of  the  eastern  and 
central  portions  of  the  Atlantic  region  to  the  treeless  plateau  is 
Ft-resT.  graduul.    The  change  occurs  within  the  iirairie  regions.     Here  is 

(iiaiii  the  strip  of  lebatible  ground,  where  a  continuous  struggle  between 

the  forest  and  the  plain  takes  place.  There  is  here  sufficient  pre- 
cipitation of  moisture  to  cause,  undernornial  conditions,  a  growth 
of  open  forest;  but.  so  nicely  balanced  is  the  struggle,  that  nny 
interference  quickly  turns  the  scale.  Trees  planted  within  this 
prairie  belt  thrive  if  protected  from  fire  ard  the  encroachment  uf 
ihe  tough  prairie  sod,  and  so  extend  the  forest  line  westward;  if 
the  forest  which  fringes  the  eastern  edge  of  the  prairie  is 
destroyed,  it  does  not  soon  regain  possession  of  the  soil,  and  the 
praiiie  is  gradually  pushed  eastward. 

'Jhj  eastern  line  t)f  the  plain,  wh'^re  arborescent  vegetation  is 
OOiirmed  to  the  river  bottoms,  and  which  divides  it  from  the 
brnirie  where  trees  grow  naluraily,  to  some  extent,  outside  of  the 
tutroms,  and  where  they  may  be  made  to  grow  und-'r  favorable 
3on  litiona  everywhere,  is  d 'termined  by  th  ■  rainfall  eujoyeJ  by 
this  part  of  the  continent.  The  extreme  eastern  point  reached  by 
this  line  is  found,  upon  the  fortieth  degr^-'e  of  north  latitude,  near 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  state  of  Kansas.  North  of  the 
fortieth  degree  it  ^rraduallv  trends  to  thj  west,  reaching  the 
eastern  base  of  tlie  Kooky  Mountains  in  ab  )Ut  latitude  52^.  This 
•  northwestern  trend  of  the  eastern  plain  line  may  be  ascribed  to 

the  comparatively  small  evaporation  which  tiik'-s  place  during  the 
shorter  summer  ot  th^  north,  and  to  a  slight  local  increase  of 
spring  an  1  summer  rainfall.  South  of  the  fortieth  degree  the 
plain  liiie  s'adually  trends  to  the  southwest  under  the  influence 
of  the  Uulf  of  Mixieo.  reaching  its  extreme  western  point  in 
Texas  upon  tlie  one  hundredth  meridian. 

Other  cause-;,  however,  than  insufficient  rainfall  and  a  nicely 
bala-iced  struggle  be'ween  the  forest  and  the  plain  have  prevent- 
ed the  general  growth  f>f  trees  in  the  prairie  region  east  of  the 
oinety-fifih  meriHian.  The  rainfall  of  this  region  is  sufficient  to 
insure  ihe  growth  of  a  heavy  forest.  The  rain  falling  upon  the 
prairies  of  Minnesota.  Wisconsin,  Iowa.  Illinois,  and  Missouri 
equals  in  amount  that  enjoved  by  the  Michigm  peninsula  and 
the  whole  region  south  of  lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  while  prairie-i 
exist  within  the  region  ot  the  heaviest  forest  icrowth.  It  is  not 
want  of  sufficient  heat,  or  of  sufficient  or  equally  distributed 
moisture,  which  has  checked  the  general  spread  of  forest  over 
these  prairies.  The  soil  of  which  the  prairies  are  compo^ed,  as  is 
shown  by  the  tact  that  trees  planted  u|ion  them  grow  with  vigtir 
and  rapidity,  is  not  unsuitcd  to  tree  growth  It  is  not,  p.^rhaps, 
improbable  that  the  fore?is  of  the  Atlantic  region  once  extended 
continuously  as  fir  wet  at  least  iis  th**  niuety-fifih  meridian, 
alth  mgh  circumstanti  il  evidence  of  such  a  theory  does  not  exist  ; 
and  the  causes  which  first  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  forests  in 
this  region,  supposing  thit  they  ever  existed,  cannot,  with  the 
present  knowl.-dge  ot  ihe  subj  -ct.  b;  even  guessed  at.  It  is,  how- 
ever, fair  to  assume  tliur  for-sts  once  existed  in  a  region  adapted, 
by  climate,  rainfall,  mid  soil,  to  produce  forests,  and  that  their 
abs  nee  under  such  conditions  must  be  traced  to  accidental  causes. 
It  is  Tiot  difficult  to  understand  that  the  forest  once  destroyed 
over  such  a  vast  area  could  not  easily  regain  possession  of  the 
soil  protected  by  an  imnenetrable  coTcring  of  sod  and  subjected 
to  the  annual  burnings  which  have  occurred  down  to  the  present 
time  ;  while  the  force  of  the  wind,  unchecked  by  any  forest 
barrier,  over  such  an  area  would,  even  without  the  aid  of  fires, 
have  made  th^  sprea  I  of  forest  growth  slow  and  difficult.  The 
assumption  that  these  eastern  prairies  may  have  once  been 
covered  with  forests  is  --trengthened  by  the  fact  that  since  they 
havy  been  devoted  to  agricullvire.  and  the  annual  burning  has 
b'-en  stopped,  trees  which  were  formerly  confined  to  the  river 
bnttom'!  have  gradu  illy  spread  to  the  uplands.  Small  prairies 
situated  just  within  the  western  edge  of  the  forest  have  entirely 
disappeared  within  the  memory  of  persons  still  living  :  the  oak 
openings— open  fore^its  of  large  oaks  through  which  the  annual 
6res  idaved  without  greatly  injuring  the  full-grown  trees— once 
th  !  characteristic  feature  of  these  prairies,  have  disappeared. 
Th  'v  are  replaced  by  dense  forepts  of  oak.  which  only  require 
protection  from  fire  to  spring  into  existence.  lu  western  Texas, 
the  mesquit,  forced  by  annual  burninj  to  grow  almost  entirely 
below  the  surface  of  the_  ground,  is.  now  that  prairie  fires  are 
less  {'ommrtn  and  destrucuve,  spreading  over  what  a  few  years  ago 
Was  treeless  prairie  The  prairi's.  then,  or  the  eastern  portions 
of  th-m  situated  in  the  region  of  abundant  rainfall,  are  fast  losing 
their  treeless  character,  and  the  forest  protected  from  fire  is 
^adiiiilly  gaining  in  everv  direction  ;  regions  which  fifty  yeari 
Ago  wi're  treeless  outside  the  liver  bottoms  now  contain  forests 
jnvering  10  or  even  20  p'-r  cent,  of  their  area.  These  eastern  well- 
witered  prairies  niu-^t  not,  however,  bo  confoiinrled  with  their 
dry  western  rim  adjoining  the  plains — the  debatable  ground  be- 
tween forest  and  p'ain — o-"  with  'he  plains  thera-^elves.  There  is 
now  no  gradual,  constant  spread  of  forest  timwth  upon  the 
plains.  They  are  tffeleBs  on  account  of  insufficient  moisture  to 
devel  ip  forest  crowth  ;  and  while  trees  may,  perhaps,  if  planted, 
survive  during  a  few  years  beyond  the  western  limits  of  the 
prairie  as  here  laid  d  >wn.  th"  iiermnnent  establishment  of  forests 
there  does  not  s -em  practicable,  and,  sooner  or  later,  a  period  of 
unusual  drought  must  put  and  end  to  all  attempts  at  forest  culti- 
vation in  a  region  of  sich  insufficient  and  uncertain  rainfall. 

It  remains  to  consi'lT  the  S*'mi-trnpical  Forent  of  Florida  and 
*iie  Mej-ican  Forest  of  Souflt^rn  l^xn/r. 

A  group  of  arborescent  species  of  West  Indian  origin  occupies 
'■•.e  narrow  strip  of  coast  and  islands  of  southern  Florida-    Thia 


belt  of  semi  tropical  vegetation  is  confined  to  the  imrnediate 
neighborhood  of  thj  eoa^l  aud  to  occasional  hummocks  or  islands 
of  high  ground  situated  in  the  savannas  which  cover  a  great  por- 
tion of  soutliern  Florida,  checking,  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
want  of  drainage,  the  spri  ad  ot  lurest  growih  across  the  penin- 
sula. This  semi-tropical  forest  belt  reaches  cape  iSIaiabar  on  the 
east  and  the  shores  of  Tampa  bay  on  the  west  coa.-t,  while  some 
or  its  representatives  extend  fully  2  degrees  farther  north.  It 
is  rich  in  composition  ;  nearly  a  *iuarter  of  all  the  arborescent 
species  of  the  Atlantic  forest  are  found  within  this  insignificant 
region.  The  semi  tropical  forest,  in  spite  of  its  variety,  is  of 
little  economic  importance.  The  species  of  which  it  is  composed 
here  reached  ih'  extreme  northern  limit  of  their  distribution  ; 
they  are  generally  small,  stunted,  and  of  comparatively  little 
value.  Certain  species,  however,  attiiic  respectable  proportions  ; 
the  mahogany,  the  mastic,  the  royal  palm,  the  mangrove,  the  sea- 
grape,  the  Jamaica  dogwood,  the  manchinecl.  and  other  species 
here  become  eonsideialde  and  impfirtant  trees. 

In  western  and  southern  Texas  the  trees  of  the  Mississippi 
basin,  checked  by  insufficient  moisture  from  farther  extension 
southward  outside  the  river  bottoms,  are  replaced  by  species  of 
the  plateau  of  northern  Mexico.  The  str'eams  fl-jwing  into  the 
(iulf  of  Mexico  are  still  lined,  however,  east  of  the  uiiv-bundredth 
m  ridian,  with  the  species  of  the  Atlantic  basin,  which  thus  reach 
southward  to  beyond  the  Rio  Uraiide.  The  Mexican  forest  belt 
of  Texas  extends  from  the  valley  of  the  (.'olorado  river,  near  the 
ninety-eighih  meridian,  to  the  Rio  Grande.  It  touches  the  coast 
not  far  from  the  Nueces  river,  and  extends  to  th  ■  eastern  base 
of  the  mountain  ranges  west  of  the  Pecos  ;  here  the  species  of 
which  it  is  compMsed  mingle  with  those  peculiar  to  the  Pacific- 
Mexican  forest.  The  forest  of  this  region,  like  that  of  all  countries 
of  insufficient  moisture,  is  open,  stunted,  and  co:rparatively  of 
little  value.  It  is  characterized  by  enormou>  areas  covered  with 
chaparral  {dense  and  often  impenetrable  thickctsof  th'irny  shrubs 
and  small  trees),  by  a  stunted  and  occasional  arboreset-nt  growth 
upon  the  hills  and  plains,  and  by  fringes  of  heaviertimber  along  the 
ffiver  bottoms.  The  most  valuable  and  perhaps  the  most  characceris- 
tic  species  of  this  whole  region — the  mesquit — extends  to  the  Pacific 
coast.  With  this  exception,  none  of  the  arborescent  species  pe- 
culiar to  this  region  attain  any  considerable  size  or  importance^ 
although  the  forest  of  small  junipers  which  coyer  the  low  lime 
stone  hills  of  tlie  Colorado  valley  are  locally  valuable  in  a  country 
so  generally  df^stitute  of  trees.  The  r-  ginn  immediately  adjoin- 
ing ihi-  Rio  Grarde  abounds  in  difTerent  species  of  .^coci'a, 
Leucsrna,  and  other  Mexican  Leguminosre ;  and  farther  west, 
upon  th>  dry  plains  of  the  Presidio,  the  Spanish  bayonet  (Yucca 
haccata)  covers  wide  areas  with  a  low.  open,  and  charactenstio 
forest  growth. 

The  Pacific  forest  region  is  coextensive  with  the  great  Cordille-  Pacifio 
ran  Mountain  system  of  the  continent.  The  causes  which  have  region, 
influenced  the  present  position  and  density  of  these  foresismust 
be  sought  in  the  peculiar  distribution  of  the  rainfall  of  the 
region.  Thj  precipitation  of  moisture  upon  the  northwest  coast 
is  unecjualed  by  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  continent.  It 
gradually  decreases  with  the  latitude  until,  in  Southern  Califor- 
nia, the  temperature  of  the  land  so  far  execds  that  of  the  ocean 
that  precipitation  is  impossible  through  a  large  part  of  the  year. 
The  interior  of  all  this  great  region,  shut  off  by  the  high  mountain 
ranges  which  face  the  ocean  along  its  entire  extent,  is  very  imper- 
fectly supplied  with  moisture.  It  is  a  region  of  light,  uncertain, 
and  unequally  distributed  rainfall,  heavier  at  the  north,  as 
upon  the  coast,  and  decreasing  gradually  with  the  latitude  in 
nearly  the  same  proportion.  This  entire  region  is  composed  of  a 
mass  of  mountain  ranges  with  a  general  north  and  south  trend, 
separating  long  and  generally  narrow  vadeys.  The  precipitation 
of  moisture  within  the  interior  region  is  largely  regulated  by  thd 
position  of  the  mountain  chains.  Warm  current.-  ascending  theii 
sides  become  cold,  and  are  forced  to  deposit  the  moisture^  tliey 
contain.  It  follows  that,  while  the -interior  valleys  are  rainless 
or  nearly  so.  the  mountain  ranges,  and  espiciall.v  the  high  ones, 
receive  during  the  year  a  considerable  precipitation  of  both  rain 
and  fnow.  If  the  distribution  of  the  forests  of  any  region  la 
dependent  upon  the  distribution  and  amount  of  moisture  it  re- 
ceives, forests  exceeding  in  density  those  of  any  other  part 
of  th"  continent  would  be  found  upon  the  northwest  coast; 
they  would  gradually  diminish  toward  the  south,  and  en- 
tirely disappear  near  the  southern  boundary  of  the  United  States  ; 
while  the  forests  of  all  the  interior  region,  from  the  summit  of 
the  principal  Coast  Ranpes  to  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  would  be  confined  to  the  flanks  and  sumniits  of  the 
mountains.  These  forests  would  be  heavy  upon  the  high  ranges, 
especially  toward  the  north;  they  would  disappear  entirely  from 
the  valleys  and  low  mountain  ranges.  An  examination  of  the 
forests  of  the  Pacific  region  will  show  that,  in  general  distribution 
and  density,  they  actually  follow  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall 
of  the  region  These  forests  well  illustrate  the  influence  of 
moisture  upon  forest  growth.  Within  the  Pacific  region,  the 
heaviest  and  the  lightest  forests  of  the  continent  coexist  with  its 
heaviest  and  lightest  rainfall- 

The  forests  of  the  Pacific  region  may  be  considered  under  four  -The  Pa.-ifio 
divisions:    the  Northern  Forest,  the  Coast   Forest,  the  Interior  p^j-g^.^ 
Forest,  and  the  Mexioin  Forest.  , 

The  Northern  Forest  oi  the  Pacific  repion  extends  from  nearly 
the  seventieth  to  about  the  fifty-eighth  dtgree  of  north  latitude, 
or,  immediately  upon  the  coast,  is  replaced  by  the  Coast  Forest 
nearly  2  degrees  farther  north;  it  extends  from  the  continental 
divide,  here  mingled  with  the  Northern  Forest  of  the  Atlantic 
region,  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  The  southern  limit  of  this 
open,  scantv  Northern  Forest,  composed  of  species  which  extend 
across  the  continent,  or  of  species  closely  allied  to  those  of  tho 
Northern  Forest  of  the  Atlantic  region,  is  still  imperfectly  known, 
especially   in  the  interior.    The  determination  of  the  soutbera 


129 


lis 


121 


43 


Area  of  a  temperature  between  Curves  of 

36  and  44  Faht. 

44  "  52      " 

52  "  60      "                Hr^ 

60  "  68      " 

68  "  76      " 

^V.  £. — Data  for  high  mountain  ranges  and  pealc: 
wanting. 


117 


ill3 


JT)9 


w 


FORESTS.] 


U    IS    I  T 


o 


J.  A  r  £.  s 


805 


-«ige  in  Ahwka  and  British  Columbia  of  several  species,  as  well 
«s  the  northern  range  here  of  a  tew  others,  must  be  still  left  to 
further  exi'loration.  The  white  spruce,  the  mo^t  impurtaut  and 
the  mo:it  uortheru  species  of  the  forci-t  of  the  North  Atlantic 
region,  \s  here  also  the  most  important  species.  It  attains  n  coii- 
liderable  size  as  far  north  as  the  sixty-filth  desiee,  loruiing.  in 
theralley  of  the  Yukon,  furests  of  no  little  U-oal  importanve.  The 
canoe  birch,  the  b.ilsam  poplar,  and  tbe  nspen,  familiar  trees  of 
the  North  Atlantic  region,  also  occur  here.  The  gray  piue  and 
the  balsam  fir  of  the  Atlantic  region  are  replaced  by  allied  forms 
of  the  same  genera.  The  lurch  alune.  of  the  denizens  of  the  extreme 
Northern  Forest  ot  the  Atlantic  coast,  finds  uo  congener  here  in 
the  northern  Pncific  forest. 

The  Pacific  Coast  Forest,  the  heaviest,  although  far  from  the 
most  varied,  forest  of  the  continent,  extends  south  along  the 
coast  in  a  narrow  strip  f rom  th-"  sixtieth  to  the  fiftieth  parallel; 
here  it  widens,  embracing  the  ^hores  of  Puget  sound  and  cxt»'nd- 
ing  eastward  over  the  high  mouL-tain  ratges  north  and  south  of 
the  boundary  of  tbe  United  States.  This  interior  development  of 
the  Coast  Forest,  following  the  abundant  rainfall  of  the  region. 
iscarriel  north^vard  over  the  Gold,  Selkirk,  and  other  interior 
ranges  of  British  Columbia,  in  j>  narrow  spur  extending  north 
Dearly  to  the  fifty-tourth  parallel.  It  r-^aches  southward  along 
'  the  Clear  d'Alene,  Bitter-Root,  and  th'^  western  ranges  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  system  to  about  latitude  47°  3u',  covering 
northern  Washington  Territory.  Idaho,  and  portions  of  western 
Montana. 

The  Coast  Forest  south  of  the  fiftieth  degree  of  latitude  occu- 
pies the  region  between  the  ocean  and  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Cascade  R:inge;  in  California  ih.-  summits  of  tbe  principal  south- 
ern prolon-cntion  of  these  mount:iii;s.  the  Sierra  Nevada,  mark 
the  c^astern  limits  of  the  Coast  Forest,  which  gradually  disjtp- 
pears  ?outh  of  the  thirty-fifth  pirall-:-!.  ulthough  still  carried  by 
the  high  rid"j,es  of  the  south  rnCoa^t  K:inge  nearly  to  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  the  L'.iited  St;ites.  The  Coast  Forest,  like  the 
forests  of  the  whole  Pacific  region,  is  largely  c  'mposed  of  a  few 
coniferous  .-pecies,  generally  of  wide  distribution.  The  absence 
of  broad-leaved  treea  in  the  Pacific  region  is  striking;  they  nowhere 
form  great  forests,  as  in  the  Atlantic  region:  when  they  "occur 
they  are  eo  ifined  to  the  vallevs  of  the  coast  and  to  the  banks  of 
mouut.:iin  .-itreams.  and,  economically,  are  of  cmparatively  little 
valuj  or  importance.  The  characteristic  and  most  valuable 
species  of  the  northern  Coast  Forest  are  the  Alaska  cedar 
{Chamspci/parU),  the  tide  land  spruc*^,  »nd  the  hemlock.  The^^e 
form  the  principal  forest  growth  which  covers  the  ranges  and 
islands  of  the  coast  between  the  sixty-first  and  fiftieth  parallels, 
Oth^r  species  of  the  Coast  Forest  reach  here  the  northern  limits 
of  their  distribution,  although  the  center  of  their  greatest  de- 
velopment is  found  farther  south, 
rbe  red  fir.  The  red  fir  (Pa€v.dotsuga\.  tl'.e  most  important  and  widely 
distributed  timber  tree  of  ihc  Pacific  region,  reaches  the  coast 
archipelago  in  latitude  5i°;  farther  inland  it  extends  fully  4 
degrees  further  north,  and  in  the  region  of  Puget  sound  and 
tun^ugh  the  Coast  Forest  of  AVashington  Territory  and  Oregon  it 
is  the  prevailing  forest  tree.  The  characteristic  forest  of  the 
northwest  coa.=t,  although  represented  by  several  species  extend- 
ing south  as  far  as  care  Mendicino.  near  the  fortieth  parallel,  is 
replaced  south  of  the  Rogue  River  valley  by  a  forest  in  which 
forms  p'Culiar  to  the  south  rather  than  to  the  north  gradually 
predominate.  The  forest  of  tbe  northwest  c»ast  reaches  it  great- 
est density  and  variety  in  the  narrow  region  between  the  sum- 
mits of  the  Cascade  Range  and  the  ocean.  Xortb  of  the  fifty-first 
parallel  it  gradually  decreases  in  density,  and  south  of  the  forty- 
third  parallel  it  changes  in  composition  and  character.  This  belt 
of  Coast  Forest  is  only  ^u^passed  in  donsityby  that  of  some 
portions  of  the  redwood  forest  of  the  California  coast.  The  red 
fir.  the  great  tide-land  spruce,  the  hemlock,  and  the  red  cedar 
'Thuu<i)  reaf^h  here  enormous  dimensions.  The  wide  river  bot- 
"■oms  are  lined  with  a  heavy  growth  of  maple,  cottonwood.  ash. 
ind  alder,  the  narrow  interior  valley  with  an  open  growth  of  oak. 
I  In  this  great  coniferous  forest  the  trunks  of  trees  two  or 
three  hundred  feet  in  height  are  often  only  separated  by  the 
'  space  of  a  few  feet.  The  groundt  ^haded  throughout  the  year  by 
the  impenetrable  canopy  of  the  forest,  never  becomes  drj'  ;  it  is 
densely  covered  hv  a  thick  carpet  of  mosses  and  ferns,  often  of 
enormous  size.  The  more  open  portions  of  this  forest  are  choked 
by  an  impenetrable  growth  of  various  Vaccineff^  of  almost  arbores- 
cent proportions,  of  hazel,  the  vine-maple,  and  other  shrubs. 
The  soil  which  has  produced  the  maximum  growth  of  forest  in 
this  region  is,  outside  the  river  bottoms,  a  thin,  porous  gravel  of 
glacial  oriz?n.  rarely  more  than  a  few  inches  in  depth;  the 
luxuriance  of  vegetable  growth,  therefore,  illustrates  the  influence 
of  a  heavy  rainfall  and  temperate  climate  upon  the  forest. 

The  general  character  of  this  forest  in  the  interio'-.  although 
lomposed  largely  of  the  species  peculiar  to  tho  coast,  differs  some- 
what from  the  Coast  Forest  proper  in  compo.-ition  and  largely  in 
aatural  features.  The  dense,  impenetrable  forest  of  the  coast  is 
replaced,  east  of  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Range,  by  a  more 
jpen  growth,  generally  largely  destitute  of  undersrowth.  The 
red  fir,  the  hemlock,  and  the  red  cedar  (  Thuya)  Jir;  s\.\U  important 
elements  of  the  forest.  Less  valuable  species  of  the  Coast  Forest 
—the  white  fir  'Abies  ffrandis),  the  yew,  the  alders,  the  mountain 
kemlock  (THuga  Pattoniana).  the  hawthorn,  the  buckthorn,  and 
the  white  pine  iPinus  monticola) — are  still  represented.  The 
latter,  a  loc-il  species  upon  the  coast,  only  reachfs  its  greatest 
development  toward  ihe  eastern  limit  of  this  region,  here  forming 
c^nsideraVjlf  and  important  for«  sts.  Other  enccies  peculiar  to  the 
Coast  Forest,  the  maples,  tbe  ash,  tht  oak,  the  arbutus,  and  the 
Alaska  cedar,  do  not  extend  east  of  the  Cascades.  The  tide  land 
spruce  is  repine  d  by  an  allied  spcies  <)f  the  inferior  region.  The 
widely  distributed  yellow  pine  yPinus  ponderota) ,  barely  repre- 
Bented  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  immediate  Coast  Forest,  be- 


comes, east  of  the  mountains,  one  of  the  most  important  and  char- 
acteristic elements  td  the  forest.  The  Coast  Forest  souih  of  the 
forty-third  degree  of  latitude  changes  in  composition.  'Jhe  tide- 
land  spruce,  the  hemlock  and  the  Thuya  are  gradually  replaced 
by  more  southern  species.  The  sugar  pine  kP  Lambettiann  i  here 
first  appears.  The  California  laurel  iCmbellulari)  covers  with 
magnificent  growth  the  broad  river  bottoms.  The  Lilucedrua, 
several  oaks,  and  the  chinquapin  here  n  ach  the  northern  limita 
of  I  heir  distributi-m.  The  change  trom  the  northern  to  the  south- 
trn  forest  is  marked  by  the  appearance  of  the  Port  Orfot  J  cedar 
(ChamsEcyparis  Lawsoniuna),  adding  variety  and  value  to  the 
forests  ot  the  southern  Oregon  coast-  Farther  south,  near  the 
northern  boundary  of  California,  the  redwood  forests  (Sequoia) 
appear. 

The  Coast  Forest  of  California  will  be  most  conveniently  dis- Coast  ot 
cussed  under  three  subdivisions:  the  forest  of  the  Coast  Range,  California.. 
the  forest  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which, 
toward  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state,  extends  to  the  coast, 
covering  the  mass  of  mountains  which  here  unite  tbe  Sierra 
Nevada  and  the  Coast  Range;  aud.  third,  the  open  forest  of  the 
long,  narrow  valleys  lying  between  the  Coast  Range  and  ih« 
Sierra  Nevada  south  of  this  northern  connection.  The  importau  ^ 
feature  of  the  Coast  Range,  us  far  south  us  the  thirty-aevent  \ 
degree  of  latitude,  is  the  belt  of  redwood  occupying  an  irregulai 
interrupted  strip  of  territory  facing  the  oeean,  and  hardly  exceed- 
ing thirty  miles  in  width  at  the  points  of  its  greatest  development. 
The  heaviest  growth  of  the  redwood  forest  occurs  north  ot  the  bay 
of  San  Francisco;  and  here,  along  the  slopes  and  bottom  of  the 
narrow  canons  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Coast  Range,  the  maxi- 
mum productive  capacity  of  the  forest  is  reached.  No  other 
forest  of  similar  extent  equals  in  tbe  amount  of  material  which 
they  contain  the  groups  of  redwood  scattered  along  the  coast  of 
northern  California.  The  red  fir  reaches,  in  the  California  Co.Tst 
Range,  a  size  and  value  only  surpassed  in  the  more  nurthern  for- 
ests of  the  coast;  the  yellow  pine  is  an  important  tree  in  the 
northern  portions  of  this  region,  and  here  flourish  other  species  of 
the  genua  endemic  to  this  region.  The  forest  of  the  Coast  Range 
is  marked  by  the  presence  within  its  limits  of  several  species  of 
singularly  restricted  distribution.  Cupressus  macrocarpa  and 
Pinus  inaignis  are  confined  to  a  few  isolated  groves  upon  the 
shores  of  the  bay  of  Monterey;  Abies  bracfeata  occupies  ihree  or 
four  canons  high  up  in  the  Santa  Lucia  mountains;  it  is  found 
nowhere  else:  and  Pinus  Torreyana,  the  most  local  arborescent 
s|)eeies  of  North  America,  has  been  detected  only  in  one  or  two 
small  groups  upon  the  .«and-dunes  just  north  of  the  bay  of  San 
Diego.  The  characteristic  forest  of  the  Coast  Range  isehfcked 
from  farther  southern  development  a  little  below  the  thirty  fifth 
parallel  by  insuflBcient  moisture;  the  scanty  forests  which 
clothe  the  high  declivities  of  the  Coast> Range  farther  south  belong 
in  composition  to  the  Sierra  fore?t3. 

The  heavy  forest  which  covers  tbe  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  The  Sierr«. 
Nevada,  a  forest  only  surpassed  in  density  by  the  redwood  belt  of  Nevada 
the  coast  and  the  fir  forest  of  Puget  sound,  occuj-ies,  in  its  forests 
greatest  development,  a  belt  situated  between  i,(W  and  8.0(Ki  feet 
elevation.  This  forest  belt  extends  from  about  the  base  of  mount 
Shasta  at  the  north  to  the  thirty-fifth  parallel;  farther  south  it 
diminishes  in  density  and  disappears  upon  the  southern  ridges  of 
the  Coast  Range  just  north  of  the  southern  boundary  of  California. 
Its  greatest  width  occurs  in  northern  California,  where  to  the 
south  of  mount  Shasta,  the  Sierra  system  is  broken  down  into  a 
broad  mass  of  low  ridges  and  peaks.  Tho  characteristic  species  of 
this  forest  is  the  great  sugar  pine  (P.  Lambertiana),  which  heT9 
reaches  its  greatest  development  and  value,  and  gives  unsur- 
passed beauty  to  this  mountain  forest.  With  the  sugar-pine  are 
associated  tbe  red  fir.  the  yellow  pine,  two  noble  Abies,  th« 
Libocedrus;  and.  toward  the  central  part  of  the  state,  the  great 
Sequoia,  appearing  first  in  small  isolated  groups,  and  then,  farther 
south,  near  the  headwaters  of  Kern  river,  in  a  narn.w  belt  extend- 
ing more  or  less  continuously  for  several  miles.  This  hedvy  forest 
of  the  Sierras,  unlike  the  forest  which  farther  north  covers  the 
western  flanks  of  the  Cascade  Range,  is  almost  destitute  of  under- 
growth and  young  trees.  It  shows  the  influence  of  a  warm 
climate  and  unevenly  distributed  rainfall  upon  forest  growth- 
The  trees,  often  remote  from  one  another,  have  attained  an  enor- 
mous size;  but  they  have  grown  slowly.  Above  this  belt  the 
Sierra  forest  stretches  upward  to  the  limits  of  tree  growth.  It  u 
here  subalpine  and  alpine  in  character,  and  of  little  economic 
value.  Different  pines  and  furs,  the  moantain  hemlock,  and  the 
western  juniper,  are  scattered  in  open  stretches  of  forest  upon  the 
high  ridges  of  the  Sierras.  The  forest  below  the  belt  of  heavy 
growth  gradually  becomes  more  open.  Individual  trees  are 
smaller,  while  the  number  of  species  increases.  The  small  pines 
of  the  upper  foot  hills  are  mingled  with  oaks  in  considerable 
variety.  These  gradually  increase  in  number.  Pines  are  less 
frequent,  and  finally  disappear.  ..,..,,„,, 

The  forest  of  the  valleys  is  composed  of  oaks,  the  lndl^^duals  \  alley 
often  widely  scattered  and  of  great  size,  but  nowhere  forming  a  foreeta. 
continuous,  compact  growth.  The  Coast  Forest  of  the  Pacific 
region,  unsurpassed  in  density,  is  composed  of  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  species,  often  attaining  enorinous  size.  It  pre- 
sents the  same  g^-neral  features  throughout  its  entire  extent. 
except  as  modified  by  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  regions  which 
it  covers.  The  species  which  compose  this  forest  range  thrnugh 
nearlv  26  degrees  of  latitude,  or  northern  species,  are  replaced  in 
the  south  by  closelv  allied  forms;  and,  as  in  the  Atlantic  region. 
the  southern  species  far  exceed  in  number  those  peculiar  to  the 

The  Interior  Forest  extends  from  the  southern  limits  of  th< 
northern  subarctic  forest  to  the  plateau  of  northern  Mexi-o:  it 
occupies  the  entire  recion  between  the  eastern  limits  of  the  l\ieifi(i 
Coast  Forest  and  the  extreme  western  limits  of  the  .At  intio 
region.    The  forests  of  this  entire  region,  as  compared  with  tht 


bU  u 


UNITED      STAli^S 


[forest? 


ifsts  east  and  rfest  of  it,  are  stunted  and  remarkiible  in  their 
pov  my  of  composition.  They  are  confined  to  the  high  slopes  and 
an  3ns  of  tile  numerous  mountiiin  ranges  compo^iu^  the  interior 
regijn.  while  the  valleys  are  treeless,  or.  ouiside  of  the  narrow 
tiver  bottoms,  nearly  treeless.  The  interior  forest  attains  its 
greutest  development  and  considerable  importance  upon  the 
:je,-  em  slope  of  the  California  Sierras  and  upon  the  flanks  of  the 
iigh  peaks  of  the  southern  Rooky  Mountain  system,  from  Colo- 
rad  I,  where  the  timber  line  reaches  an  extreme  elevation  of 
13,51)0  feet,  to  southern  New  Me.^ioo  and  western  Arizona.  Ihe 
Binimum  in  North  American  forest  development,  outside  the 
ibsolutely  treeless  regions,  both  in  the  number  of  species  and  in 
the  proportion  of  forest  to  entire  area,  is  found  south  of  the  Blue 
Ijouutiiins  of  Oregon,  in  the  arid  region  between  the  W  ahsatch 
Bouiit.iins  and  the  sierra  Nevada,  known  as  the  Great  Basin. 
Here  the  open,  stunted  forest  is  confined  to  the  highest  ridges  and 
dopes  of  the  infrequent  canons  of  the  low  mountain  ranges  wbich 
Jccupy,  with  a  general  north  and  south  trend,  this  entire  region. 
Ilie  individuals  which  compose  this  forest  are  small,  although  often 
af  immense  age.  and  everywhere  show  the  marks  of  a  severe  strug- 
{le  f>r  existence.  Seven  arborescent  species  cnly  have  beeadeteot- 
3d  i  I  the  forests  of  the  northern  and  central  portions  of  this  region. 
Ihe  mountain  mahogany  {Cerroearpusi,  the  only  broadleaved 
Bpecii.-  of  the  region,  with  the  exception  of  the  aspen,  which 
throughout  the  entire  interior  region  borders,  above  an  elevation 
of  S.'iW  feet,  all  mountain  streams,  reaches  here  its  greatest 
devlopment.  This  tree,  with  the  nut  pine  {Pinus  monophylla). 
eh  M-acterizes  this  region.  Stunted  junipers  are  scattered  over  the 
lowest  slopes  of  the  mountains,  or  farther  south  often  cross  the 
hiifh  valleys,  and  cover  with  open  growth  the  mesas,  as  the  lower 
foot-hills  are  locally  known.  An  open  forest  of  arborescent 
yuccas  \Yucca  hrerifoUa)  upon  the  nigh  Xlojave  plateau  is  a 
chirncteristic  and  peculiar  feature  of  the  flora  of  this  interior 
region.  The  red  fir  and  the  yellow  pine,  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  Pacific  region,  do  not  occur  upon  the  mountain 
range*  of  the  (ireat  Basin.  .         ,       :,     ,  v 

Eorest"  The    heavy   forests    of    the  interior  region,  found   along  the 

interior  western  slopes  of  the  California  Sierras  and  upon  the  Rocky 
Moiioiain  system,  are,  for  the  most  part,  situated  south  of  the 
foriv-second  degree  of  latitude.  The  forests  of  the  whole  northern 
interior  portion  of  the  continent,  outside  the  region  occupied  in 
the  northern  Rocky  Mountains  by  the  eastern  development  of  the 
Coast  Forest,  feel  the  influence  of  infuflipient  moisture;  the 
number  of  species  of  which  they  are  compo-ed  is  not  large;  the 
individuals  are  often  small  and  stunted,  while  the  forests  are 
open,  scattered,  without  undergrowth,  and  confined  to  the  cinons 
and  high  slopes  of  the  mountains.  The  most  generally  di-tributed 
species  of  this  northern  reg*en.  a  scrub  pine,  iPinus  ilurrayana). 
occurdes  vast  areas,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  siiecies,  and 
is  gradually  taking  possession  of  ground  cleared  by  fire  of  more 
valuable  tree*.  South  of  the  fifty-second  parallel  he  red  fir 
(Pseudolsiiga)  and  the  yellow  pine  (Pinus  ponderosaf  appear; 
with  them  is  associated,  in  the  Blue  .Mountains  and  in  some  of  the 
ranges  of  the  northern  Rocky  Mountains,  the  western  larch 
(Larij:  occideniulis),  the  largest  and  most  valuable  tree  of  the 
Columbian  i-asin.  .  /:  ^t    l^-         xt       j 

The  forest  covering  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  >evada  con- 
sists almost  e.vclnsively  of  various  species  of  pine,  often  of  great 
size  and  value.  The  characteristic  species  of  this  region  are  the 
yellow  pine  and  the  closely  allied  Pinus  Jeffreyi.  here  reacbing 
its  greatest  development.  The  red  fir  is  absent  from  this  forest. 
while  [he  oaks.  multii)lied  in  many  forms  on  the  western  slopes  of 
these  mountains,  have  here  no  representative. 

The  forests  of  the  southern  Rocky  .Mountain  region,  less  heavy 
MdA  less  generally  distributed  than  tho-e  of  the  western  slope  of 
the  Sierras,  are,  as  compared  with  those  of  the  (jreat  Basin,  heavy, 
dense,  and  valuable.  They  owe  their  existence  to  the  compara- 
tively large  precipitation  of  moisture  distributed  over  this  ele- 
vated region.  The  chKracteristic  species  of  the  Colorado  moun- 
tains is  a  spruce  i Picen  Engelmnnni):  it  forms,  at  between  8.U01I 
»nd  lii,iWi  feet  elevation,  extensive  and  valuable  forests  of  con- 
nderable  density  and  u'reat  beauty;  with  it  are  associated  a  balsam 
fir  of  wide  northern  distribution,  and  various  alpine  and  subalpine 
species  of  pine ;  at  lower  elevations  forests  of  yellow  pine  and  red 
fir  cover  the  mountain  slopes,  while  the  bottoms  of  the  streams 
»re  lined  with  cottonwood.  alder,  and  maple,  or  with  an  open 

fowth  of  the  white  fir  I  Abies  concolor).  a  species  of  the  Coast 
orcst.  here  reaching  the  eastern  limits  of  its  distribution;  the 
tootrhills  above  the  treeless  plain  are  covered  with  scant  groves  of 
fce  nut-pine  {Pinus  edulis:  stunted  junipers,  and  a  small  oak, 
«hich  in  many  forms  extends  through  a  large  area  of  the  southern 
kiterior  region.  A  forest  similar  in  general  feitures  to  that  of 
Colorado,  and  largely  composed  of  the  same  species,  extends  over 
file  high  mountains  of  New  .Mexico  to  those  of  western  Texas  and 
irestem  and  northwestern  Arizona,  where  a  heavier  forest  of  pine 
lovers  the  elevated  region  lying  alorg  the  thirtv-fifth  parallel, 
onlminating  in  the  high  fores^clad  San  Francisco  mountains  of 
northern  Arizona.  «...  .  .     ,       , 

The  species  of  the  intenor  Pacific  region  mingle  along  its 
Bouthem  borders  with  the  species  peculiar  to  the  platenu  of 
northern  Mexico.  The  Pacific- .Mexican  Forest,  although  differing 
widely  in  natural  features  from  the  .-Mlantic-Mcxican  Forest, 
possesses  several  species  peculiar  to  the  two.  The  forests  of  this 
region  are  confined  to  the  high  mountains  and  their  foot-hills,  and 
to  the  banks  of  the  rare  water-courses.  They  disappear  entirely 
from  the  Colorado  desert  and  from  the  valleys  and  low  mountain 
■-aoges  of  southwestern  .\rizonn.  The  most  important  and  gener- 
ally distributed  species  peculiar  to  the  vallevs  of  this  region  is  the 
■nesquit,  the  characteristic  species  of  the  AtlanticMexican  region. 
The  suwarrow.  however,  the  great  tree  cactus,  is  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  species  of  the  region,  giving  an  unusual  and  striking 
tcpearance  to  the  dry  mesas  of  central  and  southern  Arizona. 


The  high  mountain  ranges,  extending  across  the  boundary  of  ttv 
United  States,  between  the  one  hundred  and  fifth  and  the  ooC 
hundii'f'  and  eleventh  meridians,  enjoy  a  larger  and  more  rcg* 
larly  oistributed  rainfall  than  the  regions  east,  and  especially 
west,  of  these  meridians.  The  lorests  which  co\er  the.-e  southert 
mountain  ranges  arc  often  dense  and  varied.  Upon  their  summit 
and  almost  inaccessible  upper  slopes  the  firs  and  pines  of  tht 
Pacific  region  are  mingled  with  pines,  a  juniper,  an  arbutus,  ana 
various  other  species  peculiar  to  the  Mexican  plateau.  Extensiva 
forests  of  a  cypress  of  Mexican  origin  also  characterise  this  moun- 
tain vegetation.  The  bottoms  of  the  canons  are  lined  with  a 
dense  growth  of  cottonwood,  hnckberrj-,  a  noble  sycamore,  an  ash, 
a  cherry,  and  other  deciduous  trees.  The  high  foot-hills  and  mesaa 
are  covered  with  open  groves  of  various  oaks  peculiar  to  the 
Mexican-Pacific  region,  here  reaching,  within  the  United  States 
at  least,  their  greatest  development. 

Such  are  some  of  the  prominent  forest  features  of  JNorth 
America;  a  den-e  forest,  largely  composed,  except  at  the  north,  of 
a  great  variety  of  broad-leaved  species,  and  extending  from  the 
Atlantic  sea-board  in  one  nearly  unbroken  sheet  until  checked  by 
insufticient  moisture  from  farther  western  development— the  f»rest 
of  the  Atlantic  t>  gion;  a  forest  of  conifers,  occupying  the  ranges 
of  the  great  Cordilleran  mountain  sy.-tem.  unsurpassed  m  density 
in  the  humid  climate  of  the  coast,  open  and  stunted  in  the  and 
interior— the  forest  of  the  PaeiGc  region.       ...  .  „      i. 

A  more  detailed  examination  of  the  distribution  of  Mortn 
American  arborescent  genera  and  species  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  wealth  of  the  forests  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  comparative 
poverty  of  those  of  the  Pacific  region.  It  will  show,  too,  more 
clearly  how  widely  the  forests  of  these  two  great  regions  differ  in 

The  economical  importance  of  the  forests  of  the  United  States  The  ecmtaji^ 
is  very  great,  but  can  hardly  be  expressed  by  figures.    Some  facts,  ical  import- 
however,  mav  be  stated  in  this  connection.    The  wood  from  the  anco  of  th« 
forest  is  used  in  the  main  for  fuel.    Although  coal  exists  in  abun-  foresU. 
dance  over  certain  regions,  and  although  there  are  pans  of  the 
thickly  settled  regions  where  forests  are  scanty,  there  is  no  dis- 
tiict  where  some  wood  is  not  used  as  fuel.    In  the  cities  of  <the 
East— even  those  which  are  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  eo«l— » 
good  deal  of  wood  is  necessarily  consumed  in  the  form  of  kmd- 
lings,— an  important  item  where  anthracite  is  the  coal  supplied; 
and,  moreover,  open  fires  are  extensively  used  by  the  wealthier 
class,  in  conjunction  with  coal  in  furnaces.    In  other  regions 
where  coal  is  abundant,  forests  are  also  abundant,  and  as  these 
must  he  cut  down  to  be  sawn  into  lumber,  or  to  cleiir  the  land  for 
cultivation,  there  is  a  large  supply  of  wood  available  as  fuel,  but  i 

not  fit  to  be  used  for  building  or  manufacturing,  bxeept  m  the 
large  cities,  and  occasionally  in  the  towns  of  second  and  third 
rank,  wood  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  the  building  of  houses 
and  barns  in  the  United  States.  Fences  also  consume  a  very  large 
amount  of  wood,  this  material  being  in  common  use  for  this  pur- 
pose wherever  timber  is  abundant,  and  often  where  it  is  not,  as  in 
the  prairie  States,  where,  however,  within  a  few  years,  wire  hag 
begun  to  be  very  extensively  used  for  fences.  There  is  also  a  very 
large  consumption  of  wood  for  furniture  and  for  those  portions  of 
various  implements,  esiieeially  agricnitnral.  which  are  niade  of 
this  material.  An  even  larger  supply  of  wood  is  required  tor  ttie 
boxes  and  barrels  in  which  various  articles  of  merchandise  are 
transported  The  consumption  of  wood  in  the  form  of  barrels,  as 
required  by  the  two  articles  flour  and  salt,  is  very  large.     . 

The  great  demand  for  cheap  wooden  ware,  and  the  extensive  use  )^<=r> 
of  wood  in  building  houses,  and  for  various  portions  of  the  finish- wooden 
ing  and  fittings  of  houses  and  barns,  has  led  to  the  invention  of  ware, 
veiy  ingenious  machinery  by  the  aid  of  which  w-ood  is  wrought 
into  almost  every  variety  of  forms  with  very  ittle  direct  help  froni 
human  hands.    This  makes  the  coarser  kinds  of  furniture  and  of 
household  implement--,  exceedingly  cheap.    As  an  example,  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  barrels  strong  enough  to  hold  in  trnnsrortatioa 
two  hundred  and  eightv  pounds  of  salt  are  made  in  Michigan  tor 

^°-|rbuild'ing'':rifg*L'^nse'f-that  is,  of  such  dwellings  as  are  I-OR  house., 
made  by  piling  trunks  of  trees  on  each  other,  either  in  their 
natural  shap  .  or  partly  squared  with  the  axe-is  almost  a  thing 
of  the  past,  although  once  extremely  common.  \  cry  few  districts 
in  the  region  of  abundant  forests  are  so  far  away  from  sow-mi.,a 
and  railroads  as  to  make  a  log  house  the  most  economical  form^ 
dwelling.  Occasionally  some  large,  substantial  and  well-finishej 
buildings  are  erected  "  log-house  fashion,  .either  as  a  matter  0 
fancy,  or  to  attract  attention  by  an  exterior  of  exceptional  a« 
pearance.  . 

Some  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  forests  froni  an  ecc        K    ^ 
point  of  view  can  he  gained  from  the  following  figures  i 
the  census  of  18S0.  in  reference  to  the  manufacture  of  sa 
her: — 

Nuniberof  establishments cioiia^-'>; 

Capital  invented...... .-.••■ *       irj'o^. 

Average  iiumher  of  hands  employed itiViinn 

Feet  ot  lumber  produced •  •  ;18;23  :?-^l,';S§ 

Number  of  laths iXv,  i  ji;  nnn 

Number  of  shingles i  32<  4   Mft 

Number  of  staves i£"s«nflO 

Number  sets  headings. ?5  mKnlS 

Feetof  bobbin  and  spool  stock *t,U/b,tW« 

Total  value  of  the  above  specified  pro-  ^^^ 

ducts '^.)"ccVfifiQ 

Value  of  other  producM ""-'"" 

Totalvalue $233,367,729 


8CESOGRA.PH1CAL.J 


UNITED      STATED 


807 


Tbe  consumption  of  wood  "  for  domestio  purposes  '* — that_  is,  as 
Jiel  in  houses — is  given  by  the  census  of  1SM>  as  amounting  to 
10.537 ,4o9  cords,  baviiigan  rsiiuiattd  value  of  J3l.6.Ho<i.(40. 
Value  M  The  total  consumption  of  wood  iis  fuel  is  giveu  as  follows  :— 

^ynyd  Cords.  Value. 

Fordomestic  fuel 140,537,439       $3t16,95il,040 

Byrailroals  l,971,f>13  5,126,714 

Bysieamboat- 787.S62  l,JI2,b»3 

In  miniug  and -melting 6:;4,^4-5  3.548,2tf5 

In  making  bricks  and  tiles 1,157,5J2  3,978,3.31 

Inmakingsalt 54ii,44»  121.6S1 

In  woollen  manufacture 158,-08  425,239 

Total 145,778.137       S321,%2.373 

The  total  value  of  the  wood  used  as  lumber  and  as  fuel  amounts, 
therefore,  to  no  less  than  S555.3oO.Iu2,  if  the  figures  given  by  tbe 
census  of  ISSO  are  to  be  trusted.  Tbe  value  of  tbe  wood  consumed 
as  fuel  m  the  United  States  was  m«}re  than  tbr--e  limes  as  great  as 
that  of  tbe  coal  mined.  In  fact,  the  timber  of  the  country  is  tbe 
greatest  of  all  its  mati^rial  possessions.  The  coal,  once  exhausted, 
can  never  be  restored,  not  even  with  tbe  lapse  of  an  indefinite 
amount  of  time,  for  the  conditions  favorable  to  tbe  production  of 
coal  on  the  earth  have  entirely  ceased  to  exist.  The  timber,  on 
the  other  iiand,  is  restored,  after  destruction  by  mau,  by  the  kindly 
hand  of  Nature.  This  is  the  case,  at  least,  over  the  whole  of  the 
once  densely  timbered  portion  of  the  country,  where  the  various 
growths  succeeding  each  other  after  the  primal  forest  has  been  re- 
moved offt-r  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  th.at  which  has  been  m-ide 
use  of.  either  nattirally  or  as  an  easily  attainable  result  of  cultiva- 
tion. In  regions  where  the  rainfall  isof  insuffici'-nt  amount,  there 
appears  to  be  a  tendency  in  Nature  to  replace  the  original  growth 
by  one  of  inferior  quality.  Whether  this  inf^'riority  would  be 
lasting  or  not,  seems  a  doubtful  matter.  That  there  has  been  a 
diminution  of  tbe  precipitation,  certainly  dating  back  to  the  Ter- 
tiary age.  and.  in  all  probability,  to  a  much  earlier  time,  is  a 
ecological  Fact  established  beyond  all  possible  doubt.  That  this 
diminution  has  anything  to  do  with  the  removal  of  tbe  forests  by 
the  hand  of  man,  or  that  man  can  to  any  perceptible  extent  in- 
fluence tbe  general  climate  of  the  country,  there  is  not  the  slight- 
est reason  for  believing. 

SCEXOGR-iPHICAL. 

The  great  extent  of  the  territory  occupied  by  the  United  States 
is  ft  sufficient  reason  why  there  should  be  a  corresponding  variety 
in  the  scenery.  In  the  early  history  of  the  county,  when  only  the 
Atlantic  coast  and  tbe  eastern  side  of  the  .-Appalachian  belt  were 
known  to  travelers,  the  landscape  was  generally  considered 
monotonous  by  those  who  visited  this  region  as  tourists,  or  with  a 
^ew  to  the  erjoyment  and  description  of  its  scenery.  This  impres- 
eion  of  uniformity  and  monotony  wjis  further  confirmed,  as  the 
Blississippi  Valley  and  tbe  region  of  tbe  (Treat  Lakes  were  added 
,  to  the  tourist's  range.  .Many  persons  visited  tbe  prairies  of  Illi- 
Li2oisand  the  adjacent  States  for  the  purpose  of  getting  an  idea  of 
ia  vast  expanse  uf  almost  unbroken  country  such  as  could  hardly 
beobtained  elsewhere  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  without  visit- 
^  log  Southeastern  Russia  and  the  country  east  of  the  Urals.  Tbe 
general  resemblance  of  the  Appalachian  Mountain  scenery  to 
{hat  of  parts  of  Northern  and  Central  Europe — as,  for  instance, 
ibat  of  the  White  Mountains  to  that  of  tbe  Erzebirge,  or  that  of 
Northern  New  England  to  that  of  Scandinavia — could  hardly  es- 
cape notice,  similarity  of  topographical  features  being  supplemen- 
ted in  many  cases  by  the  absence  of  any  specially  marked  differ- 
ences in  the  floras  of  the  regions  in  question.  Thus  tbe  writer, 
;  having  spent  a  summer  in  a  geological  exploration  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, found  himself  after  a  very  short  interval  of  time  traveling 
through  Southern  Sweden.  The  impression  of  the  scenic  similar- 
ity of  the  two  regions  was  extremely  interesting.  Not  only  were 
the  rocks,  rock-forms  and  topographical  features  the  same,  but 
the  vegetation— although  of  course  not  identical  so  far  as  the 
,  species  were  concerned — made._  from  the  scenic  point  of  view,  al- 
most exactly  the  same  impression  on  the  eve  in  the  Scandinavian 
country  that  it  did  over  large  portions  of  New  England. 

In  those  early  days  of  travel,  especially  of  English  travel,  to  the 
United  States,  the  dominating  idea  was  to  see  Niagara  Falls, 
which  was  the  great  point  of  attraction.  Occasionally  an  adven- 
'jirotis  traveler  went  farther  West  and  down  tbe  Mississippi ;  but 
for  ninety-nine  out  of  a  hundred  tourists  who  \'isited  this  country 
and  described  its  scenery,  Niagara  was  the  Ultima  Tbule.  The 
farthest  opening  of  the  '"  Farthest  West  "  by  roads  and  railroads,  the  scien- 
West.  tific  erpleration  of  the  Cordilleran  region,  the  development  of  its 

mineral  resources,  and  the  rapidly  growing  desire  on  tbe  part  of 
many  to  see  as  much  of  the  world  as  possible — all  this  has  very 
greatly  enlarged  tbe  range  of  experience  in  the  enjoyment  of  scen- 
ery, while  the  art  of  photography  has  rendered  it  possible  for  those 
not  caring  to  travel,  to  understand  and  enjoy  the  scenic  features  of 
distant  countries,  and  to  compare  unders tandingly  the  landscapes 
of  regions  widely  separated  from  each  other. 

To  attempt  to  describe  tbe  principal  features  of  the  scenery  of  a 
tjounlry  having  an  area  of  more  than  three  million  square  miles,  is, 
of  course,  something  not  to  be  thought  ot  in  the  present  connec- 
tion.   All  that  can  be  done  is  to  indicate  some  of  the  points  most 
Tisitcd,  and  most  worthy  of  being  visited,  by  tourists,  and  to 
compare  in  a  genei-al  way.  some  of  the  more  striking  features  of 
the  landscape  of  this  country  with  those  of  regions  of  similar  scenic 
character  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Appalach-     .  In  doing  this  we  may  begin  witb  the  mountains.  Tbe  Appalach- 
ian Moun-    ian  Mountain  scenery  is  only  to  be  compared  witb  that  of  tbe 
Win  seen-     minor  chains  of  Europe,  since  these  eastern  ranges  never  rise  to 
ery.  the  snow-line,  and  are  almost  always^  wooded  to  their  summits, 

Ihe  principal  features  of  Appalachian  topography  have  been 
already  dwelt  upon  to  as  great  an  extent  as  space  would  allow  : 
Ml,,  it  needs  here  only  to  Be  stated  that,  while  tb'  "'ture-     -3 


often  of  exceeding  interest  to  geologists  and  other  close  sttldents 
of  nature,  they  do  nut  exhibit  any  forms  which  in  grandeur  can  be 
compared  with  those  t'f  common  occurrence  in  the  Cordilleras  or 
the  .\lps  or,  still  more,  in  the  Himalaya.  There  are  from  the 
scenic  point  of  view  few,  if  any.  unique  figures  in  the  Appalach- 
ian n\uges.  The  neaiest  apj. roach  to  such  is  pi  rhar-s  tbe  Natural 
Bridge  in  Virginia — an  arch  of  limestone  gracefully  spai  nirig  a 
cha-iu  about  two  hundred  feet  detp  and  sixty  feet  wide — 
and  the  Profile  in  the  Franeonia  Notch,  in  which  ma,sses  of  rock 
are  so  disposed  as  to  represent,  in  gigantic  dimensions,  and  with 
sriking  approach  to  accuracy  in  general  outline,  the  profile  of  at 
human  face.  Fully  as  fine  a  profile  as  thut  in  the  M  hiie  Moun- 
tains is  to  be  seen  in  Colorado  ;  but  as  this  latter  locality  is  not 
easily  accessible,  and  is  surrounded  by  an  abundance  of  grand 
scenery,  it  is  hardlv  known  to  tbe  general  tourist,  and  set  ms  never 
to  have  been  described,  while  of  the  Profile  in  tbe  White  Moun- 
tains the  descriptions  are  numerous.  To  the  trained  eye  of  the 
topographer  and  geologist  the  extraordinary  intricate  and  excep- 
tional forms  of  the  rangt-s  and  vallejsin  Central  Pennsylvania  are 
of  vastly  greater  interest  than  such  accidental  and  fanciful  occur- 
rences as  the  Profile  in  the  Franconia  Notch.  .^  .      y 

A  purely  American  name  for  something  which  is  not  of  uncom-  « ■    S„„r^ 
mon  occurrence  in  mountain  regions  is  the  word  "  flume,    ^bich  tsan  niu» 
as  applied  in  the  United  States,  and  chiefly  in  the  ^\  bite  Moun- 
tains, means  a  narrow  passage  or  defile  between  nearly  perpendio- 
ular  rocks,  through  which  rui-s  a  stream,  and  usually  wiih  a  suo- 
cession  of  cascades-    The  Whit'-  .Mountain  flume,  in  tbe  Franconia 
Notch,  is  the  localitv  of  this  kind  most  visited.    It  is  about  four 
hundred  fcit  in  length,  ami  the  walls  are  from  twenty  to  fifty  fee' 
in  height.     A  deip  cut  in  tbe  sandstone  at  Keesville.  New    lors 
near  Lake  Chomplain.  on  tbe  .\o  Sable  River,  is  called  a  "chasm. 
The  term  '"  notch."  is  used  in  tbi  White  Mountains,  and  tea  limit 
ed  extent  in  the  Adirondacbs.  for  pass  or  mountain  valley.    Sitn 
ilar  passes  or  di-i sessions  in  the  Appalachian  ranges  farther  South, 
especially  in  Pi  nn.-ylvania.  are  called  "gaps."    Those  which  are 
deeply  cut  duwn,  so  as  to  give  passage  to  streams,  are  called 
"  water  gaps:  "  thore  in  which  tbe  depression  in  the  ridge  is  no' 
sufficiently  deep  to  give  passage  to  n  water-course,  aie  known  a 
"  wind-gaps."    The  gorge  at  the  gi eat  Ix-nd  of  the  Delaware,  when 
this  stream  traverses  the  Kittatinny  Range,  and  which  i.-  known  as 
the  "  Delaware  Water-Gap."  is  a  prominent  fcenic  feature  of  this 

The  points  in  the  New  England  portion  of  the  .Appalathian  sys-  New  Englaad 
tem  which  are  most  visited  by  tourists  for  the  sake  of  the  pano-  Moantai»- 
ramie  views  which  they  afford  are  .Mount  Washington— the  only 
point  over  six  thousand  feet  in  elevation  in  the  Appalachians 
north  of  North  Carolina:  Mount  Lafayette,  in  the  Franconia 
Range  1.5.2! 0  feet) ;  Moosilauke  (4.7Vi(' feet),  a  I'ttle  farther  south; 
Monadnoek,  near  the  southern  border  of  New  Hampshire  (3J69 
feet);  Mount  Mansfield,  in  the  iJrcfn  Mountain  Range  in  \  er- 
mont  '4.3-9  feet) ;  Oreyloek.  in  the  northwest  corner  of  Massachus- 
etts (3,.505  feet).  The  Adirondncks  also  attract  great  numbers  of 
visitors,  where  the  lakes  and  streams  iiffnrd  opportunities  for 
boating  and  fishing,  and  where  the  scenery  is  extremely  attractive, 
especially  in  the  autumn  after  the  leaves  have  begun  to  change 
their  color,  most  of  this  region  being  siill  covered  with  the  prime- 
val forest.  Mount  Marcy,  or  Tabawas  5.344  feet,  and  Whitefaca 
{4,871  feet)  are  the  points  mostfrequenth  ascended  in  this  region; 
but  there  are  many  others,  ranging  from  ihree  to  five  thousand  feet 
in  elevation,  which  offer  fine  views  and  are  not  at  all  difiicult  of  ac- 
cess. The  Catskill  gronpis  also  a  region  much  resorted  to  by  tourists, 
partly  on  account  of  the  beanty  of  the  scenery,  and  partly  because 
it  is  so  easily  reached  from  New  York.  Tbe  high  mountain  region  in 
North  Carolina  is  too  remote  to  attract  many  visitors  from  the 
Northern  and  Eastern  States:  and  the  facilities  for  travel  m  that 
region  are  as  vet  extremely  deficient,  in  striking  contrast  with  the 
condition  of  things  in  this  respect  in  the  mountain  districts  of 
New  England  and  New  York,  where  almost  every  point  can  be 
reached  bv  railroad,  and  where  hotels  are  numerous  and  commo- 
dious, and  the  business  of  receiving  and  taking  care  of  "  summer 
boarders  "  seems  to  be  a  most  important  one  for  the  permanent 
residents.  .       .  1    ri     .^-n 

The  mountain  scenery  of  the  Cordilleran  region  is  extremely  Lordillenu, 
varied  in  character,  as  has  already  been  made  evident  to  the  read-  Alountam 
erin  the  sketch  of  the  topography  of  that  part  of  the  country  scenery, 
given  in  the  preceding  pages.    Only  a  few  of  its  more  important 
features  can  here  be  indicated.  , 

In  elevation  the  Cordilleran  ranges  are  comparjble  to  the 
Swiss  Alps,  although  there  is  no  point  in  the  L  nited  Mates  Proper 
quite  as  high  as  Mont  Blanc  (15,7S4  feet),  or  Monte  Rosa  (10,217  . 
feeti :  but  there  are  several  which  surpass  the  finster  .Aarhorn,-— 
the  culminating  point  of  the  Bernese  Oberland  (14,056  fe»t),-an(I 
there  are  a  large  number  which  have  a  greater  elevation  than 
the  Jungfrau  (13,671  feet).  A  very  curious  feature  in  tbe  Cordifc 
leras  is  the  closeness  with  which  the  highest  peaks  approach  eaca 
other  in  altitude,  as  shown  bv  the  following  table  of  elevations  ot 
all  the  points  in  the  United  States  supposed  to  be  over  fourteen  , 
thousand  three  hundred  feet  high,  all  of  which  are  in  the  Koeky 
Mountains,  and  all  in  Colorado  witb  the  exception  of  the  two  vol- 
canic cones,  Shasta  and  Rainier:—  

MOCSTAIN.  ELEV .trios  AT  AtTrHORITT. 

SE.k  I.VVEL. 

Blanca  Peak 14.464       Hayden  Survey. 

Mount  Rainier 14,414       U.  s.  Coast^  Survey. 

MountShasta 14,442 

Mount   Harvard 14,375 

Mount  Elbert 14,351 

(Irav'sPeak 14,341 

Jlount  Rosalie 14,.340 

Torrey'sPeak 14,336 

Mount  Evans 14,.330 

La  Plata  Mt 14,311 


Cal.  Geol.  Survey. 
Hayden  (14.45?  Whitney). 
Hayden  Survey. 
Hayden  (U.Sli'  Whitney), 
Havden  Survey. 
Hayden  (14,375  WhitnayV. : 
Hayden. 
Hayden  Snrrey. 


UNITED      STATES 


jSievntioDS 
in  Colorado. 


Comparison 
«f  Cordil- 
leras and 
Alps. 


Mount 
S  ha  Ft  a. 


MouDt 
Uood. 


Mf'unt 
lluiriier 


808 

Theabce  are  all  the  Poic«, 'n/h^  Co^dmeras  Mi.ved.^j^o^be 

over  fo"'l«|\;h™ff?v^i,?;ev  which  his  been  several  limes  meas- 
exception  of  Mo""V  „  ^iinV  results  ranging  al  the  »ay  trum 
ured.  «ith  rather  ^'^£"'^'1^°'  ^'rt''™  however,  fe  believiLg 
14.6li.Jto  U-SaStoi':  ''''7„\%n  the  l^ite'd  slates/not  including 
this  to  be  the  b-ghest.  point  in  the  Lmtea.«i^  ,xceptii.n    of 

Alaska.  All  the  .^eights  g'™°  ,'^,%"b^'J^'°eter.  and  are  not  to 
Rainier,  were  obtained  by  the  a>d  dthe  ^aro  elevations  in  Colo- 
be  taken  as  being  absolutely  'lffV™'®-,i,^°^s,,it  of  a  combination 
rado  by  the  Hayden  Sap-ey.  which  Ye^her.^lt  ot  ac  ^^^ 

of  barometrical  and  t",?™""  ^'X  ,rath"i™^  measurement  of 
pretty  close  "l-PV"^''."*'  °"j»  ^'^on  trigonome  rical  measurements 
Rainier,  depending  .is  it  el  a  ™  "f  j^pr-s  opinion-not  to  be 
made  at  a  great  distance,  «'<'-L°^'''''f  "Ji'^he  truth  than  a  single 
accepted  as  final,  and.imy  b*^  t"|\\Ve  been?  but  this  mountain, 
'aKt'i:sfve;il  H  J^s^-e-nd^d!  h'lf  not  btei  measured  baromet- 
"^rt/essential  diference  between  .he  Cordilleranrange^^^^ 
Alps  is  that  the  Utter  a,e  ^^^^  '^.^ ^^^^'''^iTri^e  to  vermOL- 

snow  than  are  the  f"™'"-"'!  ow  the  snow-line  and  constitut- 
nentglaeiers,descending  farbdow  the  smw  nne^  .^  ^^^ 

ing  a  very  prominent  and  "  ^f,'^^f^y,^*J™Ln  of  the  great  vol- 
scenery  of  the  fi|h"  A^P^  >>  '^"  ^  ,^^  J^e  Range  there  is  no 
came  cones  of  tnenierra  i-< '->''"'•  "  :       forms  a  prominent 

part  of.theCordilleras  where  snow  or  KC  forms  a  P^^^^^j^^ 

feature  in  the  ^^uery  during  the  ™mmer.  «t  in  ^^^^^^^_ 

ing  great  patches  l;7'"''«™«"jA^^^'^5","eaturt  A  remarkable  e.t- 
rather  ■'.''•'"E''"^'^''' /'!""/ ''\'^fr°Moun"a7nof  the  Holy  Cross," 
ception  .s  the  cross  of  ^^now  °°  'he     ■^''"'"f^j"^?^  „re  small  masses 

to  which  i'""?'"" 'hlthe  rrfeaks  of  "ome  of  the  CordiUeran  ranges, 
of  ice  around  the  highest  r*"''V„„^  ontirelv  concealed  by  snow, 
but  those.are  tre„uently  "o^ered  and  entire  yconceaie       y.^^^  ^^ 

same  ai.pearance  in  summer  when  seen  ,nd.terem 
™J^^rih^rseven,y  ^Jf^^  Tlh^^'s^Z^  l7rl 

t^s  ^^sZ^^  I^J^Mi^  di^^r^^^ 

1862,  in  looking  from  t^e  summit  down  upon  i  ^^^^ 

sLsta  pres.'nted  the  aPf*«"°<^^,P'/„f  fsTmasras  seen  from  a 

an  almost  regular  cone.  «^"»'^e  slights  steeper  towa  ^^ 

rh^X'r.''^Uh"rs^arilr:*s?mewhaTs°t?e%l';:''su"bsidiary  cone  on 
''^fou^^'t^ffo^dls  a  very  .conspicuous  and  i-d  mountam  ma.s  on 

siXtfi:j^r^^J^'|S:?g;o?adl^r;^^ 

^aX^-^o^n^  diffi-Uy.^  ^'h'e"Lme  ^ay  be  said  in 
deeply  ami   ext.nsU'U  <'"\"\'^-''y"'  )'      tnn-lcd  forest  without 


[SCE.N  OG  RAPHICAl.. 


number    of    points   of   view    by    Mr.   C.    t-.    W  atfcms,   ol   oan  ^ 

*'nnfhe°whole,  these  great  isolated  snow- coyered  volcanic  cones  ' 
of  the  Pacific  coast  are  from  the  scenic  point  of  view,  the  grand-  1 

S  S^a^^^?;  m^lJ^^ifS^ph^l "j-^eS^? 

ones  of  MeVico  and.Vrhaps,  not  much  less  admirable  as  scenic 
obfec?s  than  the  mucli  liltier  cones  of  South  Amenca.  whic-h  all 
rii  from  yerv  high  bases,  and  of  which  the  snoiy-covered  portions 
seem  but  msignificant  in  extent  as  compared  with  the  uncovered 

;Pa'^lelc-naracter  of  the^  granitic  »---  the  other  the  dome^ 

S£SmS^^-  ^En;i^sU^h?ci^ihe^ 

nntnllv  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  ^^  hilney;  in  a  group  of  moun- 

mmmmmm 

ring  m  the  United  States  '»  ^erj  gie  ^        ^^^^^  (^ 

and  the  \osemite  Falls,  i?^  °'\'  '»  \eature.  In  the  Shoshone 
volume  of  water  '^  '^e  all-imrortant  lea  ure  j^feHor  to 

than  that  ot  Mingara.  ^"" '•"°,,  a  ■•improvements'  of  civiliza- 
entirely  uninjured  by    he  so-called     imp^^^^^^^  ^^^.^^  ^^^ 

tion.  The  Yosemite  fa  .  o°  t^e  o^»f  r  '>»"'J>^'  ^j^^^  „hile  the 
volume  of  water  is  *°'»»' oi't  «he  teigut  eYrao"  ;  ■  „.,5no„n 
settingot  the  fall  is  surpassingly  »f»V'di^/;'»f^f,iVscenic  atlrao- 
that  description  is  ""D'^l^^y-  JiVvWted  not  only  because  it  is 
tionsof  the  country  ™ost  friquent  y  vKitea.^ot  o_5  ^^^^^ 

one  of  the  greatest  of  '^e  water-falls  ottne  worm  ^^^^^^ 

of  the  Zambezi.surpa.'^sing  it  '•>  ^''^'^^f  "^'?  *„.  V  je  of  the  Atlantic 
-*>"?  ''S'YotmitT Valley.' w"h"aU  iL'^ater  falls,  is  farther 
coast.  Ihe  \osemue  *  »'"^»/  chnshone  Falls,  but  rcallv  much 
away  from  .the  East  than  the  -^hostmne  l-al  ^  ^^^^i^^,.^bl.-  dis- 
more  accessible  than  the  latter.  "  uieu  entirely  unvisitcd 

tance  from  any  tnh"bit"i  t-e^'O"-^  tv,non  of  the  Tuolumne  River, 
regions  of  water^falls.  that  of  the  t  nnon  ei  ^         ,he  most 

a  few  miles  north  of  the  ^osemite  V  an  y,^^^    P        ^^^^^^ 
interesting.    Here  are  "".'^  ""^  V'-S'ilj,,,  ^^d  most  romaniio 
great  height,  ^.o'  fnto  which  bar  lly  a  Travder  has  ever  found  his 
scenery-a  region  into  which  nareiiy  a  ir  ,ruth  of  the  region 

"/'■;.  ^«"=:],"\"n  Hi^h  '"err™ad:acent  to  Mount  Whitney,  wh,  re 
of  the  Southern  High  Sierra  aa^acen  ^^^.^^  characterise 

The  Yotmit°e^  and'on  af.rst'lSpnd  a  scale  as  in  . Ms  now  very 
'f^e^uen^l^'^isited  anel  comparatively  acce^iblelocam^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^ 

fe^tu-^eT^^arj^  erll  fng  W^unst^a^^^^^^^^^ 

Sicioi^nMr^^^l^  £^?:- Kv^    ^^-'- 

canons  of  the  Colorado  an.  t«^''™  i"*:^  °"'L',!°,To™  of  railroads 

ir;?^?hi|^^;=^nfH!B£iS-ei^^wS 

loess  region  of  No/t^c™, '^hina  ma>  be  .  t™ng  ^^^^^^^ .  ^^^ 

gible  in  therecord  which    t  presents  of  pa^.J^g_^_^g    _^^  ^^^ 
from  a  scenic  pont  ot.viewtne  ii  walls,  may  unhesl- 

ern  Plateau,  region   ."'th  their  nmnsco  "re  '  „„'„i^^,,      ^ 

tatingly  lie  included  in  the  list  of  the  ear  n^  ^^^^  ^.^^^ 

A  portion  of  the  oo';"^;^^,;;;")™  search  of  the  picturesque. and 
^SIs'now'uiL  ^ceTJbf/ly  railroad,  is  the  Geyser  region  ot 


MINER.\L    RESOURCES.] 


r  X  I  T  E  D      STATES 


809 


Tbennai 
Spring!. 


<Hrd  □  ot 
tliaGod$. 


Mining 
bajioes*. 


^1 


ipTeraor 
^inthrop. 


*  the  Yellowstone.  Here  the  scientifically  iutfrcstiug  and  the  pic- 
turesque unite  to  fumiih  a  type  of  senary  wiihout  a  rivitl  of 

•  it5  iiiud.  surpassing  even  the  now  devested  wonderland  of  New 
Zealand.  The  Yellowstone  Park,  a^  it  is  frequently  called.  b> 
cause  reserved  by  the  lulled  Slates  aud  devoted  to  public  use  as  a 
rificiog  grouad  or  park,  with  the  idea  of  prote«.-tii:g  it  from  gpecu- 
laturs  and  mischief-makers,  was  early  known  to  >^.me  of  the  more 
adventurous  of  the  tur-hi:nters  who  roamed  over  the  tireat  North- 
west; but  it  is  only  within  a  few  years  thai  descriptions  of  it 
have  been  published,  imd  its  c.vtraordinary  character  so  clearly 
established  as  to  induce  travelers  to  undertake  the  long  journey 
necessary  for  its  inspection.  Thermal  springs  in  gr-ial  number, 
many  of  which  are  the  periodically  spoutinf.  or  geyser  type;  pools 
of  hot  water,  both  large  and  small,  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  which 
are  li^ie-i  with  the  most  exquisitely  and  brilliantly  colored  micro- 
scor-ic  vegetati-n.  remarkable  deposits  from  the  hot  springs,  some 
of  which  exhibit  curi';ius  furms.  seen  nowhere  else,  except  in  .Xsia 
Minor  and  in  New  Zealand,  as  it  was  before  the  volcanic  eri:ption 
of  l^-6;  grand  mountain  scenery,  with  water-rails,  lakes  and  deep 
canitns.  whose  walls  are  fantastically  colored  by  volcinic  depo-its 
and  sulphurous  emanations — these  are  the  principal  features  of 
the  Yell  'wstone  region.  It  can  be  reached  by  the  N  rthem 
Paciric  railroad,  from  a  station  on  which  road,  called  Livinjtstone. 
ten  hundred  and  thirty-two  miles  from  St.  Paul,  a  branch  fif  tv-une 
miles  in  length  runs  toCinnabar,  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  so- 
ealled  *'  Yellowstone  National  Park."  There  are  numerous  ex- 
eelleut  photographs  of  this  region,  which  has  also  been  finely  illus- 
trateti  iu  a  f.dio  volume  with  chromo.  lithographs  from  paintings 
by  Thom  :s  Moran.  The  geologiail  and  scenic  p».-cnliarities  of  the 
Yellowstone  regi^'-n  have  been  fully  elucidated  in  various  Unit<-d 
States  tJeoIogical  rep^^rts.  and  especially  in  a  voluminous  one  by 
Dr.  A.  C.  Peale.  included  in  the  second  volume  of  flaydcn's  Re- 
port for  the  year  1S78. 

There  is  a  type  of  scenery  of  a  remarkable  character  well 
exhibited  along  the  bise  of  the  Rocky  .Maintains  at  various 
points,  and  especially  at  a  locality  called  the  Garden  of  the  Gods, 
near  Pike's  Peak,  and  easily  accessible  by  railroad.  Theattraction 
here  is  the  remarkable  effect  of  the  erosion  and  withering  of  the  soft 
sandstones,  which occurin  bedsofgre:it  thickness.  Manyfanta.«!tic 
shapes,  such  as  columns  or  obelisks,  of  large  diraensijns.  occurring 
eithvr  singly  or  in  clusters,  and  often  capped  in  the  mo-t  curious 
manner  by  great  flat  tables  of  hardtr  rock,  are  seen  in  this  inter- 
esting region-  Indeed,  all  along  the  eastt-m  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  Colorado  are  many  strange  and  picturesque  forms, 
partly  the  result  of  direct  uplift,  and  partly  of  erosion,  which 
are  alike  interesting  to  the  lover  of  the  picturesque,  and  the 
student  of  geology.  The  long  crested  uplita  of  sedimentary  ro^k 
worn  inVi  curved  outlines,  and  often  of  grand  dimensions,  which 
characterize  this  region  are  known  by  the  fi*milar  n  irae  of  *"  hog- 
backs." and  the  resrion  itself  as  the  "  hog-bnck  country." 

Of  xh':  scenic  effect  of  the  vegetation  of  the  country,  and  espe- 
cially its  forests,  notice  has  already  been  taken  to  as  great  an 
extent  as  space  here  permits. 

IIIVKRAL     BESOCRCKS. 

Iron  ore  was  smelted  at  Falling  Creek.  Virginia,  a-  early  as  1620. 
The  raids  upon  the  whit^-s  at  this  time,  made  by  ih-  Indians,  put  a 
stop  to  the  indusin.-.  From  1613  to  1671  the  busiuess  of  smelting 
and  manufacturing  iron  was  successfully  carried  on  at  Lynn. 
Massachusetts.  About  1789  there  were  fourteen  furnaces  "and 
more  than  thirty  forges  in  operation  in  Pennsylvania. 
_  The  business  of  mining  for  other  metals  than  iron  within  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States  is  of  much  more  recent  origin.  To 
this  S'atement.  however,  an  exception  must  be  made  in  reference 
to  the  meral  copper,  which  had  been  extensively  mined  in  the 
Lake  >uprior  region  long  before  the  first  visit  of  the  Eaglish  to 
these  shores.  Indeed,  so  ancient  are  these  workings  that  no  posi- 
tive knowledge  exists  as  to  the  people  or  tribes  by  whom  they 
were  e.Kecuted.  When  the  region  in  question  was  opened  to  the 
whites  for  ser  tiement  in  ls44.  it  was  found  that  the  copper-bearing 
n>cks  had  been  mined  through  their  whole  extent  along  the  south- 
em  sb  ".r-^  of  Lake  ."superior,  and  even  on  the  almost  inaccessible 
island  calle-i  lile  Royale.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  these 
ancient  working-,  wh'ch  in  seme  places  had  been  carried  to  a 
depth  of  more  than  fif  ly  feet  in  the  solid  rock,  were  known  to  the 
Indians  inhabiting  that  region  at  the  time  of  the  first  visit  of  the 
Jesuit  lathers  in  16.59-6':  and  the  appearance  of  the  excavatiins 
indicates,  beyond  possibility  of  doubt,  that  they  had  b  an  made 
long  before  that  time. 

.\bout  the  midJle  of  the  seventeenth  cntury  t!-e  metalliferous 
indicatiOES  common  ia  New  England,  and  especially  in  Connecti 
cut.  engnge.1  the  attention  of  Governor  Wiuihrop.  bv  whom  inin- 
eralogieal  notices  of  that  region  weres'ntio  England  and  pub- 
lishel  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Just  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen'ury  a  Frenchman. 
Le  Sueor.  explored  the  region  of  the  Tpper  Mississippi,  and  sent 
back  to  France,  rock  which  he  hid  mined,  supposing  it  to  be  an 
oreof  copper:  bat  it  proved  to  beofnovalne  Later  in  1719  and 
172fl.  thj  French  agiin  attempted  to  explore  what  was  then  call"d 
the  western  porti  ;n  of  the  coontry.  along  the  .Missi^sir'pi  near  the 
junction  of  the  Mis-'>uri;  and  some  mining  of  the  lead  ore.  which 
at  that  tim?  had  already  become  known,  was  attempted.  The 
precious  metals  beiaa  what  was  sought  for.  and  there  being  none 
lound  in  the  region,  the  enterprise  was  soon  abandoned. 

At  Uie  beginning  of  ifae  present  century.  a«  it  appears  from 
what  has  been  stated  all  that  had  been  done  in  the  wav  of  dis- 
covering and  developing  the  metallic  wealth  of  the  Cnited  States 
was  the  mining  and  smelting  of  the  ores  of  iron,  on  a  limited 
scale,  in  the  Atlantic  States,  and  a  small  production  of  lead  in  the 
mining  region  of  Missouri.  E.vact  statistics  of  these  metals  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  wanting.  The 
'  SBioant  of  iron  ornduced  in  1810  has  been  eatimated  at  fiftv  tl>,.>i- 


I    sand  tons;  the  production  of  lead  about  that  time  may  have  been 

approximately  one  thousand  tons  a  year. 
,       An  event  of  great  importance  took  place  almost  immediately  Gold 

after  the  value  of  the  Lake  Superior  copper  mining  district  had 
,  been  fully  ascertained,  in  the  year  iMl.  This  was  the  demonstra- 
[    tion  of  the  fact  that  gold  existed  in  large  quantities  along  the 

western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
I  The  occurrence  of  gold  on  that  portion  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
,  cfdied  by  the  Mexican-Spanish  Upper  California,  had  been  kn^jwu 
,'  for  several  years  prior  to  its  discovery  by  immigrants  from  the 
I  United  States  and  workings  had  been  carried  on  for  this  metal  in 
I  the  Coast  Ranges,  far  south  of  the  locality  where  it  was  discovered 
;    in  IWS. 

The  demonstration  of  the  fact  that  over  a  vast  extent  of  that 
distant  country  gold  was  to  be  had  in  almost  unstinted  quantity, 
as  it  at  first— not  without  reason — appeared,  led  to  an  extaordi 
nary  excitement  throughout  the  older  States,  and  to  an  emigration 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  toward  the  newly  discovered  land  oi 
gold  on  an  unprecedented  scale  of  magnitude. 


The  area  underlain  by  the  coal-measures  in  the  United  States  it 
very  large,  aswill  be  seen  from  the  following  table,  which  repre- 
sents approximately  the  coal  areas  of  Carboniferous  age  east  of 
theCordilleran  region  That  different  portions  of  the  areas  hen 
designated  are  of  very  different  value,  as  respects  quality  and 
quantity  of  coal,  is  certiiin:  and  that  portions  of  them  do  not 
contain  coal-beds  of  sufiiciei.t  thickness  or  of  good  enough  quality 
to  be  worked  with  profit,  either  at  present  or  at  any  future  time, 
is  also  an  undoubted  fact,  although  these  unproductive  portions 
are.  exc-pt  perhaps,  in  the  case  of  the  Western  and  Michigan  fields, 
of  comiuratively  small  extent:— 

Name  of  the  field.  Area.  Qogi 

Rhode  Island 500  gq.  miles,  beds. 

.Appalichian 56.165        " 

Central  (Illinois  Indiana,  and  Kentucky) 47,250        ** 

Western  (Missouri,  Iowa.  Kansas.  .Arkansas  and 

Texas; 78.4:0 

Michigan 6.7uO        " 

Total 192,015  sq.  mUes. 

Of  these  fields  the  .Appalachian  is  at  present  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant, and  is  likely  to  remain  in  this  position  for  an  indefinite 
period.  The  coal  field  of  Rhode  Island  is  not  now,  nor  has  it 
ever  been,  worked  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  of  special  importance. 
The  Michigan  coal-field  has  also  no  present  value,  the  quality  of 
the  coal  being  inferior,  and  the  conditions  not  such  as  to  allow 
successful  competition  with  the  coal  of  adjacent  regions.  The 
present  relative  importance  of  the  different  States  as  regards  the 
production  of  coal  and  the  yield  of  the  various  fields  will  be  easily 
recognized  from  an  inspection  of  the  following  table : — 

CoAi.  Produced  ix  the  SeveE-il  St.\tes  .\nd  Tereitories.  not 

IXCLCDISG  THE  LoCAL  AXD  COLLIERT  CoNSUMPTIOK,  AND 

THE  Vai.ce  of  the  Mines  D."  18S5. 


States  axb  Tebbitoeies       18S2. 


1883. 


PennsylTania: 

Anthracite  . 
Bituminous. 

Illinois 

Ohio 

Marj-land 

Missouri 

West  Virginia 

Indiuua 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Te:-'ne-see 

Virginia 

ivans;is 

Michigan 

Rhode  Island 

Alab  una 

(ieorgia 

Colorado 

Wyoming 

New  Mexico. 

Utah 

California 

Oregon 

Washington 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Montana 

Dakota 

Idaho 

Indian  Territory. 


L'nfftons\L 

29,i2U.t963l 
22,uii0,l<  0  24 
9,UO(i.iXiO  10 
9,4.50  too  8, 
l..>10,4ti6  2. 
2.000,1,00  2 
2  000,000  Z 
1,976.470  2. 
3,l-z7.7t)0  3 

i,3iiO,ooo;  1 

8.o0.ltlO    1 
10(1.000 
7.50,000 
130,000 
10.000 

soo.ooo'  1 

175.0001 
947,749, 
631,932 
146,421 
2oO,tiOO 
150,000 
30,f00 
225,000 


'ng  tons 

1.793.0.7 
..OOO.fto 
,350.01" 
,.2:;9  4ii' 
!.-AI«.172i 

:.2o0.olo 

,>05,565 
.560,00< 
.SS1.300 
,&i0.000 
.001.000 
2^.000 
900.000 
135.000 
lO.OlO 
1,400.000 
200.I./00 
.097,851 
696,151 
1&S.703 
250.C<X1 
175.000 
50,000 
300.000 
lOO.OCO 
75,100 
60,000 
50.000 
](i.O<i) 
175,CO0 


1884. 


1885. 


L'ngion9 


2.4r'9.0.51 

2.500.1*0, 

3,000.100 

2.260,000 

3.9C3,+58 

1,.550.000 

1,200,000 

300.000 

1,100,000 

135.000 

lO.OtIO 

2.000.000 

200,000 

1,008.950 

805.911 

196,924 

250,000 

150.0C0 

50,000 

300,000 

100,000 

150.000 

60.000 

31,250 

2D.0t<) 

4'J0,000 


Totals 86,710334,96323,198  97318,899 


Ln^gtona 

;. 265.421 

.    214.2fc5 

s. 742.745 

6.97S.732 

2.Moy74 

2.750.000 

3,W«,091 

2,120335 

3383,737 

1,700.000 

892,857 

567,000 

1,082.230 

45.178 


2,225.00C 

133.92£ 

1,210,769 

720,828 

271.442 

190.286 

63,942 

44,«3 

339,510 

1.33.928 

133,928 

77.179 

23.214 

693 

446.429 


95,832,70e 


SIO  UNITED 

'  States  and  Territories.  "^  "|^[^"/^  ^j°^'i  ^^ 

Pennsylvania :  Anthracite *72.274,544 

Bituminous 2t,7'ni,UO0 

Illinois 1 1.4.">t}.4y3 

Ohio K,20(i,9S8 

Maryland 3,2i  9.b91 

Missouri ..  3.86u.iJiO 

West  Virginia 3,36t',062 

Indiana 2,7:^  1 .250 

i            Iowa 4.M19,230 

Kentucky 2.094.4(10 

Tennessee 1,10().(H>0 

Virginia t;6(i.792 

iian.-as 1,410.4:38 

Michigan 75,OCO 

Bhude  Island 

Alabama 2,990.000 

tGeurgia IHO.OOO     . 

Colorado 3.051,.'^90 

Wyoming 2.42 1 .984 

New  Mexico 918,606 

Utah 42(),n00 

Califurnia 214.845 

Oregon 125.000 

■\Va-hi(igton 950.615 

Texas 300.000 

Arkansas 225,000 

Montana 302.540 

Dakota 91,000 

Idaho 4.000 

Indian  Territory 750,000 

Totals $152,915,268 

Pennsyl-  The  commercial  product,  exclusive  of  that  whieh  is  consumed  at 

*<tiift»n-  th®  mines,  known  as  colliery  consumption,  during  1885,  was: 
Shracite.  Pennsylvania  anthracite.  3ri.l:i7.272.  j^hort,  or  32.265,421  long  tons, 
the  market  value  of  which  hns  been  estimated  to  have  been 
872,274,544 ;  bituminous,  brown  coal,  lignite,  and  small  lots  of  an- 
thracite, mined  in  Colorado  and  Arkansas,  71.195.358  short,  or 
63.567,284  long  tons,  the  market  value  of  which  has  been  estimated 
to  have  been  88m.640.724.  makine  a  total  produ-'ticiu  of  l(i7,332.629 
fihort  ,o_r  95.S32,7U5  long  tons,  valued  at  S152,915.aiS.  The  total 
production,  including  coUierv  consumption,  was  Pennsylvania  an- 
thracite as.3i5.973  short,  or  ;^.22'<,548  long  tons,  all  other  coals  72.- 
621,549  short,  or  64.840,668  long  tons,  making  the  total  absolute  pro- 
duction of  the  coal  mines  of  the  United  States  for  the  year, 
110.957.522  short,  or  99.069.216  long  tons. 

^  The  coal  areas  of  Carboniferous  age  in  the  United  States  are  five 
in  number.    They  are: — 

The  Massachusetts-Rhode  Island  area,  comprising  approxi- 
mately 500  Fquare  miles: 

The  AUpghauy  area,  about  59,000  square  miles; 

The  Michigan  area,  about  6,700  square  miles; 

The  Illinoi.s.  Indiana  and  West  Kentucky  area,  about  47,000 
•quare  miles;  and 

The  Iowa.  Missouri.  Kansas,  Arkansas  and  Texas  area,  about 
78.000  square  mile.^; 

Forminga  total  of  about  191,200  square  miles,  underlaid  by  coal- 
beariug  strata,  of  which  not  over  120,000  square  miles  contain 
workal)le  coal-beds. 

Two  general  classes  of  coal  are  recognized,  viz.. anthracite  and 
bituminous,  the  latter  being  often  subdivided  into  bituminous  and 
fiemi  bituminous  coal. 

Antiiraciteforms  the  whole  of  the  coal  found  in  the  Massachu- 
eetts-Khode  Island  area  and  in  that  portion  of  Pennsylvania  occur- 
ring in  the  neighborhood  of  PottsvilK'.  Mahanoy  City,  Shamokin. 
Hazleton,  Mauch  Chunk,  Wilkes-Barre  and  Scranton.  It  also 
occurs  to  a  limited  extent  in  Virginia. 

Bituminous  coal  occupies  the  rest  of  the  districts  just  named. 

A  glance  on  a  map  of  thr  coal-fields  shows  how  unequally  the 
coal  areas  are  distributed  over  the  United  .States.  M  hile  New 
England  and  the  s-mboard  .\tlantic  States  contain  prai-lieallv  no 
coal,  the  greatest  development  of  the  workable  coal  strata  is  in 
the  Alleghany  mountains  and  to  the  west  of  them,  extending  from 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  in  an  unbroken  line  to  Alabama. 

Next  to  the  one  ju'^t  menfiotied  the  Tuost  important  fi'-ld  is  the 
one  occurriitg  in  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Western  Kentucky.  The 
ooal  area  which  extends  from  Iowa  to  Tex&a  is  of  much  less  impor- 
tance and  extent,  and  the  Michigan  coal-field  has  sc\rcely  been 
opened. 
Different  TheMassachusetts-Rhode  Island  Arba.— The  coal  isconfiBed 

0o»l  fields,  to  eastern  Rhode  Island  and  Bristol  and  Plymouth  counties  in 
Massachusetts  At  present  the  only  mine  worked  is  at  Ports- 
mouth. Rhode  Island,  where  E  one  of  the  three  beds  found,  is  being 
exploited.  The  coal-bed.-^  in  this  area  set-m  to  vary  from  one  to  thir- 
teen in  number,  but  the  exploration!  made  in  the  past  have  been  so 
an'^ystf-matic  and  pecuniarily,  ■^o  unsatisfactory,  that  the  data  on 
which  these  views  are  founded  are  nut  very  reliable.  The  char- 
acter of  the  coal  is  th<'  hardest  kind  of  anthracite,  often  containing 
■pangles  and  plates  of  graphite  disseminated  through  it.  which 
characteristics  are  due  to  the  highly  metamorphic  action  it  has  un- 
derKone.  To  this  same  action  is  due  in  a  great  measure  the  i>et'ul- 
iarly  folded  character  of  the  deposits,  which  has  locally  caused 
expansions  and  contractions  of  the  coal-beds,  so  that  in  some 
pla^^-esthey  are  thirteen  feet  thick,  and  in  others  but  a  few  inches 
cueh  an  irregularity  renders  the  cost  of  mining  the  coal  very  gre-it. 
owing  to  the  large  amount  of  "dead  work  "  required,  and  ti>  this 
cause  may  in  part  h<^  ascribed  the  slight  progress  which  has  been 
made  in  the  development  of  the  region.  The  working  is  now  con- 
fined to  a  aioftle  mine. 


STATES 


[coal. 


The  Alleghany  Arka,  the  most  important  in  the  United  Statei  Allegheny 
in  it^  extent  in  the  number  of  workable  coal  beds  and  in  the  qual-  area. 
ity  i.nd  variety  of  the  coals  found,  is  situated  in  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio.  v\  est  Virginia.  Virginia,  eaatern  Kentucky.  East  Tennessee 
and  northern  Alabama.  This  area  is  divided  into  numerous  dif- 
ferent fields,  more  or  less  contiguous  to  one  another,  and  of  which 
a  bii  -f  mention  follows: 

The  Anthracite  Coal-Fiklds  of  Eastern  Pennsylvania. — 
The^e  anthracite  fields  are  confined  to  a  limited  area  of  not  over 
475  square  miles,  situated  in  the  counties  of  Carbon.  Schuylkill, 
Northumberland,  Columbia,  Dauphin.  Luzerne  and  Lackawanna. 
Three  districts  are  ci'mmonly  recognized  in  this  region,  known  aa 
the  first,  second  and  third  coal  fields.  The  Coal  Measures  within 
this  region  are  nlmost  unive^^ally  surrounded  by  two  mountain- 
ridges,  the  exterior  one  consisting  of  sub-Carboniferous  sandstone. 
This  is  separated  from  the  interior  ridge  by  a  valley,  more  or  lese 
brtiad.  of  easily  decomposing  red  shale,  overlying  which  occur* 
the  true  conglomerate,  holding  in  its  bosom  the  valley?  or  basinf 
in  which  the  anthracite  occurs.  These  two  series  of  ridges  were 
the  eflScient  protectors  of  the  coal  from  ihe  denuding  a  trents.  which 
removed  it  fmm  the  intervening  barrt--n  districts,  separating  the 
different  anthracite  basins  from  each  other  and  from  the  bitumin- 
ous coal-fields  <<t  CcnLral  Pennsylvania. 

North  of  the  anthracite  coal-fields  proper,  is  the  semi-anthracite  Semi-fin- 
of  the  Bornice  bnsiu  in  Sullivan  county,  Pennsylvania,  where  the  thracite 
principal  coal-bed,  right  to  nine  feet  thick,  contains  eight  to  nine  beds  in 
per  cent,  volatile  matter.  The  coal,  while  classed  as  an  anthracite,  Sullivan 
hieks  the  brilliant  anthracite  luster  and  conchoidal  fracture. gen-  county, 
erally  breaking  in  cubes;  in  consumption  it  closely  resembles  the  Pcou- 
semi-anthracite  of    Lykens    Valley,    in    Dauphin    county.    The 
whole  of  this  coal  is  carried  North  and  West  for  distribution  and 
consumption. 

The  Broad-Top-Coal-Field  of  Pennsylvania. — The  coals  of 
this  basin,  "hich  occupies  about  twenty-five  square  miles,  all  be* 
long  to  the  Lower  Protective  Coal  Measures,  of  which  more  pres- 
ently, with  the  exception  of  a  few  acres  cf  coal  of  the  Pittsburgh 
bed.  The  measures  in  this  coal-field  have  been  much  disturbed, 
80  that  the  relations  of  the  strata  are  not  fully  understood,  and 
consequently  fretiuent  errors  have  been  made  in  identifying  the 
coal  in  different  portions  of  the  district.  There  are  apparently 
three  wnrkjible  beds.  The  coal  of  this  district,  while  actually 
bitumin"us  in  character,  is  commonly  called  semi-bituminous  on 
account  of  the  comparatively  small  amount  of  volatile  m:itter  it 
contains,  often  a>  low  as  eight  per  cent.  At  one  time  the  mines  of 
this  district  were  actively  worked,  the  coal  being  used  for  steam- 
raising  and  rolling  mill  purposes.  Since  the  opening  of  the  Clear- 
field coal-district  and  the  more  active  exploitations  of  the  Cumber- 
laud  coal-beds,  the  mining  interests  of  this  district  have  lan- 
guished, owing  in  part  to  an  inferiority  in  quality  of  this  coal  to 
either  of  the  others:  in  part  to  the  greater  cost  of  extraction  due 
to  the  more  disturbed  condition  of  the  strata. 

The  BiTUMiNors  Coal-Fif.lds  or  Pennsylvania.— While  the 
bituminous  coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania  are  contiguous  to  those  of 
Ohio  and  West  Virginia,  the  latter  being  actually  but  extensions 
of  the  former,  they  are.  for  the  sake  of  description,  separated  geo- 
graphically. 

In  the  bituminous  coal  area  of  Pennsylvania.  Ohio  and  West 
Virginia  geologist.s  iind  engineers  have  recognized  <1)  Upper  Bar- 
ren Measures.  (2)  Tpper  Productive  Coal  Aleasures;  (3)  Lower 
Barren  Measures:  (4)  Lower  Productive  Coal  Measures;  (5)  Inter- 
conglomerate  coals 

The  following  coal  strata  occur  in  the  Upper  Productive  Coal 
Measures,  eonimencing  with  the  upper  bed  :  Waynesburg  coal-bed, 
Sewickley  *^ual-bed.  Redstone  coal-bed,  Pittsburgh  coal-bed.  Of 
these  the  Pittsburgh  is  of  far  the  greatest  econmical  value,  but  the 
others  are  locally  of  importance. 

In  the  Lower  Barren  Measures  are  a  few  beds  which  are  most 
uncertain  in  character  and  of  little  economical  value;  they  are 
most  unreliable  in  chara<'ter.  Jtnd  while  locally  they  thicken,  foaa 
to  l>e  of  some  local  value,  they  speedily  thin  out  again. 

Below  the  Lower  Barren  Measures  are  found  the  following  coal 
strata,  viz:  Upper  Freepnrt  coal-bed.  Lower  Freeport  coal-bed. 
Upper  Kittannintr  coal-bed,  Lower  Kittanning  coal-bed,  Clarion 
coal-bed  and  Brookville  coal-bed. 

Still  lower,  geologically,  .are  the  coals  occurring  in  the  Great 
Conglomerate,  which  include  the  Clarion  group,  C  theQuakertown 
bed  of  L^iwrence  county,  and  the  Sharon  bed  of  Mercer  county. 
These  coa's  occur  in  six  different  basii.s.  of  which  thesixth  is  thr 
most  southwesterly  in  position  and  least  distinct  as  to  its  divisior 
Each  basin  is  separated  from  its  neighbor  by  an  anticlinal  wav 
or  rather  by  a  series  of  separate  anticlinals,  the  ends  of  which  f  • 
past  each  other. 

Having  the  Alleghany  mountains   as  an  eastern  barrier, 
coal  fields  extend  westwardly  in  a  more  or  less  unbroken  succ 
sion  into  Ohio.     But  ihe  coal-beds  are  by  no  means  equally  di, 
tributed  over    this  area.    As  middle  Pennsylvania  and   middU 
New  York  were  lifted,  by  geological  action,  truch  higher  above  th' 
old  sea-level  than  southwestern  Pennsylvania.  Ohio  and  Virgini 
were,  the  destruction  of  the  coal    measures  has  been  greatest  l 
the  North  and  Northeast. gradually  diminishing  toward  theSouth- 
west.    Only  the  lowest,  or  two  or  three  lowt-st.  beds  of  coiil  havf 
been  left  ns  isolated  patchetJ  on  the  mountain   tops  of  Wyoming, 
Sullivan.  Lycoming.  Clinton,  Bradford.  Tioga.  Potter,  Cameron, 
McKean  and  Warren  counties. 

The  great  productive  bituminous  coal-field  may  be  said  to  com- 
mence in  the  belt  of  counties  composed  of  Clearfield,  Jeff<Tson, 
Clarion.  Venango  and  Mercer  counties— a  distance  of  Uii  miles  to 
the  Ohio  line  from  the  crest  of  the  Alleghanies  In  the  coiinties 
\nf-t  Tuentioned.  a«  well  as  in  Cambria.  Indinnn  Armstrong.  Butler, 
Lnwrence.  Beaver.  Somerset  (with  the  exeepii-.n  of  the  Salisbury 
piilch).  eastern  Westmoreland,  and  eastern  F'tyette.  only  the 
Lower  Productive  coal-beds,  and  in  places  the  inter-conglomer- 


PETROLEUM.] 


UNITED      STATES 


811 


at«ooaIshave  been  left,  while  the  Upper  ProductiTe  Measures 
have  been  swept  away.  These  latter  are  found  in  u.  greiit  part  with 
all  the  Lower  Productive  Coal  Measures  in  AHegtirt:;y.  we--;tvrn 
Westmoreland  and  western  Fayette  counties,  wiiiie  ih'-  whok-  of 
the  Upper  and  Lower  Productive  Measuie?  occur  in  \Vil^hiIlgtou 
and  Greene  counties.  In  brief,  the  Coal  Measures  are  ui'tst 
•rod  d  toward  the  Northeast,  and  are  least  disturbed  coward  the 
Soutawest. 
nieOhio  The  CoaI/-Fields  of  Ohio.— The  Ohio  c*'al  tields  are  but  the 

foal  Ceids.  western  extension  of  the  bituminous  coal  rt^'yioii  of  Pennsylvania; 
consequently,  the  coal-beds  which  are  found  in  them  are  the  same. 
with  local  uiodificiitioiis.  a.-'  those  of  the  latter  tState.  Commencing 
f^t  the  Pennsylvania-Ohio  line  we  find  that  "the.mui-^inof  the  coal 
basin  forms  a  tortuous  line,  cumiuencing  in  the  uortliern  part  of 
Trumbull  county,  passing  thence  southwesterly  to  the  Mahoning 
\iValley.  where  it  is  tleflected  far  to  the  southeast.  West  of  Youngs- 
I  town  it  runs  thruigh  the  southern  township?  of  Trumbull  county, 
li where  it  is  deflecte«i  north  nearly  to  th>i  center  of  Lleauga  county. 
whereit  inclos.'S  a  long  tongue  aad  tivo  or  three  small  inlands  of 
woal.  Thence  returning  into  I'ortage.it  passes  southeasterly  through 
^he  southern  part  of  t^ummit.  whereit  is  deflt-cted  to  the  north- 
twest-  From  here  it  runs  southwesterly  again  to  the  southwest 
^corner  of  Holmes.  Thence  it  p^sse^  nearly  southward  along  the 
western  margin  of  Holmes  and  Cos'iocton;  thence  southwesterly 
through  the  eastern  purt  of  Lit^kuig.  From  here  its  course  for 
fifrv  miles  is  nearly  south  lo  the  center  of  Hocking,  where  it  turns 
plightly  westward,  and  i>asses  through  Vinton.  Jackson.  Pike  and 
6ei  -to  to  the  Ohio,  wh-re  it  emsses''  Into  Kentucky.  The  counties 
m  r.^  or  less  und  M-laid  bv  coal  in  Ohio  are  Mahoning.  Columbiana, 
Portage,  Stark.  Holmes.  Carroll.  Tuscarawa.s,Jeffcr.son.  Harrison, 
Belmont,  (iucru-ey.  Coshocton.  Musking-im.  i'erry,  Ts'oble, 
Mor^'an,  Wa-hingtou.  Monroe.  Meigs,  Athens,  Jackson,  Gallia, 
Lawrence,  Trumbull,  Summit,  Medina.  W'ayne.  Licking.  Hock- 
ing. Pike  and  Scioto 
Virginiin  The  Coal-Fi  i.ds  hf  West  Virginia  and  Virginia.— No  State 
e»-»a!  fields,  in  th**  Union  surpa^tses  West  Virginia  in  the  variety  of  coals  it 
contains,  nor  do"s  any  contain  an  equal  amount  in  proportion  to 
its  area;  for,  of  the  fifty-four  counties  in  the  State,  but  six  are 
entirely  destitute  of  this  important  fuel.  In  many  of  them,  how- 
ever, the  coal  is  so  deeply  buried,  and  in  others  the  means  of 
transportation  are  so  inad  quate,  that  it  will  be  many  years  be 
fore  the  mineral  weahh  they  contain  will  even  commence  to  bo 
developed.  In  Virginia,  on  the  other  han-l.  tliere  are  but  six 
counties  which  contain  coal  of  Carbonileroiis  age.  andthey  are  in 
the  extreme  southwestern  corner  of  the  State,  adjoining  West 
Virdnia  and  Kentucky.  The  coal-field  of  West  Virginia  and 
Virginia  is  but  an  extension  of  the  Appalachian  coal  field  from 
Pennsylvania.  Maryland  and  Ohio,  and  the  general  >ystein  of  the 
measures,  is  the  same,  with  the  exception  that  locally  st>me  of  the 
coal-beds  in  the  Great  Conglomerate  are  of  a  sufficient  thickness  to 
be  profitably  worked. 
Warrland  The  Marti. and  Coal-Fikld.  better  known  as  toe  Cumberland 
•  lal  ield.  coal-basin,  is  but  a  prolongation  of  the  Potomac  basin  mentioned 
under  West  Virginia.  This  coal-field  is  one  of  the  most  important 
in  the  United  States,  due  to  the  thickness  of  the  main  bed.  its 
good  quality,  and  the  large  annua!  production.  The  coal  is  most 
extensively  used  for  rolling-mill  and  steam-raising  purpose-,  its 
chief  and  only  competitor  among  the  bituminous  coals  being  that 
from  the  Clearfield  region  of  Pennsylvania.  This  coal-field  is  an 
outlyer  of  the  main  Alleghany  coal  area,  of  which  there 
are  several  others  in  Pennsylvania,  such  as  the  Broad-Top, 
Snowshoe.  Ralston  and  Blossburg  basins.  The  coal  is  semi-bitura- 
Inoug  in  character,  and  does  not  coke  quite  so  readily  as  those 
which  contain  more  gas. 

The  Eastern  Kentucky  Coal-Field  is  but  a  continuation  of 
that  described  in  Ohio  and  West  Virginia,  The  western  bound- 
ary of  the  Alleghany  coal  area  in  Kentucky  is  approximately  as 
follows,  in  a  north-south  direction:  Starting  at  the  Ohio 
river  near  Tygart's  creek,  the  line  runs  through  Greenup,  Carter, 
Rowan,  Morgan,  Powell,  Estill,  Jackson,  Laurel.  Pulaski.  Wayne 
and  Clinton  counties  to  the  Tennessee  line. _  Thi-;  coal  field  under- 
lies the  whole  of  fifteen  counties  and  a  portion  of  five  others,  con- 
taining 8.983  square  miles.  The  boundary  line  is  very  crooked, 
throwing  off  numerous  spurs,  extending  west  of  the  line  men- 
tioned. 

The   Tennessee   Coal-Field  is  but  a  prolongation  southward 
of  the  eastern  Kentucky  field.    Its  area  is  co-extensive  with  that 
of  the  Cumberland    mountain  or  table-land.    The  Cumberland 
mountain   crosses  Tennessee  obliquely,  and  although  much  in- 
dented by  valleys  and  coves,  is  nowhere  completely  cut  in  two 
by  them.      The  eastern  border  of  this  table-land  is  comparatively 
f  S  nearly  direct  or  gracefully  curving  line,  the  indentations  made 
.  by  the  streams  on  this  side  being  scnircely  noticeable.      It  is  very 
irregular,  however,  along  its  western  border,  being  cut  out  ana 
notched  by  deep  valleys  antl  coves,  separated  from   each  other  by 
long  spurs  jutting  to  the  West.    These  d^^ep  indentations  give  the 
'  western  outline  a  very  ragged  appearanep.     Along  the  Kentucky 
.  line  the  coal  field  is  about  seventy  miles  wide,  while  it  narrows 
'  along  the  Alabama  line  to  fifty  mih^s. 

The  (teorgia  Coal-Field.— Tho  Tennessee  coal-field  west  of  the 
Sequatchie  valley  extends  over  the  border  into  Alabama, and 
then  soon  dies  fiut.  That  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley,  on  the 
contrary,  extends  through  Dade,  Walker  and  Chattoogii  counti-s 
in  Georgia  into  Alabama.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  former  is 
nnderlaid  by  an  excellent  quality  of  bituminous  coal,  while  there 
is  not  quite  such  an  extent  of  it  in  the  other  two  counties. 

The    Alabama  Coal  Region  is  an  extension  southward  nf  the 

Georgia  into  northern  Alabama.     It  is  divided   into   three  fields, 

thf  Hhiek  Warrior,  theCahaba  and  the  Coosa.     Of  these  three  the 

first  is  much  the  lurgest. 

The  Illinois,  Indiana  and  West  Kentucky  Arka --The  coal 


measures   of   this  portion  of   the  United  States  form   bat  •!!• 

area. 

The  Indiana  Coai^Field.— The  Carboniferous  Measures  occur 
in  the  counties  of  Possey,  Vanderburgh,  Warwick,  Spencer,  Perry» 
Crawford,  Gibson,  Pike.  Dubois,  Knox.  Daviess,  Martin,  Sullivan^ 
Greene,  Clay.  Owen,  Vigo,  Parke.  Veimitlion,  Fountain  and  War- 
ren, oi.  in  other  words,  in  the  southwet^tern  part  of  the  Stat«. 
There  are  three  beds  of  coking  coal  in  this  field,  varying  from 
four  and  a  half  to  ten  feet  in  thickness,  and  three  seams  of  open- 
burning  or  splint  coals  that  range  from  two  and  a  halt  to  five  feet 
in  (hickness,  the  average  thickness  being  four  feet.  One  bed  of 
cannel  coal  occurs  in  Daviess  county,  about  four  and  a  half  feet 
thick.  The  principal  coals  mined  with  this  exception  are  th© 
block  coals  from  Clay  county. 

fetboleum. 

Petroleuni  has  been  known  to  exist  in  this  country  almost  from 
its  first  settlement.  The  records  of  travels,  especially  through  the 
region  west  of  the  Appalachian  chain,  in  what  was  then  known  aa 
the  Creat  Ohio  Valley,  contain  constant  evidences  of  the  existence 
of  this  material  in  the  reports  of  burning  springs  and  the  oil  that 
accompanied  them. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  1859,  at  the  time  of  the  drilling  of 
Drake's  first  well,  that  it  began  to  assume  any  commercial  impor- 
tance. The  excitement  attending  the  discoveries  in  the  Pennsyl- 
Tania  oil  field  led  to  explorations  in  many  States,  and  developed 
the  fact  that  petroleum  existed  in  many  localiiies,  These  locali- 
ties are  chiefly  on  the  west'rn  slopes  of  the  Appalachian  chain, 
reaching  from  Petrolea  in  Ontario  to  just  across  the  Tennessee 
State  line  in  Alabama.  Some  quite  extensive  fields  are  also  found 
in  California  and  in  Wyoming,  and  later  evidences  of  the  exist- 
ence of  oil  have  been  discovered  in  other  States,  but  the  Appala- 
chian and  the  California  oil  fields  are  at  present  the  only  ones  of 
commercial  imporiance. 

The  most  importnniof  these  fields  are  what  are  described  fur- 
ther on  ns  the  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  oil  fields.  Next  ia 
importance  to  these  is  the  Macksburg  field  in  Ohio,  near  Marietta^ 
the  third  in  importance  being  the  California  field.  West  Virginia 
produces  some  small  amounts  of  heavy  oil  for  lubricating  purposes, 
its  light  oil  having  been  comparatively  exhausted  some  years  since. 
There  are  also  oil  (ields  that  with  better  facilities  for  transporta- 
tion might  be  of  imporiance  in  both  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 
Thf^  Wyoming  oil  fields  described  farther  on  in  this  report  are  also 
ot  importance  in  the  amount  of  petroleum  that  can  some  day  b« 
made  available;  but  of  this  field,  as  of  all  others  outside  of  th» 
Peniisyhania  and  Macksburg  regions,  with  the  exception  of  Cali- 
fornia, it  will  be  fiiund  that  the  expense  of  producing  and  trans- 
porting the  oil  to  market  will  eflFectually  prevent  any  great  pro- 
duction in  these  fidds  until  the  price  of  Pennsylvania  petroleum 
shall  materially  advance. 

_  In  the  following  table  will  be  found  a  consolidation  of  the  statis* 
tics  of  the  production  of  petroleum  in  the  various  fields  of  th» 
country,  so  far  as  the  same  could  be  obtained  from  the  beeizminff 
of  operations  in  these  fields:— 


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UNITED      STATES 


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More  than  50  percent,  of  all  the  oil  produced  in  the  United 
StiiU's  is  from  the  Bradford  and  Alleghany  fields,  these  two  dis- 
trict.'  being  credited  with  11.099,512  of  the  2l.842,(t41  barreN  pro- 
duced in  the  country  in  18S5.  The  production  in  the?e  fields, 
however,  is  kept  up  onl>  by  the  liberal  use  of  nitro-glycerine,  and 
even  with  the  use  of  explosives  to  an  extent  bi'fore  unknown  the 
production  is  falling  off,  and  it  is  a  question  if  the  vigor  of  these 
old  fields  can  bo  restored 

From  the  time  of  the  first  settlement  of  California  by  the 
whites  there  have  been  evidences,  in  the  form  of  spring  and 
peepnge  from  the  asphaltum  beds,  of  the  existence  of  petroleum  in 
the  State.  No  attempts,  however,  were  mnde  to  utilize  these 
deposits  until  the  excitement  following  the  Pennsylvania  oil  dis- 
coveries led  to  pro-:p 'oting  these  surface  deposits  and  the  enger 
jearehing  for  others.  During  the  years  ISfifi  and  18(j6  upwards  of 
jeventy  companies,  ''jch  with  a  large  nomiriiil  c;ipitnl.  were  ineor- 
pbrnted  in  CaliforniT  [or  the  purpose  of  searching  for  petroKurn. 
While  a  majority  ol  these  companies  proc/eded  no  further  thnn  to 
jrg.inize,  having  never  expended  iiny  nioiiev  in  aetu'il  operations, 
30111'^  of  them  began  ;n-tivo  operati'-n-;,  linking  wells  and  driving 
tunnels  in  their  search.  Most  of  the  vvoik  at  this  time  was  iu 
Hu  nboldt.  Onliisa.  Contra  Costa,  Santa  Clara,  and  Los  Anifeles 

COM'itieS. 

About  1H75  tlie  oil  bu7<ine-!s  in  California  took  on  new  life.  Two 
Wells  put  down  that  vnr  yieldi'd  some  lo  or  20  barrels  eiicli  per 
div.  Drilling  by  steam  beirnn  to  be  nmre  gi-nernily  used  in  placj 
of  the  spring  pole.  In  \•<7^  the  Ventura  nnd  the  Pico  Canon  wells 
pri  lueed  daiiy  SO  and  10  hnrrpls  respectively.  Some  2)  barrels  of 
refined  oil  wer*  nade  billy  at  the  Pico  refinery  nt.  the  latter  place. 
Ihanextyenr  >0  barrels  ol  ciude  oil  were  for  a  number  ot  dnys 
taken  frnni  the  lioycrwell.  in  the  Santa  Cruz  mountains,  every  24 
tiours.  The  oil  liere,  as  in  mo*t  enses  in  California,  was  brought 
to  the  surfare  by  pumping,  no  flowing  welli  having  as  yet  been 
struck  in  the  State. 

From  this  tim-^  there  has  been  a  steadily  increasing  output,  of 
oil  in  California 

There  are.  as  far  as  now  known,  two  oil  fit-Ids  in  thi-i  State. 
probabl.N  originiiHy  the  same,  but  now  divided  by  the  range  of 
mountains  in  which  the  headwaters  of  the  North  Platte'^and 
Wind  rivers  find  their  sources. 

As  yet  no  valuable  deposits  of  petroleum  or  its  concomitant. 
nsr)lialtum.  have  been  found  anywhere  in  Ihe  far  west,  except  in 
California,  Recently  i-neonraging  indicntions  nf  mineral  oil  are 
reported  to  have  been  met  with  at  Puyallup,  in  Washington. 

N/TURAL  GAS. 

According  to  Mr.  Swank,  natural  gas  was  first  used  as  a  fuel  in 
conn^'Ction  with  the  maiinfaeture  of  iron  and  steel  at  L'-echburg. 
Armstrong  county.  Pennsvlvnnia,  in  1H74.  when  it  was  taken  from 
aw'-ll  twelve  hundred  fee*  deep,  and  where  ir  at  that  time  fur- 
ni-h  d  ;ill  thefuel  retpiired  fnrpnddling,  henting.and  makingsteam 
«at  the   rolline-mill  of  Messrs.  Rogers  and  Darchfield.    Between 


1874  and  1881  the  use  of  natural  gas  was  introduced  at  vanous 
other  establishments  for  puddling  and  rolling.  The  use  of  this 
nt.w  fuel  spread  so  rapidly,  that  in  1887  there  were  ninety-sis  roll- 
ing-mills and  steelworks  eitner  wholly  or  in  part  using  natural 
ga.-^;  and  Mr.  Swank  states  ihnt  at  the  present  time  nearlj  one- 
fourth  of  all  the  establishments  of  this  kind  in  the  United  Statef 
are  thus  supplied  with  fuel.  The  territory  in  which  are  located 
iron  and  steel  works  using  natural  gas  extends  as  far  eastal 
.lohnstown,  sevenfy-uine  miles  cast  of  Pittsburg.  Some  gas  isuseQ 
iu  Ohio,  piped  from  wells  in  the  adjacent  region  of  Pennsylvania 
and  some  is  also  obtained  from  local  wells.  Pennsylvania  gas  it 
!il-o  used  (0  a  limited  extent  in  "West  Virginia.  Natural  gas  ha| 
nl-'O  been  obtained  at  various  localities  in  Indiana. 

•According  to  Mr  Ashburner.of  the  Pennsylvania  Surrey,  thel^ 
were,  in  1885,  no  le?s  than  1,500  dwellings,  OOglass  factories,  34  rolt 
ing-mjlls,  and  45  otlier  industrial  establishments  supplied  with 
natural  gis  in  the  city  of  Pittsburg  alone;  and  this  was  estimated 
as  representing  or  displacing  an  amount  of  coal  equal  to  ten 
thonsand  tons  a  day.  In  the  following  table  is  given  the  amount  and 
value  of  the  coal  disjilMced  by  natural  gas  throughout  thecountry, 
as  nearly  as  it  could  be  estimated,  for  the  years  1885-87:— 

Amount.  Value. 

1885 2,796.0(!0  tons.  $4,857,200 

1886 5,761.000     '*  10.012,000 

1887 8.80U.000     **  15,838.500 

Tho  rapid  increase  in  the  amount  of  natural  gas  consumed  during 
the  ,.ist  few  years  is  c:isily  seen  in  the  above  table.  The  surpass- 
ing importance  of  Pennsylvania  in  general,  and  of  the  Pittsburjf 
District  in  particular,  as  eonsumers  of  this  kind  of  fuel,  and  the 
progress  which  has  been  made  in  other  States  in  the  development 
of  this  branch  of  industry^  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table,  in 
which  the  detailed  statistics  for  the  year  1887  are  given:— 


Amount  of  Coal  Dispi.ACEn  by  Natttral  Gas. 


Locality. 

Coal  Displaced. 

Value. 

rennsylvania: 

Alleghany  County 

Remainder  of  Pittsburg  Dis- 
trict         

4,890,000  tons. 
1.437.90O    ■• 
1.603.100    •' 
7.931,000  tons. 
94.600    •• 

44ti,oni)    •• 

S3.. wo     •• 

2iW,0ii 

2.500     " 

4.460     '• 

4,460     •■ 

$6,846,250 
2,415,750 

Western  Pennsylviiniii  (out- 
side) of  Pittrbure  District 

4.4S7.50O 

Total  Pennsylvania. 

$13,749,500 
.?33.000 

Ohio           

1.(11 .0,1X10 

12(1,000 

600,000 

6.000 

1.^.000 

15,000 

Total 

8,304,520  tons. 

$15,833,500 

The  dcvelopraent  of  the  iron  and  steel  busine.^s  in  the  ITnited  I.on  "ud 
States  during  the  last  half  century  has  been  as  rnpid  as  that  of  eteel. 
the  mining  of  coal.  In  1850  tho  total  productiim  of  iron  through- 
out the  world  was  about  six  million  tons,  of  which  fully  half  was 
to  be  credited  to  Great  Britain;  that  of  the  United  States  was 
about  one  million  tons,  or  one-si.\th  of  the  whole  amount.  In  the 
years  from  1881  to  1887  the  total  production  of  pig-iron  (hroiighout 
the  world  varied  between  nineteen  and  twenty-two  millions  of 
tons,  averaging  a  little  over  twenty  millions,  of  which  about  four- 
fifths  were  due  to  England,  the  United  States  and  Germany.  Id 
the  last  fifieen  years  the  proportional  production  of  England  has 
g.-adually  declined;  for  the  five  years  ending  188,5  it  was  very 
nearly  five-twelfths,  and  in  1887  a  very  little  over  one-third  of  th« 
total.  Enghind  and  the  United  States  together  made  in  1887  vor/ 
neiirly  five-eighths  of  the  total.  .  ■  j    .^ 

In  regard  to  the  geogr.aphical  distribution  of  special  produOf 
the  Special  Agent  of  the  Census  of  1880  in  charge  of  this  depoif 
ment— Mr.  J.M.  Swank— makes  the  following  statement: 

"  A  glance  at  the  statistics  for  1880  shows  that  New  Englaa 
now  makes  but  little  pig-iron,  and  that  the  South  makes  considei 
able  pig-iron  and  scarcely  any   rolled  iron:  that   the  West  ha) 
largely  embarked  in  the  manufactureof  steel  by  the  Besscmerpro 
cess,  while  \ew  York  cannot  boast  of  a  single  Bessemer  estiiblisl*^ 
ment,  but  has  preferred  the  open-hearth  process;    that  New  Yorl3 
makes  most  of  the  blooms  that  are  made  from  ore,  and  Pennsyl- 
vania most  of  (he  blooms  that  are  made  from  pig  and  scrap-iron ; 
th.Tt  Michigiu  isthe  lending  producer  of  charcoal  pig-iron,  and 
now  makes  no  other  kind;  that  West  Virginia  has  developed  a  re- 
markably active  interest  in  the  manufacture  of  cut  nails;  that 
duly  five  States  make  Bessemer  s'eel:  and  two  States,  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  Jersey,  make  nearly  all  of  our  crucible  steel;  and 
that  Pennsylvania  has  made  a  greater  effort  than  any  other  Stat« 
to  manufacture  all  kinds  of  iron  and  steel." 

At  the  close  of  the  year  18^7  there  were  (iH  blast  furnaces,  then 
either  completed  or  building  (not  counting  any  of  which  had  been 
»,bajidonedJ.  in  the  United  States,  and  they  were  thus  distributed: 


Blast 
furoaces. 


L-sseuier 
'^teel. 


N-.4TURAL  GAS.]  UNITED 

DivisiOD.  Subdivision.  Number.  Total. 

r  North  .\tlantip 315 

Atlaktic \  Middle  Atlantic 54 

Itfcuih  .Atlantic 6 

I  \orthea-tern  Central..  147 
^  J  Xortliwestirn  Central..     13 

<.K>TEAL 1  Southeastern    Central..    71 

ISoutbwejtera  Central..      2 

233 

[Rocky  Mountain 2 

CoEDILLKBAN-;  Plateau 0 

IPacificCoast 3 

Total 8  613 

Of  the  613  bla^t  furnaces,  243  were  in  Pennsylvania.  Ohio  com- 
ing uext  ill  order  with  seventy-eight  In  the  Northern  Mates 
there  were  459;  in  the  Southern  154,  of  which  fort.v-four  were  m 
.\lab;ima  (twentv-fuur  .ompleted  and  twenty  building).  Of  414 
iron  and  steel  rolling  mills,  169  were  in  Pennsylvania.  Ohio  coming 
ueit  with  fiftv  fi>e.  Of  Bessemer  and  Clapps-Griffiths  steel 
works  there  were  lortv  three,  of  which  nineteen  were  in  I'eunsyl- 
vaiiia  and  six  in  th-- Southern  States.  Of  open-hearth  steelworks 
there  were  fifty,  of  which  twenty-seven  were  in  Pennsylvania  and 
two  in  the  Southern  States.  Of  crucible  steel  works  there  were 
forty-one,  of  which  twenty-one  were  in  Pennsylvania,  and  two  in 
the  Southern  States.  . 

The  production  ot  pig  in.n  and  of  Bessemer  steel  ingots  and 
rai's  in  the  United  Writes  .■^ince  18^0  is  stated  in  the  following 
iabl  ■.  compiled  tr.m  the  statistics  collected  by  tMe  American  iron 
and  S  eel  Association: 

1S31.  18S2.  18S3.  18S4. 

pi».;ron    4.Ut.2">3  ..4,625.323  ..4,.59.,510..  4,(.97.8<)8 

Bess  -m.-r  steel  ingots.    1,374.247. .  .I,5!4,b87. .  .1,477,34.5. .  .1,375.317 
Be-sm.T  steel  rails  .     l,187,7o9.  ..l,284,06i.  ..I,148,7t9. . .    996.4c5 

1S85.  1886.  1887. 

Pi--iron  4,044,526... 5,683.329... 6,417.148 

B  sseuer  steel  ingots 1.519.4i6. .  .2,2«>9.I9U..  .2,39ti,0.53 

B--s:'eiuer  steel  rails 959,470. .  .l..'«2,409. .  .2,101,903 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  18S2  and  1SS3  were 
vears  of  large  proluoiion.  b -ih  of  iion  und  steel:  that  in  1884  and 
188-5,  there  was  a  const  lerablo  falling  off  in  the  amount  ot  pig-iron 
made,  while  the  produ'-ti'in  of  steel  retnained  nearly  the  same: 
nod  it  will  also  be  noticed  that  in  1S86  there  wasalarg>incre^e  in 
both  iron  and  steel,  which  increase  was  continued  in  1887— the 
production  of  the  hitter  ye.nr  being  more  than  a  million  and  a  half 
of  tons  greater  than  it  \\  .a.s  in  1884.  Theincrease-Huse  of  Bessemer 
steel  f"r  purposes  other  than  thf  ra-inufacture  of  rails  is  also 
clearly  incioated  in  the  following  tabl-j: — 

1882.  1883.  1884. 

Production  of  Bessemer  steel 1,514,687. .  .1 ,477345. .  .1,375,317 

Percentage  used  in  rails 85 78 72 

1885  I8S6.  1887. 

Production  of  Bessemer  steel 1,519.426. .  .2,2o9,190. .  .2.936,03.^ 

Percentage  used  in  rails 63 78 72 

The  production  of  Bessemer  steel  was  forty-nine  per  cent, 
larg -r  in  1-S86  than  it  was  in  1-S85,  and  29  per  cent,  l.-irger  in  1887 
than  in  1886.  The  total  number  of  completed  Bessemer  steel 
works  in  the  United  States  at  the  close  of  1886  was  thirty- 
three,  with  sixty-nine  converters  Pennsylvania  in  that  year 
made  fifty-nine  percent,  of  the  ingots  produced:  Illinois,  21;  and 
other  States,  20. 

The  rapid  growth  and  present  importance  of  the  steel  industry 
in  the  United  Slates  will  be  appreciated  on  examination  of  thefol- 
lowing  table,  in  which  the  amount  of  steel  of  all  kinds,  produced 
is  given  for  each  fifth  year  from  1870  on,  an  also  for  the  years  1886 
and  1887,  in  tons: 


STATES 


813 


Tear. 


>1870. 

1875. 

18S0. 
■  1885. 
1  1886 

1887 


Bessemer 
■teel  ingots. 


37,500 
335.283 

1.<'74.2H1 
1.519  430 
2,269.191 
2,930,033 


Open-hearth 
steel  ingots. 


1.339 

8.0S0 
]Uli,S50 
133.375 
218.973 
322,069 


Crucible 
steel  ingots. 


All  other 
steel. 


35,179 

64.664 
,57..5>9 
71.972 

75,j76 


31.2=X) 


11,256 

7. .5.58 
1.514 
2.366 
5.593 


Tear.  Total. 

1870 70 .  089 

1875 .389.799 

1880 1,247.334 

188.5 I,7ll.!ii9 

1886 2,562.502 

1887 3,33ii.U7l 

Proauetion      '^'be  production  of  rails  of  all  kindsin  the  United  States  is  gi,'en 
of  rails  i^  the  foUuwine  table  for  the  year  1867.  in  which  the  manufacture 


of  Bessemer  steel  rails  began,  and  also  for  1870  and  for  each  sno- 
ceeding  fifth  year,  as  well  as  for  the  years  1886  and  1887: 


Year. 

Bessemer 

steel  rails. 

Open-hearth 
steel  rails. 

Total 
steel  rails. 

Iron  rails, 
all  kinds. 

1867 

2.277 

30,357 

2.59,699 

852,196 

9.59,471 

1,. 574 .71 13 

2,101,903 

2,277 

.311.357 

2=.9.6"" 

S64.S 

963,7t,j 

1,. 579.394 

2.119,048 

410,319 

1870 

52:5.2:-; 

1875 

447,900 

188(1  .... 

1S85 

1886 

1887 

12,1,56 
4.279 
4,W1 

17,145 

440,858 
13.227 
21.1-12 
20,591 

--  Total  iron 

^®^'^-  and  steel. 

1S67 412..596 

1670 553.171 

1875 707,61.0 

1880 1,3('5.211 

1S85 976.977 

1886 1,600,536 

1887 2,139,639 

The  ores  of  iron  are  widely  disseminated  over  the  United  States  General 
and  are  uf    ery  different  qualities:  but  there  are  certain  regions  survey  of 
of  greatly  predominating  iiiii>i.irtance,  and  certain  geohigical  hori-  various 
zons  or  lormations  from  >\h:i  ii  much  the  larger  portion  of  these  kinds  of 
ores  is  derived.    To  each  of  thc^e  a  tew  words  of  description  may  iron  ore. 
be  devoted. 

The  great  coal  field  of  the  Central  United  States  is  surrounded 
tn  the  north,  east  and  south  by  the  uplifted  older  rocks  of  the 
A\  isconsin— Michigan,  the  .\ppalitoliian  and  the  Ozark  regions. 

This  ba^in  and  its  border  contain  the  fuel  and  the  ore  on  which 
and  with  which  ihe  material  prosperity  of  the  United  States  of  the 
twentieth  century  must  be  built.  It  becomes,  therefore,  of  impor- 
tance to  obtain  a  general  survey  of  the  distribution  of  the  various 
kinds  of  iron  ore  both  geographically  and  in  the  geological 
column. 

On  the  extreme  edge  of  the  border  that  incloses  the  coal  basin 
we  find  in  the  north  and  east  the  .\rcha;fln  with  its  immense  de- 
velopment of  magni  tie  and  tpecular  ores.  Next  within  this  and 
overlying  it  is  the  Canadian-Cambrian  series,  the  substrueturo 
of  the  first  great  loigitudiiial  valley  of  the  .-ippolachians  extending 
from  Canada  to  Alabama.  This  valley  is  not  less  remarkable  for  its 
enormous  wealth  in  limonite  ores  than  for  the  fertility  and  dura- 
bilitv  of  its  soil,  t-till  farther  inward  the  shales  of  the  Cl.nton 
age  mark  a  belt  of  hematite  ore  extending  from  central  Alabama 
to  and  through  ea- tern  New  York,  and  thence  westward  across  tho 
State.  The  belt  thus  outlined  will  be  seen,  on  the  map,  to  have  a 
breadth  of  from  fifty  to  over  one  hundred  miles.  Within  it.  but 
less  persistent  in  longitudinal  representation,  are  deposits  of  iron 
ores  occurring— some  here,  some  there — in  strata  of  almost  every 
age  tromthe  .^rcha!:iii  totheCoal  Measures, andthe  great  coal-field 
thus  iron-bound,  i>  itself  rich  in  carbonate  ores,  generally  occurring 
either  a.s  chiy  iro'n  ston*-.  or  as  black  band,  or  in  places  as  a  ferri- 
ferous limestone  altered  to  limonite.  The  map  does  not  attempt 
to  represent  the  actual  distribution  of  the  ores  of  the  Coal  Meas- 
ures, but  "uly  the  areas  within  which  they  were  sampled  for  tfa's 
investigation.  ,  ,  ,      - 

On  th- South  the  .Arebfean  rocks  come  to  the  surface  only  in 
eastern  .Missouri,  and  the>  here  exhibit  a  great  developmeM  of 
magnetic  and  specular  ores.  But  they  occupy  only  n  small  are:i  in 
thr  broad  iron-bearing  belt  on  the  man  that  stretches  with  a 
breiidthof  one  hundred  miles  or  mere  northwesleily  from  Alabama 
to  western  .Missouri.  With  the  exception  of  the  Missouri  .Archaean 
ores  this  bell  consists  wholly  of  later  ores,  viz:  specular  and  Imn  - 
nite  ores  of  th»  Cambruin  in  Missouri,  and  linionites  on  the  Sub- 
carboniferous  limestones  of  Missouri.  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

On  the  North,  far  removed  from  the  eo:il-field.  are  the  extersive 
and  numerous  d<  posits  of  rich  sp'cular  and  mugnelie  oris  of  the 
Huronian  in  northern  Minne.-o'a  andnorthern  Michigan.  Faither 
eastward  the  nortberii  Imrder  is  represented  beyond  our  field  of 
investigation  by  ores  of  different  kinds,  but  especially  .Archaean  in 
that  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Dominio;:  of  Canada  lying  north 
of  the  great  lakes.  j  -   ,, 

Iron  in  various  niin-ral  conditions,  ard  esptcially  as  an  oxide, 
is  among  the  most  widely  di^semirated  ot  the  elements.  It  is  a 
base  with  a  strong  aflinity  for  the  acids  most  fn  quent  in  the 
waters  circulating  in  thcupper  crust  of  the  earth,  viz:  carbonic,  sul- 
phuric and  the  organic  acids.  It  also  has  a  stronger  aflinitv  for 
oxygen,  and  in  the  presence  of  this  it  forms  the  nearly  indestruct- 
ible ami -in  the  ordinary  processes  of  Nature— in  the  absence  of 
organic  matter,  almost  in-oluable  sef^uioiide.  As  a  sesquioxide, 
in  the  presence  of  organic  matter  it  provides  the  oxygcu  fbr 
decay,  and  its  residuary  r-rofoxida  is  itself  dissolved  by  the  result- 
ing 01  gallic  HciJ.  and  enters  into  circulation.  If  the  laboratory  ig 
a  marsh  or  cond,  the  iron  protosalt  is  reoxidized  at  the  surface  rf 
the  watcfand  returns  to  the  bottorn  os  the  higher  oxide  to  again 
part  with  part  of  its  oxygen  and  again  Co  be  dissolved  as  a  protosalt. 
and  this  is  continued  until  the  organic  mstter  is  con.sumed:  then 
tho  ircn  accumulates  on  the  bottcm  as  a  hydrated  oxide,  or  limo- 
nite, or  "  bog-ore."  .  ,,.„,.  .. 

Rock  strata  containing  organic  matter  and  diffused  iron  oxide 
have  lived  through  similar  processes,  except  that  the  inn  alter 
furnishing  its  oxygen  to  the  decaying  tnalter  and  forming  u  solu- 


814 


UNITED      STATES 


[STATISTICB. 


/,A  iiiTican 
iiiijiorts  of 
iron  and 

, steel. 


able  protosalt  with  the  resulting  orgauic  acid,  has  entered  into 
more  extended  circulation. 

The  most  common  solvents  of  iron  in  Niiture  are  carbonic  acid 
and  sulphuric  acid;  the  latter  bicumes  nn  important  agent  in 
moving  and  coneentrnting  iron,  under  certain  circumstances,  as  in 
solfatnric  action  and  in  the  oxidiition  of  pyritit'erous  rocks  like 
the  Devonian  shales  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia.  But  doubtlesa 
carbonic  acid  is  the  most  general  agent.  Besidt-s  arising  from  the 
oxidation  of  organic  matter  contined  in  sedimentary  strata,  it 
enters  the  earth  us  an  accessory  of  rain  water,  and  more  is  taken 
up  by  the  Wiitt-r  from  the  decaying  vegetable  mould;  it  is  also  lib- 
crated  in  depth  from  limestone  by  the  action  of  chemical  processes 
and  enters  the  ascending  eurrenta.  However  formed,  it  becomes 
an  accessory  constituent  oi  the  water  that  permeates  the  rocks, 
and  alone,  or  in  connection  with  other  agents,  it  decomposes  the 
silicates  and  carries  off  the  iron  as  a  bicarbonate.  It  follows  the 
■channels  of  tiow  until  it  reaches  an  arresting  cause.  One  such 
arresting  cause,  of  ultimately  great  economic  importance,  is  the 
carbonate  of  line  in  limestones  and  dolomites  and  calcareous  sand- 
Btones,  resulting  in  the  replacement  of  lime  by  iron;  another  of 
equal  importance  is  oxygen,  whether  at  the  surface,  where  the 
foluable  iron  protor^alt,  emerging  in  spring  water  is  oxidized  to  a 
limonite,  or  in  caverns  or  small  cavities,  where  it  is  oxidized,  and, 
parting  with  its  acid,  iw  deposited  in  successive  thin  films  to  form 
staluclitic  and  mammiUary  masses  of  hydrated  sesquioxide;  there- 
fore when  we -consider  the  general  diffusion  of  iron  in  both  de- 
trital  and  crystalline  rocks,  in  all  sediments  and  all  eruptions,  nnd 
remarkable  reciprocating  relation  in  the  most  common  and  essen- 
tiiil  processes  of  Nature,  it  is  not  strange  that  we  should  find 
it  represented  by  local  accumulations  in  the  rocks  of  every  geo- 
logical age. 

The  annexed  table,  publi^hed  by  Mr.  Swank,  shows  the  pro- 
duction of  iron  ore  in  tons  in  the  leading  ore-producing  districts 
for  the  years  18S(j.  18h7: — 

1886.  1887. 
Lake  Superior  mines  of  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin  3.2&S.961           4.344.651 

Termilion  Lake  mines  of  Minnesota 3U4.396  394,2o2 

Missouri  mines 379.776  427,785 

Cornwall,  Pennsylvania 688,064  667.210 

New  Jersey  mines 500,501  547.889 

Chateaugav  mines.  New  York 214.800  219.390 

Crown  Point  mines.  New  York 60.084  64.940 

Port  Henry  mines.  New  York 298.8(58  428.522 

Other  Lake  Champlain  mines.  New  York.. .      15.000  29,000 

Hudson  River  Ore  and  Iron  Company.  New 

York 75,000  142,422 

Tillv  Foster  mines.  New  York 17,728  14.316 

Forest  of  Dean  mines.  New  York 18.000  21.164 

Salisbury  region.  Connecticut 36,000  30,000 

Cranberry  mines,  North  Carolina 24,106  45,032 

Tennessee  Coal  and  Iron  and  Railroad  Com- 
pany's mines 81,650  102.601 

Ohio  (whole  State) 344,484  377.465 

Alleghany  County,  Virginia 150,000 

Preston  County.  West  Virginia 15,408 

Calhoun,    Etowah,    and    Shelby   counties, 
Alabama 129.000 

Total  of  the  above  districts 6.322.408  8,151.047 

American  Imports  of  Iron  and  Steel.— It'  has  been  suffi- 
ciently shown  that  this  country  is  a  large  producer  of  iron  and 
steel.  The  statistics  of  our  production  of  these  articles  f^o  not, 
however,  show  the  magnitude  of  their  consumption  byou^  f.eople. 
We  export  only  very  small  quantities  of  iron  and  steel,  principally 
in  the  form  of  machinery,  but  have  been  large  importers  of  iron 
and  steel  in  all  forms,  which  we  have  consumed  in  addition  to 
the  large  quantities  we  have  ourselves  produced.  Our  imports  of 
iron  and  steel  during  the  Inst  fifteen  calendar  years  have  been  as 
follows.  The  quantities  of  pig,  bar,  band,  plate,  and  sheet  iron. 
rails,  old  iron,  and  tin  plates,  are  given  for  every  year  mentioned 
and  for  1882  and  succeeding  years  the  quantities  of  other  iron  and 
Bteel  which  could  not  be  obtained  for  preceding  years  are  added; 


<JoM  and 
;«ilver. 


Years. 

Long  tons. 

Years. 

Long  tons. 

1871 

1.141.933 
1,183,066 
fi4().8i8 
3ni,R47 
239  712 
2114  211 
211,408 
211.102 

1879 

769.984 

1872 

1880 

1,886.919 

1873 

1881 

1.180.749 

1874 

1882 

1,192.206 

1875     

18S3 

694.330 

187« 

18S4 

6.'i4.696 

1877 

1885 

578,478 

1878 

The  production  of  gold  in  the  Southern  States  rose  to  nearly  a 
million  of  dollars  a  year  in  a  few  years  after  ihe  first  mining  ex- 
citement began  in  that  region.  This  whs  in  1*^3!  and  18:i4.  Then 
there  was  a  falling  off  to  about  Imlf  that;  but  from  1842  on.  until 
the  time  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Cnlifornia  by  th'^  Americans, 
there  v;a8  a  rise  in  the  product  of  the  Southern  Appa'  -.chian  region, 
to  nearly  a  million  a  year  (1842-48). 

The  discoveries  of  the  precious  metal  in  California  have  already 
been  noticed.  By  the  end  of  the  year  at  the  beginning  of  which 
the  first  nugget  of  gold  had  been  picked  up  in  Sutter's  mill-rnce 
■jn  the  American  River  (184S).  miners  were  at  work  along  the 
western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  from  the  Tuolumne  to  Feather 
River,  a  distance  of  full  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles.    There  are 


supposed  to  have  been  not  less  than  fifty  thousand  men  mininfff 
for  gold  at  the  close  of  the  year  1850;  and  those  who  had  goodf 
opportunity  for  observing  estimate  the  number  thus  engaged 
during  the  yeurs  1852  and  1S53  at  not  less  than  one  hundred  tnous-j 
and.  At  first  some  assistance  waf-  had  from  the  aboriginal  popula-' 
tion;  but  in  general  there  was  no  hired  help,  each  man  working 
for  himself,  or  a  small  number  of  persons  owned  the  same  claimj 
and  mined  together  as  joint  partners.  "Ihe  earliest  washings 
were  along  the  rivers,  on  the  *'bars,"  or  gravel  accumulations 
along  the  sides  or  on  the  beds  of  the  streams,  and  in  the  "gulches/' 
or  ravines  leading  down  the  steep  sides  of  the  valleys,  or  canons, 
through  whicii  these  rivers  flow.  Soon  the  rivers  themselves  were 
partially  turned  from  their  courses  by  means  of  wing-dams,  or 
entirely  carried  to  one  side  of  their  natural  channels  by  "flum- 
ing,"  or  building  artificial  channels  of  timber.  The  eauds  and 
gravels  thus  exposed  were    the  most  productive  "placers";  and  • 

those  who  first  go'  hold  of  the  rich  bars  on  the  American,  Yuba, 
Feather,  Stanislaus,  and  other  smaller  streams  In  the  heart  of 
the  gold  region  made  sometimes  from  one  to  five  thousand  dol- 
lars a  day  per  man.  These  very  rich  spots  were,  however, 
soon  worked  out,  and  it  might  be  days  or  weeks  before  another  of 
equal  richness  was  found.  From  the  spring  of  1848  to  1851  nearly 
all  the  mining  was  of  the  character  thus  indicated,  that  in  the 
river-beds  being  called  "wet-diggings,"  nnd  that  in  the  ravines  or 
gulches  adjacent  to  the  rivers  "dry-diggings." 

The  yield  of  gold  in  California  during  the  ten  years  of  its  great-  Yield  of 
est  productiveness— namely,  from  1850  to  1n59  inclusive— has  been  gold  in 
estimated  as  averiiging  as  high  as  58^  millions  of  dollars  a  year.  California, 
During  the  pentad,  1860-64.  there  was  a  rnpid  falling  off  in  the 
yield,  which  may  be  accounted  for  not  only  by  the  approaching 
exhaustion  of  the  river  diggings,  but  also  by  the  fact  that  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Comstock  Lode  turned  ilie  attention  of  the  miners 
in  the  direction  of  Nevada,  whither  great  numbers  of  stamp-mills 
were  tninsported  bodily  in  the  course  of  the  years  1861  and  1862, 
these  mills  being  such  as  had  been  worked  in  California  with  little 
or  no  profit  to  the  owners. 

From  1865  on.  the  gold  mining  business  in  California  assumed 
a  certain  degree  of  permanence;  at  least,  the  yield  of  the  precious 
metal  became,  for  a  number  of  ywirs,  pretty  nearly  stationary, 
never  falling  below  fifteen  millions,  nor  rising  quite  as  high  as 
twenty  millions;  the  average  for  the  fifteen  years,  1865-79,  being 
about  seventeen  millions.  The  figures  for  the  years  1881-87,  aa 
given  in  the  reports  of  the  Director  of  the  Mint,  are  as  follows:-^ 

1881 $18,200,000 

1882 : 16.^^00.0(10 

1883 14.1 20,000 

1884 13.600.1100 

1885 12.700.000 

1886 14.725,000 

1887 13  400,000 

The  most  powerful  impulse  to  mining  operations,  and  tha^Bl 
mediate  cause  of  a  somewhat  lengthy  period  of  wild  eseittiwuV 
and  speculation,  was  the  discovery  and  succe.'-sful  opening  of  "tfee 
so-called  Comstock  Lode— a  metalliferous  deposit,  which,  con&ict 
ering  all  the  circumstances  and  conditions  connected  with  it,D^aS 
be  truthfully  said  to  bn  the  most  interesting  one  ever  discovei  ^4 
The  conditions  which  have  given  this  lode  its  preeminence  HaQI 
the  great  extent  an<l  depth  of  its  workings;  the  rapidity  with 
which  they  have  been  carried  on  ;  the  large  amount  of  the  precious 
metals  produced;  the  extraordinary  temperature  encountered; 
and.  finally,  the  very  full  record  which  has  been  kept  of  the  facta 
observed. 

The  Comstock  Lode  lies  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Virginia  Range,  The  Com- 
a  northeasterly  offshoot  from  the  range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  stock 
region  is  a  desert,  supporting  scarcely  any  vegetation  besides  the  Lode. 
sage  brush.  Potable  water  is  found  only  in  quantities  too  small  to 
supply  a  settlement,  and  the  town  now  depends  for  its  supply  on 
a  point  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  thirty  miles  away.    The  mines  were 
first  opened   in  this   inhospitable  region  in  1859.  but  have  since 
been  pushed  with  such  vigor  that  their  product  is  supposed  seri- 
ously to  have  effected  tho  silver  market  of  the  world.    They  have 
produced  aliout  «315.0(Hi.0i  0  worth  of  bullion,  of  which  8176.000,000 
was  silver  'at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  equals  $1.2929).    Of  the  totat 
yield.  8115.871,0(10  has  been  disbursed  in  dividends. 

The  last  great  ore  body  discovered  yielded  Slll.707,609.39,  ol 
which  574. 2-50. iiOO  was  paid  in  dividends.  The  number  of  men  em- 
ployed in  the  mines  ou  June  1.  IS^O.  was  2,770.  and  the  sum  an* 
nually  disbursed  in  wages  is  now  S4,55i',00fi.  The  aggregate  hers© 
power  of  tho  machinery  of  the  mines  is  24.130.  The  total  lengtl 
of  shafts  aTid  galb'ries  exceeds  150  miles,  and  the  greatest  deptt 
reached  is  above  3,IK)0  feet. 

The  gold  regions  of  the  United  States  are  divided  into  three  spo 
tions,  the  Pacific,  Rocky  Mountain  and  Eastern-  These  thrw 
great  divisions  will  be  taken  up  and  treated  in  order. 

STATISTICS  OF  THE  PACIFIC   DIVISION. 

In  production  of  gold  California  still  holds  the  first  place.  The  California, 
vast  deposits  of  auriferous  gravel  continue  to  yield  largely,  though 
their  final  exhaustion  in  .iew  of  the  enormous  hydraulic  opera- 
tionsnow  being  prosecuted,  is  to  be  looked  for  at  no  distant  day. 
Pervious  to  tho  discovery  of  the  Bodie  district  the  placer  mines 
furnished  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  total  gold  output  of  tho 
State;  but  the  large  yield  of  that  district,  amounting  to  over  two 
and  three-quarter  niillions  in  gold  during  the  years  in  addition  to 
the  considerable  silver  product,  has  plad'd  the  deep  mines  about 
on  a  par  with  the  placers  in  point  of  productiveness. 

California  furnishes  71.47  per  cent,  of  the  tot jil  placer  product  of 
the  United  States,  and  40.09  percent,  of  the  total  gold  product'  of 
the  deep  mines,  or  51.38  per  cent,  of  the  gold  product  of 
the  country  (from  all  sources). 

The  production  of  this  State  shows  a  considerable  decline,  as  Nevi.ii.. 
compared  with  that  of  the  preceding  six  years.    This  is  not  due  to 


STATISTICS.] 


UNITED      STATES 


81$ 


''rei- 


"Washing- 
ton. 


A  laska. 


<Jjlorado. 


Dakota, 


MoDtana. 


New  Mex- 
ico. 

Wyoming, 


any  general  falling  off  in  the  prosperity  of  the  mining  industry 
of  the  State,  but  to  the  decrease  in  the  yield  of  the  leading 
eource,  the  Com^stock  Li'de. 

The  bullion  product  of  Nevada  represents  an  average  of  544  16 
gold.  $112.29  silver,  and  $100.45  gold  and  silver  for  each  square 
mite  of  its  area.  In  this  respect  Nevada  is  surpassed  by  Colorado, 
the  figures  for  which  are  S2o.98  gold,  $159.22  silver,  and  S1S5.20 
total. 

The  bullion  product  of  Utah  is  remarkably  steady,  varying  lat- 
terly but  little  from  year  to  year,  while  a  marked  impulse  has 
been  given  to  the  mining  industry  of  Arizona  by  the  fine  showing 
of  the  new  Tombstune  district,  in  Pima  county. 

The  deposits  -f  Idaho  bullion  isotaras  it  is  possible  to  segre- 
rate  them,  a  very  large  portion  having  passed  through  private  re- 
fineries and  thus  losii  g  sheir  identity)  up  to  the  close  of  the  fiscal 
rearending  June  ;Sit.  IsSU,  are  stated  by  the  director  of  the  mint 
to  have  been  S24.137.417  gold,  ^7-7.l:y6  silvt- r.  and  S24.864.713  total, 
this  amount  is  far  less  than  the  actual  output  up  to  that  date, 
ragae   unofficial    estimates   placing  the   total   yield  as  high  as 

teo.ooo.tioo. 

Of  the  gold  product  for  the  census  year  1880,  59.42  percent,  is 
from  placers  and  40.58  per  cent  from  the  deep  mines.  Idaho  fur- 
nishes 7.32  per  cent,  of  the  placer  output  of  the  United  States,  2  IS 
j>er  cent,  of  the  deep  mine  gold,  and  4.43  per  cent,  of  the  total  gold; 
IJSper  cent.of  the  ."ilver,  and  2. 0")  percent,  of  the  entire  pruiluct 
of  the  prt  cious  metal's  in  the  whole  country.  As  a  gold  producer 
the  territory  ranss  sixth,  and  in  silver.^ seventh.  The  average 
field  per  square  mile  is  S17.45  gold,  ^^.30  silver,  and  S22. 75  total.  In 
this  respect  Idaho  stands  fifth  in  point  of  gold,  seventh  in  silver, 
and  sixth  in  developed  richness  in  gold  and  silver. 

Oregon  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  western  mining  States,  the 
discovery  of  gold  within  its  limits  having  followed  closely  upon 
that  in  Calitornia.  Its  output  has  never  been  very  large  in  com- 
parison with  the  yield  of  its  neighbor  State,  but  although  the 
mines  have  become  secondary  to  its  agricultural  resources  in  point 
of  importance,  th^y  still  furnish  occupation  and  profit  to  many  of 
its  inhabitants.  The  quartz  veins  of  Baker  county,  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  State,  adjoining  Idaho  Territory,  continue  to  yield 
the  larger  portion  of  the  total  deep  mine  product  of  this  State. 
The  prevailing  type  of  the  Oregon  ores  is  a  free  gold  quartz, 
though  rebellious  gold  ores,  requiring  special  treatment,  are  found 
in  some  localities,  and  a  small  amount  of  silver  is  produced  in 
Grant  county. 

Of  the  smsill  product  reported  from  the  deep  mines  of  AVashing- 
ton,  nearly  the  whole  comes  from  Peshaston  district,  in  Yakima 
county,  where  gold  quartz  mining  is  conducted  on  a  small  scale. 

The  Upper  Columbia  placers  furnish  over  one-half  the  total 
plncer  yield  of  the  State- 

This  vast  territory,  occupying  an  area  of  over  half  a  million 
square  miles,  is  for  the  most  part  still  an  unexplored  region.  The 
small  amount  of  prospecting  which  has  been  done  has  developed 
the  fact  that  Alaska  contains  many  gold-bearing  localities,  none 
of  which  however,  have  yet  yielded  any  considerable  output. 

STATISTICS  OP  THE  DIVISION  OF  THE  HOCKY  M0DSTAIN3. 

From  an  average  annual  production  of  only  three  or  four  mil- 
lions, Colorado  has  suddenly  risen  to  the  first  rank  as  a  pro- 
ducer of  the  precious  metals  among  the  States  and  Territories  for 
gold  and  silver  combined,  as  well  as  for  silver  alone,  while  for  gold 
it  holds  the  f-  urth  rank.  _  In  the  relation  of  production  to  area  it 
boId8thefirstriinklikewi.se  for  gold  and  silver  combined,  and  for 
silver  alone,  and  the  third  for  gold  alone.  In  the  relation 
of  production  to  population,  however,  it  ranks  only  third  for 
gold  and  silver  together,  second  for  silver  alone,  and  sixth  for 
gold  alone.  The  total  value  of  its  product  during  the  census  year 
in  gold  and  silver  was.  in  round  numbers,  nineteen  and  a  quarter 
miUi-^n  dollars ;  and.  if  we  add  to  this  the  value  of  lead  and  copper 
in  crude  metal  produced,  we  have  a  total  value  of  metallic  product 
of  twenty-two  and  three-quarters  million  dollars. 

The  metallicp^odnction  of  Dakota  is  derived  from  the  region  of 
the  Black  Hill.-;,  and  in  greater  part  from  Lawrence  county,  where 
free  milling  gold  quartE  ores  of  low  grade  are  reduced  in  amalga- 
mating mills  of  great  size. 

Montana  has  within  its  boundaries  the  elements  favorable  to  a 
large  production  of  the  precious  metals— rich  and  varied  ores  and 
abundant  fuel,  both  coal  and  wood.  As  yet,  however,  owing  to 
lack  of  development  and  want  of  sufficient  tran?portation  facili- 
ties, it  has  not  taken  its  proper  rank  as  a  producer. 

The  mines  of  New  Mexico  have  been  attracting  much  attention ; 
but  their  practical  development  is  awaiting  the  completion  of  the 
railroads  whinh  are  about  to  intersect  it. 

Wyoming  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  important  raining 
regions,  but  has  as  yet  developed  but  few  mines  within  its 
borders. 

The  following  table  shows  the  yield  of  the  States  of  the  Eastern 
division,  for  the  year  1880 :  — 

EASTERN     DIVISION. 


$1,300 

81.030 

3.000 

$1,300 

8332 

7.2110 

2.5,8.58 

16.000 

140 

56 

81.362 

10,200 

Michigan 

25.858 

New  Hampshire 

ii.ooii 

118.9.5" 
13.041 
1.998 
9,.322 

27,000 

119.095 

South  Carolina 

13.097 

1.998 

9,322 

Total 

239.646 

849,586 

$289,232 

The  relative  quota  contributed  by  esch  of  the  tliree  gr^t  aiW- 
trary  divisions  into  which  the  country  has  Deca  apportioned  ia 
indicated  in  the  following  table: — 


Pacific  Division 

Division  of  the  Rocky 

Mountains 

Eastern  Division 

Total 


825,261,828 

7.878,189 
239.616 


$33,379,663 


$21,143,881 

19.917.490 
49.586 


S41.U0,S57 


$46,405,709 

27.795.679 
289,232 


$74,490,620 


The  following  table  shows  the  production  of  gold  and  silver  for 
each  L^tate  and  Territory  during  the  year  1885:— 


$300,000 

880.000 

12.71 10.000 

4.200.000 

3.2110.000 

136.000 

1.800.000 

3..3(i0.000 

3.100.000 

800,000 

152,000 

800.000 

4.3.000 

180.I.KI0 

120,000 

90.000 

$2,000 

3.800,000 

2,500,1  00 

15,800.000 

100,000 

"3.5()b',d6o' 
10.060.000 

o.ooo.oeo 

3,000.000 

3.01  0 

10,000 

8302,000 

4,680,000 

15,200,000 

20,000,000 

3,300,000 

136,000 

5.3OII.00O 

13.3';o.000 

9,1110.000 

New  Mexico 

North  Carolina 

3,800,000 
1,55,000 
810,000 

43.000 

Utah  

6,750.000 
70,000 

5,000 

6.9.;0,000 

Washington 

Texas,  Alabama,  Tennessee, 
Virginia.  Vermont,    Mich- 

190,000 
95.000 

Total 

$31,801,000 

$51,600,000 

883,401,000 

Gold  and  Silver  Peoddctios  of  tbk  Different  States  fob 
THE  Year  1887. 


State  or  Territory. 

Gold. 

Silver. 
(Coining 
value.) 

Total. 

Alaska                   

$675,000 

830.000 

13.400.000 

i.mo.om 

2.400.000 

110,000 

1,900,000 

26,000 

5,230,00(1 

2,500,000 

500.000 

22.5.000 

900,000 

50.000 

220.000 

150.000 

20.000 

$300 

3,800,000 

1,500.000 

15,0110.000 

540,000 

500 

3,000,000 

35.001J 

15,500,000 

4,900.000 

2.300.000 

5.000 

10,000 

.5110 

7.000.010 

100.000 

250.500 

8    675.300 

4.630.000 

14,900.000 

19.1K  10.000 

Dakota     

2,940.000 

110,500 

4.900.000 

61.000 

20,730,000 

7.400.000 

2,800,000 

230.000 

910.000 

5i'.500 

XJtah                

7.220.000 

250.000, 

Other  States  and  Territories. 

270,500| 

$33,136,000 

$53,941,800 

$37,077,800 

Production  of  Gold  and   Silver  in  the   United  States  fob 
THE  Years  1880-1887. 


Year. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Coining 
Value. 

Commercial 
Value. 

1880 

1881         

8r56.OOO.OOO 
34.700.000 
32.500.000 
30.1.1  lO.OOO 
30.800.000 
31.800.000 
35.000,000 
33.000,000 

$39,200,000 

4;j.ooo.ooo 

46,800,000 
46.200,000 
48,800,000 
51,600,000 
51,000,000 
53.357,000 

1882    

1883        

1.884 

1885         

842,000.000 

42,504.447 

18'« 

1887      

39.44,5.:sl2 
40.161...  oc 

The  annexed  table  still  farther  illustrates  this  branch  of  the 
subject  by  showing  the  consumption  of  the  precious  metals  in  tha 
United  States  in  the  industri.-.l  arts,  as  reported  by  the  Mmf,  for, 
the  years  1880, 1881,  1883  and  1885:  — 

Gold.  Silver. 

1880  $8,034,193  $:!.4ii4.ie! 

1881    in.osti.723  3.38S.42I 

1883      14.4,59.4IV4  6.55<?»530 

i«S,5: 11.152,120  4^98-413 


816 


UNITED      STATES 


[statistics. 


^oick-  Nearly  all  the  quicksilver  prodoccd  in  the  United  States  comes 

3ilver.  from  California.    The  total  produce  of    the   Californian  mines, 

during  the  years  1880-1S87,  has  been  as  follows:— 

18811 59.926 

881 60,851 

*882 52.732 

,     1883 4*3.725 

!     1884 31.913 

1885 32,073 

18S6 29,9S1 

1887 33.825 

No  new  dii^eoverios  of  localities  of  importance  have  been  made 
during  the  past  few  years,  and  the  mint-s  wluL-h  .'tre  now  worked 
in  California  have  been  of  l.-ite  years  in  a  rather  depressed  c  judi- 
tion,  owing  to  the  low  price  of  the  metal,  the  increased  expense  of 
production  consequent  on  the  greater  depth  of  the  workings,  and 
the  growing  scarcity  of  the  ore.  No  quicksilver  mine  earned  or 
paid  any  dividend  in  18S5;  but  since  that  time  there  has  been  a 
rise  in  the  price  of  the  metal,  and  a  somewhat  increased  activity 
in  its  exploitation.  Two  mine.^  paid  di^ndends  in  ISSii;  the  New 
Almaden.  SI  18.010.75, and  the^tna.  S20.0,((f;  the  former  al^o  paid. 
in  1888.  $2^2,663.  A  consideraltle  portion  of  the  quick-ilver  mined 
in  California  is  used  in  that  and  th?  adjacent  Cordilleran  States,  a 
part  goes  ro  Mexico,  ^nd  ther.-  is  a  small  and  varying  export  to 
China.  The  low  price  of  .-ilver  has  materially  affected  the  profits 
of  exports  to  foreign  countries. 
1^7.  The  ore  of  tin  has  been  discovered  in  Several  localities  in  the 

United  States,  and  there  have  been  many  atlempis  mado  to  open 
mines  in  various  parts  of  the  country;  but  up  to  the  present  time 
theamoutitof  this  metil  produced  has  been  entirely  insignificant. 
Among  the  localities  in  the  Appalachian  rejrion  where  mining  for 
tin  has  been  attempted  are,  Winslow,  Maine;  Jackson,  New 
Hampshire;  one  on  the  northwestern  slope  of  the  Blue  Hidge.  in 
Rockbridge  county,  Virginia;  and  one  near  Ashland,  in  Clay 
county.  Alabama  The  veins  in  the  first  two  localities  mentioned 
are  unquestionably  toosmall  for  successful  working.  In  regard  to 
the  other  plai't'S.  it  does  not  yet  seem  to  be  known  whether  the 
conditions  there  existing  are  sufficiently  favorable  to  warrant  the 
expectation  that  thev  will  become  profitable  The  fact  that  there 
are  no  apparent  indications— judging  from  the  descriptions  which 
hare  been  published — of  superficial  deposits  which  could  be  success- 
fully stream'  d  f>r  tin  seems  a  strong  reason  for  believing  that  in  no 
one  of  these  localities  could  there  be  a  successful  (Competition  car- 
ried on  with  the  stanniferous  districts  of  the  East  Indies  and  of 
Australin,  whe.e  the  detritai  ores  of  tin  exist  in  the  greatest  abun- 
dance. Of  course  tiM  mining  could  be  made  profitable  in  this  coun- 
try if  a  sufiici'^ntly  h'gh  duty  were  laid  upon  this  metal. 

The  stannifernus  n-gion  from  which  tha  most  has  been  expected 
18  the  Black  Hills  of  Dakota,  at  a  locality  of  about  twenty  miles 
southwest  of   Rapid  City. 

According  to  the  official  report  of  Mr.  A.  Williams.  Jr..  on  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  United  States,  for  the  years  1^.83-84,  a 
lai^e  amount  of  m'-ney  has  been  expended  in  opening  and  pros- 
pecting the  Etta  mine,  and  in  erecting  mills  and  reduction 
works. 

So  far  as  known,  however,  up  to  Jannary.  1889.  there  has  been 
no  production  of  tin  of  commercial  importance  in  Dakota,  nor 
have  regular  shipments  of  this  metal  from  that  region  been 
begim.  Tin  ore  has  also  been  found  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
State  of  California,  and  several  attempts  have  been  made  to  put 
the  mines  upon  the  market.  The  observations  of  the  present  writer 
in  this  region  in  ISt^O,  did  not  lead  him  to  the  conclusion  that  it 
was  likely  ever  to  become  of  importance  for  its  production  of  this 
metal. 
^iiiC'  Zinc  has  become  within  the  past  few  years  an  important  article 

of  production  in  the  United  States. 

The  business  of  making  metallic  zinc  had  not  become  of  any 
importance  previous  to  1875.  Since  that  time  it  has  increased  at  a 
mo<lerate  and  pretty  uniform  rate. 

The  latest  and  most  reliable  statistics  of  zinc  are  those  given  by 
Mr.  C.  Kirchhoff,  Jr  .  in  the  "  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United 
States  for  1887."  as  follows,  in  tons:— 


State. 

18S2. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

1886. 

1887. 

16,256 
2,232 
5,087 

14.092 
8.044 
5.118 

4,768 

:5.7i  9 
7.017 
4,669 

7,019 

17.345 
7,591 
4.176 

7,216 

18.818 
7.y75 
5.241 

6,037 

19,892 
10,674 
7,732 

6.648 

Kansas 

£a.<rem  and  Southern 
States 

Total 

30,Ui 

32.922 

34,414 

36,528 

38.071 

44,&16 

The  production  of  zinc  in  the  United  States  for  the  year  1888  is 
estimated  at  50,S0(.)  tons— a  moderate  increase  over  the  preceding 
year.  This  country  furni-hes.  therefore,  at  the  present  time  a 
little  over  one-sixth  of  the  total  production  of  the  world,  which 
ha*  increased  since  the  beginning  of  the  present  decade  fri^m 
about  225,(t00  to  very  nearly  SfW.OOO  tone. 

For  a  long  term  of  yeara  the  production  of  lead  in  the  United 
ptiites  wa.s  limited  to  the  Mississippi  valley.  The  deposits  occur 
in  two  districts — one.  the  so-called  "Upper  Mines."  covering  an 
area  of  three  to  four  thousand  sqiiare  miles  included  within  tha 
States  of  Wisconsin.  Iowa,  and  Illinois;  the  other,  the  **Lower 
Mines,"  in  Southeastern  MiBsouri. 


The  mode  of  occurrence  of  the  galena  in  both  the  Upper  and  Upperawf 
Lower  Alines  of  the  Missis.-ippi  Valley  is  extremely  simple.  In  lower 
the  Upper  Mines  th_-  geological  age  ot  the  group  of  strata  in  which  mines, 
this  ore  is  found  is  Lower  Silurian.  In  these  mines  the  principal 
lead  bearing  rock  is  a  crystalline  dolomite,  from  '2^)  to  275  feet  in 
thickness  where  not  partially  removed  by  erosion.  The  upper  por- 
tion of  this  formation  is  somewhat  argillaceous;  the  middle,  a 
very  pure  heavy-bLdded  dolomite;  the  lower,  a  similar  rock,  but 
containing  numerous  cherty  or  flinty  masses.  Thisgroupof  strata 
is  locally  known  as  the  Upper  Magnesian  Limestone,  it  is  sepa- 
rated  from  a  roek  of  Tery  similar  lithological  character,  called 
the  Lower  Magnesiar  Limestone,  by  three  groups  of  strata,  which 
are  commonly  de>igriated  as  the  Blue  Limestone,  the  Buff  Lime- 
stone, and  the  St.  Peter's  Sand^tone.  The  first  of  these  is  a  thin- 
bedded,  highly  fossiliferous,  purely  calcareous  rock;  the  second,  a 
heavy-bedded  argillaceous  dolomite;  the  third,  a  nearly  chemi- 
cally pure  quartzose  sandstone.  The  Blue  Limestone  is  from  fifty 
to  seventy  feet  in  thickness;  the  Bluff,  fifteen  to  twenty;  and  the 
Sandstone,  from  eighty  to  a  hundred.  The  Blue  and  the  Bluff 
limestones  are  of  about  the  same  geological  age  as  the  Trenton 
and  Bhick  River  groups  of  the  New  York  Geological  Survey. 

The  yield  of  the  Upper  Mines  is  gradually  diminishing;  and 
this  will  continue  to  .>e  the  case,  since  the  extent  of  the  lead- 
beariiig  rock  is  limited,  and  the  vertical  range  of  the  crevices  con- 
fined to  a  moderate  thickness,  there  being  no  probability  that 
paxing  mines  will  be  discovered  in  the  Lower  Magnesian  Lime- 
stone, 

_  The  le id  ores  of  Missouri  occur,  and  almost  always  in  associa- 
tion with  those  of  zinc,  in  three  somewhat  distinct  districts:  in 
the  souihea-^tern  portion  of  the  State,  where  also  nickel  and  cobalt 
ores  are  found;  in  the  central,  and  in  the  southwestern.  The 
mines  of  the  Southeastern  district  are  in  the  Lower  Silurian. 

The  numerous  lead  mines  opened  and  worked  in  various  States 
situated  in  the  Appalachian  region,  from  Maine  to  North  Caro- 
lina, have  nearly  all  proved  unsuccessful  ventures.  A  few  have 
for  a  >hort  time  produced  a  moderate  supply  of  this  metal ;  one  or 
two  have  been  quite  pe»-manent.  although  yielding  but  a  very 
small  amount  of  lead;  while  much  the  larger  number  have  proved 
entire  failures. 

While  the  Mississippi  Valley  lead  mines  have  furnished,  of  late 
years,  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  world's  supply  of  this  metai, 
the  United  States  has  largely  increased  its  product;  so  that,  from 
18S0  on.  this  country  has  furnished  a  quarter  or  more  of  the  entire 
amount  of  lead  smelted  in  the  world. 

The  total  yield  of  metallic  lead  throughout  the  United  States  Yield  of 
for  the  years  1873-87  is  eiven  (in  tons)  in  the  following  table,  pre-  metallic 
pared  by  Mr.  Kirchhtiff  *    The  desilverized  lead  of  the  Cordilleran  jpaii  ir 
States  is  separated  from  the  non-argentiferous  of  the  Mississippi  United 
Valley,  and  its  percentage  of  the  total  stated.    The  table  as  here  State*, 
presented  extends  back  to  the  time  when  the  argentiferous  lead 
ores  of  the  country  began  to  be  of  importance: — 


Desilverized  Lead. 

Non-Ar- 

gtDtiferous 

Lead. 

Tear. 

Amount. 

Percent, 
of  Total. 

Total. 

1873 

17,999 

47.7 

19.983 

37,982 

1874 

46,410 

1875     

31.168 

33.615 

45,310 

57,401 

57,72i 

62.620 

77.067 

92.745 

1U9.U68 

107,112 

95.926 

102.526 

121  028 

58.5 
58.8 
62.0 
70.6 
69.7 
71.7 
73.7 
78.3 
84  8 
86.4 
83.0 
8.5,0 
84.3 

22.082 
23.590 
27.815 
23.902 
25.116 
24.724 
27.473 
2.i.9<7 
19.465 
17,796 
18.728 
18,671 
22,454 

5.3.250 

1876 

57.205 

1877 

73.125 

1878 

81.303 

1879 

82.839 

IgSO 

87..344 

1881 

104,540 

1,882 

118.6.S2 

1,S'*3 

12S..533 

1S.S4  

124.>«« 

18H5 

114.654 

1S86 

12I.IW 

18S7 

14 '.482 

The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  estimates  the  production  of 
lead  in  the  United  States  for  the  year  18S8  at  no  less  than  168,700 
tons.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  Idaho  is  beginning  to  be  of 
crmsiderable  importance  as  a  lead  producing  State.  The  principal 
mines  are  in  the  Coeur  d'Alene  di-trict. 

To  other  very  important  articles— such  as  lime,  cement,  and  Hon-metai- 
building-stone— only  brief  allusion  can  here  be  made._ since  their  'ife?ou- 
mode  of  occurrence  is  so  varied,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  mint.Tais 
utilized  so  irregular,  that  they  hardly  com-' within  the  scpeuf  the 
present  work.  Only  very  imperfect  statistics  could  be  obtaint-d  in 
regard  to  such  materials  as  lime  and  building  stones,  of  which  the 
use  is  so  wide-spread  and  so  little  under  possible  control.  According 
to  the  estimates  of  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  division  of  Mining 
Statistics  of  the  United  StJites  Geological  Survey,  the  value  of  the 
lime  and  building-stone  used  in  the  country  in  the  year  1887  was, 
for  each  of  these  articles,  greater  than  that  of  the  petroleum  pro- 
duced. The  item  of  coal  alone  constitutes  nearly  seven-tenths  of 
the  value  of  the  non-metalliferous  minerals  mined;  and  the  five 
items  of  coal,  petroleum,  natural  gas.  building-stone,  and  lime 
together  make  up  fully  ntneteen-twentieths  of  the  sum  totftl. 
Other  important  articles  are:  salt,  of  the  produce  of  which  in  1S87 
the  value  was  S4.0&'3.846;  cement,  $5,186,877;  limestone  for  flux  ia 
the  iron  manufacture,  S3,226.200:  phosphate-rock,  $1,836,818.  _The 
importance  of  the  salt  manufacture  in  the  United  States  is  so 

♦Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  for  the  year  1887, 


eTAT!ST:C"S. 


UNITED      STATES 


817 


great  that  space  may  be  found  here  for  a  few  it  murks  on  the 
geological  ui(xie  ot  vtvurnnce  oi  salt,  and  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  the  salt  ludusiry. 

The  coinmoa  salt  ol  the  world  is  obtained  for  use  in  four  differ- 
ent ws,ys:  namely,  tlie  evaporation  of  the  ocean  water,  the  evapiir- 
ation  of  the  water  of  >al:[.e  lakes,  the  evaponition  of  saline  water 
or  brine  obtained  by  tniring,  and  the  mining  of  solid  or  rock-salt. 
By  each  of  these  methoil>  salt  is,  or  has  been,  pi-oduced  in  the 
fnittd  :jiates;  but  the  third  of  these  is  at  presi  ni  by  far  the  most 
important  source  of  supply  nf  this  substance  in  rhi^countrj'. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  country  the  salt  usi^d  was  in  part  itn- 
ported  from  England,  and  in  part  produced  by  the  evaporation  of 
sea-water  on  the  i^lands  adjacent  to  the  coast  in  a  low  latitude, 
and  especially  Turk's  Island. 
Copt-t  The  present  sources  of  supply  for  copper  in  the  United  States 

are  ciii  fly  the  Lake  Superior  region  and  the  Territories  of  Mon- 
tana and  Arizona.  The  produce  of  the  other  States  is  compar*- 
lively  Insignifieant. 

The  mines  of  Lake  Superior,  of  the  date  of  the  opening  of  which 
mentit^n  has  already  oeen  made,  are  of  a  peculiar  charac- 
ter. From  these  mines  only  is  copper  taken  exclusively  in  its 
nat've  state. 

Ihe  "Cliff  Mine,"  on  Keweenaw  Point,  which  was  worked 
from  1845  to  1872  to  a  depth  of  nearly  1,500  feet,  is  of  historical 
importanee  in  the  development  of  the  mining  industry  of  the 
souatry.  al«  being  the  first  permanent  deep  mine  worked,  and  as  be- 
ixig  th'?  first  mine  of  any  ore,  other  than  that  of  iron  to  pay  regular 
dividLnds.  The  Minnesota  mine,  near  the  Ontonagon  river,  was 
another  one  of  interest,  and,  like  most  of  those  to  the  west  of  Ke- 
■ifeenaw  I'uint.  of  asumewhat  different  chamcter  from  that  of  the 
"31ifi  mine,  since  the  cupriferous  lode  ran  pamlk-1  with  the  forma- 
:*iDn  instead  -if  across  it.  These  longitudinal  occurrences  are,  ap- 
fiarently,  intermediate  in  character  between  contact  deposits  and 
BSengated  veins. 

Ihe  Lake  Superior  region,  «oon  after  it  was  first  opened,  in  1S45, 
^acan  to  produce  largely  and  for  many  years  it  supplied  from 
stiir^n  to  nine-tenths    of   the   copper  furnished  by  the  United 

"Xae growth  in  the  production  of  copper  in  the  United  States 
j'njpiled  up  to  1885,  inclusive  from  the  best  data  available,  is 
scown  in  the  following  table.  It  proves  in  a  striking  manner  how 
pr9p':»nderating  was,  until  the  past  few  years,  the  influence  of  the 
X/3kke  Superit-r  district;  and  again  of  one  great  mine  in  it,  the  Cal- 
omet  and  the  Hecla,  for  more  than  a  decade.  In  order  to  point  out 
more  clearly  how  preponderating  has  been  the  output  of  the 
Lake  district  from  1^67  to  1880,  a  column  has  been  added  giving 
itsperc  crage  of  the  total  product  from  year  to  year.  It  should 
be  stated  that  thejrieid  of  copper  from  pyrites  is  not  here  included. 

Production  of  copper  in  the    United  States  from  1845    to   1885, 
iriciusive. 


Tears. 

Total 
produc- 
tion. 

Lake 
Superior. 

Calumet 

and 
Hecla. 

Percent- 
age of  Lake 
Superior 
of  total 
product. 

1S45 

Lonff  tons 
HKJ 
150 

300 
500 
700 
650 
900 
1.100 
2.000 
2.250 
3.000 
4,000 
4,H00 
5.500 
6,300 
7,200 
7.5C0 
9,000 
8,500 
8.000 
8,500 
8,900 
10.000 
11,(5(10 
12,.500 
12.000 
13,000 
12,500 
15,500 
17,500 
18,100 
19.n0fl 
21.000 
21.500 
23.C00 
27.000 
32.000 
40.467 
51.574 
6S.555 
74,053 

Lonff  toju 

12 

26 

213 

461 

672 

572 

779 

792 

1,297 

1,819 

2,593 

3,666 

4,255 

4,08s 

3,9-5 

5,388 

6,713 

6.n65 

5,797 

5,576 

6,410 

6,138 

7,8.'4 

9,346 

:il,886 

10,992 

11.942 

10,961 

13,433 

15,327 

16.a'i9 

17.085 

17.422 

17.719 

19.129 

22.2fl4 

24.363 

25.439 

26.653 

30.916 

32,206 

Lonff  tons 

12.0 

lSt6         .        .  .    ■ 

17.0 

lg47  

71.0 

184S 

92.5 

1840         

96.0 

]8,t0 

88.0 

1851 

86.6 

1852      . .  . 

72.0 

1853 

64.9 

1854 

71.1 

18t5 

86.4 

18.56 

91.6 

1857      ..  . 

88.7 

1S5S 

74.3 

1S59 

63.3 

I860 

74.8 

1861  

89.1 

1862 

67.4 

1863 

67.0 

1864 

69.7 

1865 

75.4 

1866 

68.8 

1867 

603 

2.276 
5,497 
6,277 
7,242 
7,215 
8,414 
8,9S4 
9.556 
9.6S3 
10,075 
11,272 
11,728 
14,140 
14.000 
14.309 
14.788 
17.812 
21.093 

78.2 

1868    

80.6 

1869 

95.1 

-870 

87.2 

,  i871          

91,9 

■  1872  

95.7 

1873 

87.3 

1874         

87.6 

1875 

89.4 

1876 

88.9 

1877 

82.9 

1878 

82.4 

1879 

83.2 

1880 

82.2 

1881 

76.1 

1882 

62.1 

1883 

50.1 

1884    

48.4 

1885 

43.5 

Tlic  fiillowing  is,  in  detail,  the  cutput  of  the  Lake  PuperiDr  mines. 
Ill  the  laiijurity  of  cases  it  is  th'i  ofhcial  product,  ba.^ed  on  smelting 
wotks  returns:  in  a  tew  instance-  it  is  an  official  estimate  of  fie 
ingot  product  based  on  the  known  output,  of  mineral.  The 
Alass  is  the  only  larger  mine  in  the  case  of  which  the  ingot  was  es- 
timated from  the  published  statement  of  the  output  of  mineral. 
The  total  is  accurate,  therefore,  witliin  a  few  thousand  pounds. 

The  production  of  Lak*  Superior  copper  mines,  1880  to  1885. 


Mines. 


1880. 


Calumet  and  Hecla 

Quincy 

Osceola 

Franklin 

Allouez 

Atlantic 

Pewabio 

Central 

Grand  Portage 

Conglomerate 

Mass 

Copper  Falls 

Phoenix 

Hancock 

Huron 

Kidge 

Saint  Clair 

Cliff 

Wolverine 

Nonesuch 

Isle  Royal 

Miiiong 

National 

Minnesota 

Belt 

Sheldon  and  Columbia... 

Ajtec 

.\d  venture 

Peninsula 

Tamarack 

Ogima 

Concord 

Evergreen  Bluff 

Flint  Steel  River 

Madison 

Northwestern 

Ash  Bed 

Centennial 

Sundry  companies — tributers 


Total 49.6«2.a3; 


31,675,239 

3,696,263 

3.383.537 

2.336,46b 

1,318,471 

2,341,195 

970.509 

2,026,078 

67,860 

2S3.814 

517,159 

6,615 

436,010 

3.032 

70.285 

223,353 

13,195 

78.962 


55,584 
79.469 
27.407 


26.033 


26.931 
3.757 
2.951 


5.885 
10.464 
10.651 
28,080 


916 


6.166 


Mines. 


1883. 


Calumet  and  Hecla 

Quincy 

Osceola  

Franklin.... 

Allouez 

Atlantic 

Pewabic 

Central 

Grand  Portage 

Conglomerate 

Mass 

Copper  Falls 

Phcenix 

Hancock 

Huron 

Ridge 

Saint  Clair 

Cliff 

Wolverine 

Nonesuch 

Isle  Royal 

Minong 

National 

Minnesota 

Belt 

Sheldon  and  Columbia 

Aztec 

Adventure 

Peninsula 

Tamarack 

Ogima 

Concord 

Evergreen   Bluff 

Flint  Steel  River 

Madison 

Northwestern «. 

Ash  Bed 

Centennial 

Sundry  companies — tributers 

Tot.il 


33,125,045 

6.012.239 

4.256.409 

3,488,708 

1.751,377 

2,682,197 

1,171.847 

1,268.556 

735,598 

222,117 

659,474 

804.000 

512.291 

484,906 

720,213 

60.155 

125.225 

10.374 

699,622 


3,582 

26,006 
6,226 
16.402 


849.400 
7.435 
3,0li0 


59,702.404 


1881. 


1882. 


31.360.781 

5.O06..S4S 

4.179.976 

2.677,932 

1.473.007 

2.528.009 

1.876,244 

1,418,465 

26,264 

386,1191 

467.684 

669.121 

4(9.3i7 

571.897 

254.515 

2:35.606 

1.3.5.492 

79.382 


119,061 
47,3l« 
15,397 


24,227 

'io'osi' 

7,5(ji'i 


16,776 

28.849 

968 

4.140 

1,534 


24,804 
"i;6i2 


54.548,909 


1884. 


40.473,585 

5,650,4;36 

4,247,630 

3,748.652 

1.92'i,174 

3,163.5S5 

227,834 

1,446.747 

255.81.0 

1.198,691 

4S1..396 

891.16S 

631.004 

562.636 

1,927.660 

74.o:;0 

139.4(7 

2^.22.5 

751.763 

23.867 

16,074 

""'si'.m 

1.144 

ISO.Sot 

9.S28 


32.0.53,039 

5,665.796 

4,176.782 

3.264.120 

1.6-3,057 

2,631,708 

1.482,666 

l.:353,59T 

7.57.(  80 

734.249 

737.440 

587„500 

6:57,177 

540,575 

364,579 

102.938 

87.126 

66.053 

25,623 

46,450 

35,447 

21,380 

17,06U 

10,672 

5,625 

3.299 

3,129 

429 


4,207 


72,636 
83,554 


57,155.991 


1885. 


47,247,990 
5,848,530 
1,945,208 
4,0(17,105 
2,170.476 
3,582,633 


2,157,408 


365,000 

1,168,000 

544,355 

203,037 

2,252,454 
63,390 


32S,61P 
28,481 


4,333 

1,226,981 


1,1C6 


954 


1,511 
'a',696' 


162.252 
12  608 
27,433 


4,000 


181,669 

12,000 


1,500 


i.COO 


69,353,202       72.148,172 


2:j— 30 


818 


UNITED      STATES 


[STA'nSTICS. 


Montana  is  nest  in  importance  to  the  Lake  Superior  district  as 
a  copper-producing  re^aon.  The  mines  are  tor  the  most  part  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Butte  City,  oovering  an  area  of  two  and  a  half 
miles  long  by  one  mile  wide. 

Although  therelias,  of  late  years,  been  a  falling  off  in  the  pro- 
duction of  copper  in  Arizona,  so  that  at  present  this  Territory  is 
overshadowed  by  Lake  Superior  and  Montana,  it  appears  that  this 
Is  due  to  its  unfavonible  situation  with  reference  to  a  market, 
rather  than  to  any  exhaustion  of  its  cupriferous  deposits,  which 
are  numerous  and  important. 

There  are  many  Iocalitie:!i  in  the  Atlantic  States,  from  Maine  to 
CJorth  Carolina,  when^  mining  for  copper  has  been  attempted,  but 
in  few  of  these  has  anything  like  a  permanent  paying  mine  been 
developed.  The  Vermont  Copper  Company,  located  at  Vernon, 
aas  made,  perhaps,  the  nearest  approach  to  a  success  of  any  copper- 
mining  company  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Appalachians,  since 
operations  were  carried  on  here  for  many  years  uninterruptedly 
and  with  moderate  profit.  This  mine  was  abandoned  for  a  time, 
but  work  has  lately  been  resumed.  The  present  high  price  of  this 
metal  has  been  a  groat  stimulus  to  mining,  and  within  the  past 
few  months  many  localities  which  had  been  abandoned  have  been 
taken  hold  of  again  by  capitalists.  This  is  true  for  both  Eastern 
and  Cordilleran  .States. 

The  effect  of  this  excitf-ment  will  be  seen  in  the  annexed  table, 
arranged  and  condensed  fnun  the  various  official  reports  on  the 
Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States.  It  affords  a  comprehen- 
Bive  \'iew  of  the  progress  of  the  copper-mining  business  in  this 
country  during  the  years  1882  to  1888;  the  amounts  are  given  in 
tons: — 


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The  total  production  of  copper  throughout  the  world  for  the 
year  1888  has  been  estimated  at  2.V),000  tons.  Of  this  amount  a 
nttle  over  two-fifths  is  to  be  credited  to  the  United  States.* 


♦This  is  the  estimate  given  in  the  Engineering  and  Mining 
Jcnmal  of  Jan.  12,  18sh,  from  which  the  figures  given  in  the  pro- 
cediiig  tabla  tor  the  year  liiSS  are  taken. 


The  followingtablp  gives  the  amount  and  value  of  metallic  pr<^ 
ducts  in  the  United  States; 


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As  will  be  seen  from  the  table  given  farther  on,  the  production  Sail 
of  salt  in  Ohio  and  Virginia,  at  the  present  time,  is  much  less 
than  that  of  Michigan  i^nd  New  York.  The  advantages  which  the 
two  last-named  States  offer  are,  on  the  whole,  decidedly  superior 
to  those  of  the  former;  so  that  the  production  of  Ohio  has  re- 
mained nearly  stationary  during  the  last  sis  years,  while  that  of 
the  Kanawha  Valley,  once  the  most  important  salt-pruducing 
region  in  the  country,  has  during  that  time  decidedly  decreased,  so 
that  at  present  it  is  hardly  one-tenth  as  large  as  that  of  New  York, 
and  less  than  one  seventeenth  nf  that  of  Miehtgan. 

The  quantity  of  mck-sa It  which  lia^s  I  -i  shown  by  geological 
observation,  or  proved  by  the  drill,  to  eii  i  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  States  is  very  large.  To  the  existence  of  large  bodies 
of  this  material  in  Western  New  York  and  Michigan  allusion  hi;-. 
already  been  made.  Salt  baa  also  recently  been  discovered  ii.- 
Kansas,  by  persons  engaged  in  prospecting  for  oil  and  gas,  i. 
several  localities,  and  in  quantities  said  to  be  large.  Neitheriv. 
Kansas  nor  in  any  of  the  States  mentioned  as  important  ps..  • 


STATISTICS.]    . 


UNITED      STATES 


819 


ducers  of  salt,  has  the  mining  for  rock-salt  been  of  any  importance 
up  to  the  present  time  A  locality  where  this  materijil  occurs  iu 
large  quantity,  and  the  existeuct*  of  vvhich  ha^  iteon  known  for  a 
long  timt?.  namely.  Petite  Anse,  an  ioUud  in  Vermilion  Bay.  on 
the  coa.>t  of  Louisiana,  and  which  became  of  importance  durinjr 
the  Civil  War.  is  now  quite  extensively  worked,  and  i-t  the  only 
fouree  from  which  salt  is  obtained  to  any  extent  in  Louisiana. 
The  quantity  min  d  at  this  locality  has  risen,  from  276,000  barrels 
In  IS8-\  to.>ver34M)0U  in  1S87. 

K nek  salt  also  occurs  in  large  quantity  in  various  portions  of  the 
Cordilleran  region,  and  it  has  been  mined  at  some  localities  both 
for  household  ani  metallurgical  purposes.  A  deposit  his  been 
Ions  known  to  exist  on  the  Rio  Virgen,  in  Lincoln  County. Nevada, 
where  the  salt  appears  to  occur  in  very  large  quantity,  it  being — as 
is  stated — exi'Osed  in  a  canon  cut  through  it  for  a  distance  of  two 
miles,  the  deposit  occupying  an  extensive  area,  with  an  unknown, 
but  certainly  very  considerable  thickness.  There  are  also  large 
deposits  of  this  mineral  in  Utah,  especially  in  San  Pete  County* 
near  the  town  of  Xephi.  Most  of  the  salt  used  in  that  S^te  at 
present,  however,  comes  from  the  salt-farms  around  Salt  Lako. 

The  following  table  gives,  in  barrels,  the  amoujit  of  salt  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  from  1S.S3  to  1S77:*— 


States. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

1S86. 

1887. 

Michigan 

New  York... 
Ohio 

2.'>94.672 

1.619.4^6 
35 '.WO 
320.1  iHI 
2S.\2I5 
214.2Sii 
117.14.3 
21.429 
400,000 

3.161.806 

1.7N8.454 
3:20.000 
310.000 
223.904 
178.571 
114.2S5 
17.8.57 
400.000 

3.297,403 

2.3W.7S7 
306.S47 
223.184 
299.271 
221 .4US 
W.un 
28.593 
250.000 

3.677.257 
2.431.563 
4110.000 
250.000 
299.691 
214.2S5 
164.285 
30,000 
240,000 

3.944.309 

2.353.560 

365  000 

West  Virginia 

Louisiana 

Cnlifomia 

Utah 

225.000 

341.093 

28.090 

325  I'OO 

Nevada 

Other  States.. 

'  'i5Q,{m 

Total 

6.192.231 

6,514.937 

7.038.653 

7,707,081 

7,831,962 

General  The  astonishing  rapidity  with  which  the  mineral  and  metiillif-* 

9unitii»ry.  eroas  resources  of  the  Cordilleran  region  have  been  developed 
during  the  past  thirty  years  will  have  been  made  apparent  to  the 
reader  who  has  examined  the  preceding  pages.  In  1854  the  pres- 
ent writer  estimated  the  total  value  of  the  metals  produced  in  the 
I'nited  States  at  $79.827 .<X)0.  of  which  nearly  SoO.OOO.OOO  was  to  be 
credited  to  gold.t  The  change  which  has  taken  place  since  that 
time  will  be  seen  on  examining  the  following  tables,  which  give, 
in  compact  form,  results  obtained  and  published  by  the  Chief  of 
the  Division  of  Mining  Statistics,  of  the  United  States  Geological 

*By  W.  A.  Raborg,  in  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States 
for  the  year  1SS7,  p.  611.  A  barrel  is  five  bushels  ot  fifty-sii 
pounds  each. 

tSee  Metallic  Wealth  of  the  United  States,  pp.  5U5-510. 


Survey.  The  first  table  shows  the  total  value  of  the  non-metalUc 
prodnets  of  the  United  States  for  the  years  1882  to  1*S7.  and  alsr 
the  grand  total  of  bolh  metallic  and  iionmetallic  products  for  the 
same  years.  The  second  shows  the  amount  and  value  of  the  metaL 
lie  products  of  the  United  .'^tates  for  the  years  18S2-87.  The  valu^g 
of  the  iron  is  the  spot  value:  that  ot  the  gold  and  silver,  the  coiii< 
ing  value;  that  of  the  cppcr  K-ad,  and  zinc,  the  value  at  New 
lorli;  that  of  the  quick.-iilver.  the  value  at  San  Francisco: — 


i  i 


i  12 


^ 


s"  ^ 


o  o 


s  s 

S    3 


=1    ^    -r^ 


S      ^      < 


PART  III.     POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY  AND   STATISTICS. 


Or. 

tK., 


POPUXATION"  AND    IMMIGRATION. 

The  first  census  of  the  United  States  was  taken  in  1790,  and 
there  has  b-en  one  taken  every  tenth  year  since  that  time.  The 
following  table  .shows  the  absolute  number  ot  inhiibitants,  '*  ex- 
cluding Indians  not  taxed,"  at  each  decennial  period,  and  also 
tbti  rate  per  cent,  of  increase  during  the  previous  ten  years : 

Year,                                   Population.  Percentage  of 

Increase. 

1790 3.929,2U 

I'iOO 5.3US.433  35.11 

1810 7.229.881  36.40 

382') 9,633.822  33.06 

1S30 12.806,020  33.55 

1840 17.069.4-53  32.67 

1850 23,191.876  35.86 

18iO 31,443,321  35.58 

1871) 38,558,371  22.63 

1880 50.15-5.7S3  30.08 

1890 63,231.428  estimate. 

'Wth  of  T^6  effect  of  the_  Civil  War  on  the  growth  of  population  in  the 
uHiion.  ^°**^®*^  States  is  easily  seen  in  the  diminished  ratio  of  increase 
shown  by  the  figures  for  the  decade  1S60-1870.  With  that  excep- 
tion the  rate  nas  been  extraordinary  large  and  uniform,  but  less 
in  the  deoade  1870-80  than  in  any  preceding  one.  That  this  rapid 
growth  of  the  population,  due  in  so  large  a  part  to  immigration, 
will  ojntinue  to  be  maintained  is  in  the  highest  degree  improU- 
l.ble.  The  fact  that  nearly  the  whole  of  the  more  valuable  por- 
tion of  the  public  lands  has  been  already  taken  up,  as  will  be  seen 
farther  on.  can  hiirdly  fail  to  check  immigration,  although  the 
population,  is  at  present,  far  from  dense,  and  f;ir  from  being  so 
(itrge  that  there  is  not  ample  room  for  a  much  larger  number. 

The  area  embraced  within  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  tak- 
ing the  first  census  was  about  eight  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
equare  miles,  a  precise  statement  of  the  amount  being  impossible, 
•wing  to  the  peculiar  wording  of  that  part  of  the  treaty  in  which 
'.he  northern  and  western  boundaries  of  the  country  are  defined. 


The  density  of  the  population  at  that  time  was  about  4.6  personi 
per  square  mile,  this  population  being  almost  exclusively  confined 
to  the  Atlantic  sea- board  At  that  time  not  more  than  five  per 
cent,  of  the  inhabitants  of  thecountry  lived  we.st  of  the  Appala- 
chian range,  the  lettlements  being  very  closely  limited  to  the  bor- 
ders of  the  navigable  itreoms.  At  the  time  of  taking  the  census  of 
1850,  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States  had  become  definitely  es- 
tablished, the  only  addition  made  since  that  time  being  the  terri" 
tory  acquired  in  1853  by  the  Gadsen  purchase  (about  47,-^30  square 
miles).  At  that  time  the  average  density  of  the  population  of  the 
whole  country  was  a  little  less  than  eight  persons  per  square 
mile. 

The  following  table  shows  the  density  of  the  population  at  the 
epoch  of  each  census  which  ha.s  been  taken  during  the  time  when  " 
the  area  of  the  country  remained  (with  the  exception  of  the  par- 
chase  of  Alaska,  not  here  inoladed)  unchanged  :— 

Year.  Ares  of  U.  S.       Population  per 

sq.  mile. 

1860 3,025.600  10.39 

1870 '•  12.74 

1880 •*  16.57 

The  movement  of  the  population  has.  from  the  beginnine.  been  Moven^nt 
from  the  east  toward  the  west,  the  first  settlements  having  been  of  popula 
made  on  the  Atlantic  const,  and  theeinignitiontotheUnitedStatos  tion. 
having  been  almost  exelusiTely  from  European  countries.  The 
Pacific  coast  had.  previously  to  the  annexation  of  California,  re- 
ceived a  small  number  of  whites  coming  from  Mexico,  and  since 
that  time  there  have  be(  n  some  accessions  to  the  population  in  that 
region  by  means  of  emisration  from  China;  but  the  number  added 
from  this  direction  is  almost  insignificant  in  comparison  with  that 
which  has  come  into  the  country  from  the  east.  Hence  the  center 
of  population  has  been  mo\-ing  westward,  and  the  investigations 
of  the  Coast  Survey  and  of  the  Census  Bureau  have  shown  that  this 
movement  has  been  in  an  almost  exactly  westerly  direction,  and 
that  the  center  of  population  has  always  remained  very  near  the 
oai-allel  of  39**.  Tn  179<t  it  was  in  the  Intitude  39°  16' .5,  at  » 
pvint  of  about  twenty-three  miles  east  of  Baltimore;  in  1880 ii; 


820 


U  N  I  T  JH.  D      b   r  A  T  E  S 


[ftTATiSTICS* 


wa8  eight  miles  west  hy  south  from  Clnciiioati.  in  latitude  39° 
2.1/  baring  moved  \vt_'stward  457  uiiles  in  uiueLy  years.  The  most 
southerly  point  reac-iie-J  was  that  <if  lfe3t*,  wlu-n  the  center  was  in 
tatitude  38°  57' .9;  the  most  rapid  movenieTit  was  iu  the  p-riod 
i85U-*in— namely,  eighty-one  milre.  this  being  due  to  the  rapid 
transferof  a  considerable  popuhition  from  the  Eastern  to  the 
Pacific  States,  consequent  on  the  discovery  of  the  gold  of  Cali- 
fornia 

The  division  of  the  population  by  sexes,  as  shown  by  the  CL^nsus 
of  ISSO,  was  as  follows: 

Males 25,518.820 

Females 24,636,963 

Thenumberof  females  for  each  100,000  males  in  1870  and  1880 
was  as  follows: 

1870.  1880. 

Number  of  females  to  100.000  males    96,514  97,801 

>Ti-iiiioDS  As  n  nitural  result  of  the  conditions  influencing  emigration 
utlue  cing  from  the  uldtT  to  the  newer  States,  it  is  found  that  females  are  in 
^oi'ulacion.  excess  iu  the  Atlantic  Statt^s.  In  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Rhode  Island  and  .Massachusetts,  the  excess  of  femalesovermalea 
is  five  percent,  or  more;  in  Connecticut.  New  Hampshire,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolin;!.  New  York,  V^irgiuia  and  Alabama,  it  is 
from  two  and  a  half  co  five  per  cent.;  in  Maryland,  Georgia.  New 
Jersey,  L'iuisiana.  Tennessee,  Pennsylvania  and  Maine  it  is  less 
than  two  .-inda  half  per  cent.  The  States,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
which  the  males  are  considerably  in  excess  of  the  females,  are  those 
eitunt  d  iM  'he  Conlilieran  region,  where  mining  is  the  chief  pur- 
,  Buit,  n';d  where  the  conditions  of  life  are  such  as  are  mure  easily 
borue  by  men  than  by  women.  In  Michigan.  Minnesota,  Kansas 
Rnd  N.ba.-ka,  which  are  not  Cordilleran  States,  but.  which  are 
an  the  ■■sireme  northern,  western  or  southwestern  borders  of  the 
C'intral  region,  the  number  of  temiles  is  from  eighty  to  ninety  per 
f'*nt.  of  thatnf  the  males,  and  New  Mexico  is  in  the  same  category. 
Xq  the  Pacific  const  States  the  number  of  females  is  from  fifty  to 
fiightv  per  cent  that  of  the  males ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  Colorado 
and  Dakota,  wh'ch  are  situated  on  the  eastern  borders  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain,  and  which  are  partly  ;igricultural  and  partly  mining 
States.  In  those  States  in  which  mining  and  stock-raising  are  by 
farthe  predominating  interests,  and  which  are  entirely  inclosed  in 
the  Cordilleras.  name!y,  Idaho,  Nevada,  Wyoming  and  Montana, 
(he  inetiJality  in  the  numbers  of  the  sexes  is  greatest,  there 
being  in  th-^se  tenitories  less  than  half  as  many  females  as  males. 
The  same  inequality  exists  in  the  territory  of  Arizona. 

Of  the  colored  population  the  census  of  1880  showed  the  num- 
ber to  be  6/8' 1.793  to  43.402.970  whites,  or  15,162  colored  in  every 
IuO.O^JO  whites.  The  slight  increase  in  this  ratio  from  that  given 
by  tbecen^^us  of  1-S70  (14.528  to  lOM.OOfi)  is  believed  to  be  chiefly, 
if  not  entirely,  due  to  the  imperfection  of  the  census  of  1870. 
The  colored  population  is  still,  in  spite  of  some  slight  emigration, 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  fnrmer  slave  States,  and  in  three 
of  them— South  Carolina,  Mississippi  and  Louisiana— the  colored 
are  in  access  of  the  whites.  In  Alabama.  Florida.  Georgia.  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina  and  the  District  of  Columbia  the  colored 
element  runs  from  fifty  to  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  white;  in  Ar- 
kansas, Texas,  Tennessee  and  "Maryland,  from  twenty-nine  to 
thirty-five  per  cent;  in  Delaware  and  Kentucky,  from  nineteen 
to  twentv-two  per  cent ;  in  Missouri.  Kansas,  \V est  Virginia,  New 
Jersey,  Ohio,  Rhode  Island,  Pennsylvania  and  Indiana,  from  two 
to 7  per  cent;  in  all  the  remaining  States  it  is  less  than  two  per 
cent.:  and  in  most  of  them,  especially  the  more  northern  ones, it 
is  leis  than  one  per  cent. 

DiSTRIEUTIOS  OF  THE  PoPtH^ATION  OF  THE  UNITED  SXATES  IN  1880, 

BY  Drainage  Basins. 


Drainage  Basin. 

Area  in  sq. 
miles. 

Population. 

Total. 

Per  sq.  mile. 

New  England  Coast.. 
Midille  .Atlantic  Coast. 
South  Atlantic  Coast.. 

Great  Lakes 

Gulf  of  ile-\ico 

61.S30 

!i3,020 

132.040 

175.340 

1,725.9S0 

3,788.334 
9.240.897 
4.1I4.,'>63 
.'>.6S4.U7 
25.884,117 

61.2 
111.3 
31.2 
32.4 
14.3 

Total  Atlantic... 
Great  Ba^in 

2,178,210 

22=.150 
619.240 

48,7I7,2fl3 

2-27.1I7 
1.211.3S3 

22.4 
1  0 

1  9 

Total 

3,025,600 

55,155,783 

The  dietribution  of  the  populafion  in  reference  to  the  topo- 
graphical and  cliiuatie  features  of  the  country  is  such  as  naturally 
arises  from  the  constant  operation  of  twotcauses,  both  acting  in 
the  same  direction.  Emigration  and  overflow  from  a  more  thickly 
Fettled  region  toward  one  more  thinly  inhabited  takes  place,  with 
insignificant  eiceptions,  from  the  east  toward  the  west.  Immi- 
grants arrive  from  Europe,  are  landed  on  the  Atlantic  coast- 
about  three-fourths  at  one  point,  Now  York — and  thence  in  lai'ge 


part  find  their  way  westward  in  the  direction  of  lands  unoccupieij 
or  only  thinly  settled.  To  the  east  of  the  Mississippi  the  land  is  al- 
most everywhere  exceptionally  fertile,  and  the  climatic  condi- 
tions are.  oyer  a  large  area,  as  explained  elsewhere,  very  much 
the  same,  and  on  the  whole  highly  favorable.  Soon  after  crossing 
the  Mississippi,  we  find  that  this  favorable  condition  of  things 
begins  to  change.  Not  only  is  ihe  immigrant  getting  farther  and 
farther  from  his  home,  but  he  is  finding  his  environment  lcss:jn«i 
less  suited  to  the  development  of  those  conditions  which  favor 
the  existence  of  a  dense  population.  Never,  by  any  possibility, 
can  the  rej;ion  of  small  rainfall,  and,  in  large  part,  of  rugged 
mountains,  extending  from  the  first  belt  of  States  beyond  the 
Mississippi  to  the  belt  lying  directly  on  the  Pacific  coa^t,  become 
a  densely  populated  portion  of  the  country.  This  dryer  rrgioD 
is  also  the  most  elevated,  as  has  already  been  fully  explained. 
The  results  of  the  conditions  thus  indicated  are  sufficiently  showc 
in  the  above  table  and  the  following: 

Geographical  Distribution  of  the  Population'  of  the  United 
States  in  Accordance  with  the  Topographical  Features. 


North  Atlantic  Coast 

Middle  Atlantic  Coast 

South  Atlantic  Coast 

Gulf  Coast 

Northeastern  Appalachian  Region 

Central  Appalachian  Region 

Region  of  the  (rreat  Lakes 

Interior  Table-land 

Southern  Appalachian  Region 

Ohio  Valley 

Southern  Interior  Table-land 

Mississippi  River  Belt,  south 

Mississippi  River  Belt,  north 

Southwestern  Central  Region 

Central  Region 

Prairie  Region 

Missouri  River  Belt 

Western  Plains 

Heavily  Timbered  Region  of  the  Northwest 

Cordilleran  Region 

Pacific  Coast 


Percent- 

Population. 

age  of 
Total 

Popalafr. 

2,616,882 

5.i 

4,375,194 

8.'/ 

875,387 

1. 

1,(155,851 

2. 

1,669,226 

3.- 

2.344,223 

4.'. 

3,049.470 

6.1 

5,716,326 

11.4 

2,695,085 

5.4 

2.442,792 

4.9 

3,627,478 

7.2 

710,268 

1.4 

1.991,.3(>2 

4.0 

2,932,807 

5.8 

4.401.246 

8.8 

5,722.485 

11.4 

835,445 

1.7 

323,819 

n.7 

1.122,337 

2.2 

932.311 

1.9 

715.789 

1.4 

The  larger  divisions  of  the  country  are  represented  as  follows, 
both  as  to  the  aggregate  population  and  its  different  elements:— 


Region. 


Atlantic  Plain 

Central  Valley 

Appalachian  Region 
Cordilleran  Region . . 


Percentage  of  Population. 


Total        Foreign.    Colored. 


29.84 
53.50 
13.38 
3.28 


32.74 

51.62 

8.40 

7.24 


40. .50 

50.02 

7.22 

2.26 


In  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the  population  of  the  United 
States  in  towns  and  cities,  and  the  positions  of  those  centres,  the 
following  may  be  stated:— 

In  1790  there  were  in  the  country  four  cities  having  a  population 
of  from  8.000  to  20.000and  two  above  20,000. but  not  one  surpassing 
75,000  in  number.  Fifty  years  later,  there  were  forty-four  towns 
and  cities  having  a  population  of  8,000  and  over,  and  one  of  about 
oun.OOO.    In  1880  tliere  were  2S6  towns  with  over  8,000  inhabitants. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  names  and  population  of  ail 
the  cities  having,  in  1890.  a  population  of  over  100,000:— 

OvEE  1.000,000.  populatior 

Name.  j^  jggo. 

New  York 1.513.50' 

Chicago    1.0S«'|? 

Philadelphia 1,044,8W 

Over  500,000  and  Under  1,000.000, 
Brooklyn '■ 80^.37: 

Over  250,000  and  Below  500,000.  , 

St.Louis 460.357 

Boston 446..507 

Baltimore ^i-^^SSt 

San  Francisco,  Cal 297.990 

Cincinnati 296,309 

Clevcl.-ind.  Ohio •  261,546 

Buffalo,  N.Y 2o5,54.S 


STATISTICS.]  • 


UNITED      b  T  A  T  f:  S 


821 


Over  lOO.OCO  .\xd  Below  250,0t;0. 

New  Orleans.  La 241 ,995 

Pittsburg,  Penu 23s.47;< 

Washington,  D.  0 228.160 

Detroit,  .Mich 2ti7.791 

Milwaukee.  Wis 2('3.97a 

Newark.  N.  J Is2.i  20 

Louisville,  K.v 185.756 

Minneapolis,  Minn 164,780 

Jersey  Citv.  N.  .J 103.987 

Eoofacster.  N.  Y 1?5,302 

Umuha.  Neb 134.742 

St.  Paul.  Minn 133,156 

Providence.  R.  X 132.043 

Denver.Col 126.186 

Indianapolis,  Ind 125.0(i0 

Kansas  Citv.  Mo Uo.MiO 

.Uleghany  City,  Pa 101,967 

OvKK  75,000  AND  Bklow  100,000. 

ecranton ,  Pa 9o,0C0 

Albanv.  X.  Y 93.523 

New  Haven.  Ct 85,981 

Worcester.  .Mass 82,133 

Richmoni 80.3C0 

Paterson.  X.J 78,300 

Memphis,  Tenn 75,360 

ihe  census  of  18811  showed  that  of  the  total  population.  .50,155,783, 
Jiere  were  6,679,143  born  ia  foreign  countries,  or  15.364  persons 
foreigners  to  lOO.OOO  native  born;  this  ratio  was  a  little  less  than 
in  1370,  when  the  number  of  foreign-born  was  16..875  to  100.000 
native, 
'bomber  of     The  following  tables  show  the  number  of  immigrants  arriving  in 
mniisranls  the  Uuited  States  for  each  decade  from  1821  to  ISN',  and  tor  each 
^rriv.ng  in  year  from  l^Sl  to  18^7.    The  yearly  average  during  each  decade 
vnited  rose  rapidly,  from  14.314  in  the  decade  1^^21-30  to  2^'4,469  for  the 

■-:aiea.  decade  1^71-80.    The  number  of  immigrants  for  the  year  1881  was 

more  than  twice  as  great  as  the  yearly  average  of  the  preceding 
deca<le.  The  maximum  was  reached  in  1882,  when  the  number  of 
immigrants  reached  7o0.349.  from  which  time  forward  there  was  a 
falling  off,  the  figures  in  1SS5  being  3.o0.510.  A  portion  of  this 
ai>parent  decrease  seems  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  statistics  of 
the  iramigration  by  land  from  Canada  and  Mexico — the  latter  very 
smnll  in  amount,  however — could  not  be  collected;  so  that  since 
July  1.  l!iS5.  arrivals  of  this  kind  have  been  excluded  from  the 
tables  of  immigration.  In  the  first  table  herewith  given,  the 
nationality  of  the  immigration  is  only  imperfectly  given,  the 
British  Islands  being  separated  from  the  rest  of  Europe,  and  the 
figures  also  being  for  China.  As  will  be  noticed,  the  immigration 
from  Europe  and  China  made  up  about  five-sixths  of  the  total 
daring  the  decade  1871-80.  But  in  the  decade  1S51-60  the  immi- 
gration from  Europe  made  up  twenty  four  twenty-fifths  of  the 
total,  thatfroin  China  being  practically  null.  The  apparent  in- 
crease of  immigration  from  extra-European  countries  indicated 
in  the  table  for  the  decades  since  1860  is  chiefly  due  to  the  rapid 
increase  of  immigration  into  the  United  .States  from  the  adjacent 
Dominion;  but  this  ia  made  up  in  part  of  persons  who  have  come 
to  the  United  .States  from  Europe  by  way  (>t  Canada: 


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[In  this  and  the  following  tiihle  notice  must  be  taken  of  the  fact 
that  tor  the  last  halt  of  1885  and  for  1886  and  1887  the  immigratioa 
from  British  North  America  and  Mexico  is  not  included.] 

Still  further  light  will  be  thrown  on  this  subject  by  the  follow- 
ing_  table,  in  which  the  nationality  of  the  immigration  into  the 
United  States  is  given  in  considerable  detail  for  the  years  1S31  to 
1887,  in  percentages  of  the  total  amount.  From  tliis  table  it  will 
be  seen  that  Germany  has  furnished  during  the  past  seven  years 
somewhat  less  than  one-third  of  the  total  immigration;  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  somewhiit  more  than  a  quarter;  Xorway  and 
Sweden  about  atenth;  British  North  America  a  bout  a  tenth:  Aus- 
tro-Hungnry  a  little  over  six  per  cent;  Russia  (including  Poland), 
from  tour  to  five  per  cent;  and  Italy  nearly  the  same.  These  nation- 
alities together  have  furnished  during  the  past  six  years  about 
ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  total.  The  immigration  from  Italy  and 
Russia  shows  a  moderately  rapid,  but  pretty  uniform,  increase 
from  year  to  year : — 


Percentage  Table  Showing  the  Nationality  of  Immigrants 
INTO  THE  United  States  for  the  Years  1881-87  * 


1331. 

18S2. 

1883. 

18S4. 

1.3.10 

9.85 

3.92 

.27 

1.24 

.78 

34. 6G 

2.79 

1.50 

11.51 

2.01 

.06 

■     1.62 

.06 

2.87 

13.22 

.54 

12.11 

9.99 

4.10 

.15 

1.75 

.76 

31.80 

4.03 

1.08 

12  00 

3.07 

.66 

1.62 

.06 

4.87 

11.9U 

.65 

12.92 

14.67 

5.30 

.29 

1.71 

.70 

32.33 

5.18 

.86 

9.45 

1.78 

.16 

2.00 

.06 

.07 

11.74 

.78 

13  69 

Ireland    

12  70 

6  81 

.37 

Denmark 

1  65 

80 

Germany 

33  72 

3  14 

81 

Norway  and  Sweden        

8  22 

Russia 

4.32 
11 

Switzerland 

1  78 

0 1  her  European  Countries 

China 

British  North  America 

.23 

.02 

10  3f» 

1  26 

190.00 

lOO.CO 

100.00 

lOO.OC 

—  Nationait* 
of  imiui 

granii. 


?22 


UNITED      STATES 


[the    PtTBLIC   LANDS. 


rckCENTAGE  Table  Showing  the  Xatioxauty  of  iMMiGRiXTS 

INTO  THE  VXITED  STATES  FOR  THE  YEAKS  1885-87.* 


1885. 

1886. 

1887. 

15.92 

14.21 

7.31 

,39 
1.B7 

.90 

30.72 

4.42 

.71 
9.47 
5.72 

.26 
1.46 

.19 

.02 
5.22 
1.41 

18. 7'. 

13.47 

10.22 

.42 

1.69 

1.04 

21.96 

7.78 

.1)8 

11.73 

8.45 

.13 

1.15 

.64 

.00 

20.64 

'  iflau'l                             

14.06 

7.56 

.58 

Jei.m;u  k 

1.80 
1.08 

21.53 

8.99 

1.02 

13.46 

5  95 

.01 

1.26 

.25 

China 

British  North  America 

All  Other  Cooutnes 

.00 

1.89 

1.81 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

The  immiffration  into  the  United  States  is  very  unequally  dis- 
tributed over  the  surfnce  of  the  country.  An  inspection  of  the 
census  tables  and  the  accompanying  maps  showsjhat  immigrants 
in  very  Jarge  proportinn  seek  Northern  regions.  In  the  Souihern 
StJites,  with  the  exceptions  of  Florida.  Louisiana,  ami  Texas,  the 
foreign  element  is  practically  null.  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
Bouth  Carolina,  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  Mississippi  have  less  than 
one  per  cent  of  foreign-bom  population;  and  no  t>tate  south  of 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Ohio  River  and  east  of  the  ^Mississippi  has 
as  much  as  four  per  cent.  In  the  belt  of  States  between  the 
parallels  of  41*^  and  45°,  on  the  other  hand,  the  foreign  element  is 
most  strongly  renresented.  Thus  In  Massachusetts,  Connecticut* 
Rhode  Isian<l.  New  York,  Michigan.  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and 
Dakota  the  fof'-ign-horn  population  is  over  twenty-6ve  per  cent  of 
the  native,  and  in  the  two  last-named  States  over  fifty  per  cent. 
Iowa.  Nebraska,  and  Kansas,  forming  a  belt  of  States  extending 
Boiirhwpsterly  from  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  totlie  -'^.Tth  parallel, 
huve  a  foreign  born  population  ranging  between  ten  and  twenty- 
five  per  cent  ot  the  native,  except  in  tlie  case  of  Nebraska,  where 
the  foreign  ia  a  little  over  twenty-five  per  cent.  In  some  of  the 
thinly  inhabited  States  farther  west  the  foreign  element  is  stili 
more  prominent,  as  in  Colorado.  Utah.  Nevada,  Arizona,  and  Cali- 
fornia. In  Nevada,  for  example,  according  to  the  census  of  1880. 
the  foreign-born  inhabitants  were  it>  the  natives  in  the  ratio  of 
70,065  to  lOH.OUU.  But  it  must  be  remembered  in  this  connection 
that  the  enMre  population  of  Nevada  at  ihat  time  was  only  62,286, 
and  that  of  Arizona  40.440.  In  no  State  or  Territory  does  the 
foreign  element  equal  the  native,  and  only  in  Nevada.  Arizona, 
li.ikota,  Minnesota,  and  California  is  it  more  than  half  as  large, 
wliiia  in  the  two  last-named  States  it  is^but  little  more  than  half. 
Texas  forms  an  exception  to  the  other  Southern  States,  the  foreign 
element  being  of  importance,  especially  in  the  southwestern  por- 
iiou  of  the  State.  The  State  as  a  whole  has.  however,  only  a  little 
less  than  eight  per  cent  of  foreign-bnrn  inhabitants. 

The  percentage  increase  of  the  native  white  element  of  the  popu- 
lations was.  for  the  three  decades  1851-80,  aa  follows;— 

1851-60 32.35 

186'-70 22.95 

1S71-S0 31.25 

F.iAy  in  1382  an  Act  was  passed  by  Congress  snspendingChinese 
immiijraiion  into  the  United  States  for  the  term  of  twenty  years. 
This  was  vetoed  by  the  President,  and  another  one  w;is  passed 
having  nearly  the  same  provisions  asthe  firsi,  butlimicing  the 
time  of  its  operation  to  ten  ytars.  This  Act  was  not  vetoed  ;  but 
became  a  law  May  6, 18S2.  This  second  Act  is  entitled  "An  Act 
to  execute  certain  treaty  stipulations  relating  to  Chinese."  From 
and  after  ninety  days  after  the  passage  of  this  Act  the  entrance 
of  Chinese  "  laborers  *'  into  tlie  United  Stales  was  forbidden,  and 
any  master  of  a  vessel  bringing  them  here  was  punishable  by  a 
fine  of  5600  for  each  laborer  so  brought,  and  also  by  impri.-^on- 
meut  for  a  term  not  exceeding  one  year.  The_  pretext  for  this 
unprecedented  Act  was*'thnt  the  coming  of  Chinese  laborers  to 
this  C'untry  endangers  the  good  order  of  certain  localities  "  with- 
in the  territory  of  the  United  States.  The  trm  "laborers"  was 
held  to  nie;in  "  both  skilled  and  unskilled  laborers*  and  Chinese 
employed  in  mining." 

Further  legislation  relating  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Chinese  from 
the  United  States  was  hnd  by  Congress  in  1888.  The  two  Acts  were 
passed,  the  first  having  been  approved  Sept.  13, 1888,  and  a  second. 
BupplemeiHiiry  to  this,  Oct.  I.  of  the  same  ye;ir.  The  object  of 
thvsc  two  Ar-tg  was  to  prevent  the  Chinese  wlm  wen-  then  in  the 
IJnited  States  from  returning  &fter  having  left  this  country. 
The  first  Act.  (approved  Sept.  13)  allowed  a  native  of  China  to  re- 

*The  Immigration  into  the  United  States  arriving  at  the  six 

Principal  ports  (embracing  about  ninety-eight  per  cent  of  the  en- 
ire  iramigrationl  was.  for  the  first  nine  months  of  the  year  1888, 
132,802  a  slight  increase  over  that  of  the  corresponding  months  of 
thf  preceding  year. 


turn,  provided  he  had  a  "  lawful  wife,  chiid  or  parent  within  the 
United  States, or  property  therein  I'f  the  value  ot  one  thousand 
dollars,  or  debts  of  like  amount  due  him  and  pending  settlement." 
This  privilege  was  entirely  cancelled  by  the  supplementary  Acti 
approved  Oct.  1 ;  and  as  the  matter  now  stands,  only  "  ChinLse  offi-  Exdnsiois 
cials,  teachers,  students,  merchants,  or  travelers  for  pleasure  or  of  Cbini'S* 
curiosity  are  permitted  to  enter  the  United  States."  Furthermore, 
it  is  provided  that  in  order  to  become  entitled^  to  such  entrance 
they  must  "  obtain  the  permission  of  the  Chinese  Government 
or  other  Government  of  which  they  may  at  the  time  be 
citizens  or  subjects."  This  permission,  and  the  personal 
identity  of  the  party  having  obtained  it,  must  be  au- 
thenticated by  the  diplomatic  or  consular  representative 
of  the  United  States  at  the  port  or  place  from  which  thf< 
party  comes.  It  is  further  provided  that  any  master  of  a  vessel 
landing,  or  attempting  to  land,any  Chinese  laborer,*' in  contraven* 
tion  to  the  provisions  of  tliis  Act.  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor, and,  on  conviction  thereof,  shall  be  punished  with  a 
fine  of  not  less  than  five  hundred  nor  more  than  one  thousand  dol- 
lars, in  the  discretion  ot  the  Court,  for  every  Chinese  laborer  or 
other  Chinese  perion  so  brought,  and  may  also  be  imprisoned  for  a 
term  of  not  less  than  one  year,  nor  more  than  five  years,  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  Court.'* 

Provisions  have  also  been  made  by  Act  of  Congress  for  the  regu- 
lation of  the  immigrant  carrying  busincs-s.  and  rules  have  been  pro- 
scribed as  to  food,  water,  li^'bt,  space  occupied,  etc.  A  tax  of 
fifty  cents  is  also  imposed  on  all  immigrants  landing  in  this  coua- 
try  to  be  used  "in  defraying  the  expense  of  regulating  immigra^ 
tion  under  this  Act,  and  for  the  care  of  immigrants  arriving  in  ■ 
the  United  States,  for   the  relief  of  such  as  are  in  distress,  etc."* 

By  an  Act  of  Congress,  approved  Aug.  3. 1882,  it  is  provided  that  R"'';&  Eosp 
no  convict,  lunatic,  idiot,  or  person  '*  unable  to  take  care  ot  him-  hiim.i 
self  or  herself  without  becoming  a  public  charge  "  shall  be  permit-  ffrauli 
ted  f  o  land.    Under  the  provisions  of  this  Act  it  appears  that  from 
IHSSto  Sept.  2b,  lHh8. 7,764  immigrants  had  been  returned  from  the 
United  States  to  their  own  countries — or  an  average  of  about  1,^00 
persons  a  year.    Of  those  thus  returned  from  1883  to  lt>88  inclu- 
sive, there  were  27  convicts,  371  lunatics,  and  131  idiots.   The  re- 
mainder; (7,235  persons)  were  returned  as"  liable  to  become  a  pub- 
lic charge."! 

THE    PUBLIC  LANDS. 

The    emigration    from   Europe  and  other  countries    consists 
largely  of  people  .seeking  homes  in  the  New  World;  and  this  want 
ischiefly  supplied  by  the  purchase  of  government  land—"  public 
lands."  as  usually  designated  by  the  authorities— that  is,  of  such 
laud  as  is  offered  for  sale  by  authority  of  theUeneral  Government, 
under  the  direction  of  the  General  Land  Office — a  branch  or  sub- 
department  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior.      It  is  de.--irab!e,  E-"5tent 
therefore,  that  the  way  in  which  the  General  Government  cume  in  fl-i^d  _ 
possession  of  these  lands  should  be  briefly  stated,  and  some  idea  position, 
given  of  their  extent  and  pot^ition. 

The  boundaries  of  the  United  States  as  fixed  by  the  provisional 
treaty  made  with  Great  Britain  in  1782.  and  by  the  definitive 
treaty  in  1783,  gave  to  the  United  States  essentially  the  region 
south  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  east  of  the  Mississippi,  as  far  south 
as  the  parallel  of  31°;  and  the  southern  boundary  east  of  the  Miss- 
issippi, !is  thus  establisiied,  nenrly  along  the  31st  parallel,  was,  in 
1795.  re-atfirmed  by  treaty  with  Spain,  by  which  the  liue  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Floridas  was  fixed;  but  difficulties  soon 
arose  in  regard  to  the  northern  boundary,  both  in  its  eastern  and 
western  portions,  which  w-i  e,  during  many  years,  the  subject  of 
heated  discussion,  and  uhich  moio  than  once  threatened  to  in- 
volve the  two  countries,  (ire;it  Britain  and  the  United  States,  to 
war.  The  most  important  points,  were,  however,  peaceably  set- 
tled in  1846,  and  the  la.^t  point  in  dispute  finally  disposed  of.  by 
reference  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany  as  arbitrator,  in  1872. 

At  the  time  of  the  adoidion  of  the  Constitution  by  the  original 
thirteen  States,  most  of  tlieni  had  claims,  nither  vague,  and  in 
manv  cases  decidedly  conflicting,  to  a  more  or  less  indefinite  area 
of  country  west  of  their  settlements,  and  extending  back  to  the 
Mississippi  River.  After  much  discussion,  the  States  having 
these  claims,  influenced  by  the  distinct  renlizaiiim  of  the  trouble 
which  would  ensue  in  case  an  attempt  was  made  to  maintain 
them,  did.  in  response  to  a  resolution  of  Congress,  consent  to  a 
transferof  these  claims  to  the  United  States.  The  first  cession  of 
this  kind  was  that  of  New  York,  in  1781.  and  the  last,  that  of 
Georgia,  in  1802.  The  region  thus  ceded  was  divided  into  two  ter- 
ritories, one  of  which  was  culled  the  "Territory  Northwest  of  tha 
River  Ohio,"  the  other  the  "Territory  South  of  the  River  Ohio." 
This  region  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  publie  Innds  of  the  United 
States.  This  did  not  include  the  present  Si:(t--g  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  the  former  having  been  admitted  tn  the  Union  withnuk 
any  claim  on  the  part  of  the  United  £t:ites  to  proprietorship  in  the 
soil,  and  similar  rights  in  regard  to  the  latter  having  bc<  n  relin- 
quished by  Act  of  Conf-.^-ss.  The  total  area  of  the  I'nited  States 
at  thi^  time  wiis  about  850,000  square  miles.  The  first_  ndditioa 
made  to  this  wa--  by  the  French  cession  of  the  undetenniiicd  area 
known  as  Louisiana.  This  was  brought  about  by  Jrfferson.  who 
recognized  the  fact  that  France  would  not  be  able  to  hold  the 


*This  tax  is  not  collected  from  immigrants  coming  from  Canada 
or  Mexico. 

tA  very  stringent  Act  was  passed  by  Congress  in  1885,  prohibit- 
ing the  importation  and  immigracion  of  forcignersundaliens  "un- 
der contract  or  agreement  to  perform  labor  in  the  United 
States,  its  Territories,  and  the  District  of  Columbia  "_  This  Act 
c^n  have  littlo  practical  effect  en  the  number  of  immigrants  ar- 
rivintrin  this  country;  nor  ha.s  the  writer  been  able  t'l  procure  any 
definite  information  astowhether  any  persons  have  ever  been 
sent  back  under  its  provisions. 


THE    PUBLIC    LANDS.] 


UNITED      STATES 


823 


regi'^n  against  the  English,  with  whom  Bonaparte,  iit  that  time 
First  odd)  (l&'S-lSOn  First  CmhsuI.  was  about  to  go  to  war.  The  treaty  of 
x-ioii.  cession  with  Bonaparte  gave  no  precise  limits  to  tho  territory 

ceded,  but  only  de:>cribeii  It  as  beinj:  the  same  as  that  ceded  by 
Spain  to  France  according  to  the  treaty  of  San.  Ildt-fonso.  This 
vagueness  was.  nodoubt  agreeable  to  the  wishes  of  the  American 
Degotiator-.  who  did  not  lack  foresight,  and  who  must  easily  have 
frimprehended  the  fact  that  the  more  vague  the  terms  of  the  cession 
tlie  better  the  chance  ot  a  future  extension  of  the  claims  of  the 
United  States  westward.  In  point  of  fact  the  French  cession  did 
not  include  the  country  west  to  the  Pacific,  as  it  was  afterward 
held  to  do.  for  the  French  had  no  claim  whatever  to  the  region 
west  of  the  head  of  the  Missouri.  As  a  consequence  of  this  cession, 
however,  this  vast  region  did  come  into  possession  of  the 
United  States,  the  boundary  having  been  finally  settled  in  1S72, 
after  ninety  years  of  discussion.  The  final  settlement  was  by  a 
Reference  of  the  point  in  dispute  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  who 
cJeciiied  in  favor  of  the  United  Stales;  the  main  question  with  re- 
^rd  to  the  extension  of  the  boun'lary  along  the  line  of  the  49th 
-(.•arallel  to  the  Pacific,  having  been  settlediu  1846  by  the  Webster- 
jAshburton  treaty,  which  fixed  the  boundary  as  far  west  a^  the 
ctraits  of  Fuea.  This  cession  of  Louisiana,  as  finally  settled  by 
ffeaty  with  England,  added  largely  to  the  area  of  the  United 
States,  extending  its  limits  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  giving  that 
gountry  complete  possession  of  the  Central  River  system  of  the 
continent.  The  cost  of  this  cession  to  the  United  States  was  about 
twenty-three  and  a  half  million  dollars  in  principal  and  in- 
terest, 

A  further  addition  to  the  territory  of  the  United  States  was  by  a 
cession  from  Spain  of  the  territory  comprised  in  the  present  State 
of  Florida,  which  took  place  in  1819,  the  area  thus  conveyed  being 
Bb<3ut  5S.68t.)  square  miles,  and  the  cost  about  six  and  a  half  millions 
3f  dollars.  Previous  to  this  cession,  however,  the  United  States 
had.  by  Act  of  Congress  passed  in  secret  session  in  1812.  but  not 
pmrnulgated  until  ISI-^,  taken  possession  of  an  area  of  atout9,740 
square  miles  in  West  Florida,  which  was  claimed  by  the  Spanish 
Government  as  its  property,  but  which  claim  was  relinquished  by 
the  cession  of  1SI9. 

The  next  acquisition  of  territory  by  the  United  States  was  the 
result  of  the  admission  into  the  Union  of  the  Republic  of  Texas,  a 
form'^r  province  of  Mexico,  having  an  area  of  2^5,780  square  miles. 
This  ann'^xatioa  led  to  a  war  with  the  country  to  which  Texas  had 
formerly  belonged,  the  result  of  which  was  the  conquest  of  Mexico, 
the  occupation  of  its  capital  by  ihe  United  States  army,  and  the 
dictation  of  a  treaty  of  peace  called  the  "treaty  of  Gaudalupe- 
Hidalgo,'"  which  was  proclaimed  July  4,  1848.  By^  this  treaty  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  United  States  was  established ;  but  sub- 
sequently. Dec.  31^.  185^?.  a  purchase  was  made  of  a  strip  of  land  ly- 
ing south  of  the  Gila  River  in  Xew  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  con- 
taining about  47,330  square  miles.  This  is  known  as  the  "Gads- 
den purchase." 
Claiit  s  of  The  claims  of  both  Great  Britain  and  Mexico  to  the  region  lying 
Gre..i  iJrit- west  of  the  Slissouri  and  northwest  of  Texas  being  extremely 
MP  and  vague,  it  i^  not  possible  to  stiite.  with  any  approach  to  precision, 
i-'exico.  what  portions  of  this  area  originally  belonged  to  the  two  powers 
in  question.  All  that  can  b5  said  is  that,  remotely,  in  consequence 
of  the  purchase  of  "  Louisiana  "  from  Bonaparte,  and  more  direct- 
ly, as  the  result  of  treaties  with  Great  Britain  and  Mexico  settling 
the  northern  and  southern  boundaries  of  the  United  States,  the 
last  named  country  came  into  posspssion  of  a  little  over  l.SOO.llOO 
square  miUs  of  land,  a-  shown  in  the  following  statement  of  the 
nature  and  size  of  the  area=  n-lded  from  time  to  time  to  what  wa^ 
ihe  original  domain  of  the  Colonies  at  the  time  of  their  establish- 
jMent  as  an  independent  government: 

Square  miles. 

Original  area  of  the  United  States &49,145 

Added  by  purchase  of  Florida,  1819, 
including  9,740  square  miles  pre- 
viouslv  in  dispute,  but  in  posses- 
sion o'f  the  United  States 58,680 

Annexation  of  Texas.  1848 265.780 

Gadsden  Purchase.  1853 47,330 

Purchase  of  Louisiana  and  cessions 
by    Mexico,  1&J4^48 l,tJ4.t>65 

Total 3,025.600 

One  other  addition  to  the  area  of  the  United  States  was  made 
in  1867.  namely,  by  the  purchase  from  tbe  Russian  Government 
of  the  retridu  known  as  Alaska,  which  comprises  an  area  of  about 
63i).0(Hi  square  miles.  The  price  paid  for  this  piece  of  land 
was  S7.2'Jo,oiH).  Thepurchaseof  this  territory,  the  nearest  point  of 
fl-hichisfonr  hundred  miles  distant  from  the  northern  line  of 
Washington,  was  an  entirely  unprecedented  act  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  ail  the  rest  of  the  possessions  of  this  country  form- 
AUika.  ing  one  compact  mass  of  land.  Whenever,  in  the  course  of  this 
work,  menti'»n  is  made  of  the  United  States,  it  will  be  understood 
tliat  Ala  ka  is  not  included,  unless  a  statement  to  that  effect  is 
BI*ccially  male  In  the  same  connection. 

The  entire  area  of  the  public  land?  of  the  United  States  (exclu- 
iiive  of  Alaskn.  no  portion  of  which  has  yet  been  surveyed)  is  esti- 
mated by  the  Commis-ioner  of  the  General  Laml  Office,  in  his  re- 
port for  the  year  18S6,  at  2.s'.ii.725  square  miles,  or  1.815.nu4.U7 
acres.  Of  thi-;  area  there  had  been  surveyed,  up  to  June  30,  1S86. 
971.174,878  acres,  leaving  844,:^,29.269  unsurveyed.  In  reference  to 
this  unsurveyed  portion  the  Commissioner  made  the  following  re- 
mark: "Thevolumeof  land  in  the  unsurveyed  portion  of  the 
public  domain  suitable  for  homes  and  subject  to  settlement  under 
the  laws  of  the  United  States  is  of  comparatively  small  propor- 
tions." 

Of  the  public  lands  of  the  United  States  a  large  quantity  has 


been  sold  for  cash,  and  a  much  largcramount  taken,  under  various 
Acts  of  Congress,  fur  schools  and  nther  educational  purposes;  as 
military  bouu,ty ;  as  *'  swamp  land,"  given  to  the  respective  States 
where  it  occurs,  or  has  been  claimed  to  occur;  as  a  bonus  for  the 
construction  of  various  lines  of  railroad,  especially  those  travers 
ing  thecontiu'-nt  from  ea-^t  to  west;  as  "homesteads"  to  actual 
settlers,  and  for  various  oiher  purposes.  It  is  impossible  to  slate 
the  exact  amount  of  the  public  land  which  has  been  thus  disposed 
of,  but  it  is  certain  that  nearly  all  the  valuable  portion  of  the  na- 
tions great  inheritance  ha-s  been  taken  up  already,  or  has  passeH 
out  of  the  control  of  the  Government.  In  regard  |to  this  point, 
the  following  quotation  may  be  made  from  the  introduction  to 
the  volume  entitled'"  Statistics  of  Agriculture,"  forming  a  part  of 
the  report  of  the  census  of  1880.  and  published  in  1883,  the  re- 
marks here  quoted  beiug  from  the  pen  of  General  Walker, 
formerly  superintendent  of  that  census : 

"It  thus  appears  that,  notwithstanding  the  imposing  total  of  Valuable 
1.40*1,000  .-quare  miles  of  still  unsettled  territory,  the  amount  of  land 
land  available  for    occupation    for  ordinary  agriculture  is  not  aires  iy 
large.    The  Public  Land  Cummissiun  in  their  report  of  1880,  say:  gone 
'It  was  estimated  June  ?0,  1879,  that  (exclusive  of  certain  lands  in 
Southern  Statestof  lands  over  which  the  survey  and  disposition 
laws  had  extended,  lying  in  the  West,  the  United  States  did  not 
own.  of  arable  agricultural  public  lands,  which  could  be  culti- 
vated without  irrigation  or  other  artificial  appliances,  more  than 
the  area  of  the  pr<.sent  State  of  Ohio.  namely._25, 56*5.960  acres.  The 
quantity  of  land  taken  up  in  the  arable  region  during  the  year 
ending  June   o(i,    1S80.    was   about  7,000.000  acres.^   The    Com- 
mission,   therefore,    reaches  the  startling    conclusion    that,  at 
the  same  rate  of  absorption,  the  arable  lands  so  situated  will  ail 
be  taken  up  within  three  years,  or  by  June  30, 1883.' 

"It  is  indeed  an  astonishing  aTimtuncement  that  the  public  land 
system,  so  far  as  relates  to  a;j:ricultural  settlers,  has  virtually 
come  to  an  end;  that  the  homestead  and  pre-emption  acts  are 
practically  exhausted  of  their  contents." 

Professor  A.  B.  Hart  has  compihd  from  public  documents  th© 
following  approximat'^  statem  nt  of  the  manner  in  which  the  pub- 
lic lands  had  been  disposed  of  up  to  the  various  periods  men- 
tioned.   The  numbers  given  indicate  acres: 


s 

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^     ^     ci 


.-i     o     i:     •-<     T-<     -^ 


In  reference  to  the  wasteful  and  reckless  manner  in  which  the 
public  lands  of  the  United  States  had  been  given  away,  uittil  but 
little  of  value  remains.  Professor  Ilart  makes  the  following  re- 
marks:— 

"  Experts  in  the  Land  Office  assure  us  that,  making  all  deduc- 
tions and  allowances,  the  remaining  lands  are  worth  upward-  of  a 
thousand  million  dollars.  There  is  no  evidence  in  the  past  policy 
of  the  government  for  believing  that  we  shall  actually  not  one- 
tenth  of  that  amount.  The  greater  part  of  the  region  is  officially 
classified  as  'desert  lands.*  and  is  for  sale  in  tracts  of  six  hundred 
and  forty  acres,  at  a  dollar  and  a  quarter  an  acre.  Nothing  but 
the  temporary  increase  of  pre-emption  enables  the  Land  Ollice  a!; 
present  to  pay  its  running  expenses  out  of  income.  The  g»^ldeti 
time  is  past;  our  agricultural  land  is  gone;  our  timber  lands  aw 


824 


UNITED      STATES 


[agriculture. 


fast  going;  our  coal  and  mineral  lands  will  be  snapped  up  as  fast 
as  they  prove  valuable.*'* 

AGRICULTURE. 

The  following  statements  and  tablei  present  a  succinct  view  of 
the  nature  and  importance  of  the  agricultural  interests  of  the 
United  States,  beginning  with  the  cereals. 

r. — THE     CEREALS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  production  of  the  cereals  in  bush- 
els, as  returned  by  the  census  of  1880:  — 

Production  in  bushels. 

Barley 44.113,495 

Uuckwheat 11,817.327 

Indian  corn 1,754,861,535 

Oats 407.858,999 

Kye 19,831.595 

Wheat 459,479,505 

VroduL'tion  The  production  of  barley  was  largest  in  California  (twelve  and  a 
of  cereals,  bait  million  bushels);  other  States  producing  considerable  quan- 
tities were:  New  York.  Iowa,  ^linuesota.  Nebraska.  Ohio.  No 
other  State  produced  as  much  as  one  million  bushels.  In  1886  the 
total  production  of  barley  in  the  United  States  was69.42.S,0(jO  bush- 
els; of  that  amount  California  produced  16,O38.U00  bushels;  aud 
Neir  York.  Minnesota,  Wisconsin  and  Iowa  each  over  five  million 
and  less  than  ten  million  bushels;  while  Nebraska.  Michigan  and 
iJttkota  each  produced  over  one  million  and  less  than  five  million 
bushels. 

The  total  production  of  buckwheat  within  the  United  States,  ac- 
cor.lin^  to  the  census  of  188(»,  was  11,817,327  bushels:  of  this  amount 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania  produced  respectively,  4.461,2U0  and 
3.592.3-6  bushels.  No  other  State  produced  as  much  as  half  aniill- 
ioii  bushels;  the  production  of  this  cereal  in  the  Gulf  States  being 
extreme-Iv  vmall.  that  of  the  Pacific  States  being  also  very  insig- 
nitieant.  No  one  of  the  States,  other  than  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, proiiuced  as  much  as  half  a  million  bushels. 

In  18.S1J  the  total  production  of  buckwheat  was  U.SWt.OOO  bushels, 
oralmost  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  last  census  year  (1879). 

Indian  corn  is  the  most  bulky  crop  among  the  cereals,  the  total 
yield  as  reported  by  the  census  of  1880  being  1.754, %1,535  bushels. 
The  principal  production  of  this  crop  is  in  the  belt  of  States  lying 
north  of  the  Ohio,  and  in  the  same  latitude  on  the  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table: — 

Production  in 

State.  bushels  in  1879. 

Illinois 325,792,481 

Iowa 2'  5,024,247 

Missouri 202.485.723 

Indiana 115,482.300 

Ohio 111,877,124 

These  five  States  produced,  as  will  be  seen,  consid-rably  more 
than  half  the  total  yield'of  the  country  in  the  year  for  which  the 
statistics  are  given.  As  we  go  north,  south,  east  and  west  from 
this  belt  we  find  the  yield  of  Indian  corn  diminishing.  Still,  this 
cereal  i-;  a  product  of  importance  even  as  far  south  as  the  Gulf 
States,  but  is  of  comparatively  little  consequence  in  New  England, 
the  total  production  of  the  six  New  England  States  in  1879  being 
only  8.376.133  bushels. 

In  1886  the  total  yield  of  Indian  corn  was  1.6a5,411.0(X)  bushels, 
and  the  States  producing  over  one  hundred  millloa  bushels  each 
were: 

Production  in 
States.  bushels  in  1886. 

Illinois 209.818,000 

Iowa 198.847,(X)0 

Missouri 143.709,000 

Kansas 126.712,000 

Indiana 118.795.000 

Nebraska 106.12*J,000 

Yield  of  In-  These  six  States  produced  in  that  year  considerably  more  than 
dian  corn,  half  of  the  total,  and  the  gradual  advancement  westward  of  the 
agiiculturfll  development  of  the  country  is  shown  in  the  appear- 
im'-e  of  Nebraska  in  the  above  column  of  figures  as  a  producer  of 
o\  or  a  hundred  millions  of  bushels.  The  yield  of  Indian  corn  in 
thisStite.  according  to  the  census  of  1870,  was  4,73h. 710  bushels, 
and  in  1*<79  it  had  increased  to  65.450.115 bushels.  The  figures  for 
i>;ikota  for  the  same  years  were  133.140  and  2,000,8W  bushels. 
Uf  this  crop,  so  important  as  it  is  for  home  consumption,  but  a 
very  small  fraction  is  exported.  The  following  table  exhibits  the 
total  produce  ot  the  country  for  the  years  since  the  census  year 
(1879)  up  to  and  including  the  year  1886.  together  with  the  per- 
centage exported  for  each  year: 

Production  Per  cent. 

Year.  in  bushels.  exported. 

1880 1.717.434.543  5.5 

1881 1.194.916.000  37 

1882 1.617.02=1.100  2.6 

1883 1 .551.066,895  3.0 

1884 1.795.528,000  2.9 

1885 1.936.176,000  3.3 

1886 1,665,441,000  2.5 

♦Quarterly  .Tourual  of  Economics,  vol.  i.  p.  181  (number  for 
January.  1887). 


The  yield  of  corn  in  1SS7  is  given  by  the  Department  of  Agricult- 
ure as  1,456.161,000  bushels,  and  that  of  1888  is  estimated  at 
1.9S7. 790,000  bushels.  Since  1879  the  home  consumption  of  this 
cereal  has  averaged  about  twenty-seven  bushels  per  annum  for 
each  inhabitant  of  the  country;  in  the  ten  years  preceding  it  aver- 
aged about  twenty-fire  bushels. 

The  total  yield  of  oats,  as  reported  by  the  census  of  1880,  was 
407.858,999  bushels.  The  distribution  of  this  crop  is  pretty  uni- 
form all  over  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  the  Gulf  and  Pa- 
cific Coast  States,  where  the  yield  of  this  cereal  is  very  small, 
barley  taking  the  place  of  oats  in  California  almost  entirely. 

The  fallowing  table  exhibits  the  production  of  oats  in  the  United 
States  from  1880  to  1888: 

Year.  Production  in  bushels. 

1880 417,885,380 

1881 416.481.000 

1882 488,250.610 

1883 .... 571,302.400 

18--J4 583,628,000 

1885 629,409,000 

1886 624.134,000 

1887 659.618,000 

1888 701,735.000 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  acres  cultivated  in  oats  since  the 
census  year  has  been  very  marked;  more  so  than  in  the  Cfise  of 
wheat  or  Indian  corn.  The  average  fur  the  decade,  1870-79  was 
11.000,000 acres;  that  for  the  years  1880-87  was  21.000.000  acres. 

The  amount  of  rye  grown  in  the  United  States  as  returned  by  Ptye, 
the  census  of  1880  was  I0.831,r.95  bushels;  the  principal  States 
where  this  crop  is  raised  being,  in  the  order  of  their  yield,  Penn- 
sylvania. 3.683.621;  Illinois.  :;,lL'l.785;  New  York,  2,i>34,690;  Wis- 
consin. 2,298,513;  and  Iowa.  1.518.605  bushels.  The  production  of 
this  cereal  in  the  States  south  of  Kentucky  and  Virginia  is  ex- 
tremely small,  but  some  rye  is  given  as  grown  in  every  State  and 
Territory,  except  Arizona  and  Nevada,  The  production  of  rye  in 
1HS6  was  24.489.000  bushels;  Kansas  appearing  this  year  as  a  pro- 
ducer of  a  little  over  two  million  bushels,  and  Nebra-^ka  of  nearly 
one  million. 

M'heat  is  an  extremely  important  crop  in  the  United  States.  Wheat. 
and  is  the  only  cereal  of  which  the  export  is  considerable.  The 
great  wheai-growing  States  are  those  along  thp  north  side  of  the 
Ohio,  from  New  York  westward  and  aero>s  the  Mississippi  into 
Iowa,  Kansas  and  Northwest,  including  Nebraska.  Minnesota  and 
Dakota.  The  yield  of  the  census  year  (1879i  was  4^9.479.505  bush- 
els. In  that  year,  Illinois.  Ind'ana.  Ohio.  Michigan.  Minnesota 
and  Iowa  each  produced  over  thirty  million  bushels;  the  total 
yield  of  those  six  States  was  somewhat  more  than  half  that  of  the 
whole  country.  In  1887  the  total  was  verv  nearly  the  same  (456,- 
329,000  bushels),  but  the  distribution  of  tn is  yield  was  somewhat 
different.  There  were  in  that  year  also  six  State-'^  producing  each 
more  than  thirty  million  bushels.  Of  these  six.  four  are  among 
those  included  im  a  similar  category  for  the  year  1879  Michigan 
and  Iowa  have  dropped  out  of  that  list,  and  Dakota  and  Califor- 
nia must  be  inserted  in  their  places.*  The.-^e  six  Slates,  as  before, 
produce  almost  exactly  half  the  entire  yield  of  the  country.  What  is 
more  remarkable  is,  that  Dakota,  which  in  1879  only  figured  with  a 
produce  of  2.x30,'2.S9  bushels,  appears  in  1817  as  furnishing  no 
less  than  52.l06.00i)  bushels,  or  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  whole 
crop  of  this  cereal  Other  States  of  importance  in  1887  were  Mis- 
souri. Iowa  and  iVIichignn.each  of  which  produced  between  twenty 
and  thirfy  millions  of  bushels;  and  Nebraska.  Oregon,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Wisconsin,  Kentucky  and  New  York,  each  of  which  pro- 
duced between  ten  and  twenty  millions  of  bushels. 

In  the  tabular  statement  of  the  yield  of  wheat  for  the  year  1887, 
as  given  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  forty-two  States  and 
Territories  appear  as  producing  more  or  less  of  this  cereal,  but  the 
quantity  grown  south  of  Kentucky  and  Virginia  is  very  small. 
The  yield  of  the  Gulf  States  is  entirely  insignificant,  Florida  and 
Louisiana  not  appearing  at  nil  in  the  list:  and  that  of  New_  Eng- 
land is  ciiually  unimportant,  the  whole  produce  of  that  section  of 
the  country  being  in  that  year  only  74.547  bushels. 

The  following  table  gives  the  production  of  wheat,  total  value, 
value  per  bushel,  and  amount  exported  for  each  of  the  years, 
1880-87:- 


Total  produc- 

Total value 

.\v.  value  per 

Amt.  e.\port- 

Tear. 

tion. 

of 

bushel 

ed. 

fBu-h-l.^i  1 

crop 

fin  cents). 

(Bushels.) 

1880.... 

49^..i)9.«ilS 

8474.201.850 

95.1 

186,321,514 

1881.... 

383.2-0.(ipO 

4.56,850.427 

119.3 

121,892.389 

18S2.... 

.iOi.lSo.i;!) 

414,602,125 

88.2 

147.811,316 

1883.... 

421,086.160 

383.649.272 

91.0 

111.534.182 

18S4.... 

512.76.^.000 

330.862,260 

64.5 

132,570.3(C 

1885.... 

3i7.112.000 

275.320.391/ 

77.1 

94,.565,791 

1886.... 

4.57.218,000 

314.226,020 

68.7 

1.53,804,970 

1887 

4oii  .3''0  000 

310  612,960 

68  1 

Aver'ge 

448,815,699 

373.794,413 

83.3 

135,500,076 

The  e.'tiiuate  of  the  AiiricuHural  Department  of  .the  yield  of 
wheat  for  the  year  1888  is  415,868,000, 

The  Ecrass  crop  is  well  under.«tood  to  be  the  greatest  of  all  the  Gr.'i>3 
crops  of  the  United  States.    Altogether,  in   ndilitinn  to  the  very  and  hay. 
large  amount  con.sumed  from  the  ground  during  the  grazing  sea- 


*  The  yield  of  California  remained  nearly  the  same  in  1887  that 
it  was  in  1879.  In  the  foriiier  year  it  was  a  trifle  over  thirty  mill- 
ions;   in  the  latter  a  trifle  under  that  amount. 


iRRlCCLTURE.J 


UNITED      STATES 


825 


-  'n.  the  value  of  the  harvested  hay  reaches  nearly  to  that  of  the 
Treat -St  of  the  cereal  crops.  The  following  statidties  are  pre- 
euted: — 

The  area  mown  io  1879  was  30.631.054  acres:  in  1880.  36.5<'l.fi>*8 
■:  es.  The  value  of  the  hay  cut  in  the  latter  yoar  wa,-^  353,437.699.* 
.n  one  State  (New  York)  the  value  amouuted  to  ovt-r  fifty  millions 
-t  dollars:  in  one  (Pennsylvania},  to  over  thirty  and  let-s  thitn 
forty  millions:  in  three  States  (Illinois.  Ohio  and  Iowa),  t^  over 
:'.venty  and  less  ihau  thirty  millions. 

The  i;r&<s  and  hav  producing^  industry  decreases  in  importance 
as  we  go  from  the  North  toward  the  South.  Thus,  the  thirteen 
States  in  each  of  which  (in  lS7i')  more  than  a  million  of  acres  were 
mown  are  all  north  of  the  panilklof  37°;  and  all  but  two  {Missouri 
and  Kansas)  north  of  39°,  excepting  very  small  fractions  of  Ohio, 
Indiana  and  Illinois. 
A»   mal^  The  number  and  value  of  the  animals  on  farms  in  the  year  1886 

iiH  ( y  prod-  was  as  follows:— 
"'  ^'  Number.       Value. 

Horses 13.172.936  $046,096,154 

Mules 2,191,727    174.853.563 

Milch  cows 14,S56.414    366.252.173 

Osen  and  other  cattle S4.37S,36:^    611,750.520 

Sheep 43.5t4.755     89.279.926 

Hogs  44.^46,525    220.811,082 

The  importance  of  the  crop  of  Indian  com  has  given  a  great  de- 
velopment to  the  business  of  fattening  swine,  and  an  average  of 
ibtiut  fifteen  per  cent,  of  this  production  has.  daring  the  past 
twenty-seven  yea^s,  b?en  exported.  The  average  value  of  "hog 
products''  (live  hogs,  bacon,  hams,  pork  and  lard)  exported  has 
been,  during  the  years  18S1-S7.  €73,671.607  per  annum,  as  against 
St;5.13>.49«  in  the  decade  1871-80. 

The  statistics  of  dairy  products  given  in  the  Agricultural  Report 
ot  ;h-  CensuN  uf  i88(J  for  the  year  1S79  are  presented  in  a  very  con- 
densed form,  as  follows:  — 

Milk  sold,  or  sent  to  butter  and  cheese 

factories  . .  - 530,129.755  gals. 

Butter  made  on  farms .  777,250,287  lbs. 

Cheese  made  on  farms 27,272.489  lbs. 

The  very  great  extent  and  importance  of  the  poultry  industry 
in  the  United  States  is  made  apparent  by  the  following  statement 
of  facts  gathered  by  the  census  of  1880:— 

Bamvard  poultry  on  hand,  June  1. 1880.. .    102.272.135 

Other  poultrv  on  hand  June  1,  1880 23,235.187 

Eggs  produced  in  1879 456,910.916 

At  twelve  cents  a  dozen,  the  annual  value  of  the  egg  product  to 
'     the  farm  would  reach  nearly  855,0('0.000,  and  the  vajue  of  the  fowls 
consumed  as  food  may  fairly  be  estimated  at  S20,000,fi00.  The  aver- 
age yield  of  eggs  per  fowl  is  fully  twice  as  great  in  the  Northern 
SUTes  as  it  is  in  the  Southern. 
Cotton.  The  cotton  production  of  the  United  States  is  of  great  impor- 

tance, both  from  the  extent  to  which  this  material  i::;  manufact- 
ured within  the  country,  and  because  it  is  the  first  on  the  list  in 
value  among  the  exports. 

_  Cotton  is  mentioned  in  the  records  of  the  Colony  of  South  Caro- 
lina as  early  as  1664.  and  a  small  quantity  was  exported  in  1747. 
The  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  by  Eli  Whitney,  in  1794,  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  rapid  development  of  the  cotton-raising  business 
throughout  th?  Southern  States.  The  first  crop  of  sea-island  cot- 
ton was  raised  in  17w,  from  seed  that  came  either  from  the  Baha- 
ma orBarbadoes  Islands. 

The  total  production  of  the  country  in  the  year  1879  is  given  by 
the  census  of  18?n  at  5.7.37.257  bales,  of  375  pounds;  this  having 
been  assumed  to  be  the  weight  of  the  bale,  in  1879— the  average 
proportion  of  seed  to  fibre,  or  lint,  in  the  crop  as  it  comes  from  the 
field  being  given  as  two  to  one.  The  stated  number  of  bales  is 
?quivalent.  therefore,  to  l,;i82,599  tons  (of  2.000  pounds)  of  lint  or 
fibre,  and  2.725.197  of  seed. 

This  production  was  divided  among  the  States  as  follows: 

Field.  Av.  Product 
per  acre. 

Bales.  Fraction  of  bale. 

Mississippi 9.55,808  0.46 

Georgia 814.441  0.31 

Texa.^ 803,642  0.37 

Alabama 699,654  0  30 

Arkansas 60S.256  0.5S 

South  Carolina 622.548  0..3S 

Louisiana 508,569  0.59 

North  Carolina SS9.598  0.44 

Fennossee 330,644  0.46 

Florida .54.997  0.22 

Missouri 19,733  0.60 

Indian  Territory 17.000  0.49 

Virginia 11.000  0.46 

Kentucky 1,.367  0.51 

Total 5.7;i7.257gen.  av.0.40 

From  the  above  t»!;le  it  will  be  seen  that  the  limit  of  profitable 
cultivation  of  cotton  is  pretty  sharply  drawn  at  about  the  parallel 
of  37°;  the  priduction  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky— the  southern 
border  of  woich  States  is  in  the  latitude  .36°30'— being  exceedingly 
small.    Tho  production  of  Missouri  is  limited  to  a  highly  fertile 

*  /iii9  includes  only  hay  cut  on  farms,  and  not  that  cut  on 
public  lacds  and  lands  of  non-residents- 


region  lying  in  the  extreme  southeastern  portion  of  the  State? 
while  that  of  Kentucky  pertains  to  the  country  lying  ad jacent  to 
^Veste^n  Tennnessee  and  the  rich  bottom-lands  alung  tht-  Missis- 
sippi River.  It  does  not  appear  that  any  cotton  is  produced  north 
of  the  Ohio  River. 

According  to  Professor  E.  W.  Hilgard.  Special  Agent  of  the  Cen- 
sus of  isSu.  in  charge  of  the  subject  of  Cotton  Production,  the 
high  production  of  Mississippi  is  due  in  part  to  the  great  fertility 
and  large  area  ot  the  **bottora-land"  along  the  Mis^issillpi  River 
within  the  limits  of  that  StJite,  and  in  larger  part  to  the  ttrtility 
of  the  *  uplands."  or  table-land  bordering  the  Mississipi)i  bluff, 
and  the  interior  "prairie-belts."  These  favorable  conditions  have 
as  a  result  that  cotton  culture  is  the  one  pur.-uit  to  which  the  pop- 
ulation of  this  State  devotes  itself.  It  is  rather  great  natural  ad- 
vantages than  skill  and  industry  which  give  Mississippi  the  first 
place  in  the  production  of  cotton.  Professor  Hilgard  thinks  thai 
by  enlarging  the  area  of  tillable  land  in  the  Yazoo  bottom,  by  sim- 
ple exclusion  of  the  overflows  of  the  Mississippi,  without  any 
change  in  the  methods  of  culture,  the  produce  ot  the  State  might 
be  raised  to  two  and  a  quarter  millions  of  bales;. and  that  with 
improved  cultivation  the  production  might  be  brought  up  to  five 
millions,  so  that  under  these  conditions  Mississippi  alone  could 
produce  the  entire  crop  now  grown  in  the  United  States. 

Georgia  stands  second  in  total  production  among  the  States, 
but  the  average  production  per  acre  is  but  two-thirds  that  of  Mis- 
sissippi. The  area  of  what  would  be  call*  d  in  the  last-named  State 
first  and  second  class  cotton  soil  is  in  Georgia  quite  limited-far 
more  sn  than  is  the  case  in  the  neighboring  State  of  Alabama ;  yet 
the  former  State  is  slightly  in  advance  of  the  latter  in  the  average 
product  per  acre.  The  high  position  of  Georgia  as  a  cotton  r-roduc- 
ing  State  is  due  therefore,  not  to  natural  advantages,  but  to  better 
cultivation  of  th-?  soil,  the  use  of  fertilizers,  and  the  thrift  of  an 
industrious  population. 

Texas— much  the  largest  in  area  of  the  cotton  producing  States, 
and  also  slightly  larger  in  population  than  any  of  the  oth'^r  Gulf 
States— stands  third  on  the  list  of  total  production.  In  the  average 
product  per  acre  it  is  among  the  very  lowest.  This  fact  seen-s  to  be 
due,  in  large  part  at  least,  to  the  position  of  Texaj*  in  reference 
to  precipitation.  In  this  State  the  total  amount  of  rainfall  is 
considerably  less  than  in  the  other  Gulf  States,  owing  to  h<  posi- 
tion in  reference  to  the  prevailing  mnds;  and  thf  dimiraition  of 
rainfall  is  rapid  as  we  recede  from  the  coast.  The  precipitation  is 
largest  in  the  extreme  northeastern  portion  of  theSta»-9.  and  here 
—north  of  the  3'Jd  parallel  and  east  of  the  98th  mer:idi.'in— more 
than  half  the  cotton  product  of  the  Srate  is  grown.  The  fact 
that  Texas  is  so  much  larger  than  the  other  cotton  producing 
Statesmust  also  be  borne  in  mind  in  connection  with  its  position 
as  the  third  oc  the  list.  It  has.  in  fact,  an  area  luf  "e  than  five 
times  as  great  as  the  average  area  of  the  six  other  pri  iC'pal  catton 
States. 

Alabama  is  naturally  as  well  suited  for  tpe  growth  ^f  cotton  as 
the  two  States  adjacent  to  it  on  the  east  and  west,  (ieorgis  and 
Mississippi;  audits  position  as  fourth  on  the  list,  and  as  inferior 
to  both  these  States,  is  consiiered  by  Professor  Hflgard  to  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  Mississippi  is  still  within  the  period  of  the 
iiist  flush  of  fertility,  while  (Georgia  has  reached  the  stage  where 
her  fields  are  being  renovated  by  the  use  of  fertilizers;  while  the 
soil  of  Alabama  has  begun  to  be  exhausted,  but  this  exhaustion 
hns  not  yet  proceeded  so  far  that  the  cultivators  realize  ^he  neces- 
sity of  making  good  this  defieiencvby  proper  modes  of  cultivation, 
as  is  done  to  a  certain  extent  in  (Georgia. 

In  South  and  North  Car  jlina  the  average  cotton  production  per 
acre  is  high  as  compared  T.-ith  that  of  Alabama  and_  Georgia,  and 
in  the  ciseof  North  Carolina  approaches  that  of  Mississippi  itself. 
The  reason  for  this  condition  of  things  is  to  be  found  chiefly  in 
the  introduction  of  improved  methods  of  culture,  and  the  use  of 
fertilizers.  In  South  Carolina  the  so-called  sea-island  cotton  is 
produced— a  variety  of  cotton  of  great  value,  although  small  in 
anv-innt.  the  production  of  it  for  the  year  188U  being  set  down  in 
the  Census  Report  as  9,966  bales.  The  finest  cotton  ever  known  to 
have  been  produced  is  the  long-stnple  cotton  of  Edisto  island, 
which  sold  for  two  dollars  a  pound  when  other  cottons  were  only 
bringing  nine  cents.  The  islands  where  this  crop  is  grown  lin» 
the  coa<t,  sometimes  forming  three  or  four  parallel  belts,  having 
their  greatest  development  at  the  mouth  of  Broad  River,  from 
which  in  each  direction  along  the  coast  they  diminish  in  num- 
bers. 

AH  the  important  cotton-producing  States  with  the  exception 
of  Arkansas  and  Tennessee,  lie  either  on  the  Golf  of  Mexico  or  the 
Atlantic  coa^t ;  but  the  principal  cotton-producing  areas  in  the  case 
of  each  of  these  States  areat  a  consii-lerable  distance  from  the  coast. 
Thus,  in  Mississippi  by  far  the  greater  portion  ot  the  area  planted 
in  cotton  lies  in  the  northern  and  western  part  of  the  State, 
while  in  the  extreme  south  there  is  an  area  where  cotton  culture  is 
either  very  subordinate  or  practically  non-existent:  nor  is  this  de- 
crease of  cotton  culture  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  increase 
of  some  other  pi-oduction.  In  Louisiana  an  obvious  fact— ren* 
dered  apparent  by  a  glance  at  the  map  showing  the  relative  areas 
given  to  cotton  culture  in  the  State— is  the  decrease  of  cotton  cul- 
ture as  we  advance  southward.  In  Alabama  the  central  prairie 
region,  or  black-soil  belt,  a  narrow  strip  of  country  only  about 
twenty-five  miles  wide,  running  east  and  west  through  the  centre 
of  th?  State,  more  than  a  hundred  miles  from  the  coast,  produces 
forty  pvr  cent  of  the  entire  cotton  crop.  Adiaccnt  to  this  particu- 
larly rich  belt  on  the  north  and  south  is  a  belt  of  less  bu*  .^i... 
iarae  productiveness,  making  the  total  width  of  thecentrr  cotton 
belt  about  seventv-five  miles;  and  here  at  least  sixty  per  cent,  of 
the  cotton  of  the  State  is  raised.  In  Georgia  the  principal  cotton- 
ppoducing  belt  runs  nearly  parallel  with  the  coast,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance of  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  mile.*;  f:*om  it« 
A  similar  condition  of  things  is  clearly  indicated  in  both  KrTtV 
and  South  Carolina. 


Georgia  a: 
a  cotton 
producing 
State. 


Texas. 


Alabama 


South  end 

North 

Carolina. 


82n 


UNITED      STATES 


[AGlilCULTURE. 


On  comparing  the  facts  here  stated  with  the  position  of  the 
isoihermai  and  isohyetal  curves  in  the  region  where  cotton  is 
grown,  it  will  be  seen  that  nearly  the  entire  production  of  cotton 
com  s  troin  the  area  included  between  the  isothermals  ot  60*^  and 
eS'^.  and  there  is  none  cultivated  in  any  region  of  lower  mean  an- 
nual temperature  than  56^.  It  alj^o  ii|)pi  ars  that  the  cotton-pro- 
dueing  area  is  one  of  comparatively  large  precii-itation,  being  no- 
wh'-re  le.-s  than  thirty-eight  inches,  and  generali.v  consid'?rabIy 
over  that  amount;  imd  also  thiii  this  precipitation  is  pretty  uni- 
foriuully  distributed  throughout  the  year.  From  this  it  is  seen 
th;it  thi^  climatic  conditions  favoring  the  growth  of  cotton  are  of 
such  a  nature  as  to  limit  its  succes.^ful  production  to  a  compara- 
tively small  area,  differing  in  this  respect  materially  from  some  of 
th  :  i'lh'-T  staples  of  the  country,  especially  Indian  corn  and  wheat. 
It  will  also  be  evident  that  the  conditi(tns  existing  on  the  Pacific 
CO  St  d  J  not  favor  the  successful  cultivation  of  cotton  in  that 
region. 
T.iblc  of  liie  lullowing  table  exhibits  the  production  of  cotton  and  the 

C  'tton  amount  exportedfor  each  year  from  IS80  to  1887.    The  average  an- 

froduction,  nual  yield  during  the  twenty  years  previous  to  1861  was  l,';3.i,000,- 
OVv  pounds;  during  the  twenty-three  years  from  18(55  to  1886  it  was 
2.*207,un0.000  pounds— an  increase  of  6.5.3  percent.  During  the 
p.'!i  tad  18S3-87  the  average  was  2,036,345,3.55  pounds,  or  a  little  less 
than  the  average  of  the  years  1865  to  86:— 


K'-ntucky 

t    hn'^n 

pr  du  -ing 
bctte. 


Rice, 


Year, 

Production  in  Pounds 

Exports   iu    Pounds. 

188U 

3.199,822,682 
2,588,286,636 
3,405,070,410 
2,757,544,422 
2,742,966,011 
3,I82.:i50..53) 
8  1.57,378  443 
3.300,000.000 

2.190.928.772 

lh81    

1.739.975.981 

1882         

2.208.075.U62 

1883 

1,862,572,.530 

18S4         

l,891,a59  472 

1885 

2,058.037,444 

1886          

2.169.4.57.330 

18S7*.  - 

2.200.™iO,O0O 

Approximate 

The  climatic  conditions  under  wliich  tobacco  cau  be  raised  seem 
to  be  quite  variable,  since  more  or  less  of  this  crop  is  furnished  by 
almost  every  State  in  the  Union.  The  yield  of  the  extreme  .Southern 
and  extreme  Northern  States  i<.  however,  very  small :  as  (in  1879), 
of  .Maineouly  250pounds;  of  Oregon,  17.326;  of  New  Mexico, 890; 
of  Louisiana,  55,954. 

The  largest  tobacco-producing  State  is  Kentucky,  with  171,120,- 
784  pounds  in  1879.  according  to  the  census  of  18S0,  Next 
cornea  Virginia,  with  79,958,868:  then  Pennsylvania,  36,943,272; 
Ohio,  34,735,235;  Tennessee,  29,365,052;  North  Carolina,  26,986,213; 
Maryland,  26,082,147;  Missouri,  12.015.6.J7;  Wisconsin.  10.608.423. 
From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  culture  of  tobacco  is 
carried  on  most  successfully  in  th.^  Middle  Atlantic  States 
and  those  bordering  on  the  Ohio  River,  diminishing  gradu- 
ally in  this  latitude  westerly,  and  having  no  importance  in 
the  extreme  Western  States.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  chief 
tobacco-producing  area  is  indicated  by  the  statement  that  it  lies 
between  the  isothermals  ot  52°  and  60^.  As  regards  preciidtation. 
a  somewhat  moi-t  climate  seeni'j  to  be  required,  and  there  is  little 
tobacco  raised  where  the  rainfall  nverag.'s  less  than  thirty-eight 
inch?s.  The  isothermal  of  thirty-two  inches  seems  to  be  the  limit 
beyond  which  it  cannot  pass.  The  total  yield  of  the  United 
St'ites  in  the  year  1S79  w.is  472.661.159  pounds,  having  an  estimated 
value  as  raised,  in  th^.  producers'  hands,  of  S.")!. 104.870, 

Tile  production  of  tobacco  in  1886  was  about  eleven  per  cent, 
lar^-er  than  in  1879— namely.  532.537.000  pounds.  The  relative 
rank  of  the  .States  in  the  production  of  this  crop  was  almost  ex- 
actly the  same  at  the  two  periods.  Kentucky  and  Virginia  to- 
gether furnished  in  1886  more  than  half  the  total,  or  2'i5,104,000 
pounds.  The  entire  value  of  the  tobacco  raised  in  1886  was 
«39,46S,21S. 

The  production  of  rice  for  the  year  1879  as  returned  by  the  cen- 
sus of  iSSO  was  as  follows; — 

Pounds. 

Alabama 810,889 

Florida 1,294,677 

Georgia 25,369,687 

Louisiana 23,188.31 1 

Mississippi 1.718.951 

North  Carolina .5.609.101 

South  Carolina 52,077,515 

Te.\a8 62,152 


Average  yield  per  acre, 
514 
608 
725 
652 
491 
517 
664 
186 

Total 110,131,373    gen.  av.    632 

The  pro(iuction  of  sugar  from  the  sugar-cane  is  extremely  small 
as  comi>ared  with  the  consumptionof  this  article.  Louisiana  is 
thT  only  State  of  any  importance  in  this  connection,  although  a 
small  (lu-inritv  of  sugar  is  made  in  each  of  the  following  .States: 
Georgia.  Florida.  Texas.  Alabama.  Mississippi  and  .South  Carolina. 
The  total  production  in  the  year  IS79.  as  returned  by  the  census  of 
1880.  was— of  sugar.  178,872  hog.-heads,  and  of  molasses,  10,.573,273 
gallons,  of  which  Louisiana  furnished  171,706  hogsheads  and  11.- 
696,218  gallons. 

The  census  of  1880  gives  the  following  statistics  of  the  produc- 
tion for  that  year  of  sugar  and  molasses  from  sorghum  and  the 

""ftp's-  r,  .,     ■ 

t  Sugar  Molasses. 

I  Sorghum 12.792Ibs.  28.444.202  gals. 

i  Maple 36,.576.061  1.796.048 

The  princirial  production  of  sorghum  molasses  is  in  the  .States  of 
Wisouri.  Tenne--see.  Kentucky,  llliuois,  and  Iowa;  that  of  maple 
bugrir.  in  Vermont  and  New  York,  in  each  of  which  States  the 
jproituc  was  over  lO.oiio.onO  pounds. 

I'lie  foll'iwin^  additional  facts  in  regard  to  the  agriculture  of  the 


United  States  are  condensed  and  arranged  from  the  volume  en-  General 
tided  "  Statistics  of  Agriculture,"  in  the  Census  Report  for  1880:—  summaiy. 

1870,  1880. 

Total  number  of  farms 2,659,985       4,008.907 

The  term  "  farm."  as  here  used,  is  understood  to  mean  a  tract 
of  not  less  than  three  acres,  unless  $500  worth  of  produce  has 
actually  been  sold  off  from  it  during  the  year,  and  owned  or 
leased  by  one  man  and  cultivated  under  his  care: — 

Total  area  of  United  States  in  acres 1,856.108.800 

Number  of  acres  in  farms 836.081.835 

1860.    1870.   1880. 
Proportion  of  unimproved  land  in  farms 

to  improved,  in  percentage 59.9     53.7     46.9 

Of  the  4.008.907  farms  returned.  74  per  cent  were  cultivated  by 
their  owners.  8  per  cent  by  tenants  on  basis  of  fixed  money  rental.     • 
and  18  per  cent  by  tenants  paying  a  share  of  the  product  or  rent. 

The  total  value  of  the  farms  of  the  United  States,  including 
land,  buildings  and  fences,  is  given  by  the  census  of  1880  at 
$10,197,096,776;  and  the  estimated  value  of  all  farm  productions 
sold  consumed,  or  on  hand,  in  1879,  was  $2,12,.540.927. 

The  following  tabular  statement,  from  the  volume  of  the  Census 
Report  of  1880,  entitled  "  .Statistics  of  Agriculture,"  and  published 
in  18s;i,  presents  a  resume  of  the  principal  facts  connected  with     J 
the  agricultural  interests  of  the  country,  so  far  as  concerns  the 
amounts  or  values  of  the  different  products: — 
Condensed  Tabular  View  of  Agriccltuhal  Products  cbieflt  Tabular 

IN  THE  Year  1879,  arranged  from  thf.  Census  Report,  Volume  statement. 

entitled  ■■  Statistics  of  Aokichlture,"  published  1883. 

Number  oi  farms 4.008,907 

Value  of  farms,  including  land,  fences,  and 

buildings $10,197,096,776 

Estimated  value  of  farm  products  for  1879. .  $2,212,540,927 

Wo.jI  produced  210,681,751  pounds 

Milk  (not  including  that  sent  to  butter  or 

cheese  factories) 530,129.755  gallons 

Butter  (including  that  made'on  farms  and  in 

factories) 806,672,071  pounds 

Cheese  (made  on  farms  and  in  factories) 243,157,850 

Barley 43,997,495  bushels 

Buckwheat 11,817,327 

Indian  corn 1,754.591,676       " 

Oats 407,858,999       " 

Rve 19,831,595       " 

Wheat 469,483.137       " 

Cotton 5.7,55..%9  bales 

Flaxseed 7.170,951  bushels 

Flaxstraw 421.098  tons 

Flax  fibre 1,665.546  pounds 

Hemp 5.025  tons 

Sugar  (sugar-cane) 178,872  hhds. 

Molasses  (sugar-cane) 16,573,273  gallons 

Sugar(  sorghum) 12,792  pounds 

Molasses  (sorghum) 28.444,2112  gallons 

Sugar  (maple) 36.576.061  pounds 

Molasses  (maple) 1.796.048  gallons 

Iltiv  mown 35,150,711  tons 

CloVer-seed 1,922,982  bushels 

(irass-seed 1,317.701 

Eggs 456.910.916  dozen 

Honey 25.743.208  pounds 

Wax l,105.l»9 

Rice 11II.131..S73 

Tobacco 472.661.157       " 

Potatoes.  Irish 169.458.539  bushels 

Potatoes,  sweet 33.378.693 

Orchard  products  (sold  or  consumed) 850.876.1.54 

Market-garden  products $21,761,250 

Hops 26.546.378  pounds 

Broom  com 29.480.1ii6 

Peas 6.514.977  bushell 

Beans 3.075.0.50 

Wood,  amount  cut 51,442,624  cords 

Forest  products,  value  of  all  consumed  or 

sold $95,774,735 

The  following  general  summary  presents  in  one  table  the  esti- 
mated quantities,  numberof  acres  cultivated,  and  aggregate  value 
of  the  principal  crops  of  the  country  in  the  year  1886: — 


Products. 

Quantity. 

No.of  Acres 

Value, 

Indian  corn 

Whe;it 

Rye 

Oats 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Potatoes 

1,6&5,441,000  bushels 
457,218,000 

24,4-89,000 
024,134,000 

.59,428,000       " 

11,869,000 
168,051,000        " 

75,694,208 
36,806,184 

2,129,918 
23,658,474 

2,652,9.57 
917.915 

2,287.136 

$610,311,000 

314,226,020 

13,181,310 

186,137.930 

31,840,510 

6,465.120 

78,441,940 

Total 

Tobacco 

Hay 

3,010,630,000  bushels 

532,.570,onO  pounds 
41,796,499  tons 
6,445,864  hales 

144,146.792 

750,210 
36,501,688 
18,454,603 

$1,240,603,850 

39,468,218 
353,437,699 

257,295,327 

Grand  total 

199,853,293 

Sl.890.805.094 

MANCFACTURES.] 


UNITED 


MANPFACTtBES. 


The  most  important  faots  connecteii  with  the  iua«ufaeturing  in- 
terests of  the  Cnited  Matts,  as  revealed  by  the  census  of  1^0  and 
those  of  the  preceding  decades,  may  be  stated,  in  the  most  con- 
den-ed  form,  as  follows; — 

Fint,  a  table  is  given  showing  certain  of  the  principal  items 
cooi.ected  with  manafaetures  iu  the  form  of  totals  for  the  whole 
Vuited  Slates,  for  the  three  census  years  1860, 1870,  and  1880:— 

Tabular  Statement  of  Maxtfactdres  in  the  United  States. 


llumber  of    Establish- 

ii.euts 

( apiial  Invested 

f  \  eraire     Number      of 

Han.ls  Employed 

Males  above  16  years. . 

Feii;ales  above  15  yrs. 

Children  and  Youths 
lo'al      am't.     paid    in 

w>ii-esdurin{  the  year. 
Value  of  Materials  used. 
Value  of  Products 


1860. 


140.433 
$1,009,855,715 


8378.878,966 
1,031,605,092 
1,885,861,676 


1870. 


1880. 


252,148 
$2,118,208,769 


1,615.598 
323.770 
114,628 

$775,.584,343 
2,488,427.242 
4.232,325,442 


253,852 
2,790,272,606 


2,019,035 
531,639 
181,921 

$947,953,795 
3,396,823.549 
5,369,579,191 


The  prop.trtion  in  which  the  various  branches  of  manufacture 
are  geographically  distributed  over  the  country,  according  to  the 
census  of  1880.  is  shown  by  the  following  percentage  statement:— 

Table  OF  Geographical  Distribution  of  Manxfactdees  is 

the  United  States. 


Propor- 
tion of 
total 
Area. 

Number 
of  EMab- 

lish- 
ments. 

Amount 
of  Cain- 

tal 
invested 

Hands 
Em- 
ployed. 

Wages 
Paid. 

Gross 
Product 

N.  Atlantic 

5.6 

44.87 

61.94 

62.23 

64.33 

59.64 

S.  Atlantic 

9.4 

10.16 

5.89 

7.59 

4.99 

5.26 

N.   Central 

25.5 

34.33 

25.78 

24.39 

24.86 

28.94 

S.     Central 

20.3 

7.55 

3.75 

3.85 

311 

3.47 

\V.  (Cordil- 
leran). 

39.4 

3.09 

2.64 

1.94 

2.71 

2  69 

Next  may  follow  a  statement  of  the  various  most  extensive 
inaiiufaoturing  industries  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  impor- 
tan  e,  with  reference  to  the  value  of  their  products.  In  this  table 
all  branches  of  manufacture  are  included  in  which  the  total  pro- 
duciioo  exceeds  840,000,000  in  vaJue:— 

Table  of  I>ditidual  Manxfacturinq  Industries  ix  the  United 
States,  according  to  the  Census  of  1880. 


Products. 


Flouring  and  Grist  Mill  Products  — 

Slaughtering  and  Meat  Packing 

Iron  and  Steel 

Woolen  'tf  all  classes 

Lumber,  Sawed 

Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Prod- 
ucts  

Cotton   Goods 

Clothing.  Men's 

Boots  and  Shoes 

Snjjar  and  Molasses,  Refined 

Leather.  Tanned 

Liquors,  Malt 

Carpentering 

Printing  and  Publishing 

Furniture 

Leather,  Curried 

Agricultural  Implements 

Mixed  Textiles 

Bread  and  other  Bakery  Products 

Carriaj^es  and  Wagons 

TobacC'j,  Cigars,  etc 

Paper 

Tobacco.     Chewing,    Smoking     and 

Snuff 

Tin  ware.  Copper  ware,  and  Sheet-iron 

ware 

Blacksmithing 

Liquors,  Distilled 

6ilk  and  Silk  Goods 


Number  of 

Number  of 

Establish- 

Hands em- 

ments. 

ployed. 

24,338 

58.407 

S72 

27.297 

1,005 

140,978 

2,689 

161,557 

25,708 

147,956 

4.958 

145,357 

1.U05 

185.472 

6,166 

160.813 

.17,972 

133.S19 

49 

5.S.57 

3,105 

23.SI2 

2.191 

26,220 

9.184 

54,1 3S 

3,467 

5.8.478 

5,227 

59,304 

2,319 

11,0.53 

1,913 

39.TS0 

470 

43..'!T3 

6,396 

22.4SS 

3,841 

45.594 

7,145 

bxm 

692 

24,422 

477 

32,756 

7,595 

26.248 

28,101 

34.526 

844 

6„502 

382 

31,337 

STATES 

827 

Products. 

Amount 
paid  in 
Wages. 

Value 

of 

Materials. 

Value 

of 

Prodaots. 

Flouring  and  Grist  Mill 
Products 

$17,422,316 

10,508,530 
55.476,785 
47.389,087 
31.845,974 

65,982,133 
45,614.419 
45,940.353 
50,995,144 

2.875,032 
9,204,243 
12,198,0,53 
24,582,077 

30..531,C:57 
23,695,080 

4,845,413 
15,359,610 
13,316,753 

9.411.328 
18.988  615 
1S,4H4..=62 

8,525.355 

6,419,024 

10.722.974 
11,126.001 
2,663.967 
9,146,705 

$441,515,225 

267.7.38,902 
191,271,150 
164,371,5,51 
146.155.385 

10334.5,083 
113.765.537 
131.363.282 
114,966,575 

144,698,499 
85,949,'.i07 
56,836,.500 
51,621.120 

32.460.395 
35,860,206 

69,306,509 
31,.531,170 
37,227,741 

42,612.027 
30.597.1  86 
29.577.8.^3 
39,951,297 

34.397,072 

25.232.281 
14.572.363 
27,744.245 
22,467,701 

$505,185,712 
303  562  413 

Slaughtering  and  Meat 
Packing 

Iron  and  Steel 

296.557,685 

Woolen  of  all  classes.. 

Lumber,  Sawed 

Foundry  and  Machine 

Shop    Products 

Cotton  Goods 

267,2,52.913 
233,268,729 

214,-578,468 
210,950  383 

Clothing,  Men's 

Boots  and  Shoes 

Sugar    and    Molasses. 
Refined 

209,548.460 
196,920,481 

155,484,915 

Leather.  Tanned 

Liquors.  Malt 

113,348,336 
101,058,385 

94,152,139 

Printing  and  Publish- 
ing  

90.789.341 
77,815,725 

Leather,  Curried 

Agricultural     I  m  p  1  e- 

71,&51.2W 
68.640.486 

Mixed  Textiles 

Bread   and  other  Bak- 
ery  Products 

Carriages  and  Wagons. 
Tobacco,  Cigars,  etc... 

66.221,703 

65.824,896 
64,951,617 
63,979.575 
55,119,914 

Tobacco,     Chewing. 

Smoking  and  Snuff 
Tin  ware,  Cupj.er  ware 

and  Sheet-iron  ware 

Blacksmithing 

Liquors,  Distilled 

Silk  and  Silk  Goods 

52,793,056 

48.0<.!6,03S 
43.774,271 
41,1:6:3  663 
41,033,045 

The  remarkable  concentration  of  the  manufacturing  interests  of 
the  United  States  in  the  extreme  northeastern  portion  of  the 
country  will  be  evident  from  the  above  talde.  New  England.  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  embracing  or.Iya  little  over 
one-t«entiethof  the  area  of  the  whole  country,  produce  six-tentha 
of  the  total  gross  product  of  its  manufactures.  Similar  condi- 
tions are  shown  in  contrasting  the  northern  with  the  southern 
sections  of  the  country.  The  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central 
divisions,  with  thirty-one  per  cent  of  the  total  area,  furnish  over 
eighty-tight  per  cent,  of  the  gross  product.  The  Western  or  Cor- 
dilleran  region,  with  nearly  forty  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the 
country,  furnishes  only  a  little  over  two  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  ita 
manufactures. 

The  Census  Report  of  1882  gives  a  great  mass  of  statistics  m 
reference  to  the  manufacture  of  cotton  in  the  country,  from  which 
the  following  are  selected  as  representing  the  most  essential  feat- 
ures of  this  extremely  important  business:  — 

Number  of  spindles 10,653,435 

Number  of  looms 225,759 

Bnles  of  cotton  consumed 1,.570,344 

Number  of  persons  employed 172..544 

\Vuges  paid $42,040,510 

These  are  said  to  be  the  final  figures  of  the  specific  manufactura 
of  cotton  yarn  and  woolen  fabrics,  includingsome  cotton  hosiery; 
and  by  the  term  "specific  "  is  meant  cotton  "  worked  into  a  fabria 
known  .md  sold  under  that  name." 

Including  the  cotton  used  in  mixed  goods  and  upholstery,  tna 
total  consumption  is  estimated  at  1.760,000  bales.  The  total  num- 
ber of  operatives  employed,  including  those  engaged  in  print  and 
dye  works  and  bleachcries,  and  also  in  manufacturiLg  special 
fabrics  in  which  cotton  forms  a  part,  is  198.338.  The  operatives 
employed  in  the  specific  cotton  mills  are  thus  classed  as  to  age  and 

Men  59,685 

Boys.'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..' 15,107 

W  omen 84.539 

Girls 13.213 

Total 1T2,544 

The  average  wages  earned  in  the  cotton  mills  amount,  for  300 
davs  in  the  year,  to  81  cents  per  day*  Since  1840  the  hours  of  labor 
have  been  reduced  from  13  or  14  to  10  or  11,  and  the  average  earn- 
ings per  hour  are  now  more  than  double  what  they  were  at  that 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  is  carried  in  nearly  all  the  Atlantic, 
Central,  and  Southern  States,  but  is  principally  developed  in  and 
near  Massachu.iitts.  This  State  alone  consumed  considerably 
more  cotton  in  ISSil  than  all  the  t.jher  States  outside  of  New 
England.  Of  1,570.344  bales  consumed  in  "  specific  "  cotton  manu- 
facture in  the  country,  in  1S.S0,  l.U'9.49S  were  taken  by  New  Eng- 
land. Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  bavins  together  about 
ten  thousand  square  miles  of  area,  consumed  742.:i37  bales,  or 
nearly  half  the  whole  consumption  of  the  I'DiTed  States. 

.*ome  cotton  cloth  is  still  made  by  hand  in  the  mountainou: 
sectionsof  the  South,  some  two  or  three  hundred  thousand  person* 


828 


UNITED      STATES 


[foreign  commerce. 


being  supplied  in  this  wsy.  As  a  menpure  of  tbeir  work,  it  is  snid 
by  Mr.  Atkinson,  iSpecial  Agent  of  the  Census  in  charge  of  the 
subject  of  Cotton,  that  "two  carders,  two  spinners,  and  one 
weaver  could  produce  eight  yards  of  coarse  cntton  cloth  in  a  day 
f)f  ten  hours."  To  this  he  adds:  "Of  the  whole  force  engaged  in 
the  specific  cotton  manufactures,  about  100,000  are  employed  on 
goods  for  home  consumption.  It  would  take  16,00,0110  to  make  the 
Fame  number  of  yards  by  hand-work,  and  the  cloth  would  be  of  a 
far  different  kind— more  durable,  it  is  true,  but  coarse  and  un- 
sightly." 

The  following  table  will  furnish  the  necessary  data  for  an  un- 
derstanding of  the  importance  of  the  petroleum  business  in  the 
United  States:— 


Pro  duction 
in  Barrels 

of  42 
Gallons. 

E.xports.   in  gallons. 

Year 
end- 

June 

Illuminat- 
ing Oil. 

Crude  Oil. 

Total. 

Total  Val- 
ue of  Ex- 
ports. 

1864 

2,478,709 

12,791.518 

9.980,654 

23,210,369 

$10,782,689 

1865 

2,424.905 

12.722.005 

12,293,897 

25.496,849 

16.563,413 

1866 

3,165,700 

34.255.921 

16.057,943 

50.987.341 

24,830,887 

1867 

3,591.900 

62.686.657 

7.344.248 

70.255,481 

24,407.642 

1868 

3,613.709 

67,909,961 

10.029,659 

79,456.888 

21,810,676 

1869 

4.046.558 

84.403,492 

13,425,566 

100,636,684 

31,127,433 

1870 

4.411,016 

97.902.505 

10.403.314 

113,735,294 

32,668,960 

1871 

6,558.775 

132,608.9.55 

9,859.038 

149.892.691 

36,894,810 

1872 

5.842.497 

122,539,575 

IS.559,768 

14.5,171,583 

34,058,390 

1873 

7,242,343 

158,102.414 

18.439,407 

187,815,187 

42,050,756 

1874 

11,188,741 

217,220.504 

17,776,419 

247.806.4S3 

41,245,815 

1875 

10,083.823 

191,551,933 

14,718,114 

221.955.308 

30,078,568 

1876 

8.823.142 

204.814,673 

20,520.397 

243.660.152 

32,915,785 

1677 

10.822,871 

262,441,844 

26.819.202 

309.198,914 

61,789,438 

1878 

14,738.262 

289.214,541 

26.9.36.727 

338.841.303 

46,574,974 

1879 

16.917.606 

331,586,442 

25.874,488 

378.310.010 

40,305,249 

18S0 

22,382.509 

307.325,823 

28.297.997 

423,964.699 

36,218,625 

1881 

25,805,363 

332.283,045 

39.934.844 

397.660,262 

40,315,609 

1SS2 

23,650,181 

488,213,033 

41,304,997 

559,954,590 

51,232,706 

18S3 

26,062.808 

419,821,081 

52.712.306 

505.931,622 

44,913,079 

188 1 

23,744.924 

415,615,693 

67.186.329 

513,660,092 

47,103,248 

18S5 

21,750,619 

458,213,192 

61,037,992 

574.628,180 

50,257,947 

1886 

22.4u3.744 

469,471,451 

80,216,763 

577,781,752 

50,199,844 

18S7 

25.316,000 

4S0.845.811 

76,062,875 

592,803,267 

46,824,933 

185S 

2.8.249,597 

456.417,221 

85,E38,725 

578.351,638 

47,042,409 

The  relation  of  materials  to  product,  in  the  statistics  of  industry, 
needs  to  be  carefully  borne  in  mind ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  throw- 
ing light  on  this  subject,  the  Census  Report  of  188M,  in  the  volume 
devoted  to  manufactures  (published  in  1883)  groups  the  manu- 
fjictiiring  and  mechanical  industri'-s  into  four  clas-es.  as  follows: 
I.  Those  industries  in  which  the  subject-muttcr  is  of  a  distinct 
und  immediate  commercial  value,  but  the  property  does  not  reside 
in  tht?  person  who  treats  it;  II.  Those  industries  in  which  the 
entire  valu'»  of  the  subject-mutter  is  carried  into  the  value  of 
•'motcriiils,"  and  appears  again  in  the  product,  enhanced  by  the 
value  of  labor,  use  of  capital,  rent,  freight,  etc.,  but  in  which  the 
value  ia  (smull  compared  to  the  cost  of  labor;  III.  Industries 
which  are  otherwise  under  the  same  conditions  as  those  of  the 
Becond  class,  but  in  which  the  value  of  the  materials  approaches, 
or  even  m<>di-ratrly  exceeds,  the  value  of  the  labor  employed,  and 
becomes  thus  an  important  element  in  the  final  value  of  the  prod- 
uct, enhancing  the  ai'parent  prorluction  of  the  industry  in  a  high 
degree;  and  IV.  Industtics  in  whicti  the  value  of  the  materials  far 
exceeds  all  otlier  elrnnnts  in  the  cost  of  production  combined, 
although,  in  fact,  ci)mp:iratively  little  value  has  been  added  by 
these  operations,  and  only  a  small  number  of  arti>!ans  or  laborers 
pupported.  The  following  tabic  is  intended  to  illustrate  the  rela- 
tion of  materials  to  product,  indicated  above:— 


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*  All  the  industries  tabulated  were  assigned  entire  to  one  c^aBl 
or  another,  according  to  the  principles  indicated  in  the  text.  Tha 
lines  of  division  taken  for  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  classes 
were:  (1)  wh<.'re  the  value  of  the  materials  is  less  than  two-fifthsof 
that  of  th'-  ultimate  product;  (2)  whore  the  value  of  the  materials 
is  from  two-fifths  to  four-fifths  of  that  of  the  ultimate  product; 
and  (3)  where  the  value  of  the  materials  is  over  four-fifths  of  that 
of  tho  ultimate  product. 

t  In  this  table  the  same  groups  of  industries  in  1870  are  com- 
pared with  each  other.  The  table  differs  from  that  contained  in 
the  volume  on  Manufactures  of  thn  Ninth  Census  and  in  the 
Compendium  of  that  census  in  this,  that  the  mining  and  fishing 
interests,  and  the  statistics  of  a  few  industries  wliich  form  the 
Hubjoet  of  special  reports  in  the  census  of  1880  are,  for  purposes 
of  comparison,  excluded  herefrom. 


STATISTICS.] 


UNITED      STATES 


829 


ViLUKs  ix  Dollars  ok  the  Pboddcts  of  Domestic  Agriculture 

Exported  from  the  United  .States  for  the  Years 

18S6.  1S87  AND  1888. 


1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

12.518,660 
718,651 

90,6^,216 

125,846,558 
3.3li8,.3ll8 
1,949,990 

205,561,916 

9,255,170 

27,158,457 

8.011,666 

10..59S,362 
810,670 

92,783,296 

165,768,602 
2,669,965 
],9(J7,409 

206,300,059 
9,011,451 
25,948,277 

7,275,647 

12,885,000 

924,136 

Provisions,  including  Meat  1 
and  Dairy  Products / 

93,058,705 
127,191.687 

3,510,208 

Seeds      

1,516,690 

1     Textiles.  Unmanufactured.. 
Vegetable  Oils  and  Oilcake. 

223,022,1'32 

8,45S,608 

21,936,084 

All  Other  Agricultural  Pro- 1 
ducts / 

8,356,746 

1     Total  Value  of  AgricuItu-1 
ral  Products J 

484,954,595 

523,073,798 

.500,840,086 

Total  Value  of  all  Exports  1 
of  Domestic  Merchandise.  J 

665,964,852 

703,022,923 

683,862,104 

Percentage  Value  of  Agri-1 
cultural  Products J 

73.82 

74.40 

73.23 

From  a  comparison  of  the  facts  given  in  the  various  tables  hero* 
with  presented,  it  will  be  evident  that,  with  the  exception  of  those 
items  called  "manufactures"  in  the  Census  Reports  which  are  not 
properly  manufacturts,  but  the  conversion  of  articles  of  food  into 
a  more  suitable  and  convenient  form  for  shipment  to  foreign 
countries— as,  for  instance,  slaughtering  of  animals,  and  grinding 
and  packing  of  wheat  in  barrels— the  manufactures  jt  the  United 
iStates  are  intended  and  used  tor  homo  consumption.  The  amount 
of  these  exported  is  very  small  as  compared  with  the  total  of  the 
exports.^  There  is  no  one  manufactured  article  of  which  tho 
United  States  has  anything  like  a  monopoly  abroad,  or  which 
greatly  predominates  in  importance  as  an  article  of  export  over 
any  other  article. 

The  following  data,  compiled  from  the  reports  of  the  Bureau  of 
Statistics,  will  give  a  sulficiently  complete  and  comprehensive  view 
of  the  nature  of  the  imports  into  the  United  States. 

The  imported  articles,  including  those  admitted  free  of  duty  and 
the  dutiable,  are  thus  classified: — 

A.  Articles  of  food  and  live  animals.  B.  Articles  in  a  prude 
condition  which  enter  into  the  varioxts  processes  of  domestic  indus- 
try.  C.  Articles  wholly  or  partially  manufactured ^r  use;  as 
materials  In  the  manxifactures  and  mechanic  arts.  D.  Articles 
manufactured  ready  for  consumption.  E.  Articles  of  voluntary 
use,  luxuries,  etc.  The  following  table  gives  the  amount  in  value 
of  each  of  these  classes  imported  during  the  years  1884  and  1885, 
and  the  average  fur  the  five  years  (1881-85);  also  the  ad  valorem 
rate  of  duty  on  the  ihitiable  articles  of  each  class,  and  the  per- 
centage relation  of  the  ad  valorem  duty  to  the  entire  duty  col- 
lected:— 


1884  and  18S5. 

Average  of  Years  1881-85. 

Tear. 

Free  of  Duty. 

Dutiable. 

Ad  Valorem 

Rate  on 

Duitable. 

Per  Cent. 

of  Total. 

Duty. 

Free  of  Duty. 

Dutiable. 

Ad  Valorem 
Rate  on 
Dutiable. 

Per  Cent. 

of  Total. 

Duty. 

18S4    A. 
1885 

S92.589.286 
86,559,991 

$132,136,969 
107,706,.369 

44.75 
67.28 

31.15 
34.79 

$86,851,648 
86,066,234 

$130,072,238 
129,907,732 

44.90 
46.41 

29.47 
30.57 

1884    B. 
1885 

94.039,.567 
82,507,747 

44.4.57,174 
37,101,595 

26.82 
25.48 

6.28 
5.33 

97,895,975 
95,001,401 

54,358,668 
49.163,935 

29.96 
28.57 

8.21 
7.12 

1884    C. 
1885 

12,186,427 
11,185,487 

69.774,216 
61,045,053 

26.48 
27.88 

9.73 
9.61 

11,719,623 
11,850,883 

66,492,197 
66,169,652 

20.42 
29.01 

9.87 
9.73 

1881    D. 
1885 

ll,oa5,112 
10,617,405 

123,205,489 
108,636,576 

47.54 
48.28 

30.86 
29. as 

10,207,857 
10.504,966 

135.602,292 
133,155,050 

47.22 
47.52 

37.31 

32.08 

1884    E. 
1585 

1,429,873 
2,041.604 

86,721,276 
72,178,227 

48.12 
50.84 

21.98 
20.69 

1,199,322 
1,453,551 

78,128,835 
79,690,207 

J1.C9 
50,69 

20.14 
20.49 

Total  1884 

$211,280,265 

$456,195,194 

av. 41.61 

100. 00 

$207,904,425 

$464,634,230 

av.  42.06 

100.00 

•'      1885 

192,912,234 

386,667,820 

45.90 

100.00 

204,877,035 

458,086,576 

43.05 

100.00 

Abolition,  765. 

Adams.  Pres.  Jnc,  754. 

Adams, Pres.Jno.Quincy, 
761. 

Admission  of  Nebraska, 
785. 

African  Slave  trade,  771. 

Alabama.  729.  825. 

**  Alabama  "'  Claims,  785. 

Alaska.  7S5.  815,823. 

Algerine  War,  759. 

Alien  and  Sedition  Laws, 
7.54. 

Allen.  Ethan,  7.39. 

American  Authors,  769. 

Americ:in  imports  of  Iron 
and  Steel.  814. 

American  Seamen,  im- 
pressment of.  753. 

Andre,  Major.  743. 

Annals.  825. 

Annexatiuij  of  TexaSj765. 

Antietrtin,  Battle  of,  /78. 

Anti-Nfbraska  Men,  770. 

Appalachian  Chain,  795. 

Appalachian  region.  795. 

Area  of  Great  Lakes.  792. 

Area  of  United  States,  797 

Arkansas.  765. 

Army  disbanded,  the,  744. 

Army  of  the  Potomao,778. 


Arthur's  Administration, 
787. 

Assassination  of  Garfield, 
787. 

Atlanta  Campaign.  782. 

Atlantic  Region,  803. 

Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coasts, 
803. 

Augusta.  Georgia,  800. 

Australian  Ballot  Sys- 
tem. 7911. 

Ball's  Bluff.Battle  of.776. 

Beginning  of  the  Govern- 
ment. 752. 

Beginning  of  the  Strug- 
gle. 738. 

Belmont,  Battle  of,  776. 

Bennington, Battle  of  .742. 

Bessemer  Steel,  81 

Biglow  Papers,  767. 

Bill  of  Rights.  7.«. 

Bill,  the  Euib.irgo.  756. 

Bismarck.  Dak.,  8(i0. 

Bituminous  Coal-fields  of 
PenD.,810. 

Black  Hawk  War,  763. 

Blockade  running.  776, 

Bonneville  and  his  Par- 
ty. 794. 

"  Border  Ruffians. "771. 

Border  States,  775. 


Index. 

Boston,  737,  740,  741.  800. 
Boston  Port  Bill,  738. 
Braildock's  Defeat,  7.33. 
Bnmdywine,    Battle    of, 

742. 
Brooks  and  Summer,  771. 
Brown.  John,  772. 
Buchanan,  Pres.  James, 

771. 
Bull  Run,  Battles  of ,  776, 

778. 
Bunker  Hill,  740. 
Burgoyne's  Invasion,  742. 
Burr's  Conspiracy,  756. 
Calhoun,    John    C,    757, 

763. 
California,  767,  814. 
California  Fields,  812. 
Campaign  of  1777.  742. 
Campaign  of  1778, 742. 
Ciinipaigu|of  1779, 742. 

763. 
Campaigns  in  the  West, 

778. 
Canada,  attack  on,  740. 
Canby,  murder  of.  786. 
Capital  removed,  755. 
Carboniferous  Age,  794. 
Carolina,  729. 
Cau>cs  of  the  .\merican 

Revolution,  734, 739. 


Cedar  Creek.  782. 
Census,  751.  789. 
Chancellorsville,  780. 
Charleston,  S.  C,  800. 
Chattanooga,  781. 
Chicago,  111.,  810. 
Chickamauga.  781. 
Chinese  ImmigrationBill, 

788.881. 
Civil  Rights  Bill,  784. 
Civil  Service  Act,  789. 
Claims,  Court  of,  750. 
Clay,  Henry.  7b',  767. 
Cleveland,  Pres.  Grover, 

7S8. 
Cliffs,  794. 
Climate,  792.  798. 
Coal,  789,  809. 
Coal-beds,  8u9. 
Coast.  791. 

Coast  of  California.  805. 
Coast,  operations,  on  the, 

776. 
Coav-^t  ranges,  795. 
Colonial  Oppression,  735. 
Colorado,  815. 
Colorings.  794. 
Commerce.  Foreign,  828, 

829. 
Commissioners  to  France, 

742. 


Compromise,  Effects  of, 
767. 

Coinstock  Lode,  the,  814. 

Conftdcracy  Organized, 
773. 

Confederate  Cruisers,  781 

Confederate  Line  of  De- 
fense, 775. 

Confederate  Finances,784 

Congress. Continental,736, 
73S,  739. 

Connecticut.  729,  730,  746. 

Connecticut  Compromise, 
716. 

Conquest  of  Canada,  734. 

Constitution,  745-751. 

Constitutional  Union 
Party,  772. 

Conventions  of  1852,  769. 

Convict  Law,  788. 

Copper.  S!7- 

Corinth.  779. 

Cornwallis,  Lord.  743. 

Cost  of  the  Civil  War.  7S4. 

Cotton. n25.  8*26. 

Cotton  Gin,  the.  760. 

Cowpens.  Battle  of,  743. 

Creek  War.  758. 

Cuba.  769. 

Cuniberland.Army  of  the. 


830 


UNI  T  E  i)       B  T  A  T  E  H 


fu-tcr  MntsDcre.  7S6. 

I'&kut.n.  sli. 

I),. vis.  .1.  fEtTson.  773,  783. 

ije<-iaraiirin  of  Independ- 
ence, 741- 

l»e  Kalb,  Baron,  713. 

Delaware.  7.S0. 

Deuiocratio  Party,  Split 
in  the,  772. 

Denver.  Colo..  SOO. 

Detroit,  Surrender  of, 757 

Different  Coal-fields,  810. 

Difficulties  with  France, 
751. 

Discovery  and  Settlement 
of  America.  729. 

Dispute  about  Charters, 
735, 

Douglass,  Stephen  A., 
77u.  772. 

Downfall  of  the  Federal 
Partv.  759. 

Draft  Riots,  781. 

Dred  8cutt  Decision ,  772. 

Dutcl!  Settlements. 7;W. 

Earl.v  Discoveries,  7l9. 

Kaslerri  Kentucky  Coal- 
field. 811. 

Efforts  10  f'jund  colonies. 

El'  itor.al  College.  748. 
Ei'^ctoral  C'>uiraissinn,749 
Election  of  ISfi",  772. 
Election  of  l»h4.  782. 
Election  of  ;S76,  787. 
Election  of  188(1,  787, 
Election  of  1884,  78S. 
Eleventh  Araendmont.754 
Emancipation.  779. 
Emancipation  Proclama^ 

tion,  779. 
Embargo  Act.  756. 
End  of  the  Dutch  Power, 

73(1. 
English    Policy    towards 

the  Colonists.  731. 
Era  of  Good  Feeling.  759. 
Erie  Canal,  76(J. 
Eutaw  Springs.  Battle  of 

743. 
Evacuation  of  New  York, 

741. 
Executive  Departments, 

748. 
Expedition  of  Doniphan, 

766. 
Fair  Oaks,  Battle  of.  778. 
Fall  of  the  Confederacy. 

7>3. 
Federalists     and     Anti- 
Federalists.  7.52. 
Federal  Jurisdiction.  749. 
Filibustering.  769. 
Fillmore,  Pres.   Millard, 

767.  768. 
First  Ten  Amendments, 

the,  751. 
Fishery  Question.  785. 
FivcF'Mlis.  B!ittleof,783. 
Florida.  7i9.  75M 
Foreign  Officers,  742. 
Foreign  Kelaiions,  777. 
Forests  of  Inteiior.  806. 
Forests  of  North  Amer- 
ica, 8'):i. 
Formation   of   the    Con- 
stitution. 744. 
Fort  Donelson,  777. 
Fort  DuQiiesnc.7.13. 
Fort  Erie.  Battle  of,  758. 
Fort  Ilfnry,"77. 
Fort  Sumter,  774. 
Fourteenth  Amendment, 

784. 
Fourth    Administration, 

755. 
France.  7;i2.  7XZ.  7.34,  742. 
Franklin,  Benjamin, 736, 

741. 
Fredericksburg.  825. 
Fremont.  ,lnrt.  ('..766.771 
French  and  Indian  AVar, 

7.34. 
French  Spoliation  Claim. 

788. 
Fugitive  criminals.  7.50. 
Fugitive  slaves,  7.50.  776. 
yulton.  Robert.  7.56. 
Cadsdcn  Purchase.  767. 
Siige,  General.  738. 
''arfiold,  Pres.  Jas.   A., 

'87. 


Gathcri[^gof  Troops. 
Gcneial  "lopograph.v,  792. 
General  Winter  Storms, 

8U2. 
Geography  and  Statistics, 

819. 
Geological  History,  794. 
Georgia,  729,  73U,  i42,  743, 

825. 
Germantown,   Battle  of, 

742. 
Gettysburg,  Battle  of,780. 
Ciilbert,  Sir    Humphrey, 

729. 
Gold  and  Silver,  814. 
Gorges  and  Ravines,  794. 
GovernmentExpeditions, 

7(i8. 
Government     Expenses, 

780. 
Giant,    Ulysses    S,,    776, 

781.  782.  785. 
Greene.  General.  743. 
Greuville.  Lord,  7.i6. 
Growth  of  Colonics.  731. 
Guilford.  Battle  of.  743. 
Hamilton  and  Burr,  756. 
Harri.son.  Pres.  Benj..788. 
Harrison,  Pres.  Wm.  H., 

704. 
Hartford  Convcn1ion,759. 
Hay  and  Grass,  824, 
Haves      Administration, 

"87. 
Heniy.  Patrick.  736. 
Hood  in  Tennessee,  782. 
House     of     Representa- 
tives. 746. 
Howe.  General,  742. 
Hudson    Bay   Company, 

764. 
Hurricanes.  802. 
Idaho.  815. 

Immigration  and  Popu- 
lation. 819. 
Imtieaehment    of    Pres. 

Johnson,  785. 
Imports.  829, 
Indiana,  811. 
Indian  Troubles,  763. 
Indian  War.  752. 
Insurrection,  the  Whis- 
key. 752. 
invasion  of    Pennsylva- 
nia, 780, 
Inventions,  768. 
luka,  Banie  of,  779. 
Jackson,  Battle  of,  780. 
Jackson.   Pres.  Andrew, 

7.58,  762. 
.Jamestown  Colony.  729. 
Jefferson,  Pres.  Thomas, 

741.7-54,7.55.7.56. 
Johnson    and    Congress, 

784, 
Jcthnson,  Pres.  Andrew, 

784.  _ 
Judiciary,  749. 
Kansas  Admitted,  774. 
Kansas- Nebraska    Bill, 

770. 
Kearsarge  and  Alabama, 

the,  781. 
Key,  Francis  S.,  758. 
King  George's  War,  7.33, 

734. 
King  William's  War,  732, 

73i. 
LaFayette.  742.  761. 
Lake  Channdain,  Battle 

of.  7.58. 
Lake  Erie.  Pattlt.  of,  7.58. 
Lecompton  Constitution. 

771. 
Lexington  and  Concord. 

739. 
Lexington.  Siejre  of.  776. 
Liberty,    the    Spirit   of, 

731. 
Lincoln,    Pres.    A.,  772, 

774,783, 
Literature,  768, 
Livingston,    Robert    R., 

741. 
Long  Island,  Battle  of, 

741. 
London  Company.  729. 
Lookout  Mountain,  781. 
Los  Angeles.  Cal..  800. 
Louisiana,  7.52,  786. 
Louisiana  Purchase,  755, 

7,56. 


Madison's  A(iininis(ja- 
tiou.  7.J7. 

Manufactures,  789,  8'.;7. 

March  to  the  Sea,  Sher- 
man's, 782. 

Marquette,  Father,  732. 

Marshall,  Chief  Justice, 
755. 

Marvland.  728.  730. 

Maryland  Coal-field,  811. 

Mason,  Jno.,  729. 

Massachusetts,  729.  730. 

McClollan.  Geo.  B.,  776. 

Message,  the  President's. 
748. 

Mexican  War,  766. 

Mexico,  766. 

Michigan,  765. 

Military  Condition  of  the 
North.  775. 

Military  Condition  of  the 
South. 775. 

Mineral  AVcalth,  789. 

MiningBusiness,8(19.816. 

Missionary  Midge.  781. 

Mississippi  Basin.  792. 

Missouri  Comproiuise,761 

Mobile,  782. 

Monitor  and   Merrimac, 

Monmouth.  Battle  of ,742. 
Monroe.  Pn-s.  James,  759. 
Montana.815. 
Mormons,  the,  768. 
Morris,  Rob.Tt.  745. 
Mountain  KoKions.  792. 
Mount  Hood,  808. 
Mount  Shasta. 
Movement  of  Population, 

819. 
Name  of  the  Field,  809. 
Nashville,  782. 
National  Bank,  753.  759, 

779. 
Native   White  Element. 

822. 
Natural  Gas.  812. 
Naval  Exploits,  7.57. 
Negro  Soldiers,  780. 
Nevada.  7S5.  814. 
New  Amstr-rdain,  730, 
Nlw  England,  731. 
N  cwEngland  ^Mountains, 

o07. 
New  Jersey,  7.30,  741. 
New  Hanij>shire,  729,730. 
New  Mexico,  766,  815, 
New   Orleans.    La.,   732, 

758,  778.  8(1(1. 
Newspapers,  768. 
New  States.  789. 
New  York,  730,  741,  744, 

8(j0. 
Non-metalliferous    Min- 
erals, 81(i. 
North  Carolina,  729,  730, 

825. 
Northeast  Winds,  802. 
Northern  Pine  Belt,  803. 
Nullification,  763. 
Number  of    Men  in  the 

Armies    of   the   North 

and  the  South,  783,  7S4. 
Office.  Rotatiim  in.  762. 
Ohio  Coal-fii  Ids,  811. 
Ohio  t^ompany.  733. 
Oklahoma  Country,  788. 
Ol'l  Continental  Congress 

':vi. 
Opposition  to  the  Stamp 

Act.  636. 
Orders  ill  Council,  756. 
Oregon.  764.  815. 
Original     and    .Appellate 

.Jurisdiction.  750. 
Origin  of  PiliticalParties, 

7.52. 
Ostond  Manifesto,  769. 
Otis.  James. 736. 
P,icifi(r  Forests.  804. 
Pacilic  Region.  804. 
Panic  of  1837.  764. 
Paper  Currency.  779. 
Party  Priiiciides.  754. 
Peace  Congress.  774. 
Pennsylvania.  730.  780. 
PennsylvaniaAnthracite. 

810. 
Personal  Liberty   Laws. 

768. 
Pelersrmrg.  781,782. 
Physical  Character,  797. 


1  h.vsical   Geography  and 

tHi.ti.-tics.79I. 
Pierce's  Administration, 

7(i9. 
Pitt,  Wm.j^  738. 
Pittsburg  uanding,BattIe 

of,  777. 
Plains,  792. 

Plans  of  tne  South,  773. 
Platforms  and  Terraces, 

793 
Plattsburg,  Battle  of,  758. 
Plymouth  Colony,  729. 
Plymouth  Company.  7"29. 
Political  Divisions,  797. 
Polk,  Jas.  K..766. 
Ponce  de  Leon.  729. 
Pontiac's  War,  734, 
Population,  731.  819.  820. 
Ports  and  Harbors,  791. 
Powers  and  Duties  of  the 

President.  748. 
Presidents  of  the  United 

States.  790. 
Princeton,  Battle  of.  742. 
Privileges  of  Citizens.  750 
Production  of  Rails.  813. 
Projectof  Separation. 741 
Protective  Tariffs,  761. 
Provinces.  793. 
Provisions  of  the  Stamp 

Act,  736. 
Public  Lands,  822. 
Puritans,  the,  729. 
Putnam,  Israel,  740,  741. 
Qualifications     for     the 

Pre;idencv,  748. 
Quebec  Act,  738. 
tiueenstowu  Heights,  757. 
Quicksilver,  816. 
Races  and  Language,  791. 
Railroads,  760,  789. 
Rainfall,  801. 
Randolph,  Edmund,  752. 
Randolph,  Peyton.  739. 
Refunding  the  Debt.  787. 
Relations  of  States.  750. 
Religious  Condition.  731. 
Repeal  of  Stamp  Taxes, 

788. 
Republican  Government, 

751. 
Republican  Party  of  1792, 

753. 
Republican  Party  of  1856, 

770. 
Uestr  ict  i  ve  Policy  of  Eng- 

land.  735. 
Resumption  Act.  766. 
Rhode  Island.  729,  730. 
Rice.  S'26. 

Richmond.  782.  783. 
Rights  of    English  Sub- 
jects, 7.^1. 
Rivers.  795. 
Rocky  Mountains,  793, 
Rotation  in  Office,  762. 
Rules  for  Immigrants,  822 
Rye.  821. 
Salt,  818. 

Sale  of  Lauds,  745. 
Savannah,  742,  782. 
Scenograiihical.  8ti7. 
Schuyler,  Philip,  740. 
Scott,  Winfield,  768. 
"  Scrub     Race    for    the 

Presidenc: ."  761. 
Secession,  773. 
Second  Continental  Con- 
gress. 739. 
Second  Year  of  the  Civil 

War,  777. 
Sedition  Laws.  754. 
Senate,  the.  746. 
Seven  Days'  Battles.  778. 
Seven  Pines.  Battle   of, 

778. 
Seward.  Wm.  H.,  783. 
Sherman.  W.  T.,  776,  781, 

782. 
Shays'  Rebellion,  745. 
Siege  of  Y'orktown.  743. 
Sierra    Nevada   Forests. 

805. 
Silver.  814,  815. 
Slave  Power,  the,  769. 
Slave   Trade  prohibited, 

7.5(i. 
Slavery,  760,  701. 
Sons  of  Liberty,  736,  737. 
South  Carpliua,  736,  737, 

8'25. 


Southern  Pine  Belt,  SOS. 

Soiuh,  the,  789. 

Specie  Circular,  764. 

Stamp  Act. 736. 

State  (jovernments,  751. 

Steamboats,  760. 

Stone  Kiver,  Battle  of,779 

Stony  Point.  743. 

Sub-treasury  System,764. 

Sugar,  826. 

Suuimer  Isothermals,  799 

Supreme  Court,  749. 

Supreme  Law  of  the 
Land,  751. 

.Surrender  of  Lee,  783. 

Surroundings  of  tireat 
Basin,  795. 

Swedes  in  America,  730. 

Tariffs.  752,  763. 

Taylor.  Pres.  Zachary, 
7ij7. 

Te.T  Destroyed  at  Boston, 
737. 

Tecumseh,  757. 

Telegraph,  768.789. 

Telephone,  789. 

Tenncs.see  Coal- fiel.ls.  311 

Terms  of  Office,  749. 

Teuuie  of  Office  Bill.  785. 

Texas.  765. 

The  Ajiproaching  Con- 
flict. 769. 

The  Atlantic  Plains,  796. 

The  Civil  War,  774. 

The  Cordilleran  Region. 
793. 

The  First  Blood  of  the 
Civil  War,  780. 

The  Government  under 
the  Constitution.  751. 

The  Great  Basin.  794. 

Thermal  Springs. s(-9. 

Third  Year  of  thfe  Civil 
War.  780. 

Timber.  792. 

Tin, 816. 

Toljacco,  826. 

Topography  of  the  Great 
Basin,  795. 

Treason,  760. 

Treaty  of  Alliance  with 
France.  742. 

Treaty  of  Washington, 
785. 

Trenton,  Battle  of  .741,742 

Twelfth  Amendmcnt.749. 

Tyler,  Pres.  Jno..  764. 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  In- 
fluence of,  769. 

I'nioii  Flag,  the,  740, 

United  States  Bank,  763. 

Utah  and  Arizona,  815. 

Van  Buren.Pres.  Martin, 
764. 

Valley  Forge,  742. 

Valley  Forests.  805. 

Vegetation,  794. 

Veto,  the  Presideiit's.747. 

Vicksburg  Campaign.780. 

Virginia,  729,  73(i. 

Virginia  Campaign.  778. 

Virginia  Coal-fields,  811. 

Volunteers,  the  First  Call 
for.  774. 

War  for  Independence, 
the.  739.  744. 

Warofl81'2,757. 

Washington  City.  Cap- 
ture of.  758. 

Washington.  812.  815. 

Washington,  Pres.  Geo. 
733.7-10.761.7.53,755. 

Waterfalls,  808. 

Webster,  Daniel,  763. 

Whigs.  7(52, 

Whi.diy  Frauds,  786. 

Wilderness.  Battles  of 
the.  781. 

W'ilraington,  782. 

Wi  Ison's  Creek.  Battle  of, 
776. 

AVinds,  800. 

Wyoming,  812.  815. 

X.  \.  Z.  Dispatches.  7.54. 

Yield  of  Gold  in  Califor- 
nia. 814. 

Yield  of  Metallic  Lead, 
816. 

York,  the  Duke  of .  730. 

Yorktown.  743. 

Yosemite  Valley,  b0». 

l^iuc,  816. 


U  N  I  — U  N  I 


831 


UNIVERSALIS!  CHURCH,  a  religious  body  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  especially  in  the  New  England 
States,  which  has  for  its  distinguishing  tenet  the  docirine 
of  the  final  salvation  of  all  souls  from  sin  through  Christ. 
The  pioneers  of  Universalism  in  America  were  Ur  George 
De  Benneville,  who  taught  from  1741  principally  in 
Pennsylvania,  Dr  Charles  Chauncy,  of  the  First  Church, 
Boston  (notably  in  Tlw  SdUntion  of  All  Men,  published  in 
l"S4r  Dr  .loseph  Huntington. of  Coventry,  Conn  (whose 
Calvinism  /m;)roifrf  was  published  alter  his  death  m  1796), 
John  Murray.  Elhanan  WmLhester.  Caleb  Rich,  and  very 
specially  Rosea  Ballou  Murray  is,  however,  regaided  as 
"the  father  ol  Universalisn  m  America  "  In  1750  James 
Rfellj  baa  avowed  himself  a  L'niversalist  basing  bis  belief 
on  a  theory  rjuiie  peculiar  Murray  who  had  preached  as 
a  Methodist  in  Erigiand  an.l  Ireland  was  Reli)  t  moit  dia 
tinguisheu  comert  In  1770  he  came  lo  Ainercca.  nnd, 
under  circumsiarices  so  strange  that  most  '  luversaiisi? 
regard  them  as  rondentiai.  overcomir.s  a  -itep  lelutt 
ance .  he  preaciifQ  at  Good  Luck  New  Jersey  and 'jrgan- 
izea  a  socieiv  'The  Independent  <,'hristian  Church  '  at 
Gloucester,  .^lassadiuseus  Hosea  Ballou — a  convert  from 
the  Calvinist  Baptists— took  Tip  the*  cause  in  1790,  and 
published  the  work  that  is  regarded  by  Universalists  as 


epoch-making,  A  Treatise  on  Atonement.  The  number  of 
ministers  increased,  and  societies  were  formed.  These  in 
due  time  became  the  constituents  of  larger  organizations, 
till  a  "  New  England  convention  "  saw  occasion,  in  1S03,  to 
adopt  a  "  profession  of  faith,"  which  in  three  short  articles 
avowed  belief  in  the  Bible  as  making  known  in  a  Divine 
revelation  the  nature  of  God,  the  mission  of  Christ,  the 
final  holiness  of  all  souls,  and  the  necessity  of  good  works. 
In  186G  a  general  convention,  composed  of  delegates  from 
the  State  conventions,  was  incorporated.  It  has  Jurisdic- 
tion throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  has  a 
"  Murray  fund  "  of  about  8135,000.  Under  the  auspices 
of  the  Universalist  Church  are  the  "  woman's  centenary 
association,"  the  "  Universalist  historical  society,"  several 
organized  chanties  four  colleges,  three  theological  schools, 
and  five  academies, — the  total  value  of  tbe  schools,  includ- 
ing endowments,  being  hardly  less  than  3  million  dollars. 
It  publishes  eight  periodicals.  The  Year  Book  for  1887 
gives  the  following  summary. —  1  general  convention;  22 
State  conventions ,  945  parishes,  38,429  families ;  696 
churches,  35,550  members,  634  Sunday  schools,  51,871 
members,  789  church  edifices,  value  above  indebtedness, 
§7,493,927 ,  673  clergymen  in  fellowship  and  120  licensed 
lay  preachers. 


r  N  I  V  E  R  S  I  T  I  E  S' 


'.'nginal 
freaniug 
•fthe 

■  -ini- 
•  f rsity. " 


It:  l>mi- 
iit!on  in 
medi- 
eval 
lidies. 


THE  medi.Trval  Latin  term  un'vtrsilns  (from  which  the 
English  word  "  university  "  is  derived}  was  originally 
employed  to  denote  any  community  or  corporation  re- 
garded under  its  collective  aspect.  When  used  in  its 
modern  sense,  as  denoting  a  body  devoted  to  learning  and 
education,  it  rcquiied  the  addition  of  other  words  in  order 
to  complete  the  definition,  —  the  most  frequent  form  of  ex- 
pression being  ■universitas  inagistrorum  et  scholanum"  (or 
■  disripulorum  '  )  In  the  course  of  time,  probably  toward; 
the  latter  part  of  the  I4th  century,  the  term  began  to  be 
used  by  itself,  will,  the  exclusive  meaning  of  a  community 
of  teacbeis  and  scholars  whose  corporate  existence  bad 
been  lecognized  and  sanctioned  by  civil  or  ecclesiastical 
authority  or  by  both  But  the  more  ancrnt  ?nd  custom- 
ary designation  of  the  university  in  medieval  times  (re- 
garded as  a  place  of  instruction}  was  "studium  geneiaJe  " 
(or  sometimes  "  st-udium  "  alone},  a  term  implying  a  centre 
of  instruction  for  all '  The  expressions  "  universitas 
studii  "  and  "unnersitatis  collegium"  are  also  occasionally 
to  be  met  with  in  oflicial  documents. 

It  i?  necessary,  however,  to  bear  in  mind,  on  the  one 
band,  that  a  university  often  bad  a  vigorous  virtual  ■•sist- 
ence  long  before  it  obtained  that  legil  recognition  ivhich  en- 
titled It,  technically,  to  take  rank  as  a  "studium  generale,  ' 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  hostels,  halls,  and  colleges, 
together  with  complete  course.^  in  all  the  recognized 
branches  of  learning,  wepe  by  no  means  necessarily  in- 
volved in  the  earliest  conception  of  a  university  The 
university,  in  its  earliest  stage  of  development,  appears  to 
have  been  simply  a  scholastic  guild, — a  spontaneous  coni- 
bioatiof,  that  is  to  say,  of  teachers  or  scholars,  oi  of 
both  combined,  and  fmmed  probably  on  the  analogy  of  the 
trades  guilds.and  theguilds  of  aliens  in  foreign  cities,  which, 
in  the  course  of  the  13lli  and  14th  centuries,  are  to  be 
found  springing  up  in  most  of  the  great  European  centres. 
The  design  of  these  organizations,  in  the  first  instance,  was 
'  ll  is  the  design  of  the  present  article  to  exhibit  the  universities  in 
their  historical  development,  each  beiog  brought  under  notice,  as  far 
aa  praaicabk,  in  tbe  order  of  its  original  foundation,  lu  the  alpha- 
betical eourueration  in  the  table  at  the  end,  tbe  date  of  fonudatioii 
tliu»  serves  to  indicate  approximately  the  place  whefe^ny  university 
is  first  referred  to 

'  Dcnifle.  T)u  Unive>sitSieit  des  UiUdaUers.  i.  39. 


1  little  more  than  that  of  securing  mutual  protection,— for 
I  the  craftsman,  in  the  pursuit  of  his  special  calling, — for 
the  alien,  as  lacking  the  rights  and  privileges  inherited 
by  the  citizen  And  so  the  university,  composed  as  it  was 
to  a  great  e.xtent  of  students  from  foreign  countries,  was  a 
combination  formed  for  the  protection  of  its  members  from 
the  extortion  of  the  townsmen  and  the  other  annoyances 
incident  in  mediceval  times  to  residence  in  a  foreign  state. 
It  was  a  first  stage  of  development  in  connexion  with 
these  primary  organizations,  when  the  chancellor  of  the 
cathedral,  or  some  other  authority,  began,  as  we  shall 
shortly  see,  to  confer  on  their  masters  the  right  of  teach- 
ing at  any  similar  centre  that  either  already  existed  or 
might  afterw.Trds  be  formed  throughout  Europe, — "facultas 
ubique  docendi."  It  was  a  still  further  development  when 
it  began  to  be  recognized  that,  without  a  licence  from  either 
pope,  emperor,  or  king,  no  ''  studium  generale  "  could  be 
formed  possessing  this  right  of  conferring  degrees,  which 
originally  meant  nothing  more  than  licences  to  teach. 

In  order,  however,  clearly  to  understand  the  conditions  Chief 
under  which  the  earliest  universities  cawe  into  existence,  facts 
it  IS  necessary  to  take  account,  not  only  of  their  organiza-  "}  '*■' 
tion,  but  also  of  their  studies,  and  to  recognize  the  main  {"^J^ 
influences  which,  from  the  6th  to  the  r2th  century,  served  before"^ 
to  modify  both  the  theory  and  the  practice  of  education,  the  nni- 
In  the  former  century,  the  school?  of  the  Roman  empire,  ^^^ity 
which  had  down  to  that  time  kept  alive  the  traditions  of  "^ 
pagan  education,  had  been  almost  entirely  swept  away  by 
the   barbaric    invasions.     The   latter   century  marks  the 
period  when  the  institutions  which  supplied  their  place — 
the  episcopal  schools  attached  to  the  cathedrals  and  the 
monastic  schools — attained  to  their  highest  degree  of  influ- 
ence and  reputation.     Between  these  and  the  schools  of 
the  empire  there  existed  an  essentiaJ  difference,  in  that  the 
theory  of  education  by  which  they  were  pervaded  was  in 
.complete  contrast  to   the  simply  secular   theory  of   the 
schools  of   paganism.     The  cathedral  school  taught  only 
what  was  supposed  to  be  necessary  for  the  education  of 
the   priest;   the  monastic   school   taught  only  what  was 
supposed  to  be  in  harmony  with  the  aims  of  the  monk. 
But  between  the  pagan  system  and  the  Christian  system 
by  which  it  had  been  superseded  there  yet  existed  some- 


832 


UNIVERSITIES 


Revival 
in  time 
ofCharled 
the  Great. 


[t3  con- 
nexion 
with  uni- 
versity of 
Paris 
doubtful. 


General 
causes  of 
formation 
of  first 
universi- 
ties. 


Rise  of 
uni- 
versity of 
Salerno. 


thing  that  was  common  to  both  :  the  latter,  even  in  the 
narrow  and  meagre  instruction  which  it  imparted,  could 
not  altogether  dispense  with  the  ancient  text-books,  simply 
because  there  were  no  others  in  existence.  Certain 
treatises  of  Aristotle,  of  Porphyry,  of  Martianus  Capella, 
and  of  Boetius  continued  consequently  to  be  used  and 
studied ;  and  in  the  slender  outlines  of  pagan  learning 
thus  still  kept  in  view,  and  in  the  exposition  which  they 
necessitated,  we  recognize  the  main  cause  which  prevented 
tho  thought  and  literature  of  classic  antiquity  from  falling 
altogether  into  oblivion. 

Under  the  rule  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  even  these 
scanty  traditions  of  learning  declined  throughout  the 
Frankish  dominions ;  but  in  England  the  designs  of 
Gregory  the  Great,  as  carried  out  by  Theodorus,  Bade, 
and  Alcuin,  resulted  in  a  great  revival  of  education  and 
letters.  The  influence  of  this  revival  extended  in  the  8th 
and  9th  centuries  to  Frankland,  where  Charles  the  Great, 
advised  and  aided  by  Alcuin,  effected  a  memorable  refor- 
mation, which  included  both  the  monastic  and  the  cathe- 
dral schools;  while  the  school  attached  to  the  imperial 
court,  known  as  the  Palace  School,  also  became  a  famous 
centre  of  learned  intercourse  and  instruction. 

But  the  activity  thus  generated,  and  the  interest  in 
learning  which  it  served  for  a  time  to  diffuse,  well  nigh 
died  out  amid  the  anarchy  which  characterizes  the  10th 
century  in  Latin  Christendom,  and  it  is  at  least  question- 
able whether  any  real  connexion  can  be  shown  to  have 
existed  between  this  earlier  revival  and  that  remarkable 
movement  in  which  the  university  of  Paris  had  its  origin. 
On  the  whole,  however,  a  clearly  traced,  although  imper- 
fectly continuous,  succession  of  distinguished  teachers  has 
inclined  the  majority  of  those  who  have  studied  this  ob- 
scure period  to  conclude  that  a  certain  tradition  of  learn- 
ing, handed  down  from  the  famous  school  over  which 
Alcuin  presided  at  the  great  abbey  of  St  Martin  at  Tours, 
continued  to  survive,  and  became  the  nucleus  of  the  teach- 
ing ill  which  the  university  took  its  rise.  But,  in  order 
adequately  to  explain  the  remarkable  development  and 
novel  character  which  that  teaching  assumed  in  the  course 
of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  it  is  necessary  to  take 
account  of  the  operation  of  certain  more  general  causes  to 
which  the  origin  of  the  great  majority  of  the  earlier  uni- 
versities may  in  common  unhesitatingly  be  referred.  These 
causes  are — (1)  the  introduction  of  new  subjects  of  study, 
as  embodied  in  a  new  or  revived  literature ;  (2)  the  adop- 
tion of  new  methods  of  teaching  which  were  rendered 
necessary  by  the  new  studies  ;  (3)  the  growing  tendency 
to  organization  which  accompanied  the  development  and 
consolidation  of  the  European  nationalities., 

That  the  earlier  universities  took  their  rise  to  a  great 
extent  in  endeavours  to  obtain  and  provide  instruction  of 
1  kind  beyond  the  range  of  the  monastic  and  cathedral 
schools  appears  to  be  very  generally  admitted,  and  this 
general  fact  has  its  value  in  assisting  us  to  arrive  at  a 
conclusion  with  respect  to  the  origin  of  the  first  European 
university, — that  of  Salerno  in  Italy,  which  became 
known  as  a  school  of  medicine  as  early  as  the  9th  century. 
The  circumstances  of  its  rise  are  extremely  obscure,  and 
whether  it  was  monastic  or  secular  in  its  origin  has  been 
much  disputed.  One  writer '  derives  its  origin  from  an 
independent  tradition  of  classical  learning  which  continued 
to  exist  in  Italy  down  to  the  10th  century.  Another 
writer  2  maintains  that  it  had  its  commencement  in  the 
teaching  at  the  famous  Benedictine  monastery  of  Monte 
Cassino,  where  the  study  of  medicine  was  undoubtedly 
pursued.     But  various  facts  may  be  urged  in  coutraven- 


*  De  Renzi,  Stoi-ia  DocumenCala  delta  Scuola  Mcdica  di  Salerno^ 
ed.  1857,  p.  145. 

*  Puccinotti,  Sioria  delta  Mcdicbia,  i.  317-326. 


tion  of  such  a  theory.  The  school  at  Salerno,  so  far  as 
its  history  can  be  traced,  appears  to  have  been  entirely 
a  secular  community  ;  it  was  distinguished  also  by  its 
catholic  spirit,  and,  at  a  time  when  Jews  were  the  object  of 
religious  persecution  throughout  Europe,  members  of  this 
nationality  were  to  be  found  both  as  teachers  and  learners 
at  Salerno.  Situated,  moreover,  as  it  was  on  the  sea- 
coast,  its  communication  with  the  neighbouring  island  of 
Sicily  was  easy  and  frequent ;  and  it  would  accordingly 
seem  far  more  probable  that  it  was  owing  to  the  new 
knowledge  gained  from  the  Saracens,  after  their  occupa- 
tion of  that  island,  that  Salerno  acquired  its  reputation. 
It  was  by  a  band  of  these  invaders  that  Bertharius,  abbot 
of  Monte  Cassino,  and  tho  author  of  certain  medical 
treatises,  was  massacred  along  with  his  monks  in  tMfe  year 
883.  The  Saracens  were  famed  for  their  medical  skill, 
and,  by  their  translations  of  Galen  and  Hippocrates,  did 
much  to  advance  the  study  ;  and,  according  to  Jourdain,^ 
there  were  translations  from  the  Arabic  into  Latin  long 
before  the  time  of  Constantine  the  African,  but  these 
versions  have  perished.  In  the  course  of  the  11th  century, 
under  the  teaching  of  Constantine  the  African  (d.  1087), 
the  celebrity  of  Salerno  became  diffused  all  over  Europe. 
Ordericus  Vitalis,  v.'ho  wrote  in  tbe  first  half  of  the  ■12th 
century,  speaks  of  it  as  then  long  famous.  In  1231  it 
was  constituted  by  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  the  only 
school  of  medicine  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

It  was  at  a  considerable  interval  after  the  rise  of  the 
school  at  Salerno,  about  the  year  1113,  that  Irnerius  com- 
menced at  Bologna  his  lectures  pn  the  civil  law.  This 
instruction,  again,  was  of  a  kind  which  the  monastic  and 
cathedral  schools  could  not  supply,  and  it  also  met  a  new 
and  pressing  want.  The  states  of  Lombardy  were  at  this 
time  rising  rapidly  in  "population  and  in  wealth  ;  and  the 
greater  complexity  of  their  political  relations,  their  increas- 
ing manufactures  and  commerce,  called  for  a  more  definite 
application  of  the  principles  embodied  in  the  codes  that 
had  been  handed  down  by  Theodosius  and  Justinian.  But 
the  distinctly  secular  character  of  this  new  study,  and  its 
intimate  connexion  with  the  claims  and  prerogatives  of  the 
Western  emperor,  aroused  at  first  the  susceptibilities  of  the 
Roman  see,  and  for  a  time  Bologna  and  its  civilians  were 
regarded  by  the  church  with  distrust  and  even  with  alarm. 
These  sentiments  were  not,  however,  of  long  duration.  In 
the  year  1151  the  appearance  of  the  Decrelum  of  Gratian, 
largely  compiled  from  spurious  documents,  invested  the 
studies  of  the  canonist  with  fresh  importance ;  and 
numerous  decrees  of  past  and  almost  forgotten  pontiffs  now 
claimed  to  take  their  stand  side  by  side  with  the  enact- 
ments contained  in  the  Corpus  Juris  Civilis.  They  con- 
stituted, in  fact,  the  main  basis  of  those  new  pretensions 
asserted  with  so  much  success  by  the  popedom  in  the 
course  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  It  was  necessary, 
accordingly,  that  the  Decretum  should  be  known  and 
studied  beyond  the  walls  of  the  monastery  or  the  episcopal 
palace,  and  that  its  pages  should  receive  authoritative  ex- 
position at  some  common  centre  of  instruction.  Such  a 
centre  was  to  be  found  in  Bologna.  The  nefeds  of  the 
secular  student  and  of  the  ecclesiastical  student  were  thus 
brought  for  a  time  into  accord,  and  from  the  days  of 
Irnerius  down  to  the  close  of  the  13th  century  we  have 
satisfactory  evidence  that  Bologna  was  generally  recognized 
as  the  chief  school  both  of  the  civil  and  the  canon  law.* 
It  has  indeed  been  asserted  that  university  degrees  were 
instituted  there  as  early  as  the  pontificate  of  Eugenius 
III.  (1M5-53),  but  the  statement  rests  on  no  good 
authority,  and  is  in  every  way  improbable.  There  is, 
however,  another   tradition  which   is  in  better   harmony 

'  SurVAge  el  t'Oriijine  dcs  Traductions  Latines,  Sc,  p.  226. 
*  Denifle,  Die  l/niversitiUeti,  &c.,  i.  48. 


Teacliing 

of 

Imeriiid 

at 

Bolo^i.v. 


Vecretvm 

of  Gratu-io 
and  the 
canor 
law 


UNIVERSITIES 


833 


Barbi' 

rossa 

granU 

privi- 

]e^3  to 

f.ireigu 

nt 
Balogn*. 


The 

"acirer- 
uitiM''at 
Bologna. 


Demo- 
cratic 
ithar- 
Mter  of 
these 
(oniina- 
ratiea. 


with  the  known  facts.  WTien  Barbarossa  marched  his 
forces  into  Italy  on  his  memorable  expedition  of  1155, 
and  reasserted  those  imperial  claims  which  had  so  long 
lain  dormant,  the  professors  of  the  civil  law  and  thei.' 
scholars,  but  more  especially  the  foreign  students,  gathered 
round  the  Western  representative  of  the  Roman  Caesars; 
and  besought  his  intervention  in  their  favour  in  then 
relations  with  the  citizens  of  Bologna.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  students  were  probably  from  Germany  ;  and  it  did 
not  escape  Frederick's  penetration  that  the  civilian  might 
prove  an  invaluable  ally  in  the  assertion  of  his  imperial 
pretensions.  He  received  the  sujipliants  graciously,  and, 
finding  that  their  grievances  were  real,  especially  against 
the  landlords  in  whose  houses  they  were  domiciled,  he 
granted  the  foreign  students  substantial  protection,  by 
conferring  on  them  certain  special  immunities  and  privi- 
leges (November  115S).'  These  privileges  were  embodied 
in  the  celebrated  Authentica,  Hahita,  in  the  Corpus  Juris 
Ciiniis  of  the  empire  (bk.  iv.  tit.  13),  and  were  eventually 
extended  so  as  to  include  all  the  other  universities  of  Italy. 
In  them  we  may  discern  the  precedent  for  that  state  prp- 
tection  of  the  university  which,  however  essential  at  one 
time  for  the  security  and  freedom  of  the  teacher  and  the 
taught,  has  been  far  from  proving  an  unmixed  beucfit, — 
the  influence  which  the  civil  power  has  thus  been  able  to 
exert  being  too  often  wielded  for  the  suppression  of  that 
very  liberty  of  thought  and  inquiry  from  which  the  earlier 
miversities  derived  in  no  small  measure  their  importance 
and  their  fame. 

But,  though  there  was  a  flourishing  school  of  study,  it 
is  to  be  observed  that  Bologna  did  not  possess  a  university 
so  early  as  11.58.  Its  first  university  was  not  constituted 
until  the  close  of  the  12th  century.  The  "universities" 
at  Bologna  were,  as  Denifle  has  shown,  really  student  guilds, 
formed  under  influences  quite  distinct  from  the  protecting 
clauses  of  the  Authentica,  and  suggested,  as  already  noted, 
by  the  precedent  of  those  foreign  guilds  which,  in  the 
course  of  the  12th  century,  began  to  rise  throughout 
western  Europe.  They  had  their  origin  in  the  absolute 
necessity,  under  which  residents  in  a  foreign  city  found 
themselves,  of  obtaining  by  combination  that  protection 
and  those  rights  which  they  could  not  claim  as  citizens. 
These  societies  were  modelled,  Denifle  considers,  not  on 
the  trade  guilds  which  rose  in  Bologna  in  the  13th  century, 
but  on  the  Teutonic  guilds  which  arose  nearly  a  century 
earlier  in  north-western  Europe,  being  essentially  "  spon- 
taneous confederations  of  aliens  on  a  foreign  soil."  Ori- 
ginally, they  did  not  include  the  native  student  element. 

The  power  resulting  from  this  principle  of  combination, 
when  superadded  to  the  privileges  conferred  by  Barbarossa, 
gave  to  the  students  of  Bologna  a  superiority  of  which 
they  were  not  slow  to  avail  themselves.  Under  the  leader- 
ship of  their  rector,  they  extorted  from  the  citizens  con- 
cessions which  raised  them  from  the  condition  of  an  op- 
pressed to  that  of  a  specially  privileged  class.  The  same 
principle,  when  put  in  force  against  the  professors,  reduced 
the  latter  to  a  position  of  humble  deference  to  the  very 
body  whom  they  were  called  upon  to  instruct,  and  im- 
parted to  the  entire  university  that  essentially  democratic 
character  by  which  it  was  afterwards  distinguished.  It  is 
not  surprising  that  such  advantages  should  have  led  to  an 
imitation  and  extension  of  the  principle  by  which  they 
were  obtained.  Denifle  considers  that  the  "  universities  " 
at  Bologna  were  at  one  time  certainly  more  than  four  in 


'  See  Savigny,  Gcsch.  d.  rim.  Rechu,  in.  152,  491-492.  See  also 
Giesehrecht,  Oesch.  d.  Kaiserzmt  (ed.  18S0),  v.  51-52.  The  story  is 
preserved  in  a  recently  discovere^l  metrical  composition  descriptive  of 
the  history  of  Fredenck  J. ;  see  Sitzungsbenckte  d.  Bairisch.  Akad.  a. 
Wissaixha/l,  Ph-d.-Hist.  Klasse,  1879.  ii.  285.  Its  authenticity  is 
called  in  question  by  Denifie,  but  it  would  seem  to  be  quite  in  h.ir- 
mooy  with  the  known  facts. 

23— .?1 


number,  and  we  know  that  the  Italian  students  alone  were 
subdivided  into  two, — the  Tuscans  and  the  Lombards.  In 
the  centres  formed  by  secession  from  the  parent  body  a 
like  subdivision  took  place.  At  Vercelli  there  were  four 
"  universitates,"  composed  respectively  of  Italians,  Ens- 
lish,  Proven9als,  and  Germans  ,  at  Padua  there  were 
similar  divisions  into  Italians,  French  {i.e.\  Franctgens, 
comprising  both  English  and  Normans),  Provencals  (in- 
cluding Spaniards  and  Catalans).  When  accordingly  we 
learn  from  Odofred  that  in  the  time  of  the  eminent  jurist 
Azo,  who  lectured  at  Bologna  about  1200,  the  number  of 
the  students  there  amounted  to  some  ten  thousand,  of 
whom  the  majority  were  foreigners,  it  seems  reasonable  to 
conclude  that  the  number  of  these  confederations  of  students 
("  tocietates  scholanum  ")  at  Bologna  was  yet  greater 
It  is  certain  that  they  were  not  formed  simultaneously, 
but,  similarly  to  the  free  guilds,  one  after  the  other, — the 
last  in  order  being  that  ol  the  Tuscans,  which  was  com- 
posed of  students  from  Tuscany,  the  Campagna,  and 
Rome.  Nor  are  we,  again,  to  look  upon  them  as  in  any 
way  the  out<;ome  of  those  democratic  principles  which 
found  favour  in  Bologna,  but  rather  as  originating  in  the 
traditional  home  associations  of  the  foreign  students, 
fostered,  however,  by  the  peculiar  conditions  of  their 
university  life.  As  the  Tuscan  division  (the  one  least  in 
sympathy,  in  most  respects,  with  Teutonic  institutions) 
was  the  last  formed,  so,  Denifle  conjectures,  the  German 
"  university  "  may  have  introduced  the  conception  which 
was  successively  adopted  by  the  other  nationalities. 

In  marked  resemblance  to  the  guilds,  these  confederations 
were  presided  over  by  a  common  head, — the  "  rector  schola- 
num," an  obvious  imitation  of  the  "rector  societatum  "  or 
"  artium  "  of  the  guild,  but  to  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  "  rector  scholarum,"  or  director  of  the  studies,  with 
whose  function  the  former  officer  had,  at  this  time,  nothing 
in  common.  Like  the  guilds,  again,  the  different  nations 
were  represented  by  their  "consiliarii,"  a  deliberative 
assembly  with  whom  the  rector  habitually  took  counsel. 

While  recognizing  the  essentially  democratic  character  of 
the  constitution  of  these  communities,  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  the  students,  unlike  the  majority  at  Paris  and 
later  universities,  were  mostly  at  this  time  of  mature 
years.  As  the  civil  law  and  the  canon  law  were  at  fir3t 
the  only  branches  of  study,  the  class  whom  they  attracted 
were  often  men  already  filling  office  in  some  department 
of  the  church  or  state, — archdeacons,  the  heads  of  schools, 
canons  of  cathedrals,  and  like  functionaries  forming  a  con- 
siderable element  in  the  aggregate.  It  has  been  observed, 
indeed,  that  the  permission  accorded  them  by  Frederick  1. 
of  choosing,  in  all  cases  of  dispute,  their  own  tribunal, 
thus  constituting  them,  to  a  great  extent,  sui  juris,  seems 
to  presuppose  a  certain  maturity  of  judgment  among  those 
on  whom  this  discretionary  power  was  bestowed. 

With  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  these  various  con- 
federations became  blended,  for  the  first  time,  into  one  or 
other  of  the  two  great  divisions  already  referred  to, — those  of 
theUltramontaniandtheCitramontani.JohannesdeVaranis 
being  rector  of  the  former  and  Pantaleon  de  Venetiis  of  the 
latter.  Innocent  IV.,  in  according  his  sanction  to  the  new 
statutes  of  the  university  in  1253,  refers  to  them  as  drawn 
up  by  the  "  rectores  et  universitas  scholarium  Bononieu- 
sium."  With  the  commencement  of  the  16th  century,  the 
two  corporations  were  combined  under  one  rector. 

About  the  year  1200  were  formed  the  two  faculties  of 
medicine  and  philosophy  (or  the  arts^),  the  former  being 

^  The  arta  course  of  study  was  that  repqesented  by  the  ancient 
(riinum  (i.e.,  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric)  and  the  qiiadnvium  (i.e., 
arithmetic,  geometr}',  music,  and  astronomy),  as  handed  down  from 
the  schools  of  the  Roman  empire.  See  J.  B.  Mullinger,  History  of 
the  UniiXTSity  of  Cambridge,  i.  24-27. 


Oilier 
similar 
commtiai- 
ties  ui 
Italy. 


The 
rector. 


Mature 
age  of  d 
student. 


Amalga- 
mation of 
the  "uni- 
versi- 
tates " 
into  txv-o 
divisions. 


Faculties 
institute.1 


834 


U  N  1  \'  E  11  S  I  1'  I  E  S 


ftrcount 
m  I  ho 
uu'ver- 
sity  by 


Til? 
e.iil  iest 


^'icin  of 
univer- 
sity of 
Pans. 


Sluily  of 
log's- 


T«aching 

of 

Abelard. 


somewhat  the  earlier.  It  was  developed,  as  thi}t  of  the 
civil  law  liid  been  developed,  by  a  succession  of  able 
teachers,  among  whom  Tliaddeus  Alderottus  was  especially 
eminent.  The  faculty  of  arts,  down  to  the  l4th  century, 
Bcarceiy  attained  to  equal  eminence.  The  teaching  of 
theology  remained  for  a  long  time  exclusively  in  the  hands 
of  the  Dominicans  ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  year  1300 
that  Innocent  VI.  recognized  the  university  as  a  "studium 
generale  "  in  this  branch, — in  other  words,  as  a  place  of 
theological  education  for  ail  students,  with  the  power  of 
conferring  deg'-'^cs  of  universal  validity. 

In  the  year  1371  the  cardinal  legate,  Anglicus,  compiled, 
as  chief  director  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  the  city,  an 
account  of  the  university,  which  he  presented  to  Urban  V. 
The  information  it  supplies  is,  however,  defective,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  only  the  professors  who  were  in  receipt  of 
salaries  from  the  municipality  arc  mentioned  Of  these 
there  were  twelve  of  civil  law  and  si.^c  of  canon  law  ;  three 
of  medicine,  three  of  practical  medicine,  and  one  of  sur- 
gery ;  two  of  logic,  and  one  each  of  astrology,  rhetoric, 
and  notarial  practice;  The  professors  of  theology,  who,  as 
members  of  the  religious  orders,  received  no  state  remuneia- 
tien,  are  unmentioned 

Colleges  existed  at  Bologna  at  a  very  early  date,  but  it 
IS  not  until  the  Hth  century  that  we  find  them  possessing 
any  organization.  Thej'  were  designed  solely  for  neces- 
sitous students,  not  being  natives  of  Bologna.  A  separate 
liouse,  with  a  certain  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  a  speci- 
■  ed  number  of  scholars,  was  all  that  was  originally  Con- 
ini  plated.  Such  was  the  character  of  that  founded  by 
Zop.n,  bishop  of  Avignon,  in  February  1256  (O.S.),  the 
same  month  and  year,  it  is  to  be  noted,  in  which  the  Sor- 
hnnne  was  founded  in  Pans.  It  was  designed  for  the 
maintenance  of  eight  scholars  from  the  province  of  Avignon, 
under  the  supervision  of  three  canons  of  the  church,  main- 
taining themselves  in  the  university.  Each  scholar  was  to 
receive  21  Bolognese  lire  annually  for  five  years.  The 
:ollege  of  Brescia  was  founded  in  1320  by  William  of 
Brescia,  archdeacon  of  Bologna,  for  poor  foreign  students 
without  distinction  as  to  nationality.  The  Spanish  college, 
founded  in  1364,  for  twenty-four  Spanish  scholars  and  two 
chaplains,  is  noted  by  Denifle  as  the  one  college  founded 
in  mediaeval  times  which  still  e.xists  on  the  Continent. 

Of  the  general  fact  that  the  early  universities  rose  in 
response  to  new  wants  the  commencement  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris  supplies  us  with  a  further  illustration. 
The. study  of  logic,  which,  prior  to  the  r2th  centurj',  was 
founded  exclusively  on  one  or  two  meagre  compends, 
received  about  the  year  1100,  on  two  occasions,  a  power- 
ful stimulus, — in  the  first  instance,  from  the  memorable 
controversy  between  Lanfranc  and  Berengar ;  in  the 
second,  from  the  no  less  famous  controversy  between 
Anselm  and  Roscellinus.  A  belief  sprang  up  that  an 
intelligent  apprehension  of  spiritual  truth  depended  on  a 
correct  use  of  prescribed  methods  of  argumentation. 
Dialectic  was  looked  upon  as  "the  science  of  sciences  "  ; 
and,  when,  somewhere  in  the  first  decade  of  the  12th 
century,  William  of  Champeaux  opened  in  Paris  a  school 
for  the  more  advanced  study  of  dialectic  as  an  art,  his 
teaching  was  attended  with  marked  success.  Among  his 
pupils  was  Abelard,  in  whose  hands  the  study  made  a  yet 
more  notable  advance  ;  so  that,  by  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
iury,  we  find  John  of  Salisbury,  on  returning  from  the 
French  capital  to  England,  relating  with  astonishment, 
nofunminglod  with  contempt,  how  all  learned  Paris  had 
gone  well  nigh  mad  in  its  pursuit  and  practice  of  the  new 
dialectic. 

Abelard  taught  in  the  first  instance  at  the  cathedral 
school  at  Notre  Damo,  and  subsequently  «t  the  schools  on 
♦■he   Montague   Saintc-Genevieve,   of    which    ho   was   the 


founder,  and  where  he  imparted  to  logic  its  uew  develop- 
ment. But  in  1147  the  secular  canons  of  Ste  Genevieve 
gave  place  to  canons  regular  from  St  Victor  ;  and  hence- 
forth the  schoul  on  the  former  foundation  was  merely  a 
school  for  the  teaching  of  theology,  and  was  attended  only 
by  the  members  of  the  liouse  '  The  schools  out  of  which 
the  university  arose  were  those  attached  to  the  cathedral 
on  the  He  de  la  Cite,  and  presided  over  by  the  chancellor, 
— a  dignitary  who  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  later  chancellor  of  the  university.  For  a  long  tim€ 
the  teachers  lived  in  separate  houses  on  the  island,  and  it 
was  only  by  degrees  that  they  combined  themselves  into  a 
society,  and  that  special  buildings  were  constructed  for 
their  class-work.  But  the  flame  which  Abelard's  teaching 
had  kindled  was  not  destined  to  expire.  Among  his 
|iupils  was  Peter  Lombard,  who  was  bishop  of  Pans  in 
11.59,  and  widely  known  to  posterity  as  the  compiler  of 
the  famous  voiuine  of  the  Sentences.  The  design  of  this 
woik  was  to  place  before  the  student,  in  as  strictly  logical 
a  form  as  practicable,  the  views  (sententia)  of  the  fathers 
and  all  the  great  doctors  of  the  church  upon  the  chief  and 
most  ditficult  points  in  the  Christian  belief.  Conceived 
with  the  purpose  of  allaying  aud  preventing,  it  really 
stimulated,  controversy.  The  logicians  seized  upon  it  as  a 
great  storehouse  of  indisputable  major  premises,  on  which 
they  argued  with  renewed  energy  and  with  endless 
ingenuity  of  dialectical  refinement ;  and  upon  this  new 
compendium  of  theological  doctrine,  which  became  the 
te.xt-booU  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  schoolmen,  in  their 
successive  treStises  super  Sententias,  expended' a  consider- 
able share  of  that  subtlety  and  labour  which  still  excite  the 
astonishment  of  the  student  of  metaphysical  literature. 

It  IS  iQ  these  prominent  features  in  tho-history  of  these 
early  universities — the  development  of  new  methods  of 
instruction  concurrently  with  the  appearance  of  new 
material  for  their  application — that  we  find  the  most 
probable  solution  of  the  question  as  to  how  the  university, 
as  distinguished  from  the  older  cathedral  or  monastic 
schools,  was  first  formed.  In  a  similar  manner,  it  seems 
probable,  the  majority  of  the  earl'pr  universities  of  Italy — 
Reggio,  Modena,  Vicenza,  Padua,  and  Vercelli — arose,  for 
they  had  their  origin  independently  alike  of  the  civil  and 
the  papal  authority.  Instances,  it  is  true,  occur,  which 
cannot  be  referred  to  this  spontaneous  mode  of  growth. 
Tlie  university  of  Naples,  for  example,  was  founded  solely 
by  the  fiat  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  in  the  year  1224  ; 
and,  if  we  may  rely  upon  the  documents  cited  by  Denille, 
Innocent  IV.  about  the  year  1245  founded  in  connexion 
witii  the  curitfa  "studium  generale,"'-  which  was  attached  to 
the  [lapal  court,  and  followed  it  when  removed  from  Rome, 
very  much  as  the  Palace  School  of  Charles  the  Great  ac- 
companied that  monarch  on  his  progresses. 

As  the  university  of  Pans" became  the  model,  not  only 
for  the  universities  of  France  north  of  the  Loire,  but  also 
for  the  great  majority  of  those  of  -eentral  Europe  as  well 
as  for  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  some  account  of  its  early 
organization  will  here  be  indispensable.  Such  an  account 
is  rendered  still  further  necessary  by  the  fact  thai  the 
recent  and  almost  exhaustive  researches  of  Denifle,  the 
Dominican  father,  have  led  him  to  conclusions  which  on 
some  important  pioints  run  altogether  counter  to  those  sanc- 
tioned by  the  high  authority  of  Savigny. 

The  original  university,  as  already  stated,  took  its  rise 
entirely  out  of  the  movement  carried  on  by  teachers  on  the 

'  Tlie  view  of  Thurot  {De  t' Orgamsaeioii  rle  C Enscignenncht  dans 
VUnircTstU  de  Pans;  pp.  4-7)  that  the  university  arose  out  of  a  com- 
bination of  these  several  schools  is  rejected  by  Denifle  (see  Die  £'«ri- 
versilalen,  kc,  1.  C53-694). 

-  Where  tlie  words  studiuta  r.,-ncTatc  are  pinccd  within  maik';  of 
qnotntioii  Ihey  occur  in  tiie  original  charter  of  foundation  of  tlie  uiii 
vtrsity  I'ffcried  to. 


Study  o( 
theology 


Lomoard'f 
Sentcncr-s. 


Rise  of 
other 
early  uni 
versilies 


Early 
orcaiuia 
tioii  of 
univer- 
sity of 
Paris. 


UNIVERSITIES 


835 


■"■pp. 


Bachelor 
af  irts. 


V"^  uni- 

•-isity 

KtmeJ. 


■LPn<1- 
i  its 
t 
■■  Aop' 

..at. 


Island,  ttlio  taught  by  virtue  of  the  licence  conferred  by 
the  chancellor  of  the  cathedral.  In  the  second  decade  of 
the  I3th  century,  it  is  true,  we  find  mastere  withdrawing 
themselves  from  his  authority  by  repairing  to  the  left  bank 
of  the  Seme  and  placing  themselves  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Ste  Genevieve  ;  and  in 
1255  this  dignitary  is  to  be  found  appointing  a  clianccUor 
whose  duty  it  should  be  to  confer  "  licentia  doccndi  "  on 
those  candidates  who  were  desirous  of  opening  schools  in 
ihat  district.  But  it  was  around  the  bestowal  of  this  licence 
tty  the  chancellor  of  Notre  Dame,  on  the  tie  de  la  Citi5, 
that  the  university  of  Paris  grew  up.  It  is  in  this  licence 
that  tlie  whole  significance  of  the  master  of  arts  degree  is 
contained  ,  for  what  is  technically  known  as  admission  to 
that  degree  was  really  nothing  more  nor  less  than  receiving 
the  chancellor's  permission  to  "  incept,"  and  by  "  incep- 
tion "  was-iniplied  the  master's  formal  entrance  upon,  and 
commencement  of,  the  functions  of  a  duly  licensed  teacher, 
and  his  recognition  as  such  by  his  brothers  in  the  profes- 
sion. The  previous  stage  of  his  academic  career,  that  of 
bachelordom,  had  been  one  of  apprenticeship  for  the 
mastership ;  and  his  emancipation  from  this  state  was 
symbolized  by  placing  the  magisterial  cap  (birel/a)  upon 
his  head,  a  ceremony  which,  in  imitation  of  the  old  Roman 
ceremony  of  manumission,  was  performed  by  his'  former 
instructor,  "  under  whom  "  he  was  said  to  incept.  He 
then  gave  a  formal  inaugural  lecture,  and,  after  this  proof 
of  magisterial  capacity,  was  welcomed  into  the  society  of 
his  professional  brethren  with  set  speeches,  and  took  his 
seat  in  his  master's  chair. 

This  community  of  teachers  of  recognized  fitness  did  not 
in  itself  suffice  to  constitute  a  university,  but  some  time 
between  the  years  1150  and  1170,  the  period  when  the 
Senlernres  of  Peter  Lombard  were  given  to  the  world,  the 
university  of  Paris  came  formally  into  being.  Its  first 
written  statutes  were  not,  however,  compiled  until  about 
the  year  1208,  and  it  was  not  until  long  after  that  date 
that  it  possessed  a  "  rector."  Its  earliest  recognition  as  a 
legal  corporation  belongs  to  about  the  year  1211,  when  a 
brief  of  Innncent  III.  empowered  it  to  elect  a  proctor  to 
be  its  representative  at  the  papal  court.  By  this  permis- 
sion it  obtained  the  right  to  sue  or  to  be  sued  in  a  court 
of  justice  as  a  corporate  body. 

Tills  papal  recognition  was,  however,  very  far  from  im- 
plying the  episcopal  recognition,  and  the  earlier  history  of 
the  new  community  exhibits  it  as  .in  continual  conflict 
alike  with  the  chancellor,  the  bishop,  and  the  cathedral 
chapter  of  Paris,  by  all  of  whom  it  was  regarded  as  a 
centre  of  insubordination  and  doctrinal  licence^  Had  it 
not  been,  indeed,  for  the  papal  aid,  the  university  would 
probably  not  have  survived  the  contest;  but  with  that 
powerful  assistance  it  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  great 
Transalpine-  centre  of  orthodox  theological  teaching. 
Successive  pontiffs,  down  to  the  great  schism  of  1378, 
made  it  one  of  the  foremost  points  of  their  policy  to 
cultivate  friendly  and  confidential  relations,  with  the 
authorities  of  the  unive-sity  of  Paris,  and  systematically  to" 
discourage  the  formation  of  theological  faculties  at  other 
centres.  In  1231  Gregory  IX.,  in  the  bull  Parens  Scieii- 
iiarum,  gave  full  recognition  to  the  right  of  the  several 
faculties  to  regulate  and  modify  the  constitution  of  the 
entire  university, — a  formal  sanctioa  which,  in  Denifle's 
opinion,  rendered  the  bull  in  question  the  JIagna  Charta 
of  the  university. 

In  comparing  the  relative  antiquity  of  the  universities 
of  Paris  and  Bologna,  it  is  difficult  to  give  an  unqualified 
decision.  The  university  of  masters  at  the  former  was 
probably  slightly  anterior  to  the  university  of  students  at 
the  latter ;  but  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that 
Paris  '1  reducing  its  traditional  customs  to  statutory  form. 


largely  availed  itself  of  the  precedents  afforded  by  the 
already  existing  code  of  the  Transalpine  centre,  while  its 
rectorship,  proctorships,  and  four  "  nations  "  are  all  clearly 
distinct  adaptations  of  the  corresponding  divisions  at 
Bologna.  These  nations,  which  included  both  professors 
and  scholars,  were — (1)  the  French  nation,  composed,  in 
addition  to  the  native  element,  of  Spaniards,  Italians,  and 
Greeks  ;  (2)  the  Picard  nation,  representing  the  students 
from  the  northeast  and  from  the  Netherlands  ;  (3) 
the  Norman  nation  ;  (4)  the  English  nation,  comprising, 
besides  students  from  the  provinces  under  English  rule, 
those  from  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Germany. 
These  several  nations  first  came  into  existence  some  time 
before  ihe  .year  1219,  and  all  belonged  to  the  faculty 
of  arts  ;  but  the  fully  developed  university  was  divided 
into  four  faculties, — three  "  superior,"  viz.,  those  of  theo- 
logy, canon  law,  and  medicine,  and  one  "  inferior,"  that  of 
arts.  The  head  of  each  faculty  was  the  dean  ;  the  head 
of  each  nation  was  the  proctor.  The  rector,  who  in  the 
first  instance  was  head  of  the  faculty  of  arts,  by  whom  he 
was  elected,  was  eventually  head  of  the  whole  university. 
Each  of  the  nations  and  each  of  the  superior  faculties, 
while  subject  to  the  general  authority  which  he  represented, 
was,  like  a  royal  colony,  in  a  great  measure  self-governed, 
and  ma;le  statutes  which  were  binding  simply  on  its  ownf 
members.  Congregations  of  the  faculty  of  arts  were  pre- 
sided over  by  the  rector,  who  discharged  the  same  function 
when  general  congregationa  of  the  whole  academic  cora- 
mijinity  were  convened.  In  the  former  the  votes  on  any 
question  were  taken  by  nations,  in  the  latter  by  faculties 
and  nations.  Only  "regents,"  that  is,  masters  actually 
engaged  in  teaching,  had  any  right  to  be  present  or  to  vote 
in  congregations.  Neither  the  entire  university  nor  the 
separate  faculties  had  thus,  it  will  be  seen,  originally  a 
common  head,  and  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  14lh 
century  that  the  rector  became  the  head  of  the  collective 
university,  by  the  incorporation  under  Kim,  first,  of  the 
students  of  the  canon  law  and  of  medicine  (which  took 
place  about  the  end  of  the  13th  century),  and,  secondly,  of 
the  theologians,  which  took  place  about  half  a  century 
later. 

Apart  from  the  broad  diiTerences  in  their  organization, 
the  very  conception  of  learning,  it  will  be  observed,  was 
different  at  Bologna  from  what  it  was  at  Paris.  In  the 
former  it  was  entirely  professional^— designed,  that  is  to 
say,  to  prepare  the  student  for  a  definite  and  practical 
career  in  after  life ;  in  the  latter  it  was  sought  *o  provide 
a  general  mental  training,  and  to  attract  the  learner  to 
studies  which  were  speculative  rather  than  practical.  In 
the  sequel,  the  less  mercenary  spirit  in  which  Paris  culti- 
vated knowledge,  added  immensely  to  her  influence  and 
reputation.  The  university  became  known  as  the  gi-eat 
school  where  theology  was  studied  in  its  most  scientific 
spirit ;  and  the  decisions  of  its  great  doctors  upon  those 
abstruse  questions  which  absorbed  so  much  of  the  highest 
intellectual  activity  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  regarded  as 
almost  final.  The  popes  themselves,  although  averse  from 
theological  controversies,  deemed  it  expedient  to  cultivate 
friendly  relations  with  a  centre  of  such  importance  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  their  influence  in  a  yet  wider  field. 
Down  therefore  to  the  time  of  the  great  schism  (1378), 
they  at  once  conciliated  tlio  university  of  Paris  aud  con- 
sulted what  they  deemed  to  be  thje  interests  of  the  Eoman 
see,  by  discouraging  the  creation  of  faculties  of  theojogy 
elsewhere.  The  apparent  exceptions  to  this  policy  are 
easily  explained:  the  four  faculties  of  theology  wliich  they 
sanctioned  in  Italy — Pisa  (1343),  Florence  (1349),  Bologna 
(1362),  and  Padua  (1363) — were  designed  to  benefit  the 
Italian  monasteries,  by  saving  the  monks  the  expense  and 
dangers  of  a  long  journey  beyond  the  Alps ;  while  that  at 


The 
"nalioDa. 


P.\l  is  .111(1 

Bologna 

con- 

trasteil- 


Pap.ll 
policy  irv 
rehtiou 
to  the 
univer- 
sities. 


836 


UNIVERSITIES 


Fouaau- 
tion  of 
univer- 
sities of 
Reggio 
and 
Modena 


ViL'enza, 


Paaua, 


Naplea, 


Toulouse  (1229)  took  its  rise  under  circumstances  entirely 
exceptional,  being  designed  as  a  bulwark  against  the  heresy 
of  the  Albigenses.  Tiie  popes,  on  the  other  hand,  favoured 
the  creation  of  new  faculties  of  law,  and  especially  of  the 
canon  law,  as  the  latter  represented  the  source  from  which 
Rome  derived  her  most  warmly  contested  powers  and  pre- 
rogatives. The  effects  of  this  twofold  poHcy  were  suffici- 
ently intelligible :  the  withholding  of  each  charter  which 
it  was  sought  to  obtain  for  a  new  school  of  theology  only 
served  to  augment  the  numbers  that  flocked  to  Paris  ;  the 
bestowal  of  each  new  charter  for  a  faculty  of  law  served  in 
like  manner  t^  divert  a  certain  proportionate  number  from 
Bologna.  These  facts  enable  us  to  understand  how  it  is 
that,  in  the  13ih  and  14th  centuries,  we  find,  even  in 
France,  a  larger  number  of  universities  created  after  the 
model  of  Bologna  than  after  that  of  Paris. 

In  their  earliest  stage,  however,  the  importance  of  these 
new  institutions  was  but  imperfectly  discerned  alike  by  the 
civil  and  the  ecclesiastical  power,  and  the  first  four  uni- 
versities of  Italy,  after  Bologna,  rose  into  existence,  like 
Bologna  itself,  without  a  charter  from  either  pope  or  em- 
peror. Of  these  the  first  were  those  of  Keggio  and 
Modena,  both  of  which  are  to  be  found  mentioned  as 
schools  of  civil  law  before  the  close  of  the  12th  century. 
The  latter,  throughout  the  13th  century,  appears  to  have 
been  resorted  to  by  teachers  of  sufficient  eminence  to  form 
a  flourishing  school,  composed  of  students  not  only  from 
tlie  city  itself,  but  also  from  a  considerable  distance.  Both 
of  them  would  seem  to  have  been  formed  independently 
of  Bologna,  but  the  university  of  Vicenza  was  probably  the 
outcome  of  a  migration  of  the  students  from  the  former 
city,  which  took  place  in  the  year  1204.  In  the  course  of 
the  century  Vicenza  attained  to  considerable  prosperity; 
its  students  vi'ere  divided  into  four  nations,  each  with  its 
own  rector ;  and  in  1264  it  included  in  its  professoriate 
teachers,  not  only  of  the  civil  law,  but  also  of  medicine, 
grammar,  and  dialectic.  The  university  of  Padua  was 
founded  in  1222  as  the  direct  result  of  the  migration  of  a 
considerable  number  of  students  from  Bologna.  Some 
writers,  indeed,  have  inferred  that  the  "  studium  "  in  the 
latter  city  was  transferred  in  its  entirety,  but  the  continued 
residence  of  a  certain  proportion  in  Bologna  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  two  years  later  we  find  them  Appealing  to 
Honorius  III.  in  a  dispute  with  the  civic  authorities.  In 
the  year  1228  the  students  of  Padua  were  compelled  by 
circumstances  to  transfer  their  residence  to  Vercelli,  and 
the  latter  city  guaranteed  them,  besides  other  privileges, 
the  right  to  rent  no  less  than  five  hundred  lodging-houses 
at  a  fixed  rental  for  a  period  of  eight  years.  At  first  Padua 
was  a  school  only  of  the  civil  and  canon  law;  and  during 
the  oppressive  tyranny  of  Ezzelin  (1237-1260)  the  uni- 
versity maintained  its  existence  with  some  difficulty.  But 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  century  it  incorporated  the  faculties 
of  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  medicine,  and  became  known  as 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  schools  of  Italy,  and  a  great 
centre  of  the  Dominicans,  at  that  time  among  the  most 
active  promoters  of  learning. 

The  university  of  Naples  was  founded  by  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.  in  the  year  1225,  as  a  school  of  theology, 
jurisprudence,  the  arts,  and  medicine, — his  design  being 
that  his  subjects  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  should  find  in 
the  capital  adequate  instruction  in  every  branch  of  learrt- 
ing,  and  "  not  be  compelled  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  to 
have  recourse  to  foreign  nations  or  to  beg  in  other  lands." 
In  the  year  1231,  however,  he  decreed  that  the  faculty  of 
medicine  should  cease  to  exist,  and  that  the  study  should 
be  pursued  nowhere  in  the  kingdom  but  at  Salerno.  The 
university  never  attained  to  much  eminence,  and  after  the 
death  of  I'rederick  came  for  a  time  altogether  to  an  end, 
but  was  restored  in  1258  by  King  Manfred.     In  126"  Hs 


faculty  of  medicine  was  reconstituted,  and  from  1272-74 
Thomas  Aquinas  was  one  of  its  teachers  of  theology.     The 
commencement  of   the  university  of  Vercelli  belongs  to  Vercolli, 
about  the  year  1228  ;  it  probably  included,  like  Naples, 
all  the  faculties,  but  would  seem  to  have  been  regarded 
with  little  favour  by  the  Koman  see,  and  by  the  year  1372 
had  ceased  to  exist,  although  mention  of  colleges  of  law 
and  medicine  is  to  be  found  after  that  date.     The  two 
universities   of  Piacenza  and   Pavia  stand  in  close  con-  Pi«eiua. 
nexion  with  each  other.     The  former  is  noted  by  Denifle  as 
the  earliest  in  Italy  which  was  founded  by  virtue  of  a 
papal  charter  (6th  February  1248),  although  the  scheme 
remained  for  a  long  time  inoperative.     At  length,  in  the 
year  1398,  the  university  was  reconstituted  by  Giovanni 
Galeazzo  Visconti,  duke  of  Milan,  who  in  the  same  year 
caused  the  university  of  Pavia  to  be  transferred  thither. 
Piacenza  now  became  the  scene  of  a  sudden  but  short- 
lived academic  prosperity.     We  are  told  of  no  less  than 
twenty-seven  professors  of  the  civil  law, — among  them  the 
celebrated  Baldus ;  of  twenty-two  professors  of  medicine ; 
of  professors    of    philosophy,    astrology,   grammar,    and 
rhetoric;  and  of  lecturers  on  Seneca  and  Dante.  The  faculty 
of  theology  would  appear,  however,  never  to  have  been  duly 
constituted,  and  but  one  lecturer  in  this  faculty  is  mentioned. 
With  the  death  of  Galeazzo  in  1402,  this  precarious  activity 
came  suddenly  to  an  end;  and  in  1404  the  university  had 
ceased  to  exist.     Its  history  is,  indeed,  unintelligible,  un- 
less taken  in  conjunction  with  that  of  Pavia.     Even  before  Pavia, 
Irnerius  taught  at  Bologna,  Pavia  had  been  widely  known 
as  a  seat  of  legal  studies,  and  more  especially  of  the  Lom- 
bard law,  although  the  evidence  is  wanting  which  would 
serve  to  establish  a  direct  connexion  between  this  early 
school  and  the  university  which  was  founded   there  in 
1361,  by  virtue  of  the  charter  granted  by  the  emperor 
Charles  IV.     The  new  "studium"  included  faculties  of 
jurisprudence,  philosophy,  medicine,  and  the  arts,  and  its 
students  were  formally  taken  under  the  imperial  protec- 
tion, and   endowed  with  privileges  identical  with   those 
which  had  been  granted  to  Paris,  Bologna,. Oxford,  Orleans, 
and  Montpellier ;  but  its  existence  in  Pavia  was  suddenly 
suspended  by  the  removal,  above  noted,  of  its  students  to 
Piacenza.     It  shared  again  in  the  decline  which  overtook 
the  university  of   Piacenza  after  the  death  of  Giovanni 
Galeazzo,  and  during  the   period  from  1404  to  1412  it 
altogether   ceased  to   exist.     But  in   October   1412  the 
lectures  were  recommenced,  and   the  university  entered 
upon  the  most  brilliant  period  of  its  existence.     Its  pro^ 
lessors  throughout  the  1 5th  century  were  men  of  distiB>^ 
guished  ability,  attracted  by  munificent  salaries  such 'as 
but  few  other  universities  could  offer,  while  in  the  number 
of  students  who  resorted  thither  from  other  countries,  and 
more  especially  for  the  study  of  the  civil  law,  Pavia  had  no 
rival  in  Italy  but  Padua.     Arezzo  appears  to  have  been  Arezzo, 
known  as  a  centre  of  the  same  study  so  early  as  1215,  and 
its  earliest  statutes  are  assigned  to  the  ySar  1255.     By 
that  time  it  had  become  a  school  of  arts  and  medicine  also  ; 
but  for  a  considerable  period  after  it  was  almost  entirely 
deserted,  and  is  almost  unmentioned  until  the  year  1338, 
when   it  acquired   new  importance   by  the  accession  of 
several  eminent  jurists  from  Bologna.     In  May  1355  it 
received  its  charter  as  a  studium  generale  from  CharlesTV. 
After  the  year  1373  the  school   gradually  dwindled,  al- 
though it  did  not  become  altogether  extinct  until  aboii* 
the  year  1470.     The  university  of  Borne  (which  is  to  \ie  Rome, 
carefully  distinguished  from  the  school  attached  to  the 
curia)  owed  its  foundation  (1303)  to  Boniface  VIII.,  and 
was  especially  designed  by  that  pontiff  for  the  benefit  of 
the  poor  foreign  students  scjourning  in  the   capital.     It 
originally  included  all  the  faculties;  but  in    1318   John 
XXII.  decreed  that  it  should  possess  the  power  of  confer- 


UNIVERSITIES 


837 


ring  degrees  only  in  the  canon  and  civil  law.  The  uni- 
versity maintained  its  existence  throughout  the  period  of 
the  residence  of  the  popes  at  Avignon  (see  Popedom),  and 
under  the  patronage  of  Leo  X  could  boast  in  1514  of  no 
less  than  eighty  professors.  This  imposing  array  would 
seem,  however,  to  be  but  a  fallacious  test  of  the  prosperity 
of  the  academic  community,  for  it  is  stated  that  many  of 
the  professors,  owing  to  the  imperfect  manner  jn  which 
they  were  protected  in  their  privileges,  were  in  the  receipt 
of  such  insufficient  fees  that  they  were  compelled  to  com- 
bine other  employments  with  that  of  lecturing  in  order  to 
support  themselves  An  appeal  addressed  to  Leo  X.  in 
the  year  1513  represents  the  number  of  students  as  so 
small  as  to  be  sometimes  exceeded  by  that  of  the  lecturers 
("  ut  quandoque  plures  sint  qui  legant  quam  qui  audiant  "). 
ijcarcely   any   of   the   universities   in    Italy  in  the    Htli 

Perujia,  century  attracted  a  larger  concourse  than  that  of  Perugia, 
where  the  study  chiefly  cultivated  was  that  of  the  civil 
lawr-  The  university  received  its  charter  as  a  studium 
generale  from  Clement  V  in  the  year  1308,  biit  had 
already  in  1306  been  formally  recognized  by  the  civic 
authorities,  by  whom  it  was  commended  to  the  special  care 
and  protection  of  the  "podesta  "  In  common  with  the  rest 
of  the  Italian  universities,  it  suffered  severely  from  the 
great  plague  of  134S-49  ,  but  in  1355  it  received  new 
privileges  from  the  emperor,  and  in  1362  its  first  college, 
dedicated  to  Gregory  the  Great,  wa?  founded  by  the  bishop 

Treviso,  of  Perugia  The  university  of  Treviso.  whirh  received  Us 
chartef  from  Frederick  the  Fair  in  1318.  was  of  liKle 
celebrity  and  but  short  duration  It  i?  doubttul.  indeed, 
whellier  it  continued  to  e.visl  after  the  city  became  subject 
to  the  republic  of  Venice  in  the  year  1339  but  in  1409 
the  Venetian  senate  issued  a  decree  that  no  subjects  of 
the  republic  should  resort  for  study  to  any  riiy  in  its 
dominions  save  that  of  Padua,  and  from  this  date  the 
studium  at  Treviso  must  be  held  to  have  been  no  longer  in 
existence      The  circumstances  of  the  rise  of  the  university 

Florence,  of  Florence  are  unknown,  but  the  earliest  evidence  of 
academic  instruction  belongs  to  the  year  13'20  The  dis- 
persion of  the  univeisily  of  Bologna,  in  the  March  and  April 
of  the  following  year,  afforded  a  favourable  opportunity  for 
the  creation  of  a  studium  generale,  but  the  necessary 
measures  were  taken  somewhat  tardily,  and  in  the  mean, 
time  the  greater  number  of  the  P.olognese  students  had 
betaken  themselves  to  Siena  The  charter  of  foundation 
for  Florence  n-as  accordingly  not  granted  until  31st  May 
1349,  when  Clement  VI  decreed  that  there  should  be  in  ' 
stituted  a  studium  generale  in  theology,  jurisprudence, 
medicine,  and  every  other  recognized  faculiy  'if  learning, 
the  teachers  to  be  professors  who  had  obtained  the  degree 
of  doctor  or  master  either  at  Bologna  Ci  Pans,  or  "some 
other  studium  generale  cl  celebrity  "  On  2d  January 
1364  the  university  also  obtained  the  grant  of  imperial 
privileges  from  Charles  IV  On  14lh  February  1388  it 
adopted  a  body  of  statutes  which  are  slill  titant,  and 
afford  an  interesting  study  in  connexion  with  the  uni 
versity  history  of  the  period  The  university  now  entered 
upon  that  brilliant  period  in  its  history  which  was  destined 
to  so  summar}'  an  extinction  "  It  is  almost  touching," 
says  Denifle,  "  to  note  how  untiringly  Florence  exerted 
herself  at  this  period  to  attract  as  teachers  to  her  schools 
the  great  masters  of  the  sciences  and  learning."  In  the 
year  1472.  however,  under  the  influence  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  it  was  decided  that  Florence  was  not  a  convenient 
seat  for  a  university,  and  its  students  were  removed  to 
Sieca,  Pisa.  The  commencement  of  the  university  of  Siena 
belongs  to  about  the  year  1241,  but  its  charter  was  first 
granted  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  at  the  petition  of  the 
citSzens,  in  the  year  1357.  It  was  founded  as  a  studium 
eenp'^le  in  jurisprudence,  the  arts,  and    medicine.     The 


imperial  charter  was  confirmed  by  Gregory  XII.  in  1408, 
and  the  various  bulls  relating  to  the  university  which  he 
subsequently  issued  afford  a  good  illustration  of  the  con- 
ditions of  academic  life  in  these  times.  Residence  on  the 
part  of  the  students  appears  to  have  been  sometimes  dis- 
pensed with.  The  bishop  of  Siena  was  nominated  chan- 
cellor of  the  university,  just  as,  says  the  bull,  he  had  been 
appointed  to  that  office  by  the  imperial  authority.  The 
graduates  were  to  be  admitted  to  the  same  privileges  as 
those  of  Bologna  or  Paris  ,  and  a  faculty  of  theology  was 
added  to  the  curriculum  of  studies  The  university  of 
Fcrrara  owes  its  foundation  to  the  house  of  Este, — Alberto,  iroi-m™. 
marquis  of  Este,  having  obtained  from  Boniface  IX  in 
1391  a  charter  couched  in  terms  precisely  similar  to  those 
of_  the  charter  for  Pisa  In  the  first  hall  of  the  lOih 
century  the  university  was  adorned  by  the  presence  of 
several  distinguished  humanists,  but  its  fortunes  were 
singularly  chequered,  and  it  would  appear  for  a  certain 
period  to  have  been  altogether  extinct.  It  was,  however, 
restored,  and  became  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  universities  of  Italy.  In  the 
year  1474  its  circle  of  studies  comprised  all  the  existing 
faculties,  and  it  numbered  no  less  than  fifty-one  profes- 
sors or  lecturers  In  later  times  Ferrara  has  been  noted 
chiefly  as  a  school  of  medicine. 

Of  the  universities  modsllcd  on  that  of  Pans,  0.\ford  Oxford. 
would  appear  to  have  been  the  earliest,  and  tlie  manner 
of  its  development  was  probably  similar      Certain  schools, 
I  opened  within  the  precincts  of  the  dussolved  nurwiery  of  St 
I  Frideswyde  and  of  Osem.'y  abbey,  are  supposed  to  have  been 
'  the  nucleus  round  which  the  university  grew  up      In  the 
I  year  1133  one  Kobeit  Pullen,  a  theologian  of  considerable 
I  eminence  (bvit  whether  an  Englishman  or  a  Breton  is  un- 
ceitainj.  arrived  from  Pan*,  and  delivered  lectures  on  the 
I  Bible      He  was  followed  a  few  years  later  by  Vacanus,  a 
I  native  of    Lonibardy,   who  as  a  student  at   Bologna  had 
.  inheiited  the  tradition    of  the  teaching  of  Irnerius      Al- 
'  though   both   the   pope  and   King    Stephen    regarded  the 
j  cimI  law  !.t  this  time  with  considerable  distrust    Vacanus 
i  maintained  his  ground,  and  the  stuciy  became  orie  ot  the 
'  recognized  faculties  at  Oxford      Towards  tlie  dost  o(  the 
'  12tli  century  Giraldus  Cambrensis  describes  the  town  as  a 
place  "  where  the  cleigv  in  England  chiefly  flourished  and 
cxcelk-d  in  clerkly  lore  '      In  one  respect,  indeed.  Oxford 
I  was  more  favoured  than  even   Pans,  for  tlit  town  auih- 
!  ontics  couJd  not  pretend  tr,  asset i  any  nghiol  interference 
!  with    ihe    university  such  as    tli-at   to  wl.ich  the    French 
!  monarch  and  the  court  frequently  laid  claim      In  the  13th 
I  centur)  mention  first  occurs  of  university  "chests.'  esjieci- 
!  ally   the    FrideswyiJe  chest    «tiich  were    benefactions  de-' 
!  signed  as  funds  for  Ihe  assistance  of  poor  students      Halls, 
or  places  of  licensea  lesidence  for  students,  also  began  to 
1  be  established      In    the  year    1257    when  the  bishop  of 
Lincoln,   as    diocesan     had    trenched    too   closelv  on    the 
liberties   of    the  community,  the   deputies    from  Oxford, 
wheii  preferring    their  appeal  to  the  king  at  St  Albans, 
could  venture  to  speak  ot  the  university  as  "  schola  secunda 
ecrlesia?,"  or  second  only  to  Pans      Its  numbers  about  this 
time  were  probably  some  three  thousand ,  but  it  was  essenti- 
ally a  fluctuating  body,  and  whenever  plague  or  tumult  led 
to   a   temporary   dispersion   a   serious    diminution    in   its 
numerical  strength  generally  ensued  for  some  time  after. 
Against  such  vicissitudes  the  foundation  of  colleges  proved 
the  most  effectual  remedy.     Of  these  the   three   earliest 
were  University  College,  founded  in   1249  by  William  of 
Durham,  Balliol  College,   founded   abrnt    1263  by  John 
Balliol,   the   father  of  the  king  of  Scotland  of  the  same 
name,  and  Merton  College,  founded  in   1264      The  last- 
named  is  especially  notable  as  associated  with  a  new  con- 
ception of  university  education,  namely,  that  of  collegiate. 


838 


IJ  N  I  V  E  R  S  I  T  I  E  S 


disciiiline  for  the  secular  clergy,  instead  of  for  any  one  of 
|tho  religious  orders,  for  whose  sole  benefit  all  similar 
founJatiof.!  had  hitherto  been  designed.  The  statutes 
given  to  the  society  by  Waller  de  Merton  are  not  less 
notuworlhy,  as  characterized  not  only  by  breadth  of  con- 
ception, but  iUo  by  a  careful  and  discriminating  attention 
to  detail,  wliich  led  to  their  adoption  as  the  model  for 
later  colleges,  not  only  at  Oxford  but  at  Cambridge.  Of 
the  service  rendered  by  these  foundations  to  the  university 
at  large  we  have  significant  proof  in  the  fact  that,  althougli 
representing  only  a  small  numerical  minority  in  the 
academic  community  at  large,  their  members  soon  ob- 
tained a  considerable  preponderance  in  the  administration 
of  affairs. 
Cam-  The   university  of   Cambridge,  although    it    rose   into 

briJge,  Q,^ istence  somewhat  later  than  O.xford,  may  reasonably  be 
held  to  have  liad  its  origin  in  the  same  century.  There 
was  i)robably  a  certain  amount  of  educational  work 
carried  on  by  the  canons  of  the  church  of  St  Giles,  which 
gradually  developed  into  the  instruction  belonging  to  a 
regular  studium.  In  the  year  1112  the  canons  crossed 
the  river  and  took  up  their  residence  in  the  new  priory  in 
Barnwell,  and  their  work  of  instruction  acquired  addi- 
tional importance.  Then,  as  early  as  tlie  year  1224,  the 
Franciscans  established  themselves  in  tlie  town,  and,  some- 
what less  than  half  a  century  later,  were  followed  by  the 
Dominicans.  At  both  the  English  universities,  as  at 
Paris,  the  Mendicants  and  other  religious  orders  were 
admitted  to  degrees,  a  privilege  which,  until  the  year  1337, 
WJ3  extended  to  them  at  no  other  university.  Their 
inlerest  in  and  inHuenoe  at  these  three  centres  was  con- 
.sequently  proportionably  great.  In  the  years  1231  and 
1233  certain  royal  and  papal  letters  afford  satisfactory 
proof  that  by  that  time  the  university  of  Cambridge  was 
already  an  organized  body  witli  a  chancellor  at  its  head; 
and  in  1229  and  1231  its  numbers  were  largely  augmented 
by  migrations  from  Paris  and  from  O.xford.  Cambridge, 
however,  in  its  turn  suffered  from  emigration  ;  while  in 
the  year  12G1,  and  again  in  1322,  the  records  of  the  uni- 
versity were  wantonly  burnt  by  the  townsmen.  Through- 
out the  13th  century,  indeed,  the  university  was  still' only 
a  very  slightly  and  imperfectly  organized  community.  Its 
endowments  were  of  the  most  slender  kind  ;  it  had  ,no 
systematic  code  for  the  government  of  its  members  ;  the 
supervision  of  the  rtudents  was  very  imperfectly  provided 
for.  An  important  step  in  the  direction  of  reform  in  this 
last  respect  was,  however,  made  in  the  year  1276,  when 
an  ordinance  was  passed  requiring  that  every  one  who 
claimed  to  be  recognized  as  a  scholar  should  have  a  fixed 
master  within  fifteen  days  after  his  entry  into  the  uni- 
versity, liut  the  feature  which  most_served  to  give  per- 
manence and  cohesion  to  the  entire  community  was,  as  at 
O.\ford,  the  institution  of  colleges.  The  earliest  of  these 
was  Peterhouse,  first 'founded  as  a  separate  institution  by 
Hi'.gh  Balsham,,  bishop  of  Ely,  in  the  year  1280,  with-a 
code  which  was  little  more  than  a  transcript  of  that  given 
by  Walter  do  Merton  to  his  scholars  at  Oxford.  About 
forty  years  later  was  founded  Michaelhouse,  and  at  nearly 
the  same  time  (1326)  Edward  II.  instituted  his  foundation 
of  "  king's  scholars,"  afterwards  forming  the  community 
of  King's  Hall.  i5oth  these  societies  in  the  ICth  century 
were  merged  in  Trinity  College.  To  those  succeeded  Pem- 
broke Hall  (1347)  and  Gon'ville  Hall  (1348).  All  these 
colleges,  although  by  no  means  conceived  in  a  spirit  of 
hostility  to  either  the  monastic  or  the  Mendicant  orders, 
were  expressly  designed  for  the  benefit  of  the  secular 
Jtlergy.'  The  foundation  of  Trinity  Hall  (1350)  by  Bishop 
IBateraan,  on  the  other  hand,  as  a  school  of  civil  and  canon 
law  was  probably  designed  to  further  ultramontane  in- 
terests.    That  of  Coipus  Christi  (1352),  the  outcome  of 


the  liberality  of  a  guild  of  Cambridge  townsmen,  was  con- 
ceived with  the  combined  object  of  providing  a  house  of 
education  for  the  clergy,  and  at  the  same  time  securing  the 
regular  performance  of  masses  for  the  benefit  of  the  souls 
of  de[iartcd  members  of  the  guild.  But  both  Trinity  Hall 
and  Corpus  Christi  College,  as  well  as  Clare  Hall,  founded 
in  1359,  were  to  a  great  extent  indebted  for  their  origin 
to  the  ravages  caused  among  the  clergy  by  the  great  plague 
of  1349. 

Turning  *n  Prance,  or  rather  to  the  territory  included  Mout- 
within  the  boundaries  of  modern  France,  we  find  Mont-  Pe'iir- 
pcllier  a  recognized  school  of  medical  science  as  early  as 
the  1 2th  century.  William  VIII.,  lord  of  Montpellier,  in 
the  year  1181  proclaimed  it  a  school  of  free  resort,  where 
any  teacher  of  medical  science,  from  whatever  country, 
might  give  instruction.  Before  the  end  of  the  century  it 
possessed  also  a  faculty  of  jurisprudence,  a  branch  of  learn- 
ing for  which  it  afterwards  became  famed.  The  university 
of  medicine  and  that  of  law  continued,  however,  to  be  totally 
distinct  bodies  with  different  constitutions.  Petrarch  was 
sent  by  his  father  to  Montpellier  to  study  the  civil  law. 
On  2Gth  October  1289  Montpellier  was  raised  by  Nicholas 
IV.  to  the  rank  of  a  "studium  generp.le,"  a  mark  of  favour 
which,  in  a  region  where  papal  influence  was  so  potent, 
resulted  in  a  considerable  accession  of  prosperity.  The 
university  also  now  included  a  faculty  of  arts  ;  and  thoj-e 
is  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  faculty  of 
theology  before  the  close  of  the  Hth  century,  although  not 
formally  recognized  by  the  pope  before  the  year  1421.  In 
the  course  of  the  same  century  several  colleges  for  poor 
students  were  also  founded,  "riie  university  of  Toulouse  Toulouse. 
IS  to  be  noted  as  the  first  founded  in  any  country  by  virtue 
of  a  papal  charter.  It  took  its  rise  in  the  efforts  of  Rome 
for  the  suppression  of  the  Albigensian  heresy,  and  its 
foundation  formed  one  of  the  articles  of  tlie  conditions 
of  peace  imposed  by  Louis  IX.  on  Count  Raymond  of 
Toulouse.  In  the  year  1233  it  first  acquired  its  full 
privileges  as  a  "studium  generale"  by  virtue  of  a  charter 
given  by  Gregory  IX.  This  pontiff  watched  over  the  uni- 
versity with  especial  solicitude,  and  through  his  exertions 
it  soon  became  a  noted  centre  of  theological  and  especially 
of  Dominican  teaching.  As  a  school  of  arts,  jurisprudence, 
and  medicine,  although  faculties  of  each  existed,  it  never 
attained  to  any  reputation.  The  university  of  Orleans  Orleank 
had  a  virtual  existence  as  a  studium  generale  as  early  as 
the  first  half  of  the  13th  century,  but  in  the  year  1305 
Clement  V.  endowed  it  with  new  privileges,  and  gave  its 
teachers  permission  to  form  themselves  into  a  corporation. 
The  schools  of  Orleans  had  an  existence,  it  is  said,  as  early 
as  the  6th  cr.ntury,  and  subsequently  supplied  the  nucleus 
for  the  foundation  of  a  university  at  Blois ;  but  of  this 
university  no  records  now  exist.'  Orleans,  in  its  organiza- 
tion, was  modelled  mainly  on  Paris,  but  its  studies  were 
complementary  rather  than  in  rivalry  to  the  older  univer- 
sity. The  absorbing  character  of  the  study  of  the  civil 
law,  and  the  mercenary  spirit  in  which  it  was  pursued,  had 
hid  the  authorities  at  Paris  to  refuse  to  recognize  it  as  a 
faculty.  The  study  found  a  home  at  Orleans,  where  it 
was  cultivated  with  an  energy  which  attracted  numerous 
students.  In  January  1235  we  find  the  bishop  of  Orleans 
soliciting  the  advice  of  Gregory  IX.  as  to  the  expediency 
of  countenancing  a  study  which  was  prohibited  in  Paris. 
Gregory  decided  that  the  lectures  might  be  continued  ;  but 
he  ordered  that  no  beneficed  ecclesiastic  should  be  allowed 
to  devote  himself  to  so  eminently  secular  a  branch  of 
learning.  Orleans  subsequently  incorporated  a  faculty  of 
arts,  but  its  reputation  from  this  period  was  always  that 
of  a  school  of  legal  studies,  and  in  the  14th  century  its 
reputation  in  this  respect  was  surpassed  by  no  other  uni- 
'  See  Ch.  Desmazc,  L'l/niversiti  de  Paris  (1200-1875). 


UNIVERSITIES 


639 


versity  iu  Earope.     Prior  to  the  13th  century  it  had  been 

Angers,  famed  for  its  classical  learning  ;  and  Angers,  which  received 
its  chaiter  at  the  same  time,  also  once  enjoyed  a  like 
reputation,  which,  in  a  similar  manner,  it  exchanged  for 
that  of  a  school  for  civilians  and  canonists.  The  roll  of 
the  university  forwarded  in  137S  to  Clement  VIL  con- 
tains the  names  of  8  professors  vtriusque  juris,  2  of  civil 
and  2  of  canon  law,  72  licentiates,  284  bachelors  of  both 

Aviguon,  the  legal  faculties,  and  190  scholars.  The  university  of 
Avignon  was  first  recognized  as  a  "btudium  generale"  bj* 
Boniface  VIII.  in  the  year  1303,  with  power  to  grant 
iegrees  in  jurisprudence,  arts,  and  medicine.  Its  numbers 
declined  somewliat  during  the  residence  of  the  popes, 
owing  to  the  counter  attractions  of  the  "  studium  "  at- 
tached to  the  curia ;  but  after  the  return  of  the  papal 
;ourt  to  Rome  it  became  one  of  the  most  frequented  uni- 
versities in  France,  and  possessed  at  one  time  no  less  than 

Cahors.  seven  colleges.  The  university  of  Cahors  enjoyed  the 
advantage  of  being  regarded  with  especial  favour  by  John 
XXII.  In  June  1332  he  conferred  upon  it  privileges 
identical  with  those  already  granted  to  the  university  of 
Toulouse.  In  the  following  October,  again  following  the 
precedent  established  at  Toulouse,  he  appointed  the  scliol- 
asiicus  of  the  cathedral  chancellor  of  the  university.  In 
November  of  the  same  year  a  bull,  couched  iu  terms 
almost  identical  with  those  of  the  Magna  Charta  of  Paris, 
assimilated  .the  constitution  of  Cahors  to  that  of  the  oldest 
university.  The  two  schools  in  France  which,  down  to 
the  close  of  the  14th  century,  most  closely  resembled  Paris 
were  Orleans  and  Cahors.  The  civil  immunities  and  pri- 
vileges of  the  latter  university  were  not,  however,  acquired 
until  the  year  1367,  when  Edward  III.  of  England,  in  his 
capacity  as  duke  of  Aquitaine,  not  only  exempted  the 
S'holars  from  the  payment  of  all  taxes  and  imposts,  but 
bestowed  upon  them  the  peculiar  privilege  known  as  privi- 
leijiumfori.  Cahors  also  received  a  licence  for  faculties  of 
theology  and  medicine,  but,  like  Orleans,  it  was  chiefly 

Crenoble,  known  as  a  school  of  jurisprudence.  It  was  as  a  "  studium 
generale  "  in  the  same  three  faculties  that  Grenoble,  iu  the 
year  1339,  received  its  charter  from  Benedict  XII.  The 
university  never  attained  to  much  importance,  and  its 
annals  are  for  the  most  part  involved  in  obscurity.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  ICth  century  it  had  ceased  alto- 
gether to  exist,  was  reorganized  by  Francis  of  Bourbon  in 
1542,  and  in  1565  was  united  to  the  university  of  Valence. 
The  university  of  Perpignan,  founded,  according  to  Denifle, 
in  1379  by  Clement  VII.  (although  tradition  had  pre- 
viously ascribed  its  origin  to  Pedro  IV.  of  Aragon),  and 
that  of  Orange,  founded  in  1365  by  Charles  IV.,  were  uni- 
versities only  by  name  and  constitution,  their  names  rarely 
ajipearing  in  contemporary  chronicles,  while  their  very 
existence  becomes  at  times  a  matter  for  reasonable  doubt. 
To  some  of  the  earlier  Spanish  universities — such  as 
Palencia,  founded  about  the  year  1214  by^lfonso  VIII.  ; 
Huesca,  founded  in  1354  by  Pedro  IV.;  and  Lerida, 
founded  in  1300  by  James  II. — the  same  description  is 
applicable ;  and  their  insignificance  is  probably  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  they  entirely  failed  to  attract  foreign 
students.  Valladolid,  founded  in  1346  by  Pope  Clement 
VI.,  attained,  however,  to  some  celebrity  ;  and  the  foreign 
teachers  and  students  frequenting  the  university  became  so 
numerous  that  in  1373  King  Henry  II.  caused  an  enact- 
ment to  be  passed  for  securing  to  them  the  same  privileges 
as  those  already  accorded  to  the  native  element.  But  the 
total  number  of  the  students  in  1403  was  only  116,  and 
grammar  and  logic,  along  with  jurisprudence  (which  was 
the  principal  study),  constituted  the  sole  curriculum. 
Whatever  reputation,  indeed,  was  enjoyed  by  Spain  for 
Dearly  five  centuries  after  the  commencement  of  the  uni- 
tersity  era,  centred  mainly  in  Salamanca,  to  which  Seville, 


Perpig- 
Qau, 


tV.icnciaj 
Hiiesca, 


Villa. 
doliJ. 


in  the  south,  stood  in  the  relation  of  a  kind  of  subsidiary  ggi^ 
scliool,  having  been  founded  in  1254  by  Alfonso  the  miin'-i  and 
Wise,  simply  for  the  study  of  Latin  and  of  the  Semitic  S«''"''^- 
languages,  especially  Arabic.  Salamanca  was  founded  in 
1243  by  Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile  as  a  "studium  generale" 
in  the  three  faculties  of  jurisprudence,  the  arts,  and  medi- 
cine. Ferdinand  extended  his  special  protection  to  the 
students,  granting  them  numerous  privileges  and  im- 
munities. Under  his  son  Alfonso  (above  named)  the 
university  acquired  a  further  development,  and  eventually 
included  all  the  faculties  save  tliat  of  theology.  But  the 
main  stress  of  its  activity,  as  was  the  case  with  all  the 
earlier  Spanish  universities,  excepting  only  Palencia  and 
Seville,  until  the  commencement  of  the  15th  century,  was 
laid  on  the  civil  and  the  canon  law.  But,  notwithstanding 
the  favour  with  which  Salamanca  was  regarded  alike  by 
the  kings  of  Castile  and  by  the  Pioman  see,  the  provision 
for  the  payment  of  its  professors  was  at  first  so  inadequate 
and  precarious  that  in  12DS  they  by  common  consent 
suspended  their  lectures,  in  consequence  of  their  scanty 
remuneration.  A  permanent  remedy  for  this  difficulty 
was  thereupon  provided,  by  the  appropriation  of  a  certain 
portion  of  the  ecclesiastical  revenues  of  the  diocese  for  the 
purpose  of  augmenting  the  professors'  salaries.  The 
earliest  of  the  numerous  colleges  founded  at  Salamanca 
was  that  of  St  Bartholomew,  long  noted  for  its  ancient 
library  and  valuable  collection  of  manuscripts,  which  now 
form  part  of  the  royal  library  iu  Madrid. 

The  one  university  possessed  by  Portugal  had  its  seat  Coimbr^ 
in  medieval  times  alternately  in  Lisbon  and  in  Coimbra, 
until,  in  the  year  1537,  it  was  permanen. 'y  attached  to  the 
latter  city.  Its  formal  foundation^  took  place  in  1309, 
when  it  received  from  King  Diniz  a  charter,  the  provisions 
of  which  were  mainly  taken  from  those  of  the  charter 
given  to  Salamanca.  In  1772  the  university  was  entirely 
reconstituted. 

Of  the  German  universities,  Prague,  wnicn  existed  as  apr^-sr-- 
"studium  "  in  the  13th  centurj',  was  the  earliest,  and  was 
at  first  frequented  mainly  by  students  from  Styria  and 
Austria,  countries  at  that  time  ruled  by  the  king  of 
Bohemia.  On  26th  January  1347,  at  the  requesl.  of 
Charles  IV,  Pope  Clement  VI. 'piromulgated  a  bull  auth 
orizing  the  foundation  of  a  "  studium  generale"  in  all  the 
faculties.  In  the  following  year  Charles  himself  issued  a 
charter  for  the  foundation.  This  document,  which,  if  ori- 
ginal in  character,  would  have  been  of  much  interest,  has 
but  few  distinctive  features  of  its  own,  its  provisions  being- 
throughout  adapted  from  those  contained  in  the  charters 
given  by  Frederick  II.  for  the  university  of  Naples  and 
'by  Conrad  for  Salerno, — almost  the  onlyimportant  feature 
of  difference  ,being  that  Charles  bestows  on  the  students  of 
Prague  all  the  civil  privileges  and  immunities  which  were 
enjoyed  by  the  teachers  of  Paris  and  Bologna.  Charles 
had  himself  been  a  student  in  Paris,  and  the  organization 
of  his  new  foundation  was  modelled  on  that  university,  a 
like  division  into  four  "  nations"  (although  with  different 
names)  constituting  one  of  the  most  marked  features  of 
imitation.  The  numerous  students — and  none  of  the 
mediaeval  universities  ati  acted  in  their  earlier  mstory  a 
larger  concourse — were  drawn  from  a  gradually  widening 
area,  which  at  length  included,  not  only  all  parts  of  Ger- 
many, but  also  England,  France,  Lombardy,  Hungary,  and 
Poland.  Contemporary  writers,  with  the  exaggeration 
characteristic  of  mediceval  credulity,  even  speak  of  thirty 
thousand  students  as  present  in  the  university  at  one  time, 
—a  statement  for  which  Denifie  proposes  to  substitute 
two  thousand  as  a  more  probable  estimate.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  Prague,  prior  to  the  foundation  of  Leipsic, 
was  one  of  the  most  frequented  centres  of  karniag  in 
Europe,  and  Paris  suffered  a  considerable  diminutioa  in 


840 


UNIVERSITIES 


lier  numbers  owing  to  the  counter  attractions  of  the  great 
Etudiiim  of  Slavonia. 
Cracow,       Tlie  university  of  Cracow  in   Poland  was  founded  in 
May  1364,  by  virtue  of  a  charter  given  by  King  Casimir 
tlie  Great,  who  bestowed  on  it  the  same  privileges  as  those 
possessed  by  the  universities  of  Bologna  and  Padua.     In 
the  following  September  Urban  V.,  in  consideration  of  the 
remoteness  of  the  city  from  other  centres  of  education, 
constituted  it  a  "studium  generate"  in  all  the  faculties 
save  that  of  theology.     It  is,  however,  doubtful  whether 
these  designs  were  carried  into  actual  realization,  for  it  is 
certain  that,  for  a  long  time  after  the  death  of  Casimir, 
there  was  no  university  whatever.     Its  real  commencement 
must  accordingly  be  considered  to  belong  to  the  year  1 400, 
when  it  was   reconstituted,  and  the  papal  sanction  was 
given  for  the  incorporation  of  a  faculty  of  theology.     From 
this  time  its  growth  and  prosperity  were  continuous  ;  and 
with  the   year  1416   it  had  so  far  acquired  a  European 
reputation  as  to  venture  upon  forwarding  an  expression  of 
itj   views   in    connexion    with    the   deliberations   of   the 
council  of   Constance.     Towards   the  close  of   the    15th 
century  the  university  is  said  to  have  been  in  high  repute 
as  a  school  of  both  astronomical  and  humanistic  studies. 
■\1eiuij,        The   Avignonese   popes   appear   to  have   regarded  the 
establishment  of  new  faculties  of  theology  with  especial 
jealousy;  and  when,  in  1364,  Duke  Rudolph  IV.  founded 
the  university  of  Vienna,  with  the  design  of  constituting 
it  a  "studium  generale "  in  all  the  faculties,  Urban  V 
refused  his  assent  to  the  foundation  of  a  theological  school. 
Owing  to  the  sudden  death  of  Duke  Rudolph,  the  university 
languished  for  the  next  twenty  years,  but  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Duke  Albert  III ,  who  may  be  regarded  as  its 
real  founder,   it  acquired   additional   privileges,   and    its 
prosperity  became  marked  and  continuous.     Like  Prague, 
Vienna  was  for  a  long  time  distinguished  by  the  compara- 
tively little  attention  bestowed  by  its  teachers  on  the  study 
of  the  civil  law. 

No  country  in  the  14th  century  was  looked  upon  with 
greater  disfavour  at  Rome  than  Hungary.  It  was  stig- 
matized as  the  land  of  heresy  and  schism.  When,  accord- 
ingly, in  1367  King  Louis  applied  to  Urban  V  for  his 
Fiinf-  sanction  of  the  scheme  of  founding  a  university  at  Ftinf- 
kircbcR,  kii;chen,  although  theological  learning  was  in  special  need 
of  encouragement  in  those  regions,  Urban  would  not  con- 
bent  to  the  foundation  of  a  faculty  of  theology ;  he  even 
made  it  a  condition  of  his  sanctioi.  for  a  "  studium  generale  " 
that  King  Louis  should  first  undertake  to  provide  for  the 
t-ayment  of  the  professors.  We  bear  but  little  concerning 
the  university  after  its  foundation,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  survived  for  any  length  of  time  the  close  of  the 
•-iotury,  having  been  about  that  period  absorbed  in  all 
Olen,  probability  in  the  university  of  Ofen.  The  foundation  of 
this  university  is  also  involved  in  considerable  obscurity, 
and  its  o'riginal  charter  is  lost.  We  only  know  that  it  was 
granted  by  Boniface  IX  ,  at  the  request  of  King  Sigis- 
mund,  in  the  year  1389  In  the  first  half  of  the  15th 
century  it  ceased  for  a  long  period  to  exist,  but  was 
revived,  or  rather  founded  afresh,  by  King  Mathias  Cor- 
vicu3,  an  eminent  patron  of  learning,  in  the  last  quarter  of 
the  century.  "  The  extreme  east  of  civilized  continental 
Europe  in  mediaeval  times,"  observes  Denifle,  "can  be 
compared,  so  far  as  university  education  is  concerned,  only 
with  the  extreme  west  and  the  extreme  south.  In  Hun- 
gary, as  in  Portugal  and  in  Naples,  there  was  constant 
fluctuation,  but  the  west  and  the  south,  although  troubled 
by  yet  greater  commotions  than  Hungary,  bore  better  fruit. 
Among  all  the  countries  possessed  of  universities  in  medi- 
aeval times,  Hungary  occupies  the  lowest  place — a  state  of 
affairs  of  which,  however,  the  proximity  of  the  Turk  must 
be  looked  upon  sis  a  maiiy  cause." 


The  university  of  Heidelberg  received  its  charter  (23d  Heidel- 
October  1385)  from  Urban  VI.  as  a  "studium  generale"  ^'^• 
in  all  the  recognized  faculties  save  that  of  the  civil  law, — 
the  form  and  substance  of  the  document  being  almost  iden- 
tical with  those  of  the  charter  granted  to  Vienna.  It  was 
granted  at  the  request  of  the  elector  palatine,  Rupert  I., 
who  conferred  on  the  teachers  and  students,  at  the  same 
time,  the  same  civil  privileges  as  those  which  belonged  to 
the  university  of  Paris.  In  this  case  the  functionary 
invested  with  the  power  of  bestowing  degrees  was  non- 
resident, the  licences  being  conferred  by  the  provost  of  the 
cathedral  at  Worms.  But  the  real  founder,  as  he  was  also 
the  organizer  and  teacher,  of  the  university  was  Marsilius 
of  Inghen,  to  whose  ability  and  energy  Heidelberg  was 
indebted  for  no  little  of  its  early  reputation  and  success. 
The  omission  of  the  civil  law  from  the  studies  licensed  in 
the  original  charter  would  seem  to  show  that  the  pontiff's 
compliance  with  the  elector's  request  was  merely  formal, 
and  Heidelberg,  like  Cologne,  included  the  civil  law  among 
its  faculties  almost  from  its  first  creation.  No  mediaeval 
university  achieved  a  more  rapid  and  permanent  success. 
Regarded  with  favour  alike  by  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
potentates,  its  early  annals  were  singularly  free  from  crises 
like  those  which  characterize  the  history  of  many  of  the 
mediaeval  universities.  The  number  of  those  admitted  to 
degrees  from  the  commencement  of  the  first  session  (19th 
October  1386  to  16th  December  1387)  amounted  to  579.' 

Owing  to  the  labours  of  the  Dominicans,  Cologne  had  Coloj[oe. 
gained  a  reputation  as  a  seat  of  learning  long  before  the 
founding  of  its  university;  and  it  was  through  the  ad- 
vocacy of  some  leading  members  of  the  Mendicant  orders 
that,  at  the  desire  of  the  city  council,  its  charter  as  a 
"studium  generale"  (21st  May  13SS)  was  obtained  from 
Urban  VI.  It  was  organized  on  the  model  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris,  as  a  school  of  theology  and  canon  law, 
and  "  any  other  recognized  faculty," — the  civil  law  being 
incorporated  as  a  faculty  soon  after  the  promulgation  of 
the  charter.  In  common  with  the  other  early  universities 
of  Germany — Prague,  Vienna,  and  Heidelberg— Cologne 
owed  nothing  to  imperial  patronage,  while  it  would  appear 
to  have  been,  from  the  first,  the  object  of  special  favour 
with  Home.  This  circumstance  serves  to  account  for  its 
distinctly  ultramontane  sympathies  in  mediaeval  times  and 
even  far  into  the.  16th  century.  In  a  report  transmitted 
to  Gregory  XIII.  in  157J,  the  university  expressly  derives 
both  its  first  origin  and  its  privileges  from  the  Holy  See, 
and  professes  to  owe  no  allegiance  save  to  the  Roman 
pontiff.  Erfurt,  no  less  noted  as  a  centre  of  Franciscan  Erfurt 
than  was  Cologne  of  Dominican  influence,  received  its 
charter  (16th  September  1379)  from  the  anti-pope  Clement 
VII.  as  a  "studium  generale"  in  all  the  faculties.  Ten 
years  later  (4th  May  1389)  it  was  founded  afre.sh  by  L^rban 
VI.,  w-ithout  any  recognition  of  the  act  of  his  pretended 
predecessor.  In  the  15th  century  the  number  of  its 
students  was  larger  than  that  at  any  other  German  uni-. 
versity — a  fact  attributable  partly  to  the  reputation  it  had 
acquired  as  a  school  of  jurisprudence,  and  partly  to  the 
ardour  with  which  the  philosophic  controversies  of  the 
time  were  debated  in -its  midst. 

The  collegiate  system  is  to  be  noted  as  a  feature  common 
to  all  these  early  German  universities ;  and,  in  nearly  all, 
the  professors  were  partly  remunerated  by  the  appropria- 
tion of  certain  prebends,  appertaining  to  some  neighbouring 
church,  to  their  maintenance. 

Throughout  the  15th  century  the  relations  of  the  Roman  Bdations 
pontiffs  to   the   universities   continued   much   the   same,  of  the 
although  the  independent  attitude  assumed  at  the  great  I^^J" 
councils  of  Constance  and  Basel  by  the  deputies  from  the  veraities. 

'  The  statistics  of  Hautz  {Gesck.  d.  Univ.  Heidelberg,  i.  377-8) 
are  corrected  by  Denifle  ^Die  Entstehung  der  Vnitxrsiliilm,  p.  S85). 


UNIVERSITIES 


841 


Fouadj- 
tida  of 
Loavdin, 


Leipsir, 


universities,  aud  especially  by  those  from  Paris,  could  not 
fail  to  excite  their  apprehensions.  Their  bulls  for  each 
new  foundation  begin  again  to  indicate  a  certain  jealousy 
with  respect  to  the  appropriation  of  prebends  by  the 
founders.  \Vhere  such  appropriations  are  made,  and  more 
particularly  in  France,  a  formal  sanction  of  the  transfer 
generally  finds  a  place  in  the  bull  authorizing  tiR  four  da- 
tion  ;  whilo  sometimes  the  founder  or  founders  are  the  n- 
selves  enjoined  to  proviue  the  endowments  requisite  for  the 
establishment  and  support  of  the  university.  In  this 
manner  the  control  of  the  pontiff  over  each  newly  created 
seat  of  learning  assumed  a  more  real  character,  from  the 
fact  that  his  assent  was  accompanied  by  conditions  which 
rendered  it  no  longer  a  mere  formality.  The  imperial 
intervention,  on  the  other  hand,  was  rarely  invoked  in 
Germany, — Greifswald,  Freiburg,  and  Tiibingen  being  the 
only  instances  in  which  tlie  emperor's  confirmation  of  the 
foundation  was  solicited.'  But  whatever  influence  (he 
Roman  see  may  have  gained  by  increasing  intervention 
was  more  than  counteracted  by  those  other  tendencies 
which  came  into  operation  in  the  second  half  of  the  century. 
These  were  of  a  twofold  character; — the  first  directly  modi- 
fying the  studies  themselves,  as  the  results  of  the  discovery 
of  printing  and  the  new  spirit  a\.akened  by  the  teach- 
ing of  the  humanists ;  the  second  affecting  the  external 
conditions,  such  as  the  multiplication  of  schools,  and  the 
growing  demand  for  skilled  physicians  and  learned  civilians, 
— circumstances  which  afforded  increased  employment  for 
the  services  of  men  of  academic  training.  In  northern 
Germany  and  in  the  Netherlands,  the  growing  wealth  and 
prosperity  of  the  different  states  especially  favoured  the 
formation  of  new  centres  of  'learning.  In  the  flourishing 
duchy  of  Brabant  the  university  of  Louvain  (1426)  was  to 
a  great  extent  controlled  by  the  municipality;  and  their 
patronage,  although  ultimately  attended  with  detrimental 
results,  long  enabled  Louvain  to  outbid  all  the  other  uni- 
versities of  Europe  in  the  munificence  with  which  she 
rewarded  her  professors.  In  the  course  of  the  next  cen- 
tury the  "  Belgian  Athens,"  as  she  is  styled  by  Lipsius, 
ranked  second  only  to  Paris  in  numbers  and  reputation. 
In  its  numerous  separate  foundations  and  general  organiza- 
tion— it  possessed  no  less  than  twenty-eight  colleges — it 
closely  resembled  the  English  universities;  while  its  active 
press  afforded  facilities  to  the  author  and  the  controversialist 
of  which  both  Cambridge  and  Oxford  were  at  that  time 
almost  destitute.  It  embraced  all  the  faculties,  and  no 
degrees  in  Europe  stood  so  high  as  guarantees  of  general 
acquirements.  Erasmus  reoords  it  as  a  comipon  saying, 
that  "  no  one  could  graduate  at  Louvain  without  know- 
ledge, manners,  and  age."  Sir  William  Hamilton  speaks 
of  the  examination  at  I.ouvain  for  a  degree  in  arts  as  "  the 
best  example  upon  record  of  the  true  mode  of  such  ex 
amination,  and,  until  recent  times,  in  fact,  the  only  ex- 
ample in  the  history  of  universities  worthy  of  consideration 
at  all."  He  has  translated  from  Vernuloeus  the  order  and 
method  of  this  examination.-  In  178S  ihe  faculties  of 
jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  philosophy  wej-e  removed  to 
Brussels,  and  in  1797  the  French  suspended  the  university 
altogether.  When  Belgium  was  formed  into  an  indepen- 
dent state  in  1S31,  the  university  was  refounded  as  a 
Roman  Catholic  foundation. 

The  circumstances  of  the  foundation  of  the  university 
of  Leipsic  are  especially  noteworthy,  it  having  been  the 
result  of  the  migration  of  almost  the  entire  German 
clement  from  the  university  of  Prague.  This  element 
comprised  (1)  Bavarians,  (2)  Saxons,  (3)  Poles  (this  last- 
named  division  being  drawn  from  a  wide  area,  which  in- 
cluded Meissen,  Lusatia,  Silesia,  and  Prussia),  and,  bein" 
^     . 1^ I 5 

^  MeiDers,  Gesch.  d.  hohen  Schulcn^  i.  370. 
Oissertatiotis  and  Discussions,  Append,  iii. 


represented  by  three  votes  in  the  assemblies  of  the  uni- 
versity, while  the  Bohemians  possessed  but  one,  had  ac- 
quired a  preponderance  in  the  direction  of  affairs  which 
the  latter  could  no  longer  submit  to.  Religious  differ- 
ences, again,  evoked  mainly  by  the  preaching  of  John 
Huss,  further  intensified  the  existing  disagreements;  and 
eventually,  in  the  year  1409,  King  Wenceslaus,  at  tho 
prayer  of  his  Bohemian  subjects,  issued  a  decree  which 
exactly  reversed  the  previous  distribution  of  votes, — three 
votes  being  assigned  to  the  Bohemian'nation  and  only  ono 
to  all  the  rest.  The  Germans  took  deep  umbrage,  and 
seceded  to  Leipsic,  where,  a  bull  having  been  obtained 
from  Alexander  V.  (9th  September  1409),  a  new  ''  studium 
generale "  was  founded  by  the  landgrave  of  Thuringia 
aad  the  i.iargraves  of  Meissen.  The  members  were  divided 
into  four  nations — composed  of  natives  of  Meissen,  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  aud  Poland.  Two  colleges  were  founded,  a  greater 
and  a  snialler,  but  designed,  not  for  poor  students,  but 
for  masters  of  arts — twelve  being  admitted  on  the  former 
and  eight  on  the  latter  foundation.  The  first  university  Rostock 
of  northern  Germany  was  that  of  Rostock,  founded  by 
the  dukes  John  and  Albert  of  Mecklenburg,  tho  scheme 
receiving  tiie  sanction  of  Martin  V.  in  a  bull  dated  13tli 
February  1419  as  that  of  a  "studium  generale  "  in  all  the 
faculties  excepting  theology.  The  faculty  of  theology  wa; 
added  in  the  year  1432.  Two  colleges  were  also  founded, 
with  the  same  design  and  on  the  same  scale  as  at  Leipsic. 
No  little  illustration  is  afforded  by  the  circumstances 
attending  the  foundation  of  the  French  universities  of  the 
struggle  that  was  going  on  between  the  crown  and  the 
Roman  see.  The  earliest  foundation  in  the  loth  century  poiiier. 
was  that  of  Poitiers.  It  was  instituted  by  Charles  YII.  in 
1431,  almost  immediately  after  his  accession,  with  the 
special  design  of  creating  a  centre  of  learning  less  favour- 
able to  English  interests  than  Paris  had  at  that  time  shown 
herself  to  be.  Eugenius  IV.  could  not  refuse  his  sanction 
to  the  scheme,  but  he  cndt-avoured  partially  to  defeat 
Charles's  design  by  conferring  on  the  new  "  studium 
generale  "  only  the  same  privileges  as  those  possessed  by 
Toulouse,  and  thus  placing  it  at  a  disadvantage  in  com 
parison  with  Paris.  Charles  rejoined  by  an  extraordinary 
exercise  of  his  own  preiogative,  conferring  on  Poitiers  all 
the  privileges  collectively  possessed  by  Paris,  Toulouse, 
Montpellier,  Angers,  and  Orleans,  and  at  the  same  time 
placing  the  university  under  special  royal  protection.  The  C.ieu, 
foundation  of  the  university  of  Caen,  in  the  diocese  of 
Bayeux,  was  attended  by  conditions  almost  exactly  the 
reverse  of  those  which  belonged  to  the  foundation  of  that 
at  Poitiers.  It  was  founded  under  English  auspices  during 
the  short  period  of  the  supremacy  of  the  English  arms  in 
Normandy  in  the  15th  century.  Its  charter  (May  1437) 
was  given  by  Eugenius  IV.,  and  the  bishop  of  Bayeux  was 
appointed  its  chancellor.  The  university  of  Paris  had  by 
this  time  completely  forfeited  the  favour  of  Eugenius  by 
its  attitude  at  tho  council  of  Basel,  and  Eugenius  inserted 
in  the  charter  for  Caen  a  clause  of  an  entirely  novel  char- 
acter, requiring  all  those  admitted  to  degrees  to  take  an 
oath  of  fidelity  to  the  see  of  Rome,  and  to  bind  themselves 
to  attempt  nothing  prejudicial  to  her  interests.  To  this 
proviso  the  pragmatic  sanction  of  Bourges  was  the  reply 
given  by  Charles  in  the  following  year.  On  ISth  >iay 
1442  we  find  King  Henry  VI.  writing  to  Eugenius,  and 
dwelling  with  satisfaction  on  the  rapid  progress  of  the  new 
university,  to  which,  he  says,  students  had  flocked  from  all 
quarters,  and  were  still  daiJy  arriving."  On  30th  October 
1152  its  charter  was  given  afresh  by  Charles  in  terms 
which  left  the  original  charter  unrecognized  ;  both  teachers 
and  learners  were  made  subject  to  the  civil  authorities  of 
the  city,  while  all  privileges  conferred  in  tlie  former  charter 


'  Bckynton's  CorrespondC'tcf,  i.  123. 

xxiir.  — 


io6 


842 


UNIVERSITIES 


Berdeaui 
ValeiK*, 
Naotes, 


in  cases  of  legal  disputes  were  abolished.  From  this  time 
the  university  of  Caen  was  distinguished  by  its  loyal 
spirit  and  6rm  resistance  to  ultramontane  pretensions  ; 
and,  although  swept  away  at  the  French  Revolution,  it  was 
afterwards  restored,  owing  to  the  sense  of  the  services  it 
had  thus  once  rendered  to  the  national  cause.'  No  especi- 
ally notable  circumstances  characterise  the  foundation  of 
the  university  of  Bordeaux  (1441)  or  that  of  Valence 
(1452),  but  that  of  Nantes,  which  received  its  charter  from 
Pius  fl.  in  1463,  is  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  it  did 
not  receive  the  ratification  of  the  king  of  France,  and  the 
conditions  under  which  its  earlier  traditions  were  formed 
thus  closely  resemble  those  of  Poitiers.  It  seems  also  to 
have  been  regarded  with  particular  favour  by  Pius  II.,  a 
poQtiS  who  was  at  once  a  ripe  scholar  and  a  writer  upon 
education  He  gave  to  Nantes  a  notable  body  of  privi- 
leges, which  not  only  represent  an  embodiment  of  all  the 
various  privileges  granted  to  universities  prior  to  that  date, 
but  afterwards  became,  with  their  copious  and  somewhat 
tautological  phraseology,  the  accepted  model  for  the  great 
majority  of  university  charters,  whether  issued  by  the  pope 
or  by  the  emperor,  or  by  the  civil  authority.  The  bishop 
of  Nantes  was  appointed  head  of  the  university,  and  was 
charged  with  the  special  protection  of  its  privileges  against 

Bonrgea,  all  interference  from  whatever  quarter  ^  The  bull  for  the 
foundation  of  the  university  of  Bourges  was  given  in  1465 
by  Paul  II.  at  the  request  of  Louis  XI  and  his  brother. 
It  confers  on  the  community  the  same  privileges  as  those 
enjoyed  by  the  other  universities  of  France.  The  royal 
sanction  was  given  at  the  petition  of  the  citizens  ;  but, 
from  reasons  which  do  not  appear,  they  deemed  it  neces- 
sary further  to  petition  that  their  charter  might  also  be 
registered  and  enrolled  by  the  parlement  of  Paris. 

G-eifs-  In  Germany,  the  first  of  the  universities  representing 

ood.  the  new  influences  above  relerred  to  is  that  of  Ureifswald. 
A  wealthy  burgomaster,  who  had  graduated  as  a  master  of 
arts  at  Rostock,  was  the  chief  mover ;  and,  his  proposal 
being  cordially  seconded  by  the  city  council,  the  duke  of 
the  province,  and  certain  abbots  of  neighbouri.ig  monas- 
teries; the  necessary  bull  was  obtained  from  Ca'ixtus  III, 
(29th  May  1456).  The  first  session  was  comiBenced  in 
October  of  the  same  year.  Three  colleges  w(  re  at  the 
same  time  founded, — two  for  masters  of  arts,  as  at  Leipsic 
and  Rostock,  and  a  third  for  jurists.  The  chairs  in  the 
different  faculties  were  distributed  as  follows  ;  theology  3, 
jurisprudence  5,  medicine  l,arts  4,  —  the  number  of  jurists 
showing  that  the  study  of  the  civil  law  still  obtained  a 

Freiburg,  certain  preponderance.  The  university  of  Freiburg  was 
founded  by  the  archduke  Albert,  brother  of  the  emperor 
Frederick  lEI., — the  papal  bull  being  given  20th  April 
1455,  and  the  imperial  ratification  in  the  following  year.. 
The  first  session  was  opened  in  1460,  under  the  presidency 
of  Matthew  Hummel,  a  privy  councillor,  and  the  original 
numbers  soon  received  considerable  additions  by  secessions 
from  Vienna  and  from  Heidelberg.  The  endowment  was 
further  augmented  by  an  annual  allowance  from  the  city 
council,  and  by  certain  canonries  and  livings  attached  to 
neighbouring  parishes.  In  the  same  year,  and  probably  in 
a  spirit  of  direct  rivalry,  was  opened  the  university  of 
Basel,  The  cathedral  school  in  that  ancient  city,  together 
with  others  attached  to  the  monasteries,  afforded  a  suffi- 
cient nucleus  for  a  "studium,"  and  Pius  II,,  who,  as 
^neas  Sylvius,  had  been  a  resident  in  the  city,  was  easily 
prevailed  upon  to  grant  the  charter  (12th  November  1459). 
In  the  character  of  its  endowments,  and  in  the  relative 
importance  attached  to  the  study  of  the  civil  law,  Basel 
much  resembled  Greifswald,  but  its  success  throughout  the 
15th  century  was  marred  by  the  languid  character.of  the 

'  Do  U  Rue,  Eisais  Hiit.  sur  la  Viile  de  Caen,  ii.  137-40. 
•  Meiners,  i.  368. 


Baecl, 


support  afforded  it  by  the  civic  authorities.  Before  he  had 
signed  the  bull  for  the  foundation  of  the  university  «f 
Basel,  Pius  II.,  at  the  request  of  duke  William  of  Bavaria, 
had  issued  another  bull  for  the  foundation  of  a  university 
at  Ingolstadt  (7th  April  1459).  But  it  was  not  until  ingol- 
1472  that  the  work  of  teaching  was  actually  commenced  stadt, 
there.  Some  long  existing  prebends,  founded  by  former 
dukes  of  Bavaria,  were  appropriated  to  the  endowment, 
and  the  chairs  in  the  different  faculties  were  distributed  as 
follows  : — theology  2,  jurisprudence  3,  medicine  1,  arts  6, 
— arts  in  conjunction  with  theology  thus  obtaining  the 
preponderance  As  at  Caen,  twenty-two  years  before,  an 
oath,  of  fidelity  to  the  Roman  pontiff  was  imposed  on  every 
student  admitted  to  a  degree.^  That  this  proviso  was  not 
subsequently  abolished,  as  at  Caen,  is  a  feature  in  the 
history  of  the  university  of  Ingolstadt  which  was  attended 
by  important  results.  Nowhere  did  the  Reformation  meet 
with  more  stubborn  resistance,  and  it  was  at  Ingolstadt 
that  the  Counter-Reformation  was  commenced.  In  1556 
the  Jesuits  made  their  first  settlement  in  the  university. 

The  next  two  universities  took  their  rise  in  the  archi  Treva 
episcopal  seats  of  Treves  and  Mainz.  That  at  Treves 
received  its  charter  as  early  as  1450  ,  but  the  first  academ 
ical  session  did  not  commence  until  1473.  Here  the 
ecclesiastical  influences  appear  to  have  been  unfavourable 
to  the  project.  The  archbishop  demanded  2000  florins  as 
the  price  of  his  sanction.  The  cathedral  chapter  threw 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  appropriation  of  certain, 
livings  and  canonries  to  the  university  endowment;  and  so 
.obstinate  was  their  resistance  that  in  1655  they  succeeded 
in  altogether  rescinding  the  gift  on  payment  of  a  very 
inadequate  sum.  It  was  not  until  1722  that  the  assembly 
of  deputies,  by  a  formal  grant,  relieved  the  university 
from  the  difficulties  in  which  it  had  become  involved.  The  Muni, 
university  of  Mainz,  on  the  other  hand,  was  almost  en- 
tirely indebted  to  the  archbishop  Diether  for  its  founda- 
tion It  was  at  his  petition  that  Sixtus  IV.  granted  the 
charter,  23d  November  1476,  and  Diether,  being  himsell 
an  enthusiastic  humanist,  thereupon  circulated  a  letter, 
couched  in  elegant  Latinity,  addressed  to  students  through- 
out his  diocese,  inviting  them  to  repair  to  the  new  centre, 
and  dilating  on  the  advantages  of  academic  .studies  and  of 
learning.  The  rise  of  these  two  universities,  however, 
neither  of  which  attained  to  much  distinction,  represents 
little  more  than  the  incorporation  of  certain  already  exist- 
ing institutions  into  a  homogeneous  whole,  the  power  of 
conferring  degrees  being  superadded.  But  the  university  Tubm 
of  Tubingen,  founded  by  charter  of  Sixtus  IV.  (9th  S™. 
November  1476),  represents  an  entirely  new  creation. 
Its  real  founder  was  Mathilda,  the  mother  of  Count  Eber- 
hard  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  appropriated  five  livings  and 
eight  prebends  to  the  endowment.  Of  the  chairs,  3  were 
for  theology,  3  for  the  canon  and  2  for  the  civil  law,  2  for 
medicine,  and  4  for  arts.  The  general  financial  condition 
of  this  university  in  the  year  1541-42,  and  the  sources  from 
whence  its  revenues  were  derived,  have  been  illustrated  by 
Hoffmann  in  a  short  paper  which  shows  the  fluctuating 
character  of  the  resources  of  a  university  in  those  days, — 
liable  to  be  affected,  as  they  were,  both  by  the  seasons  and 
the  markets.' 

Nearly  contemporaneous  with   these   lounaations  were  UpsAla 
those  of  Upsala  (1477)  and  Copenhagen  (1479),  which,*""* 
although  lying  without  the  political  boundaries  of  Germany,  j,^^' 
reflected  her  influence.     The  chaiter  for  Copenhagen  was 
given   by   Sixtus   IV.  as  early  as    1475.     The   students 


5  Paulsen,  in  si>eaking  of  this  proviso  as  one  "  die  weder  vorher  noch 
iiachher  sonst  vorkommt,"  would  consequently  seem  to  be  not  quit^ 
accurate.     See  Die  Griinduug  dcr  deutschen  Univertilaten,  p.  277. 

«  Oekmomischer  Zxtetand  der  Universilal  Tubingen  gegai  die  Mitlt 
des  16Un  Jahrhunderls,  1845. 


UNIVERSITIES 


843 


\Viiten- 


K:\l.k- 
lorlon- 
ti.e  Ode; 


attiacted  to  this  new  centre  were  mainly  from  within  llic 
radiusoftlie  university  of  Cologne,  and  its  statutes  were  little 
more  than  a  i.-anscript  of  those  of  the  latter  foundation. 

The  ek'Ctoiates  of  Wittenberg  and  Brandenburg  were 
now  the  only  two  considerable  "Herman  territories  which 
did  not  possess  a  studium  gcnerale,  and  the  university 
•founded  at  Wittenberg  by  Maximiliar.  I.  (6th  July  1502) 
is  notable  as  the  first  established  in  Germany  by  virtue  of 
an  imperial  as  distinguished  from  a  papal  decree.  Its 
charter  is,  however,  drawn  u;)  with  the  traditional  [ihrase- 
ology  of  the  [lontifical  bulls,  and  is  evidently  not  conceived 
in  any  spirit  of  antagonism  to  Rome.  Wittenberg  is  con- 
stituted a  "  studium  generale  "  in  all  the  four  faculties, — 
the  right  to  confer  degrees  in  theology  and  canon  law 
having  been  tanctioned  by  the  papal  legate  some  months 
before,  2d  February  1502.  The  endowment  of  the  uni- 
versity with  church  revenues  duly  received  the  papal 
sanction, —  a  bull  of  Alexander  YI.  authorizing  the  a[)pro- 
priation  of  twelve  canonries  attached  to  the  castle  church, 
as  well  as  of  eleven  prebends  in  outlying  districts — ul  sic 
jxr  mnnevi  modum  uimni  coif  us  ex  slmlio  d  colliyio  prx- 
dictis  fial  el  constitualur.  No  university  in  Germany 
attracted  to  itself  a  larger  share  of  the  attention  of  Europe 
at  its  conmicncement.  And  it  was  its  distinguishing  merit 
that  it  was  the  first  academic  centre  north  the  Alps  where 
tho  anticpiated  methods  and  barbarous  Latinity  of  the 
scholastic  era  were  overtluowii.  The  last  university 
founded  in  GcVmany  prior  to  the'  Reformation  was  that  of 
Frankfort  on  the-Oder.  The  design,  first  conceived  by 
the  ckilor  John  of  Brandenburg,  was  carried  into  cxecu-, 
tion  by  his  bon  Joachim,  at  whose  request  Pope  Julius  If. 
i.->sucd  a  bull  for  ihe  foundation,  1.5th  March  150C.  An 
imperial  ch.irtcr,  identical  in  its  contents  with  the  papal 
bull,  followed  on  2Glli  October.  The  university  received 
an  endowment  of  canonries  and  livings  similar  to  that  of 
Wittenberg,  and  .some  houses  in  the  city  were  assigned  for 
its  use  by  tho  elector. 

The  first  university  in  Scotland  was  that  of  St  Andrews, 
founded  in  1111  by  Henry  Wardlaw  bishop  of  that  see, 
and  modelled  chiefly  on  the  constitution  of  the  university 
of  Paris.  It  acquired  all  its  three  colleges — St  Salvator's, 
St  Leonard's,  and  St  Mary's — before  the-  Reformation, — 
the  first  having  been  founded  in  1456  by  Bishop  James 
Kennedy;  the  second  in  1512  by  the  youthful  archbishop 
Alexander  Stuart  (natural  son  of  James  IV.)  and  John 
Hepburn,  the  prior  of  the  monastery  of  St  Andrews;  and 
the  third,  also  in  1512,  by  the  Beaton^,  who  in  the  year 
1537  procur.'d  a  bull  from  Pope  Paul  III.  dedicating  the 
college  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  of  the  Assumption,  and 
adding  further  endowments.  The  most  ancient  of  the 
universities  of  Scotland,  with  its  three  colleges,  was  thus 
reared  in  an  atmosphere  of  mediieval  theology,  and  un- 
doubtedly designed  as  a  bulwark  against  heresy  and 
schism.  But  "by 'a  strange  irony  of  fate,"  it  has  been 
observed,  "two  of  these  colleges  became,  almost  from  the 
first,  the  foremost  agents  in  working  tho  overthrow  of  that 
church  which  they  were  founded  to  defend."  St  Leonard's 
more  especially,  like  St  John's  or  Queens'  at  Cambridge, 
became  a  noted  centre  of  intellectual  life  and  Reformation 
principles.  That  he  "  had  drunk  at  St  Leonard's  well  " 
became  a  current  expression  for  implying  that  a  theologian 
Ol.isgow,  had  imbibed  the  doctrines  of  Protestantism.  The  univer- 
'sity  of  Glasgow  was  founded  as  a  "  studium  generale  "  in 
1453,  and  [Mssessed  two  colleges.  Prior  to  the  Reforma- 
tion it  acquired  but  little  celebrity ;  its  discipline  was  lax, 
and  the  number  of  the  students  but  small,  while  the  in- 
struction was  not  only  inefficient  but  irregularly  given;  no 
funds  were  provided  for  the  maintenance  of  regular  lectures 
in  the  higher  faculties;  and  there  was  no  adequate  execu- 
tive power  for  the  maintenance  of  disiipline.     The  uui- 


Sl  Ku 


vcrsity  of  Aberdeen,  which  was  founded  in  1494,  at  first  Abcrfeea 
possessed  only  une  college, — namely,  King's.  Marischal 
College,  founded  in  1593  by  George  Keith,  fifth  Earl 
Marischal,  was  constituted  by  its  founder  independent  of 
the  university  in  Old  Aberdeen,  being  itself  both  a  col- 
lege and  a  university,  with  the  power  of  conferring  degrees. 
Bishop  Elphinstone,  the  founder  both  of  the  university  and 
of  King's  College  (1505),  had  been  educated  at  Glasgow, 
and  had  subsequently  both  studied  and  taught  at  Paris 
and  at  Orleans.  To  the  wider  experience  which  he  had 
thus  gained  we  may  probably  attribute  the  fact  that  the 
constitution  of  the  university  of  Aberdeen  was  free  from 
the  glaring  defects  which  then  characterized  that  of  the 
university  of  Glasgow.'  But  in  all  the  mediaeval  uni- 
versities of  Germany,  England,  and  Scotland,  modelled  as 
they  were  on  a  common  type,  the  absence  of  adequate 
discipline  was,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  a  common 
defect.  In  connexion  with  this  feature  we  may  note  the 
comparatively  ■'inall  percentage  of  matriculated  students 
proceeding  to  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  M.A.  when  com- 
pared with  later  times.  Of  this  disparity  the  following  Degrees 
table,  exhibiting  the  relative  numbers  in  the  university  of  taken  at 
Leipsic  for  every  ten  years  from  the  year  1427  to  1552,  ^'P^** 
probably  affords  a  fair  average  illustration, —  the  remark- 
able fluctuations  probably  depending  quite  as  much  upon 
the  comparative  hoalthjness  of  the  period  (in  respect  of 
freedom  from  epidemic)  and  the  abundance  of  the  harvests 
as  upon  any  other  cause  : — 


Vears- 

Matiicu- 
lationa. 

Years. 

B.A 

.M.A 

reiccntagoof 

E.A-s. 

.M.As. 

H-27-1430 

737 

1420-1432 

151 

28 

-20-4 

3-8 

1437-1440 

715 

1439-1442 

199 

50 

27-8 

6-9 

1447-1450 

SOS 

1449-1452 

274 

(50) 

33  9 

1457-1460 

1,4-47 

1459-1462 

559 

81 

33-6 

5-6 

1467-1170 

1,137 

14G9-1472 

410 

61 

36  0 

5-4 

1477-1480 

1,163 

1479-14S2 

453 

49 

39-4 

4-2 

HS7-1490 

1,S53 

1489-1492 

714 

62 

33-4 

3-4 

1497-1500 

1,2SS 

1499-1502 

497 

59 

38-5 

4-6 

1507-1510 

1,948 

1509-1512 

510 

65 

26  1 

3  4 

1517-1520 

1,445 

1519-1522. 

247 

35 

170 

2-4 

15-27-1530 

419 

1529-1532 

77 

33 

18  4 

7-9 

1537-1540 

6S6 

1539-1542 

122 

27 

17  3 

3  9 

1547-1550 

1,313 
14,969 

1549-1552 

■200 

72 

15-2 

5  5 

4418 

672 

29-5 

4-5 

The' German  universities  in  these  times  seem  to  haveGeneml 
admitted  for  the  most  part  their  inferiority  in  learning  to  aspects  of 
older  and  more  favoured  centres  ;  and  their  consciousness  „g?J!f,.Vi 
of  the  fact  is  shown  by  the  efforts  which  they  made  to  univer. 
attract  instructors  from  Italy,  and  by  the  frequent  resort  sitiea, 
of    the   more   ambitious   students   to  schools   like  Paris, 
Bologna,  Padua,  and  Pavia.     That  they  took  their  rise  in 
any  spirit  of  systematic  opposition  to  the  Roman  see  (as 
Meiners  and  others  have  contended),  or  that  their  orga- 
nization was  something  external  to  and  independent  of  tbe 
church,  is  sufficiently  disproved  by  the  foregoing  evidence. 
Generally    speaking,    they    were   eininently   conservative 
bodies,  and  the  new  learning  of  the  humanists  and  the 
new  methods  of  instruction  that  now  began  to  demand 
attention  were  alike  for  a  long  period  unable  to  gain  ad- 
mission within  academic  circles.    Reformers  such  as  Hegius, 
John  Wessel,  and   Rudolphus   Agricola  carried  on   their 
work  at  places  like  Deven'ter  remote  from  university  in- 
fluences.    That  there  was  a  considerable  amount  of  mental 
activity  going  on  in  the  universities  themselves  is  not  to 
be  denied  ;  but  it  was  mostly  of  that  unprofitable  kind 
which,  while  giving  rise  to  endless  controversy,  turned  upon 
questions  in  connexion  with  which  the  implied  postulates 
and  the  terminology  employed  rendered  all  scientific  invests 


Fasli  Aierdo7iehses,  .ref.  p. 


844 


UNIVERSITIES 


Abandon' 
tnent  of 
logical 
studies 
'"  Italy. 


High  re- 
patation 
of  Italiao 
profes- 
sors. 


■Eventa 
pro- 
ducing- 
divisioDB 
in  uni- 
versity 
history. 


gation  hopeless.  At  almost  every  university — Leipsic, 
Greifswald,  and  Prague  (after  1209)  being  the  principal 
exc  .ptions — the  so-called  Realists  and  Nominalists  repre- 
sented two  great  parties  occupied  with  an  internecine 
struggle.  At  Paris,  owing  to  the  overwhelming  strength 
of  the  theologians,  the  Nominalists  were  indeed  under  a 
kind  of  ban  ;  but  at  Heidelberg  they  had  altogether  ex- 
pelled their  antagonists.  It  was  much  the  same  at  Vienna 
and  at  Erfurt, — the  latter,  from  the  ready  reception  which 
it  rave  to  new  speculation,  being  styled  by  its  enemies 
"  novorum  omnium  portus."  At  Basel,  under  the  leadership 
of  the  eminent  Johannes  a  Lapide,  the  Realists  with  diffi- 
culty maintained  their  ground.  Freiburg,  Tubingen,  and 
Ingolstadt,  in  the  hope  of  diminishing  controversy,  arrived 
at  a  kind  of  compromise,  each  party  having  its  own  pro- 
fe.ssor,  and  representing  a  distinct  "  nation"  At  Mainz  the 
authorities  adopted  a  manual  of  logic  which  was  essentially 
an  embodiment  of  Nominalistic  principles. 

la  Italy,  almost  without  exception,  it  was  decided  ,that 
tliese  controversies  were  endless,  and  that  their  effects  were 
pernicious  It  was  resolved,  accordingly,  to  expel  logic, 
and  allow  its  place  to  be  filled  by  rhetoric.  It  was  by 
virtue  of  this  decision,  which  was  of  a  tacit  rather  than  a 
formal  character,  that  the  expounders  of  the  new  learning 
in  the  15th  century,  men  like  Emmanuel  Chrysoloras, 
Guarino,  Leonardo  Bruni,  Bessarion,  Argyropulos,  and 
Valla,  carried  into  effect  that  important  revolution  in 
academic  studies  which  constitutes  a  hew  era  in  university 
learning,  and  largely  helped  to  pave  the  way  for  the  Re- 
formation '  This  discouragement  of  the  controversial 
spirit,  continued  as  it  was  in  relation  to  theological  ques- 
tions after  the  Reformation,  obtained  for  the  Italian  uni- 
versities a  fortunate  immunity  from  dissensions  like  those 
which,  as  we  shall  shortly  see,  distracted  the  centres  of 
learning  in  Germany.  The  professorial  body  also  attained 
to  an  almost  unrivalled  reputation.  It  was  exceptionally 
select,  only  those  who  were  in  receipt  of  salaries  being 
permitted,  as  a  rule,  to  lecture ;  it  was  also  famed  for  its 
ability,  the  institution  of  concurrent  chairs  proving  an  excel- 
lent stimulus.  These  chairs  were  of  two  kinds — "ordinary" 
and  "extraordinary," — the  former  being  the  more  liberally 
endowed  and  fewer  in  number.  For  each  subject  of  im- 
portance there  were  thus  always  two  and  sometimes  three 
rival  chairs,  and  a  powerful  and  continuous  emulation 
was  thus  maintained  among  the  teachers  "  From  the 
integrity  of  their  patrons,  and  the  lofty  starlard  by  which 
they  were  judged,"  says  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  '  the  call  to  a 
Paduan  or  Pisan  ihair  was  deemed  the  highest  of  all 
literary  honours.  The  status  of  professor  was  in  Italy 
elevated  to  a  dignity  which  in  other  countries  it  has  never 
reached  ;  and  not  a  few  of  the  most  illustrious  teachers  in 
the  Italian  seminaries  were  of  the  proudest  nobility  of  the 
land  While  the  universities  of  other  countries  had  fallen 
from  Christian  and  cosmopolite  to  sectarian  and  local 
schools,  it  is  the  peculiar  glory  of  the  Italian  that,  under 
the  enlightened  liberality  of  their  patrons,  they  still  con- 
tinued to  assert  their  European  universality.  Creed  and 
courtry  were  in  them  no  bar, — the  latter  not  even  a  reason 
of  preference  Foreigners  of  every  nation  are  to  be  found 
among  their  professors  ;  and  the  most  learned  man  in 
Scotland  (Dempster)  sought  in  a  Pisan  chair  that  theatre 
for  his  abilities  which  he  could  not  find  at  home."^ 

The  Reformation  represents  the  great  boundary  line  in 
the  history  of  the  mediceval  universities,  and  also,  for  a 
long  time  after,  the  main  influence  in  the  history  of  those 
new  foundations  which  subsequently  arose  in  Protestant 
countries      Even  in  Catholic  countries  its  secondary  effects 

*  For  an  excellent  account  of  this  movement,  see  Georg  Voigt.  Die 
WiiderbfJebung  des  classuchen  AlUrthums^  id  ed.,  2  vols.,  1880 
'  HaDjilton.  Diacussions,  2d  ed.,  p.  37^ 


were  scarcely  less  perceptible,  as  they  found  expression  in 
connexion  with  the  Counter  Reformation.  In  Germany 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  was  attended  by  consequences 
which  were  felt  long  after  the  17th  century.  In  Franca 
the  Revolution  of  1789  resulted  in  the  actual  uprooting  of 
the  university  system. 

The  influences  of  the  New  Learning,  and  the  special' 
character  wbich  it  assumed  as  itmade  its  way  in  Germany 
in  connexion  with  the  labours  of  scholars  like  Erasmus, 
John    Reuchlin,    Ulrich   von    Hutten,   and  Melanchthon, 
augured  well  for  the  future.     It  was  free  from  the  frivol- 
ities, the  pedantry,  the  immoralities,  and  the  scepticism 
which  characterized  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  (iorresponJ- 
ing  culture  in  Italy.     It  gave  promise  of  resulting  at  once 
in  a  critical  and  enlightened  study  of  the  masterpieces  of 
classical  antiquity,  and  in  a  reverent  and  yet  rational  inter- 
pretation of  the  Scriptures  and  the   fathers.     The  fierce  Per- 
bigotry  and  the  ceaseless  controversies  evoked  by  the  pro-  o'^,""" 
mulgation  of  Lutheran  or  Calvinistic  doctrine   J'speiled,  ^"""^  ^^ 
however,  this  hopeful  prospect,  and  converted  what  might  sectsnan 
otherwise  have  become  the  tranquil  abodes  of  the  Muses  ism. 
into  gloomy  fortresses  of  sectarianism.     Of  the  manner  in 
which  it  affected  the  highest  culture,  the  observation  of 
Henke  in  his  Life  of  Calixius  (i.  8),  that  for  a  century 
after  the  Reformation  the  history  of  Lutheran  theology 
becomes  almost  identified  with  that  of  the  German  uni- 
versities, may  serve  as  an  illustration. 

The  first  Protestant  utiiversity  was  that  of  Marburg,  Marburg 
founded  by  Philip  the  Magnanimous,  landgrave  of  Hesse, 
30th  May  1527.  Expressly  designed  as  a  bulwark  of 
Lutheranism,  it  was  mainly  built  up  out  of  the  confiscation 
of  the  property  of  the  religious  orders  in  the  Hessian 
capital.  The  house  of  the  Dominicans,  who  had  fled  on 
the  first  rumour  of  spoliatiou,  was  converted  into  lecture- 
rooms  for  the  faculty  of  jurisprudence.  The  church  and 
convent  of  the  order  known  as  the  "  Kugelherrn  "  was  - 
appropriated  to  the  theological  faculty.  The  friary  of  the 
Barefooted  Friars  was  shared  between  the  faculties  of 
medicine  and  philosophy.  The  university,  whi''i  was  the 
object  of  the  margrave's  peculiar  care,  rapidly  rose  to 
celebrity ;  it  was  resorted  to  by  students  from  remote 
countries,  even  from  Greece,  and  its  professors  were  of 
distinguished  ability.  How  much,  however,  of  this  popu- 
larity depended  on  its  theological  associations  is  to  be  seen 
in  the  fact  that  after  the  year  1605,  when,  by  the  decree 
of  Count  Maurice,  its  formulary  of  faith  was  changed  from 
Lutheran  to  Calvinistic,  its  numbers  greatly  declined. 
This  dictation  of  the  temporal  power  now  becomes  one  of 
the  most  notable  features  in  academic  history  in  Protestant 
Germany  The  universities,  having  repudiated  the  pipal 
authority,  while  that  of  the  episcopal  order  was  at  an  end,! 
now  began  to  pay  especial  court  to  the  temporal  ruler,  and 
sought  in  every  way  to  conciliate  his  goodwill,  representing 
with  peculiar  distinctness  the  theory, — cujus  regio,  ejus  reti- 
gio.  This  tendency  was  further  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  their  colleges,  bursaries,  and  other  similar  foundations 
were  no  longer  derived  from  or  supported  by  ecclesiastical 
institutions,  but  were  mainly  dependent  on  thecicil  power. 

The  Lutheran  university  of  Konigsberg  was  founded  1 7th  Konigs- 
August  1544  by  Albert  III.,  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  ^"V- 
and  the  first  duke  of  Prussia,  and  his  wife  Dorothea,  a 
Danish  princess.     In  this  instance,  the  religious  character 
of  the  foundation  not  having  been  determined  at  the  com- 
mencement, the  papa!  and  the  imperial  sanction  were  both 
applied  for,  although  not  accorded.     King  Sigismund  of 
Poland,  however,  which  kingdom  exercised  at  that  time  a 
protectorate  over  the  Prussian  duchy,  ultimately  gave  the 
necessary  charter  (29th  September  1561),  at  the  same  time 
ordaining  that  all  students  who  graduated  as  masters  in  . 
the  faculty  of  philosophy  should  rank  as  nobles  of  the 


UNIVERSITIES 


845 


Polish  kingdom.  When  Prussia  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
a  kingdom  (1701)  the  university  was  made  a  royal  founda- 
tion, and  the  "collegium  Fridericianum,"  which  was  then 
erected,  received  corresponding  privileges.  In  18C2  the 
university  buildings  were  rebuilt,  and  the  number  of  the 
students  is  now  nearly  one  thousand 

Jen.T.  The  Lutheran  university  of  Jena  hacf  its  origin  in  a 

gymnasium  founded  by  John  Frederick  the  Magnanimous, 
elector  of  Saxony,  during  his  imprisonment,  for  the  express 
purpose  of  promoting  Evangelical  doctrines  and  repairing 
the  loss  of  Wittenberg,  where  the  Philippists  had  gained 
the  ascendency.  Its  charter,  which  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  refused  to  grant,  and  which  was  obtained  with  some 
difficulty  from  his  brother,  Ferdinand  I.,  eventually  en- 
abled the  authorities  to  open  the  university,  2d  February 
150S.  Distinguished  for  its  vehement  assertion  of  Luth- 
eran doctrine,  its  hostility  to  the  teaching  of  Wittenberg 
was  hardly  less  pronounced  than  that  with  which  both 
centres  regard  Roman  Catholicism.  For  a  long  time  it 
was  chiefly  noted  as  a  school  of  medicine,  and  in  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries  it  was  in  bad  repute  for  the  lawlessness 
of  its  students,  among  whom  riuelling  prevailed  to  a  scan- 
dalous extent.  The  beauty  of  its  situation  and  the  eoiin- 
ence  of  its  professoriate  hate,  however,  generally  attracted 
a  considerable  proportion  of  students  from  other  countries. 
Its  numbers  in  1885  were  5C6. 

Helm-         The   Lutheran   university   of    Helmstadt,    founded   by 

tudt  Duke  Julius  (of  the  house  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel), 
and  designated  after  him  in  its  official  records  as  "  Acade- 
raia  Julia,"  received  its  charter,  Sth  May  1575,  from  the 
emperor  Maximilian  II.  No  university  in  the  ICth  cen- 
tury commenced  under  more  favourable  auspices.  It  was 
munificently  endowed  by  the  founder  and  by  his  son;  and 
its  "  Convictorium,",  or  college  for  poor  students,  expended 
in  the  course  of  thirty  years  no  less  than  100,000  thalers, 
an  extraordinary  expenditure  for  an  institution  of  such  a 
character  in  those  days.  Beautifully  and  conveniently 
situated  in  what  had  now  become  the  well-peopled  region 
between  the  Weser  and  the  lower  Elbe,  and  distinguished 
by  its  comparatively  temperate  maintenance  of  the  Luth- 
eran tenets,  it  attracted  a  considerable  concourse  of 
students,  especially  from  the  upper  classes,  not  a  few  being 
of  princely  rank.  Throughout  its  history,  until  suppressed 
in  1809,  Helmstadt  enjoyed  the  special  and  powerful 
patronage  of  the  dukes  of  Saxony. 

AltJ-^rf.  The  "Gymnasium  jEgidianum"  of  Nuremberg,  founded 
in  1526,  and  removed  in  1575  to  Altdorf,  represents  the 
origin  of  the  university  of  Altdorf.  A  charter  was  granted 
in  1578  by  the  emperor  Rudolph  II.,  and  the  university 
was  formally  opened  in  1580.  It  was  at  first,  however, 
empowered  only  to  grant  degrees  in  arts;  but  in  1623  the 
emperor  Ferdinand  II.  added  the  permission  to  create 
doctors  of  law  and  medicine,  and  also  to  confer  crowns  on 
poets  ;  and  in  1697  its  faculties  were  completed  by  the 
permission  given  by  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  to  create 
doctors  of  theology.  Like  Louvain,  Altdorf  was  nominally 
ruled  by  the  municipality,  but  in  the  latter  university  this 
[lower  of  control  remained  practically  inoperative,  and 
the  consequent  freedom  enjoyed  by  the  community  from 
evils  like  those  which  brought  about  the  decline  of 
Louvain  is  thus  described  by  Hamilton  : — "  The  decline 
of  that  great  and  wealthy  seminary  (Louvain)  was  mainly 
determined  by  its  vicious  patronage,  both  as  vested  in  the 
university  and  in  the  town.  Altdorf,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  about  the  poorest  university  in  Germany,  and  long  one 
of  the  most  eminent.  Its  whole  endowment  never  rose 
above  .£800  a  year ;  and,  till  the  period  of  its  declension, 
the  professors  of  Altdorf  make  at  least  as  distinguished  a 
figure  in  the  history  of  philosophy  as  those  of  all  the  eight 
universities  of  the  British  empire  together.     On  looking 


closely  into  its  constitution  the  anomaly  is  at  once  solved. 
The  patrician  senate  of  Nuremberg  were  too  intelligent  and 
patriotic  to  attempt  the  exercise  of  such  a  function.  The 
nomination  of  professors,  though  formally  ratified  by  the 
senate,  was  virtually  made  by  a  board  of  four  curators;  and 
what  is  worthy  of  remark,  as  long  as  curatorial  patronage . 
was  a  singularity  in  Germany,  Altdorf  maintained  its  rela- 
tive pre-eminence,  losing  it  only  when  a  similar  mean  wa3 
adopted  in  the  more  favoured  universities  of  the  empire."' 

The  conversion  of  Marburg  into  a  school  of  Calvinistic  GiMsen. 
doctrine  gave  occasion  to  the  foundation  of  the  universities 
of  Giessen  and  of  Rinteln.  Of  these  the  former,  founded  by 
the  margrave  of  Darmstadt,  Louis  V.,  as  a  kind  of  refuge 
for  the  Lutheran  professors  from  Marburg,  received  its 
charter  from  the  emperor  Rudolph  II.,  19th  May  1607. 
^\^len,  however,  the  rr,argraves  of  Darmstadt  acquired 
possession  of  Marburg  in  1625,  the  university  was  trans- 
ferred thither;  in  1650  it  was  moved  back  again  to 
Giessen.  The  number  of  matriculated  students  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  century  was  about  25Q  ;  in  1887  it  was 
484.  In  common  with  the  other  universities  of  Germany, 
but  with  a  facility  which  obtained  for  it  a  specially  unenvi- 
able reputation,  Giessen  was  for  a  long  time  wont  to  confer 
the  degree  of  doctor  in  absentia  in  the  different  faculties 
without  requiring  adequate  credentials.  This  practice, 
however,  which  drew  forth  an  emphatic  protest  from  the 
eminent  historian  Mommsen,  has  within  the  last  few  years 
been  entirely  abandoned.  The  university  of  Rinteln  was  Rint«Ia, 
founded  17th  July  1621  by  the  emperor  Ferdinand  IL 
Almost  immediately  after  its  foundation  it  became  the 
prey  of  contending  parties  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  its 
early  development  was  thus  materially  hindered.  It  never, 
however,  attained  to  much  distinction,  and  in  1819  it  was 
suppressed.  The  university  of  Strasburg  was  founded  in  Stras- 
1G21  on  the  basis  of  an  already  existing  academy,  to  which  bnig, 
the  celebrated  John  Sturm  stood,  during  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  in  the  relation  of  "  rector  perpetuus,"  and  of  which 
we  are  told  that  in  1578  it  included  more  than  a  thousand 
scholars,  among  whom  were  200  of  the  nobility,  24  co".nt3 
and  barons,  and  three  princes.  It  also  attracted  students 
from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  especially  from  Portugal, 
Poland,  Denmark,  France,  and  England.  The  method  of 
Sturm's  teaching  became  the  basis  of  that  of  the  Jesuits, 
and  through  them  of  the  public  school  instruction  in  Eng- 
land. In  1621  Ferdinand  II.  conferred  on  this  academy 
full  privileges  as  a  university ;  in  the  language  of  the 
charter,  "in  omnibus  facultatibus,  doctores,  licentiatos, 
magistros,  et  baccalaureos,  atque  insuper  ^locias  laureates 
creatfdi  et  promovendi."  ^  In  1681  Strasburg  became 
French,  and  remained  so  until  1870. 

The  university  of  Dorpat  (now  Russian)  was  founded  Dorpat 
by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632,  and  reconstituted  by  the 
emperor  Alexander  I.  in  1802.  A  special  interest  attaches 
to  this  university  from  the  fact  that  it  has  for  a  long  time 
been  the  scene  of  the  contending  influences  of  Teutonism 
and  Slavonianism.  Situated  in  Livonia,  which  at  the  time 
of  its  foundation  represented  a  kind  of  debateable  land 
between  Russia  and  Poland,  its  gradual  monopoly  by  the 
former  country  has  not  been  without  resistance  and  pro- 
tests on  the  part  of  that  Teutonic  element  which  was  at 
one  time  the  more  potent  in  its  midst.  The  study  of  tie 
Slavonic  languages  has  here  received  considerable  stimulus, 
and  by  a  decree  in  May  1887  the  use  of  the  Russian  lan- 
guage having  been  made  obligatory  in  all  places  of  instruc- 
tion through  the  Baltic  provinces,  Russian  has  now  taken 
the  place  of  German  as  the  language  of  the  lecture-room. 
Dorpat  possesses  a  fine  library  of  over  80,000  volumes,  and 
is  also  noted  for  its  admirable  botanical  collection.     Tha 

'  Discussions,  ic,  2d  eA,  pp.  38S-S. 

»  Prmnulj.  Acad.  Privil..  &c.,  Strasburg,  1628, 


846 


UNIVERSITIES 


Prague. 


berg. 


Jons- 
bruck. 


Breslan. 


Tbo 
Jesuits 
in  the 
uni-  . 
venitv 


Russian  minister  has  also  recently  instituted  a  profesBor- 
ship  of  the  comparative  grammar  of  the  Slavonic  dialects 
(now  filled  by  J  Baudouin  de  Courtonay).  The  general 
influence  of  the  university  has  been  rapidly  extending 
during  the  last  few  years  far  beyond  the  Baltic  provinces. 
The  number  of  students,  which  in  1879  was  1106,  in  1886 
was  1751.'  A  like  contest  between  contending  nation- 
alities has  recently  met  with  a  final  solution  at  Prague, 
where  a  Czech  university  has  been  established  on  an  inde- 
pendent basis,  the  German  university  having  commenced 
Its  separate  career  in  the  winter  session  of  1882-83.  The 
German  foundation  retains  its  endowments,  but  the  state 
subvention  is  divided  between  the  two. 

The  repudiation  on  the  part  of  the  Protestant  univer- 
sities of  both  papal,  and  episcopal  authority  evoked  a 
counter-demonstration  among  those  centres  which  'Still 
adhered  to  Catholitisrn,  while  their  theological  intolerance 
gave  rise  to  a  great  reaction,  under  the  influence  of  which 
tlie  mediaeval  Catholic  universities  were  reinvigorated  and 
reorganized  (although  strictly  on  the  traditional  lines), 
while  Hew  and  important  centres  were  created.  It  was  on 
the  tide  of  this  reaction,  aidfd  by  their  own  skill  and 
.sagacity,  that  the  Jesuits  were  borne  to  that  commanding 
position  which  made  them  for  a  time  the  arbiters  of  educa- 
tion in  Europe.  The  earliest  university  whose  charter 
represented  this  reaction  was  that  of  Bamberg,  founded  by 
the  prince-bishop  Melchior  Otto,  after  whom  it  was  named 
"  Academia  Ottoniana."  It  was  opened  1st  September 
1G48,  and  received  both  from  the  emperor  Frederick  III. 
and  Pope  Innocent  X.  all  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  privi- 
leges of  a  medieval  foundation.  At  first,  however,  it  com- 
prised only  the  faculties  of  arts  and  of  theology;  to  these 
was  added  in  1729  that  of  jurisprudence,  and  in  1764  that 
of  medicine.  In  this  latter  faculty  Dr  Ignatius  Dollinger 
(the  father  of  the  historian)  was  for  a  long  time  a  distin- 
guished professor.  The  university  of  Innsbruck  was 
founded  in  1672  by  the  emperor  Leopold  I.,  from  whom 
it  received  its  name  of  "  academia  Leopoldina. "  In  the 
following  century,  under  the  patronage  of  the  empress 
Maria  Theresa,  it  made  considerable  progress,  and  received 
from  her  its  ancient  library  and  bookshelves  in  1745.  In 
1782  the  university  underwent  a  somewhat  singular 
change,  being  reduced  by  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  from  the 
status  of  a  university  to  that  of  a  lyceuni,  although  retain- 
ing in  the  theological  faculty  the  right  of  conferring  de- 
grees. In  1791  it  was  restored  to  its 'privileges  by  the 
emperor  Leopold  II.,  and  since  that  time  the  faculties  of 
piiilosophy,  law,  and  medicine  have  been  represented  in 
nearly  equal  proportions.  In  1886  the  number  of  profes- 
sors was  74,  and  of  students  869.  The  foundation  of  the 
university  of  Breslau  was  contemplated  as  early  as  the  year 
1505,  when  Ladislaus,  king  of  Hungary,  gave  his  sanction 
to  the  project,  but  Pope  Julius  II.,  in  the  assumed  interests 
of  Cracow,  withheld  his  assent.  Nearly  two  centuries 
later,  in  1702,  under  singularly  altered  conditions,  the 
Jesuits  prevailed  upon  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  to  found  a 
university  without  soliciting  the  papal  sanction.  When 
Frederick  the  Great  conquered  Silesia  in  1741,  he  took 
both  the  university  and  the  Jesuits  in  Breslau  under  his 
protection,  and  when  in  1774  the  order  was  suppressed  by 
Clement  XIV.  he  established  them  as  priests  in  the  Royal 
Scholastic  Institute,  at  the  same  time  giving  new  statutes 
to  the  university.  In  1811  the  university  was  considerably 
augmented  by  the  incorporation  of  that  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder.  At  the  present  time  it  possesses  both  a  Catholic 
and  a  Lutheran  faculty.  Its  medical  faculty  is  in  high 
repute.  The  total  number  of  students  in  1887  was  1347. 
In  no  country  was  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  on  the 

'  Seo  Die  dcutsche  Univcrsitat  Itorpat  im  LichU  der  O'escliichte, 


universities  more  marked  than  m  France.  The  civil  wars 
in  that  country  during  the  thirty  years  which  preceded  the 
close  of  the  16th  century  told  with  disastrous  effect*  upon 
the  condition  of  the  university  of  Paris,  and  with  the  com- 
mencement of  the  17th  century  its  collegiate  life  seemed 
at  an  end,  and  its  forty  colleges  stood  absolutely  deserted. 
To  this  state  of  affairs  the  obstinate  conservatism  of  the 
academic  authorities  not  a  little  contributed.  The  statutes 
by  which  the  university  was  still  governed  were  those 
which  had  been  given  by  the  cardinal  D'Estouteville,  the 
papal  legate,  in  1452,  and  remained  entirely  unmodified  by 
the  influences  of  the  Renaissance.  In  1579  the  edict  of 
Blois  promulgated  a  scheme  of  organi:;atinn  for  all  the 
universities  of  the  realm  (at  that  time  twenty-one  in 
number), — a  measure  which,  though  productive  of  unity  of 
teaching,  did  nothing  towards  the  advancement  of  the 
studies  themselves.  The  eminent  lawyers  of  France,  un- 
able to  find  chairs  in  Paris,  distributed  themselves  among 
the  chief  towns  of  the  provinces.  The  Jesuits  did  not  fail 
to  profit  by  this  immobility  and  excessive  conservatism  ou 
the  part  of  the  university,  and  during  the  second  half  of 
the  16th  century  and  the  whole  of  the  17th  they  had  con- 
trived to  gain  almost  a  complete  monopoly  of  both  the 
higher  and  the  lower  education  of  provincial  France. 
Their  .schools  arose  at  Toulouse  and  Bordeaux,  at  Audi, 
Agen,  Rhodez,  Porigueux,  Limoges,  Le  Puy,  Aubenas, 
Beziers,  Tournon,  in  the  colleges  of  Flanders  and  Lorraine, 
Douai  and  Pont-ii-Mousson, — places  beyond  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  parlement  of  Paris  or  even  of  the  crown  of 
France.  Their  banishment  from  Paris  itself  had  been  by 
the  decree  of  the  parlement  alone,  and  had  never  been 
confirmed  by  the  crown.  "  Lyons,"  says  Pattison,  "  loudly 
demanded  a  Jesuit  college,  and  even  the  Huguenot  Les- 
diguieres,  almost  king  in  DauphiniS,  was  preparing  to  erect 
one  at  Grenoble.  Amiens,  Rheims,  Rouen,  Dijon,  and 
Bourges  were  only  waiting  a  favourable  opportunity  to 
introduce  the  Jesuits  within  their  walls."'^  The  university 
was  rescued  from  the  fate  which  seemed  to  threaten  it  only 
by  the  excellent  statutes  given  by  Richer  in  1598,  and  by 
the  discerning  protection  extended  to  it  by  Henry  IV. 

The  "college'of  Edinburgh"  was  founded  by  charter 
of  James  VL,  dated  14th  April  1582.  This  document 
contains  no  reference  to  a  studium  generale,  nor  is  there 
ground  for  supposing  that  the  foundation  of  a  university 
was  at  that  time  contemplated.  In  marked  contrast  to  the 
three  older  centres  in  Scotland,  the  college  rose  compara- 
tively untrammelled  by  the  traditions  of  niedicevalism,  and 
its  creation  was  not  effected  without  some  jealousy  and 
opposition  on  the  part  of  its  predecessors.  Its  first  course 
of  instruction  was  commenced  in  the  Kirk  of  Field,  under 
the  direction  of  Robert  Rollock,  who  had  been  educated  at 
St  Andrews  under  Andrew  Melville,  the  eminent  Coven- 
anter. "  He  began  to  teach,"  says  Craufurd,  "  in  the 
lower  hall  of  the  great  lodging,  there  being  a  great  con- 
course of  students  allured  with  the  great  worth  of  the 
man  ;  but  diverse  of  them  being  not  ripe  enough  in  the 
Latin  tongue,  were  in  November  next  put  under  the  charge 
of  Mr  Duncan  Name,  .  who,  upon  Mr  Rollock's  recom- 
mendation, was  chosen  second  master  of  the  college."^  In 
1585  both  Rollock  and  Nairne  subscribed  the  National  Cov- 
enant, and  a  like  subscription  was  from  that  time  required 
from  all  who  were  admitted  to  degree'  'i  Jie  college. 

Disastrous  as  were  the  ( Tccts  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
upon  the  external  condition  of  the  Germ.aii  Uriiversities, 
resulting  in  not  a  few  instances  in  the  total  nisporsion  of 
the  students  and  the  burning  of  the  buildings  and  libraries, 
they  were  less  detrimental  and  less  iiermanent  than  those 
which  were  discernible  in  the  tone  and  temper  of  these 

"  Li/e  of  Cttsaubon,  p.  181. 

'  CraufurJ,  Hist,  of  the  Univ.  of  Edinburgh,  pp.  19-28. 


Conclition 

of  tll8 

uni- 
versity of 
Paris. 


College) 
of  the 
Jesuits  in 
Krani-e. 


Bliii- 
burgh. 


Rein  11  > 

of  tllL- 

Thnt> 
Years' 
War. 


UNIVERSITIES 


847 


commuuities.  A  formal  [jedaiitry  and  unintelligent  method 
of  study,  combined  with  a  passionate  dogmatism  in  matters 
of  religious  belief,  and  a  rude  contempt  for  the  amenities  of 
social  intercourse,  became  the  leading  characteristics,  and 
Dalle.  lasted  throughout  the  17th  century.  But  in  the  year 
1G93  the  foundation  of  the  university  of  Halle  opened  up 
a  career  to  two  very  eminent  men,  whose  influence,  widely 
different  as  was  its  character,  may  be  compared  for  its 
effects  with  that  of  Luther  aud  Melanchthon,  and  served  to 
modify  the  whole  current  of  German  philosophy  and  Ger- 
man theology.  Halle  has  indeed  been  described  as  "  the 
first  real  modern  university,"  It  was  really  indebted  for 
its  origin  to  a  spirit  of  rivalry  between  the  conservatism  of 
Saxony  and  the  progressive  tendencies  of  the  house  of 
Brandenburg,  but  the  occasion  of  its  rise  was  the  removal 
of  the  ducal  court  from  Halle  to  Magdeburg.  The  arch- 
bishopric of  the  latter  city  having  passed  Into  the  posses- 
sion of  Brandenburg  in  16S0  was  changed  into  a  dukedom, 
and  the  city  itself  was  selected  as  the  ducal  residence. 
This  change  left  unoccupied  some  commodious  buildings  in 
Halle,  which  it  was  decided  to  utilize  for  purposes  of 
education.  A  "  Ritterschule"  for  the  sons  of  the  nobility 
was  opened,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  it  was  decided 
to  found  a  university.  Saxony  endeavoured  to  thwart  the 
scheme,  urging  the  pro.ximity  of  Leipsic  ;  but  her  opposi- 
tion was  overruled  by  the  emperor  Leopold  I.,  who  granted 
(19th  October  1693)  the  requisite  charter,  and  in  the 
following  year  the  work  of  the  university  commenced. 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder  had  by  this  time  become  a  centre  of 
the  Reformed  party,  and  the  primary  object  In  founding 
a  university  in  Halle  was  to  create  a  centre  for  the 
Lutheran  party,  but  its  character,  under  the  influence  of 
Infltiaice  its  two  most  notable  teachers,, Christian  Thomasius  and  A. 
"f  H.  Francke,  soon  expanded  beyond  the  limits  of  this  con- 

"^l'""'  ,  ccption  to  assume  a  highly  original  form.  Thomasius  and 
rra^.;ke!'  Francke  had  both  been  driven  from  Leipsic  owing  to  the 
disfavour  with  which  their  liberal  and  progressive  tend- 
encies were  there  regarded  by  the  academic  authorities, 
and  on  many  points  the  two  teachers  were  in  agreement. 
They  both  regarded  with  contempt  alike  the  scholastic 
philosophy  and  the  scholastic  theology;  they  both  desired 
to  see  the  rule  of  the  civil  power  superseding  that  of  the 
ecclesiastical  power  in  the  seats  of  learning ;  they  were 
both  opposed  to  the  ascendency  of  classical  studies  as  ex- 
pounded by  the  humanists — Fxancke  regarding  the  Greek 
and  Roman  pagan  writers  with  the  old  traditional  dislike, 
as  immoral,  while  Thomasius  looked  upon  them  with  con- 
tempt, as  antiquated  and  representing  only  a  standpoint 
which  had  been  long  left  behind  ;  both  again  agreed  as  to 
the  desirability  of  including  the  elements  of  modern  culture 
ifl  the  education  of  the  young.  But  here  their  agreement 
ceased.  It  was  the  aim  of  Thomasius,  as  far  as  possible, 
to  secularize  education,  and  to  introduce  among  his  country- 
men French  habits  and  French  modes  of  thought ;  his  own 
attire  was  gay  and  fashionable,  and  lie  was  in  the  habit 
of  taking  his  seat  in  the  professorial  chair  adorned  with 
gold  chain  and  rings,  and  with  liis  dagger  by  his  side. 
Francke,  who  became  the  leader  of  the  Pietists,  regarded 
all  this  with  even  greater  aversion  than  he  did  the  lifeless 
orthodoxy  traditional  in  the  universities,  and  was  shocked 
at  the  worldly  tone  and  disregard  for  sacred  things  which 
characterized  his  brother  professor.  Both,  howfever,  com- 
manded a  considerable  following  among  the  students. 
Thomasius  was  professor  in  the  faculty  of  jurisprudence, 
Francke  in  that  of  theology.  And  it  was  a  common  pre- 
diction in  those  days  with  respect  to  a  student  who  pro- 
posed to  pursue  his  academic  career  at  Halle,  that  he  would 
infallibly  become  either  an  atheist  or  a  Pietist.  But  the 
services  rendered  by  Thomasius  to  learning  were  genuine 
anu  lasting.     He  was  the  first  to  set  the  example,  soon 


after  followed  by  all  the  universities  of  Germany,  of  lectur- 
ing in  the  vernacular  instead  of  in  the  customary  Latin;  and 
the  discourse  in  which  he  first  departed  from  the  traditional 
method  was  devoted  to  the  consideratio  of  how  far  the 
German  nation  might  with  advantage  imitate  the  French 
in  matters  of  social  life  and  intercourse.  His  more  general 
views,  as  a  disciple  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy  and  founder 
of  the  modern  Ralionalismus,  exposed  him  to  incessant 
attacks  ;  but  by  the  establishment  of  a  monthly  journal  (at 
that  time  an  original  idea)  he  obtained  a  cliannel  for  ex- 
pounding his  views  and  refuting  his  antagonists  whi:h 
gave  him  a  great  advantage.  On  the  influence  of  Francke, 
as  the  founder  of  that  Pietistic  school  with  which  the  re- 
putation of  Halle  afterwards  became  especially  identified, 
it  is  unnecessary  here  to  dilate.*  J.  C.  Wolf,  who  followed 
Thomasius  as  an  assertor  of  the  new  culture,  was  driven 
from  Halle  by  the  accusations  of  the  Pietists,  who  declared 
that  his  teaching  was  fraught  with  atheistical  principles. 
In  1740,  however,  he  was  recalled  by  Frederick  II.,  and 
reinstated  in  high  office  with  every  mark  of  consideration 
and  respect.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the  18th  century 
Halle  was  the  leader  of  academic  thought  and  culture  In 
Protestant  Germany,  although  sharing  that  leadership, 
after  the  middle  of  the  century,  with  Guttingen.  The  nni-  Gotiio- 
versity  of  Gbttingen  (named  after  its  founder  "  Georgia  ?«a- 
Augusta  ")  was  e,ndowed  with  the  amplest  privileges  as  a 
university  by  George  II.  of  England,  elector  of  Hanover, 
7th  December  1736.  The  imperial  sanction  of  the  scheme 
had  been  given  three  years  before  (I3th  January  1733), 
and  the_  university  was  formally  opened  17th  September 
1737.  The  king  himself  assumed  the  office  of  "  rector  magni- 
ficentissimus,"  and  the  liberality  of  the  royal  endowments 
(doubling  those  of  Halle),  and  the  not  less  liberal  character 
of  the  spirit  that  pervaded  its  organization,  soon  raised  it 
to  a  foremost  place  among  the  schools  of  Germany.  Halle' 
had  just  expelled  Wolf;  and  Gbttingen,  modelled  on  the' 
same  lines  as  Halle,  but  rejecting  its  Pietism  and  dis- 
claiming its  intolerance,  appealed  with  remarkable  success 
to  the  most  enlightened  feeling  of  the  time.  It  included 
all  the  faculties,  and  two  of  its  first  professors — Mosheim, 
the  eminent  theologian,  from  Helmstadt,  and  Bijhmer,  the 
no  less  distinguished  jurist,  from  Halle — together  with 
Gesner,  the  man  of  letters,  at  once  established  its  repu- 
tation. Much  of  its  early  success  was  also  due  to  the 
supervision  of  its  chief  curator  (there  were  two), — Baron 
Miinchausen,  himself  a  man  of  considerable  attainments, 
who  by  his  sagacious  superintendence  did  much  to  pro- 
mote the  general  efficiency  of  the  whole  professoriate.  Not 
least  among  its  attractions  was  also  Its  splendid  library, 
located  in  an  ancient  monastery,  and  now  containing  over 
200,000  volumes  and  5000  MSS.  In  addition  to  Its 
general  influence  "as  a  distinguished  seat  of  learning, 
Giittingen  may  claim  to  have  been  mainly  instrumental  In 
diffusing  a  more  adequate  conception  of  the  importance  of 
the  study  of  history.  Before  the  latter  half  of  the  18th 
century  the  mode  of  treatment  adopted  by  university 
lecturers  was  singularly  wanting  in  breadth  of  view.  Pro- 
fane history  was  held  of  but  little  account,  excepting  so  far 
as  it  served  to  illustrate  ecclesiastical  and  sacred  history, 
while  this,  again,  was  invariably  treated  In  the  narrow 
spirit  of  the  polemic,  intent  mainly  on  the  defence  of  his 
own  confession,  according  as  he  represented  the  Lutheran 
or  the  Reformed  Church.  The  labours  of  the  professors 
at  Gbttingen,  especially  Putter,  Gatterer,  Schlozer,  and 
Splttler,  combined  with  those  of  Mascov  at  Leipsic,  did 
much  towards  promoting  both  a  more  catholic  treatment 
and  a  wider  scope.  Not  less  beneficial  was  the  example 
set  at  Gbttingen  of  securing  the  appointment  of  its  profes- 
sors by  a  less  prejudiced  and  partial  body  than  a  university 
'       '  See  Paulsen,  Ocsch.  des  gckhrten  Untcrrichls,  &c. ,  pp.  S4S-35S. 


84; 


UNIVERSITIES 


Tie 

Euglish 
and  Ger. 
man  uni- 
versities 
com- 
pared. 


board  IS  only  too  likely  to  become  "'The  great  Mun- 
chausen, says  an  illustrious  professor  of  that  seminary, 
'  allowed  our  university  the  right  of  presentation,  of  desig- 
nation, or  of  recommendation,  as  little  as  the  right  of  free 
election ;  for  he  was  taught  by  experience  that,  although 
the  faculties  of  universities  may  know  the  individua's  best 
.[ualified  to  supply  their  vacant  chairs,  tliey  are  seldom 
or  never  disposed  to  jyropose  for  appointment  the  worthiest 
within  thei  ■  knmvled(/e  ' " '  The  system  oi  patronage  adopted 
at  Gottinj;en  was,  in  fact,  identical  with  that  which  had 
already  been  instituted  m  the  universities  of  the  Nether- 
Erlaiigen.  lands  by  Douza  (see  infra,  p.  850)  The  university  of 
Erlangen,  a  Lutheran  centre,  was  lounded  by  Frederick, 
margrave  of  Baireuth  Its  charter  was  granted  by  the 
emperor  Charles  VII  ,  Slst  February  1743,  and  the  uni- 
versity was  formally  constituted.  4lb  November.  From 
its  special  guardian,  Alexander  the  last  margrave  of  Ans- 
bacb,  it  was  stylid  "  Academia  Ale.xandrina."  In  1791, 
Ansbach  and  Baireuth  having  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Prussia,  Erlangen  became  subject  to  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment Th«  number  of  the  students,  which  at  the  com- 
mencement oi  the  century  was  under  300,  was  880  in  1SS7. 
On  comparison  with  the  great  English  universities,  the 
uniuersities  of  Germany  must  be  pronounced  inferior  both 
in  point  of  discipline  and  of  moral  control  over  the 
students.  The  superiority  of  the  former  in  these  respects 
IS  partly  to  be  attributed  to  the  more  systematic  care  which 
they  took,  from  a  very  early  date,  for  the  supervision  of 
each  student,  by  requiring  that  within  a  certain  specified 
time  after  his  entry  into  the  university  he  should  be  regis- 
tered as  a  pupil  of  some  master  of  arts,  who  was  respon- 
sible for  his  conduct,  and  represented  bim  generally  in  his 
relations  to  the  academic  authorities  Marburg  in  its 
earliest  statutes  (those  of  1529)  endeavoured  to  establish 
a  similar  rule,  but  without  success '  The  development  of 
the  collegiate  system  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  materially 
assisted  the  carrying  out  of  this  disciphne.  Although 
sgain,  as  in  the  German  universities,  feuds  were  not  unfre- 
c,ucnt,  especially  those  between  "north"  and  "south" 
(the  natives  of  the  northern  and  southern  counties),  the 
fact  that  in  elections  to  fellowships  and  scholarships  only 
a  certain  proportion  were  allowed  to  be  taken  from  either 
cf  these  divisions  acted  as  a  considerable  check  upon  the 
possibility  of  any  one  college  representing  cither  element 
exclusively.  In  the  German  universities,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  ancient  division  into  nations,  which  died  out 
with  the  15th  century,  was  revived  under  another  form  by 
the  institution  of  national  colleges,  which  largely  served  to 
foster  the  spirit  of  rivalry  and  contention.  The  demoral- 
ization induced  by  the  Thirty  Years  War  and  the  increase 
of  duelling-  intensified  these  tendencies,  which,  together 
with  the  tyranny  of  the  older  over  the  younger  students, 
knf^wn  as  "  Fennalismus,"  were  evils  against  which  the 
authorities  contended,  but  ineffectually,  by  various  ordin- 
:inces.  The  institution  of  "  Burschenthum,"  having  for  its 
design  the  encouragement  of  good  fellowship  and  social  feel- 
ing irrespective  of  nationality,  served  only  as  a  partial  check 
upon  these  excesses,  which  again  received  fresh  stimulus  by 
the  rival  institution  of  "  Landsmannschaften,"  or  societies 
of  the  same  nationality.  The  latter  proved  singularly  pro- 
JQcative  of  duelling,  while  the  arrogant  and  even  tyranni- 

*  Hamilton,  Disatssions,  p.  381. 

*  "  Volunnis  neraineni  in  lianc  nostram  Acadcnii.am  admitti,  ant  per 
rcctorem  in  album  recipi,  (jni  iiou  habcat  privatum  atque  donicsticnix 
pneccptorem,  qui  ejus  discipuluni  agnoseat,  ad  cujus  judicium  quisqne 
pro  sua  iiigenii  capacitate  atque  Martc  lectnios  et  publicas  ct  pvivatas 
nudiat,  a  ci'.jus  latere  aut  raro  aut  iiunquam  discedat."  Koch  expressly 
compares  tl>is  i>rovision  with  the  discipline  of  O.xford  and  Cambridge, 
which,  down  to  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  w.as  very 
much  ef  the  same  character  (Koch.  Ilcsch.  clcs  ncadcmixltcn  Pddugo- 
giums  in  Marhurj,  p.  11). 


cal  demeanour  of  their  members  towards  the  unassociated 
students  gave  rise  to  a  general  combination  of  the  latter  for 
the  purposes  of  self-defence  and  organized  resistance.  At 
all  the  great  German  universities  both  these  forms  of  isso- 
ciation  are  to  be  found  existing  at  the  present  day. 

The  political  storms  which  marked  the  close  of  the  last 
and  the  commencement  of  the  present  century  gave  the 
death-blow  to  not  a  few  of  the  ancient  universities  of  Ger- 
many. Mainz  and  Cologne  ceased  to  exist  in  17*98; 
Bamberg,  DiUingen,  and  Duisberg  in  1804  ;  Rintcln  and 
Helmstadt  in  1809  ;  Salzburg  in  1810;  Erfurt  in  1816. 
Altdorf  was  united-  to  Erlangen  in  1807,  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder  to  Breslau  in  1809,  and  Wittenberg  to  Halle  in 
1815.  The  university  of  Ingolstadt  was  first  moved  in 
1802  to  Landshut,  and  from  thence  in  1820  to  Munich, 
where  it  was  united  to  the  academy  of  sciences  which  was 
founded  in  the  Bavarian  capital  in  1759.  Of  those  of  the 
above  centres  which  altogether  ceased  to  exist  but  few, 
however,  were  much  missed  or  regretted, — that  at  Main?, 
which  had  numbered  some  six  hundred  students,  being  the 
one  notable  exception.  The  others  had  for  the  most  part 
fallen  into  a  perfunctory  and  lifeless  mode  of  teaching,  and, 
with  wasted  or  diminished  revenues  and  declining  numbei's, 
had  long  ceased  worthily  to,  represent  the  functions  of  a 
university.  Whatever  loss  may  have  attended -their  sup- 
pression has  been  far  more  than  compensated  by  the 
activity  and  influence  of  the  three  great  German  univer- 
sities which  have  risen  in  the  present  century.  Munich 
has  become  a  distinguished  centre  of  study  in  all  the 
faculties;  and  its  numbers,  allowing  for  the  two  great  wars, 
have  been  continuously  on  the  increase.  The  number  of  its 
professors  in  1887  was  over  ninety,  and  that  of  its  students 
at  the  commencement  of  the  session  lSSG-87  3209. 

The  university  of  Berlin,  known  as  the  Royal  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  university,  was  founded  in  1809,  immediately 
after  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  when  Prussia  had  been  reduced 
to  the  level  of  a  third-rate  power.  Under  the  guiding 
influence  of  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  however,  the  prin- 
ciples which  were  adopted  in  connexion  with  the  new  seat 
of  learning  not  only  raised  it  to  a  foremost  place  among 
the  universities  of  Europe,  but  also  largely  conduced  to  the 
regeneration  of  Germany.  A  notable  characteristic  in  the 
university  of  Berlin  at  the  time  of  its  foundation  was  its 
entire  repudiation  of  attachment  to  any  particular -creed  or 
school  of  thought,  and  professed  subservience  only  to  the 
interests  of  science  and  learning.  "Eachoi  the  eminent 
teachers  with  whom  the  university  began  its  life — F.  A. 
Wolf,  Fichte,  Savigny,  Reil — represented  only  himself,  the 
path  of  inquiry  or  the  completed  theory  which  he  had 
himself  propounded.  Its  subsequent  growth  was  astonish- 
ing. In  1813  Berlin  had  only  36  teachers  altogether  ;  in 
1860  there  were  173  in  all, — 97  professors,  66  privatdo- 
centen,  and  7  lecturers."  In  1866  there  were  296  teachers 
and  5357  students  ;  and  among  the  former  a  large  pro'- 
portion  of  the  names  are  already  of  world-wide  reputation, 
while  its  classical  school  stands  unrivalled  in  Europe. 

The  university  of  Bonn,  founded  in  1818,  and  known 
as  the  Rhenish  Friedrich  Wilhelm  university,  has  88  pro- 
fessors and  1125  students.  Equally  distinguished  as  a 
school  of  philosophy  and  a  school  of  theology,  it  is  notable 
for  the  manner  in  which  it  combines  the  opposed  schools 
of  theological  doctrine, — that  of  the  Evangelical  (or  Luth- 
eran) Church  and  that  of  the*  Roman  Catholic  Church 
here  standing  side  by  side,  and  both  adorned  by  eminent 
names.  This  combination  (which  also  exists  at  Tubingen 
and  at  Breslau)  has  been  attended  with  complete  success 
and  (according  to  Dr  Dollinger)  with  unmistakable  advant- 
ages. When  tried,  however,  a  generation  before,  at  Erfurt 
and  at  Heidclbefg,  if.-  failure  was  not  less  conspicuous, 
and  Erfurt  was  ruined  by  the  experiment. 


Extinc- 
tion cf 
Germai* 
univer- 
sities 
during 
1798- 
1815. 


Manicb. 


Berhn. 


Bomi. 


r  X  I  Y  E  R  S  I  T  I  E  S 


849 


llntisJi 


Dr  Conrad,  professor  of  political  science  at  Halle,  has 
recently  made  the  statistics  relating  to  the  German  uni- 
versities the  subject  of  a  careful  investigation  and  analysis, 
which  offer  some  interesting  results.  The  total  cost  of  the 
universities  of  the  German  empire  is  shown  to  be  much 
smaller  than  the  total  revenues  of  the  English  universities 
and  colleges,  although  the  number  both  of  professors  and 
students  is  much  larger,  and  although  42  per  cent  of  the 
total  expenditure  is  upon  establishments,  such  as  hospitals, 
museums,  and  so  forth.  But  in  Germany, 72  per  cent,  of 
the  cost  of  the  universities  is  defrayed  by  the  state,  the 
students  paying,  in  the  shape  of  fees,  only  9'3  per  cent. 
To  a  great  extent,  however,  the  German  universities  are 
•o  be  looked  upon  as  professional  schools,  giving  an 
education  which  directly  fits  a  man  to  earn  bis  bread  as  a 
clergyman,  a  lawyer,  a  judge,  a  physician,  a  schoolmaster, 
a  chemist,  an  engineer,  or  an  agriculturist.  Notwith- 
standing the  rapid  growth  in  the  numbers  of  the  students, 
the  growth  of  the  professoriate  has  fully  kept  pace  with 
it.  la  1890  there  were  1809  teachers  at  work  in  the 
German  universities,  more  than  half  of  whom  (967)  were 
full  professors  ("ordinarii"), — the  proportion  of  teachers  to 
students  being  1  to  11.  This  is  a  much  higher  propor- 
tion than  that  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  although  in  them 
there  is  a  large  staff  of  college  lecturers,  which  is  practic- 
ally more  important  than  the  university  staffl  It  is  higher 
again  than  the  proportion  of  the  Scottish  universities,  where 
mere  are  only  some  10-5  professors  to  betw.een  5000  and 
6000  students,  a  proportion  of  !  to  between  50  and  60 
students.  The  increase  in  Germany  has  taken  place  partly 
by  adding  on  fresh  teachers  for  the  old  subjects,  such 
as  Latin  and  Greek,  but  still  more  by  founding  new  chairs 
for  new  subjects,  such  as  Oriental  and  Romance  languages, 
geography,  and  arch.^ology,  and  by  subdividing  departments 
which  have  been  recently  developed,  such  as  those  con- 
nected with  political  economy,  political  science,  physiology, 
«nd  biology.  Owing  to  the  great  development  of  natural 
science,  the  faculty  of  philosophy  has  at  some  centres  in- 
creasfel  to  such  an  extent  as  to  equal  in  numbers  all  the 
other  facalties  put  together.     This  inconvenience  has  been 


differently   met   at   different   universities.      In    those   oi 
Switzerland,  no  further  remedy  has  been  devised  than  thai 
of  appointing  separate  syndicates  or  boards  of  management 
!  for  the  two  main  divisions, — the  philosophico-hlstoric  and 
j  the  mathematical  and  natural-scientific  ;  at  Dorpat,  Tiibin- 
I  gen,   and  Strasburg,  on  the  other  hand,  these  divisions 
have  been  represented  by  the  formation  of  two  distmc' 
faculties;  while  Tiibingen,  Munich,  and  Wurzburg  hav. 
created,   in   addition,   a  third   faculty  under  which   ar6 
grouped  the  several  subjects  of  political  economy,  statis- 
tics, and  finance. 

The  following  table  (taken  from  Conrad)  exhibits  the  average  of  Averages 
the  total  number  of  matriculated  students  at  the  German  universi-  of 
ties  for  every  five  years  f;-om  1831  to  1884;  it  brings  the  tendency  to  students 
form  large  centres  very  forcibly  before  the  view.     The  three  largest  at  Ger- 
centres — Berlin,  Leipsic,  ilunich — even  in  the  6rst  quinquennium  man  aai- 
appear  as  absorbing  no  less  than  35  per  cent,  of  the  students,  and  versities.. 
iu  the  last  as  many  as  42  per  cent.     At  the  same  time,  there  has 
lately  been  a  no  less  notable  increase  among  the  centres  of  seconA 
magnitude.     A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  only  t\T0  universities  had 
more  than  a  thousand  students  ;  at  present  there  are  nine. 


i 

i 

^ 

5 

« 

i 

X 

1948 
1037 
968 
503 
606 
776 
4C9 
1007 
401 
175 
1142 
Sl-O 
404 
EC2 
651 
2S9 
2686 
423 
318 
141 
487 

t 

) 

■ 

1 

Berlin. 

Breslao..^.... 
Halle 

1S20 
902 

eio 

203 

i6i 

W.5 
331 
275 
15.>6 
44S 
273 
SM 

eei 

Il« 

soe 

3SS 

95 

1762 
681 
655 
)9S 
391 
C47 
213 
774 
273 
244 

1392 
440 
297 
745 
570 
433 

1002 

433 

367 

95 

1715 
707 

21S 
347 
632 
238 
670 
263 
2US 
1329 
4r2 
316 
S89 

215 
917 
421 
4S4 

SS 

1461 
766 
671 
190 
323 
SU6 
2S4 
076 
265 
151 

1695 
5S2 
390 
832 
661 
291 
970 
402 
476 
S7 

1599 
822 
639 
214 

so? 

34S 
6S4 
215 
141 
1700 
74:l 
475 
764 
6*4 
331 
M3 
396 
363 
9S 

1593 
S31 
710 
273 
390 
813 
473 
6S7 
254 
149 
1292 
e4S 
523 
697 
5S4 
313 
854 
4>7 
356 
121 

1972 
957 
76S 
345 
445 
696 
524 
721 
264 
194 

1245 
C25 
474 
777 
742 
303 
991 
4S2 
378 
Itt 

2213 
927 
833 
4>0 
419 
866 
453 
772 
332 
172 

1215 
613 
369 
755 
632 
277 

1433 
384 
294 
152 

SICri  ;  4S67 
127» 11479 
1017 '1544 

Greifswald  ... 
Konigsberg.. 

533 
723 
944 
269 

1002 
510 
262 

15S2 
930 
452 

1076 
643 
426 

3lM4 
491 

i:A> 

}i5 

725 
909 

1037 
280 

10C4 
720 
352 

2468 

1167 
730 

1217 
732 
615 

3433 
566 
497 
232 
844 

Munster 

GotliRgen.... 

Marburg^ 

Kiel 

Munich. 

Wurzburg... . 

ErUngea 

Tubingen 

Heidetberg... 

Freiborg 

Leipsic 

Giessen —  .. 
Rostock 

Snasburg.-.i 

Ordiaary    ^rfl-I^.    Honorarv 


B-riin 

B.'nn 

Bre-MSu- ,.  .. 

ErlangBD - 

Freiboirg _ 

Gie^'ven 

Gottingen 

Greifswald....- 

Hdlle. 

Heidelberg. „ 

Jena ^. ...... 

Kiel „. 

Konlgsberg...* 

Leip«ic. ...... ..»...•...».».. 

Marburg 

Manich 

lluns*er_... 

Ko^tock _,_....^. „..,.. 

Srrasbarg, «.„.  „„.., 

Tiibineen. _  .  ._-     ,.., 

Wiirzbare.. , 

9wiTZEBijun^~ 

ItaseU « 

■Bern      

Genera.  .  ,   ..  .«...„.  ... 

Lausanne. .  ..„....»...._... 

Xetirhaiel...  ...   

Zurich.   -   .   ..„ 

RcflstA  (Baltic  ProTinces)— 

Dorr«i_  .,  ._   

AC^TKIA  ASn  HUKCACr  — 

Czcmowiu.  .   . 

Gr»7.    ^„, 

lnn<iiniek    ^   . 

CT-i«n»r  ...  , 

PrjL"i\,'<OcnnAn  cnivemty) 

Vkim.^  


•23—32 


Professoes,  4c. 


The  foUowi.ig  table,  taken  from  Aschenon's  Dcutscher  Unfcrr-  Table 
silats-KalcndcT,  1 SS7,  supplies  the  most  recent  statistics  respecting  of  pro- 
both  the  teaching  and  the  student  bodies  in  the  different  faculties  fessors 
of  the  German-speaking  universities  on  the  Continent.  and 

itiidenta. 


7S 
57 
57 


S5 
41 

to 

43 
35 
41 
44 
67 
44 
75 
22 
V9 
S» 
53 
38 


41 
41 

24 

3? 


26 
41 


31 
33 


27 
23 
30 
28. 
24 
II 
24 
38 
IS 
15 
10 
3 
20 
16 
10 

13 
6 

•a 

3 
li 


n 
i< 

20 


Privat- 

docemen. 

Assistant 

Teachers. 

ic. 


Teachera 

cf 

Lanptiages. 

ic 


124 

27 
31 

9 
24 

9 
21 
13 
18 
20 
15 
20 
19 
58 
17 
65 

4 

4 
19 
17 
19 

29 
36 
•2^> 
2 


43 
19 
31 

33 


5 
II 
9 
5 


1 

3 
12 


296 
1>2 
131 
61 
80 
59 
121 
82 
110 
106 
87 
78 
94 
180 
82 
165 
40 
39 
102 


STVDE^■T3. 


geJiSi    C^hoUc. 


794 
122 
166 
3S6 

94 
239 
306 
593 

72 
126 

45 
235 
672 
189 


87 
89 
344 


94 
44 
? 
7 


Jnris- 
prudence. 

Political 
Economy. 
Forestry. 


Medicine. 
Surcer)-. 
Phaitnacy. 


146 
313 


160 
179 


221 
7 


.201 


1282 
226 
221 
118 
147 
125 
145 

54 
115 
193 

80 

22 
112 
-38 

74 
1136 

35 
195 


43 
164 

9 
? 
? 

56 

264 

123 
489 
S52 

? 

7 
1911 


1297 
292 
362 
267 
423 
133 
233 
441 
314 
202 
210 
234 
237 
781 
271 

1340 

100 
333 
2-35 
934 

131 
227 


MS 
231 


Philosophy, 

PhiloloR-. 

Malheina- 

dcs,  &c 


1934 
395 
433 
109 
305 
1-27 
424 
121 
499 
305 
191 
1C9 
231 
1040 
36G 
444 
163 
105 
331 
140 
179 

84 
96 

7 

T 

} 

143 


3U 
70 
64 
f 

» 
4S0 


Total  of 

Matriculated 
Students. 


41j7 
H21 
1347 
880 
996 
484 
1041 
923 
15-27 
772 
607 
480 
814 
3231 
891 
3176 
475 
327 
S4S 
1247 
ISU 

354 
439 


213 
1193 
7S9 


XXIII 


107 


850 


(JNIVERSITIES 


c'lujlua- 

ilOQS  of 

— :aibera. 


^:-  '.ies  of 
roiled 

v:nce3. 


Loyden. 


Franeker 


In  1878  a  comparison  of  the  numbers  of  the  students  in 
the  different  faculties  in  the  Prussian  universities  with 
those  for  the  year  1867  showed  a  remarkable  diminution 
in  the  faculty  of  theology,  amounting  in  Lutheran  centres 
to  more  than  one-half,  and  in  Catholic  centres  to  nearly 
three-fourths.  In  jurisprudence  there  was  an  increase  of 
nearly  two-fifths,  in  medicine  a  decline  of  a  third,  and  in 
philosophy  an  increase  of  one-fourth.  During  the  last  few 
years,  however,  the  faculties  of  theology  have  made  some 
progress  towards  regaining  their  former  numbers. 

The  universities  of  the  United  Provinces,  like  those  of 
Protestant  Germany,  were  founded  by  the  state  as  schools 
fpr  the  maintenance  of  the  principles  of  the  Reformation 
and  the  education  of  the  clergy,  and  afforded  in  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries  a  grateful  refuge  to  not  a  few  of  those 
Huguenot  or  Port-Royalist  scholars  whom  persecution 
compelled  to  flee  beyond  the  boundaries  of  France,  as  well 
as  to  the  Puritan  clergy  who  were  driven  from  England. 
The  earliest,  that  of  Leyden,  founded  in  1575,  commemo- 
rated the  gallant  and  successful  resistance  of  the  citizens 
to  the  Spanish  fleet  under  Requesens.  Throughout  the 
17th  century  Leyden  was  distinguished  by  its  learning, 
the  ability  of  its  professors,  and  the  shelter  it  afforded  to 
the  more  liberal  thought  associated  at  that  period  with 
Arminianism.  Much  of  its  early  success  was  owing  to  the 
■wise  provisions  and  the  influence  of  the  celebrated  James 
Douza  : — "  Douza'sprinciples,"  says  Hamilton,  "  were  those 
which  ought  to  regulate  the  practice  of  all  academical 
patrons;  and  they  were  those  of  his  successors.  He  knew 
that  at  the  rate  learning  was  seen  prized  by  the  state  in 
the  academy  would  it  be  valued  by  the  nation  at  large. 
.  .  .  .  He  knew  that  professors  wrought  more  even  by 
example  and  influence  than  by  teaching,  that  it  was 
theirs  to  pitch  high  or  low  the  standard  of  learning  in  a 
country,  and  that,  as  it  proved  easy  or  arduous  to  come 
up  with  them,  they  awoke  either  a  restless  endeavour  after 
an  even  loftier  attainment,  or  lulled  into  a  self-satis6ed 
conceit."  Douza  was,  for  Leyden  and  the  Dutch,  what 
Munchausen  afterwards  was  for  Gottingen  and  the  German 
universities.  "  But  with  this  difference  :  Leyden  was  the 
model  on  which  the  younger  universities  of  the  republic 
were  constructed  ;  Gottingen  the  model  on  which  the  older 
universities  of  the  empire  were  reformed.  Both  Mun- 
chausen and  Douza  proposed  a  high  ideal  for  the  schools 
founded  under  their  auspices  ;  and  both,  as  first  curators, 
laboured  with  paramount  influence  in  realizing  this  ideal 
for  the  same  long  period  of  thirty-two  years.  Under  their 
patronage  Leyden  and  Gottingen  took  the  highest  place 
among  the  universities  of  Europe  ;  and  both  have  only  lost 
their  relative  supremacy  by  the  application  in  other  semin- 
aries of  the  same  measures  which  had  at  first  determined 
tbeir  superiority."  The  appointment  of  the  professors  at 
Leyden  was  vested  in  three  (afterwards  five)  curators,  one 
of  whom  was  selected  from  the  body  of  the  nobles,  whilo 
the  other  two  were  appointed  by  the  states  of  the  pro- 
vince,— the  ofiice  being  held  for  nine  years,  and  eventually 
for  life.  With  these  was  associated  the  mayor  of  Leyden 
for  the  time  being.  The  university  of  Franeker  was 
founded  in  1585  on  a  somewhat  less  liberal  basis  than 
Leyden,  the  professors  being  required  to  declare  their 
assent  to  the  rule  of  faith  embodied  in  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism  and  the  confession  of  the  "Belgian  Church" 
Its  four  faculties  were  those  of  theology,  jurisprudence, 
medicine,  and  "the  three  languages  and  the  liberal  arts."' 
For  a  period  of  twelve  years  (circ.  1610-1622)  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  university  was  enhanced  by  the  able  teaching 
of  William  Ames  ("Amesius"),  a  Puritan  divine  and 
Diorali.st  who  had  been  driven  by  Bancroft  from  Cambridge 
and  from  fngland.  His  fame  and  ability  are  said  to  have 
'  Slatuta  ct  Leges,  Fiaoeker,  1647,  p.  3 


attracted  to  Franeker  students  from  Hungary,  Poland,  ana 

Russia. 

With  like  organization  were  founded — in  1600  the  uni- 
versity of  Harderwijk,  in  1614  that  of  Groningen,  and 
in  1634  that  of  Utrecht.  The  restoration  of  the  House 
of  Orange,  and  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands  (23d  March  1815),  was  followed  by  important 
changes  in  connexion  with  the  whole  kingdom.  The  uni- 
versities of  Franeker  and  Harderwijk  were  suppressed, 
while  their  place  was  taken  by  the  newly-founded  centres 
at  Ghent  (1816)  and  Li^ge  (1816)  A  uniform  constitu- 
tion was  given  both  to  the  Dutch  and  Belgian  universities. 
It  was  also  provided  that  there  should  be  attached  to  each 
a  board  of  curators,  consisting  of  five  persons,  "  distin- 
guished by  their  love  of  literature  and  science  and  by 
their  rank  in  society."  These  curators  were  to  be  nomin- 
ated by  the  king,  and  at  least  three  of  them  chosen  frort 
the  province  in  which  the  university  was  situated,  whil- 
the  other  two  were  to  be  chosen  from  adjacent  provinces. 
After  the  redivision  of  the  kingdom  in  1831,  Ghent  an* 
Liege  were  constituted  state  universities,  and  each  received 
a  subsidy  from  the  Government  (see  Belgium).  The  uni- 
versity of  Brussels,  on  the  other  hand,  founded  in  1834,  is 
an  independent  institution,  supported  by  the  liberal  party; 
while  the  reconstituted  university  at  Louvain  represents 
the  party  of  Roman  Catholicism,  and  is  almost  exclusively  a 
theological  school  for  the  education  of  the  Catholic  clergy. 
The  universities  of  Belgium  are,  however,  somewhat  hetero- 
geneous bodies,  and  present  in  their  organization  a  singu- 
lar combination  of  French  and  German  institutions.  In 
Holland,  the  foundation  of  the  university  of  Amsterdam 
(1877)  has  more  than  repaired  the  loss  of  Franeker  and 
Harderwijk,  and  the  progress  of  this  new  centre  during 
the  ten  years  of  its  existence  has  been  remarkably  rapid, 
so  that  it  bids  fair  to  rival,  if  not  to  outstrip,  both  Utrechl 
and  Leyden.  The  higher  education  of  women  has  made 
some  progress  in  the  Netherlands,  and  in  1882-83  there 
were  eighteen  women  studying  at  Amsterdam,  eleven  at 
Groningen,  four  at  Leyden,  and  seven  at  Utrecht. 

In  Sweden  the  university  cf  Lund,  founded  in  1668  and 
modelled  on  the  same  plan  as  its  predecessor  at  Upsala, 
has  adhered  to  its  antiquated  constitution  with  remarkable 
tenacity.  At  both  these  universities  the  mediaeval  division 
into  "nations"  is  still  in  force  among  the  students,  the 
number  at  Upsala  being  no  less  than  thirteen.  The  pro- 
fessoriate at  both  centres  is  much  below  the  modern 
requirements  in  point  of  numbers  The  university  cf 
Christiania  in  Norway,  founded  in  1811,  and  the  Swedish 
universities  are  strongly  Lutheran  in  character  ;  and  all 
alike  are  closely  associated  with  the  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions of  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms.  The  same  observa- 
tion applies  to  Copenhagen, — where,  however,  the  labours 
of  Rask  and  Madvig  have  done  much  to  sustain  the  repu- 
tation of  the  university  for  learning.  The  university  of 
Kiel  (1665),  on  the  other  hand,  has  come  much  more  under 
Teutonic  influences,  and  is  now  a  distinguished  centre  of 
scientific  teaching. 

In  France  the  fortunes  of  academic  learning  were  even 
less  happy  than  in  Germany.  The  university  of  Paris  was 
distracted,  throughout  the  17th  century,  by  theological 
dissensions, — in  the  first  instance  owing  to  the  struggle 
that  ensued  after  the  Jesuits  had  effected  a  footing  at  the 
College  de  Clermont,  and  subsequently  by  the  strife 
occasioned  by  the  teaching  of  the  Jansenists.  Its  studies, 
discipline,  and  numbers  alike  suffered.  Towards  the  cloce 
of  the  century  a  certain  revival  took  place,  and  a  succe»- 
sion  of  illustrious  names— Pourchot,  RoUin,  Grenan, 
Coffin,  Demontenipuys,  Crevier.  Lebeau— appear  on  the 
roll  of  its  teachers.  But  this  improvement  was  soon  inter- 
rupted by  the  controversios  eacited  by  the  promulgation 


Hart'T 
wijk 

Groma-  '\ 
gen. 
UUecbk 


Ghent. 


Brussels, 


Araater* 
dum. 


Univer- 

sities  of 

Sweden 

and 

Norway. 

Lund. 

Upaolft. 

CHria. 
tiiioia. 


Kiel 


Univer- 
sity of 
Paris 

17i;-. 
cepfjTf. 


UNIVERSITIES 


851 


Univer- 
sitics 
sup- 
pressed 
through- 
out 
FraDce. 


Cniver- 
eity  of 
France 
created. 

Creation 
jf  new 
centres. 


*.-reat 

j'rericb 

.^ools. 


Ji-.l'e  and 

Slras- 
barg. 


I  niver- 

i.lies  of 

Switzer- 

l.ind. 

Basel. 

Brn. 

Zurich. 

Geneva. 


of  tue  bull  Unigenitus  in  1713,  condemning  the  tenets  of 
Quesnel,  when  KoUin  himself,  although  a  man  of  singu- 
laily  pacific  disposition,  deemed  it  his  duty  to  head  the 
opposition  to  Clement  XL  and  the  French  episcopate.  At 
last,  in  1762,  the  parlement  of  Paris  issued  a  decree 
[August  6)  placing  the  colleges  of  the  Jesuits  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  university,  and  this  was  immediately  followed 
ky  another  for  the  expulsion  of  the  order  from  Paris. 
Concurrently  with  this  measure  the  prospects  of  the  uni- 
Fersity  assumed  a  more  favourable  character,  the  curri- 
:ulum  of  its  studies  was  extended,  and  both  history  and 
natural  science  began  to  be  cultivated  with  a  certain 
success.  These  better  prospects  were,  however,  soon  ob- 
scured by  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution ;  and  on  the 
1 5th  September  1793  the  universities  and  colleges 
throughout  France,  together  with  the  faculties  of  theology, 
medicine,  jurisprudence,  and  arts,  were  abolished  by  & 
decree  of  the  Convention.  The  College  de  France,  when 
restored  in  1S31,  was  reconstituted  mainly  as  a  gchool  of 
adult  instruction,  for  the  most  part  of  a  popular  character, 
and  entirely  dissociated  from  the  university.  It  now 
numbers  thirty-nine  chairs,  among  which  is  one  of  the 
Slavonic  languages  and  literature.  The  university  of 
France  (which  succeeded  to  that  of  Paris)  is  at  present 
little  more  than  an  abstract  term,  signifying  the  whole  of 
the  professional  body  under  state  control,  and  comprising 
various  faculties  at  different  centres — Paris,  Montpellier, 
Nancy,  <tc.,  together  with  twenty-seven  academical  rector- 
ates.  Each  of  these  rectors  presides  over  a  local  "  conseil 
d'enseignement,"  in  conjunction  with  which  he  elects  the 
professors  of  lycees  and  the  communal  schoolmasters, 
whose  formal  appointment  is  then  made  by  the  minister 
of  public  instruction.  There  are  ecclesiastics  in  some  of 
the  conseils  d'enseignement,  but  the  rectors  are  all  laymen 
who  have  graduated  in  one  of  the  faculties.  The  great 
schools  have  also  in  no  small  measure  supplemented  the 
work  of  the  universities  by  their  advance  in  the  direction 
of  scientific  instruction.  Among  the  number  the  "  ficole 
Pratique  des  Hautes  fitudes"  in  Paris  (31st  July  1868) 
and  the  "  ficole  Polytechnique,"  which  traces  its  origin  as 
far  back  as  the  year  1794,  are  especially  distinguished. 
The  course  of  instruction  at  the  former  is  divided  into  five 
sections — (1)  mathematics,  (2)  physics  and  chemistry,  (3) 
natural  history  and  physiology,  (4)  history  and  philology, 
(5)  economic  science.  At  the  latter  the  instruction  is 
conceived  solely  with  regard  to  the  application  of  scientific 
principles  to  all  branches  of  the  public  service,  but  more 
especially  the  military  and  mercantile.  In  1875  the 
NTational  Assembly  passed  an  Act  which  enabled  the  Roman 
Catholic  body  to  establish  free  universities  of  their  own, 
and  to  confer  degrees  which  should  be  of  the  same  validity 
as  those  of  the  state  university.  At  Lille  and  Angers  such 
centres  have  been  already  organized.  The  university  of 
Strasburg,  which  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  had 
been  distinguished  by  an  intellectual  activity  which  became 
associated  with  the  names  of  Goethe,  Herder,  and  others, 
was  also  swept  away  by  the  Revolution.  It  was,  however, 
restored  1st  May  1872,  after  the  city  had  reverted  to  Ger- 
many, and  was  remodelled  entirely  on  German  principles. 
Since  then  its  success  has  been  marked  and  continuous. 

In  Switzerland  all  the  higher  education  is  supported 
mainly  by  the  German  and  Protestant  cantons.  The  four 
universities  of  Basel,  Bern,  Zurich,  and  Geneva  have  an 
aggregate  of  some  1400  or  1500  students,  and  all  possess 
faculties  of  philosophy,  jurisprudence,  theology,  and  medi- 
cine. Basel  is,  however,  the  chief  centre  for  theology,  as 
is  Bern  for  jurisprudence  and  Zurich  for  philosophy.  At 
Geneva  the  famous  academy  of  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies, long  distinguished  as  a  centre  of  Calvinistic  teaching, 
is  now  represented  by  a  university  (first  formed  in  1876), 


where  the  instruction  is  given  (mainly  in  the  French  lan- 
guage) by  a  staff  of  forty-one  professors,  and  where  thera 
is  a  rising  school  of  science.  Switzerland  almost  takes  the 
lead  in  connexion  with  female  education  on  the  Continent, 
and  in  18S2-83  there  were  52  women  at  the  university  of 
Geneva,  36  at  Bern,  and  24  at  Zrrich. 

In  Spain  the  universities  at  present  existing  are  those  Univet- 
of  Barcelona,  Granada,  Madrid  (transferred  in  1837  from  |'''<:5  "f 
Alcala),  Oviedo,  Salamanca,  Santiago,  Seville,  Valencia,  l^rtu^ 
Valladolid,  and  Zaragoza.  They  are  all,  with  the  exception 
perhaps  of  Madrid,  in  a  lamentably  depressed  condition,  and 
mainly  under  the  influence  of  French  ideas  and  modelled 
on  French  examples.  But  in  Portugal,  Coimbra,  which 
narrowly  escaped  suppression  in  the  l6th  century  as  a  sus- 
pected centre  of  political  disaffection,  is  now  a  flourishing 
school.  Its  instruction  is  given  gratis ;  but,  as  all  members 
of  the  higher  courts  of  judicature  and  administration  in  the 
realm  are  required  to  have  graduated  at  the  university,  it 
is  Jt  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  aristocratic  schools  in 
Europe.  There  are  five  faculties,  viz.,  theologj',  jurispru- 
dence, medicine,  mathematics,  and  philosophy.  Of  these, 
that  of  law  is  by  far  the  most  flourishing,  the  number  of 
students  in  this  faculty  nearly  equalling  the  aggregate  of  all 
the  rest.  There  is  a  valuable  library,  largely  composed  of 
collections  formerly  belonging  to  suppressed  convents.  As  a 
school  of  theology  Coimbra  is  distinctly  anti-ultramontane, 
and  the  progressive  spirit  of  the  university  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  the  rector  has  been  instructed  by  the  govern- 
ment to  devise  a  scheme  for  the  admission  of  women. 

In  Italy  the  universities  are  numerically  much  in  excess  of  Italy, 
of  the  requirements  of  the  population,  there  being  no  less 
than  sixteen  state  universities  and  four  free  universities. 
Very  few  of  these  possess  theological  faculties,  and  in  no 
country  are  theological  studies  less  valued.  Education  for 
the  church  is  almost  entirely  given  at  the  numerous 
"seminaries,"  where  it  is  of  an  almost  entirely  elementary 
character.  In  1875  a  laudable  effort  was  made  by  Bonghi, 
the  mini)  ter  of  education,  to  introduce  reforms  and  t-s 
assimilate  the  universities  in  their  organization  and  methods 
to  the  German  type.  His  plans  were,  however,  to  a  grejt 
extent  reversed  by  his  successor,  Coppino. 

In  Austria  the  universities,  being  modelled  on  the  same.of 
system  as  that  of  Prussia,  present  no  especially  noteworthy  Austria- 
features.     Vienna  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  its  school  of  ,..'  "   '' 
medicine,  which  enjoyed  in  the  last  century  a  reputation 
almost  unrivalled  in  Europe.     The  other  faculties   were, 
however,  suffered  to  languish,  and  throughout  the  first  half 
of   the  present  century  the  whole  university  was  in   an 
extremely  depressed  state.     From  this  condition  it  was  in 
a  great  measure  restored  by  the  exertions  of  Count  Thun. 
The  number  of   the  matriculated  students  in   1887    was 
4893,  and  that  of  the  professors  138;  among  the  latter 
the  names   of   Zschokke,  Maassen,  Sickel,  Jellinek,    and 
Biidinger  are  some  of  the  most  widely  known.     The  uni-  Olmfitz. 
versity  of  Olmiitz,  founded  in  15S1,  was  formerly  in  pos- 
session of  what  is  now  the  imperial  library,  and  contained 
also  a  valuable  collection  of  Slavonic  works  which  were 
carried  off  by  the  Swedes  and  ultimately  dispersed.     It 
was  suppressed  in  1853,  and  is  now  represented  only  by  a 
theological  faculty.     The  university  of  Graz,  the  capital  of  Grai. 
Styria,  was  founded  in  1586,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  centres,  containing  some  1200  students.     The  Salibur-j; 
university  of  Salzburg,  founded  in  1623,  was  su~ppressed  ic 
1810  ;  that  of  Lemberg,  founded  in   1784  by  the  emperor  Lcmbers. 
Joseph  II.,  was  removed  in  1805  to  Cracow  and  united  to 
that   university.     In    1816  it    was   opened    on  an    inde- 
pendent basis.     In  the  bombardment  of  the  town  in  1848 
the  university  buildings  were  burnt  down,  and  the  site  was 
changed  to  what  was  formerly  a  Jesuit  convent     The  fine 
library  and  natural  history  museum  were  at  the  same  tiille 


852 


U  N  I  -V  E  E  S  I  T  I  E  S 


Cz«r- 

oowitz. 

Budapest. 


,  Jiu.ea- 


.\gram. 


t^reczin- 


Rassian 

imiver- 

sities. 

H^lsing. 

tors. 


Moscow. 


Kieff. 


Kazan. 


Khar- 
kolT. 

St  Peters- 
burg, 


Atheas. 


The 

English 

iiniver- 

sitn-3 
siiiLC  the 
mc'lia'vril 
IKrioil. 


almost  entirely  destroyed.  The  university  at  the  present 
time  numbers  over  a  thousand  students.  The  most  recent 
foundation  is  that  of  Czernowitz,  founded  in  1S75,  and 
numbering  about  300  students.  The  universities  of  the 
Hungarian  kingdom  are  three  in  number : — Budapest, 
originally  founded  at  Tyrnau  in  1635,  now  possessing  four 
faculties — theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  philo- 
sophy (number  of  professors  in  1885  180,  students  3117); 
Kolozsvar  (Klausenburg),  now  the  chief  Magyar  centre, 
founded  in  1872  and  also  comprising  four  faculties,  but 
where  mathematics  and  natural  science  supply  the  place 
of  theology  (number  of  professors  in  1877  64,  students 
391) ;  ZAgrib  (.\gram),  the  Slovack  university,  in  Croatia, 
founded  in  1869  but  not  opened  until  1874,  with  three 
faculties,  viz.,  jurisprudence,  theology,  and  philosophy. 
The  chief  centre  of  Protestant  education  is  the  college  at 
Debreczin,  founded  in  1531,  which  in  past  times  was  not 
unfrequently  subsidized  from  England.  It  now  numbers 
over  2000  students,  and  possesses  a  fine  library. 

Russia  possesses,  besides  Dorpat  (supra,  p.  845),  seven 
other  universities.  (1)  Helsingfors,  in  Finland,  was  origin- 
ally established  by  Queen  Christina  in  Abo  (1640),  and 
removed  in  1826  to  Helsingfors,  where  the  original  char- 
ter, signed  by  the  celebrated  O.xenstierna,  is  still  preserved. 
It  has  four  faculties,  38  professors,  and  700  students. 
(2)  Moscow  is  really  the  oldest  Russian  university,  having 
been  founded  in  1755;  it  includes  the  faculties  of  history, 
physics,  jurisprudence,  and  medicine;  the  professors  are 
69  in  number,  the  students  about  1660.  (3)  The  uni- 
n'ersity  of  St  Vladimir  at  Kieff,  originally  founded  at  Vilna 
in  1803,  was  removed  from  thence  to  Kieff  in  1833  ;  the 
students  number  about  900,  and  the  library  contains 
107,000  volumes.  (4)  Kazan  (1804)  includes  the  same 
faculties  as  Moscow ;  the  students  are  about  450  in  num- 
ber, and  it  has  a  library  containing  80,000  volumes.  (5) 
Kharkoff  (1804)  numbers  600  students,  and  its  library 
55,000  volumes.  (6)  St  Petersburg  (1819)  includes  the 
four  faculties  of  history,  physics,  jurisprudence,  and  Orien- 
tal languages,  and  numbers  1500  students.  (7)  Odessa, 
.founded  in  1865,  represents  the  university  of  New  Russia. 
Generally  speaking,  the  "universities  of  Russia  are  not 
frequented  by  the  aristocratic  classes ;  they  are  largely 
subsidized  by  tlie  Gsv.ernment  and  the  annual  fees  payable 
by  students  are  less  than  £7  a  head.  In  1863  the  statutes 
of  all  the  universities  were  remodelled  ;  and  since  that 
time  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  impress  upon  them  a 
more  national  character,  as  distinguished  from  mere  imita- 
tion of  those  in  Germany. 

The  university  of  Athens  (founded  22d  May  1837)  is 
modelled  on  the  university  systems  of  northern  Germany, 
on  a  plan  originally  devised  by  Professor  Brandis.  It 
includes  four  faculties,  viz.,  theology,  jurisprudence,  medi- 
cine, and  philosophy.  The  professors  (ordinary  and  extra- 
ordinary) are  upwards  of  60  in  number,  the  students  about 
1500.  There  is  also  a  school  of  pharmacy,  chemistry,  and 
anatomy,  and  a  library  of  130,000  volumes,  with  800 
manuscripts. 

The  history  of  the  two  English  universities  during  the 
16th  and  following  centuries  has  presented,  for  the  most 
part,  features  which  contrast  strongly  with  those  of  the 
Continental  seats  of  learning.  Both  suffered  severely  from 
confiscation  of  their  lands  and  revenues  during  the  period 
of  the  Reformation,  but  otherwise  have  generally  enjoyed 
a  remarkable  immunity  from  the  worst  consequences  of 
civil  and  political  .strife  and  actual  warfare.  Both  long 
remained  centres  chiefly  of  theological  teaching,  but  their 
i'.itimate  connexion  at  once  with  the  state  and  with  the 
Church  of  England,  as  "  by  law  established,"  and  the 
rnndifir.ations  introduced  into  their  constitutions,  prevented 
tln,ii  becoming  arenas  of  fierce  polemical  contentions  .like 


of  II, 

UlCtt, 


those   which    distracted   the    Protestant   universities'  of 
Germany. 

The  influence  of  the  Renaissance,  and  the  teachmg  of  laHnf 
Erasmus,  who  resided  for  some  time  at  both  universities,  ' 
exercised  a  notable  effect  alike  at  Oxford  and  at 
Cambridge.  The  names  of  Colet,  Grocyn,  and  Linai;;i 
illustrate  this  influence  at  the  former  centre  ;  those  r.f 
Bishop  Fisher,  Sir  John  Cheke,  and  Sir  Thomas  Smi;  i 
at  the  latter.  The  labours  of  Erasmus  at  Cambridge,  as 
tire  author  of  a  new  Latin  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
with  the  design  of  placing  in  the  hands  of  students  a  text 
free  from  the  errors  of  the  Vulgate,  were  productive  of 
important  effects,  and  the  university  became  a  centre  of  The 
Reformation  doctrine  some  years  before  the  writings  of  Keforma 
Luther  became  known  in  England.  The  foundation  of  ^"'^  _ 
Christ's  CoUege  (1505)  and  St  John's  College  (1511),  brago. 
through  the  influence  of  Fisher  with  the  countess  of 
Richmond,  also  materially  aided  the  general  progress  of 
learning  at  Cambridge.  The  Royal  Injunctions  of  1535, 
embodying  the  views  and  designs  of  Thomas  Cromwell, 
mark  the  downfall  of  the  old  scholastic  methods  of  study 
at  both  universities ;  and  the  foundation  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1546  (partly  by  an  amalgamation 
of  two  older  societies),  represents  the  earliest  conception 
of  such  an  institution  in  England  in  complete  inde- 
pendence of  Roman  Catholic  traditions.  Trinity  (1554) 
and  St  John's  (1555)  at  Oxford,  on  the  other  hand, 
founded  during  the  reactionary  reign  of  Mary,  serve  rather 
as  examples  of  a  transitional  period. 

In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  Cambridge  became  the  centre  rnritaa 
of  another  great  movement — that  of  the  earlier  Puritanism,  '^"  °' 
St  John's  and  Queens'  being  the  strongholds  of  the  party  ^,^,1^,. 
led  by  Cartwright,  Walter  Travers,  and  others.  Whitaker, 
t^e  eminent  master  of  St  John's,  although  he  sympathized 
to  some  extent  with  these  views,  strove  to  keep  their 
expression  within  limits  compatible  with  conf<irmity  to 
the  Church  of  England.  But  the  movement  continued  tc 
gather  strength ;  and  Emmanuel  College,  founded  in 
1584,  owed  much  of  its  early  prosperity  to  the  fact  that  it 
was  a  known  school  of  Puritan  doctrine.  Most  of  the 
Puritans  objected  to  the  discipline  enforced  by  the  uni- 
versity and  ordinary  college  statutes — especially  the  wear- 
ing of  the  cap  and  the  surplice  and  the  conferring  of 
degrees  in  divinity.  The  Anglican  party,  headed  by  such  Eiiza- 
men  as  ^Vhitgift  and  Bancroft,  resorted  in  defence  to  a  ^^^}'"' 
repressive  policy,  of  which  subscription  to  the  ..^.cts  of  gfi'^ir; 
Supremacy  and  Uniformity,  and  the  Elizabethan  statutes 
of  1570  (investing  the  "caput"  with  larger  powers,  and 
thereby  creating  a  more  oligarchical  form  of  government), 
were  the  most  notable  results.  Oxford,  although  the 
Puritans  were  there  headed  by  Leicester,  the  chancellor, 
devised  at  the  same  time  a  similar  scheme,  the  rigid  dis- 
cipline of  which  was  further  developed  in  the  Laudian  of 
Caroline  statutes  of  1636.  It  was  under  these  respective 
codes — the  Elizabethan  statutes  of  1570  and  the  LaudiaD 
statutes  of  1636^that  the  two  universities  were  governed 
until  the  introduction  of  the  new  codes  of  1858.  During, 
the  Commonwealth  the  Puritan  occupation  and  adminis- 
tration, at  either  university,  were  accompanied  by  little 
injury  to  the  colleges,  and  were  far  less  prejudicial  to  learn- 
ing than  the  Royalist  writers  of  the  Restoration  would  lead 
us  to  suiipose.  William  Dell,  who  was  master  of  Caius 
College  from  1649  to  1660,  advocated  the  formation  of 
schools  of  higher  instruction  in  the  large  tovras,  a  proposal 
which  was  then  looked  upon  as  one  of  but  faintly  masked 
hostility  to  the  older  centres. 

During  the  1 7th  century  Cambridge  became  the  centre  The  c- 
of  another  movement,  a  reflex  of   the  influence  of   the  p'ff:',,,^. 
Cartesian  philosophy,  which  attracted  for  a  time  consider-  moveinijii 
able  attention.     Its   leaders,,  known   as   the   Cambridge 


Lai-  ■ 
lil..m; 


UNIVERSITIES 


853 


Plitonists,  among   whom    Henry    More,    Cudworth,  and 
V\Tiichcote  were  especially  conspicuous,  were  men  of  high 
character  and  great  le.arning,  although  too    much  under 
the  influence  of  an  illrestrimed  enthusiasm  and  purely 
TheK«w.  specuiativ.e  doctrines.     The  spread  of  the  Baconian  philo- 
toaiM       siipby,    and    the    example   o(    a    succession   of    eminent 
'''^^^'       scientific    thinkers,    among    whom    were    Isaac     Barrow, 
*"^  master  of    Trinity  (1673-77),   the  two  Lucasiao   profes 

sors,  Isaac  Newton  (prof  1669-1702)  and  his  successor 
Wil'iiam  Whision  (prof  1702-11),  and  Foger  Cotes 
'Plumian  prof  1707-  16),  began  to  render  the  exact 
sciences  more  and  more  an  object  of  study,  and  the  insti- 
tution of  the  trijios  examinations  in  the  course  of  -the  hrst 
hall  of  the  l^th  century  established  the  reputation  of 
Cambridge  as  a  school  of  mathematical  science.  At 
Oxford,  where  no  similar  development  took  place,  and 
where  the  statutable  requirements  with  respect  to  study 
and  exercises  were  suffered  to  fall  into  neglect,  the  de- 
generacy of  the  whole  community  as  a  school  of  academic 
culture  IS  attested  by  evidence  too  emphatic  to  be  gain- 
said. The  moral  tone  at  both  universities  was  at  this  time 
MeUiod-  singularly  low  ,  and  the  rise  of  Methodism,  as  associated 
ism  with  the    names  of  the    two  Wesleys  and  Whiterield    at 

Ox.ford  and  that  of  Berridge  at  Cambridge,  operated  with 
greater  effect  upon  the  nation  at  large  than  on  either  of 
the  two  centres  where  it  had  its  origin.  With  the  advance 
of  the  present  century,  however,  a  perceptible  change  took 
biiBeon-  place.  The  labours  of  Simeon  at  Cambridge,  in  connexion 
ism.  with  the  Evangelical   party,  and  the  far  more  celebrated 

Trac-  movement  known  as  Tractariamsm,  at  Oxford,  exercised 
tariao-  considerable  influence  in  developing  a  more  thoughtful 
'*"'■  spirit   at  either   university.     At    both  centres,    also,    the 

range  of  studies  was  extended ;  written  examinations  took 
the  place  of  the  often  merely  formal  viva  wxe  ceremonies; 
at  (Cambridge  classics  were  raised  in  1S24  to  the  dignity 
of  a  new  tripos.      The  number  of   the  students  at  both 
universities  was  largely  augmented.      Further  schemes  of 
improvement   were  put  forward  and  discussed.     And    in 
1850  It  was  decided  by  the  Government  to  appoint  com- 
missioners   to    inquire    what   additional    reforms    might 
Refonr.3    advantageously    be   introduced.     Their    recommendations 
of  1S58.    were  not  all  carried  into  effect,  but  the  main  results  were 
as  follows  — "  The  professoriate  w£is  considerably  increased, 
reorganized,  and  re-endowed,  by  means   of  conti-ibutions 
from  colleges.     The  colleges  were  emancipated  from  their 
mediaeval  statutes,  were  invested  with  new  constitutions, 
and  acquired    new    legislative    powers.     The   fellowships 
were  almost  universally  thrown  open  to  merit,  and    the 
^eilect  of  this  was  not  merely  to  provide  ample  rewards  for 
^the   highest   academical   attainments,    but   to   place    the 
governing  power  within  colleges  in  the  hands  of  able  men, 
likely  to  promote  further  improvements.     The  number  and 
value  of  scholarships  was  largely  augmented,  and  many, 
though    not   all,    of    the    restrictions   upon    them     were 
abolished.     The   great   mass   of   vexatious   and   obsolete 
oaths  was  swept  away,   and,  though  candidates   for  the 
M.A.  degree  and  persons  elected  to  fellowships  were  still 
required  to  make  the  old  subscriptions  and  declarations,  it 
was  enacted  that  no  religious  test  should  be  imposed  at 
matriculation  or  on  taking  a  bachelor's  degree."' 
Aanuf         In  1869  a  statute  was  enacted  at  Cambridge  admitting 
won  of      students  as  members  of  the  university  without  making  it 
lesiRte'    iniperative  that  they  should  be  entered  at   any    hall    or 
iuijots.  college,  but  simply  be  resident  either  with  their  parents  o? 

in  duly  licensed  lodgings. 
Ai...litioD      The   entire    abolition    of    tests    followed    next.     After 
oi  I.  its.     several  rejections  in  parliament  it  was  eventually  carried 
as  a  Government  measure,  and  passed  the  House  of  Lords 

in  1871. 

'  Brodrick,  Vnixxrsity  of  Oxford,  pp.  136,  137 


In  1877  the  reports  of  two  new  commissions  were  r«f  r^s 
followed  by  further  changes,  the  chief  features  of  which  "-'It/?, 
were  the  diversion  of  a  certain  proportion  of  the  revenues 
of  the  colleges  to  the  usef  of  the  university,  especially  with 
a  view  to  the  encouragement  of  studies  in  natural  science, 
the  enforcement  ol  general  and  uniform  regulations  with 
respect  to  the  salaries,  selection,  and  duties  of  professors, 
lecturers,  and  examiners  ;  the  abolition  (with  a  few  excep- 
tions) of  all  clerii^ai  restrictions  on  headships  or  fellow- 
ships ;  and-  the  hmitation  of  fellowships  to  a  uniform 
amount. 

That  these  successive  and  fundamental  changes  have,  on  t)c'ju.« 
the  whole,  been  in  umson  with  the  national  wishes  and  in 
requirements  may  fairly  be  inferred  from  the  remarkable  "''^  ■''^"- 
increase  in  numbers  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century, 
and  especially  at  Cambridge,  where  the  number  of  under- 
graduates, which  in  1862  was  1526,  was  in   1887  no  less 
than  2979.      In  the  academic  year   1862-63  the  number 
of  matriculations  was  448,  and  in  1886-87  1009. 

Si^rcely  less  influential,  as  a  means  of  recovering  for  Loctt 
the  two  universities  a  truly  national  character,  has  been  cran  .aa- 
the  work  which  both  have  been  carrying  on  and  aiding     ."'  "^',1 
by  the  institution  of  local  examinations  and  of  university  jjt^.jsiru 
extension  lectures.     Of  these  two  schemes,  the  former  was  lecvirca. 
initiated  by  both  Oxford  and  Cambridge  in  the  year  1858; 
the  latter  had  its  origin  at  Cambridge,   having  been  sug- 
gested by  the  success  attending  a  course  of   lectures  to 
women  delivered  by  Mr  (cow  Professor)  James  Stuart,  in 
1867,  in  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Leeds.     By 
the    former    the   standard    of   education    throughout   the 
country   has  been  raised,   both  in  public  and  in    private 
schools.     By  the  latter,  instruction  of  the  character  and 
method  which  characterize  univei^ily  teaching  has  beer 
brought  within  the  reach  of  students  of  all  classes  and  ages 
throughout  the  land. 

So  long  ago  as  the  year  it)4U  an  endeavour  had  been  Doi'jim. 
made  to  bring  about  the  foundation  of  a  northern  uni- 
versity for  the  benefit  of  the  counties  remote  from  Oxford 
and  C3.mbridge.  Manchester  and  York  both  petitioned  to 
be  made  the  seat  of  the  new  centre.  Cromwell,  however, 
rejected  both  petitions,  and  decided  in  favour  of  Durham. 
Here  he  founded  the  university  of  Durham  (1657),  endow- 
ing it  with  the  sequestered  revenues  of  the  dean  and 
chapter  of  the  cathedral,  and  entitling  the  society  "  The 
Mentor  or  Provost,  Fellows,  and  Scholars  of  the  College  of 
Durham,  of  the  foundation  of  Oliver,  A'c:"  This  schemi 
was  cancelled  at  the  Restoration,  and  not  revived  llntil  thl 
present  century;  but  on  the  4th  July  1832  a  bill  for  the 
foundation  of  a  university  at  Durham  received  the  royal 
assent,  the  dean  and  chapter  being  thereby  empowered  to 
appropriate  an  estate  at  South  Shields  for  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  a  university  for  the  advancement 
of  learning.  The  foundation  was  to  be  directly  connected 
with  the  cathedral  church,  the  bishop  of  the  diocess  being 
appointed  visitor,  and  the  dean  and  chapter  governors  ; 
while  the  direct  control  was  vested  in  a  warden,  a  senate,  and 
a  convocation.  A  college,  modelled  on  the  plan  of  those 
at  the  older  universities,  and  designated  Uuiversity  Col. 
lege,  Durham,  was  founded  in  1837,  Bishop  Hatfield's  Hall 
in  1846,  and  Bishop  Oosin's  Hall  (which  no  longer  exists) 
in  1851.  The  university  includes  all  the  faculties,  aiid 
in  1865  there  was  added  to  the  faculty  of  arts  a  school  of 
physical  science,  including  pure  and  applied  tnathematics, 
chemistry,  geology,  mining,  engineering,  itc.  In  18-71  the 
corporation  of  the  university,  in  conjunction  with  some  of 
the  leading  landed  proprietors  in  the  adjacent  counties, 
gave  further  extension  to  this  design  by  the  foundation  of 
a  college  of  physical  science  at  Newcasfle-uponTyne, 
designed  to  teach  scientific  principles  in  their  application 
to   engineering,   mining,  manufactures,   and    agriculture. 


854 


UNIVERSITIES 


•  Students  who  had  passed  the  required  examinations  were 
made  admissible  as  associates  in  physical  science  of  the 
university.  There  is  also  a  medical  college  which  stands 
in  similar  relations  to  Durham,  of  which  university  Cod- 
rington  College,  Barbados,  and  Fourah  Bay  College,  Sierra 
Leone,  are  likewise  affiliated  colleges. 
UniTcr-  The  university  of  London  had  its  origin  in  a  moTgtncnt 
6*yof  initiated  in  the  year  1825  by  Thomas  Campbell,  the  poet, 
London.  Jq  conjunction  with  Henry  (afterwards  Lord)  Brougham, 
Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  Isaac  Lyon  Goldsmid,  Joseph  Hume, 
and  some  influential  Dissenters,  most  of  them  connected 
with  the  congregation  of  Dr  Cox  of  Hackney.  The  scheme 
was  originally  suggested  by  the  fact  that  Dissenters  were 
practically  excluded  from  the  older  universities  ;  but  the 
conception,  as  it  took  shape,  was  distinctly  non-theological. 
The  first  council,  appointed  December  1825,  comprised 
names  representative  of  nearly  all  the  religious  denomin- 
ations, including  (besides  t''Ose  above  mentioned)  Zachary 
Macaulay,  George  Grote,  -Tames  Mill,  William  Tooke, 
Lord  Dudley  and  Ward,  Dr  Olinthus  Gregory,  Lord  Lans- 
downe.  Lord  John  Russell,  and  the  duke  of  Norfolk.  On 
II th  February  1826  the  deed  of  settlement  was  drawn 
up  ;  and  in  the  course  of  the  year  seven  acres,  constituting 
the  site  of  University  College,  were  purchased,  the  found- 
ation stone  of  the  new  buildings  being  laid  by  the  duke 
of  Sussex  30th  April  1827.  The  course  of  instructioii 
was  designed  to  include  "  languages,  mathematics,  physics, 
the  mental  and  the  moral  sciences,  together  with  the  laws 
of  England,  history,  and  political  economy,  and  the 
various  branches  of  knowledge  which  are  the  objects  of 
medical  education."  In  October  1828  the  college  was 
opened  as  the  university  of  London.  But  in  the  mean- 
time a  certain  section,  of  the  supporters  of  the  movement, 
while  satisfied  as  to  the  essential  soundness  of  the  primary 
design  as  a  development  of  national  education,  entertained 
considerable  scruples  as  to  the  propriety  of  altogether  dis- 
sociating such  an  institution  from  the  national  church. 
tCiag'i  This  feeling  found  expression  in  the  foundation  and  in- 
CoUego.  corporation  of  Iving's  College  (14th  August  1829),  opened 
8th  October  1831,  and  designed  to  combine  with  the  original 
plan  instruction  in  "the  doctrines  and  duties  of  Christi- 
anity, as  the  same  arc  inculcated  by  the  United  Church  of 
Oni-  England  and  Ireland."  This  new  phase  of  the  movement 
Tc-rsit?  v?as  so  far  successful  that  in  183G  it  was  deemed  expedient 
^"'i-*-  to  dissociate  the  university  of  London  from  University 
College  as  a  "  teaching  body,"  and  to  limit  its  action  simply 
to  the  institution  of  examinations  and  the  conferring  of 
degrees, — the  college  itself  receiving  a  new  charter,  and 
being  thenceforth  designated  as  University  College, 
London,  while  the  rival  institution  was  also  incorporated 
with  the  university,  and  was  thenceforth  known  as  King's 
College,  London.  In  the  charter  now  given  to  the  uni- 
versity it  was  stated  that  the  king  "  deems  it  to  be  the 
duty  of  his  royal  office  to  hold  forth  to  all  classes  and 
ilenominations  of  his  faithful  subjects,  without  any  dis- 
tinction whatsoever,  an  encouragement  for  pursuing  a 
regular  and  liberal  course  of  education."  The  charters  of 
the  university  of  London  and  of  University  College,  London, 
were  signed  on  the  same  day,  28lh  November  1836.  In 
1869  both  the  colleges  gave  their  adhesion  to  the  move- 
ment for  the  higher  education  of  women  which  had  been 
initiated  elsewhere,  and  in  1880  ladies  were  for  the  first 
time  admitted  to  degrees. 
Vic,.-.-i».  The  Victoria  University  took  its  origin  in  the  institution 
known  as  the  Owens  College,  Manchester, — so  called  after 
a  wealthy  citizen  of  that  name  to  whom  it  owed  its  founda- 
tion. The  college  was  founded  12th  March  1851,  for  the 
purpose  of  affording  to  students  who  were  unable,  on  the 
ground  of  expense,  to  resort  to  Oxford 'or  Cambridge  an 
education  of  an  equally  high  class  with  that  given  at  those 


centres.  The  institution  was,  from  the  first,  unsectarian 
in  character.  In  July  1877  a  memorial  was  presented  to 
the  privy  council  praying  for  the  grant  of  a  charter  to  the 
college,  conferring  on  it  the  rank  of  a  university,  to  be 
called  the  "  university  of  Manchester."  The  localization 
implied  in  this  title  having  met  with  opposition  from  the 
Yorkshire  College  at  Leeds,  it  was  resolved  that  the  uui- 
^ersity  should  be  called  the  "Victoria  University."  Under 
this  name  the  foundation  received  its  charter  20th  April 
1880.  "  The  characteristic  features  of  -the  Victoria  Uni- 
versity, as  compared  with  other  British  universities,  are 
these- — (a)  it  does  not,  like  London,  confer  its  degrees  oa 
candidates  who  havo  passed  certain  examinations  only, 
but  it  also  requires  attendance  on  prescribed  courses  of 
academic  study  in  a  college  of  the  university  ;  (6)  the 
constitution  of  the  university  contemplates  its  (ultimately) 
becoming  a  federation  of  colleges;  but  these  colleges  wili 
not  be  situated,  like  those  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  in 
one  town,  but  wherever  a  college  of  adequate  efficiency  and 
stability  shaJi  have  arisen.  University  College,  Liverpool, 
and  the  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds,  having  fulfilled  these 
requirements,  have  become  affiliated  with  the  university. 
The  university,  like  the  older  bodies  in  England  and  Scot- 
land, is  at  once  a  teaching  and  an  examining  body,  and 
there  is  an  intimate  rapport  between  the  teaching  and  the 
examining  functions.  To  give  it  a  general  or  nationa' 
character,  the  governing  body  consists  partly  of  persons 
nominated  by  the  crown  and  partly  of  representatives  of 
the  governing  and  teaching  bodies  of  the  colleges  and  of 
the  graduates  of  the  university.  External  examiners  are 
appointed,  who  conduct  the  examinations  in  conjunction 
with  examiners  representing  the  teaching  body.  The  grad- 
uates of  the  university  meet  its  teachers  in  convocation  to 
discus?  the  affairs  of  the  university.  Convocation  will  elect 
future  chancellors,  and  a  certain  number  of  representatives 
on  the  court"  (Thompson,  The  Owens  College,  he,  p.  548). 
Like  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  America,  the  Vic- 
toria University  has  instituted  certain  fellowships  (styled 
the  Berkeley  fellowships)  for  the  encouragement  of  research. 

In  Scotland  the  chief  change  to  be  noted  in  connexion  Changes 
with  the  university  of  St  Andrews  is  the  appropriation  in  '"  ""'' 
1579  of  the  two  colleges  of  St  Salvator  and  St  Leonard  to  ^f  g,' 
the  faculty  of  philosophy,  and  that  of  St  Mary  to  theology.  Andi-vs, 
In  1747  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  obtained  for  the  union  GlastMi*, 
of  the  two  former  colleges  into  one.     Glasgow,  in  the  year  ^°^ 
1577,  received  a  new  charter,  and  its  history  from  that       '  '"*"' 
date  down  to  the  Restoration  was  one  of  almost  continuous 
progress.     The    restoration   of   Episcopacy,    however,    in 
volved    the   alienation    of   a   considerable   portion    of    its 
revenues,  and  the  consequent  suspension  of  several  of  its 
chairs.     In  18C4  the  old  university  buildings  were  sold, 
and,  a  Government  grant  having  been  obtained,  together 
with  private  subscriptions,  the  present  new  buildings  were 
erected  from  the  joint  fund.     The  faculties  now  recognijed 
at  Glasgow  are  those  of  arts,  theology,  jurisprudence,  and 
medicine.     At  Aberdeen  an  amalgamation,  similar  to  that 
at  St  Andrews,  took  place,  by  virtue  of  the  Universities 
Act  of  1858,  of  the  two  universities  of  King's  College  and 
Marischal  College.     In  conjunction  with  Glasgow,  this  uni- 
versity returns   a    member  to   parliament.     The    peculiar  Cliaoiiea 
constitution  of  the  college  at  Edinburgh,  as  defined  by  its  '"  univer 
charter  (the  government  being  vested  entirely  in  the  lord  j^^^'^" 
provost,  magistrates,  and  council,  as  patronsand  guardians),  ^^^^^^ 
involved  the  senate  in  frequent  collisions  with  the  town 
council.     The  latter,  being  a  strictly  representative  body, 
included  elements  with  which  the  .senate  of  the  university 
sometimes  found  it  difficult  to  work  harmoniously,  and  its 
disposition   to  dictate  was  strongly   resented   by  the  dis   , 
:  tinguished    metaphysician    and    professor     Sir    William 
Hamilton.     On    the  other   hand,  the  council    sometime 


UNIVEESITIE.S 


856 


exercised  a  beneBcial  dUcretion  by  appointing  professors  of 
ability  whom  the  senate  might  have  regarded  as  ineligible 
tfn  the  ground  of  their  religious  tenets.     The  Disruption 
of  1843  emancipated  the  lay  professors  from  subscription 
to  the  Eslablished  Church  of   Scotland,  and   resulted  in 
many  of  the  important  changes  which  were  subsequently 
introduced  in  the  Universities  Act  of  1858.     On  the  28th 
October  1859  the  town  council,  notwithstanding  that  their 
powers  were  already  terminated,  by  the  provisions  of  the 
Act,  availed  themselves  of  a  technical  right  to  appoint  a 
principal, — their  choice  falling  upon  Sir  David  Brewster. 
The  great  landmark  in  the  history  of  the  Scottish  as  in  that 
of  the  English  universities  is  represented  by  the  remodel- 
ling of  the  seteral  constitutions  of  these  bodies  in  the  year 
1858.     The  commissioners  of  1858-62  left  the  university 
of  Edinburgh  in  the  possession  of  constitutional  autonomy, 
with  its  studies  and  degrees  regulated  by  ordinances.     The 
students  also  received  the  rectorial  franchise,  but  were  not, 
as  at  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen,  divided  into   nations.     In 
arts  the  B.A.  degree  was  abolished,  the  M.A.  representing 
the  only  degree  in  this  faculty,  as  at  the  other  Scottish 
aniversities.     The  course  of  study  was  divided  into  three 
departments: — (1)   classics;    (2)    mathematics,    including 
natural  philosophy ;  (3)  mental  science  and  English  liter- 
ature.    In   each  departmentj  it   was  required  that  there 
should  be  an  additional  examiner  besides  the  professor,  so 
that  the  candidates  should  not  be  entirely  examined  by  their 
own  teachers.     It  was  also  provided  that,  instead  of  one 
examination  for  the  degree  at  the  end  of  a  student's  course, 
examinations  in  each  of  the  departments  might  be  passed 
separately.     In    the   twenty  years    beginning  with  1863, 
1400  M.A. -degrees  have  been  confe.-red,  as  against  250  in 
the  twenty  years  preceding.      In  the  faculty  of  medicine,  the 
original  single  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  gave  place  to 
three  classes — bachelor  of  medicine  (MB),  master  in  sur- 
gery (CM.),  and  doctor  of  medicine  (M.D.).      In   1866  it 
was  further  laid  down  that  -theses  should  no  longer  be  de- 
manded from  candidates  for  the  lower  degrees  of  M.B.  and 
CM.,  and,  en  the  other  hand,   that  the  degree  of  M.D. 
should  cot  be  conferred  on  persons  not  showing  any  evidence 
of  medical  study  after  leaving  the  university,  but  that  a 
thesis  should  be  invariably  required.     Since  the  enactment 
of  these  ordinaDces  the  number  of  the  medical  students  "has 
increased  from  about  500  to  over  1700:     In  the  faculty  of 
law  the  title  of  the  degree  was  to  be  LL.B.,  and  it  was  to 
be  conferred  only  on  those  who  had  already  graduated  as 
M.A.     But  the  minor  degree,  that  of  "  bachelor  of  law  " 
~  (B.L.),  might  be  conferred  if  the  candidate  had   attended 
one  course  of  lectures  in  the  faculty  of  arts,  and  passed  a 
preliminary  examination  in  (1)  Latin,  (2)  Greek,  French 
or  German,  and  (3)  any  two  of  the  three  subjects — logic, 
moral  philosophy,  and  mathematics.     The  chair  of  public 
law,  which  had  fallen  into  abeyance  in  1832,  was  recon- 
stituted, and  the  chair  of  universal  civil  history  was  con- 
verted into  a  professorship  of  history  and  constitutional 
law.     The  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  was  left,  as  before,  a 
purely  honorary  degree.      Chairs  of  Sanskrit,  engineering, 
geology,  commercial  and  political  economy,  education,  fine 
art,  and  the  Celtic  languages  have  also  been  founded.     By 
the  Representation  of  the  People  (Scotland)  Act,  1868,  the 
universities  of  Edinburgh  and  St  Andrews  were  empowered 
to  return  jointly  a  member  to  the  House  of  Commons. 
ParliB-         A  parliamentary  return  for  the   ten  years  ending  oOth 
mentary  March  1883  showed  that  the  sums  voted   annually   by 
^^^  ^  parliament  or  chargeable  on  the  consolidated  fund  to  the 
^^^jgj..     four  universities   had   amounted   during   that   period   to 
utiea.      £65,821  for  Aberdeen,  £85,906  for  Edinburgh,  £66,182 
for  Glasgo\T,  and  £38,111  for  St  Andrews.     In  addition 
to  these  sums  Edinburgh  had  received  £80,000  and  Glas- 
gow £20,000  in  tbo  f  i-m  of  '^-iilj]  grants  in  aid. 


Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was  founded  in  1591,  under  Trinity 
the  auspices  of  Sir  John  Perrot,  the  Irish  viceroy.  A  College, 
royal  charter  nominated  a  provost  and  a  minimum  number  ^l*^' 
of  ihree  fellows  and  three  scholars  as  &  body  corporate, 
empowered  to  establish  among  themselves  "  whatever  laws 
of  either  of  the  universities  of  Cambridge  or  Oxford  they 
may  judge  to  be  apt  and  suitable  ;  auJ  jspecially  that  no 
other  persons  should  teach  or  profess  the  liberal  art"  in 
Ireland  without  the  queen's  special  licence."  The  first 
five  provosts  of  Trinity  College  were  all  Cambridge  men, 
and  under  the  influence  of  Archbishop  Loftus,  the  first 
provost,  and  his  successors,  the  foundation  received  a 
strongly  Pnritan  bias.  Prior  to  the  year  1873  the  pro- 
vostship,  fellowships,  and  foundation  scholarships  could  be 
hold  only  by  members  of  the  Church  of  Ireland  ;  but  all 
such  restrictions  were  abolished  by  Act  36  Vict.  c.  21, 
whereby  the  requirement  of  subscription  to  any  article  or 
formulary  of  faith  was  finally  abrogated.  As  at  preaei:t. 
constituted,  the  ordinary  government  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  provost  and  senior  fellows  in  conjunction  with  the 
visitors  and  council, — the  supreme  authority  being  the 
crown,  except  so  far  as  limited  by  Act  of  Parliament. 

The  first  departure  in  Ireland  from  the  exclusive  system  Qaeea's 
of  education   formerly  represented  by  the  foundation  at  UniTar- 
Dublin,  dates  from  the  creation  of  the  Queen's  University,  "^^^ 
incorporated   by  royal  charter  3d  September  1850.     By 
this   charter   the  general   legislation   of    the   university, 
together  with   its  government   and   administration,   was 
vested  in  the  university  senate.     In  1864  the  charter  of 
1850  was  superseded  by  a  supplementary  charter,  and  the 
university  reconstituted  "  in  order  to  render  more  complete 
and  satisfactory  the  courses  of  education  to  be  followed  by 
students  in  the  colleges  ";  and  finally,  m  1880,  by  virtue  of 
the  Act  of  Parliament  known  as  the  University  Education 
(Ireland)  Act,  1879,  the  Queen's  University  gave  place  to 
the  Royal  University  of  Ireland,  which  was  practically  a  Royal 
reconstitution  of  the  former  foundation,  the  dissolution  of  Univer- 
the  Queen's  University  Heing  decreed  so  soon  as  the  newly  ^'*y  "* 
constituted  body  should  be  in  a  position  to  confer  degrees  ;"      ™ 
at  the  same  time  all  graduates  of  the  Queen's  University 
were  recognized  as  graduates  of  the  new  university  with 
corresponding  degrees,  and  all  matriculated  students  of  the 
former  as  entitled  to  the  same  status  in  the  latter.     The 
university  confers-  degrees  in  arts  (B.A.,  M.A.,  D.Litt.), 
science,  engineering,  music,  medicine,  surgery,  obstetrics, 
and  law.     The  preliminary  pass  examinations  in  arts  are 
held  at  annually  selected  centres, — those  chosen  in  1885 
being  Dublin,  Belfast,  Carlow,  Cork,  Galway,  Limerick, 
and  Londonderry.     All  honour  examinations  and  all  exam- 
inations in  other  faculties  are  held  in  Dublin.    The  Queen's  Colleges 
Colleges  at  Belfast,   Cork,   and  Galway  were  founded  in  »' Belfast. 
December   1845,  under  an  Act  of  Parliament  "  to  enable  2°^'^  ""^ 
Her  Majesty  to  endow  new  colleges  for  'he  advancement  of         *'• 
learning  in  Ireland,"  and  were  subsequently  incorporated 
as  colleges  of  the  university.     Their  professors  were  at  the 
same  time   constituted   professors  in  the  university,  and 
conducted  the  examinations.      But  in  the  reconstruction  of 
1880  the  chief  share  in  the  conduct  of  the  examinations 
and  advising  the  senate  with  respect  to  them  was  vested 
in    a   board  of   fellows,  elected   by  the  senate  in  equal 
numbers  from  the  non-denuminational  colleges  and  thd      ' 
purely -Catholic  institutions.    The  colleges  retain,  however, 
their  independence,  being  in  no  way  subject  to  the  control 
of  the  university  senate  except  in   the  regulations  with 
respect  to  the  reouirements  for  degrees  and  other  aca- 
demic distinctions.      On  the  other  hand,  the  obligation 
formerly  imposed  of  a  preliminary  course  of  study  at  one 
or  other  of  the  colleges  before  admission  to  degrees  was 
abolished  at  the  foundation  of  the  Royal  University,  the 
examinations  being  now  open,  like  those  of  the  universitj' 


856 


UNIVERSITIES 


Colleges 

ID 

Wales  :— 
St 


Aherystr 
vith. 


VV  ales. 


K  iTth 


CaV-ulta. 
Bombay. 
Madras. 


of  London,  to  all  matriculated  students  on  payment  of 
certain  fees. 

There  is  at  present  no  university  of  Wales,  although 
the  bestowal  of  a  royal  charter  before  long  is  confidently 
anticipated.     The   oldest   college,  that  of  St  David's  at 
Lampeter,  possesses  the  right  of  conferring  degrees.     It 
was  founded  in  1 822  for  the  purpose  of  educating  clergy- 
men   in    the    principles   of    the    Established    Church    of 
Eoglaud  and  Wales,  mainly  for  the  supply  of  the  Welsh 
dioceses.     The  number  of  the  professors  in  1887  was  8, 
•and  the  number  of  the  students  120.     The  next  college  in 
order  of  foundation  is  Aberystwith.     It  was  founded  9th 
October    1872,  but  possesses   no  charter,  and  is  mamly 
auppurted  by  the  Dissenting  bodies.    The  staff  of  professors 
numbers  13,  and  the  students  number  150.  The  University 
Oolle;^e  of  South  Wales  and  Monmouthshire  at  Cardiff  was 
founded  in  1883.     The  number  of  professors  in  1887  was 
9,  lecturers  4,  demonstrators  2  ;  number  of  students  140. 
The  University  College  of  North  Wales  at  Bangor  received 
Its  charter  4th  June  1885,  its  object  being  to  J' provide 
instruction  iv  all  the  branches  of  a  liberal  education  e.wept 
theology."     Its  staff  consists  of  a  principal,  8  professors 
9r   lecturers,  and  2   demonstrators;   the   number  of   the 
students  is   127.     There  is  also  a  hall  of  residence  for 
women   students.      At   each   of    these   three   last-named 
lolleges  students  proceeding  to  degrees  have  to  go  through 
iither  a  London,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  or  Dublin  course  of 
itudy,  but  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Dublin  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  term  of  residence  ordinarily  required  is 
remitted  in  their  favour. 

In  India,  the  three  older  universities  all  date  from  1857,— that 
of  Calcutta  having  been  incorporated  January  24,  Bombay-July 
18    Madras  Septeinber  5,  in  that  year.     At  these  three  universities 
the  instruction  li  mainly  in  English.     "  A  university  in  India  is  a 
body  for   examining  candidates   for   dr^grees,  and    lor  confornng 
denrees.     It  has  the  power  of  prescribing  test-books,  standards  of 
icstruction,  and  rules  of  procedure,  but  is  not  an  institution  for 
teaching.     Its  governance  and  management  arc  vested  in  a  body 
of  fellows,  some  of  whom  are  ex  officio,  being  the  chief  European 
functionaries  of  the  state.     The  remainder  are  appointed  by  the 
Government,  being  generally  chosen  as  representative  men  in  respect 
of  eminent  learning,  scientific  attainment,  official  position,  social 
status,  or  personal  worth.     Being  a  mixed  body  of  Europeans  and 
natives,  they  thus  comprise  all   that  is   best  and  wisest  in    that 
division  of  the  empire  to  which  the  umversity  belongs,  and  fairly 
represent  most  of  the  phases  of  thought  and  philosophic  tendencies 
observable  in  the  country.     The  fellows  in  their  corporate  capacity 
form  the  senate.     The  affairs  of  the  university  are  conducted  by 
the  syndicate,  consisting  of  a  limited  number  of  members  elected 
from  among  the  fellows.    The  faculties  comprise  arts  and  philosophy, 
law,  medicine,  and  civil   engineering.     A.  degree  in  natural  and 
physical  science  has  more  recently  been  added "  (Sir  R.  Temple, 
India  in  1880,  p.  146).     The  Punjab  university  was  incorporated 
in  1883,— the  Punjab  University  College,  prior  to  that  date,  having 
conferred    titles  only  and   not  degrees.     The  main  object'  of  this 
university  is  the  encouragement  of  the  study  of  the  Oriental  languages 
and  literature,. and  the  rendering  accessible  .to  native  students  the 
results  of  European  scientific  teaching  through  the  medium  of  their 
own  vernacular.     The  Oriental  faculty  is  here  the  oldest,  and  the 
degree  of  B.O.L.  (bachelor  of  Oriental  literature)  is  given  as  the 
result  of  its  examinations.     At  the  Oriental  College  the  instruction 
is  given  wholly  in  the  native  languages.     In  1887  the  senate  at 
Cambridge  (mainly  on  the  representations  of  Mr  C.    P.    llbert, 
formerly   vice-chancellor  of  the  university  of  Calcutta)  adopted 
resolutions  whereby  some  forty-nine  collegiate  institutions  already 
ifBliatcd  to  the  latter  body  were  affiliated  to  the  university  of  Cam- 
oridge,  their  students  thus  becoming  entitled  to  the  remission  of 
Kie  year  in  the  ordjpary  statutable  requirements  with  respect  to 
residence  at  Cambridge.     It  is  at  the.se  institutions,  and  tho  colleges 
of  the  first  or  second  grade  in  the  other   presidencies,  that  the 
iustniclion  is  given. 
Gydney  In  Australia,  the  university  of  Sydney  was  incorporated  by  an 

Act  of  the  colonial  legislature  which  received  the  royal  assent  9th 
December  1851,  ai.d  on  27th  February  1858  a  royal  cliartcr  was 
Tranted  conferring  on  graduates  of  the  university  tho  same  rans, 
style,  and  precedenco  as  are  enjoyed  by  (,Taduates  of  universitiBS 
within  the  United  Kingdom.  Sydney  is  also  one  of  the  institutions 
associated  with  the  university  of  Loudon  from  which  ceitificates  of 
having  received  a  due  course  of  instruction  may  be  received  with 


r-.tjab 
viv.iver- 
iitj. 


a  view  to  admission  to  degrees.  There  are  four  facalrics,  viz.,  arm. 
law,  medicine,  and  science.  The  design  of  the  university  is  to 
supply  the  means  of  a  liberal  education  to  all  orders  and  denomina- 
tions, without  any  distinction  whatever.  An  Act  for  the  purpose  of 
faciliuting  the  ercctiou  of  colleges  in  connexion  with  different 
religious  bodies  was,  however,  passed  by  the  l^i^ature  during  the 
session  of  1884,  and  since  that  time  collegto  representing  the 
Episcopalian,  Presbyterian,  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches  have 
been  founded.  In  1835  the  total  number  of  students  attending 
lectures  in  the  university  was  '206.  The  university  of  Melbourne, 
in  the  colony  of  Victoria,  was  incorporated  and  endowed  by  royal!V..f  Ihoume 
Act  22d  January  1853.  This  Act  was  amended  7th  June  1881. 
Here  also  no  religious  tests  are  imposed  on  admission  to  any  degree 
or  election  to  any  office.  The  council  is  empowered,  after  due 
examination,  to  confer  degrees  in  all  the  faculties  (exctpting 
divinity)  which  can  be  conferred  in  any  university  within  the 
British  dominions.  It  is  also  authorized  to  affiliate  colleges;  and 
Trinity  College  (Church  of. England)  was  accordingly  founded  in 
1870  and  Ormond  College  (Presbyterian)  in  1879.  The  founding  of 
a  university  for  Queensland  is  at  the  present  time  in  contemplation. 
The  university  of  Adelaide  in  South  Aiistralia  (founded  mainly  Ai.^laid" 
by  the  exertions  and  munificence  of  Sir  Walter  Watson  Hughes) 
was  incorporated  by  an  Act  of  the  colonial  legislature  in  1874,  in 
which  year  it  was  further  endowed  by  Sir  Thomas  Elder.  In  1881 
letters  patent  were  granted  by  the  English  croivn  whereby  degrees 
conferred  by  the  university  were  constituted  of  equal  validity  with 
those  of  any  university  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  faculties  in 
the  university  are  those  of  arts,  medicine,  law,  science,  and  music. 
The  Jiumber  of  matriculations  since  the  foundation  amounted  in 
1880  to  284,  the  number  of  undergraduates  in  that  year  being  90. 
The  university  of  New  Zealand,  founded  in  1870,  and  reconstituted  N'  ■ 

in    1874  and  1S75,  is   empowered  by  royal  charter  to  grant   the  Zi-' ' 

several  dcrees  of  bachelor  and  master  of  arts,  aud  bachelor  and 
doctor  in-law,  medicine,  and  music.  Women  are  admitted  to 
dc<^ces.  To  this  the  Auckland  University  College,  Nelson  College, 
Cantcrburv  College,  and  the  university  of  Otago  sUnd  in  tho 
relation  of  afhliated  institutions.  This  last-named  institution  wag-O^i;"- 
founded  in  1869  by  an  order  of  the  provincial  council,  with  the 
power  of  conferring  degrees  in  arts,  medicine,  and  law,  and  received 
OS  an  endowment  100,000  acres  of  pastoral  land.     It  was  opened  in 

1871  with  a  staff  of  three  professors,  all  in  the  faculty  of  arts,      m 

1872  the  provincial  council  further  subsidized  it  by  a  grant  of  a 
second  100,000  acres  of  land,  and  the  university  w.os  now  enabled 
to  make  considerable  additions  to  the  staff  of  professors  and 
lecturers,  to  establish  a  lectureship  in  law,  and  to  lay  the  founda-., 
tions  of  a  medical  school.  In  1374  an  agreement  was  made  between 
the  university  of  Now  Zealand  and  that  of  Otago,  whercT.iy  the 
functions  of  the  former  were  restricted  to  the  examination  of 
candidates  for  matriculation,  for  scholarships,  and  for  degrees; 
while  the  latter  bound  itself  to  become  affiliated  to  the  university 
of  New  Zealand,  to  hold  in  abeyance  its  power  of  granting  degrees, 
and  to  waive  the  claim  which  it  had  advanced  to  a  royal  charter. 
As  the  result  of  this  arrangement,  the  university  of  Otago  becamo 
possessed  of  10,000  acres  of  land  which  liaJ  been  set  ajurt  for 
university  purposes  in  the  former  province  of  Southland.  In  1877 
a  school  of  mines  was  established  in  connexion  with  the  university. 

In  Canada  the  M'Gill  College  and  Umversity  at  Montreal  was  Montreal, 
founded  by  royal  charter  in  1821  (amended  in  1852)  on  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Honourable  James  M'Gill,  who  died  at-Montreal  19th 
December  1813.  A  number  of  colleges  and  schools  throughout 
the  province  stand  in  the  relation  of  affiliated  institutions.  The 
university  is  Protestant  but  undenominational  It  includes  the 
faculties  of  arts,  applied  sciences,  medicine,  and  law.  In  1385  the 
total  number  of  students,  including  women,  was  526.  The  uui-*  Toronto. 
versify  of  Toronto  was  originally  esuhlished  by  royal  charter  in 
1827,  under  the  title  of  King's  College,  with  certain  religious 
restrictions,  resembling  those  at  that  time  in  force  at  the  English 
universities,  but  in  1834  these  restrictions  were  abolished,  and  in 
1849  the  designation  of  the  university  was  changed  into  that  of 
the  university  of  Toronto  In  1873  further  amendments  wore 
made  in  the  constitution  of  the  university.  The  chancellor  was 
mnde  elective  for  a  period  of  three  years  by  convocation,  which 
was  at  the  same  lime  reorganized  so  as  to  include  all  graduates  in 
law,  medicine,  and  surgery,  all  masters  of  arts,  and  bachelors  of 
arts  of  three  years  standing,  all  doctors  of  science,  and  bachelors 
of  science  of  three  vcars  standing.  The  powers  of  the  senate  were 
also  extended  to  all  branches  of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts, 
to  granting  certificates  of  proficiency  to  women,  and  to  affiliating 
colTcges.  The  work  of  instruction  is  performed  by  Universitj' 
College,  which  is  maintained  out  of  the  endowment  of  the  provincial 
university,  and  governed  by  a  council  composed  of  tho  residentc 
and  tho  professors.  Its  several  chairs  include  classical  literaturtj, 
lo''ic  and  rhetoric,  mathematics  aud  natural  philoso[ihy,  chemistry 
and  experimental  philosophy,  history  and  English  hterature, 
mineralogy  anil  geology,  metaphysics  and  ethics,  meteorology  anij 
natural  history,  and  lectureships  on  Oriental  literature,  Geimai;, 
and  French.     Other  universities  and  colleges  with  power  to  tOoSsS: 


UNIVERSITIES 


857 


Other 
Canadtcm 
\iniver» 
sities. 

Caps  of 

Uood 

Hope. 

Cniver- 

sltlCS 

of  the 
United 
States, 


decrees  are  the  Victoria  University  at  Coboiirg  (1S36),  supported 
by  the  Methodist  Cliurch  of  Canada;  Queen's  University.  Kingston 
{iS4l),  represeutnig  the  Presbyterian  body;  and  the  tiniveisity  oi 
Trinity  College,  Toronto,  founded  in  1S51  on  the  suppression  of  ilic 
faculty  of  divinity  in  Kiiig'sCollege.  Lennoxville  is  a  centre  foruui- 
Vfersity  instruction  in  conformity  with  Church  of  England  principles. 
In  Africa,  an  Act  for  the  incorporation  of  the  university  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  received  the  royal  asseut  26th  June  1873,  the  council 
being  empowered  to  grant  degrees  in  arts,  law,  and  medicine. 

In  the  United  States  of  America  university  etJucation  has 
received  a  great  extension,  without,  however,  e.vercising 
in  Europe  that  reflex  influence  discernible  in  so  many  otiier 
relations.  The  report  of  the  coiJimissioners  of  education  for 
1883-84  gives  a  list  of  no  less  than  370  degreo-giving 
universities  or  colleges  ;  but  of  these  a  large  proportion 
are  sectarian,  others  represent  only  a  single  faculty,  and 
nearly  nine-tenths  have  been  founded  within  the  last  thirty- 
five  years.  Although  a  higher  education  has  unquestion- 
ably been  thus  very  widely  diffused,  the  undue  multiplica; 
tion  of  centres  has,  in  some  provinces,  lowered  the  standard 
of  attainment  and  led  to  a  consequent  depreciation  in  the 
value  of  university  dfigreos.  This  tendency  it  was  sought 
to  counteract  in  the  State  of  Ohio,  some  twenty-five  years 
ago,  by  an  organization  of  the  different  colleges.  The  in- 
struction given  is,  in  most  cases,  almost  gratuitous,  the 
charge  to  each  student  being  less  than  30  dollars  a  year. 
This  cheapening  of  a  higher  education  is  not,  however, 
attended  with  quite  the  same  results  as  in  Germany  (wlicre 
lads' with  little  aptitude  for  a  professional  career  are  thus 
attracted  to  the  professions),  the  rapidly  increasing  popula- 
tion and  the  wider  scope  for  mechanical  or  agricultural 
pursuits  probably  exercising  a  bentricial  counteracting 
influence.  The  distinguishing  characteristics  which  belong 
to  these  numerous  centres  are  described  by  the  president 
of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  in  an  address  delivered 
at  Harvard  in  1S86,  as  suggestive  of  four  different  classes 
of  colleges, — (1)  those  which  proceed  from  the  original 
historic  colleges,  (2)  those  established  in  the  name  of  the 
State,  (3)  those  avowedly  ecclesiastical,  (4)  those  founded 


by  private  benefactions.     To  the  first  class  belong  Harvard  Hirvnril 
College  and  Yale  College  with  their  offshoot,^.     Of  these  f.""'-"- 


two,  the  former  was  founded  in  1638  at  Cambridge,  Mas- 


l  b.-^e. 


sachusetts,  by  a  former  fellow  of  Emmanuel  College  at 
Cambridge  in  England,  and  represented  the  Puritan  tenets 
for  which  the  parent  society  was  at. that  time  noted  ;  the 
latter  was  founded  in  1701   by  the  combined  action  of  a 
few  of- the  ministers  of'  the  State,  a  charter  being  given  in 
the  same  year  by  the  colonial  legislature.     It  was  for  a 
long  time  chiefly  supported  by  the  Congregationalists,  but 
is  now   unsectarian.     The   total    number  of   students   at 
Harvard  in   1882  was  988,  at  Yale  G92.     The  university  UnWet- 
of  Pennsylvania  was  founded  in  1751   by  Thomas  Penn  ^''vf 
and  Richard  Penn,  on  the  lines  of  a  scheme  drawn  up  by  P'  ""syl- 
Benjamin  Franklin,  and  was  from  the  first  placed  on  a  basis  "'"'^ 
comprising  all  denominations.     It  is  distinguished  by  thf 
liberality  with   which  it  has  opened  its  courses  of  instruo 
tion  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  generally;  the  degret 
of  Ph.D.  is  conferred   on  all  comers  after  due  examina. 
tion.     'At  Haverford  and  Lafayette  Colleges,  and  also  at 
the    Lehigh  university,    "advanced  degrees"  are  offered 
"only,  for  higher  study,  prolonged  beyond  the  collegiate 
course,"  instead  of  being  conferred  as  a  matter  of  routine 
after  a  certain  term  of  years.     The  Johns  Hopkins  Uni-  JoBe' 
versity,  also  an  unsectarian  body,  was  founded  at  Baltimore  'l'"'!'^''' 
in  1867,  and  is  already  a  school  of  established  reputation,  V"'"" 
and  especially  resorted  to  by  those  designing  to  follow  the  ^' " 
profession  of    teachers.     It  is  also   dislinsuished   by  the 
possession  of  fellowships,  to  be  held  only  by  students  in- 
tendmg  to  pursue  some  especial  line  of  original  re.search. 
Other  steadily  growing  centres  are  Columbia  College  in 
Kew  York,  founded  in  1754;  the  Cornell  University°aIso 
unsectarian,  recently  enriched  by  the  acquisition  of  a  con- 
siderable endowment ;  Brown's  tiniversity  in  Provideuce  • 
and  those  of  Princeton,  Michigan,  Virginia,  and  California.' 
At  Amherst  College,  where  the  number  of  students  in  1882  Amhersu. 
was  339,  the  experiment  has  recently  been  made  of  par-  CoUeee. 
tially  dispensing  with  examinations  during  the  course  of 


states  and  Territories. 


Alabam.i 

Arkansas 

Caitfornia 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

■Florida 

Georcia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana » 

Maine 

Mar.yl«nd 

Ma.ssachusetts 

.Michican 

.Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Mifisoun 

Nebraska 

New  Ilatnpsllirc 

New  Jeisey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oieiion 

Pennsj'lvauia 

rthoUe  Island 

.Soiitli  Caiolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Viiginia 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Dakota 

[Jislrict  of  Columbia 

Utah 

Washington 

Total 


No  of 
Colleges. 


1.5 

10 
8 

1.5 

in 
3 

10 


3 
20 

I 

4 
2J 

3 
3.1 

G 
21i 

) 


Preparatory  Dcpaitinent. 


N»  of 
Inscnictors. 


1 

ll) 


No.  of 
Students. 


ICT 
Ci.i 


Collegiate  Department. 


No.  of 
Instructors. 


■2.:Kd 
l..ilil 


3!)3 

2n;( 


5'iu 

1.713 


liii; 

l.oir." 

9 

:s:} 

yj 

I.H.'S 

17 

47(1 

34 

1,7  1.' 

■-•3 

l..'7-l 

.'. 

71 

.I 

4'1 

:>8 

OX 

C 

32 

1 

.')'} 

9 

2.^9 

46 
21 
13.5 
26 
76 
6 

65 
232 
131 
188 

78 
114 

66 

35 
118 
1«8 
HI 

73 


No.  of 
Students. 


1.5 
33 


332 
230 
9.)3 

86 
0.5S 

58 


372 

333 

821 

2.1110 

l,n.?2 

4'I9 

24  1 

2  r,.=,7 

1.'7 


J,l'4l 
7.-1S 

2.C"1 
-.'83 

2,I3-. 
270 
371 

I,2S4 

l.llll 
1112 
803 
2  in 
C31 
100 
•142 

"ill 


Income  from 

Fiodiittive 

Funds. 


Receipts  in 

\&^Z  from 

Tuition  Fets. 


$24  nm; 
;.-.o 

lot. .500 
4,4J2 

f4.0;il 
4,980 

K'.iOO 
98,7-.'4 


.5(;,8-.>5 

I4,j.i(i 

4.^.,.sS.! 

228.734 

31:4, .'.92 

84,825 

5l.ur.4 

1  200 

fl,773 

3.;iliU 

30.000 

71  ion 

619,811 

20.750 

170.713 

19.200 

341, .174 

40,157 

I 'I. COO 

89  090 

1.300 

1 ',  i-^i) 

39.0.-,9 

0.400 

«2.(:.'7 


£S,320 

40  2.10 

2,007 

119,393 


500 
119.477 
23  .'..10 


Volumes  in 

College 
Libianes. 


V.nlue  of 
Grounds. 
Bnildini;5,  and 
Appaiatu 


}     32,755         I 


32.767         I   S3,01S,624 


i,OOI 

l,4:.0 


|0J4:3 
7i;.5Sti 


124,-59 

l.,.8t;4 

14,000 

10.410 

344. .'.SO 

20,.500 

110,308 

16. IOC- 

137.533 

33,7.56 

10.530 

53,293 

C0,3io 

6,179 

Jl,«29 

5.200 

19,310 

!0,,";S9 
0,5'IO 
6.300 


$2,105,565 


10.500 
2,820 
53.100 
9.800 
173,Cli0 
3,900 

10  800 
145, t40 
80.5;t4 
61.581 
33,300 
4'l.iM 
38.078 
01,050 
74  400 
312. 5,M 
80,, .05 
20,037 
10,8t^ 
94,707 
17,087 
5.-. 000 
G^.OO(t 
27  4,334 
38,000 
169,0.52 
10.330 
IS3.713 
53,522 
21.090 
60,334 
12,243 
34,8.55 
J2,100 
7, COO 
54. .-,85 
112 
14 .0,  0 
2,913 
2,3.50 


3300,000 
109,000 

1,921,000 
340.000 

1,409,6.30 
30,000 

380,000 
2,501,000 
1,120,090 
1,378,000 
500.000 
920.500 
707,000 
81,1.500 
819,500 
2,201. 0'.i7 
1.380,984 
820,705 
480.000 
2.791,000 
207,000 
100,000 
810. 000 
7,8.59.163 
640,500 
2.899.-.'34 
279,950 
4.338,099 
1.250,000 
320,000 
1,57>»,749 
342.000 
O-t.5,000- 

l,r50,iioo 
200.000 

948.700 

35.000 

1,200,000 

70,000 

180,000 


J16,339,30I 


XXIIL  —  :o8 


858 


U  N'T  — U  N  T 


study,  where  thj  students  give  evidence  of  having  made 
satisfactory  progress.  Considerable  modifications  have  also 
taken  place  in  the  courses  of  study,  nearly  all  the  colleges 
having  now  adopted  the  system  of  "  parallel  courses,"  and 
the  principle  of  selection  between  these.  Female  education 
has  received  in  America  an  extension  which  it  has  attained 
in  no  other  country,  and  one  of  the  colleges  (that  of  Wei- 
lesley)  numbers  several  hundred  students.  Since  the  war 
of  ISGl  a  greatly  increased  attention  has  been  given 
throughout  the  universities  to  physical  training  and 
athletic  exercises,  and  excellent  gymnasia,  constructed  on 
German  models,  have  been  erected. 

The  accompanying  table  (p.  857),  prepared  by  the  council 
of  education  for  the  year  1885-84,  shows  the  distribution 
of  these  centres  iti  the  different  States,  together  with  their 
numbers,  revenues,  libraries,  and  the  estimated  value  o( 
their  endowments. 

Avthnrilies.— On  the  earlier  liistoty  gnd  orpanization  of  the  mediffiTal  unjrer* 
FUies.  the  student  should  consult  F.  C.  von  Savigny,  Gesch.  d.  rornifchm  Jlecftis 
i'H  Muielalter,  7  vols.^  is.»ti-51 ;  for  the  university  of  Paiis,  Du  Boulay.  //isform 
fJnivei-sttahs  ParisicustR,  6  vols.,  Paris.  1CC.5.  Cieviei-.  Jli^t.  de  I' UtnversUe  tie 
fat-it,  7  vols.,  I'oiis,  1761.  and  C.  Joui-dain,  Ilist.  de  VVnivtrsile  de  Pans  au 
XVll"'  et  ait  XVI 11'^'  Steele,  Paris.  1SC2  ;  of  thi-sc  the  woik  of  Uu  Doulny  (Bu- 
Ittus)is  one  of  (rie:it  rese;iicli  and  labour,  but  wanlinp  in  crilic.nl  judpnicnt.  while 
that  of  Crevier is  little  more  than  a  readable  outline  diawn  fiom  the  foitncr.  The 
Tiews  of  Du  Boulay  have  been  ehiillent:ed  on  many  import.mt  points  by  P.  H. 
Denifle  in  the  fiist  volume  of  his  Die  Uiinersitdleji  dtn  Miuelnltevs  bis  lUOO  (188.5), 
and  more  particularly  on  those  relating  to  the  organization  of  the  early  universi- 


ties.  The  work  of  Meiiier.^.  Gcsch.  d.  Entstehnnfj  u.  Etttwickefitngder  hoficn  Scftulcn 
vnseis  Eidr/iFtis,  4  vols.  (1802-5).  must  be  reeardcd  as  almost  superseded  as  a 
Ccncia]  liistory.  and  the  SHmc  may  he  said  of  Hiibers  ^oik  on  the  English 
uiiivcrsdics.  Ote  eitgfisriten  Untrersttaten  (Casscl.  lbJ9-40),  luinslalcrt  by  F.  W. 
Newman.  3  vols.  (I8t5).  .Much  useful  criticism  on  botll  the  Kiij^hsh  and  the 
Conlinental  umveisitics  will  be  found  in  Su  W.  llamiltuns  /Jisnisstwis.  Ac.  1?53. 
For  tiie  GciTnan  universities,  the  works  of  Zarncke.  Dtcdettlscfint  i'mi-rrMlatrii  ini 
^/ittc/ij/tcr  (Lcipsic.  1807).  and  PiUilsen.  Gesch.  d.  getehrien  Ciiterricfitx  anf  dnt 
dfutsihtn  Selitilett  mid  i'mieisitatett  (Lcipsic.  ISS.'*).  will  be  fonn*]  (he  most  ir.ii^t- 
woriliy. — tile  foinier  for  lhemedia;val.  tlie  hitler  for  the  modem  period.  To  these 
may  be  added  two  articles  by  l'.iulscii  in  \ol-  xir.  of  Von  Sybcls  llmtorisetie  Zeit- 
sclii-itt : — ( 1)  ■'  Griiiiduuc  "  and  {?)■■  Oi  pnnisation  u.  Lebensordnungcn  d-  (iemsctieri 
Unncrsitalen  iin  .Miiielaltci' ";  Tlioliick,  Dns  aiadeitiirrlie  leUii  den  17  Jaliiliini- 
dei-Is,  2  vols,  (llalle.  18-')3-54);  \'on  n.iuiner.  Gesch.  d.  Padagoaik.  vol.  iv.  (4tli  ed  . 
J8:2)i  Dolcli,  Gesch.  a.  deiilnchrii  Siudiiiteiiiliiiiiis  (1856);  S'lbel,  Die  dciit^clnit 
Uniiii-Slltilcil  (2d  cd.,  1874);  and  Or  J  CoHiad.  The  Geruinit  Viiireisities  for  the 
last  Fiftp  J'cnj*.  translafcd  by  llincliiusi'U.  wiih  preface  by  James  Uryce,  M.P. 
(Glasgow.  J$S.>).  For  0Nf."'id.  ttiere  are  the  laborious  collpctkitis  by  Aniliony 
Wood,  — //(.</orj/  and  Antiqiiilies  of  (lie  Uiiieeislty  and  of  the  CoHeais  and  Jlnlls  of 
Orford.  e<\iu;ii  with  contiiiiialion  by  Ilcv.  J.  Gllicli.  5  vi.ls.  (17SC-9r,),  and  AJhetim 
and  Ffisti  Olonienses.  ciiixvA  byDl'P  liliss,  *  vols.  (1813-20);  also  Ilie  piihhintiiui.* 
of  the  Ovfoid  Historiciil  Socieiy;  A  Jli>lory  01  the  Unii ei sity  of  Orfoi  d  feom  lliC 
Sarlicsl  Tillies  10  1S30.  by  H-  C.  Ma.vwcU  L>  to  (1S8C):  and  Slaiules  of  the  UtiiceisUy 
of  Oxford  compiled  lii  JC30  vnder  Anfhoiity  of  AichOishop  Laud.  ed.  GiifTlth* 
(Oxford.  1839).  For  Ciimbi  idgc.thc  icscatclies  of  C.  II  Cooper,  (.neatly  surpassuifj 
those  of  Wood  in  tiioroughness  and  imparliality,  are  comprised  in  liiiee  stit'.s: 
{\)Aiiiiah  of  Can.beidge,  4  vols.  (1842-62):  (2)  AllienK  Caiitahrigicnsis.  h'lOO-HiO!), 
2  vols.  (1858-Cl);  (3)  Memorials  of  CaiiibrtJi/e.  3  vols,  (new  cd.,  16>i4).  The  Ardii- 
tectural  History  of  the  Vntversity  of  Cainhridfie  and  of  the  Colleges,  by  the  hue 
llobert  Willis,  edited  and  eonliiiucd  by  J.  Willis  Clark,  4  vols  (16SC),  is  a  work  of 
ndmiiable  tlioroiiphness  and  eompleieness.  To  these  may  be  added  Cambridge 
in  the  Seientfent*t  Ceiititru  ;  Lices  of  Nicholas  Ferrar  and  .Valtheio  Pohiiisan,  \iy 
Prof.  John  E  fi.  Mayor.  2  vols.  (1655,  1850) ;  and  llaker  s  History  of  the  Colline 
of  St  John  the  Frangelisl,  Ci.  ridge,  cducd  by  .Mayor,  2  vi.ls.  (18C!i):  also  J-  it. 
MuIIincer.  History  of  the  Vnirersity  of  Cambridge  from  the  tarliest  Tunes  to 
Accession  of  Charles  /..  2  ^ols.  (1873-85).  For  bollninivci.sjnessre  Itie  Documents 
Issued  by  tiic  Oxford  and  Cambridee  Conimi'Sionsof  1S.>8;  also  the  Wood,  Ilealiie, 
Tanner,  and  lianhnson  .MSS.,  and  the  Cottonian,  Harleion,  Laiisdowne  (cspe* 
cially  Kennett  and  Strype),  Baker,  and  Cole  collectiotis. 


Index. 


Aberdeen  (14'14),  843,  854. 
Abo  (1610).  852. 
Adelaide  (1S74).  856. 
Agiaiii  (I8C:1).  852. 
Alcala(nmi,  851. 
Ahd.iif  (1578).  845. 
American  uiiiveisitics,857. 
Amsterdam  (1877).  850. 
Angers  (1305).  83a. 
Athens  (IS37).  852. 
Arez?o  t.circ.  1215).  83C. 
Avignon  (1.301),  839. 
Banibeii;  (154,-.).  846. 
Basel  (145!)),  812,  851. 
Berlin  (180S),  843. 
Bern  (1834).  851. 
Bologna  (12rli  cent.),  832. 
Bombay  (1S57).  856. 
Bonn  (1818).  843. 
Bordeaux  (1441).  842. 
Bour;,'es  (1465).  842. 
Breslau  (1702).  816. 
Brussels  (1834),  S-'.O. 
Budapest  (1635),  852. 
Caen  (1437).  841. 
Cahors  (1332).  839. 
Calcutta  (1857).  856. 
Cambridge  a2th   cent.), 
038,  862. 


Cape  of  Good  Hopofl873), 

857. 
Chi  istiania  (1811).  850, 
Coimbra(1309),  839.851. 
Cologne  (1388).  840. 
Columbia    College,    U.S. 

(1754),  857. 
Copenhagen  (1479).  842. 
Coinell,  U.S.  (1865),  857. 
Cracow  (1364).  840. 
Czernowitz  (1875),  852. 
Debieczin  College  (1531), 

852. 
Dorput  (1632).  843. 
Durham  (1832).  853. 
Edinburgh  (15S2).  846.854. 
F.rfuil  (1375),  840. 
Erlangen  (1743).  848. 
Fernia(1391).  837. 
Flor  mee  (1320).  837. 
Frante  (1794).  851. 
Franekcr  (l.'i85).  860. 
Fraokfort  -  on  •  the  •  Oder 

(1  06).  843. 
ricliuri;(145.^),  842. 
FilnTtiiclieii  (1367),  840. 
Gen  va  (1876),  851. 
Glieit(161C).  8.50. 
Ciesjen(1607).  845. 


Glasgow  (1453).  843,854. 
GUttingen  (1736),  847. 
Craz  (158C),  851. 
Cieifswald(1456).  842. 
Grenoble  (1339).  839. 
Gionjotcn  (1611).  850. 
llalle  (1691).  847. 
llaidcrwijk(ieOO).  850 
Harvard    College   (1638), 

857. 
Heidelberg  (1385).  840. 
Ilelmslidl  (157.5),  645. 
llclsing(nis(16401.  852. 
Huesca  (13.54).  8.39. 
Ingolstadt  (14.59).  842. 
Inosbilick  (1692).  846. 
Ireland.  Roval  University 

of  (1830l.'6.5.'). 
Jena  (1558).  84.5. 
Johns  llopkins(1867),857. 
Kazan  (1804),  862. 
Khaikoff  (1804).  852. 
Kien(lK03).  652. 
Kiel  (166.5),  850 
KlausenbuiE  (1872).  85J. 
Kolozsvar  (1872).  852. 
K0niKS'jerE(1544).  844. 
Leipsic(1409).  841. 
Lcmbeig (1784),  851. 


Lcrida  (1300).  839 
Leyden  (1575).  850. 
Lidge  (1816),  850 
London  ( 1 826).  654. 
Louvain  (14261.841. 
Lund  (1668).  850. 
.M'Gill.Canada(1821).E^5C 
Madias  (1857).  866. 
Madrid  (1837).  851. 
Mainz  (I47li).  842. 
Maibuig  (15271.844. 
Melbourne  (1853),  856 
Modena(12tli  cent.).  8;1C. 
Monlpcllier  (1269).  633. 
.Montreal  (1821),  856. 
Moscow  ( 1  755).  852. 
Munich  (1826).  848. 
Nantes  (1463),  642. 
Naples  ( 1225).  S36. 
New  Zealand  (1870),  S.5(l. 
Odessa  (1866).  862. 
Ofcn(13S9)  840 
Ohiiulz  (1581).  851. 
Orange  (1.365),  839. 
Orleans  (Kith  rem).  833. 
Otagli(lii69).866. 
Oxford   (12th  cent).  837, 

Paiiua  (1222),  836. 


P.llcncia  (1214).  839. 

raiis(121liccnt.).  834,  846, 
850. 

P.ivia  (1361).  836. 

Pennsylvania  (1761),  857. 

Perpicnan  (1379),  839. 

l'eiugia(1308).  837. 

l'iacenza(124.'s),  636. 

Poitiers  (1431),  Stl. 

Pi.ague(1347),  619,  i\t,. 

Princeton  (1746).  867. 

Punjab  (1883).  856. 

Queen's  University,  Ire- 
land (1850).  655. 

Queen's  Univei^ity,  King, 
slon  (1841),  8.57. 

lieggio  (12111  cent.),  830 

l.'inlein  (1C21).  845. 

Pome  (1303).  630. 

l:oslock(1419).  641. 

St  Andrews  (1411),  8)3, 
854. 

St  David's  Collece.  Lam- 
peter (1822),  S56. 

StPetersbuic(lS19),  652. 

Salamanca  (1241),  819. 

Salerno  (9th  cenr).  832, 

Salzbuig(li;23).  86L      • 

Seville  (1254),  639. 


Siena  (1357),  837. 
Stiasbuig(1621),  84.5, 85t, 
Sydney  (1851).  856. 
Toronto  (1827).  85G»  ■ 
Toulouse  (1'233).  638. 
Troves  (1460).  842. 
Treviso  (1318),  837. 
Tiinitv    College,     Duthn 

II591).  8.55. 
Trinity  College,    Toronto 

(1851),  857. 
Tubingen  (1476),  Sl2. 
Upsala(1477),  842,  850. 
Uttecht  (1634).  850. 
Valence  (1452).  842. 
Valladolid  (1346),  839. 
Veicelh  (rirr.  1228),  836. 
Viccnza(i204).  636. 
Victoria.  Manchester 

(1860),  854. 
Victoria,    Canada  (1830), 

Vieniia(13e4),'840,  85!. 
Vilna  (1803),  652. 
Wales,  colleges  in,  856. 
Wiltcnbeig(1502).  8.(3. 
Yale  College  (1701).  667. 
Zifgrdb  (1669),  852. 
Zurich  (1832),  861. 


imTERWALDEN  is  one  of  the  Forest  cantons  of 
Switzerland,  ranking  as  sixth  in  the  Confederation.  It 
is  composed  of  two  valle,ys  through  which  run  two  streams 
both  called  the  Aa,  and  ■which  are  called  Obwald  and 
Nidwald  from  their  position  with  regard  to  the  great 
forest  of  the  Kernwald  in  which  they  are  situated.  In 
old  documents  the  inhabitants  are  always  described  as 
"homines  intraniontani,"  whether  "  vallis  superioris" 
(Obwald)  or  "  vallis  inferioris "  (Nidwald).  The  total 
area  of  Obwald  is  IS.'J'S  square  miles,  1.^4'2  of  which  are 
classed  as  productive  (forests  37'C),  while  of  the  remainder 
3'8  are  covered  by  glaciers  and  4'3  by  lakesT  The  area 
of  Nidwald  is  ir2'J  square  miles,  84'1   being  productive 

i forests  27 '7) ;  of  the  rest  the  cantonal  bit  of  the  Lake  of 
..ueerne  covers  12'8.     The  highest  point  in  the  canton  is 
the  Titlis  (10,G27  feet)  in  Obwald. 

The  census  of  1880  returned  the  population  of  Obwald 
as  15,356,  an  increase  of  941  on  1870,  and  that  of 
Nidwald  as  11,992,  an  increase  of  291.  In  both  the 
women  have  a  small  majority  over  the  men.  The  native 
tongue  of  practically  the  whole  population  is  German 
(15,254  in  Obwald,  11,809  in  Nidwald),  and  they  are 
nearly  all  Homan  Catholics  (ir>,078  in  Obwald.  11.901  in 


Nidwald).  Till  1814  the  canton  was  in  the  diocese  of 
Constance  ;  since  that  time  it  has  (like  Uri)  formed  legally 
part  of  no  diocese,  though  it  is  provisionally  administered 
by  the  bishop  of  Chur.  The  capital  of  Obwald  is  Sarnen 
(4039  inhabitants).  Kerns  (2500)  being  the  only  other 
place  which  is  more  than  a  village ;  that  of  Nidwald  is 
Stanz  (2210).  The  population  is  purely  agricultural  and 
pabtoral.  In  Obwald  the  forests  are  remarkable,  in 
Nidwald  the  fiery  energy  of  the  inhabitants.  In  educa- 
tional matters  the  standard  is  not  very  high,  but  is  being 
gradually  raised.  At  the  head  of  the  Nidwald  valley  (but 
legally  in  Obwald)  stands  the  great  Benedictine  monastery 
of  Engelberg,  founded  in  1121.  There  are  no  railways, 
but  one  is  being  made  from  Lucerne  through  Obwald  over 
the  Bi'uuig  Pass  to  Meyringen  in  Bern. 

Historictlly  Obwald  was  part  of  the  Aargati,  and  Nidwnld  of 
the  Zurichgau.  In  both  there  were  many  grc.^t  lamlowncrs  (.speci- 
ally the  .abbey  of  Miiib.ich  and  the  Hapsburgs)  and  few  free  incii ; 
wliilc  tbo  fact  tliat  the  H.apsburg3  were  counts  of  tho  Aargau  and 
the  Zurichgau  further  delayed  the  development  of  political  freedom. 
Both  took  part  in  the  ri=ings  of  1245-47,  and  in  124S  Sarnen  was 
threatened  by  the  pope  with  excommunication  for  opposing  its 
hereditary  lord,  the  count  of  Hanshurg.  The  alleged  cruelties  com- 
mitted by  the  Hapsourgs  do  not,  nowever,'  appear  in  liistury  till 


U  N  Y  — U  P  P 


Siy^ 


Jasiinger's Chronidf,  H20(sfeTELL).  On  April  16,  1291,  R«tlol]ih 
the  future  emperor  bouglit  from  Murbacli  all  its  estates  in  Uuicr- 
waitlen  and  thus  ruled  tins  district  as  tlie  cliicf  landowner,  as  count, 
and  as  emperor.  On  Ist  August  1291  Kidwald  foimed  the  "Ever- 
lasting League"  with  Uri  and  Schwvz  (tliis  being  the  first  knov.n 
case  in  which  its  common  seal  is  used),  ObwaUl  joining  a  little  later 
on.  Jn  1304  the  two  valleys  were  joined  together  under  the  s:imc 
imperial  KiililT,  and  in  1309  Henry  VII.  confirmed  to  them  all  the 
liberties  granted  by  his  predecessor — though  none  are  known  to 
have  been  granted.  However,  this  placed  Unterwaldcn  on  an  eijual 
political  footing  with  Uri  and  Schwyz  ;  and  as  such  it  took  }iait  in 
Morgarteu  fight  (also  driving  back  an  invasion  over  the  Briinig 
Pass)  and  in  the  renewal  of  the  Everlasting  League  at  Brnnuen 
(13151.  as  well  as  at  Sempach  (1386),  and  in  driving  back  the 
Ongler  or  English  freebooters  (1375).  For  physical  reasons,  it  was 
diliiciilt  for  Unterwalden  to  enhirge  its  territories.  Yet  in  1363  it 
icquiR-d  Alpnach,  and  in  1373  Heigiswyl.  So  too  Obwald  .shared 
with  Uri  in  the  conquest  of"the  Val  Levcntina  (H03).  and  in  the 
purch.isc  of  Dellinzona  (1419),  as  wel^a3  in  the  loss  of  both  (142C). 
It  was  Nidwald  that,  with  Schwvz  and  Uri,  finally  won  (1500) 
and  ruled  (till  179S)  BcUiuzona,  Riviera,  and  Val  Blegno  ;  while 
both  shared  in  conquests  of  Aargau  (1415),  Thurg.iu  (I4G0),  and 
Locarno,  &c.  (1512).  and  in  the  temporary  occupation  of  the  Val 
d'Ossola  (1410-14  to  1417-22).  In  the  Bur|undian  war  Untcr- 
ivalden,  like  the  other  Forest  cantons,  long  hung  back  throu;th 
jealousy  of  Bern,  but  came  to  the  rescue  in  time  of  need.  In  1481 
it  was  at  Stanz  that  the  Confederates  nearly  broke  up  the  League 
for  various  reasons,  and  it  was  only  by  the  interveution  then  of  the 
holy  hermit  Nicholas  voa  der  Flue  (of  Sachscln  in  Obwald)  that 
peace  was  restored,  and  the  great  federal  agreement  known  as  the 
compact  of  Stauz  concluded.  Like  the  other  Forest  cantons, 
Unterwalden  clung  to  the  old  faith  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
being  a  member  of  the  "Christlicho  Vereinigung"  (1529)  and  of 
the  Golden  League  (15S6). 

In  1798  Unterwalden  resisted  the  Helvetic  republic,  but,  having 
formed  part  of  tho  short-lived  Tellgau,  became  a  district  of  the 
canton  of  the  Waldstatten.  Obwald  submitted  at  an  early  date, 
but  N'id^vald,  refusing  to  accept  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  con* 
stitution  mainly  on  religious  grounds,  rose  in  desperate  revolt 
(September  179S),  and  was  only  put  down  by  the  arrival  of  15,000 
armed  men  and  by  the  storming  of  Stanz.  In  1803  its  independ- 
ence as  a  canton  was  restored,  but  in  1815  Nidwald  refused  to 
accept  the  new  constitution,  and  federal  troops  had  to  be  employed 
to  put  down  its  resistance,  the  punishment  inflicted  being  the 
transfer  to  Obwald  of  the  jurisdiction  over  the  abbey  lands  of 
Engelberg  (since  1421  "protected"  by  both  valleys),  which  inl798 
had  fallen  to  the  lot  of  Nidwald.  Since  that  time  the  history  of 
Unte: waldeu  has  been  like  that  of  the  other  Forest  cantons.  It 
was  a  member  of  the  "  League  of  Sarnen  "  (1832),  to  oppose  the  re- 
forming \vishe9  of  other  cantons,  and  of  the  "Sonderbund" 
(1843)  ;  it  was  defeated  in  the  war  of  1847  ;  and  it  voted  against 
the  acceptance  of  the  federal  constitution  both  in  1843  and 
in  t874.  It  forms  at  present  two  half  cantons,  each  sending  one 
representative  to  tlic  federal  "assembly  of  states."  In  local  matters 
the  two  valleys  are  independent.  In  each  the  supreme  authority 
is  tho  "landsgemeinde"  (meeting  on  the  last  Sunday  in  April), 
composed  of  all  male  citizens  of  twenty  (Obwald)  or  eighteen  (Nid- 
wald) years  of  age,  while  the  cantonal  council,  which  drafts  measures 
and  sanctions  the  expenditure  of  sums  below  certain  fixed  small 
amounts,  is  composed  in  Obwald  of  80  membera  (including  the 
executive  council)  elected  by  the  people  for  4  years,  and  in  Nidwald 
of  48  (besides  the  executive  council)  chosen  in  the  same  way  for  6 
years.  The  executive  council  is  in  both  cases  elected  by  the  "  lands- 
gemeinde";  in  Obwald  it  consists  of  3  offifials  and  4  ordinary  mem- 
bers, and  in  Nidwald  of  6  officials  and  5  ordinary  liiembers, — the 
official  members  being  chosen  every  year,  the  ordinary  every  4  or  3 
years  respectively.  The  existing  constitution  of  Obwald  is  that  of 
1867  ;  that  of  Nidwald  is  dated  1850.  and  was  amended  in  1877-78. 

It  is  very  remarkable  that  in  both  valleys  the  old '"common 
lands  "  are  still  in  the  hand^  of  the  old  guilds,  and  "  gemciiiden  " 
consist  of  natives,'  not  merely  residents,  though  in  Obwald  these 
contribute  to  the  expenses  of  the  new  "political  communes"  of 
residents,  while  in  Nidwald  the  latter  have  to  raise  special  taxes. 
In  Engelberg  (which  still  retains  some  independence)  the  poor  arc 
greatly  favoured  in  the  division  of  the  common  lands  and  tiieir 
proceeds,  and  unmarried  persons  (or  widowers  and  widows)  receive 
only  half  the  share  of  those  who  are  married. 
See  J.  Busingcr.  />)>  Ge^cUichlen  des  VoHes  von  i'jilenralden,  2  vols.,  1S27-2S. 

UNYORO,  a  kingdom  of  Cetitral  Africa,  bounded  on 
the  N.  and  E.  by  the  Nile,  on  the  AV.  by  the  Albert 
Nyanza,  and  on  the  S.E.  by  the  kingdom  of  Uganda. 
Its  area  is  about  1600  square  milss.  The  country  is  very 
fertile,  well-watered,  and  thickly  wooded  ;  for  the  most 
part  it  is  hilly  in  character,  especially  ou  the  borders  of 
♦he.  Albert  Lake  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Massindi  and 


Kiroto,  where  the  mountains  have  an  altitude  of  from 
SOOO  to  GOOO  feet.  Tlie  pnpulatioa  i.s  about  l,.'iOO,000. 
The  Wanyoro  are  of  a  darli  reddish-brown  colour,  and 
are  fully  clothed,  but  are  not  so  fine  in  physique,  nor  so 
high  in  intellectual  development  as  their  neighbours  the 
AVaganda,  to  whom,  however,  they  appear  to  be  very 
nearly  related.  The  reigning  family  in  Unyoro  belongs  to 
the  Wahuma  tribe,  and  is  probably  the  oldest  reigning 
Wahuma  family  in  this  part  of  Africa.  The  country  is 
governed  on  the  feudal  system.  Numerous  tribes  to  the 
east  and  north  of  the  Nile,  and  also  on  the  western  side 
of  the  Albert  Nyanza,  pay  a  small  tribute  to  the-Wanyoro. 
The  latter  pos.'iess  large  herds  of  cattle,  and  are  very  good 
herdsmen.  The  land,  too,  is  cultivated  to  a  considerable 
extent, — bananas,  sweet  potatoes,  and  dhuri^  being  grown 
in  large  quantities.  Coffee  and  tobacco  are  cultivated  to 
a  small  extent.  The  people  are  very  superstitious,  and 
the  numerous  medicine  men  and  women  reap  a  rich  harvest 
from  their  credulity.  The  Wanyoro  huts  are  dome  shaped, 
small,  and  extremely  filthy  and  full  of  vermin,  although 
the  people  themselves  are  cleanly.  Polygamy  is  universal, 
even  the  poorest  man  possessing  two  or  three  wives.  Not- 
withstanding this,  the  people  are  fairly  moral;  but  Unyoro 
is  remarkable  amongst  Central  African  tribes  for  the  exists 
ence  of  a  definite  class  of  courtesans.  The  Wanyoro  are 
moderately  skilful  workmen,  and  their  iron-work,  pottery, 
and  wood-work  are  both  neat  and  tasteful.  The  only 
article  they  export  is  salt,  which  is  obtained  in  considerable 
quantities  at  Kibiro  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Albert. 

See  -Baker's  Albert  I^'ynnza,  Felkin  and  Wilson's  Ujanda  ami 
(he  Efjypiinn  Soiuian,  and  various  papers  in  PcUrmann's  Mitthcil- 
ungen  by  Emin  Pasha. 

UPANISHADS.     See  Sanskrit,  vol.  xxi.  p.  280,  and 

BP.AHMAJflSM. 

"UPAS,  a  Javanese  word  moanmg  poison,  and  specially 
applied  by  the  Malays  and  people  of  western  Java  to  the 
poison  derived  from  the  gum  of  the  anchar  tree  {An<iai-is 
loxicaria),  one  of  the  Artocarpex,  which  was  commonly 
used  in  Celebes  to  envenom  the  bamboo  darts  of  the 
native.s.  The  name  of  the  upas  tree  has  become  famous 
from  the  mendacious  account  (professedly  by  one  Foersch, 
who  was  a  surgeon- at  Samarang  in  1773)  published  i:i 
the  London  Magazine,  December  17? 3,  and  popularized 
by  Erasmus  Darwin  in  "  Loves  of  tho  Plants ','  {Botnrn'c 
Garden,  pt.  ii.).  The  tree  was  said  to  destroy  all  ar.im.il 
life  within  a  radius  of  15  miles  or  more.  The  poison  wiis' 
fetched  by  condemned  malefactors,  of  whom  scarcely  tv.o 
out  of  twenty  returned.  All  this  is  pure  fable,  and  in 
good  part  not  even  traditional  fable,  but  mere  invention. 

For  a  scientific  account  of  the  ^ntiaris,  see  Horsfield's  Phxnl.s 
Javanicm  Rariorcs  (1838-52)  and  Blume's  Jiumpkia.  (Brussels, 
1S36),  and  for  the  legend  Yule,  Anglo-Indian  Glossn.nj,  p.  726  s^. 

UPPER  SIND  FRONTIER,  a  district  of  Briti.-,h  India, 
forming  the  northernmost  portion  of  the  province  of  Sind, 
in  the  Bombay  presidency.  It  comprises  an  area  of  213!) 
square  mile.s,  and  lies  between  27°  56'  and  2S°  27'  N.  lat. 
and  between  68°  and  69°  44'  E,  long.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  and  W.  by  the  Derajat  districts  of  the  Punjab  and 
the  territory  of  Khelat,  on  the  S.  by  Shikarpur  district, 
and  on  the  E.  by  the  Indus.  In  the  north  east  the 
country  is  hilly;  the  remainder  consists  of  a  narrow  strip 
of  level  plain,  one  half  being  covered  with  jungle  and 
subject  to  inundation,  from  which  it  is  protected  b;, 
artificial  embankments.  The  land  is  watered  by  canals 
from  the  Indus,  of  which  the  chief  is  the  BegAri  (85  mile.s- 
in  length),  navigable  throughout  by  large  boats,  and  tho 
Desert  Canal,  which  irrigates  the  country  west  of  Kashmor. 
The  district  contains  several  thriving  timber  plantations. 
The  wild  animals  comprise  an  occasional  tiger  and  hya?nHs  . 
wild  hogs  and  jackals  abound  ;  fo.xcs  arc  occasionally  met 


860 


U  P  S— U  P  S 


with ;  and  antelopes,  hog-deer,  and  a  spe^-ies  of  sdmbhar 
•deer  are  found  in  the  dense  jungle  tracts  adjoining  the 
Indus.  The  climate  is  remarkable  for  its  dryness  and  for 
its  extraordinary  variations  of  temperature.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  at  Jacobabad  is  less  than  5  inches.  There 
are  numerous  roads  of  all  descriptions,  and  the  Frontier 
Military  Railway  from  Sukkur  via  Jacobabad  to  Sibi 
crosses  the  district. 

'  The  census  of  1881  returned  the  population  as  124,181  (males 
70,166,  females  54,015), — Hindus  numbering  9894,  Mohammedans 
109,183,  and  Christians  230.  The  chief  town  is  jacobabad,  with 
i  population  of  7365.  In  1885-86  the  cultivated  area  was  esti- 
mated at  361,415  acres,  of  which  137,149  were  cropped,  and  of 
these  again  8163  were  cropped  more  than  once.  The  principal 
crops  are  wheat,  joar,  bajra,  rice,  barley,  mustard-seed,  and  a  little 
cotton  and  gram.  Salt,  lacquered  work,  leathern  jars,  embroidered 
flhoes,  woollen  carpets,  and  saddle-bags  are  the  princiiial  manu- 
factures. The  internal  trade  is  principally  in  gram,  tiie  greater 
part  of  which  is  sent  to  the  Punjab,  and  the  transit  trade  from 
Central  Asia  into  Sind  crosses  the  district,  bringing  wool  and 
woollen  goods,  fruits,  carpets,  and  horses. 

UPSALA,  a  city  of  Sweden,  the  seat  or  its  oldest 
university  and  residence  of  the  archbishop  of  Sweden,  is 
situated  on  the  small  river  Fyris,  42  miles  north  of  Stock- 
holm. In  spite  of  its  position  in  a  vast  and  fertile  plain, 
Upsala  was  a  rathw  insignificant  little  town  till  the  open- 
ing of  railway  communication  in  1866.  The  population, 
which  in  1840  was  only  5100,  had  at  the  end  of  1885 
increased  to  more  than  20,000  (with  students,  scholars, 
and  others,  2-3,000).  The  industries  of  the  place  are  still 
unimportant,  but  its  trade  by  sea  (navigation  being  open 
for  six  or  seven  months  of  the  year)  and  by  rail  is  some- 
what livelier.  Upsala  owes  its  fame  to  its  university, 
which  was  founded  in  1477.  In  1624  Gustavus  Adolphus 
Endowed  it  with  300  farms,  the  revenue  of  which  formed 
its  entire  income  for  more  than  two  hundred  years. 
Parliament  now  contributes  nearly  the  half  of  its  whole 
revenue  (393,300  crowns,  or  about  £21,800,  in  1885). 
The  professors  numbered  58  in  1887,  with  61  "docents" 
and  assistant  teachers,  and  there  were  1928  students.  The 
last-n;tined  are  divided  into  13  "nations"  (based  on  the 
old  ecclesiastical  division  of  the  country),  almost  every  one 
of  which  possesses  a  house  of  its  own,  with  a  hall,  reading- 
rooms,  and  library.  About  £7200  is  distributed  yearly 
in  "stipendia"  or  scholarships.  The  new  university 
house,  above  the  cathedral,  on  the  site  of  the  former 
archbishop's  castle,  is  in  the  Renaissance  style,  and  was 
built  in  1879-87.  It  has  a  great  hall  capable  of  holding 
2000  persons,  eleven  lecture-rooms,  &c.  The  vestibule, 
lighted  from  above  by  three  large  cupolas,  and  surrounded 
by  open  galleries,  is  particularly  fine.  The  library  building 
(called  Carolina  Rediviva,  in  remembrance  of  the  Carolina 
which  formerly  existed  near  the  cathedral)  was  erected  in 
1819-41.  The  library,  which  has  a  right  to  a  cqjy  of 
■every  book  printed  in  Sweden,  at  present  (1887)  contains 
250,000  volumes  and  11,000  MSS.,  among  which  is  the 
famous  Codex  Aryenleus  of  Ulfilas's  translation  of  the 
■Gospels.  The  "  Gustavianum,"  built  by  order  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus  for  a  university  house,  is  now  wholly  occupied 
iov  the  zoological  institution.     The  botanical  garden  (which 


formerly  belonged  to  the  castle)  was  presented  by  Gustavus 
III.  to  the  university  in  1787, — the  former  garden  (in  the 
northern  part  of  the  city),  where  Rudbeck  and  Linnaeus 
worked,  and  where  the  residence  of  the  latter  is  still  tq 
be  seen,  having  been  found  too  small  and  inconvenient. 
The  medical  faculty  possesses  a  hospital  and  anatomical, 
chemical,  and  pathologico-physiological  institutions ;  and 
about  a  mile  from  the  town  there  is  a  magnificent  lunatia 
asylum.  The  astronomical  and  meteorological  institu- 
tions, as  well  as  those  of  chemistry  and  physics,  have  also 
special  buildings,  all  of  recent  date.  The  Royal  Society 
of  Sciences,  establi.shed  in  1710  by  Eric  Benzelius,  the 
younger,  occupies  a  house  of  its  own,  and  has  a  valuable 
library.  Of  the  buildings  the  cathedral,  founded  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  13th  century  and  completed  in  1435,  is 
the  most  remarkable.  The  material  is  brick,  but  tha 
proportions  are  uncommonly  noble  and  harmonious ;  the 
length  is  390  feet,  and  the  height  inside  88.  It  has 
sufl'ered  considerably  from  repeated  fires,  but  since  1886 
an  extensive  restoration  has  been  going  on.  The  castle, 
on  the  summit  of  a  long  ridge  above  the  town,  was 
founded  in  1548  by  Gustavus  I.,  but  not  fini.shed  till  a 
century  later,  when  it  was  often  used  as  a  royal  residence. 
It  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1702,  and  for  more  than  forty 
years  remained  a  ruin.  At  present  only  A  small  part  of  it 
is  habitable,  and  that  part  is  chiclly  used  by  ■the  provincial 
government,  and  as  a  residence  of  the  governor.  Apart 
from  the  cathedral  and  a  few  insignificant  houses,  there 
are  no  remains  from  the  medieval  period,  the  city  formerly 
having  consisted  almost  entirely  of  wooden  houses. 

The  name  of  Upsala  originally  belonged  to  a  place  nearly  2  miles 
to  the  north  of  the  present  city,  which  is  still  called  Old  Upsahi. 
This  Upsala,  mentiooed  as  early  as  the  9th  century,  was  famous 
throughout  Scandinavia  for  its  splendid  heathen  temple,  wliieh, 
gleaming  with  gold,  made  it  the  centre  of  Svithiod,  then  divided  into 
a  great  number  of  kingdoms  ;  three  huge  grave  mounds  or  barrows 
still  commemorate  old  times.  In  tlie  same  place  the  first  cathedral 
of  the  bishops  of  Upsala  was  also  erected  (about  1100).  On  the 
destruction  of  this  building  by  fire,  the  inconvenient  situation 
caused  the  removal  in  1273  of  the  arcliiejuscopal  see  to  the 
present  city,  then  called  Ostra  Aros,*  but  witiiiu  a  comparatively 
short  time  it  came  to  be  generally  called  Upsala.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  the  catheilral  and  the  see  of  the  archbishop  made 
Upsala  a  kind  of  ecclesiastical  capital.  There  the  kings  were 
crowned,  after  the  election  h.id  taken  place  at  the  Mora  stones, 
10  miles  south-east  of  Upsala.-  As  early  as  the  14th  century, 
however,  Stockholm  became  the  proper  residence  of  the  king.  In 
1567  Erik  XIV.  murdered  in  the  castle  five  of  the  most  eminent 
men  of  the  kingdom,  lliree  of  them  belonging  to  the  family  of 
Sturc.  In  1593  was  held  the  great  synod  which  marks  the  final 
victory  of  Protest-intisni  in  Sweden  ;  in  the  same  year  the  university 
w-as  restored  by  Charles  IX.  In  the  castle  Christina,  daughter  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  resigned  her  crown  to  Charles  X.  in  1654.  In 
1702  nearly  the  whole  city,  with  the  castle  and  the  cathedral,  was 
burnt  down.  Among  the  teachers  of  the  university  who  have 
carried  its  name  beyond  the  boundaries  of  their  own  country,  thq 
following  (besides  Linnaeus)  deserve  to  be  mentioned : — Olol 
Rudbeck  the  elder,  the  author  of  the  Allanhca  (1630-1702)) 
Torbcru  Bi-igman  (1735-1784),  the  celebrated  chemist;  and  Erik 
Gustaf  Geijer  (1783-1847),  the  historian. 

^  The  Tianie  first  occui-s  in  Snorro  Sturhison  iu  connexion  with 
the  events  of  the  year  1018  ;  it  .signifies  "the  mouth  of  the  caste'- 


END    OF    VOLDMB    TWENTY-THIRD. 


APPEXDIX 


AMERICAN  REVISIOIS^S  AND  ADDITIONS 


i()  THE 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA   BRITANNICA 

{XIXTH  EDITION.) 


A  DICTTONARY  OF 
ARTS,  SCIENCES  AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE 


BY 

W.  H.  DE  PUY,  DD.,  LL.D., 

ASSISTED   BY   A   CORPS   OF    TRAINED    WRITERS. 


CHICAGO 
R  S.  PEALE  COMPAI^rr 

1892 


COPYRIGHT,    1891, 

Bt   R.  S.   Peale  &  Co. 


1470 


T 


TAAFFE    TALLAHASSEE. 


TAAPFE,  Count  Edwakd  Feancis  Joseph,  in 
tbe  Austrian  peerage,  and  Viscount  Taafle  of 
Corren,  and  baron  of  Ballymote,  Sligo,  in  tlie 
Irisli  peerage,  born  in  the  city  of  Prague  in  1833. 
He  was  brought  up  in  eompauiouship  with  the 
present  Emperor  Francis  Joseph.  The  count  is 
a  descendant  of  that  powerful  nobleman  of  tlje 
same  name  "ho  proceeded  from  Ireland  and 
made  a  great  name  in  tbe  Germanic  Empire. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Salzburg  iu  1863. 
In  1867  he  became  Austrian  minister  of  the  in- 
terior and  vice-president  of  the  Cisleithan  min- 
istry. At  the  hitter  end  of  1869  he  served  as 
minister  president.  In  1871  he  accepted  the 
office  of  governor  of  the  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg. 
In  1880  he  was  summoned  to  form  a  new  cabinet, 
over  which  he  still  presides.  The  distinguishing 
feature  of  Count  Taafle's  clerical  and  federalistic 
administration  has  been  to  give  greater  weight  to 
the  Slav  nationalities,  especially  the  Czechs  and 
the  Poles,  as  well  as  to  the  clericals,  in  the  public 
affairs  of  the  empire,  and  to  conciliate  the  diverg- 
ent nationalities  comprising  the  kingdom. 

TABBY,  or  TABisriNG,  another  mime  for  water- 
ing fabrics.  It  is  usually  applied  to  stuff's  or 
worsted  cloths  instead  of  silks. 

TABERNACLES,  Feast  of  (Vulg.  Ferim  Tah- 
ernaculorum),  a  Hebrew  feast  of  seven  days'  du- 
ration, beginning  on  the  1.5th  day  of  the  7th 
month  (Tishri),  and  instituted  iiriucipally  in 
memory  of  the  nomad  life  of  the  people  in  the 
desert,  and  the  booths  or  tents  used  on  their 
march.  Besides  this  signilication  it  also  had  an 
agricultural  one,  like  the  other  two  pilgrimage 
festivals,  the  Passah  and  the  Feast  of  Weeks.  It 
was  emphatically  the  Feast  of  "  Ingathering," 
that  is,  the  close  of  the  labors  of  the  field  —  the 
harvest  of  all  the  fruits,  of  the  corn,  the  wine,  and 
the  oil.  During  this  feast,  the  great  bulk  of  the 
people  were  enjoined  to  dwell  in  booths,  which 
were  made  of  olive,  pine,  myrtle,  palm  and  other 
branches,  and  weie  erected  on  the  roofs  of  houses, 
and  in  the  courts  and  streets. 

TABLEAUX  VIVANTS  (living  pictures),  rep- 
resentations of  works  of  painting  and  sculpture, 
or  of  scenes  from  history  or  fiction,  by  living  per- 
sons. They  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Madam  de  Genlis  when  she  had  charge  of  the 
education  of  the  children  of  the  duke  of  Orleans. 
They  have  long  been  common  in  theaters,  and 
have  more  recently  become  an  amusement  of 
private  circles. 

TACAUODT,  the  native  name  of  the  small  gall 
formed  on  the  Indian  Vdmar\sk  (Tamnrix  ffallica, 
var.  Imlicu).  Since  the  discovery  of  photography, 
this  gall  hjis  bccouK!  of  cousiderabh^  injportauce  as 
a  source  of  gallic,  acid,  of  which  it  contains  a  large 
proportion.  The  French  chemists  import  con- 
siderable (juantitics;  and  the  same  gall,  under  the 
name  of  mahn\  is  imported  by  the  British  chemists 
from  Indiii, 

TACITUIiNITY,  in  th(!  law  of  Scotland,  a  mode 
of  extinguishing  an  obligation  by  mere  silence,  and 
making  no  claim  upon  it  for  a  long  time-     It  is  a 


distinct  ground,  and  embraces  a  shorter  period 
than  the  ordinary  prescription  or  limitation  ;  for  if 
a  creditor  never  apply  for  payment  or  performance 
of  the  obligation,  a  presumption  arises  either  that 
there  never  was  such  an  obligation,  or  that  he  has 
abandoned  it. 

TACKING  OF  MORTGAGES,  in  the  law  of 
England,  a  practice  that  sometimes  occurs  in  the 
course  of  mortgage  securities,  when  one  person 
acquires  more  than  one  mortgage  over  the  same 
estate.  Thus,  though  mortgages,  according  t* 
the  general  rule,  rank  according  to  the  order  of 
date,  yet,  if  a  third  mortgagee,  who  became  .so 
without  notice  of  a  second  incumbrance,  purchase 
the  same  mortgage  even  after  notice  of  the  second 
mortgage,  so  as  to  acquire  a  legal  title,  and  if  he 
holds  them  both  in  his  own  right,  he  can  tack  the 
one  to  the  other,  and  so  obtain  priority  for  the 
third  mortgage  over  the  second  mortgage.  This 
is  on  account  of  an  old  technicality,  scarcely  intel- 
ligible to  any  but  lawyers. 

TACONIC  SYSTEM,  an  extensive  serlesof  rocks 
in  the  United  States,  described  by  Dr.  Emmons. 
They  consist  of  two  divisions,  the  upper  having  a 
thickness  of  25,000  feet,  and  containing  lower 
Silurian  fossils;  and  the  lower,  with  5,000  feet  of 
thickness,  in  which,  as  yet,  no  fossils  have  been 
found,  but  which  is  generally  considered  to  be  the 
equivalent  of  the  Cambrian  rocks  of  Britain. 

TAILZIE,  the  ancient  term  in  the  law  of  Scot- 
land to  denote  a  deed  creating  an  entailed  estate. 

TAJ  MAHAL,  a  costly  tomb  built  in  Cawniioor, 
India,  by  the  Emperor  Shah  Jehan,  as  a  burial 
place  for  his  favorite  wife.  It  is  said  to  have  taken 
20,000  workmen  seventeen  years  to  complete  the 
structure,  and  its  cost  was  estimated  at  $15,000,- 
000.  A  tourist  who  saw  it  in  1891,  wrote:  "To 
describe  the  'Taj'  is  an  impossibility.  You  are 
dazzled,  surprised,  bewildered  and  inspired  to  think 
that  such  work  could  ever  have  been  done  by 
human  hands.  It  is  like  a  glimpse  of  paradise, 
something  never  to  be  forgotten,  and,  as  you  leave 
this  tomb  of  tombs  and  this  palace  of  palaces,  and 
go  out  once  more  into  the  bright  sunshine,  it  .seems 
that  you  have  witnessed  some  beautiful  vision,  or 
taken  a  trip  to  the  .so-called  'fairy  land.'" 

TALBOT,  perhaps  originally  a  name  equivalent 
to  bloodhound,  but  afterward  applied  to  a  race  of 
hounds,  now  extinct,  or  nearly  so,  which  seem  to 
have  been  kept  for  show  rather  than  for  use  The 
Talbot  was  of  a  pure  white  color,  with  large  head, 
very  broad  muzzle,  long  pendulous  ears,  and  rmigb 
hair  on  the  belly.  The  white  St.  Hubert  dog  was 
either  the  Talbot  or  a  nearly  allied  breed.  The 
Talbot  is  the  badge  of  the  ancient  House  of  Shrews- 
bury (surname  Talbot),  and  the  crest  of  .some  of 
the  princely  houses  of  Germany. 

TALLADEGA,  a  prosperous  town  of  Alabama, 
the  seat  of  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf,  Dumb  and 
Blind. 

TALLAHASSEE,  a  city,  the  capital  of  Florida, 
and  the  county-seat  of  Leon  county,  ])leasantly  sit- 
uated on  the  Jacksonville,  Peusacola  and  Mobile 
Railroad,  in  northern  Florida.     The  city  is  regu- 


T  A  L  L  0  W     J'  R  E  E  —  T  A  N  E  V 


1471 


larly  laid  out,  and  is  tlie  center  of  a  pousideiable 
local  trade.  It  has  several  excellent  private 
schools.     Population  in  1890,  2,933. 

TALLOW  TREE,  the  name  given  in  difl'ereut 
parts  of  the  world  to  trees  of  difi'erent  kinds  which 
produce  a  thick  oil  or  vegetable  tallow,  or  a  some- 
what resinous  substance,  which,  like  tallow,  is  cap- 
able of  being  used  for  making  candles.  The  Tal- 
low Tree  of  Malabar  (Vateria  ludicii)  is  a  very 
large  tree  of  the  natural  order  Dipterocarpacea. 
It  has  leathery  leaves  four  to  ten  feet  long,  and 
l)anicles  of  white,  fragrant  flowers,  with  five  petals. 
T!ic  stem  is  often  sixteen  feet  in  circumference.  By 
incisions  in  the  stem.  East  Indian  copal  isobtained; 
and  by  boiling  its  seeds,  there  is  extracted  a  firm, 
white,  vegetable  tallow,  which,  as  it  has  no  un- 
pleasant smell,  is  particularly  suitable  for  making 
both  candles  and  soap.  —The  Tallow  Tree  of  China 
(SlilUngia  sebifera)  belongs  to  the  natural  order 
Eti/phorbiaceo'.  The  candles  made  of  it  are  beauti- 
fully white.  This  tree  has  been  introduced  into 
North  America,  is  cultivated  about  Charleston  and 
Savannah,  and  is  almost  naturalized  in  the  mari- 
time parts  of  Carolina.  It  presents  a  very  beauti- 
ful and  remarkable  appearance  at  the  approach  of 
winter,  when  the  leaves  become  bright  red,  and  the 
pericarps  falling  off,  leave  the  white  seeds  sus- 
pended by  threads. 

TALLY,  the  name  given  to  the  notched  sticks 
which,  till  a  recent  period,  were  used  in  England 
for  keeping  accounts  in  Exchequer,  answering  the 
doable  purpose  of  receipts  and  public  records. 
They  were  well  seasoned  rods  of  hazel  or  willow, 
inscribed  on  one  side  with  notches  indicating  the 
sura  for  which  the  tally  was  an  acknowledgment, 
and  on  two  opposite  sides  with  the  same  sum  in 
Roman  characters,  along  with  the  name  of  the 
payer  and  the  date  of  the  transaction. 

TALMAGE.  Thomas  De  Witt,  born  in  New 
Jersey  in  1832.  He  entered  the  legal  profession, 
but,  after  a  shiut  period,  prepared  for  the  ministry 
at  the  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary.  His 
first  pastorate  was  at  Belleville,  N.  J.;  he  after- 
ward removed  to  Philadelphia,  where  his  rising 
fame  induced  the  church  at  Brooklyn  to  make 
strenuous  eftbrts  to  obtain  his  services  as  their 
minister,  and  he  preached  his  first  sermon  there  in 
March.  1869.  The  great  success  which  attended 
Dr.  Talmage's  preaching  necessitated  the  enlarge 
ment  of  the  Tabernacle  in  187L,  but  it  was  burned 
a  Near  later.  However,  a  still  larger  and  finer 
structure  was  soon  built,  but  this  was  also  burnt 
down  in  1889.  A  new  church  was  built,  at  a  cost 
of  about  ,'f400,000,  and  dedicated  in  1891.  Dr. 
Talmage  visited  England  in  1889,  and  afterward 
made  a  tour  in  Pale.stine  and  on  the  Continent. 
He  is  the  author  of  several  volumes  of  .sermons 
and  other  religious  work.".  From  Manfier  to 
Throne  was  published  after  his  return  from  the 
Holy  Land. 

TALUS,  a  term  employed  in  geology  to  desig- 
nate the  sloping  heap  which  accumulates  at  the 
base  of  a  rock  or  precipice,  from  fragments  broken 
ofl'  h\  the  weather,  or  materials  in  any  way  carried 
over  it.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  slope  of 
a  wall  which  diminishes  in  thickness  as  it  ri.ses. 

TAMAQUA,  a  citv  of  Pennsylvania.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,  4,672.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII, 
p.  40. 

TAMARA  SPICE,  a  favorite  mixture  of  condi- 


ments used  by  the  Italians.  It  consists  of  pow- 
dered cinnamon,  cloves,  and  coriander  seeds  in 
equal  parts,  and  half  the  same  quantity  of  aniseed 
and  fennel-seed  ])owdered. 

TAMARIN  (Midas),  a  genus  of  South  American 
monkeys,  small  and  beautiful,  with  short  muzzle, 
prominent  forehead,  long  nails,  which,  except  on 
the  hinder  thumbs,  are  formed  like  claws,  the  tail 
longer  than  the  body,  not  prehensile,  and  covered 
with  hair  so  as  to  resemble  the  tail  of  a  squirrel. 
The  Silky  Tamakin,  or  Marakina  (31.  rosalia), 
is  the  best  known  of  the  gei;us.  It  is  of  a  golden 
yellow  color,  with  fine,  silky  hair,  which  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly careful  to  keep  free  from  stain.  It  is 
often  brought  to  Europe,  but  is  very  tender,  and 
seldom  lives  long.  It  is  a  very  gentle  and  playful 
creature. 

TAMBOUR,  a  frame  originally  made  round,  upon 
which  muslin  or  other  material  is  stretched  for 
embroidering.  Tambour-work  was  extensively 
employed  for  the  decoration  of  large  surfaces  of 
muslin,  etc.,  for  curtains  and  similar  purposes;  but 
pattern-weaving  has  been  brought  to  resemble  it 
so  closely  that  it  is  being  rapidly  superseded. 

TAMBOURINE,  a  very  ancient  musical  instru- 
ment of  the  drum  species,  much  used  by  the  Bis- 
cayan  and  Italian  peasants  at  their  festivities,  and 
sometimes  introduced  into  orchestral  music  where 
the  subject  of  the  piece  is  connected  with  a  people 
who  use  it,  as  the  Basques,  gypsies,  or  peasants  of 
the  Abruzzi. 

TAMMANY  SOCIETY,  a  noted  political  organ- 
ization of  the  Democratic  party  in  New  York. 
The  society  in  New  York  city  was  organized  iu 
1789.  Early  in  its  history  it  began  to  be  used  as 
a  political  engine,  and  in  time  became  the  most 
effective  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Democratic  party  of  the  city  and  state  of  New 
York.  Much  reproach  was  brought  upon  the 
society  by  the  famous  '■  Ring,  ■'  which  for  some 
years  ruled  in  its  councils,  and  which  nearly  proved 
its  ruin;  but  a  reorganization  was  afterward  ef- 
fected, and  the  regular  meetings  of  the  as.sociation 
continue  to  be  held  in  Tammany  Hall.  See  Polit- 
ical Parties  in  these  Revisions  and  .Additions; 
also  Britannica,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  463. 

TAMPA,  a  town  and  an  important  shipping 
port  of  Florida,  on  the  Gulf  coast.  It  is  interested 
in  the  manufacture  of  lumber. 

TAMPICO,  or  Santa  Anxa  de  TAMArLiPAS, 
a  seaport  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of  Tamaulipas,  on 
the  I'anuco,  five  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  a  danger- 
ous bar,  and  the  harbor  is  unsafe.  Hides,  tallow, 
bones  and  salted  meat  are  exported  to  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States. 

TAMPION,  the  wooden  plug  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  to  preserve  it  from 
dust  and  damp.  In  naval  gunnery,  the  tampion  is 
the  wooden  bottom  for  a  charge  of  grape.-^hot. 

TAM-TAM,  an  Indian  musical  instrument,  re- 
sembling the  tambourine,  but  larger  and  more 
powerful,  and  oval  instead  of  round.  It  has  been 
occasionally  introduced  into  orchestral  bauds. 

TAN-BALLS,  tan-bark  pressed  mto  balls  or 
lumps,  which  harden  on  drying,  and  serve  for  fuel 
in  many  parts  of  England. 

TANEY,  Roger  Brooke,  chief-justice  of  the 
United  States,  born  in  Calvert  county,  il<l.,  in  1777, 
died  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1861.     After  studying 


1472 


T  A  N  K  -  W  0  K  M  S  ~  T  A  K  G  0  W  I  T  Z 


law  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1799,  and  soon 
obtained  a  large  practice.  He  removed  to  Balti- 
more in  1823.  In  1831  President  Jackson  made 
him  United  States  attorney-general,  and  in  De- 
cember, 1835,  Jackson  nominated  biiii  chief-justice 
of  the  United  States.  In  the  Dred  Scott  decision 
(see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  772)  Chief-Justice 
Taney  decided  that  a  negro  slave  had  no  standing 
in  a  United  States  court,  and  that  he  had  "  no 
rights  which  a  white  man  was  bound  to  respect. " 
This  decision,  rendered  in  March,  1857,  roused  in 
the  North  a  fierce  and  determined  antagonism  to 
the  domination  of  the  slave  power.  Taney  died  on 
the  same  day  on  which  the  State  of  Maryland 
abolished  slavery,  Oct.  12,  1864. 

TANK-WORMS.  The  mud  in  Indian  tanks  has 
been  found  to  abound  in  FilarUe,  some  of  which 
closely  resemble  the  guinea-worm  infesting  the 
human  body.  Although  there  is  no  positive  evi- 
dence, there  is  extreme  probability  that  these 
tank-worms  are  the  origin  of  the  guinea-worm. 
Dr.  Carter,  who  has  had  much  personal  observa- 
tion of  the  guinea-worm  in  India,  "  argues,  and 
apparently  with  good  reason.  No  tank-worm,  no 
guinea-worm.  Persons  who  bathe  in  water  in 
which  the  former  is  found  may  expect  to  have  the 
latter."  Mr.  Bastian,  who  has  written  an  excel- 
lent paper  on  the  anatomy  of  the  guinea-worm, 
states  that  there  is  an  undoubted  anatomical  rela- 
tion between  it  and  the  tank- worm.  The  real 
difficulty  in  the  theory  is  that  these  tank-worms 
are  widely  diffused,  while  the  guinea-worm  is  re- 
stricted in  its  localization. 

TANTUM  ERGO,  the  hymn  uniformly  sung  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  at  benediction  with 
the  Holy  Sacrament.  These  are  the  first  words  of 
the  penultimate  strophe  of  the  hymn  Pauge  Lin- 
gua. The  Tantum  Ergo  is  the  most  popular  of  all 
the  Eucharistic  hymns  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

TANZIMAT,  or  Tansimat,  the  plural  of  the 
Arab  word  tansim,  generally  signifying  "  regula- 
tions," but  in  a  special  sense  denoting  the  organic 
laws  established  by  the  Hatti-Sherif  of  Gulhane,  in 
accordance  with  which  the  administration  of  the 
Turkish  empire  is  carried  on.  These  organic  laws, 
the  first  attempt  at  constitutional  government  in 
Turkey,  were  published  by  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid 
in  1844.  But  the  tauzimat  was  a  dead  letter,  or 
nearly  so,  except  in  connection  with  the  army  ;  so 
that  on  Sept.  7,  1854,  the  sultan  fofind  it  necessary 
to  publish  a  new  ordinance,  in  which  the  complete 
carrying  out  of  the  tanzimat  in  all  respects  was 
commanded;  and  a  commission  was  appointed  to 
see  that  this  was  done. 

TAPPAN,  Arthur,  a  New  York  merchant  and 
abolitionist,  born  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  in  1786, 
died  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1865.  He  was 
widely  known  as  a  patron  of  religious  and  patri- 
otic organizations,  tract,  bible  and  other  societies, 
endowed  Lane  Seminary  at  Cincinnati,  a  professor- 
ship at  Auburn  Theological  Seminary,  and  built 
Tappan  Hall  at  Oberlin  ;  assisted  in  founding  the 
"  Journal  of  Commerce  "  and  the  "  Emancipator," 
and  was  first  president  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society. 

TAR.  For  general  information  on  this  subject 
see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  57-59.  In  the 
United  States  nearly  all  the  wood-tar  comes  from 
North  Carolina.  It  is  there  produced  by  the 
emothered  burning  of  the  wood  and  dead  limbs  of 


the  pitch  pine.  A  tar-kiln  is  commenced  by 
scooping  out  of  the  ground  a  saucer-shaped 
foundation,  making  a  hole  in  the  middle,  and 
thence  running  a  wooden  spout  outside  the  rim  of 
the  foundation.  The  wood  is  split  into  billets 
three  or  lour  feet  long  and  about  three  inches  in 
diameter.  The  billets  are  stacked  in  the  center 
hole  and  piled  upward,  each  upper  stick  lapping  a 
little  over,  thus  giving  the  finished  pile  the  appear- 
ance of  an  inverted  cone.  Logs  of  wood  and  green 
twigs  arc  then  piled  around,  and  the  whole  cov- 
ered with  earth.  The  tire  is  lighted  at  the  top 
eaves,  and  the  distilled  tar  runs  out  through  the 
spout.  .\  kiln  yields  50,  100,  or  more  barrels  of 
tar,  according  to  its  size.  Large  iron  retorts  have 
been  used,  but  the  product  is  not  sufficiently 
gi-eater  or  more  cleanly  to  pay  for  increased  cost. 
Coal-tar  was  for  a  long  time  a  troublesome 
product  of  gas-works,  no  useful  application  of  it 
being  known  to  any  great  extent.  Later  it  was 
used  as  a  covering  to  protect  iron-work  exposed  to 
the  weather;  and  the  pitch  obtained  by  distillation 
was  found,  when  mixed  with  earthy  matters,  to  be 
a  good  substitute  for  the  natural  product,  as- 
phaltum,  used  for  artificial  pavement,  water-tight 
covering  for  roofs,  etc.  Finally  tar  distillers 
learned  to  extract  from  it  crude  naphtha,  and  also 
light  oily  fluids.  The  pitch,  by  continued  distilla- 
tion, was  made  to  yield  more  oily  matters.  Crude 
naphtha  is  now  purified  with  it;  by  taking  one- 
tenth  its  bulk  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
adding  when  cold  5  per  cent,  of  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese, and  distilling  oflf  the  upper  portion  a  recti- 
fied naphtha  is  obtained,  which  easily  dissolves 
India  rubber.  Mixed  with  wood-naphtha  it  pro- 
duces a  powerful  solvent  of  various  resinous  sub- 
stances useful  in  making  varnishes.  Still  further 
purified,  the  liquid  benzole  is  obtained,  used  ex- 
tensively as  an  illuminating  agent.  The  light 
essential  oils,  as  well  as  the  heavier  ones,  possess 
antiseptic  properties,  which  render  them  valuable 
for  preserving  wood  from  decay.  Among  the  other 
products  obtained  from  coal-tar  are  carbolic  acid 
and  the  aniline  colors. 

TARASCON,  a  town  of  France,  whose  inhab- 
itants Alphonse  Daudet  made  the  subjects  of  his 
charming  extravaganza,  Tartarin  de  Tarascon,  a 
most  amusing  satire  on  the  characteristics  of  the 
natives  of  the  south  of  France,  which  he  followed 
up  with  a  second  part,  Tartarin  sur  les  Alpes,  and 
a  third.  Port  Tarascon,  published  in  1890.  S— 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  60. 

TARAZONA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Zaragoza,  fifty-two  miles  northwest  of  the  city 
of  that  name,  on  the  Queyles,  a  tributary  of  the 
Ebro.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  contains  a 
cathedral,  a  bishop's  palace,  and  a  Moorish  Alcaear. 
Population  upward  of  6,000,  mainly  engaged  in 
agriculture. 

TARBAGATAI.  a  frontier  town  of  Chine^c 
Turkestan,  170  miles  east  of  the  eastern  extremity 
of  Lake  Balkash,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of 
the  same  name,  in  a  plain  watered  by  the  Imil, 
with  extensive  meadows  and  pasture-grounds  in 
the  vicinity.  The  inhabitants  consist  of  3,000 
exiled  Chinese,  1,000  of  a  Chinese  garrison,  and  a 
number  of  Mongolian  merchants.  The  trade  with 
Russia  is  important. 

TARGOWITZ,  or  Tabgowicza,  in  Russia,  a 
small  town  in  the  government  of   Kiev,  on  the 


TARIFF    LEGISLATION    IX    THE   UNITED    STATES.       1473 


borders  of  Kherson,  the  scene  (May,  1792)  of  a 
confederation  of  the  five  Polish  nobles  who  were 
adverse  to  the  constitution  of  May  3,  1791.  They 
were  incited  to  this  tiaitoious  conduct  toward 
their  country  by  Catharine  II.,  and  after  their  con- 
duct had  been  fully  unveiled,  they  were  declared 
traitors  to  their  country,  and  only  escaped  death 
by  precipitate  flight  to  Russia,  where  they  were 
munificently  rewarded  for  the  treason  which  had 
given  the  czarina  a  pretext  for  executing  the 
second  partition  of  Poland. 

TARIFF  LEGISLATION  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  The  first  tariff  act  was  signed  by 
President  Washington  on  July  4,  1789.  The  new 
government  had  j  ust  been  established,  and  the  object 
of  the  law  was  to  put  money  into  the  empty  treas- 
ury of  the  republic.  Alexander  Hamilton  was  the 
author  of  the  measure,  which  was  modeled  on  the 
5  per  cent,  import  duty  that  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederation  had  tried  in  vain  to  impose.  This 
first  law  imposed  specific  duties  on  forty-seven 
articles  and  ad  valorem  rates  of  7J,  10,  12i  and  15 
per  cent,  on  four  commodities  or  small  groups. 
The  unennmerated  goods  were  compelled  to  pay 
5  per  cent. 

The  second  tariff  act  passed  the  House  by  a  vote 
of  39  to  13,  and  passed  the  Senate  without  a  divis- 
ion. It  was  approved  by  the  President  on  Aug.  10, 
1790.  This  act  was  longer  than  its  predecessor, 
and  the  scale  of  duties  was  higher.  Then  followed 
the  act  of  May  2,  1792,  which  became  operative  in 
the  following  July.  It  raised  the  duty  on  unenn- 
merated merchandise  to  7*  per  cent,  and  that  on 
many  articles  paying  7i  to  10  per  cent.  Another 
tariff  bill  was  passed  on  June  7,  1794,  going  into 
effect  on  July  1.  It  imposed  numerous  rates  in  ad- 
dition to  those  already  payable,  some  of  them  spe- 
cific and  others  2i  and  5  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 
Additional  tariff  measures  were  enacted  on  March 
3  and  July  8,  1797.  and  on  May  13,  1800.  These 
acts  imposed  additional  rates,  and  there  was  a 
further  increase  of  2^  per  cent,  on  March  26,  1804, 
on  all  imports  then  payint;-  ad  valorem  rates. 

The  whole  industrial  situation  of  the  c(iunti-y 
was  changed  suddenly  and  radically  in  1S07-S. 
Napoleon's  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  were  followed 
by  the  English  orders  in  council,  and  Mr.  Jeffer- 
son's administration  retaliateil  for  the  outrages  on 
our  commerce  by  the  celebrated  embargo  in  De 
cember,  1807.  This  was  followed  by  the  non- 
intercourse  act  in  1809,  and  by  the  declaration  of 
war  against  England  in  1812.  During  the  progress 
of  hostilities  all  commercial  intercourse  frith  Great 
Britain  was,  of  course,  suspended,  and  all  import 
duties  were  doubled  as  a  war  measure. 

This  is  known  as  the  "Tariff"  of  1812."  It 
passed  the  House  of  Representatives  by  a  vote  of 
76  to  48,  and  received  the  sanction  of  the  Senate 
by  20  votes  in  its  favor  to  9  against  it.  Amend- 
ments to  it  were  adopted  on  Feb.  25,  and  again  on 
July  29,  1813.  On  Feb.  15,  1816,  the  additional 
duties  imposed  by  the  act  of  1812  were  repealed, 
and  additional  duties  of  42  per  cent.,  to  take  effect 
on  July  1,  were  substituted,  but  the  law  did  not 
go  into  operation.  From  1812  to  ISKJ  the  average 
rate  on  all  imports  was  32.73  per  cent.,  the  range 
being  from  6.84  per  cent,  in  1815  to  69.03  in  1813. 

THE    LOVrNDE.S-CAI.HOrX    BILL. 

The  next  great  tarifl'  measure  is  known  as  the 


Lowndes-Calhoun  bill  of  1816.  The  desire  to  protect 
the  industries  that  had  sprung  up  during  the  period  of 
restriction  and  war  was  very  strong  in  the  country, 
and  they  were  granted  clear  concessions  in  the 
measure  bearing  the  name  of  the  great  South  Car- 
olinian. It  was  approved  April  27,  1816,  took 
effect  the  following  July,  and  may  be  said  to  be  the 
first  of  the  protective  tariff's.  It  was  not  wholly 
set  aside  until  1842,  under  the  administration  of 
Mr.  Polk.  The  ad  valorem  duties  under  it  ranged 
from  7i  to  33  per  cent.  The  unennmerated  goods 
paid  15  per  cent.,  the  manufacturers  of  iron  and 
other  metals  generally  15  per  cent.,  the  majority 
of  woolen  goods  25  per  cent.,  cotton  goods  25  per 
cent..  "  with  clauses  establishing  'minimums'  " — 
that  is,  in  reckoning  duties,  25  cents  per  square 
yard  was  to  be  deemed  the  minimum  cost  of  cot- 
ton cloth;  unbleached  and  uncolored  yarn,  60  cents, 
and  bleached  or  colored  yarn,  75  cents  per  pound. 
These  rates  became  practically  prohibitory  on  the 
cheaper  goods.  The  law  was  amended  April  20 
1818,  and  again  on  March  3,  1819.  It  had  the 
support  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States, 
but  the  South  was  opposed   to  it.     From  1817  to 

1820  the  average  rate  on  imports  was  26.52  per 
cent.;  from  1821  to  1824,  35.02  per  cent.,  and  from 

1821  to  1824,  on  dutiable  goods  only,  36.88  percent. 
This  general  increase  of  duties  was  due  to  the 
necessity  of  providing  forthe  interest  on  the  heavy 
debt  incurred  by  the  second  war  with  England. 

The  CLAY  Tariff  followed  in  1824.  The  vote 
in  the  House  was  close  —  107  to  102;  and  there  was 
a  majority  of  only  4  in  the  Senate  —  25  for  to  21 
against  it.  New  England  and  the  South  voted 
against  the  measure,  while  on  the  other  side  were 
ranged  the  West  and  Middle  States.  It  received 
the  president's  signature  on  May  22,  1824,  and 
went  into  eflect  July  1.  It  remained  in  force  in 
almost  its  entirety  until  1842.  It  raised  the  duty 
on  woolen  goods  from  25  to  30  per  cent,  for  one 
year,  and  then  to  33i  per  cent.  There  was  a 
"  minimum  "  of  30  cents  per  square  yard  on  cot- 
ton cloth.  Wool  over  10  cents  a  pound  was  rated 
at  20  per  cent,  until  June  1,  1825,  then  25  per  cent, 
for  one  year,  and  then  30  per  cent.  The  average 
rate  on  all  imports  from  1825  to  1828  was  47.17 
per  cent,  and  on  dutiable  goc^ls  .50.29  per  cent. 

THE  "  TARIFF  OF  ABOMrNATIONS.  " 

The  ''  Tariff  of  Abominations, "  as  it  is  called,  was 

approved  May  19, 1828,  and  went  into  operation  part 

the  following  July  and  part  in  September.     In  the 

House  105  members  voted  for  it  and  94  members, 

mostly  from  New  England  and  the  South,  against 

it.     In  the  Senate  the  vote  was  26  to  21.     It  had 

special  reference  to  iron,  wool  and  manufactures 

of  wool.     The  duty  on  wool  was  4  cents  per  pound 

i  and  40  per  cent,  for  one  year  ;  then  4  cents  and  45 

,  per  cent,  for  a  year;  then  4  cents  and  50  per  cent. 

i  Somewhat  lower  duties  were  provided  for  in  an 

'  act  passed  on  May  24,  1S2S.  again  in  May,  1830, 

and  still  again  on  July  13, 1832.     The  average  duty 

on  all  goods  from  1829  to  1832  was  47.81  per  cent., 

and  on  all  dutiable  articles  51.55  percent. 

The  Modifying  Tariff  of  18,32  was  intended  "  to 
correct  the  inequalities  of  tluil  of  1S2S. "  It  was 
passed  by  the  Whigs,  or  National  Republicans,  and 
levied  high  duties  on  cotton  and  woolen  goods  and 
other  articles  to  which  protection  was  meant  to  he 


1474 


TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


applied.  The  vote  in  the  House  was  1.32  to  65  and 
in  the  Senate  32  to  16,  the  votes  in  favor  of  it  com- 
ing from  all  sections  of  the  country.  The  New 
England  vote  in  the  House  was  a  tie.  It  was  ap- 
proved on  July  14,  and  took  efl'ect  on  March  3, 
1833.  The  existing  duties  were  superseded  by  the 
act,  some  of  them  reduced  and  a  few  raised.  In  a 
-.separate  act  of  the  same  date,  railroad  iron  was 
made  free.  Under  its  operation,  the  average  rate 
on  imports  in  1832-33,  during  the  ten  months  it 
was  in  force,  was  28.99  per  cent.,  and  dutiable 
articles  38.25  per  cent. 

The  Compromise  Tariff  of  1833  provided  for  tak- 
ing oft"  one-third  of  the  duties  each  year,  until  a 
uniform  rate  on  all  of  20  per  cent,  should  be  reached. 
It  passed  the  House  by  119  to  85,  and  ihe  Senate 
by  29  to  16.  Xew  England  then  joined  the  Middle 
States  in  voting  for  high  protective  duties.  It  was 
approved  on  March  2.  1833.  the  day  before  the 
Tarift'of  1832  went  into  operation,  and  took  effect 
on  Jan.  1,  1834.  The  terms  of  the  compromise 
were  that  all  duties  which  in  the  Tarift'  of  1832  ex- 
ceeded 20  per  cent.,  should  have  one-tenth  of  the 
excess  over  20  per  cent,  taken  oft  on  Jan.  1,  1834 ; 
one-tenth  more  on  Jan.  1,  1836,  again  one-tenth 
in  1838,  and  another  one-tenth  in  1840 :  so  that  by 
1840,  four-tenths  of  the  excess  over  20  per  cent, 
would  be  disposed  of.  Then  on  Jan.  1 ,  1842,  one- 
half  of  this  remaining  excess  was  to  be  taken  ofl", 
and  on  July  1.  1842,  the  other  half  of  the  remaining 
excess  was  to  go.  There  would,  therefore,  after 
July  1.  1842.  have  been  a  uniform  rate  of  20  per 
cent,  on  all  articles.  The  average  duty  on  all  im- 
ports from  1834  to  1842  was  19.25  per  cent.,  and  on 
dutiable  articles  34.73  per  cent. 

THf;  TARIFF  OF  I.SIL'. 

The  Tarifl'  of  1842  was  passed  by  the  Whigs  as  a 
party  measure,  and  was  avowedly  a  protective 
measure.  It  took  efliect  at  once,  on  August  ,30, 
1842,  changed  all  existing  rates,  was  amended  in 
March,  1843.  and  died  December  1,  1846.  Xew 
England  and  the  Middle  States  gave  it  strong  sup- 
port. The  South  was  earnest  in  oppo.silion  and 
the  West  was  a  tie.  The  average  rate  on  all  im- 
ports under  it  was  26.92  per  cent,  and  on  duti- 
able articles  33.47  p6r  cent. 

The  Polk-Walker  Tarift'  of  1846  is  one  of  the 
most  noteworthy  acts  in  the  fiscal  history  of  the 
country.  In  his  inaugural  address  President  Polk 
said:  "  In  the  general  proposition  that  no  more 
money  shall  be  collected  than  the  necessities  of  an 
economical  administration  shall  require  all  parties 
seem  to  acquiesce.  I  have  heretofore  declared  to 
my  fellow-citizens  that  in  my  judgment  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  government  to  extend,  as  far  as  it  may 
be  practicable  to  do  so,  by  its  revenue  laws  and  ail 
other  means  within  its  power,  fair  and  just  protec- 
tion to  all  the  great  interests  of  the  Union,  embrac- 
ing agriculture,  manufactures,  the  mechanic  arts, 
commerce  jind  navigation.  I  have  also  declared 
my  opinion  to  be  in  favor  of  a  tariff  for  revenue; 
and  that,  in  adjusting  the  details  of  such  a  tariff, 
I  have  sanctioned  such  moderate  discriminating 
duties  as  would  produce  the  amount  of  revenue 
needed,  and  at  the  same  time  afford  reasonable 
protection  to  our  home  industries." 

Tlie  following  table  gives  the  averages  of  the 
tarift' duties  since  1791  : 


TARIFF    AVERAGES. 

PEE  CENT. 

From  1791  to  1812 19.58 

From  1812  to  1817 32.73 

From  1817  to  1825 26.52 

From  1825  to  1829 47.17 

From  1829  to  1832 47.81 

From  1832  to  1834 28.99 

From  1S34  to  1S43 19.25 

From  l>-i:t  to  1S47 ■. 26.92 

From  ls4r  to  LK.3S 23.20 

From  ia58  to  1862 15.66 

From  1862  to  1884 34.16 

From  1884  to  1890 45.50 

From  1890  to about  60.00 

Robert  J.  Walker,  of  Mississippi,  who  was  Presi- 
dent Polk's  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  laid  down 
these  principles  as  a  basis  for  revenue  reform  in 
his  celebrated  report  of  1845: 

"  Xo  more  money  .shall  be  collected  than  is 
needed  for  economical  administration. 

"  The  duty  on  no  article  .should  exceed  the 
lowest  rate  which  will  yield  the  largest  revenue. 

"  Below  such  rate  discrimination  may  be  made, 
or  for  imperative  reasons  an  article  may  be  made 
free. 

"  Luxuries  should  be  taxed  at  the  minimum  rate 
for  revenue. 

"  Duties  should  be  aU  ad  valorem,  and  never 
specific. 

"  Duties  should  be  so  imposed  as  to  operate  as 
equally  as  possible  throughout  the  Union,  without 
respect  to  class  or  section. " 

The  bill  framed  on  this  basis  was  approved  by 
Mr.  Polk  on  July  30,  1846.  It  passed  the  House 
by  114  to  95,  the  East  being  in  opposition  and  the 
West  and  South  in  support.  The  vote  in  the 
Senate  on  a  third  reading  was  a  tie,  and  Vice- 
President  Dallas  gave  the  casting  vote  in  the 
affirmative.  The  Senate  on  the  final  passage 
stood  28  to  27.  This  act  superseded  the  Whig 
tariff',  and  remained  in  force  until  1861.  It  swept 
away  specific  and  compound  duties.  It  divided 
all  dutiable  merchandise  into  eight  classes,  which 
introduced  greater  .simplicity  into  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  customs  regulations.  The  average  duty  on 
all  imports  was,  from  1847  to  1857,  23.20  per  cent., 
and  on  dutiable  articles  26.22  per  cent. 

The  tariff  of  1857,  which  was  the  next  in  order, 
made  a  still  further  reduction  in  duties.  It  was 
approved  on  March  .3,  1867,  took  effect  on  July  1, 
and  remained  in  force  until  April  1,  1861.  New 
England  united  with  the  South  in  giving  it  123 
votes  to  72  in  the  House,  and  in  the  Senate  33  to 
12.  The  average  duty  on  all  goods,  from  1858  to 
1861,  was  15.66  per  cent.,  and  on  dutiable  articles 
20.12  per  cent. 

THE  MORRILL   TARIFF, 

The  Morrill  Tarift'of  1861  dift'ered  from  aUits  pred- 
ecessors in  that  it  provided  for  a  general  system  of 
compound  and  diflerential  duties,  specific  and  ad 
valorem,  and  also  made  a  distinction  between  goods 
imported  from  different  partsof  the  world.  Itpassed 
the  House  on  May  U,  1860,  by  a  vote  of  105  to  64, 
and  the  Senate  on  February  20,  1861,  by  a  vote  of 
25  to  14.  From  the  first,  through  all  the  cum- 
brous legislation  that  has  followed  in  its  wake,  it 
has  been  avowedly  protective.  It  was  frequently 
changed  during  the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  ostensi- 
bly for  purposes  of  revenue.  At  an  early  period 
inits  history  the  number  of  rates  ran  up  to  over 
two  thousand.     From  1861  to  1869  every  year  pro- 


TAEIFF   LEGISLATION 


1475 


duced  some  enlargement  of  the  original  scheme. 
In  1870  there  was  some  modification  of  rates,  gen- 
erally iu  the  lino  of  reduction.  Tea  and  coflee, 
taxed  since  1861.  were  then  put  on  the  free  list, 
and  the  duties  on  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  wool, 
iron,  paper,  glass  and  leather  were  lowered  about 
10  per  cent.  The  free  list  was  somewhat  enlarged, 
but  the  reduction  was  rescinded  iu  the  act  of 
March  3,  1875.  The  duty  on  quinine  was  abol- 
ished on  July  1,  1879.  The  average  duty  on  all 
imports,  from  1862  to  1883,  was  31.10  per  cent., 
and  on  dutiable  articles  42.74  per  cent. 

THE    "  COilMIS.SIOX   TARIFF." 

This  was  pas.sed  by  the  House  on  March  3, 1883, 
by  a  vote  of  152  to  116,  and  passed  the  Senate  on 
March  2,  the  vote  being  32  to  31.  This  was  the 
tariff  which  was  in  force  until  October  0,  1890, 
when  it  was  superseded,  except  as  to  tobacco  ami 
tin  plate. 

THE   M'KINLET   tariff. 

The  present  tariff,  familiarly  called  "  The  Mc- 
Kinley  Tariff"  (from  the  name  of  the  chairman  of 
the  congressional  committee  having  the  matter  in 
charge  iu  the  House  of  Representatives),  passed  the 
House  in  October,  1890,  by  a  vote  of  152  to  81,  and 
the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  33  to  27,  and  was  approved 
by  President  Harrison,  1890. 

The  following  table  gives  the  leading  articles  of 
merchandise  and  the  import  duties  on  them  by  the 
McKinley  tariff: 

Alcohol.  10  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

Aluminium,  immanufactured.  I5c.  per  lb. 

Aniline  Colors  or  Dyes,  35  per  cent. 

Animals  for  breeding  purposes,  free. 

Bagging  for  cotton,  1  6-10  and  1  8-lOc.  per  lb. 

Bags,  grain,  2c.  per  lb. 

Barley,  30c.  per  bushel. 

Beads,  ornamental,  10  per  cent. 

Beef.  Mutton  and  Pork,  2c.  per  lb. 

Beer,  Ale,  not  iu  bottles,  20c,  per  gallon. 

Beer,  Porter  and  Ale,  in  bottles,  40c.  per  gallon. 

Bindings,  cotton,  40  per  cent. 

Bindings,  fiax,  50  per  cent. 

Bindings,  wool,  (!0c,  per  lb,  and  60  per  cent. 

Blankets,  value  not  over  30c.  per  lb..  16  l-2e,  per  lb,  and  30 
per  cent. 

Blankets,  value  30c,  and  not  over  40c.,  22c,  per  lb.  and  35 
per  cent. 

Blankets,  value  40c.  aud  not  over  60c..  33c.  per  lb.  and  .35 
per  cent. 

Blankets,  value  COc.  and  not  over  80c.,  38  l-2c,  per  lb.  and 
40  per  cent. 

Blankets,  value  over  80c.  (ler  lb..  38  l-2e,  per  lb.  and  40  per 
cent. 

Bonnets,  silk,  60  per  cent. 

Bonnets,  straw,  30  per  cent. 

Books,  Charts,  Maps,  25  per  cent. 

Books,  over  20  years  old,  or  for  public  libraries,  fi-ee. 

Bronze,  manufactures  of,  45  per  cent. 

Brushes,  40  per  cent. 

Building  Stone,  rough,  lie  per  cubic  foot. 

Building  Stone,  dressed,  40  per  cent. 

Butter  and  substitutes  for,  6c.  per  lb. 

Buttons,  pearl.  2  l-2c.  per  line  and  25  per  cent. 

Buttons,  sleeve  and  collar,  gilt,  50  per  cent. 

Buttons,  wool,  hair,  etc.,  60c,  per  lb.  and  60  per  eeul. 

Canvas  for  sails,  50  per  cent. 

Caps,  cotton.  .50  percent. 

Caps,  fur  and  leather,  35  per  cent. 

Carpets,  treble  ingrain,  I'Jc.  per  sq.  yd.  and  40  per  cent. 

Carpets,  two-plv.  14c.  per  sq.  yd.  and  40  per  cent. 

Carpets,  tapestir  Brussels,  28c.  per  sq.  yd.  and  40  per  cent. 

Carpets,  Wilton"  and  Axminster,  60c.  per  sq.  yd.  iind  40  per 
cent. 

Carpets,  Brussels,  44c.  per  sq.  yd.  and  40  per  cent. 

Carpets,  velvet,  40c.  per  sq.  yd.  and  40  per  cent. 

Cheese,  all  kinds,  fie.  per  lb. 

Cigars  and  Cigarettes,  $4.50  per  lb.  and  25  per  cent. 

Clocks,  n.  o.  p.,  45  per  cent. 


per  lb.  and  60  per 


Clothing,  ready-made,  cotton  n.  o.  p.,  50  per  cent. 

I'lothing,  ready-made,  linen,  55  per  cent. 

Clothing,  readv-made,  silk,  60  per  cent. 

Clothing,  ready-made,  woolen,  49  1.2c. 
cent. 

Coal,  anthracite,  free. 

Coal,  bitumiuous,  75c,  per  ton, 

Coll'ee,  free. 

Confectionery,  all  sugar,  5c,  per  lb. 

Copper,  maniifactures  of,  45  per  cent. 

Cotton  Trimmings,  60  per  cent. 

Cotton  Galloons  and  Gimps,  40  percent. 

Cotton  Gloves,  50  per  cent. 

Cotton  Handkerchiefs,  50  per  cent. 

Cotton  Hosiery  valued  at  more  than  60c,  and  not  more  than 
.$2  per  dozen  pairs,  50e,  per  doz.  and  30  per  cent. 

Cotton  Hosiery,  $2  to  $4  per  dozen,  75c.  per  doz.  and  40  per 
cent. 

Cotton  Hosiery,  more  than  $4  per  dozen,  $1  per  doz.  and  40 
per  cent. 

Cotton  Shirts  an<l  Drawers,  value  $:)  to  $5,  $1.25  per  doz,  and 
40  per  cent. 

Cotton  Plushes,  Telvet,  etc.,  lOe.  per  sq,  yd.    and   20  per 
cent. 

Cotton  Swiss  Muslin.  60  per  cent. 

Cotton  Webbing.  40  per  cent. 

Cotton  Curtains,  60  ]ht  cent. 

Cutlery,  Pocket-Knives,  etc,  valued  at  not  more  than  50c. 
per  doz. ,  12c.  per  doz.  and  50  per  cent. 

Cutlery,  50c.  to  $2  per  doz.,  50c.  per  doz.  and  50  per  cent. 

Cutlery,  $1.50  to  $3  per  doz.,  $1  per  doz,  and  50  per  cent. 

Cutlery,  more  than  $3  per  doz.,  ^2  per  doz.  and  50  per  cent. 

Cutlery,  Razors,  less  than  $4  per  doz.,  $1  per  doz,  and  30 
per  cent. 

Cutlery,  Razors,  more  than  $4  per  doa,,  $1,75  per  doz.  and 
30  per  cent. 

CutleiT.  Table-Knives,  not  more  than  $1  i>er  doz..  10".  per 
doz.  and  30  per  cent. 

Cutleiy.  Table-Knives,  $1  to  $2  per  doz,,  35c.  per  doz.  and  30 
per  cent. 

Cutlery,  Table-Knives,  $2  to  $3  per  doz.,  40c.  per  doz.  and 
30  per  cent. 

Cutlery,  Table-Knives.  $3  to  $8  per  doz..  $1  per  doz.  and  30 
per  cent. 

Cutleiy.  Table- Knives,  more  than  $8  per  doz.,  $2  per  doz. 
and  30  per  cent. 

Diamonds,  uncut  (free):  out  and  set,  50  per  cent. 

Diamonds,  cut  but  not  set.  10  per  cent. 

Drugs,  crude,  free. 

Drugs,  not  crude,  10  per  cent. 

Earthenware,  common,  25  per  cent. 

Earthenware,  China,  Porcelain,  plain,  55  per  cent. 

Earthenware,  decorated.  60  per  cent. 

Eggs,  5e.  per  doz. 

Engravings,  25  per  cent. 

Extrae^ts,  Dyewood,  Logwood.  7  8i'.  pur  lb. 

Extracts,  meat,  3oc.  per  lb. 

Fans,  palm  leaf,  with  handles.  30  i)er  cent. 

Felt,  hats.  55  per  cent. 

Felt,  shoes,  49  l-2c.  per  lb.  and  60  pen-  cent. 

Fertilizers,  guanos,  manures,  free. 

Firearms,   double-barreled,  breech -loading,  value  not  over 
$6,  $1.50  each  and  35  per  cent. 

Firearms,  value  $0  to  $12,  $4  each  and  35  per  cent. 

Firearms,  value  over  $12,  $6  each  and  35  per  cent. 

Firearms,  single-baiTcled.  $1  each  aud  35  per  cent. 

Firearms.  Pistols,  value  over  $1.50,  $1  each  and  35  per  cent. 

Fish.  American  lisheries,  free. 

Fish,  smoked,  dried,  salted,  pickled,  3-4c.  per  lb. 

Flannels,  value  not  over  30c.  per  lb.,  16  l-2c,  per  lb.  and  30 
per  cent. 

Flannels,  30c.  to  40c..  22c.  per  lb.  and  35  per  cent. 

Flannels,  value  40c.  to  aOc.  33c.  per  lb.  and  35  per  cent. 

Flax,  manufactures  of,  50  per  cent. 

Flowers,  artificial.  50  per  cent. 

Fruits,  preserved  in  their  own  juiic 

Fruits,  apples,  25c,  per  bushel. 

Fruits,  oranges  andlemons,  n,  o,  p. 
cent. 

Fur  manufactures.  35  per  cent. 

FuiTiiture.  wood.  35  per  cent. 

Glassware,  plain  and  cut,  60  per  cent. 

Glass,  lamp  chimneys.  60  per  cent. 

Glass,  polished  plate,  not  over  16x24.  ."«■. 

Glass,  silvered,  not  over  10x24,  6c.  per  sq!  foot! 

Glass,  Bohemian.  60  per  cent. 

Glass,  disks  for  optical  instruments,  60  per  cent. 

Gloves,  kid,  men's  plain,  $1  doz,,  not  less  than  .50  ner  cent 


l:!i 


JO  jier  cent. 

l>er  box  aud  30  per 


per  sq.  foot. 


1476 


TARIFF    LEGISLATION 


Gloves,  embroidered,  $1  50  doz.,  not  less  than  50  per  cent.      | 

Gloves,  lined,  $2.50  doz  .  not  less  than  50  per  cent. 

Gloves,  pique  lined  $2..'>0  doz.,  not  less  than  50  per  cent. 

Gloves,  pique  lined  and   embroidered,  $3  doz.,  not  less  than 
50  per  cent. 

Gloves,  ladies'  and  children's,  plain.  $1  75  doz..  not  less  than 
50  per  cent. 

Gloves,  ladies'  lined,  $2.75  doz.,  not  less  than  50  per  cent. 

Glove.s,  lined  and  embroidered,  $3  25  doz.,  not  less  than  50 
per  cent. 

Gloves,  suedes  and  schmascben,  embroidered,  50c.  doz., 
not  less  than  50  per  cent. 

Gloves,  suedes,  lined,  $1  doz.,  not  less  than  50  per  cent. 

Gloves,  suedes,  lined  and  embroidered.  $1.50  doz.,  not  less 
than  50  per  cent. 

Glucose,  3  4c.  per  lb. 

Glue,  value  not  over  7c  per  lb  ,  1  l-2c.  per  lb. 

Gold,  manufactures  of.  not  jewelry,  45  per  cent 

Hair  of  bogs,  curled  for  mattresses,  15  per  cent. 

Hair  manufactures  n.  o.  p  ,  33c.  per  lb.  and  40  per  cent 

Hair  Braids  and  ornaments,  60c.  per  lb.  and  60  per  cent 

Hair,  human,  unmanufactured,  20  percent. 

Hams,  5c.  per  lb. 

Haudlierchicfs,  linen,  55  per  cent. 

Handkerchiefs,  silk,  60  per  cent. 

Hay,  $4  per  ton. 

Hemp  Cordage,  untarred.  2  l-2c.  per  lb 

Hemp  Cordaee,  tarred,  3c  per  lb. 

Hides,  raw,  dried,  salted,  pickled,  free. 

Hogs,  $1.50  jicr  head. 

Honey,  20e.  per  gallon. 

Hoops,  iron  or  steel,  for  baling  purposes,  1  3-lOc  per  lb 

Hops,  15c.  per  lb 

Horn,  manufactures  of,  30  per  cent. 

Horses,  Mules,  value  under  $150,  $30  per  head 

Horses,  Mules,  value  over  $150,  30  per  cent. 

India-rubber,  manufactures,  30  per  cent. 

India-rubber,  vulcanized,  35  per  cent. 

India-rubber,  wearing  apparel,  50c  per  lb.  and  50  per  cent 

Instruments,  philosophical,  metal.  45  per  cent 

Iron,  manufactures  of,  n  o.  sp..  45  per  cent. 

Iron  Screws,  1-2  inch  or  less  in  length,  14c.  per  lb 

Iron  Tinned  Plates,  2  2  10c  per  lb. 

Ivory  manufactures,  n.  o.  p.,  40  per  cent. 

Jewelry,  50  per  cent. 

Jute,  burlaps,  1  5-8c.  per  lb. 

Jute,  cotton  bagging,  1  6  10  and  1  8- 10c.  per  lb 

Jute,  other  bagging,  2c.  per  lb 

Knit  Goods,   wearing  apparel,  value  not  over  30c    lb  ,  :;:ii- 
per  lb.  and  40  per  cent. 

Knit  Goods,   wearing  apparel,  value  30c  and  not  over  40c  . 
38  1  2c.  per  lb.  and  40  per  cent. 

Knit  Goods,  wearing  apparel,  value  40c.  and  not  over  (lOc  . 
44e.  per  lb.  and  50  per  cent. 

Knit  Goods,  wearing  apparel,  value  bOc.  and  not  over  SOc  , 
44c.  per  lb.  and  50  per  ceut 

Knit  Goods,  wearing  apparel,  value  over  SOc    lb.,   44c   per 
lb.  and  50  per  cent. 

Knit  Goods,  silk,  60  per  cent. 

Knives,  carving,  $1  to  $5  per  doz.  and  30  per  cent. 

Laces,  cotton,  60  per  cent. 

Laces,  linen,  60  per  cent. 

Lard,  2c.  per  lb. 

Lead,  pigs,  bars,  2c.  per  lb. 

Lead,  type  metal.  1  l-2c.  per  lb. 

Leather  manufactures  n   o  p.,  35  per  cent 

Lime,  6c.  per  100  IBs. 

Linen  manufactures  n.  o.  p.,  50  per  cent. 

Linen,  wearing  apparel,  55  per  cent. 

Linen  Thread,  45  per  cent. 

Linseed  Oil,  3--V.  per  gallon. 

Macaroni,  2c  per  lb. 

Malt,  4.5c.  per  bushel. 

Matches,  friction,  boxed,  10c.  per  gross 

Mats,  cocoa  and  rattan,  8c.  per  sq.  ft. 

Matting,  jute,  Oc.  per  sq.  yd. 

Mathematical  Instruments,  glass,  60  per  cent. 

Meerschaum  Pipes.  70  per  cent. 

Miea.  ground,  3o  per  cent. 

Milk,  fresh,  5c.  nor  gallon. 

Milk,  condensed,  3c,  per  lb. 

Molasses,  free  (after  April  1,  1891). 

Muffs,  fur,  35  per  cent. 

Musical  Instruments,  metal,  45  per  cent. 

Music  Boxes,  45  per  cent. 

Nails,  cut.  Ic.  per  lb. 

Nails,  horseshoe,  4c.  per  lb. 

Needles,  sewing,  free. 


Newspapers,  Periodicals,  free 

Oat  Meal,  le,  per  lb. 

Oil  Cloths  for  floors,  value  over  25e,  per  s(|  yd  .  15c  ^ler  sq. 
yd,  and  30  per  cent 

Oil,  olive,  35e,  per  gallon. 

Oil.  whale  and  seal,  8c.  per  gallon. 

Onions,  40c.  per  bushel. 

Opium,  liquid  preparations,  40  per  cent- 
Organs,  45  per  cent. 

Paintings,  by  American  artists,  free. 

Paintings,  by  foreign  artists,  15  per  cent. 

Paper  manufactures  n.  o.  p.,  25  per  cent. 

Paper  Stock,  crude,  free. 

Pepper,  cayenne,  unground,  2  l-2c.  per  lb. 

Perfumery,  alcoholic,  $2.50  per  gallon  and  50  per  cent 

Personal  EfTi'cts  (see  note). 

Phosphorus,  20e.  per  lb. 

Photograph  Albums.  35  per  cent. 

Photograph  Slides.  60  per  cent 

Pianofortes,  45  per  cent. 

Pickles,  45  per  cent 

Pins,  metallic,  30  per  cent. 

Pipes  of  Clay,  common  (see  Meerschaum),  15c.  per  gross. 

Plants  n.  o.  p.,  20  per  cent. 

Poultry,  dressed.  5c.  per  lb. 

Potatoes,  25c..  per.  bushel. 

Pulp,  wood,  for  paper-makers' use,  grotmd,  $2.50  per  ton. 
dry  weight. 

Quicksilver.  lOe.  per  lb. 

Quilts,  cotton,  45  per  cent. 

Quinine,  Sulphate  and  Salts,  free. 

Kailroafl  Ties,  cedar,  20  per  cent. 

Robes,  bufl'alo,  made  up.  35  per  cent. 

Roofing  Tiles,  plain.  25  per  cent. 

Rope,  bale,  of  hemp,  50  per  cent. 

Kope,  bale,  of  cotton,  40  per  cent. 

Rugs,  Oriental.  60c.  per  sq.  yd.  and  40  per  cent. 

iSalmon,  dried  or  smoked,  Ic.  per  lb. 

Salmon,  pickled  .ind  .suited.  30  per  cent. 

Salt,  in  bulk,  Sc.  per  100  lbs. 

Salt,  in  bags.  12c  per  100  lbs. 

Sauces  n.  o.  p.,  45  percent. 

Sausages,  Bologna,  free. 

Sausages,  all  others.  "25  per  cent. 

Sealskin  Saeques,  35  per  cent. 

Seeds,  (Jardin,  20  per  cent. 

Sheetings,  liiion.  50  per  cent. 

Shirts,  in  whole  or  part  linen,  55  per  cent. 

Shoe  laces,  cotton,  40  per  cent. 

Shoe-laces,  leather.  35  per  cent. 

Shoes,  leather.  25  per  cent. 

Shoes,  India  rubber,  30  per  cent. 

Silk,  raw,  free. 

Silk,  spun  in  skeins,  35  per  cent 

Silk,  laces,  embroideries,  handkerchiefs,  and  all  wearing 
apparel,  60  per  cent. 

Skins,  uncured.  raw.   free. 

Skins,  tanned  and  dressed.  20  per  cent 

Slates,  porcelain,  plain.  60  per  cent. 

Smokers'  articles,  except  clav  pipes,  70  per  cent. 

Snuft;  SOc.  per  lb. 

Soap,  castile,  1  l-4e  per  lb. 

Spelter,  in  blocks.  1  3  4c.  per  lb 

Spirits,  except  bay  rum,  $2.50  per  proof  gallon. 

Statuan-,  marble,  15  per  cent 

Steel  Ingots,  Slabs,  etc.,  value  "c.  to  10c.  per  lb  ,  2  8  lOc 
per  lb. 

Steel  Ingots,  Slabs,  etc.,  value  10c.  to  13c.  per  lb  ,  3  1  2c 
per  lb. 

Steel  Ingots,  Slabs,  etc.,  value  13c  lo  16c.  per  lb  .  4  210e 
per  lb. 

Steel  Ingots,  Slabs,  etc.,  value  above  16c.  per  Ih  ,  7c 
per  lb. 

Stereoscopic  Views,  glass,  60  per  cent. 

Straw  manufactures  n.  o.  p.,  30  per  cent. 

Sugars,  not  above  16  Dutch  .standard,  free  lafter  April  I, 
1891). 

Sugars,  above  16  Dutch  standard.  ;  2c.  per  lb. 

Sumac,  ground.  4-lOc.  per  lb. 

Tea,  free. 

Telegraph-poles,  cedar,  20  per  cent. 

Telescopes.  60  per  cent. 

Thermmueters,  60  per  cent. 

Thread,  cotton,  value  from  25c.  to  40c.  per  lb  ,  I8c   per  lb. 

Thread.  40c.  lo  SOc.  per  lb..  i;3c.  per  lb. 

Thread,  SOc.  to  00c.  per  lb..  28e.  per  lb. 

Thread,  flax  or  linen,  value  not  over   13c  per  lb  ,  Oc  per  lb. 

Thread,  over  13e.  per  lb  .  45  per  cent 


TARIFF     LEGISLATION. 


1477 


Tin,  ore  or  metnl  (aflor  Jiilv  1.  18931.  4c.  per  lb. 

Tin  Plates  (aftor  July  1.  1891).  2  2  10c.  per  lb. 

Tobacco,  cigar-wrappers,  not  stemmed.  $"i  per  lb. 

Tobacco,  if  stemmed,  $2.75  per  lb. 

Tobacco,  all  other  leaf,  if  stemmed.  oOe.  per  lb. 

Tobacco,  uumamifactured,  not  stemmed,  35c.  per  lb. 

Tooth-brushes,  40  per  cent. 

Trees,  nursery  stock,  20  per  cent. 

Trimmings,  cotton.  60  per  cent. 

Trimmings,  linen.  60  per  cent. 

Trimmings,  lace,  60  per  cent. 

Trimmings,  wool,  worsted,  etc.,  00c.  per  lb.  and  60  per  cent. 

Towels,  linen  damask,  .")0  per  cent. 

Umbrellas,  silk  or  alpaca.  55  per  cent. 

Vegetables,  natural  n.  o.  p..  25  per  cent. 

Yegetables,  prepared  or  preserved,  45  per  cent. 

Vefvct-s.  silk,  $3.50  per  lb.  and  15  per  cent.,  but  not  less 
than  50  per  cent. 

Violins.  35  per  cent. 

Watches,  and  parts  of,  25  per  cent. 

Water-colors,  for  artists,  30  per  cent. 

Wearing  Apparel  (see  note). 

Whips,  raw  hide  and  leather,  35  per  cent 

Wheat,  25c.  per  bushel. 

Wicks  and  Wiekmg.  cotton.  40  per  cent. 

Willow  for  basketmakers.  30  per  cent. 

Willow  flats  and  Bonnets,  40  per  cent. 

Willow  manufactures  n  o.  p..  40  per  cent 

Wines,  champagne,  in  1  2  pint  bottles  or  less,  $2  per  doz. 

Wines,  champagne.  1-2  pint  and  not  over  1  pint.  $4  per  doz. 

Wines,  champagne,  1  pint  and  not  over  1  quart,  $S  per  doz. 

Wines,  champagne,  over  1  quart,  $S  and  $2  50  per  gallon. 

Wines,  still,  in  casks.  50c.  per  gallon. 

Woods,  cabinet,  sawed,  15  per  cent. 

Wool,  first  and  second  class,  11  and  12c.  per  lb. 

Wool,  third  class,  n.  o.  p.,  50  per  cent. 

Wool  or  Worsted  Yams,  value  not  over  30c.  per  lb.,  27  l-2c. 
per  lb.  and  35  per  cent. 

Wool  or  Worsted  Yams,  over  30c.  and  not  over  40c.,  33e. 
per  lb.  and  35  per  cent. 

Wool  or  Worsted  Yarns,  over  40c..  38  l-2c.  per  lb.  and  40  per 
cent. 

Woolen  aud  Worsted  Clothing,  49  l-2c.  per  lb.  and  60  per 
cent. 

Woolen  manufactures,  n.  o.  p..  value  not  over  30c.  per  lb., 
33c.  per  lb.  and  40  per  cent. 

Woolen  manufactures,  value  30i".  aud  not  over  40c,  38  l-2c 
per  lb  and  40  per  cent. 

Woolen  manufactures,  value  10c.  and  not  over  60c ,  44c. 
per  lb.  and  50  per  cent. 

Woolen  manufactures,  value  60c.  afed  not  over  80c.,  44c. 
per  lb.  and  50  per  cent. 

Woolen  manufactures,  value  over  80c.,  44c.  per  lb.  aud  50 
per  cent. 

Note. — Personal  or  household  effects  of  persons  arriving  in 
the  United  States,  in  use  over  one  year,  or  of  American 
citizens  dying  abroad,  free.  Duty  must  be  paid  on  all  watches 
but  one.    Articles  and  tools  of  trade,  when  in  actual  use,  free. 

RECIPROCITY  SECTION  OF  THE  TARIFF  LAW. 

In  the  present  or  McKinley  tariflf  law,  a  special 
section  (numbered  section  3  in  the  tarifl"  bill), 
was  inserted,  providing  for  tlie  encouragement  of 
"  reciprocal  trade"  between  the  United  States  and 
other  countries.  The  following  is  the  test  of  the 
section  relating  to  reciprocity: 

Sec.  3.  That  with  a  view  to  secure  reciprocal  trade  with 
countries  producing  the  followinc  articles,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose, on  and  after  the  tirst  day  ot  July,  1892,  whenever,  and 
so  often  as  the  president  shall  be  satisfied  that  the  govern- 
ment of  any  country  producing  and  exporting  sugars,  mola:*- 
8es,  coffee,  tea  and  hides,  raw  and  uncured.  or  any  of  such 
Wticles.  imposes  duties  or  other  exactions  upon  the  agricult- 
ural or  other  products  of  the  United  States,  which  in  view  of 
the  free  introduction  of  such  sugar,  molasses,  coffee,  tea  and 
hides  into  the  United  States  he  may  deem  to  be  reciprocally 
tmequal  and  unreasonable,  he  shall  have  the  power  and  it 
sbali  bo  his  duty  to  suspend,  by  proclamation  to  that  effect, 
the  provisions  (if  this  act  relating  to  the  free  introduction  of 
such  siigar,  molas.^es.  coffee,  tea  and  hides,  the  production  of 
Buch  coimtry,  for  such  time  as  he  shall  deem  just,  and  in  such 
case  aud  during  such  suspension  duties  shall  be  levied,  col- 
lected and  paid  upon  sugar,  molasses,  coffee,  tea  and  hides, 
the  product  of  or  exported  from  such  designated  country,  as 
follows,  namely: 

All  sugars  not  above  number  thirteen   Dutch   standard  in 


color  shall   pay  duty  on  their  polariscopic   tests  as  follows, 
namely: 

All  sugiirs  not  above  number  thirteen  Dutch  standard  in 
color,  all  tank  bottoms,  syrups  of  cauc  juice  or  of  beet  juice, 
melada,  concentrated  melada.  concrete  and  concentrated  molas- 
ses, testing  by  the  pulariseope  not  above  seventy-five  degrees, 
seven  tenths  of  one  cent  per  pound;  and  for  every  additional 
degree  or  fraction  of  a  degree  shown  by  the  polariscopic  test, 
two  hundredths  of  one  cent  per  poundadditional. 

All  sugars  above  number  thirteen  Dutch  standard  in  color 
shall  be  classified  by  the  Dutch  standard  of  color,  and  pay 
duty  as  follows,  namely: 

All  sugar  above  number  thirteen  and  not  above  number 
sixteen  Dutch  standard  of  color,  one  aud  three-eighths  cents 
per  pound. 

All  sugar  above  number  sixteen  and  not  above  number 
twenty  Dutch  standard  of  color,  one  and  five-eighths  cents  per 
pound. 

All  sugars  above  number  twenty  Dutch  standard  of  color, 
two  cents  per  pound. 

Molasses  testing  above  fifty-six  degrees,  four  cents  per 
gallon. 

Sugar  drainings  and  sugar  sweepings  shall  be  subject  to 
duty  either  as  molasses  or  sugar,  as  the  case  may  be,  accord 
ing  to  polariscopic  test. 

On  coffee,  three  cents  per  pound. 

On  tea,  ten  cents  per  pound. 

Hides,  raw  or  uneuied,  whether  dry,  salted  or  pickled. 
Angora  goat-skins,  raw,  without  the  wool,  unmanufactured, 
asses'  skins,  raw  or  unmanufactured,  and  skins,  except  sheep- 
skins with  the  wool  on,  one  and  one-half  cents  per  pound. 

TARIFF     OR     CUSTOMS      RATES      IX     THE     UNITED 
KINGDOM. 

Informer  years  the  tariff  rate  list  of  Great  Britain 
and   Ireland    embraced    more    than   a   thousand 

articles  of  merchandise.     At  present  the  list   in- 
cludes only  nineteen,  as  follows: 

£  s.  d. 
Beer,  mum  and  spruce,  the  original  specific  gravity 

not  exceeding  1215  deg. ,  per  liarrel  of  36  galls 1    6  0 

Beer,  exceeding  1215  deg.,  per  barrel  of  36  galls 1  10  6 

Beer  and  Ale,  worts  of  which  were  before  fermenta- 
tion of  a  specific  gravity  of  1055  deg.,  per  barrel 

of36galls 0    6  6 

And  so  in  proportion  for  any  difference  in  gravity. 

Cards  (Playing) pcrdoz.  packs  0    3  9 

Chickory,  raw  or  kiln-dried cwt.  0  13  3 

Chickory.  roasted  or  ground lb.  0    0  2 

ChickoiT  and  coffee  mixed lb.  0    0  2 

Chloral  hvdrate lb.  0     1  3 

Chloroform lb.  0    3  0 

Cocoa '. lb.  0    0  I 

Cocoa  husks  and  shells cwt.  0    2  0 

Cocoa  or  Chocolate,  ground,  prepared  or  in  Kny  way 

manufactured 16.  0    0  2 

Coffee  (raw) cwt.  0  14  0 

Coffee  ( kiln-dried,  roasted  or  ground) lb.  0    0  2 

Collodion gall.  14  0 

Ether,  acetic lb.  0    19 

Ether,  butyric gall.  0  15  0 

Ether,  sulphuric gall.  15  0 

Ethyl.  Iodide  of gall.  0  13  0 

Fruit  (almonds  and  dates  free)  diied cwt.  0    7  0 

Xaphtha  or  methylic  alcohol  (puri.)  proof. gall.  0  10  4 

Plate  (gold) '. every  oz.  Troy  0  17  0 

Plate  (silver! Trof  0    1  6 

Soap,    transparent,   in   the  manufacture  of   which 

spirit  has  Deen  used lb.  0    0  3 

Spirits,  or  strong  waters proof  gall.  0  10  4 

Spirits,  Perfumed  spirits  and  Cologne  water 

liquid  gall.  0  16  6 
Spirits.  Liqueurs,  Cordials,  or  othcrpreparations  con- 
taining spirit  in  bottle,  if  not  to  be  tested  for  as- 
certaining the  strength ..liquid  gall.  0  14  0 

Tea r lb.  0    0  6 

Tobacco,  unmanufaeturod,  containing  10  per  cent  or 

more  of  moisture lb.  0    3  2 

Tobacco,  containiug  less  than  10  per  cent lb.  0    3  6 

Tobacco,  cigars lb.  0    5  0 

Tobacco,  Cav  endish  or  Xcgrohead lb.  0    4  6 

Snuff,   not  more  than   13  Ib.s.  (lu  100  lbs. (moist- 
ure  lb.  0    4  6 

Snuff',  containing  more  than  13  lbs lb.  0    3  9 

Tobacco,  other  manufactured lb.  0    4  0 

Tobacco,  Cavendish  or  Negrohead,  manufactured  in 

bond  from  unmanufactured  tobacco lb.  0    4  0 


1478 


T  A  R  N  0  W  —  TASMANIA, 


Varnish  (Cont.  spirit),  same  as  spirits.  £  .«.  d. 

Wine,  not  exceeding  30  deg.,  proof  spirit gall.    0    10 

Wine,    exceeding   30    deg..  but  not  exceeding  42 

deg gall.    0    2    t) 

Wine,    for    each    additional    degree    of     strength 

beyond  4i  deg gall.    0    0    3 

Sparkling  Wine,  imported  in  bottle gall.    0    2    6 

Sparkling  Wine,  when  the  market  value  is  proved 

not  to  exceed  15s.  per  gall gall.     0    10 

These  duties  arc  in  addition  to  the  duty  in  respect  of  alco- 
holic strength. 

TARXOW,  a  towu  of  Austrian  Galicia,  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  Dunajec,  a  navigable  tributary 
of  the  Vistula,  forty-nine  miles  east  of  Cracow  by 
the  Vienna  and  Lemberg  Railway.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  Catholic  bishop,  contains  a  theological  college, 
and  a  beautiful  cathedral,  in  which  are  numerous 
monuments  of  marble,  surmounted  by  statues,  en- 
riched with  b/issi  riJievi,  and  rising  to  from  sixty 
to  seventy  feet  in  height.  Several  industries  are 
actively  carried  on,  and  there  is  a  good  general 
trade     Population  (including  suburbs),  16,-100. 

TARPEIAN  ROCK  (Lat.  Rupes  Tarpeia,  or 
Mons  Tarpeius),  the  name  originally  applied  to 
the  whole  of  the  Capitoline  Hill,  but  latterly  con- 
fined to  a  portion  of  the  southern  part  of  the  hill, 
the  following  being  the  legend  commonly  related 
in  connection  with  it.  In  the  time  of  Romulus, 
Tarpeia  (a  vestal  virgin),  the  daughter  of  Sp.  Tar- 
peius, governor  of  the  Roman  citadel  on  the  Cap- 
itoline, covetous  of  the  golden  ornaments  on  the 
Sabine  soldiery,  and  tempted  by  their  ofl'er  to  give 
her  what  they  wore  on  their  left  arms,  opened  a 
gate  of  the  fortress  to  the  Sabine  king,  Titus  Tatius, 
who  had  come  to  revenge  the  rape  of  the  Sabine 
women.  "  Keeping  their  promise  to  the  ear."  the 
Sabines  crushed  Tarpeia  to  death  beneath  their 
shields,  and  she  was  buried  in  the  part  of  the  hill 
which  bears  her  name.  Sub.sequently,  it  was  not 
unusual  for  persons  condemned  on  the  charge  of 
aspiring  to  restore  the  monarchy,  or  of  treason  to 
the  state  generally,  to  be  hurled  from  the  Tarpeian 
Rock— e.  g.,  the  famous  Manilas,  the  savior  of 
the  capitol  during  the  invasion  of  the  Gauls. 

TARRYTOWX,  a  town  of  New  York.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,  3,901.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XII, 
p.  331. 

TARSNEY,  John  C,  member  of  Congress,  born 
in  Michigan  in  18i5.  He  attended  the  common 
schools  until  August,  1862,  when  he  enlisted  in  the 
4th  Regiment  Michigan  Infantry,  then  serving  in 
the  Fifth  Army  Corps;  joined  the  regiment  in  the 
field,  near  Antietam,  immediately  after  the  battle 
of  that  name;  was  slightly  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Fredericksburg,  and  was  severely  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg ;  re- 
mained a  prisoner  of  war  at  Belle  Isle,  Anderson- 
ville,  and  Millen  until  the  latter  part  of  November, 
1864,  when,  being  exchanged,  he  rejoined  his  com- 
mand in  front  of  Petersburg,  and  participated  in 
the  campaign  which  followed,  ending  in  the  sur- 
render at  Appomatto.x;  was  mustered  out  of  the 
service  in  June,  186.5,  when  he  entered  the  High 
School  at  Hudson,  .Mich.,  and  remained  in  that 
school  until  the  fall  of  1866,  when  he  entered  the 
Law  Department  of  the  University  of  Michigan, 
from  which  he  graduated  March,  1869 ;  practiced 
law  at  Hud.son,  Mich.,  until  1872,  when  he  removed 
t)  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  was  city  attorney  of  Kansas 
City  in  1874  and  1875,  since  which  time  he  has  fol- 
lowed the  profession  of  law ;  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1889,  ami  re-elected  in  1891. 


TASCHEREAU,  Elzeak  Alexander,  cardi- 
nal and  archbishop  of  Quebec,  born  in  1820,  and 
educated  at  the  Seminary  of  Quebec.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1842,  and  for  twelve  years  filled 
the  professorship  of  philosophy  in  Quebec  Semi- 
nary, and  studied  the  canon  law  in  Rome  for  two 
years.  He  was  made  rector  of  Laval  University 
in  1863.  Eleven  years  later  he  became  archbishop, 
and  in  1887  was  created  first  Canadian  cardinal. 
He  unsucces.sfully  opposed  in  1887  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  Jesuit  Order  in  Canada. 

TASMANIA,  one  of  the  Australian  states.  ( For 
general  article  see  Britamiica,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  72- 
75.)  The  accredited  reports  of  1889  placed  the  area 
at  26,21 5  square  miles,  or  about  16,778,000  acres,  of 
which  15,571,500  acres  are  the  area  of  Tasmania 
proper,  the  rest  being  the  area  of  a  number  of  small 
islands  which  form  two  main  groups,  northeast 
and  northwest.  Population  in  1889,  151,480,  an 
increase  for  the  year  of  3.75  per  cent.  The  popu- 
lation of  Hobart.  the  capital,  in  1881  was  21,118, 
and  of  Launceston  12,752.  At  this  writing  the  new 
census  (of  1891)  had  not  been  reported. 

CossTiTPTiox.  The  parliament  of  Tasmania, 
under  the  acts  of  1871  and  1885,  consists  of  a 
Legislative  Council  and  a  House  of  Assembly. 
The  Council  is  composed  of  eighteen  members, 
elected  by  all  natural  born  or  naturalized  subjects 
of  the  Crown  who  possess  either  a  freehold  worth 
£20  a  year,  or  a  leasehold  of  £80,  or  are  barristers 
or  solicitors  on  roll  of  Supreme  Court,  medical 
practitioners  duly  qualified,  and  all  subjects  hold- 
ing a  commission  or  possessing  a  degree.  Each 
member  is  elected  for  six  years.  The  House  of 
Assembly  consists  of  thirty-six  members,  elected 
by  all  whose  names  appear  on  valuation  rolls  as 
owners  or  occupiers  of  property,  or  who  are  in  re- 
ceipt of  income  of  £60  per  annum  (of  which  £30 
must  have  been  received  during  last  six  months 
before  claim  to  vote  is  sent  in),  and  who  have  con- 
tinuously resided  in  Tasmania  for  over  twelve 
months.  The  Assembly  is  elected  for  five  years. 
The  number  of  electors  for  the  Legislative  Coun- 
cil in  1889  was  6,420,  or  4.31  of  the  total  popula- 
tion, and  for  the  House  of  Assembly  26,054,  or 
17.50  of  the  total  population.  The  legislative 
authority  vests  in  both  Houses,  while  the  executive 
is  vested  in  a  governor  appointed  by  the  Crown. 
The  governor  is,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  troops  in  the  colony ;  he  has  a  salary 
of  £5,000  per  annum.  He  is  aided  in  the  exercise 
of  the  executive  by  a  cabinet  of  responsible  min- 
isters, consisting  of  four  members,  as  follows i 
Premier  and  Chief  Secretary,  Hon.  Philip  Oakley 
Fysh;  Treasurer,  Hon.  Bolton  Staflbrd  Bird;  At- 
torney-General, Hon.  Andrew  Inglis  Clark;  Min- 
ister of  Lands  and  Works,  Hon.  Alfred  Pilliugei". 
Each  of  the  ministers  has  a  salary  of  £900  per 
annum.  The  position  of  premier  has  a  salary  of 
£200  per  annum  in  addition.  Tlie  ministers  must 
have  a  seat  in  either  of  the  two  Houses.  The 
pre.sent  governor  (1891)  is  Sir  G.  C.  Hamilton,  ap- 
pointed in  1887. 

Edccation.  There  were,  in  January,  1891, 
sixteen  high  schools  or  colleges  in  Tasmania,  with 
an  average  attendance  of  1,297 ;  229  public  ele- 
mentary schools,  with  17,948  scholars  on  roll ;  and 
88  private  schools,  with  3,542  scholars.  Education 
is  compulsory.  There  were  also  .596  children 
attending  ragged  schools.     Two  technical  schools 


TASMAN     SEA  —  TEKELI 


1479 


were  started  in  1888  at  Hobart  and  Lannceston. 
The  higher  education  is  under  a  uuiversit.v,  who 
hold  examinations  and  grant  degrees,  being  at 
present  merely  an  examining  body.  Elementary 
education  is  under  the  control  of  a  director  work- 
ing under  a  ministerial  head.  There  are  several 
valuable  scholarships  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
schools. 

Reventje,  Expenditures,  Debt,  and  Trade. 
The  revenue  in  1891  was  estimated  at  £808,346, 
and  the  expenditures  at  £793,206.  The  public 
debt  on  January  31,  1890,  was  £5,019.050  (raised, 
chiefly,  for  the  construction  of  public  works),  con- 
sisting of  3i  and  4  per  cent,  debentures.  There 
are  large  customs  duties,  those  in  1889  amounting 
to  £309,762,  or  over  19  per  cent,  of  the  imports. 
The  imports  of  1889  were  valued  at  £1,611,035, 
the  exports  £1.459,857.  In  1889,  842  vessels  (of 
458,247  tons)  were  entered.  For  Religion  and 
Railways  see  those  topics  in  these  Revisions  and 
Additions. 

TASMAN  SEA,  the  new  name  adopted  by  the 
Australasian  Association  (at  their  third  annual 
meeting  held  in  Christcbureh,  New  Zealand,  Jan. 
15,  1891)  for  the  sea  between  Australia  and  New 
Zealand 

TASSISUDON,  the  capital  of  Bhotan,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Godadda,  an  affluent  of  the 
Brahmaputra.  Many  ot  the  inhabitants,  whose 
number  has  not  been  ascertained,  are  employed  iu 
manufacturing  paper,  and  in  making  brass  images 
and  ornaments  toi  their  place.?  of  worship. 

TATTA,  a  town  of  Sinde,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Indus,  and  at  the  head  of  the  delta  of  that 
river,  sLsty-fout  miles  east  of  Kurrachi.  In  former 
times  Tatta  was  a  most  flourishing  town,  and  man- 
ufactured fabrics  of  silk  and  cotton— a  branch  of 
industry  that  has  almost  wholly  disappeared.  The 
only  noticeable  structure  is  the  mosque  of  Shah- 
Jehan,  built  of  brick,  and  is  now  falling  into  de- 
cay; but  the  vast  cemetery  of  Tatta  deserves 
mention.  It  has  an  area  of  six  .square  miles,  con- 
tains, it  is  calculated,  at  least  a  million  tombs,  and 
has  room  for  not  less  than  four  millions.  Popula- 
tion of  Tatta,  about  10,000. 

TAUCHNITZ,  Karl  Chkistoph  Trau<;ott,  a 
famous  German  printer  and  bookseller,  born  at 
Grosspardau,  near  Leipzig,  in  1761,  died  iu  1836. 
In  1809  he  began  the  issue  of  a  series  of  editions  of 
the  classic  authors,  the  elegance  and  cheapness  of 
which  gave  them  a  European  circulation.  By  of- 
fering a  prize  of  a  ducat  for  every  error  pointed 
out,  he  was  able  to  bring  out,  in  1828,  an  edition 
of  Iloraer  of  extraordinary  correctness.  He  was 
the  first  to  introduce  (1816)  stereotyping  into  Ger- 
many; and  he  also  applied  it  to  music,  which  had 
not  been  attempted  before.  In  the  latter  years  of 
his  bu-sy  life  he  stereotyped  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and 
the  Koran  in  the  original  Arabic.  On  his  death 
the  business  was  continued  by  his  son,  Karl 
Christian  Phil.  Tauchnitz.— A  nephew  of  the 
elder  Tauchnitz,  Christian  Bernh.  Tauchnitz, 
also  set  up  a  publishing  establishment  in  Eeipzii;, 
combined  with  printing.  Among  the  most  noted 
of  his  undertakings  is  the  issue  of  "  Briti.sh  Au- 
thors" (begun  1842),  so  well  known  to  all  English 
travelers  on  the  continent,  of  which  upward  of 
1,000  volumes  had  appeared  in  1870. 

TAUNTON,  a  city  of  Massachusetts.    Popula- 


tion in  1890,  25,448.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII, 
p.  83. 

TAXICORNES,  a  family  of  coleopterous  insects, 
of  the  section  Heteromera,  having  the  body  gen- 
erally square;  the  thorax  either  concealing  or 
receiving  the  head;  the  antenna  .short;  and  the 
legs  adapted  for  running.  Most  of  them  are  foimd 
in  fungi  and  beneath  the  bark  of  trees.  They  are 
widely  distributed  over  the  world. 

TAYLOR,  Abner,  member  of  Congress  from 
Illinois,  born  in  Maine.  He  has  been  iu  active 
business  all  his  life,  as  contractor,  builder,  and 
merchant;  the  only  office  he  ever  held  was  that  of 
member  of  the  State  Legislature  for  one  term; 
was  a  delegate  to  the  national  Republican  conven- 
tion in  1884;  was  elected  to  Congress  iu  1889,  and 
re-elected  iu  1891 

TAYLOR,  Alfred  Alexander,  member  of 
Congress,  born  in  Tennessee  iu  1849.  He  was 
educated  at  Pennington,  N.  J.;  read  law,  and 
wa.?  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1870 ;  was  elected  to 
the  Legislature  in  1875;  was  nominated  for  gov- 
ernor of  Tennessee  in  1886,  and  was  defeated  by  his 
brother,  Robert  L.  Taylor;  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1.889,  and  re-elected  in  1891. 

TAYLOR, CoL.  Charles  H.,  an  American  journal- 
ist, born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  July  14,  1846.  He 
began  industrial  life  doing  chores  and  learning  to 
.?et  type  on  the  Massachusetts  Ploughman,  at  a  salary 
of  $2  per  week.  Later  he  changed  to  the  office 
of  the  Boston  Traveler,  remaining  there  until  1861, 
when  he  enlisted  in  the  3Sth  Jlassachusetts 
Union  Regiment.  A  year  and  a  half  later  he  was 
wou'ided  in  battle  and  discharged,  returning  to 
the  office  of  the  Traveler  where  he  was  placed  on 
tlie  reportorial  staff.  By  diligent  application  and 
overtime  work  he  soon  succeeded  in  mastering 
shorthand  as  well  as  becoming  a  more  facile  writer 
for  the  press  In  1866  he  was  sent  to  report  a 
meeting  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society.  Believing 
that  the  speeches  would  prove  to  be  of  special  in- 
terest to  the  public  he  reported  them  in  full,  in- 
cluding that  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison.  His 
report  being  declined  by  the  Boston  press,  Mr. 
Taylor  forwarded  it  to  the  AVw  Yorl-  Tribune, 
where  it  was  accepted,  and  a  check  for  it  returned 
by  the  next  mail,  with  an  invitation  to  become  the 
regular  Boston  correspondent  of  the  Tribune. 
His  articles  in  the  Tribune  awakened  notable 
attention  and  brought  him  the  ensuing  year  a 
return  of  .$4,000.  In  1872  he  was  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  in  1873  was  elected 
Clerk  of  the  House,  a  position  which  be  held  for 
eleven  years.  During  this  time  he  became  man- 
ager of  the  Boston  Globe,  the  paper  having,  when 
he  took  charge  of  it,  a  circulation  of  12,000  copies. 
Under  his  management  and  enterprise  the  circula- 
tion rapidly  increased,  and  in  1.S90  reported  a  guar- 
anteed daily  issue  of  1.5.5,937  copies,  with  a  Sun- 
day issue  of  147,707  copies.  Colonel  Taylor's  son, 
C.  H.  Taylor,  jr.,  a  graduate  of  Harvard  U^niver- 
sity,  inherits  his  father's  talent  for  journalism, 
and  gives  promise,  in  that  line,  of  a  most  success- 
ful future. 

TAYLOR,  EzR.\  B.,  member  of  Congress, 
born  at  Nelson,  Ohio,  July  9.  1S23.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1845:  except  while  on 
the  bench  and  in  the  army  has  practiced  his 
profession  ever  since;  was  elected  to  fill  a  vacancy 
in  Congress  in  1879.  and  has  since  been  con- 
tinuously re-elected;  his  present  term  expires  in 
1893. 

TEKELI.    Emeric.    Count,  a  celebrated    Hun- 


14ftn 


TELEGRAPH 


garian  patriot,  descended  from  a  noble  Lutheran 
family,  born  at  the  castle  of  Kasmark,  in  the 
county  of  Zip.*;,  in  165G,  died  at  Constantinople  in 
1705."  His  wife,  Helena,  the  widow  of  Ragotsky, 
was  celebrated  all  over  Europe  for  her  beauty,  but 
was  no  less  distinguished  for  her  heroic  gallantry, 
as  was  proved  by  her  obstinate  defense  of  her  cas- 
tle of  Mongatz  against  an  army  of  Imperialists. 

TELEGRAPHS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


TELEGRAPH   STATISTICS  —  CONTINUED. 


Links. 

Miles  of 
Wire. 

Miles  of 

Poles  and 

Cables. 

No.  of 
Offices. 

No.  of 
Employes 

Western  Union 

678,997 

29,500 

3,000 

1,09J 

95,000 

183,917 

6,200 

3.000 

963 

60,000 

19,382 

1,598 

55 

56 

4,500 

30,000 

Postal 

5,300 

United  States  Government 

90 
57 

Smaller  Lines      

7,000 

Total 

807,589 

254,180 

25,591 

42.447 

THE   WESTERN   UNION   TELEGRAPH   COMPANY. 

Statement  exhibiting  the  mileage  of  lines  oper- 
ated, number  of  offices,  number  of  messages  sent, 
receipts,  expenses  and  profits,  for  each  year  since 
1868. 


Tear 

Miles  of 
Pole!  4 

Milesof 

Offices. 

Messages 

Receipts. 

Expenses. 

Profits. 

Cables 

1868 

50,183 

97,,594 

3,219 

6,404,595 

$7,004,560 

^,362,849 

$2,641,711 

I8tJ9 

52,099 

104,584 

3,607 

7,934,933 

7,310,918 

4,563,117 

2,748,301 

1870 

54.109 

112,191 

3,972 

9,157,646 

7,138,738 

4,910,772 

2,227,966 

1871 

5(i,o:s 

121,151 

4,606 

10,646,077 

7.637,449 

5,104,737 

2,532,662 

187i 

62,o:o 

137,190 

5,237 

12,414,499 

8,457,096 

5,666,363 

2,790,233 

1873 

65,-57 

154,472 

6,740 

14,4.56,832 

9,3,13,019 

6,575,056 

2,757,963 

1874 

71,585 

175,735 

6,188 

16,329.2.% 

9,262 ,654 

6,755,734 

2,506,920 

1875 

72,833 

179,496 

6,.565 

17.1,53.710 

9,564,575 

6,335,415 

3,229,1.58 

lit76 

73,.yr2 

183,332 

7,072 

18,729,.567 

10,034,984 

6,635,474 

3.399,510 

1877 

76,955 

194,323 

7,500 

21,1.58,941 

9,812,353 

6,672,225 

3,140,128 

1878 

81.002 

206,202 

3,014 

23,918.894 

9  861,355 

6,309,813 

3,551,543 

1879 

82,987 

211,566 

8,534 

25,070,106 

10,960,640 

6,160,200 

4,800,440 

1880 

85,645 

233,534 

9,077 

29,215,509 

12,782,395 

6,948,957 

5,833,933 

1831 

l!0,:t40 

327,171 

10,7:17 

32,500,000 

14,393,.544 

3,485,264 

5,903,280 

188a 

131,060 

374,368 

12,068 

38,342,247 

17,114,166 

9,996,096 

7,118,070 

188;i 

144,294 

432  726 

12,917 

41,181.177 

19.454.903 

11,794,553 

7,660,350 

1884 

145.o:n 

450,571 

13.761 

42,076,2-26 

19,632,940 

13,022,504 

6,610,436 

1835 

147.500 

462,283 

14,184 

42,0!I6,583 

17,706,834 

12,005,910 

5,700,924 

1886 

151,832 

489,607 

15,142 

43,289,807 

16.298.639 

12,378,783 

3,919,355 

1887 

156,814 

524,641 

15,658 

47,394,530 

17.191.910 

13,154,629 

4,037,281 

1888 

171,375 

616,248 

17,241 

51,463,95,5 

19.711.164 

14.640,592 

5,070,572 

1889 

178,754 

647,697 

18,470 

,54,108.:t26 

20.783.194 

14,,,S5,153 

6,213,041 

1890 

183  917 

673,997 

19  382 

55,878,762 

22,387  029 

15,074,304 

7,312,725 

The  avcraffe  toll  per  message  In  1368  was  104.7;  in  1889  was  31.2;  in  1890 
wa8  32.4.  The  areraffe  cost  per  message  to  the  company  in  1368  was 
63.4;  in  1889  was  22.4;  in  1890  was  22.7. 

TELEGRAPH  STATISTICS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Algeria 

Argentine  Republic 

Anstria-Hungary 

Bel^um 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Bulgaria 

Canada 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Chili 

Columbia 

Costa  Riea 

Costa 

Denmark 

Dutch  East  Indies  . 

Ktiuador 

Kgypt 

France  

Germany 


1888 
1889 
188.S 
1889 
1889 
18S9 
1888 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1888 
1888 
1889 
1889 
1887 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1888 


Miles  of 
Lines. 


7,000 

14,700 

38,159 

4,013 

180 

6.300 

2.7.50 

29,400 

4,339 

10.640 

2,800 

600 

2,810 

3,674 

6,556 

1,200 

3,172 

54,560 

57,763 


Miles  of 
Wires. 


16,000 

a8,550 

m,53J 

19,030 


11,160 
"61V2V9 


10,280 


5,423 
241,800 
186,733 


Number  of 
Messages. 


3.5U.420 

13,240,642 

7,266.694 

16,127 

567,935 

620,690 

4,064.381 

1,063,949 

572,333 


112,639 


396,366 


666,869 
22,341,000 
17.782,323 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland..  1889 
1889 
1888 
1888 
1889 


Greece 

Guatamala 

Hawaii 

Honduras  

India,  British 

Italy 

Japan  

Luxemburg 

Mexico 

Montenegro 

Netherlands 

New  South  Wales. , 

New  Zealand 

Nicaragua 

Norw.ty , 

Orange  Free  State  , 

Paraguay 

Persia 

Peru 

Philippine  Islands 

Porto  Rico 

Portugal 

Queensland 

Roumauia 

Russia 

Salvador 

Servia 

Siam 

South  Australia... 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Tasmania 

Transvaal 

Tunis 

Turkev 

United  States 

Uruguay  

Venezuela 

Victoria. 


Western  Australia 
Total 


1889 
1888 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1888 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1878 
1889 
1889 
1885 
1889 
1888 
1888 
1888 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1887 
1889 
1888 
1889 
18811 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 
1888 
1889 
1889 


Miles  of 
Lines. 


30,726 

4,362 

1,923 

250 

1,800 

31,894 

19,460 
6,164 
1,6.53 

27,861 

280 

3.100 

12,000 

4.992 

1.700 

5.638 

1,120 

100 

3,824 

1,382 

720 

470 

3,210 

9,167 

3,271 

88,280 
1,440 
1,810 
1,000 
5,509 

11,512 
5,120 
4,340 
1,894 
1,250 
2,000 

15,000 
2;54,110 
2.234 
3.000 
4.194 
2,385 


Miles  of 
Wires. 


183,502 
5,062 


Number  of 
Messages. 


93,517 
73,160 


10,850 
22,219 
11,617 


10,282 


6,124 


7,468 

16,M8 

8,084 

172,360 


3,060 


11,448 
28,870 
13,:340 
10,540 
2,505 


807,589 


842,812 


10,360 
2,659 


',765.347 
936,638 
457,009 


2,807,617 
8,772,671 
2,564,514 


4,059,674 
3,410,417 
1,765,860 

1,314,583 


1,730,107 

1,284,438 

1,317,689 

10,477,049 


471,126 


3,549,860 

1,430,481 

3,000,000 

271,769 


80,000.000 

148.166 

408,514 

2,743,938 

180,735 


The  number  of  telcirraphie  messages  annually  transmitted 
may  be  estimated  at  300,000,000. 

The  greatly  increased  mileage  since  1880  is  prin- 
cipally due  to  the  fact  that  in  1881  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Company  absorbed  by  purchase 
all  the  lines  of  the  American  Union  and  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific  Telegraph  Company,  the  former 
having  previously  in  operation  over  12,000  miles  of 
line,  and  the  latter  8,706  miles.  Capital  stock  of 
the  Western  Union  $86,200,000. 

The  Western  Union  has  exclusive  contracts  with 
several  International  Cable  Companies,  operating 
eight  Atlantic  cables,  and  guarantees  5  per  cent, 
annual  dividends  on  the  stock  of  the  American 
Cable  Company ;  amount,  $14,000,000. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  many  new  lines  of 
Telegraph,  which  have  complied  with  the  United 
States  Telegraph  Act  of  1866,  and  are  operating 
wires  with  or  without  connection  with  railway 
companies. 

The  Mutual  Union  Telegraph  Company,  of  the 
United  States,  established  in  1881,  has  about  8,000 
miles  of  line,  60,000  miles  of  wire,  1,200  offices, 
and  has  extended  its  lines  north  and  south,  oper- 
ating alreadv  from  Boston  to  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
Washington,' etc.  Capital  stock,  $2,500,000.  This 
lino  is  now  leased  and  operated  by  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Company. 

The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  Telegraph, 


TELEOSAURUS  —  TELESCOPES 


1481 


having  lines  coextensive  with  its  railway  system 
and  branches,  besides  many  newly  extended  wires 
south  and  west,  constituting  (5,711  miles  of  line 
and  54.087  miles  of  wire,  was  purchased  for 
$5,000,000  in  1SS7  by  the  Western  I'nion  Com- 
pany, which  now  owns  and  operates.it. 

The  Bankers  and  Merchants'  Telegraph  Com- 
pany, New  York,  organized  March  23,  1881,  has 
about  4,000  miles  of  line,  28,300  miles  of  wire,  and 
is  in  operation  to  manv  leading  points.  Capital 
authorized, $3,000,000.  "Debt  about  $7,500,000,  as 
stated  in  August,  1884.  Sold  in  foreclosure,  July 
31,  1885,  and  now  operated  by  the  United  Lines 
of  Telegraph. 

The  American  Rapid  Telegraph  Company,  New 
York  to  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Wash- 
ington, Buflalo,  etc.,  with  capital  stock  of  $4,000,- 
000.  Has  been  leased  by  the  Western  Union 
Company. 

The  Postal  Telegraph  and  Cable  Company,  of 
New  York,  organized  June  21,  1881,  has  about 
1,500  miles  of  line,  and  4,500  miles  of  wire  in  oper- 
ation, from  New  York  to  Chicago,  etc.,  and  owns 
what  are  claimed  to  be  very  valuable  patents  in 
improved  wires  and  telegraphy.  Authorized  cap- 
ital stock,  $21,000,000,  of  which  about  $7,000,000 
has  been  issued.  Now  operated  by  the  United 
Lines  of  Telegraph. 

The  aggregate  mileage  of  telegraph  lines  in 
the  United  State  open  for  public  business  exceeds 
190,000  miles,  besides  railway,  government,  pri- 
vate, and  telephonic  lines',  length  not  ascertain- 
able. 

TELEOSAURUS,  a  genus  of  fossil  crocodiles, 
whose  remains  occur  in  the  oolitic  rocks.  They 
are  found  associated  with  marine  fossils,  and  the 
peculiar  modification  of  their  skeleton  seems  to 
have  specially  fitted  them  for  an  aquatic  life.  Both 
surfaces  of  the  vertebra  were  slightly  concave,  the 
hind  legs  were  large  and  strong,  and  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  body  gradually  tapered  into  the  long 
and  slender  jaws,  which  were  armed  with  numer- 
ous equal  and  slender  teeth,  slightly  recurved,  and 
admirably  adapted  for  the  capture  of  fishes,  with 
which  tlie  oolitic  seas  abounded.  No  less  than 
twenty  species  have  been  de.scribed. 

TELEPHONES,  in  the  United  States.  The 
following  are  the  latest  statistics  made  public  by 
the  American  Bell  Telephone  Company,  which 
practically  monopolizes  the  telephone  business  in 
the  United  States : 


1890. 


Exchanges 

Branch  offices 

Miles  of  wire  on  poles 

Miles  of  wire  on  buildings 
Miles  of  wire  underground 
Miles  of  wire  submarine . . 

Total  miles  of  wire 

Total  circuits 

Total  employes 

Total  subscribers 


1888. 

1889. 

7.39 

742 

452 

452 

127,839 

142,631 

10,225 

10,266 

8,009 

17,038 

365 

536 

14fi,43S 

170,471 

132,004 

143,687 

G,1S3 

6,310 

158.712 

171,454 

154 
11 


193, 
156, 

6, 
185, 


tOt 

471 
009 

,484 
117 
603 
213 
780 
758 
003 


The  number  of  instruments  in  the  hands  of 
licensees  under  rental  at  the  be,giuning  of  1890  was 
444,861.  The  number  of  exchange  connections 
daily  in  the  United  States  is  1,240,147,  or  a  total 
per  year  of  over  400,000,000.    The  average  luini- 


ber  of  daily  calls  per  subscriber  is  6.13.  The  com- 
pany received  in  rental  of  telephones  in  1889, 
$2,657,361.  It  paid  its  .stockholders  in  dividends 
in  1889,  $1,838,913. 

The  Bell  Company  and  its  subsidiary  companies 
represent  about  $80^000,000  of  capital ;  the  Long- 
Distance  Telephone  Company  about  $5,000,000. 

TELEPHONING  LON(i'  DISTANCES.  In 
April,  1891,  a  telephone  line  was  opened  for  public 
use  between  Paris  and  Loudon,  a  distance  of  297 
miles.  There  has  been  telephoning  over  much 
greater  distances  in  the  United  States  since  1883, 
when  conversation  was  carried  on  between  New" 
York  and  Cleveland,  a  distance  of  650  miles,  and 
since  then  communication  has  been  obtained  be- 
tween Boston  and  Chicago  (1,00C  miles).  At  the 
time  of  the  great  blizzard  of  1888,  the  only  direct 
means  of  communication  between  Boston  and  New 
York  for  several  days  was  over  along  distance  tele- 
phone wire,  which  withstood  the  storm  that  pros- 
trated all  the  other  lines.  A  charge  of  two  dollars 
is  made  for  three  minutes'  use  of  the  wire  between 
the  English  and  French  capitals.  For  general 
article  on  the  telephone  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII, 
pp.  127, 135. 

TELESCOPES.  For  general  subject  see  illus- 
trated article  in  Britannica,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  135- 
154.  Alvan  Clark  &  Sons,  of  Cambridgeport, 
Mass.,  constructed  in  1860  a  telescope  of  eighteen 
and  one-half-inch  aperture,  then  the  largest  re- 
fractor known.  It  was  originally  intended  lor  the 
University  of  Mississippi,  but,  being  prevented  by 
the  Civil  War  from  reaching  its  destination,  it  was 
purchased  by  the  Chicago  Astronomical  Society 
and  mounted  at  the  Dearborn  Observatory.  In 
1873,  the  Clarks  completed  a  twenty-six-iuch  re- 
fractor for  the  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory  at  Wash- 
ington, the  contract  price  for  which  was  $46,000. 
At  the  same  time  they  made  for  Mr.  Leander 
McCormick  an  objective  of  a  slightly  larger  aper- 
ture, which  they  mounted  in  1883  at  the  Univensity 
of  Virginia.  In  1879  the  Clarks  entered  into  a 
contract  with  the  Russian  government  to  furnish 
an  objective  glass  of  thirty  inches,  and  in  1880  with 
the  trustees  of  the  Lick  Observatory  for  one  of 
thirty-six  inches.  The  glass  for  these  large  lenses 
comes  either  from  Birmingham,  England,  or  from 
Paris,  France.  The  makers  experienced  great 
difficulties  in  obtaining  disks  of  the  requisite  de- 
gree of  purity,  particularly  in  the  case  of  the  thirty- 
six-inch  crown-glass  disk,  which  involved  nearly 
three  years'  labor  and  nineteen  failures,  before  a 
suitable  piece  was  obtained.  Of  smaller  objectives 
the  Clarks  have  made  a  great  number,  some  sixty 
or  more,  between  the  apertures  sis  and  twelve 
inches. 

The  mounting  for  the  thirty-inch  Pulkowa  (Rus- 
sian) objective  was  made  by  a  firm  of  Hamburg, 
Germany,  and  that  for  the  Lick  lens  by  Warner 
&  Swasey,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  The  eye  end  of  the 
Lick  telescope  is  provided  with  a  fine  position 
micrometer  made  by  Tauth  &  Co.,  and  a  stellar 
spectroscope  made  by  Brashear.  For  use  as  a 
photographic  telescope,  a  third  (crown)  lens  of 
thirty-tbree-inch  clear  aperture  is  mounted  in 
front  of  the  objective,  its  application  shortening 
the  focal  length  of  the  telescope  Liy  ten  feet.  It  is 
yery  desirable  to  have  means  by  which  the  ordinary 
visual  objective  can  be  readily  transformed  into  a 
photographic  objective,   in  order  to  correct  the 


1482 


T  E  L  L  E  R  —  T  E  M  P  E  R  A  X  C  E     T  E  31  P  L  E  . 


chromatic  aberration.  The  third  (photographic) 
lens  is  removed  when  direct  observations  are  to 
be  made. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  largest  reflecting  tele- 
scopes, and  another  list  of  the  largest  refracting 
telescopes  of  the  world: 

LIST     OF     THE      LAEGEST     REFLECTORS      IN     THE 
WORLD. 


.\perturc. 

Observatory  or  Owner. 

Cen- 
tim- 
eters. 

In. 

Constructed  by 

Lord  Eosse,  Birr  Castle, 

la's 

128 
122 
122 
122 
120 
W 

9U 

85 

80 

71 

72 

50} 

48 

48 

48 

47 

.•17 

36 

33.'. 
31  i 

28 

Lord  Rosse.  1844. 

Bessemer,  London 

Sir  W.  Herscbel.  Slough 

Lassell,  Liverpool 

Melbourne    Observatory- 

Paris  Observatory 

Common,  Ealing' 

Lord  Rosse,  Birr  Castle 
Toulouse  Observatory . . 
Marseilles  Observatory. 
Harvard  College  Observ- 
atory   

Bessemer. 

Herschel. 

Lassell,  1860  (destrd). 

Grubb,  1870. 

Martin.   Eichens,  1876. 

Calver    and    Common. 

1870. 
Lord  Rosse. 
Henrj-.  Secretan. 
Foucault.  Eichens. 

H.  Draper. 

LIST  OF  KEFRiCTOKs  — continued. 


LIST     OF     THE      LARGEST      REFRACTORS     IS 
WORLD. 


.\perture. 

Observatory  or  Owner. 

Cen- 
lini- 
etere. 

III. 

Contitrncted  by 

Liek    Observatorr,    ilt. 
Hamilton,  Cal 

91A 

76" 

76 

71 

73i 

68i 

66 

66 

63i 

58i 

48A 

48i 

47 
40i 

40i 

40i 

39i 

38J 

38 
38 
38 

38 
38 
38 
38 

.■M 
34 

33 

33 

36 
30 
30 
28 
27 
27 
26 
26 
25 
23 
18 
18 

18J 
16" 

10 

10 

151 

14 
14 
14 

14 
15 
14 
14 

13i 
13i 

13 

13 

Clark,       Warner       and 

Swasev.  1887. 
Clark.  Repsold.  1884. 

Nice     ■ -  -  - 

HeniT.  Gautier.  1886. 

Grubb. 

Paris            

Martin  (Eichens). 

Grubb. 

McCormick  Obscrvatory 

Clark.  1883. 
Clark.  1873. 

Kewell,  Gateshead,  Eng. 

Cooke.  1868. 
Clark.  1881. 

Merz.  Repsold,  1879. 

]^[i]an 

Merz.  1879. 

Dearborn      Observatory 

(near  Chicago)  

Dr.  Yan  Duzee.  Buffalo . 
Warner     Observatory. 

Clark,  1863. 
Fitz. 

Clark.  1880. 

Carleton  College  Observ- 

Brashear. 

Washburn  Observatory. 

Madison,  Wis 

Dun  Echt   Observatoiy, 

( Lord  Lindsay) 

Harvard  College  Observ- 

Clark.  1879. 
Grubb,  1875. 
Merz.  1843. 

Pulkowa  Observatory.. 
Paris  Observatory 

Lisbon  Observatory 

Huggins,  London 

Brussels  Observatory.. . 

Bordeaux  Observatory. . 

Litchfield    Observatory, 
Clinton,  N.  Y ".. 

Markreo  Castle.  Ireland. 

Columbia   College,  Xew 
York 

Dubley  Observatory.  Al- 
bany   

Merz.  1840. 
Lerebours,    Brunner. 

1854. 
Merz.  Repsold.  1861. 
Grubb.  1871. 
Merz,  Cooke,  1880. 
Merz.  Eichens.  1880. 

Spencer  and  Eaton. 
Cauchoix.  Grubb.  1834. 

Rutherfurd. 

Fitz. 

Observatorv  or  Owner. 


Harvard  College  Observ 

atory 

Catania- Etna 

Greenwich 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich 

Yassar  College,  Pough 
keepsie.  K.  Y 

Momson  Observatory.. 

Oxford,  England 

Cambridge.  England  . . . 

Dublin,  Ireland 

Radcliffe     Observatory 

Oxford 

Middletown.  Conn 

S.  Y.  White.   Brooklyn 

X.  Y 

Alleghany.  Pa 

Harvard  College  Observ 
atory 

IT.  S.  Slilitarv  Academv 
West  Point ".. 

Lick  Observatory.  Cal.. 

Vienna ^ 


.\perture. 


Cen. 
tim. 
elers. 


33 

32i 

32i 

32 

31* 

31 
31 
30i 

m 

30i 
30i 

30i 
30i 


13 
12 

12J 

m 

12i 

12i 

12 

12 

12 
12 

12 
12 


Constmcteil  by 


.30i  ;  12 


30J 
30i 
30A 


CTark. 

Merz.  1877. 

Merz.      Trouton      and 

Simms.  1860. 
Fitz. 

Fitz       (reworked      by 

Clark). 
Oark.  1876. 
Grubb,  18i5. 
Cauchoix. 
Cauchoix. 

Cauchoix. 
Clark.  1869. 

Clark  (reworked.  1867). 
Fitz      (reworked       by 
Clark.  1874). 

Clark.  1888. 

aark.  1884. 
Clark.  1881. 
Clark.  1876. 


TELLER.  Henry  M.,  United  States  senator, 
born  in  AUeghanj-  couHty,  N.  T.,  May  23,  1830. 
He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New 
York,  and  has  since  practiced;  removed  to  Hlinois 
in  1858,  and  thence  to  Colorado  in  1861:  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  (on  the  admis- 
sion of  Colorado  as  a  state),  and  took  his  seat  Dec. 
4,  1876;  was  re-elected  Dec.  11,  1876,  and  served 
until  April  17,  1882,  when  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  by  President  Arthur,  and 
served  until  March  3, 1885;  was  again  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate,  arid  took  his  seat  March 
4,  1885.     His  present  term  expires  in  1897. 

TEMBU,  Abatesibc,  or  Tajmbookie,  the  name 
of  an  important  tribe  of  Kaffirs,  occupying  the 
region  east  of  the  present  boundary  of  the  Cape 
Colony,  where  it  forms  the  eastern  limit  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Queenstown,  formed  by  Sir  Harry  Smith, 
in  1849,  18.30.  a  rather  elevated  plateau,  from 
which  flow  the  headwaters  of  the  Kei,  Bashee, 
Tsomo,  and  other  important  rivers.  They  num- 
ber about  90,000  .souls,  and  are  of  a  less  warlike 
and  predatory  nature  than  the  adjoining  tribes  of 
the  Amaxosa  and  Amagaleka  Kaffirs.  They  have 
located  themselves  in  the  unoccupied  country  east 
of  the  White  Kei  and  Tsomo  Rivers,  a  good  pas- 
toral region,  but  rather  bare  of  wood. 

TEMPER AXCE  REFORM.  See  Temperance 
Societies,  in  Britannica,  Vol.  XXII.  pp.  158-160. 

TEMPERANCE  TEMPLE.  This  temple,  now 
approaching  completion,  is  one  of  the  notable 
buildings  of  Chicago.  The  corner-stone  was  laid 
in  the  presence  of  a  large  audience  Nov.  1,  1890, 
with  imposing  ceremonies,  conducted  by  Miss 
Frances  Willard,  president  of  the  Women's  Na- 
tional Christian  Temperance  Union,  and  her  asso- 
ciates in  the  executive  administration  of  that 
society.  The  edifice  is  to  cost  $1,100,000,  and  is 
to  be  "completed  by  May  1,  1892.  Its  foundation 
measures  190  feet  on  LaSalle  street,  and  96  feet  on 


TEMPLATE  —  TEX  ED  OS. 


1483 


Monroe  stivct.  The  edifice  is  thirteen  stories 
high,  including  ten  stories  from  the  ground  level 
to  the  cornice,  and  three  stories  above  that  line. 
The  subjoined  accredited  description  has  been 
kindlv  furni.'-hed  for  insertion : 


TEMPEKASCE  TEMPLE. 

It  will  be  a  steel,  fire-proof  building,  the  first 
two  stories  being  faced  with  a  rich,  dark  red  gran- 
ite, and  the  remaining  stories  to  the  cornice  with 
a  fine  pressed  brick,  made  to  order,  of  a  new  and 
corresponding  tint.  The  architecture  is  descriljed 
as  French  Gothic.  The  LaSalle  street  front  bears 
a  very  striking  resemblance  to  the  Adams  street 
front  of  the  Pullman  Building.  Its  general  ground 
plat  is  somewhat  in  the  .shape  of  the  letter  H.  The 
building  consi.sts  of  two  immense  wings  united  by 
a  narrower  middle  portion,  called  a  vinculum.  In 
this  wing  there  will  be  a  central  court,  70  feet 
long  and  30  feet  deep,  on  the  LaSalle  street  front, 
and  a  similar  court  18  feet  deep  on  the  west  side 
of  the  building,  designed  to  admit  light  and  pro- 
mote ventilation,  as  well  as  a  feature  of  beauty. 
The  LaSalle  street  front  will  be  made  continuous 
by  a  lofty  stone  arch,  which  will  span  the  court 
and  form  the  main  entrance.  The  foitr  corners 
presented  to  LaSalle  street  will  receive  a  rounded 
turret  treatment,  and  the  intermediate  windows  in 
the  ft-ont  of  each  wing  will  be  grouped  under  a 
broad  arch  on  the  nest  .story.  The  steep  roof  is 
broken  into  terraces,  marking  the  three  stories 
above  the  cornice,  each  of  which  has  its  strikingly 
beautiful  gothic  windows.  From  the  roof  of  the 
vinculum  rises  m  graceful  gold  bronze  fleche  to  the 
height  of  70  additional  feet,  surmounted  with  a 
symbolical  figure  of  a  woman  with  face  upturned 
and  arm  outstretched,  as  if  in  prayer.  The  archi- 
tectural effect  of  the  whole  design,  therefore,  is 
not  a  little  temple-like. 

In  the  interior  this  great  building  will  be  fully 
as  much  like  a  temple  of  mammon  as  a  temple  of 
2 


temperance.  The  basement  will  probably  coiitaifi 
a  restaurant.  The  first  floor  has  already  been 
rented  to  three  banks,  with  the  exception  of  a 
large  room  at  the  southwest  corner  of  the  building 
and  a  broad  hull  leading  to  it  from  an  entrance  on 
Monroe  street,  near  the  northern  corner  of  the 
building  This  reserved  room  is  to  be  called 
Willard  Hall.  It  is  to  be  the  trystiug  place  of 
the  temperance  advocates  of  the  world.  It  is  to 
be  beautified  with  fountains,  statuary,  paintings 
and  relics,  and  from  it  is  to  ascend  "daily  for  all 
time  to  come  the  incense  of  prayer  for  the  abate- 
ment of  the  liquor  evil.  Even  the  broad  hallway 
leading  to  it  is  to  be  lined  with  marble  and  em- 
blazoned with  memorials  of  the  temperance  con- 
flict. A  considerable  portion  of  the  upper  floors, 
ncit  yet  selected,  will  be  used  for  the  other  work  of 
the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union ;  but, 
with  these  exceptions,  everything,  from  cellar  to 
garret,  is  to  be  rented  for  business  purposes.  To 
add  to  its  eligibility,  every  conceivable  modern 
convenience  will  be  provided,  and,  among  other 
things,  eight  great  elevators. 

This  enterprise,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Women's  National  Christian  Union,  was  sjiecially 
conducted  by  the  Women's  Building  Association, 
of  which  Mrs.  Matilda  B.  Carse  was  the  head. 
The  association  proposes  to  raise  the  money,  or,  as 
it  claims,  has  already  raised  it,  bv  the  sale  of 
•fGOO.OOO  worth  of  stock,  and  a  loan  of  $500,000, 
for  which  bonds  have  been  Lssued,  secured  on  the 
property.  But  the  stockholders  are  under  obliga- 
tions to  sell  their  stock  to  the  association  at  any 
time  within  twelve  years,  and  in  this  way  the 
women  intend  to  own  the  whole  outfit  in  a  short 
time.  The  process  of  raising  money  for  this  pur- 
pose is  going  on  incessantly  through  the  "  Union 
Signal,"  which  is  pressing  into  service  many  women 
and  children  in  the  United  States  as  coUeetors  and 
contributors.  There  is  no  doubt  of  ultimate  suc- 
cess in  this  colo.ssal  financial  venture.  The  build- 
ing, when  completed,  is  expected  to  bring  a  reve- 
nue of  $250,000  per  annum. 

TEMPLATE,  a  mold  in  wood  or  metal,  show- 
ing the  outline  or  profile  of  moldings,  from  which 
muld  the  workmen  execute  the  molding. 

TEMPLEMORE,  a  market  town  of  the  county 
of  Tipperary,  province  of  !Munster,  Ireland,  situ- 
ated on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Suir,  nine  miles 
north  of  Thurles.  Although  without  manufacto- 
ries of  any  note,  Templemore  has  some  considera- 
ble share  of  inland  tralflc.  It  is  a  station  on  the 
Great  Southern  and  Western  Railway,  seventy- 
nine  miles  distant  from  Dublin.  The  public  build- 
ings, one  of  which  is  an  extensive  barrack,  are 
substantial,  but  without  any  noteworthy  architect- 
ural character.  The  population  in  1871  was 
3,443,  of  whom  almost  all  were  Koman  Catholics. 

TENDA  COL  DE,  a  pass  over  the  maritime 
Alps. 

TENDER,  in  naval  language,  a  small  vessel  ap- 
pointed for  the  service  of  a  larger  one.  Steam 
gunboats  are  most  commonlv  emploved  as  tenders. 

TENEDOS  (Turk.  Borjdsha-Ailassi),  an  island 
belonging  to  Turkey,  in  tlie  northeast  of  the  J2gean 
Sea,ofl'thec.oastof  the  Troad,  about  seventeen  miles 
south  of  the  westeni  entrance  to  the  Strait  of  the 
Dardanelles.  It  is  about  five  miles  long  by  two 
broad,  rocky,  but  not  unproductive,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  more  than  6,000,  who  are  partly  Greeks  and 


1484 


T  E  N  E  S  —  T  E  N  N  E  S  S  E  E . 


partly  Turks.  The  chief  town,  also  called  Tenedos, 
or  Bugdsha,  on  the  northeast  coast,  is  the  seat  of 
a  Gi'eek  bishop  and  Turkish  aga,  and  carries  on  an 
active  trade  in  wine. 

TENES,  a  rising  seaport  of  Algeria,  100  miles 
west  of  the  city  of  Algiers.  It  is  happily  situated 
for  commerce,  is  the  entrepot  for  Orleansville,  and 
the  depot  for  the  supply  of  the  army  with  pro- 
visions. It  is  at  once  fortunate  in  the  agricultural 
resources  of  its  territory,  in  its  mineral  wealth, 
and  its  position  in  respect  to  tran.sit-trade.  The 
population  of  the  commune  is  about  8,000. 

TENNESSEE,  State  of.  For  general  article  on 
Tennessee,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII.pp.  170-179. 
The  census  of  1890  reports  the  area  and  popula- 
tion as  follows:  Area,  42,050;  population,  1,707,- 
.518,  an  increase  during  the  decade  of  22."), 1.^9. 
Capital,  Nashville,  with  a  population  of  70,168. 
The  following  table  gives  the  populatinn  of  the 
cities  and  towns  of  the  State,  which  in  1890  had 
each  over  8,000  inhabitants;  also  their  population 
in  1880,  and  their  ratio  of  increase: 


AKEA  AND  POPULATION  —  Continued. 


Cities  and  Towns. 


Cbattanooga 
Jackson  .. . . 
KuoxviUe  .. 
Memphis  . . . 
Nasliville  . . . 


29,100 
10,039 
22,53.5 
04,495 
76,168 


12,892 

5,377 

9,693 

33.592 

43,350 


16,208 
4,662 

12,842 
30,903 
32,818 


Per 
Cent. 


125.72 
86.70 

132.49 
92.00 
7.5.70 


Akeas  and  Population  by  Counties.  The 
land  areas  in  square  miles,  and  the  population, 
severally,  of  the  counties  of  the  state  were  as  fol- 
lows in  1890 : 


Anderson . . . 

Bedford 

Benton 

Bledsoe 

Blount 

Bradley 

Campbell . . . 

Cannon  

Carroll 

Carter 

Cheatham . . 

Chester 

Claiborne  . . 

Clay 

Cocke 

Coffee 

Crockett  . . . 
Cumberland 
Davidson  . . 

Decatur 

DeKalb.... 

Dickson 

Dyer 

Fayetto 

Fentress  . . . 
Franklin  . . . 

Gibson 

Giles 

(irainger. . . 

Greene 

Grimdy 

Hamblen  . . 
Hamilton  .. 
Htmeock  . . . 
Hardeman.. 

Hardin 

Hawkins.  . . 
Haywood  .. 


.\roa 

Population 

St),  m. 

1890. 

300 

15,128 

520 

24,739 

412 

11,2.30 

300 

6,134 

614 

17,589 

280 

13,607 

488 

13,486 

280 

12,197 

600 

2:i,(!;!0 

298 

13,389 

400 

8,845 

288 

9,069 

472 

15,103 

260 

7,260 

458 

16,523 

360 

13,827 

260 

1.5,140 

275 

5,:t76 

508 

108.174 

310 

8.995 

310 

15.650 

620 

13,C>45 

495 

19.878 

630 

28,878 

510 

5,226 

570 

18.929 

610 

35,859 

656 

.34,957 

294 

13,196 

580 

26,614 

410 

6,345 

150 

11.418 

440 

53,482 

260 

10.:i42 

640 

21,029 

.560 

17,698 

490 

22.246 

570 

23,.5.58 

Population 
1880. 


10,820 

26.025 

9;780 

5,617 

15.985 

12,124 

10,005 

11,8.59 

22. 103 

10,019 

7,956 

13.:!  73 

6.9S7 
14,808 
12,894 
14,109 

4,538 
79,026 

8.498 
14.813 
12,460 
15,118 
31.871 

.5.941 
17.178 
32,685 
3(i,014 
12.384 
24.005 

4.,592 
10,187 
23,642 

9.098 
22,921 
14,793 
20,610 
26.053 


Henderson  . . . 

Henry 

Hickman 

Houston 

Humphreys  .. 

.Jackson 

James 

Jefferson 

Johnsou  

Knox  . . .' 

Lake 

La  uderdide . . , 

Lawrence* 

Lewis 

Lincoln  

Loudon  

lleMinn 

McNairy 

ilaeon 

.Madison 

llariou 

MarshivU 

Maury 

Meigs 

Monroe 

Montgomery 

Moore 

Morgan 

Obion 

Overton 

Perrv 

Pickett 

Polk 

Putnam 

Rhea 

Roane  

Robertson . . . 
Rutherford  . . 

Scott 

Sequatchie  . . 

Sevier 

Shelby 

Smith 

Stewart 

Sullivan 

Sumner 

Tipton  

Trousdale  . . . 

(Tuicoi 

Union 

Van  Buren.. 

WaiTen 

Washington. 

Wa,yue 

We'aklcv 

White  : 

Williamson  . 
Wilson 


.\rea    Population 
si\.  m.        1890. 


Population 


530 

16,336 

580 

21,070 

648 

14,499 

210 

5,390 

420 

11.720 

280 

13,325 

210 

4,903 

310 

16,478 

•MO 

8,858 

.520 

59,557 

210 

5,304 

450 

18,756 

676 

12,286 

280 

2,.555 

540 

27,.382 

2S0 

9,273 

452 

17,890 

5.50 

15,510 

332 

10,878 

520 

30,497 

.50(1 

15,411 

.350 

18,906 

600 

38,112 

200 

6,930 

580 

15,329 

1)40 

29,697 

IVO 

5,975 

448 

7,639 

540 

27,273 

360 

12,039 

420 

7,785 

240 

4.736 

400 

8,361 

430 

13,683 

360 

12,647 

450 

17,418 

538 

20.078 

580 

35,097 

620 

9,794 

252 

3,027 

.560 

18,761 

728 

112,740 

368 

18,404 

500 

12,193 

410 

20,879 

536 

23,668 

404 

21,271 

166 

5,850 

196 

4,019 

220 

11,459 

;^22 

2,86;i 

446 

14,413 

344 

20,354 

720 

11,471 

620 

28,955 

390 

12,348 

550 

26,321 

5:i6 

27,148 

17,430 
22,142 
12,095 

4,295 
11, 1^79 
12,008 

5,187 
15,846 

7,766 
:J9,124 

3,968 
14,918 
10„383 

2,181 
26.960 

9,148 
15,064 
17.271 

9,321 
30,874 
10,910 
19,259 
39,904 

7,117 
14,283 
28,481 

6,233 

5,156 
22,912 
12,153 

7,174 

'  7,269 

11,501 

7,073 

15,237 

18,861 

36,741 

6,021 

2.565 

15.541 

78.430 

17.799 

12,690 

18.321 

23,625 

21,033 

6,640 

3,645 

10,260 

2,933 

14,079 

16,181 

11,301 

24,538 

11,176 

28.313 

28.747 


Governors  of  Tennes.see.  The  following  is  a 
complete  list  of  the  governors  of  the  state,  with 
the  periods  and  dates  of  service: 

"STATU  OF   FRANKLIN." 

John  Sevier,  1785-1788. 

TKKIUTOEY  OK  TENNESSEE. 

William  Blount,  1790-1796. 

STATE   OF    TENNESSEE. 


John  Sevier.  179(>-1801. 
Archibald  Roane.  lK01-0:t. 
John  Sevier.  180:i-09. 
Williaui  iilouut.  1809-1,5. 
.loscpli  McMiiui,  1,S1.5--.'L 
William  Carn.ll.  IS21-27. 
Samuel  l](.usliiu.  1827-29. 
William  Carroll,  1829-35. 
Newtiiii  Cannon,  18:35-39. 
James  K.  Polk,  1839-41. 
.lames  ('.  Jones,  1841—15. 
Aaron  V.  Brown,  1845-47. 
Neil  S.  Brown,  1847-49. 
William  Trousdale.  1849-51 


William  B.  Campbell,  1851-53. 
Andrew  Johnson,  1853-57. 
Isham  G.  Harris,  1857-62. 
Andrew  Johnson,  1862-65. 
Win.  G.  ISrownlow,  1865-69. 
De  WittC.  Senter,  1869-71. 
John  C.  Brown,  1871-75. 
James  D.  Porter,  1875-79. 
Albert  S.  Marks,  1879-81. 
Alvin  Hawkins,  1881-83. 
Wm.  B.  Bate.  188.3-87. 
Robert  L.  Ta\'Ior.  1887-91. 
John   P.  Buchanan.  1891-93. 


TENNIEL  —  TEEHUNE. 


1485 


The  governor's  salary  is  $4,000. 
Brief  Historic  Outline.  Tennessee  was 
early  claimed  by  North  CaroHna  as  a  part  of  her 
territory.  In  1757  Fort  Loudon  was  erected  on  the 
Teunesaee  River.  The  North  Carolina  people  set- 
tled in  the  Holston  Kiver  region.  Other  earlv 
settlers  came  from  Virsiuia  and  South  Carolina. 
In  the  Revolutionary  \Yar  the  settlers  joined  the 
patriot:-;,  and  in  1776  fought  with  and  signally 
defeated  the  Indians.  Early  in  17S.J  the  settlers  iii 
Ea.<t  Tennessee  formed  a  state  government  of  their 
own,  namingtheir  new  state  Franklin  orFrankland, 
and  holding  their  first  legislature  later  in  the  same 
year.  On  June  1,  1790,  a  state  constitution  was 
adopted,  and  the  new  state  was  admitted  into  the 
Union.  Knosville  became  the  capital.  An  ordi- 
nance of  secession  was  adopted.  Numerous  severe 
battles  were  fought  during  the  Civil  War.  In 
April,  1865,  the  legislature  ratified  the  Thirteenth 
Ameudment,  and  July  15th  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment. 

Progre.'5s  of  population  in  Tennessee  by  decades: 
In  1790,  35,691;  1800,  105,602;  1810,  261,727; 
1820,422,771;  1830,681,904;  1840,829,210;  1850 
1,002,717;  1860,  1,109,801;  1870,  1,258,520;  1880 
1,542,359;  1890,1,767,518. 

For  numerous  other  items  of  interest  relating  to 
the  State  of  Tennessee,  see  the  article  United 
States  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

TENNIEL,  John,  artist,  born  in  1820.  Show- 
ing the  possession  of  artistic  taste  at  an  early  age, 
he  may  be  considered  as  entirely  self-taught.  He 
was  a  successful  candidate  in  one  of  the  cartoon 
competitions  for  the  decoration  of  Westminster 
Hall,  and  painted  a  fresco  for  the  Palace  at  West- 
minster. His  illustrations  of  books,  although  not 
comprising  many,  have  always  been  characterized 
by  great  taste.  Wlien  Alice  in  Wonderland  made 
its  appearance,  some  portion  of  the  notice  it  ob- 
tained may  fairly  be  attributed  to  his  illustrations 
of  the  book.  In  1851  he  joined  the. statt'of"  Punch," 
with  which  newspaper  he  has  since  been  connected, 
and  for  which  he  draws  the  cartoon.  Many  of  his 
sketches  have  obtained  world-wide  notice  "by  this 
means,  among  the  most  famous  of  his  recent  car- 
toons being  one  that  appeared  in  March,  1890,  en- 
titled Dropping  the  Pilot.  The  original  of  this 
sketch,  which  had  reference  to  the  resignation  of 
Prince  Bismarck,  was  purchased  by  the  Earl  of 
Rosebery  and  presented  to  the  e.x-chancellor. 

TENNYSON,  Alfred,  Baron  (creat.  1884), 
the  son  of  Rev.  George  Clayton  Tennvson,  rector 
of  Somersby,  Lincolnshire;  born  at'  Somersby, 
England,  in  1809.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  gained  the  Chancellor's  medal  for  his 
poem  in  blank  ver.se,  Timbuctoo;  married  Emily, 
daughter  of  Henry  Selwood,  of  Peasmore,  arid 
niece  of  Su-  John  Franklin;  has  been  Poet  Lau- 
reate since  1850.  He  published  in  1830  his  first 
volume.  Poems  Chiefli/  Lyrical;  followed  by  Poems; 
Hie  Princess — which  contains  what  many  con- 
sider the  finest  of  his  Ivries;  Tears,  Mle  'Tears- 
Mai/ Queen,  and  Lockslc}/  Hall;  In  Memoriam  ~i\ 
tribute  to  the  memory  of  Arthur  Hallam,  son  of 
the  hi.'itorian;  this  fine  poem  was  at  first  published 
anonymously.  His  other  chief  works  being  Maud: 
Idylls  of  the  King;  Enoch  Arden;  The  Holy  Grail'; 
The  Windotv,  or  the  Songs  of  the  Wren;  Garcth 
and  Lynette;  Queen  Mary;'  Harold;  The  Cup; 
The  Promise  of  May;  The  Cup  and  the  Falcon; 


Becket;  Tireaias;  Locksley  Hall;  Sixty  Years  After 
—which  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention;  Jubilee 
Ode,  published  in  1887.  Lord  Tennvson  has  for 
many  years  resided  at  Freshwater,  in  the  Isle  of 
Winht;  Aldworth:  or  at  Rundhurst,  Susses.  Al- 
most simultaneously  with  the  publication,  in  1889, 
of  Asolando,  by  Robert  Browning,  a  volume  of 
poetry  by  Lord  Tennyson  was  issued,  entitled 
Dcmcter.  and  containing  some  very  choice  poems. 
Among  its  contents  was  Crossing'the  Bar.  which, 
by  its  exquisite  music,  excited  great  admiration. 

TENTACULITES,  agenusof  oli-scure  anniilated 
tapei'ins  shells,  found  abundantly  in  some  strata  of 
Silurian  ;ige.  They  are  general'lv  referred  to  an- 
nelids, but  the  structure  of  the  shell  seems  to 
exhibit  greater  afliuities  to  recent  pteropodous 
molhuscs. 

TENTERDEN,  a  municipal  borongh  and  market- 
town  in  the  Weald  of  Kent,  eighteen  miles  .south- 
east of  Maidstone.  The  church,  which  contains 
portions  of  Early  English,  is  surmounted  by  a 
massive  and  lofty  perpendicular  tower.  Tradition 
asserts,  that  a  quantity  of  stones,  which  had  been 
got  together  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the 
sea-wall  of  the  Goodwin  Sands,  were  employed  in 
the  building  of  this  tower,  and  that  when  the  next 
storm  came,  the  district  of  Goodwin  Sands,  which 
had  formerly  belonged  to  the  mainland,  was  sub- 
merged. Thus  arose  the  popular  saying,  that 
"  Tenterden  steeple  was  the  cause  of  the  Goodwin 
Sands. "    Population  in  1871,  3,669. 

TERCE  (L;it.  tenia  —  i.  e.,  hora,  the  third  hour), 
one  of  the  "  Lesser  Hours  "  of  the  Roman  Brevi- 
ary, so  called  from  the  time  of  the  day  for  which  it 
is  fixed. 

TERCE,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  the  interest  or 
estate  which  a  widow  has  in  the  land  of  her  de- 
ceased husband  at  common  law.  This  amounts 
to  a  life  rent  of  one-third  of  such  estates. 

TERENTIUS  AFER,  Publics,  the  comic  poet, 
born  at  Carthage,  195  B.C.  By  birth  or  purchase, 
he  became  the  slave  of  the  Roman  senator,  P. 
Terentius  Liicanus,  who,  out  of  regard  to  his  hand- 
some per.son  and  unusual  talents,  educated  him 
highly,  and  finely  manumitted  him.  On  his  man- 
umis.sion,  he  assumed,  of  course,  his  patron's 
nomen  Terentius.  His  first  play  was  the  Andria, 
written  in  his  twenty-seventh  year,  but  not  acted 
till  166  B.C.  Its  success  was  immediate.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  died  in  his  thirty-sixth  or  thirty- 
seventh  year,  leaving  one  daughter.  Six  comedies 
are  extant  under  the  name  of  Terentius,  which  are 
perhaps  all  he  produced,  namely :  Andria.  Heci/ra. 
Heauton-timoroumenos,  Eunuchus,  Phormio  and 
Adelphi.  In  conjimction  with  Plautus,  Terentius, 
on  the  revival  of  letters,  was  studied  as  a  model  by 
the  most  accomplished  ]ilay-writers.  His  language 
is  pure  and  almost  immactilate. 

TERHUNE.  Mart  Virginfa,  an  American  au- 
thoress, known  by  her  pen  name  as  Marion  Har- 
LAND,  daughter  of  Samuel  Hawes,  a  merchant  of 
Virginia,  and  wife  of  Edward  Terhune,  D.D.,  of 
Brooklyn,  born  in  Amelia  county,  Va.,  about  1S30. 
She  began  to  write  for  the  newspapers  at  the  age 
of  fourteen,  and  at  sixteen  published  in  a  mas;a- 
zine  a  sketch  entitled  Marrying  from  Prudential 
Motives,  which  was  copied  in  England,  translated 
for  a  French  magazine,  retranslated  for  a  London 
periodical,  and  copied  again  in  its  altered  form  in 
the  United  States.    Besides  manv  novels,  she  has 


1486 


T  E  E  M  I  N  r  S  —  T  E  X  A  S . 


written  a  number  of  popular  works  on  housekeep- 
ing ;  was  for  some  time  editor  of  "  Habyhood  " ; 
has  edited  special  departments  of  "  Saint  Nich- 
olas "  and  "  Wide  Awake  ";  and  was  the  founder, 
in  1888,  of  the  "  Home-Maker.". 

TERMINUS,  a  Roman  divinity,  supposed  to 
preside  over  public  and  private  boundaries.  Origi- 
nally, he  appears  to  have  been  the  same  as  Jupiter 
himself,  but  gradually  he  was  recognized  as  a  sep- 
i^rate  and  distinct  god.  Hardly  any  religious  con- 
ception is  more  thoroughly  characteristic  of  the 
Romans,  that  land-loving,"  law-reverencing  peo- 
ple, than  the  conception  of  Termiuns,  whose  wor- 
ship was  practiced  down  to  a  late  period. 

TERRA-PIRMA,  a  term  frequently  employed  to 
denote  continental  land  as  distinguished  from 
islands.  But  it  was  at  one  time  more  specially 
applied  —  first,  to  all  the  mainland  of  Italy  which 
acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  Venice ;  and  sec- 
ondly, to  the  extensive  tract  of  South  America, 
bounded  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Peru,  the  Silvas  of 
the  Amazon,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  which  mostly  belonged  to  the  Span- 
iards during  the  last  century.  In  a  still  more  re- 
stricted sense,  the  term  was  applied  by  the  Span- 
iards to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  itself 

TERRE  HAUTE,  a  city  of  Indiana.  Population 
in  1890,  30,217.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII, 
p.  195. 

TERRELL,  a  town  of  Texas,  in  Kaufman 
county,  a  thriving  trading  and  shipping  point. 

TERRY,  Miss  Ellex,  an  English  actress,  born 
at  Coventry  in  1848.  She  made  her  first  appear- 
ance on  the  stage  during  Charles  Keau's  Shake- 
spearian revivals  in  1858,  playing  the  parts  of 
Mamillius  in  The  Winter's  Tale  and  Prince  Arthur 
in  King  John.  When  only  fourteen  she  was  a 
member  of  Mr.  Chute's  Bristol  company,  which  in- 
cluded Mrs.  Kendal,  Mrs.  Labouchere,  Kate  Bishop, 
and  several  other  now  prominent  members  of  the 
profession.     She   made  her  debut  in  London,  in 

1863,  as  Gertrude  in  The  Little  Treasure,  and  until 

1864,  played  Hero  in  Much  Ado  About  Nothing, 
Mary  Meredith  in  Our  American  Cousin,  and  other 
secondary  parts.  In  that  year  she  married  and 
left  the  stage,  but  reappeared  again  in  1867,  in  The 
Double  Marriage  at  the  New  Queen's  Theater, 
Loudon.  She  afterward  joined  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ban- 
croft at  the  Prince  of  Wales'  Theater,  where  she 
acted  the  part  of  Portia.  In  1878  she  made  her 
first  appearance  at  the  Lyceum,  and  has  since,  iu 
conjunction  with  Mr.  Irving,  played  in  the  longest 
runs  ever  known  of  Hamlet,  The  Merchant  of 
Venice,  Eomeo  and  Juliet,  and  Much  Ado  About 
Nothing.  She  has  also  appeared  as  Viola  in 
Twelfth  Night,  Henrietta  Maria  in  Charles  I.,  Cam- 
ma  in  Teuuyson's  tragedy  of  The  Cup,  and  Ruth 
Meadows  in  Eugene  Aram.  She  achieved  immense 
success  as  Marguerite  in  W.  G.  Wills'  play  of 
Faust.  She  accompanied  Mr.  Irving  on  his  Amer- 
ican tour  in  1887,  and  afterward  reappeared  at  the 
Lyceum  in  Faust,  and  at  the  same  theater  played 
as  Lady  Macbeth  and  in  Dead  Heart.  In  1890  she 
appeared  as  Lucy  Ashton  in  Ravenswood,  with 
great  success.    , 

TERRY,  William  L.,  member  of  Congress, 
born  in  Anson  county,  N.  C,  Sept.  27,  1850. 
He  removed,  with  his  parents,  to  Mississippi  in 
1857,  and  to  Arkansas  in  1861 ;  w.as  educated  at 
Bingham'.s  Militaiy  Academy,  North  Carolina,  and 


Trinity  College,  North  Carolina,  graduating  in 
1872 ;  entered  the  profession  of  law  in  November, 
1873;  was  an  oflicer  of  Arkansas  state  troops  in 
1874;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  City  Council  of 
Little  Rock  in  1877,  and  a  state  senator  in  1878, 
.serving  as  president  of  the  Senate ;  was  city  attorney 
of  Little  Rock  eight  terms.  Was  a  delegate  to  the 
Democratic  National  Conventions  of  1884  and 
1888.  In  1890  was  elected  a  representative  from 
the  Fourth  Congressional  District  of  Arkansas  to 
the  LII.  Congress. 

TEWFIK,  Mohammed  Tewfik  Pasha,  Khe- 
dive OF  Egypt,  eldest  son  of  Ismail  Pasha,  born 
in  1852.  He  was  made  president  of  council  by  his 
father  upon  dismissal  of  Nubar,  in  1878.  and 
worked  for  a  few  weeks  loyally  with  his  colleagues. 
Sir  Rivers  Wilson  and  ^I.  de  Blignieres,  but  re- 
signed rather  than  be  party  to  the  coup  d'etat. 
On  deposition  of  Lsmail  he  wus  proclaimed  Khe- 
dive by  Sultan's  firman,  in  1879;  gave  loyal  sup- 
port to  Dual  Control,  1879-82.  He  was  unable  to 
resist  rebellion  of  Arabi,  but  refused  to  take 
refuge  in  British  ships.  After  bombardment  of 
Alexandria  be  entered  into  negotiations  with  the 
English,  and  proclaimed  aumesty  to  all  who  would 
return  to  obedience.  This  being  iueflectual,  after 
Tel-el-Kobir  Tewfik  returned  to  Cairo.  He  be- 
haved with  great  courage  during  the  outbreak  of 
cholera  in  1883,  when,  accompanied  by  his  wife, 
he  visited  the  sick  in  .spite  of  the  remonstrances  of 
niiui.sters.  Atter  1S84  he  usually  acted  under  the 
influence  of  Sir  E.  Baring.  Though  a  Mohammedan, 
Tewfik  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  Moslem  institu- 
tions of  polygamy  and  slavery.    He  died  iu  1892. 

TEXARKANA,  a  town,  the  county  seat  of  Miller 
county.  Ark.,  an  important  railway  center,  situated 
about  one-half  in  Arkansas,  and  the  rest  in  Texas. 
It  is  an  important  point  on  the  southern  line  to  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  post-office  is  iu  the  state  of 
Arkansas.     Population  in  1890,  3,486. 

TEXAS  State  of.  For  general  article  on 
Texas,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  202-206. 
The  census  of  1890  reports  the  area  and  population 
as  follows:  Area  265,780;  population,  2,235,523, 
an  increase  during  the  decade  of  643,774.  Capi- 
tal, Austni,  with  a  population  of  14,476.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  population  of  the  cities  and 
towns  of  the  state,  which  iu  1890  had  each  over 
8,000  inhabitants;  also  their  population  iu  1880, 
and  their  rate  of  increase: 


Cities  .\nd  Towns. 


Austin 

Dalla.s 

Doiiison 

El  Paso  

Fort  Wortli  . 

Galveston 

Houston 

Lavcdo 

Paris 

Sau  Antonio  . 
Waco 


47fi 
OCT 
,958 
338 

n8t 


11,013 
10,358 

3.975 
7«3 

6.603 
22,248 
16,513 

3.521 

3,980 
20,550 

7,295 


Per 
Cent. 


31.44 

267.51 

175.67 

,.304.62 

246.33 

30.73 

66.88 

221.47 

107.39 

83.32 

98.01 


The  census  report  of  several  other  cities  and 
towns  are  as  follows:  Brenham,  4,683;  Corpus 
Christi,  4,,378 ;  Corsicana,  8,278:  Gainesville^ 
0,563;  Marshall,  7,190;  Palestine,  5,834;  Sher- 
man, 7,322 ;  Tvler.  6.908;  Navasota,  5,610. 


TEXAS. 


1487 


Aeeas  axd  PoprLATiox  BT  Bounties.  The 
land  areas  in  square  miles,  and  the  population, 
severally,  of  the  counties  of  the  state  were  as  fol- 
lows. iul890: 


Anderson 

Andrews 

Angelina 

Aransas 

Archer 

Armstrong. . . 

Atascosa 

Austin 

Bailcj- 

Bandera 

Bastrop 

Baj-lor 

Bee 

Bell 

Bexar 

Blanco  

Borden  

Bosque 

Bowie 

Brazoria 

Brazos 

Brewster 

Briscoe 

Brown 

Buchel 

Burleson 

Burnet 

Caldwell 

Calhoun 

Callahan 

Cameron 

Camp 

Carson 

Cass 

Castro  

Chambers 

Cherokee  

Childress 

Clay 

Cochran  

Coke 

Coleman 

ColUn 

Collingsworth 

Colorado 

Comal 

Comanche  . . . 

Concho 

Cooke  

Coryell 

Cottle 

Crane 

Crockett 

Crosby 

Dallam 

Dallas 

Dawson 

Deaf  Smith  .. 

Delta 

Denton 

Dc  Witt 

Dickens  

Dimmit 

Donley 

Duval 

Eastland 

Ector 

Edwards 

ElUs 

ElPa,so 

Encinal 

Erath 

Falls 

Fannin 

Fayette 

Fisher 

Floyd 

Folev 


Area, 
sq.  miles. 


1.000 

1.500 
880 
400 
900 
900 

1.200 
700 
900 
970 
960 
900 
980 

1,000 

1.180 
710 
940 
980 
920 

1.440 
510 

2,&tO 
900 
900 

1.440 
040 

1.000 
500 
.500 
900 

1.960 
200 
900 
950 
840 
1S40 

1.000 
7.50 

1.100 
840 
900 

1.290 
880 
900 
900 
580 
960 

1.010 
920 

1.000 

1.080 

1.000 

3.510 
900 

1.400 
900 
900 

L.'^O 
260 
900 
880 
«0 

1.100 
900 

1.750 
900 
900 

2.620 
950 

9.750 

1,700 

1.000 
770 

1,000 
960 
fK)0 

1,100 

2,100 


Pop. 
1890. 


20,923 

24 

6,306 

1.824 

2.101 

944 

6,459 

17.859 


3,782 
20.736 

2.595 

3.720 
33.297 
49.266 

4.635 
222 
14,157 
20.267 
11.506 
16.650 
710 


Pop 
1880 


17,395 

5^239 

996 

596 

31 

4,217 

14,429 


2,1.58 

17,215 

715 

2,298 
20,518 
30,470 

3,5&3 

35 

11.217 

10.965 

9,774 
13,576 

12 


11,359 

8,414 

A)7 

13.001 

9,243 

10,721 

6.855 

15,769 

11,757 

815 

1,739 

5.4.34 

3,453 

14,424 

14.959 

6,624 

5.931 

356 

22.554 

16,724 

9 

2.241 

2.187 

22,975 

16,723 

1,175 

25 

7,503 

5,045 

2.6.59 

6,088 

3,603 

36,736 

25,983 

357 

6 

19.512 

16,673 

6.398 

5,546 

16,393 

8,608 

1,059 

800 

24.696 

20,391 

16.816 

10.924 

240 

24 

15 

194 

127 

346 

82 

ta 

67,042 

33,488 

29 

24 

179 

'.38 

9.117 

5.  .597 

21.289 

18,143 

14,307 

10,082 

295 

28 

1,049 

665 

1,056 

160 

7.598 

5,732 

10,.343 

4,855 

224 

1,962 

266 

31.774 

21,294 

15,678 

3,845 

1.022 

1,902 

21.515 

11,796 

20.706 

16,240 

38,709 

25,501 

31.481 

27,996 

2,996 

136 

529 

3 

16 

Fort  Bend  . 
Franklin... 
Freestone. . 

Frio 

Games 

Galveston.. 

Garza 

Gillespie . . . 
Glasscock.. 

Goliad   

Gonzales  . . 

Gray 

Grayson  . . . 

Gregg 

Gnmes 

<;uadalupe  . 

Hale 

Hall 

Hamilton . . 
Hansford  . . 
Hardeman  . 

Hardin 

Hams 

Harrison . . . 

Hartley 

Haskell 

Hays 

Hemphill . . 
Henderson . 
Hidalgo  . . . 

Hill 

Hockler  . . . 

Hood..' 

Hopkins  . . . 
Houston. . . 
Howard  . . . 

Hunt 

Hutohiuson 

Irion 

Jack 

Jackson  . . . 

.laspcr 

JeB  Davis.. 
Jefferson  . . 
Johnson ... 

Jones 

Karnes 

Kaufman .. 

Kendall 

Kent 

Kerr 

Kimble 

King 

Kinney  

Knox 

Lamar 

Lamb 

Lampasas . . 

La  Salle 

Lavaca 

Lee 

Leon 

Liberty 

Limestone  . 
Lipscomb , . 
Live  Oak. . . 

Llano 

Loving 

Lubbock  - . . 

Lynn 

SlcCulloch  . 
.McLennan  . 
McMuUcn  . 
Madison  ... 

Marion 

Martin 

Mason 

Matagorda  . 
Mavenck  . . 

Medina 

ilenard 

Midland.... 

.Milam 

Mills 


Area, 
sq.  miles. 


880 
300 
870 
010 
500 
640 
900 
960 
900 
820 
980 
900 
960 
260 
720 
710 
100 
900 
900 
910 
180 
940 
800 
880 
480 
900 
680 
900 
960 
970 
000 
940 
460 
750 
200 
840 
870 
900 
970 
000 
880 
840 
.390 
960 
720 

•too 

730 
800 
620 
840 
100 
360 
900 
700 
900 
900 
010 
800 
460 
000 
1540 
000 
170 
960 
900 
100 
900 
900 
900 
900 
000 
040 
200 
450 
420 
900 
960 
150 
320 
270 
880 
900 
000 
640 


Fop. 

1890, 


10,586 

6,481 

15,987 

3,112 

68 

31,476 

14 

7,028 

208 

5,910 

18,016 

203 

,53,211 

9.402 

21.3J2 

15,217 

721 

703 

9,279 

133 

3,904 

3,956 

37,249 

26,721 

252 

1,665 

11,352 

519 

12,285 

6,534 

27,583 


7,581 

20,572 

19,360 
1,210 

31,885 
58 
870 
9,740 
3,281 
5,.592 
1,394 
5,857 

22,313 
3,797 
3,637 

21,598 
3,809 
324 
4,445 
2,234 
173 
3,781 
1,134 

37,302 

4 

7,565 

2,139 

21,887 

11,952 

13,841 
4,230 

21.678 

632 

2,055 

6,759 

3 

33 

24 

3,205 

39,204 
1,038 
8,512 

10,862 
264 
5,168 
3,985 
3.698 
5,730 
1,207 
1,033 

24,773 
5.480 


Pop. 

1880. 


9,380 

5,280 

14,921 

2,130 

8 

24,121 

36 

5,228 

5^832 

14,840 

56 

38,108 

8,530 
18,603 
12,202 

36 

6,365 

18 

50 

1,870 

27.985 

25,177 

100 

48 

7,555 

149 

9,735 

4,347 

16,554 


6,125 
15,461 
16.702 

50 
17,230 

50 

6,626 
2,723 
5,779 

'3.489 

17.911 

.546 

3,270 

15,448 

2,763 

92 

2,168 

1,343 

40 

4,487 

77 

27,193 

5,42i 

789 

13,641 

8.937 

12,817 

4.999 

16,246 

69 

1.994 

4.962 

25 

9 

1,533 

26,934 

701 

5.395 

10,983 

12 

2,655 

3,940 

2,967 

4,492 

1.239 

18,659 


1488 


THALLOGENOUS    PLANTS  —  THAN N. 


4EKA  AND  POPULATION  —  Continued. 


1 


Mitchell    

Montague 

Mcntgbmerj-  . . . 

Moore  

Morris 

Motley 

Nacogdoches  . . . 

Navarro 

Newton  

Nolan 

Nueces 

Ochiltree 

Oldham , 

Orange ; 

Palo  Pinto 

Panola 

Parker 

Parmer 

Pecos 

Polk 

Potter 

Presidio 

Rains 

Randall 

Red  River 

Reeves 

Refugio 

Roberts 

Robertson 

Rockwall 

Runnels 

Rusk  

Sabine 

San  Augustine . 

San  Jacinto 

Ssn  Patricio  ... 

San  Saba 

Schleicher ^ 

Scurry  

Shackelford 

Shelby 

Sherman 

Smith  

Somervell 

Starr  

Stephens 

Stonewall 

Sutton 

Swisher 

Tarrant 

Tarlor 

Terry 

Throckmorton   . 

Titus 

Tom  Green 

Travis 

Trinitv  

Tyler! 

Upshur 

Upton 

Uvalde 

Val  Verde 

Van  Zandt 

Victoria 

Walker 

Waller 

Ward 

Washington 

Webb 

Wharton 

Wheeler 

Wichita 

Wilbarger 

Williamson 

Wilson 

Winkler 

Wise 

Wood 

Yoakum 

Young 

Zapata 

Zavalla 


900 
890 

1.100 
900 
260 

1,080 
960 

1.020 
970 
900 

2.432 
900 

1.+60 
390 
960 
800 
900 
850 

6,700 

1.200 
9O0 

3,470 
270 
900 

1,060 

2.390 
760 
900 
850 
150 
910 
930 
580 
560 
640 
930 

1,180 

1,500 
900 
900 
800 
900 
930 
200 

2.570 
900 
900 

1,620 
900 
900 
900 
900 
900 
400 

2,940 

1,040 
710 
930 
520 

1,140 

1.420 

2.880 
840 
850 
740 
500 

1.160 
600 

1,680 

1.100 
900 
600 
940 

1,070 
800 
900 
700 


Pop. 

189a 


840 

900 

1,370 

1,200 


2.059 

18,863 

11,765 

15 

6,580 

139 

15,984 

26,373 

4,650 

1.573 

8.093 

198 

270 

4,770 

8,320 

14,328 

21,682 

7 

1,326 

10,.^S2 

849 

1.698 

3,909 

187 

21,452 

1,247 

1,239 

326 

26.506 

5.972 

3,182 

18.559 

4,969 

6.688 

7.360 

1,312 

6,621 

155 

1.415 

2,012 

14,365 

71 

28.324 

3,411 

10.052 

4.926 

1,024 

658 

100 

41,142 

6.946 

21 

902 

8,190 

5.152 

37,019 

7.648 

10.877 

12,695 

52 

3.804 

2.874 

16.225 

8,737 

12.874 

10,888 

77 

29.161 

16,564 

7.584 

n% 

4,831 

7,092 

25.878 

10,655 

18 

24,134 

13.932 

4 

5,049 

3,562 

1,097 


Pop. 
lEBO. 


117 
11,257 
10,154 

'  5,032 

24 

11,590 

21,702 

4,359 

640 

7,673 


Governors  of  Texas.  The  following  is  a  com- 
plete list  of  the  governors  of  the  state,  with  the 
periods  and  dates  of  service : 

PEOVISIONAL  GOVERKOK  BEFORE  THE  DECLAHATIOS   OF   INDB- 
FEXDESCE  OF  MEXICAN  CONTEOL. 

Henry  Smith,  1835-36. 

PRESIDENTS  UNDER  THE  KEPtTBLIC. 


David  G.  Burnet,  1836-36. 
Sam  Houston.  1836-38. 
Mirabeau  B.  Lamar,  1838-40. 


David  J.  Burnet,  1840-41. 
Sam   Houston,  1841-44. 
Anson  Jones,  1844-46. 


GOVERNORS  OF  THE  STATE. 


287 

2,938 

5,885 

12.219 

15,870 


1,807 
7,189 
28 
2,873 
3,035 
3 
17.194 


1,585 
32 

22,383 

2,984 

980 

18,986 
4,161 
5,084 
6.186 
1,010 
5,324 

"i62 
2,037 
9,523 

21^863 

2,649 

8,304 

4,725 

104 

4 

24.671 
1,736 

5.959 
3.615 

27,028 
4.915 
5,825 

10,266 

2,541 

12,619 
6,289 

12.024 
9,024 

27,565 

5,273 

4,549 

512 

433 

126 

15,155 

7,118 

ib^eoi 

11,212 

4,726 
3,636 

410 


J.  W.  Throckmorton.  1866-67 
Edward  M.  Pease,  1S67-70. 
Edmund  J.  Davis.  1870-74. 
Richard  Coke,  1874  76. 
Richard  Hubbard,  1870-79. 
Oram  M.  Roberts,  1879-83. 
John  Ireland.  1883  87. 
Lawrence  S.  Ross.  1887-9L 
James  S.  Hogg,  1891-93. 


J.  P.  Henderson.  1846-47. 
Geo.  T.  Wood,  1847-49. 
P.  Hansboroueh  Bell.  1849-53 
Edward  M.  Pease,  1853-57. 
H.  G.  Runnels,  1857-59. 
Sam  Houston,  1859-61. 
Edward  Clark,  1861-61. 
Francis  B.  Lubboclt,1861-63. 
Pendleton  Murraj-,  1863-65. 
A.  J.  Hamilton,  1865-66. 

The  governor's  salary  is  $4,000. 

Brief  Historic  Chronology.  De  La  Salle,  a 
Frenchman,  landed  at  Matagorda  Bay  in  1d87,  and 
erected  Fort  St.  Louis.  He  was  soon  after  murdered 
by  some  of  his  own  men,  and  his  colony  failed. 
Capt.  Alonzo  de  Leon,  a  Spaniard,  established  a 
mission  and  trading  post  on  the  site  of  the  fort  in 
1690.  This  settlement  was  also  abandoned.  In 
1714  Capt.  de  St.  Denis  succeeded  in  establishing 
three  missions  on  the  Rio  Grande.  In  1735  a 
French  colony  was  established  on  Red  River, 
against  the  protest  of  the  Spaniards  After  the 
Louisiana  purchase  by  the  United  States  a  contro- 
versy with  respect  to  the  boundary  line  took  place 
with  Texas,  Spain  claiming  laud  east  of  the  Sabine 
River,  and  the  United  States  claiming  the  land 
west  of  the  Rio  Grande.  In  the  treaty  of  ISIO,  in 
which  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  the  United  States, 
the  latter  guaranteed  to  Spain  her  territory  west  of 
the  Rio  Grande.  Mexico  became  independent  of 
Spain  in  1820.  The  Texan  war  with  Mexico  began 
I  Oct.  2,  183.5,  and,  on  Nov.  12,  1835,  a  provisional 
government  was  formed.  Several  bloody  battles 
followed.  On  March  17th  the  Texans  adopted  a 
republican  constitution,  and  elected  David  G. 
Burnet  president  of  the  Republic  of  Texas.  The 
decisive  battle  was  fought  at  San  Jacinto.  April 
21st,  Gen.  Sam  Houston  leading  the  Texans  to 
success.  The  United  States  acknowledged  the 
independence  of  Texas  in  March,  1837.  Annexa- 
tion of  Texas  to  the  United  States  was  voted  by 
Congress,  Dec.  27,  184.5,  and  accepted  bv  Texas, 
Feb^  19,  1846.  Texas  followed  the  rest  of  the 
South  in  the  Civil  War  of  1860-65.  In  March, 
1870,  Texas  was  formally  restored  to  the  Union. 
In  February.  1876,  a  new  state  constitution  was 
adopteil. 

Progress  of  population  in  Texas  bv  decades:  In 
1850,212,592;  1860,604.215:  1870,818,579;  1880, 
1,-591,749 ;  1890,  2,235,523. 

For  numerous  otlier  items  of  interest  relating  to 
Texas,  see  the  article  United  States  in  these 
Revisions  and  Additions. 

THALLOGENOUS  PLANTS,  those  acotyle- 
donous  plants  which  exhibit  the  greatest  simplic- 
ity of  structure,  consisting  of  a  mere  thalius  with 
reproductive  organs.  Of  this  description  are 
Algce,  Characece.  Fungi  and  Lichens. 

THANN,  a  town  of  Alsace,  in  the  former 
French  department  of  Haut-Rhin.  prettily  situ- 
ated at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  crowned  by  the  riiins  of 


T  H  E  O  L  0  (}  I  C  A  L    SEMINARIES. 


1481' 


the  castle  of  Engelburg,  thirteen  miles  northwest 
of  Mulhouse.  It  contains  a  superb  Gothic  church, 
surmounted  by  a  spire  of  delicatt>  open  work  up- 
ward of  300  ieet  high.  Cotton  cloths,  chemicals 
and  machinery  are  manufactured.  Population  in 
1871,  8,052. 

THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARIES  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES.  According  to  the  latest  re- 
port of  the  U.  S.  commissioner  of  education  the 
theological  schools  in  the  United  States  were,  in 
1887,  as  follows: 


Rkligiocs  Dbnomixations. 


No.  of 
Schools. 


Baptist 

Free  Baptist 

Roman  Catholic 

Lutheran 

Methodist  Episcopal 

M^thodiiit  Protestant 

Methodist  Eniscopa'.  South. 
Qennan  iletnodist  Episcopal 

Wcslevan   Methodist 

"Pfesbytcrian 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  . . . 

United  Presbyterian 

Reformed  Presbyterian 

Protestant  Episcopal 

Congregational 

Universalist 

Unitarian 

Christian 

Reformed 

Reformed  ( Dutch) 

Associate  Reformed 

Fnsectarian 

United  Brethren 

Jewish  

E.rangeiical  Association  

German  Evangelical 

Total 


19 
2 

17 

17 

16 

2 

2 

1 

1 

14 


1 
12 
11 
3 
1 
6 
5 
1 
1 
4 
2 
1 
1 
1 


145 


No.  of  In 
structore. 


107 
11 

150 

69 

107 

10 

20 

3 

5 

81 

19 

19 

3 

68 

66 


18 
15 
6 
6 
30 
9 
9 
4 
3 


867 


No.of  Stu- 
dents 


1,014 
78 

663 
1,057 

645 
26 

207 
39 
20 

749 

327 
65 
22 

286 

378 
61 
30 

236 
73 
22 


152 
65 


9 

82 


6,306 


In  the  following  list  we  give  the  names  and 
locations  of  these  schools,  together  with  the  dates 
of  their  organizations. 

The  Baptist  Theological  Schools  are    (The 
dates  tell  when,  founded): 

1.  Hamilton  Theological  Seminary,  at  Hamil- 
ton, N.  T.,  1820. 

2.  Newton  Theological  Institution,  at  Newton 
Centre,  Mass.,  1825. 

3.  Kochester  Theological  Seminary,  at  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  1850. 

4.  The  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Seminary, 
at  Greenville,  S.  C,  1859. 

5.  The  Baptist  Union  Theological  Seminary,  at 
Morgan  Park,  HI.,  1866. 

6.  The  Atlanta  Theological  Seminary,  at  At- 
lanta, Ga.,  1867. 

7.  Richmond  Theological  Seminary,  at    Rich- 
mopfl,  Va.,  1867. 

8.  Crozer   Theological    Seminary,   at   Upland, 
Delaware  countv.  Pa.,  1867. 

9.  Shurtieff  College,  at  Upper  Alton,  III.,  1827. 

10.  Wavland  Seminarv,  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
1865. 

11.  Sh.aw  University,  at  Raleigh,  N.  C  ,  1865. 

12.  Roeer  Williams  University,  at  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  18li.5. 

13.  William  Jewell  College,  at  Libertv.  Mo., 
1868. 

14.  The  Benedict  Institute,  at  Columbia,  S.  C, 
1871. 

15.  Jackson  College,  at  Jackson,  Mi.ss.,  1877. 


16.  Indian  Urrtversity,  at  Muskogee,  Indian  Tei 
ritory,  1880. 

17.  The  Selma  University,  at  Selma,  Ala.,  187/ , 

18.  Bishop  College,  at  Marshall,  Te.xas,  1881. 

19.  Leland  University,  at  New  Orleans,  La. 

FREE-W'ILL   BAPTISTS. 

1.  Hillsdale  College,  at  Hillsdale,  Mich.,  1852. 

2.  Bates  College  Theological  Seminary,  at  Lew- 
iston,  Me.,  1870. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Theological  Department  of  St.  Sulpice  and 
St.  Mary's  University,  Baltimore,  1791. 

2.  Theological  Department  of  Mount  St.  Mary's 
College,  Einmittsburg,  Md.,  1808 

3.  Theological   Department   of  Viateur's   Col- 
lege, Bourboiinais  Grove,  111. 

4.  St.  Vincent  Seminary,  Germantown,  Phila- 
delphia, 1818. 

5.  Theological  Seminary   of  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  at  Overbrook,  Pa.,  1832. 

6.  St.  Vincent's  Theological  Seminary,  at  Cape 
Girardeau,  Mo.,  1843. 

7.  St.  Mary's  Theological  Seminary,  at  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  1849. 

8.  St.  Meinrad's  Theological  Seminary,  at  St. 
Meinrad,  Ind.,  1854. 

9.  St.  Joseph's  Theological  Seminary,  at  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  1864. 

10.  St.  Charles  Borromeo  Theological  Seminary, 
at  Carthagena,  Ohio,  1864. 

11.  Seminary  of  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  at  St.  Fran- 
cis, Wis..  1855. 

12.  Diocesan  Seminary  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, at  South  Orange,  N.  J.,  1856. 

13.  College  and  Seminary  of  our  Lady  of  Angels, 
at  Suspension  Bridge,  N.  Y.,  1856. 

14.  St.  Bonaventure's  Seminary,  at  Alleghany, 
N.  Y.,  1859. 

15.  St.  John's  University,  Collegeville,  Minn.,  for- 
merly St.  John's  Seminary,  St.  .foseph.  Minn..  1857. 

16.  Ecclesiastical  Department  of  the  Monastery 
of  St.  Thomas  Villanova,  at  Villanova,  Pa.,  1842, 

17.  Preston    Park    Theological    Seminary,    at 
Louisville,  Ky.,  1870. 

LUTHERAN  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARIES. 

1.  The  Theological  Seminary  of  the  general 
Synod,  at  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  1826. 

2.  The  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Synod  of 
Ohio,  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  1830. 

3.  The  Theological  Seminary  of  the  South,  at 
Newberry,  S.  C,  1830. 

4.  The  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Evangel- 
ical Lutheran  Church,  at  Philadelphia,  1864. 

5.  Concordia  Seminary,  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1830. 

6.  Wittenberg   College,   at    Springfield,  Ohio, 
1845. 

7.  Wartburg  Seminary,  at  Mendota,  111.,  1856. 

8.  The  Missionary  Institute,  at  Sehnsgrove,  Pa., 
1858. 

9.  Augustana  Seminary,  at  Rock  Island,  HI., 
1860. 

10.  Hartwick  Seminary,  in  Otsego  county,  N.  T., 
1815. 

11.  Augsburg  Seminary,  at  Minneapolis,  Minn., 
1869. 

12.  Luther  Seminary,  at  Madison,  Wis.,  1876. 

13.  The  Evangelical  Lutheran  Theological  Sem- 
inary, at  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  1878. 


1490 


THEOLOGICAL    SEMINARIES. 


14.  The  Ked  Wiug,  at  Red  Wins,  Miun. 

15.  The  Theological  Seuiiuary  at  Alton,  Minn., 
1881. 

16.  Concordia  College,  at  Conover,  N.  C,  1883. 

17.  The    Theological     Seminary    at    Saginaw, 
Mich. 

METHOBIST   EPISCOPAL   .SEM  INAEIE.S. 

1.  De  Pauw  University,  at  Greencastle,   Ind., 
1837. 

2.  The  Theological  Department  of  Boston  Uni- 
ver.sity,  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1870. 

3.  (iarrett  Biblical  Institute,  at  Evanston,  111., 
1856. 

4.  Wallace  College  (Gorman),  at  Berea,  Ohio, 
1864. 

5.  Central    Tennessee   C^ollege,    at    Xa.shville, 
Tenn.,  1866. 

6.  The  Gilbert-Haven  School  of  Theology,  at 
New  Orleans,  La.,  1866. 

7.  Tlie  Drew  Theological  Seminary,  at  Madi- 
son, N.  J.,  1867. 

8.  The  Centenary   Hiblical    Institute,  at  Balti- 
more, Md.,  1867. 

9.  The    German-Ent;iish   College,   at   Galena, 
111.,  1868. 

10.  A  Swedish  Theological  Seminary,  at  Evans- 
ton,  111.,  1870. 

11.  A  German  College,  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Iowa. 
1873. 

12.  The  Gammon  School  of  Theology  of  Ckirk 
University,  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  1883. 

13.  Mckendree  College,  at  Lebanon,  111. 

14.  Central    Wesleyan    College    (German),    at 
Warrenton,  Mo.,  1864. 

15.  Vanderbilt  University,  at  Nashville,  Tenn., 
1872. 

16.  Trinity  College  of  il.  E.  Chnrch  South. 

17.  Wilberforce  University  (African),  eit  Wilber- 
force,  Ohio,  1853. 

18.  Livingstone  College  (African),  at  Salisbury, 
N.  C. 

WESLETAN    METHODIST   SCHOOL. 

The  Wheaton  Theological  Seminary,  at  Whea- 
ton,  111.,  1881. 

PRESBYTERIAN    THEOLOGICAL   SEMINAEIE.S. 

1.  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  1812. 

2.  Union  Theological  Seminary,  at  Hampden 
Sidney  College,  Va.,  1812. 

3.  Auburn  Theological  Seminary,  at  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  1819. 

4.  The  Western  Theological  Seminary,  at  Al- 
leghany, Pa.,  1827. 

5.  Lane  Theological  Seminary,  at  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  1829. 

6.  Union  Theological  Seminary,  at  New  York 
city,  1836. 

7.  Danville  Theological  Seminary,  at  Danville, 
Ky.,  18.53. 

8.  The   German  Theological   Seminary  of  the 
Northwest,  at  Dubuque,  Iowa,  1852. 

9.  The  McCorniirk  Theological  Seminary,  No. 
1060  N.  lialsted  St.,  Chicago,  111.,  1856. 

10.  The  German  Theological  Seminary  of  New- 
ark, at  Bloomtield,  N.  J.,  1868. 

11.  San  Francisco  Theological  Seminary,  at  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  1871. 


12.  Biddle  University,  for  cilored   .students,  at 
Charlotte,  N.  C,  1868. ' 

13.  Lincoln  University,  near  Oxford,  Pu.,  1S71. 

14.  An  Institute  for  Training  Colored  Ministers, 
at  Tuscaloosa,  Ala  ,  1877. 

CrilBERLAND  PRESBYTERIANS. 

1.  The  Cumberland  University,  at  Lebanon, 
Tenn.,  1852. 

2.  Trinity  University,  at  Tehuacana,  Texas, 
1871. 

UNITED   PRESBYTERIANS. 

1.  The  U.  P.  Theological  Seminary,  at  Xenia, 
Ohio,  1860. 

2.  The  Theological  Seminary  of  the  U.  P. 
Church,  at  Alleghany  City,  Pa.,  1825. 

PROTESTANT  EPI.SCOPAL  SEMINARIES. 

1.  The  General  Theological  Seminary,  in  New 
York  City,  1819. 

2.  The  Prot.  E.  Theological  Seminary  o^  Vir- 
ginia, near  Alexandria,  Va.,  1823.  i 

3.  The  Theological  Seminary  of  the  P.  E. 
Church  in  the  Diocese  of  Ohio,  at  Gambler,  Ohio, 
1824. 

4.  The  Episcopal  Theological  School  of  Mas- 
sachu-setts,  at  Cambridge,  1867. 

5.  The  Kansas  Theological  School,  at  Topeka, 
Kans.,  1874. 

6.  The  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  at  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  1850. 

7.  The  Seaburv  Divinity  School,  at  Faribault, 
Alinn.,  1860. 

8  St.  Andrew's  Divinity  School,  at  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  1876. 

9.  The  Divinity  School  of  the  P.  E.  Church,  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1862. 

10.  Griswold  College,  at  Davenport,  Iowa,  1859. 

11.  The  Theological  Department  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  South,  at  Suwanee,  Tenn.,  18.56. 

12.  Wheeler  Hall,  Chicago,  111.,  1885. 

CONGREGATIONAL     THEOLO(;i('AL    SEMINARIES. 

1.  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  at  Ando\  er, 
Mass.,  1808. 

2.  Bangor  Theological  Seminary,  at  Bangor. 
Me.,  1819. 

3.  Yale  Theological  Seminary  (department  of 
Yale  University),  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1755. 

4.  The  Theological  Institute  of  Connecticut,  at 
Hartford,  Conn.,  1834. 

5.  Oberlin  Theological  Seminary  (department 
of  Olierlin  College),  at  Oberlin.  Ohio,  1834. 

().  The  Chicago  Theological  Seminary,  at 
Chicago,  III,,  18.54. 

7.  The  Pacific  Theological  Seminary,  at  Oak- 
land, Cal.,  1869. 

8.  Fisk  University,  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  1869. 

9.  Straight  University,  at  New  Orleans,  La., 
1869. 

10.  Talladega  College,  at  Talledaga,  Ala., 
1869. 

11  The  German  Theological  Seminary,  at  Crete, 
Neb.,  1878. 

UNIVEKSALIST   SCHOOLS. 

1.  Canton  Theological  School,  at  Canton,  N.  Y., 
1858. 

2.  Divinity  School  of  Tufts  College,  at  College 
Hill,  Mass.,  1869. 

3.  Theological  Department  of  Londiard  Uni- 
versity, at  Galesburg,  111.,  1881. 


T  H  E  0  S  O  P  II  Y  —  T  ir  E  1{  M  I  •  .M  E  T  E  R  . 


1491 


A    rXITAKIAX    SEMIXAEV. 

The  Meadville  Theological  Scliool.  ;it  Meatlville. 
Pa . 1S«. 

t  HRISTIAX   (niSCirLES  OF  CHRIST)   SCHOOLS. 

1.  Eureka  College.  Eureka,  lil..  ISo.'). 
-.  Oskaloosa  College.  Oskaloosa.  Iowa.  1S56. 
•!.  The  Christian  Bihlieal  Institute,  at  Stauford- 
ville.  X.  y..  1S69. 

4.  The  College  of  the  Bihle.  at  Lexington.  Kv., 

isr..-,. 

•').  Drake  University,  at  De.s  Moines,  Iowa,  1881. 
6.  Fniou   Christian  College,   at  -Meroiu.  Ind.. 
1SI2. 

REFORMED    (GERMAN"  AXD   DCTCH)    THEOLOGICAL 
SCHOOLS. 

1.  The  Theological  .Seminary  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  187i. 

2.  Heidelberg  Theological  .Seminary,  at  Tiffin, 
Ohio,  1851. 

3.  Mission  House,  at  Franklin.  Wis.,  1860. 

4.  Ursinus  College,  at  Freeland.  Pa..  1870. 

5.  Dutch  Reformed  School  of  Rutgers  College, 
at  New  Brunswick.  N.  .)..  1810. 

6.  The  Western  Seminary,  at  Holland,  Mich., 
1S66. 

The  United  Brethren  (in  Christ)  have  a 
Union  Biblical  Seminary,  at  Davton,  Ohio,  since 
1881;  and 

The  United  Brethren,  otherwise  called 
Moravians,  have  a  Theological  Seminarv,  at 
Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1838. 

The  S^edenborgians  have  a  Theological 
School,  at  Walthani.  Mass.,  since  1866;  and 

The  Jews  have  the  Hebrew  Union  College,  at 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  since  1875. 

Un'denomtnatiunal  is  the  Theological  Depart- 
ment of  the  Howard  University,  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  opened  1870. 

METHODIST  PROTESTANT   SEMINARIES. 

1.  The  Theological  Department  of  Adrian  Col- 
lege, Mich.,  opened  1878:  and 

2.  Westminster  The-ological  Seminary,  at  West- 
minster, Md.,  opened  1882. 

THEOSOPHY.  an  assumed  knowledge  of  things 
divine,  directly  obtained  from  God  through  spir- 
itual intercommunion.  It  claims  a  special  insight 
into  the  divine  nature.  While  mysticism  and  other 
theological  doctrines  start  from  known  phenomena 
and  deduce  therefrom  certain  conclusions  concern- 
ing God,  theosophy,  on  the  other  hand,  starts  with 
a  supposed  or  pretended  insight  into  the  nature  of 
Ood,  directly  revealed  to  its  adherents,  and  es- 
]>lains  from  this  standpoint  the  phenomena  of  the 
i.uter  world.  We  find  claims  of  such  direct  inspira- 
tion among  the  Hindus,  Persians,  Arabs,  Greeks 
(the  later  Neo-Platonists).  Jews  (the  Cabbalists). 
and  Christians.  It  was  widely  proclaimed  in  the 
twelfth  century,  ami  held  to  in  some  form  by  many 
so-called  Christians.  In  later  times  we  had  Para- 
ceisns,  Jacob  Boehnie,  Schelling,  Franz  von  Baader 
and  others  (about  these  see  the  article  Theosopht 
in  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  278-9). 

The  Theosophical  Society  of  Xew  York  was 
started  in  1877  by  Madame  Helene  P.  Blavatsky 
(nee  Hahn),  born  in  St.  Petersburg,  Russia.  She 
was  married  to  a  man  named  Blavatsky  while  she 
was  a  school-girl,  but  left  her  husband  a  few  weeks 
afterward.    She  came  to  New  York  about  1873, 


after  she  had  traveled  widely,  as  she  claimed,  from 
1850  till  1870,  among  the  priests  in  the  East  who 
professed  to  hold,  and  eventually  revealed  to  her. 
the  secret  of  theosophy.  In  Xew  York  City  she 
joined  Col.  Henry  S.  Olcott,  a  former  spiritualist 
and  successful  lawyer;  with  his  assistance  she 
founded  the  Theosophical  Society  of  Xew  York. 
Wilham  Q.  Judge,  who  was  for  years  before  that 
time  a  mystic,  .joined  the  two  partners  in  1877. 
Blavatsky  performed  some  things  which  are  said 
to  be  wonderful.  Gen.  Abner  A.  Doubledav. 
U.S.A.;  Charles  Lotheran,  the  journalist:  Mitchell, 
of  the  Xew  York  '•  Sun  :  "  Curtis,  of  the  Xew  York 
■•World;"  Prof.  Alexander  Wi'der,  the  anthro- 
pologist; Donovan,  the  sculptor;  half  a  dozen 
Catholic  priests,  and  a  score  of  other  well-educated 
people,  are  ready  to-day  to  testify  to  certain  won- 
derful happenings  in  the  flat  occupied  by  Mme. 
I  Blavatsky  and  Col.  Olcott.  These  people  assert 
j  that  Blavatsky's  performances  there  transcended 
j  all  the  recognized  laws  of  nature.  No  one  present 
could  explain  the  phenomena  displayed  before  his 
eyes.  Newspaper  articles  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  whole  country  to  her  doings,  especially  in 
j  1878,  when  her  society  became  an  accomplished 
j  fact. 

;  A  curious  thing  about  Mme.  Blavatsky  was  the 
fact  that  she  would  look  old  one  day  and  young 
the  nest.  Nobody  knew  her  exact  age.  But 
sometimes  in  the  forenoons  she  appeared  like  a 
woman  of  seventy,  while  in  the  evenings  she  never 
looked  older  than  thirty-five. 

It  is  said  that  the  Theosophical  Society  num- 
bered about  2.000  members  in  the  United  States, 
in  May,  1891.  and  it  is  al.so  said  that  these  mem- 
bers are  admitted  for  money,  and  that  the  society 
is  kept  alive  by  means  of  dues  and  compulsory 
subscriptions. 

In  1879  Mme.  Blavatsky  broke  up  her  house- 
hold and  started  for  India  to  revive  theosophy 
among  the  Hindus.  Some  respectable  people  iii 
India  accused  her  of  imposture.  Dr.  Hodgson 
had  been  sent  out  some  years  previous  by  the 
London  Society  for  Psychic  Research.  He  spent 
three  months  in  finding  out  whether  Mme.  Blavat- 
sky was  a  humbug  or  not.  Information  obtained 
from  her  housekeeper  with  regard  to  evident  im- 
postures convinced  him  that  she  was  a  humbug, 
and  he  .'Stated  so  publicly.  Upon  this  the  woman 
left  India  and  turned  up  in  London,  England, 
where  she  was  instrumental  in  reviving  theosophy 
considerably.  Being  a  woman  of  very  unusual 
education,  .she  succeeded  in  convincing  people  who 
did  not  belief  in  supernaturalism  that  she  had 
powers  which  they  wer,e  unable  to  explain,  and 
her  system  of  wonderful  performances  or  displays 
she  called  theosophy.  She  died  iu  London.  Mav 
8.  1891. 

THERAPIA,  or  Tarapia.  a  village  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  province  of  Rumili.  situated  on  the 
Bo.sporus.  twenty-one  miles  northeast  of  Constan- 
tinople, at  the  head  of  a  large  and  beautiful  bay 
of  the  .same  name.  It  is  one  of  the  most  charm- 
ingly picturesque  spots  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Turkish  capita!,  and  all  summer  has  a  climate 
deliciously  cool.  Therapia  is  the  residence  of  the 
French  and  English  embassies,  and  many  of  the 
Frankish  merchants  have  villas  here. 

THERMOMETER.  See  Britannica.  Vol.  XXII, 
pp.  2SS-293. 


1492 


T  H  E  R  S  I  T  E  S  —  T  H  R  0  W , 


THERSITES,  son  of  Agrius,  whom  Homer,  in 
the  Iliad,  makes  the  ugliest  and  most  impudent 
talker  of  the  Greeks  before  Troy.  His  name  in 
antiquity  was  a  synonym  for  dastardly  and  malevo- 
lent impudence.  The  later  poets  say  that  he  was 
slain  by  Achilles  for  c.ilunmiating  him. 

THESSALONIANS,  Epistles  to  the.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  297-298. 

THIRTY  TYRANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EM- 
PIRE, the  collective  title  given  to  a  set  of  military 
usurpers  who  sprung  up  in  different  parts  of  the 
empire  during  the  fifteen  yeans  (a.d.  253-268)  oc- 
cupied by  the  reigns  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus, 
and  amid  the  wretched  confusions  of  the  time,  en- 
deavored tr  establish  themselves  as  independent 
princes.  The  name  is  borrowed  from  the  Thirty  Ty- 
rants at  Athens,  but  in  rjality  historians  can  only 
reckon  nineteen. 

THOLEN,  an  island  in  the  Netherlands,  prov- 
ince of  Zeeland,  bounded  ^n  the  south  by  the 
Easter  Scheldt.  It  contains  about  .34,000  acres  of 
rich  land,  and  is  defended  from  floods  by  strong 
dykes,  whose  borders  are  planted  with  trees. 
Population,  14,078.  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
beans  and  potatoes  are  extensively  grown.  The 
annual  produce  of  madder  reaches  a  million  of 
pounds  weight,  and  of  fla.x,  400,000.  Hor.ses, 
cattle,  sheep  and  swine  are  kept  in  large  num- 
bers. Tliolen,  the  chief  town,  with  a  population 
of  2,540,  is  situated  in  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
island. 

THOMAS,  Ormsby  B.,  member  of  Congress, 
bern  in  Vermont  in  1832.  He  removed  to  Wiscon- 
sin in  childhood,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1856; 
was  a  member  of  the  Wisconsin  A.ssembly  in  1862, 
1865  and  1867,  of  th(!  state  Senate  in  1880-81,  and 
member  of  Congress  from  1885  to  1891. 

THOMAS,  William  L.,  born  in  1830.  In  early 
life  he  studied  engraving  in  Paris  and  Rome,  under 
his  brother,  the  late  Mr.  G.  H.  Thomas.  He  vis- 
ited America  and  started  the  first  illustrated 
American  paper.  On  returning  to  England  he 
entered  into  business  as  a  wood-engraver.  In  1869 
the  "  Graphic  "  was  launched  under  Mr.  Thomas' 
direction,  and  he  is  managing  director  and  art 
editor  of  it.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Royal  Insti- 
tute of  Painters  in  Water  Colors.  The  foundation 
of  the  "  Daily  Graphic,"  under  the  artistic  man- 
agement of  Mr.  Thomas,  took  place  in  1890. 

THOMASTON,  a  town  and  port  of  JIaiue,  ou  the 
St.  George  River^  fifteen  miles  from  the  coast,  and 
eighty  miles  northeast  of  Portland.  Its  extensive 
granite  quarries  are  worked  by  the  conxicts  of  the 
state  prison ;  300,000  casks  of  lime  are  exported 
annually.  There  are  five  churches  and  two  public 
libraries.     Population  in  1870,  3,092. 

THOMPSON,  Albert,  member  of  Congress, 
born  at  Brookville,  Pa  ,  Jan.  23, 1842.  He  studied 
law,  was  admitted  to  tbe  bar  in  1864,  and  has  since 
practiced;  was  elected  probate  judge  of  Scioto 
county,  Ohio,  in  1869;  was  elected  couuuon  pleas 
judge  cf  the  Seventh  Judicial  District  of  Ohio  in 
1881;  served  in  the  Union  aimy  as  a  lieutenant  of 
volunteers;  was  promoted  to  captain,  and  served 
until  1803,  when  he  was  discharged  for  wounds 
received  in  battle;  was  a  metnber  of  Congress  from 
1885  to  1891. 

THOMSON,  Sir  William,  was  bnrn  at  Bel- 
fast in  1824.  Ho  was  educated  at  Glasgow  and 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as  second  wrang- 


ler, and  was  elected  to  a  fellowship.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow  in  1846.  Was  editor  of  the 
"  Cambridge  and  Dublin  Mathematical  Journal  " 
in  1846,  to  which  he  contributed  valuable  addi- 
tions to  the  mathematical  theory  of  electricity.  It 
is  in  connection  with  submarine  telegraphy  that 
Sir  William  Thomson's  labors  in  electrical 
science  are  best  known.  He  has  also  made  im- 
portant additions  to  the  science  of  magnetism. 
His  mathematical  insight  is  seen  to  the  greatest 
advantage  in  his  investigation  of  the  nature  of 
heat.  He  was  made  president  of  the  British 
Association  in  1871;  and  was  knighted  in  1866. 
He  is  joint  author  with  Profes.sor  Tait  of  the  well- 
known  treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy.  He  was 
created  grand  otfieier  of  the  Legion  d'Honneur 
in  1889. 

THORN,  Conference  of.  One  of  those  eflbrts- 
to  explain  away  the  differences  between  the  sev- 
eral bodies  of  Christians,  with  a  view  to  religious 
reunion,  of  which  the  seventeenth  century  furnishes 
more  than  one  example.  The  originator  of  this 
movement  was  the  king  of  Poland,  Ladislaus  IV., 
who  proposed  his  project  for  the  consideration  of  a 
synod  of  the  bishops  of  his  kingdom,  held  at  War- 
saw in  1643.  The  conference  met  in  October, 
1645,  and  was  opened  in  a  spirit  of  moderation; 
but  it  soon  lapsed  into  disputation  and  contro- 
versy, and  at  length  broke  up  without  any  result. 
Nov.  21,  1645. 

THORN-APPLE  (Datura),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Sotanaceee,  having  a  tubular  flve- 
cleft  calyx,  a  large  funnel-shaped  five-lobed  flower^ 
a  two-laminated  stigma,  and  an  imperfectly  four- 
celled,  prickly,  or  unarmed  capsule.  The  species 
of  this  genus  are  annual  herbaceous  plants,  rarely 
shrubs  or  trees;  and  are  in  general  very  narcotic, 
and  productive  of  excitement  or  deiirium.  The 
common  Thorn-apple,  or  Jamestown  Weed  (Z). 
stramonium),  is  an  annual  plant,  with  smooth  stem 
and  leaves,  white  flowers,  and  erect  prickly  cap- 
sules, a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  brought  by  the 
gypsies  to  Europe,  where  it  is  now  very  generally 
to  be  met  with,  as  also  in  Asia,  the  north  of  Africa, 
and  North  America.  It  contains  a  peculiar  nar- 
cotic alkaloid,  cluturine,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  narcotic  acrid  poisons;  but  its  leaves  and 
seeds  are  emploved,  although  rarely,  in  medicine. 

THREE  KINGS,  Feast  of  the,  a  famous 
mediipval  festival,  identical  with  Epiphani/  or 
Twelfth  Night,  and  designed  to  commemorate  the 
visit  of  the  three  magi  or  wise  men  of  the  East 
(transformed  by  the  mingled  ignorance  and  rever- 
ence of  the  middle  ages  into  great  kings)  to  the 
infant  Savior.  But  the  name  is  more  particularly 
given  to  a  kind  of  dramatic  or  spectacular  repre- 
.sentation  of  the  incidents  recorded  in  the  secimd 
chapter  of  Matthew  —  as,  the  appearance  of  the 
wise  men  in  splendid  pomp  at  the  court  of  Herod, 
the  miraculous  star,  the  manger  at  Bethlehem,  the 
solemn  and  costly  worship  of  the  Babe — which 
was  long  very  popular.  In  1336,  a  peculiarly 
gorgeous  representation  was  got  up  at  Milan  by 
the  Preaching  Friars. 

THREE  RIVERS,  a  town  of  Michigan,  in  St. 
Joseph  county.  It  has  an  extensive  water  power, 
and  produces  a  variety  of  manufactures.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,  3,122. 

THROW,  the   term   applied  in   mining  to  the 


T  H  U  N  I)  E  R  I  N  (r     L  E  G  I  0  N  —  T  I  L  B  U  R  Y    FORT, 


1493 


amount  of  dislocation  in  a  vertical  direction,  pro- 
duced by  a  fault  in  the  strata. 

THrNUEKIXC4  LEGION,  The,  a  legion  of  the 
Roman  army  which  is  the  subject  of  a  well-known 
miraculous  legend,  stating  that,  during  Marcus 
Aurelius'  war  with  the  Marcouianni  (A.  D.  174). 
his  army  was  supplied  with  water  in  auswer  to  the 
prayer  of  Christian  soldiers;  this  rain  being  also 
turned  upon  the  enemy  in  the  sliape  of  a  fearful 
thunder-storm,  under  cover  of  which  the  Romans 
attacked  and  utterly  routed  them. 

THURIFER,  the  ministeiing  attendant  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  at  solemn  mass,  vespers, 
and  other  solemn  ceremonies,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
carry  the  thuribh',  m-  incense-vessel,  and  either  to 
minister  incense  himself,  or  to  present  the  thurible 
to  be  used  for  that  purpose  by  the  officiating 
priest.  The  office  of  thurifer  is  one  of  those  which 
belong  to  the  so-called  ■•  Minor  Order"  o(  Acolyte. 

THURMAN,  Allen  G.,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Virginia  in  1813.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  18  i5;  was  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Ohio,  in  1851;  was  chief  justice  from  1854 
to  185G;  and  United  States  senator  from  1869  to 
1881. 

THURSDAY  (Swed.  Thorsdaij,  Ger.  Don- 
nerstag),  the  fifth  day  of  the  week,  so  called  from 
Donar  or  Thor,  who  as  god  of  the  air,  had  much 
in  common  with  the  Roman  Jupiter,  to  whom  the 
sameday  was  dedicated  (Lat.  Jovisdeis,  Rf.  Jemli). 

THURSTON,  Sir  Johx  Bates,  governor  of 
Fiji,  high  commissioner  and  consul-general  for 
the  Western  Pacitlc,  born  in  1836.  He  spent  the 
early  part  of  his  life  at  sea;  became  consul  at 
Fiji  and  Tonga  in  1866,  and  acquired  tlie  confidence 
and  good-will  of  the  native  king  and  chiefs  of 
Fiji;  was  their  "chosen  and  special"  adviser  to 
confer  with  the  British  comraissioneis  as  to  the 
cession  of  Fiji;  wascolonial  secretary  and  auditor- 
general  of  Fiji  in  1874,  and  five  years  later  became 
the  secretary  to  the  high  commissioner  for  the 
Western  Pacific.  Has  administered  the  govern- 
ment on  various  occasions,  and  has  been  appointed 
on  several  commissions  requiring  tact  and  knowl- 
edge of  the  natives.  He  was  governor  of  Fiji  and 
high  commissioner  in  1887. 

THYMELEACEiE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  of  which  the  Mezereon  and  Spurge  Laurel 
are  familiar  examples.  This  order  consists  chiefly 
of  shrubs,  with  a  few  herbaceous  plants,  and  con- 
tains about  300  species,  natives  chiefly  of  the  warm 
and  temperate  climates.  Poisonous  properties 
prevail  in  the  order.  The  bark  is  in  general  very 
caustic,  and  that  of  some  species  is  used  as  a 
vesicatory,  and  for  other  medicinal  purposes. 

THYRSUS,  in  botany,  a  panicle,  in  which  the 
flower-stalks  are  short,  and  the  flowers  are  thu.s 
close  together,  so  that  the  panicle  is  dense.  It  is  a 
very  common  form  in  inflorescence.  The  use  of 
the  term  is,  however,  somewhat  vague. 

TICHVIN,atown  of  Great  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Novgorod,  468  miles  southeast  of  St. 
Petersburg,  on  the  Tichvinka,  which,  together 
with  the  canal  of  the  same  name,  connects  the 
Volga  with  the  Baltic.  It  contains  numerous 
churches,  but  is  best  known  for  its  monastery, 
which  contains  a  "  thanmaturgical,"  or  miracle- 
working  machine  of  the  Virgin.  The  inhabitants 
are  chiefly  employed  in  the  transit-trade  by  land 
and  water.     Population,  6,387. 


TICKING,  a  strong  cloth  used  chiefly  for  making 
beds,  mattresses  and  paillasses.  Formerly  it  was 
always  manufactured  of  linen,  but  cotton  is  now 
largely  used  for  this  purpose.  A  very  general 
character  of  ticking  is  that  it  is  woven  in  stripes 
of  two  colors,  blue  and  white. 

TICONDEROGA,  a  town  of  New  York.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  352. 

TIE,  in  music,  an  arch  drawn  over  two  notes  on 
the  same  degree,  uniting  them  so  that  they  are 
played  or  sung  in  one  single  note  of  the  same 
value. 

TIEL,  the  seat  of  an  arrondissemeut  in  the 
Netherlands,  province  of  Gelderland,  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Waal.  The 
fortifications  have  been  demolished  and  formed 
into  beautiful  walks.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  town  house,  court  house,  chamber  of  trade 
and  the  great  Reformed  Church  of  St.  Martin. 
Tiel  has  a  good  haven  and  large  trade  in  agricult- 
ural produce  and  cattle.  In  1864,319  ships  dis- 
charged grain,  earthenware,  lime,  wood,  coal, 
bricks,  salt,  etc.  The  principal  industries  are 
copper  founding,  brick  making,  tanning,  book 
printing,  paper  making,  beer  brewing,  etc.  Pop- 
ulation, 7,748. 

TIEN-TE  (celestial  virtue),  the  name  given  to 
the  Tae  Ping- Wang  (king  of  universal  peace),  the 
pretender  to  imperial  authority  in  China,  and  the 
head  of  the  mighty  insurrection  which  for  sixteen 
years  convulsed  that  country.  The  insurrection 
was  under  the  direction  of  five  chiefs,  independent 
of  each  other,  but  all  acknowledging  the  supremacy 
of  Tien-te;  and  as,  according  to  the  plan  of  the 
rebellion,  China,  after  being  delivered  from  its 
Manchoo  rulers,  was  to  be  divided  among  those 
chiefs;  each  of  then\  assumed  beforehand  the  title 
and  insignia  of  "  king." 

TIERS  £TAT  (Fr.  tliird  estate),  the  third  branch 
of  the  French  estates,  which  consisted  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  trading  inhabitants  of  the  towns, 
and  of  the  peasantry  in  the  country.  The  tiers 
etat  played  an  important  part  in  the  opening  scene 
of  the  Revolution. 

TIFFIN,  a  citv  of  Ohio.  Population  in  1890, 
10,801.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  385. 

TIGER-FLOWER  (Tigridia pavonia),  a  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Tridnceee,  the  only  known  species 
of  its  genus,  which  is  distinguished  by  the  three 
outer  segments  of  the  perianth  being  larger,  and 
by  the  filaments  being  united  into  a  long  cylinder. 
It  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  but  hardy  enough  to  en- 
dure the  climate  of  Britain,  and  is  much  culti- 
vated in  flower  gardens  for  the  singularity  and 
great  beauty  of  its  flowers,  which  are,  however, 
very  evanescent.     The  root  is  a  scalv  bulb. 

TILBURY  FORT,  in  Essex,  situated  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Thames,  opposite  Gravesend. 
OriginiiUy  erected  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  as  a 
block-house,  it  was  converted  (1667)  into  a  regular 
fortificatiiui  after  the  bold  expedition  of  De  Ruyter 
into  the  Thames  and  Medway.  It  is  of  a  rectangu- 
lar form,  built  chiefly  of  brick,  with  a  massive 
stone  portal,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  deep  and 
wide  fosse,  which  can  easily  be  filled  with  water. 
Batteries  of  heavy  ordnance  are  placed  so  as  to 
command  the  river  and  the  reach  below;  there  are 
al.so  piers  for  the  landing  of  troops,  stores,  etc. 
The  b:inks  of  the  Thames  being  here  very  flat, 
the  ground  around  the  fort  is  during  floods  and 


1494 


TILESTONES  —  TITULAR. 


high  tides  laid  under  water,  and  the  atmosphere 
of  the  place  is  in  consequence  far  from  salubrious. 

TILESTONES,   the   uppermost   group    of   the 
Silurian    period,    consisting  of   a  reddish,   thin- 
bedded,  slightly  micaceous  sandstone,  which   in 
some  places  attains  a  thickness  of  1,000  feet.     It  | 
is  now  ascertained  that  the  fossils  agree  in  great  , 
part  specifically,  and  in  general  character  entirely,  ' 
with    those  of   the    underlying    Upper    Ludlow 
Rocks,  and  they  are  accordingly  considered  to  lie 
the  newest  group  of  the  Upper  Silurian  division. 
The  Tilesiones  are  well  seen  at  Kington  in  Here- 
fordshire, and  at   Downton  Castle  near  Ludlow, 
where  they  are  quarried  for  building  purposes. 

TILLETT,  Benjamin,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
great  Dock  Strike  in  England,  and  general  secre- 
tary of  the  Dock,  Wharf,  Riverside  and  General 
Laborers'  Union,  born  in  Bristol  in  1859.  Before 
he  was  eight  he  worked  in  a  brickj'ard,  and  at 
twelve  served  six  months  on  a  fishing-smack.  He 
was  then  apprenticed  to  a  bootmaker,  but  ran 
away  and  joined  the  navy,  from  which  he  was  dis- 
charged invalided  after  a  .short  .service.  Aftersev- 
eral  voyages  in  merchant  vessels  he  settled  at  the 
docks,  and  gradually  formed  the  Dockers'  Union, 
which  has  now  some  23,000  members.  He  gave 
valuable  evidence  before  the  Parliamentary  Com- 
mission on  Pauper  Immigration,  and  before  the 
Lords'  Committee  on  the  Sweating  System.  He  is 
a  ready  speaker,  and  during  the  strike  showed 
much  talent  in  the  organization  of  labor.  Was  in- 
vited to  speak  at  the  Church  Congress  ot  1890, 
but,  owing  to  his  not  being  a  member  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  he  withdrew  from  the  appointment. 

TIMBREL  (Spanish  tamburil),  a  small  musical 
instrument,  of  the  drum  species,  in  use  in  ancient 
times,  which  was  carried  in  the  hand,  and  was  ap- 
parently not  unlike  the  modern  tambourine,  with 
or  without  bells. 

TIME,  Standard,  is  explained  in  the  article  on 
Horology  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

TINCTURES,  .solutions  of  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal drugs,  and  sometimes  of  mineral  substances 
in  spirituous  liquids.  Tiie  spirit  most  commonly 
employed  is  proof-spirit;  sometimes  rectified  spirit 
is  used;  and  occasionally  ether. 

TINEID^.  a  family  of  small  moths,  the  small- 
est insects  of  the  lepidopterous  order.  The  body 
is  long  and  slender,  the  wings  entire,  often  narrow, 
mostly  convoluted  in  repose.  Many  of  them  are 
very  brilliantly  colored.  Many  deposit  their  egt;s 
in  animal  sulistnuccs,  on  which  the larvaj  feed,  mak- 
ing cases  for  themselves  out  of  the  substance  they 
feed  on.  The  clothes  moths  are  a  familiar  ex- 
ample. 

TINKER'S  ROOT  (Triosteum  perfoliatumj,  a 
shrubby  plant  of  the  natural  order  Caprifoliacvre, 
a  native  of  North  America,  the  root  of  "which  is 
used  as  an  emetic  and  mild  cathartic.  It  derives 
its  name  from  Dr.  Tinker,  who  first  brought  it  into 
notice. 

TINNITUS  AURIUM,  the  Latin  translation  of, 
and  the  ordinary  medical  term  for,  ringing  in  the 
ears.  In  most  cases  it  is  an  unimportant  .symp- 
tom, depending  on  some  local  temporary  affection 
of  the  ear,  or  on  some  disturbance  of  the  diges- 
tive system  with  which  the  part  of  the  brain, 
fmni  which  the  auditory  nerve  springs,  sym])a- 
thizes,  or  which  excites  the  cerebral  circulation; 
but  as  it  is  .also  a  commrin  symptom   of  organic 


disease  of  the  auditory  nerve,  it  may  indicate  a 
diuijieious  condition,  or  may  be  a  prelude  to  com- 
plete deafness.  Hence,  although  commonly  of  no 
consequence,  it  isa  symptom  that,  especially'if  per- 
manent, must  be  carefully  watched. 

TINOS,  or  Ting  (anc.  Ypwos),  an  i.sland  in  the 
Grecian  Archipelago,  belonging  to  the  group  of 
the  Cyclades,  and  lying  southeast  of  the  island  of 
Andros,  fifty-three  miles  oil'  the  coast  of  Bteotia. 
It  is  eighteen  miles  long,  eight  miles  in  extreme 
breadth,  has  an  area  of  eighty-one  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  21,171.  The  Tenians  were 
conspicuous  among  the  ancient  Greeks  for  their 
industry,  and  they  still  maintain  their  preeminence 
in  that  respect.  The  island  is  carefully  cultivated, 
well  watered,  has  a  dehghtful  climate,  and  is  very 
productive  in  silk,  wine,  barley  and  fruits.  Silk 
gloves  and  stockings  are  manufactured;  and  the 
inhabitants  have  made  themselves  famous  as 
workers  in  marble,  which  is  found  in  the  island. 
In  the  modern  town  of  Tinos,  or  St.  Nicholas,  is  a 
cathedral  built  of  white  marble,  and  famous  as  a 
resort  for  pilgrims. 

TINSEL  OF  THE  FEU,  in  the  law  of  Scotland, 
an  iriitancy  or  forfeiture  of  a  feu-right  caused  by 
the  failure  to  pay  the  feu-duty  for  two  whole  years. 
A  statute  of  1597  authorized,  in  such  a  case,  the 
superior  to  take  steps  to  obtain  a  decree  of  declar- 
ator that  the  feu  was  forfeited;  but  the  vassal 
might,  any  time  before  decree,  purge  the  irritancy 
by  paying  the  arrear.  Tinsel  of  the  Superiority 
is  a  similar  remedy  which  a  vassal  has  against  the 
superior  who  has  not  got  himself  infeft,  so  as  to  be 
in  a  position  to  complete  the  vassal's  title.  lusuch 
a  case,  the  tenant  may  under  the  statute  1474, 
charge  the  superior,  that  if  he  do  not  within  forty 
days  obtain  infeftment,  he  shall  lose  the  tenant  or 
vassal  for  his  (the  superior's)  lifetime,  and  thereby 
all  the  casualties  that  may  fall  to  the  superior  from 
the  act  or  delinquen'cy  of  such  vas.sal. 

TIREE,  one  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  included  in 
Argyleshire,  twenty  miles  northwest  of  lona.  It 
is  thirteen  miles  long,  and  over  six  miles  in  extreme 
breadth.  The  surface  is  low,  rising  in  the  north  to 
little  more  than  twenty  feet,  and  in  the  south  to 
about  400  feet  above  sea-level.  The  absence 
of  trees  and  .shrubs  gives  to  the  island  a  bleak 
appearnnce.  Upward  of  5,000  acres  are  under 
tillage,  while  10,700  acres  are  in  pasture  or  waste- 
land. Some  interest  attaches  to  the  island  from 
the  number  of  Scandinavian  forts  which  dot  the 
shores,  and  from  the  standing-stones,  ruined 
churches,  and  ancient  graves  which  occur  in  the 
interior.  Population,  in  1871,  2,834,  who  support 
themselves  by  rearing  cattle,  fishing,  and  export- 
ing poultry. 

TIRNOVA,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  in  Bul- 
garia, on  the  Jantra,  thirty-five  miles  southeast  of 
Sistova.  There  are  numerous  mosques,  churches, 
and  .synagogues;  dyeing  is  carried  on,  and  silk 
and  coarse  cloth  are  manufactured.  Population 
variously  stated  at  from  12,000  to  10,000. 

TISANE,  TisAN,  or  Ptisan,  an  infusion  made 
of  certain  herbs,  leaves,  or  flowers,  used  as 
tea  for  medicinal  purposes.  It  is  a  very  favorite 
form  of  remc<ly  in  the  domestic  medicine  of  France. 

TITUL.\R,  one  who  enjoys  the  bare  title  of  an 
office,  without  the  actual  possession  of  that  office. 
Thus,  the  English  kiuffs  styled  themselves  kings 
of  France  from  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  down  to  the 


T  I  T  U  :?  \'  I  L  L  E  —  T  0  X  G  A     B  A  Y  . 


1495 


Tear  1800;  and  previous  to  ihe  recent  changes  in 
Italy,  the  king  of  Sardinia,  as  well  as  the  king  of 
Naples,  was  titular  king  of  Jerusalem.  In  Eng- 
lish Ecclesiastical  Law,  a  titular  is  a  person  in- 
vested with  a  title,  in  virtue  of  which  he  holds  a 
benefice,  whether  he  performs  its  duties  or  not. 
In  the  law  of  Scotland  the  term  has  received  an- 
other acceptation.  There  are  many  titular  dig- 
nities in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  but  the  class 
of  them  which  is  chiefly  noticeable  is  that  which  has 
grown  out  of  the  separation  between  the  eastern 
and  western  churches. 

TirrsviLLE,  a  citv  of  Pennsylvania.  Popu- 
lation in  1S90.  8,073.  See  Vol.  XXIII.  p.  420,  and 
XVIII.  p.  713. 

TOAD.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  422-423. 

TOAST,  the  name  given  to  bread  dried  or 
scorched  before  the  fire.  So  early  as  the  sixteenth 
century  toasted  bread  formed  a  favorite  addition 
to  Enghsh  drinks.  Sack  was  drunk  with  toast. 
and  so  was  punch.  The  practice  of  drinking  healths 
is  one  so  natural  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  when 
it  began.  Certain  it  is,  however,  that  it  received 
an  artificial  development  owing  to  the  prevalence 
of  convivial  habits  in  the  seventeenth  centiuT.  It 
became  the  custom  to  describe  a  woman  whose 
health  was  so  drunk  as  herself  "  a  toast. ''  What- 
ever may  be  the  origin  of  the  use  of  the  word 
"  toast  "  in  this  sense,  we  now  apply  it  not  only  to 
any  person,  but  also  to  any  sentiment  mentioned 
with  honor  before  drinking.  The  French  have 
adopted  the  word  •' toast, "  making  it  masculine 
when  applied  to  a  man  or  a  sentiment,  but  fem- 
inine when  applied  to  a  woman. 

TOCHER,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  an  ancient 
name  for  the  marriage-portion  given  by  a  father 
on  the  marriage  of  his  daughter.  It  is  settled  ac- 
cording to  the  wish  of  the  father,  or  as  may  be 
agreed  with  the  intended  hu.sband  of  the  daughter. 

TOD  (derivation  unknown),  a  weight  of  wool, 
now  unused;  it  was  fixed  at  twenty-eight  pounds 
avoirdupois  in  1671. 

TODDY,  the  name  given  in  the  East  Indies  to 
the  fermented  juice  of  various  pahns  from  which 
arrack  is  distilled.  The  name  has  been  adopted 
in  Britain  for  a  mixture  of  whisky,  sugar  and  hot 
water,  which  fonns  the  national  drink  of  Scotland 
and  Ireland. 

TOLEDO,  a  citv  of  Ohio.  Population  in  1890, 
81,434.    See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  436. 

TOLSTOI,  CorxT  Ltof  Xixolaivitch,  usu- 
ally called  Count  Leo  Tolstoi,  the  most  eminent 
living  Russian  novelist:  born  in  1828,  at  Yasnaia 
Pohana.  in  the  government  of  Toula,  where  he 
stUl  lives.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three,  and  served  in  the  Caucasus  and  at 
Sebastopol.  He  first  made  literary  reputation  by 
his  vivid  sketches  from  Sebastopol.  Leaving  the 
army  soon  after  the  close  of  the  Crimean  war,  he 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  War  and  Peace, 
a  tale  of  the  invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon  in 
1812,  is  regarded  by  Russians  as  his  masterpiece: 
but  his  Anna  Karenina.  which  appeared  in  1876, 
is  better  appreciated  abroad.  Matthew  Arnold  re- 
viewed it  enthusiastically  a  few  months  before  his 
death;  and  George  Meredith  says  that  .\una,  the 
beautiful  but  unfaithful  wife,  who  ends  her  guilty 
passion  by  suicide,  is  the  most  perfectly  depicted 
female  character  in  all  fiction.  Tl(e  Cossacks  is  his 
oniy  other  novel.    He  wrote  much  on  education, 


and  published  many  .short  tales  and  reminiscences 
of  childhood  and  youth.  The  last  six  years  of  his 
life  he  has  devoted  to  religious  teaching.  He 
makes  •'  Resist  not  evil''  the  keystone  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  and  insists  that  the  literal  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Sermon  on  the  Moimt  is  the  only  rule  of 
the  Christian  life.  His  religious  views  are  set  forth 
in  Christ's  CUiistianity;  Count  Tolstoi  married  in 
1861,  and  has  nine  children  living.  Published  in 
1889  My  BeUgioti.  Translations  of  his  Kreutzer 
Sonata  appeared  in  1890,  and  the  views  contained 
therein  on  the  social  question  were  the  subject  of 
much  attention. 

TOMAHAWK,  a  light  war-hatchet  of  the  North 
American  Indians  The  early  ones  were  rudely 
made  of  stone,  ingeniously  fastened  to  their  handles 
by  animal  sinews,  or  cords  of  skin.  European 
traders  supplied  hatchets  of  steel,  the  heads  of 
which  were  made  hollow,  for  a  tobacco-pipe;  the 
handle  of  ash,  with  the  pith  removed,  being  the 
stem.  These  hatchets  are  used  in  the  chase  and 
in  battle,  not  only  in  close  combat,  but  by  being 
thrown  with  a  wonderful  skill,  so  as  always  to 
strike  the  object  aimed  at  with  the  edge  of  the 
instrument.  Thehandlesare  curiously  ornamented. 
In  the  figurative  language  of  the  Indians,  to  make 
peace,  is  to  bury  the  tomahawk;  to  make  war,  is  to 
dig  it  up. 

TOMATO  (Lycopersicum  esculentum),  a  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Solanacea,  formerly  ranked 
in  the  genus  Solanum,  and  known  as  S.  Lycopersi- 
cum. The  genus  Lycopersicum  is  distinguished 
by  a  5-6-parted  calyx,  a  wheel-shaped,  5-6-cleft 
corolla,  five  stamens,  and  a  2-3-celled  berry  with 
hairy  seeds.  The  tomato  is  an  annual,  from 
2  to  6  feet  in  height,  requiring  support  when 
tall.  The  leaves  are  unequally  pirmate,  the 
leaflets  cut ;  the  flowers  numerous,  followed  by 
berries,  whicli  are  various  in  shape  and  color  — 
generally  red  and  yellow  —  in  diflerent  varieties. 
The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
America,  but  is  now  much  cultivated  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  suitable  for  it,  as  the  South 
of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  The  fruit  is 
much  used  for  sauces,  catsup,  preserves,  confec- 
tioners- and  pickles.  The  unripe  fruit  makes  one  of 
the  best  of  pickles.  Tomatoes  appear  with  almost 
every  dish  in  Italy.  The  use  of  them  is  rapidly 
increasing  in  different  countries. 

TON,  a  suffix  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  names 
of  Anglo-Saxon  settlements  It  seems  to  be  from 
the  same  root  as  the  Gothic  tains,  meaning  a  twig, 
the  Ang-Sax.  tynan,  to  hedge,  and  the  Ger.  saun, 
a  hedge.  Hence,  a  tun  or  ton  was  a  place  sur- 
rounded by  a  hedge,  or  rudely  fortified  by  a  palisade. 
Originally,  it  meant  only  a  single  homestead  or  farm, 
and  this  use  of  it  is  still  common  in  Scotland.  In 
modem  English,  in  the  form  of  toicn,  it  is  applied  to 
a  collection  of  houses. 

TONGA  BAY,  a  small  inlet  on  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Cape  Delgado, 
and  extending  inland  in  a  north  direction.  Cocoa- 
nut  trees  and  jungle  line  the  shores  of  the  bay,  and 
at  its  head  is  the  village  of  Tonga,  important  from 
its  frontier  position.  Cape  Delgado  was  the  north- 
ern limit  of  the  Portuguese  colonial  possession  of 
Mozambique:  and  the  village  of  Tonga,  which  is 
situated  north  of  the  parallel  of  latitude  of  the  Cape, 
was  long  possessed  by  the  seyyid  of  Zanzibar.  In 
1887  it  was  forcibly  occupied  by  the  Portuguese. 


1496 


TONGA  — TORNADOES. 


TONGA,  Kingdom  of.  For  general  article  on 
Tonga,  see  Friendly  Isles  in  Britannica.  The 
Tonga  Archipelago  includes  three  adjaciait  groups 
of  Islands,  namely,  Tonga,  Haapai  and  Vavau;  ] 
total  area,  374  square  miles;  population,  about 
21,000,  including  400  foreigners.  Present  king, 
George  Tubau.  The  heir  presumptive  is  Tanpa 
Hau,  great-grandson  of  the  king.  There  is  a 
legislative  assembly,  composed  one-half  of  nobles 
nominated  by  the  king,  and  the  other  half  of  rep- 
resentatives elected  by  the  people. 

TONICITY,  Muscular.  The  contractility  of 
muscles  shows  itself  under  two  distinct  forms  — 
IrritahUity  and  Tonicity,  which  are  alike  distinct 
in  the  mode  of  their  action  and  in  the  conditions 
requisite  for  their  exhibition.  Irritability  is  most 
manifest  in  the  voluntary  muscles  and  in  the 
heart,  which,  when  in  activity,  exhibit  powerful 
contractions,  alternating  with  relaxation;  while 
Tonicity  is  shown  in  a  moderate  and  permanent 
contraction,  which,  instead  of  being  consequent 
upon  stimulation  through  the  nerves,  as  in  irri- 
tability, is  especially  excited  by  change  of  temper- 
ature in  the  tissue  itself,  and  is  mainly  shown  in 
the  involuntary  or  nonstriated  muscles. 

TONQUIN. "  For  general  article  on  Tonquin,  see 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  439-443.  The  terri- 
tory was  annexed  to  France  in  1884.  It  is  divided 
into  fourteen  provinces,  with  8,000  villages,  and  a 
population  estimated  at  9,000,000.  There  are 
400,000  Roman  Catholics.  Chief  town,  Hanoi,  an 
agglomeration  of  many  villages,  with  a  population 
of  1.50,000.  Revenue  (1888)  of  Tonquin  and  Annam 
17,321,000  francs,  expenditure  17,034,620  francs. 
There  were  11,475  French  troops  in  1889,  besides 
6,500  native  soldiers.  The  chief  cultures  are  rice, 
sugar-cane,  silk-tree,  cotton  and  various  fruit  trees 
and  tobacco.  There  are  copper  and  iron  mines  of 
good  quality.  The  chief  industries  are  silk,  cotton, 
sugar,  pepper  and  oils.  The  imports  were  valued 
in  1888  at  23,881,012  francs,  and  the  exports  at 
6,988,249  francs.  The  expenditure  of  France  for 
Annam  and  Tonquin  in  the  budget  of  1891  was 
10,450,000  francs. 

TOOMBUDRA  (correctly,  Tunga-Bhadro),  an 
important  tributary  of  the  Kistnah  or  Krishna, 
rising  in  the  southwest  of  Maisur  (Mysore),  and, 
after  a  northeast  course  of  from  350  to  400  miles, 
Joining  the  Kistnah  twenty-five  miles  below 
Karnul. 

TOON,  or  TooNA  (Cedrela  Toona),  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  CedrelacefP,  one  of  the  largest  timber 
trees  of  India.  Dr.  Hooker  measured  one  which 
was  thirty  feet  in  girth  at  five  feet  above  the  ground. 
The  leaves  are  pinnate,  the  flowers  small,  in 
panicles,  with  a  honey-like  smell,  the  petals  erect, 
and  approaching  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of 
tube.  The  tree  ascends  to  the  height  of  4,000  feet 
on  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  and  is  found  to  the 
furthest  south  of  the  East  Indies.  It  is  sometimes 
called  Bastard  Cedar.  The  wood  is  soft,  but  is 
used  for  furniture.  The  bark  is  a  powerful  astrin- 
gent, and  is  used  in  dysentery,  diarrhoea,  etc. 

TOP,  in  a  ship,  the  platform  at  the  head  of  each 
lower-mast.  It  is  supported  on  the  trestle-trees 
and  cross-trees,  and  serves  to  give  a  wider  base  to 
the  top-mast  shrouds.  It  is  also  used  for  working 
the  upper  sails. 

TOPE  K  A ,  a  city  of  Kansas.  Population  in  1890, 
31,007.    See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  446. 


TOPHANE  (correctly  Top-haneh),  a  suburb  of 
Constantinople,  forming  a  continuation  of  Galatea 
along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Bosporus. 

TOR  (Celtic,  "  a  projecting  rock"),  a  word 
"  found  in  the  names  of  Mount  Taurus  and  the 
Tors  of  Devonshire  (Yes  Tor,  Brent  Tor,  etc.),  and 
Derbyshire  (Mam  Tor,  Chee  Tor,  etc.)  The  higher 
summits  of  the  Tyr-(o\)  are  called  Die  Taiir-en." 

TORGET,  a  small  island  oft"  the  northwest  coast 
of  Norway.  It  serves  as  a  landmark  to  sailors,  is 
the  haunt  of  numerous  water-fowl,  but  is  chiefly 
noteworthy  for  its  lofty  rock  called  Torghatten 
(the  Hat  of  Torget),  which  rises  to  the  height  of 
756  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  pierced  through, 
near  the  top,  by  a  cave  or  passage  80  feet  wide  and 
1,300  feet  long. 

TORLONIA,  a  princely  Roman  family,  remark- 
able for  their  wealth,  and  for  their  extraordinarily 
sudden  rise  from  the  very  lowest  condition.  They 
trace  their  origin  to  a  poor  "  cicerone, "  called 
Giovanni  Torlonia,  born  in  1754,  who  gained  a  rep- 
utation in  his  profession,  and  became  afterward  an 
agent  of  the  French  emissaries  who  were  sent  to 
excite  the  Roman  populace  to  revolution,  and  on 
the  failure  of  this  project  was  left  with  considera- 
ble funds  in  his  hands;  he  afterward  became  a 
merchant,  gradually  rising  to  the  position  of  a 
stock-broker,  usurer,  and  money-dealer;  and  by 
acquiring  mortgages  over  the  properties  of  the  im- 
poverished Roman  princes,  and  by  various  other 
ventures,  amassed  an  immense  fortune.  He  was 
made  a  grandee  of  Spain,  and  duke  of  Bracciano 
by  the  pope.  His  three  sons  have  allied  them- 
selves with  princely  families  of  the  highest  rank. 

TORNADOES  and  cyclones  are  both  whirlwinds 
of  violent  gyrations.  In  tlie  tornado  the  move- 
ment is  principally  vertical,  and  the  ground  area 
of  the  storm  is  comparatively  small.  Tornadoes 
range  from  the  water  spout  of  the  ocean,  and  the 
whirling  sand-storm  of  the  desert  down  to  the  lit- 
tle dust-whirls  which  are  so  common  in  our  streets. 
Cyclones  move  with  great  velocity  in  a  horizontal 
direction,  whereas,  the  horizontal  motion  of  tor- 
nadoes is  slow.  But  their  circular  and  upward 
motion  is  very  fast,  so  that  their  gyrations  produce 
funnels  of  water,  sand,  dust,  etc.,  often  of  great 
height.  In  the  United  States  these  whirling  fun- 
nels are  sometimes  seen  pendent  from  a  mass 
of  black  clouds.  Their  whirling  motion  is  always 
from  right  to  left,  and  often  maintained  for  several 
hours.  Tornadoes  generally  arise  just  after  the 
hottest  part  of  the  day,  when  the  atmosphere  has 
its  greatest  instability.  The  months  of  greatest 
frequency  are  April,  May,  June  and  July.  The 
destructionin  a  tornado  maybe  caused  either  by  the 
surface  wind,  which  is  forced  in  on  all  sides  to  feed 
the  ascending  current  in  the  tornado-funnel,  or  by 
the  gyrating  winds  of  the  funnel  itself  when  sufii- 
ciently  low  to  come  within  the  reach  of  buildings 
and  trees.  In  the  latter  case  no  structure,  how- 
ever strongly  built,  is  able  to  withstand  the  enor- 
mous force  of  a  good-sized  tornado. 

In  the  United  States  some  3,000  persons  have 
been  killed,  and  as  many  injured,  by  these  storms 
(hiring  the  last  century.  The  loss  of  property  by 
this  destructive  agency  reaches  scores  of  millions 
of  dollars.  They  occur  most  frequently  in  the 
states  bordering  the  northern  Mississippi  and  the 
lower  Missouri.  Here  the  warm  and  very  moist 
winds  from  the  Gulf  meet  with  currents  of  cold  air 


T  OR  NEA  —  TORPEDO     WARFARE. 


1497 


from  the  north,  and  this  produces  very  unstable  at-  j 
tuospheric    conditions.      Tornadoes    never    occur 
west  of  the  one  hundredth  meridian.  | 

Gen.  Greeley's  list  of  destructive  tornadoes  is 
given,  in  part,  in  the  followinjj  table,  some  of  the 
less  destructive  ones  being  omitted: 


Date. 

Persons 

i 

o 
S 

Statu. 

1 

Value  of 
Loss. 

Mississippi 

Mississippi 

Connecticut 

Missouri 

Iowa 

Mississippi 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Arkansas 

North  Carolina.. 

Dakota 

Wisconsin 

New  Jersev 

Ohio 

Minnesota 

Ohio 

Kansas 

May  7,  1840.... 
June  16,  1842.. 
Aug.  9,  1878... 
April  18,  1880.. 
June  17,  1882.. 
April  22,  1883.. 
ilavl8,  1883... 
Au!;.  21.  18a3  . . 
Nov.  21,  1883.. 
Feb.  lit,  1884  .. 
Julv  28,  1884  . . 
Sep't.  9,  1884.:. 
Aus  3,  1885... 
Sept.  8.  1885... 
April  14,  1886.. 
Slav  12,  188C... 
AprU21,  1887.. 

317 

500 

34 

101 

100 

51 

16 

26 

5 

18 

15 

6 

6 

6 

74 

57 

20 

109 

28 
600 
300 
200 
100 

80 
162 
125 

18 

75 
100 
100 
136 

237 

266 

100 

52 

400 

59 

00 

100 
305 
500 
300 
138 
85 
330 

$1,260,000 

2.600.666 
1,000,000 
1,000,000 
300,000 
175,000 
700.000 
300,000 

4,600,666 
500,000 
500,000 
385,000 

1,006,666 

Many  of  these  tornadoes  extended  through  sev- 
eral states,  that  of  April  14,  1886,  for  instance, 
traveled  350  miles,  from  Council  Blufls,  Iowa,  to 
Sauk  Rapids,  Minn.,  which  town  it  destroyed. 
That  of  April  18, 1880,  utterly  wrecked  the  town  of 
Marshfield,  Mo.  Many  other  towns  and  villages 
have  been  partly  or  wholly  destroyed.  The 
forests  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  often  present  great 
lanes  of  broken-down  and  torn-up  trees,  indicat- 
ing the  tracks  of  tornadoes  in  the  past.  The  At- 
lantic States,  while  less  frequently  visited  by  this 
destructive  agent,  are  by  no  means  exempt  from 
its  visitations.  Several  examples  given  in  the 
above  table  were  in  the  east,  that  of  Aug.  3, 
1885,  passing  through  the  city  of  Camden,  N.  J., 
where  it  made  frightful  havoc.  A  more  recent 
disaster  of  this  kind  was  that  of  Jan.  9,  1889,  in 
which  a  violent  tornado  struck  the  city  of  Read- 
ing, Pa.,  fortunately  only  on  its  outskirt,  utterly 
wrecking  a  silk-mill  and  a  railroad  paint-shop, 
with  a  loss  of  twenty-four  persons  killed  and 
ninety-eight  injured.  An  accompanying  tornado 
passed  over  Western  Pennsylvania  on  the  same 
day,  and  did  great  damage  in  the  oil-fields,  tore 
down  the  .suspension  bridge  at  Niagara,  and 
wrecked  an  unfinished  building  at  Pittsburgh, 
with  considerable  loss  of  life. 

TORNEA,  a  river,  important  as  forming  part  of 
the  boundary  line  between  Russia  and  Sweden. 
It  rises  in  Lake  Tornea,  in  Sweden,  and  flows 
southeast  and  south  between  Russia  and  Sweden, 
entering  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  at  its  northern  ex- 
tremity, after  a  course  of  250  miles.  At  its  mouth 
is  the  small  town  of  Tornea. 

TORNEA,  a  town  in  Finland,  situated  on  the 
peninsula  of  Svensar,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tornea, 
in  the  government  of  Uleaborg.  The  population, 
which  is  about  800,  is  i)rincipally  engaged  in  the 
exchange-trade  with  the  more  northern  and 
scantily-inhabited  districts  of  Finland  and  Sweden, 


of  which  Tornea  is  the  active  center,  as  the  most 
northerly  town  in  the  Rus.sian  Empire  ;  deals,  salt- 
fish,  tar,  hemp,  reindeer  skins  and  other  peltries 
being  brought  to  Tornea  to  be  exchanged  for 
tobacco,  spirits,  manufactured  goods,  etc.  Tornea 
is  often  visited  in  summer  by  travelers  anxious  to 
witness  the  singular  spectacle  of  the  sun  remain- 
ing above  the  horizon  both  night  and  day  at  the 
summer  solstice.  Tornea  was  several  times  taken 
by  the  Russians  from  Sweden  before  its  final  ces- 
sion at  the  peace  of  FrederikKlinran.  in  1809,  when 
it  was  ceded,  togetlier  with  the  whole  of  Western 
Finland,  to  Russia. 

TORO,  or  ToRRo,  an  ancient  but  decayed  town 
of  Spain,  in  the  modern  province  of  Zamora,  stand- 
ing on  the  right  bank  of  the  Douro,  twenty-one 
miles  east  of  Zamora.  It  contains  numerous  re- 
ligious houses,  most  of  which  have  been  allowed 
to  fall  into  a  state  of  decay;  and  has  brandy  dis- 
tilleries and  brick  and  tile  works.  Population, 
7,000. 

TORONTO,  a  citv  of  Canada.  Population  in 
1891,  181,200.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII, 
pp.  447-49. 

TORPEDO  WARFARE.  For  general  article 
on  torpedoes  and  the  use  of  torpedoes  in  naval 
warfare,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  449-51. 
It  is  only  required  that  attention  should  here  be 
called  to  such  new  types  of  torpedoes  as  are  now 
engaging  the  attention  of  naval  experts,  and 
which  seem  likely  to  prove  of  practical  value  here- 
after. 

In  the  United  States,  Secretary  Tracy,  of  the 
navy,  appointed  in  1891,  a  naval  torpedo  board 
for  experimenting  with,  and  superintending  the 
construction  of,  such  types,  automobile  or  fish  tor- 
pedoes, as  may  give  promise  of  fulfilling  all  the 
requirements  of  the  navy.  The  competitive  tests 
of  the  various  patterns  are  to  be  made  at  New- 
port, and  hence  that  station,  in  this  respect,  prom- 
ises for  some  time  to  be  one  of  more  than  usual 
interest.  The  development  of  torpedo  appliance 
in  this  country  may  be  said  to  have  just  com- 
menced. 

Of  explosives  in  general  they  all  belong  to  one 
of  two  classes — mechanical  mixtures  or  chemical 
compounds.  Of  the  many  kinds  of  high  explosives 
there  are  gun-cotton,  dynamite  No.  1,  explosive 
gelatine  and  forcite  gelatine.  But  the  vessels 
from  which  it  is  proposed  to  send  these  to  kill  and 
to  destroy  are  of  various  patterns.  The  expendi- 
ture of  liberal  appropriations,  both  in  this  country 
and  abroad,  have  resulted  in  a  large  series  of  ex- 
periments, more  or  less  successful,  with  air  torpe- 
does—  including  rockets  and  dynamite  shells; 
ground  and  buoyant  mines:  spar,  towing  and  sub- 
marine shells;  controllable  torpedoes,  and  auto- 
matic, automobile  and  fish  torpedoes.  One  of  the 
results  is  that  all  of  the  .ships  which  constitute  the 
cavalry  of  the  sea,  are  fitted  with  torpedoes,  and 
also  with  torpedo  nettings  to  i)rotect  them  from  the 
torpedoes  of  an  enemy.  And  to-day  we  have  tor- 
pedo boats  of  the  first  and  second  classes,  torpedo 
dispatch  vessels,  torpedo  cruisers,  etc.,  and  many 
more  about  to  be  constructed.  Those  of  the  auto- 
mobile type  which  have  been  extensively  experi- 
mented with  are  the  Whitehead,  the  Brennan,  the 
one  invented  by  Capt.  John  A.  Howell  of  the  navy, 
the  one  invented  by  Lieutenant  Hall  of  the  navy, 
the  Sims-Edisim  and  the  Patrick.    There  are  sev- 


1498 


T  0  E  P  E  D  0     W  A  1!  F  A  R  E  , 


eral  others,  but  those  mentioued  have  attained  the 
best  results  aud  most  prominence. 

The  Howell  torpedo  is  one  of  the  most  complete 
submarine,  or  autcunobile  torpedoes  yet  perfected. 
In  fact  it  is  considered  the  ideal  torpedo,  with  a 
capacity  for  a  chari;e  sufficient  to  insure  the  dis- 
abling or  anuihilation  of  the  ship  attacked,  and 
send  every  soul  oa  board  before  his  Maker.     It  is 


THE   nOWEI.L    TORPEDO. 

self-contained,  and  so  simple  in  itsmechanisui  that 
the  ordinary  enlisted  men  readily  become  familiar 
with  its  mctliod  of  operation.  It  is  ea.sy  to  repair 
and  overhaul  without  special  tools  or  appliances — 
although  it  is  less  liable  than  almost  any  of  the 
others  to  become  disabled  or  get  out  of  order;  it 
possesses  a  motive  power  easily  applied  and  always 
available,  aud  it  is  easily  adapted  for  frequent  ex- 
ercises. In  fact,  it  can  be  fitted  and  effectively 
employed  from  every  type  of  ship.  The  speed, 
size,  charge  and  accuracy  of  action  are  equal  to 
the  best  results  that  have  been  obtained  with  the 
Whitehead  torpedo.  In  fact,  no  other  automatic 
torpedo,  of  the  same  size,  has  reached  so  great  a 
speed.  Its  initial  speed  is  now  twenty-three 
knots  for  the  8-foot  pattern,  weighing  325  pounds, 
including  seventy  pounds  of  explosive,  or  greater 
than  that  carried  by  any  but  the  largest  White- 
head. 

The  general  form  of  the  Howell  torpedo  is  that 
of  a  spindle,  the  central  portion  being  cylindrical. 
The  shell  is  constructed  entirely  of  brass  or  bronze, 
a  material  which  is  not  corroded  by  contact  with 
sea  water.  Its  characteristic  feature  is  tlie  heavy 
fly-wheel  by  which  it  is  propelled,  and  by  which, 
at  the  same  time,  it  gives  a  directive  force  that 
renders  unnecessary  any  device  for  steering  the 
torpedo  in  the  horizontal  plane.  The  fly-wheel  is 
of  steel  and  weighs  about  130  pounds,  and  rotates 
on  frictioual  wheels.  It  is  geared  to  two  shafts, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  torpedo,  which  carry  the 
propellers;  and  when  set  to  revolving  at  a  consid- 
erable speed  it  will  continue  to  rotate  for  several 
hours,  if  no  additional  load  is  applied.  The  pro- 
pellers revolve  in  opposite  directions,  thus  prevent- 
ing the  rolling  motion  of  the  torpedo.  This  forms 
the  whole  driving  mechanism  of  the  torpedo,  which 
is,  in  principle,  the  same  as  that  of  the  Whitehead. 

To  control  the  submersion  recourse  is  had  to  a 
horizontal  rudder,  which  is  operated  automatically 
by  mechanism  whose  action  is  controlled  by  a  com- 
bined pendulum  and  hydro-pneumatic  cylinder, 
the  piston  of  which  moves  with  the  varying  ex- 
ternal pressures  at  various  depths.  The  discharg- 
ing gear  for  sending  the  torpedo  from  the  ship 
toward  the  enemy,  consists  of  a  frame  or  derrick 
extending  from  the  ship's  side,  under  which  the 
torpedo  is  hung  by  Clutches  and  studs  on  its  shell. 
The  torpedo  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  con- 
veniently slung  from  the  deck,  and  on  being  de- 
tached from  the  derrick,  it  does  not  dro])  vertically 
into  the  water,  but  is  swung  outward  in  the  arc  of 
a  circle,  being  detached  automatically  by  a  check- 
line  and  trigger  on  reaching  the  vertical  below  the 
pivot.  This  gives  it  an  impulse  without  changing 
the  angle  of  its  longitudinal  axis  with  the  surface 
of   the    water.     The  mechanical  success  of  the 


weapon  seems  assured.  In  the  last  lew  years  it 
has  been  subjected  to  trial  before  several  naval 
boards,  whose  repm-ts  .summed  up  maintain  the 
following  elements  of  superiority  for  it  over  some 
other  types:  It  is  a  much  cheaper  weapon;  for  the 
same  size  and  weight  it  carries  a  heavier  charge; 
it  does  not  pos.sess  the  element  of  danger  contained 
in  the  air  Sash,  thej-upture  of  which  (by  accident 
or  hostile  shot)  has  already  been  .shown  to  be  de- 
structive to  life  and  pi'operty;  its  track  is  not  be- 
trayed, in  day-time  and  clear  weather,  by  air 
bubbles.  The  explo.sive  charge,  which  is  of  gun- 
cotton,  is  placed  in  the  forward  end  of  the  torpedo, 
and  is  fired  by  a  detonating  cap  placed  under  a 
percussion  firing-pin.  The  outer  end  of  the  flriug- 
pin  is  provided  with  fan-shaped  corrugated  horns, 
which  receive  the  impact  blow,  and  are  so  shaped 
and  arranged  as  to  prevent  glancing  or  sliding 
along  on  the  object  struck.  The  force  of  the  blow 
shears  off  the  soft  metal-pin  and  thus  permits  the 
firing-pin  to  be  driven  down  on  the  detonator  by 
the  spring. 

The  navy  department  recently  ordered  thirty  of 
the  Howell  torpedoes  to  be  made,  together  with 
their  launching  carriages.  Since  then  the  principal 
improvements  made  in  the  torpedo  are  mechanical, 
and,  though  the  form  is  the  same  as  that  before 
used,  the  body  of  the  torpedo,  of  spun  brass,  is 
much  improved  in  workmanship.  It  is  made  in 
four  sections,  aud  motion  is  communicated  to  the 
fly-wheel  by  means  of  a  clutch  coupling  driven  by 
a  steam  turbine  motor.  The  following  are  the 
dimensions  agreed  upon  after  a  series  of  tests: 
Length  of  body  of  torpedo,  9  feet ;  length  over  all, 
including  propeller,  'Ji  feet ;  extreme  diameter, 
14.2  inches  ;  displacement,  410  pounds;  weight  of 
explosive  charge,  at  least,  72  pounds;  minimum 
speed,  '22i  knots.  The  eflective  working  range  of 
the  torpedo  will  not  be  less  than  400  yards,  and 
the  mean  speed  for  that  range  not  less  than  22i 
knots  per  hour.  The  torpedoes  are  to  be  of  good 
material,  so  as  to  be  easily  handled  and  manipu- 
lated, as  would  be  necessary  in  actual  naval  service, 
and  this  without  undue  risk  or  injury ;  and  it  must 
be  so  fitted  as  to  be  readily  used  for  practice  and 
exercise,  and  recovered  at  the  end  of  the  run,  and 
be  made  ready  for  another  run  speedily  aud  without 
elaborate  preparation. 

Like  other  fish  torpedoes,  that  designed  by  Lieut. 
M.  E.  Hall,  of  the  navy,  has  the  shape  of  a  spindle 
of  revolution,  carrying  the  charge  in  the  nose,  with 
a  percussion  apparatus.  The  principal  features 
of   this    torpedo  are   its  diving  mechanism,  the 


THE   I.IEUTE.VAXT    HALL    TORI'EDO. 

pectoral  fins,  the  device  for  overcoming  the  net- 
defenses  of  vessels  of  war,  and  a  special  automatic 
engine  that  utilizes  the  full  expansion  force  of  the 
motive  power.  The  pattern  of  the  torpedo  shown 
in  the  cut  has  the  following  weights,  dimensions, 
etc.:  Length,  15  feet;  extreme  diameter,  141  inches; 
weight,  575  pounds :  diameter  of  engines,  4  inches; 
length  of  stroke,  4  inches ;  diameter  of  propellers, 
10  inches;  revolutions  a  minute,  2,100;  gun-cotton 
charge,  80  pounds. 

The  cut  shows  a  side  view  of  the  torpedo  and  its 
three  sections — the  forward  cone  (A),  the  air-flask 


TO  K  1'  K  It  O     >\  A  K  FAKE 


1499 


(H)  attachiug  tlio  buoyant  grapnel  (L).  At  the 
end  of  the  forwanl  cone  or  compartment  (A)  the 
tiring-rod  (a)  i.s  titted  loosely  into  the  sleeve  (b), 
and  actuated  by  a  spring  eouuected  with  the 
trigger  (c)  upon  contact  -svith  the  object  of  attack. 
The  rib  of  the  trigger  is  brol^en  ofl"  by  impact, 
.^hould  the  torpedo  graze  a  vessel's  bilge  the  trig- 
ger would  be  tripped,  and  the  tiring-rod  would  be 
impelled  by  the  spring  against  the  plunger  (d), 
detonating  the  gun-cotton  charge,  as  before,  by 
means  of  the  primer  and  detouator.  When  attack- 
ing a  vessel  protected  by  netting,  the  tloat  (L)  is 
drawn  aft  by  the  resistance  of  the  water,  and  tows 
aft  and  above  the  torpedo  until  it  fouls  the  net 
that  the  torpedo  passes  under.  Then  the  pull 
upon  the  tow-line  (e)  trips  the  trigger  (c),  and 
explodes  the  torpedo  in  close  proximity  to  the 
ship. 

The  magazine  E  contains  eighty  pounds  of  gun- 
cotton  in  a  copper  case,  which  is  pivoted  at  its 
after  end  (g)  and  suspended  by  hangers  (g  g)  at 
its  forward  end,  permitting  a  slight  swinging 
movement,  which  automatically  steers  the  torpedo. 
It  has  been  well  proved  that  when  a  ship  heels 
over  to  a  brisk  wind  the  lee  bow  becomes  buried, 
and  has  a  greater  displacement  than  the  weather 
one.  This  pressure  under  the  lee  bow  throws  her 
into  the  wind  unless  counteracted  by  the  helm. 
This  force  is  utilized  in  the  Hall  torpedo  in  the 
following  manner:  A  sea  striking  the  torpedo  in 
launching  drives  it  to  leeward,  at  the  same  time, 
owing  to  its  slight  stability  it  causes  her  to  roll. 
As  the  torpedo  is  symmetrical  and  circular  in  sec- 
tion there  would  be  no  unbalanced  pressure 
under  the  lee  bow,  hence  the  pectoral  fins  have 
been  introduced.  These  are  actuated  by  lugs 
upon  the  swinging  magazine  (E)  which  take 
against  flexible  brass  plates  and  act  upon  the 
torpedo  so  as  to  bring  her  upon  an  even  keel,  so 
to  speak.  For  instance,  if  a  wave  should  strike 
the  torpedo  on  the  port  bow,  she  rolls  to  star- 
board, and  being  deflected  in  this  direction  the 
starboard  pectoral  fin  is  forced  out  by  the  swing- 
ing magazine,  causing  an  unbalanced  pressure 
under  the  lee  bow  and  forcing  the  torpedo  back  to 
her  course.  In  other  words,  the  torpedo  has  a 
flexible  bow  which  is  automatically  distended  on 
one  side  or  the  other,  as  required  to  keep  her  on 
her  course.  As  soon  as  the  torpedo  regains  an 
upright  position  the  magazine  is  centered  by  the 
springs  (K). 

The  air-flask  (B)  has  a  capacity  of  nine  cubic 
feet  and  contains  air  under  a  pressure  of  1,200 
pounds  a  square  inch.  The  throttle  (1)  is  auto- 
matically opened  as  the  torpedo  is  discharged, 
permitting  air  to  reach  the  engine. 

The  engine  chamber  and  the  immersion  cham- 
ber are  in  the  after  cone.  An  automatic  two- 
cylinder  double-eating  trunk-engine  actuates  the 
screws  by  means  of  the  lever  gears  (n,  n,  n,  n,) 
the  exhaust  air  escaping  through  the  hollow  screw- 
shafts,  which  are  provided  with  check-valves 
(p  p)  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  sea-water  at  the 
end  of  the  run.  Abaft  the  engine-case  is  the  im- 
mersion chamber  containing  the  diving  mechanism. 
The  diving-valve  is  actuated  by  a  float,  the  posi- 
tion of  which  depends  upon  the  amount  of  water 
in  the  chamber.  Water  enters  freely  until  it 
reaches  the  bottom  of  the  telescopic  tube,  after 
which  it  can  only  enter  by  compressing  the  im- 
3 


prisoned  atmospheric  air  within  the  chamber.  By 
extending  the  tube  a  greater  pressure  will  bo  re- 
quired to  fill  the  chamber  than  when  the  tube  is 
contracted;  hence,  in  the  former  case  the  torpedo 
will  dive  deeper  than  in  the  latter  case.  The 
reaction  of  the  air  upon  the  water  raises  or  de- 
presses the  tail  of  the  torpedo,  causing  it  to  dive 
or  to  rise  to  the  surface.  The  motive-power  is 
steam,  which,  together  with  a  suitable  quantity 
of  water  heated  to  550  degrees,  is  .stored  in  a  flask 
or  generator.  As  the  pressure  is  leduced  by  the 
consumption  of  the  steam,  the  heated  water  grad- 
ually vaporizes,  furnishing  a  continuous  supply. 

The  Patrick  torpedo  is  an  invention  of  J.  N.  H. 
Patrick,  and  has  been  thoroughly  tested,  to  the 
satisfaction  of  both  the  United  States  and  the 
French  governments.  It  has  reached  a  stage 
which,  in  the  judgment  of  experts,  renders  it  a 
valuable  weapon  for  use  in  actual  warfare.  It  con- 
sists of  two  fourteen-foot  copper  cylinders,  held 
by  bars  three  feet  apart.  The  upper  cylinder  is 
filled  with  lampblack  and  carries  signal  flags.  The 
lower  cylinder  is  filled  with  the  firing  charge.  The 
machinery  is  propelled  by  carbonic  acid  gas.  Re- 
cent experiments  with  it  by  the  Xavy  Torpedo 
Board  at  Newport  were  reported  as  eminently  suc- 
cessful. The  conditions  of  the  test  were  that  the 
torpedo  should  make  a  speed  of  twenty  knots  for 
one  mile,  maneuvering  and  firing  under  the  con- 
ditions of  service,  to  be  readily,  certainly  and 
completely  accomplished  by  the  manipulator  of 
the  operating  apparatus,  the  center  of  the  explo- 
sive charge  to  be  at  least  three  feet  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  when  exploded. 

When  the  torpedo  was  in  motion  only  the  two 
flags  and  the  foaming  water,  turned  up  by  the 
rapidly  revolving  propeller,  could  be  seen.  The 
torpedo  was  first  headed  for  the  training-ship 
Jamestown,  then  turned  to  the  north,  and  run  for 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  that  direction.  A  sharp 
turn  was  then  made  in  toward  .shore  and  the  tor- 
pedo returned  to  the  starting  point,  forming  a 
course  the  shape  of  an  ellipse,  and  about  a  third 
of  a  mile  in  its  largest  diameter.  Several  trials  of 
the  torpedo  were  made,  to  test  the  efficiency  of  its 
motive  power.  The  torpedo  is  shaped  like  a  spin- 
dle, tapering  at  each  end.  It  is  about  forty  feet 
in  length,  and  its  greatest  diameter  is  twenty-four 
inches.  Its  displacement  is  5,163  pounds,  and  the 
magazine  charge  of  dynamite  is  200  pounds.  The 
torpedo  proper  is  sustained  by  a  float  which  is 
practically  indestructible  by  mechanical  gun-fire 
during  the  short  time  that  it  would  be  exposed. 
The  float  is  also  of  the  fusiform,  and  is  made  of 
sheet-copper,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  filled 
with  lampblack.  The  propeller  and  rudder  work 
in  solid  water,  and  the  former  cannot  easily  be 
fouled  nor  the  cable  grappled.  The  explosion 
also  takes  place  about  three  feet  under  the  water. 

In  th-e  application  of  the  motive  power,  as  in 
many  other  details,  the  torpedo  difl'ers  from  other 
models.  The  propeller  is  two-bladed,  and  is  fixed 
on  a  hollow  shaft  through  which  the  governing 
cable  is  paid  out,  the  controlling  battery  being  100 
cells  of  bichromate.  The  acid,  drawn  in  liquid 
form  from  the  bottom  of  the  flask,  is  taken  through 
copper  piping  in  the  bottoms  of  the  heaters. 
These  heaters  are  copper  cylinders  which  contain 
the  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  each  having  a  cylindri- 
cal trough  in   the  top  holding  the  lime.     This 


1500 


TORPEDO     W  A  R  F  A  R  E . 


trough  is  divided  into  two  parts,  kept  closed  by  a 
series  of  lioolis  on  a  common  rod,  the  rod  being 
connected  with  a  piston  in  a  cylinder  outside  the 
beater.  The  cable  performs  the  functions  of 
starting,  stopping,  starboarding  and  porting  the 
helm,  and  firing  the  charge. 

In  considering  the  problem  of  the  transmission 
of  power,  the  electric  current  has  long  occu- 
pied attention,  and  has  been  in  use  for  controlling 
and  directing  torpedoes  about  twenty  years. 
The  first  application  of  electricity  for  propeUing 
torpedoes  was  in  1877  by  Mr.  Sims,  and  after  some 
preliminary  experimenting  with  a  small  pulling 
boat,  he  completed  a  cigar-shaped  torpedo  pro- 
pelled and  controlled  by  electricity.  It  not  being 
successful  in  point  of  speed,  a  larger  boat  was 
built,  since  when  the  perfection  of  the  torpedo,  or 
rather  the  elficient  generation  of  application  of 
power,  by  the  dynamos  on  shore  and  the  motor  on 
board,  has  been  completed.  A  great  increase  in 
speed  is  claimed  for  the  Sims-Edison  torpedo.    As 


THE  SIMS-EDISON  TORPEDO. 

will  be  seen  by  the  illustration,  the  apparatus 
consists  of  two  parts,  the  "  float  "  and  the  sub- 
merged "  fish,"  a  steel  frame  connects  the  two,  be- 
ing inclined  at  the  bow  and  very  sharp,  so  as  either 
to  cut  through  obstructions,  or  dive  under  them,  as 
indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  in  the  cut.  Both  the 
float  and  flsh  are  of  sheet  copper.  The  former  is 
about  thirty  feet  long  and  filled  with  cotton,  which 
renders  it  impervious  to  the  water,  and  even  if 
struck  repeatedly  by  small  projectiles  it  would  still 
sustain  its  burden.  It  is  broad  at  the  top  and  nar- 
row at  the  bottom,  so  that  the  bouyancy  increases 
rapidly  with  immersion.  The  fish,  which  carries  a 
200-pound  charge  of  explosive,  is  submerged  about 
three  and  three-quarter  feet,  and  can  be  exploded 
at  will  or  by  concussion  against  the  object  of  at- 
tack. The  flsh,  or  torpedo  hull,  is  cyUndrical,  with 
conical  ends. 

As  may  be  seen  in  the  cut  the  flsh  has  four  com- 
partments with  water-tight  bulkheads,  and,  as 
each  compartment  is  separate  from  the  other,  it 
can  be  taken  apart  when  necessary  for  storage, 
and  can  be  put  together  again  in  flfteen  minutes 
ready  for  immediate  service.  The  forward  com- 
partment carries  the  explosive,  the  next  compart- 
ment is  empty,  the  third  carries  the  cable  and  the 
fourth  carries  the  electric  motor  and  steering 
gear.  Its  total  weight,  including  a  forty  horse- 
power motor  and  6,000  feet  of  cable,  is  4,3(>4 
pounds.  The  motor  is  two-pole,  series-wound 
and  its  resistance  at  rest  is  6.53  ohms.  The 
Edison  generator  is  capable  of  1,500  to  1,600  revo- 
lutions, with  1,300  volts  at  terminals  and  twenty- 
five  amperes  normal  capacity.  On  the  official 
trial  the  motor  drove  the  boat  at  a  speed  of  over 
twenty-one  miles  an  hour  and  on  a  short  run 
reached  twenty-two  miles  an  hour.  The  cable  is 
compound,  having  a  small  insulated  conductor  in 
the  center  for  the  steering  current  produced  by  a 
battery  on  shore,  and  an  annular  conductor  for 
the  motor  current.  Steering  is  effected  by  a 
powerful  electro-magnet,  into  which  is  switched 


the  main  current  by  means  of  a  strong  polarized 
relay  actuated  by  the  current  of  the  shore  battery 
through  the  central  conductor  of  the  cable.  Two 
keys,  or  one  pole-changing  key  and  switch,  under 
the  hand  of  the  officer  on  shore,  control  the  relay 
of  the  fish,  and  the  rudder  is  thus  thrown  to  one 
side  or  the  other  at  will  at  any  moment.  The 
result  is  that  while  at  full  speed  the  boat  may 
have  its  course  changed  in  auy  desired  direction 
at  any  moment. 

The  charge  is  exploded  electrically,  hence  there 
is  no  probability  of  premature  discharge.  The 
moment  that  the  torpedo  has  reached  and  is  push- 
ing against  the  object  of  attack  can  be  exactly 
determined  day  or  night  by  a  simple  ammeter  in 
the  circuit  showing  by  its  great  change  of  read- 
ing when  the  motor  is  affected  by  the  stoppage  of 
the  boat.  Besides  the  many  advantages  possessed 
by  such  a  torpedo  for  coast  and  harbor  defense,  it 
has  a  special  value  as  an  instrument  of  offensive 
warfare  on  the  high  seas,  as  nearly  all  the  war 
vessels  are  fitted  with  dynamos  and  engines  for 
them.  By  carrying  a  generator  for  torpedo  service, 
each  vessel  in  commission  can  have  one  or  more  of 
the  Sims-Edison  torpedoes  fastened  by  100-foot 
hawsers  furnished  with  electro-magnetic  snap- 
hooks,  the  electric  cable  communication  being 
then  maintained  permanently  with  the  generator. 
The  torpedo  can  thus  travel  along  within  a  con- 
venient distance  controlled  by  the  navigator  of  the 
war-ship.  In  action  the  war-vessel  could  approach 
the  euemy  within  a  distance  of  two  miles,  stop  and 
send  the  torpedo  on  ahead,  guiding  it  to  the  cer- 
tain destruction  of  the  hostile  vessel. 

Another  recent  invention  of  a  torpedo  controlled 
by  electricity  is  that  of  Lieutenant  N.  T.  Halpine, 
of  the  navy.     It  has  a  very  noticeable  feature  not 


DISCHABGING  AN  AERIAL  TORPEDO. 

possessed  by  any  other.  In  all  other  torpedoes  of 
the  "controlled"  types  it  has  been  impossible  to 
have  experimental  drills  without  destroying  the 
flsh  or  hull;  and  as  this  was  a  matter  of  much  ex- 
pense, the  drills  have  been  conducted  without 
using  an  explosive  charge.  In  Lieutenant  Halpine'a 
torpedo  this  difficulty  has  been  overcome.  The 
forward  part  of  the  torpedo  has  a  bell -mouth  open- 
ing, into  which  the  explosive  charge  is  fitted  in  its 
own  case,  and  is  there  held  until  the  object  of 


T  0  K  Q  U  E  s  —  T  0  U  L  x\ . 


1501 


attack  is  reached,  when  it  is  detached  and  that 
part  of  the  hull  which  contains  the  mechanism  is 
left  at  a  safe  distance.  The  explosive  charge  can 
then  be  fired  at  wUl  and  the  torpedo  proper,  or  the 
hull,  can  be  run  to  the  starting  point.  The  power 
used  can  be  either  compressed  air,  electric  or 
other  motor,  working  on  a  screw  propeller. 

There  are  other  automobile  or  fish  torpedoes, 
especially  the  Whitehead,  Brennan,  Victoria, 
Schwartzkopfl",  that  possess  much  merit;  but  they 
are  so  nearly  like  the  Howell,  the  Hall,  the  Patrick 
and  the  Halpine  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  describe 
them  here.  John  L.  Lay,  the  inventor  of  the  first 
controllable  torpedo  that  reached  the  phase  of  an 
actual  service  weapon,  has  recently  produced  a 
new  weapon  in  England  and  he  claims  for  it  a 
speed  of  sixteen  knots  with  a  range  of  two  miles. 

A  new  invention  of  a  submarine  torpedo  boat,  or 
as  this  sort  of  weapon  is  frequently  referred  to,  the 
controllable  torpedo,  has  recently  appeared  at 
Detroit,  and  if  it  accomplishes  all  that  the  inventor 
maintains  for  it,  Jules  Verne's  dream  of  the  Nait- 
tilus  promises  to  be  realized.  The  boat  is,  in  ap- 
pearance, like  a  double-pointed  cigar.  It  is  forty 
feet  in  length,  sixteen  feet  deep  from  top  to  bot- 
tom, and  its  extreme  breadth,  from  the  midship 
point,  is  nine  feet.  The  motive  power  is  to  be  a 
storage  battery  of  electricity,  connected  with  a 
screw  propeller  on  each  side;  and  the  vessel  can 
be  submerged  by  simply  turning  a  switch  at  the 
shore  station.  The  inventor  of  this  "  devihsh 
weapon"  declares  that  the  machinery  can  be  so 
adjusted  as  to  sink  the  boat  to  any  depth  and 
send  her  along  at  a  speed  of  ten  miles  an  hour  with 
ease.  And  should  any  of  the  machinery  become 
deranged  the  torpedo  would  immediately  rise  to 
the  surface  by  the  stopping  of  the  propeller,  which 
alone  keeps  her  submerged.  The  inventor  has  an 
air  chamber  provided,  the  capacity  of  which  is 
suflBcient,  with  the  aid  of  chemicals,  to  purify  the 
air  for  two  men  for  twenty-four  hours. 

TORQUES,  a  species  of  gold  ornament,  worn 
around  the  neck,  and  much  in  use  in  ancient 
times,  both  among  Asiatic  and  North  European 
nations.  It  consisted  of  a  spirally-twisted  bar  of 
gold,  bent  round  nearly  into  a  circle,  with  the  ends 
free,  and  terminating  in  hooks,  or  sometimes  in 
serpents. 

TORRINGTON,  a  municipal  borough  and 
market-town  of  the  county  of  Devon,  on  an  emi- 
nence sloping  to  the  Torridge,  ten  miles  southwest  of 
Barnstaple.  The  inhabitants  are  for  the  most  part 
employed  in  agriculture  and  glove-making.  The 
name  ofTorrington  emerges  frequently  during  the 
great  CivU  War;  and  the  capture  of  the  town  by 
Fairfax  in  1646,  on  which  occasion  the  church, 
with  200  prisoners,  and  those  who  guarded  them, 
were  blown  into  the  air  by  gunpowder,  proved 
fatal  to  the  king's  cause  in  the  west.  Population 
in  1871,  3,529. 

TORRINGTON,  a  township  of  Connecticut,  on 
the  Naugatuck  River.  It  has  important  manu- 
factories of  woolen  goods,  plated  goods,  hardware, 
machiaery  and  needles.  Population  in  1890, 
6,000. 

TORSO  (Ital.),  strictly,  a  trunk,  such  as  the 
trunk  of  a  tree,>but  specially  appUed  to  an  ancient 
statue  of  which  only  the  body  remains.  Of  such 
imperfect  relics  of  classic  art,  the  most  famous  is 
»he  Torso  of  Hercules,  a  masterpiece  of  manly 


beauty  discovered  in  the  Campo  del  Fiore,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  placed,  by 
order  of  Pope  Julius  II.,  in  the  Vatican. 

TORTOISE,  Turtle.  See  Britannica,Vol.  XXII, 
pp.  455-460. 

TORTUGAS  (Sp.  Turtles),  a  group  of  ten  low 
coral  islets  or  keys,  also  called  the  Dry  Tortugas, 
belonging  to  the  United  States,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  120  miles  southwest  of  Cape 
Sable,  the  southern  point  of  Florida.  There  has 
been  a  lighthouse  erected  on  Bush  Key;  and 
refractory  soldiers,  and  prisoners  connected  with 
the  War"  of  Secession,  have  been  employed  in 
erecting  a  fort,  called  Fort  Jefiersou. 

TORULA  CEREVISI^,  or  the  Yeast  Plant, 
one  of  those  fungi  which  are  connected  with  the 
process  of  fermentation.  This  plant,  which  is  also 
known  under  the  names  of  Saccharomyces,  My- 
coderma  cereviskc,  and  Cryptococcus  fernientum, 
may  be  readily  observed  by  examining  a  little 
yeast  under  the  microscope,  when  it  will  be  seen 
in  the  form  of  round  or  oval  corpuscles,  varying  in 
diameter  from  the  800th  to  the  400th  of  a  line,  and 
many  ha%ing  smaller  corpuscles  in  their  interior. 
They  grow  by  protrusion  of  gemmules,  and  germi- 
nate sometimes  on  one,  and  sometimes  on  several 
spots  of  the  primitive  fungus  cells.  These  shoots 
throwing  off  new  gemmules,  the  yeast-plant 
gradually  forms  single  or  branching  rows  of  oblong 
cells,  connected  together  Uke  beads.  This  peculiar 
arrangement  of  the  cells,  and  the  fact  that  they 
are  not  acted  on  by  acetic  acid,  is  characteristic  of 
the  plant. 

TOSHACH,  the  name  given  among  Celtic  nations 
to  the  military  leader  of  a  clan  or  tribe,  whose 
functions  were  in  early  times  separated  from  those 
of  the  supreme  judicial  officer.  When  the  office  of 
toshach,  originally  elective,  became  hereditary, 
according  to  the  principle  of  divided  authority 
characteristic  of  Celtic  communities,  it  remained 
permanently  in  the  eldest  cadet  of  the  clan. 

TOTIPALM.^,  Cuvier's  name  for  a  group  of 
birds,  of  the  order  Palmipedes,  having  the  hind 
toe  connected  with  the  other  toes  by  a  web.  Pel- 
icans, cormorants,  frigate-birds,  gannets,  and 
darters  belong  to  this  group.  All  the  TotipcUmee 
are  marine;  they  feed  on  fishes,  moUuscs  and 
other  marine  animals,  and  are  excellent  swimmers 
and  divers.  Many  of  them  have  long  wings,  and 
are  birds  of  powerful  flight. 

TOTNES,  or  Totness,  a  municipal  and  for- 
merly a  parliamentary  borough  and  market- 
town  of  Devonshire,  situated  on  the  slope  of  a 
steep  hill,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Dart, 
about  ten  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  a  place  of 
great  antiquity,  has  an  interesting  church  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  some  curious  antique  houses. 
The  River  Dart  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  200  tons 
up  to  the  town,  which  has  some  little  shipping 
trade.  The  borough,  which  comprised  also  the 
suburb  of  Bridgetown,  was  disfranchised  for  cor- 
rupt practices  by  the  Reform  Bill  of  1867. 
Steamers  ply  during  the  summer  months  between 
Totnes  and  Dartmouth.  It  is  a  station  on  the 
South  Devon  railwav.     Population  in  1871,  4,073. 

TOUCH-WOOD, "  the  wood  of  willows  and 
some  other  trees  softened  by  decay.  It  is  some- 
times used  as  tinder  for  obtaining  fire,  from  the 
readiness  with  which  a  spark  ignites  it. 

TOULA,  or  Tula,  an  important  manufacturing 


1502 


T  0  U  R  A  I  ^'  E  —  T  E  A  N  S  K  E  I  A  N     J'  E  K  R  I  T  0  R  I  E  S , 


town  of  Great  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  Upa,  an  aifluent  of  the  Oka, 
1 10  miles  south  of  Moscow.  Its  churches,  arsenal, 
theater,  industrial  museum,  cathedral  and  the  an- 
cient Kreml  are  the  principal  buildings.  Toula  is 
an  ancient  town,  and  has  suftbred  severely  from 
Tartar  mvasion,  and  during  the  wars  of  the  com- 
mencementof  theseventeeifth  century.  Ironworks 
founded  here  under  Czar  Alexis  Michailovitch 
have  acquired  a  well-merited  reputation.  Cutlery, 
locks,  tea-urns  and  bells  are  made  in  great  perfec- 
tion; and  bristles  are  prepared  in  large  quantities 
both  for  home  consumption  and  export.  Popula- 
tion, .50,496. 

TOURAIXE,  one  of  the  former  provinces  of 
France,  of  which  the  capital  was  Tours,  and  which 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  province  of  Or- 
leannais,  on  the  east  by  Berri,  on  the  .south  by 
Poitou,  and  on  the  west  by  Anjou.  It  was  about 
sixty  miles  in  length,  and  nearly  the  same  number 
of  miles  in  breadth:  it  now  appears  on  the  map  as 
the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire. 

TOURGEE,  Albion  W.,  an  American  lawyer 
and  novelist,  born  in  Ohio,  in  1838.  He  sftrC  ed 
with  credit  throughout  the  Ci^il  War,  being  twice 
wounded ;  practiced  law  in  North  Carolina :  be- 
came judge  of  the  Xorth  Carolina  Superior  Court 
in  1S68,  and  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  a  Code 
of  Civil  Procedure  for  North  Carolina.  He  has 
written  a  immber  of  novels,  including  A  FooPs 
Errand. 

TOWN-ADJUTANT,  Town-Majop.,  officers 
on  the  statf  of  a  garrison.  They  are  often  veteran 
officers,  too  much  worn  for  field-service.  The  pay 
depends  on  the  magnitude  of  the  trust.  The 
town-major  ranks  as  a  captain  ;  the  adjutant  as  a 
lieutenant.  The  duties  of  these  officers  consist  in 
maintaining  discipline,  and  looking  after  the  find- 
ing of  the  batteries,  etc. 

TOWNSEND,  Charles  Champlin,  member  of 
Congress,  born  at  Allegheny  City,  Pa.,  in  18il. 
He  received  a  common-school  education:  is  a  man- 
ufacturer; served  two  years  in  the  army  during  the 
rebeUion  as  a  private,  and  afterward  as  adjutant; 
and  was  elected  to  Congress,  1889. 

TOWNSEND,  HosEA,  member  of  Congress,  born 
in  Ohio,  in  1840.  He  entered  Western  Reserve 
College,  Ohio,  in  1860;  left  school  to  enter  the 
army  in  1861;  was  promoted  to  lieutenant,  and 
resigned  in  1863,  on  account  of  disability;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  and  commenced  the  practice  of 
law  in  Tennessee  in  1865;  was  elected  to  the  Leg- 
islature of  that  state  in  1869,  and  served  one  term; 
removed  to  Colorado  in  1879,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1889,  and  re-elected  in  1891. 

TRACHOilA  (derived  from  the  Greek  trachus, 
rough),  the  term  employed  in  ophthalmic  surgery 
to  designate  a  granular  condition  of  the  mucous 
covering  of  the  eyelids,  often  accompanied  with 
haziness  and  vascularity  of  the  cornea.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  serious  seqtieltB  of  purulent 
ophthalmia. 

TRACY,  Benjamin  F.,  secretary  of  the  navy, 
born  at  Owego,  N.  Y.,  in  1830.  He  studieil  law; 
was  elected  to  the  New  York  Assembly  in  1861: 
was  a  colonel  of  volunteers;  was  in  the  battle  of 
the  Wilderness,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier-gen- 
eral: became  United  States  district  attorney  for 
the  eastern  district  of  New  York  in  1866; 
judge  of   the    New    York    Court   of   Appeals    in 


'■  1881:  secretary  of  the  navy  in  1889.  In 
I  February,  1890,  Mrs.  Tracy  and  Miss  Mary  Tracy, 
1  the  wife  and  youngest  daughter  of  the  secretaiy, 
lost  their  lives  by  a  fire  which  destroyed  th  ir 
,  Washington  residence. 

j  TRADUCIANISM,  one  of  the  theories  adopted 
'  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  the  production  of  the 
;  soul  in  the  procreation  of  the  human  species.  The 
theory  known  as  tradueianism,  is  ascribed  to  Ter- 
tullian  as  its  first  author.  He  taught  that  souls 
are  propagated  by  souls,  as  bodies  by  bodies,  and 
by  the  same  or  a  sinmltaneous  process.  The  dis- 
cussion of  these  theories  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries,  was  much  promoted  by  the  controver- 
sies on  Manichaeism. 

TRAMMEL-NET.  A  kind  of  net  re.sembling 
the  ch'ift-net  used  in  the  herring-fishery,  but 
anqliored  and  buoyed  at  each  end.  tlie  back-rope 
supported  by  small  cork-floats,  and  the  foot-rope 
kept  close  to  the  ground  by  weights.  The  length 
varies  from  20  to  300  vards. 

TKANS-ANDINE  "railway,  the  first  rail- 
way across  the  continent  of  South  America.  It 
runs  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Valparaiso,  some 
870  miles.  In  1890  there  were  640  miles  finished 
at  the  Buenos  Ayi'es  and  82  at  the  Valparaiso 
end,  while  about  a  third  of  the  rest  was  practically 
complete.  The  Andes  range  is  crossed  at  Cumbre 
Pass,  which  is  13,045  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and 
at  this  point  the  railway  follows  a  tunnel  about 
three  miles  long  at  an  elevation  of  10,450  feet,  the 
grades  for  a  considerable  distance  being  1  in  l'2i. 
so  that  a  rack  rail  is  employed.  "  The  opening  of 
the  whole  route  is  expected  to  take  place  in  1892. 
Eight  tunnels  are  being  bored  through  the  Andes 
in  connection  with  the  line,  of  a  total  length  of 
nearly  ten  miles.  Electricity  and  water  are  em- 
ployed in  novel  fashion,  and  wnnk  on  the  tunnels 
goes  on  at  twentv-six  points. 

TRANSITION,  a  term  employed  at  first  by 
Werner  to  designate  rocks  having  a  mineral  char- 
acter intermediate  between  the  highly  crystal  line, 
or  metamorphic  rocks  and  ordinary  sedimentary 
deposits. 

TRANSITORY  ACTION,  in  the  law  of  England, 
is  used,  in  contradistinction  to  local  action,  to  de- 
note that  the  particular  action  may  be  tried  in 
another  county  than  that  in  which  the  occurrence 
arose. 

TRANSKEIAN  TERRITORIES.  For  these 
countries  of  South  Africa,  see  Britannica,  Vol. 
XXIII,  pp.  .516-519.  The  area  of  Cape  Colony,  in 
1889,  was  estimated  at  233,430  square  miles.  This 
includes  an  area  of  15,283  square  miles  in  the  Trans- 
keian  Territories,  and  of  Walfish  Bay,  in  Damara- 
land. 

The  estimated  population  in  1889  of  Cape  Col- 
ony proper,  including  Griqualand  West,  was 
1,048,628;  and  of  its  dependencies,  Transkei,  East 
Griqualand,  and  Tembuland,  410.195:  total  1,458,- 
823.  In  1880  it  was  1,136,986.  The  total  white 
population  is  estimated  at  about  3.50,000.  The 
colony  is  divided  into  seventy  divisions,  and  its 
dependencies  into  sixteen  districts. 

The  various  Trauskeian  territories  are  grouped 
under  their  chief  magistrates  as  follows,  with 
poimlation  in  January,  1889:  Griqualand  East, 
comprising  Port  St.  .tohn's,  Noman's  Land,  and 
the  (latberg,  with  nine  subordinate  magistrates 
(area  7,511    square   miles,  population  121,138,  of 


T  R  A  X  S  L  A  T  I  C»  N     O  1-     .M  1  .\  I  s  T  E  l{  S  —  T  i;  E  A  s  U  H  ^ 


1503 


whom  3,921  Europeans);  Tembuland,  comprising 
Tembulaud  proper,  Bomvanaland,  and  Emigrant 
Tembuland,  with  seven  magistrates,  inchiding  resi- 
dent magistrate  (area  4,055  square  miles,  popula- 
tion 159,325,  of  whom  5,515  Europeans);  Trauskti. 
comprising  Fingoland,  the  Idutywa  Reserve,  and 
Gcalekaland,  with  six  magistrates  (area  '2,535 
square  miles,  population  136,395.  of  whom  1,000 
Europeans).  These  districts  are  subject  to  the 
"  Native  Territories  Penal  Code. "  Pondolaud, 
population  200,000,  with  a  resident  commissioner 
appniuted  by  the  Cape  government  Walfish  Bay 
has  an  area  of  430  square  miles. 

The  capital  of  the  colony.  Cape  Town,  had  a 
population  in  1SS9  of  41,704,  excluding  military 
and  shipping.  The  probable  population  of  Cape 
Town  and  suburbs  is  70,000.  Port  Ehzabeth  had  a 
population  of  13,049  in  1S75,  15,926  in  1SS9;  Kim- 
berlev,13,590  in  1875,  28,663  in  1889;  Beaconstield, 
21.619  in  1889:  Graham's  Town,  6,903  m  1875, 
8,261  in  1889:  King  William's  Town,  5,195  in  1875, 
5,386  in  1889:  Woodstock,  5.720;  East  London, 
5,903:  Graaff  Reinet,  5,622;  Stellenbosch,  5,055. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  white  inhabitants  are  of 
Dutch,  German,  and  French  origin,  mostly  de- 
scendants of  the  original  settlers. 

TRANSLATION  OF  MIXLSTERS.  in  the  law 
of  Scotland,  the  removal  of  a  mini.ster  from  one 
parish  benefice  to  another. 

TRANSOMS,  in  artillery,  the  bars  or  bolls  by 
which  the  two  sides — technically  called  "  cheeks  " 
— of  a  gtm-carriage  are  held  together.  In  a  ship, 
beams  across  the  sternpost,  at  right  angles  to  that 
timber  fastened  in  the  same  way  as  the  floors  upon 
the  keel, 

TRANSPOSE,  in  music,  to  change  a  piece  of 
music  in  performance  from  the  key  in  which  it  is 
written  to  another  key.  To  plav  at  sight  an  ac- 
companiment for  such  an  instrument  as  the  piano- 
forte or  organ,  transposed  from  one  key  to  another, 
requires  considerable  artistic  skill.  To  the  singer, 
transposal  presents  no  difficulties. 

TRASS,  a  tufaceous  deposit  of  the  extinct  vol- 
canoes of  the  Eifel,  near  Coblenz,  resembhng  the 
Puzzolana  of  Naples.  Its  base  consists  almost 
entirely  of  pumice,  in  which  are  imbedded  frag- 
ments of  basalt,  burnt  shale,  slate,  sandstone,  etc., 
and  even  numerous  trunks  and  branches  of  trees. 
Its  formation  is  accounted  for  by  supposing  an 
eruption  to  have  taken  place,  with  copious  evolu- 
tion of  gases,  in  a  lake-basin,  and  a  flood"  of  the 
mud  thus  formed  to  have  swept  away  whatever 
came  before  it.  Large  areas  are  covered  by  the 
trass,  which  has  choked  up  valleys,  now  partially 
re-excavated. 

TRAVERSING  PLATFORM,  an  arrangement 
for  the  more  rapid  and  easy  movement  of  cannon 
in  battery.  The  gun  is  either  mounted  on  an 
ordinary  truck-carriage,  or  on  rollers  under  its 
trunnions.  The  truck  or  rollers  work  in  and  out 
on  two  parallel  iron  rails,  which  rails  are  mounted 
on  the  traversing  carriage,  and  are  sixteen  feet  or 
more  in  length.  Wheels  at  each  end  of  this  plat- 
form, or  more  frequently  if  the  weight  of  the  gun 
be  very  great,  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  rails,  and  run  on  circular  tram- 
ways, which  have  their  center  in  the  embrasure 
through  which  the  gun  is  fired.  The  rails  incline 
upward  toward  the  rear,  to  moderate  the  gun's 
recoil.    The  advantages  are.  that  the  leverage  for 


turning  the  gun  is  increased  by  the  piatform's 
length,  while  the  circular  rails  diminish  the  resist- 
ance; that  the  gun  is  easily  run  out  for  firing  on 
the  upper  rails;  that  by  its  own  recoil  it  runs  itself 
in  again  for  loading;  and  that  a  much  smaller 
embrasure  is  required  to  give  a  good  compass  to 
the  muzzle. 

TRAVESTY,  a  term  applied  in  literature  to 
denote  a  burlesque  representation  of  something 
previously  executed  in  a  serious  and  lofty  manner. 
It  diiJ'ers  from  Parody  in,  that  while  the  latter 
changes  the  subject-matter  and  the  dramatis 
personee,  but  mockingly  imitates  the  style  of  the 
original,  the  former  leaves  the  subject-matter 
partially,  and  the  dramatis  j)erso»ce  wholly,  un- 
altered; producing  a  purely  comic  efl'ect  by  the 
substitution  of  the  mean,  the  frivolous,  and  the 
grotesque  in  action  or  speech,  for  the  serious,  the 
noble,  or  the  heroic. 

TRAVXIK,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Bosnia,  on  the  Lasva  River, 
forty-five  miles  northwest  of  Bosna-Serai.  Its 
nmnerous  mosques  and  the  castle,  which  dates 
from  the  middle  ages,  are  the  principal  edifices. 
It  contains  12,000  inhabitants,  almost  all  Moham- 
medans. The  principal  branch  of  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  sword-blades. 

TREASON.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXII,  pp. 
525-^530. 

TREASURY.  The  United  States  Treasury  De- 
partment was  established  by  act  of  Congress  Sept. 
2,  1789,  and  numerous  amendments  have  since  so 
augmented  its  business,  that  it  is  now  the  largest 
and  most  important  of  all  the  executive  depart- 
ments of  our  government.  It  is  presided  over  by 
a  Secretary  who  is  nominated  by  the  President 
and  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  This  officer  has  the 
duty  of  managing  the  United  States  revenues 
under  the  laws  of  Congress.  Two  Assistant  Sec- 
retaries of  the  Treasury  are  also  appointed  by  the 
President  aad  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  There 
are  also  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  a  Chief  Clerk 
and  nine  Division  Chiefs,  upon  whom  devolves  the 
general  direction  of  the  routine  business  and  opera- 
tions of  the  office. 

In  addition  to  the  officers  connected  with  the 
secretary's  office  proper,  there  are  in  the  treasury 
department  the  following  officers: 

1.  The  First  Comptroller  examines  all  accounts 
.'settled  by  the  first  auditor,  except  those  relating 
to  receipts  from  customs.  He  also  countersigns 
all  warrants  drawn  by  the  secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury. 

2.  The  Second  Comptroller  examines  all  ac- 
counts settled  by  the  second,  third  and  fourth 
auditors.  He  also  coimtersigns  all  requisitions 
drawu  on  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  by  the  sec- 
retaries of  war  and  of  the  navy. 

3.  The  Commissioner  of  Customs  examines  all 
accounts  settled  by  the  first  auditor  relating  to  re- 
ceipts from  customs,  and  certifies  to  balances 
arising  thereon  to  the  register  of  the  treasury. 

4  The  First  Auditor  examines  all  accovmts  ac- 
cruing in  the  treasury  department  (except  those 
arising  under  the  iuterual  revenue  laws),  certifies 
the  balance,  and  tran.smits  the  accounts  to  the  first 
comptroller,  or  to  the  commissioner  of  customs, 
who  have  respectively  the  revision  thereof. 

5.  The  Second  Auditor  examines  and  settles  the 
accounts  relating  to  the  pay  aud  clothing  of  the 


1504 


T  E  E  A  S  U  R  Y 


army,  ordnance  service,  subsistence  of  officers, 
bounties  to  soldiers,  Liospital  stores,  and  contingent 
expenses  of  tbe  war  department,  and  also  those 
relating  to  Indian  affairs. 

6.  The  Third  Auditor  examines  all  accounts 
relating  to  the  subsistence  and  tritnsportation  of 
the  army,  all  accounts  of  the  war  department, 
other  than  those  assigned  to  the  second  auditor, 
and  all  accounts  relating  to  army  pensions. 

7.  The  Fourth  Auditor  receives  and  settles  all 
accounts  relating  to  navy  pensions  and  accounts 
pertaining  to  the  naval  service. 

8.  The  Fifth  Auditor  receives  and  examines  all 
accounts  relative  to  tbe  dijiloniatic  and  consular 
service,  accounts  relating  to  the  census,  the 
national  museum  and  the  contingent  expenses  of 
the  patent  office. 

9.  The  Sixth  Auditor  examines  all  accounts 
relating  to  tbe  postal  service,  and  reports  to  the 
postmaster-general  all  balances  found  on  settle- 
ment of  such  accounts. 

10.  The  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  re- 
ceives and  disburses  all  public  moneys  that  may 
bo  deposited  in  the  treasury  at  Washington,  and 
the  sub- treasuries  at  New  York,  Boston,  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco, 
St.  Louis,  Chicago  and  Cincinnati,  and  in  the 
national  bank  United  States  depositories. 

11.  The  Register  of  the  Treasury  is  the  official 
bookkeeper  of  the  United  States.  He  prepares  a 
yearly  statement  which  shows  every  receipt  and 
disbursement  of  the  public  money;  signs  and 
issues  all  the  United  States  bonds;  registers  all 
warrants  drawn  by  the  secretary  of  the  treasury 
upon  the  United  States  treasurer  and  transmits 
statements  of  balances  due  to  individitals  after  the 
settlement  of  their  accounts  by  the  first 
comptroller,  or  the  commissioner  of  customs, 
upon  which  payment  is  made. 

12.  The  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  has  the 
control  of  tlie  national  banks. 

13.  The  Director  of  the  Mint  has  general  sup- 
ervision of  all  the  mints  an<l  assay  offices  of  the 
United  States. 

14.  The  Sohcitor  of  the  Treasury  is  the  law 
officer  of  the  deijartment.  He  takes  cognizance 
of  all  frauds  or  attempted  frauds  on  the  customs 
revenue,  and  has  supervision  over  suits  for  the 
collection  of  moneys  due  to  the  United  States, 
excepting  tho.se  due  under  the  internal  revenue, 
and  over  all  suits  relating  to  national  l)anks,  in 
which  the  United  States  and  its  agents  are 
parties. 

15.  The  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue  has 
general  superintendence  of  the  collection  of  all 
internal  revenue  taxes,  and  the  enforcement  of  all 
internal  revenue  laws. 

16.  The  Superintendent  of  the  Coa.st  and  Geo- 
detic Survey  is  charged  with  the  survey  of  the 
Atlantic,  Gulf  and  Pacific  coasts  of  the  United 
.States,  including  the  coasts  of  Alaska:  the  survey 
of  rivers  to  the  head  of  tide- water  or  .ship  naviga- 
tion; deep-sea  soundings;  temperature  and  cur- 
rent obsorvalinns  along  the  said  coasts;  magnetic 
observations  and  gravity  research;  determination 
<if  heights  by  geodetic  leveling,  and  of  geographical 
position  by  Mnes  of  transcontinental  triangula- 
tion. 

17.  The  Supervising  Inspector-General  of  Steam 
Vessels  superintends  the  administration   of    the 


steamboat  inspection  laws,  presides  at  the  meet- 
ings of  the  board  of  supervising  inspectors,  re- 
ceives all  reports,  and  examines  all  accounts  of 
inspectors. 

18.  The  Supervising  Surgeon-General  supervises 
the  marine  hospitals  and  other  relief  stations  of 
the  service;  takes  care  of  sick  and  disabled  sea- 
men, both  from  the  merchant  vessels  of  the  United 
States,  and  from  the  revenue-marine  and  light- 
house services;  purveys  medical  and  other  sup- 
plies; assigns  medical  officers  to  the  United  States 
hospitals,  and  examines  requisitions,  vouchers, 
juoperty  returns,  and  manages  all  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  United  States  hospital  service. 

19.  The  General  Superintendent  of  the  Life- 
Saving  Service  supervises  the  organization  and 
government  of  the  employes  of  the  .service;  pre- 
pares regulations  therefor;  fixes  the  number  and 
compensation  nf  sm'f'men  to  be  employed  at  the 
several  stations;  supervises  the  expenditure  of  aU 
appropriations  made  for  the  service;  examines 
the  accounts  of  disbursements  of  the  district 
superintendents,  and  the  property  returns  of  the 
keepers  of  the  several  stations;  prepares  estim;ites 
for  tlie  support  of  the  service;  compiles  statistics 
of  marine  disasters,  and  makes  an  annual  report 
of  the  expenditures  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
life-saving  service  and  of  the  operations  of  said 
service  during  the  year. 

20.  The  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  col- 
lects and  publishes  the  statistics  of  our  foreign 
commerce;  makes  monthly  statements  of  imports 
and  exports,  especially  of  breadstutt's,  provisions, 
petroleum,  and  cotton;  makes  annual  reports  on 
navigation,  and  monthly  reports  on  immigration, 
and  the  total  values  of  foreign  commerce. 

21.  The  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Engraving  and 
Printing  designs,  engraves,  prints,  and  finishes  all 
the  securities  and  other  similar  work  of  the  gov- 
ernment printed  from  steel  plates  (except  postage 
stamps  and  postal  notes),  embracing  United  States 
notes,  bonds,  and  certificates,  national  bank  notes, 
internal  revenue  and  customs  stamps,  treasury 
drafts  and  checks,  disbursing  officers'  checks, 
licenses,  commissions,  patent  and  pension  certifi- 
cates, and  portraits  of  deceased  members  of  Con- 
gress and  other  public  officers  authorized  by  law. 

22.  The  Light-House  Board  is  composed  of  two 
officers  of  the  navy  of  high  rank,  two  officers  of 
the  corns  of  engineers  of  the  army,  and  two  civil- 
ians of  high  scientific  attainments,  together  with 
an  officer  of  the  navy  and  an  officer  of  engineers 
of  the  army  as  secretaries.  Under  the  superin- 
tendence of  tlie  secretary  of  the  treasury  this 
board  discharges  all  administrative  duties  relating 
to  the  construction,  illumination,  inspection,  and 
superintendence  of  light-houses,  light- vessels, 
beacons,  buoys,  ami  their  appendages. 

It  is  seen  from  the  foregoing  details  that  the 
transaction  of  the  immense  and  varied  business 
of  the  United  States  treasury  department  is  dis- 
tributed among  a  series  of  responsible  officers. 
The  clerical  and  other  foices  employed  in  the  va- 
rious offices  and  bureaus  number  15,697,  of  whom 
2,8.32  are  in  bureaus  in  Washington,  D.C.,  4,450  in 
the  customs  service,  .3, .'50.'}  in  the  internal  revenue 
service,  948  in  the  mints  and  assay  offices,  225  in 
the  several  sub-treasuries,  and  3,919  in  the  life- 
saving,  marine  hospital,  steamboat  inspection,  and 
revenue  marine  bureaus,  and  in  the  various  public 


T  R  E  A  T  Y  —  T  K  E  E  S     OF     LIBERTY. 


:  .",05 


buildings  and  other  branches  of  the  department 
located  throughout  the  country. 

TREATY.  For  information  on  the  general  sub- 
ject of  treaties,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  530 
-532.  In  the  United  States  the  treaties  are  nego- 
tiated by  the  executive  department  and  confirmed 
by  the  Senate.  When  so  confirmed,  tbey  are  part 
of  the  law  of  the  land.  The  principal  treaties 
in  which  the  United  States  are  vitally  interested 
are: 

1819.  Declaration  of  the  rights  of  neutrals,  as 
adopted  by  the  United  States  and  accepted  by 
Great  Britain. 

183S.  Maine  boundary  dispute,  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  settled  by  Lord 
Ashburton  and  Daniel  Webster. 

lSi2.  Anglo- American  Convention  to  check  the 
slave  trade. 

ISiS.  Arbitration  on  pecuniary  disputes  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico  (under  the  King  of 
Prus.sia). 

1846.  Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  fixing  the  forty-ninth  parallel  as 
boundary,  and  confirming  Vancouver  Island  to 
Great  Britain. 

1850.  Claytou-Bulwer  Treaty,  Great  Britain  and 
United  States  (neutrality  in  Central  America). 

1853.  Arbitration  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  (Florida  bonds). 

1853.  Arbitration  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico. 

1851.  Washington  Treaty,  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  (Fisheries  and  Commerce). 

1858.  Convention  between  the  Uuited  States  and 
Japan  (opening  certain  ports). 

1858.  Arbitratii  u  between  the  United  States  and 
Chili  (under  the  King  of  the  Belgians). 

1859.  Arbitration  between  the  United  States  and 
Paraguay.  Xew  Granada,  and  Costa  Rica. 

18G3.  A  detailed  Code  of  Instructions  drawn  up 
for  the  Uuited  States  armies  in  the  field,  laying 
down  valuable  principles  of  international  law. 

1863.  Arbitration  between  the  United  States 
and  Peru. 

1864.  Convention  of  Geneva  on  behalf  of  the 
sick  and  wounded  in  war.     Red  cross  adopted. 

1864.  Arbitration  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  about  Pugel  Sound. 

1865-6.  .Slaves  emancipated  in  the  United 
States. 

1869.  International  Telegraphic  Conference  and 
Treaty  at  Berne. 

1871.  Arbitration  agi'eed  to  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  on  the  Alabama 
Claims.     The  award  was  made  in  June,  1872. 

1871.  Arbitration  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico. 

1871.  International  Telegraph  Conference  at 
Rome. 

1872.  St.  Juan  Arbitration  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States  (under  the  emperor  of 
Germany). 

1874.  Dispute  between  Switzerland  and  Italy 
referred  to  the  United  States  minister  at  Rome. 

1874.  International  Postal  Treaty  at  Berne. 
Postal  Union  established. 

1874.  International  Conference  and  Declaration 
of  Brussels  on  the  Laws  and  Customs  of  War. 

1875.  International  Telegraph  Conference  at  St. 
Petersburg. 


1875.  International  Postal  and  Metric  Confer- 
ence at  Pari.s. 

1S79.  Telegraphic  Convention  in  London. 

1883.  Convention  at  Paris  on  the  protection  of 
industrial  property. 

1885.  International  Telegraph  Conference  at 
Berlin. 

1885.  First  International  Congress  on  Inland 
Xavigation  at  Brussels. 

1885.  African  Conference  at  Berlin.  The  new 
Congo  State  sanctioned. 

1886.  Conference  at  Tokio  for  the  revision  of 
Japanese  Treaties.  New  provisions  in  regard  to 
foreign  residents. 

1887.  Conventions  between  China  and  France, 
and  China  and  the  United  States. 

1887.  Joint  Commission  at  Washington  to  ar- 
range the  Fishery  Disputes  between  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain  and  Canada. 

1888.  Fisheries  Treaty  concluded  by  the 
Washington  Commission ;  rejected  by  the  United 
States  Senate. 

1888.  Convention  for  the  Xeutralizatiou  of  the 
Suez  Canal  signed  at  Constantinople  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  powers. 

1888.  International  Trades  Union  Congress  in 
London. 

Up  to  1873  the  United  States  government  ad- 
justed its  relations  to  the  North  American  Indians 
by  means  of  treaties.  Since  1873  this  method  has 
been  discontinued,  and  acts  of  Congress  have 
taken  the  place  of  treaties  as  means  of  adjusting 
such  relations. 

TREBLE,  the  highest  part  in  harmonized  music, 
which  in  general  contains  the  melody,  and  is  simg 
by  a  soprano  voice.  The  treble  or  G  clef  is  placed 
on  the  second  line  of  the  stall",  indicating  that  the 
note  G  occupies  the  line  encircled  by  its  lower 
curve.  It  is  one  of  the  two  clefs  in  use  in  music 
for  keyed  instruments. 

TREE,  the  name  given  to  those  plants  which 
live  for  many  years,  and  have  woody  stems  and 
branches,  the  stem  being  generally  single,  and 
bearing  a  head  of  branches  and  twigs;  whereas 
shrubs  have  generally  a  number  of  stems  spring- 
ing from  one  root.  Tlie  terms  tree  and  shrub  are 
not,  however,  of  very  exactly  defined  signification; 
and  many  .shrubs,  under  certain  circumstances, 
assume  the  form  of  trees,  either  naturally  or  by 
the  help  of  art;  while  trees  are,  in  other  circum- 
stances, converted  into  .shrubs. 

TREES  OF  LIBERTY.  The  custom,  peculiar 
to  almost  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  celebrating 
the  beginning  of  spring  and  various  festivals  by 
setting  up  green  boughs,  led,  duruig  the  War  of 
Independence  in  the  United  States,  to  the  habit 
of  planting  poplars  and  other  trees  as  the  symbol 
of  growing  freedom.  This  example  was  imitated 
during  the  French  Revolution.  These  trees, 
crowned  with  the  cap  of  liberty,  were  soon  to  be 
found  in  every  village,  while  the  people  danced 
round  them,  singing  revolutionary  songs,  and  re- 
garded them  as  the  rendezvous  of  the  patriots. 
This  custom  was  regulated  by  a  decree  of  the 
convention,  and  diffused  over  foreign  countries  by 
the  republican  armies.  During  the  Reigu  of  Ter- 
ror, thousands  lost  their  lives  under  the  pretext  of 
having  injured  a  tree  of  liberty.  During  the 
empire,  this  custom,  like  all  others  that  had 
originated   during  the  republic,  was  completely 


15U<; 


T  i;  K  X  T  0  N  —  T  II  E  \'  E  S . 


suppressed.  After  most  of  tlie  trees  of  liberty  had 
fallen  durins  the  eoiitlicts  in  the  streets  of  Paris, 
in  June,  1848,  government  issued  an  order  for 
their  removal  from  all  places  where  they  impeded 
traffic.  Before  the  end  of  the  year,  they  had 
entirely  disappeared.  Numerous  trees  of  liberty 
were  likewise  erected  in  Italy  during  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848  and  1849,  but  fell  again  as  the  dif- 
ferent insurrections  were  quelled. 

TRENTON,  a  town,  and  the  couuty-seat  of 
Grundy  county.  Mo.,  on  the  Crooked  Fork  of 
Grand  River.  It  contains  a  number  of  machine 
shops  and  flour  and  woolen  mills.     Population  in 

1890,  5,011. 

TRENTON,  a  city  of  New  Jersey.  Population 
in  1890,  57,458.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p. 
552. 

TREVELTAN,  Sir  GEoiici?  Otto,  born  in 
1838.  He  represented  Tynemouth  in  1865-08,  and 
commenced  his  official  parliamentary  career  in  1809 
as  lord  of  the  iidmiralty;  and,  in  Mr.  Gladstone's 
ministry,  became  secretary  to  the  admirality. 
After  holding  the  office  of  chief  secretary  for  Ire- 
land, Sir  George  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the 
duchy  of  Lancaster  (with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet) 
in  1884,  and  held  the  office  of  secretary  for  Scot- 
land for  a  month  in  1880.  Sir  George,  being 
luiable  to  agree  with  Mr.  Gladstone's  Irish  policy, 
resigned  his  position  in  the  government,  but  on 
the  conclusion  of  the  Round  Table  Conference,  at 
which  he  represented  the  Pnionist  party,  he  an- 
nounced that  his  opposition  to  the  points  of  dis- 
agreement with  regard  to  the  Home  Rule  move- 
ment had  been  overcome,  and  he  rejoined  his 
colleagues  on  the  Front  Opposition  bench.  Sir 
George  has  gained  distinction  in  the  world  of 
letters  by  his  Life  of  Lord  M/icinilai/,  his  uncle. 
He  is  also  the  author  of  some  humorous  poetry, 
entitled  The  Ladies  in  Parliament. 

TKfiVES,  Holy  Coat  of.  For  general  article 
ou  Treves,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  552-53. 
After  an  interval  of  forty-seven  years  another 
great  pilgrnnage  was  made  in  the  midsummer  of 

1891,  to  Treves,  Prussia,  to  obtain  a  personal  view 
of  the  alleged  "  seamless  coat"  of  Jesus  Christ, 
which,  at  the  time  of  his  crucifixion,  passed  into 
possession  of  the  Roman  soldiers,  and  which  had 
last  been  exhibited  in  1844  to  pilgrims,  estimated 
to  number  over  1,500,000.  The  story  of  this  coat 
which  at  intervals  has  awakened  excited  attention 
for  several  centuries,  is  that  it  was  discovered,  or 
rather  found,  by  St.  Helena,  the  innkeeper's 
daughter,  who  became  the  wife  of  one  Ca'sar  and 
the  mother  of  another.  On  her  return  from  Pales- 
tine, early  in  the  fourth  century,  she  deposited  the 
garment  in  the  basilica  out  of  which  grew  the 
Cathedral  of  Treves,  a  city  which,  in  those  days, 
was  the  cai)ital  of  Belgie  Gaul,  and  the  residence 
of  the  later  Roman  emperors.  In  course  of  time 
this  lordly  chui'ch  was  so  tilled  with  relics  that 
when  the  l)arbarians  in  the  fifth  century,  and  the 
Normans  in  the  ninth,  played  havoc  with  the  town, 
the  treasures  were  concealed  in  crypts,  and  there 
they  remained  for  .so  hmg  a  period  that  the  exist- 
ence of  some  of  them  was  forgotten.  This  is  the 
legend.  More  authentic  records  tell  us  that  the 
holy  coat  was  discovered,  or  rediscovered,  in  the 
year  1196,  and  then  solemnly  exhibited  to  the  un- 
critical gaze  of  the  pious.  Contrary  to  the  wont  of 
most  other  treasures  of  a  similar  kind,  which  are 


exhibited  pretty  fre(|ueutly — the  "  great  relics  "in 
Aix-la-Chapelle  being  an  exception — the  holy 
coat  was  not  seen  again  for  more  than  three  cent- 
uries, an  interval  that  is  full  of  suggestiveness  in 
the  case  of  a  town  crowded,  as  the  archiepiseopal 
capital  of  Treves  then  was,  with  crafty  prie.sts  and 
skillful  weavers. 

At  all  events,  it  was  not  shown  until  1512,  when 
the  multitudes  flocking  to  veuerateit  were  so  great 
that  Leo  X.  determined  that  it  should  be  produced 
every  seventh  year.  But,  meantime,  Tetzel  and 
his  sale  of  indulgences  had  made  their  mark,  and 
the  great  festival  of  the  holy  coat  ceased  to  be  ob- 
served with  any  regularity,  profitable  though  the 
occasion  undoubtedly  was  to  the  church  and 
townsmen  of  Treves.  In  1810  it  was  again  exhib- 
ited, anil  in  spite  of  the  slowne.ss  of  traveling,  and 
notwithstanding  Napoleon's  prohibition  against 
the  working  of  miracles,  227,000  people  went  to 
the  memorable  sight.  For  thirty-four  years  noth- 
ing more  was  heard  of  the  coat,  and  the  secret  of 
its  hiding  place  was  confided  to  so  .select  a  body  of 
the  cathedral  clergy  that  it  was  feared  that  it  had 
again  been  lost.  Indeed,  so  silent  were  the  au- 
thorities regarding  this  greatest  of  their  relics  that 
as  late  as  1841,  there  were  doubts  whether  it  really 
existed.  All  that  the  attendants  of  the  church 
could  say  was  that  it  was  walled  up  in  the  high 
altar,  and  would  appear  once  more  on  the  cen- 
tenary of  its  exhibition  in  1744. 

In  1844,  accordingly.  Bishop  Arnoldi  produced 
the  coat.  It  was  then  a  loose  garment  with  wide 
sleeves,  very  simple  in  shape,  of  coarse  material, 
dark  brown  in  color,  and  entirely  without  seam  or 
decoration.  According  to  one  of  the  many  de- 
scriptions and  figures  of  it  published  at  the  time  it 
measured  from  the  extremity  of  each  sleeve  five 
feet  four  inches,  the  length  from  the  collar  to  the 
lowermost  edge  being  five  feet  two  inches.  Ill 
parts  it  was  tender  or  threadbare,  and  some  stains 
on  it  were  reinited  to  be  those  of  the  Redeemer's 
blood,  though  nothing  was  said  as  to  the  patch- 
work character  of  the  tunic.  On  this,  as  on  pre- 
vious occasions,  miracles  were  reported  to  have 
been  wiought  by  it  in  the  shape  of  cures,  the 
nature  of  the  best  authenticated  being  closely  akin 
to  those  known  nowadays  as  faith  healing.  Since 
the  Middle  Ages  no  sucli  pilgrimage  had  been 
known,  and  no  mediaival  shrine  could  have  at- 
tracted the  same  number  of  people  in  tlie  same 
space  of  time,  for  it  is  said  that  1,500,000  devotees 
\isited  the  high  altar  on  which  the  coat  was  placed. 
They  came  from  all  quarters,  many  from  long  dis- 
tances, traveling  on  foot,  preceded  by  their  village 
priests  and  by  surpliced  boys  bearing  banners.  All 
the  inns  and  lodging  houses  of  the  town  were 
crammed,  and  not  a  vacant  room  which  the  own- 
ers were  willing  to  let,  could  be  had  after  the  first 
week  for  either  love  or  money.  But  it  was  sum- 
mer, and  there  was  little  hardship  in  sleeping  on 
stairca.ses,  in  out-houses,  or  even  in  the  streets  and 
sciuares,  with  the  pilgrim  wallets  for  pillows. 
Every  morning  at  early  dawn,  the  eager  sight- 
.seers  took  up  their  posts  by  the  cathedral  doors, 
until  a  line  of  more  than  a  mile  in  length  was 
formed,  so  that  it  was  difficult  for  any,  save  the 
head  of  the  i)rocession,  to  reach  the  coat  much 
under  three  hours.  The  heat,  dust  and  fatigue 
exhausted  many,  who  fainted  by  the  way,  while 
the   pent-up  excitement  of  others  gave  way  to 


T  1{  I  L)  A  C  N  I  D  .E  —  T  K  I  L  O  G  Y 


1507 


hysteria  .is  they  made  their  oblatious  before  the 
sacieti  object. 

At  the  close  of  the  exhibition,  amoiii:;  those  who 
disapproved  of  the  whole  aflair  was  .lohami  Ronge, 
a  Roman  CathoUc  priest,  who,  in  October.  1844, 
made  a  vigorous  attack  on  Hishop  Arnoidi  for 
encouraging  those  acts  of  adoration  to  what  ho 
declared  was  at  best  a  relic  of  the  most  doubtful 
authenticity.  As  this  declaration  was  against  a 
canon  of  tbe  church,  and  in  contempt  of  more 
than  one  papal  bull,  the  recalcitrant  churchman 
was  promptly  escmiiiuunicated  by  the  chapter  of 
Breslau.  Tlie  result,  however,  was  a  schism  so 
wide  that  in  six  months  there  were  twenty-seven 
congregations  who  professed  themselves  of  Ronge's 
way  of  thinking. 

In  midsummer.  1891,  a  committee  of  experts, 
choseu  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Treves, 
made  a  private  examination  of  the  garment  and 
vouched  for  its  genuineness,  "  though  it  is  rather 
moldier  and  more  mildewed  than  when  last  per- 
mitted to  see  the  light  of  day."  That  is  to  say, 
they  vouch  that  the  coat  is  the  same  one  which 
was  exhibited  in  1844.  the  seals  still  being  intact. 
We  need  hardly  observe  that  it  was  impossible  for 
them,  or  for  anybody  else,  to  produce  a  scintilla  of 
proof  that  it  was  the  seamless  coat  for  which  the 
Roman  soldiers  cast  lots  on  Calvary  nearly  nine- 
teen centuries  ago.  Roman  Catholic  tradition 
affirms  that  the  coat  possesses  a  miraculous  ])ower, 
enabling  it  to  defy  the  ravages  of  time.  Unfortu- 
nately, however,  the  pious  citizens  who  had  been 
requested  to  examine  it  diil  not  bear  out  this 
explanation  by  their  report.  On  the  contrary  they 
declare  that  the  garment  shows  traces  of  having 
been  renewed,  several  patches  on  it  being  em- 
bedded in  a  piece  of  linen  or  cotton  cloth  of  a  later 
manufacture. 

In  1891,  alter  extensive  preparations,  the  ex- 
hibition opened  August  20th.  A  .cable  telegram 
received  nn  that  date  describing  the  opening 
ceremonies,  reads  as  follows: 

"  The  garment  known  ;ts  the  holy  coat  was  ex- 
posed to  view  this  morning  in  tbe  cathedral  at 
Treves.  Two  Knights  of  Malta,  in  full  costume, 
with  drawn  swords  in  their  hands,  stood  on  either 
side  of  the  shrine  inclosing  the  holy-coat  case, 
which  was  surrounded  by  tall  lighted  candles  in 
hand.some  candlesticks  and  .surmounted  l)y  a  large 
gold  cross.  There-  was  an  impre.ssive  scene  in 
the  sanctuary  during  the  celebration  of  liigh 
mass,  over  a  hiradred  priests  assisted  in  the  cer- 
emonies. 

"  The  bishop  declares  that  the  only  aim  of  the 
exhibition  is  -to  revive  the  faith  in  and  the  love 
toward  our  Divine  Saviour,'  and  fervently  exhorts 
the  Church  to  the  end  that  the  period  of  exhibi- 
tion may  be  'a  season  of  grace  for  all.'  This 
grace,  he  urges,  is  to  be  petitioned  for  •  through 
fervent  prayer  and  works  of  Christian  penance.' 
The  feast  should  be  celebrated  in  the  spirit  of  our 
forefathers.  '  Not  out  of  curiosity,  not  for  amuse- 
ment, did  they  come  to  our  cathedral:  but  they 
followed  the  impulse  of  grace,  to  profess  their  faith, 
to  show  to  God  their  love  and  gratitude  by  vener- 
ating His  holy  coat.' 

•' The  holy  coat  is  distinctly  visible  in  the  tiody 
of  the  cathedral,  and  is  much  more  plainly  seen 
than  upon  the  former  occasion  of  its  exhibition. 
The  old  .silken  covering  being  almost  entirely  worn 


I  away,  it  appears  to-day  to  be  of  a  brownish  yellow 
I  color. " 

I      During   the    exhibition    of    the   ''Holy   Coat," 
I  which  closed  in  October.  1891,  it  was  estimated 
that  over  2,000,000  people  visited  Treves. 

TRIDACXID.E,  a  family  of  lamellibranchiate 
molluscs,  having  the  .shell  open,  the  valves  equal, 
tbe  foot  small,  and  furnished  with  a  byssus.  Tri- 
dncna  ffi'jas  is  remarkable  for  its  great  size,  ex- 
ceeding that  of  any  other  bivalve.  The  shell  of  a 
single  specimen  has  been  known  to  weigh  more 
than  500  lbs.  The  valves  are  sometimes  used  in 
Roman  CathoUc  churches  for  holy-water  vessels. 
They  are  also  used  as  an  ornament  for  grottoes 
and  fountains.  They  are  deeply  furrowed  and 
beautifully  grooved.  This  great  mollusc  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  East  Indies,  and  is  used  for  food. 

TRIDEXT,  in  classic  mythology,  the  symbol  of 
Neptune's  sovereignty  over  the  sea.  It  consisted 
of  a'  staff,  armed  at  one  end  with  three  short 
prongs,  with  double  barbs  at  the  points,  resem- 
bling the  fuscina  used  by  the  Italians  in  catching 
large  fish,  particularly  the  sword-fish,  from  which 
we  may  perhaps  infer  that  Neptunus  was  origi- 
uallv  the  god  of  fl.shermen. 

TRIENNIAL  PRESCRIPTION,  in  the  law  of 
Scotland,  a  limit  of  three  years  Imposed  on  aU 
creditors  to  bring  their  actions  to  recover  a  cer- 
tain class  of  debts  and  damages,  such  as  actions 
to  recover  merchants'  accounts,  servants'  wages, 
house  rents  (where  the  lease  is  verbal),  debts  due 
to  tradesmen,  lawyers  and  doctors.  So  actions  to 
recover  damages  for  wrongous  imprisonment  must 
be  brought  within  three  vears. 

TRIGONOCARPON,   a  common    fruit    in   the 
coal-measures,  occurring  in  all  the  strata  except 
I  the  underclays  and  limestones.     Some  six  or  eight 
species  have  been  established,  which  differ  from 
one  another  in  .size  and  shape — some  being  as 
I  small  as  a  pea,  and  others  as  large  as  a  walnut. 
They  are  marked,  when  preserved  in  the  round, 
;  with  three  longitudinal  ridges,  and  from  this  char- 
I  acter  the  name  was  derived.     Tbey  have  never 
j  been  found  attached  to  any  jilant.     It  was  at  first 
thought    that    they   were    palm    fruits,   but   Dr. 
Hooker,  from   the  examination   of  several  speci- 
mens  whicli   exhibit   structure,   has  shown  that 
they  are  not  unlike  the  structure  of  Salisburia,  a 
drupe-bearing  coniferous  tree,  a  native  of  China 
and  Japan. 

TRIKHALA,  or  Trik.\la.  a  town  of  Europe,  in 
Greece,  thirty-three  miles  southwest  of  Larissa. 
It  manufactures  cotton  and  woolen  stuffs,  and  has 
a  large  transit  trade  with  Epirus  and  Albania. 
The  neighboring  plains,  which  are  watered  by  the 
Salembria  (ancient  Prneus),  are  rich  in  all  sorts  of 
fruits.  Population.  (1889),  12,662.  Trikhala  is  the 
Trikka  of  Homer,  and  was  celebrated  in  the  classic 
ages  for  its  temple  of  ^Esculapius. 

TRILOGY,  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  a 
group  of  three  tragedies,  either  connected  by  a 
common  subject,  or  each  representing  a  distinct 
story.  A  satyric  drama  was  customarily  added  as 
a  termination,  whence  the  whole  was  sometimes 
termed  a  tetralogy.  Every  tragic  poet  that  wished 
to  take  part  in  a  poetic  contest  had  to  produce  a 
trilogy  along  with  a  satyric  drama  at  the  Diony- 
i  siac,  Leuffian  and  Anthesteriac  festivals.  Wo 
I  possess  only  one  perfect  specimen  of  the  classic 
trilogy,  the  Oresteia  of  ^Eschylus.  which  embrace;  1 


1508 


'1'  K  I  M  il  E  E  —  T  R  I  P  L  K     ALLIANCE 


the  Agamemnon,  the  Chce.phora;  and  the  Eume- 
nirles. 

TRIMMER,  a  political  term  in  use  in  the  reigns 
of  Charles  II.  and  William  III.,  originally  applied 
to  certain  politicians  of  Charles'  time,  of  whom 
the  chief  was  Charles  ilontagu,  earl  of  Halifax, 
who  held  opinions  half-way  between  the  extreme 
Whigs  and  Tories.  Halifa.^:  adopted  the  name 
Trimmer  as  a  title  of  honor,  maintaining  that 
everything  good  was  a  medium  between  extremes. 
The  same  term  was  applied  more  generally  by 
IJryden  and  other  writers  of  the  same  period  to 
all  who,  professing  to  be  friends  to  monarchy, 
were  at  the  same  time  enemies  to  the  duke  of 
York,  and  who  were  equally  obnoxious  to  the 
court  and  to  the  fanatical  republicans. 

TRIMURTI,  the  name  of  the  Hindu  triad,  or 
the  gods  Brahma  (mascuhne),  Vishnu  and  Siva, 
when  thought  of  as  an  inseparable  unity,  though 
three  in  form.  When  represented,  the  Trimurti 
is  one  body  with  three  heads:  the  middle  head, 
that  of  Hrahma;  at  its  right,  that  of  Vishnu;  and 
at  its  left,  that  of  Siva. 

TRINIDAD,  a  town,  the  county-seat  ot  Las 
Animas  county,  Colorado;  on  Purgatory  River.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Rice  Institute  and  other  educational 
institutions,  and  exports  large  quantities  of  wool. 
Population  in  1890,  5,500. 

TRINITY,  a  river  of  Texas,  formed  by  the 
union  of  two  streams,  West  Fork  and  Elm  Fork, 
which  rise  near  the  northern  bomidary  of  the 
state,  and  unite  150  miles  southeast,  the  main 
stream  flowing  thence  550  milesin  the  same  gen- 
eral direction  to  Galveston  Bay,  about  forty  miles 
north  of  the  city  of  Galveston.  It  is  navigable 
300  to  500  miles. 

TRINITY,  a  river  of  California,  rising  near  the 
coast-range,  and  flowing  through  a  country  of  rich 
gold-mines,  into  the  Klamath  River. 

TRINODA  NECESSITAS,  three  species  of  con- 
tributions, to  which,  in  Anglo-Saxon  times,  all  the 
lands  of  England,  whatever  their  tenure,  not  ex- 
cepting those  of  the  church,  were  subject,  namely, 
Brijge-hot,  for  keeping  the  bridges  and  highways 
in  repair;  and  Burg-hot,  for  keeping  the  fortresses 
ill  repair;  and  Fijrcl,  for  maintaining  the  military 
and  naval  force  of  the  kingdom. 

TRIO,  in  music,  a  composition  for  three  voices 
or  for  three  instruments.  The  same  term  is  also 
applied  to  a  movement  in  f  time  in  a  different  key, 
which  follows  a  minuet  or  other  movement,  and 
always  leads  back  to  the  previous  movement  in 
the  original  key. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE,  the  name  first  given 
in  1879,  to  a  stipulation  of  mutual  support  between 
Germany,  Austria  and  Italy.  It  was  a  defensive 
agreement  of  mutual  support,  for  the  ostensible 
pupose  of  preserving  the  peace  of  Europe,  but  for 
the  real  purpose  of  preventing  Russia  and  France 
from  making  any  efforts  to  encroach  upon  the 
present  boundary  allotment  of  the  European 
states.  The  alliance  was  for  a  term  of  six  years. 
In  1885  it  was  renewed  for  another  term  of  six 
years;  and  it  now  (1891)  has  been  extended  for 
another  six  years'  term. 

The  motive  for  this  third  alliance  is  obvious. 
Germany  has  nothing  to  gain  and  much  to  lose 
from  another  war.  She  does  not  care  to  add  to 
her  territories,  and  in  the  event  of  a  great  struggle 
there  would  probably  be  serious  trouble  in  Alsace 


and  Lorraine.  On  the  other  hand,  both  Russia 
and  France  have  definite  ends  to  be  reached. 
Russia  is  always  working  in  the  Balkan  region  for 
additions  to  her  territory,  and  always  moving  on 
patiently,  but  with  unbroken  determination,  to- 
ward Constantinople.  France  is  inspired  with  a 
determination  to  recover  her  lost  territory  or  be 
revenged.  It  is  believed  that  the  arrangement 
between  Russia  and  France  involves  a  distinct 
understanding  by  which  France  is  to  be  allowed 
supremacy  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  Russia  to 
have  a  perfectly  free  hand  in  the  East.  It  must 
be  remembered  also  that  while  the  populations  of 
Austria,  Italy  and  Germany  desire  peace  no  less 
earnestly  than  their  rulers,  there  is  in  France 
strong  popular  feeling  against  Germany,  and  in 
Russia  a  latent  desire  for  war,  which  at  any 
moment  may  be  fanned  into  a  flame.  The  war 
initiated  by  Germany  or  Austria  would  be  a 
dynastic  war.  but  a  war  initiated  by  either  France 
or  Ru.'^.sia  might  be  a  popular  war.  The  practical 
l)faring  of  this  fact  lies  in  the  pos.sibility  of  the 
war  being  precipitated  by  an  outburst  of  popular 
feeling  in  either  of  these  two  countries.  So  far  as 
the  members  of  the  Triple  Alliance  are  concerned, 
war  will  not  be  precipitated  save  by  the  concur- 
rent action  of  the  sovereigns  at  the  head  of  the 
states.  What  Italy  has  to  gain  from  this  alliance 
is  not  very  clear.  Her  only  apparant  gain  is  in 
prestige;  as  a  member  of  tlie  alliance  she  ranks  as 
a  great  power,  and  since  the  bold  move  of  Cavour 
in  sending  Italian  troops  to  the  Crimea  this  has 
been  part  of  her  policy:  a  policy  that  has  resulted 
in  the  autonomy  of  the  Italian  people. 

The  chief  beneficent  result  of  tlie  Triple  Alli- 
ance lies  in  the  fact  that  in  a  way  it  insures  for  the 
time  the  peace  of  Europe.  A  war  to-day  would 
mean  a  struggle  between  two  groups  of  powers 
who  would  divide  all  Europe  between  them.  Not 
since  the  days  of  Napoleon  has  Europe  witnessed 
so  gigantic  a  strife  as  would  follow  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities;  and  this  fact  has  a  tendency  to 
make  statesmen  and  rulers  sober  l)y  making  them 
conscious  of  tremendous  responsibilities.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Triple  Alliance  is  the  direct 
source  of  a  number  of  very  unfortunate  influences. 
It  involves  a  military  force  on  all  sides  of  nearly 
ten  millions  of  men,  and  it  represents  the  most 
frightful  burden  of  taxation  known  in  history. 
This  enormous  body  of  men  must  not  only  be  sup- 
ported and  paid,  but  in  great  numbers  they  are 
taken  out  of  every  field  of  productive  work,  and 
the  world  loses  just  so  much  by  their  absence. 
The  situation  involves  more  loss  of  productive 
force  and  a  heavier  outgo  to  .sustain  unproductive 
hands,  than  any  previous  condition  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  This  is  a  very  serious  (act  in  the 
economic  situation.  Moreover,  the  alliance,  ex- 
tended now  for  a  third  term  of  six  years,  makes  it 
impossible  to  take  the  first  step  toward  the  dis- 
armament of  Europe.  It  fastens  the  status  qtM 
more  heavily  than  ever  upon  all  the  great  nations. 
There  are  apparently  but  two  ways  of  escape 
from  the  appalling  burdens  which  Europe  is  now 
bearing.  A  great  war  might  so  tlioroughly  weaken 
and  disable  one  or  two  of  the  disputants  as  to  de- 
stroy the  present  equilibrium  and  relieve  the 
others  of  the  dangers  and  fears  which  now  sur- 
round them;  or,  by  consensus  of  opinion,  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  different  armaments.    Sooner  or  later 


T  i;  I  1'  L  E  T  —  T  R  0  r  T , 


1509 


the  burden  will  be  too  heiivy  to  be  borne;  it  is 
already  wearing  into  the  hearts  and  souls  of  men; 
but  the  Triple  Alliance  makes  it  impossible  to  re- 
duce the  burden  or  to  relieve  the  situation. 

TRIPLET,  in  music.  When  a  note  is  divided 
into  three  in  place  of  two  parts — as  when  a  minim 
is  divided  into  three  crotchets,  a  crotchet  into 
three  quavers,  etc. —  the  group  is  called  a  triplet, 
and  it  is  usual  to  place  the  figure  3  over  it. 

TRIPOD,  any  article  of  furniture  supported  on 
three  feet.  Three-legged  caldrons  and  bronze 
altars  more  especially  came  under  this  denomina- 
tion in  classical  times:  many  of  them  are  of  ex- 
quisite workmanship,  and  richly  decorated.  The 
sacrificial  tripod  in  its  earliest  form  resembled  the 
caldron,  with  the  addition  of  three  rings  at  the 
top  to  serve  as  handles.  Of  this  description 
seems  to  have  been  the  tripod  at  Delphi,  from 
■which  the  Pythian  priestess  delivered  her  oracles. 
Tripods  of  a  similar  form  were  given  as  prizes  at 
the  Pythian  games;  and  at  Athens,  a  tripod  was 
considered  an  appropriate  reward  for  a  successful 
choragus.  Some  beautiful  tripods  were  found  at 
Pompeii;  and  there  are  several  very  interesting 
specimens  in  the  British  Museum. 

TRIPOLI,  a  mineral  substance  employed  in 
polishing  metals,  marble,  glass,  etc.,  so  named  be- 
cause it  was  originally  brought  from  Tripoli  in  Af- 
rica. It  is  a  siliceous  rock,  composed  of  very 
minute  particles,  somewhat  loosely  held  together, 
80  as  to  yield  readily  to  the  nail,  and  to  crumble 
down  in  water  like  rotten-stone. 

TRITON,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of  Poseidon 
and  Amphitrite,  who  dwells  with  his  parents  in  a 
golden  palace  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  He  usu- 
ally figures  as  an  attendant  on  his  father,  riding 
over  the  Mediterranean  on  a  horse  or  other  sea- 
mon.ster,  and  soothing  tlie  turbulent  waves  by 
blowing  his  shell-trumpet — his  "  wreathed  horn,'' 
as  Wordsworth  calls  it.  The  later  poets  speak  of 
Tritons,  in  the  plural,  as  a  race  of  subordinate  sea- 
deities,  who  were  frequently  represented  in  works 
of  art. 

TROMSOE,  a  small  island  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  Norway,  in  Finmark,  between  the  island 
Kvalij  and  the  mainland.  It  is  four  miles  long  and 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  broad.  On  the  eastern  side 
of  the  island  is  the  small  but  thriving  town  of  the 
same  name,  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  Russian  vessels 
from  Archangel  and  the  White  Sea  visit  this  town, 
and  bring  corn,  which  they  exchange  for  dried 
fish.    Population,  about  3.000. 

TRON,  or  Troke  Weight,  the  most  ancient 
system  of  weight  used  in  Scotland,  so  called  from 
trone,  a  species  of  heavy  beam  or  balance  set  up  in 
the  market-place,  and  employed  for  the  weighing 
of  heavy  wares.  The  weights  employed  in  the 
public  markets  formed  the  most  convenient  ref- 
erence, and  consequently  tron  weight  became  the 
standard.  The  tron  pound  contained  twenty 
ounces,  but  from  the  custom  of  giving  "  one  in  '" 
to  the  score,  was  always  reckoned  at  twenty-one 
ounces;  this  was  the  most  general  value ;  but  it 
varied  in  the  different  market-towns  between 
this  and  twenty-eight  ounces.  The  later  tron 
■  stone  or  standard  weight  contains  sixteen  tron 
pounds,  each  pound  sixteen  tron  ounces,  and 
each  tron  ounce  sixteen  drops;  the  tron  pound 
is  estimated  to  be  equivalent  to  1.3747  pounds 
avoirdupois. 


TROOP,  in  cavalry,  the  unit  of  formation,  form- 
ing the  command  of  a  captain,  consisting  usually 
of  sixty  troopers,  and  corresponding  to  a  com- 
pany of  infantry.  The  officers  of  a  troop  are  the 
captain,  lieutenant  and  cornet.  Two  troops  form 
a  squadron. 

TROPE  (Gr.  tropos,  a"  change, "a  "  turning  "), 
the  name  of  a  figure  of  speech  which  does  not 
appear  to  differ  from  metaphor. 

TROPHY,  a  memorial  of  victory  erected  on  the 
spot  where  the  enemy  had  turned  to  flight. 
Among  the  Greeks  (with  the  exception  of  the 
M.acedoniaus,  who  erected  no  trophies),  one  or 
two  shields  and  helmets  of  the  routed  enemy, 
placed  upon  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  served  as  the 
sign  and  memorial  of  victory.  After  a  sea-fight, 
the  trophy  consisted  of  the  beaks  and  stern-orna- 
ments of  the  captured  vessels,  set  up  on  the  near- 
est coast.  In  early  times  the  Romans  never 
!  erected  trophies  on  the  field,  but  decorated  the 
buildings  at  Rome  with  the  spoils  of  the  van- 
quished. Of  this  practice  we  have  a  fiimiliar 
instance  in  the  rostra  or  beaks  set  up  in  the 
forum.  In  later  times  pillars  and  triumphal  arches 
were  employed  to  commemorate  victories.  Be- 
sides these,  in  modern  times,  the  humiliation  of 
an  enemy  is  rendered  la.sting  by  such  devices  as 
the  bridge  of  Jena,  of  Waterloo,  and  by  the  dis- 
tribution of  captured  cannon. 

TROUT,  the  popular  name  of  many  species  of 
the  geims  Salmo.  as  characterized  by  Cuvier.  The 
name  is  given  to  some  of  the  silvery  species  mi- 
grating to  the  sea,  and  to  all  the  yellow  species, 
which  constantly  inhabit  fresh  waters.  Trouts 
are  found  in  almost  all  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  the 
temperate  and  colder  parts  of  the  Northern  hemis- 
phere. The  Common  Trout  {Salmo  fario  or  Salar 
Ausonii)  is  widely  diffused  in  the  Eastern  hemis- 
phere. It  is  found  even  in  very  small  streams, 
and  almost  to  their  mountain  sources,  but  attain.s 
its  largest  size  where  there  is  considerable  depth 
of  water  and  abundance  of  food.  The  head  of  the 
Common  Trout  is  large;  the  eye  large;  the  gen- 
eral form  symmetrical,  stouter  than  that  of  the 
salmon,  the  convexity  of  the  outline  of  the  back 
nearly  similar  to  that  of  the  belly;  the  tail  is 
slightly  forked;  the  teeth  numerous  and  curved. 
The  color  is  yellow,  but  the  tint  varies  much  in  the 
trout  of  different  waters,  sometimes  passing  into 
greenish-black  or  violet.  On  the  back  and  upper 
part  of  the  sides  there  are  spots  of  black  and  red; 
the  belly  is  .silvery  white.  The  fins  are  light- 
brown;  the  dorsal  fin  and  tail  with  nimierous 
darker  brown  spots.  America  has  numerous  spe- 
cies. One  of  them,  the  Common  Brook  Trout  or 
Speckled  Trout  (Salmo  fontinalis),  is  .similar  to  the 
Common  Trout.  It  abounds  in  the  streams  of 
Canada,  and  in  the  northern  and  middle  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  North  American  Lake 
Trout  (Salmo  confinis)  inhabits  the  deepest  waters 
of  the  great  lakes,  and  sometimes  nttainsa  weight 
of  more  than  sixty  pounds.  It  is  dark-colored, 
mottled  with  grayish  spots.  The  finest  species  in 
quality,  as  well  as  largest  in  size,  is  the  IMackinaw 
Trout,  or  Xamaycush  (Salmo  amethi/stus,  or  na- 
maycnsh).  It  is  found  in  Lake  Huron,  Lake  Supe- 
rior and  the  more  northern  lakes.  The  Red-bellied 
Trout  (Salmo.  or  Fario  eriithrogaster)  of  the  lakes 
of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  sometimes  two 
and  one-half  feet  in  length,  is  deep  greenish  on  the 


1510 


T  R  0  U  V  E  R  E  —  T  E  U  C  K    FARMING. 


back,  lighter  on  the  sides,  which  are  spotted  with 
red,  the  belly  orange-red. 

TROr  VERE,  the  name  given  in  Xorthern  France 
to  the  same  kind  of  courtly  or  polished  poet  who, 
in  Southern  France  was  called  a  Troubadour. 

TROT,  a  citv  of  Xew  York.  Population  in  1890, 
60,956.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  .590. 

TROY,  a  town,  the  county-seat  of  Miami 
county,  Ohio,  on  Great  Miami  River  and  Miami 
Canal.  It  has  abundant  water-power,  flour-mills, 
wagon-factories,  and  an  extensive  trade.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,  4,.590. 

TRUCKEE,  a  village  in  Xevada  county,  Cal.. 
near  the  crest  of  the  Sierra,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  6,000  feet.  It  has  extensive  .saw-mills  and 
lumber  manufactories,  run  by  the  water-power  of 
the  Truckee  River.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Donner 
Lake  and  Lake  Tahoe.  In  winter  snow  falls  to  a 
great  depth. 

TRUCK  FARMIXG  IX  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  The  United  States  census  .statistics 
taken  in  1890,  showed  that  over  $100,000,000  was 
invested  in  truck  farming,  and  that  after  paying 
all  freights  and  commis.sions,  trucking  received 
about  $75,000,000  for  the  produce  of  1889.  The 
total  cost  of  labor,  manures,  seeds,  etc.,  amounted 
to  about  $24,000,000,  leaving  about  $52,000,000  as 
net  profit.  The  acreage  covered  by  the  truck 
crops  aggregated  535.000  acres.  Over  200,000  men, 
about  10,000  women  and  15,000  children  were  em- 
ployed, receiving  for  their  labor  nearly  $10,000,000. 
Seventy -six  thousand  horses  and  mules,  and  $9,- 
000,000  worth  of  machines  and  other  implements 
were  required. 

Truck  farming  is  not  market  gardening  as  this 
special  business  is  carried  on,  but  it  is  ordinary 
farming  devoted  to  the  heavier  class  of  products 
upon  a  much  less  exteu.sive  system  than  the  truly 
garden  culture  of  the  grower  of  vegetables  and 
fruits,  who  is  especially  a  market  gardener.  Truck 
farming  is  market  farming  as  distinguished  from 
the  higher  culture  of  the  gardener  who  con- 
fines him.self  to  a  few  acres  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  or  within  the  actual  bounds  of  a  large 
town  or  a  city.  The  market  gardener  works  on  land 
which  costs  $2,000  or  .$3,000  an  acre,  or  for  which 
he  pays  as  annual  rent  a  sum  equal  to  the  whole 
value  of  an  acre  of  a  suburban  farm.  The  market 
farmer  works  on  a  farm  and  devotes  only  a  part  of 
his  time  and  labor  to  the  truck  which  he  grows. 
He  is  usually  a  dairyman  or  a  fruit  grower,  and  de- 
votes less  or  more  of  his  available  land  to  the 
heavier  class  of  vegetables  which  can  be  grown  in 
fields.  The  following  list  of  products  will  give  an 
idea  of  his  crops  : 

Acres. 

Aspai-agus .37,970 

Beans 12.707 

Cab  bagp 77,094 

Kale 2,962 

Spinach 20,195 

lri.sh  potatoes 28.046 

Beets 2.420 

Celery 15.381 

Cacumbers  4,721 

Watermelons lU-ISl 

Other  melons 28.477 

Peas 56, 162 

Sweet  potatoes 28.621 

Tomat«fs 12.802 

Miscellaneous  vegetables .S2.601 

Total A...., 534.540 


Truck  fanning  is  carried  on  in  the  vicinity  of 
every  city,  town  and  village  of  the  whole  United 
States.  In  some  states,  as  in  Florida,  New  Jersey, 
the  eastern  part  of  Pennsylvania,  Illinois  for  the 
whole  length  of  the  state,  in  Maryland,  North 
Carolina,  and  in  Xew  York,  especially  in  Long 
Island,  in  Michigan  and  even  in  Kansas,  whence 
celery  is  now  shipped  to  Xew  York  City,  this 
industry  covers  ceitainly  a  million  acres  of  land. 
Sweet  corn  alone  occupies  around  the  city  of  Xew 
York  at  least  10.000  acres  of  land,  and  one  smaU 
town  near  that  city  alone  has  sent  out  every  even- 
ing for  years  past  no  less  than  150  wagons  loaded 
with  this  kind  of  truck  in  the  height  of  the  season. 
The  list  of  the  districts  in  which  this  business  is 
carried  on  is  thus  given,  with  the  annual  value  of 
the  produce: 


l>l;^TKM■TS. 

Acres. 

Value  of 
Products. 

Xew  England           ... 

6.838 

108.135 

25.714 

45.375 

37.181 

lli;441 

36,180 

36,889 

107,414 

1.083 

3.&33 

$  3,184,218 

21,102..521 

2  413  648 

Norfolk 

4  (i9''  859 

Baltimore 

3  7H4  6% 

13,183.516 

Mississippi  T:il]pv 

4,982,567 
4,979,783 
15,432,223 

204,791 

Mountain 

5.^r97B 

Pacific  Coast 

14  .■!57  I      2  024  345 

Total 

534450  $76,517,143 

Every  village  of  two  hundred  or  three  hundred 
people  offers  a  market  for  farm  products  of  this 
kind  and  small  fruits.  In  most  of  these  small 
communities  it  is  supposed  that  the  villagers  grow 
their  own  supplies  in  their  own  gardens.  Ex- 
perience in  this  direction  has  shown  that  this  is 
far  from  being  the  exact  case,  and  that  on  the 
contrary  the  village  gardens  are  rarely  productive 
enough  to  satisfy  their  owners ;  that  the  crops 
grown  are  late,  and  not  of  tine  quality,  and  that  if 
vegetables  and  fruits  fresh  from  the  farms  are 
oflered  they  will  be  eagerly  taken.  A  case  in  point 
may  be  referred  to.  A  farmer,  whose  land  adjoined 
a  village  of  about  500  people,  had  a  surplus  of 
strawberries  in  his  garden  which  he  wished  to 
dispose  of.  He  picked  a  dozen  quarts  and  sent  a 
boy  into  the  village  to  sell  them.  In  an  hour  the 
boy  had  returned,  and  wanted  more.  That  day 
more  than  100  quarts  were  sold.  Some  of  the 
purchasers  wanted  cream,  and  the  demand  for 
this  was  supplied  at  a  price  equal  to  twice  the 
value  of  the  butter.  The  result  was  that  a  market 
was  found  for  asparagus,  early  cabbages,  cauli- 
flowers (not  one  of  which  was  gi-own  in  the  village), 
tomatoes,  and  other  truck,  and  gradually  the 
farmer  was  obliged  to  put  several  acres  of  his  land 
in  these  crops  to  meet  the  demands  of  this  little 
village.  The  income  from  this  source  l)ecarae 
larger  than  that  from  the  rest  of  the  farm,  which 
had  been  previously  wholly  devoted  to  the  dairy. 

But  it  is  not  only  the  residents  of  villages  who 
will  purchase  truck  of  this  kind.  A  milk  dairy- 
man may  sell  to  farmers  along  his  route  many 
products  which  they  do  not  grow.  Celery,  aspara- 
gus, cauliflowers,  early  cabbages,  and  sweet  corn 
may  find  many  purchasers  among   dinners  who 


T  i;  r  L  L  A  X  — TRTSTS. 


1511 


think  tbese  trilies  are  beneath  their  notice,  and 
cjive  their  attention  to  the  Uirge  crops.  Some  of 
the  most  prosperous  fanners  belong  to  this  class  of 
truckers,  giving  their  sole  attention  to  potatoes, 
muskmelons,  tomatoes,  celery,  onions,  cabbages, 
etc..  and  thus  make  their  small  farms  turn  out 
from  $l!00  upward  per  acre,  and,  becomuig  known 
for  the  excellence  of  their  products,  their  honesty 
in  dealing,  and  the  certainty  of  supply,  make 
permanent  business  connections,  and  sell  their 
products  without  the  least  difficulty.  This  subject 
is  well  worth  the  attentive  study  of  farmers  who 
are  complaining  of  the  paucity  of  tlieir  profits. 

TRFLLAX,  "the  name  (derived  from  the  hall  — 
6r.  trouUos  —  of  the  palace  in  which  the  Fathers 
assembled)  given  to  the  council,  also  called  Qiiin- 
isext. 

TRUST  COMPANIES,  financial  corporations 
which  are  authorized  to  receive  money  on  deposit 
and  pay  interest  thereon,  and  also  to  receive  se- 
curities and  other  personal  property  from  indi- 
viduals or  corporations,  and  loan  money  on  real 
estate  and  collateral  or  personal  securities.  They 
may  also  act  as  the  fiscal  agents  of  states,  munici- 
palities or  corporations,  and  in  such  capacity 
receive  and  disburse  money,  and  transfer,  register, 
and  countersign  certificates  of  stocks,  bonds,  or 
other  evidence  of  indebtedness.  They  also  act  as 
trustees  under  mortgages  given  by  corporations, 
and  accept  and  execute  any  other  municipal  or 
corporate  trusts  not  inconsistent  with  law.  The 
charters  of  such  companies  are  obtained  through 
the  state  Legislature,  and  as  a  rule  contain  the 
broadest  of  powers.  But  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  since  1887,  they  are  organized  under  a 
general  law,  which,  however,  is  not  applicable  to 
companies  previou.sly  chartered  by  special  acts  of 
the  Legi-slature.  The  affairs  of  trust  companies 
are  managed  by  directors  or  trusstees,  elected 
annually  by  their  stockholders.  These  officials 
are  generally  forbidden  from  borrowing  the  moneys 
or  securities  of  the  corporation.  The  capital  of 
•  these  companies  varies  from  $100,000  to  $2,000,000, 
and  must  be  invested  in  bonds  and  mortgages, 
or  designated  public  securities. 

TRUSTS.  Organizations  for  the  control  of  sev- 
eral corporations  under  one  direction  by  the  device 
of  a  transfer  by  the  stockholders  in  each  corpora- 
tion of  at  least  a  majority  of  the  stock  to  a  central 
committee  or  board  of  trustees,  which  issues  in 
return  to  such  stockholders  respectively,  certificates 
showing  in  effect  that,  although  they  have  parted 
with  their  stock  and  the  consequent  voting  power, 
they  are  still  entitled  to  dividends  or  to  their  share 
in  the  profits — the  object  being  to  enable  the  trust- 
ees to  elect  directors  in  all  the  corporations,  to 
control  and  suspend  at  pleasure  the  work  of  any 
of  them,  and  thus  to  economize  expenses,  regulate 
production,  and  defeat  competition.  In  a  looser 
sense,  the  term  "  trust  "  is  applied  to  any  com- 
bination of  establishments  in  the  same  line  of 
business  for  securing  the  same  ends,  by  holding 
the  individual  interests  of  each  subservient  to  a 
common  authority  for  the  common  interests  of  all. 
It  is  against  public  pohcy  for  a  stockholder  to 
divest  himself  of  his  voting  power;  hence,  such  a 
transfer  of  stock,  if  made,  is  revocable  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  maker.  So  far  as  the  object  of  such  a 
combination  is  shown  to  be  the  control  of  prices  of, 
and  the  prevention  of  competition  in,  the  necessaries 


or  conveniences  of  life,  it  is  held  to  be  a  criminal 
act  upon  the  principles  which  rendered  engrossing 
and  forestalling  punishable;  and  a  corporation, 
which  by  corporate  act.  surrenders  its  powers  to 
the  control  of  a  trust,  thereby  att'ords  ground  for  a 
forfeiture  of  its  charter  by  the  state. 

Anti-Trust  Legislation  by  Congress.  The 
LI.  Congress  of  the  United  States  adopted  an 
important  Anti-Trust  Act,  as  follows: 

The  act  provides  that  every  contract,  combina- 
tion iu  the  form  of  trust  or  othervrise,  or  conspir- 
acy, in  restraint  of  trade  or  commerce  among  the 
several  states,  or  with  foreign  nations,  is  hereby 
declarea  to  be  illegal.  Every  person  who  .shall 
make  any  such  contract  or  engage  in  any  such 
combination  or  conspiracy  shall  be  deemed  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanor,  and,  on  conviction  thereof, 
shall  be  punished  by  fine  not  exceeding  five 
thousand  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  not  exceed- 
ing one  year,  or  by  both  said  punishments,  in  the 
discretion  of  the  court. 

See.  '2.  Every  persoa  who  shall  mouopolize.  oi  attempt  to 
monopolize,  or  combine  or  conspire  witli  any  other  person  or 
persons,  to  monopolize  any  part  of  the  trade  or  commerce 
among  the  several  states,  or  with  foreign  nations,  shall  be 
deemed  gnilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and,  on  conviction  thereof, 
shall  be  punished  bv  tine  not  exceeding  five  thousand  dollars, 
or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  year,  or  by  both  said 
punisliments,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

See.  3.  Every  contract,  combination  iu  form  of  trust  or 
otherwise,  or  conspiracy,  in  restraint  of  trade  or  commerce  in 
any  territory  of  the  United  States  or  of  the  District  of  Col- 
umbia, or  in  restraint  of  trade  or  commerce  between  any  such 
ten'itory  and  another,  or  between  any  such  territory  or  ter- 
ritories and  any  state  or  states  or  the  District  of  Columbia, 
or  with  foreign  nations,  or  between  the  District  of  Columbia 
and  any  state  or  states  or  foreign  nations,  is  hereby  declared 
illegal.  Every  person  who  shall  make  any  such  contract  or 
engage  in  any  such  combination  or  conspiracy,  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and,  on  conviction  thereof, 
shall  be  punished  by  fine  not  exceeding  five  thousand  dollars, 
or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  year,  or  by  both  said 
pum'shments,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

See,  4,  The  several  Circuit  Courts  of  the  United  States  are 
hereby  invested  with  jurisdiction  to  prevent  and  restrain  vio- 
lation's of  this  act:  and  it  shall  be  the  duties  of  the  several 
district  attorneys  of  the  United  States,  in  their  respective 
districts,  under  the  direction  of  the  attorney  general,  to  m- 
stitute  proceedings  in  equity  to  prevent  and  restrain  such 
violations.  Such  proceedings  may  be  by  way  of  petition 
setting  forth  the  case  and  praying  that  such  violation  shall  be 
enjoined  or  otherwise  prohibited.  When  the  parties  com- 
plaimed  of  shall  have  deen  didy  notified  of  such  petition,  the 
court  shall  proceed,  as  soon  as  may  be,  to  the  hearing  and 
determination  of  the  case:  and  pending  such  petition  and 
before  final  decree,  the  eourtmay  at  any  time  make  such  tem- 
porary restraining  order  or  prohibition  as  shall  be  deemed 
just  in  the  premises. 

Sec.  5,  Whenever  it  shall  appear  to  the  court  before  which 
any  proceeding  under  Section  4  of  this  act  may  be  pending, 
that  the  ends  of  justice  require  that  other  parties  should  be 
brought  before  the  court,  the  court  mav  cause  them  to  be 
summoned,  whether  they  reside  in  the  district  in  which  the 
court  is  held  or  not,  and  "subpcenas  to  that  cud  may  be  served 
in  any  district  by  the  marshal  thereof 

Sec,  0,  Any  property  owned  under  any  contract  or  by  any 
combination,  or  pursuant  to  any  conspiracy  land  being  the 
subject  thereof)  mentioned  in  Section  1  of  this  act,  and  being 
in  the  course  of  transportation  from  one  state  to  another,  or 
to  a  foreign  country,  shall  be  foiieited  to  the  United  States, 
and  may  be  seized  andcondemned  hy  like  proceedings  a.s  those 
provided  by  law  for  the  forfeiture,  seizure  and  condemnation 
of  property  imported  into  the  United  States  contrary  to  law. 

Sec,  7,  Any  person  who  shall  be  injured  in  his  business  or 
property  by  any  other  person  or  corporation  by  reason  of  any- 
thing forbidden  or  declared  to  be  unlawful  by  this  act  may  sue 
therefor  in  any  Circuit  Court  of  the  United  States  in  the  dis 
trict  in  which  the  defendant  resides  or  is  found,  without 
respect  to  the  amount  in  controversy,  and  shall  recover  throe- 
fold  the  damages  by  him  sustained,  and  the  costs  of  suit,  in- 
cluding a  reasonable  attorney's  fee. 

Sec.  8,  That  the  word   "person,"  or   "persons,''   wherever 


1512 


TKYSAIL  —  TUPPER 


nsed  in  this  act  shall  be  deemed  to  include  coi-porations  and 
associations  existing  under  or  authorized  by  the  laws  of  either 
the  United  States,  the  laws  of  any  of  the  territories,  the  laws 
of  any  state,  or  the  laws  of  any  foreign  country. 

The  above  bill,  when  reported  by  a  committee 
of  conference,  passed  both  houses  without  a 
division. 

TKVSAIL.  a  small  fore-and-aft  sail,  mounted  by 
a  cutter  or  schooner  in  a  srorm,  when  the  wind  is 
too  violent  for  her  to  carry  her  ordinary  canvas. 

TUBICOL^E,  an  order  of  Annelida,  having  a 
tubular  shelly  coverins;.  into  \\  hich  the  animal  can 
retreat,  but  from  which,  when  undisturbed  and 
dispo.sed  to  activity,  it  projects  its  head  and  gill- 
luft.^.     The  genus  Serpula  is  a  good  example. 

TCCKER,  Henet  St.  George,  member  of 
tJongress,  born  in  Virginia  in  1853.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  Washington  and  Lee  Univensity,  grad- 
uating in  1875;  has  practiced  law  continuously 
since;  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1889,  and  re- 
elected in  1891. 

TUCSON,  a  citv  of  Arizona.  Population  in 
1890,  5,095.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  G04. 

TCDOR  STYLE,  in  architecture,  a  rather  in- 
definite term  applied  to  the  late  Perpendicidar, 
and  the  transition  from  that  to  the  Elizabethan. 

TUESDAY,  the  third  day  of  the  week,  so  called 
from  Thvesd(f'(j,  the  ilay  of  Tiw  or  Tin,  the  old 
Saxon  name  for  the  god  of  war.  The  day  bears  a 
corresponding  name    in  the  other  Germanic  di- 

TUFTS  COLLEGE.  See  Colleges  axd  Uni- 
versities IN  United  States  in  these  Revisions 
and  Additions. 

TULIP  TREE,  often  called  Tulip  Poplar, 
(Liriodendron  tuUpifirn),  a  beautiful  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Magnolmceff,  a  native  of  the  United 
States,  having  a  stem  sometimes  100  to  140  feet 
high,  and  3  feet  thick,  with  a  grayish-brown 
cracked  bark,  and  many  gnarled  branches.  The 
leaves  are  ovate,  and  three-lobed;  the  flowers  sol- 
itary at  the  extremities  of  the  branchlets.  The 
bark  has  a  bitter,  aromatic  taste,  and  in  some  parts 
of  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi  it  forms  considerable 
tracts  of  the  forest. 

TUNBRIDGE-WARE,  a  pretty  kind  of  manu- 
facture in  wood,  carried  on  at  Tuubridge  Wells. 
It  consists  of  small  articles,  such  as  ladies'  work- 
boxes,  etc.,  which  are  covered  with  a  veneer  char- 
acteristic of  this  industry;  it  is  formed  by  building 
up  a  geometric  pattern  with  very  small  strips  of 
wood  of  a  triangular  or  square  shape  in  transverse 
sections;  these  are  carefully  glued  together  so  as 
to  form  a  solid  mass,  from  which  thin  transverse 
veneers  are  cut,  and  are  used  to  cover  the  articles 
made.  This  trade  was  formerly  of  much  greater 
importance  than  at  present. 

TUNIS,  a  country  of  northern  Africa.  For  gen- 
eral article  on  Tunis  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII, 
pp.  019-623.  Tunis  was  acquired  by  France  in 
1881.  It  has  an  estimated  area  of  45,000  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  about  1 ,500,000. 

TUNNELS  IN  AMERICA.  Among  the  prom- 
inent tunnels  in  this  country  we  mention  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  The  HoosAC  Tunnel,  on  the  railway  from 
Boston,  Mass.,  to  Troy,  N.  Y.,  is  four  and  three- 
fourths  miles  long,  reaching  through  the  Hoosac 
Mountain,  which  is  a  part  of  the  Green  Mountain 
Range.    It  was  begun  in  1862  and  finished  in  1880. 


This  timnel  cost  the  state  of  Massachusetts  about 
eighteen  millions  of  dollars:  but  the  state  sold  it 
in  1887,  together  with  forty-four  miles  of  railroad, 
to  the  Fitchburg  Railroad  Company  for  five  mill- 
ions of  dollars  in  bonds  and  five  millions  of  dollars 
in  stock. 

2.  A  Tunnel  through  the  Cascade  Range, 
in  the  state  of  Washington,  9,850  feet  long,  was 
built  from  1886  to  18S8,  for  a  single  ti-ack  railroad. 

3.  The  Big  Bend  Tunnel  of  Butte  county,  Cal., 
Is  two  miles  long,  and  was  built  from  1882  to  1887, 
in  order  to  reach  some  auriferous  regions  in  the 
valley  of  the  Feather  River.  It  diverts  the  water 
of  this  river  from  its  present  channel  and  carries 
it  through  a  mountain. 

4.  The  Chicago  Tunnel,  built  from  1864  to  1876, 
runs  from  the  foot  of  a  land-shaft  at  Chicago  two 
miles  undei'  Lake  Michigan  to  the  foot  of  a  shaft 
in  the  lake.  The  lake-shaft  is  protected  by  a 
pentagonal  crib  or  breakwater,  forty  feet  high. 
This  tunnel  supplies  the  city  of  Chicago  with 
water. 

5.  The  SuTRO  Tunnel,  built  from  1869  to  1879, 
runs  20.000  feet  into  the  mountain  in  which  the 
Comstock  mine  is  situated,  near  the  town  of 
Virginia  City,  Nev.  It  drains  and  ventilates  a 
number  of  important  mines. 

6.  A  Tunnel  at  Port  Huron,  Mich.,  some 
miles  above  Detroit,  under  the  St.  Clair  River,  is 
one  and  one-fourth  miles  in  length,  and  large 
enough  for  a  single  track  railroad. 

7.  A  Tunnel  under  the  Hudson  River,  con- 
necting New  York  City  with  New  Jersey,  is  in 
the  course  of  construction,  aud  approaches  com- 
pletion now  (October,  1891). 

TUPELO  (Nyssa),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Cornnce^,  natives  of  North  America, 
chiefly  of  the  middle  and  southern  parts  of  the 
United  States;  having  simple  alternate  leaves, 
mostly  entire,  greenish  inconspicuous  flowers  at 
the  extremity  of  long  stalks,  the  fruit  a  drupe.  N. 
multiflora  attains  a  height  of  60  to  70  feet.  It  is 
often  called  Sour  Gum  Tree.  N.  tomentosa,  the 
Large  Tupelo  is  a  lofty  and  beautiful  tree,  remark- 
able for  the  extraordinary  enlargement  of  the  base 
of  the  trunk,  which  is  sometimes  8  or  9  feet  in  di- 
ameter, while  at  no  great  height  the  diameter 
diminishes  to  15  or  20  inches.  The  fruit  re.sem- 
bles  a  small  olive,  and  is  preserved  in  the  same 
way  by  the  French  settlers  in  America.  N.  candi- 
cans  or  capitata,  the  Ogechee  Lime  or  Sour  Gum 
Tree,  is  a  small  tree,  of  which  the  fruit  Is  very 
acid,  and  is  used  like  that  of  the  lime.  The  wood 
of  all  the  species  is  soft,  that  of  the  large  tupelo 
remarkably  so. 

TUPELO,  a  prosperous  and  growing  town  of 
Mississippi,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  on  the 
line  of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad. 

TUPPER,  Sir  Charles,  high  commissioner  for 
Canada  in  London,  born  at  Amherst,  Nova  Scotia, 
July,  1821.  He  was  educated  in  Edinburgh  for 
the  medical  profession,  and  was  the  first  president 
of  the  Canadian  Medical  Association.  He  entered 
politics,  and  became  prime  minister  of  his  native 
pro\incp  in  1864 ;  was  a  strong  advocate  of  confed- 
eration, and  wrote  a  "  Letter  to  the  Earl  of  Car- 
narvon on  the  Union  question,"  in  1866;  became 
cabinet  minieter  of  the  Dominion  in  18(0,  and 
held  oflice  with  Sir  John  Macdonald  till  1873;  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Conservative  opposition 


T  U  P  P  E  R  —  T  r  R  K  E  Y 


1518 


till  1878.  ■when  he  was  again  appointed  minister,  i 
As  minister  of  railways  he  took  the  chief  part  in  I 
advocating  throughout  Canada  the  construction 
of  the  Canadian  I'acitic  Railway,  and  took  charge 
of  the  measure  in   parliament.     He  received  his 
present  ap{)ointment  in  1SS4.    Accompanied  Mr.  I 
Chamberlain  to  Washington  as  Canadian  repre- 
sentative during  the  fishery  negotiation  in  18SS, 
and  for  his  services  was  created  a  baronet. 

TCPPER.  Martin  F..  an  English  author,  born 
in  ISIO.  died  in  1SS9.  His  principal  work  was 
Prorerbial  Philosophy. 

TURKEY.  Empire  of.  For  general  article  on 
Turkey  see  Britannica.  Yol.  XXIII.  pp.  64S-6.57. 
The  latest  estimated  area  and  population  of  Tur- 
key are  as  follows:  Area  (including  .states  nom- 
inallv  snl>iect),  1, 652.542 square  miles:  population. 
33,360,000.  viz.: 


Turker  in  Europe 
Turkey  in  Asia  . . 
Turkey  in  Africa* 

Bulgafiaf 

Bo^at 

Samos 

Egypt 

Total 


Square  MUe«.      Popolalion. 


63.850 

4.790.000 

729.170 

16.133.900 

:»8.873 

1.000.000 

37.860 

3,1.54.375 

•23.570 

1.5O4.091 

210 

41.156 

400.000 

6.817.265 

1,653.533      83,440,787 


I 


The  estimated  populations  of  the  other  largest 
towns  are  as  follows:  Adrianople.  100,000 :  Salon- 
icu,  60.000 .  Monastir,  4.5.000 ;  Scutari,  30,000 
Janina.  20,000:  Smvma.  200.000:  Damascus 
200,000:  Bagdad.  iSO.OOO:  Aleppo.  120,000 
Erzeroum,  60.000:  Kaisarieh,  60,000:  Mosul 
45,000;  Sana.  .50.000:  Sivas,  48,000:  Mecca 
45.000;  Trebizond,  45,000;  Adana,  45.000 
Diarbekir.  40,000:  Broussa,  35,700;  Angora 
30.000;  Yan,  30,000:  Jedda,  30.000;  Jerusalem 
28.000;  Konieh.  25.000:  Chios,  25,000;  Bitlis 
25,000;  Canea.  1.5,000:  Tripoli,  30,000. 

Ethnological  Statistics.  In  the  European 
provinces  under  immediate  Turkish  rule.  Turks 
(of  Finno-Tataric  race),  Greeks  and  Albanians 
are  almost  equally  numerous,  and  constitute  70  per 
cent,  of  the  population.  Other  races  represented 
are  Serbs,  Bulgarians,  Roumanians,  Armenians, 
Magyars.  Gypsies,  Jews.  Circassians.  In  Asiatic 
Turkey  there  is  a  large  Turkish  element,  with 
some  four  million  Arabs,  besides  Greeks,  Syrians, 
Kurds,  Circassians,  Armenians,  Jews  and  numerous 
other  races.  The  following  are  the  returns  for 
Constantinople,  arranged  in  order  of  religious  be- 
Uefs,  viz.: 

Mussulmans,  384,910:  Greeks,  152,741;  Armen- 
ians, 149,.590:  Bulgarians,  4.377.  Roman  Catholics 
(native).  6,442:  Greek  Latins,  1,082:  Protestants 
(native),  819;  Jews,  44.361;  Foreigners,  129,243. 
Total.  873..565.  - 

CoNSTiTCTiox  AXD  GovERXiTENT.  The  legis- 
lative and  executive  authority  is,  under  the  su- 
preme authority  of  the  Sidtan,  exercised  by  two 
high  dignitaries,  the  "  Sadr-azm, "  or  Grand 
Vizier,  the  head  of  the  temporal  government,  and 
the  "  Sheik-ul-Islam. "  the  head  of  the  church. 

*  Tripoli. 

t  Including  Eastern  Eonmelia. 

X  Including  Herzegovina  and  JTovibazar.  a  tributair  prin- 
cipality. 


Both  are  appointed  "by  the  Sultan,  the  latter  with 
the  nominal  concurrence  of  the  "  Ulema,"  a  body 
comprising  the  clergy  and  chief  functionaries  of 
the  law,  over  which  the  "  Sheik-ul-Islam"  pre- 
sides, although  he  himself  does  not  exercise 
priestly  functions.  Connected  with  the  •'  Ulema" 
are  the  ■' Mufti."  the  interpreters  of  the  Koran. 
The  Ulema  comprise  all  the  great  judges,  theo- 
logians and  jurists,  and  the  great  teachers  of 
literature  and  science  who  may  be  summoned  by 
the  Mufti.  The  principal  civic  functionaries  bear 
the  titles  of  Efleudi,  Bey  or  Pasha. 

Forms  of  constitution,  after  the  model  of  the 
West  European  States,  were  drawn  up  at  various 
periods  by  successive  Ottoman  governments,  the 
lirst  of  them  embodied  in  the  "  Hatti-Humayouu  " 
of  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid,  proclaimed  Feb.  IS',  1856, 
and  the  most  recent  in  a  decree  of  Sultan  Abdul- 
Hamid  II.,  of  November,  1876.  But  the  carrying 
out  of  these  projects  of  reform  appears  entirely 
impossible  in  the  present  condition  of  the  Ottoman 
empire. 

The  Grand  Yizier,  as  head  of  the  government 
and  representative  of  the  .sovereign,  is  president 
of  the  Medjliss-i-Hass,  or  Privy  Council,  which 
corresponds  to  the  British  Cabinet.  The  Medjliss- 
i-Hass  consists  of  the  following  members,  besides 
the  Prime  Minister,  namely:  1.  The  Sheik-ul- 
Islam;  2.  The  Minister  of  the  Interior;  3.  The 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affiiirs;  4.  The  Minister  of 
War;  5.  The  Minister  of  Finance;  6.  The  Minister 
of  Marine;  7.  The  Minister  of  Commerce:  8.  The 
Minister  of  Public  Works:  9.  The  Minister  of  Jus 
tice:  10.  The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction;  11. 
The  Minister  of  Evkaf  {fondations  piemes):  12. 
The  President  of  the  Council  of  State;  13.  The 
Grand  Master  of  Artillery. 

The  whole  of  the  empire  is  divided  into  vilayets, 
or  governments,  and  subdivided  into  sanjaks,  or 
provinces,  and  kazas,  or  districts.  A  vali,  or 
governor-general,  who  is  held  to  represent  the 
sultan,  and  is  assisted  by  a  provincial  council,  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  each  vilayet.  The  provinces 
and  districts  are  subjected  to  inferior  authorities, 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  principal  gov- 
ernor. The  division  of  the  country  into  vilayets 
has  been  frequently  modified  of  late  for  political 
reasons.  All  .subjects,  however  humble  their 
origin,  are  eligible  to,  and  may  fill,  the  highest 
offices  in  the  state. 

Under  the  capitulations,  foreigners  residing  in 
Turkey  are  under  the  laws  of  their  respective 
countries,  and  are  amenable  for  trial  (in  cases  in 
which  Turkish  subjects  are  not  concerned),  to  a 
tribunal  presided  over  by  their  consul.  Foreigners 
who  own  real  property,  are  amenable  to  the  Otto- 
man civil  courts  in  questions  relative  to  their 
landed  property. 

Present  Reigntxg  Sultan  and  Family. 
Abdul-Hamid  II.,  born  Sept.  22,  1S42,  the  second 
son  of  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  the  deposition  of  elder  brother. 
Sultan  Mnrad  Y,  Aug.  31,  1876. 

Children  of  the  Sultan.— -J.  Mehemmed-SeUm 
EflFendi,  bom  Jan.  11,  1S70.  II.  Zekie  Sultana, 
born  Jan.  12,  1871.  III.  Xaime  Sultana,  bom 
Aug.  5.  1876.  IV.  Abdnl-Kadir  Effendi,  bora 
Feb.  23, 1878.  Y.  Ahmed  Efleudi.  born  March  14, 
1878.  YI.  Xaile  Sultana,  born  1883.  YII. 
^lehemmed  Burhaneddin  Eflendi,  bom  1885. 


1514 


'1-  r  R  K  K  V  . 


Brothers  ami  Sisters  of  the  Sultan. — I.  Mi  ihiimnied 
Murad  Effendi,  burn  Sept.  "21,  1840:  proclaimed 
Sultan  of  Turkey  on  the  deposition  of  his  uucle, 
Sultan  Abdul-Aziz,  May  30,  1876;  declared  by 
the  council  of  ministers  to  be  suffering  from 
idiocy,  and  deposed  from  the  throne  Aug.  31. 
1876.  II.  Djemilii  Sultana,  born  Aug.  18,  ISl.J: 
married,  June  3,  18.58,  to  Mahmoud-Djelal-Eddin 
Pasha,  son  of  Ahmet  Feti  Pasha.  III.  Mehem- 
med-ReshadEflendi.  born  Nov.  3,  1814:  lieir-appa- 
rent  to  the  throne.  1 V.  Medihie  Sultana,  born  Nov. 
21,  1851 ;  married  to  the  late  Mabmud  Pasha,  sou 
ofHalilPasha.  V.  Suleiman  Effendi. born  Nov.  21, 
1860.  TI.  Fehime  Sultana,  born  Jan.  26,  1861. 
VII.    Wahieddin  Effendi.  born  Jan.  12.  1862. 

The  present  sovereign  of  Turkey  is  the  thirty- 
fourth,  ia  male  descent,  of  the  house  of  Othmau, 
the  founder  of  the  empire,  and  the  twenty-eighth 
sultan  since  the  conquest  of  Constantinople.  By 
the  law  of  succession  obeyed  in  the  reigning  family, 
the  crown  is  inherited  according  to  seniority  tjy 
tlie  male  descendants  of  Othman,  sprung  from  the 
Imperial  Harem.  The  harem  is  considered  a 
permanent  state  institution.  All  children  bt)rn  in 
the  harem,  whetlier  offspring  of  free  women  or  of 
slaves,  are  legitimate  a"nd  of  equal  lineage.  The 
sultan  is  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  but  only  in 
case  there  are  no  uncleS  or  cousins  of  greater  age. 

It  has  not  been  the  custom  of  the  sultans  of 
Turkey  for  some  centuries  to  contract  regular  mar- 
riages. The  inmates  of  the  harem  come,  by  pur- 
chase or  free  will,  mostly  from  districts  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  empire,  the  majority  from  Cir- 
cassia.  From  among  these  inmates  the  sultan 
designates  a  certain  number,  generally  seven,  to 
be  "Kadyn."  or  ladies  of  the  palace,  the  rest, 
called  ''Odalik,"  remahiing  under  them  as  serv- 
ants. The  superintendent  of  the  harem,  always 
an  aged  lady  of  the  palace,  and  bearing  the  title 
of  "  Haznadar-Kadyn,"  has  to  keep  up  inter- 
course with  the  outer  world  through  the  guard  of 
eunuchs,  whose  chief,  called  •' Kyzlar- Agassi," 
has  the  same  rank  as  the  grand  vizier,  but  has 
the  precedence  if  present  on  state  occasions. 

The  civillist  of  the  Sultan  is  variously  reported  at 
from  one,  to  two  millions  sterling.  To  thf  impe- 
rial family  belong  a  great  number  of  crown  do- 
mains, the  income  from  which  contributes  to  the 
revenue.  The  tinances  of  the  ciril  list  have  of  late 
been  put  into  order,  but  are  still  reported  to  beiu- 
Ruflicient  to  cover  the  expenditure  of  the  court 
and  harem,  numbering  altogether  over  five 
thousand  individuals.  The  amount  charged  to 
the  budget  of  1880  was  P.  62,747,116  for  the  palace, 
and  P.  23,750,212  for  the  crown  princes.  Total, 
about  £785,000,  or  $3,925,000. 

REVEXUES,   EXPESDIXrEE.S   AND   NATIOXAL 

Debt.  The  revenue  for  1889  was  estimated  at 
$92,500,000;  expenditures,  $107,000,000.  The  total 
national  cousolitated  debt  in  1888  was  $450,- 
543,900,  drawing  about  4  per  cent,  interest. 

Army  and  Navy.  The  standing  army  in  1891 
was  composed  of  264  battalions  of  infantry,  189 
squadrons  of  cavalry,  104  batteries  field  artillery, 
36  batteries  mountain  and  29  battalions  garrison 
artillery,  4  battalions  infantry  t-^aiu,  14  Itattalions 
of  artificers,  3  battalions  fire  brigade,  22  compa- 
nies of  engineers,  2  sanitary  companies,  and  1 
telegraph  company,  with  a  total  numerical  force 
of  9,810  ofiBcers  and  149,000  men 


According  to  the  existing  system,  the  army  con- 
sists of  the  nizam  or  regular  army,  two  bans  of 
redif  or  landwehr,  and  the  raustahflz  or  land- 
.sturm.  Non-Mahommedans  are  not  liable  to 
military  .service,  but  have  to  pay  an  exemption 
tax,al>out  six  shillings  per  head  per  annum,  levied 
alike  on  males  of  all  ages.  Military  service  is 
compulsory  on  all  able-bodied  Mahnmmedans  who 
have  reached  the  age  of  twenty.  By  the  recruit- 
ing law  of  1887  military  service  is  rendered 
oliligatory  for  all  the  Mussulman  population  of  the 
empire,  excepting  only  Constantinople  and  its 
suburbs,  which  still  retains  its  privilege  of  exemp- 
tion from  military  service. 

The  conscripts  are  divided  into  two  classes; 

1.  Those  who  can  claim  no  reason  for  exemption. 

2.  Those  who  are  infirm,  sole  supports  of  fam- 
ilies, or  who  are  exempt  for  various  special  reasons. 

The  first  class  is  again  divided  into  two  classes, 
called  fir.st  and  second  levies  (tertib). 

As  many  men  as  are  required  to  fill  the  ranks  of 
the  standing  army  are  taken  for  the  first  levy,  and 
go  through  twenty  years'  service,  six  with  the 
nizam  and  first  reserve  (Ikhtiyats),  eight  years  in 
the  redif.  and  six  in  the  mnstahfiz  or  landsturm. 

The  men  of  the  second  levy  have  to  undergo  .six 
to  nine  months'  drill  with  a  nizam  battalion  in  the 
first  year  of  their  service,  and  thirty  days'  drill  at 
their  homes  in  every  subsequent  year.  They  are 
al.so  lialile  on  emergency  to  be  called  to  join  the 
nizam.  Thus  all  the  able-bodied  Mahommedan 
population  will  receive  a  fair  amount  of  military 
training,  and  it  is  expected  that  when  the  system 
is  in  working  order,  the  Ottoman  government  will 
be  able  to  put  at  least  800,000  tr;iined  men  into 
the  field. 

The  navy  on  Jan.  1,  1891.  consisted  of  fifteen 
large  armor-clad  ships,  a  river  monitor,  two  river 
gim-boats,  twenty-seven  sea-going  torpedo  boats, 
two  submarine  boats,  one  torpedo  school-ship,  two 
frigates,  one  spardecked  corvette,  eleven  dispatch 
vessels  and  yachts,  and  six  dispatch  boats. 

The  largest  armor-clad  ships  of  the  Turki.sh 
navy  are  the  two  frigates,  the  Mesoudiye  and  the 
Hamidieh.  These  two  frigates  were  built  on  some- 
what similar  designs,  but  the  Hamidieh  is  the 
smaller.  The  Mesoudiye  is  332  feet  long,  with 
extreme  breadth  of  59  feet.  She  is  constructed  on 
the  central  battery  principle,  and  has  on  the  main 
deck  a  12-gun  battery,  148  feet  long,  the  armor- 
plates  of  which  are  12  inches  thick  at,  and  10 
inches  thick  above,  the  water-line.  The  bow  also 
is  strongl)  fortified,  and  fitted  with  a  ram  of  great 
strength,  adapted  to  pierce  an  opponent  below  the 
armor  in  the  most  vulnerable  part.  Forward, 
under  the  forecastle,  were  two  6i-ton  guns,  firing 
ahead,  and  under  the  poop  aft  was  one  gun  of  the 
same  caliber,  but  these  have  been  removed  for 
smaller  Krupp  guns. 

For  the  ruivy  of  'I'urkey  the  crews  are  raised  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  land  forces,  partly  by 
conscription,  and  partly  by  voluntary  enlistment. 
The  time  of  service  in  the  navy  is  twelve  years, 
five  in  active  service,  three  in  the  reserve,  and  four 
in  the  redif.  The  nominal  strength  of  the  navy 
is  6  vice-admirals,  11  rear-admirals,  208  captains, 
289  vice-captains,  228  lieutenants,  187  ensigns,  and 
30.000  sailors,  besides  9,460  marines.  The  budget 
of  1880  estimates  the  expenses  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  navy  ;ir  $81,154,650  piastres.  ' 


T  U  R  K  M  A  N  8  H  A  I  —  T  U  S  C  A  II  0  K  A  S 


1515 


Custom  Duties.  All  articles  of  import  into  Tur- 
key are  taxed  S  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  except  to- 
bacco and  salt,  which  are  monopolies:  there  is  also 
au  export  duty  of  1  per  cent,  on  nativt'  produce  if 
sent  abroad,  but  of  S  per  cent,  if  sent  from  one  part 
of  the  empire  to  another. 

Turkey  negotiated  in  1S90  a  new  treaty  of  com- 
merce with  til  eat  Britain  and  some  of  the  other  pow- 
ers, and  it  proposed  removing  the  export  custom  ] 
dutyof  Iperceut.,  and  building  bonded  warehouses  ; 
in  some  of  the  principal  seaport  towns  of  theem{)ire. 

Articles  destined  for  schools,  churches,  em- 
bassies, consulates,  as  well  as  agricultural  machines 
iind  the  plant  for  raihvavs  are  free  of  dutv.  | 

The  imports  in   18S9  aggregated  !i!87,55-4,940;  j 
the  exports,  $61,539,595.     The  balance  of  trade, 
therefore,  was  against  Turkev  to  the  amount   of 
^"26,015,345. 

Commerce    and    Shippixg.    The    mercantile  | 
navy  of  the  Turkish  empire,  according  to  Lloyd's 
Kegister,  in  1890  consisted  of  94  steamers  (each  of 
100  tons  or  upward)  of  71,607  gross  tons,  and  813 
sailing  vessels  of  158,170  tons. 

In  1888-89  (March  to  February)  the  Ottoman 
ports  of  the  ilediterrancan  and  Black  Sea  were 
visited  bv  177,150  vessels  of  31,319,3.54  tons,  those 
of  the  Red  Sea  by  3,612  vessels  of  435,309  tons, 
and  those  of  the  Persian  Gulf  by  1,201  vessels  of 
179.007  tons.  Constantinople  alone  was  visited 
by  30,057  vessels  of  11,001.875  tons. 

In  1888-89  (March  1  to  February  28)  15.819 
vessflsof  10,400,363  tons  entered  the  Dardanelles; 
of  these  6,444  vessels  of  7,034,837  tons  were 
Briti.sh. 

In  1889,  5oi  vessels  of  272,019  tons  entered  the 
port  of  Tripoli. 

TURKMAXSHAI,  a  village  of  Azerbijau,  sixty- 
five  miles  southeast  of  Tabriz,  the  place  where,  on 
Feb.  22,  1828,  was  concluded  the  treaty  between 
Persia  and  Russia,  by  which  the  former  resigned  to 
the  latter  the  provinces  of  Erivan  and  Xakchevan. 

TURNAU,  a  walled  town  of  Bohemia,  circle  of 
Jung-Bunzlau,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Iser,  fifty 
miles  northeast  of  Prague.  It  has  a  church,  built 
in  1825,  which  is  reckoned  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful in  Bohemia.  Turnau  has  manufactories  of  cot- 
ton, woolens,  and  more  particularly  of  artificial 
gems,  which  are  exported  in  great  quantities  to 
the  United  States.  Population,  4,700.  Here  was 
fought  (July,  1866)  a  battle  between  the  Prussians 
and  Austrians,  in  which  the  former  were  vic- 
torious'. 

TURNER,  CHAELE.S  !!.,  member  of  Congress, 
born  in  Xi  w  Hampshire  in  1801.  He  removed  to 
New  York  in  1879;  was  employed  for  six  mouths 
on  the  elevated  railroad;  drove  an  ice-wagon  for 
two  years;  entered  the  class  of  1886  in  Columbia 
College,  and  pursued  a  course  of  two  years;  after 
leaving  college  re-engaged  in  the  ice  business,  and 
continued  therein  till  he  became  a  candidate  in 
1888  for  state  senator;  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1889  to  1891. 

TURNER,  Erastu.s  J.,  member  of  Congress, 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1846.  He  attended  college 
at  Henry,  Illinois,  from  1856  to  1860;  enlisted  in  a 
regiment  of  Iowa  infantry  in  1864,  and  remained 
till  the  close  of  the  war;  was  a  student  at  Adrian 
College,  Michigan,  from  1866  to  1868;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1871;  removed  to  Kansas  in 
1879;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislature  in 
4 


1881  and  re-elected  in  1883;  was  elected  secretary 
of  the  Kansas  Board  of  Railroad  Commissioner.? 
April  1,  1883,  which  position  he  resigned  August 
1,  1886,  to  accept  the  nomination  for  Congress; 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1887  to  1891. 

TURNER,  Henry  G.,  born  in  North  Carolina 
March  20.  1839.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1881,  and  has  been  continuously  re-elected;  his 
present  term  expires  in  1893. 

TURXEK,  Sharon,  the  Anglo-Saxon  historian, 
born  in  Loudon,  Sept.  24,  1768,  died  in  1847. 
After  years  of  hard  reading  and  patient  collection 
of  materials  he  published,  1799-1805,  a  History  of 
the  Anglo- S(txons,  in  three  xolumes,  a  work,  witii 
all  its  imperfections,  that  has  given  its  author  a 
permanent  place  in  English  literature.  He  also 
wrote  numerous  other  historical  works. 

TURNPIKE  STAIR,  a  turret  stair  revolving 
round  a  central  newel. 

TURPIE,  David,  Unitwl  States  senator,  born 
in  Ohio  in  1829.  He  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  practice  at  Logansport,  Ind.,  in  '1849;  was 
appointed  liy  Governor  Wright,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  the  Senatt-,  judge  of  the  Court  of  Com- 
mon Pleas  in  18.54,  and  was  .judge  of  the  Circuit 
Court  in  1856 ;  in  1853,  and  aiso  in  1858,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Legislature  of  Indiana ;  in  1863 
was  elected  a  senator  to  Congress  for  the  unex- 
pired term  of  Jesse  D.  Bright,  and  immediately 
succeeding  Joseph  A.  Wright,  who  served  by 
appointment  of  the  governor;  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  Indiana,  and  served  as  speaker  of 
that  body,  1874-5;  in  1878  was  appointed  one  of 
the  three  commissioners  to  revise  the  laws  of 
Indiana,  serving  as  such  three  years;  in  August, 
1886,  was  appointed  United  States  district  at- 
torney for  the  state  of  Indiana,  and  served  as  such 
until  March  3,  1887;  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  Feb.  2,  1887,  and  took  liis  seat 
March  4,  1887.  His  term  of  service  will  expire 
March  3,  1893. 

TURPIX,  Louis  W.,  member  of  Congress,  was 
born  in  Charlottesville,  Va,.  Feb.  22  1849.  He 
removed  to  .Mabama  in  1858;  was  self-educated, 
in  i)olitics  is  a  Democrat,  and  was  tax  assessor  of 
Hale  county,  Ala.,  seven  years;  was  elected  a 
representative  from  the  Fourth  Congressional  Dis- 
trict of  .VlaC)ama  to  the  Fifty-first  Coiig-rcss,  but  wa.-, 
uuseated  b^  the  House  of  Reprosentative.s.  In  1890, 
was  elected  from  the  same  district  to  the  Fifty- 
second  Congi'ets. 

TURPIS  CAUSA,  a  phrase  in  the  law  of  Scot- 
land borrowed  from  the  Roman  law,  to  express  an 
immoral  consideration  on  which  some  contract  or 
obligation  is  founded.  The  rule  is,  that  when  an 
immoral  contract  is  broken,  no  court  of  law  will 
assist  either  party  to  enforce  it. 

TUSCALOOSA,  a  prosperous  manufacturing  city 
of  Alabama.  It  has  fine  water-power,  and  is  the 
.seat  of  the  State  University,  two  female  colleges, 
and  seveial  other  excellent  private  schools.  Pop- 
ulation in  1890,  5,486. 

TUSCAN  ORDER  OF  ARCHITECTURE,  one 
of  the  five  classic  orders,  being  a  Roman  modifica- 
tion of  the  Doric  style  with  unfluted  columns,  and 
without  triglvphs.     It  is  the  simplest  of  the  orders. 

TUSC.VRORAS,  a  tribe  of  North  American  In- 
dians, who.  at  the  settlement  of  North  Carolina, 
b.ad  fifteen  towns  on  tlie  Tar  and  Neuse  Rivers, 


1510 


T  I"  .S  K  i:  G  E  E  —  T  Y  P  E  W  R  I  T  E  R  S , 


and  1,200  warriors.  In  1711  they  l)egan  a  war 
with  the  settlers,  and  after  a  series  of  savage  en- 
counters were  defeated,  and  joined  the  Iroquois  in 
New  York,  where  they  hecame  allies  of  the  Eng- 
lish, and  where  about  fifty  families  still  reside  on 
an  Indian  Reservation  in  the  western  part  of  the 
state. 

TUSKEGEE,  a  prosperous  town  of  Alabama, 
the  seat  of  a  female  college,  an  orphans'  home,  and 
of  the  Alabama  High  School  for  boys;  also  of  a 
normal  school  for  colored  teachers.  Population  in 
1890.  2,600. 

TUTTLINGEN,  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  twenty  miles  south- 
west of  Sigmaringen.  It  has  manufactories  nf 
knives,  needles,  cloth,  cotton,  hosiery,  linen  and 
silk,  and  carries  on  some  trade  in  corn.  Popula- 
tion, 7,031.  Tutthngen  is  historically  notable  as 
the  scene  of  a  battle  in  1(543,  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  in  which  ati  Austro-Bavarian  force, 
under  Hatzfeld  and  Mercy,  defeated  the  French. 

TUTTY-POWDER,  an  impure  oxide  of  zinc, 
found  in  the  chimneys  of  the  furnaces  in  which 
the  ores  of  that  metal  are  roasted.  It  has  some 
value  in  medicine. 

TWILL,  a  woven  fabric,  whose  warp  is  raised 
one  thread  and  depressed  two  or  more  threads  for 
the  passage  of  the  filling.  This  gives  the  struct- 
m-e  a  curious  appearance  of  diagonal  lines. 

TWO  RIVERS,  a  town  of  Wisconsin,  on  Lake 
Michigan.  It  produces  a  variety  of  manufactures, 
principally  of  wood.     Population  in  1890,  2,870. 

TYBEE,  an  island  and  sound  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Savannah  River,  Georgia.  '  The  sound  is  a  bay 
of  the  Atlantic,  extending  from  Tybee  Island  on 
the  South  to  Hilton  Head  on  the  north,  opening 
to  Port  Royal  entrance  by  Cooper's  River,  Wall's 
Cut,  Lazaretto  Creek,  and  other  channels.  The 
island  is  six  miles  long  by  three  wide,  and  was 
occupied  in  1861  byGeneral  Sherman,  who  erected 
batteries  for  the  reduction  of  Fort  Pulaski,  which 
capitulated  April  11,  1862. 

TYE,  Christopher,  an  English  musician  of 
note,  born  at  Westminster  in  1500.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  King's  Chapel,  and  held  the  office  of 
musical  instructor  to  Edward  VI.  when  Prince  of 
Wales.  He  received  the  degree  of  Musical  Doctor 
from  the  university  of  Cambridge  in  1545,  and 
from  Oxford  in  1548.  Under  Elizabeth,  he  was 
organist  to  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  produced  vari- 
ous services  and  anthems,  some  of  which  are  yet 
in  repute  among  musicians.  Dr.  Tye's  general 
8cholar.ship  was  considerable. 

TYLER,  a  growing  town  and  railroad  junction 
in  Smith  County,  Texas,  the  seat  of  the  United 
States  and  state  courts  for  northeastern  Texas. 
It  is  an  important  fruit  market.  Population  in 
1890,  6,908. 

TYLOR,  Edwaed  Bttrnett,  president  of  the 
British  Anthropological  Society,  and  keeper  of  the 
Oxford  University  Museum,  born  at  Camberwell, 
1832,  and  educated  at  the  school  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  Tottenham.  He  has  greatly  distinguished 
himself  by  his  researches  in  the  history  of  man  and 
civilization.  His  best  known  works  are  his  Hand- 
book on  Anthropology,  and  Primitive  Culture: 
Researches  into  the  Development  of  Mythology, 
Philosophy,  Religion,  Art  and  Custom. 

TYNDALL,  John,  born  Aug.  21,  1820,  at 
Leighlin  Bridge,  Carlow,  Ireland.    He  was  first 


educated  at  a  national  school.  In  1839  he  left 
school  to  join  the  Iri.sh  Ordnance  Survey.  In  185] 
he  went  to  Berlin,  and  continued  his  researches 
under  Professor  Magnus.  He  soon  returned  to 
England,  and  was  elected  F.  R.  S.  in  1852.  In 
1853  he  was  invited  to  give  a  Friday  evening  dis- 
course at  the  Royal  Institution.  He  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  1853,  but  resigned 
in  1888.  It  was  in  1849  that"  Professor  Tyndall 
first  visited  the  Alps,  purely  for  the  sake  of  recrea- 
tion. The  result  of  these  visits  and  his  investiga- 
tions are  contained  in  the  Philosophical  Transae- 
tions  for  1851,  also  in  his  Glaciers  of  the  Alps.  In 
1863  his  work.  Heat  Considered  as  a  Mode  of  Mo- 
tion, was  published,  and  this  at  once  put  hiui  in 
in  the  forefront  as  a  physicist.  In  1866  he  re- 
lieved Professor  Faraday  at  Trinity  House,  and  on 
the  latter's  death  succeeded  him  as  superintendent 
of  the  Royal  Institution.  In  1874  he  delivered  the 
famous  Belfast  address  as  president  of  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  British  Association.  A  political 
correspondence  took  place  in  the  early  part  of  1890 
between  Professor  Tvndall  and  Sir  W.  Harcourt. 

TYPEWRITERS.'  For  general  article  see 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp.  697-8.  The  archives 
of  the  British  Patent  Office  show-  that  the  first 
patent  upon  a  writing  machine  was  granted  Jan.  7, 
1714,  to  Henry  Mill,  a  skilled  engineer,  who  died 
about  the  year  1770.     As  no  drawings  accom- 


THE  FIKST  TTPEWHITEE. 

panied  the  specification,  the  machine  cannot  now 
be  described.  It  is  believed  that  it  was  for  em- 
bossing letters  for  the  blind.  The  next  invention 
in  this  field  was  a  French  device  for  stamping 
embossed  letters  upon  paper  for  the  use  of  the 
blind  ;  it  appeared  about  1784.  Until  1841  there 
is  no  record  in  the  English  Patent  Office  of  any 
other  writing  machines.  But  from  that  date  a 
number  of  devices,  all  more  or  less  impracticable, 
made  their  appearance,  and  more  than  a  hundred 
inventions  of  writing  machines  have  been  patented 
in  England,  not  one  of  which  has  done  its  work  in 
a  satisfactory  manner. 

American  records  show  that,  in  1843,  Charles 
Thurber,  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  took  out  a  patent 
for  a  writing  machine,  followed  by  dn  improve- 
ment two  years  later.  The  Thurber  machine  wrote, 
but  so  slowly  that  it  remained  a  curiosity  and 
nothing  more.  The  accompanying  cut  shows  its 
operation.  The  keys  are  small  steel  rods,  four 
inches  long,  with  common  types  inserted  in  the 
lower  end,  and  bearing  buttons  on  the  top  with 
the  corresponding  letters  marked  on  them.    The 


T  Y  1'  E  W  li  1  T  E  K  S , 


ir>i7 


keys  are  placed  in  a  vertical  position  around  tlie 
rim  of  a  horizontal  brass  wheel,  sixteen  inches 
across,  which  turns  about  a  central  post,  and  each 


SMITH   rKEMIl.l.. 

key-rod  is  surrounded  by  a  spiral  spring,  which 
raises  it  after  it  has  been  pressed  down  upon  the 
paper. 

Mr.  A.  Ely  Beach,  now  one  of  the  proprietors  of 
the  "  Scientific  American,"  obtained  a  patent  In 
1856  for  a  machine  intended  to  print  embossed  let- 
ters for  the  use  of  the  blind.  It  covered  a  princi- 
ple afterward  developed  into  success.  All  the 
printing  was  done  at  one  point,  the  center  of  a 
circle,  and  the  machine  was  made  with  type-bars 
converging  as  the  spokes  of  a  wheel 

Soon  afterward  Dr.  Samuel  W.  Francis  adopted 
the  pianoforte  action  and  arranged  his  hammers, 
each  with  the  face  of  a  letter,  in  a  circle,  throwing 
them  up  as  piano-hammers  act,  each  one  striking 
at  a  common  center.  A  silk  ribbon  saturated  with 
ink  was  made  to  pass  under  the  paper  very  much 
as  is  now  done,  and  was  so  adjusted  as  to  move 
with  each  impression. 


but  then  residing  near  London,  England.  The 
"  Scientihc  American  "  article  was  followed  by  the 
suggestion  that  whoever  would  make  a  successful 
writing  machine  would  not  only  secure  a  fortune, 
but  would  confer  a  blessing  upon  mankind.  Sholes 
and  Soulo  were  printers  who  had  been  engaged  for 
some  time  in  perfecting  a  machine  for  numbering 
the  pages  of  blank  books,  and  for  printing  serial 
numbers  on  bank  notes.  Mr.  Glidden,  who  was  a 
man  of  means,  happened  to  be  working  at  a  patent 
plow  in  the  machine  shop  frequented  by  Sholes 
and  Soule.  He  took  great  interest  in  the  paging 
machine.  One  day  he  said  to  Sholes,  "  Why  can't 
a  machine  be  made  that  will  write  letters  and 
words  instead  of  simply  figures?  " 

When  the  "  Scientific  American  "  article  ap- 
peared, Mr.  Glidden  showed  it  to  Sholes,  and, 
Soule  having  joined  them,  the  three  went  to  work 
upon  the  invention.  Soulii  suggested  pivoted 
types  set  in  a  circle,  and  Sholes  suggested  the  let- 
ter-spacing device.    In  September,  1867,  the  first 


THE  CKANDALL. 


Several  other  early  patents  were  issued,  among 
them  one  to  Fairbanks,  in  1848,  and  another  to 
Oliver  T.  Eddy,  of  Baltimore. 

In  1867  a  writing  machine  called  "  The  Type 
Writer,"  was  patented  by  C.  Latham  Sholes, Sam- 
uel W.  Soule,  and  Carlos  Glidden,  of  Milwaukee, 
Wis.  Neither  of  them  knew  what  had  previously 
been  done  in  the  same  line,  except  that  Mr.  Sholes 
had  seen  an  article  in  the  "  Scientific  American, " 
copied  from  "  London  Engineering, "  in  which  was 
described  a  writing  machine  called  the  "  ptcro- 
type,"  invented  by  John  Pratt,  of  Centre,  Ala., 


THE  BAELOOK. 

machine  was  finished,  and  letters  written  with  it 
were  .sent  to  acquaintances  and  friends. 

Mr.  James  Densmore,  then  of  Meadville,  Pa., 
who  received  one  of  these  letters,  was  so  Impressed 
by  it  that  by  return  mail  he  asked  to  become  inter- 
ested in  the  enterprise.  In  reply  he  was  offered  a 
(juarter  interest  if  he  would  pay  all  the  expenses 
up  to  date.  He  accepted  the  ofler,  and  when  he 
saw  the  machine,  in  March,  1868,  he  pronounced 
it  good  for  nothing  except  to  show  that  the  idea 
was  feasible.  His  faith,  however,  was  unshaken, 
and  Soule  and  Glidden  having  dropped  out  of  the 
enterprise,  he  assumed  all  expenses;  and  urged 
Sholes  to  remedy  certain  defects  which  he  pointed 
out.  No  less  than  twenty-five  or  thirty  experi- 
mental typewriters  were  made,  each  one  a  little 
better  than  its  predecessor.  As  fast  as  finished 
they  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  different  experts, 
among  others  James  O.  Clephaue,  a  stenographer 
of  Washington,  D.  C.,who  by  hard  use  destroyed 
'  lone  after  another  till  the  patience  of  Sholes  was 
exhausted.  But  Densmore  insisted  that  as  the 
machine  must  be  made  so  that  anybody  could  use 
it,  such  tests  were  a  blessing  and  not  a  misfortune. 
Progress  was  made  slowly  until  in  1873  the 
machine  was  taken  by  E.  Remington  &  Sons,  of 
Ilion,  N.  Y.,  when  it  received  the  attention  of  a 
number  of  skilled  machinists,  who  put  into  prac- 
tical shape  much  that  had  been  merely  suggested 
by  the  original  inventors.  When  the  machine 
appeared  upon  the  market,  it  was  first  offered 
chiefly  to  professional  men  —  lawyers,  clergymen 
and  newspaper  men ;  and  apparently  its  greatest 
field  of  usefulness,  the  offices  of  mercantile  houses, 
was  almost  overlooked.    It  was  not  until  1882  that 


ir,i8 


'J'  Y  P  E  \(  li  I  T  E  E  S  —  T  Y  P  11  -  F  E  V  E  R . 


i  s  real  possibilities  became  apparent :  until  then 
I  he  machine  had  been,  so  to  speak,  on  trial.  There 
liad  been  some  defects  that  interfered  with  its 
rapid  growth  and  favor.  From  1882  until  the 
present  time,  its  history  is  one  long  record  of  suc- 


CALIGKAPH. 

cesses,  abroad  as  well  as  at  home,  and  those 
successes  are  due  perhaps  not  so  much  to  the 
fading  away  of  prejudices  as  to  actual  improve- 
ments in  the  machine  itself. 

In  the  Keiuington  Typewriter  the  type  arms  or 
bars,  each  bearing  a  lower-case  letter  and  its  cor- 
respimding  capital,  are  thrown  up  by  pianoforte 
lever  action.  Each  impression  causes  the  frame 
carrying  the  rollers  which  hold  the  paper  sheet  to 
move  one  space.  The  types  are  of  tempered  steel 
and  are  practically  indestructible.  The  perfection 
of  its  mechanical  construction  is  attested  by  the 
immense  amount  of  daily  work  which  the  machine 
does  without  strain,  and  by  the  fact  that  experts 
can  work  the  keys  so  fast  as  to  give  clear  impres- 


Tirr.  EF.MINGTOX. 

sionsof  a  letter  at  the  rate  of  thirteen  to  a  second. 
Among  the  improvements  of  recent  years  have 
been  tlie  introduction  of  capital  and  lower-case 
letters  in  the  same  machine  without  increasing  the 
number  of  keys — a  radical  and  vast  improve- 
ment— the  strengthening  of  the  machine,  the 
aildition  of  some  parts,  the  elimination  of  others. 
The  noise  made  by  the  old  machine  has  been 
gi'eatly  lessened,  and  its  liability  to  get  out  of 
order  reduced. 


The  most  remarkal)le  achievement  of  the  type- 
writer, the  chief  reason  of  its  success  and  popu- 
larity, has  been  the  saving  of  time  effected  in  busi- 
ness offices.  According  to  innumerable  tests  and 
to  the  experience  of  nine  out  of  ten  of  our  active 
business  houses,  the  typewriter,  as  compared  with 
the  pen,  saves  forty  minutesan  hour,  or,  tocarry  out 
the  calculation,  five  hours  and  twenty  minutes  in  a 
business  day.  In  a  country  like  ours,  where  time 
means  money,  it  is  very  easy  to  estimate  how 
many  times  the  typewriter  must  pay  for  itself 
every  year  in  a  busy  office.  Last  summer,  in  Eng- 
land, Miss  Emiline  S.  Owen,  who  went  over  to 
show  Englishmen  what  could  be  done  with  the 
Reminnton  typewriter,  wrote  for  three  minutes  at 
a  speed  of  ninety-nine  words  a  minute,  the  same 
matter  having  been  previously  written  out  in  long- 
hand by  Mr.  Thomas  Allen  Reed,  one  of  the  most 
rapid  longhand  writers  in  the  world,  at  the  unprec- 
edented rate  of  sixty-five  words  per  minute,  the 
best  that  he  could  do. 


Tnii  NATIO.N'AL. 

Mr.  E.  D.  Easton,  one  of  the  leading  legal  stenog- 
raphers  of  Washington,  in  his  summary  of  what 
the  typewriter  has  done  for  him,  says  that  in  the 
Guiteau  case  two  operators  and  machines  an- 
swered for  getting  up  the  copy,  one  each  for  an 
associate  reporter  and  himself.  Something  like 
21,000  fohos  were  transcribed,  at  a  saving  over  the 
old  method  of  about  four  cents  per  folio,  or  $840 
in  three  months.  In  the  Star  Route  cases,  which 
lasted  about  a  year,  there  were  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  70,000  folios  written.  The  two  machines 
and  operators  saved  about  three  thousand  dollars. 

In  a  recorded  test  made  in  New  York  city  some 
time  ago,  Miss  M.  E.  Orr  wrote  an  article  contain- 
ing 384  words  from  dictation,  in  the  presence  of 
witnesses,  in  four  minutes  and  twenty-nine  sec- 
onds, without  error.  The  average  was  eighty-five 
words  per  minute.  Others  have  written  at  the  rate 
of  more  thap  one  hundred  words  per  minute.  At 
many  public  institutions,  in  the  United  States, 
such  as  the  Cooper  Institute  and  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association,  in  New  York  city, 
tliere  are  free  classes  in  typewriting.  There  are 
over  two  hundred  machines  in  use  in  the  several 
business  colleges  and  .shorthand  schools,  for  pur- 
poses of  instruction,  in  New  York  city  alone.  Type- 
writing is  now  taught  in  some  of  the  public  schools, 
and  it  is,  probably,  only  a  question  of  time  when 
it  will  be  in  manv  of  them. 

TYPH-FEVER,  a  term  now  coming  into  use  to 
designate  continued  low  fever.  The  best  marked 
varieties  of  this  affection  are  known  as  typhus  and 
typhoid  fevers,  which  in  typical  cases  are  easily 
distinguished  from  each  other,  but  not  infrequently 
it  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  the  disease  should 
be  classed  as  typhus  or  tyi)hoid  fever;  hence,  the 
general  term  typh-fever  is  a  very  convenient  one 


T  Y  K  X  A  l'—\JLVL  A  T  J  ()  X  . 


1519 


in  doubtful  eases.  All  the  tvph-fevers  belong 
nosologically  to  the  miasmatous  order  of  zymotic 
diseases. 

TYRNAU,  a  town  of  Hungary,  county  of  Ober- 
Neutra,  on  the  River  Trna.   about   thirty  miles  i 


northeast  ot  Prc-^burg.     It  has  .so  many  churches 
ana  coinents  that  it  has  been  nicknamed  "  Little 
Rome."    Tyrnau  has  manufactories  of  cloth  linen 
wood,  etc.,  and  a  tolerably  liyely  general  trade, 
especially  in  wine. 


1520 


TJ 


UEA-ULULATION. 


UEA,  or  Uvea,  a  circle  of  islets  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XV,  p.  30. 

UGANDA,  or  Buganda,  the  largest  and  most 
powerful  of  the  East  Africa  equatorial  states.  See 
Britaunica,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  717-18. 

The  sovereign,  who  bears  the  official  title  of  Kaba- 
kawaBuganda  (Emperor  of  Uganda)  and  Overlord 
of  Unyoro,  Buzongora,  Karagwe,  Buzinza,  Usoga, 
etc.,  is  theoretically  an  autocrat,  but  his  power  is 
restricted  by  custom  and  by  the  Luliiko,  a  sort  of 
privy  council,  composed  of  the  Katikiro  (chief 
judge)  and  the  Aba-Saza  (great  chiefs),  who,  how- 
ever, are  all  appointed  by  the  king  himself,  as  are 
also  the  Batongole  (court  officials),  and  even  the 
under  officers  of  the  five  great  territorial  lords  of 
Lubiro  (in  the  center  about  the  capital),  Kyagwe 
(in  the  east),  Bulemezi  (in  the  northwest),  Budu 
(in  the  west),  and  Siugo  (in  the  north).  Another 
important  functionary  is  the  Gabunga  (head  ad- 
miral), who  eoniuiauds  a  fleet  of  .several  hundred 
canoes  on  Lak(^  \'ictoria.  The  territorial  lords  are 
hereditary  feudal  chiefs,  enjoying  almost  royal 
privileges.  The  revenue  is  collected  by  the  Baso- 
lonzi,  or  tax-gatherers,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  brass 
and  copper  wire,  Ijark  cloth,  and  cowrie  shells. 
The  capital,  which  was  at  Bandain  1862,  has  since 
then  been  shifted,  with  the  royal  caprice,  to 
Rubaga,  Nabulagala,  and  Mungo,  which  was  the 
royal  residence  in  1891. 

UHLANS,  light  cavalry  of  .\siatic  origin,  intro- 
duced into  the  north  of  Europe  along  with  the  colo- 
nies of  Tartars  who  established  them.selves  in 
Poland  and  Lithuania.  They  were  mounted  on 
light,  active  Tartar  horses  and  armed  with  saber, 
lance,  and,  latterly,  with  pistols.  The  Pru.s.sian 
Uhlans  won  great  renown  in  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71  by  their  bravery  and  marvelous 
activity.  The  Prussians  applied  the  term,  rather 
loosely,  however,  including  all  their  light  cavalry, 
under  the  designation. 

UJEIN,  one  of  the  seven  sacred  cities  of  Hindus- 
tan, in  Sindia's  dominions,  of  which  it  was  formerly 
capital,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sipra,  thirty-five 
miles  northwest  of  Indore.  It  is  surrounded  by 
walls  witli  round  towers,  is  six  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, contains  the  grand  palace  of  the  Sindia  family, 
several  mosques  and  mausoleums,  an  observatory, 
and  an  antique  gate,  supposed  to  date  from  before 
the  Christian  era.  An  active  trade  is  carried  on  in 
cloths,  opium,  etc.  The  number  of  the  inhabitants 
is  not  ascertained. 

UJHELY-SATORALYA,  a  market  town  of  Hun- 
gary, 105  miles  northwest  of  Pesth.  It  stands  on 
theHagyalya  Mountains,  contains  several  churches 
and  a  gynniasium.  and  is  noted  for  its  wine  culture. 
Population.  7,2iiii. 

UK.\sr..  or  I'kas.  ii  term  applied  iu  Ru.ssia  to 
all  the  orders  or  .'dici^.  legislative  or  administra- 
tive, emanating  from  the  government.  The  ukases 
either  ijroceed  directly  from  the  emperor,  and  are 


then  called  imenny  ukas,  or  are  published  as  decis- 
ions of  the  directing  senate.  Both  have  the  force 
of  laws  until  they  are  annulled  by  subsequent  de- 
cisions. 

ULODENDRON,  a  singular  genus  of  coal-plants, 
found  on  stems  which  occur  chiefly  in  the  roof- 
shales.  The  .stems  are  covered  with  small  rhom- 
boidal  scars,  as  in  Lepidodendrou,  formed  by  the 
bases  of  leaves  or  scales;  but  they  differ  remark- 
ably from  that  genus  in  having  a  double  series  of 
large  oval  or  circular  markings,  arranged  linearly 
on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  trunk.  These  markings 
are  variously  interpreted  as  representing  the  cica- 
trices produced  by  the  bases  of  cones,  by 
branches,  or  by  leaf-stalks.  It  is,  like  many  of  the 
coal-tbssils,  an  extremely  enigmatical  plant ;  and 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  its  position  in  the  vege- 
table kingdom. 

ULRIC,  ST.,  bishop  of  Augsburg,  venerated  as 
one  of  the  Fathers  of  the  German  Church,  born  at 
Augsburg  about  the  year  890 ;  died  in  973.  His 
father,Hupald,  was  one  of  those  counts  of  Dillingen 
who  play  so  important  a  part  in  medifeval  German 
histoi-y.  He  was  educated  at  the  celebrated  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland,  and- 
returned  to  his  native  diocese  of  Augsburg,  where 
he  received  holy  orders.  In  accordance  with  the 
usage  of  his  times,  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome, 
and  soon  after  his  retuin  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Augsburg,  on  the  death  of  Hiltine  in  the  year 
92:!.  Bishop  Ulric  bore  an  important  part  in  the 
jiublic  atfairs  of  the  empire  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  I.  and  his  son  Otho  ;  and  he  was  the  guid- 
ing sjiirit  of  the  several  coimcils  in  Germany  which, 
in  tile  tenth  century,  labored  at  the  work  of  ref- 
ormation. 

ULSTER  BADGE.  On  the  in.stitution  of  the 
order  of  baronets  in  England  by  James  I.,  a  sinis- 
ter hand,  erect,  open  and  couped  at  the  wrist 
gules,  the  armorial  ensign  of  the  province  of  Ulster, 
was  made  their  distinguishing  liadge,  in  respect  of 
the  order  having  been  intended  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  plantations  in  the  province  of  Ulster. 

ULTIMATUM,  in  diplomacy .  the  final  conditions 
or  terms  ottered  by  one  government  for  the  settle- 
ment of  its  disputes  with  another;  the  most  favor- 
able terms  which  a  negotiator  is  prepared  to  offer, 
whose  rejection  will  generally  be  considered  to  put 
an  end  to  negotiation. 

ULTIMUS  H^RES,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  the 
crown  which  is  the  last  heir  after  aU  the  kin  have 
becomi^  exhausted,  and  succeeds  to  the  property 
of  those  who  die  without  leaving  next  of  kin,  or 
who,  being  bastards,  have  no  next  of  kin. 

DLULATION,  a  howling,  or  loud  lamentation; 
a  wailing.  It  sometimes  happens  that  articulate 
stiunds  or  cries  which  resemble  and  perhaps  imi- 
tate those  of  animals,  or  arc  a  mere  shrieking  and 
howling,  form  the  sole  or  chief  .syuiiitom  and  char- 
acteristic of  a  morbid  mental  state.     The  act  is 


r  L  u  X  1)  A  —  r  X  1  o  X    c  o  l  i.  k  (;  k  . 


1521 


automatic,  aiitl  may  be  regarded  as  Indicativp  of 
grave  chuu,^t's  in  the  physical  and  moral  nature. 
In  the  Midcili'  Ages,  dining  great  rehgious  excite- 
ment, and  those  mental  epidemics  which  involved 
large  commimities,  such  phenomena  appear  to  have 
been  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  appears  that  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  a  family  of  live  sisters,  in  the 
county  of  Oxford,  were  afl"ected  with  a  modification 
of  hysteria,  during  which  they  howled  or  barked 
like  a  dog;  and  that,  about  the  same  period,  a 
large  religious  community  of  females  in  France, 
one  and  all,  and  at  the  same  hours,  shrieked  or 
mewed  like  cats :  and  were  only  reduced  to  so- 
briety and  to  silence  by  the  presence  of  military. 

TLUX'DA,  or  LrsDA,  a  native  feudal  state  of 
Africa,  the  largest  and  most  populous  empire  in 
the  Congo  basin,  comprising  most  of  the  territory  ly- 
ing bet  ween  the  Kwango  andKasai.  Its  ruler  bears 
the  olHcial  title  of  Muata  Tanvo.  and  is  the  four- 
teenth in  descent  from  the  founder  of  the  dTOasty 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  is  the  suzerain  of 
about  300  monas  and  muenes,  that  is,  vassal  chiefs 
and  kinglets,  who  pay  tribute  in  kind — ivory,  lion 
and  leopard  skins,  corn,  cloth,  salt,  etc. — .so  long 
as  the  central  power  is  strong  enough  to  enforce 
it.  Its  present  area  cannot  be  estimated  at  much 
less  than  100.000  .square  miles,  with  a  population 
perhaps  not  exceeding  2,000,000. 

The  succession  goes  to  one  of  the  sons  of  the  two 
<;hief  wives,  chosen  by  fom-  official  electors  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Luko-shesha,  or  "  Mother  of  the  Kings 
and  Peoples. "  The  Lukoshesha,  whose  election  is 
made  in  the  same  way  from  the  daughters  of  the 
two  chief  wives,  and  ratified  by  the  king,  is  ex- 
empt from  his  jurisdiction  and  •'  above  all  law, " 
holding  her  own  court,  ruling  over  her  own  territo- 
ries, and  enjoying  independent  tribute. 

The  Mussamba.  or  royal  residence,  is  displaced 
at  every  succession,  within  a  certain  limit.  The 
dominant  people  in  the  empire  are  the  Ka-Lunda. 
a  negroid  race  of  Bantu  speech.  They  import 
woven  goods  and  ironware  from  the  south,  and 
•copperware  from  the  southeast,  and  have  also  long 
had  dealings  with  the  Portuguese  half-breeds  from 
the  west  and  the  Arab  slave-hunters  from  the  east. 
The  chief  exports  are  ivory  and  .slaves.  But  trade 
languishes,  being  regarded  as  a  royal  monopoly, 
and  burdened  with  many  restrictions. 

ULUXDA,  or  Lcttda,  a  territory  of  Africa,  in 
the  Lake  Moero  district,  which  about  the  middle 
of  this  century  was  ruled  over  by  the  powert'ul 
Muata  Kazembe.  heir  of  the  Morupwe  dynasty, 
the  most  potent  in  South  Central  Africa  during  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  pre.sent  Muata  Kazembe 
retains  a  mere  semblance  of  authority,  and  is  now 
the  vassal  of  Msidi  (Msiri),  founder  of  the  new 
kingdom  of  Garenganze  (Katanga),  in  the  region 
between  the  Luapula  and  Lualaba,  head  streams 
of  the  Congo  within  the  limits  of  the  Congo  Free 
State,  and  continuous  southward  with  British 
Zambesia  (Barokeland  and  Mashukulumbweland). 

UM.  a  Kaffir  or  Zulu  word  signifying  river,  and 
used  as  a  prefix  in  the  names  of  most  of  the 
rivers  on  the  southeast  coast  of  Africa,  from  the 
Great  Kei,  where  the  names  of  Hottentot  origin 
appear  to  cease,  nearly  as  far  to  the  northeast  as 
the  Sofala  coast,  where  the  names  Imhambane, 
Imhampoora,  have  the  same  prefix  in  a  corrupted 
state.  The  Hottentot  word  Kei  has  the  same 
meaning,   and  is  still  preserved  in  the  Kei  and 


Keiskamma  rivers,  and  other  streams  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  Cape  Colimv. 

UMBILICAL  CORD."  In  botany,  the  connect- 
ing link  between  the  placenta  of  the  ovary  and  the 
ovule,  through  which  pass  the  vessels  that  nour- 
ish the  ovule  until  it  ripens  into  seed.  In  .some 
plants  the  ovules  are  so  closely  connected  with  the 
placenta  that  no  umbilical  cord  can  be  said  to 
exist ;  in  others  it  is  of  considerable  length. 

UMBRELLA  TREE.  A  small  magnoUa  tree 
I  (Magnolia  umbrella),  whose  large  leaves  are 
i  crowded  on  the  summit  of  the  flowering  branches 
j  in  umbrella-like  circles.  Its  range  is  from  south- 
!  east  Pennsylvania  along  the  Alleghenies  to  central 
j  Alabama,  and  westward  through  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  to  northeast  Mississippi.  It  also  occurs 
in  Arkansas.  Like  all  the  magnoUas  it  is  a  hand- 
I  some  tree,  bearing  large,  white,  highly-scented 
j  flowers,  and  a  rose-colored  fruit. 

UMPIRE.  In  law,  a  third  pei-son  appointed  by 
two  arbitrators  in  the  event  of  their  differing  in 
opinion.  When  the  reference  or  arbitration  has 
devolved  upon  the  umpire,  his  award  or  umpirage 
becomes  final  and  binding  upon  the  parties. 

UNALASHKA,  an  island  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  in  the  North  Pacific,  one  of  the 
Fox  Islands,  in  lat.  5o"  o2'  X'.,  and  166=  32'  W. 
It  is  seventy-five  miles  long,  and  in  some  parts 
twenty  miles  broad,  has  a  rugged,  mountainous 
surfttce,  and  is  thinly  peopled.  Ships  are  here 
supplied  with  all  necessaries  except  wood, 

UXDIXES,  the  name  given,  in  the  fanciful  sys- 
tem of  the  Paracelsists,  to  the  elementary  spirits 
( if  the  water.  They  are  of  the  female  sex.  "  Among 
all  the  different  orders  of  elementary  s])irits,  they 
intermarry  most  readily  with  human  beings. 
Baron  de  la  Motte  Fouque  has  made  this  Paracel- 
sist  fancy  the  basis  of  an  exquisite  tale,  entitled 
rndine. 

UX'ION,  or  ToKELAU.  a  group  o^  three  clusters 
of  islets  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  principal  are: 
Fakaapo  or  Bowditch,  Mikuhimo  or  Duke  of 
Clarence,  and  Atafu  or  Duke  of  York.  Thev  lie 
between  8°  30'  and  11'  S.  lat.,  and  171'  and  172' 
W.  long.  The  group,  which  has  been  annexed  to 
Great  Britain,  is  of  importance,  chiefly,  as  a  stage 
in  the  proposed  telegraph  route  between  British 
Columbia  and  Australia,  and  as  a  coaling  station 
for  steamers  along  the  same  route. 

UNION  CITY,  a  town  of  Pennsvlvania,  about 
cwenty-two  miles  southeast  of  Erie.  It  has  man- 
ufactories of  leather,  flour,  barrels,  furniture  and 
carriages,  and  contains  an  extensive  oil  refinery. 
Population  in  1890,  2,255. 

UNION  COLLEGE,  a  college  in  Schenectady. 
N.  Y.,  incoi-porated  in  1795,  chieflv  bv  the  ef- 
forts of  General  Philip  Schuyler.  It  was  named 
Union  from  its  being  established  by  the  coopera- 
tion of  several  religious  denominations.  Its  first 
president  was  John  Blajr  Smith  of  Philadelphia, 
who  was  succeeded  in  1(99  by  Jonathan  Edwards, 
the  younger:  but  its  great  prosperity  and  useful- 
ness ivere  secured  under  the  presidencv  of  Rev. 
Eliphalet  Nott,  from  ISO!  until  his  death  in  1S66. 
By  his  zeal,  entei-pri.*e,  and  large  benefactions,  it 
was  endowed  and  furnished  with  spacious  build- 
ings, a  large  library,  and  extensive  cabinets  of 
natural  history.  Dr.  X'ott  was  succeeded  bv  Dr. 
Laurens  P  Hickok,  the  distin-ruished  metaphysi- 
cian.    In  1869.  Dr.  Aiken  of  Princeton  was  called 


1522 


U  N  I  0  X  T  ( J  W  X  —  r  P  T  0  N^ 


to  the  presidency.  He  resigned  in  1871,  when  Dr. 
Eliphalet  N.  Potter,  son  of  Bishop  Alonzo  Potter, 
and  grandson  of  Dr.  Nott,  was  made  president. 
Tnder  his  administration  the  institution  increased 
in  funds  and  students.  In  its  general  aims  it  has 
lieen  greatly  enlarged  by  a  connection  with  the 
Law  and  iledical  Colleges  at  Albany,  and,  together 
with  them,  bears  the  name  of  Union  University, 
of  which  the  president  of  Union  College  is  the 
chancellor.  President  Potter  resigned  in  1884,  and 
Hon.  J.  S.  Landon  was  appointed  president  ad 
intrrim.  Harrison  Edward  Webster,  LL.D.,  was 
elected  president  in  1888. 

UXIONTOWN,  a  borough,  the  county-seat  of 
Fayette  county,  Pa.  It  manufactures  cement  and 
woolen  goods.     Population  in  1890.  6,358. 

UNITED  LABOR  PARTY,  a  political  organ- 
ization which  grew  out  of  the  Central  Labor 
Union  in  New  York  city.  This  union  was  estab- 
lished in  1881-82.     In  1886  it  appointed  a  com- 


mittee to  prepare  a  plan  of  political  action.  On 
Sept.  23,  a  city  convention  was  held,  at  which 
176  labor  organizations  were  represented.  It 
nominated  Henry  George  as  mayor  and  adopted 
his  doctrine  of  nationalizing  all  the  land  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  mayoralty  contest  George 
was  defeated,  Abram  S.  Hewitt  being  elected. 

The  state  convention  of  the  United  Labor  Party 
at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  nominated  George  for  secretary 
of  state,  and  also  resolved  in  favor  of  many  meas- 
ures of  particular  importance  to  laboring  men,  as 
fewer  hours  of  work,  free  schools,  etc.  In  the 
election  of  November,  1887,  George  was  again  de- 
feated. In  October,  1888,  the  party  nominated 
James  J.  Coogau  for  mayor  of  New  York  city. 
He  obtained  a  much  smaller  vote  than  George 
ever  did.  This  sudden  dwindling  in  numbers 
showed  that  the  United  Labor  Party  has  no  real 
bond  of  coherence,  and  that  it  cannot  maintain  its 
existence  as  a  factor  in  city  or  state  politics. 


i 


1523 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


For  general  article  on  the  United  States  see 
Britannica.  Vol.  XXIU.  pp.  729-830.  The  article 
is  so  elaborate  and  comprehensive — covering  the 
history,  constitution  and  government,  geography, 
topography,  productions  and  statistics  down  to 
1S8S — that  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions,  it  is 
required  that  such  supplementary  matter  shall  be 
given  as  may  be  needed  to  bring  the  record  down 
to  the  latest  possible  date,  and  also  to  furnish  such 
epitomized  historic,  political,  and  statistical  in- 
formation as  may  be  found  most  convenient  and 
helpful. 

Territory  of  United  States  in  1776. 

An  examination  of  the  map  of  the  United  States 
In  the  year  177ti  shows  the  boundaries  of  tracts  of 
territory  as  follows : 

At  the  northeast,  but  south  of  the  river  St.  Law- 
rence, Massachusetts  begins  with  the  former  Saga- 
dahoc Territory  and  Province  of  Maine,  continues 
over  its  present  area  to  New  York,  while,  westward 
of  Pennsylvania,  broadening  from  the  latitude  of 
its  present  southern  boundary  to  that  of  Lake 
Winnipiseogee  in  New  Hampshire,  it  reaches  a 
western  limit  on  the  Mississippi  River. 

New  York  has  its  present  area,  and  north  of 
Massachusetts  has  a  boundary  on  New  Hampshire 
which  extends  between  New  York  and  the  north- 
eastern spur  of  Massachusetts. 

Rhode  Island  appears  as  on  the  maps  of  to-day. 

Connecticut  has  its  present  area,  while  beyond 
Pennsylvania  it  extends  to  the  Mississippi   River. 

Pennsylvania  has  no  corner,  as  now,  between 
New  York  and  Lake  Erie. 

New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland,  present 
forms  familiar  to  modern  maps. 

Virginia  reaches  to  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
northward  to  the  western  territory  of  Connecticut. 

North  Carolina  and  Georgia  in  full  width,  and 
South  Carolina  in  a  narrow  belt,  enfold  the  land  to 
the  common  Western  River. 

On  the  south  of  Georgia  peninsula.  East  Florida 
tends  westward  to  the  river  Appalachicola,  and 
West  Florida  asserts  a  disputed  northern  limit 
at  the  parallel  of  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River 
in  the  west  land  of  Georgia. 

Quebec,  reaching  southward  over  the  southern 
trapping-grounds  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
and  over  the  western  lands- of  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut, and  Virginia,  claims  to  cover  the  whole 
territory  between  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers 
and  the  great  lakes. 

Between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Stony 
^Mountains  lies  Louisiana,  a  Spanish  dependency. 

Beyond,  to  the  Pacific,  stretches  the  vast  ex- 
panse of  the  older  Spanish  America. 

At  the  extreme  northwest  there  points  toward 
the  opposing  continent  a  peninsula  whose  forbid- 
ding coast  has  been  hitherto  but  a  few  times  visited 
by  European  navigators. 

Oriqin.m,  Public  Land  of  the  United  States. 

The  Con  federation  asserted  jurisdiction  over  all  of 
that  portion  of  the  present  territory  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  from  the 
present  British  possessions  on  the  north,  to  Florida 
on  the  south.  The  concessions  from  the  States  to 
the  Confederation,  divided  this  region  into  two 
distinctive  portions:    one   along  the  coast,  whose 


soil  was  so  vested  in  the  13  States  in  severalty  ; 
another,  inland,  whose  soil  and  exclusive  jurisdic- 
tion were  possessed  by  the  Confederacy. 

These  States  and  Federal  domains  were  separated 
by  an  irregular  line  along  the  present  western 
boundaries  of  the  States  of  New  York,  Pennsylva- 
nia, West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 
Westward  of  this  line,  and  separated  into  two 
parcels  by  the  territory  of  the  present  State  of 
Kentucky^  lay  the  original  public  domain  of  the 
young  Confederation,  comprising  406,952  square 
miles,  while  the  aggregate  area  of  the  13  States 
was  but  420,802  square  miles. 

Original  Territukiai,  Government. 

Plans  for  the  erection  of  governments  on  this 
domain  early  engaged  tlie  attention  of  the  Con- 
gress of  the  Confederacy.  Coincident  with  the 
cession  by  Virginia,  Jefferson,  its  delegate  in  Con- 
gress, anticipating  prompt  cessions  from  the  re- 
maining States,  reported  from  a  committee  a  plan 
of  government  for  the  whole  public  territory.  This 
plan  required  seventeen  new  States,  each  covering 
about  two  degrees  of  latitude,  arranged  in  two  tiers 
separated  by  meridians,  each  tier  containing  eight 
States,  the  17th  State  to  be  east  of  the  eastern 
tier  and  between  the  Ohio  River  and  the  western 
boundary  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  famous  proviso  was  included  in  this  report, 
and  read  as  follow.s:  "After  the  year  1800  there 
shall  be  neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude 
in  any  of  the  said  States  other  than  in  the  punish- 
ment of  crimes  whereof  the  party,  shall  be  duly 
convicted." 

When  the  proviso  was  put  to  vote  three  States 
were  unrepresented;  three,  jMaryland,  Virginia, 
and  South  Carolina,  voted  iia;/ ;  North  Carolina 
was  divided;  the  four  New  England  States,  with 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  voted  aye.  Failing 
to  receive  the  additional  vote  necessary  to  com- 
plete a  majority,  the  proviso  was  stricken  out  of 
the  report,  and  the  report  thus  amended  was 
adopted.  This  ordinance  was  in  no  instance  applied 
in  the  erection  of  a  government. 

Again  (July  13,  1787),  soon  after  the  region  north- 
west of  the  Ohio  River  had  been  transferred  to  the 
Confederation  by  the  cessions  of  New  York,  Vir- 
ginia, Massachusetts;  and  Connecticut,  another 
ordinance  was  enacted,  erecting  "  the  territory 
northwest  of  the  Ohio  River."  To  this  ordinance 
were  appended  six  articles,  the  last  of  which  pro- 
vided for  the  future  formation,  on  the  land  within 
the  territory,  of  "not  less  than  three  nor  more 
than  five  States,"  as  follows  :  the  western  State  be- 
tween the  Mississippi,  Ohio,  and  'Wabash  Rivers 
and  a  north  line  from  Port  Vincent,  on  the  latter 
river,  to  British  territory  ;  the  middle  State  be- 
tween the  last  recited  line,  the  Ohio  River,  and  a 
north  line  from  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Miami  to 
the  border  line ;  the  eastern  State,  between  the 
last,  described  line,  the  Ohio  River,  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  national  boundary. 

Authority  was  reserved  to  create  two  States  in 
that  part  of  the  territory  north  of  the  latitudinal 
parallel  of  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Mich- 
igan. It  will  be  noted  that  the  meridianal  bounda- 
ries between  those  projecting  States,  which  were 
plotted  on  the  river  Ohio,  now  separate  the  States 
of  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Oliio,  while  the  northern 
part  of  the  original  territory  has  included  the  en- 


1524 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


tire  States  of  Michigan  and  'Wiscousin  and  fur- 
nished part  of  the  territory  of  the  State  of  Minne- 
sota. 

Article  VI,  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

"There  shall  be  neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  serv- 
itude in  the  said  territory  otherwise  than  in  punishment 
of  crimes  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  con- 
victed: Provided,  always,  that  any  person  escaping  into 
the  sanie,from  whom,  labor  or  service  is  lawfully  claimed 
in  any  one  of  the  original  States,  such  fugitive  may  he 
lawfully  reclaimed  and  conveyed  to  the  person  claiming 
his'or  her  labor  or  iien'ice,  as  aforesaid." 

This  inhibition  of  slavery,  save  that  it  was  imme- 
mediate,  is  in  the  very  terms  of  the  defeated  pro- 
viso in  the  first,  or  Jeffersonian  project. 

At  the  submission  of  this  ordinance  to  vote  eight 
States  were  represented  in  Congress,  and  all  voted 
for  the  measure.  The  passage  of  the  article  was 
possibly  secured  by  the  appendix  of  the  proviso 
respecting  the  return  of  fugitives  from  slavery,  and 
by  the  tacit  understanding  that  slavery  would  be 
permitted  in  the  public  domain  south  of  the  Ohio 
River. 

Original  Area  of  the  United  States. 

Meanwhile,  and  prior  to  the  last  two  of  the  cessions 
by  the  States,  the  independence  of  the  States  form- 
ins  the  Confederacy  had  been  recognized  by  Great 
Britain  iuthe  Provisional  Treaty  of  Peace  signed  at 
Paris,  Nov.  30,  1782,  and  in  the  definite  Treaty  of 
Peace  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  concluded  at  Paris,  Sept.  3,  1783.  By  the 
second  article  of  the  treaty  the  boundaries  of  the 
territory  of  the  United  States  were  declared. 

In  substance,  they  ran  from  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Croix  River  to  its  head  and  thence  due  north,  from 
the  source  of  the  St.  Croix  River,  to  the  Highlands; 
along  the  said  Highlands  which  divide  those  rivers 
that  empty  themselves  in  the  river  St.  Lawrence 
from  those  vvhich  fall  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  to 
the  northwesternniost  head  of  the  Connecticut 
River,  and  down  that  river  to  and  westward  along 
the  45th  parallel  to  and  along  the  middle  of  the 
Ontario,  Erie,  Huron,  Superior,  and  Long  Lakes, 
and  their  water  connections,  "to  the  most  north- 
western point  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and 
thence,  on  a  due  west  course,  to  the  river  Mississ- 
ippi f  thence,  down  the  middle  of  that  river  to  and 
along  the  31st  parallel,  to  and  along  the  middle  of 
the  river  Appalachicola  to  its  junction  with  the 
Flint  River,  and  thence  straight  to  the  head  of  and 
down  the  River  St.  Mary's  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  included  all  islands  within  20  leagues  of  the 
Atlantic  coast. 

The  western  and  southern  boundaries  of  this 
original  area  of  the  United  States  were  confirmed 
by  treaty  with  Spain,  the  contiguous  owner,  Oct. 
27,  1795.  The  northern  line  was  the  subject  of  pro- 
tracted and  difficult  negotiations  with  Great 
Britain.  The  Treaty  of  London,  Nov.  19,  1794.  in- 
cluded provisions  for  determining  the  river  St. 
Croix  and  its  source  and  the  source  of  the  Mississ- 
ippi River. 

By  treaty  of  Ghent.  Dec.  24,  1814,  three  Commis- 
sions were  authorized :  one  to  settle  the  title  to  is- 
lands off  the  coast  of  Maine;  another  to  deter- 
mine the  boundary  from  the  source  of  the  river  St. 
Croix  to  the  river  St.  Lawrence ;  and  a  third  to 
lay  the  line  from  the  river  St.  Lawrence  to  the 
western  point  of  Lake  Huron,  and  also,  as  a  sepa- 
rate duty,  thence  to  the  most  northwestern  water 
of  the  Lake  of  tlie  woods. 

The  first  Commission,  Nov.  24.  1807.  awarded 
Moose,  Dudley,  and  Frederick  Islands  to  the  United 
States,  and    all    otlier  islands   in  Passamaquoddy 


Bay.  and  also  the  Isle  of  Grand  Menan,  to  Great 
Britain. 

Tlie  fhird  Commission  defined  their  portion  of 
the  lioundry  line  in  their  decision  dated  at  Utica, 
New  York,  .June  18,  1822. 

Tlie  second  Commission  failed  to  agree,  and,  af- 
ter repeated  attempts,  all  disputes  affecting  this 
boundary  of  the  Treaty  of  1783  were  adjusted  by  the 
"Webster-Ashburton  Treaty,  of  Washington,  Aug- 
ust 9,  1842,  where  may  be  found  designated  the 
present  line  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  and  from  the  western  terminus  of 
the  work  of  the  L'tica  Commission  to  the  western- 
most water  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and  thence, 
confirming  the  Treaty  of  Oct.  20,  1818,  due  south  to 
the  49th  parallel. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  United  States  com- 
menced its  career  as  an  acknowledged  government 
with  the  landed  area  which  it  now  possesses  east 
of  the  Jlississippi  River  and  north  of  the  State  of 
Florida  and.  -nestward  of  that  Slale,  north  ol  ihe 
31st  parallel,  being  an  extent  of  627,844  square 
miles. 

Cession    by    Foreign    Powers    to     the     United 

States. 

The  Fri  iirli  Cession. — Spain  having  held  during  3? 
years  the  Province  of  Louisiana,  which  she  had  re- 
ceived (]7(i3)  from  France,  receded  it  Oct.  1,  1890. 
to  France,  and  France,  April  30,  1803,  ceded  it  to- 
the  United  States. 

After  this  accession  negotiations  with  Great 
Britain  were  begun  to  determine  its  northern 
boundary.  In  1807  an  agreement  was  reached,  but 
not  formally  perfected,  and.  the  war  of  1812  inter- 
vening, the  settlement  of  the  boundary  was  de- 
ferred to  Oct.  20,  1818,  when,  by  convention,  it  was 
extended  from  the  northwestern  point  of  the  Lake 
of  the  Woods  to  and  along  the  49th  parallel  to  the 
Stony  (Rocky)  Mountains.  The  line  was  extended 
no  farther  westward,  among  other  reasons,  in  or- 
der that  no  offense  might  be  given  to  Spain,  which 
asserted  title  by  discovery  to  the  whole  Pacific 
slope  of  the  continent.  Yet  it  was  agreed,  to  pre- 
vent collisions,  and  without  prejudice  to  the 
claims  of  the  parties  or  of  outside  powers,  that  any 
country  claimed  by  either  party  to  the  convention 
should  be  free  to  both  parties  during  ten  years. 

The  part  of  the  eastern  boundary  of  this  cession, 
on  the  Mississippi  River  as  far  soutli  as  the  31st 
parallel  and  its  southeastern  lioundary  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  were  undisputed.  But  the  remainder 
of  the  eastern  and  the  whole  of  the  western 
boundary  was  in  controversy  between  the  LTnited 
States  and  Spain,  and  the  western  limit  at  the- 
north,  as  asserted  by  France  and  maintained  by 
the  United  States  and  Spain. 

The  western  limit  at  the  north,  as  asserted  by 
France  and  maintained  by  the  LTnited  States,  was 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Spain,  however,  claimed  title, 
by  prior  discovery  on  the  northwestern  coast,  as- 
far  eastward  as  the  Rocky  Mountains;  and  held 
that,  as  against  such  discovery,  the  title  of  France 
rested  solely  on  discovery  and  exploration  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  covered  no  more  than  the  basin 
drained  by  that  river  and  its  tributaries,  and 
consequently  ended  westerly  at  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 

At  the  southwest  the  United  States  maintained 
an  extent  of  the  French  cession,  including  the 
country  east  of  the  Rio  Grande.  But  Spain  having 
long  kept  a  line  of  garrisons  in  that  region,  held 
the  French  territory  to  have  been  liounded  by  the 
Sabine  River. 

These  conflicting  demands  were  satisfied  by 
treaty    at    Washington,    Feb.    22,   1819.      By   this 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1525 


authority  the  border  line  between  Spanish  pos- 
sessions in  the  southwest  and  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  ran  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  up  the 
western  bank  of  the  Sabine  River  to  the  31st  par- 
allel of  north  latitude,  thence  north  to  and  along 
the  Red  River,  to  and  along  the  23d  meridian 
(100th  Greenwich),  to  and  along  the  southern  bank 
of  the  Arkansas  River  to  its  source,  and  thence  due 
north  to  and  along  the  42d  degree  of  north  latitude 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  line  in  this  discussion 
will  be  regarded  as  having  been  the  southwestern 
boundary  of  the  Province  of  Louisiana. 

On  the  east  the  Treaty  of  1763  had  confined  the 
French  cession  to  the  Mississippi  River  as  far  south 
as  the  31st  parallel,  whence  eastward  various  bound- 
aries have  been  asserted.* 

Under  the  construction  of  the  cession  adopted  by 
the  United  States,  the  Province  of  Louisiana  is 
now  covered  by  those  portions  of  the  States  of 
Alabama  and  Mississippi  which  lie  south  of  the 
31st  parallel  by  the  entire  States  of  Louisiana,  Ar- 
kansas, Missouri,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  Oregon, 
and  by  that  part  of  the  State  of  Minnesota  west  of 
the  Mississippi  River, and  all  that  part  of  the  State 
of  Kansas  on  the  north  of  the  Arkansas  River  and 
east  of  the  23d  meridian  HOOth  Greenwich^;  by 
the  Dakotas,  Washington,  Idaho,  and  Montana,  the 
part  of  Colorado  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
north  of  the  Arkansas  River,  by  that  part  of 
Wyoming  north  of  the  4M  parallel  and  east  of  the 
meridian  of  the  source  of  the  River  Arkansas,  and 
by  what  is  known  as  the  Indian  Country. 

This  accession  of  area  for  which  the  United  States 
paid,  in  principal  and  interest,  more  than  $23,500,- 
000,  added  (adopting  the  L^nited  States  view  ojf  the 
cession)  1,171,931  square  miles  to  the  public  domain, 
extended  the  United  States  from  ocean  to  ocean, 
and  completed  its  possession  of  the  central  river 
and  basin  of  the  continent. 

The  Spanish  Cession. — The  next  addition  to  the 
area  of  the  United  States  was  contributed  by 
Spain.  At  the  time  of  the  conclusion  of  the  defini- 
tive treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  iSept.  3,  1783),  Great  Britain  ceded 
to  Spain  the  Provinces  of  East  and  West  Florida 
without  definition  of  their  boundaries.  Hence 
arose  two  opponent  constructions  of  the  treaty, 
affecting  the  Province  of  West  Florida.  Great 
Britain  held  the  northern  boundary  of  the  province 
which  she  ceded  to  be  the  31st  parallel  from  the 
Appalachicola  to  the  Mississippi  River,  and  by  a 
simultaneous  treaty  acknowledged  the  territory 
north  of  that  parallel  to  belong  to  the  United 
States,  which  government  also  adhered  to  a  bound- 
ary on  the  31st  parallel. 

In  opposition,  Spain  claimed  that,  by  the  treaty, 
the  province  of  West  Florida  was  ceded,  and  that 


*The  United  States  construed  the  cession  of  France  (1803) 
to  include  all  the  region  between  the  31st  parallel  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  between  the  Mississippi  River,  and  the 
Perdido  River,  now  the  western  boundarv  of  the  State  of 
Florida. 

The  ground  of  this  construction  seems  to  have  been  the 
original  Province  of  Louisiana  extended  eastward  to  the 
Perdido,  and  that  if  France,  as  its  cession  to  Spain,  had  not 
actual  possession,  it  yet  had  a  possessorv  right  reaching  to 
the  Perdido,  which  it  ceded  to  Spain,  (;763).  which  Spain  re- 
ceded to  France  (1800),  and  which  France  (1803),  ceded 
to  the  United  States.  On  the  other  hand  Spain  as- 
serted that  Louisiana  had  its  boundarv  at  the  south- 
east as  expressed  in  the  Treatv  of  1763  between 
Great  Britain  and  France,  namely,  "The  River  Iberville 
and  Lake  Maurepas  and  Poutchartrain,"  the  waters  skirting 
the  so-called  •■  Island  of  New  Orleans  "  westerlv  and  south- 
erly from  the  river  Mississippi  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
that  the  successive  transfers  had  carried  that  province  with 
that  eastern  boundary  into  the  possession  of  the  United 
States.  Under  this  construction  of  the  cession  of  1S03  it  em- 
braced, east  of  the  Mississippi  only  the  small  "Island  of 
New  Orleans.' 


on  the  day  of  the  treaty  the  province  remained  as 
extended  May  15,  1767,  by  Great  Britain,  includ- 
ing the  same  rivers  as  bounded  the  original  pro- 
vince and  northward  from  the  31st  parallel  lo  that 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River.  This  country 
Spain  took  into  possession  and  held  until,  by  au- 
thority of  joint  resolution  of  Congress,  Jan.  15, 
1811,  and  acts  of  the  same  date  and  of  March  3, 
1811,  passed  in  secret  session  and  first  published 
in  1818,  the  United  States  took  it  into  possession. 

On  Feb.  22,  1819,  the  controversy  was  ended  by 
the  treaty  of  Washington,  whereby  Spain  ceded 
to  the  United  States  its  provinces  of  East  and 
West  Florida.  In  accordance  with  the  construction 
maintained  by  the  United  States  respecting  the 
southeastern  limit  of  the  French  cession  and  the 
northern  limit  of  the  Spanish  cession,  the  latter 
added  the  territory  of  the  present  State  of  Florida, 
59,268  square  miles,  to  the  area  of  the  United 
States  at  a  cost  of  nearly  six  and  one-half  millions 
of  dollars.  By  the  same  treaty  Spain  agreed  to 
that  line  between  her  western  American  posses- 
sions and  the  United  States  which  has  herein  been 
adopted  as  the  southwestern  boundary  of  the 
French  cession,  and  ceded  to  the  United  States  all 
her  claims  to  any  territory  east  or  north  of  that  line. 

After  this  cession  by  Spain,  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  had  only  their  own  rights  to 
consider  in  the  settlement  of  the  northwestern 
boundary.  Hitherto  the  line  had  rested  on  the 
49th  parallel  of  north  latitude  at  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. By  article  1,  of  the  treaty  of  1846,  it  was 
stipulated  that  the  boundary  should  be  extended 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  westward  along  the 
same  (49th)  parallel  "to  the  middle  of  the  channel 
which  separates  the  continent  from  Vancouver's 
Land,  and  thence  southerly  through  the  middle  of 
said  channel  and  of  Fuca's  Strait  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean."  The  British  government  claimed  that  the 
"channel"  of  this  article  of  the  treaty  is  the  so- 
called  Straits  of  Rosario.  The  United  States  main- 
tained it  to  be  the  Canal  de  Haro.  The  question 
was  submitted  to  the  arbitrament  of  William  I, 
Emperor  of  Germany,  who  gave  decision  Oct.  21, 
1872,  in  favor  of  the  Canal  de  Haro.  Thus  it  re- 
quired nearly  ninety  years  for  the  national  bound- 
ary at  the  North  to  traverse  the  continent. 

TJie  Texan  Aniiexation. — The  next  expansion  of 
the  limits  of  the  United  States  was  southwestward. 
The  United  Mexican  States,  having  achieved  their 
independence  of  Spain,  under  the  treaty  at  Cor- 
dova, Feb.  24,  1821,  by  treaty  of  Mexico,  Jan.  12, 
1828,  ratified  that  boundary  with  the  United  States 
of  America  which  had  been  acknowledged  (1819) 
by  Spain,  when  possessed  of  their  territory. 

Subsequently  the  people  of  "Texas  and  Coahuila," 
one  of  the  United  States  of  Mexico,  revolted  from 
the  authority  of  that  republic,  and  in  convention, 
March  2,  1836,  declared  the  independent  Republic 
of  Texas.  By  an  act  of  the  legislature  of  that  Re- 
public, passed  Dec.  19,  1836,  its  boundaries  were 
declared  to  be  on  the  north  and  east  of  the  old  line 
settled  (1819)  by  the  United  States  and  Spain,  and 
on  the  south  and  west  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Sabine  and  three  leagues  from  the  coast  to  the 
mouth  of  and  up  the  Rio  Grande  to  its  source,  and 
thence  due  north  to  the  42d  parallel  of  north  lati- 
tude. By  joint  resolution  of  ^larch  3,  1837.  the 
United  States  of  America  acknowledged  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Republic  of  Texas ;  by  joint  reso- 
lution of  Dec.  29,  1845,  the  republic,  with  the  limits 
just  now  recited,  was  declared  to  be  one  of  the 
LTnited  States  of  America.  This  was  an  annexation 
of  376,163  square  miles  of  territory,  making  the 
total  area  of  the  United  States  2.435.176  square 
miles. 


1526 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


The  Mexican  Cessions. — The  old  Spanish  provinces 
of  Texas  and  Coahuila  were  separated  by  the  river 
Nueces.  At  the  institution  of  the  Mexican  Repub- 
lic these  provinces  were  united  as  the  State  of 
"Texas  and  of  Coahuila."  The  river  Nueces  was, 
however,  still  regarded  as  the  future  boundary 
between  the  probable  separate  States  of  Texas 
and  Coahuila  as  contemplated  by  the  Constitution 
•of  the  United  Mexican  States. 

On  the  annexation  of  the  Republic  of  Texas  to 
the  United  States  of  America,  Mexico  insisted  that 
Texas  only — and  not  Coahuila — had  revolted,  and 
consequently  that  its  proper  western  boundary  lay 
on  the  river  Nueces. 

On  the  contrary,  the  Texan  Republic  has  assert- 
ed a  wider  revolt  and  the  western  boundary  on  the 
Rio  Grande.  The  United  States  annexed  Texas  as 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Rio  Grande,  and  main- 
tained that  boundary. 

The  ensuing  war  was  concluded  by  a  treaty 
(Feb.  2,  1848),  wherein  the  United  States  of  Mexico 
ceded  to  the  tjnited  States  of  America  all  claims  to 
the  area  asserted  liy  the  former  Republic  of  Texas, 
and  to  the  vast  tract  of  land  n'esl  of  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  of  a  meridian  from  its  source  to  the  42d  par- 
allel of  north  latitude  aoath  of  that  parallel,  east  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  north  of  the  present  bound- 
ary of  the  United  States,  excepting  the  Mesilla 
Valley  south  of  the  river  Gila. 

The  latter  territory,  known  as  "The  Gadsden* 
Purchase,"  was  ceded  by  Mexico,  Dec.  30,  1853. 

The  money  consideration  passing  from  the 
United  States  for  the  first  Mexican  cession  was 
$15,000,000,  and  for  the  second  cession,  $10,000,000. 
The  first  cession  (exclusive  of  the  "Texan  annexa- 
tion") add^d  545,783  square  miles,  and  the  second 
cession,  45,535  square  miles,  to  the  area  of  the 
United  States,  and  increased  it  to  an  aggregate  of 
3,020,494  square  miles. 

Tlie  Russian  f'fsaion. — Russia,  by  treaty  of  March 
30,  1867,  ratified  .lune  20,  1867,  for  consideration  of 
$7,200,000,  ceded  her  territory  in  America,  which 
has  been  named  Alaska.t 

Alaska  is  separated  from  the  main  territory  of 
the  United  States  by  that  western  part  of  the  Brit- 
isli  possessions  which  lies  between  the  parallels  of 
54  degrees  40  minutes  and  49  degrees  north  lati- 
tude, its  southernmost  point  being  nearly  four 
huuilred  miles  distant  from  the  northern  boundary 
of  Washington.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  577,390 
sijiiare  miles. 

Territorial  Cessions  by  the  Several  States. 
When   the    Confederation    was    formed   by   the 
original  thirteen  colonies  the  cessions  of  their  ter- 

*.so  called  after  Gen.  James  Gadsden,  Unitfed  States  Minis- 
ter to  Mexico. 

f  On  the  east  this  cession  has  limit  on  the  line  which  by 
treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  (1825)  senarated 
their  territory.  It  begins  at  the  southernmost  pointof  Prince 
of  Wales  Island,  which  Is  on  the  parallel  of  hi  degrees  40 
minutes,  runs  northward  along  Portland  Channel  to  the 
junction  of  the  .Wth  parallel  of  north  latitude  with  the  conti- 
nent, and  thence  along  the  summits  of  the  mountains  par- 
allel to  the  coast  to  and  along  the  141st  meridian  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  But  where  the  crest  of  the  mountains  skirting  the 
coast  from  the  specified  parallel  to  the  meridian  is  more 
thau  ten  marine  leagues  from  the  ocean,  there  the  boundary 
is  a  line  not  more  than  ten  marine  leagues  from  the  coast 
and  parallel  to  its  windings.  The  remainder  of  the  boundary 
of  this  llussian  cession  originated  in  the  treaty  bv  which  the 
ces-iion  was  made.  It  commences  in  the  .\rcti'c  Ocean  on 
the  ft4th  meridian  of  west  longitude  (141st  Greenwich), 
descends  Bering  Straits  midway  between  the  islands  of 
Krusenstern  and  Kadmanov  to  65  degrees  35  minutes  (142 
degrees  .fO  minutes  Greenwich),  just  south  of  the  nearest 
points  of  .Vsia  and  America,  continues  between  the  Island  of 
St.  Lawrence  and  Cape  Chonkotski  to  the  O.ith  meridian 
(172d  Greenwich),  thence  midway  between  Atiouand  Copper 
Islands  to  lin  degrees  (167  east  longitude  from  Greenwich), 
anil  iliPTu'e  erw-<r\',i-:i'  to  include  the  Aleutian  Isles. 


ritory  (shown  on  the  map,  and  authorized  by  the 
articles  of  agreement)  were  not  immediately  made. 
Congress  in  an  address,  dated  April  18,  1783,  and 
later  by  resolution,  dated  April  29,  1784,  urged  that 
they  be  made  speedily,  as  a  source  of  common 
revenue  and  for  the  promotion  of  harmony  be- 
tween the  States.  The  following  is  a  chronological 
historic  outline  of  the  dates  when  the  States  sev- 
erally acceded  to  the  request  of  Congress : 

New  York  authorized  a  cession  in  Feb.  1780, 
and  executed  it  March  1,  1781.  It  was  renewed 
by  deed,  April  19,  1785.  The  claims  ceded 
were  titles  acquired  by  treaties  with  the  six 
Nations  of  Indians,  and  covered  the  whole  ter- 
ritory from  the  lower  of  the  Great  Lakes  south- 
ward across  the  valley  of  the  river  Ohio  as  far  as 
the  Cumberland  Mountains.  Oct.  29,  1782,  the  ces- 
sion was  accepted  by  the  United  States. 

Virginia  ofifered  to  cede,  by  Act  of  Jan.  2,  1781 ; 
Congress,  by  Act  of  Sept.  13,  1783,  agreed  to  accept 
the  cession  as  offered.  Thereupon  Virginia,  by 
Act  of  Nov.  20,  1783,  authorized  its  delegates  in 
Congress  to  complete  the  transfer,  which  was  done 
by  deed,  March  1,  1784.  The  deed  conveyed  all  the 
title  and  claims  of  the  State  of  Virginia  to  terri- 
tory northwest  of  the  Ohio  River.  Virginia,  by 
virtue  of  conquest  of  her  militia,  asserted  titles  as 
far  north  as  Lake  Erie  and  Michigan,  but  due  rec- 
ognition of  the  ancient  charter  boundary  of  the 
Colony  of  Connecticut  places  the  northern  limit 
of  the  cession  on  the  41st  parallel  of  north  latitude, 
and  permits  it  to  comprise  only  those  parts  of  the 
States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  situated  south 
of  that  parallel. 

Mussaclnmttts,  Nov.  13,  1784,  authorized  a  cession 
by  her  delegates  in  Congress;  April  18,  1785,  Con- 
gress agreed  to  accept  the  cession,  and  April  19, 
1785,  it  was  executed.  It  included  all  title  of  the 
State  of  Massachusetts  to  territory  west  of  the 
present  western  boundary  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  and  covered  the  land  from  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania to  the  Mississippi  River,  and  giving  the  full 
extent  of  the  first  charter  of  the  colony  between 
the  latitude  of  the  southern  boundary  of  the  west- 
ern extremity  of  the  present  State  of  Massachus- 
etts and  the  latitude  of  a  league  north  of  the  inflow 
of  Lake  Winnipiseogee  in  the  State  of  New  Hamp- 
shire. 

Connecticut,  Oct.  10,  1780,  having  offered  to  cede 
with  restrictions  which  were  unsatisfactory  to  the 
United  States,  on  the  second  Thursday  of  May, 
]78(),  again  authorized  a  cession;  May  26,  1786, 
Congress  expressed  readiness  to  accept  the  cession 
as  proposed,  and  Sept.  14,  1786,  the  cession  was  ac- 
complished by  the  execution  of  a  deed  and  its  ac- 
ceptance by  Congress.  This  cession  embraced  the 
soil  and  jurisdiction  of  the  territory  east  of  the 
river  Mississippi,  between  the  latitudinal  parallels 
of  41  degrees  and  42  degrees  2  minutes,  and  west  of 
a  meridian  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  west  of 
the  present  western  limit  of  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Connecticut,  by  Act  of  Oct.,  1797,  author- 
ized the  release  to  the  United  States  of  jurisdiction 
over  the  land  between  the  eastern  boundary  of  her 
former  cession  and  the  present  western  boundary 
of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania.  This  transfer  was 
consuniated  May  30,  1800.  The  State  retained  the 
right  of  soil  in  the  same  territory,  which  lying  in 
the  present  State  of  Ohio  between  41  degrees  and 
42  degrees  2  minutes,  and  reaching  from  the  west- 
ern boundary  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  west- 
ward one  hundred  and  twenty  miles,  has  eversince 
been  known  as  "The  Western  Reserve  of  Connect- 
icut." In  17f»2  the  State  conveyii!  live  hundred 
thousand  acres  in  the  western  part  of  tliis  reservs> 
to   certain  of  its  citizens  as  compensation  for  tiiyir 


I 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1527 


property  destroyed  by  fire  and  pilhiije  during  the 
Revolution.  Sept.  9,  1795,  the  State  alienated  the 
remainder  of  this  reserve  for  $1,200,000.  This  sum 
was  appropriated  asa  fund  whose  annual  interest  is 
pledfjed  to  the  support  of  schools. 

South  Carolina^  August  \9,  1787,  by  her  delegates 
in  Congres^s.  authorized  by  a  previous  Act  of  the 
State  Legislature,  executed  a  deedof  cession  which 
the  United  States  accepted  by  Act  of  April  2,  1790. 
The  deed  conveyed  the  area  of  the  present  State  of 
Tennessee. 

Xorth  Carolina,  by  Act  of  Dec. 22, 1789.  authorized 
a  cession  which  was  accepted  April  2,  1790.  The 
deed  conveyed  the  area  of  the  present  State  of 
Tennessee. 

Georgia,  by  articles  of  agreement,  dated  April  24, 
1802.  ceded  to  the  United  States  her  claims  to  the 
whole  territory  between  her  western  boundary  and 
the  Mississippi  River ;  while  the  United  States  at 
the  same  time  ceded  to  Georgia  all  of  that  portion 
of  South  Carolina  cession  lying  eastward  of  the 
western  boundary  of  Georgia.  This  cession  con- 
veyed all  the  land  now  in  the  States  of  Alabama 
and  Mississippi,  except  the  portion  along  the 
northern  boundaries  which  was  included  in  the 
South  Carolina  cession. 

The  agreement  included,  among  others,  provi- 
sions for:  1st,  payment,  out  of  proceeds  from  the 
sale  of  the  land  in  the  cession,  of  $1,250,000  to  the 
State  of  Georgia  as  a  reimbursement  of  its  ex- 
penses in  relation  to  the  territory  ceded;  2nd,  the 
appropriation  of  500,000  acres,  or  the  proceeds  of 
at  most  that  quantity  of  land,  to  satisfy  the  claims 
against  the  lands  of  the  cession ;  and  3d,  extin- 
guishment of  the  Indian  title  to  specified  parts  of 
the  cession.  It  resulted  that  the  United  States, 
in  addition  to  the  cession  to  Georgia,  paid  not  far 
from  $3,000,000  for  this  cession  from  Georgia. 

Declaration  of  Independence. 

The  following  is  the  full  text  of  the  world-re- 
nowned Declaration  of  Independence,  adopted  by  the 
Continental  Congress,  in  session  in  Independence 
Hall,  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  July  4,  1776.  The  resolution 
in  favor  of  Independence  was  adopted  July  2,  1776. 
It  was  then  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  committee,  of 
whom  Thomas  Jefferson  was  chairman,  who  duly 
formulated  and  engrossed  the  document  which 
wag  finally  read,  unanimously  approved,  and 
adopted  on  July  4,  1776: 

In  Congress.  July  4. 1776. 
The    Unanimous  Declaration   of  the   Thirtei7i    Unitfii  Stntfs   of 
America. 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events.it  becomes  necessary 
for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have 
connected  them  with  another,  and  to  assume  among:  the 
powers  of  the  earth  the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which 
the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle  them,  a  decent 
respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should 
declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident— that  all  men  are 
created  equal:  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  unalienable  rights;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty, 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  That  to  secure  these  rights, 
governments  are  instituted  among  men.  deriving  their  just 
powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed;  that  when  any 
form  of  government  becomes  destructive  to  these  ends,  it  is 
the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it/and  its  insti- 
tute a  new  government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such  princi- 
ples, and  organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them 
shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safeiv  and  happiness. 
Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that  governments  long  estab- 
lished should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient  causes; 
and  accordingly,  all  experience  hath  shown  that  mankind 
are  more  disposed  to  suffer,  while  evils  are  suflerable,  than 
to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they 
are  accustomed.  But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usur- 
pations, pursuing  invariably  the  same  object .  evinces  a  design 
to  reduce  them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right, 
it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  government,  and  to  pro- 
vide new  guards  for  their  future  security.  Such  has  been 
the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonies,  and  such  is  now  the 
necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  sys- 
tems of  government.    The  history  of   the  present   king  of 


Ureat  Britain  is  ;t  hif^tory  of  repeated  injuries  aud  usurpa- 
tions, all  having  in  direct  object  the  establishment  of  an 
absolute  tyranny  over  these  States.  To  prove  this,  let  facts 
be  submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws,  the  most  wholesome  and 
necessary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate 
and  pressing  importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation 
till  his  assent  should  be  obtained;  and,  when  so  suspended, 
he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws,  for  the  accommodation 
of  large  districts  of  pieople,  unless  those  people  would  relin- 
quish the  right  of  representation  in  the  legislature — a  right 
inestimable  to  them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual, 
uncomfortable,  and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their 
public  records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into 
compliance  with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedlv,  for 
opposing,  with  manly  firmness, his  invasions  on  the  rights  of 
the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to 
cause  others  to  be  elected;  whereby  the  legislative  powers, 
incapable  of  annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at 
large,  for  their  exercise;  the  state  remaining,  in  the  mean 
time,  exposed  to  all  the  dauger  of  invasion  from  without  and 
convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these 
States;  for  that  purpose  obstructing  the  laws  of  naturaliza- 
tion of  foreigners;  refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage  their 
migration  hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  appro- 
priations of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  admiuistration  of  justice  by  refus- 
ing his  assent  to  laws  for  establishing  judiciary  power. 

He  has  made  judges  depend  on  bis  will  aloue  for  the  ten- 
ure of  their  ofiices,  aud  the-  amount  and  payment  of  their 
salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  uew  offices,  and  sent  hither 
swarms  of  officers  to  harass  our  people  and  eat  out  their 
substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us  in  limes  of  peace  standing  armies 
without  the  consent  of  our  legislature. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of.  and 
superior  to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction 
foreign  to  our  constitution  aud  unacknowledged  by  our  laws; 
giving  his  absent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation. 
For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us : 
For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment 
for  any  murders  which  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabit- 
ants of  these  States: 
For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world : 
For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent: 
For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by 
jury: 

For  transporting  us  beyond  the  seas,  to  be  tried  for  pre- 
tended offenses: 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neigh- 
boring province,  establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  govern- 
ment, and  enlarging  its  boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once 
an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  ab- 
solute rule  into  these  colonies: 

For  taking  awav  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valu- 
able laws,  and  altering  fundamentally  the  powers  of  our 
governments: 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  declaring  them- 
selves invested  with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases 
whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here  by  declaring  us  out  of 
his  protection,  and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burnt  our 
towns,  and  destroyed  the  lives  of  our  peoi>le. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign 
mercenaries  to  complete  the  work  of  death,  desolation,  and 
tyranny,  already  begun,  with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and 
perfidy' scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and 
totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on 
the  high  seas,  to  bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become 
the  executioners  of  their  friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall 
themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  among  us,  and  has 
endeavered  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the 
merciless  Indian  savages,  whose  knowu  rule  of  warfare  is 
an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  con- 
ditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for 
redress  in  the  most  humble  terms;  our  repeated  petitions 
have  been  answered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A  prince 
whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may  de- 
fine a  tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our  British 
brethren.  We  have  warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  at- 
tempts, made  by  their  legislature,  to  extend  an  unwarrant- 
able jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the 
circumstances  of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here  We 
have  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity,  and 
we  have  conjured  them  by  the  ties  of  our  .common  kindred 
to  disavow  these  usurptions.  which  would  inevitably  inter- 
rupt our  connections  and  correspondence.  They,  too.  have 
been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  consanguinity.    We 


1528 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces 
our  separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  man- 
kind—enemies in  war — in  peace,  friends. 

We.  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  in  general  congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Su- 
preme Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions ; 
Do,  in  the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  good  people  of 
these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare,  that  these 
United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ovight  to  be,  free  and  inde- 
pendent states.  That  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance 
to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  be- 
tween them  and  the  State  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to 
be,  totally  dissolved;  and  that,  as  free  and  independent 
states,  they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace, 
contract  alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  to  do  all  other 
acts  and  things  which  independent  states  may  of  right  do. 
And  for  the  supi)Ort  of  this  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance 
on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge 
to  each  other  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 


Mas^aflufsrtts  Bay. 

John  Hancock, 
Samuel  .\dam3, 
John  Adams. 
Ko'^ert  Treat  Payne, 
El  bridge  Gerry. 

Bhod^  Island. 

Stephen  Hopkins, 
William  Ellery. 

Connecticut. 
Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 

yew  York. 
William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 

New  Jersey. 
ftichard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Erancis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart, 
Abraham  Clark. 

Pennsyh'ania. 
Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 


Kew  Hampshire. 
Josiah  Bartlett, 
William  W'hipple. 
Matthew  Thornton. 

Delaware. 
Csesar  Rodney, 
George  Read, 
Thomas  M'Kean. 

Marylaiid. 

Samuel  Chase, 
William  Paca. 
Thomas  Stone, 
Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton. 

Virginia. 
George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  jun., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee, 
Carter  Braxton. 

\orth  -CaroHna. 
William  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hughes, 
John  Penn. 

South  Carolina. 
Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Heyward,  jun., 
Thomas  Lynch,  jun., 
Arthur  Mi'ddleton. 

Georgia. 
Button  Gwinnet, 
Lyman  Hall. 
George  Walton. 


Governmental  Recognition  of  the  Independence 
OF  THE  United  States. 

France  acknowledged  the  Independence  of  the 
American  Colonies  Feb.  6,  1778,  and  signed  a  treaty 
of  Alliance  and  Commerce  with  the  American  Em- 
bassy. The  alliance  clause  was  regarded  and 
treated  by  England  as  a  declaration  of  war  by 
France,  and  the  two  nations  immediately  began  to 
prepare  for  hostilities. 

HoUaitd. — Great  Britain  declared  war  against 
Holland,  Dec.  20,  1780,  on  learning  that  Holland 
was  engaged  in  negotiating  a  commercial  treaty 
with  the  colonies.  Holland  recognized  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  colonies,  April  10,  1782. 

Great  Britain. — In  the  early  part  of  1782  several 
earnest  attempts  were  made  by  the  British  parlia- 
ment to  terminate  the  war  against  the  colonies, 
but  the  king  and  ministry  persisted  in  their  efforts 
toward  subjugation.  On  March  4,  the  commons 
resolved,  "  That  all  who  advise  the  king  to  con- 
tinue the  war  shall  be  regarded  as  public  enemies." 
The  administration  of  Lord  North  came  to  an  end 
March  20,  and  a  strong  peace  party  succeded 
The  summer  of  1782  was  largely  spent  in  corre- 
spondence and  negotiations.  Preliminary  peace  ar- 
ticles were  signed  at  Paris,  Nov.  30,  by  Richard 
Oswald,  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  and  by  John 


Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Jay,  and  Henry 
Laurens  on  the  part  of  the  United  States. 

Congress  proclaimed  cessation  of  hostilities,  April 
11,  1783,  and  ratified  the  preliminary  treaty  with 
Great  Britain,  April  15.  The  Congressional  procla- 
mation was  read  to  the  army,  April  19. 

The  last  international  act  in  the  revolution  was 
consummated  Sept.  23,  when  a  definitive  treaty  was 
signed  by  David  Hartly,  on  the  part  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Adams,  and 
John  Jay,  on  the  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
treaty  fully  conceded  the  independence  of  the 
American  States,  secured  boundaries  extending 
north  to  the  great  lakes  and  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
restored  the  two  Floridas  to  Spain,  and  accorded 
the  Americans  an  unlimited  right  of  fishing  on  the 
banks  of  Newfoundland. 

During  the  war.  Great  Britain  sent  112,584  troops 
for  land-service  and  over  22,000  seamen  to  America, 
and  the  Colonists  had  230,000  Continental  soldiers 
and  5fi,000  militia  under  arms. 

By  a  general  order  of  Congress  the  army  was 
disbanded,  Nov.  3,  a  small  force  being  retained  at 
West  Point,  N.  Y.,  under  command  of  General 
Knox,  until  the  organization  of  a  peace  establish- 
ment. 

The  British  army  evacuated  New  York  City  Nov. 
25 ;  General  Knox  moved  his  troops  down  from 
West  Point  and  halted  in  the  Bowery,  and  as  the 
British  marched  to  Whitehall  he  followed  and  took 
possession  of  Fort  George,  the  artillery  on  the  Bat- 
tery saluting  the  United  States  flag,  and  the  citi- 
zens giving  Governor  Clinton  and  the  principal 
civil  officers  of  the  State  who  accompanied  General 
Knox  an  enthusiastic  reception. 

Washington  summoned  his  officers  to  meet  him 
at  his  quarters,  corner  of  Pearl  and  Broad  Streets, 
New  York,  Dec.  4,  and  then  amid  copious  tears  and 
prolonged  sobs,  he  took  an  affectionate  farewell 
of  each.  The  ceremony  over,  he  proceeded  direct 
to  Annapolis,  Md.,  where  Congress  was  in  session, 
and  returned  to  it,  Dec.  23,  the  commission  it  gave 
him  over  eight  years  before.  He  rendered  an  ac- 
count of  his  expenses  as  Commander-in-Chief, 
amounting  to  about  $74,480, but  declined  to  receive 
any  compensation  for  his  services,  and  sought  the 
retirement  of  his  farm. 

Articles  of  Confederation. 

In  the  history  of  the  United  States  there  have 
been  three  differently  constituted  Congresses :  "The 
Continental  Congress."  "TheCongresssof  the  Con- 
federation," and  "The  Congress  of  the  United 
States."  The  Congress  of  the  Confederation  rep- 
resented the  States  under  the  compact,  or  Consti- 
tution, known  as  "The  Articles  of  Confederation," 
the  full  text  of  which  was  as  follows : 

Articles  of  Confederation  and  perpetual  Union  between  the  Statet 
of  New  Hampshire,  llassachusctts  Bay,  Rhode  Island  and 
Providence  Plantations,  Connecticut,  New  York,  Sew  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware.  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
South  'Carolina,  and  Georgia. 

Article  1.  The  style  of  this  confederacy  shall  be  "The 
United  States  of  America." 

Art.  2.  Each  State  retains  its  sovereignty,  freedom,  and  in- 
dependence, and  everv  power,  jurisdiction,  and  right,  which 
is  not  by  this  confederation  expressly  delegated  to  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled. 

-iRT.  3.  The  said  States  hereby  severally  enter  into  a  firm 
league  of  friendship  with  each  other  for  their  common  de- 
fense, the  security  of  their  liberties,  and  their  mutual  and 
general  welfare;  binding  themselves  to  assist  each  other 
against  all  force  offered  to,  or  attacks  made  upon  them,  or 
any  of  them,  on  account  of  religion,  sovereignty,  trade,  or 
auv  other  pretense  whatever. 

Art.  4.  The  better  to  secure  and  perpetuate  mutual  friend- 
ship and  intercourse  among  the  people  of  the  different  States 
in  this  Union,  the  free  inhabitants  of  each  of  these  States, 
paupers,  vagabonds,  and  fugitives  from  justice  excepted, 
shaft  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  Immunities  of  free  cit- 
Uens  in  the  several  States ;  aira  the  people  of  each  State  shall 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1529 


have  free  ingress  and  regress  to  aud  from  any  other  State, 
and  shall  enjoy  therein  all  the  privileges  of  trade  and  com- 
merce, subject*  to  the  same  duties,  impositions,  and  restric- 
tious.  as  the  inhabitants  thereof  respectively;  provided  that 
such  restrictions  shall  not  extend  so  far  as  to  prevent  the 
removal  of  property  imported  into  any  State  to  any  other 
State,  of  which  the  owner  is  an  inhabitant;  provided  also, 
that  no  imposition,  duties,  or  restriction  shall  oe  laid  by  any 
State  on  the  property  of  the  United  States  or  either  of  them. 
if  any  i»erson  guilty  of  or  charged  with  treason,  felony,  or 
■other  liigh  misdemeanor,  in  any  State,  shall  flee  from  justice 
and  bf  found  in  any  of  the  United  States,  he  shall,  upon  de- 
mand of  the  Governor  or  Executive  power  of  the  State  from 
which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up  and  removed  to  the  State  hav- 
ing jurisdiction  of  his  offense. 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  of  these  States 
to  the  records,  acts,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  the  courts 
and  magistrates  of  every  other  State. 

Art.  5.  For  the  more  couvenient  management  of  the  gener- 
al interests  of  the  United  States,  delegates  shall  be  annually 
appointed  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  of  each  State 
shall  direct,  to  meet  in  Congress  on  the  first  Monday  in  No- 
vember in  every  year,  with  a  power  reserved  to  each  State  to 
recall  its  delegates,  or  any  of  them,  at  any  time  within  the 
year,  and  to  send  others  in  their  stead  for  the  remainder  of 
the  year. 

No  State  shall  be  represented  in  Congress  by  less  than  two. 
nor  by  more  than  seven  members;  and  no  person  shall  be 
■capable  of  being  a  delegate  for  more  than  three  years  in  any 
term  of  six  years ;  nor  shall  any  person,  being  a  delegate,  be 
■capable  of  "holding  any  ofl&ce  under  the  United  States,  for 
which  he.  or  another  for  his  benefit,  receives  auy  salary,  fees, 
or  emoluments  of  any  kind. 

Each  State  shall  maintain  its  own  delegates  in  a  meeting 
of  the  States,  and  white  they  act  as  members  of  the  commit- 
tee of  the  States, 

In  determining  questions  in  the  United  States  in  Congress 
assembled,  each  State  shall  have  one  vote. 

Freedom  of  speech  and  debate  in  Congress  shall  not  be 
impeached  or  questioned  in  any  court  or  place  out  of  Con- 
gress; and  the  members  of  Congress  shall  be  protected  in 
their  persons  from  arrests  and  imprisonments  during  the 
timeof  their  going  to  and  from  and  attendance  on  Congress. 
except  for  treason,  felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace. 

Art.  t>.  No  State,  without  the  consent  of  tne  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled,  shall  send  any  embassy  to,  or  receive 
a.ny  embassy  from,  or  enter  into  any  conference,  agreement, 
alliance  or  treaty,  with  any  king,  prince,  or  state;  nor  shall 
any  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  the 
United  States,  or  any  of  them,  accept  of  any  present,  emolu- 
ment, office,  or  title  of  any  kind  whatever,  irom  any  king, 
prince  or  foreign  state :  nor  shall  the  United  States  in  Con- 
gress assembled,  or  any  of  them,  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  two  or  more  States  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  confed- 
eration, or  alliance  whatever,  between  tliem.  without  the 
consent  of  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  specify- 
ing accurately  the  purposes  for  which  the  same  is  to  be  en- 
tered into,  an&  how  long  it  shall  continue. 

No  State  shall  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  which  may  inter- 
fere with  any  stipulations  in  treaties  entered  into  "by  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  with  any  king,  prince, 
or  state,  in  pursuance  of  any  treaties  already  proposed  by 
Congress  to  the  courts  of  France  and  Spain. 

No  vessel  of  war  shall  be  kept  up  in  time  of  peace  by  any 
State,  except  such  number  only  as  shall  be  deemed  necessary 
by  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  for  the  defense 
of  such  State  or  its  trade:  nor  shall  any  body  of  forces  be 
kept  up  by  any  State  in  time  of  peace  except  such  number 
only,  as  in  the  judgment  of  the  United  States  in  Congress  as- 
sembled, shall  be  deemed  requisite  to  garrison  the  forts  nec- 
essary for  the  defense  of  such  State;  but  every  State  shall 
always  keep  up  a  well-regulated  and  diciplined  militia,  suf- 
ficiently armed  and  accoutred,  and  shall  provide  and  have 
confetantly  ready  for  use,  in  public  stores,  a  due  number  of 
field-piecfs  and  tents,  and  a  proper  quantity  of  arms,  ammu- 
nition, and  camp  equipage. 

No  State  shall  engage  in  any  war  without  the  consent  of  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  unless  such  State  be 
actually  invaded  by  enemies,  or  shall  have  received  certain 
advice  of  a  resolution  being  formed  by  some  nation  of  Indi- 
ans to  invade  such  State,  and  the  danger  is  so  imminent  as 
not  to  admit  of  a  delay  till  the  United  States  in  Congress  as- 
sembled can  be  consulted;  nor  shall  any  State  grant  com- 
missions to  any  ships  or  vessels  of  war.  nor  letters  of  marque 
or  reprisal,  except  it  be  after  a  declaration  of  war  by  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  and  then  only  against 
the  kingdom  or  state,  and  the  subjects  thereof,  against  which 
war  has  been  so  declared,  and  under  such  regulations  as 
shall  be  established  by  the  United  States  in  Congress  assem- 
bled, unless  such  State  be  infested  by  pirates,  in  which  case 
vessels  of  war  may  be  fitted  out  for  that  occasion,  and  kept 
so  long  as  the  danger  shall  continue,  or  until  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled  shall  determine  otherwise. 

Art.  7.  When  land  forces  aro  raised  bv  any  State  for  the 
common  defense,  all  officers  of  or  under  the  rank  of  colonel, 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  legislature  of  each  State  respect- 
ively, by  whom  such  forces  snail  be  raised,  or  in  such  man- 
ner AS  such  State  shall  direct, and  all  vacancies  shall  be  filled 
up  by  the  State  which  first  made  the  appointment. 

Art.  S.  All  charges  of  war,  and  all  other  expenses  that  shall 
be  iOonrred  for  the  common  defense  or  general  welfare,  and 


allowed  by  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  shall 
be  defrayed  out  of  a  common  treasury,  which  shall  be  sup- 
plied by  the  several  States  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  all 
land  within  each  State  granted  to  or  surveyed  for  any  per- 
son, as  such  land  and  the  buildings  and  improvements  there- 
on shall  be  estimated  according  to  such  mode  as  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled  shall  from  time  to  time  direct 
and  appoint. 

The  taxes  for  paying  that  proportion  shall  be  laid  and  lev- 
ied by  the  authority  aud  direction  of  the  legislatures  of  Che 
several  States,  within  the  time  agreed  upon  by  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled. 

Art.  9.  The  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall  have 
the  sole  and  exclusive  right  aud  power  of  determining  on 
peace  and  war,  except  in  the  cases  mentioned  in  the  sixth  ar- 
ticle— of  sending  and  receiving  aniliassadors— entering  into 
treaties  and  alliances  ;  provided,  that  no  treaty  of  commerce 
shall  be  made  whereby  the  legislative  power  of  the  respect- 
ive States  shall  be  restrained  from  imposing  such  imposes 
and  duties  on  foreigners  as  their  own  people  are  subjected 
to,  or  from  prohibiting  the  exportation  or  importation  of 
any  species  of  goods  or  commodities  whatsoever — of  estab- 
lishing rules  fordeciding  in  all  cases  what  captures  on  land 
or  water  shall  be  legal,  and  in  what  manner  prizes  taken  by 
land  or  naval  forces  in  the  service  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  divided  or  appropriated — of  granting  letters  of  marque 
and  reprisal  in  times  of  peace— appointing  courts  for  the 
trial  of  piracies  and  fellonies  committed  on  the  high  seas, 
and  establishing  courts  for  receiving  aud  determining  finally 
appeals  in  all  cases  of  captures  ;  provided  that  no  member  of 
Congress  shall  be  appointed  a  judge  of  any  of  the  said  courts. 
The  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall  also  be  the 
last  resort  on  appeal  in  all  disputes  and  differences  now 
subsisting  or  that  hereafter  may  arise  between  two  or  more 
States  concerning  boundary,  jurisdiction,  or  any  other  cause 
whatever;  which  authority  shall  always  be  exercised  in  the 
manner  following:  whenever  the  leg"islative  or  executive 
authority  or  lawful  agent  of  any  State  in  controversy  with 
another  shall  present  a  petition  to  Congress,  stating  the 
matter  in  question,  and  paying  for  a  hearing,  notice  thereof 
shall  be  given  by  order  of  Congress  to  the  legislative  or  ex- 
ecutive authority  of  the  other  State  in  controversy,  and  a 
day  assigned  for  the  appearance  of  the  parties,  by  their  law- 
ful agents,  who  shall  then  be  directed  to  appoint  by  joint 
consent  commissioners  or  judges  to  constitute  a  court  for 
hearing  and  determining  the  matter  in  question ;  but  if  they 
cannot  agree.  Congress  shall  name  three  persons  out  of 
each  of  the  United  States,  and  from  the  list  of  such  persons 
each  party  shall  alternatively  strike  out  one,  the  peti- 
tioners beginning,  until  the  number  shall  be  reduced  to 
thirteen;  and  from  that  number  not  less  than  seven  nor 
more  than  nine  names,  as  Congress  shall  direct,  shall,  in 
the  presence  of  Congress,  be  drawn  out  by  lot;  and  the  per- 
sons whose  names  shall  be  so  drawn. or  any  five  of  them, 
shall  be  commissioners  or  judges,  to  hear  and  finally  deter- 
mine the  controversy,  so  always  as  a  major  part  of  the 
judges,  who  shall  hear  the  cause,  shall  agree  in  the  deter- 
mination; and  if  either  party  shall  neglect  to  attend  at  the 
day  appointed,  without  showing  reasons  which  Congress 
shall  judge  sufficient,  or  being  present  shall  refuse  to  strike, 
the  Congress  shall  proceed  to  nominate  three  persons  out 
of  each  State,  and  the  secretary  of  Congress  shall  strike  in 
behalf  of  suchiparty  absent  or  refusing;  and  the  judgement 
aud  sentence  of  the  court,  to  be  appointed  in  the  manner 
before  prescribed,  shall  be  final  and  conclusive;  and  if  any 
of  the  parties  shall  refuse  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  such 
court,  or  to  appear,  or  defend  their  claim  or  cause,  the  court 
shall,  nevertheless,  proceed  to  pronounce  sentence  or  judg- 
ment, which  shall,  in  like  manner,  be  final  and  decisive, 
the  judgment  or  sentence  and  other  proceedings  being  in 
either  case  transmitted  to  Congress,  and  lodged  among  the 
acts  of  Congress  for  the  security  of  the  parties  concerned; 
provided,  that  every  commissioner,  before  he  sits  in  judg- 
ment, shall  take  an  oath,  to  be  administered  by  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  supreme  or  superior  court  of  the  Slate,  where 
the  cause  shall  be  tried,  "well  and  truly  to  hear  and  deter- 
mine the  matter  in  question,  according  to  the  best  of  his 
judgment,  without  favor,  affection,  or  hope  of  reward;" 
provided,  also,  that  no  State  shall  be  deprived  of  territory 
for  the  benefit  of  the  United  States. 

All  controversies  concerning  the  private  right  of  soil. 
claimed  under  different  grants  of  two  or  more  States,  whose 
jurisdiction  as  they  may  respect  such  lands  and  the  States 
which  passed  sucfi  grants  are  adjusted,  the  said  grants  or 
either  of  them  being  at  the  same  time  claimed  to  have  origi- 
nated antecedent  to  such  settlement  of  jurisdiction,  shall, 
on  the  petition  of  either  party  to  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  be  finally  determined,  as  near  as  may  be.  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  before  prescribed  for  deciding  disputes  re- 
specting territorial  jurisdiction  between  different  States. 

The  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall  also  have 
the  sole  and  executive  right  and  power  of  regulating  the 
alloy  and  value  of  coin  struck  by  their  own  authoritv.  or 
by  that  of  the  respective  States— fixing  the  standard  of 
weights  and  measures  throughout  the  United  States— regu- 
lating the  trade  and  managing  all  affairs  with  the  Indians 
not  members  of  any  of  the  States;  provided  that  the  legis- 
lative right  of  any  State  within  its  own  limits  be  not  in- 
fringed or  violated — establishing  and  regulating  post-offices 
from  one  State  to  another  throughout  all  the  Uni^ted  States, 
and  exacting  such  postage  on  the  papers  passing  through 


1530 


U  K  1 1  E  i>    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


the  same,  as  may  be  requisite  to  defray  tlie  expenses  of  the 
said  oiiice— app6iutiuf<  all  officers  of  the  land  forces  iu  the 
service  of  the  Tuited  States  exceptius  regimental  officers— 
appointiug  all  the  officers  of  the  naval  forces,  and  commis- 
sioning all  othcers  whatever  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States— making  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of 
the  said  land  aud  naval  forces,  and  directing  their  operations. 

The  United  States  iu  Congress  assembled  shall  have  au- 
thority to  appoint  a  committee  to  sit  in  the  recess  of  Con- 
gress,"to  be  denominated  "a  committee  of  the  States."  and  to 
ionsist  of  one  delegate  from  each  State;  and  to  appoint  such 
other  committees  and  civil  officers  as  may  be  necessary  for 
managing  the  general  affairs  of  the  United  States,  under 
their  direction — to  appoint  one  of  their  number  to  preside, 
provided  that  no  person  be  aljowed  to  serve  in  the  office  of 
president  more  than  one  year  in  any  term  of  three  years  to 
ascertain  the  necessary  sums  of  money  to  be  raised  for  the 
'Service  of  the  United  States,  and  to  appropriate  and  ai.ply 
the  same  for  defraying  the  public  expenses— to  borrow 
money  or  emit  bills  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States,  trans- 
mitting every  half  year  to  the  respective  States  an  account  of 
the  sums  of  money  so  borrowed  or  emitted— to  build  and 
equip  a  navy— to  agree  upon  the  number  of  land  forces,  aud 
to  make  requisitions  from  each  State  for  its  quota,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  white  iuhabitants  in  such  Slate; 
which  requisition  shall  be  binding,  and  thereupon  the  legis- 
lature of  each  State  shall  appoint  the  regimental  officers, 
raise  the  men,  and  clothe,  arm,  aud  equip  ihem.  in  a  soldier- 
like manner,  at  the  expense  of  the  United  Siates;  and  the 
officers  and  men  so  clothed,  armed,  and  equipped,  shall 
march  to  the  phice  appointed,  and  within  the  time  agreed  on 
bv  the  United  States  iu  Congress  assembled:  but  if  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall,  on  consideration 
of  circumstances,  judge  proper  that  any  State  should  not 
raise  men.  or  should  raise  a  smaller  number  than  its  quota, 
and  that  any  other  State  should  raise  a  greater  number  of 
men  than  tlie  quota  thereof,  such  extra  number  shall  he 
raised,  officered,  clothed,  armed,  and  equipped,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  quota  of  such  State,  imless  the  legislature  of 
such  State  shall  judge  that  such  extra  number  cannot  safely 
be  spared  out  of  the  same :  iu  which  case  they  shall  raise,  of- 
ficer, clothe,  arm,  and  equip  as  many  of  such  extra  number 
as  they  judge  can  be  safely  spared  And  the  officers  and 
men  so  clothed,  armed,  and  equipped,  shall  march  to  the 
glace  appointed,  and  within  ino  time  agreed  on  by  the 
United  .-states  iu  Congress  assembled. 

The  United  States  m  Congress  assembled  shall  never  en- 
gage in  war,  nor  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  in  time 
of  peace,  nor  enter  into  any  treaties  or  alliances,  nor  coin 
money,  nor  regulate  the  value  thereof,  nor  ascertain  the 
sums  and  expenses  necessary  for  the  defense  and  welfare  of 
the  United  States  or  any  of  them, nor  emit  bills,  nor  borrow 
money  on  the  credit  of'the  United  States,  nor  appropriate 
money,  nor  agree  upon  the  number  of  vessels-of-war  to  be 
built  or  purchased,  or  the  number  of  land  or  sea  forces  to  be 
raised,  nor  appoint  a  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
navy,  unless  nine  States  assent  to  the  same  ;  nor  shall  a  ques- 
tion on  anv  other  point,  except  for  adjourning  from  day  to 
day,  be  deteVmined.  unless  by  the  votes  of  a  majority  of  the 
Uuited  States  in  Congress  assembled. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States  shall  have  power  to  ad- 
journ to  any  time  within  the  year,  and  to  any  place  within 
the  United  States,  so  that  no  period  of  adjournment  be  for 
a  longer  duration  than  the  space  of  six  months :  and  shall 
publish  the  journal  of  their  proceedings  monthly,  except 
such  parts  thereof  relating  to  treaties,  alliances,  or  military 
operations,  as  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy;  and  the 
yeas  and  nays  of  the  delegates  of  each  State  on  any  question 
shall  be  entered  on  the  journal,  when  it  is  desired  by  any 
delegate;  and  the  delegates  of  a  State,  or  any  of  them,  at  his 
or  their  request,  shall  be  furnished  with  a  transcript  of  the 
said  journal,  except  such  parts  as  are  above  excepted,  to  lay 
before  the  legislatures  of  the  several  States. 

Art.  U).  The  committee  of  the  States,  or  any  nine  of  them, 
fihall  be  authorized  to  execute,  in  the  recess  of  Congress, 
such  of  the  powers  of  Congress  as  the  United  States  in  Con- 
gress assembled,  by  the  consent  of  nine  States,  shall  from 
time  to  time  think'expedient  to  vest  them  with;  provided 
that  no  power  be  delegated  to  the  said  committe,  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  which,  by  the  articles  of  confederation,  the  voice  of 
nine  States  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  assembled 
is  requisite. 

Akt.  11.  Canada,  acceding  to  this  confederation,  and  join- 
ing in  the  measures  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  admitted 
into,  aud  entitled  to  all  the  advantages  of,  this  Union,  but 
no  other  colony  shall  be  admitted  into  the  same  unless  such 
admission  be  agreed  to  by  nine  States. 

Art.  12.  All  bills  of  credit  emitted,  moneys  borrowed. 
and  debts  contracted  bv  or  under  the  authority  of  Congress, 
before  the  assembling  of  the  United  States,  in  pursuance  of 
the  present  confederation,  shall  be  deemed  and  considered 
as  a  charge  against  the  United  States,  for  payment  and  satis- 
faction whereof  the  said  United  States  and  the  public  faith 
are  hereby  solemnly  pledged. 

Art.  13.  Everv  State  shall  abide  by  the  decision  of  the 
United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  on  all  questions 
which,  by  this  confederation,  are  submitted  to  them.  And 
the  articles  of  this  confederation  shall  be  inviolably  observed 
by  every  State,  and  the  Union  shall  be  perpetual;  nor  shall 
any  alteration  at  any  time  hereafter  be  made  in  any  of  them, 
unless  such  alteration   be  agreed  to  in  a  Congress  of  the 


United  States,  and  be  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  legislar 
ture  of  every  State. 

And  whereas  it  has  pleased  the  great  Governor  of  the 
world  to  incline  the  hearts  of  the  legislatures  we  respectively 
represent  in  Congress,  to  approve  of  and  to  authorize  us  to 
ratify  the  said  articles  of  confederation  aud  perpetual  union; 
K-iimv  ij(.  that  we.  the  undersigned  delegates,  by  virtue  of  the 
power  and  authority  to  us  given  for  that  purpose,  do,  by 
these  presents,  in  the  name  and  in  behalf  of  our  respective 
constituents, fully  and  entirely  ratify  and  confirm  each  and 
every  of  the  said  articles  of  confederation  aud  perpetual 
union,  and  all  and  singular  the  matters  aud  things  therein 
contained;  and  we  do  further  solemnly  )>ledge  and  engage 
the  faith  of  our  resjieetive  constituents,  that  they  shall  abide 
by  the  determinations  of  the  United  States  iu  Congress  as- 
sembled, on  all  questions  which,  by  the  said  confederation, 
are  submitted  to  them;  and  that  the  articles  thereof  shall  be 
inviolably  observed  by  the  States  we  respectively  represent; 
and  that  the  Union  be  perpetual. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands,  in 
Congress.  Done  at  Philadelphia,  in  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  ninth  day  of  July,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  and  in  the  third 
year  of  the  independence  of  America. 


Xf)!'  Hmnpshiri . 

Josiah  Bartlett. 
John  Wentworth,  Jr. 

Mai^sachusctts  Bat/. 
John  Hancock, 
Somuel  Adams, 
Elbridge  Uerry, 
Francis  Dana, 
James  Lovell, 
SamuelHilton. 

Rhode  Island. 
William  Ellery, 
Henry  Marchant, 
John  Collins. 

Connecticut. 
Roger  Sherman, 
Saiimel  Huntington, 
Oliver  Wolcott,  ,; 

Titus  Hosmer, 
Andrew  Adams. 

New  York. 
James  Duane, 
Francis  Lewis, 
William  Duer, 
Gonverneur  Morris. 

Pemifii/lvania. 
Robert  Morris, 
Daniel  Roberbeau, 
Jonathan  Bayard  Smith, 
William  Klingan, 
Joseph  Reed. 


X<  IV  Jersey. 
John  Witherspoon, 
Nath.  Scudder. 

Df  (aware. 
Thomas  McKean, 
John  Dickinson, 
Nicholas  Van  Dyke. 

Maryland. 
John  Hanson, 
Daniel  Carroll. 

Virginia. 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
John  Banister". 
Thomas  Adams, 
John  Harvie, 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee. 

North  Carolina. 
John  Penn. 
Cornelius  Harnett, 
John  Williams. 

South  Carolina. 
Henry  Laurens, 
William  Henry  Drayton, 
John  Matthew's, 
Richard  Hutson, 
Thomas  Heyward.  Jr. 

(feorfiin. 
George  Walton. 
Edward  Telfair. 
Edward  Langworthy. 


Earliest  Congress  of  the  United  States. 

First  Continental  Co7igress,  i;?^.— In  May,  1774,  the 
Sons  of  Liberty  of  New  York,  first  proposed  a  Gen- 
eral Congress  of  the  Aiuerfran  Colonies.  They  for- 
warded this  proposition  through  Connecticut  to 
Boston,  and  through  Philadelphia  to  every  colony 
in  the  South.  On  June  17.  the  Legislature  of  Mass- 
achusetts appointed  the  first  day  of  September, 
1774,  as  the  time,  and  Philadelphia  as  the  place  for 
holding  the  Continental  Congress.  Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams,  Thomas  Cushing,  and  Robert  Treat 
Paine  were  chosen  delegates.  One  colony  after 
another  elected  deputies  soon  afterward.  On  Mon- 
day, Sept.  5,  the  members  of  the  Congress  moved  in 
a  body  into  a  plain  but  spacious  hall  offered  by  the 
carpenters  of  Philadelphia,  Peyton  Randolph,  late 
speaker  of  the  assembly  of  Virginia,  M'as  unani- 
mously chosen  chairman.  The  body  named  itself 
"The  Congress,"  and  its  chairman  "The  President." 
Eleven  colonies  represented  ;  Georgia  and  North 
Carolina  had  no  delegates  there  at  first.  There 
were  55  members  present,  each  colony  having  sent 
as  many  as  it  pleased. 

It  was  resolved  that  each  colony  should  have  one 
vote,  and  that  the  doors  should  be  kept  shut  during 
the  time  of  business.  The  members  bound  them- 
selves by  their  honor  to  keep  the  proceedings  secret. 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1531 


On  the  nomination  of  John  Adams,  Jacob  Duch^, 
an  Episcopal  clergyman,  was  chosen  chaplain.  In 
the  middle  of  September  North  Carolina  sent  its 
delegates  to  Congress. 

On  October  S,  1774,  this  Congress  resolved :  "We 
approve  the  opposition  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  to  the  execution  of  ihe  late  acts 
of  parliament;  and  if  the  same  shall  be  attempted 
to  be  carried  into  execution  hy  force,  in  such  case, 
all  America  OK^/if  to  support  them  in  their  opposi- 
tion." This  measure  hardened  George  the  III.  to 
listen  to  no  terms  ;  he  was  bent  on  enforcing  the 
obnoxious  acts  in  Massachusetts,  and  extending 
them  to  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island. 

On  October  10,Congress  declared  "that  every  per- 
son who  should  accept  or  act  under  any  commis- 
sion or  authority  denied  from  the  regulating  act  of 
parliament,  changing  the  form  of  government  and 
violating  the  charter  of  Massachusetts,  ought  to  be 
held  in  detestation." 

In  October  Congress  resolved  unanimously, 
"from  the  first  day  of  December,  1774,  not  to  im- 
port any  merchandise  from  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land." All  the  members  bound  themselves  to  this 
measure  by  an  association.  They  further  cove- 
nanted: "We  will  neither  import,  nor  purchase  any 
slave  imported  after  the  first  day  of  December 
next,  after  which  time  we  will  wholly  discontinue 
the  slave  trade,  and  will  neither  be  concerned  in  it 
ourselves  nor  will  we  hire  out  our  vessels,  nor  sell 
our  commodities  or  manufactures  to  those  who  are 
concerned  in  it." 

This  first  American  Congress  brought  forth  an- 
other measure,  which  was  without  an  example: 
It  recognized  the  }iolitlcal  authority  of  the  people.  It 
addressed  the  people  of  the  provinces  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Florida,  the  people  of  Canada,  the  people  of 
Great  Britain ;  and  laid  its  grievances  before  the 
people,  while  it  refused  to  petition  parliament. 
On  October  26,  1774,  this  Congress  adjourned,  after 
it  had  embodied  its  decision  in  a  petition  to  the 
king.  This  petition  was  very  conciliatory,  asking 
for  nothing  but  peace,  liberty  and  safety. 

Second  Continental  Congress. — On  May  10, 1775,  the 
Second  Continental  Congress  met  at  Philadelphia. 
John  Hancock  presided.  All  the  thirteen  colonies 
were  now  represented.  Blood  had  been  shed  at 
Lexington  and  Concord,  Mass.,  and  Ticonderoga, 
N.  Y  ,  the  key  of  the  gateway  to  Canada,  was  on 
the  same  day  taken  from  the  British  by  the  "Green 
Mountain  Boys"  under  Ethan  Allen.  The  repre- 
sentatives met  as  a  Congress  of  War,  in  the  name 
of  a  united  people  struggling  for  independence. 
This  Congress  was  a  revolutionary  body.  But,  in- 
stead of  establishing  a  centralized  government,  it 
relied  on  the  colonial  governments  for  executive 
acts.  This  Congress  appointed  Ward,  Charles  Lee, 
Schuyler,  and  Putnam  as  major-generals,  and 
Gates  as  adjutant-general.  It  adopted  the  forces 
around  Boston  as  the  "American  Continental 
Army,"  and  formulated  rules  and  articles  of  war 
for  it,  It  chose  George  Washington  as  general-in- 
chief,  June  17,  1775.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill 
touk  place  on  the  same  day.  At  that  time  Con- 
gress began  to  issue  bills  of  credit  or  "Continental 
currency."  These  bills  soon  began  to  depreciate, 
in  spite  of  being  declared  legal  tender.  By  suc- 
cessive issues  of  such  bills,  however,  Congress 
contrived  to  maintain  the  army  for  some  years. 

In  July,  1775,  it  adopted  the  last  petition  to  the 
king,  beseeching  him  to  consider  the  complaints  of 
the  colonists,  and  to  repeal  the  acts  which  they  had 
found  intolerable.  Instead  of  an  answer  the  king 
called,  by  proclamation,  "on  all  good  subjects  to  give 
information  of  such  persons  who  were  aiding  and 
abetting  the  American  rebellion."     He  sent  25,000 


men  to  America  under  General  Howe.  British 
ships  cannonaded  Gloucester,  Bristol,  Falmouth, 
and  other  defenseless  American  seacoast  towns. 
Gen.  Washington  raised  on  Jan.  1,  1776,  the  dis- 
tinctive standard  of  the  thirteen  united  American 
colonies. 

In  November,  1775,  Congress  appointed  Franklin, 
Jay,  and  three  other  delegates  a  committee  "to 
maintain  intercourse  with  friends  of  the  colonies 
in  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  elsewhere."  At  the 
same  time  (Nov.  25)  Congress  ordered  that  British 
war  vessels  or  transports  should  be  open  to  cap- 
ture. On  March  26,  1776,  it  declared  all  British 
vessels  lawful  prize.  On  April  6,  it  opened  all 
American  ports  to  the  vessels  of  all  other  nations 
than  Great  Britain.  In  June,  1776,  Congress  ap- 
pointed a  committee,  consisting  of  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son, of  Virginia,  John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts, 
Benjamin  Frinklin,  of  Pennsylvania,  Roger  Sher- 
man, of  Connecticut,  and  Robert  R.  Livingston,  of 
New  York,  to  draw  up  a  resolution  of  independ- 
ence. The  result  was  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, which  see.  The  date  of  its  adoption  ia 
the  date  of  the  legal  existence  of  the  United  States. 
On  Dec.  12,  1776,  the  Second  Continental  Congress 
adjourned. 

Third  Continental  Congress. — This  Congress  met 
at  Baltimore,  Dec.  20,  1776,  and  lasted  until  the 
articles  of  "Confederation"  went  into  operation 
March  1,  1781.  On  Nov.  15,  1777,  it  adopted  a  reso- 
lution favoring  a  federal  government.  On  Decem- 
ber 16,  of  the  same  year  the  United  States  were 
recognized  by  France,  and  on  the  6th  day  of  Feb- 
ruary, 177S,  Benj.  Franklin  succeeded  in  conclud- 
ing a  treaty  of  alliance  with  France. 

Confederated  Congres.?.— On  the  second  day  ol 
March,  1781,  the  "Congress  of  the  Confederation" 
assembled.  On  the  same  day  the  federal  govern- 
ment was  accepted  by  the  delegates  from  all  the 
States.  The  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain 
was  signed  at  Paris  on  Sept.  3,  1782,  and  ratified  by 
Congress  on  Jan.  4,  1784.  John  Adams  was  sent  as 
the  first  American  embassador  to  Great  Britain- 
and  was  received  by  the  king  on  June  1,  1785.  A 
new  federal  constitution  was  signed  by  a  conven- 
tion of  States  on  Sept.  17,  1787,  and  the  same  was 
ratified  by  the  people  on  May  23,  1728.  On  March 
4,  1789,  the  first  Congress  of  the  United  States  of 
America  assembled,  and  on  April  30  of  the  same 
year  G.  Washington  was  inaugurated  as  the  first 
President. 

Early  Tre.^ties  With  the  United  States. 

Great  Britain,  1795. — Great  popular  indignation  in 
the  United  States  against  England,  because  of  her 
persistent  refusal  to  negotiate  a  commercial  treaty 
with  this  country,  began  to  be  reflected  in  congres- 
sional legislation  'n  1794.  Mr.  Madison  on  January  4, 
introduced  resolutions  in  the  House,  declaring  it  ex- 
pedient to  increase  the  duties  on  the  tonnage  of  ves- 
sels of  nations  which  had  no  commercial  treaties  with 
the  United  States,  and  on  their  manufactures  ot 
leather,  metals,  wool,  cotton,  hemp,  flax,  and  silk, 
and  to  reduce  the  tonnage  duties  on  vessels  of  na- 
tions having  such  treaties;  and  to  increase  the 
duty  on  importations  from  the  West  Indies  in  for- 
eign vessels  from  the  ports  from  which  Americans 
were  excluded.  The  following  is  the  further  his- 
toric record :  "A  notable  debate  is  had  on  the  reso- 
lutions, but  the  House  comes  to  no  decision.  A 
report,  made  in  response  to  a  resolution  declaring 
that  a  naval  force  adequate  to  the  protection  of 
the  commerce  of  the  United  States  against  the  Al- 
gerine  corsairs  ought  to  be  provided,  is  taken  up 
Feb.  5,  and  a  bill  providing  for  tlie  construction  of  6 
frigates,  4  of  44  guns,  and  2  of  36  each,  is  passed  by 


1532 


U  N  I  T  E  D    STATES    OF    A  M  E  R  I  C  -V 


both  Houses  and  signed  l)y  the  President.  Mr. 
Sedgwick  proposes,  Marcli  12,  to  raise  a  military 
force  of  15,000  men  and  to  authorize  the  President 
to  lay  an  embargo  on  foreign  vessels  for  40  days ; 
his  resolutions  are  lost,  but  the  subject  is  again 
brought  up,  26,  ^vhen  a  substitute  is  adopted  laying 
an  embargo  for  30  days  on  all  vessels  in  the  ports 
of  the  United  States  bound  to  any  foreign  place. 
A  bill  is  also  passed  for  fortifying  certain  ports  and 
harbors.  Mr.  Smith  declares  that  provisions  ought 
to  be  made  for  the  indemnification  of  all  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  whose  vessels  or  cargoes  have 
l)een  seized  and  confiscated  by  any  of  the  belliger- 
ent powers,  upon  which  Mr.  Dayton  moves  a  reso- 
lution for  the  sequestration  of  ail  debts  due  from 
American  citizens  to  British  subjects,  and  to  com- 
pel their  payment  into  the  treasury  as  a  fund  for 
the  proposed  indemnification.  Mr.  Clark  intro- 
duces a  more  stringent  resolution,  April  7,  to  pro- 
hibit all  commercial  intercourse  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, so  far  as  respects  the  products  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  until  her  government  shall 
make  compensation  for  injuries  sustained  by  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  from  British  armed  ves- 
sels, and  until  the  western  posts  are  vacated. 
The  House  strikes  out  the  western-posts  clause 
and  passes  the  resolution,  but  the  Senate  defeats 
it  by  the  casting  vote  of  the  V'ice-President." 

While  Congress  was  thus  fanning  the  war  flame 
the  President  determined  on  an  effort  at  negotia- 
tion, and,  April  16,  nominated  Chief  Justice  Jay  as 
Envoy  Extraordinary  of  the  United  States  to 
Great  Britain.  He  was  instructed  to  labor  for  res- 
titution for  spoliations  of  American  commerce, 
the  fullfilment  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  and,  if  suc- 
cessful in  this  for  a  treaty  of  commerce.  Mr.  Jay 
embarked  on   his  mission  May  13,  1794. 

The  President  received,  March  7,  a  copy  of  a 
treaty  of  amity,  commerce,  and  navigation,  con- 
cluded by  Chief  Justice  Jay  and  Lord  Granville, 
Nov.  19,  he  submitted  it  to  the  Senate  in  special 
session,  June  8,  after  violent  debates  it  was  ratified 
by  a  vote  of  20  to  10  (June  24).  The  treaty  secured 
indemnity  to  American  Merchants  for  the  seiz- 
ure of  their  property  by  British  vessels,  and 
pledged  a  surrender  of  the  western  posts  by  June  1, 
1796. 

Indian  Tribes. — About  1,100  chiefs  and  notable 
warriors,  of  the  western  Indian  tribes  met  United 
States  Commissioners  at  Greenville,  Aug.  3,  1795. 
and  signed  a  treaty  of  peace,  ceding  a  large  tract 
of  land  to  the  United  States. 

Algiers. — A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between 
the  United  States  and  Algiers,  Sept.  5,  1795,  by 
which  all  American  captives  were  released  from 
imprisonment  upon  the  payment  of  an  annual  trib- 
ute to  the  Dey. 

Spain. — The  long  pending  disputes  between  the 
United  States  and  Spain  were  settled  by  treaty 
signed  Oct.  27,  1795,  in  which  Spain  conceded  the 
claims  of  the  United  States  in  the  matter  of  the 
Florida  boundary  and  the  right  to  the  free  naviga- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  River.  Compensation  was 
to  be  made  to  American  citizens  for  property  ille- 
gally seized  by  Spanish  cruisers. 

France. — In  February,  1796,  the  French  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  informed  the  United  States 
Minister,  James  Monroe,  that  the  French  Directory 
considered  the  alliance  between  the  United  States 
and  France  ended  by  the  Jay  treaty ;  that  the 
French  minister  to  the  United  States  was  to  be  re- 
called ;  and  that  a  special  envoy  was  to  be  sent  to 
make  the  announcement.  A  few  days  later,  Mr. 
Monroe  was  served  with  a  long  list  of  complaints 
preferred  by  the  French  government  against  the 
United  States.    The  President  recalled  Mr.  Monroe, 


Sept.  9,  appointing  Cliarles  C.  Piiickiiey,  of  Soi:llt 
Carolina,  in  his  place:  their  letters  were  presented 
Dec.  9.  Two  days  afterward,  Mr.  Monroe  was  in- 
formed by  the  French  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
that  the  Directory  would  no  longer  recognize  a 
minister  from  the  United  States  until  after  a  repa- 
ration of  the  grievances  demanded  of  the  Ameri- 
can government. 

In  1797  the  hitherto  friendly  relations  of  the 
United  States  with  France  were  interrupted.  The 
treaty  negotiated  by  Jay  between  the  United  States 
and  England  had  given  offense  to  France.  The 
French  Directory  issued  decrees  against  American 
commerce,  on  the  alleged  ground  of  a  violation  by 
the  United  States  of  her  neutral  stand  between 
England  and  France.  Ships  flying  the  American 
flag  were  captured  by  French  cruisers,  and  con- 
demned, in  alleged  violation  of  treaty  provisions 
and  international  law.  Gerry,  Marshall,  and 
Pinckney  were  sent  to  France  as  special  envoys 
to  remonstrate  and  negotiate  a  new  treaty. 

In  1798  the  troubles  between  the  two  countries 
were  still  unadjusted.  The  dispatches  from  the 
special  envoys  of  the  United  States  were  made 
public  and  indicated  that  Talleyrand,  the  French 
prime  minister,  refused  to  treat  with  them  until  a 
bribe  had  been  tendered  to  the  French  Directory. 
The  names  of  the  three  agents  of  Talleyrand  who 
attempted  to  secure  the  bribe  were  designated  in 
the  despatches  as  X.  Y.  L.  The  pul)lication  of  these 
despatches  produced  great  excitement,  and  were 
quickly  followed  by  the  return  of  two  of  the  special 
envoys,  without  liaving  negotiated  any  settlement 
of  difficulties.  The  country  was  aroused  to  a  high 
pitch  of  resentment  against  France,  and  Congress 
voted  appropriations  for  increasing  the  Navy  and 
Army.  During  the  greater  part  of  this  year,  al- 
though there  had  been  no  formal  declaration  of 
war  between  the  countries,  France  and  the  United 
States  maintained  a  small  naval  warfare  against 
each  other  in  the  waters  around  the  West  Indies ; 
vessels  were  captured  and  their  crews  taken  pris- 
oners. Hostilities  ceased  toward  the  end  of  the 
year.  Congress  passed  an  Act  suspending  all  com- 
mercial relations  with  France. 

In  1799,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  had  overthrown 
the  French  Directory,  offered  satisfactory  terms  to 
the  United  Statrs,  and  peace  ensued. 

In  1S03  the  United  States  purchased  from  France 
the  Territory  of  Lousiana,  paying  therefor  the  sum 
of  .'f  15,000,000.  This  treaty  bore  date  April  30.  The 
territory  thus  acquired  included  that  now  em- 
braced in  several  western  States,  and  extended  as 
far  north  as  to  the  present  Canadian  boundary. 

Tripoli. — On  June  3,  1805,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  between  Tripoli  and  the  United  States. 

Great  Britain. — In  1807  Great  Britain  began  the 
offensive  search  of  United  States  vessels  and  seiz- 
ing persons  and  goods  suspected  of  being  contra- 
band of  her  wars  with  other  nations.  During  that 
year  the  British  frigate  Leopard  stopped  the 
IJnited  States  frigate  I'lie.'iapeal-e  at  sea,  and  took 
from  her  several  sailors.  The  United  States  passed. 
December  21st,  tlie  Embargo  Act,  forbidding  any 
vessel  from  the  United  States  from  entering  a 
foreign  port. 

In  1809  Congress  removed  the  embargo  from  af- 
fecting all  countries  except  Great  Britain.  June 
18th,  1812,  war  was  declared  against  that  country. 

In  1814  Great  Britain  offered,  January  6th,  to 
treat  for  peace,  and  commissioners  of  peace  were 
appointed  on  both  sides.  The  naval  warfare  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  however,  continued  until 
December  24th,  1814,  when  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  at  Ghent,  Belgium. 


I 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1533 


CoSVKNTIOX     FOR     AnilPTIXCi     THE    CdXSTITl  TIDN     OK 

THE   United  States. 

In  May,  I7S5,  a  committee  of  the  Federal  Congress 
in  session  in  New  York,  made  a  report  recommend- 
ing an  alteration  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation, 
li'it  no  action  was  taken  on  it,  and  it  was  left  to 
I  lie  8tate  legislature  to  take  the  initiative  in  this 
matter. 

In  January.  1786,  the  Virginia  legislature  passed 
a  resolution  providing  for  the  appointment  of  "five 
commissioners  who,  or  any  three  of  them,"  should 
meet  such  commissioners  as  should  be  appointed 
by  other  States  of  the  Union,  at  a  time  and  place 
to  be  agreed  upon,  to  take  into  consideration  the 
following  topics : 

"The  trade  of  the  United  States." 

"A  uniform  system  in  commercial  regulations  ;  and 
report  to  the  several  States  such  plan  of  action  as 
they  might  consider  best  for  adoption  by  the  Con- 
federated Congress.  The  commissioners,  after  cor- 
respondence, appointed  the  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber as  the  time,  and  Annapolis,  Md.,  as  the  place 
of  meeting. 

At  the  meeting  in  Annapolis  only  five  States 
were  represented,  namely,  Virginia,  Delaware,  New 
York,  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  the  commis- 
sioners appointed  by  Massachusetts,  New  Hamp- 
shire. North  Carolina,  and  Rhode  Island  failed  to 
attend.  Under  the  circumstances  of  so  partial  a 
representation,  the  commissioners  present  agreed 
upon  a  report  (drawn  by  Mr.  Hamilton,  of  New 
York),  expressing  their  unanimous  conviction  that 
it  might  essentially  tend  to  advance  the  interests 
of  the  Union  if  the  States  by  which  they  were  re- 
spectively delegated  would  concur,  and  use  their 
endeavors  to  procure  the  concurrence  of  the  other 
States,  in  the  appointment  of  commissioners  to 
meet  at  Philadelphia  on  the  second  Monday  of 
May  following,  to  take  into  consideration  the  situa- 
tion of  the  United  States;  to  devise  such  further 
provisions  as  should  appear  to  them  necessary  to 
render  the  Constitution  of  the  Federal  Government 
adequate  to  the  exigencies  of  the  Union  ;  and  to 
report  such  an  act  for  that  purpose  to  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled  as.  when  agreed  to 
by  I  hem  and  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  legisla- 
tures of  every  State,  would  effectually  provide  for 
the  same. 

Congress,  on  Feb.  21,  1787,  adopted  a  resolution 
in  favor  of  a  convention,  and  the  legislatures  of 
those  States  which  had  not  already  done  so  (with 
the  exception  of  Rhode  Island)  promptly  appoint- 
ed delegates. 

On  May  25,  seven  States  having  convened, 
George  Washington,  of  Virginia,  was  unanimously 
elected  President,  and  the  consideration  of  the 
proposed  constitution  was  commenced.  On 
Sept.  17, 1787,  the  constitution  as  engrossed  and 
agreed  upon  was  signed  by  all  the  members  pres- 
ent, except  Mr.  Gerry,  of  Massachusetts,  and 
Messrs.  Mason  and  Randolph,  of  Virginia.  The 
president  of  the  convention  transmitted  it  to  Con- 
gress, with  a  resolution  stating  how  the  proposed 
Federal  Government  should  be  put  in  operation, 
and  an  explanatory  letter. 

Congress,  on  Sept.  28,  1787,  directed  the  Consti- 
tution so  framed,  with  the  resolutions  and  letter 
concerning  the  same,  to  "be  transmitted  to  the 
several  legislatures  in  order  to  be  submitted  to  a 
convention  of  delegates  chosen  in  each  State  by 
the  people  thereof,  in  conformity  to  the  resolves 
of  the  convention." 

On  March  4,  1789,  the  day  which  had  been  fixed 
for  commencing  the  operations  of  government 
under  the  new  Constitution,  it  had  been  ratified 


by  the  conventions  chosen  in  each  State  to  consid- 
er it,  as  follows : 

Delaware,  December  7,  1787; 

Pennsylvania,  December  12,  1787; 

New  Jersey,  December  18,  1787; 

Georgia,  January  2,  1788; 

Connecticut,  January  9,  1788; 

Massachusetts,  February  6.  1788; 

Maryland,  April  28,  1788; 

South  Carolina,  May  23,  1788; 

New  Hampshire,  June  21,  1788; 

Virginia,  June  20,  1788; 

New  York,  July  26, 1788. 

The  other  States  did  not  ratify  the  new  Consti- 
tution until  after  the  meeting  of  the  first  session  of 
the  new  Congress,  and  hence  did  not  participate 
in  its  legislation.  Of  these  States,  North  Carolina 
ratified  the  Constitution,  Nov.  21,  1789;  Rhode 
Island,  May  29,  1789;  and  Vermont,  Jan.  10,  1791. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

The  following  is  the  complete  text  of  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  as  adopted  by  the 
Federal  Constitutional  Convention  held  in  Phila- 
delphia and  duly  engrossed  and  signed,  Sept.  17, 
1787,  and  subsequently  ratified  by  the  legislatures 
of  the  several  States: 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a 
more  perfect  Union,  estal)Iish  Justice,  insure  Domestic  Tran- 
quillity, provide  for  the  Common  Defense,  promote  the  Gen- 
eral Welfare,  and  secure  the  Blessings  of  Liberty,  to  our- 
selves and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Con- 
stitution FOK  THE  United  States  of  America. 

Article  I 

Section  1.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be 
vested  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  con- 
sist of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

Sec.  2.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed 
of  members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the 
several  States,  and  the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the 
qualifications  requisite  for  the  electors  of  the  most  numerous 
branch  of  the  State  legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  at- 
tained the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not.  when  elected, 
be  an  Inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

[Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned 
among  the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this 
Union,  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be 
determine  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons, 
including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  ex- 
cluding Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other  persons.]* 
The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years 
after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such 
manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  repre- 
sentatives shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand, 
but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  Representative;  and 
until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three,  Massachusetts 
eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one,  Con- 
necticut five.  New  York  six.  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania 
eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Car- 
olina five.  South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

When  va?ancies  happen  in  the  Representation  from  any 
State,  the  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of 
election  to  fill  snch  vacancies. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker 
and  other  officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeach- 
ment. 

Sec.  .3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  com- 
posed of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legis- 
lature thereof,  for  six  years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one 
vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence 
of  the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may 
be  into  three  classes.  The  seals  of  the  Senators  of  the  first 
class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year, 
of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  aud, 
of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that 
one  third  may  be  chosen  every  secoud  year;  and  if  vacancies 
happen  by  resignation  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the 
Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Kxecutive  thereof  may  make 
temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  Leg- 
islature, which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

*The  part  here  enclosed  in  brackets  was  afterward  amended 
by  the  2nd  section  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment. 


1534 


U  K  I  T  E  I)    STATES    OF    A  M  E  R  I  C  A 


No  person  shall  he  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained 
the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States. "and  who  shall  not,  when  elected.be  an  in- 
habitant of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  ehmen 

The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President 
of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally 

The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a 
President  pro  Irmpon;  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President, 
or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the 
United  States.  »     »         ,i   ■  , 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeiich- 
ments  When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oaih 
or  affirmation.  When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is 
tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside:  and  no  person  shall 
be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the 
members  present.  ,    ,,       ^      ^      3  .,     .i. 

ludgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  e.\tend  further 
than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and 
enioy  auv  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  nroHt  under  the  United 
States;  but  the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable 
and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment,  and  punishment 

according  to  law.  ,,_,,,         ,     *j 

Sec  4  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections 
for  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  m  each 
State  bv  the  Legislatures  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at 
any  tinie  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to 
the  place  of  choosing  Senators. 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year, 
and  such  meeting  shall  be  on  tlie  first  Monday  in  December, 
unless  thev  shall  bv  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

SEC  ,3  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections, 
returns,  and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  ma- 
jority of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business;  but 
a  smaller  number  mav  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be 
authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in 
such  manner  and  under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may 

''  Each  House  mav  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings, 
punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the 
concurrence  of  two-thirds,  expel  a  member. 

Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and 
from  time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as 
may  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and 
nays  of  the  members  of  either  House  on  any  (luestion  shall, 
at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the 
journal.  ,  ^  ,     ,,      .^, 

Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  sbnll  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three 
days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than  that  in  whicli  the  two 
Houses  shall  be  sitting.  . 

Sec.  6.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a 
compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law  and 
paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall 
in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace, 
be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  ses- 
sion of  their  respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and  return- 
ing from  the  same  ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either 
House,  thev  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

No  Senator  or  Ke|.rcsentative  shall,  during  the  tune  for 
which  he  was  elected,  l)e  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under 
the  authority  of  the  Uuited  States  which  shall  have  been 
created,  or  'the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  in- 
creased, during  such  time ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  Uuited  States  shall  be  a  member  of  either  House 
during  his  continuance  in  office.  ,,      ,   .  .... 

Sec  7  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or 
concur  with  uiiiendments  as  on  other  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  pre- 
sented to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  if  he  approve 
he  shall  sign  it,  but  If  not  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objec- 
tions, to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who 
shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal  and 
proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  reconsideration 
two-thirds  of  the  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall 
be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  House,  by 
which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by 
two-thirds  of  that  House,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  m  all 
such  cases  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  bv 
yeas  and  navs,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and 
and  against'the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each 
House  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the 
I'lfsident  witliin  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall 
have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  m  like 
manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their 
adjournment  prevent  its  return, in  which  case  it  shall  not  be 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary 
(except  on  a  question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States;  and  before  the  same  shal 
take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being  disaj.proved 
by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limita- 
tions prescribed  in  tlie  case  of  a  bill. 

Sec.  8.    The  Congress  shall  have  power 

To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to 
pay  the  debts   and    provide  for  the  common   defense  and 


welfare  of  the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and 
excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  Uuited  States; 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 

To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform 
laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United 

States ;  ,         ,  ,        j      ^  r       • 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign 
coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures; 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  secur- 
ities and  current  coin  of  the  United  States; 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads ; 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by 
securing  for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the 
exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  and  discoveries; 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court: 

To  deline  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on 
the  high  seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations; 

To  declare  war,  to  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal, and 
make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water; 

To  raise  and  support  the  armies,  but  no  appropria- 
tion of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  tor  a  longer  term  than 
two  years ; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the 
land  and  naval  forces;  ^     ^i. 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the 
laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  in- 
vasions; .  ,...,..       ^. 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the 
militia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  em- 
ployed iu  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the 
States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the 
authority  of  traiuing  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline 
prescribed  by  Congress;  .        ,,  ,,   . 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever, 
over  such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may, 
bv  cession  of  particular  States  and  the  acceptance  of  Con- 
gress become  the  seat  of  the  Government  of  the  I  nited 
States  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  pur- 
chasi-d  bv  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  in  which  the  same 
shall  be. 'for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals.  docK- 
vards.and  all  other  needful  buildings;— And, 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper 
for  carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and 
all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  tlit- Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer 

Sec  9  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  i>ersons  as 
any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit 
shall  not  be  prohibited  bv  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be 
imiiosed  upon  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars 
for  each  person.  ,    ,,        ».  »,„ 

Tlie  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  he 
snspcnSed,  unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the 
public  safety  may  require  it.        ,     ^    ,         ,    ,,  ,  „„, 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

So  capitation  or  other  direct  lax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in 
proportion  to  the  ecu,  us  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  di- 
rected to  be  taken.  ,  .  j  t     „ 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  any  article  exported  from 

""no  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  com- 
"lerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  an- 
other- nor  shall  vessels  bound  to.  or  from,  one  State,  be 
obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  conse- 
ouence  of  "oppropriatious  made  by  law  ;  and  a  regular  state- 
ment and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all 
public  money  shall  be  i.ublishcd  from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States, 
and  no  person  holding  any  office  of  trust  or  profit  under 
them,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of 
auv  present,  emolument,  oflice,  or  title,  of  any  kind  what- 
ever, from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  State.  ,,.„„„    „,. 

Sec  10  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or 
confederation:  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin 
money,emit  bills  of  credit:  make  anything  but  go  d  and 
silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill  ot  at- 
tainder, ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligations 
of  contracts ;  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility.  ,   „  „„„ 

No  State  shall ,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  wiiat  may  ne 
absolutely  necessary  lor  executing  its  inspecUon  la^vs  ;^and 


the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  Jstatc 
on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  tor  the  use  of  "le  Treasury  of 
the  United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the 
revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congres! 
duty  of  tonnage,  keep  troops,  or  ships  of  w'ar,  1 
peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or  com|iact  wu 


revision  and  control  of  the  Congress  i„„  „„„ 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of_  Congress.  'aV^^'^yj 

th  another 

State,' or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  >"  ''"";.•,,""''' f,^,f?; 
tually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit 
of  delay. 

AUTICLE  II. 

section  1.    The  executive  Powo' "'"i"  devested  in  a  Pres^ 
dent  of  the  Uuited  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1035 


durina  the  term  of  four  years,  and.  together  with  the  Vice- 
President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected  as  follows: 

Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legisla- 
ture thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the 
whole  number  of  Senators  and  Kepresenlatives  to  which  the 
State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress;  but  no  Senator  or 
Representative,  or  person  holding  an  ottice  of  trust  or  profit 
under  the  United  states,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

[Theeleerors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be 
an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves  And  thev 
shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for.  and  of  the 
uumberof  votes  for  each:  which  list  thev  shall  sign  and 
certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate. 
The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  presence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and 
the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  num- 
ber be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed; 
and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and 
have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for 
President;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the 
five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  House  shall  in  like  manner 
choose  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President  the 
votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each 
State  having  one  vote:  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  con- 
sist of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States, 
and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the 
j»erson  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors 
shall  be  the  Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain 
two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose 
from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-President.]* 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the 
electors,  and  the  day  on  which  thev  shall  give  their  votes- 
which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States 

No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitu- 
tion, shall  be  eli^rible  to  the  office  of  President :  neither  shall  ■ 
any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  at- 
tained to  the  age  ri  thirty-five  vears,  and  been  fourteen  vears 
a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of 
his  death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers 
and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the 
N  ice-President,  and  the  Congress  mav  by  law  provide  for 
the  case  of  removal. death,  resignation,  or  inabilitv.  both  of 
the  Pesident  and  Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall 
then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly 
until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be 
elected. 

The  President  shail.  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  serv- 
ices a  compensation  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor 
diminished  during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been 
elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period  any 
other  emolument  from  the  luited  States,  or  anv  of  them 

Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  offlce'he  shall  take 
th?  following  oath  or  affirmation: 

'I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfullvexe- 
cute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to 
the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

Sec.  2.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the 
-Vrmy.  and  Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of 
the  several  States,  when  called  into  the  active  service  of  the 
I  nited  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of 
the  principal  officer  in.each  of  the  executive  departments 
npon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective 
olBces.  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  par- 
dons for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment. 

Ue  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the 
Senators  present  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint 
embassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls  judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United 
Slates,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  pro- 
vided for.  and  which  shall  be  established  bv  law;  hut  the 
Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 
oBicers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the 
courts  of  law.  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  uv  all  vacancies 
that  may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting 
commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next 
session. 

SEC  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  in- 
formation of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to 
their  consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  neces- 
sary and  expedient;  he  may.  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of 
disagreement  between  them  with  respect  to  the  time  of 
adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall 
think  proper;  he  shall  receive  embassadors  and  other  public 
ministers,  and  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully 


"This  clause  of  the  Constitution  has  been  annulled :  see  l'2th 
Article  of  the  .Amendments. 


executed,  and  he  shall  commission  all    the  officers  of  the 
United  States. 

Sec.  4.  The  President.  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers 
of  the  United  States,  shall   be   removed  from  office  on  im- 

Eeachment  for,  and  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other 
igh  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

Article  hi. 

SEC.!.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as 
the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish 
The  Judges  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts  shall 
hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall  at  stated 
times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation  which  shall 
not  be.diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office 

Sec  2.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law 
and  equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  Jaws  of  the 
United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made 
under  their  authority;  to  all  cases  a/Tectiug  embassadors' 
other  public  ministers,  and  consuls;  to  all  cases  of  admir- 
alty and  maritime  jurisdiction;  to  controversies  to  which 
the  United  States  shall  be  a  party;  to  controversies  between 
two  or  more  States;  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another 
State;  between  citizens  of  different  States:  between  citizens 
of  the  same  state  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different 
States,  and  between  a  State  or  the  citizen  thereof,  and  foreign 
States,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  embassadors,  other  public  ministers 
and  consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  partv.  the' 
Supreme  Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the 
other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have 
appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  ex- 
ceptions and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall 
make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment, 
shall  be  by  jury;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State 
where  the  said  crime  shall  have  been  committed  ■  but  when 
not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such 
place  01  places  as  the  Congress  may  bv  law  have  directed 

Sec  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only 
m  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies 
giving  t'.em  aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted 
of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnessess  to  the 
same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  cleclare  the  punishment 
of  treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption 
of  blood  or  forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of  the  person 
attainted. 

Article  iv. 

Sec.  1.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to 
the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every 
other  State.  And  the  Congress  may  by  general  laws  pre- 
scribe the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and  proceed- 
ings shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Sec.  2.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in   the  several  States 

A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felonv  or 
other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  an- 
other State,  shall  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of 
the  State  from  which  he  fled  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed 
to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the 
laws  therot.  escaping  into  another  shall,  in  consequence  of 
any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  ser- 
vice or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party 
to  whom  such  service  or  labor  mav  be  due. 

Sec.  3.  New  States  may  be  adm'itted  by  the  Congress  into 
this  Inion;but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  State;  nor  any  State 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of 
States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States 
concerned  as  well  as  the  Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  and 
other  property  belonging  to  the  United  States:  and  nothing 
in  this  constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice 
any  claim  of  the  United  States,  or  of  anv  particular  State. 

Sec.  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  everv  State  in 
the  Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  pro- 
tect each  of  them  against  invasion,  and,  on  application  of 
the  Legislature  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  Legislature 
cannot  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

Article  v. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall 
deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Con- 
stitution, or  on  the  application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  pro- 
posing amendments  to  the  Constitution,  which,  in  either 
case,  shall  be  valid,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of 
this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three- 
fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  Convention  in  three- 
fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification 
maybe  proposed  by  the  Congress;  provided  that  no  amend- 
ment which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  vear  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eight,  shall  in  any  manner  aiTect  the  first 
and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article, 
and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of 
its  equal  right  of  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 


lo3t) 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


Article  vi. 

All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitutiou,  shall  be  as  valid  against 
the  United  States  under  this  Coustiiutiou  as  under  the  Con- 
federation. 

This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which 
shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof:  and  all  treaties  made, 
or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  laud ;  and  the  Judges 
in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  auythiug  in  the  Con- 
stitution or  laws  in  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
standing. 

The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and 
the  members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  execu- 
tive and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of 
the  several  States,  shall  be  bound,  by  oath  or  affirmation,  to 
support  this  Constitution ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be 
required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under 
the  United  States. 

Article   vii. 

The  ratification  of  the  Convention  of  nine  States  shall  be 
sufficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between 
the  Slates  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  Convention  by  the  Unanimous  Consent  of  the 
States  present  the  Seventeenth  Day  of  September,  in  the 
Year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  PZighty- 
seven,  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica the  Twelfth.  In  Witness  whereof  We  have  hereunto 
subscribed  our  Names. 

GEO.  WASHINGTON'. 
Presidt.  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 


Xetv  Hampshirr. 
John  Langdon, 
Nicholas  Gilman. 

MassachusfttJ?. 
Nathaniel  (iorman. 
Rufus  King. 

Connecticut. 
Wm.  Saml.  Johnson. 
Roger  Sherman. 

New  York. 
Alexander  Hamilton. 

Neto  Jersey. 

Wil:  Livingstone. 
David  Brearley, 
Wm.  Paterson. 
Jona.  Dayton. 

PenJtsylvania, 
B.  Franklin. 
Rcbt.  Morris, 
Tho;  Fitzsimons. 
James  Wilson, 
Thomas  Mifflin. 
Geo:  Clymer, 
Jared  Ingersoll. 
Gouv:  Morris. 

Attest: 


Delaware. 
Geo:  Read. 
John  Dickinson. 
Jaco:  Broom, 
Gunning  Bedford.  Juu'r. 
Richard  Bassett. 

^faryland. 
James  M'Heury, 
Danl.  Carroll, 
Dan:  of  St.  Thos.  Jenifer. 

X'irginia. 
John  Blair. 
James  Madison,  Jr. 

Xorth  Carolina. 
Wm,  Blount. 
Hu.  Williamson, 
Rich'd  Dobbs  Spaight. 

Sotith   Carolina. 
J     Rutledge, 
Gharles  Pinckney, 
Charles  Coteswo'rth  Pinckney, 
Pierce  Butler. 

Georgia. 
William  Few, 
Abr.  Baldwin. 
William  3 ackbos,  Secretary. 


FIRST  TEN  AMENDMENTS— 1791. 
Article  i. 
Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of 
religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof ;  or  abridg- 
ing the  freedom  of  speech  or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the 
people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  Govern- 
ment for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

Article  ii. 
A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of 
a  free  State,  the  right  of  the  people   to  keep  and  bear  arms 
shall  not  be  infringed. 

Article  hi. 
No  soldier  shall  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house 
without  the  consent  of  -the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in 
a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Article   iv. 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons, 
houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches 
and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall 
issue  but  upon  jirobable  cause,  supported  bv  oath  or  affirma- 
tion, and  particularly  describing  the  place'  to  be  searched, 
and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 
Article  v. 

No  person  shall  beheld  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise 
Infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a 
Grand  Jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval 
forces,  or  in  the  militia  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of 
war  or  pulilic  danger:  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the 
r^arae  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopirdy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor 


shall  he  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  ease  to  be  a  witness 
against  himself  nor  be  deijrived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law;   nor  shall  private  property  be 
taken  for  public   use  without  just  compensation. 
Article  vi. 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the 
right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial, by  an  impartial  jury  of  the 
State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  com- 
mitted, which  district  shall  have  previously  been  ascer- 
tained by  law.  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of 
the  accusation;  to  be  confronted  with  tbe  wituesses  against 
him;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  wituesses  in 
his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  de- 
fense. 

Article  vii. 

In  suits  at  common  law.  where  the  value  in  controversy 
shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall 
be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise 
re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States  than  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 
Article   viii. 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  be 
imposed,  nor  cruel  nor  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 
Article  ix. 

The  enumeration,  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain  rights 
shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retnined 
by  the  people. 

Article  x. 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Con- 
stitution, nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to 
the  States  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

ELEVENTH  AMENDMENT— 1798. 
Article  xi. 
The  judicial  power  of  tlie    United  States  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  etjuity.  cumnienced  or 
■prosecuted  gainst  one  of  the  United  states  by  citizens  of 
another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 

TWELFTH  AMENDMENT— 1804. 
Article  xii. 
The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  voje 
by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at 
least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  state  with  them- 
selves. They  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for 
as  President  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
Vice-President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all 
persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for 
as  Vice-President. and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which 
lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the 
seat  of  the  Government  of  the'United  States,  directed  to  the 
President  of  the  Senate;— The  President  of  the  Senate  shall, 
in  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open 
all  the  certificates  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted  ;-The 
person  having  the  greatest  ruimber  of  votes  for  President 
shall  be  the  President,  if  such  uiiniber  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  Electors  ajipointed,  and  if  no  such  person 
have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest 
numbers  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  aa 
President,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  imme 
diately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  Presi- 
dent, the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation 
from  each  State  having  one  vote':  a  quorum  for  this  purpose 
shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of 
the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary 
to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not 
choose  a  President,  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  de- 
volve upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  follow- 
ing, then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President, as  in  case 
of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  Presi- 
dent. The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as 
Vice-President  shall  be  Vice-President  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed,  and  if 
no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  num- 
bers on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President: 
a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  num- 
ber shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  "no  person  constitu- 
tionally ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible- 
to  thatof  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

THIRTEENTH  AMENDMENT— 18G5.      ' 
Article  xih. 
Section  1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitudc.except 
as  a  punishment  for   crime,   whereof    the   party    t^hail    have 
been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or 
any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

S"ec.  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  toenforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 

FOURTEENTH   AMENDMENT— 1868. 

Article  xiv. 

Section  1.    All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in   the  United 

States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens 


r  X I T  E  D    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1537 


of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  in  which  they  reside. 
Xo  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge 
the  privileges  orimmnnitle^  of  citizens  of  the  United  States: 
nor  sdall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or 
l^ropertv  witliout  due  process  of  law.  nor  deny  to  any  person 
"  itbin  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Sec.  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  count- 
ing the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State,  including 
Indians  not  taxed.  Bufwnen  the  right  to  vote  at  any  elec- 
tion for  the  choice  of  Electors  for  President  and  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  representatives  in  Congress,  the 
executive  and  judical  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of 
the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  auy  of  the  male  inhabit- 
ants of  such  State.being  twenty-one  years  of  age.  and  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  or  inany  way  abridged,  except  for 
participation  in  rebellion  or  other" crime,  the  basis  of  repre- 
sentation therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which 
the  number  of  such  male  citizeus  shall  bear  to  the  w-hole 
number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such 
Slate. 

Sec.  3.  Xo  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative 
in  Congress,  or  Elector  of  President  or  Vice-President,  or 
hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States, 
or  under  any  State,  who.  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as 
a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States, 
or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive 
or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the 
enemies  thereof.  But  Coneress  may.  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds 
d  each  House,  remove  such  disability. 

Sec.  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
States,  authorized  bv  law.  including  debts  incurred  by  pay- 
ment of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing 
insurrection  or  rebellion  shall  nbt  be  questioned.  But 
neither  the  United  Stales  nor  any  other  State  shall  assume 
or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection 
or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the 
loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave,  but  all  such  debts,  obliga- 
tions, and  claims  shall  beheld  illegal  and  void. 

Sec.  5.  That  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  ap- 
propriate legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

FIFTEESTH  AMEXDMEXT— 1870. 

.RETICLE    IV. 

Sectios  1.  The  right  of  citizens  Of  the  United  States  to  vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by 
any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color. or  previous  condition  of 
servitude. 

SEC.  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 

Ratificatiok  of  thk    Constitution   and    Amend- 


The  Constitution  was  adopted  by  a  Convention 
of  the  States  held  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  17, 
1787  ;  and  it  was  subsequently  adopted  by  the  sev- 
eral State  Legislatures  at  the  dates  and  in  the 
order  following : 

Delaware,  December  7,  1787. 

Pennsylvania,  December  12, 1787. 

New  Jersey,  December  18, 1787. 

Georgia.  January  2,  1788. 

Connecticut,  January  9,  1788. 

Massachusetts,  February  6,  1788. 

Maryland,  April  28,  1788. 

South  Carolina,  May  23.  1788. 

Sew  Hampshire,  June  21,  1788. 

Virginia,  June  26,  1788. 

>"ew  York,  July  26,  1788. 

North  Carolina,  November  21,  1789. 

Rhode  Island,  May  29,  1790. 

The  State  of  Vermont,  by  convention,  ratified 
I  he  Constitution,  January  10,  1791,  and  was.  by  an 
act  of  Congress  of  February  18,  1791,  "received  and 
admitted  into  this  Union  as  a  new  and  entire 
member  of  the  United  States  of  America." 

Ratification  of  First  Ten  Amendm'nU. 

The  first  ten  amendments  (with  two  others 
which  were  not  adopted  by  the  requisite  number 
cjf  States — see  Constitution)  were  submitted  to  the 
.■^tate  Legislatures  by  a  resolution  of  Congress 
which  was  adopted  by  that  body  at  its  first  session, 
"^em.  2.5,  \li<9.  and  was  ratified  by  the  several  Leg- 
isluturt.'S  a«  follows: 


69 


New  Jersev,  November  20,  1789. 

Maryland.'December  19,  1789. 

North  Carolina,  December  22,  1789. 

South  Carolina,  January  19,  1790. 

New  Hampshire,  January  25,  1790. 

Delaware.  January  28,  1790. 

Pennsvlvania.  March  10,  1790. 

New  York.  March  27,  1790. 

Rhode  Island.  June  15,  1790. 

Vermont,  November  3,  1791. 

Virginia,  December  15,  1791. 

The  acts  of  the  State  Legislatures  ratifying  the 
Amendments  were  transmitted  by  the  Governors 
to  the  President  of  the  L'nited  States,  and  by  him 
communicated  to  Congress.  The  Legislatures  of 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  do  not  appear  by 
the  record  to  have  ratified  them. 

The  Eleventh  Amendment. — The  eleventh  article 
of  amendment  was  submitted  to  the  State  Legis- 
latives by  a  resolution  of  Congress  passed  March 
5,  1791,  at  the  first  session  of  the  3d  Congress;  and 
Jan.  8,  1798,  at  the  second  session  of  the  5th  Con- 
gress, it  was  declared  by  the  President,  in  a  mes- 
sage to  the  two  Houses  of  Congress,  to  have  been 
adopted  by  the  Legislature  of  three-fourths  of  the 
States,  there  being  at  that  time  sixteen  States  in 
the  L'nion. 

llie  Tuelfth  Amendment. — The  twelfth  article  was 
submitted  to  the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States, 
there  being  then  seventeen  States,  by  a  resolution 
of  Congress  passed  Dec.  12,  1803,  at  the  first  session 
of  the  8th  Congress;  and  was  ratified  by  the  Leg- 
islatures of  three-fourths  of  the  States,  in  1804,  ac- 
cording to  a  proclamation  of  the  Secretary  of 
State,  dated,  Sep.  25,  1804. 

TTie  Thirteenth  Amendment. — The  thirteenth  arti- 
cle was  submitted  to  the  Legislatures  of  the  sev- 
eral States,  there  being  then  thirty-six  States,  by 
a  resolution  of  Congress  passed  Feb.  1.  1865,  at  the 
second  session  of  the  38th  Congres*,  and  was  rati- 
fied, according  to  a  proclamation  of  the  Secretary 
of  State,  dated  Dec.  18,  1865,  by  the  Legislatures  of 
the  following  States : 

Illinois,  Februarv  1,  1865. 

Rhode  Island,  February  2,  1866. 

Michigan,  February  2,  1865. 

Maryland,  February  3,  1865. 

New  York,  February  3,  1865. 

West  Virginia.  February  3,  18fl*. 

Maine,  February  7,  1866. 

Kansas,  February  7, 1865. 

Massachusetts,  February  8,  1866. 

Pennsylvania,  February  8,  1865. 

Virginia,  February  9,  1865. 

Ohio,  February  10. 1865. 

Missouri,  February  10.  1865. 

Indiana,  February  16,  1865. 

Nevada,  February  16,  1865. 

Lousiana,  February  17,  1865. 

Minnesota,  February  23,  1866. 

Wisconsin,  March  1,  1665. 

Vermont,  March  9, 1865. 

Tennessee,  April  7.  1865. 

Arkansas,  April  20,  1865. 

Connecticut,  May  5,  1865. 

New  Hampshire,  Julv  1, 1865. 

South  Carolina,  November  13,  1865. 

-Alabama.  December  2,  1865. 

North  Carolina,  December  4,  1865. 

Georgia,  December  9.  1865. 

The  following  States  not  enumerated  in  the 
proclamation  of  the  Secretary  of  State  also  ratified 
this  amendment: 

Oregon,  December  11,  1S(>5. 

California.  December  20,  1S65. 

Florida.  December  28,  1865. 


1538 


UNITED    STATES    OF    A  M  E  R  I  C  x\ 


New  Jersey,  January  23,  1866. 

Iowa,  January  24,  1866. 

Texas,  February  J  8,  1870. 

The  Fourteenth  Aniendmcnt. — The  Fourteenth 
Article  of  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  was 
submitted  to  these  State  Legislatures  by  a  Con- 
gressional resolution  passed  by  the  39th  Congress, 
June  16,  1866.  The  Secretary  of  State  issued  a 
proclamation,  dated  July  28,  1868,  declaring  that 
the  proposed  Fourteenth  Amendment  had  been 
ratified,  in  the  manner  hereafter  mentioned,  by 
the  legislatures  of  thirty  of  the  thirty-six  States, 
namely : 

Connecticut,  June,  30, 1866. 

New  Hampshire,  July  7,  1866. 

Tennessee,  July  19, 1866. 

New  Jersey,  September  11,  1866  (and  the  legis- 
lature of  the  same  State  passed  a  resolution  in 
April,  1868  to  withdraw  its  consent  to  it). 

Oregon,  September  18,  1866. 

Vermont,  November  9,  1866. 

Georgia  rejected  it,  November  13,  1866.  and 
ratified  it  July  21,  1868. 

North  Carolina  rejected  it  December  4,  1866,  and 
ratified  it  July  4,  1868. 

South  Carolina  rejected  it  December  20, 1866,  and 
ratified  it  July  9,  1868. 

New  York  ratified  it  January  10,  1867. 

Ohio  ratified  it  January  11,  1867  (and  the  legis- 
lature of  the  same  State  passed  a  resolution  in 
January,  1868, to  withdraw  its  consent  to  it). 

Illinois  ratified  it  January  15,  1867. 

West  Virginia,  January  16, 1867. 

Kansas,  January  18, 1867. 

Maine,  January  19,  1867. 

Nevada,  January  22,  1867. 

Missouri,  January  2(),  1867. 

Indiana,  January  29,  1867. 

Minnesota,  February  1,  1867. 

Rhode  Island,  February  7,  1867. 

Wisconsin,  February  13,  1867. 

Pennsylvania,  February  13,  1867. 

Michigan,  February  15,  1867. 

Massachusetts,  March  20,  1867. 

Nebraska,  June  15,  1867. 

Iowa,  April  3,  1868. 

Arkansas,  April  6,  1868. 

Florida,  June  9,  1868  . 

Louisiana,  July  9,  1868. 

Alabama,  July  13,  1868. 

Georgia  again  ratified  the  amendment  February 
2,  1870. 

Texas  rejected  it  November  1,  1866,  and  ratified 
it  February  18,  1870. 

Virginia  rejected  it  January  19,  1867,  and  ratified 
it  October  8,  1869. 

The  amendment  was  rejected  by  Kentucky, 
January  10,  1867 ;  by  Delaware,  February  8,  1867; 
by  Maryland,  March  23,  1867;  and  was  not  after- 
ward ratified  by  either  State. 

T)ie  Fifteenth  Atneiulment. — The  fifteenth  article 
was  submitted  to  the  Legislatures  of  the  several 
States,  there  being  then  thirty-seven  States,  by  a 
resolution  of  Congress  passed  February  27,  1869,  at 
the  first  session  of  the  41st  Congress;  and  was 
ratified  according  to  a  proclamation  of  the  Secrtary 
of  State  dated  IMarch  30,  1870,  by  the  Legislatures 
of  the  following  States: 

Nevada.  March  1,1869. 

West  Virginia,  March  3,  1869. 

North  Carolina,  March  5, 1869. 

Louisiana,  March  5.  1869. 

Illinois,  March  5,  1869. 

Michigan,  March  8,  1869. 

Wiscf)nsin,  March  9,  1869. 

Massaehu.-;ptts,  .March  12.  1869. 


Maine,  March  12,  1869. 

South  Carolina,  March  16.  1869. 

Pensylvania,  March  26, 1869. 

Arkansas,  March  30,  1869. 

*New  York,  April,  14,  1869. 

Indiana,  Mav  14,  1869. 

Connecticut,"  May  19,  1869. 

Florida,  June  15,  1869. 

New  Hampshire,  July  7, 1869. 

Virginia,  October  8,  1869. 

Vermont,  October  21, 1869. 

Alabama,  November  24,  1869. 

Missouri,  January  10,  1870. 

Mississippi,  January  15 — 17,  1870. 

*Ohio,  January  27,  1870. 

Georgia,  February  2,  1870. 

Iowa,  Februarys,  1870. 

Nebraska,  February  17,  1870. 

Texas,  February  18,  1870. 

Rhode  Island,  January  18,  1870. 

Kansas,  January  18—19,1870. 

Minnesota,  February  19,  1870. 

tNew  Jersey  ratified  this  amendment  February 
21,  1871.  Subsequent  to  the  proclamation  of  the 
Secretary  of  State. 

Calitornia,  Delaware,  Kentucky,  Maryland  and 
Tennessee  rejected  this  amendment. 

Rel.\tion  of  the  President  of  the  United  States 
TO  N.^TioNAL  Legislation. 

The  Constitution  enacts  that  the  President  shall 
from  time  to  time  give  to  Congress  information 
of  the  State  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their 
consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  deem 
necessary  and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them, 
and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them  with 
respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment  he  may  adjourn 
them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  judge  proper. 

"Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of 
Representatives  and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  be- 
comes a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States;  if  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it;  but 
if  not,  he  shall  return  it  with  his  objections  to  that  » 
house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated.  *  *  *  * 
If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President 
within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall 
have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a 
law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless 
the  Congress,  by  their  adjournment,  prevents  its 
return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law."  There 
is  a  similar  provision  in  regard  to  "every  order, 
resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrenci' 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may 
be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of  adjourn- 
ment.)" 

Where  a  House  bill  is  allowed  to  become  a  law 
by  the  failure  of  the  President  to  return  it,  it  is 
usual  for  him  to  notify  the  House  of  that  fact ; 
and  so  also  where  he  appioves  a  bill,  giving  also 
the  date  of  approval. 

Where  the  President  is  prevented  by  adjourn- 
ment from  returning  a  bill  with  his  objections,  it 
is  usual  for  him  at  the  next  session  to  communicate 
to  the  house  where  it  originated  his  reasons  for 
not  approving  it. 

Art.  JJ,  A7nendmenls  to  the  Co7ist!tution,  requires 
that  the  certificate  of  electoral  votes  in  the  respect- 
ive States  for  President  and  Vice-President  shall 
be  opened  by»  the  President  of  the  Senate  in  the 
presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  the  vote  shall  then  be  counted. 

*Ne\v    York    withdrew    licr    consent    to    the   ratification 
Januarv.'j.   1.S70. 
■•Ohio  hurt  prevlonslv  rciertert  the  Aineiuliiiprit.  May  4. 1869. 
+Ne«-  .lersey  had  iirevioiisl.v  rejeeted  the  .\moiidmient. 


U  X  1  T  EDS  T  A  T  E  S    0  F    A  M  ERICA 


1539 


Congress  shall  be  in  session  on  the  second 
Wednesday  in  February  succeeding  every  meeting 
I'f  the  electors,  and  the  certificates,  or  so  many  of 
rhera  as  have  l)een  received,  shall  then  be  opened, 
the  votes  counted,  and  the  persons  to  fill  the  offices 
of  President  and  Vice-President  ascertained  and 
declared  agreeable  to  the  Constitution. 

It  is  further  provided  by  the  IJth  At-tirlc  of 
Amfnthiicntii  to  CanKt.,  that  if  no  person  have  a 
majority  of  tlie  electoral  votes  for  President,  "tlien, 
from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers,  not 
exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as 
President,  the  House  of  Kepresentatives  shall 
choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But 
in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken 
by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State 
having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall 
consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds 
of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of 
Kepresentatives  shall  not  choose  a  President, 
whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon 
them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  ]March  next  follow- 
ing, then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional 
disability  of  the  President." 

In  anticipation  of  the  choice  of  President  devolv- 
ing upon  it,  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
second  session,  Eighteenth  Congress,  adopted  a  set 
of   rules   for   its   government    in    said    election. 

Pbovision"     for     Conducting    the     Presidenti.\l 

Administration  in  C.\se  of  the  De.\th  of 

THE  President  .\nd  Vice-President. 

The  act  of  Congress  entitled  "An  act  to  provide 
for  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  the  office  of 
President  in  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resigna- 
tion, or  inability  both  of  the  President  and  Vice- 
President,"  approved  January  19,  1886  (Ist  sess. 
49th  Congress),  Statutes,  vol.  24  page  1,  enacts : 

That  in  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability  of 
both  the  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
the  Secretary  of  State,  or  if  there  be  none,  or  in  case  of  his 
removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  then  the  .Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  or  if  there  be  none,  or  in  case  of  his  removal, 
death,  resiKnation,  or  inability,  then  the  Secretary  of  War, 
or  if  there  be  none,  or  in  case  of  his  removal,  death,  resig- 
nation, or  inability,  then  the  Attorney-General,  or  if  there 
be  none,  or  in  case  of  his  removal. "death,  resignation,  or 
inability,  then  the  Postmaster-General,  or  if  there  be  none,  or 
in  case  of  his  removal,  death,  resignation  or  inability,  then 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  or  if  there  be  none,  or  in  case  of 
bis  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  then  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior,  shall  act  as  President  iintil  the  disabil- 
ity of  the  President  or  Vice-President  is  removed  or  a  Presi- 
dent shall  be  elected  :  Proi-M^^,  That  whenever  the  powers 
and  duties  of  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States 
shall  devolve  upon  any  of  the  persons  named  herein,  if  Con- 
gress be  not  then  in  session,  or  if  it  would  not  meet  in  ac- 
cordance with  law  within  twenty  days  thereafter  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  person  upon  whom  said  powers  and  duties 
shall  devolve  to"  issue  a  proclamation  convening  Congress  in 
extraordinary  session  giving  twenty  days  notice  of  the  time 
of  meeting. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  preceding  section  shall  only  be  held  to  de- 
scribe and  apply  to  such  offices  as  shall  have  been  appointed 
by  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  to  the  offices  therein 
named,  and  such  as  are  eligible  to  the  office  of  President 
under  the  Coustitution.  and  not  under  impeachment  by  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  at  the  time 
the  powers  and  duties  of  the  office  shall  devolve  upon  them 
respectively. 

Sec.  3.  That  sections  146. 147, 149,  and  150  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  are  hereby  repealed. 

Presidextiai,  Cabinet  Administr.ations. 

The  follov.ing  is  a  full  list  of  the  Presidential 
Administrations  of  the  United  States  from  the  date 
of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  to  .Jan.  1,  1892. 

Firsl   .  1  (hii hi islratiiin. 

President:  George  Washington,  of  Virginia. 
Vice-President :  John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts. 


Secretaries  of  State  :  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia 
Sept.  ■-'(>,  17S9;  Edmund  Randolph,  of  Virginia, 
Jan.  2,  1794;  Timothy  Pickering,  of  Massachu- 
setts, Dee.  18,  1795. 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury:  Alexander  Hamilton, 
of  New  York,  Sept.  Il,'l789  ;  Oliver  Wolcott,  of 
Connecticut,  Feb.  3,  1795. 

Secretaries  of  War :  Henry  Knox,  of  Massachu- 
setts, Sept.  12,  1789;  Timothy  Pickering,  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. Jan.  2,  1795;  James  McHenry,  of 
Maryland.  Jan.  27,  1796. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy.  No  navy  department  was 
organized  during  Washington's  administration. 

Postmasters-general:  Samuel  Osgood,  of  MaiBa- 
chusetts,  Sept.  26,  1789;  Timothy  Pickering,  of 
Massachusetts,  Nov.  7,1794;  Joseph  Habersham, 
of  Georgia,  Feb.  25,  1795. 

Attorneys-general:  Edmund  Randolph,  of  Vir- 
ginia, Sept.  26,  1789;  AVilliam  Bradford,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Jan.  27,  1794;  Charles  Lee,  of  Virginia, 
Dec.  10,  1795. 

Seco7id  Administration — 1797  to  ISOl. 

President :  John   Adams,  of  Massachusetts. 

Vice-President:  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia. 

Secretaries  of  State:  Timothy  Pickering,  contin- 
ued in  office ;  John  Marshall,  of  Virginia,  May 
13,1800. 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury  :  Oliver  Wolcott,  con- 
tinued in  office;  Samuel  Dexter,  of  Massachu- 
setts, Dec.  31,  1800. 

Secretaries  of  War:  James  McHenry,  continued  in 
office;  Samuel  Dexter,  of  Massachusetts, May  13, 
1800;  Roger  Griswold,  of  Connecticut,  Feb.  3, 
1801. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy  :  George  Cabot,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, Ma  v  3,  1798,  declined;  Benjamin  Stod- 
dert,  of  Maryland,  May  21, 1798. 

Postmaster-general:  Joseph  Habersham, continued 
in  office. 

Attorney-general :  Charles  Lee,  continued  in 
office. 

Third  Administration— ISOl  to  1809. 

President:  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia. 

Vice-Presidents:  Aaron  Burr,  of  New  York,  from 
1801  to  1805;  George  Clinton,  of  New  York,  from 
March  4,  1805. 

Secretary  of  State :  James  Madison,  of  Virginia, 
March  5,  1801. 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury  :  Samuel  Dexter,  con- 
tinued in  office;  Albert  Gallatin,  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, Jan.  26,  1802. 

Secretary  of  War :  Henry  Dearborn,  of  Massachu- 
setts, March  5, 1801. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy  :  Benjamin  Stoddert,  con- 
tinued in  office  ;  Robert  Smith,  of  Maryland,  Jan. 
26,  1802;  Jacob  Crowninshield,  of  Massachusetts, 
March  2,  1805. 

Postmasters-general:  Joseph  Habersham,  contin- 
ued in  office ;  Gideon  Granger,  of  Connecticut. 
Jan.26,  ].>^02. 

Attorneys-general :  Levi  Lincoln,  of  Massachu- 
setts, ^larch  5, 1801  ;  Robert  Smith,  of  Maryland. 
March  3,  1805;  John  Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky, 
Jan.  17.  1806;  Ciesar  A.  Rodney,  of  Delaware, 
Jan.  20,  1807. 

Fourth  Administration— 1S09  to  7S17. 

President:     James  Madison,  of  Virginia. 

Vice-Presidents:  Georee  Clinton,  of  New  York, 
died  April  20,1812;  Elbridge  Gerry,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, March  4,  1813— died  Nov.  23,  1813. 

Secretaries  of  State  :  Robert  Smith,  of  JIaryland, 
ilarch  6,  1809  ;  James  Monroe,  of  Virginia,  April 
2.  1811. 


1540 


UNITED    STATES    OF    x\  M  E  R  I  C  A 


Secretaries  of  the  Treasury:  Albert  (Tallatin,  con- 
tinued in  office  ;  George  W.  Campbell,  of  Tennes- 
see, Feb.9,  1814;  Alexander  J.  Dallas,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Oct.  H,  1814. 

Secretaries  of  War:  William  Eustis,  of  Massachu- 
setts. March  7,  1809;  .Jolin  Armstrong,  of  New 
York,  Jan.  13.  1813;  James  Monroe,  of  Virginia, 
Sept. 27, 1814,  acting  secretary  ;  William  H.Craw- 
ford, of  Georgia.  JIarch  3,  1815. 

Secretaries  of  the  Xavy  :  Paul  Hamilton,  of  South 
Carolina,  March  7,1890;  William  Jones,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Jan.  12,  1818;  Benjamin  W.  Crownin- 
shield,  of  Massachusetts,  Dec.  17,  1814. 

Postmaster-general:  Gideon  Granger,  continued 
in  office;  Return  J.  Meigs,  of  Ohio,  March  17,1814. 

Attorney-general :  Ca?sar  A.  Rodney,  continued  in 
office;  William  Pinckney,  of  Maryland,  Dec.  11, 
1811;  Richard  Rush,  of  Pennsylvania,  Feb.  10, 
1814. 

Fifth  Administration — 1S17  to  lS-25. 

President :     James  Monroe,  of  Virginia. 

Vice-President :    Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  of  Xew  York. 

Secretary  of  State:  John  Quincy  Adams,  of  Mass- 
achusetts, March  5,  1817. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury  :  \\'illiam  H.  Crawford, 
of  Georgia,  March  5,  1817. 

Secretaries  of  War:  Isaac  Shelby,  of  Kentucky, 
March  5,  1817,  declined  the  appointment ;  George 
Graham,  of  West  Virginia,  April  7, 1871  ;  John  C. 
Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina,  Oct.  8.  1817. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy:  Benjamin  W.  Crownin- 
shield,  continued  in  office;  Smith  Thompson,  of 
New  York,  Nov.  9,1818;  John  Rogers.of  Massachu- 
setts, Sept.  1,1823;  Samuel  L.  Southard,  of  New 
Jersey,  Sept.  16,  1823. 

Postmaster-general :  Return  J.  Meigs,  continued 
in  office;  John  McLean,  of  Ohio.  June  26,  1823. 

Attorneys-general:  Richard  Rush,  continued  in 
office;  William  Wirt,  of  Virginia,  Nov.  13,  1817. 

Sixth  Administration — 1825  to  18i!9. 

President :     John  Quincy  Adams,  of  Massachusetts- 
Vice-President :     John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Caro- 
lina. 
Secretary   of   State:     Henry    Clay,  of  Kentucky, 

March  7,  1825. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  :   Richard  Rush,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, March  7,  1825. 
Secretaries  of  War:     James  Barbour,  of  Virginia, 
March    7,  1825;  Peter  B.   Porter,  of  New  York, 
May  26,  1828. 
Secretary  of   the  Navy:  Samuel  L.  Southard,  con- 
tinued in  office. 
Postmaster-general:     John   McLean,  continued  in 

office. 
Attorney-general:     William    Wirt,  continued    in 
office. 

Seventh  Administration — lS:i9  to  1837. 

President:     Andrew  Jackson,  of  Tennessee. 

Vice-Presidents:  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Caro- 
lina— resigned  Dec.  28,  1832;  Martin  Van  Buren, 
of  New  York,  March  4,  1833. 

Secretaries  of  State:  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New 
York,  March  6,  1829;  Edward  Livingston,  of 
Louisiana,  May  24,  1831 ;  Louis  McLane,  of  Del- 
aware. March  29, 1833;  John  Forsyth,  of  Georgia, 
June  27,  1834. 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury:  Samuel  D.Ingham, 
of  Pennsylvania,  March  6.  1829;  Louis  McLane, 
of  Dela%vare,  Aug.  8,  1831  ;  William  J.  Duane,  of 
Pennsylvania,  May  29, 1833 ;  Roger  B.  Taney,  of 
Maryland,  Sept.  23,  1833— not  confirmed  by  the 
Senate;  Levi  Woodbury, of  New  Hampshire,  June 
27,  1834. 


Secretaries  of  War:  John  II.  Heatou,  of  Tennes- 
see, March  9,  1829;  Lewis  Cass, of  Michigan,  Aug- 
1,  1831— resigned  Nov.  1836. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy:  John  Branch,  of  North 
Carolina,  March  9,  1829;  Levi  Woodbury,  of  New- 
Hampshire,  May  23,  1831 ;  Mahlon  Dickerson,  i.f 
New  Jersey,  June  30,  1834. 

Postmaster-general:  William  T.  Barry,  of  Ken- 
tucky. March  9,  1829.  Pre'-ious  to  this  date  the 
postmaster-general  had  not  been  recognized  as 
a  member  of  the  president's  cabinet.  Amos  Ken- 
dall, of  Kentucky,  May  1,  1835. 

Attorneys-general:  John  M,.Pherson  Berrien,  of 
Georgia,  March  9, 1829 ;  Roger  B.  Tai:ey.  of  Mary- 
land, Dec.  27,  1831 ;  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  of  New 
York,  June  24,  1834. 

Eighth  Administration — lSo7  to  IS4I. 

President :  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York. 

Vice-President:  Richard  M.  Johnson,  of  Kentucky. 

Secretary  of  State:  John  Forsyth,  continued  in  of- 
fice. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury:  Levi  Woodbury,  con- 
tinued in  office. 

Secretary  of  War:  Joel  R.  Poinsett,  of  South  Caro- 
lina, March  7,  1837. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy  :  Mahlon  Dickerson,  con- 
tinued in  office;  James  K.  Paulding,  of  New 
York,  June  20.  1838. 

Postmasters-general:  Amos  Kendall,  continued  in 
office ;  John  M.  Niles,  of  Connecticut,  May  18, 
1840. 

Attorneys-general:  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  continued 
in  office;  Felix  Grundy,  of  Tennessee,  July  7, 
1838;  Henry  D.  Gilpin,  of  Pennsylvania,  Jan.  10, 
1840. 

Ninth  Administration — IS4I  to  1845. 

President:  William  Henry  Harrison,  of  Ohio.  Died 
Apri  4,  1841,  when  John  Tyler,  theVice-President, 
became  President. 

Vice-President :  John  Tyler,  of  Virginia. 

Secretaries  of  State:  Daniel  Webster, of  Massachu- 
setts, March  5,  1841— resigned  May  8, 1843;  Hugh 
S.  Legar^,  of  South  Carolina.  May  9,  1843,  died 
June  20,  1843;  Abel  P.  Upshur,  of  Virginia,  July 
24, 1843— killed  by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon,  Feb. 
28,1844;  John  Nelson,  of  Maryland  (acting  sec- 
retary). Feb.  29.  1.S44;  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South 
Carolina,  March  6,  1S44. 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury :  Thomas  Ewing,  of 
Ohio.  March  .5,  1841— resigned  Sept.  11,  1841; 
AValter  Forward,  of  Peiisylvania,  Sept.  13,  1841 — 
resigned  March  1,  1843:  Caleb  Gushing,  of  Mass- 
achusetts, rejected  bj  the  Senate  ;  John  C.  Spen- 
cer, of  New  York.  March  3. 1843;  George  M.  Bibb, 
of  Kentucky,  June  15.  1844. 

Secretaries  of  War:  John  Bell.of  Tennessee,  March 
5,  1841 — resigned  Sejit.  11.  1841  :  John  McLean,  of 
Ohio,  Sept.  13,  1841,  declined  :  John  C.  Spencer, of 
New  York,  Oct.  12,  1841;  James  M.  Porter,  of 
Pennsylvania.  March  8. 1843,  rejected  by  the  Sen- 
ate; AVilliam  Williams,  of  Pensylvania,  Feb.  16, 
1844. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy :  George  E.  Badger,  of 
North  Carolina,  March  5,  1841— resigned  Sept.  11, 
1.S41  ;  Abel  P.  Upshur,  of  Virginia.  Sept.  13,  1841 ; 
David  Henshaw.  of  Massachusetts,  July  24.  1843, 
rejected  by  the  Senate;  Thomas  W.  Gilmer,  of 
Virginia,  Feb.  15.  1844— died  Feb.  28,  1844;  John 
Y.  Jlason,  of  Virginia.  March  14,  1844. 

Postmasters-general:  Francis  Granger,  of  New 
York,  March  6,  ].'J41— resigned  Sept.  12.  1841; 
Charles  A.  WicklilTe.  of  Kentucky,  Sept.  13, 
1841. 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1541 


Attorneys-general :  John  J.  Crittenden,  of  Ken- 
tucky, March  5,  1S41— resigned  Sept.  11,  1841; 
Hugh  S.  Legare.  of  South  Carolina,  Sept.  13, 1841 ; 
John  Nelson,  of  Maryland,  July  1,  1843. 

Tenth  Administration — 184S  to  1849. 

President :  James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee. 

Vice-President :  George  M.  Dallas,  of  Pennsylvania. 

Secretary  of  State :  James  Buchanan,  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, March  5,  1845. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury :  Robert  J.  Walker,  of 
Mississippi,  March  5,  lS4o. 

Secretary  of  War  :  William  L.  Marcy,  of  New  York, 
March  5,  1845. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy  :  George  Bancroft,  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, March  10,  1845;  John  Y.  Mason,  of 
Virginia,  Sept.  9,  1846. 

Postmaster-general :  Cave  Johnson,  of  Tennessee, 
March  5,  1845. 

Attorneys-general :  John  Y.  Mason,  of  Virginia, 
March  5,  1845 ;  Nathan  Clifford,  of  Maine,  Oct.  17, 
1846;  Isaac  Toucey,  of  Connecticut,  June  21, 1848. 

Eleventh  Administration — 1849  to  ISSS. 

President :  Zachary  Taylor,  of  Louisiana.  Died 
July  9,  1850,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Vice-Pres- 
ident. 

Vice-President :  Millard  Fillmore,  of  New  York. 

Secretaries  of  State:  John  31. Clayton, of  Delaware, 
March  7,  1849— resigned  July  10,  1850;  Daniel 
Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  July  20,  18.50 — died 
Oct.  24.  1852;  Edward  Everett,  of  Massachusetts, 
Dec.  9,  1852. 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury  :  William  M.  Meredith, 
of  Pennsylvania,  March  7,  1849 — resigned  July  10, 
1850 ;  Thomas  Corwin,  of  Ohio,  July  20,  1850. 

-Secretaries  of  War :  George  W.  Crawford,  of  Geor- 
gia, March  7,  1849— resigned  July  10,  1850;  Will- 
iam A  Graham,  of  North  Carolina,  July  20,  1850 — 
resigned  July  15, 1852 :  John  P.  Kennedy,  of  Mary- 
land, July  22,  18.52. 

Secretaries  of  the  Interior  (a  new  offlce)  :  Thomas 
Ewing,  of  Ohio,  March  7,  1849 — resigned  July  10, 
1850 ;  James  A.  Pearce, of  Maryland,  July  20, 1850 ; 
T.  McKennon,  of  Pennsylvania,  Aug.  15, 18.50,  and 
died  soon  afterwards ;  Alexander  H.  H.  Stuart, 
of  Virginia,  Sept.  12,  18.50. 

Postmasters-general :  Jacob  Collamer,  of  Vermont, 
March  7,  1849— resigned  July  10,  1850;  N.  K.  Hall, 
of  New  York,  July  20,  1850 — resigned  Aug.  1852; 
Samuel  D.  Hubbard,  of  Connecticut,  Aug.  31, 
18.52. 

Attorneys-general:  Reverdy  Johnson,  of  Maryland, 
March  7,  1848— resigned  July  10,  1850;  John  J. 
Crittenden,  of  Kentucky,  July  20, 1850. 

Twelfth  Administration — 1853  to  1857. 

President :  Franklin  Pierce,  of  New  Hampshire. 

Vice-President :  William  R.  King,  of  Alabama. 
Died  April  18,1853. 

Secretary  of  State:  WilliamL.Marcy.of  New  York. 
March  5,  18.53. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury:  James  Guthrie,  of  Ken- 
tucky, March  5,  18.53. 

Secretarv  of  War  :  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi, 
March  5,  1853. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy :  James  C.  Dobbin,  of  North 
Carolina,  March  5,  1853. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior :  Robert  McCleUan,  of 
Michigan,  March  5.  1853. 

Postmaster-general :  James  Campbell,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, March  5,  1853. 

Attorney-general :  Caleb  Gushing,  of  Massachusetts, 
March  5,  1853. 


Tliirteenth  Administration — 1857  to  1861. 

President :  James  Buchanan,  of  Pennsylvania. 

Vice-President :  John  C.  Breckenridge.  of  Kentucky. 

Secretaries  of  State:  Lewis  Cass,  of  Michigan. 
March  6.  1857— resigned  Dec.  14,  1860.  Jere- 
miah S.  Black,  of  Pennsylvania,   succeeded  him. 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury :  Howell  Cobb,  of  Geor- 
gia, March  6,  1857— resigned  Dec.  10,  1860;  Philip 
F.  Thomas,  of  Maryland — resigned  Jan.  11,  1861 ; 
John  A.  Dix,  of  New  York. 

Secretaries  of  War :  John  B.  Floyd,  of  Virginia, 
March  6,  1857 — resigned  Dec.  29,  1860;  Joseph 
Holt,  of  Kentucky,  Dec.  30,  1860. 

Secretarv  of  the  Navy  :  Isaac  Toucey,  of  Connecti- 
cut, March  6,  1857. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior:  Jacob  Thompson,  of 
Mississippi,  March  6,  1857 — resigned  Jan.  8,  1861. 

Postmasters-general :  Aaron  V.  Brown, of  Tennesee, 
March  6,  1857— died  March  8,  1859;  JosephHolt,  of 
Kentuckv,  July,  1859;  Horatio  King,  of  Maine, 
Feb.  12,  l"861. 

Attorneys-general :  Jeremiah  S.  Black,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, March  6, 1857 ;  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  of  Ohio, 
Dec.  I860. 

Fourteenth  Administration — 1861  to  1869. 

Presidents:  Abraham  Lincoln,  of  Illinois,  died  April 
15,  1865.  Andrew  Johnson,  of  Tennesee,  succeed- 
ed Abraliam  Lincoln,  April  15,  1865. 

Vice-Presidents:  Hannibal  Hamlin,  of  Maine;  An- 
drew Johnson,  of  Tennessee,  March  4,  1865 — died 
July  31,  1875. 

Secretary  of  State:  William  H.  Seward,  of  New 
York.  March,  1861. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury:  Salmon  P.  Chase,  of 
Ohio,  March,  1861;  William  P.  Fessenden,  of 
Maine,  Sept.,  1864;  Hugh  McCuUoch,  of  Indiana, 
March,  1865. 

Secretaries  of  War:  Simon  Cameron,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, March,  1861 ;  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  of  Ohio 
Jan.,  1862. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy  :  Gideon  Welles,  of  Connecti- 
cut, March.  1861. 

Secretaries  of  the  Interior:  Caleb  B.  Smith,  of  In- 
diana, March,  1861 — resigned  Dec.  1862  ;  John  P. 
Usher,  of  Indiana,  Jan.,  1863;  James  Harlan,  of 
Iowa,  May,  1865;  O.  H.  Browning,  of  Illinois.  July, 
1866. 

Postmasters-general:  Montgomery  Blair,  of  Mary- 
land, March,  1861 ;  William  Dennison,  of  Ohio, 
Oct.,  1864;  Alexander  W.  Randall,  of  Wisconsin, 
July,  1866. 

Attorneys-general :  Edward  Bates,  of  Missouri, 
March,  1861 ;  James  Speed,  of  Kentucky,  Dec, 
1864;  H.  F.  Stansberry,  of  Kentucky,   July,  1866. 

Fifteenth  Administration — 1869  to  1877. 

President:  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  of  Illinois. 

Vice-Presidents:  Schuyler  Colfax,  of  Indiana; 
Henry  Wilson,  of  Massachusetts,    March  4,  1873. 

Secretaries  of  State :  Elihu  B.  Washburne,  of  Illi- 
nois, March  5,  1869;  Hamilton  Fish,  of  New  York, 
March  11,  1869. 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury  :  George  S.  Boutwell.  of 
Massachusetts.  March  11,1860:  William  A.  Rich- 
ardson, of  Massachusetts,  March  17,  1873;  Benja- 
min H.  Bristow,  of  Kentucky,  June  2,  1874;  Lot 
M.  Morrill,  of  Maine,  June  21,  1876. 

Secretaries  of  AVar :  John  A.  Rawlins,  of  Illinois, 
March  11,  1869;  William  T.  Sherman,  of  Ohio, 
Sept.  9,  1869;.William  W.  Belknap,  of  Iowa,  Oct. 
25,  1869. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy :  Adolph  E.  Borie,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, March  5,  1869;  George  M.  Robeson,  of 
New  Jersey,  June  25.  1869. 


1542 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


Secretaries  of  the  Interior :  Jacob  D.  Cox,  of  Ohio, 
March  5,  1869;  Columbus  Delano,  of  Ohio,  Nov.  1, 
1870 ;  Zachariah  Chandler,  of  Michigan,  Oct.  19, 
1875. 

Postmasters-general:  John  A.  J.  Creswell,  of  Jlary- 
land,  March  5,  1869;  James  W.  Marshal,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, July  3,  1874;  ^larshall  Jewell,  of  Con- 
necticut, Aug.  24,  1874;  James  N.  Tyner,  of  Indi- 
ana, July  12,  1876. 

Attorneys-general:  Ebenezer  E.  Hoar,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, March  5,  1869;  Amos  T.  Akermai>,  of 
Georgia,  June  23,  1S70;  George  H.  Williams,  of 
Oregon,  Jan.  10,  1872;  Edwards  Pierrepont,  of 
New  York,  May  15,  1875;  Ali)honso  Taft,  of  Ohio, 
May  22,  1876. 

Sixteenth  Ailinirii.itraliou — 1S77  to  ISSl. 

President:  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio. 

Vice-President:  William  A.  Wlieeler,  of  New  York. 

Secretary  of  State  :  William  M.  Evarts,  of  New 
York,  March  12,  1877. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury:  John  Sherman, of  Ohio, 
March  8,  1877. 

Secretaries  of  War :  George  W.  McCrary,  of  Iowa, 
March  12,  1877;  Alexander  Ramsey,  of  Minne- 
sota, Dec.  10,1879. 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy  :  Richard  W.  Thompson,  of 
Indiana,  March  12,  1877;  Nathan  Goff.  Jr.,  of 
West  Virginia,  Jan.  6,  1881. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior :  Carl  Schurz,  of  Missouri, 
March  12,  1877. 

Postmasters-general:  David  M.  Key,  of  Tennessee, 
March  12,  1877;  Horace  Maynard,  of  Tennessee, 
June  2,  1880. 

Attorney-general:  Charles  Devens,  of  Massachu- 
setts, March  12,  1877. 

Seventeenth  Ad7ninistrntion — 1S81. 

President:  James  A.  Garfield,  of  Ohio — died  Sept. 
19,  1881,  when  Vice-President  Chester  A.  Arthur, 
of  New  York,  became  president. 

Vice-President:  Chester  A.  Arthur,  of  New  York, 
succeeded  to  the  presidency  Sept.  19,  1881. 

Secretaries  of  State:  James  G.  IJlaine,  of  Maine, 
March  5,  1881 ;  F.  T.  Frelinghuvsen,  of  New  Jer- 
sey, Dec.  12,  1881. 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury :  William  Windom,  of 
Minnesota,  March  5,  1881 ;  Charles  J.  Folger,  of 
New  York,  Oct.  27,  1881. 

Secretary  of  War :  Robert  T.  Lincoln,  of  Illinois, 
March  5,  1881. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy  :  William  H.  Hunt,  of  Louis- 
iana, Rlarch  5,  1881. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior :  Samuel  J.  Kirkwood,  of 
lo-wa,  March  5,  1881. 

Postmasters-general :  Thomas  L.  James,  of  New 
York,  March  5,  1881 ;  Timothy  O.  Howe,  of  Wis- 
consin, Dec  20,  1881. 

Attorneys-general:  Wayne  ^loVeatrh,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, March  5,  1881 ;  Benjamin  Harris  Brewster, 
of  Pennsylvania,  Dec.  16, 1881. 

Eighteenth  Admin intrntion—lSS'i  to  1SS9. 

President :  Grover  Cleveland,  of  New  York. 

Vice-President:  Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana. 

Secretary  of  State :  Thomas  F.  Bayard,  of  Dela- 
ware, JIareh  5,  188.5. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury:  Charles  S.  Fairchild, 
of  New  York,  March  .5,  1885. 

Secretary  of  War:  William  C.  Endicott,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, March  r,,  1SS5. 

Secretary  of  the  Navv :  AVilllam  C.  Whitney,  of 
New  York.  March  5,  1885. 

Secretnry  of  the  Interior:  Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar,  of 
Wisconsin,  ^larch  5,  1885. 


Postmaster-General:  William  F.  Vilas,  of  Wis- 
consin, March  5,  1885. 

Attorney-General :  Augustus  H.  Garland,  of  Ar- 
kansas, March  5,  1885. 

.  Nineteenth  Ad)iii)ii.itrat(On — JSS!)  to  1893. 

President:  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana. 

Vice-President :  Levi  P.  ilorton,  of  New  York. 

Secretary  of  State  :  James  G.  Blaine,  of  Maine. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury :  William  Windom,  of 
Minnesota,  died  Jan.  29,  1891;*  John  N.  Foster, 
of  Ohio." 

Secretary  of  War :  Redfield  Proctor,  of  Vermont. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy;  Benjamin  F.  Tracy,  of  New 
York. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior :  John  W.  Noble,  of 
Indiana. 

Postmaster-General :  John  Wanamaker,  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Attorney-General :  William  H.  H.  Miller,  of 
Indiana. 

Sec'y  of  Agriculture  :  Jeremiah  M.  Rusk,  of  Illinois. 

FoRM.\TioN  OP  States  and  Territories. 

Alabama — From  territory  ceded  to  United  States  by 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  Admitted  Dec.  14, 
1819. 

Arkansas — From  territory  ceded  by  France.  Ad- 
mitted June  15,  1836. 

California — From  territory  ceded  by  Mexico.  Ad- 
m'itted  Sept.  9,  1850. 

Colorado — From  portion  of  territory  ceded  by 
France  and  Mexico.     Admitted  Aug.  1,  1876. 

Columbia,  District  of — From  territory  ceded  by 
Maryland  and  Virginia.  Established  as  seat  of 
government  July  16, 1790.  Alexandria  retroceded 
July  1846. 

Connecticut — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  Jan.  9,  1788. 

Delaware — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States.  Rat- 
ified Constitution  Dec.  7,  1787. 

Florida — From  territory  ceded  by  Spain.  Admit- 
ted March  3,  1845. 

Georgia — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States.  Rat- 
ified Constitution  Jan.  2,  1788. 

Idaho — From  Territory  of  Idaho.  Admitted  July 
3,  1890. 

Illinois — Out  of  territory  ceded  by  Virginia.  Ad- 
mitted Dec.  3,  1818. 

Indiana — From  territory  ceded  by  Virginia.  .\d- 
mitted  Dec.  11,1816. 

Iowa — From  part  of  Wisconsin  Territory.  Admif- 
ted  Dec.  28,  1846. 

Kansas — Composed  of  territory  ceded  by  France 
and  the  State  of  Texas.    Admitted  Jan.  29,  1861. 

Kentucky — From  the  territory  of  Virginia.  Admit- 
ted Jiine  1,  1792. 

Louisiana — From  territorv  ceded  by  France.  Ad- 
mitted April  8,  1812. 

Maine — Out  of  part  of  territory  of  Massachusetts. 
Admitted  March  15,  1820. 

Maryland — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  April  28,  1788. 

Massdchusi'tfs — One  of  the  thirti  en  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  Feb.  6,  1788. 

Michigan — From  territory  ceded  by  Virginia.  Ad- 
mitted Jan.  26,  1837. 

Minnesota — From  territory  ceded  by  France.  Ad- 
mitted May  11,  1S58. 

Mississijipi — From  territory  ceded  by  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina.     Admitted  Dec.  10.  1817. 


*  .Secretary  Windom  immediately  after  closiue  a  lenpthy 
and  very  able  speech  at  a  liani|iiet  of  tlie  New  York  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  suddenly  expired  Jan.  2y.  I.s91,  aped  (j:>. 


U  K  I  T  !•:  I)    STATES    OF    A  M  ERIC  A 


1513 


MUsuti!-: — From  territory  ceded  bv  France.  Admit- 
ted .4  ug.  10,  1821. 

ifontuKi — Territory  of  Montana.  Admitted  Nov. 
8,  ISSV. 

Xehraska — From  territory  ceded  by  France.  Ad- 
mitted March  1,  1867. 

.\,rada — From  territory  obtained  from  Mexico. 
Admitted  Oct.  31.  1864. 

New  Ha}i>pshire — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  June  21,  1788. 

New  /('/Sfi/ — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  Dec.  18,  1787. 

New  York — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  .July  2(i,  1788. 

North  Carolina — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  Nov.  21,  1789. 

North  Dakota — From  Territory  of  Dakota.  Admit- 
ted Nov.  2.  1889. 

Ohio — Out  of  territory  ceded  by  Virginia.  Admit- 
ted Nov.  29,  1802. 

Oregon — From  territory  included  in  treaty  with 
France.  1803,  and  Spain,  1819,  and  Great  Britain, 
18i6.    Admitted  Feb.  14,  1859. 

Pennsyh'ania — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  Dec.  12,  1787. 

Rhode  Island — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  May  29,  1790. 

South  Carolina — One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 
Ratified  Constitution  May  23,  1788. 

South  Dakota — From  Territory  of  Dakota.  Admit- 
ted Nov.  2,  1889. 

Tennessee — Out  of  territory  ceded  by  North  Caro- 
lina.   Admitted  June,  1796. 

7>.ra.< — Independent  republic.  Admitted  Dec.  29, 
1845. 

Vermont — From  part  of  the  territory  of  New  York. 
Admitted  March  4,  1791. 

Virginia — One  of  the  thirteen  origiiial  States.  Rat- 
ified Constitution  June  26,  1788. 

Washington — From  Territory  of  Washington.  Ad- 
mitted Nov.  11,  1889. 

West  Virginia — Formed  out  of  a  portion  of  the  State 
of  Virginia.    Admitted  Dec.  31.  1862. 

Wisconsin — From  part  of  the  territory  of  Michigan. 
Admitted  May  20.  1848. 

Wyoming — From  Territory  of  AVyoming.  Admitted 
July  10,  1890. 

Arizona  ]  The  Territorial  governments,  when 
established  by  Congress  and  organi- 

New  Mexico  zed,  send  Delegates  (one  for  each  Ter- 
^ritory)  to  the  House  of    Representa- 

Ohlahoma  fives,  who  are  present  at  its  delibera- 
tions, with  a  right  of  moving  aniend- 

Utah  )  ments  and  debating,  but  not  of  voting. 

Apportionments   of   Coxgression.\l   Rephbsext.a- 

TIONS. 

The  Constitution  (  Sec.  2,  of  Fourteenth  Amend- 
ment )  provides  that  "  Representatives  shall  be  ap- 
portioned among  the  several  States  according  to 
their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  num- 
ber of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed. "  This  provision  amended  the  first  para- 
graph of  clause  3,  Section  2,  of  Article  1  of  the 
original  Constitution.  Congress,  under  authority 
of  the  quoted  clause  of  the  Constitution  passed  the 
Census  Act  of  March  1,  1790;  the  Act  of  Feb.  25, 
1791,  providing  that  Kentucky  and  Vermont  should 
have  two  Representatives  each  until  the  next  ap- 
portionment ;  and  the  Act  of  April  14,  1792 — this 
last  being  the  first  Apportionment  Act  passed 
under  the  Census  of  1790.  This  Act  fixed  the  total 
number  of  Representatives  at  105,  distributed  as 
shown  in  the  2d  column  of  the  table.  The  subse- 
quent apportionment  Acts  under  several  suc- 
cessive Censuses  bore  dates  and  made  provision  as 


to  ratios  of  representation  and  number^of  Repre- 
sentatives as  follows : 

Second  Census  (1800).— .\ct  of  Jan.  14,  1802,  ratio 
1  to  33,000;  number  of  Representatives,  141. 

77inrf  Census  (1810).— Act  of  Dec.  21,1811;  ratio  of 
representation,  1  to  35,000;  number  of  Rep- 
resentatives, 181. 

Forth  Census  (1820).— Act  of  ^March  7,  1822;  ratio 
of  representation,  1  to  40,000;  number  of  Represen- 
tatives, 212. 

Fijth  Census  {1830).— Act  of  May  22,1832;  ratio 
of  representation,  1  to  47,700;  number  of  Represen- 
tatives, 212. 

Sixth  Census  (.\S40).— Act  of  June  25,1842;  ratio 
of  representation,  1  to  70,680 ;  and  "'  1  additional 
menilier  for  each  State  having  a  fraction  greater 
than  one  moiety  of  said  ratio;"  number  of  Repre- 
sentatives, 223.  Under  the  following  named  Sup- 
plement Acts,  additional  Representatives  were 
assigned  until  after  the  next  Census  and  Appor- 
tionment as  follows;  namely  :  Act  of  May  29,  1842, 
3  for  AVisconsin  ;  Act  of  Dec.  29,  1845,  2  for  Texas ; 
Act  of  Aug.  4.  1846,  2  for  Iowa ;  and  Act  of  Sept.  9, 
1850,  2  for  California. 

Seventh  Census  (1850). — Under  the  Census  Act  of 
May  23,  1850,  the  House  was  to  be  composed  of  233 
members  to  be  apportioned  among  the  States  as  fol- 
lows, viz : 

Sec.  2.5.  And  bt  it J'urtlitr  tuacttd.  That  so  goon  as  the  uext 
and  each  subsequent  enumeration  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
several  States,  directed  by  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  to  be  taken,  shall  be  completed  and  returned  to  the 
ot!]ce  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  ascertain  the  aggregate 
representative  population  of  the  I'uitcd  States,  by  adding  to 
the  whole  number  of  free  jiersons  in  all  the  States,  including 
those  bound  to  service  for  a  number  of  years,  and  excluding 
Indians  not  taxed,  three-tifths  of  all  o'ther  persons,  which 
aggregate  population  he  shall  divide  by  the  number  two 
hundred  and  thirty-three,  and  the  product  of  such  division, 
rejecting  any  fraction  of  a  unit,  if  any  such  happen  to  remain, 
shall  be  the  ratio  or  rule  of  apportionment  of  Representa- 
tives among  the  several  States  under  such  enumeration; 
and  the  said  Secretary  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior  shall 
then  proceed,  in  the  same  manner,  to  ascertain  the  represen- 
tative population  of  each  State,  and  to  divide  the  whole  num- 
ber of  the  representative  population  of  each  State  by  the 
ratio  already  determined  by  him.  as  above  directed,  and  the 
product  of  this  last  divisioii  shall  be  the  number  of  Repre- 
sentatives apportioned  to  such  State  binder  the  then  last 
enumeration  ;  Provided,  That  the  loss  in  the  number  of  mem- 
bers caused  by  the  fractions  remaining  in  the  several  States 
on  the  division  of  the  population  thereof  shall  be  compen- 
sated for  by  assigning  to  so  many  States  having  the  largest 
fractions  one  additional  member  each  for  Its  fraction  as  may 
be  necessary  to  make  the  whole  number  of  Reftresentalives 
two  hundred  and  thirty-three;  And  provided  a^«o.  That,  if, 
after  the  apportionment"  of  the  Representatives  under  the 
next  or  any  subsequent  census,  a  new  State  or  States  shall 
be  admitted  into  the  Union,  the  Representative  or  Represen- 
tatives assigned  to  such  new  State  or  States  shall  be  in  addi- 
tion to  the  number  of  Representatives  hereinabove  limited, 
which  excess  of  Representatives  over  two  hundred  and  thir- 
ty-three shall  only  continue  until  the  next  succeeding 
census. 

The  ratio  of  representation  under  this  census 
was  fixed  at  1  to  93,420;  and  under  following  Acts 
two  additional  Representatives  were  assigned  as 
follows,  namely :  Under  Act  of  Feb.  26,  1857,  one 
for  Minnesota,  and  under  Act  of  Feb.  14,  1859,  one 
for  Oregon. 

Eighth  Census  (1860).— Act  of  March  4,  1862, 
fixed  the  number  of  members  of  the  House  after 
^larch  3,  1863,  at  241,  the  eight  additional  members 
being  assigned  one  each  to  Pennsylvania,  Ohio. 
Kentucky,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Vermont,  and 
Rhode  Island.  The  ratio  of  Representatives 
was  fixed  at  1  to  127,381. 

Ninth  Census  (1870).— Act  of  Feb.  2, 1872,  provided 
that  after  March  3,  1873,  the  House  should  be  com- 
posed of  293  members.  The  remainder  of  the  Act 
was  as  follows : 

Section  2.  That  in  each  State  entitled  under  this  law  to 
more  than  one  Representative,  the    number    to    which  said 


1544 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


states  shall  be  entitled  In  the  Forty-third,  and  each  subse- 
quent Congress,  shall  be  elected  by  districts  composed  of 
contiguous  territory,  and  containing  as  nearly  as  practicable 
an  equal  number  of  inhabitants,  and  equal  in  number  to  the 
number  of  Representatives  to  which  said  States  may  be  en- 
titled in  Congress,  no  one  district  electing  more  tlian  one 
Representative:  Providrd,  That  iu  the  election  of  Repre- 
sentatives to  the  Forty-third  Congress  in  any  State  which 
by  this  law  is  given  an  increased  number  of  Re'presentatives  ; 
The  additional  Representative  or  Representatives  allowed  to 
such  State  may  be  elected  by  the  State  at  large  and  the  other 
Representatives  to  which  the  State  is  entitled  by  the  dis- 
tricts as  now  prescribed  by  law  in  said  State,  unless  the 
Legislature  of  said  State  shall  otherwise  provide  before  the 
time  fixed  by  law  for  the  election  of  Reju-esentatives  therein. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  Tuesday  next  after  the  first  Monday  iu 
November,  in  the  year  1876,  is  hereby  fixed  and  established 
as  the  day,  in  each  of  the  States  and  territories  of  the 
United  States,  for  election  of  Representatives  and  Delegates 
to  the  Forty-ninth  Congress;  and  the  Tuesday  next  after  the 
first  Moudiiv  in  November,  in  every  second  year  thereafter,  is 
hereby  fixed  and  established  as  the  day  for  the  election,  in 
each  of  said  States  and  Territories,  of  Representatives  and 
Delegates  to  the  Congress  commencing  on  the  fou.rth  day  of 
March  next  thereafter. 

Sec.  4.  That  if.  upon  trial,  there  shall  be  a  failure  to 
elect  a  Representative  or  Delegate  in  Congress  in  any  State, 
District,  or  Territory,  upon  the  day  hereby  fixed  and  estab- 
lished for  such  election,  or  if.  after  any  such  election,  a  va- 
cancy shall  occur  in  any  such  State,  District,  or  Territory, 
from'death,  resignation,  or  otherwise,  an  election  shall  be 
held  to  fill  any  vacancy  caused  by  such  failure,  resignation, 
death,  or  otherwise,  at'such  time'as  is  or  may  be  provided  by 
law  for  filling  vacancies  in  the  State  or  Territory  in  which 
the  same  may  occur. 

Sec.  h.  Tliat  no  State  shall  be  hereafter  admitted  to  the 
Union  without  having  the  necessary  population  to  entitle  it 
to  at  least  one  Representative  according  to  the  ratio  of  rep- 
resentation fixed  on  this  bill. 

Sec.  0.  That  should  any  State,  after  the  passage  of  this 
act,  deny  or  abridge  the  right  of  any  of  the  male  inhabitants 
of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  to  vote  at  any  election  named  in  the 
amendments  to  the  Constitution,  article  fourteen,  section 
two,  except  for  participation  in  the  rebellion  or  other  crime, 
the  number  of  Representatives  apportioned  in  this  act  to 
such  State  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  num- 
ber of  such  male  citizens  shall  have  to  the  whole  number  of 
male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Under  this  Census  the  ratio  of  Representatives 
was  1  to  131,425. 

By  the  act  of  May  30.  1872,  entitled  "An  act  sup- 
plemental to  an  act  entitled  'An  act  for  the  appor- 
tionment of  Representatives  to  Congress  among 
the  several  States  according  to  the  Ninth  Census,'" 
the  representation  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives was  further  increased  as  follows,  viz  : 

That  from  and  after  the  third  day  of  March,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  seventy-three,  the  following  States  shall  }»e  entitled 
to  one  Representative  each  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  in  addition  to  the  number  apportioned  to  such  States 
by  the  act  entitled  "An  act  for  the  apportionment  of  Repre- 
sentatives to  Congress  among  the  several  States  according 
to  the  Ninth  Census,"  approved  February  second,  eighteen 
hundred  and  seventy-two,  to  wit:  New  Hampshire.  Vermont, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  Tennessee,  Louisiana, 
Alabama,  and  Florida,  and  be  elected  by  separate  districts, 
as  in  said  act  directed:  Provided,  That  in  the  election  of 
Representatives  ti  the  Forty-third  Congress  only,  in  any 
State  which  by  th  s  law  is  given  an  increased  number  o"f 
Representatives,  the  additional  representative  allowed  to 
such  State  may  be  elected  by  the  State  at  large,  unless  the 
legisL.ture  of  said  State  shall  otherwise  provide  before  the 
time  fixed  by  law  for  the  election  of  Representatives  there- 
in. 

Tenth  Census  (1880).— The  act  of  Feb.  25,  1.S.S2, 
enacted  as  follows : 

Section  1.  That  after  March  S.ISR.'?.  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives shall  be  composed  of  ;S25  members,  to  be  apportioned  as 
follows:  [See  in  table  under  column  1880.  next  T»nge.] 

SEC.  2.  That  whenever  a  new  State  is  admitted  to  the  Union, 
the  Representative  or  Representatives  assigned  to  it  shall  be 
in  addition  to  the  number  3*25. 

Sec  .S.  That  iu  each  State  entitled  under  this  apportion- 
ment the  numl)er  to  which  such  State  may  be  entitled  in  the 
forty-eighth  and  each  subsequent  Congress  shall  be  ele^■^ed 
by  districts  com7>osed  of  contiguous  territory,  and  contain- 
ing as  nearly  as  j)racticable  an  equal  number  of  inhabitants, 
and  eqtial  in  number  to  the  Representatives  to  which  such 
State  may  be  entitled  in  Congress,  no  one  district  electing 
more  than  one  Representative:  Pntnidid,  1\niX,  unless  the 
Legislature  of  such  State  shall  otherwise  provide  before  the 
election  of  such  representatives  shall  take  place  as  provided 


by  law,  where  no  change  shall  be  hereby  made  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  State,  the  Representatives  thereof  to  the- 
forty-eighth  Congress  shall  be  elected  therein  as  now  pro- 
vided by  law.  If  the  number  as  hereby  provided  for  shall 
be  larger  than  it  was  before  this  change,  then  the  additional 
Representative  or  Representatives  allowed  to  said  State  un- 
der this  apportionment  may  be  elected  by  the  State  at  large, 
and  the  other  Representatives  to  which  the  State  is  entitled 
by  the  districts  as  now  prescribed  by  law  in  said  State:  and 
if  the  number  hereby  provided  for  shall  in  any  State  be  less 
than  it  was  before  the  change  hereby  made,  then  the  whole 
number  to  such  State  hereby  provided  for  shall  be  elected  at 
large,  unless  the  Legislatures  of  said  States  have  provided  or 
shall  otherwise  provide  befoie  the  time  fixed  by  law  for  the 
next  election  of  Representatives  therein. 

All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  herewith  ar«  hereby 
repealed. 

The  ratio  of  representation  under  the  Tenth 
Census  was  1  to  151,912. 

The  act  of  February  22,  1889,  providing  for  the 
admission  of  the  Stitcs  of  Montana,  North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota,  and  Washington,  increased  the  rep- 
resentation in  the  House  to  three  bundled  and 
thirty  membfrs,  which  was  further  increased  by 
the  acts  of  July  3  and  10,  1890,  admitting  the 
Ptates  of  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  to  three  hundred 
thirty-two  members. 

Eleventh  C(nisvs  (1890).— The  Act  of  Congress' 
fixing  the  ratio  of  representation  for  ensuing 
Quadrennium  at  1  to  173,901;  the  total  number  of 
Representatives  at  356;  and  the  number  of  Repre- 
sentatives for  the  States  severally  shown  in  the 
last  column  of  the  Table  of  Assignments  to  the  sev- 
eral States. 

Election  and  Rights  of  Territorial  Delbg.^tes 
TO  Congress. 

Every  Territory  sliall  have  the  right  to  send  a 
Delegate  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
Vnited  States,  to  serve  during  each  (Jongress,  who 
shall  be  elected  by  the  voters  in  the  Territory 
qualified  to  elect  n  embers  of  the  legislative  assem- 
bly thereof.  The  person  having  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  votes  shall  be  declared  by  the  governor 
duly  elected,  and  a  certificate  shall  be  given  ac- 
cordingly. Every  such  Delegate  shall  have  a 
seat  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  with  the 
right   of  debating,  but   not  of  voting. 

The  first  election  of  a  delegate  in  any  Territory 
for  which  a  temporary  government  is  hereafter 
provided  by  Congress  shall  be  held  at  the  time  and 
places  and  in  the  manner  the  governor  of  such  Ter- 
ritory may  direct,  after  at  least  sixty  days'  notice, 
to  be  given  by  proclamation  ;  but  at  all  subsequent 
elections  therein,  as  well  as  at  all  elections  for  a 
Delegate  in  organized  Territories,  such  time, 
places,  and  manner  of  holding  the  election  shall  be 
prescribed  by  the  law  of  each  Territory. 

The  Speaker  shall  appoint  from  among  the  Dele- 
gates one  additional  member  on  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing committees,  viz.:  Coinage,  AVeights  and 
Pleasures;  Agriculture;  Jlilitary  Affairs;  Post- 
Offices  and  Post-Roads;  Public  Lands;  Indian 
Affairs;  Territories;  Private  Land  Claims,  and 
Mines  and  Mining;  and  they  shall  possess  in  their 
respective  committees  tlie  same  powers  and  priv- 
ileges as  in  the  House,  and  may  make  any  motion 
except  to  reconsider. — Rii.e  XH. 

In  the  organization  of  the  Llouse,  the  names  of 
Delegates  are  called  over  after  those  of  members, 
and  before  taking  their  seats  the  same  oath  or 
affirmation  is  administered  as  in  the  case  of  mem- 
bers. 

The  right  of  a  Delegate  to  sulimit  a  resolution  is 
recognized  by  Rri.E  XII.  and  it  is  also  competent 
for  him  to  submit  any  motion  which  a  member 
may  make,  except  the  motion  to  reconsider,  which 
is  dependent  on  the  right  to  vote. 


UNITED     STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1545 


NlMBBR  OF  ReHKESENTATIVKS  IX  CoXGRESS  ASSIGNED 

TO  States  and  Territories. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  Repre- 
sentatives to  Congress  assigned  to  each  of  the 
United  States  previous  to  1790,  and  from  1790  to 
1S90: 


States  and  Terri- 
tories. 

ay 

8 

i 

•1 

1 
3 

5 
•1 

7 

1 
•2 

7 
2 
2 

6 
3 
3 

8 

4 

4 

*1 

8 
5 
6 

1 

i 

Alabama 

q 

fi 

California 

7 

o 

Connecticut 

5 
1 

7 
1 

7 

1 

7 
2 

6 

1 

6 

1 

4 

1 

*1 

8 

4 
1 
1 
8 

4 
1 

1 
7 

4 
1 
2 
9 

4 

1 

2 

10 
»1 
20 

13 

11 

7 

11 

6 

4 

6 
12 
U 

5 

7 
14 
•1 

3 

1 

2 

7 
34 

9 
*1 
21 

1 
28 

2 

7 
•2 
10 
11 

2 
10 
*1 

4 

9 

1 

4 
1 

•1 

3 

2 

4 

6 

7 

9 

11 

Idaho  

Illinois    

»1 
*1 

1 
3 

3 
7 

7 
10 
-2 

9 

11 
2 

14 

11 
0 

*1 
9 
5 
5 
5 

10 
6 
2 
5 
9 

19 
13 

9 

3 

10 

6 

5 

6 
11 

9 

3 

6 
13 

w 

n 

11 

H 

Kentucky 

•2 

6 

10 

*1 

7 

9 

20 

12 

v\ 

10 
4 
7 
6 

10 
3 

10 
4 
6 
6 

11 
4 

*2 
5 
7 

11 

3  1  3 

7  !  S 

6 

4 

Maryland    

Massachusetts 

Michigan    

6 

8 

8 
14 

9 
17 

9 
13 

8 
12 
*1 

6 
13 
1" 

7 

n 

1 

n 

2 
2 

4 
5 

7 

Missouri    

It 

1 

Nebraska 

*1 
*1 
3 
5 
31 
7 

1 
1 
3 
6 
33 
8 

H 

Nevada  

1 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersev    . 

3 
4 
6 
5 

4 
5 
10 
10 

5 

6 
17 
12 

6 

6 

27 

13 

6 

6 

34 

13 

5 
6 
40 
IS 

4 
5 

34 
9 

3 

5 
33 
8 

2 

n 

New  York 

S4 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

9 
1 

Ohio 

*1 

6 

14 

19 

21 

21 
*1 
25 
2 
6 

19 
1 

24 
2 
4 

20 
1 

27 
2 
5 

"1 

Fennsylvania. 

Rhode*  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

8 
1 
6 

13 
2 
6 

18 
2 
8 

23 
2 
9 

26 
2 
9 

2« 
2 
9 

24 
2 

7 

30 
2 
7 

n 

3 

6 

9 

IS 

11 

10 
2 
3 

13 

8 
4 
3 
11 

10 
6 
3 
9 

in 

Texas  

1 

IS 

*2 
19 

4 

22 

6 
23 

5 
22 

5  1 

Virginia 

10 

12    i-"^ 

10 

•' 

West  Virginia 

*3 
6 

3 
8 

4 

•2 

3 

10 

1 

•Arizona 

lOklahoina 

JUtah 

♦Admitted  into  tlie  Union  after  the  apportionment  under 
which  they  are  here  arranged  was  made,  but  before  the  suc- 
ceeding census. 

fPrevious  to  March  3, 1820,  Maine  formed  part  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  was  called  The  DtMrict  0/  Maine,  and  its  represen- 
tatives were  numbered  with  those  of  Massachusetts.  By 
compact  between  Maine  and  Massachusetts,  Maine  became  a 
separate  and  independent  State,  and  by  an  act  of  Congress  of 
March  3,  1820,  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  such— the  ad- 
mission to  take  place  on  the  loth  of  the  same  month.  On 
April  7,1820,  Maine  was  declared  entitled  to  seven  Represent- 
atives, to  be  taken  from  those  of  Massachusetts. 

JTerritory— Not  yet  admitted  to  full  representation  in 
House. 

Note.— Ratios  of  representation:  1790  and  1800,1  to  a3.900; 
1810,  :»,000;  1820,40.000;  18.30.47,700:  1810.70,680:  1850.93.420; 
1860,  127,000;  1870, 131,425;  1880,  151,912;  1890, 1  to  173,912. 

State  Constitvtions  and  State  Govern.ments. 

By  the  constitutions  of  all  the  States  except 
New  York.  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Kan- 
sas, and  Delaware,  the  powers  of  government  are 
divided  into  three  distinct  departments — the  legis- 
lative, executive,  and  judicial. 

Tliere  is  in  each  State  and  Territory  a  legisla- 
ture. In  twenty  it  is  called  the  General  AssembJy; 
:n  Oregon  and  all  the  Territories,  the  Leqislatire 
Assembly;  and  in  New  Hampshire  and  Massachu- 
setts, the  Genera/ Co/nV,  consisting  of  a  senate  (in 
the  Territories  a  council)  and  a  house  of  represen- 


tatives, called  in  New  York,  Wisconsin,  California, 
Nevada,  and  Florida  the  Assemhiij;  in  Maryland, 
Virginia,  West  Virginia,  the  House  of  Delegates, 
and  in  New  Jersey  the  General  Assembly. 

In  all  the  States  there  is  a  governor,  who  is  the 
executive  authority,  and  there  is  also  generally  a 
lieutenant-governor.  But  when  there  is  no  lieuten- 
ant-governor the  president  of  the  senate  succeeds 
if  the  governor  dies  or  becomes  incapable.  His 
powers  are  similar  to  those  of  the  President  of 
the  United  States.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
qualifications  required  in  the  various  States: 

No  person,  in  eleven  States,  can  be  a  governor 
unless  he  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States;  in 
three,  he  must  have  been  so  for  two  years;  in  five, 
for  five  years;  in  Florida,  nine  years;  in  four,  ten 
years;  in  one,  twelve  years;  in  Georgia,  fifteen 
years,  and  in  New  Jersey  and  Mississippi,  twenty 
years.  He  must  also  have  been  resident  for 
periods  varying  from  one  year  to  ten. 

In  some  States  the  governor  must  not  be  less 
than  twenty-five  years  of  age,  in  most  thirty  years, 
and  in  two  (Kentucky  and  ^Missouri),  thirty-five. 

'In  Delaware  he  is  not  eligible  a  second  time  for 
office.  In  Tennessee  he  is  not  eligible  for  more 
than  six  years  in  any  term  of  eight.  So  in  Oregon, 
for  not  more  tlian  eight  years  in  any  period  of 
twelve  years;  in  Indiana,  for  not  more  than  four 
years  in  any  term  of  eight. 

By  the  constitutions  of  seven  States,  the  gover- 
or  is  not  eligible  for  reelection  for  any  two  succes- 
sive terms,  unless  the  office  devolved  upon  him. 
In  Georgia  he  is  not  eligible  for  four  years  after 
the  second  term. 

In  Massachusetts,  he  must  be  possessed  of  a  free- 
hold estate,  in  his  own  right,  of  the  value  of 
$5,000.  He  is  elected  directly  by  the  people,  and, 
not  like  the  President,  through  a  college  of  elect- 
ors. His  term  of  oflice  varies  from  four  years  in 
sixteen  States  to  three  years  in  three  States,  two 
years  in  eighteen  States,  and  a  year  in  two  States 
(iMassachusetts  and  Rhode  Island). 

Both  the  senate  and  the  house  are  in  all  States 
elected  at  the  general  election  day,  and  vacancies 
in  either  house  are  generally  filledin  the  same  way 
by  special  election;  but  in  New  Hampshire  and 
Maine  vacancies  are  so  filled  by  election  only  in 
the  house;  a  vacancy  in  the  "senate  is  filled  by 
joint  ballot  of  the  legislatures  :  so  in  Massachusetts 
vacancies  in  the  Senate  are  filled  by  special  elec- 
tion, upon  the  order  of  a  majority  of  the  senators 
elected. 

A  senator,  by  the  constitution  of  most  States,  is 
elected  for  four  years ;  in  New  Jersey  for  three 
years,  in  several  for  two  years,  and  in"  two  (Mas- 
sachusetts and  Rhode  Island)  for  one  year. 

Half  the  senators  are  in  many  States  elected  at 
each  general  election,  the  other  half  holding  over; 
but  in  two,  one-third  are  elected  at  each  general 
election,  the  others  keeping  their  seats. 

Representatives  are  usually  elected  for  two 
years,  but  in  Louisiana  they  are  elected  for  four 
years,  and  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  their  tenure  of  office  is  only 
for  one  year.  As  a  rule  no  person  can  be  a  State 
senator  who  is  not  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  Maine  he  must  have  been  thus  qualified 
for  four  years. 

Residence  in  the  State  is  also  required  for  terms 
varying  from  one  year  in  eight  States  to  four  years 
in  five,  six  years  in  one  ( Kentucky),  and  seven 
years  in  one  (New  Hampshire),  besides  which  he 
must  have  been  usually  resident  in  the  senatorial 
district  for  which  he  is  a  candidate  for  various 
periods  ranging  from  one  year  to  three  months, 
and  in  Illinois  and  Louisiana  for  two  years. 


1546 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


To  be  eligible  as  a  State  senator  a  candidate 
must  have  paid  a  State  and  county  tax  within  one 
year  of  election.  By  the  constitution  of  Delaware 
no  person  can  be  a  senator  who  is  not  possessed  of 
a  freehold  estate  of  200  acres,  of  a  personal  or 
mixed  estate  of  the  value  of  $5,000. 

ay  the  constitutions  of  fourteen  States,  no  per- 
son can  be  a  representative  in  the  lower  house  of 
the  State  legislature  who  is  not  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  Maine  he  must  have  been  so 
for  five  years.  And  in  many  he  must  have  been 
resident  in  the  State  for  a  certain  period,  varying 
from  one  year  in  seven  of  the  States  to  five  years 
in  two  (Illinois  and  Louisiana).  In  nine  of  the 
States  he  must  also  be  a  quafifled  elector  of  the 
Srate,  and  in  nearly,  if  not  quite  all,  he  must  have 
been  resident  in  the  district  for  which  he  is  chosen 
for  a  period  varying  from  sixty  days  in  Iowa  to  two 
years  in  Illinois  and  Louisiana. 

In  thirteen  States  a  representative  loses  his  seat 
it  he  ceases  to  reside  in  the  district,  and  in  six  he 
must  be  a  qualified  elector  in  such  district. 

In  fourteen  States  a  candidate  must  be  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  his  election,  in 
three,  twenty-four  (Delaware,  Kentucky,  and  Mis- 
souri), and  in  Colorado  twenty-five. 

In  Massachusetts  the  constitution  forbids  any 
property  qualification  for  the  State  Legislature  or 
council. 

The  following  persons  are  disqualified  from  sit- 
ting in  the  State  legislature: 

In  Nebraska  any  person  interested  in  a  contract 
with  or  an  unadjusted  claim  against  the  State. 

In  Delaware,  any  person  concerned  in  any  army 
or  navy  contract. 

In  West  Virginia,  any  salaried  officer  of  a  rail- 
road. 

In  Kansas  and  Georgia,  every  person  convicted 
of  embezzlement  of  the  public  funds. 

In  Delaware,  every  person  who  has  served  as  a 
State  treasurer,  before  his  accounts  have  been  set- 
tled and  discharged. 

In  Georgia,  any  person  who  has  not  paid  his 
legal  taxes. 

In  West  Virginia  and  South  Carolina,  any  person 
who  has  been  convicted  of  bribery,  perjury,  or 
other  infamous  crime,  or  who  has  not  accounted 
for  public  money  intrusted  to  him. 

In  most  States  provision  is  made  by  the  consti- 
tution that  members  of  the  legislature  shall  re- 
ceive compensation.  In  several  it  cannot  be 
increased  or  diminished  during  the  term  for  which 
they  are  elected,  and  in  two  (Missouri  and  Texas) 
it  cannot  be  altered  at  all  by  the  legislature  at  any 
time,  the  amount  being  fixed   by  the  constitution. 

In  fourteen  States  no  member  of  Congress  is  eli- 
gible for  the  State  legislature. 

Members  of  the  legislature  are,  by  the  constitu- 
tions of  most  of  the  States,  required  to  make  oath 
to  support  the  National,  and  the  State  (if  in  a 
State)  constitutions,  and  in  one  (Arkansas)  to  sup- 
port the  Union,  and  in  five  that  they  have  not 
bribed  anybody,  and  in  four  that  they  will  not  ac- 
cept a  bribe  for  giving  or  withholding  a  vote,  or 
for  doing  any  duty  relating  to  their  olfice,  and  in 
three  (Kentucky,  Texas,  and  Nevada)  that  they 
have  not  been  concerned  in  a  duel. 

The  mode  of  election  is  in  twelve  States  by  bal- 
lot ;  but  in  Kentucky  all  election  by  the  people 
must  be  riva  voce,  except  that  dumb  persons  may 
vote  by  ballot.  By  the  constitution  of  nearly  all, 
the  person  having  the  highest  number  (in  a  plur- 
ality) of  votes  is  declared  duly  elected;  but  in 
Ivhode  Island,  in  all  elections  held  by  the  peo- 
ple, a  majority  of  votes  cast  is  necessary  to  a 
choice.    (Kentucky  now  has  the  Australian  ballot.) 


By  the  constitution  of  Illinois  (each  district 
voting  for  three  representatives)  each  voter  may 
cast  as  many  votes  for  each  candidate  as  there 
are  State  representatives  to  be  elected,  or  may 
distribute  his  votes  among  the  candidates  as  he 
sees  fit. 

In  nearly  all  the  States  and  Territories  elec- 
tion day  is  fixed  by  the  constitution  or  statutes 
for  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
November;  (1)  biennially  in  the  even  years  in 
twenty-one  States;  (2)  biennially  in  the  odd  years 
in  three  States;  (3)  annually  in  nine  States;  the 
remainder  vary  as  to  their  day. 

The  right  of  suffrage  is  given  to  every  male 
citizen  of  the  United  States  aged  twenty-one  or 
who  has  declared  his  intention  of  becoming  a  cit- 
izen. 

Under  the  head  of  "Qualifications  of  Voters"  w  ill 
be  found  a  table  giving  the  requirements  of  the 
constitutions  of  the  several  States  in  respect  to 
suffrage.  It  is  believed  to  be  substantially  ac- 
curate, but  will  be  verified  before  republication 
in  the  next  edition,  and  additional  matter  given. 
By  the  constitution  of  all  the  States,  exept  Ne- 
braska and  Oregon,  an  impeachment  is  first  made 
by  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  is  tried  by 
the  Senate  sitting  as  a  court  under  oath,  except  in 
New  York,  when  it  is  tried  by  the  Senate  and  the 
judges  of  the  court  of  appeals. 

Two-thirds  of  the  Senators  elected  must,  in  fif- 
teen States,  concur  for  conviction  ;  and  in  nine- 
teen, two-thirds  of  the  Senators  present.  In  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Alabama,  and  Missis- 
sippi a  vote  of  a  quorum  is  sufficient;  but  in  Ne- 
braska the  impeachment  is  first  made  by  the 
Legislature  in  joint  convention  upon  resolution  in 
either  house,  and  a  majority  of  elected  members 
must  concur;  audit  is  then  tried  bji  the  judges  of 
the  Supreme  court. 

The  effect  of  impeachment  is,  by  the  constitu- 
tions of  all  but  ^Maryland  and  Oregon,  merely  to 
remove  from  office,  and  in  all  the  States,  except 
five,  to  disqualify  the  person  impeached  from  hold- 
ing any  other  State  appointment. 

A  person  impeached,  whether  convicted  or  not 
on  the  impeachment,  is  nevertheless  liable,  by  the 
constitutions  of  all  the  States,  except  Indiana  and 
IMaryland,  to  indictment,  trial,  and  punishment 
according  to  law. 

By  the  constitutions  of  thirty-two  States  eitlier 
house  may  (8)  expel  any  of  its  members  by  a  vole 
of  two-thirds  of  the  elected  members,  and  in  Ver- 
mont, by  a  majority  vote  of  a  quorum.  But  in 
twenty-iive  States  no  member  can  be  expelled  a 
■second  time  for  the  same  cause,  nor  in  Vermont, 
^Michigan,  or  Arizona  for  any  cause  known  to  liis 
constituents  before  his  election. 

In  Michigan  and  Arizona  the  reason  for  expulsien 
must  be  entered  in  the  journal,  with  the  names  of 
the  members  voting. 

In  Pennsylvania,  Arkansas,  Colorado,  and  Ala- 
bama a  member  expelled  for  corruption  is  not 
thereafter  eligible  for  either  house. 

Each  house  has  in  thirty  of  the  States  power  to 
punish  its  members  for  disorderly  conduct;  and  in 
many,  either  house  may  punish  any  person,  not  a 
member,  for  disorderly  or  contemptuous  conduct, 
such  punishment  not  to  extend  beyond  the  final 
adjournment  of  the  session,  and  in  others,  by  dif- 
ferent terms  of  imprisonment,  varying  from  thirty 
days  to  twenty-four  hours. 

The  constitutions  of  all  the  States  provide  that 
each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  qualifications, 
elections,  and  returns  of  its  members. 

In  most  cases  it  is  provided  that  each  house  shall 
I  choose  its  own  officers,  except  in  certain  cases  the 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1547 


vrt?sideiu  of  tlie  senate,  which  place  is  filled  (1)  in 
eiglueen  States  by  the  lieutenant-governor,  (2)  in 
Rhode  Island  by  the  governor  or  lieutenant-gover- 
nor or  tlie  seoreiiiry  of  state.  In  all  other  States 
it  is  enacted  that  each  house  shall  determine  the 
rules  of  its  own  proceedings. 

By  the  constitutions  of  nearly  all  of  the  States  a 
majority  of  elected  members  in  eitlier  house  con- 
stitutes a  quorum,  Init  in  five  two-thirds  are  neces- 
sary. In  New  Hampshire  a  majority  is  a  quorum 
in  the  house,  but  when  less  than  two-thirds  are 
present  a  two-thirds  vote  is  necessary  to  any  act  or 
proceeding,  and  in  the  senate  thirteen  are  neces- 
sary to  a  quorum,  and  when  less  than  sixteen  are 
present  a  vote  of  ten  is  necessary,  and  in  Massa- 
chusetts sixteen  memljers  constitute  a  quorum  in 
the  senate  and  one  hundred  in  the  house.  But  a 
smaller  number  than  a  quorum  may,  in  thirty-two 
States,  adjourn  from  day  to  day  and  compel  the 
attendance  of  abst-nt  niemliers.  Freedom  of  speech 
is  guaranteed  by  the  constitutions  of  most  of  the 
States,  as  well  as  freedom  from  arrest  in  all  cases  ex- 
cept treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace  during 
the  session  of  the  legislature,  and  in  going  and 
returning.  In  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  California,  and 
Arizona  the  privilege  from  arrest  (except  as  above) 
lasts  during  tlie  whole  of  tlie  time  that  they  are 
members  of  the  legislature. 

In  most  of  the  legislatures  it  is  provided  by  the 
constitutions  that  the  proceedings  shall  be  open  to 
flie  public,  except  on  such  occasions  as  may,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  house,  require  secrecy. 

The  regular  session  of  the  legislature  is  in  one 
State  ( Rhode  Island)  twice  a  year;  in  ilassachu- 
setts.  New  York,  New  .fersey,  and  South  Carolina, 
once  a  year;  and  in  others  every  two  years,  in  the 
even  or  the  odd  year  as  the  case  may  be. 

There  are,  however,  often  adjourned  sessions 
held  in  the  intervening  year, except  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  they  are  prohibited.  The  length  of 
the  session  is  limited  in  many  of  the  States,  thus: 
In  Indiana  the  limit  is  sixty-one  days  ;  in  Colorado 
and  Georgia,  forty  days;  in  six  States  and  two 
Territories,  sixty  days;  in  Maryland,  ninety  days; 
in  Alabama,  thirty  days;  West  Virginia,  forty-five 
days. 

Extra  sessions  on  extraordinary  occasions  may 
be  convened  by  the  governor,  but  no  such  extraor- 
dinary session  can  be  called  in  the  Territories  with- 
out the  approval  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States.  In  Virginia  an  extra  session  is  convened 
on  the  application  of  two-thirds  of  the  members; 
in  West  Virginia,  on  application  of  three-fifths  of 
the  elected  members,  except  on  extraordinary  oc- 
casions. 

In  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Georgia  the 
ordinary  session  may  be  continued  by  a  two-thirds 
■"•ote,  and  in  Virginia  the  session  may  be  continued 
for  thirty  days  beyond  the  time  limited,  upon  the 
concurrence  of  three-fifths  of  the  members. 

By  the  constitutions  of  all  the  States,  neither 
house  can  adjourn  without  the  consent  of  the  other 
for  more  than  three  or  two  days  (as  the  case 
may  be). 

In  most  States,  if  the  two  houses  disagree  with 
respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  the  governor 
may  adjourn  the  legislature  to  such  time  as  he 
thinks  proper,  with  certain  limitations,  such  as  not 
beyond  the  first  day  of  the  regular  session  in  fifteen 
States;  for  not  more  than  ninety  days  in  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  and  Delaware,  and  not 
exceeding  four  months  in  Pennsylvania,  and  Ken- 
tucky ;  no  limit  being  given  in  Vermont  and 
Georgia. 

Amendments  to  the  constitution  of  a  State  may 
be  proposed  by  the  State  legislature  for  confirma- 
6 


tion  by  the  people  of  the  State  (except  in  Ken- 
tucky and  New  Hampshire),  or  the  citizens  may  be 
asked  to  decide  on  the  advisability  of  holding  a  con- 
vention for  the  revision  of  the  constitution.  If  a 
convention  is  decided  upon,  the  amendments  made 
by  it  are  referred  for  ratification  or  rejection  to 
the  vote  of  the  people. 

Length  of  Congressional  Sessions. 

As  stated  elsewhere  the  Congressional  terms  are 
for  two  full  years  beginning  at  noon,  IMarch  4,  of' 
each  alternate  year;  the  Congressional  sessions 
generally  begin  on  the  first  Monday  in  December 
of  each  year,  and  continue  until  formal  adjourn- 
ment, which  cannot  be  later  than  noon  of  Jlarch  4, 
of  each  ^econd  year.  The  following  table  gives  the 
numbers  of  the  several  Congresses,  and  the  number 
and  dates  of  the  sessions  during  each  Congressional 
term. 


Congress. 


1st 

2d 
3d 
4th 

5tli 

6th 
7th 
8th 
9th 
10th 

11th 

12th 

13th 

14th 

15th 

16th 

17th 

18th 

19th 

20th 

21st 

22d 

23d 

24th 

25th 

26th 

27th 

28th 
29  th 
30th 
31st 
32d 


1  1st  Sessiou     From 

/  2d      From 

(3d From 


Time  of  Session. 


(1st 

From 

i2d 

From 

(Ist 

From 

i2d 

From 

)  1st 

Frtim 

i2d 

From 

(1st 

From 

{  2d .-. 

From 

(.3d 

From 

Ust 

From 

i2d 

Ust 

From 

!2d 

From 

(1st 

From 

I2d. 

From 

i  2d 

From 

(1st 

From 

iad.;; 

(1st 

From 

.2d 

(3d 

1  1st       

From 

i2d 

From 

(1st 

From 

2d 

From 

(3d 

(Ist 

From 

|2d 

From 

\  1st 

From 

■(  2d . 

From 

(  1st 

From 

)2d 

(  1st      

From 

J2d 

(  1st 

From 

i2d 

From 

(1st 

From 

(2d 

From 

(Ist    

From 

i2d 

From 

(1st 

From 

i2d 

From 

Ust 

From 

(2d 

(1st 

From 

r-'d 

From 

)  1st 

From 

lad 

From 

(1st 

2d 

From 

From 

(3d 

From 

(1st 

From 

|2d 

('  1st  . 

From 

'2d 

From 

(3d 

From 

Ust 

From 

i2d. 

From 

i  1st 

From 

|2d 

From 

Ust 

From 

J2d 

(  1st 

From 

i2d 

Ust 

From 

■/■id 

From 

March  4, 

January  4. 
December  6, 
Octolier  24, 
November  5. 
December  2. 
No\'tmber  3, 
December  7, 
December  5, 
May  15, 

November  13, 
December  3, 
December  2, 
November  17, 
December  7, 
December  6, 
(Jctober  17, 
November  5, 
December  2, 
December  1, 
October  26, 
November  7, 
May  22. 

November  27, 
December  3, 
November  4. 
November  2, 
May  24, 

Decemljer  6. 
.September  19, 
December  4, 
December  2, 
December  1. 
November  16, 
December  6, 
November  13, 
December  3, 
December  2, 
December  1, 
December  6, 
December  5, 
December  4, 
December  3, 
December  1, 
December  7, 
December  6, 
December  5, 
December  3, 
December  2, 
December  1, 
December  7, 
December  5, 
.September  4, 
December  4. 
December  3, 
December  2, 
December  7, 
May  31, 

December  6, 
December  5, 
December  4, 
December  2. 
December  1, 
December  7. 
December  6, 
December  4. 
December  3. 
December  2, 
December  1. 
December    r>. 


1789,  to  Sept. 

1790.  to  August 

1790.  to  March 

1791,  to  May 

1792.  to  March 

1793,  to  June 
mn,  to  March 

1795,  to  June 

1796,  to  March 

1797,  to  July 

1797,  to  July 

1798,  to  March 

1799,  to  May 
INW,  to  March 
l.soi.  to  May 

1802,  to  March 

1803,  to  March 

1804,  to  March 

1805,  to  April 

1806,  to  March 

1807,  to  April 

1808,  to  March 

1809,  to  June 
1809,  to  May 
IMO,  to  March 

1811,  to  Julv 

1812,  to  March 

1813,  to  August 

1813,  to  April 

1814,  to  March 

1815,  to  April 

1816,  to  March 

1817,  to  April 

1818,  to  March 

1819,  to  May 

1820,  to  March 
1S21,  to  May 

1822,  to  March 

1823,  to  May 

1824,  to  March 
>25,  to  May 
l.s'Jf),  to  March 

1827,  to  May 

1828,  to  March 

1829,  to  May 

1830,  to  March 

1831,  to  July 

1832,  to  March 
],S,S3,  to  June 

1834,  to  March 

1835,  to  July 

1836,  to  March 

1837,  to  Oct. 

1837,  to  July 

1838,  to  March 

1839,  to  July 

1840,  to  March 

1841,  to  Sept. 
1841.  to  August 

1812,  to  March 

1813,  to  June 

1814,  to  March 

1815,  to  August 
1.S46.  to  March 
l.'*47.  to  August 
l.MS.  to  March 

1849.  to  Sept. 

1850.  to  JIarch 

1851.  to  August 

1852.  to  March 


29,  1789 

12.  1790 
3,  1791 

8.  1792 

2,  1793 

9,  1794 

3,  1795 
1,  17% 
3,  1797 

10,  1797 
16,  1798 
3,  1799 

14,  ISOO 
3,  1801 
3,  1802 
3.  1803 

27,  1804 
3,  1805 

21,  1806 
3.  1807 

25.  180(> 
3.  1809 

28,  Ih09 

1,  I.'-IO 

3,  i.--n 

6.  1812 
3.  1.M3 

2,  im:; 
18,  1W4 

3,  1815 

30,  1816 
3,  1817 

20,  1818 
3,  1819 

15,  1820 
3,  1821 

8,  1822 

9,  1823 
27,  1824 

3,  1825 

22,  1826 
3,  1827 

26,  1828 
3,  1829 

31,  1830 
3,  1831 

16,  1832 
3,  1833 

30,  1834 

3,  1835 

4,  1836 
3,  18.37 

16,  1837 
9,  1838 
3,  1K19 

21.  1840 
3,  1811 

13.  1841 

31.  1844 
3.  18iS 

17.  1844 
3.  1815 

10.  1846 
3.  1847 

14.  1S4S 
3,  1849 

30,  1860 
3,  1851 

31,  1852 
R.  1853 


1548 


L  N  I  T  E  D    STATES    OF    A  iM  E  R  I  C  A 


Congress. 


xith  j 

;;r.th  j 

:f7tli  j 

;isth  j 
S9th  j 

40tbJ 


4'd    ] 

43d    j 
41th  ! 


46th  ■ 

47th  i 
48th  j 
49th  j 
50th  j 
Slst  I 
62d    ■ 


Time  of  Session. 


1st 

From  December  '  5, 
From  December    4, 
From  December    3, 
From  .August        21, 
From  December    1. 
From  December    7, 
From  December    6, 
From  December    6, 
From  December    3, 
From  July               4, 
From  December    2, 
From  December    1, 
From  December    7, 
From  December    5, 
From  December    4, 
From  December    3, 
From  March            4, 
From  July                3, 
From  November  21, 
From  December    2, 
From  December    7, 
From  March            4, 
Fioin  December    6, 
Fioni  December    5, 
Krom  March           4, 
From  December    4, 
From  December    2, 
Fiom  December    1. 
From  De<'ember    7, 
From  December    6. 
From  December    4, 
From  October       1.5, 
F'rom  December    3, 
From  December    2, 
From  March         18 
From  December    1, 
From  December    6, 
From  December    5, 
From  December    4, 
From  December    3, 
From  December    1 
From  December    7, 
J'rom  December    6 
From  December    5 
From  December    3 
From  Decemljer    2 
From  December    1 
From  December    7 
From  December    5 

18!i3, 

2d     

1854, 

1st          .... 

ISoo, 

2d     

1856, 

Sd 

18.'>K. 

1st 

1S57. 

2d 

1S.'>8, 

1st 

2d 

1^5',l, 
18(10, 

1st    

1861. 

2d 

1861, 

3d  

I«62, 

1st 

2d      

1863, 
1864, 

1st 

I860, 

2d.  

Isi 

1866. 
1867, 

1st    

1st    

2d 

3d 

1st 

2d 

3d. 

1st 

1867, 
x867, 
lSo7, 
186S. 
1869, 
18r.9, 
1870, 
1871. 

2d .           

1871, 

3d 

1st 

2d 

1st 

2d 

1st 

2d 

3d 

1872, 
1873, 
1874, 
1875, 
1.S76, 
1877, 
1877, 
1878, 

1st 

1879, 

2d 

3d 

1879, 
1880, 

1st         

1881, 

2d 

18.82, 

1st 

2d 

1st 

1883, 

18S4, 
18.S.5. 

2d 

18S6, 

1st 

18S7, 

2d 

1st   

18^8, 
18S9, 

2d      

1.S90, 

1st 

2d 

1891, 
1892, 

to  August  7, 
to  March  3, 
to  August  18, 
to  August  30, 
to  March  3, 
to  June  14, 
to  March  3. 
to  June 
to  March 
to  August 
to  July 
to  March 
to  July 
to  March 
to  July 
to  March 
to  March 
to  Jujy 
to  Dec. 
to  July 
to  March 
to  April 
to  July 
to  March 
to  April 
to  Juue 
to  March 
to  June 
to  March 
to  August  15, 
to  March  3, 
to  Dec.  3, 

to  June  iO, 
to  March  3, 
to  July  1, 
to  Juue  10, 
to  March  3. 
to  August 
to  March 
to  July 
to  March 
to  Aupust 
to  March 
to  Oct. 
to  March 
to  Oct. 
to  March 
to  March 
,  to  March 


25, 

6, 
17, 
3, 
4, 
3, 
28, 
2 

.iu', 
20, 
2 

27,' 

3, 

23, 

15, 

2U,' 
10, 
3, 
23, 


1854 
1835 
1856 
18.56 
1857 
1858 
1850 
1860 
1861 
1861 
1S>62 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
i867 
1867 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1869 
1870 
1S71 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 


Note.— To  determine  tlie  years  covered  by  a  given  Congress, 
double  the  number  of  the  Congress,  and  add  the  i)roduct  to 
1798;  the  result  will  be  the  year  in  which  the  Congress  closed. 
Thus,  the  35th  Congress  =  70  +  17.89  =  1859,  that  being  the 
year  which  terminated  the  35th  Congress,  on  the  4th  of 
March.  To  find  the  number  of  a  Congress  sitting  in  any 
given  year,  subtract  17.89  from  the  year;  if  the  result  is  an 
even  n'umber.  half  that  n\imber  will  give  the  Congress,  of 
which  the  year  in  qtiestion  will  be  the  closing  year.  If  the 
result  is  an  odd  number,  add  one  to  it,  and  half  tlie  result  will 

five  the  Congress,  of  which  the  year  in  question  will  be  the 
rst  year. 

E.XTRA  Congressional  Sessions. 

The  Congressional  lirm.  is  for  two  years  begin- 
ning at  noon  on  March  4  every  odd  year,  and 
terminating  at  noon  on  March  4,  of  the  next  odd 
year.  The  general  elections  for  members  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  take  place  the  first  Tues- 
day after  the  first  ^Monday  in  November  of  rren 
years  severally  preceding  the  opening  of  tlie  Con- 
gressional term.  In  case  of  vacancies,  however, 
the  election  may  occur  at  other  dates  but  in  all 
cases  the  term  closes  at  noon  of  March  4,  of  the  odd 
years. 

The  sessions  of  Congress  open  on  the  first  Monday 
of  December  in  every  year  unless  they  are  by  law 
specially  appointed  for  a  different  date.  In  the 
foregoing  list  of  dates  for  the  several  Congresses, 
the  dates  of  the  "extra  sessions"  are  not  spe- 
cifically given.  For  greater  convenience  of  refer- 
ence they  are  properly  classified  in  the  follow- 
ing tables  showing  the  dates  when  convened,  the 
number  of  the  Congress  in  which  they  took  place, 
with  the  number  of  the  session  in  that  Congress. 
and  the  date  of  the  passage  of  the  act  providing 
for  the  holding  of  the  extra  session." 


The  first  table  shows  the  list  of  the  "extra  ses 
aions"  called  by  Congress  itself : 


When  convened. 

Congress. 

Session. 

Date  of  pas 
sage  of  act. 

March  4, 1789:   

1st 

First .... 

•1788,  Sept.,  13 
1789,  Sept.    29 
1791,  Mar.       2 

1st  Monday  in  Jan.,  1790. . 

1st 

Second. . 

4th  Monday  in  Oct.,  1791..  2nd 

First .... 

1st  Monday  in  Nov.,  1792.  2ud 

Second. . 

1792,  May       5 

1st  Monday  in  Nov.,  1794. 

3rd 

Second.. 

1794,  May      fit 

1st  Monday  in  Nov.,  1797. 

5th 

First    ... 

1797,  Mar.       3 

Changed  to  2d  Monday  in 

5th 

Second.. 

+1797,  July       1 

Nov.  1797. 

3d  Monday  in  Nov.,  1800  .. 

6th 

Second. . 

1800,  May      13 

1st  Monday  in  Nov..  1803..  8th 

First  .... 

1803,  Mar.      3 

1st  Monday  in  Nov..  1804. .'8th 

Second. . 

1804,  Mar.     26 

1st  Monday  in  Nov.,  1808.. 

10th 

Second.. 

1808,  Apr.     22 

4th  Monday  in  Mav.1809.. 

nth 

First..   . 

1809,  Jan.      m 

4th  Monday  in  Nov.,  1809. 

nth 

Second  . 

1809,  June     -li 

1st  Monday  in  Nov.,  1812.. 

12th 

Second. . 

1812,  July       6 

4th  Monday  in  May,  1813.. 

13th 

First 

1813,  Feb.     27 

1st  Monday  in  Dec  1813.. 

13th 

Second. . 

1813,  July     27 

Last  Monday  in  Oct.,  1814. 

13th 

Third... 

1814,  Apr.     18 

Sd  Monday  in  Nov.,  1818., 

15th 

Second. . 

1818,  Apr.     18 

2d  Monday  in  Nov.,l»20.. 

16th 

Second. . 

1820,  May      13 

March  4, 1867 

40th 

First.... 

11867,  Jan.      22 

March  4,  1869  

41st 

First 

11867,  Jan.      22 
tl866,  Jan.      22 

March  4, 1871 

42nd 

First 

♦The  First  Session  of  the  First  Congress  was  convened  in 
accordance  with  the  following  resolution  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  adopted  Sept.  13,  1788,  namely: 

"Ji'(*;o?('rrf,  </c.,  That  the  first  Wednesday  in  January  next 
be  the  day  for  appointing  electors  in  the  several  "States 
which  before  the  said  day  shall  have  ratified  the  said  Con- 
stitution; that  the  first  VVednesday  in  February  next  be  the 
day  for  the  electors  to  assemble  in"  their  several  states  and 
vote  for  a  President;  and  that  the  first  Wednesday  in  March 
nest  be  the  time,  and  the  present  seat  of  Congress  the  place,, 
for  commencing  proceedings  under  the  said  Constitution. 

f  Repetiled  the  act  of  March  3rd.  1797. 

iThe  act  of  Jnu.  22.  1867,  provided  that  in  additiou  to  the 
regTilar  times  of  meeting  of  Congress,  there  shall  be  a  meet- 
ing of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  of  each  sue 
ceedmg  Cong]"ess  thereafter,  at  12  o'clock  meridian,  on  the 
fourth  day  of  March,  the  day  on  A\l)ich  the  term  begins  for 
which  the  Congress  is  elected.  That  act  was  repealed  by 
the  act  of  April  20. 1871.    (17  Statutes  12.) 

List  of  Extra  Sessions   of   Congress    Convened  hy  the 
President. 

The  President  *  *  may,  on  extraordi- 
nary occasions,  convene  both  Houses  or  either  of 
them. 


Session. 

When  con- 
vened. 

Congress. 

Session. 

Cause. 

V        

First . . . 

First . . . 

First . . . 

First . . . 

Tliird... 
First  . . . 

First . . . 

Second. 

First ... 
First  . . . 

First    .. 

May    15,  1797 

Oct.    17,  1803 

Oct.    26,  1807 

Nov.    4,  1811 

Sept.  19,  1814 
Sept.   4,  1837 

May   31,  1841 

Aug.  21,  1856 

July     4,  1861 
Oct.    15.  1877 

Mar.  18,  1879 

Suspension  of    diplomatic 
relations  with  France. 

Cessions    of    Louisana    by 
Spain  to  France. 

Relations     with    Great 
Britain. 

Relations    with    Great 
Britain. 

War    with    Great    Britain. 

Suspension  of   specie  pay- 
ments. 

Condition  of  finances  and 
revenue. 

Failure  of  previous  session 
to    make    appropriations 
for  Army. 

Insurrection     In     certain 
Southern  States. 

Failure  of  previous  session 
to    make    aivpropriations 
for  .^rniy. 

Failure  of  previous  session 
to    make     approprinttcn 
for  legislative,  executive 
and    judicial  and  Army 
expenses. 

VIII 

X 

XII 

XITI 

XXV 

XXXVII.. 

XXXIV.. 

XXXVII 
XLV 

XLVI 

UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1549 


List  of  Special  Sessions  of  the  Senate  from   1789  to 
1SS9,  Called  by  the  President. 


So. 


Commencement. 


-r 


March4. 1791.... 

March  4. 1793 

June  8, 1795  

March  4,  1797... 

Julv  17,  179S 

March  4, 1,>«1 . . . . 
Marchl,  1S09. ... 
March  4,1S17.... 

March  4,  l.SB 

March  4,  IS*  .  . 
March  4,  1837  . . . 
March  4, 1S41.... 
March4, 1845 .. .. 
March  5.  1S19.... 
March  4, 1831     . . 

March  4.  1S.53 

March  4.  !So7  . . 
June  1.5.  l.NoS  . . . 
March  4.  Is59.... 

June  21).  ISIJO 

March  4, 1861 

March  4,  186.3 

March  4,  18iS — 

April  1, 1867 

April  12,  1869... 

Mav  10, 1.S71 

March  4, 1S7S. . . . 

March  5. 1875 

March  5, 1877 

March  4, 1881. . . . 
October  10,  1881, 
March  4,  1S85  .  - . 
March  4,  1889.   .. 


Termination, 


March  4, 1791 

March  4,1793  

June  26, 179.5 

March  4,  1797 

Julv  19,  1798 

Mafcho,  1801 

March  7, 1809 

March  6,  1817 

March9,  1825 

March  17,1829 

March  10, 1837 

March  15. 1841 

March  19,  1845 

March  23.  1819 

March  13.  1851 

April  11, 185,S 

March  14, 18.")7 

June  16,  1S58 

March  10, 1859  

June  28,  1800. 

March  28, 1861 

March  14. 1863 

March  11,  1865 

April  20,  1867 

April  22,  1,S69 

Mav  -27,  1871 

Maich2r>,  1873 

March  24, 1,S75 

March  17, 1877. 

Mav  20,  l.'Wl 

October  29,1881 

April  2,1885 

April  2, 1889 


Days. 


1 
1 

19 

1 

3 

2 

4 

3 

6 

14 

7 

12 

17 

19 

10 

38 

11 

2 

7 

3 

25 

11 

8 

20 

11 

18 

23 

20 

13 

78 

20 

.SO 

30 


Admission  to  the  Floor  of  the  House  op  Repre- 
sentatives. 

The  following  is  the  rule  of  the  House  prevailing 
in  1891,  with  regard  to  the  admission  of  persons  to 
the  floor  occupied  by  the  members  of  Congress: 

Rule  XXXIV.— The  persons  hereinafter  named,  aud  none 
other,  shall  be  admitted  to  the  hall  of  the  House  or  rooms 
leading  thereto,  viz:  The  President  and  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States  and  their  private  secretaries,  Judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  Members  of  Congress  and  Afenibers  elect, 
contestants  in  election  cases  during  the  pendencv  of  their 
cases  in  the  House,  the  Secretary  aiid  Sergeant-at-Arms  of 
the  Senate,  heads  of  Departments,  Foreign  Ministers,  Gov- 
ernors of  States,  the  Architect  of  the  Capital,  the  Librarian 
of  Congress  and  his  assistant  in  charge  of  the  Law  Library, 
sach  persons  as  have,  by  name,  received  the  thanks  of  Con- 
gress, ex-Members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  who  are 
not  interested  in  any  claim  or  directly  in  any  bill  pending 
before  Congress,  and  clerks  of  comm'ittees  vvhen  business 
from  their  committees  is  under  consideration;  and  it  shall 
not  be  in  order  for  the  Speaker  to  entertain  a  request  for  the 
suspension  of  this  rule  or  to  present  from  the  chair  the 
request  of  any  member  for  unanimous  consent. 

The  first  rule  for  the  admission  within  the  hall 
of  other  than  members  was  adopted  Jan.  7,  1802, 
and  was  confined  to  ".SVHo((;r.<,  officers  of  the  Gen- 
eral and  State  Governments,  foreign  ministers  and 
such  persons  as  members  might  introduce.''  Jan.  11, 
1802,  an  attempt  was  made  to  amend  so  as  to  ex- 
clude persons  "introduced  by  members,"  which 
failed.  Nov.  8,  1804,  a  proposition  was  made  to 
confine  the  privilege  to  Senators,  which  also  failed. 
Dec.  17,  1805,  officers  of  State  governments  were  ex- 
cluded. Feb.  1,  1808,  a  proposition  was  made  to 
admit  ex-members  of  Congress  and  the  judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court.  After  a  good  deal  of  debate  it 
was  rejected.  Feb.  11,  1S09,  the  rule  was  enlarged 
so  as  to  admit  judicial  officers  of  the  United  States, 
as  also  ex-membersof  Congress.  Feb.  25,  ISU,  those 
who  had  been  heads  of  Departments  were  admitted. 
Feb.  10,  1815,  officers  who  had  received  the  thanks 
of  Congress  were  included  ;  Jan.  12.  1S16,  the  Navy 
commissioners ;  Feb.  21,  l.'i If),  governors  of  States 
and  Territories ;  and  on  March  13,  1822,  the  Presi- 
dent's secretary.     ,Ian.  26, 1833,  the  rule  was  further 


enlarged  by  admitting  "such  persons  as  the  Speaher 
or  a  rneinher  might  introduce,"  and  Dec.  10,  1883,  the 
House,  by  a  vote  almost  unanimous,  rescinded  that 
amendment.  Dec.  23,  1857,  soon  after  removing 
into  the  new  hall  in  the  south  wing  of  the  Capitol 
extension,  the  privilege  of  admission  was  restricted 
to  "members  of  the  Senate,  their  secretary,  heads 
of  Departments,  President's  private  secretary,  the 
governor  for  the  time  being  of  any  State,  and 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States." 
March  19,  1860,  it  was  adopted  in  its  present  form, 
excepting  the  last  clause,  a  proposition  to  admit 
ex-members  having  been  rejected.  The  last  clause, 
adopted  March  2,  1865,  was  intended  to  prevent 
persons  not  entitled  to  the  privilege  of  the  hall 
from  occupying  the  cloak  and  other  adjoining 
rooms,  Jan.  29,  1878,  the  House  adopted  the  follow- 
ing resolution,  by  yeas  155,  to  nays  92,  viz  :  "Hesolved. 
That  the  rule  in  regard  to  the  admission  of  persons 
to  the  privileges  of  the  floor  be  enforced,  and  the 
Speaker  is  requested  to  discontinue  the  practice  of 
issuing  passes,  which  has  been  indulged  in  by  com- 
mon consent." 

In  the  revision  of  the  rules  in  the  second  session 
46th  Congress,  the  words  "contestants  in  election 
cases  during  the  presidency  of  their  cases  in  the 
House"  were  added,  so  as  to  authorize  the  then 
existing  practice,  and  in  the  first  session  of  the  48th 
Congress  the  word  "Congress"  was  striken  and  the 
words  "House  of  Representatives"  inserted,  so  as 
to  restrict  the  privilege  of  the  Hoor  to  ex-members 
of  the  House  of  Representatives, 

Veto  Power   op  the   President,  and  the  Subse- 
quent Congressional  Legislature  Relating 
Thereto. 

When  a  bill,  having  passed  both  houses,  shall  be 
presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
"if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall 
return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in 
which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the 
objections  at  large  on  their  Journal  and  proceed 
to  reconsider  it.  If,  after  such  reconsideration, 
two-thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the 
bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections, 
to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be 
reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of 
that  house  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such 
cases  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined 
by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons 
voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on 
the  Journal  of  each  house,  respectively.  If  any 
bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within 
ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have 
been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in 
like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Con- 
gress by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in 
which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law." 

A  similar  provision  is  made  in  the  case  of  orders, 
resolutions,  or  votes  presented  to  the  President  for 
his  approval. 

Whenever  a  bill  is  returned  to  the  House  with 
the  objections  of  the  President,  it  is  usual  to  have 
the  message  containing  his  objections  immediately 
read,  and  for  the  House  to  proceed  to  the  recon- 
sideration of  the  bill ;  or  to  postpone  its  considera- 
tion for  a  future  day  ;  but  not  where  less  than  a 
quorum  is  present.  A  veto  message  ana  a  bill 
may  be  referred,  or  the  message  alone,  and  the  bill 
may  be  laid  on  the  table. 

The  main  question  in  the  consideration  of  a  ve- 
toed bill  is,  "Will  the  House  on  reconsideration 
agree  to  pass  the  bill?" 

The  "liro-thirds"  by  which  a  vetoed  bill  must  be 
approved  before  it  can  become  a  law  with  the  sig- 
nature of  the  President,  has  been  construed,   in 


looO 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


both    houses  to  mean   "two-thirds    of   the   members 
present. 

A  motion  to  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  a 
vetoed  bill  with  the  objections  of  the  President,  is 
a  privileged  question  under  the  Constitution. 

A  vote  on  the  passage  of  a  vetoed  bill  cannot  be 
reconsidered.  A  motion  to  discharge  a  committee 
from  the  further  consideration  of  a  veto  message, 
is  a  privileged  question. 

Whenever  a  bill,  order,  resolution,  or  vote  is  re- 
turned by  the  President  with  his  objections,  and 
on  being  reconsidered  is  passed  by  two-thirds  of 
each  of  the  two  houses  of  Congress,  and  thereby 
becomes  a  law,  or  takes  effect,  it  shall  be  received 
by  the  Secretary  of  State  from  the  President  of  the 
Senate,  or  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, in  whiclisoever  house  it  shall  last  have  been 
approved,  and  he  shall  carefully  preserve  the 
originals.  . 

When  the  President  does  not  approve  a  bill,  ana 
is  prevented,  by  the  adjournment  of  Congress  from 
returning  it  with  his  objections,  it  is  usual  for  him 
to  inform  the  house  in  which  the  bill  originated,  at 
the  next  session,  of  his  reasons  for  not  approv- 
ing it. 

Qi\\LiFic.\Tio.\-s  OF  Voters  in  the  Several  St.vtes. 
Under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  "all 
persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States, 
a'ld  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof  are  citizens 
of  the  United  States  and  of  the  States  wherein  they 
reside;"  and  "no  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any 
law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immuni- 
ties of  citizens  of  the  United  States;  nor  shall  any 
State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  prop- 
erty without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any 
person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection 
of  the  law."  In  all  the  States  except  Wyoming, 
the  right  of  suffrage  is  limited  to  male  citizens 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  with  the  further  excep- 
tion that  in  Colorado,  Massachusetts,  and  a  few 
other  States  women  are  permitted  to  vote  at  school 
district  elections.  There  is  a  great  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  suffrage  laws  of  the  several  States, 
as  the  following  will  show:* 

ALABAMA  —The  voter  must  be  a  citizen ,  or  have  declared  his 
intention  to  become  a  citizen ;  must  have  been  in  the  State  one 
year  in  the  county  three  months,  and  in  the  voting  precinct 
one  'month.    Indians,  idiots,  and  men  convicted  of  crime 

Arkansas —Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention to  become  such,  except  Indians,  idiots,  and  crimi- 
nals, may  y:)te  altera  residence  of  one  year  iu  the  state,  six 
months  in  the  county,  and  one  month  in  the  voting  precinct. 
Registration  is  prohibited,  as  being  a  bar  to  suffrage. 

California  —Only  actual  citizens  can  vote,  after  having 
been  one  year  in  the  State,  ninety  days  in  the  county,  and 
thirty  days  in  the  voting  precinct.  Registration  is  required 
bylaw;  and  Chinese,  Indians,  idiots,  and  convicts  are  ex- 

CoLORADO.— Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention to  become  such,  may  vote  after  a  residence  o'  s'/ 
months  in  the  State,  persons  in  prison  only  being  excluded. 
Registration  is  required  by  the  constitution. 

Connecticut.— Actual  citizens,  except  those  unable  to 
read  and  convicts,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  one  year  in 
the  State  and  six  months  in  the  county  and  voting  precinct. 
Registration  is  required  by  law.  . 

Delaware.— Actual  county  taxpayers,  except  convicts, 
the  insane,  paupers  and  idiots,-may  vote  after  a  residence  of 
one  year  in  the  State  and  one  month  in  the  county. 

FLORinA.— Citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  those  who  have 
declared  their  intention  to  become  such,  except  betters  on 
elections,  duelists,  idiots,  the  insane, and  criminals,  can  vote 
.■itter  a  residence  of  one  vear  in  the  State  and  six  months  in 
the  county.    Registration  is  required  by  the  constitution. 

Georgia.- .\ctual  citizens. except  nontaxpayers,  criminals, 
idiots,  and  the  insane,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  one  year 
in  the  State  and  six  months  in  the  county. 

Idaho— Every  male  citizen  of  the  L  nited  States  twentj- 
one  years  old, "who  has  resided  in  the  State  for  six  months 

•Transferred  in  full  text  from  the  Manual  and  Digest  of  the 
Hous«  of  Baiirsseutatives,  .Ian.  1,  '•Hi'-. 


and  in  the  county  where  he  offers  to  vote  thirty  days  next 
preceding  the  dav  of  election,  is  a  qualified  elector,  except 
those  under  guardianship,  idiotic  or  insane  persons,  or  per- 
sons convicted  of  felony,  embezzlement  of  public  funds,  bar- 
tering or  offering  to  barter  his  vote,  or  of  an  infamous  crime. 
higauiists  and  polvgamists  are  also  excluded. 

Illinois.— Actual  citizens,  except  convicts,  may  vote  after 
a  residence  of  one  year  in  the  State  and  ninety  days  in  the 
county  and  thirty  days  in  the  voting  precinct.  Registration 
is  required  by  law.  j  .,.   ■    ■    . 

Indiana.— Citizens  or  those  who  have  declared  their  inten- 
tion so  to  become,  except  fraudulent  voters  and  bribers,  may 
vote  after  a  residence  of  six  months  in  the  State. sixty  days 
iu  the  county,  and  thirty  days  iu  the  voting  precinct. 

Iowa.— Actual  citizens,  except  criminals.  Idiots,  and  the 
insane  may  vote  alter  a  residence  of  six  months  in  the  State 
and  sixty  'days  in  the  county.     Registration  is  required  by 

Kansas.— Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  Inten- 
tiou  to  become  so,  except  rebels,  convicts,  idiots,  and  the  in- 
sane, can  vote  after  a  residence  of  six  months  iu  the  State 
and  thirty  days  in  the  voting  precinct.  Registration  is  re- 
quired in'cities  only. 

Kentuckt.— Under  the  State  law  free  white  male  citizens, 
except  convicts  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  two  years  in  the 
State,  one  vear  in  the  county,  and  sixty  days  iu  the  voting 
precinct-  but  the  exclusion  of  colored  citizens  being  in  con- 
flict with  the  Federal  Constitution,  the  law  limiting  the 
suffrage  to  white  citizens  is  of  no  effect.  ,    .    .    . 

Louisiana.— Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention to  become  such,  except  criminals,  idiots,  and  the  in- 
sane, can  vote  after  a  residence  of  one  year  in  the  State,  six 
months  in  the  county,  and  thirty  days  in  the  voting  precinct. 
Maine.— Actual  citizens,  except  paupers  and  Indians  not 
taxed,  map  vote  after  a  residence  of  three  months  in  the  State. 
Registration  is  required.  .     .      ,      ,_  .,. 

Maryland.— Actual  citizens,  except  criminals,  those  guilty 
of  bribery,  and  the  insane,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  one 
'  year  in  the  State  and  six  months  in  the  county.    Registration 
IS  required.  ,,,.. 

MvssicHUSETTS.-Citizens.  except  paupers,  illiterates,  non- 
taxpayers,  and  persons  under  guardians,  can  vote  after  a  resi- 
dence of  one  year  in  the  State  and  six  months  in  the  voting 
preciuct.    Registration  is  required.  ^     .    .     . 

Michigan.— Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention of  becoming  such,  except  duelists,  can  vote  altera 
residence  of  three  months  in  the  State  and  ten  days  m  the 
voting  precinct.    Registration  is  required.  .    .    .    ■ 

Minnesota  —Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention to  become  so,  except  convicts,  lunatics  and  idiots, 
can  vote  after  a  residence  of  four  months  in  the  State  and 
ten  days  in  the  voting  precinct.    Registration  is  required. 

MissoURi.—Citizens.  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention to  become  so.  except  United  States  soldiers,  paupers, 
criminals,  and  lunatics,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  one 
year  in  the  State  and  sixty  days  in  the  county.  Registration 
IS  required  in  cities  only.  ,     .      ,     .j-   .         j 

Mississippi.— .\ctual  citizens,  except  criminals,  idiots,  and 
lunatics,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  six  months  in  the 
State  and  one  month  in  the  county.  Registration  is  required. 
Montana  -Every  male  citizen  of  the  United  States  twenty- 
one  years  or  over,  who  shall  have  resided  in  the  State  one 
year  immediately  preceding  the  election  at  which  he  offers 
to  vote,  and  in  the  town,  county,  or  preciuct  such  time  as 
may  be  prescribed  by  law.  shall  be  a  qualified  elector,  except 
idiots  or  insane  persons.  Women  shall  have  the  right  to 
vote  at  any  school  district  election.  ^  ..    .    . 

Nebraska.— Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention of  becoming  so,  except  United  States  soldiers,  con- 
victs, and  idiots,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  six  months  in 
the  State.    Registration  is  required.  .,...■ 

\"EV  ADA —Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention so  to  become,  except  criminals,  idiots,  and  lunatics, 
can  vote  after  a  residence  of  six  months  in  the  State  and 
thirty  davs  in  the  county.    Registration  is  required. 

New  Hampshire— .Actual  citizens,  except  paupers,  can  vote 
after  a  residence  of  six  months  in  the  town.  Registration  is 
required.  .       ... 

Ne\v  Jersey.- Actual  citizens,  except  criminals,  paupers, 
lunatics,  and  idiots,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  one  year 
in  the  State  and  five  months  in  the  county.  Registration  is 
required  in  cities  of  lO.lHXl  inhabitants  and  over. 

New  York  —Actual  citizens,  except  convicts,  and  election 
betters  and  bribers,  mav  vote  aft.  r  a  residence  of  one  year  in 
the  State,  four  months  iu  the  county,  and  '.birty  .days  ^n  the 
voting  [.recinct.  Registration  is  required  m  cities  of  10,000 
inhabitants  or  over,  .  . 

North  CAROLiNA.-Actual  citizens,  except  convicts,  can 
vote  after  a  residence  of  twelve  months  in  the  State  and 
ninety  days  in  the  county.    Registration  is  required. 

North  DAKOTA.-Evervmale  person  of  twent^r-one  years  or 
UD^vard  who  have  reside'd  in  the  State  one  year,  in  the  county 
six  months,  and  in  the  precinct  ninety  days  next  preceeding 
any  election,  shall  be  deemed  qualified  electors;  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  persons  of  foreign  birth  who  have  declared 
their  intention  uf  becoming  citizens,  and  Indians  who  have 
severed  their  tribal  relations.  No  person  who  is  under 
guardianship,  von  compos  mrntis,  or  insane,  nor  any  person 
convicted  of  treason  or  felony.  ,,        ..  .. 

Ohio  —Actual  citizens,  except  idiots  and  lunatics,  can  vote 
after  a  residence  of  one  year  in  the  State,  thirty  days  in  the 


r  M  T  E  D    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1551 


countv,  aud  single  men  after  being  twenty  davs  in  the  vot- 
ing precinct. 

Oregon.— Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention of  becoming  so.  except  Chiuameu.  fiiited  States 
soldiers,  convicts,  lunatics,  aud  idiots,  may  vote  after  a  res- 
idence of  six  mouths  in  the  State. 

Pennsylvaxi.\.— .-ictual  citizens,  except  non-taxpavers 
and  political  bribers,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  oue  year 
m  the  State  and  two  mouths  in  the  voting  precinct  Eeeis- 
tration  is  required. 

Rhode  Isl.\sd.— Actual  taxpaying  citizens,  who  possess 
property  to  the  value  of  J134.  cau  vote  after  a  residence  of 
one  year  in  the  State  and  six  months  in  the  towns  Regis- 
tration is  required. 

South  C.\rolina.— Actual  citizens,  except  United  States 
soldiers,  duelists.  j>aupers.  criminals,  lunatics,  and  idiots 
may  vote  after  a  residence  of  one  vear  in  the  State  and  sixty 
days  in  the  county.    Kegistratiou  is  required. 

South  Dakot.i.— Citizens  of  the  United  States  of  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years  and  upward,  or  those  who  have  declared 
their  intention  of  becoming  citizens,  and  who  have  resided 
in  the  State  SIX  months,  in  the  countv  thirty  davs,  and  in 
election  precinct  ten  days  next  preceding  any  election  are 
qualified  voters. 

Te.vxessee.— Actual  citizens. except  non-pavers  of  poll  tax, 
may  vote  after  a  residence  of  twelve  months  in  the  State  and 
SIX  months  in  the  county. 

Texas.— Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  inten- 
tion of  becoming  so,  except  United  States  soldiers,  crimi- 
nals. Idiots,  lunatics,  and  paupers,  can  vote  after  a  residence 
of  one  year  in  the  State  and  six  mouths  in  the  countv  and  vot- 
ing precinct  Registration  is  prohibited  by  the  constitution 
\EK.MONT— Actual  citizens,  except  bribers,  can  vote  after  a 
residence  of  one  year  in  the  State.  Registrationis  required 
\IBG1NIA.— Actual  citizens, except  United  States  soldiers' 
non-payers  of  capitation  tax,  duelists,  convicts,  idiots  and 
lunatics,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  twelve  months  in  the 
state  and  three  months  in  towns.  Registration  is  required 
WASHi.vr.TON.— All  male  persons  of  the  age  of  tweutv-one 
or  over,  citizens  of  the  United  States,  who  have  lived  in  the 
State  one  year,  and  the  county  ninety  davs.  and  in  the  city 
town,  ward,  or  precinct  thirty  davs  immediatelv  preceediiig 
the  election  at  which  they  offer  to  vote,  shall  be  eutitled  to 
vote,  except  Indians  not  taxed,  idiots,  insane  persons  and 
persons  convicted  of  infamous  crimes  (unless  restored  to 
their  civil  rights). 

West  Viriuxia.— Actual  citizens,  except  convicts. paupers 
and  lunatics,  can  vote  after  a  residence  of  oue  year  in  the 
•.'^'l"'"?;  ^■'^  months  in  the  county.  Registration  is  i.rohib- 
ited  by  the  constitution. 

WiscoN-sn.-.— Citizens,  or  those  who  have  declared  their  in- 
tention of  becoming  so,  except  duelist!<.  bribers,  betters,  con- 
victs, lunatics,  and  idiots,  may  vote  after  a  residence  of  one 
year  in  the  State. 

Wyo-MIng.- Suffrage  not  to  be  denied  or  abridged  on  ac- 
count of  sex.  Every  citizen  of  the  United  States  twenty-one 
years  of  age  and  upward  who  has  resided  in  the  State  one 
year  and  in  the  countv  wherein  such  residence  is  located 
sixty  days  next  preceediug  any  election,  shall  be  entitled  to 
voteat  such  election,  except  idiots,  insane  persons  and  per- 
sons convicted  of  infamous  crimes,  and  also  such  persons  as 
shall  not  be  able  to  read  the  constitution  of  the  State. 

Chaplains   of   the    United    States    Senate   and 
House   op   Representatives. 

The  Chaplains  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives are  elected  by  a  liva  voce  vote  at  the 
commencement  of  each  Congress,  their  official 
terms  to  continue  "until  their  successors  are 
chosen    and  their  salaries  to  be  $1,500  per  year 

The  practice  which  had  prevailed  for  several 
years,  of  the  election  by  each  house  of  a  chaplain 
who  should  open  their  daily  sessions  with  prayer 
alternating  weekly  between  the  House  and  Senate' 
was  suspended  during  the  35th  Congress.  At  the 
first  session  of  that  Congress  a  resolution  was 
adopted  by  the  House,  which  directed  "that  the 
daily  sessions  of  that  body  be  opened  by  prayer 
and  requesting  the  ministers  of  the  gospel  in  this 
city  (\\ashington)  to  attend  and  alternately  per- 
form this  solemn  duty."  The  clergymen  of  Wash- 
ington generally  responded  to  this  request,  and 
for  the  remainder  of  the  Congress  performed  the 
duty  of  chaplains. 

At  the  first  session  of  the  36th  Congress  the  old 
practice  of  the  election  of  a  chaplain  by  each  house 
was  revived,  and  it  was  at  that  time  decided  that 
a  proposition  to  proceed  to  such  election  presented 
a  question  of  privilege. 

Until  the  revision  of  the  rules  in  the  2d  session 
ot  the  4bth  Congress,  tliere  was  no  liuh  relat- 
ing to  the  election  of  chaplain 


Supreme  Court  of  the  Tnited  States. 
The  United  States  Supreme  Court  is  composed 
of  a  Chief  Justice  and  eight  Associate  .Justices 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  United  States  Senate. 
The  Associate  Judges  have  precedence  according 
to  the  dates  of  their  commissions,  or,  when  the 
commissions  of  two  or  more  of  them  bear  the  same 
date,  according  to  their  ages.  In  each  case  of  a 
vacancy  in  the  office  of  Chief  Justice,  or  of  his 
ii>ability  to  perform  the  duties  and  powers  of  his 
office,  those  duties  shall  devolve  upon  the  Associ- 
ate Justice  who  is  first  in  precedence  until  such 
disability  is  removed,  or,  another  Chief  Justice  is 
appointed  and  duly  qualified. 

The  salary  of  the   Chief  Justice   is   .1;]0.500   per 
annum,  and  of  each  Associate  Justice  .$10,000. 
The  Chief  Justices  besides  their  duties  in  annual 

sessions  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  Washington,  have 

assigned   to   them   each    his  own   judicial  circuit. 

these  circuits  having  in  addition,  their  own  circuit 

judges. 

The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  the  Justices  of 

the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  the  names  of  the 

Chief  Justices  are  in  italics. 


Names. 


John  Jay,  N.  Y...     . 

John  Rntledge.S.  C 

William  Cushing,  Mass 

James  Wilson,  Pa 

John  Blair,  Va 

Robert  H.  Harrison,  Md 

James  Iredell,  N.  C 

Thomas  Johnson,  Md 

William   Paterson,  N.J 

John  Sutledge.  S.C ,' 

Samuel  Chase,  Md 

OUrcr  FMsu-orlh,  Conn 

Bushrod  Washington,  Va.. 

Alfred  Moore,  N.  C 

John  Marshall,  Va 

William  Johnson, S.C 

Brockholst  Livingston,  N.  Y 

Thomas  Todd,  Ky 

Joseph  Story,  Ma'ss 

Gabriel  Duval,  Md   

Smith  Thompson„N.Y.  . 

Robert  Trimble.  Ky 

John  McLean,  Ohio 

Henry  Baldwin,  Pa  

James  M.  Wayne,  Ga 

Roger  B   Taney,  Md.. 

PhilipP.  Barbour,  Va .'. 

John  Catron,  Tenn 

John  McKinIey,Ala 

Peter  V.  Daniel,  Va 

Samuel  Nelson,  N.  Y 

Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H '. 

Robert  C.  Grier,  Pa 

Benj.  R.  Curtis,  Mass 

John  A.  Campbell,  Ala 

Nathan  Clifford,  Maine 

Noah  H.  Swayne,Ohio 

Sanuiel  F.  Miller,  Iowa 

David  Davis,  III 

Stephen  J.  Field.  Cal 

Snhnmi  P.  Cha.'^e.  Ohio 

William  Strong,  Pa. 

Joseph  P.  Bradley,  N.  J 

Ward  Hunt.  X.  Y 

Morrixim  R.  HrtiVf,  Ohio 

John  M.  Harlan.  Kv 

William  B.  Woods," Ga 

Stanley  Mathews.  Ohio 

Horace  Gray,  Mass 

Samuel  Blatchford.  N.  Y 
Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar.  Miss. . . . 

.n.lville    ir.  Fullrr.  Ill 

David  J.  Brewer,  Kan 

Henry  B.  Brown.  Mich 


Service. 


Born 


Term .    Years 


ITSg-lTM 

1789-1791 

17S9-1W0 

17X9-1798 

1789-1790 

1789-17911 

1790-1799 

1791-179:-; 

179S-18(m; 

1795-1793 

1796-lKll 

1796-lROO 

1798-1829 

1799-1804 

1601-183.5 

I8W-1834 

1806-182,3 

1807-1826 

1811-1845 

1811-1836 

1823-1843 

1826-1828 

1829-1861 

1830-1844 

18.35-1867 

18;i6-1864 

18.36-1841 

1837-1865 

1837-1852 

1841-1860 

1845-1872 

1845-1851 

1846-1870 

1851-1857 

1853-1861 

18,18-1881 

1861-1881 

1862-1890 

1862-1877 

1,S63-. 

1864-1873 

1870-1880 

1870-. 

1872-18S2 

1874-1888 

1877- - . . 

1880-18S; 

1881-18,S9 

1881- . 

1882- . 

1888- . 

1888- . 

1889- . 

1890- 


6 
2 

21 
9 
7 
1 

■9 
2 

13 

15 

5 
31 

5 
34 
SO 
17 
19 
34 
25 
20 

2 
32 
16 
32 
28 

5 
28 
15 
19 
27 

6 
23 
6 
8 
23 
20 
28 
15 


1745 

1739 

173,3 

1742 

1732 

1745 

1751 

17.32 

1745 

1739 

1741 

1745 

1762 

1755 

1755 

1771 

1757 

1765 

1779 

1752 

1767 

1777 

1785 

1779 

1790 

1777 

1783 

1786 

1780 

1785 

1792 

1789 

1794 

1809 

1811 

1803 

1804 

1816 

1815 

1816 

180S 

1808 

1813 

1811 

1816 

\mi 

1,S24 
1824 
1828 
1820 
182.T 
18:>3 
l.'v" 
1836 


Died. 


1829 
ISUO 
18111 
179.S 
1800 
1790 
1799 
1819 
ISOC 
IKIXI 
ISII 
1S(17 
1.'29 
ISllI 
18:« 
IftU 

182:; 

182S 
1845 
1844 

iRi;; 

1828 
1861 
1844 
1867 
1861 
1841 
1S65 
1852 
1860 
1873 
1851 
1870 
1874 
1889 
1881 
I8« 
1890 
1886 

1873 


1886 
1888 


1887 


Each  separate  State  has  its  own  judicial  system 

for  which  see  Britannica  in  he. 


ibb'A 


UNITED    ST  A  T  E  S    0  I-'    A  M  E  1{  1  (J  A 


XcMBER  OF   Sessions,   Terms  of    Office,    Limit   of  Sessions,  Salaries  of    Governobs,    Etc.,   in  the 

Several  States  and  Territories. 


States. 


Alabama  

Arkansas . . . . 

Califoruia  . . . 

Colorado  . . . . 
Conuecticut. 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 


Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa - . 

Kansas  

Kentucky 

Louisiana  

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi    - . . 
Missouri 


Montana 

Nebraska    

Nevada 

N.  Hampshire.. 
New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota.. 

Ohioi 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  . 

Rhode  Island  t 
South  Carolina 
South  Dakota  . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia . 

Washington  ... 
West  Virginia  . 

Wisconsin 


Wyoming 

TERRITORIES. 

Arizona 

New  Mexico. . 

Oklahoma 

Utah 


Sessions 


Biennial 
Biennial 

Biennial  . 

Biennial  . 
Annual.. . 
Biennial  . 
Biennial . 
Bienulal  . 
Biennial . 

Biennial  . 

Biennial  . 
Biennial . 
Biennial . 
Biennial  . 
Biennial . 
Biennial  . 
Biennial  . 
Annual... 
Biennial  . 
Biennial  . 
Biennial  . 

Biennial  . 

Biennial 

Biennial  . 

Biennial  . 
Biennial  . 
Annual  . . 

Annual. . . 

Biennial . 

Biennial  . 
Biennial  . 
Biennial  . 

Biennial  . 

Annual 
.\nnual 
Biennial  . 
Biennial 
Biennial 
Biennial 
Biennial  . 
Biennial 
Biennial  . 

Bienulal  . 

Biennial  . 


Biennial 
Biennial 


Biennial . 


Month  and  Day. 


Tu.  aft.  2  Mon. 
2d  Mon.  Jan. . 


1st  Mon.  aft.  Jan.  1... 

Wed.  aft.  1  Mon.  Jan. 
Wed.  aft.  1  Mon.  Jan. 
1st  Tue.  Jan 


1st  Wed.  Nov. 
2d  Mon.  Dec. . 


Wed.  aft.  1  Mon.  Jan. 

Thur.  aft   1  Mon.  Jan. 

2d  Mon.  Jan 

2d  tu.  Jan 

Last  Wed.  Dec 

2d  Mon.  May 

ist  Wed.  Jan 

1st   ^^■ed.  Jan 

1st  Wed.  Jan 

Ist  Wed.   Jan   

Tu.  aft.  1  Mon.  Jan.   . 
Tu.  aft.  1  Mon.  Jan.... 

Wed,  aft.  Jan.  1 

2d  Mon.  Jan 

IstTu.  Jan 

1st  Mon.  Jan 

Ist  Wed.  in  Jan 

2d  Tu.  in  Jan 


1st  Tu.  Jan 

Wed.  aft.  1  Mon.  Jan. 

2d  Tu.  Jan 

Isl  Mon.  Jan 

2d  Mon.  Jan 

Ist  Tu.  Jan 

Last  Tu.  May 

4th  Tu.  Nov 

2d  Tu.  Jan 

Ist  Mon.  Jan 

2d  Tu.  Jan  

1st  Wed.  Oct 

Ist  Wed.  Dec 

Ist  Mon.  Jan 

2d  Wed.  Jan 

1st  Mon.  Jan 

2d  Tu.  Jan 


1st  Mon.  Jan. . . 
Last  Mon.  Dec. 


2d  Mon.  Jan. 


Limit  of 

Sessions. 


50  days. 
60  days.. . 

60  days.. 

90  days.. 

None 

None 

60  days.. 
40  days*. 
60  days.. 

None 

60  days. . 

None 

50  days. . 
60  davs*. 
60  days.. 

None 

90  days.. 

None 

None 

60  days.. 
None 


70  days. 

60  days. 

40  days. 

60  days. 
None  .. . 
Nono  . .. 

Nope . . . 

60  days. 

60  days. 

None 

40  days. 

None... 


None 

None 

69  days.. 
7.5  davs. . 
90  days.. 

None 

90  daysll.. 
60  days.. 
45  daysll. 

None 

60  days.. 


60  days. 
60  days. 


60  days. 


33 


100 
92 


49 
249 

20 

76 
175 

24 


100 
100 


151 
117 
210 
100 
107 
120 

140 

24 

100 

40 
321 
60 

128 

120 

48 
110 
60 

204 

72 
124 
48 
99 
106 
240 
100 
24 
65 

100 

24 


Salary. 


$4  a  day  and  10c.    mileage. 

$fi  a  day. 

\  $8    a    day     and    10    cents 

t        mileage  and  $25. 

$7  a  day    and  15c.  mileage. 

^300  and  mileage. 

43  a  day  and  mileage. 

$6 a  day  and  10c.  mileage. 

$4  a  day  and  mileage. 

$4  a  day  and  20c.   mileage. 

J  $5    a    day      and    10    cents 

)         mileage  and  $50. 

$6  a  day  and  mileage. 

$550  a  year. 

$3  a  day  and  15c  mileage. 

$5  a  day    and  15c.    mileage. 

hi  a  day  and  mileage 

$150  and  20c.  mileage. 

$5  a  day  and  mileage. 

$750  a  year  and  20c.  miltage 

$3  a  day  and  lOc.  mileage. 

$5  a  day  and  I5c.  mileage. 

$400  a  year. 

( $5     a     day     and    mllealgt. 

f         and  $30. 

$4  a  dav   and    20c.    mileage. 

« $3  a  day     and     10     cents 

i        mileage. 

$8  a  day  and  40c.  mileage. 

$250  and  mileage. 

$500  a  year. 

($1,500     a     year     and    lOc. 

/        mileage. 

$4  a  day  and  10c.  mileage, 

$4  a  day  and  20c.  mileage. 

$600  a  year   and    12c.    mile. 

$3  a  day    and  1.5c.    mileage. 

I  $1,500  a    year    and  5  cents 

f         mileage. 

$1    a  day  and   8e.    mileage. 

$5aday'and    10c.    mileage, 

$4  a  day    and    20c.    mileage. 

$4  a  day    and  I6c.    mileage. 

i5  a  day  and  mileage. 
3  a  day. 
540  a  year. 
$4  a  day    and    20c.  mileage. 
$4  a  day    and    10c.    mileage, 
t  $500  a   year    and    10   cents 
}        mileage. 
$4  a  day  and    20e.    mileage 


$4   a     day     and   20    cents 
mileage. 


•  Unless  extended  bv  special  vote.  ,j        j.  j         j         < 

+  In  Ohio  and  a  few  other  States,  where  the  legislative  sessions  are  biennial,  the  legislature  hold3"adjourned  sessions, 
practicallv  amounting  to  annual  meetings.  j  j.  ^ 

I  The  Rhode  Island  legislature  is  required  to  meet  annually  the  last  Tuesday  in  May,  at  Newport,   and    an    adjournea 
Bession  to  be  holden  annually  at  Providence. 

II  Unless  extended  by  special  vote. 


U  N  I  r  E  D    S  T  A  r  E  S    OF    A  M  E  R I C  A 


1553 


PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


s 
1 

■3 

1 
S 
s 
z 

no 

15 

16 

16 

17 
17 

18 
19 
24 

34 
24, 

o 

> 

1 

3 

!_ 

73 

135 
138 

138 

176 
176 

218 
221 
-235 

261 
261 

S 
c 

F 
A-F 

F 

AF 
F 
F.. 

A-F 
A-F 
F.. 
F.. 

A-F 

F 

A-F 

•Presidents. 

•Vice-Presi- 
dents. 

c 
o 

u 
o 

3 

o 

X 

o 

z 

o 

o 
> 

z 
1 

•Presidents. 

•Vice-Pres 
dents. 

- 

a 
o 

Candidates. 

Vote. 

Candi- 
dates. 

to 

e> 

o 

> 

1 

Candidates. 

Vote. 

Candidates. 

o 

> 

33 

Popu- 
lar. 

1 

o 

S 

s 

Popu- 
lar. 

"3 

s 

3 

o 

> 

o 

V 

3 

1789 

G.  Washington 
John  Adams.. . 

69 

1832 

1836 

1840 

1844 
1848 
18S2 
1856 
1860 

1864 
1868 
1872 

1876 

1880 
18» 
1888 

26 

26 

26 
30 
31 
31 
33 

»36 
37 
S7 

38 

38 
38 
38 

288 

294 

294 

275 
290 
296 
296 
303 

314 
317 
366 

369 

369 
401 
401 

D. 
N. 

R.; 

A.  Jackson 

Henrv  Clay 

John  Floyd | 

William  Wirt.,  i 

15 

7 
1 
1 

687  j02 
530,189 

33,108 

219 
19 
11 
7 

Van  Buren.. 

Sergeant 

Lee 

189 

3t 
9 
6 
6 

4 
3 
2 
2 

1 
1 
1 
4 

44 

John  Jav 

11 

R.  H.  Harrison 
John  Rutledge 
John  Hancock 

AM.. 

Ellmaker.... 
Wilkins 

7 

V\ 

Vacancies 

M.  Van  Buren  .. 
W.H.  Harrison  1 
Hugh  L.  White  1 
Dan.  Webster     ( 
W.  P.  ManeumJ 
W.  H.Harrison.. 
M.  Van  Buren. . . 
Jas.  G.  Birney ... 

is 

7 
2 
1 
1 

■  ■76l',549 
736,656 

2 
170 
73 

? 

D.... 
W 

w.. 

w 

w 

w 

D 

L 

Johnson** . . 

147 

S.  Huntingdon 
John  Milton 

26]TTler 

14  Smith 

47 

Jas.  Armstrong 
Benj.  Lincoln. 
Edw.  Telfair.. . 

23 

n 



19  1 275.017  234  Tvler 

234 

Vacancies 

4 

132 

7  I.I2S.7M    60  Johnson 

48 

n<»? 

G.  Washington 

7,059 

77 
SO 

4 
1 
3 

Tazewell .... 
Polk 

11 

1 

Thos.  Jefferson 

b. 
w 

L. 
W 
D 
F. 
D 
W 
F. 
D 
R 
A. 
R 
D 
C. 
L. 
R 
D 

s.^ 
b: 

v 

D. 

James  K.  Polk. . 

Henry  Clay 

15 
11 

ii37i43  170 

Dallas 

170 

1,299.068  105  Frelineh's'n 

ins 

3 
71 

C2.300 
iJ!tJ)-ini 

..1 

1796 

John  \dam3 

Zacharr  Tavlor.    15 

16.^  Fillmore   . 

\M 

Thos.  Jefferson 
Thos.  Pinckney 

68 
59 
30 
15 
11 
7 
5 
3 
2 
2 
2 
1 

Lewis  Cass'. islliao^is  127  Butler 

127 

M.  Van  Buren  . . 
Franklin  Pierce. 
WiBlield  Scott.. 
John  P.  Hale.    . 

291,2631 . 
27  1.601,474254 

2f4 

Samuel  Adams 
0    Ellsworth 

4  1.386,5781  42'C;rflham 

42 

.      166.1491 
19  1.838J69  174 

Julian 

174 

John  JaT  

J.  C.  Fremont  ..  n|1.3«.2«,lH  Davton 

M.Fillmore   11      87.534;    »  Donelson  . . . 

Ab'ni  Lincoln  .'l7  1.S66.;i52'l«)  Hamlin 

J.  C.  Breckiur'ge  111    w.i.7tBt  72  Lane  . .   

114 

James  Iredell 
G.  Washington 

8 

180 

72 

S    Johnson.... 

John  Bell 

S.  A.  Douglas ... 
Ab'm  Lincoln. .. 
G.B.  M'CIellan 

Vacancies  — 
Ulysses  S.  Grant 
H.  Seymour 

Vacancies 

Ulysses  S.  Grant 
Horace  Greeley.. 
Charles  O'Conor 

James  Black 

T.  A.  Hendricks. 
B.Gratz  Brown.. 

S\    5*9.5821  39  Everett 

39 

C.  C.  Pinckney 
Thos.  Jefferson 
-\aron  Burr.. . . 

2[l.375J57 
222J16.0C7 

S  1,S0S,725 

11 

26  3,015,071 

8,2,709,613 

3 

lalJobnson 

212  Johnson.  ... 

21  Pendleton  .. 

81 

214  Colfax 

12 

iwn 

m 

•}n 

65 

64 

1 

162 

14 

113 

47 

9 

3 

3 

1 

131 

86 

183 

22 

16 

218 

8 

4 

1 

I 

182 

30 

24 

13 

9 

2 

1 

171 

83 

7 

'I 

81 

C.  C.  Pinckney 
John  JaT 

R 

214 

80 
23 

2S6 

42 

18 

2 

1 

Blair 

Wilson  [.'.'.'. 

Brown 

Julian 

Colquitt  .... 

Palmer 

Branilette.. - 
Groesbeck.. 

Maehen 

Banks 

80 

1MM 

Thos.  Jefferson 
C.  C.  Pinckney 
Jas.  Madison 
C.  C.  Pinckney 
Geo.  Clinton.. 

•15 
12 

:e:: 

162 
14 

122 
47 
6 

Clinton . . . 

King 

Clinton . . . 

King 

Langdon . . 
Madison . . 
Monroe  . . . 

•?3 

1««IA 

R.. 
DiL. 

?::::: 

31 
6 

3,597.070 

2.KU,079 

29.408 

5j60S 

286 

47 

5 

5 

3 

S 

A-F 
F    . 

A-F 

F.. 

Vacancv 

1 
128 
89 
1 
183 
34 

C  J.  Jenkins.   .. 

1 

Hfl2 

Jas.  Madison.. 
DeW.  Clinton.. 

U 

7 



Gerry 

IngersoU .. 

1 

1 

17 

14 

]£16 

Jjmes  Monroe 
Hufus  King 

16 
3 



Tompkins. 
Howard. . . 
Ross,  etc. . 
Tompkins. 
Stockton. . 
Rodney . . . 

Harper 

Bush 

R 

D 

G 

P 

R.  B  Haves 

S.  J.Tilden 

Peter  Cooper 

G.Clay  Smith  . 

21 
17 

4.033550 

4,284,885 

81,740 

9.522 

2,636 

185 
184 

Wheeler 

Hendricks . . 

185 
184 

imn 

AF 

F.. 

James  Monroe 
Jno.  Q.  Adams 

21 

231 

1 

* 

R 
D 
G 

b 

R 
P. 
P 
R 
D 
P 
C. 

p; 
't.'. 

J.  A.  Garfield.  .. 
W.S.  Hancock  .. 

J   B.  Weaver 

Scattering  . 

19 

4.4,S4.416 

?14 

Arthur 

English 

Chambers... 

214 

' 

1914,444.952  155 
.   1    306.867'.. 

1.55 

A-F 
C. 
A  F 
AF 

3 

12J76 
4^74,986 
4351,981 

183* 

A.  Jackson 

Jno.  Q.  Adams 
W.B.Crawford 
Henry  Clay.... 

10 
8 
3 
3 

156372 
105.321 
44  282 

^99, Calhoun  .. 
Sl'Santord... 

G.  Cleveland  — 
Jas.  G.  Blaine.   . 
Benj.  F.' Butler 
John  P.  St.  John 
Benj    Harrison. 
G.  Cleveland     . 
Clinton  B.  Fisk 
A.J.  Streeter  ... 

20 
IS 

219 
182 

Hendricks . . 

Logan  

West 

219 

182 

..      1605691.- 
I5.438.6r2  233 
.  i5..t34J!S2  168 

Van  Buren 
Clay 

Morton 

Thurman  . . . 
Brooks..   .. 
Cunningh'm 

233 

168 

XR 

Vacancy 

244.034  . . . 
146,839  . . . 

1828 

A.  Jackson 

Jno.  Q.  Adams 

is  6*7,221; Its 

9  509,097    83 

Calhonn  . . 

Rush   

Smith 

1 

1 

F.,  stands  tor  Federalist:  R.,  Republican:  O..OppogiUon:  C.  Coalition:  D.,  Democratic:  N.  R.,  National  Republican:  A.-M., 
Anii-Mofon:  W.,  Whig:  Ij.,  Liberty:  F.S.,  Free  Soil:  T.D..  Free  Democrat:  C.  V..  Conttitutional  Union:  l.T).,  Independent  Demo- 
crat: D.  &  L..  Democratic  and  Liberal:  T.,  Temperance:  G.,  Greenback:  P.,  Prohibition:  A..  Anvrican:  P.  P.,  People's  Party;  U.  L., 
United  Labor. 

*  Previous  to  the  election  of  1804  each  elector  voted  for  two  candidates  for  President :  the  one  receiving  the  highest  number 
of  votes,  if  a  majoritv,  was  declared  elected  President:  and  the  next  highest  Vice-President. 

t  Three  States  out  of  thirteen  did  not  vote,  viz.:  New  York,  which  had  not  passed  an  electoral  law  :  and  North  Carolina 
and  Rhode  Island,  which  had  not  adopted  the  Constitution. 

I  There  having  been  a  tie  vote,  the  choice  devolved  upon  the  House  of  Representatives,  which  selected  Jefferson. 

^  No  choice  having  been  made  bv  the  Electoral  College,  the  choice  devolved  upon  the  House  of  Representatives,  which 
selected  .idams  on  first  ballot. 

**  No  candidate  having  received  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  the  Electoral  College,  the  Senate  elected  R.  M.  Johnson  Vice- 
President,  who  received  33  votes:  Francis  Granger  received  16. 


1554 


UN  IT  K  I)    STATES    OF    AMERIOl 


Speakers  of  the  Holsk  of  Kepkesentatives. 

The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  the  Speakers 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  the  organi- 
zation of  the  1st  Congress  until  the  close  of  tlie51st 
Congress,  in  1891,  giving  the  State  which  the 
Speaker  represented,  and  the  length  of  time  of  his 
services  as  Speaker.  The  names  of  the  Speakers 
pro  tern  are  not  included. 


Name. 


F.  A  Muhlenberg,.. 
Jonathan  Trumbull 
F.  A.  Muhleubc-rg 
Jonathan  Dayton    . 


Geo.  Dent 

Theodore  Sedgwick 
Nathaniel  Macon. . . 


Joseph  B.  Varnum 

Henry  Clay* 

Langdon  Cheves. . 
Henry  Clayt 


JohnW.  Taylor  

Philip  P.  Barbour. 

Henry  Clay 

John  W    Taylor  . 
Andrew  Stevensont 


John  Bell 
James  K.  Polk 

Robt.  M.  T.  Hunter. 
John  White 
John  W. Jones 
John  W.  Davis 
Robert  C.  Wlnthrop 
Howell  Cobb 


Nathaniel  P.  Banks 

James  L.  Orr     

Wm.  Pennington 
Galusha  A.  Grow 
Schuyler  Colfax. 


Term  of  Service. 


Linn  Boyd Ky 


JameE  G.  Blaine. 


Michael  C.  Kerr... 

Samuel  S.  Cox 

Milton  Sayler 
Samuel  J.  Randall 


J.  Warren  Kiefer 
John  G.Carlisle 


Apr.  1, 1789, 
Oct.  24,  '91, 
Dee.  2,  '9S, 
Dec.  7,  'as, 
May  15,  '97, 
Dec.  3,  '98, 
Dec.  2,  '99, 
Dec.  7,1801, 
Oct.  17,  '03, 
Dec.  '2,  '05. 
Oct.as,  '07, 
MaT'2'2,  '09, 
Nov.  4,  '11, 
Mavj4,  'l.S, 
Jan'.  19,  '14, 
Dec.  4.  ■\-\ 
Dec.  1,  '17. 
Dec.  ti, '19, 
Nov.  15,  '20, 
Dec.  4,  '21, 
Dec.  1,  '23. 
Dec.  5,  '25, 
Dec.  3, '27, 
Dec.  7,  '29, 
Dec.  5,  '31, 
Dec.  2,  'a3, 
June  2,  '.34, 
Dec.  7,  '35, 
Sept. 5,  '37, 
Dec.  16,  '39, 
27th 'May  31,  '41, 
2Sth  Dec.  4,  '43, 
29th 'Dec.  1,  '45, 
SOthlDec.  6,  '47, 
31st  lDec.22, '49, 
32d  pec.  1,  '51. 
33d  iDec.  5,  '53, 
34th  Feb.  2,  '66, 
35thpec.  7,  '87, 
36thlFeb.   1,  '60, 
S7th  July  4,  '61, 


to  Mar.  8, 
to  Mar.  2 
to  Mar.  3 
to  Mar.  ;i 
to  July  16 
to  Mar.  3 
to  Mar.  3, 
,  to  Mar.  3 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar, 


to  Mar.  3 


Ind.. 
N.  Y.. 
Ohio 
Pa... 


38th 
39th 
40th 
41st 
43d 
43d 
44th 


Ohio 
Ky  .. 


Thomas  B.  Reed Me... 


Dec.  7, '63, 

Dec.  4,  '65, 

Mar.  4,  '67, 

Mar.  4,  '69, 

Mar.  4,  '71, 

Dec.  1,  '73, 

Dec.  6,  '75, 


44th  Feb.  17, '76, 


44th 
44th 
45th 
4(Uh 
47th 
48th 
49th 
.50th 
51st 


June  19, '76, 
Dec.  4,  '76, 
Oct.  15,  '77, 
Mar.  18,  '79. 
Dec.  5,  '8!, 
Dec.  3,  '83, 
Dec.  7,  '85, 
Dec.  5, '87, 
Dec.   2,  '89, 


to  Mar_     , 
to  Jan.  19, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  5Iar.  3, 
to  May  15, 
to  MaV.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3. 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3. 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  June  2, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3. 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3. 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  2, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3. 
to  Mar.  2, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Aug  20, 
to  May  12, 
to  Juiie24, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 
to  Mar.  3, 


1791 

'93 

,    '95 

,    '97 

,   '118 

,   '99 

1801 

'03 

'05 

'07 

'09 

'11 

'13 

'14 

'15 

'17 

'19 

'20 

'21 

'23 

'25 


'29 
'31 
'3:^ 
'34 
'35 

'39 
'41 
'43 
'45 
'47 
'49 
'.'il 
'53 
'55 
'.57 
'.59 
'61 
'63 
'C5 
'67 
'69 
'71 
'73 
'75 
'76 
'76 
,  '76 
'77 
'79 
'81 
'82 
'85 
'87 
'89 
'91 


claims  the  party  would  be  entitled  to  redress  against  tl.e 
United  States  either  in  a  court  of  law.  eriuity,  or  ad-.niralty 
if  the  United  States  were  suable:  Proiiikd,  hvwiecr,  That 
nothing  in  this  section  shall  be  construed  as  given  to  either 
of  the  courts  herein  mentioned  jurisdiction  to  hear  and  de- 
termine claims  growing  out  of  the  late  civil  war,  and  com- 
monly known  as  "war  claims."  or  to  hear  and  determine 
other  claims  which  have  heretofore  been  rejected  or  reported 
on  adversely  by  any  court,  department,  or  commission 
authorized  to  hear  arid  determine  the  same. 

Second.  All  set-offs,  counter-claims,  claims  for  damages, 
whether  liquidated  or  unliquidated,  or  other  demands  what 
soever  on  the  part  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
against  any  claimant  against  the  Government  in  said  court; 
Pnn-UIrd  that  no  suit  against  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  sh,all  be  allowed  under  this  act  unless  the  same  shall 
have  been  brought  within  six  years  after  the  right  accrued 
for  which  the  claim  is  made.  .     .     ^   „^  ,       ^   ,, 

SEC  2  That  the  district  courts  of  the  United  States  shall 
have  concurred  jurisdiction  with  the  Court  of  Claims  as  to 
all  matters  named  in  the  preceeding  section  w'here  the 
amount  of  the  claim  does  not  exceed  one  thousand  dollars, 
and  the  circuit  courts  of  the  United  Stales  shall  have  such 
concurrent  jurisdiction  in  all  cases  where  the  amount  of 
such  claim  exceeds  one  thousand  dollars  and  does  not  ex- 
ceed ten  thousand  dollars.  All  causes  brought  and  tried 
under  the  provision  of  this  act  shall  be  tried  by  the  court 
without  a  jury. 

Sec  3  That  whenever  any  person  shall  present  his  petitioa 
to  the  Court  of  Claims  alleging  that  he  is  or  has  been  in- 
debted to  the  United  States  as  an  officer  or  agent  thereof,  or 
by  virtue  of  any  contract  therewith,  or  that  he  is  the 
gnarantor,  or  surety,  or  personal  representative  of  any  of- 
ficer, or  agent,  or  contractor  so  indebted,  or  that  he  or  the 
person  for  whom  he  is  such  surety,  guarantor,  or  personal 
representative  has  held  any  office  or  agency  under  the  United 
States,  or  entered  into  any  contract  therewith,  under  which 
it  may  be  or  has  been  claimed  that  an  indebtedness  to  the 
United  States  has  arisen  and  exists,  and  that  he  or 
the  person  he  represents  has  applied  to  the  proper  Depart- 
ment of  the  Government  requesting  that  the  account 
of  such  office,  agencv.or  indebtedness  may  be  adjusted  and 
settled,  and  that  thr'ee  years  have  elapsed  from  the  date  of 
such  application  and  said  account  still  remains  unsettled 
and  unadjusted,  nnd  that  no  suit  upon  the  same  has  been 
brought  bv  the  United  States,  said  court  shall,  due  notice 
first  being"  given  to  the  head  of  said  department  and  to  the 
Attornev-Geueral  of  the  United  States,  proceed  to  hear  the 
parties  and  to  ascertain  the  amount,  if  any,  due  the  United 
States  on  said  account.  The  Attorney-General  shall  repre- 
sent the  United  States  at  the  hearinp  of  said  cause.  The  , 
court  mav  postpone  the  same  from  time  to  time  whenever 
justice  shall  require.  The  judgmcut  of  said  court  or  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  to  which  an  appeal 
shall  lie,  as  in  other  cases,  as  to  the  amount  due,  shall  be 
binding  and  conclusive  npon  the  parties.  The  payment  of 
such  amount  so  found  due  by  the  court  shall  discharge  such 
obligation  An  action  shall  accrue  to  the  United  States 
against  such  principal,  or  surety,  or  representative  to  re- 
cover the  amount  so  found  due,  which  may  be  brought  at 
any  time  within  three  years  after  the  final  jud™ent  of  said 
court  Unless  suit  shall  be  brought  within  said  time,  such 
claim   and  the  claim  on    the  original  indebtness  shall   be 

°SEC  4  That  the  jurisdiction  of  the  respective  courts  of  the 
United  States  proceeding  under  this  act,  including  the  right 
of  exception  and  appeal. shall  be  governed  bv  the  law  now  in 
force  in  so  far  as  the  same  is  applicable  and  not  inconsist- 
ent with  the  provisions  of  this  act:  and  the  course  of  pro- 
cedure shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  established  rules  of 
said  respective  courts,  and  of  such  additions  and  modifica- 
tions thereof  as  said  courts  may  adopt.  ,  .         ,      „ 

Sec  5  That  the  plaintift'  in  any  suit  brought  under  the 
nroviiions  of  the  second  section  of  this  act  shall  file  a  peti- 
tion, duly  verific^d.with   the  clerk  of  the  respective  court 


•  Resigned,  Jan.  19, 1814. 
■fResigned.Oct.  20,  1820. 
J  Resigned,  June  2.  1834. 

The  United  States  Court  of  Claims. 

The  Court  of  Claims  of  the  T'nited  States  was 
established  by  Congressional  Act  of  Feb.  24,  1855. 

Members  of  Congress  are  not  allowed  to  practice 
in  the  Court  of  Claims.  The  Act  of  Congress, 
approved  March  3,  1887,  enacted  that  "the  Court 
of  Claims  shall  have  jurisdiction  to  hear  and  deter- 
mine" the  following  matters: 

First  All  claiin'^  founded  upon  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  or  niiv  law  of  Congress,  except  for  pensions, 
or  upon  anv  regulation  of  any  Executive  Departinent,  or 
upon  iiiiv  contract,  exr^ressed  or  implied,  with  the  Govern- 
ment nf  Uie  I'nited  States,  or  for  damages,  liquidated,  or  un- 
liquidated, in  cases  not  sounding  in  tort,  in  respect  of  which 


having  jurisdiction  of  the  case,  and  in  the  district  where  the 

■     iff  resides     Such  petition  shall  set  forth  the  full  name 

and  residence  of  the  plaintiff,  the  mature  of  hisclaim^and^a 


i-ingjn      . 
plaintiff  resides. 

sS?cincfstat'ement~'orthe'Tacts 'upon. which  the  claim  is 
based,  the  money  or  any  other  thing  claimed  or  the  damages 
sought  to  be  recovered,  and  praying  the  court  for  a  judgment 
or  decree  upon  the  facts  and  law. 

SEC  6  That  the  plaintiff  shall  cause  a  copy  of  his  petition 
filed  under  the  preceding  section  to  be  served  upon  the  dis- 
trict attorney  ol  the  UnTted  States  in  the  district  wherein 
suit  is  brought,  and  shall  mail  a  copy  of  the  same,  hy  ''K'V 
tered  letter,  to  the  Attorney-General  of  the  United  State., 
and  sl'al  thereupon  cause  to  be  filed  with  the  clerk  of  the 
cmirt  wherein  suit  is  instituted  an  affidavit  of  such  service 
and  the  mailing  of  such  letter.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
d?stri^l  attorney  upon  whom  service  of  1'<-'"^°X  Covern 
aforesaid  to  appear  and  defend  the  interests  of  the  Govern- 
ment n  the  suit,  and  within  sixty  days  after  the  service  of 
the  petition  upon  him,  unless  the  time  should  be  extended 
bv  o?der  of  the  court  made  in  the  case,  to  file  a  plea,  answer, 
of  demurrer  on  the  part  of  the  Government  aiul  to  file  a  no- 
Uce  of  anv  counter-claim,  set-off.  claim  for  damages  or 
other  demand  or  defense  whatsoever  of  the  (.overnment  in 
theprensts  Pm,'/,/<rf.  That,  should  the  district  attorney 
ueelect  or  refuse  to  file  the  plea,  answer,  demurrer,  or  de- 
"euse  as   required,  the   plaintiff  may  proceed  with  the  case 


i 


r  X  IT  E  D    S  T  A  T  E  S    0  F    A  Jkl  E  R  I  C  A 


1555 


under  such  rules  as  the  court  may  adopt  in  the  premises: 
l>at  the  plaintiff  shall  not  have  judgment  or  decree  for  his 
claim,  or  any  part  thereof,  unless  he  shall  establish  the  same 
by  proof  satisfactory  to  the  court. 

Sec.  7.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  court  to  cause  a 
written  opinion  to  be  filed  in  the  cause,  setting  forth  the 
specific  tindings  by  the  court  of  the  facts  therein  and  the 
conclusions  of  the  court  upon  all  questions  of  law  involved 
in  the  case,  and  to  render  judgment  thereon.  If  the  suit  be 
in  equity  or  admiralty,  the  court  shall  proceed  with  the  same 
according  to  the  rules  of  such  courts. 

Sec.  8.  That  in  the  trial  of  any  suit  brought  under  any  of 
the  provisions  of  this  act.  no  person  shall  be  excluded'as  a 
witness  because  he  is  a  party  to  or  interested  in  said  suit; 
and  any  plaintiff  or  paTty  in  interest  may  be  examined  as  a 
witness  on  the  part  of  the  Government. 

Section  ten  hundred  and  seventy-nine  of  the  Revised  Stat- 
utes is  hereby  repealed.  The  provisions  of  section  ten  hun- 
dred and  eighty  of  the  Revised  Statutes  shall  apply  to  cases 
under  this  act. 

Sec.  9.  That  the  plaintiff  or  the  United  States  in  anv  suit 
brought  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  shall  have  the'same 
rights  of  appeal  or  writ  of  error  as  are  now  reserved  in  the 
Statutes  of  the  United  States  in  that  behalf  made,  and  upon 
the  conditions  and  limit  rtions  therein  contained.  The 
modes  of  procedure  in  claiming  and  perfecting  an  appeal  or 
writ  of  error  shall  conform  in  all  respects,  and  as  near  as 
may  be,  to  the  statutes  and  rules  of  court  governing  appeals 
and  writs  of  error  in  like  causes. 

Sec.  10.  That  when  the  findings  of  facts  and  the  law  appli- 
cable thereto  have  been  filed  in  auy  case  as  providetl  in  sec- 
tion six  of  this  act,  and  the  judgment  of  decree  is  adverse  to 
the  Government,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  district  attorney 
to  transmit  to  the  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States 
certified  copies  of  all  the  papers  filed  in  the  cause,  with  a 
transcript  of  the  testimony  taken,  the  written  findings  of  the 
court,  and  his  written  opinion  as  to  the  same;  whereupon 
the --ittorney-Ueneral  shall  determine  and  direct  whether 
an  appeal  or  writ  of  error  shall  be  taken  or  not;  and  when  so 
directed  the  district  attorney  shall  cause  an  appeal  or  writ 
of  error  to  be  perfected  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 
statutes  and  rules  of  practice  governing  the  same:  Pna-ided 
That  no  appeal  or  writ  of  error  shall  be  allowed  after  six 
months  from  the  judgment  of  decree  in  such  suit.  From  the 
date  of  such  final  judgment  or  decree  interest  shall  be  com- 
puted thereon,  at  the  rate  of  four  per  centum  per  annum, 
until  the  time  when  an  appropriation  is  made  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  judgment  or  decree. 

Sec.  U.  That  the  .Attorney-General  shall  report  to  Congress 
and  at  the  beginning  of  eaj^h  session  of  Congress,  the  suits 
nnder  this  act  in  which  a  final  judgment  or  decree  has  been 
rendered,  giving  the  date  of  each,  and  a  statement  of  the 
costs  taxed  in  each  case. 

Sec.  12.  That  when  any  claim  or  matter  may  be  pendiu"  in 
any  of  the  Executive  Departments  which  involves  contro- 
verted questions  of  fact  or  law.  the  head  of  such  Department, 
with  the  consent  of  the  claimant,  mav  transmit  the  lame 
-withthe  vouchers,  papers,  proofs  and  documents  pertaining 
■thereto,  to  said  Court  of  Claims,  and  the  same  shall  be  there 
proceeded  in  under  such  rules  as  the  court  mav  adopt. 
When  the  facts  and  conclusions  of  law  shall  have  been  found 
the  court  shall  reports  its  findings  to  the  Department  bv 
which  It  was  transmitted. 

Sec.  13.  That  in  every  case  which  shall  come  before  the 
■Court  of  Claimg,  or  is  now  pending  therein,  under  the  pro- 
visions of  an  act  entitled  ".\.n  act  to  afford  assistance  and 
Telief  to  Congress  and  the  Executive  Departments  in  the  in- 
vestigation of  claims  and  demands  against  the  Govern- 
ment, approved  March  third,  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty- 
three.  If  It  shall  appear  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court,  upon 
the  facts  established,  that  it  has  jurisdiction  to  render  judg- 
ment or  decree  thereon  under  existing  laws  or  under  the 
provisions  of  this  act  it  shall  proceed  to  do  so,  giving  to 
either  party  such  further  opportunitv  for  hearing  as  in  its 
judgment  justice  shall  require,  and  report  its  proceedings 
therein  to  either  house  of  Congress  or  to  the  Department  by 
which  the  same  was  referred  to  said  court. 

Sec.  14.  That  whenever  any  bill. except  forapension,  shall 
be  pending  m  either  house  of  Congress  providing  for  the  pay- 
ment of  a  claim  against  the  United  States,  legal  or  equitable 
or  for  a  grant  gift,  or  bounty  to  any  person,  the  house  in 
which  such  bill  IS  pending  may  refer  the  same  to  the  Court 
•.y?i™^'"'''-°-'''^''"?™'^<^«<^  with  the  same  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  act  approved  March  third,  eigh- 
teen hundred  and  eightv-three,  entitled  ■'An  act  to  kfford 
assistance  and  relief  to  Congress  and  the  Executive  Depart- 
ments in  the  investigation  of  claims  and  demands  against 
the  Government,  and  report  to  such  house  the  facts  in  the 
^^t  5°  ^  amount,  where  the  same  can  be  liquidated, 
h.J^fi^/';''  ^'"■'^,  bt;a'""!K  upon  "le  question  whether  there 
fi,^?^^°  ^f}^'^  or  laches  in  presenting  such  claim  or  apply. 
Jh?  mn/V-'"''  ^'•«?'' Ki".  or  bounty,and  any  facts  bearing  upon 
4hm?lrt^?,'"'°  whether  the.  bar  of  any  statute  of  limitation 
??«imanffn1'"°';'''J, "''•'"'''''=''  '''"J,'  "«  claimed  to  excuse  the 
reS^dv  baving  resorted   to  any  established  legal 

Sec.  15.    If  the  Government  of  the  United  States  shall  nnt 

i?s  df"c'rl?f."^'',',°'  ""^  ^''"""'"^  '°  ■■'■""■"  the  court  nmy^n 
Us  discretion,  allow  costs  to  the  prevailing  party  from  the 
tirne  of  .oimug  such  issue.  Such  costs,  however,  shall  in* 
<-..;deonly  what  is  ,-.ctuaI'r  incurred  for  witnesses,  and  for 


summoning  the   same,  and  fees  paid  to  the  clerk  of   the 
court. 

Sec.  IC.  That  all  laws  and  parts  of  laws  inconsistent  with 
this  act  are  hereby  repealed. 

The  Capit.-vi.  of  the  United  States. 

As  stated  elseiivliere,  the  first  Continental  Con- 
gress met  in  Carpenter's  Hall,  Philadelphia,  Sept. 
6,  1774.  The  hall  ■svas  a  plain  edifice  (still  stand- 
ing) and  provided  fairly  ■nell  in  respect  of  accom- 
modations for  a  small  deliberative  body. 

The  second  Continental  Congress  also  met  in 
Philadelphia,  and  adjourned  Dec.  12,  ]77t),  to  Balti- 
more, -n-here  its  third  session  began  Dec.  20,  1776. 
On  Nov.  1,  17S4,  the  Confederative  Congress  assem- 
bled in  Trenton,  K.  J.  On  Jan.  11,  1885,  it  assem- 
bled in  New  York  City.  The  first  National  Con- 
gress was  also  held  in  New  York,  commencing 
March  4,  1789. 

In  1789  Maryland  ceded  to  the  United  States  the 
territory  now  known  as  the  District  of  Columbia, 
for  its  use  by  the  Government  as  the  National 
headquarters.  This  gift  was  supplemented  in  1789 
by  the  Virginia  Legislature,  by  the  cession,  for  the 
same  purpose,  of  40  square  miles  (including  Alex- 
andria), on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Potomac 
River.  These  two  tracts,  selected  by  President 
Washington,  and  having  jointly  an  area  of  100 
square  miles  (10  miles  square),  were  accepted  by 
the  Government  and  designated  "The  District  of 
Columbia." 

This  selection  was  made  by  Congress  in  1790 
after  a  spirited  controversy,  in  which  the  most  vig- 
orous effort  was  made  to  locate  the  National  Capi- 
tal in  some  other  portion  of  the  country.  Indeed, 
the  contest  was  only  settled  by  a  compromise  in 
which  the  Northern  Congressmen  consented  to 
vote  for  the  new  Capital,  and  the  Southern  mem- 
bers consented  to  vote  for  the  Federal  assumption 
of  the  debts  of  the  two  States  ceding  the  territory. 
[In  1846  Congress  receded  to  Virginia  tliat  por- 
tion of  the  district  which  she  had  transferred  to 
the  Federal  Government.] 

The  Act  of  Congress,  locating  the  Federal  dis- 
trict, passed  June  28,  1790,  contained  the  following 
clause:  "That  a  district  of  territory,  on  the  river 
Potomac,  at  some  place  between  the  mouths  of  ' 
the  Eastern  Branch  of  the  Connegacheague,  be, 
and  the  same  is  hereby  accepted  for  the  perma- 
nent seat  for  the  Government  of  the  United 
States." 

The  same  act  provided  also  that  Congress  should 
meet  in  Philadelphia  until  the  first  Monday  in 
November,  1800,  when  the  Government  should  be 
removed  to  the  District  of  Columbia. 

In  1791,  under  Washington's  supervision,  the 
National  Capital  was  planned  and  laid  out  on  its 
present  site.  The  President  desired  it  to  be  called 
Federal  City,  but  on  Sept.  9  of  that  year,  it  was 
named  Washington. 

On  Sept.  IS,  1793,  President  Washington  laid  the 
cornerstone  of  the  Capitol  building  with  Masonic 
ceremonies. 

In  1800  the  seat  of  Government  was  transferred 
to  Washington.  The  north  wing  of  the  Capitol 
only  was  completed,  but  it  was  fitted  up  for  both 
Houses.  The  President's  residence  was  completed 
externally.  The  city  of  Washington  at  that  date 
was  described  as  having  "one  good  tavern  and 
very  few  houses  in  any  one  place,  most  of  them 
being  very  small  huts,  and  the  War  Oftice  and 
Treasury  Building  burned  down." 

A  bill  for  a  monument  to  President  Washington 
passed  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1800,  but 
after  being  amended  in  the  Senate,  was  postponed. 
Fifty  years  later  it  was  commenced  by  funds  raised 
by  private  subscriptions. 


1556 


U  N I T  E  D    STATES    OF    A  M  ERICA 

SOUTHERN  LOBBY 


THE  MARBLE  ROOM 
SENATE  CUAMBEJL 


t.^^VH'frV 


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NORTHERN  DOOR 


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UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1567 


The  Capitol  Building.— The  Capitol  fronts  the 
east,  and  stands  on  a  plateau  ninety  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Potomac,  in  latitude  38'^  53'  20.4"  north 
and  longitude  77°  00'  35.7"  west  from  Greenwich. 

The  southeast  corner-stone  of  the  original  build- 
ing was  laid  on  Sept.  18,  1793,  by  President  Wash- 
ington, aided  by  the  Freemasons  of  Maryland.  It 
was  constructed  of  sandstone,  painted  white,  from 
an  island  in  Aquia  Creek,  Virginia,  under  the 
direction  of  Stephen  H.  Hallett.  James  Hoban, 
George  Hadtield,  and  afterward  of  B.  H.  Latrobe, 
architects.  The  north  wing  was  finished  in  1800 
and  the  south  wing  in  1811,  a  wooden  passage-way 
connecting  them.  On  August  24,  1814.  the  interior 
of  both  wings  was  destroyed  by  British  incendi- 
aries, but  they  were  immediately  rebuilt.  In  1818 
the  central  portion  of  the  building  was  commenced 
under  the  architectural  superintendence  of  Charles 


deep,  with  porticos  of  22  columns  each  on  their 
eastern  fronts,  and  with  porticos  of  10  columns  on 
their  ends  and  on  their  western  fronts.  The  entire 
length  of  the  building  is  751  feet  4  inches,  and  the 
greatest  depth,  including  porticos  and  steps,  is  324 
feet.  The  area  covered  by  the  entire  building  is 
153.112  square  feet. 

The  dome  is  crowned  by  a  bronze  statue  of  Free- 
dom, modeled  by  Crawford, which  is  19 feet 6  inches 
high,  and  weighs  14,985  pounds.  The  height  of  the 
dome  above  the  base-line  of  the  east  front  is  287 
feet  11  inches;  the  height  from  the  top  of  the 
balustrade  of  the  building  is  217  feet  11  inches; 
and  the  greatest  diameter  at  the  base  is  135  feet  5 
inches. 

The  rotunda  is  95  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  and 
its  height  from  the  floor  to  the  top  of  the  canopy  is 
180  feet  3  inches. 


The  National  Capitol. 


Bulfinch,  and  the  original  building  was  finally 
completed  in  1827.  Its  cost,  including  the  grading 
of  the  grounds,  alterations  and  repairs,  up  to  1827, 
was  $2,433,844.13. 

The  corner-stone  to  the  extensions  of  the  Capitol 
was  laid  on  July  4,  1,851.  by  President  Fillmore, 
Daniel  Webster  officiating  as  orator  of  the  day. 
Thomas  U.  Walter  was  architect,  and  subsequently 
Edward  Clark,  under  whose  direction  the  work  was 
completed  in  November,  1867.  The  material  used 
for  the  extensions  is  white  marble  from  the  quar- 
ries at  Lee,  Mass.,  with  white  marble  columns  from 
the  quarries  at  Cockeysville,  ^Id. 

The  dome  of  the  original  central  building  was 
constructed  of  wood,  but  was  removed  in  1856  to  be 
replaced  by  the  present  stupendous  structure  of 
east  iron,  which  was  completed  in  1865.  The  entire 
weight  of  iron  used  is  8.909.200  pounds. 

The  main  building  is  352  feet  4  inches  long  in 
front  and  121  feet  6  inches  deep,  with  a  portico  160 
feet  wide,  of  24  columns  on  the  east  and  a  projec- 
tion of  83  feet  on  the  west,  embracing  a  recessed 
portico  of  10  coupled  cohinins.  The  extensions  are 
placed  at  the  north  and  south  ends  of  the  main- 
building,  with  connecting  corridors  44  feet  long  by 
56  feet  wide,  flanked  by  columns.  Each  extension 
is  142  feet  8  inches  in  front,  bv  238  feet  10  inches 


The  Senate  Chamber  is  112  feet  in  length,  by  82 
feet  in  width,  and  thirty  feet  in  height.  Its  gal- 
leries will  accommodate  1,000  persons. 

The  Representatives'  Hall  is  130  feet  in  length, 
by  93  feet  in  width,  and  30  feet  in  height. 

The  Supreme  Court  room  was  occupied  by  the 
Senate  until  December,  1859,  the  court  having  pre- 
viously occupied  the  room  beneath,  now  used  as  a 
law  library. 

[The  Library  of  Congress  wa.s  burned  by  the  British  in 
18U,  and  was  partially  destroyed  bv  an  accidental  fire  in  ISol. 
The  present  center  hall  was  finished  in  ISoS.  and  the  wing 
halls  were  finished  in  l.So7.  The  Library  of  Congress  occu- 
pies the  entire  western  projection  of  the  central  Capitol 
building.  The  original  Library  was  coninienced  in  ISOO.  but 
w  as  destroyed  with  the  Capitol  in  1814.  during  the  war  with 
Eneland.  It  was  afterward  replenished  by  the  purchase  of 
the  library  belonging  to  ex-President  JefTefson.  bv  Congress, 
embracing  about  7.000  volumes.  In  1851  it  contained  m.OOO 
volumes,  and  by  an  accidental  fire  in  that  vear  the  "whole 
collection  was  destroyed,  except  20.000  volumes.  It  was  re- 
built in  1852.  when  $75,000  was  appropriated  in  one  sum  to  re- 
plenish the  collection.  The  library  is  recruited  by  regular 
appropriations  made  by  Congress,  which  average  about  $11.- 
000  per  annum:  also  by  additions  received  bv  copvright.by 
exchanges,  and  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution.']  A  new 
edifice  of  ample  dimensions,  and  of  beautiful  architectural 
design,  is  now  in  process  of  erection  near  the  Capitol,  into 
which  the  Congressional  Library  will  be  early  transferred. 

The  basement  story  of  the  Capitol  contains  73 
rooms,  of  which   24  are  in  the  "House  Wing,"  26  in 


1558 


UNITED    STATES    0 V    \ M  E  R I C  A 


the  "Main  Wing,''  and  23  in  the  "Senate  Wing." 
Many  of  the  rooms  are  designated  severally  for  the 
use  of  the  various  committees. 

The  principal  story  of  the  Capitol  contains  48 
rooms.  Of  these  17  are  in  the  "House  Wing,"  and 
include  the  hall  of  the  House  of  Representatives; 
the  "Main  Wing"  has  12  chief  rooms,  including  the 
"Old  Hall  of  Representatives,"  now  used  as  a 
"Statuary  Hall"  (to  which  each  State  has  been  in- 
vited to  contribute  2  statues  of  its  most  distin- 
guished citizens  J ;  the  "Congressional  Library" 
(subdivided  into  various  departments) ;  the  "Su- 
preme Court-room,"  and  the  "Rotunda." 

The  "Senate  Wing"  contains  19  chief  rooms,  in- 
cluding the  "Senate  Chamber,"  the  "President's 
Room,"  "Vice-President's  Room,"  etc.,  etc. 

The  attic  story  embraces  42  rooms,  designated 
chieflv  for  conamittees,  documents,  and  as 
"lobbies." 

The  diagrams  on  page  155(i  furnish  a  clear  view 
of  the  two  chief  legislative  halls. 

Exports  to  .isn  Imports  from  Y.\rious  Cointries. 

The  following  table  shows  for  the  year  1889-90 
the  values  of  the  exports  of  domestic  merchandise 
to  and  the  imports  from  the  following  countries, 
according  to  the  United  States  returns: — 

Home  Exports    Imports  from 

CouDtry.  to  l.s,s9-90.  1889-90. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ii;444.459.00«  $186,488,966 

Germany S4-U5,215  98,837,683 

France 49.013,004  77,672,311 

British  North  America 38.514,4.>4  39,396,980 

Belgium 20,140,377  9,336.482 

Netherlands  22.487  j8.'<  17,029,233 

Spain 12,736,273  5,288,537 

Italy 12,974.249  20,3;«),051 

Russia 10.601,531  3,409,879 

British  Australasia 11.108,081  4,277.676 

Cuba 12,669,509  53,801591 

Mexico 12,666,108  22,690,915 

British  West  Indies 8.074.4.3;j  14,865.018 

Brazil 11.902,496  .59,318,756 

Argen  tine  Republic 8,3-22,627  5.401 ,697 

Colombia 2,522351  3,575,253 

Portugal 3.891,789  1,418..309 

China 2.943,790  16,260.471 

Hayti    4.101,464  2,421.221 

Japan    5.-J;;7.1.S6  21,103,324 

Central  America 5,liii.-275  8,052,444 

British  East  Indies 4,6iii5«  20,804.319 

Hong  Kong 4,431,641  %9,745 

Africa 3.778,076  l,o01.038 

Hawaii  4,60i;.900  12,313.908 

Venezuela., .3,984.280  10.96i;.765 

Denmark 5.037,290  2:18..508 

Chili 3.219.4(15  3.1.S3.249 

Dutch  East  Indies.  1.799.306  5,791A50 

Guitoas 2.439.184  4.918.736 

Uruguay    3.210.112  .     1.7.54.903 

Austria-Hungary 94.5.70:;  9,.331,37S 

Turkey   in    Europe,   Asia,    and 

Africa 176,:W6  4,622,779 

Philippine  Islands 122.276  11 ,592,626 

Switzerland -22,170  14,441.9.50 


National  Debt  of  tiik  United    St.^tes. 

The  official  statement  of  the  Public  Debt  of  the 
United  States  showed  the  following  summaries  on 
the  morning  of  Xoveml)er  1,  1S91  : 

Interest-bearing  Debt $.5,8.5.0-26,720  00 

Debt  on  which  interest  had  ceased 6. -209,230  26 

Debt-bearing  interest 3.89.074.025  85 

$98(1,309.976  11 

$740.,5:M.358  68 

.    600.8.5S.:h:«  64 

$1.39,671,920  04 


Total  Debt 
Cash  in  Treasury 
Demand   Liabilities 


The  casli  in  Treasury  consisted  of  gold,  $263,774,- 
741.S1  ;  silver,  $410,116,967.91  ;  paper  currency  and 
certificates,  $45,763,786.76;  other  deposits,  $20,874,- 
762.12 ;  total,  $740,530,258,68. 

The  Demand  Liabilities  was  for  gold,  silver,  and 
currency  certificates,  treasury  notes,  fund  for  re- 
demption of  National  Bank  notes,  outstanding 
checks,  balance  of  disbursing  offices  and  agencies, 
etc. 

Deducting  the  net  balance  in  Treasury,  $139,671,- 
920.04,  from  the  total  debt  ($980,309,976.11)  leaves 
the  net  debt  Nov.  1,  1891,  at  $840,638,056.07. 

Assessed  Valuation  of  Property  in  the  United 

States. 

The  assessed  valuation  of  real  and  personal 
property  in  the  several  States  and  Territories  for 
188(5  and  1890,  together  with  the  increase  of  the 
assessed  valuation  during  the  last  decade,  is  shown 
in  the  following  table : 


states  and  Terri- 
tories. 


Total 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho  

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada  

New  Hampshire.. 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina... 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

*Oklnhoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina, ,. 
South  Dakota. .     . 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia  . , . . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


Total  assessed  valuation. 


18.S0. 


$16,902,993,543 


122.867.2-28 

9,-270,214 

86,409  ,;?G4 

584J78.036 

74,471,093 

327,177.385 

59.951,613 

99,401.78; 

30.938.309 

239,472.599 

6.440,876 

1786,616.394 

727,815,131 

398.671, -251 

160,891,689 

350,563.971 

160,162.439 

235.978.716 

497,307,675 

1,584,756,802 

517.666.,359 

258,028.687 

110,628,129 

532,795.801 

18,609,802 

90,585.782 

29,291.459 

164,755.181 

572,518,361 

11,363,406 

2,651,940,006 

156,100,-202 

8,786,572 

1,534.360,508 


Increase 
of   assessed 
valuation. 


$24,249,589,804 


$7,346,596,261 


197.080,441 

2I.4:'4.767 

-rl72,408.497 

1.071,102.327 

188.911.325 

;«8,913.906 

i74.134,401 

153.307,541 

76,926,93.S 

377,366,784 

25J81,.305 

1727.416,252 

782.872.1-26 

■7478.31838 

-290^93,711 

512,615,506 

■234  320.780 

309,129,101 

482,184.824 

2.1.54.134.026 

^945,450.000 

588..531.743 

-rl57.518,906 

786,313.753 

106,392392 

184,770,305 

24,663.383 

252.722,016 

688.309,  IS' 

■i^6.041,010 

3,7753-25,938 

212,697,287 

78394J36 

1,778,138,457 


,52,522,081 
1,683.469,016 
252,5:^6 ,0' 
133,560.135 

11.5;^4,95S 
211,778,5:* 
320361,51 

24.775,-279 

86.806.7 
308.4.55.1:05 

23.810.693 
139.622.705 
4:«.971,751 

43,621.8-29 


166,0-25,731 
2,592  341.0:i2 
321,764,.503 
132.182.|-,:?8 
131,592,58; 
347,510,103 
695,812  .:f-20 
104.7.58.750 
161 .551 3-28 
.362.422,741 
-H-24.795,449 
169.927,58' 
592,890,719 
t31,431,495 


74.213,213 

12.164,553 

85,999,133 

4865-24,291 

114.439,632 

31,736521 

14.182,758 

53,905,754 

45.988.629 

137,894,185 

19,140,429 

•f59 ,200,142 

.55,050,995 

79.646.997 

1-29,702.0-22 

162,031,535 

74,1.58.341 

73,130  3;« 

+13,122.851 

569377,8-24 

427.783,641 

3:«)  ,503.0.56 

46,890.777 

'253,547,9.52 

87,783.090 

94.184.523 

■H  .6-28.074 

87,966  >S5 

115,790.8-26 

;M.677.604 

1,123385,932 

56597.0» 

69,607,964 

243,777.949 


113,503.617 
909.:«2.016 
69,-2-27 .8:-* 

I20,0.57.6-.>9 
135,731,565 
375,477305 

79,98;i,471 

74,74455:? 

53,967.606 
100,9.84,756 

30,:«H382 
153,918.968 

17,809,666 


Xft  Rftlnnc*-  in  Treasu 


*The  assessed  valuation  of  Oklahoma  not  being  given,  the 
population  of  that  territorv  is  omitted  in  calculating  the 
assessed  valuation  per  capita  for  1890  of  the  United  States. 

T.Vnnual  report  of  1889. 

IThe  state  board  of  equalization  declares  that  in  1880  the 
assessed  value  was  50  per  cent,  and  in  1890  only  25  per  cent,  of 
the  true  value,  hence  the  reduction. 

^Decrease. 

^Assessment  of  1886:  assessment  made  every  .5  years. 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1559 


United  St.^tbs  Census. 

The  act  of  Congress  providing  for  taking  the 
eleventh  (1890)  and  subsequent  censuses  was  ap- 
proved by  President  Cleveland  March  1,  188S.  It 
provided  that  the  census  should  be  taken  June 
1, 1890,  and  on  successive  days,  and  create  the  office 
of  Superintendent  of  the  Census  with  an  annual 
salary  of  $6,000.  Subsequently  Robert  P.  Porter, 
of  New  York,  was  appointed  Superintendent  by 
President  Harrison,  and  later  a  list  of  professional 
experts  was  selected  and  charged  with  supervising 
severally  the  various  departments  of  the  work. 
Their  naoies  appear  in  their  reports  embraced  in 
the  several  volumes  included  in  the  General  Census 
Report. 

The  work  of  enumerating  and  tabulating  the 
people  and  preparing  the  numerous  reports  for  the 
press  requires  many  months,  and  at  this  writing 
(October,  1S9I,)  has  been  reported  to  the  public 
only  in  part.  The  first  volume,  it  is  expected,  will 
give  all  the  data  as  to  population  by  States,  coun- 
ties and  towns,  nativity,  color,  etc. ;  volume  two, 
health  and  physical  condition,  vital  and  mortality 
statistics;  volume  three,  public  schools,  illiteracy, 
pauperism  and  crime,  and  churches  and  religious 
denominations;  volume  four,  trades  and  profes- 
sions; volume  five,  survivors  of  the  late  war;  vol- 
ume six,  wealth,  taxation,  public  indebtedness,  and 
estimated  values  of  property;  volume  seven,  in- 
debtedness of  business  corporations  and  individu- 
als, including  mortgage  indebtedness;  volume 
eight,  agricultural  statistics;  volume  nine,  manu- 
factures; volume  ten,  mines  and  mining;  volume 
eleven,  fish  and  fisheries ;  volume  twelve,  transpor- 
tation, railways,  navigation,  telegraphs  and  tele- 
phones; volume  thirteen,  insurance. 

Production  of  Gold  .\nd  Silver  in  United  States. 

The  total  production  of  gold  and  silver  in  the 
country  was  as  follows  during  each  of  the  years 
from  1885  to  1889:— 

Year.  Gold.                   Silver.  Total. 

1885 $31,081,0fi0  $51. 600.000  $83,401,000 

1886 35,000.000  51.000,000  86,000,000 

1S87 &3, 100,000  53.441,300  86.&41.300 

1888 33,17.5.(KI0  59,195,000  92,370.000 

1889 32,800,000  64,646,464  97,446.464 

The  precious  metals  are  raised  mainly  in  Cali- 
fornia for  gold ;  and  Colorado,  Arizona,  Utah,  Ne- 
vada, and  Montana  for  silver.  The  total  value  of 
gold  deposited  at  the  mints  and  assay  offices  from 
1793  to  1887  is  estimated  at  $1,334,609,150,  and  the 
silver  at  $423,655,811. 

In  1889-90  gold  (domestic  product)  to  the  value 
of  $49,228,823,  and  weighing  32,430,151  standard 
ounces,  were  deposited. 

For  other  mining  and  mineral  statistics  see  the 
several  topics  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

Imports  and  Exports  of  Merch.a^ndise. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  values  of  im- 
ports and  exports  of  merchandise  for  the  years 
named  severally  ending  June  30 : — 

Imports  of  Exports  of 

Years.                                        Merchandise.  Merchandise. 

1879 $445,777,775  $698..340,790 

1886 695,436,1.36  665,964,.529 

1887 632.310.768  703,022,923 

1888 223,9.57,114  688.862.104 

1889 74.5.131,652  730.282,609 

1890 789,222,228  845,293,828 

Imports  and  Exports  op  (Jold  .4Nd  Sii-ver. 

The  following  table  gives  the  total  value  of  gold 
and  silver  bullion  and  specie  imported  into  the 
United  States,  and  the  value  of  that  exported,  be- 
ing the  product  of  the  States,  in  the  years  ended 
June  30, 1879  and  1886-90  :— 


Exports  of 

Imports  of  Domestic  and 

Year.                                             Species.  Foreign  Species. 

1879 i  20,296,000  $24,997,441 

1886 38,593,656  72,463.410 

1887 60,170,792  86,997,691 

1888 59,337,986  46.414,183 

1SS9 28,963,073  96.641,533 

1890 33,976,326  62,118,420 

Population  op  the  United  States  in  1890  and  1880 
BY  States  and  Groups  op  States. 


States  aud  Territories. 

1890. 

1880. 

Number. 

Per- 
cent- 
age. 

The  United  States 

62,480,540 

50,156,783 

12,324,757 

24.57 

North  Atlantic  divis'u 

17,364,429 

14,507,407 

2,857,022 

19.69 

660,261 

376,827 

332,205 

2,233,407 

346,343 

746,861 

5,981,934 

1.441.017 

5,248  ..574 

8,8.36,769 

(>18,936 

:M6.991 

332,286 

1.783.085 

276.531 

622,700 

5,082,871 

1,131,116 

,4,282,891 

7,597,197 

11,325 

28.830 

*81 

450,322 

68,812 

123,161 

899,063 

309,901 

965,683 

1,239,662 

1.75 

New  Hampshire 

8.31 

Vermout 

*0.02 
25.26 

Rhode  Island.     . 

24.88 

Couuectieut 

New  York 

New  Jer,sey 

19.78 
17.69 
27.40 
22.55 

South  Atlantic  divis'n 

16.32 

Delaware 

Mi'.rvlaiid 

167,871 
1,040.431 

229,796 
1,648,911 

760,448 
1,617,340 
1,147,161 
1,834,366 

390,435 

22.322.151 

146,608 
934,943 
177.624 

1,512,565 
618.457 

1,399,750 
995,577 

1,542,180 
269,493 

17,364,111 

21,263 
105,488 

52,172 
136,346 
141,991 
217,590 
151,584 
292,186 
120,942 

4,958,040 

14.50 
11.28 

District  of  Columbia 

29.37 
9.01 

West  Virpinia 

22.96 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

15.54 
15.23 
18.95 

44.88 

North  Central  division 

28.55 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

3,666,719 
2.189,030 
3,818.53i; 
2,089.792 
1,683,697 
1,.300,017 
1,906.729 
2,677,080 
182,425 
327,^48 
1,050,793 
1,423,485 

10,948,263 

3,198,062 

1.978,301 

3,077,871 

1,636,937 

1,315,497 

780,773 

1,624.615 

2,168,;M) 

36,909 

98,268 

452,402 

996,096 

8,919,371 

468,657 
210,729 
740,665 
452,855 
368,200 
519,244 
282,114 
508.700 
146,616 
229,580 
604,391 
427,389 

2,028,882 

14.65 
10.65 
24.0rt 

Michigan. 

Wisconsin         

27.66 
27.99 

Minnesota 

66.80 

17.36 

Missouri 

23.46 

North  Dakota 

394.26 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska    

2:«63 
i:«.60 

Kansas 

South  Central  division 

42.91 
22.75 

1,&55,4.36 
1,763,723 
1„508,073 
1,284,887 
1,116,828 
2,232,220 

1,648.690 
1,542,.359 
1,262  ,.505 
1.131,597 
939,946 
1,591,749 

206,746 
221,364 
246,668 
153,290 
176,882 
640,471 

12.54 

U.SS 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

19.4!> 
13.5.* 

18.82 

Texas  .     , 

40.24 

t61,70I 
1,125,385 

3,008,948 

61,701 
322,860 

1,241,251 

Arkansas 

802,525 

1,767,697 

40.2a 

Western  division 

70.22 

131,769 
60,589 

410,975 

144,862 
59,691 

206,498 
44,327 
81,229 

39,159 
20,789 
194,327 
119,565 
40.440 
143.963 
62,266 
32,610 

92,610 
39,800 

216,648 
25,297 
19,261 
62,535 

*17,939 
51,619 

236  ..50 

191.46 

Colorado 

111.49 

21.16 

Arizona 

Utah 

47.66 
43.44 

•28.81 

Idaho 

168.29 

Aln«l.-(ift 

949,516 
312,490 

1,204,002 

75,116 
174,768 
8ft4,694 

274,400 
147.722 
339,308 

Oregon 

7880 

California 

♦  Decrease. 

+  The  number  of  white  persons  in  the  Indian  Territory  Is 
not  included  in  this  table,  as  the  census  of  Indians  and  other 
persons  on  Indian  reservations,  which  was  made  a  subject  of 
special  investigation  by  law,  has  not  yet  been  completed. 

t  Including  5,8;?7  persons  in  Ureer  county  (in  Inciiau  Terri- 
tory) claimed  by  Texas. 

$  The  number  of  white  persons  in  Alaska  is  not  included  ilk 
this  table,  as  the  census  of  Alaska,  which  was  made  a  subject 
Of  special  investigation  by  law,  has  not  yet  been  completed 


1560 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE 

UNITED   STATES.      ' 

MANUFACTURING  AND  MECHANICAL  INDUSTRIES 


Acricultunil  Implements 

Boots  and  Shoes •'  — 

Srick  and  Tile  . .  .-..  ■ 

Carpels 

Cnemlcab 

Coke 

Cotton  Manufactures .  • 

Flour  and  lirut-mill  products  . . . 

Gla>s 

Hosiery  and  Knit  Goods. 

Iron  and  Steel  (adgresate)  . 
Bessemer  and  Open-Hearth 

Leather  

Lumber  (sawed) 

Musical  Instruments.    .. 

Paper 

Patent  Medicines 

Printing  and  Publishing. 
Sash.  Door,  and  bUuds.-. 
Sewing  Machines 

Shlp-bulIding 

Silk .' 

Slaughtering  and  Meat-packinfr 

Tobacco 

"Woolen  Goods' 

■Worsted  Goods 


Eftablittimenti. 


1,943 

]S,3b9 

5,631 

195 

1,S19 

149 
7j6 
a),3il8 
211 
359 

1,005 

36 

5,4i4 

25.7ns 

429  . 

693 

3,4G7 

l,'it8 

106 

2,IR8 
383 

7-,674 
1,990 

7C 


Cnpitnl, 


S02.in<i,C(8 

2r,b,J,078 
21,468,587 
85.394,211 

5,545,058 

208,280,346 

177.361,878 

19,844,699 

15,749,59: 

!!30,97I,884 
20,975,999 
77,100,574 

181,186,122 
14,446,765 

46,241,303  . 

10,020,880 

63.9^3,704 

20.457.670 

la,501,830 

20.97^,874 
l<),li->,313 
4'i,419,213 
39,995,293 
96,095,564 

20,374,043 


HuQilf. 


39,rAi 
143,2% 
60,355 
20,371 
29,520 

3,142 
172,514 
58,408 
!i4.177 
26,-385 

140,978 
I0,8'15 
S4,81j5 

147,956 
11,350 

!M,422 
4,025 
58,478 
21,898 
9,553 

21,345 
31,337 
27,297 
87,577 
86,501 

18,803 


W»gM. 


$15,369,310 
53,821.164 
13.443,532 
6,835,213 
11,840,704 

1,198,654 
42,040,510 
17,422,316 
9,144,100 
6,701,475 

55,476,785 
4,930,349 
14,049,656 
31,845,971 
7,098,794 

8.525,355 
1.651,596 
30,531.657 
8.540,930 
4,636,099 

12,713.813 
9,146,705 
10,508,530 
2.1.0.54.457 
25,8i6,392 

5.68.1.027 


M«t«ruila. 


31.531.1711 
138.565,798 
9,744,834 
18,984,877 
77,471,830 

2.995.441 
102.200.W7 
441,545,225 

8.028.631 
15,210,051 

191,271.150 
36,826.938 
145,255,716 
I46,1W,:«5 
8,361,227 

83.951.297 
6,704,720 
32,460,395 
20,790,919 
4.829,106 

19,736,358 
22.467,701 

267,738.902 
65.384,407 

100,845,611 

32,01.3.028 


Pr,H]uet9. 


68,640,486 
217,093,627 
32,633,.'i«7 
31,792,802 
117,377,331 

5,359,489 
192,090.111) 
505,185.71« 
21,l.'>4,.57l 
29,167,2J7- 

290,557,685 
55.805,210 
181,695.603 
233,268,729 
19,254.730-; 

55,109,914 
14,682.4»1 
90,789,311 
36.621  ,.325 
13,863,168 

36,800,327 
41,033,CM5 
303,.562,4I3 
118.670,108 
160,606,721 

S3,549.»42 


*  Euluuvc  ol  c&rpcti,  Irlt  goc.l«,  gtovn  and  ii 


rry  uidlui.t  goodi,  miud  tcxiil.t,  moviI  buU,  uvJ  H>-Kt«l  i,'.«4>. 


OCCTPATIO.VS  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 
Ftom  the  Official  Betums  of  the  Tenth  Census.  1880. 


E.NCACtD  IS  AGRICCLTUBE.  | 

1870.       1S80.    I Llvcry-stable keepers.    .... 

AirricnlturJl  laborers         2.885,'.m6  3,32:1,876  J'"';;*',';*'';" 

DKnmeDAmiiaiowomen       3,W)       ^i«»Mu-;;UUus  (prore>,-u.nal.      . 
Fa™  ana  vlanlatiouover-  3„^'omcersoVXn,iy»D;iNavy 

^^?."°'':'-';''::'".;..:'-'^;blA'^5iHM..c^H.,ds^^^  . 

<iar.le;K.^,nut^-r,andvin9  5,  Jl^JStTs"".'.'.-'".'".-.-.-.-.:.  ' 

pk:;!^:^;::::-..;.:.  ;   g  ^r^^i^i^i:^''^:^- 

Tunvntinc    Janners    and  [Ti-iaiLi-.  aoa  biiemmc per- 

Ott^m^i^cullure    -.:       '•'■         "' ^^.^^  ^ ;!  SSf  atid  de- 

TvMol  en;,-ased  in  agricult-  .^.p  JwhHewShl^.-.V.-.-;:.::  ; 

'"'■ ^•*—^"  '•"""•^•"lOtUer  professions 

PRorKS:ov.u.A.NDPEIisoXAL.«tRncf:5.     Tola,  Professional  and  Per- 
187U.        1880.       sonal Services.   .....  3 

Artors .  2.051      4.Rr."i 

AnhllirtS ..  3.il|7         3.3...  M.OTFAtrrVKI-VG  A.ND 

Aitists  and  teachers  of  art  ■  4,".t       9.vn\ 

Aucii-jiiwrs 2,366      -•■*"i ._,,..,  ,      ,         .       , 

AuiUmis   I.vturers,  and  lit-  Acrlc't  1-lmpIoment  makers 

er.il  y  pi-r-^hs S46       1,111  Apprentices  to  trades 

BarlK-rs  .lud  luir-ilres>ers.  ^4,794  44,851  An illcial-tlower  makers  — 

Billi.ir.l  aud  bov\ Uu''  s,iloOD  |BaK-makers 

k.viurs 1.231)       l,.VUBakers 

Boiir.liii.;andlodOTiir-lioiL-*  |Ba>ket-makers 

l„.,.|,.rj        13,783  '19,058  black^milhs 

Clicmi-i..  assaj-bts,  and  me-  iHkachers.  dyers,  i  scourers 

t.illiii-'i^ls    61I8       l.Oi'.O  HlinJ,  door,  i  sash  makers. 

Cler-'ViU'-ii 4I.s:4  G4,t'.:ts  H.jot-makers 

Clerks  .illd  ccpvlsts 6.1  H  ii.Ji.TUoDC  and  ivory  workers.   .. 

Cl'Tks  inL'ovcromi'nt  oOices  8,673  16,s4'i  lt.>ijkhinders  and  finishers. 

Clerks  iu  hotels  and  n-stau-  l!f«it  and  shoe  makers 

r^nits 5.343  10.016  Bottles  and  mineral  water 

Collectors  and  claim  agents.  O'li      4.311;    makers  

IX.ntiMs 8,."iii5  12.114  nox-ractory  operators 

De>lgnersand  draughtsmen  ''•i4       2.sJi', Brass  founders  and  workers 

I>oiiie>tic  servants 975,7:il  I.075,6ii  Bieuere  and  m.iltsters 

Zmplov.'s  of  charitable  In-  Brick  andtile  makers...... 

stitwions       848       2.T>6  Bridire  liuilder^i  &  contraCrs 

Emplovi'-iOf  Rovemment..  14.407  31,401, Britannia     and     Japanned 

Employt'-!,  of  hotels  and  res-  I    ware  makers. 

tauranls 1',.  .  24,438  77<113  Rro,im  aud  brush  makers-. 

FnKiQcers  (civil); 7,374       S.Si.lBiiil.lers    and     contnictors 

Hostlers 17,.Wi  31.i.'i7'    not  sivcirled 

Hotel  keepers ■ 20,:f91  .33,4.'.)  Butiln-rs 

Hunters,  trappers,    inildes.  |  Biitler-larlory  operatives. 

andscouts , 1.111       1,913  cablnet-m.iker^ 

Janitors      .'..   .  -  1.769       6.763CandIe.    soap,    and    tallow 

Journalists ■......•  .5.286  12.:VW'     make|-s 

LilJorer^inotspeelOertl  ..     I,03,".SVi  1.8Vr.3J(  rar-iiiaWers 

LiiuiiUerers  and  laundresses  6U.!H6  131.'il.'(ari«'nters  and  Joiners 

lawyers..            40.710  04.137,CariK;l-imikers 


I8S4I. 

14.213  Carnage  and  wagon  makers 

13.'i8."j  ciiaa-oal  and  lime  burners.. 

3,11s  fht.ese-lnakers 

311,477  Chemical  works  employi?3. . 

13.483  cigar-inakerx 

3.660  Clerks  and  book-kei-pers  in 
57,ti8l|    manulacturing  hou>es. .. 
8.\671  ClOi-k  and  walch  makers... 

13,074|Confectioners 

2.44'.i,(.VHipers ■ 

2,604  Copper-workers .... 

jcorset  makers 

24,161  Cotton-mill  operatives 

Distillers  and  rectifiers  — 
128,160    227.710  Employes  (not  spe<illed)  ... 

1,106      2,130  Enclneers  and  dreiuen 

[Engravers 

13.384|Fenili:;er        establishment 

3.316|    operatives 

4,.570FIIe  makers,   cutters,  and 

grinders 

Fishermen  and  ovslennen.. 
,(»),7'J3  4,074,238  Flax-dressers.  .  ■.    ..Tl.... 

Fur-workers 

Galloon,  gimp,  and   tassel 

makers 

Gas-works  employes  


1870. 

8,504 

8.717 

1.186 

16,010 

10,976 

2,336 

44.743 

63,44.5. 

35,1*5 

1,151 

1,177 

23,338 


2,8:i7. 


MfXl.VG. 

1870.        1830. 
3,811       4.891  [Gliders. 

15,303     44,170  1.; lass-works  operatives 

1,169       3,399|Giove-makers 

S06       1 .408  Gold  and  silver  workers 

27,680     41,.309'fiun  and  locksmiths 

3,297       .5,654, Hair  cleaners  and  dressers. 
141,774    172.731. ,Hame.-;s  and  saddle  makers. 

4,901       8.23,' Hat  and  cap  makers 

.5,l.v>      4.941;  Hosiery  and  knitting  mill 

2,101        2,1*^3!    ofieratives 

20s       1.888  Iron  and  steel  works  and 

9,104     13,«:13|    shop  operatives 

171,127    194,079  Lace  makers 

Lead  and  wire  works 

2.0S1  Leather  case  and  pocket- 

1.5,763     book  makers .-.  ■ . 

ll,5iW:Leatlier  curriers,  dressers, 
10.278]  finishers,  and  tanners — 
3(;.o.'>3|Lumbennen  and  raftsmen.. 

2,587|>larhlnlsts  

[yiiiniifacturers 

1,37'.Marbie  and  stone  cutters. . . 
8,479Masons.  brick  and  stone. .. 
iMeat  and  fruit  preservlnK 

10.804    emplovt^s 

76.341  Meat  packers,  ciu*ers  and 

4.8731    tilcklei-s  

00,054  Mechanics  (not  speclHed). 


I   6,080 

4,694 

11,346 

26,070 

1,039 

1,092 
5,816 

7,511 
44,1'>4 

1,372 
43,835 

1,942 
3.333 


IMill  and  factory  operatives 

2,93:1     (not  specified) 

4,708  Millers ' 

3U,996    373,14)  .Milliners,  dress-makers,  and 
15,669     17,068|    seamstresses 


1870. 

1880. 

43,464 

49,881 

3.834 

5,851 

3,534 

4,570 

i.Mi 

28,286 

56.599 

5,861 

10,114 

1,779 

13,820 

8,210 

1.3,693 

41.789 

49.138 

2,132 

2,312 

4,660 

111,606 

169,771 

2,874 

3.-245 

20,242 

»(,5.36 

34,233 

79,025 

4,-.KS 

4,577 

316 

1,383 

1,413 

1,839 

27,M9 

41,. -152 

1,018 

1,894 

1,101 

1.580 

569 

2,235 

2,080 

4,695 

1,534 

1.76J 

9,518 

17,934 

2,329 

4.511 

18,508 

28,405 

8,184 

10,572 

1,036 

1.965 

82,817 

39,960 

12,625 

16,860 

3,633 

12,194 

86,203 

114,539 

1.708 

2,105 

.... 

1,847 

30,678 

20,8«l 

17,752 

30.651 

W.755 

101.130 

42,877 

44,019 

25,831 

32,842 

89.710 

103,473 

770 

2,860 

1,164 

3,430 

16,514 

.   7,8SS 

41,610 

ao.838 

41,582 

53,41a 

M,0S4 

i85,40> 

I'  N  I  T  E  1)    STATES    U  F    A  M  E  II  I  C  A 


1561 


Viaen.  -- 

UlrTor    aod    picture-U^me 

makers 

Kail  makers: 

Otfictats  of   maoufa>'njhng 

oocQi>dDi«s     and    rommj; 

C(MD;«tnies  ... 
Oil,     nuli.    acd      ivdncry 

operatives 

Oil-weii  operators   on  J  U- 

boivre 

Oncan  makers 

PaiDiers  anJ  vamlsbera    ,. 
Paper-banpers 
Paper-iTUil  operatives 
Paiiero-niakenj , 
Ptiotograpbers.  He 
Piano-fone    makers      and 

tuners 

Ptasierers 

Plumbers  and  sas-fltiers 

Potters    

Printers.  Uth'.-ffrapbers.  and 

sterViXyper* 

Prini-work  uiieraluvs 
Publishers  (.1  tKXfks.  maps, 

and  newspapers- . ...  - 

Pjrap-nukfTs 

Quarnmivn 

<)uanz  and  stamp-mill  U- 

boivre 

Rae-pickers 

Railroad  buUders  and  can- 

tnicionj 

Roofers  and  sidters  — 
Rope  and  o  xlaire  makers 
Rubber-factoi  y  operatites 
Sail  and  aw  nJtig  makers    . 
Salt-makers  .     .  '..        ... 
Saw  and  planinj;-miU  oper- 

aiiTes   —  .     .     . 

Sawyers ■ 

Scale  and  rul-  makers 

Srrew-makirrs 

Sen~io2    marhlne      (acton 

operailvps .. 

SewinS'inarhine  operator* 
Stiintflr  nnd  laib  inakr-r>  . 
Sliip    fdrpeni^Ts,  caulktT". 

ricct-rs.  aL"J  smithi 
Sbin.    cuS.  and  ivMati.h- 

kers     . . 
fiiU-iiitil  operatives 

Starch  makf-ps  - 

Siav<-.   >u<.K'h.  and   beadin? 

makers 

Steam -K'll^^r  mdkepi    . 
Stove,    funuf'-.   and  grjto 

iiuKer* 

Straw -Morki^rH,....    .  , 
Su(rar-m;iV.-r*  .in'lTv-nn<'rv. 
Tailors  and  MU'-n^*<»*-s 
Tfir»-jd-in:ll  <)i>-r^ti\<-«i 
Tinn«-r*  and  ciii-waO'  *n:\- 

,    ktrr» _ ..     — 

Tol.;i^i(>.f.iri/>r>-  op«T3riw-^ 
T<v>I  :ind  rutVnr  innk'-r* 
Tr.iuk  and  vaU-*f  maV'-r-* 


isro.      )SfX  1  .  1S70. 

13:2,I(>7   2^.^  Umbrella  and  parasol  ma- 

:    kei^ 1.439 

9TO       S.'^t^  Vpholrfeneni  •  5.736 

D.jOj  Wbt^-lwTiphti:  ...  30.at2 

Wiiv-rxiakersand  wort;en>  i.siU 

Wood.hoppere  S.33S 

2,730       8,1*  Wood-turners,  carvers,  and 

woorten-ware  makers  T.^ur 

1.747       3.Ct»  Woolf  n-nuli   operatives    .        5f.!S36 
Oibors    in    manufacturinsr. 
mechanical  and    milling 
inJu:»tries 


8.3711 


Toul  Manufacturini?  &  Min- 
ing .  ..     ■  2,707.421  3. 

TiLiDE  A\D  Transport  ATfON. 


3.»T3      T.aw 

tiiw         2,«7 

Sj.123   l:^..v.'; 

2.490  5.0I.J 

12,4UU  2l.*« 

3.9C0  b^£ 

7.558  S.S'JO 

2.5.35       5.4V^*  ^^^ 

23.577      2i.(KJ  Aeenta -.        10.449 

11,143     U».:«i  Bankers  and  brokers 10,631 

5.060       7^M  Boatmen  and  watermen    -.      21,3K 

Brokers  (commenriaU    . 
41,073     72.72G Canalmen  ....      -     ...         7.338 

3.738       5,419  (.Jerks  in  stores 254,359 

Clerks  and  book-keepera  In 

1,577       2.7S1     bankd 7,103 

1.672       ],3iki  Clerks  and  book-keepers  in 
13,589      IS.HjIJ     express  com  Da  Hies--  ...  767 

Clerks  and  book-keepers  in 

617       1,449     insurance  otEces 1.568 

436      2,206  Clerks  and  book-keepers  In 

railroad  office 7  374 

1.392       1.20G  Commercial  trav  eters       .  7  a62 

2.. 30       4.0'3'>  Draymen,  hackmen.  team- 

2.675       3,514     sterv.  etc 13J.'56 

3.086       6.35*:'  Employes  and   otBcials    of 
2.V9       2.*'0     tradm^anJ  transportation 

1.721        J.4-^1     companies     4.152 

£nplo>es    of   banks,     <ix>t 

47,298      77.0V>     clerks) 424 

6.939       5.1'.<'»  Eniplojes  and  ofllcial  of  cx- 
416       I.0'/7     prvss      companies,     (not 

780        l.-^-Jl      U.rt^»  8,629 

EmpioMrsofinsuran'^  com- 
3.<**1       2.72)     i»ani*»>.  (not  clerks)  .  11.611 

3.*>W       7..vx»  F.inpl'>vt^  in  wareboii'=es.  .  .  . 

3.7Sf(       S.lijt-  Emplovrs  Of  raUnxid  com- 
panies, ^not  clcrkst    ..  ..     154,027 
ei.'irt      ir.4V;  Hut  kvter. find  peddtcPt  34.^517 

Milkmen  nod  nnllc  women  3,^■a4 

J.fXn     ll.K^l  \e">papfr  criore  and  car- 

3,iVi      H.»>7I      rir-rs 2.ft>2 

■^r>       1.1*1  Offlfials   and   cinplov^    ..f 
I    tmdine  and    iniu>pona> 
l.''Vi        4.tV.i|    iion«-ompauiH<i  -   ..  97'5 

i:.^Vyj      12.771  omrnUnf  bankt  .-  .     .  2.738 

:  OiTlrinN  of  iii>urance  «om- 

1.%43        3.3n!    iwni^-s     762 

2.<«9       4.2e'' OilI<  iaN  of  railnmd    cr^in- 
^  l.fiOn        2.:fc;7     pani.-s    ..       .....  K0i>2 

tCl.dd)    t3:i.7-i«;om.-i;ils   and    *-mplov/-<   <.f 

..   .      ,  ;'1.2.'»;»i    slrii-i  ntijuav  r/iiitpini'-^  5,191 

i'>ni'ials   .nnd    i-mplox.^    <\f 
•V.-OI       42.«lft|     l^l.CT..i.h  rotni^nrex     .  8,53 

11/JH-.      &t.Wf.omM;iK   und    i'nipl(.v.*-<    Of 

•>.T'I       M.Ii't     icr>'phonf  (oniiwiii--* 

2,0(;         .3.013  r.u  k.-rs     .        l.ftW 


1890.  I  ICTO.  1*0. 

Pilots              3,6t9  3,770 

1,967  Portereand  laborers  In  stores 

10.443     and  warehouses  3.513  32.192 

15,592  SaUors 56.663  60.070 

7,17P  Salesmen  and  saleswomen..  14^203  72,279 
12,731  Saloon-keepers    and    bar- 

I    tenders 14,362  68.461 

12.964  Shippers  and  freighters  ...  3.567  5,106 

88,010  Steam-boat  men  and  women  7,975  12,365 

{Stewards  and  stewardesses.  1.245  22^03 
IToIl-^te  and  bridge  keep- 

13,542.    ere 2.253  2,308 

r-Traders  and    dealers  (not 

I    si^ciGed) 101,271  1123* 

,837,112  Tniders  in  agricultural  im- 

I    piements 1,939  1.999 

Tradere    in     books     and 

Mion       stationery.     ..  .       3,392  4.9ft2 

i«v.   Traders  in  boots  and  shoes  7,019  9.993 

18.523;      "       in  cabinet  ware  ...  4,«?7  7,419 
1 5. 18i>  Traders  In  cigars  and  lo- 

20..368^    bacco 8.234  11.866 

4.i9:i Tradere  in  clothing 7,595"  IO.otS 

4.329]       "     .  in  coal  uDd  wood  ..        6,636      10.S71 
353.444       "       inct.itouand  wool         1,701       2,494 
I      "       In  crc«ker\-.  china, 
10,227^  glass,  sloneuare.        I,7C5       2,373 

"       In  dniffs  and  mctli- 
1,856  cinc^  17,309      27.Tft* 

Indrvp'KxIs  fancy 
2.S30,  g;KHj>.  etc     ...        40,953      45^31 

Id  R'>M  .and  silver 
12.331  ware  and  jt-w- 

28,158  «-lr\         .  6.7>«        2.^16 

■     "       In  (rT.»i  enes  74.410    101.K49 

177.586'      "        inliai"  and  capH  fi.375       ^.W9 

;       "        in  i(  ••         ...  1.46*        2ju4 

in  iri'U.  lin.andcop- 
9.702  p^rwyro  9.«lil3      1^076 

•      ••       in  Junk  .  .        3.5r« 

1,070      ••       inleailior.  Iiidi-»aud 

!.kms  2.a-.l       Q.-tfti 

'      •*       lnlinu«tn!4uiii..<        11.17^      H.-->i> 
I3,ft^      *•       in  Ii\*->t4.-k  7.:2.i      i2.vi6 

in-lumUr  9. 44.1      ll.-.>j3 

13.1W.      "       ininar)>l4'.«>t<'n*-,nud 
5.i>i:  slate  ...        \*(^ 

In  niusirnivlimi-ic- 
23f..«v^  Bl  ii:Mniii»nls  ftl8        l.^i6 

53.i'"i      "       iu  iiiu>p.Ti^is  and 
9.212  |Mri.-ilii;tK       ..        1.4*«*»       ^.^.•^» 

!      •'       in  t-jl<.  pHims.  nod 
3,374  iiirpriititi''         .  Wi-        l.'Mii 

in  |>;ij-T  and  prtj^-T 

M.-k    .  i.<va 

9,''>J       "       in  Pf'^l'"^' «ndi>r,t. 

4.4.'l  \i^i..n*        ..  i9.T3;      r..i*» 

;      ••        (n  r.  ill  .M.ilc  K'-il      n.2M 

1.774       *'       in    \«-\»inn        iiia- 

'  rhin-^     .  3.»*»2        r..-.77 

2.rt-9 Und,rtaV<  r%       .  .  .  .-  ^^'*•       r-.ilJ 

•wpighiTs.     (mui:»  r*.      aud 
n.'.rii,    nicasurxrs  ....  O-.V        r».3r2 

l>ilnTs  in  trade  nud  lrai;s- 
22,ftX>|    pirtaiion .      ^^ 

1.197  Tot:»I    Tmd^     nnd    Traa-*- 

4.176     CH^rtauon i.l'.n.ew  i.<ilf*.2:< 


!n.'MM.*RY  OF  O^0U^.^TIlM/5  BY  STATES. 


A'aKima 

Ariziina 

Arkan<is 

California  — 

rolor.i«lo 

Conil'-ilirut  .- . 

I>akota 

Ivlaware 

l>i-!.  Columbia 

Tlorida 

ij-Tina.. 

Jd.iho ;.... 

lUilWH 

iH'lMna 

1'nv;i  .....;..,. 

>i-m*i-* 

JvHiiiu'-ky 

J^iiitisina. 

^lHin«r 

^UrAUnd  ' 

Ma'^^arltuseU* 

>Ii*htff;»n 

N:nn«->ni.i 

OlWsix-sIppl.... 

^li'«M>uf1  .^... 
AiunUna  ..... 


...I 


~  3 

Li.  ■ 

SI 

1 

[        Tff.RifoaiK& 

1= 

» 

-J? 

7.1-1 

i^ 

511 

?1? 

ii}4 

i 

0 

Eil 

f.4i 

R!^ 

*-  ■• 

fc-i.3. 

■^■^-ea 

1 

ti 

■•^^    m 

u  ;  i 

»!.«) 

73.011 

in.vA 

•■HMR 

NVlira^ka 

00  .V7 

■i^:  r- 

IM'V. 

l.<  2V» 

.LWi 

«.-.'lo 

3.J-." 

T.:(74 

Nevada  

4.1*1 

ii>.3;  1 

4.440 

H.JII 

2H..r-.v, 

nl'* 

!>.4W 

51.:tK 

Nfw  Hnmp«:hirp. 

4-1.4W 

V^"  -J"'"". 

11.-.  l^ 

W.irl7 

7^i.«K 

ISl.JV. 

.'.7.:tt.' 

1I<.2<J 

.Vcw  Jv*ru-y    

.'•(1.21 1 

)i<\:-.'-- 

ntsl-".' 

1"'.-J.I 

l^vil 

•il.Kll 

I.\4'^1 

47.4.N 

Now  Mexico 

11.119 

1''..112 

:i.---4 

4.:«r7 

■H/i--"; 

5i.ai<i- 

ffi.'rS) 

w..m 

New  York 

.•177.4..1 

Til",  *^K 

.'W.4i:> 

r20-»j- 

2K.-.H 

11.010 

i;.-,'io 

!>.101 

Nrtrth  Carolina  .. 

»J\ft17 

"••.•.T.M 

IV"-- 

?,v« 

IT.HJ'l 

ir.cio 

4.'«i7 

14.14S 

Ohio 

307.4'i.-, 

2.^1.171 

1W.11.-. 

242.204 

l.W» 

3^.0,-. 

9.!i« 

i.-.,:cir 

27.ifil 

10."4--. 

i:.ij;i 

17.4W 

5«.ni 

ir.'W) 

6.441; 

K.!;!-; 

Pi  nn-vUnnia  . . . 

.yil.llJ 

440.711 

i:o.'»L% 

*J<.277 

■«;.-4l4 

lOl.ifiO 

3>;.i.ir 

nn-^I.-  Mand..    . 

l".'.'l-. 

2i.';.'-7 

1.-..21: 

K-.li'l 

3.SW 

i.v^r 

i;.r..« 

■JM  n>.' 

r-i.iV, 

u-v! 

lO.i.-M 

4-'!';.j;i 

12<,lri 

21V..-.M 

Tcnii**ss*^' 

201.  IV) 

S4.1i>7 

Sl.^" 

SI..1K2 

»ii.-i« 

wr.jHi 

sf-.te 

lli'.l-.'7 

a-.i.:;ir 

I'7  v. I 

34.'»J 

3i>,t4r. 

.litt.V.7 

Jrtl.'tW 

V\'i7J 

■  l.O.'ll 

ruh   

I4,.V-1 

11.114 

4.140 

10.212 

2i>i..k.1 

■  W.™'7 

S<;.:!l-:> 

v.-rnnnt 

V.  r.i 

2R.174 

R.OIJ 

Sfi,214 

.w.5:i 

1.H.SR1 

.■Jl.v.l 

fl.4^1 

Virginia 

2.-i4.iy'.i 

lUi.r.".! 

a\4H> 

m.n-," 

ar^Tiv; 

■►.111 

--MX 

Sf.iVSI 

W'a'ihincton 

12.7<1 

C.«4<) 

3.4<13 

"2*; 

if.iai 

,47.(11 

T2  ec: 

!u>..t  Virgluia... 

lfC.r>7« 

Sl.l.si) 

lOAVJ 

I>..J« 

!><.-rl7 

'  !«.r>U 

40.-iM 

R-..117 

IW.oni    • 

07.4-4 

37..VO 

Sv>10 

f.ll'.l 

I7i>.l>irt 

11.-..1T1-, 

STli.i-o 

^Vyoiiiing 

l/viO 

4,il|I 

l.M.'i 

!.<«> 

2H*3I0 

14'IC4'» 

51  T'T 

1*1.011 
a>.7s?i 

iii.-.ri 

■  .'V'».4".J 

24.14a 

V  S.-Tot«).  18SP 

^.e^Moi 

4.I174.2W 

i.sio.ay; 

3.*17.IIi 

OT'.'rW 

4'1.)  1» 

li'T. 

M.ir. 

1            Tdar,  1-70 

S.Ov^.lM 

2.&S4,7H 

l,191.iK  . 

2.707.421 

■tl-,»f 

■  7".»» 

i""!.::! 

:inc'-t*a'a'in  1**\ts. 

•  i.74>i.i).>^; 

1,3S'.44> 

cio.vm 

1.120.691 

.  -I.MI 

l'..»%4 

2.765 

K.(«i 

1      ••p.T...       •■    . 

29  51 

M  T.) 

.11.01; 

41.758 

1562 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


Relative   Kaxk   of    States   and   Tkbbitobies   in 
Respect  of  Population. 

The  subjoined  lists  show  the  relative  order  of 
rank  of  the  forty-four  states  and  of  four  territories 
in  1890;  also  the  order  and  rank  of  the  states  and 
territories  in  18S0.  Indian  Territory  and  Alaska 
are  not  included.  The  District  of  Columbia  is 
included  in  both  lists : 


1890. 


1880. 


1  New  York. 

1  New  York. 

2  Pennsylvania. 

2  Pennsylvania. 

3  Illinois. 

3  Ohio. 

4  Ohio. 

4  Illinois. 

5  Missouri. 

5  Missouri. 

6  Massachusetts. 

6  Indiana. 

7  Texas. 

7  Massachusetts. 

8  Indiana. 

8  Kentucky. 

9  Michigan. 

9  Michigan. 

10  Iowa. 

10  Iowa. 

11  Kentucky. 

11  Texas. 

12  Georgia. 

12  Tennessee. 

13  Tennessee. 

13  Georgia. 

14  "Wisconsin. 

14  Virginia. 

15  Virginia. 

15  North  Carolina. 

16  Xortli  Carolina. 

16  Wisconsin. 

17  Alabama. 

17  Alabama. 

18  New  Jersey. 

18  Mississippi. 

19  Kansas. 

19  New  Jersey. 

20  Minnesota. 

20  Kansas. 

21  Mississippi. 

21  South  Carolina. 

22  California. 

22  Louisana. 

23  South  Carolina. 

23  JIaryland. 

24  Arkansas. 

24  California. 

25  Louisiana. 

25  Arkansas. 

26  Nebraska. 

26  Minnesota. 

27  Jlaryland. 

27  Maine. 

28  West  Virginia. 

28  Connecticut. 

29  Connecticut. 

29  West  Virginia. 

30  Maine. 

30  Nebraska. 

31  Colorado. 

31  New  Hampshire. 

32  Florida. 

32  Vermont. 

33  New  Hampshire. 

33  Rhode  Island. 

34  Washington. 

34  Florida. 

35  Rhode  Island. 

35  Colorado. 

36  Vermont. 

36  District  of   Columbia 

37  South  Dakota. 

37  Oregon. 

38  Oregon. 

38  Delaware. 

39  District  Columbia. 

39  rtah  (Ter.). 

40  Utah  ;Ter.). 

40  Dakota  fTer.). 

41  North  Dakota. 

41  New  Mexico  (Ter.). 

42  Delaware. 

42  Washington  (Ter.;. 

43  New  Mexico  (Ter.). 

43  Nevada. 

44  Montana. 

44  Arizona  (Ter.). 

45  Idaho. 

45  Montana  (Ter.). 

46  Oklahoma  (Ter.). 

46  Idaho  (Ter.). 

47  Wyoming. 

47  Wyoming  (Ter.). 

48  Arizona  (Ter.). 

49  Nevada. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  as  in  1880,  New  York  still 
led  the  list  in  1890,  and  was  followed  by  Pennsyl- 
vania. Ohio  and  Illinois  had  exchanged  places. 
Of  the  other  changes  in  the  list  the  most  marked 
were  those  of  Texas,  which  had  risen  from  No.  11 
to  No.  7;  Kentucky,  wliich  dropped  from  8  to  11; 
Minnesota,  which  had  risen  from  26  to  20;  Ne- 
braska, which  had  risen  from  30  to  26 ;  Maryland, 
which  dropped  from  23  to  27;  Colorado,  which  had 
risen  from  35  to  31 ;  Vermont,  which  had  dropped 
from  32  to  36;  AVashington,  which  had  risen  from 
42  to  34 ;  Delaware,  which  had  dropped  from  38  to 
42;  Nevada,  which  had  dropped  from  43  to  49,  and 
Arizona,  which  had  dropped  from  44  to  48. 


Center   of   Population*  of   The  United   States. 

'The  center  of  population  is  the  center  of  gravity 
of  the  population  of  the  country,  each  individual 
being  assumed  to  have  the  same  weight.  The 
method  of  determination  used,  in  order  that  the 
result  might  be  comparable  with  that  obtained  in 
1880,  was  in  brief  as  follows: 

The  population  of  the  country  was  first  dis- 
tributed by  "square  degrees,"  as  the  area  included 
between  consecutive  parallels  and  meridians  has 
been  designated.  A  point  was  then  assumed  ten- 
tatively as  the  center,  and  corrections  in  latitude 
and  longitude  to  this  tentavive  position  were  com- 
puted. In  this  case  the  center  was  assumed  to  be 
at  the  intersection  of  the  parallel  of  39°  with  the 
meridian  of  86*^  west  of  Greenwich.  The  popu- 
lation of  each  square  degree  was  assumed  to  be 
located  at  the  center  of  that  square  degree,  except 
in  cases  where  it  was  manifest  that  this  assump- 
tion would  be  untrue,  as,  for  instance,  where  a  part 
of  the  square  degree  was  occupied  by  the  sea  or 
other  large  body  of  water,  or  where  it  contained  a 
city  of  considerable  magnitude  which  was  situated 
"off  center."  In  these  cases  the  position  of  the 
population  of  the  square  degree  was  estimated  as 
nearly  as  possible.  The  distance  of  each  such 
center  of  population  of  a  square  degree,  whether 
assumed  to  be  at  the  center  of  the  square  degree 
or  at  a  distance  from  the  center,  from  the  assumed 
parallel,  and  from  the  assumed  meridian,  were 
then  computed.  The  population  of  each  square 
degree  was  then  multiplied  bv  its  distance  from 
the  assumed  parallel  of  latitude,  and  the  sum  of 
the  products,  or  moments,  north  and  south  of  tljat 
parallel  made  up.  Their  difference,  divided  by 
the  total  population  of  the  country,  gave  a  correc- 
tion to  the  latitude.  In  a  similar  manner  the  east 
and  west  moments  were  made  up.  and  from  thema> 
correction  in  longitude  was  obtained. 

In  1790  the  center  of  population  was  at  39°  16.5'' 
north  latitude  and  76°  11.2'  west  longitude,  whiclv 
a  comparison  of  the  best  maps  available  would 
seem  to  place  about  twenty-three  miles  east  of 
Baltimore.  During  the  decade  of  1790  to  1800  it 
appears  to  have  moved  almost  due  west  to  a  point 
about  eighteen  miles  west  of  the  same  city,  being- 
in  latitude  39°  16.1'  and  longitude  76°  56.5'. 

From  1800  to  1810  it  moved  westward  and  slightly 
southward  to  a  point  about  forty  miles  northwest  by 
west  from  Washington,being  in  latitude39°  11.5' and 
longitude  77°  37.2'.  The  southward  movement 
during  this  decade  appears  to  have  been  due  to  the 
annexation  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana,  which 
contained  quite  extensive  settlements. 

From  1810  to  1820  it  moved  westward  and  again 
slightly  southward  to  a  point  about  sixteen  miles 
north  of  Woodstock,  Virginia,  being  in  latitude 
39°  5.7'  and  longitude  78°  33'.  This  second  south- 
ward movement  appears  to  have  been  due  to  the 
extension  of  settlement  in  Mississippi,  Alabama 
and  eastern  Georgia. 

From  1820  to  1830  it  moved  still  westward  and 
southward  to  a  point  about  nineteen  miles  south- 
west of  Mooretield,  in  the  present  State  of  West 
Virginia,  being  in  latitude  38°  57.9'  and  longitude 
79°  16.9'.  This  is  the  most  decided  southward 
movement  that  it  has  made  during  any  decade.  It 
appears  to  have  been  due  in  part  to  the  addition  of 
Florida  to  our  territory  and  in  part  to  the  great 
extension  of  settlements  in  Louisiana.  Jlississippi, 
and  Arkansas,  or  generally,  it  may  be  said,  in  the 
southwest. 

*  Furnisheci  bv  Heurv  Gannett  to  the  Census  Department 
Washington,  D.'C,  Feb".  18, 1891. 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1563 


Position  of  the  Center  of  Popil.\tion. 


Year?. 

North 
latitude. 

West 
longitude. 

Approximate  locations  by  important  towns. 

Westward  movement 

during 

preceding  decade. 

17W) 

1800 

1810 

1820 

1830 

1810 

1850 

1860 

1870 

18S0 

1890 

39°  16.5' 
39    16.1 
39    U.5 
39     5.7 

38  57.9 

39  2.0 

38  59.0 

39  0.4 
39    12.0 
39      4.1 
39    11.9 

76='  11.2' 

76  56.5 

77  37.2 

78  33.0 

79  16.9 
SO    18.0 

81  19.0 

82  48.8 

83  35.7 

84  39.7 

85  32.9 

23  miles  east  of  Baltimore,  Marvland 

18  miles  west  of  Baltimore.  Maryland 

41  miles. 
36    do. 
50    do. 
39    do. 
55    do. 
55    do. 
81    do. 

42  do. 
58    do. 
48    do. 

40  miles  northwest  by  west  of  Washington,  District  of  Columbia. . 
16  miles  north  of  Woodstock,  Virginia 

19  miles  west-southwest  of  Moorefield,  West  Virginia 

16  miles  south  of  Clarksburg.  West  Virginia 

23  miles  southeast  of  Parkersburg,  West  Virginia 

20  miles  south  of  Chillicothe,  Ohio ^ 

48  miles  east  by  north  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

8  miles  west  bv  south  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

20  miles  east  of  Columbus,  Indiana 

From  1830  to  1840  it  moved  still  further  west- 
ward, but  slightly  changed  its  direction  north- 
ward, reaching  a  point  sixteen  miles  south  of 
Clarksburg,  West  Virginia,  being  in  latitude  39°  2' 
and  longitude  80°  18'.  During  this  decade  settle- 
ment had  made  decided  advances  in  the  prairie 
states  and  in  the  southern  portions  of  Michigan 
and  Wisconsin,  the  balance  of  increase  settlement 
evidently  being  in  favor  of  the  northwest. 

From  1840  to  1850  it  moved  westward  and  slightly 
southward  again,  reaching  a  point  about  twenty- 
three  miles  southeast  of  Parkersburg,  West  Vir- 
ginia, in  latitude  38°  59'  and  longitude  81°  19',  the 
change  of  direction  southward  being  largely  due 
to  the  annexation  of  Texas. 

From  1850  to  1860  it  moved  westward  and  slightly 
northward,  reaching  a  point  twenty  miles  south  of 


Chillicothe,  Ohio,  this  being  in  latitude  39°  0.4', 
longitude  82°  48.8'. 

From  1860  to  1870  it  moved  westward  and  sharply 
northward,  reaching  a  point  about  forty-eight 
miles  east  by  north  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  latitude 
39°  12',  longitude  83°  35.7'.  This  northward  move- 
ment was  due  in  part  to  waste  and  destruction  in 
the  South  consequent  upon  the  civil  war,  and  in 
part  probably  to  the  fact  that  the  census  of  1870 
was  defective  in  its  enumeration  of  the  Southern 
people,  especially  of  the  newly-enfranchised 
colored  population. 

In  1880  the  center  of  population  had  returned 
southward  to  nearly  the  same  latitude  which  it 
had  in  1860,  being  in  latitude  39°  4.1',  longitude  84° 
39.7'  This  southward  movement  was  due  only  in 
part  to  an  imperfect  enumeration  at  the  South  in 


1564 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1870.  During  the  decade  between  1870  and  1880  the 
Southern  States  made  a  large  positive  increase, 
both  from  natural  growth  and  from  immigration 
southward. 

During  the  past  decade  the  center  of  population 
has  moved  northward  into  practically  the  same 
latitude  which  it  occupied  in  1870.  It  has  moved 
westward  53'  13",  or  forty-eight  miles,  being  less  by 
ten  miles  than  its  movement  during  the  preceding 
decade,  six  miles  greater  than  the  movement 
between  1860  and  1870,  and  slightly  less  than  the 
average  westward  movement  since  the  first  cen- 
sus, its  present  position  being  in  latitude  39°  11'  56" 
and  longitude  85°  32'  53".  The  most  salient  point 
of  its  progress  during  the  past  decade  is  the  north- 
ing which  has  been  made,  which  is  doubtless  due 
to  the  great  development  in  the  cities  of  the 
Northwest  and  in  the  State  of  Washington,  and  in 
no  small  degree  to  the  increase  of  population  in 
New  England. 

The  center  of  the  area  of  the  United  States 
excluding  Alaska  is  in  Northern  Kansas,  in  approx- 
imate latitude  39°  55'  and  approximate  longitude 
98°  50'.  'The  center  of  population  is  therefore 
about  three-fourths  of  a  degree  south  and  more 
than  seventeen  degrees  east  to  the  center  of  area. 

The  table  and  map,  on  page  1563,  show  the 
movement  of  the  center  of  population  since  1790. 

White  and  Colored  Population  of  the  South. 

The  Southern  States,  in  which  comparisons  are 
usually  made  between  the  white  and  colored  popu- 
lation, embrace  seventeen  states  and  the  District 
of  Columbia.  The  abnormal  increase  of  the  col- 
ored population  in  what  is  known  as  the  "Black 
Belt"  during  the  decade  ending  in  1880  led  to  the 
popular  belief  that  the  negroes  were  increasing  at 
a  much  greater  rate  than  the  white  population. 
This  error  was  a  natural  one.  and  arose  from  the 
difficulty  of  ascertaining  how  much  of  the  increase 
shown  by  the  Tenth  Census  was  real,  and  how 
much  was  due  to  the  omissions  of  the  census  of 
1870.  The  census  reports  of  the  Southern  States 
and  of  the  District  of  ColumViia,  by  decades  for 
the  last  half  century,  are  given  in  the  subjoined 
table : 


Population. 

Number  of 

Per    cent,  of  in- 
crease. 

colored 
to  100,000 

Years. 

White. 

Colored. 

white. 

White. 

Colored. 

1790 

1800 

1,271,48S 
1,702.980 

689,881 

64,258 

918,336 

53,925 

33.94 

33,1  i 

1810 

2,208,785 

1,272,119 

57,594 

29.70 

.3,8.52 

1820 

2,831,-560 

1,653,240 

58,486 

28.20 

29.96 

1830 

3.6130.758 

2,187,545 

59,757 

29.28 

32.32 

1840 

4,6:!2,.530 

2,701,901 

58,3-25 

26.55 

23.51 

1850 

6,222.418 

3,442,238 

55,329 

34  32 

27.40 

1860 

8,203,852 

4.216,2U 

51,393 

31.84 

32.49 

1870 

9,812,732 

4. .555 ,990 

46,429 

19.61 

8.06 

1880 

13 ,530,408 

6,142,360 

45,397 

37  89 

34.82 

1890 

16,868,205 

6,996.166 

41.475 

24-67 

13.90 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  1890,  there  were  in  the 
states  under  discussion  6,996,166  colored  inhab- 
itants, and  in  1880,  6,142,360.  The  colored  element 
increased  during  the  decade  at  the  rate  of  13.90 
per  cent.  The  white  population  of  these  states  in 
1890  numbered  16,868,205,  and  in  1880,  13,530,408. 
They  increased  during  the  decade  at  the  rate  of 
24.67  per  cent,  or  nearly  twice  as  rapidly  as  the 
colored  element.  In  1880  the  proportion  of  white 
to  persons  of  color  in  these  states  was  in  the  rela- 
tion of  100,000  to  45„S97.  In  1890  the  proportion  of 
the  latter  class  had  diminished,  being  then  as  100,- 
000  to  41,475.    During  the  last  decade  the  colored 


race  has  not  held  its  own  against  the  white  in  a 
region  where  the  climate  and  conditions  are,  of  all 
those  which  the  country  affords,  the  best  suited  t« 
its  development. 

Referring  again  to  this  table,  it  is  seen  that  in 
but  three  decades,  that  is,  from  1800  to  1830,  during 
a  part  of  which  time  the  slave  trade  was  in  pro- 
gress, has  the  colored  race  increased  more  rapidly 
than  the  white.  Since  1830  the  white  people  have 
steadily  increased  at  a  more  rapid  rate  than  the 
colored.  This  increase  has  not  been  eflfected  by 
the  aid  of  immigration,  for  with  the  exception  of 
Kansas  and  Missouri  these  states  have  received 
comparatively  few  immigrants  either  from  foreign 
countries  or  from  the  Northern  States. 

Similarly  the  proportion  of  the  colored  inhabit- 
ants to  the  white  increased  somewhat  between 
1800  and  1830,  but  since  that  time  it  has  steadily 
diminished.  In  1830,  when  this  proportion  was  at 
its  maximum,  there  were  nearly  six  colored  inhab- 
itants to  ten  white,  but  this  proportion  has  been 
reduced  to  a  trifle  more  than  four  at  the  present 
date,  or  by  nearly  one-third  of  its  amount. 

The  Census  Department  states  that  the  deficien- 
cies of  the  Ninth  Census  are  so  apparent  in  this 
table  that  any  extended  reference  to  them  is 
wholly  unnecessary. 

Of  the  total  colored  population  in  1890  there 
were  2,581  Chinese,  100  Japanese,  and  8,207  ("civil- 
ized" and  counted)  Indians,  leaving  of  the  Africaa 
race  6,996,166. 

Population  op  the  State  of  California  by  Racb. 

In  1890  a  special  count  by  race  was  made  by  the 
United  States  Census  Office,  for  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia in  order  to  separate  the  Chinese  and  Indi- 
ans from  the  rest  of  the  population,  as  required  by 
the  laws  of  that  State,  for  the  purposes  of  State 
apportionment.  The  results  of  this  special  count 
showed  that,  for  the  State  as  a  whole,  the  white 
population  had  increased  from  767,181  in  1880,  to 
1,111,558  in  1890,  an  increase  of  344,377,  or  44.89  per 
cent.  The  colored  population  in  the  State  showed 
an  increase  during  the  decade  of  5,419,  or  90.05  per 
cent,  while  there  had  been  a  decrease  in  the  Chi- 
nese of  3,451,  or  4.59  per  cent.  The  whole  number 
of  Indians  in  the  State  was  less  in  1890  than  in  1880 
by  3,922,  or  a  decrease  of  24.10  per  cent.  The  num- 
ber of  Japanese  in  1890,  as  compared  with  1880,  was 
large,  although  relatively  small  as  compared  with 
the  whole  population.  The  number  of  Japanese 
returned  in  1890  was  1,099,  as  against  86  in  1880. 
The  total  population  of  the  State  for  1890  was 
1,208,130,  as  compared  with  864,694  for  1880,  the 
increase  being  343,436,  and  the  per  cent  of  increase 
39.72. 

Population  With    Reference   to   Mean    Annual 
Temperature. 

In  the  following  table  from  census  reports  of 
1890  (furnished  by  Henry  Gannett,  of  Washington, 
D.  C,  from  data  contributed  by  Gen.  A.  W.  Greely 
and  other  officers  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau) 
the  1st  column  shows  the  degrees  of  temperature; 
the  2d,  3d,  and  4th  columns  a  distribution  of  popu- 
lation in  accordance  with  the  isothermal  lines,  sub- 
ject to  the  supposition  that  the  entire  population 
of  the  country  was  at  each  date  100,000  persons,  or, 
in  other  words,  these  columns  show  the  percentage 
of  the  population  which  was  at  the  date  designated 
living  between  the  various  isothermal  lines,  the 
computation  being  carried  out  to  the  thousandth 
of  1  per  cent.  The  5th  and  6th  columns  show  the 
change  in  the  number  from  census  to  census  under 
the  same  assumption  that  the  entire  population 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1566 


PopcuiTioN  With  Reference  to  Mean  Annual  Temperatdre. 


Degrees  of 

Number  in  100.000 
Inhabitants.       i 

t 

Change  in  Nnm-! 
ber  100,000.      j 

Number  in  lOO.OOO 
Above  Each  Group. 

Density  of  Popu- 
lation. 

Increase  in 

Density 

of  Population. 

Temperature. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

lS80-'90. 

1870- '80. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

1880-'90. 

1870- '80. 

Below  40 

40  to45 

45  to50 

SO  to55     

1,653 
8.180 
37,423 
31,583 
13.775 
9,865 
6,279 
1,210 
32 

1,155 

7,413 

37,324 

32,!)96 

14,230 

9,982 

6,262 

14816 

22 

919 

7,U9 

28,986 

33,182 

13,723 

9,152 

5,662 

1,242 

15 

498 

767 

99 

—813 

—455 

-117 

17 

—6 

10 

236 

294 

-1,662 

-786 

507 

830 

600 

—26 

7 

1.653 
9333 
37,256 
68,839 
82,614 
92,479 
98,758 
99,968 
10O.0OO 

1,155 

8,568 
35,892 
68.288 
82.518 
92,500 
98,762 
99.978 
100.000 

919 
8.038 
37.024 
70.206 
83,929 
93,081 
98,743 
99,985 
100 .000 

4,699 
12515 
28,610 
31,024 
22,780 
17393 
14,161 
7,493 
3,597 

2,635 

9405 

22366 

25,545 

18388 

14,532 

11,331 

6,015 

2,009 

1,612 
6,722 
18,650 
20,U3 
14,005 
10,240 
7,881 
4,702 
1,031 

2,064 
3,410 
5,744 
5,479 
3,892 
3361 
2,827 
1,478 
1388 

1,038 

23W 
4,216 
5343 

S5to60 

60  to65  

4383 

4,292 

65  to  70  

3,452 

1,39S 

9% 

70  to  75 

Above  75 

was  100,000.  The  7th.  8th,  and  9th  columns  show 
the  number  of  inhabitants,  the  total  population 
being  assumed  at  100,000,  living  under  temperate 
conditions  below  each  of  the  several  groups.  The 
10th,  11th,  and  12th  columns  show  the  density  of 
population,  t".  c,  the  number  of  inhabitants  per 
square  mile  in  each  of  the  several  groups,  while 
the  last  two  columns  show  the  increase  in  density. 

A  glance  at  above  table  will  show  that  in  1870. 1880, 
and  1890  more  than  half  the  population  was  living 
under  a  temperature  between  45  and  55  degrees, 
and  that  between  45  and  60  degrees  were  found 
from  70  to  75  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants.  Only  a 
trifle  over  one  per  cent  were  living  where  the 
temperature  was  greater  than  70  degrees,  while  in 
the  region  whose  mean  annual  temperature  was 
above  75  degrees  the  number  of  inhabitants  was 
trifling.  The  number  of  inhabitants  to  the  square 
mile  not  only  expresses  the  density  of  popluation, 
but  also  gives  a  comparative  measure  of  the  abso- 
lute number  and  the  increase  in  absolute  number. 
The  greatest  density  is  and  has  been  since  1870, 
•where  the  temperature  ranges  from  50  to  55  de- 
grees. From  this  as  a  maximum  it  diminishes 
rapidly  both  with  an  increase  and  decrease  of 
temperature.  The  most  rapid  proportional  in- 
crease in  population  has  taken  place  at  the  two 
extremes,  where  it  has  trebled  during  the  twenty 
years  intervening  between  1870  and  1890,  while  in 
the  same  time  it  has  increased  but  about  50  per 
cent  in  the  most  densely-settled  group. 

The  average  annual  temperature  of  the  territory 
of  the  United  States,  excluding  Alaska  from  con- 
sideration, is  53  degrees.  The  average  annual 
temperature  under  which  the  people  of  the  country 
live,  taking  into  account  the  density  of  settlement, 
is  practically  the  same. 

dlsteibutios  of  popul.\t10n  in  accordance  with 
Topographic  Featcues. 

The  following  table  based  on  an  exceedingly  in- 
structive subdivision  of  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  into  areas  differing  in  the  character  of  their 
surface,  their  products,  and  their  climate,  and  clas- 
sifying the  population  in  accordance  therewith,  has 
been  condensed  from  a  department  of  the  Census 
of  1890  prepared  by  Henry  Gannett,  Geographer 
and  Agent  of  the  Census  Department.  The  clas- 
sification covers  the  population  of  the  official  cen- 
sus of  1890,  1880,  and  1870. 


Regions. 


Coast  swamps 

Atlantic  plain 

Piedmont  region 

New  Eugland  hills 

Appalachian  Mountain  region. . 

Cumberland  -  Allegheny  pla- 
teau  

Interior  timber  region 

Lake  region 

Ozark  Mountain  region 

Alluvial  region  of  the  Missis- 
sippi   

Prairie  region 

Great  Plains 

North  Rocky  mountains 

South  Rocky  mountains, 

Plateau  region 

Basin  region 

Columbian  mesas 

Sierra  Nevada 

Pacific  valley 

Cascade  range 

Coast  ranges 


Population  in 
Thousands. 


1890. 

1880. 

1309 

1.569 

8.784 

7113 

7.858 

6.660 

2.290 

2J71 

2,849 

2386 

5.749 

4,787 

11JJ92 

9,891 

3378 

2307 

1,041 

734 

885 

683 

13,0)8 

9,777 

737 

222 

153 

50 

247 

192 

110 

81 

403 

252 

210 

91 

146 

136 

135 

248 

179 

M 

810 

552 

1.284 
5,546 
5,f68 
1.995 
1,959 

3,940 

7,976 

1,722 

473 

460 
6,715 
73 
29> 
78 
29 

149 
29 

111 

166 
30 


3 
O— 

oi 


n 


21.5 
74-4 
69.5 
40.7 
49.8 

593 
443 
25J 
233 

23.6 
28.3 
1.4 
1.1 
24 
0.7 
1.4 
1.9 
4.9 
9.1 
53 
14.3 


Topographical  Description. — Coast  Swamps. 

These  swamps  are  found  along  the  South  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts,  extending  inland  to  varying  dis- 
tances, in  some  places  as  much  as  a  hundred  miles. 
They  have  the  greater  breadth  in  North  Carolina 
and  Louisiana,  but  border  the  coast  nearly  all  the 
way  from  southeast  Virginia  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Eio  Grande,  Texas.  Upon  the  Atlantic  coast  the 
surface  of  these  swamps,  while  exceedingly  level, 
has  ample  slope  for  drainage,  and  accordingly  as 
the  land  becomes  valuable  their  borders  are  being 
drained  and  converted  into  farms.  In  the  Caro- 
linas  a  considerable  area  of  them  is  utilized  for 
rice  plantations.  In  the  main  they  are  well  tim- 
bered, principally  with  cypress  and  juniper,  among 
which  is  a  luxuriant  growth  of  cane.  The  popula- 
tion of  this  region  is  mainly  of  the  colored  race, 
the  climate  being  very  unhealthy  for  the  white 


1566 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


Atlantic  Plain. 

The  Atlantic  plain  comprises  the  strip  of  land 
lying  between  the  Coast  swamps  and  the  fall  line 
throughout  the  Atlantic  States  south  of  New  York 
and  the  Gulf  States  as  far  as  the  Mississippi  River. 
It  is  characterized  by  a  level  surface,  a  low  eleva- 
tion, scarcely  reaching  two  hundred  feet  above  the 
sea,  is  underlaid  by  recent  sedimentary  rocks,  and 
except  where  they  have  been  removed  by  the 
hands  of  man  is  covered  with  pine  forests. 

Piedmont  Region. 

This  region  comprises  a  strip  of  country  extend- 
ing from  Main  to  Alabama,  lying  between  the  fall 
line  on  the  east  and  the  Blue  Ridge  on  the  west. 
It  is  underlaid  by  metamorphic  rocks  and  forested 
with  a  mixed  growth  of  broad  and  narrow  leaf 
trees.  The  lower  portion  is  comparatively  level, 
being  broken  only  by  the  beds  of  streams,  but  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  through- 
out New  England  it  is  hilly. 

Neiv  England  Hills. 

This  name  has  been  applied  to  the  hill  country 
in  the  upper  part  of  New  England,  including  all  of 
the  upper  part  of  Maine,  the  White  Mountains  of 
New  Hampshire,  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont, 
and  the  Adirondacks  of  New  York,  all  of  which  is 
a  broken,  mountainous  country,  ranging  in  eleva- 
tion from  one  to  six  thousand  feet,  and  covered 
with  forests. 

Appalachian  Mountain  Region. 

This  region  includes  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the 
Appalachian  valley  lying  immediately  north  and 
west  of  it,  and  extends  from  New  Jersey  to  Ala- 
bama and  Georgia.  The  Blue  Ridge,  consisting  of 
a  single  range  throughout  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, and  Virginia,  expands  in  North  Carolina  into 
a  very  complex  mass  of  mountains,  and  there 
reaches  its  maximum  elevation,  namely,  6,700  feet. 

The  Appalachian  valley  is  drained  in  New  Jer- 
sey and  Pennsylvania  by  the  Delaware  and  Susque- 
hanna rivers,  in  Virginia  by  the  Potomac,  the 
James,  and  Kanawha  rivers,  and  in  Tennessee 
mainly  by  the  Tennessee  River.  It  is  traversed  by 
numerous  ranges,  some  of  them  assuming  the  dig- 
nity of  seperate  mountain  ranges,  and  all  of  them 
running  closely  parallel  to  one  another  and  to  the 
general  direction  of  the  valley. 

Cumberland- Allegheny  Plateau. 

Rising  from  the  northwest  border  of  the  Appal- 
achian valley  is  an  escarpment  extending  more  or 
less  continuously  from  northeastern  Pennsylvania 
down  through  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  Tennessee 
into  Alabama.  From  the  summit  of  this  escarp- 
ment a  plateau  stretches  with  a  general  northwest- 
ern slope.  This  plateau  is  everywhere  deeply 
scored  by  streams  with  a  general  northwesterly 
direction.  These  streams  have  cut  the  plateau 
into  a  mass  of  very  irregular  ridges  and  gorges, 
making  it  one  of  the  most  intricate  mountain 
regions  on  the  globe.  The  entire  region  is 
densely  covered  with  forests,  the  hand  of  man 
having  removed  but  a  very  small  part  of  them. 

Interior  Timbered  Region. 

This  region  comprises  southern  Ohio  and  Indi- 
ana, the  western  half  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
and  the  northeastern  part  of  Mississippi,  together 
with  small  areas  in  adjoining  states.  It  pos- 
sesses no  characteristic  features  beyond  the  fact 
that  except  in  the  settled  regions  it  is  covered  with 
forests. 


Lake  Ri  ijlim. 

A  narrow  strip  of  country  bordering  on  the  Great 
Lakes  has  been  segregated  under  this  name,  It 
includes  small  parts  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Ohio,  and  most  of  ^lichigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
northern  Minnesota.  Owing  to  the  proximity  of 
large  bodies  of  water  this  region  has  many  of 
the  characteristics  of  a  coast  climate.  The  at- 
mosphere being  moist,  the  winters  are  abnormally 
warm  and  the  summers  abnormally  cool.  This 
region  contains  great  pine  forests,  which  are 
still  serving  as  a  main  source  of  supply  of  that 
timber. 

Ozark  Mountain  Region. 

This  region  is  located  in  northwest  Arkansas, 
southwest  Missouri,  and  the  eastern  part  of  Indian 
territory.  In  Arkansas  it  is  made  up  of  a  succes- 
sion of  narrow  ranges  2,000  to  3,000  feet  high  hav- 
ing a  generally  east  and  west  trend,  separated  by 
somewhat  broad  valleys.  Further  to  the  northeast, 
in  Missouri,  the  hills  become  merely  a  confused 
mass,  without  order  or  system. 

Alluvial  Region  of  the  Mississippi. 

This  region  extends  in  a  rapidly  widening  strip 
from  Cairo,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  to  the  coast 
swamps  in  Louisiana,  into  which  it  merges  without 
any  sharp  line  of  demarcation.  It  includes  parts 
of  the  states  of  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Mississippi, 
and  Louisiana,  besides  a  trifling  area  in  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee.  Much  the  larger  portion  of  it  is 
marshy,  and  is  below  the  level  of  the  waters  in  the 
rivers.  The  dry  land  lies  mainly  along  the  imme- 
diate banks  of  the  streams,  having  been  formed  by 
deposition  from  overflows.  With  the  exception  of  the 
cultivated  land  this  region  is  entirely  covered  with 
forests.  The  soil  is  of  the  highest  degree  of  fertil- 
ity, but  the  climate  is  hostile  to  the  white  race,  and 
by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  its  inhabitants  arf 
of  the  colored  race. 

Prairie  Region. 

This  region  comprises  a  small  portion  of  western 
Indiana,  most  of  Illinois  and  Iowa,  southern  Wis 
cousin  and  Minnesota,  northern  Missouri,  eastern 
Dakota,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  and  extends  in  a 
broad  belt  down  through  the  Indian  territory  and 
Texas. 

On  the  east  it  merges  by  insensible  degrees  into 
the  forest-clad  regions,  and  on  the  west  by  equally 
insensible  degrees  into  the  Great  Plains.  It  is  a 
region  of  transition  from  the  one  to  the  other.  Its 
climate  is  such  that  without  protection  forests  can 
not  thrive.  Before  the  advent  of  man  various 
unfavorable  conditions,  among  which  forest  fires 
were  the  most  prominent,  prevented  the  growlh  of 
forests  in  this  region. 

Its  surface  is  level  or  slightly  undulating,  and 
was,  in  its  natural  state,  covered  with  luxuriant 
grasses,  but  timber  growth  was  scarce,  and  was 
confined  almost  entirely  to  the  bluffs  and  the 
borders  of  streams.  With  the  protection  afforded 
by  man  the  growth  of  forests  has  increased  in  this 
region,  until  now  it  presents  a  landscape,  diversi- 
fied by  a  tree  growth,  whose  extent  is  constantly 
increasing.     It  is  the  granary  of  the  country. 

Great  Plains. 

Merging  with  the  prairie  region  by  insensible 
degrees  are  the  Great  Plains,  extending  from 
approximate  longitude  99°  to  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  from  the  Canadian  border  to  the 
Rio  Grande.  It  is  a  region  devoid  of  timber, 
except    in    the    narrowest     strips    along    certain 


U  ^■  I  T  E  D    STATES    OF    A  M  E  R  I  C  A 


1567 


streams,  but  sparsely  covered  with  bunch  grass, 
changing  in  the  more  arid  regions  to  sage,  arte- 
niisia,  cactus,  and  yucca.  Its  surface  is  a  monot- 
onous, billowy  expanse,  broken  only  here  and 
tliere  by  lines  of  cliffs  and  buttes. 

Throughout  this  region  the  rainfall  is  insufficient 
(or  the  needs  of  agriculture,  and  irrigation  is 
necessary  for  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The  sup- 
ply oi  water  in  the  flowing  streams  is  sufficient-  to 
irrigate  only  a  small  part  of  the  land,  and  the 
exteiit  to  which  settlement  is  possible  will  in  the 
futurt'  become  therefore  a  question  of  the  abund- 
ance iif  water  and  not  of  land. 

ConJUhran  Begion. 

The  Cordilleran  region  is  naturally  subdivided 
into  districts,  wliich  differ  from  one  another  in  cer- 
tain features  and  have  other  features'  in  common. 
Kxcept  in  the  extreme  northwest,  in  Washington, 
Western  Oregon,  and  Northwest  California,  the 
(•limate  is  arid  and  the  rainfall  is  insuthcient  for 
agriculture.  This  aridity  of  climate  and  deficency 
of  rainfall  increase  southw.ird  and  reach  a  maxi- 
mum in  Southern  Nevada,  California,  and  Arizona. 
The  prevalence  of  forests  accompanies  the  rain- 
fall. Upon  the  northwest  coast  and  inland  as  far 
as  the  Cascade  range  in  Oregon  and  Washington 
the  country  is  densely  covered  with  forests  of 
great  trees.  This  forest  belt  extends  inland 
through  Northern  Washington  and  Idaho  into  the 
mountainous  region  of  Montana,  and  thence  south- 
eastward, accompanying  the  mountain  ranges  into 
the  Yellowstone  Park.  Elsewhere  no  forests  are 
found  except  upon  the  mountains,  and  in  the  more 
arid  regions  of  the  south  even  the  mountains  are 
bare  to  their  summits.  The  valleys  produce  only 
the  vegetation  characteristic  of  an  arid  region. 
Where  the  rainfall  is  abundant  bunch  grass  is 
foifnd,  but  as  the  rainfall  diminishes  and  the  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere  increases,  the  vegetation  of 
the  valleys  changes  to  artemisia,  cactus,  yucca,  and 
other  desert  plants. 

Rocl-y  Mountain  Region. 

This  region,  including  the  easternmost  portion 
of  the  Cordilleran  system,  comprising  Western 
Montana,  Eastern  Idaho,  Western  Wyoming,  Cen- 
tral Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  with  a  little  of 
Texas,  is  composed  of  a  series  of  ranges  separated 
by  valleys  of  greater  or  Ipss  breadth,  trending 
parallel  to  one  another  a  little  west  of  north  and 
east  of  south.  It  is  naturally  subdivided  into  two 
parts.  The  northern  part  extends  from  Canada 
southeastward  into  Central  Wyoming;  thence  for 
a  distance  of  a  hundred  miles  or  thereabouts  the  ! 
mountain  ranges  disappear,  leaving  in  their  place  | 
only  broad  plateaus.  The  ranges  reappear  in  South-  1 
em  Wyoming  and  extend  thence  southward.  In  I 
the  northern  part  the  mountains  range  from  nine 
to  thirteen  thousand  or  more  feet  in  altitude,  rising 
from  a  base  of  four  or  five  thousand  feet.  In  the 
southern  part  the  base  is  much  higher,  rising  in 
Colorado  to  six  or  eight  thousand  feet,  with  high 
mountain  valleys  reaching  10,000  feet  above  the 
sea,  while  many  of  the  ranges  exceed  14,000  feet  in 
altitude.  Both  the  general  level  of  the  country 
and  the  mountain  ranges  diminish  in  altitude 
southward. 

Plateau  Region. 

This  region  comprises  most  of  the  drainage  basin 
of  the  Colorado  River  aVtove  the  mouth  of  the  Vir- 
gin in  Southern  Nevada.  It  is  a  region  of  great 
plateaus,  whose  surfaces  are  level  or  slightly  in- 
clined, and  which  terminate  with  great  lines  of 


cliffs,  in  some  cases  thousands  of  feet  in  height. 

From  the  mountains  which  border  this  range  on 

the  east,  north  and  west,  these  plateaus  descend  by 

a  succession  of  gigantic  steps  from  an  elevation  of 

I   twelve  thousand  feet  down  to  one  or  two  thousand 

feet  abo%-e  the  sea.     Every  stream  is  in  a  canon, 

I   and  as  the  rainfall  is  light  and  spasmodic  a  great 

j    majority  of  these  canons  are  dry  during  the  greater 

part  of  the  year.     In  many  regions  these  caiions 

are  so  abundant  as  to  have  reduced  the  plateau  to 

a   mere   skeleton,  or   the   process  of   erosion   may 

have  gone  still  further,  so  that  nothing  is  left  of 

the  upper  iilateau  but  fragments  in  the  form  of 

mesas  and  buttes. 

The  higher  plateaus  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
mountains  are  green  and  forested  from  the  abun- 
dant rainfall.  The  lower  plateaus,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  only  the  sparsest  vegetation  or  are 
absolutely  sterile. 

Basin  Region. 

In  the  interior  of  the  Cordilleran  region  is  an 
area  comprising  practically  all  of  Nevada,  Western 
Utah,  part  of  Eastern  California,  and  Southern 
Oregon,  which  has  no  drainage  to  the  sea.  It  is  a 
closed  basin.  The  only  discharge  of  its  waters  is 
by  sinking  into  the  thirsty  soil  or  by  evaporation 
into  the  thirsty  atmosphere.  This  is  the  most 
desert  part  of  the  country,  with  the  exception  of 
the  course  of  the  lower  Colorado  and  Gila  rivers. 
The  rainfall  is  scanty,  even  upon  the  mountains; 
so  scanty,  indeed,  that  there  are  but  two  or  three 
running  streams  of  any  magnitude  within  it.  Its 
surface  is  diversified  by  many  ranges  of  mountains 
having  a  general  parallel  trend,  rising  from  flat 
valleys  filled  with  alluvium.  These  ranges  divide 
the  basin  into  numerous  minor  basins,  in  each  of 
which  water  collects  and  sinks.  In  the  eastern 
part  the  largest  basin  is  that  known  as  the  Great 
Salt  Lake,  into  which  several  small  streams  flow 
from  the  Wasatch  Mountains.  In  the  western  part 
the  principal  basin  is  that  of  the  Humboldt  River. 
The  elevation  of  the  floor  of  the  basin  ranges  from 
6,000  feet  near  its  middle  line,  downward,  reaching 
in  Death  Valley,  in  Eastern  California,  an  eleva- 
tion of  200  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Cohimbian  Mesas. 

The  drainage  basin  of  the  Snake  River,  in  Idaho, 
Oregon,  and  Washington,  together  with  a  part 
of  the  basin  of  the  Columbia,  in  the  latter  state, 
has  been  in  great  part  covered  by  eruptions  of 
basalt,  which,  bursting  out  of  the  soil  at  various 
points,  has  spread  over  the  country,  forming  a 
table-land. 

Sierra  Nevada. 

Separating  the  Great  Basin  from  the  California 
valley,  in  eastern  California,  is  a  broad,  heavy 
forest-covered  range  of  mountains  with  long  slopes 
to  the  west  and  an  abrupt  ascent  to  the  east. 

Pacific  Valley. 

AVest  of  the  Cascade  range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada 
and  stretching  from  Puget  sound  to  southern  Cal- 
ifornia is  a  valley  drained  in  Oregon  by  the  Will- 
amette and  in  California  by  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  rivers.  In  its  southern  part,  south  of 
the  latitude  of  the  Bay  ol  San  Francisco,  the  clim- 
ate is  such  that  irrigation  is  necessary,  while  north 
of  it  the  rainfall  is  sufficient,  and  in  Oregon  and 
Washington  is  more  than  sufficient  for  the  farmer's 
needs.  Where  the  rainfall  is  insufficient  this  val- 
ley is  treeless,  but  farther  north,  and  especially 
in  Oregon  and  Washington,  it  is  covered  with  dense 
forests. 


1568 


UNITED    STATES    OF    A  .M  E  R  I  C  A 


Cascade  Range. 

Stretching  northward  in  line  with  the  Sierra 
Kevada,  but  distinguished  sliarply  from  it  by  the 
character  of  its  formation,  is  the  Cascade  range. 
It  is  a  series  of  extinct  volcanoes,  rising  from  a 
high  plateau  of  volcanic  rock.  This  range  is 
densely  forested. 

Coast  Ranges. 

Separating  this  valley  from  the  Pacific  is  a  suc- 
cession of  ranges  trending  parallel  with  the 
coast  and  known  as  the  Coast  ranges.  In  southern 
California  the  valleys  among  these  ranges  are 
of  the  highest  degree  of  fertility  and  produce 
grapes  and  tropical  fruits  in  profusion.  Farther 
north  the  country  is  but  little  settled  or  even 
explored. 

Distribution  of  Population  With  Refbrbnck  to 
Mean  Annual  Rainfall. 

In  1890  Mr.  Gannett  obtained  (from  reports  fur- 
nished chiefly  through  the  Weather  Bureau  from 
nearly  2,000  stations)  data  from  which  he  platted 
upon  a  map  of  the  United  States  the  curves  of 
mean  annual  rainfall,  at  intervals  of  ten  inches, 
sketched  in  accordance  with  their  indications,  and 
supplemented  by  his  knowledge  of  the  relief  of 
the  country  and  its  known  influence  upon  rainfall. 
From  the  map  thus  prepared  the  counties  falling 
between  the  diff'erent  curves  of  mean  annual  rain- 
fall were  drawn  ofif  in  lists.  In  cases  where  the 
county  was  cut  in  parts  by  a  curve,  due  weight  was 
given  in  the  partition  of  the  county  to  any  inequal- 
ity in  distribution  of  population.  The  population 
was  then  distributed  by  counties  in  accordance 
with  the  lists.  The  result  is  shown  in  the  table 
below. 

In  this  table  the  first  column  shows  the  grades, 
expressed  in  inches  of  rainfall ;  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  columns,  the  number  of  inhabitants 
found  in  each  grade  in  1890,  1880,  and  1870,  assum- 
ing that  the  total  population  at  each  of  the  above 
periods  was  one  hundred  tliousand,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  percentage  of  the  population  in  each  of 
these  grades  at  the  periods  under  consideration, 
carrying  the  figures  out  to  the  thousandth  of  1  per 
cent ;  the  fifth  and  sixth  columns  show  the  increase 
or  decrease  in  number;  the  seventh,  eighth,  and 
ninth  columns  show  the  number  of  inhabitants  in 
each  one  hundred  thousand  al>ove  each  grade,  and 
therefore  are  cumulative  columns ;  the  tenth,  elev- 
enth, and  twelfth  columns  show  the  density  of  pop- 
ulation in  each  grade  in  18110,  1880,  and  1870,  and 
the  last  two  columns  show  the  increase  in  popula- 
tion per  square  mile. 


It  will  be  noticed  that  the  main  body  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  country  inhabits  the  region  in  which 
the  annual  rainfall  is  between  30  and  50  inches, 
three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  or  thereabouts 
being  found  there.  On  eitlier  side,  as  the  rainfall 
increases  or  diminishes,  the  population  diminishes 
rapidly.  It  will  be  seen  further  that  the  arid 
region  of  the  west,  where  the  rainfall  is  less  than 
20  inches— a  region  which  comprises  two-fifths  of 
the  entire  area  of  the  country — contains  at  present 
less  than  3  per  cent  of  the  population. 

The  greatest  density  of  population  is  in  the  area 
enjoying  from  40  to  50  inches  of  annual  rainfall, 
the  average  of  this  region  being  59  inhabitants  to 
the  square  mile.  Next  to  that  is  tlie  area  having 
from  30  to  40  inches,  where  the  density  is  43.1.  The 
density  of  population  has  increased  rapidly  in 
these  regions.  It  is  apparent,  however,  that  the 
most  rapid  increase,  as  expressed  by  density  of 
population,  is  where  the  rainfall  ranges  from  20  to 
30  inches;  that  is  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
Great  Plains  ranging  from  Texas  to  the  Dakotas, 
where  the  density  has  increased  in  twenty  years 
from  1.6  to  8.1. 

The  average  annual  rainfall  upon  the  surface  of 
the  United  States,  as  deduced  from  the  map  pre- 
viously mentioned,  is  29.6  inches.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  with  relation  to  the  population, 
deduced  by  giving  weight  to  each  area  of  country 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  its  inhabitants,  was, 
in  1870,  42.5  inches;  in  1880  it  had  diminished  to  42 
inches,  and  in  1890  to  41.4  inches,  the  diminution 
being  caused  mainly  by  the  settlement  of  the 
Great  Plains  and  the  arid  regions  of  the  west. 

Distribution  of  Population  in  Accordance  With 
Mean  Relative  Humidity  of  Atmosphere. 

On  the  coast  of  Oregon  and  Washington,  the 
atmosphere  is  more  highly  charged  with  moisture 
than  elsewhere  within  our  territory.  The  high 
mountain  regions  of  the  Appalachian  and  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  those  of  the  Rocky  mountain 
ranges  also  have  a  moist  atmosphere.  The  moist- 
ure is  less  in  the  Piedmont  region  east  of  the 
Appalachians  and  in  the  upper  Mississippi  valley. 
Passing  across  the  prairie  and  the  great  plains,  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  diminishes 
still  more,  while  the  minimum  is  reached  in  the 
Great  Basin,  in  Utah,  Nevada,  southern  Arizona, 
and  southeastern  California.  In  a  general  way, 
the  amount  of  moisture  in  tlie  atmosphere  in- 
creases and  decreases  witli  the  rainfall,  but  this  is 
not  always  the  case.  The  upper  lake  region,  with 
an  atmosphere  as  moist  as  that  of  Washington 
city,   has  a  much  smaller  rainfall.    The  coast  of 


Inches  of  Rain- 
fall. 

Number  in  100,000 
Inhabitauts. 

Change  In  Num- 
ber in  100,000 
Inhabitants. 

Number  in  lOO.nOO  Above 
Kach  Grade. 

Population  per 
square  mile. 

Increase  in 

Population  per 

square  mile. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

1880-'90. 

1870- '80. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

1880-'90. 

1870.'60. 

Below  10 

10  to  20 

300 

2,612 

6,0.38 

34,107 

39,459 

16,164 

1,274 

55 

278 

l,:i85 

4,343 

34,969 

40,984 

16,734 

1,271 

192 

9)9 

1,909 

36,644 

42,719 

16,212 

1,358 

17 

+22 

+1.227 

+1,695 

-862 

—1,525 

-570 

+3 

—30 

+86 

+486 

+2,434 

—1,673 

—1,735 

+.532 

—87 

+  18 

300 
2,910 
8,948 
43,050 
82,515 
98,679 
99,952 
100,000 

278 
1,603 
6.006 
10,975 
81,959 
98,693 
99,965 
100,000 

192 

1.142 

3,050 

39,695 

82,414 

98,626 

99,979 

100,000 

O.K 

1.8 

8.1 

43.1 

59.0 

25.1 

18.1 

4.1 

0.6 
0.8 
4.7 
35.5 
49.2 
20.9 
14.5 
2.1 

0.3 
0.4 
1.6 
28.6 
39.4 
15.5 
11.9 
0.8 

0.2 
1.0 
3.4 
7.6 
9.8 
4.2 
3.6 
2.0 

0.3 
0  4 

ao  to  30   

3  i 

30  to  40 

40  t3  SO  

6.9 
9  8 

SO  to  60 

5  4 

60  to  70 * 

Above  70 

2.6 
l.S 

UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1569 


Bouthern  California,  with  a  deficient  rainfall,  has 
as  moist  an  atmosphere  as  the  Atlantic  coast. 

In  the  following  table  the  first  column  defines 
tiie  classes  of  population  grouped  by  percentages 
•f  saturation  of  the  atmospnere  in  the  sections  in 
which  the  people  reside ;  the  second  gives  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  in  each  class  expressed  in  round 
thousands;  the  third,  the  percentage  of  increase 
during  the  last  decade;  the  fourth,  the  percentage 
of  total  population  ;  the  fifth,  the  density  of  popu- 
lation, or  the  population  per  square  mile  in  each 
•lass. 


Pop. 
in  Class. 

Percent. 

Per  Cent,  of 

Class. 

of 

Total 

Density. 

Increase. 

Population. 

Below  60... 

2309,000 

341.10 

0.49 

1.14 

»  to  55 

433,000 

114.36 

0.69 

1.44 

55  to  60 

291,000 

117.16 

0.46 

1.35 

«0  to  65 

868,000 

97.72 

1.39 

2.89 

Kto  70 

22,969.000 

19.14 

36.68 

31.46 

»to  75 

34,067,000 

24.28 

54.40 

40.07 

7S  to  80 

3,341.000 

39.03 

5.34 

14.21 

Above  80. . . 

344,000 

72.00 

0.55 

5.55 

A  glance  at  this  table  shows  that  nearly  all  the 
population  breathe  an  atmosphere  containing  65 
to  75  percent,  of  its  full  capacity  of  moisture; 
that  is,  the  atmosphere  is  from  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths  saturated.  In  1890,  57,036,000  out  of  62,- 
622,250  were  found  in  this  region.  The  number  of 
inhabitants  living  in  a  drier  atmosphere  was  at  the 
date  of  the  census  comparatively  trifling,  number- 
ing in  1890  less  than  two  millions.  In  the  moister 
atmosphere  were  found  larger  numbers  scattered 
along  the  Gulf  coast  and  the  shores  of  Washington 
and  Oregon. 

Distribution  op  Population  in  Respect  of  L.\ti- 
TUDE  AND  Longitude. 

The  following  diagrams  show  the  distribution  of 
population  of  the  United  States  with  respect  of 
latitude  and  longitude  at  the  dates  severally  of 
the  last  three  censuses.  They  were  prepared  for 
the  report  of  the  census  of  1890  by  Henry  Gan- 


nett, Geographer  and  Special  Agent  of  the  Census 
Department. 

Naturally  the  greater  density  of  population  in  a 
square  degree  is  governed  by  the  location  of  the 
larger  cities.  Thus  the  two  square  degrees  be- 
tween latitudes  40°  and  41°  and  longitudes  73°  and 
75°,  comprising  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Jersey  City, 
and  other  large  cities,  contain  3,653,000  inhabit- 
ants. The  square  degree  between  latitudes  42° 
and  43°  and  longitudes  71°  and  72°,  comprising 
Boston  and  its  suburbs,  has  1,233,000  inhabitants; 


^  J  ■, 

«        «        •• 


'X  -^  K 


Degrees  of  lahUxfe 
\  %  h 

•r     ■*     r-i 


%  I,  %  14  •;*,  ft  T^  S.  ^  S  ^  r,  *  Vi  ■ 


1 
4v- 

t  It ' 

.7    /rt 

#  1 

r     |-   %. 

f;        ■■\ 

:"~T    ^'?;;;:"t:_: 

F         """^''S 

,'?£                                  ■■-  \           ' 

— fi(;gr^oiF  /^puic'jc^  f09O -^^<//-^oM  1680 


--^gt^rc^afeiS70 


that  between  latitudes  39°  and  40°  and  longitudes 
75°  and  76°,  in  which  is  most  of  Philadelphia,  has 
1,414,000,  while  that  between  latitudes  41°  and  42° 
and  longitudes  87°  and  88°,  in  which  is  situated 
most  of  Chicago,  contains  950,000  people. 


oj  rj  rj  CM  (\ 


Dccjrees    of   /  onpitude 


oooo'oCooooooDo'ottooooooooo 


CM 


'iv.v:i'iz^''A'R'^'^^r^^^ 


C    w    O    w     %/   o 


<;>c.lo[ol  ol  d  J  ,:  J  ol  cl  d 

(JnOt'CD  -     ^  -• 


id  ol  oiol  o'  ol  o'c'  d  ol  ol  r.l  ^1  r.1  ,1  „l  r,l  ^1  ol  ^f  „1  ^1^1  .1  A  ol  ol  d  o'  o'  O  <■!  tl  ol  ol  ol 


ol'ol  ol. 


D  2  ^  n  01  -.  O  0>  CO  n"(D  O  *  "  N  H  O  o.  »  N  Vi^^f  "f^?i  "Ab"o%?;  wu^"-*  OCJ°A  OU  &■ 

::;:^q::q;:;iQooQOooooog'oc8QO0)CT0)O(acc^a3gQ3SgcDcaoK7: 


j^^^re-^afe  pcpu/afiai  /890. ^^^reffo/e  '880  W^fifeffo/e  '870 


i;2 


1570 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


Area  and  Population-  of  Drainage  Basins  of  the 
United  States. 

The  following  table  was  prepared  by  Henry  Gan- 
nett, Geographer  and  Special  Agent  of  the  Census 
Department : 


Approxi- 

Popula- 

Drainage Basins. 

mate  area 
in  siiuare 

Population 
1890. 

tion  per 
square 

miles. 

mile. 

2,178,210 
61,830 

60.220.763 

New  Entrland  coast 

4,486.813 

72  0 

Saiut  Jolm  river 

7,890 

.5:5,381 

6.8 

Penobscot  river  

8,934 

113,179 

12,7 

Kenueliec  river 

10,102 

2:«,553 

23,4 

Merrimac  river 

4,804 

610,594 

120  8 

Connecticut  river 

11,269 

7si:,2ii; 

09  4 

Housatonic  river 

1,933 

•S,l  701 

i:-io  2 

Middle  Atlantic  coast  — 

8:^,020 

11,482,411 

i:iH,3 

13,366 

1  0'>4  120 

81  9 

Delaware  river 

12,012 

2,5111,113 

213,2 

Susquehanna  ri^  or 

27,655 

l,9li5,lS4 

71,1 

11,479 

00  1 

South  Atlantic  coast     ... 

132.0111 

4,24h,4i;0 

;,2,2 

9,084 

51  2 

Cape  Fear  ri\er 

8,310 

2:;9.:M9 

28,8 

Neuse  river 

5.299 

210.933 

40,9 

Pedee  river 

17,098 

000,277 

36,1 

9.237 

14,096 

607,ll9.s 

41,3 

11,402 

39  2 

14,109 

473,907 

33,6 

Great  Lalies 

175,340 

7,009,8:j9 

40  0 

Saint  Lawrence  river.. 

13,036 

474,158 

,34,8 

Lalic  Ontarie 

12,387 

1,000,068 

81,3 

Lake  Erie    .  • 

17,207 

2.179.209 

126  7 

18.839 

439,:593 

23,3 

Lake  Michigan 

45,876 

2,607,502 

64,7 

Lake  Superior 

17,830 

1.55,271 

8,7 

Red  river 

39,577 

247.518 

6  3 

1,725,980 
48,900 

32,993,234 
435,603 

Peninsula  of  Florida... 

8,9 

Apalachicola  river 

18,918 

699,713 

37  0 

Mobile  river 

43,4:36 

1,426,049 
611,:i58 

32  8 

Tombigbee  river 

18,890 

32  4 

Alabama  river 

23,820 

784,099 

:i2  9 

Pascagoula  river 

8.980 

129,084 

14,4 

8.670 

175.098 

20,4-10 
17,960 

172,056 
449,718 

8  4 

Trinity  river  

25  0 

59,646 
41.220 

512,021 
183  ,.524 

4i,e:« 

8  6 

Nueces  river 

18,944 

2  2 

San  Antonio  river 

10,352 

169,847 

10,4 

Rio  Grande 

128,792 

1.56,150 

1.2 

Mississippi  river. ...... 

1,240.039 

27,411,522 

22.1 

12,794 

415,406 
1,807.9:« 

32  5 

Illinois  river 

29,013 

04.4 

Rock  river      .       ... 

9,792 

632,117 
2;'>9.778 

54  3 

Wisconsin  river 

12,280 

21,2 

Chipuewa  river 

8,892 

141,529 

15  9 

Saint  Croix  river... 

7,576 

92,854 

12,3 

Minnesota  river  

16,000 

327,852 

20,5 

Cedar  river 

12,492 

393,021 

31.5 

Des  Moines  river  — 

14,052 

423,128 

28  9 

201.720 

10,980,777 
1,384 ,7:« 

54  5 

Tennessee  river  — 

43,897 

31.5 

Cumberland  river. . 

18.573 

720,012 

38  8 

Kentucky  river 

7,425 

291,022 

:»,2 

Green  river 

9,065 

358.804 

39,6 

Licking  river 

3,«'>8 

221,478 

60.6 

Kanawha  river 

10,690 

:«4.795 

20.1 

Monongahela  river. 

7.025 

495,030 

65.0 

Allegheny  river. . . 

11,437 

970,809 

84.9 

MiiHui  river 

5,400 

469.5'.10 

87,0 

Scioto  river 

0,480 

444,124 

68  5 

Muskingum  river.. 

7,740 

.Ml,:i78 

69  9 

Wabash  river 

33,725 

1.915.790 

56  8 

Big  Sandy  river, . . . 

4,050 

190.283 

47,0 

Missouri  river 

527,155 

4,.'J60,.561 

8.7 

Big  Sioux  river 

YeJlowstoue  river. . 

7,880 

119,3:;7 

15,1 

69,083 

21, .574 

OS 

Platte  river 

90,011 
59,2.50 

647  ](I4 

7  2 

Kansas  river 

9,S5,521 

16  6 

Osaae  river 

15,444 

.508,291 

.32.9 

Arkansas  river 

18-.,671 

1,771.312 

9  5 

Cimarron  river 

17,300 

.55,090 

3.2 

Canadian  river 

42.710 

.54.700 

1.3 

White  river 

27,925 

338,:505 
9.55,7.57 

12  1 

Red  riverof  Loui'ana. 

89,970 

10.6 

Washita 

19,138 

.300  ,.560 

18.8 

Saint  Frauds  river. . 

7,884 

162.897 

20.7 

Drainage  Basins. 


Great  Basin 

Great  Salt  Lake 

Humboldt  river 

Pacific  Ocean 

Colorado  river 

Green  river 

Grand   river 

Little  Colorado  river 

Gila  river 

Sacramento  river 

San  Joaquin  river 

Klamath  river 

Columbia  river 

Willamette  river     . 

Snake  river 

Clark  fork 


Popula- 

'ojtulation 

tion  per 

1890, 

square 

mile. 

25C,1:W 

1.1 

156,1,50 

4  8 

::;8,119 

12 

2,145,357 

3.5 

208,043 

09 

27,494 

06 

47.:^49 

1  8 

3,821 

0  1 

45,917 

0  7 

378,462 

0  4 

134,206 

4  » 

18,199 

i.e 

,393,415 

18 

129.782 

11.1 

142,091 

1.4 

46,067 

0  7 

The  areas  of  the  respective  drainage  basins 
were  determined  with  care,  and  adjusted  to  suit 
the  total  area  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of 
Alaska. 

Urban  Population  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  census  reports  of  the  United  States  the 
urban  population  has  been  understood  as  that  in- 
cluded in  cities  which  have  each  8,000  inhabitants 
and  over.  While  this  limit  is  now  recognized  as 
too  high  (the  4,000  limit  being  generally  regarded 
as  tlie  better  one),  it  has  been  continued  for  the 
convenience  of  comparisons  with  the  figures  of  the 
previous  census  reports. 

The  urban  population  returned  in  1890  is  29.12 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population  of  the  whole 
country.  The  following  are  the  corresponding  fig- 
ures for  the  several  censuses : 


Census  Years. 

Population 

of  the 

United  States. 

Population 
of  cities. 

Inhabitants  of 

cities  in  each 

100  of  the  totaJ 

population. 

1790 

8,929,214 

131,472 

8.35 

1800 

6,808,483 

210,873 

S.97 

1810 

7,239,881 

356,920 

4.93 

1820 

9,083,822 

475,135 

4.93 

1830 

12,806,020 

864  ,,509 

6.72 

1840 

17,009,453 

1,453,994 

8.52 

1850      , 

23,191.876 

2,Si»7,586 

12,49 

1800 

31,443,321 

6,072,256 

16.13 

1870 

38,.558,.S71 

8,071,875 

30.93 

1880 

50.1.55,783 

11,318,547 

22.57 

1890 

62,622,250 

18,235,670 

29.12 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  proportion  of  urban  pop- 
ulation has  increased  gradually  during  the  past 
century  from  3.35  up  to  29.12  per  cent,  or  from  one- 
thirtieth  up  to  nearly  one-third  of  the  total  popula- 
tion. The  increase  had  been  quite  regular  from 
the  beginning  up  to  1880,  while  from  1880  to  1890 
it  made  a  leap  from  22.57  up  to  29.12  per  cent,  thus 
illustrating  in  a  forcible  manner  the  accelerated 
tendency  of  our  population  toward  urban  life.  The 
number  of  cities  having  each  a  population  of  more 
than  8,000  increased  from  6  in  1790  to  286  in  1880, 
whence  it  leaped  to  443  in  1890. 

In  1870  there  were  only  14  cities  reporting  each  a 
population  of  100,000  or  over;  in  1880  there  were 
20;  and  in  1890  tlie  number  had  increased  to  28. 
In  1880  New  York  was  the  only  city  whose  popu- 
lation had  reached  a  million  ;  now  there  are  three, 
namely :  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Philadelphia. 
The  list  and  relative  rank  of  the  cities  having  each 
a  poi)ulation  of  100,000  in  the  census  years  of  1870, 
1880,  and  l.SdO  are  shown  as  follows: 


I 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1571 


Rauk 

1S90. 

1880. 

1S70. 

, 

New  York.  N.  Y. 

New  York.N.Y. 

New  Y'ork,  N  Y. 

2 

Chicago,  III. 

Philadelp'a.Pi. 

Philadelp'a,  Pa. 

3 

l"hiladelpliia.  Pa. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

4 

Brooklyn.  X.Y. 

Chicago.  111. 

St.  Louis.  Mo. 

5 

Saint  Louis.  Mo. 

Boston.  Mass. 

Chicago.  111. 

6 

Boston,  Mass. 

St.  Louis.  Mo, 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Boston,  Mass. 

« 

Sau  Francisco.Cal. 

Ciuciuuati,  O. 

Cincinnati.  O 

9 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

San  Franc. ,Cal. 

N.  Orleans.  La. 

10 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 

N.  Orleans.  La. 

S. Francisco.Cal. 

11 

Buffalo,  N.  Y'. 

Cleveland.  0. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

12 

New  Orleans,  La. 

Pittsburg,  I'n. 

Washington.D.C 

13 

Pittsburg.  Pa. 

Buffalo.  N.Y. 

Newark,  N.  J. 

14 

Washington.   D.  C. 

Wash'gton.D.C. 

Louisville,  Ky. 

15 

Detroit,  Mich. 

Newark,  N.  J. 

16 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Louisville,  Kv. 

17 

Newark,  N.J. 

JerseyCitv.N.J. 

18 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Jersey  Citv,  N.  J. 

Detroit,  Mich. 

19 

Milw'kee,  Wis. 

» 

Louisville,  Ky. 

Providence. K.I, 

21 

Omaha,  Neb. 

22 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

23 

Saint  PauI.Miuu. 

•a 

Kansas  Citv,  Mo. 

25 

Providence,  R.  I. 

38 

Denver,  Colo. 

27 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 

28 

Alleghany  City.Pa. 

Cities  Hud  Towns. 


List  of  Cities  Having  Each,  in  1890,  a  Pohul.\tiox 
of  8,000  or  ovek. 


Cities  and  Towns. 


Adams,  Mass 

Adrian,  Mich 

Akrou.Ohio 

Alameda,  Cal 

Albany,  N.Y' 

Alexandria,  Va 

Allegheny,  Pa.. 

.Allentown,  Pa 

Alpena,  Mich 

Alton,  111 

Altoona.  Pa 

Amesbury,  Mass 

Amsterdam,  N.  Y. .. 

Anderson,  Ind 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich  ... 

Anniston,  Ala 

Appleton.  Wis 

Arkansas  City,  Kaus 

Asheville,  N.  C 

Ashland,  Wis 

Ashtabula,  Ohio 

Atchison.  Kaus 

Athens,  Ga 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Atlantic,  City,  N.  J. 

-Auburn,  Me 

Auburn,  N.  Y 

Augn.sta,  Ga 

Augusta,  Me 

Aurora,  111 

Austin,  Tex 

Baltimore,  Md 

Bangor,  Me 

Bath.  Me 

Baton  Rouge,  La.  -    . 

Battle  Creek,  Mich... 

Bay  City.  Mich 

Bayonue,  N.  J 

Beatrice,  Neb 

Beaver  Falls,  Pa 

Bellaire,  Ohio 

Belleville,  111 

Beverly,  Mass 

Biddeford,  Me 

Binghampton,  N.  Y.. 


Population. 


9,213 

8,756 

27,601 

11,165 

91,923 

14,3:» 
105,287 
25,228 
11,283 
10,291 

30,337 
9,798 
17,336 
10,741 
9.431 

9,876 
11,869 

8,347 
10,335 

9,950 

8,338 
13,963 

8,639 
65,533 
13,055 

11,250 
25.858 
S^,.S0O 
10.527 
19,688 

14,476 
434,4:;9 
19,103 
8,723 
10,478 

13,197 
27,8:J9 
19,033 
13,836 
9,735 

9,934 
15,861 
10,821 
14,443 
35,005 


5,591 
7,849 

16,512 
5,708 

90,758 

13,659 
78,682 
18,063 
6,15:5 
8,975 

19,710 
3,355 
9,466 
4,126 
8,061 

942 

8,005 
1,012 
2,616 


Increase. 


Numb'r. 


4,445 
15.105 

6,099 
37,409 

5,477 

9,555 
21,924 
21,891 

8,665 
11,873 

11,013 
332.313 

16,856 
7,874 
7,197 

7,063 
20,093 
9,372 
2,447 
5,104 

8,025 
10,683 

8,456 
12,651 
17,317 


3,622 
907 
11,089 
5,457 
4,165 

080 

26,605 

7,165 

5,130 

1,319 

10.027 
0.443 
7,870 
6,615 
1,370 

8,934 
3,864 
7,335 
7,619 


Per 
Cent. 


3,893 
1 ,142 
2,540 
28,124 
7,578 

1,095 
3.934 
11,409 
1362 
7,815 

3,463 

102,126 

2,247 

849 

3,281 

6,1.34 
7,146 
9,661 
11,389 
4,631 

1,909 
4.678 
2,365 
1.792 

17.688 


64.78 
11.56 
67.16 
95  60 
4.59 

4.98 
33.81 
39.67 
83.37 
14.70 

53.92 
192.04 

83.14 
160.32 

17.00 

948,41 

48.27 

724.80 

291.25 


87.58 
7.56 
41.65 
75.18 
138.36 

17.74 
17.94 
52.12 
21.49 
65.82 

31.44 
30.73 
13.33 
10.78 
45.59 

86.85 
34.53 
103.08 
465.43 
90.73 

23.79 
43.79 
27.97 
14.16 
102.14 


Birmingham,  Ala. 
Bloomington,  111   . 

Boston,  Mass 

Braddock,  Pa 

Bradford,  Pa 


Bridgeport,  Conn, 
Bridgeton,  N.  J ., , , 
Brockton,  Mass.,,, 
Brookhne,  Mass. , , 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y .. . 

Brunswick,  Ga 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Burlington,  Iowa, 
Burlington,  N.  J., 
Burlington,  Vt 


Butler,  Pa 

Butte,  Mont 

Cairo,  III 

Cambridge,  Mass., 
Camden,  N.  J  


Canton,  Ohio  

Carbondalc,  Pa 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa., 

Charleston.  S.  C 

Charlotte,  N.  0 


Chattanooga,  Tenn  ., 

Chicago.  Ill, ,. 

Chicopee.  Mass 

Chillicothe,  Ohio 
Chippewa  Falls,  Wis, 


Chelsea,  Mass    ■   ■ 

Chester,  Pa 

Cheyenne,  Wyo., 
Cincinnati.  Ohio, 
Cleveland,  Ohio,. 


Population. 


Clinton,  Iowa 

Clinton,  Mass 

Cohoes.  N.  Y 

Colorado  Springs.  Col 
Columbia,  Pa 


Columbia,  S.  C. , 
Columbus,  Ga  , . 
Columbus,  Ohio.. 
Concord,  N.  H... 
Corning,  N.  Y 


Council  Bluffs,  Iowa, 

Covington,  Ky 

Cranston,  R.  I 

Cumberland,  Md 

Cumberland,  R.  I 

Dallas,  Tex 

Danbury,  Conn 

Danville,  111 

Danville,  Va 

Davenport,  Iowa 

Dayton,  Ohio 

Decatur,  111, , . , , 

Delaware.  Ohio 

Denison,  Tex 

Denver,  Colo 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 

Detroit,  Mich 

Dover,  N.  H 

Dubuque.  Iowa 

Duluth,  Minn 

Dunkirk,  N.  Y 

Dunmore,  Pa 

East  Liverpool,  Ohio, 

Easton,  Pa 

East  Portland,  Ore 

East  Providence.  K.  I 

East  St.  Louis,  111 

Eau  Claire,  Wis 

Elgiu,  111 

Elizabeth  City,  N.  J. 

Elkhart,   Ind 


26,178 

20,048 

448,477 

8. .561 

10,514 

48,266 
11.424 
27,294 
12,103 
806,343 

8,459 
255,664 
22,565 
8,222 
14,590 

8,734 
10,723 
10.324 
70.028 
58,313 

26,189 
10,8:« 
18,020 
.'V4,955 
11,557 

29.100 
1,099,850 

14, aw 

11,288 
8,670 

27,909 

20,226 

11.690 

296,908 

261,353 

13,619 
10,424 
22,509 
11,140 
10,599 

15,353 
17,303 
90,398 
17,004 
8,550 

21,474 
37,371 

8.099 
12,729 

8,090 

38,067 
16,552 
11,491 
10,305 
26,872 

61.220 
16,841 
8,224 
10,958 
106,713 

50.093 
205.876 
12,790 
30,311 
33,115 

9,116 
8,315 
10,956 
14,481 
10,532 

8,422 
15,169 
17,415 
17,823 
,37,764 

11,:;60 


1880. 


3,086 
17,180 
362,839 
3,310 
9,197 

27.C4S 
8,722 

13,008 

8,057 

566,663 

2.891 

155.134 

19.450 

9.0iK) 
11,005 

3,163 
3,363 
9,011 
52,669 
41,059 

12,258 

7,714 

10.104 

49.984 

7.094 

12,892 
503.185 
11,286 
10,938 
3,982 

21,782 

14,997 

3,456 

2!)5,lo'9 

160,146 

9,052 
8,029 
19,416 
4.226 
8,312 

10,036 
10,123 
51,647 
13343 
4,802 

18,063 
29,720 

5,940 
10,693 

6,445 

10,368 

11,066 

7,733 

7.526 

21.831 

38.678 
9.547 
6,894 
3,975 

85,629 

22,408 
116,340 
11,687 
22,254 
3,483 

7,248 
5.151 

5,568 
11.924 
2,934 

5.0.56 
9.1  S3 

10,119 
8,7.S7 

28,22!l 

6.933 


Increase. 


Numb'r 


85,6.38 
5.251 
1.317 

21,223 
2,702 

13,686 

4,046 

239.680 

5368 
100330 
3,115 
2,132 
3,225 

5371 
7. 360 
1.313 
17,359 
16,651 

13,931 
3,119 
7.916 
4,971 
4,463 

16,208 

596,665 

2,764 

350 

4,688 

6,127 

5,229 

8,234 

41,769 

101,207 

4367 
2,395 
3,093 
6,914 
2^88 

5,317 
7,180 
38.743 
3.161 
3.748 

3.411 
7.651 
2.169 
2,036 
1.645 

27.709 
4,886 
3,758 
2,779 
5.041 

22.542 
7.294 
1330 
6,983 

71,084 

27,685 
89,536 
1,103 
8.057 
29,632 

2,168 
3,164 
5388 
2357 
7,598 

3,366 
5  984 
7,296 
9,0.36 
9,535 

4.407 


Per 
Cent. 


748.28 
16.60 
23.60 

168.64 
14.32 

76.78 
30.98 
100.57 
50.22 
42,30 

192.60 
64.80 
16.02 
35.01 
28.38 

176.13 

218.85 

14.57 

.32.96 


113.65 
40.43 
78.:i5 
9.95 
62.91 

125.72 
118.58 
24.49 
3.20 
117.73 

28.13 
34.87 
238.25 
16.87 
63.90 

50.46 
29.8? 
15.93 
163.61 
27.51 

,12.98 
70.93 
71.68 

22.83 
78.05 

18.88 
25.74 
36.35 
19.04 
25.52 

267.61 
41.88 
48.60 
36.93 
23.09 

58.28 

76.40 

19.29 

175.67 

199.51 

123.55 
76.% 
9.44 
36.80 

850.76 

29.91 
61.42 
96.T7 
21.44 
258.% 

lW.57 
65.15 
72.10 
102.83 
33.78 


1672 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


Cities  and  Towns 


Elmira,  N.  Y 

El  Paso,  Tex 

Brie,  Pa 

Kvansville,  Ind 

Everett,  Mass 

Fall  River,  Mass. .   .. 

Findlay,  Ohio 

FitcUburg,  Mass 

Flint,  Mich 

Flusliing,  N.  Y 

Fond  du  Lac,  M^is. . . . 

Fort  ScoU.  Kan 

Fort  Smith,  Ark 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

Port  Worth,  Tex 

Framiupham,  Mass.. 

Fredericli,  Md 

Freeport,  111 

Fresno,  Cal 

Galesburg,  111 

Galveston,  Tex 

(iardner.  Mass 

Gloucester,  Mass 

Gloversville,  N.  Y ... 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

Green  Bav,A\'is 

Greeueviile,  s.  C 

(.ireenwich,  Conn. 
Hagerstown,  Md..   . 

Hamilton,  Ohio 

Hannibal,  Mo 

Harrisbiirg,  Pa 

Harrison,  N.  J 

Hartford,  Conn 

Hastings,  Neb 

Haverhill,  Mass 

Hazleton,  Pa 

Helena,  Mont 

Henderson,  Ky 

Hoboken,  N.J 

Holyoke,  Mass 

Hornellaville,  N.  Y... 

Hot  Springs,  Ark 

Houston,  Tex 

Hudson,  N.  Y' 

Huntington,  W.  Va  . . 
Hutchinson.  Kans  . . 
Hyde  Park,  Mass  — 
Indianapolis,  Ind  — 


Population. 


1S90. 


Irouton.Ohio 

Iron  Mountain,  Mich 

Ishpeming,  Mich 

Ithaca,  N.  Y' 

Jackson,  Mich 


Jackson,  Tenn  — 
Jacksonville.  Fla 
Jacksonville.  Ill  . 
Jamestown.  N,  Y , 
Jaraesville,  Wis  . 


Jeffersonville.  Ind 
Jersey  City.  N.  J., . 
Johnston,  R.  I  . .   . 
Jolinstowu,  Pa, . 
Joliet,  111 

.loplin.  Mo 

Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

Kankakee,  111 

Kansas  City.  Kans 
Kansas  City,  Mo.. . 

Kearney,  Neb 

Keokuk,  Iowa 

Key  West,  Fla 

Kingston.  N.  Y'.... 
Knoxville,  Tenu.. . 

Kokomo,  Ind 

La  Crosse,  Wis,... 


29,70S 
10,.S88 
40,6:M 
50,756 

11,068 
74,398 
18,553 
22,037 
9,803 

10,868 
12,024 
11,946 
11,311 
35,393 

23,076 
9,289 
8,193 
10,189 
10,818 

15,264 
29,084 
8,424 
24,651 
13,864 

60,278 
9.069 
8.607 
10,131 
10,118 

17,.'J65 
12,857 
40,164 
8,338 
53,230 

13.584 
27,412 
11.872 
13,834 
8,835 

43,648 
.35,637 
10.996 
8,086 
27,557 

9,970 
10,108 

8,682 
10,193 
105,436 

10,939 
8,.599 
11,197 
11,079 
20,798 

20,039 
17,201 
10,740 
16,038 
10,836 

10,666 
163,003 
9,778 
21,805 
23,264 

9,943 

17,853 

9,025 

38.316 

nl.32,716 

8,074 
14,101 
18,080 
21,261 
22,536 

8,261 
25,090 


20,541 

736 

27,737 

29,280 

4,159 
48,961 

4,633 
12,429 

8,409 

n6.683 
13,094 
5,372 
3,099 
26,880 

6,663 
6,235 
8,659 
8,516 
1,112 

11,437 
22,248 

4,988 
19,329 

7,133 

32,016 
7,464 
6.160 
7,892 
6,027 

12,122 
11,074 
30,762 
6,898 
42,015 

2,817 
18,472 
0,935 
3,624 
5,365 

30,999 

21,915 

8,195 

3,554 

16,513 

8,670 
3.174 
1.540 
7.088 
75,056 

8,857 
((■) 
6,039 
9,105 
16,105 

5,377 
7,6.50 
10,927 
9,1357 
9,018 

9.357 
120,722 
5,765 
8,380 
11,657 

7,038 
1 1 ,937 
5,651 
3,200 
55,785 

1.782 
12,117 

9,890 
18,344 

9,693 

4,042 

14,605 


Numb'r. 


9,167 

9,K02 

12,897 

21,476 

6,909 

25,437 

13,920 

9,608 

1,394 

4,185 
ftl,070 
6,574 
8,212 
8,513 

16,413 
3,004 
h466 
1,678 
9,706 

3,827 
6,836 
3,436 
5,322 
6,731 

28,202 
1,605 
2.447 
2.239 
3,491 

5,443 
1,783 
9,402 
1,440 
11,215 

10,767 
8,940 
4.937 

10.210 
3,470 

13,649 
13,722 
2,801 
4,582 
11,044 

1,300 
6,934 
7,142 
3,105 
30,880 

2,082 


5,158 
1,974 
4.693 

4,662 
9„551 
hlSJ 
6.681 
1,818 

1,309 
42,281 

4,013 
13,425 
11,607 

2,905 
6,916 
3,374 
;W,116 
76,931 

6,292 
1,984 
8,190 
2,917 
12,842 

4,219 
10,585 


Cent. 


44.63 

1,304.62 

46.50 

73.35 

166.12 
51.95 

300.45 
77.30 
16.58 

62.62 
M.17 
122.38 
264.99 
31.67 

246.33 
48.18 
^5.38 
19.65 

872.84 

33.40 
30.73 
68.89 
27.58 
94.36 

88.27 
21.50 
39.72 
28.37 
52.68 

44.90 
16.10 
29.05 
20.88 
26.69 

.382  22 
49.40 
81.19 

281.73 
64.68 

40.80 
62.61 
.34.18 
127.52 
66.88 

14.99 

218.46 

463.77 

43.81 

40.48 

23.51 


85.41 
21.68 
29.14 

86  70 
124.85 
M.71 
71.40 
20.16 

13.99 
3").02 
69,61 
160.20 
99.57 

41.28 

49.56 

.'■)9.71 

1,079.38 

137.91 

:153.09 
16.37 
82.81 
15.90 

132.49 

104.38 
72.97 


Cities  and  Towns. 


Lafayette,  lud... 

Lancaster.  Pa 

Lansing,  Mich 

Lansiugburg,  N.  Y... 

Laredo,  Tex 

La  Salle,  111 

Lawrence,  Kans 

Lawrence,  Mass 

Leadville,  Colo 

Leavenworth,  Kan. 

Lebanon,  Pa 

Lewiston,  Me 

Lexington.  Ky 

Lima,  Ohio . 

Lincoln,  Neb 

Lincoln,  R.  I 

Little  Falls,  N.  Y  .... 
Little  Rock,  Ark 

Lockport,  N.  Y 

Logansport.  Ind   

Loiig  Island  City.  N.Y 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Louisville,  Ky 

Lowell,  Mass 

Lynchburg,  Va 

Lynn,  Mass 

McKeesport,  Pa 

Macou,  lowtt 

Madison,  Ind 

Madison,  Wis 

Mahanoy,  Pa 

Maiden,  Mass 

Manchester,  Conn.. . . 

Manchester,  N.  H , . . . 

Manchester.  Va 

Manistee,  Mich 

Maukato,  Minn 

Mansfield,  Ohio 

Marblehead,  Mass.. . . 

Marietta.  Ohio 

Marinette,  Wis 

Marion,  Ind 

Marion,  Ohio 

Marlborough,  Mass. . . 

Marquette,  Mich 

Marshalltown,  Iowa.. 

Massillon,  Ohio 

Meadville,  I'a 

Medford,  Mass. 

Melrose.  Mass 

Memphis, Tenu 

Menominee,  Mich  .. . . 
Meriden.  Conn 

Meridian.  Miss 

Michigan  City,  Ind. . . 
Middletown,  Conn. . . 
Middletown,  N.  Y  ... 
Milford.  Mass 


Millville,  N.J 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Moberly,  Mo 

Mobile,"  Ala 


Population 
1890. 


1880. 


Increase. 


Numb'r. 


Moline.  Ill 

Montgomery,  Ala.. . . 
Mount  Carmel,  111. 
Mount  Vernou,  N.Y. 
Muncie,  Ind 


Muscatine,  Iowa  . 
Muskegon,  Mich  . 
Nanticoke,  Pa  — 
Nashua,  N.  H  .  .. 
Nashville,  Teun 


Notches,  Miss 

Natick,  Mass 

Nebraska  City,  Neb.. 


16,243 
32,01! 
13,102 

10,550 
11,319 
9,855 
9,997 
44,654 

11,212 
19,708 
14,664 
21,701 
21,567 

15,987 
55-1.54 
20,365 
8,7&3 
26,874 

16,038 
13,328 
30,506 
60,395 
161,129 

77,690 
19,709 
55,727 
20,741 
22.746 

8,937 
13,426 
11,286 
23,031 

8,222 

44,126 
9,246 
12,812 
■  8,838 
13,473 

8,202 
8.273 
11,623 
8,769 
8,327 

13,805 
9,093 
8,914 

10,092 
9,520 

11,079 
8,619 
64,495 
10,630 
21,662 

10,264 
10,776 

9,013 
11,977 

8.780 

10,002 

204,468 

164,738 

8,215 

31,076 

12,000 
21.S.S3 
8,2,54 
10,677 
11,:145 

11,4,54 
22,702 
10,044 
19.311 
761.68 

10.100 
9.118 
11,494 


14,860 

25.769 

8,319 

7,4.32 
3,521 
7,847 
8,510 
39,151 

14, .820 
16,646 
8,778 
19,083 
16,656 

7,567 
13,003 
13,766 

6,910 
13,138 

13,622 
11,198 
17,129 
11,183 
123,758 

59,476 
15,969 
28,274 
8,212 
12,749 

8,945 
10,324 

7,181 
12,017 

6,462 

.32,630 
5,729 
6,9.30 
5.550 
9,869 

7,467 
5,444 
2,750 
3,182 
3,899 

10,127 
4,690 
6,240 
6,836 
8,860 

7,573 
4,560 

33,592 
.3,288 

15,540 

4,008 
7,366 
6,826 
8,494 
9,310 

7,660 
116,587 
46,887 

6,070 
29,132 

7,800 
16,713 
2, .378 
4,586 
5,219 

8,295 
11,262 

3,884 
13,397 
43,350 

7,0,58 
8479 
1,183 


1,383 
6,242 
4,783 

3,118 
7,798 
2,008 
1,487 
5,503 

V3,608 
3,222 
5,886 
2,618 
4,911 

8,420 

42,151 

6,590 

1,873 

12,736 

2,516 

2,130 

13.377 

39,212 

37,371 

18,221 
3,750 
17,463 
12,529 
9,997 


3,102 

4,105 

11.014 

1,760 

11,496 
3.517 
5.882 
3,288 
3,614 

735 
2,829 
8,773 
5,587 
4,428 

3,687 
4,403 
2,674 
3,266 
660 

3,506 
3,9.59 
30,903 
7,342 
6,112 

6,616 
3,410 
2,187 
3,488 
n630 

2,342 

88,881 

n7,.S51 

2,145 

1,944 

4,200 
5,170 
5,876 
6,091 
6,126 

3,169 
11,440 
6,160 
5,914 
32,818 

3,043 

639 

7,S11 


Per 

Cent. 


9.SI 
24.22 
57.49 

41.95 
221.47 
25.59 
17.47 
14.06 

fc24.86 
19.47 
67.05 
13.72 
29.48 

111.27 
3M.16 
47.88- 
27.11 
96.94 

18.61 
19.02 
78.10 
360.64 
30.20 

30.64 
23.60 
45.60 
152,57 
78.41 

60.09 
30.05 
57.16 
91.65 
27.24 

35.23 
61.39 
84.88 
59.24 
36.06 

9.84 
51.97 
319.02 
175.58 
113.57 

36.i» 
93.88 
42.85 
47.63 
7.45 

46.30 
86.82 
92.00 
223.30 
39.33 

165.07 
46.29 
32.04 
41.01 
06.69 

30.57 
76.90 
251.35 
35.34 
6.67 

63.85 

80.9S 

247.10 

1.32.88 

117.38 

38.08 
101.,58 
168.60 
44.14 
75.70 

43.11 

7.54 

174.7* 


Estimated,  b  Decrease,    r  No  population  for  1880. 


(1  lucludes  13,048  outside  the  limits  of  Kansas  City. 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1573 


t'itits  and  Towns. 


Population. 


Kew  Albany,  Ind. 
Kewark,  N.  J 


Newark, Ohio 

Kew  Bedford,  Mass. 
New  Brighton,  N.  Y... 
Kew  Britain, Conn. (6) 
New  Brunswick,  N,  J 


Jfewburg,  X.  Y 

Newburyport,  Mass. 

Newcastle,  Pa 

New  Haven, Conn... 
New  London, Conn 

New  Orleans,  La 

Newport,  Ky 

Mewport,  R.  I 

New  Rochelle,  N.Y. 
Newton,  Mass 

New  York,  X.  Y 

Norfolk,  Va 

Norristowu,  Pa 

North  Adams,  Mass. 
Northampton,  Mass 

Norwalk,  Conn 

Norwich,  Conn 

Oakland,  Cal 

Ogden,  Utah 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y... 

Oil  City,  Pa 

Omaha,  Neb 

Orange,  N,  J 

Oshkosh,  Wis 

Oswego,  N.  Y 

Ottawa  City,  111 

Ottumwa,  Iowa 
Owensborough,  Ky. . 

Paducah.  Ky 

Paris,  Texas 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va. 

Passaic,  N.  .1.  

Pater.'ion.  N.  J 

Pawtueket,  R.  I 

Peabody,  Mass 

Peekskill,  N.  Y 

Pensacola,  Fla 

Peoria,  111 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.. 
Petersburg,  Va  

Philadelphia,  Pa     . . 
Phillipsburg.  N.  J... 

Ph(jenisville,  Pa 

PineBluft.Ark 

Piqua.  Ohio 

Pittsburg,  Pa 

Pittsfield,  Mass 

Pittston,Pa 

Plainfield, N.  J 

Plattsmouth,  Neb ... 

Plymouth,  Pa 

Port  Huron,  Mich  . . 

Port  Jervis,  N.  Y' 

Portland,  Me 

Portland,  Ore 

Portsmouth,  N.  H  . . 
Portsmouth.  Ohio  .. 

Portsmouth,  Va 

Pottstown,  Pa 

Pottsville,  Pa 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 
Providence,  R.  I.  . 

Pueblo,  Colo 

Quincy,  111 

Quincy,  Mass 

Racine,  Wis 

Raleigh,  N.C 

Readiug,  Pa 

Richmond,  Ind    ... 
Richmond.  Va 


21,059 
181,830 

14,270 
40.733 
]G,423 
19,007 
18,603 

23,087 
13,9-17 
11,600 
81,298 
13,757 

242.039 

2»,91S 

19,457 

8318 

84  379 

1,51.5,301 
34,h71 
19,791 
16,074 
14,990 

17,747 
16.156 
48,6X2 
14,119 
11,662 

10.932 
140.452 
11.144 
22,136 
21,142 

9,985 
14,001 

9.8:?7 
13,076 

8,254 

8,408 
13,028 
78,347 
27.633 
10,058 

9,676 
11,750 
41.024 

9,512 
22,680 

1,046,964 
8,644 
8,514 
9,952 
9,090 

238,617 
17,281 
10,302 
11,267 
8,392 

9,344 
13,.543 

9,327 
36,425 
46,385 

9,827 
12,394 
13,268 
13,285 
14,117 

22,206 
132,146 
24,558 
31,494 
16,723 

21,014 
12,678 
58,661 
16,608 
81,388 


1880. 


16,423 
136  ,.508 

9,600 
26Jvi5 
12,679 
11,800 
17,166 

18,049 
1S,5SS 
,«<,418 
62,882 
10,567 

216.090 

20.433 

15.693 

5,276 

16,995 

1,206,299 
21.966 
13,063 
10,191 
12,172 

13,956 
15.112 
34.555 
6,069 
10,341 

7.315 
30,518 
13,207 
15,748 
21,116 

7,834 
9,004 
6,231 
8,036 
3,980 

6,582 

6,532 

51,031 

19,0.30 

9,028 

6.893 
6,845 

29,259 
4,808 

21,656 

847,170 
7,181 
6,682 
3,203 
6,031 

156  ,.389 
13,364 
7,472 
8,125 
4,175 

6,065 
8,883 
8,678 
33,8i0 
17,577 

9,690 
11,321 
11,390 

5,305 
13,253 

20,207 

104,8.57 

3,217 

27,268 

10,570 

16,031 
9,265 
43,278 
12,742 
63,600 


Increase. 


Numb'r. 


4,636 
45322 

4,670 
13,S,SS 
3,744 
7,207 
1,437 

5,038 

409 

3,182 

18,416 

3,220 

25,949 
4.4h5 
3,764 
3,042 
7,384 

309,002 

12,905 

6,728 

6,883 

2,818 

3,791 
1,044 
14,127 
8,820 
1,321 

3,617 

109,934 

5,637 

7,088 

726 

2,151 
4,297 
3,606 
5,040 
4,274 

1,826 
6,496 
27,316 
8,603 
1,130 

2,783 
4,905 
11,765 
4,704 
1,024 

199,794 
1,463 
1,832 
6,749 
3,059 

82,228 
3,917 
2,830 
3,142 
4,217 

3,279 

4,660 

649 

2,615 


Cities  and   Towns. 


Per 
Cent, 


1,37 
1,073 
1,878 
7,980 

864 

1,999 

27,289 

21,341 

4,226 

6.153 

4,983 
3,413 

15,383 
3,866 

17,788 


28.23 
33.20 

48.65 
51.73 
29.53 
61.08 
8.47 

27.91 
3.02 
37.80 
29.29 
30.56 

12.01 
21.95 
23.99 
57.66 
43.45 

25.62 
58.75 
51.50 
57.73 
23.15 

27.16 

6.91 

.40.88 

145.33 

12.77 

49.45 
360.23 
42.08 
45.01 
3.44 

27.46 
55.50 
57,87 
62.72 
107.39 

27.74 
99.45 
53.53 
45.21 
12.52 

40.37 
71.66 
40.21 
97.84 
4.73 

23.58 
20.37 
27.42 
210.71 
50.72 

52.58 
29.31 

37.87 
38.67 
101.01 

54.06 

62.46 

7.48 

7.73 

163.90 

1.41 

9.48 

16.49 

150.42 

6.52 

9.89 

26,02 

663.38 

15.50 

58.21 

31.08 
36.84 
.35  54 
30.34 
27.97 


Roanoke,  Va 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

Rockford,  111   

Rock  Island,  111. 
Rockland,  Mo 

Rome,  N.  Y 

Rutland,  Vt 

Sacramento,  Cal 

Saginaw,  Mich 

Saint  Joseph,  Mo 

Saint  Louis,  Mo 

Saint  Paul. Minn 

.Salem.  Mass 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 
San  Antonio,  Tex 

San  Diego,  Cal 

Sandusky,  Ohio 

San  Francisco,  Cal. . . 

San  Jos^,Cal 

SaratogaSprings,N.  Y 

Savannah,  Ga 

Schenectady,  N.Y... 

Scran  ton.  Pa 

Seattle,  Wash 

Sedalia,  Mo 

Shamokin,  Pa 

Sheboygan,  Wis 

Shenandoah,  Pa 

Shreveport.  La 

Sing  Sing,  N,  Y 

Sioux  City,  Iowa 

Sioux  Falls,  S.  Dak  .. 
Somerville.  Mass  .... 

South  Bend, Ind 

South  Bethlehem,  Pa 

South  Omaha,  Neb. . . 

Spencer,  Mass 

Spokane  Falls,  Wash. . 

Springfield,  111 

Springfield,  Mass 

Sprinfield,Mo 

Springfield,  Ohio 

Stamford,  Conn 

Steelton,  Pa 

Steubenville,  Ohio. . . . 

Stillwater,  Minn   

Stockton,  Cal 

Streator.Ill 

Superior,  Wis 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

Tacoma,  Wash 

Taunton,  Mass 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 

Tiffin,  Ohio 

Titusville,Pa 

Toledo,  Ohio 

Topeka,  Kans 

Trenton,  N.  J 

Troy,  N.  Y 

Union,  N.J 

Utica.N.Y 

Vernon,  Conn 

Vicksburg,  Miss 

Vincennes,  Ind 

Waco,  Texas 

Waltham,  Mass 

W'arwick,  R.  I 

Washington.  D.  C 

Waterbury,  Conn 

Water  town,  N.  Y 

Watertown,  Wis 

Wausau,  Wis 

West  Bay  City,  Mich.. 

West  Chester,  Pa 

Westfield,Mass 

West  Troy,  N.  Y 

Wevmouth,  Mass 


I'opulation. 


16,1.59 
133,896 
23,584 
13,634 
8,174 

14,991 
11,760 
26,386 
46,322 
52,324 

451,770 
133,156 
30,801 
44,843 
37,673 

16,159 
18,471 
298,997 
18,060 
11,975 

43,189 
19,902 
75,215 
42,837 
14,068 

14,103 
]B.:>59 
15,944 
11,979 
9,352 

37,806 
10,177 
40,152 
21,819 
10,302 

8,062 
8,747 
19,922 
24,963 
44,179 

21,850 
31,895 
15,700 
9,250 
13,394 

11,200 
14,424 
11,414 
11.983 
88,143 

36.006 
25,448 
30,217 
10,801 
8,073 

81,431 
31,007 
57,458 
60,95<; 
10,643 

44,007 
8,808 

13,373 
8,853 

14,445 

18,707 
17.761 
230.392 
28,646 
14,725 

8,755 
9,2.53 
12,981 
8,028 
9,805 

12,967 
10,866 


1880. 


(rl 

89,366 
13,129 
11,659 
7,599 

12,191 
12,149 
21,420 
29,541 
32,431 

350,518 
41,473 
27,563 
20,768 
20,550 

2,637 

15,838 

233,959 

12,567 

8,421 

30,709 

13,655 

45,850 

3,533 

9,561 

8,184 
7,314 
10,147 
8,009 
6,578 

7,366 
2,164 
24,933 
13,280 
4,925 

(c) 

7,466 

360 

19,743 

33,340 

6,522 
20,730 
11,297 

2,447 
12,093 

9,055 
10,282 

5,157 

(<■) 

51,792 

1,098 
21,213 
26,042 
7,879 
9,046 

50,137 
15,452 
29,910 
56,747 
5,849 

33,914 
6,915 

11,814 
7,680 
7,295 

11,712 
12,164 
177,624 
17,806 
10,697 

7,883 
4,277 
6,397 
7,046 
7,587  I 

8,820 
10,570 


Increase. 


Number.    J^^^^^ 


44,530 

10,4f>5 

1,975 

575 

2,797 
C7389 
4,966 
16,781 
19,893 

101,2.52 

91,683 

3,238 

24,075 

17,123 

13,522 
2,633 

65,038 
5,493 
3,554 

12,480 
6,247 
29,365 
39,304 
4,.507 

6,219 
9,045 
5,797 
3,970 
2,774 

30,440 
8,013 

15,219 
8,539 
5,377 


1,281 
19,572 

5,220 
10,839 

15,328 
11,165 
4,403 
6,803 
1,301 

2,205 
4,142 
6,257 


36,351 

34,908 
4,2.35 
4,175 
2,922 
a973 

31,297 

15,555 

27,548 

4,209 

4,794 

10,093 
1,893 
1,559 
1,173 
7,150 

6,995 
5,597 
52,768 
10,840 
4,028 

S72 
4,976 
6,584 

982 
2,218 

4,147 
296 


49,88 
79.63 
16.94 
7.57 

22.94 
n3.20 
23.18 
56.81 
61.34 

28.89 
221.07 

11.75 
115  92 

83.32 

512.78 
16.62 
27.80 
43.71 
42.20 

40.64 
45.75 
64  05 
1,112.48 
47.14 

75.99 
123.67 
57.13 
49.57 
42.17 

413.25 
370.29 
61.04 
64.30 
109.18 


17.16 

8,592.00 

26.44 

32.51 

235.02 
53.86 
38.97 

278.01 
10.76 

24.35 
40.28 
121.33 


70.19 

3,179.23 

19.96 

16,03 

37,09 

alO.76 

62.42 
100.67 
92.10 
7.42 
81.96 

29.76 
27.38 
13.20 
15.27 
98.01 

59.73 
46.01 
29.71 
60.88 
37.66 

11.06 

116.34 

102.92 

13.94 

29 .28 

47.02 
2.80 


«  Decrease,    c  No  population  for  1880. 


b  Includes  New  Britain  City,  not  separately  returned. 


1574 


U  X  I  T  E  I)    .S  r  A  T  E  S    OF    AMERICA 


Cities  and  Towns. 

Population. 

Increase. 

1890. 

1880. 

Number. 

Per 

Cent. 

Wheelins.  W.  Va 

Wichita,  Kans 

35,01.3 
2.3,853 
37,718 

27.132 
8,6W 
Gl,4.31 
20.056 
18,208 

8,018 
13.499 
20,830 
84,C55 

32,033 
20,793 
33,220 
21,009 

30,737 
4,911 
23,339 

18,934 
6,608 
42,478 
17,360 
10,208 

2,854 
10,931 
16,050 
58,291 

18,892 
13,940 
15,4:35 
18,113 

4,276 
18,942 
14,379 

8,198 
2,040 
18,953 
2,706 
8,000 

5,164 

2,56« 

4,780 

26,364 

13,141 

6,8.53 
17.785 
2,896 

13.91 

385.71 

"NVilkesbarre.  Pa 

Williamsport,  Pa 

Willimantic,  Conn. ,., 

Wilmington,  Del 

Wilmington,  N.  C.  . . 
Winona,  Minn 

61.61 

43.30 
30.87 
44.62 
15.60 
78  37 

Winston,   N.  C 

Woburn,  Mass 

Woonsocket,  R,  I 

Worcester,  Mass 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 

York,  Pa 

180.94 
23.49 
29.78 
45.23 

69..56 
49.16 

Youngstown,  Ohio 

Zanesville,  Ohio 

115.23 
15.99 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Census  of  1890  in  clos- 
ing his  special  report  on  the  urban  population, 
says:  In  defining  what  constitutes  a  city  in  each 
case  the  Census  Office  has  consistently  maintained 
the  policy  of  including  only  such  population  as 
lives  within  the  charter  limits,  because  no  other 
defined  limits  exist.  In  many  cases,  however,  this 
does  not  give  to  the  city  all  the  population  which 
naturally  belongs  to  it.  There  may  be  populous 
suburbs,  which  are  to  all  intent  and  purposes  parts 
of  the  city,  whose  inhabitants  transact  business 
within  the  city,  who  are  served  by  the  same  post- 
office,  etc.,  but  who,  living  without  the  charter 
limits,  are  not  included  in  the  city's  population. 
Of  this  our  greatest  city.  New  York,  is  a  forcible 
exami)le.  Within  a  radius  of  fifteen  miles  of  the 
city  hall  on  Manhattan  Island  the  people  are  in 
effect  citizens  of  New  York,  so  far  as  their  business 
and  social  interests  go,  although  politically  they 
live  in  different  cities,  counties  and  states.  This 
body  of  population,  the  commercial  metropolis  of 
the  country,  contains  a  population  considerably  in 
excess  of  3,000,000,  or  two-thirds  that  of  London, 
which  is,  similarly,  a  congeries  of  municipalities. 
Next  to  London,  New  York  and  its  suburbs  form 
the  largest  city  of  the  globe.  Other  cases  are 
those  of  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis,  whose  corporate 
limits  join  one  another,  and  Bristol,  Tenn.,  and 
Bristol,  Va.,  two  corporations  whose  line  of 
division  follows  the  middle  of  the  main 
street  of  the  city,  and  which  have  a  joint  popu- 
lation of  6,229.  Texarkana,  Tex.,  and  Texarkana, 
Ark.,  is  a  similar  case.  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  has  large 
suburbs  immediately  adjoining,  whose  population 
would,  if  added,  increase  it  to  very  nearly  40,000 
inhabitants. 

The  rate  of  growth  of  many  of  these  cities, 
especially  those  situated  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  has  been  amazing.  Chicago  has  added  over 
Iialf  a  million  to  her  inhabitants,  thus  more  than 
doul)ling  her  size  in  ten  years.  Rlinneapolis,  St. 
Paul,  Omaha,  Kansas  City,  and  Denver  have  ex- 
panded to  triple  or  quadruple  their  former  size, 
while  all  over  the  west  smaller  cities  have  sprung 
up  as  if  by  magic. 

Population     and    Area   op   Fifty  Cities    of  the 
United  States  by  Square  Miles  and  Acres. 

In  the  following  lists  ninteen  other  cities  would 
have  been  included  had  it  not  been  for  the  lack  of 
data  not  reported  to  the  Census  Pepartment  in 
time  for  use  in  the  tabulated  summaries  prepared 


by  that  department.  The  missing  figures  except  for 
population  (for  which  see  page  465  of  these  Re- 
visions and  Additions)  were  from  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
Providence,  R.  I.,  Allegheny,  Pa.,  Albany,  N.  Y., 
Columbus,  0.,  Richmond,  Va.,  Paterson,  N.  J., 
Scranton,  Pa.,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Memphis,  Tenn.,  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  Dayton,  O.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Grand 
Rapids,  Mich.,  and   Reading,  Pa. 

The  total  population  of  the  fifty  cities  (as  shown 
in  table  on  opposite  page)  in  1890  was  10,095,370. 
The  area  in  square  miles,  and  the  density  of  pop- 
ulation are  given  for  convenience  of  comparison. 

Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  is  considered 
as  a  city  proper;  that  is,  it  includes  the  area  and 
population  inclosed  within  the  actual  municipal 
boundaries,  and  not  those  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia. 

The  area  of  New  York  includes  the  islands  in  the 
East  River,  (having  an  aggregate  of  520  acres)  be- 
longing to  the  twelfth,  ninteenth,  and  twenty-third 
wards.  There  being  no  way  to  separate  the  popu- 
lation of  these  islands  from  that  of  the  city  proper, 
the  area  must  be  included  in  the  whole. 

The  area  given  for  Fall  River  comprises  all  ex- 
cept portions  of  the  6th  and  9th  wards,  the  area  of 
which  the  city  engineer  reported  to  the  Census 
Agent  had  never  been  measured. 

Of  the  fifty  cities  included  in  the  foregoing  tables, 
twenty-two  have  a  population  of  over  100,000  each 
and  a  total  of  8,737,648,  or  13.95  per  cent,  of  the  total 
population  of  the  United  States. 

The  average  density  of  population  in  these 
twenty-two  cities  is  10,190.03  to  the  square  mile, 
or  15.92  to  the  acre.  There  are,  however,  enormous 
differences  in  the  ratios  of  population  to  area  in- 
cluded in  the  city  limits  of  these  various  cities. 
This  ratio,  stated  in  round  numbers  as  persons  to 
the  acre,  ranges  from  4  in  St.  Paul,  5  in  Minneapolis, 
9  in  Omaha,  10  in  New  Orleans  and  Buffalo,  11  in 
Chicago  and  Denver,  12  in  Saint  Louis,  to  59  in 
in  New  York,  48  in  Brooklyn,  31  in  Washington, 
and  30  in  San  Francisco.  For  the  other  larger 
cities,  the  figures  for  population  per  acre  are,  in 
round  numbers,  Baltimore,  24;  Boston,  20;  Cincin- 
nati and  Milwaukee,  19  each  ;  Cleveland,  Detroit, 
Indianapolis,  and  Newark,  16  each  ;  Nashville,  14; 
Rochester  and  Philadelphia,  13  each. 

These  ratios,  however,  give  no  information  as  to 
the  difference  in  density  of  population  in  the 
actually  built-up  portions,  as  will  be  seen  by  com- 
parisons of  the  density  figures  for  wards  in  some 
of  these  cities.  Thus,  in  New  York  City  the  num- 
ber of  persons  per  acre  ranges  from 474  in  ward  ten 
to  3  in  ward  twenty-four  ;  in  Chicago,  from  116  in 
ward  sixteen  to  2  in  wards  twenty-eight  and  thirty- 
three  ;  in  Philadelphia,  from  163  in  ward  three  to  1 
in  ward  twenty-three ;  in  Brooklyn,  from  198  in 
ward  sixteen  to  6  in  ward  twenty-six;  in  Boston, 
from  204  in  ward  eight  to  3  in  ward  twenty-three: 
in  Baltimore,  from  141  in  ward  ten  to  3  in  ward 
twenty-two ;  in  Cincinnati, from  162  in  ward  thirteen 
to  3  in  ward  thirty  ;  in  Buffalo,  from  60  in  ward  two 
to  1  in  wards  twelve  and  thirteen; in  New  Orleans 
from  56  in  ward  ten  to  2  in  ward  nine ;  in  Milwaukee, 
from  43  in  ward  two  to  7  in  wards  seventeen  and 
eighteen  ;  in  Newark,  from  64  in  ward  fifteen  to  4 
in  ward  ten;  in  Jlinneapolis,  from  38  in  ward  six 
to  1  in  ward  ten  ;  in  Saint  Paul,  from  42  in  ward 
four  to  1  in  wards  two  and  ten ;  in  Rochester,  from 
59  in  ward  thirteen  to  4  in  ward  fifteen. 

Army-  and  Navy  op  the  United  States. 

For  the  latest  statistics  of  the  Army  and  Navy 
see  those  articles  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 


U  i\  I  T  E  D    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1575 


Cities. 


Counties. 


New  York 

Chicago 

Philadelphia. 

Brooklyn 

Saint  Louis. .. 

Boston 

Baltimore. 
San  Francisco 

Cincinnati 

Cleveland 

Buffalo 

New  Orleans.. 

Detroit 

Milwaukee  — 
Washington  ... 

Newark 

Minneapolis... 

Omaha 

Rochester 

Saint  Paul 

Denver 

Indianapolis  . . 

Worcester 

Toledo 

New  Haven 

Lowell 

Nashville 

Fall  River 
Cambridge 
Camden 

Trenton 

Lynn 

Hartford 
Evansville 
Los  Angeles 

Lawrence 

Hoboken  

Dallas 

Sioux  City 

Portland 

Holyoke    

Binghamption  . 

Duluth 

Elinira 

Davenport 

Canton 

Taunton 

La  Crosse 

Newport 

Rockford 


New  York,    N.  Y.. . 

Cook.  Ill 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Kings,  N.  Y 

Missouri 

Suffolk,  Mass 

Maryland 

San  "Francisco,  Cal.. 

Hamilton,  Ohio    

Cuyahoga,  Ohio 

Erie,  N.  Y 

Orleans,  La 

Wayne,  Mich 

Milwaukee,  Wis  — 
District  of  Colunibi 

Essex,  N.  J 

Hennepin,  Minn       . 

Douglas,  Nebr 

Monroe,  N.  Y 

Ramsey,  Minn 

Arapahoe.  Colo 

Marion.  Ind 

Worcester.  Mass 

Lucas,  Ohio 

New  Haven,  Conn. . . 

Middlesex,  Mass 

Davidson,  Tenn 

Bristol,  Mass  

Middlesex,  Mass 

Camden,  N.  J 

Mercer,  N.  J 

Essex,  ^fass 

Hartford,  Conn 

Vanderburg.  Ind 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Essex,  Mass 

Hudson,  N.  J 

Dallas,  Texas 

Woodbury.  Iowa  ... 
Cumberland,  Me.... 

Hampden,  Ma^s 

Broome.  N.  Y 

Saint  Louis,   Minn.. 

Chemung,  N.  Y 

Scott.  Iowa 

Stark,  Ohio 

Bristol.  Mass 

La  Crosse,  Wis 

Campbell,  Ky 

Winnebago,  111 


Population. 


1.515.S01 

1,0J9,S50 

1,046,964 

806,343 

451,770 

44S,477 
4;M,439 
298,997 
296,908 
261,333 

255,6&4 
242,039 
205.S76 
204.4GS 
202,978 

181,830 
164.738 
140,4.52 
133,#9« 
133,156 

106.713 
105,4.36 
84,t>!)5 
81,434 
81,288 

77,696 
76,168 
74,398 
70,028 
58,313 

.57,4.58 
55.727 
63,230 
50,756 
50  ,.395 

44,0.54 
43,(^S 
38.067 
37,806 
36,425 

35,637 
35,005 
33,115 
19,708 
26,872 

26,189 
25,448 
25,090 
24,908 
23,.58J 


Area. 


Square 
miles. 


40.22 
160.57 
129.39 
26.46 
61.35 

35.28 
28.38 
15.4G 
25.00 
24.88 

.39.04 
37.09 
20.69 
17.00 
10.24 

17.77 
51.67 
24.50 
15.60 
51.42 

15.49 
10.07 
34.02 
19.72 
17-56 

11.15 
8.44 

10.95 
.5.83 
4.31 

3.95 
10.64 
14.66 

4.42 
27.60 

6.67 
1.47 
7.68 
30.90 
2.51 

3.98 
10.04 
3.23 
4  45 
4.41 

6.80 
47.40 
8.19 
1.20 
6.37 


Acres. 


25,740.80 
102,764.80 
82,809.60 
16,934.40 
39,264.00 

22,579.211 
18,163.:?0 
9,894.40 
16,000.00 
15,923.20 

24,985.60 
23.737.60 
13.177.60 
10.880.00 
6,553.60 

11,372  80 
,S:?,OI'.S.OO 
15,680.00 
9.984.00 
32,908.80 

9,913.60 

6,444.80 
21,772.80 
12,620.80 

4,838.  iO 

7.136.00 
5,401.60 
7,008.00 
3,731.20 
2,777.60 

2,528.00 
6,809.60 
9,382.40 
2,828.80 
17,664.00 

4,268.80 
940.80 
4,915.20 
19.776.C0 
1,606.40 

2,647.20 
6,425.60 
2,067.20 
2,848.00 
2,822.40 

4,352.00 

30,a36.00 

5,241.60 

708.00 

4,076.80 


Population  to — 


Each  square 
mile. 


Each 
acre 


37,675.31 

.58.87 

6349.66 

10.70 

8,091.54 

12.64 

30,474.04 

47.62 

7..S63.81  • 

11.51 

12.711.93 

19.86 

15.307.93 

23.92 

19,340.04 

30.22 

11,876.32 

18.50 

10,504.51 

16.41 

6,548.77 

10.23 

6,525.72 

10.20 

9,998.33 

15.62 

12,027.53 

18.79 

19,822.07 

30.97 

•10,232.41 

15.99 

3,188.27 

4.98 

5,732.73 

8.9& 

8.583.08 

13.41 

2,589.58 

4.05 

6,889.15 

10.76 

10,470.31 

16.36 

2,488  39 

3.89 

4,129.51 

6.45 

10,75:i.70 

16.80 

6,968.25 

10.89 

9,024.64 

14.10 

6,794.31 

10.62 

12,011.66 

18.77 

13,436.18 

20.99 

14,546.33 

22.73 

5,237.50 

8.18 

3,630.97 

5.67 

11,483.26 

17.94 

1,825.91 

2.85 

6,694.75 

10.46 

29,692.52 

46.39 

4,956.64 

7.74 

1,223.50 

1.91 

14,511.95 

22.67 

8,954.02 

13.99 

3,486.55 

0.45 

10,252  »2 

16.02 

6,675.96 

10.43 

6,093.42 

9.52 

3.851.32 

6.02 

£36,88 

0.84 

3,063,49 

4.79 

20.765.00 

32.45 

3,702..35 

5.78 

There  were  in  1891  ten  navy  yards  and  stations, 
namely:  Brooklyn,  Portsmoutli,  Charleston, 
League  Island,  New  London,  Washington,  Norfolk, 
Pensacola,  Mare  Island,  and  Port  Royal.  Of  these 
Brooklyn,  Portsmouth,  Norfolk,  Mare  Island,  and 
Port  Royal  are  used  as  construction  yards.  At 
Washington  there  is  a  manufactory  for  the  com- 
pletion of  heavy  ordnances. 

Conqressionaij  Cemetery  of  the  United  States. 

By  the  Act  of  May  12,  1876,  it  is  provided  that 
"hereafter,  whenever  any  deceased  Senator  or 
member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  bo 
actually  interred  in  the  Congressional  Cemetery, 
so  called,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Sergeant-at- 
Arms  of  the  Senate,  in  the  case  of  a  Senator,  and 
of  the  Sergeant-at-Arms  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, in  the  case  of  a  member  of  the  House, 
to  have  a  monument  erected,  of  granite,  with  suit- 
able inscriptions,  and  the  cost  of  the  same  shall  be 
a  charge  upon  and  paid  out  either  from  the  con- 
tingent funds  of  the  Senate  or  the  House  of  Repre- 


sentatives, to  whichever  the  deceased  may  have 
belonged,  and  any  existing  omissions  of  monuments 
or  inscriptions,  as  aforesaid,  are  hereby  directed 
and  authorized  to  be  supplied  in  like  manner;  and 
all  laws  upon  the  subject  of  monuments  in  the 
Congressional  Cemetery  are  hereby  repealed." 

Seed  Farms  in  the  United  States. 

The  production  of  seeds  was  the  first  time  made 
a  subject  of  census  inquiry  in  1890.  The  report 
prepared  by  J.  H.  Hale  under  the  direction  of  M. 
Whitshed,  special  agent  in  charge  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Horticulture,  was  made  after  personal 
application  for  the  statistics,  of  seed  farm  proprie- 
tors and  dealers  throughout  the  United  States.  It 
showed  that  there  were  in  the  L^nited  States  in  the 
census  year  596  farms,  with  a  total  of  169,851  acres, 
devoted  exclusively  to  seed  growing,  of  which 
96,567J<f  acres  were  reported  as  producing  seeds. 
Of  these,  12,905  acres  were  devoted  to  beans,  1,268 
to  oabbage,  919  to  beets,  10,219  to  cucumbers,  71  to 
celery,  15,004  to  sweet  corn,   16,322  to  field  corn, 


1576 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


4,663  to  squashes,  7,971  to  peas,  5,149  to  muskmelons, 
662  to  radishes,  and  4,356  to  tomatoes.  The  596 
seed  iarnis  reported  represent  a  total  value  of 
farms,  implements,  and  buildings  of  $18,325,935.86, 
and  employed  in  the  census  year  13,500  men  and 
1,541  women.  258  of  these  farms  are  in  the  North 
Atlantic  division,  with  an  average  of  185  acres  per 
farm.  In  the  North  Central  division  there  are  157 
seed  farms,  with  an  average  of  555  acres  per  farm. 
The  seed  farms  in  Iowa  and  Nebraska  average 
695  acres,  several  being  nearly  3,000  acres  in  extent. 

Shipping  on  the  Gkeat  Lakes. 

The  total  number  of  vessels  on  the  great  lakes 
of  the  United  States,  Jan.  1,  1890,  was  2,744  ;  total 
gross  tonnage  924,472 ;  estimated  carrying  capacity, 
1,254,271  tons;  commercial  valuation,  $48,809,750. 

The  following  table  gives  the  classes  of  vessels 
severally , their  tonnage,and  their  commercial  value : 


Classes. 


Steam  Vessels. 

Side-wheel  passenger 

Propellers  carryiug  both  passengers 

and  freight 

Propellers  carrying  freight  only 

Tugs 

Ferry 

Pleasure  yachts 

Pile  drivers 

Sand  dredges 

Sand  boats 

Fire  boats 

Steam  lighters 

Unclassified  steam  vessels 

Sail  and  Unrigged  Vessels. 

Schooners 

Lake  barges 

Scows » 

Sloops  

Yawls 


No. 

Ton- 

nage. 

67 

30,270 

307 

143,983 

433 

387,095 

495 

25,103 

41 

4,707 

57 

2,195 

15 

347 

4 

398 

1 

81 

7 

631 

4 

392 

58 

2,964 

939 

186,776 

301 

138,404 

7 

996 

47 

1,213 

1 

17 

Com'cial 
Value. 


2,815,500 

10,967,900 

23,320,200 

2,617,300 

499,500 

331,700 

53,500 

14.000 

5,000 

195,000 

14.000 

228,000 


4,240,900 

3,463,500 

9,000 

■,i5,4.50 

300 


Of  these  vessels  there  were  on  Lake  Superior  167;  on  Lakes 
Huron  and  St.  Clair,  726;  Lake  Michigan,  1,003;  Lake  Erie, 
664;  Lake  Ontario,  131,  and  St.  Lawrence  River  and  Lake 
Champlain,  92. 

Nurseries  in  the  United  States. 

The  material  from  which  the  following  summa- 
ries were  made  were  reported  direct  from  the  nur- 
serymen by  filling  up  blanks  sent  out  from  the 
Census  Office  in  1890.  The  tabulations  show  that 
there  are  in  the  United  States  4,510  nurseries,  val- 
ued at  .$41,978,835.80  and  occupying  172,806  acres  of 
land,  with  an  invested  capital  of  $54,425,669.51,  and 
giving  employment  to  45,657  men,  2,279  women, 
and  14,200  animals,  using  in  tlie  propagation  and 
cultivation  of  trees  and  plants  .$990,606.04  worth  of 
implements.  Of  the  acreage  in  nurseries  95,025.42 
were  found  to  be  used  in  growing  trees,  plants, 
shrubs,  and  vines  of  all  ages;  and  the  figures, 
based  upon  the  best  estimate  of  the  nurserymen, 
make  the  grand  total  of  plants  and  trees  3,386,855,- 
778,  of  which  518,016,612  are  fruit  trees,  685,603,396 
grapevines  and  small  fruits,  and  the  balance  nut, 
deciduous,  and  evergreen  trees,  hardy  shrubs,  and 
roses.  The  largest  acreage  is  devoted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  apple  trees,  viz. :  20,232.75  acres,  number- 
ing 240,570,666  young  trees,  giving  an  average  of 
11,890  per  acre,  while  the  plum,  pear,  and  peach 
have,  respectively,  7,826.5,  6,854.25,  and  3,357  acres, 
producing  88,494,367,  77,223,402,  and  49,887,894 
young  trees,  or  an  average  of  11,307,  11,266,  and 
14,861  trees  to  the  acre. 

The  following  shows  the  acreage  and  average 
number  of  trees  or  plants  grown  per  acre,  sever- 
ally, and  the  total  iilants  of  each  kind  in  the 
United  States  in  1890 : 


Trees  or  Plants. 


Apple 

Apricot 

Cherry 

Fig 

Lemon 

Lime 

Nectarine .   . 

Olive 

Orange 

Peach 

Pear 

Plum 

Pomelo 

Prune 

Quince 

Nut 

Deciduous 

Evergreen 

Hardy  shrubs 

Rose 

Grapevines 

Strawberry 

Raspberry 

Blackberry 

Currant 

Gooseberry 

Miscellaneous      fruit 
trees  aud  plants. 


Number  of 
acres. 


20,232=^ 

269 
3,690 
63K 
79 
6 
60 
26 
607H 
3,357 
6,8641^ 
7,826H 
14 
688 
518 
1,370H 
12,342 
8,644K 
2,881}-i 
346H 
5,673 
4,433 
5,756U 
4.8891^ 
2,021 
1.009J^ 

1,477 


Average 
No.  grown 
per  acre. 


11,890 
11,689 
10,362 
11,734 

6,998 
10,688 
13,054 
12,616 

7,191 
14,861 
11.266 
11.307 

6,764 
12,964 
11,1175 
10,072 
105,121 
95,094 
15,989 
11,295 
28,052 
61,157 
15,026 
21,639 
24,432 
14,047 


Total  num- 
ber grown. 


240,570,66* 

3,144,466 

38,236,254 

742,200 

652,841 

64,125 

662,679 

328,016 

4,368,323 

49,887,894 

77,223,402 

88,494,367 

80,700 

7.623,000 

6.047,680 

13,803,008 

1,297,408,257 

822,0;»,324 

46,072,530 

3.91.653 

159.139,248 

271,108,253 

86,487,491 

105,310,810 

49,:j76,80» 

14,180,789 


Number  of  Nurseries,  Their   Acreage,  and  Capital  Im- 

VESTED. 


States  and  Territories. 


The  United  States... 

North  Atlantic  division 

Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts  

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

South  Atlantic  division 

Delaware 

Maryland 

District  of  Columbia  . 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

North  Central  division: 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

South  Central  division; 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Western  division: 

Colorado 

New  Mexico 

Arizona 

Utah 

Idaho  

Washington 

Oregon  

California 


Number  of 
Nurseries 


4,510 


41 

6 

17 

120 

9 

20 

5.30 

145 

311 


36 

50 

1 

54 

22 

32 

3 

16 

137 


393 

223 

434 

155  ■ 

117 

69 

183 

229 

13 

27 

177 

339 


49 
54 

15 
15 
24 
97 
68 


23 

1 
3 
17 
8 
27 
36 
166 


Acres   of 
Land 


172,806 


Total  Capital 
Invested. 


$52,425,669.51 


226 

23 

75 

1,891 

45 

.S28 

24.840 

5,465 

6,598 


725 
1,443 

120 
1,890 

633 

960 
70 

812 
1,374 


16,790 

5,464 

17,812 

3,015 

1.651 

1,726 

12,049 

15,190 

26 

.586 

15,641 

11,493 


621 
1,M2 
975 
.505 
280 
4,665 
767 


637 

70 

82 

199 

248 

435 

1,576 

11,144 


208,177.5* 

14,'iOO.OO 

46.500.00 

1,773,500.00 

.58  ,.500.00 

194,071  ..57 

12,202,844.60 

1,970,593.90 

4,210,805.50 


155,361.15 
519,400.00 
126,000.00 
922,172.58 
126,086.40 
231,840.00 
4,000.00 
277,960.00 
466,224.93 


4,178,618.19 

1,056,611.91 

4,778,083.94 

869,491.10 

492.277.60 

652,433.64 

1,591,790.78 

2,932,473.24 

45,500.00 

126,749.88 

1,479,953.61 

1,425,793.81 


504393.75 
1,015,971.66 

455,040.00 
79,284.00 

170,400.00 
I,211,9;«).6I 

119,800.36 


162,916.58 

15,200.00 

8,500.00 

8:3,810.00 

172,000.00 

190,620.00 

236,668.00 

4,871 ,920.4« 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1577 


Horses,  Mules  and  Asses  on  Farms. 

The  following  United  States  census  summaries  for 
1890  include  the  number  of  these  animals  emplojed 
only  on  farms  which  contain  each  three  acres  and 
over,  and  show  that  in  the  states  and  territories 
there  were  on  hand,  June  1,  1890,  14,976,017  horses, 
2,24(5,936  mules,  and  49,109  asses  ;  that  in  1S89  there 
were  foaled  1,814,404  horses,  157,105  mules  and  7,957 
asses;  that  there  were  sold  in  the  same  year  1,309,- 
557  horses,  329,995  mules,  and  7,271  asses,  and  that 
there  died  from  all  causes  765,211  horses,  mules, 
and  asses  during  the  same  period. 

The  increase  of  horses  from  1880  to  1890  is  shown 
to  be  44.59  per  cent,  as  against  44.95  per  cent 
between  1870  and  1880.  The  increase  of  mules 
from  1880  to  1890  was  26.66  per  cent. 

Of  the  aggregate  number  of  horses  and  mules  in 
the  whole  country,  June  1,  1890,  86.95  per  cent  were 
horses  and  13.05  per  cent  were  mules.  The  North 
Atlantic  group  of  states  had  the  smallest  propor- 
tion of  mules,  2.41  per  cent,  while  tlie  South 
Atlantic  group  had  the  largest  proportion,  32.04 
per  cent,  as  against  67.96  per  cent  of  horses. 

The  census  summaries  by  states  and  groups  of 
states  are  as  follows : 


states  and  Territories. 


The  United  States... 

yorth  Atiantic  Division 

Maine 

New  Hampsliire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts.   

Rliode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pensylvania 

South  Atlantic  Division, 

Delaware • 

Maryland 

District  of  Columbia 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

Nortii  Carolina 

Soutli  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

North  Central  Division, 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

North   Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska  

Kansas 

South  Central  Division. 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama  

Mississippi 

Louisiana  

Texas 

Oklahoma 

Arkansas 

Western  Division. 

Montana 

"Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico 

Arizona 

Utah    

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington 

Oregon 

Cabfornia 


Horses. 


14,976,017 


109,156 
52,458 
89,569 
B3,h:« 
9,864 
43,704 

664,4.30 
86.926 

618,660 


25,6.56 
1.30,395 
826 
242 .3.34 
154,721 
131,451 

59,888 
103,501 

31,087 


880,677 
720,035 

1,3.35,289 
516,117 
460,740 
461, .509 

1,312,079 
946,191 
130,931 
250,305 
626,789 
930,305 


401,356 
311,842 
121,207 
155,050 
126,777 
1,025,876 
25,854 
186,867 


144,826 

87,403 

155,170 

38,1.30 

15,780 

64,801 

56,788 

84,l:« 

163,770 

224,962 

405,313 


Mules. 


2,246,936 


248 

115 

313 

1.57 

49 

267 

4,.386 

8.166 

29,235 


4,790 

14,064 

40 

37,119 

7,221 

99,299 

86,073 

156,860 

9,6:M 


18,493 

58,608 

106,180 

3,670 

5,406 

9,315 

40,746 

245,102 

8,665 

7,522 

45,972 

93,932 


146,.521 

5,128 

198,172 

5,467 

133 ,892 

908 

155,712 

1.043 

87  ,.539 

489 

220  ..596 

6,8,36 

4,882 

41 

124,888 

1,600 

949 

16 

1,185 

57 

5,144 

1,995 

2,409 

5,958 

637 

309 

1,122 

432 

1,632 

91 

976 

86 

1,312 

33 

4,756 

190 

52,886 

1,649 

Asses. 


49,109 


30 


2 
12 

2.50 
61 

328 


29 
97 
1 
414 
109 
712 
233 
517 
131 


366 
976 

1.695 
1.52 
346 
196 
902 

6,441 
44 
119 
.540 

2,005 


Production  of  Cotton  in  the  United  States. 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  in  the  United  States 
has  been  rapidly  growing  in  recent  years.  At  the 
census  of  1880  there  were  found  to  be  756  manu- 
factories for  materials  solely  for  cotton,  with  a 
capital  of  .$208,280,445,  the  number  of  spindles  was 
10,653,435  (12,000,000  in  1882);  of  looms,  225,759; 
hands  employed,  174,659;  cotton  consumed,  1,570,- 
344  balss  (750,343,981  lbs.),  valued  at  $86,945,728; 
producing  materials  valued  at  .$192,OJO,000. 

The  following  are  some  statistics  of  cotton : 


Ret'n'd  for 

Year. 

Production. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Home  Con- 
sumption. 

U.S. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1880 

2.771,797.596 

3.547,792 

1 .822.295,  W3 

953,(M9,10§ 

18W 

2,757,544.422 

7.019,492 

1,863.926.466 

900,6:J7,448 

1886 

2.742,966,011 

5,115.680 

1,893,268,732 

854,812,959 

le»6 

3,182,305,659 

5,072,334 

2,059,314,405 

1,128,063,588 

1887 

3,167,378,443 

3,924,531 

2,170,173,701 

991,129,273 

1888 

3,439,172,391 

5,497„592 

2,264,324,798 

1,180,346,185 

1889 

3,437,408,499 

7,973,039 

2,386,004,628 

1,060,376,910 

The  value  of  cottons  of  domestic  manufacture  exported 
from  the  United  States  were  from  $4,071,882  in  1875  to  tU,- 
639,691  in  1885,  and  $10,212,644  in  1889. 

Live  Stock  Ranges. 

On  the  ranges  of  Texas,  the  Indian  Territory, 
Colorado,  the  western  portions  of  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
Wyoming,  the  Dakotas,  Montana,  Idaho,  the  eastern 
portions  of  California,  Oregon  and  Washington, 
Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  there  were 
found  in  June  1890,  617,128  horses,  6,433  mules, 
14,109  asses,  or  burros,  6,828,183  cattle,  6,676,902 
sheep,  and  17,276  swine.  The  sales  of  horses  in 
1889  amounted  to  $1,418,205;  of  cattle,  $17,913,712; 
of  sheep,  $2,669,663,  and  of  swine,  $27,132.  The  total 
number  of  men  reported  upon  ranges  in  care  of 
this  stock  is  15,390.  This  industry  is  found  to  be 
more  generally  prosperous  at  this  time  than  for 
several  years  previous. 

Coal  Product  West  of  Mississippi  River. 

The  following  table  furnishes  the  census  sum- 
maries for  1890 : 


States  and  Territories. 

a 

Produc- 
tions. 

Value. 

■3    . 

569 

16,067,500 

$24,413,262 

$1.52 

Trans-Mississippi  Valley 

449 

10,051,229 

1,4271,622 

1.43 

Dakota  and  Nebraska 

5 

127 

10 

172 

123 

8 

4 

98 

30,307 

2,230,763 

752,832 

4,061,704 

2,567,823 

279,584 

128,216 

4,836,368 

46,331 
3,294.754 
1,323.806 
5. .392 .220 
3.478.058 
.395.8:i6 
340,617 

7,486,004 

1.53 
1.48 

1.76 

1.33 

1.35 

1.42 

Texas                          

3.66 

Rocky  Mountain  region. 

1.56 

Montana 

Wyoming. 

8 
15 
53 
18 

4 

22 

363,301 

1,1388,947 

2,.360,536 

486,983 

236,601 

1,179,903 

881.523 
1,748,618 
3,605,622 

872,785 
377,456 

2,655,636 

3.4.'{ 
1.26 
1.6S 

1.79 

Utah 

1.60 

Pacific  Coast 

3  25 

California  and  Oregon 

Washington 

10 
12 

186,176 
993,724 

451.881 
2.203.755 

2.48 
3.33 

1578 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


In  North  and  South  Dakota  the  ascertained  coal 
areas  lie  in  the  western  counties,  between  a  line 
Tunning  from  the  Turtle  Mountains  in  the  north 
through  Burleigh  County  to  the  southern  borders 
(if  tlie  Black  Hills  and  the  western  boundary  line. 
The  product  is  a  fair  grade  of  lignite  or  brown 
coal,  suitable  for  heating  and  steam,  and  in  some 
localities  it  is  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  gas. 
The  output  in  1889  was  28,907  short  tons  valued  at 
$41,431. 

In  Kansas  the  coal  measures  cover  an  area  of 
about  10,000  square  miles,  underlying  the  entire 
eastern  portion  of  the  state.  The  coals  are  bitu- 
minous and  are  found  to  be  excellent  for  coking, 
steam,  gas,  smelting,  and  domestic  purposes.  The 
coal  d'eposits  are  known  to  extend  into  twenty 
counties,  and  in  1890  mining  operations  were  car- 
ried on  in  Leavenworth,  Franklin,  Neosho,  Chero- 
kee, Bourbon,  and  Osage  Counties.  The  output  is 
rapidly  increasing.  The  veins  vary  /om  one  to 
five  feet. 

In  the  Indian  Territory  the  only  carboniferous 
coal  west  of  the  Mississippi  itiver  extend  across 
the  boundaries  of  Kansas,  Slissouri,  and  Arkansas, 
underlying  almost  the  entire  eastern  half  of  that 
territory.  The  present  developments  of  import- 
ance are  along  the  line  of  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
and  Texas  Railway,  in  the  Choctaw  Nation  Reser- 
vation, and  are  conducted  by  the  Osage  Coal  and 
Mining  Company  at  McAlester  and  the  Atoka 
Mining  Company  at  Lehigh. 

The  quality  of  the  coal  now  being  mined  in  this 
territory  is  excellent  for  steam  and  heating  pur- 
poses, and  is  well  suited  for  gas  and  coking.  The 
beds  from  which  the  product  is  obtained  range 
from  three  to  five  feet  in  thickness,  and  comprise 
the  two  lower  veins,  which  are  here  found  to  be  of 
much  greater  thickness  and  freer  from  bone  and 
other  impurities  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
field.  Competent  authorities  assert  that  the  coals 
now  being  mined  in  the  Indian  Territory  are 
superior  to  any  found  west  of  the  Appalachian 
field. 

In  Iowa  nearly  half  the  State  is  underlaid  with 
coals.  The  northern  extremity  of  the  great  coal 
field  occupies  the  southern  portion  of  the  State, 
extending  across  the  southeastern  counties  of 
Nebraska,  thence  southward  through  Kansas, 
Missouri,  Arkansas,  Texas,  and  Indian  Territory. 
Coal  is  produced  in  twenty-sis  counties,  and  is  of  a 
quality  generally  well  adapted  for  steam  and  heat- 
ing purposes.  No  canal  or  gas  coal  is  found  in  the 
State. 

In  Missouri  coal  is  found  in  thirty-nine  coun- 
ties, the  deposite  being  a  part  of  what  is  known  as 
the  Fourth  Field  underlying  portions  of  Nebraska, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Indian  Ter- 
ritory. The  geological  surveys  of  the  State  have 
not  as  yet  clearly  defined  the  outcroppings  of  the 
beds  in  the  several  counties,  but  mining  operations 
have  been  conducted  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in 
the  territory  lying  north  of  the  Missouri  River 
from  the  western  boundary  to  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  in  the  counties  lying  south  of  the 
Missouri  River,  between  Kansas  City  and  Jefferson 
City,  and  along  the  western  boundary  to  Jasper 
and  Dade  counties.  The  principal  developments 
are  within  Adair,  Audrain,  Barton,  Bates,  Caldwell, 
Callaway.  Grundy,  Henry,  Johnson,  Lafayette, 
Macon,  Montgomery,  Putnam,  Randolph,  Ray,  and 
Vernon  counties. 

The  character  of  the  coal  is  semi-bituminous, 
and  is  adapted  for  steam  and  heating  purposes,  as 
well  as  for  smithing. 

In  xirknnsas  the  coal  deposits  are  located  in  the 
western  part  of  tlie  State  upon  either  side  of  the 


Arkansas  River,  extending  between  Forth  Smitli 
and  Little  Rock.  Mining  operations  have  been 
conducted  in  Sebastian,  Franklin,  Logan,  Craw- 
ford, Johnson,  and  Pope  counties.  The  coals  of 
Arkansas  are  variable  in  quality,  and  are  adapted 
for  steaming,  coking,  and  gas  manufacture,  and 
domestic  purposes.  Coal  mining  in  this  State  may 
be  said  to  have  begun  about  the  year  1870,  but  it 
did  not  assume  commercial  importance  until  about 
the  year  1883. 

In  Texas  the  principal  coal  lies  in  the  northern 
portion  of  the  State,  extending  southwest  from  the 
Red  River  in  Montague  county,  to  the  Colorado 
River.  This  basin  is  a  continuation  of  the  great 
Foarth  or  Western  field,  of  which  it  forms  the 
southern  extremity.  It  is  said  to  underlie  the 
whole  or  portions  of  twenty-five  counties,  and  em- 
braces an  area  of  12,000  square  miles.  The  only 
operation  of  importance  in  this  field,  in  the  year 
1889  was  that  of  the  Tebas  and  Pacific  Coal  Com- 
pany in  Erath  county.  The  field  next  in  impor- 
tance in  this  State  lies  along  the  Rio  Grande, 
underlying  Webb,  Dimmit,  Zavalla,  Uvalde, 
Medina,  and  Maverick  counties,  known  as  the 
Nueces  coal  field,  and  embraces  about  3,700  square 
miles.  The  quality  here  is  variable,  differing  ma- 
terially from  that  of  the  Central  field,  the  lower 
measures  yielding  a  fair  semi-bituminous  product, 
while  tlie  upper  measures  are  somewhat  lignitie. 
The  principal  developments  in  this  field  are  Santo 
Tomas,  in  Webb  county,  and  Eagle  Pass,  in  Mav- 
erick county. 

An  extended  area,  bounded  by  lines  drawn  from 
Clarksburg,  in  Red  River  county,  southwesterly 
to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  thence  northeast  to  the 
Sabine  River,  in  Sabine  county,  is  said  to  contain 
important  deposits  of  lignite.  No  developments 
have  thus  far  been  reported  in  this  field,  except 
those  of  the  North  Texas  Coal  and  Mining  Com- 
pany in  Raines  county. 

The  Rocky  Movntain  coal  regions  are  embraced  in 
Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana,  Utah,  and  Neir  Mexico. 
Although  indications  of  lignite  deposits  have  been 
found  in  Nevada,  Idaho,  and  Arizona,  no  effort  at 
development  has  yet  been  made  beyond  desultory 
prospecting.  Lignite,  bituminous,  and  anthracite 
coals  are  found  in  the  region  under  consideration. 
The  latter,  however,  so  far  as  known,  is  confined  to 
Gunnison  and  Pitkin  counties,  in  Colorado,  and  the 
quality  is  said  to  compare  favorably  with  the 
anthracite  of  eastern  Pennsylvania.  Tlie  bitumin- 
ous coals  comprise  some  excellent  qualities  of  cok- 
ing and  gas  coals.  During  the  decade  since  the 
Tenth  Census  the  development  of  coal  mining  in 
the  states  and  territories  named  has  been  intel- 
ligently and  vigorously  prosecuted. 

In  California,  although  coal  deposits  of  more  or 
less  importance  have  been  discovered  in  many  of 
the  counties  of  the  State  west  of  the  Sierras  from 
Siskiyou,  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Shasta,  in  the 
north,  to  San  Diego  in  tlie  south,  no  mining  opera- 
tions upon  a  commercial  scale  have  been  prose- 
cuted except  in  Amador  and  Contra  Costa  counties. 
Coal  was  discovered  in  th6  Mount  Dieblo  district 
in  1852,  but  productive  mining  was  not  prosecuted 
until  after  the  year  1860.  This  district  now  fur- 
nishes tlie  major  portion  of  the  product  of  the 
State.  The  coals  of  California,  so  far  as  at  present 
known,  are  all  lignitie  in  character,  generally  in- 
ferior to  the  coals  of  Washington  and  Oregon,  and 
can  not  compete  with  tlie  better  coals  supplied  by 
sea  from  British  Columbia  and  Australia. 

In  Oregon  outcroppings  of  coal  have  been  found 
in  nineteen  counties,  both  east  and  west  of  the 
Cascade  Range,  but  mining  operations  are  reported 
only  in  Coos  county.     These  mines  are  located  at 


I 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1579 


Marshfield,  on  Coos  Bay,  and  are  operated  by  the 
Oregon  Coal  and  Navigation  Company.  The  Coos 
county  field  is  claimed  to  cover  an  area  of  several 
hundred  square  miles,  and  is  a  fair  quality  of  lig- 
nite. The  product  is  shipped  mainly  to  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

In  Wafhiiigton  the  mining  of  coal  began  in  1S50- 
51  in  the  vicinity  of  Bellingham  Bay,  in  the  ex- 
treme northwestern  part  of  the  Territory  now  a 
State),  hut  operations  there  were  discontinued  in 
1S79,  and  have  not  been  resumed.  Several  im- 
portant coal  areas  have  since  been  opened  up,  both 
on  the  western  and  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cascade 
Range,  the  most  important  of  which  are  in  the 
vicinity  of  Puget  Sound,  in  King,  Pierce,  and 
Thurston  counties,  and  in  Yakima  county,  near 
the  Attanam  River.  Outcroppings  have  been 
found  in  other  localities,  notably  at  Ellensburg, 
and  in  Lincoln  and  Spokane  counties,  and  also  in 
White  Salmon  River,  in  Cascade  county.  The 
coals  of  this  State  embrace  lignite,  semi-bitumi- 
nous, and  bituminous  varieties,  adapted  for  coking, 
gas,  steam,  and  domestic  purposes.  Some  speci- 
mens of  a  very  tine  grade  of  coal,  resembling 
anthracite,  are  reported  as  having  been  taken  from 
Cowlitz  pass,  in  Yakima  county.  The  total  area  of 
the  coal  deposits  of  Washington  has  not  yet  been 
fully  determined,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that 
almost  inexhaustible  supplies  are  at  hand,  not  only 
for  the  future  demand  of  its  own  population,  bur 
sufficient  to  furnish  a  basis  for  profitable  traffic  for 
transportation  to  the  entire  Pacific  coast. 

QriCKSiLVER  Mixes  and  Reductiox  Works. 

The  quicksilver  mines  and  reduction  works  of 
the  United  States  were  limited  in  18Si>  to  Califor- 
nia and  Oregon.  In  California  there  were  three 
mines  in  take  county,  four  in  Xapa  county,  and 
one  each  in  Merced.  San  Benito  Santa  Clara,  and 
Sonoma.  There  was  also  a  non-productive  mine  in 
Siskiyou  and  another  in  Trinity  county. 

In  Oregon  there  were  three  non-productive  mines 
in  Douglas  county. 

During  the  year  there  were  26,464  flask«,  or  2,024,- 
469  pounds,  or  1,012  tons  of  quicksilver  produced  in 
California.  About  20  flasks  were  produced  in  Ore- 
gon. This  yield  was  much  less  than  usual  owing 
to  litigation  and  other  causes. 

At  eleven  active  establishments  there  were  ex- 
pended $219,622  for  supplies.  $626,289  for  wages,  and 
$.35,490  for  other  expenses,  embracing  taxes,  rent, 
interest,  etc.,  making  a  total  of  $881,401,  showing 
that  71  per  cent,  was  paid  for  wages,  25  per  cent, 
for  supplies,  and  4  per  cent,  for  all  other  expenses. 
Of  the  amount  paid  for  wages  the  office  force 
absorbed  $34,966,  and  there  was  paid  to  foremen, 
mechanics,  miners,  furnace  hands,  and  laborers, 
$591,323.  The  total  cost  was  $881,401  ;  total  market 
value,  $1,190,500 ;  profit,  $,309,099.  The  total  capital 
invested  in  mines,  buildings,  machinery,  etc..  was 
estimated  at  $1,331,114.  The  sale  prices  averaged 
about  $45  per  flask. 

St.\tistics  for  E.^^rher  Periods. — The  earliest 
records  relating  to  production  of  quicksih-er  in 
California  for  1860,  cinnabar  having  been  first  dis- 
covered there  in  184.5,  and  but  very  little  quick- 
silver was  produced  prior  to  18.50,  when  active  work 
was  commenced  at  New  Almaden.  Outside  of  Cal- 
ifornia quicksilver  has  been  produced  in  two  local- 
ities in  the  United  States ;  in  Oregon,  to  the  extent 
of  2,000  flasks,  and  in  Utah,  where  about  200  flasks 
were  reported. 

The  production  of  quicksilver  in  the  United 
States  and  in  all  other  countries  for  ten  years  is 
ihown  by  flasks  in  the  following  table : 


„ 

;.' 

~  i 

^ 

V 

0 

be 

4 

Yenr. 

Total  of  a 
.States. 

k 

B 

< 

a 

'5 

1 

0  >. 

5 

1880 

59,920 

45,322 

10,510 

3,410 

59,242 

119,168 

1881 

60,851 

44,989 

1133:5 

3,760 

60,082 

120,933 

1.SS2 

f)2,732 

46,716 

11,663 

4,110 

62,489 

115,221 

ISivf 

4«.725 

49.177 

13,1.52 

6,065 

68,394 

115,119 

l.S.'il 

:u,9is 

48,098 

13,9i;7 

7.850 

69,915 

101,828 

lex's         

;«.07,s 

4.1.813 

13,503 

6,965 

66,281 

98.354 

I.SJM-.            ... 

29,981 

51.199 

14,496 

7,375 

73.070 

103,051 

18.V7 

33,760 

.53,276 

14.676 

7,075 

75,027 

108,787 

Ifv'i.'i 

3;9.2sn 

51,872 

14.962 

9,830 

76,664 

109,914 

1S)49           

26.«>4 

49.477 

15.295 

10,000 

74,772 

101,236 

Total 

J07.r.75 

4S5,939 

133,557 

(kj,440 

685,936 

1,093,611 

Pkudi  cTiox  or  Iron  Ore  ix  the  United  States. 

The  census  of  1890»i!owed  that  during  the  year 
closing  Dec.  31,  1889,  the  production  of  iron  ore  in 
the  United  States  amounted  to  14,518,041  long  tons, 
the  yield  being  from  twenty-six  States  and  two 
Territories. 

Michigan  was  by  far  the  largest  producer  of  iron 
ore  in  the  census  year  1889,  a  total  of  5,856,169  long 
tons  having  been  mined,  the  value  of  which  was 
$15,800,521  at  tlie  mines,  an  average  of  $2.70  per  ton. 
The  tonnage  from  Michigan  therefore  represents 
40.34  per  cent,  of  the  total,  while  the  aggregate 
value  is  47.38  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  entire  coun- 
try. 

The  credit  of  holding  second  rank  lies  between 
the  States  of  Alabama  and  Pennsylvania,  the  for- 
mer, from  the  figures  collected,  having  apparently 
a  slightly  greater  output  than  the  latter.  This  un- 
certainty is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  reports  ob- 
tained from  two  of  the  larger  Alabama  mines 
covered  operations  commencing  May  1,  1889,  and 
ending  May  1,  1890,  and  no  detailed  record  of  the 
amount  of  ore  produced  and  labor  employed  dur- 
ing the  three  months  of  1890  was  obtainable.  The 
position  of  Pennsylvania  is  also  affected  by  the 
refusal  of  one  large  producer  to  supply  absolute 
figures,  but  it  will  be  noted  that  in  the  shipments 
or  apparent  consumption  of  iron  ores  Pennsylvania 
takes  precedence  of  Alabama. 

Alabama  is  therefore  placed  second  as  a  producer 
of  iron  ore,  with  1,570,319  long  tons,  valued  at  $1,- 
511,611,  an  average  of  96  cents  per  ton.  These  fig- 
ures represent  10.82  and  4..53  percent.,  respectively, 
of  the  total  output  and  value. 

Pennsylvania  closely  follows  Alabama,  its  output 
being  1.560.234  long  tons,  valued  at  $3,063,534,  an 
average  of  $1.96  per  ton,  and  10.75  and  9.19  per 
cent.,  respectively,  of  the  total  output  and  value. 

The  other  State  which  produced  over  1,000,000 
tons  in  the  present  census  year  was  New  York^ 
which  is  credited  with  1,247,537  long  tons,  valued  at 
$3,100,216,  an  average  of  $2.49  per  ton,  the  figures 
representing,  respectively,  8.59  and  9.30  per  cent,  of 
the  total  output  and  value. 

These  four  States,  therefore,  produced  a  total  of 
10,234,2.59  long  tons,  or  70,49  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
output  of  the  iron-ore  mines  of  the  United  States, 
while  the  value  of  the  ore  aggregates  $23,475,882, 
or  70.39  per  cent,  of  the  total  valuation. 

The  tabulated  statement  which  follows  is  taken 
from  actual  returns,  made  to  the  Census  Depart- 
ment and  verified  in  every  way  possible  except 
by  individual  visitations  to  all  of  the  iron-ore 
mines.  The  figures  of  production  are  possibly  be- 
low the  actual  results,  for  in  some  localities  farm- 
ers gather  ore  ai  odd  times  and  sell  to  blast  fur- 


1580 


UNITED    STATES    OF    .V  M  E  R  1  C  A 


naces  in  small  lots.     AVherever  this  amount  could   1 
be  obtained  it  is  included  in  the  table.  ! 


States  and 
Territories. 


Total 

Alabama 

Colorado 

ConBecticut, Maine 

and       Massachii 

setts 

Delaware  andMary- 

land 

Georgia  and  North 

Carolina 

Idaho  and  Montana 

Kentucky 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Missouri.. 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico  and 
Utah 

New  York 

Ohio 

Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington   ". 

Pennsylvania 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia  and  West 

Virginia? 

Wisconsin 


^"mino"^-'    Amount   :Totalval-l   Value 
"'^yj', produced. ]ue  of  pro-  per  long 


!Long  tons. 


45 

18 


2 
33 
70 


16 


14^18,OU 


1370,319 
109,136 


88,251 

29,380 

238.140 

21,072 
77.487 
5356,109 
864,508 
265,718 

•115,510 

36.050 

1.247.537 

251,291 

26,283 

1,t60.231 

473,294 

13,000 

511,2.55 
837,399 


ductiou. 


$33,a51,978 


$-2.3t) 


1,511,6U 
487,433 


265,901 

68,240 

334,025 

I.vS.974 

l;5A59 

!.5..^00-t21 

2.478.041 

i61,(Hl 

U3I1,513 

70,956 

.3,100516 

532,725 

39,234 

.".(163,534 

/' 606.476 

19,750 

935,290 
1,810.908 


0.96 
4.47 


3.01 

2.32 

1.29 

6.60 
1.75 
2.70 
2.87 

2.1"; 


1.97 
2  49 
2  09 

1  49 

1  96 
1  28 

1  52 

1.83 

2  20 


States  and  Territories. 


Alabama  -  - 

Arkansas  

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts... 

Michigan  ,..'. 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania  . . . 
Rhode  Island  . . 
South  Carolina  . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia. . . 

Wisconsin 

Other  states  (i) 


Total 


Number 

of 

Total  value. 

quarries. 

21 

324,814 

/ 

18,360 

22 

516,780 

15 

138,091 

9 

131,697 

3 

28,545 

104 

2,190,607 

172 

1.889,336 

143 

530.863 

115 

478,822 

54 

303.314 

60 

1.523.499 

30 

164.860 

12 

119.978 

8 

Sa.9o2 

72 

613.247 

123 

1359,960 

4 

24.964 

29 

207,019 

33 

129,662 

4 

3362 

157 

1,708330 

221 

1.514,984 

37S 

2,655,477 

2 

27.625 

2 

14,520 

11 

73,028 

18 

217,835 

2 

27.568 

16 

195.066 

11 

159.02.'> 

8 

231.287 

8 

93,856 

79 

813,963 

6 

77,935 

1,954 

$19,095,179 

The  total  value  given  in  the  above  table  is  exclusive  of 
that  known  as  white  marble.  The  latter  would  add  $3,488.- 
170.  increasing  the  total  to  $22,562,349. 


Limestone  Qlaeries  ix  the  United  St.\tes. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  quar- 
rieg  and  the  value  of  products  in  1889  by  states  and 
territories : 


The  production  of  limestone  in  the  United  States 
for  the  census  year  1889  was  as  follows :  For  build- 
ing purposes,  92,289,896  cubic  feet,  valued  at  $5,405,- 
671 ;  converted  into  lime,  18,474,668  barrels,  valued 
at  $8,217,015;  stone  for  burning  into  lime,  478,082 
tons,  valued  at  $184,024:  flux  fqr  furnaces,  3,894.337 
tons,  valued  at  .tl..569.312:  for  street  work,  46.491,- 
622  cubic  feet,  valued  at  $2.383,456 ;  for  bridge, 
dam,  and  railroad  work,  26,679,012  cubic  feet,  val- 
ued at  $1,289,622;  miscellaneous  uses,  549,875  cubic 
feet,  valued  at  $46,079,  making  a  total  value  of  $19,- 
095.179.  The  expenditures  were  as  follows:  For 
wages,  $10,121,985 ;  for  supplies  and  materials  con- 
sumed. $4,227,246:  other  expenses  of  quarries, 
$743,483,  making  a  total  of  $15,092,714.  The  capital 
invested  in  the  industry  amounted  to  $27,022,325; 
of  this  sum  $14,771,200  was  in  land,  $4,988,207  in 
buildings  and  fixtures,  $4,541,623  in  tools,  imple- 
ments, etc..  and  $2,711,295  in  cash. 

Surveys  of  Public  Lands  of  the   United   States. 
I.  Historical  Xote* 

After  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  the 
eastern  colonies  surrendered  to  the  General  Gov- 
ernment their  several  claims  to  the  lands  north  of 
the  Ohio,  and  west  of  Pennsylvania,  as  far  as  to  the 
Mississippi  River.  Connecticut,  however,  retained 
the  northeastern  corner  of  Ohio,  now  called  the 
"Connecticut,"  or  "AVestern  Reserve."  Virginia 
also  reserved  a  large  tract  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  State,  between  the  Scioto  and  the  Miami  rivers. 
Georgia  relinquished  her  claim  to  Alabama  and 
Mississippi.  Subsequently  Florida,  the  Louisiana 
Purchase.  Texas.  California,  and  Arizona  were  ac- 
quired either  by  treaty  or  by  purchase.  See  Ter- 
ritorial Cessions  OF  the  States  in  these  Revisions 
and  Additions. 

As  early  as  1785  provision  was  made  by  Congress 
for  a  uniform  system  of  surveys  of  all  public  lands. 
The  present  system  was  adopted  in  1786.  Thomas 
.leflCerson  is  generally  credited  with  its  authorship. 
"Lot  16"  of  every  township  was  set  apart  for  the 
maintenance  of  jjublic  schools.  Since  18-52,  sec- 
tions 16  and  36  in  every  township  are  given  to  the 
school  fund.  They  are  called  School  Sections.  The 
surveys  are  not  extended 
across  Indian  Reservations, 
nor  over  any  lands  which 
are  not  the  property  of  the 
United  States. 

There  was  no  system 
adopted  in  allotting  the 
lands  of  the  original  States. 
Each  tract  was  described 
bj'  metes  and  bounds,  and 
often  in  a  manner  so  vague 
as  to  present  various  con- 
flicting claims. 

//.  TTie  Toirmhip  and  its 
Stibdivisioyis. 

The  public  lands  of  the 
United  States  are  gener- 
ally laid  out  in  toirnships 
and  sections.  These  town- 
ships and  sections  are  des- 
ignated by  a  simple  and 
uniform  system  of  number- 
ing. 

A  tovnship  is  six  miles 
square,  and  consequently 
contains  thirty-six  square 
miles,  or  23.040  acres.    Its 

*Orisina!ly  and  chiefly  prepared  for  .Swinton's  Geography, 
and  inst-rted  in  these  Revisious  and  Additicns,  through  the 
kindness  of  the  American  Book  Exchange,  New  York,  1891. 


Diagram  l. 
A   TO'.VN.SIMP 
N. 


I 


•)  jlO'll 


-i- 


"r: 


II    13 


C3   .14' Jo;.)o 

I : \ ! 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1581 


boundaries  are  meridians  on  the  east  and  west, 
and  parallels  of  hititu<lt  on  the  north  and  south. 

A  township  is  divided  into  3(3  ■■n-riioiis,  each  one 
mile  square  "as  nearly  as  may  be."  A  section  con- 
tains 640  acres. 

The  sections  of  a  township  are  always  numbered 
in  the  order  indicated  by  Diagram  1. 

Section  1  is  always  in  the  northeast  corner  of 
the  township,  and  the  numbers  run  alternately 
west  and  east.  Sections  are  divided  as  indi- 
eated  in  Diagram  2. 

The  government  surveyors  mark  the  corners  of 
townships,  sections,  half-sections,  and  quarter-sec- 
tions (except  the  corner  in  the  center  of  the  sec- 
tion) with  stakes,  stones,  or  mounds  of  turf,  after  a 
uniform  system.  In  some  of  the  later  surveys 
eighths  and  sixteenths  are  also  measured. 

///.  yiiiiibering  of  TowHships. 

Townships  are  legally  designated  by  numbers 
instead  of  names.  All  surveys  begin  l)y  establish- 
ing    a   true,  meriiHan.  along   which    the  surveyors 

Diagram  3. 


) 

, 

N. 

•orre;ctioh 

5 

INE 

■i    J£    1 

T.  *h 

1 

i 

3 

1    ;;-■ 

2 

•w. 

PA<^E  I 

' 

1 

E. 

IV. 

III. 

11. 

:' 

n. 

ni.|iv. 

1 

a. 

2 

1.  ?5 

3 

-  .1 

4 

1 

1 

0 

1 

1 

1    s 

measure  from  some  selected  point,  marking  each 
half-mile  point  with  a  "quarter  stake,"  and  each 
mile  point  with  a  "section  corner."  At  each  six- 
rnile  point  a  "township  corner"  is  marked.  This 
line  is  called  a  principal  meridian. 

Through  this  selected  starting-point  upon  the 
principal  meridian,  a  true  parallel  of  latitude  is 
run,  and  measured  from  the  meridian.  The  half- 
mile,  mile,  and  six-mile  corners  are  marked  as 
upon  the  meridian.    This  is  called  a  base-line. 

In  the  later  surveys,  additional  parallels,  called 
'i.rreclion-lines  are  measured  at  distances  of  twenty- 
four  or  thirty  miles  apart,  and  also  true  meridians 
forty-eight  miles  apart,  called  guide  meridians. 
The  principal  meridians,  guide-meridians,  base- 
lines, and  correction-lines,  are  astronomical  lines. 
All  other  lines  are  run  with  chain  and  compass, 
and  are  subject  to  two  errors, — one  from  the  varia- 
tion of  the  needle,  and  the  other  from  the  impossi- 
bility of  making  perfectly  accurate  measurements 
with  the  chain.  The  sections  are  never  surveyed 
by  the  same  surveyors  that  mark  the  townships. 

Townships  are  numbered  north  and  south  from 
the  base-line.  A  row  of  townships  runnin;j  north 
and  south  is  called  a  range.  Ranges  are  numbered 
east  and  west  from  the  principal  meridian. 


This  is  illustrated  by  diagram  3, — Each  square 
represents  a  township.  Numerals  on  the  base-line 
indicate  ranges  east  and  west  of  the  principal  me- 
ridian. Numerals  on  the  principal  meridian  indi- 
cate townships  north  and  south  of  the  base-line. 
The  southwest  township  on  this  diagram  is  de- 
scribed as  "Township  5  South,  of  Range  4  West," 
or"T.  5S..  R.  4^." 

North  of  the  base-line  the  correction-lines  occur 
every  four  townships,  or  twenty -four  miles;  south 
of  the  base-line,  every  five  townships,  or  thirty 
miles.  This  is  on  account  of  the  greater  con- 
vergence of  the  meridians  as  we  proceed  north. 
In  a  survey  of  Central  British  America,  to  secure 
equal  accuracy,  correction  lines  would  need  to  be 
laid  out  every  two  or  three  townships. 

In  locating  townships  they  are  always  described 
as  north  or  south  of  the  base-li)ie. 

Sometimes  a  neir  base-li)ie  is  located  in  passing 
from  one  state  to  another.  For  instance,  on  the 
fourth  principal  meridian  the  south  boundary  line 
of  AVisconsin  forms  a  new  base-line  for  surveys  in 
that  state. 

To  locate  any  given  township,  as,  for  instance, 
Township  16  North  of  Range  9  East,  count  east- 
ward from  the  principal  meridian  along  the  base- 
line until  the  ninth  range  is  reached ;  then  count 
northward  in  that  range  until  its  sixteenth  town- 
ship is  reached. 

To  locate  a  t  'vuship  accurately  when  its  num- 
ber and  range  are  given,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
from  what  meridian  it  is  reckoned,  and  where  its 
base-line  crosses  that  meridian. 

f  r.  Location  of  Meridians. 

There  are  thirty  meridians  governing  the  sur- 
veys of  public  lands  in  the  United  States,  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  first  principal  mcriilian  divides  the  states  of  Ohio 
aud  ludiana,  having  for  its  base  the  Ohio  River,  the  river  b& 
iug  coincident  with  Sl^  51' of  longitude  west  from  Green- 
wich. This  meridian  governs  the  surveys  of  public  lands  in 
the  State  of  Ohio. 

The  second  principal  meridian  coiueides  with  86°  28'  of  long- 
itude west  from  Greenwich,  starts  from  the  confluence  of 
the  Little  Blue  River  with  the  Ohio,  runs  north  to  the 
northern  boundary  of  Indiana,  and  governs  the  surveys  in 
ludiana  and  a  portion  of  those  in  Illinois. 

The  third  principal  meridian  starts  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Ohio  River  and  extends  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
State  of  Illinois,  and  governs  the  surveys  in  said  state 
(<is(of  the  meridian,  with  the  exception  of  those  projected 
from  the  second  meridian,  and  the  surveys  on  the  icc^t  to  the 
Illinois  River.  This  meridian  coincides  with  89'  10'  30"  of 
longitude  west  from  Greenwich. 

The  fourth  principal  meridian  begins  in  the  middle  of  the 
channel  of  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  River,  in  latitude  38=' 
58'  12"  north  and  longitude  90°  29'  5B"  west  from  Greenwich, 
and  governs  the  surveys  in  Illinois  west  of  the  Illinois  River 
and  west  of  the  third  principal  meridian  lying  north  of  the 
river.  It  also  extends  due  north  through  Wisconsin  and 
northeastern  Minnesota,  governing  all  the  surveys  in  the 
former  and  those  in  the  latter  state  lying  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  the  third  guide  meridian  (west  of  the  fifth  prin- 
cipal meridian)  north  of  the  river. 

The  Jijth  principal  meridian  starts  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Arkansas  River,  aud  with  a  common  base-line  running  due 
west  from  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  Francis  River,  in  Arkan- 
sas, governs  the  surveys  iu  .\rkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Min- 
nesota west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  third  guide  merid- 
ian north  of  the  river,  and  in  North  and  South  Dakota  east 
of  the  Missouri  River.  This  meridian  is  coincident  with  90" 
58'  longitude  west  from  Greenwich. 

The  sixth  principal  wrrfd/nn  coincides  with  longitude  97° 
22'  west  from  Greenwich,  and,  with  the  principal  base-line 
intersecting  it  on  the -lOth  degree  of  north  latitude,  extends 
north  to  the  intersection  of  the  Missouri  River  and  south  to 
the  37th  degree  of  north  latitude,  controlling  the  surveys  in 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  most  of  North  and  South  Dakota  lying 
west  of  the  Missouri  River,  Wyoming  and  Colorado,  except- 
ing the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  in  southwestern 
Colorado,  where  the  surveys  are  projected  from  the  New 
'Mexico  meridian. 

The  Michigan  meridian,  in  longitude  84^  19'  09"  west  from 
Greenwich,  with  a  base-line  on  a  parallel  seven  miles  north  of 
Detroit,  governing  the  surveys  in  Mioliigau. 

Tlie  Tallahassee  nuridian.m  longitude  M'  18'  west  from 
Greenwich,  runs  due  north  aud  south  from  the  point  of  in- 


1582 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


tersection  with  the  base-liuu  yt  Tiillahassee.  aud  governs  the 
survevs  in  Florida. 

The  Saint  Stcphrn'n  mrridiaii,  longitude  88^  02' west  from 
Greenwich,    starts    from     Mobile,   passes     through     Saint 
Stephen's,  intersects  the  hase-line  on  the 31st  degree  of  north    I 
latitude,  and  controls  the  surveys  of  the  southern  district  in    i 
Alabama  and  of  the  Pearl    Kivei-  district   lying  east  of  the    ' 
river  and  south  of  township  10  north  in  the  state  of  Missis- 
sippi, 

The  HtmtstiUe  mfridinn.  lougitudc  86^  .^1'  west  from  Green- 
wich, exteuds  from  the  uortheru  boundary  of  Alabama  as  a 
base,  passes  through  the  town  of  Huntsville,  and  governs  the 
surveys  of  the  uortheru  district  in  Alabama. 

Tbe'Clwctaw  mcrhlhin.  lougitude  89'  10'  30"  west  from  Green- 
wich, passes  two  miles  west  of  the  town  of  Jackson,  in  Mis- 
sissippi, starting  from  the  base-line  twenty-nine  miles  south 
of  Jackson,  and  termiuatiug  on  the  south  boundary  of  the 
Chickasaw  cession,  coutrolling  the  surveys  east  aud  west  of 
the  meridian  and  north  of  the  base. 

'The  Wa.^h(i}tjt(ni  inrritl/an,  lougitude  9P  06'  west  from 
Greenwich,  seveu  miles  east  of  the  town  of  Washington,  in 
Missis^ipiu.  with  the  base-liue  corresponding  with  the  31st 
degree  of  north  latitude,  governs  the  surveys  in  the  south- 
western angle  of  the  State. 

"The  Thf  Sitiiit  Hilina  m(ri(lion.9V  05'  west  from  Greenwich, 
extends  from  the  31st  degree  of  north  latitude,  as  a  base,  due 
south,  and  passing  one  mile  east  of  Batou  Kouge,  controls  the 
surveys  in  the  Greeusborougli  and  the  southeastern  districts 
of  Louisiana,  both  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  Lottisiaun  iinn'Jiaiu^2  2<)'  west  from  Greenwich,  inter- 
sects the  31st  degree  north  latitude  at  a  distance  of  forty- 
eight  miles  we«t  of  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
aiid,  with  the  base-line  coincident  with  the  said  parallel  of 
north  latitude,  governs  the  surveys  in  Louisiana  west  of  the 
Mississippi. 

The  ynr  ^£rxico  mrridftt^,  longitude  106^  52'  09"  west  from 
Greenwich,  intersects  the  principal  base-line  on  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Xorte.  about  ten  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Puerco  River,  on  the  parallel  of  34'  19'  north  latitude,  and 
governs  the  surveys  in  New  Mexico,  and  the  valley  of  the 
Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  in  Colorado. 

The  (Jieol  Salt  Lake  mmidkui,  longitude  HP  53'  47"  west 
from  Greenwich,  intersects  the  base-line  at  the  corner  of 
Temple  Block,  in  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  on  the  parallel  of  40' 
46'  04"  north  latitude,  and  governs  the  surveys  of  I'tah. 

The  Buixr  mM(((((i;i.  lougitude  116'  20'  west  from  Greenwich, 
intersects  the  principal  base  between  the  .Snake  and  Boise 
rivers,  in  latitude  43-26'  north.  The  initial  monument,  at 
the  intersection  of  the  base  and  meridian,  is  nineteen  miles 
distant  from  Boise  City,  on  a  course  of  south  29'  30'  west. 
The  meridian  governs  the  surveys  in  Idaho. 

The  Mount  Diattln  mt:ridi'tn,  California,  coincides  with  lon- 
gitude 121'  .54'  west  from  Greenwich,  intersects  the  base-line 
on  the  summit  of  the  mountain  from  which  it  takes  its  name, 
in  latitude  37'  53'  north,  and  governs  the  surveys  of  all  cen- 
tral and  northeastern  California  aud  the  entire  State  of 
Nevada. 

The  San  li'',  nardhni  mtiidian,  California,  longitude  116'  56' 
west  from  (ireenv  ich.  intersects  the  base-line  at  Mount  San 
Bernardino,  latitude  34'  06'  north,  aud  eoverus  the  surveys 
in  Southern  California  lying  east  of  the  meridian  and  that 
part  of  the  surveys  situated  west  of  it  which  are  south  of  the 
eighth  standard  "parallel  south  of  the  Mount  Diablo  base- 
line. 

The  HumlmU  nn  ridimi,  lougitude  124'  11'  west  from  Green- 
wich, intersects  the  principal  base-line  on  the  summit  of 
Mount  Pierce,  In  latitude  40"i5' 30"  north,  aud  controls  the 
surveys  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  California  lying  west 
of  the  coast  range  of  mountaius  and  north  of  township  6 
south  of  the  Humbolt  base. 

The  Witti'intttf  iiicrtdiftn  is  coincident  with  longitude  122' 
44' west  from  Greenwich,  its  intersection  with  the  base-liue 
is  on  the  parallel  of  45'  30'  north  latitude,  and  it  controls  the 
public  surveys  in  Oregon  and  Washington. 

The  Montana  mrriitian  extends  north  aud  south  from  the 
initial  monument  established  on  the  summit  of  a  limestone 
hill,  eight  hundred  feet  high,  longitude  HI' 40'  54"  west  from 
Greenwich.  The  base-line  runs  east  aud  west  from  the 
monument  on  the  parallel  of  45' 46' 27"  north  latitude.  Tlie 
surveys  for  Montana  are  governed  by  this  meridian. 

The'(Vi7r;  and  Salt  Rifff  meridian  intersects  the  base-line 
on  the  south  side  of  Gila  River,  opposite  the  mouth  of  Salt 
River,  in  longitude  112' 15' 46"  west  from  Greenwich,  and 
latitude  32'  22^^ 57"  north,  aud  governs  the  public  surveys  in 
Arizona. 

The  Indian  meridian  intersects  the  base-line  at  Fort  Ar- 
buckle.  Indian  territory,  in  longitude  97  15'  .56"  west  from 
Greenwich,  latitude  34' 31'  north,  aud  governs  the  surveys  in 
that  territory. 

The  Wind  tlirer  Meridian  governs  the  subdivisional  surveys 
within  the  Shoshone  Indian  Reservation,  in  W^yoming. 

The  Uinta  spfciat  t>ase  and  meridian  govern  the  surveys  of 
the  Uinta  Indian  Reservation,  in  Utah. 

The  Xarajin  .tpe'^ial  liai<r  and  meridian  control  the  surveys  of 
the  Navajoe  Indian  Reservation,  in  New  Mexico  and  .\ri- 
zona. 

The  Blaek  Hithineri(tian  is  coincident  with  the  west  bound- 
ary of  South  Dakota,  on  the  27'  of  longitude  west  from 
Washington,  and  intersects  the  base-line  in  the  parallel  of 
44' north  latitiuie:  it  governs  the  surveys  in  the  southwest- 
ern corner  of  South  Dakota. 


The  Grand  Jiircr  mcridittn  aud  base- line  govern  the  sub- 
divisional  surveys  for  allotment  to  the  Ute  Iiidians,  in  West- 
ern Colorado. 

The  t'iinnrroti  meridian,  coincident  with  the  eastern 
boundary  of  New-  Mexico,  or  103 '  meridian  on  longitude  west 
from  Greenwich,  intersects  the  base-line  on  the  parallel  36° 
:iO'  north  latitude  ( the  north  boundary  of  Texas),  and  governs 
the  surveys  in  the  strip  of  public  lands  inclosed  beiween 
Kansas  and  Colorado  on  the  north,  the  Indian  territory  on 
the  east,  Texasou  the  south,  and  New  Mexico  on  the  west. 

T'.     Convergence  of  Meridians. 

In  consequence  of  the  convergence  of  meridians, 
townships  accurately  surveyed  are  not  perfect 
squares,  but  are  longer  upon  the  southern  than 
upon  the  northern  boundary. 

If  the  township  corners  upon  a  base-line  are  ex- 
actly six  miles  apart,  the  townships  surveyed 
northward  grows  less  and  less  as  the  distance  frum 
the  base-line  increases,  and  those  surveyed  sout  h- 
ward  grow  larger.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  standard  paral- 
lels, or  rorrection-Iiiies,  to  pre- 
vent the  errors  from  becom- 
ing so  great  as  to  destroy  the 
value  of  the  system. 

Upon  these  correction-lines 
the  township  corners  are  care- 
fully placed  at  distances  of 
six  miles  apart. 

The  convergence  of  meri- 
dians is  greater  in  the  higher 
latitudes;  but  at  latitude  42° 
it  is  about  half  a  rod  to  a 
mile.  Supposing  the  surveys 
to  be  perfectly  accurate,  and 
the  correction-lines  to  be 
twenty-four   miles   apart,  the  B*$Ei.st 

convergence  of  the  meridians  S- 

will  then  be  about  twelve  rods,  and  there  will 
be  a  double  set  of  township  corners,  as  illustrated 
in  the  following  diagram,  in  which  the  conver- 
gence of  the  meridians  is  greatly  exaggerated  to 
make  it  evident  to  the  eye. 

Explanation.— In  consequence  of  the  conver- 
gence of  meridians,  a  line  run  due  north  from  a 
strikes  the  correction-line  at  6  instead  of  at  o. 
Double  township  corners  are  consequently  estab- 
lished at  b  and  a,  and  so  on,  their  distance  apart 
increasing  with  their  distance  from  the  principal 
meridian. 

Lands  are  legally  advertised  in  the  following 
way  :— 

"  The  south-east  quarter  of  the  south-east  quarter 
of  the  north-west  quarter  of  section  thirty-five  in 
township  twenty-nine  north,  of  range  seven  east  of 
the  fourth  principal  meridian,  containing  ten  acres 
more  or  less." 

The  above  is  often  abbre-              Diagraqjs. 
viatedthus: —  n. 

"The  S.  E.  J^of  theS.  E. 
I4  of  the  N.  AV.  U  Sect.  35, 
T.  29  K.,  R.  7  E.  of  the  4th 
p.  m." 

Supposing    the    annexed  w.l ^ — ' "  I         ■       [g- 

drawing  to  represent  the 
Section  35  described,  the 
star  (■■")  shows  the  position 
of  the  lot  advertised. 

The  proper  description  is 
found  by  consulting  the  records  of  the  land-offices, 
or  the  deed  by  which  the  title  wns  originally  con- 
veyed by   the  government. 

These  records  are  presumed  to  be  correct,  and 
the  only  appeal  from  tliem  is  to  the  commissioner 
of  the  General  Land  Office,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  and  ultimately  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States. 


tr 


r  X  I T  E  D    STATES    OF    A  M  E  R  1  C  A 


1583 


VI.     Public  Land  Sales  and  Grants. 

The  immense  extent  of  land,  forming  part  of  the 
Cnited  States,  as  yet  chietiy  uninhabited  and 
dncultivated,  is  held  to  be  National  property,  at 
the  disposal  of  Congress  and  tlie  Executive  of  the 
Republic.  The  public  lands  of  the  United  States 
which  are  still  undisposed  of  lie  in  nineteen  States 
and  six  Territories,  including  Alaska.  The  public 
lands  are  divided  into  two  great  classes.  The  one 
class  have  a  dollar  and  a  quarter  an  acre  desig- 
nated as  the  minimum  price,  and  the  other  two 
dollars  and  a  half  an  acre,  the  latter  being  the 
alternate  sections,  reserved  by  the  United  States 
in  land  grants  to  railroads,  etc.  Titles  to  these 
lands  may  be  acquired  by  private  entry  or  location 
under  the  homestead,  pre-emption,  and  timber-cul- 
ture laws ;  or,  as  to  some  classes,  by  purchase  for 
cash.  The  homestead  laws  give  the  right  to  160 
acres  of  a-doUar-and-a-quarter  lands,  or  to  SO  acres 
of  two-doUar-and-a-half  lands,  to  any  citizen  or 
applicant  for  citizenship  over  twenty-one  who  will 
actually  settle  upon  and  cultivate  the  land.  The 
title  is  "perfected  by  the  issue  of  a  patent  after  five 
years  of  actual  settlement.  The  only  charges  in 
the  case  of  homestead  entries  are  fees  and  com- 
missions. 

Another  large  class  of  free  entries  of  public 
lands  is  that  provided  for  under  the  Timber-Cul- 
ture Acts  of  1873-7S.  The  purpose  of  these  laws  is 
to  promote  the  growth  of  forest  trees  on  the  public 
lands.  They  give  the  right  to  any  settler  who  has 
cultivated  for  two  years  as  much  as  five  acres  in 
trees  to  an  80-acre  homestead,  or,  if  ten  acres,  to  a 
homestead  of  160  acres,  and  a  free  patent  for  his 
land  is  given  him  at  the  end  of  three  years  instead 
of  five. 

In  the  middle  of  1889  there  were  1,815,504,147 
acres  of  public  lands  in  the  States  and  Territories, 
of  which  981,631,984  had  been  surveyed.  Of  the 
total  area  of  the  United  States,  1,400,000  square 
miles,  or  896.000,000  acres,  were  unoccupied  at  the 
census  of  1880.  Upwards  of  88  million  acres  of 
land  are  settled  under  the  Homestead  and  Timber- 
Culture  Acts.  In  1889  there  were  6,020,2.31  acres 
taken  up  under  the  Homestead  Act,  and  3,735,305 
under  the  Timber-Culture  Act. 

In  1888,  5,317,906  acres  were  sold  for  cash,  and  the 
total  number  of  acres  of  public  lands  disposed  of 
during  that  year  was  30,116,684,  the  monev  received 
being  $13,547,137.  Of  the  public  lands  in  1SS9,  369,- 
52d,6CO  acres  were  in  Alaska  unsurveyed.  It  is  pro- 
vided by  law  that  two  sections,  or  640  acres  of  land, 
in  each  "  township,"  are  reserved  for  common 
schools,  so  that  the  spread  of  education  may  go 
together  with  colonization. 

The  power  of  Congress  over  the  public  territory  is 
exclusive  and  universal,  except  so  far  as  restrained 
by  stipulations  in  the  original  cessions. 

Presidents  of  the  Early  Americ.\x  Congresses. 

The  following  is  a  fuU  list  of  presidents  of  Con- 
gress up  to  the  date  of  the  adoption  of  the  National 
Cor.stitution.  with  the  dates  severally  of  their  ad- 
ministrations :  * 

Peyton  Randolph,  of  Virginia 1774-75 

Henry  Middleton,  of  South  Carolina 1775-76 

John  Hancock,  of  Massachusetts 1776-77 

Henry  Laurens,  of  South  Carolina 1777-78 

John  Jay,  of  New  York 1778-79 

Samuel  Huntington,  of  Connecticut 1779-80 

Thomas  McKean.  of  Pennsylvania 1780-81 

John  Hanson,  of  Maryland 1781-S2 


•Kindly  furnished  for  tbese  Revisions  and  Additions  bv 
Prof    I   D.  Gray,  A.  M.,  of  Trenton.  X.  J. 


Elias  Boudinot,  of  New  Jersey 1782-83 

Thomas  Mitflin,  of  Pennsylvania 1783-84 

Richard  Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia 1784-86 

Nathaniel  Gorham,  of  Massachutts 1786-87 

Arthur  St.  Clair,  of  Pennsylvania 1787-88 

Cyrus  Griffin,  of  Virginia  ." 178&-89 

John  Hancock  signed  first  as  President  of  the 
Congress  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Elias  Boudinot  signed  as  president  the  definitive 
treaty  of  peace. 

Thomas  Mifliin  received  as  president  AVashing- 
ton's  commission  when  he  resigned  it  in  1783; 
while 

Richard  Henry  Lee  presented  the  immortal  reso- 
lution which  declared  the  colonies  to  be  free  and 
independent  States. 

Chronological  Historic  Octlixe  of  the  United 

St.\tes. 
Coast  of  Florida  discovered  by  Ponce  deLeon  1512 
California  discovered  by  Grijalva's  expedition  1-535 

Louisiana  conquerred  by  De  Soto 1-5-10 

Raleigh  establishes  first  settlement  in  Virginia  1-5S5 
Jamestown,  Virginia,  founded  by  Lord  de  la 

Warr 1607 

New  Amsterdam — now  New  York — built    by 

the   Dutch 1614 

New  Jersey  settled  by  the  Dutch 1614 

Settlement  of  New  England  begun  by  Captain 

Smith ." 1614 

Landing  of  the  pilgrims  at  Plymouth  Rock, 

Dec.  25,  1620 
Delaware  settled  by  Swedes  and  Dutch  1614-1627 
Massachusetts  settled  by  Sir  H.  Rose  well....   1628 

ilaryland  settled  by  Lord  Baltimore 1633 

Connecticut  settled  by  Lords  Say  and  Brooke.   1635 
Rhode  Island  settled  by  Roger  Williams  1635 
Connecticut    (composed    then    of     Hartford, 
Windsor,  and  Wethersfield)  adopted  a  lib- 
eral constitution,  the  first  written  constitu- 
tion in  history Jan.  1,  1639 

Roger  Williams  organized  at  Providence,  R. 

I.  the  first  Baptist  Church  in  America 1639 

Rhode  Island  establishes  a  democratic  consti- 
tution     1641 

An  unsuccessful  "Plan"  was  formulated  to 
unite  all  the  American-English  colonies  into 

one  confederacy 1644 

Maryland    Assembly    passed    an    act   giving 

complete  toleration  to  all  Christians 1649 

The  Connecticut  Assembly  prohibited  the  use 

of  tobacco  to  persons  under  the  age  of  20      1650 
New   Amsterdam    (New  York  City)  was  in- 
corporated    1652 

Many  Quakers  sufifering  persecution  in  Eng- 
land began  to  migrate  to  the  American 
colonies  but  were  persecuted  in  Massachu- 
setts from  this  date 1657 

An  Indian  church  was  organized  in  Natick, 

Mass 1660 

The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  published 
a  declaration  of  rights,  claiming  self-govern- 
ment, and  denying  the  right   of  Appeals  to 

England   June,  1661 

John  Elliot  published  his  translation  of  the 
New    Testament    into    the    Massachusetts 

Indian  dialect 1661 

The  Virginia  Assembly  voted  its  members  a 
_  salary  of  250  pounds  of  toLaco  each  day 
'  and   passed   severe   laws  against  "Quakers, 

Baptists,  and  other  Dissenters" 1662 

Execution   for    alleged    witchcraft   began  in 

Connecticut 1663 

New  York  taken  by   the  English 1664 

The  first  settlement  in  Michigan  iMission 
Sault  de  Ste  Marie)  established 1668 


1584 


UNITED    STATES    OF    A  INI  E  R  I  C  A 


South  Carolina  settled  by  the  English 1669 

George  Fox,  founder  of  the  (.Quakers,  visited 
the  American  Colonies 1671 

Marquette  and  Joliet  discovered  and  descend- 
ed the  Wisconsin,  Des  Moines,  Mississippi, 
and  other  Western  rivers  1673 

New  York  surrendered  to  a  Dutch  Squadron, 

July  1673 

Peace  concluded  between  England  and  Hol- 
land, the  American  colonies  being  ceded 
back  to  England Feb.  1674 

King  Philip's  war  —  Philip  defeated  and 
killed 1676 

Pennsylvania  settled  by  William  Penn 1682 

Louisiana  settled  by  the  French 1682 

William  Penn  published  a  frame  of  govern- 
ment for  Pennsylvania 1682 

Philadelphia  founded  (there  being  "three  or 
four  little  cottages" ) 1683 

A  printing  press  was  set  up  in  Philadelphia 
where  there  were  600  houses 1686 

A  French  Census  showed  a  population  in 
French  America  of  11,249  persons — about 
one-twentieth  of  the  population  of  the  Eng- 
lish American  Colonies 1688 

France  declared  war  against  England,  lasting 
till  1697,  greatly  disturbing  the  Colonies        1689 

A  semi-official  estimate  showed  the  popula- 
tion of  the  Colonies  to  be  about  200,000,  as 
follows:  Massachusetts  including  Maine 
and  Plymouth,  44,000;  Xew  Hampshire, 
6.000;  Rhode  Island  and  Providejice,  6,000 
Connecticut,  19,000;  New  York,  20,000;  New 
Jersey,  10,000:  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware, 
12,000;  Maryland,  25,000;  Virginia  50,000; 
Carolina  (to  Florida),  8,000 1690 

A  public  post  is  established  to  send  letters 
from  Philadelphia  to  the  Potomnc  eight  times 
a  year! 1695 

England  and  France  signed  articles  of  peace 
at  Eyswick Sept.  20,  1697 

T^emoine  D'lberville,  commissioned  by  Louis 
Xiy.  of  France  sailed  with  four  ships  and 
immigrants  to  mouth  of  Mississippi. 1698 

Mississippi  explored  and  settled  by  the 
French 1699 

Yale  College  was  founded  at  Saybrook,  Conn., 
Nov.  11  (chartered  Oct.  1701 ) 1700 

Detroit  founded  by  La  Mothe  Cadillac  (with 
100  French  colonists) 1701 

England  declared  war  against  France  and 
Spain  (the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession, 
lasting  till  1713) 1702 

New  York  Assembly  appropriated  £1.500  to 
fortil'v  tlie  Narrows  (Lord  C'ornbury  embez- 
zled it) 1703 

The  Boston  Neu's-Letter,  the  earliest  news- 
paper in  America,  started  in  Boston 1704 

High  Church  party  in  South  Carolina  disfran- 
chised dissenters  (two-thirds  of  the  popu- 
lation)      1704 

First  Church  erected  in  North  Carolina  1705 

New  York  succeeded  in  getting  Lord  Conibury 
removed  from  the  governorship   1708 

A  Colonial  and  English  fleet  captured  Port 
Royal,  Acadia,  and  change  its  name  to 
Annapolis 1710 

A  committee  of  English  (Commons  report  that 
the  American  plantations  ought  to  be  furn- 
ished with  negroes  at  reasonable  prices   .  . .   1711 

An  Anglo-Colonial  fleet  of  15  ships.  40  trans- 
ports, and  10,000  men  sailed  from  Boston  to 
conquer  Canada;  .s  ships  wer  ^  wrecked  and 
expedition  utterly  failed   1711 

Indians  besieged  Detroit  but  were  xepulsed 
by  the  French 1712 


The  peace  of  Utrecht  was  signed  by  England, 
France  and  Spain 1713 

[France  ceded  to  Britain,  Acadia,  Hudson  Bay  and 
its  borders,  and  Newfoundland,  and  admits  Britain's  su- 
premacy in  tlie  American  fisheries:  ttie  Assiento  Treaty  is 
transferred  to  England,  which  undertakes  to  carry  to  the 
Spanish  West  Indies  4.J>U0  negroes  a  year  for  30  years,  paying 
on  4,000  a  duty  of  $:j3.3.3  per  head,  and"  for  all  over  4,000  a  diitv 
of  J16.67  a  head ;  during  the  30  years  not  far  from  .SO.iKX)  are 
talien  from  Africa  by  the  English  annually,  as  against  15,000 
a  year  for  the  previous 20  years.  The  population  of  the  Eng- 
glish  colonies  was  about  400,000.] 

A  public  bank  was  opened  in  Massachusetts..  1716 
Georgia  settled  by  General  Oglethorp.  . . .  1717 

War  was  declared  between  France  and  Spain 

(lasting  till  1721) 1719 

The  first  newspaper  was  started  in  Philadel- 
phia      1719 

The  South  Sea  and  Mississippi  Bulible  Compa- 
nies bursted  and  spread  ruin 1720 

The  Boston  "Courant"  was  started   by  James 

Franklin,  a  brother  of  Benj.  Franklin 1721 

The  "Gazette,"  a  weekly,  was  started  in  New 

York  (the  first  paper  in  New  York) 1725 

The  French  built  Fort  Niagara 1728 

Sir  William  Keith,  ex-governor  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, suggested   the  extension   of   the  sfamj: 

1.1  lit II  system  to  the  American  Colonies 1728 

New  Orleans  was  fortified ;   it  numbered  4,000 

French  and  2,000  Negroes 1729 

George  Washington  was  born Feb.  22.  17.32 

The  first  route  was  opened  between  New  York 

and  Philadelphia 1732 

Kentucky  settled  by  Col.  Boone 1732 

Stamp  Act,  which  led  to   the  Revolutionary 

War 1764 

First  Colonial  Congress  at  New  York. .  Oct.  7,  1765 
Boston  "Tea   Party;"    English   cargo  of   tea 

destroyed 1 773 

Declaration  of  Rights Nov.  4,  1774 

First  action  between  British  and  Americans  at 

Lexington April  19,  1775 

George  Washington  appointed  commander-in- 
chief 1775 

Battle  of  Bunker  Hill   June  17,  1775 

Declaration  of  Independence July  4,  1776 

Flag  adopted  Ijy  act  of  Congress  ...  June  14,  1777 
United  States  named  by  Congress  .  .  .  .Sept.  9,  1777 
AVashington  defeated  at  the  Brandywine, 

Sept.  11,  1777 
A  Federal  government  adopted  by  Congress, 

Nov.  15,  1777 
Lafayette  and  other  French  officers  join  the 

Americans 1777 

The  States  recognized  by  France 1777 

The  British  troops  evacuate  Philadelphia.     .  .   1778 

Major  Andre  hanged  as  a  spy Oct.  2,  1780 

Surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown, 

Oct.  19,  1781 
Definitive  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Paris. 

Sept.  3,  1788 
John   Adams,   first  American  ambassador   to 

England 1785 

The  cotton  plant  introduced  into  Georgia.  .  .  .  1786 
Quakers  of    Philadelphia    emancipate    their 

slaves 1788 

United  States  Government  organized,  March  4,  1789 
George  Washington,  1st  President.  April  30,  1789 
Present  departments  of  State  established  17(^9 

Death  of  Benjamin  Franklin April  17,  1790 

United  States  bank  instituted June  17,  1791 

City  of  Washington  chosen  capital  July  8,  1792 
Re-election  of  Washington  March  4,  1793 

John  .\dams,  2d  President  3Iarch  4,  1797 

Washington  dies Dec.  14,  1799 

Seat  of  government  removed  from  Philadel- 
phia to  Washington 1800 


I 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


1585 


Thomas  Jefferson.  3d  President.         March  4,  1801 

Louisiana  bought  from  the  Frenoli 1803 

American  ports  closed  to  British  .  July,  1808 

Importation  of  slaves  abolished Jan.  1,  1807 

James  Madison.  4th  President March  4,  1809 

War  with  Great  Britain  —  1812-14  —  begins 

June  18,  1812 

Buffalo  burned  by  the  British Dec,  1813 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Ghent  . . .     Dec.  24,  1814 

James  Monroe,  5th  President .March  4,  1817 

Center  foundation  of  the  capitol,  Washington, 

laid    Aug.  24,  1818 

Florida  ceded  by  the  Spanish  to  the  Tiiited 

States Oct.  24,  1820 

John  t^uincy  Adams,  6th  President 1825 

First  passenger  railway — Stockton  to  Darling- 
ton, Eng 1825 

Death  of  the  two  ex-Presidents  Adams  and 

Jefferson July  4,  1826 

Convention  with  Great  Britain  concerning  in- 
demnity for  war  of  1812-14 Nov.  13,  1826 

General  Jackson,  7th  President March  4,  1829 

Ports  re-opened  to  British  commerce      Oct.  5,  1830 

Commercial  panic.  1832 

Great  fire  at  New  York Dec.  16,  1835 

National  debt  paid  off 1836 

Martin  VanBuren,  Sth  President.  .  March  4,  1837 
Steamer  Caroline  burned  by  the  British, 

Dec.  29,  1837 

Telegraph  perfected  by  Morse 1837 

Great    Western  steamship    arrives    at    New 

York June  17,  1838 

American  banks  suspend  cash  payments.  Oct.,  1839 
Gen.  Harrison,  9th  President,  March  4:  dies 

April  4,  1841 
John    Tyler,    Vice-President,    becomes    10th 

President 1841 

Resignation  of  all  the  ministers  except  Web- 
ster  Sept.  11,  1841 

Sewing  machines    invented  by    Elias  Howe 

about 1841 

James  Knox  Polk,  11th  President  .  .Marcli  4,  1845 
War  declared  against   the  United  States  by 

Mexico June  4,  1845 

Gen.  Taylor,   12th  President,  March   4.  1S49; 

dies July  9,  1850 

Millard  Filmore,  Vice-President,  becomes  13th 

President July  10.  1850 

California  admitted  a  State Aug.  15,  1850 

Fugitive  slave  bill  passed August,  1850 

Henry  Clay  dies June  29,  1851 

J.  F.  Cooper,  American  novelist,  dies  Sept.  14,  1851 
Part  of  the  Capitol   at  Washington  and  the 
whole  of  the  library  of  Congress  destroyed 

by  fire   Dee.  24,  1851 

Daniel  AVebster  dies Oct.  24,  1852 

Commodore  Perry's  expedition  to  Japan  .  1852 
Gen.  Franklin  Pierce,  14th  President, Marcli  4.  1853 
Crystal  Palace  opens  at  New  York.    .  July  14,  1853 

Astor  library.  New  York,  opened Jan.  9,  1854 

Commercial  treaty  between  Japan  and  United 

States March  28.  1854 

Reciprocity  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and 

the  United  States June  7,  1854 

James  Buchanan,  loth  President.  .  .  .ilarch  4,  1856 

Commercial  panic  in  New  York August,  1857 

Atlantic  telegraph  completed August,  1858 

Massacre  at  Jlountain  Meadows,  Utah, Sept  18,  18.58 

Prescott,  the  historian,  dies Jan.  28.  1859 

Insurrection  at  Harper's  Ferry Oct.  16,  1859 

Abraham  Lincoln  chosen  as  candidate  for  the 

Presidency  at  Chicago May  16,  1860 

Great  Eastern  arrives  at  New  York  June  23,  1860 
Prince  of  Wales  visits  Washington  Oct  3.  1860 
South  Carolina  secedes  from  the  liiion. 

Dec.  20,  1860 


New  York  and  other  Northern  States  protest 
against  secession Jan.  4,  1861 

Kansas  admitted  as  a  State Jan.  21,  1861 

Secession  by  Convention — Mississippi,  Jan.  8 ; 
Alabama  and  Florida,  Jan.  11 ;  Georgia,  Jan. 
19;  Louisiana,  Jan.  26;  Texas,  by  Legisla- 
lature Feb.  1,  1861 

Morrill  Tariff  Bill  passed March  2,  1861 

Abraham  Lincoln,  16th  President.    .   March  4,  1861 

Southern  Commissioners  not  received  by  the 
President  at  Washington March  12,  1861 

Slavery  abolished  in  District  of  Columbia, 

April  4,  1861 

Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade, 

April  7,  1861 

President  Lincoln  proclaims  the  blockade  of 
the  ports  of  the  seceding  States.  .  .   April  10,  1861 

War  begins;  Major  Anderson  refuses  to  sur- 
render Fort  Sumter  to  the  secessionists, 

April    11,  1861 

President  Lincoln  calls  for  volunteers  and  in- 
forms foreign  powers  of  his  intention  to 
maintain  the  Li'nion  by  force  of  arms.  May  4,  1861 

Queen  Victoria  commands  her  subjects  to  be 
neutral  during  the  war May  13,  1861 

Commodore  Farragut  ascends  the  Mississippi, 

May,  1861 

Neutrality  announced  by  the  French  Emperor. 

June  10.  1861 

Congress  authorizes  a  war  loan  of  $250,000,000. 

July  17,  1861 

First  Battle  of  Bull  Run July.  21,  1861 

McClellan  assumes  command  of  the  .\rmy  of 
Potomac .\ug.  20,  1861 

McClellan  commander-in-chief  of  Federal 
Army Nov.  1 .  1 861 

Mason  and  Slidell  taken  off  the  British 
steamer  by  Captain  Wilkes Nov.  8,  1861 

President  Lincoln  issues  a  proclamation  con- 
fiscating the  property  and  emancipating  the 
slaves  of  all  Confederates  found  in  arms 
after  60  days July  26,  1862 

Ex-President  ^Martin  Van  Buren  dies. . .  .July,  1S62 

President  Lincoln  proclaims  freedom  to  the 
slaves Jan.  2,  1863 

Grant's  successful  campaign    in  Tennessee. 

May,  1863 

Made  commander-in-chief March  8.  1864 

Lincoln  re-elected  President Nov.,  1864 

Nevada  admitted  to  the  Union 1864 

Congress  abolishes  slavery Feb.  2,  1865 

Lincoln  and  Johnson  inaugurated      March  4.  1865 

Battle  of   Five   Forks,  April  1 ;  Lee  retreats, 

April  2,  1865 

Richmond  and  Petersburg  evacuated  by  the 
Confederates,  and  occupied  by  Grant, 

April  3,  1865 

Lee  surrenders April  9,  1865 

President  Lincoln  shot  in  Ford's  Theater, 
Washington,  by  Wilkes  Booth,  April  14; 
dies April  15,  1865 

Andrew  Johnson,  Vice-President,  17th  Presi- 
dent  April  17.  1865 

Confederates     surrender,    the    war    is    over, 

April  26,  1865 

Solemn  fast  observed  for  death  of  President 
Lincoln June  1,  1865 

Armies    on  both    sides    rapidly    disbanding, 

June.  1865 

Southern  prisoners  of  war  released  on  parole, 

July  20,  1865 

National  thanksgiving  for  peace  Nov.  2,  1865 

Habeas  Corpus  Act  restored. ...    Dec,  1,  1865 

Eighty-five  members  of  the  Southern  States 
excluded  from  Congress '.  .Dec,  1865 


1586 


UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


The  war  proclaimed  at  au  end     . .         April  3, 

General  AVinfield  Scott  dies May  29, 

Atlantic  Cable  completed July  27, 

Impeachment  of  President  Johnson  agreed  to, 

Jan.  7, 

Alaska  purchased  for  $7,000.000 April  9, 

General    amnesty   (with  exceptions)    issued, 

July  4, 
Darien  canal  scheme  approved  by  Congress, 

Jan.. 
Suffrage  bill  abolishing  distinctions  based  on 

race,  color,  or  property,  passed Feb.  21, 

General  Grant,  18th  President March  4, 

Naturalization  treaty  with  Great  Britain  rati- 
fied by  the  Senate April  15, 

Great  peace  jubilee  at  Boston  ;  colossal  eon- 
cert  of  10,371  voice.s  and  1,094  instruments 

conducted  by  P.  S.  Gilmore June  15, 

Naturalization  treaty  signed Jan.  26, 

Proclamation  against  the  Kuklux  in    North 

Carolina March  5, 

Formation  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park 

authorized  by  Congress   March, 

General  Grant  re-elected  President   .  .   Nov.  5, 
Great    discoveries    in    electric    lighting,    by 

Thomas  A.  Edison 

Insurrection  of  Negroes  suppressed  at  Tren- 
ton, Tennessee  :  leaders  hung August, 

Great    Centennial    demonstration    began    at 

Philadelphia Jan.   1, 

Centennial  Exposition  opened  at  Philadelphia 

May  10,  and  closed Nov.  10, 

R.  B.  Hayes,  19th   President March  4, 

Telephone  invented  in 

Plionograph  invented  by  Thomas  A.  Edison .  . 

Movement  against  the  Mormons  on  account  of 

their  polygamy  ;  first  conviction,  fine,   and 

imprisonment Oct.   20, 

James  A.  Garfield,  20th  President        March  4, 

Was  shot  by  Guiteau July  2. 

Died   Sept.  19;  was  succeeded  by  Chester  A. 
Arthur,  Vice-President,  21st  President  .  .  . 

Longfellow  dies March  24, 

Gpover  Cleveland,  22d  President.  . .  .March  4, 

Death  of  General  Grant July  23, 

Pan-American  Exposition  in  New  Orleans, 

Nov.  10, 
Death  of  Vice-President  Hendricks,  Nov.  25, 
Statue    of    Liberty  unveiled    in    New   York 

Harbor Oct.   26, 

Ex-President  Arthur  dies  Nov.  18, 

Interstate  Commerce  Bill  becomes  a  law, 

Feb.  4, 
Centennial   of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitu- 
tion celebrated  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  15-17, 
Fisheries    Convention    between   the    United 

States  and  England,  signed Feb.  15, 

A  Blizzard  paralyzes  business  in  the  Eastern 

States March  11-14, 

Benjamin  Harrison  inaugurated  President  of 

the   United  States   March  4, 

Oklahoma  opened    for  settlement,  April   22, 
Centennial   of   the    inauguration  of  General 
Wasliington    as     first      President    of     the 
United  States  celebrated  in  New  York, 

April   28-May  1, 
North    and   South   Dakota   admitted    tj   the 

Union Nov.  3, 

Montana  admitted  to  the  Union Nov.  8, 

Washington  admitted  to  the  Union,  Nov.  11-, 

Idalio  admitted  to  the  Union   July  3, 

Wyoming  admitted   to  the  Union.  .  .  July  11, 
The   McKinley  Tariff  Bill  passed  the  House, 

May  21 ;  passed  the  Senate Sept.  30, 

Democrats    elected    majority   of    next    Con- 
gress      Nov. . 

61st  Congress  adjourned March  4, 


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1872 

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1887 

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1889 


1889 

1889 
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1891 


International  Copyright  Law  became  opera- 
tive, and  President  Harrison  announced  by 
proclamation  that  the  provisions  of  law  now 
extended  to  Belgium,  France,  Great  Britain, 
and  Switzerland July  1,  1890 

Ex-Vice-President  Hamlin   died July  4,  1891 

Hon.  James  G.  Blaine,  Secretary  of  State 
announced  reciprocity  treaties  with  Brazil. 
San  Domingo,  and   some  other  countries,* 

Oct.  !4,  1891 

The  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States 
announced  a  Treaty  of  Agreement  between 
the  Governments  of  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  to  submit  to  arbitration  the 
important  questions  growing  out  of  the 
Bering  Sea  and  Fishery  Controversies,Nov.lO,  1891 

Funeral  of  James  Kussell  Lowell  in  Boston 
Mass Aug.  14.   1891 

Centennial  of  Admission  of  Vermont  into  U. 
S.  celebrated Aug.  19.  1891 

A  building  in  Park  Place  New  York  collapsed 
killing  62  people Aug.  22,  1891 

A  wreck  on  Western  North  Carolina  E.  R. 
killed  and  wounded  50  persons.  . .       Aug.  27,  1S91 

News  of  defeat  of  Balmaceda  Army  in  C'liili 
received  in  U.  S.. Aug.  28,  1S91 

German  Government  removed  the  prohilii- 
tion  of  American  pork Sepl.  3.  !s;»l 

Tennessee  legislature  refused  abolish  Convict 
lease  system   Sepl.  5,  1891 

New  Chillian  Government  recognized  bj  U. 
S.  Govenmient   Sept.  7,  1891 

Death    of   Balmaceda   by   suicide  announced 

Sept.  19,  1891 

Oklahoma's    new    lands   opened    to    settlers 

Sept.  22,  1891 

Leland  Sanford  Jr.  University  opened  at 
Palo  Alto,  Cal .' Oct.  1,  1891 

Statue  of  General  Grant  unveiled  at  Chicago 

Oct.  7,  1891 

Earthquake  shocks  at  San  Francisco    Oct.  14,  1891 

Philip  Brooks  of  Boston  consecrated  bishop 
of  Prot.  Epis.  Church Oct.  14,  1891 

Sunol  lowered  the  world's  trotting  record  by 
half  a  second Oct  18,  1891 

Italian  Government  permitted  the  importa- 
tion of   .American  pork Qct.  21,  1891 

U.  S.  formally  demanded  reparation  lor 
assault  on  crew  of  Baltimore Ocl.  26  1891 

N.  Y.  Court  of  Appeals  decided  the  Tilden  will 
case  in  favor  of  the  natural  heirs   . .  Oct.  27,  1891 

Maverick  National  Bank,  Boston  failed  Nov.  2,  1891 

Riotous  miners  released  200  Convict-workers 
in  Teim Nov.  2,  1891 

New  York  Presbytery  acquitted  Prof  Briggs 
of  heresy Nov.  4,  1891 

Memorial  meeting  in  honor  of  Parnell  held  in 
New  York   Nov.  15,  1891 

Attempt  made  bv  a  lunatic  to  assassinate 
Dr.  John  Hall  of  New  York Nov.  29,  1891 

Armored  Cruiser  New  York  was  launched 
at  Philadelphia Dec.  2,  1891 

Norcross,  a  Boston  lunatic  endeavored  to 
assassinate  Russell  Sage,  N.  Y Dec.  4,  1891 

•Brazil,  some  months  since,  euteied  into  a  treaty  by  which 
many  American  articles  are  admitted  free.  Flour  is  made 
free  and  pork  is  admitted  at  a  nominal  duty. 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  have  reduced  the  duty  on  flour  frnm 
$5  80  a  barrel  to  $1  (which  gives  us  the  market),  besides  put- 
ting nearly  one  hundred  articles  of  American  productiou  ou 
the  free  list. 

Sau  Domineo  has  made  a  reciprocity  treaty  with  flour  and 
pork  upon  the  free  list,  besides  a  large  number  of  other  ar- 
ticles.   Other  treaties  for  reciprocity  are  in  progress. 

Germany  without  negofialing  a  formal  treaty,  has  removed 
the  prohibition  on  pork,  and  our  Government,  iti  considera- 
tion thereof,  has  left  her  sugar  ou  the  free  list.  This  nyuns 
to  us  an  entirelv  new  market,  and  $l.'i.000.000  to  J'iO.OOO.ooil  of 
American  pork  will  be  consumed  per  annum  where  not  a 
pound  has  been  taken  for  ten  years.— !>e.'.  mauies  Letter.) 


UNITED    STATES    OF    A  M  E  R I C  A  —  U  P  T  0  X 


1587 


First  Session  of  5-d  Congress  opened  L'lias. 
C  Crisp  of  Georgia  elected  speaker,  Dec.  5,  1891 

Edward  M.  Kield,  Xew  York  arrested  for  for- 
gery   Dec.  15,  1891 

The  Poet  AVhittier  celebrated  in  Boston  his 
S4th  birthday Dec.  24,  1S91 

A  collision  on  Hudson  River  R.  R.  kiUed 
l-i  persons Dee.  24,  1891 

Tht  wheat  crop  for  1891  was  reported  by  the 
C  S.  Government  figures  at  the  enormous 
total  of  611,780.00«.i  bushel,  nearly  100,000,000 
bushels  larger  than  any  previous  year,  Jan.  1,  1892 

Randolph  Rogers  the  American  Sculptor 
died  in  Rome  Italy  aged  69 .Jan.  15,  1892 

Chief  Judge  Ruger  of  New  York  Court  of  Ap- 
peals died Jan.  16,  1892 


Judge  M.  M.  Kuapp  of  Xew  Jersey  Court  died 
while  charging  a  grand  jury Jan.  26.  lS9l' 

The  Chillian  reply  to  the  U.  S.  demands  was 
received  (satisfactory) Jan. 27,  1892 

President  Harrison  in  a  second  message  to 
Congress  announces  the  satisfactory  close  of 
the  Chillian   incidents     Jan.  28,  1892 

The  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  decided  that  the 
Anti-Lottery  Act  passed  by  Congress  is 
constitutional Jan.  31,  1892 

North  German  Lloyd  steamer  "Eider''  was 
wrecked   Jan.  31,  1892 

Reciprocal  trade  relations  annouced  by  Presi- 
dent Harrison  as  established  between  U.  S. 
and  British  West  Indies Feb.  5,  1892 


rXIVERSALISM,  a  belief  that  all  mankind 
vill  eventually  be  redeemed  from  sin  and  suffer- 
ing and  brought  back  to  hoUness  and  God.  See 
Religious  Dexomixatioxs  in  these  Revisions  and 
Additions. 

rXIVERSAL  LEGATEE,  a  legatee  to  whom  the 
whole  estate  of  a  dece;ised  party  is  given,  subject 
only  to  the  burden  of  other  legacies  and  debts.  It 
nearly  corresponds  to  residuary  legatee  in  Eng- 
land. 

UNIVERSITIES.  .=5EE Colleges  axd  Uxiter- 
siTiES  IX  UxiTED  States  in  these  Revisions. 

UNXA,  a  small  town  of  Prussia,  in  Westphalia, 
nineteen  miles  northwest  of  Amsberg.  It  was  for- 
merly fortifled.  was  one  of  the  Hanse  towns,  and 
played  a  role  in  the  history  of  the  Femgerichte. 
Abtlut  a  mile  to  the  north  are  the  famous  salt- 
works of  Konigsborn,  which  yield  I'JO.OOO  cwts.  of 
salt  annually.  Population  in  1872,  6.915,  who  are 
employed  in  weaving  linen  and  hosiery  and  in 
brewing  and  distilling. 

UXYORC>.  a  kingdom  of  Central  Africa.  See 
Britannica.  Vol.  XXIII.  p.  &59. 

Kabba  Regga.  the  present  sovereign  of  Unyoro, 
bears  the  official  title  of  "  King  of  Kitwara, "  being 
the  direct  representative  and  lineal  descendant  of 
the  dynasty  of  Wa-Huma  (GaUa)  conquerors,  who 
formerly  ruled  over  the  vast  empire  of  Kitwaia, 
now  broken  up  into  the  states  of  Unyoro,  Uganda, 
Karagwe,  Ruanda,  and  other  territories.  Kabba 
Regga  holds  sway,  directly  or  indirectly,  over  the 
region  inclosed  east  and  north  by  the  middle  and 
lower  course  of  the  Somerset  Xile,  separating  it 
from  the  former  equatorial  province  of  Egyptian 
Sudan.  On  the  southeast  is  Uganda,  and  it 
stretches  westward  to  Lake  Albert  Xyanza.  beyond 
which  are  the  suljject  or  vassal  territories  of 
Awamba,  Uknnju,  Uzongora  and  Uhaiyana.  Islam 
has  been  accepted  by  most  of  the  Wa-Huma  (Galla) 
chiefs. 

The  royal  residence,  formeriy  at  Masindi,  on  an 
alSuent  of  Lake  Albert  Xyanza.  was  removed,  in 
18i.,  to  Xyamoga,  which  occupies  a  central  posi- 
tion in  the  region  inclosed  between  the  lake  and  the 
great  bend  of  the  Somei-set  Xile  below  il'ruli. 
Other-stations  are  Koweira  and  ilagungo,  both,  till 
recently,  held  by  the  Khedival  governor,  Emin 
Pasha,  and  M'bakovia  (Bakers  Vacovia),  on  Lake 
Albert  Xyanza,  the  center  of  a  large  salt  industrv. 


UPHAM,  Chaeles  Wextworth,  an  American, 
author,  born  at  St.  John,  Xew_  Brunsvrick,  in 
1802;  died  at  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1S/.5.  He  came  to 
Boston  in  childhood,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1821.  From  1824  till  184-5  he  was  pastor  at  Salem. 
In  1853-4  he  served  in  the  United  States  Congress. 
He  wrote  Lectures  on  Witchcraft  and  biographies 
of  Gen.  Fremont,  Francis  Peabody,  and  Timothy 
Pickering. 

UPHAM.  Thomas  Cogswell,  author,  born  at 
Deerfield,  X.  H..  in  1799:  died  in  Xew  York  city 
in  1872.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  and  Ando- 
ver  colleges,  and  became  in  1825  professor  of  philoso- 
phy in  Bowdoin  College,  which  post  he  held  for 
forty-two  years.  During  this  time  he  published 
Elements  of  Mental  Fhilosophij  (.3  vols.).  Life  and 
Opinions  u}  Madame  Guyon,  Life  of  Faith,  Divine 
Union,  and  Letters  from  Europe,  Egypt  and  Pales- 
tine. 

UPLAND,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  two  miles 
west  of  Chester.  It  manufacfares  cotton  goods, 
and  is  the  seat  of  Crozer  Theological  Seminary. 
Popularion  in  1890,  2,286. 

UPPER  SAXDU.SKY.  A  village,  the  county- 
seat  of  Wyandot  county,  Ohio.  It  produces  a 
variety  of  manufactures.    Population  in  1890,  3,568. 

UPTOX,  EiiOKY.  An  .American  general,  horn 
at  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  in  1839;  died  at  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  in  1881.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
May,  1861.  During  the  Civil  War  he  fought  at  Bull 
Run,  where  he  was  wounded:  in  the  battle  at 
Rappahannock  Station,  Va.  (1863).  and  in  the 
Wilderness  campaign  of  1864.  especially  at  Spott- 
syhauia,  where  he  was  again  wounded  while  lead- 
ing the  assaulting  column  of  twelve  regiments  of 
Ms  corps.  For  this  he  was  appointed,  on  the  spot, 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  was  present 
'  at  the  siege  of  Petersburg,  in  the  defense  of  the 
]  capital  in  July,  1864,  and  in  the  Shenandoah  c;tm- 
'  paign,  where,  while  commanding  a  division  of  in- 
fantry at  the  battle  of  Opequan.  he  was  again  severely 
wounded.  In  April.  1866,  he  was  mustered  out  of 
the  volunteer  service.  In  lS70-i5  be  was  com- 
mander of  cadets  in  the  United  States  military 
'  academy.  In  1875-77  he  was  sent  on  a  tour  of 
inspection  of  the  armies  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
on  his  return  he  was  assigned  to  the  artillery 
school  at  Fortress  Monroe,  where  he  wrote  bis 
,  official  report,  published  m  1878.    In  ISSO  Upton 


1588 


U  II  A  L  — U  RITG  IT  A  Y. 


became  eoloiifl  of  the  4tli  artillery,  and  soon  after- 
ward joined  his  regiment  at  the  Presidio,  San 
Francisco,  Cal.  He  died  there  by  his  own  hand, 
caused  by  despondency  from  chronic  catarrh.  He 
pubUshed  a  standard  work  on  Infantry  Tactics 
(1867),  and  the  United  States  government  has  pub- 
lished his  Armies  of  Asia  and  Europe  (1878). 

URAL,  a  river  of  Russia,  called  Rimnn  by  the 
ancients,  later,  Jaik.  and  since  1875,  by  Its  present 
name.  It  rises  in  the  southern  section  of  the  Ural 
Mountains,  near  the  east  frontier  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Orenburg,  flows  south  through  the  district 
of  Troitzk,  past  the  town  nf  Virchnl- Uralsk,  to  its 
confluence  with  the  KlsiL  in  which  region  Its  coin-.se 
is  over  hilly  meadows,  and  its  current  Is  very 
rapid,  owing  to  its  narrow  and  uneven  bed.  At 
the  town  of  Or.-<k,  the  river  1)ends  westward,  and 
runs  In  that  direction  to  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Tchagan;  thence  it  flows  chrectly  soutli,  and  falls 
into  tlie  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  generally  deep  enough 
for  navigation;  Init  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  wood 
for  ,shlp-building,  and  to  the  number  of  saud-banlcs 
that  bar  the  river,  no  navigation  can  lie  carried  on. 
This  loss,  however,  is  compensated  by  its  fisheries, 
which  vleld  totheUossacks  settled  along  its  banks 
an  ainiual  revenue  of  600,000  rubles  (.•}!468,750). 
The  Ural  has  long  served  as  the  frontier  .separat- 
ing Ru.ssia  from  the  Kirghis  Steppes,  and  many 
forts  have  been  erected,  and  a  settlement  of  Cos- 
.sacks — known  as  the  Ural  Cossacks — established 
along  the  river.  The  ilirect  length  of  the  Ural 
is  estimated  at  550  miles;  with  windings,  1,040 
miles.  The  principal  affluents  are  the  Kl.sll  and 
Sakmara  on  the  right,  ;ind  the  (Jr  and  Ilek  on  the 
left. 

URBANA,  a  city  of  Ohio.  Population  In  1890, 
0,499.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  9. 

URBI  ET  ORBI  (Lat.,  to  the  city  and  the 
world),  a  form  used  in  the  publication  of  papal 
bulls,  for  the  purpose  of  sigiiifyiug  their  formal 
promulgation  to  the  entire  Catholic  world,  as  well 
as  to  the  city  of  Rome.  By  the  canon  law,  ime  of 
the  conditions  required  in  order  that  any  new  law 
shall  be  held  to  have  force  is  "promulgation;" 
but  a  celebrated  controversy  arose  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  as  to  the  kind  of  promulgation  which 
should  bo  regarded  as  sufficient.  In  ancient  times 
the  practice  of  the  popes  had  been  to  send  copies 
of  their  bulls  to  the  primates,  metropolitans,  and 
other  ecclesiastical  heads  of  the  several  churches, 
to  be  l)y  them  communicated  to  their  suffragan 
bishops;  but  In  progress  of  time,  the  practice  of 
publicly  proclaiming  or  of  po.stiug  up  the  decree  in 
the  Campo  del  Fiori  in  Rome  was  substituted  for 
this  transmission;  an<l  decrees  addressed  Urhi  ct 
Orlii,  and  published  In  this  way,  were  held  to  be 
thus  sufficiently  promulgated  to  the  various 
churches,  and  to  be  thenceforth  full  of  force. 

URE,  AxDEEW,  M.  IJj,  a  distinguished  cheml.st, 
born  at  Glasgow  In  1778,  died  in  London,  Jan.  2, 
1857.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  University, 
.subsequently  pro.'^ecuted  his  medical  studies  at 
Edinburgh,  and  returned  to  Glasgow,  where  he 
received  the  degree  of  M.  I).,  in  1801.  The  lit- 
erary works  for  which  ho  is  chiefly  distinguLshed 
are  his  Dictiomtri/  of  ('hcmistry  and  Dictionary 
of  Arts,  Mnnufdclitrcs  and  Mines. 

URIM  AND  THUMMIM  (Heb.),  a  mysterious 
ocmtrivance  i'l  or  on  the  high-priest's  breast-plate, 
either  consisting  of  the  four  rows  of  precious  stones 


upon  which  the  nmes  of  the  twelve  tribps  wrr^ 
engraved,  or  ot  iwo  images  personifying  ■■•'■ist 
probably —  "  Truth  "  and  "Revelation."  i 'le 
etymology  of  the  two  words,  which,  derived  from 
Arabic  roots,  would  indicate  "  Brilliant  Amulet,"' 
"  Perfect  Light,"  etc.,  is  in  reality  no  m-'c  a.itisfae- 
tory  than  the  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
contrivance  was  used  for  oracular  parposes,  or  of 
the  time  when,  in  reality,  it  ceased  to  act.  It  is 
never  mentioned  after  Solomon's  t'me. 

URSON  (Erythison  dorsatnm],  a  quadruped 
nearly  allied  to  the  Porcupine,  and  often  called  the 
Canada  Porcupine.  The  genus  Erythison  differs 
from  the  Ilystrix  (Porcupine)  in  the  flatter  head, 
the  shorter  and  not  convex  muzzle,  the  longer  tail, 
and  having  the  quills  short  and  half  hidden  in  the 
hair.  The  Urson  is  about  the  siz(>  of  a  small  hare. 
It  is  found  as  far  south  as  Virginia  and  Kentucky, 
and  as  far  north  as  lat.  67°.  Tts  quills  arc  dyed 
by  the  Indian  women,  and  worked  into  ornamental 
articles  of  various  kinds. 

URUGUAY,  Republic  of.  For  general  ar- 
ticle see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp.  14-10.  The 
area  in  1887  was  estimated  at  72,110  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  614,257,  which  it  was  stated 
should  be  increased  to  651,112  to  allow  for  omis- 
sions in  the  census.  A  later  count  (in  1888)  re- 
turned the  total  population  at  687,194.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  area,  population  and  density 
by  provinces  or  states  in  1887 : 


I'KOVIN'CE. 

Area  in 
sq.  miles. 

Pojiulation. 

l)pu.sitT  per 
.sqtiMi-e'tnile. 

Salto 

4,863 
4,392 
5,115 

:;,2i;9 

3,.560 
2,192 
2.687 
1.744 
256 
1.833 
1,.')84 
4,280 
5,753 
3,086 
4,844 
8,074 
3,790 
4,673 
5,525 

25,027 
12,000 
28.417 
14,265 
26,133 
35,405 
21,147 
15,295 
185,211 
68.359 
10,564 
17,549 
19,697 
15.748 
22.535 
22.363 
18,966 
27,173 
22,403 

5.12 

Artigas 

2.73 

Pavsandii                      .       ... 

.5.55 

4.30 

7.34 

16.15 

San  Jose '. 

Flores 

Montevideo 

7.87 

8.77 

723  50 

37.28 

Maidonado                

10.45 

4.11 

3.42 

4.27 

4.65 

2.76 

5.00 

5.80 

4.05 

Total 

72,110 

614,257 

8.51 

Constitution  and  Government.  Under  the 
constitution  the  legislative  authority  is  in  a  Sen- 
ate and  House  of  Representatives,  which  meet  in 
annual  session,  extending  from  Feb.  15  to  July  15. 
In  the  interval  of  the  session,  a  permanent  com- 
mittee of  two  senators  and  five  members  of  the 
Lower  House  assume  the  legislative  power,  as  well 
as  the  general  control  of  the  administration.  The 
representatives  are  chosen  for  three  years,  in 
the  proportion  of  1  to  every  3,000  inhabitants  of 
male  adults  who  can  read  and  write.  The  sena- 
tors are  chosen  liy  an  Electoral  College,  whose 
members  are  directly  elected  by  the  people;_  there 
is  one  senator  for  eacli  department,  chosen  for  sis 
vears,  (me-third  retiring  every  two  years.  There 
were  in  1890,  fifty-three  representatives  and  nine- 
teen senators. 

The  executive  is  \ested  in  the  president  of  the 
republic,  who  is  elected  for  the  term  uf  four  years. 


n 


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PLEASE  DO  NOT  REMOVE 
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UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO  LIBRARY 


AE  The  encyclopaedia  britannica 

5  9th  ed. 

E363 

IBQ? 

V.23 


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